text:
Calcium in biology

Calcium ions (Ca2+) contribute to the physiology and biochemistry of organisms' cells. They play an important role in signal transduction pathways, where they act as a second messenger, in neurotransmitter release from neurons, in contraction of all muscle cell types, and in fertilization. Many enzymes require calcium ions as a cofactor, including several of the coagulation factors. Extracellular calcium is also important for maintaining the potential difference across excitable cell membranes, as well as proper bone formation.

Plasma calcium levels in mammals are tightly regulated, with bone acting as the major mineral storage site. Calcium ions, Ca2+, are released from bone into the bloodstream under controlled conditions. Calcium is transported through the bloodstream as dissolved ions or bound to proteins such as serum albumin. Parathyroid hormone secreted by the parathyroid gland regulates the resorption of Ca2+ from bone, reabsorption in the kidney back into circulation, and increases in the activation of vitamin D3 to calcitriol. Calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D3, promotes absorption of calcium from the intestines and bones. Calcitonin secreted from the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland also affects calcium levels by opposing parathyroid hormone; however, its physiological significance in humans is dubious.

Intracellular calcium is stored in organelles which repetitively release and then reaccumulate Ca2+ ions in response to specific cellular events: storage sites include mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum.

Characteristic concentrations of calcium in model organisms are: in E. coli 3 mM (bound), 100 nM (free), in budding yeast 2 mM (bound), in mammalian cell 10–100 nM (free) and in blood plasma 2 mM.

Humans

In 2021, calcium was the 243rd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1million prescriptions.

Dietary recommendations
The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) established Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for calcium in 1997 and updated those values in 2011. See table. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) uses the term Population Reference Intake (PRIs) instead of RDAs and sets slightly different numbers: ages 4–10 800 mg, ages 11–17 1150 mg, ages 18–24 1000 mg, and >25 years 950 mg.

Because of concerns of long-term adverse side effects such as calcification of arteries and kidney stones, the IOM and EFSA both set Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) for the combination of dietary and supplemental calcium. From the IOM, people ages 9–18 years are not supposed to exceed 3,000 mg/day; for ages 19–50 not to exceed 2,500 mg/day; for ages 51 and older, not to exceed 2,000 mg/day. The EFSA set UL at 2,500 mg/day for adults but decided the information for children and adolescents was not sufficient to determine ULs.

Labeling
For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For calcium labeling purposes, 100% of the Daily Value was 1000 mg, but as of May 27, 2016, it was revised to 1300 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA. A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.

Health claims
Although as a general rule, dietary supplement labeling and marketing are not allowed to make disease prevention or treatment claims, the FDA has for some foods and dietary supplements reviewed the science, concluded that there is significant scientific agreement, and published specifically worded allowed health claims. An initial ruling allowing a health claim for calcium dietary supplements and osteoporosis was later amended to include calcium and vitamin D supplements, effective January 1, 2010. Examples of allowed wording are shown below. In order to qualify for the calcium health claim, a dietary supplement must contain at least 20% of the Reference Dietary Intake, which for calcium means at least 260 mg/serving.

 * "Adequate calcium throughout life, as part of a well-balanced diet, may reduce the risk of osteoporosis."
 * "Adequate calcium as part of a healthful diet, along with physical activity, may reduce the risk of osteoporosis in later life."
 * "Adequate calcium and vitamin D throughout life, as part of a well-balanced diet, may reduce the risk of osteoporosis."
 * "Adequate calcium and vitamin D as part of a healthful diet, along with physical activity, may reduce the risk of osteoporosis in later life."

In 2005, the FDA approved a Qualified Health Claim for calcium and hypertension, with suggested wording "Some scientific evidence suggests that calcium supplements may reduce the risk of hypertension. However, FDA has determined that the evidence is inconsistent and not conclusive." Evidence for pregnancy-induced hypertension and preeclampsia was considered inconclusive. The same year, the FDA approved a QHC for calcium and colon cancer, with suggested wording "Some evidence suggests that calcium supplements may reduce the risk of colon/rectal cancer, however, FDA has determined that this evidence is limited and not conclusive." Evidence for breast cancer and prostate cancer was considered inconclusive. Proposals for QHCs for calcium as protective against kidney stones or against menstrual disorders or pain were rejected.

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded that "Calcium contributes to the normal development of bones." The EFSA rejected a claim that a cause-and-effect relationship existed between the dietary intake of calcium and potassium and maintenance of normal acid-base balance. The EFSA also rejected claims for calcium and nails, hair, blood lipids, premenstrual syndrome and body weight maintenance.

Food sources
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) web site has a very complete searchable table of calcium content (in milligrams) in foods, per common measures such as per 100 grams or per a normal serving.

Measurement in blood
The amount of calcium in blood (more specifically, in blood plasma) can be measured as total calcium, which includes both protein-bound and free calcium. In contrast, ionized calcium is a measure of free calcium. An abnormally high level of calcium in plasma is termed hypercalcemia and an abnormally low level is termed hypocalcemia, with "abnormal" generally referring to levels outside the reference range.

The main methods to measure serum calcium are:
 * O-Cresolphalein Complexone Method; A disadvantage of this method is that the volatile nature of the 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol used in this method makes it necessary to calibrate the method every few hours in a clinical laboratory setup.
 * Arsenazo III Method; This method is more robust, but the arsenic in the reagent is a health hazard.

The total amount of Ca2+ present in a tissue may be measured using Atomic absorption spectroscopy, in which the tissue is vaporized and combusted. To measure Ca2+ concentration or spatial distribution within the cell cytoplasm in vivo or in vitro, a range of fluorescent reporters may be used. These include cell permeable, calcium-binding fluorescent dyes such as Fura-2 or genetically engineered variant of green fluorescent protein (GFP) named Cameleon.

Corrected calcium
As access to an ionized calcium is not always available a corrected calcium may be used instead. To calculate a corrected calcium in mmol/L one takes the total calcium in mmol/L and adds it to ((40 minus the serum albumin in g/L) multiplied by 0.02). There is, however, controversy around the usefulness of corrected calcium as it may be no better than total calcium. It may be more useful to correct total calcium for both albumin and the anion gap.

Vertebrates
In vertebrates, calcium ions, like many other ions, are of such vital importance to many physiological processes that its concentration is maintained within specific limits to ensure adequate homeostasis. This is evidenced by human plasma calcium, which is one of the most closely regulated physiological variables in the human body. Normal plasma levels vary between 1 and 2% over any given time. Approximately half of all ionized calcium circulates in its unbound form, with the other half being complexed with plasma proteins such as albumin, as well as anions including bicarbonate, citrate, phosphate, and sulfate.

Different tissues contain calcium in different concentrations. For instance, Ca2+ (mostly calcium phosphate and some calcium sulfate) is the most important (and specific) element of bone and calcified cartilage. In humans, the total body content of calcium is present mostly in the form of bone mineral (roughly 99%). In this state, it is largely unavailable for exchange/bioavailability. The way to overcome this is through the process of bone resorption, in which calcium is liberated into the bloodstream through the action of bone osteoclasts. The remainder of calcium is present within the extracellular and intracellular fluids.

Within a typical cell, the intracellular concentration of ionized calcium is roughly 100 nM, but is subject to increases of 10- to 100-fold during various cellular functions. The intracellular calcium level is kept relatively low with respect to the extracellular fluid, by an approximate magnitude of 12,000-fold. This gradient is maintained through various plasma membrane calcium pumps that utilize ATP for energy, as well as a sizable storage within intracellular compartments. In electrically excitable cells, such as skeletal and cardiac muscles and neurons, membrane depolarization leads to a Ca2+ transient with cytosolic Ca2+ concentration reaching around 1 μM. Mitochondria are capable of sequestering and storing some of that Ca2+. It has been estimated that mitochondrial matrix free calcium concentration rises to the tens of micromolar levels in situ during neuronal activity.

Effects
The effects of calcium on human cells are specific, meaning that different types of cells respond in different ways. However, in certain circumstances, its action may be more general. Ca2+ ions are one of the most widespread second messengers used in signal transduction. They make their entrance into the cytoplasm either from outside the cell through the cell membrane via calcium channels (such as calcium-binding proteins or voltage-gated calcium channels), or from some internal calcium storages such as the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria. Levels of intracellular calcium are regulated by transport proteins that remove it from the cell. For example, the sodium-calcium exchanger uses energy from the electrochemical gradient of sodium by coupling the influx of sodium into cell (and down its concentration gradient) with the transport of calcium out of the cell. In addition, the plasma membrane Ca2+ ATPase (PMCA) obtains energy to pump calcium out of the cell by hydrolysing adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In neurons, voltage-dependent, calcium-selective ion channels are important for synaptic transmission through the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft by vesicle fusion of synaptic vesicles.

Calcium's function in muscle contraction was found as early as 1882 by Ringer. Subsequent investigations were to reveal its role as a messenger about a century later. Because its action is interconnected with cAMP, they are called synarchic messengers. Calcium can bind to several different calcium-modulated proteins such as troponin-C (the first one to be identified) and calmodulin, proteins that are necessary for promoting contraction in muscle.

In the endothelial cells which line the inside of blood vessels, Ca2+ ions can regulate several signaling pathways which cause the smooth muscle surrounding blood vessels to relax. Some of these Ca2+-activated pathways include the stimulation of eNOS to produce nitric oxide, as well as the stimulation of Kca channels to efflux K+ and cause hyperpolarization of the cell membrane. Both nitric oxide and hyperpolarization cause the smooth muscle to relax in order to regulate the amount of tone in blood vessels. However, dysfunction within these Ca2+-activated pathways can lead to an increase in tone caused by unregulated smooth muscle contraction. This type of dysfunction can be seen in cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and diabetes.

Calcium coordination plays an important role in defining the structure and function of proteins. An example a protein with calcium coordination is von Willebrand factor (vWF) which has an essential role in blood clot formation process. It was discovered using single molecule optical tweezers measurement that calcium-bound vWF acts as a shear force sensor in the blood. Shear force leads to unfolding of the A2 domain of vWF whose refolding rate is dramatically enhanced in the presence of calcium.

