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Winemaking

Winemaking, wine-making, or vinification is the production of wine, starting with the selection of the fruit, its fermentation into alcohol, and the bottling of the finished liquid. The history of wine-making stretches over millennia. There is evidence that suggests that the earliest wine production took place in Georgia and Iran around 6000 to 5000 B.C. The science of wine and winemaking is known as oenology. A winemaker may also be called a vintner. The growing of grapes is viticulture and there are many varieties of grapes.

Winemaking can be divided into two general categories: still wine production (without carbonation) and sparkling wine production (with carbonation – natural or injected). Red wine, white wine, and rosé are the other main categories. Although most wine is made from grapes, it may also be made from other plants. (See fruit wine.) Other similar light alcoholic drinks (as opposed to beer or spirits) include mead, made by fermenting honey and water, cider ("apple cider"), made by fermenting the juice of apples, and perry ("pear cider"), made by fermenting the juice of pears, and kumis, made of fermented mare's milk.

Process

There are five basic stages to the wine making process which begins with harvesting or picking. After the harvest, the grapes are taken into a winery and prepared for primary ferment; at this stage red wine making diverges from white wine making. Red wine is made from the must (pulp, including the juice) of red or black grapes and fermentation occurs together with the grape skins, which give the wine its color. White wine is made by fermenting juice which is made by pressing crushed grapes to extract a juice; the skins are removed and play no further role. Occasionally, white wine is made from red grapes. This is done by extracting their juice with minimal contact with the grapes' skins. Rosé wines are either made from red grapes where the juice is allowed to stay in contact with the dark skins long enough to pick up a pinkish color (maceration or saignée), or (less commonly) by blending red wine with white wine. White and rosé wines extract little of the grape tannins contained in the skins.

To start primary fermentation, yeast may be added to the must for red wine, or may occur naturally as ambient yeast on the grapes (or in the air). For white wine, yeast may be added to the juice. During this fermentation, which often takes between one and two weeks, the yeast converts most of the sugars in the grape juice into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide (which is lost to the atmosphere).

After the primary fermentation of red grapes, the free run wine is pumped off into tanks and the skins are pressed to extract the remaining juice and wine. The press wine is blended with the free run wine at the winemaker's discretion. The wine is then kept warm and the remaining sugars are converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide.

The next process in the making of red wine is malolactic conversion, a bacterial process which converts "crisp, green apple" malic acid to "soft, creamy" lactic acid, softening the taste of the wine. Red wine is characteristically transferred to white oak barrels to mature for a period of weeks or months; this practice imparts oak aromas and some oak tannins to the wine. The wine must be settled or clarified and adjustments made prior to bottling.

The time from harvest to drinking can vary from a few months for Beaujolais nouveau wines (made by carbonic maceration) to over twenty years for wine of good structure with high levels of acid, tannin or sugar. However, only about 10% of all red and 5% of white wine will taste better after five years than it will after just one year. Depending on the quality of grape and the target wine style, some of these steps may be combined or omitted to achieve the particular goals of the winemaker. Many wines of comparable quality are produced using similar but distinctly different approaches to their production.

Variations on the above procedure exist. With sparkling wines such as Champagne and Methodé Champenoise (sparkling wine that is fermented in the style of champagne but is not from the Champagne region of France), an additional, "secondary" fermentation takes place inside the bottle, dissolving trapped carbon dioxide in the wine and creating the characteristic bubbles. Bottles then spend 6 months on a riddling rack before being disgorged to remove any sediment that has accrued. An expedited technique using sealed tanks to contain carbon dioxide is known as the bulk Charmat method. Other sparkling wines, such as prosecco, are fermented using force-carbonation — a faster process that involves using machinery to manually add CO2 and create bubbles. Sweet wines or off-dry wines are made by arresting fermentation before all sugar has been converted into ethanol and allowing some residual sugar to remain. This can be done by chilling the wine and adding sulphur and other allowable additives to inhibit yeast activity, or sterile filtering the wine to remove all yeast and bacteria. In the case of sweet wines, initial sugar concentrations are increased by harvesting late (late harvest wine), freezing the grapes to concentrate the sugar (ice wine), allowing or encouraging Botrytis cinerea fungus to dehydrate the grapes or allowing the grapes to raisin either on the vine or on racks or straw mats. Often in these high sugar wines, the fermentation stops naturally as the high concentration of sugar and rising concentration of ethanol retard the yeast activity. Similarly in fortified wines, such as port wine, high proof neutral grape spirit (brandy) is added to arrest the ferment and adjust the alcohol content when the desired sugar level has been reached. In other cases, the winemaker may choose to hold back some of the sweet grape juice and add it to the wine after the fermentation is done, a technique known in Germany as süssreserve.

The process produces wastewater, pomace, and lees that require collection, treatment, and disposal or beneficial use.

Synthetic wines (also known as engineered wines or fake wines) are a product that do not use grapes at all. Starting with water and ethanol, a number of additives are included, such as acids, amino acids, sugars, and organic compounds.

The grapes
The quality of the grapes determines the quality of the wine more than any other factor. Grape quality is affected by variety as well as weather during the growing season, soil minerals and acidity, time of harvest, and pruning method. The combination of these effects is often referred to as the grape's terroir. Given the sensitivity of grapes to weather patterns, winemaking is affected by climate change.

Grapes are usually harvested from the vineyard from early September until early November in the northern hemisphere, and mid February until early March in the southern hemisphere. In some cool areas in the southern hemisphere (such as in Tasmania), harvesting extends into May.

The most common species of wine grape is Vitis vinifera, which includes nearly all varieties of European origin.

Harvesting and destemming
Harvest is the picking of the grapes and in many ways the first step in wine production. Grapes are either harvested mechanically or by hand. The decision to harvest grapes is typically made by the winemaker and informed by the level of sugar (called °Brix), acid (TA or Titratable Acidity as expressed by tartaric acid equivalents) and pH of the grapes. Other considerations include phenological ripeness, berry flavor, tannin development (seed color and taste). Overall disposition of the grapevine and weather forecasts are taken into account.

Mechanical harvesters are large tractors that straddle grapevine trellises and, using firm plastic or rubber rods, strike the fruiting zone of the grapevine to dislodge the grapes from the rachis. Mechanical harvesters have the advantage of being able to cover a large area of vineyard land in a relatively short period of time, and with a minimum investment of manpower per harvested ton. A disadvantage of mechanical harvesting is the indiscriminate inclusion of foreign non-grape material in the product, especially leaf stems and leaves, but also, depending on the trellis system and grapevine canopy management, may include moldy grapes, canes, metal debris, rocks and even small animals and bird nests. Some winemakers remove leaves and loose debris from the grapevine before mechanical harvesting to avoid such material being included in the harvested fruit. In the United States mechanical harvesting is seldom used for premium winemaking because of the indiscriminate picking and increased oxidation of the grape juice. In other countries (such as Australia and New Zealand), mechanical harvesting of premium winegrapes is more common because of general labor shortages.

Manual harvesting is the hand-picking of grape clusters from the grapevines. In the United States, some grapes are picked into one- or two-ton bins for transport back to the winery. Manual harvesting has the advantage of using knowledgeable labor to not only pick the ripe clusters but also to leave behind the clusters that are not ripe or contain bunch rot or other defects. This can be an effective first line of defense to prevent inferior quality fruit from contaminating a lot or tank of wine.

Destemming is the process of separating stems from the grapes. Depending on the winemaking procedure, this process may be undertaken before crushing with the purpose of lowering the development of tannins and vegetal flavors in the resulting wine. Single berry harvesting, as is done with some German Trockenbeerenauslese, avoids this step altogether with the grapes being individually selected.

Crushing and primary (alcoholic) fermentation

Crushing is the process when gently squeezing the berries and breaking the skins to start to liberate the contents of the berries. Destemming is the process of removing the grapes from the rachis (the stem which holds the grapes). In traditional and smaller-scale wine making, the harvested grapes are sometimes crushed by trampling them barefoot or by the use of inexpensive small scale crushers. These can also destem at the same time. However, in larger wineries, a mechanical crusher/destemmer is used. The decision about destemming is different for red and white wine making. Generally when making white wine the fruit is only crushed, the stems are then placed in the press with the berries. The presence of stems in the mix facilitates pressing by allowing juice to flow past flattened skins. These accumulate at the edge of the press. For red winemaking, stems of the grapes are usually removed before fermentation since the stems have a relatively high tannin content; in addition to tannin they can also give the wine a vegetal aroma (due to extraction of 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine which has an aroma reminiscent of green bell peppers). On occasion, the winemaker may decide to leave them in if the grapes themselves contain less tannin than desired. This is more acceptable if the stems have 'ripened' and started to turn brown. If increased skin extraction is desired, a winemaker might choose to crush the grapes after destemming. Removal of stems first means no stem tannin can be extracted. In these cases the grapes pass between two rollers which squeeze the grapes enough to separate the skin and pulp, but not so much as to cause excessive shearing or tearing of the skin tissues. In some cases, notably with "delicate" red varietals such as Pinot noir or Syrah, all or part of the grapes might be left uncrushed (called "whole berry") to encourage the retention of fruity aromas through partial carbonic maceration.

Most red wines derive their color from grape skins (the exception being varieties or hybrids of non-vinifera vines which contain juice pigmented with the dark Malvidin 3,5-diglucoside anthocyanin) and therefore contact between the juice and skins is essential for color extraction. Red wines are produced by destemming and crushing the grapes into a tank and leaving the skins in contact with the juice throughout the fermentation (maceration). It is possible to produce white (colorless) wines from red grapes by the fastidious pressing of uncrushed fruit. This minimizes contact between grape juice and skins (as in the making of Blanc de noirs sparkling wine, which is derived from Pinot noir, a red vinifera grape).

An alternative method to maceration is hot press or thermovinification. In this practice, winemakers heat up the grapes to extract the juice rather than pressing using a pressure method. The temperature and time ranges depending on the grape variety and preferences of the winemaker. In addition to extracting the juice, this method is sometimes referred to as pre-fermentation maceration as it extracts tannins and pigment from the skins. As a result this is applicable to red grape varieties that would otherwise undergo traditional maceration.

