text:
Opera seria

Opera seria (plural: opere serie; usually called dramma per musica or melodramma serio) is an Italian musical term which refers to the noble and "serious" style of Italian opera that predominated in Europe from the 1710s to about 1770. The term itself was rarely used at the time and only attained common usage once opera seria was becoming unfashionable and beginning to be viewed as something of a historical genre. The popular rival to opera seria was opera buffa, the 'comic' opera that took its cue from the improvisatory commedia dell'arte.

Italian opera seria (invariably to Italian libretti) was produced not only in Italy but almost throughout Europe, and beyond (see Opera in Latin America, Opera in Cuba e. g.). Among the main centres in Europe were the court operas based in Warsaw (since 1628), Munich (founded in 1653), London (established in 1662), Vienna (firmly established 1709; first operatic representation: Il pomo d'oro, 1668), Dresden (since 1719) as well as other German residences, Saint Petersburg (Italian opera reached Russia in 1731, first opera venues followed c. 1742), Madrid (see Spanish opera), and Lisbon. Opera seria was less popular in France, where the national genre of French opera (or tragédie en musique) was preferred.

Acclaimed composers of opera seria included Antonio Caldara, Alessandro Scarlatti, George Frideric Handel, Antonio Vivaldi, Nicola Porpora, Leonardo Vinci, Johann Adolph Hasse, Leonardo Leo, Baldassare Galuppi, Francesco Feo, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi and in the second half of the 18th century Christoph Willibald Gluck, Niccolò Jommelli, Tommaso Traetta, Josef Mysliveček, Joseph Haydn, Johann Christian Bach, Carl Heinrich Graun, Antonio Salieri, Antonio Sacchini, Giuseppe Sarti, Niccolò Piccinni, Giovanni Paisiello, Domenico Cimarosa, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. By far the most successful librettist of the era was Metastasio, others were Apostolo Zeno, Benedetto Pamphili, Silvio Stampiglia, Antonio Salvi, Pietro Pariati, Pietro Ottoboni, Stefano Benedetto Pallavicino, Nicola Francesco Haym, Domenico Lalli, Paolo Antonio Rolli, Giovanni Claudio Pasquini, Ranieri de' Calzabigi and Giovanni Ambrogio Migliavacca.

Structure
Opera seria built upon the conventions of the High Baroque era by developing and exploiting the da capo aria, with its A–B–A form. The first section presented a theme, the second a complementary one, and the third a repeat of the first with ornamentation and elaboration of the music by the singer. As the genre developed and arias grew longer, a typical opera seria would contain not more than thirty musical movements.

A typical opera would start with an instrumental overture of three movements (fast-slow-fast) and then a series of recitatives containing dialogue interspersed with arias expressing the emotions of the character, this pattern only broken by the occasional duet for the leading amatory couple. The recitative was typically secco: that is, accompanied only by continuo (usually harpsichord, theorbo, and cello, sometimes supported by further bass and chordal instruments). At moments of especially violent passion secco was replaced by stromentato (or accompagnato) recitative, where the singer was accompanied by the entire body of strings. After an aria was sung, accompanied by strings and oboe (and sometimes with horns or flutes), the character usually exited the stage, encouraging the audience to applaud. This continued for three acts before concluding with an upbeat chorus, to celebrate the jubilant climax. The leading singers each expected their fair share of arias of varied mood, be they sad, angry, heroic or meditative.

The dramaturgy of opera seria developed largely as a response to French criticism of what were often viewed as impure and corrupting librettos. As response, the Rome-based Academy of Arcadia sought to return Italian opera to what they viewed as neoclassical principles, obeying the classical unities of drama, defined by Aristotle, and replacing "immoral" plots, such as Busenello's for L'incoronazione di Poppea, with highly moral narratives that aimed to instruct, as well as entertain. However, the often tragic endings of classical drama were rejected out of a sense of decorum: early writers of opera seria librettos such as Apostolo Zeno felt that virtue should be rewarded and shown triumphant, while the antagonists were to be put on their way to remorse. The spectacle and ballet, so common in French opera, were banished.

Voices
The age of opera seria corresponded with the rise to prominence of the castrati, often prodigiously gifted male singers who had undergone castration before puberty in order to retain a high, powerful soprano or alto voice backed by decades of rigorous musical training. They were cast in heroic male roles, alongside another new breed of operatic creature, the prima donna. The rise of these star singers with formidable technical skills spurred composers to write increasingly complex vocal music, and many operas of the time were written as vehicles for specific singers. Of these the most famous is perhaps Farinelli, whose debut in 1722 was guided by Nicola Porpora. Though Farinelli did not sing for Handel, his main rival, Senesino, did.

1720–1740

Opera seria acquired definitive form early during the 1720s. While Apostolo Zeno and Alessandro Scarlatti had paved the way, the genre only truly came to fruition due to Metastasio and later composers. Metastasio's career began with the serenata Gli orti esperidi ("The Gardens of the Hesperides"). Nicola Porpora, (much later to be Haydn's master), set the work to music, and the success was so great that the famed Roman prima donna, Marianna Bulgarelli, "La Romanina", sought out Metastasio, and took him on as her protégé. Under her wing, Metastasio produced libretto after libretto, and they were rapidly set by the greatest composers in Italy and Austria, establishing the transnational tone of opera seria: Didone abbandonata, Catone in Utica, Ezio, Alessandro nelle Indie, Semiramide riconosciuta, Siroe and Artaserse. After 1730 he was settled in Vienna and turned out more librettos for the imperial theater, until the mid-1740s: Adriano in Siria, Demetrio, Issipile, Demofoonte, Olimpiade, La clemenza di Tito, Achille in Sciro, Temistocle, Il re pastore and what he regarded as his finest libretto, Attilio Regolo (libretto). For the librettos, Metastasio and his imitators customarily drew on dramas featuring classical characters from antiquity bestowed with princely values and morality, struggling with conflicts between love, honour and duty, in elegant and ornate language that could be performed equally well as both opera and non-musical drama. On the other hand, Handel, working far outside the mainstream genre, set only a few Metastasio libretti for his London audience, preferring a greater diversity of texts.

At this time the leading Metastasian composers were Hasse, Caldara, Vinci, Porpora, and Pergolesi. Vinci's settings of Didone abbandonata and Artaserse were much praised for their stromento recitative, and he played a crucial part in establishing the new style of melody. Hasse, by contrast, indulged in stronger accompaniment and was regarded at the time as the more adventurous of the two. Pergolesi was noted for his lyricism. The main challenge for all was achieving variety, a break from the pattern of recitativo secco and aria da capo. The mutable moods of Metastasio's librettos helped, as did innovations made by the composer, such as stromento recitative or cutting a ritornello. During this period the choice of keys to reflect certain emotions became standardized: D minor became the choice key for a composer's typical "rage" aria, while D major for pomp and bravura, G minor for pastoral effect and E flat for pathetic effect, became the usual options.

1740–1770

After peaking during the 1750s, the popularity of the Metastasian model began to wane. New trends, popularized by composers such as Niccolò Jommelli and Tommaso Traetta, began to seep into opera seria. The Italianate pattern of alternating, sharply-contrasted recitative and aria began to give way to ideas from the French operatic tradition. Jommelli's works from 1740 onwards increasingly favored accompanied recitative and greater dynamic contrast, as well as a more prominent role for the orchestra while limiting virtuosic vocal displays. Traetta reintroduced the ballet in his operas and restored the tragic, melodramatic endings of classical dramas. His operas, particularly after 1760, also gave a larger role to the chorus.

The culmination of these reforms arrived in the operas of Christoph Willibald Gluck. Beginning with Orfeo ed Euridice (1762), Gluck drastically cut back on the possibilities for vocal virtuosity afforded to singers, abolished secco recitative (thereby heavily reducing the delineation between aria and recitative), and took great care to unify drama, dance, music, and theatrical practice in the synthesis of Italian and French traditions. He continued his reform with Alceste (1767) and Paride ed Elena (1770). Gluck paid great attention to orchestration and considerably increased the role of the chorus: he also cut back heavily on exit arias. The labyrinthine subplots that had riddled earlier baroque opera were eliminated. In 1768, the year after Gluck's Alceste, Jommelli and his librettist Verazi produced Fetonte. Ensemble and chorus are predominant: the usual number of exit arias slashed in half. For the most part, however, these trends did not become mainstream until the 1790s, and the Metastasian model continued to dominate.

1770–1800

Gluck's reforms made most of the composers of opera seria of the previous decades obsolete. The careers of Hasse, Jommelli, Galuppi, and Traetta were effectively finished. Replacing them came a new wave of composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Johann Christian Bach, Carl Heinrich Graun, Antonio Salieri (a disciple of Gluck), Antonio Sacchini, Giuseppe Sarti, Niccolò Piccinni, Giovanni Paisiello and Domenico Cimarosa. The popularity of the aria da capo began to fade, replaced by the rondò. Orchestras grew in size, arias lengthened, ensembles became more prominent, and obbligato recitative became both common and more elaborate. While throughout the 1780s Metastasio's libretti still dominated the repertory, a new group of Venetian librettists pushed opera seria in a new direction. The work of Gaetano Sertor and the group surrounding him finally broke the absolute dominance of the singers and gave opera seria a new impetus towards the spectacular and the dramatic elements of 19th-century Romantic opera. Tragic endings, on-stage death and regicide became the norm rather than the exception. By the final decade of the century opera seria as it had been traditionally defined was essentially dead, and the political upheavals that the French Revolution inspired swept it away once and for all.

