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Naniwa-ku, Osaka

Naniwa-ku (浪速区) is one of 24 wards of Osaka, Japan. It has an area of 4.37 km2, and a population of 51,567.

General information
Largely a residential area itself, Naniwa-ku is adjacent to and has in recent years blurred into the Namba district, which is south Osaka's transport hub and centre of commerce, entertainment, shopping, and culture.

Naniwa retains significant Burakumin and Korean communities. The plight and struggle of both communities in Japan is represented in Liberty Osaka (Osaka Human Rights Museum).

Almost the entire ward was decimated in air attacks during bombing in March 1945. Few buildings pre-dating World War II remain.

Attractions
Naniwa is the site of a number of well-known commercial areas like Nipponbashi, where Capcom and SNK are headquartered. Locally known as Den Den Town (Electric City), Nipponbashi was traditionally a concentration for Osaka's electrical appliance outlets, though the emergence of several large electrical department stores over in recent years has seen its shop space make a gradual shift away from the electrical appliance sector. Directly to its south is Shin Sekai (New World), an entertainment district famous for the Tsutenkaku Tower and Janjan Alley.

Amongst Naniwa's sites is the Imamiya Ebisu Shrine, which sponsors the lively Toka Ebisu Festival. Naniwa is the site of the Osaka Prefectural Gymnasium (Osaka-furitsu taiiku-kaikan), where the Grand Sumo Tournament is held in March (Ozumo Sangatsu Basho) and Liberty Osaka - the Osaka Human Rights Museum. Naniwa also contains the massive modern shopping, dining, and entertainment complex, Namba Parks.

Landmarks

 * Den Den Town
 * Festival Gate
 * Imamiya Ebisu Shrine
 * Namba City
 * Namba Parks
 * Osaka City Air Terminal
 * Osaka Prefectural Gymnasium
 * Tsutenkaku
 * Liberty Osaka (Osaka Human Rights Museum)
 * Sports Palace, Osaka

Newspaper

 * Sankei Shimbun - Namba Sankei Building

FM Radio Station

 * FM OSAKA - Minatomachi River Place

Train stations

 * JR West
 * Kansai Line (Yamatoji Line): Shin-Imamiya Station - Imamiya Station - JR Namba Station
 * Osaka Loop Line: Ashiharabashi Station - Imamiya Station - Shin-Imamiya Station

 * Nankai Railway (In registration, Namba Station on Nankai Railway is located in Chūō-ku, and Shin-Imamiya Station in Nishinari-ku)
 * Nankai Main Line: Imamiyaebisu Station (only local trains of the Koya Line stop)
 * Kōya Line (Shiomibashi Branch): Shiomibashi Station - Ashiharachō Station

 * Hanshin Railway
 * Hanshin Namba Line Sakuragawa Station

 * Osaka Metro (In registration, Namba Station is located in Chūō-ku)
 * Midōsuji Line: Daikokuchō Station
 * Yotsubashi Line: Namba Station (a platform) - Daikokuchō Station
 * Sennichimae Line: Sakuragawa Station
 * Sakaisuji Line: Ebisuchō Station

 * Hankai Tramway (In registration, Minami-Kasumichō Station is located in Nishinari-ku)
 * Hankai Line: Ebisuchō Station

Education
The Osaka Chinese School is in Naniwa-ku.

Companies headquartered in Naniwa-ku, Osaka

 * Kubota
 * Nankai Electric Railway
 * Pixela Corporation
 * Tabio

Notable people from Naniwa-ku, Osaka

 * Atomi Kakei, Japanese calligrapher, painter, scholar and educator
 * Daizen Takahiro, Japanese sumo wrestler
 * Junko Noda, Japanese voice actress and singer
 * Kazumi Takahashi, Japanese novelist and scholar
 * Masatoshi Hamada, Japanese comedian (Downtown)
 * Shinobu Orikuchi, Japanese ethnologist, linguist, folklorist, novelist, and poet
 * Nakamoto Yuta, japanese singer, kpop group member NCT, NCT127, actor

title: Naniwa-ku, Osaka


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User talk:GregorBrand

Hello Gregor, welcome to Wikipedia. If you are the Gregor Brand that you are writing about, I recomend you read Auto-biography and perhaps read the case studies listed at Criteria for inclusion of biographies/cases. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Angela 08:57, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Notable persons from Suwalki
Do you have a reference for Samuel Rosenthal (1837 - 1902), Jewish chess master and journalist? Ajh1492 (talk) 21:25, 5 July 2011 (UTC)

See for example the JE reference in the main article about Samuel Rosenthal. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.191.194.239 (talk) 22:39, 5 July 2011 (UTC)

In African Spir's Talk You Wrote:

Afrikan Spir's descent
I doubt that Afrikan Spir was of German descent as the current version states. In the Internet, I didn't find any information about the roots of his father. Where was Alexander Spir born? Who were his parents? Judging from the surname "Spir", this family possibly originated in the Jewish community of Metz (France, Lorraine). But that is only a hypothesis. It would be fine to have more information about Spir's paternal ancestry. (December 12, 2013; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:GregorBrand). — Preceding unsigned comment added by GregorBrand (talk • contribs) 13:03, 12 December 2013 (UTC)

My answer: Absolutely no relations with Metz, or Spire, or Jews. The christian name of the father of Alexander Spir was also Alexander, lutheran, born in Stuttgart. See the family papers in Geneva's Library, cf. Fabrizio Frigerio, Catalogue raisonné du fonds African Spir, Genève, 1990.--RigdzinPhurba (talk) 15:02, 3 February 2014 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
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title: User talk:GregorBrand


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Elephantine papyri and ostraca

The Elephantine Papyri and Ostraca consist of thousands of documents from the Egyptian border fortresses of Elephantine and Aswan, which yielded hundreds of papyri and ostraca in hieratic and demotic Egyptian, Aramaic, Koine Greek, Latin and Coptic, spanning a period of 100 years in the 5th to 4th centuries BCE. The documents include letters and legal contracts from family and other archives, and are thus an invaluable source of knowledge for scholars of varied disciplines such as epistolography, law, society, religion, language and onomastics. The Elephantine documents include letters and legal contracts from family and other archives: divorce documents, the manumission of slaves, and other business. The dry soil of Upper Egypt preserved the documents.

Hundreds of these Elephantine papyri span a period of 100 years, during the 5th to 4th centuries BCE. Legal documents and a cache of letters survived, turned up on the local "grey market" of antiquities starting in the late 19th century, and were scattered into several Western collections.

A number of the Aramaic papyri document the Jewish community among soldiers stationed at Elephantine under Achaemenid rule, 495–399 BCE. The so-called "Passover Letter" of 419 BCE (discovered in 1907), which appears to give instructions for the observance of the Festival of Unleavened Bread (though Passover itself is not mentioned in the extant text), is in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin.

The standard reference collection of the Aramaic documents from Elephantine is the Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt.

Discovery, excavation, collections and publications
Between 1815 and 1904, all discoveries were unprovenanced and came via informal discoveries and antiquities dealers; only later were they understood by scholars to have originated from Elephantine. The first known such papyri were bought by Giovanni Belzoni and Bernardino Drovetti; a number of Aramaic letters and a demotic letter were presented by Belzoni to the Musei Civici di Padova in 1819 and three hieratic pieces from Drovetti – and the Turin Aramaic Papyrus – were deposited at the new Museo Egizio in Turin in 1824.

Formal excavation of the mound at Elephantine Island began in 1904, and continued for the next seven years. Further finds were discovered through the first half of the 20th century.

The mode of burial of the documents remains unknown, but they are thought to have been stored laterally and horizontally in close proximity to each other.

Major discoveries
The major Elephantine collections consist of discoveries from the end of the 19th and start of the 20th century, and these collections are now in museums in Berlin, Brooklyn, Cairo, London, Munich, and Paris. The largest collection is in the Berlin State Museums with texts in each of the languages.
 * 1875–76: The British Museum acquired two Aramaic and one Coptic ostraca from the Rev. Greville John Chester. The two Aramaic ostraca are now known as CIS II 138 (also known as NSI 74, KAI 271 and British Museum E14219) and CIS II 139 (British Museum E14420)
 * 1890s: From Luxor via the dealer Abd el-Megid was purchased a bilingual family archive which included three Greek legal texts and a demotic matrimonial document
 * 1893: American collector Charles Edwin Wilbour acquired a number of papyri, including 12 Aramaic documents from the Anani archive. Wilbour’s family passed the documents to the Brooklyn Museum a few decades after his death, and they were published in 1953. It was at this time that scholars concluded that "Wilbour had acquired the first Elephantine papyri".
 * 1898–99: Richard August Reitzenstein and Wilhelm Spiegelberg acquired the first identifiable Aramaic papyrus from Elephantine in 1898–99. He donated it to what is now the National and University Library in Strasbourg.
 * 1899: The Papyrussammlung und Papyrusmuseum of Vienna acquired four demotic documents, probably via Jakob Krall
 * 1901: Archibald Henry Sayce acquired a fragmented Aramaic papyrus and three Aramaic ostraca, which he donated to the Bodleian Library in Oxford
 * 1901–02: large collection of Greek and demotic papyri, including an IOU of a blacksmith from Syene, were acquired by Théodore Reinach; this collection is now in the Sorbonne.
 * Early 1900s: Over a number of years, Baroness Mary Cecil and Robert Mond acquired from dealers in Aswan a total of 11 Aramaic papyri from the Mibtahiah archive. These were donated to the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, which retained nine; one was subsequently acquired by the Bodleian. Their high profile publication in 1906 by Sayce and Cowley catalyzed expeditions for more Aramaic papyri. They were originally thought to have been found in Aswan rather than on the Elephantine island.
 * 1904: The first (brief) excavation on the Elephantine mound took place, after Sayce encouraged Gaston Maspero to excavate to search there for more Aramaic texts. No Aramaic texts were found, but a number of Greek and demotic fragments were.
 * Early 1906 until 1908: the German expedition was assigned to excavate the Western side of the mound; following Otto Rubensohn having been told by local Egyptians that it was the find spot of the recently discovered Aramaic papyri. The expedition worked for three seasons, two under the direction of Rubensohn and the third under Friedrich Zucker. The daily logs reported the discovery of papyri and ostraca, but made no record of their find-spots; the report was published by Hans Wolfgang Müller in 1980–82. The Aramaic, and some Greek, papyri were well published, but most of the demotic, hieratic, and Coptic texts were not. The Demotic and Greek papyri were found early on. The first Aramaic papyri were discovered on New Years day, 1907 in the rubble of a room at the northern edge of the mound, 0.5m beneath the surface; this was found to be part of an "Aramaic quarter”, a housing complex which yielded numerous Aramaic papyri. The three most significant of these Aramaic documents were published in 1907 by Eduard Sachau. Many of these discoveries are now in the Berlin State Museums; however, between 1907–12 ten Greek and demotic pieces, and many further Aramaic papyri, were transferred to the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.
 * Late 1906 until 1911: following the German successes, the French were assigned to excavate the eastern side of the mound. There were four campaigns, the first two under Charles Clermont-Ganneau, the third under Joseph Étienne Gautier, and the fourth under Jean Clédat. Daily records were kept; these were deposited in the Académie de Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in the Institut de France in Paris and some parts have been published. The excavations discovered hundreds of Aramaic, demotic, Greek, Coptic and Arabic ostraca; these are now held at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in Paris. It also discovered five Greek papyri, and a hieratic papyrus now at the Louvre.
 * 1907: The Byzantine "Patermouthis archive" of approximately 30 documents was acquired in two halves: Robert de Rustafjaell acquired half in Luxor for the British Museum in 1907, and Friedrich Zucker acquired half in Cairo for the Bavarian State Library in Munich in 1908. Coptic papyri acquired by Rustafjaell at the same time are now in the British Library.
 * 1910–11: A batch of Arabic papyri were acquired by the State Library of Hamburg
 * 1926: Bernard P. Grenfell and Francis W. Kelsey acquired seventy-seven Greek papyri, including one from Elephantine, for the University of Wisconsin, Madison.
 * 1945: Sami Gabri discovered the Hermopolis Aramaic papyri in Tuna el-Gebel (Hermopolis West): eight Aramaic letters which were deposited in the Department of Archaeology of the University of Cairo.

