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Tom Osborne

Thomas William Osborne (born February 23, 1937) is an American former football player, coach, college athletics administrator, and politician from Nebraska. He served as head football coach of the Nebraska Cornhuskers from 1973 to 1997 (25 seasons). After being inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1999, Osborne was elected to Congress in 2000 from Nebraska's third district as a Republican. He served three terms (2001–2007), returned to the University of Nebraska-Lincoln as athletic director in 2007, and retired in 2013.

Osborne played college football as a quarterback and wide receiver at Hastings College, and soon after finishing his brief National Football League (NFL) career, he was hired by Nebraska head coach Bob Devaney as an assistant. Osborne was named Devaney's successor in 1973, and over the next 25 years established himself as one of the best coaches in college football history with his trademark I-formation offense and revolutionary strength, conditioning, and nutrition programs. He retired with a career record of .830, 13 conference titles, and three national championships. He coached 53 All-Americans, including 1983 Heisman Trophy winner Mike Rozier.

Early life
Born and raised in Hastings, a town in rural central Nebraska, Osborne was a star athlete at Hastings High School in football, basketball, and track. As a senior in 1955, he was named Nebraska High School Athlete of The Year by the Omaha World-Herald. He graduated from Hastings College with a BA in history in 1959. Osborne earned a Master's degree in educational psychology in 1963 and completed his doctorate in 1965, both at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Osborne's first job at the university was counselor in the Selleck Quadrangle, where he oversaw a floor of freshmen football players. He also served in the Nebraska Army National Guard from 1960 to 1966.

Playing career
At Hastings, Osborne quarterbacked the football team and became the first male athlete in Nebraska to be named both the high school (1955) and college (1959) athlete of the year by the Omaha World-Herald. He was also the 1958 recipient of the Emil S. Liston Award, which was given annually to the most outstanding National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics NAIA junior basketball player who displayed high athletic and scholastic achievement.

San Francisco 49ers
Osborne was selected in the nineteenth round (222nd overall) of the 1959 NFL Draft by the San Francisco 49ers. He was eventually released by the 49ers without playing in a regular season game.

Washington Redskins
The Washington Redskins picked up Osborne in 1960 and he made his NFL debut on November 6 against the St. Louis Cardinals. He had one reception for eight yards in a 44–6 Redskins loss. In his second game a few weeks later, Osborne caught six passes for 36 yards against the Cleveland Browns, but Washington lost again, 27–16.

Osborne saw more playing time in 1961, starting twelve games. He scored his first career touchdown against the Browns in Week 4, and his second against the Cardinals in Week 12. Osborne's last career game, a 34–24 Washington win over Dallas, was his only career victory.

Nebraska
In 1962, Osborne joined Nebraska's coaching staff as an unpaid assistant to head coach Bob Devaney; his only compensation was the ability to dine at the athletic training table. After disappointing 6–4 seasons in both 1967 and 1968, Devaney named Osborne offensive coordinator for the 1969 season. Osborne immediately overhauled the offense, switching to a balanced attack operated from the I formation. The revamped offense sparked the 1970 Cornhuskers to the first national title in program history. Nebraska defeated LSU 17–12 in the Orange Bowl on New Year's night and finished first in the post-bowl AP Poll. Nebraska won the national title again in 1971, becoming the first champion ever to defeat the next three teams in the final AP Poll (Oklahoma, Colorado, and Alabama).

Devaney stepped down as head coach after the 1972 season to concentrate on his duties as athletic director, and named Osborne his successor. Devaney's final game was a convincing win over Notre Dame in the Orange Bowl, Nebraska's third straight Orange Bowl victory. At age 35, Osborne took over as Nebraska's head coach, a position he would hold for 25 years until his retirement following the 1997 season.

In his quarter-century as head coach, Osborne was a model of consistency. His teams never won fewer than nine games in a season, only finished worse than third in conference or division play once, finished in the top 15 of the final AP poll 24 out of 25 years, and were ranked in the top 25 for 304 out of his 307 games as head coach–including every weekly poll from October 12, 1981 onward. Osborne's teams won outright national championships in 1994 and 1995, and a share of another in 1997. Osborne's Huskers also won or shared 13 conference championships (12 Big Eight, one Big 12). His 255–49–3 record gave him the best winning percentage (83.6%) among active coaches at the time of his retirement and the fifth-best of all time, and he won 250 games faster than any coach in Division I-A history. Osborne finished his coaching career with a bowl record of 12–13.

Osborne's teams were known for their powerful rushing attack and strong defense (also known as the Blackshirts—a reference to the black jerseys worn in practice by NU's defensive starters). Using Osborne's trademark I-form option, Nebraska led the nation in rushing several times in the 1980s and 1990s, due to the efforts of players like Jarvis Redwine, Heisman Trophy winner Mike Rozier, Calvin Jones, Ahman Green, and Lawrence Phillips. Osborne's offenses were initially balanced attacks, but after struggling against Oklahoma's wishbone option in the 1970s, he switched to a run-based option to better utilize the versatility of dual-threat quarterbacks such as Jeff Quinn, Turner Gill, Tommie Frazier, and Scott Frost.

One of the enduring moments of Osborne's tenure was the 1984 Orange Bowl. Nebraska entered the game 12–0 and had been ranked No. 1 the entire season. The Cornhuskers scored a late touchdown against No. 5 Miami to cut the Hurricanes' lead to 31–30, but rather than kick the extra point to tie (which would have won the national title for NU), Osborne opted to attempt the two-point conversion and go for the win. However, Gill's pass attempt was tipped away in the end zone, giving hometown Miami the victory and their first national championship.

Nebraska lost another heartbreaking title game in the 1994 Orange Bowl. Despite going into the game as a 17-point underdog, the Cornhuskers held a 16–15 lead on Florida State with less than two minutes remaining. After Florida State drove to retake the lead 18–16, Nebraska hit a quick downfield pass to get one last field goal attempt as time ran out, which sailed wide.

The next year, Osborne finally earned his first title as head coach, defeating Miami in the Orange Bowl. The Huskers trailed 10–0 after one quarter, but rallied to win 24–17. The next year, the Cornhuskers roared through the regular season, winning every game by at least 14 points and shattering offensive records. Nebraska defeated Florida 62–24 in the 1996 Fiesta Bowl to earn Osborne his second national championship. Many pundits consider NU's 1995 team the best college football team of all time.

Osborne announced his retirement late in the 1997 season, selecting longtime I-backs coach Frank Solich to succeed him. In his final game, Nebraska won the national championship with a 42–17 victory over Tennessee. In his final five seasons, Osborne's record was a staggering 60–3, which remains the strongest finale to any Division I coaching career.

Honors
In 1995, Osborne received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.

In 1998, Nebraska renamed the playing surface at Memorial Stadium "Tom Osborne Field." The stadium nearly doubled in size during his three decades on NU's coaching staff, a reflection of Nebraska's increased national prominence in that time.

Osborne was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1999 and received the Jim Thorpe Lifetime Achievement Award in 2000. In 1999, ESPN named Osborne the "coach of the decade" for the 1990s. A 2007 poll named Osborne the "greatest college football coach of all time".

In 2013, the NAIA Football National Championship trophy was named the "Tom Osborne Trophy." In 2018, Osborne was inducted into the National High School Hall of Fame.

Coaching tree
Osborne's Nebraska coaching staffs were renowned for their lack of turnover. Several assistants were known to have declined head coaching offers elsewhere to remain with the program. Notable examples include George Darlington (30 seasons), Milt Tenopir (29 seasons), and Charles McBride (23 seasons) all of whom had opportunities to become head coaches. Darlington was the first assistant coach in Division I-A history to be involved in 300 wins at one school. However, several assistant coaches and players under Osborne did go on to become NCAA head coaches:

 * Craig Bohl: North Dakota State (2003–13), Wyoming (2014–2023)
 * Scott Frost: UCF (2016-2017), Nebraska (2018–2022)
 * Turner Gill: Buffalo (2006–09), Kansas (2010–11), Liberty (2012–18)
 * Frank Solich: Nebraska (1998–2003), Ohio (2005–2020)
 * Tony Samuel: New Mexico State (1997–2004), Southeast Missouri State (2006–13)
 * Monte Kiffin: North Carolina State (1980-1982)
 * Warren Powers: Washington State (1977), Missouri (1978-1984)

Athletic director
From 1979 to 1998, Osborne was an assistant athletic director at Nebraska, under both Bob Devaney and Bill Byrne.

Osborne and the 1997 national championship team were the guests of honor at Nebraska's 2007 Homecoming game. Just two days after the resulting 45–14 loss to Oklahoma State – Nebraska's worst home loss since being shut out 31–0 by Missouri in 1958 – athletic director Steve Pederson was fired. On October 16, 2007, Osborne was named interim athletic director. On November 24, 2007, Osborne fired head coach Bill Callahan following a 5–7 season. Osborne appointed himself interim head coach so that he could perform recruiting duties while remaining in compliance with NCAA rules. He served in this capacity for less than a week before naming Bo Pelini head coach on December 2. In 2010, Osborne ended Nebraska's long-standing relationship with the Big 12 Conference and accepted an invitation for the school to become the twelfth member of the Big Ten.

On December 19, Nebraska removed the interim tag from Osborne's title and announced he would remain athletic director through June 30, 2010. Osborne was paid $250,000 per year to manage Nebraska's 23-sport program. Osborne later agreed to continue as athletic director after 2010, with his position to be reviewed annually. On September 26, 2012, Osborne announced his retirement, effective January 1 of the following year. Osborne officially resigned on January 2, 2013, after returning to Lincoln with the football team following their participation in the Capital One Bowl.

