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Talk:Property tax

Philosophy and enforcement
Given that there are so many people arguing against property tax (and claiming that it de facto means you can't actually own property), would it be worth including sections on the philosophical and political arguments for and against property taxes, and on how the taxes are enforced and defaulters punished? (Most of the arguments against it here and elsewhere seem to presume that there is no mitigation for low incomes, and that failing to pay the tax results in the government confiscating the property. I'm pretty sure that in the UK the former is untrue, and the latter only in the most extreme circumstances.  See e.g. https://www.rushmoor.gov.uk/article/3224/What-happens-if-you-dont-pay-your-council-tax

Iapetus (talk) 13:26, 7 June 2019 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Tax levies which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 22:46, 2 July 2019 (UTC)

Query
Re: By the of the 19th century could that be By the end of the 19th century or By the start of the 19th century?  Ϣere Spiel  Chequers  16:51, 24 October 2019 (UTC)

William the Conqueror?
The article currently says "During the 1170s, William the Conqueror established an early form of land taxation"

William the Conqueror died in 1087, so something is wrong with this sentence, but I can't tell whether it's the year or the person. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2607:FEA8:87A0:F0F:C431:E59C:A099:E350 (talk) 01:40, 4 February 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Property tax


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Music of Bulgaria

The music of Bulgaria refers to all forms of music associated with the country of Bulgaria, including classical, folk, popular music, and other forms.

Classical music, opera, and ballet are represented by composers Emanuil Manolov, Pancho Vladigerov and Georgi Atanasov and singers Ghena Dimitrova, Anna Tomowa-Sintow, Boris Hristov, Raina Kabaivanska and Nicolai Ghiaurov. Notable names from the contemporary pop scene are Lili Ivanova, Emil Dimitrov and Vasil Naydenov. Prominent Bulgarian artists living abroad include Sylvie Vartan, Kristian Kostov, Philipp Kirkorov, Lucy Diakovska, Mira Aroyo, Mikhael Paskalev, Nora Nova, Vasko Vassilev and Ivo Papazov.

The Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir has received a Grammy Award in 1990. The Philip Kutev Ensemble, the first of the Bulgarian state-sponsored folk ensembles and founded in 1951, also is featured on the 1990 Grammy-winning album and has had many well-known Bulgarian folk singers, including, at present, Neli Andreeva and Sorina Bogomilova. Rhodope folk singer Valya Balkanska has recorded the folk song "Izlel ye Delyo Haydutin", which was included on the Golden Disk sent into space with the Voyager spacecraft in 1977.

Instruments
Bulgarian music uses a wide range of instruments. Some folk instruments are variants of traditional Asian instruments such as the "Saz" (Bulgarian tambura), or the kemençe (Bulgarian gadulka). More modern style instruments are often used in the modern dance music that is an offshoot of traditional village music.

Bulgarian folk bands, called bitovi, use instruments that commonly include
 * The daire was a tambourine of varna folk music of eastern balkans of Bulgarian traditional musical instruments of rhopode regions closed was a sleigh bells or tambourine and big daire.

 * The Accordion is closed-keyboard instrument of rhopode region and strandja regions of Bulgaria keyboard instruments was bayan and the concertina

 * The gaida, a traditional goat-skin bagpipe. There are two common types of gaida. The Thracian gaida is tuned either in D or in A. The Rhodopean gaida, called the kaba gaida, is larger, has a much deeper sound and is tuned in F.
 * The kaval, an end-blown flute is very close to the Turkish kaval, as well as the Arabic "Ney."
 * The gadulka, a bowed stringed instrument perhaps descended from the rebec, held vertically, with melody and sympathetic strings. The bass gadulka has largely been replaced by the double bass (called in Bulgarian a contrabas).
 * The tǔpan, a large drum worn over the shoulder by the player and hit with a beater ("kiyak") on one side and a thin stick ("osier") on the other.
 * The tambura, a long-necked, metal-strung, fretted lute used for rhythmic accompaniment as well as melodic solos. It is somewhat like the Greek bouzouki and very similar to the Tamburica family's "alto" instrument, the brac.
 * The tarambuka or dumbek, an hourglass-shaped finger-drum. It is very similar to the Macedonia and Serbia "darambuka" and the Bulgaria"Tarambuka" (Тарамбука).

Modern professional musicians soon reached new heights of innovation in using traditional Bulgarian instruments, by expanding the capacities of the gaida (Kostadin Varimezov and Nikola Atanasov Plamen Deyanski), gadulka (Mihail Marinov, Atanas Vulchev Ganka, Zhechko tenev) and kaval (Stoyan Chobanov, Nikola Ganchev, Stoyan Velichkov, Nedyalko Nedyalkov, Theodosii Spassov. Other instruments arrived in Bulgaria in the 19th century, including the accordion and the clarinet. Bulgarian accordion music was defined by Boris Karlov and later Roma musicians including Kosta Kolev and Ibro Lolov ,Boshko.

In 1965, the Ministry of Culture founded the Koprivshtitsa National Music Festival, which has become an important event in showcasing Bulgarian music, singing and dance. It is held once every five years, and the last festival was 7–9 August 2015.

Instruments used in wedding music include violin, accordion, gaida, kaval, tapan, Tambura, guitar and Piano.

Folk
Regional styles abound in Bulgaria. Northern Bulgaria, Dobruja, Shopluk, Thrace, Strandzha, Macedonia and Rhodopes - all have distinctive sounds.

Some folk music revolves around holidays like Christmas, New Year's Day, midsummer, and the Feast of St. Lazarus, as well as the Strandzha region's unusual Nestinarstvo rites, in which villagers fall into a trance and dance on hot coals as part of the joint feast of Sts Konstantin and Elena on 21 May. Music is also a part of more personal celebrations such as weddings.

Singing has always been a tradition for both men and women. Songs were often sung by women at work parties such as the sedenka (often attended by young men and women in search of partners to court), betrothal ceremonies, and just for fun. Women also had an extensive repertoire of songs that they sang while working in the fields.

Young women eligible for marriage played a particularly important role at the dancing in the village square (which not too long ago was the major form of "entertainment" in the village and was a very important social scene). The dancing — every Sunday and for three days on major holidays like Easter — began not with instrumental music, but with two groups of young women singing, one leading each end of the dance line. Later on, instrumentalists might arrive and the singers would no longer lead the dance. A special form of song, the lament, was sung not only at funerals but also when young men departed for military service.

Bulgarian folk music is known for its asymmetrical rhythms (defined by the famous Hungarian composer and ethnomusicologist Béla Bartók as "Bulgarian rhythms"), where meter is split into uneven combinations of short (two metric units) and long (three metric units) beats, corresponding to the dancers' short and long steps. In European folk music, such asymmetrical rhythms are commonly used in Bulgaria, Greece, elsewhere in the Balkans, and less commonly in Norway and Sweden.

The most important state-supported folk ensemble of the socialist era was the Sofia-based State Ensemble for Folk Songs and Dances, founded in 1951 and led by Philip Koutev. Koutev became perhaps the most influential musician of 20th century Bulgaria, and arranged rural music with harmonies more "accessible" to audiences in other countries, to great domestic acclaim. The ensemble has now been renamed the Philip Kutev Ensemble in his honor. In 1952, Georgi Boyadzhiev founded the group known today as the Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir, which became famous worldwide after the release of a series of recordings entitled Le Mystère des Voix Bulgares.

