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Yahya Jammeh

Yahya Abdul-Aziz Jemus Junkung Jammeh (born 25 May 1965) is a Gambian politician and former military officer, who served as President of the Gambia from 1996 to 2017, as well as Chairman of the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council from 1994 to 1996.

Jammeh was born in Kanilai, in the Gambia, and is a Muslim of the Jola ethnic group. He attended Gambia High School in Banjul from 1978 to 1983 and served in the Gambian National Gendarmerie from 1984 to 1989. He was then commissioned as an officer of the Gambian National Army, commanding the Military Police from 1992 to 1994. In July 1994, he came to power by leading a bloodless coup d'etat that overthrew the elected government of Sir Dawda Jawara. At first ruling by decree, he was elected president in the 1996 election. Jammeh was re-elected as president in 2001, 2006 and 2011, but lost to Adama Barrow in 2016.

His presidency oversaw a shift towards authoritarianism, demonstrated in particular by his policies towards anti-government journalists, LGBT+ people and opposition parties. His foreign policy led to constant difficulties with the country's sole neighbour, Senegal. In 2013, Jammeh withdrew the Gambia from the Commonwealth of Nations and in 2016 he began the process of withdrawing the country from the International Criminal Court, one year after he declared the nation an Islamic republic. All three decisions were later rescinded by successor government, despite Jammeh's supporters arguing that his foreign policy encouraged self-sufficiency and anti-colonialism.

Jammeh has been accused of serious human rights violations, such as murder, rape and torture, as highlighted in the final report of the Truth, Reconciliation and Reparations Commission, he is now living in exile in Equatorial Guinea. His assets around the world have been frozen by many countries amidst additional accusations of stealing millions of dollars from his country to fund a life of luxury. Jammeh has denied the allegations against him.

Early life and military service
Jammeh was born on 25 May 1965 in Kanilai, a village in the Foni Kansala district of the Western Division of the Gambia. He is the son of Aja Fatou Ashombi Bojang, a housewife and trader, and Abdul Aziz James Junkung Jammeh, a career wrestler. Jammeh's grandparents migrated to the Gambia from the Casamance region of Senegal. He had a rural upbringing as part of a Muslim Jola family, primarily focused in Kanilai. One of his closest childhood friends was reportedly Mustapha James Kujabi. He attended Kanilai primary school, Saint Edwards primary school in Bwiam, from 1972 to 1978. After passing the common entrance (CE) exam, he was awarded a government scholarship to Gambia High School in Banjul, in 1978. His formal education ended after he was successful in his O Levels in 1983.

In April 1984, Jammeh joined what was then the Gambian National Gendarmerie as a private. He was part of the Special Intervention Unit from 1984 to 1986 and was an escort training instructor at the Gendarmerie Training School from 1986 to 1989. He was promoted to sergeant in April 1986, and to cadet officer in December 1987. A former Gendarmerie officer, Binneh S. Minteh, later claimed that Jammeh "had always singled out Mandinkas as bad people" during his time as a Gendarme. In particular, Minteh recalled Jammeh's "ruthless and disrespectful encounter" with sergeant major Kebba Dibba, and when he "brandished a pistol and threatened to shoot" a captain named Ebrima Camara simply on the basis of his ethnicity.

He joined the Gambian National Army and was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 29 September 1989, serving as the officer in charge (OIC) of the Presidential Escort, part of the Presidential Guards, from 1989 to 1990. In 1991, he served as the officer commanding (OC) the Mobile Gendarmerie, and from 1992 to 1994 was the OC of the Gambia National Army Military Police. On 1 February 1992, he had been promoted to lieutenant. Jammeh was the head of security detail attached to Pope John Paul II during his visit to the Gambia in February 1992. He attended the Military Police Officers Basic Course (MPOBC) at Fort McClellan in the United States from September 1993 to January 1994.

1994 coup d'etat
Jammeh was one of the four junior Army officers who organised the 1994 coup d'etat against Sir Dawda Jawara's government. The other three were Sana Sabally, Sadibou Hydara and Edward Singateh. The coup, which took place on 22 July 1994, was successful and bloodless, leading to Jawara fleeing into exile. Four days later, on 26 July, the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council (AFPRC) was formed with Jammeh as its chairman. Jammeh promised that it would be a "coup with a difference", and that the country would be returned to civilian rule "as soon as we have set things right". One result of the coup was that the European Union and the United States, the major donors of foreign aid to the Gambia, suspended their aid programmes until the country was returned to civil rule. Jammeh claimed the suspension of aid programmes amounted to "neocolonialism". A Western diplomat who spoke to The New York Times said, "This is exactly the same phenomenon we have seen elsewhere, with the only difference being that so far there has been no violence." In particular, the coup was compared with Samuel Doe's in the Liberia, which led to the First Liberian Civil War.

The 1994 coup d'etat in the Gambia, overthrowing the government of Sir Dawda Jawara, represented a reversal in the general trend in sub-Saharan Africa after 1989 away from authoritarianism and towards multiparty politics. The Gambia had previously represented an anomaly in Africa as one of the few countries that had a functioning democracy prior to 1989.

Rule through the AFPRC
In the aftermath of the coup, Jammeh governed by decree alongside four other junior officers and several civilians. He banned all political activity, arrested two socialist journalists, and detained several of his Army superiors. He also confined ministers of Jawara's government under house arrest. On 17 October, Jammeh announced that there would be a four-year transition to civilian government. In November 1994, the same month when Jammeh was formally promoted to the rank of captain, there was an unsuccessful coup attempt by several disaffected young officers leading to numerous deaths, but Jammeh remained in power. The National Consultative Committee (NCC) was appointed on 7 December to review the transition process, and when they reported on 27 January 1995, they recommended a two-year transition period. The same day as the NCC's report, two of the original coup leaders, Sabally and Hydara, launched an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow Jammeh as chairman. Subsequently, Edward Singateh was appointed as vice-chairman of the AFPRC, and Hydara died in prison on 3 June.

The Constitutional Review Commission (CRC) was appointed in April 1995 and reported to the government in November 1995. Its report was published in March 1996 was put to a national referendum on 8 August 1996. The new constitution, which provided for multiparty elections, an unlimited number of five-year presidential terms, and a lowering of the voting age from 21 to 18, was approved by a majority of 70%. According to Gambian American author Abdoulaye Saine, Jammeh would "[enjoy] unrivalled political and economic power as a consequence of the new constitution. In contrast, opposition political parties [would be] sidelined and allowed little political space in a one-sided electoral contest in which Jammeh was the assured ‘winner’." Decree no. 89, issued on 14 August, reiterated the ban on the PPP, the NCP and the GPP, but lifted the ban on the PDOIS and the PDP. In 1996, on 28 August, Jammeh was formally promoted to the rank of colonel and then retired from the army on 6 September, one month before the 1996 presidential election.

1996 and 1997 elections
Jammeh won the 1996 presidential election as the APRC candidate, winning 56% of the vote and beating Ousainou Darboe, Hamat Bah and Sidia Jatta. Darboe was forced to seek refuge in the Senegalese embassy in Banjul, fearing an assassination plot. In the 1997 parliamentary election, the first to the new National Assembly put in place by the 1996 constitution, the APRC won a majority of seats. However, these two elections, the first following the transition from military to civil rule, were "marred by provisions of the new, doctored constitution, an electoral commission appointed by Jammeh alone in 1995 and a political network that included the Green Boys – a now-disbanded vigilante group that was mobilised to intimidate the electorate to ensure Jammeh’s ‘victory’." Saine argues that this combination of intimidation and harassment of the opposition, an inherent bias provided by the 1996 constitution, as well as a distinct financial advantage, meant that "the presidential and national assembly elections were lost long before the first ballot was cast."

Elections
Jammeh founded the Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction as his political party. He was elected as president in September 1996. Foreign observers did not deem these elections free and fair. He was re-elected on 18 October 2001 with about 53% of the vote; this election was generally deemed free and fair by observers, despite some very serious shortcomings ranging from overt government intimidation of voters to technical innovations (such as raising the required deposit to stand for election by a factor of 25) to distort the process in favour of the incumbent regime. A coup attempt against Jammeh was reported to have been thwarted on 21 March 2006; Jammeh, who was in Mauritania at the time, quickly returned home. Army chief of staff Col. Ndure Cham, the alleged leader of the plot, reportedly fled to neighbouring Senegal, while other alleged conspirators were arrested and were put on trial for treason. In April 2007, ten former officers accused of involvement were convicted and given prison sentences; four of them were sentenced to life in prison.

Jammeh ran for a third term in the presidential election held on 22 September 2006; the election was initially planned for October but was moved forward because of the Muslim holy month of Ramadan. He was re-elected with 67.3% of the vote and was declared the winner of the election; the opposition candidate Ousainou Darboe finished second, as in 2001.

In November 2011, Jammeh was again re-elected as president for a fourth term in office, reportedly having received 72% of the popular vote.

Suppression of the press
One of Jammeh's consistent targets throughout his time as President was the press and the media, as a whole as well as individual journalists. In 1998, the independent Citizen FM radio station was forced to close after a number of its staff were arrested and its equipment was confiscated. After its American proprietor sold it to a businessman with close ties to Jammeh in 1999, The Daily Observer became notably pro-Jammeh. In August 2000, the anti-government Radio 1 FM suffered an arson attack. Abdoulaye Saine states that Jammeh was able to use Gambia Radio & Television Service as his personal propaganda outlet whenever he required.

Jammeh had made a number of public statements against the press. In July 2000, he said that "anybody bent on disturbing the peace and stability of the nation [should] be buried six feet deep." In April 2004, Jammeh told journalists to obey his government "or go to hell". In June 2005, he said that he had allowed "too much freedom of expression" in the Gambia.

In response to his suppression of the press and media in the Gambia, various online newspapers and radio stations were established by self-exiled Gambian journalists to publicise alleged government atrocities. These include Freedom Newspaper, The Gambia Echo and Gainako.

Jammeh also saw through legislation to restrict the activities of the press. The Newspaper Act 1994 imposed criminal penalties on private publications that failed to pay a yearly registration fee. The National Media Communication Act 2000 forced journalists to reveal confidential sources to police and the judiciary on demand. In December 2004, the Criminal Code (Amendment) Bill 2004 allowed prison terms for defamation and sedition. The same month, the Newspaper (Amendment) Bill 2004 required newspaper proprietors to purchase expensive operating licenses and forcing them to register their homes as security.