Social context
With a few exceptions, opera seria was the opera of the court, of the monarchy and the nobility. This is not a universal picture: Handel in London composed not for the court but for a much more socially diverse audience, and in the Venetian republic composers modified their operas to suit the public taste and not that of the court. But for the most part, opera seria was synonymous with court opera. This brought with it a number of conditions: the court, and particularly the monarch, required that their own nobility be reflected on the stage. Opera seria plot-lines are heavily shaped by this criterion: Il re pastore displays the glory of Alexander the Great, while La clemenza di Tito does the same for the Roman emperor Titus. The potentate in the audience would watch his counterparts from the ancient world and see their benevolent autocracy redound to his own credit.

Many aspects of the staging contributed to this effect: both the auditorium and stage were lit during performances, while the sets mirrored almost exactly the architecture of the palace hosting the opera. Sometimes the links between opera and audience were even closer: Gluck's serenata Il Parnaso confuso was first performed at Vienna with a cast consisting of members of the royal family. However, with the French Revolution came serious political upheavals across Italy, and as new, more egalitarian republics were established and old autocracies fell away, the Arcadian ideals of opera seria seemed increasingly irrelevant. Rulers were no longer free from violent deaths, and under new social ideals the hierarchy of singers broke down. Such significant socio-political change meant that opera seria, so closely allied to the ruling class, was finished.

title: Opera seria


text:
Baptist Union of Scotland

The Baptist Union of Scotland is a Baptist Christian denomination in Scotland. It is affiliated with the Baptist World Alliance. The headquarters is north of the M8 in the Port Dundas areas of Glasgow.

From the 1650s to 1869
Baptists first arrived in Scotland with the armies of English republican Oliver Cromwell in the 1650s, who established small churches in Leith, Perth, Cupar, Ayr and Aberdeen, but they did not survive for long, partly because of their association with Cromwell (who was generally not welcomed in Scotland), but more especially as a result of strident and often violent opposition instigated and inspired by the Church of Scotland and the Parliament of Scotland which it controlled. Baptists later emerged in the 18th century—in 1750 at Keiss, where the leader was William Sinclair and the church was established on the English Baptist pattern. The group who in Edinburgh came to Baptist convictions in 1765 under the leadership of Robert Carmichael and Archibald McLean became known as Scotch Baptists. Like other Scottish Protestant Christians of the time they were very conservative and adopted the opinions of a particularly strict form of Calvinism. Somewhat later, a different form of Baptist witness emerged, this time influenced by the Haldane brothers, James Haldane and Robert Haldane evangelical preachers who came to Baptist convictions around 1808. Along with the English Baptists, they were distinguished from the Scotch Baptists by their more moderate and less Calvinistic attitudes. After overcoming initial hostilities, all these groups were able to unite in 1869.

1869 to the present day
The Baptist Union of Scotland was founded in Hope Street Chapel in Glasgow (later Adelaide Place Baptist Church) in 1869, with 51 churches in its membership, which represented almost 4000 members. One of its early presidents (in 1873) was the philanthropist Thomas Coats.

According to a census published by the association in 2023, it claimed 9,946 members and 156 churches.

The Baptist Union of Scotland is served by a National team comprising: Rev Martin Hodson (General Director), Rev. Lisa Holmes (Deeper Church Lead), Mr Brian Windram (Finance Director), Ms. Lyndsay Cameron-Ross (Communications Lead) Rev Ali Laing (Younger Generation & Digital Church Lead), Rev Professor Andrew Clarke (Leadership Development Lead) and Rev. Glenn Innes (Future Church Lead).

Beliefs
The Convention has a Baptist confession of faith. It is a member of the Baptist World Alliance.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Baptist Union of Scotland


text:
Talk:Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League

The God of Elijah, Moses and Jesus! The Creator God of Light! Promises of freedom, prosperity and hope for nations. My God painted dreams in our minds, to break the chains forever! I believe in telling the truth even if they don’t want to hear it! I dream of world peace and unity, God Will return and restore our planet. Hold fast your faith! #godisgood When they didn’t believe in us #goddid — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2600:1014:B163:DA9C:2DEA:74D5:F41F:E917 (talk) 16:48, 2 February 2024 (UTC)

Untitled
Hi, i just noticed that the link for Ethel Williams [under "prominent people"] redirects to here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethel_Williams it says "Ethel Leckwith (nee Williams) (born 1893) is a fictional character and one of the protagonists of the Century Trilogy by Ken Follett.[1] She is the oldest child of David and Cara Williams of Aberowen, a fictional town in southern Wales." Can someone fix this, I am not an editor so I don't know how. Thanks

sorry forgot to sign 49.188.14.180 (talk) 08:27, 8 March 2014 (UTC)

Untitled
Removed from page:

Therefore, let justice be done to all mankind, realizing that if the strong oppresses the weak, confusion and discontent will ever mark the path of man but with love, faith and charity towards all the reign of peace and plenty will be heralded into the world and the generations of men shall be called Blessed."

I presume it is missing a " at the beginning but where is it from? A UNIA document? A UNIA member? Rmhermen 22:39, Nov 5, 2003 (UTC)
 * Solved my own problem and returned quote. Does this group do anything in particular? From the website I see that they sponsor Garvey birthday commemorations, have a convention and support a pan-African state. Rmhermen 23:05, Nov 5, 2003 (UTC)

Monrovia Parent Body
I changed this to Parent Body in Monrovia. The section that follows is filled with many names and dates as leadership changes. Unless more material can be added on events associated with the leaders or their programs, it would be easier to present this as a list or table with names, dates and places. I shortened some sentences and created new paragraph breaks to try to make it easier to understand. There may need to be an additional section head title, too, for some of the activities in the US.--Parkwells 21:14, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

Ethel Williams
Hi, I was doing some research about prominent women in the movement & I noticed that the link for Ethel Williams redirects to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethel_Williams it says: "Ethel Leckwith (nee Williams) (born 1893) is a fictional character and one of the protagonists of the Century Trilogy by Ken Follett.[1] She is the oldest child of David and Cara Williams of Aberowen, a fictional town in southern Wales." can someone fix this? I am not an editor & don't know how. Thanks. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 49.188.14.180 (talk) 08:24, 8 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Well spotted. I couldn't find anyone with this name in this organisation, so clearly not notable if she was real. I've deleted it. Thanks. Dougweller (talk) 14:47, 8 March 2014 (UTC)

Use of the term African-American
The terms African-American and American Negro are NOT synonymous. The term American Negro should be used, and NOT African-American. There is no such thing as an African-American, and people should stop replacing American Negro with this baseless term. 162.200.57.224 (talk) 06:08, 1 December 2021 (UTC)


text:
Ang Thong province

Ang Thong (อ่างทอง, ) or Angthong is one of the central provinces (changwat) of Thailand. The name "Ang Thong" means 'gold basin', thought to have derived from the basin-like geography of the area, and the golden color of the rice grown in the region.

Neighboring provinces are (from north clockwise) Sing Buri, Lopburi, Ayutthaya, and Suphan Buri.

Ang Thong native handicrafts include moulded court dolls, firebrick, and wickerwork.

Ang Thong has more than 200 Buddhist temples, but there are nine distinct temples that are promoted as "Paying Homage to Nine Auspicious Temples". This consists of Wat Chaiyo Worawihan, Wat Khun Inthapramun, Wat Pa Mok Worawihan, Wat Tonson, Wat Mahanam, Wat Thasutthawat, Wat Siroi, Wat Khian and, Wat Muang where the Great Buddha of Thailand is enshrined.

Geography
Ang Thong occupies a low river plain, created by the Chao Phraya and the Noi Rivers. It has neither mountains nor forests, but consists of mostly agricultural land. The two rivers, together with many canals (khlongs), provide enough water for rice farming.

History
Ang Thong was historically known as Wiset Chai Chan, on the Noi River. It was an important border town of the Ayutthaya Kingdom during the wars with Burma, as the Noi River served as a natural obstacle for advancing troops.

During the reign of King Taksin after the fall of Ayutthaya, the main city of the province was moved to the Chao Phraya River, and named Ang Thong, as the Noi River had become silted and too shallow for transportation.

Ang Thong is the provenance of Likay, the native folk song, and the hometown of Nai Dok and Nai Thongkaeo, two heroes of the Bang Rachan Battle.

Khun Rong Palat Chu is another local hero of Ang Thong. His heroism is little known when compared to the villagers of Bang Rachan because only two lines were recorded in the Thai chronicles. He grouped up and led four hundred volunteer sword fighters under the name "Kong Attamat" to accompany the royal army from the capital during the royal army's settlement at Kui Buri of Prachuap Khiri Khan. His group received a command to obstruct the Burmese army 8,000 people at Ao Wa Khao (in present-day Ao Noi, Mueang Prachuap Khiri Khan) in 1759 when King Alaungpaya of Burma invaded Myeik (Burmese–Siamese War (1759–60)) which was a part of Ayutthaya Kingdom at that time. In the end, they all died of four hundred people. Nowadays, there is a monument built to commemorate his heroism at Wat Si Roi, Wiset Chai Chan.

