text:
Talk:History of Seattle

Citations and POV
I read through this article and found that many sections had too few in-line citations, so I'm adding Template:Refimprovesection to the top of those sections. I also found many instances in which the language breaks the WP:Neutral point of view policy, so I am adding the Template:POV to the top of the article. In some cases, it is a Template:Who issue, so I am adding that template in one place where it was obvious. Examples of POV issues and editorializing include:
 * "stunning halt"
 * "confused jumble"
 * "full on rolling"
 * "terrible traffic"
 * "arguably reenergized"
 * "a smashing success"
 * "Seattle was in good company for its recession"
 * "arguably Seattle's most important tourist attraction"
 * "wildly successful"

I would work on the article myself, but I'm from the other side of the country and don't know much of anything about Seattle beyond what I just read in this article. I hope somebody more familiar with the reliable sources on the subject can add a few more citations and reword the prose to remove non-encyclopedic language. Dugan Murphy (talk) 18:18, 28 February 2024 (UTC)

Penny Arcade deserves a mention?
i mean, i makes sense to me with PAX and being one of the most popular webcomics. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.246.168.239 (talk) 23:48, 20 February 2014 (UTC)

First Impression 6 Dec 2003
At a quick read, some of this is valuable, some of it is redundant to material under Seattle, and I believe some of it is just wrong. I'm inclined to try to move material around more appropriately between the two articles, and try to identify factual discrepancies, unless someone else would rather take this on. I'm also posting this on Talk:Seattle. If no one else claims out this task by Dec 10, I'll plunge in. -- Jmabel 07:50, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Deleted Material (maybe worth mining)
Edit under way. The following is non-historical material excised from the article; I haven't looked too closely at it; some of this could be worth mining for the Seattle article, although I suspect it is mostly already there. -- Jmabel 22:46, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Seattle is located along Puget Sound, in between two large mountain ranges, the Olympics and the Cascades. The climate is mild, with the temperature moderated by the sea and protected froand hahahahahhaham winds and storms by the mountains. The area is hilly, though it flattens out as one moves out from the center of the city. The rain the city is famous for is actually unremarkable; at 35 inches of precipitation a year, it's less than most major eastern seaboard cities. What makes it seem so wet in Seattle is the cloudiness, which besides the summer lasts most of the year, and that most precipitation falls as light rain, not snow or heavy storms. There are two large lakes, Lake Washington and Lake Union, and many smaller ones. The rivers, forests, lakes, and fields were once rich enough to support one of the world's few sedentary hunter-gatherer societies. Opportunities for sailing, skiing, bicycling, camping, and hiking are close by and accessible almost all of the year.

Traveling through Seattle, it's hard to find an area that has nothing to recommend it. At the top of every hill there is a view of a lake or the ocean, and at the bottom of every hill is a shore. There is no definable nice part of town; though there are certainly relatively wealthy neighborhoods, they are small and interspersed with less well off ones. Though there are poor neighborhoods, there are few slums. The predominate building material is wood, and has been since Native Americans lived in longhouses.

I removed some lines in regards to the living situation a Seattleite would have to be in, to find use in the monorail. I know several Seatleites who use it fairly regularly, choosing to park near Seattle Center and taking the monorail into downtown. Also, removed a statement that more roads "naturally" led to more development and therefor more traffic. Probably true enough, but a Wikipedia article isn't really the place for editorializing.--drew1718 (talk) 07:33, 1 October 2009 (UTC)

Question
Joe, as a native of Seattle myself, I have to say two things. One is that I'm so glad you're expanding its history article! I think you're doing a great job. The second, though, is a minor quibble: why "Silicon Forest"? It strikes me as an odd heading, and is a phrase I've never heard applied to Seattle (and while I'm not completely hip, I find it odd I haven't). Is it a usage peculiar to you? At any rate, I'm suggesting we call it "Recent History" or something a little plainer, just for simplicity's sake: I just wanted to run it by you out of courtesy, and because I did want to thank you for the work you've done. Any thoughts? Thanks, Jwrosenzweig 00:56, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I would think we can come up with something catchier than "recent history". "Silicon Forest" is moderately widely used. Google gives over 5,000 hits, though its hard to quickly sort out how many of those might be from the company of that name. Feel free to change it, I promise not to be offended.

In case you didn't notice, this is not mostly my material, its somebody's paper that was dumped into the site. There's still a lot of work to do. The man doesn't seem to even notice that a labor movement exists, this in a town that had a General Strike in 1919. But it's better than nothing, and it's a start. I still have to hit up the paper itself for his references, etc., but I'm busy the rest of the evening & will be on it tomorrow. Hack away, but I'd appreciate if you leave it to me to integrate the major "undigested" material that I'm in the middle of grappling with.

-- Jmabel 01:04, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

At this point, I've "digested" all of the Emmett Shear material except for his account of the early years, which - even though it quotes from Speidel's Sons of the Profits - is close enough to the "establishment" line to suggest that he never read Speidel's later Doc Maynard, my guide to what I wrote about this period. Within the next 48 hours I will attempt to integrate this material, fairly presenting both views. Then I'm probably going to stay mostly out of this article for a couple of weeks to let other people have a shot at it. It would be appreciated if people hold off on other significant edits on the pre-1900 material until I've had a chance to complete this edit. -- Jmabel 07:51, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Couldn't sleep tonight, so I finished it up. Edit away! -- Jmabel 11:56, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I never did read Doc Maynard, good guess ^^. The paper wasn't written as a historical piece, it's about the development of the layout of the city, so it misses a lot of important details (wobblies and the general strike as was pointed out). I hope it was useful anyway!

- Emmett 7:43 Feb 05 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, very useful. As you can see, I've slowly been adding some other topics.

- Jmabel 01:13, 6 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Split the article?
I'm inclined to split this into three articles, with navigation between them: I realize that for now the middle one is a bit light, but this seems the natural place to make the breaks: The first would cover the lumber boom and the Yukon Gold Rush, the second would cover the shipbuilding boom and the depression, the third would cover the Boeing boom (and bust) and the rise of the current cosmopolitan, high-tech city. Does anyone object to this? If no objections are raised by Dec 12, I'm going to do this split (and add corresponding navigation) as the last step of my current work on this article. -- Jmabel 10:00, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * History of Seattle before 1900
 * History of Seattle 1900-1940
 * History of Seattle since 1940
 * Done. Jmabel 00:12, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Counterculture, Activism, etc.
Right now, this is a very-establishment-oriented article, especially post-1900. That's because it is essentially Emmett Shear's material, following historian Roger Sale, except for a few interpolations I made while editing. Before I walk away from this for a while, I'm going to add some stub sections, etc. to at least remind people of what is missing. -- Jmabel 18:08, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Done. Jmabel 00:12, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I'm out of here for a while
OK, I've now built this out as a group of articles: History of Seattle, History of Seattle before 1900, History of Seattle 1900-1940, History of Seattle since 1940. And, of course, there is always Seattle. I'm generally satisfied with the framework, although plenty of work remains. I'm going to refrain from editing any of these historical articles myself for at least 2 weeks, lest they become "my" articles instead of the wikipedia community's articles. (At this point, the content is probably about half Emmett Shear's and about half mine.)

