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Peace treaty

A peace treaty is an agreement between two or more hostile parties, usually countries or governments, which formally ends a state of war between the parties. It is different from an armistice, which is an agreement to stop hostilities; a surrender, in which an army agrees to give up arms; or a ceasefire or truce, in which the parties may agree to temporarily or permanently stop fighting.

The need for a peace treaty in modern diplomacy arises from the fact that even when a war is actually over and fighting has ceased, the legal state of war is not automatically terminated upon the end of actual fighting and the belligerent parties are still legally defined as enemies. This is evident from the definition of a "state of war" as "a legal state created and ended by official declaration regardless of actual armed hostilities and usually characterized by operation of the rules of war". As a result, even when hostilities are over, a peace treaty is required for the former belligerents in order to reach agreement on all issues involved in transition to legal state of peace. The art of negotiating a peace treaty in the modern era has been referred to by legal scholar Christine Bell as the lex pacificatoria, with a peace treaty potentially contributing to the legal framework governing the post conflict period, or jus post bellum.

Since 1950, the rate at which interstate wars end with a formal peace treaty has substantially declined.

Elements of treaties

The content of a treaty usually depends on the nature of the conflict being concluded. In the case of large conflicts between numerous parties, international treaty covering all issues or separate treaties signed between each party.

There are many possible issues that may be included in a peace treaty such as the following:

 * Formal designation of borders
 * Processes for resolving future disputes
 * Access to and apportioning of resources
 * Status of refugees
 * Status of prisoners of war
 * Settling of existing debts
 * Defining of as unjust behavior
 * The re-application of existing treaties
 * Revenge

In modern history, certain intractable conflict situations may be brought to a ceasefire before they are dealt with via a peace process in which a number of discrete steps are taken on each side to reach the mutually-desired eventual goal of peace and the signing of a treaty.

A peace treaty also is often not used to end a civil war, especially in cases of a failed secession, as it implies mutual recognition of statehood. In cases such as the American Civil War, it usually ends when the losing side's army surrenders and its government collapses. By contrast, a successful secession or declaration of independence is often formalized by means of a peace treaty.

Treaties are often ratified in territories deemed neutral in the previous conflict and delegates from the neutral countries acting as witnesses to the signatories.

Role of the United Nations
Since its founding after World War II the United Nations has sought to act as a forum for resolution in matters of international conflict. A number of international treaties and obligations are involved in which member states seek to limit and control behavior during wartime. The action of declaring war is now very unlikely to be undertaken.

Peace treaty under the United Nations
Since the end of World War II, United Nations Charter Article 2 restricts the use of military force. The UN Charter allows only two exceptions: "military measures by UN Security Council resolutions" and "exercise of self-defense" in countries subjected to armed attacks in relation to the use of force by states. Under the current UN system, war is triggered only by the enforcement of military measures under UN Security Council resolutions or the exercise of self-defense rights against illegal armed attacks.

Therefore, if the use of military force arises, it is called 'international armed conflict' instead of 'war'. The fact that the current international law system avoids the use of the term 'war' also avoids the conclusion of a peace treaty based on the existence of war. A peace treaty was not signed after the end of the Iraq War in 2003, and only the UN Security Council Resolution 1483, adopted on May 22, 2003, stipulated the postwar regime for the stability and security of Iraq exclusively.

Post-conflict elections
One of the UN's roles in peace processes is to conduct post-conflict elections but, on the whole, they are thought to have no effect, or even a negative effect, on peace after civil war.

However, when peace agreements transform rebel groups into political parties, the effect on peace is positive, especially if international interveners use their moments of power distribution to hold the former combatants to the terms of their peace agreement.

Ancient history

Probably the earliest recorded peace treaty, although it is rarely mentioned or remembered, was between the Hittite Empire and the Hayasa-Azzi confederation, around 1350 BC. More famously, one of the earliest recorded peace treaties was concluded between the Hittite and the Egyptian Empires after 1274 BC Battle of Kadesh (see Egyptian-Hittite peace treaty). The battle took place in what is modern-day Syria, the entire Levant being at that time contested between the two empires. After an extremely costly four-day battle, in which neither side gained a substantial advantage, both sides claimed victory. The lack of resolution led to further conflict between Egypt and the Hittites, with Ramesses II capturing the city of Kadesh and Amurru in his 8th year as king. However, the prospect of further protracted conflict between the two states eventually persuaded both their rulers, Hatusiliš III and Ramesses, to end their dispute and sign a peace treaty. Neither side could afford the possibility of a longer conflict since they were threatened by other enemies: Egypt was faced with the task of defending its long western border with Libya against the incursion of Libyan tribesmen by building a chain of fortresses stretching from Mersa Matruh to Rakotis, and the Hittites faced a more formidable threat in the form of the Assyrian Empire, which "had conquered Hanigalbat, the heartland of Mitanni, between the Tigris and the Euphrates" rivers, which had previously been a Hittite vassal state.

The peace treaty was recorded in two versions, one in Egyptian hieroglyphs, and the other in Akkadian using cuneiform script; both versions survive. Such dual-language recording is common to many subsequent treaties. The treaty differs from others, however, in that the two language versions are worded differently. Although the majority of the text is identical, the Hittite version claims that the Egyptians came suing for peace, and the Egyptian version claims the reverse. The treaty was given to the Egyptians in the form of a silver plaque, and the "pocket-book" version was taken back to Egypt and carved into the Temple of Karnak.

The Treaty was concluded between Ramesses II and Hatusiliš III in the twenty-first year of Ramesses' reign (c. 1258 BC). Its eighteen articles call for peace between Egypt and Hatti and then proceed to maintain that their respective people also demand peace. It contains many elements found in more modern treaties, but it is more far-reaching than later treaties' simple declaration of the end of hostilities. It also contains a mutual-assistance pact in case one of the empires should be attacked by a third party or in the event of internal strife. There are articles pertaining to the forced repatriation of refugees and provisions that they should not be harmed, which might be thought of as the first extradition treaty. There are also threats of retribution, should the treaty be broken.

The treaty is considered of such importance in the field of international relations that a replica of it hangs in the UN's headquarters.

Following the five years war between Kushite Kandake, Amanirenas and Augustus of Rome, a peace treaty was conducted in the year 21/20 BC. Mediators were sent from Kush to Augustus who was in Samos at that time. An entente between the two parties was beneficial to both. The Kushites were a regional power in their own right and resented paying tribute. The Romans also sought a quiet southern border for their absolutely essential Egyptian grain supplies, without constant war commitments, and welcomed a friendly buffer state in a border region beset with raiding nomads. The Kushites too appear to have found nomads like the Blemmyes to be a problem. The conditions were ripe for a deal. During negotiations, Augustus granted the Kushite envoys all they asked for, and also cancelled the tribute earlier demanded by Rome. Premmis (Qasr Ibrim), and areas north of Qasr Ibrim in the southern portion of the "Thirty-Mile Strip" were ceded to the Kushites. The Dodekaschoinos was established as a buffer zone, and Roman forces were pulled back to the old Greek Ptolemaic border at Maharraqa. Roman emperor Augustus signed the treaty with the Kushites on Samos. The settlement bought Rome peace and quiet on its Egyptian frontier, as well as increased the prestige of Roman Emperor Augustus, demonstrating his skill and ability to broker peace without constant warfare, and do business with the distant Kushites, who a short time earlier had been fighting his troops. The respect accorded the emperor by the Kushite envoys as the treaty also created a favorable impression with other foreign ambassadors present on Samos, including envoys from India, and strengthened Augustus' hand in upcoming negotiations with the powerful Parthians. The settlement ushered in a period of peace between the two empires for around three centuries. Inscriptions erected by Queen Amanirenas on an ancient temple at Hamadab, south of Meroe, record the war and the favorable outcome from the Kushite perspective. Along with his signature on the official treaty, Roman emperor Augustus marked the agreement by directing his administrators to collaborate with regional priests in the erection of a temple at Dendur, and inscriptions depict the emperor himself celebrating local deities.

Modern history
Famous examples include the Treaty of Paris (1815), signed after Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, and the Treaty of Versailles, formally ending the First World War between Germany and the Allies. Despite popular belief, the war did not end completely until the Allies concluded peace with the Ottoman Empire in 1919 at the Treaty of Sèvres, and even then the reaction to this treaty caused the outbreak of the Turkish War of Independence. Upon the victory of the Turkish National Movement in that conflict and the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne, the last major diplomatic extension of the First World War came to an end.

The Treaty of Versailles, as well as the Kellogg-Briand Pact, is possibly the most notorious of peace treaties, and is blamed by many historians for the rise of Nazism in Germany and the eventual outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. The costly reparations that Germany was forced to pay the victors, the fact that Germany had to accept sole responsibility for starting the war, and the harsh restrictions on German rearmament were all listed in the Treaty of Versailles and caused massive resentment in Germany. Whether or not the treaty can be blamed for starting another war, it exemplifies the difficulties involved in making peace. However, no such conflict resulted from the more punitive settlement with the Ottoman Empire.

Another famous example would be the series of peace treaties known as the Peace of Westphalia. It initiated modern diplomacy, involving the modern system of nation-states. Subsequent wars were no longer over religion but revolved around issues of state. That encouraged Catholic and Protestant powers to ally, leading to a number of major realignments.

The Korean War is an example of a conflict that was ended by an armistice, rather than a peace treaty with the Korean Armistice Agreement. However, that war has never technically ended, because a final peace treaty or settlement has never been achieved.

A more recent example of a peace treaty is the 1973 Paris Peace Accords that sought to end the Vietnam War.

title: Peace treaty


text:
Mel Carnahan

Melvin Eugene Carnahan (February 11, 1934 – October 16, 2000) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 51st governor of Missouri from 1993 until his death in 2000. Carnahan was a Democrat and held various positions in government.

Born in rural Missouri, Carnahan was the son of Representative A. S. J. Carnahan and attended campaign events with his father. He moved to Washington, D.C., with his father and attended high school and college there. After a stint in the U.S. Air Force Office of Special Investigations, Carnahan returned to Missouri, graduating from the University of Missouri in 1959. Shortly after, he moved to Rolla with an eye on entering politics.