House of Representatives
Early in 2000, Osborne announced that he would run in Nebraska's 3rd District as a Republican. He had grown up in Hastings, one of the larger cities in the sprawling district, and claimed a home in Lemoyne, near Ogallala, as his district residence. However, he hadn't lived regularly in the district since at least 1964; for most of that time he lived in Lincoln, the heart of the 1st District. Nonetheless, due to his wide popularity in the state, he easily won the Republican primary, which was tantamount to election in what has long been one of the most Republican districts in the nation. He breezed to victory in November with 83 percent of the vote. He was reelected with no major-party opposition in 2002 and against a Democrat in 2004.

In Congress, Osborne's voting record was moderate to conservative. He garnered a lifetime rating of 83 from the American Conservative Union.

At one point, Osborne teamed up with Nebraska State Senator Ernie Chambers, normally his political adversary, to oppose efforts to expand gambling in Nebraska.

Following Osborne's congressional service, President George W. Bush appointed him as a member of the Board of Directors of the Corporation for National and Community Service in 2007, but he resigned in 2008.

2006 governor's race
In 2006, Osborne ran for Governor of Nebraska, challenging incumbent Dave Heineman and Omaha businessman Dave Nabity in the Republican primary.

Osborne was initially thought to be the favorite in the race, given his tremendous popularity in the state. However, Heineman took 49 percent of the more than 197,000 votes cast to Osborne's 45 percent.

The Lincoln Journal Star analyzed the race: While Osborne captured populous Omaha and Lincoln, Heineman sealed his victory in rural counties and key population centers in western and central Nebraska's critical Republican battleground ... it was the political impact of two gubernatorial vetoes that appeared to lift [Heineman] into a late surge, especially in Osborne's congressional district.

Heineman's opposition to Class I rural school reorganization and the granting of resident college tuition rates to the children of illegal immigrants cut into Osborne's support. Osborne declined to sign referendum petitions seeking voter repeal of the rural school legislation and said he would have signed the resident tuition bill."

title: Tom Osborne


text:
1985 in Canada

Events from the year 1985 in Canada.

Crown

 * Monarch – Elizabeth II

Federal government

 * Governor General – Jeanne Sauvé
 * Prime Minister – Brian Mulroney
 * Chief Justice – Brian Dickson (Manitoba)
 * Parliament – 33rd

Lieutenant governors

 * Lieutenant Governor of Alberta – Francis Charles Lynch-Staunton (until January 22) then Helen Hunley
 * Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia – Robert Gordon Rogers
 * Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba – Pearl McGonigal
 * Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick – George Stanley
 * Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland – William Anthony Paddon
 * Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia – Alan Abraham
 * Lieutenant Governor of Ontario – John Black Aird (until September 20) then Lincoln Alexander
 * Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island – Joseph Aubin Doiron (until August 1) then Lloyd MacPhail
 * Lieutenant Governor of Quebec – Gilles Lamontagne
 * Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan – Frederick Johnson

Premiers

 * Premier of Alberta – Peter Lougheed (until November 1) then Don Getty
 * Premier of British Columbia – Bill Bennett
 * Premier of Manitoba – Howard Pawley
 * Premier of New Brunswick – Richard Hatfield
 * Premier of Newfoundland – Brian Peckford
 * Premier of Nova Scotia – John Buchanan
 * Premier of Ontario – Bill Davis (until February 8) then Frank Miller (February 8 to June 26) then David Peterson
 * Premier of Prince Edward Island – James Lee
 * Premier of Quebec – René Lévesque (until October 3) then Pierre-Marc Johnson (October 3 to December 12) then Robert Bourassa
 * Premier of Saskatchewan – Grant Devine

Commissioners

 * Commissioner of Yukon – Douglas Bell
 * Commissioner of Northwest Territories – John Havelock Parker

Premiers

 * Premier of the Northwest Territories – Richard Nerysoo (until November 5) then Nick Sibbeston
 * Premier of Yukon – Chris Pearson (until March 23) then Willard Phelps (March 23 to May 29) then Tony Penikett

January to March

 * January 26 – Frank Miller elected leader of the Ontario Progressive Conservative Party replacing Bill Davis.
 * January 30 – The federal government relaxes laws requiring businesses to use the metric system.
 * February 8 – Frank Miller becomes premier of Ontario, replacing Bill Davis after the Ontario Progressive Conservative leadership election.
 * February 11 – The federal and Newfoundland governments sign the Atlantic Accord paving the way for joint development of Newfoundland's offshore oil and gas reserves.
 * February 12 – Minister of National Defence Robert Coates resigns after it is revealed that he visited a strip-club while on government business in Germany.
 * February 13 – Denis Lortie is found guilty of murder for his attack at the Quebec Parliament Building that killed three.
 * February 28 – Holocaust denier Ernst Zündel is found guilty of publishing false news and fomenting racial intolerance.
 * March – Willard Phelps becomes premier of Yukon, replacing Chris Pearson.
 * March – At the so-called Shamrock Summit between Prime Minister Mulroney and US President Ronald Reagan the two agree on cooperation on missile defence and free trade.
 * March 12 – Heavily armed Armenian militants storm the Turkish embassy in Ottawa. They kill a security guard and hold a dozen people hostage for four hours.
 * March 21 – Rick Hansen launches his Man in Motion world tour to raise money for spinal cord research.
 * March 29 – 10 are killed after two military planes collide near CFB Edmonton.

April to June

 * April 24 - The Supreme Court of Canada rules the Lord's Day Act violates Canadians' freedom of religion.
 * May - Tony Penikett becomes government leader of Yukon, replacing Willard Phelps.
 * May 2 - Ontario election: Frank Miller's PCs win a minority, but David Peterson's Liberals will form a coalition with the NDP, forcing Miller to resign.
 * May 9 - The Supreme Court rules that orders in council are subject to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
 * May 31 - A tornado in Barrie, Ontario, kills twelve as part of the 1985 United States–Canada tornado outbreak.
 * June 20 – René Lévesque announces his intention to resign as premier of Quebec.
 * June 23 - Air India Flight 182 explodes en route from Montreal to London; Sikh terrorists are blamed.
 * June 26 - David Peterson becomes premier of Ontario, replacing Frank Miller.

July to December

 * July 1 - The first cell phone call is made in Canada, between Toronto mayor Art Eggleton and Montreal mayor Jean Drapeau.
 * September 1 - The wreck of the RMS Titanic is found off the coast of Newfoundland.
 * September 6 - The Canadian Encyclopedia is launched.
 * September 17 - The Tunagate scandal erupts.
 * September 20 - Lincoln Alexander becomes the Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario, the first Black person to hold a vice-regal position in Canada.
 * September 25 - The Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology opens in Drumheller, Alberta.
 * October 3 - Pierre-Marc Johnson becomes premier of Quebec, replacing René Lévesque.
 * November 1 - Don Getty becomes premier of Alberta, replacing Peter Lougheed.
 * November 5 - Nick Sibbeston becomes government leader of the Northwest Territories, replacing Richard Nerysoo.
 * December 2 - In the Quebec election, Robert Bourassa's Liberals gain a majority, defeating the Parti Québécois.
 * December 12 - Robert Bourassa becomes premier of Quebec for the second time, replacing Pierre-Marc Johnson.
 * December 12 - The worst airplane accident in Canadian history occurs when Arrow Air Flight 1285 crashes on take-off from Gander International Airport; 256 people are killed.
 * December 23 - Nahanni earthquake, largest of a number earthquakes occurs in Nahanni region of NWT.
 * Corel is founded in Ottawa.

Unknown

 * The Mulroney government establishes the Court Challenges Program.

New books

 * Margaret Atwood: The Handmaid's Tale
 * Colin Thatcher: Backrooms: A Story of Politics
 * Brian Moore: Black Robe
 * Erín Moure: Domestic Fuel
 * Farley Mowat: My Discovery of America

Awards

 * See 1985 Governor General's Awards for a complete list of winners and finalists for those awards.
 * Books in Canada First Novel Award: G. Ursell, Perdue, or How the West Was Lost
 * Gerald Lampert Award: Paulette Jiles, Celestial Navigation
 * Pat Lowther Award: Paulette Jiles, Celestial Navigation
 * Stephen Leacock Award: Ted Allan, Love Is a Long Shot
 * Vicky Metcalf Award: Edith Fowke

Television

 * The last episode of The Friendly Giant on CBC Television
 * The first episode of the children's series The Raccoons on CBC Television

Music

 * February 10 - A supergroup of Canadian musicians, Northern Lights, gathers to record the charity single Tears Are Not Enough for famine relief in Ethiopia.

Sport

 * May 18 – Prince Albert Raiders win their only Memorial Cup by defeating the Shawinigan Cataractes 6 to 2. The final game was played at the Cataractes' Shawinigan Municipal Auditorium in Shawinigan, Quebec.
 * May 30 – Edmonton Oilers win their second (consecutive) Stanley Cup by defeating the Philadelphia Flyers 4 games to 1. The deciding Game 5 was played at Northlands Coliseum in Edmonton. Brantford, Ontario's Wayne Gretzky is awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy
 * November 24 – BC Lions win their second (and first since 1964) Grey Cup by defeating the Hamilton Tiger-Cats 37 to 24 in the 73rd Grey Cup played at Olympic Stadium in Montreal
 * November 30 – Calgary Dinos win their second (consecutive) Vanier Cup by defeating the Western Ontario Mustangs 25 to 6 in the 21st Vanier Cup played at Varsity Stadium in Toronto

