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Fiedler contingency model

The contingency model by business and management psychologist Fred Fiedler is a contingency theory concerned with the effectiveness of a leader in an organization.

Premises
The most common situational theory was developed by Fred Fiedler. Fiedler believed that an individual's leadership style is the result of their experiences throughout the lifespan and is therefore extremely difficult to change. Fiedler argued that one should concentrate on helping people understand their particular leadership style and how to match that style to the particular situation rather than teaching people a particular leadership style. Fiedler developed the least preferred coworker (LPC) scale in order to help one understand one's specific leadership style. According to Fiedler, because leadership behavior is fixed, effectiveness can only be improved by restructuring tasks or changing the amount of power the leader had over organizational factors (such as salary, disciplinary action, and promotions). Fiedler's model does have some weaknesses. For example, some leaders may be more effective in certain situations than others. The LPC scale can be questioned because the assessment is performed by one individual on another.

The theory holds that the effectiveness of a task group or of an organization depends on two main factors: the personality of the leader and the degree to which the situation gives the leader power, control, and influence over the situation or, conversely, the degree to which the situation confronts the leader with uncertainty.

To Fiedler, stress is a key determinant of leader effectiveness, and a distinction is made between stress related to the leader's superior and stress related to subordinates or the situation itself. In stressful situations, leaders dwell on the stressful relations with others and cannot focus their intellectual abilities on the job. Thus, intelligence is more effective and used more often in stress-free situations. Fiedler concludes that experience impairs performance in low-stress conditions but contributes to performance under high-stress conditions. As with other situational factors, for stressful situations Fiedler recommends altering or engineering the leadership situation to capitalize on the leader's strengths.

Fiedler's situational contingency theory holds that group effectiveness depends on an appropriate match between a leader's style (essentially a trait measure) and the demands of the situation. In other words, effective leadership is contingent on matching leader's style to the right setting. Fiedler considers situational control the extent to which a leader can determine what their group is going to do to be the primary contingency factor in determining the effectiveness of leader behavior.

Fiedler's contingency model is a dynamic model where the personal characteristics and motivation of the leader are said to interact with the current situation that the group faces. Thus, the contingency model marks a shift away from the tendency to attribute leadership effectiveness to personality alone.

Least preferred coworker (LPC)
The leadership style of the leader is thus fixed and measured by what Fiedler calls the least preferred coworker (LPC) scale, an instrument for measuring an individual's leadership orientation. The LPC scale asks a leader to think of all the people with whom they have ever worked and then describe the person with whom they have worked least well, using a series of bipolar scales of 1 to 8, such as the following: A high LPC score suggests that the leader has a "human relations orientation", while a low LPC score indicates a "task orientation". Fiedler assumes that everybody's least preferred coworker in fact is on average about equally unpleasant, but people who are relationship-motivated tend to describe their least preferred coworkers in a more positive manner, e.g., more pleasant and more efficient. Therefore, they receive higher LPC scores. People who are task-motivated, on the other hand, tend to rate their least preferred coworkers in a more negative manner. Therefore, they receive lower LPC scores. So, the least preferred coworker scale is actually not about the least preferred worker at all; instead, it is about the person who takes the test and that person's motivation type. This is because individuals who rate their least preferred coworker in relatively favorable light on these scales derive satisfaction out of interpersonal relationship, and those who rate the coworker in a relatively unfavorable light get satisfaction out of successful task performance. This method reveals an individual's emotional reaction to people they cannot work with. Critics point out that this is not always an accurate measurement of leadership effectiveness. Fiedler expanded his studies outside of the lab and showed the interrelations between adjustment, group performance, and leadership style in a volunteer medical team under different conditions of stress while working in isolated villages of Central America. The task-oriented leader performed better in situations that were favorable and relatively unfavorable while the relationship-oriented leader only fared better in situations of intermediate favorableness. As the LPC is a personality measure, the score is believed to be quite stable over time and not easily changed. Low LPCs tend to remain low and high LPCs tend to remain high, which shows that the test-reliability of the LPC is strong.

Situational favorability
According to Fiedler, the ability to control the group situation (the second component of the contingency model) is crucial for a leader. This is because only leaders with situational control can be confident that their orders and suggestions will be carried out by their followers. Leaders who are unable to assume control over the group situation cannot be sure that the members they are leading will execute their commands. Because situational control is critical to leadership efficacy, Fiedler broke this factor down into three major components: leader–member relations, task structure, and position power. Moreover, there is no ideal leader. Both low-LPC (task-oriented) and high-LPC (relationship-oriented) leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. The contingency theory allows for predicting the characteristics of the appropriate situations for effectiveness. Three situational components determine the favourableness of situational control:

 * 1) Leader–Member Relations, referring to the degree of mutual trust, respect, and confidence between the leader and the subordinates. When leader–member relations in the group are poor, the leader has to shift focus away from the group task in order to regulate behavior and conflict within the group.
 * 2) Task Structure, referring to the extent to which group tasks are clear and structured. When task structure is low (unstructured), group tasks are ambiguous, with no clear solution or correct approach to complete the goal. In contrast, when task structure is high (structured), the group goal is clear, unambiguous and straightforward: members have a clear idea about the how to approach and reach the goal.
 * 3) Leader Position Power, referring to the power inherent in the leader's position itself.

The basic findings of the Contingency Model are that task-motivated leaders perform generally best in very "favorable" situations, that is, either under conditions in which their power, control, and influence are very high (or, conversely, where uncertainty is very low) or where the situation is unfavorable, where they have low power, control, and influence. Relationship-motivated leaders tend to perform best in situations in which they have moderate power, control, and influence. Both the relationship and the task-motivated leaders perform well under some situations but not under others. It is not accurate to speak of a "good" or a "poor" leader; rather, a leader may perform well in one type of situation but not in another. Outstanding directors of research teams do not necessarily make good production foremen or military leaders, and outstanding battle field commanders, like United States Army General George S. Patton, do not necessarily make good chiefs of staff or good chairmen of volunteer school picnic committees.

When there is a good leader–member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a "favorable situation." Fiedler found that low-LPC leaders are more effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas high-LPC leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability. Leaders in high positions of power have the ability to distribute resources among their members, meaning they can reward and punish their followers. Leaders in low positions of power cannot control resources to the same extent as leaders in high power and so lack the same degree of situational control. For example, the CEO of a business has high position power, because she is able to increase and reduce the salary that her employees receive. On the other hand, an office worker in this same business has low position power, because although they may be the leader on a new business deal, they cannot control the situation by rewarding or disciplining their colleagues with salary changes.

Leader–situation match and mismatch
Since personality is relatively stable though it can be changed, the contingency model suggests that improving effectiveness requires changing the situation to fit the leader. This is called "job engineering" or "job restructuring". The organization or the leader may increase or decrease task structure and position power; also, training and group development may improve leader–member relations. In his 1976 book Improving Leadership Effectiveness: The Leader Match Concept, Fiedler (with Martin Chemers and Linda Mahar) offers a self paced leadership training program designed to help leaders alter the favorableness of the situation, or situational control. The advantage of contingency theory is that it “does not require that people be effective in all situations”. According to Northouse, although one person may be successful in one role, they may not be successful in another based on the environment.

One implication of "job engineering" or "job restructuring" through additional training is that if all leaders are given the same training regardless of their position in the contingency model, it could create a mismatch between the leader and situation. "The right person for a particular job today may be the wrong person in six months or in one or two years." For example, if a company has a workshop for all managers that effectively changed the task structure from low to high, it might seem good for the company at first glance, but it is important to note that leaders who were effective in a low task structure situation could become very ineffective in a situation with a high task structure.

