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Re-order buffer

A re-order buffer (ROB) is a hardware unit used in an extension to the Tomasulo algorithm to support out-of-order and speculative instruction execution. The extension forces instructions to be committed in-order.

The buffer is a circular buffer (to provide a FIFO instruction ordering queue) implemented as an array/vector (which allows recording of results against instructions as they complete out of order).

There are three stages to the Tomasulo algorithm: "Issue", "Execute", "Write Result". In an extension to the algorithm, there is an additional "Commit" stage. During the Commit stage, instruction results are stored in a register or memory. The "Write Result" stage is modified to place results in the re-order buffer. Each instruction is tagged in the reservation station with its index in the ROB for this purpose.

The contents of the buffer are used for data dependencies of other instructions scheduled in the buffer. The head of the buffer will be committed once its result is valid. Its dependencies will have already been calculated and committed since they must be ahead of the instruction in the buffer though not necessarily adjacent to it. Data dependencies between instructions would normally stall the pipeline while an instruction waits for its dependent values. The ROB allows the pipeline to continue to process other instructions while ensuring results are committed in order to prevent data hazards such as read ahead of write (RAW), write ahead of read (WAR) and write ahead of write (WAW).

There are additional fields in every entry of the buffer to support the extended algorithm:
 * Instruction type (jump, store to memory, store to register)
 * Destination (either memory address or register number)
 * Result (value that goes to destination or indication of a (un)successful jump)
 * Validity (does the result already exist?)

The consequences of the re-order buffer include precise exceptions and easy rollback control of target address mis-predictions (branch or jump). When jump prediction is not correct or a nonrecoverable exception is encountered in the instruction stream, the ROB is cleared of all instructions (by setting the circular queue tail to the head) and reservation stations are re-initialized.

title: Re-order buffer


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HMS Dorsetshire (40)

HMS Dorsetshire (pennant number 40) was a County-class cruiser heavy cruiser of the British Royal Navy, named after the English county, now usually known as Dorset. The ship was a member of the Norfolk sub-class, of which HMS Norfolk (78) was the only other unit; the County class comprised a further eleven ships in two other sub-classes. Dorsetshire was built at the Portsmouth Dockyard; her keel was laid in September 1927, she was launched in January 1929, and was completed in September 1930. Dorsetshire was armed with a main battery of eight 8 in guns, and had a top speed of 31.5 kn.

Dorsetshire served initially in the Atlantic Fleet in the early 1930s, before moving to become the flagship of the Commander-in-Chief, Africa in 1933, and then to the China Station in late 1935. She remained there until the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, when she was transferred to the South Atlantic. There, she reinforced the search for the German heavy cruiser GERMAN CRUISER Admiral Graf Spee. In late May 1941, Dorsetshire took part in the final engagement with the battleship Bismarck, which ended when Dorsetshire was ordered to close and torpedo the crippled German battleship. She joined searches for the heavy cruiser GERMAN CRUISER Admiral Hipper in August and the auxiliary cruiser GERMAN AUXILIARY CRUISER Atlantis in November.

In March 1942, Dorsetshire was transferred to the Eastern Fleet to support British forces in the recently opened Pacific Theatre of the war. At the end of the month, the Japanese fast carrier task force—the Kido Butai—launched the Indian Ocean raid. On 5 April, Japanese aircraft spotted Dorsetshire and her sister HMS Cornwall (56) while en route to Colombo; a force of dive bombers then attacked the two ships and sank them. More than 1,100 men were rescued the next day, out of a combined crew of over 1,500.

Description

Dorsetshire was at maximum 632 ft long overall, and had a beam of 66 ft and a draught of 18 ft. She displaced 9925 - 9975 LT at standard displacement, in compliance with the tonnage restriction of the Washington Naval Treaty, and up to 13425 LT at full load. Dorsetshire was propelled by four Parsons steam turbines that drove four screw propellers. Steam was provided by eight oil-fired 3-drum water-tube boilers. The turbines were rated at 80000 shp and produced a top speed of 32.3 kn. The ship had a capacity of 3210 MT of fuel oil as built, which provided a cruising radius of 12500 nmi at a speed of 12 kn. She had a crew of 710 officers and enlisted men.

Dorsetshire was armed with a main battery of eight BL 8 in Mk VIII 50-cal. guns in four twin turrets, in two superfiring pairs forward and aft. As built, the cruiser had a secondary battery that included four 4 in dual-purpose guns (DP) in single mounts. She also carried four QF 2-pounder anti-aircraft guns, also in single mounts. Her armament was rounded out by eight 21 in torpedo tubes mounted in two quadruple launchers.

Unlike most heavy cruisers, the County-class cruisers dispensed with traditional belt armour and used 1 in side plating to protect the hulls against shell fragments only. The ammunition magazines received 4 in of armour plate on the sides. The gun turrets and their supporting barbettes also received only 1 in splinter protection.

In 1931, Dorsetshire began to carry a seaplane; a catapult was installed the following year to allow her to launch the aircraft while underway. In 1937, her secondary battery was overhauled. Eight QF 4-inch Mk XVI DP guns in twin turrets replaced the single mounts, and the single 2-pounders were replaced with eight twin-mounts. During the Second World War, her anti-aircraft battery was strengthened by the addition of nine 20 mm guns.

Pre-war
Dorsetshire was laid down at the Portsmouth Dockyard on 21 September 1927 and was launched on 21 January 1929. After completing fitting-out work on 30 September 1930 she was commissioned into the Royal Navy. Upon commissioning, Dorsetshire became the flagship of the 2nd Cruiser Squadron. In 1931, she was part of the Atlantic Fleet during the Invergordon Mutiny. During the incident, some of her men initially refused to assemble for duty but after an hour and a half, the ship's officers had restored order and no further unrest troubled Dorsetshire during the mutiny. From 1933–1935, she served as the flagship for the Commander-in-Chief, Africa; she was replaced by HMS Amphion (1934). By September 1935, Dorsetshire was assigned to the China Station. From 1–4 February 1937, Dorsetshire, the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes (95) and the cruiser HMS Cumberland (57) participated in an exercise to test the defences of Singapore against a hypothetical Japanese attack.

Second World War

At the start of the Second World War in September 1939, Dorsetshire was still on the China Station. In October, Dorsetshire—with other Royal Navy ships—was sent to South American waters in pursuit of the German heavy cruiser GERMAN CRUISER Admiral Graf Spee, which was attacking British merchant traffic in the area. Dorsetshire was assigned with her sister ship HMS Cornwall (56) and the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle (1918). Dorsetshire had just arrived in Simonstown, South Africa, from Colombo on 9 December, with orders to proceed to Tristan da Cunha and then to Port Stanley in the Falkland Islands to relieve HMS Exeter (68). After departing Simonstown, she received the order to join the hunt for Admiral Graf Spee. She left South Africa on 13 December in company with the cruiser HMS Shropshire and was in transit on 17 December when the Germans scuttled Admiral Graf Spee following the Battle of the River Plate.

Exeter had been badly damaged in the battle with Admiral Graf Spee, and Dorsetshire escorted her back to Britain in January 1940, before returning to South American waters to search for German supply ships. On 11 February, her reconnaissance aircraft spotted the German supply freighter Wakama 12 nmi off the coast of Brazil, which was promptly scuttled by her crew. Dorsetshire arrived on the scene shortly thereafter, picked up ten officers and thirty-five crewmen and sank Wakama to prevent her from being a navigational hazard. The following month, the President of Panama, Augusto Samuel Boyd, sent a formal complaint to the British government protesting against Dorsetshire's violation of the Pan-American Security Zone in the Wakama incident.

In May, Dorsetshire underwent a short refit in Simonstown, before returning to Britain for a more thorough overhaul. On 23 June, she set out from Freetown to watch the French battleship FRENCH BATTLESHIP Richelieu, which left Dakar for Casablanca two days later. While en route, Dorsetshire rendezvoused with the aircraft carrier Hermes off Dakar. Richelieu was ordered to return to Dakar by Admiral François Darlan later that day and she arrived on 27 June. Dorsetshire continued to monitor the French Navy off Dakar and on 3 July, the French submarines FRENCH SUBMARINE Le Glorieux and FRENCH SUBMARINE Le Héros attempted to intercept her. Dorsetshire was able to evade their attacks through high-speed manoeuvres. On 5 July, Hermes and the Australian cruiser HMAS Australia (D84) joined her there. On 7 July, the squadron was ordered to issue an ultimatum to the French fleet, to either surrender and be interned under British control or to scuttle their ships; the French refused, so a fast sloop was sent in to drop depth charges under the stern of Richelieu to disable her screws.

On 4 September, she was dry-docked at Durban and on the 20th she arrived back in Simonstown. She sailed for Sierra Leone the next day. Operating in the Indian Ocean, on 18 November she bombarded Zante in Italian Somaliland. On 18 December she departed to join the search for the heavy cruiser GERMAN CRUISER Admiral Scheer, which had recently sunk the British refrigerator ship Duquesa in the South Atlantic. The British were unsuccessful in their search and Admiral Scheer remained at large.

Bismarck

By May 1941, Dorsetshire had been assigned to Force H, along with the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal (91), the battlecruiser HMS Renown (1916), and the light cruiser HMS Sheffield (C24). Dorsetshire was at that time commanded by Captain Benjamin Martin. Late in the month, the German battleship GERMAN BATTLESHIP Bismarck and heavy cruiser GERMAN CRUISER Prinz Eugen broke out into the North Atlantic to attack convoys sailing for Britain, and Dorsetshire was one of the ships deployed to hunt the German raiders. Dorsetshire had been escorting convoy SL74 from Sierra Leone to the UK on 26 May, when she received the order to leave the convoy and join the search for Bismarck; she was some 360 nmi south of Bismarck's location. Dorsetshire steamed at top speed, though heavy seas later in the night forced her to reduce to 25 kn and later to 20 kn. By 08:33, Dorsetshire encountered the destroyer HMS Cossack (F03), which had been engaging Bismarck throughout the night. The German battleship's gun flashes could be seen, only 6 nmi away, by 08:50.

