text:
List of United States water companies

This is a list of water companies in the United States. For more information see water supply and sanitation in the United States.

Alabama

 * Asbury Water Authority
 * Autauga County Water Authority
 * Autaugaville Water Authority
 * Bakerhill Water Authority
 * Bear Creek Water Works Board
 * Beauregard Water Authority
 * Bellwood Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Big Wills Water Authority
 * Blount County Water Authority
 * Boldo Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Buhl Elrod And Holman Water Authority
 * Butler County Water Authority
 * Calhoun County Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Canoe Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Carrolls Creek Water Authority
 * Central Elmore County Water Authority
 * Central Talladega County Water District
 * Chandler Mountain-Greasy Cove Water Authority
 * Chattahoochee Valley Water Supply District
 * Cherokee County Water Authority
 * Chilton Water Authority
 * Chisholm Heights Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Choctaw Edna Water Authority
 * Clarke Wilcox Monroe Water Authority
 * Clay County Water Authority
 * Cleburne County Water Authority
 * Coaling Water Authority
 * Coffee County Water Authority
 * Coker Water Authority Inc
 * Cook Springs Water Authority Inc
 * Coosa Valley Water Supply District
 * Covington County Water Authority
 * Cowikee Water Authority
 * Cumberland Mountain Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Curry Water Authority
 * Dale County Water Authority
 * Deer Park Vinegar Bend Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Dekalb Jackson Water Supply District
 * Douglas Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * East Lauderdale County Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Edwardsville Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Elmore Water Authority
 * Fayette County Water Authority
 * Fayetteville Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Five Star Water Supply District
 * Fosters Ralph Water Authority
 * Franklin County Water Service Authority
 * Frankville Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Greenhill Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Hackneyville Water Authority
 * Hale County Water Authority
 * Hamden Ridge Water Authority
 * Harrisburg Water Authority
 * Harvest-Monrovia Water Authority
 * Henry County Water Authority Inc
 * Highland Water Authority
 * Hollins Water Authority
 * Houston County Water Authority
 * Huguley Water Authority
 * Huntsville Utilities
 * Huxford Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Ida Station Water District
 * Jackson's Gap Water Authority
 * Joppa Hulaco And Ryan Water Authority
 * Kushla Water District
 * Lagrange Mountain Water Authority
 * Lamar County Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Leroy Water Authority
 * Limestone County Water And Sewer Authority
 * Little Waxie Water Authority
 * Loachapoka Water Authority
 * Lowndes County Water Authority
 * Lowndesboro Water Authority
 * Lyeffion Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Macon County Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * MCB Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Mcintosh Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Mid Central Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Millers Ferry Water Authority
 * Millerville Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Montgomery Water Works and Sanitary Sewer Board
 * Moulton Water Authority
 * Mount Andrew Water Authority
 * Mount Pleasant Battens Water Authority
 * Munford Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * New London Water Sewer And Fire Protection Authority
 * North Baldwin Water Authority
 * North Choctaw Water And Sewer Authority
 * North Clarke Water Authority
 * North Dallas Water Authority
 * North Geneva County Water Authority
 * North Jackson County Water Authority
 * Northeast Alabama Water Authority
 * Northeast Morgan County Water Authority
 * Old Line Water Authority
 * Old Suggsville Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Orange Beach Water Sewer And Fire Protection Authority
 * Owassa And Brownville Waterworks And Fire Protection Authority
 * Owens Cross Roads Water Authority
 * Park City Water Authority
 * Perdido Bay Water Sewer And Fire Protection Authority
 * Perdido Water Service Authority
 * Perry County Water Authority
 * Peterson Water Authority
 * Pickens County Water Authority
 * Pike County Water Authority
 * Pilgrim-Providence Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Pine Bluff Water Authority
 * Pine Level Water Authority
 * Pintlala Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Providence Water Authority
 * Quint-Mar Water Authority
 * Ray Water Authority
 * Remlap-Pine Mountain Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Ridgeroad Water Authority
 * Rockwood Water Authority
 * Russell County Water Authority
 * Saint Elmo Irvington Water Authority
 * Sand Mountain Water Authority
 * Sand Springs Water Authority
 * Sellers Station Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Smiths Water And Sewer Authority
 * Snowdoun Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * South Bullock County Water Authority
 * South Crenshaw Water Authority
 * South Dallas Water Authority
 * South Marengo County Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Southwest Alabama Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Spring Valley Water Authority
 * Star-Mindingall Water Authority
 * Stewartville Water Authority
 * Sumter County Water Authority
 * Tibbie Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Tillison Bend Water Authority
 * Townley Water Authority
 * Turnerville Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * Twin Water Authority
 * Upper Bear Creek Water Authority
 * Wall Street Water Authority
 * Walnut Hill Water Authority
 * Walter Water Authority
 * Warrior River Water Authority
 * Washington County Water Authority
 * Wattsville Water Authority
 * West Autauga Water Authority
 * West Barbour County Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * West Clark Water Authority
 * West Dallas County Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * West Etowah County Water Authority
 * West Lauderdale County Water And Fire Protection Authority
 * West Morgan-East Lawrence Water And Sewer Authority
 * Whorton Bend Water Authority
 * Wolf Creek Water Sewer And Fire Protection Authority

Arizona

 * Arizona Water Company
 * Global Water Resources
 * Mohave County Water Authority
 * Phoenix Water Services Department
 * Pinal County Water Augmentation Authority
 * Queen Creek Irrigation Water Delivery District 32
 * Silverbell Irrigation District
 * Thunderbird Water Delivery District 1
 * Tucson Water

Arkansas

 * Central Arkansas Water
 * Little Rock Water Reclamation Authority

California

 * California American Water
 * California Department of Water Resources
 * California Water Service
 * Castaic Water Agency
 * Del Oro Water Company
 * East Bay Municipal Utility District
 * Escondido Utilities
 * Fallbrook Public Utility District
 * Fresno Irrigation District
 * Kern Water Bank Authority
 * Kings River Conservation District
 * JG Boswell Company Water Department
 * Long Beach Water Department
 * Los Angeles Department of Water and Power
 * Marin Water
 * Mesa Water District
 * Metropolitan Water District of Southern California
 * Municipal Water District of Orange County
 * Oceanside Water Utilities
 * Orange County Water District
 * Orange Cove Irrigation District
 * Otay Water District
 * Padre Dam Municipal Water District
 * Panoche Water District
 * San Diego County Water Authority
 * San Diego Water Department
 * San Francisco Public Utilities Commission
 * SJW Group
 * San Luis and Delta-Mendota Water Authority
 * Santa Clara Valley Water District
 * Santa Margarita Water District
 * Semitropic Water Storage District
 * Solano Irrigiation District
 * South Mesa Water Company
 * South Montebello Irrigation District
 * Southwest Water company
 * Sunnyslope Water company
 * Tulare Lake Basin Water Storage District
 * Tulare Lake Drainage District
 * Turlock Irrigation District
 * Vallecitos Water District
 * Valley Center Municipal Water District
 * Vista Irrigation District
 * Walnut Valley Water District
 * Western Heights Water Company
 * Westlands Water District

Colorado

 * Academy Water & Sanitation District
 * Alpensee Water District
 * Arapahoe Estates Water District
 * Aurora Water
 * Baca Grande Water & Sanitation District
 * Bailey Water & Sanitation District
 * Bancroft-Clover Water and Sanitation District
 * Baseline Water District
 * Bear Creek Water and Sanitation District
 * Bennett Bear Creek Farms Water & Sanitation District
 * Berkeley Water & Sanitation District
 * Beulah Water Works District
 * Blue Mountain Water District
 * Bone Mesa Domestic Water District
 * Bonvue Water & Sanitation District
 * Bow Mar Water & Sanitation District
 * Box Elder Water and Sanitation District
 * Brook Forest Water District
 * Brownsville Water and Sanitation District
 * Buffalo Creek Water District
 * Byers Water & Sanitation District
 * Castleton Center Water and Sanitation District
 * Castlewood Water and Sanitation District
 * Centennial Water & Sanitation District
 * Central Adams County Water & Sanitation District
 * Central Weld County Water District
 * Chatfield South Water District
 * Cherry Creek Valley Water and Sanitation District
 * Cherry Creek Village Water District
 * Cherry Hills Heights Water & Sanitation District
 * Chipeta Water District
 * City of Fountain's Water Department
 * Clear Creek Valley Water & Sanitation District
 * Clifton Water District
 * Colorado Springs Utilities
 * Columbine Lake Water District
 * Columbine Water and Sanitation District
 * Cottonwood Water and Sanitation District
 * Crestview Water and Sanitation District
 * Crow Hill Water and Sanitation District
 * Cucharas Sanitation & Water District
 * Deer Creek Water District
 * Denver Southeast Suburban Water & Sanitation District
 * Diamond Ridge Water & Sanitation District
 * Dominion Water & Sanitation District
 * Donala Water and Sanitation District
 * Eagle River Water & Sanitation District
 * East Alamosa Water and Sanitation District
 * East Boulder County Water District
 * East Cherry Creek Valley Water & Sanitation District
 * East Dillon Water District
 * East Larimer County Water District
 * Florissant Water & Sanitation District
 * Forest View Acres Water District
 * Fort Collins-Loveland Water District
 * Garden Valley Water and Sanitation District
 * Genesee Water & Sanitation District
 * Granby Silver Creek Water and Wastewater Authority
 * Grand County Water and Sanitation District No. 1
 * Green Mountain Water and Sanitation District
 * Greenwood Plaza Water District
 * Havana Water and Sanitation District
 * Hazeltine Heights Water and Sanitation District
 * Heeney Water District
 * High View Water District
 * Highland Lakes Water District
 * Hi-Line Water and Sanitation District
 * Hillcrest Water and Sanitation District
 * Himalaya Water and Sanitation District
 * Holly Hills Water and Sanitation District
 * Hoover Hill Water & Sanitation District
 * Idledale Water and Sanitation District
 * Indian Hills Water District
 * Inverness Water and Sanitation District
 * Ken Caryl West Ranch Water District
 * Ken-Caryl Ranch Water & Sanitation District
 * Kittredge Sanitation and Water District
 * Lakehurst Water & Sanitation District
 * Lakeview Estates Water District
 * Left Hand Water District
 * Little Thompson Water District
 * Longs Peak Water District
 * Lookout Mountain Water District
 * Mansfield Heights Water & Sanitation District
 * Meadowbrook Water District
 * Mesa Cortina Water and Sanitation District
 * Mesa Water & Sanitation District
 * Miller Ranch Water & Sanitation District
 * Montezuma County Water District
 * Morgan County Quality Water District
 * Morrison Creek Metropolitan Water & Sanitation District
 * Mountain View Villages Water and Sanitation District
 * Mountain Water and Sanitation District
 * Mt Crested Butte Water & Sanitation District
 * Mt. Werner Water and Sanitation District
 * Navajo Western Water District
 * North Carter Lake Water District
 * North Lincoln Water and Sanitation District
 * North Pecos Water & Sanitation District
 * North Shore Water District
 * North Table Mountain Water and Sanitation District
 * North Weld County Water District
 * Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District
 * Northern Douglas County Water and Sanitation District
 * Northgate Water District
 * Olde Stage Water District
 * Pagosa Area Water and Sanitation District
 * Park Center Water District
 * Park Forest Water District
 * Parker Water and Sanitation District
 * Parkville Water District
 * Penrose Water District
 * Pinewood Springs Water District
 * Pioneer Lookout Water District
 * Platte Canyon Water and Sanitation District
 * Pleasant View Water and Sanitation District
 * Rainbow Valley Water District
 * Ralston Valley Water and Sanitation District
 * Red Hawk Ranch Water & Sanitation District
 * Redstone Water and Sanitation District
 * Resource Colorado Water and Sanitation MD
 * Ridgewood Water District
 * Roaring Fork Water & Sanitation District
 * Rock Creek Mesa Water District
 * Round Mountain Water and Sanitation District
 * Roxborough Water and Sanitation District
 * Rural Water Authority of Douglas County
 * Security Water District
 * Sedalia Water and Sanitation District
 * Shannon Water and Sanitation District
 * Silver Heights Water & Sanitation
 * SilverCreek Water & Sanitation District
 * Snake River Water District
 * Snowmass Water & Sanitation District
 * Somerset Domestic Waterworks District
 * South Adams County Water & Sanitation District
 * South Evergreen Water District
 * South Fork Water and Sanitation District
 * South Sheridan Water, Sanitary Sewer & Storm Drain
 * South-East Englewood Water District
 * Southwest Metropolitan Water and Sanitation District
 * Southwest Suburban Denver Water and Sanitation District
 * Spring Canyon Water & Sanitation District
 * St. Mary's Glacier Water and Sanitation District
 * Steamboat Lake Water and Sanitation District
 * Strasburg Sanitation and Water District
 * Stratmoor Hills Water District
 * Tabernash Meadows Water & Sanitation District
 * Teller County Water & Sanitation District
 * Timber Creek Water District
 * Timbers Water and Sanitation District
 * Tri-County Water Conservancy District
 * Turkey Canon Ranch Water District
 * United Water & Sanitation District
 * Upper Bear Creek Water and Sanitation District
 * Upper Big Sandy Ground Water Management District
 * Valley at Winter Park Water District
 * Valley Water District
 * West Fort Collins Water District
 * Westcreek Lake Water District
 * Westwood Lakes Water District
 * Wheat Ridge Water District
 * Widefield Water and Sanitation District
 * Willowbrook Water & Sanitation District
 * Willows Water District
 * Winter Park Ranch Water and Sanitation District
 * Winter Park Water & Sanitation District
 * Woodmoor Water and Sanitation District No. 1

