text:
User talk:Cclarke

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

UtherSRG 20:32, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

PS. You can sign your name using three tildes, like. If you use four, you can add a datestamp too.

Your edits
Hi. That was a mighty draconian revert you just did in Sexual slang. Many of those terms were worth keeping, IMO. Perhaps you should spend some time reading through them. "Axe wound" and "goody bag" (already on the page) are fine, but "cock warmer" and "man in the boat" (on the version you reverted, and both terms that are somewhat common) aren't? - dcljr 07:41, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Please describe your edits. Several of your edits to Sexual slang have no description but are, in fact, very major changes! I'm, having a hell of a time tracking all the deletions and restorations of content that have taken place in the last couple of days. - dcljr 00:12, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

'Sexual slang' page
I see you've been editing the Sexual slang page. Please see Talk:Sexual slang and comment (on that Talk page, not mine) if necessary. I'd like to standardize the page as much as possible but different people seem to have different ideas. We need to hash them out. (I'm sending this same message to everyone who's made multiple edits to that page in the last few days.) - dcljr 05:25, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Article Licensing
Hi, I've started a drive to get users to multi-license all of their contributions that they've made to either (1) all U.S. state, county, and city articles or (2) all articles, using the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (CC-by-sa) v1.0 and v2.0 Licenses or into the public domain if they prefer. The CC-by-sa license is a true free documentation license that is similar to Wikipedia's license, the GFDL, but it allows other projects, such as WikiTravel, to use our articles. Since you are among the top 2000 Wikipedians by edits, I was wondering if you would be willing to multi-license all of your contributions or at minimum those on the geographic articles. Over 90% of people asked have agreed. For More Information:
 * Multi-Licensing FAQ - Lots of questions answered
 * Multi-Licensing Guide
 * Free the Rambot Articles Project

To allow us to track those users who muli-license their contributions, many users copy and paste the " " template into their user page, but there are other options at Template messages/User namespace. The following examples could also copied and pasted into your user page:

 * Option 1
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

OR
 * Option 2
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions to any U.S. state, county, or city article as described below:

Or if you wanted to place your work into the public domain, you could replace " " with "  ". If you only prefer using the GFDL, I would like to know that too. Please let me know what you think at my talk page. It's important to know either way so no one keeps asking. -- Ram-Man (comment| talk)

Unverified image
Hi! Thanks for uploading the following image:

 * Image:Ds-Felicia.gif

I notice it currently doesn't have an image copyright tag. Could you add one to let us know its copyright status? (You can use : gfdlif you release it under the GNU Free Documentation License,   This work is copyrighted and unlicensed.  It does not fall into one of the blanket fair use categories listed at Fair use or Fair use.  However, it is believed that the use of this work: qualifies as fair use under United States copyright law.  Any other uses of this image, on Wikipedia or elsewhere, may be copyright infringement.  See Fair use and Copyrights.
 * To illustrate the object in question
 * Where no free equivalent is available or could be created that would adequately give the same information
 * On the English-language Wikipedia, hosted on servers in the United States by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation ,

To the uploader: Please add a detailed fair use rationale for each use, as described on Image description page, as well as the source of the work and copyright information.

'''This tag should not be used. Instead, use either one of the more specific tags listed at Image copyright tags or {{Non-free fair use in|article name}}.'''

if you claim fair use, etcetc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know at my talk page and I'll tag it for you. Thanks so much. Denni ☯ 04:23, 2004 Dec 13 (UTC)

P.S. You can help tag other images at Untagged_Images. Thanks again.

Pro Wrestling WikiProject
Hello Cclarke, would you like to join the Pro Wrestling wikiProject?
 * — M o e   ε  00:13, 13 January 2006 (UTC)

South Park
Hey, thanks for finishing off those infoboxes, I'd done the first 100 but just ran out of steam, so thanks again :) Mallocks 17:55, 18 January 2006 (UTC)

Image Tagging Image:Akari.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Akari.jpg. I notice the image page currently doesn't specify who created the image, so the copyright status is therefore unclear. If you have not created the image yourself then you need to argue that we have the right to use the image on Wikipedia (see copyright tagging below). If you have not created the image yourself then you should also specify where you found it, i.e., in most cases link to the website where you got it, and the terms of use for content from that page.

If the image also doesn't have a copyright tag then you must also add one. If you created/took the picture then you can use GFDL to release it under the GFDL. If you believe the image qualifies as fair use, please read fair use, and then use a tag such as or one of the other tags listed at Image copyright tags. See Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other images, please check that you have specified their source and copyright tagged them, too. You can find a list of image pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any unsourced and untagged images will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. Stan 05:05, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

Previously Deleted Categories
Please take care not to recreate previously deleted categories. When you create a category (or article), just above the edit box is a link that you can follow to see if it has been previously deleted. Thanks. Hu 22:13, 28 January 2006 (UTC)

Image Tagging Image:Snitsky.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Snitsky.jpg. The image page currently doesn't specify who created the image, so the copyright status is therefore unclear. If you have not created the image yourself then you need to argue that we have the right to use the image on Wikipedia (see copyright tagging below). If you have not created the image yourself then you should also specify where you found it, i.e., in most cases link to the website where you got it, and the terms of use for content from that page.

If the image also doesn't have a copyright tag then you must also add one. If you created/took the picture then you can use GFDL to release it under the GFDL. If you believe the image qualifies as fair use, please read fair use, and then use a tag such as or one of the other tags listed at Image copyright tags. See Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other images, please check that you have specified their source and copyright tagged them, too. You can find a list of image pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any unsourced and untagged images will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me. -- Carnildo 08:15, 7 February 2006 (UTC)

Image Tagging Image:Setsuka.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Setsuka.jpg. I notice the 'image' page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is therefore unclear. If you have not created this media yourself then you need to argue that we have the right to use the media on Wikipedia (see copyright tagging below). If you have not created the media yourself then you should also specify where you found it, i.e., in most cases link to the website where you got it, and the terms of use for content from that page.

If the media also doesn't have a copyright tag then you must also add one. If you created/took the picture, audio, or video then you can use GFDL to release it under the GFDL. If you believe the media qualifies as fair use, please read fair use, and then use a tag such as or one of the other tags listed at Image copyright tags. See Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other media, please check that you have specified their source and copyright tagged them, too. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any unsourced and untagged images will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. Dethomas 05:35, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

Neinhalt Sieger
Hello, and nice to meet you. I see, you, like I have a bit of an interest in constructing articles for SNK's elaborative fighting series of video games. That's great, and I'm glad I'm recieving a bit of assitance. However, concernng the article above, could I ask that you refrain from making articles with just the templates in the future..? It leaves an big, empty stub, and it makes the job somewhat more vexing for me, as I have to speed up my analysis and studying process to complete it up after to you. In the future, could you notify me before creating an template or character page...? That would be wonderful, as I could respond in an ample amount of time and we could fill in the page together or the like. Thank you, and please reply on my talkpage. -ZeroTalk 21:19, 17 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Please stop making articles like this if you don't intend to write anything. -ZeroTalk 00:03, 3 March 2006 (UTC)

Category: Fictional characters who can fly
Hi. I'm sorry to be the bearer of bad news, but [|a consensus of Wikipedia editors] have agreed after a 10-day comment period that this category unfortunately needs to be deleted as impractical. Please click on the link for the debate's discussion. A good new category is always welcome; some just don't work out, which is just the editorial process. I hope you'll continue to be an active member of the Wikipedia community. -- Tenebrae 18:10, 12 July 2006 (UTC)

Another cfd nomination
I have nominated a category of your authorship, Category:Greedy_fictional_characters, for deletion. Just thought you might like to know. --tjstrf 06:23, 18 July 2006 (UTC)