Births

 * January 1 – Jeff Carter, ice hockey player
 * January 3 – Leah Gibson, film actress
 * January 4
 * Danielle Campo, swimmer
 * Robbie Dixon, skier
 * January 6 – Nathan McIver, ice hockey player
 * January 14 – Katie Thorlakson, soccer player
 * January 27 – Eric Radford, pair skater
 * January 30 – Torrey Mitchell, ice hockey player
 * February 7 – Tegan Moss, actress
 * February 11 – Mike Richards, ice hockey player
 * February 18 – Chelsea Hobbs, actress and singer
 * February 19 – Raymond Sawada, ice hockey player (d. 2023)
 * February 27 – Braydon Coburn, ice hockey player
 * February 28 – Fefe Dobson, singer and songwriter
 * March 9 – Brent Burns, ice hockey player
 * March 11 – Paul Bissonnette, ice hockey player
 * March 25 – Carmen Rasmusen, singer
 * April 6
 * Clarke MacArthur, ice hockey player
 * Al Mukadam, actor, director, and producer
 * April 9 – Brian Elliott, ice hockey goaltender
 * April 10
 * Christie Laing, actress
 * Dion Phaneuf, NHL hockey player
 * April 14 – Grant Clitsome, ice hockey player
 * April 19 – Sabrina Jalees, comedian, dancer, actress, presenter, and writer
 * April 22 – Kristin Fairlie, actress
 * April 23 – Rachel Skarsten, actress
 * May 6 – Lewis Hilsenteger, youtuber
 * May 15 – Tyrone Savage, actor
 * May 22 – Marc-Antoine Pouliot, ice hockey player
 * May 27 – Andrew Francis, voice actor and actor
 * June 10 – Kreesha Turner, singer-songwriter and dancer
 * June 13 – Danny Syvret, ice hockey player
 * June 22 – Douglas Smith, actor
 * June 23 – Holly Lincoln, football (soccer) player
 * June 24 – Isabelle Rampling, synchronized swimmer
 * July 1 – Nineteen85, hip-hop producer
 * July 5 – Michael Cuccione, child actor and activist (d. 2001)
 * July 6 – Diamond Rings, singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
 * July 12
 * Adam Gregory, singer
 * Theo Tams, singer-songwriter, pianist & keyboardist
 * July 16
 * Matthew Santoro, youtuber
 * Vanessa Meloche, artistic gymnast
 * July 20 – Harley Morenstein, actor and internet personality
 * July 21 – Vanessa Lengies, actress, dancer, and singer
 * July 23 – Tessa Bonhomme, hockey player
 * August 7 – Rick Genest, artist, actor, and fashion model (d. 2018)
 * July 28 – Dustin Milligan, actor
 * August 26 – Sean Denison, basketball player
 * September 2 – Yani Gellman, Canadian/Australian film and television actor
 * September 8 – Justin Bradley, actor
 * September 10 – Elyse Levesque, actress
 * September 19 – Renee Young, journalist
 * September 22 – Tatiana Maslany, actress
 * September 24 – Jessica Lucas, actress and singer
 * September 27 – Massimo Bertocchi, decathlete
 * October 1 – Leah Renee Cudmore, actress and singer
 * October 8 – Magda Apanowicz, actress
 * October 22 – Mitch MacDonald, singer & guitarist
 * November 11 – Kalan Porter, singer-songwriter
 * November 21 – Carly Rae Jepsen, singer and songwriter
 * December 8 – Meagan Duhamel, pair skater

January to June

 * January 30 – F. R. Scott, poet, intellectual and constitutional expert (b. 1899)
 * February 2 – Micheline Coulombe Saint-Marcoux, musician and composer (b. 1938)
 * February 5 – Georges-Émile Lapalme, politician (b. 1907)
 * February 16 – Marian Engel, novelist (b. 1933)
 * March 17 – Athole Shearer, actress (b. 1900)
 * April 17 – Walter Weir, politician and 15th Premier of Manitoba (b. 1929)
 * April 21 – Foster Hewitt, radio pioneer (b. 1902)
 * April 22 – Jacques Ferron, physician and author, founder of the Parti Rhinocéros (b. 1921)

July to December

 * July 3 – Frank J. Selke, ice hockey manager (b. 1893)
 * August 20 – Donald O. Hebb, psychologist (b. 1904)
 * September 6 – Isabel Meighen, wife of Arthur Meighen, 9th Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1883)
 * October 28 – Eric Coy, discus thrower and shot putter (b. 1914)

Full date unknown

 * June – Kenneth Zeller, teacher and librarian (b. 1945)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1985 in Canada


text:
Joseph Wright of Derby

Joseph Wright (3 September 1734 – 29 August 1797), styled Joseph Wright of Derby, was an English landscape and portrait painter. He has been acclaimed as "the first professional painter to express the spirit of the Industrial Revolution".

Wright is notable for his use of tenebrism, an exaggerated form of the better known chiaroscuro effect, which emphasizes the contrast of light and dark, and for his paintings of candle-lit subjects. His paintings of the birth of science out of alchemy, often based on the meetings of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, a group of scientists and industrialists living in the English Midlands, are a significant record of the struggle of science against religious values in the period known as the Age of Enlightenment.

Many of Wright's paintings and drawings are owned by Derby City Council, and are on display at the Derby Museum and Art Gallery.

Life

Joseph Wright was born in Irongate, Derby, to a respectable family of lawyers. He was the third of five children of Hannah Brookes (1700–1764) and John Wright (1697–1767), an attorney and the town clerk of Derby. Joseph had two elder brothers, John and Richard Wright.

Deciding to become a painter, as a seventeen-year old youth Wright went to London in 1751 and for two years studied under Thomas Hudson, the master of Joshua Reynolds. Wright acknowledged that he was also influenced by Alexander Cozens and applied his composition ideas to paintings.

After painting portraits for a while in Derby, the young Wright again worked as an assistant to Hudson for fifteen months. In 1753 he returned to, and settled in Derby. He varied his work in portraiture by the production of subjects with strong tenebrism under artificial light, with which his name is chiefly associated, and by landscape painting. Wright also spent a productive period in Liverpool, from 1768 to 1771, painting portraits. These included pictures of a number of prominent citizens and their families.

Having established himself in his profession Wright married Ann (also known as Hannah) Swift, the daughter of a Derbyshire lead miner, on 28 July 1773. Wright set off in 1773 with John Downman, a newly pregnant Ann Wright, and Richard Hurleston for Italy. Their ship took shelter for three weeks in Nice before they completed their outward voyage in Livorno in Italy in February 1774. Downman returned to Britain in 1775. Although he spent a great deal of productive time in Naples, Wright never witnessed any major eruption of Mount Vesuvius. However, it is possible that he witnessed smaller, less impressive eruptions, which may have inspired many of his subsequent paintings of the volcano.

On his return from his working sojourn in Italy he again established himself in England as a portrait-painter, this time at the fashionable spa resort of Bath. But he met with little encouragement there, and in 1777 returned to Derby where he spent the rest of his life. Over the years he became increasingly asthmatic and nervous about the house, and for these complaints he was treated by his friend and leading medical doctor Erasmus Darwin. His friendship with Darwin had brought him and his works into the orbit of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, and although he was not a formal member of the Society he can be considered a key artistic influence on the men of the Midlands Enlightenment.

In his latter years Wright was a frequent contributor to the exhibitions of the Society of Artists, and to those of the Royal Academy, of which he was elected an associate in 1781 and a full member in 1784. He, however, declined the latter honour on account of a slight that he believed that he had received, and severed his official connection with the Academy, although he continued to contribute to the exhibitions from 1783 until 1794.

His wife Ann Wright died on 17 August 1790, having borne six children from the marriage, three of whom had died in infancy. On 29 August 1797 Wright himself died at his new home at No. 28 Queen Street, Derby, where he had spent his final months with his two daughters.

Career and works

Wright is seen at his best in his candlelit subjects of which the Three Persons Viewing the Gladiator by Candlelight (1765), his A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery (1766), in the Derby Museum and Art Gallery, and An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump (1768), in the National Gallery are excellent examples. His Old Man and Death (1774) is also a striking and individual production.

He painted Dovedale by Moonlight, capturing the rural landscape of a narrow valley called Dovedale, 14 miles northwest of Wright's home town of Derby, at night with a full moon. The painting hangs in the Allen Memorial Art Museum at Oberlin College. Its companion piece, Dovedale by Sunlight (c. 1784–1785) captures the colours of day. In another painting, Moonlight Landscape, in the John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art, Sarasota, Florida, equally dramatic, the Moon is obscured by an arched bridge over water, but illuminates the scene, making the water sparkle in contrast to the dusky landscape. Another memorable image from his tour of the Lake District is Rydal Waterfall of 1795.

Cave at Evening (above) is painted with the same dramatic chiaroscuro for which Wright is noted. The painting was executed during 1774, while he was staying in Italy. There are similarities to the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston's holding, Grotto by the Seaside in the Kingdom of Naples with Banditti, Sunset (1778).

Painting the British Enlightenment
Wright had close contact with the pioneering industrialists of the English Midlands. Two of his most important patrons were Josiah Wedgwood, credited with the industrialization of the manufacture of pottery, and Richard Arkwright, regarded as the creator of the factory system in the cotton industry. One of Wright's students, William Tate, was uncle to the eccentric gentleman tunneller, Joseph Williamson, and completed some of Wright's works after his death. Wright also had connections with Erasmus Darwin and other members of the Lunar Society, which brought together leading industrialists, scientists, and philosophers. Although meetings were held in or near Birmingham, Darwin, grandfather of Charles Darwin, lived in Derby, and some of the paintings by Wright, which are notable for their use of brilliant light on shade, are of, or were inspired by, Lunar Society gatherings.

A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery (1766) shows an early mechanism for demonstrating the movement of the planets around the Sun. The Scottish scientist James Ferguson (1710–1776) undertook a series of lectures in Derby in July 1762 based on his book Lectures on Select Subjects in Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Optics &c. (1760). To illustrate his lectures, Ferguson used various machines, models, and instruments. Wright may have attended these talks, especially as tickets were available from John Whitehurst, Wright's close neighbour, a clockmaker and a scientist. Wright could have drawn on Whitehurst's practical knowledge to learn more about the orrery and its operation.

An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump (1768) shows people gathered to observe an early experiment into the nature of air and its ability to support life.

