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Manawatāwhi / Three Kings Islands

The Manawatāwhi / Three Kings Islands (Manawatāwhi is also the Māori name for the largest island) are a group of 13 uninhabited islands about 55 km northwest of Cape Reinga / Te Rerenga Wairua, New Zealand, where the South Pacific Ocean and Tasman Sea converge. They measure 6.85 km2 in area. The islands are on a submarine plateau, the Three Kings Bank, and are separated from the New Zealand mainland by an 8 km wide, 200 to 300 m deep submarine trough. Therefore, despite relative proximity to the mainland, the islands are listed with the New Zealand Outlying Islands. The islands are an immediate part of New Zealand, but not part of any region or district, but instead Area Outside Territorial Authority, like all the other outlying islands except the Solander Islands.

History

During the Last Glacial Maximum when sea levels were over 100 metres lower than present day levels, most offshore islands of New Zealand were connected to the mainland. Manawatāwhi / Three Kings Islands, while connected to each other, were not connected to the rest of New Zealand. Sea levels began to rise 7,000 years ago, separating the individual islands in the group.

Manawatāwhi was traditionally settled by Muriwhenua Māori. In Māori mythology, Ōhau (West Island) is the final glimpse of New Zealand seen by departing spirits, after leaving the world at Cape Reinga / Te Rerenga Wairua. Some Te Aupōuri traditions associate the name of the island, Manawatāwhi ("panting breath"), with the ancestor Rauru, who swam to the islands and arrived exhausted. Members of Ngāti Kurī would periodically come to the islands as a refuge during times of warfare, and to harvest hāpuku, seabirds and eggs.

`Most of the larger islands were inhabited, and the Great Island was cleared by Māori of vegetation to grow tuber crops such as kūmara. No defensive pā sites are found on the island, likely as the people who lived on Manawatāwhi did not feel threatened due to the islands' distance from the mainland.

Dutch explorer Abel Tasman bestowed the name Drie Koningen Eyland (Three Kings Island) on 6 January 1643, three weeks after he became the first European known to have seen New Zealand. Tasman anchored at the islands when searching for water. As it was the Twelfth Night feast of the Epiphany, the day the biblical three kings known as the wise men visited Christ the child, he named the main island accordingly. Tasman also named a prominent cape Cape Maria van Diemen, after the wife of Anthony van Diemen, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). These are the only two geographic features in New Zealand to retain the names given to them by Abel Tasman. Tasman noted a group of 30-35 inhabitants on the island when attempting to come ashore to replenish water supplies, and saw no trees on the island. Since Tasman's visit, several European ships sighted the island, such as French botanist Jacques Labillardière on board the Recherche in 1793.

In the late 1700s, a party of mainland Te Aupōuri led by Taiakiaki travelled to the islands and killed the approximate 100 inhabitants, led by Toumaramara. Between 1800 and 1830 Te Aupōuri visited sporadically, however did not settle permanently. Tame Porena (also known as Tom Bowline) married Taiakiaki's granddaughter, and settled on the islands with his family of twelve children in the 1830s and 1840s, establishing large gardens, until starvation forced them to relocate to the mainland. Since then, nobody has settled on the islands permanently. Botanist Thomas Frederic Cheeseman visited the islands in 1887 and 1889, documenting the plant species present on the islands for the first time. Cheeseman noted that the Great Island had begun to reforest since Māori settlement.

The islands were purchased by the New Zealand government in 1908 from seven Māori people, and declared an animal sanctuary in 1930. A population of goats (left on the Manawatāwhi Island in November 1889 as a food source for shipwrecked people) had run rampant, reaching numbers of 300-400 goats by 1900. This led Baden Powell of the Auckland War Memorial Museum, who visited in a group, to petition the government to deal with the goat population. In 1946 the goat population were shot and removed from the island, leading to the regeneration of forest on Manawatāwhi. However, 50 species described by Cheeseman in the 1880s have not been described again, and by the 1980s two plant species were only represented by one wild specimen. In 1956, the islands were declared a reserve for the preservation of flora and fauna.

There have been several notable research expeditions that have concentrated on studying the fauna and flora of the Three Kings island group including the Three Kings Islands expedition 1970.

Geography
The Three Kings group falls into two subgroups with four main inhospitable islands and a number of smaller rocks on a submarine plateau called King Bank which rises out of extremely deep water. There are no beaches. The surrounding sea has very clear visibility and contains teeming fish life, attracting hundreds of divers. Another attraction is the wreck of the Elingamite which foundered there on 9 November 1902.

Manawatāwhi / Great Island
With an area of 4.04 km2, Manawatāwhi / Great Island is by far the largest island of the group. A northeastern peninsula, with an area of about 1 km2, is almost cut off by a 200 m wide but more than 80 m high isthmus formed by North West Bay and South East Bay. The island reaches an elevation of 295 m in the western part, while the peninsula is up to 184 m high near its western cliffs. The southern portion consists of the Tasman Valley, a series of rolling hills that drain into the Tasman Stream. Most of the Māori archaeological features on the islands are found in this area.

Oromaki / North East Island
A smaller island about 0.10 km2 in size and reaching a height of 111 m, approximately 1 km northeast of Manawatāwhi. The island is surrounded by 70-90m high cliffs. Māori stonework and terracing can be found on the island.

Farmer Rocks
Farmer Rocks, 0.8 km east of Manawatāwhi / Great Island, are 5 metres high and just a few hundred square metres in size.

Moekawa / South West Island
The second largest island of the group, at 0.38 km2 and a height of 207 m. It is about 4.5 km southwest of Great island. The island is surrounded by 80-120m high cliffs.

The Princes Islands
The Princes Islands are seven small islets and numerous rocks with a total area of about 0.2 km2, start 600 m west of South West Island and stretch about 1.8 km east–west. The north-eastern islet is the highest at 106 m. The smallest islet is Rosemary Rock. These islands are sparsely vegetated.

Ōhau / West Island

The third largest island at 0.16 km2, found 500m southwest of the westernmost of the Princes Islands. It is 177m high, surrounded by 40-130m high cliffs. The island plays an important part in the traditional Māori belief that the spirits of dead Māori return to their Pacific homeland of Hawaiki. Near Cape Reinga on the mainland, sometimes translated as the underworld, is a gnarled Pōhutukawa tree reputed to be more than 800 years old. The spirits are believed to journey to the tree and down its roots into the sea bed. They are said to surface again on Ōhau and say a last farewell to New Zealand before going on to Hawaiki.

Geology
The islands have a volcanic origin.

Flora
In 1945, G. T. S. Baylis made a remarkable discovery on the Three Kings Islands, when he found the last remaining specimen anywhere of a tree which is now called Pennantia baylisiana, a kaikomako. It was recognised internationally as the world's rarest and thus most endangered tree. Extremely careful propagation in New Zealand has resulted in the species being reliably established, but it continues to be carefully monitored. The islands were made a wildlife sanctuary in 1995. Other plants endemic to the islands include Tecomanthe speciosa and Elingamita johnsonii.

Fauna
The Three Kings have extremely high levels of endemism, even compared to other isolated islands. About 35% of its beetle species are found nowhere else, and there are six endemic genera: Gourlayia (Carabidae), Heterodoxa and Pseudopisalia (both Staphylinidae), Partystona and Zomedes (both Tenebrionidae) and Tribasileus (Anthribidae). There are probably another seven undescribed endemic genera.

Falla's skink (Oligosoma fallai) is a reptile species only found on these islands.

Geobiology
There is considerable evidence that the Three Kings Islands have not been recently connected to the North Island landmass but have been connected to each other by land bridges. Genetic studies of different insect populations have suggested different separation times from similar species found in the North Island varying from 24 million years ago to 2.24 million years ago. Further, some species of these islands that are within eyeshot of northern New Zealand have stronger genetic links to species now found in Australia or New Caledonia or no genetic links to present New Zealand species. These include the flax snail, Placostylus bollonsi Suter

Nature reserve
Three Kings Island is a nature reserve administered by the Department of Conservation. Rats and mice were never introduced to the Three Kings, although goats were introduced to Great Island and caused significant damage to the vegetation and soil.

title: Manawatāwhi / Three Kings Islands


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DHL Group

Deutsche Post AG, trading as DHL Group, is a German multinational package delivery and supply chain management company headquartered in Bonn, Germany. It is one of the world's largest courier companies. The postal division, Deutsche Post, delivers 61 million letters each day in Germany, making it Europe's largest such company. The parcel division DHL is a wholly owned subsidiary claimed to be present in over 220 countries and territories. DHL Group was the largest logistics company worldwide in 2022.

DHL Group is the successor to the German mail authority Deutsche Bundespost, the oldest modern postal service in the world, tracing its roots to the middle ages. It was privatized in 1995 and became a fully independent company in 2000. Since its privatization, Deutsche Post has significantly expanded its business area through acquisitions. In late 2014, the group acquired StreetScooter GmbH, a small manufacturer of electric vehicles. Two years later, the group acquired UK Mail, a business-focused postal service in the UK for US$315.5 million (£243 million). The former company became a division of the Deutsche Post European parcel network.

The 2016 earnings of Deutsche Post DHL Group before interest and taxes (EBIT) was €3.491 billion (up 44.8 percent over 2015), with a net profit of €2.64 billion on revenue of €57.334 billion. Return on equity, before taxes, was 27.7 percent. The group's long term credit rating, in November 2016, was BBB+ with a Stable outlook per Fitch's. DHL Group is listed on the Börse Frankfurt (Frankfurt Stock Exchange) as DHL and is in the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. In 2016, 20.5% of the group's shares were held by the state-owned KfW bank; 79.5% were freely floating: 65.6% held by institutional and 10.8% by private investors.

