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Talk:Wars of Scottish Independence

Expansion request
1307-1314 appears to be missing, including Bannockburn. I suspect this has been accidentally deleted during editing and can be restored from an earlier version. Hyperman 42 19:11, 17 October 2006 (UTC)

Yes, I came looking for that information, also. All we get is a (not very encyclopediac) retelling of the spider story followed by "Bruce later came out of hiding in 1307. The Scots thronged to him, and he defeated the English in a number of battles. His forces continued to grow in strength, encouraged in part by the death of Edward I in July 1307.The Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 was an especially important Scottish victory." First War of Scottish Independence has even less. Hardly does justice to an important part of Scottish/English history, or the impressive guerilla tactics of Robert I. Gwinva 09:59, 16 March 2007 (UTC)

This is quite possibly the worst Wikipedia article on any historical subject that I have ever read. It needs to be fleshed out in some cases, condensed in others and fact checked throughout. Frankly, the whole thing should be deleted and a new article put together by a knowledgable person or persons with some writing skills. Anyone seeking information on this subject should go elsewhere until that is accomplished.

Recent Edit
"The Wars of Scottish Independence were a series of military campaigns fought between the independent Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries."

I've removed the independent from this statement. There's no reason for it to go before the Kingdom of Scotland in this particular context. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.194.215.249 (talk) 08:28, 23 April 2012 (UTC)

Wars of Independence or Scottish Imperialism?
I always believed the story of the good Scots fighting the nasty English. But after 50 years I'm no longer so sure. The original kingdom of the Scots, from Ireland, was gaelic and based in the highland north west. The lowlands were (mainly)the Anglo-saxon kingdom of Bernicia, later part of England. When the expansionist Scottish kings acquired the lowlands, they acquired in effect an English Empire - or an empire in England. It was a pyrrhic victory since the demographic consequence was that 'Scotland' then ceased to be a country of the Scots, and became rather the country of the northern English, albeit with a gaelic fringe. With that in mind these 'wars of independence' look very different from the traditional story - instead they look more like an imperial power seeking to protect earlier conquests; or perhaps more like a civil war between Britain's two Anglo-saxon kingdoms. Once it is put under the microscope little in 'traditional' Scottish history ever turns out to be quite what one has always been told it is. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.5.5.22 (talk) 12:54, 16 July 2012 (UTC)

 * It is true that Scottish history has a lot of grey areas, but that is true of all history. Everybody wants their own side to be the good guys. However we should not confuse folklore with history. Folklore always favours the home team, with good heroes and evil villains; but history must strive to remain objectively neutral. Sometimes the grey areas simply have to remain grey. That said, your thesis here seems to have a lot of POV spin, and rewriting the history because you don't like the folklore is always a fools errand. Mediatech492 (talk) 16:18, 16 July 2012 (UTC)

I agree with you 100%. I'd just emphasise what you've written - that history must strive to remain objective - and that rewriting history because you don't like the folklore is indeed a fools errand. What I've been discovering recently however is just how much supposed Scottish 'history' seems to have been rewritten to incorporate POV, spin and folklore in favour unwelcome facts. There's a worrying ammount of it; far more than I would have expected to find. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.5.7.26 (talk) 18:01, 17 July 2012 (UTC)

I agree. The more I read about what actually was going on the more I think that "wars of independence" is badly misleading. The traditional story of this being 'Scotland' versus 'England' is convenient for the tourist trade, those who believe in modern independence, nationalistic folk, and so on - but seems just to be inaccurate. Our understanding of the real history is all the poorer for this, and I'd like to think that Wikipedia is one place where we might work on something better. Better doesn't mean more balanced in favour of England by the way... Rowmn (talk) 13:20, 8 February 2013 (UTC)

Here's an interesting quote. It's not the only source to make the same point.

“In the popular estimate of that struggle two important facts are entirely overlooked (i) that it was primarily a conflict of the last remnant of the English Teutonic settlement with the encroaching Norman power, and (2) that this ‘national Scottish’ resistance, or (to describe the situation in its most paradoxical form) the resistance of the English of Scotland to the Anglo-French of England, was hampered by the active enmity of the Northern and Western ‘Scots’. When modern Scotland emerged from these troubles, not uninfluenced by certain elements of Anglo-French civilisation which she had defied in open war, the division between her and her Celtic neighbours was absolute.” From Specimens of Middle Scots by G Gregory Smith 1902 Introduction p xv Cassandra Cassandrathesceptic (talk) 16:33, 2 December 2014 (UTC)

 * A specific point in this thread in regard to an improvement to the article, the purpose of a talk page, is not evident. If this is, as it would appear, a typical forum posting, you are very well aware you must not. Mutt Lunker (talk) 18:12, 2 December 2014 (UTC)

The real problem with the article is the naive assumption that these conflicts were simple national wars of independence or liberation; i.e. Scotland vs England. They can be better explained in the context of the Norman Conquest of Britain, and in the subsequent Norman civil war 'The Anarchy' which broke out between Stephen and Matilda. Examined from this perspective these wars look more like a continuation of the Norman-French civil war, or commonplace Norman-French power struggles, than wars of national independence in the way we would understand the term today. Cassandra — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.42.236.77 (talk) 14:56, 19 February 2017 (UTC)

Role of the Bishops
Interestingly Scottish historian Neil Oliver in a recent BBC TV programme identifies the prime drivers for independence not Scotland's Anglo-Norman aristocrats, still less 'the people', but rather Scotland's clerics.

Oliver suggests that it was Scotland's bishops, who did not wish to come under the supervision of the Archbishop of York, who actively prompted, promoted and preached armed 'rebellion'.

I must leave it to others to research Oliver's observations further. Cassandra. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.7.102.197 (talk) 13:22, 27 August 2019 (UTC)

Scottish wars of independence
What war is it we’re the baby died at the start In the documentary that i watched thanks xx❤ 213.107.48.3 (talk) 09:25, 6 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Wars of Scottish Independence


text:
Breaststroke

Breaststroke is a swimming style in which the swimmer is on their chest and the torso does not rotate. It is the most popular recreational style due to the swimmer's head being out of the water a large portion of the time, and that it can be swum comfortably at slow speeds. In most swimming classes, beginners learn either the breaststroke or the freestyle (front crawl) first. However, at the competitive level, swimming breaststroke at speed requires endurance and strength comparable to other strokes. Some people refer to breaststroke as the "frog" stroke, as the arms and legs move somewhat like a frog swimming in the water. The stroke itself is the slowest of any competitive strokes and is thought to be the oldest of all swimming strokes.

Speed and ergonomics
Breaststroke is the slowest of the four official styles in competitive swimming. The fastest breaststrokers can swim about 1.70 meters (~5.6 feet) per second. It is sometimes the hardest to teach to rising swimmers after butterfly due to the importance of timing and the coordination required to move the legs properly.

In the breaststroke, the swimmer leans on the chest, arms breaking the surface of the water slightly, legs always underwater and the head underwater for the second half of the stroke. The kick is sometimes referred to as a "frog kick" because of the resemblance to the movement of a frog's hind legs; however, when done correctly it is more of a "whip kick" due to the whip-like motion that moves starting at the core down through the legs.

The body is often at a steep angle to the forward movement, which slows down the swimmer more than any other style. Professional breaststrokers use abdominal muscles and hips to add extra power to the kick, although most do not perfect this technique until they are more experienced. This much faster form of breaststroke is referred to as "wave-action" breaststroke and fully incorporates the whip-kick.

A special feature of competitive breaststroke is the underwater pullout. From the streamline position, one uses the arms to pull all the way down past the hips. As the arms are pulling down, one downward dolphin kick is allowed (as of the 2024 season), though still optional; more than one dolphin kick will result in disqualification. This is followed by the recovery of the arms to the streamline position once more with a breaststroke kick. The pullout is also called the "pull down". The pullout at the start and after the turns contributes significantly to the swimming times. Open turns can be easily performed at the walls, but both hands must make contact with the wall. Therefore, one way to improve swimming times is to focus on the start and the turns.

Breaststroke, specifically the kick, allows you to glide underwater for much more time than any other stroke, as the kick has a lot of power and force when swimming in a pool. A competitive swimmer swimming this stroke will be underwater for a lot of the stroke due to the gliding and kicking.

History
The history of breaststroke could go back to the Stone Age, as possibly indicated by images in the Cave of the Swimmers near Wadi Sora in the southwestern part of Egypt near Libya. The leg action of the breaststroke may have originated by imitating the swimming action of frogs. Depictions of a variant of breaststroke are found in Babylonian bas-relief and Assyrian wall drawings.

In 1538, Nicolas Wynman, a German professor of languages and poetry, wrote the first swimming book, Colymbetes. His goal was not to promote exercise, but rather to reduce the dangers of drowning. Nevertheless, the book contained a good, methodical approach to learning breaststroke.

In 1696, the French author and poet Melchisédech Thévenot wrote The Art of Swimming, describing a breaststroke very similar to the modern breaststroke. The book (Benjamin Franklin became one of its readers) popularized this technique.

In 1774, following a series of drownings, English physician John Zehr of the Society for the Recovery of Persons Apparently Drowned began giving public speeches and demonstrations to teach proper swimming technique. He is said to have helped to popularize breaststroke, noting the ease with which it could be learned and swum.

In the pre-Olympic era, competitive swimming in Europe started around 1800, mostly using breaststroke. A watershed event was a swimming competition in 1844 in London, notable for the participation of some Native Americans. While the British raced using breaststroke, the Native Americans swam a variant of the front crawl. The British continued to swim only breaststroke until 1873.

Captain Matthew Webb was the first man to swim the English Channel (between England and France), in 1875. He used breaststroke, swimming 21.26 miles (34.21 km) in 21 hours and 45 minutes.

The 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis, Missouri, were the first Olympics to feature a separate breaststroke competition, over a distance of 440 yards (402 m). These games differentiated breaststroke, backstroke, and freestyle.