Adaptation
Ca2+ ion flow regulates several secondary messenger systems in neural adaptation for visual, auditory, and the olfactory system. It may often be bound to calmodulin such as in the olfactory system to either enhance or repress cation channels. Other times the calcium level change can actually release guanylyl cyclase from inhibition, like in the photoreception system. Ca2+ ion can also determine the speed of adaptation in a neural system depending on the receptors and proteins that have varied affinity for detecting levels of calcium to open or close channels at high concentration and low concentration of calcium in the cell at that time.

Negative effects and pathology
Substantial decreases in extracellular Ca2+ ion concentrations may result in a condition known as hypocalcemic tetany, which is marked by spontaneous motor neuron discharge. In addition, severe hypocalcaemia will begin to affect aspects of blood coagulation and signal transduction.

Ca2+ ions can damage cells if they enter in excessive numbers (for example, in the case of excitotoxicity, or over-excitation of neural circuits, which can occur in neurodegenerative diseases, or after insults such as brain trauma or stroke). Excessive entry of calcium into a cell may damage it or even cause it to undergo apoptosis, or death by necrosis. Calcium also acts as one of the primary regulators of osmotic stress (osmotic shock). Chronically elevated plasma calcium (hypercalcemia) is associated with cardiac arrhythmias and decreased neuromuscular excitability. One cause of hypercalcemia is a condition known as hyperparathyroidism.

Invertebrates
Some invertebrates use calcium compounds for building their exoskeleton (shells and carapaces) or endoskeleton (echinoderm plates and poriferan calcareous spicules).

Stomata closing
When abscisic acid signals the guard cells, free Ca2+ ions enter the cytosol from both outside the cell and internal stores, reversing the concentration gradient so the K+ ions begin exiting the cell. The loss of solutes makes the cell flaccid and closes the stomatal pores.

Cellular division
Calcium is a necessary ion in the formation of the mitotic spindle. Without the mitotic spindle, cellular division cannot occur. Although young leaves have a higher need for calcium, older leaves contain higher amounts of calcium because calcium is relatively immobile through the plant. It is not transported through the phloem because it can bind with other nutrient ions and precipitate out of liquid solutions.

Structural roles
Ca2+ ions are an essential component of plant cell walls and cell membranes, and are used as cations to balance organic anions in the plant vacuole. The Ca2+ concentration of the vacuole may reach millimolar levels. The most striking use of Ca2+ ions as a structural element in algae occurs in the marine coccolithophores, which use Ca2+ to form the calcium carbonate plates, with which they are covered.

Calcium is needed to form the pectin in the middle lamella of newly formed cells.

Calcium is needed to stabilize the permeability of cell membranes. Without calcium, the cell walls are unable to stabilize and hold their contents. This is particularly important in developing fruits. Without calcium, the cell walls are weak and unable to hold the contents of the fruit.

Some plants accumulate Ca in their tissues, thus making them more firm. Calcium is stored as Ca-oxalate crystals in plastids.

Cell signaling
Ca2+ ions are usually kept at nanomolar levels in the cytosol of plant cells, and act in a number of signal transduction pathways as second messengers.

title: Calcium in biology


text:
Anjalankoski

Anjalankoski is a former town and municipality of Finland. It had 16 379 inhabitants in 2008. About 4/5 of the people live in the vicinity of the Kymi River. The most densely populated communities are Myllykoski and Inkeroinen. In addition, there is plenty of countryside.

The town's major industry is forestry along the Kymi Riverside. The paper factories Stora Enso Oyj and Myllykoski Paper Oy are the main employers together with the town itself.

Anjalankoski offered plenty of cultural and sport activities, including a football team, MyPa. The Anjala Manor Museum and surroundings is an interesting cultural site.

The municipality was unilingually Finnish.

Anjalankoski was formed in 1975 from the merging of the municipalities of Anjala and Sippola.

As of 2009, six municipalities – Kouvola, Kuusankoski, Elimäki, Anjalankoski, Valkeala and Jaala – were consolidated, accounting for the new municipality of Kouvola with a population of over 80,000, being the 10th largest city in Finland.

Near Anjalankoski (at 60° 41′ 32.34″ N, 27° 2′ 47.46″ E), there is 318 meter tall TV mast, which is one of the tallest man-made objects in Finland.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Anjalankoski


text:
Print-through

Print-through is a generally undesirable effect that arises in the use of magnetic tape for storing analog information, in particular music, caused by contact transfer of signal patterns from one layer of tape to another as it sits wound concentrically on a reel.

Explanation
Print-through is a category of noise caused by contact transfer of signal patterns from one layer of tape to another after it is wound onto a reel.

Print-through can take two forms:

 * 1) thermo-remanent magnetization induced by temperature, and
 * 2) anhysteretic magnetization caused by an external magnetic field.

The former is unstable over time and can be easily erased by rewinding a tape and letting it sit so that the patterns formed by the contact of upper and lower layers begin to erase each other and form new patterns with the repositioning of upper/lower layers after rewinding. This type of contact printing begins immediately after a recording and increases over time at a rate dependent on the temperature of the storage conditions. Depending on tape formulation and type, a maximum level will be reached after a certain length of time, if it is not further disturbed physically or magnetically.

Audibility
The audibility of print noise caused by contact printing depends on a number of factors:
 * 1) the amount of print due to conditions of time and storage;
 * 2) the thickness of the base film that acts as magnetic barrier (thin C-90 cassette tapes are more susceptible than studio mastering tapes that use a base film four times thicker);
 * 3) the stability of the magnetic particle used in the tape coating;
 * 4) the speed of the tape (the wavelengths of the prints shift so that higher speeds move printed signal closer to the range where the ear is more sensitive); the dynamics of the musical program (very quiet passages adjacent to sudden loud signals can expose the print signal transferred from the loud signal); and the wind of the tape (A-winds for cassettes with the magnetic layer facing outward have stronger print signals after a loud signal--"post-print"—than B-winds used in modern open-reel recorders that have stronger "pre-print" signals preceding a loud passage. echo.

Tape speed is a factor because of the shift in wavelengths. For example, the strongest print signal on a C-60 cassette running at 1.875 in/s is about 426 Hz (605 Hz for a C-90), while an open-reel tape recorded at 7.5 in/s would have its strongest signal at 630 Hz if the tape were a professional tape with a 1.5 mil base film or 852 Hz if the tape were a consumer version with a base film of 1.0 mil thickness.

Causes
The cause of print-through is due to an imbalance of magnetic and thermal energy in the magnetic particle. Once the magnetic energy is only 25 times greater than the thermal energy, the particle becomes unstable enough to be influenced by flux energy from the layer above or below the tape. The amount of magnetic energy depends on the coercivity of the particles, their shapes (long, thin particles make stronger "magnets"), the ratio of ideally shaped particles to defective particles, and their crystalline structures. Metal particles, although very small, have very high values of coercivity and are the most resistant to print-through effects because their magnetic energy is seldom challenged by thermal energy. Particles fractured by excessive milling prior to coating will increase levels of print depending on their ratio compared to their well-formed neighboring particles.

Anhysteretic print signals are almost as strong as intentionally recorded signals and are much more difficult to erase. This type of print noise is relatively rare because users are typically careful about accidentally exposing recordings to strong magnetic fields, and the magnetic influence of such fields decreases with distance.

Digital tapes can also be affected by contact print effects in a phenomenon known as "bit-shift" when upper or lower layers of tape cause a middle layer to alter the pulses recorded to represent binary information.

Video recording
Since analog video is recorded by frequency-modulation of the video signal, the FM capture effect shields the signal against this noise; however, the linear audio and (depending on format) chrominance signals of a video cassette may have some print effects.

While print-through is a form of unwanted noise, contact printing was used deliberately for high-speed recording (duplication, high speed en masse copying) of video tape, instead of having to record thousands of tapes on thousands of VCRs at normal playback speed, or recording the source material repeatedly in real time to large reels (without end caps) of tape (called pancakes) over 48 hours long to be inserted into cassettes. DuPont in conjunction with Otari invented a form of thermal magnetic duplication ("TMD") by which a high-coercivity metal mother master tape was brought into direct contact with a chromium dioxide copy (slave) tape. The coercivity of the mother tape is higher than that of the copy tape, so when the copy tape is heated and brought into contact with the mother tape, the copy tape gets a mirror image of the signal on the mother tape without the mother tape losing its signal. The recording on the mother tape was a mirror image of a valid video signal. Immediately before the copy tape came into contact with the mother tape, a focused laser beam heated it to its Curie point at which its value of coercivity dropped to very low values so that it picked up a near perfect copy of the mother tape as it cooled. The mother tape was made using a special reel to reel video tape recorder called a mirror master recorder and was held inside the machine in an endless loop. This system could achieve speeds of up to 300 times playback speed in NTSC VHS SP mode, 900 times in VHS EP mode and 428 times in PAL/SECAM tapes.

Sony developed a system known as "Sprinter" that used a similar mother master tape forced into close contact with any blank copy tape using compressed air and run across a rotating transfer head in which a weak AC high frequency sine wave is used to transfer the information anhysteretically to the copy tape with minimal erasure of the mother tape on each pass. The sprinter does not use a laser to heat the copy tape which saves on power consumption. The transfer head may have a vacuum cleaner to reduce dropout caused by dust. This system was used to quickly duplicate VHS tapes at speeds of up to 240 times faster than playback speed for NTSC and 342 times for PAL/SECAM video signals without having to use expensive chrome dioxide tape; the tape was fed into the sprinter at a speed of 8 meters per second. The mother tape was enclosed in a space (not in a reel, but rather in an endless loop) in the Sprinter; this was made possible by a horizontal vibrating tape feed system where the edge of the endless loop tape sits in a table that diagonally vibrates using vibration generated by piezoelectric elements and amplified using mechanical oscillation, causing the tape in the table to move forward. The copy tape was unwound, recorded using the mother tape, then wound onto large reels (called pancakes) containing enough tape for several VHS cassettes. The mother tape had a coercivity three times that of normal VHS tape and was made by recording onto it using a special reel to reel video tape recorder called a mirror mother VTR using video from a D-2 (video), Type B videotape or Type C videotape master source tape. The video tape recorder had a sapphire blade to clean the surface of the mother tape, reducing dropout caused by dust. Sprinter mother tapes did suffer enough loss that they had to be replaced after a number of passes. The master had to be replaced every 1000 copies. This form of high-speed recording was very cost effective when recording in the EP (extra long play) mode because it was three times faster than recording in SP (standard play) mode while real-time recording took the same amount of time whether in EP mode that used less tape or SP mode that used a greater amount of tape. High-speed video recording of EP video produced far more consistent results than real-time recording at the slowest VHS speed. After duplication, the copy tape was loaded into video tape loaders that wound the tape into empty VHS cassette shells that contained only leader tape.

title: Print-through


text:
Enonkoski

Enonkoski is a municipality of Finland. It is encircled by the city of Savonlinna in the Southern Savonia region. It is the smallest municipality in Southern Savonia in terms of population.

