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Hygiene hypothesis

In medicine, the hygiene hypothesis states that early childhood exposure to particular microorganisms (such as the gut flora and helminth parasites) protects against allergies by strengthening the immune system. In particular, a lack of such exposure is thought to lead to poor immune tolerance. The time period for exposure begins before birth and ends at school age.

While early versions of the hypothesis referred to microorganism exposure in general, later versions apply to a specific set of microbes that have co-evolved with humans. The updates have been given various names, including the microbiome depletion hypothesis, the microflora hypothesis, and the "old friends" hypothesis. There is a significant amount of evidence supporting the idea that lack of exposure to these microbes is linked to allergies or other conditions,  although it is still rejected by many scientists.

The term "hygiene hypothesis" has been described as a misnomer because people incorrectly interpret it as referring to their own cleanliness. Having worse personal hygiene, such as not washing hands before eating, only increases the risk of infection without affecting the risk of allergies or immune disorders. Hygiene is essential for protecting vulnerable populations such as the elderly from infections, preventing the spread of antibiotic resistance, and combating emerging infectious diseases such as Ebola or COVID-19. The hygiene hypothesis does not suggest that having more infections during childhood would be an overall benefit.

Overview
The idea of a link between parasite infection and immune disorders was first suggested in 1968 before the advent of large scale DNA sequencing techniques. The original formulation of the hygiene hypothesis dates from 1989, when David Strachan proposed that lower incidence of infection in early childhood could be an explanation for the rise in allergic diseases such as asthma and hay fever during the 20th century.

The hygiene hypothesis has also been expanded beyond allergies, and is also studied in the context of a broader range of conditions affected by the immune system, particularly inflammatory diseases. These include type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, and also some types of depression and cancer. For example, the global distribution of multiple sclerosis is negatively correlated with that of the helminth Trichuris trichiura and its incidence is negatively correlated with Helicobacter pylori infection. Strachan's original hypothesis could not explain how various allergic conditions spiked or increased in prevalence at different times, such as why respiratory allergies began to increase much earlier than food allergies, which did not become more common until near the end of the 20th century.

In 2003, Graham Rook proposed the "old friends" hypothesis which has been described as a more rational explanation for the link between microbial exposure and inflammatory disorders. The hypothesis states that the vital microbial exposures are not colds, influenza, measles and other common childhood infections which have evolved relatively recently over the last 10,000 years, but rather the microbes already present during mammalian and human evolution, that could persist in small hunter-gatherer groups as microbiota, tolerated latent infections, or carrier states. He proposed that coevolution with these species has resulted in their gaining a role in immune system development.

Strachan's original formulation of the hygiene hypothesis also centred around the idea that smaller families provided insufficient microbial exposure partly because of less person-to-person spread of infections, but also because of "improved household amenities and higher standards of personal cleanliness". It seems likely that this was the reason he named it the "hygiene hypothesis". Although the "hygiene revolution" of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries may have been a major factor, it now seems more likely that, while public health measures such as sanitation, potable water and garbage collection were instrumental in reducing our exposure to cholera, typhoid and so on, they also deprived people of their exposure to the "old friends" that occupy the same environmental habitats.

The rise of autoimmune diseases and acute lymphoblastic leukemia in young people in the developed world was linked to the hygiene hypothesis. Autism may be associated with changes in the gut microbiome and early infections. The risk of chronic inflammatory diseases also depends on factors such as diet, pollution, physical activity, obesity, socio-economic factors, and stress. Genetic predisposition is also a factor.

History
Since allergies and other chronic inflammatory diseases are largely diseases of the last 100 years or so, the "hygiene revolution" of the last 200 years came under scrutiny as a possible cause. During the 1800s, radical improvements to sanitation and water quality occurred in Europe and North America. The introduction of toilets and sewer systems and the cleanup of city streets, and cleaner food were part of this program. This in turn led to a rapid decline in infectious diseases, particularly during the period 1900–1950, through reduced exposure to infectious agents.

Although the idea that exposure to certain infections may decrease the risk of allergy is not new, Strachan was one of the first to formally propose it, in an article published in the British Medical Journal in 1989. This article proposed to explain the observation that hay fever and eczema, both allergic diseases, were less common in children from larger families, which were presumably exposed to more infectious agents through their siblings, than in children from families with only one child. The increased occurrence of allergies had previously been thought to be a result of increasing pollution. The hypothesis was extensively investigated by immunologists and epidemiologists and has become an important theoretical framework for the study of chronic inflammatory disorders.

The "old friends hypothesis" proposed in 2003 may offer a better explanation for the link between microbial exposure and inflammatory diseases. This hypothesis argues that the vital exposures are not common cold and other recently evolved infections, which are no older than 10,000 years, but rather microbes already present in hunter-gatherer times when the human immune system was evolving. Conventional childhood infections are mostly "crowd infections" that kill or immunise and thus cannot persist in isolated hunter-gatherer groups. Crowd infections started to appear after the neolithic agricultural revolution, when human populations increased in size and proximity. The microbes that co-evolved with mammalian immune systems are much more ancient. According to this hypothesis, humans became so dependent on them that their immune systems can neither develop nor function properly without them.

Rook proposed that these microbes most likely include:

 * Ambient species that exist in the same environments as humans
 * Species that inhabit human skin, gut and respiratory tract, and that of the animals we live with
 * Organisms such as viruses and helminths (worms) that establish chronic infections or carrier states that humans can tolerate and so could co-evolve a specific immunoregulatory relationship with the immune system.

The modified hypothesis later expanded to include exposure to symbiotic bacteria and parasites.

"Evolution turns the inevitable into a necessity." This means that the majority of mammalian evolution took place in mud and rotting vegetation and more than 90 percent of human evolution took place in isolated hunter-gatherer communities and farming communities. Therefore, the human immune systems have evolved to anticipate certain types of microbial input, making the inevitable exposure into a necessity. The organisms that are implicated in the hygiene hypothesis are not proven to cause the disease prevalence, however there are sufficient data on lactobacilli, saprophytic environment mycobacteria, and helminths and their association. These bacteria and parasites have commonly been found in vegetation, mud, and water throughout evolution.

Multiple possible mechanisms have been proposed for how the 'Old Friends' microorganisms prevent autoimmune diseases and asthma. They include:
 * 1) Reciprocal inhibition between immune responses directed against distinct antigens of the Old Friends microbes which elicit stronger immune responses than the weaker autoantigens and allergens of autoimmune disease and allergy respectively.
 * 2) Competition for cytokines, MHC receptors and growth factors needed by the immune system to mount an immune response.
 * 3) Immunoregulatory interactions with host TLRs.

The "microbial diversity" hypothesis, proposed by Paolo Matricardi and developed by von Hertzen, holds that diversity of microbes in the gut and other sites is a key factor for priming the immune system, rather than stable colonization with a particular species. Exposure to diverse organisms in early development builds a "database" that allows the immune system to identify harmful agents and normalize once the danger is eliminated.

For allergic disease, the most important times for exposure are: early in development; later during pregnancy; and the first few days or months of infancy. Exposure needs to be maintained over a significant period. This fits with evidence that delivery by Caesarean section may be associated with increased allergies, whilst breastfeeding can be protective.

Evolution of the adaptive immune system
Humans and the microbes they harbor have co-evolved for thousands of centuries; however, it is thought that the human species has gone through numerous phases in history characterized by different pathogen exposures. For instance, in very early human societies, small interaction between its members has given particular selection to a relatively limited group of pathogens that had high transmission rates. It is considered that the human immune system is likely subjected to a selective pressure from pathogens that are responsible for down regulating certain alleles and therefore phenotypes in humans. The thalassemia genes that are shaped by the Plasmodium species expressing the selection pressure might be a model for this theory but is not shown in-vivo.