The distinctive sounds of women's choirs in Bulgarian folk music come from their unique rhythms, harmony and vocal production. Characteristic polyphony, such as the use of close intervals like the major second and the singing of a drone accompaniment underneath the melody, are especially common in songs from the Shope region around the Bulgarian capital Sofia and the Pirin region (Bulgarian Macedonia). In addition to the ensemble led by Koutev, who adapted and arranged many of the harmonies, and composed several songs (as did his wife, Maria Kouteva) that were also performed by other groups, other women's vocal groups gained popularity, including Trio Bulgarka, consisting of Yanka Rupkina, Eva Georgieva, and Stoyanka Boneva. Some of these groups were included in the "Mystery of the Bulgarian Voices" tours.

Trio Bulgarka were featured on The Sensual World album by Kate Bush on the songs "Deeper Understanding", "Never Be Mine", and "Rocket's Tail". In 1993 they appeared on another Kate Bush album, The Red Shoes, in the songs "You're the One", "The Song of Solomon", and "Why Should I Love You?", which also featured Prince.

Asymmetric meters

One of the most distinctive features of Bulgarian folk music is the complexity of its rhythms in comparison to Western music. Although it uses Western meters such as, , and , Bulgarian music also includes meters with odd numbers of beats per measure, sometimes called asymmetric meters. These can be understood as combinations of groups of "quick" and "slow" beats. For example, the dance lesnoto ("the light/easy one") has a meter of seven beats with emphasis on the first, fourth, and sixth. This can be divided into three groups, a "slow" unit of three beats and two "quick" units of two beats, often written 3+2+2.

Each basic folk dance type uses a distinct combination of these rhythmic "units". Some examples of Bulgarian folk dances are rachenitsa (seven beats divided: 2+2+3), paydushko horo (five beats: 2+3), eleno mome (seven beats: 2+2+1+2), kopanitsa (eleven beats: 2+2+3+2+2), Bucimis (15 beats: 2+2+2+2+3+2+2), and pravo horo, which can either be standard or.

Some rhythms with the same number of beats can be divided in different ways. Eight-beat rhythms can be divided 2+3+3, 3+2+3, 3+3+2, 2+2+2+2, 2+2+4, 2+4+2, 4+2+2 or 4+4.

Select discography

 * Music of Bulgaria – Original 1955 Recording (Nonesuch 9 72011). Early recordings of Philip Koutev and the Ensemble of the Bulgarian Republic. This was one of Frank Zappa's favorite albums, and Bulgarian harmonies reportedly influenced the harmonies of Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young.
 * Le Mystère des Voix Bulgares – (Nonesuch 9 79165 in the U.S.; 4AD Records CAD603CD in the UK). Featuring the Bulgarian State Radio and Television Female Choir. This is the world hit that introduced many to Bulgarian music. It is actually a collection of recordings by various artists and groups. A group that included some of these singers (and others) toured under this name.
 * Village Music of Bulgaria – (Elektra/Nonesuch 9 79195). Two albums of field recordings by Martin Koenig on one CD (A Harvest, a Shepherd, a Bride, and In the Shadow of the Mountain). One of the tracks, a recording of "Izlel je Delyo Hajdutin", was included by Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan on the Voyager Golden Record.
 * A song from the Rhodope Mountains, "Izlel ye Delyo Haydutin" by Valya Balkanska – Part of the Voyager Golden Record selection of music, included in the two Voyager spacecraft launched in 1977.*Balkana The Music of Bulgaria – (Hannibal HNCD 1335). Many of the songs are by Trio Bulgarka or one of its members.
 * The Forest is Crying (Lament for Indje Voivoda) – (Hannibal HNCD 1342). By the Trio Bulgarka.
 * Two Girls Started to Sing ... Bulgarian Village Singing – (Rounder CD 1055). Field recordings.
 * Bulgarian Soul – Bulgarian operatic mezzo Vesselina Kasarova sings Bulgarian folk songs with the Cosmic Voices from Bulgaria. Songs are arranged by the Bulgarian composer Krassimir Kyurkchiyski and accompanied by the Sofia Soloists Chamber Orchestra.

Select artists and groups

 * Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir (Le Mystère des Voix Bulgares)
 * Cosmic voices from Bulgaria
 * Trio Bulgarka, Yanka Rupkina
 * Valkana Stoyanova
 * Valya Balkanska
 * Stefka Sabotinova
 * Nikolina Chakardakova
 * Neli Andreeva

 * Nedialka Keranova
 * Diko Iliev – compose Danube horo and other
 * Filip Kutev
 * Iliya Argirov
 * Bulgare ensemble
 * Daniel Spassov
 * Svetoglas
 * Neshka Robeva's spectacles
 * Kostadin Gugov
 * London Bulgarian Choir
 * Kitka – based in Berkeley, California
 * Nadka Karadjova
 * Vulkana Stoyanova
 * The Grannies From Bistritsa
 * Oratnitza – contemporary band with folk influences
 * Outhentic – contemporary ethno-jazz band
 * Iliya Lukov
 * Elitsa & Stoyan – contemporary electronic/folk duo
 * Filip Kutev ensemble

Orthodox
The tradition of church singing in Bulgaria is more than a thousand years old, and can be traced back to the early Middle Ages. One of the earliest known musical figures (composer, singer and musical reformer) of Medieval Europe John Kukuzel (1280–1360), known as The Angel-voiced for his singing abilities, has Bulgarian origins.

In the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, there are two traditions of church singing:

 * Eastern monodic (one-voice) singing and choral (Polyphonic). The Eastern monodic singing observes the tradition of Greek and Byzantine music and the requirements of the eight-tones canon of the Eastern Orthodox chanting.
 * The second tradition is rooted in choral church music, established during the 19th century, when Russian choral church music began to have an influence in Bulgaria. During the 19th and 20th century, many Bulgarian composers created their works in the spirit of Russian polyphony. Today, Orthodox music is alive and is performed both during church worship services and at concerts by secular choirs and soloists.