History
Enonkoski was founded in 1882. Before that it was part of Kerimäki and Heinävesi. The major reason for the foundation of independent parish of Enonkoski happened in 1858. Enonkoski did not have its own church, and on Sundays people had to row to the church to Kerimäki, a parish Enonkoski was part of that time. In 1858 there was a church boat accident in the lake Ylä-Enonvesi, which led to the death of eight people. After that, a Russian businessman and a leader of an Enonkoski glass factory and a sawmill decided to build a church in Enonkoski. He is alleged to have said: "the people in Enonkoski do not anymore have to drown on their trips to the church". The wooden church was built in the next year but it was destroyed in a fire caused by lightning in 1884. A new church made of wood, which is still in use, was built in 1886.

Languages
The municipality is unilingually Finnish.

There also is a Russian speaking minority.

Religion
The majority of the people living in Enonkoski are Evangelical Lutheran. There is a church in the centre of Enonkoski, built in 1886. The only Evangelical Lutheran monastery in Finland, the Monastic Protestant Community in Enonkoski, is located in Enonkoski.

Transport
Enonkoski has one main road which leads to Savonlinna, 33 km away. It also has other roads which lead to the small dock neighborhood called Hyypiänniemi and to another area known as Hanhivirta.

Amenities
Enonkoski is a very small town, with two small supermarkets, a gas station, a gift shop, several bakeries and cafés and a bar. It also has a retirement home called Iltasatu, which translates to bedtime story.

Towards the edge of the town, near a fire station, there is a running track with a well-kept field (usually used for association football) in the middle. In addition, there is a school which has an ice skating rink, used in the winter, and an indoor sports arena. Adjacent to the school is a library built in 1992. Enonkoski houses a rehab facility.

Industry
The largest business in the town is a fish research plant where they raise fish in a controlled environment and then release them into the lakes which are abundant in the area.

Sport
Enonkoski has a juniors and senior volleyball team Enonkosken Pyrintö playing in the second highest tier of men's volleyball in Finland. Football club Karvilan Kivekkäät has a couple of youth teams and a women's team that won the regional championship in 2009. There is also a cross country track used for cross-country skiing in winter and jogging in summer. Participation in the yearly skiing competitions is very high. Orienteering is also quite popular sport. The sports club for athletics, skiing and orienteering is called Enonkosken Urheilijat.

Notable people

 * Antti Loikkanen (1955) is a Finnish former middle-distance and endurance runner (European indoor champion 1978)

Villages
Hanhijärvi, Ihamaniemi, Joutsenmäki, Karvila, Laasala, Makkola, Muhola, Paakkunala, Parkumäki, Simanala, Suurimäki and Vuorikoski are villages in Enonkoski.

Border changes
In 2009 the neighbouring municipalities of Enonkoski, Savonranta and the city of Savonlinna, unified as a one municipality. According to the law of Finland, the unifying municipalities must have a land connection between them, which Savoninna and Savonranta did not have. Because of that a land strip of 31.24 km2 was taken off from the area of Enonkoski municipality to connect the parts together. After Kerimäki and Punkaharju were consolidated with the town of Savonlinna on 1 January 2013, Enonkoski became completely surrounded by the emerging city.

title: Enonkoski


text:
Dender

The Dender (Dutch, ) or Dendre (French, ) is a 65 km long river in Belgium, the right tributary of the river Scheldt. The confluence of the two rivers is in the Belgian town of Dendermonde.

The Western or Little Dender is 22 km long and begins in Barry near Leuze-en-Hainaut at an elevation of about 60 to 70 m above sea level. It begins as several canals in the fields merging together to form the Little Dender. As such, it doesn't have a real source. The source of the Eastern Dender, which is 39 km long, is near Jurbise at a height of 100 m above sea level. The two rivers meet in the town of Ath. From that confluence, the river is called the Dender proper. From Ath, the Dender passes into the Denderstreek through the cities and towns of Geraardsbergen, south of which its tributary, the Mark, flows into it. From this confluence, the river continues to flow through Ninove, Denderleeuw, and Aalst, before ending in Dendermonde. The Dender is navigable up to Aalst for small ships up to 600 tons and further upstream for ships up to 350 tons. The Molenbeek-Ter Erpenbeek flows into the Dender at Hofstade.

title: Dender


text:
Eura

Eura is a municipality of Finland. It is located in the province of Western Finland and is part of the Satakunta region. The municipality has a population of 0 and covers an area of undefined km2 of which undefined km2 is water. The population density is undefined PD/km2.

The municipality is unilingually Finnish. The municipality of Kiukainen was consolidated with Eura on 1 January 2009.

The municipality is one of the most distinguished places in Finland in terms of pre-historical findings. The archaeological findings are mainly from the Iron Age and include e.g. ancient dress "Euran Emännän Puku".

Local tradition had it still in the 18th century that a decisive battle against invading Sweden was held in Eura's Big Meadow (Iso Niitty) in the Middle Ages. According to the story, there was blood up to man's ankles on the meadow.

Politics
Results of the 2011 Finnish parliamentary election in Eura:

 * Social Democratic Party  32.9%
 * Centre Party  22.8%
 * True Finns  16.1%
 * Left Alliance  12.2%
 * National Coalition Party  10.9%
 * Christian Democrats  2.5%
 * Green League  2.0%

Twin towns - Sister cities
Eura is twinned with:

 * 🇪🇪 Harku Parish, Estonia
 * 🇸🇪 Askersund Municipality, Sweden

Notable people

 * Carl Oscar Malm, founder of Finnish Sign Language
 * Darude (real name Toni-Ville Henrik Virtanen), DJ and record producer

title: Eura


text:
Asterias

Asterias is a genus of the Asteriidae family of sea stars. It includes several of the best-known species of sea stars, including the (Atlantic) common starfish, Asterias rubens, and the northern Pacific seastar, Asterias amurensis. The genus contains a total of eight species in all. All species have five arms and are native to shallow oceanic areas (the littoral zone) of cold to temperate parts of the Holarctic. These starfish have planktonic larvae. Asterias amurensis is an invasive species in Australia and can in some years become a pest in the Japanese mariculture industry.

History
The genus Asterias was first described by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758 when he published A. rubens. It was for a time the only species, but by the early 1800s a few dozen taxa had been described in this genus.

In 1825 Thomas Say listed six species native to the coasts of the United States (which at the time consisted of the east coast from Maine to Florida, which the US had just formally acquired from Spain a few years earlier). None of these species are accepted or recognised as Asterias today.

Johannes Peter Müller and Franz Hermann Troschel worked on starfish systematics in 1840, renaming the genus Asteracanthion and splitting a number of new genera from it.

William Stimpson rejected Müller and Troschel's Asteracanthion in a paper presented on 4 December 1861, and named 16 new species, none of which are retained or included in Asterias at present. In 1875 Edmond Perrier formally reduced Asteracanthion to a synonym. Francis Jeffrey Bell listed 78 species in the genus in 1881, arranging them in some 16 unranked groupings (see artificial taxonomy).

A few years later, in 1889, Percy Sladen counted 48 or 49 species in the genus. He split the genus into at least six subgenera, of which subgenus Asterias, section β of the Pentactinid (5-armed) section contained at least four species, three of which are still accepted in the genus today.

In the early 1900s Addison Emery Verrill, working on the east coast of the US, added a number of new species to the genus, none of which are still in Asterias, and split the genus into numerous new genera and created new genera, moving almost all of the species now recognised as belonging to Asterias to his new genus of Allasterias. He accepted six species for the Pacific coasts of North America, none of which remain in Asterias at present. Soon after, and in the following two decades, Walter Kenrick Fisher, working in California, synonymised or removed all of Verrill's species of Asterias, and synonymised Verrill's new genera of Allasterias and Parasterias with Asterias, leaving the genus with four species, all of which are still recognised today. Ryori Hayashi synonymised one further Japanese species in 1940, leaving the genus with three species known since the previous century, all of which are still recognised today.

Alexander Michailovitsch Djakonov added two new species from Far East Russia in 1950 and reinstated the three species which were synonymised by Fisher and Hayashi, bringing the genus to eight species, although it took until the 2000s for some zoologists from the United States to accept his new species.

Description

Asterias, like most starfish genera in the order Forcipulatida, are recognisable externally by their pedicellariae, many thousands of tiny jaw-like structures on the skin which can snap shut to nip at prey or predators. Asterias has two types present -the major, also called straight, pedicellaria, which lie scattered across their skin, and the smaller minor, also called crossed, pedicellaria, which are found in tufts or wreaths around the large dorsal spines -these pedicellariae have tiny, rubbery stalks known as pedicels. Papulae are also present. All species normally have five arms. Internally, the exoskeleton also presents some diagnostic characters, such as the dorsal plates bearing only a single spine in their centre.

Sladen distinguishes it from the genus Uniophora by the presence of spines on its abactinal plates, instead of large, spherical tubercles; and from Anasterias by the well-developed, reticulate, abactinal skeleton.

