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Video Killed the Radio Star

"Video Killed the Radio Star" is a song written by Trevor Horn, Geoff Downes and Bruce Woolley in 1979. It was recorded concurrently by Bruce Woolley and the Camera Club (with Thomas Dolby on keyboards) for their album English Garden and by British new wave/synth-pop group the Buggles, which consisted of Horn and Downes (and initially Woolley).

The Buggles' version of the track was recorded and mixed in 1979, released as their debut single on 7 September 1979 by Island Records, and included on their first album The Age of Plastic. The backing track was recorded at Virgin's Town House in West London, and mixing and vocal recording was done at Sarm East Studios.

The song relates to concerns about, and mixed attitudes toward 20th-century inventions and machines for the media arts. Musically, the song performs like an extended jingle and the composition plays in the key of D-flat major in common time at a tempo of 132 beats per minute. The track has been positively received, with reviewers praising its unusual musical pop elements. Although the song includes several common pop characteristics and six basic chords are used in its structure, Downes and writer Timothy Warner described the piece as musically complicated, due to its use of suspended and minor ninth chords for enhancement that gave the song a "slightly different feel."

On release, the single topped sixteen international music charts, including those in the UK, Australia, and Japan. It also peaked in the top 10 in Canada, Germany, New Zealand and South Africa, but only reached number 40 in the US. The accompanying music video was written, directed, and edited by Russell Mulcahy. It was the first music video shown on MTV in the US, airing at 12:01a.m. on 1 August 1981, and the first video shown on MTV Classic in the UK on 1 March 2010. The song has received several critical accolades, such as being ranked number 40 on VH1's "100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders of the '80s". It has also been covered by many recording artists.

Background and lyrics
The Buggles, which formed in 1977, first consisted of Trevor Horn, Geoff Downes and Bruce Woolley. They recorded the first demo of "Video Killed the Radio Star" on a Revox A77 tape recorder, one afternoon in 1978, in Downes' flat located above a monumental stonemason's in Wimbledon Park, London. The piece was built up from a chorus riff developed by Woolley. It is one of the three Buggles songs on which Woolley assisted in writing, the two others being "Clean, Clean" and "On TV". A later, more detailed demo of the song, featuring Horn's then-girlfriend Tina Charles on vocals, was recorded at Camden's Soundsuite Studios, and engineered by studio owner Peter Rackham. This demo became the blueprint for the final record, and helped the group get signed to Island Records to record and release their debut album The Age of Plastic, as well as producing and writing for the label, after Downes' girlfriend, who worked for Island, managed to get it played to executives there. Woolley left during recording to form his own band, The Camera Club, which did their own version of "Video", as well as "Clean, Clean" for their album English Garden.

Horn has said that J. G. Ballard's short story "The Sound-Sweep", in which the title character—a mute boy vacuuming up stray music in a world without it—comes upon an opera singer hiding in a sewer, provided inspiration for "Video", and he felt "an era was about to pass." Horn claimed that Kraftwerk was another influence of the song: "It was like you could see the future when you heard Kraftwerk, something new is coming, something different. Different rhythm section, different mentality. So we had all of that, myself and Bruce, and we wrote this song probably six months before we recorded it." In a 2018 interview Horn stated: "I'd read JG Ballard and had this vision of the future where record companies would have computers in the basement and manufacture artists. I'd heard Kraftwerk's The Man-Machine and video was coming. You could feel things changing".

All the tracks of The Age of Plastic deal with positives and concerns of the impact of modern technology. The theme of "Video Killed the Radio Star" is thus nostalgia, with the lyrics referring to a period of technological change in the 1960s, the desire to remember the past and the disappointment that children of the current generation would not appreciate the past. The lyrics relate to concerns of the varied behaviours towards 20th-century technical inventions and machines used and changed in media arts such as photography, cinema, radio, television, audio recording and record production. According to Horn, the band initially struggled to come up with a line to follow the song's opening ("I heard you on the wireless back in '52"): he eventually came up with "Lying awake intent at tuning in on you", inspired by memories of listening to Radio Luxembourg at night as a child. Woolley worried about the song's name, given the existence of a band with the name Radio Stars and a song titled "Video King" by singer Snips.

Development and composition
The Buggles' version of "Video Killed the Radio Star" is a new wave and synth-pop song. It performs like an extended jingle, sharing its rhythm characteristics with disco. The piece plays in common time at a bright tempo of 132 beats per minute. It is in the key of D♭ major, and six basic chords are used in the song's chord progression. According to Geoff Downes, "It's actually a lot more complicated piece of music than people think, for instance part of the bridge is actually suspended chords and minor 9ths. A lot of people transcribed the song wrongly, they thought it was a straight F# chord. The song was written in D flat. The suspended gives it a slightly different feel." Writing in his book, Pop Music: Technology and Creativity: Trevor Horn and the Digital Revolution, Timothy Warner said that the "relatively quiet introduction" helping the listener detect a high amount of "tape hiss" generated through the use of analogue multi-track tape recorders, as well as the timbre of the synthesized instruments, give an indication of the technical process and time of producing the song.

Horn and Downes tried to interest labels in the song, but were turned down multiple times, including by Island Records. Downes' then girlfriend worked for Island and was able to get the song listened to again. The demo ended up being heard by Chris Blackwell, who chose to sign the band.

The song took more than three months of production. In 2018 Downes stated that the version that was released was rewritten from that recorded for the band's demo tape: the verses were extended and Downes contributed a new intro and middle eight, with the bulk of the original song having already been written by Horn and Woolley when he joined. The instrumental track was recorded at Virgin's Town House in West London in twelve hours, with mixing and recording of vocals held at Sarm East Studios. The entire song was mixed through a Trident TSM console. "Video" was the first track recorded for the group's debut LP, The Age of Plastic, which cost a sum of £60,000 to produce, and the song was mixed by Gary Langan four or five times. According to Langan, "there was no total recall, so we just used to start again. We’d do a mix and three or four days later Trevor would go, 'It's not happening. We need to do this and we need to do that.' The sound of the bass drum was one of his main concerns, along with his vocal and the backing vocals. It was all about how dry and how loud they should be in the mix without the whole thing sounding ridiculous. As it turned out, that record still had the loudest bass drum ever for its time."

The song includes instrumentation of drums, bass guitar, electric guitar, synth strings, piano, glockenspiel, marimbas and other futuristic, twinkly sounds, and vocals. Downes used a Solina, Minimoog and Prophet-5 to create the overdubbed orchestral parts. Both the male and female voices differ to give a tonal and historical contrast. When Langan was interviewed in December 2011, he believed the male vocal was recorded through either a dynamic Shure SM57, SM58, Sennheiser MD 421, or STC 4038 ribbon microphone, and that four or five takes had to be done. The male voice echoes the song's theme in the tone of the music, initially limited in bandwidth to give a "telephone" effect typical of early broadcasts, and uses a Mid-Atlantic accent resembling that of British singers in the 1950s and '60s. The Vox AC30 amplifier was used to achieve the telephone effect, and Gary Langan says he was trying to make it "loud without cutting your head off", in others words make the voice sound soft. Gary Langan and Trevor Horn also tried using a bullhorn, but they found it too harsh. Langan later compressed and EQ'd the male vocals, and he said that doing the compression for old-style vocal parts was a "real skill". The female vocals are panned in the left and right audio channels, and sound more modern and have a New York accent.

