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Gemini 9A

Gemini 9A (officially Gemini IX-A) was a 1966 crewed spaceflight in NASA's Gemini program. It was the seventh crewed Gemini flight, the 15th crewed American flight and the 23rd spaceflight of all time (includes X-15 flights over 100 km). The original crew for Gemini 9, command pilot Elliot See and pilot Charles Bassett, were killed in a crash on February 28, 1966, while flying a T-38 jet trainer to the McDonnell Aircraft plant in St. Louis, Missouri to inspect their spacecraft. Their deaths promoted the backup crew, Thomas P. Stafford and Eugene Cernan, to the prime crew. The mission was renamed Gemini 9A after the original May 17 launch was scrubbed when the mission's Agena Target Vehicle was destroyed after a launch failure. The mission was flown June 3–6, 1966, after launch of the backup Augmented Target Docking Adaptor (ATDA). Stafford and Cernan rendezvoused with the ATDA, but were unable to dock with it because the nose fairing had failed to eject from the docking target due to a launch preparation error. Cernan performed a two-hour extravehicular activity, during which it was planned for him to demonstrate free flight in a self-contained rocket pack, the USAF Astronaut Maneuvering Unit. He was unable to accomplish this due to stress, fatigue, and overheating.

Original prime crew

On February 28, 1966, See and Bassett were flying from Texas to inspect the Gemini 9 spacecraft at the McDonnell Aircraft plant in St. Louis, Missouri. The conditions at Lambert Field were poor and, as a consequence, in attempting a visual approach and landing, See hit one of the assembly buildings of the factory and caused the aircraft to crash, killing himself and Bassett instantly. As a consequence, the backup crew was promoted to prime crew, the first time this had occurred since the flight of Mercury-Atlas 7 in 1962.

New backup crew
The promotion of Stafford and Cernan from backup to prime crew meant that a new backup crew was required. Jim Lovell and Buzz Aldrin were originally the backup crew for Gemini 10. This is significant as the standard crew rotation meant that a spot on the backup crew of Gemini 10 would have placed Buzz Aldrin on the prime crew of the non-existent mission after Gemini 12 (the crew rotation usually meant that after serving on a backup crew, an astronaut could expect to skip two missions and then be on a prime crew). Being moved up to the backup crew of Gemini 9 meant that Aldrin flew as part of the prime crew on Gemini 12, which played a major part in his selection for the Apollo 8 backup and Apollo 11 prime crews, ultimately making him the second human on the Moon.

Mission parameters

 * Mass: 3,750 kg
 * Perigee: 158.8 km at launch
 * Apogee: 266.9 km at launch
 * Inclination: 28.91°
 * Period: 88.78 min

First rendezvous

 * June 3, 1966 – 17:45 – 18:00 UTC

Spacewalk

 * Cernan
 * Start: June 5, 1966, 15:02:00 UTC
 * End: June 5, 1966, 17:09:00 UTC
 * Duration: 2 hours and 7 minutes

Objectives
The first mission objective was to dock with an Agena Target Vehicle, as had first been achieved on the Gemini 8 mission. Accomplishment was not possible because of a launch preparation error on the target vehicle.

A second objective was a planned extravehicular activity (EVA), or "space walk", by the right-hand seat Pilot. The plan was for him to move to the rear of the spacecraft and strap himself into the Air Force's Astronaut Maneuvering Unit (AMU), a 'rocket pack' which would allow the pilot controlled flight, independent of the capsule's life support system. Use of the AMU was not achieved due to Cernan experiencing high cardiac stress, overheating, and fatigue during EVA.

A third objective was to carry out seven scientific experiments, including a medical experiment which measured the astronauts' reactions to stress by measuring the intake and output of fluids before, during and after the flight.

Target vehicle launch
Gemini 9's Agena Target Vehicle (ATV) was launched on May 17, 1966, on an Atlas launch vehicle. The Atlas malfunctioned in flight and the ATV failed to reach orbit. This forced the cancellation ("scrubbing") of the Gemini 9 launch scheduled for later that morning.

The Augmented Target Docking Adapter (ATDA) had been designed for use as a contingency for the ATV, which had failed during the original Gemini 6 launch. Built by Gemini spacecraft manufacturer McDonnell Aircraft Corporation, the ATDA replaced the Agena rocket with the reentry control section of a Gemini. It was built using already tested equipment, and successfully launched on June 1, 1966, into a 298 km orbit using the Atlas SLV-3 rocket.

Because the ATDA had no propulsion system of its own, the launch necessitated an extended Atlas sustainer burn—while SECO would normally take place at T+300 seconds, it was extended to T+348 seconds. A sustainer burn this long had never been attempted in almost 300 Atlas launches to date—a double-sized lubricant oil tank was used to ensure enough oil for turbopump operation. The experiment worked and sustainer performance during the extended burn phase was uneventful. The vernier solo phase lasted another 18 seconds and ATDA separation occurred at T+383 seconds.

After launch, telemetry indicated that the launch shroud had failed to open properly.

Gemini spacecraft launch
Replanning the mission to accommodate the May 17 ATV failure forced the redesignation of the Gemini mission as Gemini 9A, the same as had happened to the original Gemini 6 mission on October 25, 1965. The first launch attempt was scheduled to occur shortly after the ATDA launch. But at T-3 minutes, the ground computers lost contact with the Gemini computers for an unknown reason, and the 40 second launch window opened and closed without launch. This earned Tom Stafford the title of "Mayor of Pad 19".

The second launch attempt on June 3 went perfectly, with the spacecraft entering into orbit. With this launch, Stafford could say that he had been strapped into a Gemini spacecraft six times for only 2 launches.

Launch vehicle performance was very close to nominal. Two small roll transients were evident at liftoff and pogo effects were the lowest yet recorded on a Gemini launch.

Rendezvous

Stafford made the first thruster burn 49 minutes after launch, to add 22.7 m/s to their speed, raising their perigee from 160 to 232 km. An hour and 35 minutes later, Stafford corrected phase, height, and out-of-plane errors by pointing the spacecraft 40° down, and 3° to the left. Fifty-one seconds later, he fired the thrusters again to add 16.2 m/s to their speed and put them into a 274 by orbit, closing at 38 m/s on the ATDA.

The first radar contact with the target registered a distance of 240 km away and they had a solid lock at 222 km. Their first visual sighting came 3 hours and 20 minutes into the mission, when they were 93 km away. They noted that they could see the flashing strobe lights on the ATDA, designed to aid identification from a distance. This made them hope that the launch shroud had in fact been jettisoned and that the telemetry was wrong.

As they got closer, they found the ATDA to be in a slow rotation, with the conical nose shroud still attached, the two pieces hanging agape at the front like a giant, open jaw. Stafford described "It looks like an angry alligator out here rotating around". He asked if maybe he could use the spacecraft to open the 'jaws' but the ground decided against it, fearing this might cause damage to the spacecraft. The crew described how the shroud's explosive bolts had fired but, because the quick disconnect lanyards that were designed to unlock the electrical connectors to the explosive bolts had not been hooked up, the electrical wiring to the bolts held the two $1 1/2$-inch wide steel shroud retaining bands together. If the electrical wires were cut on one side of the shroud, the two steel bands would immediately straighten and, being still held together by the wires on the opposite side of the shroud, it was difficult to predict the path of the released bands. Their ability to rip open a space suit like a razor blade caused the salvage mission to be abandoned. At the Cape, backup pilot Buzz Aldrin suggested that Cernan cut the electric wires with surgical scissors from the equipment pack. An experiment on the ground demonstrated this could indeed slice the wires, but also showed the ATDA bristled with dangerous, sharp edges. Ground controllers were, in Deke Slayton's words, "just aghast" at the idea, which did not take into consideration the substantial risks of the energy in the released shroud retaining bands holding the shroud halves together, the constant spinning of the ATDA, or the fact that the released shroud retaining bands, might whip back, and puncture Cernan's spacesuit.

The reason for the lanyards' condition was soon discovered: Douglas built the shroud to be attached to the Agena second stage, but the Air Force decided at the last minute that Atlas could achieve the desired orbit without NASA's second stage. This dropped NASA out of the launch and meant that the ATDA and fairing would be installed directly on Atlas—not Agena—and by a McDonnell crew instead of the normal Lockheed crew.

NASA had contracted the Douglas engineer to witness, inspect and sign off on the fairing installation on the Agena second stage, but because Agena would not be used, McDonnell personnel would now install the fairing with which they were unfamiliar and they refused to permit the Douglas engineer on the gantry, over the protests of the engineer and NASA personnel, saying that it was a simple structure and they did not need any help. On launch day, the McDonnell crew followed procedures published by Lockheed, which had been copied from Douglas documents. The instructions said, "See blueprint," but the Lockheed drawing was not used. The Douglas technician who normally hooked up the lanyards knew what to do with the loose ends, even without the blueprint, but he was not permitted on the gantry. The strangers fixing the ATDA's shroud looked at the dangling straps, wondered what to do with them, and taped them under the small fairings that protected the explosive bolts. After the launch, the Douglas engineer, with the help of Lockheed, set up a backup fairing and demonstrated the problem to McDonnell personnel and to George Mueller, NASA's Office of Manned Space Flight administrator.

The crew then did some planned rendezvous practice that involved them moving away from the ATDA by firing their thrusters and then practicing approaching from below the target. They then got some much needed food and rest.

During the flight, neither astronaut had much time to eat due to the busy schedule or to document their food consumption, it could not be determined how much of the difficulties Cernan experienced during the EVA were due to insufficient caloric intake. Approximately half the food supply was eaten and the crew did not register any complaints about its quality during postflight debriefings.

On the second day of the mission, they again approached the ATDA, this time from above. Once they were stationkeeping alongside, they were given permission for their EVA, but they were tired and Stafford did not want to waste fuel keeping himself near the ATDA during the EVA when there was little they could do with it. It was decided to postpone the EVA until the third day.