Category:Fictional motorcyclists
Hi Trident. I am concerned about the usefulness of Category:Motorcyclists and Category:Fictional motorcyclists, which you created, especially as they become more and more populated. I have listed them at Categories for discussion, and was hoping that you would join the the conversation. Best regards. ×Meegs 13:07, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

Image tagging for Image:Russ_haas.jpg
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For more information on using images, see the following pages:
 * Image use policy
 * Image copyright tags

This is an automated notice by OrphanBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see Media copyright questions. 14:05, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

Image tagging for Image:Bishamon.jpg
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For more information on using images, see the following pages:
 * Image use policy
 * Image copyright tags

This is an automated notice by OrphanBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see Media copyright questions. 08:07, 20 February 2007 (UTC)

Josh Piscura
An editor has added a "" template to the article Josh Piscura, suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process. All contributions are appreciated, but it is not believed it satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and has been explained why in the deletion notice (see also "What Wikipedia is not" and Wikipedia's deletion policy). You may contest the proposed deletion by removing the  notice, but please explain why you disagree with the proposed deletion in your edit summary or on its talk page. Also, please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Even though removing the deletion notice will prevent deletion through the proposed deletion process, the article may still be deleted if it matches any of the speedy deletion criteria or it can be sent to Articles for Deletion, where it may be deleted if consensus to delete is reached. MadMax 06:10, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

Orphaned fair use image (Image:614 image 02.jpg)
Thanks for uploading Image:614 image 02.jpg. The image description page currently specifies that the image is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, the image is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the image was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that images for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable under fair use (see our fair use policy).

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Non-free use disputed for Image:JannArden LoveistheOnlySoldier.jpg
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Orphaned non-free image (Image:JannArden LoveistheOnlySoldier.jpg)
Thanks for uploading Image:JannArden LoveistheOnlySoldier.jpg. The image description page currently specifies that the image is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, the image is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the image was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that images for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).

If you have uploaded other unlicensed media, please check whether they're used in any articles or not. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any non-free images not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. BetacommandBot 12:43, 27 May 2007 (UTC)

Non-free use disputed for Image:Davidusher-ifgodhadcurves.jpg
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If it is determined that the image does not qualify under fair use, it will be deleted within a couple of days according to our Criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 00:46, 3 June 2007 (UTC)

Unspecified source for Image:Anakaris.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Anakaris.jpg. I noticed that the file's description page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is unclear. If you did not create this file yourself, then you will need to specify the owner of the copyright. If you obtained it from a website, then a link to the website from which it was taken, together with a restatement of that website's terms of use of its content, is usually sufficient information. However, if the copyright holder is different from the website's publisher, then their copyright should also be acknowledged.

As well as adding the source, please add a proper copyright licensing tag if the file doesn't have one already. If you created/took the picture, audio, or video then the GFDL-self tag can be used to release it under the GFDL. If you believe the media meets the criteria at Fair use, use a tag such as or one of the other tags listed at Image copyright tags. See Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other files, consider checking that you have specified their source and tagged them, too. You can find a list of files you have uploaded by following [ this link]. Unsourced and untagged images may be deleted one week after they have been tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If the image is copyrighted under a non-free license (per Fair use) then the image will be deleted 48 hours after 13:22, 10 July 2007 (UTC). If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. MER-C 13:22, 10 July 2007 (UTC)

Image:707_image_14.jpg
I have tagged Image:707_image_14.jpg as a disputed use of non-free media, because there is a concern that the rationale you have provided for using this image under "fair use" may be invalid. Please clarify your fair use rationale on the image description page. Thank you. Rockfang (talk) 10:15, 3 January 2008 (UTC)

Orphaned non-free media (Image:Diaryofamadblackwoman poster.jpg)
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If you have uploaded other unlicensed media, please check whether they're used in any articles or not. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that all non-free media not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. BJBot (talk) 01:16, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

Disputed fair use rationale for Image:The Wild poster.jpg
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If it is determined that the image does not qualify under fair use, it will be deleted within a couple of days according to our criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot (talk) 02:39, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

Orphaned non-free media (Image:Oceanstwelveposter.jpg)
Thanks for uploading Image:Oceanstwelveposter.jpg. The media description page currently specifies that it is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, it is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the media was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that media for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).

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CfD nomination of Category:Fictional coaches
Category:Fictional coaches, which you created, has been nominated for renaming. If you would like to participate in the discussion, you are invited to add your comments at the category's entry on the Categories for discussion page. Thank you. – Good Ol’factory (talk) 23:16, 28 May 2008 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Son_of_the_Mask_poster.jpg
Thanks for uploading or contributing to Image:Son_of_the_Mask_poster.jpg. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in Wikipedia articles constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use. Suggestions on how to do so can be found here.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If you have uploaded other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on those pages too. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any non-free media lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. Do you want to opt out of receiving this notice? Rettetast (talk) 09:01, 20 July 2008 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:MrsBeauregarde2005.jpg
Thanks for uploading or contributing to Image:MrsBeauregarde2005.jpg. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is not a suitable explanation or rationale as to why each specific use in Wikipedia constitutes fair use. Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale.

If you have uploaded other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on those pages too. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any non-free media lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. --Geniac (talk) 18:20, 12 August 2008 (UTC)

CfD nomination of Category:Fictional Americans by ethnicity
Category:Fictional Americans by ethnicity, which you created, has been nominated for deletion, merging, or renaming. If you would like to participate in the discussion, you are invited to add your comments at the category's entry on the Categories for discussion page. Thank you. Cgingold (talk) 19:47, 21 October 2008 (UTC)

Unreferenced BLPs
Hello Cclarke! Thank you for your contributions. I am a bot alerting you that 1 of the articles that you created  is tagged as an Unreferenced Biography of a Living Person. The biographies of living persons policy requires that all personal or potentially controversial information be sourced. In addition, to ensure verifiability, all biographies should be based on reliable sources. If you were to bring this article up to standards, it would greatly help us with the current Category:All_unreferenced_BLPs article backlog. Once the article is adequately referenced, please remove the unreferencedBLP tag. Here is the article:

Thanks!--DASHBot (talk) 17:35, 17 January 2010 (UTC)
 * 1) Jessie Flower -

Proposed deletion of Felicia (Darkstalkers)

The article Felicia (Darkstalkers) has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
 * Fails Wikipedia's notability guidelines for fictional characters.

While all contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the  notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing  will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. The speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Neelix (talk) 00:57, 22 June 2010 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for File:Chocolatepalace.jpg
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If you have uploaded other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on those pages too. You can find a list of 'file' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "File" from the dropdown box. Note that any non-free media lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. Sfan00 IMG (talk) 14:02, 29 June 2010 (UTC)

File source problem with File:PrincePondicherry.jpg
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If you have uploaded other files, consider verifying that you have specified sources for those files as well. You can find a list of files you have created [ in your upload log]. Unsourced and untagged images may be deleted one week after they have been tagged per Wikipedia's criteria for speedy deletion, F4. If the image is copyrighted and non-free, the image will be deleted 48 hours after 15:13, 4 May 2011 (UTC) per speedy deletion criterion F7. If the file is already gone, you can still make a request for undeletion and ask for a chance to fix the problem. You may wish to read the Wikipedia's image use policy. If you have any questions or are in need of assistance please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. Musamies (talk) 15:13, 4 May 2011 (UTC)

Categories for discussion nomination of Category:Fictional Martians
Category:Fictional Martians, which you created, has been nominated for discussion. If you would like to participate in the discussion, you are invited to add your comments at the category's entry on the Categories for discussion page. Thank you. —Justin (koavf)❤T☮C☺M☯ 06:58, 10 June 2011 (UTC)

Categories for discussion nomination of Category:Literature sidekicks
Category:Literature sidekicks, which you created, has been nominated for discussion. If you would like to participate in the discussion, you are invited to add your comments at the category's entry on the Categories for discussion page. Thank you. Mike Selinker (talk) 00:27, 18 August 2011 (UTC)

Orphaned non-free image File:707 image 14.jpg
 Thanks for uploading File:707 image 14.jpg. The image description page currently specifies that the image is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, the image is currently not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the image was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that images for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).

