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User talk:Neferuaten

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Šiauliai

Šiauliai (Šiaulē) is a city in northern Lithuania, the country's fourth largest city and the sixth largest city in the Baltic States, with a population of 108,000 in 2023. From 1994 to 2010 it was the capital of Šiauliai County.

Names
Šiauliai is referred to by various names in different languages: Samogitian Šiaulē, Latvian Saule (historic) and Šauļi (modern), Polish Szawle, German (outdated) Schaulen,, Russian Шавли (Shavli – historic) and Шяуля́й (Shyaulyai – modern), Yiddish שאַװל (Shavel).

History
The city was first mentioned in written sources as Soule in Livonian Order chronicles describing the Battle of Saule. Thus the city's founding date is now considered to be 22 September 1236, the same date when the battle took place, not far from Šiauliai. At first, it developed as a defence post against the raids by the Teutonic and Livonian Orders. After the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, the raids stopped and Šiauliai started to develop as an agricultural settlement. In 1445, a wooden church was built. It was replaced in 1625 with the brick church which can be seen in the city center today.

Šiauliai was granted Magdeburg city rights in the 16th century when it also became an administrative centre of the area. However, in the 16th to 18th centuries the city was devastated by The Deluge and epidemics of the Bubonic plague.

The credit for the city's rebirth goes to Antoni Tyzenhaus (1733–1785) who after a violent revolt of peasants of the Crown properties in Northern Lithuania (so-called in Polish: Powstanie Szawelskie, 1769), started the radical economic and urban reforms. He decided to rebuild the city according to the Classicism ideas: at first houses were built randomly in a radial shape, but Tyzenhaus decided to build the city in an orderly rectangular grid. Šiauliai grew to become a well-developed city, with several prominent brick buildings. In 1791 Stanisław August Poniatowski, king of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, confirmed once again that Šiauliai's city rights and granted it a coat of arms which depicted a bear, the symbol of Samogitia, the Eye of Providence, and a red bull, the symbol of the Poniatowski family. The modern coat of arms has been modelled after this version.

After the Partitions of Poland, Šiauliai received a new coat of arms. The city grew and became an important educational and cultural centre. Also, infrastructure was rapidly developing: in 1836–1858 a road connecting Riga and Tilsit was built, in 1871 a railroad connecting Liepāja with Romny was built. Šiauliai, being in a crossroad of important merchant routes, started to develop as an industrial town. Already in 1897, it was the third-largest city in Lithuania with a population of about 16,000. The demographics changed also: 56.4% of the inhabitants were Jewish in 1909. Šiauliai was known for its leather industry. Chaim Frenkel owned the biggest leather factory in the Russian Empire.

World War I and independent Lithuania
During World War I, about 85% of the buildings were burned down and the city centre was destroyed. After the war and re-establishment of Lithuania, the importance of Šiauliai grew. Before Klaipėda was attached to Lithuania, the city was second after Kaunas by population size. By 1929 the city centre was rebuilt. Modern utilities were also included: streets were lighted and there was public transportation, telephone and telegraph lines, water supply network and sewer.

The first years of independence were difficult because the industrial city lost its markets in Russia. It needed to find new clients in Western Europe. In 1932, a railroad to Klaipėda was built and it connected the city to the Western markets. In 1938, the city produced about 85% of Lithuania's leather, 60% of footwear, 75% of flax fibre and 35% of candies. Culture also flourished as many new periodicals were printed, new schools and universities opened, a library, theatre, museum, and conventional school opened.

World War II
In 1939, one-fifth of the city's population was Jewish. German soldiers entered Šiauliai on June 26, 1941. The first mass murder of Šiauliai Jews was perpetrated in the Kužiai forest, about 12 kilometres outside Šiauliai, on June 29, 1941. According to one of the Jewish survivors of Šiauliai, Nesse Godin, some 700 people were shot in nearby woods during the first weeks of occupation after having been forced to dig their own graves. Beginning on July 29, 1941, and continuing throughout the summer, the Germans murdered about 8,000 Jews from Šiauliai and the Šiauliai region in the Kužiai forest. One hundred twenty-five Jews from Linkuva were also murdered there, along with ethnic Lithuanian and Russian members of the Communist Party and the Communist Youth.

The Šiauliai Ghetto was established in July 1941. There were two Jewish ghetto areas in Šiauliai, one in the Kaukas suburb, and one in Trakų. During World War II, the Jewish population was reduced from 8,000 to 500. Approximately 80% of the buildings were destroyed.

Soviet era
The city was largely rebuilt anew in a typical Soviet fashion during the years of subsequent Soviet occupation.

Mayors

 * 1990–1991: Kazimieras Šavinis
 * 1991–1995: Arvydas Salda
 * 1995–2000: Alfredas Lankauskas
 * 2000–2002: Vida Stasiūnaitė
 * 2002–2003: Vaclovas Volkovas
 * 2003–2007: Vytautas Juškus
 * 2007–2011: Genadijus Mikšys
 * 2011–2015: Justinas Sartauskas
 * 2015–present: Artūras Visockas

Geography
Šiauliai located in eastern part of the northern plateau, Mūša, Dubysa and Venta River divide. Distance of 210 km to Vilnius, Kaunas – 142 km, Klaipėda – 161 km, Riga – 128 km, Kaliningrad – 250 km. The total city area 81.13 km², from the green areas 18.87 km², water – 12.78 km². Urban land outside perimeter of the administrative 70317 km.

Altitude: Rėkyvos the lake water level – 129.8 m above sea level, Talsos lake level – 103.0 m in the city center – 128.4 m, Salduvės Hill – 149.7 m above sea level.

Water
The total water area – 1,280 ha, 15.7% in urban areas.
 * Šiauliai Lakes
 * Rėkyva Lake, 1,179 ha
 * Talkša Lake, 56.2 ha
 * Ginkūnai Lake, 16.6 ha
 * Rivers
 * Kulpė
 * Rūdė
 * Vijolė
 * Švedė
 * Šimša
 * Tilžė
 * Šventupis

Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, Šiauliai has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Dfb). The average temperature in January; -3 °C in July; +18 °C. The amount of precipitation in a year – 620 mm.

In 1942, the city recorded the lowest Lithuania year mean temperature (+3.6 °C).

Demographics

In 1795, there were 3,700 people living in Šiauliai, rising to 16,128 by 1897, when it was the third-most populous city in Lithuania after Kaunas. The Jewish population of Šiauliai rose steadily through the second half of the nineteenth century, from 2,565 in 1847 to around 7,000 at century's end. By the outbreak of World War I, 12,000 of the town's inhabitants were Jews, making Šiauliai majority Jewish. A battlefield during World War I, Šiauliai saw thousands of its Jewish citizens flee, never to return. In 1923, Šiauliai population's was third to that of Kaunas and Klaipėda.

According to the 2021 census, the city population was 100,653 people, of which:
 * Lithuanians – 94.12% (94,735)
 * Russians – 3.15% (3,173)
 * Ukrainians – 0.43% (436)
 * Belarusians – 0.25% (249)
 * Poles – 0.14% (138)
 * Others / did not specify – 1.92% (1936)

Economy
Beginning in the 19th century, Šiauliai became an industrial centre. During the Russian Empire period, the city had the largest leather factory in the whole empire, owned by Chaim Frenkel. Šiauliai contributed to around 85% of all leather production in Lithuania, 60% of the footwear industry, 75% of the flax fibre industry, and 35% of the sweets industry.

During the Soviet years, the city produced electronics (Nuklonas), mechanical engineering, wood processing, construction industry. Most of the industrial enterprises were concentrated in urban areas.

According to 2005 data, the city has:

In 2020, construction of Europe's largest aircraft maintenance and repair centre will begin on the territory of Šiauliai International Airport. The related company will repair Airbus A320, Boeing 737 Classic, Boeing 737 Next Generation aircraft and will also provide aircraft administration and parking services. It is planned that the centre will create 1000 new workplaces.
 * Manufacturing and service companies – 3195
 * Commercial enterprises – 781
 * Shopping centres – 30, including
 * Akropolis, opened March 2009
 * Saulės Miestas, opened March 2007
 * Bruklinas, opened November 2007
 * Tilžė, opened February 2008
 * Arena, opened November 2007.

Education

 * 1851 Boys' Gymnasium (now Julius Janonis Gymnasium) was opened
 * 1898 Girls' Gymnasium (now Didždvaris Gymnasium) was opened
 * 1920 Jewish Gymnasium was opened
 * 1920 Šiauliai Teachers seminary was founded
 * 1928 Primary education became compulsory
 * 1930 Vincas Kudirka primary school was opened
 * 1939 The Institute of trade was moved from Klaipėda, it was the first Higher Education school in Šiauliai
 * 1948 Šiauliai Teachers Institute was founded, in 1954 it became Pedagogical Institute, and since 1996, when the Šiauliai faculty of Kaunas Polytechnic Institute was connected, it is Šiauliai University. In 2021 Šiauliai University was reorganised to Vilnius University Šiauliai Academy.

Students in the city (in 2006):
 * In Šiauliai University – 10,440
 * In Šiauliai College – 2,770
 * In Northern Lithuania College – 700
 * In Šiauliai region College of Management and Languages – 517
 * In Šiauliai Conservatory – 149
 * In Šiauliai Vocational Training Center – 2,663

There are 8 gymnasiums, 7 high schools, 16 secondary schools, 7 primary schools, 9 children's non-formal education schools, 29 kindergartens. 21,000 students studied in general education schools in 2006.

