text:
The Comedy Store

The Comedy Store is an American comedy club opened in April 1972. It is located in West Hollywood, California, at 8433 Sunset Boulevard on the Sunset Strip. An associated club is located in La Jolla, San Diego, California.

History
The Comedy Store was opened in April 1972 by comedians Sammy Shore (1927–2019), and Rudy De Luca. The building was formerly the home of Club Seville (1935), later, Ciro's (1940–1957), a popular Hollywood nightclub owned by William Wilkerson, and later Ciro's Le Disc, a rock and roll venue, where The Byrds were discovered in 1964.

When the venue reopened as The Comedy Store in 1972, it included a 99-seat theatre. As a result of a divorce settlement, Sammy Shore's ex-wife Mitzi Shore began operating the club in 1973, and she was able to buy the building in 1976. She immediately renovated and expanded the club to include a 450-seat main room.

In 1974, The Comedy Store hosted the wedding reception of newlyweds Liza Minnelli and Jack Haley, Jr. The Comedy Club signage was covered, for the evening, by signs reading "Ciro's", denoting the venue's prior identity. The event was attended by many dozens of Hollywood glitterati, including Elizabeth Taylor, Sammy Davis Jr., Cher, Bob Fosse, Johnny Carson, Goldie Hawn, Cesar Romero, Priscilla Presley and other stars, past and present.

Locations
The original Comedy Store on Sunset at Ciro's had been joined by the Comedy Store Westwood, at 1621 Westwood Blvd., the Comedy Store La Jolla, at 916 Pearl St., Comedy Store Playhouse, on Las Palmas, Comedy Store at the Sheraton Universal Hotel, in Universal City, and the Comedy Store Las Vegas at the Dunes Hotel.

Job action
Beginning in 1979, The Comedy Store served for many years as the host location for the annual HBO Young Comedians specials.

"Tension between the club owners stems from a 1979 strike of Los Angeles comedians against the Comedy Store's 'no-pay policy'. Until that time, neither Shore nor Friedman paid comedians a salary. The theory was that comedians should almost be paying the owners for the exposure the clubs provided. When the comedians' strike began, The Improv (opened in 1974 at 8162 Melrose Avenue) was closed for fire-damage repairs. Therefore, the strike focused on Shore, not Friedman."

Also in 1979, stand-up comedians formed a short-lived labor union and demanded to be paid for their appearances at The Comedy Store. For six weeks (beginning in March), several famous comedians staged a protest in front of the club, while others crossed the picket line. The comedians involved formed a union called Comedians for Compensation and fought for pay where they had received none before. They eventually picketed in front of the club when their demands were not met. Jay Leno and David Letterman were among those on the picket line while Garry Shandling and Yakov Smirnoff crossed the line.

The job action was not legally a strike as the comedians were classified as "independent contractors" and were not under contract with the club.

Mitzi Shore argued that the club was and had always been a showcase and training ground for young comedians and was not about profits. She alleged that comedians came to the club and could work on their material in front of casting agents and other talent scouts who would possibly hire them as professionals if they were good enough.

The comedians at the club became unhappy when the club was expanded several times and it was perceived that Shore's profits were quite substantial. Shore also paid the rest of her staff, including waitresses and bartenders.

After the strike, some comedians were no longer allowed to perform at the club, including Steve Lubetkin, who committed suicide by jumping off the roof of the Continental Hyatt House next door. His suicide note included the line: "My name is Steve Lubetkin. I used to work at The Comedy Store." Lubetkin hoped that his suicide would resolve the labor dispute. He also cited Shore as the reason he no longer had a job.

The union ceased to exist in 1980, although from the time of the job action onward, comedians in Los Angeles were paid for their shows. This included The Comedy Store and The Improv.

Cresthill house
Mitzi Shore also owned a 5,000-square-foot house a few doors away from the club, on 8420 Cresthill Road. The house was bought with the club in 1976. In 1979, she started to let the comedians from the clubs sleep there. During the 1980s, numerous famous comedians resided or just partied there, including Andrew Dice Clay, Marc Maron, Robin Williams, Richard Pryor. Argus Hamilton and Mike Binder were the first to officially move into the house. Dave Coulier was also an early resident, and Yakov Smirnoff moved in in 1980. The place was famous for its all-night parties and heavy consumption of cocaine and alcohol. Bill Hicks moved there in 1980 when he was 18 and running away from his parents to pursue his career as a comedian. Many of those comedians developed their style while residing there. Sam Kinison was a pillar there, and Jim Carrey turned his act around in this house. Mitzi Shore had a plan to cash in on the house's unique atmosphere, and even shot a 12-minute pilot around 1987 starring Daphne Davis, Nancy Redman, and Tamayo Otsuki. In 1988, because of the debauchery that had been going on for years, Mitzi Shore kicked everybody out of the house and turned it into a recovery house. By the early 1990s, Her son Pauly moved into the house, and by the end of the 1990s, the house was sold.

Notable alumni

— "A history of the young comedians coming to Los Angeles in the 1970s and performing at the club."

 * Tim Allen
 * Louie Anderson
 * Roseanne Barr
 * Don Barris
 * Sandra Bernhard
 * Mike Binder
 * Elayne Boosler
 * David Brenner
 * Bill Burr
 * Bryan Callen
 * John Caparulo
 * George Carlin
 * Jim Carrey
 * Jimmy Carr
 * Dana Carvey
 * Dave Chappelle
 * Chevy Chase
 * Cheech & Chong
 * Louis C.K.
 * Whitney Cummings
 * Andrew Dice Clay
 * Jenn Colella
 * Billy Crystal
 * Rodney Dangerfield
 * Chris D'Elia
 * Joey Diaz
 * Tom Dreesen
 * Gallagher
 * Jeff Garlin
 * Whoopi Goldberg
 * Gilbert Gottfried
 * Kathy Griffin
 * Argus Hamilton
 * Chelsea Handler
 * Kevin Hart
 * Bill Hicks
 * Charlie Hill
 * Tony Hinchcliffe
 * Joel Hodgson
 * Andy Kaufman
 * Michael Keaton
 * Sam Kinison
 * Bill Kirchenbauer
 * Bert Kreischer
 * Martin Lawrence
 * Bobby Lee
 * Jay Leno
 * Annie Lederman
 * David Letterman
 * Jay London
 * Norm Macdonald
 * Kathleen Madigan
 * Sebastian Maniscalco
 * Howie Mandel
 * Marc Maron
 * Carlos Mencia
 * Dennis Miller
 * Paul Mooney
 * Eddie Murphy
 * Christina Pazsitzky
 * Esther Povitsky
 * Pat Proft
 * Ollie Joe Prater
 * Richard Pryor
 * Chris Rock
 * Paul Rodriguez
 * Joe Rogan
 * Ray Romano
 * Chris Rush
 * Bob Saget
 * Andrew Santino
 * Tom Segura
 * Jerry Seinfeld
 * Ari Shaffir
 * Garry Shandling
 * Iliza Shlesinger
 * Pauly Shore
 * Sarah Silverman
 * Yakov Smirnoff
 * Phil Snyder
 * Freddy Soto
 * David Spade
 * Brody Stevens
 * Marc Summers
 * Duncan Trussell
 * Theo Von
 * Jimmie Walker
 * Marsha Warfield
 * Jeff Wayne
 * Marc Weiner
 * Robin Williams
 * Thomas F. Wilson
 * John Witherspoon
 * David Zed

Docu-series
A docu-series based on The Comedy Store debuted on Showtime in October 2020.

Each episode is an hour long and breaks down a different time period throughout the existence of the Comedy Store. The director, Mike Binder goes on a podcast with a different comedian to set the tone and help provide the narrative of each episode.

title: The Comedy Store


text:
Beachampton

Beachampton is a village and civil parish beside the River Great Ouse in the unitary authority area of Buckinghamshire, England. The village is about 5 mi east of Buckingham and a similar distance west of Milton Keynes.

History
The village toponym is derived from the Old English for "home farm by a stream". In the Domesday Book of 1086 it was recorded as Bechentone.

Parts of the village stand on high ground, but most of the village is prone to regular flooding by the stream that runs through the village, a tributary of the River Ouse.

The family name Beachampton originates in this village, and was first recorded in manorial records in 1175 when Osmer de Beachampton was a tenant here. There is no documentary evidence for the tradition that Hall Farm in Beachampton was the home of Catherine Parr when she was married to King Henry VIII.

Beachampton Hall, a Grade II* listed manor house, has elements dating from the 15th century. The present house was probably built by the Piggot family: Sir Thomas Piggot hosted a 1603 visit of Queen Anne of Denmark, wife of King James I and VI; the gardens were laid out at this time.

The Church of England parish church of the Assumption of St Mary the Virgin dates from the 14th century, and is grade II* listed. G.E. Street, a Gothic Revival architect, rebuilt upper part of the bell-tower in 1873–74. It has a large monument to Simon Benett Bt. (1682). The Bennetts (or Bennets) have been Lords of Beachampton (styled Lord de Beachampton) and of the neighbouring manor of Calverton since 1616. Both these manorial lordship titles, though not the lands, remain in the possession of the Bennett family to the present day.

The parish has a further nine listed buildings and structures.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Beachampton


text:
Talk:Edward Carpenter

Untitled
Could you add something on his poetry? Bmills 17:34, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Misspelling of Housman?
I'm reasonably sure that the "Laurence Houseman" mentioned in this article really is Laurence Housman. - VanArtGuy (talk) 23:15, 17 October 2014 (UTC)
 * Great call! Not sure why you didn't just make the edit (Be bold!) still it would be nice to have a citation for it. Pjefts (talk) 11:38, 18 October 2014 (UTC)

Carpenter's case history in Havelock Ellis' "Studies in the Psychology of Sex"
Chushichi Tsuzuki in Edward Carpenter 1844-1929: Prophet of Human Fellowship (Cambridge 1980), quotes Carpenter's anonymous case history published in Havelock Ellis Studies in the Psychology of Sex, volume II: Sexual Inversion, which full version is as follows:

HISTORY VII.--"My parentage is very sound and healthy. Both my parents (who belong to the professional middle class) have good general health; nor can I trace any marked abnormal or diseased tendency, of mind or body, in any records of the family.

