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Angel of the North

The Angel of the North is a contemporary sculpture by Antony Gormley, located in Gateshead, Tyne and Wear, England. Completed in 1998, it is believed to be the largest sculpture of an angel in the world and is viewed by an estimated 33 million people every year due to its proximity to the A1 and A167 roads and the East Coast Main Line. The design of the Angel, like many of Gormley's works, is based on Gormley's own body. The COR-TEN weathering steel material gives the sculpture its distinctive rusty, oxidised colour. It stands 20 m tall with a wingspan of 54 m, larger than that of a Boeing 757 aircraft. The vertical ribs on its body and wings act as an external skeleton which direct oncoming wind to the sculpture's foundations, allowing it to withstand wind speeds of over 100 mph.

The sculpture was commissioned and delivered by Gateshead Council who approached Gormley to be the sculptor. Although initially reluctant, Gormley agreed to undertake the project after visiting and being inspired by the Angel's proposed site, a former colliery overlooking the varied topography of the Tyne and Wear Lowlands National Character Area.

Hartlepool Steel Fabrications were responsible for the manufacture and assembly of the 208-tonne sculpture. On 14 February 1998, the Angel was transported overnight to the installation site and erected the next morning. The project faced opposition during its design and construction, but is now widely recognised as an iconic example of public art and a symbol of Gateshead and the wider North East region.

History
Prior to the construction of the Angel of the North, the most significant landmarks that signalled travellers' arrival into Tyneside, when travelling from the south, were the bridges that crossed the River Tyne. In 1990, Gateshead Council first conceived of a sculpture to act as a new landmark for the southern approach into Gateshead and Tyneside, standing near the A1 and A167 road interchange. Mike White, the Assistant Director Arts at Gateshead Council from 1989 to 2000, stated that the intention was for the Angel of the North to act as a "millennial image that would be a marker and guardian for our town". The process to commission and deliver a sculpture was led by Gateshead Council's Art in Public Places panel, the Libraries & Arts and Planning & Engineering Departments, and Northern Arts – a regional subdivision of the Arts Council of Great Britain which existed from 1990 to 2002. The Council applied for £45,000 of funding from Northern Arts for the selection of an artist and the delivery of an initial design. Although this was the largest public art project the Council had planned to date, Gateshead had already undergone multiple regeneration projects. In the 1980s the construction of Gateshead International Stadium and the MetroCentre signalled a step forward in urban regeneration, and in 1990 the Gateshead National Garden Festival and Riverside Sculpture Park marked the borough's emerging arts policy. The 1990s also saw the conception of other regional transformation projects including the Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art and Gateshead Millennium Bridge.

The Council's Art in Public Places Panel met three times to decide upon a shortlist of artists to build the new sculpture. They were inspired by Antony Gormley's series of structures called The Case for an Angel which he began creating in 1989. After two years of looking for a suitable candidate, Gormley was ultimately selected. After originally claiming that he did not "do roundabout art", Gormley was inspired after visiting the proposed site of the sculpture, comparing it to a "megalithic burial chamber". 43-year-old Gormley was commissioned by August 1994. The intention was to have the structure built by 1996, the Year of Visual Arts. Gateshead Council had plans for six more huge statues. The structure was to cost £500,000.

Gateshead planning committee voted 15-5 to let the sculpture be built on Wednesday 4 January 1995, under chairman Pat Conaty, and the council engineer Roger Turner. The choice of an angel figure came from Conaty, not Gormley. The Lib Dems (Peter Maughan) deeply opposed the planning application, saying 'we must not endorse this application'. The only Conservative on the council (Martin Callanan) said it would be 'ugly and intrusive'. The planning application, at Eighton Lodge, would need approval of the full council at the next meeting. At Gateshead Civic Centre, the council voted 41-14 to approve the scheme.

Gateshead Council acquired funding of £800,000. £584,000 came from the Arts Council England, £150,000 from the European Regional Development Fund, £45,000 from Northern Arts, plus private sponsorship. Momentum for the sculpture continued into 1996, when a 1:20 maquette of the Angel went on display in Shipley Gallery, and Northern Arts won the Festival for UK Visual Arts Year. A two-year series of educational events were conducted with 30 schools and 1,400 children in the area who built their own small-scale versions of the Angel which later went on display in venues around Gateshead and in Sunderland.

Gateshead Lib Dems started a 'Stop the Statue Campaign', organised by Noel Rippeth and Ron Beadle. On Thursday 2 February 1995 the front page of the Gateshead Post was 'Nazi....but nice?', referring to the proposed design.

Design
The Angel, like much of Gormley's other work, is based on a cast of his own body. The steel sculpture is 208 tonnes, 20 m tall, with wings measuring 54 m across. Its sheer size and dominance over the surrounding landscape allows for an artistic impact on a large audience. Its wingspan is often compared to that of a Boeing 757 jet, which is actually smaller. The wings are 6.2 m high at the point where they join the body. It is defined by a rusty, oxidised colour which comes from the COR-TEN weathering steel material which, despite being distinctive, does not contrast harshly with the nearby environment. Inspired by this colour, Gormley had originally intended to call the sculpture The Iron Angel of the North. The wings are angled 3.5 degrees forward to create, according to Gormley, "a sense of embrace". They are regular and symmetrical in shape, which contrast with the asymmetrical body.

The Angel, which weighs 208tonnes, stands on top of a 5.3 m base, which itself rests on a concrete slab 150 cm thick covering 100 m2. Due to its exposed location, Gateshead Council's engineering director sought advice from Ove Arup & Partners on how the sculpture could be built to withstand winds of over 100 mph. Although sculptures are often made out of bronze, Arup determined that the material would not be strong enough for a structure the size of the Angel, and weathering steel was used instead. The sculpture, in contrast to other sculptures including the Statue of Liberty, has no internal skeleton to aid with wind resistance or overall stability. Instead, vertical parallel "ribs" run from the head to the feet of the sculpture which function as an external skeleton, breaking up the strength of oncoming wind and focussing it down to the foundations.

Although the Angel of the North is a static sculpture, it is intended to be viewed from many angles and by travellers who pass by at speed – an average of 60 mph by road. The Angel of the North was designed to have a life of more than 100 years. It has been claimed that it is Britain's largest sculpture, but other sculptures – including Anish Kapoor's ArcelorMittal Orbit – also claim the title.

Location
The sculpture stands on a hill at Low Eighton in Lamesley Parish, overlooking the A1 and A167 roads and the East Coast Main Line rail route. It lies within the Tyne and Wear Lowlands National Character Area which contains both urban areas and large stretches of fields. The area is also characterised by variations in topography. The Angel sits on top of one of the more elevated positions of the landscape located near Team Valley, allowing the sculpture to be seen from miles around. In the design brief for the Angel, the designated location was described as "commanding views... from distances of up to 4 kilometres arcing through 100 degrees" with landmarks including Durham Cathedral visible. The Angel was built on land which previously contained the pit head baths of the former Team Colliery, which was in use from the 1720s until the 1960s. The remains of the colliery were removed and earth was piled up into a knoll which the Angel now stands on. Gormley commented on this historic connection, saying "When you think of the mining that was done underneath the site, there is a poetic resonance. Men worked beneath the surface in the dark. Now, in the light, there is a celebration of this industry." The sculpture faces south, facing the traffic travelling north into Gateshead and towards Tyneside. Historically, the nearby valley allowed for a convenient passage into Tyne and Wear from the south. Over time, this evolved into more established modern travel routes. Due to its proximity to the main road and rail line, it is estimated that 33 million people see the Angel every year, including those in the roughly 90,000 vehicles which pass each day. The statue can also been seen from nearby housing estates and commercial areas.

The statue can be accessed by road via the A167 and a nearby car and coach park allows people to stop and view the sculpture up close. It also be reached on foot by a number of footpaths. Accessibility, including sitting on and touching the sculpture, is encouraged. It is flanked on the east and west sides by woodland, which has become more prevalent during the life of the Angel. Since 1998, the appearance of the sculpture has become less open and more secluded due to the growth of trees. The trees were planted intentionally along section of the A1 as part of the former Great North Forest initiative and the original brief for the Angel stated that the sculpture would eventually be characterised by a woodland context. When travelling north by road, the first views of the Angel are partially hidden by trees. Train passengers on the East Coast Main Line, located around 600 m to the west, are able to see the statue as they travel past.

Construction and installation
Work began on the project in 1994. Following a competitive tendering process, Hartlepool Steel Fabrications Ltd was chosen to fabricate the Angel. The construction took place in a shed bearing the name 'Hartlepool Erections Group', which Gormley visited most weeks during production. The sculpture was constructed in three parts: the body weighing 100 t and two wings each weighing 50 t. Steel fabrication began in June 1997.

20-metre foundations containing 600 t of concrete form the base of the statue, anchoring it to the rock 70 ft below, built from Monday 1 September 1997, by Thomas Armstrong Ltd of Flimby, west Cumbria. Additionally, the old mine workings under the statue had 100tonnes of grout pumped into them to stabilise the site.

Gormley made a number of smaller models of the Angel to refine its design. The last smaller model needed to be perfectly scaled-up to inform the shape of the final full-size sculpture. Newcastle University was commissioned to use stereophotography to scan and create a computer-generated replica of the model. The details of the replica were then fed into a cutting machine to create the plates for Hartlepool Steel Fabrications.

On 14 February 1998, the components were transported in convoy, the body on a 48-wheel trailer, from their construction site in Hartlepool to the installation site 28 mi away. The journey, undertaken at night, took five hours and attracted large crowds. The next morning, the Angel was lowered into position. The first wing was attached to the body at around 11am and the second at 4pm. The spectacle of the installation attracted crowds of thousands and over 20 television crews. A plaque beside the angel contains a quotation from Gormley: "The hill top site is important and has the feeling of being a megalithic mound. When you think of the mining that was done underneath the site, there is a poetic resonance. Men worked beneath the surface in the dark... It is important to me that the Angel is rooted in the ground—the complete antithesis of what an angel is, floating about in the ether. It has an air of mystery. You make things because they cannot be said."