Parks
The city park to the creation of Anton Tyzenhaus essentially graduated Vladimir Zubov. The 19th-century park was of a rectangular shape and was similar to English-style freely designed parks. For a small fee, citizens were allowed to walk in the park. In 1931, the Park and Alley chestnut was officially donated to the Šiauliai city municipality.

Šiauliai has 16 parks, covering an area of 1,177 hectares. Didždvario province and Rėkyvos parks add to the cultural values of the registry.

Transport
Šiauliai has always been a major intersection. The famous Saulės battle took place near a trade route from Riga to Bubiai and Tauragė.In 1836–1858 Riga–Tilsit (Sovetsk) highway was built near it. About 1912, first cars appeared on city's streets.

Highways passing through Šiauliai :
 * A9 / E272 Šiauliai – Panevėžys (79 km)
 * A11 / E272 Šiauliai – Palanga (147 km)
 * A12 / E77 Riga – Šiauliai – Sovetsk (186 km).
 * City has is western bypass A18.

In 2006, Šiauliai had 297 km of roads, of which 32% had a gravel surface. The longest streets are Tilžės street – 9.72 km and Vilnius street – 5.67 km with 1.28 km of it being a pedestrian boulevard.

In 1871, the Liepaja-Romny railway was built. The Tilžė–Riga and Šiauliai–Klaipeda railways were built in 1916 and 1931, respectively. The city has a railway station.

In 1930, an air strip was developed. It was expanded in 1961 during the Soviet period and developed into a large VVS base. It is now a military base for NATO, and home to the Šiauliai International Airport.

The first passenger transport company in Šiauliai was founded in 1940. It was Autotrestas, which had 29 buses. In 1944 a motor firm replaced Autotrestas. In 1947 the first taxi company, Šiauliai cars, appeared. Subsequently, to meet the needs of an increasing population, more busses and Taksomotorų Autoūkis were added in 1955. In 2006, a modern bus station with a trade centre was constructed. The city has 27 city routes, the maximum number is 29.

Communications
Šiauliai of communication in 1897 could be used not only for mail or telegraph, and telephone. Telephone subscribers in 1923 was 170, while in 1937 – 700 rooms. 1936; the city to install a phone machine.

1957, a television tower, which are equipped with radio and antenna lines. In 1995 launched the construction of cable television lines, 1998 started to install the cable internet, since 2003 – Optical Internet line. In 2008 the city has 14 post offices (central LT-76001).

Sport
Since 1924 football was played in Šiauliai. By the year 1936 there were 14 football teams in the city. Later other sports also started to be played professionally: basketball, handball, rugby, hockey, athletics, cycling, boxing and other sports. On July 25, 2007, in preparation for the 37th European men basketball championship, a modern Šiauliai Arena was opened to the public.

Twin towns – sister cities
Šiauliai is twinned with:

 * 🇵🇱 Częstochowa, Poland
 * Etten-Leur, Netherlands
 * Fredericia, Denmark
 * 🇱🇻 Jelgava, Latvia
 * 🇺🇦 Khmelnytsky, Ukraine
 * 🇸🇪 Kristianstad, Sweden
 * 🇺🇸 Omaha, United States
 * 🇪🇪 Pärnu, Estonia
 * 🇩🇪 Plauen, Germany

The city was previously twinned with:
 * 🇧🇾 Baranavichy, Belarus
 * 🇷🇺 Kaliningrad, Russia

Notable people
According to the population census of 2001, ethnic Lithuanians comprise 93%, Russians – 5%, and the remaining 2% consist of Ukrainians, Belarusians, Jews, Roma, Latvians, Armenians and other ethnic groups. About 94% of the city's population consider Lithuanian their native language, 5% are Russian speakers and the remainder speak Ukrainian, Belarusian, Latvian, Roma, Armenian etc. About 80% of those older than 20 have a command of the Russian language, while only 17% can speak English and 7% – German.

People who were born in or near Šiauliai include:

 * Regimantas Adomaitis, movie and stage actor
 * André Andrejew, a classic Russian and French movie art director
 * Šarūnas Bartas, film director
 * Ligia B. Bieliukas, WWII underground member, clubwoman
 * Tobias Dantzig American mathematician and author.
 * Yosef Shalom Eliashiv, rabbi
 * Jacob Gens, self-proclaimed Vilnius Ghetto police commander under the Nazi occupation (1941–1943)
 * Nesse Godin, Holocaust survivor and Holocaust awareness advocate in the United States.
 * Robertas Javtokas, professional basketball player
 * Olga Jegunova, classical pianist
 * Veniamin Kagan, mathematician specializing in geometry
 * Anton Luckievič, Belarusian publisher, journalist and politician who served as the Prime Minister of the Belarusian People's Republic in 1918.
 * Ivan Luckievič, leading figure of the Belarusian independence movement in the early 20th century, publicist and archaeologist.
 * Virgilijus Noreika, opera singer,
 * Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł, magnate, noble, a duke and a politician. He held the post of Starosta (city foreman) of the city.
 * Meyer Schapiro, art historian
 * Antanas Sireika, born near Šiauliai was a coach for a hometown basketball team for many seasons.
 * Olegas Truchanas, Lithuanian photographer, went to school in the city
 * Mindaugas Žukauskas, professional basketball player
 * Marius Žaromskis, mixed martial artist fighter
 * Dovilė Dzindzaletaitė, athlete triple jumper, Lithuanian national record holder and former European Under-23 Champion, World Junior silver medalist, wife of British former World Indoor 60 metres champion Richard Kilty.

Depictions in popular culture

 * Šiauliai is one of the starting towns of Lithuania in the turn-based strategy game Medieval II: Total War: Kingdoms.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Šiauliai


text:
Talk:Packet switching

Redirects: Packet Switching, packet switching, packet mode, packet oriented, packet based.

History of packet switching
Please refer to the Talk:Packet switching/OriginsArchive for the lengthy discussion that led to the baselining of the respective roles of Paul Baran, Donald Davies, and Leonard Kleinrock in the history of packet switching.

3 Sept 2006 edit of initial sentence
I have made two changes to the initial sentence: a] "are individually routed" changed to "are routed" recognizes that some virtual-call networks such as TYMNET, RCP and IPSANET used fixed routing. b] changed "which might be shared by many other nodes" to "shared with other traffic". Nodes originate and receive little information. Most traffic is generated outside of nodes (perhaps by hosts or terminals which are attached to a node).Rdmoore6 16:14, 3 September 2006 (UTC)

Other networks (non-ARPANET/INTERNET)
The article has little mention of packet switching networks other than ARPANET/Internet. Possible examples include GTE TELENET, Tymnet, X.25/X.75, Systems Network Architecture, IPSANET. The external links are devoid of references to these non-mainstream networks.Rdmoore6 20:52, 21 February 2006 (UTC)

 * No one is stopping you from adding in these other networks... Cburnett 20:23, 14 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm taking over Packet switched network for just this purpose. It was a redirect here, but had no links to it. I'll add a see also at the top, just in case. Ewlyahoocom 08:02, 18 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Let me know if you need details on some of these. I was a network management architect for GTE TELENET and worked, at a detailed level, with Tymnet and SNA. Howard C. Berkowitz 19:44, 3 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Is there a good reason for having separate Packet switching and Packet-switched network articles? There is some indication that readers are having difficulty finding what they're looking for. --Kvng (talk) 15:43, 11 November 2011 (UTC)

 * It would be wonderful to see x.25 and the like added to the history section, given how seminal it in particular was. And arthritis and lack of knowledge are stoppipng me from adding it lol, but i believe it is important as the article reads as though pactet switching was entirely developed by arpanet. Alsobe cool to mention that packet switching mirrors traditional postal or courier service where CSD is more like train freight (even insofar as parcels can travel on a train part of the way).Mycosys (talk) 06:01, 17 February 2014 (UTC)

Cleanup - Current Article Misses the Mark
The article is marked for cleanup. This strikes me as justified as the current article misses the mark in many respects. The first couple of sentences, for example, make it sound as if routing and delay are the distinguishing properties of a packet-switched network. In fact, the essential property is that there is no static division of the underlying transmission facility into fixed-bandwidth channels or "circuits". The division of the underlying bandwidth is dynamic, based on the division of payload into "packets" and the addition to the packets of some sort of control information. This control information, rather than the appearance of the data on a pre-determined circuit, is what allows the data to be directed to its proper destination. Characteristics such as statistical multiplexing, buffering delay, circuit emulation, etc. stem from this, but are not fundamental. Should the article be rewritten from this point of view? GrahamDavies 21:48, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Historically (and I speak as an X.25 person before I was an IP person, with a brief period of OSI insanity), statistical multiplexing was indeed the first motivation, but close behind it came resiliency through some level of routing. Admittedly dating myself as a Neolithic networker, I do remember point-to-point statistical multiplexers (Timeplex, Codex, etc.) long before they had any alternate routing capability.

 * Telenet, ARPANET, and Tymnet, all with quite different underlying models, still distinguished themselves from oversubscription-based point-to-point products by their ability to do quasi-static alternate routing.