The single version of "Video Killed the Radio Star" lasts for 3 minutes and 25 seconds. The album version plays for 4 minutes and 13 seconds, about 48 seconds longer than the single version, as it fades into a piano and synth coda, which ends with a brief sampling of the female vocals.

Commercial performance
"Video Killed the Radio Star" was a huge commercial success, reaching number one on 16 national charts. The song made its debut on the UK Singles Chart in the top 40 at number 24, on the issue dated 29 September 1979. The next week, the track entered into the chart's top ten at number six before topping the chart on the week of 20 October. It was the 444th UK number-one hit in the chart's entire archive. In 2022, the single was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for UK sales and streams of 600,000 units.

In Australia, "Video Killed the Radio Star" reached number one, and for 27 years it held the country's record for best-selling single. In late 1979, while the single was still in an eight-week run at Number one in the charts, the single was awarded a platinum disc by Festival Records, the record's distributing company, for sales of over 100,000 copies in Australia. The song also made a number-one peak in France and Spain, where it was certified gold and platinum, respectively, as well as Austria, Ireland, Sweden and Switzerland. In other parts of Europe and Oceania, "Video Killed the Radio Star" was a number-two hit in Germany and New Zealand, and also charted in Flanders on the Ultratop 50 and in the Netherlands, on the Nationale Hitparade Top 50 (now the Single Top 100) and Dutch Top 40.

"Video Killed the Radio Star" did not start charting in North America, however, until November 1979. In the United States, the song appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 and Cash Box Top 100, barely breaking into the top 40 on both charts. In a 2015 list from Billboard, it tied with Marvin Gaye's recording of "The End of Our Road" as the "Biggest Hot 100 Hit" at the peak of number 40. "Video Killed the Radio Star" debuted at number 86 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week of 10 November 1979, while on the Cash Box Top 100 it debuted at number 83 that same week. It started also at number 83 on the Canadian RPM Top Single Chart. By January 1980, it entered the top 40 at number 31, and on 2 February made it into the top 20 at number 11. Two weeks later, the song earned its peak in the top 10 at number 6 and issue dated 16 February 1980.

Critical reception
The song became a Billboard Top Single Pick on 3 November 1979. The publication found the chorus catchy and also highlighted the orchestral instruments supporting the backing singers. Although there had been a mixed review of the single from Smash Hits by Andy Partridge of XTC, who found the song to be "too tidy, like vymura" (wallpaper), they listed it in a review of The Age of Plastic as one of the best tracks of the album, along with "Living in the Plastic Age". Timothy Warner wrote that, although several common pop elements were still present in the song, it included stronger originality for its own purpose than most other pop hits released at the time. These unusual pop music characteristics include the timbres of the male and female vocal parts, and the use of suspended fourth and ninths chords for enhancement in its progression. He also felt it was unnecessary to dislike it as a "novelty song". AllMusic's Heather Phares said the track "can be looked on as a perfectly preserved new wave gem", "just as the song looks back on the radio songs of the '50s and '60s". She concluded her review by saying that it "still sounds as immediate as it did when it was released, however, and that may be the song's greatest irony".

However, many writers called Woolley's recording of "Video" much better than the Buggles' version. This included one critic who called both acts overall as of being very high quality, but felt that Woolley's version was more faithful to the source material than that of the Buggles, noting the filtered vocals and cute, female vocals of the latter rendition as giving it a novelty feel. However, he also wrote of liking both versions of "Clean, Clean" on the same level.

Production and concept
The music video for "Video Killed the Radio Star", written, directed and edited by Australian Russell Mulcahy, was produced on a budget of $50,000. The video was shot in one day in South London, and was edited over two days.

The video begins with a young girl sitting in front of a radio. A black-and-white shot of Trevor Horn singing into an early radio-era microphone is superimposed over the young girl by the radio. The radio explodes by the time of the first chorus, then in the second verse, the girl is seen transported into the future, where she meets Horn and a silver-jumpsuited woman in a clear plastic tube. Shots of Horn and Geoff Downes are shown during the remainder of the video.

Around 30 takes were required for shots of the actress in the tube. The tube falls over in the video, although Mulcahy claims it was not intended to be shown in the final edit. Hans Zimmer can be briefly seen wearing black playing a keyboard, and Debi Doss and Linda Jardim-Allen, who provided the female vocals for the song, are also seen.

Broadcasting and reception
The music video was first released in 1979, when it was originally broadcast on the BBC's Top of the Pops for promotion of the single, in lieu of doing live performances. Zimmer recalled in 2001 that the video drew criticism from some viewers who watched it before it aired on MTV, due to being too violent' because we blew up a television." The music video for Video Killed the Radio Star is notable as the first video ever played on MTV, when the US channel began broadcasting at 12:01 AM on 1 August 1981. On 27 February 2000, it became the one-millionth video to be broadcast on MTV. It also opened MTV Classic in the UK and Ireland. The video marked the closing of MTV Philippines before its shutdown on 15 February 2010 at 11:49 PM. MTV co-founder Bob Pittman said the video "made an aspirational statement. We didn't expect to be competitive with radio, but it was certainly a sea-change kind of video." In July 2013, multiple independent artists covered the song for the launch of the TV channel Pivot, which launched with the music video of the cover on 1 August at 6am.

Live performances and cover versions
A notable interpretation of the melody was released in 1979 by French singer Ringo, using French language lyrics by Étienne Roda-Gil supplying a new title "Qui est ce grand corbeau noir ?" ("Who is this big black raven?") Ringo's version peaked at number 8 in France.

The Presidents of the United States of America recorded a cover of the song which appeared on the soundtrack of the 1998 film The Wedding Singer starring Adam Sandler.

A rare live performance of the song by Horn and Downes came at a ZTT showcase in 1998.

In November 2006, the Producers played at their first gig in Camden Town. A video clip can be seen on ZTT Records of Horn singing lead vocals and playing bass in a performance of "Video Killed the Radio Star". Tina Charles appears on a YouTube video singing "Slave to the Rhythm" with the Producers and Horn reveals that Tina was the singer and originator of the "Oh Ah-Oh Ah-Oh" part of "Video"; fellow 5000 Volt member Martin Jay was also a session musician on The Buggles record.

Robbie Williams performed the song with Trevor Horn at the BBC Electric Proms on 20 October 2009.

Erasure covered this song as a final track to their Other People's Songs album. Vince Clarke in an interview said that he considers it "the perfect pop song"

Anne Dudley, composer and co-founding member of The Art of Noise with Trevor Horn, performed the song on solo piano on her album Anne Dudley Plays the Art of Noise.

In popular culture
In mid-2020, the song became popular among TikTok users as a trend to revisit celebrity death conspiracies, and across the internet when a deepfake of Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin singing the song went viral on multiple social media sites.

In February 2002, while on international duty with England, David Beckham got into an argument with journalist Rob Shepherd, during a press conference, after Shepherd made a joke about David and Victoria Beckham’s habit of finishing second (David finishing second in the recent FIFA World Player of the Year vote, and Victoria’s inability to have a number 1 hit). Beckham sarcastically asked Shepherd, “What do you know about music? How many people in your family have ever had a number one?” Shepherd replied, “One. My sister was in The Buggles.” His sister was Linda Jardim-Allen, who sang vocals on the number one hit.

