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Pneumoconiosis

Pneumoconiosis is the general term for a class of interstitial lung disease where inhalation of dust (for example, ash dust, lead particles, pollen grains etc) has caused interstitial fibrosis. The three most common types are asbestosis, silicosis, and coal miner's lung. Pneumoconiosis often causes restrictive impairment, although diagnosable pneumoconiosis can occur without measurable impairment of lung function. Depending on extent and severity, it may cause death within months or years, or it may never produce symptoms. It is usually an occupational lung disease, typically from years of dust exposure during work in mining; textile milling; shipbuilding, ship repairing, and/or shipbreaking; sandblasting; industrial tasks; rock drilling (subways or building pilings); or agriculture. It is one of the most common occupational diseases in the world.

Types
Depending upon the type of dust, the disease is given different names:
 * Coalworker's pneumoconiosis (also known as coal miner's lung, black lung or anthracosis) – coal, carbon
 * Aluminosis – Aluminium
 * Asbestosis – asbestos
 * Silicosis (also known as "grinder's disease" or Potter's rot) – crystalline silica dust
 * Bauxite fibrosis – bauxite
 * Berylliosis – beryllium
 * Siderosis – iron
 * Byssinosis – Byssinosis is caused by cotton dust inhalation and typically demonstrates a different pattern of lung abnormalities from most other pneumoconiosis.
 * Chalicosis – fine dust from stonecutting
 * Silicosiderosis (also sometimes called iron miner's lung ) – mixed dust containing silica and iron
 * Labrador lung (found in miners in Labrador, Canada) – mixed dust containing iron, silica and anthophyllite, a type of asbestos
 * Stannosis – tin oxide
 * Talcosis – talc
 * Baritosis - a benign type of pneumoconiosis caused by barium inhalation; it typically causes little or no overgrowth, hardening, and/or fibrosis.
 * Mixed-dust pneumoconiosis

Pathogenesis
The reaction of the lung to mineral dusts depends on many variables, including size, shape, solubility, and reactivity of the particles. For example, particles greater than 5 to 10 μm are unlikely to reach distal airways, whereas particles smaller than 0.5 μm move into and out of alveoli, often without substantial deposition and injury. Particles that are 1 to 5 μm in diameter are the most dangerous, because they lodge at the bifurcation of the distal airways. Coal dust is relatively inert, and large amounts must be deposited in the lungs before lung disease is clinically detectable. Silica, asbestos, and beryllium are more reactive than coal dust, resulting in fibrotic reactions at lower concentrations. Most inhaled dust is entrapped in the mucus blanket and rapidly removed from the lung by ciliary movement. However, some of the particles become stuck at alveolar duct bifurcations, where macrophages accumulate and engulf the trapped particulates. The pulmonary alveolar macrophage is a key cellular element in the initiation and perpetuation of lung injury and fibrosis. Many particles activate the inflammasome and induce IL-1 production. The more reactive particles trigger the macrophages to release a number of products that mediate an inflammatory response and initiate fibroblast proliferation and collagen deposition. Some of the inhaled particles may reach the lymphatics either by direct drainage or within migrating macrophages and thereby initiate an immune response to components of the particulates and/or to self-proteins that are modified by the particles. This then leads to an amplification and extension of the local reaction. Tobacco smoking worsens the effects of all inhaled mineral dusts, more so with asbestos than with any other particle.

Diagnosis
Typical indications on patient assessment include:
 * Cough
 * Shortness of breath
 * Chest tightness
 * Chest X-ray may show a characteristic patchy, subpleural, bibasilar interstitial infiltrates or small cystic radiolucencies called honeycombing, particularly in advanced disease.

Pneumoconiosis in combination with multiple pulmonary rheumatoid nodules in rheumatoid arthritis patients is known as Caplan's syndrome.

Epidemiology
The prevalence as of 2021 of pneumoconiosis is around 527,500 cases, with over 60,000 new patients reported globally in 2017. Prevalence has trended somewhat downward since 2015. The mortality of pneumoconiosis patients remained at a high level in recent years, with over 21,000 deaths each year since 2015. It is likely that pneumoconiosis is under-diagnosed and under-reported, especially in countries without highly developed healthcare systems.

Treatment and Prognosis
Lung damage due to pneumoconiosis cannot be reversed. However, some steps can slow down disease progression and relieve symptoms. These include the prescription of medications and breathing treatments to open airways and reduce inflammation. Pulmonary rehabilitation and supplemental oxygen may also be recommended. A lung transplant may be needed in cases of serious diseases. If the patient smokes, smoking cessation is also important. Regular testing, such as X-rays or lung function tests, may be indicated to monitor disease progression.

Prevention
To reduce the likelihood of developing pneumoconiosis, individuals working in affected industries should wear a mask, wash skin that comes in contact with dust, remove dust from clothing and wash the face and hands before eating or drinking. In addition, governments often regulate industry, especially mines, to limit how much dust is in the air. In the United States, coal miners injured by pneumoconiosis and their families may receive monthly payments and medical benefits under the Black Lung Benefits Act.

title: Pneumoconiosis


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Bureaucracy (video game)

Bureaucracy is an interactive fiction video game released by Infocom in 1987, scripted by comic science fiction author Douglas Adams. Infocom's twenty-fourth game, it is part of the Infocom Plus range which requires a machine with a minimum of 128K of memory.

Plot
The player must confront a long and complicated series of bureaucratic hurdles resulting from a recent change of address. Mail is being delivered to the wrong address, bank accounts are inaccessible, and nothing is as it should be. The game includes a measure of simulated blood pressure which rises when "frustrating" events happen and lowers after a period of no annoying events. Once a certain blood pressure level is reached, the player suffers an aneurysm and the game ends.

While undertaking the seemingly simple task of retrieving misdirected mail, the player encounters a number of bizarre characters, including an antisocial hacker, a paranoid weapons enthusiast, and a tribe of Zalagasan cannibals. At the same time, they must deal with impersonal corporations, counterintuitive airport logic, and a hungry llama.

Gameplay
Infocom rated Bureaucracy as "Advanced" in its difficulty rating system.

The game begins with a short online "software registration form" displayed on the screen. After the form has been completed, the game uses the given information after appropriately mangling it. (For example, the game will persistently address the player as the wrong gender, and whatever the player enters as "least favourite colour" will appear in numerous descriptions.)

The game has 50 locations.

Release
The Bureaucracy packaging includes the following physical items:
 * 1) A pamphlet entitled You're ready to move! from the fictional bank Fillmore Fiduciary Trust
 * 2) A flier advertising the fictional magazine Popular Paranoia
 * 3) A welcome letter from the player's new employer, Happitec Corporation
 * 4) A Fillmore "Better Beezer" credit card application form (each sheet of the triplicate carbon copy form had different instructions and questions)
 * 5) A very skinny pencil (similar to those provided at banks)

Reception
Bureaucracy sold 40,000 copies. Compute!'s Gazette praised its parser and feelies, and liked the player's actions directly affecting blood pressure. Game reviewers Hartley and Patricia Lesser complimented Bureaucracy in their "The Role of Computers" column in Dragon #124 (1987), calling it "an outrageous journey through red tape that puts you directly in the middle of a bureaucratic muddle so convoluted that you can't help but laugh." Jerry Pournelle named Bureaucracy as his game of the month for October 1987, stating that he and Larry Niven became "engrossed". Computer Gaming World described it as "a linear adventure with some very tough puzzles in the midst of some incredible madness".

Reviews

 * Your Commodore (Aug, 1987)
 * Zzap! (Jul, 1987)
 * Amstrad Action (Jun, 1987)
 * Happy Computer (Jul, 1987)
 * ASM (Aktueller Software Markt) (Jul, 1987)
 * Computer and Video Games (Jul, 1987)
 * ATARImagazin (Jun, 1987)
 * Commodore User (Jul, 1987)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bureaucracy (video game)


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User:Dori/Greets

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Greeting
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title: User:Dori/Greets


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Sandomierz

Sandomierz ( pronounced: ; Sandomiria, צויזמר, צוזמיר ) is a historic town in south-eastern Poland with 23,863 inhabitants, situated on the Vistula River near its confluence with the San, in the Sandomierz Basin. It has been part of Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship (Holy Cross Province) since its transfer from the Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship in 1999. It is the capital of Sandomierz County. Sandomierz is known for its preserved Old Town, a major cultural and tourist attraction which the President of Poland declared a National Monument of Poland in 2017.