Note that any non-free images not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described in the criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. Skier Dude ( talk ) 04:27, 11 February 2012 (UTC)

File:Red Man's Greed scene.jpg listed for deletion
A file that you uploaded or altered, File:Red Man's Greed scene.jpg, has been listed at Files for deletion. Please see the to see why it has been listed (you may have to search for the title of the image to find its entry). Feel free to add your opinion on the matter below the nomination. Thank you.  Taylor Trescott  - my talk + my edits 00:20, 22 October 2013 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
Hi, You appear to be eligible to vote in the current Arbitration Committee election. The Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to enact binding solutions for disputes between editors, primarily related to serious behavioural issues that the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the ability to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail. If you wish to participate, you are welcome to review the candidates' statements and submit your choices on the voting page. For the Election committee, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 22:15, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

Category:Fictional volleyball players has been nominated for discussion
Category:Fictional volleyball players, which you created, has been nominated for possible deletion, merging, or renaming. A discussion is taking place to see if it abides with the categorization guidelines. If you would like to participate in the discussion, you are invited to add your comments at the category's entry on the categories for discussion page. Thank you. JDDJS (talk) 16:17, 18 July 2018 (UTC)
 * For what it's worth, I listed the former contents at Lists of volleyball players. – Fayenatic  L ondon 14:23, 23 November 2023 (UTC)

Nomination of Jessie Flower for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Jessie Flower is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Jessie Flower until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Tyw7 (🗣 Talk) — If (reply) then (ping me) 18:36, 13 April 2019 (UTC)

Nomination of Ryuji Yamazaki for deletion
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Douglass North

Douglass Cecil North (November 5, 1920 – November 23, 2015) was an American economist known for his work in economic history. Along with Robert Fogel, he received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1993. In the words of the Nobel Committee, North and Fogel "renewed research in economic history by applying economic theory and quantitative methods in order to explain economic and institutional change."

North was an influential figure in New Institutional Economics, which emphasizes the impact of institutions on economic behaviors and outcomes. North argued, "Institutions provide the incentive structure of an economy; as that structure evolves, it shapes the direction of economic change towards growth, stagnation, or decline." Rational and wealth-maximizing individuals lack complete information and have difficulties monitoring and enforcing agreements. Institutions can provide information and reduce transaction costs, thus encouraging economic activity.

Biography
Douglass North was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on November 5, 1920. He moved several times as a child due to his father's work at MetLife. The family lived in Ottawa, Ontario, in Lausanne, Switzerland, in New York City, and in Wallingford, Connecticut.

North was educated at Ashbury College in Ottawa and the Choate School in Wallingford. He was accepted at Harvard at the same time that his father became the head of MetLife on the West Coast, so North chose to attend the University of California, Berkeley. During his time at Berkeley, North was a member of the Chi Phi Fraternity. In 1942, he graduated with a B.A. degree in General Curriculum-Humanities. Although his grades amounted to slightly better than a "C" average, he managed to complete a triple major in political science, philosophy and economics. That same year, he entered the US Merchant Marine Academy, graduated a year later and went to sea for three years as a deck officer.

A conscientious objector in World War II, North became a navigator in the Merchant Marine, traveling between San Francisco and Australia. During that time, he read economics and picked up his hobby of photography. He taught navigation at the Maritime Service Officers' School in Alameda during the last year of the war, and struggled with the decision of whether to become a photographer or an economist.

North returned to UC Berkeley, where he obtained a Ph.D. degree in economics in 1952. He subsequently began his career as an assistant professor at the University of Washington.

North died on November 23, 2015, at his summer home in Benzonia, Michigan from esophageal cancer at the age of 95.

Academic career
From 1951 to 1956, North was an assistant professor of economics at the University of Washington, then from 1956 to 1960, an associate professor. In 1960, North became co-editor of the Journal of Economic History, popularizing cliometrics (New Economic History), and from 1960 to 1983, he was professor of economics at the University of Washington, where he also chaired the economics department from 1967 to 1979. In 1979 he served as the Peterkin Professor of Political Economy at Rice University, and in 1981–82 as the Pitt Professor of American History and Institutions at Cambridge University, before joining the faculty of Washington University in St. Louis in 1983 as the Henry R. Luce Professor of Law and Liberty in the Department of Economics (where he also served as director of the center for Political Economy from 1984 to 1990). He was the Bartlett Burnap Senior Fellow at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University.

In 1991, he became the first economic historian to win the John R. Commons Award, which was established by the International Honors Society for Economics in 1965.

A collection of North's papers is housed at the Rubenstein Library at Duke University.

Research agenda
Along with Ronald Coase and Oliver Williamson, he helped found the International Society for the New Institutional Economics (ISNIE) which held its first meeting in St. Louis in 1997. His research included property rights, transaction costs, the institutional basis of markets, and economic organization in history as well as economic development in developing countries.

North served as an expert for the Copenhagen Consensus and as an advisor to governments around the world. He was engaged in research (with John J. Wallis of the University of Maryland and Barry Weingast of Stanford University) on how countries emerge from what they call "the natural state" and into long-run economic growth. He was a trustee of the Economists for Peace and Security and a special adviser to the non-profit organization Vipani.

Institutions
In 1991 Douglass North published a paper, entitled 'Institutions,' in the Journal of Economic Perspectives. This paper summarized much of his earlier research relating to economic and institutional change. North defines institutions as "humanly devised constraints that structure political, economic and social interactions". Constraints, as North describes, are devised as formal rules (constitutions, laws, property rights) and informal restraints (sanctions, taboos, customs, traditions, codes of conduct), which usually contribute to the perpetuation of order and safety within a market or society. The degree to which they are effective is subject to varying circumstances, such as a government's limited coercive force, a lack of organized state, or the presence of strong religious precept.

Section 2 of North's 1991 paper describes the economic development of societies as occurring in stages:

North begins with local exchange within the village. In this setting, specialization "is rudimentary and self-sufficiency characterizes most individual households", with small-scale village trade existing within dense social networks of informal constraints that facilitate local exchange, and a relatively low transaction cost. However, this confined market reduces the potential of specialization and increases production costs. In this close-knit network "people have an intimate understanding of each other, and the threat of violence is a continuous force for preserving order ..."

With growth, the market extends beyond the village into larger, interconnected regions. As the participants of a transaction become more socially distant, the terms of exchange must be made more explicit. This increase in transaction costs necessitates institutions that reduce the risks of being cheated, either by raising "the benefits of cooperative solutions or the costs of defection". With increased specialization, production costs are reduced and can justify higher transaction costs.

As long-distance trade becomes more feasible, generally through caravans or lengthy ship voyages, individuals and groups experience occupational and geographic specialization. Society also experiences a rise of formal trading centers (temporary gathering places, towns or cities). From the development of long-distance trade arise two transactional cost problems.

The first transactional cost problem is agency: the transfer of one's goods or services outside the control of local rule leaves the rules of exchange undefined, the risk of unfair trade high, and the contracts within society unenforced. For this reason, sedentary merchants often would send their kin with the product to ensure its safe arrival and the fulfillment of agreed terms of exchange by the receiving party.

The second transactional cost problem is the enforcement of contracts. Historically this problem was met with either armed forces protecting ships or caravans, or use of tolls by local coercive groups. However, in modern societies, institutions acting cooperatively in the interest of free market trade provide protection for goods and enforcement of contracts. Negotiation and enforcement in alien parts of the world require the development of a standardized system of weights and measures.

