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List of authors of erotic works

Sex manuals

 * Vatsayana, famous for the Kama Sutra
 * Yasodhara, author of the Jayamangala
 * Kokkoka, author of the Ratirahasya
 * Kalyanamalla, author of the Ananga Ranga
 * Praudha Devaraya, author of the Ratiratna Pradipika
 * Ovid, Roman author famous for the Ars Amatoria
 * Ge Hong, Jin dynasty author of Pao-Pu Zhi
 * Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Nafzawi, author of The Perfumed Garden
 * Hua Tuo, author of On Venereal disease.
 * Sun Simiao, author of On the Loss and Gain of The Chamber Art
 * Wan Quan, author of Essentials for Extending Posterity
 * Gao Lian, author of On Abstinence in Sex
 * Alex Comfort, author of The Joy of Sex

Sex in fiction

 * Jacques Abeille, author of De la vie d'une chienne and other erotic books
 * Kathy Acker, postmodern pornographer, author of I Dreamt I Was a Nymphomaniac
 * Laura Antoniou, author of The Marketplace
 * Emmanuelle Arsan, author of the novel Emmanuelle and various other works
 * Aran Ashe
 * Ivan Barkov
 * Georges Bataille, author of Story of the Eye
 * Bari Beckett author of Big Love a collection of 40 erotica short stories.
 * Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian author contemporary and friend of Petrarch; wrote Decameron a collection of 100 short stories, some of which are erotic, considered masterpieces of the genre.
 * Susie Bright
 * Patrick (Pat) Califia, author of Macho Sluts
 * Nicolas Chorier – author of L'académie des dames
 * M. Christian, author of The Bachelor Machine and other works
 * John Cleland, author of Fanny Hill
 * Guy Davenport
 * Sylvia Day
 * Daniel Defoe, author of Moll Flanders
 * Andreas Embirikos, author of The Great Eastern
 * Esparbec, author of La Pharmacienne
 * Sunil Gangopadhyay, Bengali Indian author who wrote maximum number of erotic novels in Bengali literature
 * Elias Gaucher
 * Günter Grass, author of The Tin Drum and Cat and Mouse
 * Maxim Jakubowski, editor of the Mammoth Erotica series and a major erotica writer in his own right
 * Yasunari Kawabata, author of Beauty and Sadness
 * Caitlín R. Kiernan — author of Frog Toes and Tentacles, Tales from the Woeful Platypus, and Sirenia Digest
 * D. H. Lawrence, author of Lady Chatterley's Lover
 * William Levy
 * Marilyn Jaye Lewis, author of Neptune and Surf and Lust: Bisexual Erotica
 * Barry N. Malzberg, author of Screen and writer/editor for Olympia Press
 * Henry Miller, author of Tropic of Cancer
 * A. R. Morlan
 * Vladimir Nabokov, Russian-born English-language writer, author of Lolita
 * Taslima Nasrin, Bangladeshi author who wrote "Lajja" in 1993, an explicit sexual book.
 * Anaïs Nin, author of Delta of Venus
 * Kenzaburō Ōe, author of Seventeen, J, and A Personal Matter
 * Alexander Pushkin, author of the Gabrieliad
 * Pauline Réage, author of Story of O
 * Anne Rice, also writing as A. N. Roquelaure
 * Catherine Robbe-Grillet, writing as Jean de Berg and Jeanne de Berg
 * Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, author of Venus in Furs
 * The Marquis de Sade, author of Justine, or the Misfortunes of Virtue
 * Mitzi Szereto, author of The Wilde Passions of Dorian Gray, Pride and Prejudice: Hidden Lusts, and Phantom: The Immortal, among others.
 * William Simpson Potter, author of Romance of Lust
 * Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, author of The Key, Naomi, and Quicksand
 * Tamara Thorne, author of the Sorority series
 * Alexander Trocchi
 * Mark Twain, author of 1601
 * Marco Vassi, author of "The Erotic Comedies", "Devil's Sperm Is Cold", and "The Stoned Apocalypse"
 * Mario Vargas Llosa, author of The Notebooks of Don Rigoberto
 * Zane.
 * Julie-Anne de Sée, author of Novels, short Stories and Essays

Chinese erotica

 * Li Yu, author of The Carnal Prayer Mat
 * Lanling Xiaoxiao Sheng, author of Jin Ping Mei
 * Lü Tiancheng, author of The Embroidered Couch
 * David Tod Roy, translator and editor of The Plum in the Garden Vase

Poetry

 * Ovid, Roman erotic poet
 * Catullus, Roman erotic poet
 * Sextus Propertius, Roman poet
 * Sappho, Greek poet from the island of Lesbos who wrote love poetry to young women.
 * Petrarch, Italian poet, considered, together with Dante, the father of Renaissance. His love sonnets dedicated to Laura are masterpieces of erotic poetry
 * Bai Juyi, Romantic poet of Tang dynasty
 * King Solomon, Author, according to Judeo-Christian tradition, of the Song of Songs.
 * John Donne, 17th-18th century British poet. Books: "Poems", "Love Poems".
 * John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, British 17th Century libertine
 * Hồ Xuân Hương, 18th-19th century Vietnamese poet
 * Pietro Aretino, Italian poet. Books: "The School of Whoredom", "The Secret Life of Nuns", "Sonetti Lussuriosi e Dubbi Amorosi", "The Secret Life of Wives", "La Cortigiana", "Ragionamenti".
 * Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage, Portuguese poet. Books: "Poesias Eróticas, Burlescas e Satíricas", "Os Amores", "Opera Omnia".
 * Pierre Louys, Belgian poet. Books: "Poesies Erotiques: la femme, les vulves legendaires", "Les soeurs à l'envers", "Oeuvre Erotique", "Le nom de la femme", "Le femme et le Pantin", "Trois filles de leur mére", "Les cahiers de la Nrf", "Les chansons de Bilitis", "Manual da Civilidade Destinado às Meninas para uso nas Escolas".
 * Gregório de Mattos, Brazilian poet. Books: "Poemas Satíricos", "Para que todos entendais poesia", "Desenganos da vida humana e outros poema".
 * Olga Savary, Brazilian poet. Books: "Espelho Provisório", "Sumidouro", "Altaonda", "Magma", "Natureza Viva", "Hai-Kais", "Linha d'água", "Berço Esplendido", "Retratos", "Rudá", "Éden Hades", "Morte de Moema", "Anima Animalis", "O Olhar Dourado do Abismo", "Repertório Selvagem".
 * Hilda Hilst, Brazilian poet. Books: "Fico Besta Quando me Entendem", "Da Poesia", "Porno Chic", "De Amor Tenho Vivido", "Cantares", "Baladas", "A Obscena Senhora D", "Obscenica", "O Caderno Rosa de Lori Lamby", "Tu Não Te Moves de Ti", "Contos D'Escárnio/Textos Grotescos", "Fluxo Floema", "Cartas de um Sedutor", "Kadosh", "Como Meus Olhos de Cão", "Poemas Malditos, Gozosos e Devotos", "Do Desejo", "Rutilos", "Exercícios".
 * Glauco Mattoso, Brazilian poet. Books: "Memórias de um Pueteiro", "Línguas na Papa", "O Calvário dos Carecas: História do Trote Estudantil", "Rockabillyrics", "Limeiriques & Outros Debiques Glauquianos", "Haicais Paulistanos", "Galeria Alegria", "O Glosador Motejoso", "Animalesca Escolha", "Pegadas Noturnas: Dissonetos Barrockistas", "Poética na Política", "Poesia Digesta", "A Planta da Donzela", "A Aranha Punk", "A Letra da Ley", "O Cancioneiro Carioca e Brasileiro", "Contos Hediondos", "Cinco Ciclos e Meio Século", "Tripé do Tripúdio e Outros Contos Hediondos", "Raymundo Curupyra, O Caypora: Romance Lyrico", "Cautos Causos", "Outros Cautos Causos", "Sacola de Feira", "Poesia Vaginal: Cem Sonnettos Sacanas", "Curso de Refeologia", "Graphophobia", "Arachnophobia", "Testamento satanista".
 * Cairo Trindade, Brazilian poet. Books: "PoetAstro", "Saca na geral", "Liberatura", "Poematemagia", "Poesya, que porra é essa?".
 * Paula Taitelbaum, Brazilian poet. Books: "Sem Vergonha", "Mundo da Lua", "Porno Pop Pocket", "Menage a Trois".
 * Vinni Corrêa, Brazilian poet. Books: "Coma de 4", "Literatura de Bordel", "Lunch Box", "Sexo a Três".

Autobiography

 * Emmanuelle Arsan, author of Emmanuelle
 * Vanessa Duriès, author of Le lien
 * Nancy Friday
 * Henry Spencer Ashbee, author of My Secret Life
 * Frank Harris, multiple-volume memoir My Life and Loves
 * Catherine Millet, author of The Sexual Life of Catherine M.
 * Georges Simenon
 * Edward Avery, editor of The Autobiography of a Flea
 * Xaviera Hollander, author of The Happy Hooker
 * D.B. Dale, author of Memoirs of Darkness

title: List of authors of erotic works


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Wolf Rüdiger Hess

Wolf Rüdiger Hess (Heß in German script; 18 November 1937 – 24 October 2001) was a German architect, the only son of Rudolf Hess and Ilse Hess (née Pröhl).

Early life
Born in Munich, Hess lived with his parents until his father’s flight to Scotland on 14 May 1941. After that, his father was denounced by the Nazi government as "mentally ill", and this led his mother to leave Munich and take her son to live at the family’s house in the country, at Bad Oberdorf, a small spa village in the Allgäu Alps. There, young Wolf Rüdiger gained the lifelong nickname of "Buz". On 3 June 1947, Hess’s mother was arrested by Allied forces, together with all the wives of the other Germans convicted at Nuremberg, and she was interned at Augsburg-Göggingen camp. Hess then lived with an aunt until his mother’s release in March 1948. He began to attend a local high school in 1947 and then from the mid-1950s studied architecture, qualifying as an architect in 1961.

Campaigns
Hess gained prominence for criticising an investigation into his father's alleged suicide while serving a life sentence in Spandau Prison in Berlin. Hess maintained that the investigation was a cover-up, and that the British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) had murdered him. He believed that they had done this to prevent his father's parole – which he believed to be imminent – because the British government was afraid that he would reveal embarrassing information about British actions during World War II. Wolf Rüdiger Hess and his father's lawyer, Alfred Seidl, arranged their own autopsy.

