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Varina Davis

Varina Anne Banks Davis ( Howell; May 7, 1826 – October 16, 1906) was the only First Lady of the Confederate States of America, and the longtime second wife of President Jefferson Davis. She moved to the presidential mansion in Richmond, Virginia, in mid-1861, and lived there for the remainder of the Civil War. Born and raised in the South and educated in Philadelphia, she had family on both sides of the conflict and unconventional views for a woman in her public role. She did not support the Confederacy's position on slavery, and was ambivalent about the war.

Davis became a writer after the war, completing her husband's memoir. She was recruited by Kate (Davis) Pulitzer, a purportedly distant cousin of Varina’s husband and wife of publisher Joseph Pulitzer, to write articles and eventually a regular column for the New York World. Widowed in 1889, Davis moved to New York City with her youngest daughter Winnie in 1891 to work at writing. She enjoyed urban life. In her old age, she attempted to reconcile prominent figures of the North and South.

Early life and education
Varina Anne Banks Howell was born in 1826 at Natchez, Mississippi, the daughter of William Burr Howell and Margaret Louisa Kempe. Her father was from a distinguished family in New Jersey: His father, Richard Howell, served several terms as governor of New Jersey and died when William was a boy. William inherited little money and used family connections to become a clerk in the Bank of the United States.

William Howell relocated to Mississippi, when new cotton plantations were being rapidly developed. There he met and married Margaret Louisa Kempe (1806–1867), born in Prince William County, Virginia. Her wealthy planter family had moved to Mississippi before 1816. She was the daughter of Colonel James Kempe (sometimes spelled Kemp), a Scots-Irish immigrant from Ulster who became a successful planter and major landowner in Virginia and Mississippi, and Margaret Graham, born in Prince William County. Margaret Graham was illegitimate as her parents, George Graham, a Scots immigrant, and Susanna McAllister (1783–1816) of Virginia, never officially married.

After moving his family from Virginia to Mississippi, James Kempe also bought land in Louisiana, continuing to increase his holdings and productive capacity. When his daughter married Howell, he gave her a dowry of 60 slaves and 2000 acre of land in Mississippi. William Howell worked as a planter, merchant, politician, postmaster, cotton broker, banker, and military commissary manager, but never secured long-term financial success. He lost the majority of Margaret's sizable dowry and inheritance through bad investments and their expensive lifestyle. They suffered intermittent serious financial problems throughout their lives.

Varina was born in Natchez, Mississippi, as the second Howell child of eleven, seven of whom survived to adulthood. She was later described as tall and thin, with an olive complexion attributed to Welsh ancestors. (Later, when she was living in Richmond as the unpopular First Lady of the Confederacy, critics described her as looking like a mulatto or Indian "squaw".) When Varina was thirteen, her father declared bankruptcy. The Howell family home, furnishings and slaves were seized by creditors to be sold at public auction.

Her wealthy maternal relatives intervened to redeem the family's property. It was one of several sharp changes in fortune that Varina encountered in her life. She grew to adulthood in a house called The Briars, when Natchez was a thriving city, but she learned her family was dependent on the wealthy Kempe relatives of her mother's family to avoid poverty.

Varina Howell was sent to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for her education, where she studied at Madame Deborah Grelaud's French School, a prestigious academy for young ladies. Grelaud, a Huguenot, was a refugee from the French Revolution and had founded her school in the 1790s. One of Varina's classmates was Sarah Anne Ellis, later known as Sarah Anne Dorsey, the daughter of extremely wealthy Mississippi planters. (After the Civil War, Dorsey, by then a wealthy widow, provided financial support to the Davises.)

While at school in Philadelphia, Varina got to know many of her northern Howell relatives; she carried on a lifelong correspondence with some, and called herself a "half-breed" for her connections in both regions. After a year, she returned to Natchez, where she was privately tutored by Judge George Winchester, a Harvard graduate and family friend. She was intelligent and better educated than many of her peers, which led to tensions with Southern expectations for women. In her later years, Varina referred fondly to Madame Grelaud and Judge Winchester; she sacrificed to provide the highest quality of education for her two daughters in their turn.

In 1843, at age 17, Howell was invited to spend the Christmas season at Hurricane Plantation, the 5000 acre property of family friends Joseph Emory Davis and Eliza Van Benthuysen Davis. Her parents had named their oldest child after Joseph Davis. Located at Davis Bend, Mississippi, Hurricane was 20 miles south of Vicksburg. Davis was planning a gala housewarming with many guests and entertainers to inaugurate his lavish new mansion on the cotton plantation. (Varina described the house in detail in her memoirs.) During her stay, she met her host's much younger brother Jefferson Davis. Then thirty-five years old, Davis was a West Point graduate, former Army officer, and widower. He worked as a planter, having developed Brierfield Plantation on land his brother allowed him to use, although Joseph Davis still retained possession of the land.

Marriage and family
Jefferson Davis was a 35-year-old widower when he and Varina met. His first wife, Sarah Knox Taylor, daughter of his commanding officer Zachary Taylor while he was in the Army, had died of malaria three months after their wedding in 1835. Davis mourned her and had been reclusive in the ensuing eight years. He was beginning to be active in politics.

Shortly after first meeting him, Howell wrote to her mother:"I do not know whether this Mr. Jefferson Davis is young or old. He looks both at times; but I believe he is old, for from what I hear he is only two years younger than you are [the rumor was correct]. He impresses me as a remarkable kind of man, but of uncertain temper, and has a way of taking for granted that everybody agrees with him when he expresses an opinion, which offends me; yet he is most agreeable and has a peculiarly sweet voice and a winning manner of asserting himself. The fact is, he is the kind of person I should expect to rescue one from a mad dog at any risk, but to insist upon a stoical indifference to the fright afterward."

In keeping with custom, Davis sought the permission of Howell's parents before beginning a formal courtship. They initially disapproved of him due to the many differences in background, age, and politics. Davis was a Democrat and the Howells, including Varina, were Whigs. In her memoir, Varina Howell Davis wrote that her mother was concerned about Jefferson Davis's excessive devotion to his relatives (particularly his older brother Joseph, who had largely raised him and upon whom he was financially dependent) and his near worship of his deceased first wife. The Howells ultimately consented to the courtship, and the couple became engaged shortly thereafter.

Their wedding was planned as a grand affair to be held at Hurricane Plantation during Christmas of 1844, but the wedding and engagement were cancelled shortly beforehand, for unknown reasons. In January 1845, while Howell was ill with a fever, Davis visited her frequently. They became engaged again. When they married on February 26, 1845, at her parents' house, a few relatives and friends of the bride attended, and none of the groom's family.

Their short honeymoon included a visit to Davis's aged mother, Jane Davis, and a visit to the grave of his first wife in Louisiana. The newlyweds took up residence at Brierfield, the plantation Davis had developed on 1000 acre loaned to him for his use by his brother Joseph Davis. Their first residence was a two-room cottage on the property and they started construction of a main house. It became a source of contention.

Soon after their marriage, Davis's widowed and penniless sister, Amanda (Davis) Bradford, came to live on the Brierfield property along with her seven youngest children. Her brothers decided that she should share the large house which the Davises were building, but they had not consulted Varina Davis. It was an example of what she would later call interference from the Davis family in her life with her husband. Additionally, her brother-in-law Joseph Davis proved controlling, both of his brother, who was 23 years younger, and the even younger Varina – especially during her husband's absences. At the same time, her parents became more financially dependent on the Davises, to her embarrassment and resentment. Their youngest son, born after her own marriage, was named Jefferson Davis Howell in her husband's honor.

The couple had long periods of separation from early in their marriage, first as Jefferson Davis gave campaign speeches and "politicked" (or campaigned) for himself and for other Democratic candidates in the elections of 1846. He was also gone for extended periods during the Mexican War (1846–1848). Varina Davis was put under the guardianship of Joseph Davis, whom she had come to dislike intensely. Her correspondence with her husband during this time demonstrated her growing discontent, to which Jefferson was not particularly sympathetic.

Urban life in Washington, DC
Jefferson Davis was elected in 1846 to the U.S. House of Representatives and Varina accompanied him to Washington, D.C., which she loved. She was stimulated by the social life with intelligent people and was known for making "unorthodox observations". Among them were that "slaves were human beings with their frailties" and that "everyone was a 'half breed' of one kind or another." She referred to herself as one because of her strong family connections in both North and South. The Davises lived in Washington, DC, for most of the next fifteen years before the American Civil War, which gave Varina Howell Davis a broader outlook than many Southerners. It was her favorite place to live. But, as an example of their many differences, her husband preferred life on their Mississippi plantation.

Soon he took leave from his Congressional position to serve as an officer in the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). Varina Davis returned for a time to Briarfield, where she chafed under the supervision of her brother-in-law, Joseph. The surviving correspondence between the Davises from this period expresses their difficulties and mutual resentments. After her husband's return from the war, Varina Davis did not immediately accompany him to Washington when the Mississippi legislature appointed him to fill a Senate seat.

Ultimately, the couple reconciled. She rejoined her husband in Washington. He had unusual visibility for a freshman senator because of his connections as the son-in-law (by his late wife) and former junior officer of President Zachary Taylor. Varina Davis enjoyed the social life of the capital and quickly established herself as one of the city's most popular (and, in her early 20s, one of the youngest) hostesses and party guests. The 1904 memoir of her contemporary, Virginia Clay-Clopton, described the lively parties of the Southern families in this period with other Congressional delegations, as well as international representatives of the diplomatic corps.

After seven childless years, in 1852, Varina Davis gave birth to a son, Samuel. Her letters from this period express her happiness and portray Jefferson as a doting father. The couple had a total of six children:
 * Samuel Emory Davis, born July 30, 1852, named after his paternal grandfather; he died June 30, 1854, of an undiagnosed disease.
 * Margaret Howell Davis, born February 25, 1855. She married Joel Addison Hayes, Jr. (1848–1919), and they lived first in Memphis, Tennessee; later they moved to Colorado Springs, Colorado. They had five children, including a daughter named after her mother; Margaret was the only Davis child to marry and raise a family. She married Joel Addison Hayes in Memphis on New Year's Day, 1876.  She, her husband, and family moved to Colorado Springs in 1885, where they soon became leading members of local society. Many of J. Addison and Margaret Hayes' descendants still reside in the area. She died on July 18, 1909, at the age of 54 and is buried with the Davis family at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia.
 * Jefferson Davis, Jr., born January 16, 1857. He died in Memphis, Tennessee, of yellow fever at age 21 on October 16, 1878, during an epidemic in the Mississippi River Valley that caused 20,000 deaths.
 * Joseph Evan Davis, born on April 18, 1859, died at the age of five due to an accidental fall on April 30, 1864.
 * William Howell Davis, born on December 6, 1861, was named for Varina's father; he died of diphtheria on October 16, 1872.
 * Varina Anne "Winnie" Davis was born on June 27, 1864, two months after Joseph's death. Known as the "Daughter of the Confederacy", she died at age 34 on September 18, 1898, of gastritis. After her parents had opposed her marriage in the late 1880s to a man from a Northern, abolitionist family, she never married.