Examples

 * A company that might be hiring a new manager to take on a leadership position that has poor current leader–member relations and high task structure and authority, the company would be best positioned to fill this role with a high LPC or leader–member relations to improve poor relations. Hiring someone who is more relation-oriented will help rebuild those the poor current leader–member relations.
 * Task-oriented leadership would be advisable in a natural disaster, like a flood or fire. In an uncertain situation the leader–member relations are usually poor, the task is unstructured, and the position power is weak. The one who emerges as a leader to direct the group's activity usually does not know subordinates personally. The task-oriented leader who gets things accomplished proves to be the most successful. If the leader is considerate (relationship-oriented), they may waste so much time in the disaster that things get out of control and lives are lost.
 * Blue-collar workers generally want to know exactly what they are supposed to do. Therefore, their work environment is usually highly structured. The leader's position power is strong if management backs their decision. Finally, even though the leader may not be relationship-oriented, leader–member relations may be extremely strong if they can gain promotions and salary increases for subordinates. Under these situations the task-oriented style of leadership is preferred over the (considerate) relationship-oriented style.
 * The considerate (relationship-oriented) style of leadership can be appropriate in an environment where the situation is moderately favorable or certain, for example, when (1) leader–member relations are good, (2) the task is structured, and (3) position power is either strong or weak. Situations like this exist with research scientists, who do not like superiors to structure the task for them. They prefer to follow their own creative leads in order to solve problems. In a situation like this a considerate style of leadership is preferred over the task-oriented.
 * The last example of a task-oriented leader is one that is in charge of large products. They have to oversee all of the operations and make decisions on behalf of the entire project. They have many tasks and goals to be set.

Opposing views
Researchers often find that Fiedler's contingency theory falls short on flexibility. They also note that LPC scores can fail to reflect the personality traits they are supposed to reflect.

Fiedler's contingency theory has drawn criticism because it implies that the only alternative for an unalterable mismatch of leader orientation and an unfavorable situation is changing the leader. The model's validity has also been disputed, despite many supportive tests. The contingency model does not take into account the percentage of "intermediate favorability" situations vs. "extremely favorable or unfavorable situations"; hence, it does not give a complete picture of the comparison between low-LPC leaders and high-LPC leaders.

Other criticisms concern the methodology of measuring leadership style through the LPC inventory and the nature of the supporting evidence. Fiedler and his associates have provided decades of research to support and refine the contingency theory.

Cognitive resource theory
Cognitive resource theory (CRT) modifies Fiedler's basic contingency model by adding traits of the leader. CRT tries to identify the conditions under which leaders and group members will use their intellectual resources, skills, and knowledge effectively. While it has been generally assumed that more intelligent and more experienced leaders will perform better than those with less intelligence and experience, this assumption is not supported by Fiedler's research.

title: Fiedler contingency model


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Path–goal theory

The path–goal theory, also known as the path–goal theory of leader effectiveness or the path–goal model, is a leadership theory developed by Robert House, an Ohio State University graduate, in 1971 and revised in 1996. The theory states that a leader's behavior is contingent to the satisfaction, motivation and performance of his or her subordinates. The revised version also argues that the leader engages in behaviors that complement subordinate's abilities and compensate for deficiencies. According to Robert House and John Antonakis, the task-oriented elements of the path–goal model can be classified as a form of instrumental leadership.

Origins
The first theory was inspired by the work of Martin G. Evans (1970), in which the leadership behaviors and the follower perceptions of the degree to which following a particular behavior (path) will lead to a particular outcome (goal). The path–goal theory was also influenced by the expectancy theory of motivation developed by Victor Vroom in 1964. Vroom built his work on the work of Georgopoulos et al. (1957): A path-goal approach to productivity. Journal of Applied Psychology. Volume 41, No. 6, pages 345–353.

Original theory
According to the first of all theory, the manager's job is viewed as guiding workers to choose the best paths to reach their goals, as well as the organizational goals. The theory argues that leaders will have to engage in different types of leadership behavior depending on the nature and the demands of a particular situation. It is the leader's job to assist followers in attaining goals and to provide the direction and support needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the organization's goals.

A leader's behavior is acceptable to subordinates when viewed as a source of satisfaction, and motivational when need satisfaction is contingent on performance, and the leader facilitates, coaches, and rewards effective performance. The original path-goal theory identifies achievement-oriented, directive, participative, and supportive leader behaviors:

 * The directive path-goal clarifying leader behavior refers to situations where the leader lets followers know what is expected of them and tells them how to perform their tasks. The theory argues that this behavior has the most positive effect when the subordinates' role and task demands are ambiguous and intrinsically satisfying.
 * The achievement-oriented leader behavior refers to situations where the leader sets challenging goals for followers, expects them to perform at their highest level, and shows confidence in their ability to meet this expectation. Occupations in which the achievement motive were most predominant were technical jobs, sales persons, scientists, engineers, and entrepreneurs.
 * The participative leader behavior involves leaders consulting with followers and asking for their suggestions before making a decision. This behavior is predominant when subordinates are highly personally involved in their work.
 * The supportive leader behavior is directed towards the satisfaction of subordinates needs and preferences. The leader shows concern for the followers' psychological well being. This behavior is especially needed in situations in which tasks or relationships are psychologically or physically distressing.

Path–goal theory assumes that leaders are flexible and that they can change their style, as situations require. The theory proposes two contingency variables, such as environment and follower characteristics, that moderate the leader behavior-outcome relationship. Environment is outside the control of the follower-task structure, authority system, and work group. Environmental factors determine the type of leader behavior required if the follower outcomes are to be maximized. Follower characteristics are the locus of control, experience, and perceived ability. Personal characteristics of subordinates determine how the environment and leader are interpreted. Effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers achieve goals and make the journey easier by reducing roadblocks and pitfalls. Research demonstrates that employee performance and satisfaction are positively influenced when the leader compensates for the shortcomings in either the employee or the work setting. According to Northouse, the theory is useful because it reminds leaders that their central purpose as a leader is to help subordinates define and reach their goals in an efficient manner.

In college athletics
House (1971) refers to Rizzo (1970), stating that a leader initiating structure increases the path instrumentality for subordinates by decreasing role ambiguity. Also, he says that a leader who is initiating structure and consideration will have different effects depending on whether the task is satisfying or unsatisfying to the subordinate and whether the task-role demands are clear or ambiguous. This means that the more satisfying the task, the less positive the relationship is between consideration and subordinate satisfaction and performance – meaning people tend to act and enjoy it without considering whether they should not. Also, it means that when a coach is clear in setting goals and expectations, the goals are more likely to be achieved than if the goals and expectations are unclear. This is good for coaches, it means that when they can present a goal that is most satisfying to athletes, it is more likely for the athletes to have affective desire for achieving the goal.

For a college coach, practicing good ethics in this regard means creating goals that are within reach for a team, and working together with members of a team when creating these goals. Larson and LaFasto in their 1989 book "TeamWork" place a clear & elevating goal at the forefront of the necessary components for a successful team. "The image of a desired state of affairs that inspires action" is how Garfield defines a clear goal, according to the authors (p. 27). They say that when the goal is "unfocused and "politicized", it becomes a reason for ineffective team functioning. "A sense of mission" is a clear characteristic of peak performers', says Garfield, according to the authors. Larson and LaFasto make no mistake in emphasizing the importance of clarity. "Elevating" to the authors means "personally challenging" (p. 31). A player asks the personal question of how worthwhile the goal itself is, and what type of difference it makes. The elevating factor of goal setting brings about a sense of urgency, causes a team to lose track of time (relates to the idea of "flow" in the field of positive psychology), and causes the rate of communication to increase, for example, players calling one another in the evening, outside the sport context, to talk about today's practice or tomorrow's game.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Path–goal theory


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Shinto music

Shinto music is the ceremonial and festive music of Shinto (神道), the indigenous religion of Japan. Its origin myth is the erotic dance of Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto which lured Amaterasu from her cave.

Kagura

Kagura (神楽) or 'entertainment of the gods' includes music, dance and poetry and comprises mi-kagura of the court, o-kagura of major shrines such as Ise Jingū, and village sato-kagura.

Forms
The repertoire includes eight forms that may be traced back to the eighth century: kagura-uta (kagura songs), azuma asobi (eastern entertainment), kume-uta (palace guard songs) ō-uta (big songs), onaibi-uta (night duty songs), ruika (funeral songs), ta-uta (field songs), and yamato-uta (Yamato songs).

Instruments
Instruments include the wagon (和琴), kagura-bue (神楽笛), hichiriki (篳篥), suzu (鈴), tsuzumi (鼓), and shakubyōshi (笏拍子) clappers. In local festivals the kane (鉦), binzasara (編木), and taiko (太鼓) may also be found.

title: Shinto music


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Aluminium foil

Aluminium foil (or aluminum foil in American English; occasionally called tin foil) is aluminium prepared in thin metal leaves. The foil is pliable and can be readily bent or wrapped around objects. Thin foils are fragile and are sometimes laminated with other materials such as plastics or paper to make them stronger and more useful.

