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Photochemistry

Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical effects of light. Generally, this term is used to describe a chemical reaction caused by absorption of ultraviolet (wavelength from 100 to 400 nm), visible (400–750 nm), or infrared radiation (750–2500 nm).

In nature, photochemistry is of immense importance as it is the basis of photosynthesis, vision, and the formation of vitamin D with sunlight. It is also responsible for the appearance of DNA mutations leading to skin cancers.

Photochemical reactions proceed differently than temperature-driven reactions. Photochemical paths access high-energy intermediates that cannot be generated thermally, thereby overcoming large activation barriers in a short period of time, and allowing reactions otherwise inaccessible by thermal processes. Photochemistry can also be destructive, as illustrated by the photodegradation of plastics.

Grotthuss–Draper law and Stark–Einstein law
Photoexcitation is the first step in a photochemical process where the reactant is elevated to a state of higher energy, an excited state. The first law of photochemistry, known as the Grotthuss–Draper law (for chemists Theodor Grotthuss and John W. Draper), states that light must be absorbed by a chemical substance in order for a photochemical reaction to take place. According to the second law of photochemistry, known as the Stark–Einstein law (for physicists Johannes Stark and Albert Einstein), for each photon of light absorbed by a chemical system, no more than one molecule is activated for a photochemical reaction, as defined by the quantum yield.

Fluorescence and phosphorescence
When a molecule or atom in the ground state (S0) absorbs light, one electron is excited to a higher orbital level. This electron maintains its spin according to the spin selection rule; other transitions would violate the law of conservation of angular momentum. The excitation to a higher singlet state can be from HOMO to LUMO or to a higher orbital, so that singlet excitation states S1, S2, S3... at different energies are possible.

Kasha's rule stipulates that higher singlet states would quickly relax by radiationless decay or internal conversion (IC) to S1. Thus, S1 is usually, but not always, the only relevant singlet excited state. This excited state S1 can further relax to S0 by IC, but also by an allowed radiative transition from S1 to S0 that emits a photon; this process is called fluorescence.

Alternatively, it is possible for the excited state S1 to undergo spin inversion and to generate a triplet excited state T1 having two unpaired electrons with the same spin. This violation of the spin selection rule is possible by intersystem crossing (ISC) of the vibrational and electronic levels of S1 and T1. According to Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity, this T1 state would be somewhat more stable than S1.

This triplet state can relax to the ground state S0 by radiationless ISC or by a radiation pathway called phosphorescence. This process implies a change of electronic spin, which is forbidden by spin selection rules, making phosphorescence (from T1 to S0) much slower than fluorescence (from S1 to S0). Thus, triplet states generally have longer lifetimes than singlet states. These transitions are usually summarized in a state energy diagram or Jablonski diagram, the paradigm of molecular photochemistry.

These excited species, either S1 or T1, have a half-empty low-energy orbital, and are consequently more oxidizing than the ground state. But at the same time, they have an electron in a high-energy orbital, and are thus more reducing. In general, excited species are prone to participate in electron transfer processes.

Experimental setup
Photochemical reactions require a light source that emits wavelengths corresponding to an electronic transition in the reactant. In the early experiments (and in everyday life), sunlight was the light source, although it is polychromatic. Mercury-vapor lamps are more common in the laboratory. Low-pressure mercury-vapor lamps mainly emit at 254 nm. For polychromatic sources, wavelength ranges can be selected using filters. Alternatively, laser beams are usually monochromatic (although two or more wavelengths can be obtained using nonlinear optics), and LEDs have a relatively narrow band that can be efficiently used, as well as Rayonet lamps, to get approximately monochromatic beams.

The emitted light must reach the targeted functional group without being blocked by the reactor, medium, or other functional groups present. For many applications, quartz is used for the reactors as well as to contain the lamp. Pyrex absorbs at wavelengths shorter than 275 nm. The solvent is an important experimental parameter. Solvents are potential reactants, and for this reason, chlorinated solvents are avoided because the C–Cl bond can lead to chlorination of the substrate. Strongly-absorbing solvents prevent photons from reaching the substrate. Hydrocarbon solvents absorb only at short wavelengths and are thus preferred for photochemical experiments requiring high-energy photons. Solvents containing unsaturation absorb at longer wavelengths and can usefully filter out short wavelengths. For example, cyclohexane and acetone "cut off" (absorb strongly) at wavelengths shorter than 215 and 330 nm, respectively.

Typically, the wavelength employed to induce a photochemical process is selected based on the absorption spectrum of the reactive species, most often the absorption maximum. Over the last years, however, it has been demonstrated that, in the majority of bond-forming reactions, the absorption spectrum does not allow selecting the optimum wavelength to achieve the highest reaction yield based on absorptivity. This fundamental mismatch between absorptivity and reactivity has been elucidated with so-called photochemical action plots.

Photochemistry in combination with flow chemistry
Continuous-flow photochemistry offers multiple advantages over batch photochemistry. Photochemical reactions are driven by the number of photons that are able to activate molecules causing the desired reaction. The large surface-area-to-volume ratio of a microreactor maximizes the illumination, and at the same time allows for efficient cooling, which decreases the thermal side products.

Principles
In the case of photochemical reactions, light provides the activation energy. Simplistically, light is one mechanism for providing the activation energy required for many reactions. If laser light is employed, it is possible to selectively excite a molecule so as to produce a desired electronic and vibrational state. Equally, the emission from a particular state may be selectively monitored, providing a measure of the population of that state. If the chemical system is at low pressure, this enables scientists to observe the energy distribution of the products of a chemical reaction before the differences in energy have been smeared out and averaged by repeated collisions.

The absorption of a photon by a reactant molecule may also permit a reaction to occur not just by bringing the molecule to the necessary activation energy, but also by changing the symmetry of the molecule's electronic configuration, enabling an otherwise-inaccessible reaction path, as described by the Woodward–Hoffmann selection rules. A [2+2] cycloaddition reaction is one example of a pericyclic reaction that can be analyzed using these rules or by the related frontier molecular orbital theory.

Some photochemical reactions are several orders of magnitude faster than thermal reactions; reactions as fast as 10−9 seconds and associated processes as fast as 10−15 seconds are often observed.

The photon can be absorbed directly by the reactant or by a photosensitizer, which absorbs the photon and transfers the energy to the reactant. The opposite process, when a photoexcited state is deactivated by a chemical reagent, is called quenching.

Most photochemical transformations occur through a series of simple steps known as primary photochemical processes. One common example of these processes is the excited state proton transfer.

Examples of photochemical reactions

 * Photosynthesis: Plants use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
 * Human formation of vitamin D by exposure to sunlight.
 * Bioluminescence: e.g. In fireflies, an enzyme in the abdomen catalyzes a reaction that produces light.
 * Polymerizations started by photoinitiators, which decompose upon absorbing light to produce the free radicals for radical polymerization.
 * Photodegradation of many substances, e.g. polyvinyl chloride and Fp. Medicine bottles are often made from darkened glass to protect the drugs from photodegradation.
 * Photochemical rearrangements, e.g. photoisomerization, hydrogen atom transfer, and photochemical electrocyclic reactions.
 * Photodynamic therapy: Light is used to destroy tumors by the action of singlet oxygen generated by photosensitized reactions of triplet oxygen. Typical photosensitizers include tetraphenylporphyrin and methylene blue. The resulting singlet oxygen is an aggressive oxidant, capable of converting C–H bonds into C–OH groups.
 * Diazo printing process
 * Photoresist technology, used in the production of microelectronic components.
 * Vision is initiated by a photochemical reaction of rhodopsin.
 * Toray photochemical production of ε-caprolactame.
 * Photochemical production of artemisinin, an anti-malaria drug.
 * Photoalkylation, used for the light-induced addition of alkyl groups to molecules.
 * DNA: photodimerization leading to cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers.

Organic photochemistry
Examples of photochemical organic reactions are electrocyclic reactions, radical reactions, photoisomerization, and Norrish reactions.

Alkenes undergo many important reactions that proceed via a photon-induced π to π* transition. The first electronic excited state of an alkene lacks the π-bond, so that rotation about the C–C bond is rapid and the molecule engages in reactions not observed thermally. These reactions include cis-trans isomerization and cycloaddition to other (ground state) alkene to give cyclobutane derivatives. The cis-trans isomerization of a (poly)alkene is involved in retinal, a component of the machinery of vision. The dimerization of alkenes is relevant to the photodamage of DNA, where thymine dimers are observed upon illuminating DNA with UV radiation. Such dimers interfere with transcription. The beneficial effects of sunlight are associated with the photochemically-induced retro-cyclization (decyclization) reaction of ergosterol to give vitamin D. In the DeMayo reaction, an alkene reacts with a 1,3-diketone reacts via its enol to yield a 1,5-diketone. Still another common photochemical reaction is Howard Zimmerman's di-π-methane rearrangement.

In an industrial application, about 100,000 tonnes of benzyl chloride are prepared annually by the gas-phase photochemical reaction of toluene with chlorine. The light is absorbed by chlorine molecules, the low energy of this transition being indicated by the yellowish color of the gas. The photon induces homolysis of the Cl-Cl bond, and the resulting chlorine radical converts toluene to the benzyl radical:
 * Cl2 + hν → 2 Cl·
 * C6H5CH3 + Cl· → C6H5CH2· + HCl
 * C6H5CH2· + Cl· → C6H5CH2Cl

Mercaptans can be produced by photochemical addition of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) to alpha olefins.