Species
The World Register of Marine Species includes the following species: Distributions from Djakonov (1950).

title: Asterias


text:
Talk:Sybil

'sibyl', for a start Wetman 10:48, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)

=In modern times, when "Sibyl" is adopted for a woman's name, the conventional spelling is "Sybil"=

Not necessarily. Kostaki mou (talk) 03:17, 9 February 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sybil


text:
Japanese naval codes

The vulnerability of Japanese naval codes and ciphers was crucial to the conduct of World War II, and had an important influence on foreign relations between Japan and the west in the years leading up to the war as well. Every Japanese code was eventually broken, and the intelligence gathered made possible such operations as the victorious American ambush of the Japanese Navy at Midway in 1942 (by breaking code JN-25b) and the shooting down of Japanese admiral Isoroku Yamamoto a year later in Operation Vengeance.

The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) used many codes and ciphers. All of these cryptosystems were known differently by different organizations; the names listed below are those given by Western cryptanalytic operations.

Red code
The Red Book code was an IJN code book system used in World War I and after. It was called "Red Book" because the American photographs made of it were bound in red covers. It should not be confused with the RED cipher used by the diplomatic corps.

This code consisted of two books. The first contained the code itself; the second contained an additive cipher which was applied to the codes before transmission, with the starting point for the latter being embedded in the transmitted message. A copy of the code book was obtained in a "black bag" operation on the luggage of a Japanese naval attaché in 1923; after three years of work Agnes Driscoll was able to break the additive portion of the code.

Knowledge of the Red Book code helped crack the similarly constructed Blue Book code.

Coral
A cipher machine developed for Japanese naval attaché ciphers, similar to JADE. It was not used extensively, but Vice Admiral Katsuo Abe, a Japanese representative to the  Axis Tripartite Military Commission, passed considerable information about German deployments in CORAL, intelligence "essential for Allied military decision making in the European Theater."

Jade
A cipher machine used by the Imperial Japanese Navy from late 1942 to 1944 and similar to CORAL; see JADE (cypher machine).

Dockyard codes
A succession of codes used to communicate between Japanese naval installations. These were comparatively easily broken by British codebreakers in Singapore and are believed to have been the source of early indications of imminent naval war preparations.

JN-11
The Fleet Auxiliary System, derived from the JN-40 merchant-shipping code. Important for information on troop convoys and orders of battle.

JN-20
An inter-island cipher that provided valuable intelligence, especially when periodic changes to JN-25 temporarily blacked out U.S. decryption. JN-20 exploitation produced the "AF is short of water" message that established the main target of the Japanese Fleet, leading to a decisive U.S. victory at the Battle of Midway in 1942.

JN-25
JN-25 is the name given by codebreakers to the main, and most secure, command and control communications scheme used by the IJN during World War II. Named as the 25th Japanese Navy system identified, it was initially given the designation AN-1 as a "research project" rather than a "current decryption" job. The project required reconstructing the meaning of thirty thousand code groups and piecing together thirty thousand random additives.

Introduced from 1 June 1939 to replace Blue (and the most recent descendant of the Red code), it was an enciphered code, producing five-numeral groups for transmission. New code books and super-enciphering books were introduced from time to time, each new version requiring a more or less fresh cryptanalytic attack. John Tiltman with some help from Alan Turing (at GCSB) had "solved" JN25 by 1941, i.e. they knew that it was a five-digit code with a codebook to translate words into five digits and there was a second "additive" book that the sender used to add to the original numbers "But knowing all this didn’t help them read a single message".

By April 1942 JN25 was about 20 percent readable, so codebreakers could read "about one in five words" and traffic analysis was far more useful. Tiltman had devised a (slow; neither easy nor quick) method of breaking it and had noted that all the numbers in the codebook were divisible by three. "Breaking" rather than "solving" a code involves learning enough code words and indicators so that any given message can be read.

In particular, JN-25 was significantly changed on 1 December 1940 (JN25a); and again on 4 December 1941 (JN25b), just before the attack on Pearl Harbor.

British, Australian, Dutch and American cryptanalysts co-operated on breaking JN-25 well before the Pearl Harbor attack, but because the Japanese Navy was not engaged in significant battle operations before then, there was little traffic available to use as raw material. Before then, IJN discussions and orders could generally travel by routes more secure than broadcast, such as courier or direct delivery by an IJN vessel. Publicly available accounts differ, but the most credible agree that the JN-25 version in use before December 1941 was not more than perhaps 10% broken at the time of the attack, and that primarily in stripping away its super-encipherment. JN-25 traffic increased immensely with the outbreak of naval warfare at the end of 1941 and provided the cryptographic "depth" needed to succeed in substantially breaking the existing and subsequent versions of JN-25.

The American effort was directed from Washington, D.C. by the U.S. Navy's signals intelligence command, OP-20-G; at Pearl Harbor it was centered at the Navy's Combat Intelligence Unit (Station HYPO, also known as COM 14), led by Commander Joseph Rochefort. However, in 1942 not every cryptogram was decoded, as Japanese traffic was too heavy for the undermanned Combat Intelligence Unit. With the assistance of Station CAST (also known as COM 16, jointly commanded by Lts Rudolph Fabian and John Lietwiler) in the Philippines, and the British Far East Combined Bureau in Singapore, and using a punched card tabulating machine manufactured by International Business Machines, a successful attack was mounted against the 4 December 1941 edition (JN25b). Together they made considerable progress by early 1942. "Cribs" exploited common formalities in Japanese messages, such as "I have the honor to inform your excellency" (see known plaintext attack).

Later versions of JN-25 were introduced: JN-25c from 28 May 1942, deferred from 1 April then 1 May; providing details of the attacks on Midway and Port Moresby. JN-25d was introduced from 1 April 1943, and while the additive had been changed, large portions had been recovered two weeks later, which provided details of Yamamoto's plans that were used in Operation Vengeance, the shooting-down of his plane.

JN-39
This was a naval code used by merchant ships (commonly known as the "maru code"), broken in May 1940. 28 May 1941, when the whale factory ship Nisshin Maru No. 2 (1937) visited San Francisco, U.S. Customs Service Agent George Muller and Commander R. P. McCullough of the U.S. Navy's 12th Naval District (responsible for the area) boarded her and seized her codebooks, without informing Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI). Copies were made, clumsily, and the originals returned. The Japanese quickly realized JN-39 was compromised, and replaced it with JN-40.

JN-40
JN-40 was originally believed to be a code super-enciphered with a numerical additive, in the same way as JN-25. However, in September 1942, an error by the Japanese gave clues to John MacInnes and Brian Townend, codebreakers at the British FECB, Kilindini. It was a fractionating transposition cipher based on a substitution table of 100 groups of two figures each followed by a columnar transposition. By November 1942, they were able to read all previous traffic and break each message as they received it. Enemy shipping, including troop convoys, was thus trackable, exposing it to Allied attack. Over the next two weeks they broke two more systems, the "previously impenetrable" JN167 and JN152.

JN-147
The "minor operations code" often contained useful information on minor troop movements.

JN-152
A simple transposition and substitution cipher used for broadcasting navigation warnings. In 1942 after breaking JN-40 the FECB at Kilindini broke JN-152 and the previously impenetrable JN-167, another merchant shipping cypher.

JN-167
A merchant-shipping cipher (see JN-152).

Chicago Tribune incident
In June 1942 the Chicago Tribune, run by isolationist Col. Robert R. McCormick, published an article implying that the United States had broken the Japanese codes, saying the U.S. Navy knew in advance about the Japanese attack on Midway Island, and published dispositions of the Japanese invasion fleet. The executive officer of Lexington, Commander Morton T. Seligman (who was transferred to shore duties), had shown Nimitz's executive order to reporter Stanley Johnston.

The government at first wanted to prosecute the Tribune under the Espionage Act of 1917. For various reasons, including the desire not to bring more attention to the article and because the Espionage Act did not cover enemy secrets, the charges were dropped. A grand jury investigation did not result in prosecution but generated further publicity and, according to Walter Winchell, "tossed security out of the window". Several in Britain believed that their worst fears about American security were realized.

In early August, a RAN intercept unit in Melbourne heard Japanese messages, using a superseded lower-grade code. Changes were made to codebooks and the call-sign system, starting with the new JN-25 codebook (issued two months before). However the changes indicated the Japanese believed the Allies had worked out the fleet details from traffic analysis or had obtained a codebook and additive tables, being reluctant to believe that anyone could have broken their codes (least of all a Westerner).

title: Japanese naval codes


text:
Accipiter

Accipiter is a genus  of birds of prey in the family Accipitridae. With around 50 recognized species it is the most diverse genus in its family. Most species are called goshawks or sparrowhawks, although with the exception of the American goshawk almost all New World species are simply known as "hawks". They can be anatomically distinguished from their relatives by the lack of a procoracoid foramen. Two small and aberrant species usually placed here do possess a large procoracoid foramen and are also distinct as regards DNA sequence. They may warrant separation in the old genus Hieraspiza.

Extant accipiters range in size from the little sparrowhawk (A. minullus), in which the smallest males measure 20 cm long, span 39 cm across the wings and weigh 68 g, to the northern goshawk (A. gentilis), in which the largest females measure 64 cm long, span 127 cm across the wings, and weigh 2.2 kg. These birds are slender with short, broad, rounded wings and a long tail which helps them maneuver in flight. They have long legs and long, sharp talons used to kill their prey, and a sharp, hooked bill used in feeding. Females tend to be larger than males. They often ambush their prey, mainly small birds and mammals, capturing them after a short chase. The typical flight pattern is a series of flaps followed by a short glide. They are commonly found in wooded or shrubby areas.

The genus Accipiter was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. The type species is the Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus). The name is Latin for "hawk", from accipere, "to grasp".

Procoracoid foramen
The procoracoid foramen (or coracoid foramen, coracoid fenestra) is a hole through the process at the front of the coracoid bone, which accommodates the supracoracoideus nerve. In some groups of birds it may be present as a notch, or incisura; or the notch may be partially or weakly closed with bone. In other groups the feature is completely absent.