In the past, Sandomierz was one of the most important urban centers not only of Lesser Poland, but also of the whole country. It was a royal city of the Polish Crown and functioned as a regional administrative centre from the High Middle Ages to the 19th century.

Etymology
The name of the city might have originated from the Old Polish Sędomir, composed of Sędzi- (from the verb sądzić "to judge") and mir ("peace"), or more likely from the antiquated given name Sędzimir, once popular in several Slavic languages. Sandomierz is known in Latin as Sandomiria and in Yiddish as צויזמיר (Tzoyzmir).

Early history
Sandomierz is one of the oldest and historically most significant cities in Poland. Archeological finds around the city indicate that humans have inhabited the area since neolithic times. The city came into existence in the early Middle Ages, taking advantage of an excellent location at the junction of Vistula and San rivers, and on the path of important trade routes. The first known historical mention of the city comes from the early 12th-century, when the chronicler Gallus Anonymus ranked it together with Kraków and Wrocław as one of the main cities of Poland. The testament (ca 1115–1118) of Bolesław III Wrymouth, in which he divided Poland among his sons, designated Sandomierz as the capital of one of the resulting principalities, the Duchy of Sandomierz.

In the early 13th century, the second oldest Dominican monastery in Poland (after Kraków) and one of the oldest in Europe was founded in Sandomierz. In the course of the 13th century the city suffered grievous damage during the raids by Mongols in 1241, 1260 and 1287. The old wooden buildings of the town were completely destroyed. As a result, in 1286 the High Duke of Poland Leszek II the Black, effectively refounded the city under Magdeburg Law and granted staple right. The city archives preserve the founding document. (An important note: in 1260, as the Tartars invaded Christian Sandomir, a community of Dominicans was praying Matins while a novice read the martyrology for the next day: "the 49 martyrs of Sandomir". When the friars realized they were being warned of their death, they spent the remainder of the night and all the next day preparing to meet the Lord. At last, after the brethren had finished praying Compline, and as they processed singing the Salve Regina to Mary, the Tartars broke through the church door. While the Tartars intended to bring death to these Dominicans, they actually brought them great gifts - crowns of martyrdom. Ever since, at the death of every Dominican a song to his Beloved Mother is sung to usher him into her arms - the Salve Regina (or Hail, Holy Queen).

After the re-unification of the Polish lands in the 14th century, the former principality became the Sandomierz Voivodeship, incorporating large areas of southeastern Poland. Until 1474, it was one of two voivodeships (administrative area/province) of Lesser Poland, together with Kraków Voivodeship. In 1474, Lublin Voivodeship was created from eastern part of Sandomierz Voivodeship. At this time Sandomierz had about 3,000 inhabitants and was one of the largest Polish cities. In the middle of the 14th century the city was burned again during a raid by the Lithuanians. It was rebuilt during the rule of king Casimir III of Poland, who extended its privileges. The layout of the city has survived practically unchanged since that time until the present day. In 1389 in Sandomierz the newly appointed prince of the Novgorod Republic, Lithuanian prince Lengvenis, paid homage to Polish King Władysław II Jagiełło, thus making Novgorod a fiefdom of the Kingdom of Poland.

Modern era
Over centuries, Sandomierz was in competition with the nearby town of Opatòw for the seat of regional administrations. In 1570 an alliance of non-Catholic Polish Churches, the Lutherans, the Reformed, and the Bohemian Brethren, drew up what is known as the Sandomierz Agreement, effecting a confederation of the work in order to stave off defeat at the hands of the Roman Church. Thanks to the efforts of the local starost Hieronim Gostomski, the Jesuits settled in the city and founded the Collegium Gostomianum, one Poland's oldest high schools, at the beginning of the 17th century.

The early modern period, running until the middle of the 17th century, was quite prosperous for the city. The most important historical buildings were built during this period. This golden age came to an end in 1655 when Swedish forces captured the city in the course of the Deluge. After briefly holding out in the city, the withdrawing Swedes blew up the castle and caused heavy damage to other buildings. In the next 100 years the economy of Poland suffered a decline, which also affected the city. A great fire in 1757 and the Third Partition of Poland in 1795, which placed Sandomierz in Austria, further reduced its status. As a result, Sandomierz lost its role as an administrative capital. In 1774, the oldest extant Polish piano was constructed in Sandomierz. The 3rd Polish National Cavalry Brigade was stationed in Sandomierz in 1792.

Fighting of the Austro-Polish War of 1809 caused damage to the city. Following the Polish victory, it became part of the short-lived Polish Duchy of Warsaw and after 1815 it found itself in the Russian Empire (Congress Poland). At this point it had just 2640 inhabitants.

Sandomierz Cathedral and St Paul's Church blood painting
This cathedral contains a series of paintings built into the church's wooden panelling depicting the Martyrologium Romanum. The third painting shows the scene which, it is claimed: "...depicts ritual murders committed in Sandomierz by Jews on Christian children. The inscription above the painting reads filius apothecary ab infidelibus judaeis sandomiriensibus occisus (son of an apothecary, by infidel Sandomierz Jews killed)

The St Paul's Church contains a different series of paintings including one in the chancel, depicting the torment of Jerzy Krassowski who was allegedly strangled by the Jews. Discussion on these pictures has taken place with the participation of the Polish Jewish Community."The Polish Council of Christians and Jews has offered to finance a plaque with explanations of the painting and information about the official statements by various Popes". This plaque is now displayed in the St Paul's Church next to the picture in question.

The world wars
The city again suffered damage during World War I. In 1918, it again became part of independent Poland. In the 1930s, due to the massive public works project known as the Central Industrial Area, Sandomierz began to grow quickly. It was projected to become capital of the Sandomierz Voivodeship, and local authorities planned fast development of the city. The Greater Sandomierz was to turn in the 1940s into a city of 120,000.

In September 1939, following the German invasion of Poland, the city was occupied by Germany and made part of the General Government. The Polish and Jewish population were subjected to various crimes. Poles expelled in late 1939 by the Germans from Złoczew, which was directly annexed by Germany, were deported to Sandomierz. Others were conscripted for forced labour and many were sent to labor camps. The largest mass arrests of Poles, including teachers, local officials and activists, were carried out in March 1940. Poles were then held in the local prison and deported to Nazi concentration camps. In June 1940 in Brzask Forest, Germans murdered 760 Poles as part of the German AB-Aktion in Poland directed to exterminate Polish intelligentsia. Bodies were buried in an unnamed mass grave. That was the largest massacre in the Kielce Region. At the same time, the nearby village of Góry Wysokie was the site a massacre of 117 Poles from the region. Despite this, the Polish underground resistance movement was active in Sandomierz, and in late 1940 it even launched a secret printing house in Sandomierz and issued the Polish underground newspaper Odwet, which was also distributed to nearby villages. In March 1942, the Germans carried out mass arrests of around 150 members of the Polish resistance. Among those arrested was local Polish writer Roman Koseła, one of several Polish writers murdered in the Auschwitz concentration camp.

In May 1942, the Jewish and Polish population were confined to a ghetto area and hundreds of Jews and Poles from around the region were brought there, increasing the population to more than 5000. In October 1942, about 3,000 prisoners were sent to Bełżec where they were immediately gassed. After that deportation, hundreds of Jews came out of hiding and others were sent to Sandomierz from elsewhere. Now the population was more than 6000 confined to another ghetto where as many as twelve people shared each room and some lived in the streets. Sanitary conditions were horrid and many became ill. Those who reported to the hospital were usually shot after a few days. Some prisoners during this time were sent to labor camps, but in January 1943, the SS and German police, surrounded the ghetto, set some houses on fire and bombed others. They rounded up 7,000 people, send a few hundred to a labor camp, and escorted the rest to the railway station, shooting hundreds en route. The trains took the prisoners to Treblinka where they were murdered by gas the same day. Poles who were not sent to camps were persecuted for helping Jews, some were even imprisoned for barely "transporting Jews illegally". The city was captured by the Red Army in August 1944.

No major industrial development took place in Sandomierz during the communist era, thus preserving its look of a charming, small city full of historical monuments among the unspoiled landscape.