Recent comparative genomic studies have shown that immune response genes (protein coding and non-coding regulatory genes) have less evolutionary constraint, and are rather more frequently targeted by positive selection from pathogens that coevolve with the human subject. Of all the various types of pathogens known to cause disease in humans, helminths warrant special attention, because of their ability to modify the prevalence or severity of certain immune-related responses in human and mouse models. In fact recent research has shown that parasitic worms have served as a stronger selective pressure on select human genes encoding interleukins and interleukin receptors when compared to viral and bacterial pathogens. Helminths are thought to have been as old as the adaptive immune system, suggesting that they may have co-evolved, also implying that our immune system has been strongly focused on fighting off helminthic infections, insofar as to potentially interact with them early in infancy. The host-pathogen interaction is a very important relationship that serves to shape the immune system development early on in life.

Biological basis
The primary proposed mechanism of the hygiene hypothesis is an imbalance between the TH1 and TH2 subtypes of T helper cells. Insufficient activation of the TH1 arm would stimulate the cell defense of the immune system and lead to an overactive TH2 arm, stimulating the antibody-mediated immunity of the immune systems, which in turn led to allergic disease.

However, this explanation cannot explain the rise in incidence (similar to the rise of allergic diseases) of several TH1-mediated autoimmune diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis and type I diabetes. [Figure 1Bach] However, the North South Gradient seen in the prevalence of multiple sclerosis has been found to be inversely related to the global distribution of parasitic infection.[Figure 2Bach] Additionally, research has shown that MS patients infected with parasites displayed TH2 type immune responses as opposed to the proinflammatory TH1 immune phenotype seen in non-infected multiple sclerosis patients.[Fleming] Parasite infection has also been shown to improve inflammatory bowel disease and may act in a similar fashion as it does in multiple sclerosis.[Lee]

Allergic conditions are caused by inappropriate immunological responses to harmless antigens driven by a TH2-mediated immune response, TH2 cells produce interleukin 4, interleukin 5, interleukin 6, interleukin 13 and predominantly stimulate immunoglobulin E production. Many bacteria and viruses elicit a TH1-mediated immune response, which down-regulates TH2 responses. TH1 immune responses are characterized by the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 2, IFNγ, and TNFα. Factors that favor a predominantly TH1 phenotype include: older siblings, large family size, early day care attendance, infection (TB, measles, or hepatitis), rural living, or contact with animals. A TH2-dominated phenotype is associated with high antibiotic use, western lifestyle, urban environment, diet, and sensitivity to dust mites and cockroaches. TH1 and TH2 responses are reciprocally inhibitory, so when one is active, the other is suppressed.

An alternative explanation is that the developing immune system must receive stimuli (from infectious agents, symbiotic bacteria, or parasites) to adequately develop regulatory T cells. Without that stimuli it becomes more susceptible to autoimmune diseases and allergic diseases, because of insufficiently repressed TH1 and TH2 responses, respectively. For example, all chronic inflammatory disorders show evidence of failed immunoregulation. Secondly, helminths, non-pathogenic ambient pseudocommensal bacteria or certain gut commensals and probiotics, drive immunoregulation. They block or treat models of all chronic inflammatory conditions.

Evidence
There is a significant amount of evidence supporting the idea that microbial exposure is linked to allergies or other conditions, although scientific disagreement still exists. Since hygiene is difficult to define or measure directly, surrogate markers are used such as socioeconomic status, income, and diet.

Studies have shown that various immunological and autoimmune diseases are much less common in the developing world than the industrialized world and that immigrants to the industrialized world from the developing world increasingly develop immunological disorders in relation to the length of time since arrival in the industrialized world. This is true for asthma and other chronic inflammatory disorders. The increase in allergy rates is primarily attributed to diet and reduced microbiome diversity, although the mechanistic reasons are unclear.

The use of antibiotics in the first year of life has been linked to asthma and other allergic diseases, and increased asthma rates are also associated with birth by Caesarean section. However, at least one study suggests that personal hygienic practices may be unrelated to the incidence of asthma. Antibiotic usage reduces the diversity of gut microbiota. Although several studies have shown associations between antibiotic use and later development of asthma or allergy, other studies suggest that the effect is due to more frequent antibiotic use in asthmatic children. Trends in vaccine use may also be relevant, but epidemiological studies provide no consistent support for a detrimental effect of vaccination/immunization on atopy rates. In support of the old friends hypothesis, the intestinal microbiome was found to differ between allergic and non-allergic Estonian and Swedish children (although this finding was not replicated in a larger cohort), and the biodiversity of the intestinal flora in patients with Crohn's disease was diminished.

Limitations
The hygiene hypothesis does not apply to all populations. For example, in the case of inflammatory bowel disease, it is primarily relevant when a person's level of affluence increases, either due to changes in society or by moving to a more affluent country, but not when affluence remains constant at a high level.

The hygiene hypothesis has difficulty explaining why allergic diseases also occur in less affluent regions. Additionally, exposure to some microbial species actually increases future susceptibility to disease instead, as in the case of infection with rhinovirus (the main source of the common cold) which increases the risk of asthma.

Treatment
Current research suggests that manipulating the intestinal microbiota may be able to treat or prevent allergies and other immune-related conditions. Various approaches are under investigation. Probiotics (drinks or foods) have never been shown to reintroduce microbes to the gut. As yet, therapeutically relevant microbes have not been specifically identified. However, probiotic bacteria have been found to reduce allergic symptoms in some studies. Other approaches being researched include prebiotics, which promote the growth of gut flora, and synbiotics, the use of prebiotics and probiotics at the same time.

Should these therapies become accepted, public policy implications include providing green spaces in urban areas or even providing access to agricultural environments for children.

Helminthic therapy is the treatment of autoimmune diseases and immune disorders by means of deliberate infestation with a helminth larva or ova. Helminthic therapy emerged from the search for reasons why the incidence of immunological disorders and autoimmune diseases correlates with the level of industrial development. The exact relationship between helminths and allergies is unclear, in part because studies tend to use different definitions and outcomes, and because of the wide variety among both helminth species and the populations they infect. The infections induce a type 2 immune response, which likely evolved in mammals as a result of such infections; chronic helminth infection has been linked with a reduced sensitivity in peripheral T cells, and several studies have found deworming to lead to an increase in allergic sensitivity. However, in some cases helminths and other parasites are a cause of developing allergies instead. In addition, such infections are not themselves a treatment as they are a major disease burden and in fact they are one of the most important neglected diseases. The development of drugs that mimic the effects without causing disease is in progress.

Public health
The reduction of public confidence in hygiene has significant possible consequences for public health. Hygiene is essential for protecting vulnerable populations such as the elderly from infections, preventing the spread of antibiotic resistance, and for combating emerging infectious diseases such as SARS and Ebola.

The misunderstanding of the term "hygiene hypothesis" has resulted in unwarranted opposition to vaccination as well as other important public health measures. It has been suggested that public awareness of the initial form of the hygiene hypothesis has led to an increased disregard for hygiene in the home. The effective communication of science to the public has been hindered by the presentation of the hygiene hypothesis and other health-related information in the media.

Cleanliness
No evidence supports the idea that reducing modern practices of cleanliness and hygiene would have any impact on rates of chronic inflammatory and allergic disorders, but a significant amount of evidence indicates that reducing hygiene would increase the risks of infectious diseases. The phrase "targeted hygiene" has been used in order to recognize the importance of hygiene in avoiding pathogens.

If home and personal cleanliness contributes to reduced exposure to vital microbes, its role is likely to be small. The idea that homes can be made “sterile” through excessive cleanliness is implausible, and the evidence shows that after cleaning, microbes are quickly replaced by dust and air from outdoors, by shedding from the body and other living things, as well as from food. The key point may be that the microbial content of urban housing has altered, not because of home and personal hygiene habits, but because they are part of urban environments. Diet and lifestyle changes also affects the gut, skin and respiratory microbiota.

At the same time that concerns about allergies and other chronic inflammatory diseases have been increasing, so also have concerns about infectious disease. Infectious diseases continue to exert a heavy health toll. Preventing pandemics and reducing antibiotic resistance are global priorities, and hygiene is a cornerstone of containing these threats.

