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Harriet Jacobs

Harriet Jacobs (1813 or 1815 – March 7, 1897) was an African-American abolitionist and writer whose autobiography, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, published in 1861 under the pseudonym Linda Brent, is now considered an "American classic".

Born into slavery in Edenton, North Carolina, she was sexually harassed by her enslaver. When he threatened to sell her children if she did not submit to his desire, she hid in a tiny crawl space under the roof of her grandmother's house, so low she could not stand up in it. After staying there for seven years, she finally managed to escape to the free North, where she was reunited with her children Joseph and Louisa Matilda and her brother John S. Jacobs. She found work as a nanny and got into contact with abolitionist and feminist reformers. Even in New York City, her freedom was in danger until her employer was able to pay off her legal owner.

During and immediately after the American Civil War, she travelled to Union-occupied parts of the Confederate South together with her daughter, organizing help and founding two schools for fugitive and freed slaves.

Family and name
Harriet Jacobs was born in 1813 in Edenton, North Carolina, to Delilah Horniblow, enslaved by the Horniblow family who owned a local tavern. Under the principle of partus sequitur ventrem, both Harriet and her brother John were enslaved at birth by the tavern keeper's family, as a mother's status was passed to her children. Still, according to the same principle, mother and children should have been free, because Molly Horniblow, Delilah's mother, had been freed by her white father, who also was her owner. But she had been kidnapped, and had no chance for legal protection because of her dark skin. Harriet and John's father was Elijah Knox, also enslaved, but enjoying some privileges due to his skill as an expert carpenter. He died in 1826.

While Harriet's mother and grandmother were known by their owner's family name of Horniblow, Harriet used the opportunity of the baptism of her children to register Jacobs as their family name. She and her brother John also used that name after having escaped from slavery. The baptism was conducted without the knowledge of Harriet's master, Norcom. Harriet was convinced that her father should have been called Jacobs because his father was Henry Jacobs, a free white man. After Harriet's mother died, her father married a free African American. The only child from that marriage, Harriet's half brother, was called Elijah after his father and always used Knox as his family name, which was the name of his father's enslaver.

Early life in slavery
When Jacobs was six years old, her mother died. She then lived with her owner, a daughter of the deceased tavern keeper, who taught her not only to sew, but also to read and write. Very few slaves were literate, although it was only in 1830 that North Carolina explicitly outlawed teaching slaves to read or write. Although Harriet's brother John succeeded in teaching himself to read, he still was not able to write when he escaped from slavery as a young adult.

In 1825, the owner of Harriet and John Jacobs died. She willed Harriet to her three-year-old niece Mary Matilda Norcom. Mary Matilda's father, the physician Dr. James Norcom (son-in-law of the deceased tavern keeper), became her de facto master. Her brother John and most of her other property was inherited by the tavern keeper's widow. Dr. Norcom hired John and the Jacobs siblings lived together in his household. Following the death of the widow, her slaves were sold at the New Year's Day auction, 1828. Among them were Harriet's brother John, her grandmother Molly Horniblow and Molly's son Mark. Being sold at public auction was a traumatic experience for twelve-year old John. Friends of hers bought Molly Horniblow and Mark with money Molly had been working hard to save over the many years of her servitude at the tavern. Afterwards Molly Horniblow was set free, and her own son Mark became her slave. Because of legal restrictions on manumission, Mark had to remain his mother's slave until in 1847 or 1848 she finally succeeded in freeing him. John Jacobs was bought by Dr. Norcom, thus he and his sister stayed together.

The same year, 1828, Molly Horniblow's youngest son, Joseph, tried to escape. He was caught, paraded in chains through Edenton, put into jail, and finally sold to New Orleans. The family later learned that he escaped again and reached New York. After that he was lost to the family. The Jacobs siblings, who, even as children, were talking about escaping to freedom, saw him as a hero. Both of them would later name their sons for him.

Coping with sexual harassment
Norcom soon started harassing Jacobs sexually, causing the jealousy of his wife. When Jacobs fell in love with a free black man who wanted to buy her freedom and marry her, Norcom intervened and forbade her to continue with the relationship. Hoping for protection from Norcom's harassment, Jacobs started a relationship with Samuel Sawyer, a white lawyer and member of North Carolina's white elite, who would some years later be elected to the House of Representatives. Sawyer became the father of Jacobs's only children, Joseph (born 1829/30) and Louisa Matilda (born 1832/33). When she learned of Jacobs's pregnancy, Mrs. Norcom forbade her to return to her house, which enabled Jacobs to live with her grandmother. Still, Norcom continued his harassment during his numerous visits there; the distance as the crow flies between the two houses was only 600 ft.

Seven years concealed
In April 1835, Norcom finally moved Jacobs from her grandmother's to the plantation of his son, some 6 mi away. He also threatened to expose her children to the hard life of the plantation slaves and to sell them, separately and without the mother, after some time. In June 1835, Harriet Jacobs decided to escape. A white woman, who was a slaveholder herself, hid her at great personal risk in her house. After a short time, Jacobs had to hide in a swamp near the town, and at last she found refuge in a "tiny crawlspace" under the roof of her grandmother's house. The "garret" was only 9 ft by 7 ft and 3 ft at its highest point. The impossibility of bodily exercise caused health problems which she still felt while writing her autobiography many years later. She bored a series of small holes into the wall, thus creating an opening approximately an inch square that allowed fresh air and some light to enter and that allowed her to see out. The light was barely sufficient to sew and to read the Bible and newspapers.

Norcom reacted by selling Jacobs's children and her brother John to a slave trader demanding that they should be sold in a different state, thus expecting to separate them forever from their mother and sister. However, the trader was secretly in league with Sawyer, to whom he sold all three of them, thus frustrating Norcom's plan for revenge. In her autobiography, Jacobs accuses Sawyer of not having kept his promise to legally manumit their children. Still, Sawyer allowed his enslaved children to live with their great-grandmother Molly Horniblow. After Sawyer married in 1838, Jacobs asked her grandmother to remind him of his promise. He asked and obtained Jacobs's approval to send their daughter to live with his cousin in Brooklyn, New York, where slavery had already been abolished. He also suggested sending their son to the Free States. While locked in her cell, Jacobs could often observe her unsuspecting children.