Hess wrote three books: My Father Rudolf Hess (1986), Who Murdered My Father, Rudolf Hess? (1989) and Rudolf Heß: Ich bereue nichts (Rudolf Hess: I regret nothing) (1994/1998). Hess was head of the Rudolf-Heß-Gesellschaft e.V. before his death.

At the age of 63, Wolf Rüdiger Hess suffered a stroke and was taken to a Munich hospital, where he died. He left a widow and three children.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wolf Rüdiger Hess


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Quadroon

In the colonial societies of the Americas and Australia, a quadroon or quarteron (in the United Kingdom, the term quarter-caste is used) was a person with one-quarter African/Aboriginal and three-quarters European ancestry. Similar classifications were octoroon for one-eighth black (Latin root octo-, means "eight") and quintroon for one-sixteenth black.

Governments of the time sometimes incorporated the terms in law, defining rights and restrictions. The use of such terminology is a characteristic of hypodescent, which is the practice within a society of assigning children of mixed unions to the ethnic group which the dominant group perceives as being subordinate. The racial designations refer specifically to the number of full-blooded African ancestors or equivalent, emphasizing the quantitative least, with quadroon signifying that a person has one-quarter black ancestry.

Etymology
The word quadroon was borrowed from the French quarteron and the Spanish cuarterón, both of which have their root in the Latin quartus, meaning "a quarter".

Similarly, the Spanish cognate cuarterón is used to describe cuarterón de mulato or morisco (someone whose racial origin is three-quarters white and one-quarter black) and cuarterón de mestizo or castizo, (someone whose racial origin is three-quarters white and one-quarter Amerindian), especially in Caribbean South America.

Racial classifications
Quadroon was used to designate a person of one-quarter African/Aboriginal ancestry, that is equivalent to one biracial parent (African/Aboriginal and Caucasian) and one white or European parent; in other words, the equivalent of one African/Aboriginal grandparent and three White or European grandparents. In some countries in Latin America, which had a variety of terms for racial groups, some terms for quadroons were morisco or chino, see casta. Terceroon was a term synonymous with quadroon, derived from being three generations of descent from an African ancestor, counting the ancestor as the first generation.

The term mulatto was used to designate a person who was biracial, with one fully black parent and one fully white parent, or a person whose parents are both mulatto. In some cases, it was used as a general term, for instance on U.S. census classifications, to refer to all persons of mixed race, without regard for proportion of ancestries.

The term octoroon referred to a person with one-eighth African/Aboriginal ancestry; that is, someone with family heritage equivalent to one biracial grandparent; in other words, one African great-grandparent and seven European great-grandparents. An example was Russian poet Alexander Pushkin. Octoroon was applied to a limited extent in Australia for those of one-eighth Aboriginal ancestry, as the government implemented assimilation policies on the Stolen Generations. The term mustee was also used to refer to a person with one-eighth African ancestry.

The term sacatra was used to refer to one who was seven-eighths black or African and one-eighth white or European (i.e. an individual with one black and one griffe parent, or one white great-grandparent).

The term mustefino refers to a person with one-sixteenth African ancestry. The terms quintroon or hexadecaroon were also used.

In the French Antilles, the following terms were used  during the 18th century:

In some countries in Latin America, the terms griffe or sambo were sometimes used for an individual of three-quarters black parentage, i.e. the child of a mulatto parent and a fully black parent.

Depiction in media
In the period before the American Civil War, mixed-race slaves  with predominantly white features were depicted in photos and other media to show whites that some slaves   were visually indistinguishable from themselves, thus preventing them from seeing slaves as an ethnic "other" in order to further the abolition movement.

title: Quadroon


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Drink can

A drink can (or beverage can) is a metal container designed to hold a fixed portion of liquid such as carbonated soft drinks, alcoholic drinks, fruit juices, teas, herbal teas, energy drinks, etc. Drink cans are made of aluminum (75% of worldwide production) or tin-plated steel (25% worldwide production). Worldwide production for all drink cans is approximately 370 billion cans per year.

History
The first commercial beer available in cans began in 1935 in Richmond, Virginia. Not long after that, sodas, with their higher acidity and somewhat higher pressures, were available in cans. The key development for storing drinks in cans was the interior liner, typically plastic or sometimes a waxy substance, that helped to keep the product's flavor from being ruined by a chemical reaction with the metal. Another major factor for the timing was the repeal of Prohibition in the United States at the end of 1933.

In 1935, the Felinfoel Brewery at Felinfoel in Wales was the first brewery outside the US to commercially can beer. Prior to this time, beer had been available only in barrels or in glass bottles. From this time, lightweight tin cans could be used. Felinfoel was a major supplier to British armed forces abroad in the Second World War. Cans saved a great deal of space and weight for wartime exports compared to glass bottles and did not have to be returned for refilling. These early cans did not have a pull tab, being equipped instead with a crown cork (beer bottle top). From the 18th century until the early 20th century Wales dominated world tinplate production, peaking in the early 1890s when 80% of the world's tinplate was produced in south Wales.

Canned drinks were factory-sealed and required a special opener tool in order to consume the contents. Cans were typically formed as cylinders, having a flat top and bottom. They required a can piercer, colloquially known as a "church key", that latched onto the top rim for leverage; lifting the handle would force the sharp tip through the top of the can, cutting a triangular hole. A smaller second hole was usually punched at the opposite side of the top to admit air while pouring, allowing the liquid to flow freely.

In the mid-1930s, some cans were developed with caps so that they could be opened and poured more like a bottle. These were called "cone tops", as their tops had a conical taper up to the smaller diameter of the cap. Cone top cans were sealed by the same crimped caps that were put on bottles, and could be opened with the same bottle-opener tool. There were three types of conetops: high profile, low profile, and j-spout. The low profile and j-spout were the earliest, dating from about 1935. The "crowntainer" was a different type of can that was drawn steel with a bottom cap. These were developed by Crown Cork & Seal (now known as Crown Holdings, Inc.), a leading drink packaging and drink can producer. The popularity of canned drinks was slow to catch on, as the metallic taste was difficult to overcome with the interior liner not perfected, especially with more acidic sodas. Cans had two advantages over glass bottles. First for the distributors, flat-top cans were more compact for transportation and storage and weighed less than bottles. Second for consumers, they did not require the deposit typically paid for bottles, as they were discarded after use. Glass-bottle deposits were reimbursed when consumers took the empties back to the store.

In 1959, the recyclable aluminum can was introduced to the market in a 7 oz. size by the Adolph Coors Company.

In 2008, an aluminum version of the crowntainer design was adopted for packaging Coca-Cola's Caribou Coffee drink.

Capacity in countries
Various standard capacities are used throughout the world.

In Australia the standard can size for alcoholic and soft drinks is 375 ml. Energy drinks and some soft drinks are served in 250 ml and 500 ml sizes. Some beers are produced in 330 ml and 500 ml cans.
 * Australia

In Brazil the standard can size is 350 ml.
 * Brazil

In China the most common size is 330 ml.
 * China

Can dimensions may be cited in metric or imperial units; imperial dimensions for can making are written as inches+sixteenths of an inch (e.g. "202" = 2 inches + 2 sixteenths).

In Europe the standard can is 330 ml, but since the 1990s 250 ml has slowly become common for energy drinks (e.g. redbull), along with 500 ml, often used for beers and sometimes for soft drinks too (particularly in wholesale supply).
 * Europe

In the UK, 440 ml is commonly used for lager and cider.

In Ireland, 330 ml and 440 ml fat cans are used for soft drinks.

In Austria, energy drinks are usually sold in sizes of 200 to 330 ml.

In Hong Kong most cans are 330 ml – in the past they were usually 355 or 350 ml. 200 ml has also become available. Some beers and coffees are, respectively, sold with 500-ml and 250-ml cans.
 * Hong Kong

In India 250 ml, 300 ml, 330 ml, 350 ml and 500 ml cans are available.
 * India

Indonesia introduced 320 ml cans for domestically produced beer in 2018. Carbonated soft drink cans are typically 330 ml.
 * Indonesia

In Japan the most common sizes are 350 ml and 500 ml, while larger and smaller cans are also sold.
 * Japan

250 ml cans are the most common for soft drinks, but when accompanying take-out food (such as pizza or chicken), a short 245 ml can is standard. Recently, some 355 ml cans which are similar to North American cans are increasingly available, but are limited mostly to Coca-Cola and Dr Pepper, and beer cans are available in 500 ml.
 * South Korea

In Malaysia, beer cans are 320 ml. For soft drinks in both Malaysia and Singapore, the most commonly found cans are 300 ml for non-carbonated drinks and 325 ml for carbonated drinks. Larger 330 ml/350 ml cans are limited to imported drinks which usually cost a lot more than local ones.
 * Malaysia and Singapore

In the Middle East standard cans are 330 ml.
 * The Middle East

In New Zealand the standard can size is 355 ml, although Coca-Cola Amatil changed some of its canned drinks to 330 ml in 2017.
 * New Zealand

In North America, the standard can size is 12 USoz. The US standard can is 4.83 in high, 2.13 in in diameter at the lid, and 2.6 in in diameter at the widest point of the body. Also available are 16 USoz cans (known as tallboys or, referring to the weight, "pounders"), and 18 USoz.
 * North America

In Mexico, the standard size is 355 ml, although smaller 235 ml cans have gained popularity in the late 2010s and early 2020s.

In Canada, the standard size was previously 12 Imperial fluid ounces (341 ml), later redefined and labelled as 341 ml in 1980. This size was commonly used with steel drink cans in the 1970s and early 1980s. However, the US standard 355 ml can size was standardized in the 1980s and 1990s upon the conversion from steel to aluminum. Some drinks, such as Nestea, are sold in 341 ml cans.

In Quebec, a new standard for carbonated drinks has been added, as some grocery stores now only sell cans of all major carbonated drinks in six-packs of 222 ml cans. Many convenience stores also began selling "slim cans" with a 310 ml capacity in 2015.

In Pakistan the most common sizes are 250 ml and 330 ml, and 200 ml cans are also sold.
 * Pakistan

South African standard cans are 330 ml (reduced in the early 2000s from the up-until-then ubiquitous 340 ml) and the promotional size is 440 ml. There is also the 500 ml can. A smaller 200 ml can is used for "mixers" such as tonic or soda water. It has a smaller diameter than the other cans. In September 2018, a 300 ml can was introduced as an alternative to the 330 ml can in a continued effort to reduce the amount of sugar consumed in soft drinks.
 * South Africa

Singha beer uses 320 ml cans for domestic sales and 330 ml cans for exports.
 * Thailand

Composition
Most metal drink cans manufactured in the United States are made of aluminum, whereas in some parts of Europe and Asia approximately 55 percent are made of steel and 45 percent are aluminum alloy. Steel cans often have a top made of aluminum. Beverage containers are made of two different aluminum alloys. The body is made of the 3004 alloy that can be drawn easily and the top is made of the harder 5182 alloy.