EVA

On the third day, Cernan began the EVA, which proved to be troubled from the start. After pumping up his pressure suit to 3.5 psi, "the suit took on a life of its own and became so stiff that it didn't want to bend at all." He struggled to move inside his stiff suit. As soon as he left the spacecraft, he began tumbling uncontrollably, which was not helped by his umbilical which moved wildly and gave Cernan difficulty in controlling his movements. He eventually made it back to the hatch area.

Cernan was scheduled to test the Astronaut Maneuvering Unit (AMU), with its own propulsion, stabilization system, oxygen and telemetry for biomedical data and systems. It used hydrogen peroxide for propellant, and because it produced extremely hot gases, Cernan's spacesuit was modified with "pants" made of woven nickel alloy "Chromel-R," which was later used on the gloves and Moon walking boots on Apollo spacesuits. This material was developed by the Air Force Systems Command for use in high-temperature deceleration devices for aerospace systems.

Cernan began the slow climb to the rear of the spacecraft, where the AMU was stored. While he was disconnecting himself from the capsule umbilical and hooking up to the backpack, his heart rate rose to about 155 beats per minute (bpm). He later described his spacesuit as having "all the flexibility of a rusty suit of armor", which made everything take much longer than expected. The lack of hand and foot holds made him unable to gain any leverage, which made it hard to turn valves or even to perform basic movements. While making the connections, Cernan became very tired. His pulse soared to about 180 bpm and the flight surgeon on the ground feared he would lose consciousness. As he sweated, his visor began to fog. He rubbed his nose against the visor to clear a spot so he could see. After making all the necessary connections, Cernan rested for a few minutes while Mission Control decided whether or not to proceed with the AMU test.

At this point Cernan decided that there was considerable risk in continuing the EVA. He had poor visibility from within his spacesuit and could not move very well. He would have to disconnect himself from the umbilical that attached him to the Gemini (though would still be attached by a longer thinner lead), after he had connected himself to the AMU. But when he had finished with the AMU he would somehow have to remove it with one hand, while the other held onto the spacecraft. Cernan, while physically exhausted, wanted to proceed, but Stafford called an end to the task and ordered Cernan back inside before he could fly the AMU. He managed to move himself back to the cockpit and Stafford held onto Cernan's legs to let him rest and assist him in getting back inside. After trying to remove a mirror mounted to the side of the spacecraft, his suit cooling system overheated and his face plate fogged up completely, blocking his vision. Cernan also felt excruciating pain as he moved back into his seat, as his suit was still fully pressurized and he had to move down far enough for the hatch to close. He and Stafford managed to get the hatch closed and the cabin repressurized. Cernan had spent 128 minutes outside the spacecraft.

The Gemini spacesuit was air-cooled. As an astronaut's work load increased, he would begin to sweat, and within the confined suit the cooling system would be overwhelmed and the visor would fog. The astronaut would then be effectively blind because he had no way to wipe off the faceplate. In future Gemini EVAs, the work load of the astronauts was reduced, but it was clear that during lunar exploration, workloads could be heavy and changes were made by ensuring that the Apollo EVA suit were water cooled. This was accomplished with an astronaut undergarment having a network of thin tubes that circulated water near the skin. It was very effective and there were very few cases where astronauts used the "High" Cooling selection, even though they were working hard on the Moon's surface in 100 C sunlight.

The EVA suit did not have any temperature probes; they had been removed to make room for additional extravehicular life support system (ELSS) equipment, thus no EVA temperature data from inside the suit was available—Cernan reported that the back of his suit was very hot. Postflight examination found a tear in the suit insulation which could have allowed high temperature buildups.

Stafford said in a 1999 interview that there was a real concern that Cernan would not be able to re-enter the capsule. Since it would not have been acceptable for Stafford to cut Cernan loose in orbit, he stated that his plan was to make re-entry with the astronaut still attached by his umbilical. However, such an action would have resulted in the deaths of both men.

As a result of Cernan's experience, the AMU never again flew on Gemini. It was not essential to developing technology for the Apollo Moon landing. Maneuvering units were not tested in space until February 1984, when a modified version called the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) was flown by astronaut Bruce McCandless on Space Shuttle mission STS-41-B. The MMU used nitrogen gas propellant, which remains cold when vented.

Experiments
There were two photography experiments. S-1 hoped to image the Zodiacal light during an EVA, but it was changed to inside the spacecraft after the problems encountered by Cernan. And S-11 involved the astronauts trying to image the Earth's airglow in the atomic oxygen and sodium light spectra. They took 44 pictures as part of this experiment with three showing actual airglow.

S-10 had hoped to retrieve a Micrometeorite Collector from the ATDA. This failed after they were unable to dock with it, but they were able to image it during close approaches. Instead they recovered the similar S-12 collector on the Gemini spacecraft. D-12 also failed because it was an investigation of controlling the AMU.

The last experiment was D-14 which was UHF/VHF Polarization. This was an extendable antenna mounted on the adapter section at the rear of the spacecraft. It was hoped to obtain information about communication through the ionosphere. Six trials were performed but the antenna was broken by Cernan during his EVA.

Reentry
The day of the EVA was also their last in space. On their 45th revolution of the Earth, the crewmen fired the retro-rockets that slowed them down so that they would reenter. This time the computer worked perfectly, meaning they landed only 700 meters from the planned landing site and were close enough to see the prime recovery ship, USS Wasp. The splashdown happened closer to the recovery ship than any other crewed spacecraft.

Postflight medical examination found that Stafford had lost five pounds of weight and Cernan up to 13 pounds, 10.5 of them during the EVA. Stafford later stated that Cernan's spacesuit was flown back to Houston and "they had about a pound or a pound and a half of water out of each boot". This was one of the physiological effects of his EVA, which included exhaustion and slight reduction in breathing intake.

After the mission a Mission Review committee was initiated to make sure that the objectives planned for each mission were realistic and had a direct benefit for Apollo.

The Gemini 9A mission was supported by 11,301 personnel, 92 aircraft and 15 ships from the U.S. Department of Defense.

Insignia
The Gemini 9 patch is in the shape of a shield and shows the Gemini spacecraft docked to the Agena. There is a spacewalking astronaut, with his tether forming the shape of a number 9. Although the Gemini 9 mission was changed to use the ATDA, the patch was not changed.

Spacecraft location
The spacecraft is on display at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Center, Florida.

title: Gemini 9A


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2003 Northwest Territories general election

The 2003 Northwest Territories general election was held on November 24, 2003, to elect the 19 members of the Legislative Assembly.

The election was called on October 27. Premier Stephen Kakfwi had previously chosen not to run.

The territory operates on a consensus government system with no political parties; the premier is subsequently chosen by and from the Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs). There were 21,474 registered voters at the time of the election.

Issues
Issues at the election included:

 * devolution of federal powers,
 * the method of choosing the premier,
 * the alcohol abuse and suicide problems,
 * shortage of medical professionals and affordable housing;
 * school crowding,
 * the $85-million deficit;
 * sharing of profits from mining and oil and gas development.

Results
Elections were held in 14 of the 19 electoral districts. The following five districts acclaimed their MLA:

 * Hay River North: Paul Delorey
 * Inuvik Boot Lake: Floyd Roland
 * Mackenzie Delta: David Krutko
 * Weledeh: Joe Handley
 * Yellowknife South: Brendan Bell

The following is a list of the districts with their winning candidates.

Results (CBC News)

Joe Handley was acclaimed premier by the legislature on December 10, 2003. His two prospective opponents, Roger Allen and Floyd Roland, had announced that they would not run against him.

Miscellaneous
In an unusual occurrence, the riding of Inuvik Twin Lakes experienced 150% voter turnout. 356 people were registered to vote in that riding, but an additional 187 showed up at the ballot box. A resident of a riding eligible but not registered to vote may register on the spot by presenting a proof of residency.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User:Bjcairns/scratch

''This page exists for me to experiment with and draft text for Wikipedia. If you came here by mistake, you may want to head back to my main user page. Ben Cairns 23:02, 16 Nov 2003 (UTC)''

Bayes' theorem in Bayesian inference
The example above demonstrates how the probability that a statement is true, in that case that a patient has a particular disease, can be improved by testing. Initially, the only information available is the incidence of the disease in the general population, but after testing the probability that the patient had the disease was refined by conditioning on the test results.

In Bayesian inference, we may substitute the word 'statement' with 'hypothesis' and the words 'test results' with 'data'. Again in the context of the above example, we might hypothesise that the patient has the disease, and the outcome of the test provides us with data that we can use to find the probability that our hypothesis is true given the data.

This is an uncontroversial example: neither frequentists nor Bayesians should object to the application of Bayes' theorem to such cases, since the hypothesis in question does have a frequentist interpretation, and the probabilities may easily be regarded by Bayesians as 'degrees-of-belief'. In Bayesian inference, however, hypotheses are permissable that do not permit frequentist interpretations.

For example, no frequentist interpretation exists for the probability that there was life on Mars 1 billion years ago, because there is no population of 'Marses' over which to define the probability in terms of the frequency of the event. (In contrast, frequentists might ask, what is the probability that there was life on any randomly-chosen planet in the universe 1 billion years ago.) Bayesians, however, defining probability as a degree-of-belief, may assign this hypothesis a probability based on their belief about its truth or falsity, prior to any investigation into the matter. This is called the prior probability.

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Poor Clares

The Poor Clares, officially the Order of Saint Clare (Ordo Sanctae Clarae), originally referred to as the Order of Poor Ladies, and also known as the Clarisses or Clarissines, the Minoresses, the Franciscan Clarist Order, and the Second Order of Saint Francis, are members of an enclosed order of nuns in the Roman Catholic Church. The Poor Clares were the second Franciscan branch of the order to be established. Founded by Clare of Assisi and Francis of Assisi on Palm Sunday in the year 1212, they were organized after the Order of Friars Minor (the First Order), and before the Third Order. As of 2011, there were over 20,000 Poor Clare nuns in over 75 countries throughout the world. They follow several different observances and are organized into federations.