Symbols
The provincial seal shows some golden ears of rice in a bowl of water. This symbolizes the fertility of the province as one of the major producers of rice. The provincial tree is the gaub tree (Diospyros malabarica). The provincial fish is red tailed tinfoil (Barbonymus altus).

Provincial government
The province is divided into seven districts (amphoes). The districts are further subdivided into 73 subdistricts (tambons) and 513 villages (mubans).

Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Ang Thong Provincial Administration Organisation (ongkan borihan suan changwat) and 21 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Ang Thong has town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 20 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 43 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).

Human achievement index 2022
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.

Notable people

 * Somsak Prissanananthakul: politician
 * Pleumjit Thinkaow: world-class volleyball player
 * Pipob Thongchai: activist
 * Jermsak Pinthong: economist, political critic, TV host
 * Chaiya Mitchai: likay dancer, singer, actor, TV host
 * Kohtee Aramboy: comedian
 * Ja R-Siam: singer

title: Ang Thong province


text:
Powwow

A powwow (also pow wow or pow-wow) is a gathering with dances held by many Native American and First Nations communities. Powwows today are an opportunity for Indigenous people to socialize, dance, sing, and honor their cultures. Powwows may be private or public, indoors or outdoors. Dancing events can be competitive with monetary prizes. Powwows vary in length from single-day to weeklong events.

In mainstream American culture, such as 20th-century Western movies or by military personnel, the term powwow was used to refer to any type of meeting. This usage is now considered by some Native Americans to be an offensive case of appropriation because of the cultural significance powwows hold.

History
The word powwow is derived from the Narragansett word powwaw, meaning "spiritual leader." The term has variants, including Powaw, Pawaw, Powah, Pauwau and Pawau. A number of tribes claim to have held the "first" pow wow. Initially, public dances that most resemble what are now known as pow wows were most common in the Great Plains region of the United States during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a time when the United States government destroyed many Native communities in the hopes of acquiring land for economic exploitation. In 1923, Charles H. Burke, Commissioner of Indian Affairs in the United States, passed legislation modeled on Circular 1665, which he published in 1921. This legislation restricted the times of the year in which Native Americans could practice traditional dance, which Burke deemed as a direct threat to the Christian religion. However, many Native communities continued to gather together in secret to practice their cultures' dance and music in defiance of this and other legislation. By the mid-twentieth century, powwows were also being held in the Great Lakes region.

Organization
Planning for a powwow generally begins months, perhaps even a year, before the event by a group of people usually referred to as a powwow committee. Pow wows may be sponsored by a tribal organization, an American Native community within an urban area, a Native American Studies program, or an American Native club on a college or university campus, a tribe, or any other organization that can provide startup funds, insurance, and volunteer workers.

Committee
A powwow committee consists of several individuals who do all the planning before the event. If a pow wow has a sponsor, such as a tribe, college, or organization, many or all members of the committee may come from that group. The committee is responsible for recruiting and hiring the head staff, publicizing the powwow, securing a location, and recruiting vendors who pay for the right to set up and sell food or merchandise at the powwow.

Staff

The head staff of a pow-wow are the people who run the event on the day or days it occurs. They are generally hired by the powwow committee several months in advance, as the quality of the head staff can affect attendance. To be chosen as part of the head staff is an honor, showing respect for the person's skills or dedication.

Master of Ceremonies
The master of ceremonies, or MC, is the voice of the pow wow. It is his job to keep the singers, dancers, and public informed as to what is happening. The MC sets the schedule of events and maintains the drum rotation, or order of when each drum group gets to sing. The MC is also responsible for filling any dead air time that may occur during the pow wow, often with jokes. The MC often runs any raffles or other contests that may happen during the pow wow.

Head dancers
The head dancers consist of the Head Man Dancer and the Head Woman Dancer, and often Head Teen Dancers, Head Little Boy and Girl Dancers, Head Golden Age Dancers, and a Head Gourd Dancer if the pow wow has a Gourd Dance. The head dancers lead the other dancers in the grand entry or parade of dancers that opens a pow-wow. In many cases, the head dancers are also responsible for leading the dancers during songs, and often dancers will not enter the arena unless the head dancers are already out dancing.

Host drums and drum groups
The singers play while singing. Host drums are responsible for singing the songs at the beginning and end of a pow-wow session, generally a starting song, the grand entry song, a flag song, veterans or victory song to start the pow-wow. As well as a flag song, retreat song, and closing song to end the pow wow. Additionally, if a pow-wow has gourd dancing, the Southern Host Drum is often the drum that sings all the gourd songs, though another drum can perform them. The host drums are often called upon to sing special songs during the pow-wow.

Famous host drums include Black Lodge Singers, Cozad Singers, and Yellowhammer.

Setup
A pow wow is often set up as a series of large circles. The center circle is the dance arena, outside of which is a larger circle consisting of the MC's table, drum groups, and sitting areas for dancers and their families. Beyond these two circles for participants is an area for spectators, while outside of all are designated areas with vendor's booths, where one can buy food (including frybread and Indian tacos), music, jewelry, souvenirs, arts and crafts, beadwork, leather, and regalia supplies.

At outdoor pow wows, this circle is often covered by either a committee-built arbor or tent, or each group, particularly the MC and the drums, will provide their own. While most of the time, a tent provides shelter from the sun, rain can also plague outdoor events. It is particularly important to protect the drums used by the drum groups, as they are sensitive to temperature changes and, if it rains, they cannot get wet. Most vendors provide their own tents or shelters at an outdoor pow wow.

Etiquette
Pow wow etiquette is required; such as rules for when photography is or is not acceptable, protocol for the Grand Entry, and so on. A few guidelines are common; clothing worn by participants is known as "regalia" and not to be called a "costume." Some rules are for common sense courtesy: drums have special rules and should not be touched or played by those not a part of the drum group. People and their regalia should not be touched without permission. Photographs are also a big part of pow wow etiquette. Depending on the reservation and ceremony, viewers should ask before taking photographs or recording videos or tapes. Some tribes, such as the Pascua Yaqui and Hopi, ban photos and sketches of ceremonies.

Opening
A pow-wow session begins with the Grand Entry and, in most cases, a prayer. The Eagle Staff leads the Grand Entry, followed by flags, then the dancers, while one of the host drums sings an opening song. This event is sacred in nature; some pow wows do not allow filming or photography during this time, though others allow it.

If military veterans or active duty soldiers are present, they often carry the flags and eagle staffs. They are followed by the head dancers, then the remaining dancers usually enter the arena in a specific order: Men's Traditional, Men's Grass Dance, Men's Fancy, Women's Traditional, Women's Jingle, and Women's Fancy. Teens and small children then follow in the same order. Following the Grand Entry, the MC will invite a respected member of the community to give an invocation. The host drum that did not sing the Grand Entry song will then sing a Flag Song, followed by a Victory or Veterans' Song, during which the flags and staffs are posted at the MC's table.

Dances

The styles and types of dances at a pow wow are descended from the traditions of the Great Plains nations of Canada and the United States. Besides those for the opening and closing of a pow wow session, the most common is the intertribal, where a Drum will sing a song, and anyone who wants to can come and dance. Similar dances are the round dance; crow hop when performed by a northern drum or a horse stealing song by a southern drum; there is also "double beat", "sneakup" and, for Women's Traditional and Jingle, "sidestep". Each of these songs have a different step to be used during them, but are open for dancers of any style.

In addition to the open dances, contest dances for a particular style and age group are often held, with the top winners receiving a cash prize. To compete in a contest, the dancer must be in regalia appropriate for the competition. Larger pow wows have more specific categories. The dance categories vary somewhat by region, but general categories are as follows:

Men's

 * Fancy Dance or Fancy Feather Dance (Northern and Southern styles): A dance featuring vivid regalia with dramatic movement, including spins and leaps. Fancy dancers are distinguished by their bright-colored regalia, which consists of two large bustles worn on the upper and lower back.
 * Northern Traditional (simply "Men's Traditional" in the North): A dance featuring traditional regalia, including a single bustle, usually of eagle feathers, ribbon shirt, bone hair pipe choker, and breastplate. Movements are based upon a warrior scouting before a battle or other storytelling traditions tracing to when the powwow was first danced as a ceremony. The dancers carry a dance staff and a fan usually made from the wing of an eagle.
 * Straight dance (or Southern traditional): Straight dancers usually are more neat and with more handmade features such as chokers, breastplates, etc. Their dances are like Northern. They take one foot and step on the ball of their foot and then they tap it once on the ground. Then they tap it once again, but this time, they put their heel a few millimeters above the ground and repeat the process with the other foot. They do this in a walking motion. It is very hard especially when following the beat of fast drums. If they catch themselves off-beat they will tap their foot three times instead of two to get back with the drums' rhythm.
 * Grass Dance: A dance featuring regalia with long, flowing fringe and designs reminiscent of grass blowing in the wind. Dance movements are more elaborate than the traditional dancers, but less flashy than the fancy dancers.
 * Chicken dance: a recent dance originating with the Northern Plains tribes. Dancers imitate the mating dance of the prairie chicken by rocking their heads back and forth as they spin from side to side in slow majestic movements. Regalia is less elaborate than other dances. It usually includes a porcupine hair roach and two long pheasant tail feathers that curl backward with colored plumes. Dark, snug shirts and leggings are worn, covered by a drape over the chest and back with short fringe. The bustle is small, using small pheasant or eagle feathers circling the outside of the bustle board with bunches of small loose feathers or plumes in the centre. Dancers carry a mirror board or a gourd in one hand and an eagle tail feather fan in the other.
 * Eastern War Dance: A dance from the East Coast that is a storytelling dance, Men wear no bustle however do carry a fan and dance stick. This is also called the "Eastern Strait Dance".