Climate
The city experiences a humid continental climate with notably warm summers (Köppen: Dfb), much more consistently pronounced in eastern Poland. Precipitation, especially in the form of rains, is concentrated in the summer, reducing until the end of winter. Sandomierz has four well defined seasons of the year, hot summers (sometimes), usually bearable and cold winters but with slightly moderate extremes.

Points of interest

 * Church of the Holy Spirit in Sandomierz
 * Church of St. Jacob where Lesser Polish Way begins
 * Sandomierz Church of St. Joseph
 * Sandomierz Church of St. Michael
 * Sandomierz Church of St. Paul
 * Collegium Gostomianum, one of the oldest schools in Poland founded in 1602
 * Jan Długosz House
 * Kamienica Oleśnickich (Oleśnicki Manor)
 * Pepper Mountains nature reserve
 * Diocesan Museum in Sandomierz
 * Opatowska Gate (Brama Opatowska), Gothic entrance to the city founded by King Casimir (Kazimierz Wielki)
 * Sandomierz Castle, medieval structure built on a slope of Vistula River by Casimir III the Great, portrayed in the opera Boris Godunov by Modest Musorgsky
 * Sandomierz Cathedral, constructed in 1360 and renovated in the Baroque style in the 18th century
 * Sandomierz Main Market Square
 * Sandomierz Palace also known as the Bishop's Palace in Sandomierz
 * Sandomierz Synagogue, built in 1768 of brick in the Polish Baroque style
 * Sandomierz Town Hall

Education

 * Wyższa Szkoła Humanistyczno-Przyrodnicza Studium Generale Sandomiriense
 * Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne w Sandomierzu
 * 1 Liceum Ogolnoksztalcace Collegium Gostomianum
 * 2 Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Tadeusza Kościuszki
 * Zespół Szkół Gastronomicznych i Hotelarskich
 * Zespół Szkół Technicznych i Ogólnokształcących

Sports
The local football team is. It competes in the lower leagues.

Twin towns — Sister cities
Sandomierz is twinned with:
 * 🇺🇦 Ostroh, Ukraine
 * 🇮🇹 Volterra, Italy
 * Newark-on-Trent, United Kingdom
 * 🇩🇪 Emmendingen, Germany

Notable residents

 * Karol Bielecki (born 1982), handball player
 * Wiktor Chabel (born 1985), rower
 * Mikołaj Gomółka (1591–1609), Polish Renaissance composer
 * Wincenty Kadłubek (1150–1223), mediaeval chronicler
 * Karolina Kołeczek (born 1993), athlete specializing in 100 meter hurdles
 * Stanisław Krawczyński (1884–1940) medical doctor, member of Polish Parliament
 * Wacław Król (1915–1991), Polish military pilot
 * Wiesław Myśliwski (born 1932), writer, Nike Award laureate
 * Piotr Nurowski (1945–2010), tennis player, President of the Polish Olympic Committee
 * Sebastian Petrycy (1554–1626), philosopher and physician
 * Gracjan Piotrkowski (1734–1785), Catholic polemicist
 * Andrzej Sarwa (born 1953), writer: a Polish prose writer, poet, journalist
 * Joseph Schleifstein (born 1941), Holocaust survivor whose life served as inspiration for the script to the movie Life Is Beautiful
 * Mikołaj Trąba (1358–1422), Polish Roman Catholic priest, first Primate of Poland
 * Stanisław Warszycki (c. 1600 – 1680/1681), nobleman and magnate in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

Webcams

 * City hall & façades of houses on the lower market square
 * Panning: Gomulka's House, Kordegarda, Oleśnicki Family's House, rear façade of city hall, water well, Ciżemka
 * Panorama
 * Panning: City Hall, Main square and Opatowska Tower

Virtual walks

 * Google Street View

title: Sandomierz


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Tarnobrzeg

Tarnobrzeg is a city in south-eastern Poland (historic Lesser Poland), on the east bank of the river Vistula, with 49,419 inhabitants, as of 31 December 2009. Situated in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship (Polish: Województwo podkarpackie) since 1999, it had previously been the capital of Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship (1975–1998). Tarnobrzeg lies in the Sandomierz Basin, and directly borders the town of Sandomierz, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship. Its history dates back to the year 1593, when it was granted Magdeburg rights, and belonged to the Tarnowski family. For centuries Tarnobrzeg remained a small town, which did not develop until the post-World War II period, when it became center of an industrial area, based on rich sulfur deposits.

Etymology
The name Tarnobrzeg refers to the founders of the town, the Tarnowski family. Other names were suggested, such as "Tarnodwor", "Nowo Dwor", and "Nowy Tarnów". Finally, Tarnobrzeg prevailed, and other towns, founded by the Tarnowski family, were also named in a similar fashion, such as Tarnogród and Tarnopol.

Until the 20th century, however, the name Tarnobrzeg was not popular among residents. In common use were such names, as Dzików (see also Dzików Castle) and Miechocin, as these two locations were older, larger and more important. After opening of a rail station called Tarnobrzeg (1887), and creation of the Tarnobrzeg County (1920), the name caught on and became commonly used. Nevertheless, patron saint of the region, is still called Our Lady of Dzików (see also Dominican Church and Convent of Assumption of Mary in Tarnobrzeg).

Location and area
Tarnobrzeg lies along National Road 9, which is part of the European route E371. The town also is a railroad hub, with five stations located within its limits (Ocice, Sobow, Tarnobrzeg, Tarnobrzeg Waskotorowy and Wielowieś). Rail lines stem from Tarnobrzeg into four directions: southwards towards Dębica, southeast towards Rzeszów, east towards Stalowa Wola, and northwards, towards Sandomierz.

Currently Tarnobrzeg is one of the largest towns of Poland in terms of territory. It covers the area of 85 km2, and the distance between its extreme northern and southern locations reaches 20 km. This is because, in 1975, Tarnobrzeg unexpectedly became the capital of a newly created province, Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship. To expand the town, local authorities initiated a policy of annexation of local villages. As a result, in the late 1970s, the size of the town quickly grew, when several villages and settlements (Machow, Dzików, Miechocin, Wielowieś, Sielec, Podleze, Sobow, Mokrzyszow) became part of Tarnobrzeg as its districts. The Old Town and historic center of Tarnobrzeg covers a very small area of the town, as 80% of Tarnobrzeg was built after the war.

Administrative divisions of Tarnobrzeg
Boroughs, districts and osiedla of Tarnobrzeg include: Wielowieś, Sielec, Chwałki, Borów, Wymysłów, Zakrzów, Zwierzyniec, Dzików, Podłęże, Serbinów, Nadole, Old Town, Wielopole, Biała Góra, Podchoiny, Chomki, Siarkowiec, Skalna Góra, Przywiśle, Mokrzyszów, Piastów, Sobów, Chałupki, Miechocin, Ocice, Kozielec, Kajmów, Machów, Nagnajów.

History
Tarnobrzeg was founded in 1593, during the golden age of Poland, to become the residence of the Tarnowski family (see szlachta). In that year, King Sigismund III Vasa granted Magdeburg rights to the village (May 28, 1593). The founder of the town was Stanislaw Tarnowski, Castellan of Sandomierz. In 1772, it became part of the Austrian Empire and remained in the province of Galicia until November 1918. Tarnobrzeg, located very close to the Russian-Austrian border, sustained heavy damage during World War I by invading armies.

In the aftermath of World War I, the short-lived Republic of Tarnobrzeg was declared here, and in 1919, the town became part of Lwów Voivodeship of the newly independent Second Polish Republic. The city suffered significant emigration within the former Austrian empire and elsewhere during the interbellum years (1919–1939). A public school system was founded during that time.

In the 1950s, after geological research into fuel deposits, significant sulfur resources were discovered. From the early 1960s the city grew rapidly: the population rose from 5,000 to 50,000 in 1990s. After closing the sulfur mine "Siarkopol" in Machów and Jeziórko a stagnation of Tarnobrzeg followed. In 1999 it ceased being a Voivodeship capital and became a city-county (powiat grodzki).

Timeline of Tarnobrzeg history (note: the history of Tarnobrzeg itself is not very long. Much older are several districts of the contemporary town, such as Wielowieś in its north, and Miechocin in the south).