Annual production of aluminium foil was approximately 850,000 tonne in Europe in 2014, and 600,000 tonne in the U.S. in 2003. Approximately 75% of aluminium foil is used for packaging of foods, cosmetics, and chemical products, and 25% is used for industrial applications (e.g., thermal insulation, electrical cables, and electronics). It can be easily recycled. Aluminium foil supplanted tin foil in the mid 20th century. In the United Kingdom and United States it is often informally called "tin foil", just as steel cans are often still called "tin cans". Metallised films are sometimes mistaken for aluminium foil, but are actually polymer films coated with a thin layer of aluminium.

Precursors
Foil made from a thin leaf of tin was commercially available before its aluminium counterpart. Tin foil was marketed commercially from the late nineteenth into the early twentieth century. The term "tin foil" survives in the English language as a term for the newer aluminium foil. Tin foil is less malleable than aluminium foil and tends to give a slight tin taste to food wrapped in it. Tin foil has been supplanted by aluminium and other materials for wrapping food.

The first audio recordings on phonograph cylinders were made on tin foil.

Invention
Tin was first replaced by aluminium in 1910, when the first aluminium foil rolling plant, Dr. Lauber, Neher & Cie. was opened in Emmishofen, Switzerland. The plant, owned by J. G. Neher & Sons, the aluminium manufacturers, was founded in 1886 in Schaffhausen, Switzerland, at the foot of the Rhine Falls, whose energy powered the process. In December 1907, Neher's sons, along with Dr. Lauber, had invented the endless rolling process, by which they discovered that aluminium foil could be used as a protective barrier.

In 1911, Bern-based Tobler began wrapping its chocolate bars in aluminium foil, including the unique triangular chocolate bar, Toblerone.

The first use of foil in the United States was in 1913 for wrapping Life Savers, candy bars, and gum.

Properties

Aluminium foil has a thickness less than 0.2 mm; thinner gauges down to 6 micrometre are also commonly used. Standard household foil is typically 0.016 mm thick, and heavy-duty household foil is typically 0.024 mm

Foil may have a non-stick coating on only one side.

Although aluminium is non-magnetic, it is a good conductor, so even a thin sheet reflects almost all of an incident electric wave. At frequencies more than 100 MHz, the transmitted electric field is attenuated by more than 80 decibels (dB), that is less than 10−8 = 0.00000001 of the power gets through.

Thin sheets of aluminium are not very effective at attenuating low-frequency magnetic fields. The shielding effectiveness is dependent upon the skin depth. A field travelling through one skin depth will lose about 63% of its energy (it is attenuated to 1/e = 1/2.718... of its original energy). Thin shields also have internal reflections that reduce the shielding effectiveness.

Manufacture

The continuous casting method is much less energy-intensive and has become the preferred process. It is difficult to produce rollers with a gap fine enough to cope with the foil gauge, and to avoid this, as well as reducing tearing, increasing production rates, and controlling thickness, for the final pass when producing thicknesses below 0.025 mm, two sheets are rolled at the same time, doubling the thickness of the gauge at entry to the rollers. After the rollers, the two sheets are separated, which produces foil with one shiny side and one matte side.

The two sides in contact with each other are matte, and the exterior sides become shiny. The reflectivity of dull aluminium foil is 80%, while shiny embossed foil reflects about 88%. The difference in thermal properties between the two sides is imperceptible without instrumentation. By Kirchhoff's law radiation, increased reflectivity decreases both absorption and emission of radiation.

Uses

Aluminium foil is widely sold into the consumer market, often in rolls of 500 mm width and several metres in length.

Aluminium foil is also used for barbecuing delicate foods.

As with all metallic items, aluminium foil reacts to being placed in a microwave oven. This is because of the electromagnetic fields of the microwaves inducing electric currents in the foil and high potentials at the sharp points of the foil sheet; if the potential is sufficiently high, it will cause electric arcing to areas with lower potential, even to the air surrounding the sheet. Modern microwave ovens have been designed to prevent damage to the cavity magnetron tube from microwave energy reflection, and aluminium packages designed for microwave heating are available.

Environmental issues
Some aluminium foil products can be recycled at around 5% of the original energy cost.

title: Aluminium foil


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Talk:Lists of birds of Canada and the United States

Taxonomy
The consensus for group and species bird accounts is to use Handbook of Birds of the World for the northern hemisphere and HANZAB for the southern. This because different regions use different classification systems (at least four English language ones for North America, Britain and Ireland, South Africa and Australia and New Zealand).

Whilst it is reasonable for a regional list to use its local system, as in this major article, obviously we want to avoid say Peregrine Falcon being constantly moved between Accipitiformes, Falconiformes and Ciconiiformes.

The use of the term unfortunately is blatently POV regardless of the goodness or badness of extinction. To address you concern however, extinction is a naturally occuring event that can open new niches in the ecosystem allowing increased diversity in the ecosphere. While I personaly hold the view that extiction is in geenral harmful in the short term, and that man made extictions may be harmful in the long term, such topics are mroe rightly addressed under the article Views of Extinction. AQBachler 07:09, 22 Dec 2003 (UTC)

As currently constituted, the List of North American birds is not really a list of North American birds at all, but is more properly a list of the birds of the continental United States and Canada. As ecognized by geographers, the North American continent also includes Central America from Mexico through Panama, plus the Caribbean Islands. A comprehensive list of the birds of North America is readily available in the AOU’s Check-list of North American birds; one only has to delete those species recorded only in the Hawaiian Islands. Instead, the current list is arbitrarily confined to that portion of North America covered by the ABA Checklist (i.e., the continental United States and Canada), thereby creating an incomplete and anglo-centric view of the continents birdlife. The reasons given for doing so--(1) a comprehensive list would be too long, and (2) most North American bird field guides restrict themselves to the U.S. and Canada--ring hollow. I see two possible solutions: (1) use the AOU Check-list of North American birds to create a truly comprehensive List of the birds of North America, or (2) rename this list the List of birds of the continental United States and Canada. John Trapp 14:08, 7 Feb 2004 (UTC)

owls
HBW lists Northern Pygmy Owl as Glaucidium californicum and Mountain Pygmy Owl as G. gnoma. Is this a new split? jimfbleak 07:22, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)