Women's
Normal intertribal dancing is an individual activity, but there are also couples and group dances. Couples dances include the two step and owl dance. During a two step, each couple follows the lead of the head dancers, forming a line behind them. In contrast, in an owl dance, each couple dances alone. Group dances include the Snake and Buffalo dance, where the group dances to mimic the motions of a snake at the beginning of the dance, then changes to mimic the actions of a herd of buffalo.
 * Traditional (seen at Northern pow wows): A dance featuring traditional regalia of cloth or leather and dancers who perform with precise, highly controlled movement.
 * Buckskin and Cloth: A traditional dance from the South. The name refers to the type of material from which the dress is made. The regalia is similar to the Northern traditional dance. However, in the South, buckskin and cloth dancers are judged in two separate categories. The dance steps are the same for both regalia categories.
 * Fancy Shawl: A dance featuring women wearing brilliant colors, a long, usually fringed and decorated, shawl, performing rapid spins and elaborate dance steps.
 * Jingle Dress (healing dance): The jingle dress includes a skirt with hundreds of small tin cones that make noise as the dancer moves with light footwork danced close to the ground.

At pow wows, where there is a large Southern Plains community in the area, the Gourd Dance is often included before the start of the pow wow sessions. The gourd dance originated with the Kiowa tribe and spread from there. It is a society dance for veterans and their families. Unlike other dances, the gourd dance is normally performed with the drum in the center of the dance arena, not on the side.

Music
Though there are many genres unique to different tribes, pow wow music is characterized by pan or intertribalism with the Plains cultures, the originators of the modern pow wow, predominating. For information on dancing, see Dances.

Drumming

 * "Good drums get the dancers out there, good songs get them to dance well. Without drum groups, there is no music. No music, no dance, no powwow."

There may be many drums at a pow wow, especially weekend or week-long ones, but each pow wow features a host drum, which is accorded great respect. The members of drum groups are often family, extended family, or friends. Groups are then often named for families, geographic locations, tribal societies, or more colorful names. Many groups display their names on jackets, caps, vehicles, and chairs. Traditionally, only men would drum and women would sit behind the men, singing high harmonies. Beginning in the mid-1970s, women began drumming with men and seconding, or singing, an octave higher, the song. Today, there are mixed-gender and all-female drum groups.

The supplies a drum group carries include the drum, rawhide headed, a cloth bag for padded drum sticks, the drum stand, folding chairs for sitting, and, in some cases, a public address system. The drum head, stand, microphone stands, and PA box are often decorated with paintings or eagle feathers, fur, flags, and strips of colored cloth.

Readily noticeable in performances are the "hard beats" used to indicate sections of the song. The "traditional method" consists of a pronounced strike by all singers every other beat. These may appear in the first or second line of a song, the end of a section, before the repetition of a song. A cluster of three hard beats (on consecutive beats) may be used at the end of a series of hard beats, while a few beats in the first line of a song indicate performer enthusiasm. In the "Hot Five" method five beats are used, with the first hard beat four beats before the second, after which the beats alternate.

Etiquette
To understand drum protocol, a drum may be thought of as a person or being and is to be regarded and respected as such. Drum etiquette is highly important. There are regional variations. The drum is the central symbol of Oklahoma pow wows and is located in the center of the dance floor and pow wow (which are themselves shaped in concentric circles). Southern drums are suspended by four posts, one for each direction. Northern drums are set up on the outside of the dance area, with the host drum in the best position. Drummer-singers are expected to remain at their drum and ready to sing at any moment's notice; a dancer might approach the drum and whistle, fan, or gesture his staff over a drum to indicate his request for a song even if it is not that drum group's turn to sing. In some regions, it is considered disrespectful to leave a drum completely unattended. Some drum groups do not allow females to sit down at their drum but welcome them to stand behind the drummers and sing backup harmonies; the reasons for this point vaguely to a variety of tribal stories that attempt to tell the history of drumming as each group understands it. The drum is offered gifts of tobacco during giveaways and musicians acknowledge this by standing.

Singing

While the drum is central to pow wows, "the drum only helps them keep beat. Dancers key on the melody of the song. Rhythms, tones, pitch all help create their 'moves'." (p. 85) Note that Bill Runs Above did not mention the lyrics of the songs, and while they are no doubt important, most lyrics of most songs employ vocables, syllable sounds such as "ya," "hey," and "loi" (p. 86). This is particularly evident in intertribal songs, such as the AIM Song, which cannot be biased towards a certain language.

The song structure consists of four pushups, singing through the chorus and verse four times. In each chorus, the melody is introduced or led off by the lead singer, who is then seconded by another singer. The second singer begins to vary the melody before the leader's first line ends. They are then joined by the entire chorus for the rest of the pushup. Three down strokes or hard beats mark the end of the chorus and beginning of the verse, and during these dancers will alter their dancing such as by hopping low like fancy dancers. An increase in tempo and volume on the last five beats marks the end of the final verse. The dancing stops on the final beat and then a tail, or coda, finishes the song with a shortened chorus. Sometimes a drum group will sing the song more than four times, particularly when the song feels good and the singers seize the moment for an extra pushup or two (or more), or when a dancer blows a whistle or passes his staff or fan over the drum to signal that the song is to be continued four extra pushups while he prays.

Singing differs by region in that a high falsetto is used in the north, while in the south, a lower range is used. "To the unfamiliar listener, Indian singing sounds exotic, different, and difficult to comprehend," and the contrast in the quality or timbre of voice used in traditional Indian and European music may have much to do with that difficulty. However, "to the trained ear, melodies flow, ascend and descend" while dancers react to changes in the structure of the melody and the song. Boye Ladd says, "If you give me a stink song, I'll dance stink. If you give me good music, I'll give you a great show," implying that one can appreciate the music through the dancing, which is readily appreciated by everyone. But others say that today's contemporary contest dancers should dance their best no matter how well or poorly the drum group singing for their contest is. Generally, Native American singing follows a pentatonic scale, like playing only the black keys on a piano. While to the outsider, it may simply sound like drum beats accompanied by vocables, some songs include words in Cree, Pikuni, Lushuutsid, Niimipuu, Lakhota, Sahpatin, Salish, Ojibwemowin, or many other Native languages.

title: Powwow


text:
Fortín de las Flores

Fortín de las Flores is a city in the Mexican state of Veracruz. Fortín de las Flores is the municipal seat of Fortín municipality, which borders the municipalities of Córdoba, Naranjal and Ixtaczoquitlán. It stands on Federal Highways 190 and 180 and the Mexico City to Veracruz railway.

In the 2005 INEGI Census, the city reported a total population of 18,965, with 53,311 in the surrounding municipality.

The ravine of Metlac, which borders the Cañón del Río Blanco National Park, is the most famous feature of Fortín de las Flores.

The residents of Fortín de las Flores are considered by freighthopping Central American migrants to be some of the most generous in Mexico.

Fortín de las Flores is home to many insects due to its pleasant weather all year round, with minimal fluctuation in temperature, ranging from 20-32 °C daily. Most notably, it serves as a significant habitat for the Mexican colonial orb-weaving spider, Metepeira incrassata.

title: Fortín de las Flores


text:
User:AllanE

Allan Edgar
B.A. in English Literature, University of Mississippi, 1994

Currently employed as: Web Communications Specialist, C Spire Wireless www.cspire.com

title: User:AllanE


text:
Bloch's theorem

In condensed matter physics, Bloch's theorem states that solutions to the Schrödinger equation in a periodic potential can be expressed as plane waves modulated by periodic functions. The theorem is named after the Swiss physicist Felix Bloch, who discovered the theorem in 1929. Mathematically, they are written

where $$\mathbf{r}$$ is position, $$\psi$$ is the wave function, $$u$$ is a periodic function with the same periodicity as the crystal, the wave vector $$\mathbf{k}$$ is the crystal momentum vector, $$e$$ is Euler's number, and $$i$$ is the imaginary unit.

Functions of this form are known as Bloch functions or Bloch states, and serve as a suitable basis for the wave functions or states of electrons in crystalline solids.

The description of electrons in terms of Bloch functions, termed Bloch electrons (or less often Bloch Waves), underlies the concept of electronic band structures.

These eigenstates are written with subscripts as $$\psi_{n\mathbf{k}}$$, where $$n$$ is a discrete index, called the band index, which is present because there are many different wave functions with the same $$\mathbf{k}$$ (each has a different periodic component $$u$$). Within a band (i.e., for fixed $$n$$), $$\psi_{n\mathbf{k}}$$ varies continuously with $$\mathbf{k}$$, as does its energy. Also, $$\psi_{n\mathbf{k}}$$ is unique only up to a constant reciprocal lattice vector $$\mathbf{K}$$, or, $$\psi_{n\mathbf{k}}=\psi_{n(\mathbf{k+K})}$$. Therefore, the wave vector $$\mathbf{k}$$ can be restricted to the first Brillouin zone of the reciprocal lattice without loss of generality.