Inorganic and organometallic photochemistry
Coordination complexes and organometallic compounds are also photoreactive. These reactions can entail cis-trans isomerization. More commonly, photoreactions result in dissociation of ligands, since the photon excites an electron on the metal to an orbital that is antibonding with respect to the ligands. Thus, metal carbonyls that resist thermal substitution undergo decarbonylation upon irradiation with UV light. UV-irradiation of a THF solution of molybdenum hexacarbonyl gives the THF complex, which is synthetically useful:
 * Mo(CO)6 + THF → Mo(CO)5(THF) + CO

In a related reaction, photolysis of iron pentacarbonyl affords diiron nonacarbonyl (see figure):
 * 2 Fe(CO)5 → Fe2(CO)9 + CO

Select photoreactive coordination complexes can undergo oxidation-reduction processes via single electron transfer. This electron transfer can occur within the inner or outer coordination sphere of the metal.

Types of photochemical reactions
Here are some different types of photochemical reactions-

 * Photo-dissociation: AB + hν → A* + B*
 * Photo induced rearrangements, isomerization: A + hν → B
 * Photo-addition: A + B + hν → AB + C
 * Photo-substitution: A + BC + hν → AB + C
 * Photo-redox reaction: A + B + hν → A− + B+

Historical
Although bleaching has long been practiced, the first photochemical reaction was described by Trommsdorff in 1834. He observed that crystals of the compound α-santonin when exposed to sunlight turned yellow and burst. In a 2007 study the reaction was described as a succession of three steps taking place within a single crystal.
 * [[Image:SantoninPhotochemicalreaction.png|400px|Santonin Photochemical reaction.]]

The first step is a rearrangement reaction to a cyclopentadienone intermediate (2), the second one a dimerization in a Diels–Alder reaction (3), and the third one an intramolecular [2+2]cycloaddition (4). The bursting effect is attributed to a large change in crystal volume on dimerization.

Specialized journals

 * Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology
 * ChemPhotoChem
 * Photochemistry and Photobiology
 * Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences
 * Photochemistry

Learned societies

 * Inter-American Photochemical Society
 * European Photochemistry Association
 * Asian and Oceanian Photochemistry Association

International conferences
The organization of these conferences is facilitated by the International Foundation for Photochemistry.
 * IUPAC SYmposium on Photochemistry (biennial)
 * International Conference on Photochemitry (biennial)

title: Photochemistry


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Battle of Falkirk

The Battle of Falkirk (Blàr na h-Eaglaise Brice; Battle o Fawkirk), on 22 July 1298, was one of the major battles in the First War of Scottish Independence. Led by King Edward I of England, the English army defeated the Scots, led by William Wallace. Shortly after the battle Wallace resigned as Guardian of Scotland.

Background
After the Battle of Stirling Bridge, from November 1297 until January 1298 Wallace led a Scottish army south. From Newcastle upon Tyne to Carlisle, the Scots raided the countryside, bringing back the spoils.

King Edward learned of the defeat of his northern army at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. After concluding a truce with the French king, Philip the Fair in October 1297, he returned to England on 14 March 1298 to continue the ongoing organising of an army for his second invasion of Scotland which had been in preparation since late 1297. As a preliminary step he moved the centre of government to York, where it was to remain for the next six years. A council-of-war was held in the city in April to finalise the details of the invasion. The Scottish magnates were all summoned to attend, and when none appeared they were all declared to be traitors. Edward then ordered his army to assemble at Roxburgh on 25 June. The force counted 2,000 armoured cavalry and about 12,000 infantry receiving wages, though, after the manner of medieval armies there would have been many more serving without pay either as a statement of personal independence, forgiveness of debts to the crown, criminal pardons or just for adventure. Stuart Reid estimates Edward's force at 214 knights with 900 troopers, 1000 cavalry supplied by the Earls, 500 mercenary crossbowmen, 2000 archers with billmen from the Lancashire and Cheshire feudal levies, though the infantry may only have totalled 8,000.

Edward left Roxburgh on 3 July and reached Kirkliston in two weeks, where he awaited supplies expected to arrive along the coastal ports, delayed due to weather. In the interim, Edward dealt with a Welsh mutiny. Finally, on 20 July, Edward advanced, reaching Linlithgow on 21 July. Edward was on the point of falling back on Edinburgh, when he received intelligence the Scots were at Torwood, near Falkirk, ready to harass his retreat. Edward reportedly said that he "would not trouble them to seek me", and placed his army south of Falkirk on the morning of the 22nd. Edward wanted to make camp and feed his men while waiting for his infantry to catch up with his cavalry. His cavalry commanders though, favoured an immediate attack.

Reid calculates the Scots could have manned four schiltrons with about 1000 men each, in addition to the cavalry and archers. These men would have come from the sheriffdoms of Fife, Kinross, Midlothian, Haddington, Stirling, Linlithgow, Lanark, Merse and Teviotdale. With that, Wallace supposedly said, "I have browghte yowe to the ryng. Hoppe yef ye canne!" Absent were forces under the Comyns and Robert Bruce. Also absent was Andrew Moray, co-victor with Wallace at the Battle of Stirling Bridge, having been mortally wounded in that battle. It was Moray who used the schiltrons offensively.

Battle

The Scots army, again made up chiefly of spearmen as at Stirling Bridge, was arranged in four great "hedgehogs" known as schiltrons. The long spears (pikes) pointing outwards at various heights gave these formations a formidable and impenetrable appearance. The gaps between the schiltrons were filled with archers, with 500 mounted knights at the rear.

On Tuesday 22 July, the English cavalry, divided into four battles, advanced in echelon. The vanguard, led by the Earl of Lincoln, moved to the left to avoid a marshy area, followed by the battle of John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey. The battle of Anthony Bek, Bishop of Durham, followed by the King's battle, moved around the marshy area to the right, toward the Scottish left flank. Lincoln's and Bek's battles charged the Scots and Lincoln quickly routed the Scottish cavalry.

The Scots bowmen commanded by Sir John Stewart, the younger brother of the High Steward of Scotland, stood their ground but were overrun by the English cavalry. However, the schiltrons held firm, with the knights making little impression on the dense forest of long spears, and 111 horses were killed in the vain attempts. Edward's cavalry fell back as his infantry and archers arrived.

Edward's archers, crossbowmen and slingers began raining projectiles on the inexperienced and poorly-armoured Scottish spearmen. The schiltrons were an easy target: they had no defences and nowhere to hide. Pinned in place by the English cavalry and infantry, unable to retreat or attack, the battle was lost for the Scots almost as soon as the first arrows began to fall. The English waited, this time observing the King's command, until the Scottish ranks were thinned out and disordered enough to allow them to break up the schiltrons. The English cavalry and infantry then attacked the wavering Scottish spearmen, and the schiltrons broke and scattered.

Aftermath
Edward occupied Stirling and raided Perth, St. Andrews and Ayrshire. Yet, he retreated to Carlisle by 9 September. Edward invaded again in the summer of 1300.

Casualties among the Scottish leaders were not particularly heavy, but did include Wallace's second-in-command, Sir John de Graham, as well as Sir John Stewart, and Macduff of Fife.

In the words of Reid, "while unquestionably a good partisan leader, William Wallace's military abilities were simply not up to the job of organizing, training and leading a conventional military force." At Falkirk, Wallace "simply drew up his army in an open field and froze."

In the words of Evan Macleod Barron, it was Moray who "possessed military genius and military training", while Wallace possessed qualities that "make a great guerilla leader." Barron goes on to say, "Falkirk should never have been fought at all ... it hardly looks as if the brain which conceived the plan of battle at Falkirk was the same as that which conceived the plan at Stirling Bridge." Though Wallace resigned his leadership and guardianship, he still "represented the mass of the people." Hence Edward's determination to "capture at all costs the man who was in himself the embodiment of that popular hostility, and who was in addition, a warrior of skill and daring and a leader who had won the heart and the imagination of the people."

Falkirk Roll of Arms
The Falkirk Roll is a collection of the arms of the English bannerets and noblemen present at the battle of Falkirk. It is the oldest known English occasional roll of arms, and contains 111 names and blazoned shields.

Following are a collection of modern illustrations of the Falkirk Roll based on the blazons published in Henry Gough's book, ''Scotland in 1298. Documents Relating to the Campaign of King Edward the First.''

Possible battle sites
The site of the battle is uncertain. There have been three proposed sites: at Campfield, around the modern Central Retail Park; south of Callendar Woods (as depicted in the diagrams above), and; at Mumrills, the site of the Antonine Fort.

Walter of Guisborough stated that the Scots were positioned "on hard ground ... on one side of a hillock". The Scalacronica reported that the site was "on this side of Falkirk." Stuart Reid has suggested the burgh muir of Falkirk (i.e. "the plain which is called Falkirk"), while also acknowledging a consensus among historians, that located the Scots' position below Callendar Wood, with Glen Burn in front.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Battle of Falkirk


text: User talk:82.41.7.13

title: User talk:82.41.7.13


text:
Talk:The Daily Show

Wiki Education assignment: Introduction to Political Communication
— Assignment last updated by Carterlockwood1 (talk) 16:52, 26 February 2024 (UTC)

Typo
Stewart accepted the single day a week contract deal as his initial run left him feel exhausted.

