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History of Western Australia

The human history of Western Australia commenced "over 50,000 years ago and possibly as much as 70,000 years ago" with the arrival of Aboriginal Australians on the northwest coast. The first inhabitants expanded across the east and south of the continent.

The first recorded European contact was in 1616, when Dutch explorer Dirk Hartog landed on the west coast, having been blown off course while en route to Batavia, current day Jakarta.

Although many expeditions visited the coast during the next 200 years, there was no lasting attempt at establishing a permanent settlement until December 1826. An expedition on behalf of the New South Wales colonial government, led by Major Edmund Lockyer, landed at King George Sound, and founded what became the port city of Albany. On 21 January 1827 Lockyer formally took possession for the British Crown the portion of New Holland not yet claimed by the crown; that is, the portion west of 129th meridian east. This was followed by the establishment of the Swan River Colony in 1829, which ultimately became the present-day capital, Perth. The harsh conditions faced by the settlers resulted in population growth being minimal until the discovery of gold in the 1880s. Since the gold rush, the population of the state has risen steadily, with substantial growth in the period since World War II.

Western Australia gained the right of self-government in 1890, and joined with the five other states to form the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. The desire of Western Australians to revert to complete self-governance, separate from the Commonwealth, culminated in 1933 with a successful referendum for secession supported by 68% of electors. In 1935 the British parliament declined to act since secession would require the assent of the Australian parliament, and the movement lapsed with an improving economy and generous federal grants.

Aboriginal settlement
When Australia's first inhabitants arrived on the northwest coast 50,000 to 70,000 years ago the sea levels were much lower. The Kimberley coast at one time was only about 90 km from Timor, which itself was the last in a line of closely spaced islands for humans to travel across. Therefore, this was a possible (even probable) location for which Australia's first peoples could arrive via boat. Other possible immigration routes were via islands further north and then through New Guinea.

In 1999 Charles Dortch identified chert and calcrete flake stone tools, found at Rottnest Island, as possibly dating to at least 50,000 years ago. A 2018 study using archaeobotany dated evidence of continuous human habitation at Karnatukul (Serpent's Glen) in the Carnarvon Range in the Little Sandy Desert from around 50,000 years ago. Over the next tens of thousands of years various groups of Indigenous Australians slowly moved southward and eastward across the landmass. Aboriginal people were well established throughout Western Australia by the time European ships started accidentally arriving en route to Batavia (now Jakarta) in the early 17th century.

Early visits by Europeans
The first European to sight Western Australia was the Dutch explorer, Dirk Hartog, the first European to suggest to have found a continent there, who on 26 October 1616 landed at what is now known as Cape Inscription, Dirk Hartog Island. Before departing, Hartog left behind an inscribed pewter plate affixed to a post. In 1696 the plate was discovered and replaced by Willem de Vlamingh and repatriated to the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. A multitude of Dutch visits followed during that century, charting virtually the whole of the west coast, the Western Australian south coast and Australia's northern coast.

The first English vessel to visit, when attempting to sail the Dutch-established Brouwer Route to the Indies, was Tryall, an East India Company-owned East Indiaman under the command of John Brookes who in 1622 sighted Point Cloates before later on 25 May wrecking on Tryal Rocks, off the northwest coast of Australia. Some of the 143 crew remained on the Monte Bello Islands for 7 days, during that time sighting Barrow Island, before sailing to Batavia in a longboat. A second boat brought some more crew to Batavia, so just over 40 people survived, including Brookes. Almost one hundred crew apparently perished in the wreck. Tryall became Australia's oldest known shipwreck.

A later English visitor was William Dampier, who in 1699 sailed down some of the western coast of Australia. He noted the lack of water and in his description of Shark Bay in his account "A Voyage to New Holland", he expressed his frustration: "It was the 7th of August when we came into Shark's Bay; in which we anchored at three several places, and stayed at the first of them (on the west side of the bay) till the 11th. During which time we searched about, as I said, for fresh water, digging wells, but to no purpose."

A number of sections of the Western Australian coastline were given names which did not last past the exploratory era in names of features – such as Eendrachtsland. However some names, such as 't Landt van de Leeuwin (Leeuwin's Land), materialised at a later date as Cape Leeuwin.

Timeline of European discovery and exploration
Below is a timeline of significant events from the 1616 landfall of Dirk Hartog until the eventual settlement of the Swan River Colony in 1829:
 * 1616 – Dirk Hartog in Eendracht arrived at Cape Inscription and left a pewter plate. Coastal region in the vicinity is shown on Hartog's maps as Eendrachtsland. Believed to be first landfall on Western Australian soil by Europeans. (An earlier 1606 encounter on the northern coast of Australia near Papua New Guinea by Willem Janszoon on Duyfken is credited as being the first Australian visit by European explorers.)
 * 1618 – Dutch East India Company supercargo Willem Janszoon on Mauritius landed on North West Cape – although sighting footprints, they did not meet the natives.
 * 1618 – Zeewulf made landfall north of Eendrachtsland.
 * 1619 – Frederick de Houtman in two ships bound for Batavia encountered dangerous shoals which were subsequently named Houtman Abrolhos. Following successful navigation of the Abrolhos, Houtman made landfall in the region Hartog had encountered.
 * 1622 – Leeuwin landed south of Abrolhos.
 * 1622 – English ship Tryall was wrecked on Tryal Rocks off the northwest coast; survivors spent a week on Monte Bello Islands before sailing to Batavia in a longboat.
 * 1626 to 1627 – Gulden Zeepaert skippered by François Thijssen sailed along south coast towards Great Australian Bight.
 * 1629 – Batavia struck a reef of the Abrolhos. Skipper Francisco Pelsaert sailed the ship's small boat to Batavia for rescue.  After returning 3 months later, he found evidence of mutiny and many previous survivors murdered.
 * 1656 – Vergulde Draeck (Gilt Dragon) en route to Batavia was shipwrecked 107 km north of the Swan River near Ledge Point
 * 1658 – Three Dutch ships visited south coast searching for Vergulde Draeck: Waekende Boey under Captain S. Volckertszoon, Elburg under Captain J. Peereboom and Emeloort under Captain A. Joncke.
 * 1681 – English navigator John Daniel on New London charted part of the west coast of Australia, including Rottnest Island and the Wallabi Group of Houtman Abrolhos.
 * 1688 and 1699 – William Dampier in Cygnet explored the northwest coastline and sailed down the coast.
 * 1697 – Willem de Vlamingh found Hartog's plate and replaced it with his own. He also explored the Swan River area.
 * 1712 – Zuytdorp with 286 on board was shipwrecked near Kalbarri. The Dutch did not send a search party, probably because no survivors were able to report the disaster. The crew were never heard from again, though it is probable that many initially survived because a campsite was found near the wreck.
 * 1714 – Jean-Pierre Pury proposed a Dutch East India Company settlement of Nuyts, Leeuwin and Edels Lands.
 * 1772 – On 30 March, Frenchman Louis Aleno de St Aloüarn landed at Turtle Bay at the northern end of Dirk Hartog Island and claimed the island for France.
 * 1786 – King Gustav III of Sweden makes a contract with William Bolts to establish a colony at the Swan River.
 * 1791 – George Vancouver made formal claim at Possession Point, King George Sound, Albany.
 * 1792 – Frenchman Bruni d'Entrecasteaux in charge of Recherche and Esperance reached Cape Leeuwin on 5 December and explored eastward along the southern coast.
 * 1801 – The French ships Géographe and Naturaliste under Nicolas Baudin and Emmanuel Hamelin, explored much of the coast north from Cape Leeuwin, including the Swan River. They discovered de Vlamingh's plate.
 * 1801 – Matthew Flinders on HMS Investigator sighted Cape Leeuwin en route to charting of southern Australian coastline.
 * 1803 – Matthew Flinders completed the first circumnavigation of Australia
 * 1803 – Géographe and another French ship Casuarina followed much of the same coastline again on the way back to France.
 * 1818 – Louis de Freycinet found de Vlamingh's plate and removed it to France.
 * 1826 – On 26 October, Frenchman Dumont d'Urville in another ship named Astrolabe visited King George Sound before sailing along the south coast to Port Jackson.
 * 1826 – On 26 December, a military garrison was established on behalf of New South Wales at King George Sound with the arrival of Major Edmund Lockyer on Amity.
 * 1827 – On 21 January, Lockyer formally annexed the western portion of Australia, now Western Australia, in a ceremony at King George Sound.
 * 1829 – James Stirling explored the Swan River area. Captain Charles Fremantle again took possession of the western side of New Holland for the British crown on 2 May.

King George Sound
The first formal claim of possession for Great Britain was made on 29 September 1791 by Commander (later Captain) George Vancouver RN, on a spot he named Possession Point, at the tip of the peninsula between the waters he also named Princess Royal Harbour and King George the Third's Sound at Albany (the Third was dropped from the name in 1826).

In the early 19th century, the British became concerned about the possibility of a French colony being established on the west coast of Australia. In 1826, the Governor of New South Wales, Ralph Darling, ordered the establishment of a settlement at King George's Sound. An army detachment was sent from Sydney headed by Major Edmund Lockyer with eighteen soldiers, one captain, one doctor, one storekeeper and twenty-three convicts.

On 21 January 1827, the whole of Australia was claimed as British territory for the first time when Major Lockyer formally annexed the western portion of the continent in a ceremony on King George Sound.

In March 1831, the penal settlement was withdrawn, and the control of King George's Sound was transferred from New South Wales to the Swan River Colony. Captain James Stirling decreed that the settlement would be named Albany from 1 January 1832.

The Swan River Colony
The first documented European settlements were established at the Swan River by James Stirling in 1829. The colonists first sighted land on 1 June, arrived in Cockburn Sound on 2 June, an official proclamation was made on 18 June and the foundation of the colony took place on 12 August. As Lieutenant Governor, Stirling had sole authority to draft laws and decide day-to-day affairs. On 6 February 1832, the colony was renamed Western Australia.