Recent history
DHL Group has become a large, world-wide company in about two decades. The following are significant dates in the development into its current form.
 * 2 January 1995: Deutsche Bundespost Postdienst becomes Deutsche Post AG; this is the company's privatization. The government of Germany still owns a large share of the company; the state development bank KfW owns 50 percent.
 * 1998: Deutsche Post begins acquiring shares in DHL International.
 * 1999: Deutsche Post World Net acquires the Dutch distribution company Van Gend & Loos from Nedlloyd and in 2000 the Swiss distribution company Danzas.
 * 20 November 2000: Deutsche Post AG becomes a fully private company, with a new board of directors, in an IPO listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. The government of Germany sells one third of its shares and KfW bank sells some of its shares.
 * December 2002: Deutsche Post AG acquires the remaining shares in DHL International.
 * August 2003: The company acquires the Seattle-based Airborne Express (est. 1946). The company integrates Van Gend & Loos, Danzas, Airborne Express, and its own EuroExpress into DHL to form DHL Express.
 * December 2005: The group acquires the logistics company Exel in the UK, a £3.7 billion (€5.5 billion) takeover; Exel provided transport for corporate customers.
 * 2006: DHL GlobalMail UK merges with Mercury International.
 * December 2014: The group acquires StreetScooter GmbH, a small manufacturer of electric vehicles in Aachen, Germany.
 * December 2016: The group completes the purchase of UK Mail, a business-focused postal service - "one of the largest integrated parcels and mail operations in the U.K." - for US$315.5 (£243) million. The former company becomes a division of the Deutsche Post European parcel network, although its web site reveals only a relationship with DHL Express.
 * February 2019: The group reaches an agreement with SF Express (SF Holding) for its supply chain operations in China.

Post and parcel division
The postal division delivers approximately 61 million letters every working day in Germany, and provides services across the entire mail value chain, including production facilities at central hubs, sales offices and production centers on four continents.

This division inherited most of the traditional mail services formerly offered by the state-owned monopoly, for which it uses the Deutsche Post brand. Its exclusive right to deliver letters under 50 grams in Germany expired on 1 January 2008, following the implementation of European legislation. In 2002, Deutsche Post was granted a license to deliver mail in the United Kingdom, breaking Royal Mail's long-standing monopoly.

In 2016, in Germany alone, the Post & Parcel (P&P) division delivered over 1.2 billion parcels, an increase of 9.3% over 2015, much of it as result of shipping products purchased by customers on-line. The e-commerce aspect helped to generate a great deal of revenue. This division's revenue increased by 4.1 percent to €16.8 billion while earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) increased by 30.8 percent to over €1.4 billion.

eCommerce division
Since financial year 2019, DHL Group has been pooling its international parcel delivery operations in the eCommerce division.

Express division
The DHL Express division offers worldwide courier, express and parcel shipment service, combining air and ground transport, under the DHL brand. It owns five airlines: European Air Transport Leipzig, DHL Air UK, DHL Aero Expreso, SNAS/DHL and Blue Dart Aviation.

In 2016, this division's revenue increased by 2.7 per cent to €14 billion. The operating profit before interest and taxes (EBIT) increased by 11.3% over 2015 to €1.5 billion.

Express is divided into business units along regions:
 * Europe
 * Asia Pacific
 * Americas
 * Europe, the Middle East and Africa

Global Forwarding – Freight division
The DHL Global Forwarding division carries goods by rail, road, air and sea under the DHL brand and includes the DHL Freight operation which runs a ground-based freight network covering Europe, Russia and traffic into the Middle East. In 2016, this division's revenue declined by 7.7 percent to €13.7 billion but operating profit before interest and taxes (EBIT) improved from -€181 million in 2015 to +€287 million.

Supply Chain division
The DHL Supply Chain division provides contract logistics and corporate information. In 2016, this division's revenue decreased by 11.6% to €14.0 billion versus 2015, but operating profit improved by 27.4% to €572 million.

The division consists of two main business units:
 * DHL Supply Chain provides warehousing and warehouse transport for customers from a wide variety of sectors.
 * Corporate Information Solutions handles documents (collection, digitalisation, printing, storage, archival) of all types.

In July, 2020, Deutsche Post DHL Group significantly increased earnings in Q2 2020 despite COVID-19. Operating profit (EBIT) improved by around 16% to around EUR 890 million.

Electric van manufacturing
In December 2014, Deutsche Post DHL Group purchased StreetScooter GmbH, a small manufacturer of electric vehicles in Aachen, Germany. By April 2016, the company announced that it would produce 2,000 of the StreetScooter Work model in Aachen by year end.

The Work vehicle is equipped with lithium-ion battery packs and is powered by 30 kW asynchronous electric motors. The peak/continuous output is stated as 48 kW/38 kW. The range (before the need to recharge) is said to be 50 to 80 km, depending on the weight of the load and traffic conditions. The load capacity is 710 kg.

Deutsche Post's 2016 annual report indicates that it plans to replace its fleet of delivery vehicles in Germany with the electric StreetScooter products "in the medium term". Electric vans and trucks with a much greater range will be required to achieve the very long-term goal of replacing the group's entire fleet of approximately 70,000 vehicles with electric StreetScooter vehicles.

A mass production plan was announced in April 2016. StreetScooter GmbH would be scaling up to manufacture approximately 10,000 vehicles annually, starting in 2017. If that goal is achieved, it will become Europe's largest electric light utility vehicle manufacturer, surpassing Renault, which makes vans such as the Kangoo Z.E.

StreetScooter showed a larger prototype, the Work L, in September 2016 that will provide double the capacity in cargo size; its load capacity will be 1,000 kg. The range (before recharging is necessary) is estimated at "up to 100 km". The company also announced that it was developing a Work Orange model with an "electro-hydraulic three-way dumper" for use by businesses that deal in trash or construction material handling.

In 2021 plans for the sale of Streetscooter to Luxembourg-based Odin Automotive, now B-ON, were reported.

Brands

 * Deutsche Post – offers domestic mail services under its traditional name; the division is called Post - eCommerce - Parcel (PeP).
 * DHL – brand used as an umbrella brand for worldwide logistics services.
 * Power Packaging – supplier of food and beverage contract manufacturing and packaging services to North American companies.
 * StreetScooter – electric vehicle manufacturer owned by the group since December 2014.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: DHL Group


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Tongan

Tongan may refer to:
 * Something of, from, or related to the country of Tonga
 * Tongans, people from Tonga
 * Tongan language, the national language of Tonga
 * Tong'an District, a district in Xiamen, Fujian, China

title: Tongan


text: Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion

title: Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion


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Roman Republic (1849–1850)

The Roman Republic (Repubblica Romana) was a short-lived state declared on 9 February 1849, when the government of the Papal States was temporarily replaced by a republican government due to Pope Pius IX's departure to Gaeta. The republic was led by Carlo Armellini, Giuseppe Mazzini, and Aurelio Saffi. Together they formed a triumvirate, a reflection of a form of government during the first century BC crisis of the Roman Republic.

One of the major innovations the Republic hoped to achieve was enshrined in its constitution: freedom of religion, with Pope Pius IX and his successors guaranteed the right to govern the Catholic Church. These religious freedoms were quite different from the situation under the preceding government, which allowed only Catholicism and Judaism to be practised by its citizens. The Constitution of the Roman Republic was the first in the world to abolish capital punishment in its constitutional law.

Start of the Republic
On 15 November 1848, Pellegrino Rossi, the Minister of Justice of the Papal government, was assassinated. The following day, the liberals of Rome filled the streets, where various groups demanded a democratic government, social reforms and a declaration of war against the Austrian Empire to liberate long-held territories that were culturally and ethnically Italian. On the night of 24 November, Pope Pius IX left Rome disguised as an ordinary priest, and went out of the state to Gaeta, a fortress in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Before leaving, he had allowed the formation of a government led by Archbishop Carlo Emanuele Muzzarelli, to whom he wrote a note before leaving: "We entrust to your known prudence and honesty to inform the minister Galletti, engaging him with all the other ministers not only to defend the palaces, but especially the persons near you that did not know Our decision. Because not only you and your family are dear to Our heart, We repeat they did not know Our thinking, but much more We recommend to those Sirs tranquillity and order of the whole City."

The government issued some liberal reforms which Pius IX rejected. When securely established in Gaeta, he organised a new government. A delegation was created by the High Council established by the Pope and the mayor of Rome, and sent to reassure the Pope and ask him to come back as soon as possible. This delegation was composed of the mayor himself, Prince Tommaso Corsini, three priests – Rezzi, Mertel and Arrighi – Marchese Paolucci de Calboli, doctor Fusconi and lawyer Rossi. However, they were stopped at the state boundary at Terracina. The Pope, informed of this, refused to speak to them. In Rome a Costituente Romana was formed on 29 November. Without a local government in Rome, for the first time in recent history, popular assemblies gathered. Margaret Fuller described the procession under a new flag, a tricolore sent from Venice, that set the flag in the hands of the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius at the Campidoglio, and the angry popular reaction to papal warnings of excommunication for political actions of November received from Gaeta and posted on the 3rd. The Costituenti decided to schedule direct and universal elections (electors were all the citizens of the State, male and over 21 years old) on the following 21 January 1849. Since the pope had forbidden Catholics to vote at those elections (he considered the convocation of the election "a monstrous act of felony made without a mask by the sponsors of the anarchic demagogy", an "abnormal and sacrilegious attempt... deserving the punishments written both in the divine and the human laws"), the resulting constitutional assembly (informally known as "The Assembly of the Damned") had a republican inclination. In each and every part of the Papal States, less than 50% of the potential voters went to the polls.

