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Syllabic verse

Syllabic verse is a poetic form having a fixed or constrained number of syllables per line, while stress, quantity, or tone play a distinctly secondary role—or no role at all—in the verse structure. It is common in languages that are syllable-timed, such as French or Finnish, as opposed to stress-timed languages such as English, in which accentual verse and accentual-syllabic verse are more common.

Overview
Many European languages have significant syllabic verse traditions, notably Italian, Spanish, French, and the Baltic and Slavic languages. These traditions often permeate both folk and literary verse, and have evolved gradually over hundreds or thousands of years. In a sense, the metrical tradition is older than the languages themselves, since it (like the languages) descended from Proto-Indo-European.

It is often implied, incorrectly, that word stress plays no part in the syllabic prosody of these languages. While word stress in most of these languages is much less prominent than in English or German, it is present both in the language and in the meter. Very broadly speaking, syllabic meters in these languages follow the same pattern:

 * 1) Line length: The line is defined by the number of syllables it contains.
 * 2) Hemistich length: All but the shortest lines are divided into part-lines (hemistichs); each hemistich also contains a specific number of syllables, and ends with a word-boundary (this means that the hemistich cannot end in the middle of a word).
 * 3) Hemistich markers: The ends of the hemistichs are marked and contrasted by an obligatory stress: a specific syllable position near the end of each hemistich must be filled by a stressed syllable, and this position typically differs between the first and second hemistich, so that they are audibly distinct.
 * 4) Marker reinforcement: Often the syllables immediately before or after the obligatory stresses are obligatorily unstressed to further emphasize the stress.
 * 5) Other structure: Further rules may be imposed, such as additional word-boundary constraints on certain syllabic positions, or allowances for extrametrical syllables; and further interlinear structure may be present (such as rhyme and stanza).

Linguistically, the most significant exceptions to this pattern are in Latvian, Lithuanian, and Serbian verse. These verses retain the older quantitative markers using long and short syllables at the ends of hemistichs, instead of stressed and unstressed.

Due to variations in line length, hemistichs, obligatory stress positions, and other factors among verse traditions, and because each language provides words with different rhythmic characteristics, this basic metrical template is realized with great variety. A sequence of syllables that is metrical in one verse tradition will typically not fit in another.

Perception of syllable count
Humans can perceive the number of members in a small set without actually counting them or mentally breaking them into subsets, with the upper limit of this ability estimated between 5 and 9 units. This seems to hold true in sequences of audible stimuli (e.g. syllables in a line of verse). Therefore, it is no surprise that syllabic hemistichs tend to be very short (typically 4 to 8 syllables), and to be grouped and separated from their neighbors by markers like stress, word boundaries, and rhyme.

English
Syllabic verse in English is quite distinct from that in most other languages, historically, structurally, and perceptually.

Historically, English syllabics have not evolved over time from native practice, but rather are the inventions of literate poets, primarily in the 20th century. Structurally, syllable counts are not bound by tradition. Even very long lines are not divided into hemistichs, and the verse exhibits none of the markers usually found in other syllabic meters (with the occasional exception of end-rhyme), relying for their measure solely on total count of syllables in the line. Perceptually, "it is very doubtful that verse lines regulated by nothing more than identity of numbers of syllables would be perceived by auditors as verse ... Further, absent the whole notion of meter as pattern, one may question whether syllabic verse is 'metrical' at all." In English, the difficulty of perceiving even brief isosyllabic lines as rhythmically equivalent is aggravated by the inordinate power of stressed syllables.

In English, unstressed syllables are much weaker and shorter than stressed syllables, and their vowels are often phonetically reduced (pronounced as the rather indistinct schwa—"uh"—rather than fully sounded). Moreover, auditors tend to perceive word stresses to fall at equal intervals in time, making English a perceptually "stress-timed" language; it seems that the same amount of time occurs between stresses. So the conventional patterns of accentual and accentual-syllabic English verse are perceived as regularly rhythmic, whereas to the listener, syllabic verse generally is not distinguishable from free verse.

Thus, in English, syllabic technique does not convey a metrical rhythm. Instead, it is a compositional device primarily of importance to the author, perhaps noticed by the alert reader, and imperceptible to the hearer.

A number of English-language poets in the Modernist tradition experimented with syllabic verse. These include Marianne Moore, Dylan Thomas, Louis Zukofsky, Kenneth Rexroth and Thom Gunn. Some more traditional poets have also used syllabics, including Elizabeth Daryush and Robert Bridges. Bridges's Testament of Beauty is the longest syllabic poem in English.

Examples
Dylan Thomas's "In my craft or sullen art" is an example of syllabic verse in English: it has seven syllables in each line (except the last), but no consistent stress pattern.

"In my craft or sullen art Exercised in the still night When only the moon rages And the lovers lie abed With all their griefs in their arms, I labour by singing light Not for ambition or bread Or the strut and trade of charms On the ivory stages But for the common wages Of their most secret heart."

Because of its consistent short lines marked with end-rhyme, these lines could conceivably be heard as 7-syllable groups by a listener; however, they would be more likely to be perceived as (usually) 3-stress lines.

Syllabic poetry can also take a stanzaic form, as in Marianne Moore's poem "No Swan So Fine", in which the corresponding lines of each stanza have the same number of syllables. This poem comprises 2 stanzas, each with lines of 7, 8, 6, 8, 8, 5, and 9 syllables respectively. The indented lines rhyme. As in accentual-syllabic verse, there is some flexibility in how one counts syllables. For example, syllables with y- or w-glides may count as one or two syllables depending on the poet's preference. Moore counts "Dahlias" (a y-glide) as 2 syllables, and "flowers" (a w-glide) as 1.

""No water so still as the dead fountains of Versailles." No swan, with swart blind look askance and gondoliering legs, so fine    as the chintz china one with fawn- brown eyes and toothed gold collar on to show whose bird it was.

Lodged in the Louis Fifteenth Candelabrum-tree of cockscomb- tinted buttons, dahlias, sea urchins, and everlastings, it perches on the branching foam of polished sculptured flowers—at ease and tall. The king is dead."

Because these lines are longer, irregular, and frequently enjambed ("as the / dead fountains"), it is quite clear that the symmetry of syllables is not meant to be audible. Moore's use of end-rhyme is telling. Only 2 lines in each stanza are rhymed: these are emphasized for the reader by indentation, but hidden from the listener by radical enjambment ("fawn- / brown" and "coxcomb- / tinted").

Elizabeth Daryush, known for her use of syllabic verse, used the quaternion form for her celebrated syllabic verse poem "Accentedal".

French
The modern French language does not have a significant stress accent (as English does). This means that the French metric line is generally determined by the number of syllables. The most common metric lengths are the ten-syllable line (décasyllabe), the eight-syllable line (octosyllabe) and the twelve-syllable line (Alexandrin).

Special syllable counting rules apply to French poetry. A silent or mute "e" counts as a syllable before a consonant, but not before a vowel (where h aspiré counts as a consonant). When it falls at the end of a line, the mute "e" is hypermetrical (outside the count of syllables).

Polish
Polish syllabic verse is similar to French. The most common lengths are the thirteen-syllable line (trzynastozgłoskowiec or Polish alexandrine), the eleven-syllable line (jedenastozgłoskowiec) and eight-syllable line (ośmiozgłoskowiec). The rules of Polish verse were established in the 16th century. Polish metrics were strongly influenced by Latin, Italian, and French poetry. To this day originally Italian forms (like ottava rima) are written in Poland in 11-syllable lines. Accentual verse was introduced into Polish literature at the end of 18th century but it never replaced traditional syllabic metres. Today 9-syllable lines are extremely popular. They are iambic or choriambic.

title: Syllabic verse


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Accentual verse

Accentual verse has a fixed number of stresses per line regardless of the number of syllables that are present. It is common in languages that are stress-timed, such as English, as opposed to syllabic verse which is common in syllable-timed languages, such as French.

Children's poetry
Accentual verse is particularly common in children's poetry; nursery rhymes and the less well-known skipping-rope rhymes are the most common form of accentual verse in the English Language. The following poem, "Baa Baa Black Sheep," has two stresses in each line but a varying number of syllables. Bold represents stressed syllables, and the number of syllables in each line is noted.  Baa, baa, black sheep, (4) Have you any wool? (5) Yes sir, yes sir, (4) Three bags full; (3) One for the mas-ter, (5) And one for the dame, (5) And one for the lit-tle boy (7) Who lives down the lane. (5)

Accentual verse derives its musical qualities from its flexibility with unstressed syllables and tends to follow the natural speech patterns of English.

English
Accentual verse was a traditionally common prosody in Germany, Scandinavia, Iceland and Britain. Accentual verse has been widespread in English poetry since its earliest recording, with Old English poetry written in a special form of accentual verse termed alliterative verse, of which Beowulf is a notable example. Anglo-Saxon poetry generally added two further basic elements to the basic four-beat accentual verse pattern: alliteration of three of the four beats, and a medial pause (caesura). Anglo-Saxon poets made frequent use of epithets to achieve the desired alliteration, and had various other more complex rules and forms, though these have not been as popular in later poetry.

Accentual verse lost its dominant position in English poetry following the Norman conquest of England when French forms, with their syllabic emphasis, gained prominence. Accentual verse continued in common use in all forms of Middle English poetry until the codification of accentual-syllabic verse in Elizabethan poetry; thereafter it largely vanished from literary poetry for three hundred years while remaining popular in folk poetry. A notable example from this period is William Langland's Piers Ploughman, here retaining the alliteration:
 * I loked on my left half || as þe lady me taughte
 * And was war of a woman || worþeli ycloþed.
 * I looked on my left side || as the lady me taught
 * and was aware of a woman || worthily clothed.

A well-known source for accentual verse from the post-Elizabethan period is Mother Goose's Melody (1765). Accentual verse experienced a revival in the 19th century with the development ("discovery") of sprung rhythm by Gerard Manley Hopkins. Although Hopkins' example was not widely adopted in literary circles, accentual verse did catch on, with some poets flirting with the form, and later poets more strictly following it. A modern codification was given by Robert Bridges in 1921, in his Bridges' Prosody of Accentual Verse section of Milton's Prosody. Modern literary use includes W. H. Auden, and it has notably been advanced by Dana Gioia.

Outside of children's poetry and literary poetry, accentual verse remains popular in verse composed for oral presentation, such as cowboy poetry and rap.