Major towns of the colony developed slowly into the port city of Fremantle, the main settlement of Perth 20 km upriver, and Guildford.

Expansion 1829–1850
Much of the land around the Swan River Colony was unsuitable for agriculture and it was inevitable that the colony would have to expand beyond the Swan River area after the most fertile locations were quickly settled.

Sheep farming was the most successful early agricultural activity, and the basis of all expansion until the 1850s.

 * 1829: A military outpost was founded at Bunbury.
 * 1830: Area around Augusta settled.
 * 1830: The first exploration over the Darling Range to search for suitable farming land occurred with the settlement of the Avon Valley and the foundation of the town of York in 1831.
 * 1832
 * The main settlement is officially named Perth, after Sir George Murray's seat in Perthshire, Scotland.
 * First sitting of the Western Australian Legislative Council, consisting of four officials appointed by Stirling to assist him in decision-making.
 * 1833: On 5 January, the first newspaper, the Perth Gazette was launched.
 * 1833: Relations between the Europeans and Aboriginal people were not always amicable with many intercultural skirmishes. Yagan, a senior warrior of the local Aboriginal tribe near the Swan River was killed on 11 July of this year after a bounty was issued for his capture following the murder of a couple of settlers.
 * 1834: Pinjarra Massacre (sometimes still called Battle of Pinjarra): This was the worst intercultural conflict, happening on 28 October. Depending on the source, the death toll ranged from 10 to 150 adults and children.
 * 1836: settlement in the Toodyay region.
 * 1837–39: George Grey explored the coasts of:
 * the North West (1837)
 * Gascoyne and Murchison (1839)
 * 1839: another four members, drawn from the ranks of private settlers, were added to the official members of the Legislative Council.
 * 1841: Explorer Edward John Eyre arrives in Albany walking across the Nullarbor Plain from the eastern states. In Wonnerup near Busselton, settler George Layman Sr of Wonnerup House was speared to death by a Wardandi elder.
 * 1843: Census recorded the population of Western Australia as 3,842.
 * 1844: A 15-year-old John Gavin was the first European legally hanged in the colony, for the murder of 18-year-old George Pollard.
 * 1849: First discovery of gold occurred in the Jimperding-Toodyay area.

Convict era
While Western Australia was initially a "free settlement", economic problems for settler capitalists led them to seek the transportation of British convicts. Western Australia became a penal colony in 1850.

The Gregory brothers led major exploration expeditions to many parts of the colony, including:
 * 1851: Augustus Gregory surveys the Greenough region near Geraldton and that area opens up to farming.
 * 1861: Francis Gregory explores the interior of the Nickol Bay region (known later as the Pilbara).

By 1859, all the other Australian colonies had their own parliaments and colonists in Western Australia began pushing for the right to govern themselves. The British Colonial Office opposed this because of the slow rate of growth and the presence of convicts. Petitions asking for some of the positions in the Legislative Council to be filled by elected members were presented to London twice during the 1860s.

By 1868, over 9,000 convicts had been transported to Western Australia on 43 convict ship voyages.

Expansion 1861–1885
Wool production, usually on large stations, was also the basis of expansion further east and northward.

The first permanent European settlements in the North West (later divided into the Pilbara and Kimberley regions) took place in the mid-1860s, initially at the Harding River, De Grey River and Roebourne (gazetted in 1867). Pearling also came to dominate the North West, initially in Nickol Bay, with a fleet at Tien Tsin Harbor (later renamed Cossack). In the North West, unlike southern Western Australia, the labour force was dominated by Indigenous Australians, often under harsh forms of unfree labour.

In 1870, some members of the Legislative Council were elected for the first time, although only male settlers with significant property could vote and the Governor could still veto the council's decisions.

John Forrest led two major expeditions:
 * 1870 – retracing Edward John Eyre's land route from Perth to Adelaide, as the route of a telegraph line;
 * 1874 – leading a party to the watershed of the Murchison River and then eastward into the Central Desert.

In 1872, controversial explorer Peter Egerton Warburton made a journey from Alice Springs to the Western Australian coast.

Ernest Giles twice traversed the Gibson Desert between 1872 and 1876.

During the 1870s, the Murchison and Gascoyne regions were also settled by Europeans.

 * Other notable events
 * 1877: The telegraph from Adelaide to Perth was completed, considerably improving intracontinental communication
 * 1883: Durack family settle around the Ord River in the East Kimberley.

Gold discoveries, 1885–1900
Until the 1880s the economy of the state was based largely on wool and wheat. A major change in the colony's fortunes occurred in 1885 when gold was discovered and prospectors by the tens of thousands swarmed across the land in a desperate attempt to discover new goldfields.

In 1887 a new constitution, including proposals for responsible government, was drafted and sent to London by Governor Broome for approval. It was argued that due to the increasing wealth being generated by gold rushes, Western Australia should become a self-governing colony. An Act granting self-government was passed by the British Parliament in 1890, giving the Colony independence from the UK in matters other than foreign policy, defence and "native affairs". Section 70 of the self-government act established an Aborigines Protection Board, under the control of the British Parliament, not the Western Australian one. Governor Broome had earlier warned the British Colonial Office that Western Australians could not to be trusted in matters relating to Aboriginal persons. A further clause to the constitution stated that 5,000 pounds or one percent of state revenues, whichever was the greater, was to be allocated to Aboriginal persons for their welfare and advancement. Many settlers resented these clauses, and Western Australia has never honoured this clause to its own constitution. A previous Governor, Sir William Robinson, was re-appointed to supervise the change. He travelled by train from Albany to Perth and towns en route lit bonfires and people gathered at railway sidings to celebrate his arrival and the new constitution. His arrival in Perth on 21 October 1890 saw the city decorated with elaborate floral arches spanning the city's main streets and buildings were decked with banners and flags.

In 1891 the rush to the Murchison goldfields began when Tom Cue discovered gold at the town which now bears his name. In the years that followed dozens of gold towns – Day Dawn, Nannine, Peak Hill, Garden Gully, Dead Finish, Pinnicles, Austin Island and Austin Mainland – flourished only to be abandoned when the seams were exhausted and the gold fever moved on.

The influx of miners from the eastern colonies and from overseas increased the presence of trade unions in Western Australia. The Trades and Labor Council, Perth was established in 1891 and Perth Trades Hall opened (1912). The first edition of the Westralian Worker appeared on 7 September 1900 and was followed shortly afterwards by the opening of the Kalgoorlie Trades Hall, the first such hall in Western Australia. A Trades Hall was opened in Fremantle in 1904.

An influx of people from Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania led to Australian rules football becoming the dominant football code when several local rugby football clubs switched codes.

John Forrest – the first Premier of Western Australia and its only premier as a colony – clashed with Robinson over section 70. While Forrest had argued that Western Australians should accept section 70 to obtain self-government, by 1892 he was attempting to have it changed. William Traylen argued that "as our revenue is growing up now, and the natives can scarcely be said to be increasing in numbers, we shall be paying a very undue proportion of our income as a colony for the purpose of supporting the Aboriginal native race."

Discoveries at Coolgardie (1892) and Paddy Hannan's discovery at Kalgoorlie (1893) sparked true gold fever. Coolgardie prospered particularly well, becoming the third largest town in the colony after Perth and Fremantle.

Gold inspired a new wave of exploration, including David Carnegie who, in 1896, led an epic expedition that travelled through the deserts north of Coolgardie, through the Gibson and Great Sandy Deserts to Halls Creek in the Kimberley, before returning to Coolgardie.

In the late 19th century there was talk of the gold-rich region around Kalgoorlie seceding from Western Australia, as a colony or state called Auralia. This campaign coincided with the reluctance in Perth regarding Western Australia taking part in Australian Federation. Talk of miners' separation and them taking their wealth elsewhere was seen as a threat to the stability of the colony.

In 1899, Forrest succeeded unilaterally passing the Constitution Amendment Act, taking control of Aboriginal Affairs without approval of the British House of Commons. Many Aboriginal people argue that the 1899 amendment was an illegal usurpation of British government power and one percent of accumulated Government revenues should be set aside for Aboriginal welfare, as intended.

O'Connor]].
 * Other notable events
 * 1887: On 22 April, a cyclone struck the pearling fleet at Eighty Mile Beach near Broome claiming 140 lives. The storm was unexpected, being so late in the season.
 * 1889: The Great Southern Railway was opened with subsequent economic growth to the regions along the line. The wheat industry did not really get going until the construction of railways. A railway line had reached Coolgardie (from Perth) by 1896.
 * 1895: Kings Park was officially opened on 10 August.
 * 1897: As part of the Western Australian Government's attempt to gain control of Aboriginal affairs, the Aborigines Act 1897 abolished the Aborigines Protection Board and established the Aborigines Department.
 * 1897: Fremantle Inner Harbour was officially opened after dredging and construction under the supervision of [[C. Y. O'Connor|

Federation of Australia
On 1 January 1901, following a proclamation by Queen Victoria, Western Australia, along with the other five British colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania and Victoria, formed the federation of the Commonwealth of Australia, of which they each became component states. However, Western Australia was reluctant to join the union, doing so only after they were offered a five-year transitional period on inter-state tariffs and a transcontinental railway line.

Development during the early twentieth century
The wealth generated from gold soon disappeared and by the early years of the 20th century, the economy was once again dependent on wool and wheat. This dependency meant that a dramatic fall in wool and wheat prices in the late 1920s – early 1930s saw the state's economic collapse. It was not to recover until after World War II when the Federal Government's postwar immigration policy saw a huge influx of migrants, nearly all of them from Europe, in the period 1947 to 1970.

