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Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden

Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden, PC (baptised 21 March 1714 – 18 April 1794) was an English lawyer, judge and Whig politician who was first to hold the title of Earl Camden. As a lawyer and judge he was a leading proponent of civil liberties, championing the rights of the jury, and limiting the powers of the State in leading cases such as Entick v Carrington.

He held the offices of Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, Attorney-General and Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, and was a confidant of Pitt the Elder, supporting Pitt in the controversies over John Wilkes and American independence. However, he clung to office himself, even when Pitt was out of power, serving in the cabinet for fifteen years and under five different prime ministers.

During his life, Pratt played a leading role in opposing perpetual copyright, resolving the regency crisis of 1788 and championing Fox's Libel Bill. He started the development of the settlement that was later to become Camden Town in London.

Early life
Born in Kensington in 1714, he was a descendant of an old Devon family of high standing, the third son of Sir John Pratt, Chief Justice of the King's Bench in the reign of George I. Charles's mother, Elizabeth, was the daughter of Rev. Hugh Wilson of Trefeglwys, and the aunt of landscape painter Richard Wilson. He received his early education at Eton, where he became acquainted with William Pitt, and King's College, Cambridge. He had already developed an interest in constitutional law and civil liberties. In 1734 he became a fellow of his college, and in the following year obtained his degree of BA. Having adopted his father's profession, he had entered the Middle Temple in 1728, and ten years later he was called to the Bar.

Early years at the Bar
He practised at first in the courts of common law, travelling also the western circuit. For some years his practice was so limited, and he became so much discouraged that he seriously thought of turning his back on the law and entering the church. He listened, however, to the advice of his friend Sir Robert Henley, a brother barrister, and persevered, working on and waiting for success. Reputedly, once instructed as Henley's junior, Henley feigned illness so that Pratt could lead and earn the credit.

He was further aided by an advantageous marriage on 5 October 1749 to Elizabeth, daughter of Nicholas Jeffreys of the Priory, Brecknock, by whom he had a son John Jeffreys, his successor in title and estates, and four daughters, of whom the eldest, Frances, married Robert Stewart, 1st Marquess of Londonderry on 7 June 1775.

The first case which brought him prominently into notice and gave him assurance of ultimate success was the government prosecution, in 1752, of a bookseller, William Owen. Owen had published a book The Case of Alexander Murray, Esq; in an Appeal to the people of Great Britain which the House of Commons had, by resolution of the House, condemned as "an impudent, malicious, scandalous and seditious libel". The author had left the country so the weight of the government's censure fell on Owen. Pratt appeared in Owen's defence and his novel argument was that it was not the sole role of the jury to determine the fact of publication but that it was further their right to assess the intent of a libel. In his summing up, the judge, Lord Chief Justice Sir William Lee directed the jury to find Owen guilty as publication was proved and the intent of the contents was a question of law for the judge, not a question of fact for the jury. The jury disagreed and acquitted Owen. Pratt was appointed King's Counsel in 1755, and knighted in December 1761.

Political career
Since their youthful meeting at Eton, Pitt had continued to consult Pratt on legal and constitutional matters and Pratt became involved in the group that met at the Leicester House home of George Prince of Wales and who were opposed to the government of Prime Minister the Duke of Newcastle. In 1756, Newcastle offered Pratt a judgeship but Pratt preferred to take the role of Attorney General to the Prince of Wales.

In July 1757, Pitt formed a coalition government with Newcastle and insisted on Pratt's appointment as Attorney-General. Pratt was preferred over Solicitor General Charles Yorke. Yorke was the son of Lord Hardwicke, a political ally of Newcastle who, as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain had obstructed Pratt's career in favour of his own son. Though this led to an uncomfortable relationship between the two law officers of the Crown, it led to the landmark Pratt-Yorke opinion of 24 December 1757 whereby the pair distinguished overseas territories acquired by conquest from those acquired by private treaty. They asserted that, while the Crown of Great Britain enjoyed sovereignty over both, only the property of the former was vested in the Crown. Though the original opinion related to the British East India Company, it came to be applied elsewhere in the developing British Empire.

The same year he entered the House of Commons as Member of Parliament (MP) for the borough of Downton in Wiltshire. He sat in Parliament for four years, but did not distinguish himself as a debater. He introduced the Habeas corpus Amendment Bill of 1758, which was intended to extend the writ of Habeas corpus from criminal law to civil and political cases. Despite Pitt's support, the Bill fell in the House of Lords. At the same time, his professional practice increased, particularly his Chancery practice which made him financially secure and enabled him to purchase the Camden Place estate in Kent.

As Attorney-General, Pratt prosecuted Florence Hensey, an Irishman who had spied for France, and John Shebbeare, a violent party writer of the day. Shebbeare had published a libel against the government contained in his Letters to the People of England, which were published in 1756–58. As evidence of Pratt's moderation in a period of passionate party warfare and frequent state trials, it is notable that this was the only official prosecution for libel that he started and that he maintained his earlier insistence that the decision lay with the jury. He led for the Crown in the prosecution of Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers for the murder of a servant, a case that shocked European society.

Wilkes and Entick
Pratt lost his patron when Pitt left office in October 1761 but in January 1762, he resigned from the Commons, was raised to the bench as Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, received the customary knighthood and was sworn into the Privy Council.

The Common Pleas was not an obvious forum for a jurist with constitutional interest, dealing as it did principally with disputes between private parties. However, on 30 April 1763, Member of Parliament John Wilkes was arrested under a general warrant for alleged seditious libel in issue No.45 of The North Briton. Pratt freed Wilkes holding that parliamentary privilege gave him immunity from arrest on such a charge. The decision earned Pratt some favour with the radical faction in London and seems to have spurred him, over the summer of that year to encourage juries to award disproportionate and excessive damages to printers unlawfully arrested over the same matter. Wilkes was awarded £1,000 (£127,000 at 2003 prices ) and Pratt condemned the use of general warrants for entry and search. Pratt pronounced with decisive and almost passionate energy against their legality, thus giving voice to the strong feeling of the nation and winning for himself an extraordinary degree of popularity as one of the maintainers of English civil liberties. Honours fell thick upon him in the form of addresses from the City of London and many large towns, and of presentations of freedom from various corporate bodies.

In 1762, the home of John Entick had been raided by officers of the Crown, searching for evidence of sedition. In the case of Entick v Carrington (1765), Pratt held that the raids were unlawful as they were without authority in statute or in common law.

The American Stamp Act crisis
On 17 July 1765 Pratt was created Baron Camden, of Camden Place, in Chislehurst, Kent, becoming a member of the House of Lords. Prime Minister Lord Rockingham had unsuccessfully made this, and other appointments, to curry favour with Pitt but Camden was not over-eager to get involved in the crisis surrounding the Stamp Act 1765. Camden did attend the Commons on 14 January 1766 and his subsequent speeches on the matter in the Lords are so similar to Pitt's that he had clearly adopted the party line. He was one of only five Lords who voted against the Declaratory Act, a resolution of the House insisting on parliament's right to tax colonies overseas. Camden insisted that taxation was predicated on consent and that consent needed representation. However, when he came to support the government over the Act's repeal, he rather unconvincingly purported to base his opinion on the actual hardship caused by the Act rather than its constitutional basis.

Lord Chancellor
In May 1766, Pitt again became prime minister and advanced Camden from the court of common pleas to take his seat as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain on 30 July. Camden managed to negotiate an additional allowance of £1500 and a position for his son John. Camden carried out the role in an efficient manner, without any great legal innovation. He presided over the Court of Chancery from which only one of his decisions was overturned on appeal. He also presided over the judicial functions of the House of Lords where in 1767 he approved Lord Mansfield's ruling that the City of London could not fine dissenters who refused to serve the corporation. Dissenters were in any case prohibited from serving under the Corporation Act 1661. In 1768 in the House of Lords he again sat in a case involving John Wilkes, this time rejecting his appeal and finding that his consecutive, rather than concurrent sentences were lawful. He gave a controversial judgment in the Douglas Peerage case.

"A forty days tyranny"
However, Camden the politician was less of a champion of civil rights than Pratt the judge. The poor harvest of 1766 led to fears of high grain prices and starvation but parliament was prorogued and could not renew the export ban that expired on 26 August. Pitt, with Camden's support, called the Privy Council to issue a royal proclamation on 26 September to prohibit grain exports until parliament met. However, despite Camden's record on civil liberties, this proclamation was unlawful, contrary to art.2 of the Bill of Rights 1689 and both houses of parliament ultimately accused Pitt and Camden of tyranny. Camden pleaded necessity, a justification he had rejected in the Wilkes and Carrington trials, and styled it "a forty days tyranny". Ultimately the government was forced to suppress the parliamentary attacks by an act indemnifying those involved from legal action.

America
In 1767, the cabinet, of which Camden was a member, approved Charles Townshend's attempt to settle the American protest and revolt over taxation. Benjamin Franklin reportedly observed that it was "internal" taxes that the colonists objected to and Townshend took this to suggest that there would be little opposition to import duties imposed at the ports. Camden's support for the tax proposals would return to embarrass him.

Pitt and his followers had, after their initial opposition, come to support the Declaratory Act of 1766 which asserted Great Britain's sovereignty over the American colonies. Further, continued unrest in America, stemming from Townshend's 1767 taxation scheme, brought a robust response from Pitt and Camden was his spokesman in the Lords. However, towards the end of 1767, Pitt, now raised to the Lords as Earl Chatham, fell ill and the Duke of Grafton stepped in as caretaker. Camden became indecisive in his own political role, writing to Grafton on 4 October 1768: I do not know what to advise... I submit to the declaratory law, and have thought it my duty, upon that ground, as a minister, to exert my constitutional power to carry out the duty act into execution. But as a member of the legislature I cannot bring myself to advise violent measures.