The Alchemist in Search of the Philosopher's Stone (1771) depicts the discovery of the element phosphorus by German alchemist Hennig Brand in 1669. A flask in which a large quantity of urine has been boiled down is seen bursting into light as the phosphorus, which is abundant in urine, ignites spontaneously in air.

These factual paintings are considered to also have metaphorical meaning, the bursting into light of the phosphorus in front of a praying figure signifying the problematic transition from faith to scientific understanding and enlightenment, and the various expressions on the figures around the bird in the air pump indicating concern over the possible inhumanity of the coming age of science.

These paintings represent a high point in scientific enquiry that began to undermine the power of religion in Western societies. Some ten years later, scientists would find themselves persecuted in the backlash to the French Revolution of 1789. Joseph Priestley, a member of the Lunar Society, left Britain in 1794 after his Birmingham laboratory was smashed and his house burned down by a mob objecting to his outspoken support for the French Revolution. In France, the chemist Antoine Lavoisier was executed by the guillotine at the height of the Terror. The politician and philosopher Edmund Burke, in his famous Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), tied natural philosophers, and specifically Priestley, to the French Revolution; he later wrote in his Letter to a Noble Lord (1796) that radicals who supported science in Britain "considered man in their experiments no more than they do mice in an air pump". In light of this comment, Wright's painting of the bird in the air pump, completed more than twenty years earlier, seems particularly prescient. It was against this background that Charles Darwin, grandson of Erasmus Darwin, would add to the conflict between science and religious belief, half a century later, with the publication of his book The Origin of Species in 1859.

Memorials

Wright's birthplace at 28 Irongate, Derby, is commemorated with a representation of an armillary sphere on the pavement nearby.

Joseph Wright was buried in the grounds of St Alkmund's Church, Derby. The church was demolished in 1968 to make way for a major new section of the inner ring road cutting through the town centre, and its site now lies beneath the road. Wright's remains were removed to Nottingham Road Cemetery. In 1997, his tombstone was placed at the side of Derby Cathedral, and in 2002, it was brought inside and wall-mounted in a prominent place near the well-visited memorial to Bess of Hardwick.

Wright's name has been given to the sixth-form centre situated on Cathedral Row, Derby (not far from Iron Gate). The Joseph Wright Centre was opened in 2005 as the new flagship site for Derby College. The building is named after the eighteenth-century painter because his "artwork captured the many scientific and technological advances of the Industrial Revolution."

In early 2013 Derby City Council and Derby Civic Society announced they would erect a blue plaque on his home at 27 Queen Street in Derby.

Other works

 * Vesuvius from Posillipo by Moonlight (1774)
 * Grotto by the Seaside in the Kingdom of Naples with Banditti, Sunset (1778) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
 * Peter Labilliere (1780) Dorking Museum, UK
 * Indian Widow (1784)
 * Miss Mary Tunaley (1790–93) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
 * Romeo and Juliet: the Tomb Scene (1790) Derby Museum and Art Gallery
 * Virgil's Tomb (three versions, 1779 to 1785)

title: Joseph Wright of Derby


text:
Talk:Bunker

Units
The use of such units as PSI together with SI-units is questionable in the least. We need to change them all to SI. --Elmeri B. Suokirahvi 20:11, 1 May 2006 (UTC)

Building bunkers
While I consider the stuff in the last section to be quite interesting and valid, it is a bit chaotic as well. I'll clean it up when I get around to it, unless someone beats me to it. Max robitzsch 00:55, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

Bunkers and pillboxes
Does anyone how a bunker differs from a pillbox? thanks, Dori 05:52, Nov 17, 2003 (UTC)

Is there any relation to the "Bunk Bed" ? where bunkbeds designed for use in bunkers ? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.59.92.231 (talk) 16:37, 6 December 2010 (UTC)

 * Bunkers are below-ground. In fact I believe the picture on the bunker page is actually of pillboxes. - Hephaestos 06:18, 17 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Hmmm, those in the picture also have a below ground part. Does it have to be completely below ground for it to be considered a bunker? I am confused. Dori 06:24, Nov 17, 2003 (UTC)

 * Now I'm confused, having just looked in the dictionary, which implies a bunker can have an above-ground part. In common usage I've heard (as well as what's implied in the Wikipedia article), a bunker is completely underground, used mainly for command and control, or for storage, whereas a pillbox can have an underground part but necessarily needs an above-ground part to fire a weapon out of.  My dictionary on the other hand implies a pillbox needs to be completely above-ground, and that a bunker can have an above-ground part.  I usually rely on the dictionary, but I've never heard this usage in military parlance. - Hephaestos 07:58, 17 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Not really an answer to the original question, but I now have an image in my head of two soldiers pinned down on a D-day beach, and one saying to the other "Technically, Sarge, the object that you are ordering us to charge in a heroic display resulting in a courageous but ultimately futile waste of human life is a bunker, not a pillbox". - Gandalf61 09:48, Nov 17, 2003 (UTC)

 * A pillbox was a cylindrical white card box, about 4cm high by 4cm in diameter, in which pills were dispensed. (cf pillbox hat.) It entered the language as a military slang term for small concrete bunkers of that shape. It is a common local term for such structures (most with no underground part and many square) on the North East coast of England, where many still remain from the last war. In the (British) army in the 1960s it was mocked as a "civilian" term, "bunker" or "machine gun emplacement" being considered correct. No idea what the current military usage is. Presumably the fuzzy dictionary definitions indicate the term has no clear and absolute usage. Anjouli 20:07, 17 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Wow, thank you for the answer! Dori 03:29, Nov 20, 2003 (UTC)

I may be wrong, but is it shooting slits and not shooting slights?

 * In my understanding, the small holes for shooting through are neither. If you want to sound au fait it is loops and loop-holes means the same thing but sounds a little more pedestrian. However, the latter is probably more in tune with the original meaning. It appears to come from Dutch meaning spy-hole.  In modern Dutch een loep is a magnifying glass. (RJP 20:12, 21 Jun 2005 (UTC))
 * Which is of course our old friend, the loupe in French, and German Lupe. . Dieter Simon 22:12, 21 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Pictures of Pillboxes in UKPalmiped 12:14, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

Americana
Any more information on the Americana aspect of bunkers? I'm working on a project about that specifically - how bomb shelters and bunkers became such an American figure. --Oddtoddnm 03:05, July 24, 2005 (UTC)

Americana on "bunkers" should also include the 1980s and 1990s law enforcement sieges on "cults" in which tornado shelters, a shed housing an electric generator (MOVE), a fruit cellar (Ruby Ridge) or the concrete basement of construction for a new building (Waco Siege) were transformed into "bunkers" in the government press releases even though they lacked firing slits or other defensive or offensive features. Naaman Brown (talk) 01:17, 30 April 2010 (UTC)

Vietnam Vietcong Bunkers
Should these be mentioned somewhere in this article? Although not made from concrete (the spaces would be dug out of the ground, and due to the soil and climate the walls would set hard on their own). The chambers and access tunnels were too small for all but the smallest GI, who would have to leave most of his equipment and armour behind if he had to enter. Normally, if one was found, either GIs would be sent down to clear it, gas would be pumped in, fire/flamethrowers would be used, or high explosive would be put in. However, these methods often did not work - if the US had a bunker buster bomb, then it would almost certainly have been more effective at destroying/collapsing the bunkers. --80.41.47.33 08:41, 20 July 2006 (UTC)

Feel free to write something up! Max robitzsch 12:24, 20 July 2006 (UTC)

expand the famous bunker section with a wider range of times like(ww2 ww1 ) and so on.

semi-underground Bunkers.
Another kind of Bunker semi-underground.

Exists in Australia, America and Britian, in Australia most of them were RAAF operations buildings built during 1942-1945 period and were built within a 6km area of an airfield. They were built of reinforced concrete (with steel mesh enforcement). The site of the bunkers were first dug out, generally it was dug at a ratio of 40/60 (60% below ground and 40% above ground) the bunker constructed, and then covered with dirt. The more well know of these bunkers is, Bankstown Bunker in Sydney and Coffs Harbour (now the bunker cartoon bunker). —Preceding unsigned comment added by 58.107.133.4 (talk) 11:14, 1 September 2007 (UTC)

Section on pillboxes in former Czech Republic
This section was removed without explanation, please do not just revert parts of an article without telling us why you are doing it. If the reverted section did not conform to proper Wikipedia standards, say so or edit the section to what it should be. Have now re-entered, but we need sourcing for this. Dieter Simon (talk) 22:49, 14 January 2008 (UTC)

WWII Bunkers
My father served in US Army Sixth Division in WWII, New Guinea and the Phillipines. Generally, a bunker was an earth and log emplacement, a pill box was a concrete gun emplacement. He described building bunkers as holes in the ground with room for about four soldiers, with a roof of logs and earth capable of resisting mortar fire (the best with at least two crossed layers of logs), firing slits facing the enemy, and a protected entrance/exit in the rear. American assault forces had to improvise; the Japanese defenders had the advantage of months or years of preparation in place. Also enemy pillboxes would be laid out so that making a direct gun or grenade attack with line of sight of the enemy machinegunners would put you in line of fire of the enemy machinegunners, making assaulting a pillbox with anything other than an indirect weapon like a flamethrower suicidal. Naaman Brown (talk) 01:08, 30 April 2010 (UTC)

Pillboxes
I have moved the text in the section Pillboxes into a new article called Pillbox (military) which previously was a redirect to British hardened field defences of World War II. I have done this because the sources tend not to include pillboxes as bunkers but instead mention them either as stand alone structures or as above ground protuberance from a bunker system:

"At the time [the Maginot line] was constructed it contained state-of-the art weaponry, communications an armour all linked together through a vast network of underground tunnels, although concrete blockhouses and pillboxs peeked above ground at intervals."