As development continues, the rise of capital markets (and the protection of associated property rights), creates social capital and enables citizens to gain wealth. Technology plays an instrumental role in the continued development of manufacturing sectors, and acts to lower transaction costs in several ways. The most substantial benefits are generally the result of transportation improvements.

Eventually, society becomes overwhelmingly urban. This final stage of development specialization requires increasing percentages of the resources of the society to be active in the market so that the transaction sector becomes a large share of gross national product. Highly specialized forms of transaction organizations emerge at this stage. Globalized specialization and division of labor demand institutions to ensure property rights even when trading in neighboring countries enabling capital markets to develop "with credible commitment on the part of the players."

North enumerates three primitive types of exchange: All three methods above are found to be much less likely to evolve than large urban societies.
 * Tribal Society "relies on a dense social network".(Colson 1974, p. 59)
 * Bazaars "high measurement costs; continuous effort at clientization; intensive bargaining at every margin"
 * Long-distance caravan trade illustrates the informal constraints that made trade possible in a world where protection was essential and no organized state existed.

North's paper concludes with a few intriguing questions which his paper aimed to address:
 * What is it about informal constraints that give them such a pervasive influence upon the long-run character of economies?
 * What is the relationship between formal and informal constraints?
 * How does an economy develop the informal constraints that make individuals constrain their behavior so that they make political and judicial systems effective forces for third party enforcement?

Transaction Costs, Institutions, and Economic Performance
In a 1992 paper, North argues that neoclassical economic theory overlooks the institutions required to create efficient markets with low monitoring and transaction costs. He develops a framework for explaining how institutions change and become more efficient over time.

North theorizes that all transaction costs are rooted in information asymmetries between the parties to an exchange. Hence, each person must expend resources ascertaining the qualities of the good she is buying and enforcing the terms of the trade. Because these costs pose such a large barrier to economic growth, a central function of political and economic institutions is to control them, often by disincentivizing fraud, theft, and other socially detrimental behaviors. Yet those who command the political system will structure these institutions to maximize their personal benefit, rather than the social benefit, so transaction costs will not always be minimized by existing institutions.

Importantly for North, individuals and organizations make their decisions on the basis of imperfect ideologies, which are "mental models" for how the world functions. Therefore, the politicians who craft institutions will, despite their best efforts, occasionally fail to maximize their personal gain. When this happens, entrepreneurs who believe that institutional changes will significantly benefit them will enter the political realm to effect this change. The result is incremental institutional change, pushed forward by self-seeking individuals.

North argues that this change will usually be slow for two reasons. First, the powerful actors in control of the political systems made the institutions for their benefit and so will be reluctant to change them, resulting in path dependence. Second, informal institutions—like social customs and cultural practices—are by their nature slow to change, yet play a role in determining transaction costs.

North goes on to apply this framework to analyze a few historical examples, including the Green Revolution, the American Revolution, and imperial Spain, as well as to offer some general policy recommendations.

Violence and the Rise of Open-Access Orders
In Violence and the Rise of Open-Access Orders, North, Wallis, and Weingast integrate a theory of politics with a theory of economics to explain the institutions, i.e. the rules governing behavior, that develop in human societies. In their view, the primary task of any set of institutions is to limit violence among individuals. They focus on two sets of institutions—which they call social orders—that accomplish this task, but which also have different effects on economic growth.

The first set of institutions are called "limited access orders," and they are characterized by elite control of the political and economic systems to extract rents. Violence is limited because the most powerful actors maintain law and order to protect their rents. However, their means of maintaining law and order require supporting economic and political monopolies, which stunt economic growth.

The second set of institutions that North et al. propose are called "open access orders," and they limit violence through a politically controlled military. These societies allow anyone who meets some impersonal criteria to form political and economic organizations, resulting in a Schumpeterian process of "creative destruction." The military limits societal violence, and the political actors that control this military are themselves constrained by the constant competition for political and economic power that this process of creative destruction entails. Unlike limited access orders, open access orders stimulate economic growth since solutions to economic and political challenges can come from any individual in society, rather than a select few.

North et al. argue that modern open access orders emerged from limited access orders through a two-step process: first, the application of impersonal laws to elites and the consolidation of military power, and second, the extension of elite privileges to the rest of society. They apply this theory to explain the legitimacy of elections within different societies and to explain why economic growth is more consistent in modern open access orders than it is in limited access orders.

Personal life
North was married twice. His first marriage, to Lois Heister in 1944, resulted in three sons: Douglass Jr., Christopher and Malcolm. During the marriage, Heister became a notable activist and politician. The marriage ended in divorce. North remarried in 1972, to Elisabeth Case.

Legacy
As a Nobel laureate, North's reputation extended both from his own university environment to the international influences made by his research and writing. North's research in New Economic History has included such notable economists and historians as Jonathan Hughes, Richard Sutch, Lloyd Mercer, Jim Sheperd, Donald Gordon, Gary Walton, Lance E. Davis, Robert Huttenback, Roger Ransom, Gaston Rimlinger, Terry L. Anderson, P.J. Hill, Philip Coelho, and David Knowles as recorded in the 60th Anniversary dedication volume in memory of North.

Publications
North's other major publications include:
 * The Economic Growth of the United States, 1790–1860, Prentice Hall, 1961.
 * Institutional Change and American Economic Growth, Cambridge University Press, 1971 (with Lance Davis).
 * Growth and Welfare in the American Past, Prentice-Hall, 1974.
 * Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth-Century England, Cambridge University Press, 1989
 * Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press, 1990 ISBN 0521397340.
 * Also published as Nobel Prize Lecture.
 * Empirical Studies in Institutional Change, Cambridge University Press, 1996 (edited with Lee Alston & Thrainn Eggertsson) ISBN 0521557437.
 * Understanding the Process of Economic Change, Princeton University Press, 2005 ISBN 0691145954.
 * Violence and Social Orders: A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History, Cambridge University Press, 2009 (with John Joseph Wallis and Barry R. Weingast) ISBN 1107646995.
 * Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth-Century England, Cambridge University Press, 1989
 * Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press, 1990 ISBN 0521397340.
 * Also published as Nobel Prize Lecture.
 * Empirical Studies in Institutional Change, Cambridge University Press, 1996 (edited with Lee Alston & Thrainn Eggertsson) ISBN 0521557437.
 * Understanding the Process of Economic Change, Princeton University Press, 2005 ISBN 0691145954.
 * Violence and Social Orders: A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History, Cambridge University Press, 2009 (with John Joseph Wallis and Barry R. Weingast) ISBN 1107646995.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Douglass North


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VfD: List of songs with brackets in their titles
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Proposed deletion of The Player (2004 TV series)

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Nomination of The Player (2004 TV series) for deletion
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United States National Library of Medicine

The United States National Library of Medicine (NLM), operated by the United States federal government, is the world's largest medical library.

Located in Bethesda, Maryland, the NLM is an institute within the National Institutes of Health. Its collections include more than seven million books, journals, technical reports, manuscripts, microfilms, photographs, and images on medicine and related sciences, including some of the world's oldest and rarest works.

The current acting director of the NLM is Stephen Sherry.

History
The precursor of the National Library of Medicine, established in 1836, was the Library of the Surgeon General's Office, a part of the office of the Surgeon General of the United States Army. The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology and its Medical Museum were founded in 1862 as the Army Medical Museum. Throughout their history the Library of the Surgeon General's Office and the Army Medical Museum often shared quarters. From 1866 to 1887, they were housed in Ford's Theatre after production there was stopped, following the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln.

In 1956, the library collection was transferred from the control of the U.S. Department of Defense to the Public Health Service of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and renamed the National Library of Medicine, through the instrumentality of Frank Bradway Rogers, who was the director from 1956 to 1963. The library moved to its current quarters in Bethesda, Maryland, on the campus of the National Institutes of Health, in 1962.