Connecticut

 * Metropolitan District Commission (Hartford area)
 * Regional Water Authority (New Haven area)
 * Aquarion Water Company (Fairfield, New Haven, Hartford, Litchfield, Middlesex and New London Counties)

Delaware

 * Lewes Board of Public Works
 * Middlesex Water Company
 * Municipal Services Commission of the City of New Castle
 * Wilmington Department of Public Works

District of Columbia

 * D.C. Water and Sewer Authority (DCWASA)
 * Washington Aqueduct (wholesale)

Florida

 * Aqua America - Florida
 * Gainesville Regional Utilities
 * Hialeah Department of Water and Sewers
 * JEA (formerly Jacksonville Electric Authority)
 * Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Department
 * Miami-Petersburg Department of Water and Sewers
 * Orlando Utilities Commission
 * St. Petersburg Water Resources Department
 * Tampa Bay Water

Georgia

 * City of Atlanta Department of Watershed Management
 * Cherokee County Water & Sewerage Authority
 * City of Austell Water System
 * City of Canton Water System
 * City of Mountain Park Water System
 * City of Powder Springs Water System
 * City of Smyrna Water System
 * City of Woodstock Water System
 * Cobb County - Marietta Water Authority
 * Cobb County Water System
 * Columbus Water Works
 * Douglasville/Douglas County Water Authority
 * Etowah Water and Sewer Authority
 * Gwinnett County Department of Water Resources
 * Gilmer County Water Authority
 * Heard County Water Authority
 * Henry County Water Authority
 * Jackson County Water and Sewerage Authority
 * Macon Water Authority
 * Marietta Board of Lights and Water
 * Paulding County Water System
 * Pickens County Water Authority
 * Upper Oconee Basin Water Authority
 * Waleska Water Authority

Hawaii

 * Hawaii American Water

Illinois

 * Aqua America - Illinois
 * Aurora Department of Public Works
 * Axton Environmental
 * Chicago Department of Water Management
 * Illinois American Water
 * Rockford Department of Public Works

Indiana

 * Aqua America - Indiana
 * Indiana American Water
 * Indianapolis Water

Iowa

 * Des Moines Water Works
 * Iowa American Water

Kansas

 * Kansas City Board of Public Utilities
 * WaterOne

Kentucky

 * Kentucky American Water
 * Louisville Water Company
 * Owensboro Municipal Utilities
 * Martin County Water District
 * Prestonsburg City Utilities
 * Paintsville City Utilities
 * Louisa City Water
 * Southern Water District
 * Salyersville Water Works
 * Mountain Water District
 * Frankfort Plant Board
 * Big Sandy Water District
 * Rattlesnake Ridge Water District
 * City of Ashland Water Department

Louisiana

 * Baton Rouge Water Company
 * Calcasieu Water Works District 1
 * City of Bogalusa
 * City of Monroe
 * Jefferson Parish Water Department
 * Sewerage and Water Board of New Orleans
 * Shreveport Office of Water and Sewerage

Maine

 * Aqua America - Maine
 * Maine Water - Owned by Connecticut Water
 * Portland Water District (Greater Portland area)

Maryland

 * Anne Arundel County Department of Public Works
 * Baltimore Bureau of Water and Wastewater (serves City of Baltimore and Baltimore County)
 * Easton Utilities
 * Maryland American Water
 * Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission (Montgomery County and Prince George's County)

Massachusetts

 * Boston Water and Sewer Commission
 * Cambridge Water Department
 * Holyoke Water Works
 * KWI North America
 * Lynn Water and Sewer Commission
 * Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (wholesale)

Michigan

 * Detroit Water and Sewerage Department
 * Grand Rapids Water System
 * Great Lakes Water Authority
 * Holland Board of Public Works
 * Lansing Board of Water and Light
 * Michigan American Water
 * Saginaw-Midland Municipal Water Supply Corporation

Minnesota

 * Minneapolis Water Department
 * Saint Paul Regional Water Services

Mississippi

 * Jackson Department of Public Works

Missouri

 * Aqua America - Missouri
 * City Utilities of Springfield
 * Missouri American Water
 * St. Louis Water Division

Nebraska

 * Metropolitan Utilities District (Omaha Metro Area)

New Hampshire

 * Pennichuck Corporation (central and southern NH)

New Jersey

 * Aqua America - New Jersey
 * Atlantic City Municipal Utilities Authority
 * Brick Township Municipal Utilities Authority
 * East Windsor Municipal Utilities Authority
 * Freehold Township Water And Sewer
 * Middlesex Water Company
 * New Jersey American Water
 * Newark Department of Water and Sewer Utilities
 * Ocean County Municipal Utilities Authority
 * Passaic Valley Water Commission
 * Trenton Water Works
 * United Water

New York

 * American Water (Long Island)
 * Aqua America - New York
 * Buffalo Water Authority
 * Lakewood Township Municipal Utilities Authority
 * New York City Department of Environmental Protection
 * Rochester Bureau of Water and Lighting
 * Syracuse Water Department
 * Yonkers Department of Public Works

North Carolina

 * Aqua America - North Carolina
 * Cape Fear Public Utility Authority (Wilmington-New Hanover County)
 * Charlotte Water
 * Durham Public Works Department
 * Greensboro Water Resources Department
 * Orange Water and Sewer Authority (OWASA)
 * Raleigh Public Utilities Department
 * Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Utilities Division

Ohio

 * Akron Public Utilities Bureau
 * Aqua America - Ohio
 * Cleveland Division of Water
 * Columbus Department of Public Utilities
 * Del-Co Water Company
 * Greater Cincinnati Water Works
 * Ohio American Water
 * Toledo Department of Public Utilities

Oklahoma

 * Oklahoma City Department of Utilities

Oregon

 * Portland Water Bureau

Pennsylvania

 * Aqua Pennsylvania
 * Borough of Kutztown Water Department
 * Borough of Quakertown Water Department
 * Borough of Schuylkill Haven Utilities Department
 * City of Bethlehem Department of Water & Sewer Resources
 * Doylestown Borough Water Department
 * Ephrata Area Joint Authority
 * Erie Water Works
 * Horsham Water and Sewer Authority
 * North Penn Water Authority
 * North Wales Water Authority
 * Pennsylvania American Water
 * Philadelphia Water Department
 * Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority
 * South Middleton Municipal Authority
 * Warminster Municipal Authority

South Carolina
City of Columbia Water
 * Aqua America - South Carolina
 * Beaufort-Jasper Water and Sewer Authority (BJWSA)
 * Charleston Water System
 * Greenville Water
 * Spartanburg Water

Tennessee

 * Tennessee American Water

Texas

 * Aqua America - Texas
 * Austin Water
 * Clear Lake City Water Authority
 * Corpus Christi Water Department
 * Dallas Water Utilities
 * El Paso Water Utilities
 * Fort Worth Water Department
 * Greater Texoma Utility Authority
 * Houston Water
 * North Texas Municipal Water District
 * San Antonio Water System
 * Tarrant Regional Water District
 * Texas American Water
 * The Trinity River Authority of Texas

Utah

 * Salt Lake City Department of Public Utilities
 * Washington County Water Conservancy District

Vermont

 * Burlington Department of Public Works

Virginia

 * Aqua America - Virginia
 * City of Fairfax Utilities [Fairfax City]
 * City of Falls Church Department of Public Works (serves Falls Church and east-central Fairfax County)
 * City of Manassas Utilities (also wholesale)
 * Fairfax County Water Authority (most of Fairfax County, major wholesaler to surrounding areas)
 * Loudoun Water (formerly Loudoun County Sanitation Authority), serves the unincorporated areas of Loudoun County
 * Prince William County Service Authority (most of Prince William County except Dale City)
 * Town of Leesburg Water
 * Town of Purcellville Water
 * Virginia American Water Company (Alexandria, Dale City and Hopewell)

Washington

 * Cascade Water Alliance
 * Seattle Public Utilities
 * Snohomish County Public Utility District (PUD)
 * Tacoma Water division of Tacoma Public Utilities

West Virginia

 * West Virginia American Water
 * Kermit Water Works
 * Fort Gay Water Works
 * Logan Water Works
 * Gilbert Water Department
 * New Creek Water Association
 * Keyser Water Department

Wisconsin

 * Madison Water Utility
 * Milwaukee Water Works

title: List of United States water companies


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Caudal cell mass

In humans and other mammals, the caudal cell mass (also tail bud or caudal eminence in humans) is the aggregate of undifferentiated cells at the caudal end on the spine. The caudal end of the spinal cord first begins to form after primary neurulation has taken place, indicating that it develops after the cranial portion of the spinal cord has developed. Following neurulation, the caudal tail begins to form a neurocele as it develops a hollow core. After this, secondary neurulation occurs in which the medullary cord begins to form and is filled with many cavities that ultimately form the lumen. The cavities formed from the initial and secondary neurulation combine to form one uninterrupted cavity. There is still speculation on the formation of the caudal cell mass in humans with arguments being made for it arising from many cavities or the continuing growth of the neurocele from the initial neurulation. The caudal cell mass will ultimately differentiate and form into many sacral structures such various nerve endings and the conus medullaris.