Personnel
Sources:

Bruce Woolley version

 * Bruce Woolley – vocals, guitar
 * Dave Birch – guitar
 * Matthew Seligman – bass
 * Thomas Dolby – keyboards
 * Rod Johnson – drums
 * Richard Goldblatt – engineering

The Buggles version

 * Geoff Downes – keyboards, percussion
 * Trevor Horn – lead vocals, bass guitar
 * Debi Doss – backing vocals, chorus vocals
 * Linda Jardim-Allen – backing vocals, chorus vocals
 * Dave Birch – guitars
 * Phil Towner – drums
 * Gary Langan – mixing, recording
 * Hugh Padgham – recording, audio engineering
 * John Dent – mastering

title: Video Killed the Radio Star


text:
Talk:Trevor Horn

Children
The information about his children appears incorrect. The article reads: "They have four children; two sons Aaron and William, and two daughters, Rebecca and Alexandra (or "Ally"),[29] the latter of whom has worked as a trainee solicitor.[30] Rebecca has since changed gender and became Will.[5]"  It seems unlikely there would be two William/Wills. The article about his wife Jill Phillips states "They have four children; two sons Aaron and William, and two daughters, Gabriella and Alexandra (or "Ally").

Perhaps both articles should be worded: "They had four children; a son, Aaron, and three daughters, Rebecca, Gabriella and Alexandra (or "Ally"),[29] the latter of whom has worked as a trainee solicitor.[30] Rebecca has since changed gender and became Will.[5]" Neb-Maat-Re (talk) 03:41, 29 August 2017 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia policy is clear that we describe people by their current gender. So, the article should say something like: "They had four children; two sons, Aaron and Will (formerly Rebecca[5]), and two daughters, Gabriella and Alexandra (or "Ally"),[29] the latter of whom has worked as a trainee solicitor.[30]" Bondegezou (talk) 21:39, 29 August 2017 (UTC)
 * That sounds like the best resolution. I've updated Jill's page to match. Thanks. Neb-Maat-Re (talk) 01:35, 22 January 2018 (UTC)

Untitled
If you would like to know more info about him, then please contact me (his nephew) on dext37fielding@hotmail.com —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.136.80.177 (talk) 01:02, 31 May 2008 (UTC)

Can we add that he also produced Tatu?

How is this article inaccurate? --Raul654 22:03, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

It was edited by a banned user (Michael) who added rubbish to articles, and hasn't been checked. Secretlondon 22:06, Dec 7, 2003 (UTC)

Reverted to last non-Michael edit anyway. We're supposed to revert all his stuff. Dysprosia 22:11, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

''He has acts like Frankie Goes to Hollywood or Propaganda. ''. What does this mean?

 * It meant that he was the producer for Farnkie etc. It missed out the verb;)

Wow. This michael guy sounds like quite a character. Glad I got here after the dust had settled. --Raul654 22:19, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I've sorted the English and added more info from a fan site biography. Secretlondon 22:20, Dec 7, 2003 (UTC)

Wha about abit more information about Trevor's early bands prior to The Buggles. For instance there is no mention of The Big A from 1978 and the song Caribbean Air Control on Sonet records.

where did his orig 1980 picture go?
Before someone recently put in a new picture that was questioned by some, there was an older picture from 1980 of Horn here. Where did that go? Can we at least get that uploaded again, as it was not questioned, at least? --Tempel 07:37, 4 October 2006 (UTC)

Is there no obvious in Wiki anymore?
I think Wiki is getting a little bit ridiculous with the "cite needed" thing. We are being asked to provide a cited source for Horn wearing glasses and not having produced as many jazz records as Quincy Jones.(?) Here's a clue: Trevor Horn has produced none. How do you source something that doesn't exist? Furthermore, it' s obvious as daylight that Horn's noted production style is similar to Phil Spector's. Since when did such obvious triviality need to be sourced?? I mean COME ON PEOPLE!

It seems self-evident that he wore the largest glasses ever witnessed in the observable universe. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2600:8800:7D90:7300:0:0:0:2FDB (talk) 04:43, 21 May 2022 (UTC)

A Knighthood For Trevor Horn?
There's an unofficial campaign to knight Trevor Horn *here(Pw) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.71.1.118 (talk) 00:31, 1 March 2008 (UTC)

Homosexuality
What about including something about his views on homosexuality? Just reading an interview with Wendy & Lisa, & they have quite an opinion about it: http://www.out.com/detail.asp?page=2&id=25083 bossel (talk) 15:45, 9 August 2009 (UTC)

 * Updated link to the Wendy & Lisa interview:
 * https://www.out.com/entertainment/2009/04/16/revolution-will-be-harmonized Phil Champ (talk) 16:26, 25 October 2022 (UTC)

I'm surprised nothing more has been cited/added on this. It's my understanding that Horn withheld work that he was producing of theirs. A big accusation that seems to remain unanswered. 2603:8001:2A00:7428:91F2:FB5E:25A0:124F (talk) 01:15, 22 January 2024 (UTC)

Soundtracks
Nowhere in this article, that I can see, is it mentioned Horn's amazing work on movie soundtracks. IMDB lists 6 films that he's scored, plus a hundred items showing varying degrees of involvement with music in film. Surely this deserves a mention. 64.91.27.50 (talk) 18:03, 18 December 2014 (UTC)
 * Agreed. Feel free to start one! Bondegezou (talk) 21:02, 19 December 2014 (UTC)

Separate page for Discography
His discography is lengthy and spans many decades; I propose we give it its own page. (SnoopingAsUsual (talk) 11:56, 4 February 2015 (UTC))
 * Good idea. Bondegezou (talk) 13:18, 4 February 2015 (UTC)
 * I've created Trevor Horn discography and done a simple dump of what was here to there. Not certain what to leave here now? Bondegezou (talk) 13:24, 4 February 2015 (UTC)

Infobox instruments
User:Dobbyelf62 has changed the entry for "Instruments" in the infobox to "bass, vocals". I concur that Horn, as a performer, is best known as a vocalist and bassist. I also concur with Dobbyelf's argument that this line in the infobox is meant to be for a musician's main instruments and not an exhaustive list. However, I also think that Horn has extensively performed on keys and guitar, as were previously listed, and that there is a case to be made that these are significant enough to be included in the infobox.

In support of this, I note... Horn's best known albums as a performer are:

 * The Buggles' The Age of Plastic: credited with vocals, bass and guitar
 * The Buggles' Adventures in Modern Recording: credited with vocals, bass (4 tracks) and guitar (4 tracks)
 * Yes's Drama: credited with vocals, bass (1 track); he also played some guitar live with the band
 * Producers' Made in Basing Street: credited with vocals, bass, guitar (1 track), marimba (1 track); live, he sings and plays bass
 * The Art of Noise, various albums: The Seduction of Claude Debussy credits him with vocals, bass, keys

Produced works on which he also performs, where I could find info:
 * The Dollar Album: bass
 * Frankie Goes to Hollywood's Welcome to the Pleasuredome: vocals, bass
 * Paul McCartney's Flowers in the Dirt: keys
 * Marc Almond's Tenement Symphony: keys, bass
 * Pet Shop Boys' Alternative: keys
 * Rod Stewart's A Spanner in the Works: bass, vocals
 * Seal's Seal IV: bass, guitar, keys, vocals
 * Lisa Stansfield's The Moment: guitar, bass, keys
 * Pet Shop Boys' Fundamental: guitar, bass, keys, vocals
 * Seal's Soul 2: guitar, bass, keys, vocals
 * Escala: guitar, keys, bass
 * Robbie Williams' Reality Killed the Video Star: bass, keys, vocals
 * Aviv Geffen: bass, keys
 * Spector's Enjoy It While It Lasts: keys, vocals
 * Yes's Fly from Here: vocals, guitar, keys
 * Billy Idol's Kings & Queens of the Underground: bass, keys