A number of individual journalists were also targeted. In December 2004, Deyda Hydara, then editor of The Point, announced his intention to publicly challenge newly-introduced legislation restricting press freedoms. He was shot and killed when driving home in Banjul on 16 December, leading to thousands protesting on the streets. Some pointed at the government, led by Jammeh, as the murderers, but it has remained unsolved. Furthermore, in July 2006, Ebrima Manneh of The Daily Observer was arrested by state security after attempting to publish a BBC report critical of Jammeh. His arrest was witnessed by his coworkers, and, despite being ordered to release Manneh by an ECOWAS court, the government denied that Manneh was still imprisoned. An unnamed police source said that he believed Manneh "is no longer alive". Both Amnesty International and the Committee to Protect Journalists have called for his release.

Women's rights
In 1999, Jammeh called those who campaigned against female genital mutilation (FGM) "enemies of Islam". In December 2015, Jammeh banned FGM in the Gambia, labelling the practice as having "no place in Islam or in modern society"; anyone that ignored the ban would face a prison sentence of up to three years. After the end of Ramadan and Eid ul-Fitr in July 2016, Jammeh further announced a ban on child marriages. In 2016, some 30% of women were married while under the age of 18. Yahya Jammeh's response was that anyone caught marrying a girl under 18 years of age would be jailed for up to twenty years.

Judiciary
As President, Jammeh had significant influence over the judiciary in the Gambia, particularly because Section 98 of the 1996 constitution permits the President to appoint judges directly. Saine argues that Jammeh's employment of judges mainly from other Commonwealth countries allowed him to effectively issue tough sentences to reduce dissent and to imprison both real and perceived threats to the president's power.

LGBT rights
On 15 May 2008, Jammeh announced that his government would introduce legislation that would set laws against homosexuals that would be "stricter than those in Iran", and that he would "cut off the head" of any gay or lesbian person discovered in the country. News reports indicated his government intended to execute all homosexuals in the country. In a speech given in Tallinding, Jammeh gave a "final ultimatum" to any gays or lesbians in the Gambia, warning them to leave the country. In a speech to the United Nations on 27 September 2013, Jammeh said "[h]omosexuality in all its forms and manifestations which, though very evil, antihuman as well as anti-Allah, is being promoted as a human right by some powers," who "want to put an end to human existence." On 18 February 2014, Jammeh called homosexuals "vermins" by saying that: "We will fight these vermins [sic] called "homosexuals" or "gays" the same way we are fighting malaria-causing mosquitoes, if not more aggressively". He also went on to disparage the LGBT by saying that "As far as I am concerned, LGBT can only stand for Leprosy, Gonorrhoea, Bacteria and Tuberculosis, all of which are detrimental to human existence".

In May 2015, in defiance of Western criticism, Jammeh intensified his anti-gay rhetoric, telling a crowd during an agricultural tour: "If you do it [in the Gambia] I will slit your throat – if you are a man and want to marry another man in this country and we catch you, no one will ever set eyes on you again, and no white person can do anything about it."

This prompted a fresh round of condemnation from international human rights leaders. US National Security Advisor Susan Rice released a statement of condemnation on 16 May 2015: "We condemn his comments, and note these threats come amid an alarming deterioration of the broader human rights situation in the Gambia", said Rice. "We are deeply concerned about credible reports of torture, suspicious disappearances – including of two American citizens – and arbitrary detention at the government's hands".

HIV/AIDS policy
In January 2007, Jammeh claimed he could cure HIV/AIDS and asthma with natural herbs. His claimed treatment program includes instructing patients to cease taking their anti-retroviral drugs. His claims have been criticised for promoting unscientific treatment that could have dangerous results, including the infection of others by those who thought they had been cured by the method. In December 2011, he restated during an interview that the alleged cure for HIV/AIDS was "going very well".

Fadzai Gwaradzimba, the country representative of the United Nations Development Programme in the Gambia, was told to leave the country after she expressed doubts about the claims and said the remedy might encourage risky behaviour. In August 2007, Jammeh claimed to have developed a single dose herbal infusion that could treat high blood pressure. Jammeh has also claimed to develop a treatment for infertility in women as part of what is called the President's Alternative Treatment Program (PATP).

Senegal
August and October 2005 saw a border feud with Senegal over increased ferry prices for crossings over the Gambia River. Jammeh has a close relationship with Jolas in the Casamance region of Senegal, who allowed him to "rule with impunity". In turn, Jammeh supported the rebels in the Casamance conflict, by engaging in the trade of illegal drugs, small arms, and also money-laundering with the rebel groups.

Mediation and peacekeeping role
Shortly after the outbreak of the Guinea-Bissau Civil War in June 1998, Jammeh sought a peaceful resolution to the conflict. He personally canvassed regional opinion on the war in Cape Verde, Mauritania, Guinea and Senegal. He also sent Momodou Lamin Sedat Jobe, his foreign minister, to meet with rebel leader Ansumane Mané to attempt to arrange peace talks in Banjul, though these efforts were fruitless.

According to The Daily Observer, on 10 December 2012, Jammeh secured the release of Senegalese soldiers who had been held as hostages by rebels. He sent a delegation to meet with Senegalese president Macky Sall in early December 2012. The delegation's goal was to discuss a resolution to the ongoing civil unrest in Senegal's southern region of Casamance. Members of the delegation included the Minister of Presidential Affairs, the US ambassador to the Gambia, and members from the Red Cross and Red Crescent.

The Jammeh Foundation for Peace (JFP) was created by Jammeh to help eradicate poverty among Gambians, improve agricultural production, and sponsor educational opportunities for needy students. The foundation has a hospital that is sponsored by the president and provides medical services to the general public.

Donations in 2012 included $2,563,138 to the National Youths Conference and Festival, and "two truckloads of turkey" to the Gambia Christian Council for delivery to the Christian community. Jammeh also bankrolled university education for the less privileged both in the Gambia and abroad.

Taiwan
Taiwan was once the "financial lifeline" for Jammeh's regime, providing financial support as part of its campaign for international recognition at the United Nations. Taiwanese president Ma Ying-jeou visited the Gambia during Jammeh's presidency. However, Jammeh later cut ties with Taiwan.

2000 shooting of students
On 10 and 11 April 2000, the government was accused of the killing of 14 students and a journalist during a student demonstration to protest the death of a student in the Gambia. Jammeh was accused of ordering the shooting of the students, but the government denied the allegations. A government commission of inquiry reportedly concluded that the Police Intervention Unit (PIU) officers were "largely responsible" for many of the deaths and other injuries. The commission also said that five soldiers of the 2nd Infantry Battalion were responsible for the deaths of two students at Brikama. The government stated that the report implicated several PIU officers in the students' deaths and injuries, but those responsible were not prosecuted.

2005 killing of West African migrants
Testimony to the Gambia's Truth, Reconciliation and Reparations Commission (TRRC) between 2019 and 2021 implicated Gambian military officials and the Junglers, a paramilitary unit commanded by Jammeh, in the 2005 killings of 50–60 West African migrants, mostly Ghanians, destined for Europe. This corroborates 2018 findings by Human Rights Watch and TRIAL International on the same incident, but contradicts an unpublished UN/ECOWAS report that attributed the killings to rogue security personnel.

According to defence and National Intelligence Agency officials who testified to TRRC, these migrants were detained in the town of Barra on 22 July 2005, and then tortured in various detention centers around Banjul. The bodies of eight of the migrants were found near Ghana Town the following day, while two people escaped but disappeared on 24 July. The 40–45 survivors were summarily executed in Senegal, across the southern border from Jammeh's hometown of Kanilai, except for one survivor. Ex-Junglers who testified attributed the execution orders to Jammeh himself. The Jammeh administration proceeded to cover up the incident from Ghana and ECOWAS.

2009 witch hunting campaign
In March 2009 Amnesty International reported that up to 1,000 Gambians had been abducted by government-sponsored "witch doctors" on charges of witchcraft, and taken to government detention centres where they were forced to drink dirty water with poisonous herbs; this left several captives with sequelae. On 21 May 2009, The New York Times reported that the alleged witch-hunting campaign had been sparked by the President Yahya Jammeh, who believed that the death of his aunt earlier that year could be attributed to witchcraft. These crimes were influenced by Bissauguinean president João Bernardo Vieira's assassination on 2 March 2009.

Disappearances and imprisonments
Newspaper reports list dozens of individuals who have disappeared after being picked up by men in plain-clothes, and others who have languished under indefinite detention for months or years without charge or trial. The regional Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) court ordered the Gambian government to produce one journalist who had disappeared. In April 2016, at least 50 people were arrested during a demonstration, and there were fears that Solo Sandeng, an opposition politician, died alongside two others while being held in detention. In July 2016, a Gambian opposition leader and another 18 people were sentenced to three years in jail for participation in the April demonstration. A Gambian diplomat publicly denied that Sandeng had died in custody.

2014 coup attempt
On 30 December 2014, gunmen attacked the State House of the Gambia, the official presidential residence. Local media quickly identified them as having entered the country from neighbouring Senegal under the command of Lt Col. Lamin Sanneh. Yahya Jammeh ran away and was out of the country, with sources differing on whether he was in France or Dubai.

However, with the gunmen failing to consolidate control, the coup failed. Jammeh returned to Gambia the following day.

2016 election, crisis and ECOWAS intervention
Ahead of the 2016 presidential election a number of opposition members, including United Democratic Party leader Ousainou Darboe, were sentenced to three years in jail for staging pro-democracy protests. In a public address, Jammeh called members of the opposition "opportunistic people supported by the West," adding that "I will bow to only Allah and my mother. I will never tolerate opposition to destabilize this country." The election itself took place on 1 December 2016 and, in a surprise result, Jammeh was defeated by Adama Barrow leading a coalition of opposition parties. At first, Jammeh stated that he would not contest the result.