Infection risk management
The International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has developed a risk management approach to reducing home infection risks. This approach uses microbiological and epidemiological evidence to identify the key routes of infection transmission in the home. These data indicate that the critical routes involve the hands, hand and food contact surfaces and cleaning utensils. Clothing and household linens involve somewhat lower risks. Surfaces that contact the body, such as baths and hand basins, can act as infection vehicles, as can surfaces associated with toilets. Airborne transmission can be important for some pathogens. A key aspect of this approach is that it maximises protection against pathogens and infection, but is more relaxed about visible cleanliness in order to sustain normal exposure to other human, animal and environmental microbes.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hygiene hypothesis


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Grouper

Groupers are fish of any of a number of genera in the subfamily Epinephelinae of the family Serranidae, in the order Perciformes.

Not all serranids are called "groupers"; the family also includes the sea basses. The common name "grouper" is usually given to fish in one of two large genera: Epinephelus and Mycteroperca. In addition, the species classified in the small genera Anyperidon, Cromileptes, Dermatolepis, Graciela, Saloptia, and Triso are also called "groupers". Fish in the genus Plectropomus are referred to as "coral groupers". These genera are all classified in the subfamily Epiphelinae. However, some of the hamlets (genus Alphestes), the hinds (genus Cephalopholis), the lyretails (genus Variola), and some other small genera (Gonioplectrus, Niphon, Paranthias) are also in this subfamily, and occasional species in other serranid genera have common names involving the word "grouper". Nonetheless, the word "grouper" on its own is usually taken as meaning the subfamily Epinephelinae.

Description

Groupers are teleosts, typically having a stout body and a large mouth. They are not built for long-distance, fast swimming. They can be quite large: in length, over a meter. The largest is the Atlantic goliath grouper (Epinephelus itajara) which has been weighed at 399 kg and a length of 2.43 m, though in such a large group, species vary considerably. They swallow prey rather than biting pieces off of them. They do not have many teeth on the edges of their jaws, but they have heavy crushing tooth plates inside the pharynx. They habitually eat fish, octopuses, and crustaceans. Some species prefer to ambush their prey, while others are active predators. Reports of fatal attacks on humans by the largest species, such as the giant grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus), are unconfirmed.

Their mouths and gills form a powerful vacuum that pulls their prey in from a distance. They also use their mouths to dig into sand to form their shelters under big rocks, jetting it out through their gills.

Research indicates roving coralgroupers (Plectropomus pessuliferus) sometimes cooperate with giant morays in hunting. Groupers are also one of the only animals that eat invasive red lionfish.

Etymology
The word "grouper" is from the Portuguese name, garoupa, which has been speculated to come from an indigenous South American language.

In Australia, "groper" is used instead of "grouper" for several species, such as the Queensland grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus). In New Zealand, "groper" refers to a type of wreckfish, Polyprion oxygeneios, which goes by the name hapuka (from the Māori language hāpuku). In the Philippines, groupers are generally known as lapu-lapu in Luzon, while in the Visayas and Mindanao they are known as pugapo. Its Indonesian name is kerapu. In the Middle East, the fish is known as 'hammour', and is widely eaten, especially in the Persian Gulf region. In Latin America, the fish is known as 'mero'.

The species in the tribes Grammistini and Diploprionini secrete a mucus-like toxin in their skin called grammistin, and when they are confined in a restricted space and subjected to stress, the mucus produces a foam that is toxic to nearby fish. These fishes are often called soapfishes. They have been classified either as their own families or within subfamilies, although the fifth Edition of the Fishes of the World classifies these two groups as tribes within the subfamily Epinephelinae.

Classification
According to the 5th edition of Fishes of the World, the subfamily is divided up into 5 tribes containing a total of 32 genera and 234 species.

Subfamily Epinephelinae Bleeker, 1874 (groupers)
 * Tribe Niphonini D.S. Jordan, 1923
 * Niphon Cuvier, 1828
 * Tribe Epinephelini Bleeker, 1874
 * Aethaloperca Fowler, 1904
 * Alphestes Bloch & Schneider, 1801
 * Anyperodon Günther, 1859
 * Cephalopholis Bloch & Schneider, 1801
 * Chromileptes Swainson, 1839
 * Dermatolepis Gill, 1861
 * Epinephelus Bloch, 1793
 * Gonioplectrus Gill, 1862
 * Gracila Randall, 1964
 * Hyporthodus Gill, 1861
 * Mycteroperca Gill, 1862
 * Paranthias Guichenot, 1868
 * Plectropomus Pken, 1817
 * Saloptia J.L.B. Smith, 1964
 * Triso Randall, Johnson & Lowe, 1989
 * Variola Swainson, 1839
 * Tribe Diploprionini Bleeker, 1874
 * Aulacocephalus Temminck & Schlegel, 1843
 * Belonoperca Fowler & B.A. Bean, 1930
 * Diploprion Cuvier, 1828
 * Tribe Liopropomini Poey, 1867
 * Bathyanthias Günther, 1880
 * Liopropoma Gill, 1861
 * Rainfordia McCulloch, 1923
 * Tribe Grammistini Bleeker, 1857
 * Aporops Schultz, 1943
 * Grammistes Bloch & Schneider, 1801
 * Grammistops Schultz 1953
 * Jeboehlkia Robins, 1967
 * Pogonoperca Günther 1859
 * Pseudogramma Bleeker, 1875
 * Rypticus Cuvier, 1829
 * Suttonia J.L.B. Smith, 1953

Reproduction
Groupers are mostly monandric protogynous hermaphrodites, i.e., they mature only as females and can change sex after sexual maturity. Some species of groupers grow about a kilogram per year and are generally adolescents until they reach three kilograms when they become female. The largest males often control harems containing three to 15 females. Groupers often pair spawn, which enables large males to competitively exclude smaller males from reproducing. As such, if a small female grouper were to change sex before it could control a harem as a male, its fitness would decrease. If no male is available, the largest female that can increase fitness by changing sex will do so.

However, some groupers are gonochoristic. Gonochorism, or a reproductive strategy with two distinct sexes, has evolved independently in groupers at least five times. The evolution of gonochorism is linked to group spawning high amounts of habitat cover. Both group spawning and habitat cover increase the likelihood of a smaller male reproducing in the presence of large males. The fitness of male groupers in environments where competitive exclusion of smaller males is impossible is correlated with sperm production and thus testicle size. Gonochoristic groupers have larger testes than protogynous groupers (10% of body mass compared to 1% of body mass), indicating the evolution of gonochorism increased male grouper fitness in environments where large males were unable to competitively exclude small males from reproducing.

Parasites

Like other fish, groupers harbor parasites, including digeneans, nematodes, cestodes, monogeneans, isopods, and copepods. A study conducted in New Caledonia has shown that coral reef-associated groupers have about ten species of parasites per fish species. Species of Pseudorhabdosynochus, monogeneans of the family Diplectanidae are typical of and especially numerous on groupers.

Modern use

Many groupers are important food fish; some are now farmed. Unlike most other fish species, which are chilled or frozen, groupers are usually sold alive in markets. Many species are popular game fish for sea-angling. Some species are small enough to be kept in aquaria, though even the small species are inclined to grow rapidly.

Groupers are commonly reported as a source of ciguatera fish poisoning. DNA barcoding of grouper species might help control Ciguatera fish poisoning since fish are easily identified, even from meal remnants, with molecular tools.

Size
Malaysian newspaper The Star reported a 180 kg grouper being caught off the waters near Pulau Sembilan in the Strait of Malacca in January 2008. Shenzhen News in China reported that a 1.8 m grouper swallowed a 1.0 m whitetip reef shark at the Fuzhou Sea World aquarium.

In September 2010, a Costa Rican newspaper reported a 2.3 m grouper in Cieneguita, Limón. The weight of the fish was 250 kg, and it was lured using one kilogram of bait. In November 2013, a 310 kg grouper had been caught and sold to a hotel in Dongyuan, China.