Prosody of Accentual Verse in English
In modern literary use, in addition to the detailed codification given in Bridges' Prosody of Accentual Verse, three basic rules are followed:
 * 1) Four stresses per line;
 * 2) A medial pause, with two stress on each side;
 * 3) Generally, three of the four stresses alliterate.

Some variations and other subtleties are found:
 * Rather than a triple alliteration in a line, having two pairs of double alliterations on either side of the pause, or only having a single double alliteration, with one alliterating stress on each side of the pause.
 * Alliteration falls on the (first) stressed syllable of a word, not the first syllable of the word.
 * Minor stresses are often eliminated to reduce ambiguity.
 * While individual lines may have a regular syllabic structure, this is not kept constant over the poem – only the stress pattern is consistent – as otherwise the poem becomes accentual-syllabic verse.

Special forms
A number of stricter forms of accentual verse exist, including:
 * Accentual-syllabic verse is an extension of accentual verse that also fixes the syllables.
 * Sprung rhythm, where the stressed syllable begins the foot.

Polish
In Polish literature, as in French one, syllabic verse is dominant. Accentual verse was introduced into Polish poetry in 20th century. Jan Kasprowicz was the first poet to use accentual verse in his book Księga ubogich (The Book of the Poor) that was published in 1916. He used lines with three stresses.

 * Rzadko na moich wargach -
 * Niech dziś to warga ma wyzna -
 * Jawi się krwią przepojony,
 * Najdroższy wyraz: Ojczyzna.
 * (Jan Kasprowicz, Rzadko na moich wargach)

The poet wrote, that the word dearest to him, "mother-country", is on his lips very rarely. The scansion is:

 * ' x x ' x ' x
 * x ' x ' x x ' x
 * ' x x ' x x ' x
 * x ' x ' x x ' x

This pattern became the most popular. There is also six-stress pattern. This was used among others by Julian Tuwim.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Accentual verse


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Dosa (food)

A dosa is a thin, savoury crepe in South Indian cuisine made from a fermented batter of ground white gram and rice. Dosas are served hot, often with chutney and sambar (a lentil-based vegetable stew). Dosas are popular in South Asia as well as around the world.

History
The dosa originated in South India, but its precise geographical origins are unknown. According to food historian K. T. Achaya, references in the Sangam literature suggest that dosa was already in use in the ancient Tamil country around the 1st century CE. However, according to historian P. Thankappan Nair, dosa originated in the town of Udupi in present-day Karnataka. Achaya states that the earliest written mention of dosa appears in the 8th-century literature of present-day Tamil Nadu, while the earliest mention of dosa in Kannada literature appears a century later.

In popular tradition, the origin of the dosa is linked to southern part of India in general, because of the dish's association with South Indian cuisines. The Tamil dosa is traditionally softer and thicker; the thinner and crispier version of dosa was first made in present-day Karnataka. A recipe for dosa can be found in Manasollasa, a 12th-century Sanskrit encyclopedia compiled by Someshvara III, who ruled from present-day Karnataka.

The dosa arrived in Mumbai with the opening of Udupi restaurants in the 1930s. After India's independence in 1947, South Indian cuisine became gradually popular in North India. In New Delhi, the Madras Hotel in Connaught Place became one of the first restaurants to serve South Indian cuisine.

Dosas, like many other dishes of South Indian cuisine, were introduced in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) by South Indian emigrants during British rule. Tirunelveli and Tuticorin merchants who settled there were instrumental in the spreading of South Indian cookery across the island by opening restaurants (vegetarian hotels) to meet initially the needs of the emigrant population. Dosa has found its way into the culinary habits of the Sri Lankan people from their Tamil population, where it has evolved into an island-specific version which is quite distinct from the Indian dosa. In both forms, it is called those (තෝසේ or ) or thosai (தோசை or ) in Sinhala and in Sri Lankan Tamil.

Apart from these countries, dosa was introduced to the world cuisines since early 18th entury by the immigrations of the Tamil diaspora to Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, Indonesia, South Africa, Seychelles, United Kingdom and United States.

Names
Dosa is the anglicised name of a variety of South Indian names for the dish, for example, dosai in Tamil, dosey in Kannada and dosha in Malayalam.

The standard transliterations and pronunciations of the word in various South Indian languages are as follows:

Nutrition
Dosa is high in carbohydrates and contains no added sugars. As its key ingredients are rice and black gram, it is a good source of protein. A typical homemade plain dosa without oil contains about 112 calories, of which 84% is carbohydrate and 16% is protein. The fermentation process increases the vitamin B and vitamin C content.

Preparation
A mixture of rice and white gram that has been soaked in water for at least 4–5 hours is ground finely to form a batter. Some add a bit of soaked fenugreek seeds while grinding the batter. The proportion of rice to lentils is generally 3:1 or 4:1. After adding salt, the batter is allowed to ferment overnight, before being mixed with water to get the desired consistency. The batter is then ladled onto a hot tava or griddle greased with oil or ghee. It is spread out with the base of a ladle or a bowl to form a pancake. It can be made either thick like a pancake, or thin and crispy. A dosa is served hot, either folded in half or rolled like a wrap. It is usually served with chutney and sambar. The mixture of white grams and rice can be replaced with highly refined wheat flour or semolina.

Serving
Dosas can be stuffed with fillings of vegetables and sauces to make a quick meal. They are typically served with a vegetarian side dish which varies according to regional and personal preferences. Common side items are:

 * Sambar
 * Chutney
 * Idli podi or milagaipodi: a lentil powder with spices and sometimes desiccated coconut, mixed with sesame oil or groundnut oil or ghee
 * Indian pickles

Variations
Masala dosa is a roasted dosa served with potato curry, chutney and sambar, while saada (plain) dosa is prepared with a lighter texture; paper dosa is a thin and crisp version. Rava dosa is made crispier using semolina. Newer versions include Chinese dosa, cheese dosa, paneer dosa, and pizza dosa.

Though dosa is typically made with rice and lentils, other versions exist.

World record
On 16 November 2014, 29 chefs, at Hotel Daspalla in Hyderabad, India created a dosa that was 16.68 m long and weighed 13.69 kg, earning the Guinness World Record for the longest dosa.

In popular culture

 * In a November 2019 video promoting her campaign for presidency, United States Vice President Kamala Harris cooked masala dosa with actress and comedian Mindy Kaling.
 * Venba is a 2023 cooking video game that features dosa as one of the dishes that can be cooked in a long line of foods representing Tamil cuisine.

Related foods

 * Uttapam: a thick relatively soft crepe mostly topped with diced onions, tomatoes, cilantro or cheese, sometimes described as an Indian pizza
 * Pesarattu: made from green gram in Andhra Pradesh, served with a ginger and tamarind chutney
 * Appam: a pancake prepared from patted rice batter, served with sweet coconut milk
 * Chakuli pitha: the batter contains more black gram and less rice flour
 * Apam balik: made from a mixture of flour, eggs, sugar, baking soda, coconut milk and water
 * Jianbing: a Chinese dish
 * Bánh xèo: a Vietnamese dish
 * Lahoh: a Somali dish
 * Injera: an Ethiopian dish made with fermented teff batter

title: Dosa (food)


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Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton

The Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton was a peace treaty signed in 1328 between the Kingdoms of England and Scotland.

It brought an end to the First War of Scottish Independence, which had begun with the English invasion of Scotland in 1296. The treaty was signed in Edinburgh by Robert the Bruce, King of Scots, on 17 March 1328, and was ratified by the Parliament of England meeting in Northampton on 1 May.

The terms of the treaty stipulated that in exchange for £20,000 sterling, the English Crown would recognise:

 * The Kingdom of Scotland as fully independent;
 * Robert the Bruce, and his heirs and successors, as the rightful rulers of Scotland;
 * The border between Scotland and England as that recognised under the reign of Alexander III (1249–1286).

One of two copies of the document, which was written in French, is held by the National Archives of Scotland in Edinburgh. However, the document does not constitute the entire peace treaty, which was contained in a number of indentures, notarial instruments and letters patent issued by Edward III and Robert I. Since none of them survives, not all details of the peace treaty are known.

The War
The cause of the Wars of Scottish Independence was ultimately the uncertainty over the succession of the Scottish crown following the death of Alexander III in 1286. Edward I of England initially supported the claim of John Balliol, who was crowned King of Scots in 1292, but eventually pressed his own claim to sovereignty over Scotland. After Balliol's removal and exile, Robert the Bruce broke from the English camp and took up his own rival claim to the crown, by leading a resistance to Edward. Robert declared himself King, after killing his chief rival and cousin, and was crowned in 1306. He decisively defeated the English, under Edward II, at Bannockburn in 1314.

Peace talks were held between 1321 and 1324. Little progress was made, as the English refused to recognise Robert the Bruce as King of Scots, although a truce was agreed in 1323, to last thirteen years. Edward II claimed he adhered to this truce, but he allowed English privateers to attack Flemish vessels trading with Scotland. For example, privateers seized the Flemish vessel Pelarym, worth £2,000, and massacred all the Scots on board. Robert the Bruce demanded justice, but in vain, and so he renewed the Auld Alliance between Scotland and France, which was concluded on 26 April 1326 by the Treaty of Corbeil, which was sealed at Corbeil in France. In 1327, the Scots invaded northern England and defeated the English at the Battle of Stanhope Park in Weardale in County Durham. Before this, Bruce invaded Ulster in Ireland.

Negotiations
After the debacle of the Weardale campaign, the Dowager Queen Isabella, and Earl Mortimer of March, governing England on behalf of the underage Edward III of England, began to consider peace as the only remaining option. In October 1327 they sent envoys to Scotland to open negotiations. On 1 March 1328, at a Parliament at York, Edward III issued letters patent which set out the core of the agreement. On 17 March, the negotiations ended and a formal treaty was signed in the King's Chamber of the Abbey of Holyrood, Edinburgh. The Treaty was ratified by the English Parliament at Northampton on 3 May.

Terms
Isabella and Mortimer agreed in the treaty that they, in the name of the minor, King Edward III, renounced all pretensions to sovereignty over Scotland. Joanna, the six-year-old sister of Edward III, was promised in marriage to the four-year-old David, the son of Robert Bruce, and the marriage duly took place on 17 July the same year. In the quitclaim of Edward III of 1 March 1328 preceding the treaty, Edward endorsed that the Anglo–Scottish border would be maintained as it was in the reign of Alexander III of Scotland and that Scotland, so defined, "shall belong to our dearest ally and friend, the magnificent prince, Lord Robert, by God's grace illustrious King of Scotland, and to his heirs and successors, separate in all things from the kingdom of England, whole, free, and undisturbed in perpetuity, without any kind of subjection, service, claim or demand." In return, the Scots would pay £20,000 sterling to England – with a potential further £100,000 to be paid if the marriage between David and Joan failed.