The one structural alternative I want to suggest is that maybe the Klondike Gold Rush would make a better dividing line that 1900. I had to split the articles somewhere. I leave it to someone else to rework accordingly if they want. -- Jmabel 00:12, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

the audacity of the early 20th century
As a Seattle native, I was glad to see the mentioning of the slucing away of Denny hill to form the Denny regrade, but other audacious projects were not mentioned, a river was diverted (I forget which one), the level of lake washington was changed, the channel and locks connecting Lake Union and Lake Washington to Puget Sound were built. I don't have enough details to write it myself, but perhaps someone with access to resources, will take an interest in the history, if they know it is there.
 * Point well taken. I may try to follow that up some time. -- Jmabel | Talk 18:16, Mar 10, 2005 (UTC)

I also wonder about Fort Lawton, not being mentioned, along with its hand over to the city to become Discovery Park.--Silverback 10:38, 10 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * We do have an article on Daybreak Star, but I'm not sure what else we have on that. -- Jmabel | Talk 18:16, Mar 10, 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanx, that got me to a page on Discovery Park too.--Silverback 19:04, 10 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Workers committee?
I heard that there was a period of 6 months or so during the 30s when Seattle was ruled by a "workers committee". I don't know any more about it, I imagine it was a period of labor unrest and communist influence.--Silverback 10:44, 10 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * 1919, and it was only a week. The General Strike. -- Jmabel | Talk 18:16, Mar 10, 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanx. I thought it was within my great uncles life time, but I guess not. --Silverback 19:06, 10 Mar 2005 (UTC)

AT&T Wireless
AT&T Wireless was prominent in the 1990s boom, probably the most prominent telecommunications company in Seattle at that time. Yes, I know it was later absorbed by Cingular, but it still merits mention in summarizing the 1990s boom. Lukobe, you say in your edit summary "yes, but right after it says 'the aforementioned companies remain relatively strong,' so since AT&T Wireless doesn't exist at all anymore, it should be removed". Isn't it possible that the next sentence is where a slight rewording is needed? It's not like AT&T Wireless failed, it simply was sold for quite good money, $41 billion. That's about Bill Gates's net worth, not chump change. -- Jmabel | Talk 07:17, 19 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Good point. I guess it is the next sentence that's really the sticking point. I'll reinstate AT&T and tweak what comes after.. --Lukobe 18:17, 19 October 2005 (UTC)

Raising of the city
The burying of the first floor of buildings in the Pioneer Square area is a really interesting piece of the city's history that's not mentioned here. -- Beland 02:49, 5 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I just added something on the building of the Ship Canal, another enormous engineering task from that era. The Pioneer Square story would certainly be worth adding, if someone can work out how to tell it concisely. - Jmabel | Talk 07:26, 11 March 2006 (UTC)

Recent edits by GoDot
I disagree almost completely with the recent edits by GoDot. There may be a good edit or two buried in there somewhere, but he has turned this article into more or less a duplicate of History of Seattle before 1900. He has removed both an overview (of a series of boom and bust cycles) and, as far as I can tell all history since 1900! This shows such a radical disagreement on what this article is meant to be that I hesitate to revert unilaterally without asking others to step in and say what they think the article should cover. My belief is that this should be a single, appropriate-length article providing a general picture into which we can fit the three more detailed articles History of Seattle before 1900, History of Seattle 1900-1940, History of Seattle since 1940. It should be the main article of an article series, much as French Revolution provides an overview summarizing Causes of the French Revolution, Estates-General of 1789, National Assembly (French Revolution), Storming of the Bastille, etc. - Jmabel | Talk 23:56, 30 July 2006 (UTC)
 * GoDot, why was this done? Your edit summaries do not provide an explanation. I am with Jmabel's feeling that "this should be a single, appropriate-length article providing a general picture into which we can fit the three more detailed articles...the main article of an article series." --Lukobe 02:17, 31 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Reverted all subsequent to last by Jeff Soapy Smith (add Klondike Gold Rush). I inadvertently pasted a block of text for another article (before 1900) into this one. Mea culpa. I'll figure which and where, off-line when I have time. I felt there was something a little too similar between them at the time, but I didn't realize what it was. For now, the last word on the definitive History of Seattle is Jeff Soapy Smith : ) --GoDot 21:22, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

Emmett Shear material
I now have a copy of Emmett Shear's paper, which Yale recently removed from their site where we had it linked (thanks, Emmett). Yale doesn't allow the Internet Archive to re-publish from their site, so it's never going to show up on the archive. Emmett would apparently be perfectly happy for Wikimedia to make his paper available again online. Is there some appropriate place to put it? Can it go in WikiSource? If not, does anyone have suggestions? - Jmabel | Talk 16:26, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
 * I think it can definitely go in WikiSource. From :

Wikisource (en.wikisource.org/) is a Free Library of source texts which are in the public domain or legally available for free redistribution. Wikisource is an official project of the Wikimedia Foundation and a sister project of Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. So as long as Emmett agrees to put his paper under a free license or in the public domain, it's all good. --Lukobe 18:12, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
 * It's now at wikisource:Seattle: Booms and Busts. I'm in the process of tedious cleanup, because it was an RTF file. - Jmabel | Talk 01:02, 3 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Nice.. thanks! --Lukobe 06:32, 3 August 2006 (UTC)

U.W. Library photo collection
I trimmed out the long list of links to U.W. library photo collections, reducing it to just a link to Photographic collections grouped by subject. This was turning into too much of a link repository.

Here are the links I cut. Many of these might be appropriate links in articles with a narrower focus, and I'd welcome them being appropriately "distributed".
 * William F. Boyd Photograph Album 43 photographs of early Seattle, particularly scenes of the aftermath of the Great Seattle Fire of June 6, 1889, and Washington state, ca. 1888-1893.
 * Boyd and Braas Photographs 45 photographs, c. 1888-1893, of early Seattle, including the waterfront and street scenes, Madrona and Leschi parks, Native American hop pickers, and portraits of Seattle pioneers.
 * Asahel Curtis Photo Company Photographs Photographs (ca. 1850s-1940) depicting activities in Washington state, the Pacific Northwest, and Alaska and the Klondike.
 * Frank La Roche Photographs. 312 photographs c. 1888-1910 depicting scenes of the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush, Seattle, Washington state, Alaska, western United States, and Canada.
 * Lake Union Improvement Company Photograph Album A small photograph album (ca. 1891) used as a sales tool. Photographed by Frank La Roche, it contains an historical photographic record of early Seattle and its expansion northwards along the shores of Lake Union.
 * James Patrick Lee Photographs 270 photographs of Seattle, ca. 1904-1940, depicting regrading projects, municipal services, and local neighborhood architecture, as well as scenes from the Great Depression including "Hooverville" and labor rallies of the unemployed.
 * Theodore E. Peiser Photographs. 140 images from the later part of the 19th century to about 1907. Among his subjects were images of troops preparing to embark from Fort Lawton to China in 1900, the Territorial University (later University of Washington), and early Seattle scenes.
 * Prosch Seattle Views Album. 169 images by Thomas Prosch, one of Seattle's earliest pioneers, documenting the early history of Seattle and vicinity, c. 1851-1906.
 * Seattle Photographs Ongoing database of over 1,700 historical photographs of Seattle with special emphasis on images depicting neighborhoods, recreational activities including baseball, the Great Seattle Fire of 1889, "The Great Snow of 1916", theaters and transportation.
 * Calvin F. Todd Photographs Collection includes images from 1905-1930 of the University of Washington campus and scenes from Seattle including the waterfront, various buildings especially apartments, regrading activities, and the Pike Place Market.
 * Arthur Churchill Warner Photographs. Images by the pioneer photographer A.C. Warner, from the late 1800s and early 1900s, of Seattle conventional street scenes, waterfront activity, city parks, and regrading of downtown.

- Jmabel | Talk 07:02, 18 October 2006 (UTC)

 * There are many parks like the Green Lake Park. Ds54468989 (talk) 21:25, 21 February 2023 (UTC)

Recent History needs fixing
The section covering the most recent history, specifically the last paragraph in that section, reads poorly and needs to be cleaned up. It is editorialized and not appropriate voice for a wikipedia article. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.89.130.70 (talk) 21:44, 5 October 2014 (UTC)

Timeline of Seattle
What is missing from the recently created city timeline article? Please add relevant content. Contributions welcome. Thank you. -- M2545 (talk) 08:48, 18 May 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified
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Fun things to do in Seattle
In the lower queen anne there is a space needle in side of it there are restaunts. Ds54468989 (talk) 21:23, 21 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:History of Seattle


text:
Sterna

Sterna is a genus of terns in the bird family Laridae. The genus used to encompass most "white" terns indiscriminately, but mtDNA sequence comparisons have recently determined that this arrangement is paraphyletic. It is now restricted to the typical medium-sized white terns occurring near-globally in coastal regions.

Taxonomy
The genus Sterna was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. The type species is the common tern (Sterna hirundo). Sterna is derived from Old English "stearn" which appears in the poem The Seafarer; a similar word was used to refer to terns by the Frisians.

Species
The genus contains 13 species.

