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Frederick Schomberg, 1st Duke of Schomberg

Frederick Herman de Schomberg, 1st Duke of Schomberg KG PC (6 December 1615 – 1 July 1690) was a German-born military officer and peer who served as Master-General of the Ordnance from 1689 to 1690. Having fought in the French, Portuguese and English armies, he was killed in action fighting on the Williamite side at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.

Early career
Descended from an old family of the Electorate of the Palatinate, he was born at Heidelberg, the son of Count Hans Meinhard von Schönberg (1582–1616) and Anne, a daughter of Edward Sutton, 5th Baron Dudley, and Theodosia Harington. An orphan within a few months of his birth, he was educated by various family friends, among whom was Frederick V, Elector Palatine, in whose service his father had been. He began his military career under Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, and in 1634 passed into the service of Sweden, entering that of France in 1635. His family, and the allied house of the Saxon Schönbergs, had already attained eminence in France with Henri de Schomberg and Charles de Schomberg, both marshals of France.

After a time he retired to his family estate at Geisenheim on the Rhine, but in 1639 he re-entered the Dutch States Army, in which, apparently, apart from a few intervals at Geisenheim, he remained until about 1650. He then rejoined the French army as a general officer (maréchal de camp), served under Turenne in the campaigns against Condé, and became a lieutenant-general in 1665, receiving this rapid promotion perhaps partly owing to his relationship with Charles de Schomberg, duc d'Halluin.

After the peace of the Pyrenees (1659), the independence of Portugal was threatened by Spain, and Schomberg was sent as military adviser to Lisbon with the secret approval of Charles II of England. Louis XIV of France, in order not to infringe the treaty just made with Spain, deprived Schomberg of his French officers. Schomberg thus took command of the English brigade which consisted of three regiments in total 3,000 men. Many of these were ex Royalist and New Model Army troops from the Civil War. After many difficulties in the three first campaigns resulting from the opposition of Portuguese officers, the Portuguese commander António Luís de Meneses, 1st Marquis of Marialva, together with Schomberg won the victory of Montes Claros on 17 June 1665 over the Spaniards under Luis de Benavides Carrillo, Marquis of Caracena.

After participating with his army in the revolution which deposed the reigning king Afonso VI of Portugal in favour of his brother Dom Pedro, and ending the war with Spain, Schomberg returned to France, became a naturalised Frenchman and bought the lordship of Coubert near Paris. He had been rewarded by the king of Portugal, in 1663, with the rank of Grandee, the title of count of Mértola and a pension of f 5000 a year. In 1673 he was brought by Charles II to England to take command of the newly formed Blackheath Army, which was planned to take part in an invasion of the Dutch Republic during the Third Anglo-Dutch War. However the army did not go into action before the Treaty of Westminster established peace, and was disbanded by the King following Parliamentary pressure.

He therefore again entered the service of France. His first operations in Catalonia were unsuccessful owing to the disobedience of subordinates and the rawness of his troops. On 19 June 1674, he was dealt a defeat at the Battle of Maureillas by Francisco de Tutavilla y del Rufo, but he retrieved the failure by retaking Fort de Bellegarde in 1675. For this he was made a marshal, being included in the promotion that followed the death of Turenne. The tide had now turned against the Huguenots, and Schomberg's merits had been long ignored on account of his adherence to the Protestant religion. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) forced him to leave his adopted country.

Ultimately he became general-in-chief of the forces of the Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, and at Berlin he was the acknowledged leader of the thousands of Huguenot refugees there. Soon afterwards, with the Electors consent, he joined the Prince of Orange on his expedition to England in 1688, the Glorious Revolution, as second in command to the prince. The following year he was made a Knight of the Garter, was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance, was created Duke of Schomberg, and received from the House of Commons a vote of £100,000 to compensate him for the loss of his French estates, of which Louis had deprived him.

Ireland

In July 1689, William appointed him commander-in-chief of the expedition that he undertook to drive James II out of Ireland. Before departing to Ireland, Schomberg took his leave from parliament on 16 July 1689. On 20 July Schomberg arrived at Chester where the expedition's troops were gathering. Sailing with a fleet from Hoylake, he landed on 13 August 1689 at Ballyholme Bay near Bangor. He made the passage on the royal yacht Cleveland. He then marched over Bangor and Belfast to Carrickfergus, which had a Jacobite garrison. He began the siege of Carrickfergus on 20 August. The town surrendered on 28 August. Thereafter he marched unopposed through a country desolated before him to Dundalk, but, as the bulk of his forces were raw and undisciplined as well as inferior in numbers to the enemy Irish Army, he deemed it imprudent to risk a battle, and entrenching himself at Dundalk declined to be drawn beyond the circle of his defences. Shortly afterwards pestilence broke out, and when he retired to winter quarters in Ulster his forces were more shattered than if they had sustained a severe defeat.

His conduct was criticized in ill-informed quarters, but the facts justified his inactivity, and he gave what was said at the time to be a "striking example of his generous spirit" in placing at William of Orange's disposal for military purposes the £100,000 recently granted to him. In the spring he began the campaign with the capture of Charlemont, but no advance southward was made until William arrived with reinforcements. At the Battle of the Boyne (1 July 1690 O.S.), Schomberg gave his opinion against the determination of William to cross the river in face of the opposing army. After riding through the river to rally his men, he was wounded twice in the head by sabre cuts, and was shot in the neck by Cahir O'Toole of Ballyhubbock and instantly killed.

Family
His eldest son Charles Schomberg, the second duke in the English peerage, died in the year 1693 of wounds received at the Battle of Marsaglia. His other son was Meinhardt Schomberg, 3rd Duke of Schomberg.

Burial and inscription

He was buried in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, where there is a monument to him, erected in 1731. On the monument is a Latin inscription by Jonathan Swift, which reads:

"Hic infra situm est corpus Frederici Ducis de Schonberg, ad Bubindam occisi, A.D. 1690. Decanus et Capitulum maximopere etiam atque etiam petierunt, ut haeredes Ducis monumentum in memoriam parentis erigendum curarent. Sed postquam per epistolas, per amicos, diu ac saepe orando nil profecere; hunc demum lapidem statuerunt; saltem ut scias, hospes, ubinam terrarum SCHONBERGENSIS cineres delitescunt. Plus potuit fama virtutis apud alienos quam sanguinis proximitas apud suos. A.D. 1731"

The English translation:

"Here below is placed the body of Frederick, Duke of Schomberg, killed at the Boyne, A.D. 1690. The dean and the chapter fervently sought, again and again, that the heirs of the Duke see to the erection of a monument in memory of (their) parent. But, after asking for a long time and often, through letters, through friends, they accomplished nothing; finally they set up this stone; so that at least, visitor, you might know where in the world the ashes of Schomberg are concealed. The fame of his valor had more influence among strangers than the relationships of blood did among his own (family). A.D. 1731"

Additionally, the Boyne Obelisk (which was erected on the north bank of the River Boyne in 1736, to commemorate the Williamite victory at the Battle of the Boyne, and later destroyed in 1923) contained an inscription to him on its south side base, reading:

"Marshal the Duke of Schomberg in passing this river died bravely fighting in defence of liberty"

The village of Schomberg, Ontario is named after him.


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Obscured by Clouds

Obscured by Clouds is the seventh studio album by the English progressive rock band Pink Floyd, released on 2 June 1972 by Harvest and Capitol Records. It serves as the soundtrack for the French film La Vallée, by Barbet Schroeder. It was recorded in two sessions in France, while Pink Floyd were in the midst of touring, and produced by the band.

Obscured by Clouds is shorter than some of Pink Floyd's previous albums, and makes heavy use of the acoustic guitar. Lyrically, the songs centre around love, a common theme in the film the album was inspired by. The album's only single was "Free Four". Obscured by Clouds has been seen as a stopgap for the band, who had started work on their next album, The Dark Side of the Moon (1973). The album reached number six in the United Kingdom and number 46 in the United States; retrospective opinions from both fans and critics have been mixed, some critics noting the similarities to their later material.

Background
By 1972, Pink Floyd had recorded the soundtracks to the films The Committee (1968) and More (1969), and part of Zabriskie Point (1970). On the back of More's success, its director Barbet Schroeder asked them to record the soundtrack of his next major project. The new film, La Vallée, featured two travellers on a spiritual quest in New Guinea, and Schroeder thought Pink Floyd would be suitable to provide the music. The group had already started working on another album, The Dark Side of the Moon, including some basic recording and live performances, but took two breaks to Strawberry Studios, Château d'Hérouville, France, just before and after doing a Japanese tour, to write and record music for the film. The album was mixed from 4–6 April at Morgan Sound Studios in London.

As they had done on More, the band saw a rough cut of the film and noted certain timings for cues with a stopwatch. From this, they created a number of pieces that they felt could be cross-faded at various points in the final cut of the film. They were not worried about creating complete songs, feeling that any musical piece would be workable without the need for any solos, but nevertheless, under pressure to produce enough material, they managed to create a series of well-structured songs. Drummer Nick Mason recalls that the sessions were very hurried, and the band spent most of the time in Paris locked away in the studio.

During the first recording session in February 1972, the French television station ORTF filmed a short segment of the band recording the album, including interviews with bassist Roger Waters and guitarist David Gilmour. In a snippet of interview footage at Abbey Road Studios that appeared in the 1974 theatrical version (later released on VHS and Laserdisc and subsequent "Director's Cut" DVD) of Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii, Waters said that early UK pressings of the album contained excessive sibilance.

After recording had finished, the band fell out with the film company, prompting them to release the soundtrack album as Obscured by Clouds, rather than La Vallée. In response, the film was retitled La Vallée (Obscured by Clouds) on its release.

Songs
The songs on Obscured by Clouds are all short and economical, in contrast to the lengthy instrumentals found on other Floyd albums. A strong country music influence was present on several tracks, with prominent use of acoustic guitar. The album also featured the VCS 3 synthesiser, which Wright had purchased from the BBC Radiophonic Workshop.