 * I agree that controlled delay, virtual circuit emulation, etc., did not seriously get considered until the semi-blind-alley of ATM. Statistical multiplexing and routing, however, are, to me, the distinguishing features of early packet switching. The routing, at first, was not always dynamic (yes, it was in ARPANET, but Telenet was quasi-static and Tymnet centralized with redundant centers). Howard C. Berkowitz 23:10, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

 * OK, that's a good explanation of the present point of view. The approach is "why should we do it this way" (because we can oversubscribe bandwidth and use statistical multiplexing and for that we'll accept some buffering delay) rather than "how does this aproach differ fundamentally from the alternatives" (which is where I was going).  I suppose the issue is whether to lead with the technology itself or the motivation for the technology.

 * I'm still not sure that routing should appear so early in the article and I don't understand why the motivation for routing should be resiliency. I think circuit-switching incorporated pretty good resiliency mechanisms.  I rather thought the point of routing was inter-networking and cost reduction, perhaps in conjunction with connection-less service, which isn't really possible with circuit switching.

 * Having argued this far, I now see clearly why I prefer to lead with a description of the technology rather than its motivation. It's easier to agree on what the technology is than how it got that way.  I'm not about to push that point of view, however, so let's see what happens. 64.119.141.34 14:44, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

Packet mode verses packet switching
User:Hcberkowitz changed the following:
 * Packet switching is based on packet mode or packet oriented data link layer communication between the network nodes. This is a statistical multiplexing technique, where a physical communication channel is divided into an arbitrary number of logical variable bit-rate channels or data streams.

to

 * Packet switching is based on packet mode or packet oriented communication between the network nodes, which, depending on the implementation, can involve mechanism at the network layer, the data link layer, or both. Some legacy packet techniques, such as X.25, may have functions normally associated with other layers. This is a statistical multiplexing technique, where a physical communication channel is divided into an arbitrary number of logical variable bit-rate channels or data streams.

Thankyou for your contribution. However, it is not clear to me what you mean. The aim with this paragraph is to distinguish the definition of packet switching from packet-mode communication over point-to-point links and non-switched LAN, for example bus networks or ring networks. X.25 is packet switched, and not only packet oriented. Perhaps you mean LAPB. But that is a link layer protocol. Anyway, this is the article header, which should not deal with basic definitions rather than detail discussions. Please simplify this paragraph and move the detail discussions into the discussion page or the end of the article. Mange01 18:34, 17 July 2007 (UTC)

 * My concern, where I tried to make a minimal edit, was the previous comment that the data link layer was responsible for the statistical multiplexing. In X.25, that is flatly wrong; the LCN/LCGN field in the packet header, after call setup, is responsible for multiplexing multiple virtual circuits onto LAP-B. LAP-B is unaware of any multiplexing.
 * While one could argue that a polled SDLC channel shares bandwidth, I wouldn't call it statistical multiplexing given that it's strictly deterministic. In other words, I didn't accept that any form of packet switching exists at the data link layer.
 * I don't follow your point about distinguishing packet-mode communication relevant to point-to-point, nonswitched LANs, or any other medium. I've run X.25 over LANs (ISO 8880) and connectionless packets (ISO 8881 and IP) over point-to-point and switched media. Indeed, I would need to be convinced that there is any significant and contemporary distinction between packet mode and packet switching. Both terms are largely obsolete; it's arguable that this article should primarily be a redirect.
 * There are always exotic applications when one has to do strange things. I once had to run TCP/IP over slow and error-prone links in a third-world country. Turning on LAP-B retransmission alone wasn't sufficient, because IP's minimum packet length of 576 made retransmission extremely inefficient. By sliding in the X.25 packet level (i.e., between LAP-B and IP), I was able to negotiate a packet length of 128, which was optimal for retransmission. Howard C. Berkowitz 19:08, 17 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Well, packet mode/switching is not obsolete. See for example the discussion about GPRS, HSDPA, 4G versus 3G, etc. But X.25 is rather obsolete and should perhaps not be the first thing we mention here.

 * Your third world story was interesting.

 * I'm sorry, I know too little about X.25, LAP-B and SDLC to understand your point.

 * I have made an attempt to clarify the paragraph, but I think it can be further improved. I removed the layer issues. I must leave for now. Good night! Mange01 03:25, 18 July 2007 (UTC)

Edited opening paragraph to more accessible language
In consideration of the banner notice, but still taking into consideration the above dialogue, I went ahead and edited the opening paragraphs into common language. The bulk of this new text is based on the more accessible description of packet switching already incorporated on the [circuit switching] wikipedia page.

This edit seems to make the first bit of the article approachable for the common person. The remaining tech jargon in the article, while interesting and probably still useful, may benefit from more simplification, clarification and better organization, prior to recommending the article for quality upgrade. ThreePD (talk) 20:51, 27 September 2008 (UTC)

Octopus system
I'm not sure this Octopus system (interesting as it is) is a real packet-switching system. The reference provided doesn't given enough details of the internal mechanisms involved to make a determination. What concerns me is that if we're going to include systems where a number of computers at one location are connected via links, if memory serves there were a number of systems like that from the late 50's on. I don't have time to research this point at the moment, but I think the earliest such system might have been the NBS PILOT system from '58 or so. And then there's SAGE - I seem to recall the centers talked to each other (and they were geographically disparate, to boot). The IBM ASP thing was another example of multiple independent machines coupled into a similar processing complex. And I seem to recall that Larry Roberts was hired by ARPA because he had prior experience (at Lincoln Labs) in getting computers to communicate over phone links. Etc, etc...

To me the determining factor would be things like 'were there real packets involved, i.e. blocks with headers that could direct the data to any element of the network' and 'could the packets take arbitrary paths from source to destination, including through a sequence of nodes, so link bandwidth was shared between all nodes'. More limited inter-computer communication setups would not, IMO, count as packet networks. Noel (talk) 03:10, 27 May 2009 (UTC)

British work on packet switching
Did it really happen at the same time, or did it precede US work?

 * http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/8498826.stm

''"Roger Scantlebury, who worked with Dr Davies, presented the ideas about "packet switching" to a conference in the US, where they were picked up by the creators of the nascent Arpanet, the fledgling internet.

''Does that mean Britain invented the internet?

''"Yes and no," said Mr Scantlebury. "Certainly the underlying technology of the internet, which is packet switching, we did invent.""''

86.7.211.128 (talk) 14:26, 7 February 2010 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure what Scantlebury is talking about here. If you read Baran's tome, it clearly is talking about packet switching as we know it today, and it equally clearly predates the UK work. The term 'packet switching' was clearly coined by Davies - perhaps the Beeb lost the distinction between 'term' and 'concept'? Noel (talk) 22:04, 2 May 2010 (UTC)

Good information, but unreliable due to lack to references
The article has good information and describes exactly what packet switching does. They are not any references or sources listed which makes the article unreliable even though the information may be correct. I plan on find references that will back this article and give it stability. References I plan to include are IT companies specializing in networking, other articles, textbooks, and websites. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Dmcaldwell3 (talk • contribs) 17:20, 1 November 2011 (UTC)

Merge from Packet-switched network
I don't think we need to have separate articles for the noun and verb forms of this topic. -—Kvng 13:06, 19 April 2013 (UTC)

Merge: Seems to be the same thing to me... -Keith (Hypergeek14)Talk 19:52, 30 August 2013 (UTC)

Merge: I agree. In fact I went ahead and did the merge. A good bit of cleanup remains to be done. I'll work on that, but others are welcome to contribute too. --Jeff Ogden (W163) (talk) 22:53, 30 August 2013 (UTC)

 * Thanks! ~KvnG 13:52, 3 September 2013 (UTC)

Well, IMO the lengthy list of packet switched networks merged in (see "Other networks (non-ARPANET/INTERNET)", above) really detracts from a vitally-needed article which clearly explains what packet switching it, and why it was such a good engineering approach.

That list is interesting, and worth having somewhere in the encyclopaedia, but not here; here, it just cruds up the article. It should have been left in packet switching network (perhaps renamed to packet switching networks, or list of packet switching networks). Noel (talk) 15:38, 8 January 2015 (UTC)

 * The article's not really long enough to clearly merit a split. I've hidden stuff in the TOC. Does that help? ~KvnG 16:23, 11 January 2015 (UTC)

 * It helped, but... Length is not the only reason to merit a split. The long list of packet switching networks really detracts from having a clear, concise article on the topic. Noel (talk) 14:30, 1 March 2015 (UTC)

 * That's usually resolved by splitting to something like List of packet-switched networks. I guess we're going the long way there. I don't oppose this but also don't think it is absolutely necessary. You probably should try to get consensus for it before proceeding. ~KvnG 15:53, 5 March 2015 (UTC)

Incorrect definition of term "Packet switching" in intro
"Packet switching is a digital networking communications method that groups all transmitted data - regardless of content, type, or structure - into suitably sized blocks, called packets."

That's not correct.

Packet switching does that, but *also* relays packets through multiple hops by switching them via a dynamically updated routing table (connectionless packet switching), trying to send different packets in parallel through different routes to improve throuput, and changing decisions as routine table changes to send each packet through the shortst-time path to ultimate destination, or by relaying intact packets consecutively over a fixed path (connection-oriented packet switching).

(Of course if you want to establish a TCP connection between two adjacent nodes, so that the packets travel only a single hop, for which there is only a single physical link (no redundant links), and where that single physical link incurs less transit time than any multi-hop route, then no actual switching occurs, all packets hopefully travel exactly the same route, along that single hop using that unique physical link. But the full TCP/IP protocol is used, routing tables are consulted AGAIN for each packet to make sure they go the shortest route, so in that sense they are still switched, albeit in a trivial way.)