Although Jammeh initially conceded defeat, on 9 December 2016 he rejected the result citing "unacceptable abnormalities". He subsequently announced that he had annulled the result, pending a new vote. He then filed a petition with the Supreme Court of the Gambia to contest the result. The court began hearing the case on 21 December. ECOWAS warned on 23 December that it would militarily intervene to uphold the results of the election if Jammeh didn't resign by 19 January. Jammeh appointed six new judges to the Supreme Court, having sacked all but one in 2015. The hearing was to be heard on 10 January, but was delayed until May. Jammeh stated that he would only relinquish the presidency if the court upheld the election result.

The African Union additionally stated that it would stop recognising Jammeh as president as of 19 January 2017. He attempted to have Barrow's inauguration blocked, but the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court refused to rule on the matter. On Tuesday 17 January, he declared a 90-day state of emergency, prohibiting "acts of disobedience" and "acts intended to disturb public order". Various ministers resigned, and about 46,000 civilians (about 75% of whom were children) fled the country. Senegal, which was selected by ECOWAS to lead the operation to remove Jammeh from his post, moved its troops closer to the border with the Gambia on 18 January. Jammeh was warned to step down by midnight. Jammeh refused to step down and the deadline passed. On 18 January, parliament voted to extend Jammeh's term by three months, while in parallel, Adama Barrow was internationally recognised as president. On 19 January, Senegalese troops entered the Gambia. The United Nations Security Council approved a resolution backing Barrow while calling on Jammeh to step down. It backed ECOWAS' efforts to ensure that the results of the 2016 presidential election were respected by using political means first. Senegal halted its offensive, to allow mediation of the crisis one final time, with the invasion to proceed at noon on 20 January if Jammeh were to refuse to relinquish power. Jammeh again refused to step down and missed two deadlines on 20 January while regional leaders tried to persuade him to step down.

During the early hours of 21 January, Jammeh announced on state television that he was stepping down from the post of president, and left the country later on the same day, travelling to Guinea and then Equatorial Guinea.

Sexual abuse and rape allegations
Three women from Gambia accused the former president, Yahya Jammeh, of raping and sexually abusing them while still in office, as per rights advocacy group Human Rights Watch and TRIAL International. According to ex-Gambian officials, women were pressured by presidential aides regularly to visit and work for Jammeh. One of the women is a Gambian pageant winner who has accused the ex-president of raping her. The victim, Fatou "Toufah" Jallow said she met Jammeh when she was 18 years old after winning a beauty pageant in 2014.

As per Jallow, in the months that followed, Jammeh asked her to marry him at a dinner organized by one of his aides. Later, Fatou was invited by the former president via his aide to attend a religious ceremony at the State House. However, on her arrival the victim claims to have been taken to the president's private residence, where she was injected with a needle and "sodomized". In October 2019, Jallow testified before Gambia’s public Truth and Reconciliation Commission about the rape charges.

Exile
As Jammeh left the Gambia on 21 January 2017, Barrow stated that a "truth and reconciliation commission" would be appointed to investigate any possible crimes committed by Jammeh. Barrow cautioned that the commission would not prosecute Jammeh, only investigate the alleged crimes. West African leaders did not guarantee any form of immunity to Jammeh. The United Nations, African Union and ECOWAS declared that any country offering refuge to him or his family would not be punished and he should be free to return to the country in the future. The statement added that it would work with the government of the Gambia to make sure that assets and properties legally belonging to him or his family, cabinet members, government officials or party supporters would not be seized. Jammeh later left the Gambia for Equatorial Guinea, where he allegedly lives in a mansion in the village of Mongomo.

After Jammeh went into exile, Adama Barrow's special adviser Mai Ahmad Fatty alleged that in late January 2017, Jammeh had stolen US$11.4 million from the state's treasury and used a cargo plane to ship out his luxury vehicles during his last week in power. He added that the state's treasury was virtually empty, which was confirmed by technicians in the Ministry of Finance as well as the Central Bank of the Gambia. About a month later, two senior ministers alleged that he had siphoned at least $50 million from social security, ports, and the national telecoms company. They also alleged that his private jet, which cost $4.5 million, was bought using the state's pension fund. The government stated that his actions had left the country with a debt of more than $1 billion. Reuters released a report regarding Jammeh's charity on 24 February 2017 in which it stated that funds from the Jammeh Foundation for Peace went to Jammeh himself, not to the foundation's projects. The Minister of Justice announced on 10 March that the government would launch an investigation into his finances including his personal use of a charity bank account.

A Gambian court froze Jammeh's known remaining assets in the Gambia in May 2017 after it emerged he had siphoned off $50 million (~$ in ) of public money through the state-owned telecommunications company Gamtel to his own bank accounts during his presidency.

Effective 21 December 2017, US President Donald Trump issued an executive order under the Magnitsky Act that specifically named Yahya Jammeh among the persons whose US-based assets are to be blocked.

There also been some controversy in the Gambia over the revelation that Jammeh during his time in office allowed a Franco-Polish arms dealer Pierre Dadak to use jetliners belonging to the Gambian state to fly around Europe and Africa to conduct his business. Jammeh's private secretary Njogu Bah, who was present at the Jammeh-Dadak meetings, has refused interview requests from the Gambian media to explain why Dadak was allowed to use Gambian jets. In June 2018, the Gambian government decided to auction off his fleet of luxury cars and aircraft to raise money for health and education projects. On 27 July 2018, Jammeh's mother died in exile.

He was photographed in May 2019 accompanied by Teodoro Obiang Nguema himself, Jammeh had grown his beard, the matches of the Equatoguinean opposition denounced the presence of this "annoying guest" claiming that "they do not want another dictator in the country".

On 12 January 2020, Jammeh was warned by Gambian officials not to return to the Gambia without permission, as his safety could not be guaranteed.

In August 2021, Adama Barrow sold one of Yahya Jammeh's presidential aircraft to a company in Belarus.

Exiled Jammeh endorsed his former rival Mama Kandeh in the 2021 Gambian presidential election.

In May 2022, the Government of Gambia has accepted the recommendation to prosecute the exiled former president for killings and other crimes committed during his tenure of office. His $3.5m mansion in Potomac, Maryland was seized by the US Justice Department.

Marriages
Jammeh is an ethnic Jola. He briefly dated Tuti Faal, of Mauritanian descent, in 1994 before marrying her. She worked for the Gambia Telecommunication Company (GAMTEL) until the coup in July 1994. They had difficulty conceiving a child, and in 1998 Jammeh sent her to Saudi Arabia for a gynaecological exam, and during her time abroad, divorced her. Jammeh married his second wife Zeinab (Zineb) Suma Jammeh, on 26 March 1999. They have two children as of 2007, a daughter, Mariam Jammeh, and a son, Muhammed Yahya Jammeh. The latter was born in late 2007, when his daughter was eight years old.

On 30 September 2010, Jammeh announced his marriage to a 21-year-old (or possibly 18-year-old) additional wife by the name Alima Sallah, daughter of Omar Gibril Sallah, Gambia's Ambassador to Saudi Arabia, and Zahra Sallah. It was announced that his new wife would officially be referred to as Lady Alima Yahya Jammeh, and would not be referred to as a "first lady", since Zeinab Suma Jammeh was the official "first lady".

According to at least one source, his marriage to Sallah was a shock to his other wife Zeinab Suma Jammeh, and the additional marriage led to strains in their relationship and even plans for their divorce. Zeinab Jammeh had reportedly already been living in the US separately from her husband for some time. Sallah reportedly also left Gambia for the US in June 2010. According to the same publication, he then divorced Sallah in early 2011.

Religion
Jammeh, like the majority of Gambians, practises Islam. In July 2010, Jammeh stressed that people should believe in God: "If you don't believe in God, you can never be grateful to humanity and you are even below a pig." In 2011 he told the BBC, "I will deliver to the Gambian people and if I have to rule this country for one billion years, I will, if Allah says so." On 12 December 2015, Jammeh declared the Muslim-majority country to be an Islamic republic, saying the move marked a break with the Gambia's colonial past. Jammeh told state television that the proclamation was in line with Gambia's "religious identity and values". He added that no dress code would be imposed and citizens of other faiths would be allowed to practise freely.

Titles and styles
The official title used was His Excellency Sheikh Professor Alhaji Dr. Yahya Abdul-Aziz Awal Jemus Junkung Jammeh Naasiru Deen Babili Mansa. He was Commander in Chief of The Armed Forces and Chief Custodian of the Sacred Constitution of the Gambia.

On 16 June 2015, a statement from the State House stated that President Jammeh should be addressed as "His Excellency Sheikh Professor Alhaji Dr. Yahya A.J.J. Jammeh Babili Mansa". The title Babili Mansa, which the President decided to drop in December 2014, is a phrase in the Mandinka language that could be translated as either "Chief Bridge Builder" or "Conqueror of Rivers". Two months before, he had already removed the title Nasirul Deen ("Defender of the Faith"), which had been conferred to him by the Gambia Supreme Islamic Council.

Foreign honours

 * Libya
 * LBA Order of the Great 1st September Revolution ribbon.svg Grand Commander of the Order of the Great 1st September Revolution (1995)
 * Order_of_Courage_(Libya)_-_ribbon_bar.gif Order of Bravery (1998)
 * Republic of China
 * Order of Brilliant Jade (Taiwan) - ribbon bar.gif Grand Cordon of the Order of Brilliant Jade (1996)
 * Senegal
 * SEN Order of the Lion - Grand Cross BAR.svg Grand Cross of the National Order of the Lion (2001)

Other awards and honours
Jammeh has received honorary doctorates from Saint Mary's University of Halifax in 1999 for providing his citizens "freedom to pursue their well-being, and to live in peace and harmony", St. Mary's College of Maryland in 2004, Universidad Empresarial de Costa Rica, Norman Academy, and National Taipei University of Technology. The honorary degree from Saint Mary's University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, was revoked by the University's Board of Governors in April, 2022.

He has also received dubious awards through the International Parliament for Safety and Peace, an unrecognised higher education accreditation organisation. Among these was a Nebraska Admiral certificate; however, Rae Hein, a spokeswoman for the Governor of Nebraska, stated "We regret that this individual has attempted to embellish a certificate for a Nebraska admiralship, claiming that it was a high honour bestowed upon him by the governor, when to the best of our knowledge, this person has no relationship with or ties to Nebraska." IPSP representatives also gave Jammeh two awards and a letter from Barack Obama that were later described as inauthentic or non-existent. Jammeh also received "Russian" and "German" honorary degrees from members of the IPSP.