- Richard Harold Schneider

-- PBS (talk) 07:17, 16 January 2012 (UTC)

Housing?
Why so much detail regarding bunkers under houses? Why so much stating the obvious (doors must be as strong as the walls....no kidding)? In general it is a rather scrambled article too. Yevad (talk) 09:35, 9 July 2013 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Bunker


text:
User:Chrism

Who I Am
My name's Chris and I'm from Liverpool in the United Kingdom. I read Politics for my BA at the University of Sheffield followed by an MA in Politics, also at Sheffield.

I support Everton Football Club, and enjoy listening to music and reading in my spare time. My interests include politics (obviously!), cinema, law, world cultures, history, spending far too much of my time browsing Wikipedia and random footballing knowledge.

Articles I've written
articles... and I started a few of them:
 * Tynwald Day
 * List of Royal Titles of Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom
 * Gibraltar Anthem
 * Chase the Ace
 * Consolidated Fund
 * Command paper
 * (since superseded)
 * KLM Constellation air disaster 1948
 * HMT Lancastria
 * Royal Shrovetide Football
 * Goodison Park
 * Technical government
 * City of Liverpool (aircraft)
 * National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1972
 * HMT Lancastria
 * Royal Shrovetide Football
 * Goodison Park
 * Technical government
 * City of Liverpool (aircraft)
 * National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1972
 * National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1972

Articles I've done lots of work on

 * Whitchurch, Shropshire (my mum's home town)
 * Timeline of the Second World War
 * Governor of Macau
 * Boat Race
 * Lady Be Good (aircraft)
 * Torneo di Viareggio
 * United States presidential election, 2004, in Oregon

WikiProjects I've helped out on

 * WikiProject Leaders by year (Governors of Macau and Hong Kong by year)

title: User:Chrism


text:
Bewick Bridge

Bewick Bridge (1767, Linton, Cambridgeshire – 15 May 1833, Cherry Hinton) was an English vicar and mathematical author.

In 1786, he was admitted as a sizar to study mathematics at Peterhouse, Cambridge, where he graduated as senior wrangler and won the Smith's Prize in 1790.

In October 1790, he was ordained a deacon at Ely, and became a priest in 1792; in the same year he became a Fellow at Peterhouse, during which he spent time as both as college moderator and as proctor. From 1806 until 1816, he was Professor of Mathematics at the East India Company College, Haileybury. He wrote a number of mathematical texts: his Algebra achieved international circulation. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1812.

From 1816 until 1833, he was vicar of Cherry Hinton in Cambridge, where in 1818 he built the vicarage, and he founded the village school in 1832 (now a Church of England PrimarySchool). He died on 15 May 1833, aged 66. In September 2011 the Cherry Hinton Community Junior School was named after Bewick, becoming Bewick Bridge Community Primary School.

title: Bewick Bridge


text:
Alston, Cumbria

Alston is a town in Westmorland and Furness, Cumbria, England, within the civil parish of Alston Moor on the River South Tyne. It shares the title of the 'highest market town in England', at about 1000 ft above sea level, with Buxton, Derbyshire. Despite its altitude, the town is easily accessible via the many roads which link the town to Weardale, Teesdale, and towns in Cumbria such as Penrith via Hartside Pass, as well as Tynedale. Historically part of Cumberland, Alston lies within the North Pennines, a designated Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Much of the town centre is a designated Conservation Area which includes several listed buildings.

Geography
Alston lies within the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, more than 16.3 mi by road from the nearest town, Haltwhistle, and is surrounded by moorland. Nearby villages include Garrigill and Nenthead. It is around 44.5 mi west of Newcastle upon Tyne, 30.1 mi south east of Carlisle, 19.7 mi north east of Penrith, and 21.6 mi south west of Hexham.

Situated at the crossroads/junction of the A686, A689 and B6277, the town lies on the confluence of the River South Tyne and the River Nent. On 18 May 2013 very heavy rain resulted in flooding in seven areas of Alston, affecting thirty-six properties. The Environment Agency records indicate that 51mm of rain fell that day.

The landscape of the area is built up from limestone, sandstone and shale. The area is rich in minerals, in particular lead deposits, and the landscape has been heavily influenced by the effects of varying methods of mining over the centuries.

Early settlements
The earliest evidence of population in the area comes from pottery fragments, a gold basket-earring and flint tools found in one of two barrows located 2 mi NNW of Alston at Kirkhaugh. Excavated in 1935, the barrows were dated between 2000 BC and 1700 BC.

Evidence of Roman activity in the area comes from the earth ramparts of Whitley Castle, thought to be the Roman fort (Castra) of Epiacum built and rebuilt by the Sixth and Twentieth Legions between the 2nd and 3rd centuries. The fort lies on the Maiden Way Roman road which runs north from Kirkby Thore (Bravoniacum) to Carvoran (Magnae) on Hadrian's Wall. Whitley Castle would have guarded this central supply route to Hadrian's Wall, and may also have helped protect lead and silver deposits in the upper reaches of the South Tyne valley.

The name of the town is recorded in 1164–71 as Aldeneby and in 1209 as Aldeneston, and seems to mean "the settlement or farmstead belonging to [a Viking man named] Halfdan".

Sovereignty
In the 10th century, Alston Moor was part of the Liberty of Tynedale, which was an estate of the Scottish Kings within England, a situation that resulted in many years of confusion over the sovereignty of the area.

In 1085, the Barons de Veteriponte became the first recorded Lords of the Manor; they held the moor on behalf of the kings of Scotland while the kings of England retained the mineral rights. This was confirmed in a hearing during 1279 that concluded that the miners of the area were distinct from the local population, thus paying their dues to the English crown instead of to Scotland. As a result, the miners lived in their own self-regulated communities under English protection.

In 1296 John de Balliol, the king of Scotland, invaded the North of England; as a result Edward I moved to reclaim the Scottish estates and Tynedale, which included Alston Moor, was taken under direct control of the English crown where it remains.

Despite the town being on the Tyne and being historically part of Tynedale, the area has never been part of either Hexhamshire or Northumberland but part of Cumberland and later Cumbria. This was probably because the mines in the area were at one time administered from Carlisle.

Mining
Historically the area has been mined for lead, silver, zinc, coal and fluorspar. The nearby Roman fort of Whitley Castle (Epiacum) may in part have been sited to control and protect the lead mines there.

In the 13th century, the area was known as the silver mines of Carlisle — silver was found in a high proportion (up to 40 troy ounces per long ton or 1.2 g/kg of smelted lead) and was used to create coinage in the Royal Mint established in Carlisle for the purpose. Most mining was very small scale until the mid-18th century.

The biggest mine owner in the area was the London Lead Company; this Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) organisation with enlightened employment policies established an interest in the area during the early 18th century. In 1745, it began construction of a school, a library, a sanitary house, a surgeon's house, a market hall with clock tower, a laundry and a 'ready-money' shop in Nenthead, 5 mi away.

Many of the last mines closed in the 1950s. A small drift coal mine (Ayle Colliery) is still active today.

Governance
Alston is in the parliamentary constituency of Penrith and the Border. Neil Hudson was elected its Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) at the 2019 general election, replacing Rory Stewart.

Before the United Kingdom left the European Union, its residents voted to elect Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) for the North West England constituency.

For Local Government purposes Alston is in the Westmorland and Furness unitary authority. Until 1 April 2023 it was in the Alston Moor Ward of Eden District Council and the Alston and East Fellside Division of Cumbria County Council.

Alston does not have its own parish council, instead it is part of Alston Moor Parish Council.

Modern economy
The area is no longer actively mined for precious metals although the mining history has been exploited for tourism purposes. There are few jobs in the immediate area, hence the fall in population from 6,858 in 1841 to 1,128 today.

Farming
The surrounding moorland is mainly used for sheep farming; however many farmers also have other enterprises, such as bed and breakfast accommodation. During winter months farming can be tough, due to the severe weather in the area.

Tourism
Tourism is now an important source of income for the area. The largest attraction is a narrow-gauge railway and heritage centre at South Tynedale Railway. Alston and the surrounding area is part of the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) and European Geopark. Alston is noted for its cobbled streets and 17th-century stone buildings. The area's mining heritage has been referenced for tourism purposes across the North Pennines. Nenthead Mines, at the nearby village of Nenthead, is a Scheduled Monument managed by volunteers. The Nenthead Mines Conservation Society hold regular open days where visitors can learn about the history of lead mining and take an underground tour of Carrs Mine. The Pennine Way, the UK's first National Trail, passes by the edge of Alston and the Sea to Sea Cycle Route (C2C) passes through the town.

Shops and facilities
Shops include a whole foods shop, a Co-op supermarket, a Spar convenience store, a shop selling hardware, a post office, an outdoor clothing shop, an organic bakery, a charity shop and a number of craft, gift and antique shops.

There are four pubs in Alston, and the town also has a number of cafés, a food take-away, a specialist engraving company, two hotels, numerous B&Bs, two petrol stations, a gym, an estate agent and a hairdressers. A once-popular fish and chip shop closed down in November 2022.

The last remaining bank, Barclays, closed in December 2015.

Steam trains on the narrow-gauge South Tynedale Railway run from April to October, offering a short journey through pleasant scenery.

Metal working
For much of the 20th century, between 1940 and its closure in 1980, a foundry employed around 200 people. The closure of this foundry increased unemployment in the area from 8.9% to over 25%.

Currently the area's main employer is Bonds Precision Castings Limited, a company that took over Precision Products in 2008. Precision Products was started in 1947 by William George Ball. Bonds Precision Casting Ltd. produces stainless steel and super-alloy castings.

Population
The population census figures show that at its peak during 1831 the population of the parish of Alston Moor was 6,858 people. Today that figure is about 1,200. The population of the town of Alston was 1,128 according to the 2001 Census. The community has its own website which is a result of the Cybermoor Project (cybermoor.org), which has brought the Internet to almost every home on Alston Moor, and broadband to many. This allowed people with little or no education access to online courses and training. The problem of the area's relative remoteness compared to other areas of England was solved by utilising IEEE 802.11 technology to construct the network infrastructure.