Pitt resigned on 14 October and Camden, who continued to sit in the cabinet as Lord Chancellor, now took up a position of uncompromising hostility to the governments of Grafton and Lord North on America and on Wilkes. Camden opposed Lord Hillsborough's confrontational approach to the Americas, favouring conciliation and working on the development of reformed tax proposals. Camden personally promised the colonies that no further taxes would be levied, and voted in the cabinet minority who sought to repeal the tea duty.

John Wilkes MP
On 28 March 1768, Wilkes was surprisingly elected as member for Middlesex, much to Grafton's distaste. Grafton canvassed Camden on whether Wilkes could be removed from parliament and Camden responded that, under the parliamentary privilege of the House to regulate its own membership, Wilkes could, though lawfully elected, be lawfully expelled. However, Camden saw that this was only likely to lead to Wilkes's re-election and an escalating crisis. The cabinet decided to seek Wilkes's expulsion but Camden was not content with the policy. By the end of 1769, he was in open opposition to the government and was making little contribution to discussions in cabinet. Only Royal pressure kept him in post. However, by the beginning of 1770, Chatham had returned to the fray, opposing government policies on Wilkes and America. On 9 January 1770, Chatham moved a motion opposing the government's policies and Camden stepped down from the woolsack to give a speech in support of the motion. However, he did not resign as Lord Chancellor until King George III, outraged by his conduct, demanded his dismissal on 17 January. He seems also to have resigned as a Chancery judge in late 1769.

Into opposition
Chatham, Rockingham and Grenville were expected to combine to bring down Grafton, when it was expected that Lord Camden would return to the woolsack. However, though Grafton resigned, Lord North managed to form a successor administration and Camden was left to the opposition, continuing to sit in the Lords. From 1770 onwards, Chatham neglected parliamentary attendance and left leadership of the house to Lord Shelburne with whom Camden could manage only the coolest of relationships.

During 1770–71, Camden tussled with Lord Mansfield over the law of libel, Camden maintaining that the jury should not only decide whether the work in question was published but also whether the words themselves were defamatory or innocent. He opposed the extension of the Royal Marriages Act 1772 to all descendants of King George II, believing it to be impractical. In 1774, in the House of Lords appeal in the case of Donaldson v Beckett, Camden spoke against the concept of perpetual copyright for fear of inhibiting the advancement of learning. This was a key influence on the ultimate rejection of that year's Booksellers' Bill.

The American crisis of 1774
The year 1774 brought a renewed crisis over America. The Boston Tea Party in 1773 led Lord North to seek a blockade of the city through the Boston Port Bill. Camden roundly criticised the taxes that had led to the American protests, as he had opposed them in Cabinet from 1767 to 1769, but was reminded that he was Lord Chancellor when they were imposed. The Chathamite faction went on to support the Bill and further to support the Massachusetts Government Act, Camden's inherent patriotism bringing him into line. However, by May, fears that the Bill would focus and strengthen American resistance led Camden to oppose the measure.

On 16 February 1775, Camden made his major speech on the crisis, opposing public opinion and the New England Trade and Fishery Bill, a speech often believed to have been drafted in collaboration with Benjamin Franklin for an American audience. Camden invoked John Locke's dictum that resistance to tyranny was justified and called the Bill:

Thomas Hutchinson observed:

How Camden voted on the Quebec Act is unknown but in May 1775, and in response to a petition from a small number of settlers, he unsuccessfully moved its repeal. However, he seems to have been in the grip of a conspiracy theory that the Act's ulterior objective was to create an army of militant Roman Catholics in Canada to suppress the Protestant British colonists.

American War of Independence
The American War of Independence broke out in 1775 and Chatham's faction were dismayed. Their official line was to advocate mediation, refusing to think of either American independence or continued English hegemony. Camden continued to speak on the dilemma in parliament. He continued steadfastly to oppose the taxation of the American colonists, and signed, in 1778, the protest of the Lords in favour of an address to the King on the subject of the manifesto of the commissioners to America. In 1782 he was appointed Lord President of the Council under the Rockingham-Shelburne administration, supporting the government economic programme and anti-corruption drive, and championing repeal of the Declaratory Act 1720 in Ireland. Once Rockingham died in July, the Chathamite residue could only lose the Commons vote over the American peace terms the following February. Camden resigned and persuaded Shelburne to do the same.

The Younger Pitt
Camden was a leading opponent of the ensuing Fox-North Coalition, denouncing it for patronage and leading the opposition to Fox's East India Bill that brought down the administration on 9 December 1783. William Pitt the Younger, the son of his former patron, came to power and within a few months, Camden was reinstated as Lord President, holding the post until his death. He was created Earl Camden on 13 May 1786 and granted a further peerage as Viscount Bayham to lend his son a courtesy title.

Camden took an animated part in the debates on important public matters until within two years of his death, in particular supporting Pitt's 1785 Parliamentary Reform Bill and the Irish trade proposals that same year. Camden continued to attend cabinet meetings and, after he moved to Hill Street, Berkeley Square on account of his ill health, cabinet meetings were sometimes held at his home.

Regency crisis of 1788
In November 1788, King George III fell ill and insanity was feared. Lord Chancellor Thurlow hesitated over what action to take, thereby precipitating the regency crisis of 1788. As Lord President, Camden led the Privy Council examination of the King's doctors' opinions. With Thurlow unwilling to lead the legislature, Camden grasped the challenge of inviting parliament to appoint a regent, in the face of the opposition's support for the automatic appointment of their ally the Prince of Wales. Camden's resolution that appointment rested with parliament was carried in the Lords by 99 votes to 66 on 23 December 1788. Moreover, on 22 January 1789, Camden's motion to appoint the Prince of Wales, but with restrictions in case of the King's recovery, was carried by 94 to 68 votes. The King recovered the following month before the Regency Bill contained the force of law.

Fox's Libel Act
To the last, Camden zealously defended his early views on the functions of juries, especially of their right to decide on all questions of libel. In the Lords debate on the second reading of the Libel Act 1792 (32 Geo. 3. c. 60) on 16 May, Camden contended that intention was an essential element of libel and should be decided by the jury as in murder cases. Broadening the legal argument to the constitutional and political Camden charged press freedom to the hands of the jury as the representatives of the people. The judges he held were too prone to government pressure to guarantee essential freedoms. Despite the unanimous opposition of the Law Lords, Camden's speech helped secure a majority of 57 to 32.

Reputation and legacy
Camden was short in stature but of a fine physique. For recreation he enjoyed music, theatre, romantic fiction, conversation and food. His vices were sloth and gluttony rather than womanising or gambling. The Earl Camden died in London on 18 April 1794. His remains were interred in Seal church in Kent. Camden died a wealthy man, much of his wealth deriving from his wife. Both Lord Campbell and Sir William Holdsworth held Camden a great Lord Chancellor.

By the 20th century, Camden's legal opinions were seen as subservient to Chatham's politics and Camden certainly followed the party line on Wilkes and America. However, his party loyalty was tempered by a self-serving interest in power. He served under five prime ministers and on two occasions clung to office after Chatham had resigned.

In his last years, he took a great interest in the career of Robert Stewart, 2nd Marquess of Londonderry, his daughter's stepson. Camden, whose own son was not to prove much of a statesman, recognised young Robert's potential and treated him very much as though he was his actual grandson.

In 1788 he obtained an Act of Parliament granting permission to develop some fields he owned just to the north of London. In 1791 he laid out the land in plots and leased them for the construction of 1,400 houses, the beginnings of Camden Town.

The town of Camden, Maine in the United States, was named for him in 1791. This is one of several cities, towns, and counties bearing his name, including Camden, South Carolina, Camden, North Carolina, and Camden, New Jersey, as well as Camden Counties in New Jersey (of which the eponymous city is the seat and largest city), Missouri and Georgia. In turn, Camden, South Carolina gave its name both to the Battle of Camden and Camden, Alabama. Camden, Tennessee was named for the battle, and Camden, Arkansas took its name from the town in Alabama. Furthermore, Pratt Street, a major thoroughfare in Baltimore, is also named partially after him.

Cases

 * Chapman v Pickersgill (1762) 2 Wilson 145, 146, "I wish never to hear this objection again. This action is for a tort: torts are infinitely various; not limited or confined, for there is nothing in nature but may be an instrument of mischief".
 * Entick v Carrington (1765) 19 Howell's State Trials 1030, right to security and property without arbitrary official interference
 * Donaldson v Beckett 98 ER 257 (1774)

title: Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden


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Old Spice

Old Spice is an American brand of male grooming products encompassing aftershaves, deodorants and antiperspirants, shampoos, body washes, shaving cream, and soaps. It is manufactured by Procter & Gamble.

Old Spice was launched as Early American Old Spice by William Lightfoot Schultz's soap and toiletries company, Shulton Inc., in 1937. It was first targeted to women, with the men's product being released before Christmas at the end of 1937.

History

Old Spice products were originally manufactured by the Shulton Company, founded in 1934 by William Lightfoot Schultz. A buyer at Bullock's in Los Angeles made Schultz aware of the emerging popularity of colonial American–style furniture, a trend spurred by the then-recent opening of Colonial Williamsburg. Shultz reasoned that an Early Americana–themed cosmetics line might also find favor. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York collection of early American objects provided a source of inspiration for packaging design; for the fragrance, Schultz was inspired by his mother's potpourri, and as a result, the first Old Spice product in 1937 was a woman's scent called Early American Old Spice. The product was received well and therefore was followed by Old Spice for men in 1938.