Important events in Western Australia included the following:
 * 1902: The Premier, George Leake, died suddenly on 24 June aged 45. Frederick Illingworth became the caretaker Premier for a week before Walter James formed a new ministry on 1 July. George Leake is the only Western Australian Premier to die in office.
 * 1903: A pipeline from Mundaring Weir to Kalgoorlie is opened. This was a major achievement for its time by the state's first engineer-in-chief C. Y. O'Connor, who committed suicide before the project was complete.
 * 1904: John Drayton is imprisoned under parliamentary privilege provisions in Western Australia for refusing to pay a fine. This is the first and, until 1955, only, time that an Australian parliament punished somebody under parliamentary privilege provisions.
 * 1911: The University of Western Australia becomes Western Australia's second tertiary institution and first university. No teaching happens until 1913 though. It wasn't until 1975 that Western Australia's second university, Murdoch University opened.
 * 1912: A cyclone crossed the coast just west of Balla Balla near Port Hedland and claimed well over 150 lives. This was almost certainly Australia's worst weather-related maritime disaster of the 20th century with the loss of the coastal steamer Koombana.
 * 1916: First of two referendums on overseas conscription in World War I. Western Australia is an outlier in the vote, with 69.7% of voters voting in favour, in contrast to only 48.4% nationwide.
 * 1917: Second referendum on overseas conscription in World War I. 64.4% of Western Australian voters vote in favour, while only 46.2% of Australian voters overall do so.
 * 1917: The transcontinental railway is complete, fulfilling a promise by the Federal Government when the Colony of Western Australia voted to become a state of Australia at Federation in 1901. Construction of this last leg between Kalgoorlie and Port Augusta had begun in 1912.
 * 1920: Edward, the Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VIII) was involved in a train derailment, in which his carriage overturned in the state's south west. The train was moving at a low speed and he did not sustain any injuries.
 * 1920: Western Australia passed legislation allowing women to stand for parliament, Edith Cowan was elected to the Legislative Assembly becoming the first woman elected to any Australian parliament.
 * 1929: Western Australia Centenary.
 * 1930: Perth is connected to Adelaide (and subsequently the rest of the eastern states) by a telephone line.
 * In a referendum in 1933, 68% of voters favoured secession. The Premier, Philip Collier, argued in London for secession but the British decided they could not grant it.
 * 1935: The Lacepede Islands near Broome were struck by a cyclone, which sank 21 pearling luggers with 141 lives lost. This was Australia's second deadliest cyclone in the 20th century.

World War II

 * 1941: Battle between HMAS Sydney and the German raiding ship Kormoran off the coast near Carnarvon. Both ships sank, and the entire crew of 645 onboard Sydney was lost.
 * 1942: Japanese planes attack Broome. The official death toll was 88. The settlements of Wyndham, Derby, Port Hedland and the Drysdale River Mission (Kalumburu) also experienced casualties.
 * 1942–1945: Japanese occupation of Christmas Island, now one of two Australian Indian Ocean Territories.

Postwar era (1946–1970s)

 * 1946: Over 800 Aboriginal workers took part in the 1946 Pilbara strike, the first such kind of action taken by Indigenous Australians.
 * 1947: Western Australia enters the country's domestic cricket competition, the Sheffield Shield. Though Western Australia only entered on a probationary basis, it managed to win the shield in its first season.
 * 1949: Douglas DC-3 Fitzroy crashed after take-off from Guildford aerodrome, killing all 18 people on board.
 * 1950: The worst civil aircraft accident in Australian history occurred when all 29 people on board the Douglas DC-4 Amana died after it crashed near York on a flight from Perth to Adelaide.
 * 1952: On 3 October the first nuclear bomb was exploded on Australian soil at the Montebello Islands. It was part of Operation Hurricane, Britain's first-ever nuclear weapon test.
 * February–March 1961: In arguably Western Australia's worst bushfires, many small communities were destroyed including 132 houses in Dwellingup. There were no fatalities, but 800 people were left homeless.
 * 1961: Minerals boom begins with the removal of iron ore export ban. The economy is bolstered over the next two decades by nickel mines around Kalgoorlie and iron ore mines in the north-west.
 * 1962: Aboriginal people granted full rights to vote.
 * 1964: Serial killer Eric Edgar Cooke was the last person hanged in Western Australia.
 * 1964: On 31 December, Donald Campbell broke the world water speed record in the Bluebird K7 on Lake Dumbleyung. He reached 442 km/h. Campbell died in the same vehicle in 1967 in a later record attempt in England.
 * 1968: On 14 October, the Meckering earthquake occurred with a moment magnitude of 6.5 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent).
 * 1968: On 31 December, all 26 people on board MacRobertson Miller Airlines Flight 1750 from Perth to Port Hedland died when the aircraft, a Vickers Viscount, crashed near Port Hedland.
 * 1970: The Indian Pacific train completed its first journey by rail across the continent from Sydney to Perth. Though the transcontinental railway had been complete since 1917, this is the first time one train could make the journey uninterrupted by gauge changes.

Events since 1971

 * 1972: Minimum voting age lowered to 18.
 * 1974: Change of government. Charles Courts Liberal-Country Party coalition defeats the Labor government.
 * 1979: The NASA space station Skylab crashed in the remote south eastern part of the state. Places like Rawlinna and Balladonia received international attention.
 * 1979: On 2 June 1979 there was a significant earthquake just east of Cadoux that was felt in Perth.
 * 1979: WAY 1979 and the publishing of the Sesquicentenary Celebrations Series (Western Australia) by the celebrations committee and Government.
 * 1980: Government closes the Fremantle railway line and replaces the services with buses. The closure galvanises public opposition and becomes a major campaign issue in the 1983 election resulting in a change of government under Brian Burke.
 * 1981: Discovery of the Gorgon gas deposit.
 * 1983: Beginnings of WA Inc. Government deals with private businessmen lead to the loss of $600 million in public money.
 * 1984: The Parliament of Western Australia abolished the death penalty, the last state in Australia to eradicate capital punishment.
 * 19 November 1990: Labor Premier Carmen Lawrence initiates a Royal Commission into state government dealings with private businesses. The findings of the commission led to the conviction and imprisonment of two previous Premiers—Brian Burke and Ray O'Connor.
 * 1993: The Perth-Joondalup railway line completed to extend rail transport to Perth's northern suburbs.
 * 1993: Change of government. Labor loses to the Richard Court Liberal-National coalition Government.
 * 1996: The Liberal-National coalition loses control of the Upper House with the balance of power shifting to minority parties.
 * 1997: Western Australian parliament issues a formal apology to the stolen generation.
 * 2001: Change of government with Geoff Gallop's Labor government defeating the coalition on the back of an anti-old growth logging platform.
 * December 2007: The Perth-Mandurah railway line opens.
 * 2008: Change of government with the election of the Barnett Government.
 * 2008: The historic ban on uranium mining reversed.
 * 2016: Elizabeth Quay, a mixed-use development project in the Perth central business district opens.
 * 2017: Change of government with Mark McGowan leading Labor to a landslide victory over the coalition.
 * 2020: Western Australia closes its borders to all states of Australia to stop the spread of COVID-19.
 * 2020: Clive Palmer sues Western Australia repeatedly for the closed borders.
 * 2021: Mark McGowan wins state election with another landslide, said to be caused by his strong border policy.

title: History of Western Australia


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Alexander Lippisch

Alexander Martin Lippisch (2 November 1894 – 11 February 1976) was a German aeronautical engineer, a pioneer of aerodynamics who made important contributions to the understanding of tailless aircraft, delta wings and the ground effect, and also worked in the U.S. Within the Opel-RAK program, he was the designer of the world's first rocket-powered glider.

He developed and conceptualized delta wing designs which functioned practically in supersonic delta wing fighter aircraft as well as in hang gliders. People he worked with continued the development of the delta wing and supersonic flight concepts over the 20th century. His most famous designs are the Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket-powered interceptor and the Dornier Aerodyne.

Early life
Lippisch was born in Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria. He later recalled that his interest in aviation began with a demonstration conducted by Orville Wright over Tempelhof Field in Berlin in September 1909. Nonetheless, he planned to follow his father's footsteps into art school, until the outbreak of World War I intervened. During his service with the German Army, between 1915 and 1918, Lippisch had the chance to fly being an aerial photographer and mapper.

Early aircraft designs
Following the war, Lippisch worked with the Zeppelin Company, and it was at this time that he first became interested in tailless aircraft. In 1921, his first design to be built, by his friend Gottlob Espenlaub, was the Espenlaub E-2 glider. This was the beginning of a research programme that would result in some fifty designs throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Lippisch's growing reputation saw him appointed in 1925 to director of the Rhön-Rossitten Gesellschaft (RRG), a glider organisation including research groups and construction facilities.

Lippisch also designed conventional gliders at this time, including the Wien of 1927 and its successor the Fafnir of 1930. In 1928, partaking in the Opel-RAK program by Fritz von Opel and Max Valier, Lippisch's tail-first Ente (Duck) was equipped with powder rockets by Friedrich Wilhelm Sander's company and became the first aircraft to fly under rocket power. From 1927, he resumed his tailless work, leading to a series of designs named Storch I – Storch IX (Stork I-IX), mostly gliders. These designs attracted little interest from the government and private industry.

Delta wing designs
Experience with the Storch series led Lippisch to develop what he called his Delta designs. Like the Storch series, these were mostly tailless aircraft. They included the earliest successful delta wing designs. In 1931 the Delta I glider became the first to fly. It was followed by the Delta II and III.

The Delta IV design was powered, and built in two variants as the Fieseler F3 Wespe. Lippisch subsequently designated these the Delta IVa and b, with the c being built as the DFS 39. The development of this led directly to the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet (see next section), which Lippisch has also referred to as the Delta IVd.

The Delta V, built as the DFS 40 was a blended wing body design for comparison with the DFS 39.

In 1933, the RGG was reorganised into the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug (German Institute for Sailplane Flight, DFS) and the Delta IVd and Delta V were designated as the DFS 39 and DFS 40 respectively. Lippisch thus saw five designs built, numbered Delta I to V, between 1931 and 1939.