"Though of a strongly nervous temperament myself, and sensitive, my health is good. I am not aware of any tendency to physical disease. In early manhood, however, owing, I believe, to the great emotional tension under which I lived, my nervous system was a good deal shattered and exhausted. Mentally and morally my nature is pretty well balanced, and I have never had any serious perturbations in these departments.

"At the age of 8 or 9, and long before distinct sexual feelings declared themselves, I felt a friendly attraction toward my own sex, and this developed after the age of puberty into a passionate sense of love, which, however, never found any expression for itself till I was fully 20 years of age. I was a day-boarder at school and heard little of school-talk on sex subjects, was very reserved and modest besides; no elder person or parent ever spoke to me on such matters; and the passion for my own sex developed gradually, utterly uninfluenced from the outside. I never even, during all this period, and till a good deal later, learned the practice of masturbation. My own sexual nature was a mystery to me. I found myself cut off from the understanding of others, felt myself an outcast, and, with a highly loving and clinging temperament, was intensely miserable. I thought about my male friends--sometimes boys of my own age, sometimes elder boys, and once even a master--during the day and dreamed about them at night, but was too convinced that I was a hopeless monstrosity ever to make any effectual advances. Later on it was much the same, but gradually, though slowly, I came to find that there were others like myself. I made a few special friends, and at last it came to me occasionally to sleep with them and to satisfy my imperious need by mutual embraces and emissions. Before this happened, however, I was once or twice on the brink of despair and madness with repressed passion and torment.

"Meanwhile, from the first, my feeling, physically, toward the female sex was one of indifference, and later on, with the more special development of sex desires, one of positive repulsion. Though having several female friends, whose society I like and to whom I am sincerely attached, the thought of marriage or cohabitation with any such has always been odious to me.

"As a boy I was attracted in general by boys rather older than myself; after leaving school I still fell in love, in a romantic vein, with comrades of my own standing. Now,--at the age of 37,--my ideal of love is a powerful, strongly built man, of my own age or rather younger--preferably of the working class. Though having solid sense and character, he need not be specially intellectual. If endowed in the latter way, he must not be too glib or refined. Anything effeminate in a man, or anything of the cheap intellectual style, repels me very decisively.

"I have never had to do with actual pederasty, so called. My chief desire in love is bodily nearness or contact, as to sleep naked with a naked friend; the specially sexual, though urgent enough, seems a secondary matter. Pederasty, either active or passive, might seem in place to me with one I loved very devotedly and who also loved me to that degree; but I think not otherwise. I am an artist by temperament and choice, fond of all beautiful things, especially the male human form; of active, slight, muscular build; and sympathetic, but somewhat indecisive character, though possessing self-control.

"I cannot regard my sexual feelings as unnatural or abnormal, since they have disclosed themselves so perfectly naturally and spontaneously within me. All that I have read in books or heard spoken about the ordinary sexual love, its intensity and passion, lifelong devotion, love at first sight, etc., seems to me to be easily matched by my own experiences in the homosexual form; and, with regard to the morality of this complex subject, my feeling is that it is the same as should prevail in love between man and woman, namely: that no bodily satisfaction should be sought at the cost of another person's distress or degradation. I am sure that this kind of love is, notwithstanding the physical difficulties that attend it, as deeply stirring and ennobling as the other kind, if not more so; and I think that for a perfect relationship the actual sex gratifications (whatever they may be) probably hold a less important place in this love than in the other." —Ana Bruta (talk) 12:12, 8 March 2015 (UTC)

Controversial statement
The statement that Carpenter slept with Whitman is presented as fact whereas it is highly controversial. John S Moore (talk) 15:43, 28 November 2015 (UTC)

Essay-like tone and lack of references
I'd not heard of Edward Carpenter before, but this article is clearly a bit unwieldy. Amazingly there are 36 instances of the "Citation Needed" tag and numerous other instances of unreferenced, POV comments. After a bit of searching, I think this person is notable for Wikipedia, but this article needs some serious tidying up. My instinct is to usually leave content with a Citation Needed tag, but the template at the top has been there since 2008! I'm going to be bold and cut a lot of the unreferenced information out. Seaweed (talk) 15:43, 1 January 2016 (UTC)

 * It seems unlikely that this material would have been just "dreamt up" by editors. I wonder if it would be worth trying to ask major past contributors exactly what their sources were? I see there are six separate books, which cannot be easily checked, and two on-line sources, as well as two printed journal papers in "Further reading". But you would certainly be acting within policy to remove unsupported material. Martinevans123 (talk) 15:54, 1 January 2016 (UTC)
 * Or, alternatively, just go ahead and remove 17.5K (i.e. 50%) of the entire article without looking for any possible sources. Martinevans123 (talk) 18:49, 1 January 2016 (UTC)
 * I know what you mean. It does seem a bit dramatic to chop so much out! The thing is though is that so many of those CNs are from 2011. I sometimes think it's just as bad to have so much content just sitting there for four years and unverified. I don't normally delete content, if anything I normally spend hours trying to find references for just one thing. It's just after reading through the whole article, I kept saying to myself "Says who?" and "So much detail, but nothing to verify it". I also thought it was very essay-like. I think this article is better for some heavy pruning. Seaweed (talk) 19:03, 1 January 2016 (UTC)
 * Some heavy pruning now means the article has 50% less content. It's "better" in terms of wikipedia policy. I'm very sorry you decided to take the quick option instead of the slow one. It took me two minutes to find that source for just one sentence you removed about Lawrence. And I'm pretty sure that one could be bettered. That's just a tiny example in a sea of pruning. Martinevans123 (talk) 19:17, 1 January 2016 (UTC)
 * Fair point. It's just that it troubled me that so much unreferenced content had been here for so many years. I'm sure you know how Wikipedia content leaks out onto the rest of the web and becomes "fact". Edward Carpenter does seem quite an interesting person and I will see what verifiable information I can find out. Seaweed (talk) 19:26, 1 January 2016 (UTC)
 * I guess you must now feel less troubled. Martinevans123 (talk) 19:54, 1 January 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Edward Carpenter


text:
Semantics (computer science)

In programming language theory, semantics is the rigorous mathematical study of the meaning of programming languages. Semantics assigns computational meaning to valid strings in a programming language syntax. It is closely related to, and often crosses over with, the semantics of mathematical proofs.

Semantics describes the processes a computer follows when executing a program in that specific language. This can be done by describing the relationship between the input and output of a program, or giving an explanation of how the program will be executed on a certain platform, thereby creating a model of computation.

History
In 1967, Robert W. Floyd published the paper Assigning meanings to programs; his chief aim was "a rigorous standard for proofs about computer programs, including proofs of correctness, equivalence, and termination". Floyd further wrote: A semantic definition of a programming language, in our approach, is founded on a syntactic definition. It must specify which of the phrases in a syntactically correct program represent commands, and what conditions must be imposed on an interpretation in the neighborhood of each command.

In 1969, Tony Hoare published a paper on Hoare logic seeded by Floyd's ideas, now sometimes collectively called axiomatic semantics.

In the 1970s, the terms operational semantics and denotational semantics emerged.

Overview
The field of formal semantics encompasses all of the following:
 * The definition of semantic models
 * The relations between different semantic models
 * The relations between different approaches to meaning
 * The relation between computation and the underlying mathematical structures from fields such as logic, set theory, model theory, category theory, etc.

It has close links with other areas of computer science such as programming language design, type theory, compilers and interpreters, program verification and model checking.

Approaches
There are many approaches to formal semantics; these belong to three major classes:

 * Denotational semantics, whereby each phrase in the language is interpreted as a denotation, i.e. a conceptual meaning that can be thought of abstractly. Such denotations are often mathematical objects inhabiting a mathematical space, but it is not a requirement that they should be so.  As a practical necessity, denotations are described using some form of mathematical notation, which can in turn be formalized as a denotational metalanguage.  For example, denotational semantics of functional languages often translate the language into domain theory. Denotational semantic descriptions can also serve as compositional translations from a programming language into the denotational metalanguage and used as a basis for designing compilers.
 * Operational semantics, whereby the execution of the language is described directly (rather than by translation). Operational semantics loosely corresponds to interpretation, although again the "implementation language" of the interpreter is generally a mathematical formalism.  Operational semantics may define an abstract machine (such as the SECD machine), and give meaning to phrases by describing the transitions they induce on states of the machine.  Alternatively, as with the pure lambda calculus, operational semantics can be defined via syntactic transformations on phrases of the language itself;
 * Axiomatic semantics, whereby one gives meaning to phrases by describing the axioms that apply to them. Axiomatic semantics makes no distinction between a phrase's meaning and the logical formulas that describe it; its meaning is exactly what can be proven about it in some logic.  The canonical example of axiomatic semantics is Hoare logic.

Apart from the choice between denotational, operational, or axiomatic approaches, most variations in formal semantic systems arise from the choice of supporting mathematical formalism.

Variations
Some variations of formal semantics include the following:

 * Action semantics is an approach that tries to modularize denotational semantics, splitting the formalization process in two layers (macro and microsemantics) and predefining three semantic entities (actions, data and yielders) to simplify the specification;
 * Algebraic semantics is a form of axiomatic semantics based on algebraic laws for describing and reasoning about program semantics in a formal manner. It also supports denotational semantics and operational semantics;
 * Attribute grammars define systems that systematically compute "metadata" (called attributes) for the various cases of the language's syntax. Attribute grammars can be understood as a denotational semantics where the target language is simply the original language enriched with attribute annotations.  Aside from formal semantics, attribute grammars have also been used for code generation in compilers, and to augment regular or context-free grammars with context-sensitive conditions;
 * Categorical (or "functorial") semantics uses category theory as the core mathematical formalism. Categorical semantics is usually proven to correspond to some axiomatic semantics that gives a syntactic presentation of the categorical structures. Also, denotational semantics are often instances of a general categorical semantics;
 * Concurrency semantics is a catch-all term for any formal semantics that describes concurrent computations. Historically important concurrent formalisms have included the actor model and process calculi;
 * Game semantics uses a metaphor inspired by game theory;
 * Predicate transformer semantics, developed by Edsger W. Dijkstra, describes the meaning of a program fragment as the function transforming a postcondition to the precondition needed to establish it.