As part of the treaty negotiations, Edward III agreed to return the Stone of Destiny to Scotland. This was not in the treaty, but was part of a concurrent agreement. Edward III issued a royal writ, 4 months later, on 1 July, addressed to the Abbot of Westminster, which acknowledged this agreement and ordered the Stone be taken to his mother, but it was not. This has been questioned by historian Colm McNamee, however, who writes that "the stone of Scone was to be returned to Scotland according to one report, but there is no evidence this was agreed". Eventually, 668 years later, it was returned to Scotland, arriving on 30 November 1996 at Edinburgh Castle, with the agreement that the stone is to be transported to England for use in subsequent coronations of United Kingdom monarchs. In September 2022, the BBC confirmed that this would be done for the coronation of Charles III.

Effects
The treaty lasted only five years. It was unpopular with many English nobles who viewed it as humiliating – referring to it as the "Shameful Peace". As such, in 1333 it was overturned by Edward III, after he had begun his personal reign, and the Second War of Scottish Independence continued until a lasting peace was effectively established in 1357.

The Original
The original treaty was written in French, with two copies made, top and bottom, on a single sheet (a chirograph or indenture). After the English and Scottish ambassadors verified that the copies were the same, it was cut in half across the middle with a wavy line, so that the two copies could be matched together if ever questioned. The kings did not actually sign the treaty, but signified their agreement by affixing their seals to straps that hang from the bottom of the document. (These wax seals have not survived the years, and are lost from the straps.) The bottom copy of the two originals is in the National Archives of Scotland, in Edinburgh. However, it should be remembered that this document does not constitute the entire peace treaty, which was contained in a number of indentures, notorial instruments and letters patents issued by Edward III and Robert I. All of these documents do not survive, which is why all the details of the peace treaty are not known.

Translations
One partial translation of the treaty comes from the Scottish Archives for Schools:

"Be it known to all those who shall see these letters that on the seventeenth day of March...the following matters were discussed and agreed...between the most excellent Prince, Robert, by the Grace of God, king of Scotland and...the most excellent prince, Edward, by the Grace of God king of England.

Firstly that there be a true, final and perpetual peace between the kings, their heirs and successors and their realms and lands and their subjects and peoples...and for the security and permanence of that peace it is settled and agreed that a marriage take place...between David the son and heir of the king of Scotland and Joan, the sister of the king of England, who as yet are of so tender an age that they cannot make contract of matrimony...

''Item it is treated and accorded that the said kings, their heirs and successors, shall be good friends and loyal allies, and that the one shall aid the other in suitable manner as good allies: saving on the part of the king of Scotland the alliance made between him and the king of France. But if it happen that the king of Scotland...by reason of the said alliance or for any cause whatever make war upon the said king of England...that the said king of England may make war on the foresaid king of Scotland...''

Item...that the said king of England shall assist in good faith that the processes, if any are made in the court of Rome and elsewhere by the authority of our Holy Father the Pope against the said king of Scotland, his realm and his subjects, cleric or lay, be dismissed, and this to do and accomplish he shall send his special letters of prayer to the pope and the cardinals".

The translation was found in A Source Book of Scottish History by William Dickinson.

title: Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton


text:
Glasgow City

Glasgow City or City of Glasgow may refer to:
 * Glasgow City (council area), a unitary district established in 1996
 * Glasgow City Council, the local authority body in the city
 * Glasgow, a city in Scotland
 * City of Glasgow (1975–1996), a district of Strathclyde from 1975 to 1996
 * Glasgow city centre, its main business district
 * Glasgow City Region, a functional region centred around the city
 * Glasgow City F.C., a professional women's football club
 * Glasgow City B.C., a Scottish basketball club
 * Greater Glasgow, the term for the larger urban area around the city
 * SS City of Glasgow, a steamship that disappeared in 1854

title: Glasgow City


text:
Dundee City

Dundee is a city in Scotland, a constituent country of the United Kingdom.

Dundee City may also refer to:
 * Dundee City (council area), a unitary district established in 1996
 * Dundee City Council, the local authority body in the city
 * City of Dundee District (1975–1996), a district of Tayside region from 1975 to 1996
 * City of Dundee District Council (1975–1996), the local authority of the district
 * City and royal burgh of Dundee (ca. 1191–1894), the initial area governed by the Dundee Corporation
 * County of the city of Dundee (1894–1975), the "county of city" area
 * Dundee Corporation (ca. 1191–1975), the local authority body of the burgh of Dundee and the county of city of Dundee
 * Dundee Town Council, a name used interchangeably with Dundee Corporation
 * Dundee (settlement), the joined area of the localities: Dundee, Monifieth and Invergowrie
 * Dundee City Centre, the central area of Dundee

title: Dundee City


text:
Mark Chapman

Mark Chapman may refer to:
 * Mark Chapman (broadcaster) (born 1973), British sports journalist and presenter
 * Mark Chapman (cricketer) (born 1994), Hong Kong and New Zealand cricketer
 * Mark Chapman (theologian) (born 1960), British Anglican theologian
 * Mark David Chapman (born 1955), American murderer of John Lennon
 * Mark Lindsay Chapman (born 1954), English film and television actor
 * Mark Chapman (American football) (born 1994), American football wide receiver
 * Mark Chapman, guitarist with the band A

title: Mark Chapman


text:
Neustadt

Neustadt (German for new town or new city) may refer to:

Places

 * Neustadt (urban district)

Czech Republic

 * Neustadt an der Mettau, Nové Město nad Metují
 * Neustadt an der Tafelfichte, Nové Město pod Smrkem
 * Nové Město na Moravě (Neustadt in Mähren)

Bavaria

 * Neustadt an der Aisch, the capital of the district Neustadt an der Aisch-Bad Windsheim
 * Neustadt bei Coburg, a town in the district of Coburg
 * Neustadt an der Donau, a town in the district of Kelheim
 * Neustadt am Kulm, a town in the district of Neustadt (Waldnaab)
 * Neustadt am Main, a town in the district of Main-Spessart
 * Neustadt an der Waldnaab, the capital of the district of Neustadt (Waldnaab)

Brandenburg

 * Neustadt an der Dosse, a town in the district of Ostprignitz-Ruppin
 * Amt Neustadt (Dosse), a collective municipality in Neustadt (Dosse)

Lower Saxony

 * Neustadt am Rübenberge, a town in the district of Hanover

Rhineland-Palatinate

 * Neustadt an der Weinstraße, a city and urban district, the largest city of that name in Germany
 * Neustadt (Weinstraße) Hauptbahnhof, a railway station
 * Neustadt, Westerwaldkreis, a municipality in the district Westerwaldkreis
 * Neustadt (Wied), a municipality in the district of Neuwied

Saxony

 * Neustadt in Sachsen, a town in the district of Sächsische Schweiz
 * Neustadt (Sachs) railway station
 * Neustadt, Vogtland, a municipality in the district Vogtlandkreis

Thuringia

 * Neustadt, Eichsfeld, a municipality in the district of Eichsfeld
 * Neustadt an der Orla, a town in the district Saale-Orla-Kreis
 * Neustadt am Rennsteig, a municipality in the district of Ilm-Kreis in Thuringia

Other places in Germany

 * Halle-Neustadt, a modern high-rise residential town built during the GDR. Since reunification, it was united with Halle (Saale)
 * Neustadt, a municipal district of Bremen
 * Neustadt, Hamburg, a quarter within the borough of Hamburg-Mitte
 * Neustadt, Hesse, a town in the district of Marburg-Biedenkopf, Hesse
 * Neustadt in Holstein, a town in the district of Ostholstein, Schleswig-Holstein
 * Neustadt, a part of the urban district of Innenstadt, Cologne, North Rhine-Westphalia
 * Neustadt, a town and part of the municipality Titisee-Neustadt, Baden-Württemberg

Hungary

 * Neustadt am Zeltberg, Sátoraljaújhely
 * Neustadt an der Donau, Dunaújváros
 * Neustadt an der Tisza, Tiszaújváros

Poland

 * Neustadt in Oberschlesien, Prudnik
 * Neustadt in Westpreußen, Wejherowo

Other places

 * Neustadt, Ontario, Canada
 * Neustadt (Strasbourg), a district of Strasbourg, France
 * Noiștat, Sibiu, Romania
 * Neustadt im Burzenland or Cristian, Brașov, Romania
 * Neustadt an der Waag or Nové Mesto nad Váhom, Slovakia
 * Wiener Neustadt, Austria

Other uses

 * Neustadt (surname), a surname (including a list of people with the name)
 * Neustadt International Prize for Literature, an American literary award
 * NSK Neustadt Prize for Children's Literature, an American literary award
 * Neustadt, the hometown of the protagonist in Emil and the Detectives

title: Neustadt


text:
Talk:Borneo

Untitled
Article merged: See old talk-page here

earlier comments
i inserted some little knowledge on Borneo that i knew but fell very sad to see little information for such a huge tropical island, hope others to put up more stuff. --Darwina 04:24, 12 May 2006 (UTC)

I had to delete references to the Indian Ocean and the Pacific that are thousands of miles away from Borneo. User:Wetman
 * Well...each of the surrounding seas is part of one of the two oceans, but I agree your wording is better. I just wanted to get rid of the ugly phrase, "an island in SE Asia". Mkweise 14:22, 7 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Borneo is an island, the third largest island in the world, (fourth if you count Australia) -- Who considers Australia an island? -- Yath 06:28, 22 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * See the bottom of List of islands by area for detail about Australia. It is normally standard not to count Australia, but there are a few people who call Australia an island, according to what I learned. 66.245.10.68 22:39, 27 Jun 2004 (UTC)

deleted "shopborneo.com" from External links. (Seems to be a useless ads page..) Lots of links to shopborneo were added by 219.93.174.109 on 6 August 2005. Tomtefarbror 13:17, 17 December 2005 (UTC)

Improvement Drive
The article on Brunei is currently listed to be improved on This week's improvement drive. You can support the nomination with your vote there. --Fenice 06:36, 6 August 2005 (UTC) It is unfortunate that they ignore the truth, the ancient India, Kalinga's influence in shaping Borneo history and culture. So remain in darkness to ignore the truth.!!! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 117.207.73.133 (talk) 12:50, 4 July 2015 (UTC)

Naming
People of Indonesia don't call this island by that name (Borneo), instead they call it Kalimantan. Since Indonesia occupies the larger part of this island, don't you think that this article should be moved to 'Kalimantan' or 'Kalimantan (Borneo)'?