Role in disease
The caudal cell mass plays a role in many diseases and abnormalities related to the spinal cord. One group of abnormalities it plays a role in are occult spinal dysraphisms. These types of abnormalities arise from specific structures formed in the caudal mass, for example if proper differentiation of the caudal mass does not occur, it could result in a type of spinal dysraphism. One example of spinal dysraphism is caudal regression syndrome. Patients with caudal regression syndrome can experience a varying degree of the abnormality ranging from partial lack of the tail bone and pelvis to more significant cases where there may be paralysis and, as a result, inhibited function in the bowel and bladder. This abnormality can be caused by the caudal cell mass not developing properly due to improper differentiation, and it can lead to sacral agenesis, which is one of the hallmarks of caudal regression syndrome.

Another class of abnormalities from caudal cell mass development includes caudal dysgenesis, which refers to abnormalities where the sacrum may be deformed or absent, or abnormalities in which the spinal cord and the complementary organ systems may be malformed. Some of the abnormalities that fall under this class includes currarino syndrome and sirenomelia. These genetic defects were found to have a much higher rate of incidence in births to mothers with gestational diabetes. This trend may be due to the inhibition of critical elements of morphogenesis, that are found in the extracellular matrix, or due to the presence of an abnormal hox gene. These abnormalities can be predicted ahead of time using ultrasound.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Caudal cell mass


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Talk:Analytical Thomism

This article looks a bit suspicious. Could you please give some sources for this information? Dori | Talk 03:10, Dec 15, 2003 (UTC)

My version is taken from the articles Peter Geach and Anthony Kenny. This definition is valid, though a bit POV.

The previous content was vandalism. Andres 04:37, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Yes, I thought it was. Thanks Andres. Dori | Talk 04:54, Dec 15, 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Analytical Thomism


text:
Abietic acid

Abietic acid (also known as abietinic acid or sylvic acid) is a mild organic acid found in coniferous trees.

It is a commercially important component of paints, soaps, foods, and soldering flux, and is the primary component of resin acid.

Characteristics
Abietic acid is found in pine trees, including:
 * Pinus insularis (Khasi Pine)
 * Pinus kesiya Royle
 * Pinus strobus (Eastern White Pine)
 * Pinus sylvestris (Scots Pine).

Pure abietic acid is a colorless solid, but commercial samples are usually a glassy or partly crystalline yellowish solid that melts at temperatures as low as 85 C.

Abietic acid is soluble in alcohols, acetone, and ethers. Its ester or salt is called an abietate.

Abietic acid belongs to the abietane diterpene group of organic compounds derived from four isoprene units.

Preparation
Abietic acid is extracted from tree rosin (via isomerization) and is the most abundant of several closely related organic acids that constitute most of rosin, the solid portion of the oleoresin of coniferous trees.

Resin acids are converted into ester gum by reaction with controlled amounts of glycerol or other polyhydric alcohols.

Uses
Abietic acid has drying properties, and as ester gum is used in paints, varnishes, and lacquers.

It is also used in soaps, for the analysis of resins, and the preparation of metal resinates.

As rosin
Rosin, of which abietic acid is the principal component:
 * Has been used for centuries as a flux for soldering. (Abietic acid in the flux removes oxidation from the surfaces of metals, increasing their ability to bond with the liquified solder.)
 * Is rubbed on the hair of a violin bow to increase friction.
 * Has been used for centuries for caulking ships.
 * Is approved by the US FDA as a miscellaneous food additive.

Safety

 * As the chief component of rosin, abietic acid is approved by the US FDA as a miscellaneous food additive.
 * Abietic acid is considered a "nonhazardous natural substance" in tall oil ("liquid rosin").
 * In the U.S., abietic acid is listed in the inventory of the Toxic Substances Control Act.
 * Abietic acid is the primary irritant in pine wood and resin. As a contact allergen it is the cause of abietic acid dermatitis. (However, compounds resulting from its oxidation by air elicit stronger responses.)
 * 50% ethanol extracts from Resina pini of Pinus sp. (Pinaceae) showed inhibitory activity against testosterone 5α-reductase prepared from rat prostate. The fraction responsible for this activity was purified, and the active constituent was isolated and identified as abietic acid, which exhibited potent inhibitory activity against testosterone 5α-reductase in vitro.

title: Abietic acid


text:
Pripyat (river)

The Pripyat or Prypiat is a river in Eastern Europe. The river, which is approximately 761 km long, flows east through Ukraine, Belarus, and Ukraine again, draining into the Dnieper.

Name etymology
Max Vasmer in his etymological dictionary notes that the historical name of the river mentioned in the earliest East Slavic document, the Primary Chronicle, is Pripet'  (Припеть), and cites the opinion of other linguists that the name meant "tributary", comparing with Greek and Latin roots. He also rejects some opinions which were improperly based on the stem -пять -pjat', rather than original -петь.

It might also derive from the local word pripech used for a river with sandy banks.

Overview
The Pripyat passes through the exclusion zone established around the site of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster. The city of Pripyat, Ukraine (population 45,000) was completely evacuated after the Chernobyl disaster.

Pripyat has a catchment area of 121000 km2, 50900 km2 of which are in Belarus. 495 km of the whole river length lies within Belarus.

As of 2020, it is being dredged to enable the E40 waterway.

Location
The Pripyat begins in the Volhynian Upland, between the villages of Budniki, Volyn Oblast and Rohivi Smoliary in Volyn Oblast, Ukraine. After 204 km downstream, it crosses the border of Belarus, where it travels 500 km through Polesia, Europe's largest wilderness, within which lie the vast sandy wetlands known as the Pinsk marshes, a dense network of swamps, bogs, rivers and rivulets within a forested basin. For the last 50 kilometers the Pripyat flows again in Ukraine and flows several kilometers south of Chernobyl into the Kyiv Reservoir.

Geography
The length of the river is 775 kilometers. The area of the watershed is 114,300 km2. The Pripyat valley in the upper reaches is weak, in the lower reaches it is clearer. The floodplain is well-developed all along the flow, allocating two supra-floodplain terraces. The width of the floodplain in the upper course of 2–4 km and more, in some years, is flooded for several months. In the lower reaches, the width of the floodplain reaches 10–15 km. The channel in the upper canalized; below - winding, forms meanders, oxbows, many channels (one of them overlays the Nobel Lake); there are sandy islands. The width of the river in the upper reaches is up to 40 m, on the average - 50–70 m, in the lower reaches 100 - predominantly 250 m, with the entrance to the Kyiv Reservoir - 4–5 km. The bottom is sandy and sandy-silty. The slope of the river is 0.08 m / km.

Books

 * (in Russian, English and Polish) Ye.N.Meshechko, A.A.Gorbatsky (2005) Belarusian Polesye: Tourist Transeuropean Water Mains, Minsk, Four Quarters,
 * (in Belarusian, Russian and English) T.A.Khvagina (2005) POLESYE from the Bug to the Ubort, Minsk Vysheysha shkola, ISBN 985-06-1153-7.

title: Pripyat (river)


text:
List of English words of Russian origin

Many languages, including English, contain words (Russianisms) most likely borrowed from the Russian language. Not all of the words are of purely Russian or origin. Some of them co-exist in other Slavic languages, and it can be difficult to determine whether they entered English from Russian or, say, Bulgarian. Some other words are borrowed or constructed from classical ancient languages, such as Latin or Greek. Still others are themselves borrowed from indigenous peoples that Russians have come into contact with in Russian or Soviet territory.

Compared to other source languages, English contains few words adopted from Russian. Direct borrowing first began with contact between England and Russia in the 16th century and picked up heavily in the 20th century, with the establishment of the Soviet Union as a major world power. Most of these words denote things and notions specific to Russia, Russian culture, politics, and history, but also well known outside Russia. Some others are in mainstream usage and independent of any Russian context.

While both English and Russian are distantly related members of Indo-European and therefore share a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-European, cognate pairs such as mother – мать (mat') will be excluded from the list.

Common
-nik, a borrowed suffix (also used in Yiddish)

 Babushka (Russian: ба́бушка "grandmother", "granny", or just an old woman), a headscarf folded diagonally and tied under the chin (this meaning is absent in the Russian language). Also unlike in the Russian language, the stress is made on the letter u instead of the first a.

Balalaika (Russian: балала́йка, ) A triangle-shaped mandolin-like musical instrument with three strings.

Balaclava (Russian: Балаклава) (Tatar origin) A knitted hat that covers the face, also known as a ski mask in the US and elsewhere. First used in the British army during the Crimean war of 1853–56. From the name of the town of Balaklava, Russianized Tatar 'Baliqlava'. This usage in Russian is fairly recent and comes from English.

Bridge (game) (from the Old East Slavic: бирич biritch).

 Cosmonaut Russian: космона́вт (IPA ), a Russian or Soviet astronaut (from κόσμος kosmos,  a Greek word, which in Russian stands for 'outer space' rather than 'world' or 'universe', and nautes – 'sailor', thus 'space sailor'; the term cosmonaut was first used in 1959; the near-similar word "cosmonautic" was coined in 1947). Cosmodrome (by analogy with aerodrome) was coined to refer to a launching site for Russian spacecraft.

Gulag (Russian ГУЛА́Г, acronym for Главное Управление Исправительно-Трудовых Лагерей и колоний) (Russian acronym for Glavnoye Upravleniye Ispravitelno-trudovykh Lagerey i kolonii, "The Chief Administration (or Directorate) of Corrective Labour Camps and Colonies".)
 * 1) (historical) In the former Soviet Union, an administered system of corrective labor camps and prisons.
 * 2) (figurative) A coercive institution or an oppressive environment.

