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Changeling

A changeling, also historically referred to as an auf or oaf, is a human-like creature found throughout much of European folklore. A changeling was a substitute left by a supernatural being when kidnapping a human being. Sometimes the changeling was a 'stock' (a piece of wood made magically to resemble the kidnapped human), more often the changeling was a supernatural being made magically to look like the kidnapped human. Supernatural beings blamed for stealing children included fairies, demons, trolls, nereids and many others. Usually, the kidnapped human was a child; but there were cases, particularly in Scandinavia and Ireland, where adults were taken.

Description
A changeling is typically identifiable via several traits, which vary from culture to culture.

In Irish legend, a fairy child may appear sickly and will not grow in size like a normal child, and may have notable physical characteristics such as a beard or long teeth. They may also display intelligence far beyond their apparent years and possess uncanny insight. A common way that a changeling could identify itself is through displaying unusual behaviour when it thinks it is alone, such as jumping about, dancing or playing an instrument – though this last example is found only within Irish and Scottish legend.

"A human child might be taken due to many factors: to act as a servant, the love of a human child, or malice. Most often, it was thought that fairies exchanged the children. In rare cases, the very elderly of the fairy people would be exchanged in the place of a human baby so that the old fairy could live in comfort, coddled by its human parents. Simple charms such as an inverted coat or open iron scissors left where the child sleeps were thought to ward them off; other measures included a constant watch over the child."

Folklorist D. L. Ashliman proposes in his essay 'Changelings' that changeling tales illustrate an aspect of family survival in pre-industrial Europe. A peasant family's subsistence frequently depended upon the productive labour of each member, and it was difficult to provide for a person who was a permanent drain on the family's scarce resources. "The fact that the changelings' ravenous appetite is so frequently mentioned indicates that the parents of these unfortunate children saw in their continuing existence a threat to the sustenance of the entire family. Changeling tales support other historical evidence in suggesting that infanticide was frequently the solution selected."

Fairies would also take adult humans, especially the newly married and new mothers; young adults were taken to marry fairies instead, while new mothers were often taken to nurse fairy babies. Often when an adult was taken instead of a child, an object such as a log was left in place of the stolen human, enchanted to look like the person. This object in place of the human would seem to sicken and die, to be buried by the human family, while the living human was among the fairies. Bridget Cleary is one of the most well-known cases of an adult thought to be a changeling by her family; her husband killed her, attempting to force the fairies to return his 'real' wife.

Function

In medieval Scandinavia, it was believed that trolls considered it more respectable to be raised by humans than by their kind and would consequently seize the opportunity to give their children a human upbringing. Some believed that trolls would only take unbaptised children, since once a child had been baptized – and therefore received into the Catholic faith – the trolls were powerless to abduct it.

Beauty in human children and young women, particularly traits that evoke brightness or reflectivity, such as blonde hair and blue or silver eyes, are said to attract fairies, as they perhaps find preciousness in these traits.

In Scottish folklore, the children might be replacements for fairy children in the tithe to Hell; this is best known from the ballad of Tam Lin. According to common Scottish myths, a child born with a caul (part of the amniotic membrane) across their face is a changeling and will soon die (is "of fey birth").

Other folklore says that human milk is necessary for fairy children to survive. In these cases, either the newborn human child would be switched with a fairy baby to be suckled by the human mother, or the human mother would be taken back to the fairy world to breastfeed the fairy babies. Human midwives were also thought to be necessary to bring fairy babies into the world.

Some stories tell of changelings who forget they are not human and proceed to live a human life. However, in some stories, changelings who do not forget return to their fairy family, possibly leaving the human family without warning. The human child that was taken may often stay with the fairy family forever. Feeling connected to a changeling's fate, some families merely turn their changeling loose to the wilderness.

Some folklorists believe that fairies were memories of inhabitants of various European regions who had been driven into hiding by invaders. They held that changelings had occurred; the hiding people would exchange their sickly children for the healthy children of the occupying invader.

Cornwall
The Mên-an-Tol stones in Cornwall are said to have a fairy or pixie guardian who can make miraculous cures. In one case, a changeling baby was passed through the stone for the mother to have her real child returned to her. Evil pixies had changed her child, and the stones could reverse their spell.

Germany
In Germany, the changeling is known as Wechselbalg, Wechselkind, Kielkopf or Dickkopf (the last hinting at the huge necks and heads of changelings).

Several methods are known in Germany to identify a changeling and to return the replaced real child:
 * confusing the changeling by cooking or brewing in eggshells. This will force the changeling to speak, claiming its age and revealing its position beyond synchronicity.
 * attempting to heat the changeling in the oven – perhaps a lie by capacity to endure present.
 * hitting or whipping the changeling
 * The changeling must sometimes be fed with a woman's milk before replacing the children.

In German folklore, several possible parents are known for changelings. Those are:
 * the devil, a belief shared by Martin Luther who advocated for baptism of changelings.
 * a female dwarf
 * a water spirit
 * a Roggenmuhme/Roggenmutter ("Rye Aunt"/"Rye Mother", a demonic woman living in cornfields and stealing human children)

Ireland
In Ireland, looking at a baby with envy – "over looking the baby" – was dangerous, as it endangered the baby, who was then in the fairies' power. So too was admiring or envying a woman or man dangerous, unless the person added a blessing; the non-disabled and beautiful were in particular danger. Women were especially in danger in liminal states: being a new bride or mother.

Putting a changeling in a fire would cause it to jump up the chimney and return the human child. Still, at least one tale recounts a mother with a changeling finding that a fairy woman came to her home with the human child, saying the other fairies had done the exchange, and she wanted her own baby. The tale of surprising a changeling into speech – by brewing eggshells – is also told in Ireland, as in Wales. Various legends describe other ways to foil a would-be fairy kidnapper. One was to shout "Gairim agus coisricim thú " (I bless you) or "God bless you," which would cause the fairy to abandon the child it was trying to steal. Another possible tactic was to insert oneself into an argument over who would keep the child; shouting "Give it to me" would trick the fairy into releasing the child back to a human.

In some instances, changelings were regarded not as substituted fairy children but as old fairies brought to the human world to die.

Irish legends regarding changelings typically follow the same formula: a tailor is the one who first notices a changeling, the inclusion of a fairy playing bagpipes or some other instrument, and the kidnapping of a human child through a window.

The modern Irish girl's name, Síofra, means an elvish or changeling child, deriving from Síobhra(í), meaning fairy(/fairies). The Aos sí, siabhra (commonly anglicised as "sheevra"), may be prone to evil and mischief. However, the Ulster folk song 'The Gartan Mother's Lullaby' also uses "sheevra" simply to mean "spirit" or "fairy".

The Isle of Man
The Isle of Man had a wide collection of myths and superstitions concerning fairies, and numerous folk tales have been collected concerning supposed changelings. Sophia Morrison, in her "Manx Fairy Tales" (David Nutt, London, 1911), includes the tale of "The Fairy Child of Close ny Lheiy", a story of a child supposedly swapped by the fairies for a loud and unruly fairy child. The English poet and topographer George Waldron, who lived in the Isle of Man during the early 18th century, cites a tale of a reputed changeling that was shown to him, possibly a child with an inherited genetic disorder:

"Nothing under heaven could have a more beautiful face; but though between five and six years old, and seemingly healthy, he was so far from being able to walk, or stand, that he could not so much as move any one joint; his limbs were vastly long for his age, but smaller than an infant's of six months; his complexion was perfectly delicate, and he had the finest hair in the world; he never spoke, nor cried, ate scarcely anything, and was very seldom seen to smile, but if any one called him a fairy-elf, he would frown and fix his eyes so earnestly on those who said it, as if he would look them through. His mother, or at least his supposed mother, being very poor, frequently went out a-charing, and left him a whole day together. The neighbours, out of curiosity, have often looked in at the window to see how he behaved when alone, which, whenever they did, they were sure to find him laughing and in the utmost delight. This made them judge that he was not without company more pleasing to him than any mortal's could be; and what made this conjecture seem the more reasonable was, that if he were left ever so dirty, the woman at her return saw him with a clean face, and his hair combed with the utmost exactness and nicety."

Lowland Scotland and Northern England
In the Anglo-Scottish border region it was believed that elves (or fairies) lived in "elf hills" (or "fairy hills"). Along with this belief in supernatural beings was the view that they could spirit away children, and even adults, and take them back to their world (see Elfhame). Often, it was thought a baby would be snatched and replaced with a simulation of the baby, usually a male adult elf, to be suckled by the mother. The real baby would be treated well by the elves and would grow up to be one of them, whereas the changeling baby would be discontented and wearisome. Many herbs, salves, and seeds could be used for discovering the fairy-folk and ward off their designs. It was also believed that to force a changeling to reveal itself, it must either be surprised into speech or made to laugh.

In one tale, a mother suspected her baby had been taken and replaced with a changeling. This view was proven to be correct one day when a neighbour ran into the house shouting, "Come here and ye'll se a sight! Yonder's the Fairy Hill a' alowe" (i.e., "the Fairy Hill is on fire"). To this, the elf got up, saying "Waes me! What'll come o' me wife and bairns?" and made his way out of the chimney.

At Byerholm near Newcastleton in Liddesdale sometime during the early 19th century, a dwarf called Robert Elliot or Little Hobbie o' The Castleton as he was known, was reputed to be a changeling. When taunted by other boys, he would not hesitate to draw his gully (a large knife) and dispatch them; however, being woefully short in the legs, they usually out-ran him and escaped. However, he was courageous, and when he heard that his neighbour, the six-foot three-inch (6 ft) William Scott of Kirndean, a sturdy and strong borderer, had slandered his name, he invited the man to his house, took him up the stairs and challenged him to a duel. Scott beat a hasty retreat.

Child ballad 40, The Queen of Elfland's Nourice, depicts the abduction of a new mother, drawing on the folklore of the changelings. Although incomplete, it contains the mother's grief and the Queen of Elfland's promise to return her to her child if she would nurse the queen's child until it can walk.

Poland
The Mamuna or Boginka is a Slavic spirit that exchanges babies (making them into odmieńce) in the cradle. The changelings left by the Mamuna were said to have a noticeably different appearance; an abnormally large abdomen, unusually small or large head, a hump, thin arms and legs, a hairy body, and long claws. Mamuna changelings would also get their first set of teeth prematurely compared to a human baby.

To protect a child from being kidnapped by the Mamuna, the mother would tie a red ribbon around the baby's wrist, put a red hat on its head, and keep it out of the moonlight. Other preventative methods included not washing diapers after sunset and never turning their head away from the baby as it slept. Still, even if the Mamuna took a child, there was a way to force her to return it. The mother would take the changeling child to a midden, whip it with a birch stick, and pour water from an eggshell over it, all while shouting, "Take yours; give mine back." Typically, the Mamuna would feel sorry for their child and return the human baby to its mother.