Describing relationships
For a variety of reasons, one might wish to describe the relationships between different formal semantics. For example:
 * To prove that a particular operational semantics for a language satisfies the logical formulas of an axiomatic semantics for that language. Such a proof demonstrates that it is "sound" to reason about a particular (operational) interpretation strategy using a particular (axiomatic) proof system.
 * To prove that operational semantics over a high-level machine is related by a simulation with the semantics over a low-level machine, whereby the low-level abstract machine contains more primitive operations than the high-level abstract machine definition of a given language. Such a proof demonstrates that the low-level machine "faithfully implements" the high-level machine.

It is also possible to relate multiple semantics through abstractions via the theory of abstract interpretation.

title: Semantics (computer science)


text:
Rotary printing press

A rotary printing press is a printing press in which the images to be printed are curved around a cylinder. Printing can be done on various substrates, including paper, cardboard, and plastic. Substrates can be sheet feed or unwound on a continuous roll through the press to be printed and further modified if required (e.g. die cut, overprint varnished, embossed). Printing presses that use continuous rolls are sometimes referred to as "web presses".

Developmental history
William Nicholson filed a 1790 patent for a rotary press. The rotary press itself is an evolution of the cylinder press, also patented by William Nicholson, invented by Beaucher of France in the 1780s and by Friedrich Koenig in the early 19th century. Rotary drum printing was invented by Josiah Warren in 1832, whose design was later imitated by Richard March Hoe in 1843. An 1844 patent replaced the reciprocating platforms used in earlier designs with a fixed platform served by rotating drums, and through a series of advances a complete rotary printing press was perfected in 1846, and patented in 1847. It appeared in Edinburgh in 1851 and then traveled to London where it was used by the Times newspaper in 1853, where it then traveled to France in 1866 and Germany in 1873. By the time it reached Spain in 1885 it had become common use. Some sources describe the Parisian Hippolyte Auguste Marinoni as the inventor of the Rotary printing press, but this was the subject of a patent dispute that was decided in Hoe's favor. A.S. Abell of the Baltimore Sun was the first American user of the rotary press.

Types of rotary printing presses
Today, there are four main types of rotary presses; letterpress, offset (including web offset), rotogravure, and flexo (short for flexography). Although all the types use cylinders to print, they vary in their method.

 * Rotary letterpress printing uses type metal plates molded in the form of a cylinder. The plates, called stereotypes, are coated with ink, then pressed against a continuous roll of paper.  Rotary letterpress printing was used in the mid-twentieth century to print most major newspapers.
 * In offset lithography, the image is chemically applied to a plate, generally through exposure of photosensitive layers on the plate material. Lithography is based on the fact that water and oil do not mix, which enables the planographic process to work. In the context of a printing plate, a wettable surface (the non-image area) may also be termed hydrophilic and a non-wettable surface (the image area) hydrophobic.
 * Gravure is a process in which small cells or holes are etched into a copper cylinder, which are able to be filled with ink. All the colours are etched in different angles, thus while printing every colour is placed in proper position to give the appropriate image.
 * Flexography is a relief system in which a raised image is created on a typical polymer-based plate.

In stamp collecting, rotary-press-printed stamps are sometimes a different size than stamps printed with a flat plate. This happens because the stamp images are farther apart on a rotary press, which makes the individual stamps larger (typically 0.5 to 1 mm).

title: Rotary printing press


text:
Bellingdon

Bellingdon is a village in the civil parish of Chartridge (where the 2011 Census was included), in Buckinghamshire, England. The name derives from the Anglo Saxon Bellingdenu or Bella's Valley, and is recorded as Belenden in the 15th century. It is arranged along a ridge, typical of the Chiltern Hills to the north of Chesham.

Early settlement
Until the end of the 19th century Bellingdon consisted of a number of scattered farms including Bank, Peppetts, Bellingdon End, Bloomfield, Huge, Hazeldean and Vale Farms which were built in the late 16th or early 17th-century. The abundance of clay deposits led to a number of brickworks being established in the 19th century, two of which were: Bellingdon brickworks (now HG Matthews) in 1891 and another at Bloomfield Farm in 1899, then in the 20th century on Gyles Road and Oak Lane. Bakers brickyard, known as Lower Kiln, was situated opposite Huge Farm and was owned by the Baker family for three generations since 1899 when Joseph Baker the youngest son of the brickmaking Bakers from nearby Wigginton bought the brickyard for £5 from a Mr Clarke. Joseph, followed by his son William and then William's sons made bricks here until they ran out of clay in 1964. They were well known in the area for the excellent quality of their bricks.

Modern day settlement
The village hall was built around 1948 using a 'standard hut' provided by the National Council for Social Service on land given by Miss Marian Thompson, the first W.I. President. Together with the adjoining playing fields, it is shared with the people of the nearby hamlet of Asheridge. In 2010 a grant was awarded to fund the construction of a playground next to the village hall. At the northern end of the village is the premises of The Bull public house which ceased to trade in the summer of 2009 and was boarded up, and beyond this the largest employer in the village, HG Matthews Brickworks which was acquired by the family in 1924. Also at this end of the village is the Bellingdon End Farm shop selling equestrian supplies, animal feed and clothing.

Churches
In the nineteenth century there was a Baptist meeting in the village at Peppett's Green, which was run by the Congregational Church and the Lower Baptist Chapel (now Trinity Baptist) in Chesham. It is mentioned in the 1851 Ecclesiastical Census. Peppett's Farm was owned by the Lower Baptist Church but sold in the 1920s.

St John's Church, in the centre of the village, is part of the ecclesiastical parish of Great Chesham. The Anglican congregation started in the 1870s; in the 1880s it met in the Mission Room at Sun Cottage. The current tin tabernacle was built in 1901. In 1958, the building was named "St John's", after St John the Evangelist.

Education
There is no school in the village. Children under 11 attend Chartridge Combined School, Hawridge and Cholesbury Church of England School or Little Spring Primary School. The catchment area secondary schools are:- Chiltern Hills Academy and Chesham Grammar School in Chesham, Amersham School and Dr Challoner's Grammar School for boys in Amersham and Dr Challoner's High School for girls in Little Chalfont.

Notable people

 * D.H. Lawrence rented one of the three Bellingdon Farm cottages called 'The Triangle' in Hawridge Lane for a short period between August 1914 and January 1915 during which time he wrote The Rainbow.

title: Bellingdon


text:
Horezu

Horezu is a town located in Vâlcea County, Oltenia, Romania, about 43 km from Râmnicu Vâlcea. The town administers six villages: Ifrimești, Râmești, Romanii de Jos, Romanii de Sus, Tănăsești and Urșani.

The town is well known for its people who make pottery and present it at an annual fair (see Horezu ceramics). There are special traditions which have been well preserved. The town has slightly over 6,000 inhabitants, most of them working in agriculture and services.

Horezu is the site of Horezu Monastery, a World Heritage Site.

Notable people

 * Ana Cartianu (1908–2001), academic, essayist, and translator
 * Lazăr Comănescu (b. 1949), diplomat, Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Andrei Popescu (b. 1985), footballer

Twin towns - sister cities
Horezu is twinned with:
 * 🇱🇺 Clervaux, Luxembourg

title: Horezu


text:
User:Cyan/kidnapped/RepubLikud

RepubLikud is a name for the perception of converged interests of the United States Republican Party of the United States and the Likud Party of Israel. It seems to have been coined to separate debates about Zionism from debates about imperialism, by analysts sympathetic to Zionism but not to imperialism and in particular not to oil imperialism. These see the neo-conservative movement as having an American and an Israeli element that expresses itself in control of these two political parties.

See "RepubLikud" summary of analysis in Disinfopedia, which is in context of neoconservative thought.

Summarizing, from that analysis (adding links to Wikipedia articles):

"In effect, by simply refusing to make land concessions or even implement the long-standing UN order to withdraw to the 1967 borders of the West Bank, Likud can leverage Republican Party support for an endlessly escalating military and technological conflict from which its own members, and elites of the Republican Party, directly benefit. If dangerous technology leaks out to enemies, such as the nuclear technology to Iraq or biological technology to Iran, this can provide excuses for "crackdowns" and pre-emptive war. Refusal to actually limit the development, deployment and use of such technology is another cornerstone of Republikud: G. W. Bush has withdrawn from a vast array of international agreements to control technologies, and Israel has consistently refused to allow UN weapons inspectors to review its rumoured nuclear facilities."

Critics of this analysis claim:

 * please add

title: User:Cyan/kidnapped/RepubLikud


text:
Imp

An imp is a European mythological being similar to a fairy or demon, frequently described in folklore and superstition. The word may perhaps derive from the term ympe, used to denote a young grafted tree.

Imps are often described as troublesome and mischievous more than seriously threatening or dangerous, and as lesser beings rather than more important supernatural beings. The attendants of the devil are sometimes described as imps. They are usually described as lively and having small stature.

Etymology
The Old English noun impa meant a young shoot or scion of a plant or tree, and later came to mean the scion of a noble house, or a child in general. Starting in the 16th century, it was often used in expressions like "imps of serpents", "imp of hell", "imp of the devil", and so on; and by the 17th century, it came to mean a small demon, a familiar of a witch. The Old English noun and associated verb impian appear to come from an unattested Late Latin term *emputa (impotus is attested in the Salic law), the neuter plural of ἔμϕυτος 'natural, implanted, grafted'.

History
Unlike the Christian folklore, demons in Germanic legends were not necessarily always evil. Imps were often mischievous rather than evil or harmful. In some religions, they were attendants of the gods.

The Lincoln Imp
A legend in Lincolnshire dating to the 14th-century recounts that the devil, being annoyed with the completion of the cathedral, paid a visit, accompanied by two imps who proceeded to wreak havoc in the building. An angel appeared and ordered them to stop. One turned to throw a rock at the angel and was instantly petrified. For the tiniest angel, with amethyst eyes, And hair spun like gold, 'fore the alter [sic] did rise, Pronouncing these words in a dignified tone "O impious imp, be ye turned to stone!" While his companion fled, the unfortunate imp remains enslaved by the Angel Choir at the east end of the cathedral. The imp is also depicted on the emblem of the local football team Lincoln City F.C. They are also nicknamed The Imps.

