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The Two Cultures

"The Two Cultures" is the first part of an influential 1959 Rede Lecture by British scientist and novelist C. P. Snow, which was published in book form as The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution the same year. Its thesis was that science and the humanities, which represented "the intellectual life of the whole of western society", had become split into "two cultures" and that this division was a major handicap to both in solving the world's problems.

The lecture
The talk was delivered 7 May 1959 in the Senate House, Cambridge, and subsequently published as The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. The lecture and book expanded upon an article by Snow published in the New Statesman of 6 October 1956, also entitled "The Two Cultures". Published in book form, Snow's lecture was widely read and discussed on both sides of the Atlantic, leading him to write a 1963 follow-up, The Two Cultures: And a Second Look: An Expanded Version of The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution.

Snow's position can be summed up by an often-repeated part of the essay: "A good many times I have been present at gatherings of people who, by the standards of the traditional culture, are thought highly educated and who have with considerable gusto been expressing their incredulity at the illiteracy of scientists. Once or twice I have been provoked and have asked the company how many of them could describe the Second Law of Thermodynamics. The response was cold: it was also negative. Yet I was asking something which is the scientific equivalent of: Have you read a work of Shakespeare's?

I now believe that if I had asked an even simpler question – such as, What do you mean by mass, or acceleration, which is the scientific equivalent of saying, Can you read? – not more than one in ten of the highly educated would have felt that I was speaking the same language. So the great edifice of modern physics goes up, and the majority of the cleverest people in the western world have about as much insight into it as their neolithic ancestors would have had."

In 2008, The Times Literary Supplement included The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution in its list of the 100 books that most influenced Western public discourse since the Second World War.

Snow's Rede Lecture condemned the British educational system as having, since the Victorian era, over-rewarded the humanities (especially Latin and Greek) at the expense of scientific and engineering education, despite such achievements having been so decisive in winning the Second World War for the Allies. This in practice deprived British elites (in politics, administration, and industry) of adequate preparation to manage the modern scientific world. By contrast, Snow said, German and American schools sought to prepare their citizens equally in the sciences and humanities, and better scientific teaching enabled these countries' rulers to compete more effectively in a scientific age. Later discussion of The Two Cultures tended to obscure Snow's initial focus on differences between British systems (of both schooling and social class) and those of competing countries.

Implications and influence
The literary critic F. R. Leavis called Snow a "public relations man" for the scientific establishment in his essay Two Cultures?: The Significance of C. P. Snow, published in The Spectator in 1962. The article attracted a great deal of negative correspondence in the magazine's letters pages.

In his 1963 book Snow appeared to revise his thinking and was more optimistic about the potential of a mediating third culture. This concept was later picked up in John Brockman's The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution. Introducing a reprint of The Two Cultures, Stefan Collini has argued that the passage of time has done much to reduce the cultural divide Snow noticed, but has not removed it entirely.

Stephen Jay Gould's The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox provides a different perspective. Assuming the dialectical interpretation, it argues that Snow's concept of "two cultures" is not only off the mark, it is a damaging and short-sighted viewpoint, and that it has perhaps led to decades of unnecessary fence-building.

Simon Critchley, in Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction suggests: "[Snow] diagnosed the loss of a common culture and the emergence of two distinct cultures: those represented by scientists on the one hand and those Snow termed 'literary intellectuals' on the other. If the former are in favour of social reform and progress through science, technology and industry, then intellectuals are what Snow terms 'natural Luddites' in their understanding of and sympathy for advanced industrial society. In Mill's terms, the division is between Benthamites and Coleridgeans."

That is, Critchley argues that what Snow said represents a resurfacing of a discussion current in the mid-nineteenth century. Critchley describes the Leavis contribution to the making of a controversy as "a vicious ad hominem attack"; going on to describe the debate as "a familiar clash in English cultural history" citing also T. H. Huxley and Matthew Arnold.

In his opening address at the Munich Security Conference in January 2014, the Estonian president Toomas Hendrik Ilves said that the current problems related to security and freedom in cyberspace are the culmination of absence of dialogue between "the two cultures": "Today, bereft of understanding of fundamental issues and writings in the development of liberal democracy, computer geeks devise ever better ways to track people... simply because they can and it's cool. Humanists on the other hand do not understand the underlying technology and are convinced, for example, that tracking meta-data means the government reads their emails."

Antecedents
Contrasting scientific and humanistic knowledge is a repetition of the Methodenstreit of 1890 German universities. A quarrel in 1911 between Benedetto Croce and Giovanni Gentile on the one hand and Federigo Enriques on the other one is believed to have had enduring effects in the separation of the two cultures in Italy and to the predominance of the views of (objective) idealism over those of (logical) positivism. In the social sciences it is also commonly proposed as the quarrel of positivism versus interpretivism.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Two Cultures


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Menu (computing)

In user interface design, a menu is a list of options presented to the user.

Navigation
A user chooses an option from a menu by using an input device. Some input methods require linear navigation: the user must move a cursor or otherwise pass from one menu item to another until reaching the selection. On a computer terminal, a reverse video bar may serve as the cursor.

Touch user interfaces and menus that accept codes to select menu options without navigation are two examples of non-linear interfaces.

Some of the input devices used in menu interfaces are touchscreens, keyboards, mice, remote controls, and microphones. In a voice-activated system, such as interactive voice response, a microphone sends a recording of the user's voice to a speech recognition system, which translates it to a command.

Types of menus

A computer using a command line interface may present a list of relevant commands with assigned short-cuts (digits, numbers or characters) on the screen. Entering the appropriate short-cut selects a menu item. A more sophisticated solution offers navigation using the cursor keys or the mouse (even in two dimensions; then the menu items appear or disappear similarly to the menus common in GUIs). The current selection is highlighted and can be activated by pressing the enter key.

A computer using a graphical user interface presents menus with a combination of text and symbols to represent choices. By clicking on one of the symbols or text, the operator is selecting the instruction that the symbol represents. A context menu is a menu in which the choices presented to the operator are automatically modified according to the current context in which the operator is working.

A common use of menus is to provide convenient access to various operations such as saving or opening a file, quitting a program, or manipulating data. Most widget toolkits provide some form of pull-down or pop-up menu. Pull-down menus are the type commonly used in menu bars (usually near the top of a window or screen), which are most often used for performing actions, whereas pop-up (or "fly-out") menus are more likely to be used for setting a value, and might appear anywhere in a window.

According to traditional human interface guidelines, menu names were always supposed to be verbs, such as "file", "edit" and so on. This has been largely ignored in subsequent user interface developments. A single-word verb however is sometimes unclear, and so as to allow for multiple word menu names, the idea of a vertical menu was invented, as seen in NeXTSTEP.

Menus are now also seen in consumer electronics, starting with TV sets and VCRs that gained on-screen displays in the early 1990s, and extending into computer monitors and DVD players. Menus allow the control of settings like tint, brightness, contrast, bass and treble, and other functions such as channel memory and closed captioning. Other electronics with text-only displays can also have menus, anything from business telephone systems with digital telephones, to weather radios that can be set to respond only to specific weather warnings in a specific area. Other more recent electronics in the 2000s also have menus, such as digital media players.

Submenus

Menus are sometimes hierarchically organized, allowing navigation through different levels of the menu structure. Selecting a menu entry with an arrow will expand it, showing a second menu (the submenu) with options related to the selected entry.

Usability of submenus has been criticized as difficult, because of the narrow height that must be crossed by the pointer. The steering law predicts that this movement will be slow, and any error in touching the boundaries of the parent menu entry will hide the submenu. Some techniques proposed to alleviate these errors are keeping the submenu open while moving the pointer in diagonal, and using mega menus designed to enhance scannability and categorization of its contents. Negative user experience with submenus is referred to as "menu diving".

Usage of attached ellipses
In computer menu functions or buttons, an appended ellipsis ("…") means that upon selection, another dialog will follow, where the user can or must make a choice. If the ellipse is missing, the function will be executed upon selection.

 * "Save": the file will be overwritten without further input.
 * "Save as ...": in the following dialog, the user can, for example, select another location or file name or other file format.

Touchscreens
Displays with touchscreen functionality, e.g. modern cameras and printers, also have menus: these are not drop-down menus but buttons.

title: Menu (computing)


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Thoros II

Thoros II (Թորոս Բ; died February 6, 1169), also known as Thoros the Great, was the sixth lord of Armenian Cilicia from the Rubenid dynasty from 1144/1145  until 1169.

Thoros (together with his father, Leo I and his brother, Roupen) was taken captive and imprisoned in Constantinople in 1137 after the Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus during his campaign against Cilicia and the Principality of Antioch, successfully had laid siege to Gaban and Vahka (currently, Feke in Turkey). All of Cilicia remained under Byzantine rule for eight years.

Unlike his father and brother, Thoros survived his incarceration in Constantinople and was able to escape in 1143. Whatever the conditions in which Thoros entered Cilicia, he found it occupied by many Greek garrisons. He rallied around him the Armenians in the eastern parts of Cilicia and after a persistent and relentless pursuit of the Greeks, he successfully ousted the Byzantine garrisons from Pardzerpert (now Andırın in Turkey), Vahka, Sis (today Kozan in Turkey), Anazarbus, Adana, Mamistra and eventually Tarsus. His victories were aided by the lack of Muslim attacks in Cilicia and from the setbacks the Greeks and the Crusaders suffered on the heels of the Siege of Edessa in 1144.

Emperor Manuel I Comnenus, unhappy with Thoros's progress in the areas still claimed by the Byzantine Empire, sought peaceful means to settle his conflict with Thoros, but his attempts bore him no fruits. The recovery before 1150 of the Taurus fortresses by Thoros had not seriously affected Greek power, but his conquest of Mamistra in 1151 and the rest of Cilicia in 1152 had necessitated a great expedition. As a result, during the course of the next 20 years there were no fewer than three separate military campaigns launched by the emperor against Thoros, but each campaign was only able to produce a limited success.

Thoros's accomplishments during his reign placed Armenian Cilicia on a firm footing.

"Thoros was of a tall figure and of a strong mind: his compassion was universal; like the light of the sun he shone by his good works, and flourished by his faith; he was the shield of truth and the crown of righteousness; he was well versed in the Holy Scriptures and in the profane sciences. It is said that he was of such profound understanding, as to be able to explain the difficult expressions of the prophets – his explanations even still exist."