In 2001, the Australian Aluminium Council reported that the average Australian-size can weighed approximately 14.9 g. Improved manufacturing techniques had allowed Australian manufacturers to reduce metal requirements from the 1992 average of 16.55 g. In 2011, an empty U.S.-size can weighed approximately 1/2 oz, with approximately 34 per pound or 70 per kilogram.

In many parts of the world a deposit can be recovered by turning in empty plastic, glass, and aluminum containers. Scrap metal dealers often purchase aluminum cans in bulk, even when deposits are not offered. Aluminum is one of the most cost-effective materials to recycle. When recycled without other metals being mixed in, the can–lid combination is perfect for producing new stock for the main part of the can—the loss of magnesium during melting is made up for by the high magnesium content of the lid. Also, reducing ores such as bauxite into aluminum requires large amounts of electricity, making recycling cheaper than producing new metal.

Aluminum cans are coated internally to protect the aluminum from oxidizing. Despite this coating, trace amounts of aluminum can be degraded into the liquid, the amount depending on factors such as storage temperature and liquid composition. Chemical compounds used in the internal coating of the can include types of epoxy resin.

Fabrication process
Modern cans are generally produced through a mechanical cold forming process that starts with punching a flat blank from very stiff cold-rolled sheet. This sheet is typically alloy 3104-H19 or 3004-H19, which is aluminum with about 1% manganese and 1% magnesium to give it strength and formability. The flat blank is first formed into a cup about three inches in diameter. This cup is then pushed through a different forming process called "ironing" which forms the can. The bottom of the can is also shaped at this time. The malleable metal deforms into the shape of an open-top can. With the sophisticated technology of the dies and the forming machines, the side of the can is thinner than either the top and bottom areas, where stiffness is required.

Plain lids (known as shells) are stamped from a coil of aluminum, typically alloy 5182-H48, and transferred to another press that converts them to easy-open ends. This press is known as a conversion press which forms an integral rivet button in the lid and scores the opening, while concurrently forming the tabs in another die from a separate strip of aluminum.

Filling cans
Cans are filled before the top is crimped on by seamers. To speed up the production process filling and sealing operations need to be extremely precise. The filling head centers the can using gas pressure, purges the air, and lets the drink flow down the sides of the can. The lid is placed on the can, and then crimped in two operations. A seaming head engages the lid from above while a seaming roller to the side curls the edge of the lid around the edge of the can body. The head and roller spin the can in a complete circle to seal all the way around. Then a pressure roller with a different profile drives the two edges together under pressure to make a gas-tight seal. Filled cans usually have pressurized gas inside, which makes them stiff enough for easy handling. Without the riveted tab the scored section of the can's end would be impossible to lift from the can.

Can filling lines come in different line speeds from 15,000 cans per hour (cph) up to 120,000 cph or more, all with different levels of automation. For example, lid feeding alone starts with manual debagging onto a simple v-chute connected to the seamer up to fully automated processes with automatic debagging and lid feeding of lids combined with automatic roll depalletizers for filling debaggers by robots.

Opening mechanisms

Early metal drink cans had no tabs; they were opened by a can-piercer or churchkey, a device resembling a bottle opener with a sharp point. The can was opened by punching two triangular holes in the lid—a large one for drinking, and a second smaller one to admit air.

As early as 1922, inventors were applying for patents on cans with tab tops, but the technology of the time made these inventions impractical. Later advancements saw the ends of the can made out of aluminum instead of steel.

In 1959, Ermal Fraze devised a can-opening method that would come to dominate the canned drink market. His invention was the "pull-tab". This eliminated the need for a separate opener tool by attaching an aluminum pull-ring lever with a rivet to a pre-scored wedge-shaped tab section of the can top. The ring was riveted to the center of the top, which created an elongated opening large enough that one hole simultaneously served to let the drink flow out while air flowed in. Previously, while on a family picnic, Mr. Fraze had forgotten to bring a can opener and was forced to use a car bumper to open a can of beer. Thinking there must be an easier way, he stayed up all night until he came up with the pull tab. Pull-tab cans, or the discarded tabs from them, were colloquially called "pop-tops".

Into the 1970s the pull-tab was widely popular, but its popularity came with the problem of people frequently simply discarding the pull-tabs on the ground, creating a potential injury risk especially to the feet or fingers. In the 1960s, at least one inventor attempted to solve the litter problem, by having the tab be retained by a stationary key that would wrap the tab around itself, which was unsuccessful commercially.

The problem of the discarded tops was initially solved by the invention of the push-tab. Used primarily on Coors Beer cans in the mid-1970s, the push-tab was a raised circular scored area used in place of the pull-tab. It needed no ring to pull up; instead, the raised aluminum blister was pushed down into the can using one finger. A small unscored section of the tab prevented it from detaching and falling into the can after being pushed in. Push-tabs never gained wide popularity because while they had solved the litter problem of the pull-tab, they created a safety hazard where the person's finger upon pushing the tab into the can was immediately exposed to the sharp edges of the opening. A feature of the push-tab Coors Beer cans was that they had a second, smaller, push-tab at the top as an airflow vent. "Push-tabs" were introduced into Australia from around 1977 and were locally known as "pop-tops", before being replaced later by the Stay-on-tab. The safety and litter problems were eventually solved later in the 1970s with Daniel F. Cudzik's invention of the non-removing "Stay-Tab".

Cans are usually in sealed paperboard cartons, corrugated fiberboard boxes, or trays covered with plastic film. The entire distribution system and packaging need to be controlled to ensure freshness.

Pop-tab

Mikolaj Kondakow and James Wong of Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada invented the pull tab version for bottles in or before 1951 (Canadian patent 476789). In 1962, Ermal Cleon Fraze of Dayton, Ohio, United States, invented the similar integral rivet and pull-tab version (also known as ring pull in British English), which had a ring attached at the rivet for pulling, and which would come off completely to be discarded. He received US Patent No. 3,349,949 for his pull-top can design in 1963 and licensed his invention to Alcoa and Pittsburgh Brewing Company, the latter of which first introduced the design on Iron City Beer cans. The first soft drinks to be sold in all-aluminum cans were R.C. Cola and Diet-Rite Cola, both made by the Royal Crown Cola company, in 1964.

The early pull-tabs detached easily. In 1976, the Journal of the American Medical Association noted cases of children ingesting pull-tabs that had broken off and dropped into the can.

Full-top pull-tabs were also used in some oil cans and are currently used in some soup, pet food, tennis ball, nuts, and other cans.

Stay-on-tab

In 1958, American inventor Anthony Bajada was awarded the patent for a "Lid closure for can containers". Bajada's invention was the first design to keep the opening tab connected to the lid of the can, preventing it from falling into the contents of the can. His patent expired in 1975 and has been directly cited in the mechanisms used by companies such as Crown Cork & Seal Co., Broken Hill Proprietary Co., and United States Steel Corporation. Approximately one month after Bajada's patent expired, Daniel F. Cudzik, an engineer with Reynolds Metals, filed a design patent application for an "End closure for a container". This later became known as a "Sta-Tab". When the Sta-Tab launched in 1975, on Falls City beer and, quickly, other drinks, there was an initial period of consumer testing and education. Cudzik later received patents for this "Easy Open Wall". The validity of these patents was upheld in subsequent litigation.

The similarly designed "Easy-open ecology end" was invented by Ermal Fraze and Omar Brown. Its patent application was also filed in 1975, less than two months after the expiration of Bajada's patent. This design, like Cudzik's, uses a separate tab attached to the upper surface as a lever to depress a scored part of the lid, which folds underneath the top of the can and out of the way of the resulting opening, thus reducing injuries and roadside litter caused by removable tabs.

Such "retained ring-pull" cans supplanted pull-off tabs in the United Kingdom in 1989 for soft drinks and 1990 for alcoholic drinks.

The Stay-On-Tab (SOT) opening system resolved the ecological problem of the previous pull-tab system. It opened up another issue, still unresolved today, about hygiene: today the outside panel of the tab goes inside the can, sinking in the liquid.

One of the more recent modifications to can design was the introduction of the "wide mouth" can in the late 1990s. The American Can Company, now a part of Rexam, and Coors Brewing Company have owned wide mouth design patent (number D385,192) since 1997. Other companies have similar designs for the wide mouth. Ball Corporation's from 2008 has a vent tube to allow direct airflow into the can reducing the number of gulps during the pour.

Press button can
One variation was the press button can, which featured two pre-cut buttons—one small and one large—in the top of the can sealed with a plastic membrane. These buttons were held closed by the outward pressure of the carbonated drink. The consumer would open the can by depressing both buttons, which would result in two holes. The small hole would act as a vent to relieve internal pressure so the larger button could then be pressed down to create the hole used for consuming the drink. Consumers could also easily cut themselves on the edges of the holes or get their fingers stuck.

Press button cans were used by Pepsi in Canada from the 1970s to 1980s and Coors in the 1970s. They have since been replaced with pull tabs. Used in Australia, locally known as "pop-tops", for soft drinks from 1977 to the early 1980s. However, Heineken Brewery did bring back press- or push button cans on the market in Europe as a short-lived marketing strategy in the 1990s.

Full aperture end
Another variation on the drink can is the "full aperture end", where the entire lid can be removed – turning an aluminum can into a cup. Crown Holdings first designed the "360 End" for use by SABMiller at the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. It has been used by Anheuser-Busch InBev in China and Brazil and by the Sly Fox Brewing Company in the United States.

Resealable lid
Another variation on the drink can is to have a resealable lid. A version patented by Cogito Can in France has been used by Groupe Casino, the French grocery chain for its private label energy drink.

Recycling
The beverage container can be recycled, and clean aluminum has residual market value, but recycled cans still need to be diluted by up to 50% virgin aluminum because the sides and tops of the can are of different alloys. The acronym UBC, for used beverage container, is employed by such companies as Apple, Inc for reference to the material of its portable laptop cases.

Design
Most large companies serve their beverages in printed cans, where designs are printed on the aluminum and then crafted into a can. Alternatively, cans can be wrapped with a plastic design, mimicking the printed can but allowing for more flexibility than printed cans. A modern-day trend in craft alcohol is to design stickers to put on cans, allowing for smaller batches and quick changes for new flavors.