 * Till 1772 Poland during the Piast dynasty, Poland during the Jagiellon dynasty, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth: Sandomierz Voivodeship
 * 1772 – 1918 Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary: Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
 * 1918 – 1919 Republic of Tarnobrzeg
 * 1919 – 1939 Second Polish Republic: Lwów Voivodeship
 * 1939 – 1944 Nazi Germany: General Government (Distrikt Krakau, Dębica Land)
 * 1944 – 1975 Polish People's Republic: Rzeszów Voivodeship
 * 1975 – 1998 Polish People's Republic, Third Polish Republic: Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship
 * From 1999 Poland: Subcarpathian Voivodeship

Tarnowski family
The history of Tarnobrzeg is closely tied with the noble Leliwita family, which in the 16th century changed its name into Tarnowski. In 1349 Rafal of Tarnów married a woman named Dzierzka, who was the owner of Wielowieś, moving there after the wedding. Their estate gradually expanded, in 1365 they purchased Trzesn and Rzochow, in 1375 Sielec and Sobow, and in 1397, Jan Tarnowski purchased several villages. In the late 15th century, Jan Spytek Tarnowski purchased, among others, Dzików, together with its fortified stronghold. Stanislaw Tarnowski (1541–1609), who was a courtier of Kings Stefan Batory and Sigismund III, managed to convince the latter to grant town charter to Nowy Tarnów, later called Tarnobrzeg. His son Michal Stanislaw (1590–1654) in the 1620s began expansion and modernization of the town, planning a street system together with a market square with a town hall. Furthermore, he expanded the Dzików stronghold and the church at Miechocin.

The development of Nowy Tarnów was stopped during the catastrophic Swedish invasion of Poland (1655–1660), when the town was destroyed by the Swedes. After the invasion, Jan Stanislaw Tarnowski funded a Dominican Monastery, with the painting of Our Lady of Dzików (1678), which was moved there from the Dzików Castle. In 1734, the Dzików Confederation was formed in the Dzików Castle, and among its creators was Jozef Mateusz Tarnowski. In the late 18th century, the castle was remodelled in the late Baroque style, and last owners of Dzików were Jan Zdzislaw Tarnowski (1862–1937), and Artur Tarnowski (1903–1984).

Jewish community
Pre-Holocaust Tarnobrzeg, a shtetl of western Galicia, was home to a thriving traditional Jewish community. Tarnobrzeg is situated in a region of Poland that is relatively distant from the better-known, larger Jewish communities of the country which were located in cities such as Warsaw, Kraków, Lublin, Lwów, and Wilno. Nonetheless, the History of Jews in Poland is confluent with the history of the town. Jewish inhabitants of Tarnobrzeg, and their descendants, are considered Galitzianers or Galician Jews.

In the years 1772–1918 (see: Partitions of Poland), Tarnobrzeg was in the province of Galicia as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, based in Vienna. The 19th century after 1815 was, across Europe, a period of relative peace and stability following the conclusion of the extremely violent Napoleonic Wars. Due to progressive initiatives following Napoleonic times, Tarnobrzeg citizens including the Jewish community benefited from free compulsory public education mandated by the Austrian Emperor. The same was not true for other Polish Jewry in areas outside of Galicia (e.g., Danzig or Warsaw). Compulsory public education was opposed by some Jewish religious authorities who believed that traditional Jewish Torah and Talmud studies should not even be partially supplanted by secular instruction.

The political stability in Tarnobrzeg and surrounding areas that ended with the collapse of the Austrian Empire as a result of World War I portended a difficult future for Tarnobrzeg's Jews. Although atrocities and population displacements during World War II dominated the history of Tarnobrzeg's Jews, deportations during World War I to trans-Ural Russia were also highly disruptive and destroyed much of the established community. Many emigrated to the United States or Palestine.

Nearby shtetlach (of, e.g., Rozwadów and Ulanów) had many commercial and family ties to Tarnobrzeg. There were several affinity groups among the thriving Jewish population before World War II, including Hasidic, Zionist, Bundist, and others. Many Jewish citizens of Tarnobrzeg emigrated to Palestine, later to become Israel, during the pre-World War II period.

A prominent Tarnobrzeg citizen, Moses Hauser, who was Jewish, was a centenarian whose lifespan nearly coincided with the 19th century. Hauser was a wealthy businessman, trader, and landholder dating from Napoleonic times through the reign of Austrian Emperor Franz Josef. His life is documented in a Yizkor (Memorial) book published by Tarnobrzeg elders following the Holocaust. Hauser was father to twelve children and many descendants who reside in the United States, Israel, and elsewhere.

World War II
Prior to Nazi German and Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939, there were 3,800 Jewish residents in Tarnobrzeg. The city was overrun by the Germans on 17 September 1939. In order to inflict terror, five prominent Jews were shot at the town square. Following the signing of the German-Soviet Frontier Treaty Jews were being expelled to the Soviet zone of occupation across the San river beginning 2 October 1939, with many others, deported to Mielec and Sandomierz. The atrocities committed by the German occupiers against Jews and other Polish citizens during the Holocaust forced the Jews to choose between mortally dangerous escape or perish by remaining. Very few Jews are known to have survived in the city, where they would have needed to be hidden for years by righteous gentiles. Those migrating east to Russia had to choose between permanent Soviet citizenship, service in the Red Army in its battles against the Wehrmacht, and loss of freedom to subsequently leave Russia, or alternatively to become displaced persons (DPs). The DPs were temporarily relocated by the Russian government to work camps in Siberia, there to wait out the war. Many of them died due to the extremely rugged conditions, for which they were unprepared, and the poor supplies available in wartime trans-Ural Russian Asia. Those who survived were permitted to depart Russian lands following World War II.

Economy
The city was a major center for the mining and processing of sulphur and sulphuric acid. However, due to declining profitability, its mines have closed. The mine in Piaseczno was closed first, followed by the Machów mine (after 40 years of working — it had been the biggest open-cast sulphur mine in Europe), and finally the Jeziórko mine in the 1990s. The Jeziórko mine stayed open as long as it did because of the introduction of the modern Frasch process of sulphur extraction.

Since the 1980s, the land in the mining areas has gradually been reclaimed. The Machów mine has been filled with water to form a reservoir used for recreation, and the same is happening to the Jeziórko mine — it is being slowly filled from the nearby Vistula river.

Roman Catholic churches and parishes

 * Church of Mary Magdalene – around 1160, parish since around 1132
 * Church of Saint Gertrude and Saint Michael – first church 12th century, parish since 1215, current church 1884
 * Monastery of Dominicans – 1667 (wooden), 1706, parish since 1922
 * Church of Our Lady of Perpetual Help – wooden church 1979, current church 1984, Parish of Our Lady since 1980
 * Church of Good Shepherd – 1990, parish since 1972
 * Church of Our Lady of Częstochowa in Tarnobrzeg – 1991, parish since 1969
 * Church of Saint Barbara – wooden church 1988, current church 1996, parish since 1989
 * Church of Divine Mercy – 1996, parish since 1997
 * Church of Visitation – 1997, parish since 1985
 * Church of Christ the King – 2003, parish since 2003
 * Chapel of All Saints – 2009
 * Monastery of Dominicans Sisters in Tarnobrzeg

Sport

 * Siarka Tarnobrzeg – football club

Cyclical events

 * New Year's Run – January
 * Tarnobrzeg Days – May, June
 * International Organ Virtuoso Performances – July, August
 * Saint Dominic's Fair – August
 * Bartoszki Film Festival – August
 * Satyrblues – September
 * International Alfred Freyer Vistula River Run – October
 * Tarnobrzeg Social Days and Tarnobrzeg Days of The Christian Culture – October
 * Barbórkowa Drama Teatralna – December

Twin towns – sister cities
Tarnobrzeg is twinned with:

 * 🇸🇰 Banská Bystrica in Slovakia (since 1995)
 * 🇺🇦 Chernihiv in Ukraine (since 2008)

title: Tarnobrzeg


text:
Stalowa Wola

Stalowa Wola is the largest city and capital of Stalowa Wola County with a population of 58,545 inhabitants, as at 31 December 2021. It is located in southeastern Poland in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship. The city lies in historic Lesser Poland near the confluence of the Vistula and the San rivers, and covers an area of 82.5 km2.