The Davises were devastated in 1854 when their first child died before the age of two. Varina Davis largely withdrew from social life for a time. In 1855, she gave birth to a healthy daughter, Margaret (1855–1909); followed by two sons, Jefferson, Jr., (1857–1878) and Joseph (1859–1864), during her husband's remaining tenure in Washington, D.C. The early losses of all four of their sons caused enormous grief to both the Davises.

During the Pierce Administration, Davis was appointed to the post of Secretary of War. He and President Franklin Pierce also formed a personal friendship that would last for the rest of Pierce's life. Their wives developed a strong respect, as well. The Pierces lost their last surviving child, Benny, shortly before his father's inauguration. They both suffered; Pierce became dependent on alcohol and Jane Appleton Pierce had health problems, including depression. At the request of the Pierces, the Davises, both individually and as a couple, often served as official hosts at White House functions in place of the President and his wife.

According to diarist Mary Boykin Chesnut, in 1860 Mrs. Davis "sadly" told a friend "The South will secede if Lincoln is made president. They will make Mr. Davis President of the Southern side. And the whole thing is bound to be a failure."

Confederate First Lady
Jefferson Davis resigned from the U.S. Senate in 1861 when Mississippi seceded. Varina Davis returned with their children to Brierfield, expecting him to be commissioned as a general in the Confederate army. He was elected as President of the Confederate States of America by the new Confederate Congress. She did not accompany him when he traveled to Montgomery, Alabama (then capital of the new country) to be inaugurated. A few weeks later, she followed and assumed official duties as the First Lady of the Confederacy.

Davis greeted the war with dread, supporting the Confederacy but not slavery. She was known to have said that:

"the South did not have the material resources to win the war and white Southerners did not have the qualities necessary to win it; that her husband was unsuited for political life; that maybe women were not the inferior sex; and that perhaps it was a mistake to deny women the suffrage before the war."

In the summer of 1861, Davis and her husband moved to Richmond, Virginia, the new capital of the Confederacy. They lived in a house which would come to be known as the White House of the Confederacy for the remainder of war (1861–1865). "She tried intermittently to do what was expected of her, but she never convinced people that her heart was in it, and her tenure as First Lady was for the most part a disaster," as the people picked up on her ambivalence. White residents of Richmond criticized Varina Davis freely; some described her appearance as resembling "a mulatto or an Indian 'squaw'."

In December 1861, she gave birth to their fifth child, William. Due to her husband's influence, her father William Howell received several low-level appointments in the Confederate bureaucracy which helped support him. The social turbulence of the war years reached the Presidential mansion; in 1864, several of the Davises' domestic slaves escaped. James Dennison and his wife, Betsey, who had served as Varina's maid, used saved back pay of 80 gold dollars to finance their escape. Henry, a butler, left one night after allegedly building a fire in the mansion's basement to divert attention.

In spring 1864, five-year-old Joseph Davis died in a fall from the porch at the Presidential mansion in Richmond. A few weeks later, Varina gave birth to their last child, a girl named Varina Anne Davis, who was called "Winnie". The girl became known to the public as "the Daughter of the Confederacy;" stories about and likenesses of her were distributed throughout the Confederacy during the last year of the war to raise morale. She retained the nickname for the rest of her life.

Postwar
When the war ended, the Davises fled South seeking to escape to Europe. They were captured by federal troops and Jefferson Davis was imprisoned at Fort Monroe in Phoebus, Virginia, for two years. Left indigent, Varina Davis was restricted to residing in the state of Georgia, where her husband had been arrested. Fearing for the safety of their older children, she sent them to friends in Canada under the care of relatives and a family servant. Initially forbidden to have any contact with her husband, Davis worked tirelessly to secure his release. She tried to raise awareness of and sympathy for what she perceived as his unjust incarceration.

After a few months Varina Davis was allowed to correspond with him. Articles and a book on his confinement helped turn public opinion in his favor. Davis and young Winnie were allowed to join Jefferson in his prison cell. The family was eventually given a more comfortable apartment in the officers' quarters of the fort. Although released on bail and never tried for treason, Jefferson Davis had temporarily lost his home in Mississippi, most of his wealth, and his U.S. citizenship. In the late 20th century, his citizenship was posthumously restored by then President Carter. The small Davis family traveled constantly in Europe and Canada as he sought work to rebuild his fortunes. Davis accepted the presidency of an insurance agency headquartered in Memphis. The family began to regain some financial comfort until the Panic of 1873, when his company was one of many that went bankrupt. In 1872 their son William Davis died of typhoid fever, adding to their emotional burdens.

While visiting their daughters enrolled in boarding schools in Europe, Jefferson Davis received a commission as an agent for an English consortium seeking to purchase cotton from the southern United States. He returned to the US for this work. Varina Davis remained in England to visit her sister who had recently moved there, and stayed for several months. The surviving correspondence suggests her stay may have been prompted by renewed marital difficulties. Both the Davises suffered from depression due to the loss of their sons and their fortunes.

She resented his attentions to other women, particularly Virginia Clay. Clay was the wife of their friend, former senator Clement Clay, a fellow political prisoner at Fort Monroe. During this period, Davis exchanged passionate letters with Virginia Clay for three years and is believed to have loved her. In 1871 Davis was reported as having been seen on a train "with a woman not his wife", and it made national newspapers. Still in England, Varina was outraged.

For several years, the Davises lived apart far more than they lived together. Davis was unemployed for most of the years after the war. In 1877 he was ill and nearly bankrupt. Advised to take a home near the sea for his health, he accepted an invitation from Sarah Anne Ellis Dorsey, a widowed heiress, to visit her summer cottage Beauvoir on the Mississippi Sound in Biloxi. A classmate of Varina in Philadelphia, Dorsey had become a respected novelist and historian, and had traveled extensively. She arranged for Davis to use a cottage on the grounds of her plantation. There she helped him organize and write his memoir of the Confederacy, in part by her active encouragement. She also invited Varina Davis to stay with her.

Davis and her eldest daughter, Margaret Howell Hayes, disapproved of her husband's friendship with Dorsey. After Varina Davis returned to the United States, she lived in Memphis with Margaret and her family for a time. Gradually she began a reconciliation with her husband. She was with him at Beauvoir in 1878 when they learned that their last surviving son, Jefferson Davis, Jr., had died during a yellow fever epidemic in Memphis. That year 20,000 people died throughout the South in the epidemic. During her grieving, Varina became friends again with Dorsey.

Sarah Dorsey was determined to help support the former president; she offered to sell him her house for a reasonable price. Learning she had breast cancer, Dorsey made over her will to leave Jefferson Davis free title to the home, as well as much of the remainder of her financial estate. Her Percy relatives were unsuccessful in challenging the will. Her bequest provided Davis with enough financial security to provide for Varina and Winnie, and to enjoy some comfort with them in his final years. When Winnie Davis completed her education, she joined her parents at Beauvoir. She had fallen in love when at college, but her parents disapproved. Her father objected to his being from "a prominent Yankee and abolitionist family" and her mother to his lack of money and being burdened by many debts. Forced to reject this man, Winnie never married.

Dorsey's bequest made Winnie Davis the heiress after Jefferson Davis died in 1889. In 1891, Varina and Winnie moved to New York City. After Winnie died in 1898, she was buried next to her father in Richmond, Virginia. Varina Davis inherited Beauvoir.

Widow
After her husband died, Varina Howell Davis completed his autobiography, publishing it in 1890 as Jefferson Davis, A Memoir. At first the book sold few copies, dashing her hopes of earning some income.

Kate Davis Pulitzer, a distant cousin of Jefferson Davis and the wife of Joseph Pulitzer, a major newspaper publisher in New York, had met Varina Davis during a visit to the South. She solicited short articles from her for her husband's newspaper, the New York World. In 1891 Varina Davis accepted the Pulitzers' offer to become a full-time columnist and moved to New York City with her daughter Winnie. They enjoyed the busy life of the city. White Southerners attacked Davis for this move to the North, as she was considered a public figure of the Confederacy whom they claimed for their own.

As Davis and her daughter each worked at literary careers, they lived in a series of residential hotels in New York City. (Their longest residency was at the Hotel Gerard at 123 W. 44th Street.) Varina Davis wrote many articles for the newspaper, and Winnie Davis published several novels.

After Winnie died in 1898, Varina Davis inherited Beauvoir. In October 1902, she sold the plantation to the Mississippi Division of the Sons of Confederate Veterans for $10,000 (~$ in ). She stipulated the facility was to be used as a Confederate veterans' home and later as a memorial to her husband. The SCV built barracks on the site, and housed thousands of veterans and their families. The plantation was used for years as a veterans' home.

Since 1953 the house has been operated as a museum to Davis. Beauvoir has been designated a National Historic Landmark. The main house has been restored and a museum built there, housing the Jefferson Davis Presidential Library.

Varina Howell Davis was one of numerous influential Southerners who moved to the North for work after the war; they were nicknamed "Confederate carpetbaggers".

In the postwar years of reconciliation, Davis became friends with Julia Dent Grant, the widow of former general and president Ulysses S. Grant, who had been among the most hated men in the South. She attended a reception where she met Booker T. Washington, head of the Tuskegee Institute, then a black college. In her old age, Davis published some of her observations and "declared in print that the right side had won the Civil War."

Later years
Although saddened by the death of her daughter Winnie in 1898 (the fifth / last of her six children to predecease her), Davis continued to write for the World. She enjoyed a daily ride in a carriage through Central Park.

She was active socially until poor health in her final years forced her retirement from work and any sort of public life. Davis died at age 80 of double pneumonia in her room at the Hotel Majestic on October 16, 1906. She was survived by her daughter Margaret Davis Hayes and several grandchildren and great-grandchildren.

Legacy and honors
Varina Howell Davis received a funeral procession through the streets of New York City. Her coffin was taken by train to Richmond, accompanied by the Reverend Nathan A. Seagle, Rector of Saint Stephen's Protestant Episcopal Church, New York City which Davis attended. She was interred with full honors by Confederate veterans at Hollywood Cemetery and was buried adjacent to the tombs of her husband and their daughter Winnie.

A portrait of Mrs. Davis, titled the Widow of the Confederacy (1895), was painted by the Swiss-born American artist Adolfo Müller-Ury (1862–1947). It is held at the museum at Beauvoir. In 1918 Müller-Ury donated his profile portrait of her daughter, Winnie Davis, painted in 1897–1898, to the Museum of the Confederacy in Richmond, Virginia.

On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina caused extensive wind and water damage to Beauvoir, which houses the Jefferson Davis Presidential Library. The home was restored and reopened on June 3, 2008. Varina Howell Davis's diamond and emerald wedding ring, one of the few valuable possessions she was able to retain through years of poverty, was held by the Museum at Beauvoir and lost during the destruction of Hurricane Katrina. It was discovered on the grounds a few months later and returned to the museum.

