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Philippe I, Duke of Orléans

Monsieur Philippe I, Duke of Orléans (21 September 1640 – 9 June 1701) was the younger son of King Louis XIII of France and Anne of Austria, and the younger brother of King Louis XIV. He was the founder of the House of Orléans, a cadet branch of the ruling House of Bourbon.

Styled Duke of Anjou from birth, Philippe became Duke of Orléans upon the death of his uncle Gaston in 1660. He was also granted the dukedoms of Valois, Chartres and Nemours. Known as le Petit Monsieur or simply Monsieur, Philippe was a distinguished military commander and took part in the War of Devolution and the Franco-Dutch War, the latter of which saw his victory over William of Orange at the Battle of Cassel. Through careful personal administration, he greatly augmented the fortunes of the House of Orléans, which rivalled that of the Bourbons.

Throughout his life, Philippe was open about his preference for male lovers, most notably the Chevalier de Lorraine, and freely acted with effeminacy. He married twice, first to Henrietta of England and then to Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate. Two of his daughters, Marie Louise and Anne Marie, became queens consort of Spain and Sardinia respectively, while his son Philippe II served as regent of France from 1715 to 1723.

Birth
Philippe de Bourbon was born on 21 September 1640 at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye in the town of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, the day before his mother Anne's 39th birthday. As the son of a ruling king, the infant Philippe held the rank of a Fils de France (son of France). As such, he ranked immediately behind his older brother Louis, Dauphin of France, who inherited the French throne before Philippe reached the age of three. From birth, Philippe was second in line to the throne of France and was entitled to the style of Royal Highness.

He was born in the presence of his father Louis XIII, the Princess of Condé, and the Duchess of Vendôme, prominent members of the Bourbon dynasty. Philippe's cousin, Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans, noted in her memoirs that the child's birth was marked by celebratory cannons in Paris. An hour after his birth, he was baptised in a private ceremony by Dominique Séguier, Bishop of Meaux, and given the name Philippe. Louis XIII had wanted to give the infant the title Count of Artois in honour of a recent French victory in Arras within the county of Artois. However, Louis respected tradition and gave him the title of Duke of Anjou instead, a title commonly granted to the younger sons of French kings since the fourteenth century. After his baptism, Philippe was put in the care of Françoise de Souvré, marquise de Lansac, who also looked after his older brother, in 1643 succeeded by Marie-Catherine de Senecey.

Le Petit Monsieur
At the death of their father Louis XIII in May 1643, Philippe's older brother ascended to the throne of France as Louis XIV. Their mother Queen Anne revoked the late king's will to arrange for a power-sharing agreement with Cardinal Mazarin, who had been serving as Louis XIII's chief minister. Anne was now in full control of her children, something she had been vying for since their birth. As the younger brother of the king, Philippe was addressed as le Petit Monsieur, since his uncle Gaston, who had also been the younger brother of a French king, was still alive. Gaston was then known as le Grand Monsieur. It was not until 1660 at the death of Gaston that Philippe would be known simply as Monsieur or as the Duke of Orléans.

The child Philippe was acknowledged to be attractive, affectionate, and intelligent. The Duchess of Montpensier dubbed him the "prettiest child in the world", while his mother's friend and confidant, Madame de Motteville, later said of Philippe that he displayed a "lively intelligence" early on. From 1646 on Philippe spent some of his childhood at the Hôtel de Villeroy ("Cremerie de Paris"), house of Nicolas de Villeroy, tutor of his brother Louis XIV. The children played there with Catherine de Villeroy and François de Villeroy.

In the autumn of 1647, at age seven, Philippe caught smallpox, but recovered and convalesced at the Palais-Royal. A year later, he was taken from the care of women and, on 11 May 1648 carried out his first official ceremony when he was baptized publicly at the Palais-Royal. His godparents were his uncle Gaston and aunt Queen Henrietta Maria of England. Later, he was placed in the care of François de La Mothe Le Vayer and the Abbé de Choisy. He was also educated by the maréchal du Plessis-Praslin. His tutors were chosen by Cardinal Mazarin, who was created the superintendent of the prince's education by his mother. His education emphasized languages, history, literature, mathematics and dancing. Despite having a household of his own, his behavior was closely watched by his mother and Mazarin, who made sure that Philippe had no meaningful financial freedom from the crown.

When Philippe was eight, the civil war known as the Fronde began in France. It lasted until 1653 in its two main phases: the Fronde Parlementaire (1648–1649) and the Fronde des nobles (1650–1653). During the conflict, the royal family was obliged to flee Paris on the night of 9 February 1651 for the safety of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in order to avoid a revolt by the nobility against Mazarin. When peace returned, the decision was made for Philippe to move his household to the Palais des Tuileries, previously the residence of the duchess of Montpensier opposite the Palais-Royal. At the coronation of Louis XIV on 7 June 1654, Philippe acted as dean, placing the Crown of Charlemagne on his brother's head. All his life, Philippe would be a noted lover of etiquette and panoply, ensuring that all ceremonial details were adhered to.

In late June 1658, Louis became gravely ill. Presumed to have typhoid, Louis was almost pronounced dead when, in mid-July, he began to recover. The illness made Philippe, heir presumptive to the throne, the center of attention. For fear of infection, Philippe could not see his brother. During the crisis, Queen Anne became closer to her younger son, showing him more affection. After Louis's recovery, Philippe was once again left to his own devices. Later in 1658, Philippe made his most significant purchase, the Château de Saint-Cloud, a building about 10 kilometers west of Paris. On 8 October 1658, its proprietor Barthélemy Hervart organized a sumptuous feast at the château in honor of the royal family. Some two weeks later, on 25 October, Philippe bought the estate for 240,000 livres. He immediately began to organize improvements to what was then a small villa.

Duke of Orléans
When Philippe's uncle Gaston died in February 1660, the Duchy of Orléans reverted to the crown, as he had no surviving male issue. The duchy was one of the most highly regarded appanages of the ancien régime, and it was traditionally Philippe's birthright as the brother of the king. Thus, at the death of Gaston, Philippe himself took on the new style of Duke of Orléans and Louis XIV granted Philippe the title officially on 10 May 1661 along with the subsidiary titles duke of Valois and duke of Chartres, all registered peerages with the Parlement of Paris. He was also granted the lordship of Montargis.

In order to discourage the type of tempestuous relationship that had developed between Louis XIII and his younger brother Gaston, Anne of Austria and Cardinal Mazarin made it a private policy to prevent Philippe from pursuing ambitions which might prompt rivalry with or defiance of the king. Aside from his appanage, he was given no meaningful financial freedom from the Crown. Later, to his already rich holdings Philippe wanted to add the countship of Blois, with its Château de Chambord, and the governorship of Languedoc, but both would be refused to him by his brother.

Sexuality
During his childhood, Queen Anne was observed to address Philippe by such nicknames as "my little girl" and encouraged him to dress in feminine clothing even as a young man – a habit he would retain all his life. A contemporary would later call him the "silliest woman who ever lived", a reference to his effeminacy. As a young man, Philippe would dress up and attend balls and parties in female attire, for example, dressed as a shepherdess. Mindful that Gaston's treasonous habits had not only been evoked by the Fronde, but by his secret elopement with a foreign princess which had left the royal brothers estranged for years, his homosexual activity was not unwelcome, because it was seen to reduce any potential threat he may have posed to his older brother. It appears that 1658 was the key year in which Philippe's sexuality became well defined. Court gossip said that Cardinal Mazarin's own nephew Philippe Jules Mancini, the Duke of Nevers, had been the "first to [have] corrupted" Philippe in what was referred to as the "Italian vice" – contemporary slang for male homosexuality. Philippe certainly did make his first contacts that year with Philippe de Lorraine, known as the Chevalier de Lorraine, the male lover with whom he would establish the closest emotional attachment throughout his life.

Even once married, he reportedly carried on open romantic affairs with German nobles, with no regard to either of his two wives. Philippe's favorites, invariably younger, handsome men, dominated contemporary and historical commentaries about his role at court, as had the mignons of Henry III. Philippe was infatuated with the famously arrogant Armand de Gramont, Comte de Guiche. There were also rumors at court that Philippe in fact had a mistress and had shown an interest in the Duchess of Mercœur, Mazarin's niece. Another lover of Philippe at this time was Antoine Coiffier, the Marquis d'Effiat. The latter had entered Philippe's life as captain of the chase and stayed in his household until Philippe's death.

Among the lovers, one man stands out, Philip of Lorraine-Armagnac, the never-married Chevalier de Lorraine, who was described as "insinuating, brutal and devoid of scruple". As a member of the House of Guise, ranking as a prince étranger, Philippe could keep him near while at court and promote him within his own household without initially evoking scandal or offending sensibilities. In January 1670, Philippe's wife prevailed upon the King to imprison the chevalier, first near Lyon, then in the Mediterranean island-fortress of Château d'If. Finally, he was banished to Rome. However, by February, the Duke of Orléans' protests and pleas persuaded the King to restore him to his brother's entourage.

Marriage with Princess Henrietta of England
After Louis XIV's marriage to Maria Theresa of Spain on 9 June 1660, Queen Anne turned her attention to the marriage of Philippe. He had previously been encouraged to court his older cousin, Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans, Duchess of Montpensier, eldest daughter of Gaston and his first wife Marie de Bourbon. Known as Mademoiselle at this time, she had an immense private fortune and had previously rejected suitors such as Charles II of England. Born in 1627, she was the sole heiress of her mother, who died in childbirth. Mademoiselle declined the union, complaining that Philippe always stayed near his mother as if he was "like a child". Mademoiselle instead remained unmarried. Philippe would marry instead another first cousin, Princess Henrietta of England, youngest child of King Charles I of England and his wife Henrietta Maria of France, who was Philippe's paternal aunt and had taken refuge at the court of France after the birth of Princess Henrietta in 1644. They lived at the Palais-Royal and at the Palais du Louvre. In 1660, after the restoration of the House of Stuart to the throne of England under her brother Charles II, Princess Henrietta returned to England to visit her sister, the Princess of Orange, who later caught smallpox and died. The French court officially asked for Henrietta's hand on behalf of Philippe on 22 November 1660 while she was in England. The couple signed their marriage contract at the Palais-Royal on 30 March 1661. The ceremony took place the next day in the same building in front of select members of the court. The dowry promised was a hefty 840,000 livres. Known as Henriette d'Angleterre in France, and Minette to her intimates, she was known officially as Madame and was ever popular with the court. Court gossip later said that the king was the father of Henrietta's first child. Henrietta's very open flirting is said to have caused a jealous Philippe to retaliate by beginning to flaunt his sexuality openly in a less than accepting era. Henrietta's flirting with the king started early in the summer of 1661 while the newlyweds were staying at the Palace of Fontainebleau for the summer. Philippe complained to his mother about the intimacy that Louis and Henrietta displayed, which led Queen Anne to reprimand both son and daughter-in-law. Relations were further strained when Henrietta allegedly seduced Philippe's old lover, the Comte de Guiche.