Intelligentsia (Russian: интеллиге́нция ; from Latin intelligence, intelligentia from inter "between", and legare "to choose")
 * 1) The part of a nation (originally in pre-revolutionary Russia) having aspirations to intellectual activity, a section of society regarded as possessing culture and political initiative; plural the members of this section of a nation or society.
 * 2) In the former Soviet Union, the intellectual elite.

Kazakh (Russian: каза́х) (Russian, late-16th century, Kazak, from Turkic, meaning "vagabond" or "nomad", name of the ethnicity was transliterated into English from Russian spelling. The self-appellation is "Kazak", or "Qazaq"). Terms related to Kazakh people, their nation, and culture.

Knout (Russian: кнут ) perhaps from Swedish knutpiska, a kind of whip, or of Germanic origin – Knute, Dutch Knoet, Anglo-Saxon cnotta, English knot) A whip formerly used as an instrument of punishment in Russia; the punishment inflicted by the knout.

Kopeck (Russian: копе́йка, ; derives from the Russian (копьё 'spear') a reference to the image of a rider with a spear on the coins minted in Moscow after the capture of Novgorod in 1478) A Russian currency, a subunit of the Ruble, 100 kopecks is equal to 1 ruble.

Kremlin (Russian: кремль ; Russian for "fortress", "citadel", or "castle") A citadel or fortified enclosure within a Russian town or city, especially the Kremlin of Moscow; (the Kremlin) Metonym for the government of the former USSR, and to a lesser extent of the Russian post-Soviet government.

Mammoth (Russian: ма́монт mamont, from Yakut мамонт mamont, probably mama, "earth", perhaps from the notion that the animal burrowed in the ground) Any various large, hairy, extinct elephants of the genus Mammuthus, especially the woolly mammoth. 2. (adjective) Something of great size.

Matryoshka also Russian nested doll, stacking doll, Babushka doll, or Russian doll (Russian: матрёшка ). A set of brightly colored wooden dolls of decreasing sizes placed one inside another. "Matryoshka" is a derivative of the Russian female first name "Matryona", which is traditionally associated with a corpulent, robust, rustic Russian woman.

Pogrom (from Russian: погро́м; from "громи́ть" gromit "to destroy"; the word came to English through Yiddish פאָגראָם c.1880–1885) Definition of pogrom | Dictionary.com
 * 1) (early-20th century) A riot against Jews.
 * 2) (general) An organized, officially tolerated attack on any community or group.
 * 3) (transitive verb) Massacre or destroy in a pogrom.

Ruble (Rouble) (from Russian: рубль rubl, from Old Russian рубли rubli "cut" or "piece", probably originally a piece cut from a silver ingot bar (grivna) from Russian руби́ть, rubiti meaning "to chop". Historically, "ruble" was a piece of a certain weight chopped off a silver ingot (grivna), hence the name.  An alternate etymology may suggest the name comes from the Russian noun рубе́ц, rubets, i.e., the seam that is left around the coin after casting. Therefore, the word ruble means "a cast with a seam".) The Russian unit of currency.

Sable (from Russian: sobol – со́боль, ultimately from Persian سمور samor) A carnivorous mammal of the weasel family, native to northern Europe and Asia.

 Samovar (Russian: самова́р, IPA: (Russian само samo "self"  and варить varit "to boil" hence "self-boil") A traditional Russian tea urn with an internal heating device for heating water and keeping it at boiling point.

Sputnik (historical, aside from the name of the program) (Russian: "спу́тник" – "satellite" (in space and astronomy), in Russian, its initial meaning is "travelling companion" from s "co-" + put "way" or "journey" + noun suffix -nik person connected with something; it means "satellite" when referring to astronomy-related topics). This term is now dated in English
 * 1) In English, the best-known meaning is the name of a series of unmanned artificial Earth satellites launched by the Soviet Union from 1957 to the early 1960s; especially Sputnik 1, which on 4 October 1957 became the first human-made object to orbit Earth.

Taiga (Russian: тайга́, originally from Mongolian or Turkic). The swampy, coniferous forests of high northern latitudes, especially referring to that between the tundra and the steppes of Siberia.

Troika (Russian: тро́йка "threesome" or "triumvirate")
 * 1) (mid-19th century) A Russian vehicle, either a wheeled carriage or a sleigh, drawn by three horses abreast.
 * 2) A Russian folk dance with three people, often one man and two women.
 * 3) (historical) a) In the former Soviet Union, a commission headed by three people; especially NKVD Troika. b) In the former Soviet Union, a group of three powerful Soviet leaders; especially referring to the 1953 troika of Georgy Malenkov, Lavrentiy Beria, and Vyacheslav Molotov that briefly ruled the Soviet Union after the death of Stalin.
 * 4) A group of three people or things working together, especially in an administrative or managerial capacity.

Tundra (Russian: тундра, originally from Sámi languages). An Arctic steppe.

Ushanka (Russian: уша́нка ), or shapka-ushanka, the word derives from Russian "уши" "ushi" – ears (and also flaps of ushanka). Ear-flapped hat, a type of cap (Russian: ша́пка shapka) made of fur with ear flaps that can be tied up to the crown of the cap or tied at the chin to protect the ears from the cold.

Cuisine
Beef Stroganoff or Stroganov (Russian: бефстроганов, tr. befstróganov) A Russian dish of sautéed pieces of beef served in a sauce with smetana (sour cream).

Blini (Russian plural: блины, singular: блин). Thin pancakes or crepes traditionally made with yeasted batter, although non-yeasted batter has become widespread in recent times. Blini are often served in connection with a religious rite or festival, but also constitute a common breakfast dish.

Coulibiac (origin 1895–1900, from Russian: кулебя́ка kulebyáka, an oblong loaf of fish, meat, or vegetables, baked in a pastry shell; of uncertain origin). A Russian fish pie typically made with salmon or sturgeon, hard-boiled eggs, mushrooms, and dill, baked in a yeast or puff pastry shell.

Kefir (Russian: кефи́р ). A fermented milk drink made with kefir "grains" (a yeast/bacterial fermentation starter) that has its origins in the north Caucasus Mountains.

Medovukha (Russian: медову́ха, from мёд) [Proto-Indo-European meddhe, "honey"]). A Russian honey-based alcoholic beverage similar to mead.

Okroshka (Russian: окро́шка) from Russian "kroshit" (крошить) meaning to chop (into small pieces). A type of Russian cold soup with mixed raw vegetables and kvass.

Pavlova A meringue dessert topped with whipped cream and fresh fruit, popular mainly in Australia and New Zealand; named after the Russian ballet dancer Anna Pavlova. Pavlova Cake history

Pelmeni (Russian plural: пельме́ни, singular пельме́нь, pelmen′ from пельнянь "ear[-formed] bread"). An Eastern European dumpling made with minced meat, especially beef and pork, wrapped in thin dough and cooked similarly to pasta.

Pirozhki (Russian plural: пирожки́, singular пирожо́к). An Eastern European baked or fried bun stuffed with a variety of fillings.

Rassolnik (Russian: рассольник). A hot soup in a salty-sour cucumber base.

Ryazhenka (Russian: ряженка). Traditional fermented milk beverage made from baked milk using lactic acid fermentation.

Sbiten (Russian: сби́тень) A traditional Russian honey-based drink similar to Medovukha.

Sevruga (Russian: севрю́га) A caviar from the sevruga, a type of sturgeon found only in the Caspian and Black Seas.

Shchi (Russian: щи) A type of cabbage soup.

Solyanka (Russian: соля́нка; [sɐˈlʲankə]). A thick, spicy, and sour Russian soup that is common in Russia and other states of the former Soviet Union and certain parts of the former Eastern Bloc.

Ukha (Russian: уха). A clear Russian soup made from various types of fish such as bream, wels catfish, northern pike, or even ruffe.

Vareniki (Russian plural: вареники, singular: вареник; "var" from Old Russian "варить" – to boil). A type of pasta parcel traditionally filled with mashed potatoes, cabbage, cottage cheese, or cherries, and then boiled in a similar way to pasta.

Political and administrative
Active measures (Russian: активные мероприятия, romanized: aktivnye meropriyatiya) is political warfare conducted by the Soviet or Russian government since the 1920s. It includes offensive programs such as disinformation, propaganda, deception, sabotage, destabilization, and espionage.

Agitprop (Russian: агитпро́п; blend of Russian агита́ция agitatsiya "agitation" and пропага́нда propaganda "propaganda"; origin – 1930's, from shortened form of отде́л агита́ции и пропага́нды, transliteration otdel agitatsii i propagandy, ('Department for Agitation and Propaganda'), which was part of the Central and regional committees of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The department was later renamed Ideological Department.)
 * Political (originally communist) propaganda

Apparatchik plural apparatchiki (Russian: аппара́тчик) (from Russian аппара́т apparat in sense of "gosudarstvenniy apparat" ["state machine"])
 * Common name given to state (governmental) organs and the Communist Party, which was the leading and most powerful part of the state machine in the former Soviet Union. The word "apparat" derives from "apparatus", which itself stems from the Latin apparare, "to make ready".

Bolshevik (Russian большеви́к) (from Russian "большинство́", "bolshinstvo" – majority, which derives from "бо́льше" bol'she – 'more', 'greater'.
 * (historical) A member of the majority faction of the Russian Social Democratic Party, which was renamed to the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) after seizing power in the October Revolution in 1917.
 * (chiefly derogatory) (in general use) A person with politically subversive or radical views; a revolutionary.
 * (adjective) Relating to or characteristic of Bolsheviks or their views or policies.

Cheka (Russian: Всероссийская чрезвычайная комиссия по борьбе с контрреволюцией и саботажем, acronym for The All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Speculation, and Sabotage, abbreviated to Cheka (Chrezvychaynaya Komissiya, ChK; Чрезвычайная Комиссия, ЧК – pronounced "Che-Ká") or VCheka; In 1918, its name was slightly altered to "All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Profiteering and Corruption"). The first Soviet state security organization (1917–1922), it was later transformed and reorganized into the GPU.

Commissar (Russian комисса́р) (Russian комиссариа́т commissariat, reinforced by medieval Latin commissariatus, both from medieval Latin commissarius "person in charge", from Latin committere "entrust". The term "commissar" was first used in 1918)
 * 1) An official of the communist party, especially in the former Soviet Union or present-day China, responsible for political education and organization; a head of a government department in the former Soviet Union before 1946, when the title was changed to "Minister".
 * 2) (figurative) A strict or prescriptive figure of authority.

Disinformation is a loan translation of the Russian dezinformatsiya (дезинформа́ция),  derived from the title of a KGB black propaganda department. Disinformation was defined in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1952) as "false information with the intention to deceive public opinion".