failed FAC
Along with companion pages List of North American birds: non-passerines and List of North American birds: passerines. OK, like it or not, Wikipedia has LOTS of lists. I guess I want to see if a well formulated, well explained, comprehensive list can be Featured Article. Self-nomination. Dsmdgold 14:24, Oct 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * Never supported a list before, but this seems pretty good! - Ta bu shi da yu 14:27, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Object for now. We need consensus as to if lists can be FAs. Also, the toc is overwhelming and there is no References section. Filiocht 08:00, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC) It isn't even a list of North American birds, for Darwin's sake! I think this should become Birds of North America with the links to the lists as a See also section. Then it could be rewritten as a regular article with a lead, toc, references, etc. That could make a really good article. Filiocht 15:15, 2004 Oct 12 (UTC)
 * I don't see an actionable objection here. You can look in the article histories to see how we arrived at this division.  A list of 900+ birds was too long for a single page, and this what we came up with.  An article on the Birds of North America would be a very different beast. The text of this page only discusses the list and its rationale, i.e what area is covered by the term, and why the list is in this particular order.  None of this would be particularly relevant to a Birds of North America article.  I am willing to listen to alternative structures for this list, but I do not see suggestions to write a completely different article instead as actionable. Dsmdgold 16:36, Oct 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * That may be, but then I don't think this is a feature worthy item, even if you take them as a set. The birds of North America, if written very well and comprehensive could be.  But as this is, as you have noted, is not comprehensive--an article that "only discusses the list and it's rationale" is not feature worthy.  And yes that is entirely actionable.  We are faced with an article that is not comprehensive and feature worthy and saying that to get to featured worthy, you would need to write featured worthy material and be comprehensive.  In addition the writing in this article is simply not compelling, and of course that in the lists is not by definition.  In summation, there is nothing wrong with lists like this, they can be valuable metadata, but are not worthy of featuring in  their own right (even with a cover article explaining the list). Object. - Taxman 20:14, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * Filiocht is right. It's not a list - it just links to two lists which are therefore different articles.  The name is therefore incorrect and, while relevant and a good part of wikipedia, this article isn't feature-worthy imo.  Count my objection if someone else can come up with a well-worded reason. violet/riga (t) 21:18, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Would this meet your objections? Dsmdgold 21:53, Oct 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * Why do features have to consist of one article? Is there a logical reason? Pcb21| Pete 06:39, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * agree with Filiocht. This is featured articles, not featured lists. Dunc_Harris|☺ 16:48, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * No its not, its Brilliant prose. Erm, what, we changed the name? Yep, and we can do it again. I really think it should be Features in order to allow us showcase examples of our good work that do not fit into the arbitrary framework of a single article. Pcb21| Pete 19:19, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Lists ARE articles because they are not pictures, the other featured category. Lists make up a sizeable portion of the articles on Wikipedia.  (I attempted to count them, but the database gave up after 6000 hits for articles with "List of" in the title.)  Lists vary in quality; some are poorly concieved in that they have too many or too few potential members, some are poorly defined, some are incomplete. This list is none of those things. Dsmdgold 21:04, Oct 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * The lists are close to brilliant. Not quite there yet, however, Object for now:
 * The article nominated is the one which should eventually be featured, not the individual lists; though the truly brilliant content would be the lists themselves. I agree with this aspect of the nomination.
 * The text on the nominated page needs work. It's not detailed enough; only lists a one natively diverging species (wrens) and a few imports; doesn't clarify why the AOU's list is used in one place but not in another; not enough reference links, or links to the books mentioned in the article (I started clarifying the article a little to explain what I mean).
 * One note, the Wrens are a family, not a species. However there are a few other families that are limited to the New World. I willl add these.  The ABA follows the AOU in taxonomical matters, which is why we are using two different authorities. I have indicated this in the article.  I listed the most common introduced species, there are too many to list all of them. Many are established in a very limited area (eg Himalayan Snowcock and Skylark). However I will see what I can do about making this section somewhat more complete.Dsmdgold 15:15, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * The text on the list pages is too sparse. Each section needs an introduction, be it a sentence or a paragraph.  Don't just list links to other articles; highlight which subarticles are more important and which less, which contested, which of special interest to birders or biologists or farmers, etc.  Imagine opening a reference book on birds to the section on Vireos -- there would be a list of specific species, but also an overview.
 * Actually if I turned to a checklist of birds that is actually what I would expect, just a list, perhaps with some indication of frequency, but that would be it, no overview. Since each order and family links to an article discussing that taxon and the article are all at least good (some are very good) I don't see the point in short summary of info that is just a click away.Dsmdgold 15:15, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * Images are not well-chosen. We have many fantastic images of birds; only one of them makes it to any of these pages.  The image on the nominated page should be a crisper one; perhaps a symbolic one like the bald eagle, perhaps one of our features.  The list pages themselves should have a few thumbnails on them; perhaps one representative image for each of the largest sections. +sj +  07:01, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * You have a point here. I will work on it. Dsmdgold 15:15, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * Object - I don't feel list should be featured, however as a general article on North American birds, linking to the lists, this can vbe "saved".Grinner 10:54, Oct 13, 2004 (UTC)

Filiocht and violet/riga seem to be concerned that the nominated page is not actually a list. It now is. When working on this list I split the list since it would be over 32KB. However Page size says that "(pages) >32KB - should be divided unless it is a list". Since this is a list, I have unsplit (if that is a word) it.

Filiocht, Grinner and Taxman seem to think that I have nominated the Birds of North America and have claimed that the article is incomplete on that basis. I have not nominated that article. I have nominated List of North American birds. I have not noted that the article is not comprehensive. It is comprehensive. The introductory text is just that, a text that introduces the list. It is not a general discussion of the birds of North America. I believe that when someone encounters a list like this, they might ask a couple of questions, such as "What birds are included in this list?" and "Why is it organized in this manner?" This text answers those questions. It would be inappropriate to go off on a discussion of migratory patterns or the role in of the Rocky Mountains in dividing bird species, topics that should be covered in the hypothetical Birds of North America article.
 * I know exactly what you nominated, and I am objecting to it. I quoted you directly, and a consequence of what you wrote is that the article is not comprehensive about the subject. It is mostly just a list. It has few of the qualities of a great article.  In addition the title is wrong/misleading since almost half of North America by species count is not covered in the list. - Taxman 03:04, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * I thought no such thing. I suggested that such an article, if well-written, would make a much better candidate. May I respectfully suggest a less aggressive engagement with objections? Filiocht 11:21, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)

Taxman, Dunc_Harris, andGrinner have raised objections based on the fact that this is list. These objections are so fundamental that they cannot be addressed. Dsmdgold 02:36, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)

 * Sure they can be addressed, it just means the article as just a list and no well written, comprehensive coverage (the hallmarks of a featured article) cannot be a featured article. By definition of what it lacks.  Don't rail against that, either write a featured quality article or don't worry about it being featured.  Why the fuss to get a list featured?  Its just metadata. - Taxman 03:04, Oct 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * (Speaking as featured article director) - I believe Taxman makes a valid point here. Lists are lacking the basic quality of a featured article - that is, prose. →Raul654 22:19, Oct 18, 2004 (UTC)

Why (apart from the obvious) this particular list of birds? If you look at list of regional bird lists, there are other places in the world.I wrote, or was a major contributor, to most of these lists, and I don't much care whether they are FAs or not, but the NAm one has many red links, unlike the Spanish, British, French or Cyprus lists, and is less interesting than, say Trinidad and Tobago. jimfbleak 05:27, 25 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Pictures
Anyone besides me dislike the pictures on the left-hand side of the page? It messes up the left margin of the list, making the list look disorderly and the pictures look misplaced. I say keep the list on the left and the pictures on the right. What does everyone else think? EDIT: In short, I like the format of List of Oklahoma birds. Take a look at that list and compare. EdGl 22:20, 28 February 2006 (UTC) EDIT at 22:33, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

 * As the guy who put most of the pictures in this list, and all of the pictures in List of Oklahoma birds, I think this would be a good idea. I did North America first, and since doing the Oklahoma list "fixing the images on the NA list has been a project on the "need to do some day list" in the back of my mind. Dsmdgold 00:28, 1 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I just went ahead and right-aligned all the pictures (by the way, Dsmdgold, awesome work with all those pictures!) EdGl 02:18, 1 March 2006 (UTC)

ABA versus AOU
Can someone please explain to me why “This list is based on a checklist used by the ABA” rather than the AOU check-list (see last paragraph in Scope of this list)? I question the assertion that the ABA list “is the list used by most field guides for North American birds.” I have no doubt that any North American ornithologist you asked would name the AOU check-list as the more authoritative of the two sources, and the ABA already defers to the AOU on matters of taxonomy.

That being the case, why are we deleting species simply because they don’t appear on the ABA checklist? Recent examples include Crested Myna, Black Catbird, Light-mantled Albatross, and the Weavers (Orange Bishop and Java Sparrow). All of these species continue be listed on the AOU check-list. The recent extirpation of the introduced Common Myna doesn’t mean that this species should be deleted from this list; rather, it should be retained (with parenthetical notations indicating that it was formerly introduced and established [for 100 years!] but is now extirpated).

My proposed solution to this problem is to include on this list any species recorded from North America (as defined by this list) and listed by either the ABA or the AOU. This would produce a more comprehensive and stable list of North American birds. John Trapp 17:43, 4 April 2006 (UTC)

 * This list is based on the ABA list because when I started to fill it in, that's the list I used. I used it because the ABA area corresponds to the area used by most Field Guides sold in North America. (for example, Sibley, Peterson's, and Kaufmann, just to name the ones I own.)  The AOU list available on the web does not give areas for birds, so it is impossible to tell from the AOU list if a bird is in found in the smaller ABA area or not.