Escape and freedom
In 1842, Jacobs finally got a chance to escape by boat to Philadelphia, where she was aided by anti-slavery activists of the Philadelphia Vigilant Committee. After a short stay, she continued to New York City. Although she had no references, Mary Stace Willis, the wife of the then extremely popular author Nathaniel Parker Willis, accepted to hire Jacobs as the nanny of her baby daughter Imogen. The two women agreed on a trial period of one week, not suspecting that the relationship between the two families would last into the next generation, until the death of Louisa Matilda Jacobs at the home of Edith Willis Grinnell, the daughter of Nathaniel Willis and his second wife, in 1917.

In 1843 Jacobs heard that Norcom was on his way to New York to force her back into slavery, which was legal for him to do everywhere inside the United States. She asked Mary Willis for a leave of two weeks and went to her brother John in Boston. John Jacobs, in his capacity as personal servant, had accompanied his owner Sawyer on his marriage trip through the North in 1838. He had gained his freedom by leaving his master in New York. After that he had gone whaling and had been absent for more than three years. From Boston, Harriet Jacobs wrote to her grandmother asking her to send Joseph there, so that he could live there with his uncle John. After Joseph's arrival, she returned to her work as Imogen Willis's nanny. Her work with the Willis family came to an abrupt end in October 1843, when Jacobs learned that her whereabouts had been betrayed to Norcom. Again, she had to flee to Boston, where the strength of the abolitionist movement guaranteed a certain level of security. Moving to Boston also gave her the opportunity to take her daughter Louisa Matilda from the house of Sawyer's cousin in Brooklyn, where she had been treated not much better than a slave.

In Boston Jacobs took on odd jobs. Her stay there was interrupted by the death of Mary Stace Willis in March 1845. Nathaniel Willis took his daughter Imogen on a ten-month visit to the family of his deceased wife in England. For the journey, Jacobs resumed her job as nanny. For several months, she stayed together with Imogen in the vicarage at Steventon, the home of Mary Stace Willis's sister and her husband Reverend William Vincent, while Willis went to London and to the Continent. In her autobiography, she reflects on the experiences made during the journey: She did not notice any sign of racism, which often embittered her life in the US. In consequence of this, she gained a new access to her Christian faith. At home, Christian ministers treating blacks with contempt or even buying and selling slaves had been an obstacle to her spiritual life.

Background: Abolitionism and early feminism
John S. Jacobs got more and more involved with abolitionism, i. e. the anti-slavery movement led by William Lloyd Garrison. He undertook several lecture tours, either alone or with fellow abolitionists, among them Frederick Douglass, three years his junior. In 1849, John S. Jacobs took responsibility for the Anti-Slavery Office and Reading Room in Rochester, New York. His sister Harriet supported him, having been relieved of the daily care for her children (Joseph had left the Boston print shop where his mother had apprenticed him after suffering from racist abuse and had gone on a whaling voyage while his mother had been in England, and Louisa had been sent to a boarding school).

The former "slave girl" who had never been to school, and whose life had mostly been confined by the struggle for her own survival in dignity and that of her children, now found herself in circles that were about to change America through their - by the standards of the time - radical set of ideas. The Reading Room was in the same building as the newspaper The North Star, run by Frederick Douglass, who today is considered the most influential African American of his century. Jacobs lived at the house of the white couple Amy and Isaac Post. Douglass and the Posts were staunch enemies of slavery and racism, and supporters of women's suffrage. The year before, Douglass and Amy Post had attended the Seneca Falls Convention, the world's first convention on women's rights, and had signed the Declaration of Sentiments, which demanded equal rights for women.

Obtaining legal freedom
In 1850, Jacobs paid a visit to Nathaniel Parker Willis in New York, wanting to see the now eight-years old Imogen again. Willis's second wife, Cornelia Grinnell Willis, who had not recovered well after the birth of her second child, prevailed upon Jacobs once again to become the nanny of the Willis children. Knowing that this involved a considerable risk for Jacobs, especially since the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 had made it much easier for slaveholders to reclaim their fugitive "chattels", she gave her word to John S. Jacobs that she would not let his sister fall into the hands of her persecutors.

In the spring of 1851, Jacobs was again informed that she was in danger of being recaptured. Cornelia Willis sent Jacobs together with her (Willis's) one-year-old daughter Lilian to Massachusetts which was comparatively safe. Jacobs, in whose autobiography the constant danger for herself and other enslaved mothers of being separated from their children is an important theme, spoke to her employer of the sacrifice that letting go of her baby daughter meant to her. Cornelia Willis answered by explaining that the slave catchers would have to return the baby to the mother, if Jacobs should be caught. She would then try to rescue Jacobs.

In February 1852, Jacobs read in the newspaper that her legal owner, the daughter of the recently deceased Norcom, had arrived at a New York Hotel together with her husband, obviously intending to re-claim their fugitive slave. Again, Cornelia Willis sent Jacobs to Massachusetts together with Lilian. Some days later, she wrote a letter to Jacobs informing her of her intention to buy Jacobs's freedom. Jacobs replied that she preferred to join her brother who had gone to California. Regardless, Cornelia Willis bought her freedom for $300. In her autobiography, Jacobs describes her mixed feelings: Bitterness at the thought that "a human being [was] sold in the free city of New York", happiness at the thought that her freedom was secured, and "love" and "gratitude" for Cornelia Willis.

Obstacles: Trauma and shame
When Jacobs came to know the Posts in Rochester, they were the first white people she met since her return from England, who did not look down on her color. Soon, she developed enough trust in Amy Post to be able to tell her her story which she had kept secret for so long. Post later described how difficult it was for Jacobs to tell of her traumatic experiences: "Though impelled by a natural craving for human sympathy, she passed through a baptism of suffering, even in recounting her trials to me. ... The burden of these memories lay heavily on her spirit".

In late 1852 or early 1853, Amy Post suggested that Jacobs should write her life story. Jacobs's brother had for some time been urging her to do so, and she felt a moral obligation to tell her story to help build public support for the antislavery cause and thus save others from suffering a similar fate.