Artistic significance and symbolism
The North of England Civic Trust's study on the significance of the Angel of the North claims that the sculpture may be "the most prominent piece of post-World War II public art in the UK", and "arguably the best known and most easily recognisable public artwork in the UK". It has also been described as the first significant example of gigantism in British sculpture. The Angel of the North differs from some other post-War art in that, being figurative, it clearly represents the human body rather than abstract forms. This human-like representation, combined with the fact that the Angel does not commemorate any one person or people, has meant that viewers have more easily and freely attached their own meaning to the sculpture. Such symbolisms have included optimism associated with the millennium, a historical connection with the miners who worked under the land on which the Angel stands, and personal or religious experiences.

Like many of Antony Gormley's sculptures, the Angel provokes questions about the relationship between art, politics, the environment, and society. Gormley has commented on the choice of depicting an angel for the sculpture, suggesting that the image was multi-functional; as a reminder of the industrial history of the site, beneath which was a disused quarry where miners had worked for centuries; as a reference to the future, symbolising the transition from the industrial to the information age; and as a focus for human hopes and fears. The Angel as conceived of by Gormley is therefore a symbol of hope rather than one of religion. Gormley also stated "People are always asking, why an angel? The only response I can give is that no-one has ever seen one and we need to keep imagining them." In comparing the modernity of the sculpture to historic concepts of angels, Gail-Nina Anderson remarked that the Angel of the North "is also an angel for the 1990s, a high-tech tribute to modern engineering in a period busy with amusing itself with fairies and angels, spirit-guides and reincarnations."

Reception
Plans for the sculpture encountered significant opposition. Gormley has subsequently acknowledged being "snooty" towards the project; when originally approached by Gateshead Council, he scorned the opportunity, saying that he "did not make motorway art". Local newspapers ran campaigns against the proposed sculpture, in which local politicians joined. Some critics compared the Angel to fascist or communist monumentalism, including The Gateshead Post who went as far as to draw comparisons between the Angel and a 1930s Nazi statue. Concerns were raised about the potential for traffic accidents resulting from the statue's proximity to the A1 dual carriageway and that it would interfere with television and radio reception. Since its construction, the sculpture has continued to generate comment, and has been the focus of a number of publicity stunts. In 2011, Gateshead Council refused Tourism Ireland permission to illuminate the Angel for Saint Patrick's Day. In 2014, supermarket chain Morrisons was compelled to apologise after projecting an advertisement onto the Angel, which Gormley himself called "shocking and stupid". In 2021, concerns that the sculpture's setting would be detrimentally affected by a road-widening project led The Twentieth Century Society to seek listed building status for the structure. The Society's application was turned down by Historic England, the body responsible for the National Heritage List for England, which stated that threats to a structure's setting did not form part of its criteria for listing.

Over 20 years after its completion, the Angel is considered a landmark for the North East. It was an important part of the area's regeneration around the time of the millennium. It has been listed as an "Icon of England", and been described as "one of the most talked about and recognisable pieces of public art ever produced." A display board next to it claims that it has inspired the community, brought pride and belief to the people of Gateshead, and brings daily national and international attention to the region. A study conducted by Maeve Blackman of Durham University suggested that the Angel had improved the wellbeing and pride of Gateshead residents. Martin Roberts, in his 2021 revised edition of County Durham for the Buildings of England series, wrote: "Of all Gateshead Council's great projects, the Angel perhaps posed the greatest risk, yet delivered the greatest reward. Its erection captured the public imagination, its design won critical praise, and it gave both the town and the region a new symbol."

Maquettes
Several maquettes were produced during the development stage of the project which are now considered valuable items. A scale model from which the sculpture was created was sold at auction for £2.28 million in July 2008. An additional bronze maquette used in fundraising in the 1990s, owned by Gateshead Council, was valued at £1 million on the BBC show Antiques Roadshow broadcast on 16 November 2008 — the most valuable item ever appraised on the programme. In 2011, a 1.9 m maquette was sold at Christie's in London for £3.4 million to an anonymous bidder. Another maquette was donated to the National Gallery of Australia in 2009, and stands in its Sculpture Garden. Another model (scale 1:20) is on display in the grounds of Museum Voorlinden in the Netherlands.

title: Angel of the North


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Kurt Sanderling

Kurt Sanderling, CBE (Курт Игнатьевич Зандерлинг; 19 September 1912 – 18 September 2011) was a German conductor.

Early life and career
Sanderling was born in Arys, Kingdom of Prussia, German Empire (now Orzysz, Poland) to Jewish parents. His early work at the Deutsche Oper Berlin, where he served as repetiteur (rehearsal director) for Wilhelm Furtwängler and Erich Kleiber, was cut short when the Nazi regime removed him from his post because he was Jewish.

He then left for the Soviet Union in 1936, where he worked with the Moscow Radio Symphony Orchestra. In 1939, he became conductor of the Kharkiv Philharmonic Orchestra. During the siege of Leningrad, he worked in Novosibirsk. From 1942 to 1960, he was joint principal conductor with Yevgeny Mravinsky of the Leningrad Philharmonic. Around 1942–1943, Sanderling first met Dmitri Shostakovich, which marked the start of their professional working relationship and personal friendship.

Post-1960
In 1960, Sanderling returned to East Germany to take up the chief conductorship of the Berlin Symphony Orchestra, where he remained until 1977. From 1964 to 1967, he was chief conductor of the Dresden Staatskapelle. He made his British debut in 1970. His first guest-conducting appearance with the Philharmonia Orchestra was in 1972, as a substitute for Otto Klemperer. Their working relationship further developed after a January 1980 series of performances of the complete Beethoven symphonies at Wembley, and a subsequent commercial recording of the Beethoven symphonies for EMI. The Philharmonia appointed Sanderling its Conductor Emeritus in 1996. He was also Emeritus Conductor of the Madrid Symphony Orchestra. In the US, he worked with particular frequency as a guest conductor with the Los Angeles Philharmonic.

Sanderling announced his retirement from conducting in May 2002. In September 2002, Sanderling was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) and awarded the Ernst Reuter Plaque of Berlin, the city's highest honour. In addition to his Philharmonia Beethoven symphony cycle, his commercial recordings include the Beethoven piano concertos with pianist Mitsuko Uchida, Nos. 3, 4 with the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra and Nos. 1, 2 and 5 with the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra. He was among the first conductors to perform and record Deryck Cooke's completion of Gustav Mahler's Symphony No. 10, which his friend Berthold Goldschmidt had premiered.

Sanderling died on 18 September 2011, one day before his 99th birthday in Berlin.

Personal life
He was married twice. His first marriage to Nina Bobath was in 1941, and produced a son, Thomas Sanderling, who became a conductor. His first marriage ended in divorce after his return to East Germany. His second wife was the former Barbara Wagner, a double bassist in the Berlin Symphony Orchestra. They married in 1963, and their marriage produced two sons, the conductors Stefan Sanderling and Michael Sanderling.

Publications

 * 2002: Kurt Sanderling and Ulrich Roloff-Momin: Andere machen Geschichte, ich machte Musik. Parthas, Berlin 2002, 431 pp., ill., discographie, ISBN 3-932529-35-9, (Biography; in German)

Film

 * Seine Liebe zu Brahms. Kurt Sanderling unterrichtet die 4. Sinfonie. (with the Radio-Sinfonieorchester Stuttgart of the SWR) Documentation, 60 Min., a film by Norbert Beilharz, First transmission: 2. November 2003.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Kurt Sanderling


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Talk:Flintshire (traditional)

I am extremely unhappy at the state of this article, and of all the articles describing the Welsh counties. It is totally deceptive and misleading in that it describes the pre-1974 county which bears very little commonality with the area which anyone living in the area would now call "Flintshire".

Of the "chief towns" listed, Bangor-is-y-Coed (and why is the Welsh name being used in the English Wikipedia when we don't give Bwcle, Cei Connah, Y Fflint, Treffynnon, Yr Wyddgrug, Y Rhyl, and Llanelwy?? - call it Bangor on Dee to be consistent) is in Wrexham county borough, Prestatyn, Rhyl and St Asaph are in Denbighshire, the River Clwyd is nowhere within the county boundary. Of the places of special interest, Rhuddlan Castle, St Asaph Cathedral, and Rhyl Sun Centre are not in the county. The "main industry" of steelworking died two decades ago!!!!

I'm rather miffed that 80.255 saw fit to remove the plain "caution" notice I put at the top of the article two weeks ago -- it's OK to mention that in the past the borders of "Flintshire" incorporated particular area, but it is completely unacceptable to claim that the pre-1974 boundaries still exist (see the tense employed in describing the old exclaves) -- the old county died in 1974 and has no relevance now -- to quote Max Boyce, "I know, 'cos I was there!".

--- Arwel 20:14, 6 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * As usual you are mixing up the present administrative area with the historic county. Just because administrative areas shared the same name as counties between 1888 and 1974 does not mean that administrative changes affect the real county. There is no such thing as a pre-1974 county, therefore it IS acceptable to 'claim' that these still exist. What died in 1974 was the ADMINISTRATIVE county, not the geographical area. Please read the Local Government Acts 1888, and 1974 before you claim that a geographical area with nothing to do with local government has died. Owain Vaughan 14:35, 7 Nov 2003

Anglophiles 'R' Us
I see we have another totally unnecessary, anti Welsh language attack by a spiteful anglophile! --maelor 14:36, 28 June 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Flintshire (traditional)


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University of Hildesheim

The University of Hildesheim (in German Universität Hildesheim) is a public university located in Hildesheim, in the German state of Lower Saxony.