Most white wines are processed without destemming or crushing and are transferred from picking bins directly to the press. This is to avoid any extraction of tannin from either the skins or grapeseeds, as well as maintaining proper juice flow through a matrix of grape clusters rather than loose berries. In some circumstances winemakers choose to crush white grapes for a short period of skin contact, usually for three to 24 hours. This serves to extract flavor and tannin from the skins (the tannin being extracted to encourage protein precipitation without excessive Bentonite addition) as well as potassium ions, which participate in bitartrate precipitation (cream of tartar). It also results in an increase in the pH of the juice which may be desirable for overly acidic grapes. This was a practice more common in the 1970s than today, though still practiced by some Sauvignon blanc and Chardonnay producers in California.

In the case of rosé wines, the fruit is crushed and the dark skins are left in contact with the juice just long enough to extract the color that the winemaker desires. The must is then pressed, and fermentation continues as if the winemaker was making a white wine.

Yeast is normally already present on the grapes, often visible as a powdery appearance of the grapes. The primary, or alcoholic fermentation can be done with this natural yeast, but since this can give unpredictable results depending on the exact types of yeast that are present, cultured yeast is often added to the must. One of the main problems with the use of wild ferments is the failure for the fermentation to go to completion, that is some sugar remains unfermented. This can make the wine sweet when a dry wine is desired. Frequently wild ferments lead to the production of unpleasant acetic acid (vinegar) production as a by product.

During the primary fermentation, the yeast cells feed on the sugars in the must and multiply, producing carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. The temperature during the fermentation affects both the taste of the end product, as well as the speed of the fermentation. For red wines, the temperature is typically 22 to 25 °C, and for white wines 15 to 18 °C. For every gram of sugar that is converted, about half a gram of alcohol is produced, so to achieve a 12% alcohol concentration, the must should contain about 24% sugars. The sugar percentage of the must is calculated from the measured density, the must weight, with the help of a specialized type of hydrometer called a saccharometer. If the sugar content of the grapes is too low to obtain the desired alcohol percentage, sugar can be added (chaptalization). In commercial winemaking, chaptalization is subject to local regulations.

Similar to chaptalization is amelioration. While chaptalization aims to raise final alcohol percentage through the addition of sugar, amelioration aims to raise the alcohol percentage and dilute the acidity levels through the addition of water and sugar into the grape must. This wine adjustment was commonly used in New York State's cooler wine regions, such as the Finger Lakes AVA. Amelioration is also subject to federal regulations.

Alcohol of more than 12% can be achieved by using yeast that can withstand high alcohol. Some yeasts can produce 18% alcohol in the wine however extra sugar is added to produce a high alcohol content.

During or after the alcoholic fermentation, a secondary, or malolactic fermentation can also take place, during which specific strains of bacteria (lactobacter) convert malic acid into the milder lactic acid. This fermentation is often initiated by inoculation with desired bacteria.

Pressing
Pressing is the act of applying pressure to grapes or pomace in order to separate juice or wine from grapes and grape skins. Pressing is not always a necessary act in winemaking; if grapes are crushed there is a considerable amount of juice immediately liberated (called free-run juice) that can be used for vinification. Typically this free-run juice is of a higher quality than the press juice. Pressed juice is typically lesser in quality due to the release and increase of total phenolic compounds, as well as browning index and the C6-alcohol levels. These compounds are responsible for the herb-like taste perceived in wine with pressed grapes. However, most wineries do use presses in order to increase their production (gallons) per ton, as pressed juice can represent between 15%-30% of the total juice volume from the grape.

Presses act by positioning the grape skins or whole grape clusters between a rigid surface and a movable surface and slowly decrease the volume between the two surfaces. Modern presses dictate the duration and pressure at each press cycle, usually ramping from 0 Bar to 2.0 Bar. Sometimes winemakers choose pressures which separate the streams of pressed juice, called making "press cuts." As the pressure increases the amount of tannin extracted from the skins into the juice increases, often rendering the pressed juice excessively tannic or harsh. Because of the location of grape juice constituents in the berry (water and acid are found primarily in the mesocarp or pulp, whereas tannins are found primarily in the exocarp, or skin, and seeds), pressed juice or wine tends to be lower in acidity with a higher pH than the free-run juice.

Before the advent of modern winemaking, most presses were basket presses made of wood and operated manually. Basket presses are composed of a cylinder of wooden slats on top of a fixed plate, with a moveable plate that can be forced downward (usually by a central ratcheting threaded screw). The press operator would load the grapes or pomace into the wooden cylinder, put the top plate in place and lower it until juice flowed from the wooden slats. As the juice flow decreased, the plate was ratcheted down again. This process continued until the press operator determined that the quality of the pressed juice or wine was below standard, or all liquids had been pressed. Since the early 1990s, modern mechanical basket presses have been revived through higher-end producers seeking to replicate the gentle pressing of the historical basket presses. Because basket presses have a relatively compact design, the press cake offers a relatively longer pathway for the juice to travel before leaving the press. It is believed by advocates of basket presses that this relatively long pathway through the grape or pomace cake serves as a filter to solids that would otherwise affect the quality of the press juice.

With red wines, the must is pressed after primary fermentation, which separates the skins and other solid matter from the liquid. With white wine, the liquid is separated from the must before fermentation. With rose, the skins may be kept in contact for a shorter period to give color to the wine, in that case the must may be pressed as well. After a period in which the wine stands or ages, the wine is separated from the dead yeast and any solids that remained (called lees), and transferred to a new container where any additional fermentation may take place.

Pigeage
Pigeage is a French term for the management of acidity and secondary pressing of grapes in fermentation tanks. To make certain types of wine, grapes are put through a crusher and then poured into open fermentation tanks. Once fermentation begins, the grape skins are floated to the surface by carbon dioxide gases released in the fermentation process. This layer of skins and other solids is known as the cap. As the skins are the source of the tannins, the cap needs to be mixed through the liquid each day, or "punched", which traditionally is done by stomping through the vat.

Cold stabilization
Cold stabilization is a process used in winemaking to reduce tartrate crystals (generally potassium bitartrate) in wine. These tartrate crystals look like grains of clear sand, and are also known as "wine crystals" or "wine diamonds". They are formed by the union of tartaric acid and potassium, and may appear to be [sediment] in the wine, though they are not. During the cold stabilizing process after fermentation, the temperature of the wine is dropped to close to freezing for 1–2 weeks. This will cause the crystals to separate from the wine and stick to the sides of the holding vessel. When the wine is drained from the vessels, the tartrates are left behind. They may also form in wine bottles that have been stored under very cold conditions.

Secondary (malolactic) fermentation and bulk aging
During the secondary fermentation and aging process, which takes three to six months, the fermentation continues very slowly. The wine is kept under an airlock to protect the wine from oxidation. Proteins from the grape are broken down and the remaining yeast cells and other fine particles from the grapes are allowed to settle. Potassium bitartrate will also precipitate, a process which can be enhanced by cold stabilization to prevent the appearance of (harmless) tartrate crystals after bottling. The result of these processes is that the originally cloudy wine becomes clear. The wine can be racked during this process to remove the lees.

The secondary fermentation usually takes place in large stainless steel vessels with a volume of several cubic meters, oak barrels or glass demijohns (also referred to as carboys), depending on the goals of the winemakers. Unoaked wine is fermented in a barrel made of stainless steel or other material having no influence on the final taste of the wine. Depending on the desired taste, it could be fermented mainly in stainless steel to be briefly put in oak, or have the complete fermentation done in stainless steel. Oak could be added as chips used with a non-wooden barrel instead of a fully wooden barrel. This process is mainly used in cheaper wine.

Amateur winemakers often use glass carboys in the production of their wine; these vessels (sometimes called demijohns) have a capacity of 4.5–54 L. The kind of vessel used depends on the amount of wine that is being made, the grapes being used, and the intentions of the winemaker.

Malolactic fermentation
Malolactic fermentation occurs when lactic acid bacteria metabolize malic acid and produce lactic acid and carbon dioxide. This is carried out either as an intentional procedure in which specially cultivated strains of such bacteria are introduced into the maturing wine, or it can happen by chance if uncultivated lactic acid bacteria are present.

Malolactic fermentation can improve the taste of wine that has high levels of malic acid, because malic acid, in higher concentration, generally causes an unpleasant harsh and bitter taste sensation, whereas lactic acid is more gentle and less sour. Lactic acid is an acid found in dairy products. Malolactic fermentation usually results in a reduction in the amount of total acidity of the wine. This is because malic acid has two acid radicals (-COOH) while lactic acid has only one. However, the pH should be monitored and not allowed to rise above a pH of 3.55 for whites or a pH of 3.80 for reds. pH can be reduced roughly at a rate of 0.1 units per 1 gram/litre of tartaric acid addition.

The use of lactic acid bacteria is the reason why some chardonnays can taste "buttery" due to the production of diacetyl by the bacteria. Most red wines go through complete malolactic fermentation, both to lessen the acid of the wine and to remove the possibility that malolactic fermentation will occur in the bottle. White wines vary in the use of malolactic fermentation during their making. Lighter aromatic wines such as Riesling, generally do not go through malolactic fermentation. The fuller white wines, such as barrel-fermented chardonnay, are more commonly put through malolactic fermentation. Sometimes a partial fermentation, for example, somewhere less than 50% might be employed.

Laboratory tests
Whether the wine is aging in tanks or barrels, tests are run periodically in a laboratory to check the status of the wine. Common tests include Brix, pH, titratable acidity, residual sugar, free or available sulfur, total sulfur, volatile acidity (V.A.) and percent alcohol. Additional tests include those for the crystallization of cream of tartar (potassium hydrogen tartrate) and the precipitation of heat unstable protein; this last test is limited to white wines. These tests may be performed throughout the making of the wine as well as prior to bottling. In response to the results of these tests, a winemaker can decide on appropriate remedial action, for example the addition of more sulfur dioxide. Sensory tests will also be performed and again in response to these a winemaker may take remedial action such as the addition of a protein to soften the taste of the wine.