Subsequently, while at Messerschmitt, he began work on a Delta VI design. It became attached to various Messerschmitt projects, and a prototype was under construction when it was destroyed in a bombing raid.

World War II projects
In early 1939, the Reichsluftfahrtsministerium (RLM, Reich Aviation Ministry) transferred Lippisch and his team to work at the Messerschmitt factory in Augsburg, in order to design a high-speed fighter aircraft around the rocket engines then under development by Hellmuth Walter. The team quickly adapted their most recent design, the DFS 194, to rocket power, the first example successfully flying in early 1940. This successfully demonstrated the technology for what would become the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet.

Although technically novel, the Komet did not prove to be a successful weapon and friction between Lippisch and Messerschmitt was frequent. In 1943, Lippisch transferred to Vienna's Aeronautical Research Institute (Luftfahrtforschungsanstalt Wien, LFW) in Wiener Neustadt, in an own design bureau to concentrate on the problems of high-speed flight. That same year, he was awarded a doctoral degree in engineering by the University of Heidelberg. With him came the mathematician Hermann Behrbohm on half time (and continued half time for Messerschmitt in Oberammergau to where the development activities were moved into the underground facility after the air raids on Augsburg the 25 February 1944).

Wind tunnel research in 1939 had suggested that the delta wing was a good choice for supersonic flight, and Lippisch set to work designing a supersonic, ramjet-powered fighter, the Lippisch P.13a. By the time the war ended, however, the project had only advanced as far as a development glider, the DM-1.

Importance for the delta wing and supersonic flight concepts
Even though the Lippisch P.13a never flew, it and Lippisch's research and development had a significant importance for the development of the delta wing and supersonic flight concepts and supersonic-delta wing-fighter aircraft.

All this later development being funded by governments in the 1950s (like the Swedish Defence Act of 1958) to meet the need to be able to swiftly attack strategic nuclear weapons-bombers such as the Tupolev Tu-16 before they reached their targets. Lippisch's delta wing concept proved to be very steady and efficient in very high speed supersonic flight.

The research of the Messerschmitt and Lippisch offices were continued by:
 * Hermann Behrbohm worked for the BEE (French Aerodynamic Research and Development Institute) from 1946 on with operations in Emmendingen and Weil am Rhein in the French occupation zone in Germany. His research was used in the later French developedment of the Dassault Mirage.
 * Hermann Behrbohm worked for Saab, Linköping, Sweden from 1951 on, where he made significant contributions to the Saab 35 Draken and Saab 37 Viggen supersonic-delta wing-fighter aircraft, developing the delta wing and supersonic flight concepts. Bertil Dillner worked on the concepts with Behrbohm at Saab.
 * Bertil Dillner immigrated to the US 1967 and started working for Boeing Commercial Airplanes in Seattle at the supersonic Boeing 2707 SST passenger jet in 1967-1972 and the aerodynamics of hypersonic aviation at the re-entry of the Space Shuttle. Dillner was chief aerodynamic engineer at Boeing Commercial Airplanes from 1972 to 1981. Dillner became aerodynamic chief engineer 1981-1985 for Boeing Defense, Space & Security in Seattle and chief engineer 1985-1988 until his retirement.

Postwar work in the United States
Like many German scientists, Lippisch was taken to the United States after the war under Operation Paperclip. He worked at the White Sands Missile Range.

Ground effect aircraft
From 1950 to 1964, Lippisch worked for the Collins Radio Company in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, which had an aeronautical division. It was during this time that his interest shifted toward ground effect craft. The result was an aerofoil boat research seaplane X-112, flown in 1963. However, Lippisch contracted cancer, and resigned from Collins.

When he recovered in 1966, he formed his own research company, Lippisch Research Corporation, and attracted the interest of the West German government. Prototypes for both the aerodyne and the ground-effect craft RFB X-113 (1970) then RFB X-114 (1977) were built, but no further development was undertaken. The Kiekhaefer Mercury company was also interested in his ground-effect craft and successfully tested one of his designs as the Aeroskimmer, but also eventually lost interest.

Aerodyne
Lippisch conceived of a VTOL craft which he called an "aerodyne". Its fuselage comprised a large ducted rotor, and the thrust could be varied between downwards for vertical takeoff and landing, and backwards for forward flight. He worked principally with two companies in its development.

The Collins Aerodyne, developed while he was there, had a horizontal-axis rotor with the efflux directed via large flaps located immediately behind it. The craft was stabilised by a long, high tail running back from above the flaps.

The Dornier Aerodyne was a smaller drone which sat vertically for takeoff and landing, and the whole craft rotated horizontally for forward flight.

Neither type got beyond the prototype stage.

Death and legacy
Lippisch died in Cedar Rapids on 11 February 1976. In 1985, he was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.

Some Lippisch designs

 * Lippisch SG-38 Zögling, 1926
 * DFS 39, tailless research aircraft
 * DFS 40, tailless research aircraft
 * DFS 193, experimental aircraft
 * DFS 194, rocket-powered research aircraft, forerunner of Me 163
 * Lippisch P.01-111, designed during 'Projekt X', which would eventually culminate in the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet.
 * Lippisch Li P.04, a tailless airplane designed as a competitor to the Messerschmitt Me 329
 * Lippisch Li P.10, 1942 tailless bomber design
 * Lippisch P.11, designed to compete with the Horten Ho-IX; the latter went on to become the Horten (Gotha) Ho-(Go-)229.
 * Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet
 * Lippisch P.13, 1943 push-pull bomber design
 * Lippisch P.13a, a unique delta-winged, ramjet-powered interceptor.
 * Lippisch P.13b, a unique airplane powered by a rotating fuel-table of lignite, owing to the fuel shortages late in World War 2 in Germany.
 * Lippisch P.15, a development of the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet.
 * Lippisch P.20, a development of the P.15.
 * Dornier Aerodyne, a 1972 VTOL testbed

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Alexander Lippisch


text:
Contact breaker

A contact breaker (or "points") is a type of electrical switch, found in the ignition systems of spark-ignition internal combustion engines. The switch is automatically operated by a cam driven by the engine. The timing of operation of the switch is set so that a spark is produced at the right time to ignite the compressed air/fuel mixture in the cylinder of the engine. A mechanism may be provided to slightly adjust timing to allow for varying load on the engine. Since these contacts operate frequently, they are subject to wear, causing erratic ignition of the engine. More recent engines use electronic means to trigger the spark, which eliminated contact wear and allows computer control of ignition timing.

Purpose
The purpose of the contact breaker is to interrupt the current flowing in the primary winding of the ignition coil. When the current stops flowing, the resulting collapse of the magnetic field in the primary winding induces a high voltage in the secondary winding. This causes a very high voltage to appear at the coil output for a short period—enough to arc across the electrodes of a spark plug.

Operation
The contact breaker is operated by an engine-driven cam. On an engine with a distributor, the contact breaker can be found beneath the distributor cap. The position of the contact breaker is set so that it opens (and hence generates a spark) at exactly the optimum moment to ignite the fuel/air mixture. This point is generally just before the piston reaches the top of its compression stroke. The contact breaker is often mounted on a plate that is able to rotate relative to the camshaft operating it. The plate is most typically rotated by a centrifugal mechanism, thus advancing the ignition timing (making the spark occur earlier) at higher revolutions. This gives the fuel ignition process time to proceed so that the resulting combustion reaches its maximum pressure at the proper point in the crankshaft's rotation.

Many engines are also fitted with a manifold vacuum-operated servomechanism to provide additional rotation of the plate's position (within limits), in order to advance the timing when the engine is required to speed up on demand. Advancing the ignition timing helps to prevent pre-ignition (or pinging).

Disadvantages of contact breakers
Since they open and close so often (several times with every turn of the engine on distributor-equipped engines), contact breaker points and cam followers can suffer from wear—both mechanical and pitting caused by arcing across the contacts. This latter effect is largely prevented by placing a capacitor parallel across the contact breaker—this is often referred to by the more old fashioned term condenser by mechanics. As well as suppressing arcing, it helps boost the coil output by creating a resonant LC circuit with the coil windings.

A drawback of using a mechanical switch as part of the ignition timing is that it is not very precise, needs regular adjustment of the dwell (contact) angle, and at higher revolutions, its mass becomes significant, leading to poor operation at higher engine speeds. These effects can largely be overcome using electronic ignition systems, where the contact breakers are retrofitted by a magnetic (Hall effect) or optical sensor device. However, because of their simplicity, and since contact breaker points gradually degrade instead of catastrophically failing, they are still used on aircraft engines.

title: Contact breaker


text:
29 (number)

29 (twenty-nine) is the natural number following 28 and preceding 30. It is a prime number.

29 is the number of days February has on a leap year.

Mathematics
29 is the tenth prime number.

Integer properties
29 is the fifth primorial prime, like its twin prime 31.

29 is the smallest positive whole number that cannot be made from the numbers $$\{1, 2, 3, 4\}$$, using each digit exactly once and using only addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. None of the first twenty-nine natural numbers have more than two different prime factors (in other words, this is the longest such consecutive sequence; the first sphenic number or triprime, 30 is the product of the first three primes 2, 3, and 5). 29 is also,

 * the sum of three consecutive squares, 22 + 32 + 42.
 * the sixth Sophie Germain prime.
 * a Lucas prime, a Pell prime, and a tetranacci number.
 * an Eisenstein prime with no imaginary part and real part of the form 3n − 1.
 * a Markov number, appearing in the solutions to x$2$ + y$2$ + z$2$ = 3xyz: {2, 5, 29}, {2, 29, 169}, {5, 29, 433}, {29, 169, 14701}, etc.
 * a Perrin number, preceded in the sequence by 12, 17, 22.
 * the number of pentacubes if reflections are considered distinct.
 * the tenth supersingular prime.