Shortly thereafter, Dorsetshire took part in Bismarcks last battle; after the battleships HMS Rodney (29) and HMS King George V (41) neutralised Bismarcks main battery early in the engagement, Dorsetshire and other warships—including her sister HMS Norfolk (78)—closed in to join the attack. Dorsetshire opened fire at a range of 20000 yd, but poor visibility forced her to check her fire for lengthy periods. In the course of the engagement, she fired 254 shells from her main battery. In the final moments of the battle, she was ordered to move closer and torpedo Bismarck and fired three torpedoes, two of which hit the crippled battleship. The Germans had by this time detonated scuttling charges, which with the damage inflicted by the British, caused Bismarck to rapidly sink at 10:40.

Dorsetshire and the destroyer HMS Maori (F24) then moved in to pick up survivors. Martin had ropes lowered down the sides of the ship so the men in the water could climb aboard. A reported U-boat sighting forced the two ships to break off the rescue effort. Historians Holger Herwig and David Bercuson state that only 110 men were rescued: 85 aboard Dorsetshire and 25 aboard Maori. Historian Angus Konstam, however, writes that his research indicated a total of 116 saved, 86 on Dorsetshire (one of whom died), 25 on Maori, 3 rescued by GERMAN SUBMARINE U-74 and a further 2 picked up by the German weather ship Sachsenwald.

Rodney, King George V and the destroyers HMS Sikh (F82), HMS Zulu (F18) and Cossack had meanwhile begun to steam north-west to return to Scapa Flow. After abandoning the rescue effort, Dorsetshire and Maori caught up with the rest of the fleet shortly after 12:00. Late that night, as the fleet steamed off Britain, Dorsetshire was detached to stop in the Tyne. She had suffered no casualties in the battle with Bismarck.

Deployment to South Africa and the Indian Ocean

In late August, Dorsetshire participated in the search for the heavy cruiser GERMAN CRUISER Admiral Hipper. Dorsetshire, Eagle and the light cruiser HMS Newcastle (C76) left Freetown on 29 August, though they were unable to locate the German raider. On 4 November, Dorsetshire and the auxiliary cruiser HMS Canton, were sent to investigate reports of a German surface raider in the South Atlantic but neither ship found anything. In November–December, WS-24, a convoy of 10 troop transport ships, steamed out from Halifax, Canada en route to Basra, Iraq. After arriving in Cape Town on 9 December, Dorsetshire took over the escort duties and the convoy was diverted to Bombay, where it arrived on 24 December.

Dorsetshire was deployed in November, to join the search for the German commerce raider GERMAN AUXILIARY CRUISER Atlantis, that had been attacking Allied shipping off the coast of Africa. Admiral Algernon Willis formed Task Force 3, with Dorsetshire and HMS Devonshire (39) to patrol likely refuelling locations for Atlantis. On 1 December, Dorsetshire intercepted the German supply ship Python, based on Ultra intelligence. The German ship was refuelling a pair of U-boats— GS UA (1939) and GERMAN SUBMARINE U-68—in the South Atlantic. The U-boats dived while Python tried to flee. UA fired five torpedoes at Dorsetshire but all missed her due to her evasive manoeuvres. Dorsetshire fired a salvo to stop Python and the latter's crew abandoned the ship, after detonating scuttling charges. Dorsetshire left the Germans in their boats, since the U-boats still presented too much of a threat for the British to pick up the Germans.

Loss

In 1942, Dorsetshire, under the command of Augustus Agar, was assigned to the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean. In March, Dorsetshire was assigned to Force A, which was commanded by Admiral James Somerville, with the battleship HMS Warspite (03) and the carriers HMS Indomitable (92) and HMS Formidable (67). Somerville received reports of an impending Japanese attack in the Indian Ocean—the Indian Ocean raid—and so he put his fleet to sea on 31 March. Having not encountered any hostile forces by 4 April, he withdrew to refuel. Dorsetshire and her sister ship Cornwall were sent to Colombo to replenish their fuel.

The next day, she and Cornwall were spotted by reconnaissance aircraft from the heavy cruiser JAPANESE CRUISER Tone. The two British cruisers were attacked by a force of 53 Aichi D3A2 "Val" dive bombers 320 km southwest of Ceylon. In the span of about eight minutes, Dorsetshire was hit by ten 250 lb and 550 lb bombs and several near misses; she sank stern first at about 13:50. One of the bombs detonated an ammunition magazine and contributed to her rapid sinking. Cornwall was hit eight times and sank bow first about ten minutes later. Between the two ships, 1,122 men out of a total of 1,546 were picked up by the cruiser HMS Enterprise (D52) and the destroyers HMS Paladin (G69) and HMS Panther (G41) the next day.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: HMS Dorsetshire (40)


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Krasnystaw

Krasnystaw is a town in southeastern Poland with 18 630 inhabitants (31 december 2019). It is the capital of Krasnystaw County in the Lublin Voivodeship.

The town is famous for its beer festival called Chmielaki (chmiel means hop), and for its dairy products like yogurt and kefir. The river Wieprz flows through Krasnystaw.

History
Krasnystaw received its town charter from King Władysław II Jagiełło, who signed the document in Kraków, on 1 March 1394. The new town was located in the location of previously existing village of Szczekarzew, and in 1490 – 1826, was property of the Bishops of Chełm, and the seat of a starosta. Due to convenient location along merchant route from Lublin to Lwów, it prospered in the 16th century.

The period known as Swedish wars (1655–1660) brought destruction of both the town and the Krasnystaw Castle. The 4th Polish National Cavalry Brigade was stationed in Krasnystaw in 1790. Following the Third Partition of Poland, Krasnystaw was in 1795 annexed by the Habsburg Empire. After the Polish victory in the Austro-Polish War of 1809, it was part of the short-lived Polish Duchy of Warsaw, and after its dissolution in 1815, until 1916, it was part of Russian-controlled Congress Poland. During the January Uprising the town and its area saw heavy fighting between Polish rebels and Russian troops.

In 1916, Krasnystaw received rail connection, and in 1919, already in the Second Polish Republic, the town became seat of a county.

On 18–19 September 1939, during the Invasion of Poland, Polish troops of the 39th Infantry Division fought here with advancing Wehrmacht units. During World War II, numerous units of the Home Army and others operated in the area. The Germans blamed Jews for the resistance, and hanged seven. They then placed 40 Jews on the German front lines. About one third were killed. During the first months of their occupation, the Germans murdered both Christian and Jewish Poles.

In 1940, the Germans established a Jewish ghetto in the poorest part of town. Over the next few years, Jews from other communities were moved to the ghetto, others moved out of it to other camps and ghettos. Finally, in May 1942, it became a transit ghetto where Jews were brought on their way to Majdanek or to the Sobibor extermination camp, where all were immediately murdered. Later in 1942, some of the remaining Krasnystaw Jews were sent to the Belzec extermination camp. Only a handful of Krasnystaw's Jewish population of about 2500 survived.

In 1943, a local German prison was raided, and 300 inmates were released, in spring 1944, several German trains were destroyed. After the war, anti-Communist units operated here until 1950.

From 1975 to 1998, it was administratively part of the Chełm Voivodeship.

Distances

 * Lublin – 55 km
 * Chełm – 30 km
 * Zamość – 31 km
 * Ukraine – 60 km

Sights

 * Baroque complex of Jesuit Abbey, with a 1720 collegium, and church of Francis Xavier,
 * bishophoric palace (early 17th century), founded by Bishop Stanislaw Gamolinski,
 * seminary (1719–1739),
 * parish church, founded in 1458, destroyed by Crimean Tatars, remodelled in 1826 and 1951.
 * archaeological site, located where the 14th century Krasnystaw Castle once stood.
 * synagogue and Jewish cemetery,
 * 1920s town hall.
 * Regional Museum.

Economy
In Krasnystaw dominates the food industry:
 * Sugar Factory "Krasnystaw"
 * District Dairy Cooperative Krasnystaw
 * Fermentation tobacco
 * grain elevator Triticarr

Jewish community
The old synagogue of Krasnystaw, which was still standing at the beginning of the 20th century, had a number of 14th- and 15th-century architectural features. The municipal customs records of Krasnystaw for 1548 show a number of Jews resident in the town. In 1554, Jews were prohibited from owning dwelling houses in the town and suburbs, though in 1584 they were allowed to reside in the suburbs only. In 1761, three Jews from Wojslawice and one from Czarnoloz were convicted in a blood libel trial in Krasnystaw; another accused person, the rabbi of Wojslawice, committed suicide in prison. In 1776, the Jewish population of Krasnystaw numbered 63.

In the first half of the 19th century, a bitter struggle emerged between the Jews and the gentile townsfolk, who wished to keep their privilege of not having Jews reside in the town. In 1824, Jews were permitted to reside temporarily in several villages near the town, but the last restrictions on Jewish residence in Krasnystaw itself were not rescinded until 1862. Eleven Jews resided in the town in 1827, by 1857 the community had grown to 151 (4% of the population), and by 1897 to 1,176 (25% of the total). At that time 80% of local trade was in Jewish hands.

In 1921, the 1,754 Jews constituted 20% of the town's population. After the German murder of almost all the pre-World War II Polish Jews, no Jews currently reside in Krasnystaw.

Sport
Krasnystaw has a 4th league football team called Start Krasnystaw. In 2008 a new stadium/recreation center was built for the team. This new stadium has over 3,000 seats. The recreation center includes an indoor basketball court, a European handball court, gym, volleyball net, and spa.