Given all that, I suggest Horn's keyboard and guitar playing is sufficient notable and commonplace to warrant inclusion in the infobox. Anyone else have a view? Bondegezou (talk) 11:52, 18 March 2015 (UTC)

I believe this is enough to include guitar and keys. We just can't flood the infobox with every instrument played. Lets say that Horn only played a hurdy gurdy on one song. In this case, the hurdy gurdy would not be included. Dobbyelf62 (talk) 21:00, 18 March 2015 (UTC)
 * Agreed to no hurdy-gurdy or marimba. Bondegezou (talk) 22:50, 18 March 2015 (UTC)

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Biographical information
Lots of biographical information in this Guardian interview if someone would like to go through it. Bondegezou (talk) 14:20, 25 August 2016 (UTC)

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Best known for....
" He is best known for being one half of the new wave band The Buggles "

No he's not. He's best known for being record producer. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 42.2.89.14 (talk) 11:14, 20 December 2018 (UTC)
 * The sentence reads, "He is best known for being one half of the new wave band The Buggles with Geoffrey Downes and his production work since the 1980s." So his production work is there too. I will swap the sentence around to put producing first. Does that seem sensible? Bondegezou (talk) 11:48, 20 December 2018 (UTC)

 * I'm not completely sure. If I had to choose one thing that he "is", it would be record producer.  If I had to choose what he "is best known for", it may well still be The Buggles.  It depends on who you ask and if you show them a photograph or tell them his name. - Immigrant laborer (talk) 18:41, 25 November 2020 (UTC)

"is a..." priorities
I'd reorder "bassist, singer, songwriter, music producer, and recording studio and label owner" to "music producer, label and recording studio owner, songwriter, singer and bassist". I know that "what is their day job and what do they just dabble in" changes can get contentious though. Thoughts? - Immigrant laborer (talk) 18:25, 25 November 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Alexandros 22:06, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

--- Welcome to Wikipedia and great name! Here's a site that might interest you if you aren't familiar with it yet: http://www.korea-dpr.com/ The Official Page of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea

Another good source for Juche thought and the philosophical and military teachings of Great Leader Comrade Kim Il Sung and Dear Leader Comrade Kim Jong Il is http://ndfsk.dyndns.org/kuguk8/pym/0001/ The National Democratic Front of South Korea

172 06:59, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Dprk~enwiki


text:
Adjacency list

In graph theory and computer science, an adjacency list is a collection of unordered lists used to represent a finite graph. Each unordered list within an adjacency list describes the set of neighbors of a particular vertex in the graph. This is one of several commonly used representations of graphs for use in computer programs.

Implementation details
An adjacency list representation for a graph associates each vertex in the graph with the collection of its neighbouring vertices or edges. There are many variations of this basic idea, differing in the details of how they implement the association between vertices and collections, in how they implement the collections, in whether they include both vertices and edges or only vertices as first class objects, and in what kinds of objects are used to represent the vertices and edges.
 * An implementation suggested by Guido van Rossum uses a hash table to associate each vertex in a graph with an array of adjacent vertices. In this representation, a vertex may be represented by any hashable object. There is no explicit representation of edges as objects.
 * Cormen et al. suggest an implementation in which the vertices are represented by index numbers. Their representation uses an array indexed by vertex number, in which the array cell for each vertex points to a singly linked list of the neighboring vertices of that vertex. In this representation, the nodes of the singly linked list may be interpreted as edge objects; however, they do not store the full information about each edge (they only store one of the two endpoints of the edge) and in undirected graphs there will be two different linked list nodes for each edge (one within the lists for each of the two endpoints of the edge).
 * The object oriented incidence list structure suggested by Goodrich and Tamassia has special classes of vertex objects and edge objects. Each vertex object has an instance variable pointing to a collection object that lists the neighboring edge objects. In turn, each edge object points to the two vertex objects at its endpoints. This version of the adjacency list uses more memory than the version in which adjacent vertices are listed directly, but the existence of explicit edge objects allows it extra flexibility in storing additional information about edges.

Operations
The main operation performed by the adjacency list data structure is to report a list of the neighbors of a given vertex. Using any of the implementations detailed above, this can be performed in constant time per neighbor. In other words, the total time to report all of the neighbors of a vertex v is proportional to the degree of v.

It is also possible, but not as efficient, to use adjacency lists to test whether an edge exists or does not exist between two specified vertices. In an adjacency list in which the neighbors of each vertex are unsorted, testing for the existence of an edge may be performed in time proportional to the minimum degree of the two given vertices, by using a sequential search through the neighbors of this vertex. If the neighbors are represented as a sorted array, binary search may be used instead, taking time proportional to the logarithm of the degree.

Trade-offs
The main alternative to the adjacency list is the adjacency matrix, a matrix whose rows and columns are indexed by vertices and whose cells contain a Boolean value that indicates whether an edge is present between the vertices corresponding to the row and column of the cell. For a sparse graph (one in which most pairs of vertices are not connected by edges) an adjacency list is significantly more space-efficient than an adjacency matrix (stored as a two-dimensional array): the space usage of the adjacency list is proportional to the number of edges and vertices in the graph, while for an adjacency matrix stored in this way the space is proportional to the square of the number of vertices. However, it is possible to store adjacency matrices more space-efficiently, matching the linear space usage of an adjacency list, by using a hash table indexed by pairs of vertices rather than an array.

The other significant difference between adjacency lists and adjacency matrices is in the efficiency of the operations they perform. In an adjacency list, the neighbors of each vertex may be listed efficiently, in time proportional to the degree of the vertex. In an adjacency matrix, this operation takes time proportional to the number of vertices in the graph, which may be significantly higher than the degree. On the other hand, the adjacency matrix allows testing whether two vertices are adjacent to each other in constant time; the adjacency list is slower to support this operation.

Data structures
For use as a data structure, the main alternative to the adjacency list is the adjacency matrix. Because each entry in the adjacency matrix requires only one bit, it can be represented in a very compact way, occupying only $|V|^{2}/8$ bytes of contiguous space, where $|V|$ is the number of vertices of the graph. Besides avoiding wasted space, this compactness encourages locality of reference.

However, for a sparse graph, adjacency lists require less space, because they do not waste any space to represent edges that are not present. Using a naïve array implementation on a 32-bit computer, an adjacency list for an undirected graph requires about $2⋅(32/8)|E| = 8|E|$ bytes of space, where $|E|$ is the number of edges of the graph.

Noting that an undirected simple graph can have at most $(|V|^{2}−|V|)/2 ≈ V^{ 2}$ edges, allowing loops, we can let $d = |E|/|V|^{2}$ denote the density of the graph. Then, $8|E| > |V|^{2}/8$ when $|E|/|V|^{2} > 1/64$, that is the adjacency list representation occupies more space than the adjacency matrix representation when $d > 1/64$. Thus a graph must be sparse enough to justify an adjacency list representation.