Stalowa Wola is one of the youngest cities of Poland. It was built from scratch in the late 1930s in the forests surrounding village of Pławo. The city was designed to be a settlement for workers of Huta Stalowa Wola (known in 1938 to 1939 as Zakłady Poludniowe or Southern Works), a plant built as part of the Central Industrial Region. The name "Stalowa Wola" translates to "Steel Will" in English, reflecting its origins and purpose as a city established to support the steel industry. Stalowa Wola is home to the sports club Stal Stalowa Wola.

Location and name
Stalowa Wola is located in the lowlands of the Sandomierz Basin, near the San river. Even today sixty percent of the total area within its administrative borders (82 km2) consists of natural pine forests, remnants of once extensive and primeval Sandomierz Forest. The name of the town, Stalowa Wola, can be roughly translated into English as “steel will” and comes from a statement made by General Tadeusz Kasprzycki, Minister of Military Affairs of Poland in the late 1930s in which he declared that the new Polish industrial development plan of the Central Industrial Area symbolizes the steel will of the Polish nation to modernize itself.

History
The area of today's Stalowa Wola belongs to historic Polish province of Lesser Poland. In the Kingdom of Poland, it was located in the south-eastern corner of the Sandomierz Voivodeship, near the border with Red Ruthenia. The city of Stalowa Wola was built on the site where the village of Pławo once stood, between the ancient towns of Nisko and Rozwadów. The first mentions of Pławo come from the first half of the 15th century. At the nearby village of Przyszów, there was a hunting lodge of King Władysław Jagiełło, built before 1358. In the late 15th century, Pławo was a royal village. In 1656, the area of Pławo was the site of a battle between Polish and Swedish armies. Here, in the confluence of the San and Vistula, Swedish troops of King Charles Gustav were surrounded by Stefan Czarniecki (see Swedish invasion of Poland).

Until the Partitions of Poland, Pławo belonged to Sandomierz Voivodeship. From 1772 to 1918, it was part of the Austrian province of Galicia and remained an insignificant, privately owned village. In early 1937, the government of the Second Polish Republic accepted the project of the Central Industrial Area, which included the construction of a brand new steel mill, together with a settlement for the workers. Before the outbreak of World War II, some departments of the mill were operational and several blocks of flats were built. Construction of the Southern Works, as the mill was then called, was started in dense pine forests around Pławo in March 1937. Among other things, the plant manufactured artillery cannons.

Following the joint German-Soviet invasion of Poland, which started World War II in September 1939, the city was occupied by Nazi Germany. During the war, Stalowa Wola was one of the centres of the Home Army. The settlement was captured by the Red Army in August 1944, and on April 1, 1945, Stalowa Wola received its town charter. In 1948, the mill was renamed as Huta Stalowa Wola and in 1953, a separate urban county of Stalowa Wola was created. In 1973, the town of Rozwadów was annexed, followed in 1977 by the village of Charzewice. At its peak in the 1970s, the mill employed 35,000 people, with branches scattered across southern Poland, from Radomsko to Strzyżów. Apart from the mill, Stalowa Wola has a large power plant, opened Spring 1939. In 1988, the city was one of the centres of workers' protests (see 1988 Polish strikes). Currently, Stalowa Wola is the third-largest city of the voivodeship, with a population of 60,000.

Jews in Rozwadów
The Rozwadów suburb of Stalowa Wola was a thriving Jewish shtetl prior to World War II and was closely associated with Tarnobrzeg and other nearby shtetls including Ulanów, Mielec, Dzików etc. These communities, infused with vitality before 1939, were utterly destroyed during the Holocaust after having been affected by World War I only some 20 years earlier. Jews in Rozwadów were a religiously observant community, i.e. traditional or Orthodox in practice. The leading rabbi of Rozwadów, similar to other rabbis of the region, followed Hasidism practice and was of the Horowitz family. In New York, a Rozwadower Rebbe established a small synagogue on the upper West Side, which continued for many decades after the war. There is a link to a yizkor book about Rozwadów which gives further notes on the Jewish life there. The Rozwadów synagogue was, until World War II, located on Attorney Street in the lower east side of NYC.

During World War II, Dr. Eugene Lazowski, a military doctor of the Polish underground Home Army, Armia Krajowa, created a fake epidemic of dangerous infectious disease, Epidemic Typhus in the town of Rozwadów (now a district of Stalowa Wola) and the surrounding villages and towns. He saved an estimated 8,000 Polish Jews from certain death in Nazi concentration camps during the Holocaust, performing his services in utmost secrecy under the threat of capital punishment.

Following the Holocaust, the remaining Jews were motivated to seek a new start in Palestine, thanks to Berihah's efforts. A community of former Rozwadów citizens had been established in New York City and continued its affinity long after World War II. Many former Rozwadów citizens of Jewish backgrounds moved to the fledgeling State of Israel.

Economy
Stalowa Wola is one of the leading highly developed industrial centers in the Subcarpathian province. More than 6,000 enterprises operate here - nationally and internationally recognized companies. The dominant industries are concentrated around machinery, armaments, aluminum, metal, foundry, steel, wood, construction. Investors from all over the world, including Korea, China, USA, Scandinavia, Germany, have located their capital here. The largest of them are: SK Nexilis Poland Sp. z o.o., COGNOR S.A., Thoni Alutec Sp. z o.o., Uniwheels Production Poland Sp. z o.o., ATI ZKM Forging Sp.z o.o., Cellfast Sp. z o.o., Eurometal S.A., Tasta Armatura Sp. z o.o., Wobi - Stal Sp. z o.o., Rakoczy Stal Sp. j., Swedwood Poland Sp. z o.o. (IKEA Industry), BAGPAK POLSKA Sp. z o.o. HSW headquarters at 8 Kasprzyckiego St.

Stalowa Wola is a nationally important armament center for the Polish army. Based on the military profile of design, production and sales, Huta Stalowa Wola S.A. offers top-class armament equipment. The Stalowa Wola Power Plant, part of the Tauron Group, also plays a leading role in the city's economic life.

On 09.09.1997 the Tarnobrzeg Special Economic Zone "Euro-Park Wisłosan" was inaugurated. The land, which includes the area of the Stalowa Wola Subzone, belonged to Huta Stalowa Wola S.A., which, as a result of restructuring, had unused assets in the form of production buildings, not fully completed halls, storage rooms and developed plots for industrial development. The Stalowa Wola subzone is an active area of the Tarnobrzeg Special Economic Zone EURO-PARK WISŁOSAN, covering an area of 280 hectares. Entrepreneurs operating on the basis of permits issued by the Industrial Development Agency S.A. have incurred investment outlays here in the amount of PLN 1.71 billion, with total employment reaching almost 6,000 employees.

On 31.07.2021 an agreement was signed on the establishment of the company "Euro-Park Stalowa Wola" to manage the newly created investment zone. The zone was given the name "Strategic Investment Park - Euro-Park Stalowa Wola". It is an area of just under 1,000 hectares, located to the south of the existing plants, intended for industrial investments related to supporting the development and implementation of modern technologies in the fields of energy, electro mobility, transportation, hydrogen technology, aviation or automotive. The first major investment is a plant for the production of copper foil for the automotive industry, the investor is Korean technology giant SK Nexilis.

Stalowa Wola is an important point on the commercial map of the northern part of the Subcarpathian province. The city is home to shopping malls and centers, food, construction and furniture supermarkets. The most important of these are:

 * Galeria Vivo! - Chopina 42 St.
 * Galeria City Park - 9A Generała Leopolda Okulickiego St.
 * Galeria Prima - Generała Leopolda Okulickiego 16C St.
 * Park Handlowy KEN - Komisji Edukacji Narodowej 47 St.
 * Retail Park - Przemyslowa 8 St.
 * Castorama - Przemyslowa 2B St.
 * PSB Mrówka - Przemyslowa 11 St.
 * Kaufland - Komisji Edukacji Narodowej 47 St.
 * Agata Meble - Chopina Street 40 St.

Education

 * Catholic University of Lublin- Stalowa Wola Subsidiary
 * Stalowa Wola Private College of Economics

Transport
Polish State Railways (PKP) provides scheduled connections to Lublin, Warsaw, Kraków, Katowice, Wrocław, Rzeszów, Przemyśl and Odesa (in Ukraine). Summer connections are available to the TriCity (Gdańsk, Gdynia and Sopot) and Hel. The city has several railway stations that include: Stalowa Wola, Stalowa Wola South, Stalowa Wola Centre and Stalowa Wola Rozwadów, and is a main rail junction. All four stations are located on the main Przeworsk – Skarżysko-Kamienna line. Additionally, Stalowa Wola Rozwadów provides a northern connection with Lublin and, from Stalowa Wola South, a line runs east to Zamość, via Zwierzyniec. The ZMKS is the city's main public transit agency, operating a fleet of buses in Stalowa Wola and the surrounding districts.