For the "brown-backed terns" see genus Onychoprion.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sterna


text:
Adam Kadmon

In Kabbalah, Adam Kadmon (אָדָם קַדְמוֹן, ʾāḏām qaḏmōn, "Primordial Man") also called Adam Elyon (אָדָם עֶלִיוֹן, ʾāḏām ʿelyōn, "Most High Man"), or Adam Ila'ah (אָדָם עִילָּאָה, ʾāḏām ʿīllāʾā "Supreme Man"), sometimes abbreviated as A"K (א"ק, ʾA.Q.), is the first of Four Worlds that came into being after the contraction of God's infinite light. Adam Kadmon is not the same as the physical Adam Ha-Rishon.

In Lurianic Kabbalah, the description of Adam Kadmon is anthropomorphic. Nonetheless, Adam Kadmon is divine light without vessels, i.e., pure potential. In the human psyche, Adam Kadmon corresponds to the yechidah, the collective essence of the soul.

Philo
The first to use the expression "original man," or "heavenly man," was Philo, in whose view the γενικός, or οὐράνιος ἄνθρωπος, "as being born in the image of God, has no participation in any corruptible or earthlike essence; whereas the earthly man is made of loose material, called a lump of clay." The heavenly man, as the perfect image of the Logos, is neither man nor woman, but an incorporeal intelligence purely an idea; while the earthly man, who was created by God later, is perceptible to the senses and partakes of earthly qualities. Philo is evidently combining philosophy and Midrash, Plato and the rabbis.

Setting out from the duplicate biblical account of Adam, who was formed in the image of God, and of the first man, whose body God formed from the earth , he combines with it the Platonic theory of forms; taking the primordial Adam as the idea, and the created man of flesh and blood as the "image." That Philo's philosophic views are grounded on the Midrash, and not vice versa, is evident from his seemingly senseless statement that the "heavenly man," the οὐράνιος ἄνθρωπος (who is merely an idea), is "neither man nor woman." This doctrine, however, becomes quite intelligible in view of the following ancient Midrash.

Midrash
The remarkable contradiction between Genesis 1:27 and Genesis 2:7 could not escape the attention of the Pharisees, for whom the Bible was a subject of close study. In explaining the various views concerning Eve's creation, they taught that Adam was created as a man-woman (androgynos), explaining "זָכָ֥ר וּנְקֵבָ֖ה" as "male and female" instead of "man and woman," and that the separation of the sexes arose from the subsequent operation upon Adam's body, as related in the Scripture. This explains Philo's statement that the original man was neither man nor woman.

This doctrine concerning the Logos, as also that of man made "in the likeness," although tinged with true Philonic coloring, is also based on the theology of the Pharisees. Genesis Rabbah: "Thou hast formed me behind and before' is to be explained 'before the first and after the last day of Creation.' For it is said, 'And the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters,' meaning the spirit of the Messiah ['the spirit of Adam' in the parallel passage, Midr. Teh. to cxxxix. 5; both readings are essentially the same], of whom it is said, 'And the spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him.'" This contains the kernel of Philo's philosophical doctrine of the creation of the original man. He calls him the idea of the earthly Adam, while with the rabbis the spirit (רוח) of Adam not only existed before the creation of the earthly Adam, but was preexistent to the whole of creation. From the preexisting Adam, or Messiah, to the Logos is merely a step.

Kabbalah
In Kabbalah, before creation began, all that existed was God's Infinite Light. The first stage of creation began when God contracted His Infinite Light to create the vacuum. Then a ray of divine light penetrated the vacuum and the persona of Adam Kadmon was projected into the vacuum. The first stage of Adam Kadmon was in the form of ten concentric circles (igulim), which emanated from the ray. The ray of light was then enclothed by the anthropomorphic form of Adam Kadmon (Tohu and Tikun), which is a realm of infinite divine light without vessels, constrained by its potential to create future Existence. Adam Kadmon is sometimes referred to as Adam Ila'a (Aramaic: "upper man") or Adam Elyon (Hebrew: "upper man").

The soul of Adam HaRishon ("the first man") was the supreme essence of mankind. It contained within it all subsequent souls. In the midrash, he is sometimes referred to as Adam HaKadmoni ("the ancient man"), Adam Tata'a (Aramaic: "lower man") or Adam Tachton (Hebrew: "lower man").

The anthropomorphic name of Adam Kadmon denotes that it contains both the ultimate divine purpose for creation, i.e., mankind, as well as an embodiment of the Sefirot (divine attributes). Adam Kadmon is paradoxically both "Adam" and divine ("Kadmon-Primary").

Adam Kadmon preceded the manifestation of the Four Worlds, Atzilut ("emanation"), Beriah ("creation"), Yetzirah ("formation") and Asiyah ("action"). Whereas each of the Four Worlds is represented by one letter of the divine four-lettered name of God, Adam Kadmon is represented by the transcendental cusp of the first letter Yud.

In the system of the sefirot, Adam Kadmon corresponds to Keter ("crown"), the divine will that motivated creation.

The two versions of Kabbalistic theosophy, the "medieval/classic/Zoharic" (systemised by Moshe Cordovero) and the more comprehensive Lurianic, describe the process of descending worlds differently. For Cordovero, the sefirot, Adam Kadmon and the Four Worlds evolve sequentially from the Ein Sof (divine infinity). For Luria, creation is a dynamic process of divine exile-rectification enclothement, where Adam Kadmon is preceded by the Tzimtzum (Divine "contraction") and followed by Shevira (the "shattering" of the sefirot).

Closely related to the Philonic doctrine of the heavenly Adam is the Adam Ḳadmon (called also Adam 'Ilaya, the "high man," the "heavenly man") of the Zohar, whose conception of the original man can be deduced from the following passages: "The form of man is the image of everything that is above [in heaven] and below [upon earth]; therefore did the Holy Ancient [God] select it for His own form."

As with Philo the Logos is the original image of man, or the original man, so in the Zohar the heavenly man is the embodiment of all divine manifestations: the ten Sefirot, the original image of man. The heavenly Adam, stepping forth out of the highest original darkness, created the earthly Adam. In other words, the activity of the original essence manifested itself in the creation of man, who at the same time is the image of the heavenly man and of the universe, just as with Plato and Philo the idea of man, as microcosm, embraces the idea of the universe or macrocosm.

The conception of Adam Ḳadmon becomes an important factor in the later Kabbalah of Isaac Luria. Adam Ḳadmon is with him no longer the concentrated manifestation of the Sefirot, but a mediator between the En-Sof ("infinite") and the Sefirot. The En-Sof, according to Luria, is so utterly incomprehensible that the older Kabbalistic doctrine of the manifestation of the En-Sof in the Sefirot must be abandoned. Hence he teaches that only the Adam Ḳadmon, who arose in the way of self-limitation by the En-Sof, can be said to manifest himself in the Sefirot. This theory of Luria is treated by Ḥayyim Vital in "'Eẓ Ḥayyim; Derush 'Agulim we-Yosher" (Treatise on Circles and the Straight Line).

Gnosticism
The Primeval Man (Protanthropos, Adam) occupies a prominent place in several Gnostic systems. In the Coptic Nag Hammadi texts, the archetypical Adam is known as Pigeradamas or Geradamas. According to Irenaeus the Aeon Autogenes emits the true and perfect Anthrôpos, also called Adamas; he has a helpmate, "Perfect Knowledge", and receives an irresistible force, so that all things rest in him. Others say there is a blessed and incorruptible and endless light in the power of Bythos; this is the Father of all things who is invoked as the First Man, who, with his Ennoia, emits "the Son of Man", or Euteranthrôpos.

According to Valentinus, Adam was created in the name of Anthrôpos and overawes the demons by the fear of the pre-existent man (). In the Valentinian syzygies and in the Marcosian system, we meet in the fourth (originally the third) place Anthrôpos and Ecclesia.

In the Pistis Sophia, the Aeon Jeu is called the First Man, he is the overseer of the Light, messenger of the First Precept, and constitutes the forces of the Heimarmene. In the Books of Jeu this "great Man" is the King of the Light-treasure, he is enthroned above all things and is the goal of all souls.

According to the Naassenes, the Protanthropos is the first element; the fundamental being before its differentiation into individuals. "The Son of Man" is the same being after it has been individualized into existing things and thus sunk into matter.