Besides the space trade-off, the different data structures also facilitate different operations. Finding all vertices adjacent to a given vertex in an adjacency list is as simple as reading the list. With an adjacency matrix, an entire row must instead be scanned, which takes $O(|V|)$ time. Whether there is an edge between two given vertices can be determined at once with an adjacency matrix, while requiring time proportional to the minimum degree of the two vertices with the adjacency list.

title: Adjacency list


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Anote Tong

Anote Tong (born 11 June 1952 in Tabuaeran, Line Islands) is an I-Kiribati politician for the Pillars of Truth party and environmental activist with half Chinese heritage, who served as the fourth president of Kiribati, from 2003 to 2016. He won the election in July 2003 with a slim plurality of votes cast (47.4%) against his older brother, Harry Tong (43.5%) and the private lawyer Banuera Berina (9.1%). The elections were contested by the opposition, due to allegations of electoral fraud but the High Court of Tarawa had confirmed that there was no fraud. He was re-elected on 17 October 2007 for a second term (64%). In 2012, Tong was reelected for a third term, although with a significantly smaller percentage than in the previous two elections.

Tong is primarily known abroad for his efforts to raise "global awareness on the threat posed by climate change", and was dubbed the "Mahatma Gandhi of the Pacific" by Grammy Award Winner Ricky Kej.

Early and personal life
Born in Tabuaeran, Line Islands, he is the third of six children of Tong Ting Hai, a Chinese migrant who settled in the Gilberts after World War II, and Nei Keke Randolph, from the islands of Abaiang and Maiana in Kiribati. He went to St Bede's College in New Zealand for his secondary school education, graduated from Canterbury University with a degree in Science, and then gained a Masters in Economics degree from the London School of Economics. He is married to an I-Kiribati woman, Nei Meme Tong, and has seven children, among them his elder Vincent Tong, elected MP for Maiana in 2020. Tong considers himself originally from this island of Maiana, located in central Gilbert Islands.

Political career
Tong entered politics in 1976 as an assistant secretary of the Ministry of Education, then served in the Ministry of Communications and Works in the 80s. Elected in 1994, at the Maneaba ni Maungatabu, he was nominated Minister for Environment and Natural Development by Teburoro Tito, and occupied this function until March 2002. During the 2003 election campaign, he promised to review the lease of a spy and satellite tracking base used by the People's Republic of China and "to take appropriate actions at the right time." On 7 November 2003, the People's Republic of China withdrew its ambassador from the island nation, and on 29 November of the same year, ties between the two countries ceased. Kiribati established ties with the Republic of China, which led the People's Republic of China to sever relations and vacate its satellite base nearly a month later.

Tong was overwhelmingly re-elected to his seat in parliament in the August 2007 parliamentary election. On 17 October 2007, he was re-elected as president by a large majority. The opposition boycotted the election due to the exclusion of two opposition candidates, including Tong's brother Harry.

Tong was re-elected to a third, and final, four-year term as president in the January 2012 election. Tong won a little over 40% of the popular vote. He defeated two challengers, including his nearest rival, Tetaua Taitai, by more than 2,000 votes. Tong reappointed Teima Onorio to a third term as Vice President of Kiribati on 19 January 2012, as part of his cabinet appointments for his third term.

He retired from politics after the Kiribati parliamentary election, 2015–16. His son, Vincent Tong, is elected MP for Maiana during 2020 Kiribati parliamentary elections.

Post-presidency
In the elections of 2020, Tong told Reuters that "it was the most aggressive campaign [he] had seen" in the country's history, and that though maintaining partiality since retiring from politics in 2016, Tong opined on the switching of recognition on the One-China policy that there were "some strong feelings against China in Kiribati". In September 2022, amid the Kiribati constitutional crisis, Tong said that Kiribati was "moving towards authoritarianism", after the government withdrew from the Pacific Islands Forum and suspended all judges from its high and appellate courts, calling the moves "unprecedented".

Issues
A women's rights group, the Kiribati National Council of Women, has been formed recently for the primary purpose of advocating for a proposed new government entity, one that would be the Ministry of Women and Children. A bill that among other actions would create this bureau passed through the House of Assembly of Kiribati on 23 August 2012 and reached the second round of voting, but was ultimately voted against due to a blurry outline on budgetary proportioning. After the National Council of Women voiced its discontent, President Tong stated that "the defeat was unfortunate, but it does not mean that we will not continue to support the women's issues. As a government, we will do it via other means, and perhaps it will come back to Parliament in the future." This variably leaves the door open for women's rights to become an even greater issue than it already is in Kiribati. This Ministry was finally created in October 2013.

Tong also stood front and center in the push to create the Phoenix Islands Protected Area. Due partly to this effort, Tong received in 2012 a Peter Benchley Ocean Award for "creating one of the World's largest and most biologically rich marine protected areas." He has been criticized, however, due to his hesitation in closing the preserve to fishing.

Global advocate on climate change and environmental protection
Tong has been at the forefront of raising global awareness about catastrophic risks caused by climate change. With his atoll nation of Kiribati rising an average height of two meters above sea level, rising sea levels due to climate change pose an existential threat to Kiribati and other small island states in the Pacific. Tong directed Kiribati's purchase of approximately 20 square kilometers of land in Fiji in 2014 as a contingency refuge for his people. This follows advice from the IPCC following its fifth assessment that many Pacific Island states such as Kiribati could be submerged by rising sea levels within a few decades. Tong has said the purchase of land in Fiji was partly an investment in property, partly for food security purposes since it is prime farming land, but also a last resort it could be a home for the I-Kiribati people fleeing from the effects of climate change. Anote Tong, dubbed as a 'climate warrior', pioneered the notion of 'migration with dignity' to avoid the people of Kiribati from becoming 'climate refugees'.

Tong is responsible for a number of other initiatives to combat climate change and protect the environment, such as calling for a global moratorium on using coal in 2015, as well as overseeing the creation of a 480,250 square kilometer marine park, the largest protected marine area in the world. The marine park was later adopted as a UNESCO World Heritage List site (Phoenix Islands Protected Area, or PIPA).

As part of his global advocacy on climate change, Tong has met with various world leaders to discuss the plight of small island states, including Pope Francis, US President Obama and spoke recently before world leaders at the COP21 Paris meeting. Tong also currently serves on the board of Conservation International.

On 24 October 2018, he gave an interview where expressed concerns that his nation "will soon be disappearing under the sea", he also said that the Island is disappearing but that the current President Taneti Maamau refuses to act on it.

Also in October, 2018, he criticized Australia for "doing nothing" to solve the climate change issue. He was quoted as saying that: "We are being told that we may have to abandon our islands, the places where our ancestors have been buried, where our children have a home." and regretted that the United States had pulled out from the Paris Agreement.

Criticism of Australia and New Zealand
In the aftermath of the COP26 climate summit, Tong said that "one weakness in the force of our campaign [for global climate action] has been the lack of unity in purpose with the larger members of our Pacific family. It has been a huge source of disappointment for us to witness the constant changes of climate policies with the eddies of political parties in power, in both Australia and New Zealand."

Awards
Tong has been awarded leadership and environmental prizes for his work both in environmental protection and his advocacy on climate change and its effects. For example, Tong was awarded the 2015 Sunhak Peace Prize, and in 2012 both the Leadership Award from the Hillary Institute of International Leadership and the Peter Benchley Ocean Award. Tong has also been awarded a number of other awards such as the Order of Brilliant Jade with Grand Cordon by the President of Taiwan (2009), and the David B. Stone Award by the New England Aquarium Foundation (2008).