First elected as a municipal judge in 1960, Carnahan was elected as a state representative for Phelps County in 1962, where he became majority leader during his second term. After being defeated in a race for state senate in 1966, Carnahan practiced law in Rolla. He returned to politics in 1980, being elected as state treasurer. He served in the post for four years and was defeated in the Democratic primary for governor in 1984. In 1988, he made a second political comeback, winning an election for lieutenant governor, the sole Democratic win statewide.

In 1992, Carnahan made a second bid for governor and defeated St. Louis Mayor Vincent Schoemehl in the Democratic primary. In the general election, he defeated state Attorney General William Webster, becoming the first Democrat elected governor since 1976. During his first term, he signed legislation concerning education and taxes into law. He also dealt with crises such as the Great Flood of 1993. Carnahan was re-elected in 1996, defeating State Auditor Margaret Kelly. During his second term, he faced adversity on issues such as abortion, where his veto of a bill restricting abortion was overridden by the state legislature, and faced controversy surrounding his pardon of a death row inmate at the behest of Pope John Paul II.

In 2000, he ran for the U.S. Senate against incumbent John Ashcroft in a hotly contested election. During the final weeks of the campaign, Carnahan was killed in a plane crash while on his way to a campaign event. He was posthumously elected to the U.S. Senate, and his widow, Jean Carnahan, was appointed to serve in the Senate until a special election was held in 2002.

Early life and education
Melvin Eugene Carnahan was born in Birch Tree, Missouri, and grew up on a small farm near Ellsinore. He was the son of Mary Kathel (née Schupp) and A. S. J. Carnahan, and had one sibling, an older brother, Robert "Bob" Carnahan. Carnahan's mother was a teacher, and his father was the superintendent of Ellsinore schools. In 1944, the elder Carnahan was elected to the United States House of Representatives, representing the eighth congressional district, serving from 1945 to 1947 and from 1949 to 1961. He later became the U.S. Ambassador to Sierra Leone under John F. Kennedy. As a child, Mel Carnahan traveled with his father across the district, attending local events and helping with the campaign. In 1948, because his father was running for Congress, Carnahan was present for Harry Truman's final campaign stop in St. Louis during that year's presidential election. The younger Carnahan later said he developed a desire to enter politics because of his father.

In 1945, Carnahan moved to Washington, D.C., with his family, though they moved back to Missouri when his father was defeated for re-election. He moved back to D.C. in 1949, where he met his future wife, Jean, at a Baptist church. He graduated from Anacostia High School and earned a Bachelor of Arts in business administration at George Washington University in 1954. After graduating, Carnahan joined the United States Air Force but failed the physical, fainting during a blood test. He then served as a special agent for the Air Force Office of Special Investigations from 1954 to October 1956. He rose to the rank of first lieutenant. After returning home, he received a Juris Doctor from the University of Missouri School of Law in Columbia in 1959, graduating Order of the Coif. He then moved to Rolla, the largest city in his father's congressional district, intending to follow his father's career path.

State legislator
Carnahan's political career started in 1960 at 26 when he was elected to serve as a judge in Rolla. In 1962, he ran for a seat in the Missouri House of Representatives. In the Democratic primary, Carnahan defeated three opponents. That November, he won the election for the Phelps County house district. He won re-election in 1964, and that same year, the Democratic caucus elected him as assistant floor leader to majority leader H. F. Patterson. In 1965, Patterson died, and the caucus elected Carnahan as his successor. During his tenure, Carnahan voted in favor of a motion to increase the state's sales tax to 3% and voted against a measure requiring tax increases to be conducted via a public vote. Carnahan served as a Judiciary Committee member, during which the committee moved to pass a conflict-of-interest law requiring any official to report any interests in a bill before voting on it. As majority leader, Carnahan was able to help advance a bill banning racial discrimination in public areas; this bill was later signed into law by Governor Warren E. Hearnes. Carnahan also sponsored a bill to prevent employers from discriminatory hiring practices.

In 1965, a federal court ruling that Missouri's districts suffered from malapportionment forced the state to redraw its legislative districts. Carnahan helped draw up a redistricting plan, but voters rejected it in a special election. He later clashed with Governor Hearnes over his reapportionment plan for state districts, as Carnahan favored a special session on the issue. In contrast, Hearnes's plan would let himself pick the members of the reapportionment commission. Eventually, a compromise was reached, and Carnahan was the deciding vote in favor of its implementation.

In 1966, Carnahan ran in the 20th district for the state Senate. In the Democratic primary, he faced Gene Sally, a former state representative and state senator whom Governor Hearnes had supported, albeit implicitly. Carnahan defeated Sally in what his wife Jean later described as one of the hardest-fought campaigns he had run. Carnahan faced Republican state senator Don Owens in the general election. The 20th district was considered more-Democratic-leaning but still competitive. In November, Owens defeated Carnahan by nearly 4,000 votes. Some press outlets considered the defeat to be unexpected. Carnahan later said of the defeat: "Strangely enough, I value the experience of losing. It does something to you, but it gives perspective."

After his defeat and after his term in the state house expired, Carnahan practiced law in Rolla. In 1971, he briefly expressed interest in a bid for Missouri's eighth congressional district. Ultimately, incumbent Richard Ichord, who defeated Carnahan's father in 1960 and was planning a gubernatorial bid, ran for re-election. In addition to practicing law, Carnahan also held a role in Rozark Farms Inc., a charcoal company his father founded, until 1975, when Carnahan sold his share of the company to his brother. During this time, Carnahan also became president of the Rolla school board; during his tenure on the board, he brought in a new superintendent and helped raise funds to build a new junior high school.

State Treasurer
In 1979, Carnahan announced his return to politics by declaring his candidacy for Missouri state treasurer, which he also intended to use as a basis for a future gubernatorial run. He had briefly considered another bid for Missouri's eighth congressional district, which Richard Ichord was vacating. However, he had already declared his candidacy for the treasurer post when Ichord announced his retirement.

In the Democratic primary, Carnahan faced state representative and former state house majority whip Ed Sweeney, who attacked Carnahan as indebted to banking interests. Carnahan criticized Sweeney for being hypocritical because Sweeney had solicited from banking interests himself, albeit unsuccessfully. Carnahan defeated Sweeney and faced former state senator Gerald Winship in the general election. Carnahan focused his campaign on continuing to build on the work of outgoing treasurer Jim Spainhower in giving funds in a nonpartisan manner and refrained from making personal attacks on his opponent, who ran a similar campaign. Carnahan won the election, returning him to elected office.

Carnahan served as treasurer from 1981 to 1985. During his tenure, Carnahan increased the number of banks that were performing state businesses. Carnahan issued changes to policy to address the issue of favoring certain banks, such as setting up a committee to determine which banks would be selected to perform state business. He also enforced a policy to give state funds to banks that gave agriculture-related loans. Also, during his tenure, Carnahan deposited state money into interest accounts.

In 1984, Carnahan ran for Governor of Missouri. Due to struggles with raising funds during his campaign, Carnahan walked over 300 miles from St. Louis to Kansas City, a move similar to what Governor Joseph Teasdale had done during his first campaign in 1972. Carnahan also campaigned in opposition to state referendums that would legalize parimutuel betting and would create a state lottery. However, he conceded he would enforce the amendments if the public supported them. Both amendments would pass with over 60% of the vote. In the August primary, Carnahan lost the Democratic nomination to Lieutenant Governor Kenneth Rothman, who lost the general election to state Attorney General John Ashcroft.

Lieutenant Governor

After his defeat, Carnahan returned to practicing law in Rolla. In 1986, Democrats favored him to run for Missouri's eighth congressional district against incumbent Bill Emerson, and he met with leaders to discuss the race. He did not run, and Wayne Cryts would ultimately become the Democratic nominee. During this time, Carnahan expressed interest in becoming chair of the Missouri Democratic Party. Instead, after initially expressing a lack of interest in running, in 1988, Carnahan ran for lieutenant governor, which he won. Carnahan's election to the lieutenant governorship was the sole Democratic statewide win that year.

The role of lieutenant governor had been seen as irrelevant, and some officials, such as state senator Harry Wiggins, supported measures to abolish the position. Carnahan appealed to the legislature to double the staffing for his office and to expand his access to state planes. He also expressed interest in using the office for economic and highway development. State senate president pro tempore Jim Matthewson called upon Carnahan to become the state's drug czar, though Carnahan saw his role as more limited in scale.

Early in Carnahan's term, there was a disagreement between Carnahan and Governor John Ashcroft over who was in charge when the governor left the state. Carnahan asserted that in his position, he would be acting governor whenever Ashcroft left the state, while Ashcroft believed he was still in charge. In 1990, Republican Secretary of State Roy Blunt refused to authorize documents Ashcroft signed while he was out of state, a move some political observers contended had been planned. Blunt refused to authorize the documents, owing to confusion over who was in charge while the governor was out of state. Ashcroft called upon the Supreme Court of Missouri to clarify the lieutenant governor's role while the governor was out of state. Later that year, while briefly serving as acting governor, Carnahan signed documents, but Blunt refused to authorize any of what he signed. Blunt cited the ongoing court case as his reason for not authorizing the documents, while acknowledging he thought Carnahan was acting governor. A circuit judge ruled the governor was in charge, a ruling the state's Supreme Court later affirmed in 1991. This time was later thought to be the beginning of a rivalry between Ashcroft and Carnahan.

While serving as lieutenant governor, Carnahan endorsed Governor of Arkansas Bill Clinton for president of the United States in the Missouri primary.

Governor of Missouri
As the sole winning Democrat statewide, Carnahan was immediately seen as a possible choice for the governorship. In 1989, he announced his intent to run for governor in 1992. In the Democratic primary, he faced Mayor of St. Louis Vincent C. Schoemehl, who referred to Carnahan as a "redneck from Rolla." Politicians from both parties had perceived Carnahan as an underwhelming candidate who was liked as a person but generally unexciting. Some of Schoemehl's supporters tried to persuade Carnahan to run against Senator Kit Bond in the 1992 U.S. Senate race. Carnahan won the Democratic nomination by a wide margin, winning every county but Ste. Genevieve.

