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Talk:Ethiopian Airlines

737 Max Groundings.
Hello all, Should there be a separate subheading within the fleet section regarding the Boeing 737 MAX groundings given the fact it was their crash that sparked worldwide groundings, at present this article makes no mention of the groundings and only mentions ET302 itself in the accidents and incidents section. Most other major operators' (fleet) pages (Norwegian Air Shuttle, Lion Air, American Airlines fleet, United Airlines fleet etc) at least make mention of the groundings within the table showing their aircraft operated. I have previously tried to add this on this page but had it removed, can anyone give some insight into this and/or just make the change, as it certainly doesn't feel very encyclopedic to not mention such an important point given the loss of life suffered by this carrier. 747-200B (talk) 17:09, 13 January 2020 (UTC)

News articles on flights to Houston
See:
 * https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2019/12/22/nigeria-loses-out-as-ethiopian-airlines-makes-lome-hub-for-wafrica/
 * https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2020/01/05/ethiopian-airlines-will-fly-directly-to-houston-from-nigeria-soon/

From This Day of Nigeria. WhisperToMe (talk) 23:43, 25 June 2020 (UTC)

Ethiopian Airlines fleet
I was wondering about moving Ethiopian Airlines fleet section into a separate page as per Wikipedia splitting there must be at least 70k size to split the page but this article size is 182k splitting needed Ktdk (talk) 04:36, 26 June 2020 (UTC)

 * No reason why it cannot be split out, please remember to attribute anything copied from here back to here for copyright reasons. MilborneOne (talk) 09:02, 26 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Lots of unused references remain in the main article following splitting.--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 12:41, 26 June 2020 (UTC)

I've removed unused references Ktdk (talk) 03:16, 27 June 2020 (UTC)
 * You removed more than that, particularly the links to archived versions of urls. I have reverted all your recent edits. Do limit to remove the unused references only.--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 12:12, 27 June 2020 (UTC)

I've removed some references from Reference section and pasted at their respective place Ktdk (talk) 15:27, 27 June 2020 (UTC)
 * That's exactly what you shouldn't be doing. I've reverted all your latest edits regarding this. Keeping the references in the template makes the editing process  much easier by not having to move each reference over and over again.--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 16:19, 27 June 2020 (UTC)

But most airline articles in the reference section they have this template and there are no references in the reference section. I will not do the edit regarding this again Ktdk (talk) 16:41, 27 June 2020 (UTC)

Issues about corporate ethics in the lead
A new section has grown regarding corporate ethics related to the Tigray War. I added something in the lead also, which was already reworded a couple of times. Some people also deleted it, after which I reinstated the text. But ineed we need to discuss. See this sentence in the lead : "...and is wholly owned by the country's government. As such, the Airlines carry out government policies, including ethnic profiling and military transports during the Tigray War. ". I think issues about corporate ethics may/must be included in the lead also.Rastakwere (talk) 12:07, 9 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I'm against including this in the lead, but let the changes be. If another editor removes it we should discuss this further.--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 13:37, 9 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I've rearranged the lead, please let me know it this is ok for you.--Jetstreamer $Talk$ 13:43, 9 October 2021 (UTC)

Archived refs not used in the article
Sunnya343 (talk) 21:28, 27 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ethiopian Airlines


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Talk:Document-based question

The beginning
I might start with placing some links to outside sites. There's already quite a bit of material on the Internet, but there are copyright problems with using it directly - Pingveno 00:04, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

You might want to read http://www.oswego.org/staff/tcaswell/wg/dbq.htm -- The Anome 00:19, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the info. I just added that to the external links. - Pingveno 00:34, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

The plan:

 * 1) Get links to help in the mean time
 * 2) Get a (better) definition. See: Document Based Question
 * 3) Obtain a DBQ for an example, including:
 * 4) The primary history sources
 * 5) Any notes taken on the history
 * 6) The DBQ essay itself
 * 7) Break the pieces of the DBQ up, explaining step by step how everything is done

I'm going to also place a redirect at Document Based Query, and maybe move the article for Document Based Question into the How to. - Pingveno 02:26, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Should be the other way around: keep the article at Document Based Question, move any "how to" information into it. That's more in line with our naming conventions. Martin 13:44, 28 Mar 2004 (UTC)

VfD
To add to this deletion debate, click here

 * Contains nothing but requests for contributions and external links. RickK | Talk 06:41, 28 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Redirect to Document Based Question; links have been moved there. Lupin 09:36, 28 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Redirect -- Cyrius | Talk 19:11, Mar 28, 2004 (UTC)

What the hell is a document-based peninsula dragon? Is that vandalism or something I'm not seeing? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.253.102.217 (talk) 02:19, 10 May 2012 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 09:35, 16 March 2021 (UTC)
 * CB-AP-logo-RGB-160926.png

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Document-based question


text:
Ligature (music)

In music notation, a ligature is a graphic symbol that tells a musician to perform two or more notes in a single gesture, and on a single syllable. It was primarily used from around 800 to 1650 AD. Ligatures are characteristic of neumatic (chant) and mensural notation. The notation and meaning of ligatures has changed significantly throughout Western music history, and their precise interpretation is a continuing subject of debate among musicologists.

Plainchant
The early notation of plainchant, particularly Gregorian chant, used a series of shapes called neumes, which served as reminders of music that was taught by rote rather than as an exact record of which notes to sing. Neumes were in use from the 9th through the 11th centuries AD for most plainsong, and differed by region. Due to their malleable nature, there were no hard and fast rules for the lengths each note was supposed to last, or even how high or low the intervals between notes were to be.

De mensurabili musica
A treatise on notation named De mensurabili musica was copied around 1260. In this treatise, the anonymous author proposed that, much in the same way that poetry of the time was based on a series of modal rhythms, music should also be set up in this way. The notation of these modes was accomplished primarily through using ligatures in varying lengths and with varying degrees of complexity, where the rhythms would be derived from context. For most of their notated history, this was the purpose of ligatures: to indicate the rhythmic mode.

Franco of Cologne
Around 1250, a music theorist named Franco of Cologne published a treatise on music entitled Ars cantus mensurabilis. In this treatise, Franco proposed that note values should be set up objectively, so that when looking at the notated music, a musician would be able to tell what notes were being sung or played, and the duration of those notes, with some degree of certainty. Ligatures were used for this as well, as they had become more or less standardized through the practice of the rhythmic modes.

Polyphonic music from c1300-c1600
See mensural notation (ligatures).

Usage
Ligatures have two basic shapes: box (rectangular) and oblique (angled). Additionally, some ligatures have tails that either point up or down; the direction of the ligature's tail affects its meaning, unlike the direction of a tail on a modern note head. While primarily contextual, the system of ligatures in use from the 13th to the 16th century is fairly standardized. All ligatures of this period have the following principles in common:
 * All ligature notes are either the length of a longa ("L"), a breve ("B"), or a semibreve ("S").
 * All ligatures have at least two notes.
 * For ease of discussion, ligatures of different lengths have different names. A ligature with two notes is called a binaria; one with three notes, a ternaria; one with four notes, a quaternaria; and one with five notes, a quinaria.  Larger ones are possible, but rare.
 * If a ligature has three or more notes, all notes in the middle (the mediae) are B.
 * A downward tail changes the value of the note where the tail occurs, either from L to B or, less commonly, from B to L.
 * An upward tail indicates that the next two notes are a series of S.
 * A tail at the end of a ligature indicates an additional note be sung or played, called a plica, that is not part of the ligature. Plicas were especially common with the rhythmic modes, to accommodate in practice what could not be accomplished within the very strict theoretical basis for modal music.

Alternate interpretations
Most scholarship on ligatures is focused on period from the 13th to the 16th centuries. Prior to this period, ligatures were far less standardized; a quaternaria ligature that, under the above rules, would mean a series like SSLB would simply mean BBBB.

Transcription
In transcribing old works to modern notation, where no compound graphs as ligatures exist, editors usually indicate by a hook, a bracket (brace), or (less often in polyphonic music) a slur/phrase mark those notes that the original combined into a ligature. To avoid confusion, many scores transcribed purely for performance do not include additional notation to indicate that a particular note originally belonged to a ligature, as most methods to show this have separate meanings in a performance capacity.

title: Ligature (music)


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Talk:Universal Declaration of Human Rights

References to Youth for Human Rights International (YHRI)
The Youth for Human Rights International (YHRI) is a Scientology group using the discussion of human rights to subtly promote their church's agenda. I would ask what has been done by this group to qualify them as contributors to this topic which has not been achieved by far more prevalent groups with less of an agenda behind them. I would propose removing those references in favour of groups like Amnesty International for example. from who?, .. Cara de pan, lazy dog,el pulpo, etc etc 3tc — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2806:1016:8:57CC:F16C:B56:5F3F:7A23 (talk) 18:37, 17 October 2023 (UTC) 90.216.150.214 (talk) 15:32, 17 November 2022 (UTC)

Jacques Maritain
According to numerous sources French philosopher Jacques Maritains contribution to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was crucial see e.g.:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Maritain

https://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1084&context=vlr

Therefore I think he should be mentioned in this article. What do you think? Phelsume (talk) 16:35, 13 January 2024 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Humanities 2 1400-present
— Assignment last updated by Sotoa26 (talk) 16:17, 15 February 2024 (UTC)

Flag Icon
The Canada flag icon for participating nations seems dated/incorrect? SquashEngineer (talk) 14:49, 10 May 2024 (UTC)


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Cfdisk

cfdisk is a Linux partition editor, similar to fdisk, but with a different, curses-based user interface. It is part of the util-linux package of Linux utility programs.