By comparison, packet linking (more properly a "packet-link protocol") never forwards packets. Packets are built, sent on a single hop, and immediately decomposed and spliced into the TCP-like stream at the next-higher level of protocol.

For multi-hop TCP-like circuits, packets are disassembled, re-queued per byte, and new packets are assembled from the queue, at each relay point. The size of packets at each hop depends on data available in the queue feeding into this hop of this stream, and priority of this stream along this next hop compared to competing streams that need to share the same hop.

The PCNET protocol (circa 1977, designed by Dave Calkins, Mike Wilber, Peter Deutsch, and myself Robert Maas) was an example of a packet-link protocol, which specifically had transparency for binary-octet data.

(Not to be confused with IBM's "PCNET" protocol, invented a year or so later, which was unrelated except for usurpting our copyrighted name without consent of our copyright holder, namely PCC = People's Computer Corporation of Menlo Park, California.)

DIALNET, Kermit, XMODEM, etc. were also packet-link protocols, none of which however provided binary-data transparency IIRC.

Unfortunately, PCNET never had a large enough set of nodes, with some nodes having multiple phone lines with multiple modems, to warrent implementing any stream-relay nodes, so that part of the protocol was never formally specified and implemented.

For multi-hop e-mail, we used store-and-forward of entire messages (much as UUCP-mail, and later USENET newsgroup messages, including InterNet/UUCP gateway conventions using addresses such as "infmx!cathl@uunet.uu.net"), rather than carrying message live over end-to-end multi-hop stream as SMTP typically does over TCP/IP nowadays.

Both packet switching, and packet linking, are sub-types of packet mode communication, as opposed to circuit switching.

I don't know whether PPP allows forwarding of packets (multi-hop), in which case it's properly a packet switching protocol, or it allows only single-hop streaming, with stream-data re-queued at the boundary between PPP and TCP/IP, in which case PPP is a packet link protocol, or whether each PPP packet is mapped exactly to one TCP/IP packet at the dialup-server end, in which case it's still packet mode communication but in neither sub-type packet switching nor packet linking, thus a third sub-type of packet mode communication.

"Packet switching contrasts with another principal networking paradigm, circuit switching" is also wrong. It's packet mode communication, a super-type of both packet switching and packet linking, which directly contrasts with circuit switching, as peers/sisters in the hierarchy/cladogram.

"Packet mode communication may be utilized with or without intermediate forwarding nodes (packet switches or routers)." -- Correct.

Google search for "packet link protocol" finds mention but no definition:

www.all-acronyms.com/Packet+Link+Protocol

"All definitions for PACKET LINK PROTOCOL acronym or abbreviation have been removed or haven't been published yet."

www.all-acronyms.com/reverse/Packet%20Link%20Protocol

"PACKET LINK PROTOCOL has not been found in any definition"

Is there some more standard jargon for what I've been calling "packet link" protocol since circa 1980 (when it became necessary to distinguish PCNET from the newly-proposed TCP/IP when trying to explain it to people), and I'm the only person still using the "packet link" jargon because I don't yet know the new standard jargon for the same concept?

198.144.192.45 (talk) 09:44, 2 May 2013 (UTC) Twitter.Com/CalRobert (Robert Maas)

Animation is inappropriate file size
The animation is 8.9 MB - that's hardly appropriate. It's nowhere informative enough to justify that kind of bandwidth. 76.178.147.142 (talk) 16:18, 3 May 2015 (UTC)

Animation contains glaring error
I came here to learn about packet switching, so I'm no expert. But the starting message and the received message are different! Surely that's not right!? 212.62.5.158 (talk) 16:03, 16 September 2015 (UTC)

 * The animation shows that the order of messages can be changed through a packet switched network. The receiving device must reorder the data to reconstruct the message. ~Kvng (talk) 17:30, 20 September 2015 (UTC)

X.25 vs. Frame Relay
''I have removed this tangential and difficult-to-traverse section from the article. I have looked at X.25 and Frame Relay as potential homes and I am not convinced it would be helpful in either location.'' ~Kvng (talk) 14:11, 20 August 2019 (UTC)

Both X.25 and Frame Relay provide connection-oriented operations. X.25 provides it via the network layer of the OSI Model, whereas Frame Relay provides it via level two, the data link layer. Another major difference between X.25 and Frame Relay is that X.25 requires a handshake between the communicating parties before any user packets are transmitted. Frame Relay does not define any such handshakes. X.25 does not define any operations inside the packet network. It only operates at the user-network-interface (UNI). Thus, the network provider is free to use any procedure it wishes inside the network. X.25 does specify some limited re-transmission procedures at the UNI, and its link layer protocol (LAPB) provides conventional HDLC-type link management procedures. Frame Relay is a modified version of ISDN's layer two protocol, LAPD and LAPB. As such, its integrity operations pertain only between nodes on a link, not end-to-end. Any retransmissions must be carried out by higher layer protocols. The X.25 UNI protocol is part of the X.25 protocol suite, which consists of the lower three layers of the OSI Model. It was widely used at the UNI for packet switching networks during the 1980s and early 1990s, to provide a standardized interface into and out of packet networks. Some implementations used X.25 within the network as well, but its connection-oriented features made this setup cumbersome and inefficient. Frame Relay operates principally at layer two of the OSI Model. However, its address field (the Data Link Connection ID, or DLCI) can be used at the OSI network layer, with a minimum set of procedures. Thus, it rids itself of many X.25 layer three encumbrances, but still has the DLCI as an ID beyond a node-to-node layer two link protocol. The simplicity of Frame Relay makes it faster and more efficient than X.25. Because Frame Relay is a data link layer protocol, like X.25 it does not define internal network routing operations. For X.25, its packet IDs—the virtual circuit and virtual channel numbers—have to be correlated to network addresses. The same is true for Frame Relay's DLCI. How this is done is up to the network provider. Frame Relay, by virtue of having no network layer procedures, is connection-oriented at layer two, by using the HDLC/LAPD/LAPB Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode (SABM). X.25 connections are typically established for each communication session, but X.25 does have a feature allowing a limited amount of traffic to be passed across the UNI without the connection-oriented handshake. For a while, Frame Relay was used to interconnect LANs across wide area networks. However, X.25 and Frame Relay have been supplanted by the Internet Protocol (IP) at the network layer, and the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and/or versions of Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) at layer two. A typical configuration is to run IP over ATM or a version of MPLS.    < Uyless Black, ATM, Volume I, Prentice Hall, 1995>

The animation, which is misleading, needs to be improved
The animation is misleading on how the Internet works: in absence of a route change, an event to be kept rare for the E2E efficiency of TCP, routers must maintain the same route for all datagrams that belong to the same user session. Supposing that many users would like to nevertheless keep the animation in view of its being nicely made, I propose to just mitigate its misleading effect by simply making it very clear, in the animation explanation itself, that the Internet works differently. The last text proposed by Zac67 goes in the right direction but is still IMHO insufficient. The new text I propose is: “This animation illustrates a theoretical model in which consecutive packets of a single user message would typically take differing routes. This is however not the real Internet model in which each node must forward all packets of a given user session to the same next node until an update of its routing table imposes a change.”--RD2017 (talk) 11:50, 18 October 2023 (UTC)
 * routers must maintain the same route for all datagrams that belong to the same user session [...] This is however not the real Internet model in which each node must forward all packets of a given user session to the same next node is a misconception on your side. There is no such obligation and a router doesn't even have a concept of a "session" – it deals with packets on an individual basis and in a stateless manner.
 * Of course, out-of-order delivery usually causes performance problems and is generally avoided as best practice, even at high cost. Yet there is no formal obligation to ensure in-order or same-path delivery. In fact, the Internet was designed for providing variable paths.
 * The only problem that I have with the animation (as an admittedly fringe case) is that the packet seem to be reordered at the destination, yet they're presented out of transmitted order which might confuse an observant reader. --Zac67 (talk) 17:51, 18 October 2023 (UTC)
 * In your quote of what I wrote about "the same route for all datagrams", the key words "in absence of a route change" are missing. Indeed, all packets of a user session, e.g. a TCP connection, don't necessarily all take the same route from its beginning to its end, and destinations must therefore be ready to receive out-of-order deliveries. But each out of order delivery is usually due to a routing table update, itself due to change of traffic amount in some parts of the network, a typically unfrequent event.
 * Yes, a router deals with packets "on an individual basis" but, if several net hops are possible, it chooses the one to be used as a function of the current state of its routing table, a state which is usually stable for some time.
 * I hope that, with our two last modifications, the subject will be closed.--RD2017 (talk) 09:01, 19 October 2023 (UTC)

Hi Zac67. I don't understand why you persist to avoid clarifying that the Internet does avoid simultaneous parallel routes. To replace "the Internet" by "Most networks", you should know at least one network that doesn't. If you can indicate which one, that's useful information. But otherwise, you should IMHO stop my effort to avoid misleading readers about how the Internet works.