Individual finds attributed to Elephantine
Numerous smaller finds have been attributed to Elephantine:
 * 1815–19: a number of Aramaic letters and a demotic letter were presented by Giovanni Belzoni to the Musei Civici di Padova in 1819
 * 1817–18: Papyrus Bibliothèque Nationale: Bibliothèque Nationale, Butehamun correspondence letter bought by Frédéric Cailliaud
 * 1819 Papyrus Edmonstone: A Greek manumission document was acquired in 1819 by Sir Archibald Edmonstone and is still in the hands of a private collector.
 * 1821: Papyrus Paris: Bibliothèque Nationale, a Greek conveyance document from a traveler named Casati.
 * 1824: Turin Aramaic Papyrus: acquired by Bernardino Drovetti and donated to the new Museo Egizio in Turin in 1824, a hieratic charge sheet against the Elephantine Khnum priests. Donated together with two other hieratic letters from the Butehamun correspondence probably sent from Elephantine.
 * 1828: Papyrus Leiden: Giovanni Anastasi acquired, allegedly at Philae but presumably at Elephantine, on behalf of the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden, a 5th century Greek petition to Emperor Theodosius.
 * 1862: Papyrus Valençay: A Ramesside hieratic letter from the collection of the Duke of Valençay, now in the private collection of Jean Morel in the Château de Fins, Dun-le-Poëlier. It may have been originally purchased in 1862–63 by Count Eustachy Tyszkiewicz.
 * 1881: Papyrus Dodgson: In January, 1881 Elkanah Armitage acquired a demotic papyrus on Elephantine which he presented to Aquila Dodgson; it was subsequently passed in 1932 to the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford.
 * 1887: The Dream ostracon (CIS II 137, also known as NSI 73 and KAI 270) is brought back from Elephantine by Adolf Erman
 * 1896: three 6th dynasty hieratic papyri were acquired at Luxor for the Berlin State Museums
 * 1898: The hieratic Semna Despatches discovered by James Quibell in Thebes included one sent from Elephantine
 * 1909: The Pushkin Museum acquired a demotic papyrus from the collection of Vladimir Golenishchev
 * 1914: Sayce gave the Bodleian Library a Coptic ostracon
 * 1920: James Henry Breasted purchased from Mohareb Todrous at Luxor for the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago an Arabic reddish brown leather parchment.
 * 1927: Papyrus Lob: Spiegelberg acquired for the Staatliche Sammlung Agyptischer Kunst in Munich a demotic papyrus which became known by the name of the benefactor Dr. James Lob.
 * 1930: The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery acquired a Coptic ostracon from Francis Fox Tuckett
 * Early 1930's: Berlin State Museums acquired a unique hieratic leather document.

Publication history
The publication of the documents from Elephantine discovered in the 19th and early 20th centuries, took many years, and is still ongoing. The Aramaic and Demotic texts have received the greatest and most complete focus from scholars.

Aramaic
 * 1824-28: Turin Aramaic Papyrus
 * 1887: Julius Euting publishes the Dream ostracon (later known as CIS II 137)
 * 1889: The Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum publishes the Greville Chester ostraca as CIS II 138–139 and the Golenishchev ostraca as CIS II 154–155
 * 1903: Arthur Cowley published the papyrus and ostraca found by Sayce in 1901
 * 1903: Julius Euting published the Strasbourg Aramaic papyrus which had been discovered in 1898–1899
 * 1906: Sayce and Cowley published the Cecil-Mond documents in the high profile Aramaic Papyri Discovered at Assuan. A sensation was caused; as they summarized in the introduction to the work: "Perhaps one of the most remarkable results of the discovery is the proof it affords us that within a century after the death of Jeremiah a colony of Jews had found their way to Assuan, at the southern limit of Egypt, where they had acquired houses and other property and were engaged in trade as bankers or money-lenders"
 * 1911: Eduard Sachau published all the Rubensohn Aramaic finds which had been discovered in 1907
 * 1923: Arthur Cowley published 87 Aramaic papyri, all that were then known, in his Aramaic Papyri of the fifth century
 * 1953: Emil Kraeling published the Brooklyn Museum papyri, which had been discovered in 1893
 * 1960: Edda Bresciani published the Padua Aramaic papyri which had been found in 1815–19
 * 1966: Bresciani and Murad Kamil published the Hermopolis Aramaic papyri discovered in 1945

Demotic
 * 1883: P. Dodgson was published by Eugène Revillout
 * 1908: Wilhelm Spiegelberg published 13 Rubensohn papyri found in 1906-07
 * 1926–28: Wilhelm Spiegelberg published P. Lob and three further Berlin demotic papyri
 * 1939–57: Wolja Erichsen published six Berlin demotic papyri
 * 1962 Edda Bresciani published the Padua demotic papyrus found in 1819
 * 1963–65: Wolja Erichsen and Erich Lüddeckens published the two Vienna papyri found in 1899
 * 1971–78: Karl-Theodor Zauzich catalogued 333 Berlin demotic papyri, publishing 20 in 1978 and 29 in 1993
 * 1974: Michel Malinine published the Moscow papyrus found in 1909

Greek
 * 1828: Thomas Young published P. Edmonstone, found in 1819
 * 1822: Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin published a Greek fragment found in 1821, now in the Bibliothèque Nationale
 * 1828: The Leiden papyrus was published shortly after its discovery
 * 1907: The two major Greek papyri found by Rubensohn were published a year after their discovery
 * 1911: Sachau published another Greek Rubensohn fragment
 * 1912: Friedrich Preisigke published the Strasbourg papyrus
 * 1914: Kaspar Ernst August Heisenberg and Leopold Wenger published the part of the Patermouthis archive acquired by the Munich museum in 1908
 * 1917: Idris Bell published the part of the Patermouthis archive acquired by the British museum
 * 1922: Wilhelm Schubart and Ernst Kühn published the three Abd el-Megid papyri in Berlin
 * 1940: Paul Collart published the Greek fragment from the 1901–1902 Reinach collection in the Sorbonne
 * 1950: André Bataille published two of the Clermont-Ganneau Greek papyri donated to the Académie des Inscriptions in 1907–1908
 * 1967: Pieter Johannes Sijpesteijn published the Wisconsin papyrus discovered in 1926
 * 1980: William Brasher published two fragments from the 1907–1908 Zucker excavations

Hieratic
 * 1895: Spiegelberg published the Butehamun letters, first acquired in 1817–18
 * 1911: Georg Möller transcribed a letter from the Berlin museum purchased in 1896
 * 1924: T. Eric Peet published one of the Turin hieratic pieces from the Drovetti Collection found in 1824
 * 1939: Jaroslav Černý published two of the Turin hieratic pieces from the Drovetti Collection found in 1824
 * 1945: Paul C. Smither published the “Semna Despatches”, discovered in 1898
 * 1948: A Berlin leather piece discovered in 1930 was published
 * 1951: Alan Gardiner published P. Valençay, which had been discovered in 1862–63
 * 1974: Wolfhart Westendorf published the Berlin medical papyrus fragment, discovered 1906–1908
 * 1978: Paule Posener-Kriéger published the Clermont-Ganneau papyrus, found in 1907

Another forty catalogued hieratic fragments in the Berlin Museum await publication.

Coptic
 * 1905: Henry Hall published a Coptic ostracon donated to the British Museum after 1877
 * 1921 and 1995: Walter Ewing Crum (transcription) and Sarah Clackson (translation and commentary) published three Coptic fragments acquired by Rusafjaell
 * 1938: Reginald Engelbach published a Coptic ostraca discovered by Clermont-Ganneau and Clédat
 * 1939: Ewing Crum published a Coptic fragment donated to the Bristol Museum in 1930
 * 1977: Fritz Hintze published the Coptic ostraca unearthed in the 1907-08 Germans excavations

Arabic
 * 1937: A fragment given to the Hamburg museum in 1911 was published in 1937
 * 1941: A fragment given to the Chicago museum in 1920 was published in 1941

Latin
 * 1979: Two Latin fragments discovered by Rubensohn in 1907 were published in 1979

Historical significance
The Elephantine papyri pre-date all extant manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible, and thus give scholars a very important glimpse at how Judaism was practiced in Egypt during the fifth century BCE, as they seem to show evidence of the existence in c. 400 BCE of a polytheistic sect of Jews. It is widely agreed that this Elephantine community originated in the mid-seventh or mid-sixth centuries BCE, likely as a result of Judean and Samaritan refugees fleeing into Egypt during the times of Assyrian and Babylonian invasions. They seem to have had no knowledge of a written Torah or the narratives described therein.

Also important is the fact that the papyri document the existence of a small Jewish temple at Elephantine, which possessed altars for incense offerings and animal sacrifices, as late as 411 BCE. Such a temple would be in clear violation of Deuteronomic law, which stipulates that no Jewish temple may be constructed outside of Jerusalem. Furthermore, the papyri show that the Jews at Elephantine sent letters to the high priest in Jerusalem asking for his support in re-building their temple, which seems to suggest that the priests of the Jerusalem Temple were not enforcing Deuteronomic law at that time. Cowley notes that their petition expressed their pride at having a temple to Ya'u, ' Yahweh ' (no other god is mentioned in the petition) and gave no suggestion that their temple could be heretical.

Upon first examination, this appears to contradict commonly accepted models of the development of Jewish religion and the dating of the Hebrew scriptures, which posit that monotheism and the Torah should have already been well-established by the time these papyri were written. Most scholars explain this apparent discrepancy by theorizing that the Elephantine Jews represented an isolated remnant of Jewish religious practices from earlier centuries, or that the Torah had only recently been promulgated at that time.

Niels Peter Lemche, Philippe Wajdenbaum, Russell Gmirkin, and Thomas L. Thompson have argued that the Elephantine papyri demonstrate that monotheism and the Torah could not have been established in Jewish culture before 400 BCE, and that the Torah was therefore likely written in the Hellenistic period, in the third or fourth centuries BCE.