The current cfdisk implementation utilizes the libfdisk library and supports partitioning of disks that use Master boot record, GUID Partition Table, BSD disklabel, SGI or SUN disk labels. It also provides information about mount points and general partition information like partition names, types/flags, sizing and UUIDs.

If invoked without arguments, cfdisk attempts to read the current partition table from the disk drive and present its findings.

title: Cfdisk


text:
Ligature (writing)

In writing and typography, a ligature occurs where two or more graphemes or letters are joined to form a single glyph. Examples are the characters $⟨s⟩$ and $⟨t⟩$ used in English and French, in which the letters $⟨ﬆ⟩$ and $⟨fl⟩$ are joined for the first ligature and the letters $⟨ft⟩$ and $⟨ff⟩$ are joined for the second ligature. For stylistic and legibility reasons, $⟨fi⟩$ and $⟨æ⟩$ are often merged to create $⟨œ⟩$ (where the tittle on the $⟨a⟩$ merges with the hood of the $⟨e⟩$); the same is true of $⟨o⟩$ and $⟨e⟩$ to create $⟨f⟩$. The common ampersand, $⟨i⟩$, developed from a ligature in which the handwritten Latin letters $⟨ﬁ⟩$ and $⟨i⟩$ (spelling et, Latin for 'and') were combined.

History
The earliest known script Sumerian cuneiform and Egyptian hieratic both include many cases of character combinations that gradually evolve from ligatures into separately recognizable characters. Other notable ligatures, such as the Brahmic abugidas and the Germanic bind rune, figure prominently throughout ancient manuscripts. These new glyphs emerge alongside the proliferation of writing with a stylus, whether on paper or clay, and often for a practical reason: faster handwriting. Merchants especially needed a way to speed up the process of written communication and found that conjoining letters and abbreviating words for lay use was more convenient for record keeping and transaction than the bulky long forms.

Around the 9th and 10th centuries, monasteries became a fountainhead for these type of script modifications. Medieval scribes who wrote in Latin increased their writing speed by combining characters and by introducing notational abbreviations. Others conjoined letters for aesthetic purposes. For example, in blackletter, letters with right-facing bowls ($⟨f⟩$, $⟨s⟩$, and $⟨t⟩$) and those with left-facing bowls ($⟨ﬆ⟩$, $⟨&⟩$, $⟨e⟩$, $⟨t⟩$, $⟨b⟩$ and $⟨o⟩$) were written with the facing edges of the bowls superimposed. In many script forms, characters such as $⟨p⟩$, $⟨c⟩$, and $⟨e⟩$ had their vertical strokes superimposed. Scribes also used notational abbreviations to avoid having to write a whole character in one stroke. Manuscripts in the fourteenth century employed hundreds of such abbreviations.

In handwriting, a ligature is made by joining two or more characters in an atypical fashion by merging their parts, or by writing one above or inside the other. In printing, a ligature is a group of characters that is typeset as a unit, so the characters do not have to be joined. For example, in some cases the $⟨o⟩$ ligature prints the letters $⟨d⟩$ and $⟨⟩$ with a greater separation than when they are typeset as separate letters. When printing with movable type was invented around 1450, typefaces included many ligatures and additional letters, as they were based on handwriting. Ligatures made printing with movable type easier because one sort would replace frequent combinations of letters and also allowed more complex and interesting character designs which would otherwise collide with one another.

Because of their complexity, ligatures began to fall out of use in the 20th century. Sans serif typefaces, increasingly used for body text, generally avoid ligatures, though notable exceptions include Gill Sans and Futura. Inexpensive phototypesetting machines in the 1970s (which did not require journeyman knowledge or training to operate) also generally avoid them. A few, however, became characters in their own right, see below the sections about German ß, various Latin accented letters, & et al.

The trend against digraph use was further strengthened by the desktop publishing revolution. Early computer software in particular had no way to allow for ligature substitution (the automatic use of ligatures where appropriate), while most new digital typefaces did not include ligatures. As most of the early PC development was designed for the English language (which already treated ligatures as optional at best) dependence on ligatures did not carry over to digital. Ligature use fell as the number of traditional hand compositors and hot metal typesetting machine operators dropped because of the mass production of the IBM Selectric brand of electric typewriter in 1961. A designer active in the period commented: "some of the world's greatest typefaces were quickly becoming some of the world's worst fonts."

Ligatures have grown in popularity in the 21st century because of an increasing interest in creating typesetting systems that evoke arcane designs and classical scripts. One of the first computer typesetting programs to take advantage of computer-driven typesetting (and later laser printers) was Donald Knuth's TeX program. Now the standard method of mathematical typesetting, its default fonts are explicitly based on nineteenth-century styles. Many new fonts feature extensive ligature sets; these include FF Scala, Seria and others by Martin Majoor and Hoefler Text by Jonathan Hoefler. Mrs Eaves by Zuzana Licko contains a particularly large set to allow designers to create dramatic display text with a feel of antiquity. A parallel use of ligatures is seen in the creation of script fonts that join letterforms to simulate handwriting effectively. This trend is caused in part by the increased support for other languages and alphabets in modern computing, many of which use ligatures somewhat extensively. This has caused the development of new digital typesetting techniques such as OpenType, and the incorporation of ligature support into the text display systems of macOS, Windows, and applications like Microsoft Office. An increasing modern trend is to use a "Th" ligature which reduces spacing between these letters to make it easier to read, a trait infrequent in metal type.

Today, modern font programming divides ligatures into three groups, which can be activated separately: standard, contextual and historical. Standard ligatures are needed to allow the font to display without errors such as character collision. Designers sometimes find contextual and historic ligatures desirable for creating effects or to evoke an old-fashioned print look.

Stylistic ligatures
Many ligatures combine $⟨q⟩$ with the following letter. A particularly prominent example is $⟨h⟩$ (or $⟨m⟩$, rendered with two normal letters). The tittle of the $⟨n⟩$ in many typefaces collides with the hood of the $⟨fi⟩$ when placed beside each other in a word, and are combined into a single glyph with the tittle absorbed into the $⟨f⟩$. Other ligatures with the letter f include $⟨i⟩$, $⟨f⟩$ (ﬂ), $⟨ﬁ⟩$ (ﬀ), $⟨fi⟩$ (ﬃ), and $⟨i⟩$ (ﬄ). Ligatures for $⟨f⟩$, $⟨f⟩$, $⟨fj⟩$, $⟨fl⟩$, $⟨ff⟩$, $⟨ffi⟩$, $⟨ffl⟩$, $⟨fa⟩$, $⟨fe⟩$, $⟨fo⟩$, and for $⟨fr⟩$ followed by a full stop, comma, or hyphen are also used, as well as the equivalent set for the doubled $⟨fs⟩$.

These arose because with the usual type sort for lowercase $⟨ft⟩$, the end of its hood is on a kern, which would be damaged by collision with raised parts of the next letter.

Ligatures crossing the morpheme boundary of a composite word are sometimes considered incorrect, especially in official German orthography as outlined in the Duden. An English example of this would be $⟨fb⟩$ in shelfful; a German example would be Schifffahrt ("boat trip"). Some computer programs (such as TeX) provide a setting to disable ligatures for German, while some users have also written macros to identify which ligatures to disable.

Turkish distinguishes İ|dotted and dotless "I". In a ligature with f (in words such as fırın and fikir), this contrast would be obscured. The $⟨fh⟩$ ligature is therefore not used in Turkish typography, and neither are other ligatures like that for $⟨fu⟩$, which would be rare anyway because of Turkish phonotactics.

Remnants of the ligatures $⟨fy⟩$ /$⟨f⟩$ ("sharp s", eszett) and $⟨ff⟩$/$⟨f⟩$ ("sharp t", tezett) from Fraktur, a family of German blackletter typefaces, originally mandatory in Fraktur but now employed only stylistically, can be seen to this day on street signs for city squares whose name contains Platz or ends in -platz. Instead, the "sz" ligature has merged into a single character, the German ß – see below.

Sometimes, ligatures for $⟨ff⟩$ (ﬆ), $⟨fi⟩$ (ﬅ), $⟨fl⟩$, $⟨ſʒ⟩$, $⟨ſz⟩$, $⟨tʒ⟩$ and $⟨tz⟩$ are used (e.g. in the typeface Linux Libertine).

Besides conventional ligatures, in the metal type era some newspapers commissioned custom condensed single sorts for the names of common long names that might appear in news headings, such as "Eisenhower", "Chamberlain", and others. In these cases the characters did not appear combined, just more tightly spaced than if printed conventionally.