In August 2014, off Bonita Springs in Florida (USA), a big grouper took in one gulp a 4-foot shark that an angler had caught.

title: Grouper


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User talk:Pfortuny/Trinity

Previous discussion here

 * A practical understanding of the Trinity centers upon Christian Baptism. This is the starting point, to apprehend why the doctrine matters to so many Christians, even though what the doctrine teaches about the being of God is beyond complete comprehension. The Apostles' Creed, for example, has been commonly used as a brief summation of Christian faith, to be professed by converts to Christianity when they receive baptism, and at other times in the liturgy of the church.

Needs rephrasing for my taste: I do not fully understand it. ?? ?? conceptual summary: "Trinity relates to Baptism -> reason why it matters so much -> even though not comprehension -> Apostles' Creed and converts -> baptism of converts -> liturgy"

I cannot make too much of it (are we trying to say too many things in a short paragraph?). Pfortuny 19:53, 23 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Perhaps. My aim in putting it this way, is to explain not so much "why" the Trinity matters, but "how" it matters.  The flow is like this:  Christian baptism admission into a handed down faith; handed down in the name of the Trinity; thus, this is the name into which the Christian is baptized; and for that reason it is the faith he professes.
 * The rest of it is simply illustration of this point. Basil: "the terms", Constantinople "the faith of our baptism", Apostles' Creed: "I believe."...  etc.  The trinity is not graduate level stuff.  It is elementary to understand that we are baptized into the name, and profess faith in God in terms of, the Trinity.  Mkmcconn
 * and so on... Although this appears at first to be a peculiar way to begin; I'm pretty sure that in the long run, it will allow the article to open up and include controversies without getting off-track as easily as it would if we start with a discussion of metaphysics. Mkmcconn 21:43, 23 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Section on Christian Life and the Trinity (header added by me). Needs re-writing: to the Father we go, those who have been saved by the Son, with the aid of the Holy Spirit is what I think we intend to say? Pfortuny 19:53, 23 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Close enough, I think. Mkmcconn

 * The central, and crucial affirmation of Christian faith is that there is one savior, God, and one salvation, in Jesus Christ, to which there is access only because of the Holy Spirit.

quite dark for my taste but cannot find anything better Pfortuny 19:53, 23 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Nevertheless, the concept is considered to be of momentous practical importance to the Christian life because, again, it points to the nature of the Christian's reconciliation with God. The excruciatingly fine distinctions can issue in grand differences of emphasis in worship and government, as large as the difference between East and West, which for generations now have been considered practically insurmountable.

What about the following?

 * Nevertheless, the concept is considered to be of momentous practical importance to the Christian life because, again, it points to the nature of the Christian's reconciliation with God. What may seem excruciatingly fine distinctions can issue in grand differences of emphasis in worship and government, as those distinctions refer to the Godhead. Actually, those expressions are part of the difference between East and West, which for generations now have been considered practically insurmountable.

Here I stopped. Pfortuny 19:53, 23 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Sounds fine to me. Mkmcconn 20:31, 23 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I think that we should consider publishing this, now. More of the anti-trinitarian argument should be added, but at least the whole thing isn't anti-trinitarian, as the current article is. Many of your concerns above have been addressed. In my opinion, it's an improvement of readability, and accuracy, and provides a structure for expansion on either side of each ocntroversial issue. I don't think that it requires a vote. Mkmcconn 16:24, 4 Jan 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pfortuny/Trinity


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Toyotomi Hideyori

Toyotomi Hideyori (豊臣 秀頼) was the son and designated successor of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the general who first united all of Japan. His mother, Yodo-dono, was the niece of Oda Nobunaga.

Early life
Born in 1593, he was Hideyoshi's second son. The birth of Hideyori created a potential succession problem. To avoid it, Hideyoshi exiled his nephew and heir Hidetsugu to Mount Kōya and then ordered him to commit suicide in August 1595. Hidetsugu's family members who did not follow his example were then murdered in Kyoto, including 31 women and several children and also Mogami Yoshiaki's daughter. Hideyoshi refused to spare the life of Yoshiaki's daughter, who had only just arrived in Kyoto to become Hidetsugu's concubine and had not yet even met her future husband.

When Hideyoshi died in 1598, the five regents he had appointed to rule in Hideyori's place began jockeying amongst themselves for power. Tokugawa Ieyasu seized control in 1600, after his victory over the others at the Battle of Sekigahara. Hideyori's arranged marriage to Senhime, the seven-year-old granddaughter of Ieyasu, was designed to mitigate Toyotomi clan dissension and plotting. In this period, the eight-year-old boy practiced calligraphy with phrases wishing for peace throughout the world.

Fourteen years later, Hideyori was now a young daimyō living in Osaka Castle, son and rightful heir to Toyotomi Hideyoshi. However, Tokugawa Ieyasu continued to view the young Hideyori as a potential threat. Many samurai who opposed Ieyasu rallied around Hideyori, claiming that he was the rightful ruler of Japan.

Conflict with Ieyasu
Ieyasu found fault with the opening ceremony of a temple (Great Buddha of Kyoto) built by Hideyori; it was as if he prayed for Ieyasu's death and the ruin of the Tokugawa clan. Ieyasu ordered Hideyori to leave Osaka Castle, but those in the castle refused and summoned samurai to gather within the castle. Then in 1614, the Tokugawa besieged Osaka Castle against Hideyori.

Siege of Osaka
Tokugawa forces led by Shogun Tokugawa Hidetada attacked Hideyori in the Siege of Osaka in the winter of 1614, known as "the winter Siege of Osaka". The attack failed, but Hideyori was induced to sign a truce and dismantle the defenses of his stronghold at Osaka Castle.

In April 1615, Ieyasu received word that Toyotomi Hideyori was gathering even more troops than in the previous November, and that he was trying to stop the filling of the moat of Osaka Castle. Toyotomi forces began to attack contingents of the shōgun's forces near Osaka. On June 5, 1615, Tokugawa attacked Osaka Castle, an attack known as "the summer Siege of Osaka". As Toyotomi's forces began to lose the battle, a smaller force led directly by Hideyori sallied forth from Osaka Castle too late, and was chased right back into the castle by the advancing enemies. There was no time to set up a proper defense of the castle, and it was soon set ablaze and pummeled by artillery fire. Hideyori and his mother committed seppuku, and the final major uprising against Tokugawa rule for another 250 or so years was put to an end. His widow remarried but later became a Buddhist nun.

Death
According to James Murdoch's A History of Japan During The Century of Early Foreign Discourse, based heavily upon the works of many Japanese sources (the Nihon Shoki, Miyoshi-Ki, and many more) as well as heavily based on the writings of the Jesuits, their annual letters, the letters of William Adams and the diaries of Adams' Dutch comrades, the events of Hideyori's death and the final fall of Osaka Castle were as such – Sanada Yukimura had been tactician of the climactic battle outside the gates of Osaka. Recognizing that they had a serious numerical disadvantage, they decided to attempt a tactic of inducing surprise and confusion in the Tokugawa camp. This was to be effected by first, Osaka captain Akashi Morishige getting behind the Tokugawa van, which would then be taken with Akashi's surprise attack, fall on Akashi, allowing Sanada with his troops and Mōri Katsunaga, who was in charge of the Osaka rōnin, to fall into the Tokugawa front. When the confusion was to be at its height, Hideyori would have marched out of Osaka castle with his home troops and would in theory be the final blow to the Tokugawas.

What happened, according to Murdoch, was that Akashi was not able to get behind the Tokugawa troops, having been discovered and engaged before he emerged from the lanes. The plans fell apart as Mōri's rōnin, ever eager to fight, began shooting at the Tokugawa ranks, not waiting for Sanada (who was serving as Commander of the battle, in addition to being the tactician of the battle) to command them to do so. Sanada at once told the rōnin to stop but they only doubled their efforts. Mōri Katsunaga, deciding to take advantage of his rōnin's eagerness, then decided to launch them forward nevertheless. Upon this, Sanada realized in order to keep any structure of his original plan, he too, would need to engage alongside the rōnin. He decided then to launch himself alongside Katsunaga's force, straight into the Tokugawas, while dispatching a messenger to Hideyori to march out at that very moment instead of a bit further on as had been decided in the plan.