Druzhina also Druzhyna, Drużyna (Russian and Ukrainian: дружи́на) (Slavic drug (друг) meaning "companion" or "friend", related to Germanic drotiin, Proto-Germanic druhtinaz, meaning "war band") (historical) A detachment of select troops in East Slavic countries who performed service for a chieftain, later knyaz. Its original functions were bodyguarding, raising tribute from conquered territories, and serving as the core of an army during war campaigns. In Ukrainian, the word дружина means legal wife.

Duma (Russian: ду́ма) (from the Russian ду́мать dumat', "to think" or "to consider")
 * 1) (historical) A pre-19th century advisory municipal council in Russia, later referring to any of the four elected legislative bodies established due to popular demand in Russia from 1906 to 1917.
 * 2) The legislative body in the ruling assembly of Russia (and some other republics of the former Soviet Union) established after the fall of communism in 1993.

 * The State Duma (Russian: Государственная дума (Gosudarstvennaya duma), common abbreviation: Госду́ма (Gosduma)) in the Russian Federation is the lower house of the Federal Assembly of Russia (legislature), the upper house being the Federation Council of Russia.

Dyak (clerk) (Russian дьяк), diminutive –  Dyachok (Russian дьячо́к) (historical) One of the church workers in Russia who were not part of the official hierarchy of church offices and whose duties included reading and singing.

Glasnost (Russian: гла́сность ; glasnost – publicity, from "гласный" "glasniy" – public, from glas voice, from Old Church Slavonic glasu). Late-20th century official policy in the former Soviet Union (especially associated with Mikhail Gorbachev) emphasizing transparency and openness with regard to discussion of social problems and shortcomings.

Glavlit (Russian acronym for Main Administration for Literary and Publishing Affairs, later renamed Main Administration for the Protection of State Secrets in the Press of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. Russian: Главное управление по охране государственных тайн в печати ГУОГТП (ГУОТ), trans. Glavnoe upravlenie po okhrane gosudarstvennykh tayn v pechati) (historical) The official censorship and state secret protection organ in the Soviet Union.

Kadet (Russian: Конституционно-демократическая партия, The Constitutional Democratic Party  or Constitutional Democrats, formally Party of Popular Freedom, informally called Kadets, or Cadets, from the abbreviation K-D of the party name [the term was political and not related to military students, who are called cadets]) (historical) A liberal political party in Tsarist Russia founded in 1905; it largely dissolved after the Russian Civil War.

Khozraschyot or Khozraschet (Russian: хозрасчёт, хозя́йственный расчёт, literally "economic accounting") A method of the planned running of an economic unit (i.e., of a business, in Western terms) based on the confrontation of the expenses incurred in production with the production output, on the compensation of expenses using production-derived income; often referred to as the attempt to simulate the capitalist concepts of profit into the planned economy of the Soviet Union.

Kolkhoz plural kolkhozy (колхо́з, ; 1920s origin. Russian contraction of коллекти́вное хозя́йство, kol(lektivnoe) khoz(yaisto) "collective farm") A form of collective farming in the former Soviet Union.

Kompromat (Russian: компрометирующий материал) contraction of 'compromising' and 'material'. Refers to disparaging information that can be collected, stored, traded, or used strategically across all domains: political, electoral, legal, professional, judicial, media, and business. The origins of the term trace back to 1930s secret police jargon.

Korenizatsiya also korenization (корениза́ция) (Russian, meaning "nativization" or "indigenization", literally "putting down roots", from the Russian term коренно́е населе́ние korennoye naseleniye "root population")

Kulak (Russian: кула́к, literally "fist", meaning "tight-fisted" ) Originally a prosperous Russian landed peasant in czarist Russia, later the term was used with hostility by Communists during the October Revolution to refer to an exploiter and strong adherent of private property and liberal values, this being the opposite of communist values; they were severely repressed under the rule of Joseph Stalin in the 1930s.

Krai also Kray (Russian: край, 1. edge. 2.1. country, land (as poetic word). 2.2. krai, territory (as adm.-terr. unit). ) Term for eight of Russia's 85 federal subjects, often translated as territory, province, or region.

Leninism (Russian: ленини́зм) (after Vladimir Lenin, the term was coined in 1918) The political, economic, and social principles and practices of the Russian revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, especially his theory of government, which formed the basis for Soviet communism.

Lishenets (Russian: лише́нец) (from Russian лишение, "deprivation", properly translated as disenfranchised) (historical) A certain group of people in the Soviet Union who, from 1918 to 1936, were prohibited from voting and denied other rights.

Maskirovka (Russian: маскировка) (literally 'disguise') is a Russian military doctrine developed from the start of the twentieth century. The doctrine covers a broad range of measures for military deception, from camouflage to denial and deception.

Menshevik (Russian: меньшеви́к) (from Russian word меньшинство́ menshinstvo, "minority", from ме́ньше men'she "less"; the name Menshevik was coined by Vladimir Lenin when the party was (atypically) in the minority for a brief period) (historical) A member of the non-Leninist wing of the Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party, opposed to the Bolsheviks, who defeated them during the Russian Civil War that followed the 1917 Russian Revolution.

 Mir (Russian: мир) (from Russian mir, meaning both "world" and "peace")
 * (historical) A peasant farming commune in pre-Revolutionary Russia.
 * Mir, a space station created by the former Soviet Union and continued by Russia until 2001.

Namestnik (наме́стник, ; Russian, literally "deputy" or "lieutenant") (historical)
 * 1) (12th–16th century) An official who ruled an uyezd and was in charge of local administration.
 * 2) (18th–20th century) A type of viceroy in Russia who ruled a namestnichestvo and had plenipotentiary powers.

 Narkompros (Russian: Наркомпро́с) (Russian Народный комиссариат просвещения, an abbreviation for the People's Commissariat for Enlightenment (historical) The Soviet Union agency charged with the administration of public education and most other issues related to culture, such as literature and art. Founded by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution, it was renamed in 1946 to the Ministry of Enlightening.

Narodniks (Russian: plural наро́дники, singular наро́дник) (from Russian narod, "people", in turn from the expression "хождение в народ", meaning "going to the people") (historical) The name for Russian revolutionaries (active from the 1860s to the 1880s) that looked on the peasants and intelligentsia as revolutionary forces, rather than the urban working class.

NEP or The New Economic Policy (NEP) (Russian: нэп, acronym for но́вая экономи́ческая поли́тика novaya ekonomicheskaya politika) (historical) An economic policy instituted in 1921 by Lenin to attempt to rebuild industry, especially agriculture. The policy was later reversed by Stalin.

Nomenklatura (Russian: номенклату́ра) (Russian nomenklatura, from the Latin nomenclatura, meaning a list of names) (historical) In the former Soviet Union, a list of influential posts in government and industry to be filled by Communist Party appointees; collectively the holders of these posts, the Soviet élite.

Oblast (Russian: область) A type of administrative division

Obshchina (Russian: ́община, общи́на) (Russian о́бщий obshchiy common, commune) Russian peasant agrarian communities during Imperialist Russia.

Obtshak (Russian: обща́к) In criminal jargon, a mutual aid fund in the environment of a criminal community.

Okhrana in full: The Okhrannoye otdeleniye (Russian: Охра́нное отделе́ние) (Russian, literally "protection section") (historical) The secret police organization (established in the 1860s) for protection of the Russian czarist regimes. It ended with the Bolshevik takeover of Russia in 1917; the Bolsheviks set up their own secret police organization, called the Cheka.

Okrug (Russian: о́круг) (Russian okrug is similar to the German word Bezirk ("district"), both referring to something that is "encircled").
 * In the former Soviet Union, an administrative division of an oblast and krai
 * A federal district in the present-day Russian Federation

Oprichnina (Russian: опри́чнина) (from the obsolete Russian word опричь, oprich, meaning "apart from" or "separate") (historical) Term for the domestic policy of Russian czar Ivan the Terrible.

Oprichnik plural Oprichniki (Russian: опри́чник) (historical) Name given to the bodyguards of Ivan the Terrible, who ruthlessly suppressed any opposition to his reign.

Perestroika (Russian: перестро́йка) (Russian perestroika, literally "restructuring"; the term was first used in 1986) The reform of the political and economic system of the former Soviet Union, first proposed by Leonid Brezhnev at the 26th Communist Party Congress in 1979 and later actively promoted by Mikhail Gorbachev from 1985.

Podyachy (Russian: подья́чий) (Russian, from the Greek hypodiakonos, "assistant servant") (historical) An office occupation in prikazes (local and upper governmental offices) and lesser local offices of Russia from the 15th to the 18th century.

Politburo (Russian Политбюро́ politbyuro, from Полити́ческое бюро́ polit(icheskoe) byuro, "political bureau") (historical) The principal policymaking committee in the former Soviet Union that was founded in 1917; also known as the Presidium from 1952 to 1966.

Posadnik (Russian: поса́дник) (from Old Church Slavic posaditi, meaning to put, or place, since originally, they were placed in the city to rule on behalf of the prince of Kiev) (historical) A mayor (equivalent to a stadtholder, burgomaster, or podestà in the medieval West) in some East Slavic cities, notably in the Russian cities of Novgorod and Pskov; the title was abolished in the 15th and 16th centuries.

Praporshchik (Russian: пра́порщик) (from Slavonic prapor (прапор), meaning flag, since the praporshchik was a flag-bearer among Kievan Rus troops) The name of a junior officer position in the military of the Russian Empire equivalent to ensign. Nowadays, this rank is used by the modern Russian army, police, and FSB and is equivalent to warrant officer.

Prikaz (Russian: прика́з)
 * 1) (historical) An administrative (palace, civil, military, or church) or judicial office in Muscovy and Russia of 15th–18th centuries; abolished by Peter the Great.
 * 2) In modern Russian, an administrative or military order (to do something).

Propiska (Russian: пропи́ска) (Russian full term пропи́ска по ме́сту жи́тельства, "The record of place of residence", from the Russian verb propisat "to write into", in reference to writing a passport into a registration book of the given local office) (historical) A regulation promulgated by the Russian czar designed to control internal population movement by binding a person to his or her permanent place of residence. Abolished by Lenin but later reinstated under Stalin in the Soviet Union.

Silovik (Russian: силови́к), plural siloviks or siloviki (Russian: силовики́) (from Russian си́ла sila, "strength", "force") A collective name for ministers, generals, and other officials of "силовые ведомства" "siloviye vedomstva" – force departments – ministries and other departments that have arms (weapons) and ability to use armed force, such as the army, FSB(KGB), or MVD (police). The term siloviks is often used to highlight or suggest their inclination to use force to solve problems.