Alfeld University of Education (Pädagogische Hochschule Alfeld) – University of Hildesheim
The University of Hildesheim originated from the University of Education in Alfeld established in 1946. Because of the massive destruction of the city of Hildesheim during the Second World War, the university was relocated to Alfeld, which remained mostly intact. Under its director Hans Abmeier, 110 students were registered in the university in its first academic year in 1946/47, and approximately 50 students for several years after that. The aim of the university was to provide teachers for the Catholic population in the British zone, without religion being a necessary condition for admission. Hans-Otto Knackstedt, chaplain, taught Catholic theology, and Otto Brauckmann, musical director in cathedrals, taught music in the university. Under the director and Catholic philosopher Franz Flintrop, the Alfeld University of Education became independent from the Ministry of Education and finally, under rector Günter Klages, it was relocated back to Hildesheim in 1970 as a department of the University of Education of Lower Saxony (Pädagogische Hochschule Niedersachsen). In 1978 the university became independent once again and was named as Scientific University of Hildesheim under rector Heinz-Wilhelm Alten. In 1989, it was renamed University of Hildesheim by the rector Reinhard Göllner. Ulla Bosse was its first president serving from 1998 until 2002.

Public Foundation University of Hildesheim (Stiftungsuniversität)
On 1 January 2003, the sponsorship of the University of Hildesheim was transferred from the state of Lower Saxony to the public Foundation University of Hildesheim becoming one of the first public universities in Germany. Four other universities in Lower Saxony followed the lead of the University of Hildesheim at the same time, namely the Universities of Göttingen and Lüneburg, the University of Applied Sciences of Osnabrück and the University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover. The current president of the foundation is May-Britt Kallenrode.

The number of students in the University of Hildesheim reached 8574 in the winter semester 2021/22. The Department of Education has the highest number of students in the University of Hildesheim, teaching approximately 3.200 students (from which about 19 percent come from different federal states), while the Department of Cultural Studies comes second teaching approximately 1100 students (from which about 34 percent come from different federal states).

Female students make up about 69 percent of the student body in the university. Furthermore, the number of female professors reaches up to 40 percent exceeding the national average. Equality between women and men, as well as between people of different social, ethnic and religious backgrounds, is an important principle of the University of Hildesheim. Its equality concept was positively reviewed in both rounds of the third phase of the Program for Female Professors, initiated by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) and the other federal states (2008, 2013).

Rectors and Presidents
The following rectors and presidents were the Head of the University of Hildesheim:

Alfeld University of Education 1945–1969

 * 1945–1953: Johannes (Hans) Abmeier, rector
 * 1953–1956: Franz Pasternak, rector
 * 1956–1959: Hans-Otto Knackstedt, Head of the university
 * 1959–1962: Franz Flintrop, Head of the university
 * 1962–1966: Wilhelm Rückriem, Head, ab 1963 rector
 * 1966–1967: Werner Trillmich, rector
 * 1967–1969: Heinrich Maiworm, rector
 * 1969: Günther Klages, rector

Deans of the University of Education Lower Saxony- Department of Hildesheim 1969–1978

 * 1969–1971: Günter Klages
 * 1971–1973: Fro Trommsdorff
 * 1973–1976: Dieter Lüttge
 * 1976–1978: Heinz-Wilhelm Alten
 * 1978: Herbert Kraatz

Rectors of the Scientific University of Hildesheim 1978–1989

 * 1978–1979: Herbert Kraatz, appointed rector
 * 1979–1981: Heinz-Wilhelm Alten, mathematician, first elected rector of the Scientific University of Hildesheim
 * 1981–1983: Dieter Lüttge, psychologist, rector of the Scientific University of Hildesheim
 * 1983–1985: Theodor Kreutzkamp, mathematician, rector of the Scientific University of Hildesheim
 * 1985–1989: Reinhard Göllner, theologian, rector of the Scientific University of Hildesheim and first rector of the University of  Hildesheim

Rectors and presidents of the University of Hildesheim 1989–2002

 * 1989–1991: Ernst Cloer, educationalist, rector of the University of Hildesheim
 * 1991–1995: Rudolf Weber, musicologist, rector of the University of Hildesheim
 * 1995–1998: Wolfgang Menzel, German philologist and educator, rector of the University of Hildesheim
 * 1998–2002: Ulla Bosse, psychologist, first president of the University of Hildesheim
 * 2002–2003: Wolfgang-Uwe Friedrich, political scientist, president of the University of Hildesheim

Presidents of the public Foundation University of Hildesheim since 2003

 * 2003–2020: Wolfgang-Uwe Friedrich, political scientist, president of the public Foundation University of Hildesheim
 * 1 January 2021 – present: May-Britt Kallenrode, physicist, president of the public Foundation University of Hildesheim

Faculties and institutes
The University of Hildesheim is organized into four departments, from which 27 institutes have been established.

Faculty 1: Educational and Social Sciences

 * Institute of Education Studies (Dept. of Applied Education Studies, Dept. of General Educational Studies)
 * Institute of Elementary School Didactics and General Science
 * Institute of Psychology
 * Institute of Social Sciences
 * Institute of Catholic Theology
 * Institute of Protestant Theology
 * Institute of History
 * Institute of Social and Organizational Education
 * Institute of Sport Science

Faculty 2: Cultural Studies and Aesthetic Communication

 * Institute of Cultural politics
 * Institute of Philosophy
 * Institute of literary Writing and literary Studies
 * Institute of Media, Theatre and popular Culture
 * Institute of Music and Musicology
 * Institute of Visual Arts and Art science

Faculty 3: Linguistics and Information Science

 * Institute of German language and Literature
 * Institute of English language and Literature
 * Institute of intercultural Communication
 * Institute of Translation Studies and Specialized Communication
 * Institute of Information Studies and Language Technology

Faculty 4: Mathematics, Natural Sciences, Economics and Computer Science

 * Institute of Biology and Chemistry
 * Institute of Geography
 * Institute of Physics
 * Institute of Engineering
 * Institute of Mathematics and Applied Computer Sciences
 * Institute of Computer Studies

Range of Studies
The four different departments of the University of Hildesheim provide many different courses of studies. The first department teaches psychology, educational science and social pedagogy and the courses mainly take place in the main campus. The second department is associated with cultural studies, creative writing and scenic arts and the courses take place on the cultural campus of Domäne Marienburg. The third department focuses on languages and communication. An example of this department is the study program "International Communication and Translation". Furthermore, the fourth department offers IT and environmental science courses. Teacher education for elementary, secondary and intermediate schools can be studied in all four departments and its range of studies includes 18 subjects. In total, the University of Hildesheim offers more than 40 Bachelor's and Master's programs, including the English-speaking Master's program "Data Analytics".

According to the winter semester 2021/22 student records, 69 percent of the total 8,574 students of the University of Hildesheim are female, a number exceeding significantly the national average for universities in Germany (52 percent). 3214 students are registered in the Department of Education, of which 2188 students are female (68%). The Department of Cultural studies comprises 13 percent of the total students of the University of Hildesheim, of which 819 are female. The IT department offering the study programs of "Applied Computer Science", "Data Analytics" and "Business Informatics" comprises 6 percent of the total students, with 505 students enrolled, of which 34 percent are women (171 female students). In 2022, 1637 students graduated from the University of Hildesheim, and 48 doctoral programs were successfully completed.

Notable Professors

 * Silvio Vietta (born 1941), literary scholar
 * Hanns-Josef Ortheil (born 1951), author und Germanist
 * Michael Gehler (born 1962), historian
 * Joachim Friedmann (born 1966), dramaturg

title: University of Hildesheim


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The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian

The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian is the 1951 autobiography of Indian writer Nirad C. Chaudhuri. Written when he was around 50, it records his life from his birth in 1897 in Kishoreganj, a small town in present-day Bangladesh. The book relates his mental and intellectual development, his life and growth in Calcutta, his observations of vanishing landmarks, the connotation of this is dual—changing Indian situation and historical forces that was making exit of British from India an imminent affair.

The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian is divided into four books, each of which consists of a preface and four chapters. The first book is titled "Early Environment" and its four chapters are: 1) My Birth Place, 2) My Ancestral Place, 3) My Mother's Place and 4) England.

Over the years, the autobiography has acquired many distinguished admirers. Winston Churchill thought it one of the best books he had ever read, according to his daughter, Mary Soames. V. S. Naipaul remarked: "No better account of the penetration of the Indian mind by the West—and by extension, of the penetration of one culture by another—will be or now can be written." In 1998, it was included, as one of the few Indian contributions, in The New Oxford Book of English Prose.

title: The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian


text:
Bridge to nowhere

A bridge to nowhere is a bridge where one or both ends are broken, incomplete, or unconnected to any roads. If it is an overpass or an interchange, the term overpass to nowhere or interchange to nowhere may be used respectively.

Origins
There are five main origins for these bridges:
 * The bridge was never completed for reasons such as cost or disputed property rights.
 * One or both of the bridge's ends have collapsed or have been destroyed, for example, by earthquake, storm, flood, or war.
 * The bridge is no longer used, but was not demolished because of the cost; for example, the bridges on an abandoned railway line.
 * The bridge is completed, but the streets connecting the bridge are not completed.
 * The bridge or any other part of the construction can be regarded as a pork barrel project aimed at useless fund spending or money laundering with minor or negligible public usefulness.

Metaphoric use
The term "bridge to nowhere" may be used by political opponents to describe a bridge (or proposed bridge) that serves low-population areas at high cost, usually characterizing it as an instance of pork barrel spending.

By extension, it may refer to any undertaking perceived as both pointless and costly.

Argentina

 * The two-lane elevated concrete vehicle bridge across the Cosquin River in Cosquin, province of Cordoba, Argentina, that was intended to connect Calle Pedro Ortiz, to the west, to Avenida Capitan Aviador Omar Castillo, to the east, was never opened. The span of the bridge itself was complete, but it was never connected to the road system on either end, and the ends of the span remained blocked by steep piles of rubble.  In lieu of the elevated vehicle bridge, the small, low Onofre Marimon Bridge connected the two streets for small volumes of pedestrian traffic.  In 2020 it was finally connected at both ends and open to vehicle traffic, and the lower bridge was demolished. The remains of the bridge can still be seen at Puente Mercedes Sosa.