Should be "feeling" instead of "feel". Cdellert (talk) 01:18, 14 March 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 27 March 2024
Under Guest Hosts it says Colbert hosted 11 times, but he actually hosted 14 times. It doesn't list the 3 times he hosted in March 2002. 184.144.62.38 (talk) 05:16, 27 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made.  Mel ma nn   10:33, 27 March 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 6 April 2024
Change "left him feel exhausted" to "left him feeling exhausted". RawMoose (talk) 15:15, 6 April 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅ – Muboshgu (talk) 15:21, 6 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Daily Show


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Principal homogeneous space

In mathematics, a principal homogeneous space, or torsor, for a group G is a homogeneous space X for G in which the stabilizer subgroup of every point is trivial. Equivalently, a principal homogeneous space for a group G is a non-empty set X on which G acts freely and transitively (meaning that, for any x, y in X, there exists a unique g in G such that x·g = y, where · denotes the (right) action of G on X). An analogous definition holds in other categories, where, for example,
 * G is a topological group, X is a topological space and the action is continuous,
 * G is a Lie group, X is a smooth manifold and the action is smooth,
 * G is an algebraic group, X is an algebraic variety and the action is regular.

Definition
If G is nonabelian then one must distinguish between left and right torsors according to whether the action is on the left or right. In this article, we will use right actions.

To state the definition more explicitly, X is a G-torsor or G-principal homogeneous space if X is nonempty and is equipped with a map (in the appropriate category) X × G → X such that
 * x·1 = x
 * x·(gh) = (x·g)·h

for all x ∈ X and all g,h ∈ G, and such that the map X × G → X × X given by
 * $$(x,g) \mapsto (x,x\cdot g)$$

is an isomorphism (of sets, or topological spaces or ..., as appropriate, i.e. in the category in question).

Note that this means that X and G are isomorphic (in the category in question; not as groups: see the following). However—and this is the essential point—there is no preferred 'identity' point in X. That is, X looks exactly like G except that which point is the identity has been forgotten. (This concept is often used in mathematics as a way of passing to a more intrinsic point of view, under the heading 'throw away the origin'.)

Since X is not a group, we cannot multiply elements; we can, however, take their "quotient". That is, there is a map X × X → G that sends (x,y) to the unique element g = x \ y ∈ G such that y = x·g.

The composition of the latter operation with the right group action, however, yields a ternary operation X × (X × X) → X, which serves as an affine generalization of group multiplication and which is sufficient to both characterize a principal homogeneous space algebraically and intrinsically characterize the group it is associated with. If we denote $$x/y \cdot z \,:=\, x \cdot (y\backslash z)$$ the result of this ternary operation, then the following identities
 * $$x/y \cdot y = x = y/y \cdot x$$
 * $$v/w \cdot (x/y \cdot z) = (v/w \cdot x)/y \cdot z$$

will suffice to define a principal homogeneous space, while the additional property
 * $$x/y \cdot z = z/y \cdot x$$

identifies those spaces that are associated with abelian groups. The group may be defined as formal quotients $$x \backslash y$$ subject to the equivalence relation
 * $$x \backslash y = u \backslash v \quad \text{iff} \quad v = u/x \cdot y$$,

with the group product, identity and inverse defined, respectively, by
 * $$(x \backslash y) \cdot (u \backslash v) = x \backslash (y/u \cdot v) = (u/y \cdot x)\backslash v$$,
 * $$e = x \backslash x$$,
 * $$(x \backslash y)^{-1} = y \backslash x,$$

and the group action by
 * $$x\cdot (y \backslash z) = x/y \cdot z.$$

Examples
Every group G can itself be thought of as a left or right G-torsor under the natural action of left or right multiplication.

Another example is the affine space concept: the idea of the affine space A underlying a vector space V can be said succinctly by saying that A is a principal homogeneous space for V acting as the additive group of translations.

The flags of any regular polytope form a torsor for its symmetry group.

Given a vector space V we can take G to be the general linear group GL(V), and X to be the set of all (ordered) bases of V. Then G acts on X in the way that it acts on vectors of V; and it acts transitively since any basis can be transformed via G to any other. What is more, a linear transformation fixing each vector of a basis will fix all v in V, and hence be the neutral element of the general linear group GL(V) : so that X is indeed a principal homogeneous space. One way to follow basis-dependence in a linear algebra argument is to track variables x in X. Similarly, the space of orthonormal bases (the Stiefel manifold $$V_n(\mathbf{R}^n)$$ of n-frames) is a principal homogeneous space for the orthogonal group.

In category theory, if two objects X and Y are isomorphic, then the isomorphisms between them, Iso(X,Y), form a torsor for the automorphism group of X, Aut(X), and likewise for Aut(Y); a choice of isomorphism between the objects gives rise to an isomorphism between these groups and identifies the torsor with these two groups, giving the torsor a group structure (as it has now a base point).

Applications
The principal homogeneous space concept is a special case of that of principal bundle: it means a principal bundle with base a single point. In other words the local theory of principal bundles is that of a family of principal homogeneous spaces depending on some parameters in the base. The 'origin' can be supplied by a section of the bundle—such sections are usually assumed to exist locally on the base—the bundle being locally trivial, so that the local structure is that of a cartesian product. But sections will often not exist globally. For example a differential manifold M has a principal bundle of frames associated to its tangent bundle. A global section will exist (by definition) only when M is parallelizable, which implies strong topological restrictions.

In number theory there is a (superficially different) reason to consider principal homogeneous spaces, for elliptic curves E defined over a field K (and more general abelian varieties). Once this was understood, various other examples were collected under the heading, for other algebraic groups: quadratic forms for orthogonal groups, and Severi–Brauer varieties for projective linear groups being two.

The reason of the interest for Diophantine equations, in the elliptic curve case, is that K may not be algebraically closed. There can exist curves C that have no point defined over K, and which become isomorphic over a larger field to E, which by definition has a point over K to serve as identity element for its addition law. That is, for this case we should distinguish C that have genus 1, from elliptic curves E that have a K-point (or, in other words, provide a Diophantine equation that has a solution in K). The curves C turn out to be torsors over E, and form a set carrying a rich structure in the case that K is a number field (the theory of the Selmer group). In fact a typical plane cubic curve C over Q has no particular reason to have a rational point; the standard Weierstrass model always does, namely the point at infinity, but you need a point over K to put C into that form over K.

This theory has been developed with great attention to local analysis, leading to the definition of the Tate–Shafarevich group. In general the approach of taking the torsor theory, easy over an algebraically closed field, and trying to get back 'down' to a smaller field is an aspect of descent. It leads at once to questions of Galois cohomology, since the torsors represent classes in group cohomology H1.

Other usage
The concept of a principal homogeneous space can also be globalized as follows. Let X be a "space" (a scheme/manifold/topological space etc.), and let G be a group over X, i.e., a group object in the category of spaces over X. In this case, a (right, say) G-torsor E on X is a space E (of the same type) over X with a (right) G action such that the morphism

 * $$E \times_X G \rightarrow E \times_X E $$

given by

 * $$(x,g) \mapsto (x,xg)$$

is an isomorphism in the appropriate category, and such that E is locally trivial on X, in that E → X acquires a section locally on X. Isomorphism classes of torsors in this sense correspond to classes in the cohomology group H1(X,G).

When we are in the smooth manifold category, then a G-torsor (for G a Lie group) is then precisely a principal G-bundle as defined above.

Example: if G is a compact Lie group (say), then $$EG$$ is a G-torsor over the classifying space $$BG$$.

title: Principal homogeneous space


text:
Inorganic compound

An inorganic compound is typically a chemical compound that lacks carbon–hydrogen bonds—that is, a compound that is not an organic compound. The study of inorganic compounds is a subfield of chemistry known as inorganic chemistry.

Inorganic compounds comprise most of the Earth's crust, although the compositions of the deep mantle remain active areas of investigation.

All allotropes (structurally different pure forms of an element) and some simple carbon compounds are often considered inorganic. Examples include the allotropes of carbon (graphite, diamond, buckminsterfullerene, graphene, etc.), carbon monoxide CO, carbon dioxide CO2, carbides, and salts of inorganic anions such as carbonates, cyanides, cyanates, thiocyanates, isothiocyanates, etc. Many of these are normal parts of mostly organic systems, including organisms; describing a chemical as inorganic does not necessarily mean that it cannot occur within living things.

History
Friedrich Wöhler's conversion of ammonium cyanate into urea in 1828 is often cited as the starting point of modern organic chemistry. In Wöhler's era, there was widespread belief that organic compounds were characterized by a vital spirit. In the absence of vitalism, the distinction between inorganic and organic chemistry is merely semantic.

Modern usage

 * The Inorganic Crystal Structure Database (ICSD) in its definition of "inorganic" carbon compounds, states that such compounds may contain either C-H or C-C bonds, but not both.
 * The book series Inorganic Syntheses does not define inorganic compounds. The majority of its content deals with metal complexes of organic ligands.
 * IUPAC does not offer a definition of "inorganic" or "inorganic compound" but does define inorganic polymer as "...skeletal structure that does not include carbon atoms."

title: Inorganic compound


text:
Dry cask storage

Dry cask storage is a method of storing high-level radioactive waste, such as spent nuclear fuel that has already been cooled in a spent fuel pool for at least one year and often as much as ten years. Casks are typically steel cylinders that are either welded or bolted closed. The fuel rods inside are surrounded by inert gas. Ideally, the steel cylinder provides leak-tight containment of the spent fuel. Each cylinder is surrounded by additional steel, concrete, or other material to provide radiation shielding to workers and members of the public.