The men's products included shaving soap and aftershave lotion, marketed with a nautical theme. Sailing ships in particular were used for the brand's packaging. The original ships used on the packaging were the Grand Turk and the Friendship. Other ships used on Old Spice packaging include the John Wesley, Salem, Birmingham, Maria Teresa, Propontis, Recovery, Sooloo, Star of the West, Constitution, Java, United States, and Hamilton.

In the 1970s, Old Spice shifted from being a shaving brand to a fragrance brand by introducing signature scents like Old Spice Burley. In June 1990, Procter & Gamble purchased the Old Spice fragrances, skincare and antiperspirant & deodorant brands from the Shulton Company. The sailing ship was replaced by a sailboat. The glass bottles of eau de toilette and after shave had a plastic button as a cap. Its color was changed from light gray to white in 1992.

Throughout the 2000s, Procter & Gamble introduced many forms of deodorant, body washes, and body sprays in several scents under the Old Spice name.

In early 2008, the original Old Spice scent was repackaged as "Classic Scent", both in the aftershave and cologne versions. The white glass bottles gave way to plastic and the gray stoppers to red. Old Spice Classic shower gel was sold using the slogan "The original. If your grandfather hadn't worn it, you wouldn't exist."

In January 2016, Procter & Gamble changed the scent of its Old Spice Classic After Shave.

Products
Old Spice's buoy-shaped bottle cologne is available in its original scent as well as Pure Sport. In 2006, Old Spice introduced a fragrance, OS Signature, which won magazine FHM magazine's 2006 Grooming Award for Best Sporty Fragrance. Old Spice Red Zone products include a "Scratch-and-Sniff" version of the signature fragrance.

In 2014, Old Spice expanded its product line-up to men's haircare by introducing shampoos, two-in-one shampoo and conditioners and styling products.

Advertising
In the 1970s and 1980s, Old Spice ad campaigns in the United Kingdom and Ireland featured a man on a surfboard accompanied by Carl Orff's O Fortuna from Carmina Burana, with the tagline "Old Spice – The Mark Of A Man".

An advertising campaign developed by Wieden + Kennedy in 2010 featuring Isaiah Mustafa became popular after the first advertisement, titled "The Man Your Man Could Smell Like". Following this campaign, Old Spice introduced Fabio Lanzoni to challenge Isaiah Mustafa for the Old Spice Guy title in an online advertising campaign.

After the success of "The Man Your Man Could Smell Like", Old Spice released "The Response Campaign". Over the course of two and a half days, the brand filmed 186 videos featuring Mustafa engaging in conversation with fans and celebrities. The campaign earned over 40 million views after the first week and led to Old Spice securing the spot of #1 all-time most viewed branded channel on YouTube.

Old Spice has partnered with the NFL and featured football stars including Ray Lewis, Greg Jennings, and Wes Welker in various TV and digital campaigns. In 2012, former NFL player Terry Crews was featured in the brand's viral hit "Muscle Music". The interactive video allowed people to make music through different musical instruments rigged to corresponding muscles on Crews's body.

In 2013, Old Spice launched a series of TV commercials in India titled "Mantastic Man" starring supermodel and actor Milind Soman.

The commercial "Momsong" became popular in 2014 as a part of the brand's "Smellcome to Manhood" campaign.

The "Make a Smellmitment" commercials with Mustafa and Crews debuted in 2015, promoting Timber (or Swagger) and Bearglove.

In early 2016, Old Spice introduced a new brand character, the Legendary Man, with two TV commercials, "Rocket Car" and "Whale", to launch the Hardest Working Collection. Old Spice also launched a series of digital infomercials with Canadian actor Steven Ogg. Later in 2016, the brand introduced two additional Old Spice characters, actors Thomas Beaudoin and Alberto Cardenas, in an advertising campaign for the Red Zone product collection.

Old Spice has sponsored many cars throughout the NASCAR world from 2004 to 2010. They first sponsored Ricky Craven at Talladega in 2004, then moved to Tony Stewart in Busch Races with Joe Gibbs Racing and Kevin Harvick Incorporated. In 2009, they followed Stewart when he formed his own team and car number 14 car for 2009 and 2010 with a win at Watkins Glen. Old Spice returned to NASCAR in 2019 to sponsor Corey LaJoie and Go Fas Racing's 32 car for the 2019 Daytona 500. The car had a unique design in which Corey LaJoie's face was designed on the hood of the car. The team finished 18th in that race. Old Spice was also featured as the sponsor of John C. Reilly's character, Cal Naughton Jr., in the 2006 comedy Talladega Nights. The brand returned to the sport for a one-off appearance in 2023, sponsoring Chase Briscoe and Stewart-Haas Racing's 14 car for the 2023 YellaWood 500.

In 2019, Old Spice named actor, comedian, and writer Deon Cole as its global brand ambassador for its five-piece line.

In January 2020, Old Spice brought back their viral 2010 campaign "Smell Like a Man, Man" to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the original commercial, and worked with Wieden + Kennedy once again for the reboot.

Awards
Old Spice has accumulated 37 awards as of 2016 at the Cannes Lions International Festival of Creativity. Most notably, the brand was awarded two Gold Cannes Lions for Creative Effectiveness for "The Man Your Man Could Smell Like" in 2011 and "Smellcome to Manhood" in 2016. The former also won the Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Award for Outstanding Commercial in 2010.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Old Spice


text:
Hellas

Hellas, or Ellas may refer to:

Places in Greece

 * Ἑλλάς (Ellás), genitive Ἑλλάδος (Elládos), an ancient Greek toponym used to refer to:
 * Greece as a whole, as the main name its modern inhabitants know it by
 * The region of Achaea Phthiotis in Thessaly
 * According to legend, a city in Phthiotis, founded by Hellen
 * Continental Greece, as opposed to the Peloponnese peninsula and the Greek islands
 * A name for all lands inhabited by Hellenes, i.e. all of ancient Greece, including the Greek colonies
 * Hellas (theme), a Byzantine province in southern Greece

Sports clubs

 * Hellas Verona F.C., an Italian football (soccer) club based in Verona
 * SoIK Hellas, sports club in Stockholm, Sweden
 * South Melbourne FC, a football (soccer) club formerly known as South Melbourne Hellas
 * West Adelaide Soccer Club, a football (soccer) club formerly known as West Adelaide Hellas

On Mars

 * Hellas quadrangle, a region of Mars
 * Hellas Planitia, a plain within the impact basin associated with the albedo feature Hellas on Mars
 * Hellas Montes, a mountain range on Mars

Ships

 * Greek frigate Hellas (1826-1831), the first flagship of the modern Hellenic Navy
 * Greek steamship Hellas (1859-1906)
 * SS Taroona (1935-1989), an Australian transport ship of World War II; later sold and converted into a cruise ship named the Hellas

Other uses

 * Hellas (poem), by Percy Bysshe Shelley
 * Ellas (TV series), a Mexican telenovela
 * AK Hellas, a Greek truck manufacturer
 * Hellas (personification), feminine representation of Greece
 * "Ellas", a song by Tini from Un Mechón de Pelo

title: Hellas


text:
Action Front for Renewal and Development

The Action Front for Renewal and Development (Front d'action pour le renouveau et le développement, FARD-Alafia) is a political party in Benin.

FARD-Alafia was founded in 1994 and supported the candidacy of Mathieu Kérékou in the 1996 presidential election. Kérékou stood as party's candidate in the presidential election of March 4 and 18 March 2001, winning 45.4% of the popular vote in the first round and 84.1% in the second round. The second round was boycotted by the main contenders.

In February 2004, Daniel Tawéma, who was then Minister of the Interior, was elected as the party's secretary general, succeeding Jerome Sacca Kina Guezere.

In the parliamentary election held on 30 March 2003, the party was member of the Presidential Movement, the alliance of Kérékou's supporters. It established inside this Movement the Union for Future Benin, that won 31 out of 83 seats. The party's candidate in the March 2006 presidential election was Daniel Tawéma, who took 0.60% of the vote.


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My Life on Ice

My Life on Ice (Ma vraie vie à Rouen) is a 2002 French teen drama film directed by Olivier Ducastel and Jacques Martineau, which tracks a year in the life of a teenage figure skater in a quasi-documentary, video diary style.

Plot
The film centers on Étienne, who lives in Rouen with his mother and grandmother and intends to take part in the national figure skating championship. For his 16th birthday, his grandmother gives him a digital camcorder as a present, which he starts to use immediately (supplying the introductory scenes of the film).

Étienne films anything and everything around him – his family, his teacher Laurent, Ludovic, his best friend, himself figure skating, the sea, steep cliffs. As for Ludovic and his geography teacher, it soon becomes apparent that his obsession with them is grounded in more than just artistic pursuits. Étienne's homosexuality becomes more and more clear both to him and the audience over the course of the film.

Even though Étienne is determined to make this year "the year of love", the year when everything turns around for him, things do not go as well as anticipated. He makes a blunder in his figure skating performance and only achieves second place. And when he starts, very carefully, to talk to Ludovic about the possibility of two men being in love, Ludovic runs away.

In the final minutes of the film, the purpose of Étienne's video diary gets clear: Feeling he has failed in what he set out to do and being deeply hurt by Ludovic's resentment, Étienne decides to jump from the cliff and leave the camcorder (which he sets up to film his suicide) behind to explain to his family what he went through.

Luckily, a stranger walks by at that moment and notices the boy close to the cliff and his camera nearby. The final scene shows the stranger and Étienne in bed after sex, with Étienne seeming truly happy for the first time.