The Gnostic Anthrôpos, therefore, or Adamas, as it is sometimes called, is a cosmogonic element, pure mind as distinct from matter, mind conceived hypostatically as emanating from God and not yet darkened by contact with matter. This mind is considered as the reason of humanity, or humanity itself, as a personified idea, a category without corporeality, the human reason conceived as the World-Soul. The same idea, somewhat modified, occurs in Hermetic literature, especially the Poimandres.

In Manichaeism
A portion of these Gnostic teachings, when combined with Zoroastrianism, furnished Mani with his particular doctrine of the original man. He even retains the Jewish designations "Adam Kadmon" (= אדם קדמון) and "Nakhash Kadmon" (= נחש קדמון), as may be seen in Al-Fihrist. But, according to Mani, the original man is fundamentally distinct from the first father of the human race. He is a creation of the King of Light, and is therefore endowed with five elements of the kingdom of light; whereas Adam really owes his existence to the kingdom of darkness, and only escapes belonging altogether to the number of demons through the fact that he bears the likeness of the original man in the elements of light contained within him. The Gnostic doctrine of the identity of Adam, as the original man, with the Messiah appears in Mani in his teaching of the "Redeeming Christ," who has his abode in the sun and moon, but is identical with the original man. It also appears in this theory that Adam was the first of the sevenfold series of true prophets, comprising Adam, Seth, Noah, Abraham, Zoroaster, Buddha, and Jesus. The stepping-stone from the Gnostic original man to Manichaeism was probably the older Mandaean conception, which may have exercised great influence. Of this conception, however, there remains in the later Mandaean writings little more than the expression "Gabra Ḳadmaya" (Adam Ḳadmon).

In Mandaeism
Adam Kasia, also referred to using the portmanteau Adakas in the Ginza Rabba, means "the hidden Adam" in Mandaic. The hidden Adam is also called Adam Qadmaiia ("First Adam") or Gabra Qadmaiia  ("First Man"). In Mandaeism, it means the soul of the first man and the soul of every human. Adam Kasia shows many similarities with the Jewish idea of Adam Kadmon.

In other traditions
Outside of an Abrahamic context, the Cosmic Man is also an archetypical figure that appears in creation myths of a wide variety of cultures. Generally he is described as bestowing life upon all things, and is also frequently the physical basis of the world, such that after death parts of his body became physical parts of the universe. He also represents the oneness of human existence, or the universe.

For instance, in the Purusha sukta of the Rigveda, Purusha (Sanskrit , पुरुष "man," or "Cosmic Man") is sacrificed by the devas from the foundation of the world—his mind is the Moon, his eyes are the Sun, and his breath is the wind. He is described as having a thousand heads and a thousand feet.

In popular culture
One tradition associates Adam Kadmon or the biblical Adam and the figure of Cadmus in Greek mythology, both associated with dragons/serpents.

The Marvel Comics character Eternity has called himself Adam Qadmon.

In Persona 5 Royal, the ultimate Persona of the antagonist Takuto Maruki is named Adam Kadmon.

title: Adam Kadmon


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Roman usurper

Roman usurpers were individuals or groups of individuals who obtained or tried to obtain power by force and without legitimate legal authority. Usurpation was endemic during the Roman imperial era, especially from the crisis of the third century onwards, when political instability became the rule.

Instability
The first dynasty of the Roman Empire, the Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC – 68 AD), justified the imperial throne with familial ties through adoption. However, conflicts within the family led to the demise of the line. Nero committed suicide in 68 as an enemy of the people, resulting in a brief civil war. The Flavian dynasty started with Vespasian, only to end with the assassination of his second son, Domitian. Throughout most of the 2nd century, the empire enjoyed relative stability under the rule of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty, but the next century would be characterised by endemic political instability, one of the factors that eventually contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Commodus, the last emperor of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty dynasty, was remembered by contemporaneous chronicles as an unpopular ruler notorious for his extravagance and cruelty, and he was assassinated in 192. Without sons to be his heir, a struggle for power immediately broke out among the governors of the most important provinces. Pertinax was elevated to the purple and recognized by his peers, but after his murder by a restive Praetorian Guard, Septimius Severus decided to make his bid for power and usurped the throne. Although initially a usurper, Severus managed to remain in power for the next 18 years and died a natural death while he was campaigning in northern Britain. The 235 death of Severus Alexander, the last emperor of the Severan dynasty, triggered what historians call the Crisis of the Third Century. From 235 to the accession of Diocletian and the establishment of the Tetrarchy in 286, Rome saw 28 emperors, only two of whom had a natural death (from the plague). However, there were also 38 usurpers who raised revolts across the empire, a clear sign that the security of the frontiers was not the only problem within the Roman world. Usurpation attempts were a constant worry for the emperors in this period since it was a too-common method of acceding the throne. Successful usurpers were usually provincial governors; commanders of a large grouping of Roman legions; or prefects of the Praetorian Guard, which had control of Rome, where the imperial palace still lay.

The danger of usurpation was greater after the death of an emperor when his successor was not accepted by all provinces. Usually, the legions acclaimed their own commander as emperor on news of the accession of a less popular man. The acclaimed emperor, usually a provincial governor, would then march to Italy or where the opponent was stationed to contest for the purple. However, since legionaries disliked fighting against their brothers in arms, battles between legions rarely transpired. Two main factors decided the success of a usurpation attempt: the loyalty of the legionaries, which were heavily dependent on the amount of booty or monetary prizes promised on victory, and the trust of the military abilities of the commander upon which depended morale. Failure of either part to fulfill one or two of the criteria normally resulted in a mutiny and the death at the hands of their own soldiers. Since the emperors had the status quo and political credibility behind them, the usurper had to be a charismatic man to avoid doubts in his ranks and an untimely death. Valerian I, who defeated Aemilianus, himself a usurper, is an example of that kind. Other usurpers, like Philip the Arab, became emperor by a planned murder directed at an established sovereign (in that case, Gordian III).

However successful, the usurpation procedure always left the new emperor in a somewhat fragile political position since the throne had been attained by violent means. The danger of another usurper was always present, and the first measures taken were inevitably to put trusted men into important commands. Frequently, the emperor embellished his ancestry and early life to enhance his credibility or the right to the throne. Mentions of obscure genealogical relations with previous popular emperors were common and certainly confused historians. However, most of all, the usurper maneuvered to keep his legions happy since he owed his power to their continued loyalty.

Practical effects
The usurpation mania of the 3rd century had profound effects in the empire's bureaucratic and military organisation. Fear of potential rivals was to be the main driving force for the evolution of the Roman world from the early to the late Empire.

One of the most striking changes was the division and multiplication of the Roman provinces. Provinces were ruled by a governor, whether a proconsul, propraetor or procurator, and were ascribed a certain number of legions, according to the degree of pacification that they required. Thus, the governors of, for instance, Moesia or Pannonia in the Danubian border had huge military contingents on their hands. The greater the number of legions a provincial governor had, the greater the temptation to make a bid to the throne. And indeed, most usurpation attempts came from the Asian province of Syria, and the Rhine and Danube provinces, frontier provinces with large military presence. Thus, provinces were slowly divided into smaller units to avoid concentration of power and military capacity in the hands of one man. Syria is a perfect example: a single province in AD 14, it was in the mid-3rd century divided into four different administrative regions: Tres Daciae, Cappadocia, Syria Coele and Syria Palestina. Similarly, Moesia and Pannonia were divided into Superior and Inferior (Upper and Lower) halves; Dardania was later separated from Moesia and Pannonia was further divided into Prima, Valeria, Savia and Secunda.

As the fear of civil war increased, the emperor felt the need of legions permanently in his reach to be deployed against possible internal threats. That caused the geographic division of the army into limitanei legions, which remained in the borders, and comitatenses, which were stationed in strategic points within the empire. Legio II Parthica, which was garrisoned in the Alban mountains outside Rome from the time of Septimius Severus, was among the first comitatenses created.

Men had to be removed from the frontier garrisons to create the internal legions. A smaller number of border legions meant less-secure borders and eventually, raids from the Germanic and Gothic tribes against the Rhine and the Danube became more frequent. In the East, the Persian Empire grew bolder in its attacks on the Roman communities. Moreover, since individual initiative was a common way to assume the imperial purple, the giving of important commands to competent generals was asking for trouble. Jealousy and fear often prevented the presence of the right man to deal with a specific threat, and so marginal provinces were often raided, sacked or conquered.