--I disagree. Kalimantan refers only to the Indonesian part of Borneo. Malaysian inhabitants on the island actually do use the term "Borneo" a lot. One example is the Borneo Post newspaper. Furthermore, Malaysians intepret the term "Kalimantan" as strictly referring to the Indonesian portion of the island.

Since no consensus has been reached between the governments occupying the island, therefore the only term that has been used to refer to the island as a whole is Borneo. Whodhellknew 05:16, 23 March 2007 (UTC)

Just as Sulawesi is also known as Celebes, Kalimantan has a lesser known name Borneo. Bennylin 23:10, 6 January 2006 (UTC)
 * First time I've heard of "Kalimantan". I've known the name "Borneo" for 60 years or more. I suspect the same is true of most English speakers.. Koro Neil (talk) 11:30, 18 July 2020 (UTC)

In the english language wikipedia it should really be whichever name is most commonly used (and so searched for) by English language speakers, which would be Borneo.194.221.212.20 20:06, 21 February 2006 (UTC)Me

I wonder do people in Indonesia really say the state of Brunei on the island of Kalimantan or the city of Kuching on the northwest coast of Kalimantan? Or is this something more political, like finding it silly that the island is divided between different countries. If the inhabitants of the island known to some as Borneo and to others as Kalimantan insist on using a local name for it in a foreign language - I wonder how many countries and places they call by the name those that live there consider correct or rather by a name that has a long historic tradition in their own tongue but might not be anything similar to what the so named call themselves. For an example of two states sharing an island that has its own name consider Haiti and the Dominican Republic on the island of Hispaniola --T.woelk 11:24, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Hi, I'm from Kalimantan, Indonesia. Yes, we do consider the Island as a whole as "Kalimantan". So, Brunei, Sabah and Serawak are all on the Kalimantan island for us. Borneo is a slave name, a name made by whites who couldn't pronounce "Brunei" right ;D Matahari Pagi 03:03, 17 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Hm, interesting, I had always wondered. I spent some of my childhood in Sarawak and Brunei and it always seemed to me that Kalimantan was a term specific to Indonesia. So the next question would be what name do the inhabitants of the non indonesian parts of "Kalimantan" Island use to refer to the whole island. As far as I can remember the term "Borneo" was used, although the people may have used some sort of "when talking to people of European origin" phrases, while using other words when talking to natives. Yet to add further to a probably already settled discussion. I think "Borneo" is the correct geographic term in most European languages to refer to the Island as a whole without any reference to political issues of today. For example in Malay or Indonesian you use the word id:Belanda, that is of Portuguese origin, to refer to a country that calls itself nl:Nederland. The country I was born in is called dk:Tyskland, fr:Allemagne, pl:Niemcy and id:Jerman of English origin, just to name the main word families and none are related to the name de:Deutschland, that we use to name ourselves. Do you know the Island called "id:Kalaallit Nunaat" by those native to it? You may have to read the id:Greenland article to get a hint. I have seen though that the Indonesian WP has articles called id:München and id:Köln in contrast to the Malaysian WP using the English based variants ms:Munich and ms:Cologne, so maybe the Indonesian language is more willing to use names the way they are used by those living there. - But English is not Indonesian and an encyclopedia is to be designed such that it can be used by anybody that searches for knowledge and cannot rely on a good education of the users. I think I'll consider "slave name" as POV and not further comment on it as you may feel about your countries past and understand it as you personally wish to. For the origin of the word Borneo I totally agree with you and I think some info on the exact origin might be useful for the article. --T.woelk 10:44, 18 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Yeah, I know that English is a really selfish language and I don't hope to change that in near future ;). It's just a POV of a mere native from Kalimantan such as myself, and it was only meant to answer that specific question. Mindyou, Kalimantan is not a recent name invented by Indonesian government, my ancestors always used that name. In the Dutch Indies time, Prince Tamjidillah of Banjar Kingdom wrote "Island of Kalimantan" and not "Island of Borneo" in his letter to Dutch Resident (1857). And the sentence that Brunei used to owned most of the island is absurd. They only owned the northern part of it (not even all of them, mind you, as part of it was Sulu's). The Indonesian part of Kalimantan was mostly under Banjar Kingdom, from Kingdom of Sambas until Berau. Matahari Pagi 03:21, 25 April 2007 (UTC)
 * I just want to make it simple. Kalimantan is the Indonesian name for Borneo. In Indonesia, Kalimantan is refer to the whole island, while Borneo is very rarely used and is considered as English name for Kalimantan. While in Malaysia (Sarawak & Sabah) and Brunei, they use Borneo to refer to the whole island and Kalimantan to refer to the Indonesian part of Borneo. 09:36, 25 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Agreed (at least on the Indonesian part). Matahari Pagi 08:27, 26 April 2007 (UTC)

To properly respect the others' on this island, it is better to use Borneo. Just to justify Kalimantan of Indonesia is the general name due to being part of the larger part of the island, it is not fair for Sarawak, Sabah, and Brunei. The name then also misled others. Abenbenji (talk) 09:02, 16 December 2019 (UTC)

veguetacio
It would be silly to call borneo kalimantan since Borneo is an island comprised of three nations. Should we have started calling Europe the Soviet Union in the second half of the twentieth century?

70s show
"In That '70s Show, the foreigner Fez is expected to be from Borneo, as Borneo meets all his criteria's, but the show never tells where fez is from. in one episode he starts to say "their going to send me back to my home, the beautiful island of -" but was interupted by a cop. also, borneo is 10,000 miles away from wisconsin, and fez also says "see hyde steven hyde that is why i keep my sister 10,000 miles away from here in a jungle."

I commented this section out, though I imagine it ought to be deleted and moved to Fez page if it isn't already there. Nilad 03:54, 20 November 2006 (UTC)

Population
How many live on Borneo, I saw on Swedish wiki that expected to live 15 million on the island including Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia? RGDS Alexmcfire

Yeap that's a reasonable estimate. About 5 million on the Malaysian side and 10 million on the Indonesian side, while Brunei has a population of about 300k. Whodhellknew 05:24, 23 March 2007 (UTC)

Brunei/Borneo
Are these related words? I would think there has to be some common etymology. Chris 03:34, 17 February 2007 (UTC)

Hi, I am a Bruneian. In my own opinion, the island is known as Borneo in both Malay and English in Brunei. I think same naming system also is used in Malaysia especially East Malaysia. Regarding the name, I see that Borneo is the 'latinized' version of Brunei. Its quite logical because according to history, the whole island is known as Brunei Island because of the (once) powerful kingdom there. keep88 09:38, 19 March 2007 (UTC)

Attempt to gather info on the history of Borneo (or Kalimantan if you prefer that)
I want to try and gather information related to the history of Borneo here. I propose to do this outside of the article as there seem to be some issues that might need discussion beforehand. Please by all means edit the list and add as much info as you can. Adding references would be great but can be left to later. This is just to get a general overview. For the moment I suggest to stop this list at the WW II as the newer history is better covered in the articles of the present states of the region. --T.woelk 14:30, 10 April 2007 (UTC)
 * I'm glad to see this being done! I came to the article to check something on World War II and found only a sentence or two. Now, if someone could include something about B-24s shot down and crashing in Borneo and the treatment of surviving crew who were rescued by Dayak villagers. . . . --Michael K. Smith 14:17, 31 May 2007 (UTC)

Prehistory

 * Ca.45 million years ago the main mass of Borneo, at that time most of what is todays Indonesian Kalimantan, was situated on the equator as today, though the main mass was south of the equator line and turned clockwise by about 45 degrees. Collision in the north with other tectonic masses was gradually raising the parts of the sea floor and building mountains on the then northern coast.
 * Ca.23 million years ago the Sahul plate crashes into Sundaland from the south, which rotates counterclockwise as the Philippines press from the east. What is now Sabah and Sarawak is lifted and further enlarged. Erosion builds the plains that spread befor the higher lands in some places on the northern coasts.
 * first homonides, the area's first known human-like inhabitant some 500,000 years ago was "Java Man"
 * 60,000?-40,000 BC, Settlers of Papua and Australia bypass Borneo in the south on their journey to the southeast.
 * first modern humans (Niah Caves), since 40,000 years ago?
 * Orang Asli, Ancestors of settlers of negrito (Semang? Senoi?), papuan, australian aboriginies typ. Any Hoabinhian relicts on Borneo? Orang Asli relicts in the languages of the Bidayuh and Penan (Substrat? Language shift?)?
 * 18,000 BC, Sea level drops some 150 meters below modern levels. Large extants of dry land, swamps and shallow stretches of water exist between the modern islands on the Sunda Shelf. A dry land connection to the Sahul Shelf never exists.
 * ca.8000 BC, Cave paintings in East Kalimantan. (de:Bemalte Höhlen in Ostkalimantan / | National Geographic Article)
 * 8000-5000 BC, The Sunda Shelf is flooded. The modern coastline is established around 4500 BC?
 * Austronesian settlers (several waves? beginning around 2500 BC)(Yunnan migration theory?)
 * Origin of basic cultural elements (Rice cultivation from Yunnan?, water buffalo, Metallurgy, building traditions)
 * 3000 BC - 500 BC the Niah Caves are used as burial grounds by mainly foraging (although rice seems to be known but occurs rarely) neolithic people. The older burials are in log coffins (one is radiocarbon dated to around 2750 BC) while later ones make use of large jars (1500BC-1000AD? ).
 * Before 100 BC the Cham that seem to have originated around Niah in Sarawak on Borneo migrate to central Vietnam, where the iron using Sa Huynh culture is a contempary culture to the bronze age Dong Son culture. (Providing the Sa Huynh culture people were already speaking a malayic language and came from Niah, this would place a malayic speaking, iron using, seafaring people around 500 BC in the region of Niah)
 * Between 100 and 400 AD austronesian settlers speaking an Malayo-Polynesian language related to the Barito languages of South Kalimantan (like Maanyan or Ngaju Dayak) start to settle on the island of Madagascar of the East African coast.
 * From ca. 200 AD onwards the Champa dominate the coast of Vietnam. They seem to have originated from the Sa Huynh culture and the Cham people.