Depiction on Gambian currency
Yahya Jammeh's portrait is depicted on some of the Gambian dalasi banknotes; 2014 polymer 20 Dalasis banknote commemorating 20 Years of his regime. The N.D. (2015) issue banknotes - 5 Dalasis up to 200 Dalasis.

title: Yahya Jammeh


text:
Alfonso Portillo

Alfonso Antonio Portillo Cabrera (born 24 September 1951) is a Guatemalan politician who served as the 45th president of Guatemala from 2000 to 2004.

He took office on 14 January 2000, representing the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG), the party then led by retired general and deposed military ruler Efraín Ríos Montt (1926–2018). In 2014, ten years after his departure from the presidency, Portillo would plead guilty to corruption charges in a United States court.

Early life and education
Portillo was born in Zacapa. He obtained his academic qualifications in Mexico. He allegedly received a degree in social sciences from the Autonomous University of Guerrero (UAG) in Chilpancingo, Guerrero, and his doctorate from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) in Mexico City. However, the veracity of such claims remains to be determined since no evidence has been provided to support them.

Career
In the late 1970s, he became involved with left-wing indigenous groups in Guerrero and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG). During the 1980s, he lectured in political science at the university in Chilpancingo. During that time, Portillo shot and killed two students. He later claimed that he had shot the students in self-defense. His political opponents, however, asserted that he had killed the two unarmed students in a "bar brawl." He was never charged for the shootings, and in 1995, a Mexican judge declared the case "inactive."

In 1989, Portillo returned to Guatemala and joined the Social Democratic Party, which had replaced the Authentic Revolutionary Party the previous year. The little-known PSD was one of the few leftist parties that survived the military repression that characterized the 1970s and 1980s. He then moved to the Guatemalan Christian Democrats (DCG). This center-right formation was the governing party at that time. In 1992, he was appointed Director of the Guatemalan Institute of Social and Political Sciences (IGESP), a role he held till 1994. He became the DCG's Secretary General in 1993, was elected as one of their deputies in 1994, and became head of their group in Congress. During this time, he also became an editorial adviser to Siglo Veintiuno, one of the two largest-selling daily newspapers.

FRG
In April 1995, Portillo and another seven of the DCG's 13 deputies, left the party to become independents after the parliamentary group was accused of corruption. On 20 July 1995, he joined the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG). Its leader, Efraín Ríos Montt, was at the time leader of Congress. When Ríos Montt was constitutionally barred from running in the 12 November presidential election because he had previously taken power through a coup d'etat, the FRG chose Portillo as their candidate. After gaining 22% of the vote in the first round of voting, he lost to Álvaro Arzú in the second round on 7 January 1996. With both candidates promising to finalize the peace negotiations, Portillo narrowly lost, garnering 48.7% of the vote.

Presidential aspirations
In July 1998, the FRG voted for him to be their presidential candidate the following year, having decided not to nominate Ríos Montt. Portillo launched a campaign in favor of bringing morality into political life, to implacably fight corruption, and to defend the indigenous population and the poor campesinos against the small, urban, white elite. He also promised security in the face of the growing problem of delinquency during Arzú's tenure in the office. In contrast to 1995, the issue of the homicides in Mexico was brought up and became a central electoral issue. Portillo immediately admitted that he had shot the two students but claimed it was an act of self-defense. He said that he had fled from the Mexican authorities rather than face trial, both because of his political affiliations and because he was a foreigner in Mexico. These revelations enhanced Portillo's as a "tough, no-nonsense" politician. On 7 November, he won the first round with 47.8% of the vote, and in the second round on 26 December, he decisively beat Óscar Berger with 68.3% of the vote.

Presidency (2000–2004)
On the day of his investiture, Portillo said that Guatemala was "on the edge of collapse" and promised a thorough government investigation into corruption. On 9 August 2000, he declared that the governments of the previous two decades had been involved in human rights abuses. While he showed determination to see through his regenerative and progressive program, his government soon became overwhelmed by the reality of the political and mafia corruption in the country. During 2001 his government faced a continuous wave of protests that sapped its credibility. The FRG was accused of bringing corruption to the nation on an unprecedented scale. His government has been tainted by accusations of theft, money laundering, money transferring to the army, and the creation of bank accounts in Panama, Mexico, and the United States by many members of his staff, totaling more than US$1 billion.

In the first round of the November 2003 elections (see: 2003 Guatemala election), he backed former dictator Efraín Ríos Montt to succeed him. However, the FRG lost to Óscar Berger Perdomo's GANA party, who was sworn in to replace Portillo on 14 January 2004.

A 2014 audit of 2001 showed illegal transfers from other departments to the military.

Post-presidency
When his political immunity was revoked on 19 February 2004, Portillo immediately fled to Mexico. On 16 August 2004, immigration authorities granted him a year-long work visa. He then lived in Mexico City in an apartment in one of the city's most exclusive neighborhoods. Portillo was accused of authorizing $15 million in transfers to the Guatemalan defense department, where authorities believe most of the money was stolen by his associates. After a long process, Mexico's foreign ministry approved Portillo's extradition back to Guatemala on 30 October 2006. His actual extradition did not occur until 7 October 2008.

According to reports in May 2007, Portillo sued Guatemala in the Central American Court of Justice in Nicaragua to be reinstated as a member of the Central American Parliament (and thus regain his immunity from prosecution).

In January 2010, reports stated that the U.S. government was looking for Portillo in relation to money laundering charges.

On 26 January 2010, Portillo was apprehended by local authorities in Guatemala near Punta de Palma.

Portillo and his associates were absolved of all embezzlement charges on 9 May 2011 by a Guatemalan court that determined that prosecutors, Guatemala's Public Ministry, did not present sufficient evidence to convict the former president. The Public Ministry stated they disagreed with the court's decision and announced plans to appeal the ruling.

On 26 August 2011, the Constitutional Court ruled that he must be extradited to the United States. He would then be the first former Guatemalan President to stand prosecution in the United States. He was extradited to the United States on 24 May 2013 to face money laundering charges. He is accused of laundering US$70 million of Guatemalan money through US banks.

On 18 March 2014, former President Portillo pleaded guilty at a hearing before United States District Judge Robert P. Patterson. On 22 May 2014, Judge Patterson sentenced Portillo to 70 months in prison, $2.5 million in forfeiture and a $100 special assessment fee. Guatemala's former president, 62 years of age, faced a maximum penalty of 20 years in prison and a $500,000 fine or twice the money involved in the illegal transactions.

On 25 February 2015, Portillo was released from prison in Denver, the U.S., and returned to Guatemala City.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Alfonso Portillo


text:
Lansana Conté

Lansana Conté (30 November 1934 – 22 December 2008 ) was a Guinean politician and military official who served as the second president of Guinea, from 5 April 1984 until his death on 22 December 2008. Conté came to power in the 1984 Guinean coup d'état.

Early life
Born in Moussayah Loumbaya (Dubréka), a member of the Susu ethnic group, he estimated his birthdate to be 1934, although he never knew exactly. Conté was educated at a local Quranic school and attended Dubréka primary school. He then went on to study at military preparatory schools in Bingerville, Côte d'Ivoire and Saint Louis, Senegal.

Military and government service
In 1955, he enlisted in the French Army and was posted to Algeria during the war of independence in 1957. After his service in the French Army, Conté returned to Guinea, which became independent from France on 2 October 1958, and was integrated into the new army with the rank of sergeant. In 1962, he attended the Camp Alpha officer's school in Conakry. Soon after, he was transferred to the 2nd Battalion artillery-training center in Kindia. On 1 July 1963, he was promoted to Second Lieutenant. This was followed two years later by another promotion from Second Lieutenant to Lieutenant. On 22 November 1970, Portuguese military together with Guinean dissidents invaded the country from Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau) in an apparent attempt to overthrow the government of President Ahmed Sékou Touré and destroy PAIGC guerillas. For his service to the nation, he was promoted to the rank of Captain on 27 February 1971. In 1973, he was named commander of the Boké operational zone (in Northwestern Guinea) to assist the pro-independence guerrilla movement, African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) in neighboring Portuguese Guinea. On 10 May 1975, he was named assistant Chief of Staff of the army.

In 1977, he was head of the Guinean delegation during negotiations that resolved a border dispute with Guinea-Bissau and was elected to the National Assembly in 1980. Later that year, he took part in the ruling Democratic Party of Guinea's (PDG) official pilgrimage to Mecca.

1984 coup and military rule
President Ahmed Sékou Touré, Guinea's head of state since independence, died on 26 March 1984. Prime Minister Louis Lansana Beavogui was named interim president, pending elections to be held within 45 days. On 3 April, however, hours before the PDG was to choose a new leader—who would have been the only candidate for president—Conté led a military coup that toppled the government. Conté denounced the Touré regime's human rights abuses and released 250 political prisoners. He also encouraged the return of approximately 200,000 Guineans from exile, and the Camp Boiro detention center was closed down.

The country's constitution was immediately suspended after the takeover, along with the National Assembly, and political activity was banned. A 25-member Military Committee of National Restoration (CMRN) was set up and led by Conté, who on 5 April was proclaimed President of the Republic.

On 4 July 1985, soldiers loyal to Conté, who was attending an Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) summit in Lomé, Togo, thwarted a coup d'état. Conté, a member of the Susu people (or Sousou), used the opportunity to eliminate rival soldiers from the Malinké ethnic group, including former Prime Minister Diarra Traoré.

On 3 April 1990, Conté was promoted to the rank of Army General.

Economic and political transition
Conté's economic reforms, including currency devaluation and reduction of government spending met with approval of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and realignment with western nations encouraged foreign investments.

He initiated Guinea's transition to civilian, multiparty rule in the early 1990s. A new constitution was approved in a referendum held on 23 December 1990 and the CMRN was disbanded on 16 January 1991. It was replaced by the Transitional Committee for National Recovery (CTRN), a body composed of civilians and military officials. Political parties were legalized in 1992 in preparation for upcoming elections.