The foramen is generally present in birds of prey, but it is absent in most Accipiter hawks that have been studied. This absence is proposed as a diagnostic feature.

A study of accipitrid skeletons found procoracoid incisurae (as opposed to foramina) in some specimens of the eagles Aquila gurneyi and A. chrysaetos, but not in four other Aquila species. The notch was variably open or weakly ossified in Spizastur melanoleucos, Lophoaetus occipitalis, Spizaetus ornatus, and Stephanoaetus coronatus. Also the buteonine hawks Buteo brachyurus and B. hemilasius had incisurae, differing from 17 other Buteo species.

In Circus the foramen was found to be variable, not only within species but even between sides in the same individual. It is usually open or absent but may be closed by "a thread of bone". Research in genetic phylogeny has since indicated that Circus is closely related to Accipiter.

The notch was also absent or indistinct in Harpagus bidentatus.

Urotriorchis macrourus has a well-developed procoracoid foramen, which suggests a separation from Accipiter. It may be related to the chanting goshawks in tribe Melieraxini.

Genetic phylogeny
Analysis of molecular genetics indicates that Accipiter is paraphyletic to the Circus harriers, even though the two groups differ in hunting habits and body shape. There are three or four clades of Accipiter, with Circus, Megatriorchis and Erythrotriorchis intermixed.

John Boyd proposes splitting Accipiter into four separate genera: Aerospiza, Tachyspiza, Accipiter, and Astur. In this scheme Tachyspiza has the most species, and a reduced Accipiter would have only six: Eurasian sparrowhawk (A. nisus, type species), rufous-breasted sparrowhawk (A. rufiventris), sharp-shinned hawk (A. striatus), white-breasted hawk (A. chionogaster), plain-breasted hawk (A. ventralis), rufous-thighed hawk (A. erythronemius).

 * Tribe Accipitrini
 * (group 1)
 * Erythrotriorchis
 * Aerospiza
 * Tachyspiza
 * (group 2)
 * Accipiter
 * (group 2a)
 * Megatriorchis
 * Astur
 * Circus
 * harriers
 * swamp-harriers

List of Accipiter species
There are 50 species in the Accipiter genus.

Extinct species

 * Powerful goshawk, Accipiter efficax
 * Gracile goshawk, Accipiter quartus

title: Accipiter


text:
Talk:Thermoregulation

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Vengeous34.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 11:17, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Kushanna, Nordliam, Julisymmons.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 11:17, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 6 January 2021 and 21 April 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): NoName1211.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 11:17, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Untitled
Vandalism at Ectothermy versus Endothermy "To cope with low temperatures, some cows have developed the ability to remain functional even when the water temperature is below freezing; some use natural antifreeze or..." That should probably read fish instead of cows, but I want to leave that to someone who normally reviews this page. Disgustedandamused (talk) 14:07, 17 June 2011 (UTC)

I merged thermoregulate into this article here and it still needs work. Because of the structure of the original articles it was easy to split up the article into: mechanisms of regulation and then by types of animals, i.e.:

 * Physiological regulation
 * Ectotherms
 * Endotherms
 * Behavioral regulation
 * Types of
 * Ectotherm
 * Endotherm

Although I suspect that it might be best to divide the article by organism type (endotherm, ectotherm) and then discuss the mechanisms for each, i.e.

 * Ectotherms
 * Physiological regulation
 * Behavioral regulation
 * Endotherms
 * Physiological regulation
 * Behavioral regulation

However, given the ways it's currently written it would be some work to this, but it would probably improve readability. Any takers?--Lexor 11:01, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)

possible error
The phrase "Cestus having lowest death temperature and least amount of solids in its body" seems like there must be something wrong with it, but I'm not sure. The only article up for "cestus" is that of the brass-knuckle like object used in the classical world. I'm not sure what the other meaning is, but perhaps it should either be stated here, changed if incorrect, or it should have an article about it.
 * The provided (inline) reference checks out: http://www.google.com/search?&q=H.M.%20Vernon%20cestus

Metabolism
I came looking for info on whether lowering the thermostat (e.g. at night) would result in weight loss / increase metabolism. Article implies it may, but it's unclear - perhaps it's mechanisms other than metabolism changes that result in maintaining core temperature. I wonder if the topic has been studied. Is this another side effect (along with saving money, the environment, etc.)? -Anon

vandalism
Someone vandalized this page, Oct, 11, 2005. I'll revise it. Adam850 00:00, 12 October 2005 (UTC) a homoeothermic vandalized this page in 2015 october 13 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.62.116.154 (talk) 01:57, 2 March 2014 (UTC)

Teleological Evolution
The phrase "high in the scale of evolution" in referenece to warm-bloods such as mammals and birds is rather grating. All current animals have the same amount of evolutionary time under their belt. This is like the common misconception that "humans evolved from monkeys" rather than sharing common ancestors. 68.35.154.196 18:41, 8 July 2006 (UTC)

Clarification Needed
In the section 'Limits compatible with life' the phrase "but no one can survive a temperature of 45°C (113°F)" should be clarified such that it is apparent that this is the 'internal body temperature' (see Wikipedia article: Heat_stroke) Begaddy 02:51, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

Question
"If the body is unable to maintain a normal temperature and it increases significantly above normal, a condition known as hyperthermia occurs."

Isn't this condition known as heat stroke, not hypothermia? - note the difference in the terms "hypERthermia" and "hypOthermia". They are totally different.

ANSWER:

Hyper - too much

Hypo - too little

HYPERthermia = too hot

HYPOthermia = too cold

Hope this clears things up. CharlotteIsobel (talk) 13:36, 20 November 2007 (UTC)

if an experiment shows that the body temperature varies by 0.8C,what does that show about the thermoregulation of human bodies??- Maria Chaudhry

Comment on the recent deletion of this page
A user recently deleted this page in full. I used the cache from Google to replace the data and tried to do some minor reformatting. I hope this helps. --Harold

Comment
There was no mention about the role of pyrogens in fever. Somebody should mention it... --Mattycoze

37°C - normal human body temperature ?
Isn't that too high ? As far as I know normal temperature is about 36.6°C and 37°C is sign of illness Xil/talk 10:58, 1 February 2007 (UTC)

37 deg Cel is the classic 98.6deg F, which (while wrong) is close enough to be in the range of normal... however this following statement from the article "As stated above, the temperature of warm-blooded animals is maintained with but slight variation. In health under normal conditions the temperature of humans varies between 36.5 °C and 37.5 °C, or if the thermometer be placed in the axilla, between 36.25 °C and 37.5 °C. In the mouth the reading would be from 0.25 °C to 1.5 °C higher than this; and in the rectum some 0.9 °C higher still. The temperature of infants and young children has a much greater range than this, and is susceptible of wide divergencies from comparatively slight causes." Makes very little sense and should be revised. If the mouth reading can be 1.5degC higher than the armpiut reading of 37.5, then the upper normal range of the mouth would be 39degC which is 102.2degF which is /CLEARLY/ wrong.
 * Thanks, now it makes sense. I remmember that I read somwhere that temperature differs in different body parts, perhaps that should be included to explain why there is such amplitude in temperature from variations in thermometer placement (I believe that is the reason) -- Xil/talk 21:18, 17 March 2007 (UTC)

Relation between LOCALISED temperatures, and volume of blood circulation in nearby vessels [?]
I have a question about the temperature of particular areas of the human body, and how they relate to circulation...

When one experiences poor circulation in arms, legs, nose, or other areas of the body; they feel colder to the touch, than other parts of said body. Does this mean that the reduced blood ACTUALLY LOWERS the localised temperature, or does it simply just give the SENSATION of a lower temperature, due to numbing of the nerve cells?

I'm also curious as to whether lower blood flow volume to said body parts may result in necrosis or collapse of the living tissues in MOST cases, (or only in cases where circulation in those locations is virtually nil).

In Hypothermia, blood circulation progressively decreases in the limbs and extremities, as a result of the temperature shift (and a natural defense for the brain and vital organs). My question, in essence, is whether the cause-and-effect is reversible, and if lower circulation can result in lower temperatures; and not just vice-versa.

---Please let me know at your earliest convenience. Pine 20:51, 19 April 2007 (UTC)

Humanistical The impossible is only that which we don't yet know how to do (talk) 19:48, 7 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, lower blood flow does cause lower temperature in affected areas of the body. It does not simply create the sensation of a lower temperature, since this lower temperature can be confirmed by another individual who does not suffer from poor circulation. To answer your second question, low blood flow, depending on its severity, can lead to reduced function of the affected part, and in cases of very little blood flow (e.g. frostbite), gradual cell death is very possible. Of course, if cells are in contact with an object of exceedingly low temperature, such as liquid nitrogen, they can immediately freeze and die, sometimes completely detaching from the remaining healthy tissue. Lastly, hypothermia is reversible depending on when it is caught, the severity, the amount of cell death. It is most definitely possible to reverse hypothermia; however, permanent damage to varying degrees is not unexpected.

Thermoregulation in flowering plants
This article lacks a section about thermoregulation in flowering plants. An enunciation can be found at Plant Physiology Online : Temperature Regulation by Thermogenic Flowers. JoJan 14:21, 8 November 2007 (UTC)
 * I added some information about thermoregulation in plants. I was unsure about adding more detail, because the page is already really long. -- Kweeket Talk 21:53, 7 December 2007 (UTC)

Badly done
This page needs some serious cleanup. It's full of grammatical errors and lacks any sort of references. I'd like to see the page redone, or deleted. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Tercero (talk • contribs) 20:44, 7 December 2007 (UTC)

contested statement removed

 * Cestus having lowest death temperature and least amount of solids in its body.

Please do not return this information to the article without a citation.-- Birgitte SB  14:12, 9 June 2008 (UTC)

Arterioles
Isn't it arteries. I'm not positive, but I think that vasodialation occurs when arteries and veins expand. Please correct me if I'm wrong. I just was wondering. Thanks.

Drdaver User:Drdaver (talk) 21:48, 2 April 2009 (UTC)
 * No - arterioles are the main vessles responsible for vasoconstriction and vasodilation.