Assessment of usurpers
The only usurpers whose early life and specific circumstances of rebellion are known with reasonable certainty are the ones who would become emperors. The unsuccessful usurpation attempts inevitably ended with the rebel's execution, murder or suicide and the subsequent erasure of his life from all records. That often causes confusion in the contemporaneous sources that are contradictory in the details of a certain rebellion. For instance, the usurper Uranius is placed by some in the reign of Elagabalus and by others in the time of Gallienus.

Every new emperor, either legal or illegal, marked the beginning of his rule by minting new coins, both to have the prestige of declaring oneself as Augustus and to pay the loyal soldiers their share. Thus, coinage is often the only evidence of a determined usurpation, but the number of coin types with the effigy of a usurper might not be equal to the total number of usurpations. The presence of minting facilities certainly allowed short-term usurpers to release their coinage, but on the other hand, a man capable of sustaining a rebellion for a couple of months in a remote area might fail to produce his own coins by lack of access to the instruments of minting technology.

Later assessment of usurpations demonstrated that some are questionable or even fictitious. Gallienus was the emperor who suffered greatest number of usurpations, with a record of 14 attempts (excluding the Gallic Empire secession) in 15 years of rule. However, three of these are clear fabrications, either contemporaneous to show the invincibility of the emperor or added by later writers to embellish their own prose.

title: Roman usurper


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Procurator

Procurator (with procuracy or procuratorate referring to the office itself) may refer to:

 * Procurator, one engaged in procuration, the action of taking care of, hence management, stewardship, agency
 * Procurator (Ancient Rome), the title of various officials of the Roman Empire
 * Procurator (Teutonic Knights), a position in the Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights
 * Procurator of San Marco, the second most prestigious life appointment in the Republic of Venice
 * HM Procurator General and Treasury Solicitor, "HM Procurator General" being one of the positions held by the Treasury Solicitor in the United Kingdom
 * Procurator fiscal, the public prosecutor in Scotland
 * Procurator to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, chief counsel to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
 * Public procurator, a position in some Roman law systems, analogous to both detective and public prosecutor, including:
 * Procurator (Russia), an office of the Russian Empire
 * Prosecutor General of Russia, heads the system of official prosecution in courts known as the Office of the Prosecutor General of Russian Federation (Генеральная прокуратура Российской Федерации, Generalnaya prokuratura Rossiyskoy Federatsy)
 * General Prosecutor of Ukraine
 * Procurator General of the Soviet Union, the highest functionary of the Office of Public Procurator of the USSR, responsible for the whole system of offices of public procurators and supervision of their activities on the territory of the Soviet Union
 * People's procuratorates, part of the judicial system of China
 * Supreme People's Procuratorate, China
 * Supreme People's Procuracy of Vietnam, an office of the Vietnamese government
 * General Procuracy of the Republic, Mexico
 * Legal procurator, a warranted legal professional in several countries, including Malta and Argentina.
 * Procurator (Finland), the equivalent of Chancellor of Justice of Finland in the Grand Duchy of Finland
 * the head of one of the "nations", regionally based separate corporate bodies in certain universities, most famously the medieval University of Paris
 * Procurator (Catholic canon law): in a monastery, the monk or nun charged with administering its financial affairs

Literature

 * Procurator (novel), an alternate history novel by Kirk Mitchell

title: Procurator


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Ramon Magsaysay

Ramon del Fierro Magsaysay  (August 31, 1907 – March 17, 1957) was a Filipino statesman who served as the seventh President of the Philippines, from December 30, 1953, until his death in an aircraft disaster on March 17, 1957. An automobile mechanic by profession, Magsaysay was appointed military governor of Zambales after his outstanding service as a guerrilla leader during the Pacific War. He then served two terms as Liberal Party congressman for Zambales's at-large district before being appointed Secretary of National Defense by President Elpidio Quirino. He was elected president under the banner of the Nacionalista Party. He was the youngest to be elected as president, and second youngest to be president (after Emilio Aguinaldo). He was the first Philippine president born in the 20th century and the first to be born after the Spanish colonial era.

Biography

Ramon del Fierro Magsaysay, of mixed Filipino Spanish, and Chinese descent, was born in Iba, Zambales on August 31, 1907, to Exequiel de los Santos Magsaysay (April 18, 1874 in San Marcelino, Zambales – January 24, 1969 in Manila), a blacksmith, and Perfecta Quimson del Fierro (April 18, 1886 in Castillejos, Zambales – May 5, 1981 in Manila), a Chinese mestizo schoolteacher, nurse.

He spent his grade school life somewhere in Castillejos and his high school life at Zambales Academy in San Narciso, Zambales. After college, Magsaysay entered the University of the Philippines in 1927, where he enrolled in a Mechanical Engineering course. He first worked as a chauffeur to support himself as he studied engineering; and later, he transferred to the Institute of Commerce at José Rizal College (now José Rizal University) from 1928 to 1932, where he received a baccalaureate in commerce. He then worked as an automobile mechanic for a bus company and shop superintendent.

Career during World War II
At the outbreak of World War II, he joined the motor pool of the 31st Infantry Division of the Philippine Army.

When Bataan surrendered in 1942, Magsaysay escaped to the hills, narrowly evading Japanese arrest on at least four occasions. There he organised the Western Luzon Guerrilla Forces, and was commissioned captain on April 5, 1942. For three years, Magsaysay operated under Col. Frank Merrill's famed guerrilla outfit and saw action at Sawang, San Marcelino, Zambales, first as a supply officer codenamed Chow and later as commander of a 10,000-strong force.

Magsaysay was among those instrumental in clearing the Zambales coast of the Japanese prior to the landing of American forces together with the Philippine Commonwealth troops on January 29, 1945.

Family
He was married to Luz Rosauro Banzon on June 16, 1933, and they had three children: Teresita (1934–1979), Milagros (b. 1936) and Ramon Jr. (b. 1938).

Other Relatives

Several of Magsaysay's relatives became prominent public figures in their own right:
 * Ramon "Jun" Banzon Magsaysay Jr., son; former Congressman and Senator
 * Francisco "Paco" Delgado Magsaysay, entrepreneur
 * Genaro Magsaysay, brother; former Senator
 * Vicente Magsaysay, nephew; Former Governor of Zambales
 * JB Magsaysay, grandnephew; actor, politician, and businessman
 * Antonio M. Diaz, nephew; Congressman and Assemblyman of Zambales
 * Anita Magsaysay-Ho, cousin; painter

House of Representatives
On April 22, 1946, Magsaysay, encouraged by his fellow ex-guerrillas, was elected under the Liberal Party to the Philippine House of Representatives. In 1948, President Manuel Roxas chose Magsaysay to go to Washington, D.C. as Chairman of the Committee on Guerrilla Affairs, to help to secure passage of the Rogers Veterans Bill, giving benefits to Philippine veterans. In the so-called "dirty election" of 1949, he was re-elected to a second term in the House of Representatives. During both terms, he was Chairman of the House National Defense Committee.

Secretary of National Defense
In early August 1950, he offered President Elpidio Quirino a plan to fight the Communist guerrillas, using his own experiences in guerrilla warfare during World War II. After some hesitation, Quirino realized that there was no alternative and appointed Magsaysay Secretary of National Defence in September 1950. He intensified the campaign against the Hukbalahap guerrillas. This success was due in part to the unconventional methods he took up from a former advertising expert and CIA agent, Colonel Edward Lansdale. In the counterinsurgency the two utilized deployed soldiers distributing relief goods and other forms of aid to outlying, provincial communities. Prior to Magsaysay's appointment as Defense Secretary, rural citizens perceived the Philippine Army with apathy and distrust. However, Magsaysay's term enhanced the Army's image, earning them respect and admiration.

In June 1952, Magsaysay made a goodwill tour to the United States and Mexico. He visited New York, Washington, D.C. (with a medical check-up at Walter Reed Hospital) and Mexico City, where he spoke at the Annual Convention of Lions International.

