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Menu

In a restaurant, the menu is a list of food and beverages offered to customers and the prices. A menu may be à la carte – which presents a list of options from which customers choose – or table d'hôte, in which case a pre-established sequence of courses is offered. Menus may be printed on paper sheets provided to the diners, put on a large poster or display board inside the establishment, displayed outside the restaurant, or put on a digital screen. Since the late 1990s, some restaurants have put their menus online.

Menus are also often a feature of very formal meals other than in restaurants, for example at weddings. In the 19th and 20th centuries printed menus were often used for society dinner-parties in homes; indeed this was their original use in Europe.

History
Menus, as lists of prepared foods, have been discovered dating back to the Song dynasty in China. In the larger cities of the time, merchants found a way to cater to busy customers who had little time or energy to prepare an evening meal. The variation in Chinese cuisine from different regions led caterers to create a list or menu for their patrons.

The word "menu", like much of the terminology of cuisine, is French in origin. It ultimately derives from Latin "minutus", something made small; in French, it came to be applied to a detailed list or résumé of any kind. The original menus that offered consumers choices were prepared on a small chalkboard, in French a carte; so foods chosen from a bill of fare are described as "à la carte", "according to the board".

The earliest European menus, several of which survive from 1751 onwards, appear to have been for the relatively intimate and informal soupers intimes ("intimate suppers") given by King Louis XV of France at the Château de Choisy for between 31 and 36 guests. Several seem to have been placed on the table, listing four courses, each with several dishes, plus dessert.

During the second half of the 18th century, and especially after the French Revolution in 1789, they spread to restaurants. Before then, eating establishments or tables d'hôte served dishes chosen by the chef or proprietors. Customers ate what the house was serving that day, as in contemporary banquets or buffets, and meals were served from a common table. The establishment of restaurants and restaurant menus allowed customers to choose from a list of unseen dishes, which were produced to order according to the customer's selection. A table d'hôte establishment charged its customers a fixed price; the menu allowed customers to spend as much or as little money as they chose.

Price-less
Menus for private functions, pre-paid meals and the like do not have prices. In normal restaurants, there are two types of menus without prices that were mostly used until the 1970s and 1980s: the "blind menu" and the "women's menu". These menus contained all of the same items as the regular menu, except that the prices were not listed. The "blind menu" was distributed to guests at business meals where the hosts did not want the diners to see the prices, or to any type of dinner where the host felt that having the prices not listed would make the guests feel more comfortable ordering.

Until the early 1980s, some high-end restaurants had two menus divided by gender: a regular menu with the prices listed for men and a second menu for women, which did not have the prices listed (it was called the "ladies' menu"), so that the female diner would not know the prices of the items. In 1980, Kathleen Bick took a male business partner out to dinner at L'Orangerie in West Hollywood; after Bick got a women's menu without prices and her guest got the menu with prices, Bick hired lawyer Gloria Allred to file a discrimination lawsuit, on the grounds that the women's menu went against the California Civil Rights Act. Bick stated that getting a women's menu without prices left her feeling "humiliated and incensed". The owners of the restaurant defended the practice, saying it was done as a courtesy, like the way men would stand up when a woman enters the room. Even though the lawsuit was dropped, the restaurant ended its gender-based menu policy. While price-less menus for women generally disappeared after the 1980s, in 2010, Tracey MacLeod reported that Le Gavroche in London (UK) still had a price-less women's menu for women who eat at tables booked by men, with tables booked by women getting a regular menu for the woman.

Economics of menu production
As early as the mid-20th century, some restaurants have relied on "menu specialists" to design and print their menus. Prior to the emergence of digital printing, these niche printing companies printed full-color menus on offset presses. The economics of full-color offset made it impractical to print short press runs. The solution was to print a "menu shell" with everything but the prices. The prices would later be printed on a less costly black-only press. In a typical order, the printer might produce 600 menu shells, then finish and laminate 150 menus with prices. When the restaurant needed to reorder, the printer would add prices and laminate some of the remaining shells.

With the advent of digital presses, it became practical in the 1990s to print full-color menus affordably in short press runs, sometimes as few as 25 menus. Because of limits on sheet size, larger laminated menus were impractical for single-location independent restaurants to produce press runs of as few as 300 menus, but some restaurants may want to place far fewer menus into service. Some menu printers continue to use shells. The disadvantage for the restaurant is that it is unable to update anything but prices without creating a new shell.

During the economic crisis in the 1970s, many restaurants found it costly to reprint the menu as inflation caused prices to increase. Economists noted this, and it has become part of economic theory, under the term "menu costs". In general, such "menu costs" may be incurred by a range of businesses, not just restaurants; for example, during a period of inflation, any company that prints catalogs or product price lists will have to reprint these items with new price figures.

To avoid having to reprint the menus throughout the year as prices changed, some restaurants began to display their menus on chalkboards, with the menu items and prices written in chalk. This way, the restaurant could easily modify the prices without going to the expense of reprinting the paper menus. A similar tactic continued to be used in the 2000s with certain items that are sensitive to changing supply, fuel costs, and so on: the use of the term "market price" or "Please ask the server" instead of stating the price. This allows restaurants to modify the price of lobster, fresh fish and other foods subject to rapid changes in cost.

The latest trend in menus is to display them on handheld tablets; customers can browse through these and look at the photographs of the dishes.

Writing style

The main categories within a typical menu in the US are appetizers, "side orders and à la carte", entrées, desserts and beverages. Sides and à la carte may include such items as soups, salads, and dips. There may be special age-restricted sections for "seniors" or for children, presenting smaller portions at lower prices. Any of these sections may be pulled out as a separate menu, such as desserts and/or beverages, or a wine list. A children's menu may also be presented as a placemat with games and puzzles, to help keep children entertained.

Menus can provide other useful information to diners. Some menus describe the chef's or proprietor's food philosophy, the chef's résumé (British: CV), or the mission statement of the restaurant. Menus often present a restaurant's policies about ID checks for alcohol, lost items, or gratuities for larger parties. In the United States, county health departments frequently require restaurants to include health warnings about raw or undercooked meat, poultry, eggs, and seafood.

Puffery
As a form of advertising, the prose found on printed menus is famous for the degree of its puffery. Menus frequently emphasize the processes used to prepare foods, call attention to exotic ingredients, and add French or other foreign language expressions to make the dishes appear sophisticated and exotic. "Menu language, with its hyphens, quotation marks, and random outbursts of foreign words, serves less to describe food than to manage your expectations"; restaurants are often "plopping in foreign words (80 percent of them French) like "spring mushroom civet", "pain of rabbit", "orange-jaggery gastrique".

Part of the function of menu prose is to impress customers with the notion that the dishes served at the restaurant require such skill, equipment, and exotic ingredients that the diners could not prepare similar foods at home. In some cases, ordinary foods are made to sound more exciting by replacing everyday terms with their French equivalents. For example, instead of stating that a pork chop has a dollop of apple sauce, a high-end restaurant menu might say "Tenderloin of pork avec compote de Pommes." Although "avec compote de Pommes" translates directly as "with apple sauce", it sounds more exotic—and more worthy of an inflated price tag. Menus may use the culinary terms concassé to describe coarsely chopped vegetables, coulis to describe a purée of vegetables or fruit, or au jus, to describe meat served with its own natural gravy of pan drippings.

Paper
Menus vary in length and detail depending on the type of restaurant. The simplest hand-held menus are printed on a single sheet of paper, though menus with multiple pages or "views" are common. In some cafeteria-style restaurants and chain restaurants, a single-page menu may double as a disposable placemat. To protect a menu from spills and wear, it may be protected by heat-sealed vinyl page protectors, lamination or menu covers. Restaurants consider their positioning in the marketplace (e.g. fine dining, fast food, informal) in deciding which style of menu to use.