The title track makes prominent use of the VCS 3, and features Mason playing electronic drums. The following track, "When You're In" is similar in style; its title came from a phrase said by roadie Chris Adamson. The two pieces were played back-to-back live in late 1972 and on the 1973 tours. They were also part of the set used for the group's collaboration with Roland Petit and the Ballet National de Marseille at the Palais de Sports, Paris, in early 1973.

"Burning Bridges" was one of two songwriting collaborations on the album between keyboardist Richard Wright (who wrote the music) and Waters (who wrote the lyrics). "Wot's... Uh the Deal?" was a straightforward acoustic piece. It was never performed live by Pink Floyd, but Gilmour resurrected the piece for his solo tour in 2006. One of these performances features on Gilmour's 2007 DVD Remember That Night and the vinyl version of his 2008 live album, Live in Gdańsk. "Mudmen" was an instrumental adaptation of "Burning Bridges" in a different time signature, and one of the few tracks from this era to be credited to just Wright and Gilmour.

"Childhood's End" was the last song Pink Floyd released to have lyrics written by Gilmour until the release of A Momentary Lapse of Reason in 1987. The title may have been derived from the Arthur C. Clarke novel of the same name. It was performed live at a few gigs in late 1972 and early the following year; the drum pattern opening the track was recycled for "Time" on The Dark Side of the Moon.

"Free Four" was the first Pink Floyd song since "See Emily Play" to attract significant airplay in the US, and the second (after "Corporal Clegg" from A Saucerful of Secrets) to refer to the death of Waters' father during World War II. The title is derived from the count-in "One, two, 'free, four!", spoken in a Cockney accent. The track was released as a single in the US, as the band felt it was suitable for AM radio.

"Stay" was written and sung by Wright, with lyrics by Waters. It is superficially a love song, except the protagonist cannot remember the girl's name, suggesting that she might have been a groupie. "Absolutely Curtains", the closing instrumental on the album, is primarily based around Wright's keyboards. It ends with a recording of the Mapuga tribe chanting, as seen in the film.

Cover
The album's cover was, like several other Pink Floyd albums, designed by Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell of Hipgnosis. The cover is a still from a workprint of La Vallée depicting a man (Jean-Pierre Kalfon as Gaëtan) sitting in a tree, reaching out to pick the fruit from one of its branches. The still is out of focus to the point of complete distortion. Hipgnosis viewed a number of stills from the film on a 35mm projector and liked the visual effect when the slide jammed. Schroeder later said the band did not want to make the cover particularly good as The Dark Side of the Moon would have to compete with it, but Thorgerson insisted it was given proper consideration like any other Floyd album.

Release and reception
Obscured by Clouds was released in the UK on 2 June 1972 and then in the United States on 15 June 1972, both on Harvest. The album reached number one in France, number six on the UK Albums Chart, and number 46 on the US albums chart (where it was certified Gold by the RIAA in 1997). In 1986, the album was released on CD. A digitally remastered CD was released in March 1996 in the UK and August 1996 in the US. It was remixed in 2016 for the Early Years box set, and released individually the following year.

Even among fans, it is not one of Pink Floyd's more popular albums, though Mason has said it is one of his favourite Floyd albums. Retrospective critical reception has been mixed; The Daily Telegraph said "its elegant instrumentals point the way to Dark Side", while Rolling Stone said it was a "dull film soundtrack".

Personnel
All personnel are uncredited on the original sleeve.

Pink Floyd
 * David Gilmour – acoustic, electric and pedal steel guitars, VCS 3 synthesiser, vocals
 * Nick Mason – drums, percussion
 * Roger Waters – bass guitar, vocals
 * Richard Wright – Hammond organ (2, 3, 5-7, 10), piano (5, 6, 9, 10), Farfisa organ (10), VCS 3 synthesiser, electric piano, vocals

Additional personnel
 * Hipgnosis – album cover
 * Mapuga tribe – chant on "Absolutely Curtains"

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Obscured by Clouds


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Malaysian ringgit

The Malaysian ringgit (plural: ringgit; symbol: RM; currency code: MYR; Malay name: Ringgit Malaysia; formerly the Malaysian dollar) is the currency of Malaysia. Issued by the Central Bank of Malaysia, it is divided into 100 cents (Malay: sen).

Etymology
The word ringgit is an obsolete term for "jagged" in the Malay language. The word was originally used to refer to serrated edges. The first European coins to circulate widely in the region were Spanish "pieces of eight" or "cob", their crude appearance resembling stones, hence the word jagged. The availability and circulation of this Spanish currency were due to the Spanish controlling nearby Philippines.

An early printed source, the Dictionary of the Malayan Language from 1812 had already referred to the ringgit as a unit of money.

In modern usage, ringgit is used almost solely for the currency. Due to the common heritage of the three modern currencies, the Singapore dollar and the Brunei dollar are also called ringgit in Malay (currencies such as the US and Australian dollars are translated as dolar), although nowadays the Singapore dollar is more commonly called dolar in Malay. To differentiate between the three currencies, the Malaysian currency is referred to as Ringgit Malaysia, hence the official abbreviation and currency symbol RM. Internationally, the ISO 4217 currency code for Malaysian ringgit is MYR.

The Malay names ringgit and sen were officially adopted as the sole official names in 28 August 1975. Previously they had been known officially as dollars and cents in English and ringgit and sen in Malay, and in some parts of the country this usage continues. In the northern states of Peninsular Malaysia, denominations of 10 sen are called kupang in Northern Malay and called pua̍t (鏺/鈸) in Penang Hokkien which is thought to be derived from the Thai word baht. e.g. 50 sen is lima kupang in Malay or 'samah' in the Kelantan dialect and gōo-pua̍t (五鏺/鈸) in Hokkien. The Tamil speaking communities in Malaysia use veḷḷi (வெள்ளி) meaning "silver" in Tamil to refer to ringgit, while for sen, the word kācu (காசு) is used, from which the English word "cash" is derived.

Before independence
The Spanish-American silver dollar brought over by the Manila galleons was the primary currency for international trade, used in Asia and the Americas from the 16th to 19th centuries; it was eventually called the ringgit. The various dollars introduced in the 19th century were itself derived from the Spanish dollar: the Straits dollar, Sarawak dollar and the British North Borneo dollar. From these dollars were derived their successor currencies the Malayan dollar and the Malaya and British Borneo dollar, and eventually the modern-day Malaysian ringgit, Singapore dollar and Brunei dollar.

After independence (1967–1997)
On 12 June 1967, the Malaysian dollar, issued by the new central bank, Central Bank of Malaysia, replaced the Malaya and British Borneo dollar at par. The new currency retained all denominations of its predecessor except the $10,000 denomination, and also brought over the colour schemes of the old dollar. Over the course of the following decades, minor changes were made to the notes and coins issued, from the introduction of the M$1 coin in 1967, to the demonetization of RM500 and RM1,000 notes in 1999.

As the Malaysian dollar replaced the Malaya and British Borneo dollar at par and Malaysia was a participating member of the sterling area, the new dollar was originally valued at $1/100$ dollars per 1 British pound sterling; in turn, £1 = US$2.80 so that US$1 = M$3.06. In November 1967, five months after the introduction of the Malaysian dollar, the pound was devalued by 14.3% from US$2.80 to US$2.40, leading to a collapse in confidence for the sterling area and its demise in 1972. The new currency stayed pegged to the U.S. dollar at US$1 = M$3.06, but earlier notes of the Malaya and British Borneo dollar were devalued from US$2.80 to US$2.40 for 8.57 dollars; consequently these notes were reduced in value to 85 cents per dollar.

Despite the emergence of new currencies in Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei, the Interchangeability Agreement which the three countries adhered to as original members of the currency union meant the Malaysian dollar was exchangeable at par with the Singapore dollar and Brunei dollar. This ended on 8 May 1973, when the Malaysian government withdrew from the agreement. The Monetary Authority of Singapore and the Brunei Currency and Monetary Board still maintain the interchangeability of their two currencies, as of 2021. The Malaysian Ringgit name was introduced in 1975.

In 1993, the currency symbol "RM" (Ringgit Malaysia) was introduced to replace the use of the dollar sign "$" (or "M$").

Asian financial crisis and US dollar currency peg (1997–2005)
Between 1995 and 1997, the ringgit was trading as a free float currency at around 2.50 to the US dollar, but following the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the ringgit witnessed major dips to under 3.80 MYR/USD by the end of 1997 as a result of capital flight. During the first half of 1998, the currency fluctuated between 3.80 and 4.40 MYR/USD, before the Central Bank of Malaysia moved to peg the ringgit to the US dollar in September 1998, maintaining its 3.80 MYR/USD value while remaining floated against other currencies. In addition, the ringgit was designated non-tradeable outside of Malaysia in 1998 to stem the flow of money out of the country.

While the printing of RM500 and RM1,000 notes had ceased in 1996 in response to risks of money laundering and capital flight, the underestimated effects of the financial crisis prompted the central bank to completely discontinue the use of the notes by demonetising the remaining notes in circulation beginning 1 July 1999. The two denominations hereby ceased to be legal tender and were only exchangeable directly at the central bank; at the time of the demonetization, RM500 and RM1,000 notes were each worth approximately US$130 and US$260 respectably, based on the 3.80 MYR/USD peg rate. Despite these measures, some 7.6% of RM500 notes and 0.6% of RM1,000 notes remain in circulation as of 30 January 2011. During a 2011 parliamentary session, then Deputy Finance Minister Donald Lim Siang Chai asserted that a total of 150,599 and 26,018 pieces of RM500 and RM1,000 notes (RM75,299,500 worth of RM500 notes and RM26,018,000.00 worth of RM1,000 notes) have yet to be "recalled" through the central bank.

The ringgit lost 50% of its value against the US dollar between 1997 and 1998, and suffered general depreciation against other currencies between December 2001 and January 2005. As of 4 September 2008, the ringgit had yet to regain its value circa 2001 against the Singapore dollar (2.07 to 2.40 MYR/SGD), the euro (3.40 to 4.97 MYR/EUR), the Australian dollar (1.98 to 2.80 MYR/AUD ), and the British pound (5.42 to 6.10 MYR/GBP ).