Notable residents

 * Nicholas Ridley, politician and government minister.

Town hall
Alston Town Hall is a focal point for the community, being a venue for many local social events. It also contains the tourist information centre and the public library. The Gothic Revival style building, which was commissioned by the local metallurgist and businessman Hugh Lee Pattinson, was completed in 1858.

Alston High Mill
High Mill in the Cumbrian town of Alston was built in 1767 as a water-driven corn mill by the renowned engineer John Smeaton; Smeaton is famously known for his Eddystone Lighthouse.

The grade II listed High Mill has been through a number of alterations through the ages, but the original Smeaton design is still easily recognisable. Internally there is little left of the original building besides the water wheel and the pit wheel.

In July 2023, the High Mill and the adjoining factory building (once occupied by Bonds Precision Casting) was purchased by a private owner, and work is now underway to refurbish and restore the mill for use as an arts and crafts workshop. The building and mill wheel are Grade II listed, and part of the mill may be given over to a small museum showcasing the wheel and some of the artefacts associated with how it was used.

The Water Wheel at Alston High Mill

360 animation of the history of Alston High Mill

Market cross
Although the town does not hold a regular market it still maintains the legal right to do so. The market cross, which acts as a focal point in the centre of town, was constructed in 1981 to replace one which was demolished by a wagon in January 1980. That earlier cross had itself replaced a cross of 1883 which was knocked down by a lorry in 1968.

A regular producers' market now takes place in the town hall from April to September selling food and crafts produced in Cumbria, Northumberland and County Durham, celebrating Alston's position at the crux of these three counties.

St Augustine of Canterbury Church
The parish church was built in 1869 on the site of two earlier churches. Despite being in Cumbria the church is in the Diocese of Newcastle rather than the Diocese of Carlisle. The church spire was only completed in 1886. A unique item in the church is a clock which belonged to James Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Derwentwater, who was beheaded for treason. It is believed to be of 16th-century origin, and was restored in 1978. One of the church bells which was cast in 1714 also belonged to the Earl of Derwentwater. It was installed in the previous church of 1770. Four of the bells were installed in memory of Andrew Graham Stewart Steele, churchwarden from 1943 until his murder in the Midland Bank on 13 September 1949. The bells cannot be pealed as the tower is not strong enough, but they are struck by a clapper.

Clarghyll Hall
Clarghyll Hall, north of Alston, is a Grade II* listed fortified manor house dating back to the 16th century. It was formerly the home of the Whitfield family and from 1847 to 1889 the home of Rev. Octavius James, who extended the building to add a chapel and study. This new wing burned down in a fire in 1889 in which Rev James died.

Nent Force level
During the area's peak of prosperity in 1776 John Smeaton began construction of an underground drain (the "Nent Force Level") to de-water the mines of the Nent Valley and assist with the transport of extracted materials as well as to locate new mineral seams. The canal took 66 years to construct at a cost of £80,000, and became known as "Smeaton's Folly". In the 1830s mine manager and engineer said that it could be visited "in boats 30 feet in length, which are propelled in four feet of water by means of sticks projecting from the sides of the level; and thus may be enjoyed the singular novelty of sailing a few miles underground". It was intended to be 9 feet square but in the softer terrain was extended to 9'×16', dead level for 3+3/4 mi to allow boat use, with a rise of 35 fathoms (210 ft at Lovelady Shield and then driven into the Nenthead ground. The amount of ore found was disappointing, though not insignificant.

Access to the Nent Force Level is currently extremely difficult although efforts have been made to develop a heritage centre to make this extraordinary piece of engineering accessible to the public.

Samuel King's School
As well as having a primary school, the town is host to England's smallest secondary school (an 11–16 comprehensive), Samuel King's School. Samuel King's serves the local communities such as Nenthead and Garrigill. Alston Moor has a second small primary school at Nenthead.

Media
Local TV coverage is provided by BBC North East and Cumbria and ITV Tyne Tees. Television signals are received from the local relay transmitter which is transmitted via the Pontop Pike transmitter, it is situated north east of the town. Local radio stations are BBC Radio Cumbria, Greatest Hits Radio Cumbria & South West Scotland, and community based station Eden FM Radio which broadcast from its studios in Penrith. The town's local newspapers are Cumberland and Westmorland Herald and The Westmorland Gazette.

Filming locations
Front Street and the Market Cross of the town were used as filming locations in a 1997 adaptation of Jane Eyre. The town was also adapted to resemble a seaside village where Oliver is born for the 1999 ITV mini series Oliver Twist.

The League of Gentlemen
The fictional town of Royston Vasey, the setting of the TV comedy series The League of Gentlemen, is based on Alston.

Demographic imbalance
In August 2005, Alston made news regarding the town's apparent lack of women, with a claimed ratio of 10 men to every woman in the town. A group of young men from Alston, led by Vince Peart, set up the "Alston Moor Regeneration Society" to persuade women to come to Alston. Articles appeared in the Daily Telegraph, The Guardian and the BBC. A documentary was shown on Channel 4 on 11 October 2006. More than two years later, the Guardian reported that Alston shared first position with Bere Alston in Devon in the top 10 list of places in Britain where the imbalance was at its worst.

Transport
The area is stationed on a number of routes including the long−distance footpath the Pennine Way, and the Sea to Sea (C2C) Cycle Route. Alston railway station was formerly the terminus of a branch line from Haltwhistle. The town's rail link to Haltwhistle was completed in 1852 by the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway Company. The closure of the line was decided in the Beeching Report in 1963, but closure was rejected due to lack of a direct road link. After a road was built, closure was again proposed in 1973 and the line closed on 1 May 1976. It was the last enacted closures of the Beeching Report (another being the Bridport branch line from Bridport to Maiden Newton in Dorset which closed in 1975).

Part of the route, between Alston and Slaggyford, five miles in length, is now operated as the narrow gauge South Tynedale Railway. The railway is particularly popular with tourists and passenger trains operate between April and October, with Santa Special trains operating on certain dates in December each year.

Go North East operates two buses a day between Alston and Haltwhistle, where connections can be made to buses and trains to Carlisle and Newcastle. Wright Brothers Coaches operates an 82 mi bus route linking Newcastle with Keswick via Hexham, Haydon Bridge, Alston and Penrith from July to September each year. There are term-time bus services to Carlisle primarily for college students.

Climate
This town has a cool and relatively rainy oceanic climate (Cfb, according to the Köppen climate classification), with mild summers and chilly winters, with snowfalls. It is one of the coldest inhabited places in England.

There are some ski-tows on the northwest slopes of Burnhope Seat, a hill situated 4 mi away from Alston. This forms the Yad Moss ski facility, which has been upgraded by Sport England.

Alston holds the record for the lowest temperature reported in Cumbria. The temperature fell to -22.8 C on 17 January 1881. Additionally, the town also holds the record for the lowest temperature ever reported on 7 March in the United Kingdom, at -18.9 C in 1886. This was also the coldest temperature reported anywhere in the United Kingdom in 1886. The town also reported the coldest temperature in the UK in 1883, at -15.1 C on 15 March of that year. Furthermore, Alston also holds the record for highest temperature reported in the UK on 8 November, at 19.1 C in 1881.

title: Alston, Cumbria


text:
Chagford

Chagford is a market town and civil parish on the north-east edge of Dartmoor, in Devon, England, close to the River Teign and the A382, 4 miles (6 km) west of Moretonhampstead. The name is derived from chag, meaning gorse or broom, and the ford suffix indicates its importance as a crossing place. At the 2011 Census, it had a population of 1,449.

History
Archaeological remains confirm that a community has existed here for at least 4000 years. In historical times, Chagford grew due to the wool trade and from tin mining in the area. A weekly market was held here from before 1220, and a monthly livestock market in the town survived until the 1980s. In 1305 it was made a stannary town where tin was traded. Among the most prominent tin-mining families in the 16th century were the Endecotts, Knapmans, Whiddons and Lethbridges.

In an English Civil War skirmish Sidney Godolphin, the poet and Royalist MP for Helston, was shot and killed in the porch of the Three Crowns.

In 1987, the New Scientist reported that Chagford contained "the most radioactive loo in the world", a reference to the high levels of Radon gas in this granite area.

Historic estates
The parish of Chagford comprises historic estates including:
 * Whiddon, seat of the Whiddon family. Sir John Whiddon (d.1576), a Justice of the King's Bench under Queen Elizabeth I, purchased the manor of Chagford, built a new manor house at Whiddon, part of which survives today, and built a deer park, the massive granite block wall of which survives today.

Today
Today Chagford is a thriving community with high property prices, busy streets, and an unusually wide range of shops for a town of this size, although not immune to national trends having lost its two banks and seen its post office downgraded. Two large hardware stores side by side in the town square were run by the same two families for over a century, but one of these closed in 2017. It is also known for its arts community, celebrated through Chagfilm (the autumn Chagford Film Festival), Chagword (the springtime literary festival, every two years from 2013-2019), Chagstock (the summer music festival, annually from 2007-2022), Wonderworks (the annual crafts weekend), the popular Summer Music Series (free Friday lunchtime concerts in the church throughout the summer), and other regular cultural events. There are several tea rooms and whole food cafés and four pubs. There is a good selection of holiday accommodation in and around the town for the influx of visitors during the year.

The early 20th century Edwin Lutyens house Castle Drogo lies 2 miles away, in Drewsteignton parish, and overlooks Chagford.

Governance
The town has a parish council which meets monthly.

In 1976 Chagford was twinned with Bretteville-sur-Laize, France. Regular twinning activity was sustained for over 20 years, but lapsed. Chagford retains its "Bretteville Close", and Bretteville its "Rue de Chagford".