Belgium

 * Rue Emile Pathé/Emile Pathéstraat in Forest, Brussels (50.7996°N, 4.3067°W), was originally intended to be part of the southern arc of the R0 Brussels motorway ring, which was never built owing to opposition from local residents. It now functions mostly as a car park.

Bulgaria

 * Bulgaria's capital city of Sofia has a highspeed city bypass called Northern Speed Tangent, which upon completion had three bridges with two clover-style interchanges. These 3 bridges were build with the intention to connect the north neighbourhoods of Sofia, however since 2016, when the high speed bypass was built, they have not been connected to the city and are currently bridges to nowhere. Plans are being developed for finally connecting the bridges to the city proper, but due to constant changes and disputed between the local government and road agencies, these plans are frozen.

Canada

 * Port Nelson Bridge, an isolated rail bridge near Port Nelson, Manitoba. The connecting rail line was never finished due to labour and material shortages, a lack of financial or political support, and high cost. The envisioned port was also poorly designed and was found to require excessive dredging due to significant sand bars. The project was greatly criticized by several politicians (the media calling it a "gigantic blunder").
 * Ontario Highway 69 south of Ontario Highway 522 near Grundy Provincial Park. The 2 bridges are for the southbound and northbound lanes of the future Ontario Highway 400 connecting Greater Sudbury and Toronto.
 * Gaglardi Way in Burnaby, British Columbia, ended suddenly as an overpass of Highway 1 at the south end at just a forest, due to a residential subdivision beyond the point with two cloverleaf ramps that were blocked off, now removed along with the dead end peculiarity in the 2000's.

China

 * Yalu River Broken Bridge in Dandong. The south span was destroyed during the Korean War.
 * New Yalu River Bridge in Dandong. The US$330 million bridge was completed in 2015, but on the North Korean side it is not connected to the road network.
 * Nandu River Iron Bridge in Hainan is a partially collapsed, steel truss bridge over the Nandu River. It was built by the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War. In October 2000, flooding caused the collapse of the western part of the bridge, leaving three trusses.

Czech Republic

 * The Borovsko Bridge, an unfinished motorway bridge from the 1930s near Borovsko, part of Bernartice municipality, Central Bohemian Region.
 * There are several bridges to nowhere, started to be built as a part of extraterritorial highway Vienna-Wrocław (so-called "Hitler's highway"), which remain unfinished and unconnected to the road network.

France

 * Pont Saint-Bénézet in Avignon over the Rhône river. Several arches were broken by flood in the middle of the 17th century.
 * The viaduc du Caramel and viaduc du Carei of the former tramway line from Menton to Sospel.
 * The jetée from the Grande Arche de La Défense to the U Arena in Nanterre. Its final stairs are not to be completed.

Germany
The colloquial name for a bridge to nowhere in Germany is "Soda-Brücke" (a pun on "so da" = "just there"). Many of the bridges were built in the 1970s as part of the Autobahn network, but the oil crisis and rising environmental consciousness slowed many highway extensions.

 * The Bundesautobahn 66 had a bridge near Ahl (Bad Soden-Salmünster) built in 1966 that was not connected until 1994.
 * The bridge near Euskirchen was planned to be part of Autobahn 56. Construction was stopped, and the existing parts of the highway were renamed Bundesautobahn 562. (50.6775°N, 6.74833°W)
 * The bridge near Merklinde, a suburb of Castrop-Rauxel, was to be part of the B245 expressway and the "New Hellweg". The bridge was completed in 1978 but was never connected. (51.5374°N, 7.3391°W)
 * The Schänzlebrücke in Konstanz was built 1975 but not connected until 2007. (47.6701°N, 9.163°W)

Honduras

 * The Bridge of Rising Sun in Choluteca, completed in 1998, became a bridge to nowhere the same year when Hurricane Mitch hit Honduras. While the bridge itself survived with minor damage, the roads on either end got entirely washed away and the Choluteca River had carved itself a new channel on the side, leaving the bridge to span dry ground. It eventually got reconnected to the highway in 2003.

Hong Kong

 * In New Kowloon, a flyover used to connect Prince Edward Road East outside Regal Meridien Hotel to the old Kai Tak Airport (coded K72). The airport has since moved and been demolished, leaving the flyover unused, until a new offramp was built in 2020 to connect the K72 flyover to Olympic Avenue (Road D1) and opened to traffic in September 2021.
 * In Victoria City on Hong Kong Island, the western end of Connaught Road West Flyover (part of Route 4) was intended to be connected to the shelved Green Island Link and a trunk road along the southwestern coast of the island (previously numbered Route 7).
 * A flyover over Tsing Tsuen Interchange in Tsuen Wan, New Territories.
 * Railway viaducts to the northwest of Lai King station in southern Kwai Chung, New Territories, near Kwai Chung Park.

Hungary

 * A former railway bridge sits over the Váci út in Budapest. Its rail line was disconnected in the early 1990s, and the east side of the bridge was demolished to make room for new construction. (47.55498°N, 19.07561°W) A second bridge sits over a minor road on the same rail line to the southwest, and the former station is now a parking lot.

India

 * Broken bridge, in Chennai, South India, partly collapsed due to strong currents of the river in 1977 and has never been repaired.

Indonesia

 * An unused double-track concrete railway bridge over Ngaglik street in Surabaya. It was originally built for a proposed railway line that would connect Gubeng and Pasar Turi station on an elevated line. Due to economic crisis in the 1930s, which was followed by the Second World War, and lastly the Indonesian National Revolution, the project was never completed; the bridge stood as testimony of the forgotten project. (-7.24889°N, 112.75306°W)

Italy

 * The Pons Aemilius in Rome

Latvia

 * An isolated railway bridge in Tukums municipality over Abava river which was built for a planned railroad line Tukums-Kuldīga which was never finished due to the Second World War. (56.91245°N, 22.97607°W)

Nepal

 * The Bridge to Nowhere, being built, is an incomplete road bridge over the Daroudi River in Gorkha Municipality, meant to connect Nareshwor, Gorkha Municipality - 3 and Jarebar, Siranchowk Rural Municipality - 5.

New Zealand

 * The Bridge to Nowhere, built in 1936, is an isolated 40 m road bridge over the Mangapurua Stream in Whanganui National Park, North Island.

Norway

 * Eintveit Bridge, a 25 m-long two-lane road bridge in Etne municipality in Hordaland county, was completed in 1962 and was intended to be part of a road on the northwestern side of Åkrafjorden. But the road was never built, and the bridge has remained unused except occasionally by hikers. In 2014 broadcaster NRK organized the "opening" of the bridge. Two cars were flown in by helicopter and then drove across the bridge.

Philippines

 * The Loboc Bridge in the town of Loboc, Bohol. A steel and concrete bridge which commenced construction in the 1970s but was left unfinished allegedly due to opposition from the Loboc parishioners since the bridge might destroy the 400-year old Loboc Church.

Poland

 * Several structures on unfinished Olimpijka motorway. Its construction started in 1976 with the propaganda goal of completing it in time for the Moscow Olympics in 1980 (hence its unofficial name, as part of Berlin-Moscow connection). Because of the economic crisis which hit the country in the late 1970s and continued throughout the 1980s, only a small section was opened. Construction of another stretch resumed only in 2001, as a part of A2 motorway. Since 2010 the plan was to finish the whole link between the border with Germany and Warsaw, this time for the UEFA Euro 2012 football championships. This meant that weathered remains of 1970s structures had to be demolished in the 2010s.
 * Several structures on unfinished Berlinka, Nazi Germany's Reichsautobahn Berlin-Königsberg started in 1936. Some of them have been demolished as late as the 2010s.

Romania

 * Ciurel Bridge is an unfinished infrastructure project located in Bucharest, Romania. It gained significant attention and earned the nickname "Bridge to Nowhere" or "Bridge to Nothing" on social media. The construction was initiated as part of an expansion towards the A1 Highway, but the remaining section of the project, an 8.3-kilometer road, has not been built. Currently, the bridge only serves as a left turn and resolves the traffic issue for those traveling from Virtuții Road to Splaiul Independenței. Pro Infrastructura, an organization that monitors infrastructure projects, argues that the Bucharest City Hall should have made a decision regarding the continuation of the road to the A1 Highway, covering the distance of 8.3 kilometers. Without this connection, the Virtuții Junction (Ciurel Passage) does not effectively address the traffic congestion, as it was originally intended to alleviate the traffic on Iuliu Maniu Boulevard. Sorin Ioniță, an activist who has closely followed the project, criticized it, stating, "This passage will cross a T-intersection on a picturesque bridge with ramps, descend on the other side, and lead the cars to the exact same place as before, Virtuții Road. All at an impressive cost of over 400 million lei. This road passage in Sector 6 is probably the most useless and foolish investment in Romania since '89,". The construction of the passage began in 2010 and was initially scheduled for completion in December 2014. Delays in the project were caused by litigation and financial constraints.

Russia

 * A two-lane vehicle bridge in Pavlovsky Posad, completed in 2011, continues the minor Vachevskaya Street in the west across the Vokhna River. In the east, there is a dead end, as no vehicle road has been built there, with only a footpath branching off to another street. The bridge may become integrated into traffic once a new road tunnel under railway is completed nearby, and together they would replace a problematic level crossing. The bridge was open for vehicle traffic in July 2015.
 * A two-lane vehicle bridge in Porozovo, completed at the end of the 20th century. (57.5042°N, 42.0859°W)

Slovakia

 * Viaduct in Kopráš, a never-used railway viaduct in the village of Kopráš near the town of Jelšava in south Slovakia. The viaduct is 120 m long and 40 m high. It was finished in 1945 but was never used, because the railway to the viaduct was never completed due to the events of World War II. Next to the viaduct are two finished tunnels without any connection to railways. The tunnel near the village of Slavošovce is 2800 m long, and the tunnel near Kopráš is 350 m long. These tunnels to nowhere were also never used, because railway construction ended in 1948 before its completion.