The Poor Clares follow the Rule of St. Clare, which was approved by Pope Innocent IV on the day before Clare's death in 1253. The main branch of the order (OSC) follows the observance of Pope Urban. Other branches established since that time, who operate under their own unique Constitutions, are the Colettine Poor Clares (PCC) (founded 1410), the Capuchin Poor Clares (OSCCap) (founded 1538) and the Poor Clares of Perpetual Adoration (PCPA) (founded 1854).

Foundation and rule
The Poor Clares were founded by Clare of Assisi in 1212. Little is known of Clare's early life, although popular tradition hints that she came from a fairly well-to-do family in Assisi. At the age of 17, inspired by the preaching of Francis in the cathedral, Clare ran away from home to join her community of friars at the Portiuncula, some distance outside the town. Although, according to tradition, her family wanted to take her back by force, Clare's dedication to holiness and poverty inspired the friars to accept her resolution. She was given the habit of a nun and transferred to Benedictine monasteries, first at Bastia and then at Sant' Angelo di Panzo, for her monastic formation. By 1216, Francis was able to offer Clare and her companions a monastery adjoining the chapel of San Damiano where she became abbess. Clare's mother, two of her sisters and some other wealthy women from Florence soon joined her new order. Clare dedicated her order to the strict principles of Francis, setting a rule of extreme poverty far more severe than that of any female order of the time. Clare's determination that her order not be wealthy or own property, and that the nuns live entirely from alms given by local people, was initially protected by the papal bull Privilegium paupertatis, issued by Pope Innocent III. By this time the order had grown to number three monasteries.

Spread of the order
The movement quickly spread, though in a somewhat disorganized fashion, with several monasteries of women devoted to the Franciscan ideal springing up elsewhere in Northern Italy. At this point Ugolino, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia (the future Pope Gregory IX), was given the task of overseeing all such monasteries and preparing a formal rule. Although monasteries at Monticello, Perugia, Siena, Gattajola and elsewhere adopted the new rule – which allowed for property to be held in trust by the papacy for the various communities – it was not adopted by Clare herself or her monastery at San Damiano. Ugolino's Rule, originally based on the Benedictine one, was amended in 1263 by Pope Urban IV to allow for the communal ownership of property, and was adopted by a growing number of monasteries across Europe. Communities adopting this less rigorous rule came to be known as the Order of Saint Clare (OSC) or the Urbanist Poor Clares.

Clare herself resisted the Ugolino Rule, since it did not closely enough follow the ideal of complete poverty advocated by Francis. On 9 August 1253, she managed to obtain a papal bull, Solet annuere, establishing a rule of her own, more closely following that of the friars, which forbade the possession of property either individually or as a community. Originally applying only to Clare's community at San Damiano, this rule was also adopted by many monasteries. Communities that followed this stricter rule were fewer in number than the followers of the rule formulated by Cardinal Ugolino, and became known simply as "Poor Clares" (PC) or Primitives. Many sources before 1263 refer to them as Damianites (after San Damiano).

The situation was further complicated a century later when Colette of Corbie restored the primitive rule of strict poverty to 17 French monasteries. Her followers came to be called the Colettine Poor Clares (PCC). Two further branches, the Capuchin Poor Clares (OSCCap) and the Alcantarines, also followed the strict observance. The later group disappeared as a distinct group when their observance among the friars was ended, with the friars being merged by the Holy See into the wider observant branch of the First Order.

The spread of the order began in 1218 when a monastery was founded in Perugia; new foundations quickly followed in Florence, Venice, Mantua, and Padua. Agnes of Assisi, a sister of Clare, introduced the order to Spain, where Barcelona and Burgos hosted major communities. The order then expanded to Belgium and France, where a monastery was founded at Reims in 1229, followed by Montpellier, Cahors, Bordeaux, Metz, and Besançon. A monastery at Marseilles was founded directly from Assisi in 1254. The Poor Clares monastery founded by Queen Margaret in Paris, St. Marcel, was where she died in 1295. King Philip IV and Queen Joan founded a monastery at Moncel in the Beauvais diocese. By A.D. 1300 there were 47 Poor Clare monasteries in Spain alone.

United Kingdom
The first Poor Clare monastery in England was founded in 1286 in Newcastle upon Tyne. In medieval England, where the nuns were known as "minoresses", their principal monastery was located near Aldgate, known as the Abbey of the Order of St Clare. The order gave its name to the still-extant street known as Minories on the eastern boundary of the City of London.

After the dissolution of the monasteries under King Henry VIII, several religious communities formed in continental Europe for English Catholics. One such was a Poor Clare monastery founded in 1609 at Gravelines by Mary Ward. Later expelled from their monastery by the French Revolutionary Army in 1795, the community eventually relocated to England. They settled first in Northumberland, and then in 1857 built a monastery in Darlington, which was in existence until 2007.

Following Catholic emancipation in the first half of the 19th century, other Poor Clares came to the United Kingdom, eventually establishing communities in, e.g., Notting Hill (1857, which was forced to relocate by the local council in the 1960s, and settled in the village of Arkley in 1969), Woodchester (1860–2011), Levenshulme (1863), Much Birch (1880), Arundel (1886), Lynton (founded from Rennes, France, 1904–2010s), Woodford Green (1920–1969), York (1865–2015) and Nottingham (1927–2023).

The community in Luton was founded in 1976 to meet a shortage of teachers for local Catholic schools. It was originally based at 18 London Road in a large Edwardian house. In 1996, the community refocused on a ministry of social work and prayer, and moved to a smaller, modern home at Abigail Close, Wardown Park.

Ireland
In Ireland there are seven monasteries of the Colettine Observance. The community with the oldest historical roots is the monastery on Nuns' Island in Galway, which traces its history back to the monastery in Gravelines. The community has a rare book collection which is the most comprehensive single collection of early-modern Clarissan material in English in the world.

Originally a separate community of Irish women under a common mother superior with the English nuns, they moved to Dublin in 1629, the first monastic community in Ireland for a century. The first Abbess was Cecily Dillon, a daughter of Theobald Dillon, 1st Viscount Dillon. War forced the community to move back to Galway in 1642. From that point on, persecution under the Penal Laws and war led to repeated destruction of their monastery and scattering of the community over two centuries, until 1825, when fifteen nuns were able to re-establish monastic life permanently on the site.

Later monasteries were founded in 1906 in both Carlow and Dublin. From these, foundations were established in Cork (1914) and Ennis (1958). In 1973, an enclosed community of nuns of the Franciscan Third Order Regular in Drumshanbo, founded in England in 1852 and established there in 1864, transferred to the Second Order, under this Observance.

There is Poor Clares monastery in Faughart, County Louth.

Continental Europe
Currently there are communities of Colettine Poor Clares in Bruges, Belgium, as well as in Eindhoven, the Netherlands, and in Larvik, Norway. There are several monasteries in Hungary, Lithuania and Poland of the Urbanist and Capuchin Observances.

There are notable Clarissine churches in Bamberg, Bratislava, Brixen, and Nuremberg. There also is a small community in Münster, Germany, and a Capuchin monastery in Sigolsheim, France.

The last six Poor Clare nuns from a convent in Belgium were able to sell their convent by selling luxury vehicles, and move to the South of France.

The Convent of Saint Clare is located in Burgos, Spain.

United States
After an abortive attempt to establish the order in the United States in the early 1800s by three nuns who were refugees of Revolutionary France, the Poor Clares were not permanently established in the country until the late 1870s.

A small group of Colettine nuns arrived from Düsseldorf, Germany, seeking a refuge for the community which had been expelled from their monastery by the government policies of the Kulturkampf. They found a welcome in the Diocese of Cleveland, and in 1877 established a monastery in that city. At the urging of Mary Ignatius Hayes in 1875 Pope Pius IX had already authorized the sending of nuns to establish a monastery of Poor Clares of the Primitive Observance from San Damiano in Assisi. After the reluctance on the part of many bishops to accept them, due to their reliance upon donations for their maintenance, a community was finally established in Omaha, Nebraska, in 1878.

Currently there are also monasteries in (among other places): Alexandria, Virginia (PCC); Andover, Massachusetts; Belleville, Illinois (PCC); Bordentown, New Jersey; Boston, Massachusetts; Brenham, Texas; Chicago, Illinois; Cincinnati, Ohio; Cleveland, Ohio (OSC, PCC and PCPA); Fort Wayne, Indiana; Evansville, Indiana; Kokomo, Indiana; Los Altos Hills, California; Memphis, Tennessee; metropolitan Richmond, Virginia; New Orleans; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Phoenix, Arizona; Rockford, Illinois (PCC); Roswell, New Mexico (PCC); Saginaw, Michigan; Spokane, Washington; / Travelers Rest, South Carolina; Washington D.C.; and Wappingers Falls, New York. Additionally there are monasteries in Alabama (PCPA), California, Florida, Missouri, Montana and Tennessee. Since the 1980s, the nuns of New York City have formed small satellite communities in Connecticut and New Jersey. There is one monastery of the Capuchin Observance in Denver, Colorado, founded from Mexico in 1988.

Canada
There are three monasteries of the order in Canada: St. Clare's Monastery at Duncan, British Columbia; and at Mission, British Columbia; and a French-speaking community in Valleyfield, Quebec.

Latin America

There have been monasteries of the order in Mexico since colonial days. The Capuchin nuns alone number some 1,350 living in 73 different monasteries around the country.

A monastery was founded in Huehuetenango, Guatemala, by nuns from the community in Memphis, Tennessee, in November 1981, in the early days of a bloody civil war which ravaged that country; as of 2011, it consisted of seven nuns; five Guatemalans and two Salvadorans.

Asia

The Poor Clares were massacred at Acre during the reconquest of Palestine after the Crusades. They returned to Nazareth in 1884 and Monastery Saint Claire (Jerusalem) in 1888. StCharles de Foucauld served both communities between 1897 and 1900. These French Clarissians were expelled from the Ottoman Empire at the onset of World War I; the communities were subsequently reestablished in 1949 amid the creation of Israel.