Sports
The city is a home for the professional football club Stal Stalowa Wola. They play their home matches at the Subcarpathian Football Center, opened in 2020. Moreover, the city is known from the amateur football club Parafialny Klub Sportowy San Rozwadów, that compete in Klasa A.

Notable people

 * Marcin Nowak (born 1977), track and field and sprint athlete who competes internationally for Poland
 * Artur Partyka (born 1969), former high jumper and two-time Olympic medallist
 * Piotr Piechniak (born 1977), former Poland national football team international
 * Grzegorz Rosiński (born 1941), comic book artist
 * Omar Sangare (born 1970), actor, director and writer
 * Krzysztof Soszynski (born 1977), Polish-Canadian professional mixed martial arts (MMA) fighter
 * Ewa Strusińska (born 1976), international conductor
 * Krzysztof Śmiszek (born 1979), politician, human rights activist
 * Lucjan Trela (1942–2019), heavyweight boxer and Olympian
 * Maciej Zakościelny (born 1980), actor

Twin towns — Sister cities
Stalowa Wola is twinned with:

title: Stalowa Wola


text:
Bochnia

Bochnia is a town on the river Raba in southern Poland, administrative seat of Bochnia County in Lesser Poland Voivodeship. The town lies approximately halfway 38 km between Tarnów (east) and the regional capital Kraków (west). Bochnia is most noted for its salt mine, the oldest functioning in Europe, built in the 13th century, a World Heritage Site and a Historic Monument of Poland.

As of December 2021, Bochnia has a population of 29,317 and an area of 29.87 km2.

History
Bochnia is one of the oldest cities of Lesser Poland. The first known source mentioning the city is a letter of 1198, in which Aymar the Monk, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, confirmed a donation by the local magnate Mikora Gryfit to the monastery of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre in Miechów. The discovery of major deposits of rock salt at the site of the present mine in 1248 led to the grant of city privileges (Magdeburg rights) on 27 February 1253 by Bolesław V the Chaste. In the original founding document, the German name of the town (Salzberg) is mentioned as well, since many Bochnia's residents were German-speaking settlers from Lower Silesia.

Due to its salt mine and favourable location, Bochnia, which belonged to the Kraków Voivodeship, was one of main cities of Lesser Poland. In the 14th century, during the reign of King Casimir the Great, a town hall was built, a defensive wall with four gates, a hospital and shelter for miners, and the construction of St. Nicolas Basilica began. In appreciation of Casimir's influence on the development of Bochnia, monument to him was erected in town's market square in the late 19th century. In the 15th century, a school was opened, and in 1623, Bernardine Abbey was founded in Bochnia. At that time, many pilgrims from Lesser Poland, Silesia, Spiš and Orava visited the town, to see a miraculous painting of St. Mary, kept at a local Dominican church.

In 1561 Bochnia burned down in a fire and its salt deposits were depleted, leading to the town's decline. During the Deluge, in 1655 Bochnia was captured by the Swedes, in 1657 by the Transylvanians, and in 1662, by the Cossacks. By the 1660s, there were only 54 houses still standing. In 1702, the town was destroyed in the Great Northern War. Fires caused further damage in 1709 and 1751. In 1772, Bochnia was annexed by the Austria in the First Partition of Poland, and remained part of Galicia (Austrian Partition of Poland) until 1918. The Austrians liquidated both abbeys, and tore down the town hall together with the defensive wall. In 1867, Bochnia County was created and the town began a slow recovery spurred by construction of the Galician Railway of Archduke Charles Louis. In 1886, first public library was opened, in the late 19th century, the waterworks, and in 1913, a movie theater.

Poland regained independence in 1918, and in the Second Polish Republic, Bochnia belonged to Kraków Voivodeship and was the capital of a county. In 1918, the Polish 15th Wolves Infantry Regiment was formed in Bochnia. The town housed a small garrison of the Polish Army, with 3rd Silesian Uhlans Regiment stationed there from 1924.

World War II
During the German invasion of Poland, which started World War II, on September 6–7, 1939, Bochnia was defended by several Polish units. The Einsatzgruppe I entered the town shortly after to commit various crimes against the population. One of the first mass executions in occupied Poland took place in the town: the Germans shot 52 Poles as a reprisal for killing two German police officers. In 1939 the Germans operated a Dulag transit camp for some 1,000 Polish prisoners of war in the town.

At the outbreak of World War II, an estimated 3,500 Jews lived in Bochnia, comprising about 20% of the total population. During the German occupation of Poland, Bochnia was the site of a Jewish ghetto (the Bochnia Ghetto) to which Jews from surrounding areas were forced to move by the Nazis. The entire Jewish community was murdered in the Holocaust apart from 200 forced laborers employed at a plant headed by Gerhard Kurzbach, a Wehrmacht soldier, who ordered them to work overtime and thereby saved them from deportation. It is estimated that approximately 15,000 Jews were deported from Bochnia, with at least a further 1,800 killed in the town and its surroundings. About 90 Jews from Bochnia survived the war, either in hiding, in camps or in the Soviet Union. Most of them emigrated to the United States, Brazil, Belgium, and Israel.

In April 1943, Polish wartime hero Witold Pilecki hid there after his escape from the Auschwitz concentration camp. In 1944, the 12th Home Army Infantry Regiment was established in Bochnia. In 1944, during and following the Warsaw Uprising, the Germans carried out deportations of Varsovians from the Dulag 121 camp in Pruszków, where they were initially imprisoned, to Bochnia. Those Poles were mainly old people, ill people and women with children.

The Jewish family of Tiders expelled from Zaborowo in 1940 were murdered in Brześć with children except for their oldest son, 24-year-old Mendel Tider, who paved the road to Tamowo on German orders at the time of the killings. He escaped to Bochnia where he met Józef Langdorf from his neighbourhood. Together, they escaped back to Zaborowo and found refuge at the farm of the Mika family of six. Both survived, treated like relatives and fed for free until liberation. In 2000 the three members of the Mika family were bestowed the titles of the Righteous thanks to Mrs Langdorf from Israel. Stefan Mika was 73, and living in Kraków; the other two, father and mother, were already dead for several decades.

Recent period
Although Poland was liberated from Germany, it fell to the Soviet sphere of influence, and the Soviets installed a communist regime, which remained in power until 1989. The Polish anti-communist resistance movement was active in Bochnia. In the following decades, Bochnia grew larger, with several villages incorporated into the town, mostly in the 1970s. In 1984, a by-pass of the European route E40 was completed, redirecting the traffic from congested center of the town. From 1975 to 1998 it was administratively part of the Tarnów Voivodeship.

Salt mine
The Bochnia Salt Mine (Polish: kopalnia soli w Bochni) is one of the oldest salt mines in the world and the oldest one in Poland and Europe. The mine was established between the 12th and 13th centuries after salt was discovered in Bochnia. The mines measure 4.5 km in length and 468 m in depth at 16 different levels. Deserted chambers, shafts and passages form a so-called underground town, which is now open to sightseers. The largest of the preserved chambers has been converted into a sanatorium.

Other landmarks

 * St. Nicholas Basilica - built in the 1st half of the 15th century, and then reconstructed after the fires that occurred in the years 1447, ca. 1485 and 1655. Late Gothic with Baroque and Rococo interior
 * Stanisław Fischer Museum - former Dominican monastery, Baroque
 * Art Nouveau railway station
 * Statues of Leopold Okulicki and Casimir III of Poland
 * The older parts of the cemetery at Oracka Street
 * Jewish cemetery

Road transport
The A4 motorway, which is also a part of the European route E40, passes north to the town. Other roads include: national road 75, national road 94 and voivodeship road 965.

Rail transport
The railway line 91 (Kraków-Medyka) passes through the town.

Education
Bochnia Academy of Economics (Wyższa Szkoła Ekonomiczna w Bochni) is a privately owned collegiate-level institution of higher education in the city, founded in 2000. It grants bachelor's degrees (licencjat) in two fields of knowledge: economics, finance and accounting.