Representation in other media

 * Harnett Kane's Bride of Fortune (1948), a historical novel based on Mrs. Davis
 * Charles Frazier's 2018 novel Varina

title: Varina Davis


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Talk:List of battles 301–1300

Untitled
why 601 to 1400? Any reason other than trivial one? I am just curious. -- Taku

Seventh Century Clear!
There are no more battles left with red-links in the seventh century. All have at least a stub. Roy Al Blue 15:15, 18 November 2005 (UTC)

Tenth Century Clear!
All tenth century battles that are on the list have been given at least a stub. Roy Al Blue 20:26, 19 November 2005 (UTC)

Guadalete is missing and it is a VERY important battle in Spain's (and Europe) history.

Ninth Century Clear!
The red-link battles in the Ninth Century have all been filled in with stubs. Roy Al Blue 20:31, 20 November 2005 (UTC)

South Foreland and Sandwich
Is the Battle of South Foreland the same as the Battle of Sandwich, where Eustace the Monk was killed? Eustace took part in South Foreland, and it was also fought in 1217, but I cannot find anything to indicate whether these are the same battle or not. Does anyone know? Roy Al Blue 03:15, 23 November 2005 (UTC):There were several battles of South Foreland and Sandwich, but in 1217 they were both the same. Due to vagaries of tides etc, this area of the coastline is a major site of naval battles in history, and the names can get pretty confusing.--Jackyd101 23:32, 23 April 2006 (UTC)

Thirteenth Century Clear!
No more red-links to battles in the Thirteenth Century. Roy Al Blue 13:56, 23 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure how useful it is to have all these stubs, but as long as you are making them, could you add them to WikiProject Military history/New articles and WikiProject Middle Ages/New Articles?
 * All making dozens of stubs does is prevent people seeing what has and hasn't been written on!

1331 Battle of Velbuzd, Bulgarian Emperor killed —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.18.59.53 (talk) 16:46, 2 June 2009 (UTC)

1389 Kosova
I usually don't like to edit on already written material. But this one is an exception. It said that the battle had no clear results. This statement contridicts to all articles on Battle of Kosova. The result was decisive and consequences were very significant on Balkan history. So I had to change the statement. Nedim Ardoğa (talk) 20:02, 20 November 2009 (UTC)

1294 Battle of the Conwy
I find this entry puzzling. Details given are "11 November – English army routed at Denbigh by Welsh rebels during the revolt of Madog ap Llywelyn." The battle is not given this name (or any name) in any source I can find. The Welsh defeated Henry Lacy while he was on his way from Portsmouth to Denbigh (not at Denbigh). Denbigh is not on the River Conwy, it seems unlikely that he would have gone from Portsmouth to Denbigh via the river. See Online Dictionary of National Biography on Henry Lacy at. The Welsh defeated the Mercians at the Battle of the Conwy in 881, and ODNB refers in passing to a battle of the Conwy estuary in about 1190 in the entry on Madog ab Owain Gwynedd at, but calling the 1294 battle by that name appears to be an error. Can anyone clarify? Dudley Miles (talk) 19:04, 10 January 2014 (UTC)
 * I have deleted this battle as it redirects to an article which does not mention the battle under this name, and it was an insignificant skirmish. I have also created an article about the 881 Battle of the Conwy. Dudley Miles (talk) 17:53, 12 January 2014 (UTC)

List of battles to add
Below is a list of issues I don't know how to fix on my phone.

The following battles need to be added to the list: Battle of Maranga 363, Battle of Marcianople 376, Battle of Dibaltum 377, Siege of Adrianople 378 (this is separate from the Battle of Adrianople of the same year), Battle of Constantinople 378, Siege of Florence 405, Battle of Toulouse 439, Capture of Carthage 439, Battle of Cape Bon 468, Siege of Martyropolis 502, Battle of Strasbourg 506, Battle of Thannuris 528, Battle of Mindouos 528, Siege of Naples 536, Siege of Ariminum 538, Siege of Ravenna 539-540, Siege of Petra 541, Battle of Faventia 542, Battle of Mucellium 542, Siege of Naples 542-543, Sack of Rome 546, Siege of Petra 549, Siege of Rome 549-550, Siege of Petra 550-551, Siege of Onoguris 554/555, Battle of Beran Byrig 556, Siege of Nisibis 573, Siege of Dara 573, Siege of Sirmium 580-582, Battle of Blarathon 591, Battle of Linyuguan 598, Siege of Thessalonica 617, Siege of Ctesiphon 629, Battle of Hunayn 630, Battle of Zafar 632, Battle of Dibba 632, Battle of Buzakha 632, Battle of Hira 633, Battle of River 633, Battle of Al-Anbar 633, Battle of Ayn al-Tamr 633, Battle of Dawmat al-Jandal 633, Battle of Muzayyah 633, Battle of Saniyy 633, Battle of Naqra 633, Battle of the Bridge 634, Battle of Buwaib 634, Battle of al-Qaryatayn 634, Battle of Marj Rahit 634, Battle of Yaqusa 634, Battle of Marj al-Saffar 634, Siege of Emesa 635-636, Battle of Babylon 636, Siege of Jerusalem 636-637, Siege of Aleppo 637,  Battle of Jalula 637, Siege of Germanicia 638, Tibetan Attack on Songzhou 638, Battle of Oxus River 651, Siege of Herat 652, Battle of the Masts 655, Battle of Nahrawan 659, Battle of Two Rivers 671, Battle of Maseo 675, Battle of al-Harra 683, Battles of Madhar and Harura 686, Battle of Khazir 686, Battles of Madhar and Harura 686, Battle of Dorestad 690, Battle of Varnakert 702, Relief of Qasr al-Bahili 720-721, Battle of the Defile 731, Battle of the River Garonne 732, Battle of Bagdoura 741, Siege of Wasit 749-750, Siege of Narbonne 752-759, Siege of Syracuse 827-828, First Siege of Enna 828-829 (is a subsection of Muslim conquest of Sicily article), Fall of Palermo 831 (is a subsection of Muslim conquest of Sicily article), Sack of Damietta 853, Sack of Amorium 838, Battle of Fontenoy 841, Battle of Mauropotamos 844, Siege of Paris 845, Battle of Jengland 851, Battle of Sandwich 851, Siege of Constantinople 860, Battle of the Barges 869, Occupation of al-Ubulla 870, Battle of Ashdown 871, Battle of Basing 871, Battle of Basra 871, Battle of Meretun 871, Battle of Dollar 875, Battle of Dayr al-'Aqul 876, Siege of Syracuse 877-878, Siege of Euripos 883, Siege of Paris 885-886, Battle of Milazzo 888, Battle of Southern Buh 896, Battle of Brenta 899, Battle of Eisenbach 908, Battle of Lechfeld 910, Battle of Rednitz 910, Battle of Confey 917, Battle of Puchen 919, Battle of Valdejunquera 920, Battle of Pegae 921, Battle of Sevan 921, Battle of Constantinople 922, Battle of Lenzen 929, Battle of Wlndr 934, Battle of Fraxinet 942, Battle of Wels 943, Siege of Chandax 961, Siege of Rometta 965, Battle of Silistra 968, Siege of Kiev 968, Siege of Antioch 968-969, Battle of Tara (Ireland) 980, Battle of the Gates of Trajan 986, Battle of Svolder 999/1000, Battle of Assandun 1016, Battle of the River Bug 1018, Battle of Cannae 1018, Battle of Helgea 1026, Battle of Tamaron 1037, Battle of Thessalonica 1040, Battle of Brudek 1040, Battle of Dandanaqan 1040, Battle of Olivento 1041, Battle of Montemaggiore 1041, Battle of Montepeloso 1041, Battle of Menfo 1044, Battle of Kapetron 1048, Battle of Atapuerca 1054, Battle of Kawasaki 1057, Siege of Kuriyagawa 1062, Battle of Nisa 1062, Burning of Southwark 1066, Battle on the Nemiga River 1067, Battle of the Alta River 1068, Battle of Kerles 1068, Siege of Exeter 1068, Battle of Pedroso 1071, Battle of Golpejera 1072, Battle of Kerj Abu Dulaf 1073, Battle of Mellrichstadt 1078, Battle of Flarchheim 1080, Battle on the Elster 1080, Battle of Piedra Pasada 1084, Siege of Capua 1098, Siege of Ma'arra 1098, Spend of Sidon 1110, Battle of Ibelin 1123, Battle of Yibneh 1123, Battle of Haram 1128, Battle of Fraga 1134, Battle of Holmengra 1139, Battle of Valdevez 1140/1141, Battle of Lincoln 1141, Rout of Winchester 1141, Siege of Oxford 1142, Battle of Wilton 1143, Battle of Ephesus 1147, Battle of the Meander 1147, Siege of Tortosa 1148, Battle of Mount Cadmus 1148, Siege of Branicevo 1154, Siege of Tortona 1155, Siege of Shirakawa-den 1156, Battle of Lake Huleh 1157, Battle of Oslo 1161, Battle of al-Buqaia 1163, Battle of Crogen 1165, Siege of Wexford 1169, Battle of Fornham 1173, Siege of Derbent 1173/1174, Battle of Thurles 1174, Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir 1177, Battle of Marj Ayyun 1179, Siege of Claudiopolis 1179, Battle of Fimreite 1184, Sack of Thessalonica 1185, Siege of Lovech 1187, Battle of Tryavna 1190, Battle of Philomelion 1190, Battle of Florvag 1194, Battle of Mirebeau 1202, Siege of Chateau Gaillard 1203-1204, Battle of Adramyttion 1205, Battle of Serres 1205, Battle of Rusion 1206, Battle of Rodosto 1206, Battle of Messinopolis 1207, Battle of Beroia 1208, Siege of Philoppolis 1208, Siege of Minerve 1210, Battle of Gestilren 1210, Battle of Antioch on the Meander 1211, Siege of Ganja 1213, Battle of Lincoln 1217, Siege of Toulouse 1217-1218, Siege of Jaen 1225, Battle of Ane 1227, Siege of Jaen 1230, Battle of Agridi 1232, Siege of Burriana 1233, Siege of Constantinople 1235, Siege of Cordoba 1236, Siege of Bilar 1236, Battle of the Puig 1237, Battle of Chmielnik 1241, Battle of Tursko 1241, Battle of Giglio 1241, Siege of Esztergom 1241, Siege of Jaen 1245-1246, Battle of the Leitha River 1246, Battle of Sparrsatra 1247, Siege of Seville 1247-1248, Battle of Krucken 1249, First Battle of Homs 1260, Battle of Druim Dearg 1260, Sack of Sandomierz 1260, Battle of Pokarwis 1261, Siege of Konigsberg 1262-1265, Battle of Lubawa 1263, Battle of Northampton 1264, Siege of Bartenstein 1264, Battle of Saseno 1264, Battle of Mari 1266, Siege of Kenilworth 1266, Battle of Pagastin 1271, Battle of Demetrias 1272/1273/1274/1275, Battle of Ronaldsway 1279, Battle of Elbistan 1277, Battle of Algeciras 1278, Battle of Devin's 1279, Siege of Trebizond 1282, Battle of Llandeilo Fawr 1282, Battle of Moel-y-don 1282, Battle of Malta 1283, Battle of the Gulf of Naples 1284, Battle of Meloria 1284, Battle of Les Formigues 1285, Battle of Col de Panissars 1285, Battle of the Counts 1287, Battle of Red Ford 1294, Capture of Berwick 1296, Battle of Curzola 1298, Battle of Cape Orlando 1299, Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar 1299, Battle of Ponza 1300,

425 battle has no name, link, or location, and I found no reference to Aetius fighting a battle in that year.