Philippines
The Poor Clare in the Philippines was led by Jeronima of the Assumption who was authorized by the King of Spain and the Minister General of the Order of Friars Minor to go there to found a monastery. She was from Toledo, Spain and left Madrid in April 1620 in her 60s and arrived in Manila on 5 August 1621 with other 14 sisters. They are the first contemplative nuns who arrived in the Philippine archipelago to support the active works of evangelization of the Franciscans working in the country through their life of contemplation, penance, poverty, and enclosure.

Together with the Alcantarine Friars who came to the Philippines in 1578 and strive to live the ideals of Francis of Assisi in a very rigorous way, the Poor Clare sisters also professed the Rule and life of Clare of Assisi. They heightened their witnessing of the "privilege of poverty" of Clare by not having a permanent income but rather opened their gates of the Divine Providence through alms and the generosity of the people.

Their Monastery in Intramuros was severely devastated by an earthquake. However, through the efforts of the people around, it was rebuilt and has a larger space compared to the former monastery. During the war for independence in the year 1945, the monastery was destroyed again and the sisters were forced to evacuate the place. For the meantime, they were sheltered at the Minor Seminary of the Franciscans in San Francisco del Monte, Quezon City for 5 years. The present location of the Monastery is at Aurora Boulevard, C5, Katipunan, Quezon City. Because of the zeal for the contemplative life, the founder's cause is ongoing for beatification.

Apart from the said monastery, it also expand its presence from the different parts of the country. The country has 27 monasteries in total: Sariaya Quezon (1957); Calbayog, Samar (1965); Betis and Guagua, Pampanga (1968); Cabuyao, Laguna and Tayud, Cebu (1975): Maria, Siquijor and Isabela, Basilan in (1986); Josefina, Zamboanga del Sur, (1989); Kidapawan, North Cotabato, Balanga Bataan, Lopez (Quezon Province), and Cabid-an, Sorsogon (1990); Guibang, Isabela, Mondragon, Northern Samar and Naval, Biliran (1991); Iguig, Tuguegarao (1992); Bolinao, Pangasinan and Cantilan, Surigao del Sur (1993); Boac, Marinduque and Polomolok, South Cotabato (1998); Aritao, Nueva Vizcaya (1999); Tabon-tabon, Albay and San Jose, Antique (2004); Borongan, Eastern Samar and Malasiqui Pangasinan (2011) and Tabuk, Kalinga (2017). The Poor Clare Monastery in Palawan province is founded by the Monastery from China.

Furthermore, their expansion does not only limit in the Philippine archipelago but also helped the aging communities in Tahiti, France, Italy, England, Germany, Egypt, USA. They were able to found new monasteries in abroad such as in Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Taiwan, Hongkong.

There are also monastery from Kiryū, Gunma, Japan, which was founded from the monastery in Boston in 1965.

Connections with television

 * In 1958, Saint Clare was declared the patron saint of television by the Catholic Church.
 * The Eternal Word Television Network (EWTN) is operated by the Poor Clares of Perpetual Adoration in Alabama. It is privately owned.
 * In June and July 2006, BBC Two broadcast a television series called The Convent, in which four women were admitted to a Poor Clare monastery in southern England, for a period of six weeks, to observe the life.

title: Poor Clares


text:
Centerville, Alabama

Centerville is an unincorporated community in Conecuh County, Alabama, United States, located near the communities of Battleground, Westpoint, and Longview.

Notable people

 * Annie Kennedy (1851-1918), educator

title: Centerville, Alabama


text:
1964 United Kingdom general election

The 1964 United Kingdom general election was held on Thursday 15 October 1964. It resulted in the Conservatives, led by incumbent Prime Minister Alec Douglas-Home, narrowly losing to the Labour Party, led by Harold Wilson; Labour secured a parliamentary majority of four seats and ended its thirteen years in opposition since the 1951 election. Wilson became the youngest Prime Minister since Lord Rosebery in 1894.

Background
Both major parties had changed leadership in 1963. Following the sudden death of Labour leader Hugh Gaitskell early in the year, the party chose Harold Wilson (at the time, thought of as being on the party's centre-left), while Alec Douglas-Home, at the time the Earl of Home, had taken over as Conservative leader and Prime Minister in October after Harold Macmillan announced his resignation in the wake of the Profumo affair. Douglas-Home shortly afterward disclaimed his peerage under the Peerage Act 1963 in order to lead the party from the Commons, subsequently standing in the Kinross and Western Perthshire by-election.

Macmillan had led the Conservative government since January 1957. Despite initial popularity and a resounding election victory in 1959, he had become increasingly unpopular in the early 1960s, due to rising unemployment and inflation during the recession of 1960–1961 and the United States' cancellation of the Skybolt program intended to provide Britain with an independent nuclear weapons delivery system after the cancellation of the Blue Streak project. Although Macmillan ended the latter crisis with the Nassau Agreement guaranteeing US assistance in the Polaris programme of submarine-launched ballistic missiles, this also indirectly harmed his reputation after French President Charles de Gaulle vetoed Britain's accession bid to the European Communities over his scepticism of the Anglo-American "Special Relationship."

However, the Labour Party was temporarily divided due to the death of Gaitskell in 1963 and the subsequent leadership election. Although Wilson won this election against his opponents George Brown and James Callaghan, he was mistrusted within the party because of his previous unsuccessful leadership challenge to Gaitskell in 1960. The party also suffered from internal policy disputes over unilateral nuclear disarmament and Clause IV of its constitution, which committed it to nationalisation of industry.

It was for a while thought likely that the Conservatives would win the scheduled 1964 general election, albeit with a reduced majority, but the emergence of the Profumo affair in March 1963 and Macmillan's handling of the matter all but destroyed the credibility of his government. While he survived a vote of no confidence in June 1963, polling indicated that Labour would win the next election comfortably if Macmillan remained in power, which, along with health issues, prompted Macmillan to announce his resignation in the autumn of 1963.

Douglas-Home faced a difficult task in rebuilding the party's popularity with just a year elapsing between taking office and having to face a general election. Wilson had begun to try to tie the Labour Party to the growing confidence of Britain in the 1960s, asserting that the "white heat of revolution" would sweep away "restrictive practices ... on both sides of industry". The Liberal Party enjoyed a resurgence after a virtual wipeout in the 1950s, and doubled its share of the vote, primarily at the expense of the Conservatives. Although Labour did not increase its vote share significantly, the fall in support for the Conservatives led to Wilson securing an overall majority of four seats. This proved to be unworkable, and Wilson called a snap election in 1966.

Campaign
The pre-election campaign was prolonged, as Douglas-Home delayed calling a general election to give himself as much time as possible to improve the prospects of his party. The Labour Party indicated that it held high popular support by winning the 1964 London local elections. This led to speculation that the Conservative government would not call an election in 1964 despite constitutional precedent requiring it do so quinquennially in peacetime. However, Conservative leaders became more optimistic about their chances after winning three by-elections in Winchester, Bury St. Edmunds, and Devizes. The election campaign formally began on 25 September 1964 when Douglas-Home saw the Queen and asked for a dissolution of Parliament. The dissolution notably occurred without a formal royal prorogation and recall for the first time since 1922.

The campaign was dominated by some of the more voluble characters of the political scene at the time. While George Brown, deputy leader of the Labour Party, toured the country making energetic speeches (and the occasional gaffe), Quintin Hogg was a leading spokesman for the Conservatives. The image of Hogg lashing out at a Wilson poster with his walking stick was one of the most striking of the campaign.

The Labour Party campaigned on what historian Andrew Thorpe called "the basis of revisionism given a significant twist in the direction of Wilsonian planning, and a more dirigiste approach to industrial modernization." Party leaders also decided that they had lost the previous election because of their failure to appeal to the growing middle class, and adjusted strategy accordingly.

Labour called for greater co-ordination between state-run enterprises and repeated its past pledges for the renationalisation of the steel and road haulage industries, but declared that it would not nationalise any further industries. The party also promised expansions of social services, tax reform, and what would become the prices and incomes policy to control inflation. In education it sought comprehensivisation of secondary education and a higher school-leaving age, while in immigration it sought both immigration quotas restricting future entry and equal rights for immigrants who had already arrived in the country. In foreign policy it pledged a re-evaluation of previous governments' foreign aid and alliances, increased British assertiveness at the United Nations, and a build-up of the conventional components of the British Armed Forces, but did not promise unilateral nuclear disarmament as some left-wing members of the party desired. While early campaigning suggested that a Labour government would abandon the Polaris nuclear weapons programme, Wilson quickly decided to avoid this topic altogether due to the continuing popularity of an independent British nuclear deterrent. Labour's platform of a "socialist foreign policy" also criticised the Conservative government for its handling of a scandal involving the British defence contractor Ferranti, the Aden Emergency, Cypriot intercommunal violence, the escalation of the Vietnam War, arms sales to apartheid South Africa, and a contract to construct naval frigates for Francoist Spain.

Douglas-Home's unpopularity – caused by his aristocratic background, his accession to the premiership without a formal election, his economic and trade policies, and the side-lining of popular Conservative leaders such as Enoch Powell and Iain Macleod – harmed the Conservative Party in the election. Even many Conservatives condemned Douglas-Home for the Resale Prices Act 1964 abolishing resale price maintenance. Douglas-Home's predecessor Macmillan described him as an "urbane but resolute character — iron painted to look like wood". However, his campaigning did allow the Conservative Party's gap in the polls to narrow. The Conservative manifesto Prosperity with a Purpose pledged closer relations with the Atlantic world and the Commonwealth of Nations, development of nuclear power, industrial retraining, increased capital investment in British industry, and continued development of the BAC TSR-2 supersonic aircraft project. The Conservative campaign emphasised the party's diplomatic successes, such as the Nassau Agreement, the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the defence of Malaysia in the Borneo Confrontation. Although the Conservatives made limited appeals to new Caribbean, African, and South Asian immigrants by printing campaign literature in Hindi and Urdu, it defended the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962 restricting immigration of Commonwealth citizens.