Still, Jacobs had acted against moral ideas commonly shared in her time, including by herself, by consenting to a sexual relationship with Sawyer. The shame caused by this memory and the resulting fear of having to tell her story had been the reason for her initially avoiding contact with the abolitionist movement her brother John had joined in the 1840s. Finally, Jacobs overcame her trauma and feeling of shame, and she consented to publish her story. Her reply to Post describing her internal struggle has survived.

Writing of the manuscript
At first, Jacobs did not feel that she was up to writing a book. She wrote a short outline of her story and asked Amy Post to send it to Harriet Beecher Stowe, proposing to tell her story to Stowe so that Stowe could transform it into a book. Before Stowe's answer arrived, Jacobs read in the papers that the famous author, whose novel Uncle Tom's Cabin, published in 1852, had become an instant bestseller, was going to England. Jacobs then asked Cornelia Willis to propose to Stowe that Jacobs's daughter Louisa accompany her to England and tell the story during the journey. In reply, Stowe forwarded the story outline to Willis and declined to let Louisa join her, citing the possibility of Louisa being spoiled by too much sympathy shown to her in England. Jacobs felt betrayed because her employer thus came to know about the parentage of her children, which was the cause for Jacobs feeling ashamed. In a letter to Post, she analyzed the racist thinking behind Stowe's remark on Louisa with bitter irony: "what a pity we poor blacks can[']t have the firmness and stability of character that you white people have." In consequence, Jacobs gave up the idea of enlisting Stowe's help.

In June 1853, Jacobs chanced to read a defense of slavery entitled "The Women of England vs. the Women of America" in an old newspaper. Written by Julia Tyler, wife of former president John Tyler, the text claimed that the household slaves were "well clothed and happy". Jacobs spent the whole night writing a reply, which she sent to the New York Tribune. Her letter, signed "A Fugitive Slave", published on June 21, was her first text to be printed. Her biographer, Jean Fagan Yellin, comments, "When the letter was printed ..., an author was born."

In October 1853, she wrote to Amy Post that she had decided to become the author of her own story. In the same letter, only a few lines earlier, she had informed Post of her grandmother's death. Yellin concludes that the "death of her revered grandmother" made it possible for Jacobs to "reveal her troubled sexual history" which she could never have done "while her proud, judgmental grandmother lived."

While using the little spare time a children's nurse had to write her story, Jacobs lived with the Willis family at Idlewild, their new country residence. With N.P.Willis being largely forgotten today, Yellin comments on the irony of the situation: "Idlewild had been conceived as a famous writer's retreat, but its owner never imagined that it was his children's nurse who would create an American classic there".

Louisa copied the manuscript, standardizing orthography and punctuation. Yellin observes that both style and content are "completely consistent" with the rest of Jacobs's writing and states, "there is no evidence to suggest that Louisa Matilda had any significant impact on either the subject matter or the style of the book."

When, by mid-1857, her work was finally nearing completion, she asked Amy Post for a preface. Even in this letter she mentions the shame that made writing her story difficult for herself: "as much pleasure as it would afford me and as great an honor as I would deem it to have your name associated with my Book –Yet believe me dear friend[,] there are many painful things in it – that make me shrink from asking the sacrifice from one so good and pure as your self–."

Searching for a publisher
In May 1858, Harriet Jacobs sailed to England, hoping to find a publisher there. She carried good letters of introduction, but was not able to get her manuscript into print. The reasons for her failure are not clear. Yellin supposes that her contacts among the British abolitionists feared that the story of her liaison with Sawyer would be too much for Victorian Britain's prudery. Disheartened, Jacobs returned to her work at Idlewild and made no further efforts to publish her book until the fall of 1859.

On October 16, 1859, the anti-slavery activist John Brown tried to incite a slave rebellion at Harper's Ferry. Brown, who was executed in December, was considered a martyr and hero by many abolitionists, among them Harriet Jacobs, who added a tribute to Brown as the final chapter to her manuscript. She then sent the manuscript to publishers Phillips and Samson in Boston. They were ready to publish it under the condition that either Nathaniel Parker Willis or Harriet Beecher Stowe would supply a preface. Jacobs was unwilling to ask Willis, who held pro-slavery views, but she asked Stowe, who declined. Soon after, the publishers failed, thus frustrating Jacobs's second attempt to get her story printed.

Lydia Maria Child as the book's editor
Jacobs now contacted Thayer and Eldridge, who had recently published a sympathizing biography of John Brown. Thayer and Eldridge demanded a preface by Lydia Maria Child. Jacobs confessed to Amy Post, that after suffering another rejection from Stowe, she could hardly bring herself to asking another famous writer, but she "resolved to make my last effort".

Jacobs met Child in Boston, and Child not only agreed to write a preface, but also to become the editor of the book. Child then re-arranged the material according to a more chronological order. She also suggested dropping the final chapter on Brown and adding more information on the anti-black violence which occurred in Edenton after Nat Turner's 1831 rebellion. She kept contact with Jacobs via mail, but the two women failed to meet a second time during the editing process, because with Cornelia Willis passing through a dangerous pregnancy and premature birth Jacobs was not able to leave Idlewild.

After the book had been stereotyped, Thayer and Eldridge, too, failed. Jacobs succeeded in buying the stereotype plates and to get the book printed and bound.

In January 1861, nearly four years after she had finished the manuscript, Jacobs's Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl finally appeared before the public. The next month, an abridged and censored version of her brother John S. Jacob's own memoir, entitled A True Tale of Slavery, was published in London (in 1855 the original version had been published in full by a progressive newspaper in Sydney, Australia, as The United States Governed by Six Hundred Thousand Despots: A True Story of Slavery). Both siblings relate in their respective narratives their own experiences, experiences made together, and episodes in the life of the other sibling.

In her book, Harriet Jacobs does not mention the town or even the state, where she was held as a slave, and changes all personal names, given names as well as family names, with the only exception of the Post couple, whose names are given correctly. However, John Jacobs (called "William" in his sister's book) mentions Edenton as his birthplace and uses the correct given names, but abbreviates most family names. So Dr. Norcom is "Dr. Flint" in Harriet's book, but "Dr. N-" in John's. An author's name is not given on the title page, but the "Preface by the author" is signed "Linda Brent" and the narrator is called by that name throughout the story.