By 1953, President Quirino thought the threat of the Huks was under control and Secretary Magsaysay was becoming too weak. Magsaysay met with interference and obstruction from the President and his advisers, in fears they might be unseated at the next presidential election. Although Magsaysay had at that time no intention to run, he was urged from many sides and finally was convinced that the only way to continue his fight against communism, and for a government for the people, was to be elected president, ousting the corrupt administration that, in his opinion, had caused the rise of the communist guerrillas by bad administration. He resigned his post as defense secretary on February 28, 1953, and became the presidential candidate of the Nacionalista Party, disputing the nomination with Senator Camilo Osías at the Nacionalista national convention.

1951 Padilla incident
When news reached Magsaysay that his political ally Moises Padilla was being tortured by men of provincial governor Rafael Lacson, he rushed to Negros Occidental, but was too late. He was then informed that Padilla's body was drenched in blood, pierced by fourteen bullets, and was positioned on a police bench in the town plaza. Magsaysay himself carried Padilla's corpse with his bare hands and delivered it to the morgue, and the next day, news clips showed pictures of him doing so. Magsaysay even used this event during his presidential campaign in 1953.

The trial against Lacson started in January 1952; Magsaysay and his men presented enough evidence to convict Lacson and his 26 men for murder. In August 1954, Judge Eduardo Enríquez ruled the men were guilty and Lacson, his 25 men and three other mayors of Negros Occidental municipalities were condemned to the electric chair.

Manila Railroad leadership
Magsaysay was also the general manager of the Manila Railroad Company between October and December 1951. His tenure later motivated him to modernize the rail operator's fleet after stepping into presidency. He also set the first steps in building what has been the discontinued Cagayan Valley Railroad Extension project.

1953 presidential campaign
Presidential elections were held on November 10, 1953, in the Philippines. Incumbent President Elpidio Quirino lost his opportunity for a second full term as President of the Philippines to former Defense Secretary Magsaysay. His running mate, Senator José Yulo lost to Senator Carlos P. García. Vice President Fernando López did not run for re-election. This was the first time that an elected Philippine President did not come from the Senate. Moreover, Magsaysay began the practice in the Philippines of "campaign jingles" during elections, for one of his inclinations and hobbies was dancing. The jingles that were used during the election period was "Mambo Magsaysay"", "We Want Magsaysay", and "The Magsaysay Mambo"

The United States Government, including the Central Intelligence Agency, had strong influence on the 1953 election, and candidates in the election fiercely competed with each other for U.S. support.

Presidency (1953–1957)
In the election of 1953, Magsaysay was decisively elected president over the incumbent Elpidio Quirino. He was sworn into office wearing the barong tagalog, a first by a Philippine President. He was then called "Mambo Magsaysay". Also dressed in barong tagalog was the elected vice-president Carlos P. Garcia.

As President, he was a close friend and supporter of the United States and a vocal spokesman against communism during the Cold War. He led the foundation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, also known as the Manila Pact of 1954, that aimed to defeat communist-Marxist movements in Southeast Asia, South Asia and the Southwestern Pacific.

During his term, he made Malacañang literally a "house of the people", opening its gates to the public. One example of his integrity followed a demonstration flight aboard a new plane belonging to the Philippine Air Force (PAF): President Magsaysay asked what the operating costs per hour were for that type of aircraft, then wrote a personal check to the PAF, covering the cost of his flight. He restored the people's trust in the military and in the government.

Presidential Inauguration Day
Ushering a new era in Philippine government, President Magsaysay placed emphasis upon service to the people by bringing the government closer to the former.

This was symbolically seen when, on inauguration day, President Magsaysay ordered the gates of Malacañan Palace be opened to the general public, who were allowed to freely visit all parts of the Palace complex. Later, this was regulated to allow weekly visitation.

True to his electoral promise, he created the Presidential Complaints and Action Committee. This body immediately proceeded to hear grievances and recommend remedial action. Headed by soft-spoken, but active and tireless, Manuel Manahan, this committee would come to hear nearly 60,000 complaints in a year, of which more than 30,000 would be settled by direct action and a little more than 25,000 would be referred to government agencies for appropriate follow-up. This new entity, composed of youthful personnel, all loyal to the President, proved to be a highly successful morale booster restoring the people's confidence in their own government. He appointed Zotico "Tex" Paderanga Carrillo in 1953 as PCAC Chief for Mindanao and Sulu. He became a close friend to the president because of his charisma to the common people of Mindanao.

Zotico was a local journalist and an esteemed writer from a prominent family on Camiguin, (then sub-province of Misamis Oriental), Zotico become a depository of complaints and an eye of the president in the region his diplomatic skills helped the government, moro and the rebels to learn the true situation in every city and municipalities. With his zero corruption mandate he recognized a turn of achievement of Zotico that made him his compadre when Zotico named his fifth child after the President when he was elected in 1953, even making the President godfather to the boy. Magsaysay personally visited Mindanao several times because of this friendship, becoming the first President to visit Camiguin, where he was warmly received by thousands of people who waited for his arrival.

Agrarian reform
To amplify and stabilize the functions of the Economic Development Corps (EDCOR), President Magsaysay worked for the establishment of the National Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA). This body took over from the EDCOR and helped in the giving some sixty-five thousand acres to three thousand indigent families for settlement purposes. Again, it allocated some other twenty-five thousand to a little more than one thousand five hundred landless families, who subsequently became farmers.

As further aid to the rural people, the president established the Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Financing Administration (ACCFA). The idea was for this entity to make available rural credits. Records show that it did grant, in this wise, almost ten million dollars. This administration body next devoted its attention to cooperative marketing.

Along this line of help to the rural areas, President Magsaysay initiated in all earnestness the artesian wells campaign. A group-movement known as the Liberty Wells Association was formed and in record time managed to raise a considerable sum for the construction of as many artesian wells as possible. The socio-economic value of the same could not be gainsaid and the people were profuse in their gratitude.

Finally, vast irrigation projects, as well as enhancement of the Ambuklao Power plant and other similar ones, went a long way towards bringing to reality the rural improvement program advocated by President Magsaysay.

President Magsaysay enacted the following laws as part of his Agrarian Reform Program:
 * Republic Act No. 1160 of 1954 – Abolished the LASEDECO and established the National Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA) to resettle dissidents and landless farmers. It was particularly aimed at rebel returnees providing home lots and farmlands in Palawan and Mindanao.
 * Republic Act No. 1199 (Agricultural Tenancy Act of 1954) – governed the relationship between landowners and tenant farmers by organizing share-tenancy and leasehold system. The law provided the security of tenure of tenants. It also created the Court of Agrarian Relations.
 * Republic Act No. 1400 (Land Reform Act of 1955) – Created the Land Tenure Administration (LTA) which was responsible for the acquisition and distribution of large tenanted rice and corn lands over 200 hectares for individuals and 600 hectares for corporations.
 * Republic Act No. 821 (Creation of Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing Administration) – Provided small farmers and share tenants loans with low interest rates of six to eight percent.

Hukbong Bayan Laban sa Hapon
In early 1954, Benigno Aquino Jr. was appointed by President Magsaysay to act as his personal emissary to Luis Taruc, leader of the rebel group, Hukbalahap. Also in 1954, Lt. Col. Laureño Maraña, the former head of Force X of the 16th PC Company, assumed command of the 7th BCT, which had become one of the most mobile striking forces of the Philippine ground forces against the Huks, from Colonel Valeriano. Force X employed psychological warfare through combat intelligence and infiltration that relied on secrecy in planning, training, and execution of attack. The lessons learned from Force X and Nenita were combined in the 7th BCT.

With the all out anti-dissidence campaigns against the Huks, they numbered less than 2,000 by 1954 and without the protection and support of local supporters, active Huk resistance no longer presented a serious threat to Philippine security. From February to mid-September 1954, the largest anti-Huk operation, "Operation Thunder-Lightning" was conducted that resulted in Taruc's surrender on May 17. Further cleanup operations of the remaining guerrillas lasted throughout 1955, cutting their number to less than 1,000 by year's end.

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
The administration of President Magsaysay was active in the fight against the expansion of communism in Asia. He made the Philippines a member of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), which was established in Manila on September 8, 1954, during the "Manila Conference". Members of SEATO were alarmed at the possible victory of North Vietnam over South Vietnam, which could spread communist ideology to other countries in the region. The possibility that a communist state can influence or cause other countries to adopt the same system of government is called the domino theory.

The active coordination of the Magsaysay administration with the Japanese government led to the Reparation Agreement. This was an agreement between the two countries, obligating the Japanese government to pay $550 million as reparation for war damages to the Philippines.