German ß
The German letter $⟨st⟩$ (Eszett, also called the scharfes S, meaning sharp s) is an official letter of the alphabet in Germany and Austria. There is no general consensus about its history. Its name Es-zett (meaning S-Z) suggests a connection of "long s and z" (ſʒ) but the Latin script also knows a ligature of "long s over round s" (ſs). The latter is used as the design principle for the character in most of today's typefaces. Since German was mostly set in blackletter typefaces until the 1940s, and those typefaces were rarely set in uppercase, a capital version of the Eszett never came into common use, even though its creation has been discussed since the end of the 19th century. Therefore, the common replacement in uppercase typesetting was originally SZ (Maße "measure" → MASZE, different from Masse "mass" → MASSE) and later SS (Maße → MASSE). Until 2017, the SS replacement was the only valid spelling according to the official orthography in Germany and Austria. In Switzerland, the ß is omitted altogether in favour of ss. The capital version (ẞ) of the Eszett character was occasionally used since 1905/06, has been part of Unicode since 2008, and has appeared in more and more typefaces. Since the end of 2010, the Ständiger Ausschuss für geographische Namen (StAGN) has suggested the new upper case character for "ß" rather than replacing it with "SS" or "SZ" for geographical names. A new standardized German keyboard layout (DIN 2137-T2) has included the capital ß since 2012. The new character entered the official orthographic rules in June 2017.

Massachusett ꝏ
A prominent feature of the colonial orthography created by John Eliot (later used in the first Bible printed in the Americas, the Massachusett-language Mamusse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God, published in 1663) was the use of the double-o ligature $⟨ſt⟩$ to represent the of food as opposed to the  of hook (although Eliot himself used $⟨ch⟩$ and $⟨ck⟩$ interchangeably). In the orthography in use since 2000 in the Wampanoag communities participating in the Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project (WLRP), the ligature was replaced with the numeral $⟨ct⟩$, partly because of its ease in typesetting and display as well as its similarity to the o-u ligature $⟨Qu⟩$ used in Abenaki. For example, compare the colonial-era spelling seepꝏash with the modern WLRP spelling seep8ash.

Letter W
As the letter $⟨Th⟩$ is an addition to the Latin alphabet that originated in the seventh century, the phoneme it represents was formerly written in various ways. In Old English, the runic letter wynn $⟨ß⟩$) was used, but Norman influence forced wynn out of use. By the 14th century, the "new" letter $⟨ꝏ⟩$, originated as two $⟨oo⟩$ glyphs or $⟨ꝏ⟩$ glyphs joined, developed into a legitimate letter with its own position in the alphabet. Because of its relative youth compared to other letters of the alphabet, only a few European languages (English, Dutch, German, Polish, Welsh, Maltese, and Walloon) use the letter in native words.

Æ and Œ
The character $⟨8⟩$ (lower case $⟨Ȣ⟩$; in ancient times named æsc) when used in Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, or Old English is not a typographic ligature. It is a distinct letter — a vowel — and when collated, may be given a different place in the alphabetical order than Ae.

In modern English orthography, $⟨W⟩$ is not considered an independent letter but a spelling variant, for example: "encyclopædia" versus "encyclopaedia" or "encyclopedia". In this use, $⟨Ƿ⟩$ comes from Medieval Latin, where it was an optional ligature in some specific words that had been transliterated and borrowed from Ancient Greek, for example, "Æneas". It is still found as a variant in English and French words descended or borrowed from Medieval Latin, but the trend has recently been towards printing the $⟨W⟩$ and $⟨V⟩$ separately.

Similarly, $⟨U⟩$ and $⟨Æ⟩$, while normally printed as ligatures in French, are replaced by component letters if technical restrictions require it.

Umlaut
In German orthography, the umlauted vowels $⟨æ⟩$, $⟨Æ⟩$, and $⟨Æ⟩$ historically arose from $⟨A⟩$, $⟨E⟩$, $⟨Œ⟩$ ligatures (strictly, from these vowels with a small letter $⟨œ⟩$ written as a diacritic, for example $⟨ä⟩$, $⟨ö⟩$, $⟨ü⟩$). It is common practice to replace them with $⟨ae⟩$, $⟨oe⟩$, $⟨ue⟩$ digraphs when the diacritics are unavailable, for example in electronic conversation. Phone books treat umlauted vowels as equivalent to the relevant digraph (so that a name Müller will appear at the same place as if it were spelled Mueller; German surnames have a strongly fixed orthography, either a name is spelled with $⟨e⟩$ or with $⟨aͤ⟩$); however, the alphabetic order used in other books treats them as equivalent to the simple letters $⟨oͤ⟩$, $⟨uͤ⟩$ and $⟨ae⟩$. The convention in Scandinavian languages and Finnish is different: there the umlaut vowels are treated as independent letters with positions at the end of the alphabet.

Middle English
In Middle English, the word the (written þe) was frequently abbreviated as a $⟨oe⟩$ (thorn) with a small $⟨ue⟩$ written as a diacritic. Similarly, the word that was abbreviated to $⟨ü⟩$ with a small $⟨ue⟩$ written as a diacritic. During the latter Middle English and Early Modern English periods, the thorn in its common script, or cursive, form came to resemble a $⟨a⟩$ shape. With the arrival of movable type printing, the substitution of $⟨o⟩$ for $⟨u⟩$ became ubiquitous, leading to the common "ye", as in 'Ye Olde Curiositie Shoppe'. One major reason for this was that $⟨þ⟩$ existed in the printer's types that William Caxton and his contemporaries imported from Belgium and the Netherlands, while $⟨e⟩$ did not.

Ring
The ring diacritic used in vowels such as $⟨þ⟩$ likewise originated as an $⟨t⟩$ -ligature. Before the replacement of the older "aa" with "å" became a de facto practice, an "a" with another "a" on top (aͣ) could sometimes be used, for example in Johannes Bureus's, Runa: ABC-Boken (1611). The $⟨y⟩$ ligature ů in particular saw use in Early Modern High German, but it merged in later Germanic languages with $⟨y⟩$ (e.g. MHG fuosz, ENHG fuͦß, Modern German Fuß "foot"). It survives in Czech, where it is called kroužek.

Tilde and circumflex
The tilde diacritic, used in Spanish as part of the letter $⟨Þ⟩$, representing the palatal nasal consonant, and in Portuguese for nasalization of a vowel, originated in ligatures where $⟨y⟩$ followed the base letter: Espanna → España. Similarly, the circumflex in French spelling stems from the ligature of a silent $⟨Þ⟩$.

Hwair
The letter hwair (ƕ), used only in transliteration of the Gothic language, resembles a $⟨å⟩$ ligature. It was introduced by philologists around 1900 to replace the digraph $⟨o⟩$ formerly used to express the phoneme in question, e.g. by Migne in the 1860s (Patrologia Latina vol. 18).

Byzantine Ȣ
The Byzantines had a unique o-u ligature $⟨uo⟩$ that, while originally based on the Greek alphabet's ο-υ, carried over into Latin alphabets as well. This ligature is still seen today on icon artwork in Greek Orthodox churches, and sometimes in graffiti or other forms of informal or decorative writing.

Gha (OI)
Gha $⟨u⟩$, a rarely used letter based on Q and G, was misconstrued by the ISO to be an OI ligature because of its appearance, and is thus known (to the ISO and, in turn, Unicode) as "Oi". Historically, it was used in many Latin-based orthographies of Turkic (e.g., Azerbaijani) and other central Asian languages.

International Phonetic Alphabet
The International Phonetic Alphabet formerly used ligatures to represent affricate consonants, of which six are encoded in Unicode: and. One fricative consonant is still represented with a ligature:, and the extensions to the IPA contain three more: , and.

Initial Teaching Alphabet
The Initial Teaching Alphabet, a short-lived alphabet intended for young children, used a number of ligatures to represent long vowels: $⟨ñ⟩$, $⟨n⟩$, $⟨s⟩$, $⟨hw⟩$, $⟨hv⟩$, and ligatures for $⟨Ȣ⟩$, $⟨ƣ⟩$ and $⟨ꜷ⟩$ that are not encoded in Unicode. Ligatures for consonants also existed, including ligatures of $⟨æ⟩$, $⟨œ⟩$, $⟨ᵫ⟩$, $⟨ꭡ⟩$, $⟨ee⟩$ and a reversed $⟨ou⟩$ with $⟨oi⟩$ (neither the reversed t nor any of the consonant ligatures are in Unicode).

Rare ligatures
Rarer ligatures also exist, including $⟨ʃh⟩$; $⟨ʈh⟩$; $⟨wh⟩$; $⟨ʗh⟩$; $⟨ng⟩$ (barred $⟨t⟩$); $⟨h⟩$; $⟨ꜳ⟩$, which is used in medieval Nordic languages for (a long close-mid back rounded vowel), as well as in some orthographies of the Massachusett language to represent  (a long close back rounded vowel); ᵺ; ỻ, which was used in Medieval Welsh to represent  (the voiceless lateral fricative); ꜩ; ᴂ; ᴔ; and ꭣ have Unicode codepoints (in code block Latin Extended-E for characters used in German dialectology (Teuthonista), the Anthropos alphabet, Sakha and Americanist usage).