Applicability
The most common example of Bloch's theorem is describing electrons in a crystal, especially in characterizing the crystal's electronic properties, such as electronic band structure. However, a Bloch-wave description applies more generally to any wave-like phenomenon in a periodic medium. For example, a periodic dielectric structure in electromagnetism leads to photonic crystals, and a periodic acoustic medium leads to phononic crystals. It is generally treated in the various forms of the dynamical theory of diffraction.

Wave vector

Suppose an electron is in a Bloch state $$\psi ( \mathbf{r} ) = e^{ i \mathbf{k} \cdot \mathbf{r} } u ( \mathbf{r} ) ,$$ where $e^{ik·r}$ is periodic with the same periodicity as the crystal lattice. The actual quantum state of the electron is entirely determined by $$\psi$$, not $k_{1}$ or $k_{2}$ directly. This is important because $k_{1} − k_{2}$ and $u$ are not unique. Specifically, if $$\psi$$ can be written as above using $k$, it can also be written using $u$, where $k$ is any reciprocal lattice vector (see figure at right). Therefore, wave vectors that differ by a reciprocal lattice vector are equivalent, in the sense that they characterize the same set of Bloch states.

The first Brillouin zone is a restricted set of values of $u$ with the property that no two of them are equivalent, yet every possible $k$ is equivalent to one (and only one) vector in the first Brillouin zone. Therefore, if we restrict $(k + K)$ to the first Brillouin zone, then every Bloch state has a unique $K$. Therefore, the first Brillouin zone is often used to depict all of the Bloch states without redundancy, for example in a band structure, and it is used for the same reason in many calculations.

When $k$ is multiplied by the reduced Planck constant, it equals the electron's crystal momentum. Related to this, the group velocity of an electron can be calculated based on how the energy of a Bloch state varies with $k$; for more details see crystal momentum.

Detailed example
For a detailed example in which the consequences of Bloch's theorem are worked out in a specific situation, see the article Particle in a one-dimensional lattice (periodic potential).

Statement
$$

A second and equivalent way to state the theorem is the following

$$

Using lattice periodicity
Being Bloch's theorem a statement about lattice periodicity, in this proof all the symmetries are encoded as translation symmetries of the wave function itself. ${{math proof | title = Proof Using lattice periodicity | proof = Source:$

Using operators
In this proof all the symmetries are encoded as commutation properties of the translation operators $$

Using group theory
Apart from the group theory technicalities this proof is interesting because it becomes clear how to generalize the Bloch theorem for groups that are not only translations. This is typically done for space groups which are a combination of a translation and a point group and it is used for computing the band structure, spectrum and specific heats of crystals given a specific crystal group symmetry like FCC or BCC and eventually an extra basis. In this proof it is also possible to notice how it is key that the extra point group is driven by a symmetry in the effective potential but it shall commute with the Hamiltonian.

In the generalized version of the Bloch theorem, the Fourier transform, i.e. the wave function expansion, gets generalized from a discrete Fourier transform which is applicable only for cyclic groups, and therefore translations, into a character expansion of the wave function where the characters are given from the specific finite point group.

Also here is possible to see how the characters (as the invariants of the irreducible representations) can be treated as the fundamental building blocks instead of the irreducible representations themselves.

Velocity and effective mass
If we apply the time-independent Schrödinger equation to the Bloch wave function we obtain $$\hat{H}_\mathbf{k} u_\mathbf{k}(\mathbf{r}) = \left[ \frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \left( -i \nabla + \mathbf{k} \right)^2 + U(\mathbf{r}) \right] u_\mathbf{k}(\mathbf{r}) = \varepsilon_\mathbf{k} u_\mathbf{k}(\mathbf{r}) $$ with boundary conditions $$u_\mathbf{k}(\mathbf{r}) = u_\mathbf{k}(\mathbf{r} + \mathbf{R})$$ Given this is defined in a finite volume we expect an infinite family of eigenvalues; here $${\mathbf{k}}$$ is a parameter of the Hamiltonian and therefore we arrive at a "continuous family" of eigenvalues $$\varepsilon_n(\mathbf{k})$$ dependent on the continuous parameter $${\mathbf{k}}$$ and thus at the basic concept of an electronic band structure.

This shows how the effective momentum can be seen as composed of two parts, $$\hat{\mathbf{p}}_\text{eff} = -i \hbar \nabla + \hbar \mathbf{k} ,$$ a standard momentum $$-i \hbar \nabla$$ and a crystal momentum $$\hbar \mathbf{k}$$. More precisely the crystal momentum is not a momentum but it stands for the momentum in the same way as the electromagnetic momentum in the minimal coupling, and as part of a canonical transformation of the momentum.

For the effective velocity we can derive

For the effective mass

The quantity on the right multiplied by a factor$$\frac{1}{\hbar^2}$$ is called effective mass tensor $$\mathbf{M}(\mathbf{k})$$ and we can use it to write a semi-classical equation for a charge carrier in a band

where $$\mathbf{a}$$ is an acceleration. This equation is analogous to the de Broglie wave type of approximation

As an intuitive interpretation, both of the previous two equations resemble formally and are in a semi-classical analogy with Newton's second law for an electron in an external Lorentz force.

History and related equations
The concept of the Bloch state was developed by Felix Bloch in 1928 to describe the conduction of electrons in crystalline solids. The same underlying mathematics, however, was also discovered independently several times: by George William Hill (1877), Gaston Floquet (1883), and Alexander Lyapunov (1892). As a result, a variety of nomenclatures are common: applied to ordinary differential equations, it is called Floquet theory (or occasionally the Lyapunov–Floquet theorem). The general form of a one-dimensional periodic potential equation is Hill's equation: $$\frac {d^2y}{dt^2}+f(t) y=0, $$ where $k$ is a periodic potential. Specific periodic one-dimensional equations include the Kronig–Penney model and Mathieu's equation.

Mathematically Bloch's theorem is interpreted in terms of unitary characters of a lattice group, and is applied to spectral geometry.

title: Bloch's theorem


text:
Talk:Hungarian Revolution of 1956

Image/Copyright recommendation
These images with dubious copyright are removed from the article space pending their status being sorted out: thumb |300px |alt=Seven men standing and waving behind a block wall, four of which are waving hats in the air |Seven members of the [[Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Soviet Presidium at 1957 May Day Parade (left to right): Georgy Zhukov (Candidate member), Nikita Khrushchev, Nikolai Bulganin, Lazar Kaganovich, Georgy Malenkov, Vyacheslav Molotov, and Anastas Mikoyan]]

What?
This soon changed when Nobel peace prize winner Robert Munoz II arrived in Germany to declare nuclear war on Hungary. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:14BA:4EF:9F00:7172:A957:86DE:DFF1 (talk) 13:12, 23 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Total incoherence. ? 104.169.21.238 (talk) 16:47, 25 February 2021 (UTC)

FA concerns
This old FA needs significant work. A number of citations needed, page numbers are lacking, issues with referencing formatting, etc. Additionally, going through the wikitext of the article, there are hidden comments suggesting that not all of the text in the article is properly covered by the citations. Also, statement are commented out of the article due to lack of sources, which raises some comprehensiveness concerns. This may need a featured article review. Hog Farm Talk 14:50, 14 April 2021 (UTC)

 * Could you expand on some of the most major issues? 2603:9001:6D05:40A4:E415:7EC4:83BF:5A99 (talk) 00:18, 19 May 2024 (UTC)

US support
In Stewart repeats the story from a US soldier (Daniel Hill) stationed in Germany, that he was sent to deliver arms to the Hungarian rebels in Budapest; in his own memoir, Hill claims to have killed at least one Russian in Budapest on the 4th of November.

One soldier's story alone would be of dubious notability, but a mainstream journalist repeating it and backing it up with "a spokesman for the Special Forces acknowledged that the army did engage in top secret logistical support for the Hungarians against the Soviets" seems remarkable. Any subject-matter experts know of a better source for this "logistical support" than an endnote citing an unnamed spokesman?

2600:1702:6D1:28B0:A531:87BF:C01B:79A0 (talk) 02:59, 19 November 2021 (UTC)

"Hungarian Soviet War" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Soviet_War&redirect=no Hungarian Soviet War] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached.

I messed something up
I edited out an "infobox" left by a troll... and now the page is quite broken, I'm usually very good at Wikimedia but I can't for the life of me figure out whats going on here. 37.236.86.43 (talk) 16:44, 4 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hungarian Revolution of 1956


text:
Talk:Serbian Orthodox Church

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 12 August 2020 and 4 December 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Catlady246.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 08:59, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Bulgarian Slavonic
What exactly do you mean by "per Bulgarian Patriarchate" (here)?  Vanjagenije  (talk)  22:35, 25 August 2020 (UTC)

By the 11th century, close to 200 years after the founding of the originaly OCS script, Old Church Slavonic had already developed into different recensions e.g Macedono-Bulgarian/Bulgarian recension and Moravian, 'per Bulgarian Patriarchate' it would use the Bulgarian recension. --James Richards (talk) 01:45, 26 August 2020 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion: You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —Community Tech bot (talk) 16:21, 30 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Coat of Arms of the Serbian Orthodox Church.jpg

title: Talk:Serbian Orthodox Church


text:
Eduardo Mata

Eduardo Mata (5 September 1942 – 4 January 1995) was a Mexican conductor and composer.