Brix (°Bx) is one measure of the soluble solids in the grape juice and represents not only the sugars but also includes many other soluble substances such as salts, acids and tannins, sometimes called total dissolved solids (TDS). Because sugar is the dominant compound in grape juice, these units are effectively a measure of sugar level. The level of sugar in the grapes determines the final alcohol content of the wine as well as indirect index of grape maturity. °Bx is measured in grams per hundred grams of solution, so 20 °Bx means that 100 grams of juice contains 20 g of dissolved compounds. There are other common measures of sugar content of grapes, specific gravity, Oechsle (Germany) and Baumé (France). °Bx is usually measured with a refractometer while the other methods use a hydrometer which measures specific gravity. Generally, hydrometers are a cheaper alternative. In the French Baumé (Be° or Bé° for short) one Be° corresponds approximately to one percent alcohol. One Be° is equal to 1.8 °Bx, that is 1.8 grams of sugar per one hundred grams. Therefore, to achieve one percent alcohol the winemaker adds sugar at a rate of 1.8 grams per 100 ml (18 grams per liter) – a practice known as chaptalization, which is illegal in some countries and in California.

Volatile acidity test verifies if there is any steam distillable acids in the wine. Mainly present is acetic acid (the dominant component of vinegar), but lactic, butyric, propionic, and formic acid can also be found. Usually the test checks for these acids in a cash still, but there are other methods available such as HPLC, gas chromatography and enzymatic methods. The amount of volatile acidity found in sound grapes is negligible, because it is a by-product of microbial metabolism. Because acetic acid bacteria require oxygen to grow, eliminating any air in wine containers as well as addition of sulfur dioxide (SO2) will limit their growth. Rejecting moldy grapes also prevents possible problems associated with acetic acid bacteria. Use of sulfur dioxide and inoculation with a low-V.A. producing strain of Saccharomyces may deter acetic acid producing yeast. A relatively new method for removal of volatile acidity from a wine is reverse osmosis. Blending may also help – a wine with high V.A. can be filtered (to remove the microbe responsible) and blended with a low V.A. wine, so that the acetic acid level is below the sensory threshold.

Sulphur dioxide can be readily measured with relatively simple laboratory equipment. There are several methods available; a typical test involves acidification of a sample with phosphoric acid, distillation of the liberated SO2, and capture by hydrogen peroxide solution. The SO2 and peroxide react to form sulphuric acid, which is then titrated with NaOH to an end point with an indicator, and the volume of NaOH required is used to calculate the SO2 level. This method has inaccuracies associated with red wine, inefficient condensers, and excessive aspiration rate, although the results are reproducible, having an accuracy with just a 2.5–5% error, which is sufficient to control the level of sulphur dioxide in wine.

Blending and fining
Different batches of wine can be mixed before bottling in order to achieve the desired taste. The winemaker can correct perceived inadequacies by mixing wines from different grapes and batches that were produced under different conditions. These adjustments can be as simple as adjusting acid or tannin levels, to as complex as blending different varieties or vintages to achieve a consistent taste.

Fining agents are used during winemaking to remove tannins, reduce astringency and remove microscopic particles that could cloud the wines. The winemakers decide on which fining agents are used and these may vary from product to product and even batch to batch (usually depending on the grapes of that particular year).

Gelatin [gelatine] has been used in winemaking for centuries and is recognized as a traditional method for wine fining, or clarifying. It is also the most commonly used agent to reduce the tannin content. Generally no gelatin remains in the wine because it reacts with the wine components, as it clarifies, and forms a sediment which is removed by filtration prior to bottling.

Besides gelatin, other fining agents for wine are often derived from animal products, such as micronized potassium caseinate (casein is milk protein), egg whites, egg albumin, bone char, bull's blood, isinglass (Sturgeon bladder), PVPP (a synthetic compound), lysozyme, and skim milk powder. Although not common, finely ground eggshell is also sometimes used.

Some aromatized wines contain honey or egg-yolk extract.

Non-animal-based filtering agents are also often used, such as bentonite (a volcanic clay-based filter), diatomaceous earth, cellulose pads, paper filters and membrane filters (thin films of plastic polymer material having uniformly sized holes).

Preservatives
The most common preservative used in winemaking is sulfur dioxide (SO2), normally added in one of the following forms: liquid sulfur dioxide, sodium or potassium metabisulphite. Another useful preservative is potassium sorbate.

Sulfur dioxide has two primary actions, firstly it is an anti microbial agent and secondly an anti oxidant. In the making of white wine it can be added prior to fermentation and immediately after alcoholic fermentation is complete. If added after alcoholic fermentation it will have the effect of preventing or stopping malolactic fermentation, bacterial spoilage and help protect against the damaging effects of oxygen. Additions of up to 100 mg per liter (of sulfur dioxide) can be added, but the available or free sulfur dioxide should be measured by the aspiration method and adjusted to 30 mg per liter. Available sulfur dioxide should be maintained at this level until bottling. For rose wines smaller additions should be made and the available level should be no more than 30 mg per liter.

In the making of red wine, sulfur dioxide may be used at high levels (100 mg per liter) prior to ferment to assist in color stabilization. Otherwise, it is used at the end of malolactic ferment and performs the same functions as in white wine. However, small additions (say, 20 mg/L) should be used to avoid bleaching red pigments and the maintenance level should be about 20 mg/L. Furthermore, small additions (say 20 mg per liter) may be made to red wine after alcoholic ferment and before malolactic ferment to overcome minor oxidation and prevent the growth of acetic acid bacteria.

Without the use of sulfur dioxide, wines can readily suffer bacterial spoilage no matter how hygienic the winemaking practice.

Potassium sorbate is effective for the control of fungal growth, including yeast, especially for sweet wines in bottle. However, one potential hazard is the metabolism of sorbate to geraniol which is a potent and unpleasant by-product. The production of geraniol occurs only if sorbic acid is present during malo-lactic fermentation. To avoid this, either the wine must be sterile bottled or contain enough sulfur dioxide to inhibit the growth of bacteria. Sterile bottling includes the use of filtration.

Some winemakers practice natural wine making where no preservative is added. Once the wine is bottled and corked, the bottles are put into refrigeration with temperatures near 5 °C.

Filtration
Filtration in winemaking is used to accomplish two objectives, clarification and microbial stabilization. In clarification, large particles that affect the visual appearance of the wine are removed. In microbial stabilization, organisms that affect the stability of the wine are removed therefore reducing the likelihood of re-fermentation or spoilage.

The process of clarification is concerned with the removal of particles; those larger than 5 – for coarse polishing, particles larger than 1–4 micrometers for clarifying or polishing. Microbial stabilization requires a filtration of at least 0.65 micrometers for yeast retention and 0.45 μm for bacteria retention. However, filtration at this level may lighten a wine's color and body. Microbial stabilization does not imply sterility, i.e. eliminating (removing) or killing (deactivating) of all forms of life and other biological agents. It simply means that a significant amount of yeast and bacteria has been removed to a harmless level for the wine stability.

Clarification of the wine can take place naturally by putting the wine into refrigeration at 35 °F. The wine takes about a month to settle and it is clear. No chemicals are needed.

Bottling
A final dose of sulfite is added to help preserve the wine and prevent unwanted fermentation in the bottle. The wine bottles are then traditionally sealed with a cork, although alternative wine closures such as less expensive synthetic corks and screw caps, which are less subject to cork taint, are becoming increasingly popular. The final step is adding a capsule to the top of the bottle which is then heated for a tight seal.

Wine bottle closure methods vary greatly considering taste, closure effectiveness, and aesthetic. These methods allow a minimal amount of air in the bottle while allowing the contents to age.

In some cases, wines are sold in bags and boxes instead of in bottles.

Regulation
In the European Union, each member state is required by Article 146 of Regulation 1308/2013 - Establishing a common organisation of the markets in agricultural products and repealing Council Regulations (EEC) No 922/72, (EEC) No 234/79, (EC) No 1037/2001 and (EC) No 1234/2007 - to appoint one or more "competent national authorities" responsible for ensuring compliance with EU rules in the wine sector. A list of these authorities is maintained by the EU.

Winemakers
Traditionally known as a vintner, a winemaker is a person engaged in making wine. They are generally employed by wineries or wine companies, although there are many independent winemakers who make wine at home for their own pleasure or small commercial operation. Additionally, winemaking is still carried in traditional ways by families producing wine for their own consumption.

List of top 15 wine producing countries by volume. (Volume in thousands of hectoliters)

title: Winemaking


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Avon County Council

Avon County Council was the county council of the non-metropolitan county of Avon in south west England. It came into its powers on 1 April 1974 and was abolished on 1 April 1996 at the same time as the county. The county council was based at Avon House in Bristol. It was replaced with four authorities: Bristol City Council, South Gloucestershire Council, North Somerset Council and Bath and North East Somerset Council.

Political control
From the first election to the council in 1973 political control of the council was held by the following parties:

Council elections

 * 1973 Avon County Council election
 * 1977 Avon County Council election
 * 1981 Avon County Council election (new ward boundaries)
 * 1985 Avon County Council election
 * 1989 Avon County Council election
 * 1993 Avon County Council election

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Avon County Council


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Von Neumann cardinal assignment

The von Neumann cardinal assignment is a cardinal assignment that uses ordinal numbers. For a well-orderable set U, we define its cardinal number to be the smallest ordinal number equinumerous to U, using the von Neumann definition of an ordinal number. More precisely:

 * $$|U| = \mathrm{card}(U) = \inf \{ \alpha \in \mathrm{ON} \ |\ \alpha =_c U \},$$

where ON is the class of ordinals. This ordinal is also called the initial ordinal of the cardinal.

That such an ordinal exists and is unique is guaranteed by the fact that U is well-orderable and that the class of ordinals is well-ordered, using the axiom of replacement. With the full axiom of choice, every set is well-orderable, so every set has a cardinal; we order the cardinals using the inherited ordering from the ordinal numbers. This is readily found to coincide with the ordering via ≤c. This is a well-ordering of cardinal numbers.