Notable people and residents
A list of people that were born in the town or that live here.
 * Jan Adamiak (born 1948), politician
 * Melvin Dresher (1911–1992), mathematician
 * Marta Kaczmarek (born 1955), actor
 * Avoth Yeshurun aka Yehiel Perlmutter (1904–1992), Hebrew poet
 * Szmul Zygielbojm (1895–1943), Bund leader
 * Magdalena Wójcik (born 1975), singer

title: Krasnystaw


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Chełm

Chełm (Холм; Cholm; כעלם) is a city in southeastern Poland with 60,231 inhabitants as of December 2021. It is located to the south-east of Lublin, north of Zamość and south of Biała Podlaska, some 25 km from the border with Ukraine. Chełm used to be the capital of the Chełm Voivodeship until it became part of the Lublin Voivodeship in 1999.

The city is of mostly industrial character, though it also features numerous notable historical monuments and tourist attractions in the Old Town. Chełm is a multiple (former) bishopric. Its name comes from the Proto-Slavic word xъlmъ, a hill, in reference to the Wysoka Górka fortified settlement. In the third quarter of the 13th century, it was the capital of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia. Chełm was once a multicultural and religious centre populated by Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, Protestants and Jews. The population was homogenized after World War II.

History
The first traces of settlement in the area of modern Chełm date back to at the least 9th century. The following century, a fortified town was created and initially served as a centre of pagan worship. The etymology of the name is unclear, though most scholars derive it from the Proto-Slavic noun denoting a flat hill. The town's centre is located on a hill called góra chełmska. However, it is also theorized that the name is derived from some Celtic root. In 981 the town, then inhabited by the Slavic tribe of Buzhans, was annexed from Poland by the Kievan Rus', along with the surrounding Cherven Towns. According to a local legend, Vladimir the Great built the first stone castle there in 1001. Following the Polish capture of Kiev in 1018, the region returned to Poland before it fell back to Kievan rule in 1031.

In 1235, Daniel of Galicia granted the town a city charter and moved the capital of his domain in 1241–1272 after destruction of Halych by the Mongols in 1240–1241. Daniel also built a new castle atop the hill in 1237, one of the few Ruthenian castles that withstood Mongol attacks, and established an Orthodox eparchy (diocese) centered at the Basilica of the Birth of the Virgin Mary. Until the 14th century, the town developed as part of Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia and then as part of the short-lived Princedom of Chełm and Belz (see Duchy of Belz). In 1366, king Casimir III the Great of Poland took control of the region after his victory in the Galicia–Volhynia Wars. On 4 January 1392, the town was relocated and granted rights under Magdeburg Law, with vast internal autonomy and the town saw an influx of Polish and other Catholic settlers.

The Latin Church Diocese of Chełm was created in 1359, but its seat was moved to Krasnystaw after 1480. Renamed as Diocese of Chełm–Lublin in 1790, it was suppressed in 1805, but since 2005 Chełm is nominally restored and listed by the Catholic Church as Latin titular bishopric.

The Eastern Orthodox bishopric entered communion with the see of Rome in the late 16th century as Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Chełm–Bełz, retaining its Byzantine Rite, but in 1867 it became part of the imperial Russian Orthodox Church, and is now the Archdiocese of Lublin and Chełm of the Polish Orthodox Church.

The town was the capital of a historical region of the Land of Chełm, administratively a part of the Ruthenian Voivodeship in the Lesser Poland Province of the Kingdom of Poland. The city prospered in the 15th and 16th centuries. It was then that The Golem of Chełm by Rabbi Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm became famous, but the city declined in the 17th century due to the wars which ravaged Poland. In the 18th century, the situation in eastern Poland stabilized and the town started to slowly recover from the damages suffered during the Swedish Deluge and the Khmelnytsky uprising. It attracted a number of new settlers from all parts of Poland, including people of Catholic, Orthodox, and Jewish faiths. In 1794, the Chełm Voivodeship was established. Chełm was one of the first towns to join the Kościuszko's Uprising later that year. In the Battle of Chełm of 8 June 1794, the forces of Gen. Józef Zajączek were defeated by the Russians under Valerian Zubov and Boris Lacy, the town was yet again sacked by the invading armies. The following year, as a result of the Third Partition of Poland, the town was annexed by Austria.

Age of partitions
During the Napoleonic Wars in 1809, in the effect of the Polish–Austrian War, the town was briefly part of the Duchy of Warsaw. However, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 awarded it to Imperial Russia. The town entered a period of decline as the local administrative and religious offices (including the bishopric) were moved to Lublin. In the mid-19th century, the Russian Army turned the town into a strong garrison, which made the Russian soldiers a significant part of the population. The period of decline ended in 1866, when the town was connected to a new railroad. In 1875, the Uniate bishopric was liquidated by the Russian authorities and all of the local Uniates were forcibly converted to the Russian Orthodox Church. In the late 19th century, the local administrative offices were restored and in 1912 a local gubernia was created. During the Russian revolution of 1905 in the city was established the Ukrainian enlightenment society of Prosvita.

During World War I, in 1915 most of the Ukrainian and Russian minority was evacuated to Sloboda Ukraine and Russia. The city fell under Austrian occupation. On 3 May 1918, Chełm was the site of a large Polish manifestation, as over 15,000 Poles gathered to celebrate the Polish 3 May Constitution Day. In September 1918, apostolic visitor Ambrogio Damiano Achille Ratti (future Pope Pius XI) visited the city, greeted by the local Polish population. On 2 November 1918, local members of the Polish Military Organisation and students of local schools, led by Gustaw Orlicz-Dreszer, disarmed Austrian soldiers and liberated the city from Austrian rule, nine days before Poland officially regained independence. Chełm was one of the first liberated Polish cities of the former Russian Partition of Poland. The Polish 1st Cavalry Regiment was established in Chełm, which soon liberated the nearby towns of Włodawa and Hrubieszów. In the interbellum, Chełm was a county seat, administratively located in the Lublin Voivodeship (1919–1939) of the Second Polish Republic.

World War II
During the joint German-Soviet invasion of Poland, which started World War II, on 27 September 1939 the invading Soviet Red Army occupied Chełm, but withdrew two weeks later in accordance with the German-Soviet Frontier Treaty. As early as 7–9 October 1939 the city was occupied by German forces and renamed Kulm. At the beginning of the war, Chełm's population was around 33,000 of which 15,000 were Jewish. On Friday, 1 December 1939, at 8 o'clock, around 2000 Jewish men were driven at dawn to the market-square ("Okrąglak" or "Rynek") surrounded by the German SS formations and local indigenous officials. They were forced on a death march to Hrubieszów. Hundreds were murdered on the march, others were tortured and beaten. They were marched to the Soviet border where they were forced to cross the river under gunfire. Eventually perhaps 400 of the men survived the Death March and 1600 were slaughtered.

In January 1940, the Germans murdered 440 patients of the local psychiatric hospital, including 17 children, as part of the Aktion T4. In June 1940, during the AB-Aktion, the Germans carried out mass arrests of Poles, who were then imprisoned in Lublin, and then often deported to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp, while some were murdered in the region. The local Polish mayor was murdered in a massacre of over 115 Poles committed by the Gestapo in the nearby Kumowa Valley in 1940. In late 1940, Jews were confined to a small portion of Chełm, living in very overcrowded conditions, up to several dozen a room. Jews were conscripted for forced labor near Chełm and in other locations. The German Reich established 16 forced labor camps in the new Lublin district. Locals from neighboring villages and towns of Chełm also were forced to work in these camps. (also Khelm or Kulm in German), Some of the camps were connected to the main railroad line through a 40 km railroad branch line to the killing camps.

In 1942, during Operation Reinhard, the highly secretive Bełżec, Treblinka, and the Sobibór extermination camps were built near the forced labor camps. Their purpose was to murder all Polish Jews. In May 1942, 1000 elderly Chełm Jews were sent to the Sobibór extermination camp where they were immediately murdered. In August, 3000 to 4000 more were sent, including most of the children in the ghetto. In October, the SS and their Ukrainian auxiliaries rounded up and deported another 2000 to 3000 Jews to Sobibor. In November, the remaining Jews were marched to the railway station. Most were sent to Sobibor. Those in hiding were hunted, and the SS burned several ghetto buildings and killed many people who emerged from hiding. Some Jews remained in the ghetto as laborers, but they too were murdered in January 1943. There were only an estimated 60 Jews from Chełm who survived the Holocaust. Some survivors managed to find shelter in the Chełm Chalk Tunnels. However, as many as 400 others who fled to the east at the beginning of the war returned to Chełm but quickly moved on.

Following the 1941 Operation Barbarossa the Germans established the Stalag 319 prisoner-of-war camp in Chełm, in which they imprisoned Soviet, French, British, Italian and other Allied POWs. A total of some 200,000 POWs passed through the camp, and some 90,000 died there. In May 1944, the camp was relocated to Skierniewice. The monument commemorating the victims of Stalag 319 was unveiled in Chełm in May 2009 in the presence of foreign diplomats.

From 1942 through to 1945, Chełm was one of numerous locations of the Volhynian massacres of Poles by death squads of OUN-UPA and groups of Ukrainian nationalists. The city and its environs allegedly witnessed revenge killings as well, between Ukrainians and its Polish self-defence. As noted by historians Grzegorz Motyka and Volodymyr Viatrovych, the subject is highly controversial, because in 1944, Roman Shukhevych, leader of OUN-UPA, issued an order to fabricate proofs of Polish responsibility for war crimes committed there.