- Vahram of Edessa: The Rhymed Chronicle of Armenia Minor

Early life
Thoros was the second son of Leo I, lord of Armenian Cilicia. The name and the origin of his mother are not known with certainty. It is possible that she was a daughter of Count Hugh I of Rethel, or she may have been the daughter of Gabriel of Melitene.

In 1136, Leo I (Thoros's father) was made prisoner by Baldwin of Marash who sent him off to captivity in Antioch. In his absence, his three sons quarreled; the eldest, Constantine, was eventually captured and blinded by his brothers. After two months of confinement, Leo I obtained his liberty by consenting to harsh terms.

In the early summer of 1137, Emperor John II Comnenus came to Cilicia with a full force on his way to take Antioch; his army successively retook Seleucia, Korikos, Tarsus, Mamistra, Adana, Tel Hamdoun (now Toprakkale in Turkey) and Anazarbus. Leo I took refuge in the Taurus Mountains, but at last found the situation hopeless, and surrendered himself to the conqueror; Thoros and his youngest brother, Roupen were also taken captive together with their father. They were dragged away to Constantinople, where Leo I died in imprisonment in 1141. Roupen, after being blinded, was assassinated by the Greeks.

The liberation of Armenian Cilicia
Thoros escaped from Constantinople about the year 1143; he fled to the island of Cyprus, which was then under Byzantine suzerainty, aboard a Venetian vessel and then found his way to Antioch. He took refuge at the Court of his cousin, Count Joscelin II of Edessa. From there, in the company of a few trusted comrades, he was assisted by a Syrian priest, who led them by night to a safe shelter by the river Pyramus (now Ceyhan River in Turkey).

They then crossed the Amanus range (now Nur Mountains in Turkey) and reached the mountainous Armenian strongholds in the Taurus Mountains where Thoros began gathering a new following. He recaptured the family stronghold of Vahka and two of his brothers, Stephen and Mleh joined him. He made friends with a neighboring Frankish lord, Simon of Raban, whose daughter he married.

"Leo died and was elevated to Christ; the emperor then felt compassion for Thoros, took him out of prison, and received him into the imperial guards. Being now in the imperial palace, and a soldier among the soldiers, he very soon distinguished himself, and even the emperor looked upon him with benevolence. Before the end of the year /1141/ the emperor left Constantinople with a large army, and went to assist the Prince of Antioch, who was hard pressed by the Turks. Being on a hunting party in the valley of Anazarbus, one of his own poisoned arrows wounded him, and he fell dead on the spot; he thus met with his deserved fate (…) The Greek army returned, but Thoros remained in the country; though the traditions concerning this fact are different. Some say, Thoros withdrew himself quite alone, went by sea from Antioch to Cilicia, and took possession of his dominions, finding means to gain at first the town of Amouda, and afterwards all the other places. But the emperor’s party say that Thoros, during the time the Greeks stayed in the country, lived with a lady who gave him a great sum of money; with these treasures he fled to the mountains, and discovered himself to a priest as the son of Leo, the true king of the country. The priest was exceedingly happy at these tidings, and Thoros hid himself under a shepherd’s disguise. There were many Armenians in this part of the country who, being barbarously treated by the Greeks, sighed for their former masters; to these men, as it is said, the priest imparted the joyful tidings; they instantly assembled and appointed Thoros their Baron; he gained possession of Vahka, and afterwards of many other places. Let this be as it may, it was certainly ordained by God that this man, who was carried away as a prisoner, should become the chief of the country of his forefathers, that he should take the government out of the hands of the Greeks, and destroy their armies."

- Vahram of Edessa: The Rhymed Chronicle of Armenia Minor

The first Byzantine attack against Cilicia
In 1151, while the Byzantines were distracted by the Moslem attack on Turbessel, Thoros swept down into the Cilician plain and defeated and slew the Byzantine governor, Thomas, at the gates of Mamistra. Emperor Manuel I at once sent his cousin Andronicus Comnenus with an army to recover the territory lost to Thoros. But Thoros was well prepared for the unsuspecting Greeks and consequently won a decisive victory at the Battle of Mamistra in 1152. As Andronicus Comnenus moved up to besiege Thoros at Mamistra, the Armenians made a sudden sortie and caught him unawares. His army was routed and he fled back in disgrace to Constantinople.

In the meantime, the Hethumids, who were pro-Byzantine sympathizers, did not overlook any opportunity for engaging in an anti-Roupenian armed conflict. Andronicus Comnenus's mission was such an opportunity but it was not an occasion for glory: many of their numbers were killed by Thoros's aggressive strategy, and many more were taken into captivity. Among the captives were the two illustrious members, Oshin II of Lampron and his son Hethum. Oshin II was eventually released for a ransom but his son was kept as hostage; but Thoros arranged the marriage of his daughter to Hethum and returned half the ransom money to the groom's father Oshin II of Lampron.

"In the same year /1151/ Leo's son, Thoros, took Mamistra and Tel Hamdoun from the Romans and seized Duke Thomas. Duke Andronicus who was charged with protecting the land of the Cilicians by order of the Roman emperor, came to the city of Mamistra with 12,000 cavalry against Thoros. And he boasted, shouting out to Thoros: «Behold your father's iron chains. I will take you bound in them to Constantinople, like your father.» When valiant Thoros heard this, he was unable to bear the insult. Instead, placing his trust in God, he assembled his forces, breached Mamistra’s walls at night, and attacked /the Byzantine troops/ like a lion, putting them to the sword. Among those who died in the great battle before the city gates was Sempad, lord of Barbaron. Among those captured were the lord of Lampron, Oshin, the lord of Partzepert, Vasil, and the lord of Prakan, Tigran /all of whom were/ on the side of the emperor. /Thoros’/ troops seized and despoiled the weak Roman forces and then let them go."

- Smbat Sparapet: Chronicle

Wars with the Seljuks and Antioch
Emperor Manuel I Comnenus persuaded the Seljuk sultan of Rûm, Mesud I, to attack Thoros and demand his submission to the Sultan's suzerainty. However, the ensuing Seljuk attack, which in fact was provoked by an Armenian raid into Seljuk lands in Cappadocia in the winter of 1154, was routed successfully by Thoros in collaboration with a contingent of the Knights Templar.

"In the year 603 AE /1154/ once again the Byzantine emperor Manuel sought to stoke Masud and he sent him twice the amount of treasure as previously, saying: «Quench the burning of my heart toward the Armenian people, destroy their fortresses, and exterminate them.» So the sultan came to Anazarbus with many troops, but he was unable to accomplish anything. He sent one of his grandees, named Yaqub, to ravage the territory of Antioch. When they had crossed the gate, the Brothers /the Knights Templar/, as though sent by God, swooped upon them at that place and slaughtered all of them, including their chief. When those in the sultan’s army heard about this, they were horrified. This was not all, for the wrath of God was visited upon them. Their horses perished from tapax /diarrhea/ and they themselves turned to flight, brother not waiting to help brother, nor comrade, comrade. They hamstrung many of the horses and fled on foot through difficult, marshy places, as though they were persecuting themselves. For at that time Thoros was not in his country. Rather, he had gone to Tsets. When he returned and saw what had unfolded everyone thanked God, for they had been defeated without the use of weapons and without a physical battle."

- Smbat Sparapet: Chronicle

Then the emperor turned to Antioch for help; he offered to recognize the new prince, Raynald of Châtillon, if the Franks of Antioch would fight for him against Thoros; he also promised a money-subsidy if the work were properly done. Raynald willingly complied as the Armenians had advanced into the district of Alexandretta (now İskenderun in Turkey) which the Franks claimed as part of the Principality of Antioch.

After a short battle near Alexendretta, Raynald drove the Armenian back into Cilicia; and he presented the re-conquered country to the Knights Templar. Other view is that after the battle Raynald was forced to return home, covered with humiliation; and later on, Thoros voluntarily surrendered to the brethren the fortresses in question, and the Knights in turn took oath “to assist the Armenians on all occasions where they needed help.” In 1156, the Jacobites were allowed to build a new cathedral in Antioch, at whose dedication Constance of Antioch and Thoros assisted.

Having secured the land that he wanted, Raynald demanded his subsidies from the emperor who refused them, pointing out that the main task had yet to be done. Raynald quickly sided with Thoros and conspired to attack Cyprus; and the Armenians attacked the few remaining Byzantine fortresses in Cilicia.

The sack of Cyprus
In the spring of 1156, Raynald of Châtillon and Thoros made a sudden landing on Cyprus. Thoros and Raynald both conducted widespread plundering of the island. The Franks and Armenians marched up and down the island robbing and pillaging every building that they saw, churches and convents as well as shops and private houses. The crops were burnt; the herds were rounded up, together with all the population, and driven down to the coast.

The nightmare lasted about three weeks; then, on the rumor of an imperial fleet in the offing, Raynald gave the order for re-embarkation. The ships were loaded up with booty; and every Cypriot was forced to ransom himself.

In the meantime, Thoros quickly established a friendly rapport with Kilij Arslan II, the new Seljuk sultan of Rûm, and in 1158 a peace treaty was concluded.

"In the year 606 AE /1157/ Thoros’ brother, Stephen, Leo’s son, motivated by his wicked nature and without his brother Thoros’ knowledge, arose with his brigade of troops and started to successfully retake /certain/ districts. He took Kokison and Berdus. Sultan Kilij Arslan and Thoros had friendly relations with each other and Stephen, as we said, took these /areas/ without Thoros’ consent. Owing to this disturbance, Kilij Arslan came to the district of Kokison and pacified everyone, in no way blaming the inhabitants. Thence he went to Berdus, while Thoros, out of affection for the sultan, tricked his brother and surrendered Berdus to the sultan, against Stephen’s wishes. The sultan in turn, because of his affection for Thoros, freed the inhabitants of the fortress unharmed. Then Stephen attempted to steal Marash /today Kahramanmaraş in Turkey/, but could not. (…) Now it happened that Sultan Kilij Arslan had a genuine fondness for Thoros. He sent an emissary to Jerusalem and Antioch to Thoros, and again strengthened that friendship with an oath."