The couple moved from the Tuileries in early 1662 to the Palais-Royal. Later in March of the same year, Philippe became a father when Henrietta gave birth to their daughter Marie Louise, the future wife of Charles II of Spain. Henrietta's disappointment at the birth of a daughter was great, and she even remarked that she should "throw her into the river!" This greatly offended Queen Anne, who adored her first granddaughter. For his part, Philippe would always consider Marie Louise his favourite child. The girl was baptized on 21 May 1662. On the same day Philippe took part in the famous Carrousel du Louvre, where he dressed extravagantly as the King of Persia with the king as the King of the Romans and all ladies of the court in attendance.

In 1664, Henrietta gave birth at Fontainebleau to a son who was given the title Duke of Valois. Philippe wrote to his brother-in-law Charles II of England "that your sister was this morning safely delivered of a fine boy. The child seems to be in excellent health." The child nonetheless died of convulsions in 1666, having been baptized Philippe Charles d'Orléans hours before death. The loss of the little Duke of Valois affected Henrietta greatly. Philippe, however, was anxious to maintain the allowance which his son had received from the king. This death only augmented the grief of a court still in mourning for the death of Queen Anne in January. The previous year, the Comte de Guiche has been exiled from court with Philippe reporting to his mother that Henrietta had had private interviews with the dashing nobleman.

Philippe took part in the War of Devolution in 1667 while Henrietta remained at Saint-Cloud due to her pregnancy. On the field, Philippe took an active part in the trenches at Tournai and Douai and distinguished himself through his valor and coolness under fire. But Philippe later became bored with battle and interested himself more in the decoration of his tent. Hearing that Henrietta was ill due to a miscarriage, he returned to Saint-Cloud, where she was recovering from an ordeal which almost cost her her life. Upon her recovery, Philippe returned to the battlefield and distinguished himself at the Siege of Lille.

In January 1670, Henrietta prevailed upon the King to imprison the Chevalier de Lorraine, first near Lyon, then in the Mediterranean island-fortress of the Château d'If. He was finally banished to Rome after offending the King and Henrietta by boasting that he could get Philippe to divorce her. In retaliation for the Chevalier's treatment, Philippe withdrew to his estate at Villers-Cotterêts, dragging Henrietta with him. By February, Philippe's protests and pleas persuaded the King to restore the Chevalier to his brother's entourage. The couple had their last child in August 1669, a daughter who was baptized Anne Marie at the private chapel of the Palais-Royal on 8 April 1670 by Philippe's first chaplain, the bishop of Vabres.

Henrietta is best known to political historians in France for her part in negotiating the Secret Treaty of Dover, an offensive and defensive treaty between England and France signed at Dover on 1 June 1670. It required France to assist England in her aim to rejoin the Roman Catholic Church and England to assist France in her war of conquest against the Dutch Republic. The Third Anglo-Dutch War was a direct consequence of this treaty. Having returned to France at the end of June 1670, Henrietta had to endure Philippe's blatant spite for her part in the Chevalier's exile and her secret mission to Dover. Despite tense relations, she traveled to Saint-Cloud on 24 June, when she started to complain of pains in her side. Relaxing at Saint-Cloud on 29 June, she collapsed on the terrace at the palace. Taken inside, she was undressed and started to exclaim that she had been poisoned. She subsequently died between the hours of two and three in the morning of 30 June 1670 at the age of 26. An autopsy was performed which found that Henrietta died of peritonitis caused by a perforated ulcer; however public rumor claimed she had been poisoned by her husband, and, according to Saint-Simon in his Memoirs, even the King suspected it at first, but the inquiry he conducted revealed that it was the Chevalier de Lorraine and the Marquis d'Effiat who had poisoned her.

Search for a second bride
Henrietta was mourned greatly at the court of France, but little by her husband, due to their strained relationship. Louis XIV himself looked for a second wife for Philippe, who was eager to have a male heir to continue the Orléans line. Attention again turned to the duchess of Montpensier, by now known as "la Grande Mademoiselle". Louis himself asked her if she wanted to fill "the vacant place", but she politely declined the offer. Louis rejected many other candidates before settling on the Protestant Princess Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate. Known as Liselotte within her family, she was the only daughter of Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine, and his estranged wife Charlotte of Hesse-Kassel. She was recommended by Anna Gonzaga, a confidante of Philippe's and wife of the bride's uncle, the Prince Palatine Edward. Elizabeth Charlotte had grown up with her aunt Sophia of Hanover due to her parents' bad relationship. Throughout her life she would remain in contact with the Electress Sophia, writing some 50,000 letters that detailed life at the court of France. The Princess Palatine was Henrietta's first cousin once removed, since the latter's father, Charles I of England, was the brother of Elisabeth Charlotte's paternal grandmother, Elizabeth Stuart.

Marriage with Princess Palatine Elizabeth Charlotte
Philippe married the nineteen-year-old Elizabeth Charlotte, who converted to Roman Catholicism, on 16 November 1671. She was not attractive, as Henrietta had been. When Philippe first saw her, he is said to have remarked, "How will I ever be able to sleep with her?" Madame de Sévigné noted how popular the new Madame was with the court. She became renowned for her brusque candor, upright character, and lack of vanity. Her letters record how willingly she gave up sharing Philippe's bed at his request after their children's births and how unwillingly she quietly endured the presence of his male favourites in their household.

The couple were very happy in the first years of their marriage. The Chevalier de Lorraine was in Italy, but returned in spring 1672. Pregnant later that year, Elizabeth Charlotte gave birth to a son in June 1673 who was named Alexandre Louis and given the title Duke of Valois. The child died, however, in 1676. A second son, Philippe, followed in 1674, and then a daughter, Élisabeth Charlotte, in 1676, after which the two mutually agreed to sleep in separate beds. Elizabeth Charlotte was praised as being a natural mother. Philippe's second son with Elizabeth Charlotte, known as the Duke of Chartres until he inherited the dukedom of Orléans in 1701, later served as Regent of France during the minority of Louis XV. Elizabeth Charlotte acted as a mother to Philippe's children by Henrietta and maintained correspondence with them until her last days.

Battle of Cassel
Having already established himself as a successful military commander during the War of Devolution in 1667, Philippe was eager to return to the field. In 1676 and 1677 he took part in sieges in Flanders, and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general, which made him second-in-command to Louis XIV himself.

The most impressive victory won under Philippe's command took place on 11 April 1677: the Battle of Cassel against William III, Prince of Orange, later the king of England and son of Philippe's own first cousin Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange. William decided to relieve some besieged towns; from Ypres he marched with 32,000 men through Poperinge and Oxelaëre in the Cassel Valley. Philippe, who learned of his plans, arranged to meet William's forces at Penebeek between Noordpeene and Zuytpeene. Louis XIV sent him some 25,000 foot-soldiers and 9,000 cavalry from Cambrai under the command of Marshal Luxembourg. By nightfall there were 66,000 soldiers ready for battle. The Dutch attacked the French positions without scouting first. Marshal Luxembourg surprised the Dutch with a cavalry attack that practically destroyed three battalions and routed William's army. In all, casualties on both sides amounted to 4,200 dead and 7,000 wounded. Philippe was hailed for his skill as a military commander, much to the annoyance of his brother, the king. He was presumably jealous of Philippe's growing popularity at court as well as on the battlefield. In honor of his victory at Cassel, Philippe set up a Barnabite College in Paris. The campaign marked the end of his military career; he soon immersed himself once again in a life of pleasure.

Cultural expansion and property
From the time of the victory at Cassel until the 1690s, Philippe mainly concentrated his energies on the expansion of his estates, personal fortune, and art collection, including the renovation of his residences, the Palais-Royal and the Château de Saint-Cloud. The latter was his favorite residence, the home of an ever-expanding and "stormy" court. Philippe became an important patron of the artists Jean Nocret and Pierre Mignard, both of whom were employed to elaborate the décor at Saint-Cloud and the Palais-Royal. As early as 1660, Philippe also ordered Antoine Lepautre to begin extensions at Saint-Cloud; later he became contrôleur général of Philippe's properties. Following Lepautre's death in 1679, work on Saint-Cloud was continued by his executive assistant Jean Girard in collaboration with Thomas Gobert. Later on, Philippe sought Jules Hardouin-Mansart to design a grand staircase in the left wing in the manner of the Ambassadors' Staircase at Versailles. The gardens were redesigned by André Le Nôtre, while the basin and lowermost canal were added by Mansart in 1698. At the time of Philippe's death in 1701, the estate of Saint-Cloud covered some 1200 acre. Saint-Cloud remained with the Orléans family until 1785, when Philippe's great-grandson Louis Philippe d'Orléans sold it to Marie Antoinette, Philippe's great-granddaughter, for the sum of 6,000,000 livres. Minor improvements at the Palais-Royal began in 1661 at the time of Philippe's marriage to Henrietta, but the property was part of the crown holdings, and had not been used officially for years. Philippe was limited in what he could do to renovate the building until it was given to him in 1692. Philippe again turned to Mansart for assistance in modernizing it. The interior décor was entrusted to Antoine Coypel, whose father Noël Coypel had previously worked at the palace. In 1695, Philippe bought a small island in the Seine directly opposite the château, which he renamed the "Île de Monsieur".

Philippe not only enjoyed architecture and court society, but also music and dancing; he was in fact famed for his exceptional dancing abilities. Philippe was a patron of musicians such as Jean-Henri d'Anglebert, Henri Dumont, Jacques-Antoine Arlaud, and Marie Aubry, many of whom would stay part of his son's household after his death in 1701. Jean-Baptiste Lully was also a protégé of Philippe after he left Mademoiselle's household. Philippe's small art collection created the basis for the Orleans Collection, one of the most important art collections ever assembled.

With the permission of the Parlement of Paris, Philippe sponsored projects to help maintain his estates and enhance their profitability. From 1679, he was granted the right to build the Canal d'Orléans, a large canal that connected the River Loire at Orléans to a junction with the Canal du Loing and the Canal de Briare in the village of Buges near Montargis. As the largest canal built in France since Philippe's grandfather Henry IV built the Canal de Briare in 1604, its construction was considered an engineering feat. The canal, used to transport goods from Orléans to Paris, was a great success in its time and is still used widely today. Philippe's careful investment and management of his various estates made him a wealthy man in his own right, and his fortune was augmented considerably at the death of his cousin Mademoiselle in 1693. Philippe is acknowledged as being not only the biological founder of the House of Orléans, but as financial founder of a family whose monetary value would rival that of the main line of the House of Bourbon.