Chełm in Jewish literature

By the end of World War II, only a remnant of Chełm's Jewish population of c. 18,000 survived. They managed to emigrate to Israel, the USA, Canada, Latin America, or South Africa. Chełm became well-known as a butt of Jewish humor thanks to Jewish storytellers and writers such as Isaac Bashevis Singer, a Nobel Prize-winning novelist in the Yiddish language, who wrote The Fools of Chelm and Their History (published in English translation in 1973), and the Yiddish poet Ovsey Driz who wrote stories in verse. Notable adaptations of the Chełm Jewish folklore include the comedy Chelmer Khakhomim ("The Wise Men of Chelm") by Aaron Zeitlin, The Heroes of Chelm (1942) by Shlomo Simon, published in English translation as The Wise Men of Helm (Simon, 1945) and More Wise Men of Helm (Simon, 1965), as well as the book Chelmer Khakhomim by Y. Y. Trunk. Allen Mandelbaum's "Chelmaxioms : The Maxims, Axioms, Maxioms of Chelm" (David R. Godine, 1978) treats the wise men of the Jewish Chełm as scholars who are knowledgeable but lacking sense. Some Chełm stories emulate the interpretive process of Midrash and the Talmudic style of argumentation, and continue the dialogue between rabbinic texts and their manifestation in the daily arena. The seemingly tangential questioning that is typical of the Chełm Jewish Council can be interpreted as a comedic hint at the vastness of Talmudic literature. The combination of paralleled argumentation and linguistic commonality allows the Jewish textual tradition, namely Talmudic, to shine through Chełm folklore.

Demographics
After Poland's independence, the Polish census of 1921 found a population of 23,221, with 12,064 Jews, 9,492 Roman Catholics (Poles), 1,369 Orthodox Christians (Ukrainian, Ruthenians and Belarusians) and 207 Lutherans (Germans).

In September 1939, at the onset of World War II, Jews constituted 60% (18,000) of the city's inhabitants.

Sights and landmarks
The main landmarks and tourist attractions of the city are Góra Chełmska with the Baroque Basilica of the Birth of the Virgin Mary and the Chełm Chalk Tunnels, located underneath the city, a unique structure in Europe and the world. The town's main historic square is the Plac Łuczkowskiego (Łuczkowski Square), which is filled with colourful historic townhouses and contains a preserved old well.

Sports

 * Chełmianka Chełm – Polish football club, playing in the III liga
 * AZS Chełm – women basketball team, 7th place in Sharp Torell Basket Liga in 2003/2004 season

Politics
Most influential Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected from the Biała Podlaska/Chełm/Zamość constituency (2006) included: Badach Tadeusz (SLD-UP), Bratkowski Arkadiusz (PSL), Byra Jan (SLD-UP), Janowski Zbigniew (SLD-UP), Kwiatkowski Marian (Samoobrona), Lewczuk Henryk (LPR), Michalski Jerzy (Samoobrona), Nikolski Lech (SLD-UP), Skomra Szczepan (SLD-UP), Stanibuła Ryszard (PSL), Stefaniuk Franciszek (PSL), Żmijan Stanisław (PO) and Matuszczak Zbigniew (SLD).

Symbols
The flag of Chełm is a rectangle with 2:3 proportions, divided into two parallel, horizontal stripes of the same width (upper – white, lower – green). On the upper strip, in the center, there is the coat of arms of Chełm.

Notable people

 * Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chełm (1550–1583), notable Jewish rabbi
 * Solomon ben Moses of Chelm (1715/16–1781), notable rabbinic scholar
 * Anna "Ania" Dąbrowska (born 1981), singer and songwriter
 * Daniel of Galicia (1201-1264), King of Ruthenia
 * Magdalena Gaj (born 1974), state official
 * Ida Haendel (1928–2020), classical violinist
 * Mykhailo Hrushevsky (1866–1934), Ukrainian historian and politician
 * Edward Ihnatowicz (1926–1988), cybernetic art sculptor
 * Renata Reisfeld (born 1930), Israeli chemist
 * Rose Schneiderman (1882–1972), feminist and labor leader
 * Joseph Serchuk (1919–1993), Sobibor uprising survivor and Jewish partisan
 * Józef Szydłowski (1896–1988), aircraft engine designer
 * Szmul Zygielbojm (1895–1943), Bund leader
 * Icek Ajzen (born 1942), social psychologist

Twin towns – Sister cities
Chełm is twinned with:
 * 🇺🇦 Kovel, Ukraine
 * 🇫🇷 Morlaix, France
 * 🇱🇹 Utena, Lithuania
 * 🇩🇪 Sindelfingen, Germany
 * 🇺🇸 Knoxville, Tennessee, US

title: Chełm


text:
Zator, Lesser Poland Voivodeship

Zator (Neuenstadt an der Schaue, Wymysorys: Naojśtaod) is an old town on the Skawa river within Oświęcim County, Lesser Poland Voivodeship (since 1999) in southern Poland. From 1975 to 1998 it belonged to the Bielsko-Biała Voivodeship. The town is the administrative seat of the Gmina Zator. According to data from December 31, 2008, Zator was inhabited by 4,779 people.

Description
The city, located on the Skawa river, is well known for pisciculture, especially carp, and periodic event called Zatorskie Dni Karpia. Zator is the main city of the Carp Valley.

History
Originally a part of Lesser Poland, the area was acquired by the Silesian Piast Duke Władysław of Opole through a 1274 agreement with the Polish Princeps Bolesław V the Chaste. Zator then belonged to the Upper Silesian Duchy of Opole and after Władysław's death in 1281 fell to the Duchy of Cieszyn. It received town privileges in 1292.

From 1315 onwards, Zator belonged to the Duchy of Oświęcim split off Cieszyn and in 1445 even became the capital of a Piast duchy in its own right, the Duchy of Zator under Duke Wenceslaus I, a Bohemian vassal. It finally fell back to the Kingdom of Poland, when in 1494 Wenceslaus' son Jan V sold his lands to King John I Albert.

From 1564, Zator had been incorporated into the Kraków Voivodeship of Lesser Poland; in the course of the 1772 First Partition of Poland it was annexed by the Habsburg monarchy under Empress Maria Theresa of Austria and incorporated into the Austrian Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. After the dissolution of Austria-Hungary by the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain Zator again fell to Poland.

During World War II, Zator was incorporated to Nazi Germany as a part of the Province of Upper Silesia, and was liberated on January 26, 1945. Several hundred Jews lived in Zator. Most of them were murdered in the Holocaust.

Places of interest

 * The Zator castle, actually a palace, originally of defensive purposes. The castle is from 1445 year. It is classified as The First Class Monument. In 1836, it was completely renovated by The Potocki family according to the project of F. M. Lanci.
 * The Jewish cemetery, founded in the middle of the 19th century. There are about 50 preserved headstones, most of which with an inscription in Hebrew language.
 * The Energylandia amusement park is located in Zator.

Notable people

 * Roman Rybarski (1887–1942), economist and politician
 * Rose Meth (1925–2013), surviving participant of the October 7, 1944 Sonderkommando uprising at the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp

Twin towns — Sister cities
Zator is twinned with:
 * 🇭🇺 Berekfürdő, Hungary
 * 🇸🇰 Bojnice, Slovakia

title: Zator, Lesser Poland Voivodeship


text:
Maków Podhalański

Maków Podhalański (known as Maków until 1930) is a town in southern Poland, on the Skawa river. Population: 5,738 (2006).

Since 1999 situated in Sucha County, Lesser Poland Voivodeship. Previously (1975–1998) in Bielsko-Biala Voivodeship.

title: Maków Podhalański


text:
Kęty

Kęty is a town in Oświęcim County, Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Poland with 18,955 inhabitants (2012). The town located in Silesian Foothills dates its earliest document from 1277 when Polish prince of Opole Władysław confirmed sale of the settlement and adoption of Lviv city rights. The town's name comes from the word kąt (Polish for corner). The greatest development of the town came under the rule of Jagiellons, when the town became royal property.

The son of the mayor of the town of Kenty, Stanislaus Bacenga and his wife Anna became the Saint John Cantius, also known as John (Johann) of Kraków.

Education
 * Publiczne Przedszkole Sióstr Zmartwychwstanek im. bł. Matki Celiny Borzęckiej
 * Zespół Szkolno-Gimnazjalny Nr 1 w Kętach
 * Zespół Szkolno-Gimnazjalny Nr 2 w Kętach
 * Zespół Szkół Podstawowo-Gimnazjalnych nr 3 w Kętach-Podlesiu im. Bohaterów Westerplatte
 * Powiatowy Zespół nr 9 Szkół im. Marii Dąbrowskiej w Kętach
 * Powiatowy Zespół nr 10 Szkół Mechaniczno-Elektrycznych im. M. Kopernika
 * Powiatowy Zespół nr 11 Szkół Ogólnokształcących im. St. Wyspiańskiego
 * Centrum Kształcenia Dorosłych w Kętach

Twin towns — Sister cities
Kęty is twinned with:
 * 🇸🇰 Turzovka

title: Kęty


text:
Chełmek

Chełmek is a town in Lesser Poland Voivodeship in southern Poland. In 1975–1998 it belonged to Bielsko-Biała Voivodeship. As of December 2021, it has 8,810 inhabitants. Previously known for the Chełmek Shoe Factory, which until 1947 was part of Bata Shoes.

Chełmek lies in the wetland area along the Przemsza river, at the foot of the Skała hill (293 meters above sea level). The town is surrounded by forests.

History
Chełmek was first mentioned in 1414. In 1490, it belonged to a parish from Jaworzno, and until the First Partition of Poland in 1772, it was a small village, which was administratively located in the Kraków Voivodeship in the Lesser Poland Province of the Polish Crown.

In 1772 Chełmek was annexed by the Habsburg Empire, and made part of Galicia. The village was located right on the border between Prussian Silesia, and Austrian Galicia. It was regained by Poles as a result of the Austro-Polish War in 1809 and became part of the short-lived Polish Duchy of Warsaw, and after its dissolution in 1815, it became part of Chrzanów District of the Free City of Kraków. In November 1846, the Free City was annexed by Austria, and in 1856, rail line from Kraków to Vienna, via Chełmek was constructed. In the late 19th century, it had a population of 1,094. After World War I, in 1918, Poland regained independence, and in the Second Polish Republic, Chełmek belonged to the Kraków Voivodeship, and due to proximity of the Silesian border, its residents helped Polish insurgents in Silesia (see Silesian Uprisings).