Directors
Directors from 1945 to present

Publications and informational resources
Since 1879, the National Library of Medicine has published the Index Medicus, a monthly guide to articles, in nearly five thousand selected journals. The last issue of Index Medicus was printed in December 2004, but this information is offered in the freely accessible PubMed, among the more than fifteen million MEDLINE journal article references and abstracts going back to the 1960s and 1.5 million references going back to the 1950s.

The National Library of Medicine runs the National Center for Biotechnology Information, which houses biological databases (PubMed among them) that are freely accessible on the Internet through the Entrez search engine and Lister Hill National Center For Biomedical Communications. As the United States National Release Center for SNOMED CT, NLM provides SNOMED CT data and resources to licensees of the NLM UMLS Metathesaurus. NLM maintains ClinicalTrials.gov registry for human interventional and observational studies. Additionally NLM runs ChemIDplus which is a chemical database of over 400,000 chemicals complete with names, synonyms, and structures. It includes links to NLM and other databases and resources, including links to federal, state and international agencies.

Toxicology and environmental health
The Toxicology and Environmental Health Program was established at the National Library of Medicine in 1967 and is charged with developing computer databases compiled from the medical literature and from the files of governmental and nongovernmental organizations. The program has implemented several information systems for chemical emergency response and public education, such as the Toxicology Data Network, TOXMAP, Tox Town, Wireless Information System for Emergency Responders, Toxmystery, and the Household Products Database. These resources are accessible without charge on the internet.

Radiation exposure
The United States National Library of Medicine Radiation Emergency Management System provides:
 * Guidance for health care providers, primarily physicians, about clinical diagnosis and treatment of radiation injury during radiological and nuclear emergencies
 * Just-in-time, evidence-based, usable information with sufficient background and context to make complex issues understandable to those without formal radiation medicine expertise
 * Web-based information that may be downloaded in advance, so that it would be available during an emergency if the Internet were not accessible

Radiation Emergency Management System is produced by the United States Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response, Office of Planning and Emergency Operations, in cooperation with the National Library of Medicine, Division of Specialized Information Services, with subject matter experts from the National Cancer Institute, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and many U.S. and international consultants.

Extramural division
The Extramural Division provides grants to support research in medical information science and to support planning and development of computer and communications systems in medical institutions. Research, publications, and exhibitions on the history of medicine and the life sciences also are supported by the History of Medicine Division. In April 2008 the current exhibition Against the Odds: Making a Difference in Global Health was launched.

National Center for Biotechnology Information division
National Center for Biotechnology Information is an intramural division within National Library of Medicine that creates public databases in molecular biology, conducts research in computational biology, develops software tools for analyzing molecular and genomic data, and disseminates biomedical information, all for the better understanding of processes affecting human health and disease.


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Anointed Quorum

The Anointed Quorum, also known as the Quorum of the Anointed, or the Holy Order, was a select body of men and women who Joseph Smith initiated into Mormon temple ordinances at Nauvoo, Illinois, which gave them special standing in the early Latter Day Saint movement. Beginning in May 1842, Smith gave this group, which ultimately numbered over sixty persons, their washings and anointings and endowments in the upper floor of his Red Brick Store on Water Street, as well as in a few private residences in the city. Most couples, but not all, also received their Second Anointing. Members typically referred to their meetings, which were held usually every two weeks, as prayer circles, because prayer played an important role in the group's religious activities.

Nearly all members of the Anointed Quorum were important leaders and their wives in the church or community, including the First Presidency and Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. After Smith's death in June 1844, members of the Anointed Quorum continued to meet under the direction of Brigham Young, even admitting additional persons to the group. As the Nauvoo Temple neared completion during 1845, they prepared the building's upper floor for the administration of ordinances. Between December 1845 and February 1846, the Anointed Quorum extended the same rituals they had received from Smith to over 5,000 men and women living in the vicinity of Nauvoo.

After the Mormons left Nauvoo in 1846, the Anointed Quorum ceased to exist as an organized group. The Anointed Quorum dealt essentially with spiritual and sacerdotal matters, but it was never an official administrative body of the church.

Members
The following individuals were members of the Anointed Quorum (spouses are listed together and plural marriage relationships are indicated):

title: Anointed Quorum


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Nick Bostrom

Nick Bostrom (Niklas Boström ; born 10 March 1973 in Sweden) is a philosopher known for his work on existential risk, the anthropic principle, human enhancement ethics, whole brain emulation, superintelligence risks, and the reversal test. He was the founding director of the now dissolved Future of Humanity Institute at the University of Oxford and is now Principal Researcher at the Macrostrategy Research Initiative. Bostrom is the author of Anthropic Bias: Observation Selection Effects in Science and Philosophy (2002), Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies (2014) and Deep Utopia: Life and Meaning in a Solved World (2024).

Bostrom believes that advances in artificial intelligence (AI) may lead to superintelligence, which he defines as "any intellect that greatly exceeds the cognitive performance of humans in virtually all domains of interest". He views this as a major source of opportunities and existential risks.

Early life and education
Born as Niklas Boström in 1973 in Helsingborg, Sweden, he disliked school at a young age and spent his last year of high school learning from home. He was interested in a wide variety of academic areas, including anthropology, art, literature, and science.

He received a B.A. degree from the University of Gothenburg in 1994. He then earned an M.A. degree in philosophy and physics from Stockholm University and an MSc degree in computational neuroscience from King's College London in 1996. During his time at Stockholm University, he researched the relationship between language and reality by studying the analytic philosopher W. V. Quine. He also did some turns on London's stand-up comedy circuit. In 2000, he was awarded a PhD degree in philosophy from the London School of Economics. His thesis was titled Observational selection effects and probability. He held a teaching position at Yale University from 2000 to 2002, and was a British Academy Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Oxford from 2002 to 2005.

Existential risk
Bostrom's research concerns the future of humanity and long-term outcomes. He discusses existential risk, which he defines as one in which an "adverse outcome would either annihilate Earth-originating intelligent life or permanently and drastically curtail its potential". Bostrom is mostly concerned about anthropogenic risks, which are risks arising from human activities, particularly from new technologies such as advanced artificial intelligence, molecular nanotechnology, or synthetic biology.

In 2005, Bostrom founded the Future of Humanity Institute which, until its shutdown in 2024, researched the far future of human civilization. He is also an adviser to the Centre for the Study of Existential Risk.

In the 2008 essay collection, Global Catastrophic Risks, editors Bostrom and Milan M. Ćirković characterize the relationship between existential risk and the broader class of global catastrophic risks, and link existential risk to observer selection effects and the Fermi paradox.

Vulnerable world hypothesis
In a paper called The Vulnerable World Hypothesis, Bostrom suggests that there may be some technologies that destroy human civilization by default when discovered. Bostrom proposes a framework for classifying and dealing with these vulnerabilities. He also gives counterfactual thought experiments of how such vulnerabilities could have historically occurred, e.g. if nuclear weapons had been easier to develop or had ignited the atmosphere (as Robert Oppenheimer had feared).

Superintelligence
In 2014, Bostrom published Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies, which became a New York Times Best Seller. The book argues that superintelligence is possible and explores different types of superintelligences, their cognition, the associated risks. He also presents technical and strategic considerations on how to make it safe.

Characteristics of a superintelligence
Bostrom explores multiple possible paths to superintelligence, including whole brain emulation and human intelligence enhancement, but focuses on artificial general intelligence, explaining that electronic devices have many advantages over biological brains.