Besides, your previous comment that avoiding misordering (even if only most of the time) could be "at high cost" is a misundertsanding of how it works (it isn't AFAIK techincally justifiable). --RD2017 (talk) 10:08, 23 October 2023 (UTC)
 * On the contrary – I changed "the Internet [...] attempts" to "most networks attempt" which is more general. There is simply no reason why the Internet would and other networks wouldn't. "To replace 'the Internet' by 'Most networks', you should know at least one network that doesn't." – There may be networks that simply don't care, which we don't know, so I used most for general, best practice. All would require a good RS, imho. "why [I] persist to avoid clarifying that the Internet does avoid simultaneous parallel routes" – I didn't. Where did you read that from? --Zac67 (talk) 11:38, 23 October 2023 (UTC)

FWIW, is a study from 2004 that found reordering of about 3% in longer paths across the internet. Up to 20% on certain of the longest paths. I found a couple other studies from around the same time that corroborate this. However, 2004 was a very long time ago in terms of internet technology. ~Kvng (talk) 19:01, 28 October 2023 (UTC)
 * Thank you for the references, all interesting. To know why out-of-order deliveries should preferably be avoided, RFC 2991 is the best reference I know. It explains why routers should avoid producing systematic out-of-order deliveries (they introduce problems on PMTUD, on TCP performance, and on Ping and Traceroute debugging tools). The RFC also provides guidelines on how to avoid creating such problems. — Preceding unsigned comment added by RD2017 (talk • contribs) 13:54, 29 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Packet switching


text:
Bill Spooner

William "Sputnik" Spooner (born August 16, 1949) is a musician, guitarist, singer and songwriter, and the founder of The Tubes, a theatrical rock band. His songwriting is known for its use of humor and satire. He has released three solo albums: First Chud (1985), Mall to Mars (1997), and Demo-licious. He previously played in the San Francisco Bay area with the band The Folk Ups, and now plays as a solo artiste or in sessions with his son Boone. He is still recording.

Biography and music career
Spooner was born and raised in Arizona with a few years spent in Lubbock, Texas. His family later moved back to Arizona, to Phoenix, where he began to play guitar. His first band was the XLs, a Beatles cover band. A band he started subsequently, the Beans, moved to San Francisco in 1970. Shortly after arriving the Beans merged with another group, the Red, White and Blues Band, to become the Tubes. He was guitarist, vocalist and principal songwriter for this group, known for their theatrical stage performances. The Tubes became a successful local and eventually nationally known band, and had a series of bestselling albums and hit singles in the late 1970s and early 80s.

"I was writing songs to illustrate outrageous characters concocted by Michael Cotten, Prairie Prince and myself. I was (am) really surprised some people consider these songs ("White Punks on Dope," "Mondo Bondage," "What Do You Want From Life?") classics. I'm not complaining...just mystified..." states Spooner.

Spooner left the Tubes for their temporary disbanding in 1985 and subsequently released his debut solo album, First Chud. After rejoining when the Tubes regrouped shortly thereafter, he would again leave the group in 1989.

Spooner then experimented with several bands, including the Sponge Mummies a satirical anti-environmental group, and SNAFU, a "paramilitary" rock band. Neither was very successful, although he began writing again during this period. Some of the songs appeared on the 1996 release Mall to Mars originally released on Visible Records, then on RDK Records. The record had outer space as a theme.

In 1998 Spooner teamed up with Alex Guinness to form the acoustic rock-folk group The Folk-Ups. They later added upright bassist Mark Skowronek. They now perform at Bay Area clubs such as Slim's, Noe Valley Ministry, Cafe Amsterdam, and the Sweetwater. The Folk-Ups have opened for Dave Davies of The Kinks and Freedy Johnston.

Personal life
Spooner is married to Anna. Spooner's son, Boone Spooner, is a music producer, engineer, songwriter and drummer. His daughter, Nicole Spooner, is a registered nurse and professional dog walker.

title: Bill Spooner


text:
Talk:Council of the European Union

Composition
Neither in the opening nor the "Composition" section is it ever explicitly described how the Council is elected or appointed. Could someone who understands this with proper sourcing add this basic information about the formation and composition of this body? Criticalthinker (talk) 10:31, 19 January 2024 (UTC)

Link to European Union
There is no link in the text to European Union anywhere. Lots of links to sub-pages but none to the organisation itself. Pkoppenb (talk) 10:33, 26 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Council of the European Union


text:
Talk:Lower limit topology

untitled
On PlanetMath, someone asked whether the Sorgenfrey line is a Baire space. Is it? AxelBoldt 17:38, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * It is, see

 * http://at.yorku.ca/cgi-bin/bbqa?forum=homework_help_2003&task=show_msg&msg=0878.0001.0001

 * which I posted on the topology question and answer board

 * http://at.yorku.ca/cgi-bin/bbqa

 * Henno Brandsma
 * (moderator for the above site)

 * Thanks! I put the information in the article. AxelBoldt 20:05, 22 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lower limit topology


text:
Talk:Poe (singer)

Wealthy Oil Executive
In the 2001-2011 section, " a wealthy oil executive and longtime Poe fan kept Poe tied up in court" -- I found this document, which details that the "oil executive" was Robert Edsel, who is called "a long time associate of Poe's fiancée." I can't find any records of Poe being married, nor can I figure out who she was engaged to, nor can I figure out why he isn't named. Can someone please verify this source? source Karlkatzke (talk) 22:40, 3 September 2013 (UTC)

Possible Copyright Issue
This page and this article are strikingly similar. The question is: who is the plagiarist? I'm guessing the plagiarist is the 43 people site, but can someone verify that? --Burzum 11:55, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

Also here: artistsblogz. Same article.

article name
Why was this moved? Andy Mabbett 17:38, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * A good question considering that her real name is not widely known. I think the article should be titled "Poe". 12.22.250.4 00:04, 1 July 2006 (UTC)

She is indeed commonly known by her stage name Poe, not as Annie Danielewski. I have thus moved the article to Poe (singer). Olessi (talk) 20:44, 29 March 2008 (UTC)

cleanup
Does anyone else think this needs to be rewritten? George 22:01, 14 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Definitely. I took a stab; feel free to continue, it's still very rough. 12.22.250.4 00:04, 1 July 2006 (UTC)

No photo? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 24.13.86.24 (talk • contribs) 16:47, 9 May 2006 (UTC)

POV language
What makes Ann and Alanis assertive and other singers non-assertive? Sounds POV. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 217.132.117.76 (talk • contribs) 00:24, 30 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Sign your posts. 12.22.250.4 00:04, 1 July 2006 (UTC)

"Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer"
Somehow I doubt that she recorded "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer"... sources? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 24.59.122.240 (talk • contribs) 20:09, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

The discography at her fan site and the [ http://www.amazon.com/A-Family-Christmas-In-Your-Ass/dp/B0002X6GWQ/sr=8-9/qid=1157518790/ref=sr_1_9/104-6561756-2654368?ie=UTF8&s=music Amazon] page for the album. DejahThoris 05:21, 6 September 2006 (UTC)

Is "angsty" a pejorative? Just curious. I know I can look it up online (neither it nor "angst" is in my Random House College Dictionary), but I doubt I'll get a really clear idea of how this article's author intends it. Boris B 07:42, 29 July 2006 (UTC)

--

This article reads really sexist to me and seems to have a lot of problems. It seems unfair to describe her as "angsty" as that is an opinion, and it seems like the writer is attempting to diminish her work by lumping her in stylistically with other female singer-songwriters just for the sake of convenience. I've heard her music and it's not notably stylistically similar to Tori Amos' "To Venus and Back" but here it's stated like it's fact. This article needs a lot of help.

Katz, Miriam. "A Decade of Silence" New York Post. December 2011.
I don't think this article really exists. The only references to it online are this Wikipedia entry. 108.48.90.133 (talk) 06:16, 15 August 2016 (UTC)

 * I support this challenge on the article. I searched Google for "Miriam Katz" and "New York Post", and the only association is this Wikipedia article. There is no evidence that Miriam Katz is a writer for the New York Post, and no evidence that an article labeled "A Decade of Silence" about Poe exists. Also, reading the legal document that is currently reference 105, SDOC0365.pdf seems to say that Modern/FEI did not sell its interest to Edsel, but that Poe entered into that agreement herself after being cast free by Atlantic and released by Modern/FEI. Also, per the legal document, it appears that Poe was released in 2004 by the Labor Commission of California ruling.
 * I believe the New York Post citation should be deleted, and the section should be cleaned up to match what was specified in the legal case per SCOD0365, and preferably more citations found to explore this dark period in Poe's life. I will wait a week, until October 15, then if no other comments are posted or no actions are taken, I will edit the 2001-2011 section until it can be supported by citations and evidence. Mburrell (talk) 05:50, 7 October 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Poe (singer)


text:
Elephant seal

Elephant seals or sea elephants are very large, oceangoing earless seals in the genus Mirounga. Both species, the northern elephant seal (M. angustirostris) and the southern elephant seal (M. leonina), were hunted to the brink of extinction for oil by the end of the 19th century, but their numbers have since recovered. They are the largest extant carnivorans, weighing up to 4000 kg. Despite their name, elephant seals are not closely related to elephants, and the large proboscis or trunk that males have was convergently evolved.

The northern elephant seal, somewhat smaller than its southern relative, ranges over the Pacific coast of the U.S., Canada and Mexico. The most northerly breeding location on the Pacific Coast is at Race Rocks Marine Protected Area, at the southern tip of Vancouver Island in the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The southern elephant seal is found in the Southern Hemisphere on islands such as South Georgia and Macquarie Island, and on the coasts of New Zealand, Tasmania, South Africa, and Argentina in the Peninsula Valdés. In southern Chile, there is a small colony of 120 animals at Jackson Bay (Bahía Jackson) in Admiralty Sound (Seno Almirantazgo) on the southern coast of Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego.