Later years
Upon the death of Mademoiselle in 1693, Philippe acquired the dukedoms of Montpensier, Châtellerault, Saint-Fargeau and Beaupréau. He also became prince of Joinville, count of Dourdan, Mortain and Bar-sur-Seine and viscount of Auge and Domfront. In later life, Philippe was thus able to maintain his lavish lifestyle easily, and he found much satisfaction in the activities of his children and grandchildren. Both of his daughters by his first wife Henrietta married influential European sovereigns, eventually becoming queens, and his son the Duke of Chartres pursued an active and distinguished military career, having served at the Battle of Steenkerque in 1692 as well as the Siege of Namur, much to his father's pride. As he had with Philippe, Louis XIV was careful to limit the power of Chartres.

In 1696, Philippe's granddaughter Marie-Adélaïde came to the French court from Italy for her marriage to Louis, Duke of Burgundy, who was third in line to the throne. The two were married in 1697 and became the parents of Louis XV. In 1701, Chartres was denied a position on the front in the War of the Spanish Succession, which began that year. This slight was the source of great bitterness on the part of both father and son after. The pretext seems to have been the behavior of Chartres in parading his mistress Mademoiselle de Séry in view of his wife. On 8 June 1701, Louis XIV and Philippe met at the Château de Marly to dine together. At first meeting, Louis XIV attacked Philippe about Chartres' conduct with Mademoiselle de Séry. Philippe responded by reprimanding Louis for similar conduct with his own mistresses during his marriage to Queen Marie Thérèse, adding that Chartres had still not received the favors promised to him for having married the King's legitimized daughter, Françoise Marie. Nonetheless, the announcement of dinner halted the argument, and the brothers sat down to dine.

Philippe angrily returned to Saint-Cloud early the same evening to dine with his son. Philippe collapsed onto his son after suffering a fatal stroke at noon 9 June 1701 at the age of sixty. Louis XIV, upon hearing his only sibling had died, said "I cannot believe I will never see my brother again." The Duchess of Burgundy, his granddaughter, was likewise distraught, avowing that she "had loved Monsieur very much". Philippe's heart was taken to the Val-de-Grâce convent on 14 June, and his body was taken on 21 June to the Basilica of St Denis, where it remained until the French Revolution, at which time the basilica was desecrated and all graves destroyed.

Elizabeth Charlotte, worried that she would be put in a convent (a stipulation of her marriage contract in the event of Philippe's death) was assured by the king that she could remain at court as long as she wished. She burnt all the letters of Philippe's lovers through the years lest they fall into "the wrong hands", noting that the scent of the perfumed letters nauseated her. Louis XIV assured the new Duke of Orléans, formerly the Duke of Chartres, that the past was forgotten and that henceforth he was to look on him as his father. The court was devastated and his old friend, Louis XIV's discarded mistress Madame de Montespan, was also greatly affected, the two having been very close. The widowed Elizabeth Charlotte continued to write frequently to her daughter, stepdaughter, the Duchess of Modena, and the Princess of Wales. She herself died at Saint-Cloud in December 1722 and was also buried at Saint-Denis.

Portrayals in media
Philippe has been portrayed in various modern media:

 * The Private Life of Louis XIV (1935 film), played by Hans Stüwe
 * Liselotte of the Palatinate (1966 film), played by Harald Leipnitz
 * The Taking of Power by Louis XIV (1966 film), played by Pierre Pernet
 * Marquise (1997 film), played by Franck de La Personne
 * Vatel (2000 film), played by Murray Lachlan Young
 * Charles II: The Power and the Passion (2003 mini-series), played by Cyrille Thouvenin
 * Le Roi Soleil (2005 musical), played by Christophe Maé
 * A Little Chaos (2015 film), played by Stanley Tucci
 * Versailles (2015 TV series), played by Alexander Vlahos

First marriage
Married his first cousin, Princess Henrietta of England, daughter of Charles I of England and Henrietta Maria of France, on 31 March 1661, at the Palais-Royal. The couple had three children, in addition to four miscarriages and one stillbirth:

 * 1) Marie Louise d'Orléans (26 March 1662 – 12 February 1689) married Charles II of Spain, no issue.
 * 2) Miscarriage (1663).
 * 3) Philippe Charles d'Orléans, Duke of Valois (16 July 1664 – 8 December 1666) died in infancy.
 * 4) Stillborn daughter (9 July 1665).
 * 5) Miscarriage (1666).
 * 6) Miscarriage (1667).
 * 7) Miscarriage (1668).
 * 8) Anne Marie d'Orléans (27 August 1669 – 26 August 1728) married Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy (future king of Sardinia) and had issue.

Second marriage
Married Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate, daughter of Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine and Charlotte of Hesse-Kassel, on 16 November 1671 at Châlons. The couple had three children:

 * 1) Alexandre Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Valois (2 June 1673 – 16 March 1676) died in childhood;
 * 2) Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (2 August 1674 – 2 December 1723) married Françoise Marie de Bourbon, Légitimée de France, and had issue;
 * 3) Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans (13 September 1676 – 24 December 1744) married Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, and had issue.

title: Philippe I, Duke of Orléans


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Royal Buckinghamshire Hospital

The Royal Buckinghamshire Hospital (colloquially called the Royal Bucks) is a private hospital in Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire. It is a Grade II listed building.

History
The hospital was established, by adding new wings to an 18th-century country house, in 1832. The facility was extensively remodeled to a design by David Brandon using a pavilion layout which was heavily influenced by Florence Nightingale through her brother-in-law, Sir Harry Verney of Claydon House. She said that "it will be the most beautiful hospital in England." The new hospital was opened as the Buckinghamshire General Infirmary in 1862.

It is thought that the hospital became "Royal" after the Prince of Wales received treatment there in the late 19th century. A new wing, the foundation stone for which was laid by Lord Rothschild, followed in 1905.

Following the expansion of the Stoke Mandeville Hospital nearby, the Royal Buckinghamshire Hospital joined the National Health Service as a maternity hospital in 1948. It became a private hospital in 1994 and, after acquisition by Affinity Care Homes and an extensive subsequent refurbishment, it reopened as a facility for the treatment of patients with spinal cord, acquired brain injury and other neurological conditions in 2013.

In January 2023, it was announced that the Royal Buckinghamshire Hospital would undergo an extensive refurbishment and be acquired by the Akessa Healthcare Group along with The Foscote Hospital and 107 Harley Street in January 2023.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Royal Buckinghamshire Hospital


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Ávila

Ávila is a city of Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is the capital and most populated municipality of the Province of Ávila.

It lies on the right bank of the Adaja river. Located more than 1,130 m above sea level, the city is the highest provincial capital in Spain.

Distinctively known by its medieval walls, Ávila is sometimes called the Town of Stones and Saints, and it claims that it is one of the towns with the highest number of Romanesque and Gothic churches per capita in Spain. It has complete and prominent medieval town walls, built in the Romanesque style; writer José Martínez Ruiz, in his book El alma castellana ("The Castilian Soul"), described it as "perhaps the most 16th-century town in Spain". The town is also known as Ávila de los Caballeros, Ávila del Rey and Ávila de los Leales ("Ávila of the knights", "Ávila of the king", "Ávila of the loyal ones"), each of these epithets being present in the town standard.

Orson Welles once named Ávila as the place in which he would most desire to live, calling it a "strange, tragic place". Various scenes of his 1965 film Chimes at Midnight were filmed in the town.

Ávila was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985. The site originally consisted of the walled city and four extra muros churches. The number of churches included in the site has since been increased.

Geography
Situated 1132 metres (3714 feet) above sea level on a rocky outcrop on the right bank of the Adaja river, a tributary of the Duero, Ávila is the highest provincial capital in Spain. It is built on the flat summit of a rocky hill, which rises abruptly in the midst of a veritable wilderness; a brown, arid, treeless table-land, strewn with immense grey boulders, and shut in by lofty mountains.

Climate
Ávila's position results in a temperate Mediterranean climate (Csb, according to the Köppen climate classification), with warm summers and chilly winters with snowfalls, bordering on a cold semi-arid climate (BSk). The hottest month, July, has an average temperature of 20.6 °C, and the coldest month, January, has an average of 3.0 °C. The average annual precipitation is 416 mm. Annual rainfall is low compared to surrounding areas, implying that it lies in a rain shadow. The Adaja is dry for several months of the year and the town has historically had water supply problems. Ávila has the coldest winter low temperatures of the Spanish provincial capital cities, thanks to its high altitude (1,132 m above sea level).

History
In pre-Roman times (the 5th century BC), Ávila was inhabited by the Vettones, who called it Obila (Ὀβίλα) ("High Mountain") and built one of their strongest fortresses here. There are Bronze Age stone statues of boars (known as verracio) nearby.

Ávila may have been the ancient town known as Abula, mentioned by Ptolemy in his Geographia (II 6, 60) as being located in the Iberian region of Bastetania. Abula is mentioned as one of the first towns in Hispania that was converted to Christianity by Secundus of Abula (San Segundo), however, Abula may alternatively have been the town of Abla.

After the conquest by ancient Rome, the town was called Abila or Abela. The plan of the town remains typically Roman; rectangular in shape, with its two main streets (cardo and decumanus) intersecting at a forum in the centre. Roman remains that are embedded in town walls at the eastern and southern entrances (now the Alcazar and Rastro Gates) appear to have been ashlar altar stones.

By tradition, in the 1st century, Secundus, having travelled via the Roman province of Hispania Baetica, brought the Gospel to Ávila, and was created its first bishop.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Ávila became a stronghold of the Visigoths. Conquered by the Moors (Arabs) (who called it Ābila, آبلة), it was repeatedly attacked by the northern Iberian Christian kingdoms, becoming a virtually uninhabited no man's land. It was repopulated about 1088 following the definitive reconquest of the area by Raymond of Burgundy, son in law of Alfonso VI of León and Castile. He employed two foreigners, Casandro Romano and Florin de Pituenga, to construct a stone frontier town and creating the walls that still stand.

The city achieved a period of prosperity under the Catholic Monarchs in the early 16th century.