On 21 July 2005, Central Bank of Malaysia announced the end of the peg to the US dollar immediately after China's announcement of the end of the renminbi peg to the US dollar. According to Bank Negara, Malaysia allows the ringgit to operate in a managed float against several major currencies. This has resulted in the value of the ringgit rising closer to its perceived market value, although Central Bank of Malaysia has intervened in financial markets to maintain stability in the trading level of the ringgit, a task made easier by the fact that the ringgit was pegged and has remained non-tradeable outside Malaysia since 1998.

Post-US dollar currency peg performance (2005–present)
Following the end of the currency peg, the ringgit appreciated to as high as 3.16 MYR/USD in April 2008. The ringgit had also enjoyed a period of appreciation against the Hong Kong dollar (from 0.49 to 0.44 MYR/HKD) and the renminbi (0.46 to 0.45 MYR/CNY) as recently as May 2008. The initial stability of the ringgit in the late-2000s had led to considerations to reintroduce the currency to foreign trading after over a decade of being non-internationalised. In a CNBC interview in September 2010, Najib Tun Razak, the then Prime Minister and Finance Minister of Malaysia, was quoted in stating that the government was planning the reentry of the ringgit into off-shore trading if the move will help the economy, with the condition that rules and regulations were put in place to prevent abuses. Despite considerations, the ringgit has continued to remain non-internationalised in a deliberate move to continue discouraging off-shore trading of the currency.

Political uncertainty following the country's 2008 general election and the 2008 Permatang Pauh by-election, falling crude oil prices in the late-2000s, and the lack of intervention by the Central Bank of Malaysia to increase already low interest rates (which remained at 3.5% between April 2006 and November 2008) led to a slight fall of the ringgit's value against the US dollar between May and July 2008, followed by a sharper drop between August and September of the same year. As a result, the US dollar appreciated significantly to close at 3.43 MYR/USD as of 4 September 2008, while other major currencies, including the renminbi and Hong Kong dollar, followed suit. The ringgit spiked at 3.73 MYR/USD by March 2009, before gradually recovering to 3.00 MYR/USD by mid-2011 and normalising at around 3.10 MYR/USD between 2011 and 2014.

The ringgit experienced more acute plunges in the value since mid-2014 following the escalation of the 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal that raised allegations of political channeling of billions of ringgit to off-shore accounts, and uncertainty from the 2015–16 Chinese stock market turbulence and the effects of the 2016 United States presidential election results. The currency's value fell from an average of 3.20 MYR/USD in mid-2014 to around 3.70 MYR/USD by early 2015; with China being Malaysia's largest trading partner, a Chinese stock market crash in June 2015 triggered another plunge in value for the ringgit, which reached levels unseen since 1998 at lows of 4.43 MYR/USD in September 2015, before stabilising around 4.10 to 4.20 to the US dollar soon after; the currency later plummeted and hover below the 1998 lows at 4.40 and 4.50 MYR/USD, following the wake of the victory of pro-protectionist Donald Trump in the 2016 United States presidential election, which has raised questions of the United States' participation in the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) (which Malaysia is a signatory of, and the United States had promptly pulled out from in January 2017) and Malaysia–United States trade as a whole (as the United States is among Malaysia's largest trading partners).

In response to the sharp drop of the ringgit in November 2016, Central Bank of Malaysia began a series of tougher crackdowns on under-the-counter non-deliverable forward trading of the ringgit in order to curb currency speculation. Since then, the currency has seen a steady but consistent rate of appreciation against the US dollar, with significant increases since early-November 2017 following reports of positive economic performance, the restructuring of the TPP into the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and increasing global oil prices. After appreciating as high as 3.86 to the US dollar as of early April 2018, the value dropped to around 4.18 MYR/USD by the end of October 2018 following increasing trade war tensions in response to the China–United States trade war, selloff panic from other emerging markets, as well as uncertainty in economic policy following an upset by the Pakatan Harapan coalition in the 2018 general election. With the exception of the Euro, the currency's has also seen some recovery of value to pre-late 2016 levels against other major currencies, including the renminbi, British pound, Australian dollar, Japanese yen and Singaporean dollar, but remains less valuable overall than before the end of 2013.

First series (1967)
The first series of sen coins were introduced in 1967 in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 20 and 50 sen, followed by the introduction of the 1 ringgit coin (which used the $ symbol and is the largest coin in the series) in 1971. While varied by diameters, virtually all the coins were minted in near-consistent obverse and reverse designs and were very generic, with the obverse depicting the then recently completed Malaysian Houses of Parliament and the federal star and crescent moon from the canton of the Malaysian flag. All coins were minted from cupronickel, the only exception being the 1 sen coin, which was first composed from bronze between 1967 and 1972, then in steel clad with copper from 1973 onwards. The 50 sen coin is the only one in the series to undergo a redesign, a minor 1971 modification on its edge to include "Bank Negara Malaysia" letterings. All coins have the initials GC on the reverse, below the Parliament House. It stands for Geoffrey Colley, Malaysia first coin series' designer. The 1 ringgit coin was never popular at the time due to being in conflict with a banknote of equal face value, similar to the current situation regarding the 1 dollar coin of the United States dollar.

The coins of this first series were identical in size and composition to those of the former Malaya and British Borneo dollar. Though the Malayan currency union coins were withdrawn, they still appear in circulation on very rare occasions.

Minting of the first sen series ended in 1989, when the second series was introduced. The older coins remain legal tender as of 2019, but have steadily declined in number and are seldom seen in circulation in Malaysia.

Second series (1989)
The second series of sen coins entered circulation in late 1989, sporting completely redesigned obverses and reverses, but predominantly retaining the design of edges, diameters and composition of the previous series' coins previous to 1989, the 1 ringgit coin being the exception. Changes include the depiction of items of Malay culture on the obverse, such as a local mancala game board called congkak on the 10 sen and the wau bulan or "moon kite" on the 50 sen among other things, as well as the inclusion of a Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Malay: Bunga Raya), the national flower of Malaysia, on the upper half of the reverse. The second series was designed by Low Yee Kheng.

In addition to changes on its obverse and reverse, the size of the 1 ringgit coin was also reduced from a diameter of 33 mm to 24 mm, and was minted from an alloy of copper, zinc and tin, as opposed to the first series' cupronickel. The $ symbol was brought over to the new coin, but was dropped in favour of "RINGGIT" for coins minted from 1993 onwards. On 7 December 2005, the 1 ringgit coin was demonetised and withdrawn from circulation. This was partly due to problems with standardisation (two different versions of the second series coin were minted) and forgery.

As of 1 April 2008, a rounding mechanism of prices to the nearest 5 sen, applied to the total bill only, is in force, which was first announced in 2007 by Central Bank of Malaysia, in an attempt to render the 1 sen coin irrelevant. Individual items and services can still be priced in multiples of 1 sen with the final totalled rounded to the nearest 5 sen. For example, purchasing two items priced RM4.88 and RM3.14, totalling RM8.02, would then be rounded to RM8.00. If each item had been individually rounded (to RM4.90 and RM3.15 respectively) the incorrect total would have been RM8.05. In practice, individual items will probably remain priced at so-called "price points" (or psychological pricing and odd-number pricing) ending in 98 and 99 to maximise rounding gains for the vendor, especially in the case of single item purchases. Existing 1 sen coins in circulation remain legal tender for payments up to RM2.00.

Third series (2012)
The third series of coins were announced on 25 July 2011, first being issued as commemorative coins to mark their release on 16 January 2012. The third series carry a theme named "Distinctively Malaysia" and are inspired from motifs of flora and fauna drawn from various cultures in Malaysia to "reflect the diversity and richness of Malaysia's national identity". The denominations issued are 5, 10, 20 and 50 sen. On 24 October 2011, Deputy Finance Minister Datuk Donald Lim named Poogsan Corporation of South Korea as the series' coin suppliers and the coins are minted at the Bank Negara Mint in Shah Alam.

According to Lim, costs in producing the coins will be reduced by 49% due to the change in metal composition. Other changes in the series include the diameter, the colour on the 20- and 50 sen coins (from silver to yellow) and a redesign on the obverse (featuring different motifs for each denomination), fourteen dots symbolising the thirteen states and the collective Federal Territories, and five horizontal lines indicating the five principles of Rukunegara.

The 50-cent coin is more distinctive than the other denominations. The round shape of the coin has nine indentations, forgoing the original "BANK NEGARA MALAYSIA" lettering. The obverse does not feature the five horizontal lines, but instead a latent image security feature is placed over the coin, where lettering of the denomination "50" and "SEN" can be seen when the coin is tilted slightly.

The 20 sen and 50 sen coins look similar to €0.10 and €0.20 coin in size, edge design and colour, however they are only worth at €0.047 and €0.12 respectively.

Kijang Emas
Three denominations of gold bullion coins, the "Kijang Emas" (the kijang, a species of deer, being part of Central Bank of Malaysia's logo) are also issued, at the face value of RM 50, RM 100 and RM 200, weighing $1/10$ oz, $8 4/7$ oz and 1 oz (Troy ounce), respectively. It is minted by the Kilang Wang Central Bank of Malaysia and was launched on 17 July 2001 by Central Bank of Malaysia, making Malaysia the twelfth country to issue its own gold bullion coins. Like other bullion coins issued around the world, the Kijang Emas is primarily used as an investment rather than in day-to-day circulation. The purchase and resale price of Kijang Emas is determined by the prevailing international gold market price. Current price of the Kijang Emas is rated at RM 8266 for 1oz, RM 4211 for $1/4$ oz and RM 2144 for $1/2$ oz (November 17, 2020).

First series (1967)
Central Bank of Malaysia first issued Malaysian dollar banknotes on 6 June 1967 in $1, $5, $10, $50 and $100 denominations. The $1000 denomination was first issued on 2 September 1968. The first Malaysian banknotes carried the image of Tuanku Abdul Rahman, the first Yang di-Pertuan Agong of independent Malaya and bore the signature of Tun Ismail bin Mohamed Ali, the first Malaysian Governor of Central Bank of Malaysia. On 16 August 1972, Central Bank of Malaysia adopted official new spelling system of the national language, Bahasa Melayu, into the printing of its currency notes while retaining the designs. The banknotes with new spellings are circulated alongside the old banknotes.