Jewish temple at Elephantine
The Jews had their own temple to Yahweh which functioned alongside that of the Egyptian god Khnum. Along with Yahweh, other deities – ʿAnat Betel and Asham Bethel – seem to have been worshiped by these Jews, evincing polytheistic beliefs. Other scholars argue that these theonyms are merely hypostases of Yahweh, and dispute the idea that the Elephantine Jews were polytheists.

Excavation work done in 1967 revealed the remains of the Jewish colony centered on a small temple. The "Petition to Bagoas" (Sayce-Cowley collection) is a letter written in 407 BCE to Bagoas, the Persian governor of Judea, appealing for assistance in rebuilding the Jewish temple in Elephantine, which had recently been badly damaged by an anti-Jewish rampage on the part of a segment of the Elephantine community.

In the course of this appeal, the Jewish inhabitants of Elephantine speak of the antiquity of the damaged temple:

"Now our forefathers built this temple in the fortress of Elephantine back in the days of the kingdom of Egypt, and when Cambyses came to Egypt he found it built. They (the Persians) knocked down all the temples of the gods of Egypt, but no one did any damage to this temple."

The community also appealed for aid to Sanballat I, a Samaritan potentate, and his sons Delaiah and Shelemiah, as well as Johanan ben Eliashib. Both Sanballat and Johanan are mentioned in the Book of Nehemiah,,.

There was a response of both governors (Bagoas and Delaiah) which gave the permission by decree to rebuild the temple written in the form of a memorandum: "1Memorandum of what Bagohi and Delaiah said 2to me, saying: Memorandum: You may say in Egypt ... 8to (re)build it on its site as it was formerly...".

By the middle of the 4th century BCE, the temple at Elephantine had ceased to function. There is evidence from excavations that the rebuilding and enlargement of the Khnum temple under Nectanebo II (360–343) took the place of the former temple of YHWH.

In 2004, the Brooklyn Museum created a display entitled "Jewish Life in Ancient Egypt: A Family Archive From the Nile Valley," which featured the interfaith couple of Ananiah, an official at the temple of Yahou (a.k.a. Yahweh), and his wife, Tamut, who was previously an Egyptian slave owned by an Aramean master, Meshullam. Some related exhibition didactics of 2002 included comments about significant structural similarities between Judaism and the ancient Egyptian religion and how they easily coexisted and blended at Elephantine.

Anat-Yahu
The papyri suggest that, "Even in exile and beyond, the veneration of a female deity endured." The texts were written by a group of Jews living at Elephantine near the Nubian border, whose religion has been described as "nearly identical to Iron Age II Judahite religion". The papyri describe the Jews as worshiping Anat-Yahu (mentioned in the document AP 44, line 3, in Cowley's numbering). Anat-Yahu is described as either the wife (or paredra, sacred consort) of Yahweh or as a hypostatized aspect of Yahweh.

The family archive of Ananiah and Tamut
The eight papyri contained at the Brooklyn Museum concern one particular Jewish family, providing specific information about the daily lives of a man called Ananiah, a Jewish temple official; his wife, Tamut, an Egyptian slave; and their children, over the course of forty-seven years. Egyptian farmers discovered the archive of Ananiah and Tamut on Elephantine Island in 1893, while digging for fertilizer in the remains of ancient mud-brick houses. They found at least eight papyrus rolls which were purchased by Charles Edwin Wilbour. He was the first person to find Aramaic papyri. The papyri have been grouped here by topic, such as marriage contract, real estate transaction, or loan agreement.

Marriage document
Ancient marriage documents generally formalized already existing relationships. In this case, Ananiah and Tamut already had a young son when the document was drawn up. Because Tamut was a slave when she married Ananiah, the contract has special conditions: usually, it was the groom and his father-in-law who made Jewish marriage agreements, but Ananiah made this contract with Tamut's master, Meshullam, who legally was her father. In addition, special provision was made to free the couple's son, also a slave to Meshullam; perhaps Ananiah consented to the small dowry of either 7 or 15 shekels (the text is ambiguous) in order to obtain his son's freedom. Future children, however, would still be born slaves. In contrast to Jewish documents like this one, contemporaneous Egyptian marriage documents were negotiated between a husband and wife.

Deed of Emancipation
Nearly twenty-two years after her marriage to Ananiah, Tamut's master released her and her daughter, Yehoishema, from slavery. It was rare for a slave to be freed. And though a slave could marry a free person, their children usually belonged to the master. As an institution, slavery in Egypt at that time differed in notable ways from the practice in some other cultures: Egyptian slaves retained control over personal property, had professions, and were entitled to compensation. During the Persian Period in Egypt, it was not uncommon to sell children, or even oneself, into slavery to pay debts.

Bagazust and Ubil sell a house to Ananiah
This document to the right describes a property purchased by Ananiah, twelve years after his marriage, from a Persian soldier named Bagazust and his wife, Ubil. The property, in a town on Elephantine Island, named for the god Khnum, was located across the street from the Temple of Yauh and adjacent to the Persian family of Ubil's father. As such proximity might suggest, the Egyptians, Jews, and Persians in Elephantine all lived among one another. The renovation of the house and its gradual transfers to family members are the central concerns of the next several documents in Ananiah's family archive.

Ananiah gives Tamut part of the house
Three years after purchasing the house from Bagazust and Ubil, Ananiah transferred ownership of an apartment within the now renovated house to his wife, Tamut. Although Tamut thereafter owned the apartment, Ananiah required that at her death it pass to their children, Palti and Yehoishema. As with all property transfers within a family, this gift was described as made "in love".

Ananiah gives Yehoishema part of the house
Drawn up thirty years after the preceding papyrus, this document is one of several that gradually transferred ownership of Ananiah and Tamut's house to their daughter, Yehoishema, as payment on her dowry. The legal descriptions of the house preserve the names of Ananiah's neighbors. They included an Egyptian who held the post of gardener of the Egyptian god Khnum and, on the other side, two Persian boatmen. Image of document in gallery.

Ananiah gives Yehoishema another part of the house
For his daughter Yehoishema's dowry, Ananiah had transferred to her partial ownership of the house he shared with Tamut. After making more repairs to the building, Ananiah transferred a further section of the house, described in this document, to the dowry. Image of document in gallery.

Ananiah and Tamut sell the house to their son-in-law
This papyrus records the sale of the remaining portion of Ananiah and Tamut's house to Yehoishema's husband. Possibly because the clients were dissatisfied with something the scribe had written, at one point the text of the document breaks off and then starts over again, repeating what has gone on before with some additions. The boundary description included here refers to the Temple of Yauh in Elephantine, now rebuilt eight years after its destruction in 410 BCE during a civil war conflict that arose out of a land dispute. Image of document in gallery below.

Loan agreement
Sometime in December 402 BCE, Ananiah son of Haggai borrowed two monthly rations of grain from Pakhnum son of Besa, an Aramean with an Egyptian name. This receipt would have been held by Pakhnum and returned to Ananiah son of Haggai when he repaid the loan. No interest is charged but there is a penalty for failing to repay the loan by the agreed date. The receipt demonstrates that friendly business relations continued between Egyptians and Jews in Elephantine after the expulsion of the Persians by Amyrtaeus, the only pharaoh of the Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt. Image of document is in gallery below.

Primary scholarly sources

 * Euting Julius. Notice sur un papyrus égypto-araméen de la Bibliothèque impériale de Strasbourg, Mémoires présentés par divers savants à l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres de l'Institut de France. Première série, Sujets divers d'érudition. Tome 11, 2e partie, 1904. pp. 297–312; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/mesav.1904.1089
 * Arthur Ungnad, Aramäische Papyrus aus Elephantine
 * Eduard Sachau, 1908, Drei aramäische papyrusurkunden aus Elephantine
 * Eduard Sachau, 1911, Aramäische Papyrus und Ostraka aus einer jüdischen Militär-Kolonie zu Elephantine
 * Text
 * Plates
 * Cowley, Arthur, The Aramaic Papyri of the Fifth Century, 1923, Oxford: The Clarendon Press.
 * Sayce and Cowley, Aramaic Papyri Discovered at Assuan, (London, 1906)
 * Sprengling, M. "The Aramaic Papyri of Elephantine in English." The American Journal of Theology, vol. 21, no. 3, 1917, pp. 411–452. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3155527. Accessed 23 May 2021.
 * Arnold, William R. "The Passover Papyrus from Elephantine." Journal of Biblical Literature 31, no. 1 (1912): 1–33. https://doi.org/10.2307/3259988.

title: Elephantine papyri and ostraca


text:
Talk:Terrorist groups in Asia

This page represents the view of the World according to George Bush. It is therefore POV, although a majority of US American citizens will follow it. Maybe even a majority of the english speaking contributors of wikipedia. I dont care if you (= english speaking contributors of WP) think, this is NPOV. I know it is not. (...and as you might notice, it makes me sick) --Diftong 09:03, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

PS: I just discovered, that i could wholeheartedly agree with a revert of the page to the version of [http://en2.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Terrorist_organisations_in_Asia&oldid=1732806 6. August], which is NPOV even for non US citizens. --Diftong 09:16, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * This page is just as ill-advised as List of terrorist groups, but is even less useful in that it's descriptive rather than merely listing the groups. Explanatory text is unnecessary; these groups have their own articles, and there's no reason why one should read choppy blurbs about them here. Furthermore it's unclear to me WHY we should group these organizations by landmass. They're only marginally connected, often, and List of terrorist groups does a much better job of listing organizations by relevant associations. VfD, i say. Graft 19:44, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * I've redirected it, which I think is a fair alternative to deletion. Still... Martin 20:13, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

I did not see the bigger picture, and did not have the nerves to search. thanks, Martin, thanks Graft. It is good to know people like you around Wikipedia :-) --Diftong 14:42, 15 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Terrorist groups in Asia


text:
Jakobstad

Jakobstad (Pietarsaari, ) is a town in Finland, located on the west coast of the country. Jakobstad is situated in Ostrobothnia, along the Gulf of Bothnia. The population of Jakobstad is approximately 0, while the sub-region has a population of approximately 0. It is the most populous municipality in Finland.

Jakobstad covers a land area of undefined km2. The population density is undefined PD/km2. Neighboring municipalities are Larsmo, Pedersöre, and Nykarleby. The city of Vaasa is located 98 km southwest of Jakobstad.

Jakobstad is a bilingual municipality with Finnish and Swedish as its official languages. The population consists of NaN Finnish speakers, NaN Swedish speakers, and NaN speakers of other languages.

Origin of the names
The Swedish name literally means Jacob's City or Jacob's Town, in reference to Jacob De la Gardie. The town was founded at the old harbour of the parish Pedersöre and this name lives on in the Finnish name of the municipality, Pietarsaari, literally Peter's Island.

History
The town was founded in 1652 by Ebba Brahe, the widow of the military commander Jacob De la Gardie, and was granted city privileges by Queen Christina of Sweden. The town was founded at the old harbour of the parish Pedersöre. Pedersöre remains an independent municipality neighbouring Jakobstad.