Civilian rule
The first multi-party presidential election held since independence was conducted on 19 December 1993. Conté, candidate of the newly formed Party of Unity and Progress (PUP), won 51.7% of the vote—just barely enough to avoid a runoff. Alpha Condé of the Rally of the Guinean People (RPG) was second with 19.6% of the vote. The opposition alleged electoral fraud, especially after the Supreme Court discounted as invalid the results in two prefectures where Condé of the RPG had received a large majority of the vote.

Despite Conté's stated commitment to democracy, his regime remained authoritarian. However, he had far less power than Touré, and for the most part his rule was much milder.

Conté's government narrowly survived a 2 February 1996 coup attempt that stemmed from an army mutiny over payment of salaries. Several dozen civilians were killed, and the presidential residence sustained significant damage.

In Guinea's second multi-party presidential election, held on 14 December 1998, Conté won another five-year term with 56.1% of the vote. The polls, although an improvement over the troubled 1993 election, were considered flawed by opposition parties and observers. A November 2001 referendum that lifted presidential term limits and would extend the term in office from five to seven years was supported by 98.4% of the voters. The results, however, were rejected by opposition parties who claimed that the outcome was rigged.

He went on to win a third (last) presidential election held on 21 December 2003 with 95.6% of the vote after all but one of the opposing candidates boycotted the race, expressing their belief that Conté would never allow a fair election. Conté had been in declining health, suffering from diabetes and heart problems, and his ability to serve and survive another full term in office was doubted by many. He was sworn in on 19 January 2004, and in a television broadcast on this occasion, he vowed to fight corruption.

On 19 January 2005, shots were reportedly fired at his motorcade on its way into Conakry in what was apparently a failed assassination attempt. One bodyguard was reportedly wounded. Conté, who was unharmed, went on state radio and television that night to say that he had survived because God had not yet decided it was his time to die. He also mentioned "threats from those who do not wish to see the development of Guinea or those who obey orders given to them from abroad" and vowed that he would "not be manipulated". On the next morning, he made a public appearance to pray. One eyewitness of the shooting told RFI that the attackers had exchanged gunfire with Conte's bodyguards for about four minutes before dropping their weapons and fleeing.

While on a visit to France with his family in 2005, Prime Minister François Lonseny Fall resigned and sought asylum. He complained of corruption and increasing interference from Conté. Fall's successor, Cellou Dalein Diallo, endured until April 2006. Conté failed to appoint a new prime minister until the end of January 2007.

In April 2006 he was flown to Morocco for medical treatment. Most people expected he would not return, but he did. Then in May 2006 riots in Conakry over the price of rice and fuel led to around twenty deaths as security forces savagely repressed the popular uprising. In August 2006 he was again flown to Switzerland for medical treatment. This time no crowds met him on his return to Guinea. Meanwhile, Henriette Conté, the President's first wife, was accused of flouting the rule of law and taking advantage of the President's physical and mental incapacity to abuse her power.

In August 2006 Human Rights Watch produced a 30-page report condemning human rights abuses in Guinea, highlighting the power vacuum resulting from the President's ongoing illness, and expressing concern about the future.

In an interview with journalists reported by Guinéenews in October 2006, Lansana Conté said that he intended to stay as president until 2010, which was the end of his seven-year term. Conté also said that he was looking for a replacement who "loves the country and will protect it against its enemies."

In November 2006 Transparency International updated its annual Corruption Index. Guinea under Lansana Conté was then second equal as the most corrupt country in the world (pride of place for corruption going to Haiti). This is a matter of concern for foreign firms intending to invest in Guinea (for example to exploit its extensive bauxite reserves) as they are unable to operate in Guinea without paying huge bribes to highly placed government officials, but if caught doing so they may face legal action in their country of origin.

In January 2007, a general nationwide strike was held protesting Conté's continued leadership of the country. The strike continued for over two weeks, during which hundreds of thousands of protesters marched in the streets. Within the first two weeks, savage repression by red-caps (Presidential guards) and other security forces left at least twenty protesters dead. By the end of the strike on 27 January, it was reported that at least 90 protesters had died in violent clashes with police and at least 300 had been injured, according to a local human rights group.

The strike ended following an agreement between Conté and the labor unions, according to which a new Prime Minister would be appointed as head of government; Conté also agreed to lower rice and fuel prices. On 9 February, Conté appointed Eugène Camara, who had been Minister of State for Presidential Affairs since January, as Prime Minister. This was rejected by the opposition, and widespread violence broke out after the appointment. The strike resumed on 12 February, and Conté declared martial law on the same day. On 25 February Conté agreed to a deal to end the strike, and on 26 February he appointed a new Prime Minister, Lansana Kouyaté, from a list of individuals chosen by the unions and representatives of civil society; people returned to work on 27 February. Kouyaté was sworn in on 1 March in a ceremony at which Conté was not present.

In an interview with Agence France-Presse and TV5 on 14 June 2007, Conté asserted that he was still in charge of the country ("I'm the boss, others are my subordinates"), rejected the possibility of a transition, and said that his appointment of a prime minister was not due to pressure and that he was pleased with Kouyaté's performance.

On 5 December 2007, a decree restructuring ministries increased the powers of the Secretary-General of the Presidency at the expense of those of the Prime Minister, and on 3 January 2008 Conté dismissed and replaced Justin Morel Junior, the Minister of Communication and Government Spokesman, without consulting Kouyaté. On 4 January, Kouyaté demanded that Morel be restored to his position, and labor unions announced plans to begin a new "unlimited general strike" on 10 January, demanding that Conté's agreement with the unions be properly implemented and that Morel be restored. On 9 January, the unions withdrew their call for a strike.

In a surprise move, on 20 May 2008, Conté dismissed Kouyaté and replaced him with Ahmed Tidiane Souaré. Kouyaté was widely considered a disappointment in his role as Prime Minister, and his unpopularity meant that his dismissal was not greeted with any major unrest of the kind that led to his appointment a year earlier. Through this dismissal and the appointment of Souaré, who was considered close to Conté,  Conté was considered to have strengthened his position.

Death
In the early hours of 23 December 2008, Aboubacar Somparé, the President of the National Assembly, announced on television that Conté had died at 6:45 pm local time on 22 December "after a long illness", without specifying the cause of death. According to Somparé, Conté "hid his physical suffering" for years "in order to give happiness to Guinea." Conté had left the country for medical treatment on numerous occasions in the years preceding his death, and speculation about his health had long been widespread. Contrary to his usual practice, Conté did not appear on television to mark Tabaski earlier in December 2008, and this sparked renewed speculation, as well as concern about the possibility of violence in the event of his death. At around the same time, a newspaper published a photograph suggesting that Conté was in poor physical condition and having difficulty standing up. The editor of that newspaper was arrested, and the newspaper was required to print a photograph in which Conté looked healthy.

According to the constitution, the President of the National Assembly was to assume the Presidency of the Republic in the event of a vacancy, and a new presidential election was to be held within 60 days. Somparé requested that the President of the Supreme Court, Lamine Sidimé, declare a vacancy in the Presidency and apply the constitution. Prime Minister Souaré and Diarra Camara, the head of the army, stood alongside Somparé during his announcement. Declaring 40 days of national mourning for Conté, Souaré urged "calm and restraint". He told the army to secure the borders and maintain calm within the country "in homage to the memory of the illustrious late leader".

Six hours after Somparé announced Conté's death, a statement was read on television announcing a coup d'état. This statement, read by Captain Moussa Dadis Camara on behalf of a group called the National Council for Democracy and Development (CNDD), said that "the government and the institutions of the Republic have been dissolved". The statement also announced the suspension of the constitution "as well as political and union activity".

Conté's funeral was held in Conakry on 26 December. His body was put on display in the parliament building before being taken to the national stadium, where over 20,000 people were in attendance. Leaders of neighboring countries were present for the funeral. General Mamadou Ba Toto of the CNDD said at the funeral that "we pray God to give us the courage to continue [Conté's] work of tolerance and peace for the welfare of Guinea". Afterwards, his body was buried in the village of Lansanaya in front of his mansion. It was taken out of its coffin and placed into the ground, then covered with handfuls of dirt tossed by mourners. The burial was marked by some disorder, as thousands of mourners tried to reach the grave and security forces formed a cordon around it.

title: Lansana Conté


text:
Odakyū Odawara Line

The Odakyu Odawara Line (小田急小田原線) is the main line of Japanese private railway operator Odakyu Electric Railway. It extends 82.5 km from Shinjuku in central Tokyo through the southwest suburbs to the city of Odawara, the gateway to Hakone in Kanagawa Prefecture. It is a busy commuter line and is also known for its "Romancecar" limited express services. From Yoyogi-Uehara Station some trains continue onto the Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line and beyond to the East Japan Railway Company Joban Line.

Operation
Destinations are from Shinjuku unless noted. English abbreviations are tentative for this article.

 * Limited Express (特急)
 * Collectively known as "Romancecar" services, there is an extra seat charge for limited express service. Daytime service trains bound for: Odawara; Katase-Enoshima on the Enoshima Line; Hakone-Yumoto on the Hakone Tozan Railway; and Gotemba on the Central Japan Railway Company Gotemba Line.

 * Rapid Express (快速急行) (RE)
 * No extra charge. Services are for Odawara and Fujisawa on the Odakyu Enoshima Line all Rapid Express trains that are bound for Odawara terminates at Shin-Matsuda and becomes Express.

 * Express (急行) (E)
 * Services are for Karakida, as well as thrice-hourly service between Machida and Odawara.

 * Semi Express (準急) (SE)
 * Most services are for Mukōgaoka-Yūen. All services run through on the Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Subway Line with some continuing on to the JR Joban Line.

 * Local (各駅停車)
 * Most services for Hon-Atsugi; others to Odawara, through to Katase-Enoshima and the Tama and Hakone Tozan lines. Also service between Odawara to Hakone-Yumoto

 * Commuter Express (通勤急行) (CE)
 * All services operate in the weekday morning for Shinjuku from Karakida on the Odakyu Tama Line.

 * Commuter Semi Express (通勤準急) (CS)
 * All services operate from Hon-Atsugi to the Chiyoda Line during weekday mornings.

Stations
Notes:
 * See the Romancecar article for information on Odakyu Romancecar limited express services.
 * Local trains stop at every station.