The following could be added to the list and article stubs created: A battle in 457 at Crayford is referenced in the Battle of Aylesford 455 article. A battle in 456 at Placentia is referenced in the Battle of Campi Cannini 457 article. A battle in 477 at Cymenshore and another in 491 at Pevensey mentioned in the Battle of Mercredesburne 485 article. A siege in 557 of Tzacher/Sideroun is referenced in the Battle of Anglon article, though only a stub could be made based on the info. A siege of Bukhara in 731 is mentioned in the Battle of the Defile 731 article aftermath section. A sack of Laodicea Combusta in 770 is mentioned in the Siege of Kamacha 766 article. A battle in 836 at Carhampton is mentioned in the Carhampton and Battle of Hingston Down articles. A battle in 940 at Orleans is mentioned in the Battle of Pressburg 907 article, Commanders of the armies section. A siege of Salandu in 891 is mentioned in the Siege of Euripos 883 article, Siege section. A siege of Leontini 846, siege of Ragusa 848, and fall of Enna 859 are referenced in the Muslim conquest of Sicily article. A siege of Tyre 1124 is in the Venetian Crusade article.

The Battle of Adige 489 needs to be switched to the Battle of Verona 489.

The Battle of Berzitia 774 appears to be a duplicate entry that just links to the Battle of Litosoria 774. I suggest deleting the Berzitia entry.

The Battle of Raab 791 links to a battle in 1809. A quick Google search for a battle of that name in 791 doesn't point to one having occurred. I suggest this entry be deleted.

Battle of Siffin is labeled as taking place in 658, but the article places it in 657.

The Siege of Zadar 998 links to the Siege of Zara 1202.

The Battle of Coed Eulo 1157 should likely link to the Battle of Ewloe 1157.

There are a number of references to battles in the naval battle list that don't have articles, not sure if they should be added to this list. Tpsreport84 (talk) 15:00, 27 February 2020 (UTC)

Anachronistic flags
Why use flags of modern countries like France, UK, Italy etc when there were completely different entities (kingdoms, empires) a the time? Skimel (talk) 00:16, 12 July 2022 (UTC)
 * For the same reason the battles' pages will give a brief description saying it took place in say the UK or Turkey. Best way for us to describe where it took place at here. J390 (talk) 16:48, 15 July 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:List of battles 301–1300


text:
Talk:Growth Fetish

Quote
There's a quote in there about people buying things they don't need, etc. This quote is attributed to the author on this page, but is attributed to both Will Smith and Will Rogers over at WikiQuote. Just sayin'. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.118.42.202 (talk) 01:28, 17 June 2013 (UTC)

 * Will Smith! Will Rogers has only
 * Advertising is the art of convincing people to spend money they don't have for something they don't need.
 * with the hardly convincing "source"
 * As quoted in The Mammoth Book of Zingers, Quips, and One-Liners: Over 10,000 Gems of Wit and Wisdom, One-liners and Wisecracks (2004) by Geoff Tibballs, p. 16
 * But look at this:
 * Actor Walter Slezak's version of "keeping up with the Joneses": "Spending money you don't have for things you don't need to impress people you don't like." - ''LOOK 1957 p. 10 books.google. --Vsop.de (talk) 09:52, 10 April 2014 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Growth Fetish


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User:John Trapp

John Trapp has been a Wikipedia user and contributor since the fall of 2003.

=Background= I was born, raised, and educated in southwestern Berrien County, Michigan, and attended Central Michigan University and Lake Michigan College before finally obtaining a degree in wildlife biology from Michigan State University. In subsequent years, I lived for extended periods of time (one or more years) in Scotland, Alaska, and West Virginia.

My professional career of 30+ years with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service focused primarily on the conservation of migratory birds, with special emphasis on (in order) Aleutian Canada Goose, Alaskan seabirds, Double-crested Cormorant, and Mute Swan.

Now happily retired and living back in my home State, my avocational interests find me chasing birds as a bird watcher or birder. In my spare time, I make voluntary contributions to citizen science projects such as CoCoRaHS (the Community Collaborative Rain, Hail, and Snow network), eBird, and the North American Bird Phenology Program.

I don't remember now how I first happened upon Wikipedia, sometime in the fall of 2003, but I do know that I was instantly intrigued by the concept and now find myself irretrievably hooked. Thus far, my Wikipedian contributions have focused largely on another special interest of mine, American-style football, particularly college football.

=Major contributions=

Aleutian Islands geography

 * Aiktak Island (3/8/06)
 * Alaid Island (Alaska) (3/8/06)
 * Avatanak Island (3/8/06)
 * Cooper Islands (3/9/06)
 * Delarof Islands (3/7/06)
 * Derbin Island (3/9/06)
 * Gibson Islands (3/9/06)
 * Hammerhead Island (3/7/06)
 * Hodikof Island (3/8/06)
 * Kennon Island (3/8/06)
 * Krenitzin Islands (3/7/06)
 * Loaf Island (3/8/06)
 * Lotus Island (3/7/06)
 * Pancake Rock (3/10/06)
 * Poa Island (3/10/06)
 * Pustoi Island (3/10/06)
 * Round Island (Aleutian Islands) (3/8/06)
 * Samalga Island (3/10/06)
 * Savage Island (Alaska) (3/7/06)
 * Sedanka Island (3/10/06)
 * Tigalda Island (3/9/06)
 * Ugamak Island (3/9/06)
 * Wislow Island (3/10/06)

Berrien County, Michigan, geography

 * Madron Lake (Berrien County, Michigan) (11/19/09)
 * McCoy Creek (Michigan) (11/19/09)

Berrien County, Michigan, newspapers

 * Benton Spirit (11/16/09)
 * Berrien County Record (10/23/09)
 * Harbor Country News (11/1/09)
 * New Buffalo Times (11/16/09)
 * The South County Gazette (10/31/09)
 * Trade Lines (newspaper) (11/21/09)

Birds

 * Birding Business (3/1/06)
 * Cassinia (journal) (3/14/06)
 * List of bird species introduced to the Hawaiian Islands (1/15/04)
 * List of birds of Aleutian Islands (5/11/10)
 * Maurice Brooks (1/31/06)
 * Microcarbo (5/13/10)

College football

 * Bronko Nagurski Trophy (12/7/03)
 * Grantland Rice Award (4/1/04)
 * Harlon Hill (12/12/03)
 * Harlon Hill Trophy (12/8/03)
 * Indiana Collegiate Athletic Conference (3/25/04)
 * NAIA independent schools (3/11/04)
 * NAIA National Football Championship (12/9/03)
 * Southland Conference (12/8/03)

Current

 * Armed Forces Bowl (12/1/03)
 * Aztec Bowl (1/17/04)
 * Emerald Bowl (12/3/03)
 * GMAC Bowl (12/2/03)
 * Hawaii Bowl (12/2/03)
 * Humanitarian Bowl (12/2/03)
 * Maaco Bowl Las Vegas (formerly Las Vegas Bowl) (12/2/03)
 * Meineke Car Care Bowl (formerly Continental Tire Bowl) (12/2/03)
 * Texas Bowl (12/2/03)

Former

 * Aviation Bowl (12/1/03)
 * California Bowl (12/2/03)
 * Camellia Bowl (12/2/03)
 * Cherry Bowl (12/1/03)
 * Garden State Bowl (12/2/03)
 * Gotham Bowl (12/2/03)
 * Los Angeles Christmas Festival (12/2/03)
 * Presidential Cup Bowl (12/1/03)
 * Silicon Valley Football Classic (12/4/03)

College sports other than football

 * Big Eight Conference (12/27/03)
 * Frontier Conference (1/4/04)
 * Great Lakes Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (3/29/04)
 * Maryland Junior College Athletic Conference (11/25/09)
 * NCAA Division II independent schools (12/17/03)
 * Nebraska Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (1/4/04)
 * Nebraska-Iowa Athletic Conference (1/4/04)
 * Upper Midwest Athletic Conference (2/1/04)

Colleges and universities

 * Alderson-Broaddus College (3/25/04)
 * List of dental schools in the United States (1/29.04)
 * List of medical schools in the United States (1/17/04)
 * Ohio Valley College (1/16/04)

Other

 * Fraternal Order Orioles (2/2/06)
 * French Creek, West Virginia (1/31/06)
 * List of National Fish Hatcheries in the United States (1/16/04)
 * List of rivers of West Virginia (3/26/04)
 * National Fish Hatchery System (1/16/04)

=All the gory details=
 * A comprehensive list of my edits

title: User:John Trapp


text:
Postage stamps and postal history of Great Britain

Postage stamps and postal history of Great Britain surveys postal history from the United Kingdom and the postage stamps issued by that country and its various historical territories until the present day.

The postal history of the United Kingdom is notable in at least two respects: first, for the introduction of postage stamps in 1840, and secondly for the establishment of an efficient postal system throughout the British Empire, laying the foundation of many national systems still in existence today. As the originator of postage stamps, the UK is the only country that does not need to specify the country on its stamps, but only the denomination.

Until 2022 any postage stamps since the 1971 decimalisation of British currency could be used; old "definitive" design stamps without barcodes will no longer be valid from 1 August 2023, with old ones exchangeable for barcoded ones indefinitely. It was initially announced that stamps without barcodes would not be valid from 1 February 2023. However, Royal Mail decided to add an additional six month grace period. Special stamps with pictures and Christmas stamps without a barcode will remain valid.

Images of UK stamps are protected by Royal Mail copyright, therefore images of current stamps are not in this article.

Early history
The story begins in the 12th century with Henry I, who appointed messengers to carry letters for the government. It is estimated that between 1100 and 1135, 4,500 letters were carried by these messengers. During this time, private individuals had to make their own arrangements. Henry III provided uniforms for the messengers, and Edward I instituted posting houses where the messengers could change horses. The reign of Edward II saw the first postal marking; handwritten notations saying "Haste. Post haste". Centuries later, during the reign of Elizabeth I to express an extreme degree of urgency of delivery, gallows were drawn on the letter, known as Gallows letters and may additionally have a version of "haste, post haste" added.