Bostrom draws a distinction between final goals and instrumental goals. A final goal is what an agent tries to achieve for its own intrinsic value. Instrumental goals are just intermediary steps towards final goals. Bostrom contends there are instrumental goals that will be shared by most sufficiently intelligent agents because they are generally useful to achieve any objective (e.g. preserving the agent's own existence or current goals, acquiring resources, improving its cognition...), this is the concept of instrumental convergence. On the other side, he writes that virtually any level of intelligence can in theory be combined with virtually any final goal (even absurd final goals, e.g. making paperclips), a concept he calls the orthogonality thesis.

He argues that an AI with the ability to improve itself might initiate an intelligence explosion, resulting (potentially rapidly) in a superintelligence. Such a superintelligence could have vastly superior capabilities, notably in strategizing, social manipulation, hacking or economic productivity. With such capabilities, a superintelligence could outwit humans and take over the world, establishing a singleton (which is "a world order in which there is at the global level a single decision-making agency") and optimizing the world according to its final goals.

Bostrom argues that giving simplistic final goals to a superintelligence could be catastrophic:

"Suppose we give an A.I. the goal to make humans smile. When the A.I. is weak, it performs useful or amusing actions that cause its user to smile. When the A.I. becomes superintelligent, it realizes that there is a more effective way to achieve this goal: take control of the world and stick electrodes into the facial muscles of humans to cause constant, beaming grins."

Mitigating the risk
Bostrom explores several pathways to reduce the existential risk from AI. He emphasizes the importance of international collaboration, notably to reduce race to the bottom and AI arms race dynamics. He suggests potential techniques to help control AI, including containment, stunting AI capabilities or knowledge, narrowing the operating context (e.g. to question-answering), or "tripwires" (diagnostic mechanisms that can lead to a shutdown). But Bostrom contends that "we should not be confident in our ability to keep a superintelligent genie locked up in its bottle forever. Sooner or later, it will out". He thus suggests that in order to be safe for humanity, superintelligence must be aligned with morality or human values so that it is "fundamentally on our side". Potential AI normativity frameworks include Yudkowsky's coherent extrapolated volition (human values improved via extrapolation), moral rightness (doing what is morally right), and moral permissibility (following humanity's coherent extrapolated volition except when it's morally impermissible).

Bostrom warns that an existential catastrophe can also occur from AI being misused by humans for destructive purposes, or from humans failing to take into account the potential moral status of digital minds. Despite these risks, he says that machine superintelligence seems involved at some point in "all the plausible paths to a really great future".

Public reception
Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies became a New York Times Best Seller and received positive feedback from personalities such as Stephen Hawking, Bill Gates, Elon Musk, Peter Singer and Derek Parfit. It was praised for offering clear and compelling arguments on a neglected yet important topic. It was sometimes criticized for spreading pessimism about the potential of AI, or for focusing on longterm and speculative risks. Some skeptics such as Daniel Dennett or Oren Etzioni contended that superintelligence is too far away for the risk to be significant. Yann LeCun considers that there is no existential risk, asserting that superintelligent AI will have no desire for self-preservation and that experts can be trusted to make it safe.

Raffi Khatchadourian wrote that Bostrom's book on superintelligence "is not intended as a treatise of deep originality; Bostrom's contribution is to impose the rigors of analytic philosophy on a messy corpus of ideas that emerged at the margins of academic thought."

Deep utopia
Despite having popularized the notion of existential risk from AI, Bostrom also analyzed potential upsides. In his 2024 book, Deep Utopia: Life and Meaning in a Solved World, he explores the concept of an ideal life, if humanity transitions successfully into a post-superintelligence world. Bostrom notes that the question is "not how interesting a future is to look at, but how good it is to live in." He outlines some technologies that he considers physically possible in theory and available at technological maturity, such as cognitive enhancement, reversal of aging, arbitrary sensory inputs (taste, sound...), or the precise control of motivation, mood, well-being and personality. According to him, not only machines would be better than humans at working, but they would also undermine the purpose many leisure activities, providing extreme welfare while challenging the quest for meaning.

Digital sentience
Bostrom supports the substrate independence principle, the idea that consciousness can emerge on various types of physical substrates, not only in "carbon-based biological neural networks" like the human brain. He considers that "sentience is a matter of degree" and that digital minds can in theory be engineered to have a much higher rate and intensity of subjective experience than humans, using less resources. Such highly sentient machines, which he calls "super-beneficiaries", would be extremely efficient at achieving happiness. He recommends finding "paths that will enable digital minds and biological minds to coexist, in a mutually beneficial way where all of these different forms can flourish and thrive".

Anthropic reasoning
Bostrom has published numerous articles on anthropic reasoning, as well as the book Anthropic Bias: Observation Selection Effects in Science and Philosophy. In the book, he criticizes previous formulations of the anthropic principle, including those of Brandon Carter, John Leslie, John Barrow, and Frank Tipler.

Bostrom believes that the mishandling of indexical information is a common flaw in many areas of inquiry (including cosmology, philosophy, evolution theory, game theory, and quantum physics). He argues that an anthropic theory is needed to deal with these. He introduces the Self-Sampling Assumption (SSA) and the Self-Indication Assumption (SIA), shows how they lead to different conclusions in a number of cases, and identifies how each is affected by paradoxes or counterintuitive implications in certain thought experiments. He suggests that a way forward may involve extending SSA into the Strong Self-Sampling Assumption (SSSA), which replaces "observers" in the SSA definition with "observer-moments".

In later work, he has proposed the phenomenon of anthropic shadow, an observation selection effect that prevents observers from observing certain kinds of catastrophes in their recent geological and evolutionary past. Bostrom claims events that lie in the anthropic shadow are likely to be underestimated unless statistical corrections are made.

Simulation argument
Bostrom's simulation argument posits that at least one of the following statements is very likely to be true:
 * 1) The fraction of human-level civilizations that reach a posthuman stage is very close to zero;
 * 2) The fraction of posthuman civilizations that are interested in running ancestor-simulations is very close to zero;
 * 3) The fraction of all people with our kind of experiences that are living in a simulation is very close to one.

Ethics of human enhancement
Bostrom is favorably disposed toward "human enhancement", or "self-improvement and human perfectibility through the ethical application of science", as well as a critic of bio-conservative views.

In 1998, Bostrom co-founded (with David Pearce) the World Transhumanist Association (which has since changed its name to Humanity+). In 2004, he co-founded (with James Hughes) the Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies, although he is no longer involved with either of these organisations.

In 2005, Bostrom published the short story "The Fable of the Dragon-Tyrant" in the Journal of Medical Ethics. A shorter version was published in 2012 in Philosophy Now. The fable personifies death as a dragon that demands a tribute of thousands of people every day. The story explores how status quo bias and learned helplessness can prevent people from taking action to defeat aging even when the means to do so are at their disposal. YouTuber CGP Grey created an animated version of the story. With philosopher Toby Ord, he proposed the reversal test in 2006. Given humans' irrational status quo bias, how can one distinguish between valid criticisms of proposed changes in a human trait and criticisms merely motivated by resistance to change? The reversal test attempts to do this by asking whether it would be a good thing if the trait was altered in the opposite direction.

Bostrom's work also considers potential dysgenic effects in human populations but he thinks genetic engineering can provide a solution and that "In any case, the time-scale for human natural genetic evolution seems much too grand for such developments to have any significant effect before other developments will have made the issue moot".

Technology strategy
Bostrom has suggested that technology policy aimed at reducing existential risk should seek to influence the order in which various technological capabilities are attained, proposing the principle of differential technological development. This principle states that we ought to retard the development of dangerous technologies, particularly ones that raise the level of existential risk, and accelerate the development of beneficial technologies, particularly those that protect against the existential risks posed by nature or by other technologies.

In 2011, Bostrom founded the Oxford Martin Program on the Impacts of Future Technology.

Bostrom's theory of the unilateralist's curse has been cited as a reason for the scientific community to avoid controversial dangerous research such as reanimating pathogens.