Symbols originating as ligatures
The most common ligature in modern usage is the ampersand $⟨ꜵ⟩$. This was originally a ligature of $⟨ꜷ⟩$ and $⟨ꜹ⟩$, forming the Latin word "et", meaning "and". It has exactly the same use in French and in English. The ampersand comes in many different forms. Because of its ubiquity, it is generally no longer considered a ligature, but a logogram. Like many other ligatures, it has at times been considered a letter (e.g., in early Modern English); in English it is pronounced "and", not "et", except in the case of &c, pronounced "et cetera". In most typefaces, it does not immediately resemble the two letters used to form it, although certain typefaces use designs in the form of a ligature (examples include the original versions of Futura and Univers, Trebuchet MS, and Civilité, known in modern times as the italic of Garamond).

Similarly, the number sign $⟨ꜻ⟩$ originated as a stylized abbreviation of the Roman term libra pondo, written as ℔. Over time, the number sign was simplified to how it is seen today, with two horizontal strokes across two slash-like strokes. Now a logogram, the symbol is used mainly to denote (in the US) numbers, and weight in pounds. It has also been used popularly on push-button telephones and as the hashtag indicator.

The at sign $⟨av⟩$ is potentially a ligature, but there are many different theories about the origin. One theory says that the French word à (meaning at), was simplified by scribes who, instead of lifting the pen to write the grave accent, drew an arc around the "a". Another states that it is short for the Latin word for "toward", "ad", with the $⟨ꜽ⟩$ being represented by the arc. Another says it is short for an abbreviation of the term each at, with the $⟨ꝏ⟩$ encasing the $⟨&⟩$. Around the 18th century, it started being used in commerce to indicate price per unit, as "15 units @ $1". After the popularization of Email, this fairly unpopular character became widely known, used to tag specific users.

The dollar sign $⟨E⟩$ possibly originated as a ligature (for "pesos", although there are other theories as well) but is now a logogram. At least once, the United States dollar used a symbol resembling an overlapping U-S ligature, with the right vertical bar of the U intersecting through the middle of the S ( US ) to resemble the modern dollar sign.

The Spanish peseta was sometimes symbolized by a ligature $⟨t⟩$ (from Pts), and the French franc was often symbolized by the ligature $⟨#⟩$ (from Fr).

In astronomy, the planetary symbol for Mercury (☿) may be a ligature of Mercury's caduceus and a cross (which was added in the 16th century to Christianize the pagan symbol), though other sources disagree; the symbol for Venus ♀) may be a ligature of the Greek letters $⟨@⟩$ (phi) and $⟨d⟩$ (kappa). The symbol for Jupiter (♃) descends from a Greek zeta with a horizontal stroke, $⟨e⟩$, as an abbreviation for Zeus. Saturn's astronomical symbol (♄) has been traced back to the Greek Oxyrhynchus Papyri, where it can be seen to be a Greek kappa-rho with a horizontal stroke, as an abbreviation for Κρονος (Cronus), the Greek name for the planet. It later came to look like a lower-case Greek eta, with the cross added at the top in the 16th century to Christianize it. The dwarf planet Pluto is symbolized by a PL ligature, ♇.

A different PL ligature, ⅊, represents the property line in surveying.

In engineering diagrams, a CL ligature, ℄, represents the center line of an object.

The interrobang $⟨a⟩$ is an unconventional punctuation meant to combine the interrogation point (or the question mark) and the bang (printer's slang for exclamation mark) into one symbol, used to denote a sentence which is both a question and is exclaimed. For example, the sentence "Are you really coming over to my house on Friday‽" shows that the speaker is surprised while asking their question.

Alchemy used a set of mostly standardized symbols, many of which were ligatures: 🜇 (AR, for aqua regia); 🜈 (S inside a V, for aqua vitae); 🝫 (MB, for balneum Mariae [Mary's bath], a double boiler); 🝬 (VB, for balneum vaporis, a steam bath); and 🝛 (aaa with overline, for amalgam).

Digraphs

Digraphs, such as $⟨$⟩$ in Spanish or Welsh, are not ligatures in the general case as the two letters are displayed as separate glyphs: although written together, when they are joined in handwriting or italic fonts the base form of the letters is not changed and the individual glyphs remain separate. Like some ligatures discussed above, these digraphs may or may not be considered individual letters in their respective languages. Until the 1994 spelling reform, the digraphs $⟨₧⟩$ and $⟨₣⟩$ were considered separate letters in Spanish for collation purposes. Catalan makes a difference between "Spanish ll" or palatalized l, written ll as in llei (law), and "French ll" or geminated l, written l·l as in col·lega (colleague).

The difference can be illustrated with the French digraph œu, which is composed of the ligature œ and the simplex letter u.

Dutch IJ
In Dutch, $⟨κρ⟩$ can be considered a digraph, a ligature, or a letter in itself, depending on the standard used. Its uppercase and lowercase forms are often available as a single glyph with a distinctive ligature in several professional typefaces (e.g. Zapfino). Sans serif uppercase $⟨ϕ⟩$ glyphs, popular in the Netherlands, typically use a ligature resembling a $⟨κ⟩$ with a broken left-hand stroke. Adding to the confusion, Dutch handwriting can render $⟨Ƶ⟩$ (which is not found in native Dutch words, but occurs in words borrowed from other languages) as a $⟨‽⟩$-glyph without the dots in its lowercase form and the $⟨ll⟩$ in its uppercase form looking virtually identical (only slightly bigger). When written as two separate letters, both should be capitalized – or both not –  to form a correctly spelled word, like IJs or ijs (ice).

Non-Latin alphabets
Ligatures are not limited to Latin script:
 * The Armenian alphabet has the following ligatures: և (ե+ւ), ﬔ (մ+ե), ﬕ (մ+ի), ﬓ (մ+ն), ﬗ (մ+խ), ﬖ (վ+ն)
 * Most Brahmic abugidas make frequent use of ligatures in consonant clusters. The number of ligatures employed is language-dependent; thus many more ligatures are conventionally used in Devanagari when writing Sanskrit than when writing Hindi. Having 37 consonants in total, the total number of ligatures that can be formed in Devanagari using only two letters is 1369, though few fonts are able to render all of them. In particular, Mangal, which is included with Microsoft Windows' Indic support, does not correctly handle ligatures with consonants attached to the right of the characters द, ट, ठ, ड, and ढ, leaving the virama attached to them and displaying the following consonant in its standard form.
 * The Georgian script includes უ (uni), which is a combination of ო (oni) and the former letter ჳ (vie).
 * A number of ligatures have been employed in the Greek alphabet, in particular a combination of omicron (Ο) and upsilon (Υ), which later gave rise to a letter of the Cyrillic script—see Ou (letter). Among the ancient Greek acrophonic numerals, ligatures were common (in fact, the ligature of a short-legged capital pi was a key feature of the acrophonic numeral system).
 * Cyrillic ligatures: Љ, Њ, Ы, Ѿ. Iotated Cyrillic letters are ligatures of the early Cyrillic decimal I and another vowel: Ꙗ, Ѥ, Ѩ, Ѭ, Ю (sometimes also spelled ЮУ). Two letters of the Bosnian, Macedonian and Serbian Cyrillic alphabets, lje and nje (љ, њ), were developed in the nineteenth century as ligatures of Cyrillic El and En (л, н) with the soft sign (ь). Yae, a ligature of ya (Я) and e also exists: Ԙԙ, as do Dzze (Ꚉꚉ ← Д + З) and Zhwe (Ꚅꚅ ← З + Ж).
 * Some forms of the Glagolitic script, used from Middle Ages to the 19th century to write some Slavic languages, have a box-like shape that lends itself to more frequent use of ligatures.
 * In the Hebrew alphabet, the letters aleph and lamed  can form a ligature, . The ligature appears in some pre-modern texts (mainly religious), or in Judeo-Arabic texts, where that combination is very frequent, since [ʔ] [a]l- (written aleph plus lamed, in the Hebrew script) is the definite article in Arabic. For example, the word Allah  can be written with this ligature:.
 * In the Arabic alphabet, historically a cursive derived from the Nabataean alphabet, most letters' shapes depend on whether they are followed (word-initial), preceded (word-final) or both (medial) by other letters. For example, Arabic م|mīm, isolated م, tripled (mmm, rendering as initial, medial and final): ممم. Notable are the shapes taken by lām + ʼalif isolated: ﻻ, and lām + ʼalif medial or final: ﻼ. Besides the obligatory lām + ʼalif ligature, Arabic script grammar requires numerous stylistic ligatures.
 * Syriac, a semitic alphabet derived from the Aramaic alphabet, has three different scripts that all use ligatures. Like Arabic, some letters change their form depending on their position in relation to other letters, and this can also change how ligatures look. A popular ligature all three scripts use is Lamadh / + Alap / isolated and final: (Serto), (Madnhaya) . Another popular one is Taw / + Alap /, resulting in (Serto) , (Madhnhaya) . All three scripts use ligatures, but not in an equal spread or always with the same letters. Serto, being a flexible script, especially has many ligatures. For a wider, but not complete, list of Syriac ligatures, see Contextual forms of letters.
 * Urdu (one of the main languages of South Asia), which uses a calligraphic version of the Arabic-based Nastaʿlīq script, requires a great number of ligatures in digital typography. InPage, a widely used desktop publishing tool for Urdu, uses Nastaliq fonts with over 20,000 ligatures.
 * In American Sign Language a ligature of the American manual alphabet is used to sign "I love you", from the English initialism ILY. It consists of the little finger of the letter I plus the thumb and forefinger of the letter L. The letter Y (little finger and thumb) overlaps with the other two letters.
 * The Japanese language has a number of obsolete kana ligatures. Of these, only two are widely available ones on computers: one for hiragana, ゟ, which is a vertical writing ligature of the characters よ and り; and one for katakana, ヿ, which is a vertical writing ligature of the characters コ and ト.
 * Lao uses three ligatures, all comprising the letter ຫ (h). As a tonal language, most consonant sounds in Lao are represented by two consonants, which will govern the tone of the syllable. Five consonant sounds are only represented by a single consonant letter (ງ (ŋ), ນ (m), ມ (n), ລ (l), ວ (w)), meaning that one cannot render all the tones for words beginning with these sounds. A silent ຫ indicates that the syllable should be read with the tone rules for ຫ, rather than those of the following consonant. Three consonants can form ligatures with the letter ຫ. ຫ+ນ=ໜ (n), ຫ+ມ=ໝ (m) and ຫ+ລ=ຫຼ (l). ງ (ŋ) and ວ (w) just form clusters: ຫງ (ŋ) and ຫວ (w). ລ (l) can also be used written in a cluster rather than as a ligature: ຫລ (l).
 * In many runic texts ligatures are common. Such ligatures are known as bind-runes and were optional.