Henry VIII created the Royal Mail in 1516, appointing Brian Tuke as "Master of the Postes", while Elizabeth I appointed Thomas Randolph as "Chief Postmaster". Under Thomas Witherings, chief postmaster under Charles I, the Royal Mail was made available to the public (1635), with a regular system of post roads, houses, and staff. From this time through to the postal reforms of 1839 – 1840 it was most common for the recipient to pay the postage, although it was generally optional to prepay the charge within the British Isles.

In 1661, Charles II made Henry Bishop the first Postmaster General. In answer to customer complaints about delayed letters, Bishop introduced the Bishop mark, a small circle with month and day inside, applied at London, in the General Post office and the Foreign section, and soon after adopted in Scotland, (Edinburgh), and Ireland, (Dublin). In subsequent years, the postal system expanded from six roads to a network covering the country, and post offices were set up in both large and small towns, each of which had its own postmark.

In 1680 William Dockwra established the London Penny Post, a mail delivery system that delivered letters and parcels weighing up to one pound within the city of London and some of its immediate suburbs for the sum of one penny.

Postage stamps and The Great Office Reform

The Great Post Office Reforms of 1839 and 1840 were championed by Rowland Hill, who is often credited with the invention of the postage stamp, as a way to reverse the steady financial losses of the Post Office. Hill convinced Parliament to adopt the Uniform Fourpenny Post whereby a flat 4d per half ounce rate (equivalent to 10s 8d per pound for heavier items) was charged regardless of distance.

From December 1839, letters could arrive at any address in the United Kingdom. The flat postage rate went into effect on 5 December 1839 but only lasted for 36 days. This was immediately successful, and on 10 January 1840 the Uniform Penny Post started, charging only 1d for prepaid letters and 2d if the fee was collected from the recipient. Fixed rates meant that it was practical to avoid handling money to send a letter by using an "adhesive label", and accordingly, on 6 May, the Penny Black became the world's first postage stamp in use.

After more than 2,000 suggestions were submitted, Rowland Hill chose the method and printer, and worked by trial and error to achieve the required result. He decided to go with Perkins, Bacon & Petch, "a firm of bank-note printers, to carry out the work by the process of steel engraving, and the head of the Queen as engraved by William Wyon for a special medal struck to celebrate Her Majesty's official visit to the City of London in the year of her Coronation."

The stamp was originally for use only within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and as such was, in effect, a local stamp. For this reason the name of the country was not included within the design, a situation which continued by agreement with foreign post offices, provided the sovereign's effigy appeared on the stamp. Envelopes sold with postage paid did not include this, so were marked with the country's name. In 1951, the special commemorative issue for the Festival of Britain included the name "Britain" incidentally. It could therefore be said that the name of the country then appeared for the first time on a stamp of the UK, although the word "British" had appeared on British Empire Exhibition commemorative stamps of 1924.

After the stamp was circulating, it became obvious that black was not a good choice of stamp colour, since any cancellation marks were hard to see. So, from 1841, the stamps were printed in a brick-red colour. The Penny Reds continued in use for decades with about 21 billion being produced.

Victorian era
The Victorian age saw an explosion of experimentation. The inefficiency of using scissors to cut stamps from the sheet inspired trials with rouletting (the Archer Roulette), and then with perforation, which became standard practice in 1854. In 1847, the (octagonal) 1 shilling (£0.05) became the first of the British embossed postage stamps to be issued, followed by 10d stamps the following year, and 6d (£0.025) values in 1854.

Surface-printed stamps first appeared in the form of a 4d stamp in 1855, printed by De La Rue, and subsequently became the standard type. $1/2$d (halfpenny) and $1 1/2$d (penny halfpenny – pronounced pennyhaypny or threehaypence) engraved stamps issued in 1870 were the last engraved types of Queen Victoria; the next would not appear until 1913. Surface-printed stamps of the 1860s and 1870s all used the same profile of Victoria, but a variety of frames, watermarks, and corner lettering.

A 5-shilling (abbreviated as 5/- or 5s) (£0.25) stamp first appeared in 1867, followed by 10 shilling (£0.50) and £1 values in 1878, culminating in a £5 stamp in 1882.

Meanwhile, the age of the Penny Reds had come to an end along with the Perkins Bacon printing contract. The new low values were also surface-printed: first was a penny stamp coloured Venetian red in a square frame, issued in 1880. However, the passage of the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1881 necessitated new stamps valid also as revenue stamps, and so the Penny Lilac was issued in that year, inscribed "POSTAGE AND INLAND REVENUE". This stamp remained the standard letter stamp for the remainder of Victoria's reign, and vast quantities were printed. Later issues were inscribed POSTAGE & REVENUE which became the more familiar POSTAGE REVENUE.

1883 and 1884 saw experimentation with stamps using fugitive inks with the 'Lilac and Green Issue'. These were rather plain designs, low values in lilac and high values in green, because those were the only colours available. They succeeded in their purpose – relatively few of the stamps survived usage, their colours fading away when soaked from the envelope – but they were not liked by the public.

The last major issue of Victoria was the "Jubilee issue" of 1887, a set of twelve designs ranging from $1/2$d to 1s, most printed in two colours or on coloured paper. (Although issued during the Jubilee year, they were not issued specifically for the occasion, and are thus not commemoratives.)

Early 20th century
When Edward VII succeeded to the throne, new stamps became necessary. The approach was very conservative, however most of the Jubilee frames were reused and the image of the King was still a single profile. Edward's reign was fairly short and there were no major changes of design as a result. Chalk-surfaced paper was introduced during this time (this type of paper can be detected by rubbing the surface with silver, which leaves a black mark).

By contrast, the stamps of George V were innovative from the very first. The first issue made was of the $1/2$d and 1d values, which were in the same colours as used in the previous reign. Although the main design feature remained the same – a central ellipse for the portrait, an ornamental frame, value tablet at the base and a crown at the top – a three quarter portrait was used for the first time. However, subsequent designs reverted to the standard profile.

The UK's first commemorative stamps were issued for the British Empire Exhibition in 1924. The pair of large-format stamps featured a lion in an imposing stance; they were issued twice, in 1924 and then in 1925, the stamps of each year being inscribed with the year of issue. A second set of commemoratives in 1929 marked the 9th Congress of the Universal Postal Union (UPU), held in London that year.

Independence of the Irish Free State
Following the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, responsibility for posts and telegraphs transferred to the new Provisional Government. Upon the formal independence of the Irish Free State in December 1922, and then transferred to the Free State Government. A Postmaster General was initially appointed by the Free State Government, being replaced by the office of Minister for Posts and Telegraphs in 1924. An early visible manifestation was the repainting of all post boxes green instead of red, plus the overprinting of British postage stamps prior to the introduction of Irish stamps.

Abdication and war
A set of four stamps was issued in 1936 for Edward VIII before he abdicated. George VI's coronation was marked with a commemorative: part of an omnibus issue which included every colony in the Empire. New definitives featured a profile of the King on a solid colour background, based on a plaster cast by Edmund Dulac. This was a precursor of the Machins three decades later: see below.

The century of the postage stamp was celebrated in 1940 with a set of six stamps depicting Victoria and George VI side by side. By the following year, wartime exigencies affected stamp printing, with the 1937 stamps being printed with less ink, resulting in significantly lighter shades. Post-war issues included commemoratives for the return of peace, the Silver Jubilee and the 1948 Summer Olympics in 1948, and the 75th anniversary of the UPU, in 1949.

In 1950 the colours of all the low values were changed. 1951 saw a new series of high values (2s 6d, 5s, 10s, £1), and two commemoratives for the Festival of Britain.

Modern era
When Elizabeth II succeeded her father in 1952, new stamps were needed. A collection of variations on a theme that came to be known as the Wilding issues, based on a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, was the result. This portrait was by photographer Dorothy Wilding.

Wildings were used until 1967, when the Machin issues were introduced on 5 June. The Machin design is very simple, a profile of the Queen on a solid colour background, and very popular, still being the standard British stamp. They have been printed in scores of different colours; in addition, decimalisation required new denominations, and there have been technical improvements in the printing process, resulting in literally hundreds of varieties known to specialists. Special Stamps with pictures, and Christmas Stamps are also produced; they bear a small profile silhouette of the monarch.

For over a century gummed stamps were produced in sheets, perforated so that individual stamps could be detached. Later stamps are self-adhesive, without perforations.

After first- and second-class postage was introduced, Non-Value Indicated (NVI) stamps were produced marked "1st" and "2nd", valid for the lowest weight of that class. Either a "class" stamp can be used, or denominated stamps to the value of the postage. "Class" stamps remain valid for the stated class even after price increases. When letter size in addition to weight came into use to determine postage, additional "large letter" 1st and 2nd class stamps were added.

Colonies of Great Britain such as Barbados, Nevis, Fiji, Trinidad, British Guiana, and India at one time all used the William Wyon portrait of Queen Victoria on their stamps. Many formerly colonised countries whose head of state is the British monarch still include the monarch's profile, although some have branched out to stamps depicting scenery, birds or beasts without the profile.

UK stamps bearing the head of Charles III became available on 4 April 2023. Unlike previous stamps depicting male monarchs, the new set features no crowns or any other decorations.

Design trends of British stamps
Up to the 1950s, British commemorative stamps were few and far between; most of the stamps were what are officially called "definitives", in which the portrait of the reigning monarch was the dominant element. Even after commemorative stamps began to appear more often during the 1950s and early 1960s, the monarch's effigy was prominent, usually taking up a quarter to a third of the stamp's design, which limited flexibility and creativity. A change came in 1965 when the then Postmaster General Tony Benn issued new criteria for what could appear on stamps. Designer David Gentleman wrote to Benn about alternative design approaches, suggesting the monarch's head be replaced by another national symbol, such as a crown or the country name; "Great Britain" or "United Kingdom". A compromise, a small silhouette of the Queen based on the coinage head of Mary Gillick, was accepted and this has been the standard ever since for commemorative stamps. When the monarch's portrait is part of the stamp's main design (as for example in the case of issues commemorating the Queen's birthday), then the silhouette is not needed and usually does not appear.

In 1967, The Red Boy by Sir Thomas Lawrence became the first artwork to appear on a British postage stamp.

Another trend is the growing use of stamps to commemorate events related to the present Royal Family. Up to Elizabeth II's accession in 1952 the only commemorative stamps to have been issued related to royal events were for George V's Silver Jubilee in 1935, George VI's coronation in 1937, and a 1948 issue to commemorate George VI's 25th wedding anniversary. Since 1952, however, stamps have been issued to commemorate many royal occasions. In addition, memorial stamps have been issued after the deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales (in 1998) and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother (in 2002).

With regard to previous monarchs, stamps were issued in 1987 to mark the 150th anniversary of Queen Victoria's accession, and in 1997 to mark the 450th anniversary of King Henry VIII's death. From 2008 to 2011 stamps were issued featuring all of England's kings and queens and also the Scottish House of Stewart.