1928 was the start of the scientific study of swimming by David Armbruster, coach at the University of Iowa, who filmed swimmers from underwater. One breaststroke problem Armbruster researched was that the swimmer was slowed down significantly while bringing the arms forward underwater. In 1934 Armbruster refined a method to bring the arms forward over water in breaststroke. While this "butterfly" technique was difficult, it brought a great improvement in speed. A year later, in 1935, Jack Sieg, a swimmer also from the University of Iowa, developed a technique involving swimming on his side and beating his legs in unison similar to a fish tail, and modified the technique afterward to swim it face down. Armbruster and Sieg combined these techniques into a variant of the breaststroke called butterfly, with the two kicks per cycle being called dolphin fishtail kick. Using this technique, Sieg swam 100 yards (91 m) in 1:00.2. However, even though this technique was much faster than regular breaststroke, the dolphin fishtail kick violated the rules. Butterfly arms with a breaststroke kick were used by a few swimmers in the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin for the breaststroke competitions. In 1938, almost every breaststroke swimmer was using this butterfly style, yet this stroke was considered a variant of the breaststroke until 1952, when it was accepted as a separate style with its own set of rules.

In the early 1950s, another modification was developed for breaststroke. Breaking the water surface increases drag, reducing speed; swimming underwater increases speed. This led to a controversy at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, when six swimmers were disqualified, as they repeatedly swam long distances underwater. However, a Japanese swimmer, Masaru Furukawa, circumvented the rule by not surfacing at all after the start, but swimming as much of the length underwater as possible before breaking the surface. He swam all but 5 m underwater for the first three 50 m lengths, and also swam half underwater for the last length, winning the gold medal. The adoption of this technique led to many swimmers suffering from oxygen starvation and even to some swimmers passing out during the race, so a new rule was introduced by the FINA, limiting the distance that can be swum underwater after the start and after every turn, and requiring the head to break the surface every cycle.

Since then, the development of breaststroke has gone hand-in-hand with the FINA rules. In about the mid-1960s, the rules changed to prevent the arm stroke from going beyond the hip line, except during the first stroke after the start and after each turn. Before 1987, the head had to be kept above the water surface during the entire stroke. Later on, swimmers were also allowed to break the water with parts of the body other than the head. This led to a variant of the stroke in which the arms are brought together as usual under the body after the pull but then are thrown forward over the water from under the chin until the arms are completely extended. There was a controversy at the 2004 Summer Olympics at Athens after Japan's Kosuke Kitajima won the gold medal in the 100 m breaststroke race over American Brendan Hansen, the world-record-holder. Video from underwater cameras showed Kitajima using a dolphin kick at the start and at some of the turns. Officials claimed that these kicks were not visible from above the surface of the water, so the result stood. In July 2005, FINA announced a change of rules to allow one dolphin kick at the start and at each turn, the new rule took effect on 21 September 2005.

Techniques

The breaststroke starts with the fly high butterfly lying in the water face down, arms extended straight forward and legs extended straight to the back.

Arm movement
There are three steps to the arm movement: outsweep, insweep, and recovery. The movement starts with the outsweep. From the streamline position, the palms turn out and the hands separate to slightly past shoulder width. The outsweep is followed by the insweep, where the hands point down and push the water backwards. The elbows stay in the horizontal plane through the shoulders. The hands push back until approximately the vertical plane through the shoulders. At the end of the insweep the hands come together with facing palms in front of the chest and the elbows are at the side at the body. In the recovery phase, the hands are moved forward again into the initial position under water. The entire arm stroke starts slowly, increases speed to the peak arm movement speed in the insweep phase, and slows down again during recovery. The goal is to produce maximum thrust during the insweep phase, and minimum drag during the recovery phase. Another variant is the underwater pull-down, similar to the push phase of a butterfly stroke. This stroke continues the insweep phase and pushes the hands all the way to the back to the sides of the hip. This greatly increases the push from one stroke, but also makes recovery more difficult. This style is well suited for underwater swimming. However, FINA allows this stroke only for the first stroke after the start and each turn. In late 2005, FINA has also introduced a new rule which permits a single downward kick after the push off the wall.

As a variant, it is possible to recover the arms over water. This reduces drag, but requires more power. Some competitive swimmers use this variant in competition.

Leg movement
The leg movement, colloquially known as the "frog kick" or "whip kick", consists of two phases: bringing the feet into position for the thrust phase and the insweep phase. From the initial position with the legs stretched out backward, the feet are moved together towards the posterior, while the knees stay together. The knees should not sink too low, as this increases the drag. Then the feet point outward in preparation for the thrust phase. In the thrust phase, the legs are moved elliptically back to the initial position. During this movement, the knees are kept together. The legs move slower while bringing the legs into position for the thrust phase, and move very fast during the thrust phase. Again, the goal is to produce maximum thrust during the insweep phase, and minimise drag during the recovery phase. In the recovery phase the lower leg and the feet are in the wake of the upper leg, and the feet are pointed to the rear. In the thrust phase all three parts create their own wake, and the flat end of the feet acts like a hydrofoil aligned to give maximum forward thrust. The resulting drag coefficient (or more precisely the frontal area) is thus doubled in the thrust phase.

A fit adult creates a wake. Drag due to a wake is Newtonian drag, increasing with the square of the velocity. For example, if the relative speed between the water and the leg is twice as high on the thrust phase than on the recovery phase, the thrust is four times as high as the drag. Assuming the legs are recovered with a relative speed between leg and body which amounts to the same as the relative speed between water and body, the legs must be kicked back with five times the mean velocity of the swimmer. This limits the top speed. Both effects together, velocity and frontal area, yield a thrust-to-drag ratio of 8 for the legs.

As a variant, some swimmers move the knees apart during the preparation phase and keep them apart until almost the end of the thrust phase. Moving both knee and foot outwards like a real frog avoids the extreme rotation in the lower leg.

All other variants fail to increase the frontal area, yet swimmers using them still generate some thrust by the velocity variation and do not drown. Another variant of the breaststroke kick is the scissor kick, however, this kick violates the rules of the FINA as it is no longer symmetrical. Swimming teachers put a great effort into steering the students away from the scissor kick. In the scissor kick, one leg moves as described above, but the other leg does not form an elliptical movement but merely an up-down movement similar to the flutter kick of front crawl. Some swimming teachers believe that learning the front crawl first gives a higher risk of an incorrect scissor kick when learning breaststroke afterwards.

Breaststroke can also be swum with the dolphin kick in butterfly, but this also violates the FINA rules. One kick is allowed, however, at the start and at the turn, providing that it is part of the body's natural movement.

Humans have strong muscles in the legs and would need swim fins (like a frog) to bring all their power into the water and stand with the sole of the feet on the water. Rather the leg grabs almost as much water as the foot and a small amount of water is accelerated to high kinetic energy, but not much impulse is transferred. The toes are bent, the feet point 45° outwards, the sole points backwards, to mimic a hydrofoil. While closing in a V shape to the rear a small "lifting" force can be felt. Unlike in the other kicks, the joints are moved into extrema. Before the kick the knee is maximally bent and the upper leg is rotating along its axis to its extreme outer position and the lower leg is twisted to extreme, at the end of the kick the ankles are maximally turned to the inside so that the soles clap together to achieve a nozzle effect like in a jelly fish. Therefore, training involves getting flexible in addition to fitness and precision. The sudden sideways stress on the knees at the kick can lead to uncomfortable noise and feeling for the beginner and to wear for the senior.

Breathing
The easiest way to breathe during breaststroke is to let the head follow the spine. When the swimmer's elbows have reached the line of his eye and have begun to rise, his or her head starts to lift. If they use their high elbows as a hinge for the inward sweep of their hands and forearms, they will create the leverage they need to use their abdominal muscles to bring their hips forward. When their hips move forward, their chest, shoulders and upper back will automatically lift up. Breathing is usually done during the beginning of the insweep phase of the arms, and the swimmer breathes in ideally through the mouth. The swimmer breathes out through mouth and nose during the recovery and gliding phase. Breaststroke can be swum faster if submerged completely, but FINA requires the head to break the surface once per cycle except for the first cycle after the start and each turn. Thus, competitive swimmers usually make one underwater pull-out, pushing the hands all the way to the back after the start and each turn.

Recreational swimmers often keep their head above water at all times when they swim breaststroke.

Body movement
The movement starts in the initial position with the body completely straight. Body movement is coordinated such that the legs are ready for the thrust phase while the arms are halfway through the insweep, and the head is out of the water for breathing. In this position the body has also the largest angle to the horizontal. The arms are recovered during the thrust phase of the legs. After the stroke the body is kept in the initial position for some time to utilize the gliding phase. Depending on the distance and fitness the duration of this gliding phase varies. Usually the gliding phase is shorter during sprints than during long-distance swimming. The gliding phase is also longer during the underwater stroke after the start and each turn. However, the gliding phase is usually the longest phase in one entire cycle of breaststroke.

Start
Breaststroke uses the regular start for swimming. Some swimmers use a variant called the frog start, where the legs are pulled forward sharply before being extended again quickly during the airborne phase of the start. After the start a gliding phase follows under water, followed by one underwater pulldown and dolphin kick, then one whip kick as the hands are recovered back to a streamline. This is known as the pull-out. The head must break the surface before the arms reach their widest point on the first stroke after the pull-out. The downward butterfly kick was legalized by FINA, WWF and the NCAA in 2005, and remains optional. The downward fly kick is now allowed in MCSL.

Turn and finish
For competitive swimming it is important that the wall at the end of the lane is always touched by both hands (known as a "Two-Hand Touch") at the same time due to FINA regulations.

The turn is initiated by touching the wall during the gliding or during the recovery phase of the arms, depending on how the wall can be touched faster. After touching the wall, the legs are pulled underneath the body. The body turns sideways while one hand is moved forward (i.e. towards the head) along the side of the body. When the body is almost completely turned, the other hand will be swung straight up through the air such that both hands meet at the front at the same time. At that time the body should also be almost in the horizontal and partially or totally submerged. After the body is completely submerged, the body is pushed off the wall with both legs. Doing this under water will reduce the drag. After a gliding phase, an underwater pull-out is done, followed by another gliding phase and then regular swimming. The head must break the surface during the second stroke.

As a variant, some swimmers experiment with a flip over turn similar to front crawl.

The finish is similar to the touching of the wall during a turn.

Current Styles
The three main styles of breaststroke seen today are the conventional (flat), undulating, and wave-style. The undulating style is usually swum by extremely flexible swimmers, (e.g. Amanda Beard), and few people have the flexibility to accomplish it. The wave-style breaststroke was pioneered by Hungarian Swimming Coach Joseph Nagy. The wave-style was swum and made famous by Mike Barrowman when he set a world record using it, and is now commonly swum by Olympians, though Australian swimmers, most prominently Leisel Jones, generally seem to shun it. Olympian Ed Moses still swims a flatter style, despite the rapidly increasing popularity of the wave-style.