Scandinavia
In Nordic traditional belief, it was generally believed that trolls or beings from the subterranean realms exchanged children. Since most of the supernatural beings of Scandinavian folklore are said to be afraid of iron, Scandinavian parents would often place an iron tool such as a pair of scissors or a knife on top of the cradle of an un-baptised infant to prevent its abduction by the trolls. It was believed that if a human child were still taken, despite such measures, the parents could force the child's return by treating the changeling cruelly, using methods such as whipping or even inserting it in a heated oven. In at least one case, a woman was taken to court for killing her child in an oven. In Sweden, it was believed that a fire must be kept lit in the room housing a child before it is christened and that the water used to bathe the child should not be thrown out, since both of these precautions will prevent the child from being taken by trolls.

In one Swedish tale, the human mother is advised to brutalize the changeling (bortbyting) so the trolls will return her son. Still, she refuses, unable to mistreat an innocent child despite knowing its nature. When her husband demands she abandon the changeling, she refuses, and he leaves her – whereupon he meets their son in the forest, wandering free. The son explains that since his mother had never been cruel to the changeling, so the troll mother had never been cruel to him, and when she sacrificed what was dearest to her, her husband, they had realized they had no power over her and released him.

The tale is notably retold by Swedish children's story author Helena Nyblom as Bortbytingarna in the 1913 book Bland tomtar och troll. (which is depicted by the image), a princess is kidnapped by trolls and replaced with their offspring against the wishes of the troll mother. The changelings grow up with their new parents, but both find it hard to adapt: the human girl is disgusted by her future bridegroom, a troll prince, whereas the troll girl is bored by her life and her dull human prospective groom. Upset with the conditions of their lives, they both go astray in the forest, passing each other without noticing it. The princess comes to the castle, whereupon the queen immediately recognizes her, and the troll girl finds a troll woman cursing loudly as she works. The troll girl bursts out that the troll woman is much more fun than any other person she has ever seen, and her mother happily sees that her true daughter has returned. The human girl and the troll girl marry happily on the same day.

Spain
In Asturias (Northern Spain), there is a legend about the Xana, a sort of nymph who used to live near rivers, fountains, and lakes, sometimes helping travellers on their journeys. The Xanas were conceived as little female fairies with supernatural beauty. They could deliver "xaninos" babies that were sometimes swapped with human babies – some legends claim this was for them to be baptized, while others claim that it is because the Xana cannot produce milk. The legend says that to distinguish a "xanino" from a human baby, some pots and egg shells should be put close to the fireplace; a xanino would say: "I was born one hundred years ago, and since then I have not seen so many egg shells near the fire!".

Wales
In Wales, the changeling child (plentyn cael (sing.), plant cael (pl.)) initially resembles the human child for which it has been substituted, but gradually grows uglier in appearance and behaviour: ill-featured, malformed, ill-tempered, given to screaming and biting. It may be of less than usual intelligence but may equally well be identifiable because of its more-than-childlike wisdom and cunning.

The common means employed to identify a changeling is to cook a family meal in an eggshell. The child will exclaim, "I have seen the acorn before the oak, but I never saw the likes of this," and vanish, only to be replaced by the original human child. Alternatively, or following this identification, it is supposedly necessary to mistreat the child by placing it in a hot oven, holding it in a shovel over a hot fire, or bathing it in a solution of foxglove.

The United States
There are some rare instances of changeling beliefs being brought across the Atlantic by European settlers. The best attested case is from Iowa, 1876, where a Miss Kittie Crowe was taken by the fairies.

In the historical record
King Charles I of England (1600–1649) was reportedly rumored to have been a changeling due to his "peevish nature" as a child and a nursemaid's claim that a figure appeared mysteriously at his bedside and cast a cloak over the sleeping baby's cradle.

Children identified as changelings by the superstitious were often abused or murdered, sometimes in the belief that changelings could be forced to admit their true nature by beatings, exposure to fire or water, or other trials.

Two 19th-century cases reflect the belief in changelings. In 1826, Anne Roche bathed Michael Leahy, a four-year-old boy unable to speak or stand, three times in the Flesk; he drowned the third time. She swore she was merely attempting to drive the fairy out of him. The jury acquitted her of murder. In 1895, Bridget Cleary was killed by several people, including her husband and cousins, after a short bout of illness (probably pneumonia). Local storyteller, Jack Dunne accused Bridget of being a fairy changeling. It is debatable whether her husband, Michael, actually believed her to be a fairy; many believe that he concocted a "fairy defense" after murdering his wife in a fit of rage. The killers were convicted of manslaughter rather than murder, as even after the death, they claimed to be convinced they had killed a changeling, not Bridget Cleary herself.

Africa
The Igbo people of eastern Nigeria traditionally believed that a woman who lost numerous children, whether stillborn or early in infancy, was being tormented by an ogbanje, a malicious spirit that reincarnated itself over and over again. One of the most commonly prescribed methods for ridding oneself of an ogbanje was to find and destroy its iyi-uwa, a buried object tying it to the mortal world.

Many scholars now believe that ogbanje stories arose as an attempt to explain the loss of children with sickle-cell anemia. Even today, infant death is common among children born with severe sickle-cell anemia, especially in areas of Africa lacking adequate medical resources.

The similarity between the European changeling and the Igbo ogbanje is so marked that Igbos themselves often translate the word into English as "changeling". The abiku was a rough analogue of the ogbanje among the related Yoruba peoples to the west of Igboland.

In the modern world
The word oaf, a clumsy or stupid person, is derived from the historic English word for a changeling, auf. This, in turn, is believed to have originated from the Middle English alven and elven, and ultimately from the Old Norse word for an elf, alfr.

Medical explanations
Modern scholars hypothesize some changeling tales developed in an attempt to explain deformed, developmentally disabled, or neurodivergent children.

Among the diseases or disabilities with symptoms that match the description of changelings in various legends are spina bifida, cystic fibrosis, PKU, progeria, Down syndrome, homocystinuria, Williams syndrome, Hurler syndrome, Hunter syndrome, autism spectrum disorder, Prader-Willi Syndrome, and cerebral palsy. The greater incidence of congenital disabilities in boys correlates to the belief that male infants were more likely to be taken by fairies. Psychologist Stuart Vyse writes that modern parents have higher expectations of childbirth, and when "children don't meet these expectations, parents sometimes find a different demon to blame." A condition known as regressive autism, where children appear to follow neurotypical development in their early years and then start to show symptoms of autism, can also be compared to marks of a changeling child.

In particular, it has been suggested that autistic children would likely be labeled as changelings or elf-children due to their strange, sometimes inexplicable behavior. For example, this association might explain why fairies are often described as having an obsessive impulse to count things like handfuls of spilled seeds. This counting preoccupation has found a place in autistic culture.

Some autistic adults have come to identify with changelings (or other replacements, such as aliens) due to their experiences of feeling out of place in the world.

In nature
Several species of birds, fish, and arthropods regularly practice brood parasitism, or non-reciprocal offspring-swapping. Rather than raising their young alone, they will lay their egg in another's nest, leaving the burden of raising their young on the unsuspecting parents of another species altogether. More often than not, the invading species hatches sooner than its "step-siblings" and grows faster, eventually hogging most nourishment brought in, and may actually "evict" the young of the host species by pushing them out of their own nest.

In popular culture

 * The television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine features a race of shape-shifting aliens called changelings.
 * The 1997 Newbery Honor Book The Moorchild by Eloise McGraw about a half human-half folk child exchanged for a human child.
 * In the Disney Channel series So Weird episode "Changeling", the characters babysit a child who has been swapped with a changeling.
 * Changelings feature in the Supernatural season 3 episode "The Kids Are Alright".
 * The 2008 film Changeling derives its names from this folklore.
 * The 2008 film The Daisy Chain is about a little girl believed to be a changeling.
 * The children's series My Little Pony Friendship is Magic features shape-shifting pony-like creatures called changelings.
 * The 2019 horror film The Hole in the Ground is based on changeling folklore.
 * The 2023 American horror fantasy television series The Changeling, created by Kelly Marcel and directed by Melina Matsoukas, is based on the novel of the same name by Victor LaValle.
 * The 2024 American supernatural horror film The Watchers is set in Ireland, featuring shape-shifting creature of Celtic folklore.

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Communist Party of Russia

Communist Party of Russia might refer to:

 * Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, founded in 1898 – the forerunner of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)
 * Communist Party of the Soviet Union, formally established in 1912 and known originally as the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and then All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)
 * Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, a short-lived (1990–1991) branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
 * Communist Party of the Russian Federation, formed in 1993 after the breakup of the Soviet Union
 * Party of Narodnik Communists (September to November 1918), formed by a section of Left Socialist-Revolutionaries who wished to cooperate with the Bolsheviks
 * Party of Revolutionary Communism (1918 to 1920), a party of Left Socialist-Revolutionaries anti-Bolshevik dissidents
 * Russian Communist Workers Party, established in 1991
 * Communist Party of the Soviet Union (2001)
 * Russian Communist Workers' Party of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, established in 2001
 * Communist Party "Communists of Russia", founded in 2009, registered in 2012

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Above-the-line (filmmaking)

"Above-the-line" refers to the list of individuals who guide and influence the creative direction, process, and voice of a given narrative in a film and related expenditures. These roles include but are not limited to the screenwriter, producer, director, and principal cast.

Often, the term is used for matters related to the film's production budget. Above-the-line expenditures reflect the expected line item compensation for an official above-the-line member's role in a given film project. These expenditures are usually set, negotiated, spent and/or promised before principal photography begins. They include rights to secure the material on which the screenplay is based, production rights to the screenplay, compensation for the screenwriter, producer, director, principal actors and other cost-related line items such as assistants for the producers, director or actors.

The distinction originates from the early studio days when the budget top-sheet would literally have a line separating the above-the-line and below-the-line costs.

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Quaternary geology

Quaternary geology is the branch of geology that study developments from 2.58 million years ago to the present. In particular, Quaternary geology study the process and deposits that developed during the Quaternary, a period characterized by glacial-interglacial cycles. Quaternary geology has developed over time from being originally a branch of historical geology to becoming a science on its own.

Quaternary geochronology
Quaternary geological investigations that require the dating of rocks or sediments require a complementary array of methods to determine that age. Although radiometric dating has rapidly gained importance for Quaternary dating, there has historically been a reliance on chemical and biological traces, geomorphic, and relative dating (also known as correlative dating). Since Quaternary geology involves studying changes on the Earth's surface up to the present, Quaternary geologists benefit from the preservation of time-dependent chemical or biological processes. These methods include lichenometry, dendrochronology, and amino-acid racemization.