The city grew slowly at first, with the authorities scarcely promoting any growth. In 1680 the inhabitants were ordered to relocate to the cities of Kokkola, Oulu and Nykarleby, but the order was rescinded. Wars also contributed to the slow growth, and the city was invaded by Russian troops twice during the Greater Wrath, and large parts of the town were burnt to the ground. A majority of the inhabitants fled the city. While those with means moved across the sea to the Swedish side, others took shelter in the forest or in the archipelago. Many were captured or killed. During the 1720s, some of the previous inhabitants returned, while newcomers also added to the population. The subsequent decades were finally marked by a period of growth, and the current church was built in 1731.

The economic foundation was laid in the mid 18th century, with tar manufacturing and tobacco packaging at its centre. Trade started to develop rapidly in Jakobstad as of 1765, when the cities along the Finnish shore of the Gulf of Bothnia were granted privileges by the Swedish crown to trade directly with foreign countries. This also led to shipbuilding becoming a major activity in Jakobstad. The first ships to sail with goods to foreign countries were the galeas Jacobstads Wapen and the brig Enigheten. Trade and shipbuilding made Jakobstad a wealthy city, and a notable businessman of that time was the merchant and shipbuilder Adolf Lindskog, who also became one of the richest men in Finland.

The early 19th century was a time of upheaval, which saw the 1808–1809 war between Sweden and Russia, as well as a devastating fire in 1835 that destroyed approximately half of the city. Despite this, the economic progress continued, and a brewery, a matchstick factory and several banks were founded after 1850. In 1859, the merchant and shipowner Peter Malm started a steam powered sawmill, which was only the second such installation in Finland. The Crimean War was a major setback to shipping industry, as the British navy puts up an effective blockade and the shipping fleet in Jakobstad during the Åland War was reduced from 26 ships to 9.

Notable businessmen in the 19th century were Otto Malm and Wilhelm Schauman, the latter founding a chicory (coffee substitute) factory in Jakobstad in 1883. This moment in time is usually considered as the start of industrialization in Jakobstad. In 1900, the Strengberg tobacco factory was the largest employer in Jakobstad.

An artillery school was located in Jakobstad during the Finnish civil war. During World War II, the city was bombed once by Soviet bomber planes, causing a few casualties. Up until the 1960s, the town was pretty small and mainly Swedish speaking with a pretty small finnish speaking minority, but because of the industrial expansion in the 1960s and 1970s, the need for additional work force caused a large influx of Finnish speakers and the city became almost majority finnish speaking.

Early industries
During the second half of the 19th century, the city changed from a city of shipping to an industrial city. From 1850 to 1900, the population increased from about 1,500 to over 6,000 inhabitants. The existing factories developed rapidly and new factories were established. Production in the factories was still small-scale. The city produced everything from beer and spirits to soaps and matches. The Finnish-speaking population in the city increased sharply when the tobacco factory expanded and was in great need of labor.

Politics
Results of the 2017 Finnish municipal election in Jakobstad:

Events
At the end of July, Jakobsdagar takes place. The event lasts for an entire week and includes various festivities such as concerts, merchant stalls, competitions, and performances. It attracts a large number of people each year.

The name of the event translates to "Jacob's days" and refers to the name of the city.

At the end of November a chamber music festival called Rusk is held annually in Jakobstad. At the heart of this festival embracing superb chamber music and various other genres of the arts is the Schauman Hall in the centre of town, but the events also spread out into the surrounding urban environment.

Culture and sights

 * Jakobstad City Hall (in Swedish: Jakobstads rådhus) is a historic building in the city which was completed in 1875. The current look of the building dates from 1890.
 * Jakobstad is the home of the galeas Jacobstads Wapen, a full-scale replica built between 1987 and 1992, based on the original 1755 drawings by Swedish naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman
 * Jakobstad - Pietarsaari Museum is the main museum in the city, concentrating on maritime and ship building history
 * The Arctic museum Nanoq is located just outside Jakobstad.
 * Cikoriamuseet was the only museum focused on chicory in Finland. In the former chicory factory from the 19th century, visitors can familiarize themselves with the production of chicory, get acquainted with Wilhelm Schaumans early industrial career and also experience authentic old factory conditions. The museum in Jakobstad will also offer art exhibitions and other events.
 * The botanical garden Skolparken (in Swedish: "the school park"), with approximately 1,000 plant species, is renowned both as one of the most northerly botanical gardens in the world and for its classical park architecture. The foundation was laid in 1915 and the park was completed in 1932. The funding was provided by the Schauman family, who wanted to honour the memory of Elise and Viktor Schauman. The park was designed by the prominent Finnish garden architect Bengt Schalin.
 * Skata is a protected residential area close to the city centre which dates from 1783. Up until the late 19th century, Skata was home primarily to sailors and their families. As of the 1890s, it transformed into a mainly working class area, providing housing to a large part of the work force employed by the Strengberg tobacco factory.
 * Pedersöre Church

Food
In the 1980s, a rural liverwurst was named traditional food of Jakobstad. The culture of cafés and restaurants is lively in Jakobstad anyway, as the Strengberg tobacco factory was the first Finnish industrial plant to offer lunch to its employees. Jakobstad has ethnic restaurants, home-cooked lunch restaurants, à la carte restaurants and cafés, pubs and nightclubs.

Sports
The town's football team FF Jaro currently plays in Ykkösliiga, the second league in Finland. They are also home to Kakkonen side Jakobstads BK. The woman's league football club FC United has been very successful over the years.

Twin towns – sister cities
Jakobstad is twinned with:

 * 🇳🇴 Asker, Norway
 * 🇩🇪 Bünde, Germany
 * 🇸🇪 Eslöv, Sweden
 * 🇮🇸 Garðabær, Iceland
 * 🇺🇸 Jamestown, United States
 * 🇱🇻 Jūrmala, Latvia
 * Rudersdal, Denmark

Notable people

 * Alexei Eremenko Jr., footballer
 * Roman Eremenko, footballer
 * Sara Forsberg, singer, actress, and comedian
 * Bertel Jung, architect and urban planner
 * Mathias "Vreth" Lillmåns, singer of Finnish metal band Finntroll
 * Karl and his son Walter Nars, industrialists
 * Fredrik Norrena, ice-hockey player (goalkeeper)
 * Jens Portin, footballer
 * Jonas Portin, footballer
 * Fredrika Runeberg, writer
 * Johan Ludvig Runeberg, national poet and author of the national anthem of Finland
 * Tomas Sandström, ice-hockey player
 * Ossian Schauman, founder of the Swedish-speaking non-governmental organization Folkhälsan
 * Magnus Schjerfbeck, architect
 * Simon Skrabb, footballer
 * Philip Ulric Strengberg, prominent businessman and majority owner of the local tobacco factory in the 19th century
 * Heidi Sundblad-Halme, composer and founder of the Helsinki Women's Orchestra

title: Jakobstad


text:
Pontryagin duality

In mathematics, Pontryagin duality is a duality between locally compact abelian groups that allows generalizing Fourier transform to all such groups, which include the circle group (the multiplicative group of complex numbers of modulus one), the finite abelian groups (with the discrete topology), and the additive group of the integers (also with the discrete topology), the real numbers, and every finite-dimensional vector space over the reals or a $p$-adic field.

The Pontryagin dual of a locally compact abelian group is the locally compact abelian topological group formed by the continuous group homomorphisms from the group to the circle group with the operation of pointwise multiplication and the topology of uniform convergence on compact sets. The Pontryagin duality theorem establishes Pontryagin duality by stating that any locally compact abelian group is naturally isomorphic with its bidual (the dual of its dual). The Fourier inversion theorem is a special case of this theorem.

The subject is named after Lev Pontryagin who laid down the foundations for the theory of locally compact abelian groups and their duality during his early mathematical works in 1934. Pontryagin's treatment relied on the groups being second-countable and either compact or discrete. This was improved to cover the general locally compact abelian groups by Egbert van Kampen in 1935 and André Weil in 1940.

Introduction
Pontryagin duality places in a unified context a number of observations about functions on the real line or on finite abelian groups:
 * Suitably regular complex-valued periodic functions on the real line have Fourier series and these functions can be recovered from their Fourier series;
 * Suitably regular complex-valued functions on the real line have Fourier transforms that are also functions on the real line and, just as for periodic functions, these functions can be recovered from their Fourier transforms; and
 * Complex-valued functions on a finite abelian group have discrete Fourier transforms, which are functions on the dual group, which is a (non-canonically) isomorphic group. Moreover, any function on a finite abelian group can be recovered from its discrete Fourier transform.

The theory, introduced by Lev Pontryagin and combined with the Haar measure introduced by John von Neumann, André Weil and others depends on the theory of the dual group of a locally compact abelian group.

It is analogous to the dual vector space of a vector space: a finite-dimensional vector space $$V$$ and its dual vector space $$V^*$$ are not naturally isomorphic, but the endomorphism algebra (matrix algebra) of one is isomorphic to the opposite of the endomorphism algebra of the other: $$\text{End}(V) \cong {\text{End}(V^*)}^\text{op},$$ via the transpose. Similarly, a group $$G$$ and its dual group $$\widehat{G}$$ are not in general isomorphic, but their endomorphism rings are opposite to each other: $$\text{End}(G) \cong \text{End}(\widehat{G})^\text{op}$$. More categorically, this is not just an isomorphism of endomorphism algebras, but a contravariant equivalence of categories – see .

Definition
A topological group is a locally compact group if the underlying topological space is locally compact and Hausdorff; a topological group is abelian if the underlying group is abelian. Examples of locally compact abelian groups include finite abelian groups, the integers (both for the discrete topology, which is also induced by the usual metric), the real numbers, the circle group T (both with their usual metric topology), and also the p-adic numbers (with their usual p-adic topology).

For a locally compact abelian group $$G$$, the Pontryagin dual is the group $$\widehat G$$ of continuous group homomorphisms from $$G$$ to the circle group $$T$$. That is, $$\widehat G := \operatorname{Hom}(G, T).$$ The Pontryagin dual $$\widehat G$$ is usually endowed with the topology given by uniform convergence on compact sets (that is, the topology induced by the compact-open topology on the space of all continuous functions from $$G$$ to $$T$$).

For example,$$\widehat{\Z/n\Z}= \Z/n\Z,\ \widehat {\Z} = T,\ \widehat {\mathbb R} = \R,\ \widehat T = \Z.$$

Pontryagin duality theorem
$$

Canonical means that there is a naturally defined map $$\operatorname{ev}_G\colon G \to \widehat{\widehat{G}}$$ ; more importantly, the map should be functorial in $$G$$. For the character $$\chi$$ of the group $$G$$, the canonical isomorphism $$\operatorname{ev}_G$$ is defined on $$x\in G$$ as follows: $$ \operatorname{ev}_G(x)(\chi) = \chi(x) \in\mathbb{T}. $$ That is, $$\operatorname{ev}_G(x) : (\chi \mapsto \chi(x)).$$

In other words, each group element $$x$$ is identified to the evaluation character on the dual. This is strongly analogous to the canonical isomorphism between a finite-dimensional vector space and its double dual, $$V \cong V^{**}$$, and it is worth mentioning that any vector space $$V$$ is an abelian group. If $$G$$ is a finite abelian group, then $$G \cong \widehat{G}$$ but this isomorphism is not canonical. Making this statement precise (in general) requires thinking about dualizing not only on groups, but also on maps between the groups, in order to treat dualization as a functor and prove the identity functor and the dualization functor are not naturally equivalent. Also the duality theorem implies that for any group (not necessarily finite) the dualization functor is an exact functor.