In February 2022 new barcoded "definitive design" stamps were introduced. The rectangular (matrix) codes, unique to each stamp, use a trademarked coding designed to prevent counterfeiting and to enable tracking of letters, and to enable correspondents to link digital content to their stamps. Until 2022 any 1st and 2nd class and decimal currency postage stamps could be used; old Machin and country definitive design stamps without barcodes are no longer valid from 31 July 2023, with old ones exchangeable for barcoded ones indefinitely through a process which Royal Mail calls the "Stamp Swap Out scheme". Special Stamps with pictures and Christmas Stamps without a barcode continued to be valid. Stamps are exchanged like-for-like: a "1st class" stamp will be replaced by a 1st class one, not 95p.

Regional issues
Beginning in 1958, regional issues were introduced in the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. While these issues are only sold at post offices in the respective countries, the Northern Irish, Scottish and Welsh issues are valid throughout the United Kingdom. The Channel Islands (since 1969) and Isle of Man (since 1973) now issue their own stamps which are not valid anywhere else.

British postal services abroad
The United Kingdom has introduced postal services throughout the world and has often made use of British definitives bearing local overprints.

General

 * Hamilton, Patrick. British Stamps: A description of the postage stamps of the United Kingdom. London: Peter Davies, 1948 338p. (Supplement in 1954; 75p.)
 * Lowe, Robson. British Postage Stamps of the 19th Century. London: National Postal Museum, 1st ed. 1968, 2nd ed. 1979.
 * Lowe, Robson. The Encyclopaedia of British Empire Postage Stamps: Vol. 1, Great Britain and the Empire in Europe. London: Robson Lowe, 1952 456p.
 * Mackay, James. British Stamps. London: Longman, 1985 ISBN 0-582-40620-X, 247p.
 * Mackay, James A. Under the Gum – Background to British Stamps 1840–1940. Limassol: James Bendon, 1997 ISBN 9963-579-76-0, 536p.
 * Oliver, Sidney and F. Hugh Vallancey. The Postage Stamps of Great Britain, 1840–1922. London: "Stamp Collecting", 1923, 563p.
 * Rose, Stuart. Royal Mail Stamps: A Survey of British Stamp Design. Oxford: Phaidon, 1980 ISBN 0-7148-2072-5, 128p.
 * Todd, T. A History of British Postage Stamps. London: Duckworth, 1949, 274p.
 * Wijman, J.J. Postage Stamps of Great Britain and their history. Nuenen: Jeeboer Press, 1986 ISBN 9071622010, 396p.
 * Williams, L.N. & M. Commemorative Postage Stamps of Great Britain. London: Arco, 1967, 206p.

Queen Victoria and King Edward VII

 * Beaumont, K.M. and John Easton. The Postage Stamps of Great Britain. Part 3, The embossed issues; The surface-printed issues of Queen Victoria and King Edward VII. London: Royal Philatelic Society, 1964, 344p.
 * Seymour, J.B. and Clive Gardiner-Hill. The Postage Stamps of Great Britain: Part 1, Introduction to the line-engraved issues: the imperforate line-engraved issues, 1840–1853. London: Royal Philatelic Society, 1967, 336p.
 * Wiggins, W.R.D. The Postage Stamps of Great Britain: Part 2, The Perforated Line-Engraved Issues. London: Royal Philatelic Society, 1962, 220p.

King George V

 * Beaumont, K.M. and J.B.M. Stanton. The Postage Stamps of Great Britain. Part 4, The Issues of King George V. London: Royal Philatelic Society, 1957, 248p.
 * Muir, Douglas N. George V and The G.P.O.: Stamps, Conflict & Creativity. London: British Postal Museum & Archive, 2010 ISBN 978-0-9553569-2-6, 275p.
 * Phillips, Stanley. The Stamps of Great Britain, 1911–21. London: Stanley Gibbons, 1921, 105p.

King Edward VIII

 * Kirk, A.J. King Edward VIII: a study of the stamps of the reign of King Edward VIII. Leigh-on-Sea: G.B. Philatelic Publications Ltd for the Great Britain Philatelic Society, 1974 ISBN 0-9015121-1-7, 31p.

King George VI

 * Worsfold, Peter. Great Britain King George VI Low Value Definitive Stamps: An illustrated study of the development of their design. London: GBPS, 2001 ISBN 0-9076301-7-0, 40p.

Queen Elizabeth II

 * Potter, David. British Elizabethan Stamps: The Story of the Postage Stamps of the United Kingdom, Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man, from 1952 to 1970. London: Batsford, 1971 ISBN 0-71340-381-0, 190p.

Postage dues

 * Furfie, Michael. British Postage Due Mail, 1914 – 1971: a study of uses of the pre-decimal postage due stamps. Ashford: The Author, 1993 ISBN 0-9522208-0-6, 74p.

Postmarks

 * Alcock, R.C. and F.C. Holland. British Postmarks: A Short History and Guide. Cheltenham: R. C. Alcock, 1960, 299p.
 * Hendy, John G. The History of the Postmarks of the British Isles from 1840–1876. London: Stanley Gibbons, 1909, 184p.
 * Pearson, George R. Special Event Postmarks of the United Kingdom. Hemel Hempstead: British Postmark Society, 1984 ISBN 0-9002140-1-5, 276p.
 * Whitney, J.T. Collect British Postmarks. Benfleet, 1990.
 * British Postmark Database

Postal stationery

 * Huggins, Alan. British Postal Stationery. London: Great Britain Philatelic Society, 1971 188p.
 * Huggins, Alan and Colin Baker. Collect British Postal Stationery: A Simplified Listing of British Postal Stationery 1840 to 2007. GB Philatelic Publications, 2007 ISBN 978-0-907630-22-7, 151p.

Postal history

 * Campbell-Smith, Duncan. Masters of the Post: The Authorized History of the Royal Mail. London: Penguin, 2012 ISBN 978-0-2-4195766-0, 849p.
 * John Bartholomew and Son. Postal History Map of Britain: an illustrated map in full colour with a border of postage stamps. Edinburgh: John Bartholomew & Son, 1970?
 * Dendy Marshall, C. F. The British Post Office from its beginnings to the end of 1925. London: Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press, 1926, 354p.
 * Robinson, Howard. The British Post Office: A History. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1948, 467p.


text:
Broadcast flag

A broadcast flag is a bit field sent in the data stream of a digital television program that indicates whether or not the data stream can be recorded, or if there are any restrictions on recorded content. Possible restrictions include the inability to save an unencrypted digital program to a hard disk or other non-volatile storage, inability to make secondary copies of recorded content (in order to share or archive), forceful reduction of quality when recording (such as reducing high-definition video to the resolution of standard TVs), and inability to skip over commercials.

In the United States, new television receivers using the ATSC standard were supposed to incorporate this functionality by July 1, 2005. The requirement was successfully contested in 2005 and rescinded in 2011.

FCC ruling
Officially called "Digital Broadcast Television Redistribution Control," the FCC's rule is in 47 CFR 73.9002(b) and the following sections, stating in part: "No party shall sell or distribute in interstate commerce a Covered Demodulator Product that does not comply with the Demodulator Compliance Requirements and Demodulator Robustness Requirements." According to the rule, hardware must "actively thwart" piracy.

The rule's Demodulator Compliance Requirements insists that all HDTV demodulators must "listen" for the flag (or assume it to be present in all signals). Flagged content must be output only to "protected outputs" (such as DVI and HDMI ports with HDCP encryption), or in degraded form through analog outputs or digital outputs with visual resolution of 720x480 pixels (EDTV) or less. Flagged content may be recorded only by "authorized" methods, which may include tethering of recordings to a single device.

Since broadcast flags could be activated at any time, a viewer who often records a program might suddenly find that it is no longer possible to save their favorite show. This and other reasons lead many to see the flags as a direct affront to consumer rights.

The Demodulator Robustness Requirements are difficult to implement in open source systems. Devices must be "robust" against user access or modifications so that someone could not easily alter it to ignore the broadcast flags that permit access to the full digital stream. Since open-source device drivers are by design user-modifiable, a PC TV tuner card with open-source drivers would not be "robust".

The GNU Radio project already successfully demonstrated that purely software-based demodulators can exist and the hardware rule is not fully enforceable.

Current status
In American Library Association v. FCC, 406 F.3d 689 (D.C. Cir. 2005), the United States Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit ruled that the FCC had exceeded its authority in creating this rule. The court stated that the Commission could not prohibit the manufacture of computer or video hardware without copy-protection technology because the FCC only has authority to regulate transmissions, not devices that receive communications. While it is always possible that the Supreme Court could overturn this ruling, the more likely reemergence of the broadcast flag is in legislation granting such authority to the FCC.

On May 1, 2006, Sen. Ted Stevens inserted a version of the Broadcast Flag into the Communications, Consumer's Choice, and Broadband Deployment Act of 2006. On June 22, 2006 Sen. John E. Sununu offered an amendment to strike the broadcast and radio flag, but this failed and the broadcast-flag amendment was approved by the Commerce committee. Nonetheless, the overall bill was never passed, and thus died upon adjournment of the 109th Congress in December 2006.

On May 18, 2008, News.com reported that Microsoft had confirmed that current versions of Windows Media Center shipping with the Windows family of operating systems adhered to the use of the broadcast flag, following reports of users being blocked from taping specific airings of NBC programs, mainly American Gladiators and Medium. A Microsoft spokesperson said that Windows Media Center adheres to the "rules set forth by the FCC".

On August 22, 2011, the FCC officially eliminated the broadcast flag regulations.

Radio broadcast flag and RIAA
With the coming of digital radio, the recording industry is attempting to change the ground rules for copyright of songs played on radio. Currently, over the air (i.e. broadcast but not Internet) radio stations may play songs freely but RIAA wants Congress to insert a radio broadcast flag. On April 26, 2006, Congress held a hearing over the radio broadcast flag. Among the witnesses were musicians Anita Baker and Todd Rundgren.

European Broadcast Flag
At present no equivalent signal is typically used in European DVB transmissions, although DVB-CPCM would provide such a set of signal as defined by DVB-SI, usable on clear-to-air television broadcasts. How adherence to such a system would be enforced in a receiver is not yet clear.

In the UK, the BBC introduced content protection restrictions in 2010 on Free to Air content by licensing data necessary to receive the service information for the Freeview HD broadcasts. However the BBC have stated the highest protection applied will be to allow only one copy to be made.

ISDB
ISDB broadcasts are protected as to allow the broadcast to be digitally recorded once, but to not allow digital copies of the recording to be made. Analog recordings can be copied freely. It is possible to disallow the use of analog outputs, although this has yet to be implemented. The protection can be circumvented with the correct hardware and software.