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Social order

The term social order can be used in two senses: In the first sense, it refers to a particular system of social structures and institutions. Examples are the ancient, the feudal, and the capitalist social order. In the second sense, social order is contrasted to social chaos or disorder and refers to a stable state of society in which the existing social structure is accepted and maintained by its members. The problem of order or Hobbesian problem, which is central to much of sociology, political science and political philosophy, is the question of how and why it is that social orders exist at all.

Sociology
Thomas Hobbes is recognized as the first to clearly formulate the problem, to answer which he conceived the notion of a social contract. Social theorists (such as Karl Marx, Émile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Jürgen Habermas) have proposed different explanations for what a social order consists of, and what its real basis is. For Marx, it is the relations of production or economic structure which is the basis of social order. For Durkheim, it is a set of shared social norms. For Parsons, it is a set of social institutions regulating the pattern of action-orientation, which again are based on a frame of cultural values. For Habermas, it is all of these, as well as communicative action.

Principle of extensiveness
Another key factor concerning social order is the principle of extensiveness. This states the more norms and the more important the norms are to a society, the better these norms tie and hold together the group as a whole.

A good example of this is smaller religions based in the U.S., such as the Amish. Many Amish live together in communities and because they share the same religion and values, it is easier for them to succeed in upholding their religion and views because their way of life is the norm for their community.

Groups and networks
In every society, people belong to groups, such as businesses, families, churches, athletic groups, or neighborhoods. The structure inside of these groups mirrors that of the whole society. There are networks and ties between groups, as well as inside of each of the groups, which create social order.

Status groups
"Status groups" can be based on a person's characteristics such as race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, caste, region, occupation, physical attractiveness, gender, education, age, etc. They are defined as "a subculture having a rather specific rank (or status) within the stratification system. That is, societies tend to include a hierarchy of status groups, some enjoying high ranking and some low." One example of this hierarchy is the prestige of a university professor compared to that of a garbage man.

A certain lifestyle usually distinguishes the members of different status groups. For example, around the holidays a Jewish family may celebrate Hanukkah while a Christian family may celebrate Christmas. Other cultural differences such as language and cultural rituals identify members of different status groups.

Smaller groups exist inside of one status group. For instance, one can belong to a status group based on one's race and a social class based on financial ranking. This may cause strife for the individual in this situation when they feel they must choose to side with either their status group or their social class. For example, a wealthy African American man who feels he has to take a side on an issue on which the opinions of poor African Americans and wealthy white Americans are divided and finds his class and status group opposed.

Values and norms
Values can be defined as "internal criteria for evaluation". Values are also split into two categories, there are individual values, which pertains to something that we think has worth and then there are social values. Social values are our desires modified according to ethical principles or according to the group, we associate with: friends, family, or co-workers. Norms tell us what people ought to do in a given situation. Unlike values, norms are enforced externally – or outside of oneself. A society as a whole determines norms, and they can be passed down from generation to generation.

Power and authority
An exception to the idea of values and norms as social order-keepers is deviant behavior. Not everyone in a society abides by a set of personal values or the group's norms all the time. For this reason, it is generally deemed necessary for a society to have authority. The adverse opinion holds that the need for authority stems from social inequality.

In a class society, those who hold positions of power and authority are among the upper class. Norms differ for each class because the members of each class were raised differently and hold different sets of values. Tension can form, therefore, between the upper class and lower class when laws and rules are put in place that do not conform to the values of both classes.

Spontaneous order
The order does not necessarily need to be controlled by the government. Individuals pursuing self-interest can make predictable systems. These systems, being planned by more than one person, may actually be preferable to those planned by a single person. This means that predictability may be possible to achieve without a central government's control. These stable expectations do not necessarily lead to individuals behaving in ways that are considered beneficial to group welfare. Considering this, Thomas Schelling studied neighborhood racial segregation. His findings suggest that interaction can produce predictability, but it does not always increase social order. In his researching, he found that "when all individuals pursue their own preferences, the outcome is segregation rather than integration," as stated in "Theories of Social Order", edited by Michael Hechter and Christine Horne.

Social honor
Social honor can also be referred to as social status. It is considered the distribution of prestige or "the approval, respect, admiration, or deference a person or group is able to command by virtue of his or its imputed qualities or performances". The case most often is that people associate social honor with the place a person occupies with material systems of wealth and power. Since most of the society finds wealth and power desirable, they respect or envy people that have more than they do. When social honor is referred to as social status, it deals with the rank of a person within the stratification system. Status can be achieved, which is when a person position is gained on the basis of merit or in other words by achievement and hard work or it can be ascribed, which is when a person position is assigned to individuals or groups without regard for merit but because of certain traits beyond their control, such as race, sex, or parental social standing. An example of ascribed status is Kate Middleton who married a prince. An example of achieved status is Oprah Winfrey, an African American woman from poverty who worked her way to being a billionaire.

Attainment
Two different theories exist that explain and attempt to account for social order. The first theory is "order results from a large number of independent decisions to transfer individual rights and liberties to a coercive state in return for its guarantee of security for persons and their property, as well as its establishment of mechanisms to resolve disputes," as stated in Theories of Social Order by Hechter and Horne. The next theory is that "the ultimate source of social order as residing not in external controls but in a concordance of specific values and norms that individuals somehow have managed to internalize." also stated in Theories of Social Order by Hechter and Horne. Both arguments for how social order is attained are very different. One argues that it is achieved through outside influence and control, and the other argues that it can only be attained when the individual willingly follows norms and values that they have grown accustomed to and internalized. Weber's insistence on the importance of domination and symbolic systems in social life was retained by Pierre Bourdieu, who developed the idea of social orders, ultimately transforming it into a theory of fields.

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Talk:Changeling (disambiguation)

I could see moving the contents of Changeling (legend) to be the primary meaning on this page, rather than being a simple disambiguation page, since it's likely where all the other meanings got their name. However, I think that that article should be fleshed out far more than it is now before doing so. -mhr 19:42, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I think that article is fleshed out already. I do as you have suggested.--Wiglaf 17:43, 27 Aug 2004 (UTC)

I created the "lower" half of the page for the entries about shapeshifters. I don't know if some of the "upper" entries are about shapeshifters. Could someone move the appropriate ones to the lower half? ShawnVW 20:45, 10 Jan 2005 (local)

I have removed the verify tag because I don't see how a disambiguation page should contain any info that would need to be verified. Better to take issue with each item's page, and fix or remove links as required. Kevin 05:59, 4 January 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Changeling (disambiguation)


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Changeling (comics)

Changeling, in comics, may refer to:

 * Beast Boy, a DC Comics superhero who used the codename "Changeling" for a period during his membership in the Teen Titans
 * Changeling (Marvel Comics), a supervillain who later joined the X-Men

title: Changeling (comics)


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Below-the-line (filmmaking)

"Below-the-line" is a term derived from the top sheet of a film budget for motion pictures, television programs, industrial films, independent films, student films and documentaries as well as commercials. The "line" in "below-the-line" refers to the separation of production costs between script and story writers, producers, directors, actors, and casting ("above the-line") and the rest of the crew, or production team.

The top sheet of any creative project's budget serves only as an at-a-glance reference to a fully detailed and attached main budget document, which features total expenses including federal, state and local taxes, as well as insurance within the entire production, and/or production incentives. This painstaking task is usually assigned to the Production Manager or UPM of a production and should be completed before principal photography begins for any project.

Below-the-line crew
Some below-the-line film and television film crews operate in pre-production, production, or post-production stages of filmmaking. For example, the film editor may work solely in the post-production stage of filming but might also work throughout the production, editing the film as it is shot and advising the director if and when additional shots or scenes are needed. The boom operator, on the other hand, is mostly on set during filming because they have to pick up the dialogue of the actors as well as ambient noise when the scene is being recorded.

This particular type of film crew usually belongs to a guild or union. Some of the unions and/or guilds that represent below-the-line crew include: I.A.T.S.E., The International Cinematographer's Guild (an IATSE organization), The Teamsters, Motion Picture Editors Guild, Animation Guild, and the Motion Picture Sound Editors.

It is usually the case for the "below-the-line" crew to work for hourly wages, as opposed to a set wage, or negotiated contractual wage on the front, or back end of any given project. These set workers are responsible for a number of many other unsung, and demanding tasks that must be completed to achieve the common goal of creating a film, or television program. These positions could be considered "less glamorous", and the unmentionable part of filmmaking. However, many dedicated and hard working individuals have made a good living with "below-the-line" job positions, whether it's in independent filmmaking, and or for a major film studio. Within the many entry-level positions available to gain knowledge of the industry, such as Lighting technicians, grips, wranglers, stunt performers, property masters, ADR, Foley, set painters or any stagehand etc., one could gain knowledge and skill of these, and many other key positions within the film industry. Many schools and or nonprofit organizations are set up to train the youth and other interested individuals to better prepare and teach a trade that may not otherwise be available within the traditional school system. These organizations teach about film and video terminology, equipment, and life skills, a must for today's highly competitive entertainment market.

Below-the-line crew refers to everybody else including:

 * Assistant director
 * Art director
 * Best boy electric and grip
 * Boom operator
 * Camera operator
 * Carpenter (theatre)
 * Character generator (CG) operator (television)
 * Director of photography
 * Costume designer
 * Composer
 * Dolly grip
 * Film editor
 * Gaffer
 * Graphic artist
 * Grip
 * Hair stylist
 * Key grip
 * Line producer
 * Location manager
 * Make-up artist
 * Production assistant
 * Production coordinator
 * Rigging Grip
 * Script supervisor (continuity)
 * Set construction
 * Set Medic
 * Sound engineer
 * Stage manager (television)
 * Technical director (TD) (television)
 * Truck driver
 * Unit production manager
 * Video control broadcast engineering (television)
 * Visual effects editor

Most of these crafts people are considered variable cost in the budget. Meaning, if you cut a scene from the script, potentially, you don't have to build that set, or paint it or dress it, etc.

title: Below-the-line (filmmaking)


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Athaliah

Athaliah ( Γοθολία Gotholía; Athalia) was the daughter of either king Omri, or of King Ahab and Queen Jezebel of Israel; she was queen consort of Judah as the wife of King Jehoram, a descendant of King David, and was later queen regnant c. 841–835 BCE.

Biblical narrative
Accounts of Athaliah’s life are found in 2 Kings 8:16–11:16 and 2 Chronicles 22:10–23:15 in the Hebrew Bible. According to the chroniclers, she was the daughter of king Omri of Israel; however, she is usually considered to have been the daughter of King Ahab – the son of Omri – and his wife, Queen Jezebel. Some scholars are of the opinion that Athaliah was indeed the daughter of Omri, but that she grew up as an orphan in the court of Ahab.