Hideyori began moving with his troops to leave Osaka. Meanwhile, the Osaka troops had been doing quite well in spite of the numerical disadvantage. It has even been said, in Murdoch's book, as he goes to show in an extract from a missionaries letter regarding the event (there were several inside Osaka castle at this point) that the Osaka assault was actually quite successful and drove the Tokugawa back quite promptly. The plan of creating Tokugawa confusion worked and according to the Jesuits, Ieyasu himself, serving as the ultimate reinforcement to the center force, had told his men to kill him if victory seemed for nigh. Not only did the Jesuits write this, but, in another account, Murdoch states that Ieyasu had at least for some time had designs of seppuku because victory seemed to be escaping him.

According to Siebold, at this critical moment, as Hideyori was leaving Osaka to enter the fray, Ieyasu sent forth into Osaka the son of Osaka captain Ōno Harunaga who had been a hostage to the Tokugawa. Ōno Harunaga's son entered the castle and immediately dispatched a letter from Ieyasu to his father. The letter said "Do not let Hideyori leave the castle. In the castle is a conspiracy and as soon as Hideyori leaves it he will be attacked from the rear." It is because of this letter, according to Siebold, that Hideyori's portion of the plan miscarried. He was just about to leave when he was brought word of its contents, and at this point, stalled in entering the fray.

Eventually, despite the ferocity and initial victories of the Osaka troops, the numerical advantage of the Tokugawa forces proved too much. According to the Nihon Senshi:

"Hideyori, when he received intelligence of the defeat of his rōnin, said, "Death is what I have been ready to meet for long", and was about to sally from the castle in order to fight his very last battle when he was stopped by Hayami, one of his seven captains, who urged that a commander-in-chief should not expose his person among the promiscuous dead. Let Hideyori defend the castle to the last; when it fell, it would be time to take a decision!"

And amidst the ensuing chaos, Hideyori fell back. The castle was fired and general chaos ensued. This Hayami, one of his seven captains, eventually lead Hideyori, his wife, the daughter of the shōgun and granddaughter of Ieyasu, and his mother, Yodogimi to a fire proof keep in the castle. From here, Hideyori's wife, the daughter of the shōgun, left to beg of her father and grand father to spare Hideyori. According to Murdoch, when she finally reached the shōgun, Hidetada, he had remarked coldly to her, "Why don't you die with your husband?" which was customary. However, Ieyasu feigned compassion and instructed Tokugawa captains Ii and Ando to see to Hideyori's safe retreat.

Hideyori, however, remained in the fire-proof keep with his mother and, having sent dispatches to Ieyasu and Hidetada, waited for a response. He was given none and, upon his fire-proof keep being fired upon by the forces of Ii and Ando, allegedly then committed ritual suicide and the keep was destroyed.

Although Ii had been tasked with seeing to Hideyori's safe retreat, when, shortly after, Ii had reported the affairs to Ieyasu and told of his exceeding the orders he'd been given and, thereupon asked Ieyasu to punish him accordingly, according to Murdoch's book, Ieyasu merely nodded without saying anything and Ii left Ieyasu's presence. Not but a few weeks later Ii received a raise on his revenue at Hikone, in Omi, the sum going from 180,000 koku to 230,000 koku and still, later on, in 1617 to 280,000 koku.

Survival myths
Hideyori's actual corpse was never discovered, and a popular rumor persisted that Hideyori had escaped Osaka. The rumors had enough merit to concern the Tokugawa shogunate, according to Murdoch. The matter was serious enough that it found mention in the journals of Richard Cocks, the comrade of William Adams. The following extracts from Cocks' journal explain the matter at hand:

"September 18th, 1616

Capt. Adames went againe to the Cort [at Yedo] to procure our dispatch, and found all the Council busied about matters of justice of life and death; and amongst the rest, one man was brought in question about Fidaia Samme [Hideyori], as being in the castle with him to the last hour. This man was racked and tormented very much, to make him confess where his master was, or whether he were alive or dead; but I cannot hear whether he confessed anything or no."

"May 5th, 1616

The son of Tuan Dono of Langasaque [ Nagasaki ] [i.e the brother of the Japanese Jesuit killed at the storming of Osaka], departed to sea with 13 barkes laden with soldiers to take the island Taccasange, called per them soe, but by us Isla Fermosa. And it is reported he is at Goto, staying for more succors which are to come from Miaco, and thought they mean to go for Lequea [Loochoo], to look for Fidaia Samme [Hideyori]."

"July 7th, 1616

Speeches given out that the Tono, or King, of Xaxma [ Satsuma ] meaneth to make wars against the new Emperor [Hidetada] in right of Fidaia Samme [Hideyori], whom they report to be alive, and that he meaneth to begyn with Langasaque. This is now the common report."

"October 15th, 1616

And it is said Fidaia Samme is alive; but what will come hereof I know not."

Hideyori's son, Kunimatsu (age 8) was captured and beheaded; his daughter Naahime (Princess Naa) (age 7) was sent to Tōkei-ji, a convent in Kamakura, where she later became the twentieth abbess Tenshūin (1608–1645).

Family

 * Father: Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1537–1598)
 * Mother: Yodo-dono (1569–1615)
 * Wife: Senhime (1597–1666)
 * Concubines:
 * Icha no Kata
 * Oiwa no Kata, daughter of Narita Goheisukenao
 * Okogo no Tsubone
 * Children:
 * Toyotomi Kunimatsu (1608–1615) by Owaki no Kata
 * (1609–1645) by Oiwa no Kata
 * Toyotomi Motomaru (d. 1688) by Icha no Kata
 * Toyotomi Tokimaru

title: Toyotomi Hideyori


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Games

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WikiProject Game
| Welcome to the WikiProject Games on the English Wikipedia. We are a group dedicated to improving Wikipedia's coverage of topics related to games. As of, there are ' articles and ' lists within the scope of WikiProject Games, of which ' are featured and ' are good articles. If you would like to join our project, please add your username to the members page.

 * align="center" cellspacing="3" style="border: 1px solid #aaa; background-color: #ecf1f1; margin-bottom: 3px;" colspan="2" | Goals
 * The project aims primarily to:
 * provide advice and recommendations for articles that describe all aspects of games
 * improve Wikipedia's coverage of games by creating, expanding, and maintaining such articles
 * serve as the central point of discussion for issues related to games on Wikipedia
 * maintain the portal
 * serve as the central point of discussion for issues related to games on Wikipedia
 * maintain the portal

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Project Structure
Issues concerning game related articles and topics are discussed on the main talk page. The Assessment department focuses on assessing the quality of Wikipedia's game related articles. The resulting article ratings are used within the project to aid in recognizing excellent contributions and identifying topics in need of further work. This system will be used in the future to select official A-Class articles. The Cleanup department focuses on improving the overall quality of Wikipedia's games articles, and their compliance with the policies and guidelines of Wikipedia. The cleanup effort is meant to reduce the amount of unnecessary content and articles within the WikiProject Games. It also aims to help in the progression of articles that require work to climb up the assessment scale.
 * Discussion
 * Discussion
 * Assessment
 * Assessment
 * Cleanup
 * Cleanup

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Templates

Anyone can participate in this WikiProject. You may indicate your participation by adding the userbox User WPGames to your user page, shown on the right. This will add you to Category:WikiProject Games participants. Alternatively, if you do not wish to use the userbox, you may add to the end of your user page.

Award

Any editor who advances the knowledge and understanding of all games (at least two areas, preferably more) is eligible for the WikiProject Games Barnstar. A userbox is also available to display this barnstar on your userpage: Wikipedia:WikiProject Games/Award Userbox. The userbox is handy if you need to save space on the screen. A ribbon alternative is also available (shortly).