The voters were not asked to express themselves on the parties but to vote for individuals. The lawyer Francesco Sturbinetti, who had led the Council of the Deputies, received the most votes, followed by Carlo Armellini, the physician Pietro Sterbini, Monsignor Carlo Emanuele Muzzarelli (in whose hands Pius had left the city), and Carlo Luciano Bonaparte, Prince of Canino. The aristocracy was represented by a prince, six marquises, fifteen counts and three other nobles. The new assembly was dominated by the bourgeoisie, the affluent, professionals and employees. It included twenty-seven owners, a banker, fifty-three jurists and lawyers, six graduates, twelve professors, two writers, twenty-one doctors, one pharmacist, six engineers, five employees, two merchants, nineteen military officers, one prior and one monsignore.

On 2 February 1849, at a political rally held in the Teatro Apollo, a young Roman ex-priest, the Abbé Arduini, made a speech in which he declared that the temporal power of the popes was a "historical lie, a political imposture, and a religious immorality."

The Constitutional Assembly convened on 8 February and proclaimed the Roman Republic after midnight on 9 February. According to Jasper Ridley: "When the name of Carlo Luciano Bonaparte, who was a member for Viterbo, was called, he replied to the roll-call by calling out Long live the Republic!" (Viva la Repubblica!). That a Roman Republic was a foretaste of wider expectations was expressed in the acclamation of Giuseppe Mazzini as a Roman citizen.

When news reached the city of the decisive defeat of Piedmontese forces at the Battle of Novara (22 March), the Assembly proclaimed the Triumvirate, of Carlo Armellini (Roman), Giuseppe Mazzini (Roman) and Aurelio Saffi (from Teramo, Papal States), and a government, led by Muzzarelli and composed also by Aurelio Saffi (from Forlì, Papal States). Among the first acts of the Republic was the proclamation of the right of the Pope to continue his role as head of the Roman Church. The Triumvirate passed popular legislation to eliminate burdensome taxes and to give work to the unemployed.

Giuseppe Garibaldi formed the "Italian Legion", with many recruits coming from Piedmont and the Austrian territories of Lombardy and Venetia, and took up a station at the border town of Rieti on the border with the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. There the legion rose to about 1,000 and gained discipline and organization.

The Pope asked for military help from Catholic countries. Saliceti and Montecchi left the Triumvirate; their places were filled on 29 March by Saffi and Giuseppe Mazzini, the Genoese founder of the journal La Giovine Italia, who had been the guiding spirit of the Republic from the start. Mazzini won friends among the poor by confiscating some of the Church's large landholdings and distributing them to peasants. He inaugurated prison and insane asylum reforms, freedom of the press, and secular education, but shied away from the "Right to Work" or work guarantee programs for unemployed poor, having seen the compromise National Workshops measure of Louis Blanc fail in France shortly before.

However, the government's policies (lower taxes, increased spending) were fiscally expansionary and involved a decrease in the value of the currency.

Piedmont was at risk of attack by Austrian forces, and the Republic's movement of troops in the area was a threat to Austria (which was certainly capable of attacking Rome itself). The commander-in-chief of Austrian forces in Milan, Count Joseph Radetzky von Radetz, had remarked during the "Five Glorious Days" of Milan, "Three days of blood will give us thirty years of peace".

But the Roman Republic would fall to another, unexpected enemy. In France, newly elected President Louis Napoleon, who would soon declare himself emperor Napoleon III, was torn. He himself had participated in an insurrection in the Papal States against the Pope in 1831, but at this point, he was under intense pressure from ultramontane French Catholics, who had voted overwhelmingly for him. Additionally, an intervention into Rome would expand French influence in Italy while weakening Habsburg influence, both being foreign policy goals of Louis Napoleon. Thus, though he hesitated to betray Italian liberals, Louis Napoleon ultimately decided to send French troops to restore the Pope.

French siege

On 25 April, 1849, some eight to ten thousand French troops under General Charles Oudinot landed at Civitavecchia on the coast northwest of Rome, while Spain sent 4,000 men under Fernando Fernández de Córdova to Gaeta, where the Pope remained in his refuge. The French sent a staff officer the next day to meet with Giuseppe Mazzini with a stiff assertion that the pope would be restored to power. The revolutionary Roman Assembly, amid thunderous shouts of "Guerra!, Guerra!", authorised Mazzini to resist the French by force of arms.

The French expected little resistance from the usurpers. But republican resolve was stiffened by the charismatic Giuseppe Garibaldi's long-delayed triumphal entry into Rome at last, on 27 April, and by the arrival on 29 April of the Lombard Bersaglieri, who had recently driven the Austrians from the streets of Milan with new tactics of house-to-house fighting. Hasty defences were erected on the Janiculum wall, and the villas on the city's outskirts were garrisoned. On 30 April, Oudinot's out-of-date maps led him to march to a gate that had been walled up sometime before. The first cannon shot was mistaken for the noon-day gun, and the astonished French were beaten back by the fiercely anti-clerical Romans of Trastevere, Garibaldi's legionaries and citizen-soldiers, who sent them back to the sea. But despite Garibaldi's urging, Mazzini was loath to follow up their advantage, as he had not expected an attack by the French and hoped that the Roman Republic could befriend the French Republic. The French prisoners were treated as ospiti della guerra ("guests of war") and sent back with republican tracts citing Article V of the most recent French constitution: "France respects foreign nationalities. Her might will never be employed against the liberty of any people". As a result, Oudinot was able to regroup and await reinforcements; time proved to be on his side, and Mazzini's attempt at diplomacy proved fatal to the Roman Republic. A letter from Louis Napoleon encouraged Oudinot and assured him of French reinforcements. The French government sent Ferdinand de Lesseps to negotiate a more formal ceasefire. Neapolitan troops sympathetic to the papacy entered Roman Republic territory, and de Lesseps suggested that Oudinot's forces in their current position might protect the city from the converging approach of an Austrian army with the Neapolitan force: the Roman Triumvirate agreed. Many Italians from outside the Papal States went to Rome to fight for the Republic: among them was Goffredo Mameli, who had tried to form a common state joining the Roman Republic and Tuscany, and who died of a wound suffered in the defence of Rome.

The siege began in earnest on 1 June, and despite the resistance of the Republican army, led by Garibaldi, the French prevailed on 29 June. On 30 June the Roman Assembly met and debated three options: to surrender; to continue fighting in the streets of Rome; to retreat from Rome and continue the resistance from the Apennine mountains. Garibaldi made a speech in which he favoured the third option and then said: Dovunque saremo, colà sarà Roma. ("Wherever we may be, there will be Rome!").

A truce was negotiated on 1 July and on 2 July Garibaldi, followed by some 4,000 troops, withdrew from Rome for refuge in the neutral Republic of San Marino. The French Army entered Rome on 3 July and reestablished the Holy See's temporal power. In August Louis Napoleon issued a sort of manifesto in which he asked of Pius IX a general amnesty, a secularized administration, the establishment of the Code Napoléon, and in general a Liberal Government. Pius, from Gaeta, promised reforms that he declared motu proprio, that is, of his own volition, not in answer to the French.

The pope did not return to Rome itself until April 1850, since the French were considered liberals all the same, and the pope would not return until assured of no French meddling in his affairs. In the interim, Rome was governed by a reactionary "Red Triumvirate" of cardinals. French soldiers propped up the papal administration in Rome until they were withdrawn at the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, leading to the subsequent capture of Rome and annexation by the Kingdom of Italy. According to Raffaele De Cesare: "The Roman question was the stone tied to Napoleon's feet – that dragged him into the abyss. He never forgot, even in August 1870, a month before Sedan, that he was a sovereign of a Catholic country, that he had been made emperor, and was supported by the votes of the conservatives and the influence of the clergy; and that it was his supreme duty not to abandon the pontiff. […] For twenty years Napoleon III had been the true sovereign of Rome, where he had many friends and relations […] Without him the temporal power would never have been reconstituted, nor, being reconstituted, would have endured.'"

title: Roman Republic (1849–1850)


text:
List of Disneyland attractions

Disneyland is a theme park, conceived by Walt Disney, within the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California. As of June 2023, Disneyland has 52 attractions with 49 rides (The term "attractions" is used by Disney as a catch-all term for rides, shows, and exhibits.)

Below is an incomplete list of the current attractions found in Disneyland, arranged by "land". These are only attractions from the Disneyland Park itself, not from Disney California Adventure Park, or other parts of the Disneyland Resort. Character meets are not listed in this article.

Main Street, U.S.A.

 * Disneyland Railroad
 * Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln
 * The Disney Gallery
 * Main Street Vehicles
 * Main Street Cinema

Adventureland

 * Walt Disney's Enchanted Tiki Room
 * Jungle Cruise
 * Indiana Jones Adventure: Temple of the Forbidden Eye
 * Adventureland Treehouse

New Orleans Square

 * Pirates of the Caribbean
 * The Haunted Mansion
 * Disneyland Railroad

Critter Country

 * Rivers of America
 * Davy Crockett Explorer Canoes
 * The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh

Future attractions
 * Tiana's Bayou Adventure (opening in 2024)

Frontierland

 * Big Thunder Mountain Railroad
 * Rivers of America
 * Mark Twain Riverboat
 * Pirate's Lair on Tom Sawyer Island
 * Sailing Ship Columbia
 * Frontierland Shootin' Exposition

Mickey's Toontown

 * Mickey & Minnie's Runaway Railway
 * Disneyland Railroad
 * Mickey's House and Meet Mickey
 * Minnie's House
 * Roger Rabbit's Car Toon Spin
 * Chip 'n' Dale's GADGETcoaster
 * CenTOONial Park
 * Goofy's How-To-Play Yard
 * Donald's Duck Pond

Fantasyland

 * Fantasyland Theatre
 * It's a Small World
 * Mr. Toad's Wild Ride
 * Peter Pan's Flight
 * Pinocchio's Daring Journey
 * Pixie Hollow
 * Snow White's Enchanted Wish
 * Storybook Land Canal Boats
 * Dumbo the Flying Elephant
 * Casey Jr. Circus Train
 * Alice in Wonderland
 * Matterhorn Bobsleds
 * King Arthur Carrousel
 * Mad Tea Party
 * Sleeping Beauty Castle Walkthrough