Some restaurants use a single menu as the sole source of information about the food for customers, but in other cases, the main menu is supplemented by ancillary menus, such as:
 * An appetizer menu (nachos, chips and salsa, vegetables and dip, etc.)
 * A wine list
 * A liquor and mixed drinks menu
 * A beer list
 * A dessert menu (which may also include a list of tea and coffee options)

Some restaurants use only text in their menus. In other cases, restaurants include illustrations and photos, either of the dishes or of an element of the culture which is associated with the restaurant. For instance a Lebanese kebab restaurant might decorate its menu with photos of Lebanese mountains and beaches. Particularly with the ancillary menu types, the menu may be provided in alternative formats, because these menus (other than wine lists) tend to be much shorter than food menus. For example, an appetizer menu or a dessert menu may be displayed on a folded paper table tent, a hard plastic table stand, a flipchart style wooden "table stand", or even, in the case of a pizza restaurant with a limited wine selection, a wine list glued to an empty bottle.

Take-out restaurants often leave paper menus in the lobbies and doorsteps of nearby homes as advertisements. The first to do so may have been New York City's Empire Szechuan chain, founded in 1976. The chain and other restaurants' aggressive menu distribution in the Upper West Side of Manhattan caused the "Menu Wars" of the 1990s, including invasions of Empire Szechuan by the "Menu Vigilantes", the revoking of its cafe license, several lawsuits, and physical attacks on menu distributors.

Menu board
Some restaurants – typically fast-food restaurants and cafeteria-style establishments – provide their menu in a large poster or display board format up high on the wall or above the service counter. This way, all of the patrons can see all of the choices, and the restaurant does not have to provide printed menus. This large format menu may also be set up outside (see the next section). The simplest large format menu boards have the menu printed or painted on a large flat board. More expensive large format menu boards include boards that have a metal housing, a translucent surface, and a backlight (which facilitates the reading of the menu in low light) and boards that have removable numbers for the prices. This enables the restaurant to change prices without having to have the board reprinted or repainted.

Some restaurants such as cafes and small eateries use a large chalkboard to display the entire menu. The advantage of using a chalkboard is that the menu items and prices can be changed; the downside is that the chalk may be hard to read in lower light or glare, and the restaurant has to have a staff member who has attractive, clear handwriting.

A high-tech successor to the chalkboard menu is the 'write-on wipe-off" illuminated sign, using LED technology. The text appears in a vibrant color against a black background.

Outdoor
Some restaurants provide a copy of their menu outside the restaurant. Fast-food restaurants that have a drive-through or walk-up window will often put the entire menu on a board, lit-up sign, or poster outside so that patrons can select their meal choices. High-end restaurants may also provide a copy of their menu outside the restaurant, with the pages of the menu placed in a lit-up glass display case; this way, prospective patrons can see if the menu choices are to their liking. Also, some mid-level and high-end restaurants may provide a partial indication of their menu listings–the "specials"–on a chalkboard displayed outside the restaurant. The chalkboard will typically provide a list of seasonal items or dishes that are the specialty of the chef which is only available for a few days.

Digital displays
With the invention of LCD and Plasma displays, some menus have moved from a static printed model to one which can change dynamically. By using a flat LCD screen and a computer server, menus can be digitally displayed allowing moving images, animated effects and the ability to edit details and prices.

For fast food restaurants, a benefit is the ability to update prices and menu items as frequently as needed, across an entire chain. Digital menu boards also allow restaurant owners to control the day parting of their menus, converting from a breakfast menu in the late morning. Some platforms support the ability allow local operators to control their own pricing while the design aesthetic is controlled by the corporate entity. Various software tools and hardware developments have been created for the specific purpose of managing a digital menu board system. Digital menu screens can also alternate between displaying the full menu and showing video commercials to promote specific dishes or menu items.

Online menu
Websites featuring online restaurant menus have been on the Internet for nearly a decade. In recent years, however, more and more restaurants outside of large metropolitan areas have been able to feature their menus online as a result of this trend.

Several restaurant-owned and startup online food ordering websites already included menus on their websites, yet due to the limitations of which restaurants could handle online orders, many restaurants were left invisible to the Internet aside from an address listing. Multiple companies came up with the idea of posting menus online simultaneously, and it is difficult to ascertain who was first. Menus and online food ordering have been available online since at least 1997. Since 1997, hundreds of online restaurant menu web sites have appeared on the Internet. Some sites are city-specific, some list by region, state or province.

Digital menu
The idea of the digital menu is very new and differs from an online menu. An online menu is a website presenting a food menu on an e-commerce platform but has no interface with meal production except sometimes receiving the order. A digital menu is a fully integrated food menu where the front-end is presented online as a web application, but as well as facilitating orders it is also linked to the kitchen or other production facility. A digital menu can generate a variety of reports and is connected with the finance/point of sale system. It may also be integrated with inventory and accounting software.

Secret menu
Another phenomenon is the so-called secret menu where some fast food restaurants are known for having unofficial and unadvertised selections that customers learn by word of mouth, or by looking them up online. Fast food restaurants will often prepare variations on items already available, but to have them all on the menu would create clutter. This can also occur in high-end restaurants, which may be willing to prepare certain items which are not listed on the menu (e.g., dishes that have long been favorites of regular clientele). Sometimes restaurants may name foods often ordered by regular clientele after them, for either convenience or prestige. At some fast food restaurants, 'secret menu' items exist which were once part of the regular menu but are no longer advertised. These items may still be rung up as a regular menu item, and are assembled from ingredients that are still in use in other menu items.

Literature

 * Jim Heimann (ed.): Menu Design in America: 1850-1985, English/German/French. Taschen, Köln, Germany 2011. ISBN 978-3-8365-2662-3

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Old Europe and New Europe

Old Europe and New Europe are terms used to contrast parts of Europe with each other in a rhetorical way. In the 21st century, the terms have been used by conservative political analysts in the United States to describe post-Communist era countries in Central and Eastern Europe as 'newer' and parts of Western Europe as 'older', suggesting that the latter were less important. The term Old Europe attracted attention when it was used by then-U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld in January 2003 to refer to democratic European countries before the fall of Communism in Europe, after which a significant number of new members have eventually joined NATO, the European Union and other European bodies.

Old Europe can mean – in a wider sense – Europe of an older historical period, as opposed to a newer historical period. Before Rumsfeld’s use, the term had been used in various historical contexts to refer to Europe as the "Old World" as opposed to America as the "New World"; or, in Marxist usage, to Europe in the expectation of Communist revolutions.

Rumsfeld's term
On January 22, 2003, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld answered a question from Dutch journalist Charles Groenhuijsen about a potential U.S. invasion of Iraq:

"Q: Sir, a question about the mood among European allies. You were talking about the Islamic world a second ago. But now the European allies. If you look at, for example, France, Germany, also a lot of people in my own country -- I'm from Dutch public TV, by the way -- it seems that a lot of Europeans rather give the benefit of the doubt to Saddam Hussein than President George Bush. These are U.S. allies. What do you make of that?''

Rumsfeld: Well, it's -- what do I make of it?

Q: They have no clerics. They have no Muslim clerics there.

Rumsfeld: Are you helping me? (Laughter.) Do you think I need help? (Laughter.)

What do I think about it? Well, there isn't anyone alive who wouldn't prefer unanimity. I mean, you just always would like everyone to stand up and say, Way to go! That's the right thing to do, United States.

Now, we rarely find unanimity in the world. I was ambassador to NATO, and I -- when we would go in and make a proposal, there wouldn't be unanimity. There wouldn't even be understanding. And we'd have to be persuasive. We'd have to show reasons. We'd have to -- have to give rationales. We'd have to show facts. And, by golly, I found that Europe on any major issue is given -- if there's leadership and if you're right, and if your facts are persuasive, Europe responds. And they always have.