Haar measure
One of the most remarkable facts about a locally compact group $$G$$ is that it carries an essentially unique natural measure, the Haar measure, which allows one to consistently measure the "size" of sufficiently regular subsets of $$G$$. "Sufficiently regular subset" here means a Borel set; that is, an element of the σ-algebra generated by the compact sets. More precisely, a right Haar measure on a locally compact group $$G$$ is a countably additive measure μ defined on the Borel sets of $$G$$ which is right invariant in the sense that $$\mu(Ax) = \mu(A)$$ for $$x$$ an element of $$G$$ and $$A$$ a Borel subset of $$G$$ and also satisfies some regularity conditions (spelled out in detail in the article on Haar measure). Except for positive scaling factors, a Haar measure on $$G$$ is unique.

The Haar measure on $$G$$ allows us to define the notion of integral for (complex-valued) Borel functions defined on the group. In particular, one may consider various Lp spaces associated to the Haar measure $$\mu$$. Specifically, $$ \mathcal L^p_\mu(G) = \left \{ (f: G \to \Complex) \ \Big| \ \int_G |f(x)|^p\ d \mu(x) < \infty \right \}. $$

Note that, since any two Haar measures on $$G$$ are equal up to a scaling factor, this $$L^p$$-space is independent of the choice of Haar measure and thus perhaps could be written as $$L^p(G)$$. However, the $$L^p$$-norm on this space depends on the choice of Haar measure, so if one wants to talk about isometries it is important to keep track of the Haar measure being used.

Fourier transform and Fourier inversion formula for L1-functions
The dual group of a locally compact abelian group is used as the underlying space for an abstract version of the Fourier transform. If $$f \in L^1(G)$$, then the Fourier transform is the function $$\widehat f$$ on $$\widehat{G}$$ defined by $$ \widehat f(\chi) = \int_G f(x) \overline{\chi(x)}\ d\mu(x),$$ where the integral is relative to Haar measure $$\mu$$ on $$G$$. This is also denoted $$(\mathcal{F}f)(\chi)$$. Note the Fourier transform depends on the choice of Haar measure. It is not too difficult to show that the Fourier transform of an $$L^1$$ function on $$G$$ is a bounded continuous function on $$\widehat{G}$$ which vanishes at infinity.

$$

The inverse Fourier transform of an integrable function on $$\widehat{G}$$ is given by $$ \check{g} (x) = \int_{\widehat{G}} g(\chi) \chi(x)\ d\nu(\chi),$$ where the integral is relative to the Haar measure $$\nu$$ on the dual group $$\widehat{G}$$. The measure $$\nu$$ on $$\widehat{G}$$ that appears in the Fourier inversion formula is called the dual measure to $$\mu$$ and may be denoted $$\widehat{\mu}$$.

The various Fourier transforms can be classified in terms of their domain and transform domain (the group and dual group) as follows (note that $$\mathbb T$$ is Circle group):

As an example, suppose $$G = \R^n$$, so we can think about $$\widehat{G}$$ as $$\R^n$$ by the pairing $$(\mathbf{v}, \mathbf{w}) \mapsto e^{i \mathbf{v}\cdot \mathbf{w}}.$$ If $$\mu$$ is the Lebesgue measure on Euclidean space, we obtain the ordinary Fourier transform on $$\R^n$$ and the dual measure needed for the Fourier inversion formula is $$\widehat{\mu} = (2\pi)^{-n}\mu$$. If we want to get a Fourier inversion formula with the same measure on both sides (that is, since we can think about $$\R^n$$ as its own dual space we can ask for $$\widehat{\mu}$$ to equal $$\mu$$) then we need to use $$\begin{align} \mu &= (2 \pi)^{-\frac{n}{2}} \times \text{Lebesgue measure} \\ \widehat{\mu} &= (2 \pi)^{-\frac{n}{2}} \times \text{Lebesgue measure} \end{align}$$

However, if we change the way we identify $$\R^n$$ with its dual group, by using the pairing $$(\mathbf{v}, \mathbf{w}) \mapsto e^{2\pi i \mathbf{v} \cdot \mathbf{w}},$$ then Lebesgue measure on $$\R^n$$ is equal to its own dual measure. This convention minimizes the number of factors of $$2\pi$$ that show up in various places when computing Fourier transforms or inverse Fourier transforms on Euclidean space. (In effect it limits the $$2\pi$$ only to the exponent rather than as a pre-factor outside the integral sign.) Note that the choice of how to identify $$\R^n$$ with its dual group affects the meaning of the term "self-dual function", which is a function on $$\R^n$$ equal to its own Fourier transform: using the classical pairing $$(\mathbf{v}, \mathbf{w}) \mapsto e^{i\mathbf{v} \cdot \mathbf{w}}$$ the function $$e^{-\frac{1}{2} x^2}$$ is self-dual. But using the pairing, which keeps the pre-factor as unity, $$(\mathbf{v}, \mathbf{w}) \mapsto e^{2\pi i \mathbf v \cdot \mathbf w}$$ makes $$e^{-\pi x^2}$$ self-dual instead. This second definition for the Fourier transform has the advantage that it maps the multiplicative identity to the convolution identity, which is useful as $$L^1$$ is a convolution algebra. See the next section on the group algebra. In addition, this form is also necessarily isometric on $$L^2$$ spaces. See below at Plancherel and L2 Fourier inversion theorems.

Group algebra
The space of integrable functions on a locally compact abelian group $$G$$ is an algebra, where multiplication is convolution: the convolution of two integrable functions $$f$$ and $$g$$ is defined as $$ (f  *  g)(x) = \int_G f(x - y) g(y)\ d \mu(y).$$

$$

This algebra is referred to as the Group Algebra of $$G$$. By the Fubini–Tonelli theorem, the convolution is submultiplicative with respect to the $$L^1$$ norm, making $$L^1(G)$$ a Banach algebra. The Banach algebra $$L^1(G)$$ has a multiplicative identity element if and only if $$G$$ is a discrete group, namely the function that is 1 at the identity and zero elsewhere. In general, however, it has an approximate identity which is a net (or generalized sequence) $$\{e_i\}_{i \in I}$$ indexed on a directed set $$I$$ such that $$ f *  e_i \to f. $$

The Fourier transform takes convolution to multiplication, i.e. it is a homomorphism of abelian Banach algebras $$L^1(G) \to C_0\left(\widehat{G}\right)$$ (of norm ≤ 1): $$ \mathcal{F}( f *  g)(\chi) = \mathcal{F}(f)(\chi) \cdot \mathcal{F}(g)(\chi).$$

In particular, to every group character on $$G$$ corresponds a unique multiplicative linear functional on the group algebra defined by $$ f \mapsto \widehat{f}(\chi).$$

It is an important property of the group algebra that these exhaust the set of non-trivial (that is, not identically zero) multiplicative linear functionals on the group algebra; see section 34 of. This means the Fourier transform is a special case of the Gelfand transform.

Plancherel and L2 Fourier inversion theorems
As we have stated, the dual group of a locally compact abelian group is a locally compact abelian group in its own right and thus has a Haar measure, or more precisely a whole family of scale-related Haar measures.

$$

Since the complex-valued continuous functions of compact support on $$G$$ are $$L^2$$-dense, there is a unique extension of the Fourier transform from that space to a unitary operator $$ \mathcal{F}: L^2_\mu(G) \to L^2_\nu\left(\widehat{G}\right).$$ and we have the formula $$ \forall f \in L^2(G): \quad \int_G |f(x)|^2 \ d \mu(x) = \int_{\widehat{G}} \left|\widehat{f}(\chi)\right|^2 \ d \nu(\chi).$$

Note that for non-compact locally compact groups $$G$$ the space $$L^1(G)$$ does not contain $$L^2(G)$$, so the Fourier transform of general $$L^2$$-functions on $$G$$ is "not" given by any kind of integration formula (or really any explicit formula). To define the $$L^2$$ Fourier transform one has to resort to some technical trick such as starting on a dense subspace like the continuous functions with compact support and then extending the isometry by continuity to the whole space. This unitary extension of the Fourier transform is what we mean by the Fourier transform on the space of square integrable functions.

The dual group also has an inverse Fourier transform in its own right; it can be characterized as the inverse (or adjoint, since it is unitary) of the $$L^2$$ Fourier transform. This is the content of the $$L^2$$ Fourier inversion formula which follows.

$$

In the case $$G = \mathbb{T}$$ the dual group $$\widehat{G}$$ is naturally isomorphic to the group of integers $$\Z$$ and the Fourier transform specializes to the computation of coefficients of Fourier series of periodic functions.

If $$G$$ is a finite group, we recover the discrete Fourier transform. Note that this case is very easy to prove directly.

Bohr compactification and almost-periodicity
One important application of Pontryagin duality is the following characterization of compact abelian topological groups: $$

That $$G$$ being compact implies $$\widehat{G}$$ is discrete or that $$G$$ being discrete implies that $$\widehat{G}$$ is compact is an elementary consequence of the definition of the compact-open topology on $$\widehat{G}$$ and does not need Pontryagin duality. One uses Pontryagin duality to prove the converses.

The Bohr compactification is defined for any topological group $$G$$, regardless of whether $$G$$ is locally compact or abelian. One use made of Pontryagin duality between compact abelian groups and discrete abelian groups is to characterize the Bohr compactification of an arbitrary abelian locally compact topological group. The Bohr compactification $$B(G)$$ of $$G$$ is $$\widehat{H}$$, where H has the group structure $$\widehat{G}$$, but given the discrete topology. Since the inclusion map $$ \iota: H \to \widehat{G} $$ is continuous and a homomorphism, the dual morphism $$ G \sim \widehat{\widehat{G}} \to \widehat{H} $$ is a morphism into a compact group which is easily shown to satisfy the requisite universal property.

Categorical considerations
Pontryagin duality can also profitably be considered functorially. In what follows, LCA is the category of locally compact abelian groups and continuous group homomorphisms. The dual group construction of $$\widehat{G}$$ is a contravariant functor LCA → LCA, represented (in the sense of representable functors) by the circle group $$\mathbb{T}$$ as $$\widehat{G}= \text{Hom}(G, \mathbb{T}).$$ In particular, the double dual functor $$G \to \widehat{\widehat{G}}$$ is covariant. A categorical formulation of Pontryagin duality then states that the natural transformation between the identity functor on LCA and the double dual functor is an isomorphism. Unwinding the notion of a natural transformation, this means that the maps $$G \to \operatorname {Hom}(\operatorname {Hom}(G, T), T)$$ are isomorphisms for any locally compact abelian group $$G$$, and these isomorphisms are functorial in $$G$$. This isomorphism is analogous to the double dual of finite-dimensional vector spaces (a special case, for real and complex vector spaces).