 * The Crested Myna is no longer on the ABA or AOU list, which is why I dropped it. I guess the AOU drop any introduced species if it becomes extirpated. (It was dropped on the 46th suplement to the list, see here). I would have no problem with it being on this list noted as you suggest. Dsmdgold 18:49, 4 April 2006 (UTC)

ABA adopting Clements bird family revisions
This is probaly old news, but ABA has adopted some family revisions which this list should follow since it follows the ABA list, and Wikipedia species accounts seem to be follwing this split. For example, Gulls, Terns, Skimmers and Skuas are all split; Pheasants, Grouse, Turkeys are split, Osprey is split from Hawks, and Gnatcatchers are split from Old World Warblers........any objections to updating the list????? I can do a few........Pmeleski (talk) 23:38, 21 December 2007 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the proposal was move. JPG-GR (talk) 05:37, 15 April 2008 (UTC)

As has been point out in the Featured list removal candidates/List of North American birds discussion, the current name is misleading because North America includes Mexico and Central America. The title needs to be more sepcific to properly reflect the list scope. Dhaluza (talk) 11:35, 10 April 2008 (UTC)

Move as per above Jimfbleak (talk) 16:50, 10 April 2008 (UTC)

Move. "List of North American birds" should be based on the AOU list. —JerryFriedman (Talk) 23:13, 13 April 2008 (UTC)

Move. I used to love teasing the ABA birders when I worked in California about the silliness of their list. European birders scoff at such silliness and claim northern Africa as part of their region too! Sabine's Sunbird  talk  23:42, 13 April 2008 (UTC)

Move. Though I do fail to see the silliness, as the region covered is pretty different from the rest of the continent... Rufous-crowned Sparrow (talk) 23:47, 13 April 2008 (UTC)
 * I mostly sneered at an article about birding in Mexico where it stated that "many ABA birders are reluctant to bird Mexico because it wouldn't count towards their proper lifelist" or some rubbish like that. Plus the fact that going to Attu in the Aluteians "counted" for your list but the Bahamas didn't. Bed wetting pedantry of the worst kind ;P Sabine's Sunbird  talk  00:54, 14 April 2008 (UTC)
 * But how else can we spend thousands to go to a spit of rock with only an abandoned coast guard station to hope for a few dioriented Asian vagrants? :) Rufous-crowned Sparrow (talk) 01:02, 14 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Atleast we only have to go to Scilly or Shetland

Move Jimfbleak (talk) 05:17, 14 April 2008 (UTC) You've already voted once Jim! : )

Move, but comment It's all very good to agree the move, but what will we move it to? List of ABA birds? List of birds on ABA list? List of North American birds found north of Mexico? For North American birders, this is the list of North American birds. Those from Mexico through Panama are Central American birds. MeegsC | Talk 07:46, 14 April 2008 (UTC)

 * The proposal is to move it to the more specific title: List of birds in Canada and the United States. Dhaluza (talk) 12:01, 14 April 2008 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Sourcing
This article has been tagged as needing addition citations. It is already sourced to two authoritative sources on the subject, the AOU, and the ABA. What additional sources are needed? Dsmdgold (talk) 16:26, 10 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Drive-by tag, no justification here, so removed, Jimfbleak (talk) 16:50, 10 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Sorry, maybe I should have posted a link to the discussion at Featured_list_removal_candidates/List_of_North_American_birds. I believe this article should actually get a plagarism tag, but was proceeding more cautiously for now. Dhaluza (talk) 12:22, 14 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Please see update at above-mentioned location re: email from ABA asserting no violation of copyright. MeegsC | Talk 21:25, 15 April 2008 (UTC)

Needs copyedit
(not by me though) Jimfbleak (talk) 10:18, 13 May 2008 (UTC)
 * 1) some species do not have world|NA totals
 * 2) family and order fmt different for Limpkin
 * 3) numbers less than 10 should be spelt out.

Swallow-tailed Gull?!
OK, since when has Swallow-tailed Gull been spotted in NA? Sure, it's native to the Galapagos, but still... I need proof. Does anyone have any links to this?

Thanks!

--HoopoeBaijiKite 03:34, 1 January 2009 (UTC)

More silliness
I'm still uncomfortable with the name of this article, I'd be comfortable with List of birds in Canada and the continental United States. I know Hawaii is mentioned as not included in the text, but the title still suggests it does. Trying to be accurate. Happy New Year everyone!.....Pvmoutside (talk) 13:22, 1 January 2009 (UTC)

Not sure that I agree that the title is the problem. It seems to me that the scope of this article/list is non-sensical. At times it is being referred to as Birds of North America, which is an extremely straight-forward scope. The exclusion of Mexico seems very arbitrary - why exclude the southern extreme of the continent, while including the northern extreme? MJB 8th May 2009

Requested move (2)

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was moved. Aervanath talks like a mover, but not a shaker 07:36, 10 January 2009 (UTC)

 * List of birds in Canada and the United States → List of birds of Canada and the United States — Move inline with every other bird list --Jack (talk) 18:57, 4 January 2009 (UTC)

Survey

 * Feel free to state your position on the renaming proposal by beginning a new line in this section with  or  , then sign your comment with  . Since polling is not a substitute for discussion, please explain your reasons, taking into account Wikipedia's naming conventions.

 * Support move Consistency is good. -Neitherday (talk) 19:01, 4 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Comment shouldn't this be a list of birds of North America? 76.66.198.171 (talk) 05:30, 5 January 2009 (UTC)
 * North America includes Mexico and Central America, this list does not. -Neitherday (talk) 05:33, 5 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Yes, but shouldn't the list include Mexico above the Yucatan? (ie, the plate boundary) US + Canada seems arbitrary... there's also Greenland out there. 76.66.198.171 (talk) 21:27, 5 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Changing the scope here would necessitate a major rewriting of this established and featured list. I would, however, support the creation of a List of Birds of North America that would include the whole continent. The great thing about Wikipedia is that you can register an account and create the list if you feel it would be an improvement to the encyclopedia and this list could serve as a useful starting point for the new list article. -Neitherday (talk) 22:07, 5 January 2009 (UTC)

As there doesn't seem to be much opposition to the minor move suggested by Jack, I'm going to be bold and go ahead and make it. -Neitherday (talk) 03:03, 10 January 2009 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Suggested split - survey
Please sign your name using four tildes ( ~ ) under the position you support, and please add a (hopefully brief and well thought out) comment. If you are happy with more than one possibility, you may wish to sign your names to more than one place. Extended commentary should be placed below, in the section marked "Discussion", though brief commentary can be interspersed.

 * Split this article
 * 1) Darekk2 (talk) 22:37, 11 June 2012 (UTC) (RATHER in favor)
 * Do NOT split
 * 1) Support  I checked a number of other bird lists and they are not split. No need here. Dger (talk) 15:41, 3 August 2012 (UTC)
 * 2) Do not split. If the article is split then it would cease to be a useful list. If it is too slow to load then perhaps remove some of the extraneous explanations. Op47 (talk) 14:35, 24 August 2012 (UTC)

Discussion
This is very good and beatiful article, but loads maybe a little to slow. Not so much like List of North American birds, but could be split in 2-4 separate articles. For example: Each one with table of contents at the top linking to other ones.
 * Non-passerines 556 species
 * Passeriformes 413 species

Darekk2 (talk) 22:37, 11 June 2012 (UTC)

IUCN Red List
Some of the recently added IUCN statuses appear to be for species that aren't actually covered by the Red List (such as the Hoary Redpoll and Wilson's Snipe). Is this due to recent taxonomic changes and if so, how should we deal with these cases? mgiganteus1 (talk) 08:21, 17 March 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
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Merger proposal
I propose that this article be merged into the List of birds of Canada and List of birds of the United States. With the American Birding Association's adding Hawaii into the ABA area, this list largely becomes a duplicative list of the USA list. No other regional list is made up essentially of 2 countries......Pvmoutside (talk) 17:15, 21 November 2017 (UTC)
 * Support merge. This also the same as saying support deletion, as there is nothing in this article that is not already duplicated on the two country list pages. Alternatively, it could be returned to what it once claimed to be - a list of birds of North America (either including Central America or from Yucatan north). Loopy30 (talk) 17:57, 21 November 2017 (UTC)
 * Support: Unless someone wants to start creating List of birds of X and Y for all contiguous countries. Yes, per above. SchreiberBike | ⌨   18:12, 21 November 2017 (UTC)
 * Support: I like Pvmoutside's suggestion (see Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Birds) to reduce it to a disambiguation page with links to the two individual country lists.Craigthebirder (talk) 21:29, 1 December 2017 (UTC)
 * list has been split....Pvmoutside (talk) 19:38, 2 December 2017 (UTC)


text:
User:Barik

I'm a PhD student at NC State.

title: User:Barik


text:
List of U.S. state and territory abbreviations

Several sets of codes and abbreviations are used to represent the political divisions of the United States for postal addresses, data processing, general abbreviations, and other purposes.