Temperature symptoms
"Only 37% of heat is lost through your head."

Should this really be underneath that category?

Thank you for your suggestion. When you feel an article needs improvement, please feel free to make those changes. Wikipedia is a wiki, so anyone can edit almost any article by simply following the  link at the top. The Wikipedia community encourages you to be bold in updating pages. Don't worry too much about making honest mistakes — they're likely to be found and corrected quickly. If you're not sure how editing works, check out how to edit a page, or use the sandbox to try out your editing skills. New contributors are always welcome. You don't even need to log in (although there are many reasons why you might want to). WhatamIdoing (talk) 19:23, 24 November 2008 (UTC)

It may or may not be. I am sure that it is no, but im not positive. Its probably just a minor edit because I think the person who put that wouldn't be quite sure either. Jcpower

Could someone add a section discussing the usage of the terms homeotherm/poikilotherm vs. endotherm/ectotherm? Thanks, Wikimedes (talk) 02:03, 22 June 2010 (UTC)

Homoeothermic, Endothermic,  Poikilothermic,  Ectothermic
Regulation of body temperature is important to the maintenance of "homeostasis" of the physiological processes within a living organism. Homoeostasis, is the normal balanced physiological state that allows a organism to function, for example, a normal temperature, or metabolism. This is true for single celled organisms, to more complex, multi-cellular organisms. The way each organism regulates temperature depends on the environment in which it exists, and the type of physiological functions its cells and organs need to carry out to maintain life. Definitions: Medical and scientific words are usually compounded from prefixes, suffixes, and root words such as the following; homeo; Similar, alike,      		stasis; Balanced or no change, endo; Internal, within,     		poikilo; Varying, irregular, ecto; Outside of,			thermic; Producing heat,

Homoeothermic or Endothermic: An organism whose stable body temperature is generally independent of the temperature of its surrounding environment. (Dictionary) Most mammals are homoeothermic. Poikilothermic or Ectothermic: Having a body temperature that varies according to the temperature of the local atmosphere. (Dictionary) Reptiles, amphibians, insects, and fish are all poikilothermic. WORKS CITED 1. Dictionary, Encarta. Encarta Dictionary: English ( North American). 2010. 22 August 2010 . --Ctprvt science (talk) 04:04, 23 August 2010 (UTC)

References, citations and further reading
Hello follks. After saving this comment, I'll make a couple of section changes, which are not dramatic or major, but will facilitate the addition of resource material, and take care of the problem of three uncited texts listed in the article.

If the texts aren't accurately cited within the article by the original editor, there is no way for anyone else to know the extent to which they have served as a reference. In such circumstances, the best thing to do is to place them into a 'Further reading' section, which is what I'm going to do. If someone is subsequently able to verify the relevant text, either from the text itself, or a work citing the text, then it's just a matter of relocating the text from the 'Further reading' section into an inline citation using the tags at either end of the citation template. If the author or text is well enough known, and if it is a seminal work or series of studies, contemporary works will make some comment on it.

For example, Simpson and Galbraith pop up quite a bit in various internet searches, but I've not found a close enough match to justify me placing their 1905 article into an online citation without more work on the article than I can spare the time for. I did however find works which cite Simpson and Galbraith, and the utility of the 'Further reading' section is that I can add such things for later utilisation by me or someone else. If that is never done, the information is still there for readers to pursue. The further reading section also allows the addition of other material from which interested editors can glean either citations for existing text - with or without modifications to that text - and/or material to add to the article.

In the process of creating the further reading section, I'll also change the "Notes" section to "References", since that is in fact what they are. Wotnow (talk) 22:31, 8 September 2010 (UTC)

Correction
The endotherms section states that any organism that regulate their own body temperature are known as geothermic which is clearly incorrect. I suspect vandalism as the sentence starts with "An geothermic ...". I'm going to change the sentence from "An geothermic is an animal that regulates its own body temperature, typically by keeping it a constant level." to "An endotherm is an animal that regulates its own body temperature, typically by keeping it a constant level.". Could somebody verify the accuracy of this as I'm not sure whether an endotherm always regulates it's own temperature. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 138.250.6.108 (talk) 14:24, 1 April 2011 (UTC)

Problem with reference 7
Hi,

I have checked the reference myself and cannot find anything stating that liver is a major player in homeostasis in body temperature. In fact, using the index

Temperature (body) regulation of

did not bring me anywhere close to liver. I have added a tag which may not be well coded. Can someone fix it for me? Or do I simply remove the whole sentence? I believe that it is partially correct if we are to add that liver is a major organ in generating metabolic products => hence produce heat.

Flowright138 (talk) 03:45, 11 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Tag fixed. Vsmith (talk) 12:39, 11 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Thanks VSmith - may I please call forward the person who have added this entry and justify their claim? Flowright138 (talk) 15:22, 15 September 2011 (UTC)

Just found a link to that reference http://www.academia.edu/368593/Human_Physiology_Gyton_Hall_ page 890 it is the first sentance under the heading heat loss. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 101.168.255.238 (talk) 08:33, 26 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Have sighted the page and relevant text. Will amend inline citation accordingly, and remove the tag. Wotnow (talk) 18:51, 28 January 2013 (UTC)

arrector pili muscles
Isn't it called arrector pili muscles?

NOT errector pili muscles? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 202.169.218.20 (talk) 06:24, 12 April 2012 (UTC)
 * The correct spelling according The Free Dictionary is 'erector' which quotes The American Heritage® Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2007, 2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. I have changed the text. DrChrissy (talk) 17:33, 31 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Oooohps. I might have jumped the gun with my previous edit.  Further searches reveal it is/can be spelt 'arrector'  - the same web-site as above but this page quotes Dorland's Medical Dictionary for Health Consumers. © 2007 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier, Inc.  There appears to be a greater number of sites using 'arrector', therefore I will revert my change.DrChrissy (talk) 18:13, 31 August 2012 (UTC)

Fundamental flaws
There appear to be fundamental flaws in this article. Endotherm is defined as 'An endotherm is an animal that regulates its own body temperature, typically by keeping it at a constant level' yet I always thought endothermy meant 'heat from within'. Indeed, the WP Endothermy article states 'An endotherm is an organism that produces heat through internal means, such as muscle shivering or increasing its metabolism (Greek: endon = "within", thermē = "heat").' I believe the Thermoregulation article needs looking at closely in terms of the text and organisation - it apperas to go from thermoregulation in humans to theromregulation in plants, and then back to humans!DrChrissy (talk) 16:38, 5 September 2012 (UTC)

Thermoregulation in vertebrates
The explanation regarding rabbits thermoregulation before they die to rabies doesn't seem to convey any information about survival strategies.68.84.158.248 (talk) 21:38, 24 October 2012 (UTC)

Creation should be considered
On bullet point 2.3, Thermoregulation in humans, this phrase appeared the last time I checked. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms as a byproduct of evolution, and the conscious development of cultural adaptations. The problem is that this does not consider the Creationist viewpoint. Creationism is a valid point, whether it is right or not. Legolover26 (talk) 15:10, 18 January 2013 (UTC) That was 18 days ago. I have now edited it the way I think it should look. Legolover26 (talk) 15:21, 5 February 2013 (UTC)

The evolutionary basis, just as any assertion made on wikipedia, is backed by cited references. Creationism and evolution are not at odds, since they describe different parts of natural history - abiogenesis, versus environmental adaptation. Your assertion of dispute is made without grounds or evidence or references. Antiduh (talk) 18:59, 2 May 2013 (UTC)

Human body temperature and thermoregulation
A Spanish article specifically about human body temperature is necessary: Spanish-language article termorregulación includes both issues. --Correogsk or Gustavo (Eritrocito or Heme aquí) 02:37, 28 November 2013 (UTC)

"physiological (?) or physiological ecology"
I think there is a missing word after the first "physiological" in this:
 * the study of such processes in zoology has been called physiological or physiological ecology

jnestorius(talk) 22:54, 16 May 2015 (UTC)

Homeotherm/poikilotherm vs. endotherm/ectotherm vs. warm-blooded/cold-blooded vs. thermoregulating/thermoconforming
This article is incredibly confusing in its use of the terms "thermoregulating", "thermoconforming", "cold-blooded", "warm-blooded", "homeothermic", "poikilothermic", "ectothermic", and "endothermic".

At the beginning of the introduction we are taught the terms "thermoregulating" and "thermoconforming". At the beginning of section 1 the terms "ectotherm" and "endotherm" are introduced, defined as synonymous with "cold-blooded" and "warm-blooded", yet the claim is made that the common understanding of "cold-blooded" is wrong, as ectotherms actually maintain their temperature at the same temperatures as endotherms. Later at the end of section 1 the terms "homeothermy" and "poikilothermy" are introduced with no relationship to the previous terms, yet they seem to be defined to match the colloquial understanding of warm-blooded (stable body temperature) and cold-blooded (variable body temperature). These definitions also seem to be the same as "thermoconforming" and "thermoregulating", but no explanation is made of that here.

At this point, the beginning reader would believe that because ectotherms and endotherms are described as maintaining the same temperatures, they are both subcategories of homeotherms, and poikilotherms are a separate category; and that "cold-blooded" and "warm-blooded" are synonyms for "ectotherm" and "endotherm".

And then at the beginning of section 2, suddenly the article uses "homeothermic" and "poikilothermic" as synonyms for warm-blooded and cold-blooded, which were just a moment ago defined to mean different things.

If all four of these sets of terms mean the same thing, the article should state this clearly, and then be consistent and pick one pair to use throughout. If they mean different things, the article should clearly specify what the difference is and how these categories relate to one another.