Reception of the book
The book was promoted via the abolitionist networks and was well received by the critics. Jacobs arranged for a publication in Great Britain, which was published in the first months of 1862, soon followed by a pirated edition.

The publication did not cause contempt as Jacobs had feared. On the contrary, Jacobs gained respect. Although she had used a pseudonym, in abolitionist circles she was regularly introduced with words like "Mrs. Jacobs, the author of Linda", thereby conceding her the honorific "Mrs." which normally was reserved for married women. The London Daily News wrote in 1862, that Linda Brent was a true "heroine", giving an example "of endurance and persistency in the struggle for liberty" and "moral rectitude".

Relief work and politics
After the election of president Lincoln in November 1860, the slavery question caused first the secession of most slave states and then the Civil War. Thousands of African Americans, having escaped from slavery in the South, gathered just north of the front. Since Lincoln's administration continued to regard them as their masters' property, these refugees were in most cases declared "contraband of war" and simply called "Contrabands". Many of them found refuge in makeshift camps, suffering and dying from want of the most basic necessities. Originally, Jacobs had planned to follow the example her brother John S. had set nearly two decades ago and become an abolitionist speaker, but now she saw that helping the Contrabands would mean rendering her race a service more urgently needed.

In the spring of 1862, Harriet Jacobs went to Washington, D.C. and neighboring Alexandria, Virginia. She summarized her experiences during the first months in a report entitled Life among the Contrabands, published in September in Garrison's The Liberator. The author was featured as "Mrs. Jacobs, the author of 'Linda'". This report is a description of the fugitives' misery designed to appeal to donors, but it is also a political denunciation of slavery. Jacobs emphasizes her conviction that the freedmen will be able to build self-determined lives, if they get the necessary support.

During the fall of 1862, she traveled through the North using her popularity as author of Incidents to build up a network to support her relief work. The New York Friends (i.e. the Quakers) gave her credentials as a relief agent.

From January 1863, she made Alexandria the center of her activity. Together with Quaker Julia Wilbur, the teacher, feminist and abolitionist, whom she had already known in Rochester, she was distributing clothes and blankets and at the same time struggling with incompetent, corrupt, or openly racist authorities.

While doing relief work in Alexandria, Jacobs was also involved in the political world. In May 1863 she attended the yearly conference of the New England Anti-Slavery Society in Boston. Together with the other participants she watched the parade of the newly created 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment, consisting of black soldiers led by white officers. Since the Lincoln administration had declined to use African American soldiers only a few months past, this was a highly symbolic event. Jacobs expressed her joy and pride in a letter to Lydia Maria Child: "How my heart swelled with the thought that my poor oppressed race were to strike a blow for freedom !"

The Jacobs School
In most slave states, teaching slaves to read and write had been forbidden. Virginia had even prohibited teaching these skills to free blacks. After Union troops occupied Alexandria in 1861, some schools for blacks emerged, but there was not a single free school under African American control. Jacobs supported a project conceived by the black community in 1863 to found a new school. In the fall of 1863 her daughter Louisa Matilda who had been trained as a teacher, came to Alexandria in the company of Virginia Lawton, a black friend of the Jacobs family. After some struggle with white missionaries from the North who wanted to take control of the school, the Jacobs School opened in January 1864 under Louisa Matilda's leadership. In the National Anti-Slavery Standard, Harriet Jacobs explained that it was not disapproval of white teachers that made her fight for the school being controlled by the black community. But she wanted to help the former slaves, who had been raised "to look upon the white race as their natural superiors and masters", to develop "respect for their race".

Jacobs's work in Alexandria was recognized on the local as well as on the national level, especially in abolitionist circles. In the spring of 1864 she was elected to the executive committee of the Women's Loyal National League, a women's organization founded in 1863 in response to an appeal by Susan B. Anthony which aimed at collecting signatures for a constitutional amendment to abolish slavery. On August 1, 1864, she delivered the speech on occasion of the celebration of the British West Indian Emancipation in front of the African American soldiers of a military hospital in Alexandria. Many abolitionists, among them Frederick Douglass, stopped over in Alexandria while touring the South in order to see Jacobs and her work. On a personal level, she found her labors highly rewarding. Already in December 1862 she had written to Amy Post that the preceding six months had been the happiest in her whole life.

Relief work with freedmen in Savannah
Mother and daughter Jacobs continued their relief work in Alexandria until after the victory of the Union. Convinced that the freedmen in Alexandria were able to care for themselves, they followed the call of the New England Freedmen's Aid Society for teachers to help instruct the freedmen in Georgia. They arrived in Savannah, Georgia in November 1865, only 11 months after the slaves there had been freed by Sherman's March to the Sea. During the following months they distributed clothes, opened a school and were planning to start an orphanage and an asylum for old people.

But the political situation had changed: Lincoln had been assassinated and his successor Andrew Johnson was a Southerner and former slaveholder. He ordered the removal of many freedmen from the land which had been allotted to them by the army just one year before. The land question together with the unjust labor contracts forced on the former slaves by their former enslavers with the help of the army, are an important subject in Jacobs's reports from Georgia.

Already in July 1866, mother and daughter Jacobs left Savannah which was more and more suffering from anti-black violence. Once again, Harriet Jacobs went to Idlewild, to assist Cornelia Willis in caring for her dying husband until his death in January 1867.

In the spring of 1867, she visited the widow of her uncle Mark who was the only survivor of the family still living in Edenton. At the end of the year she undertook her last journey to Great Britain in order to collect money for the projected orphanage and asylum in Savannah. But after her return she had to realize that the anti-black terror in Georgia by the Ku-Klux-Klan and other groups rendered these projects impossible. The money collected was given to the asylum fund of the New York Friends.

In the 1860s a personal tragedy occurred: In the early 1850s, her son Joseph had gone to California to search for gold together with his uncle John. Later the two had continued on to Australia. John S. Jacobs later went to England, while Joseph stayed in Australia. Some time later, no more letters reached Jacobs from Australia. Using her connections to Australian clergymen, Child had an appeal on behalf of her friend read in Australian churches, but to no avail. Jacobs never again heard of her son.