Until 1931, Chełmek remained a poor village, whose inhabitants would emigrate from it, seeking for work at local coal mines. In 1931, however, legendary Czech businessman Tomas Bata decided to acquire land in Chełmek, to build a shoe factory here, together with a settlement for workers. In five years, the population of the village doubled, a new church, kindergarten, schools and culture house were built.

Following the joint German-Soviet invasion of Poland, which started World War II in 1939, Chełmek was invaded and then occupied by Germany until 1945. In 1942, the Germans established and operated a subcamp of the Auschwitz concentration camp in the settlement. About 150 prisoners, mostly Jews deported from France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, were subjected to slave labour in the subcamp. 47 prisoners died in the subcamp. The Germans left the village on 25 January 1945, and soon after the war, the school and the 1920s iron bridge over the Przemsza were rebuilt.

In 1947, the Bata Shoe Factory was nationalized, and in 1969 Chełmek received town charter.

Sports
The local football club is KS Chełmek. It competes in the lower leagues.

title: Chełmek


text:
Wisła

Wisła (Weichsel ; Visla) is a town in Cieszyn County, Silesian Voivodeship, southern Poland, with a population of about 11,132 (2019), near the border with Czech Republic. It is situated in the Silesian Beskids mountain range in the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia and ethnic region of the Silesian Gorals. Wisła is the Polish name for the Vistula River, which has its source in the mountains near the town.

It is the only town in Poland with a majority Lutheran population (as of 2006 roughly two-thirds of the population were Protestant, which is a drop from 94,4% in 1900 ).

Wisła is a popular year-round tourist destination, being home to Malinka, a ski jumping hill. It is also known for being the home town of ski jumper Adam Małysz. Wisła is also the home of the Beskid Museum displaying agricultural tools, folk costumes and goatskin bagpipes from the surrounding region.

History
The first people to settle in Wisła in the late 16th or early 17th century came from two directions: from Ustroń up the river Vistula and Gorals searching for new pastures in the mountains (see also: Vlachs). It was first mentioned in 1615. Politically the village belonged then to the Duchy of Teschen, a fee of the Kingdom of Bohemia, which after 1526 became part of the Habsburg monarchy. It was first recognized as a developed village of the Teschener Kammer, named na Wisłach, in 1643.

The majority of its inhabitants were Lutherans. After issuing the Patent of Toleration in 1781, they subsequently organized a local Lutheran parish as one of over ten in the region.

After Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire, a modern municipal division was introduced in the re-established Austrian Silesia. The village as a municipality was subscribed to the political district of Bielsko and the legal district of Skoczów. In the second half of the 19th century it became increasingly popular as a tourist destination.

According to the censuses conducted in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the municipality grew from 4261 in 1880 to 4685 in 1910 with a majority being native Polish-speakers (98.5%-99%) and a small minority German-speaking (at most 64 or 1.5% in 1880) and at most 4 people Czech-speaking (in 1910), in terms of religion majority were Protestants (94.9% in 1910), followed by Roman Catholics (232 or 5% in 1910) and 6 Jews. The village was also traditionally inhabited by a specific subgroup of Silesian Gorals, speaking Cieszyn Silesian dialect.

After World War I, fall of Austria-Hungary, Polish–Czechoslovak War and the division of Cieszyn Silesia in 1920, it became a part of Poland. It was then annexed by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II. After the war it was restored to Poland. It gained town rights in 1962.

Tourism
In the winter Wisła is known for its skiing: Malinka, a ski jump hill, is located here and hosts international competitions. In the summer, hiking through its many mountain trails is popular. To support its recent growth in tourism, many hotels have been built, the largest of which is Hotel Gołębiewski.

In Wisła a trail starts that leads to the Stożek Wielki, a mountain on the border with the Czech Republic that reaches a height of 978 meters.

Interesting sights in Wisła are:
 * Wisła Castle – one of the official residences of the President of Poland, built in 1929–1930 by Adolf Szyszko-Bohusz
 * Lutheran Church – klassicist church from 1838
 * Habsburg hunting lodge – originally built on the Przysłop Pass, transferred to Wisła in 1985
 * Galeria „Sportowe Trofea Adama Małysza” w Wiśle – museum of Adam Małysz

Notable residents

 * Juliusz Bursche (1862–1942), Lutheran bishop
 * Adam Małysz (born 1977), ski jumper
 * Piotr Żyła (born 1987), ski jumper
 * Julian Ochorowicz (1850–1917), philosopher, psychologist, inventor
 * Jerzy Pilch (1952–2020), writer and columnist

Twin towns – sister cities
Wisła is twinned with:

 * 🇫🇷 Bully-les-Mines, France
 * 🇷🇸 Čoka, Serbia
 * 🇨🇿 Hukvaldy, Czech Republic
 * 🇨🇿 Nepomuk, Czech Republic
 * 🇩🇪 Rheinhausen, Germany
 * 🇸🇰 Turčianske Teplice, Slovakia

title: Wisła


text:
Wilamowice

Wilamowice (earlier Willamowice; Wilmesau; ) is a rural town in southern Poland, situated in the Bielsko County, Silesian Voivodeship. The town is inhabited by a Germanic ethnic group of Vilamovians, who speak the highly endangered Wymysorys language.

History
According to historians, after the desolation of Polish lands by the Mongol invasion in 1241, the then Silesian Piast rulers of the Duchy of Opole and Racibórz decided to bring settlers from the West to the deserted and destroyed lands around the Silesian Foothills, to revive agriculture, industry and trade. The area was settled in the course of the German eastward colonization of Slavic lands. In this way, around 1250, a group of colonists from the area of former Flanders came to the region, specifically from Friesland, near Bruges and established the settlement Wilamowice.

The settlement was first documented in 1325, in the Peter's Pence register as the parish Novovillamowicz (New-Wilamowice) in medieval Latin, among the Catholic parishes of Oświęcim diaconate, in the Diocese of Kraków. The place name is seen as a demarcation to the older settlement Antiquo-Willamowicz (Old-Wilamowice, today named Stara Wieś). In 1529, the two place names were recorded respectively in medieval Latin as Vilamovice Nova and Antiqua Vylamovicze.

In the course of history, the area has been part of several territorial border changes. Politically, both settlements—old and new, belonged to the Duchy of Opole and Racibórz, and the castellany gord of Oświęcim ceded from Lesser Poland around 1177 by duke Casimir II the Just to the duke of Opole—Mieszko I Tanglefoot, which in 1315 was formed in the process of the feudal fragmentation of Poland into the Duchy of Oświęcim, ruled by the local dukes of the Silesian Piast dynasty. In 1327, the Duchy of Oświęcim became a fiefdom of the Kingdom of Bohemia within the Holy Roman Empire. In the 15th century, Jan Długosz lists the settlement in the diocese of Kraków benefactors register Liber beneficiorum dioecesis Cracoviensis in Old Polish language Wylamowycze, in allodial lordship of the nobleman Andreas of Wilamowic (aka Wilamowski) and the heirs Johannes and Nicolaus Wilamowski. From 1527, owners of the lordship mentioned include: the nobleman Jakob Saszowski of Gieraltowic and Wilamowic, and in 1533: the nobleman and chief judge of Oświęcim Nicolaus Saszowski of Gieraltowic (aka Gierałtowski), in 1633: Christopher Korycinski (castellan of Wojnicz), between 1707 and 1719 Władysław Morsztyn and his wife Helena née Kalinowska; to the end of the 19th century the owner Psarski sold his land and rights to residents, and from there on Wilamowice became a small rural town.

In 1457, duke Jan IV of Oświęcim agreed to sell the Duchy of Oświęcim to the Polish Crown, and in the accompanying document issued on 21 February the settlement was mentioned in Old Polish language Wylamowycze. It was not, however, until 1564, at the General sejm, that King Sigismund II Augustus issued privileges of incorporation, recognizing the Duchy of Oświęcim as part of the Polish Crown into the Silesian County of the Kraków Voivodeship.

Since the 15th century, the names used in official chronicles were the German versions Wilmeshau and Wilmesdorf for both the new and old Wilamowice respectively. The place name was subject to several vernacular changes over the course of history, and since the 18th century the name Wilmesau in High German prevailed under the ruling Habsburg monarchy; when in 1772, upon the First Partition of Poland, it became part of the Habsburg's Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a semi-autonomous protectorate of the Austrian Empire. After World War I and the dissolution of Austro-Hungarian monarchy, it became part of the newly independent nation of the Second Polish Republic.

In 1939, after the joint Invasion of Poland by Germany, the Soviet Union, and the Free City of Danzig, the area was annexed by Germany (see Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany) in the Occupation of Poland. After the end of the Second World War, Polish territories seized by the Red Army as it advanced westward, were restored to the post-War Polish People's Republic.

Archaic dialect
Due to endogamy and geographical isolation of the settlement in a Polish language region near the German linguistic enclave around Bielsko-Biala, Wilamowice formed an independent language or dialect (see: Wymysorys language) since the Late Medieval Period, which was in use in everyday life until the end of the Second World War. At the end of the War, whilst almost all Germans in the region were expelled (see Flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II), in Wilmesau—the ancestral population were able to remain. The local language, however, was banned in the Polish People's Republic under the Soviet Occupation Forces and Soviet-backed communist regime, and the local population were partially Polonized. Although the language ban was lifted in 1956 during the "Polish October" revolution, attempts continued to suppress the Wymysorys dialect from public life.

Today, the Wymysorys dialect is spoken by less than 70 native speaking residents—the elderly being the majority. The status of the Wilamowice ethnolect is complex, because according to the traditional classification it is broadly understood as an East Central dialect of High German. Nevertheless, based on the self-identification of its users as a separate group from the Germans and the existence of a literary Wymysorys language (or, to be more exact, micro-language), this ethnolect can be considered a separate language.