Other descriptions
Imps are often shown as small in stature and not very attractive. Their behaviour is described as being wild and uncontrollable, much the same as fairies', and in some cultures they are considered the same beings, both sharing the same sense of free spirit and enjoyment of all things fun. It was later in history that people began to associate fairies as being good and imps as being malicious and evil. However, both creatures were fond of pranks and misleading people. Most of the time, these pranks were harmless fun, but some could be upsetting and harmful, such as the switching of babies or leading travelers astray in places unfamiliar to them. Although imps are often thought of as being immortal, they can be damaged or harmed by certain weapons and enchantments, or be kept out of people's homes by wards.

Imps were also portrayed as lonely little creatures in search of human attention, using jokes and pranks to attract human friendship. This often backfired when people became annoyed with the imp's endeavours, usually driving it away.

Even if the imp was successful in getting the friendship it sought, it still often played pranks on its friend, either out of boredom or simply because this was the nature of the imp. This trait led to using the word “impish” for someone who loves pranks and practical jokes. Eventually, it came to be believed that imps were the familiar spirit servants of witches and warlocks, where the little demons served as spies and informants. During the time of the witch hunts, supernatural creatures such as imps were sought out as proof of witchcraft, though often the so-called imp was merely a black cat, a lizard, a toad or some other form of uncommon pet.

Objects
Imps have also been described as being “bound” or contained in some sort of object such as a sword or a crystal ball. In other cases, imps were simply kept in a certain object, and then summoned only when their masters had need of them. Some even had the ability to grant their owner's wishes, much like a genie. This was the object of the 1891 story The Bottle Imp by Robert Louis Stevenson, which told of an imp contained in a bottle that would grant the owner their every wish, but their soul would be sent to Hell if they didn't sell the bottle to a new owner before their death.

Culture
Imps can be found in art and architecture throughout the world, most of the time carefully and painstakingly hidden and only being found by the most interested and observant of people.

title: Imp


text: User talk:204.39.0.104

title: User talk:204.39.0.104


text:
Trixie

Trixie is a shortened form of the given names Beatrix or Beatrice or Patricia or adopted as a nickname or used as a given name.

Trixie may refer to:

People

 * Trixie Friganza (1870–1955), American vaudeville performer and stage and silent film actress
 * Trixie Gardner, Baroness Gardner of Parkes (born 1927), Australian-born British politician, dentist and peeress
 * Trixie Maristela (born 1985), Filipino transgender actress
 * Trixie Mattel (born 1989), American drag queen and winner of RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars season 3
 * Trixie Minx (born 1981), American burlesque dancer
 * Trixi Schuba (born 1951), Austrian figure skater
 * Trixie Smith (1895–1943), African American blues singer, vaudeville entertainer and actress
 * Trixie Tagg, Australian soccer player and coach
 * Trixie Whitley (born 1987), Belgian American multi-instrumentalist
 * Beatrix 'Trixi' Pospíšilová Čelková (1925-1997), Slovak World War II era spy and antifascist resistance member

Fictional characters

 * Thelma Norton, a character in the series The Honeymooners, is nicknamed Trixie
 * Trixie, a character in the series Speed Racer
 * Trixie, a character in the series Deadwood
 * Trixie, a character in the series LazyTown
 * Trixie, a triceratops toy in the film Toy Story 3
 * Trixie Belden, the title character of a series of mysteries
 * Trixie Lorraine, a character in the movie Gold Diggers of 1933 portrayed by Aline MacMahon
 * Trixie Sting, a character in Slugterra
 * Trixie Tang, a character in the series The Fairly OddParents
 * Trixie Lulamoon, a character in the series My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic
 * Trixie Carter, a character in the series American Dragon: Jake Long
 * Trixie Tucker, a character in the Australian television soap opera Neighbours
 * Trixie Franklin, a character in Call the Midwife played by Helen George
 * Trixie, a female cat in Top Cat: The Movie
 * Trixie, the infant daughter in the comic strip Hi and Lois
 * Beatrice "Trixie" Espinoza, a character in the American television series, Lucifer.
 * Aunt Trixie, a character in the Australian TV series Bluey

Film

 * Trixie (film), a 2000 American mystery-crime film
 * Trixie Film, producer of the Burn to Shine DVD series
 * A fictional virus in the 1973 film The Crazies and its 2010 remake, alternatively titled Code Name: Trixie
 * A working title of Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker
 * Trixie Mattel: Moving Parts, a documentary showcasing what happens backstage during Trixie Mattel's Moving Parts tour

Other uses

 * Cyclone Trixie (1975)
 * Trixie (bet), a type of wager
 * Trixie (slang), a derogatory slang term

title: Trixie


text:
Biddlesden

Biddlesden is a village and civil parish in Aylesbury Vale district in north-west Buckinghamshire, England on the boundary with Northamptonshire. It is about 5 mi east-north-east of Brackley, Northamptonshire and 5 mi north-west of Buckingham. The River Great Ouse forms part of the western boundary of the parish, separating the village from Northamptonshire. The ancient royal forest of Whittlewood extended to the northern edge of the village.

History
The village toponym is derived from the Old English for either "house in a valley" or "Byttel's valley". In the Domesday Book of 1086 the village is recorded as Betesdene.

In 1147 Ernald de Bosco founded the Cistercian Biddlesden Abbey. In 1315, the village was granted a temporary charter to hold a weekly market. When the abbey was seized on behalf of Henry VIII during the Dissolution of the Monasteries it was assessed to be earning in excess of £175 annually in rents and tithes.

Although the abbey continued after this time as living accommodation for those in favour with the monarch, the building was not maintained thoroughly and fell into disrepair. By the 18th century the abbey was in ruins and was finally demolished in 1727. The country house of Biddlesden Park was built on the same site.

Within the parish of Biddlesden there was the hamlet of Evershaw. In the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle at the time of King Edward the Confessor this settlement was listed as being in the possession of a "certain bandy-legged man". Evershaw's toponym is derived from the Old English for "boar wood". The family names "Evershaw" and "Eversaw" are derived from this place. No trace of the hamlet remains today.

title: Biddlesden


text:
User talk:Puffy jacket

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Tip: you can sign your name with ~

snoyes 18:03, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Thanks! Puffy jacket

That could be deleted instantly. I have done. Secretlondon 09:03, Dec 27, 2003 (UTC)

Æ / æ
You can cut-n-paste (what I usually do) or there's HTML codes that you can see if you edit the discussion page. Anglo-Saxon transliterations are so confusing it can very hard to find the many existing articles! Stan 17:57, 20 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Thank you! That's sort of what I was wondering- do article names with Æ turn up if someone is searching for, say, AE? Idle curiosity. :) --Puffy jacket 02:03, 21 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Probably not, although Google does do some intelligent character crunching. It would be a good idea to include "ae" redirs and "ae" alt spellings in Anglo-Saxon articles. Stan 04:17, 21 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Prada
Puffy Jacket -- saw your edits on Prada. I appreciate some of your clean-up, but please note that on wikipedia we don't normally delete information without explaining the reason for the deletes and copying the deleted text to the talk page. The only exception to this is vandalism, which wasn't what was on the Prada page. Was there a reason you deleted information about things like the price of the handbag and the material? Tom 14:31, 24 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Saints Wikiproject
I noted that you have been contributing to articles about saints. I invite you to join the WikiProject Saints.

Thanks! --evrik 16:50, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Prayer to Saint Joseph
A proposed deletion template has been added to the article Prayer to Saint Joseph, suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process. All contributions are appreciated, but this article may not satisfy Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and the deletion notice should explain why (see also "What Wikipedia is not" and Wikipedia's deletion policy). You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the  notice, but please explain why you disagree with the proposed deletion in your edit summary or on its talk page.

Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised because even though removing the deletion notice will prevent deletion through the proposed deletion process, the article may still be deleted if it matches any of the speedy deletion criteria or it can be sent to Articles for Deletion, where it may be deleted if consensus to delete is reached. Do you want to opt out of receiving this notice? SchuminWeb (Talk) 21:58, 24 May 2008 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
Hi, You appear to be eligible to vote in the current Arbitration Committee election. The Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to enact binding solutions for disputes between editors, primarily related to serious behavioural issues that the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the ability to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail. If you wish to participate, you are welcome to review the candidates' statements and submit your choices on the voting page. For the Election committee, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 22:14, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Puffy jacket


text:
Talk:Ĥ

OK, now we got fun. The lower-case character appears incorrectly (as h-umlaut) in normal type but correctly if you put <big> tags around it: Phil 18:03, Dec 11, 2003 (UTC)
 * normal: ĥ ĥ ĥ
 * <big>: ĥ ĥ ĥ

 * So it's an artifact of the way my browser is rendering the letter, and if I change the font size it makes more or less of the circumflex visible peeking out from behind the previous line. I'll get me coat. Phil 18:10, Dec 11, 2003 (UTC)

ĥ=x
I was wondering, how did they get the ĥ character to represent the X sound? I don't mind that it does, it's just that it is weird. Shouldn't it be a K with a ^ above it? That makes more sense I think. Is there something like it in Cyrillic that caused the sound to be represented this way? 76.188.26.92 22:05, 15 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Letter X and similar symbols are used in IPA to represent sounds like h in house, not like x in x-ray. Admiral Norton 15:23, 15 September 2007 (UTC)

 * No, it's ch like in scotish "loch", not h.--88.101.76.122 19:06, 22 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I know, I know, but my point is it's not related in any way to the letter X (like Sphynx). Admiral Norton 22:19, 22 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I think that 76.188.26.92's point was that it's pronounced in the same place where k is. (I think that reason for choosing ĥ was that many languages who have x sound use "ch" for it in writing and this is just a shorter way to write it.)--88.101.76.122 08:15, 23 September 2007 (UTC)

 * In Cyrillic the letter for this sound is just Х (like X "ex" in Latin script). Slavik IVANOV 03:38, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

This all goes back to the Greek alphabet. The original Greek alphabet used versions of the inherited Phoenician letters. Later it was found necessary to add some more letters, and X was one of these. In one version of the Greek Alphabet (the ancestor of the classical and modern Greek alphabets and also of the Cyrillic alphabet) X was used to represent the IPA /x/ sound (like the Scottish loch); in another version, which became the ancestor of the Roman alphabet, X was used to represent /ks/. --rossb 23:37, 22 September 2007 (UTC)

Ĥ=kxh
Khx 2A0B:6204:F2F8:6D00:E1AA:BB35:6B3D:1DA7 (talk) 14:07, 3 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ĥ


text:
User talk:Cyan/kidnapped/RepubLikud

One obvious criticism of this view is that, while Republicans and Likudites do in fact own many directly benefitting arms corporations, the policies that keep paying these people to do technological escalation are maintained also by the Democratic Party and Israeli Labour Party. So these are national, not party, issues.