Initial ordinal of a cardinal
Each ordinal has an associated cardinal, its cardinality, obtained by simply forgetting the order. Any well-ordered set having that ordinal as its order type has the same cardinality. The smallest ordinal having a given cardinal as its cardinality is called the initial ordinal of that cardinal. Every finite ordinal (natural number) is initial, but most infinite ordinals are not initial. The axiom of choice is equivalent to the statement that every set can be well-ordered, i.e. that every cardinal has an initial ordinal. In this case, it is traditional to identify the cardinal number with its initial ordinal, and we say that the initial ordinal is a cardinal.

The $$\alpha$$-th infinite initial ordinal is written $$\omega_\alpha$$. Its cardinality is written $$\aleph_{\alpha}$$ (the $$\alpha$$-th aleph number). For example, the cardinality of $$\omega_{0}=\omega$$ is $$\aleph_{0}$$, which is also the cardinality of $$\omega^{2}$$, $$\omega^{\omega}$$, and $\epsilon_{0}$ (all are countable ordinals). So we identify $$\omega_{\alpha}$$ with $$\aleph_{\alpha}$$, except that the notation $$\aleph_{\alpha}$$ is used for writing cardinals, and $$\omega_{\alpha}$$ for writing ordinals. This is important because arithmetic on cardinals is different from arithmetic on ordinals, for example $$\aleph_{\alpha}^{2}$$ = $$\aleph_{\alpha}$$ whereas $$\omega_{\alpha}^{2}$$ > $$\omega_{\alpha}$$. Also, $$\omega_{1}$$ is the smallest uncountable ordinal (to see that it exists, consider the set of equivalence classes of well-orderings of the natural numbers; each such well-ordering defines a countable ordinal, and $$\omega_{1}$$ is the order type of that set), $$\omega_{2}$$ is the smallest ordinal whose cardinality is greater than $$\aleph_{1}$$, and so on, and $$\omega_{\omega}$$ is the limit of $$\omega_{n}$$ for natural numbers $$n$$ (any limit of cardinals is a cardinal, so this limit is indeed the first cardinal after all the $$\omega_{n}$$).

Infinite initial ordinals are limit ordinals. Using ordinal arithmetic, $$\alpha<\omega_{\beta}$$ implies $$\alpha+\omega_{\beta}=\omega_{\beta}$$, and 1 ≤ α < ωβ implies α · ωβ = ωβ, and 2 ≤ α < ωβ implies αωβ = ωβ. Using the Veblen hierarchy, β ≠ 0 and α < ωβ imply $$\varphi_{\alpha}(\omega_{\beta}) = \omega_{\beta} \,$$ and Γω β = ωβ. Indeed, one can go far beyond this. So as an ordinal, an infinite initial ordinal is an extremely strong kind of limit.

title: Von Neumann cardinal assignment


text:
Talk:Variometer

Is a variometer the same thing as a Vertical Speed Indiciator (VSI)? If so, this should be noted. If not, the difference should be noted.

 * Same thing. Well spotted.  Power pilots, eh?  They never use a proper English word when they can use an inpenetrable abbreviation.  It helps maintains their mystique, don't you know.  I've combined some information from the "VSI" article into this one and turned "VSI" into a re-direct.  GrahamN 10:01, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Well no actually. Varios are far more sensitive and can give air-mass rates and other variations which would be impossible with a powered aircraft instrument. I think that the merge was aRETROGRADE step and should be reverted!! Any discussion?Petebutt (talk) 04:39, 23 July 2012 (UTC)

varios in foot launched aviation
vario is a must have for any paraglider/hang glider pilot and this is the most popular utilization of varios nowadays. there should by more about this usage in the article.

 * I expect you are right. Please feel free to add to the article accordingly.  We don't stand on ceremony here. GrahamN 24 October 2004 [not logged in as have forgotten password]

Question
Just a question from a "power pilot's" viewpoint. The glider instrument is calibrated in knots? Dan D. Ric 11:38, 21 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Definitely. The conversion to feet per minute is trivial (although only really meaningful with an averager, given the variability of lift even in the same thermal!) and glide angles can be computed reasonably quickly. In most European countries, the values are given in metres per second. This is perhaps because altimeters are similarly metric and measure metres (or kilometres); One could draw more parallel to the power world there. --BWDuncan 17:11, 21 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Do European gliders measure altitude in metres, unlike powered aircraft? In powered aviation almost all Free World aircraft use feet... --GCarty 19:55, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes, except in the UK. There may be other European countries using feet and knots, but I've only flown in Norway, France and Spain, all of which used metres and metres per second. I'd be interested to know why this is the case!--BWDuncan 12:29, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

 * 'Perhaps it was because gliders aren't subject to Air Traffic Control, which forced the whole of the non-communist world to standardize on a single set of units (nautical miles, knots and feet). --GCarty 08:24, 7 July 2007 (UTC)

Glider pilots are subject to Air Traffic Control when they are in "controlled airspace" as is any aircraft. However glider pilots can demand priority over powered aircraft (for example in landing procedures) but with the good performance of modern gliders they seldom need to. The considerate glider pilot will ensure that ATC knows that he is a glider and depending upon the speeds and positions of surrounding aircraft will simply slot into the landing pattern as a light aircraft after discussion with ATC so that they are aware of the rare need to change "the pattern" and can do so without calling a Pan or Mayday. Because large aircraft flying costs (even per minute) are so high, this courtesy is appreciated by "heavy" operators (and ATC when things are busy.) Gliders can have very high rates of descent when required (by using spoilers, brakes and undercarriage position and also crabbing) and are well suited for landing behind "heavy and slow" aircraft and avoiding their turbulence with an approach that keeps the glider's path above the preceding aircraft's. Also most glider pilots will end their landing in the grass next to the runway so that the runway is clear. With permission from ATC, gliders will land on taxi-ways or the grass so that the tow to stowage is shorter and following aircraft are not delayed unnecessarily. Balloon pilots have priority over all other aircraft except perhaps parachutists. Glider pilots do it for fun, other pilots do it for money. You can draw parallel "moral" conclusions comparing this to other "professions." (lol)Ecstatist (talk) 13:30, 2 December 2016 (UTC)

A "nautical mile" is exactly the distance of "1/60 of the distance between adjacent "degrees of longitude" (= 1 minute of longitude) and this feature aids "mental navigation calculations." The meter was originally defined as 1/64000 (or 1/60000?) of the distance between the equator and North pole, however due to historical errors in the actual geographical measurements, the distance of that convenient fraction does not applies exactly. The modern definition of the meter (based on the wavelength emitted by an electron as it falls between defined orbits) is very useful if you are flying around and about a cesium atom. Ecstatist (talk) 13:30, 2 December 2016 (UTC)

Inertia lead?
From the article:

 * An "Inertia lead" VSI or ILVSI compensates for relative "g" forces experienced in a turn (powered aircraft) and provides appropriate mechanical compensation to remove otherwise erroneous indications of climb or descent.

I am unfamiliar with this type. This does not seem sensible to me unless the rate of turn is a factor in determining if the "g" force is from turn or a stick-induced climb or descent.

The type I am familiar with would be described in the following proposed additional text:

 * In a sailplane the rate of ascent can be modified by small elevator inputs, giving true but misleading rate of climb information, as this does not reflect accurately the contribution of the rising air mass. This indication is removed by also factoring in the rate of change of airspeed, which in older instruments was done by additional connections and air bleeds from the pitot system.

Comments please?

-Leonard G. (talk) 18:04, 12 December 2007 (UTC)

Purpose.
Purpose

Human beings, unlike birds and other flying animals, are not able directly to sense climb and sink rates. Before the invention of the variometer, sailplane pilots found it very hard to soar. Although they could readily detect abrupt changes in vertical speed ("in the seat of the pants"), their senses did not allow them to distinguish lift from sink, or strong lift from weak lift. The actual climb/sink rate could not even be guessed at, unless there was some clear fixed visual reference nearby.

Comment: Powered and un-powered aircraft may be flown very well without a variometer. Using an altimeter to note increases or decreases in altitude and a clock to determine time differences allows the pilot to quickly calculate rates of climb or descent. Alamogordo88 (talk) 18:55, 25 August 2008 (UTC)

RCDI / Rate of Climb and Descent Indicator?
After a recent edit, Rcdi and Rate of Climb and Descent Indicator now redirect here. The later was effectively a short description of a variometer or VSI, before being converted to a redirect. Does anyone have a reference for these terms actually being used? I've never heard them, and Googling does not appear to show any usage other than in Wikipedia. Unless there's some evidence that the terms are real, I'll remove the alternate name, and delete the two redirect pages. Rwessel (talk) 05:17, 26 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Take a look. For what it's worth, I generally avoid a general google search when I'm trying to source stuff here, there are so many wikipedia mirrors. Books and Scholar generally work better. --Nuujinn (talk) 13:21, 26 November 2010 (UTC)

more please.....
Perhaps you should provide information of the history of variometers like the three types  Cosim, Vane Type and Schueman types as well as the use of a insulated bottle to increase the size of the stored volume. Arydberg (talk) 16:44, 9 October 2015 (UTC)

 * It's a wiki, add it...? LjL (talk) 16:48, 9 October 2015 (UTC)

Incorrect statement under Purpose paragraph
The statement "their senses did not allow them to distinguish lift from sink, or strong lift from weak lift" doesn't seem right to me. You can indeed tell quite easily if you're being accelerated up or down, as anyone who's been in a lift will tell you. — Preceding unsigned comment added by RichardKre (talk • contribs) 07:00, 30 April 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Variometer


text:
Authenticity (philosophy)

Authenticity is a concept of personality in the fields of psychology, existential psychotherapy, existentialist philosophy, and aesthetics. In existentialism, authenticity is the degree to which a person's actions are congruent with their values and desires, despite external pressures to social conformity. The conscious self comes to terms with the condition of Geworfenheit, of having been thrown into an absurd world (without values and meaning) not of their own making, thereby encountering external forces and influences different from and other than the Self. A person’s lack of authenticity is considered bad faith in dealing with other people and with one's self; thus, authenticity is in the instruction of the Oracle of Delphi: “Know thyself.” Concerning authenticity in art, the philosophers Jean Paul Sartre and Theodor Adorno held opposing views and opinions about jazz, a genre of American music; Sartre said that jazz is authentic and Adorno said that jazz is inauthentic. Many musical subcultures require artistic authenticity, lest the community consider an artist to be a poseur for lacking authenticity (creative, musical, or personal); artistic authenticity is integral to many genres of music, including but not limited to genres of rock (such as punk rock and heavy metal), club music (such as house and techno), and hip-hop.