Carnahan faced Republican state Attorney General William L. Webster in the general election. Webster's campaign was hurt by controversy surrounding the state's Second Injury Fund and his ties to private lawyers associated with the fund. In the general election on November 3, Carnahan was elected as governor of Missouri, defeating Webster by over 400,000 votes. Carnahan's election as governor made him the first Democrat to win the office since Joseph Teasdale's victory in 1976.

First term (1993–1997)

Carnahan's term as governor began on January 11, 1993. On January 15, 1993, a judge ruled that the state's school funding method was unconstitutional. In response to the ruling, Carnahan pushed for the "Outstanding Schools Act". The law's provisions included funding for smaller classrooms, putting computers in classrooms, and supporting vocational programs. Carnahan, who appealed to skeptical legislators, secured approval from the legislature to increase taxes on income, corporations, and tobacco to raise funds. The passed bill raised $315 million in new taxes, earning Carnahan the moniker "the education governor."

The bill faced opponents who contended that Carnahan broke a promise to bring significant tax increases to a vote for the people to decide. U.S. Representative Mel Hancock criticized the tax increases, saying they defied the state's Hancock Amendment, an amendment limiting tax increases without voter approval, of which Hancock was the namesake. Consequently, Hancock put an amendment up for a vote in November 1994, which mandated that all future tax increases require a vote. Carnahan opposed the amendment, saying it would cut billions of dollars from the state's budget, possibly forcing the layoffs of teachers and state police. The amendment was defeated by 36 points. In the aftermath, Carnahan persuaded lawmakers to support a yearly cap on tax increases. In 1996, he endorsed a ballot proposal that limited tax raises to no more than $50 million a year unless the people of Missouri voted otherwise. The amendment passed with 69% of voters in favor of its implementation.

The Great Flood of 1993, one of the most destructive floods in U.S. history, affected much of the Midwest, including Missouri. Carnahan returned from a trip to Europe to declare a state of emergency in every county. Carnahan traveled across Missouri viewing areas damaged by flooding, and called a special session of the state legislature to decide how to pay for the damage. As a result of the floods, Carnahan oversaw the buyout of affected towns, including the cities of Pattonsburg and Bellefontaine Neighbors. In addition, Carnahan signed legislation including property tax relief for flood victims and state spending on par with federal funding while vetoing legislation that would have let the state be held responsible for some flood insurance for businesses. His actions during the emergency led other governors to elect him vice chairman of the Democratic Governor's Association and vice chairman of the Southern Governor's Association. He later became chair of both organizations and gained a seat on the executive committee of the National Governors Association.

Carnahan considered health care a key focus for the 1994 legislative session. His goals, such as mandating health insurance companies to ignore pre-existing conditions, failed to be passed by the legislature. Later that year, Carnahan signed a welfare package with a provision that made recipients sign an agreement to get off welfare in two years in exchange for training for jobs and better benefits. In September 1994, Carnahan called for a special session to impeach Secretary of State Judith Moriarty. Moriarty had been found guilty of certifying election documents for her son, who had incorrectly filed the documents. Carnahan appealed to Moriarty to resign, but she refused. Consequently, Moriarty was impeached and removed from office. Carnahan appointed her replacement, Bekki Cook.

In 1995, Carnahan underwent a trade mission to South Korea, one of Missouri's top trading partners. The mission led to new deals between Missouri businesses valued at over $2 million. That same year, Carnahan appointed Ronnie L. White to the Supreme Court of Missouri, the first black judge to be appointed to the court. White later became the state's first black chief justice and eventually a federal judge. Carnahan would later describe White's appointment as one of his greatest. Carnahan maintained continuously high approval ratings.

Second term (1997–2000)

In 1996, Carnahan ran for re-election, campaigning on the Outstanding Schools Act, which he argued made way for optimized education methods in the state. His opponent was Republican State Auditor Margaret B. Kelly. Kelly criticized Carnahan as "tax-man Carnahan" for the tax increases needed for education, which she maintained were a broken promise from the governor. On November 5, 1996, Carnahan defeated Kelly to win a second term in office.

Because of the Hancock Amendment's provisions on curbing spending, Carnahan returned sizable amounts of money to taxpayers over his second term. In 1997, lawmakers agreed to remove the state's grocery tax and reduce taxes for private pensions, which Carnahan signed into law. In 1998, he made further tax cuts, increasing tax credits for elderly and disabled citizens. The following year, he signed legislation giving tax credits on prescription drugs to older Missourians. By the end of 1999, the tax cuts totaled about $1.3 billion.

In 1997, a judge ruled that Missouri could conclude its involvement in school desegregation cases in St. Louis and Kansas City, provided that a plan to replace state funding was in place by 1999. In 1998, Carnahan signed legislation to prevent the Kansas City school districts from becoming insolvent. He later signed legislation that created a school board for St. Louis school districts, provided some $40 million to public schools in the city, and sought to add suburban school districts to state funding. In 1998, Carnahan enacted a bill to expand Medicaid coverage for impoverished children. In August 1998, he made his second appointment to the Missouri Supreme Court, appointing Michael A. Wolff, his former legal advisor. Wolff later served as chief justice for the court from 2005 to 2007.

In 1999, Carnahan, who supported the death penalty, commuted the death sentence of Missouri inmate Darrell Mease after Pope John Paul II requested he do so during his visit to St. Louis. This move was controversial: Carnahan's office received more phone calls against the move than those supportive, and 34% of voters indicated in a St. Louis Post-Dispatch poll that they felt inclined to vote against Carnahan in his U.S. Senate bid as a result of the move. That same year, he opposed a proposition that would have allowed Missourians to carry concealed weapons. The campaign against the proposal, managed by his daughter Robin, won by a two-point margin despite being outspent.

Carnahan had vetoed three abortion bills in 1997. The issue returned to the political agenda in 1999 when the Missouri legislature proposed a bill to ban mid to late-term abortions. Carnahan vetoed the bill due to its language, which he argued went further than just restricting mid to late-term abortions and because it lacked exceptions for protecting the mother's health. The legislature overrode Carnahan's veto, making him the seventh governor since Missouri statehood to have a veto overridden.

2000 U.S. Senate election
The day after the 1998 midterm elections, Carnahan announced his intention to challenge incumbent Senator John Ashcroft for his U.S. Senate seat in 2000. Despite some calls for him to run for the Class 1 Senate seat in 1994, he declined, wanting to remain governor. He also declined to run in 1998 against Kit Bond, though he refused to permanently consider a future bid out of the question.

The election had been seen as having a personal element due to Carnahan and Ashcroft's reported dislike of one another, though both denied having any rivalry. The campaign was considered by analyst Stuart Rothenberg to be among the closest races in the country. During the campaign, photographs of Carnahan performing in blackface in 1960 resurfaced, which he apologized for. Carnahan attacked Ashcroft for having a conservative voting record despite employing moderate rhetoric while casting his record as governor as a "moderate, progressive" record. During the campaign, Carnahan launched a tour by train, using a tactic adopted by Harry S. Truman. The tour was an homage to the former president, who had previously held the Senate seat Carnahan was campaigning for.

Death and aftermath
Early in the evening of October 16, 2000, Carnahan, his son Randy, and his campaign advisor Chris Sifford left St. Louis Downtown Airport in Cahokia, Illinois, to attend a campaign event in New Madrid. The Cessna 335 airplane, which Randy piloted, crashed near Hillsboro, Missouri, killing all three people on board. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) later ruled that the crash was due to Randy becoming disoriented, which was exacerbated by inclement weather and instrument failure.

The presidential debate, which was held the next day in St. Louis, opened with a moment of silence, and both candidates made remarks about Carnahan's death. A memorial service for Carnahan was held in the State Capitol in Jefferson City on October 20. The service was attended by federal and state politicians such as President Bill Clinton, First Lady Hillary Clinton, Vice President Al Gore, and U.S. senators and former governors Kit Bond and John Ashcroft. At the funeral, President Clinton said: "I loved the guy, and anybody who thinks he was dull never looked him straight in the eye, because he had steel and passion and fire, and I think he rather enjoyed being underestimated by the people who disagreed with him."The day after Carnahan's death, Lieutenant Governor Roger B. Wilson ascended to the governorship. He served the remainder of Carnahan's term. Because Missouri election law did not allow Carnahan's name to be removed from the ballot, Governor Wilson promised to appoint his widow, Jean Carnahan, to the seat if it became vacant due to Mel Carnahan's election win. Shortly before his death, Carnahan had been behind Ashcroft in the polls. Following his death, Carnahan's campaign continued, using slogans such as "I'm Still with Mel" and "Don't Let the Fire Go Out" and Carnahan took the lead in a few polls. In the election, Carnahan became the first person in U.S. history to win a U.S. Senate election posthumously. His death was thought to have helped other races down-ballot that year, including the race for governor. Following the election win, Jean Carnahan was appointed to the Senate and served until November 2002, when Republican Jim Talent defeated her in a special election.

Awards and recognitions

In 1965, Carnahan received an award from Missouri House Speaker Thomas C. Graham, recognizing him as the chamber's most outstanding Democrat. Also, during his tenure as a state legislator, he twice received the St. Louis Globe-Democrat Meritorious Service award. In 1999, he was inducted into the DeMolay International Hall of Fame.

In 2001, the mayor of St. Louis, Clarence Harmon, announced the renaming of a courthouse to the Carnahan Courthouse. That same year, a Missouri National Guard armory in Rolla, Missouri, was renamed The Mel Carnahan Armory and Reserve Center. The Carnahan High School of the Future was named after him in 2003. The garden in the Missouri Capitol was renamed after Carnahan. A bust of him was placed there in 2023 and received a dedication in 2024, just one week after his wife's death.

Personal life
Carnahan met his future wife, Jean Carpenter, at a church event and sat beside her at Anacostia High School. The two married in Washington, D.C., on June 12, 1954. They had four children, who would all become lawyers as well: Roger "Randy" Carnahan, who piloted the airplane and died in the same crash that killed his father; Russ Carnahan, a former member of the U.S. House of Representatives for Missouri's 3rd district (2005–2013); Robin Carnahan, former Missouri Secretary of State (2005–2013), 2010 U.S. Senate nominee, and Administrator of General Services under President Joe Biden; and Tom Carnahan, founder of Wind Capital Group, which builds wind farms. The family had a Newfoundland dog named Beaumont.