Tomorrowland

 * Astro Orbiter
 * Autopia
 * Star Tours – The Adventures Continue
 * Buzz Lightyear Astro Blasters
 * Space Mountain
 * Disneyland Monorail
 * Disneyland Railroad
 * Finding Nemo Submarine Voyage
 * Star Wars Launch Bay

Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge

 * Millennium Falcon: Smuggler's Run
 * Star Wars: Rise of the Resistance

Parades

 * Magic Happens (2020; 2023) (2024–present)

Seasonal Parades

 * A Christmas Fantasy Parade

Former Parades

 * Main Street Electrical Parade (1972–1996, 2017, 2019, 2022)
 * Light Magic (1997)
 * Paint the Night (2015–2017)
 * Mickey's Costume Party Cavalcade (2010–2012)

Former Seasonal Parades

 * Frightfully Fun Parade (2016–2018)

Fountains

 * The Heartbeat of New Orleans — A Living Mural (2023–present)

Fireworks

 * Fantasmic! (1998–2016; 2017–2020; 2022–2023; 2024–present)
 * Fire of the Rising Moons (2024–present)
 * Together Forever – A Pixar Nighttime Spectacular (2018, 2024–present)

Seasonal Fireworks

 * Believe... In Holiday Magic
 * Disney's Celebrate America (Every 4th of July)
 * Halloween Screams
 * Fantasy in the Sky: Special New Year's Eve Countdown (every December 31)

Former Fireworks

 * Fantasy in the Sky (1958–1999; 2015; 2016–2017; 2019)
 * Believe... There's Magic In The Stars (2000–2004)
 * Imagine... A Fantasy in the Sky (2004–2005)
 * Remember... Dreams Come True (2005–2009; 2010–2014; 2017–2018; 2018–2019)
 * Magical: A Nighttime Spectacular of Magical Celebrations (2009–2014)
 * Disneyland Forever (2015–2016; 2019; 2022)
 * Mickey's Mix Magic (2019; 2022; 2024)
 * Wondrous Journeys (2023; 2024)

title: List of Disneyland attractions


text:
Talk:List of Disneyland attractions

Untitled
I created this article after a bit of discussion at Talk:Disneyland. It was originally going to be "List of Disneyland attractions", but I thought it would be more helpful to split it into two (this article and the forthcoming List of past Disneyland attractions). One thing I'd like to mention to potential editors is that the names of all the attractions in this article are taken from Disneyland maps and the Disneyland website. The reason why certain attractions have quotation marks, certain ones start with "The" while no others do, and why "it's a small world" has quotation marks and is all lowercase, is because those are the official Disney spellings as found in the maps and on the website. I have tried my best to give accurate descriptions of all the attractions, but there are some (such as the Winnie the Pooh ride) that I am just not familiar with, so if you are, or if you think any of these descriptions are inaccurate, please feel free to edit them. And, of course, this list should be kept up-to-date; if any new attractions come in they should be on here, and if the part gets rid of any attractions they should go into List of past Disneyland attractions. The order of the "lands" in this article is for easier compatibility with the past attractions article. Your friend Richie, end of letter. -Branddobbe, 3:25 PM PST, Nov 22 2003.

Disneyland vs Dland Park nearing edit wars
Hey, folks, refer to this page from the Disney corp itself, where it uses Disneyland Resort to refer to the whole shebang made up of "Disney's California Adventure park" and "Disneyland park", among other things. In other words, they know that since they've got 2 things--a resort and a park--named "Disneyland", even they know that referring simply to "Disneyland" could be confusing. However, "park" is not capitalized. I have edited the first paragraph to be clear about all of this. I hope it meets everyone's satisfaction. Elf | Talk 04:01, 9 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Actually, in at least two places on this page, the 'P' in "Disneyland Park" is capitalized. - Brian Kendig 11:01, 9 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * That's only in places where it's in a title--as in "Disneyland Park at a Glance" and the "Disneyland Park" logo thing, where lowercase would look really odd. Where it occurs in text, park is lowercase. See, I have an answer for everything. ;-)   Elf | Talk 16:21, 9 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Very good point. Before I read it I send a request to Disney (via the 'Contact Us' form on their web site) asking what the proper ways are to refer to the park, and when/if I get an answer from them I'll make sure Wikipedia reflects it, but meanwhile I think you've got a good rule-of-thumb. - Brian Kendig 18:21, 9 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * That sounds like a good idea. (By the way, I don't think it was really threatening to turn into an edit war.) -Branddobbe 07:26, Aug 10, 2004 (UTC)

 * Oh, you're right, there was no personal namecalling and invectives. ;-) Actually if I had thought it was getting to that flash point, I usually wouldn't have just popped in and edited the page.  The official word from Disney would be a great thing, if indeed they deign to respond.  Thanks!  Elf | Talk 18:14, 10 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Mr. Toad's Wild Ride
Hasn't "Mr. Toad's Wild Ride" been replaced with Pooh? Or is that only at Disneyworld? Also, the page contains a "spoiler" warning without any actual spoilers. - Nunh-huh

 * I haven't been to DW, but at DL, Toad & Pooh are in different parts of the park. Mr. Toad is still a popular ride. I wouldn't object to spoiler note  being removed. Elf | Talk 00:11, 28 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Good to know. It's a favorite ride of those who visited as children...and surprisingly scary at that age. The closing in WDW was a scandal... - Nunh-huh 00:14, 28 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Monorail
The monorail used to stop at the Disneyland hotel, but as the article now correctly states, no longer. (It's also a crime that it does not stop in California Adventure - Walt would doubtless turn over in his grave, except that he's probably melted from doing that by now ...). —Morven 08:54, Aug 30, 2004 (UTC)

 * Ooops! My bad!  It doesn't seem that long ago when I boarded the monorail at the ugly old Disneyland Hotel station.  Upon a little research, I found that the Downtown Disney station is in the same place as the old Disneyland Hotel station.  They merely demolished some of the shops and places near it like the Monorail Cafe and Neon Cactus lounge.  It's the same distance to the hotel, but instead of stepping out of the Monorail for a quiet walk back to your hotel room, you have to walk through more crowds.  Progress, eh?  (and I want the PeopleMovers back!) Rabit 02:38, 2004 Aug 31 (UTC)

 * We were talking about this at dinner tonight, how the station really was in the same place but it *seemed* farther to the hotel rooms, and bemoaning the fact that Walt wasn't immortal, and missing the Monorail Cafe (my sister's paper napkins are served from a napkin holder just like the ones at MC, which they started selling when so many people complained about it closing that they discovered they could make $ selling MC memorabilia...). Elf | Talk 05:34, 31 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I remember when part of the huge Disneyland sign that greeted visitors for years as they first drove into the park showed up on eBay, and the bids were up into the five digits as I remember. Ah well, at least it's better that the stuff ends up in the hands of people who'll care for them rather than rust away in storage.  Rabit 06:22, 2004 Aug 31 (UTC)

 * What got me about that sign, when I first saw it (mid 90s) was how ... faded and tatty they'd let it get. As if they were deliberately letting it go to seed because they wanted to replace it anyway. —Morven 07:46, Aug 31, 2004 (UTC)

Mr. Lincoln
Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln is closed now, but what about The Walt Disney Story? Is that still open? -Branddobbe 20:58, Feb 26, 2005 (UTC)

Standardization
Should we italicize the names of the rides/attractions? I don't think the Wikipedia style guide says anything about this one way or another. -Branddobbe 19:12, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I don't think it's needed. The main entries here are already bold, which is plenty. The names within sentences are all capitalized (except it's a small world ;-) ) and I think that's plenty. Italics are harder to read and, with so many attraction names used in the various disneyland articles, it could start looking cluttered without adding any new information. Just curious why you were thinking about this, though, in case I've missed something obvious.  Elf | Talk 20:22, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I was looking through some articles on Disneyland rides, and while most weren't italicized, some were, and I was just wondering if there was some sort of policy on that. -Branddobbe 20:30, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Hmmm, not that I know of. Let's make one! :-) I vote for using bold if needed rather than italic.  But then, I haven't looked at lots of the other Disney or other types of amusement park articles to conduct a poll as to what's really out there. I'm guessing that'll be what someone oughta do to form a recommended policy statement.  Elf | Talk 20:37, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

Tarzan's Treehouse
There doesn't seem to be a seaprate article for this attaction yet; in addition to the photo I just put on this page, the following are also available:

Star Tours
Currently the Star Tours description states:

The riders are "supposed to" be taking a trip on a space cruiser to the forest moon of Endor, but the robotic pilot (voiced by Paul Reubens) manages to mess things up and get the ship into all sorts of trouble, including icy comets and battles at the Death Star, before safely making it to the moon, where the passengers disembark.

I believe this is incorrect where it states that disembarkment occurs at the Endor moon. Rex passes the moon and that's when the comets happen. Disembarkment happens after returning to the Star Tours' base. If memory serves C3PO states, "We hope you have enjoyed your visit to the Endor moon". I will correct that in the article. Kinglag 21:23, 26 April 2006 (UTC)

Star Tours is in MGM not the Tomorrowland (in DisneyWorld that is. I am unsure where it is in Disneyland.) User:68.83.177.190|68.83.177.190]] 22:41, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

Height Discrepancy
The change to 1/100 scale in reference to the Matterhorn Bobsleds is correct. The ride is 147 feet tall and the mountain 14,693.