Career
Mata was born in Mexico City. He studied guitar privately for three years before enrolling in the National Conservatory of Music. From 1960 to 1963 he studied composition under Carlos Chávez, Héctor Quintanar and Julián Orbón. In 1964 he received a Koussevitzky Memorial Fellowship to study at Tanglewood. There, he studied conducting with Max Rudolf and Erich Leinsdorf and composition with Gunther Schuller.

He composed several works in the 1950s and 1960s, including three symphonies and chamber works, which include sonatas for piano and for cello and piano. His Third Symphony and some of his chamber works have been recorded.

In 1965 he was appointed head of the Music Department of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and conductor of the Guadalajara Orchestra; He also conducted the orchestra at the university, which later became the National Autonomous University of Mexico Philharmonic Orchestra. In 1972, he left Mexico to take the position of principal conductor of the Phoenix Symphony. The next year he was appointed the Phoenix ensemble's music director, holding that position through the 1977–78 season.

In 1965, he was one of the founding members and later, honorary president of the Mahler Mexico Society (Sociedad Mahler México) and together with Mexico's National Symphony Orchestra (Orquesta Sinfonica Nacional), in October 1975 he conducted the first full cycle of Gustav Mahler's symphonies in Mexico.

From 1977 to 1993 he was music director of the Dallas Symphony Orchestra and guest conductor of several orchestras in the U.S., Europe and Latin America. He recorded over fifty albums, most of them with the UNAM Symphony Orchestra, the Dallas Symphony Orchestra, and the London Symphony Orchestra. He was also appointed principal conductor of the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra and was about to take up this post in January 1995 when he was killed.

On the morning of 4 January 1995, Mata and a passenger were en route from Cuernavaca, Morelos, to Dallas, Texas. Mata was piloting his own Piper Aerostar. One engine failed shortly after takeoff, and the plane crashed during an emergency landing attempt. Both died in the crash, near Mexico City.

Selected compositions

 * Trio, for clarinet, drum, and cello, dedicated to Ralph Vaughan Williams (1957)
 * Sonata, for piano (1960)
 * Improvisaciones, for clarinet and piano (1961)
 * Symphony No. 1 (1962)
 * "Débora", ballet suite (1963)
 * Los huesos secos (The Dry Bones), ballet (1963)
 * Symphony No. 2 (1963)
 * Aires (1964)
 * Improvisación número 1, for string quartet and piano four-hands (1964)
 * Improvisación número 2, for strings and two pianos (1965)
 * Improvisación número 3, for violin and piano (1965)
 * Sonata, for cello (1966), dedicated to Adolfo Odnoposoff
 * Symphony No. 3, for winds and horn (1966)

Selected discography
Mata compositions
 * Symphony No. 3, for wind orchestra and solo horn. Orquesta Filarmónica de la UNAM, RCA Red Seal LP recording, 1 disc: analogue, 33⅓ rpm, stereo, 12 in. RCA Red Seal. México, D.F.: RCA Red Seal, 1971..
 * "Improvisación No. 2," for strings and two pianos. Orquesta Filarmónica de la UNAM, LP recording, 1 disc: analogue, 33⅓ rpm, stereo, 12 in. RCA Red Seal. México, D.F.: RCA Red Seal, [1970].

title: Eduardo Mata


text:
Proclamation of the Republic

Proclamation of the Republic may refer to:
 * Proclamation of the Irish Republic, issued during the Easter Rising of 1916
 * Proclamation of the Republic (Brazil), celebrated by a public holiday on November 15

title: Proclamation of the Republic


text:
Yax Nuun Ahiin I

Yax Nuun Ahiin I, also known as Curl Snout and Curl Nose (died 17 June 404?), was a 4th-century ruler of the Maya city of Tikal. His name, when transcribed, is YAX-?-AH:N, translated "First ? Crocodile". He took the throne on 12 September 379 and reigned until his death. He is referred to by the Mayan title ajaw, meaning lord.

Biography
Yax Nuun Ayiin I was a son of Spearthrower Owl, a lord of Teotihuacan (probably that city's king) in central Mexico. The installation of a Teotihuacano noble on the throne of Tikal marks a high point of Teotihuacan influence in the central Maya lowlands. Yax Nuun Ahiin I may have been a child or youth at the time of his coronation, and the early years of his reign seem to have been dominated by one of his father's generals, Sihyaj K'ahk', in a sort of regency. Sihyaj K'ahk' is recorded as having entered Tikal on 15 May 378, the same date as the death of the previous ruler, Chak Tok Ich'aak I; it appears that this event may have been a conquest in which Yax Nuun Ayiin I was installed by force.

Two monuments at Tikal, Stela 4 and Stela 18, are associated with Yax Nuun Ahiin I. Both stelae depict him in Mexican rather than Mayan attire, demonstrating his Teotihuacano origins. He is also depicted on Stela 31, erected by his son Sihyaj Chan K'awiil II, as a Teotihuacano warrior with a plated helmet, spearthrower, and square shield decorated with the face of Central Mexican deities. His wife's titles indicate that she may have been a Mayan woman, presumably chosen to integrate his bloodline with the local elites.

It is unclear when Yax Nuun Ayiin I died. Stela 31's text indicates that his burial occurred in 404, though the text from another sculpture known as the Hombre de Tikal suggests that he may have still been alive in November 406. On the other hand, the K'atun ceremony of May 406, which would ordinarily be presided over by the ruler, is recorded as having been presided over by an otherwise unknown individual called Sihyaj Chan K'inich. This suggests that there may have been an interregnum, possibly with Sihyaj Chan K'inich governing temporarily as a regent, before Sihyaj Chan K'awiil II was enthroned in November 411.

Tomb
The tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin I, known as "Burial 10", was discovered by University of Pennsylvania archaeologists in the 1950s. It was found deep within a temple built at the foot of the North Acropolis and represents one of the most spectacular and complete Mayan burials yet discovered. The ruler's body had been placed on a wooden funerary bier surrounded by the bodies of at least nine sacrificed youths ranging in age from about six years old to young adulthood. At least one of the sacrificial victims appears to have died inside the funerary chamber. A headless crocodile was also interred with the dead ruler, probably alluding to his name.

Numerous offerings were deposited around the chamber, including pottery vessels decorated with Mexican motifs and images of Mexican deities. Among the artefacts were a Maya-style censer in the shape of an elderly deity seated on a stool made from human long bones, turtle carapaces that had been arranged to form a kind of xylophone and a jade ornament in the form of a curl-snouted crocodile.

title: Yax Nuun Ahiin I


text:
Talk:Mortara case

Spoken Wikipedia
Hello editors. My wife frequently suffers from insomnia, and one thing we've discovered is that reading from Wikipedia is an effective way of. . . boring her to sleep. To that end, I have been reading Wikipedia articles to her when she needs it and I've got a computer handy. Just after I finished reading List of common misconceptions, I had the idea that I could help out the community by recording the reading of the article, and contributing to the WP:SPEAK project. I plan on recording this article, soon (probably the next time she needs some help sleeping and I've got a computer). Don't expect an amazing reading, but it'll be something. I'm working under the assumption that something is better than nothing. McKay (talk) 04:00, 20 June 2016 (UTC)
 * Thanks McKay, looking forward to hearing it. Hope it helps your wife. Cheers —  Cliftonian   (talk)  07:08, 20 June 2016 (UTC)
 * Done! McKay (talk) 00:44, 22 June 2016 (UTC)
 * Hi, really good work, but do you have the second half somewhere? This file seems to end halfway through Feletti's trial. Cheers —  Cliftonian   (talk)  21:41, 22 June 2016 (UTC)

24 hr time
Would it be reasonable to either change the 24 hr. time standard used in the article to 12hr. time. I realize some English speaking countries use 24 hr. so maybe it would be better to include both as a courtesy to American readers. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Eman320 (talk • contribs) 16:18, 21 June 2016 (UTC)

Bad lede?
Despite the GA rating, I think the lede to this article is poor- in addition to the summary, it repeats and expands of=n most of the same facts in the next few paragraphs which are then again expanded in the main body. Any objections to my heavily editing the lede? Wkharrisjr (talk) 23:52, 21 June 2016 (UTC)
 * This article is an FA, not a GA. Please explain exactly what you'd like to see changed in the lead as I don't see any major problem with it, and nor did the reviewers at FAC. Cheers —  Cliftonian   (talk)  05:46, 22 June 2016 (UTC)

Objection to use of Kertzer

 * Please note the message below was originally posted within the long-finished GA review here—I have simply moved it here. —  Cliftonian   (talk)  14:11, 21 March 2017 (UTC)