In the 18th century, Romantic philosophers recommended intuition, emotion, and a connection to Nature as the necessary counterbalances to the intellectualism of the Age of Enlightenment. In the 20th century, Anglo–American preoccupations with authenticity centered on the writings of existentialist philosophers whose native tongue is not English; therefore, the faithful, true, and accurate translation of the term existentialism was much debated, to which end the philosopher Walter Kaufmann assembled a canon of existentialist philosophers. Kaufmann's canon includes the Dane Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), the German Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), and the Frenchman Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980). For these existentialists, the conscious Self comes to terms with existence (being and living) in an absurd, materialist world featuring external forces, e.g. Geworfenheit (Thrown-ness), and intellectual influences different from and other than the Self.

Personal authenticity is exhibited in how a person acts and changes in response to the external world's influences upon the Self. Among artists, authenticity in art describes a work of art faithful to the artist's values. In the field of psychology, authenticity identifies a person living life in accordance with their true Self and personal values rather than according to the external demands of society, such as social conventions, kinship, and duty.

To identify, describe, and define authenticity, existential philosophers like Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Martin Heidegger investigated the existential and ontological significance of the social constructs that compose the norms of society. For a journalist, not blindly accepting social norms contributes to producing intellectually authentic reportage, achieved by the reporter choosing to be true to their professional ethics and personal values. Yet, in the praxis of journalism, the reporter’s authenticity (professional and personal) is continually contradicted by the business requirements of corporate publishing.

Søren Kierkegaard
According to Kierkegaard, personal authenticity depends upon a person finding an authentic faith and, in so doing, being true to themselves. Moral compromises inherent to the ideologies of bourgeois society and Christianity challenge the personal integrity of a person who seeks to live an authentic life as determined by the self. A mass-culture society diminishes the significance of personal individuality, by way of social “levelling” through news media that provide people with beliefs and opinions constructed by someone other than themselves. A person can attain authentic faith by facing reality and choosing to live according to the facts of the material world, or can deny authentic faith by passively accepting religious faith. Kierkegaard’s philosophy shows that personal authenticity is a personal choice based upon the experience of the real world; in Practice in Christianity (1850), Kierkegaard wrote:

Friedrich Nietzsche
Personal authenticity can be achieved—without religion, which requires accepting pre-determined virtues (eternal valuations) as unquestionably true. In living authentically, a person elevates himself/herself above the mass culture to transcend the limits of conventional morality, thereby personally determining what is and what is not good and bad, without the pre-determined virtues of conformity “on account of which we hold our grandfathers in esteem”. An authentic life is achieved by avoiding the “herding animal morality”. To “stand alone [is to be] strong and original enough to initiate opposite estimates of value, to transvaluate and invert ‘eternal valuations’”. Common to the existential perspectives of Kierkegaard and Nietzsche are “the responsibilities they place on the individual to take an active part in the shaping of one’s beliefs, and then to be willing to act on that belief”.

Jean-Paul Sartre
It is difficult to describe authenticity intelligibly. One possibility is to describe instead the negative space surrounding the condition of being inauthentic by giving examples. To that end, the novels of Jean-Paul Sartre make authenticity conceptually intelligible through the stories of anti-heroic characters, people who base their actions upon external, psychological pressures — such as the social pressure to appear to be a certain kind of person; the pressure to adopt a given way of life; and the pressure to prostitute personal integrity (moral values and aesthetic standards) in exchange for the comfort (physical, mental, and moral) of social conformity. The novelist Sartre explains existential philosophy through characters who do not understand their reasoning for acting as they do—people who ignore crucial facts about their own lives to avoid learning about being an inauthentic person with an identity defined from outside the self.

Absolute freedom is the vertiginous experience necessary for being authentic, yet such freedom can be so unpleasant as to impel people to choose an inauthentic life. As an aspect of authenticity, absolute freedom determines a person’s relation with the real world, a relation not based upon or determined by a system of values or an ideology. In this manner, authenticity is connected with creativity, and the will to act must be born of the actor. In that vein, Heidegger speaks of absolute freedom as modes of living determined by personal choice. Sartre identified, described, and explained what is an inauthentic existence, not to define what is an authentic mode of living.

Erich Fromm
Erich Fromm proposed a very different definition of authenticity in the mid-twentieth century. He considered behavior of any kind, even that wholly in accord with societal mores, to be authentic if it results from personal understanding and approval of its drives and origins, rather than merely from conformity with the received wisdom of the society. Thus, a Frommean authentic may behave consistently in accord with cultural norms, if those norms appear on consideration to be appropriate, rather than simply in the interest of conforming with current norms. Fromm thus considers authenticity to be a positive outcome of enlightened and informed motivation, rather than a negative outcome of rejection of the expectations of others. He described the latter condition – the drive primarily to escape external restraints typified by the "absolute freedom" of Sartre – as "the illusion of individuality", as opposed to the genuine individuality that results from authentic living.

Musical subculture
Some genres of rock music, especially the subcultures of punk and heavy metal, require a great deal of artistic authenticity from its musicians and fans and criticize and exclude musicians, composers, and bands they assess as being poseurs — insufficiently authentic or inauthentic as artists. A poseur is an artist or a musical band who copies the dress, the style of speech, and the manners of the subculture, yet is excluded for not understanding the artistic philosophy, not understanding the sociology, and not understanding the value system of the subculture; talking the talk, without walking the walk.

The authenticity of an artist has three bases: (I) long-term dedication to the music scene; (II) historical knowledge of the subculture; and (III) personal integrity (inner voice) for correct artistic choices. At one extreme of the heavy-metal genre, exists the subgenre of black metal whose adherents value above all else, artistic authenticity, emotional sincerity, and extremity of expression. Black metal artists emphatically profess that black metal performances are not for entertainment or spectacle, but rather that the extreme expression of such performances, are ritual expression, achieved through transcendence of the body and the self. In light of such systems of moral value in the arts, a working-class band, by accepting a formal recording contract, might appear to be sell outs within the heavy metal and punk rock communities. The academic Deena Weinstein said that “The code of authenticity, which is central to the heavy metal subculture, is demonstrated in many ways”, such as by clothing, an emotional singing voice, and thematic substance to the songs.

Criticism
The philosopher Jacob Golomb argues that existential authenticity is a way of life incompatible with a system of moral values that comprehends all persons.

title: Authenticity (philosophy)


text:
Asikkala

Asikkala is a municipality of Finland. Its seat is in Vääksy, at the shores of the Lake Päijänne. It is located in the province of Southern Finland and is part of the Päijänne Tavastia region. Asikkala's neighboring municipalities are Hämeenlinna, Heinola, Hollola, Lahti, Padasjoki and Sysmä.

The municipality has a population of 0 and covers an area of undefined km2 of which undefined km2 is water. The population density is undefined PD/km2.

The municipality is unilingually Finnish, by law since 1996.

History
The oldest prehistoric objects discovered in Asikkala, primarily tools, are presumed to date back to approximately 3000 BCE. The island of Kotasaari in the village of Kalkkinen has been a significant source of finds as well; the settlement on the island dates back to the Stone Age. In the Middle Age, the hunters populating the area of Asikkala made excursions towards the north on the Päijänne. The oldest villages in the municipality are presumed to be Kalkkinen as well as Anianpelto, the former of which also housed the largest estate in the area, known as Iisakkila or Kalkkinen.

Asikkala is mentioned in writing for the first time in a document concerning a border dispute with Sysmä in 1443. It is mentioned in 1445 as an administrative parish, whose subordinates in taxation included the villages of Viitaila, Asikkala and Urajärvi, and later Ruuhijärvi in modern-day Nastola. In the early 1600s, Asikkala became an independent chapel parish from the mother parish of Hollola.

Villages
In 1967, Asikkala had 24 legally recognized villages (henkikirjakylät):

 * Anianpelto
 * Asikkala
 * Hillilä
 * Iso-Äiniö
 * Joenniemi
 * Kalkkinen
 * Keltaniemi
 * Kopsuo
 * Kurhila
 * Muikkula
 * Myllykselä
 * Paakkola
 * Pulkkila
 * Pätiälä
 * Reivilä
 * Riihilahti
 * Salo
 * Särkijärvi
 * Urajärvi
 * Vehkoo
 * Vesivehmaa
 * Viitaila
 * Vähimaa
 * Vähä-Äiniö

Climate
Asikkala has a subarctic climate (Dfc) bordering on a humid continental climate (Dfb) with cold winters and mild to warm summers. The climate is slightly milder than the nearby city of Lahti due to influence from Lake Päijänne.

Demographics
In 2020, 13.3% of the population of Asikkala was under the age of 15, 52.7% were aged 15 to 64, and 34.0% were over the age of 64. The average age was 49.9, above the national average of 43.4 and regional average of 46.1. Speakers of Finnish made up 97.4% of the population and speakers of Swedish made up 0.2%, while the share of speakers of foreign languages was 2.4%. Foreign nationals made up 1.8% of the total population.

The chart below, describing the development of the total population of Asikkala from 1975-2020, encompasses the municipality's area as of 2021.