Legend:
 * ● - all trains stop at this station; ■ - some trains stop at this station;｜- all trains pass; ○ - On Weekdays, Outbound for Isehara Evening Rush Hour only.
 * "CS" - Commuter Semi Express; "CE" - Commuter Express "SE" - Semi-Express; "E" - Express; "RE" - Rapid Express

History
The Odawara Express Railway Co. opened the entire line on April 1, 1927 in order to allow for the Emperor's family to travel on the line, though as duplication works were not completed until October that year, there was initial timetable and signalling issues. Although primarily intended as a passenger line, gravel began to be hauled in 1930.

In 1942, the company was forcibly merged by the government with Tokyu Corporation and the line was named the Tokyu Odawara Line. Tokyu was broken up in 1948 and the line was transferred to the newly founded Odakyu Electric Railway Co.

Through operation to the Hakone Tozan Railway's Hakone Tozan Line began in 1950 once dual gauge track was commissioned (the Hakone Tozan Line is, the Odawara Line ). A connecting track was laid in 1955 to Matsuda Station on the Gotemba Line of the (then) Japanese National Railways, and limited express service through to the line started. To function as a bypass to central Tokyo, through service on the Eidan Subway (now Tokyo Metro) Chiyoda Line commenced in 1978 via Yoyogi-Uehara.

Increasing traffic volume since the 1970s led to plans being formed in 1985 for a track upgrading project on the Odawara Line, though land acquisition issues stalled major track expansion work until construction began in 2013; the project is being carried out between Yoyogi-Uehara and Mukōgaoka-Yūen, quadrupling the Odawara Line trackage and stacking the tracks underground, allowing for increased express services. Originally a viaduct was planned but this was changed to underground tracks, and work on the tunnel between Setagaya-Daita and Higashi-Kitazawa was completed in 2018.

Former connecting lines

 * Setagaya-Daita Station: A gauge line electrified at 1,500 V DC operated to Shindaita on the Keio Inokashira Line between 1945 and 1952.

title: Odakyū Odawara Line


text:
Pad Abort Test 1

Pad Abort Test 1 was the first abort test of the Apollo spacecraft on November 7, 1963.

Objectives
Pad Abort Test 1 was a mission to investigate the effects on the Apollo spacecraft during an abort from the pad. The launch escape system (LES) had to be able to pull the spacecraft away from an exploding rocket on the launch pad. The LES then had to gain enough altitude to allow the command module's parachutes to open, preferably with the spacecraft over water and not land.

The flight featured a production model LES and a boilerplate (BP-06) Apollo spacecraft, the first mission to feature one. The spacecraft carried no instruments for measuring structural loads as the capsule's boilerplate structure did not represent that of a real spacecraft.

Flight
On November 7, 1963, an abort signal was sent to the LES at 09:00:01 local time. This began a sequence in which the main solid rockets fired to lift the spacecraft and smaller altitude rockets fired to move it laterally toward the ocean.

The LES separated after 15 seconds, allowing the spacecraft to take a ballistic trajectory. The parachute system worked perfectly: the drogue chute stabilized the spacecraft, then the three main parachutes slowed the descent to a leisurely 26 kilometers per hour.

The only problems found with the flight were that the LES rockets left soot on the spacecraft exterior and the stability of the spacecraft was less than predicted.

title: Pad Abort Test 1


text:
Henrique Rosa

Henrique Pereira Rosa (18 January 1946 – 15 May 2013) was a Bissau-Guinean politician who served as interim President of Guinea-Bissau from 2003 to 2005. He was born in 1946 in Bafatá.

Interim President of Guinea-Bissau
Rosa served as the interim President of Guinea-Bissau from 28 September 2003 until 1 October 2005. His appointment came following a military coup that deposed the elected government of President Kumba Ialá on 14 September, and subsequent talks between political officials, civil society leaders, and the Military Committee for the Restitution of Constitutional and Democratic Order, led by Veríssimo Correia Seabra.

The main goal of the Rosa-led caretaker government was to administer elections that would return the country to constitutional, democratic rule. This was achieved in March 2004 with the holding of a free and fair legislative election. A presidential election held in June and July 2005 was also considered democratic and transparent. The latter election was won by João Bernardo "Nino" Vieira, who had previously been President from 1980 to 1999; Rosa was not a candidate.

Additionally, during the two-year interim presidency, Rosa's government managed to bring a level of political stability to Guinea-Bissau along with notable improvements to the country's human rights record.

Resignation and subsequent political activity
Rosa handed over power to Vieira on 1 October 2005.

Rosa stood as an independent candidate in the June 2009 presidential election, finishing in third place.

Death
On 15 May 2013, Rosa died at a hospital in Porto, in northern Portugal, after losing a nine-month battle with lung cancer. He was 67 years old.

title: Henrique Rosa


text:
John Kufuor

John Kofi Agyekum Kufuor (born 8 December 1938) is a Ghanaian politician who served as the President of Ghana from 7 January 2001 to 7 January 2009. He became the Chairperson of the African Union from 2007 to 2008 and his victory over John Evans Atta Mills at the end of Jerry Rawlings' second term marked the first transition of power in Ghana from a democratic government to another democratic government.

Kufuor's career has been spent on the liberal-democratic side of Ghanaian politics, in the parties descended from the United Gold Coast Convention and the United Party.

As a lawyer and businessman, he was a minister in Kofi Abrefa Busia's Progress Party government during Ghana's Second Republic, and a Popular Front Party opposition frontbencher during the Third Republic. In the Fourth Republic Kufuor stood as the New Patriotic Party's candidate at the 1996 election, and then led it to victory in 2000 and 2004. Having served two terms in power, he retired from politics in 2008. He is popularly known as the Gentle Giant.

Early life and schooling
The scion of a royal and aristocratic maternal lineage, John Kufuor was born in Daaban a suburb of Kumasi in the Ashanti Region of Ghana, and started his primary and elementary school at the Kumasi Government School located in Asem built by Sir Gordon Guggisberg. Kufuor was the 7th of 10 children of Nana Kwadwo Agyekum, an Asante royal, and Nana Ama Dapaah, a Queen Mother.

In 1951, he continued his primary (then called 'standard' three) education at Osei Tutu Boarding School (Osei Tutu Senior High School) from 1951 to 1953. At Prempeh College from 1954 to 1958, he schooled from Form 1 to Form 5. Arriving in London on 30 April 1959, he was by June accepted into Lincoln's Inn, London (1959–61) to study law, becoming qualified as a barrister in one year and eight months. He was called to the London bar in 1961. In the following year, he was called to the bar in Ghana before going on to Oxford University, graduating from Exeter College, in 1964.

He was initially employed at the Ghana Commercial Bank in London as a manager and legal officer. He returned to Ghana in the year 1965 at the behest of his mother who (having already bought a first-class ticket for his return) wished him to practice in Africa. He practiced in the Chambers of Victor Owusu with another lawyer, Owusu Yaw.

In 1966, he became the town clerk of Kumasi City Council [now Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly]. In the Second Republic's Parliamentary register, Kufuor lists his hobbies and interests as table tennis, reading, football, and film shows. He was once the chairman of Kumasi Asante Kotoko Football Club.

Early political career
After completing his education, Kufuor returned to Ghana and launched his political career. In 1967, he became chief legal officer and town clerk for the city of Kumasi. By 1969, he was a member of Parliament and deputy foreign minister in the government of Kofi Abrefa Busia.

Kufuor served as the Member of Parliament for Atwima Nwabiagya in the Second (1969–72) and Third (1979–81) Republics. He is a founding member of the Progress Party which was established in Busia's house.

As Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs, he represented Ghana on a number of occasions. From 1969 to December 1971, he led Ghana's delegation to the United Nations General Assembly in New York City, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) Ministerial Meetings in Addis Ababa, and the Summit Conference of the Non-Aligned Movement in Lusaka. In 1970 he led the Ghanaian delegation to Moscow in the Soviet Union, Prague (Czechoslovakia), and Belgrade (Yugoslavia) to discuss Ghana's indebtedness to these countries.

As the Spokesman on Foreign Affairs and Deputy Opposition Leader of the Popular Front Party (PFP) Parliamentary Group during the Third Republic, he was invited to accompany President Hilla Limann to the OAU Summit Conference in Freetown, Sierra Leone. He was also a member of the parliamentary delegation that visited the United States in 1981 to talk to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank on Ghana's economic problems.

In January 1982, the leadership of the All People's Party (APP), which was an alliance of all the opposition parties, advised some leading members, including the Deputy Leader of the Alliance, Alhaji Iddrisu Mahama, the general secretary, Dr Obed Asamoah and Kufuor, to accept an invitation from the Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC) to serve in what was purported to be a National Government. Kufuor was appointed the Secretary for Local Government in this new government.

As a Secretary for Local Government, he wrote the Local Government Policy Guidelines that were to be the foundation of the current decentralized District Assemblies.

Elections
On 20 April 1996 Kufuor was nominated by 1034 out of 2000 delegates of the New Patriotic Party (NPP) drawn from all the 200 Constituencies of the Country to run for the president of Ghana on 10 December 1996. After campaigning for less than nine months, Kufuor polled 39.62% of the popular votes to Rawlings' 57% in the 1996 election. On 23 October 1998 he was re-nominated by the New Patriotic Party not only to run again for president but also to officially assume the position of Leader of the Party.

Kufuor won the presidential election of December 2000; in the first round, held on 7 December, Kufuor came in first place with 48.4%, while John Atta-Mills, Jerry Rawlings' Vice-president, came in second with 44.8%, forcing the two into a run-off vote. In the second round, held on 28 December, Kufuor was victorious, taking 56.9% of the vote. When Kufuor was sworn in on 7 January 2001, it marked the first time in Ghana's history that an incumbent government had peaceful transition of power to the opposition.

Kufuor was re-elected in presidential and parliamentary elections held on 7 December 2004, earning 52.45% of the popular vote in the first round and thus avoiding a run-off, while at the same time Kufuor's party, the New Patriotic Party, was able to secure more seats in the Parliament of Ghana.