Athaliah was married to Jehoram of Judah to seal a treaty between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, and to secure his position Jehoram killed his six brothers. Jehoram became king of Judah in the fifth year of Joram of Israel's reign. Depending on her paternity, Joram of Israel was either Athaliah's brother or her nephew.

Jehoram of Judah reigned for eight years. His father Jehoshaphat and grandfather Asa had been devout kings who worshiped Yahweh, the one true God, and "walked in His ways". However, Jehoram chose not to follow their example, and rejected Yahweh, and his rule over Judah was subsequently cursed. Edom revolted, and he was forced to acknowledge their independence. A raid by Philistines, Arabs and Ethiopians looted the king's house, and carried off all of his family except for Jehoram and Athalia's youngest son, Ahaziah.

After Jehoram's death, Ahaziah became king of Judah, and Athaliah became queen mother, or gebirah. One year after taking the throne, Ahaziah and Joram of Israel were killed by Jehu, a general in Joram’s army acting on Yahweh's secret command to take vengeance against the impious kings. Afterwards, Jehu killed Jezebel and the rest of Athaliah’s extended family. Ahab was already killed in battle before Jehu’s massacre.

Upon hearing of Ahaziah’s death, Athaliah seized the throne of Judah and killed all possible claimants to the throne, which included Ahaziah's sons and his relatives and, possibly, Jehoram's children from his other wife. Some believe that the killings were to prevent David's descendants from outliving Athaliah's kin, most of whom were already killed by Jehu. Others believe that they were divine judgment against Jehoshaphat's decision to marry his son to Athaliah.

However, Jehosheba, Ahaziah's sister, managed to rescue an infant from the purge: Jehoash, the son of Ahaziah and his wife Zibiah. Jehoash was raised in secret by Jehosheba's husband, the priest Jehoiada.

As "usurper queen", Athaliah used her power to establish the Baalist cult in Judah. Six years later, Athaliah was astonished when Jehoiada crowned Jehoash as king in Solomon's Temple. She rushed to stop the rebellion but, under Jehoiada’s orders, was killed by the captains outside the Temple, since her blood “would defile it”.

Dating of reigns
William F. Albright has dated her reign to 842–837 BCE, while Edwin R. Thiele in the third edition of his magnum opus dates her reign from 842/841 to 836/835 BCE. However, a starting date of 842/841 for Athaliah is one year before the date of 841/840 that Thiele gave for the death of her son, Ahaziah, a conflict which Thiele never resolved.

In literature
Athaliah is discussed in Boccaccio's De Mulieribus Claris ("On Famous Women"), as well as The Book of the City of Ladies, by Christine de Pizan.

In 1691, French tragedian Jean Racine wrote a play about this biblical queen, entitled Athalie. The German composer Felix Mendelssohn, among others, wrote incidental music (his op. 74) to Racine's play, first performed in Berlin in 1845. One of the most frequently heard excerpts from the Mendelssohn music is titled "War March of the Priests" ("Kriegsmarsch der Priester").

In 1733, the musician and composer Handel composed an oratorio based on her life, called Athalia, calling her a "Baalite Queen of Judah Daughter of Jezebel". Baal was the fertility god of the Canaanites, whom the ancient Israelites often fell into worshipping in the Tanakh/Old Testament.

title: Athaliah


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United States Golf Association

The United States Golf Association (USGA) is the United States national association of golf courses, clubs and facilities and the governing body of golf for the U.S. and Mexico. Together with The R&A, the USGA produces and interprets the rules of golf. The USGA also provides a national handicap system for golfers, conducts 14 national championships, including the U.S. Open, U.S. Women's Open and U.S. Senior Open, and tests golf equipment for conformity with regulations. The USGA and the USGA Museum are located in Liberty Corner, New Jersey.

History
The USGA was originally formed in 1894 to resolve the question of a national amateur championship. Earlier that year, the Newport Country Club and Saint Andrew's Golf Club, Yonkers, New York, both declared the winners of their tournaments the "national amateur champion." That autumn, delegates from Newport, St. Andrew's, The Country Club, Chicago Golf Club, and Shinnecock Hills Golf Club met in New York City to form a national governing body, which would administer the championship and also the Rules of Golf for the country. On December 22, 1894, the Amateur Golf Association of the United States was officially formed, and was shortly thereafter renamed the "United States Golf Association". Theodore Havemeyer was the first president, and the U.S. Amateur trophy is named in his honor.

The first U.S. Amateur was held in 1895 at the Newport Country Club, with Charles B. Macdonald (who was runner-up at both of the previous year's tournaments) winning the championship. The first U.S. Open was held the following day, almost as an afterthought. It was not until 1898 that the two events were held at separate clubs. Today, the USGA administers 14 separate national championships, ten of which are expressly for amateurs.

The USGA gradually expanded its membership from the original five clubs. There were 267 club members in 1910, and 1,138 clubs by 1932. Membership fell off during the Great Depression and World War II, but recovered by 1947. By 1980 there were over 5,000 clubs, and today membership exceeds 9,700.

On September 17, 1956, Ann Gregory began competing in the U.S. Women's Amateur Championship, thus becoming the first African-American woman to play in a national championship conducted by the USGA.

In 2011, Sarah Hirshland became the senior managing director of business affairs for the USGA. In April 2018, she was promoted to chief commercial officer. She brought the USGA partnerships with major corporations and negotiated a billion-dollar deal with the Fox TV network. In August 2018, she left to become the 20th chief executive officer of the United States Olympic Committee.

Competitions organized by the USGA

The USGA organizes or co-organizes the following competitions:

Open championships
An "open" golf championship is one that both professionals and amateurs may enter. In practice, such events are always won by professionals nowadays. The two leading opens in the U.S. are:

 * U.S. Open – no age or gender restrictions, Handicap Index requirement of 1.4 or less. Established in 1895, it is the second-oldest of the four major championships.
 * U.S. Women's Open – females, no age restrictions, Handicap Index requirement of 2.4 or less. Established in 1946 and administered by the USGA since 1953, it is the oldest of the five women's majors.

The last win by an amateur at the U.S. Open was in 1933 and an amateur has won the women's event only once,  in 1967.

The USGA also conducts the U.S. Senior Open for competitors 50 and over. This is one of the five majors recognized by the world's dominant tour for golfers 50 and over, PGA Tour Champions. The overwhelming majority of the competitors play regularly on this tour. Many of the remaining players compete on the European counterpart of PGA Tour Champions, the European Senior Tour, which recognizes the U.S. Senior Open as one of its three majors. The USGA added a women's counterpart in 2018.

 * U.S. Senior Open – no gender restriction, players age 50 & older, handicap index requirement of 3.4 or less, established in 1980.
 * U.S. Senior Women's Open – women's players age 50 & older with a handicap index of 7.4 or less, established in 2018.

Individual amateur championships
Professional golf in the US is mainly run by the PGA Tour, the LPGA, and the PGA of America. However, the USGA organizes the 10 national amateur championships. The leading events are open to all age groups, but are usually won by golfers in their early twenties:

 * U.S. Amateur – no age or gender restrictions, handicap index of 2.4 or less, established in 1895.
 * U.S. Women's Amateur – no age restrictions, females with a handicap index of 5.4 or less, established in 1895.

There are two championships for players under age 19:

 * U.S. Girls' Junior – girls with a handicap index of 9.4 or less, established in 1949
 * U.S. Junior Amateur – no gender restriction, handicap index of 4.4 or less, established in 1948

And two for senior golfers:

 * U.S. Senior Amateur – no gender restriction, players age 55 & older, handicap index of 7.4 or less, established in 1955
 * U.S. Senior Women's Amateur – women age 50 & older with a handicap index of 18.4 or less, established in 1962

Because the U.S. Amateur and U.S. Women's Amateur became increasingly dominated by future tournament professionals, two national championships were added in the 1980s for "career amateurs" who were 25 years of age & older:

 * U.S. Mid-Amateur – no gender restriction, players age 25 & older, handicap index of 3.4 or less, established in 1981
 * U.S. Women's Mid-Amateur – women age 25 & older with a handicap index of 9.4 or less, established in 1987

Team amateur championships
These team events were announced by the USGA in 2013 as the replacements for the discontinued Public Links championships and played for the first time in 2015. Both are contested by two-member teams in four-ball matches. Partners are not required to be from the same club, political subdivision, or country.
 * U.S. Amateur Four-Ball – no age or gender restrictions; handicap index of 5.4 or less
 * U.S. Women's Amateur Four-Ball – no age restrictions, females with a handicap index of 14.4 or less

State team championships
The USGA men's and women's state team championships were first conducted in 1995 as a part of the USGA's Centennial celebration. The two championships were conducted biennially in odd-numbered years through 2009. Since 2010, the men's championship has been conducted in even-numbered years and the women's championship in odd-numbered years. According to NCAA rules, college golfers are not eligible.

 * USGA Men's State Team Championship
 * USGA Women's State Team Championship

International team competitions
The USGA, in cooperation with The R&A, co-organizes two biennial amateur team competitions between the United States and a joint team representing Great Britain and Ireland (in political terms, Ireland and the United Kingdom).

 * Curtis Cup – 8-woman teams, played in even-numbered years. The 2018 edition was the first in which The R&A was directly involved. Previously, the Ladies' Golf Union was the co-organizer, but that body merged with The R&A in late 2016 (after that year's Curtis Cup had been played).
 * Walker Cup – 10-man male teams, played in odd-numbered years.

Through its membership of the International Golf Federation the USGA is involved in the administration of the two "World Amateur Team Championships", which are played biennially in even-numbered years.

 * Eisenhower Trophy – for men
 * Espirito Santo Trophy – for women

Discontinued championships
There had been two events for "public-course" golfers, but the USGA announced in 2013 that both would be discontinued after their 2014 editions. Members of private golf clubs were excluded from these championships.

 * U.S. Amateur Public Links – popularly known as the "Publinx"; no gender restriction, handicap index of 4.4 or less, established in 1922 and discontinued in 2014
 * U.S. Women's Amateur Public Links – popularly known as the "Women's Publinx"; women with a handicap index of 18.4 or less, established in 1977 and discontinued in 2014

Multiple event winners
Only eight golfers have won more than one USGA individual event in the same year:
 * Chick Evans won the U.S. Open and U.S. Amateur in 1916. He went on to win the U.S. Amateur in 1920.
 * Bobby Jones won the U.S. Open and U.S. Amateur as half of his historic Grand Slam in 1930. Jones had previously won three U.S. Opens (1923, 1926, 1929) and four U.S. Amateurs (1924, 1925, 1927, 1928).
 * Jay Sigel won the U.S. Amateur and U.S. Mid-Amateur in 1983. He had won the U.S. Amateur in 1982 and would win the Mid-Am in 1985 and 1987.
 * Pearl Sinn won the Women's Public Links and Women's Amateur in 1988. She successfully defended her Women's Publinx title in 1989.
 * Ryan Moore won the U.S. Public Links and U.S. Amateur in 2004. He had previously won the Publinx in 2002.
 * Colt Knost won the U.S. Public Links and U.S. Amateur in 2007.
 * Jennifer Song won the Women's Public Links and Women's Amateur in 2009.
 * Seong Eun-jeong won the Girls' Junior and Women's Amateur in 2016. She had previously won the Girls' Junior in 2015.