Second series (1982)
The second series was issued with Malaysian traditional ornamental designs, with the introduction of two new denomination, the $20 and $500 in 1982; later followed by $10, $50 and $100 in 1983, finally the $1, $5 & $1000 completed this series in 1984. Until 2010 the second series notes was still occasionally encountered.

The mark for the blind on the upper left hand corner was removed on the second revision in 1986.

Due to its unpopularity, the $20 (RM20) denominations were discontinued and gradually removed from circulation in 1995.

In 1999 the RM500 and RM1000 notes were discontinued and ceased to be legal tender. This was due because of the Asian monetary crisis of 1997 when huge amounts of ringgit were taken out of the country to be traded in these notes. In effect the notes were withdrawn out of circulation and the amount of ringgit taken out of the country in banknotes was limited to RM1000.

In 1993, $1 notes were discontinued and replaced by the $1 coin.

Third series (1996)
The third series was issued with designs in the spirit of Wawasan 2020 in 1996 in denominations of RM1, RM2, RM5, RM10, RM50 and RM100. The larger denomination RM50 and RM100 notes had an additional hologram strip to deter counterfeiters.

In 2004, Central Bank of Malaysia issued a new RM10 note with additional security features including the holographic strip previously only seen on the RM50 and RM100 notes. A new RM5 polymer banknote with a distinctive transparent window was also issued. Both new banknotes are almost identical to their original third series designs. At one time, Central Bank of Malaysia announced its intention to eventually phase out all paper notes and replace them with polymer notes.

Fourth series (2012)
In early 2008, the Bank released a newly designed RM50 banknote, which according to the Bank, were to enter general circulation beginning 30 January 2008. Earlier, 20,000 more such notes with special packaging were distributed by the bank on 26 December 2007.

The newly designed RM50 banknote retains the predominant colour of green-blue, but is designed in a new theme, dubbed the "National Mission", expressing the notion of Malaysia "[moving] the economy up the value chain", in accordance to Malaysia's economic transformation to higher value-added activities in agriculture, manufacturing and services sectors of the economy. The dominant intaglio portrait of the first Yang di-Pertuan Agong, Tuanku Abdul Rahman, is retained on the right and the national flower, the hibiscus, is presented in the center on the obverse of the note. Design patterns from songket weaving, which are in the background and edges of the banknote, are featured to reflect the traditional Malay textile handicraft and embroidery.

The first 50 million pieces of the new RM50 banknote features Malaysia's first Prime Minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman, at the historic declaration of Malaya's independence, and the logo of the 50th Anniversary of Independence on the reverse. Security features on the banknote include a watermarked portrait of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, a security thread, micro letterings, fluorescent elements visible only under ultraviolet light, a multi coloured latent image which changes colour when viewed at different angles, and a holographic stripe at the side of the note and an image that is visible only via a moiré effect to prevent counterfeiting using photocopiers. Circulation for the first edition of this new RM50 banknote was eventually curtailed by the Central Bank due to the various Malaysia banks' automatic teller machines inability to accept it. The bank began to re-release the new series for general circulation beginning 15 July 2009 without the 50th Anniversary logo. This edition include new enhanced security features such as two color number fluorescents and security fibres.

In May 2011, Central Bank of Malaysia had announced that they will introduce a new series of banknotes to replace the current design that has been in circulation for around 15 years. The most highlighted part of the announcement is the re-introduction of the RM20 note, which was not included in the third series. The design of the new notes was announced on 21 December 2011, and the notes are expected to be put into circulation in the second half of 2012. The new series banknotes are legal tender and will co-circulate with the existing series. The existing series will be gradually phased out. All 4 series of banknotes (except 500, and 1000) are technically still legal tender, but some vendors may not accept the first and second series banknotes (rarely seen now). All banknote denominations in the new series will retain the portrait of the first Yang di-Pertuan Agong, Tuanku Abdul Rahman. The banknotes are supplied by Crane AB of Sweden, Giesecke & Devrient GmbH of Germany, Oberthur Technologies of France and Orell Fussli of Switzerland. They were put into circulation on 16 July 2012.

1998 Commonwealth Games
To commemorate the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur, a commemorative RM50 polymer banknote was issued on 1 June 1998. This was the first polymer banknote to be issued by Central Bank of Malaysia and was printed by Note Printing Australia (NPA). A total of 500,000 sets were issued. They were sold in special packaging and at a premium price of 80 ringgit. This note is hardly ever seen in normal usage, its use being a collector's commemorative.

50th Anniversary of Independence
On 21 December 2007, Central Bank of Malaysia issued a commemorative 50 ringgit banknote to commemorate Malaysia's 50th Anniversary of Independence. The design was that of the 50 ringgit banknote of the fourth series, except with the additional logo of the 50th Anniversary of Independence at the top right of the reverse side, and the inscription "1957-2007" also on the reverse side of the banknote. The regular 50 ringgit notes which were issued later from 2009 onward did not carry these additional design features

A total of 50 million banknotes which bore the commemorative design, with serial number letter prefixes from AA to AE, were issued. Subsequent regular banknotes had serial number prefixes from AF onward. Of the 50 million commemorative banknotes, the first 20,000 were sold with a special packaging at a premium price of 60 ringgit.

60th Anniversary of the Signing of the Federation of Malaya Independence Agreement
On 14 December 2017, Central Bank of Malaysia announced the issue of two paper-polymer hybrid commemorative banknotes in conjunction with the sixtieth anniversary of the Signing of the Federation of Malaya Independence Agreement. The banknotes were in the denominations of 60 ringgit and 600 ringgit. The 60 ringgit note was also made available in a 3-in-1 format.

The 600 ringgit note is the largest legal tender banknote in terms of size to be issued in the world, measuring 370mm by 220mm.

The notes were released for sale online on 29 December 2017 at a premium, with the 60 ringgit note sold at 120 ringgit, the 3-in-1 60 ringgit note at 500 ringgit and the 600 ringgit note at 1,700 ringgit. The print run for the 60 ringgit note was 60,000 while that for both the 3-in-1 60 ringgit and 600 ringgit note were at 6,000.

title: Malaysian ringgit


text:
Talk:Hook and Cod wars

Untitled
How long did the battles last after they restarted in 1417? And what were the Hooks named for? Rmhermen 17:56, Nov 8, 2003 (UTC)

 * Hooks are what you use for catching cod. The battles lasted until 1428 (the zoen van Delft, literally "kiss of Delft", but it probably means "reconciliation"). After that there was a short period of fighting around 1432/33. There were smaller battles outside of the periods that are mentioned now, for example when Maximillian of Austria (Cod) became count of Holland late in the 15th century.

 * I will be adding more information to the page later, but it's hard to be complete, as it is a very confusing series of apparently unconnected battles. Eugene van der Pijll 19:21, 8 Nov 2003 (UTC)

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Additional citations
I'm removing the additional citations tag. There are 32 listed in the references and most sections have a reference. It may be appropriate for certain sections or assertions but those sections and assertions should be marked seperately. JASpencer (talk) 06:02, 30 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hook and Cod wars


text:
Deutsche Bank Center

Deutsche Bank Center (also known as One Columbus Circle and formerly the Time Warner Center) is a mixed-use building on Columbus Circle in Manhattan, New York City, United States. The building occupies the western side of Columbus Circle and straddles the border between Hell's Kitchen and the Upper West Side. It was developed by The Related Companies and Apollo Global Management, and designed by David Childs and Mustafa Kemal Abadan of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill.

Deutsche Bank Center features twin 750 foot towers, connected by a multi-story atrium. The building has a total floor area of 2.8 e6ft2. It contains office space, residential condominiums, the Mandarin Oriental, New York hotel, and the Jazz at Lincoln Center entertainment venue. The Shops at Columbus Circle shopping mall is placed at the base of the building, with a large Whole Foods Market grocery store on the lower level.

The building was built on the site of the New York Coliseum, formerly New York City's main convention center. Plans for the project, then known as Columbus Center, were approved in 1998. Construction began in November 2000 and a topping-out ceremony was held in 2003; the project was known as AOL Time Warner Center during construction, but the "AOL" name was dropped before opening. Time Warner Center officially opened on February 5, 2004. Deutsche Bank replaced WarnerMedia as the anchor tenant of the 1.1 e6ft2 office area in May 2021 and it was renamed Deutsche Bank Center.

Site
The center is on the west side of Columbus Circle, on the border of Hell's Kitchen and the Upper West Side, in Manhattan, New York City. It occupies an irregular plot of land bounded by 60th Street to the north, the Coliseum Park apartment complex to the west, and 58th Street to the south. The eastern boundary consists of Eighth Avenue, Columbus Circle, and Broadway from south to north. The land lot covers 149,560 ft2, with a frontage of 519.03 ft on Columbus Circle and a depth of 492 ft. Deutsche Bank Center's primary address is 1 Columbus Circle. The building also uses the addresses 25 Columbus Circle for its south tower and 80 Columbus Circle for the north tower.

The building is near Trump International Hotel and Tower to the northeast, Central Park to the east, 2 Columbus Circle and 240 Central Park South to the southeast, and Central Park Place to the south. Entrances to the New York City Subway's 59th Street–Columbus Circle station, served by the, are directly outside the building. As part of the construction of what was then Time Warner Center, the existing subway staircase was refurbished and an elevator was added to the subway entrance. Because the building did not include a zoning bonus, the developers did not need to fund a renovation of the subway station, as Hearst Communications was obligated to do when it built Hearst Tower one block south.

Deutsche Bank Center occupies the site of the New York Coliseum, which itself replaced two city blocks bounded by Columbus Circle, 60th Street, Ninth Avenue, and 58th Street. The Coliseum opened in 1956 as New York City's main convention center, being superseded by the Javits Center in the 1980s. Around the same time, the area around Columbus Circle was being redeveloped, in part because of the Coliseum's success. This prompted the Coliseum's owner, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA), to place the building up for sale in 1985. An agreement on the site's redevelopment was not finalized until 1998, and designs for the Coliseum replacement itself were not in place until 1999. This was in part due to disagreements over the site, as well as a weak economy in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Architecture
Deutsche Bank Center was designed by David Childs of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM), working with T. J. Gottesdiener and Mustafa K. Abadan of the same firm. Specific portions of the interior were designed by different architects. AOL Time Warner, Apollo Global Management, Mandarin Oriental Hotel Group, Palladium Company, and the Related Companies were the developers. Stephen M. Ross, CEO of the Related Companies, said that SOM had been selected since they "create great architecture but also speak the language of business". Bovis Lend Lease was the construction manager for much of the interior, including mechanical systems. Another 80 to 100 subcontractors were also hired for different parts of construction.