The wave-style breaststroke starts in a streamlined position, with shoulders shrugged to decrease drag in the water. While the conventional style is strongest at the outsweep, the wave-style puts much emphasis on the insweep, thus making the head rise later than in the conventional style. The wave-style pull is a circular motion with the hands accelerating to maximum speed and recovering in front of the chin, elbows staying at the surface and in front of the shoulders at all times. The high elbows creates the leverage for the powerful torso and abdominal muscles to assist in the stroke. During the insweep, the swimmer accelerates their hands and hollows their back and lifts themself out of the water to breathe. To visualize, some say that the hands anchor themselves in the water while the hips thrust forward.

The hollowed back and accelerating hands would lift the head out of the water. The head stays in a neutral position, looking down and forward, and the swimmer inhales at this point. The feet retract to the bottom without moving the thigh, thus reducing resistance. The swimmer is at their highest at this point.

Then the swimmer shrugs their shoulders and throws their arms and shoulders forward, lunging cat-like back into the water (though the emphasis is to go forward, not down). As the swimmer sinks, they arch their back, and kick. Timing is very important in order for the kick to transfer all of its force via the arched back, but the optimum time is when the arms are 3/4 extended. Then the swimmer kicks and presses on their chest, undulating a little underwater, and squeezing the gluteus maximus to prevent the legs and feet from rising out of the water. The swimmer has now returned to the streamlined position, and the cycle starts again.

Incidentally, the wave motion should not be overly emphasized and the swimmer should only rise until the water reaches his biceps, instead of pushing his entire torso out of the water, wasting a great deal of energy.

Competitions

There are eight common distances swum in competitive breaststroke swimming, four in yards and four in meters. Twenty-five-yard pools are common in the United States and are routinely used in age group, high school and college competitions during the winter months.

 * 25 yd Breaststroke (age group and club swimming for children 8 and under)
 * 50 yd Breaststroke (age group swimming for children 12 and under)
 * 100 yd Breaststroke
 * 200 yd Breaststroke

Twenty-five meter or 50 meter pool distances
 * 25 m Breaststroke (age group and club swimming for children 8 and under, 25 meter pool only, and not swum in year-around swimming)
 * 50 m Breaststroke (age group and club swimming for children 12 and under)
 * 100 m Breaststroke
 * 200 m Breaststroke

Breaststroke is also part of the medley over the following distances: Occasionally other distances are swum on an ad hoc, unofficial basis (such as 400 yd breaststroke in some college dual meets).
 * 100 yd Individual Medley
 * 200 yd Individual Medley
 * 400 yd Individual Medley
 * 4 × 50 yd Medley Relay
 * 4 × 100 yd Medley Relay
 * 100 m Individual Medley (short 25 m pool only)
 * 200 m Individual Medley
 * 400 m Individual Medley
 * 4 × 50 m Medley Relay
 * 4 × 100 m Medley Relay

FINA rules
These are the official FINA rules. They apply to swimmers during official swimming competitions.

SW 7.1 After the start and after each turn, the swimmer may take one arm stroke completely back to the legs during which the swimmer may be submerged. At any time prior to the first Breaststroke kick after the start and after each turn a single butterfly kick is permitted.

SW 7.2 From the beginning of the first arm stroke after the start and after each turn, the body shall be on the breast. It is not permitted to roll onto the back at any time. From the start and throughout the race the stroke cycle must be one arm stroke and one leg kick in that order. All movements of the arms shall be simultaneous and on the same horizontal plane without alternating movement.

SW 7.3 The hands shall be pushed forward together from the breast on, under, or over the water. The elbows shall be under water except for the final stroke before the turn, during the turn and for the final stroke at the finish. The hands shall be brought back on or under the surface of the water. The hands shall not be brought back beyond the hip line, except during the first stroke after the start and each turn.

SW 7.4 During each complete cycle, some part of the swimmer's head must break the surface of the water. The head must break the surface of the water before the hands turn inward at the widest part of the second stroke. All movements of the legs shall be simultaneous and on the same horizontal plane without alternating movement.

SW 7.5 The feet must be turned outwards during the propulsive part of the kick. A scissors, flutter or downward butterfly kick is not permitted except as in SW 7.1. Breaking the surface of the water with the feet is allowed unless followed by a downward butterfly kick.

SW 7.6 At each turn and at the finish of the race, the touch shall be made with both hands simultaneously at, above, or below the water level. The head may be submerged after the last arm pull prior to the touch, provided it breaks the surface of the water at some point during the last complete or incomplete cycle preceding the touch.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Breaststroke


text:
HMS Conway

Four ships and a shore establishment of the Royal Navy have been named HMS Conway after the River Conwy in North Wales, formerly known by its English name of Conway. Two were launched as Conway, while another two were renamed:

 * HMS Conway (1814) was a 20-gun sixth rate launched in 1814 and sold in 1825; she became the merchantman and whaler Toward Castle and was wrecked in 1838
 * HMS Conway (1832) was a 26-gun sixth rate launched in 1832. She became a training ship in 1859, was renamed Winchester in 1861 and was broken up in 1871.
 * HMS Conway (school ship) was a training establishment set up in 1859 aboard the second HMS Conway. This vessel was replaced by two others:
 * HMS Winchester (1822) was HMS Conway from 1861 until 1876, when she was renamed HMS Mount Edgecombe.
 * HMS Nile (1839) was HMS Conway from 1876 until 1953 when she ran aground and broke her back. The wreck burned to the waterline in 1956. The school continued as a stone frigate until 1974.

title: HMS Conway


text:
Extremely low frequency

Extremely low frequency (ELF) is the ITU designation for electromagnetic radiation (radio waves) with frequencies from 3 to 30 Hz, and corresponding wavelengths of 100,000 to 10,000 kilometers, respectively. In atmospheric science, an alternative definition is usually given, from 3 Hz to 3 kHz. In the related magnetosphere science, the lower-frequency electromagnetic oscillations (pulsations occurring below ~3 Hz) are considered to lie in the ULF range, which is thus also defined differently from the ITU radio bands.

ELF radio waves are generated by lightning and natural disturbances in Earth's magnetic field, so they are a subject of research by atmospheric scientists. Because of the difficulty of building antennas that can radiate such long waves, ELF have been used in only a very few human-made communication systems. ELF waves can penetrate seawater, which makes them useful in communication with submarines, and a few nations have built military ELF transmitters to transmit signals to their submerged submarines, consisting of huge grounded wire antennas (ground dipoles) 15-60 km long driven by transmitters producing megawatts of power. The United States, Russia, India, and China are the only countries known to have constructed these ELF communication facilities. The U.S. facilities were used between 1985 and 2004 but are now decommissioned.

Alternative definitions
ELF is a subradio frequency. Some medical peer reviewed journal articles refer to ELF in the context of "extremely low frequency (ELF) magnetic fields (MF)" with frequencies of 50 Hz and 50–80 Hz. United States Government agencies, such as NASA, describe ELF as non-ionizing radiation with frequencies between 0 and 300 Hz. The World Health Organization (WHO) have used ELF to refer to the concept of "extremely low frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic fields (EMF)". The WHO also stated that at frequencies between 0 and 300 Hz, "the wavelengths in air are very long (6000 km at 50 Hz and 5000 km at 60 Hz), and, in practical situations, the electric and magnetic fields act independently of one another and are measured separately".

Propagation

Due to their extremely long wavelength, ELF waves can diffract around large obstacles, are not blocked by mountain ranges or the horizon, and can travel around the curvature of the Earth. ELF and VLF waves propagate long distances by an Earth–ionosphere waveguide mechanism. The Earth is surrounded by a layer of charged particles (ions and electrons) in the atmosphere at an altitude of about 60 km at the bottom of the ionosphere, called the D layer, which reflects ELF waves. The space between the conductive Earth's surface and the conductive D layer acts as a parallel-plate waveguide which confines ELF waves, allowing them to propagate long distances without escaping into space. In contrast to VLF waves, the height of the layer is much less than one wavelength at ELF frequencies, so the only mode that can propagate at ELF frequencies is the TEM mode in vertical polarization, with the electric field vertical and the magnetic field horizontal. ELF waves have extremely low attenuation of 1–2 dB per 1000 km, giving a single transmitter the potential to communicate worldwide.

ELF waves can also travel considerable distances through "lossy" media like earth and seawater, which would absorb or reflect higher-frequency radio waves.

Schumann resonances
The attenuation of ELF waves is so low that they can travel completely around the Earth several times before decaying to negligible amplitude, and thus waves radiated from a source in opposite directions circumnavigating the Earth on a great circle path interfere with each other. At certain frequencies these oppositely directed waves are in phase and add (reinforce), causing standing waves. In other words, the closed spherical Earth–ionosphere cavity acts as a huge cavity resonator, enhancing ELF radiation at its resonant frequencies. These are called Schumann resonances after German physicist Winfried Otto Schumann, who predicted them in 1952,   and were detected in the 1950s. Modeling the Earth–ionosphere cavity with perfectly conducting walls, Schumann calculated the resonances should occur at frequencies of
 * $$f_n = 7.49 \sqrt{n(n + 1)}\ \text{Hz}.$$

The actual frequencies differ slightly from this due to the conduction properties of the ionosphere. The fundamental Schumann resonance is at approximately 7.83 Hz, the frequency at which the wavelength equals the circumference of the Earth, and higher harmonics occur at 14.1, 20.3, 26.4, and 32.4 Hz, etc. Lightning strikes excite these resonances, causing the Earth–ionosphere cavity to "ring" like a bell, resulting in a peak in the noise spectrum at these frequencies, so the Schumann resonances can be used to monitor global thunderstorm activity.

Interest in Schumann resonances was renewed in 1993 when E. R. Williams showed a correlation between the resonance frequency and tropical air temperatures, suggesting that the resonance could be used to monitor global warming.