Collecting

Beer can collecting was a minor fad in the late 1970s and 1990s. However, the hobby waned rapidly in popularity. The Beer Can Collectors of America (BCCA), founded in 1970, was an organization supporting the hobby, but has now renamed itself Brewery Collectibles Club of America to be more modern.

As of late 2009, membership in the Brewery Collectibles Club of America was 3,570, down from a peak of 11,954 in 1978. Just 19 of the members were under the age of 30, and the members' average age had increased to 59.

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Dallas Opera

The Dallas Opera is an American opera company located in Dallas, Texas. The company performs at the Margot and Bill Winspear Opera House, one venue of the AT&T Performing Arts Center.

History
The company was founded in 1957 as the Dallas Civic Opera by Lawrence Kelly and Nicolà Rescigno, both of whom had been active with the Lyric Opera of Chicago, the first as administrator, the second as artistic director. In its first season, Maria Callas performed in an inaugural recital conducted by Rescigno, at Music Hall at Fair Park. Critic John Ardoin described the role of Laurence Kelly in establishing the company as follows:

 * “Everything must ride or fall on the taste of one man…. As it did with Kelly and his company. He went through all kinds of crap for 10 months out of the year -- mean fund-raising and playing social games and all -- to do what he loved the most for two months out of the year. And Kelly didn't care if you did Aida, or Rigoletto, or Carmen -- it just had to be the best Aida, and Rigoletto, and Carmen. He would agonize over it, and think it out. Nothing was ever casual with him, in the casting or the productions. That's not to say he didn't make mistakes. But, ultimately, it was his taste, and his vision, and his commitment that did the trick".

Many singers made their American debuts in Dallas, such as Montserrat Caballé, Plácido Domingo, Gwyneth Jones, Waltraud Meier, Magda Olivero, Joan Sutherland, and Jon Vickers. Designer/director Franco Zeffirelli also made his US debut there.

The company's first commission was for Robert Xavier Rodriguez's one-act children's opera Monkey See, Monkey Do in 1985. The Dallas Opera commissioned Dominick Argento’s The Aspern Papers (opera) and gave its world premiere, which was nationally broadcast on PBS's “Great Performances” series in 1988. Additional commissions were for Tobias Picker's Thérèse Raquin in 2001 and Jake Heggie's Moby-Dick in 2010. Recent commissions have included British composer Joby Talbot and Gene Scheer's Everest, Great Scott by Jake Heggie and Terrence McNally, and Mark Adamo's Becoming Santa Claus.

The company moved to the Winspear Opera House as of the 2009-2010 season and moved its administrative offices into the building in the spring of 2010.

Administration
Anthony Whitworth-Jones became General Director in 2001. However, his plans for expanding the company's repertory did not come to fruition in the wake of an economic downturn during his tenure, and he stood down from the post in 2003. His successor, Karen Stone, was appointed in mid-2003 as the company's fifth General Director. She had previously worked with Graeme Jenkins at the Cologne Opera in Germany, where he was principal guest conductor. Stone resigned from the post effective 30 September 2007.

Keith Cerny was general director and CEO from May 2010 until January 2018. During his tenure, he initiated the company's public simulcast series in locations ranging from AT&T Stadium (home of the Dallas Cowboys) to Klyde Warren Park. This included a nine-city simulcast of Tod Machover's Death and the Powers. Cerny is credited with stabilizing company finances, which allowed both the commissioning of new operas and new initiatives such as the "Linda and Mitch Hart Institute for Women Conductors at The Dallas Opera" (2015) designed to address the challenge of gender imbalance at the top levels of the classical music industry. In November 2015, Cerny's existing contract as General Director and CEO was extended until 2022. In December 2017, the company announced Cerny's resignation from the Dallas Opera, effective January 2018.

French conductor Emmanuel Villaume became the company's music director on 30 April 2013. Graeme Jenkins, who was music director from 1994 to 2013, now has the title of Music Director Emeritus with the company. In November 2015, Villaume's contract was extended through June 2022.

In April 2018, the company announced the appointment of Ian Derrer as its next general director and CEO effective July 2018. He previously worked with Dallas Opera from 2014 to 2016 as an artistic administrator.

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Talk:Dallas Opera

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Founded in Chicago? - Hephaestos 23:33, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)

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Graeme Jenkins

Graeme James Ewers Jenkins (born 1958 in London, United Kingdom) is a British conductor, specializing in opera. He read music at the University of Cambridge, and later studied conducting at the Royal College of Music. He worked with Norman Del Mar and Sir David Willcocks, and as an Adrian Boult Conducting Scholar, Jenkins conducted Britten's Albert Herring and The Turn of the Screw. From 1986 to 1991, he was music director of Glyndebourne Touring Opera.

Jenkins made his first conducting appearance with the Dallas Opera in 1992, and in 1994, became the company's music director. In Dallas, he became the youngest ever British conductor to have conducted Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen. In May 2007, Jenkins extended his Dallas contract to May 2011. Subsequent to a further extension of his Dallas contract to May 2013, the Dallas Opera announced in May 2011 the conclusion of Jenkins' tenure after the 2012–2013 season. He now has the title of Music Director Emeritus of the Dallas Opera. Jenkins conducted the first commercial recording of Tobias Picker's opera Thérèse Raquin with Dallas Opera for the Chandos label. In Europe, Jenkins was principal guest conductor of the Cologne Opera from 1997 to 2002. Jenkins debuted in 2005 at the Vienna State Opera with Britten's Billy Budd.

Jenkins and his wife Joanna have two daughters, Martha and Isabella. They have a home in Dorset.

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Talk:List of authors of erotic works

Anais Nin
She would seem to qualify on the basis of both novels, and an extended autobiographical diary. Not here because ...?? 69.125.193.249 (talk) 17:56, 11 June 2020 (UTC)

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Someone should note that Nancy Friday shouldn't be under autobiography. I have made no changes, but just am suggesting. She wrote My Secret Garden, which is basically a catalogue of a bunch of women's sexual fantasies, men in love (men's sexual fantasies). They're more clinical than erotic, and if you read them, you'll be disturbed by all the fantasies except whichever ones you happen to have. It makes sense to put her under erotica but she does not write books that are erotic. She writes books that give permission to people to have fantasies and weird psychodrama without feeling like they are insane. See this: http://www.shelfari.com/authors/a11906/Nancy-Friday/books.

Freelance-writer-editor (talk) 03:57, 4 April 2013 (UTC)

[Untitled]
Wouldn't it be more useful if the authors were alphabetized by their last names rather than their first initials Amsler (talk) 22:54, 4 April 2011 (UTC) RAA

Sappho
maybe add Sappho to the list? Stw 23:49, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Yep!!! --Belladona.

Could Joris-Karl Huysmans be added to the list?

Moved to "List of authors of erotic works" from "List of erotic authors" on the basis that I have no life. -- Karada 00:32, 5 Feb 2004 (UTC)

added mark twain with 1601 to the list though the work is rather considered ribaldry (I'm such a rebel ^^) .. --Ebricca 22:33, 17 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Anon
A lot of the best stuff was by 'Anon' - not listed here. Colin4C 20:02, 27 September 2007 (UTC)

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Peter G. Neumann

Peter Gabriel Neumann (born 1932) is a computer-science researcher who worked on the Multics operating system in the 1960s. He edits the RISKS Digest columns for ACM Software Engineering Notes and Communications of the ACM. He founded ACM SIGSOFT and is a Fellow of the ACM, IEEE, and AAAS.

Early life and education
Neumann holds three degrees from Harvard University: an A.B. (1954) in Mathematics, and an S.M. (1955) and Ph.D. (1961) in Applied Mathematics and Science. He held a Fulbright scholarship in Germany from 1958–1960.

While a student at Harvard, he had a two-hour breakfast with Albert Einstein, on 8 November 1952, discussing simplicity in design.

Career
Neumann worked at Bell Labs from 1960 to 1970. He has worked at SRI International in Menlo Park, California since 1971.

Before the RISKS mailing list, Neumann was known for the Provably Secure Operating System (PSOS).

Neumann worked with Dorothy E. Denning in the 1980s to develop a computer intrusion detection system known as IDES that was a model for later computer security software.

Memberships and awards
Neumann has long served as moderator of RISKS Digest and is a member of the ACCURATE project.

Neumann is the founding editor of ACM Software Engineering Notes (SEN), and is a Fellow of the ACM.

In 2018, Neumann received the EPIC Lifetime Achievement Award from Electronic Privacy Information Center.

Selected publications

 * Neumann, Peter G., Computer-Related Risks, Addison-Wesley/ACM Press, ISBN 0-201-55805-X, 1995.

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Celestial spheres

The celestial spheres, or celestial orbs, were the fundamental entities of the cosmological models developed by Plato, Eudoxus, Aristotle, Ptolemy, Copernicus, and others. In these celestial models, the apparent motions of the fixed stars and planets are accounted for by treating them as embedded in rotating spheres made of an aetherial, transparent fifth element (quintessence), like gems set in orbs. Since it was believed that the fixed stars did not change their positions relative to one another, it was argued that they must be on the surface of a single starry sphere.

In modern thought, the orbits of the planets are viewed as the paths of those planets through mostly empty space. Ancient and medieval thinkers, however, considered the celestial orbs to be thick spheres of rarefied matter nested one within the other, each one in complete contact with the sphere above it and the sphere below. When scholars applied Ptolemy's epicycles, they presumed that each planetary sphere was exactly thick enough to accommodate them. By combining this nested sphere model with astronomical observations, scholars calculated what became generally accepted values at the time for the distances to the Sun: about 4 e6mi, to the other planets, and to the edge of the universe: about 73 e6mi. The nested sphere model's distances to the Sun and planets differ significantly from modern measurements of the distances, and the size of the universe is now known to be inconceivably large and continuously expanding.

Albert Van Helden has suggested that from about 1250 until the 17th century, virtually all educated Europeans were familiar with the Ptolemaic model of "nesting spheres and the cosmic dimensions derived from it". Even following the adoption of Copernicus's heliocentric model of the universe, new versions of the celestial sphere model were introduced, with the planetary spheres following this sequence from the central Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth-Moon, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.

Mainstream belief in the theory of celestial spheres did not survive the Scientific Revolution. In the early 1600s, Kepler continued to discuss celestial spheres, although he did not consider that the planets were carried by the spheres but held that they moved in elliptical paths described by Kepler's laws of planetary motion. In the late 1600s, Greek and medieval theories concerning the motion of terrestrial and celestial objects were replaced by Newton's law of universal gravitation and Newtonian mechanics, which explain how Kepler's laws arise from the gravitational attraction between bodies.