early History

 * Soon after 300, Kutai Martadipur, a hindu Kingdomǀ based at East Kalimantan, near Mahakam River exists.
 * 400-1400, Srivijaya, emerged around 400 or earlier on the island of Sumatra. During the seventh century Srivijaya began expanding its influenz towards Java and along the Straits of Malacca. Based on trading and merchant colonies it had at least from the 12.th century onwards control of the west and south coasts of Borneo. It lost control of its Buddhist "sea empire" by 1400, finally succeeded by the Majapahit.
 * 518, 523 and 616, diplomats from the island Poli, southeast of camboja, visit the chinese mainland. The descriptions could point to an north-east borneoan site, most probably Puni, the later Brunei. (1912 Hose & McDougall citing Groeneveldt) The state seems to have been under hinduistic influence with a Buddhist sovereign.
 * 520, Malay formed the Buddhist Kingdom of Tanjungpuri in the present-day Tanjung, Tabalong South Kalimantan.
 * 700?-present, Brunei (the Po-ni of chinese records?), local power since around 500? May have been a subject state to the empire of Sri Vijaya. (was Brunei related to or identical with Vijayapura?)
 * 977, Hianzta, king of Puni, sends envoys to the Sung that controll southern China. The town of this time may have had more than 10,000 inhabitants. It featured a wooden stockade and a royal palace. Among other things he asked for diplomatic protection by the chinese for his ships that might be blown of course to Champa. (1912 Hose & McDougall)
 * 985, in Mataram on Java Dharmavamsa becomes king. He may have founded a settlement in western Kalimantan.
 * 1025, Rajendra Chola, the Chola king from Coromandel in South India, conquered Kedah on the Malay Peninsula from Srivijaya and occupied it for some time. The Cholas continued a series of raids and conquests throughout what is now Indonesia and Malaysia for the next 20 years. Although the Chola invasion was ultimately unsuccessful, it gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri on east Java, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long distance trade.
 * 1082, king Sri Maja of Puni send tributes to the chinese.(1912 Hose & McDougall)
 * 1200, Empu Jatmika built the Hindu Kingdom of Negara Dipa by the rivers of Tapin. This was the start of the Javanese-style courts in South Kalimantan.
 * 1292, a chinese south-sea expedition of the mongol emporers may have bypassed the coast of Borneo on its way to fight Java.
 * 1293-1500, Majapahit, a Hindu sea empire centered on Java, again interested basically on controlling the trade routes. Lost control to the Sultanate of Malacca (founded around 1400 by refugees from Srivijaya and Muslim by 1414) in the north and finally defeated by the Sultanate of Demak.
 * late 1320s, one Odoric of Pordonone in Italy, a Franciscan monk, visited Java, Sumatra, and Kalimantan.
 * around 1350 a "Burni" pays tribute to Majapahit.
 * 1363, the west Borneoan Prinz Awang Alak Betatar becomes Raja of Brunei and converts to Islam. Renaming himself "Muhammad Shah" he becomes the first Sultan of Brunei and founds the dynasty that has ruled the sultanate to this day. He is reported to have subdued the people of Igan (who may ancestors to the Melanau), Kalaka, Seribas, Sadong, Semarahan, and Sarawak. The Muruts joined the kingdom on friendly terms.(1912 Hose & McDougall) At some time later in his reign he stopped paying tribute to the Majapahit. He is succeeded by Sultan Abdul Majid Hassan upon his death in 1402.
 * 1368, an javanese army (Majapahit?) relieve Brunei from the Sulu who had sacked the town. (1912 Hose & McDougall)
 * 1374, or little later the king of Brunei pays tribute to Mansur Shah the sultan of Malacca. (1912 Hose & McDougall)
 * 1387, Banjarmasin is founded by Empu Jamatka (or Djamatka; from Hindustan?). and here The city began as subject to the hindu Kingdoms of Negara Dipa.
 * 1400, The Kayan seem to come to Borneo at some time before 1400 and traveled from somewhere between the Kapuas and Banjarmasin to the north. (1912 Hose & McDougall)
 * 1400 Negara Dipa is succeeded by the Hindu Kingdom of Negara Daha in south Kalimantan. (subject to Majapahit?)
 * 1405 Maraja Kali, king of Puni sends tribute to the chinese Ming emporer. (1912 Hose & McDougall)
 * 1408 Maraja Kali, king of Puni, travels to visit the chinese emporer. He dies while in China and is succeeded by his son Hiawang as king of Puni. (1912 Hose & McDougall)
 * 1410-1425, tributes of Hiawang of Puni are recorded six times in China. (1912 Hose & McDougall)
 * 1478, fall of Majapahit?
 * 1500s, refugees from the fall of Majapahit found the city of Sukadana on Kalimantan.
 * From 1511 onwards Brunei becomes a major power on the island of Borneo after the decline of Majapahit and ultimately Malacca, Stretching its power across the Sulu Sea towards the Philippines.
 * 1520, Banjarmasin converts to Islam.
 * 1521, The fleet of Ferdinand Magellan visits the port of Brunei and a description of the city by Antonio Pigafetta has survived. The Sultan at this time was Bolkiah, the fifth muslim Sultan of Brunei. During his reign Brunei had control of what is now Sarawak and Sabah as well as of the Islands in the Sulu Sea and had founded colonies in the Manila Bay on the Philippines.
 * 1526 Pangeran Samudera of Negara Daha creats a Banjar Kingdom with Bandar Masih, the modern Banjarmasin, as its capital.
 * 1565, Kutai becomes islamic.
 * 16th century, Melanau refugees from the Philippines settle along what is today the Sarawak coast. Historic burial places of the Melanau are found by Niah near Miri.

Colonial times

 * 1578 The Portuguese attack Brunei city. Reducing its influenze on the Philippines to the north after the spanish had taken Manila in 1571.
 * 1595, Suriansyah makes Banjarmasin a Sultanate.
 * 1606, the Dutch VOC start trading at Banjarmasin (first Dutch on Borneo?).
 * 1616, Nathaniel Courthope is Factor (agent) at Sukadana.
 * 1620, Rahmatullah becomes Sultan of Banjarmasin.
 * 1622 a navy from Mataram attacks Sukadana in West Kalimantan, an ally at that time of Surabaya and sets the city on fire.
 * 1635, the town of Kutai signs a treaty with the Dutch VOC.
 * 1642, Hidayatullah becomes the Sultan of Banjarmasin and is followed by Musta'in Billah in 1650 and Inayatullah in 1678 followed by Sa'dillah in 1685.
 * 1658, the Sultanate of Brunei was purported to have given the north-east portion of Borneo to the Sultan of Sulu as a "gift" in return for the latter's help in settling a civil war in the Brunei Sultanate.
 * 1668, Sulawesi Bugis found Samarinda on Kalimantan.
 * 1669, the dutch traders of the VOC at Banjarmasin are killed.
 * Around 1675, the Iban people (Sea Dayak) spread from the upper Kapuas region in West Kalimantan into the south western part of what is now Sarawak. By around 1800 at the latest they clash with the Kayan on the upper stretches of the Rajang River. They expand further north skirting the Settlements on the coast to the Baram River system.
 * 1701, Tahlilillah the new Sultan of Banjarmasin (since 1700) tries in vain to get rid of the British post by force but succedes by 1707.
 * 1726, Pasir and Kutai in Kalimantan are taken by the Bugis prince Arung Singkang of Wajo.
 * 1733, Banjarmasin is attacked Arung Singkang.
 * 1772, Pontianak is made the capital of the independent sultanate of the same name and was founded around an old trading station some 20 Kilometres inland from the western Borneo coast on the north edge of the delta of the Kapuas River.
 * 1777, Hakka Chinese found the Lanfang Republic in West Kalimantan
 * Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 dividing Borneo between Dutch and English control.
 * By around 1830 Brunei has only control of what is now Sarawak and Brunei itself?
 * 1841-1946, History of Sarawak under the White Rajahs.
 * 1854-1861, The Iban leader Rentap fights the Brookes in Sarawak.
 * 1882-1963, History of Sabah under British rule. (1865 under American private control)
 * 1884, the Dutch occupy West Kalimantan and end the Lanfang Republic.
 * History of Brunei during Colonial times
 * History of Dutch Indonesia regarding Kalimantan

The second World War on Borneo
Battle of Borneo (1941–42) The first targets on Borneo where the oilfields, refineries and oil harbours such as at Miri, Seria, Taraken, Balikpapan (retrieved from pages at this website.)
 * 1941,Dec.8. the oil fields and airfields at Miri and Seria as well as the refinery at Lutong were destroyed on order by the Brooke Govornment after the news of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour spread.
 * 1941,Dec.16. The Japanese make their first landing on Borneo in the morning hours at Miri and Seria.
 * 1941,Dec.24. The Japanese take the town of Kuching and secure the airfield on the next day.
 * 1941,Dec.27. The remaining defending forces of Kuching cross the border to Kalimantan and reach Singkawang II airfield on the 31st.
 * 1941,Dec.31. The Japanese advance towards Brunei.
 * 1942,Jan.1. The island of Labuan is taken by the Japanese.
 * 1942,Jan.11.-14. The Japanese take the island of Tarakan with its oilfields of the east coast of Borneo near the town of Tanjungselor.
 * 1942,Jan.18. The Japanese land at Sandakan in Sabah.
 * 1942,Jan.26. Balikpapan on the southeast coast of Borneo Island, south of Samarinda and north of Tanahgrogot is captured by the Japanese. The Anambas Islands were occupied on the same day. The Natuna Islands may have been taken shortly afterwards.
 * 1942,Jan.27. Singkawang is evacuated and falls to the Japanese after suffering heavy attacks. The towns of Ledo, Pemangkat and Sambas are also occupied on this day.
 * 1942,Jan.29. The Japanese take Pontianak.
 * 1942,Jan.31. The town of Ngabang is occupied.
 * 1942,Feb.10. Bandjermasin is captured.
 * 1942,Feb.16. The town of Sintang is occupied.
 * 1942,March 6. The town of Sampit is occupied.
 * 1942,March 9. The Dutch at Kotawarangin airfield near Pangkalanboeoen surrender.
 * 1942,March 19. Samarinda II airfield is occupied by the Japanese.
 * 1942,April 1. The last forces from Kuching surrunder at Kenamboi in Kalimantan after retreating through the jungle for some 800 miles. The Dutch at Kotawaringin airfield may have surrundered on the same day.
 * 1942 March to October, Lieutenant Davijd, of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army from Sintang on the Kapuas river moves to Putussibau refusing to surrunder. With a some others he flees to the the source of the Mahakam River when advanced upon by the Japanese on the last days of June. He and all other white men of his party are killed by local Punans after they returned to the upper Kapuas.