Submarine communications

Since ELF radio waves can penetrate seawater deeply, to the operating depths of submarines, a few nations have built naval ELF transmitters to communicate with their submarines while submerged. It was reported in 2018 that China had constructed the world's largest ELF facility roughly the size of New York City in order to communicate with its submarine forces without requiring them to surface. The United States Navy in 1982 built the first ELF submarine communications facility, two coupled ELF transmitters at Clam Lake, Wisconsin, and Republic, Michigan. They were shut down in 2004. The Russian Navy operates an ELF transmitter called ZEVS (Zeus) at Murmansk on the Kola Peninsula. The Indian Navy has an ELF communication facility at the INS Kattabomman naval base to communicate with its Arihant-class and Akula-class submarines.

Explanation
Because of its electrical conductivity, seawater shields submarines from most higher-frequency radio waves, making radio communication with submerged submarines at ordinary frequencies impossible. Signals in the ELF frequency range, however, can penetrate much deeper. Two factors limit the usefulness of ELF communications channels: the low data transmission rate of a few characters per minute and, to a lesser extent, the one-way nature due to the impracticality of installing an antenna of the required size on a submarine (the antenna needs to be of an exceptional size in order to achieve successful communication). Generally, ELF signals have been used to order a submarine to rise to a shallow depth where it could receive some other form of communication.

Difficulties of ELF communication
One of the difficulties posed when broadcasting in the ELF frequency range is antenna size, because the length of the antenna must be at least a substantial fraction of the length of the waves. For example, a 3 Hz signal has a wavelength equal to the distance electromagnetic waves travel through a given medium in one third of a second. When the refractive index of the medium is greater than one, ELF waves propagate slower than the speed of light in vacuum. As used in military applications, the wavelength is 299,792 km per second divided by 50–85 Hz, which equals around 3500 - 6000 km long. This is comparable to the Earth's diameter of around 12742 km. Because of this huge size requirement, to transmit internationally using ELF frequencies, the Earth itself forms a significant part of the antenna, and extremely long leads into the ground are necessary. Various means, such as electrical lengthening, are used to construct practical radio stations with smaller sizes.

The United States maintained two sites: in the Chequamegon-Nicolet National Forest, Wisconsin, and in the Escanaba River State Forest, Michigan (originally named Project Sanguine, then downsized and renamed Project ELF prior to construction), until they were dismantled, beginning in late September 2004. Both sites used long power lines, so-called ground dipoles, as leads. These leads were in multiple strands ranging from 22.5 to 45 km long. Because of the inefficiency of this method, considerable amounts of electrical power were required to operate the system.

Other uses
Transmitters in the 22 Hz range are also used in pipeline maintenance, or pigging. The signal is generated as an alternating magnetic field, and the transmitter is mounted to, or to part of, the "pig", the cleaning device inserted into the pipe. The pig is pushed through a mostly metal pipeline. The ELF signal can be detected through the metal, allowing its location to be detected by receivers located outside of the pipe. It is used to check whether a pig has passed a certain location or to locate a stuck pig.

Some radio hobbyists record ELF signals using antennas ranging in size from 18-inch active antennas up to several thousand feet in length taking advantage of fences, highway guard rails, and even decommissioned railroad tracks. They then replay them at higher speeds to more easily observe natural low-frequency fluctuations in the Earth's electromagnetic field. Increasing the playback speed increases the pitch, bringing the tone into the audio frequency range.

Since the 2000s, very low frequencies have been used successfully at sea for oil geophysical prospecting.

Natural sources
Naturally occurring ELF waves are present on Earth, resonating in the region between ionosphere and surface seen in lightning strikes that make electrons in the atmosphere oscillate. Although signals generated from lightning discharges were predominantly VLF, it was found that an observable ELF component (slow tail) followed the VLF component in almost all cases. Also, the fundamental mode of the Earth–ionosphere cavity has the wavelength equal to the circumference of the Earth, which gives a resonance frequency of 7.8 Hz. This frequency, and higher resonance modes of 14, 20, 26, and 32 Hz, appear as peaks in the ELF spectrum and are called Schumann resonance.

ELF waves have also been tentatively identified on Saturn's moon Titan. Titan's surface is thought to be a poor reflector of ELF waves, so the waves may instead be reflecting from the liquid–ice boundary of a subsurface ocean of water and ammonia, the existence of which is predicted by some theoretical models. Titan's ionosphere is also more complex than Earth's, with the main ionosphere at an altitude of 1200 km but with an additional layer of charged particles at 63 km. This splits Titan's atmosphere into two separate resonating chambers. The source of natural ELF waves on Titan is unclear, as there does not appear to be extensive lightning activity.

Huge ELF radiation power outputs of 100,000 times the Sun's output in visible light may be radiated by magnetars. The pulsar in the Crab nebula radiates powers of this order at 30 Hz. Radiation of this frequency is below the plasma frequency of the interstellar medium, thus this medium is opaque to it, and it cannot be observed from Earth.

Exposure
In electromagnetic therapy and electromagnetic radiation and health research, electromagnetic spectrum frequencies between 0 and 100 hertz are considered extremely low-frequency fields. A common source of exposure of the public to ELF fields is 50 Hz / 60 Hz electric and magnetic fields from high-voltage electric power transmission lines and secondary distribution lines, such as those supplying electricity to residential neighborhoods.

Conspiracy theories
Since the late 1970s, various conspiracy theories have risen around exposure to ELF electric and magnetic fields (EMF). External ELF magnetic fields induce electric fields and currents in the body, which, at very high field strengths, cause nerve and muscle stimulation and changes in nerve cell excitability in the central nervous system.

ELF at human-perceivable kV/m levels was said to create an annoying tingling sensation in the areas of the body in contact with clothing, particularly the arms, due to the induction of a surface charge by the ELF. Of the volunteers, 7% described the spark discharges as painful when the subject was well-insulated and touched a grounded object within a 5 kV/m field, whereas 50% described a similar spark discharge as painful in a 10 kV/m field.

Leukemia
There is high uncertainty regarding correlations between long-term, low-level exposure to ELF fields and a number of health effects, including leukemia in children. In October 2005, WHO convened a task group of scientific experts to assess any risks to health that might exist from "exposure to ELF electric and magnetic fields in the frequency range >0 to 100,000 Hz (100 kHz) in regards to childhood leukemia". The long-term, low-level exposure is evaluated as average exposure to residential power-frequency magnetic field above 0.3–0.4 μT, and it is estimated that only between 1% and 4% of children live in such conditions. Subsequently, in 2010, a pooled analysis of epidemiological evidence supported the hypothesis that exposure to power-frequency magnetic fields is related to childhood leukemia.

No other study has found any evidence to support the hypothesis that ELF exposure is a contributing factor to leukemia in children.

A 2014 study estimated the cases of childhood leukemia attributable to exposure to ELF magnetic fields in the European Union (EU27), assuming that correlations seen in epidemiological studies were causal. It reported that around 50–60 cases of childhood leukemia might be attributable to ELF magnetic fields annually, corresponding to between ~1.5% and ~2.0% of all incident cases of childhood leukemia occurring in the EU27 each year. At present, however, ICNIRP and IEEE consider the scientific evidence related to possible health effects from long-term, low-level exposure to ELF fields insufficient to justify lowering these quantitative exposure limits. In summary, when all of the studies are evaluated together, the evidence suggesting that EMFs may contribute to an increased risk of cancer is non-existent. Epidemiological studies suggest a possible association between long-term occupational exposure to ELF and Alzheimer's disease.

Ecological impact
There have been some concerns over the possible ecological impact of ELF signals. In 1984 a federal judge halted construction, requiring more environmental and health studies. This judgment was overruled by a federal appeals court on the basis that the US Navy claimed to have spent over $25 million studying the effects of the electromagnetic fields, with results indicating that they were similar to the effect produced by standard power-distribution lines. The judgment was not accepted by everyone and, during the time that ELF was in use, some Wisconsin politicians such as Democratic Senators Herb Kohl, Russ Feingold and Congressman Dave Obey called for its closure.

Patents

 * Tanner, R. L., , "Extremely low-frequency antenna", 1965
 * Hansell, Clarence W., , "Communication system by pulses through the Earth"
 * Altshuler,, ELF vertical dipole antenna suspended from aircraft

General information

 * Non-ionizing radiation, Part 1: Static and Extremely Low-Frequency (ELF) Electric and Magnetic Fields (2002) by the IARC. (Non-Ionizing Radiation)

title: Extremely low frequency


text: User talk:82.36.68.159

title: User talk:82.36.68.159


text:
Tom Bosley

Thomas Edward Bosley (October 1, 1927 – October 19, 2010) was an American actor, television personality and entertainer. Bosley is best known for portraying Howard Cunningham on the ABC sitcom Happy Days (1974–1984) for which he received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series nomination. Bosley also did a variety of voiceover work such as playing the lead character in the animated series Wait Till Your Father Gets Home, and the narrator of the syndicated film history documentary series That's Hollywood. He's also known for his role as Sheriff Amos Tupper in the Angela Lansbury lead CBS mystery series Murder, She Wrote (1984–1988), and as the title character in the NBC/ABC series Father Dowling Mysteries (1989–1991).

Known for his work on stage, he originated the role of Fiorello La Guardia in the Broadway musical Fiorello!, earning the 1960 Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical. He's also known for his film appearances in Love with the Proper Stranger (1963), The World of Henry Orient (1964), Divorce American Style (1967), Yours, Mine and Ours, The Secret War of Harry Frigg (both 1968), Gus (1976), and The Back-up Plan (2010).

Bosley made his television debut as the Knave of Hearts in the NBC adaptation of Alice in Wonderland in 1955. He gained attention as a character actor performing various roles in shows such as Naked City, Profiles in Courage, The Defenders, Night Gallery, Get Smart, Bewitched, and Mission: Impossible.

Early life
Born and raised in Chicago, Bosley was the son of Dora (née Heyman) and Benjamin Bosley. Although well known for playing a Catholic priest and Protestant patriarchs, Bosley was actually Jewish.

Early roles and stage roles
Bosley played the Knave of Hearts in a Hallmark Hall of Fame telecast of Eva Le Gallienne's production of Alice in Wonderland in 1955. But his breakthrough stage role was New York mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia in the long-running Broadway musical Fiorello! (1959), for which he won a Tony Award.