Table
This table includes abbreviations for three independent countries related to the United States through Compacts of Free Association, and other comparable postal abbreviations, including those now obsolete.

History
As early as October 1831, the United States Postal Service recognized common abbreviations for states and territories. However, they accepted these abbreviations only because of their popularity, preferring that patrons spell names out in full to avoid confusion.

The traditional abbreviations for U.S. states and territories, widely used in mailing addresses prior to the introduction of two-letter U.S. postal abbreviations, are still commonly used for other purposes (such as legal citation), and are still recognized (though discouraged) by the Postal Service.

Modern two-letter abbreviated codes for the states and territories originated in October 1963, with the issuance of Publication 59: Abbreviations for Use with ZIP Code, three months after the Post Office introduced ZIP codes in July 1963. The purpose, rather than to standardize state abbreviations per se, was to make room in a line of no more than 23 characters for the city, the state, and the ZIP code.

Since 1963, only one state abbreviation has changed. Originally Nebraska was "NB"; but, in November 1969, the Post Office changed it to "NE" to avoid confusion with New Brunswick in Canada.

Prior to 1987, when the U.S. Secretary of Commerce approved the two-letter codes for use in government documents, the United States Government Printing Office (GPO) suggested its own set of abbreviations, with some states left unabbreviated. Today, the GPO supports United States Postal Service standard.

Current use of traditional abbreviations
Legal citation manuals, such as The Bluebook and The ALWD Citation Manual, typically use the "traditional abbreviations" or variants thereof.

ANSI standard INCITS 38:2009
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) established alphabetic and numeric codes for each state and outlying areas in ANSI standard INCITS 38:2009. ANSI standard INCITS 38:2009 replaced the Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) standards FIPS 5-2, FIPS 6-4, and FIPS 10-4. The ANSI alphabetic state code is the same as the USPS state code except for U.S. Minor Outlying Islands, which have an ANSI code "UM" but no USPS code—and U.S. Military Mail locations, which have USPS codes ("AA", "AE", "AP") but no ANSI code.

Postal codes
The United States Postal Service (USPS) has established a set of uppercase abbreviations to help process mail with optical character recognition and other automated equipment. There are also official USPS abbreviations for other parts of the address, such as street designators (street, avenue, road, etc.).

These two-letter codes are distinguished from traditional abbreviations such as Calif., Fla., or Tex. The Associated Press Stylebook states that in contexts other than mailing addresses, the traditional state abbreviations should be used. However, the Chicago Manual of Style now recommends use of the uppercase two-letter abbreviations, with the traditional forms as an option.

The postal abbreviation is the same as the ISO 3166-2 subdivision code for each of the fifty states.

These codes do not overlap with the 13 Canadian subnational postal abbreviations. The code for Nebraska changed from NB to NE in November 1969 to avoid a conflict with New Brunswick. Canada likewise chose MB for Manitoba to prevent conflict with either Massachusetts (MA), Michigan (MI), Minnesota (MN), Missouri (MO), or Montana (MT).

Coast Guard vessel prefixes
The U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) uses a set of two-letter prefixes for vessel numbers; 39 states and the District of Columbia have the same USPS and USCG abbreviations. USCG prefixes have also been established for five outlying territories; all are the same as the USPS abbreviations except the Mariana Islands. The twelve cases where USPS and USCG abbreviations differ are listed below and marked in bold red in the table above; they include three inland states with a small Coast Guard contingent. These twelve abbreviations were changed to avoid conflicting with the ISO 3166 two-digit country codes.


text:
Talk:Christie Hefner

Special plea
Would you marry me a sub-atomic person? I have had two open heart surgeries along with magic back surgery but I still have a lot to offer despite my set backs!!! You are a very attractive woman…

Rick 2601:19B:C500:DC0:4CAF:E1FF:585A:7427 (talk) 09:48, 12 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Christie Hefner


text:
Thomas Mapfumo

Thomas Tafirenyika Mapfumo (born July 3, 1945) is a Zimbabwean musician. He is nicknamed "The Lion of Zimbabwe" and "Mukanya" (the praise name of his clan in the Shona language) for his immense popularity and for the political influence he wields through his music, including his sharp criticism of the government of former Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe. He both created and popularized Chimurenga music, and is known for his distinctive voice and slow-moving style.

Mapfumo was imprisoned without charges under the white-dominated regime of Rhodesia, and he was hounded by the Mugabe government of Zimbabwe that succeeded it. He lived in exile in the United States for two decades, and in April 2018, returned to Zimbabwe for the first time since 2005 to perform a concert.

Biography
Mapfumo was born in 1945 in Marondera, Mashonaland East, a town southeast of Harare, the capital of Zimbabwe, though at the time the capital was called Salisbury and the country was a colony of Great Britain called Southern Rhodesia (becoming Rhodesia in ordinary usage after Northern Rhodesia gained independence as Zambia). He lived a traditional, rural Shona lifestyle until the age of ten, when his family moved to the Harare township of Mbare. It was during these early years that he was exposed to the traditional music of the Shona, the influence of which would drive his later music to incorporate and/or reflect the sounds of the ngoma drum and the mbira, a metal-pronged instrument with spiritual importance.

Early career
He joined his first band, the Zutu Brothers (although, Encyclopædia Britannica says it was the Cyclones), as a singer at the age of 16. From then he was always in one band or another, such as The Wagon Wheels with Afro jazz musician Oliver Mtukudzi and guitarist James Chimombe sometimes doing odd jobs on the side as well, including chicken farming. Hence the name of his 1972 band, the Hallelujah Chicken Run Band.

He played mostly covers of American rock and soul tunes, such as Otis Redding or Elvis Presley, until he was in the Hallelujah Chicken Run Band. There he introduced the innovation of adapting traditional Shona music to modern rock instrumentation.

He worked with guitarist Joshua Dube (Leopard Man's Africa Music Guide says Jonah Sithole) to transcribe the sounds of the chief instrument of traditional Shona music, the mbira to the electric guitar. He also started singing primarily in the Shona language, rather than in English. Joshua Dube started to experiment mbira on guitar on Take One recorded in 1974

Political undertones
Simply drawing on the native musical tradition and singing in his native language was a political statement. Rhodesia was ruled by a minority of white individuals who derogated the native black population and culture. But more than that, his lyrics became overtly political, supporting the revolution that was developing in the rural areas, what the Rhodesian government called "the communal lands". He called his new style of music Chimurenga. In Shona it is derived from one of the architects of the first Black Uprising of 1896 called Murenga. , and is the name of the wars of liberation in both the late 19th century and the bush war from 1960s up to the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979. His songs openly called for the violent overthrow of the government, with lyrics like "Mothers, send your sons to war."

Political overtones
Mapfumo's music caught the attention of the Rhodesian government with his song "Hokoyo!", meaning "Watch out!" The government banned the record from the state-controlled radio and threw him into a prison camp without charges in 1979. They were unable to stop his records from being played in discos or on radio stations they did not control, including the Voice of Mozambique. Large demonstrations in protest of his arrest and an inability to find charges against him forced the government to release him after three months.

Free elections were held in 1980, and a new government was installed. Mapfumo performed at a celebratory concert that also featured Bob Marley. In later years, he would come to criticize the same government he, in some ways, helped bring to power.

The PRI-syndicated radio program Afropop Worldwide ran a feature on Thomas Mapfumo in late 1988/early 1989. Host Georges Collinet describes Mapfumo as living in the low-density suburbs with his wife, who worked at a law office in downtown Harare, and his two children—a boy and a girl. And he drove a blue Ford with fake leopard-skin seat covers.