The following list shows contemporary Bulgarian choirs and singers that have a repertoire rooted in orthodox music:

 * St. Alexandar Nevsky Cathedral Choir
 * "Madrigal" Chamber Choir
 * Sofia Boys' Choir
 * Sofia Orthodox Choir
 * Svetoglas
 * Sofia Priest Choir
 * Yoan Kukuzel Choir
 * Opera singer Boris Hristov
 * Opera singer Nikola Ghuzelev

Classical

 * Alexandra Fol
 * Alexandrina Pendachanska
 * Mihail Angelov
 * Liudmil Angelov
 * Anatoli Krastev
 * Anna Tomowa-Sintow
 * Anna-Maria Ravnopolska-Dean
 * Ari Leschnikoff – actual name Asparuh Leschnikoff
 * Boris Christoff
 * Dobri Hristov
 * Dobrin Petkov
 * Dobrinka Tabakova
 * Emil Tabakov
 * Emil Tchakarov
 * Georgi Tutev
 * Ghena Dimitrova
 * Gheorghi Arnaoudov
 * Hristo Tsanoff
 * Konstantin Iliev
 * Mariana Paunova
 * Milen Nachev
 * Nayden Todorov
 * Neva Krysteva
 * Nicola Ghiuzelev
 * Nicolai Ghiaurov
 * Pancho Vladigerov
 * Petko Dimitrov
 * Raina Kabaivanska
 * Ralitsa Tcholakova
 * Rossen Milanov
 * Sonya Yoncheva
 * Svetla Protich
 * Veneta Vicheva
 * Vesselina Kasarova
 * New Symphony Orchestra

Popular
Some of the most popular artists include:
 * Lili Ivanova
 * Emil Dimitrov
 * Vasil Naydenov
 * Bogdana Karadocheva
 * Pasha Hristova
 * Mariya Neikova
 * Lea Ivanova
 * Desi Dobreva
 * Yordanka Hristova
 * Margarita Hranova
 * Riton Duet
 * Todor Kolev
 * Tonika
 * Rositsa Kirilova
 * Silvia Katsarova
 * Stenli
 * Veselin Marinov
 * Diana Ekspress
 * Grafa
 * Karizma
 * Miro
 * Maria Ilieva
 * Irina Florin
 * Mariana Popova
 * Mihaela Fileva
 * Poli Genova
 * Ruth Koleva
 * Svetla Ivanova
 * Mary Boys Band
 * Rushi Vidinliev
 * Shturcite
 * FSB (band)
 * Bo Bo Bo (band), Boris Godjunov, Borislav Grancharov and Boyan Ivanov, pop vocal trio
 * Ice Cream (band)
 * Stefan Valdobrev
 * Lubo Kirov
 * Kamelia Todorova

Chalga
Chalga (pop-folk) is a contemporary music style that combines often provocative Bulgarian lyrics with popular Eastern European (rarely Russian and Ukrainian) and Turkish music. It is the Bulgarian version of the corresponding variations in neighbouring countries such as Greece (Laïkó), Serbia (Turbofolk) or Romania (manele).

This subgenre is rather a mixture of synthpop, chalga and gypsy music with Bulgarian wedding motives. Yuri Yunakov, a Bulgarian Romani saxophonist, is one of its creators with clarinetist Ivo Papazov. The album New Colors in Bulgarian Wedding Music highlights his amalgamation of traditional Bulgarian music with more modern elements.

During the Communist era, some folk musicians lived outside the state-supported music scene. Without official support, wedding bands were also without official limitations on their music, leading to fusions with foreign styles and instruments. Thrace was an important center of this music, which was entirely underground until 1986, when a festival of this music, which became a biennial event, was inaugurated in the town of Stambolovo, and artists like Sever, Trakiîski Solisti, Shoumen and Juzhni Vetar became popular, especially clarinetist Ivo Papasov.

Select artists

 * Azis
 * Anelia
 * Gloria
 * Galena
 * Desi Slava
 * Emilia
 * Ivana
 * Kamelia
 * Preslava
 * Gergana
 * Slavi Trifonov and Ku-Ku Band
 * Sofi Marinova

Jazz

 * Ruth Koleva
 * Theodosii Spassov
 * Ivo Papazov
 * Camellia Todorova
 * Jivko Petrov
 * Yildiz Ibrahimova
 * Hilda Kazasyan
 * Vasil Petrov
 * Simeon Venkov – Moni
 * Miroslav Ivanov
 * Veselin Veselinov – Eko
 * Michail Yossifov
 * Milcho Leviev
 * Rossen Zahariev
 * Anatoly Vapirov
 * Hristo Yotzov
 * Antoni Rikev
 * Nikolay Danev
 * Tri O FIve

Electronic

 * Deep Zone Project
 * Esem
 * Shamanez
 * Mira Aroyo (of Ladytron)
 * Valdi Sabev
 * Apo & Nevena
 * Gravity Co
 * Ivan Shopov
 * Stephan Panev
 * Michail Goleminov
 * Bulgaro
 * Tibetan hearts
 * KiNK

Rap

 * Misho Shamara
 * Spens
 * Upsurt
 * 100 Kila
 * Krisko
 * Homelesz
 * Keranov
 * Manata
 * Jluch
 * Qvkata DLG
 * Grigovor
 * Logo5
 * Mr. Freesk
 * F.O.
 * Jay
 * Soni Bonanza
 * Wosh MC
 * Sekta
 * Skandau
 * Fyre
 * V:rgo

Rock, metal and new wave

 * Ahat
 * Akaga
 * Georgi Minchev
 * Signal
 * FSB (Formatsia Studio Balkanton)
 * Shturcite
 * Hipodil
 * Milena Slavova
 * Balkandji
 * Bandaracite
 * Barabi Blues Band
 * B.F.H.
 * BTR
 * Epizod
 * Grimaze
 * Monolith
 * Nova Generacia
 * Obraten Efekt
 * Odd Crew
 * Ostava
 * Analgin
 * Kontrol
 * Kukeri
 * Poduene Blues Band
 * Srebyrnite grivni
 * Tangra
 * Wickeda
 * Impulse
 * Faktor
 * Odd Crew
 * Review

Punk and funk

 * Novi Tsvetya ("New Flowers")
 * D.D.T.
 * Sub Zero Farm
 * Viperfish
 * The Scroletics
 * Brothers in Blood
 * U.Z.Z.U.
 * Akaga

Reggae

 * Sen I
 * Zafayah
 * Jahmmi Youth
 * Roots Rocket Band
 * Merudia
 * Rebelites
 * NRG D
 * Ragga one
 * Samity
 * Root Souljah
 * Kaya

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Music of Bulgaria


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Talk:Dead tree

Untitled
I see 'dead tree format' as the equivalent of saying 'snail mail'. It's not a green or (heaven forbid) politcially correct thing. It's just techie. Secretlondon 23:26, Nov 20, 2003 (UTC)
 * Fixed. Andy Mabbett 23:48, 20 Nov 2003 (UTC)

On humorous/humourous, I see the Oxford Guide to English Usage gives humorous as correct.

Charles Matthews 12:58, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dead tree


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Student Association of Missouri
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Creative Artists Agency

Creative Artists Agency LLC (CAA) is an American talent and sports agency based in Los Angeles, California. With 1,800 employees in March 2016, it is regarded as an influential company in the talent agency business and manages numerous clients.

In September 2023, French billionaire François-Henri Pinault completed the acquisition of a majority stake in CAA, in an agreement valued at 7 billion dollars. The purchase was made through his investment company, Groupe Artémis.

History
Creative Artists Agency (CAA) was formed by five agents at the William Morris Agency in 1975. At a dinner, Michael Ovitz, Michael S. Rosenfeld, Ronald Meyer, Rowland Perkins, and William Haber decided to create their own agency. The agents were fired by William Morris before they could obtain financing.

CAA was incorporated in Delaware and had a $35,000 line of credit and a $21,000 bank loan and rented a small Century City office. Within a week, they sold a game show called Rhyme and Reason, the Rich Little Show, and The Jackson 5ive. An early plan was to form a medium-sized full-service agency, share proceeds equally, and do without nameplates on doors or formal titles or individual client lists, with guidelines like "be a team player" and "return phone calls promptly."