Ryan Moore 21:30, 15 November 2006 (UTC)

Club 33: an attraction?
I'd like to know what others think about the inclusion of Club 33 in this list. An anonymous editor has recently added it here. I believe it shouldn't be included here, but I'm certainly willing to entertain logical counterarguments. My reasoning is that as a restaurant (and especially as a private club), Club 33 doesn't fit Disney's definition of an "attraction" ("rides, shows, and exhibits," according to the lead), and so it doesn't belong in a "list of Disneyland attractions". Disneyland's own literature doesn't appear to categorize Club 33 as an attraction. Our list currently doesn't include any other restaurants or park features inaccessible to the general public; why make an exception for this one? Anyway, that's my thinking. Would anybody like to add an argument either way? AtticusX (talk) 01:51, 12 December 2012 (UTC)

 * That seems reasonable. Maybe the link could be shifted to the see also section rather than removed entirely? Themeparkgc   Talk  01:35, 15 December 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of Disneyland attractions


text:
Wikipedia:List of Wikipedians

Wikipedia:List of Wikipedians may also refer to:

 * List of Wikipedians by number of edits
 * List of Wikipedians by article count
 * Database reports/Longest active user editing streaks
 * List of Wikipedians by number of DYKs
 * List of notable Wikipedians
 * List of missing Wikipedians
 * List of Wikipedians by featured article nominations
 * List of Wikipedians by featured list nominations
 * List of Wikipedians who are subject to editing restrictions
 * (Historical) List of Wikipedians by number of recent edits
 * (Historical) List of Wikipedians in order of arrival

title: Wikipedia:List of Wikipedians


text:
User talk:Chantral

Hi Chantral :) I hope you like the place and choose to stay.

Some links that may be of use:
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How to edit a page
 * Village pump - ask questions you may have here, or leave a message on my talk page

I'm sorry if I was a bit harsh w/ you on Talk:Transsexual. Keep contributing :) Dysprosia 23:41, 22 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Chantral - If you're still here, please email me. I'd like to talk with you off-wiki. - UtherSRG 20:19, 25 Jan 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Chantral


text:
Talk:Rebecca Romijn

Untitled
Considering she is now divorced, maybe the article should be moved to "Rebecca Romijn" with "Rebecca Romijn-Stamos" as a redirect. MK2 04:26, 22 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Now that the divorce is official, and being as there have been no objections, I've gone ahead and moved the article to Rebecca Romijn. MK2 06:16, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * In future, please don't use cut-and-paste to move pages, as it loses authorship history (e.g. it currently looks like you wrote Rebeccea Romijn, but really it was written by all the people listed at http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rebecca_Romijn-Stamos&action=history). To move a page, use the "move" button found near the edit this page button. Thanks. Pcb21| Pete 12:11, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Sorry. I didn't know how that feature worked. I'll use it next time if I move another article. MK2 03:33, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Great, thanks! Pcb21| Pete 07:09, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Add Movie Credit for Lake City
She has a substantial role as Jennifer in this Sissy Spacek/Troy Garity movie.68.225.55.210 (talk) 05:06, 12 July 2009 (UTC)

Also, just a heads up, I added her role in "Run Ronnie Run!" to the film credits table. 2601:180:8301:1D20:21B:D3FF:FE18:AA37 (talk) 18:58, 20 April 2017 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 21:44, 17 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Rebecca Romijn in Marchesa 2.jpg

 * Why would anyone want to delete it? 76.202.192.102 (talk) 02:20, 21 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rebecca Romijn


text:
William Rosecrans

William Starke Rosecrans (September 6, 1819 – March 11, 1898) was an American inventor, coal-oil company executive, diplomat, politician, and U.S. Army officer. He gained fame for his role as a Union general during the American Civil War. He was the victor at prominent battles in the Western theater of the American Civil War. However, his military career ended after his disastrous defeat at the Battle of Chickamauga in 1863.

Rosecrans graduated in 1842 from the United States Military Academy, where he served in engineering assignments and was a professor before leaving the Army to pursue a career in civil engineering. At the start of the Civil War, he led troops from Ohio and achieved early combat success in western Virginia. In 1862, in the Western theater, he won the Battle of Iuka and the Second Battle of Corinth while under the command of Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. His brusque, outspoken manner and willingness to quarrel openly with superiors caused a professional rivalry with Grant (as well as with Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton) that would adversely affect Rosecrans' career.

Given command of the Army of the Cumberland, he fought against Confederate general Braxton Bragg at Stones River. He then outmaneuvered him in the brilliant Tullahoma campaign, driving the Confederates from Middle Tennessee. His strategic movements then caused Bragg to abandon the critical city of Chattanooga, Tennessee, but Rosecrans' pursuit of Bragg ended during the bloody Battle of Chickamauga, where his unfortunately worded order mistakenly opened a gap in the Union line and Rosecrans and a third of his army was swept from the field. Besieged in Chattanooga, Rosecrans was relieved of command by Grant.

Following his humiliating defeat, Rosecrans was reassigned to command the Department of Missouri, where he opposed Price's Raid. After the war, he served in diplomatic and appointed political positions and in 1880 was elected to Congress, representing California.

Early life and education
William Starke Rosecrans was born on a farm near Little Taylor Run in Kingston Township, Delaware County, Ohio, the second of five sons of Crandall Rosecrans and Jemima Hopkins. (The first child, Chauncey, died in infancy.) Crandall was a veteran of the War of 1812, in which he served as adjutant to General William Henry Harrison, and then subsequently ran a tavern and store as well as a family farm. One of Crandall's heroes, General John Stark, was the inspiration for William's middle name. Rosecrans was descended from the Dutch-Scandinavian nobleman Harmon Henrik Rosenkrantz (1614–1674), who arrived in New Amsterdam in 1651, but the family name changed spelling during the American Revolutionary War. His mother was the widow of Timothy Hopkins, a relative of Stephen Hopkins, the Colonial Governor of Rhode Island and a signer of the Declaration of Independence.

William had little formal education in his early years, relying heavily on reading books. At the age of 13, he left home to work as a store clerk in Utica, and later Mansfield, Ohio. Unable to afford college, Rosecrans decided to try for an appointment to the United States Military Academy. He interviewed with Congressman Alexander Harper, who had been reserving his appointment for his son, but Harper was so impressed by Rosecrans that he nominated him instead.

Despite his lack of formal education, Rosecrans excelled academically at West Point, particularly in mathematics, French, drawing, and English grammar. At the academy, he received his nickname, "Rosy," or more often, "Old Rosy." He graduated from West Point in 1842, fifth in his class of 56 cadets, which included notable future generals such as James Longstreet, Abner Doubleday, Daniel Harvey "D. H." Hill, and Earl Van Dorn. He was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the prestigious United States Army Corps of Engineers, reflecting his high academic achievement. At his graduation, he met Anna Elizabeth (or Eliza) Hegeman (1823–1883) of New York City and immediately fell in love. They were married on August 24, 1843. Their marriage lasted until her death on December 25, 1883. They had eight children.

Career
After graduating from West Point, Rosecrans was assigned to duty at Fort Monroe, Virginia, engineering sea walls. After a year, he requested assignment as a professor at West Point, where he taught engineering and served as post commissary and quartermaster. Although West Point was a strong bastion of Episcopal Protestantism, during this assignment, he converted to Catholicism in 1845. He wrote about this decision to his family, who had raised him in the Methodist faith, which inspired the youngest of his brothers, Sylvester Horton Rosecrans, to convert as well. Sylvester would become the first bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Columbus. Ultimately, both of Rosecrans's parents had deathbed conversions to Catholicism. According to University of Virginia historian William B. Kurtz, “unlike many men of his era content to leave religion to (that of) their wives, he played the central role in his family’s faith life."

Although most of the officers in his graduating class fought in the Mexican–American War, the War Department retained Rosecrans at West Point. From 1847 through 1853, he served on engineering assignments in Newport, Rhode Island, New Bedford, Massachusetts and (on temporary assignment to the United States Navy) at the Washington Navy Yard. During this period, Rosecrans sought several civilian jobs as an alternative way to support his growing family, now with four children. He applied for a professorship at the Virginia Military Institute in 1851, losing the position to fellow West Pointer Thomas J. Jackson.

While serving in Newport, Rhode Island, he volunteered his services as the engineer for the construction of St. Mary's Roman Catholic Church. The church is best known as the site of the wedding of John F. Kennedy and Jacqueline Bouvier in 1953 and was one of the largest churches constructed in the United States at that time. There is a memorial window in Rosecrans' honor in the church.

Rosecrans suffered a period of failing health and resigned from the Army in 1854, moving into civilian fields. He took over a mining business in Western Virginia (today West Virginia) and ran it extremely successfully. He designed and installed one of the first complete lock and dam systems in Western Virginia on the Coal River; today recognized as the Coal River Locks, Dams, and Log Booms Archeological District. In Cincinnati, he and two partners built one of the first oil refineries west of the Allegheny Mountains. He obtained patents for many inventions, including the first kerosene lamp to successfully burn a round wick and a more effective method of manufacturing soap. While Rosecrans was president of the Preston Coal Oil Company, in 1859, he was burned severely when an experimental "safety" oil lamp exploded, setting the refinery on fire. It took him 18 months to recover, and the resulting facial scars, most of which would later be covered by his beard, gave him the appearance of having a perpetual smirk. He had recovered from his injuries and was working to get the company in order when the Civil War began.

American Civil War
Just days after Fort Sumter surrendered, Rosecrans offered his services to Ohio Governor William Dennison Jr., who assigned him as a volunteer aide-de-camp to Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, who commanded all Ohio volunteer forces at the beginning of the war. Promoted to the rank of colonel, Rosecrans briefly commanded the 23rd Ohio Infantry Regiment, whose members included Rutherford B. Hayes and William McKinley, both future presidents. He was promoted to brigadier general in the Regular Army, ranking from May 16, 1861.