As in previous elections since its decline, the Liberal Party under Jo Grimond's leadership positioned itself as a non-socialist, individualist alternative to Labour. The two key domestic policy pledges in its manifesto Think for Yourself, Vote Liberal were healthcare reform and devolution for Scotland and Wales. The Liberals also were distinguished by their internationalist and pro-European foreign policy, becoming the first major party to endorse British membership in the European Economic Union. Supporters and leaders of the Liberal Party hoped for a breakthrough in 1964 which would re-establish it as a powerful force in British politics after its near-extinction in the 1950s; the party's surprise victory in the 1962 Orpington by-election, its first in a seat outside of the "Celtic fringe" of Wales, Scotland, and the West Country in over a decade, had created optimism and a sense of momentum for a recovery. However, by 1964 the Liberals had lost much of their momentum to a series of by-election and local election losses, and faced growing financial difficulties.

Many party speakers, especially at televised rallies, had to deal with hecklers; in particular Douglas-Home was treated very roughly at a meeting in Birmingham. Douglas-Home's speeches dealt with the future of the nuclear deterrent, while fears of Britain's relative decline on the world stage, reflected in chronic balance of payment problems, helped the Labour Party's case.

By 1964, television had developed as a medium and played a much greater role than in previous British elections. The election received more coverage from current affairs programs such as BBC1's Panorama, Associated-Rediffusion's This Week, and Granada Television's World in Action, as well as political satire inspired by the success of That Was the Week That Was. The election night was broadcast live by BBC Television, presented for the fifth and final time by Richard Dimbleby, with Robin Day, Ian Trethowan, Cliff Michelmore and David Butler co-presenting.

Opinion polling

 * NOP: Lab swing 3.5% (Lab majority of 12)
 * Gallup: Lab swing 4% (Lab majority of 23)
 * Research Services: Lab swing 2.75% (Con majority of 30)
 * Daily Express: Lab swing of 1.75% (Con majority of 60)

Results
The Conservatives made a surprising recovery from being well behind Labour when Home became prime minister, and would have won if 900 voters in eight seats had changed votes. Labour won a very slim majority of four seats, forming a government for the first time since 1951. Labour achieved a swing of just over 3%, although its vote rose by only 0.3% and it earned a lesser number of votes than in its previous defeats of 1955 and 1959. The main shift in votes was a 5.7% swing from the Conservatives to the Liberals. The Liberals defied popular expectations of a net loss and won nearly twice as many votes as in 1959, partly because they fielded 150 more candidates. Although this was the Liberals' best electoral performance since the 1929 general election and left the party in a key parliamentary position due to Labour's slender majority, it failed to regain its pre-World War II status as a party of government as it had hoped. Wilson became Prime Minister, replacing Douglas-Home; Labour's four-seat majority was not sustainable for a full Parliament, and Wilson ultimately called another general election in 1966 which saw his majority expanded. In particular, the small majority meant the government could not implement its policy of renationalising the steel industry due to the opposition of backbenchers Woodrow Wyatt and Desmond Donnelly.

89 female candidates stood in the election, with 29 women being elected as MPs (11 for the Conservatives and 18 for Labour).

This was the only election in Britain's recent history when all seats were won by the three main parties: no minor parties, independents or splinter groups won any seats. It is also the only time that both Labour and the Conservatives have taken over 300 seats each, and was the last election in which any one party (the Conservatives) contested every single seat. The Conservatives had previously chose not to contest certain Liberal-held seats as per local-level agreements to avoid vote splitting, but ended that policy at this election. The resultant splitting of votes actually helped grant Labour a majority, by throwing two formerly Liberal-held seats in northern England to Labour; however, the outcome of the election would not have been meaningfully altered had the Liberals retained the seats, as Labour would still have had as many seats as the other two parties combined, and Liberal leader Jo Grimond did not want to support a Conservative minority government.

Douglas-Home told D. R. Thorpe that the most important reason for the Conservative loss was Iain Macleod's "The Tory Leadership" article, in which the former cabinet minister claimed that an Etonian "magic circle" conspiracy had led to him becoming prime minister. British Ambassador to the United States David Ormsby-Gore wrote to Home that "Almost anything could have tipped the balance. Khrushchev's removal from office twelve hours earlier, China’s nuclear explosion thirty-six hours earlier or just Rab [Butler] keeping his mouth shut for once." David Butler and Donald E. Stokes's influential 1969 British Election Study report Political Change in Britain attributed the Labour victory to Wilson's greater popularity than Home and the party's appeal to younger voters. After British elections in the 1980s and the 1990s challenged many of the assumptions of Butler and Stokes's model, the BES issued a second 2001 report by political scientists from the University of Texas and the University of Essex emphasizing the role of valence politics over public perception of party performance.

Working-class voters also selected Labour in greater numbers than in the previous election, due in part to the weakening of the post-war boom which had popularized the Conservatives in the 1950s, although the Conservatives attracted a greater number of female voters than before. The Conservatives tried to attract working-class voters by improving the party's relationships with trade unions through the Conservative Trade Union Councils at the party level and the new National Economic Development Council at the governmental level; however, their outreach was weakened by the Rookes v Barnard decision allowing employers to collect punitive damages from strike actions and Douglas-Home's tough approach to industrial relations. As a result, trade unions heavily supported Labour in the election and encouraged working-class support of the party. As much as 85 per cent of Labour's election spending consisted of funds raised by trade unions.

Aggregate data analyses of the results demonstrate higher turnout in constituencies dominated by the professional–managerial class, agricultural workers, council tenants, voters without automobiles, and the elderly. On the other hand, Labour's poorer performance in central and southern England and loss of five seats in that area indicated an increasing white working-class backlash against nonwhite immigration. The most notable example of this was the contest in Smethwick, in which an explicitly racist campaign by Conservative candidate Peter Griffiths stoking anxieties around deindustrialisation and a shortage of council housing by targeting immigrants unseated Shadow Foreign Secretary Patrick Gordon Walker.

 * + style="caption-side: bottom; font-weight:normal" |All parties shown.
 * }
 * }

Transfers of seats

 * All comparisons are with the 1959 election.
 * In some cases the change is due to the MP defecting to the gaining party. Such circumstances are marked with a *.
 * In other circumstances the change is due to the seat having been won by the gaining party in a by-election in the intervening years, and then retained in 1964. Such circumstances are marked with a †.

 * 3 Seat gained by Labour in a by-election but regained by the Conservatives in 1964.
 * 4 Seat gained by Conservatives in a 1961 by-election but regained by Labour in another 1963 by-election.

Televised results programmes
Both BBC Television and ITV provided live televised coverage of the results and provided commentary.

Manifestos

 * PROSPERITY WITH A PURPOSE, 1964 Conservative Party manifesto
 * THE NEW BRITAIN, 1964 Labour Party manifesto
 * THINK FOR YOURSELF, 1964 Liberal Party manifesto

title: 1964 United Kingdom general election


text:
Turin Cathedral

Turin Cathedral (Duomo di Torino; Cattedrale di San Giovanni Battista) is a Roman Catholic cathedral in Turin, northern Italy. Dedicated to Saint John the Baptist (San Giovanni Battista). It is the seat of the Archbishops of Turin.

It was built during 1491–1498, adjacent to a bell tower which had been built in 1470. Designed by Guarino Guarini, the Chapel of the Holy Shroud (the current location of the Shroud of Turin) was added to the structure in 1668–1694.

Lombard church
The church lies where the theatre of the ancient Roman city was located. Later, the site was developed with the construction of a complex of original three Christian churches, dedicated to the Holy Saviour, Saint Mary of Dompno (Santa Maria de Dompno) and (the largest one) to St. John the Baptist. According to some sources, the consecration of the main church was carried on by Agilulf, the Lombard King of northern Italy from 591 to 613. In 662, Garibald, Duke of Turin (it) was assassinated in the church by a follower of Godepert, whose murder Garibald is believed to have had a part in.

The first three churches were demolished between 1490 and 1492. The construction of the new cathedral, still dedicated to St. John the Baptist, began in 1491. Amedeo de Francisco di Settignano, also known as Meo del Caprino, designed it and completed the construction in seven years. The pre-existing bell tower, was preserved. Filippo Juvarra modified the tower in the 17th century. Pope Leo X officially confirmed the church as metropolitan see in 1515.

In 1649 Bernardino Quadri prepared a project to enlarge the cathedral, to create a more impressive seat for the Holy Shroud. Quadri had moved from Rome to join the court of Duke Charles Emmanuel II of Savoy in Turin. His design was based on an earlier project by Carlo di Castellamonte: it included building an oval chapel behind the choir. In 1667 Guarino Guarini was invited to complete the project. The construction of the dome took 28 years: it was completed in 1694 under the direction of Marie Jeanne of Savoy, Charles Emmanuel II's widow.

The cathedral is the burial place of Blessed Pier Giorgio Frassati (1901–1925), Turin native, avid athlete, and benefactor of the poor, called the "saint for youth of the Third Millennium." He was beatified by John Paul II in 1990.

While the chapel of the Holy Shroud behind the cathedral was undergoing renovation during 2009, the Shroud was kept in a small chapel within the cathedral.

Notable people

 * Maestro di cappelli
 * Simon Boyleau
 * Alessandro Besozzi
 * Quirino Gasparini
 * Felice Alessandri
 * Feliciano Strepponi

Organists
Ruggier Trofeo

 * Funerals and burials

As Turin was the capital city of the Kingdom of Piedmon-Sardinia, the cathedral is one of two in which members of the royal family (including the cadet branches) are buried in, the other being the Basilica of Superga in the outskirts of the city. Several royal consorts and princesses are buried here.
 * Giovanni "Gianni" Agnelli, member of the Agnelli family that owns Fiat
 * Andrea Pininfarina
 * Luciana Frassati Gawronska
 * Blessed Pier Giorgio Frassati

title: Turin Cathedral


text:
Dummy (album)

Dummy is the debut studio album by English electronic music band Portishead, released on 22 August 1994 by Go! Beat Records.

The album received critical acclaim and won the 1995 Mercury Music Prize. It is often credited with popularising the trip hop genre, and is frequently cited in lists of the best albums of the 1990s. Dummy was certified triple platinum in the UK in February 2019, and had sold 920,000 copies in the United Kingdom as of September 2020. Worldwide, the album had sold 3.6 million copies by 2008.