Most of his songs were still political, dealing with poverty and other social issues. Mapfumo comments on the fact that he does not sing many love songs: "All you need if you wanna get into the bedroom... You've got a wife. You do it. You don't have to sing a song about it." Collinet also observes that Mapfumo can not sing anything he wants: "Clearly he can't sing 'Down with President Mugabe' – but he wouldn't want to. He supports the present government." However, that would soon change.

Recorded at Shed Studios in Harare, by long-time engineer Benny Miller, Mapfumo released the album Corruption in 1989. It criticised Mugabe and his government, with which Mapfumo was becoming more and more disillusioned. Mugabe was not happy with Mapfumo, either, and Mapfumo became the target of government harassment. Mapfumo was accused of being involved with a stolen-car ring. Things got uncomfortable enough that Mapfumo moved to Eugene, Oregon in the late 1990s. After Mugabe's overthrow in 2017, he returned to Zimbabwe, to a massive show named 'Homecoming Bira' at Glamis Arena in Harare on April 28, 2018. The homecoming show proved that Mapfumo was out of political danger, and he returned for more shows in many parts of Zimbabwe between December 2018 and March 2019. He returned to his United States base after the four-month visit to Zimbabwe.

Thomas Mapfumo tours internationally, and still sings and speaks out about the problems of Zimbabwe. His Chimurenga style of music influenced other Zimbabwean musicians, including the Bhundu Boys and Stella Chiweshe.

Discography

 * Shumba (1990, Earthworks)

Thomas Mapfumo and the Acid Band

 * Hokoyo! (1978, Chimurenga Music)

Thomas Mapfumo & the Blacks Unlimited

 * Gwindingwi Rine Shumba (1981, Chimurenga Music)
 * Mabasa (1983, Chimurenga Music, Gramma Records)
 * Ndangariro (1983, Afro Soul)
 * Chimurenga For Justice (1985, Rough Trade)
 * Mr Music (Africa) (1985, Afro Soul)
 * Zimbabwe Mozambique (1988, Chimurenga Music)
 * Chamunorwa (1989, Chimurenga Music)
 * Varombo Kuvarombo (1989, Chimurenga Music)
 * Corruption (1989, Mango)
 * Chimurenga Masterpiece (1990, Chimurenga Music)
 * Hondo (1991, Chimurenga Music)
 * Chimurenga International (1993, Chimurenga Music)
 * ''Chimurenga Varieties (1994, Chimurenga Music)
 * Roots Chimurenga (1996, Chimurenga Music)
 * Sweet Chimurenga (1996, Chimurenga Music)
 * Afro Chimurenga (1996, Chimurenga Music)
 * Chimurenga '98 (1998, Anonymous Web Productions)
 * Live at El Rey (1999, Anonymous Web Productions)
 * Chimurenga Explosion (2000, Anonymous Web Productions)
 * Chimurenga Rebel (2002, Anonymous Web Productions)
 * Rise Up (2005, digital download; 2006, Real World Records)
 * Exile (2010, Sheer Sound)
 * Danger Zone (2015, Chimurenga Music Company)
 * Live @ The Sanctuary for Independent Media (2016, Chimurenga Music)

Compilation appearances

 * The Rough Guide to the Music of Zimbabwe (1996, World Music Network)

title: Thomas Mapfumo


text:
Talk:Thomas Mapfumo

Untitled
I have adapted this from a write-up I posted on E2. See my e2 home node. Note that E2 has just moved. Until DNS is updated it's here. - Dunhamrc 04:36, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

External links broken or spam
UPDATE: I fixed those links that were fixable, which was most of them, and removed those that were not. MorphismOfDoom (talk) 21:29, 31 July 2013 (UTC)

I'm not sure if the external links section has been attacked by spammers, or just consists entirely of broken or out of date links. There are multiple links to the Afropop worldwide frontpage that don't feature a Mapfumo article, Encyclopedia Britannica link is just to the frontpage, multiple broken links, and some spam I already removed.

MorphismOfDoom (talk) 20:58, 31 July 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Thomas Mapfumo


text:
User:Cyan/kidnapped/Economic choice

Economic choice is that choice made by the economic actor which reflects supply and demand relationships under scarcity. This is not necessarily reflective of the actor's larger value system in most theories. For this reason theorists have lately questioned whether it really exists:

Economics starts from the premise that resources are in limited supply and that it is necessary to choose between competing alternatives. It further assumes that these choices can be quantified and made conciously with reference to other choices that can also be quantified in the same manner. It is to some degree in tension with ethics, another of the most basic social sciences, which tends to avoid quantification and emphasize balances of rights.

Some modern economics deals with this tension explicitly - usually a theory of economics is also, or implies also, a theory of moral reasoning. One way economists deal with this is to qualify discussions of economic choice by noting that "all else being equal..." referring to moral or social factors that are supposedly held equivalent (or simply ignored) for all choices that one might make. Moral purchasing refers to purchasing choices that do have a moral component, implying that most such choices are made without considering such outcomes. Of these considerations, the most universal are ecological ones:

A human economy fits within a finite ecosystem where there are at least some abundant resources - for instance, when fueling a fire one is usually concerned with finding the wood, and not so much with finding the air to burn it with. Economics explicitly does not deal with free abundant inputs - one criticism is that it often conflicts with ecology's view of what affects what. Human beings are, according to ecologists, merely one species participating in a vast energy system on this planet - economy is a subset of ecology that deals with just one species' habits and wants. See nature's services for the economic view of ecology and green economics for the view wherein economics is a subset of ecology.

Another issue is that humans are often making quite constrained choices when they act in a marketplace. Market forms and other means of distribution of scarce goods that do not just affect "desires and wants" but also "needs" and "habits". Much of so-called economic "choice" is involuntary, certainly given the conditioning that people have to expect certain quality of life. Much of the welfare state that developed nations have built has no basis whatsoever in the study of economics in academia. This is viewed as a failure to respect economics by libertarians, and viewed as a failure of economics to respect society by socialists. This led to both 19th century labour economics and 20th century welfare economics before being subsumed into human development theory.

The debates above are all quite old. The term "economics" itself was coined in around 1870, and popularised by influential "neoclassical" economists such as Alfred Marshall. Prior to this the subject had been known as "political economy" and referred to "the economy of polities" - competing states. The older term is still often used instead of economics, especially by radical economists such as Marxists who strongly question assumptions of "mainstream" technical and quantitative development. Use of this term often signals an intent to challenge or reframe economic assumptions about scarcity:

Some mainstream universities (such as the University of Toronto and many in the United Kingdom) have a political economy department rather than an economics department. In these, economic choice is often under more examination than in American universities where the term is all but unknown.

Behavioural finance is a field that studies economic choice as an aspect of psychology - economic choice is not treated as different from other choices human beings make.

title: User:Cyan/kidnapped/Economic choice


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List of interface bit rates

This is a list of interface bit rates, is a measure of information transfer rates, or digital bandwidth capacity, at which digital interfaces in a computer or network can communicate over various kinds of buses and channels. The distinction can be arbitrary between a computer bus, often closer in space, and larger telecommunications networks. Many device interfaces or protocols (e.g., SATA, USB, SAS, PCIe) are used both inside many-device boxes, such as a PC, and one-device-boxes, such as a hard drive enclosure. Accordingly, this page lists both the internal ribbon and external communications cable standards together in one sortable table.

Factors limiting actual performance, criteria for real decisions
Most of the listed rates are theoretical maximum throughput measures; in practice, the actual effective throughput is almost inevitably lower in proportion to the load from other devices (network/bus contention), physical or temporal distances, and other overhead in data link layer protocols etc. The maximum goodput (for example, the file transfer rate) may be even lower due to higher layer protocol overhead and data packet retransmissions caused by line noise or interference such as crosstalk, or lost packets in congested intermediate network nodes. All protocols lose something, and the more robust ones that deal resiliently with very many failure situations tend to lose more maximum throughput to get higher total long term rates.