CAA used its writer clients to attract actors to the agency. Ovitz and CAA were the first to package films like TV shows. Representing numerous A-list actors and having about $90 million in annual bookings in the late 1970s, Ovitz led the agency to expand into the film business. By the mid-1990s, CAA had 550 employees, about 1,400 of Hollywood's top talent, and $150 million in revenue. In the 1990s, CAA was owned mostly by several key agents, including Ovitz, Meyer, and Haber.

Ovitz was good at "packaging talent for movies and TV projects" and negotiating large deals between Japanese conglomerates, such as Sony and Matsushita, with Hollywood studios, such as Columbia/TriStar and MCA. Ovitz expanded the agency into advertising and telecommunications. In 1992, the Coca-Cola Company placed CAA in charge of much of its marketing campaign, to work alongside advertising agency McCann Erickson. In 1995, CAA was described as the industry's most powerful agency.

In 1995, Ron Meyer was appointed as the head of MCA, and Ovitz left for Disney. After Ovitz and Meyer left, talent agent Jay Moloney took over the company but struggled with a drug addiction and left the agency soon afterward. After Ovitz, the agency was taken over by Richard Lovett, who was made the president, along with Kevin Huvane, Rob Light, Bryan Lourd, Rick Nicita, and David O'Connor as managing partners.

In 1996, several CAA agents defected to rival agency William Morris Endeavor, taking with them prominent directors and actors. The partners founded the CAA Foundation in 1996 to create positive social change by encouraging volunteerism, partnerships, and donations. In 2012, it worked with Insight Labs for education reform, and contributed to its School Is Not School reform effort.

CAA established CAA Marketing in 1998 to work with brands and clients for promotion purposes. CAA Marketing developed Chipotle's Back to the Start video and created a marketing campaign for the Coca-Cola Company.

In 2003, it opened a New York City office to manage theater clients. CAA began expanding into sports in 2006. From 2005 to 2015, CAA developed greater fiscal discipline, with more emphasis on profits, possibly as the result of the influence of private equity firms. During these years, CAA doubled in size, from 750 to 1,500 employees. In 2010, new technological developments such as the digital distribution of movies put strains on the industry. There was pressure to diversify into television, publishing, concerts, and find other ways to grow. In that year, private equity firm TPG Capital invested $165 million with an additional $200 million in debt financing.

CAA began an expansion into sports in 2006, under the leadership of CEO Richard Lovett. A report in USA Today suggested that CAA's development of its sports-related clientele was significant in 2007. A report in Nexus magazine in 2015 suggested that CAA was well-positioned to develop the E-Sports market. CAA puts together deals for sports stars such as writing their clients into fitness apps.

CAA's agents scrambled to deal with a strike by the Screen Actors Guild in 2008. In 2010, TPG Capital gained a 35% interest in the agency and pledged $500 million for investments. The transaction enabled acquisitions in areas such as sports and overseas operations.

It later sold a controlling stake to TPG Capital in October 2014. In 2015, TPG Capital was reported to own 53% of CAA. CAA is co-owner with an investment bank.

CAA has diversified into different businesses such as sports marketers and leagues and digital commerce. In 2014, CAA has been undergoing a transformation from relying solely on booking talent, into engineering multimedia deals worldwide. To this end, CAA established CAA Ventures, a venture capital fund that has supported products such as the Whisper app.

The WGA, who in 2019 held a dispute between the top four Hollywood talent agencies (William Morris Endeavor, Creative Artists Agency, United Talent Agency and ICM Partners), on September 30, 2020 asked CAA to sell a majority stake on their Content company for reaching a deal, with CAA accepting their divestment on December 16, 2020 and selling the majority of it to South-Korean studio JTBC.

Nine months after it was announced that CAA would acquire ICM Partners, a deal valued at $750 million was reached between the agencies in June 2022. - following the acquisition, about 425 ICM staffers and agents were to join CAA. In September 2023, French billionaire François-Henri Pinault agreed to buy a majority stake.

Agents
CAA has employed top sports agents such as Tom Condon and Jeff Berry.

CAA president Richard Lovett is regarded as shunning media attention and keeping a low profile. Lovett took the job position at CAA in 1995, and he was described as a "skillful agent" with a "trademark ever-ready smile" adept at schmoozing and hobnobbing with colleagues and studio heads. Lovett was described in The Wall Street Journal as being "elegantly aggressive."

Top agencies frequently raid each other's staff, and when key people defect to rivals, it makes news headlines and often leads to legal battles over breach-of-contract claims. When agents defect, the rivalry can quickly devolve into vicious battles played out in courtrooms and in the media. When key CAA clients Will Ferrell and Chris Pratt defected to rival United Talent Agency (UTA) in 2015, and were later followed by ten agents, it erupted into a full-frontal legal battle between the warring agencies. In the lawsuit, CAA accused UTA of conducting a "lawless, midnight raid" as part of an "illegal and unethical conspiracy" with agents deliberately delaying meetings with clients to divert business to UTA. In a bitter lawsuit and countersuit between CAA and UTA in 2015, which began after a slew of CAA's agents departed for UTA, there were accusations of fraud, malicious untruths, lying, and a range of charges including a "breach of duty of loyalty" as well as "conspiracy to breach fiduciary duty."

Rivalry is not limited to rank-and-file agents, but can take the form of public barbs by company CEOs. Grudges can last for years; for example, movie producer Jay Weston sued CAA in 1979 about the rights to a film, and years later, it was revealed that Weston was "totally ostracized" by the agency. In effect, CAA would do the minimally required legal tasks of passing along required offers but otherwise staying uninvolved.

Some agents have had a reputation in the public's mind of living in a world of "fast cars, rooftop bars and foul-mouthed, phone-throwing power brokers," according to an account in the Los Angeles Times.

CAA agent Jay Moloney led a colorful yet self-destructive life. Moloney interned at CAA while studying at USC, became the right-hand man of Michael Ovitz, worked with clients such as Leonardo DiCaprio and made millions, dated actresses such as Jennifer Grey and Gina Gershon, and "battled personal demons" and became a "slave to cocaine"; Moloney committed suicide at age 35.

In 2004, the HBO production entitled Entourage was made about a fictional Hollywood agent named Ari Gold. According to one report, the fictional Ari Gold character may have been based on a hybrid between an "even-keeled" Creative Artists Agency agent named Jeff Jacobs and an "abrasive 'go-for-the-jugular'" William Morris Endeavor agent named Ari Emanuel. The report suggested that images like these may contribute to the public perception of agents as foul-mouthed and aggressive bullies.

Perhaps because of its dominance in the industry, CAA agents have a reputation for being "coldhearted Hollywood power brokers," according to one report in The Wall Street Journal.

The agency has been accused of blacklisting people who did or said things that the agency did not want publicized; for example, Courtney Love said that she was "eternally banned" beginning 2005 by CAA after making a negative comment about Miramax producer Harvey Weinstein. Uma Thurman left CAA on November 22, 2017, the day before making an Instagram post addressing accusations against Harvey Weinstein.