 * Activities by the Z Special Unit in 1945 and its members such as Jack Wong Sue (Sandakan?) and Tom Harrisson (parachuted on March 25, 1945 with others to the Kelabit highlands).

 * Borneo Campaign (1945)
 * 1945-05-01 – 1945-05-25 Battle of Tarakan
 * 1945-06-01 – 1945-06-15 Battle of Brunei
 * 1945-06-01 – 1945-06-22 Battle of Labuan
 * 1945-06-17 – 1945-08-15 Battle of North Borneo
 * 1945-07-01 – 1945-07-21 Battle of Balikpapan

Some Sources

 * History of Southeast Asia
 * History of Brunei
 * History of Indonesia
 * History of Malaysia
 * History of Vietnam
 * At ANU E Press (The Australian National University) There are probably thousands of relevant pages online on this site - a lot to wade through. Some that might contain relevant information are:
 * Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago
 * The Austronesians - Historical and Comparative Perspectives
 * Origins, Ancestry and Alliance - Explorations in Austronesian Ethnography
 * Inside Austronesian Houses - Perspectives on domestic designs for living
 * Some pages and maps from the "Southeast Asia Research Group" at the "Department of Geology, Royal Holloway University of London".
 * On Brudirect.com what seems to be a collection of phrases from different sources about the history of Brunei
 * More, partly mythical, information on the early Sultans of Brunei at [ http://www.4dw.net/royalark/Brunei/brunei3.htm]
 * Information on the Sya’ir Awang Simawn text at www.sil.org (PDF).
 * Some pictures of early ceramics found in East Kalimantan caves on kalimanthrope.com. Anybody any info on what culture these belong to?
 * List of archaeological sites in Sarawak
 * Dayak Kings in West Kalimantan.

Comment on above
Sounds excellent. it's always heartening to see such enthusiasm - and request for gotong royong. One small disagreement though - i think it is better to do the references as we go - ie, presumably when we write it, we have the references to hand and thus easy to add - i think it is much harder to do it later. But, nice work. I will look more closely tomorrow if i can. Merbabu 08:59, 13 April 2007 (UTC)
 * References always to hand? Hm - Lucky you, I quite often read or hear something, then, at home in the middle of the night, trip along an issue in some wp article and add from memory. Later sometimes a lot later I go to the library and copy some reference info (with pencil on paper!) and carry it to the next pc ... considering this is a talk page I'd rather gather as much info as possible and not only when I have the references at hand, admitting of course that would be ideal; thus getting an idea (and giving others hints) at what to consider or search for.- Of course if youre pc sits right in front of youre extensive library, please add as much references as you can to the benefit of all. --T.woelk 09:58, 13 April 2007 (UTC)
 * ha ha - 'from memory'? lucky you ;)  . All my additions I need to research - i don't have that much info in my head. :)  Merbabu 15:00, 13 April 2007 (UTC)
 * ...well you see I have this big wheelbarrow with a nice soft cushion in it just perfect for my enormous h.....oh well - years of training, memorizing lots of useless stuff and forgetting all the things normally considered important like appointments. ;<D --T.woelk 08:23, 14 April 2007 (UTC)

If your sure that the above is correct, then go ahead and enter it into Timeline of Indonesian History - and put the references in the bottom. For other articles that you put this info into (and it is certainly relevant to more than just this one), it would be very nice to have in-line citations against each point if you can. regards Merbabu 02:00, 15 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Noticed all the question marks? No I'm not sure of much of the above, thats why I started the timeline on the talk page. Most of it uses Wikipedia as source, so its self reference. I'd rather have more sources from other places outside of Wikipedia. I have the two books I added as sources to the longhouse article but they are old and only focus on Sarawak. Once I'm home again I might be able to add more to the history of Sarawak and the Iban people but that may be some weeks from now. The references I added to this timeline are online books, some in html some as PDF only. I haven't read them all yet and have just overflown some for spezific information, so I might have missed other relevant stuff. This is after all a sort of call for help, especially as I know rather little of the history of the Kalimantan part of Borneo.--T.woelk 21:28, 15 April 2007 (UTC)

Good job! Made minor changes. I will try to contribute more in the future. Cheers! Matahari Pagi 04:40, 17 April 2007 (UTC)

Map messed the layout
I tried to add this map to the relevant section, but ended up messing the layout - the edit buttons didn't want to stay where they should have been. I'll put it here instead - perhaps some wiki-wise person can figure out how to add it without causing major mess. Maybe it will have to wait for fatter geography section. – Sadalmelik 21:10, 3 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Removed the map from this talk page, it's [[Media:Borneo Topography.png|Topographical map of Borneo.]] – Sadalmelik 09:22, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

Only island divided into three countries
This is true as far as internationally recognized countries are concerned, but Cyprus is also de facto divided into the Republic of Cyprus, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, and UK sovereign base areas. Should this be mentioned -- and if so, how to do it without stepping on any toes? 65.78.5.10 19:08, 2 July 2007 (UTC)

This USED to be a GOOD Article
Unfortunately, for the casual reader, there are so many issues with what has been written. First, it's an Island with a NAME. It's known by that name - who cares about colloquial terms or the etymology of the name??? Must everyone know that it is supposedly a slave name??? Where is the research on that??? Did some dutch mispronounciation contribute to this, in the end I, as a reader don't particularly care.

Let's take for example Britain. The term originates from the Roman Derivative "Pritain" or however you wish to pronounce it. So, according to that line of thinking, Britain is a slave name, allegedly of sorts. This type of thinking is wrong and erroneous to say the least. We are asked by some misinformed editor, as readers to accept this type of ignorance.

Please - Some consistency.

Tuai 20:59, 8 July 2007 (UTC)

Point of View writing - Edited below - Suggest removal or rewriting.

Borneo is a Western reference; The Island was known as Borneo by the Dutch during the colonial period. In Indonesia, the island is referred to as Kalimantan. East Malaysia or Malaysian Borneo)refers to the States of Sabah and Sarawak.

 * Dear Tuai sir. If you haven't noticed, this is an encyclopedia. All of the information you find in the article are on the right places. Nobody is denying the name "Borneo" in the language of English, but all the additional information added are also important for explaining the background of the island.

 * It is a fact that we Indonesians call the entire island as Kalimantan to this very day. It's also a fact that we've always been using the term even before the colonialists came to our island, and we continue on using the term through the colonial time until the independence of Indonesia, and we have the prove of that (in form of correspondence between the Colonialist Dutch and local King).

 * So no, it's not a POV. But I'm not denying the name of "Borneo" either. It's up to the English-speaking people to call it that way, and since this is an Encyclopedia in English, it's only natural to list it that way. But it's our right too to call it our own way, not the way the westerners mistakenly call it when they want to pronounce Brunei.

 * And let it be the reader's decision whether s/he wants to be a casual reader or not. Good day to you, sir.

Matahari Pagi 10:03, 3 August 2007 (UTC)

Merge Result
The Result of a discussion was that the article Kalimantan be merge into this article. Most of the content was sufficiently identical that no new content was added. The only portion that need to be considered is the theories over the name Kalimantan the article listed 6 theories but none were supported with referencing. Gnangarra 14:35, 9 October 2007 (UTC)

Reopen discussion for Kalimantan?
I am aware that there was a discussion, but i still think that a separate article may be needed. The discussion also seem to be that Rigadoun, Satusuro, HoneyBee, and an Anon, opposed the merger (or leaned in favour of not having a merger) vs Merbabu, Matahari Pagi, and Bendtz supporting the merger. Thats 4 (oppose) - 3 (support). Supporters say "Kalimantan" means "Borneo". Is this the historical meaning? Is it still valid today?

From the article West Kalimantan: From East Kalimantan: See also Central Kalimantan and South Kalimantan. They all seem to suggest that "Kalimantan" refers to the Indonesia portion of Borneo. Similarly there is the article East Malaysia aka Malaysian Borneo. I think the region deserves its own article imo. kawaputra torque 04:26, 3 February 2008 (UTC)
 * It is one of four Indonesian provinces in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo..
 * Kaltim) is the second largest Indonesian province, located on the Kalimantan region on the east of Borneo island.

Furthermore, from Britannica: Emphasis on having a world-wide view. kawaputra torque 04:32, 3 February 2008 (UTC)
 *  southern three-quarters of the island of Borneo (q.v.) that is politically part of Indonesia. Indonesians, however, use the word as a geographic term for the entire island.
 * Perhaps an aritcle, "Kalimantan", be re-created, but be strictly limited to discussion of the terms "Kalimantan" and "Borneo", a list of the Indonesian provinces, and that's it, without regurgitating the list of info on Borneo. I'm not sure on this, so I'd be happy to hear other opinion. --Merbabu (talk) 04:35, 3 February 2008 (UTC)
 * PS, it seems that Kalimantan to Indonesians refers to the whole island, while to westerners it means the Indonesian part. Also, isn't Borneo a relic from colonial days now resurrected by travel agents? An (actually intelligent) colleague of mine recently went to "Sabah" on holidays - a few days before he left, he didn't even know that it was part of Malaysia. --Merbabu (talk) 04:38, 3 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Yea, im not really a supporter or retaining colonial names. Im not sure whether the travel agents "resurected" the term. I thought thats the name of the island all the while? Yes ive seen this as well: Sabah, Borneo. The name seems to be a useful selling point ;p. Anyhow, since the use of that name appears to be widespread and common (worldwide), then is should be retained. Yes, the Kalimantan article should just explain the meaning as understood by foregners and Indonesian. And perhaps a short history about how the island became partitioned. kawaputra torque 04:55, 3 February 2008 (UTC)

I don't understand the need to look on to the matter as if it was a nuclear science. "Kalimantan" is simply how we Indonesians call the whole island which is better known internationally as "Borneo". As simple as that! Just like we call banana as "pisang", rose as "mawar", etc. We even have the proof on our case;

Record says that in his correspondence with the Dutch Resident, Prince Tamjidillah refer to the island as "Kalimantan island" and not "Borneo island". Colonial Dutch indeed called the island as Borneo, a name they took from their fellow colonialist.