Among his early television appearances was in 1960 on the CBS summer replacement series, Diagnosis: Unknown, with Patrick O'Neal. In 1962, he portrayed Assistant District Attorney Ryan in the episode "The Man Who Wanted to Die" on James Whitmore's ABC legal drama The Law and Mr. Jones. Also in 1962, Bosley played Teddy opposite Tony Randall and Boris Karloff in Arsenic & Old Lace for the Hallmark Hall of Fame. About this time, he was a guest star on the NBC police sitcom, Car 54, Where Are You?. In June 1964, he appeared on the satirical television comedy revue, That Was the Week That Was.

He also appeared on episodes of Bonanza, Bewitched, Get Smart, The Silent Force, The Streets of San Francisco, Night Gallery, A Touch of Grace, and The Love Boat. In 1969, Bosley appeared in a comical episode of The Virginian, titled "Crime Wave in Buffalo Springs," appearing alongside fellow guest-stars James Brolin, Yvonne De Carlo, Carrie Snodgress, Gary Vinson, with Virginian regulars David Hartman and Doug McClure.

Bosley's first motion picture role was in 1963, as the would-be suitor of Natalie Wood in Love with the Proper Stranger. Other films include The World of Henry Orient; Divorce American Style; Yours, Mine and Ours; Gus and the made-for-television The Triangle Factory Fire Scandal. Bosley shared a heartfelt story about his own experience with the Holocaust in the documentary film Paper Clips.

In 1994, he originated the role of Maurice in the Broadway version of Disney's Beauty and the Beast. Bosley toured as Cap'n Andy in Harold Prince's 1994 revival of Show Boat.

Happy Days and other film and television roles
Bosley's best-known role was the character Howard Cunningham in the sitcom Happy Days. He portrayed Sheriff Amos Tupper on Murder, She Wrote and the eponymous Father Frank Dowling on Father Dowling Mysteries. Among myriad television appearances, one notable early performance was in the "Eyes" segment of the 1969 pilot of Rod Serling's Night Gallery, directed by Steven Spielberg and starring Joan Crawford. In 1977, he appeared in the miniseries Testimony of Two Men and, in 1978, he played the role of Benjamin Franklin in the television mini-series The Bastard, a role he replayed the following year in the sequel The Rebels.

His film appearances included roles in Love with the Proper Stranger (1963), The World of Henry Orient (1964), Divorce American Style (1967), Bang Bang Kid (1967), The Secret War of Harry Frigg (1968), Yours, Mine and Ours (1968), To Find a Man (1972), Mixed Company (1974), The Night That Panicked America (1975), Gus (1976), The Triangle Factory Fire Scandal (1979), O'Hara's Wife (1982), Million Dollar Mystery (1987), and Wicked Stepmother (1989).

Bosley starred in the 2008 Hallmark Channel television movie Charlie & Me. In 2010, he appeared in The Back-up Plan and Santa Buddies, which were his final films. In 1984, he guest-hosted the "Macy's Fourth of July Fireworks Spectacular" with local newscaster Pat Harper.

Voice-over roles
Bosley was known for his unique gravelly voice, leading to a number of voice acting roles. He narrated the syndicated television documentary That's Hollywood (1976–82). He hosted The General Mills Radio Adventure Theater, a 1977 radio drama series for children. He voiced many cartoon characters, including Harry Boyle in the animated series Wait Till Your Father Gets Home. Bosley was the voice of B.A.H. Humbug in the 1978 Rankin & Bass holiday special The Stingiest Man in Town. He provided the voice of the title character in the 1980s cartoon The World of David the Gnome and the shop owner Mr. Winkle in the children's Christmas special The Tangerine Bear.

Endorsements
From the 1950s through the 1990s, Bosley appeared in numerous television commercials including Studebaker automobiles(1956), and Glad sandwich and garbage bags. He appeared in radio commercials for the new Saturn car company, a "different kind of car company," in 1990. Later in life, he was the television spokesman for SMC (Specialty Merchandise Corporation), a national wholesaler and drop shipper.

Bosley was a spokesman for YES Entertainment Network, Inc., a fraudulent internet firm scheme that defrauded $13 million from investors around the country in the late 1990s.

Death
Bosley died from complications of a staph infection on October 19, 2010, at a hospital in Rancho Mirage, California, near his home in Palm Springs, California. His agent, Sheryl Abrams, said Bosley had been battling lung cancer. He was survived by his wife, former actress Patricia Carr, and daughter Amy Bosley Baer, who married Matthew Baer, son of Richard Baer.

Happy Days lawsuit
On April 19, 2011, Bosley's estate and four of his Happy Days co-stars, Erin Moran, Don Most, Marion Ross, and Anson Williams, filed a $10 million breach-of-contract lawsuit against CBS, which owns the show, claiming they had not been paid for merchandising revenues owed under their contracts. The cast members claimed they had not received revenues from show-related items, including comic books, T-shirts, scrapbooks, trading cards, games, lunchboxes, dolls, toy cars, magnets, greeting cards, and DVDs where their images appear on the box covers. Under their contracts, they were supposed to be paid five percent from the net proceeds of merchandising if their sole image were used, and half that amount if they were in a group. CBS said it owed the actors $8,500 and $9,000 each, most of it from slot machine revenues, but the group said they were owed millions. The lawsuit was initiated after Ross was informed by a friend playing slots at a casino of a "Happy Days" machine on which players win the jackpot when five Marion Cunninghams (Ross's character on Happy Days) are rolled.

In October 2011, a judge rejected the group's fraud claim, which if proved could have garnered them millions of dollars in punitive damages, above and beyond any actual damages proven. On June 5, 2012, a judge denied a motion filed by CBS to have the case thrown out, which meant it would go to trial on July 17 if the matter was not settled by then. In July 2012, the actors settled their lawsuit with CBS. Each received a payment of $65,000 and a promise by CBS to continue honoring the terms of their contracts.

title: Tom Bosley


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William John Swainson

William John Swainson FLS, FRS (8 October 1789 – 6 December 1855 ), was an English ornithologist, malacologist, conchologist, entomologist, and artist.

Life
Swainson was born in Dover Place, St Mary Newington, London, the eldest son of John Timothy Swainson the Second (1756–1824), an original fellow of the Linnean Society. He was cousin of the amateur botanist Isaac Swainson. His father's family originated in Lancashire, and both grandfather and father held high posts in Her Majesty's Customs, the father becoming Collector at Liverpool.

William, whose formal education was curtailed because of an impediment in his speech, joined the Liverpool Customs as a junior clerk at the age of 14. He joined the Army Commissariat and toured Malta and Sicily He studied the ichthyology of western Sicily and in 1815, was forced by ill health to return to England where he subsequently retired on half pay. William followed in his father's footsteps to become a fellow of the Linnean Society in 1815.

In 1816, he accompanied the English explorer Henry Koster to Brazil. Koster had lived in Brazil for some years and had become famous for his book Travels in Brazil (1816). There he met Dr Grigori Ivanovitch Langsdorff, also an explorer of Brazil, and Russian Consul General. They did not spend a long time on shore because of a revolution, but Swainson returned to England in 1818 in his words "a bee loaded with honey", with a collection of over 20,000 insects, 1,200 species of plants, drawings of 120 species of fish, and about 760 bird skins.

Swainson was a member of learned societies, including the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society after his return from Brazil on 14 December 1820, and married his first wife Mary Parkes in 1823, with whom he had four sons (William John, George Frederick, Henry Gabriel and Edwin Newcombe) and a daughter (Mary Frederica). His wife Mary died in 1835.

Swainson remarried in 1840 to Ann Grasby, and emigrated to New Zealand in 1841. Two of their daughters were married in 1863: Edith Stanway Swainson married Arthur Halcombe, and Lucelle Frances Swainson married Richmond Beetham. Swainson was involved in property management and natural history-related publications from 1841 to 1855, and forestry-related investigations in Tasmania, New South Wales, and Victoria from 1851 to 1853. Swainson died at Fern Grove, Lower Hutt, New Zealand, on 6 December 1855.

Works on natural history

Swainson was at times quite critical of the works of others and, later in life, others in turn became quite critical of him.

Apart from the common and scientific names of many species, it is for the quality of his illustrations that he is best remembered. His friend William Elford Leach, head of zoology at the British Museum, encouraged him to experiment with lithography for his book Zoological Illustrations (1820–23). Swainson became the first illustrator and naturalist to use lithography, which was a relatively cheap means of reproduction and did not require an engraver. He began publishing many illustrated works, mostly serially. Subscribers received and paid for fascicles, small sections of the books, as they came out, so that the cash flow was constant and could be reinvested in the preparation of subsequent parts. As book orders arrived, the monochrome lithographs were hand-coloured, according to colour reference images, known as 'pattern plates', which were produced by Swainson himself. It was his early adoption of this new technology and his natural skill of illustration that in large part led to his fame.

When in March 1822 Leach was forced to resign from the British Museum due to ill health, Swainson applied to replace him, but the post was given to John George Children. Soon after his first marriage in 1823, Swainson visited Paris and formed friendships with Georges Cuvier, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, and other eminent French naturalists. Upon his return to London, he was employed by Messrs. Longman as editor for the natural history departments of Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia. Swainson continued with his writing, the most influential of which was the second volume of Fauna Boreali-Americana (1831), which he wrote with John Richardson. This series (1829–1837) was the first illustrated zoological study to be funded in part by the British government. He also produced a second series of Zoological Illustrations (1832–33), three volumes of William Jardine's Naturalist's Library, and eleven volumes of Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia; he had signed a contract with the London publishers Longman to produce fourteen illustrated volumes of 300 pages in this series, one to be produced quarterly.

Classification
In 1819, William Sharp Macleay had published his ideas of the Quinarian system of biological classification, and Swainson soon became a noted and outspoken proponent. The Quinarian System fell out of favour, giving way to the rising popularity of the geographical theory of Hugh Edwin Strickland. Swainson was overworked by Dionysius Lardner, the publisher of the Cabinet Cyclopaedia and both Swainson and Macleay were derided for their support of the Quinarian system. Both proponents left Britain; Swainson emigrated to New Zealand and Macleay to Australia. An American visiting Australasia in the 1850s heard to his surprise that both Macleay and Swainson were living there, and imagined that they had been exiled to the Antipodes. "'for the great crime of burdening zoology with a false though much laboured theory which has thrown so much confusion into the subject of its classification and philosophical study'."