A reporter once said of Carnahan: "Never the most exciting politician on the Missouri scene, Carnahan stubbornly and quietly plowed through office after office." Carnahan was noted for having an honest image coupled with a relaxed personality. Many supporters of his wore straight-arrow pins to highlight this. He also had a humorous side; he once granted a pardon to a boy who sought one after lying to his parents. Carnahan and his family were active members of First Baptist Church of Rolla, where he served as an ordained deacon, and he and his wife taught Sunday School. In his spare time, Carnahan was a pilot.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mel Carnahan


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Battle of White Plains

The Battle of White Plains took place during the New York and New Jersey campaign of the American Revolutionary War on October 28, 1776, near White Plains, New York. Following the retreat of George Washington's Continental Army northward from New York City, British General William Howe landed troops in Westchester County, intending to cut off Washington's escape route. Alerted to this move, Washington retreated farther, establishing a position in the village of White Plains but failing to establish firm control over local high ground. Howe's troops drove Washington's troops from a hill near the village; following this loss, Washington ordered the Americans to retreat farther north.

Later British movements chased Washington across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. Washington then crossed the Delaware and surprised a brigade of Hessian troops in the December 26 Battle of Trenton.

Background

British general William Howe, after evacuating Boston in March 1776, regrouped in Halifax, Nova Scotia, and embarked in June on a campaign to gain control of New York City. The campaign began with an unopposed landing on Staten Island in early July. British troops made another unopposed landing, on Long Island, on August 22, south of the areas where General George Washington's Continental Army had organized significant defenses around Brooklyn Heights.

After losing the Battle of Long Island on August 27, General Washington and his army of 9,000 troops escaped on the night of August 29–30 to York Island (as Manhattan was then called). General Howe followed up with a landing on Manhattan on September 15, but his advance was checked the next day at Harlem Heights. After an abortive landing at Throg's Neck, he landed troops with some resistance at Pell's Point on October 18 to begin an encircling maneuver that was intended to trap Washington's army between that force, his troops in Manhattan, and the Hudson River, which was dominated by warships of the Royal Navy. Howe established a camp at New Rochelle, but advance elements of his army were near Mamaroneck, only 7 mi from White Plains, where there was a lightly defended Continental Army supply depot.

Prelude
On October 20, General Washington sent Colonel Rufus Putnam out on a reconnaissance mission from his camp at Harlem Heights. Putnam discovered the general placement of the British troop locations and recognized the danger to the army and its supplies. When he reported this to Washington that evening, Washington immediately dispatched Putnam with orders to Lord Stirling, whose troops were furthest north, to immediately march to White Plains. They arrived at White Plains at 9:00 am on October 21, and were followed by other units of the army as the day progressed. Washington decided to withdraw most of the army to White Plains, leaving a garrison of 1,200 men under Nathanael Greene to defend Fort Washington on Manhattan. General Howe's army advanced slowly, with troops from his center and right moving along the road from New Rochelle to White Plains, while a unit of Loyalists occupied Mamaroneck. The latter was attacked that night by a detachment of Lord Stirling's troops under John Haslet, who took more than thirty prisoners as well as supplies, but suffered several killed and 15 wounded. As a result, Howe moved elements of his right wing to occupy Mamaroneck. On October 22, Howe was reinforced by the landing at New Rochelle of an additional 8,000 troops under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen.

Washington established his headquarters at the Elijah Miller House in North White Plains on October 23, and chose a defensive position that he fortified with two lines of entrenchments. The trenches were situated on raised terrain, protected on the right by the swampy ground near the Bronx River, with steeper hills further back as a place of retreat. The American defenses were 3 mi long. Beyond that, on the right, was Chatterton's Hill, which commanded the plain over which the British would have to advance. The hill was initially occupied by militia companies numbering several hundred, probably including John Brooks' Massachusetts militia company.

On October 24 and 25, Howe's army moved from New Rochelle to Scarsdale, where they established a camp covering the eastern bank of the Bronx River. This move was apparently made in the hopes of catching Charles Lee's column, which had to alter its route toward White Plains and execute a forced march at night to avoid them. Howe remained at Scarsdale until the morning of October 28, when his forces marched toward White Plains, with British troops on the right under General Henry Clinton, and primarily Hessian troops on the left under General von Heister.

British and Hessians
British

British troops involved included:

Hessians
 * 16th Regiment of (Light) Dragoons
 * 17th Regiment of (Light) Dragoons
 * 1st Battalion, Guards Brigade
 * 2nd Battalion, Guards Brigade
 * 5th Regiment of Foot (Northumberland Fusiliers)
 * 23rd Regiment of Foot (Royal Welsh Fusiliers)
 * 27th Regiment of Foot
 * 28th Regiment of Foot
 * 35th Regiment of Foot
 * 42nd (Royal Highland, The Black Watch) Regiment of Foot
 * 49th Regiment of Foot
 * 52nd Regiment of Foot
 * No.1 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
 * No.2 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
 * No.4 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery (specially thanked in general orders)
 * No.5 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery (thanked in general orders)
 * No.8 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery (thanked in general orders)

 * Grenadier Regiment von Rahl
 * Fusilier Regiment von Knyphausen

Americans
American (continental) forces in the battle included:

 * Spencer's Division
 * Parson's Brigade under Brigadier General Samuel Holden Parsons
 * 10th Continental Regiment (6th Connecticut)
 * 20th Continental Regiment (20th Connecticut)
 * 21st Continental Regiment (Ward's Militia)
 * Wadsworth's Brigade under Brigadier General James Wadsworth
 * Gay's Battalion
 * Douglas' Battalion
 * Delaware Regiment
 * 1st New York Regiment
 * 3rd New York Regiment
 * Maryland Regiment
 * Connecticut Regiment
 * Brook's New York Militia
 * Graham's Massachusetts Militia

Battle

While Washington was inspecting the terrain to determine where it was best to station his troops, messengers alerted him that the British were advancing. Returning to his headquarters, he ordered the 2nd Connecticut Regiment under Joseph Spencer out to slow the British advance, and sent Haslet and the 1st Delaware Regiment, along with Alexander McDougall's brigade (Rudolphus Ritzema's 3rd New York Regiment, Charles Webb's 19th Continental Regiment, William Smallwood's 1st Maryland Regiment, and the 1st New York Regiment and 2nd New York Regiments) to reinforce Chatterton Hill.

Spencer's force advanced to a position on the old York road at Hart's corners (Hartsdale, New York) and there exchanged fire with the Hessians led by Colonel Johann Rall that were at the head of the British left column. When Clinton's column threatened their flank, these companies were forced into a retreat across the Bronx River that was initially orderly with pauses to fire from behind stone walls while fire from the troops on Chatterton Hill covered their move, but turned into a rout with the appearance of dragoons. Rall's troops attempted to gain the hill, but were repelled by fire from Haslet's troops and the militia, and retreated to a nearby hilltop on the same side of the river. This concerted defense brought the entire British Army, which was maneuvering as if to attack the entire American line, to a stop.

While Howe and his command conferred, the Hessian artillery on the left opened fire on the hilltop position, where they succeeded in driving the militia into a panicked retreat. The arrival of McDougall and his brigade helped to rally them, and a defensive line was established, with the militia on the right and the Continentals arrayed along the top of the hill. Howe finally issued orders, and while most of his army waited, a detachment of British and Hessian troops was sent to take the hill.

The British attack was organized with Hessian regiments leading the assault. Rall was to charge the American right, while a Hessian battalion under Colonel Carl von Donop (consisting of the Linsing, Mingerode, Lengereck, and Kochler grenadiers, and Donop's own chasseur regiment) was to attack the center. A British column under General Alexander Leslie (consisting of the 5th, 28th, 35th, and 49th foot) was to attack the right. Donop's force either had difficulty crossing the river or was reluctant to do so, and elements of the British force were the first to cross. Rall's charge scattered the militia on the American right, leaving the flank of the Maryland and New York regiments exposed as they poured musket fire onto the British attackers, which temporarily halted their advance. The exposure of their flank caused them to begin a fighting retreat, which progressively forced the remainder of the American line, which had engaged with the other segments of the British force, to give way and retreat. Haslet's Delaware regiment, which anchored the American left, provided covering fire while the remaining troops retreated to the north, and were the last to leave the hill. The fighting was intense, and both sides suffered significant casualties before the Continentals made a disciplined retreat.

Casualties

John Fortescue's History of the British Army says that Howe's casualties numbered 214 British and 99 Hessians. However, Rodney Atwood points out that Fortescue's figure for the Hessians includes the entire Hessian casualties from 19–28 October and that in fact only 53 of these casualties were incurred at the Battle of White Plains. This revised figure would give a total of 267 British and Hessians killed, wounded or missing at White Plains. Henry Dawson, on the other hand, gives Howe's loss as 47 killed, 182 wounded and four missing. The American loss is uncertain. Theodore Savas and J. David Dameron give a range of 150–500 killed, wounded and captured. Samuel Roads numbers the casualties of 47 killed and 70 wounded. Henry Dawson estimates 50 killed, 150 wounded and 17 missing for McDougall's and Spencer's commands but has no information on the losses in Haslet's regiment.

Aftermath
The two generals remained where they were for two days, while Howe reinforced the position on Chatterton Hill, and Washington organized his army for retreat into the hills. With the arrival of additional Hessian and Waldeck troops under Lord Percy on October 30, Howe planned to act against the Americans the following day. However, a heavy rain fell the whole next day, and when Howe was finally prepared to act, he awoke to find that Washington had again eluded his grasp.

Washington withdrew his army into the hills to the north on the night of October 31, establishing a camp near North Castle. Howe chose not to follow, instead attempting without success to draw Washington out. On November 5, he turned his army south to finish evicting Continental Army troops from Manhattan, a task he accomplished with the November 16 Battle of Fort Washington.