There are various dry storage cask system designs. With some designs, the steel cylinders containing the fuel are placed vertically in a concrete vault; other designs orient the cylinders horizontally. The concrete vaults provide the radiation shielding. Other cask designs orient the steel cylinder vertically on a concrete pad at a dry cask storage site and use both metal and concrete outer cylinders for radiation shielding. Until 2024/25, there was no long term permanent storage facility anywhere in the world, and most countries still don't have a facility; dry cask storage is designed as an interim safer solution than spent fuel pool storage.

Some of the cask designs can be used for both storage and transportation. Three companies – Holtec International, NAC International and Areva-Transnuclear NUHOMS – are marketing Independent Spent Fuel Storage Installations (ISFSI) based upon an unshielded multi-purpose canister which is transported and stored in on-site vertical or horizontal shielded storage modules constructed of steel and concrete.

Usage
During the 2000s, dry cask storage was used in the United States, Canada, Germany, Switzerland, Spain, Belgium, the United Kingdom, Japan, Armenia, Argentina, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, South Korea, Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine and Lithuania.

A similar system is also being implemented in Russia. However, it is based on 'storage compartments' in a single structure, rather than individual casks.

In 2017, France's Areva introduced the NUHOMS Matrix advanced used nuclear fuel storage overpack, a high-density system for storing multiple spent fuel rods in canisters.

United States
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the need for alternative storage in the United States began to grow when cooling pools at many nuclear reactors began to fill with stored spent fuel. As there was not a national nuclear storage facility in operation at the time, utilities began looking at options for storing spent fuel. Dry cask storage was determined to be a practical option for storage of spent fuel and preferable to leaving large concentrations of spent fuel in cooling tanks. The first dry storage installation in the US was licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) in 1986 at the Surry Nuclear Power Plant in Virginia. Spent fuel is currently stored in dry cask systems at a growing number of power plant sites, and at an interim facility located at the Idaho National Laboratory near Idaho Falls, Idaho. The NRC estimated that many of the nuclear power plants in the United States will be out of room in their spent fuel pools by 2015, most likely requiring the use of temporary storage of some kind. Yucca Mountain, in Nevada, was expected to open in 2017. However, on March 5, 2009, Energy Secretary Steven Chu reiterated in a Senate hearing that the Yucca Mountain site was no longer considered an option for storing reactor waste.

The 2008, NRC guidelines call for fuels to have spent at least five years in a storage pool before being moved to dry casks. The industry norm is about 10 years. The NRC describes the dry casks used in the US as "designed to resist floods, tornadoes, projectiles, temperature extremes, and other unusual scenarios."

As of the end of 2009, 13,856 metric tons of commercial spent fuel – or about 22% – were stored in dry casks.

In the 1990s, the NRC had to “take repeated actions to address defective welds on dry casks that led to cracks and quality assurance problems; helium had leaked into some casks, increasing temperatures and causing accelerated fuel corrosion”.

With the zeroing of the federal budget for the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository in Nevada, more nuclear waste is being loaded into sealed metal casks filled with inert gas. Many of these casks will be stored in coastal or lakeside regions where a salt air environment exists, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is studying how such dry casks perform in salt environments. Cracking related to corrosion could occur in 30 years or less, and the NRC is studying whether the casks can be used for 100 years as some hope.

According to the NRC's website in 2023, spent fuel placed in dry cask storage from the Diablo Canyon power plant in California shows no sign of corrosion after more than a decade of storage and appears to be capable of lasting for 1800 years before succumbing to corrosion. Company videos, covering the processes and remote handling, from the initial fuel loading to the removal and eventual dry-cask storage, are viewable on various video hosting domains.

Canada
In Canada, above-ground dry storage has been used. Ontario Power Generation is in the process of constructing a Dry Storage Cask storage facility on its Darlington site, which will be similar in many respects to existing facilities at Pickering Nuclear Generating Station and Bruce Nuclear Generating Station. NB Power's Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station and Hydro-Québec's Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station also both operate dry storage facilities.

Germany

A centralized storage facility using dry casks is located at Ahaus. As of 2011, it housed 311 casks: 305 from the Thorium High Temperature Reactor, 3 from the Neckarwestheim Nuclear Power Plant, and 3 from the Gundremmingen Nuclear Power Plant. The transport from Gundremmingen to the Ahaus site met with considerable public protest and the power plant operators and the government later agreed to locate such casks at the powerplants.

CASTOR (cask for storage and transport of radioactive material) is a trademarked brand of dry casks used to store spent nuclear fuel (a type of nuclear waste). CASTORs are manufactured by Gesellschaft für Nuklear-Service (GNS), a German provider of nuclear services.

CONSTOR is a cask used for transport and long-term storage of spent fuel and high-level waste also manufactured by GNS. Its inner and outer layers are steel, enclosing a layer of concrete. A 9-meter drop test of the V/TC model was conducted in 2004; the results conformed to expectations.

Bulgaria
In 2008, officials at the Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant announced their intention to use 34 CONSTOR casks at the Kozloduy NPP site before the end of 2010.

Lithuania
Spent fuel from the now-closed Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant was placed in CASTOR and CONSTOR storage casks during the 2000s.

Russia
The Russian dry storage facility for spent nuclear fuel, the HOT-2 at Mining Chemical Combine in Zheleznogorsk, Krasnoyarsk Krai in Siberia, is not a 'cask' facility per se, as it is designed to accommodate the spent nuclear fuel (both VVER and RBMK) in a series of compartments. The structure of the facility is made up of monolithic reinforced concrete walls and top and bottom slabs, with the actual storage compartments formed by reinforced concrete partitions. The fuel is to be cooled by natural convection of air. The design capacity of the facility is 37,785 tonnes of uranium. It is now under construction and in the process of commissioning.

Ukraine
In Ukraine, a dry storage facility has been accepting spent fuel from the six-unit Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant (VVER-1000 reactors) since 2001, making it the longest-serving such facility in the former Soviet Union. The system was designed by the now-defunct Duke Engineering of the United States, with the storage casks being manufactured locally.

Another project is underway with Holtec International (of the USA) to build a dry spent fuel storage facility at the 1986 accident Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (RBMK-1000 reactors). The project was initially started with Framatome (currently AREVA) of France, later suspended and terminated due to technical difficulties. Holtec was originally hired as a subcontractor to dehydrate the spent fuel, eventually taking over the entire project.

title: Dry cask storage


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Blink-182 (album)

Blink-182 (also referred to as the untitled album) is the fifth studio album by American rock band Blink-182, released on November 18, 2003, by Geffen Records. Following their ascent to stardom and success of their prior two releases, the trio was compelled to take a break and participated in various side projects (Box Car Racer and Transplants). When they regrouped, they felt inspired to approach song structure and arrangements differently on their next effort together.

Recorded from December 2002 to September 2003 with producer Jerry Finn, the album has been described as darker and more mature than the band's earlier work. It also marked a musical departure from their previous efforts, infusing experimental elements, inspired by lifestyle changes (the band members all became fathers before the album was released) and side projects, into their usual pop-punk sound. Its songs are sonically expansive and downcast, leading critics to view it as a more elaborate, mature side of the band. The songwriting is more personal in nature and explores darker territory, touching upon the realities of adulthood and unexpected hardships. In addition, its recording process was long and often unconventional.

Fans were generally split regarding the band's "new" direction, but the album proved successful, selling 2.2 million copies in the United States. It received positive reviews, with critics welcoming its change in tone. Lead singles "Feeling This" and  "I Miss You" received the most radio airplay out of the four singles released, and peaked high on Billboard charts. The worldwide touring schedule, which saw the band travel to Japan and Australia, also found the three performing for troops stationed in the Middle East. The album was the band's last recording with longtime producer Jerry Finn and their final original material before a four-year-long hiatus. It is also their longest studio album to date, clocking in at 49 minutes.

Background
After a decade of touring and making music, Blink-182 had reached a breaking point. The trio—guitarist Tom Delonge, bassist Mark Hoppus, and drummer Travis Barker—had seen their lives change dramatically as their band reached superstar levels of fame. Their fourth album, Take Off Your Pants and Jacket (2001), had gone multi-platinum just as its predecessor, and throughout 2002 they co-headlined with genre forebears Green Day in arenas and amphitheaters across North America. Beneath the surface, however, relations were becoming strained. They became conflicted on their goofy, nudist public image, and Hoppus and DeLonge began to clash creatively, with DeLonge striving for a heavier sound. Barker felt the dynamics of the band change with Hoppus and DeLonge's marriages: "Blink-182 were no longer just three inseparable guys who were touring together." Later, he began dating model Shanna Moakler, inviting tabloid attention, adding to the "awkwardness" present in the band. The September 11 attacks put an end to any immediate touring plans, leading to a brief gap in their frenetic schedule.

Over the break, DeLonge began to suffer from significant back pain due to a herniated disc, and had privately become discontented by the constraints placed by the record label and the band's signature sound, which was becoming popularized elsewhere. He felt a desire to broaden his musical palette, and channeled these frustrations into an album, inspired by post-hardcore bands like Fugazi and Refused. Blink producer Jerry Finn naturally returned to engineer, and DeLonge, ostensibly trying to avoid paying a session player, invited Barker to record drums—making Hoppus the odd man out. It marked a major rift in their friendship: while DeLonge claimed he was not intentionally omitted, Hoppus nonetheless felt betrayed. "At the end of 2001, it felt like Blink-182 had broken up. It wasn't spoken about, but it felt over", said Hoppus later. With A&R representatives from MCA Records eager to market a new band by the guitarist, this new band, called Box Car Racer, quickly evolved into a full-fledged side project, launching two national tours throughout 2002. It was an "uncomfortable" time in the band according to Hoppus, but the three had "hundreds of discussions about it" and seemingly moved on, as he relayed to an interviewer in 2003. Later, the group admitted that the tension continued to follow them over the years.