His plans and decisions proved extremely effective in the Western Virginia Campaign. His victories at Rich Mountain and Corrick's Ford in July 1861 were among the first Union victories of the war, but his superior, Maj. Gen. McClellan, received the credit. Rosecrans then prevented by "much maneuvering but little fighting" Confederate Brig. Gen. John B. Floyd and his superior, Gen. Robert E. Lee, from recapturing the area that became the state of West Virginia. When McClellan was summoned to Washington after the defeat suffered by Federal forces at the First Battle of Bull Run, General-in-Chief Winfield Scott suggested that McClellan turn over the West Virginia command to Rosecrans. McClellan agreed, and Rosecrans assumed command of the future Department of Western Virginia. In late 1861, Rosecrans planned for a winter campaign to capture the strategic town of Winchester, Virginia, turning the Confederate flank at Manassas, Virginia. He traveled to Washington to obtain McClellan's approval. McClellan disapproved, however, telling Rosecrans that putting 20,000 Union men into Winchester would be countered by Confederates moving an equal number into the vicinity. He also transferred 20,000 of Rosecrans's 22,000 men to serve under Brig. Gen. Frederick W. Lander, leaving Rosecrans with insufficient resources to do any campaigning. In March 1862, Rosecrans's department was converted to the Mountain Department and given to political general John C. Frémont, leaving Rosecrans without a command. He served briefly in Washington, where his opinions clashed with those of newly appointed Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton on tactics and Union command organization for the Shenandoah Valley campaign against Stonewall Jackson. Stanton became one of Rosecrans's most vocal critics. One of Stanton's assignments for Rosecrans was to act as a guide for Brig. Gen. Louis Blenker's division (Frémont's department) in the valley, and Rosecrans became intimately involved in the political and command confusion in the campaign against Jackson in the Valley.

Western Theater
Rosecrans was transferred in May 1862 to the Western theater and received the command of two divisions (the Right Wing) of Maj. Gen. John Pope's Army of the Mississippi. He took an active part in the siege of Corinth under Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck. He received command of the entire army on June 26, and in July, added the responsibility of commanding the District of Corinth. In these roles, he was the subordinate of Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, who commanded the District of Western Tennessee and the Army of the Tennessee, from whom he received direction in the Iuka-Corinth campaign in September and October 1862.

Iuka
Confederate Maj. Gen. Sterling Price had been ordered by Gen. Braxton Bragg to move his army from Tupelo toward Nashville, Tennessee, in conjunction with Bragg's Kentucky offensive. Price's army settled in Iuka and awaited the arrival of Maj. Gen. Earl Van Dorn's Army of West Tennessee. The two generals intended to unite and attack Grant's lines of communication in western Tennessee, which would prevent Buell's reinforcement if Grant reacted the way they expected, or might allow them to follow Bragg and support his Northern invasion if Grant acted more passively.

Grant did not wait to be attacked, approving a plan proposed by Rosecrans to converge on Price with two columns before Van Dorn could reinforce him. Grant sent Brig. Gen. Edward Ord with three Army of the Tennessee divisions (about 8,000 men) along the Memphis and Charleston Railroad to move upon Iuka from the northwest. Rosecrans's army would march in concert along the Mobile and Ohio Railroad, swinging into Iuka from the southwest, closing the escape route for Price's army. Grant moved with Ord's headquarters and had little tactical control over Rosecrans during the battle.

While Ord advanced toward Iuka on the night of September 18, Rosecrans was late, having farther to march over roads mired in mud; furthermore, one of his divisions took a wrong turn and had to countermarch to the correct road. That night, he notified Grant that he was 20 mi away, but planned to start marching again at 4:30 a.m. and should reach Iuka by midafternoon on September 19. Considering this delay, Grant ordered Ord to move within 4 mi of the town, but to await the sound of fighting between Rosecrans and Price before engaging the Confederates. Rosecrans' army marched early on September 19, but instead of using two roads as originally planned, it took only one of them. Rosecrans was concerned that if he used both roads, the two halves of his divided force could not support each other if the Confederates attacked.

Rosecrans was within 2 mi of the town on September 19, pushing back Confederate pickets, when his lead element was struck suddenly by a Confederate division. Fighting, which Price later stated he had "never seen surpassed," continued from 4:30 p.m. until after dark. A fresh north wind, blowing from Ord's position in the direction of Iuka, caused an acoustic shadow that prevented the sound of the guns from reaching him, and he and Grant knew nothing of the engagement until after it was over. Ord's troops stood idly while the fighting raged only a few miles away.

During the night, both Rosecrans and Ord deployed their forces in the expectation of a renewal of the engagement at daylight, but the Confederate forces had withdrawn. Price had been planning this move since September 18, and Rosecrans's attack merely delayed his departure. The Confederates used the road that the Union army had not blocked, meeting up with Van Dorn's army five days later. Rosecrans's cavalry and some infantry pursued Price for 15 mi, but owing to the exhausted condition of his troops, his column was outrun and he gave up the pursuit. Grant had partially accomplished his objective—Price was not able to link up with Bragg in Kentucky, but Rosecrans had not been able to destroy the Confederate army or prevent it from linking up with Van Dorn and threatening the critical railroad junction at Corinth.

The Battle of Iuka marked the beginning of a long professional enmity between Rosecrans and Grant. The Northern press gave accounts very favorable to Rosecrans at Grant's expense. Some rumors circulated that the reason Ord's column had not attacked in conjunction with Rosecrans was not that the battle had been inaudible, but that Grant had been drunk and incompetent. Grant's first report of the battle was highly complimentary to Rosecrans, but his second, written after Rosecrans had published his own report, took a markedly negative turn. His third statement was in his Personal Memoirs, where he wrote "I was disappointed at the result of the battle of Iuka—but I had so high an opinion of General Rosecrans that I found no fault at the time."

Corinth
Price's army joined Van Dorn's on September 28. Van Dorn, as the senior officer, took command of the combined force. Grant became certain that Corinth was their next target. The Confederates hoped to seize Corinth from an unexpected direction, isolating Rosecrans from reinforcements, and then sweep into Middle Tennessee. Grant sent word to Rosecrans to be prepared for an attack, but despite the warning, Rosecrans was not convinced that Corinth was necessarily the target of Van Dorn's advance. He believed that the Confederate commander would not be foolhardy enough to attack the fortified town and might well instead choose to strike the Mobile and Ohio Railroad and maneuver the Federals out of their position.

On the morning of October 3, three of Rosecrans's divisions advanced into old Confederate rifle pits north and northwest of town. Van Dorn began his assault at 10 a.m. as a planned double envelopment, in which he would open the fight on Rosecrans's left, in the hope that Rosecrans would weaken his right to reinforce his left, at which time Price would make the main assault against the Federal right and enter the works. The Confederates forced their way through a temporary gap in the line about 1:30 p.m., and the whole Union line fell back to within half a mile of the redoubts.

So far the advantage had been with the Confederates. Rosecrans had been driven back at all points, and night found his entire army, except pickets, inside the redoubts. Both sides had been exhausted by the fighting. The weather had been hot, with a high of 94 F, and water was scarce, causing many men to nearly faint from their exertions. Rosecrans's biographer, William M. Lamers, reported that Rosecrans was confident at the end of the first day of battle, saying, "We've got them where we want them", and that some of the general's associates claimed that he was in "magnificent humor." Peter Cozzens, however, suggested that Rosecrans was "tired and bewildered, certain only he was badly outnumbered—at least three to one by his reckoning." Civil War historian Steven E. Woodworth portrayed Rosecrans's conduct in a negative light: "Rosecrans ... had not done well. He had failed to anticipate the enemy's action, put little more than half his troops into the battle, and called on his men to fight on ground they could not possibly hold. He had sent a series of confusing and unrealistic orders to his division commanders and had done nothing to coordinate their activities, while he personally remained safely back in Corinth. The movements of the army that day had had nothing to do with any plan of his to develop the enemy or make a fighting withdrawal. The troops and their officers had simply held on as best as they could."

On the second day of battle, the Confederates moved forward at 9 a.m. to meet heavy Union artillery fire, storming Battery Powell and Battery Robinett, where desperate hand-to-hand fighting occurred. A brief incursion into the town of Corinth was repulsed. After a Federal counterattack recaptured Battery Powell, Van Dorn ordered a general retreat. At 4 p.m., reinforcements from Grant under the command of Brig. Gen. James B. McPherson arrived from Jackson. But the Battle of Corinth had effectively been over since 1 p.m. and the Confederates were in full retreat.

Once again, Rosecrans's performance during the second day of the battle has been the subject of dispute among historians. His biographer, Lamers, paints a romantic picture:

"One of Davies' men, David Henderson, watched Rosecrans as he dashed in front of the Union lines. Bullets carried his hat away. His hair flew in the wind. As he rode along he shouted: 'Soldiers! Stand by your country.' 'He was the only general I ever knew,' Henderson said later, 'who was closer to the enemy than we were who fought at the front.' Henderson (after the war, a Congressman from Ohio and Speaker of the House of Representatives) wrote that Rosecrans was the 'Central leading and victorious spirit. ... By his splendid example in the thickest of the fight he succeeded in restoring the line before it was completely demoralized; and the men, brave when bravely led, fought again.'"

Peter Cozzens, author of a recent book-length study of Iuka and Corinth, came to the opposite conclusion:

"Rosecrans was in the thick of battle, but his presence was hardly inspiring. The Ohioan had lost all control of his infamous temper, and he cursed as cowards everyone who pushed past him until he, too lost hope. ... Rosecrans's histrionics nearly cost him his life. 'On the second day I was everywhere on the line of battle,' he wrote with disingenuous pride. 'Temple Clark of my staff was shot through the breast. My saber-tache strap was caught by a bullet, and my gloves were stained with the blood of a staff officer wounded at my side. An alarm spread that I was killed, but it was soon stopped by my appearance on the field.'"