Washington eventually crossed the Hudson River at Peekskill with most of his army, leaving New England regiments behind to guard supply stores and important river crossings. Later, British movements chased him across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, and the British established a chain of outposts across New Jersey. Washington, seeing an opportunity for a victory to boost the nation's morale, crossed the Delaware and surprised Rall's troops in the December 26 Battle of Trenton.

Legacy
Each year on or near the anniversary date, the White Plains Historical Society hosts a commemoration of the event at the Jacob Purdy House in White Plains, New York. Two ships in the United States Navy were named for the Battle of White Plains. CVE-66 was an escort carrier in World War II. AFS-4 was a combat stores ship that was decommissioned in 1995.

According to some historians, the Headless Horseman depicted in Washington Irving's short story "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" was inspired by a real-life Hessian soldier who lost his head by cannon fire during this battle.

title: Battle of White Plains


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User:Joefrank

Joe Frank
St. Louis, Missouri

United States

PhD in Political Science

Washington University in St. Louis

Personal website: http://web.missouri.edu/~frankjo/

Web Log: http://joefrank.blogspot.com

Content Contributions to Wikipedia

title: User:Joefrank


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First Landing

First Landing is a 2002 science fiction novel by Robert Zubrin that tells the story of the first crewed space expedition to Mars. Zubrin is the head of the Mars Society, an organization lobbying the real world NASA to send astronauts to Mars. The plan used to accomplish their mission in the book is the same one advocated by his group.

In the novel, the explorers discover bacterial life on Mars and are abandoned due to political circumstances, and must fend for themselves if they want to return to Earth, thus highlighting many of the more robust features of Zubrin's plan for Mars.

Zubrin also wrote The Case for Mars, a detailed nonfiction explanation of the same plan.

Editions

 * ISBN 0-441-00963-8 (paperback, 2002)
 * ISBN 0-441-00859-3 (hardcover, 2002)

title: First Landing


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Mark Viduka

Mark Antony Viduka (born 9 October 1975)    is an Australian former soccer player who played as a centre forward. Viduka captained the Australia national team at the 2006 FIFA World Cup, reaching the Round of 16, which remains their joint-best performance to date. His four goals in the UEFA Champions League are the most scored by any Australian player.

Melbourne Knights
In 1993, Viduka started his professional career in Australia for Melbourne Knights (which up until the 1993 season was known as Melbourne Croatia) and became an Australian international in June of the following year. In his two seasons with the Knights, he was top goal scorer in the National Soccer League (NSL) and was twice awarded the Johnny Warren Medal for NSL Best Player of the Year in 1993–94 and 1994–95. His time at Melbourne Knights included one NSL title in the 1994–95 season. The grandstand at Knights' Stadium, home of the Knights, was renamed the "Mark Viduka Stand" in his honour and paid for with his transfer money.

Dinamo Zagreb
In 1995, Viduka moved to Croatia to play with Croatia Zagreb (now Dinamo Zagreb). He spent three-and-a-half seasons with the club, helping it to win three doubles in Croatia between 1996 and 1998. He was also part of the Croatia Zagreb team that reached the third round of the UEFA Cup in 1997 and went on to make his UEFA Champions League group stage debut with the club a year later. He won the Best Foreigner Footballer Award in the Croatian League in his time at Zagreb.

Celtic
Celtic bought Viduka in December 1998 for £3.5 million. In the same month as his signing, Celtic announced that Viduka had quit the club without kicking a ball for them, citing stress as his reason.

A week later, Croatia Zagreb complained that it had not received the agreed fee for the player. These issues were eventually resolved and Viduka made his first appearance in a Celtic shirt on 16 February 1999, scoring for the under-21 team as an over-age player in a 4–2 victory against Motherwell. After making his first team debut against Dundee United on 27 February 1999, his first goals for the club came when he scored a brace against Greenock Morton in the Scottish Cup on 8 March 1999. He was voted Scottish Player of the Year for 1999–2000 after scoring 27 goals in his first full season at Celtic Park. He was regarded as a skilled player, with Josip Šimunić noting his ability to hold the ball up well and bring other players into the game.

In February 2000, lower league team Inverness Caledonian Thistle defeated Celtic in a shock upset in the third round of the Scottish Cup. During half time Viduka reportedly threw his boots in the bin and refused to play in the second half after an altercation with assistant coach, Eric Black. The match ended 3–1 with Celtic fans in uproar.

In March 2000, Viduka assisted Celtic to win Scotland's 1999-2000 Scottish League Cup. He left after his first full season at the club.

Leeds United
Leeds United manager David O'Leary signed Viduka just before the 2000–01 season for £6 million. At Leeds, he was expected to line up in a three-pronged attack alongside the previous season's top scorer Michael Bridges and Australia teammate Harry Kewell, but injuries to those two saw him form a partnership with Alan Smith in Leeds' Champions League matches, while Robbie Keane – signed on loan from Inter Milan as cover for Bridges – also benefited in their Premier League matches together in the second half of the season. In his first season, Viduka scored 22 goals, including all four in a memorable 4–3 win over Liverpool at Elland Road. He signed a five-year deal in the summer of 2001 and would star in both domestic competitions and Europe, with Leeds finishing in the country's top four in 2000–01, and fifth in 2001–02. In the summer of 2001, Viduka was the subject of interest from A.C. Milan, whom he supported as a child, but the move ultimately did not happen, and held talks with Alex Ferguson at Manchester United, but decided against moving across the Pennines to join Leeds' rivals.

In the 2002–03 campaign, Viduka scored another 22 goals, including a hat-trick in a 6–1 win at Charlton Athletic and the winner in a 3–2 victory at Arsenal on the penultimate day of the season that effectively saved United from relegation.

However, the club's financial crisis continued, and resulted in the sale of key players including Harry Kewell and Robbie Keane. In the 2003–04 season, Viduka was again top scorer at Leeds, finishing the season strongly as was the case in the previous season, as interim manager Eddie Gray attempted to steer the club away from the Premier League trap door following the departure of Peter Reid in November after eight months as manager.

However, during his final appearance in the jersey, Leeds were relegated in a 4–1 loss to Bolton Wanderers at Reebok Stadium. After scoring a penalty, Viduka was sent off following two yellow cards. He was sold to Middlesbrough in the summer of 2004 as United's financial difficulties deepened.

Middlesbrough
Following Middlesbrough's League Cup victory in 2004, the club qualified for the 2004–05 UEFA Cup. The squad was bolstered with a number of high-profile signings to cope with the increased fixture list and to ensure it could compete on the European stage. Viduka was signed from Leeds for £4.5 million and unveiled as one of the marquee signings of the summer.

Viduka's debut season at Middlesbrough was initially impressive, albeit frustrated by injuries. However, in his second season, the 2005–06 season, Viduka was in sensational form in all competitions for Middlesbrough, reaching double figures early on in the season, including a stunning volley away at Birmingham. He played an important part in helping the club reach the League Cup quarter final, FA Cup semi final and UEFA cup final. Viduka helped to spearhead a European campaign which saw the club overturn a three-goal deficit in the quarter and semi final second legs of the competition to proceed to the final. Middlesbrough eventually lost in the final to Sevilla on 10 May 2006, a result which Viduka has since said took him four months to get over.

In August 2006, he was awarded the number 9 shirt at Middlesbrough, his preferred number at all his previous clubs. Viduka's third season at Middlesbrough was his most prolific, scoring 19 goals in all competitions. With his contract due to expire at the end of the 2006–07 season, Middlesbrough manager Gareth Southgate expressed his interest in retaining Viduka. Southgate reiterated his wish to retain Viduka's services and revealed he would offer him a new contract. Given his impressive haul for the season, Viduka attracted interest from a number of clubs who were hoping to sign him on a free transfer as he became out-of-contract. Viduka joined north-east rivals Newcastle United on a free transfer on 7 June 2007.

Viduka remains Middlesbrough's top goalscorer at the Riverside, and regularly features in Middlesbrough fan polls for top XI Riverside era players.

Newcastle United
In signing for Newcastle, Viduka became manager Sam Allardyce's first signing at the club. His contract was for two years, with the option of a third year. He made his Newcastle debut in a Premier League match at Bolton on 11 August and scored his first goal on 26 August against his former club Middlesbrough.

On 23 September, he scored a further two goals against West Ham United to bring his tally up to three for Newcastle. On 23 December, he again scored two goals against Derby County. After an injury lay off over the new year, Viduka was brought back into the side by new manager Kevin Keegan, where he played as part of a 4–3–3 formation along with Michael Owen and Obafemi Martins. This new formation brought about a change of fortune for Newcastle as the three strikers rescued them from a relegation battle, with Viduka scoring two more goals over the rest of the season and setting up others for Martins and Owen before picking up an Achilles' heel injury before the last game of the season.

Viduka made his return to the first team after six months out injured at former club Middlesbrough, coming on for Martins as a substitute on 29 November 2008. This was a great relief for manager Joe Kinnear, who stated that he had previously feared the Australian's career might have been prematurely ended by his injury woes. Later, Kinnear suggested to reporters that Viduka might call time on his career at the end of the 2008–09 season. Viduka, however, later expressed his desire to continue playing past this season after acquiring a groin injury in late December. After returning from injury, he was immediately used by newly appointed coach Alan Shearer in an attempt to prevent the team's relegation. After playing a man of the match performance in the 3–1 victory against his former team Middlesbrough, Mark appeared to have scored his first goal of the season against Fulham. Match referee Howard Webb, however, ruled that Kevin Nolan impeded goalkeeper Mark Schwarzer disallowing the goal. He was released following Newcastle's relegation.

International career
Viduka was available to be selected to Australia, Croatia and Ukraine due to his origins, and he began his international career with Australia in a friendly series against South Africa at the age of 18 in June 1994. The first game was played in Adelaide and the second game was played in Sydney. Australia won both games 1–0. He scored his first international goal in October 1997 in the 23rd minute of a friendly game against Tunisia.