Urban areas
In 2019, out of the total population of 8,083, 5,188 people lived in urban areas and 2,814 in sparsely populated areas, while the coordinates of 81 people were unknown. This made Asikkala's degree of urbanization 64.8%. The urban population in the municipality was divided between two urban areas as follows:

Notable people
• James Hirvisaari (born 1960), politician

• J. R. Danielson-Kalmari (1853–1933), senator, professor and valtioneuvos

• Minna Kauppi (born 1982), orienteer

• Toni Nieminen (born 1975), ski jumper

• Aaro Pajari (1897–1949), Major General

• Karri Rämö (born 1986), ice hockey player

• Joel Rinne (1897–1981), actor

• Eetu Salin (1866–1919), politician, journalist and shoemaker

Politics
Results of the 2011 Finnish parliamentary election in Asikkala:

 * True Finns  26.8%
 * Centre Party  20.8%
 * National Coalition Party  20.5%
 * Social Democratic Party  15.2%
 * Christian Democrats  8.1%
 * Left Alliance  4.0%
 * Green League  3.7%

Economy
In 2018, 9.6% of the workforce of Asikkala worked in primary production (agriculture, forestry and fishing), 28.7% in secondary production (e.g. manufacturing, construction and infrastructure), and 58.6% in services. In 2019, the unemployment rate was 9.2%, and the share of pensioners in the population was 37.4%.

The ten largest employers in Asikkala in 2019 were as follows: • # Municipality of Asikkala, 303 employees

• # Päijät-Häme Health Care Municipal Consortium, 187 employees

• # JELD-WEN Suomi Oy, 95 employees

• # Rapala VMC Oyj, 77 employees

• # Salpaus Further Education, 37 employees

• # Regional Council of Päijät-Häme, 34 employees

• # Viipurilainen Kotileipomo Oy, 32 employees

• # Urajärven Metalli Oy, 30 employees

• # Parish of Asikkala, 22 employees

• # Osuuskauppa Hämeenmaa, 22 employees

Food
In the 1980s, Asikkala's traditional parish dishes were salmon soup, rieskas made barley, and potato egg butter, as well as berry milk and sahti.

title: Asikkala


text:
Askainen

Askainen (Villnäs) is a former municipality of Finland. Together with Lemu, it was consolidated with Masku on January 1, 2009.

It is located in southwestern part of the country in the Varsinais-Suomi region. The municipality had a population of 938 (2004-12-31) and covered an area of 61.52 km2 (excluding sea) of which 0.26 km2 is inland water. The population density was 15.31 inhabitants per km2.

The municipality was unilingually Finnish.

History
Askainen was first mentioned in 1374 as Askais, when it was a part of the Nousiainen parish. It was included into the Lemu parish after its separation from Nousiainen sometime before 1404. Askainen was also held by the monastery of Naantali before the Reformation. Askainen was mentioned as a chapel community within Lemu in 1592, though chapel rights may have been granted earlier.

Askainen became a separate parish and municipality in 1910, but the parishes of Askainen and Lemu were reunited in 1960. Despite this, the two still acted as separate municipalities until 2009, when they became parts of Masku.

Notable residents

 * Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, field marshal and 6th President of Finland was born in Askainen on June 4, 1867.

title: Askainen


text:
Rose-breasted grosbeak

The rose-breasted grosbeak (Pheucticus ludovicianus), colloquially called "cut-throat" due to its coloration, is a large, seed-eating grosbeak in the cardinal family (Cardinalidae). It is primarily a foliage gleaner. Males have black heads, wings, backs, and tails, and a bright rose colored patch on their white breast. Males and females exhibit marked sexual dimorphism.

Breeding habitat consists of cool-temperate open deciduous woods throughout much of eastern North America, with migration to tropical America in winter. Rose-breasted grosbeaks have an average maximum lifespan of 7.3 years in the wild, and up to 24 years in captivity. Death in the wild is generally due to collision with objects (buildings, cars, etc.) and predation, to eggs, nestlings and adults.

Taxonomy
In 1760 the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the rose-breasted grosbeak in his Ornithologie based on a specimen collected in Louisiana. He used the French name Le gros-bec de la Louisiane and the Latin Coccothraustes Ludoviciana. Although Brisson coined Latin names, these do not conform to the binomial system and are not recognised by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. When in 1766 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the twelfth edition, he added 240 species that had been previously described by Brisson. One of these was the rose-breasted grosbeak. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Loxia ludoviciana and cited Brisson's work. This species is now placed in the genus Pheucticus that was introduced by the German naturalist Ludwig Reichenbach in 1850. The species is monotypic.

The genus name Pheucticus is from Ancient Greek φευκτικός - pheuktikós, "shy", from - pheúgo, "to flee", and the specific ludovicianus is from Neo-Latin and refers to Louisiana.

Description
Adult birds are 18 - 22 cm long, span 29 - 33 cm across the wings and weigh 35 - 65 g. Grosbeaks measured during migration in the West Indies averaged 43 g, while those banded in Pennsylvania average about 45 g. Very little sexual dimorphism in size is seen; females were found to be marginally smaller in standard measurements, but in some seasons were marginally heavier than males when banded in Pennsylvania. At all ages and in both sexes, the beak is dusky horn-colored, and the feet and eyes are dark.

The adult male in breeding plumage has a black head, wings, back, and tail, and a bright rose-red patch on its breast; the wings have two white patches and rose-red linings. Its underside and rump are white. Males in nonbreeding plumage have largely white underparts, supercilium, and cheeks. The upperside feathers have brown fringes, and most wing feathers white ones, giving a scaly appearance. The bases of the primary remiges are also white. The coloration renders the adult male rose-breasted grosbeak (even while wintering) unmistakable if seen well.

The adult female has dark grey-brown upperparts – darker on wings and tail – a white supercilium, a buff stripe along the top of the head, and black-streaked white underparts, which except in the center of the belly have a buff tinge. The wing linings are yellowish, and on the upperwing are two white patches like in the summer male. Immatures are similar, but with pink wing-linings and less prominent streaks and usually a pinkish-buff hue on the throat and breast. At one year of age—in their first breeding season—males are scaly above like fully adult males in winter plumage, and still retain the immature's browner wings. Unlike males, females can easily be confused with the black-headed grosbeak (Pheucticus melanocephalus) where their ranges overlap in the central United States and south-central Canada. The rose-breasted grosbeak female has slightly darker brown markings on the underside, paler rather yellowish streaking on both the head and wings and paler, pinkish (rather than bi-colored) bill when compared to the female black-headed grosbeak. A potential confusion species also is the female purple finch (Haemorhous purpureus), but that species is noticeably smaller with a less robust bill and a notched tail.

The song is a subdued mellow warbling, resembling a more refined, sweeter version of the American robin's (Turdus migratorius). Males start singing early, occasionally even when still in winter quarters. The call is a sharp pink or pick, somewhat reminiscent of a woodpecker call.

Distribution and habitat
The rose-breasted grosbeak's breeding habitat is open deciduous woods across most of Canada and the northeastern United States. In particular, the northern birds migrate south through the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, to winter from central-southern Mexico through Central America and the Caribbean to Peru and Venezuela. The southern limit of its wintering range is not well known; it was, for example, only recorded in the Serranía de las Quinchas (Colombia) in the 1990s. In winter, they prefer more open woodland, or similar habitat with a loose growth of trees, such as forest edges, parks, gardens, and plantations, ranging from sea level into the hills, e.g. up to 5000 ft above mean sea level in Costa Rica. Since 1966 the rose-breasted grosbeak has experienced a greater than 1.5% yearly decline in population throughout the eastern part of its summer range, but a coincident >1.5% yearly increase in western parts of its summer range.

Migration
The first birds leave the breeding grounds as early as August, while the last ones do not return until mid-late May. In general, however, they migrate south in late September or in October, and return in late April or early May. It appears as if they remain on their breeding grounds longer today than they did in the early 20th century, when migrants were more commonly seen in May and August than in April or September. The rose-breasted grosbeak occurs as a very rare vagrant in western Europe. During breeding it is fairly territorial; in winter, it roams the lands in groups of about a handful of birds, and sometimes in larger flocks of a dozen or more.

Breeding
Rose-breasted grosbeaks were the only one of 70 migratory songbird species in the eastern United States shown in males to have produced sperm while still far south of their breeding location. Male grosbeaks tend to arrive a few days to a week before the females and pair formation apparently occurs on the breeding grounds. Nest building begins from as early as early May in Tennessee to as late as early June further north in Saskatchewan. Egg laying may occur anytime from mid-May to mid-July, as has been recorded in Quebec. Usually only a single brood is laid by these grosbeaks each summer but second broods are suspected in Canada and confirmed in semi-captivity. Both the male and the female apparently participate in selecting and building the nest, which is on a tree branch, over vines or any elevated woody vegetation. Nests have been recorded at 0.8 to 16.7 m off the ground, averaging 6 m high, almost always in the vicinity of openings in woodlands. Nests are typical of many passerines in both construct, material and size, made from leaves, twigs, rootlets or hair. Clutches are from 1 to 5 eggs, normally being 3–4, being pale blue to green with purplish to brownish red spotting. Males do a third of the incubation roughly, the female doing the remaining amount, and incubation can last from 11 to 14 days. Nestlings are 5 g at hatching and after 3–6 days of age, they gain at least 3 g each day. The young grosbeaks typically fledge at 9–13 days of age and are independent of their parents after approximately 3 weeks.

Longevity and mortality
Maximum lifespan recorded for a wild rose-breasted grosbeak was 12 years, 11 months. Captive grosbeaks have been recorded living up to 24 years of age, making them quite a long-living passerine excluding the pressures of surviving in the wild. Although frequently targeted by the brood parasite, the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater), the rose-breasted grosbeak is apparently able to recognize cowbird eggs and has been seen to aggressively displace cowbirds near the nest. Typically, fewer than 7% of grosbeak nests have cowbird eggs per one study. Per the U.S. Bird Banding Laboratory, as of 1997, rose-breasted grosbeaks recovered when dead have largely collided with objects, including buildings and cars (17.2%) or had been shot (10%; mostly before 1960), 3.6% of the fatalities were caught by cats, 0.8% caught by dogs. Mortality due to natural causes, including disease, natural predators and inclement weather go largely unreported. It is known the main cause of nesting failure is predation. Natural predators of eggs and nestlings include blue jays (Cyanocitta cristata), common grackles (Quiscalus quiscula), raccoons (Procyon lotor), gray (Sciurus carolinensis) and red (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) squirrels. Confirmed predators of adults include both Cooper's (Accipiter cooperii) and sharp-shinned hawks (Accipiter striatus) as well as northern harriers (Circus cyaenus), eastern screech-owls (Megascops asio) and short-eared owls (Asio flammeus).