On the other hand, 29 represents the sum of the first cluster of consecutive semiprimes with distinct prime factors (14, 15). These two numbers are the only numbers whose arithmetic mean of divisors is the first perfect number and unitary perfect number, 6 (that is also the smallest semiprime with distinct factors). The pair (14, 15) is also the first floor and ceiling values of imaginary parts of non-trivial zeroes in the Riemann zeta function, $$\zeta.$$

15 and 290 theorems
The 15 and 290 theorems describes integer-quadratic matrices that describe all positive integers, by the set of the first fifteen integers, or equivalently, the first two-hundred and ninety integers. Alternatively, a more precise version states that an integer quadratic matrix represents all positive integers when it contains the set of twenty-nine integers between 1 and 290:

 * $$\{1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 37, 42, 58, 93, 110, 145, 203, 290\}$$

The largest member 290 is the product between 29 and its index in the sequence of prime numbers, 10. The largest member in this sequence is also the twenty-fifth even, square-free sphenic number with three distinct prime numbers $$p \times q \times r$$ as factors, and the fifteenth such that $$p + q + r + 1$$ is prime (where in its case, 2 + 5 + 29 + 1 = 37).

Dimensional spaces
The 29th dimension is the highest dimension for compact hyperbolic Coxeter polytopes that are bounded by a fundamental polyhedron, and the highest dimension that holds arithmetic discrete groups of reflections with noncompact unbounded fundamental polyhedra.

In science

 * The atomic number of copper.
 * Saturn requires over 29 years to orbit the Sun.

title: 29 (number)


text:
28 (number)

28 (twenty-eight) is the natural number following 27 and preceding 29.

In mathematics

It is a composite number; a square-prime, of the form (p2,q) where q is a higher prime. It is the third of this form and of the specific form (22.q), with proper divisors being 1, 2, 4, 7, and 14.

Twenty-eight is the second perfect number - it is the sum of its proper divisors: $$1+2+4+7+14=28$$. As a perfect number, it is related to the Mersenne prime 7, since $$2^{3-1}\times (2^{3}-1)=28$$. The next perfect number is 496, the previous being 6.

Though perfect, 28 is not the aliquot sum of any other number other than itself, and so; unusually, is not part of a multi-number aliquot sequence. The next perfect number is 496.

Twenty-eight is the sum of the totient function for the first nine integers.

Since the greatest prime factor of $$28^{2}+1=785$$ is 157, which is more than 28 twice, 28 is a Størmer number.

Twenty-eight is a harmonic divisor number, a happy number, a triangular number, a hexagonal number, a Leyland number of the second kind and a centered nonagonal number.

It appears in the Padovan sequence, preceded by the terms 12, 16, 21 (it is the sum of the first two of these).

It is also a Keith number, because it recurs in a Fibonacci-like sequence started from its decimal digits: 2, 8, 10, 18, 28...

There are twenty-eight convex uniform honeycombs.

Twenty-eight is the only positive integer that has a unique Kayles nim-value.

Twenty-eight is the only known number that can be expressed as a sum of the first nonnegative (or positive) integers ($$0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7$$), a sum of the first primes ($$2 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 11$$) and a sum of the first nonprimes ($$1 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 9$$), and it is unlikely that any other number has this property.

There are twenty-eight oriented diffeomorphism classes of manifolds homeomorphic to the 7-sphere.

There are 28 elements of the cuboid: 8 vertices, 12 edges, 6 faces, 2 3-dimensional elements (interior and exterior).

There are 28 non-equivalent ways of expressing 1000 as the sum of two prime numbers

The cube of 12 (1728 = 123) contains a total of twenty-eight divisors (the third-smallest number after 1344 and 960, and preceding 2112).

28 is the smallest number that can be expressed as the sum of four nonzero squares in (at least) three ways: $$5^2+1^2+1^2+1^2$$, $$4^2+2^2+2^2+2^2$$ or $$3^2+3^2+3^2+1^2$$ (see image).

In science

 * The atomic mass of silicon.
 * The atomic number of nickel.
 * The fourth magic number in physics.
 * The curing time of concrete is classically considered 28 days.
 * The average human menstrual cycle is 28 days, although no link has been established with the nightlighting and the Moon.

Astronomy

 * The rotation time of the surface of the Sun varies due to it being gas and plasma. At 45°, it rotates every 28 days.
 * The Sun's surface gravity is 28 times that of Earth.
 * Messier 28, a magnitude 8.5 globular cluster in the constellation Sagittarius.
 * The New General Catalogue object NGC 28, an elliptical galaxy in the constellation Phoenix.

In sports

 * The number of players on the active roster of teams in Nippon Professional Baseball. However, each team is limited to using 25 players in a given game; before every game, the manager must designate three players who will be ineligible for that game.
 * From 2020, the number of players on the active roster of Major League Baseball teams for regular-season games on or after September 1.

In other fields
Twenty-eight is:
 * An abbreviation for such years as 1928 and 2028.
 * The number of Hebrew letters in Genesis 1:1, the first verse of the Bible.
 * The number of wheels on a Lockheed C-5 Galaxy.
 * In the code for international direct dial phone calls, +28 is unassigned.
 * 028 is the ISO 3166-1 numeric three-digit country code for Antigua and Barbuda.
 * The number of days in the shortest month of the Gregorian calendar, February in common years. All twelve months of the Gregorian calendar have at least 28 days, regardless of the year.
 * The Gregorian calendar follows a 28-year cycle for the most part, since there are seven days in a week and leap year generally occurs every four years; usually, a calendar from any year is the same as that from 28 years earlier (e.g., 1992 and 2020 or 1994 and 2022). However, that rule holds only when there have been exactly seven leap days in a 28-year interval; years divisible by 100 but not by 400 are common years. Indeed, 1900 (as well as 2100, 2200, etc.) does not use the same calendar as 1872 (2072, 2172, etc., respectively) for the simple reason that 1900 is a common year. In 28 years, any day-of-the-week and date combination occurs exactly four times. February 29 will fall on each day of the week once.
 * In Jewish tradition there is a 28-year solar cycle in which the sun returns to its place in Creation every 28 solar years. This is commemorated in April every 28 years with the recitation of Birkat Hachama, the blessing of the sun.
 * The common name for the parrot Barnardius zonarius semitorquatus, widely distributed in Western Australia and South Australia. Its call sounds like "wenniate".
 * The number of letters in the Danish and Swedish alphabets (not counting W), and also in the Arabic and Esperanto alphabets.
 * The number of Chinese constellations, "Xiu" or "mansions" (a literal translation), equivalent to the 12 western zodiac constellations.
 * The number of dominoes in standard domino sets.
 * Deriving from the 29.46 year period of Saturn's revolution around the Sun, the 28-year cycle as well as its subdivisions by 14 and 7 are supposed in astrology to mark significant turning points or sections in the course of a person's development in life. Thus, the number 28 has special significance in the culture of religious sects such as the Kadiri and the Mevlevi dervishes. The 28-beat metric pattern often used in the music compositions accompanying the main part of the Mevlevi sema ritual is called the "Devri kebir", meaning the "Big Circle" and is a reference to above astronomical facts about the year and the Saturn year.
 * In Quebec, François Pérusse, in one of his best-selling Album du peuple made a parody of Wheel of Fortune in which all of the letters picked by the contestant were present 28 times. As a result, 28 became an almost mythical number used by many Quebec youths, the phrase "Y'en a 28" (There are 28 [Letters]) became a running gag still used and recognized more than 15 years later.
 * The Preludes, Opus 28 consists of Frédéric Chopin's 24 preludes for piano, ordinarily but not necessarily played together in concert.
 * The postal code of the province of Madrid, in Spain.
 * Twenty Eight is a popular game played in Kerala, India.
 * The number of the French department Eure-et-Loir.
 * Approximately the number of grams in an ounce, and used as such in the illegal drug trade.
 * The UIC Country Code for Georgia identifying member countries of the International Union of Railways (UIC).
 * The letter Q when encoding the serial number for intermodal (shipping) containers as defined by ISO 6346.
 * The name of a single on the Trilogy by The Weeknd.
 * The name of the song on the album Strictly Diesel by Spineshank.
 * The number of Panfilov's Guardsmen, said to have heroically fallen in combat on 16 November 1941 during the Battle of Moscow, and venerated as Soviet's national heroes.
 * In Cockney Rhyming slang, two and eight means (mental) state, typically a poor state. Example: He was in a right two and eight.

title: 28 (number)


text:
Mack Reynolds

Dallas McCord "Mack" Reynolds (November 11, 1917 – January 30, 1983) was an American science fiction writer. His pen names included Dallas Ross, Mark Mallory, Clark Collins, Dallas Rose, Guy McCord, Maxine Reynolds, Bob Belmont, and Todd Harding. His work focused on socioeconomic speculation, usually expressed in thought-provoking explorations of utopian societies from a radical, sometime satiric perspective. He was a popular author from the 1950s to the 1970s, especially with readers of science fiction and fantasy magazines.

Reynolds was the first author to write an original novel based upon the 1966–1969 NBC television series Star Trek. The book, Mission to Horatius (1968), was aimed at young readers.

Biography
Reynolds was born in Corcoran, California, the second of four children of Verne La Rue Reynolds and Pauline McCord. When the family moved to Baltimore in 1918, his father joined the Socialist Labor Party (SLP) so that from an early age Reynolds was raised to accept the tenets of Marxism and socialism. ("I was born into a Marxian Socialist family. I am the child who, at the age of five or six, said to his parent, 'Mother, who is Comrade Jesus Christ?' —for I had never met anyone in that household who wasn't called Comrade.") In 1935, while still in high school in Kingston, New York, Reynolds joined the SLP and became an active advocate of the party's goals. The following year, he toured the country with his father giving lectures and speeches, and became recognized as a significant force in advocating the SLP.