New Zealand estate
In 1839, he became a member of the committee of the New Zealand Company and of the Church of England committee for the appointment of a bishop to New Zealand, bought land in Wellington, and gave up scientific literary work. He married his second wife, Anne Grasby, in 1840. He was apparently the first Fellow of the Royal Society to move to New Zealand. He was later made an honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Tasmania.

Together with most of his children from his first marriage, they sailed for New Zealand in the Jane, reaching Wellington, in the summer of 1841. The trip was not without incident, as the boat suffered damage en route and was in such a poor state that there was legal action on arrival. He purchased 1100 acre in the Hutt Valley from the New Zealand Company, and established his estate of "Hawkshead". Not coincidentally, this name was shared by an ancestral home in Hawkshead, Lancashire, of the Swainson family, which was the birthplace of Isaac Swainson. After a few months, this estate was claimed by a Māori chief, Taringakuri, which led to years of uncertainty and threat. He was an officer in a militia against in the Māoris in 1846. During these times he was largely dependent on his half pay.

Botanical studies in Australia
In 1851, Swainson sailed to Sydney and he took the post of Botanical Surveyor in 1852 with the Victoria Government, after being invited by the Lieutenant-Governor Charles La Trobe to study local trees. He finished his report in 1853 in which he claimed a grand total of 1520 species and varieties of Eucalyptidae. He identified so many species of Casuarina that he ran out of names for them.

While having quite some expertise in zoology, his untrained foray into botany was not well received. William Jackson Hooker wrote to Ferdinand von Mueller: "In my life I think I never read such a series of trash and nonsense. There is a man who left this country with the character of a first rate naturalist (though with many eccentricities) and of a very first-rate Natural History artist and he goes to Australia and takes up the subject of Botany, of which he is as ignorant as a goose." Joseph Maiden described Swainson's efforts as "an exhibition of reckless species-making that, as far as I know stands unparalleled in the annals of botanical literature."

He had studied the flora of New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania before his return to New Zealand in 1854 to live at Fern Grove in the Hutt, where he died the following year.

In 1856, a poem was written by the New Zealand poet William Golder in his memory. His standard botanical abbreviation is Swainson.

Common confusions regarding William Swainson

 * William Swainson is frequently credited with having the genus Swainsona named after him, and specifically Sturt's Desert Pea the official floral emblem of South Australia. Although he did botanical work in this region, Swainsona is named after his cousin Isaac Swainson (1746–1812), who never travelled to this region.

Common names of species named after William Swainson
Many birds retain a common name after Swainson, several of which were named by famous naturalists of the period. Many species or subspecies retain his name, although many of his own species were later discredited or merged with others.
 * John James Audubon named Swainson's warbler Limnothlypis swainsonii
 * Charles Lucien Bonaparte named Swainson's hawk Buteo swainsoni
 * Thomas Nuttall named Swainson's thrush Catharus ustulatus
 * Swainson's francolin Francolinus swainsonii
 * Swainson's sparrow Passer swainsonii
 * Swainson's antcatcher Myrmeciza longipes
 * Swainson's fire-eye Pyriglena atra
 * Swainson's flycatcher Myiarchus swainsoni
 * Swainson's toucan Ramphastos swainsonii

Partial bibliography
Many of these works were reprinted, or present in serial publication.

 * Swainson, W. 1820. Zoological illustrations, Baldwin, Cradock, & Joy, London.
 * Swainson, W. 1824. An inquiry into the natural affinities of the Lanidae or shrikes; preceded by some observations on the present state of ornithology in this country. Zool. J. 1(Art. 42): 289- 307.
 * Swainson, W. 1825. The characters and descriptions of several birds belonging to the genus Thamnophilus. Zool. J. 2(Art. 11): 84–93. 1826.
 * Swainson, W. 1827. A synopsis of the birds discovered in Mexico by W. Bullock, F. L. S., and H. S., Mr. William Bullock. Philos. Mag. (New Series) 1: 364–369, 433–442
 * Swainson, W. 1827. On the tyrant shrikes of America. Q. J. Sci. Lit. Arts. Inst. 20 (Art. 40): 267–285.
 * Swainson, W. 1831–1832 on several groups and forms in ornithology, not hitherto defined. Zool. J. 3(Art. 15): 158–175; 343–363.
 * Swainson, W., & J. Richardson: 1831. Fauna boreali-Americana: part second, the birds, John Murray, London.
 * Swainson W. 1832–1833. Zoological illustrations, Second Ser., Vol. 2. London, Baldwin, Cradrock, and R. Havell.
 * Swainson, W. 1832. Zoological illustrations. Second Ser., Vol. 3. London, Baldwin, Cradrock, and R. Havell.
 * Swainson, W.: 1834. A preliminary discourse on the study of natural history, Longmans, London.
 * Swainson, W., 1835. The elements of modern conchology briefly and plainly stated, for the use of students and travelers. Baldwin and Cracock. London.
 * Swainson, W. 1835. A Treatise on the Geography and Classification of Animals. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Greene and Longman, and John Taylor, London.
 * Swainson, W. 1835. On the Natural History and Classification of Quadrupeds.
 * Swainson, W. 1836. On the natural history and classification of birds. Vol 1. Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longman, London.
 * Swainson, W. 1836. On the natural history and classification of birds. Vol 2. Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longman, London.
 * Swainson W. 1837. The natural history of the birds of Western Africa. Vol. VII of Jardine's Naturalist's Library.
 * Swainson W. 1837. The natural history of the birds of Western Africa. Vol. VIII of Jardine's Naturalist's Library.
 * Swainson, W. 1838. The natural history and classification of fishes, amphibians, & reptiles, or monocardian animals. A. Spottiswoode, London. Nat. Hist. & Class. i–vi + 1–368
 * Swainson, W. 1838. Animals in menageries. Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia. London, Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, Longman, and J. Taylor.
 * Swainson, W. 1839. The Natural History of Fishes, Amphibians, & Reptiles, or Monocardian Animals. Vol. II. Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia. London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green & Longmans; and John Taylor. (A. Spottiswoode, printer). 452 pp.
 * Swainson, W. 1840. A treatise on malacology; or the natural classification of shells and shellfish. Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia. London.
 * Swainson, W., Shuckard, W.E. 1840 On the History and Natural Arrangement of Insects. Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia. Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, & Longmans, London.
 * Swainson, W. 1840. Taxidermy with the Biography of Zoologists Longman, London.
 * Swainson, W. 1841. Exotic Conchology, Second Edition, Henry G Bohn, London.. 1st edition, 1832.
 * Swainson, W. Ornithological Drawings, first edition, 62 hand-coloured lithograph plates, no title or text as issued. 8vo, [1834–36]. Second edition 1841. A Selection of the Birds of Brazil and Mexico with 78 plates Bohn, London
 * Wallace H, Jameson W., Hooker, R W.J., Swainson, W. 1841. An Encyclopaedia of Geography. Thomas G. Bradford (ed). Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard.
 * Swainson, W. 1843. Flycatchers. Ornithology. Volume XIII, Jardine's Naturalist's Library [xvi], t.e.g. Edinburgh: W. H. Lizars.
 * Swainson W. Ornithology Birds of Western Africa- Part 1 1862. The Naturalists Library, W Jardine (ed) Vol XI. (A reprint of 1837)

title: William John Swainson


text:
Corniche

A corniche is a road on the side of a cliff or mountain, with the ground rising up on one side of the roadway and falling away on the other. The English language has adopted the word from the French term route à corniche or "road on a ledge", itself derived from the Italian cornice, for "ledge".

France
Three famed corniche roads of the Côte d'Azur in the French Riviera run between the sea and mountains from Nice eastward toward Menton. They are known as the Corniche Inferieure (or Basse Corniche ) along the coast, the Moyenne Corniche slightly inland, and the Grande Corniche along the upper cliffs.

The Corniche Inferieure passes through the principality of Monaco. The Grande Corniche featured prominently in the Alfred Hitchcock film To Catch a Thief.

Italy
The Amalfi Drive, along the Amalfi Coast south of Naples, is a road carved into the cliffs along the Mediterranean Sea, and can be classified as a corniche. It runs between Sorrento and Amalfi and was originally built by the Romans.

Senegal
The coastal road facing the Atlantic Ocean in the capital city of Dakar is called the Corniche Ouest and runs along a cliff above the beaches and rocky shores.

South Africa
Many of the roads running around the Cape Peninsular, south of Cape Town, have been constructed in the form of corniches. A good example is part of Victoria Road running through the suburbs of Clifton and Bantry Bay.

Libya
The Tripoli Corniche, also known as Al-Fatah Street, runs along the Mediterranean from the Waddan Bridge to the roundabout at Tripoli's sea port entrance.

Egypt
Any waterfront passage along a body of water is classed as a corniche in Egypt. Most Nile valley and Delta cities overlooking the 1000km river course and two branches in the country have one or two corniche streets (east and/or west banks). For example "Corniche Giza" and "Corniche Cairo", the longest Egyptian corniche. Other cities such as Mansoura, Damietta and Luxor also have corniches.

 * The 18km Corniche al-Nil Street (Arabic: شارع كورنيش النيل) promenade in Cairo (east bank of the Nile) runs from the Maadi district in the south, to the mouth of the Ismailia Canal in al-Sahel district in the north. Building numbers take on one to two digits in Maadi where numbering starts, where for example the Holiday Inn hotel is 29 A Corniche al-Nile, and up to four digits in the northern half due to it length, where the Ramses Hilton hotel's address in Bulaq is 1115 Corniche al-Nil. The street colloquially takes on the names of some of the districts and neighbourhoods it passes through such as the Maadi Corniche, and Corniche Masr al-Qadima (Old Cairo).
 * The promenade that runs from the Giza Zoo to the balloon theater in Agouza is colloquially known as the Giza Corniche.
 * The promenade running from Montazah Palace walls to the Qaitbay Citadel in Alexandria is known as Corniche (Alexandria)

Though the word itself comes from French, the Egyptian usage has led neighboring Arab countries, which are not francophone and have no French influence, to adopt the word. These include Sudan, Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Qatar.

Qatar
This is a waterfront promenade extending for seven kilometres (4.3 mi) along Doha Bay in Qatar's capital city, Doha. Annual celebrations of national holidays such as Qatar National Day and National Sports Day are centered on the Doha Corniche. It is a popular tourist and leisure attraction within Qatar.