During the Revolt of the Comuneros, the city became the first meeting place of the Santa Junta on 1 August 1520. The Junta of Ávila drafted the Proyecto de Ley Perpetua (a sort of proto-constitutional draft that never came into force) in the Cathedral of Ávila in the Summer of 1520, envisaging that cities assembled every three years without the requirement for royal sanction or presence, determining taxation and acting as a check and balance on government activity. The city experienced a long decline since the 17th century, its population reducing to just 4,000 inhabitants. In the 19th century, there was some population growth with the construction of the railway line from Madrid to the French border at Irun and an important junction near the town.

In 1936, at the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, the town quickly became part of the area occupied by rebel troops. Growth continued slowly again under Franco, but Ávila has not had a major influence in Spanish society in recent history, apart from the nurturing of politicians such as Adolfo Suárez, the first democratically elected prime minister of Spain post-Franco, and José María Aznar, prime minister from 1996 to 2004, who represented Ávila in the Cortes but was not from the town.

Ávila was once home to a thriving Jewish community. The first written evidence documenting the presence of Jews living in the town dates to 1144. By the end of the 13th century, the Jewish population in Ávila was one of the largest in Castile. In 1375, the Jews of Ávila were forced to watch a religious disputation between Juan de Valladolid and Moses ha-Kohen of Tordesillas. After the 1492 expulsion of the Jews, the Jewish community was nonexistent.

The Walls of Ávila
The main landmark in the city is the imposing Walls of Ávila (11th–14th centuries), begun in 1090. The enclosed area is 31 ha with a perimeter of 2,516 m, 88 blocks of semicircular towers, 2,500 merlons, curtain walls 3 m thick, with an average height of 12 m, and 9 gates.

The walls represent the largest fully illuminated monument in the world. It is possible to walk upon the walls for roughly half their circumference. While some of the walls will never be walkable because of their integration into other structures, a large stretch has yet to be made safe for pedestrians.

Cathedral
The construction of the iron-grey granite Gothic Cathedral of Ávila is said to have commenced in 1107 under Alvar Garcia de Estrella. Other historians believe the cathedral to be the work of the master mason Fruchel in the 12th century, coinciding with the repopulation of the town led by Raymond of Burgundy. The eastern apse, which forms part of the town walls, is half church, half fortress, and it was here that the loyal citizens elevated Alonso VII as their king, hence Ávila del Rey. The transept was finished in 1350 by Bishop Sancho de Ávila. The earlier Romanesque parts are made of a striking red-and-white "blood" limestone, while the Gothic parts were built with pure white stone.
 * Northern façade: Gothic style at left and added renaissance at right. Porch of the Apostles.
 * Western front: Burgundian style, with two towers forming a covered portal.
 * Interior: Latin cross with three naves, a crossing and ambulatory.
 * Capilla Mayor: Features a monumental altarpiece by Pedro Berruguete.
 * Chapel of San Segundo, the first bishop: Attached to a column of the cruise. Renaissance style.
 * Chapel of Santa Catalina: Made of alabaster.
 * Choir and Rood screen: Renaissance style, decorated with reliefs depicting scenes of saints, carved from limestone. The alabaster tomb of Alonso Tostado de Madrigal, bishop in 1499, shown in the act of writing is in the ambulatory: "so enlightened were his doctrines that they caused the blind to see".
 * Cloister: Access from the Romanesque cathedral by a door on the south aisle. Gothic style.

Basílica de San Vicente

 * Construction began in the 12th century and lasted until the 14th century. Its design is attributed to the French master Giral Fruchel, the author himself from the cathedral and pioneer of the Gothic style in Spain.
 * The overall structure is similar to the Latin basilicas. It has a Latin cross plan, three naves, dome, tribunes, three apses, atrium, two towers, and crypt.
 * All the façade and the environment where it is located are of great artistic value.
 * Interior: Latin cross room with three naves. The pillars are of a Greek cross with half columns on the heads.
 * Crypt: Consists of three chapels, for the three apses of the church are mainly romanesque and have the best capitals of the monument.

Highlight the tomb of Saint Peter of the Boat and, above all, the Cenotaph of the Holy Brothers Martyrs, the head of the temple, Saint Vincent of Ávila, and her sisters, along with the torture he suffered in the 4th century, Saint Sabina and Saint Cristeta, (Cenotafio de los santos Vicente, Sabina y Cristeta), one of the most important works of Romanesque sculpture in Spain.

Convento de San José
The Convent of Saint Joseph is the first monastery of Discalced Carmelite nuns founded by Saint Teresa of Jesus. The convent was built in the year of 1562, although the most important architectural element, the church, was built in 1607. The church was designed by the architect Francisco de Mora (1553–1610). It has been designated a national monument since 1968.

Iglesia de San Pedro

 * Start date: about 1100.
 * The church of Saint Peter is located outside the town walls in the Plaza de Mercado Grande at the door of the Alcazar. Presents analogous with that of San Vicente.
 * Latin cross floor and three naves of five sections. Apsidal chapels: mayor chapel, chapel of the south apse and chapel of the north apse.

Ermita de San Segundo

A hermitage located to the west of Ávila, outside the town walls, on the right bank of the Adaja river. Highlights the sculpted capitals in which the sculptor is the footprint of the apse of San Andrés. Alabaster statue made by Juan de Juni. Popular belief has it that, on introducing a handkerchief into the tomb and asking for three wishes, the saint will grant one. His pilgrimage is celebrated on 2 May, Segundo being the patron saint of Ávila.

Palacio de Don Diego del Águila
This 16th-century palace is located inside the walls and attached to it as junt walk through the door of San Vicente, defended the access of Muslim troops. Located on a busy street by different arms of the Águila family.

Real Monasterio de Santo Tomás
Real Monasterio de Santo Tomás is a Dominican convent of the late 15th century. Despite being away from the historic centre, it is one of the most important monuments of the town.

Santuario de Nuestra Señora de Sonsoles

This sanctuary is located 6 km from the capital in a picturesque area, and has a restaurant, hostel, picnic areas, and playgrounds.

There is located the statue of the Virgin of Sonsoles, co-patroness of Ávila, and patroness of the fields in the province.

It is tradition in this town to make pilgrimage to the sanctuary, making a wish to the Virgin, and to get to the door barefoot until you enter the church.

Secular architecture
Notable examples of secular architecture are the Valderrábanos Palace (15th century), the Casa de los Deanes (16th century), the Torreón de los Guzmanes and the Verdugos Palace (15th–16th centuries).

Conference and Exhibition Centre Lienzo Norte

 * In mid-2007, work began on the convention centre. In April 2009, its construction was completed and it opened its doors.
 * The building, designed by architect Francisco José Mangado, is modern in style. It covers and area of 19800 m², including the area of the neighbouring gardens and parking.
 * There is a large symphony hall, large glass galleries, café, restaurant, conference room, catering services, storage, reception, store room, etc.
 * The symphony hall has a capacity of 2,000 and the secondary hall of 500. The two conference rooms have each 1,000 seats.

Museums and sights

 * Museum of Ávila
 * Museum of la Encarnación
 * Museum of Santa Teresa
 * Museum of the Cathedral
 * Museo of Santo Tomás
 * Museum of Oriental Art
 * Museum of Natural Sciences
 * Living Water
 * Hall of Torreón de los Guzmanes
 * Sala de la Diputación
 * Sala del Episcopio
 * Caprotti Museum (which houses the work of Italian painter Guido Caprotti (1887–1966), based in Ávila from 1916)

Universities
Ávila has two universities: the Catholic University of Ávila (UCAV) and the University of Mysticism, which became operational on September 2, 2008. There are three colleges of the University of Salamanca (USAL): the Polytechnic School of Ávila, the College of Education and Tourism in Ávila, and the School of Nursing.

Sports venues

 * Town Sport: swimming Pool, heated pool, tennis, paddle tennis, athletics, football, basketball, etc.
 * North Zone: heated pool, football, basketball and tennis.
 * Abulense Casino Club: pools, golf, tennis, paddle, cafeteria, restaurant, football, skating, basketball etc.
 * Naturávila: golf, swimming, horse riding, walking, basketball, paddle tennis, football.
 * San Antonio Sports Hall: in the north of the town is a large covered pavilion with basketball courts, tennis, soccer, squash, climbing.
 * Polideportivo Carlos Sastre, on the outskirts of the town. Its inauguration took place on January 30, 2009, with a friendly match between Óbila Club de Basket of LEB Plata and LEB Oro C.B. León. It has basketball courts, soccer, tennis, volleyball, etc.

Sports teams
The town is home to Óbila CB, a professional basketball team of Spain's LEB Plata. The team plays its home games at the Multiusos Carlos Sastre.

The local football team, Real Ávila CF, plays at the Adolfo Suárez Stadium, owned by the municipality.

Popular celebrations
The first public festival after the winter cold is the Holy week. The temperature is low, especially at night, so one should not forget warm clothes.

Ávila holidays are October 15, Santa Teresa de Jesús, and May 2, San Segundo. The festivities take place around October 15 and the Summer Festival in mid-July.

Holy Week
Holy Week as celebrated in Ávila is considered of international tourist interest. It is one of the highest expressions of art and wealth as seen in numerous steps of Holy Week along the town walls. Processions have either fifteen or twelve fraternities.

Fiestas de Santa Teresa

The festivities of Santa Teresa last almost the entire month of October. The proclamation is done by the mayor in the Plaza Mayor, accompanied by some celebrity. After the proclamation was organized in the same place a musical performance with renowned singers.

The festival program includes several musical concerts, a fairground, bullfights, passacaglia, processions of the fan groups, chocolate with churros and liturgical acts naturally focus on the day of the patroness, on 15 October with multitudinous mass presided by Bishop, then celebrated a great procession, headed the image of Santa Teresa with the Virgin of La Caridad, and is accompanied by all the authorities of Ávila, civil and military, and several bands music. The procession takes place between the Cathedral of Ávila and Santa Teresa Church. Takes place the day before the "Procession Girl" from the Iglesian de Santa Teresa to the cathedral.

Cuisine
Typical dishes of the town and region are "Judías del Barco", "Chuletón de Ávila", "Patatas revolconas" and "Yemas de Santa Teresa". Also worth mentioning is "Hornazo", "Bun stuffed with sausage, bacon, steak and eggs", "Mollejas de ternera" or the "Cochinillo", which can be found in the capital and in Arévalo.

Yemas de Santa Teresa
This sweet can always be found in the traditional pastry shop "La Flor de Castilla". In the other bakeries in the town it is produced under the name "Yemas de Ávila", or simply "Yemas", produced as its name indicates from egg yolk.

Chuletón de Ávila
This is a grilled ribeye steak, best cooked rare, which can be enjoyed in any hotel in the town. It is made from Avileña-Negra ibérica, an indigenous black cow known for its excellent meat, whose fame transcends the borders of the province and the country.