Background
Geoff Barrow and Beth Gibbons met during an Enterprise Allowance course in February 1991. They started recording their first ideas for the songs in Neneh Cherry's kitchen in London while Barrow was hired by her husband Cameron McVey to work on her second album, Homebrew (1992). In Bristol, they recorded at the Coach House Studios. The first song that they finished for the album was "It Could Be Sweet" in 1991. Adrian Utley then met Barrow while they were recording at Coach House Studios, heard their first recorded track "It Could Be Sweet", and started exchanging ideas on music. Barrow taught Utley sampling while Utley introduced the band to unusual sounds such as cimbaloms and theremins, which led to an "amalgamation of ideas". According to Barrow, "It was like a light-bulb coming on" when Utley joined them, and they realised they could make their own samples not found on other records, and created one of the most distinctive sounds of the decade.

The production of the album uses a number of hip hop techniques, such as sampling, scratching, and loop-making. The album was not recorded digitally. They sampled music from other records, but they also recorded their own original music, which was then recorded onto vinyl records before manipulating them on record decks to sample. In order to create a vintage sound, Barrow said that they distressed the vinyl records they had recorded by "putting them on the studio floor and walking across them and using them like skateboards", and they also recorded the sound through a broken amplifier. For the track "Sour Times", the album samples Lalo Schifrin's "The Danube Incident" and Smokey Brooks' (Henry Brooks, Otis Turner) "Spin It Jig"; for "Strangers", Weather Report's (Wayne Shorter) "Elegant People"; for "Wandering Star", War's "Magic Mountain"; for "Biscuit", Johnnie Ray's "I'll Never Fall in Love Again" (not the Bacharach/David song); and for "Glory Box", Isaac Hayes' "Ike's Rap II".

Dummy was released in August 1994. It helped to cement the reputation of Bristol as the capital of trip hop, a nascent genre which was then often referred to simply as "the Bristol sound". Listing it among the best trip hop albums, Fact said in 2015 that Dummy "was soaked in the same DIY, melting pot approach that typified much of Bristol's output at the time", and "laid bare the potentials afforded by sidestepping rigid genre formats." The album helped trip hop cross over to mainstream popularity, with music journalist Simon Reynolds reporting in 1995 that Dummy had become "popular background music in cafes and boutiques" and found appeal among audiences of other genres, including alternative rock and R&B listeners.

The cover of the album is a still image of vocalist Beth Gibbons taken from To Kill a Dead Man—the short film that the band created—for which the self-composed soundtrack earned the band its record contract.

Singles
The first song released from the album was "Numb". Two further singles were released from the album: "Glory Box", which reached number 13 on the UK Singles Chart; and "Sour Times", which was released before "Glory Box" but re-released after the success of "Glory Box", also reaching number 13 on its re-release in 1995. The success of both singles drove the sales of the album, which eventually reached number two on the UK Albums Chart. "Sour Times" achieved moderate success in the U.S., reaching peak positions of number five and number 53 on the Billboard Alternative Songs and Hot 100 charts, respectively, in February 1995. On 3 December 2008, Universal Music Japan released Dummy and Portishead as limited SHM-CD versions.

The tracks "Roads" and "Strangers" were used in the soundtrack of the film Nadja.

Critical reception
Upon release, Dummy received universal acclaim from critics. NME reviewer Stephen Dalton summed up the record by writing: "This is, without question, a sublime debut album. But so very, very sad." He observed, "From one angle, its languid slowbeat blues clearly occupy similar terrain to soulmates Massive Attack and all of Bristol hip-hop's extended family. But from another these are avant garde ambient moonscapes of a ferociously experimental nature." Dalton concluded that "Portishead's post-ambient, timelessly organic blues are probably too left-field, introspective and downright Bristolian to grab short-term glory as some kind of Next Big Thing. But remember what radical departures Blue Lines, Ambient Works and Debut were for their times and make sure you hear this unmissable album." Melody Maker's Sharon O'Connell stated that the band "are undeniably the classiest, coolest thing to have appeared in this country for years ... Dummy, their debut, takes perfectly understated blues, funk and rap/hip hop, brackets all this in urban angst and then chills it to the bone." She described the record as "musique noire for a movie not yet made, a perfect, creamy mix of ice-cool and infra-heat that is desolate, desperate and driven by a huge emotional hunger, but also warmly confiding ... Most of us waver hopelessly between emotional timidity and temerity the whole of our lives and Dummy marks out that territory perfectly."

In Q, Martin Aston lauded Dummy as "perhaps the year's most stunning debut album" and proclaimed that "the singer's frail, wounded-sparrow vocals and Barrow's mastery of jazz-sensitive soul/hip hop grooves and the almost forgotten art of scratching are an enthralling combination". Ben Thompson said in Mojo that "Portishead make music for an early evening drinks party on the set of The Third Man. There is nothing kitschy about them either ... Beth Gibbons' voice has a genuine chill to it, and Geoff Barrow's background soundscapes are worthy of Lalo Schiffrin and Nellee Hooper." Tim Marsh of Select wrote: "Jumbling up hip hop, blues, jazz, dub and John Barry-esque TV theme tunes with the edgy lyrics and valium vocals of Beth Gibbons, it's lounge music for arty schizos."

Reviews in the United States were also positive. Paul Evans remarked in Rolling Stone: "From tape loops and live strings, Fender Rhodes riffing and angelic singing, these English subversives construct très hip Gothic hip-hop ... Assertive rhythms and quirky production, however, save Portishead from languishing in any coy retro groove. Instead they manage yet another – very smart – rebirth of cool." Entertainment Weekly's Steven Mirkin found the album "as musically compelling as it is emotionally chilly", while Lorraine Ali praised it in the Los Angeles Times as "a new world of sonic esoterica ... lush and rich, yet delicate and haunting." Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot credited Portishead for achieving a "musical richness" despite working in a "single, melancholy vein" throughout Dummy. In the Pazz & Jop, polling prominent American critics nationwide, Dummy was voted the 14th-best album of 1994. The poll's supervisor Robert Christgau, however, remained relatively lukewarm, highlighting "Sour Times" and "Wandering Star" while briefly appraising the album overall as "Sade for androids".

Retrospective reviews of the album have praised it highly. AllMusic's John Bush wrote: "Portishead's album debut is a brilliant, surprisingly natural synthesis of claustrophobic spy soundtracks, dark breakbeats inspired by frontman Geoff Barrow's love of hip-hop, and a vocalist (Beth Gibbons) in the classic confessional singer/songwriter mold ... Better than any album before it, Dummy merged the pinpoint-precise productions of the dance world with pop hallmarks like great songwriting and excellent vocal performances." Laura Barton recommended it as Portishead's key release in Uncut, commenting that the band, by setting their own original compositions to looped and scratched samples from "distressed vinyl", created "an introspective and avant-garde blues". In 2010, BBC Music reviewer Mike Diver called Dummy "quite simply one of the greatest debut albums of the 1990s" and said that "the constituents that make up much of this collection are easily traced – back to dub, to soul, and especially to hip hop ... But it's the manner in which the pieces come together that makes Dummy special to this day ... Imitators have come and gone, but no act has reproduced the disquieting magnificence conjured here except Portishead themselves." Writing for Pitchfork in 2017, Philip Sherburne summarised that "Portishead's 1994 debut is a masterwork of downbeat and desperation. They invented their own kind of virtuosity, one that encompassed musicianship, technology, and aura."

Accolades
Dummy won the 1995 Mercury Music Prize, beating stiff competition which included PJ Harvey's To Bring You My Love, Oasis' Definitely Maybe, and Tricky's Maxinquaye.

 * Melody Maker - ranked number one album of the year
 * Mojo (p. 62) – Ranked No. 35 in Mojo's "100 Modern Classics".
 * Mojo (January 1995, p. 50) – Included in Mojo's "25 Best Albums of 1994".
 * The New York Times (5 January 1995, p. C15) – Included on Neil Strauss' list of the Top 10 Albums of '94.
 * NME (8 December 2000, p. 29) – Ranked No. 29 in The NME "Top 30 Heartbreak Albums".
 * NME (24 December 1994, p. 22) – Ranked No. 6 in NME's list of the "Top 50 Albums of 1994".
 * NME (October 2013, p. 59) – Ranked No. 168 in NME's list of the '500 Greatest Albums of all time'.
 * Q (December 1999, p. 82) – Included in Q Magazine's "90 Best Albums of the 1990s".
 * Q (June 2000, p. 66) – Ranked No. 61 in Q's "100 Greatest British Albums".
 * In 2000 it was voted number 41 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums.
 * Rolling Stone (13 May 1999, pp. 79–80) – Included in Rolling Stone's "Essential Recordings of the 90's".
 * In 2003 and 2012, the album was ranked number 419 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. In their 2020 revised edition of the list, Dummy was placed at number 131.
 * Spin (September 1999, p. 140) – Ranked No. 42 in Spin Magazine's "90 Greatest Albums of the '90s".
 * In 2003, Pitchfork ranked the album number 48 in their "Top 100 Albums of the 1990s" list. In their revised 2022 list, Pitchfork named the album #11.
 * In 2015 Fact placed the album at No. 2 in their "50 Best Trip Hop Albums" list.
 * The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
 * The Wire named Dummy its 1994 record of the year.
 * The album is the subject of a title in Continuum's 33⅓ series of books, published in October 2011.
 * Apple Music – Ranked No. 67 in "Apple Music 100 Best Albums".