It is probably true that "RepubLikud" boldly advances the interests of the arms dealers and oil imperialism usual suspects, but it simply isn't true that they are acting in total defiance of any US or Israeli national will to do so...

That can go in the article if someone can find a reference saying so. There are lots of good critiques by the Green Party of the United States that implicate the Democrats in these arms races and confrontations and colonial games. I assume something equivalent exists regarding Labour in Israel, too.

title: User talk:Cyan/kidnapped/RepubLikud


text:
Peter I

Peter I may refer to:

Religious hierarchs

 * Saint Peter (c. 1 AD – c. 64–88 AD), a.k.a. Simon Peter, Simeon, or Simon, apostle of Jesus
 * Pope Peter I of Alexandria (died 311), revered as a saint
 * Peter I of Armenia (died 1058), Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church
 * Peter I (bishop of León) (died after June 1112)
 * Peter I (archbishop of Lyon) (died 1139), a Benedictine monk

Rulers

 * Peter I of Bulgaria (died 970), emperor (tsar) of Bulgaria
 * Peter I of Savoy (c. 1048–1078), count of Savoy
 * Peter I of Aragon and Navarre (c. 1068–1104), King of Aragon and Pamplona
 * Peter I of Barcelona, Peter II the Catholic (1178–1213), King of Aragon, Count of Barcelona
 * Peter I of Constantinople (died 1219), emperor, Peter II of Courtenay
 * Peter I, Duke of Brittany (1187–1250), Peter Mauclerc
 * Peter I, Count of Urgell (1187–1258), second son of King Sancho I of Portugal
 * Peter I of Valencia (1239–1285), Peter the Great, Peter III of Aragon, king
 * Peter I, Duke of Bourbon (1311–1356), second Duke of Bourbon
 * Peter I of Portugal (1320–1367), king of Portugal, Peter the Just, Peter the Cruel
 * Peter I of Cyprus (1328–1369), Pierre I de Lusignan, king of Cyprus and titular King of Jerusalem
 * Peter of Castile, (1334 –1369) king of Castile and León, Peter the Just, Peter the Cruel
 * Petru I of Moldavia, prince of Moldavia 1367–1368
 * Peter I, Count of Saint-Pol (1390–1433), Peter of Luxembourg
 * Pedro I of Kongo (ruled 1543–1545), Pedro I Nkanga a Mvemba
 * Peter the Great (1672–1725), Peter I, first Russian czar titled emperor
 * Peter I of the Miskito nation, ruled 1729–1739
 * Peter I of Montenegro (1747–1830), Petar I Petrović-Njegoš, legate of Serbian Orthodox Church
 * Peter I, Grand Duke of Oldenburg (1755–1829), Peter Frederick Louis of Holstein-Gottorp
 * Pedro I of Brazil (1798–1834), founder and first ruler of the Empire of Brazil
 * Peter I of Serbia (1844–1921), the last King of Serbia

title: Peter I


text:
Judea and Samaria Area

The Judea and Samaria Area (אֵזוֹר יְהוּדָה וְשׁוֹמְרוֹן; يهودا والسامرة) is an administrative division administered by the state of Israel. It encompasses the entire West Bank, which has been occupied by Israel since 1967, but excludes East Jerusalem (see Jerusalem Law). Its area is split into 165 Palestinian "islands" that are under total or partial civil administration by the Palestinian National Authority (PNA), and a contiguous area containing 230 Israeli settlements into which Israeli law is "pipelined".

While its area is internationally recognized as a part of the Palestinian territories, some Israeli authorities group it together with the districts of Israel proper, largely for statistical purposes. The term Judea and Samaria serves as another name for the West Bank in Israel.

Biblical significance
The Judea and Samaria Area covers a portion of the territory designated by the biblical names of Judea and Samaria. Both names are tied to the ancient Israelite kingdoms: the former corresponds to part of the Kingdom of Judah, also known as the Southern Kingdom; and the latter corresponds to part of the Kingdom of Samaria, also known as the Northern Kingdom. In 1947, the terminology was noted by the United Nations in the Partition Plan for Palestine with the statement: "the boundary of the hill country of Samaria and Judea starts on the Jordan River..."

1967 Arab–Israeli War
In 1967, the Six-Day War saw Israeli forces capture the Jordanian-annexed West Bank, marking the beginning of the ongoing Israeli occupation of the territory. Following its capture, the right-wing Israelis began to refer to the territories by their Hebrew-language names and argued for their integration into Israel on historical, religious, nationalist, and security grounds. In December 1967, the Israeli Military Governorate issued an order that stated: "the term 'Judea and Samaria region' shall be identical in meaning for all purposes to the term 'the West Bank Region. By early 1968, "Judea and Samaria" had been formally adopted in official usage. However, the phrase was rarely used until 1977, when Menachem Begin, a proponent of extending Israel's sovereignty to the region, was elected as Israel's sixth prime minister.

The name Judea, when used in Judea and Samaria, refers to all of the area to the south of Jerusalem, including Gush Etzion and Har Hevron. The name Samaria, on the other hand, refers to all of the area to the north of Jerusalem. In 1980, East Jerusalem (a part of the West Bank) was effectively annexed by Israel and has since been under civilian administration; it is thus excluded from the administrative structure of the Judea and Samaria Area. The names "West Bank" or, alternatively, "the Territories"  are also current in Israeli usage. Generally, preference for one term over the other indicates the speaker's position on the Israeli political spectrum. Left-wingers, who take the view that the territory should be evacuated under a peace agreement, prefer "West Bank"; conversely, right-wingers, who take the view that the territory should come under Israeli administration permanently, advocate the usage of "Judea and Samaria" (similar to the Derry/Londonderry name dispute in Northern Ireland).

Status

The Judea and Samaria Area is administered by the Israel Defense Forces Central Command, and military law is applied. Administrative decisions are subject to the Command's chief. The incumbent chief of Central Command is Aluf Nitzan Alon.

The future status of the region is a key factor in the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict. United Nations Security Council Resolution 242, adopted in November 1967, after Israel captured the region from Jordan in the Six-Day War, lists as its first principle "the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war and the need to work for a just and lasting peace in which every State in the area can live in security" and called for the "withdrawal of Israel armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict" in conjunction with the "termination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect for and acknowledgment of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of every State in the area and their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force".

The West Bank (including East Jerusalem) and Gaza Strip are considered occupied Palestinian territories by the United Nations, the United States, the International Court of Justice, the European Union, and by non-governmental organizations such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and B'Tselem. The Supreme Court of Israel has considered the section of the West Bank which excludes East Jerusalem to be Israeli-occupied territories.

On 13 May 2012, a bill to extend Israeli law to the Israeli settlements in the Judea and Samaria Area initiated by Knesset member Miri Regev (Likud) first approved by the majority of the Ministerial Committee for Legislation was rejected in a second round of votes after prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu had instructed his ministers to vote against the bill. Extending Israeli law to the settlements would mean a de facto annexation of the settlements to Israel. In July 2012, a government-commissioned report from a three-member committee, called Levy Report, asserted, based on a number of reasons, that there is no legal basis under international law to refer to Judea and Samaria as "occupied territory". Article 43 of the Fourth Hague Convention of 1907 is the basis of the Levy committee's opinion.

Administrative local authorities
The area is further divided into eight military administrative regions: Menashe (Jenin area), HaBik'a (Jordan Valley), Shomron (Shechem area, known in Arabic as Nablus), Efrayim (Tulkarm area), Binyamin (Ramallah/al-Bireh area), Maccabim (Maccabim area), Etzion (Bethlehem area) and Yehuda (Hebron area).

title: Judea and Samaria Area


text:
Bishopstone, Buckinghamshire

Bishopstone is a small, rural village in the civil parish of Stone with Bishopstone and Hartwell in Aylesbury Vale, Buckinghamshire, England.

History
The village name is a common one in England, and means Bishop's Estate. It is not known to which Bishop this refers though as the village lies within the ancient diocese of Lincoln, it presumedly denotes property owned by the Bishop of Lincoln. The village was first recorded in manorial rolls of 1227 as Bissopeston.

Location
Bishopstone resides amongst farm land just a mile east of Stone and two miles south of Aylesbury. The village is overlooked by the Chiltern Hills, most notably Coombe Hill with its Boer War memorial, a well known Buckinghamshire landmark and viewpoint. Bishopstone is easily accessible from the A418 which runs from Aylesbury to Thame in Oxfordshire.

Amenities
Due to Bishopstone's relatively remote location there is a limited bus service that makes a single return journey to Aylesbury, allowing a few hours in town, on Wednesdays and Fridays. The closest train stations are located in Aylesbury and at Little Kimble 2.5 miles south. The only pub in the village, The Harrow, was closed for 5 years but re-opened in October 2019 after a total refurbishment of both the grounds and building. There is no village shop; however neighbouring Stone is host to an Indian restaurant, a petrol filling station, antiques store, a grocery store and post office.

title: Bishopstone, Buckinghamshire


text:
Coercive monopoly

In economics and business ethics, a coercive monopoly is a firm that is able to raise prices and make production decisions without the risk that competition will arise to draw away their customers. A coercive monopoly is not merely a sole supplier of a particular kind of good or service (a monopoly), but it is a monopoly where there is no opportunity to compete with it through means such as price competition, technological or product innovation, or marketing; entry into the field is closed. As a coercive monopoly is securely shielded from the possibility of competition, it is able to make pricing and production decisions with the assurance that no competition will arise. It is a case of a non-contestable market. A coercive monopoly has very few incentives to keep prices low and may deliberately price gouge consumers by curtailing production.

Coercive monopolies can arise in free market or via government intervention to institute them. Some conservative think tanks, such as the Foundation for Economic Education, define coercive monopolies solely as those established by the government or via the illegal use of force, excluding monopolies that arise in the free market.

Contrasted with other monopolies
Exclusive control of electricity supply due to government-imposed "utility" status is a coercive monopoly because consumers have no choice but to pay the price that the monopolist demands. Consumers do not have an alternative to purchase electricity from a cheaper competitor, because the wires running into their homes belong to the monopolist.