After graduating from high school, Reynolds worked as a reporter for the Catskill Morning Star from 1937–38 and as editor of the weekly Oneonta News from 1939–40. In 1937, he married his first wife, Evelyn Sandell, with whom he had three children, Emil, La Verne, and Dallas Mack Jr. From 1940 to 1943 Reynolds worked for IBM at the San Pedro, California Shipyards. He also worked actively as an organizer for the SLP, campaigning with SLP presidential candidate John W. Aiken in 1940. After attending the U.S. Army Marine Officer's Cadet School and the U.S. Marine Officer's School, he joined the U.S. Army Transportation Corps in 1944 and was stationed in the Philippines as a ship's navigator until 1945. Upon returning home from the Corps, Reynolds learned that Evelyn had become involved with another man. They divorced and she took their children with her.

From 1946–49, Reynolds worked as a national organizer for the SLP. In 1946, he made his first fiction sale, "What is Courage?", to Esquire magazine. A year later, he met a woman who shared his radical politics, Helen Jeanette Wooley. They were married in September 1947, and Jeanette agreed to support Reynolds for two years while he pursued a career as a writer for the detective pulps. After searching for a place with a low cost of living, they moved to Taos, New Mexico, where Reynolds met science fiction writers Walt Sheldon and Fredric Brown. Brown, later one of Reynolds' frequent collaborators, convinced Reynolds to shift from writing detective stories to writing science fiction. Reynolds' first sale of a science fiction story, "Last Warning" (also known as "The Galactic Ghost"), sold to Planet Stories in June 1949 but was not printed until 1954. His first published science fiction story, "Isolationist" appeared in Fantastic Adventures in June 1950. His career soon took off, resulting in a sale of 18 stories in 1950 alone. In 1951, he published his first novel, The Case of the Little Green Men, a mix of the murder-mystery and science fiction genres that became "an instant classic of science-fiction-fan related fiction."

In 1953, the Reynolds moved to San Miguel de Allende, in Guanajuato, Mexico, where they lived for only eighteen months before embarking on a journey through Europe and the East that lasted almost ten years and included stays in Greece, Yugoslavia, Algeria, Morocco, Spain, Eastern Europe, Finland, India, Japan, and Hong Kong. In 1955, Reynolds became a correspondent for Rogue magazine and began making money writing about his travels as well as from his science fiction stories, whose socioeconomic speculations now reflected the insights gained from his encounters with other cultures. In 1958, he became a choice writer for John W. Campbell's Astounding Science Fiction, remaining its "most prolific contributor" for the next ten years. The same year, the publication of How to Retire without Money, to which Reynolds contributed under the byline Bob Belmont, led the National Executive Committee of the SLP to charge Reynolds with "supporting the fraudulent claims of capitalist apologists, viz, that capitalism offers countless opportunities to those who are 'alert'" and caused Reynolds to resign his membership from the SLP.

The 1960s saw some of Reynolds' best work, including the short stories "Revolution," "Combat," "Freedom," "Subversive," and "Mercenary" (which became the first installment of the Joe Mauser series), the Homer Crawford serials "Black Man's Burden" and "Border, Breed nor Birth," and the novellas "Adaptation," "Ultima Thule" (both part of the United Planet series), and "Status Quo" (a Hugo nominee). In 1963, he published The Expatriates, a mix of travel memories and autobiographical material emphasizing the benefits of living outside the United States. From 1961–64, Reynolds, at the request of his agent, wrote five sex novels: Episode on the Riviera, A Kiss before Loving, This Time We Love, The Kept Woman, and The Jet Set.

In 1965, the Reynolds returned to San Miguel de Allende to live. Their house on Nuñez 32 soon became a familiar haunt of the artistic community, often frequented by renowned authors. While Reynolds continued to write and sell science fiction stories, by 1969 his sales began to decline and several of his novels were held back during a takeover of Ace Books in 1970 and not published until 1975. During this difficult period of his life, Reynolds wrote two romance novels, The House in the Kasbah and The Home of the Inquisitor, under the byline Maxine Reynolds. He also began his most ambitious undertaking, a series of stories envisioning life in the year 2000. Looking Backward from the Year 2000 and Equality: In the Year 2000 updated and critiqued the socialist utopias created by Edward Bellamy in Looking Backward: 2000-1887 and Equality, which had helped shape Reynolds' radical worldview at an early age. Commune 2000 A.D., The Towers of Utopia, and Rolltown and the Lagrangia series explored marginal utopian colonies on earth and in space, respectively. In 1976, the short story collection The Best of Mack Reynolds was published.

By the end of the 1970s, Reynolds was having trouble getting his manuscripts published. One month before his death in 1983, as he was recuperating from cancer surgery, his new agent negotiated a contract with Tor Books. By 1986, eleven of his books had been published posthumously, five of them revised and co-authored by Dean Ing, and two more by Michael A. Banks. The New England Science Fiction Association, which had invited Reynolds to be its Guest of Honor at Boskone XX (February 1983), published the collection Compounded Interests to be released as part of his appearance, but Reynolds died three weeks before the convention. In it, Reynolds identifies his Star Trek novel Mission to Horatius as his "bestseller."

Major themes
While Reynolds' fiction spans an array of science fiction elements including time travel, alien visitation, world computers, Amazonian cultures, and intergalactic spy adventures, his radical interrogation of socioeconomic systems sets him apart from other science fiction writers. Accordingly, many of Reynolds' original contributions to science fiction exist in the form of sociological predictions, some of which have come to pass: the credit-card economy, a worldwide computer network with information available at one's fingertips, a "Common Europe," a basic guaranteed income for every citizen, mobile cities, or global societies with a universal religion and an Esperanto-based common language.

Alternative socio-economic systems
Reynolds sought to shake his readers' complacent acceptance of Cold War capitalism by depicting a variety of post-capitalist near futures, many of which he envisioned could occur around the year 2000. His stories, therefore, cover an assortment of social systems including anarchy, communism, technocracy, syndicalism, meritocracy, various forms of socialism, and an extrapolation of free-enterprise economics, People's Capitalism. In addition, some of his stories set up a rivalry between a collective and a competitive economy in order to assess their respective merits, sometimes coming to the conclusion that they cannot be compared except for their imperialistic aims, as in the novella Adaptation, while at other times both systems are revealed to be equally decadent and stagnant, as in the Joe Mauser story "Frigid Fracas". Reynolds' novella "Radical Center" (1967) – portraying radical centrism as a conspiracy of the powerful to render ordinary citizens non-judgmental and apathetic – became the lead story in a university textbook, American Government Through Science Fiction.

Trouble in Utopia
Reynolds has been called a "cautious," "critical," or "ambiguous" Utopian writer because his many explorations of ideal societies, such as his updates of Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward: 2000-1887 and Equality, focus as much on Utopia's dilemmas as on its benefits. Typically, Reynolds' Utopias are worlds of almost complete industrial automation so that no one needs to work, everyone lives in security thanks to a guaranteed basic income, and those who volunteer for the few jobs left are chosen via a quantitative ability test. At the same time, the population's very life of leisure has led to species stasis by discouraging the continual striving that gives humanity its purpose as in the story "Utopian," or the Utopian welfare state has metamorphosed into a caste society where those in power aim to keep it, blocking for its other members the opportunity to exert themselves to the full extent of their abilities, as in the Joe Mauser series.

The continuous revolution
Reynolds' heroes usually seek to improve their societies by direct revolutionary action. Sometimes their revolution is meant to advance a people's level of civilization, as in the case of the North Africa series; sometimes it aims to upset a Utopian society where, while there is no want, inequality, or conflict, there is also no sense of purpose, as in the novel After Utopia, or possibility of social mobility, as in the Joe Mauser series. Usually, once a revolution has succeeded in subverting the status quo, another revolution follows and subverts it, as in the story "Black Sheep Astray," giving the impression that social change is as endless as it is progressive.