Twin towns – sister cities
Ávila is twinned with:

 * 🇲🇽 Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
 * 🇬🇷 Rhodes, Rhodes Island, Greece
 * 🇫🇷 Rueil-Malmaison, Île-de-France, France
 * 🇮🇹 Teramo, Abruzzo, Italy
 * 🇫🇷 Villeneuve-sur-Lot, Nouvelle-Aquitaine, France

Transport
The Ávila Railway Station serves the town. The closest airport is Adolfo Suárez in Madrid-Barajas. The city can be reached via the A-6 from Madrid. The city itself can be explored on foot.

title: Ávila


text:
Messaging spam

Messaging spam, sometimes called SPIM,  is a type of spam targeting users of instant messaging (IM) services, SMS, or private messages within websites.

Instant messaging applications
Instant messaging systems, such as Telegram, WhatsApp, Twitter Direct Messaging, Kik, Skype and Snapchat are all targets for spammers. Many IM services are publicly linked to social media platforms, which may include information on the user such as age, sex, location and interests. Advertisers and scammers can gather this information, sign on to the service, and send unsolicited messages which could contain scam links, pornographic material, malware or ransomware. With most services users can report and block spam accounts, or set privacy settings so only contacts can contact them.

Countermeasures

 * Many users choose to receive IMs only from people already on their contact list.
 * In corporate settings, spam over IM is blocked by IM spam blockers like those from Actiance, ScanSafe, and Symantec.
 * IM providers like Kik have a "report user" button, which sends a chatlog to the IM administrators who can then take action.

Pornographic IM spambots
Spam-bots often sign on to popular messaging services like Kik or Skype to spread pornographic images. Often if the user responds they receive a URL inviting them to a private livestream that will ask them to enter credit card details for "age verification".

These bots target random usernames; this often results in minors receiving unsolicited pornographic images.

On Windows NT-based systems

In 2002, a number of spammers began abusing the Windows Messenger service, a function of Windows designed to allow administrators to send alerts to users' workstations (not to be confused with Windows Messenger or Windows Live Messenger, a free instant messaging application) in Microsoft's Windows NT-based operating systems. Messenger Service spam appears as normal dialog boxes containing the spammer's message. These messages are easily blocked by firewalls configured to block packets to the NetBIOS ports 135-139 and 445 as well as unsolicited UDP packets to ports above 1024. Additionally, Windows XP Service Pack 2 disables the Messenger Service by default.

Messenger Service spammers frequently send messages to vulnerable Windows machines with a URL. The message promises the user to eradicate spam messages sent via the Messenger Service. The URL leads to a website where, for a fee, users are told how to disable the Messenger service. Though the Messenger is easily disabled for free by the user, this works because it creates a perceived need and then offers an immediate solution.

In opinion-based recommender systems
In an opinion based recommender system, an important concern is how to evaluate the user-generated reviews on the items. One of the purpose of this evaluation is to identify malicious or spam reviews. Poorly written reviews are considered helpless to the recommender system. However, even if a review is well generated, they can still be harmful to the recommender system by their biased prejudice to form an actual advertisement or slander towards a target item.

Current approach of spam detection methods includes analyzing the spam text and identifying the spam reviewers by their reviews and activities. For the first kind, a machine learning application on review text has been developed. For the second kind, researchers use network motif analysis technique to identify spam reviewers by their recurring reviewing activity.

title: Messaging spam


text:
Fisher

Fisher is an archaic term for a fisherman, revived as gender-neutral.

Fisher, Fishers or The Fisher may also refer to:

Australia

 * Division of Fisher, an electoral district in the Australian House of Representatives, in Queensland
 * Electoral district of Fisher, a state electoral district in South Australia
 * Fisher, Australian Capital Territory
 * Fisher, Queensland, a suburb in the City of Mount Isa
 * Fisher, South Australia, a locality
 * Hundred of Fisher, a cadastral unit in South Australia

Canada

 * Rural Municipality of Fisher
 * Fisher (electoral district), a former provincial electoral division in Manitoba, Canada

United Kingdom

 * Fisher Bank, a sea area of the UK shipping forecast

United States

 * Fisher, Arkansas
 * Fisher, Illinois
 * Fisher, Louisiana
 * Fisher, Minnesota
 * Fisher, Missouri
 * Fisher, Oregon, an unincorporated community
 * Fisher, Pennsylvania
 * Fisher, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
 * Fisher Island, Florida
 * Fishers, Indiana
 * Fishers, New York
 * Fishers Island, New York

Archaeological sites

 * Fisher site, an archaeological site in Greene County, Pennsylvania
 * Fisher Farm site, an archaeological site in the Centre County, Pennsylvania

Law

 * Fisher v. University of Texas (2013), a 2013 Supreme Court case
 * Fisher v. University of Texas (2016), a 2016 Supreme Court case

Organizations

 * Fisher Body, a former automobile coachbuilder
 * Max M. Fisher College of Business, part of the Ohio State University
 * Fisher Communications
 * Fisher F.C., a football club in England
 * Fisher Electronics, a Sanyo subsidiary producing hi-fi equipment
 * The Fisher (electronics manufacturer), a line of electronics marketed by Avery Fisher and predecessor to Fisher Electronics
 * Fisher House Foundation, an organization funding the construction of family lodging facilities near military hospitals

People

 * Fisher (surname), an English surname
 * Fisher (musician), Australian house music producer
 * Fisher Ames (1758–1808), American politician
 * Fisher A. Blocksom (1782–1876), American politician and lawyer from Ohio
 * Fisher Stevens (born 1963), American actor, director, producer and writer
 * Sergey Golovkin (1959–1996), Russian serial killer known as "The Fisher"

Science and mathematics

 * Fisher meteorite of 1894, which landed in Minnesota, United States (see meteorite falls)
 * Fisher's exact test, a statistical significance test
 * Fisher's method, also known as Fisher's combined probability test
 * Fisher equation, an equation in financial mathematics and economics
 * Fisher transformation, a transformation in statistics used to test some hypotheses

Other uses

 * Fisher (animal) (Pekania pennanti), a North American mustelid
 * Fisher (band), a rock band featuring Kathy Fisher as lead singer
 * Fisher (comic strip), a Canadian comic strip by Philip Street
 * Fisher (yachts), motorsailers first built in the 1970s
 * "Fisherrr", song by Cash Cobain and Bay Swag

title: Fisher


text:
David Mumford

David Bryant Mumford (born 11 June 1937) is an American mathematician known for his work in algebraic geometry and then for research into vision and pattern theory. He won the Fields Medal and was a MacArthur Fellow. In 2010 he was awarded the National Medal of Science. He is currently a University Professor Emeritus in the Division of Applied Mathematics at Brown University.

Early life
Mumford was born in Worth, West Sussex in England, of an English father and American mother. His father William started an experimental school in Tanzania and worked for the then newly created United Nations.

He attended Phillips Exeter Academy, where he received a Westinghouse Science Talent Search prize for his relay-based computer project. Mumford then went to Harvard University, where he became a student of Oscar Zariski. At Harvard, he became a Putnam Fellow in 1955 and 1956. He completed his PhD in 1961, with a thesis entitled Existence of the moduli scheme for curves of any genus. He married Erika, an author and poet, in 1959 and they had four children, Stephen, Peter, Jeremy, and Suchitra. He currently has seven grandchildren.

Work in algebraic geometry
Mumford's work in geometry combined traditional geometric insights with the latest algebraic techniques. He published on moduli spaces, with a theory summed up in his book Geometric Invariant Theory, on the equations defining an abelian variety, and on algebraic surfaces.

His books Abelian Varieties (with C. P. Ramanujam) and Curves on an Algebraic Surface combined the old and new theories. His lecture notes on scheme theory circulated for years in unpublished form, at a time when they were, beside the treatise Éléments de géométrie algébrique, the only accessible introduction. They are now available as The Red Book of Varieties and Schemes (ISBN 3-540-63293-X).

Other work that was less thoroughly written up were lectures on varieties defined by quadrics, and a study of Goro Shimura's papers from the 1960s.

Mumford's research did much to revive the classical theory of theta functions, by showing that its algebraic content was large, and enough to support the main parts of the theory by reference to finite analogues of the Heisenberg group. This work on the equations defining abelian varieties appeared in 1966–7. He published some further books of lectures on the theory.

He also was one of the founders of the toroidal embedding theory; and sought to apply the theory to Gröbner basis techniques, through students who worked in algebraic computation.

Work on pathologies in algebraic geometry
In a sequence of four papers published in the American Journal of Mathematics between 1961 and 1975, Mumford explored pathological behavior in algebraic geometry, that is, phenomena that would not arise if the world of algebraic geometry were as well-behaved as one might expect from looking at the simplest examples. These pathologies fall into two types: (a) bad behavior in characteristic p and (b) bad behavior in moduli spaces.

Characteristic-p pathologies
Mumford's philosophy in characteristic p was as follows:

"A nonsingular characteristic p variety is analogous to a general non-Kähler complex manifold; in particular, a projective embedding of such a variety is not as strong as a Kähler metric on a complex manifold, and the Hodge–Lefschetz–Dolbeault theorems on sheaf cohomology break down in every possible way."

In the first Pathologies paper, Mumford finds an everywhere regular differential form on a smooth projective surface that is not closed, and shows that Hodge symmetry fails for classical Enriques surfaces in characteristic two. This second example is developed further in Mumford's third paper on classification of surfaces in characteristic p (written in collaboration with E. Bombieri). This pathology can now be explained in terms of the Picard scheme of the surface, and in particular, its failure to be a reduced scheme, which is a theme developed in Mumford's book "Lectures on Curves on an Algebraic Surface". Worse pathologies related to p-torsion in crystalline cohomology were explored by Luc Illusie (Ann. Sci. Ec. Norm. Sup. (4) 12 (1979), 501–661).

In the second Pathologies paper, Mumford gives a simple example of a surface in characteristic p where the geometric genus is non-zero, but the second Betti number is equal to the rank of the Néron–Severi group. Further such examples arise in Zariski surface theory. He also conjectures that the Kodaira vanishing theorem is false for surfaces in characteristic p. In the third paper, he gives an example of a normal surface for which Kodaira vanishing fails. The first example of a smooth surface for which Kodaira vanishing fails was given by Michel Raynaud in 1978.

Pathologies of moduli spaces
In the second Pathologies paper, Mumford finds that the Hilbert scheme parametrizing space curves of degree 14 and genus 24 has a multiple component. In the fourth Pathologies paper, he finds reduced and irreducible complete curves which are not specializations of non-singular curves.