The heavier sound of Box Car Racer inspired the change in tone and experimental nature the band approached Blink-182 with. Hoppus described his desire for the album to experiment with different arrangements in a 2002 interview: "Before, we got one guitar sound that we changed a little bit through the record. This time we want to try a whole different setup for each song." Hoppus recalled that Barker entered the production process by urging the band to "[not think of the album] as the next Blink-182 record — think of it as the first Blink-182 record." "Once the door was opened by Tom and Travis with Box Car Racer, Mark started to be more on board with that concept. He was also more flexible and the next Blink album was able to be a pretty big departure from the previous two", said assistant engineer Sam Boukas. "Box Car Racer opened the door in that sense and I think the three of them wanted to be more creative and have more creative liberty on that next album." Meanwhile, Barker also extended his love of hip-hop into the rap rock outfit Transplants, a collaboration with Rancid's Tim Armstrong.

Recording and production
In January 2003, the band rented a home in the San Diego luxury community of Rancho Santa Fe, planning to record the entire album there. In addition to the home being converted into a studio, pay-per-view pornography was on continuous play, and it included a space to "smoke hella weed" in the garage. The trio ditched their typical previous recording process (writing and demoing several songs and recording them in a studio one instrument at a time) and instead approached each song together. The band "attacked" each song and worked on three to four songs per day, simply moving on to the next one when feeling "burned out" on a track. The band also had fun at the home studio; DeLonge commented, "If I wasn't smoking half of Colombia I probably ran up $3 million in adult film charges." The in-studio antics and behind the scenes moments were recorded and posted on the official Blink-182 website throughout 2003, as well as on a MTV album release segment. The band recorded at the home until April 2003, when the owners of the house "kicked them out." Barker, unwilling to leave Moakler, would drive from Los Angeles to San Diego each day. He subsequently left that spring to tour with Transplants, leaving the band with a variety of drum tracks to listen to while he was gone. Barker estimated that seven songs were in working stages when he left for the tour, with an additional seven completed upon return. The trio recorded the rest of the album at several facilities, including Signature Sound and Rolling Thunder in San Diego, and Conway Recording Studios in Los Angeles. Jerry Finn, who had produced the previous two Blink-182 albums and the Box Car Racer album, returned to produce Blink-182, which would be his final collaboration with the band.

Altogether, the recording period of the album, as well its mixing and mastering, lasted from January to October 2003. Previous Blink-182 sessions were recorded in three months. The band stated that taking their time in the studio gave them the luxury of experimenting with different methods of writing, playing, and recording. The band built each song with a minute attention to detail. Barker brought in a copy of Pink Floyd's The Wall, which he mentioned as an inspiration in the album's liner notes. To that end, the group also enlisted the help of James Guthrie, an engineer behind The Wall. The band also collaborate with The Cure frontman Robert Smith on "All of This". The team sent Smith the bed track of the tune in hopes he would contribute; Smith obliged and recorded his parts in England. The three initially believed their legitimacy would be in question due to the goofy nature of their earlier work, to which Smith responded, "Nobody knows what kind of songs you are going to write in the future and nobody knows the full potential of any band. I really like the music you sent me." The band also collaborated with DJ Shadow and Dan the Automator, and Barker had desired to work with the Neptunes.

Though the band had their share of arguments in the past, making the album was a positive experience. Hoppus, who reportedly was conflicted on the new direction, felt the goal of illustrating more depth to the band was achieved: "We needed to prove that there was something deeper than [...] the dudes that ran naked in the video," he said. For Barker, he later considered it his favorite time in the band's history, commenting, "That was a good time in my life," he reminisced some time later: "That's by far my favorite album we did." The leisurely pace came at a caveat: the release date kept getting missed and pushed back to the point where Jordan Schur, then-president of their label, made calls asking, "What is the absolute last possible second that we can turn this thing in and still make our release date?" DeLonge described the final days of mixing the album as "crazy stressful", with "literally hours to turn [the album] to have it come it out on time." The album was in production so late that final mixes were still being judged by Hoppus, DeLonge, and Barker the night before the album was sent to the pressing plant.

Technical
On the technical side, Hoppus described the studio as a "musical laboratory": over 70 guitars, 30 amps, "30 or 40" different snare drums, up to six drum kits, and various keyboards and pianos were used in the album's production, many of which came from Finn's personal collection. More unusual instrumentation was also present: the band toyed with turntables, harmonium organs, Polynesian Gamelan bells, and a polyphonic tape replay keyboard. Many songs utilized unusual mic techniques. One example is the song "Stockholm Syndrome", which was recorded using a microphone dating to the 1950s, and the reverb on the vocals was achieved by playing the recordings into a shower. The drum fills for the song were recorded separately than the rest of the tracks, with the tape machines "sped up and super compressed", then played back at normal speed, to sound really "deep and gigantic". Similarly, on "Asthenia", the intro was achieved by recording the guitar through a failing Leslie speaker with a blown-out tube for excessive noise and scratchiness.

As opposed to recording all drum tracks using the same setup and mic technique, each song uses a different setup. Barker would often turn on a click track and simply play, and many songs originated from his drum beats, in a reverse of a typical songwriting process. Barker would often record a 4/4 base track and a half-time version, in order to have two working versions of each song, leading to interesting segues, like the transition between "Easy Target" and "All of This". The drums for "Easy Target" were recorded entirely separately — snare, hi-hat, toms, crash cymbals, and so on — for a uniquely disorienting effect: "to purposely confuse people." Barker pulled from his experience on the aforementioned Transplants tour, where he recorded each drum separately in his bus due to a lack of studio space. Several songs sound like they were made on an electronic kit but were simply Barker's bass drum and a Ribbon Crasher, recorded in unusual ways.

Music and style
While still rooted in pop-punk, Untitled finds the band expanding their sonic template with darker, restless songs and off-kilter hooks. All three members felt encumbered by the standard 4/4 punk pattern and had a desire to expand. The compositions on the record have been described as musically diverse and "borderline experimental." Overall, the album's general sound has been described as pop-punk, alternative rock, emo, new wave, and post-hardcore. It additionally pulls from concepts like New Romanticism, gothic pop, jangle pop, post-punk and power pop. Ben Wener, of the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, described the composition of the album as "expansive, downcast, and sometimes spectral." Kelefa Sanneh, writing for The New York Times, considered that the album may have been influenced by the growing presence of emo pop. "Much of the punk has been dissolved, the buzzsaw guitars faded into the corners, allowing room for staggering dynamics, cathartic guitar bursts and a weightier, more experimental and ambitious sound", wrote Tom Bryant of Kerrang!. In an interview with MTV Album Launch, Hoppus said that the desired effect of the album was for people to listen to it and say, "Wait a minute...that's Blink-182?"

One of the primary musical influences on the album was Failure's 1996 album Fantastic Planet. Near the end of the recording process, the band asked Ken Andrews, frontman of Failure, to contribute to its songs at his choosing. Andrews ended up adding guitars and keyboards to "Obvious" and "Violence", as well as uncredited mixing. Another influence on the trio was the expansive sound of Bad Astronaut's Houston: We Have a Drinking Problem (2002).

Lyrics
The goal for Untitled was continuity: each song develops lyrically like chapters in a book, and songs segue into one another to present a cohesive feel instead of a regular collection of tracks. Barker envisioned the album like a "mini-movie". The album abandons the band's sunnier disposition and humor for weightier, dramatic prose. Themes include growing up and dealing with the realities of adulthood, including relationship woes, daily pressures, and unexpected hardships. The album is lyrically consumed with sorrow and uncertainty about the world. Entertainment Weekly interpreted it as a concept album based on a dying relationship, a "self-meditation on romantic decay." Frequently, publications remarked with incredulity at the band's "newfound" maturity. "We wanted to be different," remarked DeLonge. "Some of our fans were probably like, 'Fuck, maybe they should stop joking so people could hear why I like this band.' And I think this record is going to help those kids out."

Lyrics continue to be autobiographical, but the band took more time than usual on their writing. DeLonge would routinely rewrite his sections upwards of four times. "I think at this point in our career, we've evolved our way of thinking as far as songwriting", DeLonge told Billboard in reference to the more refined lyricism. Hoppus, in his interview with the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, described the lyrics as the most personal he had written to that point. While past recordings tended to meditate on feelings from high school, the band felt it was akin to a safety net and desired to write about "what's going on [...] right now." Barker occasionally gave input on lyrical decisions as well for the first time. Some of the subject matter was inspired by lifestyle changes—the band members all became fathers before the album was released. The glum mood of the album was partially inspired by the September 11 attacks and the onset of the Iraq War. The mood was unsettling for DeLonge, whose brother is a Navy officer: "It was so weird because we'd all be glued to the TV, watching these bombs explode over another country. So I'd see all this and wonder where he was at, and then we'd have to go into the next room and sing or finish writing lyrics. I think it affected our moods throughout the day." Barker felt that anger and aggression — oftentimes due to his divorce from his first wife, Melissa Kennedy — sank into his recorded parts. In addition, some of the lyrics were inspired by the band simply socializing together: "We would just hang out for hours talking. It was really cool," said DeLonge.