1950s

 * "Isolationist", Fantastic Adventures, Apr. 1950.
 * "He Took It with Him" (as Clark Collins), Fantastic Adventures, Apr. 1950.
 * "United We Stand", Amazing, May 1950.
 * "Fido", Fantastic Adventures, May 1950.
 * "Luvver", Fantastic Adventures, June 1950.
 * "Precognition", Thrilling Wonder Stories, June 1950.
 * "The Discord Makers", Out of This World Adventures, July 1950.
 * "The Man in the Moon", Amazing, July 1950.
 * "Down the River", Startling Stories, Sept. 1950.
 * "The Word from the Void", Super Science Stories, Sept. 1950.
 * "You Might Say Virginia Dared" (as Dallas Ross), Amazing, Sept. 1950.
 * "Give the Devil His Due" (as Dallas Ross), Fantastic Adventures, Oct. 1950.
 * "Long Beer, Short Horn", Fantastic Adventures, Nov. 1950.
 * "Tall Tale", Startling Stories, Nov. 1950.
 * "One of Our Planets Is Missing!", Amazing Stories, Nov. 1950.
 * "The Devil Finds Work", Fantastic Adventures, Dec. 1950.
 * "The Spark", Thrilling Wonder Stories, Dec. 1950.
 * "Tourists to Terra", Imagination, Dec. 1950.
 * "Six-Legged Svengali" (with Fredric Brown), Worlds Beyond, Dec. 1950.
 * "Dark Interlude" (with Fredric Brown), Galaxy Science Fiction, Jan. 1951.
 * "Troubador", Other Worlds Science Stories, Jan. 1951.
 * "The Switcheroo" (with Fredric Brown), Other Worlds, March 1951.
 * "Not in the Rules", Imagination, Apr. 1951.
 * "Overtime", Thrilling Wonder Stories, Apr. 1951.
 * "I'm a Stranger, Myself", Thrilling Wonder Stories, Apr. 1951.
 * "Cartoonist" (with Fredric Brown), Planet Stories, May 1951. Also known as "Garrigan's BEMs."
 * "Second Advent", Marvel Science Stories, May 1951.
 * "The Martians and the Coys", Imagination, June 1951.
 * "With this Ring..." (as Dallas Ross), Fantastic Adventures, Aug. 1951.
 * "Mercy Flight", Planet Stories, July 1951.
 * "Ultimate Answer" (as Dallas Ross), Thrilling Wonder Stories, Oct. 1951.
 * "Displaced Person", Fantastic Story Magazine, Oct. 1951.
 * "The Gamblers" (with Fredric Brown), Startling Stories, Nov. 1951.
 * "Halftripper", Planet Stories, Nov. 1951.
 * "He Knew All the Answers" (as Dallas Ross) Fantastic Adventures, Nov. 1951.
 * "Chowhound", Marvel Science Fiction, Nov. 1951.
 * "The Hatchetman" (with Frederic Brown), Amazing, Dec. 1951.
 * "How Green Was My Martian", Startling Stories, Jan. 1952.
 * "Your Soul Comes C.O.D.", Fantastic Adventures, Mar. 1952.
 * "Final Appraisal", Other Worlds Science Stories, Mar. 1952.
 * "The Business, as Usual", The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, June 1952.
 * "The Cosmic Bluff", Imagination, Oct. 1952.
 * "Alternate Universe", Other Worlds, Nov. 1952.
 * ""Me and Flapjack and the Martians" (with Fredric Brown), Astounding, Dec. 1952.
 * "Four-legged Hotfoot", Fantastic Story Magazine, Winter 1952.
 * "Stowaway", Universe Science Fiction, June 1953.
 * "Dogfight – 1973", Imagination, July 1953.
 * "The Adventure of the Snitch in Time" (with August Derleth), The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, July 1953.
 * "Advice from Tomorrow", Science Fiction Quarterly, Aug. 1953.
 * "D. P. from Tomorrow", Orbit, Sep. 1953.
 * "No Return from Elba", Fantastic, Sept. 1953.
 * "Please to Remember", Future Science Fiction, Sept. 1953.
 * "Potential Enemy", Orbit, Dec. 1953.
 * "Optical Illusion", Science Stories, Dec. 1953.
 * "Off Course", If, Jan. 1954.
 * "A Zloor for Your Trouble!", Imagination, Jan. 1954.
 * "The Other Alternative", The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Feb. 1954.
 * "The Galactic Ghost", Planet Stories, March 1954.
 * "Last Warning", Planet Stories, March 1954.
 * "And Thou Beside Me", The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Apr. 1954.
 * "Husbands, Care and Feeding of", Science Fiction Stories, June 1954.
 * "Paradox Gained", Orbit, July–Aug. 1954.
 * "Prone", The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Sept. 1954.
 * "A Dream . . . Dying", Thrilling Wonder Stories, Oct. 1954.
 * "Desperate Remedy", SF Quarterly, Nov. 1954.
 * "The Expert", Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Jan. 1955.
 * "The Long Way Home", Imagination, Mar. 1955.
 * "Albatross", Imagination, April 1955.
 * "All the World Loves a Luvver", The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Apr. 1955.
 * "The Adventure of the Ball of Nostradamus" (with August Derleth), The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, June 1955.
 * "Space Gamble", Imagination, July 1955.
 * "Operation Triplan ", Fantastic Universe, Aug. 1955.
 * "Buck and the Space War", Imaginative Tales, Sept. 1955.
 * "Burnt Toast", Playboy, Nov. 1955.
 * "Meddler's World", (with Theodore R. Cogswell), SF Quarterly, Nov. 1955.
 * "Compleated Angler", Startling Stories, Fall 1955.
 * "The Triangulated Izaak Walton", Fantastic Universe, June 1956.
 * "After Some Tomorrow", If, June 1956.
 * "Compounded Interest", The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Aug. 1956.
 * "Fair Exchange", Fantastic Universe, Aug. 1956.
 * "Case Rests", Science Fiction Quarterly, Aug. 1956.
 * "Dog Star", Science Fiction Quarterly, Nov. 1956.
 * "Posted" (also as Mark Mallory), Space Science Fiction Magazine, Spring 1957.
 * "Slow Djinn", Space Science Fiction Magazine, Aug. 1957.
 * "Dead End", Tales of the Frightened, Aug. 1957.
 * "The Man Who Stole His Body" (as Mark Mallory), Tales of the Frightened, Aug. 1957.
 * "Happy Ending" (with Fredric Brown), Fantastic Universe, Sept. 1957.
 * "Snafu on the New Taos", Venture Science Fiction Magazine, Sept. 1957.
 * "Obedience Guaranteed", Space Science Fiction Magazine, Spring 1957.
 * "Of Pot and Potter", Fantastic Universe, Jan. 1958.
 * "Gladiator", The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, March 1958.
 * "Sin Planet", Amazing Science Fiction, March 1958.
 * "The Truth and the Image" (as Mark Mallory) Amazing Science Fiction, March 1958.
 * "Alternatives, Inc.", Amazing Science Fiction Stories, May 1958.
 * "Pieces of the Game", Astounding Science Fiction, Dec. 1958.
 * "Unborn Tomorrow", Astounding, June 1959.
 * "Toro!", Fantastic Science Fiction Stories, Sept. 1959.
 * "The Hunted Ones", Science Fiction Stories, Nov. 1959.

1960s

 * "The Good Seed", Worlds of If, Jan. 1960.
 * "I'm a Stranger Here Myself", Amazing Stories, Dec. 1960.
 * "Russkies Go Home!", The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Nov. 1960.
 * "Summit", Astounding, Feb. 1960.
 * Revolution, Astounding, May 1960.
 * Adaptation (novella), Astounding, Aug. 1960.
 * "Combat", Analog, Oct. 1960.
 * "Medal of Honor", Amazing, Nov. 1960.
 * "Gun for Hire", Analog, Dec. 1960.
 * "Freedom", Analog, Feb. 1961.
 * Ultima Thule (novella), Analog, Mar. 1961.
 * "Farmer", Galaxy, June 1961.
 * "I. Q.", Fantastic Stories of Imagination, June 1961.
 * Status Quo (novella), Analog, Aug. 1961. Hugo nominee.
 * "Black Man's Burden" (two part serial), Analog, Dec. 1961 – Jan. 1962.
 * "Border, Breed nor Birth" (two part serial), Analog, July–Aug. 1962.
 * "Mercenary", Analog, Apr. 1962.
 * "Earthlings Go Home!", Rogue, Aug. 1962.
 * "Good Indian", Analog, Sept. 1962.
 * "Subversive", Analog, Dec. 1962.
 * "Speakeasy", The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Jan. 1963.
 * "The Common Man" (also as Guy McCord) Analog, Jan. 1963.
 * "Frigid Fracas" (two part serial), Analog, Mar.–Apr. 1963.
 * "Expediter", Analog, May 1963.
 * "Spaceman on a Spree", Worlds of Tomorrow, June 1963.
 * "Pacifist", The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Jan. 1964.
 * "Genus Traitor", Analog, Aug. 1964.
 * "Sweet Dreams, Sweet Princes" (three part serial), Analog, Oct.–Dec. 1964.
 * "Photojournalist", Analog, Feb. 1965.
 * "Fad", Analog, Apr. 1965.
 * "The Adventure of the Extra-Terrestrial" (with August Derleth), Analog, July 1965. Nebula nominee.
 * "Of Godlike Powers" (two part serial), Worlds of Tomorrow, July–Aug. 1965.
 * "By the Same Door", New Worlds SF, Aug. 1965.
 * "Space Pioneer" (three part serial), Analog, Sept.–Nov. 1965.
 * "A Leader for Yesteryear", If, Oct. 1965. Nebula nominee.
 * "Last of a Noble Breed", Worlds of Tomorrow, Nov. 1965.
 * "Time of War", If, Nov. 1965.
 * "Beehive" (two part serial), Analog Dec. 1965 - Jan. 1966.
 * "The Switcheroo Revisited", Analog, Feb. 1966.
 * "Your Soul Comes C.O.D.", Fantastic, Mar. 1966.
 * "Hatchetman", Impulse, June 1966.
 * "Survivor", Analog, July 1966.
 * "Arena", If, Sept. 1966.
 * "Romp", Analog, Oct. 1966.
 * "Amazon Planet" (three part serial), Analog, Dec. 1966 – Feb. 1967.
 * "Radical Center", Analog, Mar. 1967.
 * "Relic", The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Mar. 1967.
 * "The Enemy Within", Analog, Apr. 1967.
 * "The Throwaway Age", Worlds of Tomorrow, May 1967.
 * "Computer War" (two part serial), Analog, June–July 1967.
 * "Depression...or Bust", Analog, Aug. 1967.
 * Fiesta Brava (novella), Analog, Sept. 1967.
 * "Coup" (also as Guy McCord), Analog, Nov. 1967.
 * "Psi Assassin", Analog, Dec. 1967.
 * "How We Banned the Bombs", Galaxy, June 1968.
 * "Among the Bad Baboons", Galaxy, Aug. 1968.
 * "Love Conquers All", If, Sept. 1968.
 * "Where's Horatius?", Amazing, Sept. 1968.
 * "What the Vintners Buy", Worlds of Fantasy, Sep. 1968.
 * "Criminal in Utopia", Galaxy, Oct. 1968.
 * "The Computer Conspiracy", Worlds of If, Nov–Dec. 1968.
 * "Spying Season", Galaxy, Dec. 1968.
 * "Krishna" (as Guy McCord), Analog, Jan. 1969.
 * "Extortion, Inc.", Analog, Feb. 1969.
 * "Opportunist" (as Guy McCord), Analog, Apr. 1969.
 * "The Five Way Secret Agent" (two part serial), Analog, Apr.–May 1969.
 * "The Towns Must Roll" (two part serial), If, July–Sept. 1969.