NO! This is not well referenced. Almost all of the information in the article references works by Kertzer. If you review Kertzer's works you will find that he seems to write almost exclusively rather sensationalistic denunciations of the Papacy. His most recent work attempts to pretend that Pius XI was a good buddy of Mussolini. What we have here is more baloney scholarship, in my humble opinion. I reviewed some of Kertzers other books, and we find that he has one about the summer he spent with the Italian Communists, which further calls his credibility into play. "Comrades and Christians" I am loathe to trust someone who seems favorably disposed towards Italian Communism, who keeps writing books that offer a sensationalistic account of the supposed secret crimes of the Papacy. His book about Mussolini has been challenged for getting things wrong. http://www.crisismagazine.com/2015/painting-catholicism-with-the-fascist-brush He did get a Pulitzer prize for the book, but these days those are handed out on a political basis, not a basis of truth. What we have is another "Hitler's Pope" type work, which we know told the exact opposite of truth, and an author that likes to shade and "interpret" facts for us to make someone look bad. He does not give us facts and let us make up our own minds, he gives us facts and tells us what to think. 184.97.166.58 (talk) 19:10, 20 March 2017 (UTC)

Furthermore, in another of his works America Magazine, generally considered on the left, but by American Jesuits, had this to say:

Lawler, author of many books and editor of several journals, intimately familiar with the ways of the publishing world, examines several of Hochhuth’s heirs, focusing mostly but not exclusively on David Kertzer’s "The Popes against the Jews (2001)". Kertzer argues that several modern Popes—culminating with Pius XI and Pius XII—were anti-Semites who paved “the road to the Holocaust.” Lawler, initially beguiled by Kertzer’s argument, became suspicious, re-examined Kertzer’s supporting evidence and discovered “a flood of errors,” “rhetorical subterfuge,” “slanted paraphrase,” “a potpourri of mistranslations…juggled chronology, and… out-and-out falsehoods.” Before he had ever seen the Vatican archives, Kertzer had already made up his mind about the popes, as he made clear in a New York Times op-ed column: “The explanation of what made the Holocaust possible is to be found in no small part in the files of the Inquisition…. “

Lawler repeatedly demonstrates that Kertzer’s accusatory examples—ranging from Vatican support for the myth of Jewish ritual murder or of anti-Semitism based on a form letter sent in receipt for a book expressing anti-Semitism—are demonstrably false or illogical.

Contrary to what gullible cynics might expect, Lawler’s book is no whitewash of the church hierarchy. Kertzer, however, creates a fiction of “aggressive papal support of the hatred that led to the Holocaust” and insists that “a whole-cloth conspiracy against Jews [was] perpetrated by the elders of the Vatican.”

http://www.americamagazine.org/issue/culture/tortured-history

Kertzer is unreliable, and this entry relies entirely on his work for its tale. 20:36, 20 March 2017 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 184.97.166.58 (talk)

 * Four reliable sources are cited in the article supporting the assertion that Kertzer's The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara is the standard reference work for this subject. Kertzer did not write this Wikipedia article, I did (with the invaluable assistance of others). I went to great lengths to be neutral and indeed was complimented on this by reviewers of the article. I see you criticise various other Kertzer books above, but do you have any reliable sources attesting that the book The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara is an unreliable source? Cheers —  Cliftonian   (talk)  14:17, 21 March 2017 (UTC)

“The year of his conversion”?
The article contains the following: “the Lourdes apparitions of 1858 having occurred in the same year as his own conversion to Christianity.” This is surely difficult to support, in light of the fact that the crux of the matter is whether or not he was baptized as an infant ( a “cradle Catholic”). Identifying 1858 as the year of his “conversion” to Christianity suggests that he was baptized in that year, which would negate the story of earlier baptism; if he was baptized as a baby, he would be deemed to be a Christian in the eyes of the Church from that moment onwards, which is why the whole incident started. Might it not be better to say that in 1858 he became a practising Catholic? Jock123 (talk) 13:29, 4 September 2017 (UTC)

Over-reliance on Kertzer
As the article stands the content and references for this article are based almost exclusively on the views of David Kertzer, who is extremely partisan in cheerleading the Jewish ultra-nationalist line on this affair. Another of Kertzer's partisan books in this field, The Popes Against the Jews, has been strongly criticised for deliberately misquoting and cherrypicking of information, so his reliability as a neutral source in this case must also be questioned. He should be used, because his name is now prominently attached to this case, but the article shouldn't just be a podium for his views and essentially a cut and paste of his book from start to finish. The categories "Antisemitic attacks and incidents" and "Antisemitism in Italy" are also dubious.... pretty sure Mortara was a Semite and Pius IX didn't hate him at all, let alone for his ethnicity. Claíomh Solais (talk) 01:04, 17 February 2018 (UTC)
 * "strongly criticised for deliberately misquoting and cherrypicking of information". Could you please be specific and give sources so we can look at this? NPalgan2 (talk) 01:30, 17 February 2018 (UTC)

 * An entire book has been authored by Justus George Lawler on Kertzer's works, entitled Were the Popes Against the Jews? Tracking the Myths, Confronting the Ideologues. In particular, Kertzer has been caught out lying about Pius IX calling Jews "dogs", calling Jews "Synagogue of Satan" (which was actually used in a criticism of Freemasonry, not Jews) and even fabricated false information about Papal lack of willingness to help clear Menahem Mendel Beilis (who was falsely accused of ritual murder in Russia). All of these tidbits originate from Kertzer's starting point of partisan ultra-nationalism and desire to paint his target (the Catholic Church) in a negative light, to the exclusion of any other information which contradicts this bias. Claíomh Solais (talk) 01:41, 17 February 2018 (UTC)
 * Mmm, on Wikipedia it's better to give page numbers (and better still, google books links) rather than just pointing to a 405 page book. I looked at the first point you raised, on p.82 https://books.google.com/books?id=jgwNtwtMnzsC&pg=PA82 Lawler discusses how on p.130 of The Pope against the Jews Kertzer quotes Pius as saying "We have today in Rome unfortunately too many of these dogs, and we hear them barking in all the streets, and going around molesting people everywhere." This is "lying" because Kertzer does not explicitly note that Pius was speaking in the context of Jesus's well-known words to the Canaanite woman - which presumably makes any dog-related insult O.K.? Hypothetically, would you be O.K. with being called a mangy cur by someone with different theological views? Do you have any suggestions for changes to the Mortara article? NPalgan2 (talk) 02:44, 17 February 2018 (UTC)

Timing of payments
This article says:"He received a personal letter from the Pope to mark the occasion and a lifetime trust fund of 7,000 lire to support him."Does this mean a one-time payment whose interest would support him as long as he lived, or 7000 lire annually, or what? If it's annual, it should say so. Michael Hardy (talk) 19:35, 16 April 2019 (UTC)
 * I took a look at the source/reference and that wording is exactly what the book said "lifetime trust fund". That wording was footnoted within Kertzer's work as being from Edgardo's autobiographical notes written in 1878 and reprinted in an appendix to Gian Ludovico Massetti Zannini's 1959 article "Nuovi documenti sul 'caso mortara" [New documents in the Mortara case] in the magazine Rivista storica della Chiesa Italiana ("The History of the Church in Italy "). If the 7000 lire was an annual payment to be paid out every year of Edgardo's life I think the source material would have said so. So far as I can tell - using the very general conversions at https://www.historicalstatistics.org/Currencyconverter.html (of 1880 Italian lire to 2015 US dollars relative worth/purchasing power) - 7000 Italian lire in 1880 would have taken a worker about 3 years to earn, looking at how much gold could have been purchased in 1880 and comparing it to gold bought today that 7000 lire would be worth a little over $70000.00[US]. Shearonink (talk) 18:02, 24 January 2020 (UTC)

One source issues
The article relies almost exclusively on a single source. Other sources that should be used include: In addition, there should be a discussion of the recent controversy between Catholic integralists and more liberal or centrist types over the case. A lot of sources on that controversy can be listed in the notes for the first few pages of this paper.

So the article fails comprehensiveness and well-researched criteria and if not improved will need to be brought to FAR. buidhe 09:05, 24 April 2020 (UTC)
 * FA status is not helped by deviating from sfn reference style, and introducing unattributed POV and weasel-words in a new paragraph. Elizium23 (talk) 09:19, 24 April 2020 (UTC)
 * "The Mortara affair is shameful" is an opinion. "Many Catholics think that the Mortala affair is shameful" is either true or false, but either way it's not an opinion. There's no need for double attribution especially since the statement in the article is verifiable to multiple RS. As for the references, WP:SOFIXIT applies. buidhe 09:53, 24 April 2020 (UTC)
 * , either way it's a weasel phrase. Elizium23 (talk) 00:58, 25 April 2020 (UTC)
 * I'd like to know, exactly how many Catholics feel that way? Was a poll taken up? Exit survey at Mass one Sunday? Frankly, I'd like to know how many Catholics know Edgardo Mortara from Adam. If I asked 10 people in the pews next to me, I'd receive 9 or more quizzical looks and feelings of indifference. Outside of Italy, I doubt the memory of Mortara for rank-and-file Catholics is even on the radar. It's something brought up by Traditionalist and Liberal pundits as a wedge issue, nothing more. It's a statement not based in any actual fact, just Liberal rhetoric. Elizium23 (talk) 01:02, 25 April 2020 (UTC)
 * "50,000 Catholics think that the Mortara affair is shameful" is an assertion of fact. "Many Catholics think that the Mortara affair is shameful" has just shaded that fact with an opinion, the opinion that 50,000 is "many". Other suitably weasely terms could be "some", "a handful", "almost none", "almost all". Some of those would be more plausible than others, but they're all the author's opinion about the magnitiude of a sample size. And that doesn't begin to scratch the ugly little truth that nobody was sampled here, only Faggioli's fatuous opinion from his ivory tower. Elizium23 (talk) 01:07, 25 April 2020 (UTC)
 * When we write in Wikipedia's voice that "modern scholars agree that X" we need to cite a meta-source, one that has actually done the digging and surveyed modern scholars and affirmed that there is a consensus among them. There's no proof or even evidence that Faggioli's done this work. In fact he didn't even make the claim about "Catholics" he made it about "the Church" and I don't know if he intended to restrict that zeitgeist to the hierarchy of clergy only, or laity too, because that's what we think of when we refer to "Catholics..." in most contexts. Elizium23 (talk) 01:09, 25 April 2020 (UTC)