- Smbat Sparapet: Chronicle

The second Byzantine attack against Cilicia
In the summer of 1158, Manuel I Comnenus launched his second assault on Thoros; at the head of an army, he marched down the usual routes leading to Seleucia. There, with a small rapid deployment force of horsemen and Seleucian troops, he launched a surprise attack on Thoros. Thoros was at Tarsus, suspecting nothing, when suddenly, one day in late October, a Latin pilgrim whom he had entertained came rushing back to his Court to tell him that he had seen Imperial troops only a day's march away. Thoros collected his family, his intimate friends and his treasure and fled at once to the mountains.

Next day the Emperor Manuel entered the Cilician plain; within a fortnight all the Cilician cities as far as Anazarbus were in his power. But Thoros himself still eluded him. While Byzantine detachments scoured the valleys he fled from hill-top to hill-top and at last found refuge on a crag called Dadjog, near the sources of the river Cydnus; only his two most trusted servants knew where he lay hidden. Thus much of Cilicia was restored back to Byzantine control, but Thoros still held the mountainous regions in the north.

Eventually, Baldwin III of Jerusalem intervened and successfully brokered a peace treaty between the emperor and Thoros: Thoros had to walk barefoot and bareheaded to the camp of the emperor; there he prostrated himself in the dust before the imperial platform. The pardon was accorded to him for his transgressions both in Cilicia and Cyprus, and still allowed to hold partial possession in Cilicia.

The murder of his brother
Thoros's brother, Stephen, ignoring Thoros's official pledges to Manuel I. With the help of a few of his supporters, he continued attacking Greek garrisons thus giving Andronicus Euphorbenus, the Byzantine governor stationed in Tarsus, the opportunity to sabotage the treaty. Stephen was invited to a banquet held in the governor's residence where he was seized upon arrival, and his mutilated corpse was flung over the gates of Tarsus.

Thoros, who had his own reasons for desiring Stephen's murder, accused of Andronicus Euphorbenus of complicity and swept down on Mamistra, Anazarbus and Vahka, surprising and murdering the Greek garrisons. Eventually, reconciliation with the emperor was negotiated through the mediation of king Amalric I of Jerusalem. Andronicus Euphorbenus was recalled and replaced by Konstantinos Kalamanos as the new Byzantine governor in Tarsus.

In alliance with the crusaders
In 1164, when Nur ad-Din, the emir of Aleppo, knew that Amalric I had left for Egypt, he struck at the Principality of Antioch and laid siege to the key fortress of Harenc. Prince Bohemond III of Antioch called upon Count Raymond III of Tripoli, Thoros and Konstantinos Kalamanos to come to his rescue. At the news of their coming, Nur ad-Din raised the siege; as he retired, Bohemond decided to follow in pursuit. The armies made contact on 10 August 1164 at the battle of Harim, near Artah. Ignoring a warning from Thoros, Bohemond attacked at once, and when the Muslims feigned flight rushed headlong after them, only to fall into an ambush. Thoros and his brother Mleh who had been more cautious, escaped from the battlefield.

Around that time (in 1164 or in 1167) Thoros visited Jerusalem and suggested the colonization of a large number of Armenians, but the Latin prelates forced Amalric I to refuse the offer by their insistence that they should pay the dime (a special tax).

The third Byzantine attack against Cilicia
Intermittent fighting erupted everywhere, harassing the Greek forces throughout Cilicia. In 1168, emperor Manuel I, obsessed with his dilemma with Thoros, marched his armies into Cilicia for the third time under the command of Konstantinos Kalamanos. But Kalamanos was able to produce only limited successes which in the end induced Byzantium to renounce its right of possession of the whole of Cilicia so long as it had access to the ports of the Gulf of Alexandretta. Byzantium also disclaimed all rights to direct government of Cilicia and accepted in settlement only Thoros's recognition of Byzantine suzerainty.

Last years
Thoros quarreled with his brother Mleh who attempting to assassinate him fled to Nur ed-Din and became a Muslim.

"Now his brother, Mleh, was a malicious and treacherous man, and planned to kill his brother, Thoros. Getting together some others of the same tendency, one day while they had gone out to hunt deer, Mleh wanted to slay his brother there /at a place/ between Mamistra and Adana. But Thoros had been forewarned. He furiously seized Mleh and interrogated him before the troops and the princes as to what he was hoping to accomplish. They reproached Mleh in their presence and he was shamed. Then /Mleh/ gave /to T'oros/ much of the inventory of his authority, horses, mules, weapons, and treasures. And they removed him from his district. Thus he received nothing in exchange for his wickedness. So /Mleh/ arose and went to Nur ed-Din, lord of Aleppo, and entered into his service."

- Smbat Sparapet: Chronicle

Thoros, weary after nearly quarter of a century of rule and warfare, abdicated in favor of his young son Roupen II, who was placed under the guardianship of Thoros's father-in-law, the Regent Thomas. After his abdication, Thoros became a monk.

He died in 1169. He was buried in the monastery of Drazark.

Marriages and children

 * 1) c. 1149 An unnamed daughter of Simon of Raban  (or, according to other views, Isabelle, daughter of Count Joscelin II of Edessa )
 * 2) *Rita (c. 1150 – after 1168/1169), the wife of Hethum III of Lampron
 * 3) *Irene, the wife of Isaac Komnenus of Cyprus
 * 4) c. 1164 An unnamed daughter of the future regent Thomas
 * 5) *Roupen II of Cilicia (c. 1165 – Hromgla, 1170)

In popular culture

 * Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition (2019): a video game containing a five-scenario campaign titled "Thoros II".

title: Thoros II


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Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness

The Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (BWCAW or BWCA) comprises 1090000 acre of pristine forests, glacial lakes, and streams in the Superior National Forest. Located entirely within the U.S. state of Minnesota at the Boundary Waters, the wilderness area is under the administration of the United States Forest Service. Efforts to preserve the primitive landscape began in the 1900s and culminated in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness Act of 1978. The area is a popular destination for canoeing, hiking, and fishing, and is the most visited wilderness in the United States.

Geography

The BWCAW extends along 150 miles of the Canadian border in the Arrowhead Region of Minnesota. The combined region of the BWCAW, Superior National Forest, Voyageurs National Park, and Ontario's Quetico and La Verendrye provincial parks make up a large area of contiguous wilderness lakes and forests called the "Quetico-Superior country", or simply the Boundary Waters. Lake Superior lies to the south and east of the Boundary Waters.

Nearly 20% of the BWCAW's total area, or 190000 acre, is water. Within the borders of the area are over 1,100 lakes and hundreds of miles of rivers and streams. Much of the other 80% of the area is forest. The BWCAW contains the largest remaining area of uncut forest in the eastern portion of the United States.

The Laurentian Divide between the watersheds of the Great Lakes and Hudson Bay runs northeast–southwest through the east side of the BWCAW, following the crest of the Superior Upland and Gunflint Range. The crossing of the divide at Height of Land Portage was an occasion for ceremony and initiation rites for the fur-trading Voyageurs of the 18th and early 19th centuries. The wilderness also includes the highest peak in Minnesota, Eagle Mountain (2301 feet), part of the Misquah Hills.

Located around the perimeter of the BWCAW are six ranger stations: in Cook, Aurora, Ely, Isabella, Tofte and Grand Marais. The two nearby communities with most visitor services are Ely and Grand Marais. Several historic roads such as the Gunflint Trail, Echo Trail (County Road 116) and Fernberg Road (County Road 18) allow access to many wilderness entry points.

Climate
The weather station Ely 25E is on the southern edge of Snowbank Lake (Minnesota), a lake in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness. Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness has a dry winter humid continental climate (Köppen Dwb), bordering on a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc).

Geology
The lakes of the BWCAW are located in depressions formed by differential erosion of the tilted layers of the Canadian Shield. For the past two million years, massive sheets of ice have repeatedly scoured the landscape. The last glacial period ended with the retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet from the Boundary Waters about 17,000 years ago. The resulting depressions in the landscape later filled with water, becoming the lakes of today.

Many varieties of Precambrian bedrock are exposed including: granite, basalt, greenstone, gneiss, as well as metamorphic rocks derived from volcanic and sedimentary rocks. Greenstone of the Superior craton located near Ely, Minnesota, is up to 2.7 billion years old. Igneous rocks of the Duluth Complex comprise the bedrock of the eastern Boundary Waters. Ancient microfossils have been found in the banded iron formations of the Gunflint Chert.

Forest ecology
The Boundary Waters area is near the border of the true boreal forest and the Laurentian Mixed Forest Province (commonly called the "North Woods"), a transitional zone between the boreal forest to the north and the temperate hardwood forest to the south that contains characteristics of each. Trees found within the wilderness area include conifers such as red pine, eastern white pine, jack pine, balsam fir, white spruce, black spruce, and white-cedar, as well as deciduous birch, aspen, ash, and maple. Blueberries and raspberries can be found in cleared areas. The BWCAW is estimated to contain 455,000 acres of old growth forest, woods that may have burned but have never been logged. Before fire suppression efforts began during the 20th century, forest fires were a natural part of the Boundary Waters ecosystem, with recurrence intervals of 30 to 300 years in most areas.

On July 4, 1999, a powerful wind storm, or derecho, swept across Minnesota, central Ontario, and southern Quebec. Winds as high as 100 mph knocked down millions of trees, affecting about 370000 acres within the BWCAW and injuring 60 people. This event became known officially as the Boundary Waters–Canadian derecho, commonly referred to as "the Boundary Waters blowdown". Although campsites and portages were quickly cleared after the storm, an increased risk of wildfire due to the large number of downed trees became a concern. The U.S. Forest Service undertook prescribed burns to reduce the forest fuel load in the event of a wildfire. The first major wildfire within the blowdown area occurred in August 2005, burning 1335 acres between Alpine Lake and Seagull Lake in the northeastern BWCAW. In 2006, two fires at Cavity Lake and Turtle Lake burned more than 30000 acres. In May 2007, the Ham Lake Fire started near the location of the Cavity Lake fire, eventually covering 76000 acre in Minnesota and Ontario and becoming the most extensive wildfire in Minnesota in 90 years. In 2011, the Pagami Creek Fire ultimately grew to over 92000 acre, spreading beyond the wilderness boundary to threaten homes and businesses. Smoke from the Pagami Creek Fire drifted east and south as far as the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, Ontario, Chicago, Poland, Ukraine, and Russia. In 2021, it was closed due to wildfire for the first time since the 1970s, as the Greenwood Fire threatened access and spread rapidly to the south of its origin, and other smaller fires were burning within the wilderness.