1970s

 * "Utopian", The Year 2000, edited by Harry Harrison, 1970.
 * "City's End", Future Quest, edited by Roger Elwood, 1973.
 * "Buck and the Gents from Space", Science Fiction Adventures from Way Out, edited by Roger Elwood, 1973.
 * "The Cold War...Continued", Nova 3, edited by Harry Harrison, 1973.
 * "Black Sheep Astray", Astounding: John W. Campbell Memorial Anthology, edited by Harry Harrison, 1973.
 * "Second Advent", Worlds of If, May–June 1974.
 * "Nostradamus" (as Clark Collins), Worlds of If, May–June 1974.
 * "Come in, Spaceport", Go: Reading in the Content Areas. Scholastic Magazine, 1974.
 * "Survival, A.D. 2000", Survival from Infinity, edited by Roger Elwood, 1974.
 * "Generation Gap", Future Kin, edited by Roger Elwood, 1974.
 * "Spooky", The Killer Plants and Other Stories, edited by Roger Elwood, 1974.
 * "Cry Wolf!", Galaxy, Dec. 1974.
 * "Visitor", Tomorrow Today, edited by George Zebrowski, 1975.
 * "Of Future Fears", Analog, Oct.–Dec. 1977. Three part serial.
 * "All Things to All...", Amazing Stories, May 1978.
 * "A Halo for Horace", Amazing Stories, Feb. 1979.
 * "The Case of the Disposable Jalopy", Analog, Oct. 1979.

1980s

 * "Hell's Fire"(with Gary Jennings), 1980.
 * "Golden Rule", Analog, Mar. 1980.
 * "What the Vintners Buy", Analog, Sept. 1980.
 * "The Union Forever", Analog, Dec. 1980.
 * "Escape Velocity", The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, Dec. 1980.
 * "Closer Encounter", Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine, May 11, 1981.
 * "The Hand of the Bard", Speculations, edited by Isaac Asimov and Alice Laurance, 1982.
 * "Idealist", Compounded Interests, 1983.

1950s

 * The Case of the Little Green Men, 1951.

1960s

 * Episode on the Riviera, 1961.
 * A Kiss before Loving: A Contemporary Novel, 1961.
 * The Earth War, 1963. Reprint of "Frigid Fracas." Second book of the Joe Mauser series.
 * The Kept Woman, 1963.
 * The Jet Set, 1964.
 * Space Pioneer, 1965.
 * Planetary Agent X, 1965. Fix-up of "Ultima Thule" and "Hatchetman." First book of the United Planets series.
 * Of Godlike Power, 1966. Also published as Earth Unaware.
 * Space Pioneer, 1966. Reprint of "Space Pioneer."
 * Time Gladiator, 1966. Reprint of "Sweet Dreams, Sweet Princes." Third book of the Joe Mauser series.
 * Computer War, 1967.
 * The Rival Rigelians, 1967. Expansion of "Adaptation." Third book of the United Planets series.
 * Planetary Agent X, 1967. Reprint.
 * Dawnman Planet, 1967. Second book of the United Planets series.
 * After Some Tomorrow, 1967.
 * Mercenary From Tomorrow, 1968. First book of the Joe Mauser series. (Expansion of the 1962 short story "Mercenary" published in Analog)
 * Code Duello, 1968. Fourth book of the United Planets series.
 * Earth Unaware, 1968. Reprint.
 * Mission to Horatius, 1968. First Star Trek: The Original Series tie-in novel.
 * The Cosmic Eye, 1969. Expansion of "Speakeasy."
 * The Space Barbarians, 1969.
 * The Five Way Secret Agent, 1969.

1970s

 * Computer World, 1970.
 * Once Departed, 1970.
 * Blackman's Burden, 1972. First book of the North Africa series.
 * Border, Breed nor Birth, 1972. Second book of the North Africa series.
 * The Home of the Inquisitor (as Maxine Reynolds), 1972.
 * The House in the Kasbah (as Maxine Reynolds), 1972.
 * Looking Backward from the Year 2000, 1973. First book of the Julian West series.
 * Computer War, 1973.
 * Code Duello, 1973.
 * Depression or Bust, 1974. Fix-up of "Depression. . .or Bust," "Expediter","Fad," and "The Expert."
 * Dawnman Planet, 1974. Reprint.
 * Commune 2000 A.D., 1974. First book of the Bat Hardin series.
 * The Towers of Utopia, 1975. Second book of the Bat Hardin series.
 * Satellite City, 1975.
 * Amazon Planet, 1975. Fifth book of the United Planets series.
 * The Cosmic Eye, 1975.
 * Ability Quotient, 1975.
 * Tomorrow Might Be Different, 1975. Expansion of "Russkies Go Home!"
 * The Five Way Secret Agent, 1975. Reprint of "The Five Way Secret Agent."
 * Mercenary from Tomorrow, 1975.
 * Day After Tomorrow, 1976. Reprint of "Status Quo."
 * Section G: United Planets, 1976. Sixth book of the United Planets series.
 * Rolltown, 1976. Third book of the Bat Hardin series.
 * Galactic Medal of Honor, 1976. Expansion of "Medal of Honor."
 * After Utopia, 1977.
 * Perchance to Dream, 1977.
 * Space Visitor, 1977. Expansion of "Visitor."
 * Police Patrol: 2000 A.D., 1977. Fix-up of "Romp," "Criminal in Utopia," "Cry Wolf!", and "Extortion, Inc."
 * Equality in the Year 2000, 1977. Second book of the Julian West series.
 * Trample an Empire Down, 1978.
 * The Best Ye Breed, 1978. Third book of the North Africa series.
 * Brain World, 1978. Seventh book of the United Planets series.
 * The Fracas Factor, 1978. Fourth book of the Joe Mauser series.
 * Earth Unaware, 1979.
 * Lagrange Five, 1979. First book of the L-5 Community series.

1980s

 * The Lagrangists, 1983. Second book of the L-5 Community series.
 * Chaos in Lagrangia, 1984. Third book of the L-5 Community series.
 * Eternity (with Dean Ing), 1984.
 * Home, Sweet Home 2010 A. D. (with Dean Ing), 1984.
 * The Other Time (with Dean Ing), 1984.
 * Space Search, 1984.
 * Trojan Orbit (with Dean Ing), 1985.
 * Deathwish World (with Dean Ing), 1986.
 * Joe Mauser: Mercenary from Tomorrow (with Michael Banks), 1986. Rewrite and expansion of "Frigid Fracas" and Mercenary of Tomorrow.
 * Sweet Dreams, Sweet Princes (with Michael Banks), 1986. Expansion of "Sweet Dreams, Sweet Princes" and Time Gladiator.

Fiction collections

 * The Best of Mack Reynolds, 1976.
 * Compounded Interests, 1983.
 * Nine Tomorrows: Science Fiction Stories from the Golden Age, 2009.
 * Mack Reynolds, Part One, 2011.

Anthologies edited

 * Science Fiction Carnival (with Fredric Brown), 1953.

Nonfiction

 * How to Retire without Money (as Bob Belmont), 1958.
 * The Expatriates, 1963.
 * "Mack Reynolds Replies" (with Poul Anderson, Ray Bradbury, and Isaac Asimov), The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, Oct. 1965.
 * "What Do You Mean, Marxism?" Science Fiction Studies 1, Fall 1974.
 * "Afterword," Foundation 16, May 1979.
 * "Science Fiction and Political Economy, " SF Review 36, Aug. 1980.
 * "SF and Socioeconomics," Fantastic Lives: Essays by Noted Science Fiction Writers, edited by Martin. H. Greenberg, 1981.

title: Mack Reynolds


text:
Distributor

A distributor is an electric and mechanical device used in the ignition system of older spark ignition engines. The distributor's main function is to route electricity from the ignition coil to each spark plug at the correct time.

Design
A distributor consists of a rotating arm ('rotor') that is attached to the top of a rotating 'distributor shaft'. The rotor constantly receives high-voltage electricity from an ignition coil via brushes at the centre of the rotor. As the rotor spins, its tip passes close to (but does not touch) the output contacts for each cylinder. As the electrified tip passes each output contact, the high-voltage electricity is able to 'jump' across the small gap. This burst of electricity then travels to the spark plug (via high tension leads), where it ignites the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber.

On most overhead valve engines, the distributor shaft is driven by a gear on the camshaft, often shared with the oil pump; on most overhead camshaft engines, the distributor shaft is attached directly to a camshaft.

Older distributor designs used a cam on the distributor shaft that operates the contact breaker (also called points). Opening the points causes a high induction voltage in the ignition coil. This design was superseded by an electronically controlled ignition coil with a sensor (usually Hall effect or optical) to control the timing of the ignition coil charging.

Ignition advance
In older distributors, adjusting the ignition timing is usually achieved through both mechanical advance and vacuum advance. Mechanical advance adjusts the timing based on the engine speed (rpm), using a set of hinged weights attached to the distributor shaft. These weights cause the breaker points mounting plate to slightly rotate, thereby advancing the ignition timing. Vacuum advance typically uses manifold vacuum to adjust the ignition timing, for example to improve fuel economy and driveability when minimal power is required from the engine.

Most distributors used on electronic fuel injection engines use electronics to adjust the ignition timing, instead of vacuum and centrifugal systems. This allows the ignition timing to be optimised based on factors other than engine speed and manifold vacuum.

Direct ignition
Since the early 2000s, many cars have used a 'coil-on-plug' direct ignition system, whereby a small ignition coil is located directly above the spark plug for each cylinder. This design means that high-voltage electricity is only present in the small distance between each coil and the spark plug. See Saab Direct Ignition.

History
The first mass-produced electric ignition was the Delco ignition system, which was introduced in the 1910 Cadillac Model 30. In 1921, Arthur Atwater Kent Sr invented the competing Unisparker ignition system.

By the 1980s and 1990s, distributors had been largely replaced by electronic ignition systems.

title: Distributor


text:
International affairs (disambiguation)

International affairs may refer to:

 * Diplomacy
 * International relations
 * International Affairs Association
 * International Affairs (journal), a peer-reviewed academic journal first published in 1924
 * International Affairs (Soviet magazine), a communist propaganda vehicle

title: International affairs (disambiguation)