Notable people

 * Florian Biesik (1849–1926), writer
 * Józef Bilczewski (1860–1923), archbishop of Lwów
 * Józef Gara (1929–2013), former miner turned author and poet who was the creator of the modern alphabet of Wymysorys and a collector of Wymysorys songs

Twin towns – sister cities
See twin towns of Gmina Wilamowice.

title: Wilamowice


text:
Ustroń

Ustroń (Ustron) is a health resort town in Cieszyn Silesia, southern Poland. Since 1999, it has been part of the Silesian Voivodeship, having previously been in Bielsko-Biała Voivodeship from 1975 to 1998. It lies on the Silesian Beskids mountain range. The Równica and Czantoria mountains are nearby.

History
The settlement was first mentioned in a Latin document of Diocese of Wrocław called Liber fundationis episcopatus Vratislaviensis from around 1305 as item in Ustrona. It meant that the village was in the process of location (the size of land to pay a tithe from was not yet precise). The creation of the village was a part of a larger settlement campaign taking place in the late 13th century in the area that would later be known as Upper Silesia.

Politically, the village belonged initially to the Duchy of Teschen, formed in 1290 in the process of feudal fragmentation of Poland, and was ruled by a local branch of Piast dynasty. In 1327, the duchy became a fee of Kingdom of Bohemia, which, after 1526, became part of the Habsburg monarchy.

The village became a seat of a Catholic parish, mentioned in the register of Peter's Pence payment from 1447 among the 50 parishes of Teschen deanery as Wstrowe.

In 1772, the Klemens Steel Works was opened and the village was gradually industrialised. When the steel work was closed in 1897 the market town switched to be more orientated towards a health and spa resort.

After the Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire, a modern municipal division was introduced in the re-established Austrian Silesia. Ustroń as a municipality was subscribed to the political district of Bielsko and the legal district of Skoczów. In 1856, it gained market town rights. According to the 1880–1910 censuses, the population of the municipality dropped from 4,375 in 1880 to 4,275 in 1910, with a majority being native Polish-speakers (91.5–92.8%), a growing minority speaking German, and dwindling Czech-speaking population. In terms of religion, in 1910, the majority were Protestants (57.1%), followed by Roman Catholics (40.4%) and Jews (2.5%). Ustroń was also traditionally inhabited by Cieszyn Vlachs, speaking Cieszyn Silesian dialect.

After World War I, the fall of Austria-Hungary, the Polish–Czechoslovak War and the division of Cieszyn Silesia in 1920, it became a part of Poland. It was then annexed by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II. After the war it was restored to Poland.

It gained city rights in 1956. Since the 1960s, Ustroń saw a large development of new hotels and health centers. A cluster of pyramid-shaped hotels were built in the town. It was also expanded by merger of the surrounding villages: Nierodzim in 1974, Hermanice and Lipowiec in 1975.

Ustroń is the home of the Jan Jarocki Museum, which was founded in April 1986 as the Museum of Metallurgy. It is housed in an old building of the former Klemens Steel Works, which was in use between 1772 and 1897. The museum collects technical tools, as well as historical and ethnographic artifacts.

Sport

 * Kuźnia Ustroń – football club founded in 1922
 * TRS Siła Ustroń – volleyball club

Hiking and recreation
Ustroń and the areas surrounding it play host to many hiking trails, including either the start (if one travels eastward) or finish (if one travels westward) of the Main Beskid Trail.

Education

 * The Alfred Meissner Graduated School of Dental Engineering and the Humanities

Notable people

 * Karol Hławiczka (1894-1976), composer and educator
 * Theodor Kotschy (1813–1866), Austrian botanist
 * Jan Szwarc (born 1946), politician

Twin towns – sister cities
Ustroń is twinned with:

 * 🇨🇿 Frenštát pod Radhoštěm, Czech Republic
 * 🇭🇺 Hajdúnánás, Hungary
 * 🇵🇱 Kalety, Poland
 * 🇨🇿 Luhačovice, Czech Republic
 * 🇩🇪 Neukirchen-Vluyn, Germany
 * 🇸🇰 Piešťany, Slovakia
 * 🇭🇺 Újbuda (Budapest), Hungary
 * 🇵🇱 Ustronie Morskie, Poland

title: Ustroń


text:
Skoczów

Skoczów ( pronounced, Skotschau, Skočov) is a town and the seat of Gmina Skoczów in Cieszyn County, Silesian Voivodeship, southern Poland with 14,385 inhabitants (2019). The town lies in the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia.

The name of the town is of possessive origin, derived from personal name Skocz.

History

The very first settlement in the nearest neighbourhood had been established by a Slavic tribe called Golensizi around the 7th century on a naturally defensive hill over the valley of the river Bładnica and ravine called Piekiełko about 2 km south-east of the town centre within borders of modern Międzyświeć. The "gord" was later surrounded by an earth bank and moat. The settlement was destroyed in the end of the 9th century most probably by Great Moravian Prince Svatopluk II and was not rebuilt again.

Sometimes the oldest mentioning of Skoczów is believed to be from the document allegedly issued in 1232 by Mieszko, dux Oppoliensis et dominus Tessinensis et Ratiboriensis (implicitly Mieszko II the Fat) for a knight Przecho from Zabłocie, were among witnesses is a ducal writer, Mikołaj from Coczow (Skoczów). Some researchers consider the document to be a fake. Idzi Panic takes into consideration that it could be a mistake during rewriting, and that the document could be originally issued in 1282 by Mieszko, who later ruled the Duchy of Teschen (formed in 1290, where Skoczów also belonged), but back then together with younger brother Przemko ruled Duchy of Racibórz with castellanies of Cieszyn and Oświęcim, and would more likely use the title dux Oppoliensis et dominus Tessinensis et Ratiboriensis than Mieszko II the Fat (who never used as complicated title). The rewriter could have omitted the number L in the year MCCLXXXII (1282), making it MCCXXXII (1232). If the document was indeed a fake, then the first mentioning of Skoczów as oppidum Scocoviense is from 1327 when Duke Casimir I became a vassal of the King of Bohemia. The term oppidum (used also for Jamnica preceding Frýdek) was used in contrary to civitates ruling themselves under German rights of Cieszyn, Bielsko and Frysztat. It probably meant that Skoczów was yet ruled under Polish (ducal) traditional rights.

In the document from 1327 there is also mentioned a gord, which can be linked with a subsequent wooden castle revealed in later documents. The settlement of Skoczów most probably emerged as its podgrodzie, a small locality serving it, which later evolved into a market settlement with irregular arrangement of buildings centered on main oval square a few hundred meters north of nowadays Market Square, where later (but no earlier than late 1330s) a parish church was built. The location of the town around new Market Square under German rights took place hypothetically roughly at similar time as of Frýdek, in the late 14th century. The new town had regular arrangement of buildings stretched towards the parish church in the north. It was surrounded with ramparts from wood and earth with two gates: Upper and Lower. Through the Upper Gate a path led towards Cieszyn in the east, through Lower towards Bielsko in the west. Behind the Upper Gate emerged the Upper Suburb, whereas on the right and eastern bank of Vistula River was located a Lower Suburb. In the beginning Skoczów was a small town, with around 450 citizens in the middle of the 15th century. It had been mainly an agricultural and craft trade settlement with much lower importance of trade. A local Catholic parish was first mentioned in the register of Peter's Pence payment from 1447 among 50 parishes of Teschen deanery as Scotczowa.

In the late 1469 or early 1470 Skoczów was destroyed by fire, which burnt all chartered privileges and other documents. 26 January 1470 the Duke of Cieszyn renewed and extended all civic privileges. A school and hospital with a chapel are recorded in a document from 1482. During Reformation under Wenceslaus III Adam rule it was dominated by Lutherans, who took over the parish church, and later also hospital's chapel. At that time Jan Sarkander was born here. In the years 1573-1577 during the rule of Wenceslaus III Adam, Duke of Cieszyn the town together with Strumień and their surrounding villages were sold to Gottard von Logau, and formed a state country. It was retrieved by Adam Wenceslaus in 1594. In 1610 Adam Wenceslaus switched his faith to Catholicism, and brought a new priest from Żywiec, Wojciech Gagatkowski. However Lutherans dominated the town for decades, the majority of Catholics was reported in 1687.

Since 1653 the town belonged to the Teschener Kammer. The 17th century was disastrous for Skoczów as well as for whole region. Because of Thirty Years' War the population was decreased by about 25-30%.

After the Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire a modern municipal division was introduced in the re-established Austrian Silesia. The town became a seat of a legal district in the political district of Bielsko. According to the censuses conducted in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the town grew from 3113 in 1880 to 3744 in 1910. In 1880 the majority of its inhabitants were native Polish-speakers (69.3%) followed by German-speakers (29.5%) and Czech-speakers (1.2%). In the next years the Polish-speaking population dropped down to 48.4% in 1910, whereas German-speaking citizens grew in number up to 50.3% in 1910, Czech-speaking minority stood at relatively similar level of 1.3%. In terms of religion in 1910 majority were Roman Catholics (65.3%), followed by Protestants (27.8%), Jews (247 or 6.6%) and 12 people were adherents to yet another religion. The town and especially its surroundings were also traditionally inhabited by Cieszyn Vlachs, speaking Cieszyn Silesian dialect. The growth of German language, then prestigious language of the state, can be partially attributed to various reasons, including cultural cringe of indigenous Slavic denizens.

After the end of World War I, both of the two newly created independent states of Poland and Czechoslovakia claimed the area of Cieszyn Silesia. On 23 January 1919 Czech units led by Colonel Josef Šnejdárek invaded the area, and clashed after its swift advance with Polish units commanded by General Franciszek Latinik near Skoczów where a battle took place on 28–30 January. It was inconclusive, and before the reinforced Czech forces could resume the attack on the town, they were pressed by Entente to stop operations and a cease-fire was signed on 3 February. On 28 July 1920 by decision of the Spa Conference Skoczów became a part of the Second Polish Republic. It was then annexed by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II. After the war it was restored to Poland.