The oldest known unambiguous elephant seal fossils are fragmentary fossils of a member of the tribe Miroungini described from the late Pliocene Petane Formation of New Zealand. Teeth originally identified as representing an unnamed species of Mirounga have been found in South Africa, and dated to the Miocene epoch; however, Boessenecker and Churchill (2016) considered these teeth almost certainly to be misidentified toothed whale (odontocete) teeth. The elephant seals evolved in the Pacific Ocean during the Pliocene period.

Elephant seals breed annually and are seemingly habitual to colonies that have established breeding areas.

Taxonomy
John Edward Gray established the genus Mirounga in 1827. The generic name Mirounga is a Latinization of miouroung, which is said to have been a term for the seal in an Australian Aboriginal language. However, it is not known which language this represents.

Description
Elephant seals are marine mammals classified under the order Pinnipedia, which, in Latin, means feather- or fin-footed. Elephant seals are considered true seals, and fall under the family Phocidae. Phocids (true seals) are characterized by having no external ear and reduced limbs. The reduction of their limbs helps them be more streamlined and move easily in the water. However, it makes navigating on land more difficult because they cannot turn their hind flippers forward to walk like the otariids. In addition, the hind flippers of elephant seals have a lot of surface area, which helps propel them in the water. Elephant seals spend the majority of their life (90%) underwater in search of food, and can cover 100 km a day when they head out to sea. When elephant seals are born, they can weigh up to 36 kg and reach lengths up to 122 cm. Sexual dimorphism is extreme, with male elephant seals weighing up to 10 times more than females, and having a prominent proboscis.

Elephant seals take their name from the large proboscis of the adult male (bull), reminiscent of an elephant's trunk, and considered a secondary sexual characteristic. The bull's proboscis is used in producing extraordinarily loud roaring noises, especially during the mating season. More importantly, however, the nose acts as a sort of rebreather, filled with cavities that reabsorb moisture from their exhalations. This is important during the mating season when the seals do not leave the beach to feed, and must conserve body moisture as there is no incoming source of water. They are very much larger than other pinnipeds, with southern elephant seal bulls typically reaching a length of 5 m and a weight of 3000 kg, and are much larger than the adult females (cows), with some exceptionally large males reaching up to 6 m in length and weighing 4000 kg; cows typically measure about 3 m and 900 kg. Northern elephant seal bulls reach a length of 4.3 to 4.8 m and the heaviest weigh about 2500 kg.

The northern and southern elephant seal can be distinguished by various external features. On average, the southern elephant seal tends to be larger than the northern species. Adult male elephant seals belonging to the northern species tend to have a larger proboscis, and thick chest area with a red coloration compared to the southern species. Females do not have the large proboscis and can be distinguished between species by looking at their nose characteristics. Southern females tend to have a smaller, blunt nose compared to northern females.

Physiology
Elephant seals spend up to 80% of their lives in the ocean. They can hold their breath for more than 100 minutes – longer than any other noncetacean mammal. Elephant seals dive to 1550 m beneath the ocean's surface (the deepest recorded dive of an elephant seal is 2388 m by a southern elephant seal, while the record for the northern elephant seal is 1735 m). The average depth of their dives is about 300 to 600 m, typically for around 20 minutes for females and 60 minutes for males, as they search for their favorite foods, which are skates, rays, squid, octopuses, eels, small sharks and large fish. Their stomachs also often contain gastroliths. They spend only brief amounts of time at the surface to rest between dives (2–3 minutes). Females tend to dive a bit deeper due to their prey source.

Elephant seals are shielded from extreme cold more by their blubber than by fur. Their hair and outer layers of skin molt in large patches. The skin has to be regrown by blood vessels reaching through the blubber. When molting occurs, the seal is susceptible to the cold, and must rest on land, in a safe place called a "haul out". Northern males and young adults haul out during June to July to molt; northern females and immature seals during April to May.

Elephant seals have a very large volume of blood, allowing them to hold a large amount of oxygen for use when diving. They have large sinuses in their abdomens to hold blood and can also store oxygen in their muscles with increased myoglobin concentrations in muscle. In addition, they have a larger proportion of oxygen-carrying red blood cells. These adaptations allow elephant seals to dive to such depths and remain underwater for up to two hours.

Elephant seals are able to slow down their heartbeat (bradycardia) and divert blood flow from the external areas of the body to important core organs. They can also slow down their metabolism while performing deep dives.

Elephant seals have a helpful feature in their bodies known as the countercurrent heat exchanger to help conserve energy and prevent heat loss. In this system, arteries and veins are organized in a way to maintain a constant body temperature by having the cool blood flowing to the heart warmed by blood going to external areas of the animal.

Milk produced by elephant seals is remarkably high in milkfat compared to other mammals. After an initially lower state, it rises to over 50% milkfat (human breast milk is about 4% milkfat, and cow milk is about 3.5% milkfat).

Adaptations
Elephant seals have large circular eyes that have more rods than cones to help them see in low light conditions when they are diving. These seals also possess a structure called the tapetum lucidum, which helps their vision by having light reflected back to the retina to allow more chances for photoreceptors to detect light.

Their body is covered in blubber, which helps them keep warm and reduce drag while they are swimming. The shape of their body also helps them maneuver well in the water, but limits their movement on land. Also, elephant seals have the ability to fast for long periods of time while breeding or molting. The turbinate process, another unique adaptation, is very beneficial when these seals are fasting, breeding, molting, or hauling out. This unique nasal structure recycles moisture when they breathe and helps prevent water loss.

Elephant seals have external whiskers called vibrissae to help them locate prey and navigate their environment. The vibrissae are connected to blood vessels, nerves, and muscles making them an important sensing tool.

Due to evolutionary changes, their ear has been modified to work extremely well underwater. The structure of the inner ear helps amplify incoming sounds, and allows these seals to have good directional hearing due to the isolation of the inner ear. In addition to these adaptations, tissues in the ear canal allow the pressure in the ear to be adjusted while these seals perform their deep dives.

Breeding season
Males arrive at potential breeding sites in spring, and fast to ensure that they can mate with as many females as possible. Male elephant seals use fighting, vocalisations, and different positions to determine the dominant males. By the time males reach eight to nine years of age, they have developed a pronounced long nose, in addition to a chest shield, which is thickened skin in their chest area. They display their dominance by showing their noses, making loud vocalisations, and altering their postures. They fight each other by raising themselves and ramming each other with their chests and teeth.

By the time females arrive, each dominating male has already established his territory on the beach. Females cluster in groups called harems, which consist of up to 50 females surrounding one alpha male. Outside of these groups, a beta bull is normally roaming around on the beach. The beta bull helps the alpha by preventing other males accessing the females. In return, the beta bull might have an opportunity to mate with one of the females while the alpha is occupied.

Birth on average only takes a few minutes, and the mother and pup have a connection due to each other's unique smell and sound. The mothers will fast and nurse up to 28 days, providing their pups with rich milk. The last two to three days, however, females will be ready to mate, and the dominant males will pounce on the opportunity. Males and females lose up to a third of their body weight during the breeding season. The gestation period for females is 11 months, and the pupping seasons lasts from mid to late summer. The new pups will spend up to 10 additional weeks on land learning how to swim and dive.

Life history
The average lifespan of a northern elephant seal is 9 years, while the average lifespan of a southern elephant seal is 21 years. Males reach maturity at five to six years, but generally do not achieve alpha status until the age of eight, with the prime breeding years being between ages 9 and 12. The longest life expectancy of a male northern elephant seal is approximately 14 years.

Females begin breeding at age 3–6, and have one pup per breeding attempt. Most adult females breed each year. Breeding success is much lower for first-time mothers relative to experienced breeders. Annual survival probability of adult females is 0.83 for experienced breeding females, but only 0.66 for first-time breeders indicating a significant cost of reproduction. More male pups are produced than female pups in years with warmer sea surface temperature in the northeastern Pacific Ocean.

Females and males utilize different feeding strategies in order to maximize their reproductive success. Males feed in benthic regions with more abundant food sources, but also more abundant predators. Females feed in pelagic regions where they are less likely to find prey, but also less likely to be preyed upon. They employ these different strategies because females are smaller, requiring less food, and it is also most important for them to have as many breeding seasons as possible in order to maximize reproductive success. On the other hand, males can adopt a riskier strategy in the hopes of gaining as much mass as possible, and thus being able to have one extremely successful breeding season.

Molting
Once a year, elephant seals go through a process called molting where they shed the outer layer of hair and skin. This molting process takes up to a month to complete. When it comes time to molt, they will haul out on land to shed their outer layer, and will not consume any food during this time. The females and juveniles will molt first, followed by the sub adult males, and finally the large mature males.

Predators
The main predators of elephant seals are killer whales and great white sharks. Cookiecutter sharks can take bites from their skin.

Milk stealing
Sheathbills, Skuas, Western Gulls, and African feral cats have been reported to steal milk from the elephant seals' teats.