Deutsche Bank Center includes towers to the north and south, joined at the base. The building is split into eight different ownership units: the basement parking garage, the Shops at Columbus Circle mall, Jazz at Lincoln Center's facilities, the original AOL Time Warner office space, the six other office stories, the condominium units in the north and south towers, and the Mandarin Oriental New York hotel. The building has about 2.8 e6ft2 of interior space in total. About 668700 ft2 of mechanical and underground space is not counted under zoning law. This gives a gross floor area of 2,101,990 ft2, which is close to the maximum area allowed under a floor area ratio of 15. Deutsche Bank Center uses a total of 20 acre of glass, as well as 26000 ST of steel and 215000 ST of concrete.

Form and facade
The base of Deutsche Bank Center measures 480 ft wide, as measured from north to south, by 434 ft deep. The building is designed to face Central Park, with a general trapezoidal shape. Two towers with a parallelogram-shaped massing rise from the base. The towers are aligned with Broadway, which runs diagonally relative to the Manhattan street grid, while the base is aligned with the street grid. The space between the towers is on axis with 59th Street and Central Park South. The western and eastern facades of both towers are aligned 30 degrees counterclockwise from the axis of Eighth Avenue and Central Park West. Both towers are 55 stories tall with a roof height of 749 ft. The pinnacle of each tower consists of a lantern measuring 60 ft tall.

The base of Deutsche Bank Center contains a limestone facade with large window openings, which taper off into glass bands. The facade of the upper stories is clad with glass. There are small, projecting glass fins every 5 to 10 ft, which, from an angle, give the facade the appearance of a myriad of small shards. The glass panes were initially specified to be 6 mm thick, but the architects changed the specification during construction to 8 mm to stiffen the panes. The architects had originally intended for the glass to be light gray, but a darker shade was later specified. Atop the towers are glass parapets that absorb natural lights.

A multistory cable structure, facing 59th Street across Columbus Circle, serves as the entrance to an atrium between the building's twin towers. The structure consists of a grid of stainless-steel cables 7.5 ft apart vertically and 4.5 ft apart horizontally. Laminated-glass panels measuring 0.75 in thick are placed within the cables. Measuring 86 ft across and 149 ft high, the cable structure was the largest in North America at the time of its completion. It was designed by James Carpenter Design Associates. According to Carpenter, the cable grid was intended "to be as delicate, transparent and diaphanous as possible" to allow simultaneous views into and out of the atrium. Abby Bussel, author of a book about SOM, wrote that the main entrance was intended to "project a civic face to the community" at night.

The southeast corner of the building, at Eighth Avenue and 58th Street, contains a triangular wedge-shaped glass structure measuring about 150 ft tall. For the first months of the complex's existence, the glass structure was empty. As part of an agreement with the New York City government, the structure could not include advertising. Prow Sculpture, an art installation by David Rome, was then installed in the structure by 2004. This consists of 12 sets of 36 translucent panels, each supported by 121 ft vertical trusses. The panels each contain light-emitting diodes that change color once every few minutes. The panels also change color to display the time at 15-minute intervals. The lights can be colored to mark special occasions. The artwork requires 200 tons of air conditioning (equivalent to 2400000 BTU/h), as well as frequent cleaning.

Lower stories
The base of the building contains a steel superstructure with the Shops at Columbus Circle, Jazz at Lincoln Center, broadcast studios, and originally AOL Time Warner's headquarters. The towers' concrete superstructures rest above the base. Structurally, the building's base also includes the steel-framed lower sections of both towers. The steel frame extends 315 ft high below the north tower and 349 ft high below the south tower. The steel superstructure allowed the architects to use several column arrangements to accommodate the differing needs of each tenant, and it allowed the architects to create large, column-free spaces for hotel ballrooms, broadcast studios, and offices. Twenty-four entrances were originally provided at the base. To avoid interfering with the entrances and other open spaces, the building uses diagonal steel columns; concrete columns with stepped notches; and columns hanging from trusses.

The property's foundation is surrounded by a concrete cofferdam measuring 33 ft deep and 630 ft across. The building plans were technically an "alteration" to the New York Coliseum, since the building incorporates the Coliseum's underground parking garage. The parking garage, originally leased to the Central Parking Corporation, has 504 spots. The garage spans three stories and has sensors to monitor how many vehicles are parked in the garage. The garage also has a valet parking service. At ground level, the lobby for the south tower's residences is on 58th Street while the north tower's hotel and condominium lobby is on 59th Street. In addition, there are office lobbies on both 58th and 59th Streets; that on 58th Street originally served the Time Warner lobby.

Mall
Deutsche Bank Center has a four-story retail mall, the Shops at Columbus Circle, which opened in 2004 along with the rest of the complex. Designed by Elkus Manfredi Architects, it was known during planning as the Palladium. The mall's ground-floor tenants include designer shops and restaurants. Among the first retail tenants in the mall were a Whole Foods Market, as well as an Equinox gym, both in the basement. The third and fourth stories contain the Restaurant Collection, with two Michelin 3-star restaurants (Masa and Per Se), as well as other eateries such as Porter House New York and Bad Roman.

The mall is designed to follow the curve of Columbus Circle, measuring 450 ft long. It contains an atrium 150 ft high, leading west from Columbus Circle. This atrium, known as the "Great Room", is about 85 ft wide and 120 ft long with 10000 ft2. A passageway, extending north and south from the atrium, covers 11000 ft2.

Jazz at Lincoln Center
Within the base of Deutsche Bank Center is Frederick P. Rose Hall, a 100000 ft2 complex for Jazz at Lincoln Center, designed by Rafael Viñoly. It was proposed with two auditoriums, two rehearsal studios, a cafe, and a classroom. It consists of three venues. The Rose Theater, on the fifth floor, is the primary venue for Jazz at Lincoln Center, with 1,100 to 1,300 seats. The Appel Room, originally the Allen Room, is above the atrium with a large glass wall facing Columbus Circle, with space for up to 600 seats. Dizzy's Club is named after trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie and contains 140 seats. Jazz at Lincoln Center's space at Rose Hall also includes the Ertegun Atrium, facing Central Park, as well as the Nesuhi Ertegun Jazz Hall of Fame.

Rose Theater is acoustically separated from the rest of Deutsche Bank Center. The auditorium, weighing 1200 ST, is supported by 26 insulating gaskets on concrete footings. The gaskets consist of steel plates measuring 9.5 in thick, between which are neoprene synthetic-rubber pads. There are also neoprene pads, measuring 2 to 3 in thick, on the wall of the auditorium. Steven H. Sommer of Bovid Lend Lease, the hall's construction manager, compared the layout to "a small cardboard box in a larger cardboard box packed with Styrofoam peanuts".

In 2005, Jazz at Lincoln Center announced a partnership with XM Satellite Radio, which gave XM studio space at Rose Hall to broadcast both daily jazz programming and special events. Anderson Cooper's daytime talk show, Anderson, recorded in Jazz at Lincoln Center's Allen Room from 2011 to 2012.

Studios
The eighth floor of the north tower has studios originally designed for Time Warner's subsidiary CNN. The studios were designed by Kostow Greenwood Architects, with scenic design by Production Design Group. The CNN studios covered 240,000 ft2 or 250,000 ft2 on five full stories and portions of two others. The spaces covered floors four through nine. The complex consisted of three large "black box" studios, three smaller studios, two newsrooms, and four control rooms. The black-box studios overlooked the park, as did one of the newsrooms, designed for financial news subsidiary CNNfn.

The wide studio spaces required the columns to be spaced 60 ft apart. To accommodate large overhead lights, SOM omitted alternating floor slabs so CNN's studios contained a floor-to-ceiling height of 27 ft. The studio floors were flattened to prevent camera equipment from vibrating, and thick insulating pads were placed under the floors. In addition, double walls were placed in each studio: an inner wall connecting to the studio floor and an outer wall connected to the rest of the building. Observation windows were placed near the top of the studio walls. The studios had their own power and backup control systems. A dedicated freight elevator was also installed so large props and pieces of sets could be carried into and out of the studios.

The CNNfn newsroom was designed so cameras could pan over the width of the room. Materials such as vinyl partitions and striped carpet tiles were selected according to how they looked on digital cameras. A feature of the CNNfn newsroom was double-tiered wooden oval desks, often shown in wide shots of the newsroom; the desks themselves were arranged in a curve. Kostow Greenwood redesigned the offices for CNNfn, later CNNMoney, in 2013. Among the changes were the addition of 10 ft office modules along the walls of some of the 27-foot-tall spaces. CNN's studios in Time Warner Center operated until the network relocated to 30 Hudson Yards in 2019.

Offices
At the building's completion, it had a total office area of approximately 1.1 e6ft2. About 865000 ft2 was used as the headquarters for Time Warner. Time Warner's offices were designed by HLW International, though Perkins and Will oversaw the final fit-out of the office spaces. The Time Warner offices originally accommodated 1,600 employees on 17 floors in the building's southern section. Time Warner's former spaces are spanned by 45 ft beams. Ten stories were designed as corporate offices in conjunction with Mancini Duffy; the corporate offices contained wooden millwork, as well as gray-and-gold finishes on the walls and carpets. Meeting rooms had curved walls with encaustic finishes and brightly colored accents. Floor spaces were arranged in a modular format, with three offices or four workstations to a module, and meeting areas and copying rooms were placed in uniform positions throughout each floors. According to Mancini Duffy's director of design, "mullions, frames, reveals, and the use of painted drywall, glass, and millwork" served to enhance the design of the office corridors.