Personnel
Portishead
 * Beth Gibbons – vocals (all tracks), production
 * Geoff Barrow – Rhodes piano (tracks 1, 3, 4, 10), drums (tracks 6, 7) , programming (tracks 2, 5, 7–9, 11) , string arrangements (track 8) , production
 * Adrian Utley – guitar (tracks 1–3, 5, 8, 11), bass guitar (tracks 6, 7, 8, 9) , theremin (track 1) , Hammond organ (track 11) , string arrangements (track 8) , production

Additional musicians
 * Clive Deamer – drums (tracks 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10)
 * Gary Baldwin – Hammond organ (tracks 5, 6, 7)
 * Neil Solman – Rhodes piano (tracks 2, 8), Hammond organ (track 2)
 * Richard Newell – drum programming (track 4)
 * Andy Hague – trumpet (track 9)
 * Dave McDonald — nose flute (track 8)
 * Strings Unlimited – strings (track 8)

Technical personnel
 * Dave McDonald – engineering

Samples
 * Johnnie Ray – sample of "I'll Never Fall in Love Again" on "Biscuit"
 * Isaac Hayes – sample of "Ike's Rap II" on "Glory Box"
 * Lalo Schifrin – sample of "The Danube Incident" on "Sour Times"
 * Smokey Brooks – sample of "Spin It Jig" on "Sour Times"
 * Weather Report – sample of "Elegant People" on "Strangers"
 * War – samples of "Magic Mountain" on "Wandering Star"

title: Dummy (album)


text:
Talk:Proposed President of Australia

This should be merged with Australian republicanism. That's where a discussion of the 1999 referendum and the McGarvie model belongs. -- Tim Starling 23:19, Nov 16, 2003 (UTC)

I disagree. We have similar pages elsewhere. This page should be devoted to the discussion on the different concepts for how the proposed presidency should be. It is a topic worthy of inclusion in its own right. FearÉIREANN 01:47, 17 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Lots of problems with this article. Pls see below my suggestion for its removal --Dlatimer 16:57, 9 September 2005 (UTC)

This article is evolving towards being more and more POV, in its phrasing that suggests that Australia is doing all these things, debating them, etc. It suggests a direction and general will. Actually, the debates and so on are just as much between that agenda and the opposite. The POV comes from underplaying the status quo. This last change added nothing of substance yet strengthened that pattern of omission. Is it warranted? I believe not.

Also, can anyone substantiate "all other former Commonwealth Realms have created presidencies upon becoming republics"? I have a feeling it isn't true, if only because they usually have other languages than English and "president" may merely be a free translation. PML.

Merge
Agree with Tim. Discussion of how a prsident would be elected is alreayd there. --Jiang 07:29, 26 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Lots of problems with this article. Pls see below my suggestion for its removal --Dlatimer 16:57, 9 September 2005 (UTC)

Why a President?
If Australia were to sack the Queen, why not just make the Prime Minister Head of State as well as Head of Government? Nik42 06:31, 20 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Not unless he was made president. It is unworkable to make a head of government head of state. Much a head of state's time is spent carrying out ceremonial functions. A head of government spends all their time on governmment business. They simply don't have the time to carry out head of state functions. Even US presidents find it such a struggle doing both roles that they give some of the ceremonial stuff to the Vice-President. Every county in the world with a parliamentary system has a head of state. Making the head of government head of state is unworkable - for example, he'd have to decide whether to refuse himself a parliamentary dissolution!!! Or have to decide whether to refuse assent to a Bill he himself had pushed through parliament. Or deciding whether to sack himself as head of government. Australia has to have a separate head of state. The only question is whether to have a queen or a president. There is no alternative. FearÉIREANN 10:25, 20 Jan 2005 (UTC)

But why? What point is there in creating a new ceremonial position? Or to put it another way, if the Prime Minister's title were changed to President, but nothing else about his duties or the manner in which he was elected was changed, what practical difference would there be? All those possibilities you mentioned are currently purely theoretical. When was the last time a Prime Minister was refused a parliamentary dissolution? When was the last time a monarch or Governor-General refused assent in a Commonwealth nation? It seems pointless to me to create a new powerless office. It's one thing if a new President was created with actual powers, which would involve a significant alteration to the political system (whether for good or ill I can't say), but to simply replace a hereditary figurehead with an elected figurehead seems rather silly Nik42 08:21, 21 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Article about President, not republican debate
If there is any reason at all for this article not to be merged with Australian republicanism or Australian referendum 1999 (Establishment of Republic), then it is because it focuses on the issues surrounding the proposed office of President. I have tried to rearrange and rewrite the article so it less of a description of the 1999 debate and more about the different ideas of a president. Note that if the article really is about its title, it does not need to mention monarchists as much as an article about the referendum would in order to be NPOV, however I have tried to take into account the concerns about inaccuracies. I still feel it could be merged, but hopefully now the article give a bit more detail on the various options for the role of the president. JPD 14:17, 7 September 2005 (UTC)

Reference to Queen as Head of State
Whether or not the Queen is Australia's Head of State is a point of contention in the circles that debate the current constitution vs. a republic. The republicans argue that she is, while most monarchists advocate she isn't (particularly ACM). As the Constitution doesn't define this and the Keating government referred to the Governor-General as Head of State, I've removed reference to the Queen as Head of State in this article. Simply referring to her as Sovereign is accurate and not a point of contention.
 * My version did not make any reference to the Queen as head of state. I was quite careful about that. I think you are going too far to avoid any wording that might sound republican, even if it is accurate. Since this is an article about republican proposals, it will include republican ideas. The argument that the GG is effective head of state is included, and that should be enough. JPD 11:19, 8 September 2005 (UTC)

Impeach this article
Sorry about the title (couldn't resist), but this article should be removed. While a good attempt have been made to make it work, the problem is that this is a proposed position for which there are dozens of possibilities, all of which are likely to be proved wrong. In contrast the McGarvie Model article I wrote has a clear focus. It answers the questions: Who proposed it? What it involves? Positives, Negatives and Successes. The same could be done for the "Bi-partisan appointment model", the "Hayden Model" or the "ARM Six Models Process". But one cannot write a definitive "Elect the President Model" article as who's to say what that is. Consequently it cannot be NPOV. On the positive side, the article on Republic Advisory Committee is 80% pure opinion --Dlatimer 16:52, 9 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I don't quite understand your objection. Is there something wrong with an article which describes dozens (or even a continuum) of possibilities? It is not possible to write an article on the "Elect the President Model", since it doesn't exist, but it is possible to write an article that states that many people have suggested that the president should be directly elected, which is completely NPOV. An article discussing the different properties people have suggested for a republican model can be completely NPOV, and as proposals, they can definitely not be proved wrong. IMHO the only question about this article is whether it deserves an article of it's own, or whether it is simply repeating material which should be covered elsewhere. At the moment, I feel it probably doesn't need to exist, but not strongly enough to do anything about it. If you do feel more strongly, then list it for deletion. JPD 15:54, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

Personally I think this article should be up for deletion with its material merged into other articles. Most of what is covered here is also covered elsewhere (mainly Australian republicanism) and would be far more concise in the one location. Dpd 23:35, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

Just to clarify my objection, allow me to use aspects of the article to show the difficulties of this article:
 * 1st Para: "a possible move"
 * What's wrong with that?

 * 2nd Para: entirely covered in other articles
 * Yes, but if this article exists, it needs context.

 * 3rd Para: "argue" really should be "assume". Republicans don't really argue this. It's just an assumed transitional step.
 * Minor detail, which could be argued about, but isn't relevant to deltion/merging.

 * 4th Para: About the bi-partisan appointment model, but that is not mentioned.
 * The model is meant to involve bi-partisanship, but doesn't explicitly require it. I'll add a bit to make it clearer.

 * 5th Para: This is about the 1999 referendum
 * Yes, it mentions arguments from the 1999 referendum, but it is about the concept of having a directly elected president.

 * 6th Para: About McGarvie Model, which does not advocate a president.
 * 7th Para: ACM object to "republicanism". They wouldn't care if the position was a presidency or not.
 * These two paragraphs are included to show the different reasons why soem people do not advocate having a president.

 * 8th Para: Covered in Australian Republicanism
 * Once again, some context is required. Although I wouldn't object to the last 3 paragraphs being missing, some people seem to think it gives the wrong impression. JPD 09:44, 15 September 2005 (UTC)

If "Australian Republicanism" gets too large, I would like to see articles on proposed republican models, about republican concepts such as "minimalism", republican advocates eg Winterton, Turnbull. Perhaps an article about the "proposed threshold plebicite" perhaps.

Thanks for your comments. Time to take it to the next step - deletion. --Dlatimer 01:14, 15 September 2005 (UTC)

Merge to Australian Republicanism
Checking the deletion guidelines, it's more appropriate that the article be merged than deleted outright. --Dlatimer 01:40, 15 September 2005 (UTC)
 * I tend to agree that merging is appropriate. However, until this is agreed on, I will continue to improve the article. JPD 09:44, 15 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Meanwhile I will put some thought into specific articles. An obvious candidate is the bi-partisan appointment model (Australia). As for other models and concepts a structure is preferred, by which I suggest we follow what is found in the 2004 Senate Inquiry Report, Road to a Republic. It may be too simplistic to just have a direct-election model. The six models process is under review by the ARM but that could also provide some basis for articles. What I am looking for in particular is to follow the history of these ideas and add to them as develop.

--Dlatimer 01:18, 18 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Merge is completed. The material can be found under "Proposals for Change" in Australian Republicanism

title: Talk:Proposed President of Australia


text:
Worshipful Company of Grocers

The Worshipful Company of Grocers is one of the 111 livery companies of the City of London, ranking second in order of precedence.

Established in 1345 for merchants engaged in the grocery trade, it is one of the Great Twelve City Livery Companies.

History
Founded in the 14th century by members of the Guild of Pepperers, dating from 1180, the company was responsible for maintaining standards for the purity of spices and for setting of certain weights and measures. Its membership until 1617 included suppliers of medicinal spices and herbs when the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries was formed.

The guild was known as the Company of Grossers from 1373 until 1376 when it was renamed the Company of Grocers of London. In 1428, two years after building its first hall in Old Jewry, the company was granted a royal charter by King Henry VI of England.

A Great Twelve City Livery Company, the Grocers rank second in the order of precedence after the Mercers. It is said that the Grocers' Company used to be first in precedence, until Queen Elizabeth I, as Honorary Master of the Mercers' Company, found herself in procession after her coronation behind the Grocers' camel which was emitting unfortunate smells; as a result, the Mercers were promoted.