Songs
The record opens with "Feeling This", which features flanged drums and an unconventional "syncopated Latin-flavored backbeat and a harmony-rich chorus" following a series of "half-barked" vocals. It was the first song written for the album and illustrates a scenario of lust, ambivalence, and regret, with the protagonist of the song reflecting over his romance's dimming flame in the chorus: "Fate fell short this time / Your smile fades in the summer." Hoppus and DeLonge wrote the song in two different rooms and upon meeting to discuss the song, the two realized they had both written about sex—the passionate, lustful side (reflected in the verses) and the romantic side (the choruses). "Obvious" opens with a brooding, discordant guitar riff, and explores the Wall of Sound technique. "I Miss You" is an all-acoustic affair, featuring a melancholy piano, cello, upright acoustic bass, and a "brushstroked hip-hop groove." The song features references to Tim Burton's 1993 animated film The Nightmare Before Christmas with "We can live like Jack and Sally" and "We'll have Halloween on Christmas". In interviews and the liner notes for Blink-182, Barker reveals that the line was directed towards his then girlfriend, Shanna Moakler.

"Violence" equates broken hearts with global warfare. It explores a jazzy spoken-word style and was envisioned as an account of a fictional femme fatale being lusted after by strangers at a late-night bar. "Stockholm Syndrome", named for the psychological condition, focuses thematically on paranoia: “[It's about] being afraid of the outside world [and] convinced that people can hear your thoughts," Hoppus said. It contains an interlude preceding it, in which actress Joanne Whalley reads letters Hoppus's grandfather wrote to his grandmother during World War II. DeLonge called the valentines "real sincere, genuine [correspondence] from the worst war in history." "Down" continues the theme of longing; DeLonge developed the song imagining a couple in a car, overcome by desire during a cascading rainfall. The original version of "Down" ran over six minutes long, and contained a drum and bass breakdown from Barker. "The Fallen Interlude", which functions as an near-instrumental outro to "Down", finds Barker showcasing different percussive techniques over a funk-tinged jazz sound. It was recorded with Sick Jacken of hip-hop band Psycho Realm. "Go" is an urgent, broken family diegesis from Hoppus filtered through vivid snapshots of his childhood: “Locked outside the door back in '83 / I heard the angry voice of the man inside / And saw the look of fear in my mother's eyes.” Hoppus confirmed the song was about domestic violence in the album's booklet, but stopped short of much else in an interview: "It's not specifically about my mother... I feel weird talking about it."

"Asthenia" is named after the breakdown of life in space, and centers on a lonely, stranded astronaut viewing Earth from a capsule, indifferent about returning. DeLonge said the song was "about the loss of hope"; it was spawned by his personal torment regarding the future, and how war and famine might affect the world. The intro uses real NASA transmissions from the Apollo 9 space flight. "Always" is a love letter to new wave music, with an uptempo backbeat, dry production and dreamy keyboard riffs. The band often called the track the "'80s song" while making it. "Easy Target" and "All of This" stem from a story from producer Jerry Finn. While in middle school, Finn had a crush with a female classmate, Holly, who invited him over to her house. When he rode there on his bicycle, she and a friend drenched him with a hose, and he rode home humiliated. "All of This" is a gothic-tinged pop song that uses strings and guitar effects to create a moody atmosphere. Hoppus described "Here's Your Letter" as about "people's inability to communicate with one another and how words and explanations only confuse the issues." "I'm Lost Without You" mixes an industrial loop with piano. The latter track took many months to create, and took "over 50" different tracks, including two drum sets combined during the last minute of the song. Barker described the idea for the percussion combination as "something we always wanted to do, but never got around to" and believed the song sounded like Pink Floyd or Failure.

"Not Now", a B-side recorded during the sessions, is occasionally appended to the album. It features a church organ in its verses and guitar riffs reminiscent of the Descendents. Its subject matter continues the theme of complicated miscommunication and fading love.

Packaging and title
Due to some contradicting sources, the title of the album (or lack thereof) is debated. Travis Barker, in his memoir Can I Say, writes that "Some people think it's a self titled album, called Blink-182, but Mark [Hoppus] has always insisted it was actually untitled." A 2003 interview and article from MTV News discussing the naming of the pending album repeatedly refers to the release as the "untitled album," while a press release from that time period confirms the same. Despite this, several critics have used the terms "eponymous", "untitled", and "self-titled" in describing the album. In a 2009 MTV News article, James Montgomery refers to the album as self-titled, joking, "Or untitled … It's never really been clear." The title for the album was originally rumored to be Use Your Erection I & II, a parody of the Guns N' Roses albums Use Your Illusion I and II, but was revealed to be a joke Barker made to "get a rise out of people." DeLonge, in reference to previous joke album titles (such as Enema of the State), stated, "We didn't want to label it with a joke title that people might expect." As such, a Billboard article from the week of the album's release lists three rejected joke titles: Diarrhea de Janeiro, Vasectomy, Vasect-a-you and "Our Pet Sounds".

To support the new album, Blink-182 created an entirely new logo, a "smiley face" with Xs for each eye and five arrows on the left side of its face. According to Barker, the Blink-182 logo originated at his clothing line, Famous Stars and Straps. Barker wanted to brand an icon for the band: "It just had to be a cool kind of happy face but I wanted arrows. You know, like the Jam were my favorite band, they always had arrows in their logos and stuff. It was just kind of inspired by pop-art." Hoppus seconded this sentiment: "He spearheaded all the artwork for the record. There were smiley-face stickers and posters all over Los Angeles, and that was his idea." Barker invited his tattoo artist, Mister Cartoon, to create artwork for the record, and his friend Estevan Oriol to handle photography. "His style, incorporated into Blink's, didn't make us too gangster: it just gave us a bit of an edge. It was cool to feel like Blink had a dangerous side", Barker later remembered.

The album's booklet is ornate, and each song includes small notes detailing the lyrical inspiration for each song, what it means to each band member, and the recording techniques used. musicOMH described the album booklet as "...meticulously put together and resembling a Warholian pastiche." The band originally wanted each CD booklet to be made from canvas material. Geffen gave the band a choice between the custom artwork or keeping the sale price down to US$12, and the band chose the latter, as they felt it was more important that young listeners obtain the record for less money. Mark Hoppus stated that the album was so "personal to all three of us that we really wanted to be involved in every aspect of it." The enhanced CD contains small, home-made videos for several songs, as well as the official music video for "Feeling This".

Promotion and singles
Untitled was the band's first release on Geffen Records, which absorbed sister label MCA in 2003. Prior to it dissolving, MCA had attempted to penalize the band for breaking stipulations in their contract that they would have an album out by a specific quarter. MCA had previously rushed the band into recording Take Off Your Pants and Jacket, but the band had much more freedom with Geffen. "Geffen came down and heard three songs and they said, 'This is the best record you've ever done, this is the record of your career, take as much time as you want, call us when it's done,'" DeLonge stated. "It just completely outlined the perspective of putting accounting before creative, and when you're in the entertainment business, you've got to put creative first. It's an art, you've got to look at it like an art, treat it like an art, and then you'll get the best product in the long run."

Promotion for the record included a "golden ticket" contest – the prize being a private Blink-182 show for the winner. MTV's website streamed the full album a week before its release, beginning on November 10. As promotion for the album and single release[s], the band performed "Feeling This" on Jimmy Kimmel Live! a week after the release of the album on November 26, 2003, and "Down" on Late Show with David Letterman on May 27, 2004. Performances of "I Miss You" and "The Rock Show" on The WB's Pepsi Smash concert series from June 10, 2004, were released on the Australian Tour edition of the album, as well as the "Always" single.

The band picked "Feeling This" as the first single because it was representative of the transition the band had undergone since Take Off Your Pants and Jacket. A slightly different version of the song had been released previously as part of the soundtrack for the video game Madden NFL 2004 under the erroneous title "Action". Barker explained in an interview that "'Action' just sounded kind of dorky to us. Like we would always call it 'Feeling This' and then someone at our label, I think, like wrote it as 'Action' one time and sent out singles to people. And it was always supposed to be 'Feeling This'." The video for "Feeling This" was recorded shortly before the release of the album in October 2003. The track peaked high at number 2 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart, hovering at that position for three weeks. "I Miss You" was commissioned as the record's second single in December 2003 when the band recorded a music video for it. "I Miss You" became arguably the most successful single from the album, becoming Blink-182's second number one hit on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart during the week of April 3, 2004, until dethroned by Hoobastank's "The Reason" two weeks later.

Despite briefly considering "Easy Target" to be released as the album's third single, "Down" was released instead. The video for "Down", which features real-life ex-gang members, made its television premiere in June 2004. The single was a mixed success, peaking at number 10 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart during the week of July 31, 2004, but quickly falling off afterward. "Always" was announced as the fourth and final single from Blink-182 in August 2004. "It's gonna change people's lives and might actually change the world forever", DeLonge jokingly predicted. After deciding on the video concept, the clip was recorded and released in November 2004 and continued success all the way into January 2005. A fifth single from the album ("All of This") was discussed; however, plans were dropped following the band's declaration of an 'indefinite hiatus' in February 2005. In response to the idea of "All of This" becoming a possible single, DeLonge joked "We would love it because it's a bad-ass song, and The Cure's Robert Smith sings on it, and that makes us cooler than everybody else."