There were originally 211000 ft2 of offices not used by AOL Time Warner. The non-Time Warner offices covered six stories. Half of this space was initially occupied by Apollo and Related, two of the developers, after they had difficulty marketing the space; the other half was purchased by Time Warner. , almost all of the building's office space, including both the Time Warner office space and the other space, is occupied by Deutsche Bank.

Upper stories
The apartments and hotel rooms on the upper floors have a concrete superstructure, since they did not need the large column spacing or small columns that a steel superstructure would provide. The concrete superstructures weigh 42000 ST each. There is a truss at the 17th floor of the north tower, 248 ft above the ground, and at the 23rd floor of the south tower, 314 ft above the ground. The trusses distribute the weight of the concrete above to the steel columns below; they also contain ducts, elevator rooms, and hallways between the emergency stairwells of the towers and the base. Each tower also has a concrete core measuring 40 by across, which extends to the layer of Manhattan schist below the building. The cores are up to 2 ft thick at the base.

Hotel

The north tower contains the Mandarin Oriental New York hotel, designed by Brennan Beer Gorman. The hotel contains 248 units in total, composed of 202 guestrooms and 46 suites. The Mandarin Oriental New York spans floors 35 through 54, taking up 290000 ft2 in Deutsche Bank Center. The hotel in general is designed in an Art Deco-inspired Asian contemporary style. The interior decorations were mostly created by Hirsch Bedner Associates, except for the Asiate restaurant, which was designed by Tony Chi. , Reliance Industries owns a majority stake in the hotel.

The only entrance to the hotel is from 60th Street, where there are elevators to the hotel lobby. The ground-floor vestibule, designed as an ellipse, contains a glass chandelier by Dale Chihuly. Floor 35 contains the hotel lobby, the Asiate restaurant, and the MObar lounge. Also in the hotel is a two-story, 14500 ft2 spa. There is also a fitness center with a 75 ft lap pool overlooking Central Park, as well as banquet rooms and ballrooms. Each of the guest rooms has a different set of decorations with Asian artwork and complex color schemes, as well as full-height windows. The layouts of the different hotel suites also vary.

Residences
Both towers contain residences, though they begin 24 stories above ground in the south tower and 37 stories above ground in the north tower. The north-tower residences are marketed as the Residences at Mandarin Oriental, while the south-tower residences are marketed as One Central Park, despite the fact that there is no street named Central Park. There are 66 residences in the north tower, occupying sixteen stories. The residents of the north tower are given access to the Mandarin Oriental New York's amenities, being treated as if they were permanent guests of the hotel. These include spa and health club access as well as room service. The south tower has 133 or 134 residences,  occupying twenty-nine stories. The condominiums have multiple entrances, including through the hotel, garage, and mall.

Ismael Leyva Architects designed the One Central Park residences, with furnishings by Thad Hayes. Leyva's furnishings include granite floors and counters, as well as marble tilesand appliances. The residential condominiums all have ceilings measuring 10 to 12 ft high, with full-height windows providing views of the Hudson River to the west. Four different floor plans are used in the towers, and the spaces are spanned by 20 ft beams.

The top stories of each tower are marketed as floor 80, though this story is actually the 53rd-story penthouse. The tops of each tower are designed with five full-story penthouse condominiums, measuring 8400 ft2 and spanning a full floor. Unlike the other residences, the penthouses were originally offered as unfurnished spaces. Related Companies CEO Stephen Ross had occupied one of the full-story penthouses in the south tower until he sold it in 2023.

Mechanical features
Deutsche Bank Center includes a system of four emergency diesel generators for the residential tenants, each capable of 2 MW. The base is powered by two diesel generators, also capable of 2 MW. There is also a 1 MW uninterruptible power system that runs at all times. The backup generation system powers three elevators, as well as lighting in each hallway and apartment intercoms, in case of emergencies. Two service rooms were installed by Zwicker Electric. The heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system was automated, increasing its efficiency by 10 to 15 percent.

As part of the construction of Time Warner Center, its developers spent $21 million on technological advances. From the building's opening, the entirety of Time Warner Center was equipped with Wi-Fi, which at the time was still relatively uncommon in New York City buildings. A direct Ethernet connection was also included in the building when it was built, and each residence had an in-house internet phone service. In addition, residents received a notebook computer that served as their "digital concierge", where they could look up the building's restaurants, stores, and entertainment areas. The security screening systems at the elevators contained fingerprint readers. While the Wi-Fi services were available to visitors for a fee, the other tech services were only offered to residents and Mandarin Oriental hotel guests. Time Warner provided internet service for its own office space, but the residences and hotel rooms were served by RCN's network instead, because RCN service was less expensive than Time Warner service.

Planning
After putting the Coliseum up for sale in 1985, the MTA received numerous bids for the redevelopment of the site. Mortimer Zuckerman's Boston Properties won the bidding contest, with plans to erect a headquarters for Salomon Brothers on the site, to be designed by Moshe Safdie. The community heavily opposed Zuckerman's initial plan, and the sale was nullified in 1987, with Salomon Brothers withdrawing from the project.

Competing plans
New York City and Boston Properties first hired David Childs in 1987 to design the Coliseum replacement, to be known as Columbus Center. Childs's initial plan, released in June 1988, called for a set of brick-and-glass towers rising as high as 850 ft. Similar to what would ultimately be built, the complex would have been composed of twin towers. Childs's plan faced heavy opposition from the community, leading to a redesign of the project. His second proposal was published in April 1988, with a twin-towered complex rising 752 ft, as well as a pedestrian bridge connecting the two towers. This plan, too, faced political opposition and lawsuits. Following the prolonged delays, Zuckerman and the MTA severed negotiations for the site in 1994. Related CEO Stephen Ross had proposed converting the Coliseum into a Kmart store, though nothing came of that plan. As a result, Ross contacted his friend, Kenneth A. Himmel, to devise a proposal for the site.

Planning for Columbus Center restarted in May 1996, with the MTA outlining several criteria for the shape of the proposed development, as well as a stipulation that the winner could not seek tax breaks. The city and MTA received nine proposals for the site that November. The Municipal Art Society displayed models of these proposals to gauge public opinion for the project. By May 1997, the city and MTA had selected five finalists: Related Companies, Trump Organization, Tishman Speyer, Bruce C. Ratner & Daniel Brodsky, and Millennium Partners. New York state officials tentatively considered selecting Millennium Partners' bid that July, to be designed by James Polshek. To the surprise of the developers submitting the bids, New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani announced he would revoke a tax break that he had promised to give to the winning bidder. Giuliani also threatened to block any potential sale of the Coliseum unless the project contained a theater of 1,000 to 2,000 seats for Lincoln Center. The mayor's demand for a theater had hitherto been unknown to the public, but Lincoln Center executives expressed interest in the proposal.

In February 1998, the city and state agreed that the new building would have a 1,100-seat concert hall for Jazz at Lincoln Center, as well as rehearsal rooms and educational spaces. The facility would cost $40 to $45 million, of which Jazz at Lincoln Center would raise $20 million and the city would raise $18 million. The developers were asked to resubmit their bids. That April, Time Warner partnered with the Related Companies, with plans to move CNN's New York City offices and NY1 broadcast studios to the development if Related's bid was successful. Ross and Himmel had convinced Time Warner CEO Richard D. Parsons the previous year to join the project. The joint bid was $45 million less than the high bid offered by Trump, though government officials preferred Millennium's and Related's twin-tower plans to Trump's single slab. Nevertheless, city officials were mainly considering Millennium's and Related's bids by June 1998. Millennium had proposed two luxury hotels and 450 residential condominiums, while the city government backed Related's bid because of Time Warner's involvement. By then, Childs, who had designed Related's proposal, had designed five separate plans for the site.

Plan selection and finalization
The city selected Time Warner and Related's $345 million bid in late July 1998. Childs was again hired to design the building, which would contain 425 hotel rooms, 375 condos, an auditorium for Jazz at Lincoln Center, and a 12-screen movie theater. There would also be a shopping mall, office space for Time Warner's headquarters, and studio space for CNN and NY1. The proposal called for a pair of towers, separated by an atrium aligned with the axis of 59th Street. Unlike in earlier plans, the towers were only 55 stories tall, had a glass facade, and ran along the circumference of Columbus Circle, with the towers' sides running parallel to Broadway's diagonal route through the circle. Apollo Global Management, which would issue financial capital for the development, was to be a co-owner alongside Related. The Palladium Company, jointly owned by Himmel and Related, would operate the retail space at the building. The developers likened the planned development to Rockefeller Center.

The MTA quickly approved the plans for the site. The Coliseum was demolished starting in September 1999 with the removal of plaques that had hung on the Coliseum's facade. While the Coliseum's demolition was ongoing, the Columbus Center project was still undergoing design changes. As late as February 2000, when the Coliseum's interior had been demolished, SOM, Related, and the city were still negotiating over details such as how much stone the facade should have. There were also disagreements over the distance between the building's twin towers, which was originally only 65 ft, as well as the extent to which the Jazz at Lincoln Center performance space should be recessed from Columbus Circle. By the time the Coliseum's exterior was demolished in June 2000, the structural steel had already been ordered. By then, even Childs had become exasperated with the delays, and the developers were ready to construct the building based on the interim plans, with which none of the involved parties were satisfied. Childs, working with T. J. Gottesdiener and Mustafa K. Abadan, proposed a pair of glass-clad parallelograms, which officials approved.

Childs announced his revised scheme at the end of June 2000. The building would be called the AOL Time Warner Center, in advance of the merger between AOL and Time Warner. The building was planned to be about 2.5 e6ft2, including mechanical space. The same month, General Motors Acceptance Corporation (GMAC) agreed to provide $1.3 billion for the building's construction, believed to be the largest construction financing ever for a real estate development in New York City at the time. GMAC's financing came with a $1.1 billion senior loan and $200 million in mezzanine financing. The remainder of the $1.7 billion development cost would come from equity of Apollo, Related, AOL Time Warner, and the Mandarin Oriental Hotel Group. Including furnishings, the building was expected to cost $2.2 billion. Time Warner had paid $150 million upfront for the right to occupy the development. City officials had indicated that Time Warner would receive a large tax abatement for the project, but the New York City Department of Finance ruled in 2001 that the project was ineligible for such incentives under the 1996 request for proposals. Further tweaks were made to the design, including reducing the hotel from 400 to 251 rooms to allow for the construction of office space.