An immediate consequence of this formulation is another common categorical formulation of Pontryagin duality: the dual group functor is an equivalence of categories from LCA to LCAop.

The duality interchanges the subcategories of discrete groups and compact groups. If $$R$$ is a ring and $$G$$ is a left $$R$$–module, the dual group $$\widehat{G}$$ will become a right $$R$$–module; in this way we can also see that discrete left $$R$$–modules will be Pontryagin dual to compact right $$R$$–modules. The ring $$\text{End}(G)$$ of endomorphisms in LCA is changed by duality into its opposite ring (change the multiplication to the other order). For example, if $$G$$ is an infinite cyclic discrete group, $$\widehat{G}$$ is a circle group: the former has $$\text{End}(G) = \Z$$ so this is true also of the latter.

Generalizations
Generalizations of Pontryagin duality are constructed in two main directions: for commutative topological groups that are not locally compact, and for noncommutative topological groups. The theories in these two cases are very different.

Dualities for commutative topological groups
When $$G$$ is a Hausdorff abelian topological group, the group $$\widehat{G}$$ with the compact-open topology is a Hausdorff abelian topological group and the natural mapping from $$G$$ to its double-dual $$\widehat{\widehat{G}}$$ makes sense. If this mapping is an isomorphism, it is said that $$G$$ satisfies Pontryagin duality (or that $$G$$ is a reflexive group, or a reflective group). This has been extended in a number of directions beyond the case that $$G$$ is locally compact.

In particular, Samuel Kaplan showed in 1948 and 1950 that arbitrary products and countable inverse limits of locally compact (Hausdorff) abelian groups satisfy Pontryagin duality. Note that an infinite product of locally compact non-compact spaces is not locally compact.

Later, in 1975, Rangachari Venkataraman showed, among other facts, that every open subgroup of an abelian topological group which satisfies Pontryagin duality itself satisfies Pontryagin duality.

More recently, Sergio Ardanza-Trevijano and María Jesús Chasco have extended the results of Kaplan mentioned above. They showed that direct and inverse limits of sequences of abelian groups satisfying Pontryagin duality also satisfy Pontryagin duality if the groups are metrizable or $$k_\omega$$-spaces but not necessarily locally compact, provided some extra conditions are satisfied by the sequences.

However, there is a fundamental aspect that changes if we want to consider Pontryagin duality beyond the locally compact case. Elena Martín-Peinador proved in 1995 that if $$G$$ is a Hausdorff abelian topological group that satisfies Pontryagin duality, and the natural evaluation pairing $$\begin{cases} G \times \widehat{G} \to \mathbb{T} \\ (x, \chi) \mapsto \chi(x) \end{cases}$$ is (jointly) continuous, then $$G$$ is locally compact. As a corollary, all non-locally compact examples of Pontryagin duality are groups where the pairing $$G \times \widehat{G} \to \mathbb{T}$$ is not (jointly) continuous.

Another way to generalize Pontryagin duality to wider classes of commutative topological groups is to endow the dual group $$\widehat{G}$$ with a bit different topology, namely the topology of uniform convergence on totally bounded sets. The groups satisfying the identity $$G \cong \widehat{\widehat{G}}$$ under this assumption are called stereotype groups. This class is also very wide (and it contains locally compact abelian groups), but it is narrower than the class of reflective groups.

Pontryagin duality for topological vector spaces
In 1952 Marianne F. Smith noticed that Banach spaces and reflexive spaces, being considered as topological groups (with the additive group operation), satisfy Pontryagin duality. Later B. S. Brudovskiĭ, William C. Waterhouse and K. Brauner showed that this result can be extended to the class of all quasi-complete barreled spaces (in particular, to all Fréchet spaces). In the 1990s Sergei Akbarov gave a description of the class of the topological vector spaces that satisfy a stronger property than the classical Pontryagin reflexivity, namely, the identity $$(X^\star)^\star\cong X$$ where $$X^\star$$ means the space of all linear continuous functionals $$f \colon X \to \Complex$$ endowed with the topology of uniform convergence on totally bounded sets in $$X$$ (and $$(X^\star)^\star$$ means the dual to $$X^\star$$ in the same sense). The spaces of this class are called stereotype spaces, and the corresponding theory found a series of applications in Functional analysis and Geometry, including the generalization of Pontryagin duality for non-commutative topological groups.

Dualities for non-commutative topological groups
For non-commutative locally compact groups $$G$$ the classical Pontryagin construction stops working for various reasons, in particular, because the characters don't always separate the points of $$G$$, and the irreducible representations of $$G$$ are not always one-dimensional. At the same time it is not clear how to introduce multiplication on the set of irreducible unitary representations of $$G$$, and it is even not clear whether this set is a good choice for the role of the dual object for $$G$$. So the problem of constructing duality in this situation requires complete rethinking.

Theories built to date are divided into two main groups: the theories where the dual object has the same nature as the source one (like in the Pontryagin duality itself), and the theories where the source object and its dual differ from each other so radically that it is impossible to count them as objects of one class.

The second type theories were historically the first: soon after Pontryagin's work Tadao Tannaka (1938) and Mark Krein (1949) constructed a duality theory for arbitrary compact groups known now as the Tannaka–Krein duality. In this theory the dual object for a group $$G$$ is not a group but a category of its representations $$\Pi(G)$$.

The theories of first type appeared later and the key example for them was the duality theory for finite groups. In this theory the category of finite groups is embedded by the operation $$G\mapsto \Complex_G$$ of taking group algebra $$\Complex_G$$ (over $$\Complex$$) into the category of finite dimensional Hopf algebras, so that the Pontryagin duality functor $$G\mapsto \widehat{G}$$ turns into the operation $$H\mapsto H^*$$ of taking the dual vector space (which is a duality functor in the category of finite dimensional Hopf algebras).

In 1973 Leonid I. Vainerman, George I. Kac, Michel Enock, and Jean-Marie Schwartz built a general theory of this type for all locally compact groups. From the 1980s the research in this area was resumed after the discovery of quantum groups, to which the constructed theories began to be actively transferred. These theories are formulated in the language of C*-algebras, or Von Neumann algebras, and one of its variants is the recent theory of locally compact quantum groups.

One of the drawbacks of these general theories, however, is that in them the objects generalizing the concept of a group are not Hopf algebras in the usual algebraic sense. This deficiency can be corrected (for some classes of groups) within the framework of duality theories constructed on the basis of the notion of envelope of topological algebra.

title: Pontryagin duality


text:
List of Oxbridge sister colleges

Most of the colleges forming the University of Cambridge and University of Oxford are paired into sister colleges across the two universities. The extent of the arrangement differs from case to case, but commonly includes the right to dine at one's sister college, the right to book accommodation there, the holding of joint events between JCRs and invitations to May balls.

Trinity College, Dublin, a sister of both Oriel College, Oxford and St John's College, Cambridge, is unique in being the only non-Oxbridge institution to have sister status with an Oxbridge college.

Most of the pairings reflect similarities between the two colleges concerned, often parallel histories. For example, University College, Oxford (an ancient and prestigious college, founded 1249) is paired with Trinity Hall, Cambridge (of equivalent reputation, founded 1350). William Wykeham's statutes for New College, Oxford, founded in 1379, formed the basis of the foundation of its sister college, King's College, Cambridge. The two Colleges both share distinguished choral reputations. Founded by scholars from Merton College, one of Oxford's oldest colleges (founded 1264), Peterhouse (Cambridge, 1284) is Cambridge's first college. Similarly, Somerville College, Oxford (founded in 1879 as a women's institution) has Girton College, Cambridge (also historically a women's college, founded 1869) as its sister college. St Catherine's College, Oxford (the most recent undergraduate college in Oxford, founded 1963) is paired with Robinson College, Cambridge (the newest Cambridge college, founded 1977).

Oriel College and St Hugh's College, Oxford currently each dispute the other's claim to sister-college status with Clare College, Cambridge. While Oriel and Clare share a common founding year of 1326 and a long history of association, in the 1980s the newly coeducational Clare associated with the then female-only St. Hugh's to protest against Oriel's remaining all male. Today both St. Hugh's and Oriel are coeducational.

title: List of Oxbridge sister colleges


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Triple Alliance (1717)

The Triple Alliance was a defence pact signed on 4 January 1717 in The Hague between the Dutch Republic, France and Great Britain, against Bourbon Spain in an attempt to maintain the agreements of the 1713–15 Peace of Utrecht. The three states were concerned about Spain becoming a superpower in Europe. As a result, militarisation took place and caused great havoc to civilians. That enraged Spain and other states and led to brinkmanship. The alliance became the Quadruple Alliance the next year, after the accession of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI.

Background
The War of the Spanish Succession had ended with a compromise: Philip V of Bourbon was recognised as king of Spain, but he and his descendants had to renounce all claims to the French throne, while the French king Louis XIV and his descendants had to renounce all claims to the Spanish throne. Philip V also had to cede Sicily to Savoy, and the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Sardinia and Naples to Austria. Philip resented these conditions, and sought to recapture the lost territories to strengthen Spain in the post-war period without starting a new great war. Meanwhile, he supported the Cellamare conspiracy to seize the French regency (exerted by Philippe II, Duke of Orléans over infant king Louis XV) for himself.

After the deaths of Louis XIV and Queen Anne, relations between France and Great Britain improved. The new British king George I and the new French regent Philippe of Orléans were cousins, and both regimes faced threats. Orléans was concerned that his domestic enemies, particularly Louis Auguste de Bourbon, Duc de Maine, would combine with Spain to overthrow him, and George I wished to persuade the French to withhold support for any further Jacobite risings.

Formation
According to Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, who opposed the alliance, the British Ambassador to Paris, John Dalrymple, 2nd Earl of Stair, argued that the short-term advantage to both regimes of an alliance outweighed their traditional differences. Orléans agreed, as did his secretary Guillaume Dubois, the future Cardinal, together with James Stanhope, 1st Earl Stanhope, the English Secretary of State, who is generally regarded as the principal author of the alliance.

The Anglo-French Alliance (1716–1731) was concluded on 9 or 10 October 1716. It took several months to be ratified. Then, on 4 January 1717, the Dutch Republic concluded a defence pact with Britain and France in The Hague, in effect enlarging the bilateral alliance to a trilateral one.