Today, the Grocers' Company exists as a charitable, constitutional and ceremonial institution which plays a significant role in the election of and supporting the Lord Mayor and the Sheriffs of the City of London. The Company's motto is "God Grant Grace". The company also provides banqueting and conference facilities at Grocers' Hall situated in Prince's Street, next to the Bank of England.

Grocers' Hall
The earliest known Grocers' Hall was in Poultry, London, then known as Conningshop-Lane on account of the three conies or rabbits hanging over a poulterer's stall in the lane. It was built in 1428 on land once owned by Lord FitzWalter and let out "for dinners, funerals, county feasts and weddings". The roof and woodwork of the hall were destroyed in the 1666 Great Fire and afterwards a new roof was erected on the old walls while Sir John Cutler paid for a new parlour and dining room. The hall was again renovated in 1681 by the future Lord Mayor Sir John Moore. A new hall was built on the same site between 1798 and 1802 when part of the garden was sold to the Bank of England for the expansion of nearby Prince's Street. However, frequent and extensive repairs were required due to the third hall's defective foundations, which was replaced by a fourth hall, completed in 1893 on Prince's Street. The hall survived the Blitz with only minor damage to its north wing, but was almost completely destroyed by fire in 1965, apparently caused by a lightbulb left on in the grand staircase beneath an oak lintel which smouldered and eventually ignited. The fifth and final hall was constructed nearby in 1970, also on Prince's Street, is the Grocers' home today.

Past Masters of the Grocers' Company include Lord Mayors Sir Robert Leigh, Sir Robert Ladbroke, Sir Samuel Garrard and Timothy Coleridge, son of former Lloyd's of London chairman David Coleridge and brother of Sir Nicholas Coleridge.

The Master Grocer for 2022/23 is James Thompson. The Clerk to the Grocers' Company is Brigadier Greville Bibby and the Revd George Bush serves as Honorary Chaplain.

Guild church

 * St Mary-Le-Bow

School and military affiliations
The Grocers' Company is responsible for the maintenance of Oundle School in Northamptonshire, which depicts the Grocers' crest of a camel as its school badge. Other schools maintained by the company are the Elms School in Colwall, Herefordshire as well as Reed's School whose Annual Foundation Appeal has been held at Grocers' Hall for over fifty years. Furthermore, in 1876 the Company founded the Grocers' Company School, Hackney in the East End of London for the education of "sons of the middle classes". It was transferred into London County Council's control after that authority's formation in 1889, changing its name to Hackney Downs School; it closed in 1995. Hackney Downs depicted as its school badge a camel, for the Lower School, and a shield with cloves and the motto of the Grocers' Company for the Upper School; the Camel and Cloves are remembered to this day by old boys through the Clove Club. The Grocers' Company now maintains close links with and is the principal sponsor of Hackney's Mossbourne Academy, renowned for its excellent academic standards. The Church of St Paul, Homerton, in Hackney was founded by the Company in 1890, but became redundant in 1981: its edifice still displays the Grocers' coat of arms.

The Grocers' Company is also affiliated with HMS Queen Elizabeth, the first of the Royal Navy's new Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers, and with the Coldstream Guards, the oldest regular regiment of the British Army as well as XI (F) Squadron, Royal Air Force.

Eglinton Village in County Londonderry, Northern Ireland, was established by the Grocers' Company in 1619 under the name of Muff; the local Castle Credit Union has assumed use of the Company's crest, as has Eglinton Primary School.

The Church of St Mary the Virgin, Northill, in Bedfordshire displays the Grocers' coat of arms on a stained glass window by John Oliver, commissioned by the Company in 1664.

title: Worshipful Company of Grocers


text:
Berne Convention (disambiguation)

Berne (or Bern) Convention may refer to:

 * Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works
 * Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Council of Europe), on nature conservation in Europe
 * The Treaty of Bern, establishing the General Postal Union
 * Berne Convention (1906) on the prohibition of white phosphorus in the manufacture of matches.

title: Berne Convention (disambiguation)


text:
Auguste Perret

Auguste Perret (12 February 1874 – 25 February 1954) was a French architect and a pioneer of the architectural use of reinforced concrete. His major works include the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, the first Art Deco building in Paris; the Church of Notre-Dame du Raincy (1922–23); the Mobilier National in Paris (1937); and the French Economic, Social and Environmental Council building in Paris (1937–39). After World War II he designed a group of buildings in the centre of the port city of Le Havre, including St. Joseph's Church, Le Havre, to replace buildings destroyed by bombing during World War II. His reconstruction of the city is now a World Heritage Site for its exceptional urban planning and architecture.

Early life and experiments (1874–1912)
Auguste Perret was born in Ixelles, Belgium, where his father, a stonemason, had taken refuge after the Paris Commune. He received his early education in architecture in the family firm. He was accepted in the architecture course of the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, along with his two brothers, Gustave (1876–1952) and Claude (1880–1960). where he studied under Julien Guadet, a Beaux Arts neoclassicist who had collaborated with Charles Garnier on the construction of the Paris Opera. Beyond the neoclassical rationalism he learned from Gaudet, Perret's particular interest was the structure of buildings and the use of new materials, such as concrete. Though he was considered a brilliant student, he left school without obtaining a diploma and went to work for the family firm.

Perret immediately began experimenting with concrete. His first important project was an apartment building on rue Franklin in Paris (1903), where the concrete structure, instead of being concealed, was clearly visible and was a part of the exterior design. He made an even more radical experiment with the construction of a garage on rue de Ponthieu (1906) (now destroyed) with a simplified cubic structure expressing the interior, large bays of windows and a lack of decoration, which resembled the later International Style.

Early works (1913–1939)
His most famous building was the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées a project which he took over from the Art Nouveau architect Henry van de Velde. The facade was simple and decorated only with a sculptural bas-relief by Antoine Bourdelle. The corner of the building was smooth and rounded, anticipating the Streamline Moderne style three decades later. Thanks to the use of concrete pillars, the interior lobby and the theater itself was vast and open, unobstructed by columns. The interior decoration featured works by the modernist artists of the day; a dome by Maurice Denis, paintings by Édouard Vuillard and Jacqueline Marval, and a stage curtain by Ker-Xavier Roussel.

In his later works, Perret used concrete in imaginative ways to achieve the functions of his buildings, while preserving classical harmony, symmetry and proportions. His major works included the building of the French Economic, Social and Environmental Council, originally built for the Museum of Public Works of the 1937 Paris Exposition; and the Mobilier Nationale, the national government furniture atelier in Paris. He also created innovative industrial buildings, including a warehouse in Casablanca covered with a think veil of concrete (1915); the Perret Tower, the first concrete tower for the International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism of Grenoble (1925), to demonstrate his "Order of Concrete"; and the church of Notre Dame du Raincy (1922–23), where the interior columns were left undecorated and the concrete vaults of the ceiling became the most prominent decorative feature. He experimented with concrete forms to achieve the best acoustics for the concert hall of the École Normale de Musique de Paris in Paris. (1929)

Later works (1945–1954)
In 1952, he completed construction of the Saclay Nuclear Research Centre in the Paris suburb of Essonne. He described this campus as a "small Versailles for nuclear research". Most of France's early nuclear reactors were constructed within the site.

His other major postwar projects included the reconstruction of the center of the port of Le Havre, which had been almost totally destroyed during the war. His first plan was rejected as too ambitious, but his modified plans were followed. He also participated in the postwar reconstruction of the Marseille port and of Amiens.

His last major work, finished after his death, was the St. Joseph's Church, Le Havre, (1951–58) whose most prominent feature is its tower, like a lighthouse, 107 meters high, and visible at sea.

Later life, honors and legacy
Among the many young architects who worked in the office of Perret from 1908 to 1910 was Charles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris, who later became known as Le Corbusier; it was his first experience in an architectural firm.

From 1940, Perret taught at the École des Beaux-Arts. He won the Royal Gold Medal in 1948 and the AIA Gold Medal in 1952. His work was also part of the architecture event in the art competition at the 1948 Summer Olympics.

Perret also served as a juror with Florence Meyer Blumenthal in awarding the Prix Blumenthal, a grant given between 1919 and 1954 to young French painters, sculptors, decorators, engravers, writers, and musicians.

In 1998, the Perret Tower in Grenoble was declared a national heritage site by France.

In 2005, his reconstruction of Le Havre was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

List of major works

 * Rue Franklin apartments, Paris, 1902–1904
 * Garage Ponthieu, Paris, 1907
 * Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, Paris, 1913
 * Concrete cathedral in Le Raincy, France, Église Notre-Dame du Raincy, 1923, with stained-glass work by Marguerite Huré
 * Perret tower, Grenoble, 1925
 * La maison-ateliers Chana Orloff, 7 bis villa Seurat, Paris, 1926.
 * Concert hall of the École Normale de Musique de Paris, 1929
 * Hôtel Saint-Georges, Beirut, Lebanon 1932
 * Immeuble Lange, 9 place de la Porte-de-Passy, Paris (1929–1932)
 * Services Techniques des Constructions Navales, 8 boulevard du General-Martial-Valin (15th arron.) Paris, 1929–1932; an example of a framework of exposed concrete columns.
 * Building, 51-55 rue Raynouard (16th arr.) Paris, (1932), where Perret had his offices
 * Palais Iéna, Paris, 1937, originally built as the Museum of Public Works for the 1937 Paris Exposition, now home of the French Economic, Social and Environmental Council
 * Extensions to the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts, Paris, 1945
 * City Hall, St. Joseph's Church and further reconstruction of the French city of Le Havre after more than 80,000 inhabitants of that city were left homeless following World War II, 1949–1956
 * Restaurant #1 of CEA Paris-Saclay, 1952
 * Gare d'Amiens, 1955
 * Villa Aghion, in Alexandria (partial attempt to destroy, 28 August 2009. Destroyed completely by 21 January 2016)

title: Auguste Perret