Status
The IUCN lists both species of elephant seal as being of least concern, although they are still threatened by entanglement in marine debris, fishery interactions, and boat collisions. Though a complete population count of elephant seals is not possible because all age classes are not ashore at the same time, a 2005 study of the California breeding stock estimated approximately 124,000 individuals. The animal is protected in most countries where it lives. In Mexico, the northern elephant seal is protected in the Guadalupe Island Biosphere Reserve where it was rediscovered after being believed to be extinct.

title: Elephant seal


text:
Roger Baldwin

Roger Baldwin may refer to:

 * Roger Sherman Baldwin, (1793–1863), US lawyer and politician
 * Roger Nash Baldwin, (1884–1981), founder of ACLU
 * Roger R. Baldwin (1929–2021), blackjack strategy pioneer
 * Roger Baldwin (diver), commercial diver, killed in Waage Drill II accident

title: Roger Baldwin


text:
Roger Williams (British politician)

Roger Hugh Williams, CBE (born 22 January 1948) is a Welsh Liberal Democrat politician who was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Brecon and Radnorshire from 2001 to 2015.

Early life
Born in the town of Crickhowell, Williams studied at Christ College, Brecon, and Selwyn College, Cambridge. On graduating in Natural Sciences he returned to Breconshire becoming a livestock farmer on the family farm at Llanfilo. During the mid-1980s he was elected Chairman of the Brecon and Radnorshire branch of the National Farmers Union.

Political career
Williams joined the Labour Party in 1969, but left to join the SDP at the formation of the party in 1981, representing it and subsequently the Liberal Democrats on Powys County Council. In 1990, he was elected Chairman of Brecon Beacons National Park. At the 1999 Welsh Assembly election Williams contested Carmarthen West and South Pembrokeshire but finished a distant fifth.

In 2001, he was elected to represent the constituency of Brecon & Radnorshire, subsequently holding the seat with a majority of 751 following the retirement of fellow Liberal Democrat Richard Livsey. At the 2005 election, Williams was returned with an improved majority of 3,905. He served as Shadow Welsh Secretary in the Liberal Democrat Frontbench Team in the 2005-10 Parliament and was re-elected at the 2010 election with a majority of 3,747.

Williams was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2013 New Years Honours List for public and political service.

In 2017, he rejoined Powys County Council, winning the seat of Felin-fach.

Personal life
He married Penelope James in 1973 in Devon. They have a son (born 1975) and daughter (born 1976).

title: Roger Williams (British politician)


text: User talk:168.212.239.2

title: User talk:168.212.239.2


text:
Irving Fisher

Irving Fisher (February 27, 1867 – April 29, 1947) was an American economist, statistician, inventor, eugenicist and progressive social campaigner. He was one of the earliest American neoclassical economists, though his later work on debt deflation has been embraced by the post-Keynesian school. Joseph Schumpeter described him as "the greatest economist the United States has ever produced", an assessment later repeated by James Tobin and Milton Friedman.

Fisher made important contributions to utility theory and general equilibrium. He was also a pioneer in the rigorous study of intertemporal choice in markets, which led him to develop a theory of capital and interest rates. His research on the quantity theory of money inaugurated the school of macroeconomic thought known as "monetarism". Fisher was also a pioneer of econometrics, including the development of index numbers. Some concepts named after him include the Fisher equation, the Fisher hypothesis, the international Fisher effect, the Fisher separation theorem and Fisher market.

Fisher was perhaps the first celebrity economist, but his reputation during his lifetime was irreparably harmed by his public statement, just nine days before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, that the stock market had reached "a permanently high plateau". His subsequent theory of debt deflation as an explanation of the Great Depression, as well as his advocacy of full-reserve banking and alternative currencies, were largely ignored in favor of the work of John Maynard Keynes. Fisher's reputation has since recovered in academic economics, particularly after his theoretical models were rediscovered in the late 1960s to the 1970s, a period of increasing reliance on mathematical models within the field. Interest in him has also grown in the public due to an increased interest in debt deflation after the Great Recession.

Fisher was one of the foremost proponents of the full-reserve banking, which he advocated as one of the authors of A Program for Monetary Reform where the general proposal is outlined.

Biography
Fisher was born in Saugerties, New York. His father was a teacher and a Congregational minister, who raised his son to believe he must be a useful member of society. Despite being raised in religious family, he later on became an atheist. As a child, he had remarkable mathematical ability and a flair for invention. A week after he was admitted to Yale College his father died, at age 53. Irving then supported his mother, brother, and himself, mainly by tutoring. He graduated first in his class with a BA degree in 1888, having also been elected as a member of the Skull and Bones society.

In 1891, Fisher received the first PhD in economics granted by Yale. His faculty advisors were the theoretical physicist Willard Gibbs and the sociologist William Graham Sumner. As a student, Fisher had shown particular talent and inclination for mathematics, but he found that economics offered greater scope for his ambition and social concerns. His thesis, published by Yale in 1892 as Mathematical Investigations in the Theory of Value and Prices, was a rigorous development of the theory of general equilibrium. When he began writing the thesis, Fisher had not been aware that Léon Walras and his continental European disciples had already covered similar ground. Nonetheless, Fisher's work was a very significant contribution and was immediately recognized and praised as first-rate by such European masters as Francis Edgeworth.

After graduating from Yale, Fisher studied in Berlin and Paris. From 1890 onward, he remained at Yale, first as a tutor, then after 1898 as a professor of political economy, and after 1935 as professor emeritus. He edited the Yale Review from 1896 to 1910 and was active in many learned societies, institutes, and welfare organizations. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1912. He was president of the American Economic Association in 1918. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1927. The American Mathematical Society selected him as its Gibbs Lecturer for 1929. A leading early proponent of econometrics, in 1930 he founded, with Ragnar Frisch and Charles F. Roos the Econometric Society, of which he was the first president.

Fisher was a prolific writer, producing journalism as well as technical books and articles, and addressing various social issues surrounding the First World War, the prosperous 1920s and the depressed 1930s. He made several practical inventions, the most notable of which was an "index visible filing system" which he patented in 1913 and sold to Kardex Rand (later Remington Rand) in 1925. This, and his subsequent stock investments, made him a wealthy man until his personal finances were badly hit by the Crash of 1929.

Fisher was also an active social and health campaigner, as well as an advocate of vegetarianism, prohibition, and eugenics. In 1893, he married Margaret Hazard, a granddaughter of Rhode Island industrialist and social reformer Rowland G. Hazard. He died of inoperable colon cancer in New York City in 1947, at the age of 80.

Utility theory
James Tobin, writing on the contributions of John Bates Clark and Irving Fisher to neoclassical theory in America argues that American economists contributed in their own way to the preparation of a common ground after the neoclassical revolution. In particular Clark and Irving Fisher "brought neoclassical theory into American journals, classrooms, and textbooks, and its analytical tools into the kits of researchers and practitioners." Already in his doctoral thesis, "Fisher expounds thoroughly the mathematics of utility functions and their maximization, and he is careful to allow for corner solutions." Already then, Fisher "states clearly that neither interpersonally comparable utility nor cardinal utility for each individual is necessary to the determination of equilibrium."

In reviewing the history of utility theory, economist George Stigler wrote that Fisher's doctoral thesis had been "brilliant" and stressed that it contained "the first careful examination of the measurability of the utility function and its relevance to demand theory." While his published work exhibited an unusual degree of mathematical sophistication for an economist of his day, Fisher always sought to bring his analysis to life and to present his theories as lucidly as possible. For instance, to complement the arguments in his doctoral thesis, he built an elaborate hydraulic machine with pumps and levers, allowing him to demonstrate visually how the equilibrium prices in the market adjusted in response to changes in supply or demand.

Interest and capital
Fisher is probably best remembered today in neoclassical economics for his theory of capital, investment, and interest rates, first exposited in his The Nature of Capital and Income (1906) and elaborated on in The Rate of Interest (1907). His 1930 treatise, The Theory of Interest, summed up a lifetime's research into capital, capital budgeting, credit markets, and the factors (including inflation) that determine interest rates.

Fisher saw that subjective economic value is not only a function of the amount of goods and services owned or exchanged, but also of the moment in time when they are purchased with money. A good available now has a different value than the same good available at a later date; value has a time as well as a quantity dimension. The relative price of goods available at a future date, in terms of goods sacrificed now, is measured by the interest rate. Fisher made free use of the standard diagrams used to teach undergraduate economics but labeled the axes "consumption now" and "consumption next period" (instead of the usual schematic alternatives of "apples" and "oranges"). The resulting theory, one of considerable power and insight, was presented in detail in The Theory of Interest.

This model, later generalized to the case of K goods and N periods (including the case of infinitely many periods) has become a standard theory of capital and interest, and is described in Gravelle and Rees, and Aliprantis, Brown, and Burkinshaw. This theoretical advance is explained in Hirshleifer.

Fisher saw that his theory, via economic policy, was making an impact on society as a whole. Once he brought out his Quantity Theory of Money, it started to bring economic models to life. One of the strongest points that Fisher brings out in discussing interest rates was the power of impatience.

Monetary economics
Fisher's research into the basic theory of prices and interest rates did not touch directly on the great social issues of the day. On the other hand, his monetary economics did and this grew to be the main focus of Fisher's mature work.

It was Fisher who (following the pioneering work of Simon Newcomb) formulated the quantity theory of money in terms of the "equation of exchange:" Let M be the total stock of money, P the price level, T the number of transactions carried out using money, and V the velocity of circulation of money, so that:

 * $$M\cdot V = P\cdot T$$

Later economists replaced T by the real output Y (or Q), usually quantified by the real Gross domestic product (GDP).