Contents of the agreement
On 4 January 1717, Guillaume Dubois and Pierre Antoine de Châteauneuf sent by Philip II of Orléans (regent of France during the minority of King Louis XV), William Cadogan representing George I of Great Britain and the delegates of the States General of the Netherlands, reunited in the city of The Hague, signed the agreement, which included as main points the following:

 * Ratification of the agreements reached in the treaties of Utrecht of 1713.
 * France would expel James Stuart, pretender to the English crown, from his residence in Avignon.
 * The Dutch Republic would expel from their territory the supporters of James Stuart, considered rebels against England.
 * France should demolish the Mardyke Canal, built after the dismantling of the port of Dunkirk as agreed in the Treaty of Utrecht.
 * In the event that one of the signatory countries saw its territory invaded by forces of a foreign country or had to face internal rebellions, the other two would provide military help. In such a case, France and England would contribute 8,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry each; the Dutch Republic would contribute 4,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry. At the request of the invaded country, these troops could be replaced by an equivalent naval force. This point would only be valid in the territories of the signatories in Europe.

Aftermath
In 1718, with the adhesion of the Holy Roman Empire through the signing of the Treaty of London, it became the Quadruple Alliance.

Saint-Simon, who loathed Dubois, argued that the Bourbon Kingdoms of France and Spain should be perpetual allies, but that took no account of present realities. The Spanish conquest of Sardinia (22 August – 30 October 1717) and the Cellamare conspiracy fully justified Orléans's concerns about Spanish intentions, and the successful conclusion to the War of Quadruple Alliance vindicated the decision to ally with Great Britain and the Dutch Republic.

title: Triple Alliance (1717)


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Andrews' beaked whale

Andrews' beaked whale (Mesoplodon bowdoini), sometimes known as the deep-crest beaked whale or splay-toothed whale, is one of the least known members of a poorly known genus. The species has never been observed in the wild, and is known only from specimens washed up on beaches.

Taxonomy
The species was first described in 1908 by the American scientist Roy Chapman Andrews from a specimen collected at New Brighton Beach, Canterbury Province, New Zealand, in 1904. He named it in honor of George S. Bowdoin, a donor and trustee to the American Museum of Natural History.

Description
The body of Andrews' beaked whale is robust in comparison with other members of the genus. The melon is low, and the beak is short and thick. The lower jaw is peculiar in that halfway through it rises up significantly with the teeth extending over the rostrum. The head also sometimes has a light patch on the sides, more prominent in the males. The male, overall dark gray to black, has a lighter "saddle" marking between the blowhole and dorsal fin on its back. Males also carry scars typical of the genus. Females are slate gray with grayish-white flanks and belly. Cookiecutter sharkbites are present in both sexes. Females are believed to reach at least 4.9 m and males 4.5 m. The young are believed to be around 2.2 m long when born.

Behavior
The calving season may be during summer and autumn off New Zealand. Otherwise, any behavior is completely unknown.

Population and distribution
Andrews' beaked whales live in the Southern Hemisphere, and the precise range is uncertain. Some 35 stranded specimens have been recorded in Australia and New Zealand, Macquarie Island, the Falkland Islands, and Tristan da Cunha. That range may imply a circumpolar distribution. However, there are no confirmed sightings to confirm this.

Conservation
Andrews' beaked whale has never been hunted, and there are no records of it being caught in fishing gear. In addition, Andrews’ beaked whale is covered by the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (Pacific Cetaceans MOU).

Specimens

 * MNZ MM002133, collected Spirits Bay, Northland, New Zealand 1992

title: Andrews' beaked whale


text:
Fred Haise

Fred Wallace Haise Jr. (born November 14, 1933) is an American former NASA astronaut, engineer, fighter pilot with the U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Air Force, and a test pilot. He is one of 24 people to have flown to the Moon, having flown as Lunar Module pilot on Apollo 13. He was slated to become the 6th person to walk on the Moon, but the Apollo 13 landing mission was aborted en route.

Haise went on to fly five Space Shuttle Approach and Landing Tests in 1977, before retiring from NASA in 1979.

Early life
Fred Wallace Haise, Jr. was born on November 14, 1933, and raised in Biloxi, Mississippi, to Fred Wallace Haise (1903–1960) and Lucille ( Blacksher) Haise (1913–2005). He has a younger sister who was born in 1941. After the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, his father enlisted in the U.S. Navy at the age of 38, and the Haise family moved to Chicago. The family then moved to Key West, Florida, until his father's ship, YMS-84, deployed to the South Pacific, when the family moved back to Biloxi. He graduated from Biloxi High School in 1950. He attended Perkinston Junior College with a scholarship for journalism, and played on the baseball team. He graduated in 1952, and joined the Naval Aviation Cadet Program. He went to ground school at NAS Pensacola, and then moved to NAS Whiting Field in 1952. He trained in the SNJ and F6F Hellcat, and completed his flight training in 1954. He served as a U.S. Marine Corps fighter pilot, with VMF-533, then VMF-114 on the F2H-4 Banshee and F9F-8 Cougar at MCAS Cherry Point, North Carolina, from March 1954 to September 1956. Haise also served as a tactics and all-weather flight instructor in the U.S. Navy Advanced Training Command at NAS Kingsville, Texas.

Haise has accumulated 9,300 hours flying time, including 6,200 hours in jets.

After his military service, Haise returned to school and graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree with honors in aeronautical engineering from the University of Oklahoma in 1959, concurrently serving for two years in the Oklahoma Air National Guard, as a fighter interceptor pilot with the 185th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, flying the F-86D. He then worked for the newly created National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), first as a research pilot at the Lewis Research Center near Cleveland. His Air National Guard unit was called up during the Berlin Crisis of 1961 and he served ten months as a fighter pilot in the United States Air Force. He was a tactical fighter pilot and chief of the 164th Standardization-Evaluation Flight of the 164th Tactical Fighter Squadron at Mansfield Lahm Air National Guard Base, Ohio, flying the F-84F.

Haise completed post-graduate courses at the U.S. Air Force Aerospace Research Pilot School (Class 64A) at Edwards Air Force Base, California in 1964, and attended the six-week Harvard Business School's Advanced Management Program in 1972.

NASA career

In 1966, Haise was one of 19 astronauts selected for NASA Astronaut Group 5. He had already worked with NASA for several years as a civilian research pilot. He was the first astronaut in his group to be assigned to a mission, serving as backup Lunar Module Pilot for both Apollo 8 and Apollo 11.

Apollo 13

According to the rotation of crews during Apollo, Haise was originally assigned as Lunar Module Pilot for Apollo 14, but his crew was switched to Apollo 13 so that Alan Shepard could have more training time. He flew as Lunar Module Pilot on the aborted Apollo 13 lunar mission in 1970. Due to the distance between the Earth and Moon during the mission, Haise, Jim Lovell, and Jack Swigert hold the record for the farthest distance from the Earth ever traveled by human beings. Haise and Jack Swigert were the first people from Group 5 to fly in space. During this flight Haise developed a urinary tract infection and later kidney infections. These caused him to be in pain for most of the trip.

Haise was slated to become the 6th human to walk on the Moon during Apollo 13 behind Lovell, who was to be 5th. Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell eventually became the fifth and sixth, respectively, on Apollo 14, which completed Apollo 13's mission to the Fra Mauro formation.

Haise later served as backup commander for Apollo 16. Though there was no formal selection, Haise was prospectively slated to command Apollo 19 with William R. Pogue as Command Module Pilot and Gerald P. Carr as Lunar Module Pilot. However, the mission was canceled in 1970 due to budget cuts.

Space Shuttle approach and landing tests
After completing his backup assignment on Apollo 16, Haise moved to the Space Shuttle program. In 1977, he participated in the program's Approach and Landing Tests (ALT) at Edwards Air Force Base. Along with C. Gordon Fullerton as pilot, Haise as commander piloted the Space Shuttle Enterprise in free flight to three landings after being released from the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. The tests verified the shuttle's flight characteristics, an important step toward the success of the program.

Haise was assigned to command STS-2A, with Jack R. Lousma as pilot, the second Space Shuttle mission, which would have delivered the Teleoperator Retrieval System that would have boosted Skylab to a higher orbit, preserving it for future use. Delays in the Shuttle program development as well as an unexpected increase in Skylab's orbital decay led to the mission being canceled. Skylab was destroyed upon entering the Earth's atmosphere in July 1979, while the Space Shuttle did not launch until April 1981.

In June 1979, Haise left NASA to become a test pilot and executive with Grumman Aerospace Corporation, where he remained until retiring in 1996. He was the only one of the four astronauts who conducted the Enterprise landing tests not to fly in space on the Shuttle.

Personal life
Haise has four children with his first wife Mary Griffin Grant, whom he married on June 4, 1954, and divorced on July 21, 1978. He married Frances Patt Price, on January 9, 1979. On February 7, 2022, Frances died.

On August 22, 1973, Haise was piloting a Convair BT-13 belonging to the Commemorative Air Force that had been converted to look like an Aichi D3A "Val" torpedo bomber for the 1970 film Tora! Tora! Tora!. While attempting a landing go around at Scholes Field in Galveston, Texas, an undetermined power plant failure led to a crash landing. Haise suffered second‐degree burns over 50 percent of his body in the post crash fire.

Haise published his autobiography, Never Panic Early, about his life and experiences in the Apollo program in 2022.

Organizations
Haise is a fellow of the American Astronautical Society (AAS) and the Society of Experimental Test Pilots (SETP); member, Tau Beta Pi, Sigma Gamma Tau, and Phi Theta Kappa; and honorary member, National WWII Glider Pilots Association.

Awards and honors

Haise's other awards include the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) Haley Astronautics Award for 1971; the American Astronautical Society Flight Achievement Awards for 1970 and 1977; the City of New York Gold Medal in 1970; the City of Houston Medal for Valor in 1970; the Jeff Davis Award (1970); the Mississippi Distinguished Civilian Service Medal (1970); the American Defense Ribbon; the SETP's Ray E. Tenhoff Award for 1966; the A. B. Honts Trophy as the outstanding graduate of Class 64A from the Aerospace Research Pilot School in 1964; an honorary doctor of science degree from Western Michigan University (1970); the JSC Special Achievement Award (1978); the Soaring Society of America's Certificate of Achievement Award (1978); the General Thomas D. White USAF Space Trophy for 1977;  the SETP's Iven C. Kincheloe Award (1978); and the Air Force Association's David C. Schilling Award (1978).

He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, NASA Distinguished Service Medal, and NASA Exceptional Service Medal.

He was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1983 and the Aerospace Walk of Honor in 1995. He was also one of 24 Apollo astronauts inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame on October 4, 1997.

On February 13, 2022, the City of Biloxi unveiled a statue of Haise in the parking lot of the historic Biloxi Lighthouse. Haise was present at the ceremony and had his handprints set in concrete at the statue's base prior to its unveiling. The statue was created by Mississippi artist Mary Ott Tremel Davidson.

In September 2023, Haise was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in Dayton, Ohio.

In popular culture
In the 1995 motion picture Apollo 13, Haise was played by Bill Paxton.

title: Fred Haise


text:
Christabel Pankhurst

Dame Christabel Harriette Pankhurst (22 September 1880 – 13 February 1958) was a British suffragette born in Manchester, England. A co-founder of the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU), she directed its militant actions from exile in France from 1912 to 1913. In 1914, she supported the war against Germany. After the war, she moved to the United States, where she worked as an evangelist for the Second Adventist movement.