Six people have won three different USGA individual events in their careers:
 * JoAnne Carner (née Gunderson) – Girls' Jr – 1956; Women's Am – 1957, 1960, 1962, 1966, 1968; Women's Open – 1971, 1976
 * Arnold Palmer – Amat – 1954; Open – 1960; Sr Open – 1981
 * Jack Nicklaus – Amat – 1959, 1961; Open – 1962, 1967, 1972, 1980; Sr Open – 1991, 1993
 * Carol Semple Thompson – Women's Am – 1973; Women's Mid-Am – 1990, 1997; Sr Women's Am – 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002
 * Tiger Woods – Jr Amat – 1991, 1992, 1993; Amat – 1994, 1995, 1996; Open – 2000, 2002, 2008
 * Jill McGill – Women's Am – 1993; Women's Publinx – 1994; Sr Women's Open – 2022

Fifty–one other people have won two different USGA individual events in their careers, and three have won USGA individual and team events:
 * Francis Ouimet – Open – 1913; Amat – 1914, 1931
 * Jerome Travers – Amat – 1907, 1908, 1912, 1913; Open – 1915
 * Johnny Goodman – Open – 1933; Amat – 1937
 * Lawson Little – Amat – 1934, 1935; Open – 1940
 * Patty Berg – Women's Am – 1938; Women's Open – 1946
 * Betty Jameson – Women's Am – 1939, 1940; Women's Open – 1947
 * Babe Zaharias – Women's Am – 1946; Women's Open – 1948, 1950, 1954
 * Louise Suggs – Women's Am – 1947; Women's Open – 1949, 1952
 * Mickey Wright – Girls' Jr – 1952; Women's Open – 1958, 1959, 1961, 1964
 * Gene Littler – Amat – 1953; Open – 1961
 * Catherine Lacoste – Women's Open – 1967; Women's Am – 1969
 * Gene Andrews – Publinx – 1954; Sr Amat – 1970
 * Johnny Miller – Jr Amat – 1964; Open – 1973
 * Jerry Pate – Amat – 1974; Open – 1976
 * Dorothy Germain Porter – Women's Am – 1949; Sr Women's Am – 1977, 1980, 1981, 1983
 * Hollis Stacy – Girls' Jr – 1969, 1970, 1971; Women's Open – 1977, 1978, 1984
 * William C. Campbell – Amat – 1964; Sr Amat – 1979, 1980
 * Lori Castillo – Girls' Jr – 1978; Women's Publinx – 1979, 1980
 * Amy Alcott – Girls' Jr – 1973; Women's Open – 1980
 * Billy Casper – Open – 1959, 1966; Sr Open – 1983
 * Heather Farr – Girls' Jr – 1982; Women's Publinx – 1984
 * Marlene Streit (née Stewart) – Women's Am – 1956; Sr Women's Am – 1985, 1994, 2003
 * Billy Mayfair – Publinx – 1986; Amat – 1987
 * Gary Player – Open – 1965; Sr Open – 1987, 1988
 * Anne Quast (aka Decker, Welts, Sander) – Women's Am – 1958, 1961, 1963; Women's Mid-Am – 1987, 1989, 1990, 1993
 * Orville Moody – Open – 1969; Sr Open – 1989
 * Pat Hurst – Girls' Jr – 1986; Women's Am – 1990
 * Lee Trevino – Open – 1968, 1971; Sr Open – 1990
 * Amy Fruhwirth – Women's Am – 1991; Women's Publinx – 1992
 * Kelli Kuehne – Girls' Jr – 1994; Women's Am – 1995, 1996
 * Dorothy Delasin – Girls' Jr – 1996; Women's Am – 1998
 * Hale Irwin – Open – 1974, 1979, 1990; Sr Open – 1998, 2000
 * Juli Inkster – Women's Am – 1980, 1981, 1982; Women's Open – 1999, 2002
 * Bruce Fleisher – Amat – 1968; Sr Open – 2001
 * Inbee Park – Girls' Jr – 2002; Women's Open – 2008, 2013
 * Vinny Giles – Amat – 1972; Sr Amat – 2009
 * Ellen Port – Women's Mid-Am – 1995, 1996, 2000, 2011; Sr. Women's Am – 2012, 2013, 2016
 * Michelle Wie – Women's Publinx – 2003; Women's Open – 2014
 * Joan Higgins – Women's Mid-Am – 2008; Sr. Women's Am – 2014
 * Nathan Smith – Mid-Am – 2003, 2009, 2010, 2012; Four-Ball – 2015
 * Jordan Spieth – Jr Amat – 2009, 2011; Open – 2015
 * Ariya Jutanugarn – Girls' Jr – 2011; Women's Open – 2018
 * Laura Davies – Women's Open – 1987; Sr. Women's Open – 2018
 * Scott Harvey – Mid-Am – 2014; Four-Ball – 2019
 * Bryson DeChambeau – Amat – 2015; Open – 2020
 * Jim Furyk – Open – 2003; Sr Open – 2021
 * Rose Zhang – Women's Am – 2020; Girls' Jr – 2021
 * Annika Sörenstam – Women's Open – 1995, 1996, 2006; Sr. Women's Open – 2021
 * Minjee Lee – Girls' Jr – 2012; Women's Open – 2022
 * Matt Fitzpatrick – Amat – 2013; Open – 2022
 * Nick Dunlap – Jr Amat – 2021; Amat – 2023
 * Todd White – Four-Ball – 2015; Sr Amat – 2023

Note: Multiple winners of individual events can be found in that event's article.

Most career USGA championships won

 * Bobby Jones: 9 – Open - 1923, 1926, 1929, 1930; Amat - 1924, 1925, 1927, 1928, 1930
 * Tiger Woods: 9 – Jr Amat - 1991, 1992, 1993; Amat - 1994, 1995, 1996; Open - 2000, 2002, 2008
 * JoAnne Carner: 8 – Girls' Jr - 1956; Women's Am - 1957, 1960, 1962, 1966, 1968; Women's Op - 1971, 1976
 * Jack Nicklaus: 8 – Amat - 1959, 1961; Open - 1962, 1967, 1972, 1980; Sr Open - 1991, 1993
 * Anne Quast (aka Decker, Welts, Sander): 7 – Women's Am - 1958, 1961, 1963; Sr Women's Am - 1987, 1990, 1992, 1993
 * Ellen Port: 7 – Women's Mid-Am - 1995, 1996, 2000, 2011; Sr. Women's Am - 2012, 2013, 2016
 * Carol Semple Thompson: 7 – Women's Am - 1973; Women's Mid-Am - 1990, 1997; Sr Women's Am - 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002
 * Glenna Collett (Vare): 6 – Women's Am - 1922, 1925, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1935
 * Hollis Stacy: 6 – Girls' Jr - 1969, 1970, 1971; Women's Open - 1977, 1978, 1984
 * Jerome Travers: 5 – Amat - 1907, 1908, 1912, 1913; Open - 1915
 * Mickey Wright: 5 – Girls' Jr - 1952; Women's Op - 1958, 1959, 1961, 1964
 * Carolyn Cudone: 5 – Sr Women's Am - 1968-1972
 * Dorothy Germain Porter: 5 – Women's Am - 1949; Sr. Women's Am - 1977, 1980, 1981, 1983
 * Jay Sigel: 5 – Amat - 1982, 1983; Mid-Am - 1983, 1985, 1987
 * Hale Irwin: 5 – Open - 1974, 1979, 1990; Sr Open 1998, 2000
 * Juli Inkster: 5 – Women's Am - 1980, 1981, 1982; Women's Open - 1999, 2002
 * Nathan Smith: 5 – Mid-Am – 2003, 2009, 2010, 2012; Four-Ball – 2015

Virtual USGA Championship
The USGA  partnered with World Golf Tour in 2009 to co-host the first annual Virtual USGA Championship online. The Virtual U.S. Open attracted hundreds of thousands of players from more than 180 countries. The first-place winner took home a replica of the U.S. Open trophy and won a trip for two to Pebble Beach for the next year's event.

title: United States Golf Association


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Brad (given name)

Brad is a given name, usually a diminutive form (hypocorism) of Bradley, Bradford, Brady, or Bradney and generally masculine. Notable people with the name include:

Sports

 * Brad Anae (born 1957), American football player
 * Brad Ausmus (born 1969), American baseball player and manager
 * Brad Beven (born 1969), Australian triathlete
 * Brad Boyes (born 1982), Canadian ice hockey player
 * Brad Butterworth (born 1959), New Zealand yachtsman
 * Brad Erdos (born 1990), Canadian football player
 * Brad Farrow (born 1956), Canadian judoka
 * Brad Gilbert (born 1961), American tennis player and coach
 * Brad Gobright (1988–2019), American rock climber
 * Brad Goldberg (born 1990), American baseball pitcher
 * Brad Hawpe (born 1979), American baseball player
 * Brad Hogg (born 1970), Australian cricketer
 * Brad Holland (born 1956), American basketball player and coach
 * Brad Holmes (born 1979), American football executive
 * Brad Idzik (born 1991), American football coach
 * Brad Johnson (American football) (born 1968), American football player
 * Brad Kaaya (born 1995), American football player
 * Brad Leaf (born 1960), Israeli-American basketball player
 * Brad Lebo (born 1970), American football player
 * Brad Leonard (born 1979), New Zealand cricketer
 * Brad Loesing (born 1989), American basketball player
 * Brad MacGregor (born 1964), Canadian ice hockey player
 * Brad Marchand (born 1988), Canadian ice hockey player
 * Brad McKay (born 1993), Scottish football player
 * Brad Newley (born 1985), Australian basketball player
 * Brad Noffsinger (born 1960), American NASCAR driver
 * Brad Richards (born 1980), Canadian ice hockey player
 * Brad Rowe (tennis) (born 1955), American tennis player
 * Brad Rowe (footballer) (born 1969), Australian football player
 * Brad Seaton (born 1993), American football player
 * Brad Stevens (born 1976), American basketball coach
 * Brad Thorn (born 1975), Australian rugby player
 * Brad Wilkerson (born 1977), American baseball player
 * Brad Williams (cricketer) (born 1974), Australian cricketer
 * Brad Williamson (ice hockey) (born 1977), Canadian ice hockey player
 * Brad Williamson (basketball) (born 1981), Australian basketball player
 * Brad Willock (born 1962), Canadian volleyball player
 * Brad Wing (born 1991), American football player
 * Brad Wright (basketball) (born 1962), American basketball player