Diet
The rose-breasted grosbeak forages in shrubs or trees for insects, seeds and berries, also catching insects in flight and occasionally eating nectar. It usually keeps to the treetops, and only rarely can be seen on the ground. In the winter quarters, they can be attracted into parks, gardens, and possibly even to bird feeders by fruit like Trophis racemosa. They also survive on blackberries, mulberries, seeds of smartweed, pigweed, raspberries, and milkweed, in addition to sunflower seeds, garden peas, oats, wheat, tree blossoms, tree buds, and developed natural product. Other notable winter food includes jacaranda seeds and the fruits of the introduced busy Lizzy (Impatiens walleriana). In grosbeaks from the north-central United States and southern Canada, 52% of the stomach contents were comprised by invertebrates, predominantly beetles; 19.3% was made up of wild fruits; 15.7% by weed seeds; 6.5% by cultivated fruits and plants, including peas, corn (Zea mays), oats (Avena sativa) and wheat (Triticum vulgare); and the remaining 6.5% by other plant material, including tree buds and flowers.

Status
Fires are necessary to maintain many kinds of grassland (see Fire ecology). Fire suppression in the late-20th century allowed forests to spread on the Great Plains into areas where recurring fires would otherwise have maintained grassland. This allowed hybridization with the black-headed grosbeak subspecies P. melanocephalus papago. Range expansions also seem to have occurred elsewhere, for example in northern Ohio, where it bred rarely if at all in the 1900s (decade), but it is by no means an uncommon breeder today. In general, though it requires mature woodland to breed and is occasionally caught as a cage bird, the rose-breasted grosbeak is not at all rare, and not considered a threatened species by the IUCN. Its average maximum lifespan in the wild is 7.3 years.

Books

 * Wyatt, V. E., and C. M. Francis. 2002. Rose-breasted Grosbeak (Pheucticus ludovicianus). In The Birds of North America, No. 692 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.

Theses

 * Cook WE. Ph.D. (1989). A morphological comparison between geographically separated populations of selected species of North American migratory and nonmigratory birds (Aves:Cardinalinae, Troglodytidae). The Union Institute, United States – Ohio.
 * Dunham DW. Ph.D. (1964). BEHAVIOR OF THE ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK, PHEUCTICUS LUDOVICIANUS (LINNAEUS). Cornell University, United States – New York.
 * Langley PJW. M.Sc. (1976). The breeding behavior and reproductive strategy of the rose-breasted grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianus L. The University of Western Ontario (Canada), Canada.
 * Smith LA. M.Sc. (2005). The impacts of silvicultural practices on the rose-breasted grosbeak (Pheucticus ludovicianus) in woodlots of southwestern Ontario, Canada. Trent University (Canada), Canada.

Articles
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 * Anderson JF, Johnson RC, Magnarelli LA & Hyde FW. (1986). "Involvement of Birds in the Epidemiology of the Lyme Disease Agent Borrelia-Burgdorferi". Infection & Immunity. vol 51, no 2. p. 394–396.
 * Bosque C & Lentino M. (1987). "The Passage of North American Migratory Land Birds through Xerophytic Habitats on the Western Coast of Venezuela". Biotropica. vol 19, no 3. p. 267–273.
 * Burke DM & Nol E. (2000). "Landscape and fragment size effects on reproductive success of forest-breeding birds in Ontario". Ecological Applications. vol 10, no 6. p. 1749–1761.
 * Campbell E. (1975). "Rose-Breasted Grosbeak in Winter". Loon. vol 47, no 2.
 * Cannell PF, Cherry JD & Parkes KC. (1983). "Variation and Migration Overlap in Flight Feather Molt of the Rose-Breasted Grosbeak Pheucticus-Ludovicianus". Wilson Bulletin. vol 95, no 4. p. 621–627.
 * Caryl PG. (1979). "Communication by Agonistic Displays What Can Games Theory Contribute to Ethology". Behaviour. vol 68, no 1–2. p. 136–169.
 * Crawford P. (1971). "Winter Rose-Breasted Grosbeak at Gallatin". Migrant. vol 42, no 3. p. 61–62.
 * Cumming EE & Diamond AW. (2002). "Songbird community composition versus forest rotation age in Saskatchewan boreal mixedwood forest". Canadian Field Naturalist. vol 116, no 1. p. 69–75.
 * Doyle TJ. (2002). "A verifiable winter record of Rose-breasted Grosbeak in Florida". Florida Field Naturalist. vol 30, no 4. p. 135–137.
 * Doyon F, Gagnon D & Giroux JF. (2005). "Effects of strip and single-tree selection cutting on birds and their habitat in a Southwestern Quebec northern hardwood forest". Forest Ecology and Management. vol 209, no 1–2. p. 101–115.
 * Duguay JP, Wood PB & Nichols JV. (2001). "Songbird abundance and avian nest survival rates in forests fragmented by different silvicultural treatments". Conservation Biology. vol 15, no 5. p. 1405–1415.
 * Eastman J. (1970). "Grazing of a Rose-Breasted Grosbeak on a Green Burn". Jack Pine Warbler. vol 48, no 4. p. 111–112.
 * Farfan-Ale JA, Blitvich BJ, Lorono-Pino MA, Marlenee NL, Rosado-Paredes EP, Garcia-Rejon JE, Flores-Flores LF, Chulim-Perera L, Lopez-Uribe M, Perez-Mendoza G, Sanchez-Herrera I, Santamaria W, Moo-Huchim J, Gubler DJ, Cropp BC, Calisher CH & Beaty BJ. (2004). "Longitudinal studies of West Nile virus infection in avians, Yucatan State, Mexico". Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases. vol 4, no 1. p. 3–14.
 * Fink LC. (1968). "Rose-Breasted Grosbeaks in Small Flock in Atlanta Georgia USA Pheucticus-Ludovicianus Behavior". Oriole. vol 33, no 3.
 * Fink LC. (1972). "Late Fall Record of Rose-Breasted Grosbeak in Atlanta". Oriole. vol 37, no 1.
 * Francis CM & Cooke F. (1990). "Differential Timing of Spring Migration in Rose-Breasted Grosbeaks". Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 61, no 4. p. 404–412.
 * Friesen L, Cadman MD & Mackay RJ. (1999). "Nesting success of Neotropical migrant songbirds in a highly fragmented landscape". Conservation Biology. vol 13, no 2. p. 338–346.
 * Friesen LE, Wyatt VE & Cadman MD. (1999). "Nest reuse by Wood Thrushes and Rose-breasted Grosbeaks". Wilson Bulletin. vol 111, no 1. p. 132–133.
 * Hobson KA & Schieck J. (1999). "Changes in bird communities in boreal mixedwood forest: Harvest and wildfire effects over 30 years". Ecological Applications. vol 9, no 3. p. 849–863.
 * Holmes RT. (1976). "Body Composition Lipid Reserves and Caloric Densities of Summer Birds in a Northern Deciduous Forest". American Midland Naturalist. vol 96, no 2. p. 281–290.
 * Holmes RT. (1986). "Foraging Patterns of Forest Birds Male-Female Differences". Wilson Bulletin. vol 98, no 2. p. 196–213.
 * Holmes RT & Robinson SK. (1981). Tree Species Preferences of Foraging Insectivorous Birds in a Northern Hardwoods Forest. Oecologia. vol 48, no 1. p. 31–35.
 * Holmes RT & Sherry TW. (1988). "Assessing Population Trends of New Hampshire USA Forest Birds Local Vs. Regional Patterns". Auk. vol 105, no 4. p. 756–768.
 * Hoving EJ & Sealy SG. (1987). "Species and Age Composition of a Sample of Birds Killed in Fall 1979 at a Manitoba Canada Tv Tower". Prairie Naturalist. vol 19, no 2. p. 129–134.
 * Janssen RB. (1973). "Late Rose-Breasted Grosbeak". Loon. vol 45, no 1.
 * Kirk DA, Diamond AW, Smith AR, Holland GE & Chytyk P. (1997). "Population changes in boreal forest birds in Saskatchewan and Manitoba". Wilson Bulletin. vol 109, no 1. p. 1–27.
 * Krager JM. (1969). Rose-Breasted Grosbeak in Madison. Passenger Pigeon. vol 31, no 4. p. 182–183.
 * Kroodsma RL. (1974). Species Recognition Behavior of Territorial Male Rose-Breasted Grosbeak and Black-Headed Grosbeak Pheucticus. Auk. vol 91, no 1. p. 54–64.
 * Lacki MJ. (2000). Surveys of bird communities on Little Black and Black mountains: Implications for long-term conservation of Montane birds in Kentucky. Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Sciences. vol 61, no 1. p. 50–59.
 * Latham R. (1971). The Rose-Breasted Grosbeak at Orient Long Island. Engelhardtia. vol 4, no 4.
 * Leberman RC. (1984). Rose Underwings in Female Rose-Breasted Grosbeaks Pheucticus-Ludovicianus. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 55, no 4. p. 486–487.
 * Link WA & Hahn DC. (1996). Empirical Bayes estimation of proportions with application to cowbird parasitism rates. Ecology. vol 77, no 8. p. 2528–2537.
 * Merrill SB, Cuthbert FJ & Oehlert G. (1998). Residual patches and their contribution to forest-bird diversity on northern Minnesota aspen clearcuts. Conservation Biology. vol 12, no 1. p. 190–199.
 * Nol E, Francis CM & Burke DM. (2005). Using distance from putative source woodlots to predict occurrence of forest birds in putative sinks. Conservation Biology. vol 19, no 3. p. 836–844.
 * Parrish JD. (1997). Patterns of frugivory and energetic condition in Nearctic landbirds during autumn migration. Condor. vol 99, no 3. p. 681–697.
 * Pittaway R & Iron J. (2006). Erythristic Rose-breasted Grosbeak. Ontario Birds. vol 24, no 1. p. 2–5.
 * Ports MA. (1981). Miscellaneous Summer Records of Birds from Southwestern Kansas USA. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. vol 84, no 2. p. 109–114.
 * Quay WB. (1985). Cloacal Sperm in Spring Migrants Occurrence and Interpretation. Condor. vol 87, no 2. p. 273–280.
 * Quay WB. (1989). Timing of Sperm Releases and Inseminations in Resident Emberizids a Comparative Study. Condor. vol 91, no 4. p. 941–961.
 * Ritchie TL. (1980). 2 Mid Pleistocene Avi Faunas from Coleman Florida USA. Bulletin of the Florida State Museum Biological Sciences. vol 26, no 1. p. 1–36.
 * Robinson SK & Holmes RT. (1982). Foraging Behavior of Forest Birds the Relationships among Search Tactics Diet and Habitat Structure. Ecology. vol 63, no 6. p. 1918–1931.
 * Rothstein SI. (1973). Extreme Overlap between 1st and 2nd Nestings in the Rose-Breasted Grosbeak. Wilson Bulletin. vol 85, no 2. p. 242–243.
 * Siljenberg AM. (1973). Songs and Sounds of Rose-Breasted Grosbeak. South Dakota Bird Notes. vol 26, no 2.
 * Skowron C & Kern M. (1980). The Insulation in Nests of Selected North American Song Birds. Auk. vol 97, no 4. p. 816–824.
 * Smith LA, Burke DM, Nol E & Elliott KA. (2006). The effects of partial cutting on the Rose-breasted Grosbeak: abundance, food availability, and nest survival. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. vol 36, no 5. p. 1087–1096.
 * Steffee ND. (1969). Rose-Breasted Grosbeak Pheucticus-Ludovicianus Record Kissimmee Florida USA. Florida Naturalist. vol 42, no 1.
 * Stutchbury BJM, Capuano B & Fraser GS. (2005). Avian frugivory on a gap-specialist, the red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa). Wilson Bulletin. vol 117, no 4. p. 336–340.
 * Voelker T. (1973). Recovery of a Banded Rose-Breasted Grosbeak. Loon. vol 45, no 1. p. 24–25.
 * Welsh CJE & Healy WM. (1993). Effect of even-aged timber management on bird species diversity and composition in northern hardwoods of New Hampshire. Wildlife Society Bulletin. vol 21, no 2. p. 143–154.
 * Wyatt VE. (1997). Use of Anemone canadensis in Rose-breasted Grosbeak nests. Ontario Birds. vol 15, no 2. p. 74–75.