Cast

 * Jimmy Tavares as Étienne
 * Ariane Ascaride as Caroline, Étienne's mother
 * Jonathan Zaccaï as Laurent, Étienne's teacher and his mother's boyfriend
 * Hélène Surgère as Étienne's grandmother
 * Lucas Bonnifait as Ludovic, Étienne's best friend
 * Hanako Bron as Vanessa, Ludovic's girlfriend
 * Frédéric Gorny as the young man at the cliff

title: My Life on Ice


text:
Further Seems Forever

Further Seems Forever is an American rock band formed in 1998 in Pompano Beach, Florida. Over its initial eight-year run the band experienced several lineup changes, resulting in a different lead vocalist performing on each of their first three studio albums. Original singer Chris Carrabba recorded The Moon Is Down (2001) with the group before leaving to start Dashboard Confessional. He was replaced by Jason Gleason, who performed on How to Start a Fire (2003) but left the band the following year. Former Sense Field vocalist Jon Bunch joined Further Seems Forever for Hide Nothing (2004). The band broke up in 2006 but reunited four years later with Carrabba on vocals. Their fourth studio album, Penny Black, was released in 2012.

The band's music is often classified as indie rock and is frequently associated with the emo genre. They have also been classified as a Christian rock act due to the individual band members' religious beliefs, frequent themes of Christianity in their lyrics, their association with the predominantly Christian Tooth & Nail Records label, and their performances at Christian-themed festivals such as Cornerstone and Furnace Fest. Despite these associations, the group has claimed not to be an explicitly Christian band, but rather a rock band with Christian members.

1998–2001: Formation, Chris Carrabba, and The Moon Is Down
The band formed in 1998 in Pompano Beach, Florida after the breakup of the Christian hardcore band Strongarm. Strongarm guitarists Josh Colbert and Nick Dominguez, bassist Chad Neptune, and drummer Steve Kleisath recruited former Vacant Andys and Red Letter Day vocalist Chris Carrabba to form Further Seems Forever. The first song the new band released was "Vengeance Factor" on the Deep Elm Records compilation An Ocean of Doubt: The Emo Diaries, Chapter Four, which contributed to the band's association with the emo genre. Their first release was a split EP with fellow Floridians Recess Theory entitled From the 27th State, released by Takehold Records, and soon the band had signed a recording contract with Seattle-based Christian label Tooth and Nail Records. By 2000, however, Carrabba had begun working on his own project Dashboard Confessional and recorded the album The Swiss Army Romance, essentially a solo release which he considered too personal for Further Seems Forever. At this time the band struggled with interpersonal squabbles and difficulties touring, as Dominguez had a young family and was reluctant to tour outside the state. This forced the group to search for several fill-in guitarists to replace him on tour. After returning from a solo tour in August 2000 Carrabba announced that he was leaving the group in order to focus on Dashboard Confessional full-time:

"'I knew the only chance I had to make it in the music scene was go out there and do all the legwork to push yourself and make yourself known...I was willing to do that and they weren't. They were playing music around their jobs, not as their jobs. It was like, if we're gonna be a band, let's be a band. This isn't going to happen by itself.'"

Despite this decision, Carrabba joined the band the following month to record their debut album The Moon Is Down, released in 2001 by Tooth & Nail. Relations between him and the other band members remained amicable, and Further Seems Forever would later open for Dashboard Confessional on several occasions.

2001–2004: Jason Gleason and How to Start a Fire
After Carrabba's departure the band recruited Jason Gleason of Affinity as their new vocalist. With Gleason they re-recorded their cover version of "Say It Ain't So" for the compilation Rock Music: A Tribute to Weezer with Gleason's version appearing on the CD and Carraba's version appearing as a vinyl only bonus track. They also recorded a cover of "Bye Bye Bye" for the compilation Punk Goes Pop.

In August 2001, the band played Furnace Fest, and next embarked on a tour of the United States' East Coast and Midwest with Ultimate Fakebook,  As Friends Rust and Keepsake in August and September 2001. The tour was cut short, however, following the September 11, 2001 attacks in New York City. Further Seems Forever and As Friends Rust cancelled the last five dates of the tour as a result, since they were playing in the vicinity of New York, culminating in New York City itself on September 14, 2001. In December 2001, they toured around Florida with Dashboard Confessional, The Rocking Horse Winner, Fairweather and Seville as part of the Pompano on the Go Tour.

In 2003, Dominguez then left the group to pursue a record label venture, Pop Up Record. He ran the label with Derick Cordoba, who replaced him in Further Seems Forever. This lineup recorded the band's second album How to Start a Fire, released in 2003, and supported it with a national touring schedule. In February 2003, the band toured with Elliott, The Early November and Salem. In 2003, Further Seems Forever signed with Undecided Records to finance their own imprint record label Pompano Basic, with plans to release a compilation of rare and unreleased material. The release took much longer to complete and was ultimately released bundled with a live DVD as The Final Curtain in April 2007, by which time Undecided Records had changed name to 567 Records.

In early 2004, as work on a third album was beginning, the group had a falling out with Gleason which resulted in his departure. In a 2006 interview he blamed the split on "completely irrational behavior on a daily basis. Mistrust. Fights. Anger. Jealousy. A very unhealthy relationship." Gleason went on to form ActionReaction in 2005 with his wife Crissie "Bella" Verhagen and released the album Three is the Magic Number in 2006.

2004–2006: Jon Bunch, Hide Nothing, and breakup
To replace Gleason the band recruited vocalist Jon Bunch of the recently disbanded Sense Field. With Bunch, they released the album Hide Nothing (2004) and continued to tour internationally. The band teamed up with Brandtson, The Kicks, Moments in Grace and Salem for the "Hide Nothing Tour", which spanned from August 22 to October 4, 2004. The tour took the bands through the United States' West Coast (including a date in Western Canada), the Midwest and the East Coast. The band next partnered with Sparta, Copeland and Sunshine for another American and Canadian tour which spanned from November 5 to December 6, 2004.

From February 15 to March 14, 2005, the band toured the United States with The Starting Line, Days Away and JamisonParker. On April 5, 2005, the band released the acoustic EP Hope Against Hope. On April 30, 2005, the band played a reunion show with the original members, including Carrabba and Dominguez, at The Bamboozle, at which they performed The Moon Is Down in its entirety. With Bunch back on vocals, Further Seems Forever toured Europe during May and June 2005, joined by bass guitarist Thomas Rankine (formerly of As Friends Rust and Salem).

In November 2005, they announced a hiatus, which was followed by an announcement in January 2006 that their upcoming tour of the United States and Canada with Bunch would be their final performances, as the members' families and other commitments had eclipsed their interests in the band. As Neptune stated: "As I sit here reflecting back on my time with FSF, saying to myself 'what happens when your dreams have come true already?' Well my answer is 'it probably wasn't my dream all along.' Sure maybe it was part of my calling but the truth is that making a family has been the goal ever since I can remember. My family is what I live for now and I am very glad to do so."

Tooth & Nail released a "best of" retrospective album that April entitled Hope This Finds You Well, and the band's farewell performance occurred June 17, 2006 at The Masquerade in Atlanta, Georgia. This performance was recorded and released as a live album and DVD by 567 Records in April 2007, entitled The Final Curtain.

2007–2010: Post-breakup activity
Following the band's breakup Bunch and Cordoba formed Fields Forever, a duo project performing acoustic renditions of Further Seems Forever and Sense Field songs which toured across Europe. Other members went on to other projects, with Kleisath joined a group called En Masse in early 2006 and Cordoba joining Kicked Out Heel Drag in early 2007.

2010–present: Reunion with Carrabba
Further Seems Forever reunited with original singer Chris Carrabba in August 2010. Further Seems Forever and Dashboard Confessional both played the Groezrock festival in April 2011. The band's fourth studio album, Penny Black, was released in October 2012 through Rise Records.

In August 2015, it was announced that Gleason had rejoined the band.

Former frontman Jon Bunch died on January 31, 2016, in Irvine, California at the age of 45.

In the fall of 2021, the band played the Furnace Festival with the Gleason-era lineup.

On February 2, 2022, it was announced that Further Seems Forever would reunite with the original lineup to celebrate 20 years of The Moon Is Down at the Breakfast in Franklin, Tennessee.

In February 2024, the band signed with Iodine Recordings.

Personnel

 * Current members
 * Jason Gleason – lead vocals (2002–2004, 2016-2017, 2021-present), backing vocals (2016-2017)
 * Josh Colbert – lead guitar (1998–2006, 2010–present)
 * Nick Dominguez – rhythm guitar (1998–2002, 2010–present), lead guitar (2000–2002)
 * Chad Neptune – bass guitar (1998–2004, 2010–present)
 * Steve Kleisath – drums (1998–2006, 2010–present)

 * Former members
 * Chris Carrabba – lead vocals, keyboards, piano (1998–2002, 2010–2021), backing vocals (2016-2017)
 * Ian Sirianni - guitars (touring) (2001-2002)
 * Derick Cordoba - rhythm guitar, lead guitar (2002-2006)
 * Brandon Swanson - guitars (touring) (2002-2004)
 * Jon Bunch – lead vocals (2004–2006; died 2016 )
 * Jake Clark - bass (2004, 2006)
 * Thomas Rankine - bass (2005)
 * Ian Fowles - guitars (touring) (2005-2006)
 * Tom English - guitars (2004-2006)

 * Timeline

Discography
The discography of Further Seems Forever consists of four studio albums, one live album, one compilation album, one EP, one single, and four music videos.