Arts and entertainment

 * Brad Altman (born 1954), American producer and husband of actor George Takei
 * Brad Bird (born 1957), American director
 * Brad Carlson, also known as Bun E. Carlos (born 1950), American drummer
 * Brad Delp (1951–2007), American singer and songwriter, member of the rock band Boston
 * Brad Delson (born 1977), American guitarist
 * Brad Dexter (1917–2002), American actor
 * Brad Dourif (born 1950), American actor
 * Brad Falchuk (born 1971), American director
 * Brad Garrett (born 1960), American actor
 * Brad Hall (born 1958), American screenwriter
 * Brad Hargreaves (born 1971), American drummer
 * Brad Kavanagh (born 1992), British actor
 * Brad Mehldau (born 1970), American jazz pianist
 * Bradley Nowell (born 1965), American punk rock songwriter
 * Brad Paisley (born 1972), American country musician
 * Brad Pitt (born 1963), American actor
 * Brad Renfro (1982–2008), American actor
 * Brad Roberts (born 1964), Canadian musician
 * Brad Rowe (actor) (born 1970), American actor
 * Brad Sherwood (born 1964), American comedian/actor
 * Brad Silberling (born 1963), American director
 * Brad Simpson (born 1995), British musician
 * Brad Wilk (born 1968), American musician
 * Brad Williams (puppeteer) (1951–1993), American puppet designer for TV programs and literacy education
 * Brad Williams (comedian) (born 1984), American comedian and actor
 * Brad Whitford (born 1952), American guitarist
 * Bradley Whitford (born 1959), American actor sometimes credited as "Brad Whitford"

Politics

 * Brad Cathers, Canadian politician
 * Brad Ellsworth (born 1958), U.S. Representative from Indiana
 * Brad Finstad (born 1976), Minnesota state representative
 * Brad Henry (born 1963), Governor of Oklahoma
 * Brad Hoylman (born 1965), New York state senator
 * Brad Raffensperger (born 1955), Georgia Secretary of State
 * Brad Wall (born 1965), Premier of Saskatchewan

Other

 * Brad Colbert (born 1974), American Marine
 * Brad Farmer (born c. 1959), Australian Marine Conservationist
 * Brad Hawkins (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Brad Lomax (1950–84), American human rights and disability activist
 * Brad McKay (doctor) (born 1970), Australian medical doctor, skeptic, television personality and author
 * Brad A. Myers (born 1956), American professor
 * Brad Williams (mnemonist) (born c. 1956), American, one of the only three people in the world with a condition called hyperthymestic syndrome

Fictional characters

 * Cheetah, a character in the Canadian-produced sitcom Learning the Ropes
 * Brad, a character in the American TV miniseries V (1983 miniseries)
 * Brad Anderson, a character in the 1987 American teen movie Adventures in Babysitting
 * Brad Armstrong, a character in the video game Lisa: The Painful
 * Brad Bellick, in the television series Prison Break
 * Brad Bodick, in the ABC television series The Middle
 * Brad Brillnick, a character in the American sitcom It's Garry Shandling's Show
 * Brad Buttowski, in the animated television series Kick Buttowski: Suburban Daredevil
 * Brad Burns, in the video game Virtua Fighter
 * Brad Carbunkle, in the animated television series My Life as a Teenage Robot
 * Brad Chase, in the television series Boston Legal
 * Brad Follmer, in the television series The X-Files
 * Brad Gurdlinger, a character in the 2013 American crime comedy movie We're the Millers
 * Brad Heinmuller, a character in the 1984 American science fiction romance movie Starman
 * Brad King, in the soap opera Hollyoaks
 * Brad Langford, a character in the American TV sitcom Silver Spoons
 * Brad Majors, in the musical The Rocky Horror Show
 * Brad Park, in the videogames Dead Rising 3 and Dead Rising 4
 * Brad Snider in the video game Grand Theft Auto V
 * Brad Snyder (As the World Turns), in the American soap opera As The World Turns
 * Brad Taylor, in the television series Home Improvement
 * Brad Turner, a character in the animated show M.A.S.K. (TV series)
 * Brad Whitaker, in the 1987 James Bond film The Living Daylights
 * Brad White, a character in 2001 psychological horror movie Frailty
 * Brad Williams (EastEnders), in the British soap opera EastEnders
 * Brad Williams, in the American comedy series Happy Endings
 * Brad Wilson, a character in the 1983 superhero movie Superman III
 * Brad Wong, in the video game Dead or Alive

title: Brad (given name)


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Peabody

Peabody may refer to:

Libraries

 * Peabody Institute Library (Peabody, Massachusetts), public library in Peabody, Massachusetts
 * George Peabody Library, the historical library at the Peabody Institute in Baltimore
 * Peabody Township Library, a city library in Peabody, Kansas

Museums

 * Peabody Essex Museum, a museum of art and culture in Salem, Massachusetts
 * Peabody Historical Library Museum, in Peabody, Kansas
 * Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts
 * Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut
 * Robert S. Peabody Museum of Archaeology at Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts

Music

 * Peabody Institute, a music conservatory at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland
 * Peabody (band), Australian music group
 * Peabody (dance), a fast foxtrot-type dance done to ragtime music

United States

 * Peabody, Indiana
 * Peabody, Kansas
 * Peabody Downtown Historic District
 * Peabody City Park
 * Peabody, Massachusetts
 * Peabody Veterans Memorial High School
 * Peabody, Cambridge, Massachusetts, a neighborhood
 * Peabody River, in New Hampshire

Elsewhere

 * Peabody Bay, Greenland

Other uses

 * Peabody (surname)
 * Peabody action, a type of firearm action
 * Peabody Award, for radio and television journalism
 * Peabody bird, the American white-throated sparrow
 * Peabody Energy, an American company engaged in the production of coal
 * Peabody Hotel, a hotel in Memphis, Tennessee, United States
 * Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, a type of intelligence test
 * Peabody Trust, a housing association in London, now branded simply as Peabody
 * Mister Peabody, a fictional dog in 1950s and 1960s television animated series
 * Mr. Peabody & Sherman, a 2014 animated film based on the TV series

title: Peabody


text:
Savage Islands

The Savage Islands or Selvagens Islands (Ilhas Selvagens ; also known as the Salvage Islands  ) are a small Portuguese archipelago in the North Atlantic Ocean, 280 km south of Madeira and 165 km north of the Canary Islands. The archipelago includes two major islands, Selvagem Grande and Selvagem Pequena, each surrounded by a cluster of islets and reefs, with the total area of 2.73 km2. The archipelago is administered as part of the Portuguese municipality of Funchal, belongs to the Madeiran civil parish of Sé, and is the southernmost point of Portugal.

It was designated a natural reserve in 1971, recognising its role as a very important nesting point for several species of birds. Since then, the susceptible bird populations (namely Cory's shearwater) and nearby waters have been more closely protected by the Portuguese government. Given its status, remoteness and few fresh water sources, the archipelago is today largely uninhabited. The only residents year-round are stationed on Selvagem Grande Island, which includes reserve staff and scientists conducting research on wildlife. Two rangers are also usually resident on Selvagem Pequena between May and October. In May 2016, a National Geographic Society scientific expedition prompted the extension of the marine reserve.

Geography
The Savage Islands are part of Macaronesia, which comprises several island groups in the North Atlantic Ocean, near Europe and off the coast of Morocco in North Africa. The archipelago lies about 280 km from Madeira and 165 km from the Canary Islands. The islands are considered to be a column branch that extends from the Canary Islands at depth of 3000 m. The total land area of the Savage Islands is 2.73 km2. They have little fresh water and are surrounded by reefs (which make access difficult and dangerous). The archipelago consists of two major islands and several islets, in two groups about 15 km apart, designated:

 * Northeast Group – includes the main island of Selvagem Grande (2000 x) and three small islets: Sinho Islet (Portuguese: Ilhéu Sinho), Palheiro do Mar, and Palheiro da Terra.
 * Southwest Group – including the main island of Selvagem Pequena (800 x) and Fora Islet (Portuguese: Ilhéu de Fora, 500 x), also called Great Piton and Little Piton respectively, it is surrounded by a group of very small islets (Alto, Comprido and Redondo) and a group collectively known as the Northern Islets (Portuguese: Ilhéus do Norte).

The geological history of the archipelago can be traced to the Opening of the North Atlantic Ocean 200 mya, at the end of the Triassic period.

The islands' physical characteristics are the consequences of mountain-forming and volcanic forces that occurred between 60 and 70 million years ago, typical of many of the islands of Macaronesia. The islands were created during the Oligocene period 29 million years ago, from a large submarine volcano generated by the Canary hotspot and shaped by erosion and marine sedimentation. The larger islands and islet (Grande, Pequena and Fora, respectively) are the remnants of the peaks of these submarine mounts, and although located north of the Canaries, they were never connected to the African continent or any other continental landmass.

The archipelago had 2 historic magmatic activity periods, one 29.5 mya and the other one 3.4 mya and two significant hiatuses between eruptions, the first lasted 12 million years and the second lasted 4.6 million years, a unique occurrence to oceanic volcanic islands.

The islands themselves are crossed by many calcareous faults, some marbleised, and made of basaltic rock, ash, and other volcanic materials. On Selvagem Grande there are remnants of extinct cones, such as Atalaia, Tornozelos and Cabeço do Inferno. Other areas are sand covered from extensive aeolian, fluvial and marine erosion; headlands include Atalaia and Leste on Selvagem Grande, and Norte, Oeste, Leste and Garajaus on Selvagem Pequena.

Beaches are uncommon in the islands, although Selvagem Pequena has some beaches of cobbles and coarse and medium sands.

Climate
Though only as recently as 2016 was a meteorological station installed by IPMA on Selvagem Grande, the islands are regarded as having a mild subtropical desert climate (Köppen: BWh), with temperatures warmer than those of Madeira. Due to their small size, the surrounding Atlantic and other exterior factors dictate the weather patterns felt throughout the year. Both diurnal and seasonal temperature variation are very low. The lack of any significant mountain range diminishes the amount of orographically induced precipitation and its exposure to the cool Canary Current prevents the formation of convective clouds for most of the year. Summers hover between 25 - 27 C during the day and 19 - 20 C during the night, and winters average around 21 - 23 C during the day and 12 - 13 C during the night. Saharan dust can occasionally come into contact with the islands, bringing much hotter temperatures. Winds blowing from south-west can also bring exceptionally heavy rainfall. The dominant wind direction is Northeast (NE).

In the past these islands would have had a higher level of moisture than they do now, which may justify the presence of a large number of fossil shells of land snails (Theba macandrewiana) on the plateau of Selvagem Grande.