Exclusive control of Coca-Cola, by contrast, is not a coercive monopoly because consumers have other cola brands to choose from and the Coca-Cola company is subject to competitive forces. Consequently, there is an upper limit to which the company can raise its prices before profits begin to erode because of the presence of viable substitute goods.

To maintain a non-coercive monopoly, a monopolist must make pricing and production decisions knowing that, if prices are too high or quality is too low, competition may arise from another firm that can better serve the market. If the non-coercive monopoly is successful, it is called an efficiency monopoly, because it has been able to keep production and supply costs lower than any other competitor so that it can charge a lower price than others and still be profitable. Since potential competitors are not able to be so efficient, they are not able to charge a lower or comparable price and still be profitable. Hence, competing against a non-coercive monopoly is possible but not profitable, whereas competing against a coercive monopoly is potentially profitable but not possible.

Establishing a coercive monopoly
According to business ethicist John Hasnas, "most [contemporary business ethicists] take for granted that a free market produces coercive monopolies." However, some people, including Alan Greenspan and Nathaniel Branden, argue that such independence from competitive forces "can be accomplished only by an act of government intervention, in the form of special regulations, subsidies, or franchises." Some point out that a coercive monopolist may "employ violence" to create or maintain a coercive monopoly.

Some recommend that government create coercive monopolies. For example, claims of natural monopoly are often used as justification for government intervening to establish a statutory monopoly (government monopoly or government-granted monopoly) where competition is outlawed, under the claim that multiple firms providing a good or service entails more collective costs to an economy than would be the case if a single firm provided that good or service. This has often been done with electricity, water, telecommunications, and mail delivery. Some economists believe that such coercive monopolies are beneficial because of greater economies of scale and because they are more likely to act in the national interest. Conversely, Judge Richard Posner famously argued in Natural Monopoly and Its Regulation that the deadweight losses associated with regulating such monopolies were greater than any possible benefit.

Private coercion
A corporation which successfully engages in coercion to the extent that it eliminates the possibility of competition operates a coercive monopoly. A firm may use illegal or non-economic methods, such as extortion, to achieve and retain a coercive monopoly position. A company which has become the sole supplier of a commodity through non-coercive means (such as by simply outcompeting all other firms) may theoretically then go on to become a coercive monopoly if it maintains its position by engaging in coercive barriers to entry. The most famous historical examples of this type of coercive monopoly began in 1920, when the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution went into effect. This period, called Prohibition, presented lucrative opportunities for organized crime to take over the importation ("bootlegging"), manufacture, and distribution of alcoholic beverages. Al Capone, one of the most famous bootleggers, built his criminal empire largely on profits from illegal alcohol and effectively used coercion (including murder) to impose barriers to entry on his competitors. However, even private coercive monopolies almost invariably require government support, whether direct or indirect. In Capone's case, the U.S. government created the necessary conditions for a coercive monopoly by outlawing the manufacture and sale of alcohol, thereby enabling unnaturally high profits on the black market, and was not providing the usual service of enforcing trade contracts. Likewise, some corrupt public officials took bribes that ensured that Capone would receive preferential treatment against potential competitors.

Antitrust
The ability of firms in a coercive monopoly to increase their profits through setting prices above competitive levels brings about the need for antitrust law. There are examples in history wherein a firm that is not a government-granted monopoly is claimed to have a coercive monopoly, and antitrust action has been initiated to resolve the perceived problem. For example, in United States v. Microsoft The Plaintiff's Finding of Fact alleged that Microsoft "coerced" Apple Computer to enter into contracts resulting in the prohibition of competition. Eric Raymond, an author and one of the founders of the Open Source Initiative, says "The thing a lot of people somehow missed is that the courts affirmed the findings of fact – that Microsoft is indeed a coercive monopoly."

Another disputed example is the case of U.S. v. Aluminum Co. of America (Alcoa) in 1945. The court concluded that Alcoa "excluded competitors." The ruling is heavily criticized for punishing efficiency and is quoted below:

"It was not inevitable that it should always anticipate increases in the demand for ingot and be prepared to supply them. Nothing compelled it to keep doubling and redoubling its capacity before others entered the field. It insists that it never excluded competitors; but we can think of no more effective exclusion than progressively to embrace each new opportunity as it opened, and to face every newcomer with new capacity already geared into a great organization, having the advantage of experience, trade connections and the elite of personnel."

However, antitrust law varies across the United States and the European Union. Specifically, in the U.S. monopoly pricing is not regulated. Whereas the European Community (EC) considers excessive pricing as an abuse of dominance and those involved can be fined or subject to prohibitory orders. This difference in regulation highlights the need to level out antitrust laws across the world in order to control this exclusionary and exploitive conduct in coercive monopolies.

Government monopolies
Undisputed examples of coercive monopolies are those that are enforced by law. In a government monopoly, an agency under the direct authority of the government itself holds the monopoly, and the coercive monopoly status is sustained by the enforcement of laws or regulations that ban competition, or reserve exclusive control over factors of production for the government. The state-owned petroleum companies that are common in oil-rich developing countries (such as Aramco in Saudi Arabia or PDVSA in Venezuela) are examples of government monopolies created through nationalization of resources and existing firms.

The United States Postal Service is an example of a coercive monopoly created through laws that ban potential competitors such as UPS or FedEx from offering competing services (in this case, first-class and standard (formerly called "third-class") mail delivery). Government monopolies also mandate taxpayers to subsidize these firms. Thus, if the government protection the United States Postal Service was lifted and mail delivery could be included in free competition, the number of entrants into the industry would likely increase.

Government-granted monopolies often closely resemble government monopolies in many respects, but the two are distinguished by the decision-making structure of the monopolist. In a government monopoly, the holder of the monopoly is the government itself and the group of people who make business decisions is an agency under the government's direct authority. In a government-granted monopoly, the coercive monopoly is enforced through law, but the holder of the monopoly is formally a private firm, or a subsidiary division of a private firm, which makes its own business decisions. Examples of government-granted monopolies include cable television and water providers in many municipalities in the United States, exclusive petroleum exploration grants to companies such as Standard Oil in many countries, and historically, lucrative colonial "joint stock" companies such as the Dutch East India Company, which were granted exclusive trading privileges with colonial possessions under mercantilist economic policy. Intellectual property such as copyrights and patents are government-granted monopolies. Another example is the thirty-year government-granted monopoly that was granted to Robert Fulton by the State of New York in steamboat traffic, but was later ruled by the U.S. Supreme Court to be unconstitutional because of a conflicting inter-state grant to Thomas Gibbons by the federal Congress.

Economist Lawrence W. Reed says that a government can cause a coercive monopoly without explicitly banning competition by "simply [bestowing] privileges, immunities, or subsidies on one firm while imposing costly requirements on all others." For example, Alan Greenspan, in his essay Antitrust argues that land subsidies to railroad companies in the western portion of the U.S. in 19th century created a coercive monopoly position. He says that "with the aid of the federal government, a segment of the railroad industry was able to "break free' from the competitive bounds which had prevailed in the East." In addition, regulations may be established that place financial burdens on smaller firms that attempt to compete with larger, more established firms that are better able to absorb the regulatory costs.

The state as a coercive monopoly
Economist Murray Rothbard, noted for his espousal of anarcho-capitalism, argues that the state itself is a coercive monopoly as it uses force to establish "a compulsory monopoly over police and military services, the provision of law, judicial decision-making, the mint and the power to create money, unused land ('the public domain'), streets and highways, rivers and coastal waters, and the means of delivering mail." He says that "a coercive monopolist tends to perform his service badly and inefficiently".

These state-owned companies create an issue of setting unrealistic prices for unreliable services. An example of this was seen in Europe during the late 1980s when bank mergers decreased competition in the banking market. As a result, this coercive behaviour allowed them to sustain high interest rates until the early 90s, severely impacting their customers. In addition to moral arguments over the use of force, free market anarchists often argue that if these services were open to competition that the market could supply them at a lower price and higher quality.

Unions
Labor unions have been called coercive monopolies which keep wage rates higher than they would otherwise be if individuals competed with each other for wages. Economists who believe this to be the case refer to this as a monopoly wage. This has raised some conversing opinions about the power of unions to contradict antitrust laws. Specifically, collusive methods to increases prices is illegal on public policy standards, but raising labour prices is encouraged. In addition, the unions participating in collective bargaining is applauded for its peaceful dispute settlement tactics, but this can also be seen as prohibited coercive behaviour. Nonetheless, as the intention behind these coercive actions in unions are for the benefit of workers rather than company profits, antitrust laws have not been held against these unions.

title: Coercive monopoly


text:
User talk:Usbrit

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Tip: you can sign your name with ~

snoyes 18:16, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Usbrit


text:
Enos

Enos or Enosh (Hebrew: אֱנוֹשׁ, Standard Enosh, Tiberian ʼĔnôš; "mortal man”) may refer to:

Biology and medicine

 * Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS)

People in religious scripture

 * Enos (biblical figure), a genealogical figure in the Bible.
 * The Book of Enos, one of the books that make up the Book of Mormon
 * Enos (Book of Mormon prophet), author of the Book of Enos

Single name

 * Enosh (Nestorian patriarch), patriarch of the Church of the East between 877 and 884

Given name

 * Enos Cabell (born 1949), American baseball player
 * Enos D. Hopping (1805–1847), U.S. Army general of the Mexican–American War
 * Enos Stanley Kroenke (born 1947), American businessman
 * Enos McLeod (born 1946), reggae singer and music producer
 * Enos T. Throop, (1784-1874), Governor of NY State
 * Enos Warren Persons (1836–1899), American politician
 * Enos Slaughter (1916–2002), a baseball player

Surname

 * Benjamin Enos (1788–1868), New York politician
 * Elihu Enos (1824–1892), Wisconsin politician
 * John Enos III (born 1962), American actor
 * Mireille Enos (born 1975), American actress
 * Roger Enos (1729-1808), military leader in Vermont
 * Truman Enos (1777–1858), New York politician