DVB-CPCM
The Digital Video Broadcasting organization is developing DVB-CPCM which allows broadcasters (especially PayTV broadcaster) far more control over the use of content on (and beyond) home networks. The DVB standards are commonly used in Europe and around the world (for satellite, terrestrial, and cable distribution), but are also employed in the United States by Dish Network. In Europe, some entertainment companies were lobbying to legally mandate the use of DVB-CPCM. Opponents fear that mandating DVB-CPCM will kill independent receiver manufacturers that use open source operating systems (e.g., Linux-based set-top boxes.)

Pay-per-view use of broadcast flag
In the US, since April 15, 2008, pay-per-view movies on cable and satellite television now are flagged to prevent a recording off a pay-per-view channel to a digital video recorders or other related devices from being retained after 24 hours from the ordered time of the film. This is the standard film industry practice, including for digital rentals from the iTunes Store and Google Play. Movies recorded before that point would still be available without flagging and could be copied freely, though as of 2015 those pre-2008 DVR units are well out-of-date or probably non-functional, and the pay-per-view concern is moot for all but special events, as nearly all satellite providers and cable providers have moved to more easily restricted video on demand platforms; pay-per-view films have been drawn down to non-notable content.

title: Broadcast flag


text:
Ivaldi

Ivaldi is a surname of Italian origin. Notable people with this surname include:

 * Christian Ivaldi (born 1938), French pianist
 * Ettore Ivaldi, Italian former slalom canoeist
 * Francesco Ivaldi (born 1977), Italian yacht racer who competed in the 2000 Summer Olympics
 * Humberto Ivaldi (1909–1947), Panamanian painter and director of the National School of Painting in Panama City
 * Matteo Ivaldi (born 1971) is an Italian yacht racer who competed in the 1996 and in the 2000 Summer Olympics
 * Michele Ivaldi (born 1970), Italian yacht racer who competed in the 1996 Summer Olympics
 * Mickaël Ivaldi (born 1990), French Rugby Union player
 * Raffaello Ivaldi (born 1997), Italian slalom canoeist
 * Ferdinando "Sandro" Mussa-Ivaldi, Italian born professor at Northwestern University
 * Serena Ivaldi Italian-born robotics researcher

title: Ivaldi


text:
Kit Bond

Christopher Samuel Bond (born March 6, 1939) is an American attorney, politician and former United States Senator from Missouri and a member of the Republican Party. First elected to the U.S. Senate in 1986, he defeated Democrat Harriett Woods by a margin of 53–47%. He was re-elected in 1992, 1998, and 2004. On January 8, 2009, he announced that he would not seek re-election to a fifth term in 2010, and was succeeded by fellow Republican Roy Blunt on January 3, 2011. Following his retirement from the Senate, Bond became a partner at Thompson Coburn.

Before beginning his 24-year long career in the U.S. Senate, Bond served two non-consecutive terms as Governor of Missouri, from 1973 to 1977 and from 1981 to 1985. He was previously State Auditor of Missouri from 1971 to 1973.

Early life, education, and law career
A sixth-generation Missourian, Bond was born in St. Louis, Missouri, the son of Elizabeth (née Green) and Arthur D. Bond. His father was captain of the 1924 Missouri Tigers football team and a Rhodes Scholar. His maternal grandfather, A.P. Green, founded A.P. Green Industries, a fireclay manufacturer and a major employer for many years in Bond's hometown Mexico, Missouri. He was the benefactor and namesake of A. P. Green Chapel at the University of Missouri.

Bond graduated from Deerfield Academy in 1956 and then attended Princeton University and graduated in 1960 with an A.B. from the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs. He completed a 162-page senior thesis that year titled "Missouri Farm Organizations and the Problems of Agriculture". While a student at Princeton, Bond was a member of the Quadrangle Club. He graduated first in his class from the University of Virginia School of Law in 1963 with a J.D.

Bond served as a law clerk (1963–64) to the Honorable Elbert Tuttle, then Chief Judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit in Atlanta, Georgia. Bond practiced law (1964–67) at Covington & Burling in Washington, D.C.

Early political career
Bond moved back to his hometown of Mexico, Missouri in the fall of 1967, and ran for Congress in 1968 in Missouri's 9th congressional district, the rural northeastern part of the state. He defeated Anthony Schroeder in the August Republican primary, 56% to 44%, winning 19 of the district's 23 counties.

In the November general election, Bond came close to defeating incumbent Democratic U.S. Congressman Bill Hungate, 48% to 52%. Bond won eight of the district's 23 counties. Out of Hungate's five re-election campaigns, that 1968 election against Bond was his worst performance.

State Attorney General John Danforth hired Bond as an Assistant Attorney General in 1969, where Bond led the office's Consumer Protection Division. In 1970, at the age of 31, Bond was elected Missouri State Auditor.

Governor of Missouri
In 1972, Bond was elected governor of Missouri by a margin of 55% to 45%, making him, at 33 years of age, the youngest governor in the history of Missouri. Bond was the first Republican in 28 years to serve as governor of Missouri. Bond's residency qualifications to be governor were challenged, but were upheld by the Missouri Supreme Court in 1972. Missouri law said the governor had to be a resident for 10 years. In the 10 years before his run, he had attended law school in Virginia, clerked for a federal appeals court judge in Atlanta, worked for a firm in Washington, D.C., applied to take the bar in Virginia and Georgia, registered a car in Washington, D.C., and applied for a marriage license in Kentucky. The Court sided with him, commenting that residence "is largely a matter of intention" and did not require "actual, physical presence". The court ruled a residence was "that place where a man has his true, fixed and permanent home and principal establishment, and to which whenever he is absent he has the intention of returning."

For the 1976 United States presidential election, he was on the short list to be Gerald Ford's vice-presidential running mate. In many ways, Bond governed as a moderate during his first term as governor: for example, he drew criticism from conservatives for his support of the Equal Rights Amendment. On June 25, 1976, he signed an executive order rescinding the Extermination Order against Mormons issued by Governor Lilburn Boggs on October 27, 1838.

In a surprising upset in 1976, Bond was narrowly defeated for re-election by Democrat Joseph P. Teasdale, then Jackson County Prosecutor. Afterwards, Bond returned to practicing law, setting up the Great Plains Legal Foundation, a group which fought agriculture regulations. In 1980, Bond made a successful comeback, defeating fellow Republican and incumbent Lieutenant Governor Bill Phelps in the primary, and Teasdale in November. His second term had been plagued by budget issues, with the Missouri commissioner of administration Stephen Bradford telling Bond: "Governor, I'm sorry to tell you this, but there's no money". Among Bond's most noted accomplishments was helping take the Parents As Teachers program statewide. Bond served as the Chairman of the Midwestern Governors Association in 1977 and 1983. Bond was succeeded as governor in 1985 by John Ashcroft, a Republican who Bond had appointed to complete his unexpired term as State Auditor after he was elected governor. Ashcroft later served alongside Bond in the Senate.

Elections
After Senator Thomas Eagleton decided not to run for re-election, Bond was elected senator in 1986, defeating Lieutenant Governor Harriett Woods by 53% to 47%. Bond was re-elected in 1992 by less than expected over St. Louis County Councilwoman Geri Rothman-Serot, ex-wife of former Lieutenant Governor Ken Rothman. In 1998 Bond decisively defeated Attorney General (and future Governor) Jay Nixon and Libertarian Tamara Millay after a hard-fought campaign, and in 2004 he won re-election over Democratic challenger State Treasurer Nancy Farmer with 56 percent of the vote.

Facing the expiration of his fourth full term in January 2011, Bond announced on January 8, 2009, that he did not plan to seek a fifth term and would not run for re-election in November 2010. Representative Roy Blunt held the seat for the Republicans, defeating Democratic Secretary of State Robin Carnahan.

Environmental record
The environmental watchdog group Republicans for Environmental Protection (REP) has given Bond an exceptionally low rating of −2 for the 109th United States Congress, citing anti-environment votes on seven out of seven issues deemed critical by the organization. According to the 2006 REP scorecard, Bond supported oil drilling both offshore and in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, while opposing a bill for "efficiency and renewable-resource programs to improve energy security, lower costs, and reduce energy-related environmental impacts". He indicated support for zero-carbon energy from nuclear power in a 2008 Senate floor speech.

Taxes
Commenting on an IRS spokesman's claim that a person catching a record-breaking home run ball from Mark McGwire could be "responsible for paying any applicable tax on any large gift", which was thought to be close to $140,000 in this circumstance, Bond said: "If the IRS wants to know why they are the most hated federal agency in America, they need look no further than this."

Torture
Bond has opposed setting forth interrogation methods used by the Central Intelligence Agency to conform to the U.S. Army Field Manual. While drawing criticism for being one of only nine senators to oppose such a bill, Bond said on the floor that he does not favor or approve of torture.

In a memo to CIA director John Brennan and others, he suggested banning specific techniques that could be considered torture in order to encourage servicemen to invent others on their own. He does not approve of making interrogation techniques public information on the basis that it would allow enemy combatants to train and prepare themselves for what they might go through if captured. He drew criticism when, during a debate he made a comment comparing waterboarding to swimming, stating "There are different ways of doing it. It's like swimming, freestyle, backstroke", in response to the question "do you think that waterboarding... constitutes torture?"

Free trade
Bond has been a great supporter of expanding free trade to the third world, and he believes in giving presidential authority to fast track trade relations. He has voted for the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) and believes in permanently normalizing trade relations with China and Vietnam.

Government reform
While Bond voted in favor in banning members of Congress from receiving gifts from lobbyists, he has generally opposed campaign reform. He voted against the McCain Feingold Act for bipartisan campaign finance solutions. Bond also voted against limiting contributions from corporations or labor.

Social issues
Bond received an 11% rating from the NAACP. He has voted consistently against same-sex marriage, supporting the proposed constitutional ban of it.

On June 25, 1976, Bond officially ordered the recension of Executive Order Number 44 issued by Lilburn W. Boggs in 1838 that ordered the expulsion or extermination of all Mormons from the State of Missouri and issued an apology to Mormons on behalf of all Missourians.

As governor of the state of Missouri in 1983, Bond signed a declaration of recognition in support of the group known as the Northern Cherokee, now called the Northern Cherokee Nation of the Old Louisiana Territory attempting to grant a form of State recognition by way of executive order. This act was part of the group's attempt to gain Federal Recognition and to receive the related benefits for the group.

Dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy
In October 2008, Bond apologized to former U.S. Attorney Todd Graves, after a U.S. Justice Department report cited Bond for forcing Graves out over a disagreement with Representative Sam Graves. Following the report, Attorney General Michael Mukasey appointed a special prosecutor to investigate whether former Attorney General Alberto Gonzales and other officials involved in the firings of nine U.S. attorneys broke the law. Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington (CREW), a progressive activist group, filed an Ethics Committee complaint against Bond over his role in the ouster of Graves.