Later years and death
After her return from England, Jacobs retired to private life. In Cambridge, Massachusetts, she kept a boarding house together with her daughter. Among her boarders were faculty members of nearby Harvard University. In 1873, her brother John S. returned to the U.S. together with his English wife, their son Joseph and two stepchildren to live close to his sister in Cambridge. He died in December of the same year, 1873. In 1877 Harriet and Louisa Jacobs moved to Washington, D.C., where Louisa hoped to get work as a teacher. However, she found work only for short periods. Mother and daughter again took to keeping a boarding house, until in 1887/88 Harriet Jacobs became too sick to continue with the boarding house. Mother and daughter took on odd jobs and were supported by friends, among them Cornelia Willis. Harriet Jacobs died on March 7, 1897, in Washington, D.C., and was buried at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge next to her brother. Her tombstone reads, "Patient in tribulation, fervent in spirit serving the Lord". (Cf. Epistle to the Romans, 12:11–12)

Legacy
Prior to Jean Fagan Yellin's research in the 1980s, the accepted academic opinion, voiced by such historians as John Blassingame, was that Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl was a fictional novel written by Lydia Maria Child. However, Yellin found and used a variety of historical documents, including from the Amy Post papers at the University of Rochester, state and local historical societies, and the Horniblow and Norcom papers at the North Carolina state archives, to establish both that Harriet Jacobs was the true author of Incidents, and that the narrative was her autobiography, not a work of fiction. Her edition of Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl was published in 1987 with the endorsement of Professor John Blassingame.

In 2004, Yellin published an exhaustive biography (394 pages) entitled Harriet Jacobs: A Life. Yellin also conceived of the idea of the Harriet Jacobs Papers Project. In 2000, an advisory board for the project was established, and after funding was awarded, the project began on a full-time basis in September 2002. Of the approximately 900 documents by, to, and about Harriet Jacobs, her brother John S. Jacobs, and her daughter Louisa Matilda Jacobs amassed by the Project, over 300 were published in 2008 in a two volume edition entitled The Harriet Jacobs Family Papers.

Today, Jacobs is seen as an "icon of female resistance". David S. Reynolds' review of Yellin's 2004 biography in The New York Times, states that Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl "and Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave are commonly viewed as the two most important slave narratives."

In an interview, Colson Whitehead, author of the best selling novel, The Underground Railroad, published in 2016, said: "Harriet Jacobs is a big referent for the character of Cora", the heroine of the novel. Cora has to hide in a place in the attic of a house in Jacobs's native North Carolina, where like Jacobs she is not able to stand, but like her can observe the outside life through a hole that "had been carved from the inside, the work of a previous occupant" (p. 185).

In 2017 Jacobs was the subject of an episode of the Futility Closet Podcast, where her experience living in a crawl space was compared with the wartime experience of Patrick Fowler.

According to a 2017 article in Forbes magazine, a 2013 translation of Incidents by Yuki Horikoshi became a bestseller in Japan.

In 2022, French artist Elizabeth Colomba painted a portrait of Jacobs. The title of the portrait, Tricked Out in a Gay and Fashionable Finery, was taken from the Norcom's notice advertising Jacobs as a runaway.

At the end of her preface to the 2000 edition of Incidents, Yellin writes,"She was, in Emerson's sense, 'representative'; expressing the idea of the struggle for freedom, her life empowers others. On my desk her portrait, smiling, urges me onward."

title: Harriet Jacobs


text:
Talk:Court-martial

Equivalent to federal court convictions?

 * General and special court-martial convictions are equivalent to federal court convictions.

This sentence was not clear. Equivalent in what way? Tempshill 00:14, 8 May 2004 (UTC) While I know this is a very late response, they are equivalent in the sense of shared jurisdiction for purposes of double jeopardy. A trial by court-martial disallows trial by federal civil court and vice versa. 205.56.145.36 (talk) 03:44, 27 May 2009 (UTC)

what punishments?
This isn't very much information at all. I'd like to know the degree of various offenses and whatt punishments normally result for common offenses. For example - AWOL, insubordination, striking a commanding officer, fighting, etc.

Six?

 * There is no capital punishment in the military, though immediately prior to its complete abolition in 1998, it was available for six offences: [1]Serious Misconduct in Action; [2]Communicating with the Enemy; [3]Aiding the Enemy or Furnishing Supplies; [4]Obstructing Operations or Giving False Air Signals; [5]Mutiny, Incitement to Mutiny or Failure to Suppress a Mutiny.

Assuming the semicolons are correctly placed, there are only five listed. I've added the bold numbers to the above to make it easier to see what I mean. Loganberry (Talk) 05:43, 23 July 2006 (UTC)

Grave Breaches of the Geneva Convention are defined as war crimes, this includes murder (wilful killing). I am surprised at at least one war crime did not carry a death sentence. Or did civilian law apply? Andrew Swallow (talk) 23:29, 21 June 2009 (UTC)

Delete Courts-martial in the U.S.
My recommendation is to completely delete the section on courts-martial in the U.S. and simply leave a link to the main article. The main article is far more comprehensive and it seems redundant to have both. It duplicates the work to edit as well. Hadrian Penn 02:07, 18 August 2006 (UTC)

DCM can do how much???
"There are two types of courts-martial: the District Court-Martial (DCM) which may punish the accused with up to two years imprisonment and the General Court-Martial (GCM). A District Court-Martial which may punish the accused with up to life imprisonment if the offence is serious enough. "

1. The second sentence is not complete. 2. Which is it... "District Court-Martial (DCM) which may punish the accused with up to two years imprisonment" or " District Court-Martial which may punish the accused with up to life imprisonment"? Should the second sentence say 'a GENERAL Court-Martial'? If not, what can a GCM do?