Sports
The local football club is. It competes in the lower leagues.

Twin towns - sister cities
Bochnia is twinned with:
 * 🇩🇪 Bad Salzdetfurth, Germany
 * 🇸🇰 Kežmarok, Slovakia
 * 🇺🇸 Roselle, United States

Notable residents

 * Stanislaus of Szczepanów (1030–1079), Poland's first native saint
 * Ralph Modjeski (Rudolf Modrzejewski) (1861–1940), engineer, born 1861 to actress Helena Modjeska, builder of 30 major bridges in the USA
 * Roman Vetulani (1849–1908), Polish scholar
 * Ludwik Stasiak (1858–1924), Polish painter, writer and publicist
 * Elżbieta Ciechanowska (1875–1948), Polish women's rights and labor activist, musician and poet
 * Salo Landau (1903–1944), Dutch national chess champion

title: Bochnia


text:
Saturn I SA-2

Saturn-Apollo 2 (SA-2) was the second flight of the Saturn I launch vehicle, the first flight of Project Highwater, and was part of the American Apollo program. The rocket was launched on April 25, 1962, from Cape Canaveral, Florida.

History
Launch preparation for the mission began at Cape Canaveral on February 27, 1962, with the arrival of the second Saturn I launch vehicle. The only significant change made to the vehicle from the previous SA-1 flight was the addition of extra baffles in the propellant tanks to mitigate fuel sloshing. While no serious delays were encountered, there were several minor problems reported.

A leak was detected between the liquid oxygen dome and injector for the #4 H-1 rocket engine; while attempts were made to fix the problem, it was eventually decided to launch without replacing the engine. Minor problems were found in the guidance subsystem and service structure operations, damaged strain gauges were found in a liquid oxygen stud and truss member, and a manhole cover on the dummy Centaur (S-V-D) third stage had to be replaced. Problems arose with two of the fueling computers, but each was repaired. Three hydraulic systems were also listed as potential problems.

Despite the issues encountered during flight preparation, none required the target launch date of April 25 to be pushed back.

Flight

Saturn-Apollo 2 was launched at 14:00:34 UTC on April 25, 1962, from Launch Complex 34. The only hold in the countdown sequence was for 30 minutes due to a vessel which entered the flight safety zone 96 km down range. The rocket carried 281000 kg of propellant, about 83% of its maximum capacity.

The H-1 engines shut down at an altitude of 35 mi after firing for 1 minute 55 seconds and reaching a maximum velocity of 3750 mph. The vehicle continued to coast to an altitude of 105.3 km, at which point, 2 minutes 40 seconds after launch, officials sent a terminate command to the rocket, setting off several charges which caused the vehicle to destruct.

Objectives
The objectives of SA-2 were much the same as those of SA-1 in that it was primarily a test of the Saturn I rocket and the new H-1 engines. Specifically, its goals were to prove propulsion performance and mission adequacy, vehicle structural design and aerodynamic characteristics, guidance and control systems, and launch facility and ground support equipment. NASA declared all objectives as successful. Additionally, the fuel sloshing issue from SA-1 was minimized.

A second objective of both this mission and SA-3 was Project Highwater, the intentional release of ballast water from the second and third stages which allowed scientists to investigate the nature of Earth's ionosphere, as well as noctilucent clouds and the behavior of ice in space.

SA-2's dummy upper stages contained approximately 86000 kg of water, or 86685 L, used to simulate the mass of future payloads. Stage two contained 44000 kg of water, and stage three contained 42000 kg. When the terminate command was sent to the rocket, dynamite charges split the second stage longitudinally, instantly releasing its water load. Primacord charges created several 1 ft holes in the third stage, releasing its water over a period of several seconds.

Cameras on the ground immediately recorded the water cloud, and personnel at a ground station began to observe it about four to five seconds after release. Those personnel reported that the cloud dispersed from vision within an average of five seconds, while more sensitive instruments tracked the cloud to a maximum altitude of 161 km. The cloud produced lightning-like effects, which Dr. Wernher von Braun described as "probably the first synthetic thunderstorm ever generated in space." Project Highwater on this flight was also declared a success.

title: Saturn I SA-2


text:
User talk:Tcotrel

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

 * How to edit a page
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 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Tip: you can sign your name with ~

Dori | Talk 04:05, Dec 4, 2003 (UTC)

Nice pictures
Nice pictures, but I think the Automobile article is getting a little too full by now. Some of these would do better on the individual articles for the types of car that they are.

I'm also going to remove the links to the California vehicle code and California DMV from the Automobile page. Wikipedia is international, and that page would get very overloaded if we linked every vehicle code and authority in the world. There might be a better place to put them.

Welcome to Wikipedia, though! and please do keep contributing. If others change what you did or disagree, it's simply because we're all trying to make Wikipedia the best encyclopedia possible.

We do need car pictures for all the models of car we don't yet have pictures for; I've uploaded some and User:Arpingstone has uploaded some, but any pictures you have taken that illustrate ones we don't have pictured would be a great thing.

--Morven 03:37, 5 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I am new to Wikipedia and appreciate the feedback. I have linked the pictures to the individual articles and am editing some of them.

--Tcotrel 23:12 6 Dec 2003

Nice work so far. Appreciate the clarification on the Biscayne -- hard to find much about them online, and I haven't seen that many (plenty of Impalas and Bel Aires, but not many Biscaynes -- though one does wonder how many have been turned into faux-Impalas and the like). In general, I don't know Chevys all that well, so it's good to see you can add a bit that I can't. --Morven 09:40, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Actually, there's a fair amount of info on Biscaynes in, of all places, Australia. They were assembled in RHD form by Holden with leather upholstery. Some of the hot rod magazines feature souped up Biscaynes. Impalas outnumber them by about 10-1 so it would make more sense to turn an Impala or Caprice into a Biscayne than the other way around. Tcotrel 08:30 7 Dec 2003

Certainly there aren't that many around these days whichever the cause -- I don't recall ever seeing one, and I've been to a fair number of car cruises and shows with my '67 Thunderbird --Morven 19:39, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Check this out: http://www.chicayne.com/ Tcotrel 13:13, 12 Dec 2003

Please provide copyright info on an image
Please provide copyright info on Image:ION.jpg, thank you. --Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason 22:06, 2004 Jun 30 (UTC) Tcotrel I took the picture. Wikipedia is welcome to them without restriction. 21:39, July 7, 2005 (UTC)

Image:Airflow.jpg
Did you take this image? If you did, can you indicate so on teh image page. Cheers. Burgundavia (✈ take a flight?) 13:54, May 27, 2005 (UTC)
 * I emailed him just now about it. dbenbenn | talk 00:15, 28 May 2005 (UTC)

Tcotrel I took the picture. Wikipedia is welcome to them without restriction. 21:39, July 7, 2005 (UTC)

Image:53102chaika.jpg
Burgundavia (✈ take a flight?) 16:41, May 28, 2005 (UTC)

Tcotrel I took the picture. Wikipedia is welcome to them without restriction. 21:39, July 7, 2005 U(UTC)

Interested in an L.A.-area Wiki meetup?
It appears as though L.A. has never had a Wiki meetup. Would you be interested in attending such an event? If so, checkout User:Eric Shalov/Wikimeetup.

- Eric 28 June 2005 04:13 (UTC)

L.A. Meetup Reminder
Don't forget! L.A's first Wiki meetup is TONIGHT at 7:30 at Philippe's in Downtown. Check out the meetup page for details. See you there! (If you can't make it, come to the next one! - Eric 22:03, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

Disputed fair use rationale for File:Arizona highway marker.jpg
Thanks for uploading File:Arizona highway marker.jpg. However, there is a concern that the rationale you have provided for using this image under "fair use" may be invalid. Please read the instructions at Non-free content carefully, then go to the image description page and clarify why you think the image qualifies for fair use. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If it is determined that the image does not qualify under fair use, it will be deleted within a couple of days according to our criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot (talk) 06:28, 2 January 2008 (UTC)
 * Thanks for uploading this. I replaced it with the above image on Western use of the swastika in the early 20th century. I also used your link as a ciation, . Thanks again. --evrik (talk) 18:49, 21 October 2019 (UTC)

Disputed fair use rationale for Image:Arizona highway marker.jpg
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title: User talk:Tcotrel


text:
John Campbell, 1st Baron Campbell

John Campbell, 1st Baron Campbell, PC, FRSE (15 September 1779 – 23 June 1861) was a British Liberal politician, lawyer and man of letters.