Note the above needs to be signed.
 * I made a similar point in September 2012! Perhaps a list or table of definitions is needed? DrChrissy (talk) 10:19, 25 October 2015 (UTC)

Rewrite needed
This article is an incredible mess. I have removed a whole lot of uncited, doubtful and in parts irrelevant material, but the remainder is poorly organized, overlaps with itself and is as DrChrissy says confusing and poorly written. It's reaching the stage where WP:TNT is required - a total rewrite. More random additions of vaguely-new, vaguely-interesting, vaguely-on-topic claims (I won't call them facts) will make it worse. Basically the topic is not complicated (when hot, cool down; when cold, warm up) so it's amazing what a tangle it has got into. Chiswick Chap (talk) 18:20, 4 November 2015 (UTC)

Ok, here's a case in point. An IP editor, I guess one of many students now doing Wikipedia coursework, has added the following:

 * Another example of possible temperature regulation is the E. meriana orchid bee. Some researchers suggest that the wing buzzing seen in E. meriana is a behavioral mechanism that helps to cool the body of the bee down in tropical climates as a form of thermoregulation. The sunlit territories they live in can significantly elevate the body temperature of the bee.

This text is not bad in itself - it is intelligible and well cited. The thing is, my comment above still stands: the article is already well peopled with assorted facts, most of them cited. What it isn't is organized; and without a framework to fit assorted claims into, one more just increases the jabberwocky feel of the thing. If there is a team of students ready and willing, and it seems there is, could they work on the framework please? It would make a fine "project", and it would genuinely improve Wikipedia and help readers. Chiswick Chap (talk) 09:20, 5 November 2015 (UTC)

What is panting
Can somebody add a sentence explaining what is panting or, rather, what is the difference between sweating and panting? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Cristiklein (talk • contribs) 22:09, 30 June 2016 (UTC)

Citations are out of order
The citations in the section on plants, and likely others, are not in the correct locations. Clicking a ref number pops up a reference that appears wrong, but is just a citation that should be linked elsewhere. example: the ref for sacred lotus info is actually about skunk cabagge. Fitzhugh (talk) 14:59, 2 March 2020 (UTC)

Low Body Temperature and Lifespan Issues
I am somewhat concerned about this section regarding longevity and internal body temperature as mentioned in the article as I have read elsewhere that in humans, women tend to have higher body temperatures but seem to live longer than men on average. In fact it was even mentioned in the article itself that women have on average higher body temperatures than men. I am by no means an expert on this topic but wouldn't it be appropriate to mention this contradictory evidence? Vapememes2020 (talk) 14:41, 19 January 2021 (UTC)

Famale reproductive system
Famale reproductive system 197.211.59.127 (talk) 20:38, 21 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Thermoregulation


text:
Charles Olson

Charles Olson (27 December 1910 – 10 January 1970) was a second generation modernist American poet who was a link between earlier modernist figures such as Ezra Pound and William Carlos Williams and the third generation modernist New American poets. The latter includes the New York School, the Black Mountain School, and some of the artists and poets associated with the Beat generation and the San Francisco Renaissance.

Today, Olson remains a central figure of the Black Mountain Poetry school and is generally considered a key figure in moving American poetry from modernism to postmodernism. In these endeavors, Olson described himself not so much as a poet or a historian but as "an archeologist of morning."

Life

Olson was born to Karl Joseph and Mary (Hines) Olson and grew up in Worcester, Massachusetts, where his father worked as a mail carrier. He spent summers in Gloucester, Massachusetts, which was to become his adopted hometown and the focus of his writing. At high school he was a champion orator, winning a tour of Europe (including a meeting with William Butler Yeats) as a prize. He studied English literature at Wesleyan University, where he graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1932 before earning an M.A. in the discipline (with a thesis on the oeuvre of Herman Melville) in 1933. After completing his M.A., Olson continued his Melville research at Wesleyan during the 1933–1934 academic year with partial fellowship support. For two years thereafter, he taught English as an instructor at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts.

Olson entered Harvard University as a doctoral student in English in 1936. He eventually joined the newly-formed doctoral program in American Civilization as one of its first three candidates. Throughout his studies, he worked at Winthrop House and Radcliffe College as an instructor and tutor in English. Although he completed his coursework by the spring of 1939, he failed to finish his dissertation and take the degree. He then received the first of two Guggenheim Fellowships for his studies of Melville; a monograph derived from his master's thesis and subsequent research, Call Me Ishmael, was published in 1947. His first poems were written in 1940.

In 1941, Olson moved to New York City's Greenwich Village and began living with Constance "Connie" Wilcock in a common-law marriage; they had one child, Katherine. During this period, he was employed as the publicity director for the American Civil Liberties Union (May 1941 – July 1941) and as chief of the Common Council for American Unity's Foreign Language Information Service (November 1941 – September 1942). At that point, they moved to Washington, D.C., where he worked in the Foreign Language Division of the Office of War Information, eventually rising to associate chief under Alan Cranston.

Upset about the increasing censorship of his news releases, Olson went to work for the Democratic National Committee as director of the Foreign Nationalities Division in May 1944. In this capacity, he participated in Franklin Roosevelt's 1944 presidential campaign, organizing "Everyone for Roosevelt", a large campaign rally at New York's Madison Square Garden. Following Roosevelt's re-election to an unprecedented fourth term, he wintered in Key West, Florida. In January 1945, he was offered his choice of two positions (including Assistant Secretary of the Treasury and the Cabinet-rank Postmaster General) in the Roosevelt administration. Increasingly disenchanted with politics, he turned down both posts.

The death of Roosevelt and concomitant ascendancy of Harry Truman in April 1945 inspired Olson to dedicate himself to a literary career. From 1946 to 1948, Olson visited Ezra Pound at St. Elizabeths Hospital, drawn to the poet and his work though repelled by some of his political ideas.

In September 1948, Olson became a visiting professor at Black Mountain College in North Carolina, replacing longtime friend Edward Dahlberg for the academic year. There, he would work and study beside such artists as the composer John Cage and the poet Robert Creeley. He subsequently joined the permanent faculty at the invitation of the student body in 1951 and became Rector shortly thereafter. While at Black Mountain, he had a second child, Charles Peter Olson, with one of his students, Betty Kaiser. Kaiser became Olson's second common-law wife following his separation from Wilcock in 1956.

Despite financial difficulties and Olson's eccentric administrative style, Black Mountain College continued to support work by Cage, Creeley, Allen Ginsberg, Robert Duncan, Fielding Dawson, Cy Twombly, Jonathan Williams, Ed Dorn, Stan Brakhage, and many other members of the 1950s American avant-garde throughout Olson's rectorship. Olson's influence has been cited by artists in other media, including Carolee Schneemann and James Tenney.

Olson's ideas came to influence a generation of poets, including writers Duncan, Dorn, Denise Levertov, and Paul Blackburn. At 204 cm (6'8"), Olson was described as "a bear of a man", his stature possibly influencing the title of his Maximus work. Olson wrote copious personal letters and helped and encouraged many young writers. His transdisciplinary poetics were informed by a range of disparate and learned sources, including Mayan writing, Sumerian religion, classical mythology, Alfred North Whitehead's process philosophy (as exemplified by Process and Reality [1929]) and cybernetics. Shortly before his death, he examined the possibility that Chinese and Indo-European languages derived from a common source.

When Black Mountain College closed in 1956, Olson oversaw the resolution of the institution's debts over the next five years and settled in Gloucester. He participated in early psilocybin experiments under the aegis of Timothy Leary in 1961 and Henry Murray and served as a distinguished professor at the State University of New York at Buffalo (1963-1965) and visiting professor at the University of Connecticut (1969). From 1965 until his death, Olson received a generous, informal annuity (nominally rendered for his services as editorial consultant to Frontier Press) from philanthropist and publisher Harvey Brown, a former graduate student at Buffalo; this enabled him to take an indefinite leave of absence from his Buffalo professorship and return to Gloucester.

In January 1964, Kaiser was killed by a drunk driver in a head-on automobile accident, although a grieving Olson incorrectly theorized her death as a potential suicide because of her dissatisfaction with her life in the Buffalo area. Her death precipitated Olson into an existential mixture of extreme isolation, romantic longing, and frenzied work. Much of his life was affected by his heavy smoking and drinking, which contributed to his early death from liver cancer. Following his diagnosis, he was transferred to New York Hospital for a liver operation, which never occurred. He died there in 1970, two weeks past his fifty-ninth birthday, while in the process of completing his epic, The Maximus Poems.

Early writings
Olson's first book, Call Me Ishmael (1947), a study of Herman Melville's novel Moby Dick, was a continuation of his M.A. thesis at Wesleyan University.

In Projective Verse (1950), Olson called for a poetic meter based on the poet's breathing and an open construction based on sound and the linking of perceptions rather than syntax and logic. He favored metre not based on syllable, stress, foot or line but using only the unit of the breath. In this respect Olson was foreshadowed by Ralph Waldo Emerson's poetic theory on breath. The presentation of the poem on the page was for him central to the work becoming at once fully aural and fully visual The poem "The Kingfishers" is an application of the manifesto. It was first published in 1949 and collected in his first book of poetry, In Cold Hell, in Thicket (1953). His second collection, The Distances, was published in 1960.

Olson's reputation rests in the main on his complex, sometimes difficult poems such as "The Kingfishers", "In Cold Hell, in Thicket", and The Maximus Poems, work that tends to explore social, historical, and political concerns. His shorter verse, poems such as "Only The Red Fox, Only The Crow", "Other Than", "An Ode on Nativity", "Love", and "The Ring Of" are more immediately accessible and manifest a sincere, original, emotionally powerful voice. "Letter 27 [withheld]" from The Maximus Poems weds Olson's lyric, historic, and aesthetic concerns. Olson coined the term postmodern in a letter of August 1951 to Robert Creeley.

The Maximus Poems
In 1950, inspired by the example of Pound's Cantos (though Olson denied any direct relation between the two epics), Olson began writing The Maximus Poems. An exploration of American history in the broadest sense, Maximus is also an epic of place, situated in Massachusetts and specifically the city of Gloucester where Olson had settled. Dogtown, the wild, rock-strewn centre of Cape Ann, next to Gloucester, is an important place in The Maximus Poems. (Olson used to write outside while sitting on a tree-stump in Dogtown.)

The whole work is also mediated through the voice of Maximus, based partly on Maximus of Tyre, an itinerant Greek philosopher, and partly on Olson himself. The last of the three volumes imagines an ideal Gloucester in which communal values have replaced commercial ones. When Olson knew he was dying of cancer, he instructed his literary executor Charles Boer and others to organize and produce the final book in the sequence following Olson's death.