Rosecrans's performance immediately after the battle was lackluster. Grant had given him specific orders to pursue Van Dorn without delay, but he did not begin his march until the morning of October 5, explaining that his troops needed rest and the thicketed country made progress difficult by day and impossible by night. At 1 p.m. on October 4, when pursuit would have been most effective, Rosecrans rode along his line to deny in person a rumor that he had been slain. At Battery Robinett, he dismounted, bared his head, and told his soldiers, "I stand in the presence of brave men, and I take my hat off to you."

Army of the Cumberland
Rosecrans once again found that he was a hero in the Northern press. On October 24, he was given command of XIV Corps (which, because he was also given command of the Department of the Cumberland, would soon be renamed the Army of the Cumberland), replacing the ineffectual Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell, who had just fought the inconclusive Battle of Perryville, Kentucky, against Gen. Braxton Bragg, but was accused of moving too cautiously. Rosecrans was promoted to the rank of major general (of volunteers, as opposed to his brigadier rank in the regular army). The promotion was applied retroactive to March 21, 1862, so that he would outrank fellow Maj. Gen. Thomas; Thomas had earlier been offered Buell's command, but turned down the opportunity out of a sense of personal loyalty. Grant was not unhappy that Rosecrans was leaving his command.

In his role as an army commander, Rosecrans became one of the most popular generals in the Union Army. He was known to his men as "Old Rosy", not only because of his last name (the source for that nickname at West Point), but because of his large red nose, which was described as "intensified Roman". As a devout Catholic, he carried a crucifix on his watch chain and a rosary in his pocket, and he delighted in keeping his staff up half the night debating religious doctrine. He could swing swiftly from bristling anger to good-natured amusement, which endeared him to his men.

Stones River
Rosecrans's predecessor, Buell, had been relieved because of his desultory pursuit of Confederate Gen. Braxton Bragg following the Battle of Perryville. And yet, Rosecrans displayed similar caution, remaining in Nashville while he reprovisioned his army and improved the training of his cavalry forces. By early December 1862, General-in-Chief Henry W. Halleck had lost his patience. He wrote to Rosecrans, "If you remain one more week in Nashville, I cannot prevent your removal." Rosecrans replied, "I need no other stimulus to make me do my duty than the knowledge of what it is. To threats of removal or the like I must be permitted to say that I am insensible."

In late December, Rosecrans began his march against Bragg's Army of Tennessee, encamped outside Murfreesboro, Tennessee. The Battle of Stones River was the bloodiest battle of the war in terms of percentages of casualties. Both Rosecrans and Bragg planned to attack the other's right flank, but Bragg moved first, early in the morning of December 31, driving the Union army back into a small defensive perimeter. As he realized the severity of the surprise attack, Rosecrans demonstrated the nervous hyperactivity for which he was known in battle. He personally rallied his men along the line, and gave direct orders to any brigades, regiments or companies he encountered. Disregarding his own safety, he rode back and forth at the very front of his line and sometimes between his men and the enemy. As Rosecrans raced across the battlefield directing units, seeming ubiquitous to his men, his uniform was covered with blood from his friend and chief of staff, Col. Julius Garesché, beheaded by a cannonball while riding alongside.

"When disaster had enveloped half the army, and from that time to the end, Rosecrans was magnificent. Rising superior to the disaster that in a single moment had annihilated his carefully prepared plans, he grasped in his single hands the fortunes of the day. He stemmed the tide of retreat, hurried brigades and divisions to the point of danger, massed artillery, infused into them his own dauntless spirit, and out of defeat itself, fashioned the weapons of victory. As at Rich Mountain, Iuka and Corinth, it was his personal presence that magnetized his plans into success."

The armies paused on January 1, but the following day, Bragg attacked again, this time against a strong position on Rosecrans's left flank. The Union defense was formidable, and the attack was repulsed with heavy losses. Bragg withdrew his army to Tullahoma, effectively ceding control of Middle Tennessee to the Union. The battle was important to Union morale following its defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg a few weeks earlier, and President Abraham Lincoln wrote to Rosecrans. "You gave us a hard-earned victory, which had there been a defeat instead, the nation could scarcely have lived over."

Tullahoma
Rosecrans's XIV Corps was soon redesignated the Army of the Cumberland, which he kept in place occupying Murfreesboro for almost six months, spending the time resupplying and training, for he was reluctant to advance on the muddy winter roads. He received numerous entreaties from President Lincoln, Secretary of War Stanton, and General-in-Chief Halleck to resume campaigning against Bragg, but rebuffed them through the winter and spring. A primary concern of the government was that if Rosecrans continued to sit idly, the Confederates might move units from Bragg's army in an attempt to relieve the pressure that Union Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was applying to Vicksburg, Mississippi. Lincoln wrote to Rosecrans, "I would not push you to any rashness, but I am very anxious that you do your utmost, short of rashness, to keep Bragg from getting lost to help Johnston against Grant." Rosecrans offered an excuse that if he started to move against Bragg, Bragg would likely relocate his entire army to Mississippi and threaten Grant's Vicksburg Campaign even more; thus, by not attacking Bragg, he was helping Grant. Frustration with Rosecrans's excuses led Halleck to threaten to relieve him if he did not move, but in the end he merely protested "against the expense to which [Rosecrans] put the government for telegrams."

On June 2, Halleck telegraphed that if Rosecrans was unwilling to move, some of his troops would be sent to Mississippi to reinforce Grant. Rosecrans sent a questionnaire to his corps and division commanders in the hopes of documenting support for his position—that Bragg had so far detached no significant forces to Mississippi, that advancing the Army of the Cumberland would do nothing to prevent any such transfer, and that any immediate advance was not a good idea. Fifteen of the seventeen senior generals supported most of Rosecrans's positions and the counsel against advancing was unanimous. The only dissenter was the newly assigned chief of staff, Brig. Gen. James A. Garfield, who recommended an immediate advance, but historian Steven E. Woodworth opines that he may have been "most concerned with the [political] impression his statement would make in Washington." On June 16, Halleck wired a blunt message: "Is it your intention to make an immediate movement forward? A definite answer, yes or no, is required." Rosecrans responded to this ultimatum: "If immediate means tonight or tomorrow, no. If it means as soon as all things are ready, say five days, yes." Seven days later, early in the morning of June 24, Rosecrans reported that the Army of the Cumberland had begun to move against Bragg.

The Tullahoma Campaign (June 24 – July 3, 1863) was characterized by flawless maneuvers and very low casualties, as Rosecrans forced Bragg to retreat back to Chattanooga. Tullahoma is considered a "brilliant" campaign by many historians. Abraham Lincoln wrote, "The flanking of Bragg at Shelbyville, Tullahoma and Chattanooga is the most splendid piece of strategy I know of." Union Cavalry Corps commander David S. Stanley wrote, "If any student of the military art desires to make a study of a model campaign, let him take his maps and General Rosecrans's orders for the daily movements of his campaign. No better example of successful strategy was carried out during the war than in the Tullahoma campaign."

When Rosecrans' troops entered Shelbyville, they were able to rescue captured Union spy Pauline Cushman. Cushman had been scouting the movements of Gen. Bragg when she was captured (Gen. John Hunt Morgan was one of her escorts to Gen. Bragg for questioning). A military trial found her guilty; she was to be hanged as a spy. Her rescue came just three days prior to her scheduled execution. Rosecrans and Cushman went on to raise over one million dollars for soldiers aid at the 1863 Cincinnati, Ohio Sanitary Fair. In contrast, Rosecrans had approved the courtmartial and hanging of two Confederate Officers, Lawrence Orton Williams and Walter Peters, on June 9, 1863, at Franklin Tenn after these two officers had disguised themselves as Union Officers for the purposes of spying.

Rosecrans did not receive all of the public acclaim his campaign might have under different circumstances. The day it ended was the day Gen. Robert E. Lee launched the ill-fated Pickett's Charge and lost the Battle of Gettysburg. The following day, Vicksburg surrendered to Grant. Secretary Stanton telegraphed Rosecrans, "Lee's Army overthrown; Grant victorious. You and your noble army now have a chance to give the finishing blow to the rebellion.  Will you neglect the chance?" Rosecrans was infuriated by this attitude and responded, "Just received your cheering telegram announcing the fall of Vicksburg and confirming the defeat of Lee. You do not appear to observe the fact that this noble army has driven the rebels from middle Tennessee. ... I beg in behalf of this army that the War Department may not overlook so great an event because it is not written in letters of blood."

Chickamauga
Rosecrans did not immediately pursue Bragg and "give the finishing blow to the rebellion" as Stanton had urged. He paused to regroup and study the logistically difficult choices of pursuit into the mountainous regions to the west and south of Chattanooga. When he was ready to move, he once again maneuvered in a way to disadvantage Bragg. The Confederates abandoned Chattanooga and withdrew into the mountains of northwestern Georgia. Rosecrans threw aside his previous caution under the assumption that Bragg would continue to retreat and began to pursue with his army over three routes that left his corps commanders dangerously far apart. At the Battle of Davis's Cross Roads on September 11, Bragg came close to ambushing and destroying one of Rosecrans's isolated corps. Realizing the threat at last, Rosecrans issued urgent orders to concentrate his army, and the two opponents faced each other across West Chickamauga Creek.

The Battle of Chickamauga began on September 19 with Bragg attacking the not fully concentrated Union army, but he was unable to break through Rosecrans's defensive positions. On the second day of battle, however, disaster befell Rosecrans in the form of his poorly worded order in response to a poorly understood situation. The order was directed to Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Wood, "to close up and support [General Joseph J.] Reynolds's [division]," planning to fill an assumed gap in the line. However, Wood's subsequent movement actually opened up a new, division-sized gap in the line. By coincidence, Lt. Gen. James Longstreet had planned to lead a massive assault in that very area and the Confederates exploited the gap to full effect, shattering Rosecrans's right flank.