By all means, use any term that suits you the most. But you can't force us to use "Borneo" to call the whole island, just like you can call the island "Greenland as you wish, but you can't force the people there to erase their own name Kalaallit Nunaat. Matahari Pagi (talk) 09:02, 5 March 2008 (UTC)
 * I understand your concerns Matahari Pagi - I myself was not so sure on my position initially. However, this is the English encyclopedia and Kalimantan links to a nice short article that explains the various interpretations (ie, the English and Indonesian). --Merbabu (talk) 09:16, 5 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, I do understand the fact that this is an English encyclopedia, that's why I already said that I don't expect them to change the way they call the island. What they need to understand is that for Indonesians, the name "Kalimantan" refers to the whole island, that's it. Matahari Pagi (talk) 06:38, 6 March 2008 (UTC)
 * That's fine - but don't the first few sentences of both Kalimantan and Borneo already mention the Indonesian usage of "Kalimantan"? --Merbabu (talk) 05:11, 6 March 2008 (UTC)
 * The whole world seems to think that "Kalimantan" means the Indonesian portion of Borneo, as proven by these two encyclopedic link: and  (and not to mention articles relating to Kalimantan and Borneo in Wikipedia). I dont think its wrong that ppl outside Indo adopted the word and used it to refer only to the Indonesian part. Plus WP:NCGN seems to suggest that there should be a separate article for Kalimantan, emphasis on commonly used term.  ќמшמφטтгמ torque 10:50, 6 March 2008 (UTC)

The whole world also seems to think that "America" refers to USA, which is actually a country located in northern America. As a popular source of reference, I think Wikipedia should give only the fact, and I think we're going the right way to redirect "Kalimantan" to "Borneo", as the article in "Borneo" has already explained that "Kalimantan" is the term used by Indonesians to refer to the whole island although most people out of Indonesia use the term in a different way. Matahari Pagi (talk) 03:11, 22 September 2008 (UTC)

 * So do u propose that wikipedia should not have any article to refer to the Indonesian part of the island (kaltim, kalsel, kalbar, kalteng collectively)? Or use another name? ќמшמφטтгמ torque 05:13, 22 September 2008 (UTC)
 * Just call it Indonesian Borneo perhaps? Gombang (talk) 18:14, 1 October 2008 (UTC)

Sabah Origin (Borneo)
Does anybody found the origin of Sabahan or people who lives in Sabah (East Malaysia)? Please publish here because I really want to know my root especially for the "Kadazandusun" ethnic. Sabah is located at North Borneo and it consist of 32 ethnics. Ricella —Preceding unsigned cjhbguyyutfyfggugtbggggggomment added by 60.52.86.62 (talk) 06:39, 12 November 2008 (UTC)

Citations, please
''Indonesians erroneously refer to the entire island as Kalimantan, not just the Indonesian portion. However, the proper term in both Indonesia and abroad is Borneo Indonesian/Malay:Pulau Borneo. This discrepancy is rooted in Indonesian claims to the entire island, during the Konfrontasi days''

First of all, it's not an error from Indonesians's side, it's just a local term. Second of all, whoever said that the proper term in Indonesia is Pulau Borneo? Third of all, the so-called "disrepancy" got nothing to do with Konfrontasi or Indonesia's claim to the whole island. This is such a big accusation, and there's no doubt about the nationality of the editor who wrote this. All in all, citations and references please. Matahari Pagi (talk) 07:58, 18 November 2009 (UTC)
 * Just fix it then - no need to ask permission. :-) --Merbabu (talk) 08:03, 18 November 2009 (UTC)
 * Okay. I was just trying to be polite. I'm from Indonesia, you see ;) Matahari Pagi (talk) 08:38, 18 November 2009 (UTC)

References in the Media
I propose this section addition for a couple of different reasons I do not believe these references should be sumbsumed by the heading 'other links', because they share the characteristic of being part of the media, and are therefore a distinct category of references. Also, the addition of a section under the above topic would open up the article to be expanded upon by other known media references to Borneo.--Russot1 (talk) 19:19, 14 October 2010 (UTC)
 * 1) A section with a similar title is part of other Wikipedia articles and will add to the uniformity of wikipedia.
 * 2) The BBC TV series/dvd set "Planet Earth"'s chapter 'Caves' extensively covers Burneo's cave system, and would be interesting to readers and tv viewers.
 * 3) A previous talk comment by another user on the orgin's of Fez from "that 70s show" (see above)relations to Borneo, a trivial but interesting factoid.

Capital of Borneo
I'm removing the entry for Capital of Borneo in the state/province table in the article. As of the moment, Kuching is listed there, with a footnote saying that the argument of putting it there is due to it being the largest city in the island. Contrast this to Ireland or New Guinea, other island with multiple sovereign nations inhabiting them, and it could be seen that none of them define the capital of the multinational island as the largest city. --Xathria (talk) 03:15, 19 November 2010 (UTC)
 * That's the stupidity of infoboxes. Ie, info tends to be moulded to fit the boxes, rather than the boxes being moulded to fit the info. --Merbabu (talk) 03:34, 19 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Done. p/s Xanthria was talking about the table below, not the infobox. I think the infobox is fine. ќמшמφטтгמ torque 08:28, 19 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Yes, I was referring to the table, not the infobox. Apparently I posted in this discussion section, and then my laptop crashed before I had the chance to commit the article edit. And then I simply forgot about the edit until now, thanks for editing it out Kawaputra. :) Xathria (talk) 11:52, 30 November 2010 (UTC)

Is it worth making state/province capital notes, similar to the (national capital) on Bandar Seri Bagawan? Chipmunkdavis (talk) 12:01, 30 November 2010 (UTC)

Why is the population density so low?
Most islands in this region are densely populated, but Borneo is not. Why? The climate must be much the same as the other islands. Is the main cause physical (e.g. low soil fertility), or is it simply that dense agricultural settlement didn't develop for historical reasons? Luwilt (talk) 19:56, 16 February 2011 (UTC)
 * It's less densely populated because there are less people per sq km than other islands. DOes that help? ;-) --Merbabu (talk) 20:16, 16 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Could be low soil fertility: other islands is mostly active volcanic islands, there is only one volcano in Kalimantan/Borneo: Bombalai Hill --Isnuwardana (talk) 14:47, 5 February 2012 (UTC)
 * I may be wrong but in my opinion the reason is quite clear: the large size of Borneo, making only a small part of the territory littoral. Australia and Papua, also being large islands, are also poorly populated. СЛУЖБА (talk) 15:31, 18 March 2012 (UTC)

Updating ecology section
I removed a bit of text about the researchers in Sandakan - as it was irrelevent to the discussion about the ecology of Borneo. Industrial tree plantation actually only cover a small part of Sabah (i.e. the Safoda area around the Bengkoka Peninsular, the SFI area in the Sipitang FR and a few other small areas). I will edit other bits of this section when I have timeSepilok2007 (talk) 07:56, 18 May 2012 (UTC)

The whole of this section needs editing and some decent references - much of it unsourced. Sepilok2007 (talk) 08:05, 18 May 2012 (UTC)

Free images
Free images from old books on borneo.

http://books.google.com/books?id=phTSAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=SBYWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=hhcOAQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=aaETAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=-i7XAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=dG8cAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=wVUoAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=O9M7AAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=S5sBAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=hvBWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=HV9CAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=Yu1GAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=mjVWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

Rajmaan (talk) 21:12, 13 January 2013 (UTC)

Homologous Maps
While the topographical map we currently have is fine, I really like the map in the Java sidebar below their topographical map. Would it be possible to get one for Borneo? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.43.124.241 (talk) 12:09, 2 June 2013 (UTC)

Need map showing relation to others
A map showing relation to Malayasia and Indonesia would be useful.Parkwells (talk) 17:36, 24 June 2014 (UTC)

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Kutai basin
Just to point someone at the Kutai basin article which was an orphan (now slightly less so) - it seems to have a good chunk of 'geology of borneo' in it - and this article seems to be missing that as a section. Not sure if some of that should be merged into here ? EdwardLane (talk) 06:03, 16 November 2015 (UTC)

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Disambiguation
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Biodiversity
the article must have Biodiversity — Preceding unsigned comment added by Adobomanokio (talk • contribs) 05:25, 22 April 2018 (UTC)

Population
What's the population?

Very serious omission.
Why does the article say nothing at all about the languages spoken on Borneo? It's one of the most important facts about any place, and should have a large section of its own. Koro Neil (talk) 11:34, 18 July 2020 (UTC)

For true issues.
For me true issues make a suggestion and voice concern with take it off all fake issues for malaysia country and uk. 113.210.48.130 (talk) 08:36, 29 November 2021 (UTC)

Needs a subsection on largest cities and towns
This article lacks information on largest cities and towns. Perhaps a description could be added to the Demographics section. cmɢʟee⎆τaʟκ 10:13, 24 August 2022 (UTC)

Lundayeh on the demographics section
The Demographics subsection has provided a section for the major ethnic groups in the respected territories. With more than 200 ethnic groups residing in Borneo, it is rather impossible to list all of the tribes of Borneo,.

However, the Lun Bawang/Lundayeh are already represented in the subsection, based on the Kalimantan definition - the group categorised under Dayak people, a similar classification in Sarawak where they are officially defined under the Orang Ulu group. Their population in Sabah is numbered around 6,941 (which only constituted 0.2% of the 3,418,785 Sabahan people), while in Brunei they are numbered around 1110 (0.2% of the 460,345 Bruneians). Ping @Lunday boi Native99girl (talk) 11:37, 25 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Borneo


text:
William MacGillivray

William MacGillivray FRSE (25 January 1796 – 4 September 1852) was a Scottish naturalist and ornithologist.

Life and work
MacGillivray was born in Old Aberdeen and brought up on Harris. He returned to Aberdeen where he studied Medicine at King's College, graduating MA in 1815. In Old Aberdeen he lived at 107 High Street.

He then became an assistant Dissector in the Anatomy classes. In 1823 he became assistant to Robert Jameson, the Regius Professor of Natural History at the University of Edinburgh. He was curator of the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh from 1831, resigning in 1841 to become Regius Professor of Natural History at Marischal College, Aberdeen.

MacGillivray was a friend of American bird expert John James Audubon, and wrote a large part of Audubon's Ornithological Biographies from 1830 to 1839. Audubon named MacGillivray's warbler for him.