Presidency
His administration's domestic policy in the first term was marked by fiscal and monetary stringency on the economic front, aimed at stabilizing a national economy that had stagnated and was in decline. His social vision was focused on unleashing the entrepreneurial, creative and innovative potential of Ghanaians as a means of creating wealth and hence dealing with the social challenges facing them. This socio-economic vision was encapsulated in the Five Priority Areas Programme, viz., the pursuit of good governance, modernization of agriculture for rural development, private sector participation, enhanced social services and vigorous infrastructure development. His administration is said to have received the most financial assistance in the history of Ghana, due essentially to donors' distrust for the military governments before it, as well as those with some military connections.

Kufuor's foreign policy was underpinned by what he termed "economic diplomacy". It is within this context that in Africa in general and in West Africa in particular, a good neighbourliness policy has been pursued, which saw Ghana under Kufuor brokering peace in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast and Guinea-Bissau, among other African states. On the global stage, Kufuor actively sought the establishment of a just and equitable international social and economic order, while promoting and safeguarding the interests of Ghana through bilateral and multilateral agreements. His stature as statesman, democrat and credible spokesman for Africa found expression in his invitation to major international meetings and conferences including the founding summit of the AU, G8 Summits in Sea Island, Georgia and Glenneagles, Scotland, and the World Economic Forum.

He served as chairman of the regional grouping ECOWAS for two consecutive terms – 2003 and 2004. In 2007, due to the policy successes his administration chalked up, Kufuor had his mandate renewed in 2004 and was sworn into office on 7 January 2005. Policy direction in Kufuor's second presidential term built on the foundations laid in the first four years. The administration pursued Ghana's socio-economic transformation in the second term, using the three-pronged approach of private-sector development, human resource development and good governance. At the international level, Kufuor consolidated Ghana's position as the voice of Africa, credible peace broker, beacon of democracy (Ghana was the first country to undergo Peer Review under NEPAD's Africa Peer Review Mechanism) and responsible member of the comity of nations.

On 29 January 2007, Kufuor was elected as Chairperson of the African Union for the 2007–08 AU session. He was succeeded by Jakaya Kikwete of Tanzania on 31 January 2008. Kufuor was involved in a car accident during his presidency on 14 November 2007, in which another car collided with his, causing it to roll over several times. Kufuor was reported to be uninjured.

Health
He started the National Health Insurance Scheme to replace the existent cash-and-carry system; 11 million Ghanaians were registered under this scheme. He set up the National Ambulance Service and built more than 205 hospitals and clinics. He also built a state-of-the-art emergency centre at the Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital. Kufuor also introduced free maternal health care in public hospitals for all expectant mothers.

Education
Kufuor institutionalised the capitation grant for school children at the basic level, whereby each student was entitled to $2 for cultural sports and development. He also started the national school feeding programme. He changed the Senior Secondary School curriculum from three years to four years and renamed it Senior High School. He started the model school senior high school concept, in which some deprived schools were upgraded to the level of some first-class senior high schools.

Access to finance
Kufuor launched the Microfinance and small loans program (MASLOC) – a US$50 million fund that makes micro loans available to the productive population – and introduced the Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty Program (LEAP), which provides direct cash transfers to poor households in the country who could not support themselves. For the first time in Ghana's history, borrowing became so cheap and available that microfinance companies (and major banks) actually went on to the streets to encourage small-scale businessmen and women to apply for loans.

Sports
He renovated the Accra Sports Stadium and the Baba Yara Stadium as well as built the Essipong and Tamale stadium in 2008 to host the CAN 2008. Under Kufuor Ghana qualified for the World Cup in 2006.

President Kufuor's good governance policy led to Ghana obtaining a record $500 million grant from the U.S Millennium Challenge Account for economic development. The social vision behind the grant was anchored on unleashing the entrepreneurial, creative and innovative potential of Ghanaians as a means of creating wealth and hence dealing with the social challenges facing Ghanaians. This socio-economic vision was encapsulated in the Five Priority Areas Programme vis the pursuit of good governance, modernisation of agriculture for rural development, private sector participation, enhanced social services and vigorous infrastructural development. The George Walker Bush Highway was also built from this fund.

Personal life
Kufuor at the age of 23 married Theresa Kufuor (née Mensah) in 1962 after they met at a Republic Day Anniversary Dance in London in 1961; they have five children together. Kufuor and his family belong to the Roman Catholic Church. He is a Senior Grand Warden of the United Grand Lodge of England Freemasons, and has openly professed his membership as a Freemason since being a young lawyer. An Asante, Kufuor speaks the Twi language fluently. He was known for using his language whenever he was campaigning in his native Ashanti Region. Kufuor and his family reside in Accra, Ghana's capital. His wife, Theresa Kufuor, died on Sunday, 1st October 2023. Kufour has nine siblings four males and five females.

Post-presidency
In July 2009, Kufuor became a member of the SNV Netherlands Development Organization International Advisory Board to contribute his expertise to the organization's poverty reduction work. In September 2009, Kufuor spoke in the Netherlands at a Dutch government event to mark '60 years of development aid' at the invitation of Dutch Minister Bert Koenders, which was attended by nearly 2,000 people. During his visit to the Netherlands, he was interviewed by the newspaper NRC Handelsblad and the Internationale Samenwerking magazine. He argued for the importance of effective development assistance, pointing out that development aid helped Ghana enter the international capital market.

On 21 September 2009, he delivered the prestigious Legatum Pericles Lecture at the Legatum Center for Development and Entrepreneurship at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Kufuor is the Governing Council Chairman of Interpeace, an international peacebuilding organisation based in Geneva since October 2009. Also in 2009, he served on the High Level Commission on the Modernization of World Bank Group Governance, which – under the leadership of Ernesto Zedillo – conducted an external review of the World Bank Group's governance.

Kufuor was chosen together with Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva to jointly receive the 2011 World Food Prize for their personal commitment and visionary leadership while serving as the presidents of Ghana and of Brazil, respectively, in creating and implementing government policies to alleviate hunger and poverty in their countries. The foundation said the significant achievements of these two Laureates illustrate that transformational leadership truly can effect positive change and greatly improve people's lives.

On 20 September 2011, Kufuor inaugurated the John Agyekum Kufuor (JAK) Foundation with a ground-breaking ceremony for the JAK Centre for Leadership, Governance and Development at the University of Ghana, Legon. The inaugural lecture, which attracted very high local and foreign dignitaries, had Horst Köhler, former president of Germany, as its guest speaker. Thabo Mbeki, former president of South Africa, and Ghana ex-president Jerry John Rawlings, Kufuor's fiercest critic, were among the dignitaries who attended the ceremony. The ex-presidents also unveiled a plaque on 22 September 2011 for the Kufuor Presidential Library and Museum at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, which formed part of the John A. Kufuor Foundation. In September 2018 the foundation set up the Kufuor Young Entrepreneurs Network (K-YEN). This initiative supports and develops young entrepreneurs to excel in their endeavors.

In October 2011, Kufuor received the 2011 World Food Prize, along with President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva for his personal commitment and visionary leadership while serving as the president of Ghana, and in creating and implementing government policies to alleviate hunger and poverty in his country.

Since November 2011, Kufuor has been the first high-level chair of the Sanitation and Water for All (SWA) partnership.

Numerous NPP supporters tried to barricade President Kufuor's house on 7 January 2013 to prevent him from attending John Dramani Mahama's inauguration, which the NPP as a party had decided to boycott as they felt going would undermine their challenge to Mahama's win in court. Kufuor explained that the party had allowed him to go because he was invited as an ex-President of Ghana and not as a Member of the NPP to the chagrin of the supporters. The Ghana Police Service (GPS) reinforcement had to be sent to his abode to allow him to be able to go for the programme.

In September 2017, the George Grant University of Mines and Technology (UMaT) appointed Kufour as the first Chancellor of the university, the appointment taking effect from 1 November 2017. The Investiture of was held in January 2018.

Awards and accolades
Kufuor has received numerous awards, including the Face-of-Good-Governance Award, Chatham House Prize, the Climate Change Award, and the World Food Program's Global Ambassador Against Hunger.
 * Chatham House Prize (2008).
 * Distinction of Grand Cordon in the Most Venerable Order of the Knighthood of the Pioneers of the Republic of Liberia(2008).
 * World Federation of Honorary Consuls' Order of the Gold Star (2008).
 * Honorary Fellow, Exeter College, Oxford University, and John Moore University, Liverpool, UK.
 * Honorary Doctorate from the University of Cape Coast, Ghana.
 * Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath, conferred by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain.
 * Awarded highest award of the Order of the House of Orange, conferred by Her Majesty Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands
 * Awarded State Honors from various countries including Italy, Germany and Brazil.
 * Leadership and Governance award, Ghana UK-Based Achievement Awards, Impact Africa Summit (2016).
 * Senior Grand Warden of the United Grand Lodge of England, appointed by His Royal Highness Prince Edward, The Duke of Kent

Foreign Honours
🇬🇧 United Kingdom:

 * Order_of_the_Bath_UK_ribbon.svg Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (2006)

🇱🇷 Liberia:

 * Order_of_the_Pioneers_of_Liberia_-_ribbon_bar.png Grand Cordon of the Order of the Pioneers of Liberia (2008)
 * The Collar of State – Most Venerable Order of the Pioneers of Liberia (2015)

title: John Kufuor


text:
Bharrat Jagdeo

Bharrat Jagdeo (born 23 January 1964) is a Guyanese politician who has been serving as Vice President of Guyana since 2020, in the administration of President Irfaan Ali. He had previously also held the office from 1997 until 1999, during the presidency of Janet Jagan. Jagdeo subsequently served as the President of Guyana from 11 August 1999 to 3 December 2011. He also holds a number of global leadership positions in the areas of sustainable development, green growth and climate change.

Jagdeo, a member of the People's Progressive Party/Civic (PPP/C), served as Minister of Finance from 1995 to 1999, becoming president in 1999 after Janet Jagan resigned for health reasons. Subsequently, he won two elections, in 2001 and 2006. He was the first and youngest President of Guyana to relinquish office in accordance with term limits he signed into the Guyanese Constitution.

Following the PPP/C's electoral defeat in 2015 Jagdeo became Leader of the Opposition in the National Assembly. Furthermore, when the PPP/C returned to power in 2020, Jagdeo was sworn in as a vice president in the administration of president Irfaan Ali. Vice News alleged that it had uncovered corruption by Jagdeo and several Chinese businessmen. These allegations were rejected by Jagdeo who pointed out instead, that the Vice News documentary failed to provide irrefutable evidence to substantiate its claims and it mostly relied on hearsay and comments by a Chinese businessman Su Zhi Rong against whom he has filed a defamation lawsuit.