Fisher's Appreciation and Interest was an abstract analysis of the behavior of interest rates when the price level is changing. It emphasized the distinction between real and nominal interest rates:

 * $$r=\frac{(1+i)}{(1+\pi)}-1 \simeq i - \pi $$

where $$r$$ is the real interest rate, $$i$$ is the nominal interest rate, and the inflation $$\pi$$ is a measure of the increase in the price level. When inflation is sufficiently low, the real interest rate can be approximated as the nominal interest rate minus the expected inflation rate. The resulting equation is known as the Fisher equation in his honor.

Fisher believed that investors and savers – people in general – were afflicted in varying degrees by "money illusion"; they could not see past the money to the goods the money could buy. In an ideal world, changes in the price level would have no effect on production or employment. In the actual world with money illusion, inflation (and deflation) did serious harm. For more than forty years, Fisher elaborated his vision of the damaging "dance of the dollar" and devised various schemes to "stabilize" money, i.e. to stabilize the price level. He was one of the first to subject macroeconomic data, including the money stock, interest rates, and the price level, to statistical analyses and tests. In the 1920s, he introduced the technique later called distributed lags. In 1973, the Journal of Political Economy posthumously reprinted his 1926 paper on the statistical relation between unemployment and inflation, retitling it as "I discovered the Phillips curve". Index numbers played an important role in his monetary theory, and his book The Making of Index Numbers has remained influential down to the present day.

Fisher's main intellectual rival was the Swedish economist Knut Wicksell. Fisher espoused a more succinct explanation of the quantity theory of money, resting it almost exclusively on long run prices. Wicksell's theory was considerably more complicated, beginning with interest rates in a system of changes in the real economy. Although both economists concluded from their theories that at the heart of the business cycle (and economic crisis) was government monetary policy, their disagreement would not be solved in their lifetimes, and indeed, it was inherited by the policy debates between the Keynesians and monetarists beginning a half-century later.

Debt-deflation
Following the stock market crash of 1929, and in light of the ensuing Great Depression, Fisher developed a theory of economic crises called debt-deflation, which attributed the crises to the bursting of a credit bubble. Initially, during the upswing over-confident economic agents are lured by the prospect of high profits to increase their debt in order to leverage their gains. According to Fisher, once the credit bubble bursts, this unleashes a series of effects that have serious negative impact on the real economy:
 * 1) Debt liquidation and distress selling.
 * 2) Contraction of the money supply as bank loans are paid off.
 * 3) A fall in the level of asset prices.
 * 4) A still greater fall in the net worth of businesses, precipitating bankruptcies.
 * 5) A fall in profits.
 * 6) A reduction in output, in trade and in employment.
 * 7) Pessimism and loss of confidence.
 * 8) Hoarding of money.
 * 9) A fall in nominal interest rates and a rise in deflation-adjusted interest rates.

Crucially, as debtors try to liquidate or pay off their nominal debt, the fall of prices caused by this defeats the very attempt to reduce the real burden of debt. Thus, while repayment reduces the amount of money owed, this does not happen fast enough since the real value of the dollar now rises ('swelling of the dollar').

This theory was largely ignored in favor of Keynesian economics, in part because of the damage to Fisher's reputation caused by his public optimism about the stock market, just prior to the crash. Debt-deflation has experienced a revival of mainstream interest since the 1980s, and particularly with the Late-2000s recession. Steve Keen predicted the 2008 recession by using Hyman Minsky's further development of Fisher's work on debt-deflation. Debt-deflation is now the major theory with which Fisher's name is associated.

Stock market crash of 1929
The stock market crash of 1929 and the subsequent Great Depression cost Fisher much of his personal wealth and academic reputation. He famously predicted, nine days before the crash, that stock prices had "reached what looks like a permanently high plateau." Irving Fisher stated on October 21 that the market was "only shaking out of the lunatic fringe" and went on to explain why he felt the prices still had not caught up with their real value and should go much higher. On Wednesday, October 23, he announced in a banker's meeting "security values in most instances were not inflated." For months after the Crash, he continued to assure investors that a recovery was just around the corner. Once the Great Depression was in full force, he did warn that the ongoing drastic deflation was the cause of the disastrous cascading insolvencies then plaguing the American economy because deflation increased the real value of debts fixed in dollar terms. Fisher was so discredited by his 1929 pronouncements and by the failure of a firm he had started that few people took notice of his "debt-deflation" analysis of the Depression. People instead eagerly turned to the ideas of Keynes. Fisher's debt-deflation scenario has since seen a revival since the 1980s.

Constructive Income Taxation
Lawrence Lokken, the University of Miami School of Law professor of economics, credits Fisher's 1942 book with the concept behind the Unlimited Savings Accumulation Tax, a reform introduced in the United States Senate in 1995 by Senator Pete Domenici (R-New Mexico), former Senator Sam Nunn (D-Georgia), and Senator Bob Kerrey (D-Nebraska). The concept was that unnecessary spending (which is hard to define in a law) can be taxed by taxing income minus all net investments and savings, and minus an allowance for essential purchases, thus making funds available for investment.

Social and health campaigns
In 1898, Fisher was diagnosed with tuberculosis, the same disease that had killed his father. He spent three years in sanatoria, finally making a full recovery. That experience sparked in him a vocation as a health campaigner. He was one of the founders of the Life Extension Institute, under whose auspices he co-authored the bestselling book How to Live: Rules for Healthful Living Based on Modern Science, published in 1915. He advocated regular exercise and the avoidance of red meat, tobacco, and alcohol. In 1924, Fisher wrote an anti-smoking article for the Reader's Digest, which argued that "tobacco lowers the whole tone of the body and decreases its vital power and resistance ... [it] acts like a narcotic poison, like opium and like alcohol, though usually in a less degree".

Fisher supported the legal prohibition of alcohol and wrote three booklets defending prohibition in the United States on grounds of public health and economic productivity. As a proponent of Eugenics he helped found the Race Betterment Foundation in 1906. He also defended eugenics, serving in the scientific advisory board of the Eugenics Record Office and as first president of the American Eugenics Society.

When his daughter Margaret was diagnosed with schizophrenia, Fisher had her treated at the New Jersey State Hospital at Trenton, whose director was the psychiatrist Henry Cotton. Cotton believed in a "focal sepsis" theory, according to which mental illness resulted from infectious material in the roots of teeth, bowel recesses, and other places in the body. Cotton also claimed that surgical removal of the infected tissue could alleviate the patient's mental disorder. At Trenton, Margaret Fisher had sections of her bowel and colon removed, which eventually resulted in her death. Irving Fisher nonetheless remained convinced of the validity of Cotton's treatment.

Selected publications
Fisher, Irving Norton, 1961. A Bibliography of the Writings of Irving Fisher (1961). Compiled by Fisher's son; contains 2425 entries.
 * Primary
 * 1892. Mathematical Investigations in the Theory of Value and Prices. Scroll to chapter links.
 * 1896. Appreciation and Interest. Link.
 * 1906. The Nature of Capital and Income. Scroll to chapter links.
 * 1907. The Rate of Interest. Extracts from Preface and Appendix to ch. VII.
 * 1910, 1914. Introduction to Economic Science. Section links.
 * 1911a, 1922, 2nd ed. The Purchasing Power of Money: Its Determination and Relation to Credit, Interest, and Crises. Scroll to chapter links from Library of Economics and Liberty (LE&L). Full text of 1920 edition online via FRASER
 * 1911b, 1913. Elementary Principles of Economics. Scroll to chapter links.
 * 1915. How to Live: Rules for Healthful Living Based on Modern Science (with Eugene Lyon Fisk). Link.
 * 1918, "Is 'Utility' the Most Suitable Term for the Concept It is Used to Denote?" American Economic Review, pp. 335–37]. Reprint.
 * 1921a. "Dollar Stabilization," Encyclopædia Britannica 12th ed.. XXX, pp. 852–853. Reprint page links from LE&L.
 * 1921b, The Best Form of Index Number, American Statistical Association Quarterly. 17(133), pp. pp. 533–537.
 * 1922. The Making of Index Numbers: A Study of Their Varieties, Tests, and Reliability. Scroll to chapter links,
 * 1923, "The Business Cycle Largely a 'Dance of the Dollar'," Journal of the American Statistical Association, 18, pp. 1024–28. Link.
 * 1926, "A Statistical Relation between Unemployment and Price Changes," International Labour Review, 13(6), p pp. 785–92. Reprinted as 1973, "I Discovered the Phillips Curve: A Statistical Relation between Unemployment and Price Changes'," Journal of Political Economy, 81(2, Part 1), p pp. 496–502.
 * 1927, "A Statistical Method for Measuring 'Marginal Utility' and Testing the Justice of a Progressive Income Tax" in Economic Essays Contributed in Honor of John Bates Clark .
 * 1928, The Money Illusion, New York: Adelphi Company. Scroll to chapter-preview links.
 * 1930a. The Stock Market Crash and After.
 * 1930b. The Theory of Interest. Chapter I. Chapter links, each numbered by paragraph via LE&L.
 * 1932. Booms and Depressions: Some First Principles. full text online via FRASER.
 * 1933b. Stamp Scrip. full text online
 * 1935. 100% Money. full text online
 * 1942. "Constructive Income Taxation: A Proposal for Reform." New York: Harper & Brothers.
 * 1996. The Works of Irving Fisher. edited by William J. Barber et al. 14 volumes London : Pickering & Chatto.
 * 1996. The Works of Irving Fisher. edited by William J. Barber et al. 14 volumes London : Pickering & Chatto.

title: Irving Fisher