Thanks - J

Link removed
The final link on this page was utterly irrelevant to the article, so I have removed it. The linked page was: Court Martial of Sergeant Buff, if anyone wants to reinstate it - I'd reccomend reading the web page first though with the wikipedia article in mind! EyeSereneTALK 12:20, 4 May 2007 (UTC)

Virtually all militaries
"Virtually all militaries": would need some kind of proof. I know that France no longer has court-martials; they were replaced by courts staffed by personnel detached from the Ministry of Justice. David.Monniaux 05:21, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

So there is one military in the world that does not have court martials, great.65.93.161.136 (talk) 21:46, 12 January 2008 (UTC)
 * No, this is also the case in Germany. See http://www.senat.fr/lc/lc83/lc830.html (in french). There could be a few others. A proof would be useful. Polletfa (talk) 02:54, 22 May 2009 (UTC)

Suggested retention of references re composition in further reading.
Do people think references to the composition of the court-martial in legal journals and the media, recently reverted, be retained or omitted in the further reading section? Thanks, BrekekekexKoaxKoax (talk) 12:56, 20 December 2010 (UTC)
 * The deleted material dealt with US court-martial system -- much too specific for this article. In terms of preserving it, be bold and add it the US courts martial article--S. Rich (talk) 13:58, 20 December 2010 (UTC)

There is not a word of the fact that in many countries Court-martials are seen as an undemocratic insignia
Court-martials do not exist in a large number of democratic courtiers where Court-martials are generally seen as very undemocratic and a way of avoiding the legal demands of security for the defendant, summery trials. Especially the fact that there are militaries in the court that is a part of the general administration, direct under the governing bodies, a major difference from democratic civil courts.

The US trials against Guantanamo prisoners in non-civil courts, Court-martials is seen by many as USA is putting itself in the same stand as Iran or Saddam Husseins Iraq, totally undermining the political goals of the campaign. When Tunisia is making Court-martials against policemen for crimes during the revolution there are huge doubts these are just trials.

The Court-martials should not be mixed with Aviation and naval Accident Investigation Boards, it is ridicules.

The Court-martials are to a large extent remains from an undemocratic past, something like the faith of the counter revolution in Germany [Prussia 1848], when undemocratic ideas were developed to survive another 100 years, and the (undemocratic) colonial Britain and still thrives, especially in dictatorships all over the world. Today Court-martials are seen by a large option in the world as an insigne of a true dictatorship. Capital punishment has about the same status. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.219.206.215 (talk) 11:53, 2 May 2012 (UTC)

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Germany
Information about Germany was mostly fictional. What's going on here? --84.132.147.249 (talk) 17:30, 22 July 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Court-martial


text:
John Ruskin College

John Ruskin College is a further education college in South Croydon offering full-time vocational courses and apprenticeships as well as part-time courses for adults.

In 2019, following a merger with East Surrey College incorporating Reigate School of Art, John Ruskin College became part of Orbital South Colleges.

John Ruskin College is located on Selsdon Park Road (A2022), close to the A212 roundabout. The College is accessible by tram via Gravel Hill tram stop, as well as various local bus services.

Early years
John Ruskin College was a former school in the London Borough of Croydon, which started life in 1920 as the John Ruskin Boys' Central School. Its location was Scarbrook Road, Croydon. Named after John Ruskin, it opened on 12 January 1920. The Lady Edridge School, its sister school for girls (later to become a grammar school in 1951) opened the same day. Lady Edridge was wife of a Mayor of Croydon and the first "Lady Freeman" of the Borough. It closed in 1980 and was demolished.

Grammar and comprehensive school
In 1935 the school moved to Tamworth Road, and in April 1945 it was granted grammar school status as the John Ruskin Grammar School for Boys (JRGS). It had been previously the John Ruskin Selective Central School. It moved to Upper Shirley Road, Shirley, in 1955, and was retitled the John Ruskin High School in 1971 before later becoming a 14-18 Co-Educational Comprehensive School. It was demolished in 1991. The Upper Shirley Road site surrounded the Shirley Windmill, a 19th-century tower mill. The upper forms transferred to Selsdon to form the present John Ruskin College, utilising the premises previously known as John Newnham Secondary Selective School, named after a 20th-century town clerk of the old County Borough of Croydon.

The current College
The current College was established in 1988 following re-organisation of post-16 studies in Croydon. It merged with East Surrey College in February 2019, creating Orbital South Colleges group.

Courses
A range of Full-time vocational courses are available for students:

 * Access to Higher Education
 * Applied Science
 * Aviation, Travel & Tourism
 * Business, Accounting & IT
 * Construction
 * Creative Arts (Digital Media, Games Design, Art, Design, Photography)
 * Early Years & Childcare
 * Engineering
 * ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages)
 * Hair & Beauty and Spa
 * Health & Social Care
 * Life Skills
 * Life Skills SEND
 * Public Services
 * Sport

The college also provides a range of Apprenticeship programmes.

John Ruskin College

 * Feroz Abbasi, a former detainee at Camp X-Ray
 * The author and journalist Malcolm Muggeridge briefly taught at the school several times while a student, where his father, Henry Muggeridge, was Chairman of the Governors
 * Les Nemes, bassist, who later formed Haircut One Hundred with Nick Heyward

John Ruskin Grammar School

 * Sir Frank Barlow CBE, Secretary from 1959 to 1979 of the Parliamentary Labour Party
 * Mick Ford, screenwriter and actor
 * Roy Hodgson, former England football manager until 2016, former manager of Inter Milan, Fulham, Liverpool and Crystal Palace F.C.
 * Bob Houghton, football manager
 * Steve Kember, footballer with Crystal Palace
 * Air Vice-Marshal Richard Lacey CBE, Station Commander from 1997 to 1999 of RAF Benson, Commander from 2003 to 2005 of the Military of the Falkland Islands
 * Lennie Lawrence, football manager
 * Ralph McTell, singer-songwriter
 * Sir Bob Phillis, Chief Executive from 1997 to 2006 of the Guardian Media Group, and since 2004 of All3Media, and from 1994 to 1997 of BBC Worldwide, and from 1991 to 1993 of ITN
 * Prof Terence Rabbitts FRS FMedSci, Professor of Molecular Biology, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, UK
 * Jamie Reid, artist who designed the Sex Pistols' album cover for Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols, and most of their singles

title: John Ruskin College


text:
Lecturer

Lecturer is an academic rank within many universities, though the meaning of the term varies somewhat from country to country. It generally denotes an academic expert who is hired to teach on a full- or part-time basis. They may also conduct research.