Defense Council
Taking the advantage of the presence of U.S. Secretary John Foster Dulles in Manila to attend the SEATO Conference, the Philippine government took steps to broach with him the establishment of a Joint Defense Council. Vice-President and Secretary of Foreign Affairs Carlos P. Garcia held the opportune conversations with Secretary Dulles for this purpose. Agreement was reached thereon and the first meeting of the Joint United States–Philippines Defense Council was held in Manila following the end of the Manila Conference. Thus were the terms of the Mutual Defense Pact between the Philippines and the United States duly implemented.

Laurel-Langley Agreement
The Magsaysay administration negotiated the Laurel-Langley Agreement which was a trade agreement between the Philippines and the United States which was signed in 1955 and expired in 1974. Although it proved deficient, the final agreement satisfied nearly all of the diverse Filipino economic interests. While some have seen the Laurel-Langley agreement as a continuation of the 1946 trade act, Jose P. Laurel and other Philippine leaders recognized that the agreement substantially gave the country greater freedom to industrialize while continuing to receive privileged access to US markets.

The agreement replaced the unpopular Bell Trade Act, which tied the economy of the Philippines to that of United States.

Bandung Conference
The culmination of a series of meetings to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and to oppose colonialism or neocolonialism by either the United States or the Soviet Union in the Cold War, or any other imperialistic nations, the Asian–African Conference was held in Bandung, Indonesia in April 1955, upon invitation extended by the Prime Ministers of India, Pakistan, Burma, Ceylon, and Indonesia. This summit is commonly known as the Bandung Conference. Although, at first, the Magsaysay Government seemed reluctant to send any delegation. Later, however, upon advise of Ambassador Carlos P. Rómulo, it was decided to have the Philippines participate in the conference. Rómulo was asked to head the Philippine delegation. At the very outset indications were to the effect that the conference would promote the cause of neutralism as a third position in the current Cold War between the capitalist bloc and the communist group. John Kotelawala, Prime Minister of Ceylon, however, broke the ice against neutralism. He was immediately joined by Rómulo, who categorically stated that his delegation believed that "a puppet is a puppet", no matter whether under a Western Power or an Asian state.

In the course of the conference, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru acidly spoke against the SEATO. Ambassador Rómulo delivered a stinging, eloquent retort that prompted Prime Minister Nehru to publicly apologize to the Philippine delegation. According to their account, the Philippine delegation ably represented the interests of the Philippines and, in the ultimate analysis, succeeded in turning the Bandung Conference into a victory against the plans of its socialist and neutralist delegates.

Reparation agreement
Following the reservations made by Ambassador Rómulo, on the Philippines' behalf, upon signing the Japanese Peace Treaty in San Francisco on September 8, 1951, for several years of series of negotiations were conducted by the Philippine government and that of Japan. In the face of adamant claims of the Japanese government that it found impossible to meet the demand for the payment of eight billion dollars by the way of reparations, President Magsaysay, during a so-called "cooling off" period, sent a Philippine Reparations Survey Committee, headed by Finance Secretary Jaime Hernandez, to Japan for an "on the spot" study of that country's possibilities. When the Committee reported that Japan was in a position to pay, Ambassador Felino Neri, appointed chief negotiator, went to Tokyo. On May 31, 1955, Ambassador Neri reached a compromise agreement with Japanese Minister Takazaki, the main terms of which consisted in the following: The Japanese government would pay eight hundred million dollars as reparations. Payment was to be made in this wise: Twenty million dollars would be paid in cash in Philippine currency; thirty million dollars, in services; five million dollars, in capital goods; and two hundred and fifty million dollars, in long-term industrial loans.

On August 12, 1955, President Magsaysay informed the Japanese government, through Prime Minister Ichiro Hatoyama, that the Philippines accepted the Neri-Takazaki agreement. In view of political developments in Japan, the Japanese Prime Minister could only inform the Philippine government of the Japanese acceptance of said agreement on March 15, 1956. The official Reparations agreement between the two government was finally signed at Malacañang Palace on May 9, 1956, thus bringing to a rather satisfactory conclusion this long drawn controversy between the two countries.

Death
Magsaysay's term, which was to end on December 30, 1957, was cut short by a plane crash. On March 16, 1957, Magsaysay left Manila for Cebu City where he spoke at a convention of USAFFE veterans and the commencement exercises of three educational institutions, namely: University of the Visayas, Southwestern Colleges, and the University of San Carlos. At the University of the Visayas, he was conferred an honorary Doctor of Laws. That same night, at about 1:00 am PST, he boarded the presidential plane "Mt. Pinatubo", a C-47, heading back to Manila. In the early morning hours of March 17, the plane was reported missing. By late afternoon, newspapers had reported the airplane had crashed on Mount Manunggal in Cebu, and that 36 of the 56 aboard were killed. The actual number on board was 25, including Magsaysay. Only newspaperman Nestor Mata survived. Vice President Carlos P. Garcia, who was on an official visit to Australia at the time, returned to Manila and acceded to the presidency to serve out the remaining eight months of Magsaysay's term. An estimated two million people attended Magsaysay's state funeral on March 22, 1957. He was posthumously referred to as the "Champion of the Masses" and "Defender of Democracy". After his death, vice-president Carlos P. Garcia was inducted into the presidency on March 18, 1957, to complete the last eight months of Magsaysay's term. In the presidential elections of 1957, Garcia won his four-year term as president, but his running mate was defeated.

Legacy
Magsaysay's administration was considered as one of the cleanest and most corruption-free in modern Philippine history; his rule is often cited as the Philippines's "Golden Years". Trade and industry flourished, the Philippine military was at its prime, and the country gained international recognition in sports, culture, and foreign affairs. The Philippines placed second on a ranking of Asia's clean and well-governed countries.

His presidency is seen as people-centered as government trust was high among the Filipino people, earning him the nickname "Champion of the masses" and his sympathetic approach to the Hukbalahap rebellion that the Huk rebels were not Communists; they were simple peasants who thought that rebellion was the only answer to their sufferings. He also gained nationwide support for his agrarian reforms on farmers and took action on government corruption that his administration inherited from prior administrations.

Honors
National Honors
 * PHL_Quezon_Service_Cross_BAR.png: Quezon Service Cross - posthumous (July 4, 1957)
 * PHI Order of the Golden Heart var2 Grand Collar BAR.svg: Order of the Golden Heart, Grand Collar (Maringal na Kuwintas) - posthumous (March 17, 1958)

Military Medals (Foreign)
 * 🇺🇸 United States:US Legion of Merit Commander ribbon.png: Commander, Legion of Merit (13 June 1952)

Foreign Honors
 * 🇹🇭 Thailand: Knight Grand Cordon(Special Class) of The Most Exalted Order of the White Elephant (April 1955)
 * 🇰🇭 Cambodia: Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Cambodia (January 1956)

title: Ramon Magsaysay


text:
List of Roman usurpers

The following is a list of usurpers in the Roman Empire. For an overview of the problem and consequences of usurpation, see Roman usurpers. In the Eastern Roman Empire (395–1453), rebellion and usurpation were so notoriously frequent (in the vision of the medieval West, where usurpation was rare) that the modern term "byzantine" became a byword for political intrigue and conspiracy. For usurpation in the Eastern Roman Empire, see List of Byzantine usurpers.

Key
 * kPG, killed by the Praetorian Guard
 * kS, killed by own soldiers
 * kB, killed in battle
 * e, executed
 * S, suicide
 * dates are beginning and end of reign
 * origin of the rebellion indicated where possible
 * the list is complete until the advent of the tetrarchy in the end of the 3rd century

Usurpers who became legitimate emperors
The following individuals began as usurpers, but became the legitimate emperor either by establishing uncontested control of the empire or by confirmation of their position by the Roman Senate or by the legitimate emperor.