Lebanon
The avenue that runs along the western and northern coast of the Beirut peninsula is colloquially called Corniche Beirut.

Oman
The promenade along the waterfront in Muttrah, Muscat, is known as The Corniche.

United Arab Emirates

 * The promenade that runs from the Emirates Palace hotel to the fish market in Abu Dhabi is colloquially called the Corniche.
 * in Ajman, the corniche is the road that runs from ajman beach to ajman marina, with the beautiful skyline of the city and the tall skyscrapers thar stand along the road.
 * In Sharjah, the road surrounding Khalid Lagoon is known as Buheira Corniche, though not a true corniche as it is near sea level and not following a cliff line.
 * Several other waterfront roads and promenades in the Emirates are also referred to as Corniche, including the Deira Corniche, Fujairah Corniche, and the Jumeirah Corniche.

Saudi Arabia
Dammam corniche, Qatif corniche, Khobar corniche, Ras Tanura corniche, Jeddah Corniche, Yanbu corniche, Al Jubail corniche, Khafji corniche.

Philippines

 * Manila Bay, Manila, Philippines
 * Lamon Bay, Quezon Province, Philippines

 India

Marine Drive, Mumbai

title: Corniche


text:
Brickwork

Brickwork is masonry produced by a bricklayer, using bricks and mortar. Typically, rows of bricks called courses are laid on top of one another to build up a structure such as a brick wall.

Bricks may be differentiated from blocks by size. For example, in the UK a brick is defined as a unit having dimensions less than 337.5 x and a block is defined as a unit having one or more dimensions greater than the largest possible brick.

Brick is a popular medium for constructing buildings, and examples of brickwork are found through history as far back as the Bronze Age. The fired-brick faces of the ziggurat of ancient Dur-Kurigalzu in Iraq date from around 1400 BC, and the brick buildings of ancient Mohenjo-daro in modern day Pakistan were built around 2600 BC. Much older examples of brickwork made with dried (but not fired) bricks may be found in such ancient locations as Jericho in Palestine, Çatal Höyük in Anatolia, and Mehrgarh in Pakistan. These structures have survived from the Stone Age to the modern day. Brick dimensions are expressed in construction or technical documents in two ways as co-ordinating dimensions and working dimensions. Brick size may be slightly different due to shrinkage or distortion due to firing, etc.
 * Coordination dimensions are the actual physical dimensions of the brick with the mortar required on one header face, one stretcher face and one bed.
 * Working dimensions is the size of a manufactured brick. It is also called the nominal size of a brick.

An example of a co-ordinating metric commonly used for bricks in the UK is as follows:
 * Bricks of dimensions 215 mm × 102.5 mm × 65 mm;
 * Mortar beds (horizontal) and perpends (vertical) of a uniform 10 mm.

In this case the co-ordinating metric works because the length of a single brick (215 mm) is equal to the total of the width of a brick (102.5 mm) plus a perpend (10 mm) plus the width of a second brick (102.5 mm).

There are many other brick sizes worldwide, and many of them use this same co-ordinating principle.

Terminology
As the most common bricks are rectangular prisms, six surfaces are named as follows:
 * Top and bottom surfaces are called Beds
 * Ends or narrow surfaces are called Headers or header faces
 * Sides or wider surfaces are called Stretchers or stretcher faces

Mortar placed between bricks is also given separate names with respect to their position. Mortar placed horizontally below or top of a brick is called a bed, and mortar placed vertically between bricks is called a perpend. A brick made with just rectilinear dimensions is called a solid brick. Bricks might have a depression on both beds or on a single bed. The depression is called a frog, and the bricks are known as frogged bricks. Frogs can be deep or shallow but should never exceed 20% of the total volume of the brick. Cellular bricks have depressions exceeding 20% of the volume of the brick. Perforated bricks have holes through the brick from bed to bed, cutting it all the way. Most of the building standards and good construction practices recommend the volume of holes should not exceed 20% of the total volume of the brick.

Parts of brickwork include bricks, beds and perpends. The bed is the mortar upon which a brick is laid. A perpend is a vertical joint between any two bricks and is usually—but not always—filled with mortar.

A "face brick" is a higher-quality brick, designed for use in visible external surfaces in face-work, as opposed to a "filler brick" for internal parts of the wall, or where the surface is to be covered with stucco or a similar coating, or where the filler bricks will be concealed by other bricks (in structures more than two bricks thick).

Orientation
A brick is given a classification based on how it is laid, and how the exposed face is oriented relative to the face of the finished wall.

 * Stretcher or stretching brick: A brick laid flat with its long narrow side exposed.
 * Header or heading brick: A brick laid flat with its width exposed.
 * Soldier: A brick laid vertically with its long narrow side exposed.
 * Sailor: A brick laid vertically with the broad face of the brick exposed.
 * Rowlock: A brick laid on the long narrow side with the short end of the brick exposed.
 * Shiner or rowlock stretcher: A brick laid on the long narrow side with the broad face of the brick exposed.

Cut
The practice of laying uncut full-sized bricks wherever possible gives brickwork its maximum possible strength. In the diagrams below, such uncut full-sized bricks are coloured as follows:

Occasionally though a brick must be cut to fit a given space, or to be the right shape for fulfilling some particular purpose such as generating an offset—called a lap—at the beginning of a course. In some cases these special shapes or sizes are manufactured. In the diagrams below, some of the cuts most commonly used for generating a lap are coloured as follows:

 * : A brick cut to three-quarters of its length, and laid flat with its long, narrow side exposed.
 * : A brick cut to three-quarters of its length, and laid flat with its short side exposed.
 * : A brick cut in half across its length, and laid flat.
 * : A brick cut in half down its width, and laid with its smallest face exposed and standing vertically. A queen closer is often used for the purpose of creating a lap.

Less frequently used cuts are all coloured as follows:

 * : A brick cut to a quarter of its length.
 * : A queen closer cut to three-quarters of its length.
 * : A brick with one corner cut away, leaving one header face at half its standard width.

Bonding
A nearly universal rule in brickwork is that perpends should not be contiguous across courses.

Walls, running linearly and extending upwards, can be of varying depth or thickness. Typically, the bricks are laid also running linearly and extending upwards, forming wythes or leafs. It is as important as with the perpends to bond these leaves together. Historically, the dominant method for consolidating the leaves together was to lay bricks across them, rather than running linearly.

Brickwork observing either or both of these two conventions is described as being laid in one or another bond.

Thickness (and leaves)
A leaf is as thick as the width of one brick, but a wall is said to be one brick thick if it as wide as the length of a brick. Accordingly, a single-leaf wall is a half brick thickness; a wall with the simplest possible masonry transverse bond is said to be one brick thick, and so on.

The thickness specified for a wall is determined by such factors as damp proofing considerations, whether or not the wall has a cavity, load-bearing requirements, expense, and the era during which the architect was or is working. Wall thickness specification has proven considerably various, and while some non-load-bearing brick walls may be as little as half a brick thick, or even less when shiners are laid stretcher bond in partition walls, others brick walls are much thicker. The Monadnock Building in Chicago, for example, is a very tall masonry building, and has load-bearing brick walls nearly two metres thick at the base. The majority of brick walls are however usually between one and three bricks thick. At these more modest wall thicknesses, distinct patterns have emerged allowing for a structurally sound layout of bricks internal to each particular specified thickness of wall.

Cavity walls and ties
The advent during the mid twentieth century of the cavity wall saw the popularisation and development of another method of strengthening brickwork—the wall tie. A cavity wall comprises two totally discrete walls, separated by an air gap, which serves both as barrier to moisture and heat. Typically the main loads taken by the foundations are carried there by the inner leaf, and the major functions of the external leaf are to protect the whole from weather, and to provide a fitting aesthetic finish.

Despite there being no masonry connection between the leaves, their transverse rigidity still needs to be guaranteed. The device used to satisfy this need is the insertion at regular intervals of wall ties into the cavity wall's mortar beds.

Flemish bond
Flemish bond has stretcher between headers, with the headers centred over the stretchers in the  courses below.

Where a course begins with a quoin stretcher, the course will ordinarily terminate with a quoin stretcher at the other end. The next course up will begin with a quoin header. For the course's second brick, a queen closer is laid, generating the lap of the bond. The third brick along is a stretcher, and is—on account of the lap—centred above the header below. This second course then resumes its paired run of stretcher and header, until the final pair is reached, whereupon a second and final queen closer is inserted as the penultimate brick, mirroring the arrangement at the beginning of the course, and duly closing the bond.

Some examples of Flemish bond incorporate stretchers of one colour and headers of another. This effect is commonly a product of treating the header face of the heading bricks while the bricks are being baked as part of the manufacturing process. Some of the header faces are exposed to wood smoke, generating a grey-blue colour, while other simply vitrified until they reach a deeper blue colour. Some headers have a glazed face, caused by using salt in the firing. Sometimes Staffordshire Blue bricks are used for the heading bricks.

Brickwork that appears as Flemish bond from both the front and the rear is double Flemish bond, so called on account of the front and rear duplication of the pattern. If the wall is arranged such that the bricks at the rear do not have this pattern, then the brickwork is said to be single Flemish bond.

Flemish bond brickwork with a thickness of one brick is the repeating pattern of a stretcher laid immediately to the rear of the face stretcher, and then next along the course, a header. A lap (correct overlap) is generated by a queen closer on every alternate course:

Double Flemish bond of one brick's thickness: overhead sections of alternate (odd and even) courses, and side elevation The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east–west wall. An elevation for this east–west wall is shown to the right.

A simple way to add some width to the wall would be to add stretching bricks at the rear, making a Single Flemish bond one and a half bricks thick:

Overhead sections of alternate (odd and even) courses of single Flemish bond of one and a half bricks' thickness The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east–west wall. An elevation for this east–west wall is shown to the right.

For a double Flemish bond of one and a half bricks' thickness, facing bricks and the bricks behind the facing bricks may be laid in groups of four bricks and a half-bat. The half-bat sits at the centre of the group and the four bricks are placed about the half-bat, in a square formation. These groups are laid next to each other for the length of a course, making brickwork one and a half bricks thick.

To preserve the bond, it is necessary to lay a three-quarter bat instead of a header following a quoin stretcher at the corner of the wall. This fact has no bearing on the appearance of the wall; the choice of brick appears to the spectator like any ordinary header:

Overhead plans of alternate (odd and even) courses of double Flemish bond of one and a half bricks' thickness The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east–west wall. An elevation for this east–west wall is shown to the right.