2000 and 2001
A groundbreaking ceremony for the building occurred on November 14, 2000. At the time, the project was planned to employ 2,300 workers. Bovis Lend Lease was hired as general contractor based on a guaranteed maximum price at-risk contract, while Insignia/ESG was hired as the leasing agent for AOL Time Warner Center. By early 2001, the first large retail tenant had leased space in the building's mall, and the developers were interviewing restaurateurs to operate six eateries in the mall. That June, Central Parking was hired to run the three-story parking garage in the complex's basement. The condominiums went on sale in August 2001. Ross was planning to market some of the higher-story condominiums at between 4000 and 5000 $/ft2, which would make these apartments the most expensive in New York City by far. The condos ranged from $1.8 million for a two-bedroom unit to $35 million for a penthouse unit.

Plans for the 12-screen movie theater in Related's winning bid were scrapped by 2001. By mid-2001, the building had grown to about 2.8 e6ft2, drawing the consternation of neighborhood groups who opposed the project. One such group, the Committee for Environmentally Sound Development, stated that AOL Time Warner Center was 33 percent larger than what was approved in an environmental impact statement in 1997. Other opponents, like City Councilwoman Ronnie Eldridge, wished to know why construction plans for the center had been filed as an alteration to the Coliseum, rather than as a new building. The Committee for Environmentally Sound Development filed a lawsuit against the project. While a New York Supreme Court judge ruled against the group in December 2001, the judge noted that a government agency still had to ensure AOL Time Warner Center did not exceed its maximum size.

Following the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan later in 2001, work on AOL Time Warner Center was slowed during the rescue and recovery effort, as many skilled workers had left the job to help with the rescue effort at the World Trade Center site. Additionally, since many roads into Manhattan were closed after the attacks, concrete deliveries were delayed, prompting concerns that the building's construction would also be held up. Despite the attacks, the Time Warner complex had reached 19 stories by the end of 2001. Even though a few prospective buyers had withdrawn, forty apartments had sold for a cumulative $200 million between September and December 2001. These included Sandie N. Tillotson, who bought the top floor of the north tower for $30 million shortly after the attacks, then a record for a condominium. Five retailers also leased space in the months after the attacks. To address security concerns, the architects strengthened AOL Time Warner Center's security features at entrances to garages and loading docks. The architects also increased the strength of the steel and added backup generators for the elevators.

2002 and 2003
By early 2002, a thousand workers were employed in the construction of the superstructure. Several officials, including mayor Michael Bloomberg, signed a steel beam that February to mark the topping-out of the lower floors' steel superstructure. A speech was given to honor workers who helped with the September 11 recovery effort. By then, sixty of the residential units had been sold. The Related Companies did not reduce its apartment prices, even as the attacks resulted in a decline in condominium sales citywide. Eighty percent of the retail space had been leased by mid-2002, as was forty percent of the residential units. At the time, AOL Time Warner's stock value was declining, and the company reportedly planned to sublease some space, which executives believed the company could not fully occupy. New York magazine compared AOL Time Warner Center to a situation where "your marriage is a wreck, you hate each other, everybody thinks you should get divorced, and yet you’re still building a lavish new home together."

During construction, Bovis Lend Lease received several notices of minor construction violations from the New York City Department of Buildings. During a heavy windstorm in September 2002, a piece of debris flew off the construction site, injuring a carpenter and two passersby. The carpenter ultimately died of his injuries, and a forklift driver was also killed on the eighth floor that year. In October 2002, California pension fund CalPERS and MacFarlane Partners offered to buy a half-ownership stake in the retail space, the office space not occupied by AOL Time Warner, and the center's parking structure. The sale to CalPERS and MacFarlane was finalized in February 2003, with the partners receiving a 49.5 percent stake; the stake was estimated at $500 million. That year, the Department of Finance valued AOL Time Warner Center at $820 million, a 275 percent increase from the previous year's valuation of $220 million. The construction process continued to experience difficulties; in April 2003, a fire damaged the fourth through seventh stories, including part of Jazz at Lincoln Center's future space. There were also thirty-nine open construction violations by late 2003, when around sixty percent of the condos had been sold.

AOL Time Warner, facing further financial setbacks, was compelled to reduce some costs at the new headquarters, including canceling plans for a technology lab. By September 2003, the company had voted to rebrand itself as Time Warner, with the building to be known simply as "Time Warner Center". Despite Time Warner's problems, in the two years after the September 11 attacks, residential prices at Time Warner Center were increased five times. Architectural Digest hired twenty-three developers to decorate one room each on floor 73, then held a fundraiser in these rooms in October 2003. The rooms were decorated for free and were left in place for six months so the remaining 77 apartments could be sold. Though most of the office space was to be occupied by Time Warner, there was no interest in the remaining office space. This led Apollo Real Estate and the Related Companies to occupy half of the vacant space, with Time Warner buying the rest for its subsidiaries. The difficulty in leasing the space was in part because the developers felt the offices were best suited for media outlets that would compete with Time Warner.

Time Warner use
Time Warner Center was the first major building to be developed in Manhattan after the September 11 attacks, and its development had directly resulted in an increase in nearby land values even before its completion. AOL Time Warner sought four companies to sponsor the new building, one each in the electronics, technology, automotive, and financial-services segments; the sponsors would have retail or exhibit space in the building. The first sponsor, electronics company Samsung, signed an agreement in mid-2003. Lincoln Motor Company was the automotive sponsor, while First Republic Bank was the financial-services sponsor. At the end of 2003, Credit Suisse First Boston provided $620 million to refinance part of the development's construction loan.

Opening
The development was opened in phases starting in 2003. The first part of Time Warner Center to officially open was the Mandarin Oriental New York, which opened on November 15, 2003, although a formal ceremony was held in December 2003. Time Warner Center's formal opening ceremony was held on February 5, 2004, with a benefit party being hosted upon the completion of the Shops at Columbus Circle. At the time of the mall's opening, over four-fifths of the 40 stores and 10 restaurants were open. There were concerns among retail-industry experts that Time Warner Center's "vertical mall" concept would not be successful since high-rise malls in New York City had historically not been successful.

Final touches were still being placed on the building when, in April 2004, a piece of metal sheeting fell off the facade. This prompted Bloomberg to order that all work on the building be temporarily halted, since this was the fourth time since 2002 that debris had fallen from the building. The retail complex also faced challenges, such as an early 2004 fire in the Per Se restaurant, the first to open in the mall. Jazz at Lincoln Center opened in October 2004, almost a year after the rest of the complex had been completed. In total, the project had cost $1.8 billion.

Operation
The Sunshine Group was in charge of marketing the building. Businessman David Martínez bought one penthouse unit and a portion of another; at $40 to $45 million, the unit was the most expensive residence recorded in Manhattan at the time. Other early residents included designer Lady Henrietta Spencer-Churchill and musician Ricky Martin, as well as architect Jon Stryker, who used Time Warner Center as a temporary apartment because he did not want to rent a residence. The south tower's residents also included Saudi royal Turki bin Faisal Al Saud, art collector Tobias Meyer, producer Verna Harrah, and businessmen Gregory Olsen and John Kluge. Those of the north tower included ten doctors; businessmen Alan B. Miller, Michael Spencer, and Gerard Cafesjian; and two daughters of Turkish businessman Sakıp Sabancı. By late 2004, the apartments were about 85 percent sold. About a quarter of the original buyers were foreign buyers, and a third of the total buyers used shell corporations to obscure their identities.

Within a year and a half of Time Warner Center's opening, the hotel and some of the shopping mall's retail spaces were relatively successful. However, several restaurateurs had already closed their operations in the building or were in the process of doing so. The property had the highest-listed market value in New York City, $1.1 billion, in 2006. The building's last condominium was sold that March. By that time, a monthly parking pass alone ran from $550 to $600, more expensive than a one-bedroom residence in several Southern and Midwestern U.S. cities. Time Warner Center had become a popular destination by 2008; its presence had helped raise the value of surrounding properties by as much as 400 percent since 2004. Average condominium prices had risen 127 percent since the building's opening, with condos being listed at between $7 and $60 million.

Following the completion of the nearby 15 Central Park West in the late 2000s, condo prices at Time Warner Center began to decline. One unit in Time Warner Center was listed on the market in 2007 and was not sold for more than a decade. In 2013, Time Warner announced its intention to move most of its offices to 30 Hudson Yards on the west side of Manhattan. The following January, Time Warner sold its stake in the Columbus Circle building for $1.3 billion to the Related Companies, the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority, and GIC Private Limited. The companies funded the purchase of the office space with a five-year, $675 million mortgage from Deutsche Bank and Bank of China.

By the 2010s, the residential apartments of Time Warner Center were acquired by a large number of extremely wealthy residents. In 2015, The New York Times found that Time Warner Center's condominium owners had included seventeen people on Forbes magazine's The World's Billionaires list, as well as five major art collectors, eight chief executives, and celebrities such as singer Jimmy Buffett, football player Tom Brady, and talk show host Kelly Ripa. The vast majority of condominiums, about eighty percent, had been purchased by shell companies by 2014, with some of the tenants being involved in controversy. These included Vitaly Malkin, a Russian senator accused of ties to organized crime; Wang Wenliang, a Chinese businessman whose company was accused of dangerous construction conditions; and Anil Agarwal, an Indian businessman whose mining company had been charged with pollution in India and Zambia. The controversy in part influenced the United States Department of the Treasury to regulate large all-cash property sales in Manhattan starting in 2016.

Deutsche Bank use
In May 2018, Deutsche Bank announced it would lease all 1.1 e6ft2 of office space for 25 years, relocating from 60 Wall Street beginning in the third quarter of 2021. The move represented a reduction in space for the bank, which had occupied 1.6 e6ft2 at 60 Wall Street. Following the news, Related Companies announced that the building would be officially renamed "Deutsche Bank Center" upon the company's arrival. In May 2019, Related refinanced the office portion of the development with a $1.1 billion loan from Wells Fargo. After announcing plans to drastically reduce its overseas activities in mid-2019, Deutsche Bank returned two of the floors, covering 60000 ft2, to the Related Companies. Meanwhile, the CNN studios had relocated to Hudson Yards by late 2019.