Wildlife
Animals found in the BWCAW include deer, moose, beaver, timber wolves, black bears, bobcats, bald eagles, peregrine falcons, and loons. It is within the range of the largest population of wolves in the contiguous United States, as well as an unknown number of Canada lynx. It has also been identified by the American Bird Conservancy as a globally important bird habitat.

Woodland caribou once inhabited the region but have disappeared due to encroachment by deer, and the effects of a brainworm parasite carried by deer which is harmful to both caribou and moose populations. Very rare sightings have been reported in nearby areas as recently as the 1980s.

Native Americans

The north country was inhabited by the Paleo Indian culture circa 8000 BC. Limited artifacts have been found in the BWCAW from that era and the subsequent Archaic period circa 6000 years ago. Artifacts from the Early Woodland Era (circa 1300 years ago) have not been found there, but pottery and clay pipes from the Later Woodland Indians have been found there.

The area was then sparsely populated by the Sioux. Then the Ojibwe arrived and the Sioux migrated westward. The area then became a part of the homeland of the Ojibwe people, who traveled the waterways in canoes made of birch bark. Within the BWCAW are hundreds of prehistoric pictographs and petroglyphs on rock ledges and cliffs. It is thought that the Hegman Lake Pictograph located on a large overlooking rock wall on North Hegman Lake was most likely created by the Ojibwe. The pictograph appears to represent Ojibwe meridian constellations visible in winter during the early evening, knowledge of which may have been useful for navigating in the deep woods during the winter hunting season. The Grand Portage Indian Reservation, just east of the BWCAW at the community of Grand Portage, is home to a number of Ojibwe to this day.

European exploration and development
In 1688 the French explorer Jacques de Noyon became the first European known to have traveled through the BWCAW area. Later, during the 1730s, La Vérendrye and others opened the region to trade, mainly in beaver pelts. By the end of the 18th century, the fur trade had been organized into groups of canoe-paddling voyageurs working for the competing North West and Hudson's Bay Companies, with a North West Company fort located at the Grand Portage on Lake Superior. The final rendezvous was held at Grand Portage in 1803, after which the North West Company moved its operations further north to Fort William (now Thunder Bay). In 1821 the North West Company merged with the Hudson's Bay Company and the center of the fur trade moved even further north to the posts around Hudson Bay.

During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the area's legal and political status was disputed. The Treaty of Paris, which ended the American Revolutionary War in 1783, had defined the northern border between the United States and Canada based on the inaccurate Mitchell Map. Ownership of the area between Lake of the Woods and Lake Superior was unclear, with the United States claiming the border was further north at the Kaministiquia River and Canada claiming it was further south beginning at the Saint Louis River. In 1842, the Webster–Ashburton Treaty clarified the border between the United States and Canada using the old trading route running along the Pigeon River and Rainy River (today the BWCAW's northern border).

The BWCAW area remained largely undeveloped until gold, silver and iron were found in the surrounding area during the 1870s, 1880s and 1890s. Logging in the area began around the same time to supply lumber to support the mining industries, with production peaking in the late 1910s and gradually trailing off during the 1920s and 1930s.

Protection
In 1902, Minnesota's Forest Commissioner Christopher C. Andrews persuaded the state to reserve 500000 acres of land near the BWCAW from being sold to loggers. In 1905 he visited the area on a canoe trip and was impressed by the area's natural beauty. He was able to save another 141000 acres from being sold for development. He soon reached out to the Ontario government to encourage them to preserve some of the area's land on their side of the border, noting that the area could be "an international forest reserve and park of very great beauty and interest". This collaboration led to the creation of the Superior National Forest and the Quetico Provincial Park in 1909.

The BWCAW itself was formed gradually through a series of actions. By the early 1920s, roads had begun to be built through the Superior National Forest to promote public access to the area for recreation. In 1926 a section of 640000 acres within the Superior National Forest was set aside as a roadless wilderness area by Secretary of Agriculture William Marion Jardine. This area became the nucleus of the BWCAW. In 1930, Congress passed the Shipstead-Newton-Nolan Act, which prohibited logging and dams within the area to preserve its natural water levels. Through additional land purchases and shifts in boundaries, the amount of protected land owned by the government in the area grew even further. In 1938, the area's borders were expanded and altered (roughly matching those of the present day BWCAW), and it was renamed the Superior Roadless Primitive Area.

Additional laws focused on protecting the area's rustic and undeveloped character. In 1948, the Thye-Blatnik Bill authorized the government to purchase the few remaining privately owned homes and resorts within the area. In 1949, President Harry Truman signed Executive Order 10092 which prohibited aircraft from flying over the area below 4,000 feet. The area was officially named the Boundary Waters Canoe Area in 1958. The Wilderness Act of 1964 organized it as a unit of the National Wilderness Preservation System. The 1978 Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness Act established the Boundary Waters regulations much as they are today, with limitations on motorboats and snowmobiles, a permit-based quota system for recreational access, and restrictions on logging and mining within the area. That same year the Forest Service began referring to it as "BWCAW" to recognize its wilderness character.

Land use disputes
Some aspects of the BWCAW's management and conservation have been controversial. A 1971 rule limiting visitors to "designated campsites" on heavy-use routes is instituted by the U.S. Forest Service. Cans and glass bottles are prohibited from the Boundary Waters. According to the U.S. Forest Service, the measure is expected to reduce refuse by 360,000 lb, saving $90,000 per year on cleanup.

October 1975, Eighth District Representative James Oberstar (D-MN) introduced a bill that if passed would have established a Boundary Waters Wilderness Area of 625,000 acres and a Boundary Waters National Recreation Area (NRA) of 527,000 acres, permitting logging and mechanized travel in the latter area and removing from wilderness designation a number of large scenic lakes such as La Croix, Basswood, Saganaga, and Seagull. The bill was strongly opposed by environmentalists.

October 21, 1978, Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness Act, U.S. Public Law 95-495, was signed by President Jimmy Carter. The act added 50,000 acres to the Boundary Waters, to then encompasses 1,098,057 acres, and extended greater wilderness protection to the area. The name was changed from the Boundary Waters Canoe Area to the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness. The Act banned logging, mineral prospecting, and mining, and all but bans snowmobile use (two snowmobile routes remain to access Canada). The act limited motorboat use to about two dozen lakes, limited the size of motors, and regulated the number of motorboats and long established motorized portages. It called for limiting the number of motorized lakes to 16 in 1984, and 14 in 1999, totaling about 24% of the area's water acreage.

1989 Truck portage testing. According to the 1978 BWCAW Act: Nothing in this Act shall be deemed to require the termination of the existing operation of motor vehicles to assist in the transport of boats across the portages from Sucker Lake to Basswood Lake, from Fall Lake to Basswood Lake, and from Lake Vermilion to Trout Lake, during the period ending January 1, 1984. Following said date, unless the Secretary determines that there is no feasible non-motorized means of transporting boats across the portages to reach the lakes previously served by the portages listed above, he shall terminate all such motorized use of each portage listed above.

1989 – U S Forest Service with the University of MN conduct feasibility tests on the three truck portages. It is determined that trucks should remain.

1990 – Friends of the Boundary Waters, Sierra Club and six other environmental groups sue to have trucks removed; CWCS joins the U S Forest Service as intervenors.

1992 – Appeals court sides with U S Forest Service that trucks should remain. Friends of the Boundary Waters and coalition appeal to 8th Circuit Court of Appeals. Trucks are removed from the three truck portages.

1994 – As a result of the Friends of the Boundary Waters lawsuit against the 1992 BWCAW Management Plan, canoe rests, pontoon boats and sailboats are banned from the Boundary Waters.

1999 – As a result of the Friends of the Boundary Waters lawsuit against the 1992 BWCAW Management Plan, the courts redefined the phrase ‘that particular lake’ and exempt permits were eliminated for property owners, resorts and outfitters on the Moose, Farm and Seagull Chain of Lakes.

1999 – Trucks return to two of the three truck portages, Prairie and Trout Lake portages, as a result of Congressman Oberstar including this provision in his 1998 Transportation Bill.

A snowmobile trail located 400 feet from the border provoked a lawsuit in 2006. In 2015, a judge ruled that the snowmobile trail did not violate the Wilderness Act.

Proposed Twin Metals Mine
It has been known for decades that there are about four billion tons of copper and nickel ore, "one of the world's largest undeveloped mineral deposits", in the Duluth Complex, which underlies part of northeastern Minnesota. Resource companies have proposed mines south and west of the BWCAW upstream of the wilderness and within its watershed, leading to concerns that surface runoff could damage the wilderness. In December 2016 the federal government proposed banning mining for 20 years while the subject was studied. The Trump administration cancelled the study in September 2018, clearing the way for mining leases in the national forest. The Antofagasta PLC subsidiary Twin Metals Minnesota would operate a proposed mine. In October 2021, the Biden administration filed an application for a "mineral withdrawal" that will put a hold on the development of the mine proposal while the environmental impacts are studied. The completed study could lead to a 20-year ban on mining upstream from the BWCAW.

Recreation

The BWCAW attracts over 150,000 visitors per year. It contains more than 2,000 backcountry campsites, 1200 miles of canoe routes, and 12 different hiking trails and is popular for canoeing, canoe touring, fishing, backpacking, dog sledding, and enjoying the area's remote wilderness character.

Permits are required for all overnight visits to the BWCAW. Quota permits are required for groups taking an overnight paddle, motor, or hiking trip, or a motorized day-use trip into the BWCAW from May 1 through September 30. These permits must be reserved in advance. Day use paddle and hiking permits do not require advance reservation and can be filled out at BWCAW entry points. From October 1 through April 30, permit reservations are not necessary, but a permit must be filled out at the permit stations located at each entry point. Each permit must specify the trip leader, the specific entry point and the day of entry. The permits are for an indefinite length, although visitors are only allowed one entry into the wilderness and cannot stay in one campsite for more than 14 nights.