Spain

 * Bridge to Nowhere in San Martín de la Vega (built 1933, originally projected in 1926). It was damaged in March 1947 after severe flooding, and it was never repaired. Nowadays only a few sections of it stay in place, and the surroundings are now a recreational site. (40.23025°N, -3.54404°W)

Taiwan

 * The Longteng Bridge was a brick arch bridge in Sanyi Township that carried the TRA Old Mountain Line. The 1935 Shinchiku-Taichū Earthquake caused all arches to fall, leaving behind the piers. The 1999 Jiji Earthquake further damaged the piers, which made the government preserve the ruins as a monument to the two earthquakes. It is currently a popular tourist attraction, especially during tung flower season in April to May.

United Kingdom

 * Blandford Forum former railway bridge.
 * Bewley Street Footbridge, in Colliers Wood, London, constructed in 2007, was blocked off at one end due to a dispute over the cost of building an access ramp. The ramp was finally completed in June 2015 and renamed "Gam Gurung Bridge" after a local councillor.
 * Duddeston Viaduct, a railway viaduct in Birmingham commonly known as the "Viaduct to Nowhere", built as a through route in 1846 but never used as such due to inter-company politics. 52.4747°N, -1.8804°W
 * The Lichfield Canal Aqueduct built in 2003 in anticipation of the eventual restoration of the Lichfield Canal over the M6 Toll in Staffordshire.
 * The Mancunian Way – the A57(M) – in Manchester has a length of unused slip road (53.472°N, -2.2362°W) blocked off by a traffic sign, after modifications to local streets to accept traffic from the road (A34) were not carried out.
 * Unknown bridge with unused slip road over the A120 east of Colchester, Essex 51.8916°N, 1.0117°W
 * Barracks Road and Cavalry Street bridges north of the A671 Westway in Burnley, Lancashire, cross the East Lancashire railway line and were stopped up at both ends following the construction of the M65 in 1981.
 * An abandoned highway bridge at 51.279°N, -0.15465°W. It was planned for the M23 to extended further north from its abrupt ending as part of the London Ringways scheme. Some of the southern end is still accessible and used as a depot for highway maintenance, but most of it is fenced off, notably when the A23 and open M23 pass under wide bridges.
 * One part of the Borough Road, Birkenhead A5227 flyover adjoining to Queensway Tunnel is incomplete.
 * M8 Bridge to Nowhere, two separate bridges over the M8 motorway in Glasgow: one eventually had an office block constructed on it; the other, originally built in the 1970s, remained unfinished until July 2013.
 * A stub protruding from a road bridge across the A1020 around Beckton which forms part of a southbound exit. It was planned to be part of a cancelled approach to the East London River Crossing.

United States

 * Arboretum "ghost ramps" (built 1960s), a set of ramps and bridges south of Marsh Island near Portage Bay in Seattle that were intended to be an interchange from Washington State Route 520 and the proposed R. H. Thomson Expressway. When plans for the expressway were scrapped following a citizens' freeway revolt, the interchange ramps and bridges remained in place and are mostly unused. On January 31, 2013, Washington state announced that the ghost ramps would be removed sometime between 2014 and 2016. They were finally demolished in 2017, despite calls to preserve them in memory of the protests that cancelled the expressway project.
 * Big Four Bridge (built 1895), a 770 m single-track railroad bridge over the Ohio River in Louisville, Kentucky, which was abandoned in 1968 and had both its approach spans removed and sold for scrap the following year. In February 2013, the bridge was reopened on one end for pedestrian and bicycle traffic. In May 2014, the Jeffersonville, Indiana, ramp opened, allowing pedestrians and cyclists to travel between downtown Jeffersonville and Waterfront Park in Louisville.
 * Bridge to Nowhere (San Gabriel Mountains) (built 1936), an isolated road bridge over the San Gabriel River in southern California. The connecting road was never built. The bridge is a popular destination for hikers.
 * A pair of unused overpasses near what is now the southern terminus of Connecticut State Route 11. These bridges were built as part of the original plan for Route 11, which would have seen it extend further south to I-95 in New London.  Construction was halted in 1972 due to lack of funding.
 * Fort Duquesne Bridge (built 1963), a road bridge over the Allegheny River in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which ended mid-air until the ramps were completed in 1969.
 * Miles Glacier Bridge (built 1910), also known as the "Million Dollar Bridge", was converted from railroad use to motor vehicle use; It is at the northern end of the unfinished Copper River Highway near Cordova, Alaska. Construction stopped in 1964 when an earthquake damaged the 472 m bridge. Although since repaired and reopened, the bridge is nonetheless currently of limited utility due to damage at other points along the route.
 * Hoan Bridge (built 1973), a 3 km road bridge over the Milwaukee River in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, which was unused until access roads were completed in 1977, was lacking freeway connections at the southern end until 1998, and was "going nowhere again" for two months while closed for major repairs after a span partially collapsed in December 2000.
 * Mebane's Bridge is a road bridge over the Dan River in Rockingham County on the outskirts of the town of Eden, North Carolina, which was at the center of the landmark Luten Bridge Co. vs. Rockingham County lawsuit that made jurisprudence in 1929 when the contractor continued work on it well after the contract to build it was rescinded and subsequently sued to be reimbursed for this work.
 * Pier 19 (demolished 2012) of a proposed second span of the Ambassador Bridge connecting Windsor, Ontario, and Detroit, Michigan. No second span had ever been approved for this privately owned bridge, largely because the proposal would dump excessive traffic onto Windsor city surface streets, but its owners built ramps for the proposed span in an attempt to counter an internationally supported proposal for a Detroit River International Crossing to the Windsor-Essex Parkway further downriver. The unauthorized ramp was removed in 2012 by court order.
 * An interchange on US 160 southeast of Durango, Colorado completed in November 2011. The bridge was intended to connect to a relocated US 550, but disputes arose over the new US 550 alignment's potential effect on wetlands, archaeological sites, and property fragmentation. The Colorado Department of Transportation signed an agreement with the Federal Highway Administration in spring 2015 regarding the final alignment of US 550, and is now seeking construction funding.
 * The San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge bicycle and pedestrian path was opened in September 2013, but was only connected on the Oakland end of the bridge. In October 2016, the connection to Yerba Buena Island was opened, but there is no bicycle or pedestrian access across the western portion of the Bay Bridge to San Francisco.
 * The Christine West Bridge on the King Coal Highway in Bluefield, West Virginia was built with two parallel high-level spans in 2009 but never connected on either end.
 * Near Greenville, Mississippi, there are several bridges to nowhere for the US 82 bypass that was built before construction halted for years before resuming in 2022.

Australia

 * John Pirie Bridge in Port Pirie was built in the 1970s to encourage development of industry on the other side of Port Pirie Creek. No development ensued; the bridge leads only to a few gravel roads otherwise unconnected.

Canada

 * In Jasper National Park, Alberta, at the outlet of Maligne Lake, there is a bridge that crosses the outlet river and proceeds about 300 m to a parking lot and several hiking trails and a boat launch. The bridge cost millions of dollars to build and was part of a proposed route through the mountains that was never completed.
 * In the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo, north-eastern Alberta, the Peter Lougheed Bridge crosses the Athabasca River, servicing industrial work sites and leading to the start of the winter road to Fort Chipewyan. Nicknamed the bridge to nowhere due to lack of development at the time of construction.

Ireland

 * The Harry Blaney Bridge in County Donegal spans 340 m and spans Mulroy Bay, connecting the Fanad and Rosguill peninsulas. Opened in 2009 at a cost of €20 million, it was criticised as a bridge to nowhere due to the low population of the area (less than 3,000 on the two peninsulas). Supporters cited the tourism potential of linking the two areas.  In 2014, local paper The Donegal Daily admitted that the bridge was "still rarely used."

Malaysia

 * The Bunting Island Bridge in Yan district, Kedah. The 2.3 km bridge that connect from mainland to an uninhabited Bunting Island. Build around 2002–2005, the bridge cost MYR120 million.

Malta

 * The St Elmo Bridge leads from the foreshore of Valletta to the breakwater at the entrance of the Grand Harbour. Critics disapproved of the construction cost of €2.8 million and have called it a "bridge to nowhere".

Russia

 * The Russky Bridge in Vladivostok was criticised as a "bridge to nowhere", costing about one billion US dollars and serving an island where only 5,000 people live.
 * A four-lane vehicle overpass across the Moscow Ring Road at kilometer 83 (sometimes called the Molokovsky Overpass) continues Molokova Street in the Lianozovo District of Moscow outside the city. Molokova Street is in a gated community with only local traffic allowed; at the other end, the bridge serves only the Lianozovo Cemetery with a small parking lot next to it, coming to a dead end before a forest. As a result, the overpass only receives significant traffic on prayer for the dead days such as Saturday of Souls.

United States

 * In 1998, the Admiral Clarey Bridge, Hawaii, connected Ford Island to the Kamehameha Highway and was called the "bridge to nowhere" because of the considerable costs required to connect 45 families to O'ahu.
 * In 2005, the United States Congress passed an omnibus spending bill that contained a $442 million earmark for constructing two Alaskan bridges. Pushed forward by Alaska Representative Don Young and Senator Ted Stevens, the Gravina Island Bridge was intended to provide a link between the Ketchikan airport on Gravina Island and the city of Ketchikan at a cost of $233 million in federal grant money. It received nationwide attention as a symbol of pork-barrel spending. Since Gravina Island only had a population of 50, the bridge became known as the "Bridge to Nowhere" during the run-up to the 2008 presidential election.
 * In 2014, Alaska's longest bridge, the Tanana River Bridge, was completed across the Tanana River at a cost of $187 million. The 3,300 feet (1,000 m) long bridge consists of a 12 ft wide gravel path that connects a gravel spur road off the Richardson Highway near Salcha, Alaska, to the roadless Tanana Flats. The bridge will be almost exclusively for military use with limited access for hunting license holders. Due to the current lack of infrastructure in the Tanana Flats and the ongoing uncertainty in Department of Defense spending, there may be limited use of the bridge.