Awards
Bostrom was named in Foreign Policy's 2009 list of top global thinkers "for accepting no limits on human potential." Prospect Magazine listed Bostrom in their 2014 list of the World's Top Thinkers.

Public engagement
Bostrom has provided policy advice and consulted for many governments and organizations. He gave evidence to the House of Lords, Select Committee on Digital Skills. He is an advisory board member for the Machine Intelligence Research Institute, Future of Life Institute, and an external advisor for the Cambridge Centre for the Study of Existential Risk.

1996 email controversy
In January 2023, Bostrom issued an apology for a 1996 email he sent as a postgrad where he had stated that he thought "Blacks are more stupid than whites", and where he also used the word "niggers" in a description of how he thought this statement might be perceived by others. The apology, posted on his website, stated that "the invocation of a racial slur was repulsive" and that he "completely repudiate[d] this disgusting email". In his apology, he wrote: "I think it is deeply unfair that unequal access to education, nutrients and basic healthcare leads to inequality in social outcomes, including sometimes disparities in skills and cognitive capacity." According to Andrew Anthony of The Guardian, "The apology did little to placate Bostrom’s critics, not least because he conspicuously failed to withdraw his central contention regarding race and intelligence, and seemed to make a partial defence of eugenics."

In January 2023, Oxford University told The Daily Beast, "The University and Faculty of Philosophy is currently investigating the matter but condemns in the strongest terms possible the views this particular academic expressed in his communications." Ursula Coope, the chair of the Oxford philosophy department faculty board, sent an email to current students and graduates saying that she was "appalled and upset" by Bostrom's 1996 email. The Oxford University investigation concluded that Bostrom is not racist and that the apology was sincere.

Books

 * 2002 – Anthropic Bias: Observation Selection Effects in Science and Philosophy, ISBN 0-415-93858-9
 * 2008 – Global Catastrophic Risks, edited by Bostrom and Milan M. Ćirković, ISBN 978-0-19-857050-9
 * 2009 – Human Enhancement, edited by Bostrom and Julian Savulescu, ISBN 0-19-929972-2
 * 2014 – Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies, ISBN 978-0-19-967811-2

Personal life
Bostrom met his wife Susan in 2002. As of 2015, she lived in Montreal and Bostrom in Oxford. They had one son.

title: Nick Bostrom


text:
USS Sailfish (SSR-572)

USS Sailfish (SSR/SS/AGSS-572), the lead ship of her class of submarine, was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for the sailfish, a large gamefish inhabiting tropical seas, related to the swordfish, but possessing scales and a large sail-like dorsal fin.

Construction and commissioning
Sailfish was the first submarine built expressly for radar picket service, and was equipped with BPS-2 and BPS-3 radars in and aft of the sail. She and her sister ship, USS Salmon (SSR-573), were the largest conventionally-powered submarines in the United States Navy since USS Argonaut (SM-1) of 1928. Designed to scout in advance of carrier groups using long-range radar, the Sailfish class were designed for a high surface speed. However, their speed achieved was not significantly faster than converted World War II radar picket submarines.

Sailfish was laid down on 8 December 1953 by the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard at Kittery, Maine. She was launched on 8 September 1955, sponsored by Mrs. Lynde D. McCormick, wife of Admiral Lynde D. McCormick, and commissioned on 14 April 1956.

1956–1960
Following trials off the New Hampshire coast, Sailfish conducted a shakedown cruise in the Caribbean Sea before joining Submarine Squadron (SubRon) 6 at Norfolk, Virginia. In July 1957, she began her first extended deployment with Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean Sea. She returned to Norfolk in October and, through the fall of 1958, engaged in local operations, with occasional visits to Caribbean ports. In December, she commenced a seven-month conversion and overhaul at Philadelphia. In April 1959, while the yard work was still in progress, she was transferred to SubRon 10 at New London, Connecticut. Sailfish resumed coastal operations out of New London in July, participating in fleet and NATO exercises, providing qualification training for prospective submarine officers and crews, and sharpening her own battle readiness.

1961–1967
On 3 February 1961, Sailfish was reclassified an attack submarine and given hull classification symbol SS-572, as the submarine radar picket mission ended fleetwide. Airborne radar had superseded it with the full deployment of the Grumman WF-2 Tracer. Over Thanksgiving weekend in 1961 she was dispersed from New London to Rhode Island and while in port there a fire in the deep fat fryer caused significant damage burning nearly all of the cables running through the after battery compartment. She returned to New London at the end of that weekend and the entire crew worked around the clock for five straight days replacing all of the cables. As a result, Sailfish was able to complete an exercise previous assigned by getting underway just six days after the fire. In January 1962 Sailfish entered the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for overhaul. By September 1962, she was preparing for her second Mediterranean deployment and departed New London on 10 October. She operated with Sixth Fleet over the next four months and returned to New London in February 1963, where she participated in local operations through the rest of that year and 1964.

In January 1965, Sailfish was transferred to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where she entered the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for an extensive "FRAM II" conversion. Thirteen months later, in February 1966, she left the navy yard presenting a more sleek, streamlined appearance, broken only by the deck mounted fins of the new PUFFS sonar system. Her large search radar had been removed. These new fins duplicated on a miniature scale the form of her conning tower, giving her the dorsaled look of a large, beautiful fish, like the sailfish for which she was named. Following an exhaustive checkout of her newly acquired systems and a period of refresher training, she deployed in July for her third Mediterranean tour. After four months, she returned to New London and local operations.

1967–1978
On 1 November 1967, she was assigned to SubRon 8 and joined the submarines of Submarine Division (SubDiv) 82, specialists in antisubmarine warfare. She operated out of Groton, Connecticut, until July 1968, then underwent overhaul into February 1969. On 1 July, she was ordered to the Pacific and assigned a new home port, Pearl Harbor. Sailfish departed New London on 14 July; transited the Panama Canal; and, after a brief visit to Acapulco, Mexico, proceeded to Hawaii. From Pearl Harbor, she sailed on 9 October for deployment with Seventh Fleet in the western Pacific. Sailfish operated out of Yokosuka, Japan. In January 1970, she participated in Allied exercises off Taiwan and Okinawa; in February, she conducted joint training operations with units of the Navy of the Republic of Korea; and, in March, she operated with units of the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force. On 26 May, Sailfish returned to Pearl Harbor and spent the remainder of the year there in training operations and upkeep.

On 8 February 1971, Sailfish departed Pearl Harbor for her second WestPac deployment. For over six months, she cruised the western Pacific. In late May she joined units of the United States Navy and of the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force in HUK ASWEX 3-71. By mid-July, she was in the Mindanao Sea participating in another antisubmarine exercise, this time with units of the Philippine Navy. Sailfish spent a week in Brisbane, Australia, before returning to Pearl Harbor, on 28 August, for overhaul.

The submarine underwent regular overhaul from 20 October 1971 until 14 July 1972. Between July and December, she operated between Hawaii and the California coast, engaged in trials and type training. On 1 December, Sailfish departed San Diego, California, for Yokosuka, Japan, and her third WestPac cruise. She plied the waters of the western Pacific until 4 May 1973, when she departed Subic Bay to return to the United States. She stopped overnight 19/20 May at Pearl Harbor, then continued on to San Diego. For the rest of 1973, she operated off the California coast out of San Diego.

Decommissioning and fate
Sailfish was decommissioned on 29 September 1978 and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register the next day. She was to be disposed of by the Security Assistance Program for cash sale to the Bolivian Navy, but remained berthed at the Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility at Bremerton, Washington after the fall of the Torrelio government in August 1982. In May 2007 Sailfish was expended as a target in a Fleet Training SINKEX, when a Mark 48 ADCAP torpedo fired from the submarine USS Topeka (SSN-754) sent her to the bottom at 47.09639°N, -127.38556°W, 121.2 nmi off the coast of Washington at a depth of 1,451 fathoms 8,706 ft.

title: USS Sailfish (SSR-572)


text:
USS Salmon (SSR-573)

USS Salmon (SSR/SS/AGSS-573), a Sailfish-class submarine, was the third ship of the United States Navy to be named for the salmon.