Soviet (Russian: сове́т) (Russian sovet, "council") (historical)
 * A revolutionary council of workers or peasants in Russia before the 1917 Revolution
 * An elected local, district, or national council in the former Soviet Union
 * A citizen in the former Soviet Union
 * Of or concerning the former Soviet Union

Sovkhoz plural sovkhozes (Russian: совхо́з) (Russian сове́тское хозя́йство, (Sov) eckoje (khoz)yaistvo, "Soviet farm")
 * (historical) A state-owned farm in the former Soviet Union
 * A state-owned farm in countries of the former Soviet Union

Sovnarkhoz (Russian: Совнархо́з) (Russian сове́т наро́дного хозя́йства, sovet narodnogo hozyaistva, Council of National Economy, usually translated as "Regional Economic Council") (historical) An organization of the former Soviet Union to manage a separate economic region.

Sovnarkom (Russian: Сове́т Мини́стров СССР) (Russian Sovet Ministrov SSSR, Council of Ministers of the USSR, sometimes abbreviated as Совми́н Sovmin; between 1918 and 1946, it was named the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR (Совет Народных Комиссаров СССР, Russian Sovet Narodnykh Komissarov SSSR, sometimes Sovnarkom or SNK).) (historical) In the former Soviet Union, the highest executive and administrative body.

Spetsnaz or Specnaz (Russian: Войска́ специа́льного назначе́ния – спецна́з) or Russian special purpose regiments (Voyska spetsialnogo naznacheniya) A general term for police or military units within the Soviet Union (later Russian Federation) who engage in special activities; similar to commando.

Stakhanovite (Russian: стаха́новец) (after Aleksei Grigorievich Stakhanov (Алексе́й Григо́рьевич Стаха́нов), a coal miner from Donbas noted for his superior productivity; the Soviet authorities publicized Stakhanov's prodigious output in 1935 as part of a campaign to increase industrial output).
 * (historical) In the former Soviet Union, a worker who was exceptionally hardworking and productive and thus earned special privileges and rewards
 * Any exceptionally hardworking or zealous person, often with connotations of excessive compliance with management and lack of solidarity with fellow workers

 Stalinism (Russian: сталини́зм; the term Stalinism was first used in 1927, though not by Stalin himself, as he considered himself a Marxist–Leninist).
 * (historical) The political, economic, and social principles and policies associated with Joseph Stalin during his rule (1924–1953) of the Soviet Union; especially the theory and practice of communism developed by Stalin, which included rigid authoritarianism, widespread use of terror, and often emphasis on Russian nationalism.
 * Any rigid centralized authoritarian form of government or rule.

 Stavka (Russian: Ста́вка) (historical) The general headquarters of armed forces in late Imperial Russia and in the former Soviet Union.

Streltsy singular strelitz, plural strelitzes or strelitzi (Russian: стрельцы́; singular: стреле́ц strelets, "bowman") (historical) Units of armed guards created by Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century and later abolished by Peter the Great.

Tovarishch also Tovarich (Russian: това́рищ IPA [tɐˈvarʲɪɕɕ], tovarishch, "close friend", referring to the noun това́р tovar, "merchandise"); In the former Soviet Union, a comrade; often used as a form of address.

Tsar also czar, tzar, csar, and zar (Russian: царь, English : from Latin Caesar).
 * (historical) Title of a Southern Slav ruler, as in Bulgaria (913–1018, 1185–1422, and 1908–1946) and Serbia (1346–1371).
 * (historical) Title for the emperor of Russia from about 1547 to 1917, although the term after 1721 officially only referred to the Russian emperor's sovereignty over formerly independent states.
 * (latter part of the 20th century) A person with great authority or power in a particular area, e.g., drug czar (spelled only as "czar" in this usage).

Tsarina also tsaritsa (formerly spelled czaritsa), czarina, German zarin, French tsarine (Russian: цари́ца) (Russian, etymology from tsar) (historical) The wife of a tsar; also the title for the empress of Russia.

Tsarevna also czarevna (Russian царе́вна, etymology from tsar).
 * (historical) The daughter of a tsar
 * The wife of a tsarevitch

Tsarevich also tsesarevich, czarevich, tzarevitch Russian: царе́вич, early 18th century, from tsar + patronymic -evich (historical) The eldest son of an emperor of Russia; the male heir to a tsar.

Tysyatsky also tysiatsky (Russian: ты́сяцкий) (sometimes translated as dux or Heerzog but more correctly meaning thousandman; sometimes translated into the Greek chilliarch, literally meaning "rule of a thousand") (historical) A military leader in Ancient Rus who commanded a people's volunteer army called tysyacha (Russian: ты́сяча), or a thousand.

Ukase (Russian: ука́з ordinance, edict, from указывать, ukazat, to show) (pronunciation: /juːˈkeɪs/; yoo-KASE), a decree:
 * 1) (historical) In Imperial Russia, a proclamation or edict of the ruling tsar or tsarina, the Russian government, or a religious leader (patriarch) that had the force of law
 * 2) (historical) In the former Soviet Union, a government edict issued by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet and subject to later ratification by the Supreme Soviet
 * 3) In the Russian Federation, a presidential decree

Uskoreniye (Russian: ускоре́ние, literally "acceleration") A slogan and policy initiated in 1985 by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, aimed at the acceleration of social and economic development of the Soviet Union.

 Votchina also otchina (Russian: во́тчина (о́тчина) "father's heritage") (historical)
 * 1) An East Slavic land estate that could be inherited
 * 2) The land owned by a knyaz

Yevsektsiya also Yevsektsia (Russian: ЕвСе́кция) (from the abbreviation of the phrase "Евре́йская се́кция" Yevreyskaya sektsiya) (historical) The Jewish section of the Soviet Communist party that was created in 1918 to challenge and eventually destroy the rival Bund and Zionist parties, suppress Judaism and "bourgeois nationalism", and replace traditional Jewish culture with "proletarian culture". It was disbanded in 1929.

Zampolit (Russian замполи́т, the abbreviation of (зам)еститель командира по (полит)ической части, "deputy commander (political)) A military or political commissar.

Zek (Russian abbreviation of ЗаКлючённый (З/К), zaklyuchennyi (Z/K), "incarcerated") (historical) In the former Soviet Union, a person held in a forced labour camp, known as Gulag, or in a prison.

Zemshchina (from Russian земля́ zemlya, "earth" or "land") (historical) The territory under the rule of the boyars who stayed in Moscow during the reign of Ivan the Terrible. It was separate from the rule of Ivan's own territory, which was administered by the Oprichnina.

Zemsky Sobor (Russian: зе́мский собо́р) (Russian assembly of the land) (historical) The first Russian parliament of the feudal estates type during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Zemstvo (Russian: зе́мство) (historical) A district and provincial assembly in Russia from 1864 to 1917.

Religious
Beglopopovtsy also Beglopopovtsy (Russian: Беглопоповцы, "people with runaway priests") (historical) A denomination of the Old Believers that included priests who had deserted the Russian Orthodox Church during the Raskol.

Bespopovtsy also Bespopovtsy (Russian: Беспоповцы, "priestless") A denomination of the Old Believers that rejected the priests and a number of church rites, such as the Eucharist.

Chlysty also Khlysts, Khlysty (Russian: Хлысты) (invented Russian word Христоверы, transliteration Khristovery, "Christ-believers"; later critics corrupted the name, mixing it with the word хлыст khlyst, meaning "whip") (historical) A Christian sect in Russia that split from the Russian Orthodox Church in the 17th century and renounced the priesthood, holy books, and veneration of the saints. They were noted for their practice of asceticism, which included ecstatic rituals.

Doukhobor plural Doukhobors or Doukhabors (also Dukhobory or Dukhobortsy) (Russian: Духоборы/Духоборцы) (Russian doukhobor, literally "spirit wrestlers") A Christian sect, later defined as a religious philosophy, ethnic group, and social movement, which in the 18th century rejected secular government, the Russian Orthodox priests, icons, all church ritual, the Bible as the supreme source of divine revelation, and the divinity of Jesus. Widely persecuted by the Russian tsarist regimes, many of them immigrated to Canada in the late 19th century.

Edinoverie (Russian: Единоверие, "unity in faith") The practice of integrating Old Believer communities into the official Russian Orthodox Church while preserving their rites. Its adherents are Edinovertsy, "people of the same faith".

Imiaslavie also Imiabozhie, Imyaslavie, Imyabozhie; also referred to as Onomatodoxy (Russian: Имяславие, "glorification of the name (of God)"

Lipovans also known as Lippovans, or Russian Old Believers. A religious sect that separated from the Russian Orthodox Church in the 17th century, now mostly living in Romanian Dobruja.

Molokan (Russian: Молока́не, from Russian moloko, "milk") A Christian sect that broke away from the Russian Orthodox Church in the mid-16th century and rejected many traditional Christian beliefs, including the veneration of religious icons, the Trinity, the worship in cathedrals, and the adherence to saintly holidays.

Pomortsy (Russian: Древлеправославная Поморская Церковь) Branch of the priestless faction of the Old Believers.

Popovtsy also The Popovtsy or Popovschina (Russian: Поповцы, Поповщина, "priestist people") A branch of the Old Believers who strived to have priests of their own.

Raskol also Raskolnik Russian: раско́л (Russian, meaning "split" or "schism") The schism of the Russian Orthodox Church that was triggered by the 1653 reforms of Patriarch Nikon.

Rodnovery (Russian: Родноверие, "way of the people" or "way of the tribe"). A new religious movement from Russia and other Slavic countries that attempts to revive the pre-Christian beliefs of the ancient Slavs. Adherents of the Rodnovery religion, or anything related to Rodnovery, are known in English as Rodnover.

Rogozhskoe Soglasie (name from a Moscow cemetery called Rogozhskoe cemetery (Russian: Рогожское кладбище)). A denomination among the Popovtsy Old Believers.

Shaman (Russian: шама́н [ʂɐ'man], from the Evenki language). A tribal priest who enters an altered state of consciousness to commune with spirits.

Skoptzy plural Skopets, also Skoptsy, Skoptzi, Skoptsi, Scoptsy (Russian: скопцы, from Russian, meaning "castrated one") (historical). A Russian religious sect that practiced self-castration.

Starets (Russian: ста́рец old man, elder). A Russian religious spiritual leader, teacher, or counsellor.

Yurodivy (Russian: юродивый, jurodivyj). A form of Eastern Orthodox asceticism in which one intentionally acts foolish in the eyes of men; a Holy Fool.

Znamennoe singing, also Znamenny Chant (Russian: Знаменное пение or знаменный распев). The traditional liturgical singing in the Russian Orthodox Church.

Technical, special
Chernozem (Russian: чернозём; from Russian черный, cherniy, "black" + Slavonic base зем, zem, "soil") A dark, humus-rich, fertile soil characteristic of temperate or cool grasslands, especially referring to the soil of the Russian steppes.

Baidarka (Russian: байда́рка, "small boat"; a diminutive form of baidar, "boat") A type of sea kayak originally made by the Aleut people of Alaska.

 Elektrichka (Russian: электри́чка, informal word for elektropoezd Russian: электропо́езд, "electric train") An electric commuter.