Fauna and flora
The scientific and natural interest of this tiny group of islands lies in its marine biodiversity, its unique flora and fauna and many avian species that breed annually on its rock cliffs or use them on their stopover on normal migratory patterns.

The Selvagens Islands and their surrounding waters present pristine marine and terrestrial communities, with many of its ecosystems in an unaltered state (such as in Selvagem Pequena and Ilhéu de Fora) and habitat for a wide variety of endemic species and species in an unfavorable state of conservation, they are a unique example of the Macaronesian biogeographical region biota.

The archipelago has the highest density (per 100 km$2$) of exclusive endemic terrestrial plants of the Macaronesian Region and the lowest number of exotic terrestrial plants taxa (17) of the Madeira Region.

Although commercial tours of the islands and their biomes are available, all visitors require authorisation from the Madeira Nature Park, the regional environmental authority.

Birds
Selvagens Islands are one of the most important breeding areas for seabirds of Macaronesia and the North Atlantic, offering conditions that are unique in all the world. About 3% of the birds species are resident species, the remaining are migratory species. The abundance of birds on the islands, at one time, made the islands an attractive hunting area for peoples of the region. At the end of the 19th century the German naturalist Ernst Schmitz noted that 20–22,000 Cory's shearwaters were hunted in September or October in the islands; the hunts continued until 1967. Madeiran expeditions to the islands were responsible for the killing of juvenile birds for food, while their down was used to stuff pillows and comforters.

Presently the islands are home or stopover for: Cory's shearwaters (>30,000), white-faced storm-petrel (>80,000), Bulwer's petrel (approximately 4000), North Atlantic little shearwater (1400), Madeiran storm-petrel (1500), yellow-legged gull (50), common tern (>60), roseate tern (<5) and Berthelot's pipit (the only resident bird species); which are subjects of annual scientific expeditions. Many of these species are vulnerable to other local predator bird species, like the yellow-legged gull, which will consume both eggs and chicks (the white-faced storm-petrel and Bulwer's petrel are primarily susceptible). The islands are home to the largest known breeding colony in the world of Cory's shearwater and the only site in the Atlantic where Swinhoe's storm petrel can be regularly found. The Selvagens archipelago has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because of its seabird colonies.

Sealife
Jacques-Yves Cousteau once found what he believed were "the cleanest waters in the world" around this minor archipelago; there is an abundance of marine activity, much endemic to the environment, including the barred hogfish, puffer fish (Tetraodontidae), sea spider and many species of sea urchin. At depth of about 30 m the waters around the islands are teeming with algae and many migratory species of common fish, routinely migrating from the islands of Cape Verde, Madeira and the Canaries.

Out of eight total species of sea turtle in the world, five of them occur in Selvagens Islands waters. The most frequent is the loggerhead turtle, followed by Kemp's ridley sea turtle, Hawksbill sea turtle, Green sea turtle and Leatherback sea turtle.

A total of 10 cetacean species are recorded for Selvagens Islands surrounding waters, including some with a "Vulnerable" or "Threatened" global conservation statuses according to IUCN list of threatened species such as fin whales, sperm whales, bottlenose dolphins, common dolphins, short-finned pilot whales, Atlantic spotted dolphins, pygmy sperm whale, sei whale, Bryde's whale and a non-confirmed beaked whale species, but many others are expected to be discovered. The sub-tropical geographical position of Selvagens Islands puts it at the limit of the northern distribution range of many tropical oceanic cetaceans species and at the southern limit of species from more temperate latitudes.

Despite having a much smaller submerged area with depths less than 60 m than other larger Macaronesian archipelagos, the islands have remarkable fish species richness. There are 88 known species of coastal fish, some of them included in endangered and vulnerable status such as the dusky grouper, the Island grouper or the barred hogfish. 27.3% of fish are from the tropical eastern Atlantic Ocean, 10.2% from temperate waters and 6.8% from subtropical waters.

Other animals
Ten terrestrial vertebrates are known to live on these islands. Two terrestrial reptiles, Tarentola boettgeri bischoffi, a subspecies of Boettger's wall gecko and Teira dugesii selvagensis, a subspecies of Madeiran wall lizard, are exclusive to Selvagens Islands. The islands are the only terrestrial mammal-free archipelago in the Macaronesia of the North Atlantic.

The Selvagens archipelago is a hotspot of endemic terrestrial arthropods. There are about 219 species and subspecies of terrestrial invertebrates, 92% accounting for arthropods. About 20% of the whole taxa is endemic to the islands. Some endemic species include the sea snails Adeuomphalus marbisensis, Sticteulima lata, Alvania dijkstrai, Alvania freitasi, Alvania harrietae, Atlanta selvagensis, Manzonia boucheti, Osilinus atratus selvagensis and the land snail Theba macandrewiana.

Other terrestrial invertebrates endemic to the islands include three species of Cossoninae, two species of spider beetles, Cryptorhynchinae and Malachiinae and a species of Bean weevil, Click beetle, Thrips, Harpalinae, Pterostichinae, Lamiinae, Paederinae, Trogossitinae, Julida and a recently discovered species of Aplocnemus.

The current number of known endemic species and subspecies is certainly a poor estimate of its real number.

Plantlife

As a consequence of limited introduction, the terrestrial flora has an outstanding interest. More than 100 species of indigenous plants have been catalogued (most creeping plants and bushes). These plants are similar in many respects to indigenous species on the islands of Madeira and the Canaries, which are better suited to dry arid environments. Germination of these species occurs immediately and briefly after annual showers, and include: Lotus glaucus subsp. salvagensis, Scilla madeirensis, Monizia edulis, Erysimum arbuscula, Misopates salvagense, Urtica portosanctana, Asparagus nesiotes, Autonoe madeirensis, among others.

Some endemic species to the archipelago include: Argyranthemum thalassophilum, Monanthes lowei and Euphorbia anachoreta and 2 subspecies of Lobularia canariensis.

Selvagem Pequena and the Fora Islet are the richest floral repositories, since they were never populated by non-indigenous animals or plants. For a period, some indigenous species (primarily Roccella tinctoria and other lichens) were harvested from the islands to support the dye industry of Europe, primarily to England and Flanders in the 15th and 16th centuries, but these adventures were discontinued later.

History

Diogo Gomes de Sintra discovered the islands by chance in 1438. Although the Canary Islands had been inhabited by the Guanches, humans are not known to ever have set foot on the Madeira archipelago or the Savage Islands before the Portuguese discoveries and expansion. Consequently, this island group presented itself to Portuguese navigators uninhabited.

The first attempted settlement of the islands occurred around 1438 by the Portuguese, although few details remain of this endeavour. The oldest extant description of the colonisation was written around 1463 by the Portuguese mariner Diogo Gomes de Sintra. Gomes wrote that the islands were used to collect ursella, as a base for red paint/dyes; ursella referred to the lichens of the scientific families Roccellaceae and Parmeliaceae. In those days, the islands of the Atlantic (the Azores and Madeira) belonged to Henry the Navigator, the Grandmaster of the Order of Christ (the Portuguese successor to the Knights Templar in Portugal). However, the islands were generally omitted from the lists of their possessions.

By the 16th century the Savage Islands were held by a family from Madeira, known as Teixeiras Caiados. How the islands found themselves under Caiados control is unknown. In 1560 they were given to João Cabral de Noronha. After 1717 they are recorded in wills, inheritances, inventories and other documents. Between 1774 and 1831 taxes were paid to the king. The islands were also recorded in the books of the Conservatória do Registo Predial of Funchal.

From the 15th to the 19th centuries, the islands were used for different economic activities, such as collecting barilla weed and shells and mollusks. The islands, although uninhabited, were also used as a waypoint for fishing, while goats and rabbits were hunted on Selvagem Grande. Until about 1967, in September or October, there were organised hunts for the chicks of the Cory's shearwaters for their oil and meat.

The islands have a reputation as pirate treasure islands, and there are many stories of treasure hunting. According to reliable primary documents, at least four times (in 1813, 1851, 1856 and 1948), serious dig attempts were made to recover the supposed treasures but nothing was found.

In 1904 the islands were sold to Luís Rocha Machado. The Permanent Commission of International Maritime Law gave sovereignty of the Savage Islands to Portugal on 15 February 1938.

In 1959, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), now known as the World Wide Fund for Nature, became interested in the islands and signed a contract/promise with the owner, Luís Rocha Machado. In 1971 the Portuguese government intervened and acquired the islands, converting them into a nature reserve. The Savage Islands Reserve was created as part of the Madeira Nature Park; it is one of the oldest nature reserves of Portugal and it also includes the surrounding shelf to a depth of 200 m. In 1976, permanent surveillance began, and in 1978 the reserve was elevated to the status of Nature Reserve. In 2002, part of the nature reserve was nominated for UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites: they are currently included in the tentative World Heritage Site list.

In the 21st century, the Savage Islands have a permanent team of wardens from Madeira Nature Reserve (on Selvagem Grande there is a permanent research station with two wardens year-round, while Selvagem Pequena is staffed usually by two wardens between May and October). These and the Zino family (a family of British origin, known as "the guardians of the Savages") are the only permanent human inhabitants of the islands. Selvagem Grande gained a weather station controlled by IPMA (the Portuguese Institute of the Sea and the Atmosphere) and is permanently patrolled by the Portuguese Maritime Police to improve safety in navigation and search and rescue, and to prevent pollution and stop illegal fisheries in the reserve.

Disputed territory
Portugal places its southernmost exclusive economic zone claim south of the Savage Islands. Spain formerly objected to it on the basis that the Savage Islands do not have a separate continental shelf, stating that the border should comprise an equidistant line drawn halfway between Madeira and the Canaries. According to article 121 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: "Rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no exclusive economic zone or continental shelf." The status of the Savage Islands as islands or rocks was thus at the core of the dispute.

Despite the islands having numerous visitors, mostly for scientific purposes, and the fact that several settlements were tried throughout the centuries, today the Savage Islands are a special natural reserve whose only year-round inhabitants are the wardens of Madeira's Natural Park. Over the years, apart from the EEZ debate, a number of issues pertaining to the Savage Islands led to disputes between the two countries, namely the construction of a lighthouse, the administration of airspace (done from the closer Canary Islands), the right to perform military air exercises, and, most importantly, illegal fishing and poaching in the archipelago and its vicinity.

19th century

 * 1880s – In an 1881 Maritime Signalisation Commission meeting, Spain requested the building of a lighthouse on the islands. The Portuguese recognised the importance of the lighthouse to the Canary Islands sea route, but deemed it not a priority at the time. In response, the Spanish Foreign Affairs Ministry stated that "the sovereignty of the islands is unclear".