Industry information
With many clients, agents charge a percentage fee based on monies that their clients make; one estimate was that CAA charges 10% of what its movie and television clients are paid.

CAA chiefs including Michael Ovitz, Ron Meyer and Bill Haber built the agency by packaging actors and directors with literary clients, but the scope of deal-making has widened in recent decades. For example, CAA crafted a deal between toy-maker Hasbro, DreamWorks and Paramount Pictures, along with numerous CAA writers and directors, to make the movie franchise Transformers. Sometimes deal-making entails creating new technology firms. CAA even manages deals with the estates of long-dead clients such as reggae musician Bob Marley, who died in 1981. CAA helped one former politician create an online career institute. CAA sold sponsorship rights for a baseball stadium in San Francisco.

While talent agencies can grow by making acquisitions, CAA has generally grown organically by bringing in new clients. The company divided its agents into two camps: traditional agents who manage the career tracks of 1,000 stars, and specialists in investment banking, consulting, advertising and digital media. The agency can use its more glamorous clients in film and TV to craft deals with steadier income streams; for example, using clients such as Julia Roberts, they can assemble marketing programs for less glamorous clients, such as Nationwide Insurance.

When Hollywood agents change firms, and take stars and talent with them, it can have major financial repercussions for the departing agency, and can lead to much confusion as lawyers pour over the fine print of numerous contracts.

To market themselves, talent agencies often cater exclusive parties following awards ceremonies such as the Golden Globes. In 2013, CAA threw a party at the Sundance Film Festival which caused embarrassment and a public relations backlash, where "guests mingled with lingerie-clad women pretending to snort prop cocaine, erotic dancers outfitted with sex toys and an Alice in Wonderland look-alike performing a simulated sex act on a man in a rabbit costume."

Buildings
In the late 1980s, CAA commissioned architect I. M. Pei to design a new headquarters building at the corner of Santa Monica and Wilshire Boulevards in Beverly Hills. The 75000 sqft building consists of two curved wings set around a central atrium with a skylight that rises into a conical glass tower. The 57 ft high atrium was designed as an art-filled formal reception hall with a 100-seat screening room and gourmet kitchen and displays a 27 ft by 18 ft mural by Roy Lichtenstein. The design used feng shui principles.

In 2007, CAA relocated to a new building in Century City, a district of Los Angeles. The new headquarters are sometimes referred to as "The Death Star" by entertainment professionals. CAA has offices in Los Angeles, New York, Nashville, London, Beijing, Atlanta, Miami, Chicago, Memphis, Stockholm, Munich and Switzerland.

In January 2022, CAA announced it would move its headquarters across the street from its existing office in 2026.

Competition
CAA was formed in 1975 from defections from the William Morris Agency, and there continue to be about four or five major talent agencies.

In 2009, William Morris Agency and Endeavor merged to form William Morris Endeavor (WME). As of 2015, CAA and WME are the largest agencies in the business. In 2014, WME bought IMG Worldwide, a fashion and sports agency, for $2.4 billion. In 2014, WME had 4500 employees while CAA had 1500 employees. WME had a larger share of sports-related clients. The rivalry can get cantankerous: in one instance, the William Morris Endeavor agency placed dozens of ads around the city using Creative Artists Agency's red-and-white color signature with the headline being CAAN'T, a "playful nod to the CAA acronym." The agencies compete by "regularly poaching agents and clients from one another."

In popular culture
In Jay McInerney's short story "The Business" from How It Ended, the main character is a screenwriter represented by CAA. CAA's building is featured in the video game Midnight Club: Los Angeles.

Controversies
In December 2017, there were reports that the agency was actively involved in coverups relating to abuse and harassment by disgraced Miramax executive Harvey Weinstein. Variety, citing a report in The New York Times, reported that at least eight agents knew about the ongoing harassment yet continued to do business with Weinstein, and even sent actresses to meet with him in situations where they might have been vulnerable to his predations. Actress Uma Thurman accused the agency of being connected to Weinstein's predatory behavior. In 2005, Courtney Love advised young actresses in an interview, "If Harvey Weinstein invites you to a private party in the Four Seasons, don't go." Love later said that she was "banned" by CAA for speaking out about Weinstein.

In October 2023, Maha Dakhil resigned from the agency’s internal board after making comments on social media critical of Israel during Israel-Hamas war. The post read, “You’re currently learning who supports genocide,” and she added her own caption: “That’s the line for me.”. .This was while CAA previously issued a statement in support of Israel in an Instagram post

title: Creative Artists Agency


text:
Antifa

Antifa may refer to:

Movements and ideology

 * Anti-fascism, history of fascism's opposition before and during WWII
 * Post–World War II anti-fascism, including antifa groups
 * Antifa (Germany), a far-left political movement in Germany
 * Antifa (United States), a movement of left-wing American activist groups

Organisations

 * Antifaschistische Aktion ('Anti-Fascist Action'), German group active in 1932–1933
 * Anti-Fascist Action, a British group active 1985–2001
 * Antifascistisk Aktion, a Swedish group active since 1993

Other uses

 * Antifa: The Anti-Fascist Handbook, a 2017 book by historian Mark Bray
 * Fake "Antifa" Twitter account, a false flag account during the George Floyd protests in 2020 by the American neo-Nazi and white supremacist group Identity Evropa

title: Antifa


text:
Video tape recorder

A video tape recorder (VTR) is a tape recorder designed to record and playback video and audio material from magnetic tape. The early VTRs were open-reel devices that record on individual reels of 2-inch-wide (5.08 cm) tape. They were used in television studios, serving as a replacement for motion picture film stock and making recording for television applications cheaper and quicker. Beginning in 1963, videotape machines made instant replay during televised sporting events possible. Improved formats, in which the tape was contained inside a videocassette, were introduced around 1969; the machines which play them are called videocassette recorders.

An agreement by Japanese manufacturers on a common standard recording format, which allowed cassettes recorded on one manufacturer's machine to play on another's, made a consumer market possible; and the first consumer videocassette recorder, which used the U-matic format, was introduced by Sony in 1971.

History
In early 1951, Bing Crosby asked his Chief Engineer John T. (Jack) Mullin if television could be recorded on tape as was the case for audio. Mullin said that he thought that it could be done. Bing asked Ampex to build one and also set up a laboratory for Mullin in Bing Crosby Enterprises (BCE) to build one. In 1951 it was believed that if the tape was run at a very high speed it could provide the necessary bandwidth to record the video signal. The problem was that a video signal has a much wider bandwidth than an audio signal does (6 MHz vs 20 kHz), requiring extremely high tape speeds to record it. However, there was another problem: the magnetic head design would not permit bandwidths over 1 megahertz to be recorded regardless of the tape speed.

The first efforts at video recording, using recorders similar to audio recorders with fixed heads, were unsuccessful. The first such demonstration of this technique was done by BCE on 11 November 1951. The result was a very poor picture. Another of the early efforts was the Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus, a high-speed multi-track machine developed by the BBC in 1952. This machine used a thin steel tape on a 21-inch (53.5 cm) reel traveling at over 200 inches (510 cm) per second. Despite 10 years of research and improvements, it was never widely used due to the immense length of tape required for each minute of recorded video.