 Fortochka (Russian: фо́рточка) A small ventilation window spanning the frame of one window pane.

Kalashnikov Alternative name for the AK-47 assault rifle (AK-47, short for Russian: Автома́т Кала́шникова образца́ 1947 го́да, Avtomat Kalashnikova obraztsa 1947 goda Automatic Kalashnikov rifle, invented by Soviet soldier and small-arms designer Mikhail Kalashnikov and first adopted in 1947; the term "kalashnikov" was not used until 1970) A type of rifle or sub-machine gun from the Soviet Union, used in most Eastern Bloc countries during the Cold War.

Ledoyom, intermontane depressions filled with glaciers

Liman (Russian and Ukrainian: лима́н) (from Greek λιμένας, "bay" or "port") A type of lake or lagoon formed at the mouth of a river, blocked by a bar of sediments, especially referring to such features along the Danube River and the Black Sea.

Marshrutka (Russian: маршру́тка, ; Russian, from marshrutnoye taxi, Russian Mаршрутное такси, literally "routed taxicab"). A share taxi used in the CIS and Bulgaria. In Ukraine and Russia, these are usually large vans (GAZelle, modified Ford Transit, or similar) or sometimes mini- or midibuses.

Mirovia (Russian: мирово́й) (from Russian mirovoy, "global", from mir, "world) A hypothesized paleo-ocean that may have been a global ocean surrounding the supercontinent of Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic era, about one billion to 750 million years ago.

Mormyshka also Mormishka, Marmooska (Russian: мормы́шка) (from Russian mormysh, "freshwater shrimp" (Gammaurus) A type of fishing lure or a jig.

Podsol also Podzol, Spodosol (Russian подзо́л, from под pod, "under" and зол zol, "ash") Any group of soils characterized by greyish-white leached and infertile topsoil and a brown subsoil, typically found in regions with a subpolar climate.

Polynia also polynya, polynia (Russian: полынья́; ) A non-linear area of open water surrounded by sea ice; especially referring to areas of sea in the Arctic and Antarctic regions that remain unfrozen for much of the year.

Redan (French word for "projection", "salient", after Russian Реда́н redan, a type of fort that was captured by the British during the Crimean War) A type of fortification work in a V-shaped salient angle toward an expected attack.

Rodinia (from the Russian ро́дина, "motherland") Name given to hypothesized supercontinent said to have existed from one billion to 800 million years ago.

Rasputitsa (Russian: распу́тица) The twice-annual season when roads become muddy and impassable in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine due to the melting snows in the spring and heavy rains in the fall.

Solonchak (Russian солонча́к, "salt marsh", from Russian соль, sol, "salt") A pale or grey soil type found in arid to sub-humid, poorly drained conditions.

Solonetz (from Russian солоне́ц, solonets, "salt not produced by boiling", from Russian соль, sol, "salt") An alkaline soil type having a hard, dark subsoil under a thin, friable topsoil, formed by the leaching of salts from a solonchak.

Tokamak (Russian: токама́к, an abbreviation of the Russian words то роидальная ка мера в ма гнитных к атушках, toroidal'naya kamera v magnitnykh katushkakh, toroidal chamber in magnetic coils (Tochamac), invented in the 1950s) In nuclear fusion, a toroidal apparatus in which plasma is contained by means of two magnetic fields, a strong toroidal field, and a weaker poloidal field generated by an intense electric current through the plasma.

Zastruga (zastrugi; Russian sing. застру́га, zastruga, pl. застру́ги, zastrugi; from стругать, "to whittle") Sharp, irregular grooves or ridges formed on a snow surface by wind erosion, saltation of snow particles, and deposition, and found in polar and temperate snow regions.

Obsolete Russian weights and measures:
 * Pood also pud (Russian: пуд) (largely obsolete) A unit of mass in Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine equal to 40 funt (фунт, Russian pound), or approximately 16.38 kilograms (36.11 pounds). It is still used in metal weights, produced for heavy lifting sports (items by 16, 24, 32 kg).
 * Verst (Russian: верста́, versta) An obsolete Russian unit of length or distance defined as being 500 sazhen long, equivalent to 3,500 feet (.66 miles/1.0668 kilometres).

Vigorish (Russian: выигрыш, vyigrysh, "winnings") The amount charged by a bookmaker for taking a bet from a gambler.

Animals and plants
Beluga (sturgeon) (from Russian белу́га, beluga, a derivative from белый, white) A large kind of sturgeon.

Beluga (whale) (from Russian белу́ха belukha, a derivative of белый, white) A type of white whale.

Corsac (from Russian корса́к, korsák, the name for the species) A type of fox.

Khramulya (Russian: храму́ля) The name of several fish species of the family Cyprinidae: Anatolian Khramulya, Colchic Khramulya, and Sevan khramulya.

Lenok (Russian: лено́к; otherwise known as Asiatic trout or Manchurian trout) A genus, Brachymystax, of salmonid fishes.

Saiga (from Russian сайга́, the name for the species) A type of antelope.

Sheltopusik (also Scheltopusik; Russian: желтопу́зик, literally "yellow-bellied") European legless lizard (Pseudopus apodus).

Various
Banya (Russian: ба́ня) A traditional Russian steam bath.

Bayan (Russian: бая́н) (named after Boyan, a mythical Slavic bard) A type of chromatic button accordion developed in Russia in the early 20th century.

Belomorkanal (Russian: Беломоркана́л)
 * 1) White Sea – Baltic Canal (Belomorsko-Baltiyskiy Kanal, abbreviated as BBK; its original name was Беломо́рско-Балти́йский кана́л и́мени Ста́лина Belomorsko-Baltiyskiy Kanal imeni Stalina, "Stalin White Sea-Baltic Sea Canal", "Stalin" was dropped in 1961 and the name was abbreviated to Belomorkanal). A shipping canal (opened in 1933) that joins the White Sea with Lake Onega, which is further connected to the Baltic Sea.
 * 2) Belomorkanal, a brand of cheap Soviet cigarettes.

 Burlak (Russian: бурла́к) (Tatar bujdak, "homeless"; or old Middle-German bûrlach, originating from an artel [арте́ль] or working team with fixed rules) A Russian epithet for a person who hauled barges and other vessels down dry or shallow waterways from the 17th to the 20th century.

 Bylina (Russian: были́на, "[tale of] a past event"; plural: были́ны byliny) (Adaptation of Old Russian bylina, a word that occurred in The Song of Igor's Campaign, taken to mean "tale of a past event"; the term "bylina" came into use in the 1830s as a scholarly name for what is popularly called "starina"; although byliny originated in the 10th century, or possibly earlier, they were first written down around the 17th century) A traditional form of orally transmitted Russian epic and heroic narrative poetry of the early East Slavs of Kievan Rus from the 10th to 12th century, a tradition that continued in Russian and Ukrainian history.

 Cantonists singular Cantonist (Russian: кантони́сты; the term adapted from Prussian for "recruiting district") (historical) Boys, often sons of military conscripts, who attended a type of military school called a canton (Russian: кантони́стские шко́лы), a school that was originally established by Peter the Great; in the 1820s, the term was applied to Jewish boys drafted into the Russian army.

 Chainik (Russian: ча́йник, "tea kettle")

 Chastushka (Russian: часту́шка, derives from "часто" – "frequently", or from части́ть – old word that means "to do something with high frequency", probably referring to the high tempo of chastushkas). A traditional type of short Russian humorous folkloric song with high beat frequency that consists of one four-lined couplet full of humour, satire, or irony. Chastushkas are typically sung one after another.

Dacha (Russian: да́ча) A country house or cottage in Russia. In archaic Russian, the word dacha means "something given". Initially, they were small estates in the country, given to loyal vassals by the tsar. Typical Soviet dachas were small land plots given by the state to city dwellers, who built summer houses on them.

Dedovshchina (Russian: дедовщи́на) (from Russian ded, "grandfather", Russian army slang equivalent of "gramps", meaning soldiers in their third or fourth half-year of conscription, + suffix -shchina – order, rule, or regime; hence "rule of the grandfathers") A system of hazing in the Soviet and Russian armies.

GUM (Russian: ГУМ, pronounced as goom, in full Главный Универсальный Магазин, Glavnyi Universalnyi Magazin acronym for Main Universal Store) A common name for the main department store in many cities of the former Soviet Union and some post-Soviet states; especially referring to the GUM facing Red Square in Moscow.

Izba also Isba (origin 1775–85, Russian изба́, izbá; Old Russian istŭba, house, bath; Serbo-Croatian ìzba, small room, shack; Czech jizba, room; Old Czech jistba, jizdba, all from Slavic *jĭstŭba ≪ VL *extūfa, with short u, perhaps from Germanic *stuba) A traditional log house in rural Russia, with an unheated entrance room and a single living and sleeping room heated by a clay or brick stove.

 Junker (Russia) (Russian: ю́нкер) (from Middle High German junc herre, "young nobleman", from Old High German jung, "young" + herro, "lord") (historical)
 * A member of the privileged, militaristic landowning class in Germany; a Prussian aristocrat
 * A German military officer, especially one who is autocratic
 * (1864–1917) A student who attended a type of Russian military school called a Junker school
 * Former rank of a volunteer in the Russian Navy in the 19th and 20th centuries

 Katorga (Russian: ка́торга, from Greek: katergon, κάτεργον, "galley") (historical) A form of penal servitude during Tsarist Russia, later transformed into the Gulags after the Bolshevik takeover of Russia.

Khodebshchik (Russian: ходе́бщик) A person carrying an advertisement hoarding, or a peddler.

Mat (Russian: мат, or ма́терный язы́к) Russian profanity meaning "mother".

Muzhik (мужи́к) A Russian peasant; used as a topical calque in translations of Russian prose.

Padonki (Russian: падонки, corrupted подо́нки, meaning "riff-raff", "scoundrel", "scum") A subculture within the Russian-speaking internet characterized by choosing alternative spellings for words for comic effect.

Palochka (Russian: па́лочка, "little stick") A typographical symbol of the Cyrillic alphabet that looks like the Latin uppercase letter "I"; it is used as modifier letter in some Caucasus languages.

Preved (Russian: Преве́д) A Russian internet slang word, corrupted form of "privet" (приве́т) – "hi", "greetings".

Sambo (Russian: са́мбо) (Russian acronym for САМозащи́та Без Ору́жия, SAMozashchita Bez Oruzhiya, "self-defense without a weapon") A modern martial art, combat sport, and self-defense system originally developed in the former Soviet Union.

Samizdat (Russian: самизда́т) (Russian сам, sam, "self"; and издат, izdat, short for izdatelstvo – "publishing house", hence "self published") (historical) In the former Soviet Union, the system by which government-suppressed literature was clandestinely written, printed, and distributed; the term is also applied to the literature itself.

Sbiten (Russian: сби́тен) (historical) A traditional East Slavic hot winter beverage.