Anote Tong Foundation
During his term of office (2003–2016), he developed the country's commitment to climate change. He is the founder of the Phoenix Islands Protected Area, one of the world's largest marine conservation areas that has also been recorded on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Anote Tong is board member of Conservation International, and was previously an ambassador for the Global Challenges Foundation.

title: Anote Tong


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Kim Yong-nam

Kim Yong-nam (born 4 February 1928) is a North Korean retired politician who served as the President of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly of North Korea, from 1998 until 2019. Previously, he served as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1983 to 1998. He was elected a member of the Presidium of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) in 2010.

Life and career
Accounts of Kim's early life vary. According to Fyodor Tertitskiy of NK News, he was born Kim Myong-sam to a Korean-Chinese family in the village of Dapu Shihe in Manchuria, in what is now the Liaoning province of China, in 1928. He came to North Korea with the Chinese People's Volunteer Army during the Korean War and chose to stay. Shortly before the end of the war in 1953, he went to the USSR to study. His experience with the USSR (including many years of study at Russian Universities) and China propelled his career in foreign affairs. In 1956, he became a section chief at the Foreign Department of the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea and was a vice-minister for foreign affairs by 1962.

According to his official biography, Kim was born in Heijō, Chōsen (now Pyongyang, North Korea). After graduating from university, he worked as a teacher at the Central Party School, vice-department director of the WPK Central Committee, vice-minister of foreign affairs, and first vice-department director, department director and secretary of the WPK Central Committee, vice-premier of the administration council and concurrently Minister of Foreign Affairs. His elevation to Minister of Foreign Affairs is believed to have occurred as part of a reorganization of the diplomatic bureaucracy after the Rangoon bombing in October 1983. In 1988, he was responsible for the arrangement of unofficial diplomatic contacts with the United States through their respective embassies in Beijing.

As chairman of the Presidium, Kim Yong-nam was sometimes called the "nominal head of state" of North Korea. He held this office from September 5, 1998 to April 11, 2019. The President of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly is sometimes considered the "number two official". The journalist and academic Don Oberdorfer described Kim as enigmatic, rigid in his official role, personally pleasant, highly intelligent, and an important figure behind the scenes in Pyongyang. He has been assessed as having high-level political and diplomatic skills.

Diplomatic activity
Kim embarked on a two-week tour of Mongolia, Algeria, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Singapore on July 20, 2007. On March 18, 2008, he embarked on a goodwill tour of four African states. Arriving in Namibia on March 20, he was present for the official completion of a new presidential residence that was built by North Korea. He also held talks with Namibian President Hifikepunye Pohamba and signed an agreement on public health cooperation with Pohamba. He subsequently visited Angola, where he met President José Eduardo dos Santos on March 24, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where he met President Joseph Kabila on March 26, and Uganda, where he met President Yoweri Museveni on March 29. He returned to North Korea on April 1.

Kim also attended the 2008 Summer Olympics opening ceremony on August 8, 2008, 2014 Winter Olympics opening ceremony on February 7, 2014, 2018 Winter Olympics opening ceremony on February 9, 2018, and the 2018 FIFA World Cup opening ceremony on June 14, 2018. On July 14, 2009, Kim met Vietnamese president Nguyen Minh Triet on the sidelines of the 15th Non-Aligned Movement Summit in Egypt. Kim represented North Korea at the 2015 Victory Day parade in Moscow on May 9, 2015, commemorating the 70th anniversary of the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II. He also paid an official visit to Equatorial Guinea on May 19, 2016 to attend the presidential inauguration of Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo.

As representative of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, he attended the investiture ceremony of Andrés Manuel López Obrador as president of Mexico on December 1, 2018.

Retirement
He retired on April 11, 2019 in a government reshuffle, aged 91, after almost 21 years as President of the SPA Presidium and roughly four decades as Party Politburo member (having first been elected to the body in August 1978). During the 2022 celebration of the Day of the Foundation of the Republic, he participated in the central concert and banquet which took place in the yard of the Mansudae Assembly Hall.

title: Kim Yong-nam


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Herbarium

A herbarium (plural: herbaria) is a collection of preserved plant specimens and associated data used for scientific study.

The specimens may be whole plants or plant parts; these will usually be in dried form mounted on a sheet of paper (called exsiccatum, plur. exsiccata) but, depending upon the material, may also be stored in boxes or kept in alcohol or other preservative. The specimens in a herbarium are often used as reference material in describing plant taxa; some specimens may be types, some may be specimens distributed in series called exsiccatae.

The same term is often used in mycology to describe an equivalent collection of preserved fungi, otherwise known as a fungarium. A xylarium is a herbarium specialising in specimens of wood. The term hortorium (as in the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium) has occasionally been applied to a herbarium specialising in preserving material of horticultural origin.

History
The making of herbaria is an ancient phenomenon, at least six centuries old, although the techniques have changed little, and has been an important step in the transformation of the study of plants from a branch of medicine to an independent discipline, and to make available plant material from far away places and over a long period of time.

The oldest traditions of making herbarium collections have been traced to Italy. The Bologna physician and botanist, Luca Ghini (1490–1556) reintroduced the study of actual plants as opposed to relying on classical texts, such as Dioscorides, which lacked sufficient accuracy for identification. At first, he needed to make available plant material, even in winter, hence his Hortus hiemalis (winter garden) or Hortus siccus (dry garden). He and his students placed freshly gathered plants between two sheets of paper and applied pressure to flatten them and absorb moisture. The dried specimen was then glued onto a page in a book and annotated. This practice was supplemented by the parallel development of the Hortus simplicium or Orto botanico (botanical garden) to supply material, which he established at the University of Pisa in 1544.

Although Ghini's herbarium has not survived, the oldest extant herbarium is that of Gherardo Cibo from around 1532. While most of the early herbaria were prepared with sheets bound into books, Carl Linnaeus came up with the idea of maintaining them on free sheets that allowed their easy re-ordering within cabinets.

Specimen preservation
Commensurate with the need to identify the specimen, it is essential to include in a herbarium sheet as much of the plant as possible (e.g., roots, flowers, stems, leaves, seed, and fruit), or at least representative parts of them in the case of large specimens. To preserve their form and colour, plants collected in the field are carefully arranged and spread flat between thin sheets, known as flimsies (equivalent to sheets of newsprint), and dried, usually in a plant press, between blotters or absorbent paper.

During the drying process the specimens are retained within their flimsies at all times to minimize damage, and only the thicker, absorbent drying sheets are replaced. For some plants it may prove helpful to allow the fresh specimen to wilt slightly before being arranged for the press. An opportunity to check, rearrange and further lay out the specimen to best reveal the required features of the plant occurs when the damp absorbent sheets are changed during the drying/pressing process.

The specimens, which are then mounted on sheets of stiff white paper, are labelled with all essential data, such as date and place found, description of the plant, altitude, and special habitat conditions. The sheet is then placed in a protective case. As a precaution against insect attack, the pressed plant is frozen or poisoned, and the case disinfected.

Certain groups of plants and fungi are soft, bulky, or otherwise not amenable to drying and mounting on sheets. For these plants, other methods of preparation and storage may be used. For example, conifer cones and palm fronds may be stored in labelled boxes. Representative flowers or fruits may be pickled in formaldehyde to preserve their three-dimensional structure. Small specimens, such as saprophytic and plant parasitic microfungi, mosses and lichens, are often air-dried and packaged in small paper envelopes.