By 1952 BCE also had moved on to multi-track machines, but found limitations in recording bandwidth even at the high speeds. In 1953 BCE discovered that the magnetic head design was the problem. This problem was corrected and bandwidths exceeding the 1 megahertz limit were able to be recorded. Since BCE and AMPEX were working together on the video recorder the new head design was shared with them, and AMPEX used it in their recorder. In 1955 BCE demonstrated a broadcast-quality color recorder that operated at 100 inches per second and CBS ordered three of them. Many other fixed-head recording systems were tried but all required an impractically high tape speed. It became clear that practical video recording technology depended on finding some way of recording the wide-bandwidth video signal without the high tape speed required by linear-scan machines.

In 1953 Eduard Schüller of Telefunken patented the helical scan technology. Another solution was transverse-scan technology, developed by Ampex around 1954, in which the recording heads are mounted on a spinning drum and record tracks in the transverse direction, across the tape. By recording on the full width of the tape rather than just a narrow track down the center, this technique achieved a much higher density of data per linear centimeter of tape, allowing a lower tape speed of 15 inches per second to be used. The Ampex VRX-1000 became the world's first commercially successful videotape recorder in 1956. It uses the 2″ quadruplex format, using two-inch (5.1 cm) tape. Because of its US$50,000 price, the Ampex VRX-1000 could be afforded only by the television networks and the largest individual stations.

By early 1957 the only successful manufacturer of videotape was 3M, the product being exceedingly difficult to manufacture to the necessary quality. The three U.S. networks officially inaugurated use of videotape on 28 April 1957, "with the changeover to daylight saving time," at which time there were "probably not more than 50 useable rolls of tape among them—it was that critical."

Ampex's quadruplex magnetic tape video recording system has certain limitations, such as the lack of clean pause, or still-frame, capability, because when tape motion is stopped, only a single segment of the picture recording is present at the playback heads (only 16 lines of the picture in each segment), so it can only reproduce recognizable pictures when the tape is playing at normal speed. ) But in spite of its drawbacks it remained the broadcasting studio standard until about 1980. The helical scan system overcame this limitation.

In 1959 JVC demonstrated its first helical scan VTR named KV-1. In 1963, Philips introduced its EL3400 1" helical scan recorder (aimed at the business and domestic user), and Sony marketed the 2" PV-100, its first open-reel VTR intended for business, medical, airline, and educational use.

The Telcan, produced by the Nottingham Electronic Valve Company and demonstrated on June 24, 1963, was the first home video recorder. It could be bought as a unit or in kit form for £60. However, there were several drawbacks: it was expensive, not easy to put together, and can record for only 20 minutes at a time in black-and-white.

The Sony model CV-2000, first marketed in 1965, is their first VTR intended for home use and is based on half-inch tape. Ampex and RCA followed in 1965 with their own open-reel monochrome VTRs priced under US $1,000 for the home consumer market. Prerecorded videos for home replay became available in 1967.

The EIAJ format is a standard half-inch format used by various manufacturers. EIAJ-1 is an open-reel format. EIAJ-2 uses a cartridge that contains a supply reel, but not the take-up reel. Since the take-up reel is part of the recorder, the tape has to be fully rewound before removing the cartridge, which is a relatively slow procedure.

The development of the videocassette followed other replacements of open-reel systems with a cassette or cartridge in consumer items: the Stereo-Pak 4-track audio cartridge in 1962, the compact audio cassette and Instamatic film cartridge in 1963, the 8-track cartridge in 1965, and the Super 8 home motion picture film cartridge in 1966. Before the invention of the video tape recorder, live video was recorded onto motion picture film stock in a process known as telerecording or kinescoping. Although the first quadruplex VTRs recorded with good quality, the recordings could not be slowed or freeze-framed, so kinescoping processes continued to be used for about a decade after the development of the first VTRs.

Technology

In the technique used in all transverse-scan video tape recorders, the recording heads are mounted in a rapidly spinning drum which is pressed against the moving tape, so the heads move across the tape in a transverse or nearly vertical path, recording the video signal in consecutive parallel tracks sideways across the tape. This allows use of the entire width of the tape, storing much more data per inch of tape, compared to the fixed head used in audio tape recording, which records a single track down the tape. The heads move across the tape at the high speed necessary to record the high-bandwidth video signal, but the tape moves at a slower speed through the machine. In addition, three ordinary tracks are recorded along the edge of the tape by stationary recording heads. For correct playback, the motion of the heads has to be precisely synchronized with the motion of the tape through the capstan, so a control track of synchronizing pulses is recorded. The other two tracks are for the audio channel and a cueing track.

The early machines use the Ampex 2-inch quadruplex system in which the drum has 4 heads and rotates at 14,400 RPM perpendicular to the tape, so the recorded tracks are transverse to the tape axis. With 2-inch tape this requires 16 tracks for a single analog NTSC video frame or 20 for a PAL frame.

The helical scan methods use a recording drum with a diagonal axis of rotation. The tape is wrapped longitudinally around the drum by idler wheels, so the tape heads, instead of moving across the tape at almost 90° to the direction of motion as in the quadruplex system, move across the tape at a shallow angle, recording a long diagonal track across the tape. This allows an entire frame to be recorded per track. This simplifies the electronics and timing systems. It also allows the recorder to be paused (freeze-framed) during playback to display a single still frame, by simply stopping the tape transport mechanism, allowing the tape heads to repeatedly pass over the same track.

This recording technique has many potential sources of timing errors. If the mechanism runs at an absolutely constant speed, and never varies from moment to moment, or from the time of recording to the time of playback, then the timing of the playback signal is exactly the same as the input. However, imperfection being inevitable, the timing of the playback always differs to some extent from the original signal. Longitudinal error (error arising from effects in the long direction of the tape) can be caused by variations in the rotational rate of the capstan drive, stretching of the tape medium, and jamming of tape in the machine. Transverse error (error arising from effects in the cross-tape direction) can be caused by variations in the rotational speed of the scanning drum and differences in the angle between the tape and the scanning heads (usually addressed by video tracking controls). Longitudinal errors are similar to the ones that cause wow and flutter in audio recordings. Since these errors are not so subtle and since it is standard video recording practice to record a parallel control track, these errors are detected and servos are adjusted accordingly to dramatically reduce this problem.

VCR
Many of the deficiencies of the open-reel systems were overcome with the invention of the videocassette recorder (VCR), where the videotape is enclosed in a user-friendly videocassette shell. This subsequently became the most familiar type of VTR known to consumers. In this system, the tape is preattached onto two reels enclosed within the cassette, and tape loading and unloading are automated. There is no need for the user to ever touch the tape, and the media can be protected from dust, dirt, and tape misalignments that can foul the recording mechanism. Typically, the only time the user ever touches the tape in a videocassette is when a failure results from a tape getting stuck in the mechanism.

Home VCRs first became available in the early 1970s, with Sony releasing its VO-1600 model in 1971 and with Philips releasing the Model 1500 in England a year later. The first system to be notably successful with consumers was Sony's Betamax (or Beta) in 1975. It was soon followed by the competing VHS (Video Home System) format from JVC in 1977 and later by other formats such as Video 2000 from Philips, V-Cord from Sanyo, and Great Time Machine from Quasar.