These sorts of pathologies were considered to be fairly scarce when they first appeared. But Ravi Vakil showed in his paper "Murphy's law in algebraic geometry" has shown that Hilbert schemes of nice geometric objects can be arbitrarily "bad", with unlimited numbers of components and with arbitrarily large multiplicities (Invent. Math. 164 (2006), 569–590).

Classification of surfaces
In three papers written between 1969 and 1976 (the last two in collaboration with Enrico Bombieri), Mumford extended the Enriques–Kodaira classification of smooth projective surfaces from the case of the complex ground field to the case of an algebraically closed ground field of characteristic p. The final answer turns out to be essentially the same as the answer in the complex case (though the methods employed are sometimes quite different), once two important adjustments are made. The first is that one may get "non-classical" surfaces, which come about when p-torsion in the Picard scheme degenerates to a non-reduced group scheme. The second is the possibility of obtaining quasi-elliptic surfaces in characteristics two and three. These are surfaces fibred over a curve where the general fibre is a curve of arithmetic genus one with a cusp.

Once these adjustments are made, the surfaces are divided into four classes by their Kodaira dimension, as in the complex case. The four classes are: a) Kodaira dimension minus infinity. These are the ruled surfaces. b) Kodaira dimension 0. These are the K3 surfaces, abelian surfaces, hyperelliptic and quasi-hyperelliptic surfaces, and Enriques surfaces. There are classical and non-classical examples in the last two Kodaira dimension zero cases. c) Kodaira dimension 1. These are the elliptic and quasi-elliptic surfaces not contained in the last two groups. d) Kodaira dimension 2. These are the surfaces of general type.

Awards and honors
Mumford was awarded a Fields Medal in 1974. He was a MacArthur Fellow from 1987 to 1992. He won the Shaw Prize in 2006. In 2007 he was awarded the Steele Prize for Mathematical Exposition by the American Mathematical Society. In 2008 he was awarded the Wolf Prize; on receiving the prize in Jerusalem from Shimon Peres, Mumford announced that he was donating half of the prize money to Birzeit University in the Palestinian territories and half to Gisha, an Israeli organization that promotes the right to freedom of movement of Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. He also served on the Mathematical Sciences jury for the Infosys Prize in 2009 and 2010. In 2010 he was awarded the National Medal of Science. In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society.

There is a long list of awards and honors besides the above, including
 * Westinghouse Science Talent Search finalist, 1953.
 * Junior Fellow at Harvard from 1958 to 1961.
 * Elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1975.
 * Honorary Fellow from Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1978.
 * Honorary D. Sc. from the University of Warwick in 1983.
 * Foreign Member of Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Rome, in 1991.
 * Honorary Member of London Mathematical Society in 1995.
 * Elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1997.
 * Honorary D. Sc. from Norwegian University of Science and Technology in 2000.
 * Honorary D. Sc. from Rockefeller University in 2001.
 * Longuet-Higgins Prize in 2005 and 2009.
 * Foreign Member of The Royal Society in 2008.
 * Foreign Member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.
 * Honorary Doctorate from Brown University in 2011.
 * 2012 BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the Basic Sciences category (jointly with Ingrid Daubechies).
 * Honoris Causa University of Hyderabad, India 2012

He was elected President of the International Mathematical Union in 1995 and served from 1995 to 1999.

Publications

 * Lectures on Curves on Algebraic Surfaces (with George Bergman), Princeton University Press, 1964.
 * Geometric Invariant Theory, Springer-Verlag, 1965 – 2nd edition, with J. Fogarty, 1982; 3rd enlarged edition, with F. Kirwan and J. Fogarty, 1994.
 * Abelian Varieties, Oxford University Press, 1st edition 1970; 2nd edition 1974.
 * Six Appendices to Algebraic Surfaces by Oscar Zariski – 2nd edition, Springer-Verlag, 1971.
 * Toroidal Embeddings I (with G. Kempf, F. Knudsen and B. Saint-Donat), Lecture Notes in Mathematics #339, Springer-Verlag 1973.
 * Curves and their Jacobians , University of Michigan Press, 1975.
 * Smooth Compactification of Locally Symmetric Varieties (with A. Ash, M. Rapoport and Y. Tai, Math. Sci. Press, 1975)
 *  Algebraic Geometry I: Complex Projective Varieties, Springer-Verlag New York, 1975.
 * Tata Lectures on Theta (with C. Musili, M. Nori, P. Norman, E. Previato and M. Stillman), Birkhäuser-Boston, Part I 1982, Part II 1983, Part III 1991.
 * Filtering, Segmentation and Depth (with M. Nitzberg and T. Shiota), Lecture Notes in Computer Science #662, 1993.
 * Two and Three Dimensional Pattern of the Face (with P. Giblin, G. Gordon, P. Hallinan and A. Yuille), AKPeters, 1999.
 * Indra's Pearls: The Vision of Felix Klein
 * ''Selected Papers on the Classification of Varieties and Moduli Spaces, Springer-Verlag, 2004.
 * ''Selected Papers on the Classification of Varieties and Moduli Spaces, Springer-Verlag, 2004.

title: David Mumford


text:
Newsgroup spam

Newsgroup spam is a type of spam where the targets are Usenet newsgroups. Usenet convention defines spamming as excessive multiple posting, i.e. repeated posting of a message or very similar messages to newsgroups. The spam may be commercial advertisements, opinionated messages, malicious files, or nonsensical posts designed to disrupt the newsgroups. A type of newsgroup spam is sporgery which is intended to make the targeted newsgroups unreadable. The prevalence of Usenet spam led to the development of the Breidbart Index as an objective measure of a message's "spamminess", and attempts to purge newsgroups of spam.

History
Spamming of Usenet newsgroups pre-dates e-mail spam. The first widely recognized Usenet spam (though not the most famous) was posted on 18 January 1994 by Clarence L. Thomas IV, a sysadmin at Andrews University. Entitled "Global Alert for All: Jesus is Coming Soon", it was a fundamentalist religious tract claiming that "this world's history is coming to a climax." The newsgroup posting bot Serdar Argic also appeared in early 1994, posting tens of thousands of messages to various newsgroups, consisting of identical copies of a political screed relating to the Armenian genocide.

The first "commercial" Usenet spam, and the one which is often (mistakenly) claimed to be the first Usenet spam of any sort, was an advertisement for legal services entitled "Green Card Lottery – Final One?". It was posted on 12 April 1994, by Arizona lawyers Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel, and hawked legal representation for United States immigrants seeking green cards.

Usenet convention defines spamming as "excessive multiple posting", that is, the repeated posting of a message (or substantially similar messages). During the early 1990s there was substantial controversy among Usenet system administrators (news admins) over the use of cancel messages to control spam. A "cancel message" is a directive to news servers to delete a posting, causing it to be inaccessible. Some regarded this as a bad precedent, leaning towards censorship, while others considered it a proper use of the available tools to control the growing spam problem.

A culture of neutrality towards content precluded defining spam on the basis of advertisement or commercial solicitations. The word "spam" was usually taken to mean "excessive multiple posting (EMP)", and other neologisms were coined for other abuses – such as "velveeta" (from the processed cheese product of that name) for "excessive cross-posting". A subset of spam was deemed "cancellable spam", for which it is considered justified to issue third-party cancel messages.

In the late 1990s, spam became used as a means of vandalising newsgroups, with malicious users committing acts of sporgery to make targeted newsgroups all but unreadable without heavily filtering. A prominent example occurred in alt.religion.scientology.

Prevalent in recent times is the MI-5 Persecution spam, which is well known across many newsgroups. These rambling postings often appear as clusters of twenty or more messages with varying subjects and content, but all related to Mike Corley's perceived surveillance of himself by MI5, the British intelligence agency. These rambling messages used to state the originator as MI5Victim@mi5.gov.uk. Lately (December 2007) the spammer has taken to altering the "from" address and subject line in an attempt to get past newsgroup "kill" filters. This UK-based spammer readily admits that he has mental illness in several of his postings. See also The Corley Conspiracy.

The prevalence of Usenet spam led to the development of the Breidbart Index as an objective measure of a message's "spamminess". The use of the BI and spam-detection software has led to Usenet being policed by anti-spam volunteers, who purge newsgroups of spam by sending cancels and filtering it out on the way into servers. This very active form of policing has meant that Usenet is a far less attractive target to spammers than it used to be, and most of the industrial-scale spammers have now moved into e-mail spam instead.

Google Usenet news archive
The advent of the large Usenet archive kept as part of the Google Groups website, has made Usenet more attractive to spammers than ever. The goal in this case is not just to reach the members of a newsgroup, but to also take advantage of the fact that Google gives a higher pagerank to websites that are referred to by these messages, which are catalogued and mirrored in multiple languages at Google's top-level domain. Critics have suggested that Google has ulterior motives for "turning a blind eye" to the problem since the websites being pointed to use Google ads, which potentially generate revenue for both the spammer AND Google. The spam is extremely unfair to the companies paying Google and the spammer for an ad-click, as the most prevalent current spam (2010) is trying to trick readers into clicking on web ads by referring to them as images and saying that a link is hidden in them "due to high sex content" or that a link hidden in the image (Google ad) will take them to a "PayPal form" that will give them money.

While most newsreaders filter the spam at either the server or user level, Google does not filter spam out of its Usenet News archive. Google does, however, offer spam filtering for groups that decide to abandon Usenet and form a moderated Google Group, which gives another reason why Google would turn a blind eye to spam in its archive of Usenet News.

title: Newsgroup spam


text:
Namwon

Namwon (남원시, ; Namwon-si) is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. Namwon is about 50 minutes from the provincial capital of Jeonju, which is almost three hours away from Seoul. The official city flower is Royal Azalea while the city tree is the crape-myrtle  and the city bird is the swallow. Namwon is a small city located just outside Jirisan National Park, which has the largest set of mountains on the South Korean Mainland. It also borders the Seomjin River, one of South Korea's more prominent rivers. It is 3 hours and 15 minutes from the Seoul Central City Bus Terminal (via direct bus) and about one hour from both the U-Square Bus Terminal in Gwangju and the Jeonju Inter City Bus Terminal (depending on traffic). It is called "the City of Love" because of the famous Korean love story of Chunhyang. Gwanghanlu Garden is a shrine to this love story.

History
Namwon was founded in 680 during the reign of King Sinmun of Silla Kingdom. Namwon county was founded on April 1, 1895. The city suffered during the Siege of Namwon in 1597 during the Imjin War.

During the siege that lasted from August 13 to 16 the only defenders against the Japanese army of 56,000 men were 3300 Korean and Chinese soldiers and 6000 women and children. In the end the Japanese found a way to enter the city and killed all the soldiers and civilians.