Chinese ligatures

Written Chinese has a long history of creating new characters by merging parts or wholes of other Chinese characters. However, a few of these combinations do not represent morphemes but retain the original multi-character (multiple morpheme) reading and are therefore not considered true characters themselves. In Chinese, these ligatures are called héwén or héshū (合書); see polysyllabic Chinese characters for more.

One popular ligature used on chūntiē decorations used for Chinese Lunar New Year is a combination of the four characters for zhāocái jìnbǎo (招財進寶), meaning "ushering in wealth and fortune" and used as a popular New Year's greeting.

In 1924, Du Dingyou (杜定友; 1898–1967) created the ligature 圕 from two of the three characters 圖書館 (túshūguǎn), meaning "library". Although it does have an assigned pronunciation of tuān and appears in many dictionaries, it is not a morpheme and cannot be used as such in Chinese. Instead, it is usually considered a graphic representation of túshūguǎn.

In recent years, a Chinese internet meme, the Grass Mud Horse, has had such a ligature associated with it combining the three relevant Chinese characters 草, 泥, and 马 (Cǎonímǎ).

Similar to the ligatures were several "two-syllable Chinese characters" created in the 19th century as Chinese characters for SI units. In Chinese these units are disyllabic and standardly written with two characters, as 厘米 límǐ "centimeter" (厘 centi-, 米 meter) or 千瓦 qiānwǎ "kilowatt". However, in the 19th century these were often written via compound characters, pronounced disyllabically, such as 瓩 for 千瓦 or 糎 for 厘米 – some of these characters were also used in Japan, where they were pronounced with borrowed European readings instead. These have now fallen out of general use, but are occasionally seen.

Japanese ligatures
The CJK Compatibility Unicode block features characters that have been combined into one square character in legacy character set so that it matches Japanese text. For example, the Japanese equivalent of "stock company", 株式会社 (kabushiki gaisha) can be represented in 1 Unicode character $⟨ch⟩$. Its romanized abbreviation K.K. can also be 1 character $⟨ll⟩$. There are other Latin abbreviations such as kg for "kilogram" that can be ligated into 1 square character $⟨ĳ⟩$.

Computer typesetting
The OpenType font format includes features for associating multiple glyphs to a single character, used for ligature substitution. Typesetting software may or may not implement this feature, even if it is explicitly present in the font's metadata. XeTeX is a TeX typesetting engine designed to make the most of such advanced features. This type of substitution used to be needed mainly for typesetting Arabic texts, but ligature lookups and substitutions are being put into all kinds of Western Latin OpenType fonts. In OpenType, there are standard, historical  , contextual  , discretionary   and required   ligatures.

TeX
Opinion is divided over whether it is the job of writers or typesetters to decide where to use ligatures. TeX is an example of a computer typesetting system that makes use of ligatures automatically. The Computer Modern Roman typeface provided with TeX includes the five common ligatures $⟨Ĳ⟩$, $⟨U⟩$ , $⟨y⟩$ , $⟨ĳ⟩$ , and $⟨Ĳ⟩$. When TeX finds these combinations in a text, it substitutes the appropriate ligature, unless overridden by the typesetter.

CSS
CSS3 provides control over these properties using, though the CSS Fonts Module Level 4 draft standard indicates that authors should prefer several other properties. Those include,  ,  ,  , and.

Ligatures in Unicode (Latin alphabets)
This table below shows discrete letter pairs on the left, the corresponding Unicode ligature in the middle column, and the Unicode code point on the right. Provided you are using an operating system and browser that can handle Unicode, and have the correct Unicode fonts installed, some or all of these will display correctly. See also the provided graphic.

Unicode maintains that ligaturing is a presentation issue rather than a character definition issue, and that, for example, "if a modern font is asked to display 'h' followed by 'r', and the font has an 'hr' ligature in it, it can display the ligature." Accordingly, the use of the special Unicode ligature characters is "discouraged", and "no more will be encoded in any circumstances". (Unicode has continued to add ligatures, but only in such cases that the ligatures were used as distinct letters in a language or could be interpreted as standalone symbols. For example, ligatures such as æ and œ are not used to replace arbitrary "ae" or "oe" sequences; it is generally considered incorrect to write "does" as "dœs".)

Microsoft Word disables ligature substitution by default, largely for backward compatibility when editing documents created in earlier versions of Word. Users can enable automatic ligature substitution on the Advanced tab of the Font dialog box.

LibreOffice Writer enables standard ligature substitution by default for OpenType fonts, user can enable or disable any ligature substitution on the Features dialog box, which is accessible via the Features button of the Character dialog box, or alternatively, input a syntax with font name and feature into the Font Name input box, for example: Noto Sans:liga=0.

There are separate code points for the digraph DZ, the Dutch digraph IJ, and for the Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian digraphs DŽ, LJ, and NJ. Although similar, these are digraphs, not ligatures. See Digraphs in Unicode.

Ligatures used only in phonetic transcription
Four "ligature ornaments" are included from U+1F670 to U+1F673 in the Ornamental Dingbats block: regular and bold variants of ℯT (script e and T) and of ɛT (open E and T).

Contemporary art

Typographic ligatures are used in a form of contemporary art, as can be illustrated by Chinese artist Xu Bing's work in which he combines Latin letters to form characters that resemble Chinese. Croatian designer Maja Škripelj also created a ligature that combined Glagolitic letters ⰘⰓ for euro coins.

title: Ligature (writing)


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Macintosh 512Ke

The Macintosh 512K enhanced (512Ke) was introduced in April 1986 as a cheaper alternative to the top-of-the-line Macintosh Plus, which had debuted three months previously. It is the same as the Macintosh 512K but with the 800K disk drive and 128K of ROM used in the Macintosh Plus. Like its predecessors, it has little room for expansion. Some companies did create memory upgrades that brought the machine up to 2 MB or more.

Model differences
Originally, the case was identical to its predecessor, except for the model number listed on the  rear bucket's agency approval label. It used the same beige-like color as well. Later in its lifespan, the 512Ke was discounted and offered to the educational market, badged as the Macintosh ED (M0001D & later M0001ED).

The 512Ke shipped with the original short Macintosh Keyboard, but the extended Macintosh Plus Keyboard with built-in numeric keypad could be purchased optionally. A version of the 512Ke only sold outside of North America included the full keyboard and was marketed as the Macintosh 512K/800. Later, the larger keyboard would be included as standard in North America as well.

Although the 512Ke includes the same 128K ROMs and 800K disk drive as the Mac Plus, the 512Ke retains the same port connectors as the original Mac. For this reason, 512Ke users' only hard disk option is the slower, floppy-port-based Hard Disk 20, or similar products for the serial port, even though the 512Ke ROMs contain the "SCSI Manager" software that enables the use of faster SCSI hard disks (because the ROMs are the same as the ones used in the Mac Plus, which does have a SCSI port). Apple did point users to certain third-party products which could be added to the 512Ke to provide a SCSI port.