Now, you're thinking of Europe as Germany and France. I don't. I think that's old Europe. If you look at the entire NATO Europe today, the center of gravity is shifting to the east. And there are a lot of new members. And if you just take the list of all the members of NATO and all of those who have been invited in recently -- what is it? Twenty-six, something like that? -- you're right. Germany has been a problem, and France has been a problem.

Q: But opinion polls --

Rumsfeld: But -- just a minute. Just a minute. But you look at vast numbers of other countries in Europe. They're not with France and Germany on this, they're with the United States."

The expression was interpreted as a dig against a "sclerotic" and old-fashioned Western Europe. Those countries, Rumsfeld added on the same occasion, were "of no importance." It became a potent symbol, especially after division emerged over Iraq between France and Germany and some of the new Central and Southeastern European entrants and applicants to NATO and the European Union.

Rumsfeld would later claim his comment was "unintentional," and that he had meant to say "old NATO" instead of "old Europe;" during his time as ambassador to NATO, there were only fifteen alliance members, and France and Germany had played a much larger role than after the admission of many new (particularly Eastern European) countries. Nonetheless, he claims he "was amused by the ruckus" when the term became debated.

Further diplomatic tension built up when Rumsfeld pointed out in February 2003, that Germany, Cuba and Libya were the only nations completely opposing a possible war in Iraq (a statement that was formally correct at the time). This was interpreted by many that he would put Germany on a common level with dictatorships violating human rights.

Later developments
The German translation altes Europa was the word of the year for 2003 in Germany, because German politicians and commentators responded by often using it in a sarcastic way. It was frequently used with pride and a reference to a perceived position of greater moral integrity. The terms altes Europa and Old Europe have subsequently surfaced in European economic and political discourse. For example, in a January 2005 unveiling for the new Airbus A380 aircraft, German chancellor Gerhard Schröder said, "There is the tradition of good old Europe that has made this possible." A BBC News article about the unveiling said Schröder "deliberately redefined the phrase previously used by... Rumsfeld."

Outside of Rumsfeld's usage of "Old Europe", the term New Europe (and neues Europa) also appeared, indicating either the European states that supported the war, the Central European states that had been newly accepted to the EU, or a new economically and technologically dynamic and liberal Europe, often including the United Kingdom.

Rumsfeld made fun of his statement shortly before a 2005 diplomatic trip to Europe. "When I first mentioned I might be travelling in France and Germany it raised some eyebrows. One wag said it ought to be an interesting trip after all that has been said. I thought for a moment and then I replied: 'Oh, that was the old Rumsfeld.'"

The phrase continued to be used after Rumsfeld's tenure. In a March 2009 speech to the United States Congress, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown said "There is no old Europe, no new Europe. There is only your friend Europe," which The Boston Globe called "an oblique shot at" Rumsfeld. The next month, speaking in Prague, U.S. President Barack Obama, echoing Brown's words, said, "in my view, there is no old Europe or new Europe. There is only a united Europe."

Earlier uses
The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels starts with the words:

"A spectre is haunting Europe — the spectre of communism. All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre: Pope and Tsar, Metternich and Guizot, French Radicals and German police-spies."

When Marx used the term in 1848, the year of failed liberal revolutions across Europe, he was referring to the restoration of Ancien régime dynasties, following the defeat of Napoleon. Of his three sets of pairs, each pair links figures who might on the surface be considered adversaries, in alliances that he clearly sees as unholy. An "Old Europe" must find a mental contrast with a posited "New Europe".

In his ultra-nationalistic, anti-European book of 1904, America Rules the World, E. David used 'Old Europe' in the following context:

"The true American citizen is by nature brave, honest, amiable, hospitable, patriotic, energetic and intelligent; he is practical and yet idealistic and enthusiastic. Cultivation and refinement make him a gentleman equal, if not superior, to the gentry of the best educated classes of Old Europe for manners and behavior. An educated American is the best and most generous of friends."

In his book La Hora de los Pueblos (1968), Argentine politician Juan Perón used the phrase when he enunciated the main principles of his purported new tricontinental political vision:

"Mao is at the head of Asia, Nasser of Africa, De Gaulle of the old Europe and Castro of Latin America."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Old Europe and New Europe


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Space Adventures

Space Adventures, Inc. is an American space tourism company founded in 1998 by Eric C. Anderson. Its offerings include zero-gravity atmospheric flights, orbital spaceflights (with the option to participate in a spacewalk), and other spaceflight-related experiences including cosmonaut training, spacewalk training, and launch tours. Plans announced thus far include sub-orbital and lunar spaceflights, though these are not being actively pursued at present. Nine of its clients have participated in the orbital spaceflight program with Space Adventures, including one who took two separate trips to space.

History
Space Adventures was founded in 1998 by Eric C. Anderson — president and CEO — with several other entrepreneurs from the aerospace, adventure travel and entertainment industries. The company is headquartered in Tysons Corner, Virginia, with an office in Moscow.

Space Adventures offers a variety of programs, such as orbital spaceflight missions to the International Space Station (ISS), circumlunar missions around the Moon, zero gravity flights, cosmonaut training programs, spaceflight qualification programs, and reservations on future suborbital spacecraft.

Since 2001, Space Adventures has launched seven clients on eight successful missions to the ISS. In April 2001, the company sent American businessman Dennis Tito for a reported US$20 million payment, making him the first space tourist. South African businessman Mark Shuttleworth did the same in April 2002, becoming the first African in space. Gregory Olsen became the third private citizen to travel to the ISS in October 2005, followed by the first female space tourist, Anousheh Ansari, who completed her 10-day orbital mission in September 2006. Charles Simonyi, an ex-executive at Microsoft, became the fifth space tourist who visited the ISS in April 2007, then again in March 2009. He is the world's first private space explorer who launched to space twice. In 2008, game developer Richard Garriott, the first second-generation U.S. astronaut, became the sixth client to travel to the ISS. In October 2009, Cirque du Soleil founder Guy Laliberté became the first Canadian space tourist to have launched into space.

, the company's advisory board included Apollo 11 moonwalker Buzz Aldrin, Space Shuttle astronauts Sam Durrance, Tom Jones, Byron Lichtenberg, Norm Thagard, Kathy Thornton, Pierre Thuot, and Charles Walker, Skylab/Shuttle astronaut Owen Garriott, and Russian cosmonaut Yuri Usachev.

In January 2008, Space Adventures acquired Zero Gravity Corporation, which is the first and only FAA-approved provider of weightless flights to the general public.

In 2015, English soprano Sarah Brightman had been expected to become the eighth client of Space Adventures to visit the ISS, paying US$52 million for her flight, but the company announced that Brightman had postponed her trip "for personal family reasons". Brightman was initially expected to be replaced by another Space Adventures client, Japanese advertisement entrepreneur Satoshi Takamatsu; however, in June 2015, the company announced that Takamatsu had elected to postpone his flight to prepare for "art projects that [he] would like to perform in space [that] require cutting-edge technology both in hardware and software". The spot was eventually taken by Kazakh government cosmonaut Aidyn Aimbetov.

Due to the retirement of the Space Shuttle, from 2011 to 2020, NASA contracted with the Russian space agency Roscosmos to purchase a large number, the majority, of seats on the Soyuz. Space tourism transport to the ISS became possible once again after NASA signed contracts with two commercial carriers in 2020, and by mid-2020, Space Adventures had contracted for two of the available Soyuz seats in 2021.

Dennis Tito
Space Adventures' first orbital spaceflight client, and the world's first private space explorer, launched to the ISS in April 2001 on Soyuz TM-32. American businessman Dennis Tito received training at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City in Russia. Tito participated in Space Adventures' other programs, including a zero-gravity flight, centrifuge training, and a supersonic jet flight before his orbital flight.