Canada

 * Ontario Highway 548 in Canada has a short stub of roadway (with double-yellow line still visible) next to a more recent bridge approach.
 * The former Bay of Quinte Railway mainline in Napanee (acquired by the now-defunct Canadian Northern Railway in 1910, extended to a Smiths Falls station but abandoned by the late 1970s) still has an Ontario Highway 401 overpass. The rail overpass served a Goodyear tyre factory across the highway until the track was disconnected at Napanee station in 2010; it now goes nowhere. A bascule bridge on the same defunct line crosses the UNESCO-listed Rideau Canal at Smiths Falls, Ontario; that rail bridge sits permanently opened to marine traffic but is protected as part of a listed historic site.
 * CN's Lachine Canal Swing Bridge in Montreal, Canada, an abandoned railway bridge that has been left in the 'open' position in the middle of the Lachine Canal between its successor rail bridge and the Wellington Bridge.
 * The Michigan Central Railway Bridge over the Niagara Gorge between Niagara Falls, Ontario and Niagara Falls, New York, owned by Canadian Pacific Kansas City, carried a single railway track until 2001. The tracks on either side of the bridge have since been entirely removed and the bridge itself is fenced off on the ends as well as walled off in the middle.

United Arab Emirates

 * In the United Arab Emirates, a suspension bridge links Abu Dhabi city and Hodariyat island. The bridge was opened in 2012, but vehicles are not allowed to use it. It appeared to be a waste of money. Recently the bridge has opened; the approach road has been extended on the island, and a parking lot has been paved. There are also some small cafes there.

United States

 * The Abandoned Pennsylvania Turnpike features several bridges that are no longer used for their intended purpose of vehicular traffic, but are still used by pedestrians and cyclists. The Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission demolished two of the bridges in 2005, one over US 30 in Breezewood, Pennsylvania and the other further east on Pump Station Road, partially to mark the property lines between the PTC-owned sections that still connect to the active mainline Pennsylvania Turnpike and the section that was sold off to Southern Alleghenies Conservancy in 2001, the latter of which owns the section that features the Rays Hill and Sideling Hill Tunnels.
 * The Illinois Central Missouri River Bridge between Omaha, Nebraska and Council Bluffs, Iowa is a disused double-swing railroad bridge. Closed to rail traffic in 1980, the eastern span was secured in the open position to allow for unimpeded river traffic. Initially, the bridge was planned to be used as a contingency should issues affect the Union Pacific Missouri River Bridge approximately 2 mi to the south, but the rails that formed the approach on the Iowa side were removed in the mid-2000s.
 * A bridge that once carried West Mound Street over I-70/I-71 in Columbus, Ohio was abandoned in the 1990s due to redevelopment projects that left West Mound Street with two discontinuous sections. The bridge subsequently became a homeless camp before being cleared by the city of Columbus for safety reasons. The bridge is slated to be demolished in 2022 by ODOT without a replacement as part of a widening project of the I-70/I-71 corridor in Downtown Columbus.
 * McPhaul Suspension Bridge, in Arizona, United States.
 * Crook Point Bascule Bridge, in Providence, Rhode Island.

Bridges originally criticized as "a bridge to nowhere"

 * Vincent Thomas Bridge (built 1963), a 1.85 km road bridge over Los Angeles Harbor in California, originally dubbed a "bridge to nowhere" later became a heavily used bridge.

title: Bridge to nowhere


text:
Talk:Bridge to nowhere

2003 comment
Spelling on this page is accurate, even tho there are variations such as Whanganui and Wanganui, and Maungapurua (official name today) and Mangapurua (in quoted text, name from old maps). Moriori 20:33, 6 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Knik Arm Bridge
I don't see how the Knik Arm Bridge falls under the defition of "Bridge to Nowhere." Seeing as it would connect Alaska's two most densely populated areas together. And according to their website they have roads already built at either end of the proposed site. "Bridge to nowhere" is a label used to attack the credibility of the bridge. (Dbcraft (talk) 17:19, 29 January 2008 (UTC))

No Mention of THE Bridge?
No mention of Palin's bridge to nowhere? This page is probably getting thousands of hits a day, like mine just now. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 166.135.238.225 (talk) 15:07, 9 September 2008 (UTC)

 * That would be the Gravina Island Bridge AlexWangombe (talk) 04:38, 10 September 2008 (UTC)

Primary topic is Gravina Island Bridge?
It seems like the primary topic here is Gravina Island Bridge. I think this page should be moved to Bridge to Nowhere (disambiguation) and this should be turned into a redirect for Gravina Island Bridge. What does everyone else think? Is there another article that would make this not the clear primary topic? Thanks, — sligocki (talk) 07:00, 20 December 2010 (UTC)

There are more bridges leading to Nowhere
I think the content is too much of the English speaking countries. In the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, France and many other countries are many other bridges leading (from nowhere) to nowhere. By having a look at the Grote nutteloze werken you'll find some photos and discriptions. Given countries are just examples. Dqfn13 (talk) 12:06, 3 January 2012 (UTC)

 * There are a lot of American ones missing, too. (I can think of multiple on local freeways, for example.)  I think this is just a very common thing and only structures notable enough to have Wikipedia pages will be listed.  That inherently biases matters toward English-speaking countries. Calbaer (talk) 19:50, 24 April 2017 (UTC)

Split Articles
To me, it seems that this article is a combination of two topics that are almost completely unrelated: I suggest that we split this into two separate articles. henry42 (talk) 02:20, 23 September 2013 (UTC)
 * 1) Literal bridges to nowhere,
 * 2) Pork barrel spending in the form of bridges and similar projects that only benefit a small number of people.

Guthrie Theater & Kirk Essary
I can find no record of Guthrie Theater director Kirk Essary or this tunnel. — Preceding unsigned comment added by JRioBales (talk • contribs) 17:39, 7 May 2016 (UTC)

Recent edits
A particular user seems very obsessed with undoing my edits. First, I've been told that blogs were not to be used. So I've changed it. Now, he's undid the edits again, with no explanations provided. What is your frigging problem, dude? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.26.123.208 (talk) 06:43, 7 February 2017 (UTC)

Itz
I removed the Itztalbrücke because it is not a bridge to nowhere. Construction on the rail line continues apace, and the opening is now expected in a couple of months, December 2017. Listing a bridge built before the end of the construction of the project they are part of is just wrong. They can not possibly be considered bridges to nowhere in the sense of this article, as long as construction is ongoing. There was a 4-5 year pause in construction of this rail line, during which it was not clear if the project would ever be completed, but construction resumed 15 years ago. Nick Beeson (talk) 22:47, 16 September 2017 (UTC)

Brantwood Dr Overpass
Reason for the unused bridge is due to an local ordinance where the affluent residents of the neighborhood petitioned against it

Bridge in Pavlovskiy Posad (Павловский посад)
East end of bridge going to Frunze st. (ул. Фрунзе) with turn to Ordzhonikdze st. (ул. Орджоникидзе). Look here! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.117.125.72 (talk) 18:04, 12 October 2018 (UTC)

items without reference
This article is becoming an empty list - too many unsourced items that may or may not actually be bridges to nowhere. I would urge removing all those without a reference and requiring references for all additions. Any thoughts? - DavidWBrooks (talk) 21:53, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

First use of expression?
This article doesn't address the origin of this now-common phrase. Numerous articles around the Web tie it to Alaska or other nominally real-life situations.

Earliest use I've encountered is by James Blish in his 1952 SF story "Bridge" - later to become part of his classic Cities in Flight series. Can someone find an earlier citation? Is this worth mentioning in the article? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Cteno (talk • contribs) 19:20, 21 July 2021 (UTC)

Link to nowhere
Why are the words Christine West Bridge a link if when you click on them, it says the page has not been created yet? This is the second time today that I have found this same issue of a link to nowhere. Wikipedia, please stop doing that. If it isn't a page yet stop making it a link like it is Bucky winter soldier (talk) 15:15, 5 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bridge to nowhere


text:
Sigma 7

Sigma 7 may refer to:
 * the callsign of the spacecraft used in the 1962 Mercury-Atlas 8 mission
 * the SDS Sigma 7 computer, made by Scientific Data Systems (SDS), later known as Xerox Data Systems (XDS)
 * Sigma Seven, a Japanese company
 * Sigma 7 (video game), 1987 computer game by Durell Software
 * Sigma 7 AC servo drive series from Yaskawa Electric Corporation

title: Sigma 7


text:
Cytoluminescent therapy

Cytoluminescent Therapy is a proposed cancer treatment as a form of Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) characterized by a photosensitiser that is supposedly eliminated from normal tissue but selectively accumulated in neoplastic and dysplastic tissue. This is followed by whole body irradiation with light of the specific wave length which activates the photosensitiser. The result is supposed to be selective damage or elimination of tumor cells while normal tissues are unharmed. However, tests as of 2003 did not show any positive clinical effects in a group of 48 patients treated in this way.

The original providers of CLT in Killaloe, Ireland, are no longer performing the treatment. Much of their claims of effectiveness were based upon anecdotal reports, not research. In fact, the wavelength of light used to active the chlorophyll-derived photosensitizer used in CLT is incapable of penetrating tissue more than several millimeters. The FDA-approved therapy PDT uses red light (wavelength approximately 600-700 nm) and penetrates human tissue up to 2 centimeters. No wavelength can fully penetrate the human body, as the purveyors of CLT claimed.

title: Cytoluminescent therapy


text:
Augustus Toplady

Augustus Montague Toplady (4 November 1740 – 11 August 1778) was an Anglican cleric and hymn writer. He was a major Calvinist opponent of John Wesley. He is best remembered as the author of the hymn "Rock of Ages". Three of his other hymns – "A Debtor to Mercy Alone", "Deathless Principle, Arise" and "Object of My First Desire" – are still occasionally sung today.