Welcoming

You can welcome new users who have made good contributions to game-related articles by adding the WWGame Welcome template to their talk page.

Project Banner

Place this banner at the top of the talk pages of all games-related articles (that are not within the scope of a more-specific project) :WikiProject Games

Here is a summary of the current game article ratings:

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Tasks

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Articles
The templates page lists all templates useful in writing articles about video games, including infobox, cleanup, stub, talk page, and external links templates.
 * colspan="2" | In addition to the usual policies and guidelines, please make sure you understand the specific advice related to game articles. Also make sure you are familiar with:
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia — a quick rundown of the five key rules you need to start editing.
 * Simplified ruleset — 12 rules of thumb to help you avoid problems.
 * List of policies — a comprehensive list of the 42 official policies.
 * Templates
 * Templates
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 * align="center" cellspacing="3" style="border: 1px solid #aaa; background-color: #ecf1f1; margin-bottom: 3px;" colspan="2" | Article alerts
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Tools

 * Main tool page: toolserver.org
 * Reflinks - Edits bare references - adds title/dates etc. to bare references
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title: Wikipedia:WikiProject Games


text:
User:SallyJBarnes

Hi,

My name is Sally J. Barnes. I am 35 years old, and I have been a computer programmer for 15 years now. I think Wikipedia is a very interesting website. I am fluent in German and French. I play the piano and guitar with expertise. I am also a substitute teacher in Las Vegas, Nevada. I teach Biology 101. I look forward to placing many articles on Wikipedia, and I hope that they are welcomed.

Sincerely,

Miss Sally J. Barnes

title: User:SallyJBarnes


text:
Can

Can may refer to:

Containers

 * Aluminum can
 * Drink can
 * Oil can
 * Steel and tin cans
 * Trash can
 * Petrol can

Music

 * Can (band), West Germany, 1968
 * Can (album), 1979
 * Can (South Korean band)

Abbreviations

 * Canada
 * Cantoris, side of a church or choir

Other

 * Can (name), Turkish and Circassian given name and surname
 * Can (verb)
 * Canning of food
 * River Can, Essex, UK
 * Tomato can (sports idiom)

title: Can


text:
User talk:Tdvmaat

Your question in the Village Pump was moved to the Reference desk, and I answered it there. andy 08:43, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Tdvmaat


text:
Talk:Casti connubii

from vfd:

 * Casti Connubii - wikisource? Secretlondon 14:10, Dec 10, 2003 (UTC)
 * Not an article. Delete. Bmills 14:18, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Replace with an article about the encyclical. --MIRV 15:12, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Keep. BL 15:52, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Agree, not an article. Delete - Marshman 05:39, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Delete, move to wikisource is optional. Daniel Quinlan 07:32, Dec 11, 2003 (UTC)
 * Keep. The content isn't too good yet, but there's nothing wrong with having an article about it. It should be improved, not deleted. Tualha 06:08, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Delete, not an article -- wikisource sounds good. -- BCorr ¤ Брайен 18:07, 17 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Keep. In its current state, it's a reasonable stub. I hope the text is at Wikisource. -Anthropos 18:49, 18 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Changes on 1 December, and some suggestions
I stumbled across this article, and made various changes. I don't think anything was massive, but there were too many to put into the edit summary, so I'm making a few notes here:

 * There was funny coding for the quotations. It made them appear in different font from the rest of the text, but the font wasn't sufficiently different to stand out as a quotation – just enough to look irritating (in my view). I changed it to indented quotes with italics. If anyone has a better idea, please go ahead.

 * The article stated: "Prior to this encyclical, it was commonly believed among Catholic laypeople and clergy that the only licit reason for sexual intercourse was an attempt to create children." I don't think that's true. Some may have had that idea, but it certainly wasn't the teaching of the Church. Otherwise, it would have been forbidden to have intercourse after menopause, or after a hysterectomy, or during pregnancy. The article gave the impression that Casti Connubii changed a basic teaching in this regard. I've changed it to "Prior to this encyclical, it was believed by some Catholics that the only licit reason for sexual intercourse was an attempt to create children", in order to soften what I considered to be a sweeping statement, but even still, I put the template there. The article needs more work.
 * Many couples did not have intercourse during pregnancy or while breastfeeding, believing it immoral. I agree with your change, though - the documentation of sexual activity and beliefs for the time period in question is too sparse to draw any sweeping conclusions.

 * The article also stated: "However, for the first time in Catholic doctrine, Casti Connubii also acknowledges the unitive aspect of intercourse as licit." I took out "for the first time in Catholic doctrine". I don't think there's any indication that the unitive meaning of sex was not considered licit before that, although there was certainly less emphasis placed on it in Catholic teaching before the twentieth century. It's still objectively wrong, according to Catholic teaching, to try to separate the procreative meaning from the unitive meaning, just as it was wrong a hundred years ago and five hundred years ago and three thousand years ago. But when they're not separated, the unitive meaning is licit, and did not suddenly become licit when that encyclical was written.
 * I've tried to change the wording to say more what I meant. I'm under the impression there was no official teaching other than procreation being the primary purpose of intercourse; some people took this to mean it was the only purpose. That interpretation was definitively declared erroneous in this encyclical; the topic simply hadn't (to my knowledge) been addressed earlier.

 * I made slight changes to the wording of the bit about natural family planning. I think I made the wording flow a little better, but I do realize that I've (simultaneously, and not intentionally) removed the hint that NFP can also be used to achieve pregnancy. I'll have another look at the article in the next few days, when I'm less busy.

 * I think it ends very abruptly, with a quotation from the encyclical about the connection between contraception and abortion. It needs to be rounded off a bit better.
 * I added a section to try to tie the article together; it's rather short right now, though. Hopefully someone with more knowledge than I have will be able to improve on it.Lyrl 16:05, 1 January 2006 (UTC)

Suggestions are welcome.

AnnH (talk) 21:00, 1 December 2005 (UTC)

Early church teachings on sex
This article sheds some light on where the "intercourse only for procreation" idea became associated with Catholicism - many early Church theologens supported it, though it appears this view never completely predominated. I'm linking it here in case future editors want to expand that section of the article (pre-Casti Connubii Catholic view of sex). Lyrl Talk Contribs 20:32, 12 August 2006 (UTC)

Very biased and doesn't tells nothing, about eugenics' opppostion in this enciclic
The article is biased.The main subject of this papal enciclic was eugenics.In this enciclic, the pope Pius XI told us, about his complete opposition to eugenics.Eugenic sterilization is described as against Roman Catholic Church teachings. Agre22 (talk) 18:49, 4 July 2008 (UTC)agre22

No colaboration with governs
The article lies, when this enciclic tells about the colaboration between Roman Catholic Church and political leaders.In fact, the opposite is true.Clearly, this enciclic tells that Public magistrates aren't the owners of their subjects.Public magistrates for eugenical or any other razon couldn't sterilize anyone, for any razon.They couldn't also sent to prision anyone, except in grave crimes.Agre22 (talk) 18:55, 4 July 2008 (UTC)agre22

title: Talk:Casti connubii


text:
Notothenia microlepidota

Notothenia microlepidota, the black cod or small-scaled cod, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, belonging to the family Nototheniidae, the notothens or cod icefishes. It is native to the Pacific waters around New Zealand and Macquarie Island. This species can reach a total length of 70 cm. It is a commercially important species.

Taxonomy
Notothenia microlepidota was first formally described in 1875 by the English-born New Zealand scientist Frederick Wollaston Hutton with the type locality given as Dunedin and Dunedin and Moeraki in New Zealand. The specific name microlepidota means "small scaled" which is thought to be a reference to its small, numerous scales when compared to N. angustata which Wollaston described in the same paper.