The majority of units on the Union right fell back in disorder toward Chattanooga. Rosecrans, Garfield, and two of the corps commanders, although attempting to rally retreating units, soon joined them in the rush to safety. Rosecrans decided to proceed in haste to Chattanooga in order to organize his returning men and the city defenses. He sent Garfield to Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas with orders to take command of the forces remaining at Chickamauga and withdraw.

The Union army managed to escape complete disaster because of the stout defense organized by Thomas on Horseshoe Ridge, heroism that earned him the nickname "Rock of Chickamauga." The army withdrew that night to fortified positions in Chattanooga. Bragg had not succeeded in his objective to destroy the Army of the Cumberland, but the Battle of Chickamauga was nonetheless the worst Union defeat in the Western Theater. Thomas urged Rosecrans to rejoin the army and lead it, but Rosecrans, physically exhausted and psychologically a beaten man, remained in Chattanooga. President Lincoln attempted to prop up the morale of his general, telegraphing "Be of good cheer. ... We have unabated confidence in you and your soldiers and officers. In the main, you must be the judge as to what is to be done. If I was to suggest, I would say save your army by taking strong positions until Burnside joins you." Privately, Lincoln told John Hay that Rosecrans seemed "confused and stunned like a duck hit on the head."

"Whether he did or did not know that Thomas still held the field, it was a catastrophe that Rosecrans did not himself ride to Thomas, and send Garfield to Chattanooga. Had he gone to the front in person and shown himself to his men, as at Stone River, he might by his personal presence have plucked victory from disaster, although it is doubtful whether he could have done more than Thomas did. Rosecrans, however, rode to Chattanooga instead."

Although Rosecrans's men were protected by strong defensive positions, the supply lines into Chattanooga were tenuous and subject to Confederate cavalry raids. Bragg's army occupied the heights surrounding the city and laid siege upon the Union forces. Rosecrans, demoralized by his defeat, proved unable to break the siege without reinforcements. Only hours after the defeat at Chickamauga, Secretary Stanton ordered Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker to travel to Chattanooga with 15,000 men in two corps from the Army of the Potomac in Virginia. Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was ordered to send 20,000 men under his chief subordinate Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman, from Vicksburg, Mississippi. On September 29, Stanton ordered Grant to go to Chattanooga himself, as commander of the newly created Military Division of the Mississippi. Grant was given the option of replacing the demoralized Rosecrans with Thomas. Although Grant did not have good personal relations with either general, he selected Thomas to command the Army of the Cumberland. Grant traveled over the treacherous mountain supply line roads and arrived in Chattanooga on October 23. "On the morning of the 21st we took the train for the front, reaching Stevenson Alabama, after dark. Rosecrans was there on his way north. He came into my car and we held a brief interview, in which he described very clearly the situation at Chattanooga, and made some excellent suggestions as to what should be done. My only wonder was that he had not carried them out."

Grant executed a plan originally devised by Rosecrans and Brig. Gen. William F. "Baldy" Smith to open the "Cracker Line" and resupply the army and, in a series of battles for Chattanooga (November 23–25, 1863), routed Bragg's army and sent it retreating into Georgia.

Missouri and resignation
Rosecrans was sent to Cincinnati to await further orders, but ultimately he would play no further large part in the fighting. He was given command of the Department of Missouri from January to December 1864, when he was active in opposing Sterling Price's Missouri raid. During the 1864 Republican National Convention, his former chief of staff, James Garfield, head of the Ohio delegation, telegraphed Rosecrans to ask if he would consider running to be Abraham Lincoln's vice president. The Republicans that year were seeking a War Democrat to run with Lincoln under the temporary name of "National Union Party." Rosecrans replied in a cryptically positive manner, but Garfield never received the return telegram. Friends of Rosecrans speculated that Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War, intercepted and suppressed it.

Rosecrans was mustered out of the U.S. volunteer service on January 15, 1866. On June 30, 1866, President Andrew Johnson nominated Rosecrans for appointment as a brevet major general in the regular army, to rank from March 13, 1865, in gratitude for his actions at Stones River; the U.S. Senate confirmed the appointment on July 25, 1866. Rosecrans resigned from the regular army on March 28, 1867. On February 27, 1889, by act of Congress he was re-appointed a brigadier general in the regular army and was placed on the retired list on March 1, 1889.

After the war, Rosecrans became a companion of the District of Columbia Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - a military society of officers who had served in the Union armed forces and their descendants.

Later life
After the war, Rosecrans became interested in railroads and was one of the eleven incorporators of the Southern Pacific Railroad, but his valuable interests in the stock of the railroad were lost to some of the unscrupulous financiers who were his business partners. From 1868 to 1869, Rosecrans served as U.S. Minister to Mexico, but was replaced after just five months when his old nemesis, Ulysses Grant, became president. During this brief service, he became convinced that Mexico would benefit from a narrow-gauge railway and telegraph line from Tampico to the coast, but this venture, from 1869 through 1873, was a failure.

Rosecrans then became interested in civil administration and wrote a book, Popular Government, with a former newspaperman, Josiah Riley, which advocated registration and voting reforms. He was approached by various political parties to run for high office: Governor of Ohio (Union party, 1866); governor of California (Democratic Party, 1868); governor of Ohio (Democratic Party, 1869); U.S Representative from Nevada (Democratic Party, 1876). He refused all of these offers because they conflicted with potentially promising business ventures, leading him to be referred to by the nickname "The Great Decliner."

In 1869, Rosecrans bought 16000 acre of Rancho San Pedro in the Los Angeles basin for $2.50 per acre ($620/km2), a low price possibly because the land was deemed worthless for lack of a spring for water. The ranch, dubbed "Rosecrans Rancho", was bordered by what would later be Florence Avenue on the north, Redondo Beach Boulevard on the south, Central Avenue on the east, and Arlington Avenue on the west. By the time of Rosecrans's death, his son Carl was living on the estate, but most of the land had been sold parcel by parcel to support the financial needs of mining ventures in which Rosecrans invested.

In 1880, Rosecrans was elected U.S. Representative as a Democrat from California's 1st congressional district. That same year, James Garfield was elected President as a Republican. Rosecrans was distressed to see that Garfield's campaign literature played up his role in the war at Rosecrans's expense. Their former friendship was irretrievably broken. After Garfield's assassination, Charles A. Dana capitalized on the tragedy by publishing the letters written by Garfield after Chickamauga to then-Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase; the letters may have been the major reason for Rosecrans's loss of political support at the time.

Rosecrans was reelected in 1882 and became the chairman of the House Military Affairs Committee, a position in which he publicly opposed a bill that would provide a pension to former President Grant and his wife. Unaware of the serious financial condition of Grant's family, Rosecrans objected that some of Grant's official statements "were false, and which he knew to be false at the time he made them, and which I have shown in my official reports to be false. I cannot say to the people of this country that a business which has been conducted as to rob poor people of millions, and which, if done on a smaller scale would have sent its managers to prison, shall be considered as important when the principal manager has allowed a great name to be used as the instrument of the robbery." The bill was passed over his objections. When a bill was introduced in 1889 to restore Rosecrans's rank and place him on the retired list, some representatives objected, based on Rosecrans's actions against Grant in 1885, but the bill was passed.

Rosecrans did not seek re-election in 1884. He served as a Regent of the University of California in 1884 and 1885.

Although Rosecrans was mentioned on a few occasions as a possible presidential candidate, the first Democratic president elected after the war was Grover Cleveland in 1884. Newspaper stories circulated that Rosecrans was under serious consideration to be appointed his Secretary of War, but he was appointed instead as the Register of the Treasury, serving from 1885 to 1893.

Rosecrans spoke at a grand reunion of Union and Confederate veterans held at the Chickamauga battlefield on September 19, 1889, delivering a moving address praising national reconciliation. The gathering led to Congress establishing the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park the following year, the nation's first national battlefield park.

In 1896, he was awarded the Laetare Medal, the oldest and most prestigious award for American Catholics, by the University of Notre Dame.

Death
In February 1898, Rosecrans suffered from a cold that turned into pneumonia, but appeared to recover successfully. Then he learned that one of his favorite grandchildren (Rosecrans Toole, the son of Lily and Joseph Kemp Toole, the first Governor of Montana) had died of diphtheria. He was seized with grief and his health failed precipitously. He died on March 11, 1898, at Rancho Sausal Redondo, Redondo Beach, California. His casket lay in state in Los Angeles City Hall, covered by the headquarters flag that flew over Stones River and Chickamauga. In 1908 his remains were interred in Arlington National Cemetery.

Legacy
Rosecrans' reputation has improved somewhat in recent years. Historian Frank Varney presented a case for review in his book General Grant and the Rewriting of History: How the Destruction of General William S. Rosecrans Influenced Our Understanding of the Civil War.

Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery, in San Diego, California, is named in his honor. Major streets named after William Rosecrans include Rosecrans Avenue, a major east–west street that runs through the southern part of Los Angeles County, and Rosecrans Street in San Diego, which runs near the aforementioned cemetery.

General Rosecrans Elementary School, on Rosecrans and Acacia Avenues in the city of Compton, California, a Los Angeles suburb, bears his name, as does General Rosecrans Elementary in Sunbury, Ohio.

A memorial was constructed on the site of Rosecrans' birthplace and childhood home. A large boulder surrounded by a wrought iron fence holds a plaque in memoriam and rests beside a rural road that bears his name.

An equestrian statue of Rosecrans, resting on a 55,000 pound black granite boulder, is located on the square surrounding the Town Hall of Sunbury, Ohio. Rosecrans' Headquarters in the buildup to the Chickamauga Campaign was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.

The SS Rosecrans was a troop transport ship used in the early 20th century that saw service in the Pacific. The U.S.A.T. William S. Rosecrans, another similarly named ship, was built as Liberty Ship hull 570 by the Oregon Shipbuilding Corporation and rated to hold 504 troops.

title: William Rosecrans