Early life
Christabel Pankhurst was the daughter of women's suffrage movement leader Emmeline Pankhurst and radical socialist Richard Pankhurst and sister to Sylvia and Adela Pankhurst. Her father was a barrister and her mother owned a small shop. Christabel assisted her mother, who worked as the Registrar of Births and Deaths in Manchester. Despite financial struggles, her family had always been encouraged by their firm belief in their devotion to causes rather than comforts.

Nancy Ellen Rupprecht wrote, "She was almost a textbook illustration of the first child born to a middle-class family. In childhood as well as adulthood, she was beautiful, intelligent, graceful, confident, charming, and charismatic." Christabel enjoyed a special relationship with both her mother and father, who had named her after "Christabel", the poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge ("The lovely lady Christabel / Whom her father loves so well"). Her mother's death in 1928 had a devastating impact on Christabel.

Education
Pankhurst learned to read at her home on her own before she went to school. She and her two sisters attended Manchester High School for Girls. She obtained a law degree from the University of Manchester, and received honours on her LL.B. exam but, as a woman, was not allowed to practise law. Later Pankhurst moved to Geneva to live with a family friend, but, when her father died in 1898, returned home to help her mother raise the rest of the children.

Suffrage
In 1905 Christabel Pankhurst interrupted a Liberal Party meeting by shouting demands for voting rights for women. She was arrested and, along with fellow suffragette Annie Kenney, went to prison rather than pay a fine as punishment for their outburst. Their case gained much media interest and the ranks of the WSPU swelled following their trial. Emmeline Pankhurst began to take more militant action for the women's suffrage cause after her daughter's arrest and was herself imprisoned on many occasions for her principles.

After obtaining her law degree in 1906, Christabel moved to the London headquarters of the WSPU, where she was appointed its organising secretary. Nicknamed "Queen of the Mob", she was jailed again in 1907 in Parliament Square and in 1909 after the "Rush Trial" at Bow Street Magistrates' Court. Between 1913 and 1914 she lived in Paris to escape imprisonment under the terms of the Prisoner's (Temporary Discharge for Ill-Health) Act, better known as the "Cat and Mouse Act" but continued to provided editorial lead to The Suffragette through visitors such as Annie Kenney and Ida Wylie who crossed the Channel for her advice. Other campaigners visited Paris to have Christmas dinner with her in 1912; these included Irene Dallas, Hilda Dallas, Blanche Edwards and Alice Morgan Wright.

The start of World War I compelled her to return to England in 1914, where she was again arrested. Pankhurst engaged in a hunger strike, ultimately serving only 30 days of a three-year sentence.

She was influential in the WSPU's "anti-male" phase after the failure of the Conciliation Bills. She wrote a book called The Great Scourge and How to End It on the subject of sexually transmitted diseases and how sexual equality (votes for women) would help the fight against these diseases.

She and her sister Sylvia did not get along. Sylvia was against turning the WSPU towards solely upper- and middle-class women and using militant tactics, while Christabel thought it was essential. Christabel felt that suffrage was a cause that should not be tied to any causes trying to help working-class women with their other issues. She felt that it would only drag the suffrage movement down and that all of the other issues could be solved once women had the right to vote.

Wartime activities
On 8 September 1914, Pankhurst re-appeared at London's Royal Opera House after her long exile, to utter a declaration on "The German Peril", a campaign led by the former General Secretary of the WSPU, Norah Dacre Fox in conjunction with the British Empire Union and the National Party. Along with Norah Dacre Fox (later known as Norah Elam), Pankhurst toured the country making recruiting speeches. Her sister Sylvia's memoir included a reference to some of Christabel's supporters handing the white feather to every young man they encountered wearing civilian dress.

The Suffragette appeared again on 16 April 1915 as a war paper and on 15 October changed its name to Britannia. In its pages, week by week, Pankhurst called for the military conscription of men and the industrial conscription of women into national service. She called also for the internment of all people of enemy nationality, men and women, young and old, found on these shores. Her supporters bobbed up at Hyde Park meetings with placards: "Intern Them All". She also championed a more complete and thorough enforcement of the blockade of enemy and neutral nations, arguing that this must be "a war of attrition". She demanded the resignation of Sir Edward Grey, Lord Robert Cecil, General William Robertson and Sir Eyre Crowe, whom she considered too mild and dilatory in method. Britannia was many times raided by the police and experienced greater difficulty in appearing than had befallen The Suffragette. Indeed, although occasionally Norah Dacre Fox's father, John Doherty, who owned a printing firm, was drafted in to print campaign posters, Britannia was compelled at last to set up its own printing press. Emmeline Pankhurst proposed to set up Women's Social and Political Union Homes for illegitimate girl "war babies", but only five children were adopted. David Lloyd George, whom Pankhurst had regarded as the most bitter and dangerous enemy of women, was now the one politician in whom she and Emmeline Pankhurst placed confidence.

1918 General Election campaign in Smethwick
After some British women were granted the right to vote at the end of World War I, Pankhurst announced that she would stand in the 1918 general election. At first she said she would contest Westbury in Wiltshire but at the last minute stood as a Women's Party candidate, in the Smethwick constituency in alliance with the Lloyd George/Conservative Coalition. She was not issued with the "Coalition Coupon" letter signed by both Liberal and Unionist leaders. Her campaign focussed on a "Victorious Peace", "the Germans must pay for the War" and "Britain for the British". She was narrowly defeated, by only 775 votes, by the Labour Party candidate, local trade union leader John Davison.

Move to California
Leaving England in 1921, Pankhurst moved to the United States where she eventually became an evangelist with Plymouth Brethren links and became a prominent member of Second Adventist movement.

Prophetic interests
Marshall, Morgan, and Scott published Pankhurst's works on subjects related to her prophetic outlook, which took its character from John Nelson Darby's perspectives. Pankhurst lectured and wrote books on the Second Coming. She was a frequent guest on TV shows in the 1950s and had a reputation for being an odd combination of "former suffragist revolutionary, evangelical Christian, and almost stereotypically proper 'English Lady' who always was in demand as a lecturer". While in California, she adopted her daughter Betty, finally having recovered from her mother's death.

Damehood
Pankhurst returned to Britain for a period in the 1930s and was appointed a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire "for public and social services" in the 1936 New Year Honours. At the onset of World War II she again left for the United States, to live in Los Angeles, California.

Death
Christabel died 13 February 1958, at the age of 77, sitting in a straight-backed chair. Her housekeeper found her body and there was no indication of her cause of death. She was buried in the Woodlawn Memorial Cemetery in Santa Monica, California.

In popular culture
She was played by Patricia Quinn in the TV series Shoulder to Shoulder.

Posthumous recognition
A profile bust of Christabel Pankhurst(left picture) on the right pylon of the Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst Memorial in Victoria Tower Gardens was added to the memorial in 1959; it was unveiled on 13 July 1959 by Viscount Kilmuir. Her name and image (and those of 58 other women's suffrage supporters) are etched on the plinth of the statue of Millicent Fawcett in Parliament Square, London, that was unveiled in 2018.

In 2006, a blue plaque(right picture) for Christabel and her mother was placed by English Heritage at 50, Clarendon Road, Notting Hill, London W11 3AD, where they had lived. Another blue plaque was erected on 19 October 2018 by the Marchmont Association at 8 Russell Square, London, WC1B 5BE.

title: Christabel Pankhurst


text:
Mesoplodon

Mesoplodont whales are 16 species of toothed whale in the genus Mesoplodon, making it the largest genus in the cetacean order. Two species were described as recently as 1991 (pygmy beaked whale) and 2002 (Perrin's beaked whale), and marine biologists predict the discovery of more species in the future. A new species was described in 2021. They are the most poorly known group of large mammals. The generic name "mesoplodon" comes from the Greek meso- (middle) - hopla (arms) - odon (teeth), and may be translated as 'armed with a tooth in the centre of the jaw'.

Physical description
Mesoplodont beaked whales are small whales, 3.9 m (pygmy beaked whale) to 6.2 m (strap-toothed whale) in length, even compared with closely related whales such as the bottlenose whales and giant beaked whales. The spindle-shaped body has a small dorsal fin and short and narrow flippers. The head is small and tapered and has a semicircular blow hole that is sometimes asymmetric. The beak, which vary in length between species, blends with the small melon without a crease.

Sexual dimorphism is poorly known, but the females tend to be the same size or larger than males at least in some species. The males typically have a bolder coloration and a unique dentition. The males of most species are covered in scars from the teeth of other males.

The lower jaw often forms a huge arch in some species, sometimes extending above the rostrum in a shape comparable to a playground slide. Every species has large (sometimes tusk-like) teeth of variable size, shape, and position.

Both sexes often have bites from cookie-cutter sharks. The dorsal fin is rather small and located between two-thirds and three-quarters down the back of the animal. Information on longevity and lactation is non-existent, and information on gestation is nearly so.

Behavior
Most species are very rarely observed, and little is known about their behavior. They are typically found in groups, possibly segregated between sexes. Some species are so uncommon, they have yet to be observed alive. On the surface, they are typically very slow swimmers and do not make obvious blows. They have never been observed raising their flukes above the water. They are all very deep divers, and many feed entirely on squid.

Conservation
The mesoplodonts are completely unknown as far as population estimates are concerned. They have been hunted occasionally by the Japanese, but never directly. They are also accidentally captured in drift nets. It is not known what effect this has on the population.

Species

 * Andrews' beaked whale (M. bowdoini) Andrews, 1908
 * Blainville's beaked whale (M. densirostris) Blainville, 1817
 * Deraniyagala's beaked whale (M. hotaula) Deraniyagala, 1963
 * Gervais's beaked whale (M. europaeus) Gervais, 1855
 * Ginkgo-toothed beaked whale (M. ginkgodens) Nishiwaki and Kamiya, 1958
 * Gray's beaked whale (M. grayi) von Haast, 1876
 * Hector's beaked whale (M. hectori) Gray, 1871
 * Hubbs' beaked whale (M. carlhubbsi) Moore, 1963
 * Perrin's beaked whale (M. perrini) Dalebout, Mead, Baker, Baker & van Helden, 2002
 * Pygmy beaked whale (M. peruvianus) Reyes, Mead, and Van Waerebeek, 1991
 * Sowerby's beaked whale (M. bidens) Sowerby, 1804
 * Spade-toothed whale (M. traversii) Gray, 1874
 * Stejneger's beaked whale (M. stejnegeri) True, 1885
 * Strap-toothed whale (M. layardii) Gray, 1865
 * True's beaked whale (M. mirus) True, 1913
 * Ramari's beaked whale (M. eueu) Carroll et al, 2021

Longman's beaked whale (Indopacetus pacificus, also known as the Indo-Pacific beaked whale or the tropical bottlenose whale) was originally assigned to Mesoplodon, but Joseph Curtis Moore placed it in its own genus, Indopacetus, a taxonomic assignment which has been followed by all researchers.

Four extinct species of Mesoplodon are known, M. longirostris M. posti, M. slangkopi. and M. tumidirostris.

title: Mesoplodon