Mark Shuttleworth
Mark Shuttleworth spent 10 days in space. He launched with two crewmates, Russian commander Yuri Gidzenko and Italian astronaut Roberto Vittori. They launched on Soyuz TM-34 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan, on 25 April 2002. Before his flight, Shuttleworth completed Space Adventures' Orbital Pre-Qualification Program and underwent almost eight months of training and medical exams, including a one-week orientation program at NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. A zero-gravity flight, centrifuge training, and spacecraft communication, guidance, and control system lessons for the Russian Soyuz spacecraft and ISS were also part of his training. Shuttleworth dedicated his flight to educating South African youth and conducting scientific research.

Gregory Olsen
Gregory Olsen completed over 900 hours of training in Star City, Russia, in preparation for his mission. He and his crewmates launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan, on 1 October 2005, aboard Soyuz TMA-7. While aboard the ISS, he participated in a research program prepared by the European Space Agency (ESA) that studied the human body's response to the microgravity environment. Through Amateur Radio on the ISS, Dr. Olsen contacted high school students in New Jersey and New York.

Anousheh Ansari
Anousheh Ansari lifted off on Soyuz TMA-9 on 18 September 2006, from Baikonur, Kazakhstan. Ansari became the fourth (and first female) space tourist. During her eight-day stay onboard the ISS, Ansari conducted four experiments for the European Space Agency, including researching the mechanisms behind anemia, how changes in muscles influence lower back pain, consequences of space radiation on ISS crew members, and different species of microbes that have made a home for themselves on the space station.

Charles Simonyi
Charles Simonyi is the first repeat orbital spaceflight client of Space Adventures. His first spaceflight mission was in 2007 aboard Soyuz TMA-10, and his second was in 2009 aboard Soyuz TMA-14. Simonyi's goals for both of his missions were to advance civilian spaceflight, assist space station research and involve the world's youth in the science of space travel.

Richard Garriott
Richard Garriott became the first American, and second second-generation space traveler, following his astronaut father Owen Garriott into space in 2008. He is also the second person to wear the British flag in space. He launched for the ISS on 12 October 2008, aboard Soyuz TMA-13. Richard's main objective for his mission was to encourage commercial participation. By fostering the involvement of individuals, companies, and organizations in his spaceflight, Richard hoped to demonstrate that there is commercial potential in private space exploration while furthering the understanding of space. One of his crewmates on his return journey to Earth aboard Soyuz TMA-12 was Sergey Volkov, the first second-generation space traveler, who followed his father, cosmonaut Aleksandr Volkov into space.

Guy Laliberté
Guy Laliberté is the first Canadian space tourist, reaching orbit on 30 September 2009, aboard Soyuz TMA-16. While in orbit, Laliberté promoted the One Drop Foundation and proclaimed his mission as a "Poetic Social Mission". He also conducted the first-ever artistic and social event, "Moving Stars and Earth for Water", to originate from space that took place on 9 October 2009. It was a two-hour event that was hosted by Laliberté and many celebrities such as Salma Hayek, Shakira, and Bono, who participated from Earth. He returned to Earth onboard Soyuz TMA-14.

Yusaku Maezawa and Yozo Hirano
Yusaku Maezawa and his assistant Yozo Hirano flew to space in December 2021, on Soyuz MS-20. While in space, Hirano helped document Maezawa's experiences for his social media. The mission was unusual for a Soyuz flight in that it did not deliver any ISS Expedition crew members or serve as a lifeboat, and was entirely devoted to space tourism. Maezawa, who paid for both his and Hirano's seats, also financed the DearMoon project, in which he and several other people will fly on a circumlunar trajectory onboard SpaceX's Starship later in the decade, though it sas later cancelled.

Clients who participated in training only

 * Lance Bass
 * Esther Dyson (Investor in Space Adventures)
 * Sarah Brightman
 * Satoshi Takamatsu

Orbital Mission Explorers Circle
A program was originally set up to allow individuals to reserve seats on future orbital spaceflights and then retain the option to fly to orbit as their schedule allowed with preferential access to mission seats, or they can opt to sell their seat to another private astronaut. Sergey Brin, co-founder and president of technology for Google Inc., became the founding member of the "Founding Explorer" group by placing a US$5 million deposit on a future orbital spaceflight in 2009. As of 2021, Brin has never exercised his option to fly on one of the available seats.

In 2010, Space Adventures established the Orbital Mission Explorers Circle to build a definitive consortium of future private space explorers who share a lifetime goal of orbital spaceflight or the investment therein. Space Adventures has initially created six "Founding Explorer" positions in the Orbital Mission Explorers Circle, each of whom was intended to have priority access to participate in future orbital space missions.

Spacewalk
In 2006, the company announced that it would begin offering a spacewalk option to its clients traveling to the ISS. The spacewalk would allow participants to spend up to 1.5 hours outside the space station and costs about US$15 million. It would lengthen the orbital mission by approximately six to eight days. The spacewalk would be completed in the Russian designed Orlan space suit. The training for the spacewalk would also require an extra month of training on top of the six months already required. As of October 2021, no clients have actually contracted for this service.

Lunar mission
Space Adventures is offering advance booking for a future lunar mission involving travel to circumnavigate the Moon, on a circumlunar trajectory. Pricing was announced at US$100 million per seat,.

This mission will utilize two Russian launch vehicles. A Soyuz capsule being launched into low Earth orbit by a Soyuz launch vehicle. Once in orbit, the crewed capsule will dock with a second, uncrewed, lunar-propulsion module which will then power the circumlunar portion of the trip. v The mission will last 8–9 days, including (approximately) 2½ days in Earth orbit docking with the propulsion stage, 5 days to reach lunar orbit, a 45-minute observation of the Moon from as low as 100 km, and 2½ days to return to Earth. In 2011, Space Adventures announced that they had sold one of the seats on the lunar voyage for US$150 million, and are in negotiations for selling a second seat. They wouldn't reveal the name of the person to whom the ticket was sold but claim he or she is well known. By 2014, they claimed to have found two people willing to spend US$150 million and it could happen within three years. Space Adventures have subsequently amended their website to say they expect the first circumlunar voyage will occur before the end of the decade.

Low Earth orbit mission
In February 2020, the company announced plans to fly private citizens into orbit on Crew Dragon. The SpaceX Crew Dragon vehicle would launch from LC-39A with up to four tourists on board, and spend up to five days in a low Earth orbit with an apogee of over 1000 km. In October 2021, Space Adventures stated that the mission contract had expired, but left open the possibility of a partnership with SpaceX in the future.

Explorer suborbital vehicle
The company, along with Prodea and the Federal Space Agency of Russia, began in the mid-2000s to develop a suborbital space transportation system, called Explorer. The vehicle was to be designed by Myasishchev Design Bureau, a Russian aerospace organization which had developed other aircraft and space systems.

By 2006, the Explorer aerospace system would consist of a flight-operational carrier aircraft, the M-55X, and a rocket spacecraft, having the capability to transport up to five people to space. Space Adventures abandoned the Explorer project in 2010 because "it got too expensive".

Armadillo suborbital rocket
In 2010, Armadillo Aerospace was working on a suborbital commercial launch vehicle that was to have been marketed through Space Adventures. The per-passenger price point was announced in April 2010 to be US$102,000 for a flight to 100 km altitude, above the Karman line.

The Armadillo-developed technology was to have been a vertical takeoff, vertical landing (VTVL) suborbital vehicle carrying space tourists to at least 100 km altitude, with Space Adventures selling the seats. The spacecraft development effort was jointly funded by both Armadillo and Space Adventures.

The project did not advance very far before the assets of Armadillo Aerospace were sold to Exos Aerospace in May 2014.