Background and early life, 1740–55
Augustus Toplady was born in Farnham, Surrey, England in November 1740. His father, Richard Toplady, was probably from Enniscorthy, County Wexford in Ireland. Richard Toplady became a commissioned officer in the Royal Marines in 1739; by the time of his death, he had reached the rank of major. In May 1741, shortly after Augustus' birth, Richard participated in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias (1741), the most significant battle of the War of Jenkins' Ear (1739–42), during the course of which he died, most likely of yellow fever, leaving Augustus' mother to raise the boy alone.

Toplady's mother, Catherine, was the daughter of Richard Bate, who was the incumbent of Chilham from 1711 until his death in 1736. Catherine and her son moved from Farnham to Westminster. He attended Westminster School from 1750 to 1755.

Trinity College, Dublin: 1755–60
In 1755, Catherine and Augustus moved to Ireland, and Augustus was enrolled in Trinity College Dublin.

Shortly thereafter, in August 1755, the 15-year-old Toplady attended a sermon preached by James Morris, a follower of John Wesley, in a barn in Codymain, co. Wexford (though in his Dying Avowal, Toplady denies that the preacher was directly connected to Wesley, with whom he had developed a bitter relationship). He would remember this sermon as the time at which he received his effectual calling from God.

Toplady underwent a religious awakening in August 1755, "but not, as has been falsely reported, under Mr. John Wesley, or any preacher connected with him". In his own diary, he wrote "I was awakened in the month of August, 1755, but not, as has been falsely reported, under Mr. John Wesley, or any preacher connected with him. Thought awakened in 1755. I was not led into a full and clear view of all the doctrines of grace, till the year 1758, when, through the great goodness of God, my Arminian prejudices received an effectual shock, in reading Dr. Manton’s Sermons on the 17th of St. John".

In 1759, Toplady published his first book, Poems on Sacred Subjects.

Following his graduation from Trinity College in 1760, Toplady and his mother returned to Westminster. There, Toplady met and was influenced by several prominent Calvinist ministers, including George Whitefield, John Gill, and William Romaine. It was John Gill who in 1760 urged Toplady to publish his translation of Zanchius's work on predestination, Toplady commenting that "I was not then, however, sufficiently delivered from the fear of man."

Church ministry: 1762–78
In 1762, Edward Willes, the Bishop of Bath and Wells, ordained Toplady as an Anglican deacon, appointing him curate of Blagdon, located in the Mendip Hills of Somerset.

Toplady wrote his famous hymn Rock of Ages in 1763. A local tradition – discounted by most historians – holds that he wrote the hymn after seeking shelter under a large rock at Burrington Combe, a magnificent ravine close to Blagdon, during a thunderstorm.

Upon being ordained priest in 1764, Toplady returned to London briefly, and then served as curate of Farleigh Hungerford for a little over a year (1764–65). He then returned to stay with friends in London for 1765–66.

In May 1766, he became incumbent of Harpford and Venn Ottery, two villages in Devon. In 1768, however, he learned that he had been named to this incumbency because it had been purchased for him; seeing this as simony, he chose to exchange the incumbency for the post of vicar of Broadhembury, another Devon village. He would serve as vicar of Broadhembury until his death, although he received leave to be absent from Broadhembury from 1775 on.

Toplady never married, though he did maintain friendships with two women. The first was Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon, the founder of the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion, a Calvinist Methodist series of congregations. Toplady first met Huntingdon in 1763, and preached in her chapels several times in 1775 during his absence from Broadhembury. The second was Catharine Macaulay, whom he first met in 1773, and with whom he spent a large amount of time in the years 1773–77.

Animals and Natural World
Toplady was a prolific essayist and letter correspondent and wrote on a wide range of topics. He was interested in the natural world and in animals. He composed a short work Sketch of Natural History, with a few particulars on Birds, Meteors, Sagacity of Brutes, and the solar system, wherein he set down his observations about the marvels of nature, including the behaviour of birds, and illustrations of wise actions on the part of various animals. Toplady also considered the problem of evil as it relates to the sufferings of animals in A Short Essay on Original Sin, and in a public debate delivered a speech on Whether unnecessary cruelty to the brute creation is not criminal?. In this speech he repudiated brutality towards animals and also affirmed his belief that the Scriptures point to the resurrection of animals. Toplady's position about animal brutality and the resurrection were echoed by his contemporaries Joseph Butler, Richard Dean, Humphry Primatt and John Wesley, and throughout the nineteenth century other Christian writers such as Joseph Hamilton, George Hawkins Pember, George N. H. Peters, Joseph Seiss, and James Macauley developed the arguments in more detail in the context of the debates about animal welfare, animal rights and vivisection.

Calvinist controversialist: 1769–78
Toplady's first salvo into the world of religious controversy came in 1769 when he wrote a book in response to a situation at the University of Oxford. Six students had been expelled from St Edmund Hall because of their Calvinist views, which Thomas Nowell criticised as inconsistent with the views of the Church of England. Toplady then criticised Nowell's position in his book The Church of England Vindicated from the Charge of Arminianism, which argued that Calvinism, not Arminianism, was the position historically held by the Church of England.

1769 also saw Toplady publish his translation of Zanchius's Confession of the Christian Religion (1562), one of the works which had convinced Toplady to become a Calvinist in 1758. Toplady entitled his translation The Doctrine of Absolute Predestination Stated and Asserted. This work drew a vehement response from John Wesley, thus initiating a protracted pamphlet debate between Toplady and Wesley about whether the Church of England was historically Calvinist or Arminian. This debate peaked in 1774, when Toplady published his 700-page The Historic Proof of the Doctrinal Calvinism of the Church of England, a massive study which traced the doctrine of predestination from the period of the Early Church through to William Laud. The section about the Synod of Dort contained a footnote identifying five basic propositions of the Calvinist faith, arguably the first appearance in print of the summary of Calvinism known as the five points of Calvinism.

The relationship between Toplady and Wesley that had initially been cordial, involving exchanges of letters in Toplady's Arminian days, became increasingly bitter and reached its nadir with the "Zanchy affair". Wesley took exception to the publication of Toplady's translation of Zanchius's work on predestination in 1769 and published, in turn, an abridgment of that work titled The Doctrine of Absolute Predestination Stated and Asserted, adding his own comment that "The sum of all is this: One in twenty (suppose) of mankind are elected; nineteen in twenty are reprobated. The elect shall be saved, do what they will; the reprobate will be damned, do what they can. Reader believe this, or be damned. Witness my hand." Toplady viewed the abridgment and comments as a distortion of his and Zanchius's views and was particularly enraged that the authorship of these additions was attributed to him, as though he approved of the content.

Toplady published a response in the form of A Letter to the Rev Mr John Wesley; Relative to His Pretended Abridgement of Zanchius on Predestination. Wesley never publicly accepted any wrongdoing on his part and seemingly denied his authorship of the comments contained in his abridgement when, in his 1771 work The Consequence Proved that responded to Toplady's letter, he ascribed his additions to Toplady. Subsequently, Wesley avoided direct correspondence with Toplady, famously stating in a letter of 24 June 1770 that "I do not fight with chimney-sweepers. He is too dirty a writer for me to meddle with. I should only foul my fingers. I read his title-page, and troubled myself no farther. I leave him to Mr Sellon. He cannot be in better hands."

Last years
Toplady spent his last three years mainly in London, preaching regularly in a French Calvinist chapel at Orange Street (off of Haymarket), most spectacularly in 1778, when he appeared to rebut charges being made by Wesley's followers that he had renounced Calvinism on his deathbed.

Toplady died of tuberculosis on 11 August 1778. He was buried at Whitefield's Tabernacle, Tottenham Court Road.

Hymns

 * A Debtor To Mercy Alone n. 7 in The Believers Hymn Book
 * Compared with Christ, in all beside n. 760 in The Church Hymn book 1872 (1772)
 * Deathless spirit, now arise n. 1381 in The Church Hymn book 1872 (1776)
 * Holy Ghost, dispel our sadness n. 80 in The Church Hymn book 1872 (1776). Modernising of John Christian Jacobi's translation (1725) of Paul Gerhardts hymn from 1653.
 * How happy are the souls above n. 1434 in The Church Hymn book 1872 (1776) (? A. M. Topladys text)
 * Inspirer and hearer of prayer n. 30 in The Church Hymn book 1872 (1774)
 * O thou, that hear'st the prayer of faith n. 642 in The Church Hymn book 1872 (1176)
 * Praise the Lord, who reigns above n. 160 in The Church Hymn book 1872 (1759)
 * Rock of ages, cleft for me n. 697 in The Church Hymn book 1872 (1776)
 * Surely Christ thy griefs hath borne n. 443 in The Church Hymn book 1872 (1759)
 * What, though my frail eye-lids refuse n. 29 in The Church Hymn book 1872 (1774)
 * When langour and disease invade n. 1032 in The Church Hymn book 1872 (1778)
 * Your harps, ye trembling saints n. 861 in The Church Hymn book 1872 (1772)

title: Augustus Toplady


text:
Random graph

In mathematics, random graph is the general term to refer to probability distributions over graphs. Random graphs may be described simply by a probability distribution, or by a random process which generates them. The theory of random graphs lies at the intersection between graph theory and probability theory. From a mathematical perspective, random graphs are used to answer questions about the properties of typical graphs. Its practical applications are found in all areas in which complex networks need to be modeled – many random graph models are thus known, mirroring the diverse types of complex networks encountered in different areas. In a mathematical context, random graph refers almost exclusively to the Erdős–Rényi random graph model. In other contexts, any graph model may be referred to as a random graph.