Hiking
The BWCAW contains a variety of hiking trails. Shorter hikes include the trail to Eagle Mountain (7 mi). Loop trails include the Pow Wow Trail, the Snowbank Trail, and the Sioux-Hustler Trail. The Border Route Trail and Kekekabic Trail are the two longest trails running through the BWCAW. The Border Route Trail runs east–west for over 65 mi through the eastern BWCAW, beginning at the northern end of the Superior Hiking Trail and following ridges and cliffs west until it connects with the Kekekabic Trail. The Kekekabic Trail continues for another 39 mi, beginning near the Gunflint Trail and passing through the center of the BWCAW before exiting it near Snowbank Lake. Both the Border Route and the Kekekabic Trail are part of the longer North Country National Scenic Trail and together these represent the most remote segment of the NCT's 4,800 miles.

Canoeing
Canoeing or other non-motorized boating is the most popular method of exploring the BWCAW. A 2007 study found more than 94% of overnight visitors used a non-motorized boat to travel through the park. The BWCAW's size and abundance of campsites, lakes, rivers and portage trails allow for almost countless options for different routes. Many online maps and guidebooks offer suggested routes based on entry point, duration and difficulty.

Fishing
Fishing is a popular activity in the BWCAW. Game species include northern pike, walleye, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, and occasional panfish. Trout including brook trout, lake trout, rainbow trout and splake are also found. White sucker, burbot, and whitefish also occur. Limited stocking of walleye and lake trout is done on some lakes where natural recruitment is limited. The wilderness contains one of the largest concentrations of native lake trout lakes in the lower 48 states.

Night sky viewing
In 2020 the BWCA became a designated Dark Sky Sanctuary, one of 20 in the world. "It differs from other Dark Sky designations in that sanctuaries are the most remote and often darkest places in the world whose conservation state is 'most fragile'." The U.S. Forest Service had been working towards gaining this status for the BWCAW since 2008. According to the US forest service "This designation confirms what people in the area have enjoyed for thousands of years. Dark skies, starry nights, and astonishing northern lights displays have been part of the experience long before the area was designated wilderness..."

Notable people associated with the BWCAW

 * Benny Ambrose, one of the last two residents of BWCAW.
 * Justine Kerfoot, local author and renowned outdoorswoman who moved to the Boundary Waters in 1928 and helped establish the Gunflint Lodge.
 * Dorothy Molter, known as the "Rootbeer Lady", lived in the BWCAW for 56 years (alone after 1948) until her death in 1986, and was the last resident of the BWCA.
 * Ernest Oberholtzer, is recognized today as a leading advocate for the preservation of the Quetico-Superior lake area and what would become the BWCA.
 * Sigurd Olson, Minnesota author and conservationist, wrote extensively about the Boundary Waters and worked to ensure preservation of the wilderness.

title: Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness


text:
Peltier

Peltier is a French surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Autumn Peltier (born 2004), climate activist
 * Edo Peltier, birth name of Mexican drag queen Margaret Y Ya
 * Fanny Peltier (born 1997), French sprinter
 * Harvey Peltier, Jr. (1923–1980), American politician
 * Harvey Peltier, Sr. (1899–1977), American politician
 * Jean Charles Athanase Peltier (1785–1845), French physicist, documented the Peltier effect
 * Lee Peltier (born 1986), English football player
 * Leonard Peltier (born 1944), Native American activist who was convicted of the murder of two FBI Agents
 * Leslie Peltier (1900–1980), American astronomer
 * Marie Peltier (born 1980), Belgian author
 * Thérèse Peltier (1873–1926), French sculptor and aviator
 * William Richard Peltier (born 1943), University of Toronto professor and physicist

title: Peltier


text:
Mleh, Prince of Armenia

Mleh I (Մլեհ), also Meleh I, (before 1120 – Sis, May 15, 1175) was the eighth lord of Armenian Cilicia (1170–1175).

The accomplishments during the reign of his elder brother, Thoros II, placed Cilicia on a firm footing. But Mleh, whom Thoros II had expelled from Cilicia for converting to Islam, almost undid his brother's work.

On the death of his brother, Mleh invaded Cilicia with the support of a contingent from Aleppo, which remained in his service and assisted him to drive out the Knights Templar and Greeks from the fortresses and, in 1173, the cities which they held in Cilicia. Soon after the death of Nur ed-Din (the emir of Aleppo), Mleh was overthrown by his nephew, Roupen III.

His early life
Mleh was the fourth son of Leo I, lord of Armenian Cilicia. The name and the origin of his mother are not known with certainty. It is possible that she was a daughter of Count Hugh I of Rethel, or she might have been the daughter of Gabriel of Melitene.

In the early summer of 1137, the Byzantine Emperor John II Komnenos came to Cilicia with a full force on his way to take Antioch; his army successively took Seleucia, Korikos, Tarsus, Mamistra, Adana, Tel Hamdoun (now Toprakkale in Turkey) and Anazarbus. Mleh and his two brothers, Stephen and the blind Constantine took refuge with their cousin, Count Joscelin II of Edessa. In Cilicia, the family castle of Vahka (today Feke in Turkey) held out for some weeks, but after its fall their father and two of their brothers, Roupen and Thoros, were captured. Leo I and his two sons were imprisoned in Constantinople where Leo I died shortly afterwards, and Roupen was blinded and later murdered. All Cilicia remained under Byzantine rule for eight years.

About the year 1143, Mleh's brother, Thoros escaped from Constantinople and recaptured the family stronghold of Vahka; Mleh and his brother Stephen joined him. One after another, Thoros reconquered Anazarbus, Adana, Sis (today Kozan in Turkey) and Pardzerpert (now Andırın in Turkey) from the Byzantines.

In 1164, Nur ed-Din struck at the Principality of Antioch and laid siege to the key-fortress of Harenc; Prince Bohemond III of Antioch called upon Thoros II to come to his rescue, and Mleh followed his brother. At the news of the coming of the Byzantine and Armenian troops, Nur ed-Din raised the siege, but Bohemond III decided to follow in pursuit; the armies made contact on August 10, near Artah. In the ensuing battle, Bohemond III fell into an ambush and found himself and his knights surrounded by the army of Mosul, but Thoros II and Mleh, who had been more cautious, escaped from the battlefield.

In the service of Nur ed-Din
Although Mleh had taken vows as a Templar, after a quarrel with Thoros II and an attempt to assassinate him, he fled to Nur ed-Din. Mleh converted to Islam from Armenian Apostolic Christianity. This was to facilitate his plans with Nur ed-Din; afterwards, he held Cyrrhus as a fief from the Emir of Aleppo.

His brother died in 1168, leaving a child, Roupen II, to succeed him, under the regency of a Frankish lord called Thomas. But Mleh disputed the succession; early in 1170 Nur ed-Din lent him troops with which he was able not only to dethrone his nephew but also to invade the Cilician plain and take Mamistra, Adana and Tarsus from their Greek garrisons. The young Roupen III was followed by Mleh's men and murdered.

His rule
With Thoros's legitimate heir dead, Mleh embarked on a policy of conquest with cruel application of force. He beleaguered the Hethumids at Lampron (now Namrun Kalesi in Turkey), but in spite of a long siege his attempt to take this stronghold failed. Mleh then attacked the Templars at Baghras; Bohemond III of Antioch appealed to King Amalric I of Jerusalem, who marched up into Cilicia and temporarily, its seems, restored Imperial rule. But Mleh was irrepressible; a year or so later he routed at Tarsus the assembled forces of the governor Konstantinos Kalamanos, and sent him to Nur ed-Din, who held Konstantinos for heavy ransom.

On March 10, 1171, Amalric I left Acre for Constantinople where he made a treaty with the Emperor Manuel I Comnenos; it seems that they decided that a common action should be taken against Mleh. An expedition organized by the king after his return from Constantinople in 1171 was interrupted by Nur ed-Din's attack on Kerak (today Al Karak in Jordan).

In the summer of 1171, Mleh waylaid Count Stephen I of Sancerre as he passed through Cilicia from the Holy Land to Constantinople. In order to punish Mleh for his outrage against the count, Amalric I marched north into Cilicia in 1173; but the campaign achieved nothing except to check Mleh's further expansion. Mleh finally succeeded in 1173 in securing Manuel I's recognition of him as “Baron of Cilician Armenia” with whom now all Byzantine affairs in Cilicia were to be conducted.

On May 15, 1174, Nur ed-Din died; en event which brought an end to Mleh's source of power. Vulnerable and without an ally, members of Mleh's own inner circle of Armenian nobles, took the initiative and murdered him in Sis in 1175.

He was buried in Medzkar.

Marriage and child
Mleh married an unnamed daughter of Vasil of Gargar (a sister of the Catholicos Gregory).

He had one illegitimate child by his unknown mistress:
 * Grigor (? – January 28, 1209/January 27, 1210 or after)

title: Mleh, Prince of Armenia


text:
Constantine II, Prince of Armenia

Constantine II (Կոստանդին Բ), also Kostandin II, (unknown – after February 17, 1129) was the fourth lord of Armenian Cilicia (1129/1130 ).

The Chronique Rimée de la Petite Arménie (“The Rhymed Chronicle of Armenia Minor”) of Vahram of Edessa records that he was the son of Thoros I, lord of Armenian Cilicia. His mother's name is not known.

He died a few months after his father's death in the course of a palace intrigue. Vahram of Edessa, the historian tells us that he was cast into prison and poisoned to death.

"After the death of Thoros, his only son and heir was cast into prison by some wicked people, who administered to him a poisonous drug, thus the principality came to Leon, the brother of Thoros (…)."

- Vahram of Edessa: The Rhymed Chronicle of Armenia Minor

Other historians (e.g., Jacob G. Ghazarian, Vahan M. Kurkjian) suggest that Thoros I died without a male heir and was succeeded by Leon I.

title: Constantine II, Prince of Armenia


text:
Middle High German

Middle High German (MHG; Mittelhochdeutsch (Mhdt., Mhd.)) is the term for the form of German spoken in the High Middle Ages. It is conventionally dated between 1050 and 1350, developing from Old High German and into Early New High German. High German is defined as those varieties of German which were affected by the Second Sound Shift; the Middle Low German and Middle Dutch languages spoken to the North and North West, which did not participate in this sound change, are not part of MHG.

While there is no standard MHG, the prestige of the Hohenstaufen court gave rise in the late 12th century to a supra-regional literary language (mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache) based on Swabian, an Alemannic dialect. This historical interpretation is complicated by the tendency of modern editions of MHG texts to use normalised spellings based on this variety (usually called "Classical MHG"), which make the written language appear more consistent than it actually is in the manuscripts. Scholars are uncertain as to whether the literary language reflected a supra-regional spoken language of the courts.