Kaplicówka Hill which overlooks the town is dominated by a chapel built in 1934 and a large cross. Pope John Paul II visited Skoczów in 1995, holding a mass attended by 200,000 people. The cross on Kaplicówka was erected to commemorate the visit.

From 1975 to 1998 it was located in the Bielsko-Biała Voivodeship, and since 1999 in Silesian Voivodeship.

The town holds a market on Thursdays, situated next to the Vistula river.

Geography
Skoczów lies in the southern part of Poland, approximately 13 km north-east of the county seat, Cieszyn, 18 km west of Bielsko-Biała, 55 km south-west of the regional capital Katowice, and 14 km east of the border with the Czech Republic.

It lies on the confluence of the river Bładnica into the Vistula, reaching up to roughly 380 m above sea level (in the west, on the eastern slopes of the Górka Wilamowicka hill), down to 285 m above sea level (the lowest point of the Vistula valley), in the Silesian Foothills, 9 km north-west of the Silesian Beskids;

Notable people

 * St. Jan Sarkander (1576–1620), priest and martyr
 * Gustaw Morcinek (1891–1963), writer commonly associated with Silesia, Member of Parliament of the People's Republic of Poland

Twin towns – sister cities
See twin towns of Gmina Skoczów.

title: Skoczów


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Wadowice

Wadowice is a town in southern Poland, 50 km southwest of Kraków with 17,455 inhabitants (2022), situated on the Skawa river, confluence of Vistula, in the eastern part of Silesian Foothills (Pogórze Śląskie). Wadowice is known for being the birthplace of Karol Wojtyła, later Pope John Paul II and Godwin von Brumowski, Austria-Hungary’s best flying ace with 35 credited and an additional 8 possible wins in the air.

History
The first permanent settlement in the area of today's Wadowice was founded in the late 10th century or early 11th century. According to a local legend, the town was founded by a certain Wad or Wład, a short form for the Slavic name of Ladislaus ('Władysław'). The town was first mentioned as Wadowicze in St. Peter penny register in the years 1325–1327. In 1327 it is also mentioned (under the same name) in a fief registry sent from prince John I Scholastyk of Oświęcim to Bohemian king John I, Count of Luxemburg. At this time it was a trading settlement belonging to the Dukes of Silesia of the Piast dynasty, and according to some historians it was already a municipality. In 1430 a great fire destroyed the town. It was soon rebuilt and granted city rights, along with a city charter and a self-government, based on the then-popular Kulm law. The privileges, granted by Prince Kazimierz I of Oświęcim led to a period of fast reconstruction and growth.

The administrative division of the region in the times of regional division was complicated. Initially, between 1313/1317 and 1445, Wadowice belonged to the Silesian Duchy of Oświęcim and after 1445 to the Duchy of Zator. In 1482 Władysław I of Zator inherited only half of his father's lands and created a separate Duchy of Wadowice, which lasted until his death in 1493. The following year his brother and successor, Jan V of Zator abdicated. At the same time the land was subject to Bohemian overlordship, which lasted until the following year, when the Duchy was bought by the Kings of Poland and incorporated as a Silesian County. Finally, the county was incorporated into the Kraków Voivodeship of the Lesser Poland Province of the Polish Crown in 1564.

In the 16th–17th centuries Wadowice was a regional centre of crafts and trade. Among the most notable sons of the town was Marcin Wadowita, a theologian, philosopher and a deacon of the Kraków Academy. He was also the founder of a hospital and a basic school in Wadowice. However, several plagues and fires halted the prosperity and the town's growth was eventually halted as well.

Late modern period
In the effect of the First Partition of Poland, Wadowice was annexed by Austria, incorporated into the newly established Kingdom of Galicia, under direct Austrian rule, and renamed Frauenstadt. The town's growth started soon afterwards, after a road linking Vienna with Lviv was built. The town became a seat of a communal administration and since 1867 – a county site. Small industries were developing slowly during the 19th century. New inhabitants settled in the area, attracted by the industry, new military barracks and various administrative institutions. In addition, a new hospital and a regional court were erected in the town centre. Finally, in the last 25 years of the 19th century partial liberalisation of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy led to creation of various Polish cultural and scientific societies.

After World War I and the dissolution of the monarchy, Wadowice became part of the newly reborn Poland. The seat of a powiat remained in the town and in 1919 the inhabitants of the area formed the 12th Infantry Regiment that took part in the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1920. In 1920 Karol Wojtyła was born in Wadowice (he became the bishop of Kraków, then Pope John Paul II, and was canonized after his death).

World War II
After the Polish Defensive War of 1939, Germany occupied the area and on 26 October Wadowice was annexed by Nazi Germany. On 29 December of the same year the town was renamed to Wadowitz. Initially the Polish intelligentsia was targeted by harsh German racial and cultural policies and hundreds of people from the area, most notably priests, teachers and artists, were murdered in mass executions (see Intelligenzaktion). Many were imprisoned in the infamous Montelupich Prison in Kraków and then murdered in the Krzesławice Fort of the Kraków Fortress in December 1939. Hundreds more were expelled and resettled to the General Government in order to make place for German settlers in accordance with the Lebensraum policy. Germany also established and operated a Nazi prison in the town. Between 1941 and 1943 a ghetto was established in the town. Almost the entire local Jewish population (more than 2,000) was exterminated, mostly in the nearby Auschwitz concentration camp. In addition, the Germans set up a prisoner-of-war camp for Allied soldiers and a penal camp that served as a transfer camp for various German concentration camps. Despite German terror, the Home Army units were active in the area, most notably in the town itself and in the Beskid mountains to the south of it. After the German occupation, the town returned to Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which stayed in power until the Fall of Communism in the 1980s.

Present
After the war, in 1945 Wadowice retained its powiat town status and until 1975 served as a notable centre of commerce and transport in the Kraków Voivodeship. After that the town was transferred to the newly created Bielsko-Biała Voivodeship. After the peaceful transformation of the political and economical system in Poland (in 1989), most of the local industry was found inefficient and went bankrupt. However, the ecological and historical heritage of the area as well as its status as the birthplace of Pope John Paul II led to fast growth of tourism. Currently more than 200,000 people visit Wadowice every year and this number is rising.

Economy
Wadowice is today mainly a centre for tourism and sightseeing, but also a place for small industries such as the production of machines and construction materials. The town is also the headquarters of the multinational food company and biggest juice-maker of Poland, Maspex, and the shoe producer Badura.

Culture and sightseeing

 * Days of Wadowice (Dni Wadowic) are held every May–June. The feast starts every 18 May to commemorate the birth of Karol Wojtyła.
 * Museum of the Holy Father Family Home in the family home of Pope John Paul II collects objects that belonged to Karol Wojtyła and his family.
 * Parochial church – the Virgin Mary's Offertory minor basilica–15th century, rebuilt in the 18th century.
 * Kościelna 4 street, an 18th-century house.
 * Neo-Classical "Mikołaj" manor – 19th century, named after the mayor Mikołaj Komorowski.
 * Municipal Museum of Marcin Wadowita.
 * Pope John Paul II square with 19th-century burgher houses.
 * Monument to Emil Zegadłowicz, a writer who described the area of Wadowice in many of his books.

Religion

 * Roman Catholicism (Basilica)
 * Jehovah's Witnesses (Kingdom Hall)

Sports
The town's most notable sports club is Skawa Wadowice with football, basketball, volleyball and tennis sections. Founded in 1907, it is one of the oldest sports clubs in the region.

Twin towns – sister cities

Wadowice is twinned with:
 * 🇮🇹 San Giovanni Rotondo in Italy (since 2006)
 * 🇮🇹 Pietrelcina in Italy (since 2006)
 * 🇮🇹 Carpineto Romano in Italy
 * 🇮🇹 Sona in Italy
 * 🇮🇹 Canale d'Agordo in Italy (since 2010)
 * 🇩🇪 Marktl in Germany

Notable people

 * Marcin Wadowita (1567–1641), Polish theologian, philosopher and deacon of the Kraków Academy
 * Ignacy Krieger (1817-1889), Polish photographer born in Wadowice district
 * Godwin von Brumowski (1889–1936), highest scoring Austro-Hungarian World War I fighter ace
 * Louis Hollander (1893–1980) US labor union leader
 * Raphael Kalinowski (b. 1835, Vilna; d. 1906, Wadowice), founder of Wadowice college, seminary, church, monastery, and convent
 * Berta Lask (1878–1967), German author
 * Ada Sari (1886–1968), Polish opera singer, actress
 * Curt von Jesser (1890–1950), Austrian general in the Wehrmacht
 * Karol Wojtyła (1920–2005), Pope John Paul II
 * Anna Plichta (born 1992), racing cyclist

title: Wadowice


text:
Szczyrk

Szczyrk (Schirk) is a town in the Beskid Śląski mountains of southern Poland, situated in the valley of the Żylica river. It is part of the Silesian Voivodeship (since 1999), previously being part of the Bielsko-Biała Voivodeship (1975–1998). It has a population of 5,734 people (2019).

Tourism and geography
The town is a popular winter sports centre, with over 60 km of ski runs served by 30 ski lifts. Poland's Winter Olympics athletes train in Szczyrk for events such as skiing and ski jumping.

The two mountain ranges that surround the valley are dominated by the peaks of Skrzyczne at 1,257 m and Klimczok 1,117 m, both of significant interest to tourists since they have commanding views from either peak. Moreover, both peaks are accessible to most people in one day's hike via the tourist routes. Skrzyczne is also accessible via a chairlift.

To the west of Szczyrk is Wisła, a town where the source of the Vistula (Wisła) river can be found (around the Barania Góra mountain).