In 1996, Viduka joined the Olyroos as they competed in the 1996 Summer Olympics. In Australia's first group game they lost to France 2–0. In their second group match they defeated Saudi Arabia 2–1. Viduka scored Australia's second goal in the 63rd minute with a clever back flick past the goalkeeper. In Australia's final group game Viduka made a contribution early in the game with an assist to Aurelio Vidmar in the 3rd minute. Despite Australia's early 0–2 lead, Spain made a spirited comeback and won 3–2. Due to the losses to France and Spain the Olyroos did not progress further in the tournament.

Viduka featured in the two World Cup qualifiers against Iran in 1997. Australia failed to qualify. Viduka was also a part of the Australia team that competed in the 1997 Confederations Cup. He scored Australia's opening goal in a 3–1 win over Mexico in Australia's first group game. However, in the final against Brazil he was sent off in the 24th minute after receiving a red card. Australia went on to lose the encounter 6–0.

In 1999, Viduka featured in a friendly against Brazil. The game was played at the Melbourne Cricket Ground and concluded with a 2–2 draw. Viduka assisted Paul Agostino with the first goal of the game. He also appeared in friendly matches against Hungary and Czech Republic in 2000. Defeating Hungary 3-0 and losing to Czech Republic 3–1. That same here Viduka once again joined the Olyroos in the 2000 Olympic Games in his home country of Australia. In 2001, he played alongside Australia as they competed against Uruguay in a two leg World Cup Qualifier. Australia lost on aggregate 3–1. This meant Viduka and Australia spent another World Cup on the sidelines.

In 2003, Viduka scored his third international goal in a friendly against Ireland. Australia would go on to lose the match 2–1.

Viduka began captaining Australia in September 2005 in place of the injured Craig Moore, the regular captain. His first game as captain was in a World Cup Qualifier against Solomon Islands in Sydney, in which Australia won 7–0. He scored 2 goals on the occasion including a spectacular bicycle-kick goal. Viduka would go on to score a third goal only to be denied a hat-trick after being ruled offside. It was his first time playing against a team from the Oceana region. In October 2005, he continued his captaincy when he led Australia to a 5-0 crushing of Jamaica at Craven Cottage in a friendly game. In the 47th minute of the game Archie Thompson crossed to Viduka, who controlled the ball, thought about appealing for handball but then had time to crash the ball into the net.

Viduka thrived under Guus Hiddink's tenure as coach of the national squad and led Australia as it qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany over a two-leg qualifier against Uruguay. In the second leg, during the first half a swift flick kick from Viduka found Harry Kewell inside the box. Kewell scuffed his shot but the ball bounced kindly to Mark Bresciano who went on to score the goal that forced the Qualifier to go to a penalty shoot out. Viduka would go on to miss his penalty, however Australia went on to win the shootout anyway.

It was the first time in 32 years that Australia qualified to participate in the World Cup. On 21 May 2006, he was named as the Australian captain for the World Cup.

In a lead up to the World Cup, Viduka captained Australia to friendly matches against the Netherlands and Greece. The Greece game was played at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. Australia won 1–0. Australia's game with the Netherlands ended with a 1–1 draw. After trailing 1-0 Australia earned a penalty in the second half. Viduka took the spot kick, only to hit the top bar. However Tim Cahill scored of the rebound. Viduka also led Australia's national team to their first World Cup finals victory with a 3–1 win over Japan in June 2006, as well as guiding them through an encounter with Brazil, losing 2–0, and a controversial bout with Croatia, ending with a 2–2 draw. He then led Australia into the second round, where they lost their round of 16 match to Italy. Although a regular scorer in the Premier League, Viduka has struggled to score any significant goals for the Socceroos, and the 2006 World Cup was no different.

Viduka considered retiring from international competition after the 2006 World Cup, citing increasing family commitments as the primary reason. In September 2006, however, he confirmed that he would continue playing for Australia and intended to compete in the 2007 Asian Cup. In a friendly against Singapore, a week before the start of the Asian Cup, Viduka scored two headed goals in a 3–0 victory for Australia; former Leeds teammate Harry Kewell scored the third. It was the second time he scored two goals in an international match, having previously done so against the Solomon Islands in 2005.

On Australia's first ever Asian Cup participation, Viduka captained the side and he scored their solitary goal against Iraq, a game which they ultimately lost 1–3. In the next match, he scored two goals against co-host team Thailand, defeating them 4–0; other goals scored by Michael Beauchamp and Harry Kewell and making them fall out of the remaining competition. At one stage, he led the goalscoring at the Asian Cup tournament, although his team was eliminated in the quarter-finals in a penalty shootout against Japan. Subsequent to that loss, question marks hang over whether Viduka will continue his international career. Two years on from the 2007 Asian Cup, he was still yet to return for the Socceroos, either stating he had injuries or club commitments. He missed World Cup Qualifiers against Qatar, Bahrain and Japan, even though fully fit and asked to play by then-Socceroos manager Pim Verbeek. Questions were raised over his commitment to the national team, even by other members of the squad. Despite calls from Adrian Alston, Graham Arnold and Viduka's then-agent Steve Kutner for Viduka to be selected for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Viduka had already decided to retire, aged 34.

Personal life
Viduka and his wife Ivana have three sons together: Joseph (born November 2002), Lucas (born September 2006) and Oliver (born May 2008). His father Joe immigrated to Australia from Croatia in the 1960s, and Croatian footballer and Ballon d'Or winner Luka Modrić is his cousin.

Viduka currently lives in Zagreb, where he owns a coffee shop and enjoys making coffee.

Viduka had a song written about him by English singer/songwriter and Middlesbrough fan Alistair Griffin (who also previously co-wrote the football song recorded by Terry Venables). The song lyrics were written to the tune of Leonard Cohen's "Hallelujah". Middlesbrough manager Gareth Southgate embraced the tune as a way of raising money for his chosen charity, Macmillan Cancer Support. Leonard Cohen gave permission for the song to be released as a charity download single.

Viduka was a huge AC Milan fan as a kid as he grew up watching Marco van Basten, Frank Rijkaard and Ruud Gullit.

Viduka has been a member of Melbourne City FC since its inaugural season. He is affectionately referred to by his nicknames "V-Bomber" and "Big Dukes" in Australia.

International

 * Source:

Honours
Melbourne Knights
 * National Soccer League: 1994–95
 * National Soccer League Cup: 1994–95
 * NSL Minor Premiership: 1993–94, 1994–95

Dinamo Zagreb
 * Prva HNL: 1995–96, 1996–97, 1997–98
 * Croatian Cup: 1995–96, 1996–97, 1997–98

Celtic
 * Scottish League Cup: 1999–2000

Australia U20
 * OFC U-20 Championship: 1994

Australia U23 Individual
 * OFC U-23 Championship: 1996
 * Oceania Footballer of the Year: 2000
 * Australian Sports Medal: 2000
 * SPFA Players' Player of the Year: 2000
 * NSL Top Goalscorer: 1993–94, 1994–95
 * NSL U21 Player of the Year: 1993–94, 1994–95
 * Johnny Warren Medal: 1993–94, 1994–95
 * SPL Top Goalscorer: 1999–00
 * Australian Institute of Sport 'Best of the Best': 2001.
 * Alex Tobin OAM Medal: 2011
 * FFA Hall of Fame: 2014
 * Sport Australia Hall of Fame inductee: 2021

title: Mark Viduka


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Lansdowne House

Lansdowne House now 9 Fitzmaurice Place is the remaining part of an aristocratic English town house building to the south of Berkeley Square in central London, England. The initial name was for two decades Shelburne House, then its title matched its owning family's elevation to a higher peerage in 1784. In the mid to late 19th century, it was frequently let, as a whole, to families of very high wealth or income, such as Lord Rosebery and Hannah de Rothschild of Mentmore Towers from 1878 to 1890. Some of its 18th-century interiors, among the best in London, were taken elsewhere. It was at different times leased by three 19th century British prime ministers, and William Waldorf Astor, 1st Viscount Astor of Cliveden House, widely believed to be the richest man in America at the time of his tenancy (1891–1893) and also by Harry Gordon Selfridge in the 1920s. Landsdowne's heirs sold the property in 1929, two years after the death of the 5th Marquess, a prominent government frontbencher (cabinet minister).

The local authority had built an approach road in 1931 which saw the loss of approximately half of the rooms of its greater wing; it is today one of two buildings which open onto Fitzmaurice Place but is known as 9 Fitzmaurice Place. The surviving extent was granted Grade II* Listed Building status in 1970. The house was also the inspiration for Bingham House in Montreal, built by Lord Shelburne's great friend William Bingham in 1821, who was then the wealthiest man in North America and an associate of Alexander Hamilton.

Notable guests have included Benjamin Franklin, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and the Comte de Mirabeau, among others.

Current use
It houses the Lansdowne Club in Mayfair. It co-serves as an address of Fitzmaurice House Ltd, the International Wine and Food Society which may meet here and The Junior League of London.

History
It was designed by Robert Adam as a house for John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute but in 1763 he sold it (one year into its building) to William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne (both men became Prime Minister); the structure was finished in 1768. Adam commissioned the local sculptor Thomas Carter the Younger to carve the chimney-pieces of his design. Shelburne retained Adam until 1771, when his wife died, with parts of the decoration still incomplete. George Dance the Younger (in the 1790s of George III's reign) and Robert Smirke (at the end of his associated Regency) worked on the house.

From 1763 to 1929, it belonged to the seniormost branch of the Petty-FitzMaurice family, elevated from 1784 to a high peerage, as Marquesses of Lansdowne. In 1931, the house, in compensation seeing its extension built to the south-west, saw half of its greater original wing, the east wing, demolished to allow the street Fitzmaurice Place to be built. Since 1935, the residue accommodates the Lansdowne Club.

Winston Churchill commented that in Victorian and Edwardian London, "glittering parties at Lansdowne House, Devonshire House or Stafford House (Lancaster House) comprised all the elements which made a gay and splendid social circle in close relation to the business of Parliament, the hierarchies of the Army and Navy, and the policy of the State".