Comparison
The table presents a broad overview of the traditional main systems, but there are universities which use a combination of those systems or other titles. Note that some universities in Commonwealth countries have adopted the American system in place of the Commonwealth system.

Australia
In Australia, the term lecturer may be used informally to refer to anyone who conducts lectures at a university or elsewhere, but formally refers to a specific academic rank. The academic ranks in Australia are similar to those in the UK, with the rank of associate professor roughly equivalent to reader in UK universities. The academic levels in Australia are (in ascending academic level): (A) associate lecturer, (B) lecturer, (C) senior lecturer, (D) associate professor, and (E) professor.

India
In India, one can appear for interviews for a post of a lecturer after passing the combility Test conducted by the University Grants Commission.

The position is equivalent to assistant professor in the US system. The term is not universally applied, with some universities preferring the lecturer/reader/professor titles, while others work with the assistant professor/associate professor/professor title.

As such, most lecturers' position can be considered tenure track.

In many states of India, the term lecturer or Post Graduate Teacher (PGT) is also used for the intermediate college teachers. The intermediate colleges or Junior Colleges are equivalent to higher secondary schools. Such lecturers are subject experts specifically engaged to teach a particular subject in higher classes.

United Kingdom
In the UK, the term lecturer is ambiguous and covers several academic ranks. The key distinction is between permanent/open-ended or temporary/fixed-term lectureships.

A permanent lecturer in UK universities usually holds an open-ended position that covers teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities. Permanent lectureships are tenure-track or tenured positions that are equivalent to an assistant or associate professorship in North America. After a number of years, a lecturer may be promoted based on their research record to become a senior lecturer. This position is below reader (principal lecturer in post-1992 universities) and professor.

In contrast, fixed-term or temporary lecturers are appointed for specific short-term teaching needs. These positions are often non-renewable and are common post-doctoral appointments. In North American terms, a fixed-term lecturer can hold an equivalent rank to non tenure-track (visiting) assistant professor. Typically, longer contracts denote greater seniority or higher rank. Teaching fellows may also sometimes be referred to as lecturers—for example, Exeter named some of that group as education and scholarship lecturers (E & S) to recognise the contribution of teaching, and elevate the titles of teaching fellows to lecturers. Some universities also refer to graduate students or others, who undertake ad-hoc teaching for a department sessional lecturers. Like adjunct professors and sessional lecturers in North America, these non-permanent teaching staff are often very poorly paid (as little as £6000 p.a. in 2011-12). These varying uses of the term lecturer cause confusion for non-UK academics.

As a proportion of UK academic staff, the proportion of permanent lectureships has fallen considerably. This is one reason why permanent lectureships are usually secured only after several years of post-doctoral experience. Data from the Higher Education Statistics Agency show that in 2013–14, 36 per cent of full- and part-time academic staff were on fixed-term contracts, down from 45 per cent a decade earlier. Over the same period, the proportion of academic staff on permanent contracts rose from 55 per cent to 64 per cent. Others were on contracts classed as "atypical".'

Historical use
Historically in the UK, promotion to a senior lectureship reflected prowess in teaching or administration rather than research, and the position was much less likely to lead direct to promotion to professor.

In contrast, promotion to senior lecturer nowadays is based on research achievements (for research-intensive universities), and is an integral part of the promotion path to a full chair. Promotion to reader (or principal lecturer in post-1992 universities) is sometimes still necessary before promotion to a full chair; however, some universities no longer make appointments at the level of reader (for instance, the University of Leeds and the University of Oxford). Senior lecturers and readers are sometimes paid on the same salary scale, although readers are recognized as more senior.

Many open-ended lecturers in the UK have a doctorate (50.1% in 2009-2010) and often have postdoctoral research experience. In almost all fields, a doctorate is a prerequisite, although historically this was not the case. Some academic positions could have been held on the basis of research merit alone, without a higher degree.

Current uses
The new universities (that is universities that were until 1992 termed polytechnics) have a slightly different ranking naming scheme from the older universities. Many pre-1992 universities use the grades: lecturer (A), lecturer (B), senior lecturer, reader, professor. Meanwhile, post-1992 grades are normally: lecturer, senior lecturer, principal lecturer (management-focused) or reader (research-focused), professor. Much confusion surrounds the differing use of the "senior lecturer" title. A senior lecturer in a post-1992 university is equivalent to a lecturer (B) in a pre-1992 university, whereas a senior lecturer in a pre-1992 university is most often equivalent to a principal lecturer in a post-1992 university.

According to the Times Higher Education, the University of Warwick decided in 2006 "to break away from hundreds of years of academic tradition, renaming lecturers 'assistant professors', senior lecturers and readers 'associate professors' while still calling professors 'professors'. The radical move will horrify those who believe the "professor" title should be reserved for an academic elite." Nottingham has a mixture of the standard UK system, and the system at Warwick, with both lecturers and assistant professors. At Reading, job advertisements and academic staff web pages use the title associate professor, but the ordinances of the university make no reference to these titles. They address only procedures for conferring the traditional UK academic ranks.

Tenure and permanent lectureships
Since the Conservatives' 1988 Education Reform Act, the ironclad tenure that used to exist in the UK has given way to a less secure form of tenure. Technically, university vice-chancellors can make individual faculty members redundant for poor performance or institute departmental redundancies, but in practice, this is rare. The most noted use of this policy happened in 2012 at Queen Mary University of London where lecturers on permanent contracts were fired. The institutions now has a stated policy of firing and replacing under-performing teaching staff members. This policy is complicated by the 2008 Ball v Aberdeen tribunal decision, the distinction between teaching and research faculty is blurring- with implications for who can and cannot be made redundant at UK universities, and under what conditions.

Despite this recent erosion of tenure in the UK, it is still practiced in most universities. Permanent contracts use the word "tenure" for lecturers who are "reappointed to the retiring age". This is equivalent to a US tenure decision—references are sought from world-leading academics and tenure and promotions committees meet to decide "tenure" cases. There is normally no title elevation in such instances—tenure and title are independent.