Other appearances
The following Further Seems Forever songs were released on compilation albums. This is not an exhaustive list; songs that were first released on the band's albums, EPs, and singles are not included.

title: Further Seems Forever


text:
Lists of rockets

There are several different types of rockets. The following articles contain lists of rockets by type:

 * List of missiles
 * List of orbital launch systems
 * List of sounding rockets
 * List of military rockets
 * List of rocket stages

title: Lists of rockets


text:
John Pratt, 1st Marquess Camden

John Jeffreys Pratt, 1st Marquess Camden, (11 February 1759 – 8 October 1840), styled Viscount Bayham from 1786 to 1794 and known as the 2nd Earl Camden from 1794 to 1812, was a British politician. He served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in the revolutionary years 1795 to 1798 and as Secretary of State for War and the Colonies between 1804 and 1805.

Background and education
John Jeffreys Pratt was born at Lincoln's Inn Fields, London, the only son of the barrister Charles Pratt, KC (a son of Sir John Pratt, a former Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench), and Elizabeth, daughter of Nicholas Jeffreys, of The Priory, Brecknockshire. He was baptised on the day Halley's Comet appeared. In 1765, his father (by then Sir Charles Pratt, having been appointed Chief Justice of the Common Pleas in 1762) was created Baron Camden, at which point he became The Hon. John Pratt. He was educated at the University of Cambridge (Trinity College).

Political career
In 1780, Pratt was elected Member of Parliament for Bath and obtained the position of Teller of the Exchequer the same year, a lucrative office which he kept until his death, although after 1812 he refused to receive the large income arising from it. } He served under Lord Shelburne as Lord of the Admiralty between 1782 and 1783 and in the same post under William Pitt the Younger between 1783 and 1789, as well as a Lord of the Treasury between 1789 and 1792.

In 1786, his father was created Earl Camden, at which point he became known by one of his father's subsidiary titles as Viscount Bayham.

In 1793, Bayham was sworn of the Privy Council. In 1794 he succeeded his father as 2nd Earl Camden, and the following year he was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland by Pitt.

Disliked in Ireland as an opponent of Roman Catholic emancipation and as the exponent of an unpopular policy, Camden's term of office was one of turbulence, culminating in the rebellion of 1798; his refusal in 1797 to reprieve the United Irishman William Orr, convicted of treason on the word of one witness of dubious credit (and for which his own sister Frances, Lady Londonderry, petitioned him), aroused great public indignation. To break the United Irish conspiracy, he suspended habeas corpus and unlashed a ruthless martial-law campaign to disarm and break up the republican organization.

Immediately after the suppression of the rising Camden resigned. In 1804 he became Secretary of State for War and the Colonies under Pitt, and in 1805 Lord President of the Council, an office he retained until 1806. He was again Lord President from 1807 to 1812, after which date he remained for some time in the cabinet without office. In 1812 he was created Earl of Brecknock and Marquess Camden.

The enforced resignation from the Cabinet of Lord Castlereagh, the stepson of his sister Frances (Lady Londonderry), to whom he had always been personally close, in September 1809, led to a series of bitter family quarrels, when it became clear that Camden had known for months of the plan to dismiss Castlereagh, but had given him no warning. Castlereagh himself regarded Camden as "a weak friend", not an enemy, and they were eventually reconciled. Other members of the Stewart family, however, never forgave Camden for what they regarded as his disloyalty.

Camden was also Lord Lieutenant of Kent between 1808 and 1840 and appointed himself Colonel of the Cranbrook and Woodsgate Regiment of Local Militia in 1809. He was Chancellor of Cambridge University between 1834 and 1840. He was made a Knight of the Garter in 1799 and elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1802.

Family
Lord Camden married Frances, daughter of William Molesworth, in 1785. She died at Bayham Abbey, Sussex, in July 1829. Lord Camden survived her by eleven years and died at Seale, Surrey, on 8 October 1840, aged 81. He was succeeded by his only son, George.

The family owned and lived in a house located at 22 Arlington Street in St. James's, a district of the City of Westminster in central London, which is adjoining the Ritz Hotel. In the year of his death, he sold the house to The 7th Duke of Beaufort.

title: John Pratt, 1st Marquess Camden


text:
User:Ray Van De Walker/Visitors

User:TonyClarke Glad to meet the original writer of the page on "goodness", an inspiring page for me when I came to WIkipedia. Sorry it has become more expansive, necessary but regrettable, as it may have lost some purity and simplicity. Hopefully it hasn't lost its sense of direction and force, which I think we have tried to preserve.

We share interests, I use Python programming language, and am a bit obsessive about philosophical ethics.

Best wishes

TonyClarke

 * How have you managed to be here so long and have only one visitor? What's your secret, my talk page is daily full of complaints! SpinningSpark 10:20, 21 December 2015 (UTC)

title: User:Ray Van De Walker/Visitors


text:
T. Cullen Davis

Thomas Cullen Davis (born September 22, 1933) is an American former oil tycoon who is best known for being acquitted of murder and attempted murder in two high-profile trials during the 1970s. At the time of his first trial, Davis was believed to be the wealthiest man to have stood trial for murder in the United States.

First he was accused of murdering his 12-year-old stepdaughter on August 2, 1976, during a contentious divorce from his second wife, Priscilla Davis. He was found not guilty. The second trial, two years later, involved allegations that Davis attempted to hire a hitman to kill both Priscilla and the judge overseeing his divorce from Priscilla. Again, Davis was acquitted.

Early life and first trial
Thomas Cullen Davis was the middle of three sons born to legendary Fort Worth, Texas oilman Kenneth W. "Stinky" Davis. His father founded KenDavis Industries International, Inc., which manufactured goods used in the petroleum industry. Davis and his brothers received equal shares of their father's estate upon his death in 1968, and all three were described as possessing keen business instincts.

Cullen Davis had a reputation in Fort Worth society circles for displays of bad temper and general "creepiness", according to female associates.

Cullen Davis' first marriage was to Sandra Masters on August 29, 1962. They had two sons, Cullen Jr. and Brian Davis.

Davis' second marriage was to Priscilla Lee Childers. They were married on August 29, 1968, only hours after the death of his father. It was her third marriage. Priscilla had one daughter from her first marriage, and two children from her second marriage, including Andrea Wilborn.

In 1972, Davis spent $6 million ($ million today) to build Stonegate Mansion, a five-bedroom, 11-bath mansion with an indoor pool and a 2000 sqft master bedroom. In its prime, the luxurious, contemporary home of courtyards, tunnels and balconies at 4100 Stonegate Blvd. was decorated with more than 100 oil paintings.

Davis and Childers separated in 1974 and both began dating other people openly. A judge granted Priscilla the right to live in the Stonegate property during the divorce proceedings and further authorized substantial spousal and child support payments from Davis to Childers. Her live-in boyfriend was Stan Farr, a former basketball star at nearby Texas Christian University.

On August 2, 1976, an intruder entered Stonegate Mansion and killed 12-year-old Andrea Wilborn, who was home alone after returning from a Bible study. The body of Andrea would later be found in the basement, apparently shot execution-style. When Childers and her then-boyfriend Stan Farr returned home, both were shot. Farr died at the scene. Childers staggered from the house being pursued by the killer as family friends Beverly Bass and Gus Gavrel Jr. (who later married), drove up to the mansion. The killer shot Gavrel, paralyzing him for life.

Childers identified Davis to police, saying he had shot her and Farr, wearing no disguise except a wig. Gavrel (who died on December 6, 2018, of pancreatic cancer, aged 64) said he was shot after Bass recognized the gunman as Davis and called him by name. Police arrested Davis that same night, at the home he shared with Karen Master, his then-girlfriend who would become his third wife. At the first trial, Davis's wealth was estimated at over $100 million ($ million today).

Davis was only tried for the murder of Andrea. He was defended by famous Texas defense attorney Richard "Racehorse" Haynes. The prosecution case relied almost entirely on eyewitness testimony. Earlier in the day of the shooting, a judge had ordered Davis's monthly support to Priscilla increased from $3500 to $5000 ($ to $ today) and to pay her legal fees of $25,000 ($ today) and household expenses of $24,000 ($ today). This change was proposed as a motive for the crimes.

Davis did not testify in his own defense. Haynes's defense concentrated on two main points. First, the complete lack of physical evidence linking Davis to the crime (no fingerprints, no firearm linked to the murder, etc.). Second, Haynes focused on the eyewitness testimony, particularly Priscilla. Haynes depicted her as living in two worlds: Fort Worth high society, and a milieu of drug dealers, criminals, and sleazy sex. Haynes proposed that Priscilla's admitted heavy use of prescription painkillers made her an unreliable witness who might have been confused about the identity of her attacker.

Journalist Gary Cartwright wrote: "most observers agreed later that the case was won as soon as Haynes completed his cross-examination of Priscilla"; this occurred only two weeks into a three-month trial. Davis was found not guilty. Of the trial, prosecutor Tim Curry said, "We were out-bought and out-thought".

Other trials
In related civil litigation concerning Wilborn's death following the murder trial, Davis prevailed and was held not liable for her death. The children of Stan Farr later sued Davis for wrongful death and received a $250,000 out of court settlement.

In 1978, Davis was arrested again, this time for allegedly hiring a hitman to murder both Priscilla Davis and the judge overseeing their ongoing divorce litigation. The case largely hinged on a tape-recorded conversation between Davis and David McCrory, an undercover employee posing as a hitman for hire, which was recorded in the parking lot of the Coco's Famous Hamburgers restaurant where Davis was arrested. In the recording, Davis was alleged to have asked the undercover employee to murder his wife and the judge. The trial of Texas v. Cullen T. Davis was one of the first uses of forensic discourse analysis on tape-recorded evidence in a legal setting in the United States.