Construction and commissioning
Salmon was the second of a class of two radar picket submarines, which were the largest conventionally-powered submarines in the United States Navy since the USS Argonaut (SM-1) of 1928. She was equipped with BPS-2 and BPS-3 radars in and aft of the sail. Intended to scout in advance of aircraft carrier groups using long-range radar, the Sailfish class were designed for a high surface speed. However, they achieved a speed only a few knots higher than converted World War II radar picket submarines.

Salmon was laid down on 10 March 1954 by the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard of Kittery, Maine. She was launched on 25 February 1956, sponsored by Mrs. Albert M. Bontier, widow of Commander A. M. Bontier, who was lost during World War II when the submarine USS Seawolf (SS-197) was sunk during a war patrol in the South Pacific early in October 1944. Salmon was commissioned on 26 August 1956.

1956–1959
Salmon conducted her shakedown cruise between 19 February and 10 May 1957, ranging from Newport, Rhode Island, to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. She departed Portsmouth for the West Coast in late May, transited the Panama Canal on 3 July; visited Callao, Peru; and proceeded to San Diego, California, arriving on 25 July.

Salmon conducted local operations in southern California waters, as a unit of Submarine Division 33 (SubDiv 33), until she began her first western Pacific deployment on 23 September. She sailed via Pearl Harbor and Midway Island to join the Seventh Fleet off southern Japan on 19 October. For the remainder of the year she participated in fleet training exercises and special operations, with port calls at Yokosuka, Japan; Hong Kong; Manila and Subic Bay, Philippines; and Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Salmon departed Yokosuka on 31 March 1958 and returned to San Diego, California, on 19 April.

Resuming local operations, Salmon remained in the San Diego area for the rest of the year. From 6 January 1959 until 30 May, she underwent overhaul and limited conversion at Mare Island Naval Shipyard. Giving up a large radome from her superstructure, she gained instrumented Regulus missileguidance capability and improved, longer range sonar. Salmon then prepared for her second WestPac deployment.

Salmon departed San Diego, California, on 17 July and sailed to Pearl Harbor where her crew received Regulus missile guidance training, then proceeded to Japan and joined Seventh Fleet on 21 August. She operated with the fleet in Allied training exercises, provided services for other Seventh Fleet surface and subsurface units for training purposes, and made visits to various ports, before returning to San Diego on 14 February 1960.

1960–1970
Through 1960 and 1961, Salmon operated from San Diego, California, with occasional visits to San Francisco, California, Astoria, Oregon, Tacoma, Washington, Port Angeles, Washington, and Esquimalt, British Columbia. On 1 March 1961, she was reclassified an attack submarine and given hull classification symbol SS-573, and, on 1 November, she was reassigned to SubDiv 52. The submarine radar picket mission ended fleetwide at this time as airborne radar superseded it with the full deployment of the Grumman WF-2 Tracer.

On 1 June 1962, Salmon departed San Diego for her third WestPac deployment. She visited Papeete, Tahiti, from 13 to 16 June, then proceeded to Yokosuka for duty with Seventh Fleet. She subsequently operated with antisubmarine warfare (ASW) hunter-killer groups in fleet exercises and often engaged in free-play battle problems with individual surface units. During this deployment, she visited Hakodate and Sasebo, Japan; Naha, Okinawa and Hong Kong. Salmon returned to San Diego, California, on 20 December and became flagship of Submarine Flotilla 1; and, in addition to that distinction, was awarded the Golden "E" for excellence in battle efficiency for the past five consecutive years, which rated her as the leading submarine of her division. Salmon was the first submarine to earn a Golden "E" and was to better that record by winning hashmarks signifying retention of that status during 1963 and 1964.

On the fourth of July in 1963, the Salmon suffered personnel casualties when mercury from a broken thermometer came into contact with a hot grid, creating toxic mercury vapor, resulting in the poisoning of 14 crewmembers.

On 3 June of the latter year, she put into the San Francisco Naval Shipyard to undergo FRAM II conversion. Departing the yard on 19 April 1965, as a modernized "GUPPY III", she moved to the Puget Sound, Washington, area for evaluation and sound tests. She then returned to San Diego, to resume local operations, on 4 May.

Salmon commenced her fourth WestPac deployment on 23 August. She joined Submarine Flotilla (SubFlot) 7 of the Seventh Fleet on 14 September and conducted operations in Japanese and southwest Pacific waters until returning to San Diego on 20 April 1966. Salmon's fifth deployment to the western Pacific was from 20 March to 4 October 1967. During this tour, she provided services to Seventh Fleet units operating off Vietnam in support of Vietnam War operations. In September, she rendezvoused with ballistic missile submarines USS Ulysses S. Grant (SSBN-631) and USS Kamehameha (SSBN-642) somewhere in the Pacific to act as a simulated target submarine for training in antisubmarine tactics.

Through the spring of 1968, Salmon underwent overhaul at San Francisco, California, in preparation for support of the Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV) program, to evaluate submarine rescue and salvage equipment at extreme depths. On 1 June, she was redesignated an auxiliary research submarine and given hull classification symbol AGSS-573 for her role as mother sub and underway submerged launching and recovery platform for the experimental mini-subs. However, delays in the program resulted in her return to San Diego for local operations, following preliminary trials at Puget Sound. She subsequently sailed on 25 October for her sixth WestPac deployment.

In November, Salmon visited Yokosuka and Hong Kong. From 4 to 19 December, she conducted special operations off the coast of Vietnam, and, from 26 December 1968 to 10 January 1969, she participated in SEATO exercises out of Sangley Point in the Philippines. She then returned to Yokosuka and then proceeded to Sasebo for special operations before returning to the United States on 5 April. Salmon arrived at San Diego, California, on 25 April and conducted local operations for the remainder of the year. She resumed her former hull classification symbol as SS-573 on 30 June.

1970–1977
On 3 January 1970, she departed San Diego for her seventh WestPac tour. In February, she conducted type training in the Philippines with submarine USS Harder (SS-568) and her sister sub, USS Sailfish (SS-572). From there, she visited Buckner Bay, Okinawa; Bangkok, Thailand; Sasebo, Yokosuka, and Kobe, Japan; and Hong Kong. She returned to San Diego on 27 June and resumed local operations. She remained so employed for the rest of 1970 and throughout 1971.

Salmon departed San Diego on 17 February 1972 on her eighth deployment to the western Pacific. She entered a harbor of Vietnam during the Vietnam War where she laid mines and gathered intelligence. Her CO was Harry Merwin Yockey. In April, she rescued survivors from the Japanese coastal freighter Koei Maru Number 2 which sank about 30 nmi south of the entrance to Tokyo Bay. In July, she joined units of the Royal Australian Navy and Royal Australian Air Force in an antisubmarine warfare exercise. Salmon departed Pago Pago on 13 August and re-entered San Diego on 26 August.

She remained on the west coast for the remainder of 1972 and for the first five and one-half months of 1973. On 16 June, she headed west for what was to have been her ninth deployment to the Far East. Upon her arrival in Pearl Harbor, the deployment was canceled due to damage to her number three and number four main engines. On 10 August she sailed back to San Diego to prepare for overhaul. Salmon entered Mare Island Naval Shipyard on 17 November and commenced overhaul nine days later.

 * [1973-1977]

Decommissioning and fate
Salmon was decommissioned and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 October 1977. In 1992 Salmon was converted to a shallow water sonar target and sunk near Hudson Canyon, south of Long Island, as a bottom target on 5 June 1993.

title: USS Salmon (SSR-573)