Landmarks
A 16th-century building called Endecott House, on the edge of the town square, was given this name in the early 1990s in acknowledgment of a 17th-century governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, John Endecott, who is thought to have been born in or near Chagford. This building was possibly built as a "church house", and has certainly been in community use for many years, including use as a village school. It now serves as a meeting hall.

One of the social centres of Chagford is the village hall, the Jubilee Hall, in the south-east corner of the town next to the public car park. Built in 1936 by public subscription, it was significantly extended between 2016 and 2018 and also houses the library (which opens three part-days a week) and a local history resource centre. It provides a venue for the regular Friday morning flea markets as well as other activities such as badminton, table tennis, parties, discos, comedy nights, kung fu, Pilates, etc.

The Three Crowns Hotel dates to the 13th century and is reportedly haunted by the ghost of the cavalier poet, Sidney Godolphin, who was fatally wounded there in the English Civil War.

The former Easton Court Hotel became popular with authors as a writers' retreat in the 1930s, 40s and 50s, and was where Evelyn Waugh completed A Handful of Dust in 1933 and Brideshead Revisited in 1944.

Religion
The Anglican parish church of St Michael the Archangel was dedicated in 1261 (originally Roman Catholic church), although little remains from this period. The tower dates back to the 15th century. The Grade I listed building was restored in 1865 and extended during the 20th century. It features carved roof bosses, similar to those found at St. Pancras' church, Widecombe-in-the-Moor, including the tin miners' emblem of three hares.

The churchman-ship has traditionally been Broad-high church. Chagford forms part of a "united benefice" of seven ecclesiastical parishes, known as The Whiddon Parishes of Dartmoor, the others being Throwleigh, Gidleigh, Drewsteignton, Spreyton, Hittisleigh and South Tawton.

A Wesleyan Chapel (est. 1834) was replaced by a Methodist church built in 1861; it closed in the 1990s and is now in secular use. Victorian era directories list a Baptist church (established 1829), but long since disappeared. However, the Bible Christian Chapel (est. 1844) continues to flourish as Chagford Gospel Church, and a purpose-built Roman Catholic church was founded in 1963.

The Legend of Mary Whiddon
St Michael's church contains a memorial to Mary Whiddon, dated 11 October 1641, whose death is thought to have been one of the inspirations behind an episode in R.D. Blackmore's novel, Lorna Doone. Although his novel is set on Exmoor, the author may have been moved by a local legend about Mary who, it is claimed, was shot dead on her wedding day as she came out of church. The climax of Lorna Doone involves such a shooting, but in that case the heroine survives.

Whether this actually happened is unclear. Mary's tomb records that she died "a matron, yet a maid" ("a married woman, yet a virgin"). On the other hand, "maid" is a common term in Devon for a "girl" and the inscription may just mean that Mary died young ("although married, still just a girl"). The church's Marriage and Burial registers for the Civil War period are lost, and the only contemporaneous record is Mary Whiddon's undated will. It mentions no husband, but as her maiden name is also thought to have been Whiddon (i.e. she married a cousin), it might have been written before her marriage.

In the 21st century, a tradition has developed whereby new brides at the church lay a bouquet of flowers on Mary's memorial. This ritual is aimed at bringing good luck in the forthcoming marriage.

The ghost of Mary Whiddon is said to haunt Whiddon Park House, 2 miles outside the town.

Sports
Chagford's War Memorial Playing Fields were redeveloped in the late 1980s to provide a cricket ground to the south west of the town, overlooked by a modern clubhouse. In the winter, the ground provides two football pitches for the football club. There are public tennis courts in the town, with an associated Tennis Club, and an open-air swimming pool. A popular local running race, the Two Hills race takes place in Chagford every May, a 5k race starting from the cricket club and going up and around Meldon and Nattadon Hills, which are to the south of Chagford.

title: Chagford


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Vítězslav Novák

Vítězslav Augustín Rudolf Novák (5 December 1870 – 18 July 1949) was a Czech composer and academic teacher at the Prague Conservatory. Stylistically, he was part of the neo-romantic tradition, and his music is considered an important example of Czech modernism. He worked towards a strong Czech identity in culture after the country became independent in 1918. His compositions include operas and orchestral works.

Early years
Novák (baptized Viktor Novák) was born in Kamenice nad Lipou, a small town in Southern Bohemia. In 1872 the family moved to Počátky, where Novák first studied the violin with Antonín Šilhan and the piano with Marie Krejčová. After the death of his father in 1882, the family moved to Jindřichův Hradec, where Novák continued his studies at grammar school. An elementary school in the town is named after Novák today. In his late teens, he moved to Prague to study at the Prague Conservatory, changing his name to Vítězslav to identify more closely with his Czech identity, as many of those of his generation had already done. At the conservatory, he studied piano and attended Antonín Dvořák's masterclasses in composition where his fellow students included Josef Suk, Oskar Nedbal, and Rudolf Karel. When Dvořák departed for his three-year stay in America (1892–1895), Novák continued his studies with the ultra-conservative Karel Stecker. However, just before and after 1900, shortly after his graduation, Novák wrote a series of compositions that put distance between himself and the teachings of both Stecker and Dvořák, edging his style toward the fledgling modernist movement.

Beginning in the late 1890s, Novák began to explore influences beyond the prevailing Wagner/Brahms aesthetic of his contemporaries in Prague. Among these were folk influences from Moravia and Slovakia, which at that time were considered culturally backward in the cosmopolitan Czech capital. He also developed an interest in what would come to be called musical Impressionism, although in later life he denied any exposure to the music of Debussy at this time, claiming instead to have arrived at similar techniques on his own. These included forays into bitonality and non-functional, parallel harmony. Finally, after the Prague premiere of Salome in 1906, Novák formed an attachment to the music of Richard Strauss that would remain for the rest of his career.

Musicology and feud
Shortly after the turn of the century, Novák began teaching composition privately in Prague. From 1909 to 1920, he taught at the Prague Conservatory himself, and this occasionally occupied him to a greater degree than composing. Among his students were Alois Hába, Iša Krejčí, Vítězslava Kaprálová, Ladislav Vycpálek, Otakar Jeremiáš and Stefania Turkewich. During the same period, several events affected Novák's outlook on musical expression and artistic freedom. From 1901 to 1917, his apartment hosted a discussion group known as the Podskalská filharmonie. While most of its members were musicians, including Suk, Karel, and the conductor Václav Talich, performances were confined to readings of new modernist works from abroad and the group's goals were primarily intellectual; the Filharmonie served, however, as an important place for this group of Czech modernists to share their ideas. By regulation, its only female member was Marie Prášková, whom Novák married in 1912. That same year, Novák became embroiled in a series of culturo-political battles in Prague between his Conservatory-based faction and that of Zdeněk Nejedlý, a critic and musicologist at Prague University. When Novák signed a protest against Nejedlý's anti-Dvořák propaganda, Nejedlý engaged in fierce criticism of Novák's music. The impact of this criticism on Novák was long-lasting and ushered in a crisis in his creative life.

Political affairs
Upon the independence of Czechoslovakia in 1918, Novák turned his focus toward the administration of culture in the new democratic regime. In this capacity, he led the push toward de-Germanification and nationalization of the Conservatory, during which process his German-Bohemian colleagues, including Alexander Zemlinsky and Paul Nettl, were forced out to form a segregated institution. Novák became the new administrative head of the Czech-only institution and held various titles, alternating with Suk and others, until his retirement. During this period he continued to teach composition in the form of masterclasses, thereby influencing a new interwar generation of musicians, despite the increasing conservatism of his compositions in the 1920s.

Renewal and death
In the 1930s, Novák went through a period of artistic renewal with the premieres of some large-scale compositions. After the collapse of democracy and the subsequent Nazi protectorate in 1939, Novák, then retired, gained credibility among his younger Czech contemporaries through the performance of several patriotic and morale-boosting works, meant as a musical form of resistance. After the Second World War, he wrote a lengthy memoir, entitled O sobě a jiných (Of Myself and Others, publ. 1970), in which he aired many of his long-standing grudges, especially toward his main rival, Otakar Ostrčil, but also even his close friend Josef Suk. He died in Skuteč in Eastern Bohemia, where he had spent much of his last years.

Compositional career
Novák's music retained at least some elements of the late-Romantic style until his death. His earliest work to receive an opus number was a piano trio in G minor, but it was preceded, in order of composition, by several works including an unpublished serenade in B minor for piano dating from 1886–7; all of these bear the influences of Schumann and Grieg. In his earliest years after graduating from Prague Conservatory, his work began to show some influence from Moravian and Slovak folk music, which he began to collect and study in the late 1890s. Within the decade he had assimilated the basic intervallic and rhythmic characteristics of these folksongs into a very personal compositional style. The first works to reveal this change are the Second String Quartet, op. 35 (1905), and the path-breaking solo piano work, Sonata Eroica, op. 24 (1900).

The next influence was that of French impressionism, which first appears in the song cycle Melancholie, op. 25, composed in 1901, and is most apparent in the tone poem O věčné touze (Of the Eternal Longing, op. 33, completed 1905). Meanwhile, the more monumental aspects of his style, evident in the Slovak-inspired tone poem V Tatrách (In the Tatras, op. 26, 1902) and the song cycle Údolí nového království (Valley of the New Kingdom, op. 31, 1903) combined with his discovery of the music of Strauss: the result was the tone poem, Toman a lesní Panna (Toman and the Wood Nymph, op. 40, completed 1907).

The height of his compositional career was considered, including in the criticism of the day, to consist of two principal achievements, both completed in 1910: Pan, the five-movement tone poem for piano solo (totalling some sixty pages of music, op. 43), and Bouře (The Tempest, op. 42, to a text by Svatopluk Čech). The latter was a grandiose symphonic cantata for soloists, chorus, and orchestra, running to just under an hour of unbroken music; its attention to musico-dramatic detail was evidence of Novák's increasing interest in opera, a style in which he had not written at that point.