Other

 * Enos, Indiana, an unincorporated community
 * Enos, Turkey, a town
 * Enos (butterfly), a gossamer-winged butterfly genus
 * Enos (chimpanzee), a chimpanzee who launched into space
 * ENOS Rescue-System, an electronic rescue and locating system for use by divers at sea
 * eNOS, the enzyme endothelial nitric oxide synthase
 * Enos Strate, a character in the TV series The Dukes of Hazzard
 * Enos (TV series), a spin-off series about the character
 * Enos Fry, a fictional character in the animated TV series Futurama, originally the grandfather of Philip J. Fry

title: Enos


text: User talk:206.193.5.4

title: User talk:206.193.5.4


text:
Omni

Omni is a Latin prefix meaning "all" or "every". Omni may also refer to:

Mormonism

 * Omni (Book of Mormon prophet), a man in the Book of Mormon
 * Book of Omni, one of the books in the Book of Mormon

Vehicles

 * Dodge Omni, a vehicle manufactured by Chrysler from 1978 to 1990
 * Maruti Omni, a vehicle manufactured by Maruti Udyog in India

Music

 * Omni (band), an American post-punk band from Atlanta
 * Ømni, an album by Angra
 * Omni (album), an album by Minus the Bear
 * "Omni", a song by Scale the Summit from the album Monument

Other

 * Omni (magazine), a science and science fiction magazine published from 1978 to 1995
 * Omni Television, a Canadian television network owned by Rogers Communications
 * Omni, a fictional time travel device used in the 1980s TV series Voyagers!
 * Omni, a fictional villain in the television series Power Rangers: S.P.D.
 * Omni Trio, stage name of British drum and bass music artist Rob Haigh
 * Omni (website), a Swedish news aggregator service
 * Omni-Man, a superhero character from |Invincible  series

Organizations and businesses

 * Omni (company), a San Francisco-based storage and rental company
 * Omni Air International, an American charter airline
 * Omni - Aviacao e Tecnologia, a Portuguese charter airline
 * Omni Bank (California), Chinese bank with branches in the U.S.
 * Omni Coliseum, a large indoor arena located in Atlanta, Georgia, demolished in 1997
 * The Omni Group, a software developer
 * Omni Hotels, a North American hotel chain
 * Omni International Mall, in downtown Miami, Florida, closed in 2000
 * Omni Superstore, former discount grocery store chain owned by Dominick's in the Chicago, Illinois market area

Other uses

 * OMNI (SCIP), a device for secure voice and data communications over telephone lines
 * Omni wheel, a design for a wheel
 * Virtuix Omni, an omnidirectional treadmill for use with virtual reality gaming headsets like the Oculus Rift
 * OMNI Entertainment System, a quiz based game system by MB Electronics
 * Omni Television, a Canadian TV channel

title: Omni


text:
Alma

Alma or ALMA may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Alma (film), a 2009 Spanish short animated film
 * Alma (Oswald de Andrade novel), 1922
 * Alma (Le Clézio novel), 2017
 * Alma (play), a 1996 drama by Joshua Sobol about Alma Mahler-Werfel
 * Alma (Carminho album), 2012
 * Alma (Nicki Nicole album), 2023
 * "Alma" (song), by Fonseca, 2008
 * "Alma", a song by Tom Lehrer from the 1965 album That Was the Year That Was
 * ALMA Award, or American Latino Media Arts Award

Businesses

 * Alma Books, a British publishing house
 * Alma Media, a Finnish digital service business
 * ALMA de México, a low-cost airline

Military

 * Battle of the Alma, an 1854 Crimean War battle
 * Alma-class ironclad, French Navy corvettes built in the 1860s
 * French ironclad Alma

People and fictional characters

 * Alma (given name), including a list of people, Mormon religious figures and fictional characters with the name
 * Alma (Finnish singer) (Alma-Sofia Miettinen, born 1996)
 * Alma (French singer) (Alexandra Maquet, born 1988)

Australia

 * Alma, South Australia
 * Alma, Victoria
 * Alma, Western Australia
 * South Broken Hill, New South Wales, formerly known as Alma
 * Electoral district of Alma

Canada

 * Alma Parish, New Brunswick
 * Alma, New Brunswick, a fishing village
 * Alma, Nova Scotia
 * Alma, Ontario
 * Alma, Prince Edward Island
 * Alma, Quebec

United States

 * Alma, Alabama
 * Alma, Arkansas
 * Alma, California
 * Alma, Colorado
 * Alma, Georgia
 * Alma, Illinois
 * Alma Township, Marion County, Illinois
 * Alma, Kansas
 * Alma, Louisiana
 * Alma, Michigan
 * Alma Township, Marshall County, Minnesota
 * Alma, Missouri
 * Alma, Nebraska
 * Alma Township, Harlan County, Nebraska
 * Alma, New Mexico
 * Alma, New York
 * Alma, Ohio
 * Alma, Oklahoma
 * Alma, Oregon
 * Alma, Texas
 * Alma, Virginia
 * Alma, Wisconsin, a city
 * Alma, Buffalo County, Wisconsin, a town
 * Alma, Jackson County, Wisconsin, a town

Elsewhere

 * Alma (Algeria), former name of Boudouaou
 * Alma, Greece
 * Alma, Iran
 * Alma, Israel
 * Alma, Kyrgyzstan
 * Alma, Lebanon
 * Alma, Bukit Mertajam, Penang, Malaysia
 * Alma, Safad, Mandatory Palestine, a depopulated Palestinian village
 * Alma, Sibiu, Romania
 * Alma, Syria
 * Alma, Limpopo, South Africa
 * Alma River (disambiguation)
 * 390 Alma, an asteroid

Schools

 * UCLouvain Brussels Woluwe, in Brussels, Belgium, known as Alma, a campus of the University of Louvain in Brussels, Belgium
 * Alma College (St. Thomas, Ontario), Canada, a ladies liberal arts college 1877–1994
 * Alma College, in Alma, Michigan, U.S., a liberal arts college
 * Jesuit School of Theology of Santa Clara University, in Berkeley, California, U.S., founded as Alma College
 * Collège d'Alma, Alma, Quebec, Canada
 * Alma High School (disambiguation)

Transportation

 * Alma (1891), a scow schooner
 * SS Alma (1894), a passenger ship
 * Alma (French automobile), manufactured 1926–1929
 * Alma metro station in Brussels, Belgium
 * Alma Airport, Alma, Quebec, Canada
 * Alma (Rivière La Grande Décharge) Water Aerodrome, Alma, Quebec
 * Pont de l'Alma ('Alma Bridge'), Paris, France

Acronyms

 * Armenian Library and Museum of America, Watertown, Massachusetts, United States
 * Asian land mammal age, a geologic timescale for prehistoric Asian fauna
 * Atacama Large Millimeter Array, a radio telescope in Chile
 * The "Aim, Learn, Master, Achieve" ALMA Initiative, a social inclusion scheme of the European Commission

Other uses

 * Book of Alma, one of the books that make up the Book of Mormon
 * Alma Generating Station, a power station in Wisconsin, United States
 * Hurricane Alma, the name of several storms
 * ALMA Magazine, an American Spanish-language lifestyle magazine
 * Almah or alma, a Hebrew word for a young woman of childbearing age
 * AlmaLinux, a Linux distribution

title: Alma


text:
Talk:Casu martzu

References not real science
Those references aren't real science!!! Armed force manual??? Book of disgusting thing???

--Pleiade (talk) 16:05, 12 December 2010 (UTC)

Paper bag
It is of course nonsense that larvae when put in a paper bag will be starved of oxygen; 1) paper bags are porous and oxygen can enter freely and 2) even if put in an airtight container it would take days for them to suffocate. The larvae, moreover, apparently can survive a trip through the low-oxygen environment of the human intestine. Probably they just jump about and as there are more places where there is no cheese than where there is in such a bag, most end up elsewhere rather than in the cheese sandwich. Bart (talk) 10:47, 12 October 2009 (UTC)

This is funny, but a lot of it isn't true
Take a look at the list of references if you have any doubts. SethTisue (talk) 04:06, 6 March 2010 (UTC)

lulz
An anon posted a link to this article on 4chan not to long ago which has resulted in some vandalism. Perhaps it would be a good idea to lock the article against further edits until all the excitement dies down? And no, Milhouse is still not a meme. 166.137.137.149 (talk) 06:21, 8 March 2010 (UTC) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 166.137.137.149 (talk) 06:19, 8 March 2010 (UTC)

Dead maggots
"Casu marzu is considered toxic when the maggots in the cheese have died. Because of this, only cheese in which the maggots are still alive is eaten." - According to Ben Hills (The Island of the Ancients, 2008) if the maggots are dead this means the cheese might be somewhat past its prime, but it is still eaten particularly if it has been stored at low temperatureBenvenuto (talk) 07:23, 28 September 2010 (UTC)

Health concerns
The health concerns are mostly about myiasis a condition causes when maggots survive the digestion process and live in the intestines before being passed. However as the section points out this does occur with the species of fly used in the cheese, but rather with species of other flies in particular FRUIT FLIES which I feel like Captain Obvious but, what is the relevance of discussing FRUIT flies in a CHEESE article?

Not only that it goes on to say that no cases of the condition have been reported from eating the cheese. It does however mention a case of myiasis... involving a species of fly unrelated to the Cheese Fly in a case with no apparent connection to the cheese. While relevant on an article about the condition it is meaningless and unneeded here.

Now maybe if the section was saying that while eating the maggots of the cheese fly is harmless but there were concerns about the wrong sort of larvae living in the cheese which could cause the condition that would be fine. However the entire section seems to be written with fear and gross factors being the defining factor. 203.51.44.37 (talk) 04:21, 19 June 2012 (UTC)

 * I agree. Although there are citations, they are only for the definition of myiasis. There's no citations supporting its occurrence with this cheese, and it's therefore unencyclopedic scaremongering to include it. I see it's also been removed previously (after being added by an anon IP), so between that editor, you, and now me there's three who think it should not be included. I will attempt removal again. Rcpdavies1939 (talk) 09:23, 12 December 2012 (UTC)

Other countries
This is also a thing in Malta. Made with the local sheep milk cheeselets called Ġbejna. During a trip there, my mother (who was born there and emigrated to the US in the 1950s) mentioned it is a specialty. Never saw it in stores, so must have fallen out of favor or legality. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 38.140.96.178 (talk) 15:24, 14 March 2016 (UTC)

List of foods that have been banned?
This could be added to a list like that. It's not banned anymore, but it has in the past, according to the wikipedia for the cheese. Please take this with a slim of salt

Wiki Education assignment: SSC199 TY4
— Assignment last updated by Alanag2004 (talk) 13:56, 1 December 2022 (UTC)

Tradition section reads like a brochure
Extended use of "you" feels off tone, and seems to blithely reiterate points made earlier in the article. 2600:100F:B1BA:569A:617D:C2CA:DB32:EB3D (talk) 00:04, 22 August 2023 (UTC)

"illegal"?
They say the cheese is "not legal" or "banned" in the US and EU, but doesn't explain what that actually means. I assume it means that you can't produce and sell it, or maybe even distribute it, not that in theory they will come and kick down your door because you decided to make and eat some food they have declared that you can't make? Not that I expect anyone would actually do that, but legally what does it actually mean? In the US you can't sell raw milk, but it's not illegal to go and milk your own cow and drink it. You just can't market it. I think that covers giving it away, although obviously that is hard to define exactly. But being the EU who knows, I can imagine them trying to ban even the personal production of a cheese. I thought most EU laws focused on trading between nations, because most things are internal affairs of the state (although that is certainly not always the case).