A discourse analyst testified that Davis' words in the tape did not constitute solicitation of murder. Haynes again defended Davis. He again attacked the prosecution's physical evidence: Davis's fingerprints were not found on critical pieces of evidence, such as the cash he allegedly paid to McCrory. Unlike the first trial, Davis testified in his own defense. He stated that he had not solicited McCrory's offer to kill Priscilla and the judge, and claimed it was a plot orchestrated by her to frame him. Davis claimed he merely played along with the plot in an attempt to eventually convince McCrory to admit that Priscilla was to blame for the entire scheme.

Unlike the first trial where observers were convinced that Davis would likely be acquitted, opinion was split in the second trial with the general consensus being that Davis's best hope was a hung jury. After a lengthy trial Davis was acquitted a second time.

Due to the prominence of the case, in 2015 Tarrant County authorities chose to keep the paper court documents of the case as historical documents even though they have been digitized.

Later life
Davis married Karen Master on June 5, 1979, in Fort Worth. He adopted her two sons Trey Masters and Chelsey Masters.(reference:Former student that attended a private school in Fort Worth ,Texas "Hill School" in mid 1970s)Davis lost most of his oil fortune in the recession of the 1980s, and eventually declared bankruptcy. Cullen and Karen Davis sold their home and 300 acre property to a real estate developer in 1984. Davis continues to live in the Fort Worth area. Karen Davis died of organ failure on September 22, 2016. Davis, in later life, became a born-again Christian, and at one point worked with televangelist James Robison.

Priscilla Lee Childers died of breast cancer at the age of 59 on February 19, 2001, still adamantly insisting on Davis' guilt.

In books and television
In books, the case has been addressed in:
 * Blood Will Tell: The Murder Trials of T. Cullen Davis, written by Gary Cartwright and published by Harcourt in 1979
 * Texas Justice, also written by Gary Cartwright
 * Texas vs. Davis, written by Mike Cochran
 * The case was covered in a chapter of Creating Language Crimes by Roger Shuy, a linguistics professor who was a witness for the defense in the murder-for-hire case.

On television, the case has been profiled on:
 * Texas Justice, a 1995 TV movie based on the Gary Cartwright book of the same name, starring Peter Strauss and Heather Locklear
 * TruTV's Dominick Dunne's Power, Privilege and Justice - Oil, Money, and Mystery
 * A&E's American Justice in an episode titled "Oil, Money, and Murder"
 * Investigation Discovery's Behind Mansion Walls, the sixth episode of the first season
 * CBS's 48 Hours in an episode titled "Murder in the Mansion".

title: T. Cullen Davis


text:
Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst

Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst (20 May 1714 – 6 August 1794), known as The Lord Apsley from 1771 to 1775, was a British lawyer and politician. He was Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain from 1771 to 1778.

Background and education
Bathurst was the eldest son of Allen Bathurst, 1st Earl Bathurst, and his wife Catherine (née Apsley). Educated at Balliol College, Oxford, he was called to the bar, Lincoln's Inn, in 1736. He practised on the Oxford circuit and became a King's Counsel in 1745 after several years sitting in King's Bench.

Political and judicial career
In April 1735 he was elected member of parliament for Cirencester, and was rewarded for his opposition to the government by being made solicitor-general in 1745 and, then attorney-general to Frederick, Prince of Wales in 1748. Frederick died in 1751, but Bathurst was asked to carry on in the same office for Prince George.

Resigning his seat in parliament in April 1754 he was made a judge and bencher of the Court of Common Pleas in the following month. Bathurst remained opposed to the Whigs, despite the ill-fated attempt by the Tories to capitalise from Walpole's fall.

He was admitted to the Privy Council when the death of the Lord Chancellor's death left the post vacant with no candidate. Appointed one of the three commissioners of the Great Seal of England he was favourite for the post and, later allowed as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain in January 1771; he was on the occasion raised to the peerage as Baron Apsley, in the County of Sussex. He was roundly abused in rhyme and doggerel by satirical writings of Whigs Lord Brougham and Lord Lyndhurst. The best they could say about him was that he was "not disagreeable", but ridiculed his ability at the bar, and mocked a Tory as incompetent. In January 1774 he was instrumental in writing the Intolerable Acts which he supported in parliament and the courts, most notably the Boston Port Act which gave rise to the Boston Tea Party and revolution. The judge was not a war-monger nor had he any experience of soldiering, but the perception was political. In 1777 after the American Frigates had defeated once or twice, Bathurst worried that Great Britain might lose her control of the coastline urged peace preliminaries in order to save the colonies in the West Indies. He was a personal friend of Admiral William Howe, who was known to him since boyhood. Having succeeded his father as second Earl Bathurst in September 1775, he resigned his office somewhat unwillingly in July 1778 to enable Lord Thurlow to join the cabinet of Lord North. In November 1779 he was appointed Lord President of the Council, and left office with North in March 1782.

In 1771 the construction of Apsley House was started. A neo-classical facade made of brick with five bays. It had large light and airy sash windows and in the centre of the house a large sweeping circular staircase of exquisite design. The house was remodelled by the Duke of Wellington when he was prime minister between 1828 and 1830, when it was encased in Bath stone. But Lord Bathurst sold the house to the south of Hyde Park, also known as no.1 London removing his estates to the country as befitted a fox-hunting Tory. Lord Bathurst used the proceeds to invest in more acreage at Cirencester Park which was planted with trees for landscaping and hunting.

King George III held faith with Bathurst as the Speaker of the House of Lords. A former treasury commissioner he had the sinecure of a tellership of the Exchequer. It entailed some duties but the job was worth £1,200 per annum. More importantly for the succession to the estates, he was able to secure a tellership for his son by 1790. He continued to plant a new garden into his retirement. Then in 1788, a sick King George decided he would take the waters at Cheltenham with Queen Charlotte. En route, the royal family stopped during July at Cirencester Park. Lord Bathurst developed the Sapperton tunnel the following year for a new canal dug to connect the Severn with the Thames. During the reign, hundreds of local acts of Parliament authorised the construction of roads, bridges, tunnels, and infrastructures.

Lord Bathurst's letters show he was a kindly man with a reserved temperament. He was a good patrician master taking care of his workers, he paid more than most employers, and ensured they saw a doctor if necessary. But Bathurst's moral philosophy earned enemies among the whigs, particularly Horatio Walpole, the journalist of Strawberry Hill, who bore a grudge for the attacks on the Walpole ministry.

Family
Lord Bathurst married firstly Anne James in 1754, but she died in 1758 without issue. He married secondly Tryphena, daughter of Thomas Scawen, in 1759. He died at Oakley Grove near Cirencester on 6 August 1794, aged 80, and was succeeded in the earldom by his son from his second marriage, Henry. Lady Bathurst died in 1807. Apsley House, in Hyde Park, known as "Number One London", was built for him by Robert Adam. It was sold in 1807 to the first Marquess of Wellesley, who sold it in 1817 to his younger brother, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington.

Namesakes

 * Electoral division of Apsley
 * Apsley River (Tasmania)

title: Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst


text:
Richard Bright (physician)

Richard Bright (28 September 1789 – 16 December 1858) was an English physician and early pioneer in the research of kidney disease. He is particularly known for his description of Bright's disease.

Biography
He was born in Bristol, Gloucestershire, the third son of Sarah and Richard Bright Sr., a wealthy merchant and banker. Bright Sr. shared his interest in science with his son, encouraging him to consider it as a career. In 1808, Bright Jr. joined the University of Edinburgh to study philosophy, economics and mathematics, but switched to medicine the following year. In 1810, he accompanied Sir George Mackenzie on a summer expedition to Iceland where he conducted naturalist studies. Bright then continued his medical studies at Guy's Hospital in London and in September 1813 returned to Edinburgh to be granted his medical doctorate. His thesis was De erysipelate contagioso (On contagious erysipelas).

During the 1820s and 1830s Bright again worked at Guy's Hospital, teaching, practising and researching medicine. There he worked alongside two other celebrated medical pioneers, Thomas Addison and Thomas Hodgkin. His research into the causes and symptoms of kidney disease led to his identifying what became known as Bright's disease. For this, he is considered the "father of nephrology". He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1821.

Bright had a special affection for Hungary and in 1815 he lived in Festetics Castle in Keszthely, where there is a large plaque: “To the memory of the English physician scientist and traveller who was one of the pioneers in the accurate description of Lake Balaton.”

He delivered the Lumleian Lectures in 1837 on "Disorders of the Brain" and the Gulstonian lectures in 1833 on the "Function of the Abdominal Viscera" at the Royal College of Physicians.

Death
On 11 December 1858, Bright became severely ill due to complications of heart disease and was unable to recover. He died in London aged 69 and was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery. A memorial to him lies within St James's Church, Piccadilly.

Bright had two sons. The younger also became a physician; the elder, James Franck Bright, a historian.

Cultural references
When asked if he had ever been seriously ill, S.J. Perelman quipped, "Why, yes. I had Bright's disease. And he had mine."

He lived at 11 Saville Row, London, which is now commemorated by a blue plaque. This address was the filming location of the tailor's shop in the Kingsman films and the plaque can be seen outside.

Artistic recognition
A bust of Bright is held at the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh.

title: Richard Bright (physician)


text:
John Greenleaf Whittier

John Greenleaf Whittier (December 17, 1807 – September 7, 1892) was an American Quaker poet and advocate of the abolition of slavery in the United States. Frequently listed as one of the fireside poets, he was influenced by the Scottish poet Robert Burns. Whittier is remembered particularly for his anti-slavery writings, as well as his 1866 book Snow-Bound.

Early life and education
Whittier was born to John and Abigail ( Hussey) Whittier at their rural homestead in Haverhill, Massachusetts, on December 17, 1807. His middle name is thought to mean feuillevert, after his Huguenot forebears. He grew up on the farm in a household with his parents, a brother and two sisters, a maternal aunt and paternal uncle, and a constant flow of visitors and hired hands for the farm. As a boy, it was discovered that Whittier was color-blind when he was unable to see a difference between ripe and unripe strawberries.