 Sbitenshchik (Russian: сби́тенщик) (historical) A vendor who sold sbiten.

Sharashka also Sharaga, Sharazhka (Russian: шара́шка IPA: [ʂɐˈraʂkə]) (Russian slang for the expression sharashkina kontora, "Sharashka's office", possibly from the radical meaning "to beat about", an ironic, derogatory term to denote a poorly organized, impromptu, or bluffing organization) (historical) Informal name for the secret research and development laboratories in the Soviet Union's Gulag labor camp system.

Tamizdat (from Russian тамизда́т: там, tam, meaning "there" and издат, izdat, short for изда́тельство, izdatelstvo, "publishing house") In the former Soviet Union, literary works published outside the country without permission of Soviet authorities.

 Zaum (Russian: за́умь or зау́мный язы́к, zaumnyy yazyk) (from the Russian prefix за, "beyond, behind" and the noun ум, "mind") A type of poetry used by Russian Futurist poets.

title: List of English words of Russian origin


text:
The Five Keys

The Five Keys were an American rhythm and blues vocal group who were instrumental in shaping this genre in the 1950s.

They were formed with the original name of Sentimental Four in Newport News, Virginia, US, in the late 1940s, and initially consisted of two sets of brothers - Rudy West and Bernie West, and Ripley Ingram and Raphael Ingram. Raphael Ingram left in 1949 and Maryland Pierce (March 25, 1932 – July 22, 2021) and Thomas 'Dickie' Threatt became members in his place. At this juncture the name of the group was changed to The Five Keys.

They were signed to Aladdin Records in 1951, and in 1952 Rudy West left to join the United States Army, and he was replaced by Ulysses K. Hicks. When Hicks died of a heart attack in Boston in 1955, Rudy West returned to the group. In 1954 Dickie Smith left and was replaced with Ramon Loper. At this point the Five Keys were signed to Capitol Records, and their popularity increased, although more instrumentation was used.

The group was inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 2002. Rudy West died of a heart attack on May 14, 1998, at age 65. Ramon Loper died on October 16, 2002, after a short illness.

Dickie Threatt, lead tenor from 1958 to 1961, died on October 9, 2007, in Newport News, Virginia.

Albums

 * The Best of the Five Keys (Aladdin 1956)
 * The Five Keys on the Town (Score 1957)
 * The Five Keys on Stage (Capitol 1957)
 * The Five Keys (King 1960)
 * Rhythm and Blues Hits Past and Present (King 1960)
 * The Fantastic Five Keys (Capitol 1962)

title: The Five Keys


text:
Cummings

Cummings may refer to:

Canada

 * Cummings, Saskatchewan, an unincorporated hamlet

United States

 * Cummings, Mendocino County, California, an unincorporated community
 * Cummings, Kansas
 * Cummings, North Dakota, an unincorporated community
 * Cummings Research Park, Huntsville, Alabama
 * Cummings Township, Lycoming County, Pennsylvania
 * Cummings Mountain (disambiguation)

Other uses

 * Cummings (surname)
 * USS Cummings, two United States Navy destroyers
 * Cummings Jewish Centre for Seniors, in Montreal, Quebec, Canada
 * Walt Cummings, a fictional character in the TV series 24
 * Cummings, a character in The Diary of a Nobody by George and Weedon Grossmith

title: Cummings


text:
User talk:Ilya (usurped)/Archive

Hello Ilya, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Angela. 03:18, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Hi, Ilya. Please do your experimentation at Sandbox. RickK 00:28, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

And why did you blank the content of Alphabetical list of Wikipedians? RickK 01:04, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * What?? I'm really sorry because it looks like I did. May be some problems with Explorer. Revert is great! --Ilya 02:02, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

--- Hi Ilya, I moved your experimental main page to the Wikipedia namespace Experimental Main Page as this is the appropiate place for it. Hope that's ok. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 12:53, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Definitely José Ortega y Gasset should be included, his view of the masses was of a decultured mob who no longer respected traditional culture. This view is discussed in the 1st chapter of Bell's book, but I have not included in the article yet, feel free to do so. Fred Bauder 14:52, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Hi, Please be careful when entering Cyrillic text into English wikipedia. In particular, your encoding at http://en2.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Pogrom is undecodale in any of cyrillic tables at my PC. It worked only after setting the encoding to unicode. The best way is to kep consistence with Russian wiki & http://ru.wikipedia.org/ Also, a good way is to give both cyrillic and latin transliteration. Mikkalai 22:28, 27 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Fixed ilya 14:55, 30 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Hi Ilya, just wanted to mention the problem with using Terms of Use as you suggested on the MediaWiki:disclaimers talk page. Mav and I have discussed this a bit in the past and I really think it would be best not to use this term because "terms of use" can either apply to those submitting or those using Wikipedia content. As it is the GFDL applies to those who use Wikipedia content and there is already a gloss over the different issues between those submitting to Wikipedia and those using that content. I have suggested that this text be put in the edit page text; a discussion about that proposal would be useful. And by the way: С Рождеством! С Новым годом! — Alex756 05:19, 7 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Siggies
I've said this to user:JackLynch just now, so don't think I'm picking on you, but I'd appreciate it if you wouldn't override font colors in your signatures. It breaks the usability of most browsers having different colours for visited and unvisited links, and it adds another level of confusion for no purpose - especially given that we already use link colours to indicate external sites and empty pages and stubs. I'm all for being playful, but I'd prefer if you found a method that wasn't quite so evil... :) Martin 19:06, 16 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Reasonable. Thank you, ilya 20:15, 16 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Thanks. Sorry to spoil your fun, though. :( Martin 20:33, 16 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Hi Ilya. Sorry for my combative tone on the VP. I think we were both talking slightly at cross-purposes. You don't want to actually remove potentially offensive material, just make it more difficult to get at, and I don't want to put porn on the main page. ;-) --snoyes 08:05, 17 Jan 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ilya (usurped)/Archive


text:
Talk:Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom

Intereggnum
An order for the breaking up and sale of the Crown Jewels was made by Parliament in 1649. Cromwell had no authority to make such orders himself. In that year, Cromwell was a Member of Parliament and a member of the English Council of State (later known as the Protector's Privy Council). Although Cromwell led some military campaigns on behalf of the Parliamentary cause, he was not the leader of Parliament, and England was effectively governed by committee until he became Lord Protector in 1653. None of the many authoritative books in my possession about the Crown Jewels, which I have been researching for the past three years, states that Cromwell made the order or that the Jewels were sold "under Cromwell" (whose 'regime' began four years later), despite what lazy pro-monarchy (and thus anti-Cromwell) sources on the internet say. Firebrace (talk) 17:56, 10 March 2019 (UTC)
 * I wouldn't be so sure of that. Cromwell, backed up by the army, was not one to worry much about the legal technicalities, especially after Pride's Purge in 1648. You should probably look at wider sources by specialists in the period. The Council very largely did what Cromwell said, and he was in effective control of the government and Parliament.  But in the case of the art collection he did mostly get stuff done through Parliament. Johnbod (talk) 21:41, 10 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Certaintly, Cromwell "dominated Parliament" in those years, as Wikipedia puts it, but then so did other leading Members of Parliament such as Henry Ireton, Cromwell's son-in-law. Cromwell was equal among the many signatories of the Act for the Sale of the Goods and Personal Estate of the Late King, Queen and Prince, drawn up by the Council of State (which had replaced the Crown), and voted on by Parliament. I think we cannot say with any authority that one individual alone was responsible for the destruction of the Crown Jewels. Nothing happened "under Cromwell" before 1653 and whilst he was a passionate supporter of the Act he did not lead the Commons or the country. Firebrace (talk) 23:43, 10 March 2019 (UTC)
 * According to MacGregor, The Late King's Goods (1989), p. 107, "At the time of the break-up of the collection [in 1649], events had taken a very different course. The first parliamentary leaders had died or been superseded, the King had been executed and power now rested with Cromwell and his future major-generals, who were, for the most part, middle-class puritans". This would put Cromwell on an equal footing with his future major-generals (see Rule of the Major-Generals), who were also senior military figures in the English Civil War.
 * Executive power was vested in the Council of State, and although Cromwell was the first Chairman of the council, the position was not permanent, and they elected a new chairman every month. He did not become Captain-general and Commander-in-chief of the Army until 1650 – the year after the destruction of the Crown Jewels. It's quite a reach to say "the medieval and Tudor regalia were melted down by Oliver Cromwell" or that it happened "under Cromwell", which is why academic sources steer away from pinning it on Cromwell. Firebrace (talk) 22:40, 12 March 2019 (UTC)

For the record I wish to note that contrary to WP:DR Wikiuser100 issued the hitherto uninvolved administrator User:RegentsPark with an ultimatum (paraphrasing): "Please come and help me win this edit war, or I'll quit Wikipedia. You don't want that on your conscience do you? Thanks in advance" (link). This behaviour is completely unacceptable. I have reverted the changes owing to lack of consensus. Firebrace (talk) 00:31, 14 March 2019 (UTC)

picture of charles 1
He is not standing next to king edwards crown, he is staning next to tudor crown 217.68.80.54 (talk) 10:48, 13 September 2022 (UTC)

Damascus steel vs patterned steel
Thanks for finding a source for Damascus steel. I'm not sure however when they refer to damascus steel, if they are referring to the older "true" Damascus steel made in the near east or simply patterned welded steel. It seems likely that it would be the later as the sword was created in 1820 and in the UK, but I can't find a source clarifying the matter. Do you have any thoughts on this? Safes007 (talk) 05:19, 18 May 2023 (UTC)

 * Rundell, Bridge and Rundell were jewellers and goldsmiths, not swordsmiths, and there is every chance the blade pre-dates 1820 and was imported to the UK. It is also possible the author meant Damascened steel blade, in reference to the bluing and gilt work. Happy to revert myself and park this debate for now until I can obtain more information regarding the sword's history. Firebrace (talk) 14:26, 19 May 2023 (UTC)
 * @Firebrace Thanks, I'll keep an eye out for sources too. Safes007 (talk) 01:02, 22 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I would think Damascened is far more likely - London must have been full of under-employed swordsmiths around 1820, & there would have been no difficulty finding good ones, so no need to import anything. The RC entry ("The design of the sword was suggested by George IV himself") strongly suggests they regard it as brand new for the coronation. Johnbod (talk) 15:20, 22 May 2023 (UTC)

Wine Fountain
It's not clear to me what this is, and internet searches are ambiguous. 57.135.233.22 (talk) 12:25, 14 June 2024 (UTC)
 * It's a fountain, for wine. A barrel of wine was placed high up in the rafters. From this a pipe ran down to the fountain. When the tap was turned on the wine would flow out through the serpent's mouth for guests to catch in a glass. Firebrace (talk) 21:05, 15 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom