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Battle of Roliça

At the Battle of Roliça (17 August 1808), the first battle fought by the British army during the Peninsular War, an Anglo-Portuguese army under Sir Arthur Wellesley defeated an outnumbered Imperial French division under General of Division Henri François Delaborde, near the village of Roliça in Portugal. The French retired in good order.

Background
British intervention on the Iberian Peninsula started with the Battle of Roliça.

In the months after occupying Portugal, Napoleon attempted the conquest and control of Spain. He met much resistance but it was disorganised even when it was effective. By the end of July the Spanish had met the French a dozen times, winning, or at least not losing, at seven of those meetings. Their most spectacular victory was in southern Spain on 23 July 1808, when General Castaños surrounded and forced 18,000 French under General Dupont to surrender at Baylen. On 30 July 1808, the French division of General Loison massacred the population, men, women, and children, of Évora. Both of these events were to have an effect on the future of each nation's relationships with British troops.

On the same day, Wellesley received a letter from Viscount Castlereagh, the Secretary of War, that informed him that General Junot's forces numbered more than 25,000. Castlereagh forwarded his plans to augment the British Army in Portugal by another 15,000 men. General Sir John Moore was to arrive with an army from Sweden, and another force would be forwarded from Gibraltar. The command of this larger force would pass to Sir Hew Dalrymple (the Governor of Gibraltar, a 60-year-old general who had seen active service only in a failed campaign in Flanders in 1793–1794). Dalrymple would be seconded by Sir Harry Burrard, attended by five other generals, all senior to Wellesley (Dalrymple, Burrard, Moore, Hope, Fraser, and Lord Paget). The ambitious General Wellesley hoped to make something happen during the time he still commanded the army in Portugal.

On 30 July 1808, General Wellesley remet Admiral Cotton's convoy with Wellesley's troops at Mondego bay. Wellesley chose this as his landing point because students from Coimbra University had seized the fort making this a safer landing than any place nearer Lisbon. The disembarking of Wellesley's original 16,000 troops and supplies with the 6,000 they met off Portugal lasted from 1 to 8 August. Some landing craft capsized in the rough surf making the first British casualties in the Peninsula victims of drowning.

The army marched off on the 10th on the hot and sandy 12 mi march to Leiria. Wellesley arrived on the 11th and soon argued with General Bernardim Freire de Andrade, the commander of 6,000 Portuguese troops, about supplies and the best route to Lisbon. The result had Wellesley taking his preferred route, close to the sea and his supplies, with 1,700 of the Portuguese under the command of Colonel Nicholas Trant, a British officer in service with the Portuguese Army.

The army then began its march toward Lisbon following a force of the French army. The French were under the command of General Delaborde. These troops had been sent by Junot to harass and hold the British while he brought his larger army into position to oppose the Anglo-Portuguese forces.

By 14 August the British reached Alcobaça and moved on to Óbidos. Here the British vanguard, consisting of riflemen from 5th/60th and 95th Rifles, met pickets and the rearguard of the French forces. The 4,000 French were outnumbered approximately four to one.

British
The Anglo-Portuguese were formed in six brigades under Major General Hill, Major General Ferguson, Brigadier General Nightingall, Brigadier General Bowes, Brigadier General Catlin Craufurd, and Brigadier General Fane with the Portuguese under Trant. Trant with the Portuguese and 50 cavalry formed the right and were to turn the French left. Fergusson and Bowes with three companies of riflemen and some light artillery were to force the French right and hold against the possible arrival of French troops under Loison. Hill, Nightingall, Craufurd, Fane with the remaining Portuguese, and the rest of the guns and cavalry were to push the centre. British forces involved in the battle included:

 * Artillery, commanded by Colonel Robe
 * 6 Artillery Guns detached to Left division
 * 12 Artillery Guns detached to Centre Division
 * Left Division, commanded by General Ferguson
 * Ferguson's Brigade – 36th (Herefordshire) Regiment of Foot, 1/40th (the 2nd Somersetshire) Regiment of Foot, and 1/71st (Highland) Regiment of Foot
 * Bowes Brigade – 1/6th (1st Warwickshire) Regiment of Foot and 1/32nd (Cornwall) Regiment of Foot
 * Centre Division
 * 20th Regiment of (Light) Dragoons (detachment), 6th (Bragança) Portuguese Cavalry, 12th (Miranda) Portuguese Cavalry, and 6th (Oporto) Portuguese Caçadores (in reserve) – Brigade taken from Portuguese 3rd (Northern) Division
 * Fane's Brigade – 5/60th (Royal American) Regiment and 2/95th Rifles (on the left)
 * Nightingale's Brigade – 29th (Worcestershire) Regiment of Foot and 82nd Regiment of Foot (Prince of Wales's Volunteers) (in the centre)
 * Hill's Brigade – 5th Regiment of Foot (Northumberland Fusiliers), 9th (East Norfolk) Regiment of Foot, and 38th (1st Staffordshire) Regiment of Foot (on the right)
 * Caitlin Craufurd's Brigade – 45th (Nottinghamshire) (Sherwood Foresters) Regiment of Foot, 50th (Queen's Own) Regiment of Foot, and 91st (Argyllshire Highlanders) Regiment of Foot (in reserve)
 * Right Division, commanded by Colonel Trant
 * 20th Regiment of (Light) Dragoons (detachment), 11th (Almeida) Portuguese Cavalry Regiment (50 men, from 2nd (Central) Division), 12th (Chaves) Portuguese Infantry Regiment, 21st (Valenca) Portuguese Infantry Regiment, and 24th (Braganca) Portuguese Infantry Regiment – Brigade taken from the 3rd (Northern) Division

French
The French forces under Delaborde consisted of five battalions, including one Swiss, and five guns. The small French/Swiss force included:

 * 70éme Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne (2 Battalions)
 * 4éme Régiment Suisse d'Infanterie (1 Battalion)
 * 2éme Régiment Légère (1 Battalion)
 * 4éme Régiment Légère (1 Battalion)
 * 26éme Bataillon de Chasseurs

Battlefield
The village of Roliça is located in the centre of a horseshoe shape of steep hills approximately one mile wide and two deep. The open end opens north-northeast toward Óbidos where the 5/60th and 95th had met the French the day before. The hills around Óbidos and Roliça were well wooded.

The French began the day to the north of Roliça backed up to the higher ground allowing them to block or protect the roads south toward Lisbon. On the hill about one mile to the south of the village where the French first fell back, there were four defiles, or gullies leading into the new French position. The field below these hills were grassy, but boulders and the steep sides to the gullies made attack in formation impossible. In the first stages of the battle, Delaborde pulled his troops back to the top of the hill.

Battle
Wellesley arrived at Óbidos on 16 August and moved toward Roliça on the following day. At the beginning of the battle, Delaborde occupied a position to the north-northwest of the village of Roliça. Wellesley attempted to manoeuvre his forces into a double envelopment, moving to each flank of the French position with his main force organised into three fighting columns of brigades. This could be attempted since the Anglo-Portuguese army outnumbered the French forces present by over 3 to 1.

He sent Trant to the west, and a stronger force under Fergusson and Bowes with six guns to the east, while he distracted the French with a show of force and noise in the centre. Wellesley tried the manoeuvre twice starting at 9:00 a.m., but the French commander spotted this in time and fell back each. At this time the French final position was to the south and east of the village at the top of a steep hill that was littered with sharp rocks and the only way up was using narrow gullies.

Colonel Lake of the 29th Regiment of Foot in the centre then made the mistake of dashing up a gully toward the French position. He arrived behind Delaborde, which cost Lake his life and most of the men in the 29th. This prompted a general attack in relief by the outnumbering British. The fight was rough and uphill with Delaborde hoping for support to arrive from Loison. He repulsed three assaults by the British until nearly 4:00 p.m. At this time Wellesley ordered a general advance to support the 29th & 9th Regiments of Foot. They swarmed up the rock face using their superior numbers to reach the French positions at the top of the hill and Ferguson arrived over the hills to the east.

Delaborde began to withdraw in good order with effective aid from his cavalry until his army's discipline broke and his army ran. Without British cavalry to press the pursuit, they successfully withdrew to Montachique near Torres Vedras.

Results
The Anglo-Portuguese won with 487 casualties, over half that number from the precipitate 29th. The French lost 700 men and three of their five guns. Delaborde himself was wounded. The following day Wellesley found that the 4,000 additional British troops had arrived from England and were off the coast. He marched his men to cover their disembarkation rather than follow Delaborde.

Aftermath
The British intervention proceeded with the Battle of Vimeiro on 21 August 1808.

title: Battle of Roliça


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Talk:Jews/Archive 1

Justification for having an article on "Jew/s"
Groups of people are associated in a number of different ways, most of which suggest better titles for the subject: if they're related by religion or belief, for example, title the article after that: Judaism, Socialism, etc. If they're related by geography or nationality, that should be covered under topics like Israel, Africa, Ottoman Empire, etc. But what about cultures and races that apply only to the people themselves and that are not related to a place or a government or a religion? There probably aren't many cases, but I can certainly think of a few: Bedoins, Huns, Zulus, and yes, Jews. And I think we do have to use singular nouns, even though the plurals make better titles, so that we can make links like "The Israeli government recognizes an immigrant as a Jew if his or her mother was Jewish..." or "The Bantu Stephen Biko was a South African activist..." So yes, I think there should be an article "Jew", which contains aspects of Jewish culture not related to the religion of Judaism or the state of Israel, and should explain the distinctions, and the fact that the term is used ambiguously (at least "Zulu" won't have that problem). -- Lee Daniel Crocker

 * For the record, the magic of redirects seems to take care of this already -- Jew is a redirect to the prettier title Jews, where the article sits. While it is possible for redirects to get messy when they're used extensively, I think this is a cases where it's not illegitimate to have them and use them unashamedly. (Note also that the next revision of the software will include links via redirects in the "pages that link here" list, making clean-up much easier in the case that such an article gets retitles later.) Brion VIBBER, Wednesday, May 1, 2002

My mother was not a Jew & my father was Jewish
I am a jew. My mother was not a jew. My father was jewish and as far as I can determine is a direct descendant of Abraham, Issac and Jacob. I was not raised as a jew. I have gone to synagouges for bar-mitzvah and marriages all my life. When my father died I sat shivah and said prayer each day for six months. The issue of Jewish out of the mothers blood is an insult of history. As conquered people and living in foreign lands were rape could be a problem antiqity devised a common idea, rabbinacal canonization developed - but does this rule derive from the word or will of God. Not that I can tell. Of all my family, my father had the most distintive Askanazic ethnic Jewish appearance - I look exactly like him and appear more jewish then any other offspring. So who are you to define away my ethnicity ? All my life I have been identified as a jew by non-jews and have suffered anti-semitism. Once again, who are you to define away my ethnicity? To deny there is a jewish ethnicity is ridiculous and religious or historical arguments don't stop me from enjoying a good eastern european jewish meal with my family. The insult of separation by dependence on religious law is a denial of reality and a form of anti-semitism that only a half jew not by mother can understand. As for culture, what does the non religious individual that is a jew of birth from Yeman have in common with the non-religious jew of birth from Poland or America. I guess neither would be Jews - HUH. Now we are defining away ethnicity. Much less then the Jew and Christian in New York and perhaps the Jew or Muslim from Yeman. Does the Jew eating McDonalds quarter-pounder really have that much cultural similarity to the Yemani Jew drinking goat milk? Both could be Zionist or non-Zionist- but do they both enjoy rock and roll and drink coca-cola while eating french fries. In fact, the Yemani Jew is most likely dark skinned, brown eyed and black haired whereas the American Jew may be blond and light skinned. And yet both may have Jewish mothers. And what of the 3rd generation of a mother whose family converted ? Blood, parentage, culture, religion, etc all miss the point and are points of exclusion- all arbitary. Is the religious Jew a Jew - Yes, is the half jew by father a jew- of course if you consider genetics, why on earth would a non-jew like Marx be a jew if he was an aethist whereas a god-fearing self-identifying half jew like myself be a non-jew ( specifically when every non-Jew I have ever know thinks I am a Jew). The rejection of the half-jew is designed to stop the disintergration of a religion by putting the price of ostrasim on the head of half breeds and those bold enough to marry non-jews. All these exclusionary definitions fail. Some fight to be the chosen people of God, others fight the chosen people of God. Is religion an issue, well, ethics certainly are. Can an unethical non religious half jew be a jew - What if Hitler was a Frankenberger and not a Sticklegrubber ? At times it seems all the distinctions are very pointless and all subject to misuse.

Jewish culture
Lee writes "I think there should be an article 'Jew', which contains aspects of Jewish culture not related to the religion of Judaism or the state of Israel, and should explain the distinctions, and the fact that the term is used ambiguously"

 * Jewish culture should be incorporated into the current entry "Jews". It already makes the distinction between a Jewish person, and a person who actually follows the religion known as Judaism; this section can be expanded if need be. However, from a historical point of view, there is no such thing as Jewish culture separate from Judaism. In fact, most Jews themselves refuse to define Judaism as a religion; its never been seen that way in the classical rabbinic era, and it isn't seen that way today by Reform, Reconstructionist, Conservative or Modern Orthodox Jews. Only ultra-Orthodox Jews and secular Jews who reject all aspects of Judaism altogether treat Judaism as a religion. For the last 2,000 years, Jewish art, music, culture, literature, theology, philosophy, liturgy and religious works have all been part of one organic whole. I would say that having an article on parts of Jewish culture that are distinct from Judaism would be on oxymoron. One could, of course, have entries that specifically deal with Jewish art, Jewish literature, Jewish culture, Jewish cooking, Jewish music, etc. RK

Judaism as religion (or not)
But we do have to cover the religion as a religion, and "Judaism" is clearly the best name for it: To me, and probably to most people, the word "Judaism" implies the religion, and only the religion. And there are certainly religious influences in art, literature, and even cooking; but what about things like the Yiddish language? Holocaust remembrance? Regardless of the fact that there is lots of overlap, there is a culture and the is a religion and they need to be treated in two articles. Both of those articles, though, will naturally emphasize the links between the two subjects. --LDC

 * I would disagree; There never existed any Yiddish language, literature or culture, except as a part of Judaism. Where does it exist as some distinct entity that can be discussed without reference to Judaism?  Nowhere.  Holocaust remembrance is the one place where I think you have a valid point, because many Jews who have long since left Judaism still feel compelled to deal with the Holocaust in some way, even if they do som from a secualr, and often non-Jewish, point of view.  I agree with you that there is a culture, but I just don't understand what you are referring to when you imply that there is some sort of Jewish culture distinct from Judaism.  I am not aware of any. In the latter half of the 1800s, to the early part of the 20th century, many secularized Jews (many of whom were extremely anti-religion in all ways) attempted to create a secular Jewish cultures divorced from Judaism - these were the Bundists. Their movement failed. It can be examined in an article of course, but an article on the Jewish Bund culture that was divorced from Judaism would have to be noted as an exception to the rule, and not the rule itself. There also has been a huge defection from Judaism by Jews in American; most people of Jewish descent no longer consider themselves Jews, and even those that do claim that theyt do not practice Judaism. However - and this is the critical point - these secualr Jews have not created any sort of Jewish culture that exosts separately from Judaism. They simply do their own thing, without being part of any sort of cohesive community or worldview. RK

Yiddish literature was large and by secular. -- Harald

Juadism as a civilization - Mordechai Kaplan
I think that RK is taking the Mordechai Kaplan position (Judaism as a civilization)--one that I personally accept--but i have to agree with LDC about having two separate articles. There were, particularly in the last century, movements among Jews that attempted to eliminate ties with the religion. These included some Zionists, the Canaanite movement of Ratosh, and certainly the Bundists and Jewish communists. Nevertheless, they should certainly be included in an article on Jews. By the way, in support of RK's position, there is no word in Hebrew for religion. "Dat," which is now used in that sense, is a Persian word found in the Book of Esther, where it refers to the laws of Ahasueres. In that case, even the most Orthodox circles would not accept that Judaism is a religion. In fact, the only people that took that position were the early Reformers in Germany (and it was in response to a law passed in Prussia, of all places).Danny

 * I agree with Mordechai Kaplan that Judaism is an evolving religious civilization, and not just a religion, but note that this isn't just his view. It is also the view of every Reform, Conservative and Modern Orthodod rabbi and scholar. Its not a value judgement; i.e. I am not claiming that Judaism should be a civilization that includes a religion; rather, I am pointing out that historically, this in fact is what it always has been. RK

"Religion" & Wikipedia
I think that this discussion reveals two issues that any encyclopedia article must be sensitive to. The first point is a general issue, albeit one I think many Jews would be especially sensitive to: that "religion" -- and I do not mean a particular religion or even a particular definition of religion, but rather the notion that the word religion, however defined, refers to a specific semantic domain -- is a social construct. In Western/Christian society, religion refers to an institution, including particular beliefs and practices, that are considered distinct from other institutions. But this may not be and indeed is not true for all cultures. Some cultures do not distinguish between "religion" and other domains. And I think that for most of its history, and even today for most Jews, this is true of Judaism. Even to ask "What is Jewish religion" or "How do we describe the religion of the Jews" can be anachronistic and ethnocentric questions.

My point: Wikipedia should not assume that every society has a "religion" that can and should be identified as such and be described. Anyone about to research or write about another society must first ask, does this society distinguish between religious and other institutions (beliefs/practices)? Or does it map its life and world in other ways? As Danny and RK both attest, in general, Judaism does not identify any semantic domain to be "religion;" it is not a meaningful distinction within Jewish culture and to read it into Jewish culture (at least for most of its history) could only lead to misunderstanding. (I think there are good reasons for Jews to be especially sensitive to this, but I will hold off until later so as not to create an unnecessary distraction.)

The second point is particular to Jews, although perhaps relevant to other peoples. Jews have been living in Europe since Roman times, if not since Alexander. Consequently, European culture and history has affected our own. By the 19th century the distinction between secular and religious had become very important in European society, and we should not therefore be surprised that some Jews came to ask "What is Jewish Religion" and other Jews asked "What are the possibilities for a non-religious Judaism?" I believe that the Reform and Orthodox movements grew out of attempts to define what a "Jewish Religion" would be, and as Danny points out, Zionism and other modern Jewish movements often defined themselves as non- or anti-religion. As a matter of fact, I believe that the process began with Napolean's Sanhedrin. I believe he asked Jews if they could possibly be both Jewish and French. Today one can say "yes" and appeal to some notion of multi-culturalism. But back then, the only way to say "yes" was to distinguish between nationality and religion; to say that Jews are Frenchpeople who practice a particular religion. In other words, yes, the distinction between religion and not-religion became important. I think Danny raised some points that an article should address. I suggest only that these points be framed appropriately, in terms of recent changes in how Jews have come to understand themselves that owe laregly to changes in the non-Jewish world.

Christianity
Here is why I, and perhaps other Jews, are especially sensitive to this issue. Christianity, at least for a very long time, defined itself as the fulfilment of Biblical religion, heirs to the covenant God made with Jews. To make this claim Christian theologians had to explain why there were Jews who were not Christian. Among other things, this requires a separation between "Jews" and "Jewish Religion." I know I am inviting confusion, because whatever contributors to this discussion think, I believe all of them understand "Jewish religion" to refer to the religion of Jews. Nevertheless, for early Christians, real Judaism was something that Christians practice, and non-Christian Jews had mistakenly turned their backs on their own Messiah, covenant with God, and God. It is perhaps here that a distinction between "religion" and "culture" first appears.

There has already been a lot of discussion about Christian anti-semitism, and I really do not want to reintoriduce controversy after there has been so much often constructive discussion. My point is simply that howevermuch a Christian may abhor anti-semitism and even anti-Judaism, they must be sensitive about how certain claims they make affect Jews. I think the question here over distinguishing between Jewish religion and Jewish culture raises the spectre of a secular form of a discourse that, in Christian form, seemed to Jews to be anti-semitic.

I am not claiming that the distinction between Jewish culture and Jewish religion is in and of itself anti-semitic, or will invite anti-semitism. I am just trying to explain why imposing on Jews a distinction that they themselves do not make can make Jews very very squeamish. But perhaps I speak only for myself... SR

 * Somebody moved the article to the singularized form. I moved talk for them. --maveric149

-

Karl Marx
I removed Karl Marx from the list of famous Jews. Because even thou he was born as a Jew his family abandoned the Jewish way of living, like many jews did in the beginning of the 19th century, and Karl Marx lived his life as a "normal" german. I think he was an atheist too.

Sorry if I added this reply wrong... There was no Reply-button anywhere to be found so I edited the page source.. Could anyone tell me how to do it? --BL

 * The replies should be appended to the end of the talk page. The page speaks about "ethnic" Jews, and Karl Marx obviously was one, even if he chose to stay away from Judaism. --Uri

There are many definitions on what a jew are. But the most important thing must be if you count yourself as a jew or not. Karl Marx didn't, he practice any jewish customs and he didn't believe in the jewish religion. He stayed away from all sorts of religion therefore he cannot be called a jew.

Just because his parents where practicing jews doesn't make him one. Even Hitler had "jewish blood" in his veins and if heritage is the most important factor then certainly he should also be called a jew? --BL

 * I understand what you are saying, but you are mistakenly assuming that a Jew is a believer in thr religion called Judaism. Jews themselves say that this is not so. Jews have always held themselves not to be a religious group, but rather a loose ethnic group with a common religion, history, language and culture. Even Orthodox Jews hold this way. Thus, a Jewish person who does not hold by the Jewish faith is still considered a Jew. RK

I understand what you are saying to I think.

 * Jews have always held themselvs not to be a religious group, but rather a loose ethnic group with a common religion, history, language and culture.

This is NOT the case with Karl Marx, he didn't share the jewish culture and in his life he had as much association with the jewish culture as any other german or englishman (or internationalist as he called himself). He just wasn't a jew any way you put it. --BL

Karl Marx's parents & Christianity

 * The point is, according to Jewish Law, he was Jewish, for his mother was Jewish. To include Marx on the list is not to say something about Marx, it is to say something about "Jewishness," something that many non-Jews do not understand.  For Jews Jewishness is not about "blood," because even were your entire father's side of the family Jewish, most Jews would not consider you Jewish, not even half-Jewish.  Nor is it about faith, for no matter what you believed, unless you were born of a Jewish mother or converted, you are not Jewish.  This notion of Jewish identity simply does not fit easily into non-Jewish (Christian/racial) notions of identity.

 * That said, I think BL is simply wrong to speak for Marx so definitively. in the 18th Brumaire Marx wrote that "The tradition of all the dead generations weighs like a mountain on the mind of the living;" it is at least possible that the man who wrote that believed that the identity of his parents and grandparents and great-grandparents were of some relevance to him.  Certainly others identified him as a Jew: when he took over the editoship of the Rheinische Zeitung G. Mevissen remarked that "his restless Jewish penetration pushed every proposition of Young Hegelian doctrine to its final conclusion..."  In 1843, while in Cologne, the Jewish community asked Marx for his help in presenting a parliamentary petition on behalf of the Jews and Marx agreed.  Although he distanced himself from Jews in other ways, was his support due to some sense of lingering identification, or political opportunism, or a more ecumenical spirit?  I do not know.  All I conclude is that "Jewish identity" for the son of a convert in Germany in the 1840s was probably something more complicated than anything we might experience today, and I wouldn't be so quick to dismiss the importance of Jewish identity for Marx. Slrubenstein

"Most Jews would not consider..." - this is questionable nowadays, at least in North America. Not only does Reform Judaism acknowledge patrilineal descent - most observant Conservative Jews do, in practice, if studies published in _Conservative Judaism_ are to be believed.

Definitions
So far we have came to these points that I think we all can agree on:

1. In all Jewish litterature and writings, a Jew is defined as a person who's mother is a Jew or has converted.

2. Marx mother and father was a jewish.

3. The only way to "get out" of being a Jew is to convert to another religion. http://www.jewish.com/askarabbi/askarabbi/askr4251.htm

 * This is incorrect. A Jew who converts to another religion is considered an apostate, and no longer a member of the Jewish community. However, the person is still considered a Jew, and if they repudiate their new religion, they are always welcome to return to the Jewish people. They do not need to "convert" back to Judaism, because they still are a Jew. RK

4. We also know that Marx was not religious, he did not worship anything.

 * Belief has nothing to do with one's status as a Jew. Many atheists are Jews; many atheists, in fact, are members of synagogues! While this would be incomprehensible to a Christian for Muslim, it makes perfect sense for Jews, since Judaism isn't a religion. Rather, it is an evolving religious civilization, and if one happens to be an atheist, he/she can still be a member of the Jewish community. Judaism isn't a religion in the modern western understanding of the word, and attempts to present it as one always end up in confusion. RK

Heinrich Marx, Karl's father, converted to lutheranism 1817 (KM was born 1818). KM himself was baptized 1824 (http://www.raptureinfo.com/marx.htm) but that does not constitute as a conversion. Christianity is different from Judaism in that that you have to belive in God to be titled as a Christian. Did Marx identify himself as a Jew? We dont know, the closest thing we come to an answer is "On The Jewish Question" http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1844/jewish-question/ But that article doesn't give us any clues to wheter Marx identified himself with the Jews or not.

In his adult life Marx never did convert, so according to the Jewish definition of a Jew he WAS a Jew. But that is the Jewish POV, in this case the definition and reality goes apart. We don't call Hitler a Jew even if one of his grandparents was one. Same reasoning applies to Marx. To summarize: It is a matter of definitions, the definition I use with which I replied and I think most readers not versed in Judaism uses versus the Jewish definition. Anyway, to me, calling Marx "a famous Jew" really gives the wrong impression of Marx. :-) --BL

 * I think the problem is that the definition of "Jew" is so fluid. In fact, this often leaves people falling between the cracks. Is it a religion? Is it an ethnicity? I think it is both and neither. Unfortunately, perhaps the best way to determine whether someone is a Jew is to see how anti-Semites consider them. For example, Edith Stein was a Catholic nun who died in Auschwitz because she was also a Jew. If Judaism is an ethnicity, Marx was Jewish. If it is defined by way of anti-Semitism, Marx is certainly Jewish too. If it is purely religious, then plenty of other people considered Jews would not be Jewish either. Still, the real question for me is: what does it really matter? How important is it? Not very. I would just drop the whole question. Finally, what is this bs about Hitler's grandfather? Danny

--

I should add the following remark. In some sense everybody should be considered a Jew how was identified as such by the Nurenberg law and was (is) a subject of persecution by antisemits. Probably the only appropriate definition is the operational one used in sociology: a person is Jewish (Gypsy etc.) if either he identifies himself so or his environment considers him to be that. (It is independent of the fact whether he is accepted to become a member of a Jewish religious community.) [Prof. I.M. Budapest, Hungary]

Something on my mind, Can anyone be born a Jew since Judaism is a religion not a race doesn’t one have to choose Judaism in order to become a Jew ,as a Muslim chooses Islam and a Christian chooses Jesus? 68.44.153.204 The Web

Talmud & Yisrael (Israelite) & Orthodoxy
The Talmud has a definite opinion on the word Jew. The word Yisrael is used to denote somebody who may marry into Judaism but is not necessarily Jewish in any other way. Judaism is a religion. Israelism is a culture. Of course, religious Jews have a culture distinct from non-religious Jews, but it is subordinate to their religion.

I take issue with nearly all the editing, but I will point out some clear problems. For one thing, as being born of a Jewish mother is a requirement for Jewishness is stated in the Talmud, your Russian theory is pure hogwash, and defammatory. Any glossing over the legal requirements of becoming a Jew reduces Jewishness to being a club, and is definitely not the Orthodox opinion and is therefore not neutral from an Orthodox point of view. Calling any halachic requirement traditional is also anti-orthodox as according to orthodoxy it is much more than traditional, it is heresy to deny the requirement. Calling Judaism an ethnicity also waters down Judaism and it must be very explicitly pointed out that there are very strong opinions about that. Ezra Wax

Interesting. Where does the name Judea come from. The TRIBE of Judah, one of the 12 tribes. So what you are saying is that all other tribes are not Jews? I believe that all Jews are Isrealites but not all Isrealites are Jews. Unless you take the stand depicting the name change to Israel, then all tribes are indeed Isrealites. You have the other tribes that were distinct in their own strengths and weakness, but when a few of the other tribes stayed back with the Tribe of Judah, they maintained a way of life passed down through the ages. My question to you is "to what tribe do you really belong to?" Are you from the Tribe of Asher, Benjamin, Dan, Gad, Issachar, Joseph, Judah, Levi, Naphtali, Reuben, Simeon or Zebulun? What about the two sons of Joseph who recieved two portions of land, one in the name of each of his sons, Ephraim and Manasseh? Another question, you see throughout Torah, blessings are given to the sons of Abraham, Moses, Isaac and Jacob. Were there Jews in those times? What were the ethnic labels of Abraham and the others? I am of the belief that Torah was for all who hear the Word of our Creator. That includes all strangers of the land who converted to accept the teachings of Torah. The issue may be that in Torah it is written in D'Varim "In order to obey the mitzvot of Adonai, the G d which I am giving you, DO NOT ADD to what I am saying, and DO NOT SUBTRACT from it", " Everything I am commanding you, you are to take care to do. DO NOT ADD to it or SUBTRACT from it." or in Proverbs "DON"T ADD anything to HIS words; or HE will rebuke you, and you be found a liar". What about the book of  Joshua, "Only be strong and very bold in taking care to follow ALL the TORAH which Moshe my servant ordered you to follow; do not turn from it either to the right or to the left; they you will succeed wherever you go. Yes, keep this book of the TORAH on YOUR lips, and meditate on it day and night, so that you will take care to act according to everything written in it".      In studying thr Torah, I have found no evidence of keeping the Talmud over Torah.  Could the Talmud possibly be a philosophical approach as to how Torah should be kept? If so who was the originator of it?  As yo stated in your opening statement "The Talmud has a definite opinion on the word Jew".  THAT is exactly right, an OPINION.  I am Sephardim studying Torah.  No doubt that there are religious Jews and secular Jews, but one thing is for sure, as pupils "in tent" let us not take offense to the cultural idealism and focus on what is written in TORAH and 'Hear and Obey" what the Hand of our Creator passed down through Moshe. שלום.

Objections & policies

 * Ezra, you are totally wrong on many points.

 * (1) I didn't write that nonsense Russian theory; of course it must be removed.
 * (2) You don't understand Wikipedia's NPOV policy at all. It does not mean that everyone must agree with the text.  Frankly, rewriting the article to your quasi-Orthodox standards is an explicit violation of Wikipedia NPOV policy. It is forbidden.
 * (3) Attacking Wikipedia contributors as promoters of "heresy" is a violation of Wikipedia NPOV standards.
 * (4) You plainly are not even familiar with Orthodox Judaism; all Orthodox rabbis explicitly teach that Judaism is 'not a religion, and that a Jewish person who loses his/her faith in Judaism is still a Jew. You truly seem unfamiliar with the Orthodox position, and totally unaware of all other points of view.
 * (5) You keep rewriting this article to use 4th century Aramiac terminolgy. That also is a violation of our English-Wikipedia policy. We are obligated to write our articles with an eye towards a 21st century English-speaking audience, and we must explain not only how certain terms were used in the past, but also how such terms are used in the present. You keep using obscuere definitions of "Israelite" and "Jew" that are no longer used today. In fact, even Orthodox Jews do not use this terminology. Frankly, it seems as if you have very little knowledge of any denomination of Judaism, and are intent on rewriting things in your image. Please stop. RK 23:30 2 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Hmmm... interesting discussion. How can I be of help? - 豎&#30505sv

Mere belief in Judaism does not make one Jewish

 * Unlike the common Western conception of membership of a religion, mere belief in the principles of Judaism does not make one a Jew. Similarly, non-adherence to Jewish principles of faith does not make one lose one's Jewish status.

I don't think the first sentence is an accurate statement. In fact, this is exactly like the common Western conception of membership of a religion -- mere belief in the principles of Roman Catholicism, or Greek Orthodoxy, or Lutheranism, or Mormonism, does make one a Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Lutheran, or Mormon -- one must convert. The second sentence is true (you can be excommunicated for non-adherance, if severe enough), but I think also true for at least some Jews -- some ultra-Orthodox Jews have been known to question whether secular Jews should be considered Jewish. --Delirium 08:23 18 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Text has been changed to address this, so ignore this comment now. --Delirium 19:26 18 Jul 2003 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Jews/Archive 1


text:
Cessna 208 Caravan

The Cessna 208 Caravan is a utility aircraft produced by Cessna.

The project was commenced on November 20, 1981, and the prototype first flew on December 9, 1982. The production model was certified by the FAA in October 1984 and its Cargomaster freighter variant was developed for FedEx. The 4 ft longer 208B Super Cargomaster first flew in 1986 and was developed into the passenger 208B Grand Caravan.

The strutted, high wing 208 typically seats nine passengers in its unpressurized cabin, is powered by a single Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A tractor turboprop and has a fixed tricycle landing gear, floats, or skis.

By 2022, 3,000 had been delivered and 24 million flight hours have been logged. Caravans have been used for flight training, commuter airlines, VIP transport, air cargo, skydiving and humanitarian missions.

Development
On November 20, 1981, the project was given a go-ahead by Cessna for its Pawnee engineering facility. John Berwick, chief engineer at Pawnee, conceived of a single engine, high-wing airplane with a large payload. Berwick had originally approached Vice President Bill Boettger with the idea and once Dwane Wallace approved it, Berwick told Russ Meyer he would design it.

The prototype first flew on December 9, 1982. The production model was certified by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in October 1984.

Deliveries began in 1985, and amphibious floats were approved that same year. A freighter variant without cabin windows was developed at the request of Federal Express as the Cargomaster. FedEx had been initially planning to build twin-engine piston-powered airplanes with Piper Aircraft, but picked the Caravan after surveying it and having flown the prototype, becoming its standard carrier.

Another cargo variant for Federal Express, with a longer fuselage and a cargo pod under the belly, was developed as the 208B Super Cargomaster and flew for the first time in 1986. Stretched by 4 feet, it received its FAA type certification also in 1986. A passenger model, the 208B Grand Caravan, was derived from the Super Cargomaster. It was first delivered in 1990.

Since then, the Caravan has undergone a number of design evolutions, including upgrading the avionics in 2008 to provide a glass cockpit with the Garmin G1000 system. In January 2013 a higher-powered (867 shp from P&WC PT6A-140) version, the Grand Caravan EX, received FAA certification.

In August 2016, Textron announced that it would move the Cessna 208 production line from its Wichita headquarters to its Independence, Kansas, production facility, for manufacture alongside along the piston-powered 172, 182, 206 and TTx, and the Citation M2 light jet. The move was made to make room for production of the Citation Longitude and Denali in Wichita. In 2023, the 208 Caravan unit cost was US$2.32 million and US$2.61 million for the 208B Grand Caravan EX.

Chinese production
In May 2012, Cessna announced that an assembly line for the 208 would be established in China, with the government-owned China Aviation Industry General Aircraft (CAIGA) conducting final assembly of Caravans at its plant in Shijiazhuang for the Chinese market. Chinese government approval was granted in September the following year and the first Chinese-assembled Caravan was delivered in December 2013. By April 2016 about 30 aircraft, assembled from kits of parts shipped from the US by Cessna, had been delivered to Chinese operators by the joint venture.

Design
The Cessna 208 is a high-wing braced cabin monoplane powered by a single Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A turboprop in tractor configuration. The cabin has room for nine passengers and two crew when used as a passenger aircraft with four doors: one for each crew member, an airstair door on the right side of the cabin and a cargo door on the left. The aircraft can be optionally fitted with an underslung cargo pod.

The basic 208 airframe has a fixed tricycle landing gear but can also be fitted with various types of landing gear, allowing it to operate in a wide variety of environments. Some common adaptations include floats with retractable landing gear on the Caravan Amphibian model, and skis.

The Caravan interior can be outfitted with seats or as a cargo compartment. The standard high-density airline configuration has four rows of 1-2 seating behind the two seats in the cockpit. This variant is capable of holding up to thirteen passengers, although it is marketed as being able to make a profit carrying just four.

The cabin can be configured in a low density passenger configuration, with 1-1 seating, as a combination of passengers and cargo, or as a strictly cargo aircraft. Many variants include an underbelly cargo pod, which can be used for additional freight capacity, or for passenger baggage. A number of Caravans are operated as skydiving aircraft with the left-side cargo hatch converted to a roll-up door.

The airplane typically seats nine passengers with a single pilot, although with a FAR Part 23 waiver it can seat up to fourteen passengers. The aircraft is also used for cargo operations.

The short-fuselage Caravan burns 48 USgal of fuel per hour at 170 kn for 200 nmi stages.

Operational history
In August 2021, fearing Taliban reprisals, pilots of the Afghan Air Force made a last minute escape from Kabul to Tajikistan on an AC-208 moments before the city fell to the Taliban.

In November 2021, Egyptian Army Cessna 208s were used to fight smugglers in western Egypt.

On May 11, 2022, a Cessna 208 pilot became incapacitated resulting in a passenger with no flight experience successfully making an emergency landing at Palm Beach International Airport. The passenger was assisted by Air Traffic Controller Robert Morgan, a certified flight instructor.

On November 21, 2023, a Cessna 208 flew for the first time without any human on board. The plane was modified by Reliable Robotics to fly autonomously with a remote pilot able to send commands to the aircraft from 50 miles away via satellite communication to the onboard flight computers.

Civilian

 * First production variant with a PT6A-114 turboprop engine and seating for up to nine passengers. The landplane variant was type approved on October 23, 1984, and the seaplane version with Wipline Model 8000 Amphibious/Seaplane Floats was type approved on March 26, 1986. Early aircraft can be modified to use the higher-powered PT6A-114A but have restricted operating limits.
 * First production variant with a PT6A-114 turboprop engine and seating for up to nine passengers. The landplane variant was type approved on October 23, 1984, and the seaplane version with Wipline Model 8000 Amphibious/Seaplane Floats was type approved on March 26, 1986. Early aircraft can be modified to use the higher-powered PT6A-114A but have restricted operating limits.

 * 208 Caravan 675
 * Marketing designation for the 208 Caravan with a higher-powered PT6A-114A engine.

 * 208A Cargomaster
 * A pure-cargo version of the Caravan developed with Federal Express (now FedEx); 40 aircraft produced. All 208A aircraft were serialized as 208 models.

 * Officially named the 208B Caravan but marketed as the Grand Caravan. The 208B is 4 ft longer than the 208; extending the cabin by the same amount. The 208B has a PT6A-114A engine. It was originally certified as a two-seater cargo version on October 9, 1986, and as an 11-seater passenger aircraft on December 13, 1989.
 * Officially named the 208B Caravan but marketed as the Grand Caravan. The 208B is 4 ft longer than the 208; extending the cabin by the same amount. The 208B has a PT6A-114A engine. It was originally certified as a two-seater cargo version on October 9, 1986, and as an 11-seater passenger aircraft on December 13, 1989.

 * Marketing name for upgraded version of the 208B Caravan certified in December 2012, with a more powerful 867 hp Pratt and Whitney Canada PT6A-140 that improves the rate of climb by 38% and was developed by Pratt & Whitney Canada specifically to power the 208B. The unladen weight is 807 lb more but maximum payload is only 90 lb more. While the 192 hp more powerful PT6A-140 gives a 11 knots higher cruise speed – and rate of climb is improved by 94 ft/min, range is reduced to 964 nmi on a similar fuel capacity. It requires a longer take off run at 2,160 ft and its landing roll is at 1,871 ft. In early October 2019, after just under six years in production, the company had delivered 500 Grand Caravan EXs.
 * Marketing name for upgraded version of the 208B Caravan certified in December 2012, with a more powerful 867 hp Pratt and Whitney Canada PT6A-140 that improves the rate of climb by 38% and was developed by Pratt & Whitney Canada specifically to power the 208B. The unladen weight is 807 lb more but maximum payload is only 90 lb more. While the 192 hp more powerful PT6A-140 gives a 11 knots higher cruise speed – and rate of climb is improved by 94 ft/min, range is reduced to 964 nmi on a similar fuel capacity. It requires a longer take off run at 2,160 ft and its landing roll is at 1,871 ft. In early October 2019, after just under six years in production, the company had delivered 500 Grand Caravan EXs.

 * Marketing name for the cargo variant of the 208B series. FedEx purchased 260 of this variant.
 * Marketing name for the cargo variant of the 208B series. FedEx purchased 260 of this variant.

 * Caravan Amphibian
 * A 208 or 208B with either Wipaire 8000 or 8750 floats that have retractable landing gear, for water landings or land operations.

Aftermarket variants
Production aircraft modified after delivery by Supplemental Type Certificates:
 * Soloy Pathfinder 21
 * Single example of a twin-engined stretched fuselage development of the 208 by the Soloy Corporation. Two PT6D-114A engines mounted side-by-side drove a single propeller; and the fuselage was extended by 70 in behind the wing. The project was abandoned as the design was unable to meet certification requirements.

 * 850 Caravan
 * 208 with an 850 hp Honeywell TPE331-12JR-701S engine, installed by Aero Twin Inc.

 * 950 Grand Caravan
 * 208B with a 1000 hp Honeywell TPE331-12JR-704AT engine, installed by Aero Twin Inc.

 * Blackhawk Caravan
 * 208 and 208B conversion to 850 hp PT6A-42A.

 * Supervan 900
 * 208B with a 850 hp (900 hp flat-rated) Honeywell TPE331-12JR engine, installed by Texas Turbine Conversions, Inc.

 * XP42A Upgrade
 * 208B with an 850 hp Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-42A engine, installed by Blackhawk

Experimental
The eCaravan is an electric aircraft modification of the 208B built by AeroTEC and magniX powered by a 750 hp motor and a 1 tonne, 750 V lithium-ion battery.

The plane's 30-minute first flight happened from Grant County International Airport in Moses Lake, Washington, on May 28, 2020, consuming US$6 worth of electricity, needing 30–40 min of charging.

The Magni500-powered variant can fly 100 nmi with 4–5 passengers while keeping reserve power, and aims for a certification by the end of 2021, hoping to operate 100 nmi flights with a full load of nine passengers with better batteries.

Military

 * U-27A
 * United States Department of Defense designation for the Cessna 208.

 * C-16
 * United States Department of Defense designation for proposed variant to be used by the United States Army in El Salvador and Nicaragua during the 1980s.

 * C-98
 * Brazilian Air Force designation for the standard U-27.

 * AC-208 Combat Caravan
 * Caravan with wing hardpoints. An ISTAR version built by ATK armed with Hellfire missiles is used by the Iraqi Air Force. The AC-208 received its combat debut in January 2014 when the Iraqi Air Force began employing it against insurgents in Anbar province. One aircraft crashed in March 2016.
 * The Lebanese Air Force requested a new AC-208 and the conversion of the 208 it already operated. Between 2009 and 2019, Northrop Grumman delivered two AC-208Bs and one RC-208B (an ISTAR variant) to the Lebanese Air Force.
 * Other AC-208s are scheduled to be delivered to countries in the Middle East and Africa through the Foreign Military Sales program. Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Burkina Faso are possible recipients of these AC-208 Combat Caravans.

 * MC-208 Guardian
 * The MC-208 Guardian multi-role aircraft is built on the Cessna Caravan, capable of performing aerial surveillance, close air support, casualty and medical evacuations, air mobility, and precision strike all in one mission without the need for reconfiguration, eliminating the need to deploy and operate multiple aircraft. It was selected as one of five finalists for the United States Special Operations Command's (USSOCOM's) Armed Overwatch program.

Operators
The 1,000th was delivered in 1998; the 1,500th in 2005; the 2,000th in 2010; the 2,500th in 2015; and the 3,000th in 2022. By March 2022, 24 million flight hours have been logged.

Certified in 100 countries, Caravans are used for flight training, recreation, commuter airlines, VIP transport, cargo carriers and humanitarian missions. It is also used by government agencies in law enforcement, air ambulance services, police and military.

Civil operators
The Cessna 208 is used by governmental organizations and by a large number of companies for police, air ambulance, passenger transport, air charter, freight and parachuting operations. FedEx operates 239 aircraft.

Military operators
A total of 123 Cessna 208s were in military service as transport in 2024.

Accidents
As of 31 December 2017, there have been 216 Caravan hull losses from all causes, including 206 accidents causing 427 fatalities – an average of fatalities per hull-loss, with 29.7% of all occupants surviving fatal accidents; and six hijackings causing one fatality. For the 198 out of the 216 hull-loss occurrences where the aircraft was in use and its flight nature is known, 36.9% were passenger flights, 33.8% cargo flights, 8.1% military flights, 5.6% special flights – agriculture, survey, etc., 4% private and business flights, 3% test or flight training and 8.1% miscellaneous uses – demonstrations, deliveries, illegal.

title: Cessna 208 Caravan


text:
Mock-heroic

Mock-heroic, mock-epic or heroi-comic works are typically satires or parodies that mock common Classical stereotypes of heroes and heroic literature. Typically, mock-heroic works either put a fool in the role of the hero or exaggerate the heroic qualities to such a point that they become absurd.

History
Historically, the mock-heroic style was popular in 17th-century Italy, and in the post-Restoration and Augustan periods in Great Britain.

The earliest example of the form is the Batrachomyomachia ascribed to Homer by the Romans and parodying his work, but believed by most modern scholars to be the work of an anonymous poet in the time of Alexander the Great.

A longstanding assumption on the origin of the mock-heroic in the 17th century is that epic and the pastoral genres had become used up and exhausted, and so they got parodically reprised. In the 17th century the epic genre was heavily criticized, because it was felt to be merely expressing the traditional values of feudal society.

Among the new genres, closer to the modern feelings and proposing new ideals, the satirical literature was particularly effective in criticizing the old habits and values. Beside the Spanish picaresque novels and the French burlesque novel, in Italy flourished the poema eroicomico. In this country those who still wrote epic poems, following the rules set by Torquato Tasso in his work Discorsi del poema eroico (Discussions about the Epic Poems) and realized in his masterwork, the Jerusalem Delivered, were felt as antiquated. The new mock-heroic poem accepted the same metre, vocabulary, rhetoric of the epics. However, the new genre turned the old epic upside down about the meaning, setting the stories in more familiar situations, to ridiculize the traditional epics. In this context was created the parody of epic genre.

Lo scherno degli dèi (The Mockery of Gods) by Francesco Bracciolini, printed in 1618 is often regarded as the first Italian poema eroicomico.

However, the best known of the form is La secchia rapita (The rape of the Bucket) by Alessandro Tassoni (1622).

Other Italian mock-heroic poems were La Gigantea by Girolamo Amelonghi (1566), La moscheide by Giovanni Battista Lalli (1624), the Viaggio di Colonia (Travel to Cologne) by Antonio Abbondanti (1625), L'asino (The donkey) by Carlo de' Dottori (1652), La Troja rapita by Loreto Vittori (1662), Il Malmantile racquistato by Lorenzo Lippi (1688), La presa di San Miniato by Ippolito Neri (1764).

Also in Italian dialects were written mock-heroic poems. For example, in Neapolitan dialect the best known work of the form was La Vaiasseide by Giulio Cesare Cortese (1612). While in Romanesco Giovanni Camillo Peresio wrote Il maggio romanesco (1688), Giuseppe Berneri published Meo Patacca in 1695, and, finally, Benedetto Micheli printed La libbertà romana acquistata e defesa in 1765.

After the translation of Don Quixote, by Miguel de Cervantes, English authors began to imitate the inflated language of Romance poetry and narrative to describe misguided or common characters. The most likely genesis for the mock-heroic, as distinct from the picaresque, burlesque, and satirical poem is the comic poem Hudibras (1662–1674), by Samuel Butler. Butler's poem describes a "trew blew" Puritan knight during the Interregnum, in language that imitates Romance and epic poetry. After Butler, there was an explosion of poetry that described a despised subject in the elevated language of heroic poetry and plays.

Hudibras gave rise to a particular verse form, commonly called the "Hudibrastic". The Hudibrastic is poetry in closed rhyming couplets in iambic tetrameter, where the rhymes are often feminine rhymes or unexpected conjunctions. For example, Butler describes the English Civil War as a time which "Made men fight like mad or drunk/ For dame religion as for punk/ Whose honesty all durst swear for/ Tho' not one knew why or wherefore" ("punk" meaning a prostitute). The strained and unexpected rhymes increase the comic effect and heighten the parody. This formal indication of satire proved to separate one form of mock-heroic from the others. After Butler, Jonathan Swift is the most notable practitioner of the Hudibrastic, as he used that form for almost all of his poetry.

Poet Laureate John Dryden is responsible for some of the dominance among satirical genres of the mock-heroic in the later Restoration era. While Dryden's own plays would themselves furnish later mock-heroics (specifically, The Conquest of Granada is satirized in the mock-heroic The Author's Farce and Tom Thumb by Henry Fielding, as well as The Rehearsal), Dryden's Mac Flecknoe is perhaps the locus classicus of the mock-heroic form as it would be practiced for a century to come. In that poem, Dryden indirectly compares Thomas Shadwell with Aeneas by using the language of Aeneid to describe the coronation of Shadwell on the throne of Dullness formerly held by King Flecknoe. The parody of Virgil satirizes Shadwell. Dryden's prosody is identical to regular heroic verse: iambic pentameter closed couplets. The parody is not formal, but merely contextual and ironic. (For an excellent overview of the history of the mock-heroic in the 17th and 18th centuries see "the English Mock-Heroic poem of the 18th Century" by Grazyna Bystydzienska, published by Polish Scientific Publishers, 1982.)

After Dryden, the form continued to flourish, and there are countless minor mock-heroic poems from 1680 to 1780. Additionally, there were a few attempts at a mock-heroic novel. The most significant later mock-heroic poems were by Alexander Pope. Pope’s The Rape of the Lock is a noted example of the Mock-Heroic style; indeed, Pope never deviates from mimicking epic poetry such as Homer's Iliad and Virgil's Aeneid. The overall form of the poem, written in cantos, follows the tradition of epics, along with the precursory “Invocation of the Muse”; in this case, Pope's Muse is literally the person who prodded him to write the poem, John Caryll: “this verse to Caryll, Muse, is due!” (line 3). Epics always include foreshadowing which is usually given by an otherworldly figure, and Pope mocks tradition through Ariel the sprite, who sees some “dread event” (line 109) impending on Belinda. These epic introductory tendencies give way to the main portion of the story, usually involving a battle of some kind (such as in the Iliad) that follows this pattern: dressing for battle (description of Achilles shield, preparation for battle), altar sacrifice/libation to the gods, some battle change (perhaps involving drugs), treachery (Achilles ankle is told to be his weak spot), a journey to the Underworld, and the final battle. All of these elements are followed eloquently by Pope in that specific order: Belinda readies herself for the card game (which includes a description of her hair and beauty), the Baron makes a sacrifice for her hair (the altar built for love and the deal with Clarissa), the “mock” battle of cards changes in the Baron’s favor, Clarissa’s treachery to her supposed friend Belinda by slipping the Baron scissors, and finally the treatment of the card game as a battle and the Baron’s victory. Pope’s mastery of the Mock-Heroic is clear in every instance. Even the typical apotheosis found in the epics is mimicked in The Rape of the Lock, as “the stars inscribe Belinda’s name!” (line 150). He invokes the same Mock-heroic style in The Dunciad which also employs the language of heroic poetry to describe menial or trivial subjects. In this mock-epic the progress of Dulness over the face of the earth, the coming of stupidity and tastelessness, is treated in the same way as the coming of civilization is in the Aeneid (see also the metaphor of translatio studii). John Gay's Trivia and Beggar's Opera were mock-heroic (the latter in opera), and Samuel Johnson's London is a mock-heroic of a sort.

By the time of Pope, however, the mock-heroic was giving ground to narrative parody, and authors such as Fielding led the mock-heroic novel into a more general novel of parody, although Fielding's The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling contains passages of pure mock-heroic. The ascension of the novel drew a slow end to the age of the mock-heroic, which had originated in Cervantes's novel. After Romanticism's flourishing, mock-heroics like Byron's Don Juan were uncommon.

Finally, the mock-heroic genre spread throughout Europe, in France, in Scotland, in Poland, in Bohemia, in Russia. The most noted mock-heroic poems in French were Le Vergile Travesti (The disguised Vergil) by Paul Scarron (1648–52) and The Maid of Orleans by Voltaire (1730). In macaronic Latin enriched with Scottish Gaelic expressions William Drummond of Hawthornden wrote Polemo-Middinia inter Vitarvam et Nebernam in 1684. The main author of mock-heroic poems in Polish was Ignacy Krasicki, who wrote Myszeida (Mouseiad) in 1775 and Monacomachia (The War of the Monks) in 1778. In the same language Tomasz Kajetan Węgierski published Organy in 1775–77. The Bohemian poet Šebestiàn Hnĕvkovský in 1805 printed two mock-heroic poems: Dĕvin in Czech and Der böhmische Mägderkrieg in German. In 1791 the Russian poet N. P. Osipov published (Вирги́лиева Энеи́да, вы́вороченная наизна́нку). Ivan Kotliarevsky's mock-epic poem Eneyida (Ukrainian: Енеїда), written in 1798, is considered to be the first literary work published wholly in the modern Ukrainian language.

title: Mock-heroic


text:
Marmon Motor Car Company

Marmon Motor Car Company was an American automobile manufacturer founded by Howard Carpenter Marmon and owned by Nordyke Marmon & Company of Indianapolis, Indiana, US. It produced luxury automobiles from 1902 to 1933.

It was established in 1902 but not incorporated as the successor of Nordyke Mormon & Company until 1926. In 1933 it was succeeded by Marmon-Herrington and in 1964 the Marmon brand name was sold to the Marmon Motor Company of Denton, Texas. Marmon-Herrington became the Marmon Group of Chicago, in 1964.

Marmon was notable for its various pioneering works in automotive manufacturing, introducing the rear-view mirror, pioneering the V16 engine, and the use of aluminum in auto manufacturing. The historic Marmon Wasp race car of the early 20th century was the first car to use a single-seater "monoposto" construction layout.

Marmon Automobiles
Marmon's parent company was founded in 1851, manufacturing flour grinding mill equipment and branching out into other machinery through the late 19th century. Small limited production of experimental automobiles began in 1902, with an air-cooled V-twin engine. An air-cooled V4 followed the next year, with pioneering V6 and V8 engines tried over the next few years, before more conventional straight engine designs were settled upon. Marmons soon gained a reputation as reliable, speedy upscale cars.

Model 32
The Model 32 of 1909 spawned the Wasp. The Wasp, driven by Marmon engineer Ray Harroun (a former racer who came out of retirement for just one race), was the winner of the first ever Indianapolis 500 motor race, in 1911. This car featured the world's first known automobile rear-view mirror.

Model 48
The 1913 Model 48 was a left-hand steering tourer with a cast aluminum engine and electric headlights and horn, as well as electric courtesy lights for the dash and doors. It used a 573 in3 (9,382 cc) (4½×6-inch, 114×152 mm) T-head straight-six engine of between 48 and 80 hp (36 and 60 kW) with dual-plug ignition and electric starter. It had a 145 in (3683 mm) wheelbase (long for the era) and 36×4½-inch (91×11.4 cm) front/37×5-inch (94×12.7 cm) rear wheels (which interchanged front and rear) and full-elliptic front and ¾-elliptic rear springs. Like most cars of the era, it came complete with a tool kit; in Marmon's case, it offered jack, power tire pump, chassis oiler, tire patch kit, and trouble light. The 48 came in a variety of models: two-, four-, five-, and seven-passenger tourers at US$5,000 ($0 in dollars ), seven-passenger limousine at US$6,250 ($0 in  dollars ), seven-passenger landaulette at US$6,350 ($0 in  dollars ), and seven-passenger Berlin limousine at US$6,450 ($0 in  dollars ).

Model 34
The 1916 Model 34 used an aluminum straight-six, and used aluminum in the body and chassis to reduce overall weight to just 3295 lb (1495 kg). A Model 34 was driven coast to coast as a publicity stunt, beating Erwin "Cannonball" Baker's record to much fanfare.

New models were introduced for 1924, replacing the long-lived Model 34, but the company was facing financial trouble, and in 1926 was reorganized as the Marmon Motor Car Co.

Little Marmon, Roosevelt
In 1927 the Little Marmon series was introduced and in 1929, Marmon introduced an under-$1,000 straight-eight car, the Roosevelt, but the stock market crash of 1929 made the company's problems worse.

Marmon Sixteen
The Marmon Sixteen was produced between 1931 and 1934. Howard Marmon had begun working on the world's first V16 engine in 1927. By the time the Sixteen was introduced Cadillac had already debuted their V-16, designed by ex-Marmon engineer Owen Nacker. Peerless, too, had been developing a V16 with help from an ex-Marmon engineer, James Bohannon.

The Sixteen's engine displaced 491 in³ (8.0 L) and produced 200 hp (149 kW). It was an all-aluminum design with steel cylinder liners and a 45° bank angle.

Manufacturing Plant
The original Nordyke & Marmon Plant 1 was at the southwest corner of Kentucky Avenue and West Morris Street. Plant 2 was at the southwest corner of Drover and West York Street. Plant 3 was a five-story structure measuring 80 x 600 feet parallel to Morris Street (now Eli Lilly & Company Building 314). The Marmon assembly plant was built adjacent to the Morris Street property line with Plant 3 behind and parallel to it (also part of the Eli Lilly complex).

Marmon-Herrington

While the Marmon Company discontinued auto production, it continued to manufacture components for other auto manufacturers and manufactured trucks. When the Great Depression drastically reduced the luxury car market, the Marmon Car Company joined forces with Colonel Arthur Herrington, an ex-military engineer involved in the design of all-wheel drive vehicles. The new company was called Marmon-Herrington.

In the early 1960s, Marmon-Herrington was purchased by the Pritzker family and became a member of an association of companies which eventually adopted the name The Marmon Group. In 2007, the Pritzker family sold a major part of the Group to Warren Buffett's firm Berkshire Hathaway.

For the 1993 Indianapolis 500, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of The Marmon Group of companies, Éric Bachelart drove a tribute to the Marmon Wasp, actually a year old Lola with Buick power, which was uncompetitive and failed to qualify. After qualifications ended, the sponsorship was transferred to the car of John Andretti, who was driving for A. J. Foyt Enterprises. Andretti started 23rd and briefly led before eventually finishing tenth.

Notable owners
Actor Francis X. Bushman, at the height of his movie fame in the 1910s, owned a custom built purple painted Marmon. Other actors who were owners of Marmons include Wallace Reid, Douglas Fairbanks and Arthur Tracy.

Statesman and national hero of Finland Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim's official car was a Marmon E-75. Much later, the same car was bought by a group of technology students. It is still the representational car of the Aalto University student union after considerable repairs, and the name Marmon, to some extent, is coupled to this specific vehicle.

J. Horace McFarland, president of the American Civic Association, owned a Marmon. In 1924, he wrote to John Gries of the National Bureau of Standards' Division of Building and Housing that his Marmon cost nine cents a mile to operate, "independent of the chauffeur."

In his memoir, "The Cruise of the Rolling Junk", F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote about a 1,200-mile automobile trip to the South that he and Zelda Fitzgerald took in their used 1918 Marmon Speedster.

In 1916–17, Ruby Archambeau of Portland, Oregon, became the first woman to drive the circumference of the United States. Her vehicle was a Marmon.

"King of Bootleggers" Italian Canadian Rocco Perri of Hamilton, Ontario, was known to favour Marmons in the 1920s.

Actress Bebe Daniels was driving a Marmon Roadster 72 miles per hour south of Santa Ana when she became the first woman to be convicted of speeding in Orange County.

title: Marmon Motor Car Company