Description
Notothenia microlepidota juveniles have a silvery appearance and their caudal fin is clearly forked. The adults have a less obviously forked caudal fin. The colour of the body is silver, yellow and reddish-brown. The body is covered in very small scales and there are two lateral lines which have a considerable overlap. The shortbased first dorsal fin has 6-7 spines, the second dorsal fin has 27-28 soft rays while the anal fin has 23-24 soft rays. This species attains a maximum total length of 70 cm.

Distribution and habitat
Notothenia microlepidota is restricted to New Zealand and Macquarie Island in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. They have been found in depths of a few metres off Campbell Island and have been trawled at 1000 m offshore.

Biology
In the Campbell Plateau, salps are the most important prey, followed by amphipods(particularly Parathemisto gaudichaudii) and percophidids. Crabs such as the portunid crab Nectocarcinus bennetti are also important prey. These prey items imply benthic feeding habits, typical for notothenids.

Being a subantarctic species, the black cod has special adaptations such as antifreeze proteins in its blood, as well as adipose tissues to offset its lack of a swim bladder, giving it neutral buoyancy. The sablefish, Anoplopoma fimbria, is occasionally called black cod, as well, but it is not a true cod. In New Zealand, the Maori cod is also known as "black cod". They are a common prey item of seals.

title: Notothenia microlepidota


text:
Theodor Stolojan

Theodor Dumitru Stolojan (born 24 October 1943) is a Romanian politician who was Prime Minister of Romania from September 1991 to November 1992. An economist by training, he was also one of the presidents of the National Liberal Party (PNL) before being the founding leader of the Liberal Democratic Party (PLD) and then the Democratic Liberal Party (PDL). He was a Member of the European Parliament for Romania, representing the Democratic Liberal Party (PDL) and then the National Liberal Party (PNL; both EPP-ED-affiliated). He was also professor at the Transilvania University of Brașov between 2002 and 2012.

Career
Before the Romanian Revolution, Stolojan worked at the Committee for State Planning, together with Nicolae Văcăroiu, who subsequently became President of the Senate between 20 December 2000 and 14 October 2008.

During the rule of Nicolae Ceaușescu, he worked at the Ministry of Finances between 1972 and 1977 as an economist in the State Budget Department, then between 1978 and 1982 as Chief of Accountancy of State Budget and then as deputy director of the Department for Foreign Exchange and International Financial Relations until the Romanian Revolution.

He was the Prime minister of Romania from September 1991 to November 1992, then worked for the World Bank and for a Romanian private company. In 1992, the Stolojan government began an austerity plan, limiting wages and further liberalising prices. The economic situation deteriorated and inflation as well as unemployment increased substantially. After his term ended, he worked at the World Bank.

In 2000, he re-entered politics as a member of the National Liberal Party (PNL); he ran for the presidency of Romania in the November 2000 elections, but came in third, behind Ion Iliescu and Corneliu Vadim Tudor. He was named president of the PNL in August 2002.

In 2003, his party approached the Democratic Party leader Traian Băsescu, at that time the mayor of Bucharest, and initiated an alliance named "D.A. - Dreptate şi Adevăr" (Justice and Truth Alliance). In February 2004, he was chosen as the alliance's candidate in the Romanian presidential election of November 2004.

On 2 October 2004, Stolojan surprisingly stepped down from the leadership of the PNL and also withdrew from the presidential race. He cited serious health problems as a reason for his decision. Stolojan became a senior advisor to Băsescu after the latter was inaugurated as president on 20 December 2004.

On 10 October 2006, Stolojan was expelled from the PNL, and in December he formed a new party, the Liberal Democrats (PLD), whose president he was elected at the first PLD congress on 31 March 2007. In January 2008, the PLD merged with the Democratic Party to form the Democratic Liberal Party (PDL), of which Stolojan was then a member.

The PDL won the most seats in the 2008 election, and on 10 December 2008, Stolojan was designated prime minister of Romania by President Traian Băsescu. Five days later, he withdrew his acceptance, saying he was stepping down in favour of a younger candidate; Emil Boc was then selected.

Personal life
He and his wife Elena have a son, Vlad Stolojan, and a daughter, Ada Palea.

title: Theodor Stolojan


text:
Innisfil

Innisfil is a town in Ontario, Canada, located on the western shore of Lake Simcoe in Simcoe County, immediately south of Barrie and 80 km north of Toronto. It has historically been a rural area, but since it is geographically sandwiched between the high-growth areas of Barrie and the York Region, there has been growing residential development in Innisfil.

Etymology
The name Innisfil comes from the Irish Inis Fáil, an ancient mythological name for Ireland.

History
The history of Innisfil spans a period in excess of 170 years. The Town was hewn from almost unbroken virgin forests which had been home to the Huron Indians, and was first surveyed in 1820. The area encompassed 68,653 acres (278 km2), including the villages of Allandale, Tollendal, Painswick, Minets Point, and Holly at the time.

The first settlers were the Hewson and Soules families who came by way of the East Holland River and Lake Simcoe to settle at Point Endeavour; they renamed the area Hewson's Point (later named Big Bay Point). The Hewsons settled on March 30, 1820, and the Soules in 1822. The Warnica family settled the following year, in 1823, in the area now known as Painswick. The first sawmill in the Township was built at Tollendal by George McMullen in 1829. At this time James Soules owned a sawmill on the south half of lot 26 concession fourteen (Big Bay Point), Innisfil where he made the lumber for the construction of the first frame house in Innisfil for Lewis J. Clement.

John and George Warnica completed the clearing of the bush between Barrie and Churchill. John Cayton had won the contract to open the road between Churchill and the 11th line of West Gwillimbury but only made it one mile north to the 12th, known as Cayton's Corners. Owing to his slight acquaintance with the forest, he sub-let the work to John and George Warnica who completed Cayton's contract between the 4th line of Innisfil (Churchill) and the 12th line of West Gwillimbury, north of Bradford. This opened the land route, known as Penetanguishene Road, which later became part of Yonge Street. It was later designated as a portion of Highway 11 and is now Simcoe County Road 4. This route between York (now Toronto) and Barrie was completed in the fall of 1825.

Along this road the settlers came, and spread out along the concession lines to clear the lands and develop their farms. There had been those who came ahead by way of the river and the lake; many settled near the shores of Lake Simcoe and Kempenfelt Bay. The only channels of communication were the public roads, and these were scant and poor.

The pioneer farms cut from the forest were mostly self-sustaining. What few products there were for sale found a market in nearby Barrie, which was then little more than a village. Distant York was reached in the winter when the ice and snow made for better roads.

During this period, post offices, churches, and stores were established, also a form of local government performed by commissioners was appointed under a provincial act. The first post office, then called Innisfil, was located at what is now called Barclay's Corners. The first school was built in 1838 and located at Myers Corners, later called Victoria (now the community of Stroud). The first church was also at Victoria, and was of Methodist denomination.

Milling in Innisfil was first done at Tollendal in 1835. The need for a grist mill to grind wheat is an indication of the progress toward an agricultural community.

The earliest official record of a census shows that by 1842 the population of Innisfil was 762.

Establishment
The year 1850 marked the end of the old commissioners' rule. The population had increased to 1,807, nearly tripling in under a decade. The first municipal council was established, replacing the government of appointed commissioners. The Corporation of the Township of Innisfil was born.

The settlement of Allandale became more prominent with the construction of the Ontario, Simcoe and Huron Railway (later the Northern Railway) from Toronto to Collingwood. The first train from Toronto arrived in Allandale on October 11, 1853.

The continued building of public roads, together with the railway and the lake navigation, resulted in the establishment of more flourishing hamlet settlements.

Belle Ewart was formed in 1854. Henry's Corners, now Thornton, was formed in 1833. Perry's Corners, now Cookstown, was formed around 1859. Hamlet settlement also resulted in a burgeoning resort development along the entire shoreline.

In 1891, 500 acres (2 km2) of Innisfil became incorporated as the Village of Allandale, now part of the City of Barrie. Barrie annexed a further 500 acres (2 km2) in 1897.