Early and personal life
Jagdeo was born in Unity Village in Demerara-Mahaica, in then British Guiana in 1964 to Hindu Indian parents. In 1912, his grandfather, Ram Jiyawan had immigrated under the Indian indenture system to British Guiana from the village of Pure Thakurain in the Amethi district of the Awadh region of the United Provinces in British India (present-day state of Uttar Pradesh in India). During his visit to India once, Jagdeo went to his ancestral village and it was found that a community of salt makers called Nonias happened to be the community from which his ancestors belonged to. Jagdeo joined the youth wing of the People's Progressive Party (PPP), the Progressive Youth Organisation, when he was 13, and became a member of the PPP itself at age 16. He subsequently rose to local leadership positions in the party.

He attended Bygeval Multilateral High School before migrating to Russia in 1984 for higher studies. After obtaining a master's degree in economics from Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University in Moscow in 1990, Jagdeo returned to Guyana and worked as an economist in the State Planning Secretariat until the PPP-Civic election victory in the October 1992 election. After this he became Special Advisor to the Minister of Finance.

Jagdeo was appointed as Junior Minister of Finance in October 1993, and a few weeks later, at the PPP's 24th Congress, he was elected to the party's Central Committee. He later became a member of the executive committee of the PPP. In the Cabinet, he was promoted to Senior Minister of Finance in May 1995. In December 1997, he was appointed as the Second Vice President.

In 1998, Jagdeo married Varshnie Uma Singh in a Hindu wedding ceremony. However, the union was never legally registered. The couple ended their marriage in 2007. Singh had accused Jagdeo of domestic violence, with Jagdeo refuting her allegations. Singh later clarified she suffered "institutionalized, verbal, emotional, and psychological abuse" by Jagdeo.

Prime Minister and President
On 8 August 1999, Janet Jagan announced that she was resigning as president for health reasons, and that Jagdeo would be her successor. Because the Prime Minister is the President's legal successor, Jagdeo took office as Prime Minister on 9 August, so that he would be positioned to succeed Jagan. He was then sworn in as president on 11 August. At age 35, he was one of the youngest heads of state in the world.

Jagdeo was re-elected for another five-year term on 28 August 2006, with the PPP garnering 54.6 percent of the votes. It expanded its majority, by two, to 36 seats in the 65-member parliament. He was sworn in for another term on 2 September.

At the PPP's 29th Congress, Jagdeo received the highest number of votes (777) in the election to the party's Central Committee, held on 2 August 2008. He was then elected to the PPP Executive Committee on 12 August 2008.

In late 2011, his term of office officially came to an end as a result of the term limit amendment to the Constitution, piloted by his government, and signed into law by himself, which created a two-term limit for anyone elected president after 2000. He was succeeded by PPP/C presidential candidate Donald Ramotar, who was elected president in the 28 November 2011 general elections. Under the Constitution, President Jagdeo's term officially ended on 3 December 2011, when Ramotar took the presidential oath of office.

Initiatives
During Jagdeo's tenure as president, major economic and social reforms were initiated in Guyana. When he relinquished office, Guyana had experienced five consecutive years of strong economic growth, often out-pacing other South American countries. External debt had been almost halved, and reserves had almost tripled compared to the 2006 situation. During the presidency, investments had been made in social services which resulted in improved access to education. The housing sector saw its biggest expansion in its history. Road, river and air transport infrastructure were improved.

In 2003, in his role as Lead Head of Government for Agriculture in the Caribbean Community, Jagdeo spearheaded a process (known as the "Jagdeo Initiative") to create a more competitive and sustainable agricultural sector in the region by 2015.

In his final term as president, President Jagdeo became a global advocate for international action to avert the worst extremes of climate change, and was described by the Chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Rajendra K. Pachauri, as "one of perhaps half a dozen Heads of Government who truly understands the issue". In line with the President's global advocacy, Guyana's Low Carbon Development Strategy sets out a national scale, replicable model to protect Guyana's 18 million hectare forest, to address the 17% of global greenhouse gas emissions that result from deforestation and forest degradation, and re-orient the Guyanese economy onto a long-term "low deforestation, low carbon, climate resilient trajectory".

As part of building this global model, Norway is partnering with Guyana to provide up to US$250 million, by 2015, for avoided greenhouse gas emissions from Guyana's forest. Guyana is using these payments and domestic resources to attract private investment to opportunities in clean energy and new low carbon economic sectors, as well as to make significant public investments in other social and economic priorities. This has been described by the Climate & Development Knowledge Network, the UK-based climate policy network, as "maybe the most progressive low carbon development strategy in a low income country."

Jagdeo was a signatory to the UNASUR Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations in May 2008. Guyana has ratified the treaty. In November 2009, Jagdeo hosted the heads of government of South America in Georgetown, at his one-year anniversary of the pro tempore presidency of UNASUR.

On 26 November 2011, Jagdeo made a far-reaching farewell address ahead of the nation's elections on 28 November 2011. He spoke of accomplishments, such as the economy and defense issues, and emphasised his optimism in the future of Guyana.

Corruption and greenwashing allegations
In June 2020, Vice News conducted a six-week investigation into allegations of bribery, greenwashing and corruption against Jagdeo. Specifically, their report focused on the relationship between Jagdeo and Chinese investment in mining and energy projects that were at odds with the nation's and Jagdeo's pledges to address the Climate crisis and Biodiversity crisis. The documentary investigation showed undercover footage of Mr Jagdeo seeming to accept bribes although without wanting to know the details of the deal which he was entering, with Su Zhi Rong dealing with the particularities.

In an interview with Vice News and several national papers, Jagdeo rejected allegations of corruption and claimed instead that the Vice News documentary failed to provide first-hand evidence of corrupt transactions as it mostly relied on hear-say and comments by Chinese Businessman, Su Zhi Rong against whom he has filed a defamation lawsuit.

Honours
Jagdeo has been conferred with honorary doctorates of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, TERI University, the University of Central Lancashire and Trent University.

Jagdeo was awarded the Pushkin Medal by the Government of Russia.

In April 2013, Jagdeo was conferred with the highest honour of the State of Roraima, Brazil, the Order of Merit 'Forte Sao Joaquim'.

Awards

In 2004 he received the Pravasi Bharatiya Samman from the President of India in the field of public affairs.

International profile and post-presidency career
President Jagdeo was elected as chairman of the Board of Governors of the International Monetary Fund and World Bank in September 2005. He occupied this position until September 2006.

Time magazine named Jagdeo as one of their "Heroes of the Environment" in 2008, and he was awarded the United Nations "Champion of the Earth" award in 2010.

In early 2010, the Secretary General of the United Nations asked Jagdeo to serve on the Secretary General's High Level Advisory Group on Climate Financing.

Jagdeo is a Patron of the Delhi-based World Sustainable Development Forum.

In 2011, Heads of State and other leaders from the world's rainforest countries asked him to be "Roving Ambassador for the Three Basins" (Amazon, Congo Basin, South East Asia).

In March 2012, the world's largest and oldest environmental organisation, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), announced that President Jagdeo would become the IUCN High Level Envoy for Sustainable Development in Forest Countries and an IUCN Patron of Nature.

Jagdeo is also the President of the Assembly of the Korea-based Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI), having been a Founding Board Member of GGGI since 2010. GGGI is the world's newest international organization, and has 20 Member States.

In June 2013, Commonwealth Secretary-General Kamalesh Sharma announced that former President Jagdeo would lead a high-level team of experts to identify solutions for unlocking resources to enable small, poor and climate-vulnerable Commonwealth countries to combat climate change. The former president was joined by eight others to create a set of recommendations for the international community to help identify practical solutions for those countries most vulnerable to climate change. Jagdeo presented the report to the 53 Heads of Government and other leaders of the Commonwealth, representing about a fifth of the world's population at the 2014 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) in Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Jagdeo travelled from the 2015 CHOGM to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change summit in Warsaw where he spoke of the outcomes of CHOGM and the need for continued leadership from Prime Ministers and Presidents. In a major speech in Warsaw, he stated: "In the next 24 months much progress needs to be made if we are going to have a climate agreement. We can still stop the absolute worst extremes of climate change, and start the massive shift towards global low carbon development... The world tried to do this in 2009 at Copenhagen, and failed. As a consequence, more people will die, more livelihoods will be destroyed, more economies will suffer and the cost of action has gone up steadily...If we fail again in 2015, the damage and the costs will become truly unmanageable....Future generations will ask: how could we be so selfish not once, but twice?"

He has been a Special Ambassador to the FAO for Forests and the Environment (an FAO Goodwill Ambassador) since 2016.

In March 2013, the ACP Council of Ministers inaugurated a 14-member Eminent Persons Group (EPG) whose mission will be to provide guidance and concrete recommendations for the future of the ACP Group. The 14 members of the group who met in Brussels designated the former Nigerian President, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, as their chairperson, with Jagdeo designated as one of two Vice Chairs.

Jagdeo has been a guest lecturer at Columbia University (New York City, USA), York University (Toronto, Canada), Trent University (Peterborough, Canada), the University of Toronto, United Nations University (Tokyo, Japan), and the University of the West Indies. He has also taken part in Trent University's Carbon Conversation, focusing on the need to de-carbonize the global economy.

Leader of the Opposition
Following the PPP's defeat in the May 2015 general election, Jagdeo was included in the list of the PPP's 32 MPs. He was sworn in as Leader of the Opposition in the National Assembly on 17 August 2015.

Vice president
In March 2020, the PPP won the 2020 Guyanese general election, but an attempt was made by the incumbent APNU+AFC government to stay in power illegally. Jagdeo was to the fore of domestic and international efforts to protect the democratic process, and see a peaceful transition of power. The support of the US Government (who placed sanctions on several members of the incumbent Government), and others, resulted in the swearing in of Irfaan Ali as president.

After the PPP regained the presidency, President Ali swore in Jagdeo as the first Vice President on 3 August 2020. Jagdeo also shortly held the position of Minister of Finance until Ashni Singh was appointed the minister.

title: Bharrat Jagdeo