Background and education
The second son of the Reverend George Campbell, D.D., and Magdalene Hallyburton, he was born a son of the manse at Cupar, Fife, Scotland, where his father was for fifty years parish minister. For seven years, from the age of 11, Campbell studied at the United College, St Andrews.

When he was 18, he was offered the opportunity to leave home and see something of the world by becoming tutor to James Wedderburn-Webster. The family lived in Clapham, just south of London, with a summer house at Shenley, Hertfordshire. His employer was David Webster, London merchant of a sugar trading house, with family connections through the Wedderburn baronets to the slave plantations of Jamaica. Living in this wealthy household, the young Campbell saw a different world, and it didn't impress him: the commercial conversation and gossip of "West India merchants and East India captains" created an atmosphere "irksome" and "unbearable". His pupil James was about ten years old; one of Campbell's first tasks was to begin to teach him Latin.

Campbell took advantage of being in London to attend a session of the House of Commons, hearing William Wilberforce speak against slavery, followed by Charles James Fox and William Pitt. He describes it vividly in his memoirs forty years later, concluding, "After hearing this debate, I could no longer have been content with being 'Moderator of the General Assembly [of the Church of Scotland]'.".

In 1800 Campbell was entered as a student at Lincoln's Inn, and, after working briefly for the Morning Chronicle, was called to the bar in 1806.

Legal and political career
Campbell at once began to report cases decided at nisi prius (i.e. on jury trial). Of these reports he published four volumes; they extend from Michaelmas 1807 to Hilary 1816. Campbell also devoted himself to criminal business, but failed to attract much attention behind the bar. It was not until 1827 that Campbell took silk and began to develop political aspirations. He had unsuccessfully contested the borough of Stafford in 1826, but was returned for it in 1830 and again in 1831. He stood as a moderate Whig, in favour of the connection of church and state and opposed to triennial parliaments and the secret ballot. His main object, like Lord Brougham, was the amelioration of the law by the abolition of cumbrous technicalities rather than the assertion of new principles.

To this end his name is associated with the Fines and Recoveries Abolition Act 1833; the Inheritance Act 1833; the Dower Act 1833; the Real Property Limitation Act 1833; the Wills Act 1837; the Copyhold Tenure Act 1841; and the Judgments Act 1838. The second was called for by the preference which the common law gave to a distant collateral over the brother of the half-blood of the first purchaser; the fourth conferred an indefeasible title on adverse possession for twenty years (a term shortened by Lord Cairns in 1875 to twelve years); the fifth reduced the number of witnesses required by law to attest wills, and removed the distinction which existed in this respect between freeholds and copyholds; the last freed an innocent debtor from imprisonment only before final judgment (or on what was termed mesne process), but the principle stated by Campbell that only fraudulent debtors should be imprisoned was ultimately given effect to for England and Wales in 1869.

Perhaps his most important appearance as a member of parliament (MP) for Stafford was in defence of Lord John Russell's first Reform Bill (1831). In a speech, based on Charles James Fox's declaration against constitution-mongering, he supported both the enfranchising and the disfranchising clauses. The following year (1832) found Campbell Solicitor General, a knight and member for Dudley. Dudley had been enfranchised under the Reform Act of 1832 and so Campbell became the first MP to represent the town in modern history. However, his appointment to the post of Attorney General in 1834 led to a by-election, which he lost to Thomas Hawkes. John Campbell returned to Parliament swiftly, however, as he was returned by Edinburgh in 1835, which seat he represented until his ennoblement in 1841. One of his first acts as Attorney General was the prosecution of a bookseller called Henry Hetherington on the charge of blasphemous libel. In this case Campbell gave his opinion that morality depended on divine revelation: "the vast majority of the population believe that morality depends entirely on revelation; and if a doubt could be raised among them that the ten commandments were given by God from Mount Sinai, men would think they were at liberty to steal, and women would think themselves absolved from the restraints of chastity." In 1840 Campbell conducted the prosecution against John Frost, one of the three Chartist leaders who attacked the town of Newport, all of whom were found guilty of high treason. Next year, as the Melbourne administration was near its close, Plunkett, the Lord Chancellor of Ireland, was forced to resign, and was succeeded by Campbell, who was raised to the peerage as Baron Campbell, of St Andrews in the County of Fife. The post of chancellor Campbell held for only sixteen days, and then resigned it to his successor Sir Edward Sugden. It was during the period 1841–1849, when he had no legal duty, except the self-imposed one of occasionally hearing Scottish appeals in the House of Lords, that Lord Campbell turned to literary pursuits. He bought Hartrigge House in Jedburgh during this period. However, he did take up the cause of the families of railway accident victims in introducing and steering through the Commons, the Fatal Accidents Act 1846, known as Lord Campbell's Act.

Literary endeavours
Following in the path struck out by Strickland in her Lives of the Queens of England, and by Lord Brougham's Lives of Eminent Statesmen, Campbell produced Lives of the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal of England, from the earliest times till the reign of Queen Victoria, in ten volumes. He followed it with Lives of the Chief Justices of England, in four volumes (two additional volumes were a "Continuation by Sir Joseph Arnould – Late Judge of the High Court of Bombay"). He also wrote Shakespeare's Legal Acquirements Reconsidered.

In the House of Lords
While composing his biographical works Campbell remained active in the House of Lords and spoke frequently against legislation proposed by Sir Robert Peel's government. When the Whigs returned to power under Russell in 1846, Campbell became a member of the cabinet as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and undertook some of the duties of the ailing Lord Chancellor, Lord Cottenham. On the resignation of Lord Denman in 1850, Campbell was appointed Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench. Although well versed in the common law, Campbell was criticised for attempting to influence juries in their estimate of the credibility of evidence, as was seen in the 1852 Achilli case. He assisted in the reforms of special pleading at Westminster, and had a recognised place with Brougham and Lyndhurst in legal discussions in the House of Lords.

Campbell was the main sponsor of the Obscene Publications Act 1857 which made the sale of obscene material a statutory offence for the first time, giving the courts power to seize and destroy offending material. The origins of the Act itself were in a trial for the sale of pornography presided over by Campbell, at the same time as a debate in the House of Lords over a bill aiming to restrict the sale of poisons. Campbell was taken by the analogy between the two situations, famously referring to the London pornography trade as "a sale of poison more deadly than prussic acid, strychnine or arsenic". Campbell proposed a bill to restrict the sale of pornography; giving statutory powers of destruction would allow for a much more effective degree of prosecution. The bill was controversial at the time, receiving strong opposition from both Houses of Parliament, and was passed on the assurance by Campbell, in his capacity of Lord Chief Justice, that it was "... intended to apply exclusively to works written for the single purpose of corrupting the morals of youth and of a nature calculated to shock the common feelings of decency in any well-regulated mind." The House of Commons successfully amended it so as not to apply to Scotland, on the grounds that Scottish common law was sufficiently stringent.

The Act provided for the seizure and destruction of any material deemed to be obscene, and held for sale or distribution, following information being laid before a "court of summary jurisdiction" (magistrates' court). The Act required that following evidence of a common-law offence being committed – for example, on the report of a plain-clothes policeman who had successfully purchased the material – the court could issue a warrant for the premises to be searched and the material seized. The proprietor then would be called upon to attend court and give reason why the material should not be destroyed. Critically, the Act did not define "obscene," leaving this to the will of the courts.

In 1859 Campbell was made Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, possibly on the understanding that Bethell should succeed as soon as he could be spared from the House of Commons. His short tenure was undistinguished, and he died in 1861.

Family
In 1821 Campbell married the Hon. Mary Elizabeth, eldest daughter of James Scarlett, 1st Baron Abinger; they had three sons and four daughters. In 1836 Lady Campbell was created (in her own right) Baroness Stratheden, of Cupar in the County of Fife, in recognition of her husband's withdrawal of his claim to the office of Master of the Rolls; she died in March 1860, aged 63. Lord Campbell survived her by just over a year and died in June 1861, aged 81. They were succeeded by their eldest son, William, who became Lord Stratheden and Campbell.

title: John Campbell, 1st Baron Campbell