Lawsuit
Japanese businessman Daisuke Enomoto sued Space Adventures in 2008 as his trip was canceled by the company for medical reasons after he paid US$21 million and no refund was given.

title: Space Adventures


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Filmi

Filmi (lit. 'of films') music soundtracks are music produced for India's mainstream motion picture industry and written and performed for Indian cinema. In cinema, music directors make up the main body of composers; the songs are performed by playback singers and the genre represents 72% of the music sales market in India.

Filmi music tends to have appeal across India, Nepal, Pakistan and overseas, especially among the Indian diaspora. Songs are often in different languages depending on the target audience, for example in Hindi or Tamil. Playback singers are usually more noted for their ability to sing rather than their charisma as performers. Filmi playback singers' level of success and appeal is tied to their involvement with film soundtracks of cinema releases with the highest box office ratings.

At the "Filmi Melody: Song and Dance in Indian Cinema" archive presentation at UCLA, filmi was praised as a generally more fitting term for the tradition than "Bombay melody", "suggesting that the exuberant music and melodrama so closely identified with the Hindi commercial cinema produced in Bombay (Mumbai) is truly pan-Indian."

Origins
In the earliest years, filmi music was generally Indian (classical Carnatic, Hindustani, and village folk) in inspiration; over the years, Western elements have increased significantly. However, film soundtracks continue to be very diverse, sometimes fusing genres or reverting to entirely classical music. Examples of this can be found throughout the history of filmi music.

Music directors
R. C. Boral, Harishchandra Bali, Pankaj Mullick, Anil Biswas, Naushad Ali, Khwaja Khurshid Anwar and S. Rajeswara Rao were noteworthy music directors of the 1940s. Rao, who scored the 1948 Tamil Chandralekha, the first all-India hit, continued music directing in Chennai until the 1980s. The 1950s and 1960s, included music composers like Shankar Jaikishan, S. D. Burman, O. P. Nayyar, Madan Mohan, Hemant Kumar, C. Ramchandra, Roshan, Vasant Desai, Kalyanji–Anandji and Khayyam in Hindi film music. K. V. Mahadevan, Vishwanathan-Ramamoorthy, Laxmikant–Pyarelal, G. Devarajan, V. Dakshinamoorthy and M. S. Viswanathan were active music directors for more than 35 years from the 1950s.

As Indian cinema segued into the 1960s and 1970s, pop artists like R. D. Burman, Bappi Lahiri and duos like Nadeem–Shravan and Jatin–Lalit gave filmi a stronger western flavor with composers Ilaiyaraaja and Raveendran who rose to fame during the 1970s and 1980s in Tamil film music.

Major musical forces in the 1990s and 2000s have included A. R. Rahman, Nadeem–Shravan, Pritam, Himesh Reshammiya, Harris Jayaraj, Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy, Vishal–Shekhar, Vidyasagar, Ramesh Narayan, M. Jayachandran, Yuvan Shankar Raja, Deepak Dev, Johnson, Anu Malik, Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Salim–Sulaiman, Devi Sri Prasad etc. A. R. Rahman, who was described by Time magazine as "India's most prominent movie songwriter", is widely accepted to be the most internationally recognized Indian musician.

Playback singers
A playback singer is a singer who pre-records songs for use in films. The singer records the song and the actors or actresses lip-sync the song in front of the cameras, a form of singing that is characteristic of the Indian subcontinent. The songs of a film, the quality of the music and its music director (composer), lyricist and singer have often determined the success of a film. Film soundtracks are sometimes released before the film itself, resulting in a disparity between the soundtrack and the songs appearing in the film.

Kundan Lal Saigal was one of the earliest playback singers in the Indian music industry. Notable playback singers include Kishore Kumar, Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, Mohammed Rafi, Mukesh, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, K. J. Yesudas, S. Janaki, P. Susheela, K. S. Chithra, MG Sreekumar, Udit Narayan, Amit Kumar, Alka Yagnik, Sujatha, Hemlata (singer), Kumar Sanu, Armaan Malik, Sonu Nigam, Shaan, KK, Shreya Ghoshal, Arijit Singh, Mohit Chauhan, Javed Ali, Neha Kakkar, Priyadarshini and many others.

Lyricists
In the 1950s and 1960s, lyricists like Shailendra, Hasrat Jaipuri, Sahir Ludhianvi, Raja Mehdi Ali Khan, Rajendra Krishan, Majrooh Sultanpuri, Bharat Vyas, Shakeel Badayuni, Qamar Jalalabadi, Anand Bakshi, Jan Nisar Akhtar and S. H. Bihari wrote lyrics of many classic filmi songs. Lyrics tended towards the literary and drew heavily on contemporary Urdu and Hindi poetry. The south has seen poets like Kannadasan, Vairamuthu and Vaali rise to prominence, in Tamil poetry and literature alongside Vayalar Ramavarma, P. Bhaskaran, O. N. V. Kurup in the Malayalam music industry.

Nowadays, some famous lyricists are Rashmi Virag, Kunaal Vermaa, Manoj Muntashir, Rakesh Kumar, Irshad Kamil, Sayeed Quadri, Armaan Malik etc.

Popularity ratings
Binaca Geetmala, Ameen Sayani's popular Hindi language radio show before satellite television took over in India sometime in the 1990s, gave weekly popularity ratings of Hindi film songs (akin to the Billboard Hot 100 list of songs). It ran in various incarnations from 1952 to 1993, and annual lists of the most popular songs were played at year-end. The list was compiled on the basis of record sales in India. Currently, Hindi filmi songs are sold on tape and CD compilations, played as promos and in programs on various television channels and radio stations, with different popularity ratings claiming different songs as being on the top. In an annual exercise, a net-based effort RMIM Puraskaar lists all important Hindi film songs of the year, in addition to awarding songs for various categories.

Accusations of plagiarism
Because popular music directors score a great many films over the course of a year, accusations of plagiarizing abound. For example, one production number in Dil (1990) is based on Carl Perkins' Blue Suede Shoes, sung with Hindi lyrics. Of late the Indian film industry has been gaining visibility outside India, and the legal risks of plagiarism have been gaining importance. Some producers have actually paid for the musical rights to popular Western songs, as in Kal Ho Naa Ho (2003) song, "Oh, Pretty Woman". Plagiarism has also existed within India, with several music directors in Bombay cinema lifting tunes from other "regional" industries.

There have also been accusations of plagiarism against foreigner musicians borrowing from Hindi filmi songs. For example, "Don't Phunk with My Heart" by The Black Eyed Peas was largely based on two 1970s filmi songs: "Ye Mera Dil Yaar Ka Diwana" from Don (1978) and "Ae Naujawan Hai Sab Kuchh Yahan" from Apradh (1972). Both songs were originally composed by Kalyanji Anandji and sung by Asha Bhosle. Another example is "Addictive" sung by Truth Hurts, which is lifted from Lata Mangeshkar's "Thoda Resham Lagta Hai" from Jyoti (1981). This led to the copyright holders of the original song filing a lawsuit against DJ Quik and Dr. Dre, the producers of "Addictive". Filmi music composed by A. R. Rahman (who would later win two Academy Awards for the Slumdog Millionaire soundtrack) has frequently been sampled by musicians elsewhere in the world, including the Singaporean artist Kelly Poon, the Uzbek artist Iroda Dilroz, the French rap group La Caution, the American artist Ciara, and the German band Löwenherz, among others.

Wider success
Filmi is also making exerting influence beyond the usual Desi audiences, with many Western music stores today carrying Indian music compilations. As early as 1978, the synthpop pioneers Haruomi Hosono and Ryuichi Sakamoto of the Yellow Magic Orchestra produced an electronic album Cochin Moon based on an experimental fusion between electronic music and Bollywood-inspired Indian music. Later in 1988, Devo's hit song "Disco Dancer" was inspired by the song "I am a Disco Dancer" from the Bollywood film Disco Dancer (1982).

Baz Luhrmann showcases the song "Chamma Chamma" from China Gate (1998) in his 2001 movie Moulin Rouge. Another 2001 film Ghost World featured Mohammed Rafi's song "Jaan Pehechan Ho" from the 1965 film Gumnaam. The 2002 song "Addictive", sung by Truth Hurts and produced by DJ Quik and Dr. Dre, was lifted from Lata Mangeshkar's "Thoda Resham Lagta Hai" from Jyoti (1981). The Black Eyed Peas' Grammy Award winning 2005 song "Don't Phunk with My Heart" was inspired by two 1970s Bollywood songs: "Ye Mera Dil Yaar Ka Diwana" from Don (1978) and "Ae Naujawan Hai Sab Kuchh Yahan" from Apradh (1972). Both songs were originally composed by Kalyanji Anandji, sung by Asha Bhosle, and featured the dancer Helen. The songs "Mera Man Tera Pyasa" from the movie Gambler (1971) performed by Mohammed Rafi, "Tere Sang Pyar Main" from the movie Nagin (1976) performed by Lata Mangeshkar, and "Wada Na Tod" also by Lata Mangeshkar from the movie Dil Tujhko Diya (1987) were featured in Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004). Scores from Chennai Tamil films have appeared in productions such as Lord of War (2005) and The Accidental Husband (2008). Ilaiyaraaja won the Gold Remi Award for Best Music Score jointly with film composer M. S. Viswanathan at the WorldFest-Houston Film Festival for the Tamil film Vishwa Thulasi (2005).

A. R. Rahman rose to fame from the Kollywood film industry to become one of the most popular international music directors and has had a musicalBombay Dreams, playing in London and New York, and scored several projects outside India. He has won two Academy awards and two Grammy awards, even numerous international awards and accolades. The song "Chaiyya Chaiyya", originally composed by A. R. Rahman for Dil Se.. (1998), has also been well received around the world, making several top 10 world music lists and has even been featured in several American movies. The song was in both the opening scene and credits of Spike Lee's Inside Man. Rahman's earlier soundtrack for Roja (1991) was included in Time 10 Best Soundtracks of all time in 2005. He has been regarded as the only composer from India to attain massive popularity and fame in the international arena. Hindi filmi music has reached an even wider global audience due to the success of the Slumdog Millionaire soundtrack, also composed by Rahman. Singaporean-Indian singer Priyadarshini is regarded as the first Indian playback singer to carry out Ph.D. research in film music and document 100 years of music in Tamil cinema and 90 years in Kannada cinema

The first domain name ever registered related to filmi music and Indian entertainment media was indiamusic.com. The site further put filmi music on the map. Thereafter followed a flood of Indian and filmi music sites.

title: Filmi


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Changi

Changi is a planning area located in the geographical region of Tanah Merah in the East Region of Singapore. Sharing borders with Pasir Ris and Tampines to the west, Changi Bay to the southeast, the South China Sea to the east and the Serangoon Harbour to the north. Changi, excluding the two water catchments and islands of Singapore, is the largest planning area by land size.

Today, Changi is an aviation hub. It is the location of both the Changi Airport and Changi Air Base. Also located within Changi is Singapore's largest prison, Changi Prison. It was used as a Japanese prisoner-of-war camp during the occupation of Singapore in World War II. The prison is Singapore's oldest operating internment facility.

Etymology

The early Malay place name of Changi was Tanjong Rusa (English: Deer cape), as written in the 1604 Godinho de Eredia map of Singapore.

The name Changi was known in the early 19th century. In the 1828 map by Franklin and Jackson, the extreme southeastern tip of the island is referred to as Tanjong Changi. Vessels using the Johor Straits would have to pass by Changi.

There are many versions of the etymological roots of the name Changi. The first director of the Singapore Botanic Gardens Henry Ridley suggested that it gets its name from a tall tree, Pokok Chengal or Cengal (Malay for Neobalanocarpus heimii, also known as Balanscorpus heimii or Balano scorpas), which was common in the area in the early nineteenth century. It is also written and pronounced as "Chengai". Its heavy timber is commonly used for buildings and furniture and noted for its strength and deep rich colour. Other sources suggests that it comes from a climbing shrub found in the area, the changi ular (Hopea sangal), or chengal asir  (Apama corymbosa).

During the early surveys in the 1820s to 1830s of Singapore island, Changi was also named Franklin Point after Captain Franklin who was involved in these early surveys.

History
Early Changi was mostly a malaria mosquito infested swampland and jungle that had several kampongs spread across the vast area. Several of these kampongs included from north to south, Kampong Changi, Kampong Telok Paku, Kampong Ayer Gemuroh, Kampong Somapah, Kampong Mata Ikan and Kampong Padang Terbakar, although the exact founding dates of many of these kampongs are unknown. The place was first redeveloped by the British as a summer house and a getaway location from the city centre of Singapore in the 1890s, and was prized for its tranquillity and remoteness. The existence of the resorts there today still bear testament to the original redevelopments there.

Starting from the 1920s due to increasing tension across Asia and Europe in anticipation for war, the British starting building up its military presence at the area and this included the construction of military barracks and the infamous Changi Hospital, with Chinese and Indian labourers brought in from the city. Defences along Changi's southern coast were also beefed up with the construction of machine-gun pillboxes in anticipation of the Imperial Japanese Army arrival by sea. Construction was briefly halted during the Great Depression but was subsequently resumed as these structures were considered vital for the defence of Singapore.

During World War II (WWII), the area saw mass mobilisation of Allied troops in anticipation of a Japanese invasion from the north-eastern coasts of Singapore as the Japanese had moved to capture the neighbouring Pulau Ubin from Malaysia. However it was a bluff that drew vital resources from the west of Singapore that was the eventual landing site used by the Japanese. The area also saw action of three giant artillery guns called the Johore Battery, though their usefulness in defending Singapore has been questionable.

In 1942, after the surrender of the British in Singapore, Allied Prisoners-of-Wars (POW) were made to march from the city to Changi Prison and the surrounding barracks where they were interned. The POW Camps were overcrowded and life as described by those who were interned there was unbearable, multiple incidents including the Selarang Barracks incident took place. Civilians were also not spared, the Sook Ching massacre which targeted mainly the Chinese population, took place at multiple locations in Changi, most notably at Changi Beach Park. Thousands were believed to have been executed in these areas. It was during this time too that the Japanese were also involved in the planning and construction of Changi Air Base.

After the war in 1945, the British continued to maintain Changi for military purposes, while rebuilding up the area to include accommodations, schools and resorts. They continued to do so even after the independence of Singapore in 1965, as with other areas like Seletar and Tengah. The coast along the eastern side of Changi also saw government bungalows and resorts opened for civil servants use. In 1971, because of the East of Suez policy that was announced by the British earlier in 1968, there was a sudden and large withdrawal of British troops from Changi. The vacated area saw many people whose livelihood and businesses depended on providing for the British forces becoming jobless and unsustainable. However, there were still contingents of ANZUK troops that were left in its place and the government of New Zealand even bolstered its presence in Singapore in the wake of the British withdrawal to maintain its interest in the region. The area then later became home to several of Singapore Armed Forces units too.

Changi was then revitalised with Changi Village and Somapah spruced up and Changi Airport being constructed in the area after land reclamation took place. However, this caused further disruptions to the livelihood of the residents as they had to make way for the airport and later the many other redevelopments in the area including high tech industrial estates. Finally in 1989, the last of New Zealand troops withdrew and all its remaining assets were handed over to the Singapore government. Redevelopment works continued into the 21st century with the progressive opening of the airport's terminal 3, 4 in 2008 and 2017, and the new Changi Prison Complex in 2004. Despite the strong progress of these developments, there were several ventures that were eventually stalled, like the Changi Motorsports Hub, which was expected to open as Singapore's first permanent motor racing circuit, but was halted in 2013.