Innisfil flourished over the years and by 1950, had a population of 3,500. However, paved roads, the automobile (the first recorded in the town was 1912), the price of fuel, and the cost of housing outside Toronto, encouraged commuter residents. This, in turn, gradually changed the nature of Innisfil's shoreline development. Seasonal housing evolved to permanent residential. Now, about 90% of the shoreline is permanent residences.

Modern development
Cookstown, at the southwest extremity of the town, became an incorporated village in 1962, with 100 acres (400,000 m2) of Innisfil becoming part of Cookstown.

In 1967, 597 acres (2.4 km2) were annexed from Innisfil by the City of Barrie to accommodate the establishment of the Formosa Spring Brewery. The modern brewery was located on the northwest corner of the land, beside Ontario Highway 400, a notable landmark due to its three large and brightly coloured tanks. In 1974, the facility was purchased by Molson's and the empty land was developed into a park and concert venue known as Molson Park. Molson closed the brewery after purchasing Carling O'Keefe in 1989, moving operations to Carling's recently renovated brewery near Pearson International Airport in Toronto. Molson then sub-let the brewery buildings to other businesses while selling off the land, before the it closed entirely and forms today's Park Place.

On January 1, 1982, 8,623 acres (35 km2) were annexed to the City of Barrie, with a further 737 acres (3 km2) to be annexed January 1, 1987. As a result of the annexations, Innisfil's population was reduced by approximately 26.7% to 12,153 permanent residents, and its total assessment was reduced by 20.4%.

On January 1, 1991, by virtue of the South Simcoe Act, the Township of Innisfil, a northern section of the Township of West Gwillimbury, and the Village of Cookstown, were amalgamated and incorporated as the Town of Innisfil.

In 1993, the Ontario Stockyards livestock facility, located for a long time in The Junction / West Toronto area in Toronto, relocated to just east of the Cookstown town site, on Highway 89.

The County of Simcoe Act provided for further restructuring of Simcoe County on January 1, 1994, when the Village of Thornton was amalgamated with the Township of Essa and a small section of the Township of Essa, adjacent to Cookstown, was amalgamated with Innisfil.

As of 2006, Innisfil had a total permanent population of 31,175 and an estimated seasonal population of 4,000 people. Having begun as a community of seasonal homes for people living in Toronto, it is now a popular place for permanent residents, mostly families and empty-nesters and, indeed, most of the "cottages" along the lake shore have since been converted into year-round homes.

The province of Ontario enacted legislation that enabled the City of Barrie to annex 2293 acre from the Town of Innisfil on January 1, 2010. The land in question extended south beyond 10th line west of the 10th Sideroad, and as far south as Lockhart Road on the east side of the 10th Sideroad. Innisfil retained the community of Stroud, but the community of St. Pauls was shifted to Barrie.

In 2017, the mixed-use development Friday Harbour opened on Big Bay Point.

In 2019, Cortel Group proposed a long-term transit-oriented development, dubbed The Orbit, around the station with the goal of 30,000 people living in the area in the near future. Initially, the long-term goal after the development's completion was for 150,000 residents, though this has since been reduced to 90,000 residents and 20,000 jobs. That November, Innisfil Town Council approved The Orbit as Cortel committed to funding the station. In 2020, the provincial government issued a minister's zoning order (MZO) to expedite The Orbit.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Innisfil had a population of $43,326$ living in $15,708$ of its $17,528$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $36,566$. With a land area of 262.39 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Communities
The town consists of the communities of Alcona, Simcoe Beach, Alderslea, Barclay, Bear Point, Belle Ewart, Belle Air Beach, Bethesda, Big Bay Point, Big Cedar Point, Cedar Mount, Churchill, Cookstown, De Grassi Point, Fennell, Gilford, Glenhaven Beach, Glenwood Beach, Innisfil Heights, Killarney Beach, Lefroy, Maple Grove, Mooselanka Beach, Nantyr, Nantyr Park, Sandy Cove, Sandycove Acres and Stroud.

Government
The town council is composed of the mayor, deputy mayor, and seven councillors who are elected on a ward basis. The council members are as follows, elected in the 2022 municipal election:
 * Mayor: Lynn Dollin
 * Deputy Mayor: Kenneth Fowler
 * Councillor, Ward 1: Kevin Eisses
 * Councillor, Ward 2: Grace Constantine
 * Councillor, Ward 3: Jennifer Richardson
 * Councillor, Ward 4: Alex Waters
 * Councillor, Ward 5: Linda Zanella
 * Councillor, Ward 6: Robert Saunders
 * Councillor, Ward 7: Fred Drodge

The mayor and deputy mayor represent Innisfil at Council meetings of Simcoe County.

The town is part of the provincial riding of Barrie—Innisfil, represented by Andrea Khanjin of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario, and part of the federal riding of Barrie—Innisfil, which was introduced for the 2015 federal election, and represented by John Brassard of the Conservative Party of Canada.

Policing, EMS and Fire Services
Policing in Innisfil is provided by the South Simcoe Police Service. Innisfil Fire and Rescue Service provides fire services in the town from 4 stations (Lefroy, Stroud, Cookstown and Innisfil) and EMS by the County of Simcoe Paramedic Services Stroud Paramedic station.

Transportation
The Barrie line of the GO Transit commuter rail system passes through Innisfil, but does not stop in the town, although a planned future station is awaiting construction. Highway 400 runs through the west side of the town and connects it to Toronto.

Innisfil signed a contract with Uber to provide subsidized microtransit service to residents in the community, in lieu of a traditional fixed-route bus service. The service began in 2017 and attracted 8,000 monthly trips in its first year, but fares were increased in 2019 due to the rising cost of the subsidy. There are flat fares of either $4 or $6 to or from certain designated community hubs, or a $4 discount off regular Uber fares for other destinations. To control costs, there is a 30-ride cap per month on flat and discounted fares, after which riders must pay regular Uber fares. However, riders dependant on the service can apply for an additional 20 subsidized trips per month.

Culture
Cookstown is a hub of antique specialty stores and outlet shopping, and is known as the antique capital of southern Ontario. Tanger Outlets Cookstown, originally the Cookstown Manufacturers' Outlet Mall, opened in 1995. Cookstown is also known for its annual garage sale called "Wing-Ding" which occurs the first weekend of June every year. The Cookstown Fair is held annually, usually in September.

Cookstown is the birthplace of Emily Murphy, a noted Canadian women's rights activist. In 1916, she became the first woman police magistrate in Alberta, and in the British Empire. She is best known for her contributions to Canadian feminism, specifically to the question of whether women were "persons" under Canadian law.

A TV movie, Murder She Purred: A Mrs. Murphy Mystery, was filmed in Cookstown in 1998.

Alcona hosts Summerfest and Winterfest at Innisfil Beach road in the early summer and mid winter, each year at Innisfil Beach located at the end of Innisfil Beach Rd (8th Line).

Georgian Downs Harness racetrack and casino is located on the 5th Sideroad near the Highway 400 interchange at Innisfil Beach Road.

The Sunset Speedway, located on Yonge St. south of Innisfil Beach Road, has been a local landmark for over 50 years.

Notable people

 * Stephen Emmett Clement, member of Legislative Assembly of Manitoba
 * James Stoddart Duff, member of Legislative Assembly of Ontario
 * Henry Albert Harper, journalist and civil servant; friend of William Lyon Mackenzie King
 * Abel James Hindle, member of Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan
 * Edwin Holgate, artist, painter and engraver; "eighth" member of the Group of Seven
 * Josh Leivo, NHL hockey player for the Carolina Hurricanes.
 * Haughton Lennox, member of Canadian House of Commons
 * Thomas Herbert Lennox, member of Legislative Assembly of Ontario and Canadian House of Commons
 * William Leushner, Olympian; winner of 1 gold, 1 silver and 2 bronze medals
 * Emily Murphy, women's rights activist, jurist, and author; first female magistrate in Canada, and in the British Empire
 * Kate Todd, actress, singer and songwriter
 * Charles Willoughby, member of Canadian House of Commons

title: Innisfil