The farm was not very profitable, and there was only enough money to get by. Whittier himself was not cut out for hard farm labor and suffered from bad health and physical frailty his whole life. Although he received little formal education, he was an avid reader who studied his father's six books on Quakerism until their teachings became the foundation of his ideology. Whittier was heavily influenced by the doctrines of his religion, particularly its stress on humanitarianism, compassion, and social responsibility.

Career
Whittier was first introduced to poetry by a teacher. His sister Mary Whittier sent his first poem, "The Deity", to the Newburyport Free Press without his permission, and its editor, William Lloyd Garrison, published it on June 8, 1826. Garrison as well as another local editor encouraged Whittier to attend the recently opened Haverhill Academy. To raise money to attend the school, Whittier became a shoemaker for a time, and a deal was made to pay part of his tuition with food from the family farm. Before his second term, he earned money to cover tuition by serving as a teacher in a one-room schoolhouse in what is now Merrimac, Massachusetts. He attended Haverhill Academy from 1827 to 1828 and completed a high school education in only two terms.

Whittier received the first substantial public praise for his work from critic John Neal via Neal's magazine The Yankee in 1828. Whittier valued the opinion of the older and more established writer, pledging that if Neal did not like his writing, "I will quit poetry, and everything also of a literary nature, for I am sick at heart of the business." In an 1829 letter, Neal told Whittier to "Persevere, and I am sure you will have your reward in every way." Reading Neal's 1828 novel Rachel Dyer inspired Whittier to weave New England witchcraft lore into his own stories and poems.

Garrison gave Whittier the job of editor of the National Philanthropist, a Boston-based temperance weekly. Shortly after a change in management, Garrison reassigned him as editor of the weekly American Manufacturer in Boston. Whittier became an outspoken critic of President Andrew Jackson, and by 1830 was editor of the prominent New England Weekly Review in Hartford, Connecticut, the most influential Whig journal in New England. He published "The Song of the Vermonters, 1779" anonymously in The New-England Magazine in 1838. The poem was mistakenly attributed to Ethan Allen for nearly sixty years. Whittier acknowledged his authorship in 1858.

Abolitionist activity
During the 1830s, Whittier became interested in politics, but after losing a congressional election at age 25, he suffered a nervous breakdown and returned home. The year 1833 was a turning point for Whittier; he resurrected his correspondence with Garrison, and the passionate abolitionist began to encourage the young Quaker to join his cause.

In 1833, Whittier published the antislavery pamphlet Justice and Expediency, and from there dedicated the next twenty years of his life to the abolitionist cause. The controversial pamphlet destroyed all of his political hopes, as his demand for immediate emancipation alienated both Northern businessmen and Southern slaveholders, but it also sealed his commitment to a cause that he deemed morally correct and socially necessary. He was a founding member of the American Anti-Slavery Society and signed the Anti-Slavery Declaration of 1833, which he often considered the most significant action of his life.

Whittier's political skill made him useful as a lobbyist, and his willingness to badger anti-slavery congressional leaders into joining the abolitionist cause was invaluable. From 1835 to 1838, he traveled widely in the North, attending conventions, securing votes, speaking to the public, and lobbying politicians. As he did so, Whittier received his fair share of violent responses, being several times mobbed, stoned, and run out of town.

From 1838 to 1840, he was editor of the Pennsylvania Freeman in Philadelphia, one of the leading antislavery papers in the North, formerly known as the National Enquirer. In May 1838, the publication moved its offices to the newly opened Pennsylvania Hall on North Sixth Street, which was shortly after burned by a pro-slavery mob. Whittier continued to write poetry, and nearly all of his poems then dealt with the problem of slavery.

In 1838, Charles G. Atherton of New Hampshire presented five resolutions that were adopted and created a new resolution that barred Congress from discussing petitions that mentioned bringing slavery to an end. Congress approved them on December 12, 1838, which became known as the "Atherton Gag"; Whittier referred to Atherton in one of his many abolition poems as "vile" by having allied himself so closely with his fellow Democrats from pro-slavery South. It was not until 1844 the House rescinded that gag rule on a motion made by John Quincy Adams.

By the end of the 1830s, the unity of the abolitionist movement had begun to fracture. Whittier stuck to his belief that moral action apart from political effort was futile. He knew that success required legislative change, not merely moral suasion. That opinion alone engendered a bitter split from Garrison, and Whittier went on to become a founding member of the Liberty Party in 1839. In 1840, he attended the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. By 1843, he was announcing the triumph of the fledgling party: "Liberty party is no longer an experiment. It is vigorous reality, exerting... a powerful influence." Whittier unsuccessfully encouraged Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow to join the party. He took editing jobs with the Middlesex Standard in Lowell, Massachusetts, and the Essex Transcript in Amesbury until 1844. While in Lowell, he met Lucy Larcom, who became a lifelong friend.

In 1845, he began writing his essay "The Black Man" which included an anecdote about John Fountain, a free black who was jailed in Virginia for helping slaves to escape. After his release, Fountain went on a speaking tour and thanked Whittier for writing his story.

Around then, the stresses of editorial duties, worsening health, and dangerous mob violence caused Whittier to have a physical breakdown. He went home to Amesbury and remained there for the rest of his life, ending his active participation in abolition. Even so, he continued to believe that the best way to gain abolitionist support was to broaden the Liberty Party's political appeal, and Whittier persisted in advocating the addition of other issues to its platform. He eventually participated in the evolution of the Liberty Party into the Free Soil Party, and some say his greatest political feat was convincing Charles Sumner to run on the Free-Soil ticket for the U.S. Senate in 1850.

Beginning in 1847, Whittier was the editor of Gamaliel Bailey's The National Era, one of the most influential abolitionist newspapers in the North. For the next ten years, it featured the best of his writing, both as prose and poetry. Being confined to his home and away from the action offered Whittier a chance to write better abolitionist poetry, and he was even poet laureate for his party. Whittier's poems often used slavery to represent all kinds of oppression (physical, spiritual, economic), and his poems stirred up popular response because they appealed to feelings, rather than logic.

Whittier produced two collections of antislavery poetry: Poems Written during the Progress of the Abolition Question in the United States, between 1830 and 1838 and Voices of Freedom (1846).

Civil War years
He was an elector in the presidential election of 1860 and of 1864 for Abraham Lincoln both times. In the months leading up to the American Civil War, Whittier built a strong national audience. In January 1861, The Atlantic Monthly, which had previous spurned his poetry, praised him for his "keen and discriminating love of right" and his "love of freedom".

In 1864, the North American Review responded to Whittier's collection In War Time, and Other Poems, by calling him "on the whole, the most American of all our poets, and there is a fire of warlike patriotism in him that burns all the more intensely that is smothered by his [Quaker] creed".

The passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865 ended both slavery and his public cause, and so Whittier turned to other forms of poetry for the remainder of his life.

Later life
One of his most enduring works, Snow-Bound, was first published in 1866. Whittier was surprised by its financial success; he earned $10,000 from the first edition. In 1867, Whittier asked James T. Fields to get him a ticket to a reading by Charles Dickens during the British author's visit to the United States. After the event, Whittier wrote a letter describing his experience:

"My eyes ached all next day from the intensity of my gazing. I do not think his voice naturally particularly fine, but he uses it with great effect. He has wonderful dramatic power ... I like him better than any public reader I have ever before heard."

He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1870.

Whittier spent the last winters of his life, from 1876 to 1892, at Oak Knoll, the home of his cousins in Danvers, Massachusetts.

Whittier spent the summer of 1892 at the home of a cousin in Hampton Falls, New Hampshire, where he wrote his last poem (a tribute to Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.) and where he was captured in a final photograph. He died at this home on September 7, 1892, and was buried in Amesbury, Massachusetts.

Poetry

Whittier's first two published books were Legends of New England (1831) and the poem Moll Pitcher (1832). In 1833 he published The Song of the Vermonters, 1779, which he had anonymously inserted in The New England Magazine. The poem was erroneously attributed to Ethan Allen for nearly sixty years. This use of poetry in the service of his political beliefs is illustrated by his book Poems Written during the Progress of the Abolition Question.

Highly regarded in his lifetime and for a period thereafter, he is now largely remembered for his anti-slavery writings and his poems Barbara Frietchie, "The Barefoot Boy", "Maud Muller" and Snow-Bound.

A number of his poems have been turned into hymns, including Dear Lord and Father of Mankind, taken from his poem "The Brewing of Soma". The latter part of the poem was set in 1924 by Dr. George Gilbert Stocks to the tune of Repton by English composer Hubert Parry from the 1888 oratorio Judith. It is also sung as the hymn Rest by Frederick Maker, and Charles Ives also set a part of it to music in his song "Serenity".

Whittier's Quakerism is better illustrated, however, by the hymn that begins:

His sometimes contrasting sense of the need for strong action against injustice can be seen in his poem "To Rönge" in honor of Johannes Ronge, the German religious figure and rebel leader of the 1848 rebellion in Germany:

Whittier's "At Port Royal 1861" describes the experience of Northern abolitionists arriving at Port Royal, South Carolina, as teachers and missionaries for the slaves who had been left behind when their owners fled because the Union Navy would arrive to blockade the coast. The poem includes the "Song of the Negro Boatmen," written in dialect:

Of all the poetry inspired by the Civil War, the "Song of the Negro Boatmen" was one of the most widely printed, and, although Whittier never actually visited Port Royal, an abolitionist working there described his "Song of the Negro Boatmen" as "wonderfully applicable as we were being rowed across Hilton Head Harbor among United States gunboats."