Early ideas of spheres and circles
In Greek antiquity the ideas of celestial spheres and rings first appeared in the cosmology of Anaximander in the early 6th century BC. In his cosmology both the Sun and Moon are circular open vents in tubular rings of fire enclosed in tubes of condensed air; these rings constitute the rims of rotating chariot-like wheels pivoting on the Earth at their centre. The fixed stars are also open vents in such wheel rims, but there are so many such wheels for the stars that their contiguous rims all together form a continuous spherical shell encompassing the Earth. All these wheel rims had originally been formed out of an original sphere of fire wholly encompassing the Earth, which had disintegrated into many individual rings. Hence, in Anaximanders's cosmogony, in the beginning was the sphere, out of which celestial rings were formed, from some of which the stellar sphere was in turn composed. As viewed from the Earth, the ring of the Sun was highest, that of the Moon was lower, and the sphere of the stars was lowest.

Following Anaximander, his pupil Anaximenes (c. 585) held that the stars, Sun, Moon, and planets are all made of fire. But whilst the stars are fastened on a revolving crystal sphere like nails or studs, the Sun, Moon, and planets, and also the Earth, all just ride on air like leaves because of their breadth. And whilst the fixed stars are carried around in a complete circle by the stellar sphere, the Sun, Moon and planets do not revolve under the Earth between setting and rising again like the stars do, but rather on setting they go laterally around the Earth like a cap turning halfway around the head until they rise again. And unlike Anaximander, he relegated the fixed stars to the region most distant from the Earth. The most enduring feature of Anaximenes' cosmos was its conception of the stars being fixed on a crystal sphere as in a rigid frame, which became a fundamental principle of cosmology down to Copernicus and Kepler.

After Anaximenes, Pythagoras, Xenophanes and Parmenides all held that the universe was spherical. And much later in the fourth century BC Plato's Timaeus proposed that the body of the cosmos was made in the most perfect and uniform shape, that of a sphere containing the fixed stars. But it posited that the planets were spherical bodies set in rotating bands or rings rather than wheel rims as in Anaximander's cosmology.

Emergence of the planetary spheres
Instead of bands, Plato's student Eudoxus developed a planetary model using concentric spheres for all the planets, with three spheres each for his models of the Moon and the Sun and four each for the models of the other five planets, thus making 26 spheres in all. Callippus modified this system, using five spheres for his models of the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, and Mars and retaining four spheres for the models of Jupiter and Saturn, thus making 33 spheres in all. Each planet is attached to the innermost of its own particular set of spheres. Although the models of Eudoxus and Callippus qualitatively describe the major features of the motion of the planets, they fail to account exactly for these motions and therefore cannot provide quantitative predictions. Although historians of Greek science have traditionally considered these models to be merely geometrical representations, recent studies have proposed that they were also intended to be physically real or have withheld judgment, noting the limited evidence to resolve the question.

In his Metaphysics, Aristotle developed a physical cosmology of spheres, based on the mathematical models of Eudoxus. In Aristotle's fully developed celestial model, the spherical Earth is at the centre of the universe and the planets are moved by either 47 or 55 interconnected spheres that form a unified planetary system, whereas in the models of Eudoxus and Callippus each planet's individual set of spheres were not connected to those of the next planet. Aristotle says the exact number of spheres, and hence the number of movers, is to be determined by astronomical investigation, but he added additional spheres to those proposed by Eudoxus and Callippus, to counteract the motion of the outer spheres. Aristotle considers that these spheres are made of an unchanging fifth element, the aether. Each of these concentric spheres is moved by its own god—an unchanging divine unmoved mover, and who moves its sphere simply by virtue of being loved by it.

In his Almagest, the astronomer Ptolemy (fl. c. 150 AD) developed geometrical predictive models of the motions of the stars and planets and extended them to a unified physical model of the cosmos in his Planetary hypotheses. By using eccentrics and epicycles, his geometrical model achieved greater mathematical detail and predictive accuracy than had been exhibited by earlier concentric spherical models of the cosmos. In Ptolemy's physical model, each planet is contained in two or more spheres, but in Book 2 of his Planetary Hypotheses Ptolemy depicted thick circular slices rather than spheres as in its Book 1. One sphere/slice is the deferent, with a centre offset somewhat from the Earth; the other sphere/slice is an epicycle embedded in the deferent, with the planet embedded in the epicyclical sphere/slice. Ptolemy's model of nesting spheres provided the general dimensions of the cosmos, the greatest distance of Saturn being 19,865 times the radius of the Earth and the distance of the fixed stars being at least 20,000 Earth radii.

The planetary spheres were arranged outwards from the spherical, stationary Earth at the centre of the universe in this order: the spheres of the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. In more detailed models the seven planetary spheres contained other secondary spheres within them. The planetary spheres were followed by the stellar sphere containing the fixed stars; other scholars added a ninth sphere to account for the precession of the equinoxes, a tenth to account for the supposed trepidation of the equinoxes, and even an eleventh to account for the changing obliquity of the ecliptic. In antiquity the order of the lower planets was not universally agreed. Plato and his followers ordered them Moon, Sun, Mercury, Venus, and then followed the standard model for the upper spheres. Others disagreed about the relative place of the spheres of Mercury and Venus: Ptolemy placed both of them beneath the Sun with Venus above Mercury, but noted others placed them both above the Sun; some medieval thinkers, such as al-Bitruji, placed the sphere of Venus above the Sun and that of Mercury below it.

Astronomical discussions
A series of astronomers, beginning with the Muslim astronomer al-Farghānī, used the Ptolemaic model of nesting spheres to compute distances to the stars and planetary spheres. Al-Farghānī's distance to the stars was 20,110 Earth radii which, on the assumption that the radius of the Earth was 3,250 mi, came to 65,357,500 mi. An introduction to Ptolemy's Almagest, the Tashil al-Majisti, believed to be written by Thābit ibn Qurra, presented minor variations of Ptolemy's distances to the celestial spheres. In his Zij, Al-Battānī presented independent calculations of the distances to the planets on the model of nesting spheres, which he thought was due to scholars writing after Ptolemy. His calculations yielded a distance of 19,000 Earth radii to the stars.

Around the turn of the millennium, the Arabic astronomer and polymath Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) presented a development of Ptolemy's geocentric models in terms of nested spheres. Despite the similarity of this concept to that of Ptolemy's Planetary Hypotheses, al-Haytham's presentation differs in sufficient detail that it has been argued that it reflects an independent development of the concept. In chapters 15–16 of his Book of Optics, Ibn al-Haytham also said that the celestial spheres do not consist of solid matter.

Near the end of the twelfth century, the Spanish Muslim astronomer al-Bitrūjī (Alpetragius) sought to explain the complex motions of the planets without Ptolemy's epicycles and eccentrics, using an Aristotelian framework of purely concentric spheres that moved with differing speeds from east to west. This model was much less accurate as a predictive astronomical model, but it was discussed by later European astronomers and philosophers.

In the thirteenth century the astronomer al-'Urḍi proposed a radical change to Ptolemy's system of nesting spheres. In his Kitāb al-Hayáh, he recalculated the distance of the planets using parameters which he redetermined. Taking the distance of the Sun as 1,266 Earth radii, he was forced to place the sphere of Venus above the sphere of the Sun; as a further refinement, he added the planet's diameters to the thickness of their spheres. As a consequence, his version of the nesting spheres model had the sphere of the stars at a distance of 140,177 Earth radii.

About the same time, scholars in European universities began to address the implications of the rediscovered philosophy of Aristotle and astronomy of Ptolemy. Both astronomical scholars and popular writers considered the implications of the nested sphere model for the dimensions of the universe. Campanus of Novara's introductory astronomical text, the Theorica planetarum, used the model of nesting spheres to compute the distances of the various planets from the Earth, which he gave as 22,612 Earth radii or 73387747+100/660 mi. In his Opus Majus, Roger Bacon cited Al-Farghānī's distance to the stars of 20,110 Earth radii, or 65357700 mi, from which he computed the circumference of the universe to be 410818517+3/7 mi. Clear evidence that this model was thought to represent physical reality is the accounts found in Bacon's Opus Majus of the time needed to walk to the Moon and in the popular Middle English South English Legendary, that it would take 8,000 years to reach the highest starry heaven. General understanding of the dimensions of the universe derived from the nested sphere model reached wider audiences through the presentations in Hebrew by Moses Maimonides, in French by Gossuin of Metz, and in Italian by Dante Alighieri.

Philosophical and theological discussions
Philosophers were less concerned with such mathematical calculations than with the nature of the celestial spheres, their relation to revealed accounts of created nature, and the causes of their motion.

Adi Setia describes the debate among Islamic scholars in the twelfth century, based on the commentary of Fakhr al-Din al-Razi about whether the celestial spheres are real, concrete physical bodies or "merely the abstract circles in the heavens traced out… by the various stars and planets." Setia points out that most of the learned, and the astronomers, said they were solid spheres "on which the stars turn… and this view is closer to the apparent sense of the Qur'anic verses regarding the celestial orbits." However, al-Razi mentions that some, such as the Islamic scholar Dahhak, considered them to be abstract. Al-Razi himself, was undecided, he said: "In truth, there is no way to ascertain the characteristics of the heavens except by authority [of divine revelation or prophetic traditions]." Setia concludes: "Thus it seems that for al-Razi (and for others before and after him), astronomical models, whatever their utility or lack thereof for ordering the heavens, are not founded on sound rational proofs, and so no intellectual commitment can be made to them insofar as description and explanation of celestial realities are concerned."

Christian and Muslim philosophers modified Ptolemy's system to include an unmoved outermost region, the empyrean heaven, which came to be identified as the dwelling place of God and all the elect. Medieval Christians identified the sphere of stars with the Biblical firmament and sometimes posited an invisible layer of water above the firmament, to accord with Genesis. An outer sphere, inhabited by angels, appeared in some accounts.

Edward Grant, a historian of science, has provided evidence that medieval scholastic philosophers generally considered the celestial spheres to be solid in the sense of three-dimensional or continuous, but most did not consider them solid in the sense of hard. The consensus was that the celestial spheres were made of some kind of continuous fluid.