Reliable source. Very obvious kidnapping of six year old boy is shameful act.--KasiaNL (talk) 05:55, 30 April 2020 (UTC)
 * , I guarantee you that Catholics feel nothing about this case today. 99% of them have never heard of Mortara, let alone formed an opinion on it. Elizium23 (talk) 06:20, 30 April 2020 (UTC)

But of those who heard of this? You arguing they think it not shameful?--KasiaNL (talk) 06:40, 30 April 2020 (UTC) (banned sock puppet - ) GizzyCatBella  🍁  19:46, 20 May 2020 (UTC)

Page title
I propose page moved to Mortara kidnapping. More consistent with events, and sources:, , .--KasiaNL (talk) 07:57, 30 April 2020 (UTC) (banned sock puppet - ) GizzyCatBella  🍁  19:44, 20 May 2020 (UTC)
 * The current name comes across as euphemistic and the proposed name has the advantage of being more obvious in what the article is about. But I'm not convinced that it's the WP:COMMONNAME. Here are my google hits:
 * "Mortara case": 9,170 hits
 * "Mortara affair": 6,540
 * "Mortara kidnapping": 468
 * "Mortara abduction": 466
 * There are other variants such as "kidnapping of Mortara" etc. but those don't get many hits. buidhe 08:05, 30 April 2020 (UTC)
 * A google engrams search for "Mortara *_NOUN" yields this graph: no smoothing yes smoothing. GScholar has similar numbers for "mortara case" (352) and "mortara affair" (313); note that there is an overlap of 69 articles containing both terms. ("mortara kidnapping" yields 34 GScholar results, "mortara abduction" 25; many of these also refer to it as a "case" or "affair") Cheers, gnu 57 13:02, 21 May 2020 (UTC)

Napoleon III
I think the argument here that Napoleon III's Italian policy was determined by his/French outrage at the Mortara case is...overplayed here. The usual narrative is that the Orsini attempt in January 1858 provoked the shift, and by June 1858 Napoleon was well on his way to shifting his policy towards the Italian cause anyway. Could this be phrased in a more nuanced way? john k (talk) 01:06, 8 May 2022 (UTC)

link to other languages
Wikipedia claims this artical only availible in 6 other languages when in reality it`s in 21. The reason for this is that in 15 of them the name of the artical is Edgardo Mortara not Mortara case. גוי אחד בארץ (talk) 22:41, 3 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mortara case


text:
The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara

The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara may refer to

 * The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara, a 1997 nonfiction book by David Kertzer
 * The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara (film), an upcoming film adaptation of the Kertzer book

title: The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara


text:
Posterior probability

The posterior probability is a type of conditional probability that results from updating the prior probability with information summarized by the likelihood via an application of Bayes' rule. From an epistemological perspective, the posterior probability contains everything there is to know about an uncertain proposition (such as a scientific hypothesis, or parameter values), given prior knowledge and a mathematical model describing the observations available at a particular time. After the arrival of new information, the current posterior probability may serve as the prior in another round of Bayesian updating.

In the context of Bayesian statistics, the posterior probability distribution usually describes the epistemic uncertainty about statistical parameters conditional on a collection of observed data. From a given posterior distribution, various point and interval estimates can be derived, such as the maximum a posteriori (MAP) or the highest posterior density interval (HPDI). But while conceptually simple, the posterior distribution is generally not tractable and therefore needs to be either analytically or numerically approximated.

Definition in the distributional case
In variational Bayesian methods, the posterior probability is the probability of the parameters $$\theta$$ given the evidence $$X$$, and is denoted $$p(\theta |X)$$.

It contrasts with the likelihood function, which is the probability of the evidence given the parameters: $$p(X|\theta)$$.

The two are related as follows:

Given a prior belief that a probability distribution function is $$p(\theta)$$ and that the observations $$x$$ have a likelihood $$p(x|\theta)$$, then the posterior probability is defined as
 * $$p(\theta|x) = \frac{p(x|\theta)}{p(x)}p(\theta)$$,

where $$p(x)$$ is the normalizing constant and is calculated as
 * $$ p(x) = \int p(x|\theta)p(\theta)d\theta$$

for continuous $$\theta$$, or by summing $$p(x|\theta)p(\theta)$$ over all possible values of $$\theta$$ for discrete $$\theta$$.

The posterior probability is therefore proportional to the product Likelihood · Prior probability.

Example
Suppose there is a school with 60% boys and 40% girls as students. The girls wear trousers or skirts in equal numbers; all boys wear trousers. An observer sees a (random) student from a distance; all the observer can see is that this student is wearing trousers. What is the probability this student is a girl? The correct answer can be computed using Bayes' theorem.

The event $$G$$ is that the student observed is a girl, and the event $$T$$ is that the student observed is wearing trousers. To compute the posterior probability $$P(G|T)$$, we first need to know:
 * $$P(G)$$, or the probability that the student is a girl regardless of any other information. Since the observer sees a random student, meaning that all students have the same probability of being observed, and the percentage of girls among the students is 40%, this probability equals 0.4.
 * $$P(B)$$, or the probability that the student is not a girl (i.e. a boy) regardless of any other information ($$B$$ is the complementary event to $$G$$). This is 60%, or 0.6.
 * $$P(T|G)$$, or the probability of the student wearing trousers given that the student is a girl. As they are as likely to wear skirts as trousers, this is 0.5.
 * $$P(T|B)$$, or the probability of the student wearing trousers given that the student is a boy. This is given as 1.
 * $$P(T)$$, or the probability of a (randomly selected) student wearing trousers regardless of any other information. Since $$P(T) = P(T|G)P(G) + P(T|B)P(B)$$ (via the law of total probability), this is $$P(T)= 0.5\times0.4 + 1\times0.6 = 0.8$$.

Given all this information, the posterior probability of the observer having spotted a girl given that the observed student is wearing trousers can be computed by substituting these values in the formula:

 * $$P(G|T) = \frac{P(T|G) P(G)}{P(T)} = \frac{0.5 \times 0.4}{0.8} = 0.25.$$

An intuitive way to solve this is to assume the school has N students. Number of boys = 0.6N and number of girls = 0.4N. If N is sufficiently large, total number of trouser wearers = 0.6N+ 50% of 0.4N. And number of girl trouser wearers = 50% of 0.4N. Therefore, in the population of trousers, girls are (50% of 0.4N)/(0.6N+ 50% of 0.4N) = 25%. In other words, if you separated out the group of trouser wearers, a quarter of that group will be girls. Therefore, if you see trousers, the most you can deduce is that you are looking at a single sample from a subset of students where 25% are girls. And by definition, chance of this random student being a girl is 25%. Every Bayes-theorem problem can be solved in this way.

Calculation
The posterior probability distribution of one random variable given the value of another can be calculated with Bayes' theorem by multiplying the prior probability distribution by the likelihood function, and then dividing by the normalizing constant, as follows:

 * $$f_{X\mid Y=y}(x)={f_X(x) \mathcal L_{X\mid Y=y}(x) \over {\int_{-\infty}^\infty f_X(u) \mathcal L_{X\mid Y=y}(u)\,du}}$$

gives the posterior probability density function for a random variable $$X$$ given the data $$Y=y$$, where

 * $$f_X(x)$$ is the prior density of $$X$$,
 * $$\mathcal L_{X\mid Y=y}(x) = f_{Y\mid X=x}(y)$$ is the likelihood function as a function of $$x$$,
 * $$\int_{-\infty}^\infty f_X(u) \mathcal L_{X\mid Y=y}(u)\,du$$ is the normalizing constant, and
 * $$f_{X\mid Y=y}(x)$$ is the posterior density of $$X$$ given the data $$Y=y$$.

Credible interval
Posterior probability is a conditional probability conditioned on randomly observed data. Hence it is a random variable. For a random variable, it is important to summarize its amount of uncertainty. One way to achieve this goal is to provide a credible interval of the posterior probability.

Classification
In classification, posterior probabilities reflect the uncertainty of assessing an observation to particular class, see also class-membership probabilities. While statistical classification methods by definition generate posterior probabilities, Machine Learners usually supply membership values which do not induce any probabilistic confidence. It is desirable to transform or rescale membership values to class-membership probabilities, since they are comparable and additionally more easily applicable for post-processing.

title: Posterior probability