United States
As different US academic institutions use the term lecturer in various ways, there is sometimes confusion. On a generic level, the term broadly denotes college-level faculty who are not eligible for tenure and have no research obligations. At non-research colleges, the latter distinction is less meaningful, making the absence of tenure the main difference between lecturers and other academic faculty. Unlike the adjective "adjunct" (which can modify most academic titles, and generally refers to part-time status), the title of lecturer at most schools does not address the issue of full-time vs. part-time status.

Lecturers are almost always required to have at least a master's degree and quite often have earned doctorates. (For example, at Columbia University in New York, the title of lecturer actually requires a doctorate or its professional equivalent; they also use the term for "instructors in specialized programs." ) Sometimes the title is used as an equivalent alternative to instructor, but schools that use both titles tend to provide relatively more advancement potential (e.g. multiple ranks of progression, at least some of which entail faculty voting privileges or faculty committee service) to their lecturers. The term "instructor" can be broad enough to cover certain non-faculty teaching roles, such as when graduate students teach undergraduates.

Major research universities are more frequently hiring full-time lecturers, whose responsibilities tend to focus primarily in undergraduate education, especially for introductory/survey courses. In addition to the reason of higher-ranking faculty tending to prefer higher-level courses, part of the reason is also cost savings, as non-tenure-track faculty tend to have lower salaries. When a lecturer is part-time, there is little practical distinction in the position from an adjunct professor/instructor/etc., since all non-tenure-track faculty by definition are not on the tenure track. However, for full-time lecturers (or those regularly salaried above some stated level, such as half-time ), many institutions now incorporate the role quite formally—managing it with performance reviews, promotional tracks, administrative service responsibilities, and many faculty privileges (e.g. voting, use of resources, etc.).

An emerging alternative to using full-time lecturers at research institutions is to create a parallel professorship track that is focused on teaching. It may offer tenure, and typically has a title series such as teaching professor. (This is analogous to the research-only faculty tracks at some universities, which typically have title series such as research professor/scientist/scholar.) A related concept—at least in professional fields—is the clinical professor or professor of practice, which in addition to a teaching focus (vs. research), also tend to have a practical/professional/skills oriented focus (vs. theory and scholarship, etc.).

In some institutions, the position of lecturer, especially "distinguished lecturer", may also refer to a position somewhat similar to emeritus professor or a temporary post used for visiting academics of considerable prominence—e.g. a famous writer may serve for a term or a year, for instance. When confusion arose about President Barack Obama's status on the faculty at the University of Chicago Law School, the institution stated that although his title was "senior lecturer", the university considered him to be a "professor" and further noted that it uses that title for notable people, such as federal judges and politicians, who are deemed of high prestige but lack the time to commit to a traditional tenure-track position. Other universities instead use the term "senior" in that context as simply a matter of rank or promotion. In any case, references to lecturers of any rank as "professors" are consistent with the normal U.S. practice of using lower-case p "professor" as a common noun for anyone who teaches college, as well as a pre-nominal title of address (e.g. "Professor Smith") without necessarily referring to job title or position rank (e.g. "John Smith, Assistant/Associate/Full Professor of X").

Other countries
In other countries, usage varies.

In Israel, the term has a meaning in academia similar to that in the UK.

In France, the title maître de conférences ("lecture master") is a permanent position that covers research and teaching (and usually administrative responsibilities). It is the lower of the two permanent faculty ranks (the other being professeur des universités or "university professor"). The title of lecteur is used for teachers of foreign languages with no research responsibilities.

In German-speaking countries, the term lektor historically denoted a teaching position below a professor, primarily responsible for delivering and organizing lectures. The contemporary equivalent is dozent or. Nowadays, the German term lektor exists only in philology or modern-language departments at German-speaking universities for positions that primarily involve teaching a foreign language. The equivalent rank within the German university system is something like Juniorprofessor, Dozent, Hochschuldozent, Juniordozent, Akademischer Rat or -Oberrat, Lehrkraft für besondere Aufgaben, and the like.

In Poland, the related term wykładowca is used for a teaching-only position.

In Russia, a lektor is not an academic rank or a position name, but simply a description of an educator who delivers a set of lectures on a specific course. The title doesn't carry any particular teaching or research obligations and is simply a technical description. While lektors tend to be senior educators (such as professors or associate professors), any member of the faculty from an associate up can deliver lectures.

In Norway, a lektor, University Lektor and University College Lektor are academic ranks at universities and university colleges in Norway. The requirements for such position is a combination of relevant degree on master level (five years master or bachelor plus two years master) or higher, research experience, teaching experience and pedagogic education and training. The rank is similar to lecturer in Great Britain. The rank is also an academic rank which enables a teacher to lecture at Ungdomsskole (secondary school) on specialized fields and Videregående skole (high school) level. All teacher students in Norway are now required to reach a master's degree in order to be able to teach at all levels up to universities and university colleges.

In Sweden and Denmark, a lektor or universitetslektor is an academic rank similar to that of senior lecturer in Great Britain and associate professor in USA. The lektor holds the position below professor in rank.

In Estonia, lektor (lecturer) is an academic rank equivalent to associate professor in the US and senior lecturer in Great Britain. Lecturers in Estonia usually hold PhD degree and are engaged in lecturing and research.

In Singapore, a lecturer at the National University of Singapore is a full-time and renewable position that includes both the opportunities for research funding and for promotion to associate professor on the Educator Track. It is equivalent to assistant professor at a US university.

In South Korea, the term gangsa is the literal translation of "part-time lecturer". A gangsa is usually part-time, paid by the number of hours of teaching. No research or administrative obligation is attached. In most disciplines, gangsa is regarded as a first step in one's academic career. In Korea, the tenure position started from "full-time lecturer". The tenure track positions in South Korea are "full-time lecturer (JunImGangSa)", "assistant professor (JoKyoSu)", "associate professor (BuKyosu)", and "professor (KyoSu)". Therefore, "full-time lecturer" is the same position as "assistant professor" in other countries, including the US.

In the Netherlands, a "lector" used to be equivalent to the rank of associate professor at universities. Nowadays, it is the highest academic rank at universities of applied sciences. At regular universities, this rank does not exist anymore.

title: Lecturer