Twin towns – sister cities
Szczyrk is twinned with:
 * 🇷🇴 Ciorăşti, Romania (2004)
 * 🇵🇱 Mikołajki, Poland (2007)
 * 🇩🇪 Zetel, Germany (2008)

title: Szczyrk


text:
Strumień

Strumień (Schwarzwasser, Strumeň) is a town and the seat of Gmina Strumień, in Cieszyn County, in the Silesian Voivodeship (province) of southern Poland, on the Vistula River.

It is located in the north-eastern part of the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia and is the smallest town in the county.

History
The name is of topographic origin and is derived from a local stream (now non-existent) first mentioned in 1293, known as Czarny Strumień (lit. black stream, therefore Schwarzwasser in German). It is not certain if the settlement already existed then as the village was first mentioned later in 1407 as Swarczenwassir. Later the village was also mentioned as Swarczenwasser (1409), Strumienie (1450), na Strumyeny (1470), miesto Strumien (1491). Politically it belonged then to the Duchy of Racibórz a fee of the Kingdom of Bohemia. During the political upheaval beginning in the 1470s caused by Matthias Corvinus the land around Pszczyna with Strumień was overtaken by Casimir II, Duke of Cieszyn, who bestowed the village to his retainer, Mikołaj (Nicolaus) Brodecki, who quickly managed to procure town rights for it in 1482. Casimir II sold Pszczyna circle in 1517 but the town of Strumień stayed within the Duchy of Teschen. In 1526 the Kingdom of Bohemia became part of the Habsburg monarchy.

In 1573–1577 the town together with Skoczów and their surrounding villages were sold to Gottard von Logau, and formed state country. It was retrieved by Adam Wenceslaus in 1594.

Since 1653 it belonged to Teschener Kammer. After Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire a modern municipal division was introduced in the re-established Austrian Silesia. The town became a seat of a legal district in the political district of Bielsko. According to the censuses conducted in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the town dropped from 1731 in 1880 to 1579 in 1910. In 1880 the majority of its inhabitants were native Polish-speakers (83.6%) followed by German-speakers (15.4%) and Czech-speakers (16 or 1%). In the next years the Polish-speaking population dropped down to 45% in 1910, whereas German-speaking citizens grew in number up to 54.5% in 1910, Czech-speaking persons dwindled to 8 or 0.5%. In terms of religion in 1910 majority were Roman Catholics (1484 or 94%), followed by Jews (67 or 4.2%) and Protestants (28 or 1.8%). The town and especially its southern surroundings were also traditionally the northernmost area inhabited by Cieszyn Vlachs, speaking Cieszyn Silesian dialect. The growth of German language, then prestigious language of the state, can be partially attributed to various reasons, including cultural cringe of indigenous Slavic denizens.

After World War I, fall of Austria-Hungary, Polish–Czechoslovak War and the division of Cieszyn Silesia in 1920, it became a part of Poland. Following the invasion of Poland by the German army it was annexed by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II (as Schwarzwasser again). After the war it was restored to Poland.

In 1975–1998 it was a part of the Bielsko-Biała Voivodeship and since 1999 it belongs to Silesian Voivodeship.

Twin towns – sister cities
See twin towns of Gmina Strumień.

title: Strumień


text:
Talk:United States Department of Defense

Wikipedia Ambassador Program assignment
This article is the subject of an educational assignment at Virginia Tech supported by WikiProject United States Public Policy and the Wikipedia Ambassador Program during the 2011 Spring term. Further details are available on the course page.

Above message substituted from on 14:42, 7 January 2023 (UTC)

DOD cont'd
But the us has the smallest and weakest military on the planet earth, with barely 1,000 total firearms in its inventory, denuclearizing under Biden, 700,000 total soldiers (compared to other much larger militaries), only 100s of tanks and land vehicles, and 90 total ships. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 104.228.237.44 (talk) 07:55, 11 November 2021 (UTC)
 * I'm not going to debate this with you. If you wish to make a change or addition to the article, I suggest you do it the same format as an edit request; either "please change X to Y" or "I would like to add Z". But in either scenario, be prepared to add, neutral and reliably sourced information that is also relevant and properly written encyclopaedic content.

 * And one final point; the discussion is now here, any further comments should be posted here, not on anyone's personal user talk page. Thank you. -  wolf  08:16, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

DOD not the largest employer in the world
DOD is not the largest employer in the world. The wiki page that has the list of largest militaries contradicts the statement, and the source [3] that backs the claim is from 8 years ago, so how can it support the claim "as of June 2022" which was less than 2 years ago? 2601:600:9100:D90:7D61:AFD0:90CF:974 (talk) 05:08, 17 February 2024 (UTC)


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Veterinary parasitology

Veterinary parasitology is a branch of veterinary medicine that deals with the study of morphology, life-cycle, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, and control of eukaryotic invertebrates of the kingdom Animalia and the taxon Protozoa that depend upon other invertebrates and higher vertebrates for their propagation, nutrition, and metabolism without necessarily causing the death of their hosts. Modern parasitology focuses on responses of animal hosts to parasitic invasion. Parasites of domestic animals, (livestock and pet animals), as well as wildlife animals are considered. Data obtained from parasitological research in animals helps in veterinary practice and improves animal breeding. The major goal of veterinary parasitology is to protect animals and improve their health, but because a number of animal parasites are transmitted to humans, veterinary parasitology is also important for public health.

Diagnostic methods
Various methods are used to identify parasites in animals, using feces, blood, and tissue samples from the host animal.

Coprological
Coprological examinations involve examining the feces of animals to identify and count parasite eggs. Some common methods include fecal flotation and sedimentation to separate eggs from fecal matter. Others include the McMaster method, which uses a special two-chamber slide that allows parasite eggs to be more clearly visible and easily counted. It is most commonly used to monitor parasites in horses and other grazing and livestock animals. The Baermann method is similar but requires more specialized equipment and more time and is typically used to diagnose lungworm and threadworm.

Haematological
Haematological examinations involve examining the blood of animals to determine the presence of parasites. Blood parasites tend to inhabit the erythrocytes or white blood cells and are most likely to be detected during the acute phase of infection. Veterinary parasitologists use blood smears, which involve placing a drop of blood onto a slide and spreading it over the surface in a thin film in order to examine it under a microscope. The blood is stained with a dye in order for the cells to be easily distinguished.

Histopathological
Histopathological examinations involve examining tissue samples from animals. A small slice of the organ suspected of being infected by parasites is mounted on a slide, stained, and examined under a microscope.

Though not technically considered a histopathological technique, skin scraping – which involves taking a small sample of the epidermal cells of a dog, cat, or other household pet – is commonly used to detect the presence of mites.

Immunological
Immunological examinations, such as indirect immunofluorescence, ELISA, Immunoblotting (Western blot), and Complement fixation test are methods of identifying different kinds of parasites by detecting the presence of their antigens on or within the parasite itself. These diagnostic methods are used in conjunction with coprological examinations for more specific identification of different parasite species in fecal samples.

Molecular biological
Molecular biological methods involve studying the DNA of the parasite in order to identify it. PCR and RFLP are used to detect and amplify parasite DNA found in the feces, blood, or tissue of the host. These techniques are very sensitive, which is useful for diagnosing parasites even when they are present in very low numbers; they are also useful for identifying parasites not only in large animal hosts but smaller insect vectors.

Veterinary protozoology
Veterinary protozoology is focused on protozoa with veterinary relevance. Examples of protozoan parasites:
 * Babesia divergens
 * Balantidium coli
 * Besnoitia besnoiti
 * Cryptosporidium parvum
 * Eimeria acervulina
 * Eimeria tenella
 * Giardia lamblia (also known as Giardia duodenalis)
 * Hammondia hammondi
 * Histomonas meleagridis
 * Isospora canis
 * Leishmania donovani
 * Leishmania infantum
 * Neospora caninum
 * Toxoplasma gondii
 * Trichomonas gallinae
 * Tritrichomonas foetus
 * Trypanosoma brucei
 * Trypanosoma equiperdum

Veterinary helminthology
Veterinary helminthology is focused on veterinary important helminth parasites, for example:
 * Ancylostoma caninum
 * Ancylostoma ceylanicum
 * Ancylostoma duodenale
 * Ascaris suum
 * Dicrocoelium dendriticum
 * Dictyocaulus viviparus
 * Dipylidium caninum
 * Echinococcus granulosus
 * Fasciola hepatica
 * Fascioloides magna
 * Habronema species
 * Haemonchus contortus
 * Metastrongylus
 * Muellerius capillaris
 * Ostertagia ostertagi
 * Paragonimus westermani
 * Schistosoma bovis
 * Strongyloides species
 * Strongylus vulgaris
 * Syngamus trachea (Gapeworm)
 * Taenia pisiformis
 * Taenia saginata
 * Taenia solium
 * Toxascaris leonina
 * Toxocara canis
 * Toxocara cati
 * Trichinella spiralis
 * Trichobilharzia regenti
 * Trichostrongylus species
 * Trichuris suis
 * Trichuris vulpis

Veterinary entomology (arachnoentomology)
Veterinary entomology is focused on important arachnids, insects, and crustaceans. Some examples include:
 * Caligus species
 * Cimex colombarius
 * Cimex lectularius
 * Culex pipiens
 * Culicoides imicola
 * Demodex bovis
 * Dermacentor reticulatus
 * Gasterophilus intestinalis
 * Haematobia irritans
 * Hypoderma bovis
 * Ixodes ricinus
 * Knemidocoptes mutans (causing the disease scaly leg)
 * Lepeophtheirus salmonis (sea louse)
 * Lucilia sericata
 * Musca domestica
 * Nosema apis
 * Notoedres cati
 * Oestrus ovis
 * Otodectes cynotis
 * Phlebotomus species
 * Psoroptes ovis
 * Pulex irritans
 * Rhipicephalus sanguineus
 * Sarcoptes equi
 * Sarcophaga carnaria
 * Tabanus atratus
 * Triatoma species
 * Ctenocephalides canis
 * Ctenocephalides felis

title: Veterinary parasitology