Critical reception
The album received generally favorable reviews by music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 71, based on 12 reviews. Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone, while giving the album four stars, wrote that "...their lyrics are still unsophisticated and lovelorn, but even the poppiest tunes prove artful". Her review regards Blink-182 as "more experimental and harder-hitting than anything else [the band] has done". It was subsequently included in the Top 50 Best of 2003 end of the year list by Rolling Stone. The album was given four stars by AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine, who called Blink-182 "an unexpected and welcome maturation from a band that just an album ago seemed permanently stuck in juvenilia." Blender's Jonah Weiner praised DeLonge's vocals, describing them as a "lean, thrilling ride through adolescent hopelessness." Many critics expressed surprise at the newfound maturity of the band,  and lauded the surprise appearance of The Cure vocalist Robert Smith on the track "All of This".

The band's decision in favor of more mature material was received positively by many critics; Tim Newbound of Soul Shine Magazine wrote that "Blink show that they can retain their infectious and endearing qualities while recording music of a more thoughtful calibre." Spin described the record as emotionally intense and best experienced through headphones. USA Today Edna Gundersen felt that "Blink-182 bravely adheres to a single sober theme — a disintegrating romance — through 14 songs that adhere to its pop punk principles without recycling cartoonish accessories. Blink-182 is growing up, not growing stale." Nick Catucci of The Village Voice called the album "brilliant" and compared Blink-182 to fellow pop punk band Green Day's 2000 effort, Warning, writing, "Let it be noted, however, that Warning searches for subject matter where Blink-182 searches for meaning." Greg Kot of Entertainment Weekly wrote that "Despite their newfound earnestness, [the band] seem incapable of pretension. And in a career littered with songs about awkward moments, their latest is a dork classic." Scott Shelter of Slant gave the album four stars, stating "Giving up the fart jokes is risky business for Blink—but Blink-182 might just be the band's best album to date." Among the more negative reviews, Jason Arnopp of Q felt the majority of material forgettable but commended it as "some of their most imaginatively constructed work." The A.V. Club Stephen Thompson believed "The disc [does] meander in spots, and its most achingly sincere love songs become cloying."

Commercial performance
The album debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of 313,000 copies. In comparison, Take Off Your Pants and Jacket debuted at number one and sold more than 350,000 copies in its first week. The album charted at number three, below fellow new album In the Zone by Britney Spears (number one) and above remix album Let It Be... Naked by The Beatles (number five). The self titled album charted highest in Canada, where it debuted at number one. The album was also successful in other countries, debuting in the top ten in Australia and New Zealand. According to the IFPI, Blink-182 was the forty-ninth highest-selling album worldwide in 2003.

The album was certified by the RIAA as platinum for shipments of over one million copies in 2004, although it has since sold over 2.2 million copies in the US and 7 million copies worldwide. It was certified by both the Music Canada and the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) as double platinum. The album has also reached platinum certifications in the United Kingdom.

Touring
Blink-182 announced their first tour in support of Untitled on October 17, 2003, named the DollaBill Tour. The all-ages club tour featured support acts Bubba Sparxxx and The Kinison, and, as the name suggests, tickets were sold for $1. DeLonge explained the first return to small venues in several years in the initial press release for the tour: "For years we played in small clubs and that's where you can really connect with your fans." The tour ended shortly after the release of Untitled on November 21, 2003, at local San Diego venue SOMA. An additional concert at the Phoenix Concert Theatre on December 2, 2003, was held in Toronto, Ontario, Canada with My Chemical Romance as the opener.

A performance at KWOD's Twisted X-Mas show shortly before Christmas 2003 became the final show of the year, and a European tour followed in mid-February 2004. During an Australian tour in March 2004, Barker injured his foot and the band was forced to cancel tour dates in Japan for the rest of the month. A U.S. tour took place from late April to May 2004, and a highly publicized tour featuring Blink-182 and No Doubt was performed during June 2004 in support of Untitled and No Doubt's The Singles 1992–2003. The cancelled Australian tour dates were rescheduled and performed in August and September 2004. The band appeared on September 17, 2004, at the MTV Icon tribute to The Cure, performing a cover of "A Letter to Elise" and "All of This", which was recorded and later broadcast on October 31, 2004. The band headed to Europe for a two-week tour near the end of the year, which culminated at their final show on December 16, 2004, at the Point Theatre in Dublin, Ireland.

Although the band had planned for a U.S. tour in support of "Always", tensions within the band had risen on the final European tour and the band announced an 'indefinite hiatus' on February 22, 2005, as breakup rumors swirled. After touring through 2004, the three essentially stopped communicating with one another. Hoppus initially had difficulty accepting the group's new direction. After some tragic events involving the band and its entourage, Blink-182 reunited in February 2009.

Legacy
Blink-182 was released at a cultural moment when the pop-punk and emo scenes were coalescing to a mainstream peak, and as a new wave of artists indebted to the band, like Fall Out Boy, Paramore, or Panic! at the Disco, came to fill their place. It also fell at the tail-end of an "imperial phase" for the band: fifteen months after its release, the band had broken up, ending what many fans regard as their classic period. In the ensuing years, Blink-182 developed a legacy due to the relative silence that followed it. "I Miss You" became a cross-generational aughts classic, due in part to DeLonge's endlessly meme-able singing style. Shirts emblazoned with the album's "smiley" artwork became common fixtures in Hot Topic over the decades. And while the band would reconcile and continue to tour and make albums, Blink-182 remains a singular touchstone in its catalog—to both fans and the band themselves.

All three members of the band viewed it as a "huge turning point" in their career, marking a change in the way they write and record music, as well as view themselves. In his memoir Can I Say, Barker writes: "It had a little bit of everything: we ventured far enough outside our genre to make ourselves happy, but not so far that we offended our fan base. It was a perfect happy medium, and it's the Blink album that Mark, Tom, and I are most proud of." Critics agreed: Chris Lee at the Los Angeles Times referred to Untitled as the band's "underrated masterwork," writing that the record is generally considered by "fans, critics and band members alike as its best work, Blink's answer to Pet Sounds or Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band." Jon Blistein of Radio.com called the album "an unquestionable masterpiece" in the site's "Not Fade Away" series, which examines "some of the greatest albums of the past few decades." The band celebrated the tenth anniversary of the album by performing it in full in November 2013. After a pair of Hollywood Palladium shows sold out in a record 32 seconds, the band added three additional dates at The Wiltern in Los Angeles, which also sold out.

Two decades after its heyday, it continues to influence younger generations of bands. Hardcore group One Step Closer have professed a love for the album, and Eric Hamm from Citizen called himself a "big fan" of the album. Parker Cannon of the Story So Far described the album as a blueprint to remaining authentic in his career: "[Blink] were just like, “Yeah, it is a crazy time, and we're going to write the most progressive body of work that we've ever done, and we don't necessarily care if you like it or not. This is who we are.' So seeing them doing that—and seeing other peers I've had in music not do that—has showed me how to stay the course and how to stay true."

Track listing

 * Digital releases set the spoken-word section of track 4 "Violence", performed by Joanne Whalley, as a separate track titled "Stockholm Syndrome Interlude", incrementing all subsequent tracks by 1.

Personnel
Per the Blink-182 liner notes.

Blink-182
 * Mark Hoppus – bass, vocals
 * Tom DeLonge – guitars, vocals
 * Travis Barker – drums, percussion, backing vocals on "Obvious", whispers on "Down"

Additional personnel
 * Robert Smith – vocals on "All of This"
 * Ron "Menno" Froese – guitar, vocals and engineering on "The Fallen Interlude"
 * Roger Joseph Manning, Jr. – keyboards
 * John Morrical – additional keyboards on "All of This", assistant engineer
 * Ken Andrews – additional instruments on "Violence" and "Obvious"
 * Joanne Whalley – spoken words on "Stockholm Syndrome Interlude"

Artwork
 * Max Gramajo – cover illustration (with Blink-182)
 * Estevan Oriol – photography
 * Sonny Flats – design, layout
 * Scandalous – design, layout
 * Mr. Cartoon – design, layout

Production
 * Jerry Finn – producer, mixing engineer of "Feeling This", "The Fallen Interlude", "Asthenia", and "Here's Your Letter"
 * Sick Jacken – producer of "The Fallen Interlude"
 * Nikos Constant – producer
 * Moises Velez – producer
 * Tom Lord-Alge – mixing engineer of "Obvious", "I Miss You", "Down", and "All of This"
 * Andy Wallace – mix engineer of "Violence", "Stockholm Syndrome", "Go", and "Easy Target"
 * Ryan Hewitt – mix engineer of "Always" and "I'm Lost Without You", engineer
 * Sam Boukas – assistant engineer
 * James McCrone – assistant engineer
 * Alan Mason – assistant engineer
 * Seth Waldman – assistant engineer
 * Steve Sisco – assistant engineer
 * Femio Hernandez – assistant engineer
 * Brian Gardner – mastering engineer

title: Blink-182 (album)


text:
Benjamin Lundy

Benjamin Lundy (January 4, 1789 – August 22, 1839) was an American Quaker abolitionist from New Jersey of the United States who established several anti-slavery newspapers and traveled widely. He lectured and published seeking to limit slavery's expansion and tried to find a place outside the United States to establish a colony in which freed slaves might relocate.

As William Lloyd Garrison pointed out in a eulogy, Lundy was not the first American abolitionist, but "he was the first of our countrymen who devoted his life and all his power exclusively to the cause of the slaves."