Geography
Namwon is located in a basin bordered by the Sobaek Mountains to the east and the Buheung Mountain Ridges to the west with the Yocheon River flowing through the city. Namwon is bordered by the counties of Imsil and Sunchang to the west, Jangsu to the north, Hamyang and Hadong in Gyeongsangnam-do to the east, and Gurye and Gokseong in Jeollanam-do to the south.

Climate
Namwon has a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dwa), but can be considered a borderline humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cwa) using the -3 C isotherm. The average yearly temperature of Namwon is 12.3 °C with the average temperature in January being −1.4 °C and 25.2 °C in August. Due to its location in a mountainous basin with a high rate of precipitation, the climate of Namwon varies greatly. Winds in Namwon are usually weak and blow north to west in the winter and south to west in the summer. However, temperatures can sometimes (briefly) drop below −10 °C in January with wind chills making it feel as though it were below −15 °C. These winds are part of a cold front that comes down from Siberia for a very brief time. Temperatures in July and August can often reach 33 °C, with the humidity making it feel as though it were 100 °F. The humidity over the Korean peninsula from June through September comes from south east Asia. Temperatures in spring (late April and through May) and fall (after September 25 and through October) are often in the mid 20s °C (73–80 °F) and with low humidity.

Chunhyang festivals
The Chunhyang festival, that commemorates the love, fidelity and integrity of Chunhyang, started when female Korean entertainers created a fund to have a ceremony to honour Chunhyang in 1931, at a time when Korea was colonized by Japan. The festival is known as a festival for love through which the city of Namwon and the cultural assets of Chunhyang are promoted to the global community.

The Chunhyang festival, one of the 10 most celebrated festivals in Korea, attracts not only Korean participants but has also become popular among foreigners. Miss Chunhyang Beauty Pageant and other events make the festival memorable and fun for visitors. The main bridge that crosses the river that runs through the middle of the city is lit up, and along the river bank there are vendors selling food and items of all kinds. The Chunhyang beauty contest can be entered by the most beautiful female residents, in Hanbok (traditional dress). Another event is the Chunhyang parade which runs through cordoned sections of the city along the river bank, and which comprises just about the entire complement of the city's mid-grade schoolgirls (numbering probably in the low hundreds) who are dressed in full chogori and carry musical instruments of some type, and who march in a very long line. There are also other parades of men and anyone else who is not a young girl may dress up in traditional dress and join the procession. The festival lasts four days and fireworks are launched every night.

For the rest of the year when the festival is not on, there is a small theme park dedicated to Chunhyang (Namwon Tourist Complex) complete with hypothetical dwellings and surroundings that someone like Chunhyang would have had (a mock house and yard). There are other sights in the park unrelated to Chunhyang such as a fish pond where visitors are free to feed the fish and some old-fashioned swings and horseshoe-style throwing games. Outside the park, along the river bank, there are also mini paddle boats that people can rent to traverse the small river.

Baraebong Royal Azalea Festival
From the end of April to mid May, Mt.Jiri is filled with their vivid red and pink flowers. Tourists can see crimson red flowers from the peak of Barae Bong of 1,165m down to Pal Rang Chi. There is a botanical garden and a herb valley nearby Barae Bong.

Namwon Herb Festival
Namwon Herb Festival, holds at Jirisan Mt. Herb Valley every spring and autumn, showcases many herbs that grow around Jirisan Mt.

Heungbu Festival
Namwon is the setting of a Korean traditional novel named Heungbujeon (story of Heungbu), and this festival is one of the most popular local events. Heungbu Festival opens on September 9 every year in lunar calendar to celebrate the friendship and love of a man named heungbu. Since the first festival held in 1993, it has offered various events including Heungbu theater, farm music competitions and food tasting event made with gourds.

Attractions
Namwon 'The City of Love' has a lot to offer. It has a very clean environment surrounded by Jiri Mountain Jirisan National Park. Much of its local and traditional culture and nature have been preserved compared to other places in Korea.
 * Chunhyang Theme Park
 * Honbul Literary House
 * Wanwoljeong Pavilion
 * Gyoryongsanseong Fortress
 * Korean Traditional Music Holy Grand
 * Silsangsa Temple(Historic Site No.309)
 * Hwangsan Battle Monument(Historic Site No.104)
 * Manin Cemetery of Righteous Warriors (Historic Site No.272)
 * Manbok Temple Site, constructed between 1046 and 1083 during the rule of King Munjong of Goryeo
 * Gwanghallu Garden, a traditional garden that symbolizes the universe (commonly attributed to the Chunhyang story)

International

 * 🇺🇸 Marina, California, United States https://cityofmarina.org
 * 🇺🇸 Lompoc, California, United States
 * Yancheng, Jiangsu, China

Domestic

 * Seocho, Seoul
 * Guro, Seoul
 * Miryang, South Gyeongsang
 * Asan, South Chungcheong

International

 * 🇮🇹 Verona, Veneto, Italy
 * Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
 * 🇯🇵 Hioki, Kagoshima, Japan

Notable people from Namwon

 * Yongseong (Real Name: Baek Sanggyu, Hangul: 백상규), Korean Buddhist master
 * C.W. Kim (Real Name: Chon Won, Hangul: 천원), Korean American architect
 * Kim Choon-ho (Hangul: 김춘호), South Korean former professional tennis player
 * Choi Ihn-suk (Hangul: 최인석), South Korean writer, playwright and screenwriter
 * Chang Yoon-hee (Hangul: 장윤희), South Korean former female volleyball player
 * Jang Deog-cheon (Hangul: 장덕천), South Korean lawyer, politician and current mayor of Bucheon
 * Choe Kang-wook (Hangul: 최강욱), South Korean lawyer, politician and the President of the Open Democratic Party (ODP)
 * Seo Sun-hwa (Hangul: 서선화), South Korean sports shooter
 * Oh Eun-sun (Hangul: 오은선), South Korean mountaineer
 * Jungyup (Real Name: Ahn Jung-yeop, Hangul: 안정엽), singer and leader of the South Korean R&B group Brown Eyed Soul
 * Huihyeon (Real Name: Ki Hui-hyeon, Hangul: 기희현), singer, rapper, dancer, actress and K-pop idol, leader and member of K-pop girlgroup DIA and its subunit BinChaenHyunSeuS

title: Namwon


text:
Kaluga

Kaluga (Калу́га, ) is a city and the administrative center of Kaluga Oblast, Russia. It stands on the Oka River 150 km southwest of Moscow. Its population was 337,058 at the 2021 census.

Kaluga's most famous resident, the space travel pioneer Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, worked there as a school teacher from 1892 to 1935. The Tsiolkovsky State Museum of the History of Cosmonautics in Kaluga is dedicated to his theoretical achievements and to their practical implementations for modern space research, hence the motto on the city's coat of arms: Колыбель Космонавтики, Kolybélʹ kosmonávtiki ("The Cradle of Space-Exploration").

History
Kaluga, founded in the mid-14th century as a border fortress on the southwestern borders of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, first appears in the historical record in chronicles in the 14th century as Koluga; the name comes from Old Russian kaluga is "bog, quagmire". During the period of Tartar raids it was the western end of the Oka bank defense line. The Great stand on the Ugra River was fought just to the west. In the Middle Ages Kaluga was a minor settlement owned by the Princes Vorotynsky. The ancestral home of these princes lies southwest of the modern city.

On 19 January 1777, the Kaluga drama theatre opened its first theatrical season, established with the direct participation of the Governor-General Mikhail Krechetnikov.

Kaluga is connected to Moscow by a railway line and by the ancient roadway, the Kaluga Road (now partly within Moscow (as the Old Kaluga Highway), partly the A101 road). This road offered Napoleon his favored escape route from the Moscow trap in the fall of 1812. But General Kutuzov repelled Napoleon's advances in this direction and forced the retreating French army onto the old Smolensk road, previously devastated by the French during their invasion of Russia.

On several occasions during the Russian Empire Kaluga was the residence of political exiles and prisoners such as the last Crimean khan Şahin Giray (1786), the Kyrgyz sultan Arigazi-Abdul-Aziz (1828), the Georgian princess Thecla (1834–1835), and the Avar leader Imam Shamil (1859–1868).

The German army briefly occupied Kaluga during the climactic Battle of Moscow, as part of Operation Barbarossa. The city was under full or partial German occupation from October 12 to December 30, 1941. In 1944, the Soviet Government used its local military buildings to intern hundreds of Polish prisoners of war — soldiers of the Polish underground Home Army — whom the advancing Soviet front had arrested in the area around Vilnius.

Demographics
As of the 2021 Census, the ethnic composition of Kaluga was:

Administrative and municipal status
Kaluga is the administrative center of the oblast. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with seventy-two rural localities, incorporated as the City of Kaluga—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Kaluga, together with one rural locality in Ferzikovsky District (the selo of Novozhdamirovo), is incorporated as Kaluga Urban Okrug.

Economy
The Kaluga Turbine Plant is located here as is Kaluga Machine Works, which manufactures track machines for railways. In recent years, Kaluga has become one center of the Russian automotive industry, with a number of foreign companies opening assembly plants in the area:

On 28 November 2007, Volkswagen Group opened a new assembly plant in Kaluga, which further expanded by 2009. The investment has reached more than 500 million Euro. the plant assembled the Volkswagen Passat, Škoda Fabia and Škoda Rapid.

On 15 October 2007, the Volvo Group broke ground on a new truck assembly plant, that was inaugurated on 19 January 2009, with a yearly capacity of 10,000 Volvo and 5,000 Renault trucks.

On 12 December 2007, PSA Peugeot Citroën announced its decision to build a new assembly plant in Kaluga.

Transportation
The city is served by the Grabtsevo Airport. Since 1899, there has been a railway connection between Kaluga and Moscow.

Public transportation is represented by the trolleybuses, buses, and marshrutkas (routed taxis).

Climate
Kaluga has a humid temperate continental (Köppen climate classification: Dfb), with warm and humid summers; and long, cold and snowy winters. Winter extreme records can be as low as -45 C, while summer heat may reach up +40 C, but normal variation is between -5 C and -20 C during winter and between 15 C and 30 C during summer in Kaluga.

Notable people
Kaluga's most famous resident was rocket science pioneer Konstantin Tsiolkovsky.