The Beta/VHS format war soon began, while the other competitors quickly disappeared. Betamax sales eventually began to dwindle, and after several years VHS emerged as the winner of the format war. In 1988, Sony began to market its own VHS machines, and despite claims that it was still backing Beta, it was clear that the format was no longer viable in most parts of the world. In parts of South America and in Japan, Betamax continued to be popular and was still in production up to the end of 2002.

Later developments saw analog magnetic tapes largely replaced by digital video tape formats. Following this, much of the VTR market, in particular videocassettes and VCRs popular at the consumer level, were also replaced by non-tape media, such as DVD and later Blu-ray optical discs.

Formats and products
Video tape recorder technologies include:

 * Analog open-reel
 * 1" Type A (Ampex)
 * 1" Type B (Bosch's Fernseh)
 * 1" Type C (Sony, Ampex, NEC and Hitachi)
 * 2" quadruplex (Ampex, RCA and Bosch's Fernseh)
 * Ampex 2 inch helical VTR
 * IVC 2 inch Helical scan (International Video Corporation's IVC 9000 Format)
 * VERA (BBC)

 * Professional cassette and cartridge based systems
 * Betacam (Sony)
 * Betacam SP (Sony)
 * MII (Panasonic)
 * U-matic (3/4")

 * Standard definition digital videotape formats
 * D1 (Sony and Broadcast Television Systems Inc.)
 * D2 (Sony and Ampex)
 * D3 (Panasonic)
 * D5 (Panasonic)
 * D9 (Digital-S) (JVC)
 * Betacam SX (Sony)
 * MPEG IMX (Sony)
 * DCT (Ampex)
 * Digital Betacam (Sony)
 * DVCAM (Sony)
 * DVCPRO (Panasonic)

 * High definition digital video tape formats
 * D5 HD (Panasonic)
 * D6 HDTV VTR (Broadcast Television Systems Inc.)
 * DVCPRO HD (Panasonic)
 * D-VHS (JVC and Panasonic)
 * HDCAM (Sony)
 * HDCAM-SR (Sony)

 * Consumer format
 * Betamax
 * Cartrivision
 * Digital8 (Sony)
 * DV (miniDV is the cassette size)
 * EIAJ Half inch open reel and cassette
 * Hi8
 * MicroMV
 * S-VHS (JVC)
 * Video8
 * Video 2000 (Philips)
 * VHS
 * VHS-C (JVC)
 * VX (videocassette format)
 * Video Cassette Recording (VCR) (Phillips)

Cultural impact
The Buggles' hit song "Video Killed the Radio Star", the first video ever to air on MTV, contains the lyric "Put the blame on VTR".

title: Video tape recorder


text:
Abet

Abet may refer to:

 * Aiding and abetting, a legal doctrine
 * Abet Guidaben (born 1952), Filipino basketball player

title: Abet


text:
Talk:Henry VI of England

Henry VI of England
The portrait in this article is NOT that of Henry VI, but rather Edward VI, who displaced Henry VI as monarch. Buzzhaughton (talk) 00:38, 20 December 2018 (UTC)
 * I am inclined to trust the National Portrait Gallery on this. Surtsicna (talk) 01:31, 20 December 2018 (UTC)

 * Edward VI did not replace Henry VI. It was Edward IV. GoodDay (talk) 04:50, 20 December 2018 (UTC)

 * I believe the portraits of Henry VI and Edward IV look similar to each other and to Henry VIII as they were probably painted as a pair for the eighth Henry, and so the artist (who had of course never seen either Henry VI or Edward IV, who were both long dead) painted both kings to look slightly like but not quite the same as his patron. Jacob de Wet II did something very similar for Charles II when he painted all the kings of Scotland. Obviously, he had very little to go on as to how they all really looked, so he just made them all look slightly like, but not quite the same as, Charles II by painting the same nose and eyes and then filling in different facial hair and so on. Celia Homeford (talk) 09:11, 20 December 2018 (UTC)

Henry VI's Tutor
Hello!

I have recently made a Wikipedia page for the medieval surgeon Thomas Morstede. This has led me to look at the other medieval surgeons and physicians in proximity to the kings who reigned during the period of the Wars of the Roses. I have a slight problem with something which is mentioned in this Wikipedia page for Henry VI. It states in the third paragraph of the 'Child King' section that- 'From 1428, Henry's tutor was Richard de Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, whose father had been instrumental in the opposition to Richard II's reign.' This may be true, however Richard de Beauchamp was not the only tutor to the young Henry VI. In fact- John Somerset was also tutor to Henry VI for at least the period 1430-1432. It states in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography that John Somerset by then was 'a doctor of medicine, whose duties included tutoring the young king as well as preserving his health'. John Somerset is an important figure in Henry VI's life- From tutoring Henry as a child, Somerset was able to socially advance and gain many concessions from the king including fur trimmed robes and gifts of cash and goods (also mentioned in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography). In fact- Somersets influence was so great that the commons in 1450 petitioned for his removal because of his 'subversive influence over Henry VI' (written by Carole Rawcliffe in 'The Profits of Practice). For this reason- I propose to alter the sentence which claims Richard de Beauchamp was Henrys tutor from 1428 onwards- as John Somerset also tutored the king and held influence over him from a young age. Please let me know what you think to this and have a look at my page for Thomas Morstede also. Thanks!

ChocolateOrange1 (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 13:01, 28 October 2019 (UTC)

Expand on the section "Posthumous cult"
This section of the article mentions only one element of the surviving cultural influence of the cult of Henry VI in England, regarding hymns about him that are still sung. I believe this section could be expanded to include more information on more specific reasons for the nature of the decline of the cult and when it's last remaining devoted members lived. I believe there could also be an expansion on how he is currently viewed by clergy of the Catholic Church and members of the English public. LeFeelInternacionale (talk) 23:42, 26 January 2022 (UTC) Nicholas Mastro

Peak of English power in France
Wouldn't that have actually been under Henry II? 67.79.158.83 (talk) 15:06, 30 May 2023 (UTC)
 * How so? Say more, make some arguments for it and maybe put it in the article… WP:Be bold! —GoldRingChip 17:15, 30 May 2023 (UTC)

Age at time of accession?
This article (and Commons image) states that Henry was 9 months old when he ascended to the throne, but as per the dates in this article and sources, I make Henry to be 8 months and a few weeks old at the time of his accession. Griffiths in The Reign of King Henry VI (p.1) agrees: "Henry was less than nine months old when his father, Henry V, died in France on 31 August 1422". The Allmand source also seems to agree with my maths (10 months old when he became King of France as well). However, the DNB states "His father's death on 31 Aug. 1422 made him king of England when only nine months old."

Is this just a case of people seeing the months and making it 9 even though he hadn't reached his 9th mensiversary by 1 September? I didn't want to change it myself as the sources conflict and it's possible I'm being thick. Incidentally this was changed in 2008 after a talk page comment but was changed back without a reason given in 2009. Ligaturama (talk) 17:21, 3 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Henry VI of England


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Language policy

Language policy is both an interdisciplinary academic field and implementation of ideas about language use. Some scholars such as Joshua Fishman and Ofelia García consider it as part of sociolinguistics. On the other hand, other scholars such as Bernard Spolsky, Robert B. Kaplan and Joseph Lo Bianco argue that language policy is a branch of applied linguistics.