Official upgrades
A Macintosh 512K could be upgraded to a 512Ke by purchasing and installing Apple's $299 Macintosh Plus Disk Drive Kit. This included the following: One further upgrade made by Apple replaced the logic board and the rear case (to accommodate the different port configuration) with those of the Macintosh Plus, providing built-in SCSI functionality and up to 4 MB RAM. Because Apple's official upgrades were costly, many third-party manufacturers offered add-on SCSI cards, as well as RAM upgrades, to achieve the same functionality. The new ROM allowed the computer to run much newer system and application software; though it loaded more data into RAM, it only slightly decreased the amount of available memory – by 1.5 KB – leaving well over 370 KB available for applications.
 * 800 KB double-sided floppy disk drive to replace the original 400 KB single-sided drive
 * 128 KB ROM chips to replace original 64 KB ROM
 * Macintosh Plus System Tools disk with updated system software
 * Installation guide

System software
After June 1986, the 512Ke shipped with System 3.2. After it was discontinued, Apple changed the recommended OS for the 512Ke to System 4.1. System 6.0.8 is the maximum OS for the 512Ke.

title: Macintosh 512Ke


text: User talk:68.64.117.81

title: User talk:68.64.117.81


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Macintosh SE

The Macintosh SE is a personal computer designed, manufactured, and sold by Apple Computer, from March 1987 to October 1990. It marked a significant improvement on the Macintosh Plus design and was introduced by Apple at the same time as the Macintosh II.

The SE retains the same Compact Macintosh form factor as the original Macintosh computer introduced three years earlier and uses the same design language used by the Macintosh II. An enhanced model, the SE/30, was introduced in January 1989; sales of the original SE continued. The Macintosh SE was updated in August 1989 to include a SuperDrive, with this updated version being called the "Macintosh SE FDHD" and later the "Macintosh SE SuperDrive". The Macintosh SE was replaced with the Macintosh Classic, a very similar model which retained the same central processing unit and form factor, but at a lower price point.

Overview
The Macintosh SE was introduced at the AppleWorld conference in Los Angeles on March 2, 1987. The "SE" is an initialism for "System Expansion". Its notable new features, compared to its similar predecessor, the Macintosh Plus, were:
 * First compact Macintosh with an internal drive bay for a hard disk (originally 20 MB or 40 MB) or a second floppy disk drive.
 * First compact Macintosh that featured an expansion slot.
 * First Macintosh to support the Apple Desktop Bus (ADB), previously only available on the Apple IIGS, for keyboard and mouse connections.
 * Improved SCSI support, providing faster data throughput (double that of the Macintosh Plus) and a standard 50-pin internal SCSI connector.
 * Better reliability and longer life expectancy (15 years of continuous use) due to the addition of a cooling fan.
 * 25 percent greater speed when accessing RAM, resulting in a lower percentage of CPU time being spent drawing the screen. In practice this results in a 10-20 percent performance improvement.
 * Additional fonts and kerning routines in the Toolbox ROM
 * Disk First Aid is included on the system disk

The SE and Macintosh II were the first Apple computers since the Apple I to be sold without a keyboard. Instead the customer was offered the choice of the new ADB Apple Keyboard or the Apple Extended Keyboard.

Apple produced ten SEs with transparent cases as prototypes for promotional shots and employees. They are extremely rare and command a premium price for collectors.

Operating system
The Macintosh SE shipped with System 4.0 and Finder 5.4; this version is specific to this computer. (The Macintosh II, which was announced at the same time but shipped a month later, includes System 4.1 and Finder 5.5.) The README file included with the installation disks for the SE and II is the first place Apple ever used the term "Macintosh System Software", and after 1998 these two versions were retroactively given the name "Macintosh System Software 2.0.1".

Hardware
Processor: Motorola 68000, 8 MHz, with an 8 MHz system bus and a 16-bit data path

RAM: The SE came with 1 MB of RAM as standard, and is expandable to 4 MB. The logic board has four 30-pin SIMM slots; memory must be installed in pairs and must be 150 ns or faster.

Video: The built-in 512 × 342 monochrome screen uses 21,888 bytes of main memory as video memory.

Storage: The SE can accommodate either one or two floppy drives, or a floppy drive and a hard drive. After-market brackets were designed to allow the SE to accommodate two floppy drives as well as a hard drive, however it was not a configuration supported by Apple. In addition an external floppy disk drive may also be connected, making the SE the only Macintosh besides the Macintosh Portable which could support three floppy drives, though its increased storage, RAM capacity and optional internal hard drive rendered the external drives less of a necessity than for its predecessors. Single-floppy SE models also featured a drive-access light in the spot where the second floppy drive would be.  Hard-drive equipped models came with a 20 MB SCSI hard disk.

Battery: A 3.6 V 1/2AA lithium battery, which must be present in order for basic settings to persist between power cycles, is located on the logic board. Macintosh SE machines which have sat for a long time have experienced battery corrosion and leakage, resulting in a damaged case and logic board. Some SE models feature a board-mounted battery holder, while others have the battery soldered directly in place.

Expansion: A Processor Direct Slot on the logic board allows for expansion cards, such as accelerators, to be installed. The SE can be upgraded to 50 MHz and more than 5 MB with the MicroMac accelerators. In the past other accelerators were also available such as the Sonnet Allegro. Since installing a card required opening the computer's case and exposing the user to high voltages from the internal CRT, Apple recommended that only authorized Apple dealers install the cards; the case was sealed with then-uncommon Torx screws.

Upgrades: After Apple introduced the Macintosh SE/30 in January, 1989, a logic board upgrade was sold by Apple dealers for US$1,699 as a high-cost upgrade for the SE, consisting of a new SE/30 motherboard, case front and internal chassis to accommodate the upgrade components.

ROM/Easter egg: The SE ROM size increased from 64 KB in the original Mac (and 128 KB in the Mac Plus) to 256 KB, which allowed the development team to include an Easter Egg hidden in the ROMs. By jumping to address 0x41D89A (or reading from the ROM chips), it is possible to display four images of the engineering team.

Models
Introduced March 2, 1987: Introduced August 1, 1988: Introduced August 1, 1989:
 * Macintosh SE with 1 MB RAM and two 800k drives
 * Macintosh SE 1/20 with 1 MB RAM, one 800k drive and 20 MB hard disk.
 * Macintosh SE 1/40: The same of the Macintosh SE with a 40 MB hard disk in place of 20 MB.
 * Macintosh SE FDHD: Includes the new SuperDrive, a floppy disk drive that can handle 1.4 MB High Density (HD) floppy disks. FDHD is an initialism for "Floppy Disk High Density"; later some Macintosh SE FDHDs were labeled Macintosh SE SuperDrive, to conform to Apple's marketing change with respect to their new drive. High-density floppies would become the de facto standard on both the Macintosh and PC computers from then on. An upgrade kit was sold for the original Macintosh SE which included new ROM chips and a new disk controller chip, to replace the originals.

title: Macintosh SE


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Patricia Arquette

Patricia Arquette (born April 8, 1968) is an American actress. She made her feature film debut as Kristen Parker in A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors (1987) and has since starred in several film and television productions. She has received several awards, including an Academy Award, two Primetime Emmy Awards, and three Golden Globe Awards.

She had starring roles in several critically acclaimed films, including True Romance (1993), Ed Wood (1994), Flirting with Disaster (1996), Lost Highway (1997), The Hi-Lo Country (1998), Bringing Out the Dead (1999), and Holes (2003). From 2005 to 2011, she starred as a character based on the medium Allison DuBois in the supernatural drama series Medium, winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series in 2005.

For playing a single mother in the coming-of-age film Boyhood (2014), which was filmed from 2002 until 2014, Arquette won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Further success came for starring as a prison worker in the miniseries Escape at Dannemora (2018) and as Dee Dee Blanchard in the miniseries The Act (2019). They both won her Golden Globe Awards in addition to a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress for the latter. She has since starred in the Apple TV+ thriller series Severance (2022–present) and comedy series High Desert (2023).

Early life and family
Arquette was born in Chicago, Illinois, in 1968 to Lewis Arquette, an actor and puppeteer, and Brenda Olivia "Mardi" (née Nowak), who was involved in the arts and worked as a therapist. Through her father, Patricia is distantly related to explorer Meriwether Lewis. Arquette's father had converted from Catholicism to Islam. Arquette's mother was Jewish, and her ancestors emigrated from Poland and Russia. Her father's family's surname was originally "Arcouet", and his paternal line was of French-Canadian descent. Her paternal grandfather was comedian Cliff Arquette. Patricia's siblings also became actors: Rosanna, Richmond, Alexis, and David. When she was a child, her parents offered to get her braces for her teeth, but she refused, claiming she didn't want to look perfect and "it didn't feel like it would fit who I was inside."