Future development of Changi is in the pipelines with a mega-sized Terminal 5 and the Changi East Industrial Zone expected to be ready before 2030.

Geography

The terrain in Changi is generally flat because most of Changi today sits on reclaimed land, there are however three notable hills in the Changi Village area, Battery (Biggin) Hill, Fairy Point Hill and Temple Hill. The ground conditions on reclaimed land however were soft marine clay which could not support the runway and taxiways of the airport, and thus works had to carried out accordingly to drain the water and strengthen them. There are also two reservoirs located in Changi, the Changi Creek Reservoir and South End Reservoir which are located to the north and south of Changi Airport respectively. The Changi planning area as defined by the Urban Redevelopment Authority encompasses the subzone of Changi Airport, Changi Point and Changi West, although in comparison to the parliamentary electoral boundaries or the Changi Estate that is commonly known in public they all differ from one another slightly.

Amenities
There are numerous amenities spread around Changi. They include shopping malls like Changi City Point and even Changi Airport, which is considered to be a shoppers' paradise with duty-free shopping available inside the airport's transit area. Besides those, the Changi Village hawker centre is renowned for its food options, with shophouses also found around the area for the convenience of its residents. Food and amenity centres are also found all around the industrial estates, including the airfreight centre.

Places of worship in the area include Changi Bethany Church, Maranatha Bible Presbyterian Church, Sree Ramar Hindu Temple and Yan Kit Village Chinese Temple.

Education
Currently the Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD), Singapore's fourth autonomous university, is located at its permanent campus in Changi. Otherwise there are presently no public government schools in Changi but there were several that used to operate in its history. Additionally there are also several private and international schools operating in the area like BNP Paribus Campus, One World International School and Singapore Aviation Academy.

These were the schools that used to operate from Changi and most were cleared away for the construction of Changi Airport. All but one of them are now defunct, namely:
 * Red Swastika Primary School, from 1951 to 1981, the site was near the present-day junction of Changi Business Park Vista and Changi South Avenue 1, it now stands at Bedok North
 * Ayer Gemuroh Malay Primary School, from c.1949 to 1975, the site is now occupied by the south portion of Changi Airport
 * Chong Sing Chinese School, from 1910 to 1974, it was reconstructed in 1941 and the site is now occupied by Singapore Aviation Academy
 * Jeevanantham Tamil School/ Changi Tamil School, from 1946 to 1974, it was reconstructed twice in 1952 and 1966 with the site situated opposite the Japanese School
 * Min Chong Chinese School, from 1945 to 1981, it was formed from a merge between Bo Wen, Pei Nan School and was reconstructed in 1948 and 1959, the site was near the present-day junction of Changi Business Park Vista and Changi Business Park Crescent
 * Padang Terbakar Malay School, from 1883 to 1975, the site was approximately before the ECP slip road on Xilin Avenue
 * Telok Paku Primary School, from 1951 to 1975, the site is now occupied by the Airline House
 * Ting Ying Chinese School, from 1933 to c.1973, the site is now occupied by runway 02L/20R of Changi Airport

Additionally the British and later the Australian and New Zealand (ANZ) government opened schools for children of servicemen deployed in Singapore:
 * British Army's Children School (Selarang), from c.1950 to 1971, later converted to ANZ Primary School Selarang, which lasted from 1971 to 1973, the site was near Selarang Camp
 * Changi Junior and Infant School, until 1971, the site is now occupied by the north portion of Changi Air Base West
 * RAF Changi Grammar School, from 1963 to 1971, later converted to ANZ High School Changi, which lasted from 1971 to 1973, the site at 1800 Upper Changi Road North is now state property
 * The Japanese School Singapore (シンガポール日本人学校) Changi Campus is located in Loyang on the outskirts of the Changi Estate.

Leisure
There are a number of leisure facilities in Changi, including resorts, nature and sports facilities. Such facilities generally cater to a weekend getaway for Singaporeans.

Airlines

Changi Airport is a hub for FedEx Express, Jetstar Asia Airways, Qantas, Scoot, Singapore Airlines, Singapore Airlines Cargo, Tiger Airways and Valuair. These airlines' head offices are located as follows: Singapore Airlines in Airline House, Singapore Airlines Cargo in the SATS Airfreight Cargo Terminal 5, Jetstar Asia, Scoot and Valuair in Terminal 1 of the airport.

Airport Industries
The Changi Airfreight Centre (formerly known as Airport Cargo Complex) and the Airport Logistics Park (ALPS) Terminal are two main facilities that handle the airport-related goods and services daily. This may include inflown and outflown cargo, as well as aeroplane maintenance related services. The Immigration and Checkpoints Authority (ICA) also maintains its presence there to enforce customs, inspect and even quarantine goods entering Singapore. There are other smaller industries located nearer to the passenger terminals in Changi like the DNATA and SATS Inflight Catering Centre which also cater to the airports' needs, which may include aeroplane food catering, providing manpower and goods for operation as well as the maintenance of the airport itself. By 2030 the construction of Changi East Industrial Zone is also expected to be completed on par with the opening of Terminal 5 to be able to handle the increase in cargo volume.

Other Industries
Changi Business Park and Changi North Industrial Park are industrial estates located within Changi that have aeroplane related businesses housed in them, like Collins Aerospace, but the industrial parks also contain many other businesses that are unrelated to the operations of Changi Airport. The businesses there may range from logistical, to electronics and even banking. There is also the Singapore Expo which provides companies with a place to hold conventions and exhibitions.

Security
Changi, except for its airport, falls under the jurisdiction of the Bedok Police Division, and the Loyang Fire Post that is supplemented by the 2nd Singapore Civil Defence Force DIV HQ. Immigration and custom controls at all ferry terminals are controlled by ICA.

Airport
The Airport Police Division is responsible for the overall security of Changi Airport. It is supported by auxiliary police like AETOS, Certis CISCO and SATS Security, that are usually deployed as front line officers for baggage and personnel screening as well as controlling entry points into transit areas, including the airfreight centre. The airport police is further supported by the Police K9 Changi Base and the 9 SIR infantry soldiers to maintain protection of the airport. ICA works independently from the airport police and maintains control over immigration and customs in all terminals and air cargo entry points. It works with the Singapore Customs in customs and excise related issues. The airport has its own firefighting and rescue services, the Airport Emergency Service (AES) that operates two fire stations and one fire substation that are located around the airport's runway. It also has two casualty clearance stations and one sea rescue base located at Changi Airport Fuel Hydrant Installation (CAFHI) Jetty. AES operates 18 firefighting vehicles, two hovercraft and two fire boats.

Military
Changi houses several military installations of all three branches of Singapore's defence forces. Installations for the army in the area include Hendon Camp and the SAF Changi Ferry Terminal, while for the air force include, Changi Air Base East and West, and finally for the navy include Changi Naval Base. With plans to move Paya Lebar Air Base to Changi come 2030 and as well as the construction of Changi Airport Terminal 5, Changi Air Base is undergoing significant redevelopment works which include the lengthening of the runway. The SAF Ferry Terminal is also the starting point for the famous 24 km route march for new army recruits before they head in the direction of The Float @ Marina Bay for their passing out parade, besides being the typical connecting point for military personnel travelling between Pulau Tekong and Singapore.

Prison
Singapore Prison Service (SPS) is headquartered in Changi and most of its departments are located in the vicinity of its headquarters, like the Prison Logistics Branch. SPS operates two prisons in Changi, Changi Prison Complex and Tanah Merah Prison School. Changi Prison is the main premises for the incarcerated in Singapore. It is currently operating from a new building site with various clusters that hold offenders of various classification. Additionally, the Tanah Merah Prison School, which took over Kaki Bukit Prison School in 2011, is the only prison school in Singapore, where inmates can sit for either the GCE 'O', 'N' or 'A' Levels Examinations. Besides prisons, Changi also has rehabilitation centres like the Lloyd Leas Community Supervision Centre, which recently saw the nearby Selarang Park Community Supervision Centre being relocated into it so that and the site can be redeveloped to a halfway house. Past prisons and rehabilitation centres in the area include Abingdon Prison/Drug Rehabilitation Centre and Changi Women's Prison. The Changi Women's Prison was merged into the new Changi Prison Complex in October 2017.

Air
Changi is the home of Singapore Changi International Airport, which is considered to be the leading aviation hub in the region and serves many regional and international destinations. Most of Singapore's international arrival and departure are made via this airport. It is one of two civilian airports in Singapore, the other being Seletar Airport.

Bus
There are three bus terminals in Changi: Changi Business Park Bus Terminal, Changi Business Park Bus Terminal and Changi Village Bus Terminal.

Changi Business Park Bus Terminal
The main Changi Airport bus terminal is located in the basement of Terminal 2. However all bus services serving this bus terminal, namely 24, 27, 34, 36, 53, 110 and 858 serves the airport’s terminals 1, 2 and 3. Only bus services 24, 34, 36 and 110 operate from Terminal 4 of the airport.

Private buses and coaches also operate from the airport via dedicated coach boarding bays, including services such as Transtar Cross Border Service (TS1) to Johor Bahru, Malaysia.

Changi Business Park Bus Terminal
Changi Business Park Bus Terminal is located north of SUTD. Only two bus services, 47 and 118, serves this bus terminal. However, there are more bus services that ply within the Changi Business Park that do not call at this terminal, which include public bus service 20 and other private bus services.

Changi Village Bus Terminal
Changi Village Bus Terminal is located adjacent to Changi Village hawker centre. Bus services 2, 29, 59 and 109 operate from this bus terminal.

There was previously another bus terminal, the Somapah Bus Terminal located near the present-day Expo. It was opened in 1981 but demolished in 1989 to make way for redevelopments in the Expo area. Its bus services used to serve the east including the newly built Changi Airport which didn't have a bus terminal then.

There are many more bus services that ply within the entire Changi Estate. Several notable locations with bus services running to them include the Changi Airfreight Centre, which has services 9, 19 and 89 operating within it. Access to the airfreight centre is restricted and all buses entering the centre are individually checked by auxiliary police officers to ensure that all passengers have valid passes. Commuters wishing to enter the airfreight centre and do not have the required passes are to alight at the Police Pass Office bus stop to obtain their passes. The ALPS Terminal, which is next to the airfreight centre, as well as the Tanah Merah Ferry Terminal are only accessible via bus service 35. However access to both of the locations are not restricted.

Train
Changi is served by 3 MRT stations, Changi Airport on the East West MRT line, Upper Changi on the Downtown MRT line and Expo which is an interchange station for both lines. All of the stations are located in the south or central of Changi, hence there are no MRT stations in the vicinity of Changi Village or the airfreight centre, located in the north. Xilin MRT station is under construction as part of the Downtown line extension and would bring greater connectivity to Changi Business Park when it opens in 2026. There are however plans for the northern part of Changi as well as the upcoming Changi Airport Terminal 5 to be linked via the Cross Island MRT line and Thomson–East Coast MRT line.

Changi Airport is served internally by the Changi Airport Skytrain system that operates between Terminals 1, 2 and 3, both in the transit as well as public areas. Terminal 3 additionally has a Skytrain in the transit area that operates between the ends of the terminal for travellers convenience. The Skytrain is free of charge and is operationally between 5 am and 2.30 am, and at all other times travellers can take shuttle buses or travel on foot between terminals. Terminal 4 does not have a SkyTrain connection and the shuttle bus from Terminal 2 is available as a possible connection.

There exists the Changi Railway for a period of time in the 1930s to the 1940s which was used by the British prior to and during World War II, its primary function was to transport ammunition from the piers near Fairy Point Hill to the Johore batteries located around Changi. However they have since been dismantled.

Road
The East Coast Parkway (ECP), Pan Island Expressway (PIE) and Tampines Expressway (TPE) all start from the end of Airport just south of the perimeter of the airport. Airport Boulevard is the only road available for travellers wishing to enter or exit Changi Airport via road and it branches out to all four terminals inside the airport. There are dedicated roads for arrival, departure, coaches, public buses and taxis within each terminal. Taxi surcharge to and from the airport is $3 per ride or $5 per ride on Friday to Sunday, between 5 pm and 12 am.

There are three major roads that head to Changi Village: Loyang Avenue and Upper Changi Road North, which is located to the west of Changi Airport, and Tanah Merah Coast Road which is located to the east of the airport. There is no expressway that heads for a similar direction.

Sea
There are multiple points of entry to Singapore via sea. The Changi Ferry Terminal, Changi Point Ferry Terminal, and Tanah Merah Ferry Terminal are for civilian use while the CAFHI Jetty, Changi Naval Base, and SAF Changi Ferry Terminal are for private or military use and access is restricted. Destinations reachable from the Changi and Changi Point Ferry Terminals include Tanjung Belungkor on the eastern side of Johor, Malaysia, in addition, bumboat ferries operate to Pulau Ubin only from Changi Point. Batam and Bintan, Indonesia, are reachable via Tanah Merah Ferry Terminal. All civilian ferry terminals are operated locally except for Changi Ferry Terminal which is managed by the Johor Port Authority.

SAF Changi Ferry Terminal
SAF Changi Ferry Terminal, also known as Singapore Armed Forces Ferry Terminal (SAFFT) is a jetty that provides ferry services between Singapore's main island and Pulau Tekong, the site of SAF's Basic Military Training Centre.

Incidents

 * On 17 March 2012, a Malaysian Indian cleaner was killed when he was hit by a taxi hijacked by a Chinese national at Changi Airport Budget Terminal. Following his death, his widow and children received donations and insurance claims amounting to almost a million dollars. However, two years later it was reported his widow had spent all the money.
 * On 29 November 2015, 97 passengers aboard a ferry heading from Batam to Singapore were evacuated onto life rafts after their ferry collided with an object in the water at about 7.40pm. However, their life rafts also began taking in water, and they were eventually brought back to the Indonesian shores by villagers' boats. The passengers finally arrived at Tanah Merah Ferry Terminal, their intended location, at 12.20am the next day.
 * On 21 December 2017, 49 passengers on a ferry from Desaru, Malaysia were stranded at Changi Ferry Terminal for more than two hours after a contractor's barge blocked the jetty. The police had to be called in to help the passengers to disembarking safely.

title: Changi


text:
Stephen of Armenia

Stephen of Armenia (1111 – 7 February 1165) was the Marshal of Armenia, the son of Leo I, Prince of Armenia and Beatrice de Rethel.

His father made him Marshal in 1138, due to the invasion of John II Comnenus, and escaped capture by sheltering in Edessa. In 1157, he began raiding Byzantine territories around Marash against his half-brother Thoros' will, although he failed to capture Marash itself. The Byzantine governor of Tarsus, Andronicus Euphorbenus, invited him to a banquet. Stephen's corpse was found the next day and it was believed Andronicus murdered him. Thoros avenged his death with a massacre of Greeks within his territories, which would have led to war had not Amalric I of Jerusalem intervened to bring about a peace.

He had at least three children by his wife Rita of Barbaron:
 * Ruben III
 * Leo II
 * Dolete, who married Bertrand Embriaco

title: Stephen of Armenia