Models
A random graph is obtained by starting with a set of n isolated vertices and adding successive edges between them at random. The aim of the study in this field is to determine at what stage a particular property of the graph is likely to arise. Different random graph models produce different probability distributions on graphs. Most commonly studied is the one proposed by Edgar Gilbert, denoted G(n,p), in which every possible edge occurs independently with probability 0 < p < 1. The probability of obtaining any one particular random graph with m edges is $$p^m (1-p)^{N-m}$$ with the notation $$N = \tbinom{n}{2}$$.

A closely related model, the Erdős–Rényi model denoted G(n,M), assigns equal probability to all graphs with exactly M edges. With 0 ≤ M ≤ N, G(n,M) has $$\tbinom{N}{M}$$ elements and every element occurs with probability $$1/\tbinom{N}{M}$$. The latter model can be viewed as a snapshot at a particular time (M) of the random graph process $$\tilde{G}_n$$, which is a stochastic process that starts with n vertices and no edges, and at each step adds one new edge chosen uniformly from the set of missing edges.

If instead we start with an infinite set of vertices, and again let every possible edge occur independently with probability 0 < p < 1, then we get an object G called an infinite random graph. Except in the trivial cases when p is 0 or 1, such a G almost surely has the following property:

"Given any n + m elements $a_1,\ldots, a_n,b_1,\ldots, b_m \in V$, there is a vertex c in V that is adjacent to each of $a_1,\ldots, a_n$ and is not adjacent to any of $b_1,\ldots, b_m$."

It turns out that if the vertex set is countable then there is, up to isomorphism, only a single graph with this property, namely the Rado graph. Thus any countably infinite random graph is almost surely the Rado graph, which for this reason is sometimes called simply the random graph. However, the analogous result is not true for uncountable graphs, of which there are many (nonisomorphic) graphs satisfying the above property.

Another model, which generalizes Gilbert's random graph model, is the random dot-product model. A random dot-product graph associates with each vertex a real vector. The probability of an edge uv between any vertices u and v is some function of the dot product u • v of their respective vectors.

The network probability matrix models random graphs through edge probabilities, which represent the probability $$p_{i,j}$$ that a given edge $$e_{i,j}$$ exists for a specified time period. This model is extensible to directed and undirected; weighted and unweighted; and static or dynamic graphs structure.

For M ≃ pN, where N is the maximal number of edges possible, the two most widely used models, G(n,M) and G(n,p), are almost interchangeable.

Random regular graphs form a special case, with properties that may differ from random graphs in general.

Once we have a model of random graphs, every function on graphs, becomes a random variable. The study of this model is to determine if, or at least estimate the probability that, a property may occur.

Terminology
The term 'almost every' in the context of random graphs refers to a sequence of spaces and probabilities, such that the error probabilities tend to zero.

Properties
The theory of random graphs studies typical properties of random graphs, those that hold with high probability for graphs drawn from a particular distribution. For example, we might ask for a given value of $$n$$ and $$p$$ what the probability is that $$G(n,p)$$ is connected. In studying such questions, researchers often concentrate on the asymptotic behavior of random graphs—the values that various probabilities converge to as $$n$$ grows very large. Percolation theory characterizes the connectedness of random graphs, especially infinitely large ones.

Percolation is related to the robustness of the graph (called also network). Given a random graph of $$n$$ nodes and an average degree $$\langle k\rangle$$. Next we remove randomly a fraction $$1-p$$ of nodes and leave only a fraction $$p$$. There exists a critical percolation threshold $$p_c=\tfrac{1}{\langle k\rangle}$$ below which the network becomes fragmented while above $$p_c$$ a giant connected component exists.

Localized percolation refers to removing a node its neighbors, next nearest neighbors etc. until a fraction of $$1-p$$ of nodes from the network is removed. It was shown that for random graph with Poisson distribution of degrees $$p_c=\tfrac{1}{\langle k\rangle}$$ exactly as for random removal.

Random graphs are widely used in the probabilistic method, where one tries to prove the existence of graphs with certain properties. The existence of a property on a random graph can often imply, via the Szemerédi regularity lemma, the existence of that property on almost all graphs.

In random regular graphs, $$G(n,r-reg)$$ are the set of $$r$$-regular graphs with $$r = r(n)$$ such that $$n$$ and $$m$$ are the natural numbers, $$3 \le r < n$$, and $$rn = 2m$$ is even.

The degree sequence of a graph $$G$$ in $$G^n$$ depends only on the number of edges in the sets
 * $$V_n^{(2)} = \left \{ij \ : \ 1 \leq j \leq n, i \neq j \right \} \subset V^{(2)}, \qquad i=1, \cdots, n.$$

If edges, $$M$$ in a random graph, $$G_M$$ is large enough to ensure that almost every $$G_M$$ has minimum degree at least 1, then almost every $$G_M$$ is connected and, if $$n$$ is even, almost every $$G_M$$ has a perfect matching. In particular, the moment the last isolated vertex vanishes in almost every random graph, the graph becomes connected.

Almost every graph process on an even number of vertices with the edge raising the minimum degree to 1 or a random graph with slightly more than $$\tfrac{n}{4}\log(n)$$ edges and with probability close to 1 ensures that the graph has a complete matching, with exception of at most one vertex.

For some constant $$c$$, almost every labeled graph with $$n$$ vertices and at least $$cn\log(n)$$ edges is Hamiltonian. With the probability tending to 1, the particular edge that increases the minimum degree to 2 makes the graph Hamiltonian.

Properties of random graph may change or remain invariant under graph transformations. Mashaghi A. et al., for example, demonstrated that a transformation which converts random graphs to their edge-dual graphs (or line graphs) produces an ensemble of graphs with nearly the same degree distribution, but with degree correlations and a significantly higher clustering coefficient.

Colouring
Given a random graph G of order n with the vertex V(G) = {1, ..., n}, by the greedy algorithm on the number of colors, the vertices can be colored with colors 1, 2, ... (vertex 1 is colored 1, vertex 2 is colored 1 if it is not adjacent to vertex 1, otherwise it is colored 2, etc.). The number of proper colorings of random graphs given a number of q colors, called its chromatic polynomial, remains unknown so far. The scaling of zeros of the chromatic polynomial of random graphs with parameters n and the number of edges m or the connection probability p has been studied empirically using an algorithm based on symbolic pattern matching.

Random trees
A random tree is a tree or arborescence that is formed by a stochastic process. In a large range of random graphs of order n and size M(n) the distribution of the number of tree components of order k is asymptotically Poisson. Types of random trees include uniform spanning tree, random minimal spanning tree, random binary tree, treap, rapidly exploring random tree, Brownian tree, and random forest.

Conditional random graphs
Consider a given random graph model defined on the probability space $$(\Omega, \mathcal{F}, P)$$ and let $$\mathcal{P}(G) : \Omega \rightarrow R^{m}$$ be a real valued function which assigns to each graph in $$\Omega$$ a vector of m properties. For a fixed $$\mathbf{p} \in R^{m}$$, conditional random graphs are models in which the probability measure $$P$$ assigns zero probability to all graphs such that '$$\mathcal{P}(G) \neq \mathbf{p} $$.

Special cases are conditionally uniform random graphs, where $$P$$ assigns equal probability to all the graphs having specified properties. They can be seen as a generalization of the Erdős–Rényi model G(n,M), when the conditioning information is not necessarily the number of edges M, but whatever other arbitrary graph property $$\mathcal{P}(G)$$. In this case very few analytical results are available and simulation is required to obtain empirical distributions of average properties.

History
The earliest use of a random graph model was by Helen Hall Jennings and Jacob Moreno in 1938 where a "chance sociogram" (a directed Erdős-Rényi model) was considered in studying comparing the fraction of reciprocated links in their network data with the random model. Another use, under the name "random net", was by Ray Solomonoff and Anatol Rapoport in 1951, using a model of directed graphs with fixed out-degree and randomly chosen attachments to other vertices.

The Erdős–Rényi model of random graphs was first defined by Paul Erdős and Alfréd Rényi in their 1959 paper "On Random Graphs" and independently by Gilbert in his paper "Random graphs".

title: Random graph


text:
Girard Desargues

Girard Desargues (21 February 1591 – September 1661) was a French mathematician and engineer, who is considered one of the founders of projective geometry. Desargues' theorem, the Desargues graph, and the crater Desargues on the Moon are named in his honour.

Biography
Born in Lyon, Desargues came from a family devoted to service to the French crown. His father was a royal notary, an investigating commissioner of the Seneschal's court in Lyon (1574), the collector of the tithes on ecclesiastical revenues for the city of Lyon (1583) and for the diocese of Lyon.

Girard Desargues worked as an architect from 1645. Prior to that, he had worked as a tutor and may have served as an engineer and technical consultant in the entourage of Richelieu. Yet his involvement in the Siege of La Rochelle, though alleged by Ch. Weiss in Biographie Universelle (1842), has never been testified.

As an architect, Desargues planned several private and public buildings in Paris and Lyon. As an engineer, he designed a system for raising water that he installed near Paris. It was based on the use of the epicycloidal wheel, the principle of which was unrecognized at the time.

His research on perspective and geometrical projections can be seen as a culmination of centuries of scientific inquiry across the classical epoch in optics that stretched from al-Hasan Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) to Johannes Kepler, and going beyond a mere synthesis of these traditions with Renaissance perspective theories and practices.

His work was rediscovered and republished in 1864. A collection of his works was published in 1951, and the 1864 compilation remains in print. One notable work, often cited by others in mathematics, is "Rough draft for an essay on the results of taking plane sections of a cone" (1639).

Late in his life, Desargues published a paper with the cryptic title of DALG. The most common theory about what this stands for is Des Argues, Lyonnais, Géometre (proposed by Henri Brocard).

He died in Lyon.

title: Girard Desargues