Between March 2020 and April 2021, the Mandarin Oriental hotel in Time Warner Center was closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, undergoing a minor renovation during that time. Time Warner Center was renamed to Deutsche Bank Center in May 2021, with Time Warner signage being replaced with that of Deutsche Bank over a one-week period. The bank was scheduled to relocate 5,000 employees to the building, but the relocation was delayed. The bank's employees were being relocated by July 2021.

Critical reception
When the original design was announced in July 1998, Herbert Muschamp wrote for The New York Times that the glass facade was a "major improvement" compared to Childs's earlier proposals of the late 1980s, but he believed that the design was "skillful, earnest and devoid of meaning". At the end of the year, Muschamp was even more negative, characterizing the building as an example of "architecture of denial" and derided it as indicating "an utter lack of awareness that New York today differs dramatically from the city in the 1930's". Peter Blake, editor of Architectural Record, wrote of the project in late 1998: "Manhattan is about to have a building of singular klutziness imposed upon it." Both Muschamp's and Blake's complaints originated from the fact that the original plans resembled the setback-laden massing of older stone-faced apartment buildings on Central Park West, except with a glass cladding.

When the updated plan was announced in June 2000, Muschamp wrote that the design "is an asymmetrical composition of crystalline contours" and that, in sharp contrast to the previous plan, it was not derivative of older Central Park West towers. Muschamp disliked the "lanterns" that were to be placed atop the towers, and he found the facade of the base to be "infected" by "aesthetic backsliding", but overall he thought the design to be a homage to the city's Art Deco architecture. By contrast, Martin Filler of The New Republic was dissatisfied with the revised glass design, especially as opposed to the masonry plans: "Light construction [...] implies the dual phenomena of weightlessness and transparency; and there is none of the former and little of the latter in evidence here." The plans also faced opposition from community groups that considered the building to be too large.

After the September 11 attacks, the towers of Time Warner Center were compared to the destroyed World Trade Center, though the building's developers denied any intentional similarity to the fallen Twin Towers. In 2003, Architectural Record wrote: "AOL Time Warner Center with its new twin towers is testimony of how the people of the city can overcome great obstacles to get on with life." When Time Warner Center was almost completed, Paul Goldberger wrote for The New Yorker that, though the design had been intended to conform with the surrounding street grid, this was nullified by the building's sheer size. According to Goldberger, "The best you can say is that they prevent it from being worse than it is, or as bad as earlier versions, which date from the nineteen-eighties." Peggy Deamer of the Journal of the American Institute of Architects wrote in 2004: "Shouldn't the designers have broadened the notion of context beyond the building envelope?"

In spite of criticism over the building's size, architectural critics generally approved of Time Warner Center when it was completed. Ada Louise Huxtable wrote for The Wall Street Journal in early 2004: "The AOL Time Warner Center is exactly what a New York skyscraper should be—a soaring, shining, glamorous affirmation of the city's reach and power, and its best real architecture in a long time." Muschamp said of the completed building: "...The mood is modern noir. The two towers are worthy descendants of Radio City." Even though Goldberger did not like the building's size, he said, "If you don’t look up, you could like this building", though he regarded it as "a theme-park version of a sophisticated urban building". A writer for Reason magazine said that, while critics did not praise Time Warner Center as they did the Hearst Tower or the New York Times Building, "they do agree the commercial behemoth deserves its place in this emerging pantheon of buildings". The American Institute of Architects' 2007 survey List of America's Favorite Architecture ranked the Time Warner Center among the top 150 buildings in the United States.

title: Deutsche Bank Center


text:
New Jersey Route 168

Route 168 is a 10.75 mi state highway in the southern part of New Jersey. The route's southern terminus is an interchange with Route 42 and the Atlantic City Expressway in the Turnersville section of Washington Township, Gloucester County. The northern terminus is an intersection with County Route 603 (CR 603) on the border of Camden and Woodlynne in Camden County. At this point, the route continues toward downtown Camden as CR 605. Route 168 follows the Black Horse Pike for most of its length, running through suburban areas in Gloucester Township, Runnemede, Bellmawr, and Mount Ephraim. It intersects many major roads, including the Route 42 freeway in Gloucester Township, Route 41 in Runnemede, the New Jersey Turnpike and Interstate 295 (I-295) in Bellmawr, Route 76C (an access ramp to I-76 and I-676) in Haddon Township, and U.S. Route 130 (US 130) in Camden.

What is now Route 168 runs along the Black Horse Pike, a turnpike established in 1855 that was to run from Camden to Atlantic City. In 1927, Route 42 was designated along this portion of road as part of its route between Camden and McKee City. In the 1940s, a freeway was proposed for Route 42 between Turnersville and the Camden area; construction began on this freeway in the 1950s. After this freeway was entirely completed in 1959, the Route 42 designation was moved to it and the former alignment of Route 42 along the Black Horse Pike north of Turnersville became Route 168.

Route description
Route 168 begins at an interchange with the west end of the Atlantic City Expressway, which feeds into Route 42 in the Turnersville section of Washington Township, Gloucester County; the North–South Freeway begins at that interchange, carrying Route 42 and through traffic from Atlantic City towards Camden. Meanwhile, Route 168 continues on Black Horse Pike as a four-lane divided surface road, with the route officially beginning at the intersection with Hurff Lane. Access from Route 168 south to Route 42 is provided via a one-way ramp continuing from the southern terminus of Route 168. However, northbound traffic from Route 42 must take the ramp to the freeway and exit immediately from the collector/distributor road onto northbound CR 705 to access Route 168.

From here, Route 168 continues north through commercial areas before crossing the Big Timber Creek into Gloucester Township, Camden County, where it becomes a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane and immediately intersects CR 673, which provides access to Camden County College. The road heads west of the Gloucester Premium Outlets and passes through suburban areas of homes and businesses, coming to a junction with CR 747. From here, the route heads through the Blackwood section of Gloucester Township, where it intersects CR 534. The route leaves the Blackwood area and comes to an intersection with CR 706. The road passes businesses past this intersection as a three-lane road with two southbound lanes and one northbound lane before coming to an interchange with Route 42. At this interchange, there is full access between northbound Route 42 and Route 168 and between southbound Route 42 and Route 168.

Past the Route 42 interchange, the route intersects CR 676 and narrows to two lanes as it heads through commercial areas of Hilltop. It gains a center left-turn lane again before it crosses over CR 681 and the North Branch of the Big Timber Creek. Route 168 comes to a junction with CR 683 and enters the Glendora section of Gloucester Township, where it heads into residential and commercial areas. Here, the route intersects CR 682. At the intersection with CR 544, the road crosses into Runnemede and becomes a two-lane road. Route 168 crosses Route 41 and heads through the center of Runnemede. The center-left turn lane along the route returns before it comes to a double trumpet interchange with the New Jersey Turnpike on the border of Runnemede and Bellmawr. Past here, Route 168 passes more businesses and crosses CR 659. A short distance later, the route comes to an interchange with I-295, where it becomes a four-lane undivided road.

The route forms the border between Mount Ephraim to the west and Haddon Heights to the east past this interchange and intersects CR 654 and CR 658. At the intersection with the latter, Route 168 entirely enters Mount Ephraim and crosses CR 551 Spur. Past this intersection, the road enters a mix of residential and commercial areas and comes to a junction with CR 660. Upon crossing Audubon Lake, Route 168 forms the border between Haddon Township to the west and Audubon to the east and becomes a divided highway again with several jughandles. The route crosses CR 635, where it becomes the border of Haddon Township and Audubon Park as a six-lane divided highway. An interchange with Route 76C provides access to I-76, I-676, and the Walt Whitman Bridge to and from the southbound direction of Route 168.

Immediately past this interchange, Route 168 narrows to four lanes and intersects CR 650, crossing the Newton Creek, where it forms the border between Camden to the west and Haddon Township to the east. Here, the route crosses US 130 at a channelized intersection. After crossing over US 130, Route 168 drops the Black Horse Pike designation and becomes Mount Ephraim Avenue as is runs between the Fairview section of Camden and the West Collingswood Extension section of Haddon Township. Here, the route narrows to a two-lane undivided road and passes through urban areas. It crosses over CR 630 before it becomes a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane and entirely enters Camden. The road crosses the North Branch of the Newton Creek, where it forms the border between Camden to the west and Woodlynne to the east. It becomes a four-lane undivided road that passes through industrial sectors before crossing Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Beesleys Point Secondary railroad line and heading past more urban development. Route 168 ends at the intersection with CR 603, where Mount Ephraim Avenue continues north as CR 605 to downtown Camden, ending at an intersection with CR 561.

History
The predecessor to today's Route 168 was a set of Lenni Lenape trails that followed the Timber Creek. In 1855, the Camden and Blackwoodstown Turnpike Company was established by entrepreneurs who had helped create the White Horse Pike to build a gravel road that would run from Camden south to Blackwoodtown and eventually to Atlantic City; this road became the Black Horse Pike. The creation of the Black Horse Pike led to the development of several towns along the route. The Black Horse Pike was transferred from the turnpike company to the county in 1903, at a time where many private turnpikes would become public roads. In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering, this portion of the Black Horse Pike was designated as part of a new route, Route 42, that was to run from Ferry Avenue in Camden south to Route 48 (now US 40) in McKee City. This portion of road retained the Route 42 designation in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering.

In the late 1940s, a freeway was planned to bypass this portion of Route 42, with right-of-way acquisition and construction starting in the 1950s. This new freeway, called the North–South Freeway, opened between Bellmawr and the Black Horse Pike in Blackwood in 1958 and from Blackwood to Turnersville in 1959. With the opening of the freeway, the Route 42 designation was moved to the North–South Freeway and the Black Horse Pike between Turnersville and Camden became Route 168.

title: New Jersey Route 168