Its front private garden exceeded its building's footprint but was subject to another's restrictive covenants. Its main front lay further forward and was a garden front to this green expanse (between Berkeley Square and Devonshire House's gardens). This conservation guaranteed for Devonshire House on Piccadilly open aspects (greenery-covered land save for discreet fences/railings) up to and including all of Berkeley Square. These reasons are set out in the Square's article.

In 2022, Blackstone finalized an agreement to redevelop Lansdowne House as its European headquarters. Prime Minister Liz Truss called the agreement "a resounding vote of confidence in the United Kingdom as Europe’s leading financial centre."

Famous residents
Owner, resident:-
 * William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne (later 1st Marquess of Lansdowne), British prime minister (1782–83)

Tenants:-
 * John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, British prime minister (1762–63)
 * William Pitt the Younger, British prime minister (1783–1801, 1804–1806)
 * William Waldorf Astor, 1st Viscount Astor, widely believed to be the richest man in America at the time (1891–1893)
 * Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, was a British Liberal statesman and Prime Minister (1894–1895)
 * Harry Gordon Selfridge, founder of the Selfridges department store

Partial demolition and dispersal of name
In the 1930s, the Metropolitan Borough of Westminster Council decided to build a road from Berkeley Square to Curzon Street, which required the demolition of all the garden front rooms of Lansdowne House. One of Adam's three drawing rooms was removed and installed at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, while the Dining Room went to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The façade was rebuilt in a modified form at the front of the reduced house; about half of the north-west corner has also been lost.

On 1 May 1935, the Lansdowne Club opened as a 'social, residential and athletic Club for members of social standing...'. It comprises the remaining 18th-century rooms plus a large 1930s extension in the Art Deco style.

Many works of art, such as the Lansdowne Amazon and the Lansdowne Hercules, were also bought by American and British museums. The Lansdowne Hermes resides at the Santa Barbara Museum of Art in California. Other objects moved to Bowood House, the Lansdowne country house, where Adam had also worked, which remains in the family, though large parts of it were demolished in 1956.

A large office block, 57 Berkeley Square, with classical fronts and surrounding roads, occupies what was the garden. This still uses as line of its address the name of the old house. What is left of the house, with a 20th-century extension, is now called 9, Fitzmaurice Place.

Extensive renovations began in 2000.

Notes and references

 * Footnotes

 * Citations

title: Lansdowne House


text:
Heage

Heage is a village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Ripley, in the Amber Valley district, in the county of Derbyshire, England. It is situated midway between Belper and Ripley. The village is in the Heage and Ambergate ward, which in the 2011 census had a population of 5,013.

Heage is known for its six-sailed windmill; building work started in 1791 and it was first recorded as working in 1797. Each of the six sails weighs nearly one ton, and the tower is built from local sandstone.

The name Heage is derived from the Old English hēah and ecg, and means 'high edge' or 'high ridge'. In 1817, the Lysons recorded that "Heage, alias High-edge, lies about five miles from Duffield, upon the road from Chesterfield to Derby. The manor, which had been parcel of the Earldom and Duchy of Lancaster, was granted, with Duffield, to Ditchfield and others. In 1629 it was conveyed to the Stanhope family. Sir William Stanhope bequeathed it, in 1703, to Godfrey Wentworth, Esq. his nephew, whose son of the same name sold it, in 1767, to Francis Hurt, Esq., grandfather of Francis Hurt, Esq., of Alderwasley, who is the present proprietor."

Also located in Heage, at Morley Park, are the remains of two coke-fired blast furnaces for the smelting of iron, built for Francis Hurt of Alderwasley. The first, built in 1780 was the earliest in Derbyshire. The other was built in 1818 and they represent very early coke-fired blast furnaces. They closed in 1874, and most of the site has returned to nature, but the furnace towers still exist and can be seen next to the A38.

The present school was built about 1862 to replace two much smaller schools that were managed by the Church and the Storer Charity. Later it became a secondary school and is now an infants and primary school. The original old Victorian buildings still form part of the school and the old Church school and Charity school are located nearby. When the school was a secondary school it received pupils from three other schools, The Green school (now demolished), Ridgeway school, which has been converted to a house and Ambergate school that is still an infants and junior school. There are a number of recent housing developments in the village.

Heage has two bus services, the 6.2 and 6.3, both of which are operated by TrentBarton. Service 6E operates Monday to Saturday evenings (not Bank Holidays). The services link the village to the nearby towns of Ripley and Belper, as well as the City of Derby.

The first mention of a post office in Heage was in 1847, closed in 2008. It has three pubs, the Eagle Tavern, the Green man and the Black Boy Inn.

Heage is also home to St. Luke's Church, situated on Church Street. It was originally built in 1646. In 1836 the church was enlarged, this created an unusual 'T' shape which is a rarity in Derbyshire. Services are held every Sunday, varying in traditional and contemporary styles.

Civil parish
The village was previously a parish area containing several communities. Immediately surrounding the core village were: Bakershillock (by Bakers Hill), Cackleton Green (by Parkside and Brook St), Nether Heage, Schoolhouse Hill (by New Road). Upper Hartshay was within the village boundaries but outside the parish. Further afield within the parish were: Ambergate, Black-Horse, Boothgate, Bullbridge, Buckland Hollow, Ridgeway, Sawmills, and Toadmoor,

Heage was formerly a chapelry in the parish of Duffield, from 1866 Heage was a civil parish in its own right, on 1 April 1974 the parish was abolished and merged with Belper. In 1951 the parish had a population of 4433.

title: Heage


text:
User:Morwen/Libya

 Official language             Arabic Capital                       Tripoli Leader of the Revolution      Moammar Al Qadhafi President of Libya            Zentani Muhammad az-Zentani Area - Total Ranked 16th 1,759,540 km² Population - Total (Year) - Density Ranked 103rd 5,499,074 3.1/km² Currency                      Libyan Dinar Time zone                     UTC +3 Independence - Recognised                    (From Italy) 1951   National anthem                Allahu Akbar Internet TLD .ly    Calling Code  218

title: User:Morwen/Libya


text:
Gitta Sereny

Gitta Sereny, CBE (13 March 1921 – 14 June 2012) was an Austrian-British biographer, historian, and investigative journalist who became known for her interviews and profiles of infamous figures, including Mary Bell, who was convicted in 1968 of killing two children when she herself was a child, and Franz Stangl, the commandant of the Treblinka extermination camp.

Born and initially raised in Austria, she was the author of five books, including The Case of Mary Bell: A Portrait of a Child Who Murdered (1972) and Albert Speer: His Battle with Truth (1995).

Sereny was awarded the Duff Cooper Prize and the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for her book on Albert Speer in 1995, and the Stig Dagerman Prize in 2002. She was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 2004 for services to journalism.

Biography
Sereny was born in Vienna, Austria in 1921. Her father was a Hungarian Protestant aristocrat, Ferdinand Serény, who died when she was two. Her mother was a former actress from Hamburg, Margit Herzfeld, of German background. Gitta Sereny's stepfather was the economist Ludwig von Mises.

When she was thirteen, her train journey to a boarding school in the United Kingdom was delayed in Nürnberg where she attended one of the annual Nürnberg Rallies. After writing about the rally for a class assignment she was given Mein Kampf to read by her teacher so she might be able to understand what she saw there. After the Nazi takeover of Austria in 1938, she moved to France, where she worked with orphans during the German occupation until she had to flee the country because of her connection to the French Resistance.

After World War II, she worked for the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration with refugees in Allied-occupied Germany. Among her tasks was reuniting with their biological families children who had been kidnapped by the Nazis to be raised as "Aryans". This could be a traumatic experience because the children did not always remember their original family, but when she accompanied a train-load of such children back to Poland she saw the delight of the original family members at the restoration of the children.

She attended the Nürnberg Trials for four days in 1945 as an observer and it was here that she first saw Albert Speer about whom she would later write the book Albert Speer: His Battle with Truth. It was for this book that she was awarded the 1995 James Tait Black Memorial Prize. The book was also later adapted by David Edgar as the play Albert Speer and directed by Trevor Nunn at the National Theatre in 2000.

She married Don Honeyman in 1948 and moved to London where they raised their two children. Don Honeyman (who died 1 June 2011) was a photographer, who worked for Vogue, The Daily Telegraph and The Sunday Times, among other publications. The poster of Che Guevara on a red background (1968) is one of his best known creations.

From the mid-'60s and throughout the 1970s she wrote extensively for The Daily Telegraph Magazine under the editorship of John Anstey. These articles were often about young people, the social services, children and their relationships with their parents and society. This led to her covering the trial of eleven-year-old Mary Bell (found guilty of murdering two children) and would further lead to her first investigative book on this case.

Books
The Case of Mary Bell was first published in 1972 following Mary Bell's trial; in it Sereny interviewed her family, friends and the professionals involved in looking after Mary during her trial. This book was edited by Diana Athill who would also edit Sereny's Into That Darkness.

Into That Darkness (also following an initial article for the Telegraph magazine) was an examination of the guilt of Franz Stangl, the commandant of the Treblinka and Sobibor extermination camps. She spent 70 hours interviewing him in prison for the article and when she had finished he finally admitted his guilt; he died of a heart attack nineteen hours later.

Albert Speer: His Battle with Truth (1995) is a biographical work on Albert Speer, German minister of Armaments during World War II. In it, Sereny explores how much Speer knew about the Holocaust. During the Nuremberg trials, Speer had avoided a death sentence, claiming all the while that he knew nothing of the Holocaust. However, Sereny concludes that Speer must have known based on a letter he wrote to the Jewish community in South Africa (after the war), and the fact that his closest assistant attended the Wannsee Conference (where the details of the genocide of the Jews were worked out) and could not have failed to inform him about the proceedings.

In 1998, her second book on Mary Bell, Cries Unheard, caused controversy in the British press because she shared the publishing fee, from Macmillan Publishers, with Mary Bell for collaborating on the book. Sereny was initially criticized in the British press and by the British government, though the book quickly became, and remains, a standard text for professionals working with problem children.

Sereny wrote of her final book, The German Trauma (2002): "The nineteen chapters in this book, all intimately concerned with Germany before, during and since the end of the Third Reich, describe more or less sequentially what I saw and learned from 1938 to 1999, thus almost over a lifetime."