He died at 67 Crown Street in Aberdeen on 5 September 1852 but is buried in New Calton Cemetery in Edinburgh. The grave faces east onto the eastern path.

Family
In 1820 he married Marion Askill from Harris. The couple had 10 children, two of whom died in infancy.

Two of MacGillivray's sons achieved recognition as naturalists. His eldest son, John MacGillivray (1822–1867), published an account of the voyage round the world of HMS Rattlesnake, to which he was the onboard naturalist. Another son, Paul, published an Aberdeen Flora in 1853, and donated 214 of his father's paintings to the Natural History Museum.

Legacy
A detailed version of MacGillivray's life, written by a namesake, was published 49 years after the ornithologist's death.

MacGillivray correctly distinguished between the hooded crow and carrion crow, but they were considered only to be subspecies for the next one and a half centuries until, in 2002, on DNA evidence, the hooded crow was awarded species status.

Works
MacGillivray's works include:

 * Lives of Eminent Zoologists from Aristotle to Linnaeus (1830)
 * A Systematic Arrangement of British Plants (1830)
 * The Travels and Researches of Alexander von Humboldt. (1832)
 * A History of British Quadrupeds (1838)
 * A Manual of Botany, Comprising Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology (1840)
 * A History of the Molluscous Animals of Aberdeen, Banff and Kincardine (1843)
 * A Manual of British Ornithology (1840–1842)
 * A History of British Birds, indigenous and migratory, in five volumes (1837–1852)
 * Natural History of Deeside and Braemar (1855), published posthumously
 * A Hebridean Naturalist's Journal 1817-1818 (1996), published posthumously
 * A Walk to London (1998), published posthumously

MacGillivray illustrated Henry Witham's 1833 The Internal Structure of Fossil Vegetables found in the Carboniferous and Oolitic deposits of Great Britain, and edited The Conchologist's Text-Book through several editions.

title: William MacGillivray


text:
Legio III Parthica

Legio III Parthica ("Parthian-conquering Third Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army founded in AD 197 by the emperor Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) for his campaign against the Parthian Empire, hence the cognomen Parthica. The legion was still active in the Eastern provinces in the early 5th century. The legion's symbol was probably a bull.

Foundation
Together with its sister legions I Parthica and II Parthica, the third Parthian legion was levied for the attack on the eastern frontier. The campaign was a success and Ctesiphon, the Parthian capital, was taken and sacked. III Parthica remained in the region afterwards, garrisoning the new province of Mesopotamia. Their main base camp was Rhesaena, where they had the duty of securing the main roads and protect the province against the Sassanids.

Against the Sassanids
During the 3rd century, III Parthica took part in several other campaigns against the Sassanids; even if there are few direct proofs of its involvement, III Parthica was stationed in the region and was obviously employed in the wars between the two rival empires.

A first indecisive campaign was led by Emperor Caracalla in 217, during which he was assassinated.

In 230, the Sassanids invaded the Roman province, defeating the Third. The Emperor Alexander Severus then organized a successful campaign to restore Roman rule over Mesopotamia.

Emperor Gordian III organized another campaign in 243, and the Third won the Battle of Resaena, but in the following year Gordian died during the campaign, and his successor Philip the Arab, whose position had been confirmed by Shapur I, retreated. The Sassanids marked a major victory in 256, when they defeated the XV Apollinaris and conquered its fortress, Satala, sacking Trapezus in 258. Emperor Valerian tried to recover the lost territories, but was defeated and taken prisoner (260). The Romans successfully challenged the Sassanid rule, first with Odaenathus (261-267), leader of a secessionist Palmyrene Empire, and later with Emperor Diocletian (284-305), who signed a treaty of peace in 298 that marked the return of Northern Mesopotamia under Roman influence.

In the early 5th century, the legion was probably still active in the region under the Dux Osrhoenae, based in Apatna, modern Tell Fdyin, Iraq (Notitia dignitatum is corrupted, but shows that a legion is quartered in Apatna, and the III Parthica is not mentioned anywhere else).

title: Legio III Parthica


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GRT

GRT may refer to:

Businesses

 * GRT Group, a defunct British bus operator
 * General Recorded Tape, a defunct American company
 * GRT Records, their record label
 * Grand River Transit, a Canadian public transport operator
 * Guangdong Radio and Television, a Chinese broadcaster

Places

 * Grateley railway station, Hampshire, England (CRS code: GRT)
 * Greenbrier River Trail, a state park in West Virginia, US

Other uses

 * Garo language, spoken in India and Bangladesh
 * Grasser Racing Team, an Austrian motor racing team
 * Gross register tonnage, a measure of a ship's volume
 * An acronym for Gypsies, Roma and Travellers in the UK.

title: GRT


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Lucas primality test

In computational number theory, the Lucas test is a primality test for a natural number n; it requires that the prime factors of n − 1 be already known. It is the basis of the Pratt certificate that gives a concise verification that n is prime.

Concepts
Let n be a positive integer. If there exists an integer a, 1 < a < n, such that

 * $$a^{n-1}\ \equiv\ 1 \pmod n \, $$

and for every prime factor q of n − 1

 * $$a^{({n-1})/q}\ \not\equiv\ 1 \pmod n \, $$

then n is prime. If no such number a exists, then n is either 1, 2, or composite.

The reason for the correctness of this claim is as follows: if the first equivalence holds for a, we can deduce that a and n are coprime. If a also survives the second step, then the order of a in the group (Z/nZ)* is equal to n−1, which means that the order of that group is n−1 (because the order of every element of a group divides the order of the group), implying that n is prime. Conversely, if n is prime, then there exists a primitive root modulo n, or generator of the group (Z/nZ)*. Such a generator has order |(Z/nZ)*| = n−1 and both equivalences will hold for any such primitive root.

Note that if there exists an a < n such that the first equivalence fails, a is called a Fermat witness for the compositeness of n.

Example
For example, take n = 71. Then n − 1 = 70 and the prime factors of 70 are 2, 5 and 7. We randomly select an a=17 < n. Now we compute:

 * $$17^{70}\ \equiv\ 1 \pmod {71}.$$

For all integers a it is known that

 * $$a^{n - 1}\equiv 1 \pmod{n}\ \text{ if and only if } \text{ ord}(a)|(n-1).$$

Therefore, the multiplicative order of 17 (mod 71) is not necessarily 70 because some factor of 70 may also work above. So check 70 divided by its prime factors:

 * $$17^{35}\ \equiv\ 70\ \not\equiv\ 1 \pmod {71}$$

 * $$17^{14}\ \equiv\ 25\ \not\equiv\ 1 \pmod {71}$$

 * $$17^{10}\ \equiv\ 1\ \equiv\ 1 \pmod {71}.$$

Unfortunately, we get that 1710≡1 (mod 71). So we still don't know if 71 is prime or not.

We try another random a, this time choosing a = 11. Now we compute:

 * $$11^{70}\ \equiv\ 1 \pmod {71}.$$

Again, this does not show that the multiplicative order of 11 (mod 71) is 70 because some factor of 70 may also work. So check 70 divided by its prime factors:

 * $$11^{35}\ \equiv\ 70\ \not\equiv\ 1 \pmod {71}$$

 * $$11^{14}\ \equiv\ 54\ \not\equiv\ 1 \pmod {71}$$

 * $$11^{10}\ \equiv\ 32\ \not\equiv\ 1 \pmod {71}.$$

So the multiplicative order of 11 (mod 71) is 70, and thus 71 is prime.

(To carry out these modular exponentiations, one could use a fast exponentiation algorithm like binary or addition-chain exponentiation).

Algorithm
The algorithm can be written in pseudocode as follows:

algorithm lucas_primality_test is input: n > 2, an odd integer to be tested for primality. k, a parameter that determines the accuracy of the test. output: prime if n is prime, otherwise composite or possibly composite. determine the prime factors of n−1. LOOP1: repeat k times: pick a randomly in the range [2, n − 1] if $a^{n-1} \not\equiv 1 \pmod n$ then return composite else # $\color{Gray}{a^{n-1} \equiv 1 \pmod n}$ LOOP2: for all prime factors q of n−1: if $a^\frac{n-1}q \not\equiv 1 \pmod n$ then if we checked this equality for all prime factors of n−1 then return prime else continue LOOP2 else # $\color{Gray}{a^\frac{n-1}q \equiv 1 \pmod n}$ continue LOOP1 return possibly composite.

title: Lucas primality test


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Archibald Dalzel

Archibald Dalzel (c. 1740 – c. 1818) was a Scottish colonial administrator and slave trader who served as governor of the Gold Coast from 1792 to 1802. Between 1804 and 1808, he owned two slave ships. Dalzel died in 1818.

Life
Dalzel was born c. 1740 in Kirkliston, Scotland and he trained to be a doctor in Edinburgh. After a spell in the Royal Navy he resolved to take a job in Africa as he saw it as a way to make money. He went to Africa as a surgeon in 1763 but started trading slaves to add to his salary. He served four years as governor of Whydah (now Ouidah, Benin). He observed that the people at Whydah "pay a kind of veneration to a particular species of large snake, which is very gentle." Dalzal returned to England in 1770.

Appointed by the Committee of Merchants that was in charge of the Gold Coast at the time, he served as governor in two periods: 31 March 1792 - 16 December 1798, and 28 April 1800 - 30 September 1802. Whilst he was there his daughter Elizabeth Dickson was born.

In 1793 he published ''The history of Dahomy, an inland kingdom of Africa; comp. from authentic memoirs; with an introduction and notes'' where he argued that the raiding of Dahomean villages for slaves was saving them from the greater evil of being human sacrifices.

Shipowner
In 1775 he purchased the schooner Nancy, of 60 tons (bm). On 19 September 1775, he sailed to Africa. At some point he purchased Hannah to act as a ship's tender for Nancy. As of February 2023 it is not clear about what happened to either vessel. In 1804 Dalzel purchased the slave ship Thames. She made two slave-trading voyages while under his ownership. In all she delivered 486 captives to the West Indies. After the passage of the Slave Trade Act 1807, which ended British participation in the Atlantic slave trade, Dalzel sold her. In 1805, Dalzel purchased a second slave ship, Chalmers. She made one complete voyage. She was wrecked in 1808 on her second slave-trading voyage; the crew and enslaved captives were saved.

Family
Son of William Dalziel (1705–1751) a carpenter from Kirkliston and Alice Linn. Brother of Andrew Dalzel (1742–1806), Professor of Greek, Honorary Librarian at Edinburgh University.

title: Archibald Dalzel