Selected bibliography

 * Call Me Ishmael. (1947; reprint, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997)
 * Projective Verse Poetry New York #3 (1950; frequently reprinted)
 * The Distances. (New York: Grove Press Inc., 1960)
 * Human Universe and Other Essays, ed. Donald Allen (San Francisco: Auerhahn Society, 1965; Rpt. New York: Grove, 1967)
 * Selected Writings, ed. Robert Creeley (New York: New Directions, 1966).
 * The Maximus Poems 1-10 (Stuttgart: Jargon, 1953).
 * The Maximus Poems 11-22 (Stuttgart: Jargon, 1956).
 * The Maximus Poems [Volume I] (New York: Corinth Books/Jargon 24, 1960; London:  Cape Goliard, 1960).
 * Maximus Poems IV, V, VI (London: Cape Goliard, 1968).
 * The Special View of History, ed. Ann Charters (Berkeley: Oyez, 1970).
 * Archaeologist of Morning (London and New York: Cape Goliard, 1970).
 * The Maximus Poems: Volume Three (New York: Viking/Grossman, 1975).
 * Charles Olson and Ezra Pound: An Encounter at St. Elizabeths, ed. Catherine Seelye. New York: Viking, 1975 ISBN 0-670-52400-X
 * The Fiery Hunt and Other Plays (Bolinas: Four Seasons Foundation, 1977).
 * The Maximus Poems, ed. George Butternick (Berkeley: U of California Press, 1983).
 * The Collected Poems of Charles Olson: Excluding The Maximus Poems, ed. George Butternick (Berkeley: U of California Press, 1987).
 * A Nation of Nothing but Poetry: Supplementary Poems, ed. George Butternick (Santa Rosa: Black Sparrow Press, 1989).
 * Collected Prose, eds. Donald Allen & Benjamin Friedlander (Berkeley: U of California Press, 1997).
 * Muthologos: Lectures and Interviews, ed. Ralph Maud (Talonbooks, 2010).

Correspondence

 * Mayan Letters, ed. Robert Creeley (Mallorca: Divers Press, 1953; London: Jonathan Cape, 1968).
 * Letters for Origin 1950-1956, ed. Albert Glover (New York: Cape Goliard, 1970).
 * Charles Olson and Robert Creeley: The Complete Correspondence, eds. George F. Butterick & Richard Blevins, 10 vols. (Black Sparrow Press, 1980–96).
 * Charles Olson & Cid Corman: Complete Correspondence 1950-1964, ed. George Evans, 2 vols. (Orono, ME: National Poetry Foundation, 1987, 1991).
 * In Love, In Sorrow: The Complete Correspondence of Charles Olson and Edward Dahlberg, ed. Paul Christensen (New York: Paragon House, 1990).
 * Charles Olson and Frances Boldereff: A Modern Correspondence, eds. Ralph Maud & Sharon Thesen (Wesleyan University Press, 1999).
 * Selected Letters, ed. Ralph Maud (Berkeley: U of California Press, 2001).
 * After Completion: The Later Letters of Charles Olson and Frances Boldereff, eds. Sharon Thesen & Ralph Maud (Talonbooks, 2014).
 * An Open Map: The Correspondence of Robert Duncan and Charles Olson, eds. Robert J. Bertholf & Dale M. Smith (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2017).
 * The Collected Letters of Charles Olson and J.H. Prynne, ed. Ryan Dobran (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2017).

title: Charles Olson


text:
1797 in music

Events

 * February 12 – First performance of Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser (God Save Emperor Francis), an anthem to Francis II, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and later of Austria, with lyrics by Lorenz Leopold Haschka and music by Joseph Haydn.

Classical music

 * Jean-Jacques Beauvarlet-Charpentier – Victoire de l’armée d’Italie
 * Ludwig van Beethoven
 * Piano Sonata, Op. 7, in E-flat
 * Kriegslied der Österreicher, WoO 122
 * Jan Ladislav Dussek
 * Grand Duo, Op. 32
 * 2 Harp Sonatas, Op. 34
 * Piano Trio, Op. 37
 * Duet for Harp and Piano, Op. 38
 * La Consolation, Op. 62
 * Anton Eberl – 2 Sonatas for Keyboard 4-Hands, Op. 7
 * Joseph Haydn
 * String Quartets, Op. 76, "Erdödy Quartets"
 * Piano Trios, Op. 86
 * Das Kaiserlied, Hob.XXVIa:43
 * Michael Haydn – 4 Sonatas for Violin and Viola
 * James Hewitt – Piano Sonata in D major 'The Battle of Trenton'
 * James Hook – 6 Trios, Op. 83
 * Hyacinthe Jadin
 * Quartet for Strings, Op. 1
 * 3 String Trios, Op. 2
 * 3 Sonatas, Op. 3
 * Ignaz Pleyel – Concerto in C major, B.106
 * Carl Leopold Röllig – Kleine und leichte Tonstücke für die Orphica
 * Giovanni Battista Viotti – Concerto for Violin No. 22 in A minor
 * Paul Wranitzky – Symphony in C minor, Op. 31 "La paix"

Opera

 * Luigi Cherubini – Médée
 * Domenico Cimarosa – Artemisia regina di Caria
 * Józef Elsner – Amazonki
 * Étienne Méhul – Le jeune Henri
 * Luigi Mosca – L'impresario burlato
 * Joseph Weigl – L’amor marinaro

Methods and theory writings

 * Johann Friedrich Daube – Anleitung zur Erfindung der Melodie und ihrer Fortsetzung
 * Johann Peter Milchmeyer – Die wahre Art das Pianoforte zu spielen
 * Ignaz Pleyel – Méthode pour le pianoforte
 * Jean Marie Raoul – Méthode de violoncelle, Op. 4
 * Othen-Joseph Vandenbroek – Méthode nouvelle et raisonnée pour apprendre à donner du Cor

Births

 * January 10 – Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, German composer (died 1848)
 * January 31 – Franz Schubert, composer (d. 1828)
 * February 22 – Heinrich Engelhard Steinweg, German-American piano manufacturer (d. 1871)
 * March 6 – Dr. Gerrit Smith, dedicatee and abolitionist (died 1874)
 * May 6 – Joseph Brackett, American songwriter (died 1882)
 * May 22 – Eleonora Zrza, Danish opera soprano (d. 1862)
 * May 30 – Johann Christian Lobe, German composer (died 1881)
 * August 5 – Friedrich August Kummer, composer and musician (died 1879)
 * August 10 – Guillaume Louis Cottrau, composer and publisher (died 1847)
 * September 7 – Per Erik Wallqvist, Ballet master (d. 1855)
 * October 26 – Giuditta Pasta, operatic soprano (d. 1865)
 * November 29 – Gaetano Donizetti, composer (d. 1848)
 * December 13 – Heinrich Heine, librettist and poet (died 1856)

Deaths

 * February 2 – Pasquale Anfossi, composer (born 1727)
 * February 8 – Johann Friedrich Doles, composer (born 1715)
 * February 11 – Antoine Dauvergne, violinist and composer (born 1713)
 * March 19 – Philip Hayes, organist, singer, conductor and composer (born 1738)
 * April 12 – Josef Antonín Štěpán, Bohemian composer (born 1726)
 * May 17 – Michel-Jean Sedaine, librettist and writer (born 1719)
 * May 28 – Anton Raaff, operatic tenor (born 1714)
 * August 25 – Jean-Baptiste Louvet de Couvray, librettist and novelist (born 1760)
 * September 3 – Josina van Aerssen, composer and painter (born 1733)
 * September 11 – Pierre Jélyotte, operatic tenor (born 1713)
 * November 21 – Pietro Pompeo Sales, Italian composer (born 1729)

title: 1797 in music


text:
User talk:SaraS~enwiki

Hello Sara, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Angela 11:05, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called SaraS. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name SaraS~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 02:50, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 18:32, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:SaraS~enwiki


text:
Pedicellaria

A pedicellaria (: pedicellariae) is a small wrench- or claw-shaped appendage with movable jaws, called valves, commonly found on echinoderms (phylum Echinodermata), particularly in sea stars (class Asteroidea) and sea urchins (class Echinoidea). Each pedicellaria is an effector organ with its own set of muscles, neuropils, and sensory receptors and is therefore capable of reflex responses to the environment. Pedicellariae are poorly understood but in some taxa, they are thought to keep the body surface clear of algae, encrusting organisms, and other debris in conjunction with the ciliated epidermis present in all echinoderms.

Types
There are two major types of pedicellaria in sea stars: straight and crossed. Straight pedicellaria are typically larger and located on the body surface, whereas crossed pedicellaria are smaller and found more commonly on stalks, raised above the body surface or in clumps circling the spines. The crossed type is connected to the test by an elastic ligament.

Location
Sea star pedicellariae may be located on the test's surface or mounted on flexible stalks. Depending on the species, pedicellariae may be surrounding the spines, on the surface of the animal's body, in pits on the abactinal, marginal, or actinal surface, and/or within the adambulacral plate adjacent to the tube foot furrow. Forcipulate sea star are so called because each pedicellaria is typically composed of three forceps-like valves. Other asteroids can have pedicellariae composed of only two components.

Function
Pedicellariae in some taxa, such as the deep-sea Brisingida, and the Antarctic Labidiaster are known to function in food capture.

Types
Four main forms of pedicellariae are found in sea urchins : tridactylous, ophicephalous, triphyllous and globiferous. There are typically three valves that make up the jaw of sea urchin pedicellaria. The stalk is composed of a skeletal rod and a flexible neck portion.

Location
They are generally attached by a long, inflexible stalk and may be found anywhere on the sea urchin's test.

Function
In some families, globigerous pedicellariae have evolved into venomous structures, used for protection or maybe hunting. This is particularly the case in the family Toxopneustidae, some species such as Tripneustes gratilla and especially Toxopneustes pileolus being extremely venomous.

title: Pedicellaria