David Irving libel suit
British Holocaust denier David Irving initiated a libel case against Sereny and the Guardian Media Group for two reviews in The Observer where she asserted he deliberately falsified the historical record in an attempt to rehabilitate the Nazis. Irving maintained a personal animosity for Sereny, whom he calls "that shriveled Nazi hunter", for successfully refuting his claims since the publication of his book Hitler's War. In 1977, Sereny cross-checked the source he cited for his assertion that Hitler knew nothing about the "Final Solution", and therefore could not have ordered the "Final Solution". Gitta Sereny proved that Irving had made an additional assertion which would have contradicted his claim;  "I know many of the same people as he does who were of Hitler's circle…". Ms. Sereny later said, "That is scary for him. He says, 'we jostle at the same trough'. The difference is that he loves that trough, and I don't. There is, I think, for him [David Irving], despair in all of this." Although the case did not go to court, the cost to the Guardian Media Group of preparing its legal defence amounted to £800,000.

Death
Gitta Sereny died on 14 June 2012 at age 91 while in Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, after a long illness.

title: Gitta Sereny


text:
Kiidk'yaas

Kiidk'yaas (meaning "ancient tree" in the Haida language ), also known as the Golden Spruce, was a Sitka spruce tree (Picea sitchensis 'Aurea') that grew on the banks of the Yakoun River on the Haida Gwaii archipelago in British Columbia, Canada. It had a rare genetic mutation that caused its needles to be golden in colour (rather than the usual green). Kiidk'yaas was considered sacred by the Haida people.

Kiidk'yaas was felled in January 1997 by Grant Hadwin as an act of protest against the logging industry. Kiidk'yaas and its felling are the subject of John Vaillant's 2005 book The Golden Spruce.

Kiidk'yaas in Haida mythology
Kiidk'yaas features prominently in Haida mythology.

The Kiidk'yaas story tells of a young boy who disrespected nature and thereby caused a terrible storm to descend on his village. Only he and his grandfather survived the storm. As they fled the village, the grandfather warned the boy not to look back. The boy disobeyed, and was immediately turned into the Golden Spruce where he stood.

Felling
In January 1997, 47-year-old unemployed forest engineer Grant Hadwin travelled to Haida Gwaii and purchased a chainsaw and other felling equipment. Early on the morning of January 20, 1997 he swam across the freezing Yakoun River and made a series of strategic deep cuts in Kiidk'yaas. The cuts were designed to leave Kiidk'yaas standing but weakened, so that it would be knocked over by the next strong winds. The tree fell two days later.

After cutting down the tree, Hadwin left the islands for Prince Rupert, British Columbia. He sent a fax to the media and the Haida nation claiming responsibility for the act, saying that he was motivated by "rage and hatred towards university-trained professionals and their extremist supporters". The act outraged people throughout Canada and received extensive media coverage. Hadwin was arrested, ordered to return to Haida Gwaii to stand trial, and was released on bail.

Hadwin planned to travel to his trial date by crossing the notoriously stormy and violent Hecate Strait (from Prince Rupert to Masset) alone by kayak in mid-winter. He departed Prince Rupert in February 1997 but never arrived at his trial. What is believed to be Hadwin's broken kayak and effects were found on Mary Island in June 1997. Whether he had been murdered, accidentally drowned, or left his belongings behind and fled into the wilderness is not known. His fate remains unknown.

Post-felling
In 1977 a group of botanists from the University of British Columbia (UBC) visited Haida Gwaii to take cuttings of Kiidk'yaas. These cuttings were grafted onto ordinary Sitka spruce, resulting in two golden saplings. The trees were grown in the UBC Botanical Garden and Centre for Plant Research. Upon hearing of the tree's destruction in 1997, the arboretum offered one of the two young trees to replace Kiidk'yaas. However, the sapling died in storage before it could be transported to Haida Gwaii. The second sapling survives at UBC.

After Kiidk'yaas' felling, attempts were made to propagate a further 80 cuttings (with the permission of the Haida people) in order to increase the chances of a successful offspring surviving.

The only wood harvested from the tree was used by Nova Scotia luthier George Rizsanyi and broadcaster Jowi Taylor as part of Six String Nation, a guitar dedicated to Canadian history. Other pieces of the guitar include wood from Pierre Trudeau's canoe paddle and Paul Henderson's hockey stick.

title: Kiidk'yaas


text:
Springhill

Springhill may refer to:

Canada

 * Springhill, Nova Scotia, a community in Cumberland County
 * Springhill, Ontario, an unincorporated community in Champlain
 * Springhill, a former hamlet now part of King City, Ontario

Malaysia

 * Bandar Springhill, a town in Negeri Sembilan

United Kingdom

 * Springhill (Bangor suburb), a suburb of Bangor, County Down, Northern Ireland
 * Springhill, East Renfrewshire, a location in Scotland
 * Springhill, Glasgow, a neighborhood of Glasgow, Scotland
 * Springhill, Isle of Wight, a location in England
 * Springhill, North Lanarkshire, a neighbourhood of Shotts, Scotland
 * Springhill, Lichfield, a location in Staffordshire, England
 * Springhill, South Staffordshire, Staffordshire, England
 * Springhill House, Northern Ireland, a notable house and estate in Moneymore, County Londonderry

United States

 * Springhill, Alabama
 * Springhill, Faulkner County, Arkansas
 * Springhill, Indiana
 * Springhill, Louisiana
 * Springhill, Missouri
 * Springhill, Montana

Other uses

 * Springhill (TV series), a drama series made by Granada Television
 * SpringHill Entertainment, a video production company founded by LeBron James and Maverick Carter

title: Springhill


text:
Goldman, Missouri

Goldman is an unincorporated community in Jefferson County, Missouri, United States, approximately 25 miles south of St. Louis, and five miles north of the county courthouse at Hillsboro. Goldman is located on Old Lemay Ferry Road, an old trade route connecting Hillsboro and St. Louis.

A post office called Goldman was established in 1895, and remained in operation until 1905. The community has the name of the Goldman brothers, local merchants.

Goldman is adjacent to the historic Sandy Creek Covered Bridge, one of only four covered bridges in Missouri and a state historic site.

The town is located near the site where Missouri Governor Mel Carnahan and two other people died on October 16, 2000, in an airplane crash.

title: Goldman, Missouri


text:
List of individual trees

The following is a list of individual trees. Trees listed here are regarded as important or specific by their historical, national, locational, natural or mythological context. The list includes actual trees located throughout the world, as well as trees from myths and religions.

Other

 * Anthem Christmas tree, the tallest Christmas tree in the United States, erected annually at the Outlets at Anthem outside Phoenix, Arizona.
 * Boston Christmas Tree. Since 1971, given to Boston by the people of Nova Scotia in thanks for their assistance during the 1917 Halifax Explosion. Located in the Boston Common.
 * Capitol Christmas Tree, the tree erected annually on the West Front Lawn of the United States Capitol, in Washington, D.C.
 * Chicago Christmas Tree, the annual tree located in Millennium Park in the city of Chicago. Historically, the tree was located in Grant Park and Daley Plaza.
 * Grove Christmas Tree, a 100-foot tree that is lit every year at The Grove at Farmer's Market in Los Angeles, California.
 * Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree, a Christmas tree on display every December in Rockefeller Center, New York City.
 * The Tree of Life, a fourteen-story artificial tree in Disney's Animal Kingdom at Walt Disney World in Florida.

Living

 * Guanacaste tree, focal point of Guanacaste National Park, Belize.

Historical

 * El Grande, a mountain ash once regarded as Australia's largest tree by volume, killed by a forestry burnoff in 2003.
 * The Tree of Knowledge at Barcaldine, Queensland under which the Australian Labor Party was traditionally founded. In an act of vandalism, the tree was poisoned and was eventually declared dead in October 2006.
 * The pine of One Tree Hill, a radiata pine which stood alone until 2000 atop Maungakiekie / One Tree Hill, an extinct volcanic cone in Auckland, New Zealand.
 * The Old Gum Tree, Glenelg, South Australia, where the proclamation of the establishment of Government of the province of South Australia was read in 1836.
 * The Explorers Tree, marked by the explorers who crossed the Blue Mountains (New South Wales) in 1813.
 * Jacaranda, University of Sydney, famous tree in the main Quadrangle. Planted 1928. Died of old age in 2016, it was replaced by a clone the following year.
 * Separation Tree, a famous tree that was a Melbourne landmark and is best known as the site where the citizens of the city congregated on 15 November 1850 to celebrate when the news that Victoria was to separate from the colony of New South Wales. Following attacks by vandals it died in 2015.
 * Kidman's Tree of Knowledge is a heritage-listed tree at Glengyle Station in Bedourie, Queensland, Australia. Associated with Sidney Kidman who once camped under the tree and planned the expansion of his pastoral empire.
 * The Directions Tree was a sacred tree in the Birthing Woods, carrying profound cultural importance to the Djab Wurrung people, in Victoria, Australia was bulldozed in 2020 to make way for a highway despite the efforts of many trying to protect it. This event caused significant uproar and was part of a larger legal battle for the protection of the Birthing Woods as being a culturally significant location having been overturned since the 2013 decision.

Mythological and religious trees

 * Bodhi Tree, under which Siddhartha Gautama, the spiritual teacher and founder of Buddhism later known as Gautama Buddha, achieved enlightenment (also called Bodhi).
 * World Tree
 * Égig érő fa, the "Tree Reaching into the Sky" of Hungarian folk art and a folk tale type
 * Irminsul
 * Jievaras, the World tree in Lithuanian mythology.
 * Yggdrasil, the World Tree in the Old Norse religion.
 * Cutting of the elm, a legendary event concerning a tree at Gisors.
 * Cypress of Kashmar, planted by Zoroaster and felled by Caliph Al Mutawakkil.
 * Man-eating tree
 * Oak of Mamre
 * Thor's Oak, a sacred tree to the ancient Germanic tribe of the Chatti.
 * Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, from Christianity and Judaism.
 * Tree of Life, from Christianity and Judaism.
 * The Lote Tree
 * The Zaqqum Tree

title: List of individual trees