An important development in this period was the Ostsiedlung, the eastward expansion of German settlement beyond the Elbe-Saale line which marked the limit of Old High German. This process started in the 11th century, and all the East Central German dialects are a result of this expansion.

"Judeo-German", the precursor of the Yiddish language, is attested in the 12th–13th centuries, as a variety of Middle High German written in Hebrew characters.

Periodisation
Deutsche Ostsiedlung.png)

{{legend|#E95E1B|Germanic peoples before AD 700}} {{legend|#EE813C|Ostsiedlung, 8th–11th centuries}} {{legend|#F4A586|Expansion in the 12th century}} {{legend|#FABD42|Expansion in the 13th century}} {{legend|#FDD060|Expansion in the 14th century}} ]]

The Middle High German period is generally dated from 1050 to 1350. An older view puts the boundary with (Early) New High German around 1500.

There are several phonological criteria which separate MHG from the preceding Old High German period:
 * the weakening of unstressed vowels to $\langlee\rangle$: OHG taga, MHG tage ("days")
 * the full development of Umlaut and its use to mark a number of morphological categories
 * the devoicing of final stops: OHG tag > MHG tac ("day")

Culturally, the two periods are distinguished by the transition from a predominantly clerical written culture, in which the dominant language was Latin, to one centred on the courts of the great nobles, with German gradually expanding its range of use. The rise of the Hohenstaufen dynasty in Swabia makes the South West the dominant region in both political and cultural terms.

Demographically, the MHG period is characterised by a massive rise in population, terminated by the demographic catastrophe of the Black Death (1348). Along with the rise in population comes a territorial expansion eastwards (Ostsiedlung), which saw German-speaking settlers colonise land previously under Slavic control.

Linguistically, the transition to Early New High German is marked by four vowel changes which together produce the phonemic system of modern German, though not all dialects participated equally in these changes:
 * Diphthongisation of the long high vowels > : MHG hût > NHG Haut ("skin")
 * Monophthongisation of the high centering diphthongs > : MHG huot > NHG Hut ("hat")
 * lengthening of stressed short vowels in open syllables: MHG sagen > NHG sagen  ("say")
 * The loss of unstressed vowels in many circumstances: MHG vrouwe > NHG Frau ("lady")

The centres of culture in the ENHG period are no longer the courts but the towns.

Dialects
The dialect map of Germany by the end of the Middle High German period was much the same as that at the start of the 20th century, though the boundary with Low German was further south than it now is:

Central German (Mitteldeutsch) Upper German (Oberdeutsch) With the exception of Thuringian, the East Central German dialects are new dialects resulting from the Ostsiedlung and arise towards the end of the period.
 * West Central German (Westmitteldeutsch)
 * Central Franconian (Mittelfränkisch)
 * Ripuarian (Ripuarisch)
 * Moselle Franconian (Moselfränkisch)
 * Rhine Franconian (Rheinfränkisch)
 * Hessian (Hessisch)
 * East Central German (Ostmitteldeutsch)
 * Thuringian (Thüringisch)
 * Upper Saxon (Obersächsisch)
 * Silesian (Schlesisch)
 * High Prussian (Hochpreußisch)
 * East Franconian (Ostfränkisch)
 * South Rhine Franconian (Süd(rhein)fränkisch)
 * Alemannic (Alemannisch)
 * North Alemannic (Nordalemannisch)
 * Swabian (Schwäbisch)
 * Low Alemannic (Niederalemannisch/Oberrheinisch)
 * High Alemannic/South Alemannic (Hochalemannisch/Südalemannisch) )
 * Bavarian (Bairisch)
 * Northern Bavarian (Nordbairisch)
 * Central Bavarian (Mittelbairisch)
 * Southern Bavarian (Südbairisch)

Writing system
Middle High German texts are written in the Latin alphabet. There was no standardised spelling, but modern editions generally standardise according to a set of conventions established by Karl Lachmann in the 19th century. There are several important features in this standardised orthography which are not characteristics of the original manuscripts:
 * the marking of vowel length is almost entirely absent from MHG manuscripts.
 * the marking of umlauted vowels is often absent or inconsistent in the manuscripts.
 * a curly-tailed z ($\langleȥ\rangle$ or $\langleʒ\rangle$) is used in modern handbooks and grammars to indicate the or -like sound which arose from Germanic  in the High German consonant shift. This character has no counterpart in the original manuscripts, which typically use $\langles\rangle$ or $\langlez\rangle$ to indicate this sound.
 * the original texts often use $\langlei\rangle$ and $\langleuu\rangle$ for the semi-vowels and.

A particular problem is that many manuscripts are of much later date than the works they contain; as a result, they bear the signs of later scribes having modified the spellings, with greater or lesser consistency, in accord with conventions of their time. In addition, there is considerable regional variation in the spellings that appear in the original texts, which modern editions largely conceal.

Vowels
The standardised orthography of MHG editions uses the following vowel spellings:
 * Short vowels: $\langlea e i o u\rangle$ and the umlauted vowels $\langleä ö ü\rangle$
 * Long vowels: $\langleâ ê î ô û\rangle$ and the umlauted vowels $\langleæ œ iu\rangle$
 * Diphthongs: $\langleei ou ie uo\rangle$; and the umlauted diphthongs $\langleöu eu oi üe\rangle$

Grammars (as opposed to textual editions) often distinguish between $\langleë\rangle$ and $\langlee\rangle$, the former indicating the mid-open which derived from Germanic, the latter (often with a dot beneath it) indicating the mid-close  which results from primary umlaut of short. No such orthographic distinction is made in MHG manuscripts.

Consonants
The standardised orthography of MHG editions uses the following consonant spellings:
 * Stops: $\langlep t k/c/q b d g\rangle$
 * Affricates: $\langlepf/ph tz/z\rangle$
 * Fricatives: $\langlev f s ȥ sch ch h\rangle$
 * Nasals: $\langlem n\rangle$
 * Liquids: $\langlel r\rangle$
 * Semivowels: $\langlew j\rangle$

Phonology
The charts show the vowel and consonant systems of classical MHG. The spellings indicated are the standard spellings used in modern editions; there is much more variation in the manuscripts.

Short and long Vowels
Notes:
 * 1) Not all dialects distinguish the three unrounded mid front vowels.
 * 2) It is probable that the short high and mid vowels are lower than their long equivalents, as in Modern German, but that is impossible to establish from the written sources.
 * 3) The $\langleü\rangle$ found in unstressed syllables may indicate  or schwa.

Diphthongs
MHG diphthongs are indicated by the spellings $\langleiu\rangle$, $\langleö\rangle$, $\langleœ\rangle$, $\langleä\rangle$ and $\langleæ\rangle$, $\langlee\rangle$, $\langleei\rangle$, and they have the approximate values of, , , , , , , respectively.

Consonants

 * 1) Precise information about the articulation of consonants is impossible to establish and must have varied between dialects.
 * 2) In the plosive and fricative series, if there are two consonants in a cell, the first is fortis and the second lenis. The voicing of lenis consonants varied between dialects.
 * 3) There are long consonants, and the following double consonant spellings indicate not vowel length, as they do in Modern German orthography, but rather genuine double consonants: pp, bb, tt, dd, ck (for ), gg, ff, ss, zz, mm, nn, ll, rr.
 * 4) It is reasonable to assume that  has an allophone  after back vowels, as in Modern German.

Pronouns
Middle High German pronouns of the first person refer to the speaker; those of the second person refer to an addressed person; and those of the third person refer to a person or thing of which one speaks. The pronouns of the third person may be used to replace nominal phrases. These have the same genders, numbers and cases as the original nominal phrase.

Possessive pronouns
The possessive pronouns mîn, dîn, sîn, ir, unser, iuwer are used like adjectives and hence take on adjective endings following the normal rules.

Articles
The inflected forms of the article depend on the number, the case and the gender of the corresponding noun. The definite article has the same plural forms for all three genders.

Definite article (strong) The instrumental case, only existing in the neuter singular, is used only with prepositions: von diu, ze diu, etc. In all the other genders and in the plural it is substituted with the dative: von dëm, von dër, von dën.

Nouns
Middle High German nouns were declined according to four cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative), two numbers (singular and plural) and three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), much like Modern High German, though there are several important differences.

Verbs
Verbs were conjugated according to three moods (indicative, subjunctive (conjunctive) and imperative), three persons, two numbers (singular and plural) and two tenses (present tense and preterite) There was a present participle, a past participle and a verbal noun that somewhat resembles the Latin gerund, but that only existed in the genitive and dative cases.

An important distinction is made between strong verbs (that exhibited ablaut) and weak verbs (that didn't).

Furthermore, there were also some irregular verbs.

Strong verbs
The present tense conjugation went as follows:

 * Imperative: 2.sg.: nim, 2.pl.: nëmet
 * Present participle: nëmende
 * Infinitive: nëmen
 * Verbal noun: genitive: nëmen(n)es, dative: ze nëmen(n)e

The bold vowels demonstrate umlaut; the vowels in brackets were dropped in rapid speech.

The preterite conjugation went as follows:

 * Past participle: genomen

Weak verbs
The present tense conjugation went as follows:

 * Imperative: 2.sg: suoche, 2.pl: suochet
 * Present participle: suochende
 * Infinitive: suochen
 * Verbal noun: genitive: suochennes, dative: ze suochenne

The vowels in brackets were dropped in rapid speech.

The preterite conjugation went as follows:

 * Past participle: gesuochet

Vocabulary
In the Middle High German period, the rise of a courtly culture and the changing nature of knighthood was reflected in changes to the vocabulary. Since the impetus for this set of social changes came largely from France, many of the new words were either loans from French or influenced by French terms.

The French loans mainly cover the areas of chivalry, warfare and equipment, entertainment, and luxury goods:

 * MHG âventiure < OF aventure (NHG Abenteuer, "adventure")
 * MHG prîs < OF pris (NHG Preis, "prize, reward")
 * MHG lanze < OF lance (NHG Lanze, "lance")
 * MHG palas < OF palais (NHG Palast, "palace")
 * MHG fest, veste < OF feste (NHG Fest, "festival, feast")
 * MHG pinsel < OF pincel (NHG Pinsel, "paint brush")
 * MHG samît < OF samit (NHG Samt, "velvet")
 * MHG rosîn < OF raisin (NHG Rosine, "raisin")

Two highly productive suffixes were borrowed from French in this period:

 * The noun suffix -îe is seen initially in borrowings from French such as massenîe ("retinue, household") and then starts to be combined with German nouns to produce, for example, jegerîe ("hunting") from jeger ("huntsman"), or arzatîe, arzenîe ("medicine ") from arzat ("doctor"). With the Early New High German diphthongization the suffix became /ai/ (spelling ) giving NHG Jägerei, Arznei.