His conflict with Nejedlý brought about a sharp change in Novák's attitude to composition, wherein fear of rejection became more important than artistic exploration. The negative response from the public to the orchestrated version of Pan (1912) and the next cantata, Svatební košile ("The Wedding Shirt", 1913), based on the same Erben text as Dvořák's more famous work) caused severe self-doubt and depression. Novák attempted to turn the situation around with two operas about Czech historical subjects, a transparently nationalist move during wartime. Zvíkovský rarášek (The Zvíkov Imp, 1915, a comedy based on Stroupežnický) and Karlštejn (Karlštejn castle, 1916, a more serious work based on Vrchlický) both met with mixed reviews, although the latter became a fixture in the repertoire of Czech opera houses through the mid-century. These works exemplified Novák's tendency toward bitonality, latent in the early folksong work.

Czechoslovak independence in 1918 sparked several patriotic compositions, dedicated to the "President-Liberator" Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and the Czechoslovak Legion. These democratic impulses led to a stylistic conservatism, such that the artistic experimentation of 1900–1916 all but disappeared. The two remaining operas, Lucerna (The Lantern, 1923, based on Jirásek), and Dědův odkaz (The grandfather's legacy, 1926, based on Heyduk) met with predominantly negative criticism, and Novák developed extreme bitterness toward the cultural forces that opposed him, leading him toward reactionism.

With two ballet-pantomimes completed in 1928–29, Signorina Gioventù and Nikotina, Novák regained some of the respect he had lost among his colleagues; the layering of orchestral effects (including mixed meters and even references to tango) won him the approval of some younger composers, such as Iša Krejčí and Alois Hába. In the 1930s he returned to chamber music, but also large forms such as the epic choral/orchestral work, Podzimní symfonie (Autumn Symphony, op. 62, premiered 1934).

During the Nazi occupation, Novák rose again in the estimation of his compatriots as a result of his patriotic works: the symphonic poems with organ, De Profundis (op. 67, 1941) and Svatováclavský triptych (Saint Wenceslas Triptych, op. 70, 1942) and the Májová symfonie (May Symphony, op. 73, dedicated to Stalin as liberator of the Czechs and premiered after the war in 1945) demonstrate these sentiments. In his remaining years he was primarily engaged with choral works based on South-Bohemian folksong.

Dramatic works

 * Zvíkovský rarášek, Op. 49, comic opera, 1913–14
 * Karlštejn, Op. 50, opera, 1914–15
 * Lucerna, Op. 56, musical fairytale, 1919–22
 * Dedův odkaz (Grandfather's legacy), Op. 57, opera, 1922–25
 * Signorina Gioventu, Op. 68, ballet pantomime, 1926–28
 * Nikotina, Op. 59, ballet pantomime, 1929
 * Žižka, Op.78, incidental music, 1948

Symphonies

 * Podzimní symfonie, Op. 62 (Autumn Symphony), for choirs and large orchestra, 1931-1934;
 * Allegro appassionato
 * Bacchanale
 * 'Adagio''
 * Májová symfonie, Op. 73 (May Symphony), for soloists, choir, and orchestra, 1943;
 * Andante sostenuto
 * Andante
 * Alla marcia funebre

Orchestral works

 * Korzár (The Corsair), overture after Byron, 1892
 * Serenade, Op. 9, for small orchestra, 1894-1895, revised 1949
 * Piano Concerto in E minor, 1895
 * Allegro energico
 * Andante con sentimento
 * Allegro giusto
 * Maryša, Op. 18, dramatic overture, 1898
 * V Tatrách (In the Tatra mountains), Op. 26, symphonic poem, 1902
 * Slovácká svita, Op. 32 (Slovak Suite), for small orchestra,1903
 * O večné touze, Op. 33 (Eternal Longing), after Hans Christian Andersen, 1903-05
 * 2 Valašské tance, Op. 34, 1904
 * Serenade, Op. 36, for small orchestra, 1905
 * Toman a lesní panna, Op. 40 (Toman and the Wood Nymph), symphonic poem, 1906-07
 * Lady Godiva, Op. 41, overture after the tragedy by Vrchlicky, 1907
 * Pan, Op. 43, symphonic poem, 1910
 * Jihočeská svita (South Bohemian Suite), Op. 64, 1936-37
 * De Profundis, Op. 67, symphonic poem‚ 1941
 * Svatováclavský triptych, Op. 70 (St. Wenceslas triptych), for organ and orchestra, 1941

Voice and orchestra

 * Melancholické písně o lásce (Melancholic songs about love), Op. 38, for soprano and orchestra, 1906
 * Bouře, Op. 42 (de storm), voor solisten, koor en orkest, 1908-10
 * Svatební košile, Op. 48, after Erben, for soloists, choir and orchestra, 1912-13
 * 3 české zpěvy, Op. 53 (3 Czech songs), for male choir and orchestra, 1918
 * 2 romances, Op. 63 (on a text by Jan Neruda), 1934
 * In memoriam, Op. 65, 4 songs for mezzo-soprano, string orchestra, harp, and tamtam, 1936-37
 * 2 legendy na slova lidové‚ poesie moravské (2 legends on Moravian folk poetry), Op. 76, for mezzo-soprano and orchestra, 1944
 * Hvězdy, for female choir and orchestra, 1949

title: Vítězslav Novák


text:
Petworth

Petworth is a town and civil parish in the Chichester District of West Sussex, England. It is located at the junction of the A272 east–west road from Heathfield to Winchester and the A283 Milford to Shoreham-by-Sea road.

The parish includes the settlements of Byworth and Hampers Green and covers an area of 2690 ha. Twelve miles (21 km) to the south west of Petworth along the A285 road lies Chichester and the south-coast. In 2001 the population of the parish was 2,775 persons living in 1,200 households of whom 1,326 were economically active. At the 2011 Census the population was 3,027.

History
The town is mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 as having 44 households (24 villagers, 11 smallholders and nine slaves) with woodland and land for ploughing and pigs and 24 acre of meadows. At that time it was in the ancient hundred of Rotherbridge.

Petworth is the location of the 17th-century stately home Petworth House, the grounds of which (known as Petworth Park) were the work of Capability Brown. The house and its grounds are now owned and maintained by the National Trust.

In the early 17th century, the question of Petworth's status as an honour or a town came up when the Attorney General charged William Levett of Petworth, Gent., son of Anthony Levett, with "having unlawfully usurped divers privileges within the town of Petworth, which was parcel of the Honour of Arundel." William Levett's son Nicholas became rector of Westbourne, West Sussex. Leconfield Hall, which was formerly Petworth Town Hall, was completed in 1793.

Another historic attraction in the town, Petworth Cottage Museum in High Street, is a museum of domestic life for poor estate workers in the town in about 1910. At that time the cottage was the home of Mrs. Cummings, a seamstress, whose drunkard husband had been a farrier in the Royal Irish Hussars and on the Petworth estate.

Petworth fell victim to bombing in the Second World War on 29 September 1942, when a lone German Heinkel He 111, approaching from the south over Hoes Farm, aimed three bombs at Petworth House. The bombs missed the house, but one bounced off a tree and landed on the Petworth Boys' School in North Street, killing 28 boys, the headmaster, Charles Stevenson, and assistant teacher Charlotte Marshall.

Governance
An electoral ward in the same name exists. This ward includes Fittleworth and Ebernoe with a total ward population as taken at the 2011 census of 4,742.

Transport
The railway line between Pulborough and Midhurst once had a station at Petworth, but the line was closed to passenger use in 1955, and finally to freight in 1966, though the station building survives as a bed and breakfast establishment.

Public transport access is currently provided by an hourly bus between Midhurst and Worthing, operated by Stagecoach South.

Education
Petworth Primary School is the only school in the town. The school is at the south of the town and takes pupils up until Year 6. Until 2008 the Herbert Shiner School took pupils in years 6, 7 and 8 before they moved on to Midhurst Grammar School but this closed when the new Midhurst Rother College was opened.

Media
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC South and ITV Meridian. Television signals are received from the Midhurst TV transmitter. Local radio stations are BBC Radio Sussex, Heart South, Greatest Hits Radio West Sussex, V2 Radio and Radio Kirdford, a community based station. The town is served by the local newspaper, Midhurst and Petworth Observer, which publishes on Thursdays.

Culture
The town's amateur dramatics group is known as the Petworth Players, and their past productions have included The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, and The Sleeping Beauty.

Petworth has also been the home to the Petworth Town Band for over 100 years.

Petworth House was one of the main locations for the 2014 Mike Leigh film Mr. Turner, which put Timothy Spall as the artist Turner in the actual locations where he painted in the early 19th century.

The Petworth Society was founded in 1974 to protect the character and amenities of the parishes of Petworth and Byworth.

Petworth Fair
On 20 November (St. Edmund's day) each year, the market square is closed off to traffic so that a fun fair can be held. This is the modern survival of an ancient custom. In earlier centuries the fair lasted several days and may have been wholly or partly held on a field on the south side of the town called fairfield. The London Gazette of November 1666 announced that a fair would not be held that year because of plague still infesting the county, and shows that the fair was then a nine-day event.

Local tradition tells of a lost charter for the fair, but this is myth because it was determined by travelling justices of King Edward I in 1275 that the fair, then lasting eight days, had already been in existence since time immemorial and no royal charter was needed. At that time tolls on stalls for the sale of cattle provided an income for the Lord of the Manor. The traders of Arundel claimed a right to sell their wares at the fair as Petworth was in the Honour of Arundel.

Hamlets
The village of Byworth in the parish is just to the east of Petworth, across the Shimmings valley. Further east still, on the border with Fittleworth, is Egdean, which has a small church dedicated to St. Bartholomew.

Twin towns
Petworth is twinned with Ranville in Normandy, France and San Quirico d'Orcia in Tuscany, Italy.

title: Petworth