As a field, language policy is also known as language planning or language policy and planning, and is related to other fields such as language ideology, language revitalization, and language education, among others.

Definitions
Language policy has been defined in a number of ways. According to Kaplan and Baldauf (1997), "A language policy is a body of ideas, laws, regulations, rules and practices intended to achieve the planned language change in the societies, group or system" (p. xi ). Lo Bianco defines the field as "a situated activity, whose specific history and local circumstances influence what is regarded as a language problem, and whose political dynamics determine which language problems are given policy treatment” (p. 152). McCarty (2011) defines language policy as "a complex sociocultural process [and as] modes of human interaction, negotiation, and production mediated by relations of power. The 'policy' in these processes resides in their language-regulating power; that is, the ways in which they express normative claims about legitimate and illegitimate language forms and uses, thereby governing language statuses and uses" (p. 8).

Overview
Language policy is broad, but it can be categorized into three components. Spolsky (2004) argues, "A useful first step is to distinguish between the three components of the language policy of a speech community: (1) its language practices – the habitual pattern of selecting among the varieties that make up its linguistic repertoire; (2) its language beliefs or ideology – the beliefs about language and language use; and (3) any specific efforts to modify or influence that practice by any kind of language intervention, planning, or management" (p. 5).

The traditional scope of language policy concerns language regulation. This refers to what a government does either officially through legislation, court decisions or policy to determine how languages are used, cultivate language skills needed to meet national priorities or to establish the rights of individuals or groups to use and maintain languages.

Implementation
The implementation of language policy varies from one state to another. This may be explained by the fact that language policy is often based on contingent historical reasons. Likewise, states also differ as to the degree of explicitness with which they implement a given language policy. The French Toubon law provides a good example of explicit language policy. The same may be said for the Charter of the French Language in Quebec.

Scholars such as Tollefson argue that language policy can create inequality: "'language planning-policy means the institutionalization of language as a basis for distinctions among social groups (classes). That is, language policy is one mechanism for locating language within social structure so that language determines who has access to political power and economic resources. Language policy is one mechanism by which dominant groups establish hegemony in language use' (p. 16)."

Many countries have a language policy designed to favor or discourage the use of a particular language or set of languages. States, local authorities or pressure-groups can promote bilingual signage or can agitate for translations of newspaper articles. Although nations historically have used language policies most often to promote one official language at the expense of others, many countries now have policies designed to protect and promote regional and ethnic languages whose viability is threatened. Indeed, whilst the existence of linguistic minorities within a jurisdiction has often been considered to be a potential threat to internal cohesion, states also understand that providing language rights to minorities may be more in their long-term interest, as a means of gaining citizens' trust in the central government.

The preservation of cultural and linguistic diversity in today's world is a major concern to many scientists, artists, writers, politicians, leaders of linguistic communities, and defenders of linguistic human rights. More than half of the 6000 languages currently spoken in the world are estimated to be in danger of disappearing during the 21st century. Many factors affect the existence and usage of any given human language, including the size of the population of native speakers, its use in formal communication, and the geographical dispersion and the socio-economic weight of its speakers. National language policies can either mitigate or exacerbate the effects of some of these factors.

For example, according to Ghil'ad Zuckermann: "'Native tongue title and language rights should be promoted. The government ought to define Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander vernaculars as official languages of Australia. We must change the linguistic landscape of Whyalla and elsewhere. Signs should be in both English and the local indigenous language. We ought to acknowledge intellectual property of indigenous knowledge including language, music and dance.'"

There are many ways in which language policies can be categorized. Université Laval sociolinguist Jacques Leclerc elaborated the field for the French-language web site L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde (put on line by the CIRAL in 1999). The collecting, translating and classifying of language policies started in 1988 and culminated in the publishing of Recueil des législations linguistiques dans le monde (vol. I to VI) at Presses de l'Université Laval in 1994. The work, containing some 470 language-laws, and the research leading to publication, were subsidised by the Office québécois de la langue française. In April 2008, the web site presented the linguistic portrait and language policies in 354 States or autonomous territories in 194 recognised countries.

Language regulators

 * List of language regulators
 * Académie française
 * The Academy of the Hebrew Language
 * Akademio de Esperanto
 * Association of Spanish Language Academies
 * Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies
 * Board for Standardization of the Serbian Language (Serbia, Montenegro, Republika Srpska)
 * Bòrd na Gàidhlig (Gaelic in Scotland)
 * Commission on the Filipino Language (Philippines)
 * Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (Malaysia)
 * Dutch Language Union
 * Foras na Gaeilge (Irish)
 * Institut d'Estudis Catalans
 * Badan Pengembangan Bahasa dan Perbukuan (Indonesia)
 * Norwegian Language Council
 * Office québécois de la langue française
 * Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg (Breton in Brittany)
 * Pan South African Language Board
 * Real Academia Española
 * Swedish Language Council
 * Welsh Language Commissioner

title: Language policy


text:
Conditional baptism

Mainline Christian theology (including Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Church of the East, Anglican, Lutheran and most other Protestants) has traditionally held that only one baptism is valid to confer the benefits of this sacrament. Therefore, in cases where the validity of a baptism is in doubt, a conditional baptism may be performed. There exist other conditional sacraments.

The Council of Trent defined a dogma that it is forbidden to baptize a person who is already baptized, because the first baptism would make an indelible mark on the soul. Likewise, "Methodist theologians argued that since God never abrogated a covenant made and sealed with proper intentionality, rebaptism was never an option, unless the original baptism had been defective by not having been made in the name of the Trinity."

Description
Such uncertainty may result from questions about whether the Triune name of God was used by the person administering the baptism. In some cases, there are doubts about whether a church from which someone is converting baptizes in a valid manner. It is an issue where an infant is a foundling, and it is not known whether the child had been baptized before abandonment. Another example of a case requiring conditional baptism is when an emergency baptism has been performed using impure water. Then, the validity of the baptism is in question. In that case, a conditional baptism is later performed by an ordinary minister of the sacrament with certainly valid matter.

In a typical baptism, the minister of the sacrament (in the Catholic Church usually a deacon or a priest, but sometimes, especially when the baptized is in imminent danger of death, a lay person) says "I baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" while pouring water upon the head of the one being baptized, or immersing him or her in water. In a conditional baptism, the minister of the sacrament says "If you are not yet baptized, I baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit."

Other cases
Only the living can be recipients of Sacraments. Thus, if it is uncertain whether the baptizand is dead (i.e., their soul has parted from the body; this is the case for the first few hours or so after death in the modern sense), the formula is "If you are alive, I baptize [...]". In severe cases of birth anomaly, the (practically, always emergency) baptism formula is "If you are a human being, I baptize [...]".

Likewise, if an emergency baptism has been performed over a part of the body other than the head (practically: during birth), or on a pregnant woman's womb (for the unborn child), the child is to be conditionally rebaptized (with the usual "if you are not baptized") even though the emergency baptisms be performed in this way if necessary.

title: Conditional baptism