Other notable people include:
 * Sergei Avagimyan, former professional footballer. Born in Russia, he played for the Armenian national football team.
 * Alexander Amfiteatrov
 * Yuri Averbakh, chess grandmaster
 * Mykola Azarov
 * Pafnuty Chebyshev, mathematician
 * Alexander Chizhevsky
 * David Edelstadt
 * Alexander Gretchaninov, Russian-American composer
 * Jonah of Hankou
 * Andrei Kalaychev
 * Valery Kobelev, ski jumper
 * Mikhail Linge
 * Pavel Popovich, cosmonaut, the only person to receive two honorary citizenships of Kaluga (1962 and 1964)
 * Larisa Popugayeva
 * Nikolai Rakov
 * Imam Shamil
 * Nikolay Skvortsov, swimmer
 * Yuliya Tabakova
 * Georgy Zhukov
 * Olesya Zykina, 400m athlete
 * Bulat Okudzhava, lived and taught Literature in public school in the 1980s.
 * Serafim Tulikov
 * Ivan Kuliak
 * Lyubov Kamyrina

Twin towns – sister cities
Kaluga is twinned with:

 * 🇩🇪 Suhl, Germany (1969)

 * 🇲🇩 Tiraspol, Moldova (2005)
 * 🇬🇷 Panorama, Greece (2011)
 * 🇧🇾 Minsk, Belarus (2015)
 * 🇨🇳 Binzhou, China (2015)
 * 🇺🇦 Yalta, Ukraine (2016)
 * 🇷🇸 Niš, Serbia (2017)

Partner cities
In addition to twin towns, Kaluga cooperates with:

 * 🇺🇸 Clearwater, United States (1992)
 * 🇨🇳 Xianyang, China (2000)
 * 🇷🇺 Tula, Russia (2002)
 * 🇷🇺 Oryol, Russia (2003)
 * 🇷🇺 Smolensk, Russia (2003)
 * 🇷🇺 Makhachkala, Russia (2012)
 * 🇷🇺 Tsiolkovsky, Russia (2016)
 * 🇷🇺 Ryazan, Russia (2017)
 * 🇷🇺 Tambov, Russia (2017)

title: Kaluga


text:
Buan County

Buan County (부안군, Buan-gun) is a county in Jeonbuk State, South Korea. It is bounded by the city of Jeongeup on the east, the county of Gochang on the south, the city of Gimje on the north, and Yellow Sea on the west. Buan is divided into 1 eup, 12 myeon, and 510 ri. Buan had a 2001 estimated population of 74,716 people and a 2018 population of 54,441 people with an area of 493.35 km2. Famous people from Buan include Joseon Dynasty kisaeng and poet, Yi Mae-chang. Like many rural areas in southern Korea, it has seen shrinking population with many younger people moving north to larger cities such as Seoul. This county should not be confused with Muan, the new capital of South Jeolla Province.

Proto–Three Kingdoms period
During the Samhan Period Buan County was called Mahan, and it was also called Jiban statelets among the 54 Mahan statelets.

Three Kingdoms period
During the Beakjae Period there were two small localities: Gaehwa and Heunlyangmae. In B.C 757(16th year of King Gyeongdeok's regime), after Silla united the three kingdoms, Gyehwa was renamed as Buryeong (sometimes called Gyebal) and was a part of Gobu. Honliang was renamed as Hee-an and was also a part of Gobu.

Goryeo
During the Goryeo period, the county was called Boan-hyeon and was also nicknamed as Namju. In late Goryeo, during King U's regime, there were local governors were posted to Buryeong-hyeon and Boan-hyeon.

Joseon
During the 14th and 16th year of king Taejong's reign, the two localities Buryeong-hyeon and Boan-hyeon were merged and separated several times. Then in December 1416, the two localities were merged and was named Buan, the "bu" coming from Buryeong and the "an" coming from Boan. The following year a locality named Heungdeokjin was made a part of Buan and was renamed as Buanjin. A high-level civil servant named the Byeongmasa ruled over the county. In 1423 (5th year of King Sejong's regime), the ruler was changed from Cheomjeoljesa to Hyeongam. Locality Buan was changed into Boan County in 1895 (32nd year of King Gojong's regime), when several different terms representing localities (bu, mok, gun, and hyeon) were unified to a single therm - gun(county). In 1914, during the Japanese occupation, the administrative district was changed: Wido become a part of Yeonggwang County(South Jeolla Province), and Biando was annexed to Gunsan City. Baeksan, Geoma, and Deoklim of Gobu County were annexed to Buan County.

In 1943 Byreong-myeon was upgraded into Buan-eup.

Today
On January 1, 1963, According to changes in the administrative districts, Wido-myeon of Yeonggwang County (South Jeolla Province) was annexed to Buan County.

With the reclamation works of Gaehwado in 1978, the country's territory was increased by 3,968ha. In 1983 Sannae-myeon and Jinseo-myeon were divided into Gawhwa-myeon and Jinso-myeon. Currently, the administrative district consists of 1 eup and 12 myeon. The total area is 493 km2 (farming land 42%, forest land 42%, other 16%). Buan county is located and longitude 126 degrees 40 minutes, latitude 35 degrees 40 minutes. It is located to the west of Jeonbuk State and its border meets with Gunsan City at the sea. To the north there is Gimje City, to the southeast there is Jeongeup City, and to the south there is Gochang County. The land is low in the east side and high on the west site. The peninsula sticks out on the Yellow Sea. To the southwest direction a mountain named Byeonsan stands in layers. To the northeast there are wide and rich fields. The coast line which runs from the mouth of the Dongjingang River to Julpo-myeon Upo-ri, is 66 km long. The influence of sea winds bring about a lot of snow in the winter.

Administrative district
The administrative district of Buan-gun consists of 1 eup and 12 myeon. The area of Buan-gun is 493.35 km2, and the population is 56,086 people and 27,628 households as of resident registration at the end of December 2017. 38% of the county's total residents live in Buan-eup. Rocks from the Precambrian period are distributed only to a small extent, granites form the plains of eastern Buan-gun, and Cretaceous volcanic rocks form the geology of the Byeonsan Peninsula area in western Buan-gun.

Lipids
Buan-gun is located at the southwest end of the boundary between the Gyeonggi massif and the Okcheon fold belt.

Its geology is composed of gneiss formed in the Precambrian period, granite intruded in the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic Era, and volcanic rocks from the Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic Era occupying the Byeonsan Peninsula area. In the Sinsongrim Village area of Jangsin-ri, the biotite gneiss shows a folded pattern. In this area, biotite gneiss is intruded by Jurassic porphyllite granite (Jpgr), biotite granite (Jbgr), and Cretaceous Baekryeon-ri rhyolite (Kbbr), and is in contact with the Cretaceous Jangsinri Formation (Kj) to the west of Jangsin-ri through a fault. Along the northern forest road of Seokbulsan Mountain between Jangsin-ri and Uibok-ri, Gyehwa-myeon, small-scale biotite gneiss is captured within a porphyritic granite body.

Precambrian

 * Precambrian gneisses are distributed on a small scale in the following areas. Biotite gneiss (PPrbgn), formed in the Precambrian Paleozoic Era, is developed in the southeastern part of Jangsin-ri and Cheongho-ri, Haseo-myeon, Buan-gun, and is the oldest rock in the Buan region. As a result of analyzing zircons from other rocks that intruded into the same rock in the Iksan area, an age of about 1.8 billion years was found, and the geological age of this rock appears to be the Paleozoic Era.
 * Fresh outcrops of Precambrian gneiss and schist are well exposed along the northern coast of Gyeokpo Port in Gyeokpo-ri, Byeonsan-myeon. Gneiss is a metamorphic process involving the injection of white granitic materials into orthogneiss, which is a metamorphic process of granite, and schist of heterogeneous, silty, and sandy elements. Sub-gneisses that have undergone migmatization and granitization are mixed. The main constituent minerals of gneiss vary in relative amount depending on the type of source rock, but are mostly composed of quartz, orthoclase, siltstone, plagioclase, biotite, and muscovite.
 * In the eastern area of Nampo-ri and Udong-ri, Boan-myeon (the area between Mangwolbong and Gamtubong Peak), Paleozoic gneiss is distributed in small quantities. On the eastern side of the gneiss distribution area, the Cheonmasan tuff of Buan volcanic rock lies unconformably, and on the western part, fractured breccias are partially distributed, and the Seokpo tuff and Udongjae tuff are in direct contact with the gneiss through a fault relationship.

Paleozoic Ordovician

 * In uninhabited island areas such as Large Island, Small Island, Imsu Island, and Saengdannyeo in Wido-myeon, Buan-gun, foliated tonalite (Oft) is distributed as an independent rock body, and access to the outcrop is very limited to directly observe the rock. The 206Pb/238U age for zircon is 451.6±4.7 Ma, indicating a formation period in the late Ordovician (Katian).

Mesozoic Jurassic granite
The granite that is widely distributed in the eastern part of Buan-gun, forming a plain area, is a part of the Daebo granite body that is widely distributed in the areas of Iksan, Gimje, Jeongeup, and Gochang in the Honam region. In general, granites intruded during the Mesozoic Era are distributed in the northwest area of Seokbulsan Mountain in Haseo-myeon, almost all areas of Dongjin-myeon, Haengan-myeon, Buan-eup, Baeksan-myeon, Jusan-myeon, and Julpo-myeon, and the eastern part of Boan-myeon.

Transport
Buan Bus Terminal provides direct services to Seoul, Daejeon and Gwangju, as well as services within Jeonbuk State to Jeonju, Gimje, Iksan, Gunsan, Jeongeup and Gochang. The nearest railway station is at Gimje on the Honam Line.

Major road

 * National Route 30
 * National Route 23
 * Seohaean Expressway

Notable places
Eight Scenic Views of Byeonsan
 * WoongYeonJoDae
 * Jigso Waterfall
 * SoSaMoJong
 * WolMyeongMooAe
 * SeoHaeNakJo (Glow of the Setting Sun on the West Sea)
 * ChaeSeokBeomJu
 * JiPoSinGyeong
 * GaeAmGoJeok

Museum
 * New & Renewable Energy Village
 * Seokjeong Literary Museum
 * Hwimok Art Museum

Temple
 * Naeso Temple
 * Gaeam Temple

Twinning
twinned :

 * 🇰🇷 Ansan, South Korea
 * 🇰🇷 Goyang, South Korea
 * 🇰🇷 Gwangmyeong, South Korea
 * 🇰🇷 Suyeong District, South Korea
 * 🇰🇷 Jung District, Busan, South Korea
 * 🇰🇷 Pohang, South Korea
 * 🇰🇷 Chungju, South Korea

Friendship :
 * 🇰🇷 Dobong District, South Korea
 * 🇰🇷 Dongdaemun District, South Korea
 * 🇨🇳 Honghu, China

title: Buan County