Early and family life
Lundy was born to Joseph and Elizabeth Shotwell Lundy, both Quakers, at Greensville, Hardwick Township, Sussex County, New Jersey. His mother died when he was four, but he became close to his stepmother, Mary Titus Lundy. As a boy, he worked on his father's farm, attending school for only brief periods. In 1804, New Jersey passed a law allowing gradual emancipation of slaves, although the 1810 census in Sussex County showed that more than half of the 758 black people were still enslaved.

However, by that time, young Lundy had moved to Wheeling, Virginia (now in West Virginia). In 1808 he was apprenticed to a saddler. On the Ohio River, Wheeling was on important transit point of the interstate slave trade, with coffles of slaves often marched through town. Many would be shipped down the Ohio River toward Kentucky (a slave state) and additional slave states down the Mississippi River. In Wheeling, Lundy saw firsthand many iniquities inherent in the institution of slavery, including the use of horsewhips and bludgeons to force barefoot human beings to walk through mud and snow. He determined to devote his life to the cause of abolition. Lundy also became acquainted with a local Quaker family, the Stantons, who lived a dozen miles west from Wheeling, in Mt. Pleasant, Ohio. Ohio did not permit slavery, and Benjamin Stanton would become a U.S. Congressman from that district, and two decades after Lundy's death, his brother Edwin Stanton would become Secretary of War under President Abraham Lincoln.

In December 1814 Lundy and Esther Lewis declared their intent to marry in the local Quaker meeting, and did so on February 13, 1815. Her brother William married Lydia Stanton, sister of David Stanton (Edwin Stanton's father). On November 18, 1815 they had their first child, Susan Maria Lundy Wierman (d. 1899). In the following decades, Esther bore two more sons, Charles Tallmadge Lundy (1821-1870) and Benjamin Clarkson Lundy (1826-1861), and two additional daughters, Elizabeth (1818-1879) and Esther (1826-1917).

Career
The young family settled in Saint Clairsville, Ohio, where Lundy soon built up a profitable saddlery business along the highway west (that later became Interstate 70). In 1815, he and five others also organized an anti-slavery association, known as the Union Humane Society, which within a few months had a membership of more than 500. Prominent members included lawyer journalist Charles Hammond, James Wilson (grandfather of President Woodrow Wilson) and Joseph Howells (father of William Dean Howells). Fellow Quaker Charles Osborne, who editing the Philanthropist (later moved to Cincinnati), also showed him journalism and printing basics.

On his birthday, January 4, 1816, Lundy published a circular indicating his intent to found a national anti-slavery society to focus antislavery sentiment and activity. That became his life's work. He named his first son to honor James Tallmadge, whose antislavery speech in the U.S. House on February 16, 1819, Lundy printed in full.

Missouri, Ohio, and Tennessee
Lundy decided to liquidate his saddlery business in favor of a publishing business. He and three apprentices moved their stock to St. Louis, Missouri, then the center of a national slavery controversy. However, that area too was gripped by a national depression since the Panic of 1819. His side lost—Missouri was admitted as a slave state as a result of the Missouri Compromise of 1820.

The intrepid activist lost goods he valued at over $1000, then trudged 700 miles back to St. Clairville, only to find that Osborne had sold his printing business to Elisha Bates, who did not need additional help. Lundy then established his own anti-slavery paper, the Genius of Universal Emancipation, at Mount Pleasant, Ohio, with the first issue published in January 1821. This periodical, first a monthly and later a weekly, was published successively in Ohio, Greenville, Tennessee, Baltimore, Maryland, the District of Columbia and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It appeared irregularly, and at times, when Lundy was away on lecturing tours, was issued from any office that he could access. Newspapers including the Niles Weekly Register, the New York Spectator and papers from Connecticut and Edwardsville, Illinois reprinted Lundy's exposés.

However, anti-slavery activism did not pay well, and slaveholders did not believe Lundy's arguments that slavery stifled progress, despite his comparisons of the relative prosperity of New York and Pennsylvania with Virginia. Lundy had been recruited to Greenville, Tennessee to work against slavery in a slave state after the death of Elihu Embree, but he found the hostility formidable. Lundy used the equipment purchased from Embree's estate to begin publishing the American Economist and Weekly Political Reporter with more standard farm prices, business and political news in 1822. He also continued to lecture against slavery, and in 1824 attended the American Convention for the Abolition of Slavery, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where he connected with other activists, including Robert Purvis. He also traveled to New York to meet with Quaker activist Elias Hicks and to lecture against slavery in North Carolina.

Baltimore and the District of Columbia
After selecting Baltimore to re-establish his business after deciding to move from Tennessee, Lundy moved his family to Maryland in October, 1825. This enabled Lundy to print his newspaper weekly instead of monthly or even less frequently. Lundy also published a biography of Harford County, Maryland, philanthropist and abolitionist Elisha Tyson, as well as a proposal for the gradual emancipation of slaves. In 1826, a slaveowner offered to free twelve slaves if Lundy would accompany them to Haiti. He did so, but found on his return that his wife Esther had died giving birth to twins, and his children were scattered among friends.

On January 9, 1827 Baltimore's most notorious slave-trader, Austin Woolfolk, whom Lundy had been investigating in public records since his move to Baltimore and severely criticizing, assaulted Lundy as he walked along a downtown street. Head-kicks and other injuries until bystanders pulled the strapping Woolfolk off his slightly-built victim confined Lundy to his bed for several days. Woolfolk pleaded guilty to assault, but Judge Nicholas Brice agreed with Woolfolk's lawyers that Lundy had provoked it by criticizing Woolfolk's lawful occupation, and therefore sentenced the slave trader to a one-dollar fine and court costs. He also urged Woolfolk to bring criminal libel charges against Lundy, but a grand jury refused to indict him.

From September 1829 until March 1830, Wm. Lloyd Garrison assisted Lundy in editing the Genius. At this time, the paper was located in Baltimore. Both deplored slavery, but Garrison advocated immediate emancipation on American soil, while Lundy was committed to schemes of colonization abroad. Within a few months, while Lundy traveled in Mexico, Garrison published an exposé of an October slaving voyage of a ship owned by his former neighbor, Francis Todd of Newburyport, Massachusetts, in a deal brokered by Woolfolk. Garrison also published radical articles demanding immediate emancipation, and asserting that the domestic slave trade was as piratical as the foreign. His column the "Black List" detailing atrocities brought trouble, since Garrison was not as careful as Lundy had been at avoiding libels. In February 1830 Maryland charged Garrison with criminal libel, and Woolfolk's ally Judge Brice sentenced Garrison to a fifty dollar fine plus court costs, and a six-month jail term if he did not pay. This so reduced the Genius's circulation that a friendly dissolution of the partnership between Lundy and Garrison took place after Garrison finished his jail term (where he was treated as a political prisoner and dined with the warden and his wife, as well as wrote extensively). However, Garrison returned to Boston (where he suffered a mob attack in 1835), although Woolfolk's trade also diminished, supplanted by Franklin & Armfield of Alexandria (at the time in the District of Columbia). Lundy followed the trade, shortly afterwards moving his newspaper paper to Washington, D.C., where, after some years under different ownership, it failed.

Haiti, Canada, Texas and Mexico—and Philadelphia
Besides traveling through many states of the United States to deliver anti-slavery lectures (reportedly the first to do so), Lundy visited Haiti twice (in 1825 and 1829); the Wilberforce Colony of freedmen and refugee slaves in Canada in 1830-1831 (perhaps in part avoiding controversy after publishing about Nat Turner's Rebellion); and Texas, in 1832 and again in 1833. Lundy also sought to find a suitable place outside the United States where emancipated slaves might be sent. Between 1820 and 1830, he traveled “more than 5000 miles on foot and 20,000 in other ways, visited 19 states of the Union, and held more than 200 public meetings.” Slaveholders bitterly denounced him, and many non-slaveholders disapproved his anti-slavery agitation.

In 1836-1838 Lundy edited a new anti-slavery weekly, The National Enquirer, which the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society had founded in Philadelphia, as well as wrote extensively about the troubles in Texas and Mexico, especially as they related to slavery. Lundy became a leading voice in denouncing the Texas Revolution as a method to perpetuate slavery in Texas in defiance of Mexico's ban on it. When former president John Quincy Adams came to Philadelphia on his birthday, July 11, 1836, Lundy escorted him to meet other Quakers, including James Mott and his wife Lucretia Mott. Under the editorship of John G. Whittier, Lundy's successor, that paper became The Pennsylvania Freeman.

Lundy purchased a farm near the Clear Creek Meeting House (the westernmost establishment of the Hicksite Friends), as well as the new village of Lowell, Illinois. He printed several issues of the re-established Genius of Universal Emancipation on a borrowed press in nearly Hennepin, Illinois.

Death and legacy
Lundy died after an August fever and brief illness at his farm in Lowell, aged fifty. Shortly after his death, his family and friends in Philadelphia published his autobiographical Life Travels and Opinions of Benjamin Lundy. Lucretia Mott remembered him in her 1848 speech to the American Anti-Slavery Society in New York.

One hundred years later, a bronze plaque was dedicated to the pioneer abolitionist and placed at his gravesite. The tribute reads, "It was his lot to struggle, for years almost alone, a solitary voice crying in the wilderness, and, amidst all, faithful to his one great purpose, the emancipation of the slaves."

His house in Mount Pleasant is a National Historic Landmark.

title: Benjamin Lundy