And does it only penalize making it, or is it illegal to possess? Does eating a piece count as "possession"? How did Gordon Ramsay feature it on TV if it's illegal? Idumea47b (talk) 09:22, 1 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Casu martzu


text:
Kiwanis

Kiwanis International is an international service club founded in 1915 in Detroit, Michigan. It is headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana, United States, and is found in more than 80 nations and geographic areas. In 1987, the organization began to accept women as members. Kiwanis and its affiliated clubs have more than 600,000 members. Kiwanis clubs raise over $100 million each year and report over 18.5 million volunteer hours to strengthen communities and serve children.

Kiwanis International is a volunteer-led organization led by a Board of Trustees with 19 members, including 15 trustees, four elected officers, and an executive director. The trustees are elected for three-year terms, with five trustees being elected each year. According to the bylaws, nine trustees are elected from the US and Pacific Canada Region, one trustee from the Canada and Caribbean Region, two trustees from the European Region, two trustees from the Asia-Pacific Region, and one trustee elected "at large" from any region other than the US and Pacific Canada Region. The elected officers included (in order of progression): the vice president, president-elect, president and immediate past president. These officers, along with the United States and Pacific Canada Region trustees, are elected at the annual convention of Kiwanis International. All trustees and officers are unpaid volunteers. The executive director is a full-time employee who is responsible for the organization's paid staff and serves as a non-voting member of the Board.

There are seven regions in Kiwanis: Africa; Asia-Pacific; Canada and Caribbean; Europe; Latin America; Middle East; and the United States and Pacific Canada. The United States and Pacific Canada Region incorporates the 50 states of the United States as well as British Columbia and the Yukon Territory of Canada.

There are fifty-three administrative areas called districts. District boards typically consist of a governor-elect, governor, immediate-past governor, secretary, treasurer, and several trustees or lieutenant governors. Districts are further divided into service areas called divisions, comprising 5 to 20 clubs and headed by a lieutenant governor. Clubs have boards consisting of a vice president (and/or president elect), president, immediate past president, secretary, treasurer, and typically about five directors. At both the district and club level, the secretary/treasurer may be combined by one person and may be a volunteer or a paid employee; all other positions are unpaid.

Etymology
The name “Kiwanis” was coined from the Ojibwe language expression derived from the word giiwanizi meaning to "fool around": ningiiwaniz, which is found in the Baraga Dictionary as "nin Kiwanis", meaning "I make noise; I am foolish and wanton" or "I play with noise". Although Random House Dictionary states that it comes from one of the Algonquian languages and means "to make oneself known", in Ojibwe and other related Algonquian languages, this expression would be gikendami'idizo. Whatever the original meaning may be, the organization's founders translated it as "We Build", which became the original motto of Kiwanis. In 2005 the organization chose a new motto, "Serving the Children of the World". Members of the club are called Kiwanians.

Defining statement
"Kiwanis is a global organization of volunteers dedicated to improving the world, one child and one community at a time."

Motto
Kiwanis' motto is "Serving the Children of the World." The original motto was "We Trade". A new motto of "We Build" was adopted during the 1920 International Convention and represented Kiwanis for more than 80 years.

Objectives
The six permanent Objectives of Kiwanis International were approved by Kiwanis club delegates at the 1924 Convention in Denver, Colorado.
 * To give primacy to the human and spiritual rather than to the material values of life
 * To encourage the daily living of the Golden Rule in all human relationships
 * To promote the adoption and the application of higher social, business, and professional standards
 * To develop, by precept and example a more intelligent, aggressive, and serviceable citizenship
 * To provide, through Kiwanis clubs, a practical means to form enduring friendships, render altruistic service, and to build better communities
 * To cooperate in creating and maintaining that sound public opinion and high idealism which make possible the increase of righteousness, justice, patriotism, and goodwill

History
The organization originated in August 1914 in Detroit, Michigan from a conversation between Allen S. Browne and Joseph G. Prance. Browne's idea was to solicit business and professional men asking them if they would be interested in organizing a fraternal organization with a health benefit feature. Browne was compensated five dollars per new member that joined for his operating budget. Browne and Prance set out and recruited enough members to apply to the state for a not for profit status. The state approved the application on January 21, 1915 and the Supreme Lodge Benevolent Order Brothers were formed. The name was changed to Kiwanis a year later. The Kiwanis Club of Detroit is the original local club in Kiwanis. By 1927 the organization had more than 100,000 members.

Kiwanis became international with the organization of the Kiwanis Club of Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, in 1916. Kiwanis limited its membership to the United States and Canada until 1962, when worldwide expansion was approved. Since then, Kiwanis has spread to all inhabited continents of the globe.

The original purpose of Kiwanis was to exchange business between members and to serve the poor. The debate as to whether to focus on networking or service was resolved in 1919, when Kiwanis adopted a service-focused mission. In 1924, the Objects of Kiwanis were adopted (see above) and remain unchanged today.

Each year, clubs sponsor nearly 150,000 service projects, complete more than 18.5 million hours in volunteer service and raise more than $100 million. As a global project in coordination with UNICEF, members and clubs contributed more than $80 million toward the global elimination of iodine deficiency disorders (IDD), the leading preventable cause of mental retardation. Beginning in 2010 Kiwanis International joined with UNICEF to launch a new worldwide health initiative, The Eliminate Project, dedicated to wiping out maternal and neonatal tetanus (MNT), which kills more than 100,000 babies worldwide each year. Until 1987 the organization accepted only men as members. By action of the International Convention in 1987, the rules were changed to admit women as well. Women constitute about 26% of total members. At the 2013 International Convention, Sue Petrisin was elected as the organization's first female international vice president. Petrisin was installed as Kiwanis International President in 2015, the year of the organization's 100th anniversary. She is the first woman to lead any major member service organization.

Service
Kiwanis clubs decide for themselves what projects to do in their community, based on their own community's needs and their members' interests. Service to children is a primary focus in Kiwanis. Clubs are encouraged to conduct a community survey each year to determine what unmet needs exist in their community. In some cases, clubs in a geographic region (a "Division" or "District") may take on a project of shared interest, such as paediatric trauma, or children's cancer.

Service may be provided directly (e.g. reading to children at the library or taking therapy dogs into seniors' facilities) or through raising funds in the community to meet a community need (such as building a playground). Common fund-raising events include breakfast such as pancake feeds, peanut sales, or food concessions. Areas of service may include assistance to those living in poverty, projects that benefit children and youth, and services for the sick or elderly.

As a global project in coordination with UNICEF, members and clubs contributed more than $80 million toward the global elimination of iodine deficiency disorders (IDD), the leading preventable cause of intellectual disability. Beginning in 2010 Kiwanis International once again joined with UNICEF to launch a new worldwide health initiative, dedicated to wiping out maternal and neonatal tetanus (MNT), which kills more than 50,000 babies and a significant number of women each year. The clubs are known for the "Kiwanis doll". Kiwanis dolls are simple white fabric dolls which is distributed to children and allows the children to color them in to represent themselves or someone else.

In 2007, the charitable financial arm, Kiwanis International Foundation, was awarded the top rating by an independent evaluator.

Kiwanis family
Kiwanis provides leadership and service opportunities for youth through its Service Leadership Programs. Aktion Club, Key Club, Circle K, Builders Club and K-Kids are part of Kiwanis Service Leadership Programs. They are sponsored by a local Kiwanis club and receive funding and leadership guidance from Kiwanis.

Key Club
Kiwanis founded and supports Key Club International. Started in Sacramento, California in 1925, Key Club is the oldest and largest service program for high school students in the world. As of 2010, Key Club has 250,000 members in 5,000 clubs in 30 nations, primarily in the United States and Canada, but with clubs also in Central and South America, Caribbean nations, Asia, and Australia. KIWIN'S (pronounced "kee-wins"), a high school program exclusive to the California-Nevada-Hawaii district, operates under the umbrella of Key Club but elects its own officers.

Circle K
The collegiate version of Kiwanis, which maintains some autonomy from Kiwanis, is Circle K International, also known as CKI. The first official Circle K club was chartered in September, 1947 at the campus of Carthage College (then in Illinois). As of 2010, Circle K membership is 12,600 members in 500 clubs in 17 countries, making Circle K the largest collegiate service organization of its kind in the world.

K-Kids, Builders Club, Aktion Club, Kiwanis Junior
K-Kids is intended for grades 4–5 in elementary school, and has a membership of 33,000 in 1,100 clubs in 8 nations. Builders Club (middle school) has 42,000 members in 1,400 clubs in 12 nations. Aktion Club (for people who have disabilities) has 8,400 members in 400 clubs in 7 nations. These programs are all led by adult advisors (Kiwanians or faculty members), whereas Key Club and Circle K elect their own club, district, and International officers each year to lead the organization. Kiwanis Junior is part of the European Service Leadership Program, with clubs in Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and Italy, and is typically for people ages 18–35.

Kiwaniannes
Before 1987, women's auxiliary clubs known as Kiwaniannes also existed, made up of wives of members of the men-only Kiwanis clubs. With the changes that made it possible for women to join Kiwanis clubs, official sponsorship of the Kiwaniannes clubs ended. Some Kiwaniannes clubs merged with their affiliated Kiwanis club, while others converted into independent Kiwanis clubs.

title: Kiwanis