Later in the century, the mutakallim Adud al-Din al-Iji (1281–1355) rejected the principle of uniform and circular motion, following the Ash'ari doctrine of atomism, which maintained that all physical effects were caused directly by God's will rather than by natural causes. He maintained that the celestial spheres were "imaginary things" and "more tenuous than a spider's web". His views were challenged by al-Jurjani (1339–1413), who maintained that even if the celestial spheres "do not have an external reality, yet they are things that are correctly imagined and correspond to what [exists] in actuality".

Medieval astronomers and philosophers developed diverse theories about the causes of the celestial spheres' motions. They attempted to explain the spheres' motions in terms of the materials of which they were thought to be made, external movers such as celestial intelligences, and internal movers such as motive souls or impressed forces. Most of these models were qualitative, although a few incorporated quantitative analyses that related speed, motive force and resistance. By the end of the Middle Ages, the common opinion in Europe was that celestial bodies were moved by external intelligences, identified with the angels of revelation. The outermost moving sphere, which moved with the daily motion affecting all subordinate spheres, was moved by an unmoved mover, the Prime Mover, who was identified with God. Each of the lower spheres was moved by a subordinate spiritual mover (a replacement for Aristotle's multiple divine movers), called an intelligence.

Renaissance

Early in the sixteenth century Nicolaus Copernicus drastically reformed the model of astronomy by displacing the Earth from its central place in favour of the Sun, yet he called his great work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres). Although Copernicus does not treat the physical nature of the spheres in detail, his few allusions make it clear that, like many of his predecessors, he accepted non-solid celestial spheres. Copernicus rejected the ninth and tenth spheres, placed the orb of the Moon around the Earth, and moved the Sun from its orb to the center of the universe. The planetary orbs circled the center of the universe in the following order: Mercury, Venus, the great orb containing the Earth and the orb of the Moon, then the orbs of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Finally he retained the eighth sphere of the stars, which he held to be stationary.

The English almanac maker, Thomas Digges, delineated the spheres of the new cosmological system in his Perfit Description of the Caelestiall Orbes … (1576). Here he arranged the "orbes" in the new Copernican order, expanding one sphere to carry "the globe of mortalitye", the Earth, the four classical elements, and the Moon, and expanding the sphere of stars infinitely to encompass all the stars and also to serve as "the court of the Great God, the habitacle of the elect, and of the coelestiall angelles."

In the sixteenth century, a number of philosophers, theologians, and astronomers—among them Francesco Patrizi, Andrea Cisalpino, Peter Ramus, Robert Bellarmine, Giordano Bruno, Jerónimo Muñoz, Michael Neander, Jean Pena, and Christoph Rothmann—abandoned the concept of celestial spheres. Rothmann argued from observations of the comet of 1585 that the lack of observed parallax indicated that the comet was beyond Saturn, while the absence of observed refraction indicated the celestial region was of the same material as air, hence there were no planetary spheres.

Tycho Brahe's investigations of a series of comets from 1577 to 1585, aided by Rothmann's discussion of the comet of 1585 and Michael Maestlin's tabulated distances of the comet of 1577, which passed through the planetary orbs, led Tycho to conclude that "the structure of the heavens was very fluid and simple." Tycho opposed his view to that of "very many modern philosophers" who divided the heavens into "various orbs made of hard and impervious matter." Edward Grant found relatively few believers in hard celestial spheres before Copernicus and concluded that the idea first became common sometime between the publication of Copernicus's De revolutionibus in 1542 and Tycho Brahe's publication of his cometary research in 1588.

In his early Mysterium Cosmographicum, Johannes Kepler considered the distances of the planets and the consequent gaps required between the planetary spheres implied by the Copernican system, which had been noted by his former teacher, Michael Maestlin. Kepler's Platonic cosmology filled the large gaps with the five Platonic polyhedra, which accounted for the spheres' measured astronomical distance. In Kepler's mature celestial physics, the spheres were regarded as the purely geometric spatial regions containing each planetary orbit rather than as the rotating physical orbs of the earlier Aristotelian celestial physics. The eccentricity of each planet's orbit thereby defined the radii of the inner and outer limits of its celestial sphere and thus its thickness. In Kepler's celestial mechanics, the cause of planetary motion became the rotating Sun, itself rotated by its own motive soul. However, an immobile stellar sphere was a lasting remnant of physical celestial spheres in Kepler's cosmology.

Literary and visual expressions

In Cicero's Dream of Scipio, the elder Scipio Africanus describes an ascent through the celestial spheres, compared to which the Earth and the Roman Empire dwindle into insignificance. A commentary on the Dream of Scipio by the Roman writer Macrobius, which included a discussion of the various schools of thought on the order of the spheres, did much to spread the idea of the celestial spheres through the Early Middle Ages.

Some late medieval figures noted that the celestial spheres' physical order was inverse to their order on the spiritual plane, where God was at the center and the Earth at the periphery. Near the beginning of the fourteenth century Dante, in the Paradiso of his Divine Comedy, described God as a light at the center of the cosmos. Here the poet ascends beyond physical existence to the Empyrean Heaven, where he comes face to face with God himself and is granted understanding of both divine and human nature. Later in the century, the illuminator of Nicole Oresme's Le livre du Ciel et du Monde, a translation of and commentary on Aristotle's De caelo produced for Oresme's patron, King Charles V, employed the same motif. He drew the spheres in the conventional order, with the Moon closest to the Earth and the stars highest, but the spheres were concave upwards, centered on God, rather than concave downwards, centered on the Earth. Below this figure Oresme quotes the Psalms that "The heavens declare the Glory of God and the firmament showeth his handiwork."

The late-16th-century Portuguese epic The Lusiads vividly portrays the celestial spheres as a "great machine of the universe" constructed by God. The explorer Vasco da Gama is shown the celestial spheres in the form of a mechanical model. Contrary to Cicero's representation, da Gama's tour of the spheres begins with the Empyrean, then descends inward toward Earth, culminating in a survey of the domains and divisions of earthly kingdoms, thus magnifying the importance of human deeds in the divine plan.

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California State University, Long Beach

California State University, Long Beach (CSULB), also known in athletics as Long Beach State University (LBSU), is a public research university in Long Beach, California. The 322-acre campus is the second largest in the California State University system (CSU). The university enrolls around 38,273 undergraduate students and 5,562 graduate students as of fall 2022 - one of the largest graduate student populations across the CSU system and in the state of California. CSULB is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High Research Activity".

The university is home to one of the largest publicly funded art schools in the United States. The university is a Hispanic-serving institution (HSI) and is eligible to be designated as an Asian American Native American Pacific Islander serving institution (AANAPISI).

History

The college was established in 1949 by California Governor Earl Warren, to serve the rapidly expanding post-World War II population of Orange and Southern Los Angeles counties. The institution was first named as Los Angeles-Orange County State College. Peter Victor Peterson was its first president. It offered 25 courses, taught by 13 faculty members, in two apartment buildings at 5381 Anaheim Road in Long Beach. In June 1950, the a $1 million, 322 acre plot of land was purchased as a permanent campus for the renamed Long Beach State College, following an "overwhelming" vote from the city's population. Student enrollment subsequently grew rapidly.

Carl W. McIntosh was named the college's second president in 1959. While McIntosh was president, the school's enrollment surged from about 10,000 to over 30,000, and he rapidly expanded and revamped the curriculum. McIntosh tripled the number of faculty and constructed 30 new campus buildings. Although the 1960s were a period of deep unrest on American college campuses, McIntosh's collegial governing style, gentle public demeanor, and willingness to permit peaceful protest on campus helped preserve Long Beach State College relatively serene social climate. In 1964, the school changed its name to California State College at Long Beach. In 1967, the California state legislature revamped the state college system. As part of these changes, the university was renamed California State College, Long Beach in 1968 and became closely integrated into the California State College system.

In 1965, CSULB hosted the first International Sculpture Symposium to be held both at a higher education institution and in the United States. Six international and two American sculptors many of the on-campus installations. The event received national media attention from major newspapers, including The New York Times and the Los Angeles Times Magazine.

McIntosh departed for Montana State University in 1969, and was succeeded by President Steve Horn. The California State University Board of Trustees elevated the school to university status in 1972, along with 12 other state college campuses, based on total enrollment, size of graduate programs, complexity and diversity of majors and number of doctorates held by faculty at each college. The school subsequently became California State University, Long Beach (CSULB). Later that year, the campus opened the largest library facility in the then 19-campus CSU system: a modern six-story building with a seating capacity of nearly 4,000 students.

In 1995, President Robert Maxson initiated the privately funded President's Scholars Program, providing selected qualified California high school valedictorians and National Merit finalists and semi-finalists with a full four-year scholarship package, including tuition, a book stipend, and housing. , over 1000 students have accepted the scholarship. For applicants for fall 2010, National Achievement Program Semifinalists/Finalists and National Hispanic Recognition scholars were also considered.

In August 2020, CSULB unveiled its new shark mascot, Elbee, following a 2019 student-led process that selected the shark as Beach's new mascot. While Elbee is a shark, the university's Division I intercollegiate athletics program remains "Beach Athletics". As of 2022, the university was classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity" in recognition of the university's evolution from a master's-level comprehensive institution to one that awards doctorates and conducts a significant amount of research.

Campus
The campus spans 323 acre across 84 buildings, and is located 3 mi from the Pacific Ocean. It has its own U.S. Postal ZIP Code, 90840. CSULB is located at 1250 Bellflower Boulevard. It is bounded by East 7th Street to the south, East Atherton Street to the north, Bellflower Boulevard to the west, and Palo Verde Avenue to the east.

Architecture
The architecture of the campus is mostly of the International style (designed primarily by architect Edward Killingsworth) and is very minimalist, placing emphasis instead on the landscaping that surrounds it. This naturalistic, park-like layout has earned the campus numerous design awards, as well as other awards from gardening societies. Recent construction maintains the characteristic glass-and-brick style. The integration of landscaping and architecture is apparent at the school's theater complex, where a dense grove of ficus trees is planted in such a way that it forms a continuation of the pillar-supported canopy at the theater's entrance. The university's registration offices are located in the open courtyard of Brotman Hall, which is "roofed" by a similar jungle-like canopy. The Psychology building is also notable for its soaring, airy courtyard planted with tall Eucalyptus trees.

Campus landmarks

The University Student Union (USU) building is located at the center of campus. The three-story glass building occupies roughly 180000 sqft, housing numerous offices, and offering more casual attractions, including a study lounge, a ballroom, a food court, a bowling alley, an arcade, and a movie theater.

The Rec and Wellness Center is an extensive all-purpose athletic center covering about 125000 sqft on North Campus. It was completed in 2010. It includes facilities for fitness programs and aerobics classes, courts for volleyball, basketball, badminton, rock climbing walls, an indoor track, a student lounge, and much more. The center is funded and managed by CSULB's Associated Students, Incorporated (ASI).