Device interfaces where one bus transfers data via another will be limited to the throughput of the slowest interface, at best. For instance, SATA revision 3.0 (6 Gbit/s) controllers on one PCI Express 2.0 (5 Gbit/s) channel will be limited to the 5 Gbit/s rate and have to employ more channels to get around this problem. Early implementations of new protocols very often have this kind of problem. The physical phenomena on which the device relies (such as spinning platters in a hard drive) will also impose limits; for instance, no spinning platter shipping in 2009 saturates SATA revision 2.0 (3 Gbit/s), so moving from this 3 Gbit/s interface to USB 3.0 at 4.8 Gbit/s for one spinning drive will result in no increase in realized transfer rate.

Contention in a wireless or noisy spectrum, where the physical medium is entirely out of the control of those who specify the protocol, requires measures that also use up throughput. Wireless devices, BPL, and modems may produce a higher line rate or gross bit rate, due to error-correcting codes and other physical layer overhead. It is extremely common for throughput to be far less than half of theoretical maximum, though the more recent technologies (notably BPL) employ preemptive spectrum analysis to avoid this and so have much more potential to reach actual gigabit rates in practice than prior modems.

Another factor reducing throughput is deliberate policy decisions made by Internet service providers that are made for contractual, risk management, aggregation saturation, or marketing reasons. Examples are rate limiting, bandwidth throttling, and the assignment of IP addresses to groups. These practices tend to minimize the throughput available to every user, but maximize the number of users that can be supported on one backbone.

Furthermore, chips are often not available in order to implement the fastest rates. AMD, for instance, does not support the 32-bit HyperTransport interface on any CPU it has shipped as of the end of 2009. Additionally, WiMAX service providers in the US typically support only up to 4 Mbit/s as of the end of 2009.

Choosing service providers or interfaces based on theoretical maxima is unwise, especially for commercial needs. A good example is large scale data centers, which should be more concerned with price per port to support the interface, wattage and heat considerations, and total cost of the solution. Because some protocols such as SCSI and Ethernet now operate many orders of magnitude faster than when originally deployed, scalability of the interface is one major factor, as it prevents costly shifts to technologies that are not backward compatible. Underscoring this is the fact that these shifts often happen involuntarily or by surprise, especially when a vendor abandons support for a proprietary system.

Conventions
By convention, bus and network data rates are denoted either in bits per second (bit/s) or bytes per second (B/s). In general, parallel interfaces are quoted in B/s and serial in bit/s. The more commonly used is shown below in bold type.

On devices like modems, bytes may be more than 8 bits long because they may be individually padded out with additional start and stop bits; the figures below will reflect this. Where channels use line codes (such as Ethernet, Serial ATA, and PCI Express), quoted rates are for the decoded signal.

The figures below are simplex data rates, which may conflict with the duplex rates vendors sometimes use in promotional materials. Where two values are listed, the first value is the downstream rate and the second value is the upstream rate.

The use of decimal prefixes is standard in data communications.

Bandwidths
The figures below are grouped by network or bus type, then sorted within each group from lowest to highest bandwidth; gray shading indicates a lack of known implementations.

As stated above, all quoted bandwidths are for each direction. Therefore, for duplex interfaces (capable of simultaneous transmission both ways), the stated values are simplex (one way) speeds, rather than total upstream+downstream.

Radio clock
Time signal station to radio clock

Wireless networks
802.11 networks in infrastructure mode are half-duplex; all stations share the medium. In infrastructure or access point mode, all traffic has to pass through an Access Point (AP). Thus, two stations on the same access point that are communicating with each other must have each and every frame transmitted twice: from the sender to the access point, then from the access point to the receiver. This approximately halves the effective bandwidth.

802.11 networks in ad hoc mode are still half-duplex, but devices communicate directly rather than through an access point. In this mode all devices must be able to see each other, instead of only having to be able to see the access point.

Main buses
LPC protocol includes high overhead. While the gross data rate equals 33.3 million 4-bit-transfers per second (or $45.455 bit/s$), the fastest transfer, firmware read, results in $50 bit/s$. The next fastest bus cycle, 32-bit ISA-style DMA write, yields only $1 kbit/s$. Other transfers may be as low as $0.021 kbit/s$.

Uses 128b/130b encoding, meaning that about 1.54% of each transfer is used for error detection instead of carrying data between the hardware components at each end of the interface. For example, a single link PCIe 3.0 interface has an 8 Gbit/s transfer rate, yet its usable bandwidth is only about 7.88 Gbit/s.

Uses 8b/10b encoding, meaning that 20% of each transfer is used by the interface instead of carrying data from between the hardware components at each end of the interface. For example, a single link PCIe 1.0 has a 2.5 Gbit/s transfer rate, yet its usable bandwidth is only 2 Gbit/s (250 MB/s).

Uses PAM-4 encoding and a 256 bytes FLIT block, of which 14 bytes are FEC and CRC, meaning that 5.47% of total data rate is used for error detection and correction instead of carrying data. For example, a single link PCIe 6.0 interface has an 64 Gbit/s total transfer rate, yet its usable bandwidth is only 60.5 Gbit/s.

Storage
Uses 8b/10b encoding Uses 64b/66b encoding Uses 128b/150b encoding

Dynamic random-access memory
The table below shows values for PC memory module types. These modules usually combine multiple chips on one circuit board. SIMM modules connect to the computer via an 8-bit- or 32-bit-wide interface. RIMM modules used by RDRAM are 16-bit- or 32-bit-wide. DIMM modules connect to the computer via a 64-bit-wide interface. Some other computer architectures use different modules with a different bus width.

In a single-channel configuration, only one module at a time can transfer information to the CPU. In multi-channel configurations, multiple modules can transfer information to the CPU at the same time, in parallel. FPM, EDO, SDR, and RDRAM memory was not commonly installed in a dual-channel configuration. DDR and DDR2 memory is usually installed in single- or dual-channel configuration. DDR3 memory is installed in single-, dual-, tri-, and quad-channel configurations. Bit rates of multi-channel configurations are the product of the module bit-rate (given below) and the number of channels.

The clock rate at which DRAM memory cells operate. The memory latency is largely determined by this rate. Note that until the introduction of DDR4 the internal clock rate saw relatively slow progress. DDR/DDR2/DDR3 memory uses 2n/4n/8n (respectively) prefetch buffer to provide higher throughput, while the internal memory speed remains similar to that of the previous generation.

The memory speed or clock rate advertised by manufactures and suppliers usually refers to this rate (with 1 GT/s = 1 GHz). Note that modern types of memory use DDR bus with two transfers per clock.

Graphics processing units' RAM
RAM memory modules are also utilised by graphics processing units; however, memory modules for those differ somewhat from standard computer memory, particularly with lower power requirements, and are specialised to serve GPUs: for example, GDDR3 was fundamentally based on DDR2. Every graphics memory chip is directly connected to the GPU (point-to-point). The total GPU memory bus width varies with the number of memory chips and the number of lanes per chip. For example, GDDR5 specifies either 16 or 32 lanes per device (chip), while GDDR5X specifies 64 lanes per chip. Over the years, bus widths rose from 64-bit to 512-bit and beyond: e.g. HBM is 1024 bits wide. Because of this variability, graphics memory speeds are sometimes compared per pin. For direct comparison to the values for 64-bit modules shown above, video RAM is compared here in 64-lane lots, corresponding to two chips for those devices with 32-bit widths. In 2012, high-end GPUs used 8 or even 12 chips with 32 lanes each, for a total memory bus width of 256 or 384 bits. Combined with a transfer rate per pin of 5 GT/s or more, such cards could reach 240 GB/s or more.

RAM frequencies used for a given chip technology vary greatly. Where single values are given below, they are examples from high-end cards. Since many cards have more than one pair of chips, the total bandwidth is correspondingly higher. For example, high-end cards often have eight chips, each 32 bits wide, so the total bandwidth for such cards is four times the value given below.

Digital video interconnects
Data rates given are from the video source (e.g., video card) to receiving device (e.g., monitor) only. Out of band and reverse signaling channels are not included.

Uses 8b/10b encoding (20% coding overhead) Uses 16b/18b encoding (11% overhead)  Uses 128b/132b encoding (3% overhead)

title: List of interface bit rates


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User talk:Phlo452

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User talk:Anthropic42

Welcome to Wikipedia!
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Ooops – Sorry about the Carolina misatake ! 8^) - Marshman 18:54, 3 Jul 2004 (UTC)

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User talk:Michael Snow

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New administrator activity requirement
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title: User talk:Michael Snow