For a more substantial wall, a header may be laid directly behind the face header, a further two headers laid at 90° behind the face stretcher, and then finally a stretcher laid to the rear of these two headers. This pattern generates brickwork a full two bricks thick:

Overhead sections of alternate (odd and even) courses of double Flemish bond of two bricks' thickness The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east–west wall. An elevation for this east–west wall is shown to the right.

Overhead sections of alternate (odd and even) courses of double Flemish bond of two and a half bricks' thickness The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east–west wall. An elevation for this east–west wall is shown to the right.

For a still more substantial wall, two headers may be laid directly behind the face header, a further two pairs of headers laid at 90° behind the face stretcher, and then finally a stretcher laid to the rear of these four headers. This pattern generates brickwork a full three bricks thick:

Overhead sections of alternate (odd and even) courses of double Flemish bond of three bricks' thickness The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east–west wall. An elevation for this east–west wall is shown to the right.

Monk bond
This bond has stretchers between every header with the headers centred over the perpend between the two stretchers in the course below in the bond's most symmetric form.

The great variety of monk bond patterns allow for many possible layouts at the quoins, and many possible arrangements for generating a lap. A quoin brick may be a stretcher, a three-quarter bat, or a header. Queen closers may be used next to the quoins, but the practice is not mandatory.

Raking monk bonds
Monk bond may however take any of a number of arrangements for course staggering. The disposal of bricks in these often highly irregular raking patterns can be a challenging task for the bricklayer to correctly maintain while constructing a wall whose courses are partially obscured by scaffold, and interrupted by door or window openings, or other bond-disrupting obstacles. If the bricklayer frequently stops to check that bricks are correctly arranged, then masonry in a raking monk bond can be expensive to build.

Occasionally, brickwork in such a raking monk bond may contain minor errors of header and stretcher alignment some of which may have been silently corrected by incorporating a compensating irregularity into the brickwork in a course further up the wall. In spite of these complexities and their associated costs, the bond has proven a common choice for constructing brickwork in the north of Europe.

Raking courses in monk bond may—for instance—be staggered in such a way as to generate the appearance of diagonal lines of stretchers. One method of achieving this effect relies on the use of a repeating sequence of courses with back-and-forth header staggering. In this grouping, a header appears at a given point in the group's first course. In the next course up, a header is offset one and a half stretcher lengths to the left of the header in the course below, and then in the third course, a header is offset one stretcher length to the right of the header in the middle course. This accented swing of headers, one and a half to the left, and one to the right, generates the appearance of lines of stretchers running from the upper left hand side of the wall down to the lower right. Such an example of a raking monk bond layout is shown in the New Malden Library, Kingston upon Thames, Greater London.

Elsewhere, raking courses in monk bond may be staggered in such a way as to generate a subtle appearance of indented pyramid-like diagonals. Such an arrangement appears in the picture here from the building in Solna, Sweden.

Many other particular adjustments of course alignment exist in monk bond, generating a variety of visual effects which differ in detail, but often having the effect of directing a viewing eye diagonally down the wall.

Overhead plan for alternate courses of monk bond of one brick's thickness The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east–west wall. An elevation for this east–west wall is shown to the right.

Sussex bond
This bond has stretchers between every header, with the headers centred above the midpoint of three stretchers in the course below.

The bond's horizontally extended proportion suits long stretches of masonry such as garden walls or the run of brickwork over a ribbon window; conversely, the bond is less suitable for a surface occupied by many features, such as a Georgian façade. The relatively infrequent use of headers serves to make Sussex bond one of the less expensive bonds in which to build a wall, as it allows for the bricklayer to proceed rapidly with run after run of three stretchers at a time.

One stretching course per heading course
One of the two kinds of course in this family of bonds is called a stretching course, and this typically comprises nothing but stretchers at the face from quoin to quoin. The other kind of course is the heading course, and this usually consists of headers, with two queen closers—one by the quoin header at either end—to generate the bond.

English bond
This bond has alternating stretching and heading courses, with the headers centred over the midpoint of the stretchers, and perpends in each alternate course aligned. Queen closers appear as the second brick, and the penultimate brick in heading courses. A muted colour scheme for occasional headers is sometimes used in English bond to lend a subtle texture to the brickwork. Examples of such schemes include blue-grey headers among otherwise red bricks—seen in the south of England—and light brown headers in a dark brown wall, more often found in parts of the north of England.

Overhead plan for alternate courses of English bond of one brick's thickness The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east–west wall. An elevation for this east–west wall is shown to the right.

Overhead plan for alternate courses of English bond of one and a half bricks' thickness The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east–west wall. An elevation for this east–west wall is shown to the right.

Overhead plan for alternate courses of English bond of two bricks' thickness The colour-coded plans highlight facing bricks in the east–west wall. An elevation for this east–west wall is shown to the right.

English cross bond
This bond also has alternating stretching and heading courses. However, whilst the heading courses are identical with those found in the standard English bond, the stretching courses alternate between a course composed entirely of stretchers, and a course composed of stretchers half off-set relative to the stretchers two courses above or below, by reason of a header placed just before the quoins at either end. The bond is widely found in Northern France, Belgium and the Netherlands.

Large areas of English cross bond can appear to have a twill like characteristic, an effect caused by the unbroken series of perpends moving diagonally down the bond.

Dutch bond
This bond is exactly like English cross bond except in the generating of the lap at the quoins. In Dutch bond, all quoins are three-quarter bats—placed in alternately stretching and heading orientation with successive courses—and no use whatever is made of queen closers. To the Dutch this is simply a variant of what they call a cross bond.

English garden wall bond
This bond has three courses of stretchers between every course of headers.

For the standard English garden wall bond, headers are used as quoins for the middle stretching course in order to generate the lap, with queen closers as the penultimate brick at either end of the heading courses. A more complex set of quoins and queen closers is necessary to achieve the lap for a raking English garden wall bond.

The heading course in English garden wall bond sometimes features bricks of a different colour to its surrounding stretchers. In English chalk districts, flint is substituted for the stretchers, and the headers constitute a lacing course.

Scottish bond
This bond has five courses of stretchers between every course of headers.

The lap is generated by the use of headers as quoins for the even-numbered stretching courses, counting up from the previous heading course, with queen closers as the penultimate brick at either end of the heading courses.

American, or common bond
This bond may have between three and nine courses of stretchers between each course of headers. Six is the most common number of courses of stretchers.

Headers are used as quoins for the even-numbered stretching courses, counting up from the previous heading course, in order to achieve the necessary off-set in a standard American bond, with queen closers as the penultimate brick at either end of the heading courses.

The brick Clarke-Palmore House in Henrico County, Virginia, has a lower level built in 1819 described as being American bond of three to five stretching courses between each heading course, and an upper level built in 1855 with American bond of six to seven stretching courses between each heading course.

Header bond
All bricks in this bond are headers, but for the lap-generating quoin three-quarter bat which offsets each successive courses by half a header.

Header bond is often used on curving walls with a small radius of curvature. In Lewes, Sussex, England UK many small buildings are constructed in this bond, using blue coloured bricks and vitrified surfaces.

Stretcher, or running bond
All bricks in this bond are stretchers, with the bricks in each successive course staggered by half a stretcher. Headers are used as quoins on alternating stretching courses in order to achieve the necessary off-set.

It is the simplest repeating pattern, and will create a wall one header thick.

Raking stretcher bond
Also consists entirely of courses of stretchers, but with the bricks in each successive course staggered in some pattern other than that of standard stretcher bond.

Flemish stretcher bond
Flemish stretcher bond separates courses of alternately laid stretchers and headers, with a number of courses of stretchers alone. Brickwork in this bond may have between one and four courses of stretchers to one course after the Flemish manner. The courses of stretchers are often but not always staggered in a raking pattern.

Rat-trap bond
Rat-trap bond (also Chinese bond) substantially observes the same pattern as Flemish bond, but consists of rowlocks and shiners instead of headers and stretchers. This gives a wall with an internal cavity bridged by the rowlocks, hence the reference to rat-traps.

Dearne's bond
Dearne's bond substantially observes the same pattern as English bond, but uses shiners in place of stretchers.

Single basket weave bond
A row of single basket weave bond comprises pairs of sailors laid side-by-side, capped with a shiner, alternating with pairs of sailors laid side-by-side sat atop a shiner. Subsequent rows are identical and aligned with those above.

Double basket weave bond
A row of double basket weave bond comprises pairs of shiners laid atop one another, alternating with pairs of sailors laid side by side. The following row is off-set so the pair of shiners sits below the pair of sailors in the row above. This results in bricks arranged in pairs in a square grid so that the join between each pair is perpendicular to the join of the four pairs around it.

Herringbone bond
The herringbone pattern (opus spicatum) made by placing soldiers next to stretchers or vice versa (i.e. headers perpendicular) making 'L' shapes, nesting each L in the same order of laying. Thin bricks are more common. The pattern is usually rotated by 45° to create a completely vertical (plumb) succession of 'V' shapes. It follows either the left or right brick forms the tip of the v in any wall. Herringbone is sometimes used as infill in timber-framed buildings.

Pinwheel bond
Pinwheel bond is made of four bricks surrounding a square half-brick, repeated in a square grid.

Della Robbia bond
A pattern made of four bricks surrounding a square brick, one-quarter the size of a half-brick. It is designed to resemble woven cloth. Another, similar pattern is called the interlacing bond.

Diapering
Brickwork formed into a diamond pattern is called diapering.

Flemish diagonal bond
Flemish diagonal bond comprises a complex pattern of stretcher courses alternating with courses of one or two stretchers between headers, at various offsets, such that over ten courses, a diamond-shaped pattern appears.

Damp-proof courses
Moisture may ascend into a building from the foundation of a wall or gain ingress into a building from a wet patch of ground, where it meets a solid wall. The manifest result of this process is called damp. One of many methods of resisting such ingresses of water is to construct the wall with several low courses of dense engineering bricks such as Staffordshire blue bricks. This method of damp proofing appears as a distinctive navy blue band running around the circumference of a building. It is only partially effective, as in spite of the lower courses of brick being more moisture resistant the mortar bedding and perpends joining the bricks remain permeable.

title: Brickwork