For a time her family lived on a commune in rural Bentonville, Virginia. She has said they became poorer the longer they lived there and she believes that experience enlarged her empathy. Her father was an alcoholic; her mother was violently abusive. When Arquette was seven, the family relocated to Chicago. They later settled in Los Angeles, California. Arquette attended Catholic school, and has said that when she was a teenager, she had wanted to be a nun. At the age of fourteen, Arquette ran away from home after learning her father was having an affair—she settled with her sister, Rosanna Arquette, in Los Angeles. She has described her father as a working actor for industrial films, commercials and voiceovers – he was best known for his role as J.D. Pickett in the TV series The Waltons. Before pursuing a career in acting, Arquette had wanted to be a midwife. She put this career prospect aside briefly in an attempt to gain acting jobs and gained success in the industry.

1987–1996: Early career and breakthrough
In 1987, Arquette's first starring roles included pregnant teenager Stacy in the television film Daddy, boarding school student Zero in Pretty Smart, and Kristen Parker in A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors, alongside Robert Englund as Freddy Krueger and Heather Langenkamp as Nancy Thompson. She reprised her role as Kristen in the music video to Dokken's Dream Warriors (1987). She was asked to reprise her role in the sequel, A Nightmare on Elm Street 4: The Dream Master (1988), but she declined the offer in order to do other projects. She gave up the role of Tralala in Last Exit to Brooklyn due to her pregnancy with her son Enzo.

In 1988, Arquette played the daughter of Tess Harper in Far North. Her roles in the early 1990s were in low budget and independent films, including Prayer of the Rollerboys (1990) as love interest of Corey Haim's character, The Indian Runner (1991), which was the directorial debut of Sean Penn; and the drama Inside Monkey Zetterland. In 1992, she won a CableACE Award for Best Lead Actress in a Mini-Series for her portrayal of a deaf girl with epilepsy in Wildflower, directed by Diane Keaton and also starring Reese Witherspoon.

In her early career, Arquette received the most recognition for her role as Alabama Whitman, a free-spirited, kind-hearted prostitute in Tony Scott's True Romance (1993). The film was a moderate box office success but became a cultural landmark because of Quentin Tarantino's screenplay, which preceded Pulp Fiction, although some critics were deterred by the graphic violence. In one scene, Arquette puts up a fierce physical struggle in a fight with James Gandolfini (as a viciously sadistic killer) which her character ultimately wins. Arquette's performance received unanimous praise from critics. Janet Maslin of The New York Times remarked that Arquette played her role with "surprising sweetness", while Peter Travers remarked that "Arquette delivers sensationally". TV Guide noted that the film blends and recycles elements from the story of Bonnie and Clyde and Terrence Malick's "love on the run" film Badlands (1973). It gave True Romance overall a favourable review for having "enough energy and verve to create something entirely fresh and infectiously entertaining". Richard Corliss of Time Magazine made similar statements and also likened the film to the earlier, seminal Bonnie and Clyde.

Arquette next appeared in the television film Betrayed by Love (1994), and the well-received biopic Ed Wood, directed by Tim Burton and starring Johnny Depp, where she portrayed his girlfriend. Her next role was as Laura Bowman in John Boorman's Beyond Rangoon (1995), which drew mixed critical reviews, but was a success internationally. In France, it was the official selection at the 1995 Cannes Film Festival, where it became one of the most popular hits of the event. Although the film had lackluster reviews, Arquette's performance as an American tourist in Burma during the 8888 Uprising was regarded as one of the work's strong points. Michael Sragow, writing for The New Yorker, stated "Arquette gives the kind of mighty physical performance usually delivered by men in existential action classics like "The Wages of Fear," but she suffuses it with something all her own - she's bulletproof yet vulnerable." Hal Hinson of The Washington Post remarked that the film was "odd, brilliant in places, but frustrating all the same," commenting that "Arquette shows real grit when the chips are down".

Arquette appeared in three films in 1996, the first the comedy film Flirting with Disaster (1996), about a young man's cross-country pursuit to find his parents. Critical reception was largely positive, with Todd McCarthy of Variety praising the film and the authenticity of Arquette's performance, highlighting that "Arquette [is] very believably distracted and infuriated". Flirting with Disaster grossed $14 million at the American box office and was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival. Her second film released that year was the period drama The Secret Agent, an adaptation of Joseph Conrad's 1907 novel of the same name. The film received average reviews. Infinity was her third film that year, a biographical drama about the early life of American physicist Richard Feynman. The film received mixed to positive reviews. Although Emmanuel Levy of Variety said that Arquette was "miscast", he stated that she "registers more credibly in the first part of the film, when she plays an adolescent".

1997–2003: Independent film work and critical success
In 1997, Arquette starred in David Lynch's neo-noir psychological thriller Lost Highway, in dual roles as Renee Madison and Alice Wakefield. The film had an ambiguous narrative, which polarized audiences and drew varying critical opinion, but it established a strong cult following. Arquette played an elusive femme fatale in a critically revered performance that enabled her to draw on her sexuality more than any other previous role. Roger Ebert, of the Chicago Sun-Times, disliked the film, saying there was "no sense to be made of it" and voiced his distaste over a scene in which Arquette's character is asked to disrobe at gunpoint. Other critics were more favourable: Andy Klein of the Dallas Observer called it a "two-hour plus fever dream", Michael Sragow of The New Yorker called the film a "compelling erotic nightmare", and Edward Guthman of the San Francisco Gate wrote a glowing review praising Arquette's performance, calling it the "strongest, most memorable performance [of the film]" and favourably comparing her double role to Kim Novak's in Vertigo (1958). That same year, Arquette appeared in Nightwatch, a horror-thriller film directed by Ole Bornedal. The film is a remake the Danish film Nattevagten (1994), which was also directed by Bornedal. Nightwatch was not a box office success and received poor reviews by critics, many of whom considered it an unnecessary, inferior retelling of the original film.

In 1998, Arquette performed in two films: Goodbye Lover, a comedic neo-noir directed by Roland Joffé and The Hi-Lo Country, a period Western directed by Stephen Frears. The former received a poor critical reception while the latter received a more appreciative albeit modest response. The Hi-Lo Country was widely cited as a "classic Western" in the press. Stephen Holden of The New York Times said, "In its best moments the movie feels like an epic hybrid of Red River and The Last Picture Show." In 1999, Arquette returned to familiar territory with the genre that began her career, in Stigmata, a horror film, in the lead role. Produced on a budget of $29 million, the film was a box office success, grossing $50,046,268. Internationally the film earned $39,400,000 for a total worldwide gross $89,446,268. Critics were not as receptive of the film as audiences, with Roger Ebert remarking "possibly the funniest movie ever made about Catholicism – from a theological point of view". Arquette then appeared in Martin Scorsese's Bringing out the Dead, based on the novel by Joe Connelly. The film united her with then-husband Nicolas Cage and received highly favourable critical reviews, but was a box office flop. Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that "Arquette's quietly credible performance helps center Frank's experiences; one of the film's most honest scenes is one in which they share an ambulance ride without sharing a word".

Her next role was in the light-hearted comedy Little Nicky (2000), alongside Adam Sandler. Despite being a box office hit, the film received negative reviews, although Roger Ebert called it Sandler's best film to date. Following this, she starred in French-American comedy drama Human Nature (2001), written by Charlie Kaufman and directed by Michel Gondry. The film was met with mixed reviews and was screened out of competition at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival. Roger Ebert, in a three-star (out of a possible four) review, lauded the film's "screwball charm". The following year, she appeared in the small-scale mystery film The Badge, playing the widowed victim of a murdered transsexual woman. In 2003, she portrayed the controversial pornographic film star Linda Lovelace in the little known Deeper than Deep, which was followed with the more family orientated Disney produced Holes, as Kissin' Kate Barlow. Based on the 1998 novel of the same title by Louis Sachar, Holes grossed $16,300,155 in its opening weekend, making #2 at the box office, behind Anger Management's second weekend. Holes would go on to gross a domestic total of $67,406,173 and an additional $4 million in international revenue, totaling $71,406,573 at the box office against a $20 million budget, making the film a moderate financial success. Arquette's next film, Tiptoes, was released straight-to-DVD in the United States, despite a screening at the Sundance Film Festival.

2004–2014: Further acclaim with Medium and Boyhood
After the humdrum reception of Tiptoes, Arquette did not appear in another film until 2006's Fast Food Nation, directed by Richard Linklater. During these three years, she was largely working on Boyhood; it was released eight years later in July 2014. Fast Food Nation marked her second collaboration with Linklater; it is based on the bestselling 2001 non-fiction book of the same name by Eric Schlosser. Fast Food Nation received mixed to positive critical reviews. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film three out of four stars and added, "It's less an exposé of junk-food culture than a human drama, sprinkled with sly, provoking wit, about how that culture defines how we live ... The film is brimming with grand ambitions but trips on many of them as some characters aren't given enough screen time to register and others vanish just when you want to learn more about them." A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote "It's a mirror and a portrait, and a movie as necessary and nourishing as your next meal."