 * The verb suffix -îeren resulted from adding the German infinitive suffix -en to the Old French infinitive endings -er/ir/ier. Initially, this was just a way of integrating French verbs into German syntax, but the suffix became productive in its own right and was added to non-French roots: MHG turnîeren is based on OF tourner ("to ride a horse"), but halbieren ("to cut in half") has no French source.

Iwein
The text is the opening of Hartmann von Aue's Iwein (c. 1200)

Commentary: This text shows many typical features of Middle High German poetic language. Most Middle High German words survive into modern German in some form or other: this passage contains only one word (jehen 'say' 14) which has since disappeared from the language. But many words have changed their meaning substantially. Muot (6) means 'state of mind' (cognates with mood), where modern German Mut means courage. Êre (3) can be translated with 'honour', but is quite a different concept of honour from modern German Ehre; the medieval term focuses on reputation and the respect accorded to status in society.

Nibelungenlied
The text is the opening strophe of the Nibelungenlied (c. 1204).

Middle High German Uns ist in alten mæren   wunders vil geseit von helden lobebæren,   von grôzer arebeit, von freuden, hôchgezîten,   von weinen und von klagen, von küener recken strîten   muget ir nu wunder hœren sagen.

Modern German translation In alten Erzählungen wird uns viel Wunderbares berichtet von ruhmreichen Helden, von hartem Streit, von glücklichen Tagen und Festen, von Schmerz und Klage: vom Kampf tapferer Recken: Davon könnt auch Ihr nun Wunderbares berichten hören.

English translation In ancient tales many marvels are told us of renowned heroes, of great hardship of joys, festivities, of weeping and lamenting of bold warriors' battles — now you may hear such marvels told!

Commentary: All the MHG words are recognizable from Modern German, though mære ("tale") and recke ("warrior") are archaic and lobebære ("praiseworthy") has given way to lobenswert. Words which have changed in meaning include arebeit, which means "strife" or "hardship" in MHG, but now means "work", and hôchgezît ("festivity") which now, as Hochzeit, has the narrower meaning of "wedding".

Erec
The text is from the opening of Hartmann von Aue's Erec (c. 1180–1190). The manuscript (the Ambraser Heldenbuch) dates from 1516, over three centuries after the composition of the poem.

Literature
The following are some of the main authors and works of MHG literature:

 * Lyric poetry
 * Minnesang
 * Codex Manesse
 * Reinmar von Hagenau
 * Walther von der Vogelweide
 * Heinrich Frauenlob
 * Oswald von Wolkenstein
 * Epic
 * Nibelungenlied
 * Kudrun
 * Chivalric romance
 * Hartmann von Aue's Erec and Iwein
 * Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival
 * Gottfried von Strassburg's Tristan
 * Ulrich von Türheim's Rennewart and Willehalm
 * Rudolf von Ems's works
 * Konrad von Würzburg's works
 * Eilhart von Oberge's Tristrant
 * Spielmannsdichtung
 * King Rother
 * Herzog Ernst
 * Chronicles
 * Annolied
 * Jans der Enikel's Weltchronik and Fürstenbuch
 * Kaiserchronik
 * Law
 * Sachsenspiegel

title: Middle High German


text:
Ain't Misbehavin' (UFO album)

Ain't Misbehavin' is an EP by English rock band UFO, recorded in 1987 after the band's USA tour, and released early in 1988.

Personnel

 * UFO
 * Phil Mogg – vocals
 * Paul Gray – bass guitar
 * Tommy McClendon (aka Atomik Tommy M) – guitar, backing vocals
 * Jim Simpson – drums, backing vocals
 * ? – keyboards

 * Production
 * Neil Levine – executive producer, engineer, mixing
 * Alan Cave – engineer, mixing
 * John Shaw – engineer, mixing
 * Brian Downey - Album Art Artist.

title: Ain't Misbehavin' (UFO album)


text:
Oshin, King of Armenia

Oshin (Օշին) (1282 – July 20, 1320) was king of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, ruling from 1307 to 1320. He was a member of the House of Lampron, the son of Leo II, King of Armenia and Queen Keran.

Oshin became king after the murder of his nephew Leo III and brother Hethum II at a feast at the hands of the Mongol general Bilarghu. He was supported by the Mongol Ilkhan Oljeitu, who had ordered the execution of Bilarghu in response to their assassinations. Oshin then ascended to the throne of Cilician Armenia and initiated his reign by raising an army and driving out the Mongols. He did this as retribution for the murder of his nephew and brother at the hands of the Mongol governor general of Cilicia, Bilarghu. Mongol general Bilarghu, in charge of the Mongol garrison in Cilicia and a devout Muslim, indicated his intention to build a mosque in the capital Sis. Hethum II complained to Öljeitü Khan (1304-1316) in a letter. On November 17, 1307, Bilarghu summoned the regent and the king to his encampment near Anazarbus and had them assassinated with their retinue. Oshin immediately marched against Bilarghu and defeated him, forcing him to leave Cilicia. He was crowned king and supported by Öljeitü, who had Bilarghu executed for his crime. Öljeitü then supported Oshin to become king of Cilician Armenia and Oshin was crowned and ascended to the throne.

Like his brother Hethum II, Oshin favored a union of the Armenian and Roman churches, which aroused no little popular discontent. The unification of these churches was a precondition to obtain help from Europe, but also a matter of huge popular discontent as the Catholic Crusader states had previously been involved in a number of deadly border clashes with the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. Nevertheless, Oshin appealed to Christian Europe as by his reign, the kingdom of Armenian Cilicia to protect his regions against the Muslim Mamluk Empire and the Ilkhanate. The Mongols were no longer a reliable ally as they were themselves weakened by this point due to constant wars with the Mamluks and infighting within the state. In 1309, he had his wife's uncle Oshin, Marshal of Armenia, executed for the murder of his brother Thoros III.

His sister Isabella of Armenia had married Amalric of Tyre, and when Amalric usurped the government of Cyprus from his brother Henry II of Cyprus, Henry was held in Armenia by Oshin. He was, however, released and returned to Cyprus on the assassination of Amalric in 1310.

Oshin was married three times:

 * First to his cousin, Isabel of Korikos, by whom he had one son, Leo IV (born 1309). She died in 1310.
 * Second to Isabelle of Lusignan, daughter of the King Hugh III of Cyprus and widow of Constantine of Neghir, Lord of Partzerpert. Oshin divorced her before 1316. Isabelle died in 1319.
 * Third to Joan of Taranto on February, 1316 in Tarsus. She had one son with him, George (1317 – after 1323).

On his death on July 20, 1320, Oshin was succeeded by his minor son Leo IV (sometimes referred to as Leo V). It was popularly believed that Oshin was poisoned by his cousin (and brother-in-law) Oshin of Korikos.

title: Oshin, King of Armenia


text:
Covenant (UFO album)

Covenant is the fifteenth album by the British hard rock band UFO. It was published as a limited edition 2-disc album, with disc 1, titled Covenant, containing entirely new material, and disc 2, titled Live USA, containing a collection of classics performed live. Covenant saw the return of Michael Schenker on guitar, as he had left the band in the middle of the Walk on Water tour.

Track listing

 * On CD 2, the following incorrect order of tracks is printed on the cover and on the disc itself:

Band members

 * Phil Mogg – vocals
 * Michael Schenker – guitar
 * Pete Way – bass
 * Aynsley Dunbar – drums
 * Simon Wright – drums (on Live USA)
 * Paul Raymond – guitar, keyboards (on Live USA)

Additional musicians

 * Jesse Bradman, Luis Maldonaldo – backing vocals
 * Kevin Carlson – keyboards

Production

 * Mike Varney – producer
 * Ralph Patlan – associate producer, engineer, mixing, mastering
 * Joe Marquez – engineer, mixing
 * Luis Maldonado – engineer, backing vocals
 * Gene Cornelius – assistant engineer
 * Tim Gennert – mastering
 * Steve Jennings – photography

title: Covenant (UFO album)


text:
Early New High German

Early New High German (ENHG) is a term for the period in the history of the German language generally defined, following Wilhelm Scherer, as the period 1350 to 1650, developing from Middle High German and into New High German.

The term is the standard translation of the German Frühneuhochdeutsch (Frnhd., Fnhd.), introduced by Scherer. The term Early Modern High German is also occasionally used for this period (but the abbreviation EMHG is generally used for Early Middle High German).

Periodisation
The start and end dates of ENHG are, like all linguistic periodisations, somewhat arbitrary. In spite of many alternative suggestions, Scherer's dates still command widespread acceptance. Linguistically, the mid-14th century is marked by the phonological changes to the vowel system that characterise the modern standard language; the mid-17th sees the loss of status for regional forms of language, and the triumph of German over Latin as the dominant, and then sole, language for public discourse.

Scherer's dates also have the merit of coinciding with two major demographic catastrophes with linguistic consequences: the Black Death, and the end of the Thirty Years' War. Arguably, the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, by ending religious wars and creating a Germany of many small sovereign states, brought about the essential political conditions for the final development of a universally acceptable standard language in the subsequent New High German period.

Alternative periodisations take the period to begin later, such as the invention of printing with moveable type in the 1450s.

Geographical variation
There was no standard Early New High German, and all forms of language display some local or regional characteristics. However, there was increasing harmonisation in the written and printed word, the start of developments towards the unified standard which was codified in the New High German period.

Dialects
With the end of eastward expansion, the geographical spread and the dialect map of German in the ENHG period remained the same as at the close of the MHG period.