No matter the method of preservation, detailed information on where and when the plant and fungus was collected, habitat, color (since it may fade over time), and the name of the collector is usually included.

The value of a herbarium is much enhanced by the possession of types, that is, the original specimens on which the study of a species was founded. Thus the herbarium at the British Museum, which is especially rich in the earlier collections made in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, contains the types of many species founded by the earlier workers in botany. It is also rich in types of Australian plants from the collections of Sir Joseph Banks and Robert Brown, and contains in addition many valuable modern collections. The large herbaria have many exsiccata series included in their collections.

Collections management
Most herbaria utilize a standard system of organizing their specimens into herbarium cases. Specimen sheets are stacked in groups by the species to which they belong and placed into a large lightweight folder that is labelled on the bottom edge. Groups of species folders are then placed together into larger, heavier folders by genus. The genus folders are then sorted by taxonomic family according to the standard system selected for use by the herbarium and placed into pigeonholes in herbarium cabinets.

Locating a specimen filed in the herbarium requires knowing the nomenclature and classification used by the herbarium. It also requires familiarity with possible name changes that have occurred since the specimen was collected, since the specimen may be filed under an older name.

Modern herbaria often maintain electronic databases of their collections. Many herbaria have initiatives to digitize specimens to produce a virtual herbarium. These records and images are made publicly accessible via the Internet when possible.

Uses
Herbarium collections can have great significance and value to science, and have many uses. Herbaria have long been essential for the study of plant taxonomy, the study of geographic distributions, and the stabilizing of nomenclature. Most of Carl Linnaeus's collections are housed at the Linnaean Herbarium, which contains over 4,000 types and now belongs to the Linnean Society in England. Modern scientists continue to develop novel, non-traditional uses for herbarium specimens that extend beyond what the original collectors could have anticipated.

Specimens housed in herbaria may be used to catalogue or identify the flora of an area. A large collection from a single area is used in writing a field guide or manual to aid in the identification of plants that grow there. With more specimens available, the author or the guide will better understand the variability of form in the plants and the natural distribution over which the plants grow.

Herbaria also preserve a historical record of change in vegetation over time. In some cases, plants become extinct in one area or may become extinct altogether. In such cases, specimens preserved in a herbarium can represent the only record of the plant's original distribution. Environmental scientists make use of such data to track changes in climate and human impact.

Herbaria have also proven very useful as source of plant DNA for use in taxonomy and molecular systematics. Even ancient fungaria represent a source for DNA-barcoding of ancient samples.

Many kinds of scientists and naturalists use herbaria to preserve voucher specimens; representative samples of plants used in a particular study to demonstrate precisely the source of their data, or to enable confirmation of identification at a future date.

They may also be a repository of viable seeds for rare species.

Institutional herbaria

Many universities, museums, and botanical gardens maintain herbaria. Each is assigned an alphabetic code in the Index Herbariorum, between one and eight letters long.

The largest herbaria in the world, in approximate order of decreasing size, are:
 * Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle (P) (Paris, France)
 * New York Botanical Garden (NY) (Bronx, New York, US)
 * Komarov Botanical Institute (LE) (St. Petersburg, Russia)
 * Royal Botanic Gardens (K) (Kew, England, UK)
 * Missouri Botanical Garden (MO) (St. Louis, Missouri, US)
 * Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève (G) (Geneva, Switzerland)
 * Naturalis Biodiversity Center (Nationaal Herbarium Nederland) (AMD, L, U, WAG) (Leiden, Netherlands)
 * The Natural History Museum (BM) (London, England, UK)
 * Harvard University (HUH) (Cambridge, Massachusetts, US)
 * Museum of Natural History of Vienna (W) (Vienna, Austria)
 * Swedish Museum of Natural History (S) (Stockholm, Sweden)
 * United States National Herbarium (Smithsonian Institution) (US) (Washington, DC, US)
 * Université Montpellier (MPU) (Montpellier, France)
 * Université Claude Bernard (LY) (Villeurbanne, France)
 * Herbarium Universitatis Florentinae (FI) (Florence, Italy)
 * National Botanic Garden of Belgium (BR) (Meise, Belgium)
 * University of Helsinki (H) (Helsinki, Finland)
 * Botanischer Garten und Botanisches Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Zentraleinrichtung der Freien Universität Berlin (B) (Berlin, Germany)
 * The Field Museum (F) (Chicago, Illinois, US)
 * University of Copenhagen (C) (Copenhagen, Denmark)
 * Chinese National Herbarium, (Chinese Academy of Sciences) (PE) (Beijing, People's Republic of China)
 * University and Jepson Herbaria (UC/JEPS) (Berkeley, California, US)
 * Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh (E) (Edinburgh, Scotland, UK)
 * Herbarium Bogoriense (BO) (Bogor, West Java, Indonesia)
 * Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden (Central National Herbarium (CAL), Howrah, India)
 * Herbarium Hamburgense (HBG) (Hamburg, Germany)

title: Herbarium


text:
Askar Akayev

Askar Akayevich Akayev (Аскар Акаевич (Акай уулу) Акаев; ; born 10 November 1944) is a Kyrgyz politician who served as President of Kyrgyzstan from 1990 until being overthrown in the March 2005 Tulip Revolution.

Education and early career
Akayev was born in Kyzyl-Bayrak, Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic. He was the eldest of five sons born into a family of collective farm workers. He became a metalworker at a local factory in 1961. He subsequently moved to Leningrad, where he trained as a physicist and graduated from the Leningrad Institute of Precision Mechanics and Optics in 1967 with an honors degree in mathematics, engineering and computer science. He stayed at the institute until 1976, working as a senior researcher and teacher. In Leningrad he met and in 1970 married Mayram Akayeva with whom he now has two sons and two daughters. They returned to their native Kyrgyzstan in 1977, where he became a senior professor at the Frunze Polytechnic Institute. Some of his later cabinet members were former students and friends from his academic years.

He obtained a doctorate in 1981 from the Moscow Institute of Engineering and Physics, having written his dissertation on holographic systems of storage and transformation of information. In 1984, he became a member of the Kyrgyz Academy of Sciences, rose to vice president of the academy in 1987 and then president of the academy in 1989. He was elected as a deputy in the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in the same year.

Political career
On 25 October 1990, the Kirghiz SSR's Supreme Soviet held elections for the newly created post of president of the republic. Two candidates contested the presidency, President of the Council of Ministers of Kirghiz SSR, Apas Jumagulov, and First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Kirghiz SSR, Absamat Masaliyev. However, neither Jumagulov nor Masaliyev received a majority of the votes cast. In accordance with the Kirghiz SSR's constitution of 1978, both candidates were disqualified and neither could run in the second round of voting. Two days later, on 27 October, the Supreme Soviet selected Akayev who was effectively a compromise candidate to serve as the republic's first president. In 1991, he was offered the post of vice-president of the Soviet Union by President Mikhail Gorbachev, but refused. Akayev was elected president of the renamed Republic of Kyrgyzstan in an uncontested poll on 12 October 1991. He was reelected twice, amid allegations of ballot rigging, on 24 December 1995 and 29 October 2000.