20th century

 * 1910s – In 1911, given the lack of action over the requested lighthouse, Spain said it would build it on its own (and annex the archipelago). After a Portuguese protest questioning what it termed "Spanish confusion" over the issue, Spain said its intention was to reach an agreement "in the most amicable terms". In 1913, the Portuguese Navy conducted a survey, led by Admiral Schultz Xavier, of the Selvagem Grande Island and recommended Pico da Atalaia as the best location for the lighthouse.
 * 1930s – On February 15, 1938, the Permanent Commission of International Maritime Law declared Portugal as the legitimate sovereign over the islands. The Spanish government, however, was in the midst of fighting the Spanish Civil War and did not have the opportunity to present its case to the commission.
 * 1970s – In 1971, the Portuguese government bought the islands from their previous Madeiran owner, and decreed the creation of a natural reserve in the archipelago to protect the area from illegal fishing and poaching, which had severely reduced the bird populations in recent years. In 1972, two Spanish civilian boats, San Pedro de Abona and Áries, were arrested near the islands. In 1975, fishermen from the Canary Islands disembarked in the islands and waved a Spanish flag. In 1976 another Spanish boat, Ecce Homo Divino, was detained for illegal fishing.
 * 1996-1997 – On 8 April 1996, Spanish F-18 fighters overflew the islands, followed by a low altitude Puma SA-330J flyby over Selvagem Grande on August 2. On the following October 16th, another F-18 flyby over the reserve was filmed by the Portuguese RTP TV channel, prompting the Portuguese Foreign Affairs Ministry to protest. In May 1997, the Ministry of Defense formally requested the Spanish government to stop training exercises near the natural reserve. Spain agreed, but on 1 August 1997 and 24 September 1997, new flybys by Spanish airplanes took place in the vicinity, prompting vehement protests from the Portuguese authorities which led to a formal apology by the Spanish ambassador to Portugal, after which the flights stopped. After this period, the islands were reinforced with a small Portuguese Navy detachment, purportedly to help patrol the islands against illegal fishing and poaching. Later in 1997, Spain formally recognised Portuguese sovereignty over the islands.

21st century

 * 2005 – 23 June, four Spanish fishing boats were detained 28 nmi south of the islands. A few days later, on 8 July, a biologist and one of the nature reserve wardens in the Selvagem Grande Island were threatened with a knife and underwater fishing spear guns by a group of Spanish fishermen. A group of ten Portuguese marines were placed on the island for a month to put an end to poaching of protected species.
 * 2007 – June, one Spanish search and rescue airplane flew over the islands at low altitude, prompting the Portuguese Ministry of the Environment to contact its Spanish counterpart over the issue.
 * 2013 – 5 July, Spain sends letter officially complaining to the UN that the Savage islands are just rocks, which would invalidate the Portuguese sovereignty over the claimed EEZ surrounding the islands.
 * 2013 – 18 July, The serving President of Portugal, Aníbal Cavaco Silva with the President of the Regional Government of Madeira, Alberto João Jardim arrived on the islands on board the Portuguese Navy frigate Vasco da Gama visit and stay on the Islands as part of a tour to meet residents and officials based there. Aníbal Cavaco Silva became the first President to stay overnight on the islands as former Presidents Mário Soares and Jorge Sampaio only visited for a few hours.
 * 2014 – The head of the Spanish Government, Mariano Rajoy, announced that Repsol, an Oil and Gas company will conduct surveys to find oil and gas in the surrounding waters of the nearby Canary islands, would begin "very likely" between July and September.
 * 2014 – 22 September, Canarian secessionists on behalf of the Canarian Nationalist Alternative party, staged a protest on the smaller island of Selvagem Pequena, to urge the Portuguese government to intercede with the European Parliament so as not to jeopardise the fragile and unique biodiversity of the Macaronesian islands, before the Spanish government completely surrenders to the interests of Repsol. After two days the protestors were transported to Funchal by the Portuguese Navy.
 * 2014 – 17 December, Spain sends Dr Luis Somoza Losada to the UN to give a 448-point report asking for the expansion of Spanish territory at the expense of Portugal. After returning to Spain from New York he states "It's the biggest enlargement of Spanish sovereignty since Christopher Columbus". Luis Somoza Losada was a coordinator of a team made up of civilians and military that was commissioned to underpin the ambitious maritime expansion of Spain around the Savage Islands. Conducting 6 surveys of the area on 3 ships: the Hespérides, Miguel Oliver and Sarmiento de Gamboa, he discovered that there was gas in the area and possibly oil.
 * 2016 – 21 August, the territory starts being permanently patrolled by two elements of the Polícia Marítima, the Portuguese water police, stationed on the Selvagem Grande Island.
 * 2016 – 30 August, Portuguese President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, joined by the Minister for Internal Administration Constança Urbano de Sousa, and the President of the Regional Government of Madeira Miguel Albuquerque, visited Selvagem Grande. Rebelo de Sousa remarked that "Wherever the President of the Republic goes, he marks our territory", and justified the voyage by saying that the Head of State must go to every part of the national territory.

title: Savage Islands


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Talk:North Seekonk, Massachusetts

I grew up in this little town from the period of 1972 until 1982 and then again from 1996 to 1998. This town was an extraordinary place to grow up. There are lots of trees and a large reservoir where we would play. The local food is influenced by its location to Rhode Island. Such delicious local treats as clam cakes, NY System Wieners, Cabinets and Frappes, and of course Fish and Chips! are all part of the culture. You can visit my blog if you like http://www.rmware.com/raysworld/ just click this link

title: Talk:North Seekonk, Massachusetts


text:
List of political parties in Argentina

This article lists political parties in Argentina.

Argentina has a multi-party system with two strong political parties or alliances, and various smaller parties that enjoy representation at the National Congress.

Since the 1990s, there is a strong decentralizing tendency within the national parties, along with the growing national relevance of province-level parties and alliances. In the last decade, most of the newly formed parties remained as junior partners of the main alliances or as district-level relevant political forces.

Historic background
From the "national organisation" process (1862–80) up to 1916, the oligarchic National Autonomist Party directed Argentine politics, before being replaced, through the first secret ballot elections, by the Radical Civic Union. The "Infamous Decade" (1930–43), initiated by the first modern coup d'état in Argentina, represented a return of the conservatives, who implemented a so-called "patriotic fraud" electoral practice. Since 1946, the strongest party has been the Justicialist Party, emerging around the leadership of Juan Perón (when not banned, justicialists lost only four presidential elections, in 1983, 1999, 2015, and 2023). From 1946 to 2001, the second most important party was the Radical Civic Union, until the 2001 financial crisis. From then on, left-wing Justicialists Néstor Kirchner and his wife Cristina Fernández de Kirchner won the 2003, 2007 and 2011 general elections. After that, in the 2015 general election, Kirchnerism was defeated by a Centre-right coalition, Cambiemos, composed of the Radical Civic Union and Republican Proposal, a new liberal conservative party. However, in the elections of 2019, the Justicialist Party joined the Frente de Todos (a Centre-left coalition) which won the presidential elections. The PJ returned to power, with Alberto Fernández as President of the Nation.

Since 10 December 2023, the current-ruing party in Argentina is the Libertarian Party, with Javier Milei as President of the Nation.

Provincial alliances
Provincial electoral alliances and coalitions active as of the 2019 general election.

 * Notes

National parties
Parties recognized in at least 5 provinces, as of 31 July 2021.

Provincial parties
Parties recognized in at least one province, as of 31 October 2020.

Defunct parties and alliances

 * 19th Century and early 20th Century
 * Unitarian Party (Partido Unitario)
 * Federalist Party (Partido Federal)
 * National Autonomist Party (Partido Autonomista Nacional, PAN)
 * Civic Union of the Youth (Unión Cívica de la Juventud, UCJ)
 * Civic Union (Unión Cívica)
 * National Civic Union (Unión Cívica Nacional, UCN)
 * National Autonomist Party (Modernist) (Partido Autonomista Nacional, línea modernista)
 * Lencinism (Mendoza) (Lencinismo)
 * Antipersonalist Radical Civic Union (Unión Cívica Radical Antipersonalista, UCR-A)
 * Rightist Confederation (Confederación Derechista)
 * Independent Socialist Party (Partido Socialista Independiente, PSI)
 * National Democratic Party (Partido Democrático Nacional, PDN)
 * Concordancia

 * Mid 20th Century
 * Democratic Union (Unión Democrática, UD)
 * Radical Civic Union (Junta Renovadora) (Unión Cívica Radical, Junta Renovadora)
 * Independent Party (Partido Independiente)
 * Labour Party (Partido Laborista, PL)
 * Peronist Party (Partido Peronista, PP)
 * Female Peronist Party (Partido Peronista Femenino)
 * Intransigent Radical Civic Union (Unión Cívica Radical Intransigente, UCRI)
 * Radical Civic Union of the People (Unión Cívica Radical del Pueblo, UCRP)
 * Democratic Socialist Party (Partido Democrático Socialista, PSD)
 * Argentine Socialist Party (1915) (Partido Socialista Argentino, PSA)
 * Argentine Socialist Party (1958) (Partido Socialista Argentino, PSA)
 * Revolutionary and Popular Indoamericano Front (Frente Revolucionario Indoamericano Popular, FRIP
 * Union of the Argentine People (Unión del Pueblo Argentino, UDELPA)
 * Argentine Socialist Vanguard Party (Partido Socialista Argentino de Vanguardia, PSAV)
 * Socialist Party of the National Left (Partido Socialista de la Izquierda Nacional, PSIN)
 * Popular Socialist Party (Partido Socialista Popular, PSP)
 * Worker's Socialist Party (Partido Socialista de los Trabajadores, PST)
 * Federalist Popular Alliance (Alianza Popular Federalista, APF)
 * Revolutionary Popular Alliance (Alianza Popular Revolucionaria, APR)
 * Justicialist Front for National Liberation (Frente Justicialista de Liberación Nacional, FREJULI)
 * Autonomist Party of Corrientes

 * Late 20th Century and early 21st Century
 * Federalist Popular Force (Fuerza Federalista Popular, FuFePo)
 * Autonomist-Liberal Pact (Pacto Autonomista-Liberal, Corrientes Province)
 * Alliance for Work, Justice and Education (Alianza por el Trabajo, la Justicia y la Educación, ALIANZA)
 * Front for a Country in Solidarity (Frente para un País Solidario, Frepaso)
 * Argentines for a Republic of Equals (Argentinos por una República de Iguales, ARI)
 * United Left (Izquierda Unida, IU)
 * People's Reconstruction Party
 * Front for Change (Frente para el Cambio)
 * Broad Encounter (Encuentro Amplio)
 * An Advanced Nation (UNA) (una Nación Avanzada, UNA)
 * Everyone's Front (Frente de Todos, FdT)
 * Federal Consensus (Consenso Federal, CF)

title: List of political parties in Argentina