Druckersprachen, "printers' languages"
Since the printers had a commercial interest in making their texts acceptable to a wide readership, they often strove to avoid purely local forms of language. This gave rise to so-called Druckersprachen ("printers' languages"), which are not necessarily identical to the spoken dialect of the town where the press was located. The most important centres of printing, with their regional Druckersprachen are:
 * West Central German: Frankfurt, Mainz, Worms, Cologne
 * East Central German: Wittenberg, Erfurt, Leipzig
 * Swabian: Augsburg, Ulm, Tübingen
 * Alemannic: Basel, Strassburg, Zürich
 * East Franconian: Nuremberg, Bamberg, Würzburg
 * Austro-Bavarian: Ingolstadt, Vienna.

Chancery languages
While the language of the printers remained regional, the period saw the gradual development of two forms of German (one Upper German, one Central German), which were supra-regional: the Schriftsprachen ("written languages", "documentary languages") of the chanceries of the two main political centres. The language of these centres had influence well beyond their own territorial and dialect boundaries.
 * The gemaine tiutsch ("common German") of the Chancery of the Emperor Maximilian I and his successors in Prague and then Vienna.
 * The East Central German of the Chancery of the Electorate of Saxony in Meissen

Emperor Maximilian's chancery was the first concerted and successful effort to introduce a standardised form of German for all German chanceries, and hence avoided the most idiosyncratic features of Austrian Upper German standards in favour of Central German alternatives. Emperor Maximilian's Prague Chancery and the Saxon Chancery used similar standards of German as they were bordering each other, both dialects originating from the linguistic admixture in the course of eastward German settlement. In addition, many Bohemians had fled to Saxony during the Hussite Wars, reinforcing the similarities between the dialects.

The influence of the Saxon Chancery was due in part to its adoption for his own published works by Martin Luther, who stated, "Ich rede nach der sächsischen Canzley, welcher nachfolgen alle Fürsten und Könige in Deutschland" ("My language is based on that of the Saxon Chancery, which is followed by all the princes and kings in Germany").

He also recognized the standardising force of the two chanceries: "Kaiser Maximilian und Kurf. Friedrich, H. zu Sachsen etc. haben im römischen Reich die deutschen Sprachen also in eine gewisse Sprache gezogen" ("The Emperor Maximilian and Duke Frederick, Elector of Saxony etc., have drawn the languages of Germany together").

Low German
Middle Low German, spoken across the whole of Northern Germany north of the Benrath Line in the Middle Ages, was a distinct West Germanic language. From the start of the 16th century, however, High German came increasingly to be used in this area not only in writing but also in the pulpit and in schools. By the end of the ENHG period, Low German had almost completely ceased to be used in writing or in formal and public speech and had become the low-status variant in a diglossic situation, with High German as the high-status variant.

Phonology and orthography
For a number of reasons it is not possible to give a single phonological system for ENHG: Also, the difficulty of deriving phonological information from the complexity of ENHG orthography means that many reference works do not treat orthography and phonology separately for this period.
 * dialectal variation
 * the differing times at which individual dialects introduced even shared sound changes
 * the lack of a prestige variant (such as the "Dichtersprache" provides for Middle High German)

Vowels
The MHG vowel system undergoes significant changes in the transition to ENHG and their uneven geographical distribution has served to further differentiate the modern dialects.

Diphthongization
The long high vowels, and  (spelt $\langleî\rangle$, $\langleû\rangle$ and $\langleiu\rangle$) are diphthongized to ,  and , spelt $\langleei\rangle$, $\langleau\rangle$ and $\langleeu/äu\rangle$. In many dialects they fall together with the original MHG diphthongs $\langleei\rangle$, $\langleou\rangle$ and $\langleöu\rangle$, which are all lowered.

Examples:
 * MHG snîden ("to cut") > NHG schneiden
 * MHG hût ("skin") > NHG Haut
 * MHG liute ("people") > NHG Leute.

This change started as early as the 12th century in Upper Bavarian, and only reached Moselle Franconian in the 16th century. It does not affect Alemannic (apart from Swabian) or Ripuarian dialects, which still retain the original long vowels. The map shows the distribution and chronology of this sound change. In Bavarian, the original diphthongs are monophthongized, avoiding a merger with the new diphthongs.

Monophthongisation
The MHG falling diphthongs, and  (spelt $\langleie\rangle$, $\langleuo\rangle$ and $\langleüe\rangle$) are monophthongised, replacing the long high vowels lost in the diphthongisation. In the case of >  the MHG spelling is retained and in Modern German $\langleie\rangle$ indicates the long vowel.

Examples:
 * MHG liebe ("love) > NHG Liebe
 * MHG bruoder ("brother") > NHG Bruder
 * MHG brüeder ("brothers") > NHG Brüder

This change, sometimes called the Central German Monophthongisation, affects mainly the Central German dialects, along with South Franconian and East Franconian. The other Upper German dialects largely retain the original diphthongs.

Changes in vowel quantity
There are two changes in vowel quantity in ENHG, the lengthening of short vowels and the shortening of long vowels. Both show wide variation between dialects but appear earlier and more completely in Central German dialects. Many individual words form exceptions to these changes, though the lengthening is carried out more consistently.

1. Lengthening: MHG short vowels in open syllables (that is, syllables that end in a vowel) tend to be lengthened in the ENHG period. This is not reflected directly in spelling, but it is the source of the Modern German spelling convention that a vowel ending a syllable is always long.

Examples:
 * MHG sagen ("to say") > NHG sagen
 * MHG übel ("evil") > NHG Übel

2. Shortening: MHG long vowels tend to be shortened in the ENHG period before certain consonants (, and others) and before certain consonant combinations (,, and , , ,  followed by another consonant).

Examples: This shortening seems to have taken place later than the monophthongisation, since the long vowels which result from that change are often shortened.
 * MHG hât ("has") > NHG hat
 * MHG dâhte ("thought") > NHG dachte
 * MHG lêrche ("lark") > NHG Lerche
 * MHG jâmer ("suffering") > NHG Jammer

Examples:
 * MHG muoter ("mother" > NHG Mutter (via )
 * MHG lieht ("light" > NHG Licht (via )

Consonants
The overall consonant system of German remains largely unchanged in the transition from MHG to Modern German. However, in many cases sounds changed in particular environments and therefore changed in distribution. Some of the more significant are the following. (In addition, there are many other changes in particular dialects or in particular words.)

 * 1) MHG had two sibilants, written $\langles\rangle$/$\langless\rangle$ and $\langlez\rangle$/$\langlezz\rangle$. The difference between these is uncertain, but in ENHG both fell together in . (The affricate, for which $\langlez\rangle$ is also used, remained unchanged.)
 * 2) Before vowels this becomes voiced to, e.g. MHG sehen  ("to see")  > NHG sehen.
 * 3) Initially before consonants becomes, indicated by the grapheme , e.g. MHG snîden ("to cut") > NHG schneiden . Before  and  this is not indicated in spelling, e.g. MHG stein ("stone") > NHG Stein.

 * 1) In initial position the bilabial fricative becomes the labio-dental, though this is not reflected in any change in spelling, e.g. MHG wil ("want to") > NHG will . In a few words, this also takes place between vowels, e.g. ewig  ("eternal").
 * 2) Otherwise it is either lost, e.g. MHG snėwes ("of the snow") > NHG Schnees, or forms a diphthong with a neighbouring vowel (e.g. MHG brâwe ("brow") > NHG Braue.

 * 1) Medial is lost, though it remains in spelling to indicate the length of the preceding vowel, e.g. MHG sehen  ("to see") > NHG sehen.

The loss of and the $\langles\rangle$:$\langlez\rangle$ contrast are the only structural changes to the consonant system.

Morphology
As with phonology, the range of variation between dialects and time periods makes it impossible to cite a unified morphology for ENHG. The sound changes of the vowels had which brought consequent changes to
 * verb conjugations
 * further simplification of the noun declensions

Syntax
The following are the main syntactical developments in ENHG:
 * Noun phrase
 * Increasing complexity: in chancery documents noun phrases increasingly incorporate prepositional and participial phases, and this development spreads from there to other types of formal and official writing.
 * Attributive genitive: the so-called "Saxon genitive", in which the genitive phrase precedes the noun (e.g. der sunnen schein, literally "of-the-sun shine") increasingly makes way for the now standard, post-nominal construction (e.g. der schein der sonne, literally "the shine of the sun"), though it remains the norm where the noun in the genitive is a proper noun (Marias Auto).
 * Verb phrase
 * Increasing complexity: more complex verbal constructions with participles and infinitives.
 * Verb position: the positioning of verbal components characteristic of NHG (finite verb second in main clauses, first in subordinate clauses; non-finite verb forms in clause-final position) gradually becomes firmly established.
 * Decline of the preterite: an earlier development in the spoken language (especially in Upper German), the replacement of simple preterite forms by perfect forms with an auxiliary verb and the past participle becomes increasingly common from the 17th century.
 * Negation: double negation ceases to be acceptable as an intensified negation; the enclitic negative particle ne/en falls out of use and an adverb of negation (nicht, nie) becomes obligatory (e.g.MHG ine weiz (niht), ENHG ich weiss nicht, "I don't know").
 * Case government
 * Decline of the genitive: Verbs that take a genitive object increasingly replace this with an accusative object or a prepositional phrase. Prepositions that govern the genitive likewise tend to switch to the accusative.

Literature
The period saw the invention of printing with moveable type (c.1455) and the Reformation (from 1517). Both of these were significant contributors to the development of the Modern German Standard language, as they further promoted the development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area – even the illiterate, who were read to. The most important single text of the period was Luther's Bible translation, the first part of which was published in 1522, though this is now not credited with the central role in creating the standard that was once attributed to it. This is also the first period in which prose works, both literary and discursive, became more numerous and more important than verse.

Grammar

 * 7 vols.
 * (Reprint of 1909 edition)

Dictionaries

 * Alfred Götze. Frühneuhochdeutsches Glossar. 2. Aufl. Bonn 1920 (= Kleine Texte für Vorlesungen und Übungen, 101); 5. Aufl. Berlin 1956; Neudrucke 1960 u. ö. The second edition (1920) is online: archive.org.
 * Christa Baufeld, Kleines frühneuhochdeutsches Wörterbuch. Niemeyer, Tübingen 1996, ISBN 3-484-10268-3.
 * Frühneuhochdeutsches Wörterbuch. Hrsg. von Robert R. Anderson [für Bd. 1] / Ulrich Goebel / Anja Lobenstein-Reichmann [für die Bände 5, 6, 11–13] und Oskar Reichmann. Berlin / New York 1989 ff.

title: Early New High German