49er basketball and volleyball games are currently played in the iconic, eighteen-story Walter Pyramid (formerly known as the Long Beach Pyramid) located on north campus. The Pyramid is a sporting complex that can accommodate over 5,000 fans, including temporary seating and standing room. Two sections of interior stands are fitted with large hydraulic lifts that can lift the seating elements 45 degrees into the air, creating room for five volleyball courts or three basketball courts. The Pyramid is home to the Southern California Summer Pro League, a noted showcase for current and prospective NBA basketball players.

The University Art Museum's permanent collection contains primarily abstract expressionist paintings, works on paper, and an outdoor sculpture garden that began in 1966. The UAM was the first accredited museum in the CSU system. In addition, the museum's Gordon F. Hampton collection is housed at the Downtown Los Angeles law offices of Sheppard Mullin.

The campus is also home to the Carpenter Performing Arts Center, a 1,074-seat theater named after CSULB alumni Richard and Karen Carpenter.

The Earl Burns Miller Japanese Garden is an artistic retreat of solitude and beauty. Among its many picturesque attractions, the Garden features a large pond populated with koi.

Puvungna
The campus is built on the ancient Tongva village and burial site known as Puvungna ("the place of the gathering" or "in the ball"), which is a sacred site for the Tongva and Acjachemen. In 1974, the now twenty-two acre site was added to the National Register of Historic Places after the site was uncovered in the development of the nearby Japanese Garden.

From 1992 to 1995, CSULB attempted to challenge this designation in order to commercially develop the site into a strip mall and student housing. The Tongva people filed a lawsuit and initiated a protest, which involved physically occupying the land day and night to stave off bulldozers even while threatened with arrest by campus officials.

In 2019, the university dumped dirt and debris onto the site and drove heavy equipment over the ground in the construction of a new student housing development. This was received negatively by the Tongva and Acjachemen, who organized in an attempt to preserve the site from future damage. The site remains a natural area with a few trees.

Campus sustainability
The university, in its push to support climate sustainability, installed solar panels on the Brotman Hall building and the Facilities Management canopy parking in 2007. The university has been taking steps in addressing the challenge of sustainability, with the support of its student government, student body, and organizations, such as the Environmental Science & Policy Club.

The Environmental Science & Policy Club (ES&P Club) has brought support to environmental awareness and sustainability through club activities, such as coastal clean-ups, hikes, plant-restoration project, tabling, conferences, guest speakers, & Kaleidoscope. In 2006, the ES&P Club supported the installation of waterless urinals in the university's men's restrooms. The ES&P Club hosts an annual Earth Week celebration each April, including documentary screenings, discussions, and speaker series.

In addition, there has been a push in recent years to revive the organic gardens on campus, culminating in 2015 with the launch of the Grow Beach University Gardens, a student-led ASI sub-group that promotes organic gardening and sustainable agriculture on campus. The new garden boxes are part of a campus-wide effort to provide a natural, organic, and convenient garden right on campus for student and faculty use.

The university "has a comprehensive energy management program incorporating real-time metering and energy-saving technologies such as the EnergySaver, which provides a more sophisticated alternative to turning off the lights by automatically varying the voltage to the ballasted fixtures and reducing the power consumed, while maintaining appropriate lighting levels."

Desert Studies Center
The Desert Studies Center is a field station of the California State University located in Zzyzx, California in the Mojave Desert. The purpose of the center is to provide opportunities to conduct research, receive instruction and experience the Mojave Desert environment. It is operated by the California Desert Studies Consortium, a consortium of 7 CSU campuses: Fullerton, Cal Poly Pomona, Long Beach, San Bernardino, Northridge, Dominguez Hills and Los Angeles.

Academics

CSULB comprises three Liberal Arts colleges: and five vocational colleges:
 * College of the Arts
 * College of Liberal Arts
 * College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics
 * College of Business
 * College of Education
 * College of Engineering
 * College of Health & Human Services
 * College of Continuing & Professional Education

Together, the colleges offer a total of 81 baccalaureate degrees, 67 master's degrees, 16 education-related credential programs, and three doctoral degrees (two joint and one independent).

Admissions
California State University, Long Beach is amongst the most applied to campuses in the California State University system, receiving over 70,000 applicants with an average acceptance rate of 45%. In the Fall 2023 cohort, California State University, Long Beach saw over 79,000 applications from first-time freshmen, while more than 37,000 were granted admission. The average GPA of the admitted students was 3.95.

For masters and doctoral programs in the Fall 2023 cohort, the school received over 10,733 applications, while 3,270 applicants were granted admission. The admit yield was 56%.

Rankings
The 2021 edition of Washington Monthly's College Guide and Rankings list CSULB as the No. 2 Master's-level university in the nation.

In 2021, The Wall Street Journal/Times Higher Education ranked CSULB 8th in the nation for Campus Diversity. The category ranking, called "environment" by the publication, assessed the percentage of Pell Grant recipients, the racial and ethnic diversity of students and faculty, and the proportion of students who come from outside the United States.

Campus publications
The university has three student publications: the Daily 49er, 22 West Magazine (formerly The Long Beach Union Newspaper) and DIG Magazine.

The first issue of the Daily 49er, the campus newspaper, was published on November 11, 1949. It publishes Monday through Thursday during the fall and spring semesters, and once weekly during the summer sessions. It was one of the first college newspapers in the country to have an Internet edition, starting in August 1994.

22 West Magazine, which is partially student-funded, and affiliated with ASI, publishes every month during fall and spring semesters. It began on April 22, 1977, when it was formed in response to the Daily 49er. The Union Weekly focuses on being an alternative voice on campus and features a satirical section called "The Grunion" (not to be confused with the Long Beach paper the Grunion Gazette). During the late 1970s through 1980s, the Union was a daily newspaper, giving heavy competition to the Daily 49er. Journalism majors who worked on the "Union" did so under a pseudonym as it was a practice forbidden by the dean of the Journalism department.

DIG Magazine, the campus magazine, has gone through many changes throughout the years. It started off as The Lantern, a magazine for night-time students, before transforming to UniverCity in 1973. Then, it turned into University Magazine. In the early 2000s, the magazine transformed to DIG Magazine as a music magazine before transitioning to a general art & culture magazine. Today, the magazine features interesting people and groups within the community, and discusses topics that concern students' interests.

KKJZ 88.1 FM
The California State University Long Beach Foundation owns the KKJZ non-commercial broadcast license of 88.1 FM, a jazz and blues radio station. Global Jazz, Inc., an affiliate of Mount Wilson FM Broadcasters, Inc., programs and manages the radio station. In 2015, Global Jazz moved the station thirty miles from Long Beach to West Los Angeles. While KKJZ began as a radio station exclusively playing Jazz and Blues music it has recently expanded its playlist to include Rhythm and Blues artists.

22 West Radio
22 West Radio is a free format, student run internet radio station at CSU, Long Beach. It is also an HD Radio station via 88.1 HD3. The radio station is operated year-round. The station has been around in various forms since the mid-1970s, then known as KSUL (which went defunct after 1981). 22 West Radio is a department of Associated Students, Incorporated at CSULB and is both funded and regulated by them.

Pow Wow
Each March since 1970, the university has hosted the largest pow-wow in Southern California. This free two-day event, which attracts more than 6,000 persons each year, features Native American dancing, arts, craft and native foods.

Student Recreation and Wellness Center
The $70 million Student Recreation and Wellness Center is located on the northeast side of campus. It opened in fall 2010.

Greek life – sororities and fraternities
Eight national sororities on campus are governed by the Panhellenic Association and are members of the National Panhellenic Conference. Eleven general fraternities are members of and governed by the Interfraternity Council. There is also a Cultural Greek Council which governs over six sororities, six fraternities and one co-ed fraternity. Within the last 5 years, two fraternities have been removed for various instances of sexual assault and misconduct, specifically Sigma Alpha Epsilon and Sigma Chi. The latter's expulsion was not made known to the university community, causing controversy within the student body.

Student housing
CSULB provides housing to accommodate 3,000 students:

 * Beachside Village – Off-site student housing with 2 buildings (Pacific, Atlantic), a dining hall and a pool.
 * Hillside Village – 9 buildings (A, B, C, D, E, F, International House, Los Cerritos, Los Alamitos) with dining hall.
 * Parkside Village – 10 buildings (G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, Parkside North) with dining hall.

Athletics
Long Beach State competes in NCAA Division I in 18 sports teams and plays competitively in baseball, cross country, softball, track and field, women's tennis, and women's soccer, as well as both men's and women's basketball, volleyball, water polo and golf teams. The university is a founding member of the Big West Conference, and also competes in the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation for sports not sponsored by the Big West.

In the realm of sports the school is branded as "Long Beach State". "Beach", which had long been unofficially used to refer to Long Beach State and its sports teams as it is the only university on the West Coast with the word "Beach" in its name, became the official athletic program brand name in the 2020–21 school year. One can see the cheer "Go Beach!" written on many CSULB products around campus and on the large water tower near the entrance to the campus.

The school colors have been black and gold since 2000, when they were changed by a student referendum (after George Allen changed the football uniform colors) from the original brown and gold.

Long Beach State is home to one of the top women's volleyball teams in the nation. Long Beach State has won three national titles in women's volleyball, in 1989, 1993 and 1998. The 1998 women's team was the first team in NCAA Division I history to have an undefeated season. The team's most famous alumna is Misty May-Treanor, who won three Olympic gold medals in Beach Volleyball in 2004, 2008, and 2012. Long Beach is also the only California State University to participate in the Golden Coast Conference for Men's Water polo not sponsored by the Big West Conference the Division Long Beach participates for in NCAA Division I.

Because of the proximity to California State University, Fullerton, the schools are considered rivals. The rivalry is especially heated in baseball with the Long Beach State baseball team also having a competitive college baseball program.

Noted people

CSULB has more than 320,000 alumni.

Alumni have written, acted and directed screenplays that have attracted Oscar-caliber talent. David Twohy (BA ) co-wrote the screenplay for the Academy Award winning film The Fugitive. Linda Woolverton (BA 1974 ) wrote the screenplays for the Academy Award-winning, Disney animated films Beauty and the Beast and The Lion King, and the live-action 2010 film Alice in Wonderland. J. F. Lawton (BA ) wrote the screenplay to Pretty Woman. Mark Steven Johnson (BA 1989 ) has co-written and directed the films Daredevil and Ghost Rider. Actor Crispin Alapag notably on Big Time In Hollywood FL, Ray Donovan, General Hospital and VR Troopers Power Rangers.