In 2009, it was revealed according to White House documents that Graves was put on a dismissal list a month after White House e-mail indicated that his replacement was part of a deal between Bond and the Bush administration. The e-mail suggested that Graves was replaced with a candidate favored by Bond for clearing the way for an appointment of a federal judge from Arkansas on the 8th Circuit Court of Appeals.

Committee assignments

 * Committee on Appropriations
 * Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies
 * Subcommittee on Defense
 * Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development
 * Subcommittee on Financial Services and General Government
 * Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs
 * Subcommittee on Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies (Ranking Member)
 * Committee on Environment and Public Works
 * Subcommittee on Clean Air and Nuclear Safety
 * Subcommittee on Green Jobs and the New Economy (Ranking Member)
 * Subcommittee on Superfund, Toxics and Environmental Health
 * Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship
 * Select Committee on Intelligence (Vice Chairman)

Post-government career
After leaving office in January 2011, Bond joined the law firm of Thompson Coburn.

Bond serves as a co-chair of the Housing Commission at the Bipartisan Policy Center.

In August 2011, Bond announced that he would join alliantgroup's strategic advisory board and serve as a senior adviser for the firm.

Bond formally launched his own firm, Kit Bond Strategies, in November 2011.

Missouri Apollo 17 goodwill Moon rock
In the last few days of his long political career, Kit Bond and his staff solved a mystery that had intrigued the press, Missouri politicians, and members of academia for much of 2010. Missouri state officials had wrongly believed that the state museum held a rare and valuable Apollo 17 lunar sample display containing a "goodwill Moon rock". On June 8, 2010, the state realized that what they actually had was only the Missouri Apollo 11 lunar sample display containing small samples of Moon dust rather than the $5-million piece of Apollo 17 history. In cleaning out his senatorial office in December 2010, it was discovered that Bond had inadvertently taken the Apollo 17 display when he had left the governor's office. He subsequently returned the display to the governor of Missouri at the time, Jay Nixon, who passed it on to the Missouri State Museum. Bond was one of four former governors who had taken their states' lunar sample displays upon leaving office; the other three were the former governors of Colorado, West Virginia, and Arkansas.

Personal life
Bond's son Sam graduated in 2003 from Princeton University, after which he became an officer in the United States Marine Corps and served multiple tours of duty in Iraq. Sam later entered a career in business.

In 1994, Bond's wife, Carolyn, filed for a divorce, which was finalized the following year. Bond married Linda Pell, now Linda Bond, in 2002. She grew up in the Kansas City suburb of Gladstone and is a partner of a fundraising firm that supports Republican organizations. She and Bond had dated in the late 1990s then again a few years later before they were engaged. It is her second marriage as well.

After winning his second term as governor, Bond sued his investment manager and Paine Webber, alleging his $1.3 million trust fund had been drained. He was one of several clients who sued, and he settled in 1996 for $900,000.

In 2009, Bond co-authored a book with Lewis Simons entitled The Next Front: Southeast Asia and the Road to Global Peace with Islam.

Bond has permanent vision loss in one eye, which he attributes to undiagnosed amblyopia during childhood.

Places named after

 * Christopher S. Bond Bridge (Hermann, Missouri)
 * Christopher S. Bond Bridge, Kansas City
 * Christopher S. Bond United States Courthouse, Jefferson City
 * Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center – University of Missouri (Columbia), Columbia, Missouri
 * Christopher S. "Kit" Bond Science and Technology Incubator – Missouri Western State University, St. Joseph, Missouri
 * Kit Bond Visitor Center (USACE project office) Stockton, Missouri

Electoral history
After over 40 years in politics, Senator Bond announced on January 8, 2009, that he would not seek re-election in 2010. Results of elections in which he was a candidate are summarized as follows:

U.S. Senator
2004 United States Senate election in Missouri

 * Kit Bond (R) (inc.) 56%
 * Nancy Farmer (D) 42.8%
 * Kevin Tull (Lib.) 0.7%
 * Don Griffin (Constitution) 0.4%
 * }
 * Don Griffin (Constitution) 0.4%
 * }
 * }

1998 United States Senate election in Missouri

 * Kit Bond (R) (inc.) 52.7%
 * Jay Nixon (D) 43.8%
 * Tamara Millay (Lib.) 2%
 * Curtis Frazier (U.S. Taxpayers) 1%
 * James F. Newport (Reform) 0.5%
 * }
 * Curtis Frazier (U.S. Taxpayers) 1%
 * James F. Newport (Reform) 0.5%
 * }
 * }

1992 United States Senate election in Missouri

 * Kit Bond (R) (inc.) 51.9%
 * Geri Rothman-Serot (D) 44.9%
 * Jeanne Bojarski (Lib.) 3.2%
 * }
 * Jeanne Bojarski (Lib.) 3.2%
 * }

United States Senate election in Missouri, 1986

 * Kit Bond (R) 52.6%
 * Harriett Woods (D) 47.4%
 * }
 * }

As Governor of Missouri
Missouri gubernatorial election, 1980

 * Kit Bond (R) 52.6%
 * Joseph P. Teasdale (D) (Inc.) 47%
 * Helen Savio (Socialist Workers) 0.3%
 * }
 * Helen Savio (Socialist Workers) 0.3%
 * }

Missouri gubernatorial election, 1976

 * Joseph P. Teasdale (D) 50.2%
 * Kit Bond (R) (Inc.) 49.6%
 * Others 0.2%
 * }
 * Others 0.2%
 * }

Missouri gubernatorial election, 1972

 * Kit Bond (R) 55.2%
 * Edward L. Dowd (D) 45.6%
 * Paul J. Leonard (Nonpartisan) 0.3%
 * }
 * Paul J. Leonard (Nonpartisan) 0.3%
 * }

title: Kit Bond


text:
Delicatessen

Traditionally, a delicatessen or deli is a grocery that sells a selection of fine, exotic, or foreign prepared foods. Delicatessens originated in Germany (original: Delikatessen) during the 18th century and spread to the United States in the mid-19th century. European immigrants to the United States, especially Ashkenazi Jews, popularized the delicatessen in U.S. culture beginning in the late 19th century. Today, many large retail stores like supermarkets have deli sections.

Etymology

Delicatessen is a German loanword which first appeared in English in the late 19th century and is the plural of Delikatesse. The German form was lent from the French délicatesse, which itself was lent from Italian delicatezza, from delicato, of which the root word is the Latin adjective delicatus, meaning "giving pleasure, delightful, pleasing". The first U.S. short version of this word, deli, came into existence probably after World War II with the first evidence being from 1948.

History
The origin of the delicatessen as a grocery store is lost in time, but the path clearly spread across Western Europe as the term was borrowed by one people and language and culture after another.

The German food company Dallmayr traces its history to 1700, when it became the first store to import to the German population bananas, mangoes, and plums from places such as the Canary Islands and China. Over 300 years later, it remains the largest business of its kind in Europe.

The first delicatessens to appear in the United States were in New York City in the early 1880s, with the first advertised use of this word occurring in early 1884 in St. Louis, Missouri upon the opening of "Sprague's Delicatessen," at first one lunchroom and eventually five popular downtown lunch establishments operating between 1884 and 1906. Early delicatessens in New York catered to the German immigrant population living there. As the German-Jewish population increased in New York City during the mid- to late 1800s, kosher delicatessens began to open; the first was founded in 1889. In the United States, by the late 20th to early 21st centuries, supermarkets, local economy stores, and fast food outlets began using the word (often abbreviated as "deli") to describe sections of their stores. The decline of the deli as an independent retail establishment was most noted in New York City: from a high in the 1930s of about 1,500 Jewish delicatessens, only 15 still existed in 2015.

Australia
In most of Australia, the term "delicatessen" retains its European meaning of high-quality, expensive foods and stores. Large supermarket chains often have a deli department, and independent delicatessens exist throughout the country. Both types of deli offer a variety of cured meats, sausages, pickled vegetables, dips, breads, and olives.

In South Australia and Western Australia, "deli" also denotes a small convenience store or milk bar, and some businesses use "deli" as part of their business name. Traditional delicatessens also exist in these states, with "continental delicatessen" sometimes used to indicate the European version.

Canada
In Canada, both meanings of "delicatessen" are used. Customers of European origin often use the term in a manner consistent with its original German meaning, but as in the United States, a deli can be a combined grocery store and restaurant.

Europe

In Europe "delicatessen" means high-quality, expensive foods, and stores. In German-speaking countries a common synonym is Feinkost (fine food), and shops that sell it are called Feinkostläden (delicacy stores). Department stores often have a Delikatessenabteilung (delicacy department). European delicatessens include Fauchon in Paris, Dallmayr in Munich, Julius Meinl am Graben in Vienna, Harrods and Fortnum & Mason in London, Peck in Milan, and Jelmoli in Zürich.

Although U.S.-style delicatessens are also found in Europe, they appeal to the luxury market. In Russia, shops and supermarket sections approximating U.S.-style delis are called kulinariya and offer salads and main courses. Delicate meats and cheeses, cold-cut and sliced hot, are sold in a separate section. The Eliseevsky food store in central Moscow, with its fin de siècle decor, is similar to a European delicatessen. From the Tsarist era, it was preserved by the Soviets as an outlet for difficult-to-obtain Russian delicacies. Delicatessens may also provide foods from other countries and cultures that are not readily available in local food stores. In Italy, the deli can be called gastronomia, negozio di specialità gastronomiche, bottega alimentare and more recently salumeria. In France it is known as a traiteur or épicerie fine.

Ireland
In Ireland, a "deli" or "deli counter" is a food counter serving pre-prepared "food to go" like sandwiches and hot snacks. This trend began in the 1990s and led to the emergence of many ready-to-eat deli products. Delis can be found at a wide variety of convenience shops, newsagents, supermarkets, petrol stations, and casual eateries throughout Ireland.

Popular items served at hot deli counters include chicken fillet rolls (breaded chicken fillet on a bread roll), breakfast rolls (Irish breakfast items on a bread roll), jambons, sausage rolls, and potato wedges.

United States
In the United States, a delicatessen (or deli) is can be a simple retail grocery store, a sit-down restaurant, or any combination in between. Sit-down and to-go delis offer a broader, fresher menu than fast-food chains, rarely employing fryers (except for chicken) and routinely preparing sandwiches to order. Delicatessens from a number of cultures can be found in the United States, including Italian, Greek, and Jewish, both kosher and "kosher style". The American equivalent of a European delicatessen may be known as a gourmet food store.

Retail delis in the U.S. sell fresh-sliced cold cuts and cheeses. In addition to made-to-order sandwiches, many American delicatessens offer made-to-order green salads. Prepared pasta, potato, chicken, and tuna salads, or other salads are sometimes displayed under the counter and sold by weight. Precooked chicken, shrimp, or eggplant dishes may also be sold. Delicatessens offer a variety of beverages, such as pre-packaged soft drinks, coffee, tea, and milk. Potato chips and similar products, newspapers, and small items such as candy and mints are also usually available.

title: Delicatessen