First Imperial civil war

 * Galba (68–69)
 * Otho (69)
 * Vitellius (69)
 * Vespasian (69–79)

Second Imperial civil war

 * Septimius Severus (193–211)
 * Macrinus (217–218) in Syria, former prefect of the Praetorian Guard
 * Elagabalus (218–222)

Crisis of the Third Century

 * Maximinus Thrax (235–238) in the Rhine, former centurion
 * Gordian I and Gordian II (238) in Africa, suicide after defeat in battle
 * Philip the Arab (244–249) in the East, former prefect of the Praetorian Guard
 * Decius (249–251)
 * Trebonianus Gallus (251–253)
 * Aemilianus (253)
 * Valerian (253–260)
 * Saloninus (260)
 * Claudius Gothicus (268–270)
 * Quintillus (270)
 * Aurelian (270–275)
 * Tacitus (275–276)
 * Florianus (276)
 * Probus (276–282)
 * Carus (282–283)
 * Diocletian (284–305)

Tetrarchy and Later Empire

 * Constantine the Great (306–337)
 * Maxentius (306–312)
 * Maximinus Daza (310–313)
 * Magnentius (350–353) (only recognized by Senate)
 * Julian (360–363)
 * Jovian (363–364)
 * Valentinian I (364–375)
 * Valentinian II (375–392)
 * Magnus Maximus (383–388)
 * Eugenius (392–394) (only recognized by Senate)

Western Empire
Most Western emperors were accepted by the Roman Senate (possibly except for Constans II) but almost never recognized as colleagues by the Eastern Emperors. Three of them, (Constantine III, Priscus Attalus, and Constans II), reigned alongside the legitimate Emperor of the West Honorius, who accepted Constantine III as his co-emperor in 409. Upon his recognition, Constantine III appointed his son Constans II co-emperor.

 * Constantine III (407–411)
 * Priscus Attalus (409–410)
 * Joannes (423–425)
 * Petronius Maximus (455)
 * Avitus (455–456) (unclear if recognized by the Emperor of the East)
 * Majorian (457–461)
 * Libius Severus (461–465)
 * Olybrius (472)
 * Glycerius (473–474)
 * Romulus Augustulus (475–476)

Usurpers not considered legitimate emperors
The following individuals proclaimed themselves emperor (or were proclaimed or appointed as emperor), but are not considered as legitimate emperors because they did not oust the ruling emperor, or did not establish control of the whole empire, or were not accepted by the senate or other imperial colleagues.

They are listed here under the emperor whose rule they attempted to usurp. The noted date is the attempted year of usurpation.

Claudius: 41–54

 * Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus (42), the imperial legate of Dalmatia. Considered a possible successor to Caligula, he committed suicide on the island of Issa after his troops abandoned him.

Galba: 68–69

 * Nymphidius Sabinus (68), Nero's Praetorian Prefect, declared himself emperor after Nero's suicide, claiming he was the illegitimate son of Caligula. Killed by the Praetorian Guard as Galba approached Rome.

Titus: 79–81

 * Terentius Maximus, in Asia, took refuge with Artabanus, a Parthian leader, resembled Nero

Domitian: 81–96

 * Lucius Antonius Saturninus (89), in Germania Superior, governor of Germania Superior, could not bring in Germanic allies because the Rhine thawed, put down by Lucius Appius Maximus Norbanus.

Marcus Aurelius: 161–180

 * Avidius Cassius (175), in Egypt and Syria, governor of Syria, declared himself emperor upon the rumor that Marcus Aurelius had died, continued his revolt even upon learning Marcus Aurelius was alive.

Septimius Severus: 193–211

 * Pescennius Niger (193–194), in Egypt, Asia and Syria, governor of Syria, proclaimed himself emperor after the death of Pertinax, defeated in battle and killed while fleeing to Parthia.
 * Clodius Albinus (196–197), in Britain and Gaul, governor of Britain, originally Septimius Severus's ally until Pescennius Niger was killed, killed at the battle of Lugdunum.

Elagabalus: 218–222

 * Triccianus (c. 218)
 * Gellius Maximus (219), in Syria, executed, originally an officer of Legio IV Scythica
 * Verus (late 219), in Syria, executed, commander of Legio III Gallica
 * Uranius (c. 221), questioned existence and date; sources place him in 253
 * Seleucus (after 221). He could be Julius Antonius Seleucus, in Moesia, or M. Flavius Vitellius Seleucus, consul for 221

Alexander Severus: 222–235

 * Sallustius (c. 227), in Rome, raised to Caesar by Alexander, executed for attempted murder, prefect of the Praetorian Guard
 * Taurinus (S. date unclear), in the East, committed suicide in the Euphrates after being hailed Augustus
 * Ovinius Camillus, alleged usurper mentioned only in the Historia Augusta, now thought to have been fictitious

Maximinus Thrax: 235–238

 * Magnus (235), ordered some soldiers of Maximinus to destroy the bridge that allowed the Emperor to cross back the Rhine, a former consul
 * Quartinus (235), in the East, supported by soldiers loyal to former emperor Alexander Severus

Gordian III: 238–244

 * Sabinianus (240), in Africa, governor of the province

Philip the Arab: 244–249

 * Iotapianus (kS.248), in the East
 * Pacatian (kS.248), in the Danube frontier, killed by soldiers
 * Silbannacus in the Rhine, uncertain date

Decius: 249–251

 * Licinianus (250) in Rome, executed
 * Priscus (251–k?252) in Thrace
 * Valens Senior in Illyria, great-uncle of Valens Thessalonicus

Gallienus: 253–268

 * Ingenuus (260) in Pannonia, committed suicide, former governor
 * Macrianus Major, Macrianus Minor and Quietus (September 260 – Autumn 261) in the East, all killed by their own soldiers in different occasions
 * Regalianus (260) in Pannonia, ruled with his wife
 * Balista (also: Ballista) (Autumn e.261) in the East, former Praetorian prefect, associated with the former
 * Piso (kS.261) in Achaea, questioned existence
 * Valens (k.261) in Achaea, killed by Macrinus, former governor
 * Memor (e.261) in Egypt
 * Mussius Aemilianus (261 – Spring e.262) in Egypt
 * The emperors of the Gallic Empire
 * The emperors of the Palmyrene Empire
 * The fictitious usurpers:
 * Celsus
 * Saturninus — Possibly the villain in Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus
 * Trebellianus

Claudius II: 268–270

 * Censorinus (269–kS.270), almost certainly non-existent: "attested" only by the Augustan History (Trig. Tyr. 33) with no literary, epigraphical, numismatic support of any kind.

Aurelian: 270–275

 * Sponsianus in Dacia, contested numismatic evidence only
 * Domitianus (270–271) most probably in Southern Gaul. He was probably encouraged by Aurelian's difficulties in dealing with an Alamannic incursion into Italy that occurred early in his reign. His bid for power could have been suppressed by Aurelian's Praetorian Prefect, Placidianus who was in the Rhone valley at the time or by Tetricus, the Gallic Emperor.
 * Felicissimus (k.271) in Rome, a civil servant involved in corruption
 * Septimius (kS.271) in Dalmatia
 * Urbanus (271), questioned existence
 * Firmus (k.273) in Egypt, questioned existence

Probus: 276–282

 * Bonosus (280)
 * Proculus (280)
 * Saturninus (280)

Carus, Carinus, Numerian: 282–284

 * Sabinus Julianus

Diocletian: 284–305

 * Aelianus and Amandus: (285)
 * Carausius: (286–293)
 * Allectus: (293–296)
 * Domitius Domitianus: (297)
 * Aurelius Achilleus: (297–298)
 * Eugenius: (303)

Galerius: 305–311

 * Domitius Alexander (308–e.311)

Constantine I: 309–337

 * Calocaerus (e.333/334)

Constantius II: 337–361

 * Nepotianus (350)
 * Carausius II (354–358), questioned existence
 * Silvanus (355)

Valens: 364–378

 * Procopius (366)
 * Marcellus (366)
 * Theodorus (372)

Valentinian I: 364–375

 * Firmus (372–375)

Honorius: 395–423

 * Marcus: (406–407)
 * Gratian: (407)
 * Maximus of Hispania: (409–411, 420–421)
 * Priscus Attalus: (414-415)
 * Jovinus: (411–413)
 * Sebastianus: (412–413)
 * Heraclianus: (412–413)

Valentinian III: 423–455

 * Bonifacius: (427)

Anthemius: 467–472

 * Arvandus: (468)
 * Romanus: (470)

Unsuccessful regional usurpers after the fall of Rome (476)

 * Burdunellus (e.496), in the Ebro valley
 * Peter (e.506), in the Ebro valley

title: List of Roman usurpers