Current and former mayors of Long Beach Robert Garcia and Beverly O'Neill are alumni.

Former students have won at least five Academy Awards. Steven Spielberg (Class of 1969, BA 2002 ) won two Oscars for Best Directing for Schindler's List and Saving Private Ryan and has directed a number of other successful movies such as Jaws, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, and Jurassic Park. Former industrial design major John Dykstra, who has been nominated five times for Academy Awards, won two Oscars for his special effects work on the George Lucas film Star Wars and the Sam Raimi film Spider-Man 2. Deborah L. Scott (BA ) won an Oscar for costume design for the James Cameron film Titanic.

Emmy Award-nominated director Chris Carter (BA 1979) created the series The X-Files, which garnered several awards during its nine seasons on television. Former student Steve Martin, whose philosophy classes at the university inspired him to become a professional comedian, is an Emmy Award winner and a Disney Legend.

Alumni and former students have also participated in the world of sports. Jason Giambi, Evan Longoria, Troy Tulowitzki, Harold Reynolds, Jered Weaver, Steve Trachsel, and Jason Vargas have all been selected to play in the Major League Baseball All Stars games. Matt Duffy won the World Series with the 2014 San Francisco Giants and continues to play with the Los Angeles Angels. Jeff McNeil of the New York Mets won the 2022 NL batting title with an average of .326. Golfer Mark O'Meara (BA 1980) won the Masters Tournament and The Open Championship. Craig Hodges is a two-time NBA Champion, Terrell Davis is a two-time Super Bowl champion and Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee, and Billy Parks played five seasons in the NFL. Diver Pat McCormick won four gold medals in two consecutive Olympics (Helsinki and Melbourne), and Misty May-Treanor (BS 2002) won three gold medals in women's beach volleyball in three other consecutive Olympics (Athens, Beijing, and London). High Jumper Dwight Stones set the World Record while a student at Cal State Long Beach, in addition to winning the bronze medal at both the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich and 1976 in Montreal. Track and Field athlete Bill Green (BA 1984) set the United States and NCAA record three times in the hammer throw, and placed 5th at the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles.

Former students Karen Carpenter and Richard Carpenter (Class of 1972, Honorary Doctorate 2000 ) of the Carpenters are the namesakes of the Carpenter Performing Arts Center, a 1,065-seat performance hall on the campus of the university that also houses an exhibit on the Carpenters. Richard Carpenter's college instructor and choir director Frank Pooler inspired him in choral arrangement, and both Karen and Richard participated in Pooler's choir. Pooler also introduced Richard to fellow undergraduate and future song-writing collaborator John Bettis. Another undergraduate, Wesley Jacobs, would join the Carpenters as a musical instrumentalist. The Carpenters sold over 100 million records, won three Grammy Awards out of eighteen nominations, and created numerous gold and platinum albums.

title: California State University, Long Beach


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Flip chip

Flip chip, also known as controlled collapse chip connection or its abbreviation, C4, is a method for interconnecting dies such as semiconductor devices, IC chips, integrated passive devices and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), to external circuitry with solder bumps that have been deposited onto the chip pads. The technique was developed by General Electric's Light Military Electronics Department, Utica, New York. The solder bumps are deposited on the chip pads on the top side of the wafer during the final wafer processing step. In order to mount the chip to external circuitry (e.g., a circuit board or another chip or wafer), it is flipped over so that its top side faces down, and aligned so that its pads align with matching pads on the external circuit, and then the solder is reflowed to complete the interconnect. This is in contrast to wire bonding, in which the chip is mounted upright and fine wires are welded onto the chip pads and lead frame contacts to interconnect the chip pads to external circuitry.

Process steps

 * 1) Integrated circuits are created on the wafer.
 * 2) Pads are metallized on the surface of the chips.
 * 3) A solder ball is deposited on each of the pads, in a process called wafer bumping
 * 4) Chips are cut.
 * 5) Chips are flipped and positioned so that the solder balls are facing the connectors on the external circuitry.
 * 6) Solder balls are then remelted (typically using hot air reflow).
 * 7) Mounted chip is "underfilled" using a (capillary, shown here) electrically-insulating adhesive.

Wire bonding/thermosonic bonding

In typical semiconductor fabrication systems, chips are built up in large numbers on a single large wafer of semiconductor material, typically silicon. The individual chips are patterned with small pads of metal near their edges that serve as the connections to an eventual mechanical carrier. The chips are then cut out of the wafer and attached to their carriers, typically via wire bonding such as thermosonic bonding. These wires eventually lead to pins on the outside of the carriers, which are attached to the rest of the circuitry making up the electronic system.

Flip chip

Processing a flip chip is similar to conventional IC fabrication, with a few additional steps. Near the end of the manufacturing process, the attachment pads are metalized to make them more receptive to solder. This typically consists of several treatments. A small dot of solder is then deposited on each metalized pad. The chips are then cut out of the wafer as normal.

To attach the flip chip into a circuit, the chip is inverted to bring the solder dots down onto connectors on the underlying electronics or circuit board. The solder is then re-melted to produce an electrical connection, typically using a thermosonic bonding or alternatively reflow solder process.

This also leaves a small space between the chip's circuitry and the underlying mounting. In many cases an electrically-insulating adhesive is then "underfilled" to provide a stronger mechanical connection, provide a heat bridge, and to ensure the solder joints are not stressed due to differential heating of the chip and the rest of the system. The underfill distributes the thermal expansion mismatch between the chip and the board, preventing stress concentration in the solder joints which would lead to premature failure.

Solder balls can be mounted on the chips by separately making the balls and then attaching them to the chips by using a vacuum pick up device to pick up the balls and then placing them into a chip with flux applied on contact pads for the balls, or by electroplating in which seed metals are first deposited onto a wafer with the chips to be bumped. This allows the solder to adhere to the contact pads of the chips during the electroplating process. The seed metals are alloys and are deposited by sputtering onto the wafer with the chips to be bumped. A photoresist mask is used to only deposit the seed metal on top of the contact pads of the chips. The wafer then undergoes electroplating, and the photoresist layer is removed or stripped. Then the solder on the chips undergoes solder reflow to form the bumps into their final shape. This entire process is known as wafer bumping. Solder balls are often 75 to 500 microns in diameter.

In 2008, High-speed mounting methods evolved through a cooperation between Reel Service Ltd. and Siemens AG in the development of a high speed mounting tape known as 'MicroTape'. By adding a tape-and-reel process into the assembly methodology, placement at high speed is possible, achieving a 99.90% pick rate and a placement rate of 21,000 cph (components per hour), using standard PCB assembly equipment.

Substates made with build up film such as ajinomoto build up film, are manufactured around a core, and the film is stacked on the core in layers by vacuum lamination at high temperatures, after which the film is cured, and laser vias are made with CO2 or UV lasers, then the blind vias in the substrate are cleaned and the build up film is roughened chemically with a permanganate, and then copper is deposited using electroless copper plating. followed by creating a pattern on the copper using photolithography and etching, and the process is repeated for every layer of the substrate.

Tape-automated bonding
Tape-automated bonding (TAB) was developed for connecting dies with thermocompression or thermosonic bonding to a flexible substrate including from one to three conductive layers. Also with TAB it is possible to connect die pins all at the same time as with the soldering based flip chip mounting. Originally TAB could produce finer pitch interconnections compared to flip chip, but with the development of the flip chip this advantage has diminished and has kept TAB to be a specialized interconnection technique of display drivers or similar requiring specific TAB compliant roll-to-roll (R2R, reel-to-reel) like assembly system.

Advantages
The resulting completed flip chip assembly is much smaller than a traditional carrier-based system; the chip sits directly on the circuit board, and is much smaller than the carrier both in area and height. The short wires greatly reduce inductance, allowing higher-speed signals, and also conduct heat better.

Disadvantages
Flip chips have several disadvantages.

The lack of a carrier means they are not suitable for easy replacement, or unaided manual installation. They also require very flat mounting surfaces, which is not always easy to arrange, or sometimes difficult to maintain as the boards heat and cool. This limits the maximum device size.

Also, the short connections are very stiff, so the thermal expansion of the chip must be matched to the supporting board or the connections can crack. The underfill material acts as an intermediate between the difference in CTE of the chip and board.

History
The process was originally introduced commercially by IBM in the 1960s for individual transistors and diodes packaged for use in their mainframe systems.

Ceramic subtrates for flip chip BGA were replaced with organic substrates to reduce costs and use existing PCB manufacturing techniques to produce more packages at a time by using larger PCB panels during manufacturing. Ajinomoto build up film (ABF) was developed in 1999 and has become a material widely used in flip chip packages, used for manufacturing flip chip substrates in a semi-additive process, first pioneered by Intel. Build up film helped transition the industry away from ceramic substrates, and this film is now essential in the production of organic flip chip packages.

Alternatives
Since the flip chip's introduction a number of alternatives to the solder bumps have been introduced, including gold balls or molded studs, electrically conductive polymer and the "plated bump" process that removes an insulating plating by chemical means. Flip chips have recently gained popularity among manufacturers of cell phones and other small electronics where the size savings are valuable.

title: Flip chip


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Declaration

Declaration may refer to:

Literature

 * Declaration (book), a self-published electronic pamphlet by Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri
 * The Declaration (novel), a 2008 children's novel by Gemma Malley

Music

 * Declaration (The Alarm album) (1984)
 * Declaration (Bleeding Through album) (2008)
 * Declaration (Steven Curtis Chapman album) (2001)
 * Déclaration, 1973 album by Georges Moustaki
 * The Declaration, 2008 album by Ashanti
 * Declaration (Red album) (2020)

Songs

 * "Declaration (This Is It)", a 2012 gospel song by Kirk Franklin
 * "Declaration", a song by Killswitch Engage from the album The End of Heartache, 2004
 * "Declaration", a song by Trivium from the album Ascendancy, 2005
 * "Déclaration", a classical song by Leoncavallo
 * "The Declaration", a 1970 song by The 5th Dimension

Other arts, entertainment, and media

 * Declaration (poker), a formal expression of intent to take some action in the card game poker
 * Declaration, a newspaper published in Independence, Virginia

Other uses

 * Declaration (computer programming), a specification of the identifier, type, and other aspects of language elements
 * Declaration (cricket), statement by which the captain of a cricket team declares its innings closed
 * Declaration (law), authoritative establishment of fact, with various uses in law

title: Declaration