Criticism

Nathaniel Hawthorne dismissed Whittier's Literary Recreations and Miscellanies (1854): "Whittier's book is poor stuff! I like the man, but have no high opinion either of his poetry or his prose." Editor George Ripley, however, found Whittier's poetry refreshing and said it had a "stately movement of versification, grandeur of imagery, a vein of tender and solemn pathos, cheerful trust" and a "pure and ennobling character". Boston critic Edwin Percy Whipple noted Whittier's moral and ethical tone mingled with sincere emotion. He wrote, "In reading this last volume, I feel as if my soul had taken a bath in holy water." Later scholars and critics questioned the depth of Whittier's poetry. One was Karl Keller, who noted, "Whittier has been a writer to love, not to belabor."

Influence and legacy
Whittier was particularly supportive of women writers, including Alice Cary, Phoebe Cary, Sarah Orne Jewett, Lucy Larcom, and Celia Thaxter. He was especially influential on prose writings by Jewett, with whom he shared a belief in the moral quality of literature and an interest in New England folklore. Jewett dedicated one of her books to him and modeled several of her characters after people in Whittier's life.

Whittier's family farm, known as the John Greenleaf Whittier Homestead or simply "Whittier's Birthplace", is now a historic site open to the public. His later residence in Amesbury, where he lived for 56 years, is also open to the public, and is now known as the John Greenleaf Whittier Home. Whittier's hometown of Haverhill has named many buildings and landmarks in his honor including J.G. Whittier Middle School, Greenleaf Elementary, and Whittier Regional Vocational Technical High School. Numerous other schools around the country also bear his name.

The John Greenleaf Whittier Bridge, built in the style of the Sagamore and Bourne bridges, carries Interstate 95 from Amesbury to Newburyport over the Merrimack River. A covered bridge spanning the Bearcamp River in Ossipee, New Hampshire, is also named for Whittier.

The city of Whittier, California, is named after the poet, as are the communities of Whittier, Alaska, and Whittier, Iowa; the Minneapolis neighborhood of Whittier; the Whittier neighborhoods of Denver and Boulder, Colorado, as well as a school and a park there. Both Whittier College and Whittier Law School are named after him. A park in the Saint Boniface area of Winnipeg is named after the poet in recognition of his poem "The Red River Voyageur". Whittier Education Campus in Washington, DC, is named in his honor. SS Whittier Victory a World War 2 ship named after Whittier College. Whittier Peak and Mount Whittier in Washington and Mount Whittier in New Hampshire are mountains named after him.

The alternate history story P.'s Correspondence (1846) by Nathaniel Hawthorne, considered the first such story ever published in English, includes the notice "Whittier, a fiery Quaker youth, to whom the muse had perversely assigned a battle-trumpet, got himself lynched, in South Carolina". The date of that event in Hawthorne's invented timeline was 1835.

Whittier was one of thirteen writers in the 1897 card game Authors, which referenced his writings "Laus Deo", "Among the Hills", Snow-bound, and "The Eternal Goodness". He was removed from the card game when it was reissued in 1987.

Whitter's poem "Twilight" was set to music in 1932 by Edwin Fowles.

In 2020, a statue previously erected in his honor in Whittier, California, was defaced with antislavery and Black Lives Matter slogans by vandals. He had never owned slaves.

List of works
Poetry collections
 * Poems written during the Progress of the Abolition Question in the United States (1837)
 * Lays of My Home (1843)
 * Voices of Freedom (1846)
 * Songs of Labor (1850)
 * The Chapel of the Hermits (1853)
 * Le Marais du Cygne (September 1858 Atlantic Monthly)
 * Home Ballads (1860)
 * The Furnace Blast (1862)
 * Maud Muller (1856)
 * In War Time (1864)
 * Snow-Bound (1866)
 * The Tent on the Beach (1867)
 * Among the Hills (1869)
 * Ballads of New England (1870)
 * Whittier's Poems Complete (1874)
 * The Pennsylvania Pilgrim (1872)
 * The Vision of Echard (1878)
 * The King's Missive (1881)
 * Saint Gregory's Guest (1886)
 * At Sundown (1890)

Prose
 * The Stranger in Lowell (1845)
 * The Supernaturalism of New England (1847)
 * Leaves from Margaret Smith's Journal (1849)
 * Old Portraits and Modern Sketches (1850)
 * Literary Recreations and Miscellanies (1854)

Letters and papers

 * John Greenleaf Whittier letters. Available online through Lehigh University's I Remain: A Digital Archive of Letters, Manuscripts, and Ephemera.
 * John Greenleaf Whittier Manuscript Collection held by the Friends Historical Library of Swarthmore College
 * John G. Whittier Photograph Collection held by the Friends Historical Library of Swarthmore College
 * John Greenleaf Whittier letterbook held by Haverford College Quaker & Special Collections
 * John Greenleaf Whittier Research Papers held by the Friends Historical Library of Swarthmore College

Sites

 * Whittier Family Homestead and Birthplace of John Greenleaf Whittier
 * John Greenleaf Whittier Home, Amesbury, Massachusetts

title: John Greenleaf Whittier


text:
Battle of Spartolos

The Battle of Spartolos took place in 429 BC between Athens and the Chalcidian League and their allies, in the early part of the Peloponnesian War.

The fall of Potidaea had not succeeded in quelling the rebellion against Athens in Chalcidice. To ensure a steady stream of imperial revenue and suppress additional local uprisings, the Athenians dispatched Xenophon (son of Euripides) with 2,000 hoplites and 200 cavalry to launch an attack on Spartolos. They destroyed the crops outside the city and began negotiating with pro-Athenian factions in Chalcidice, but the anti-Athenian factions asked for help from Olynthus. An army from Chalcidice, Spartolos, and Olynthus met the Athenians in battle, but their hoplites were defeated and they retreated to Spartolos. Their cavalry and peltasts, however, gained the advantage over the Athenian troops. Reinforcements soon arrived from Olynthus, and they launched a second attack on the Athenians. The Athenian hoplites could not come to grips with the enemy light troops or horsemen. Eventually the Athenians panicked and were routed, with all of their generals and 430 other men killed.

In the Athenian tribute list of 429/8 BC the only cities of Chalcidice are: Mende, Aphytis, Scione, Stageira and Acanthus (Athos). Acanthus and Mende had not even joined the Chalcidian League.

Early stage
When the phalanxes of the Chalcidians clashed with those of the Athenians, it was clear that the Athenians had a great advantage. The local Chalcidian hoplites made up the centre and right hand portions of the army while hired Peloponnesian forces made up the left side. The locals on the Chalcidian side gave way first, forcing the mercenaries to fall back as well. This left the Chalcidian army worn and strained, and the battle looked very promising for the Athenians.

Later stage
After the Chalcidian side was worn down by the Athenians, the Chalcidians were reinforced by troops sent from Olynthus. With the help of the troops from Olynthus, the Chalcidians rallied back against the Athenians much stronger than before. They had learned that the Athenians did not have the experience or equipment to defend against large numbers of javelins, so when they came back strengthened by their allies and with a new tactic, the Chalcidians forced the Athenians to retreat. As the Athenians retreated, Chalcidian cavalry and light infantry chased down the Athenians to inflict further damage upon them. The Athenians tried multiple counter-attacks to defend themselves from further harm, but each time the Chalcidians were able to evade the attacks. The back ranks of Athenian troops began to abandon those at the front, allowing them to be overwhelmed, surrounded, and killed, including their general, Xenophon.

Statistics
On the Athenian side of the battle were 2,000 hoplites, 200 cavalry, and around 500 light troops.

Aftermath
Between a fifth and a fourth of the Athenian troops were killed in this battle- twice as much as was expected prior to the battle. This brutal defeat showed Athens what would be required of them to win the war.

title: Battle of Spartolos


text:
William Wood, 1st Baron Hatherley

William Page Wood, 1st Baron Hatherley, PC (29 November 1801 – 10 July 1881) was a British lawyer and statesman who served as a Liberal Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain between 1868 and 1872 in William Ewart Gladstone's first ministry.

Background and education
Wood was born in London, the second son of Sir Matthew Wood, 1st Baronet, an alderman and Lord Mayor of London who became famous for befriending Queen Caroline and braving George IV. Sir Evelyn Wood and Katharine O'Shea were his nephew and niece respectively.

He was educated at Winchester College, from which he was expelled after a revolt against the headmaster, Woodbridge School, Geneva University, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became a fellow after being 24th wrangler in 1824.

Legal and political career
Wood entered Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the Bar in 1824, studying conveyancing in John Tyrrell's chambers. He soon obtained a good practice as an equity draughtsman and before parliamentary committees. In 1845 he became a Queen's Counsel, and in 1847 was elected to parliament for the city of Oxford as a Liberal. In 1849 he was appointed Vice-Chancellor of the County Palatine of Lancaster, and in 1851 was made Solicitor General for England and Wales and knighted, vacating the former position in 1852. When his party returned to power in 1853, he was raised to the bench as a Vice-Chancellor.

In 1868 he was made a Lord Justice of Appeal, but before the end of the year was selected by Gladstone to be Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain and was raised to the peerage as Baron Hatherley, of Down Hatherley in the County of Gloucester. He retired in 1872 owing to failing eyesight, but sat occasionally as a law lord.

Family
Wood married Charlotte, daughter of Edward Moor, in 1830. They had no children. Charlotte's death in 1878 was a great blow to Wood, from which he never recovered, and he died in London on 10 July 1881, aged 79. Both are buried in the churchyard in Great Bealings, Suffolk, where Charlotte's brother was rector. The title became extinct on his death.

title: William Wood, 1st Baron Hatherley