Akayev was initially seen as an economically right-wing liberal leader. He commented in a 1991 interview that "Although I am a Communist, my basic attitude toward private property is favorable. I believe that the revolution in the sphere of economics was not made by Karl Marx but by Adam Smith." As late as 1993 political analysts saw Akayev as a "prodemocratic physicist." He actively promoted privatization of land and other economic assets and operated a relatively liberal regime compared with the governments of the other Central Asian nations. In October 1991, he appointed Boris Birshtein, who is associated with the Zürich based Seabeco AG, as president of the country's committee for reconstruction and development as well as the country's trade representative and ensured that the Kirgiz branch of Seabeco would operate free of taxes. He was granted lifelong immunity from prosecution by the Lower House of Parliament in 2003.

Akayev was supportive of the Kyrgyzstani Neo-Tengrist movement.

Protests
The first wave of demonstrations took place in mid-March 2002. Azimbek Beknazarov, a member of parliament accused of abuse of power, was due to attend trial taking place in Jalal-Abad. Over 2,000 demonstrators marched on the town where the proceedings were to take place. According to eyewitnesses, police ordered the demonstrators to stop and gave them fifteen minutes to disperse, yet opened fire before this time elapsed. Five men were shot dead; another was killed on the next day. 61 people were injured, including 47 police and 14 civilians.

Riot police clashed with protesters in Bishkek in May during demonstrations in support of Beknazarov. Police in the capital's Parliament square kicked protesters and dragged people away to break up the 200-strong crowd. They made several demands including the resignation of Akayev. This was again repeated in November of the same year when scores were arrested as the opposition marched on the capital. Protests continued, albeit on a smaller scale, at various points over the next few years.

2005 election controversy
Akayev had promised to step down from office when his third term expired in 2005, but the possibility of a dynastical succession had been raised. His son Aidar Akayev and his daughter Bermet Akayeva were candidates in the 2005 legislative election, and it was widely suspected that he was going to retain either de facto power by arranging for the election of a close supporter or relative, or perhaps even by abrogation of the term limit provision in the constitution and remaining in power personally, an allegation which he strongly denied.

The results of the elections were disputed, with allegations of vote-rigging. Two of Akayev's children won seats. Serious protests broke out in Osh and Jalal-Abad, with protesters occupying administration buildings and the Osh airport. The government declared that it was ready to negotiate with the demonstrators. However an opposition leader said talks would only be worthwhile if the President himself took part.

Akayev refused to resign, but pledged not to use force to end the protests, which he attributed to foreign interests seeking to provoke a large-scale clamp-down in response.

On 23 March, Akayev announced the dismissal of Interior Minister Bakirdin Subanbekov and General Prosecutor Myktybek Abdyldayev for "poor work" in dealing with the growing protests.

Downfall
On 24 March 2005, protesters stormed the presidential compound in the central square of Bishkek and seized control of the seat of state power after clashing with riot police during a large opposition rally. Opposition supporters also seized control of key cities and towns in the south to press demands that Akayev step down.

That day, Akayev fled the country with his family, reportedly escaping first to Kazakhstan and then to Russia. Russian president Vladimir Putin invited Akayev to stay in Russia. There were early reports that he had tendered his resignation to opposition leaders before his departure. However, his formal resignation did not come until 4 April, when a delegation of members of parliament from Kyrgyzstan met him in Russia.

The Kyrgyz Parliament accepted the resignation on 11 April 2005, after stripping him and his family members of special privileges that had been granted to him by the previous parliament. He was also formally stripped of the title of "First President of Kyrgyzstan".

Current position and activities
Akayev now works as Professor and Senior Researcher of Prigogine Institute for Mathematical Investigations of Complex Systems at Moscow State University. Together with Andrey Korotayev and George Malinetsky he is a coordinator of the Russian Academy of Sciences Program "System Analysis and Mathematical Modeling of World Dynamics". He is also Academic Supervisor of the Centre for Stability and Risk Analysis at the HSE University in Moscow.

In July 2021, Akayev was put on a wanted list for his involvement in operations at the Kumtor Gold Mine. The following month, Akayev returned to Bishkek for the first time in 16 years in order to cooperate with the investigation, expressing his appreciation to President Sadyr Japarov for allowing him to return. In December 2021, the criminal prosecution was discontinued.

In the 2022 Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan clashes, Akayev commented on Tajikistan's invasion of Kyrgyz territory. Accusing Emomali Rahmon of a carefully planned and pre-planned act of aggression, Akaev called Rahmon ungrateful and recalled that 30 years ago, during the civil war in Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan provided "the greatest help and political, moral and humanitarian support to the brotherly people of Tajikistan.".

In August 2023, Akaev, in an interview with the Russian television channel RT, stated that Kyrgyzstan "should support Russia" in the invasion of Ukraine. So he answered the journalist's question about the fact that citizens who participated in the hostilities in Ukraine on the side of Russia were convicted in Kyrgyzstan, and what Akaev thinks about this. “I didn’t understand the details of this, but I want to say that Kyrgyzstan, as an ally of Russia, and as a member of the Eurasian Economic Union, and a member of the CSTO, of course, must support Russia. And Russia needs it today. It is in such difficult days that an ally is known, ”he said.

Foreign honours

 * 🇸🇰 Slovakia: Grand Cross (or 1st Class) of the Order of the White Double Cross (2003)
 * In 2012 he was awarded with the Gold Kondratieff Medal by the International N. D. Kondratieff Foundation.
 * 🇰🇿 Kazakhstan: Order of Dostyk (2001)

Publications

 * Когерентные оптические вычислительные машины (в соавт., Ленинград, 1977).
 * Оптические методы обработки информации (в соавт., М., 1983).
 * Holographic Memory. New York, NY: Allerton Press, 1997.
 * Избранные лекции по оптическим компьютерам. Бишкек, 1996.
 * Рельефография. Бишкек, 1996.
 * Переходная экономика глазами физика (математическая модель переходной экономики). Бишкек: Учкун, 2000.
 * Думая о будущем с оптимизмом: Размышления о внешней политике и мироустройстве. М.: Международные отношения, 2004.
 * Современный финансово-экономический кризис в свете теории инновационно-технологического развития экономики и управления инновационным процессом // Системный мониторинг. Глобальное и региональное развитие. М.: Editorial URSS, 2009. ISBN 978-5-397-00917-1. С. 141–162.
 * О новой методологии долгосрочного циклического прогнозирования динамики развития мировой системы и России // Прогноз и моделирование кризисов и мировой динамики. — М.: ЛИБРОКОМ, 2009. С. 5-69.
 * Log-Periodic Oscillation Analysis Forecasts the Burst of the «Gold Bubble» // Structure and Dynamics 4/3 (2010): 1-11 (with Alexey Fomin, Sergey Tsirel, and Andrey Korotayev).
 * Моделирование и прогнозирование мировой динамики. М.: ИСПИ РАН, 2012. ISBN 978-5-7556-0456-7
 * On the dynamics of the world demographic transition and financial-economic crises forecasts // The European Physical Journal 205, 355-373 (2012) (with Viktor Sadovnichy & Andrey Korotayev).
 * Global Inflation Dynamics: regularities & forecasts // Structure and Dynamics 5/3 (2012): 1-15 (with Andrey Korotayev and Alexey Fomin).
 * Technological development and protest waves: Arab spring as a trigger of the global phase transition // Technological Forecasting & Social Change 116 (2017): 316–321 (with Andrey Korotayev).

title: Askar Akayev