In January 2005, Arquette made her first transition to television with NBC's Medium. Her role as (a fictional version of) psychic medium Allison DuBois won her an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in 2005, as well as nominations for a Golden Globe in 2005, 2006 and 2007, a SAG Award in 2006, 2007 and 2010, and an Emmy Award in 2007. In 2009 NBC cancelled Medium, then CBS picked the series up and it lasted another two seasons. In 2008, she provided voice work for A Single Woman, which was panned. She did not appear in another film until 2012. Girl in Progress, a drama directed by Patricia Riggen, marked her return; it was met with negative reviews. In 2013, she returned to television, appearing on Boardwalk Empire as Sally Wheet. Also in 2013, Arquette filmed the true crime drama Electric Slide.

In 2014, Boyhood was released, a project that Arquette and other actors had shot for 12 years beginning in 2002. The film was directed by Richard Linklater, marking his second collaboration with Arquette. In the film, she plays Olivia Evans, a single mother who raises her two children mostly alone with the sometimes assistance of their father (played by Ethan Hawke). The epic explores a 12-year scope. The film details the progression of her character's son, Mason, from ages 8 to 18. The film has received universal praise, with many critics calling it a "landmark film". Arquette received widespread acclaim for her performance. Critic Katie McDonahugh, writing for Salon, states "the role gave [Arquette] space to be all of these messy things at once, and her performance was a raw, gutsy meditation on those profoundly human contradictions". Margaret Pomeranz, writing for ABC Australia, called Arquette's performance "stunning" and praised the film, further remarking that "the elision from one time to another is subtle and seamless. It's just a fabulous movie experience". Arquette won the Academy Award, BAFTA, Critics' Choice, Golden Globe, Independent Spirit, and SAG Award for Best Supporting Actress.

2015–present: Continued success and recent roles
In early 2015, Arquette began starring in the CBS series CSI: Cyber, a show about FBI agents who combat Internet-based crimes. On May 12, 2016, CBS canceled the series after two seasons, thus ending the CSI franchise.

Arquette portrayed Tilly Mitchell in the Ben Stiller-directed Showtime miniseries Escape at Dannemora, which premiered on November 18, 2018. For the role, she gained weight, wore prosthetic teeth, and brown contact lenses. For her performance, she received critical acclaim and won the SAG Award, Critics' Choice Television Award, and Golden Globe Award. She also received a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie.

In 2018, it was announced that Arquette would be starring in the Hulu series The Act. The series premiered in March 2019 to critical acclaim. For her performance, Arquette received the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie. In 2022, Arquette began co-starring in the Apple TV+ thriller series Severance, also directed by Stiller. The series has received critical acclaim.

Personal life
At age 20, Arquette had a relationship with Paul Rossi, a musician. They had a son together, Enzo Rossi, born on January 3, 1989. In April 1995, Arquette married Nicolas Cage (with whom she later co-starred in Bringing Out the Dead in 1999). They separated after nine months, but acted as a couple in public until Cage filed for divorce in February 2000. She briefly dated Mark Rogowski.

Arquette and actor Thomas Jane became engaged in 2002. Their daughter Harlow Olivia Calliope Jane was born on February 20, 2003. Arquette and Jane married on June 25, 2006, at the Palazzo Contarini in Venice, Italy. In January 2009, Arquette filed for divorce from Jane on the grounds of irreconcilable differences, but the couple soon reconciled. Arquette withdrew the divorce petition on July 9, 2009. On August 13, 2010, Jane's representative announced that Arquette and Jane had decided to proceed with a divorce due to "irreconcilable differences". The divorce was finalized on July 1, 2011, and the two agreed to joint custody of their child.

Charity work
After the Haiti earthquake in 2010, Arquette and childhood friend Rosetta Millington-Getty formed GiveLove, a non-profit organization supporting ecological sanitation and composting, community development projects and housing construction in Haiti. She has also worked with Eracism Foundation, Libby Ross Foundation, The Art of Elysium, and The Heart Truth.

In 1997, after her mother died of breast cancer, Arquette worked to raise awareness about the disease. She has run in the annual Race for the Cure. In 1999 she was the spokesperson for Lee National Denim Day, which raises millions of dollars for breast cancer research and education.

In April 2010, she teamed up with welding students of the Robert Morgan Educational Center in Miami, Florida, to build shelters in Haiti from 20 used shipping containers, to provide housing to people displaced by the earthquake.

Politics
Arquette participated in the 2017 Women's March against President Donald Trump.

title: Patricia Arquette


text:
Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program

An Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program provides funding and/or credit to undergraduate students who volunteer for faculty-mentored research projects pertaining to all academic disciplines.

Participating universities
Universities involved include the University of Hawaii, The University of Queensland, Boston University, the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech), the University of California, Irvine, California State University, Long Beach, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), the University of Michigan, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST), the University of Minnesota, the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, the RWTH Aachen University, Imperial College London, the University of New Hampshire, and the Nanyang Technological University.

Founding and purpose
The MIT program was founded in 1969, and the program at the University of Michigan was founded in the 1989 (primarily to help minorities and women break into science and mathematics). The University of California, Irvine founded its program in 1995. In the United Kingdom, Imperial College London provides a program for doing research in most of its departments for undergraduates at Imperial. Furthermore, the UROP scheme is also available at the University of Cambridge, the University of Reading, the University of Essex and the National University of Singapore. In 2008 the RWTH Aachen University started the first international UROP program for students from the United States and Canada in Germany. The University of Sussex runs a similar scheme, across all of its departments, where undergraduates are funded for 6 weeks as Junior Research Associates. The California State University, Long Beach program does not serve transfer students.

Calls
Students can apply for funding by submitting a proposal during "Calls for Proposals", which occur throughout the school year.

The Calls are announced on the school web sites and distributed to faculty members and the undergraduate counseling offices. Students have approximately one month from the announcement to submit their proposals. All undergraduate students from all disciplines and majors who are participating in a research project with a faculty advisor (usually a full-time professor at the university) eligible to respond to the current Call for Proposals if they are in good academic standing with the school.

Proposals
Proposals are prepared by the student applicant and jointly submitted by the student and the faculty advisors. UROP funds a variety of projects with grants depending upon the merits of the project. At UC Irvine, an individual student may receive up to $1,000 through UROP for projects during the school year, to help pay for supplies and other necessary materials. Alternatively, UC Irvine students may also apply for a prestigious summer fellowship, by which they may be awarded as much as $3,000 per project, which is meant to reward them for their time and efforts. Higher amounts may be awarded for group projects. The UROP Faculty Advisory Board reviews proposals and decides whether the project merits funding. The UROP Faculty Advisory Board also makes the funding recommendations.

Completion and submission
Upon completion of the year-long research project, students are expected to present their findings at the school's research symposium. Although not a requirement, some students may submit their written reports (ranging from 15-25 pages) to the faculty committee in order to be considered for publication in the university's research journals. Publication in the UROP undergraduate research journal is known to be extremely competitive. In many cases, students are asked to submit numerous drafts to the faculty committee for review, only to find out that their papers are later denied publication. In the past, a mere 5% of all submissions were accepted for publication in the UC Irvine and MIT journals.


text:
Talk:Tone color

Merge proposal
Would it be a good idea to merge this with timbre, perhaps? --Camembert
 * Second call for a merge. I don't really see too much of a difference between the two. Dysprosia 07:21, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tone color


text:
Document-based question

In American Advanced Placement exams, a document-based question (DBQ), also known as data-based question, is an essay or series of short-answer questions that is constructed by students using one's own knowledge combined with support from several provided sources. Usually, it is employed on timed history tests.

In the United States
The document based question was first used for the 1973 AP United States History Exam published by the College Board, created as a joint effort between Development Committee members Reverend Giles Hayes and Stephen Klein. Both were unhappy with student performance on free-response essays, and often found that students were "groping for half-remembered information" and "parroted factual information with little historical analysis or argument" when they wrote their essays. The goal of the Document Based Question was for students to be "less concerned with the recall of previously learned information" and more engaged in deeper historical inquiry. Hayes, in particular, hoped students would "become junior historians and play the role of historians for that hour" as they engaged in the DBQ.

A typical DBQ is a packet of several original sources (anywhere from three to sixteen), labeled by letters (beginning with "Document A" or "Source A") or numbers. Usually all but one or two source(s) are textual, with the other source(s) being graphic (usually a political cartoon, map, or poster if primary and a chart or graph if secondary). In most cases, the sources are selected to provide different perspectives or views on the events or movements being analyzed.

On the Advanced Placement (AP) exams, only primary sources are provided; on the International Baccalaureate (IB) exams, both primary and secondary sources are provided. AP exams also require students to construct and defend a thesis based on one prompt, while IB exams focus on a series of questions, with at least one asking students to assess the "value and limitations" of a source, usually "with reference to the documents' origin or purpose."

The documents contained in the document-based questions are rarely familiar texts (for example, the Emancipation Proclamation and Declaration of Independence are not likely to be on a U.S. history test), though the documents' authors may be major historical figures. The documents vary in length and format.

On some tests students are not permitted to begin responding to the question or questions in the essay packet until after a mandatory reading time ("planning period"), usually around 10 to 15 minutes. During this time, students read the passage and, if desired, make notes or markings. After this period, students are permitted to respond, usually for around 45 minutes to an hour.

title: Document-based question