title: Rose-breasted grosbeak


text:
Harish-Chandra

Harish-Chandra Mehrotra FRS (11 October 1923 – 16 October 1983) was an Indian-American mathematician and physicist who did fundamental work in representation theory, especially harmonic analysis on semisimple Lie groups.

Early life
Harish-Chandra Mehrotra was born in Kanpur. He was educated at B.N.S.D. College, Kanpur and at the University of Allahabad. After receiving his master's degree in physics in 1940, he moved to the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore for further studies under Homi J. Bhabha.

In 1945, he moved to University of Cambridge, and worked as a research student under Paul Dirac. While at Cambridge, he attended lectures by Wolfgang Pauli, and during one of them, Mehrotra pointed out a mistake in Pauli's work. The two became lifelong friends. During this time he became increasingly interested in mathematics. He obtained his PhD, Infinite Irreducible Representations of the Lorentz Group, at Cambridge in 1947 under Dirac.

Honors and awards
He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was the recipient of the Cole Prize of the American Mathematical Society, in 1954. The Indian National Science Academy honoured him with the Srinivasa Ramanujan Medal in 1974. In 1981, he received an honorary degree from Yale University.

The mathematics department of V.S.S.D. College, Kanpur celebrates his birthday every year in different forms, which includes lectures from students and professors from various colleges, institutes and students' visit to Harish-Chandra Research Institute.

The Indian Government named the Harish-Chandra Research Institute, an institute dedicated to Theoretical Physics and Mathematics, after him.

Robert Langlands wrote in a biographical article of Harish-Chandra:

"He was considered for the Fields Medal in 1958, but a forceful member of the selection committee in whose eyes Thom was a Bourbakist was determined not to have two. So Harish-Chandra, whom he also placed on the Bourbaki camp, was set aside."

He was also a recipient of the Padma Bhushan in 1977.

Death
Starting in 1969, Mehrotra began to experience heart attacks. A second and third heart attack occurred in 1970 and 1982, respectively. From then, his physical capabilities began to decline. A fourth heart attack occurred in 1983, leaving him mostly bedridden and in isolation. On the day after a conference organized for him and mathematician Armand Borel took place, Mehrotra died from his final heart attack.

title: Harish-Chandra


text:
User:AnthonyQBachler

An Electronics Engineer. Additional studies include industrial engineering, electronic encryption, artificial intelligence, neural networks, non-linear dynamic adaptive algorithms, hydroponics, horticulture and cooking.

Formal Training:

U.S. Army Signal School, Fort Gordon Georgia for COMSEC Technician

ITT Technical Institute, BAS in Electronics Engineering

Lifetime Member in good standing MENSA.

Holder of a Class A Commercial Drivers License, including the following endorsements: Air Brakes, Combination Vehicles

title: User:AnthonyQBachler


text:
Talk:Mark (currency)

Norman Conquest
''after the Norman Conquest equalled 160 pennies = 2/3 of the pound sterling, or 13s. 4d., and therefore in Scotland 31/2d. English.'' Question: By the latter figure does the writer mean, £1, 11s 2d or threepence and a hapenny? (somebody might have transposed something) -- knoodelhed 11:11, 20 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Thr'pence ha'penny (3.5d) seems less likely that £1 11s 2d, if it was 13s 4d in England. What's the discrepancy between English and Scottish values, though? Some explanation could be good; the discrepancy looks odd to me and I'm a Brit with a relatively good understanding of British history, I'd assume a non-Brit would get rather confused! — OwenBlacker 12:33, Jun 22, 2004 (UTC)

 * Around the time of the Union, the exchange rate was 1 shilling Scots = 1 penny English. -- Arwel 16:39, 22 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Goodness, really?! When (and how) did parity come into force? That's something that should definitely be included in Wikipedia somewhere... :o) OwenBlacker 16:43, Jun 22, 2004 (UTC)

Money or English money?
I am about to try moving the article from Mark (English money) to Mark (money). As defined by the article itself the mark was also Scottish and European. Laurel Bush 12:02, 3 Mar 2005 (UTC).

If a mark was not a coin why did the Domesday Book say 10 1/2 silver marks paid to king for Chester? Gordon Emery

Non-teutonic
Are you sure "mark" is non-teutonic, I heard it might have come from the usage of "marking" a measure.
 * I suspect mark as money is closely related to hallmark and the idea that you should be able to trust a piece of metal as money if it is struck with a reputable mark or brand. Many metal alloys are struck now with the mark or marks of the Royal Mint. Laurel Bush 15:01, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC).

Merge?

 * Oppose --MacRusgail 18:28, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

Text removal
I'm taking out of the introduction the sentence: The most valuable Mark were printed in 1908, today they would be worth up to $55 million U.S. a piece. It's completely unexplained what it's supposed to mean, apart from being nonsense. I suspect someone used the final conversion rate of the Deutsche Mark to convert prehyperinflation currency, ignoring the fact that they're completely separate currencies. -- Arwel (talk) 01:02, 14 December 2007 (UTC)

Marks at Cambridge University
In Cambridge in mid 20th century (and who knows how long prior to that) undergraduates caught in some minor infraction would be fined half a mark or one mark. For example, an undergraduate caught by the proctors not wearing his academic gown in the streets of Cambridge after dark would be fined half a mark or 6/8.24.108.87.94 (talk) 06:07, 22 December 2008 (UTC)

One-Sided Commentary
There is a section that makes what appears to me to be some one-sided commentary about the economy of the Third Reich. For example, it is said that the war was "used to justify" economic controls -- as if this had been a secret agenda all along, and as if powers on the other side in the war hadn't done precisely the same. Some of the comments, like the allegation that war-booty was used to prop up the economy, seem to have very little to do with the discussion of the Mark as a currency. It seems to be just somebody with an opinion using the article as a convenient place for tangential pontificating.

A remarkable fact not mentioned is how stable the Mark was during the Third Reich, even retaining some value after the government had fallen. Your Buddy Fred Lewis (talk) 14:28, 24 December 2012 (UTC)

 * Yes, every state uses war as an occasion to expand its control. If they all do it, is it wrong to mention that that one does it? —Tamfang (talk) 22:46, 21 February 2013 (UTC)

Wends (Germania Slavica)
Is misplaced here. If there was a Wendischer Münzverein of hanseatic cities, which used the "Münzfuß" of the Lübsche Mark, then wendisch means the subdivision of the hanseatic ligue into "Quartiere" (quarters...). The name "Wendisches Quartier" ment the very cities around the hanseatic "capital" Lübeck (so-called Filial-Städte, meaning: Hamburg, Lüneburg, Lübeck, Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund, Greifswald a.s.o.). One has to keep in mind the old misconception of the "Wenden" as the historic "Wandalen", which had nothing to do with later interpretations of the ethnologic dualism between german and slavic. Danes and Swedes called the northgerman regions to be conquered soon "vendland", as they were named during the high-middle-ages. The term germanica slavica has nothing to do with the early 16th century. It is a construct (or a working theory) from a string of east-german medievalists, which seems to appeal to those, who aren't fed up with ethnological hypothesizing.--85.176.172.44 (talk) 02:19, 7 October 2015 (UTC)

valuta mark ?
No mention of the valuta mark which was some kind of convertible version of the East German mark ? 2A00:23C6:7F8A:BB00:2150:8E5B:CF7:A09A (talk) 13:50, 28 March 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mark (currency)