text:
South Park, Houston

South Park is a broad post-World War II development in the south-central area of Houston, Texas, a few miles south of MacGregor Park and directly south of the 610 Loop. According to the 2000 Census, the community has a population of 22,282. 81% of the South Park population is African American, compared to 25% for the city as a whole. Houston's Martin Luther King Boulevard (formerly South Park Boulevard) runs through the area. Reflecting its postwar origins, many streets in South Park are named after World War II battle sites and persons. In the 1980s and 1990s crime became a key issue for South Park. Katharine Shilcutt of the Houston Press said "South Park is an overgrown garden these days, its soil only able to be tilled by the most determined or the most desperate. It shows no sign that it will grow again any time in the near future."

History
South Park, a post-World War II development, had mostly middle class White American families during the 1950s and early 1960s. Many of the homebuyers were veterans of World War II, and streets were named after battles and people that the homebuyers knew from personal experience. When South Park served as a suburb, lawns were neatly trimmed and area children traveled to places by bicycle.

The 610 Loop opened in the 1960s. Katharine Shilcutt of the Houston Press stated that some residents believed that the opening of 610 marked the beginning of South Park's decline. Ralph Gonzales, a former resident quoted by Shilcutt, said that the opening of 610 caused traffic to increase in the area and allowed residents of other sections of the city to more easily reach South Park.

Shilcutt added that the forced integration of Jones High School and nearby Sterling High School hastened demographic changes; White families began to move to newer suburbs, such as Pasadena and Pearland. Dave Straughan, a former sergeant of the Houston Police Department's robbery division who served his rookie beat in South Park, said that several factors caused South Park to decline as a neighborhood; by the 1970s crime was beginning to increase.

In 1977 the Houston City Council voted to honor Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. by renaming South Park Boulevard, a major area thoroughfare, to Martin Luther King Boulevard. The renaming was effective on April 5, 1978.

Shilcutt said that South Park was no longer considered a suburb by the late 1980s, and that crime became a major concern. In 1987 South Park was still considered to be a mixed race neighborhood.

Schilcutt said that when the White population in South Park became insignificant in the 1990s, the City of Houston government began to ignore the remaining residents. By 1993 the infrastructure of the neighborhood had severely declined, with the sewer and water lines beginning to rust and buckle. Al Calloway, a member of the Houston City Council proposed spending a $57.5 million cash surplus on improving the sewer and water lines of South Park; Calloway said "residents in neighborhoods such as South Park or Sunnyside may die before the projects are done." The City of Houston never spent the surplus.

In October 1994 25 in of rain fell in one day, causing flooding that caused the displacement of over 10,000 people in Greater Houston. The Sims Bayou overfilled, flooding businesses and houses in South Park. Few of the residents had flood insurance. Some businesses and houses were abandoned as a result of the flood.

As time passed, Hispanic residents moved into South Park, as part of a trend of Hispanics in the Houston area moving into black majority neighborhoods. Between 1990 and 2000, the Hispanic population of South Park increased by between 5 and 10 percent. In the same period, the black population of both South Park and Sunnyside declined by 4,225, or 11% as majority African-American neighborhoods in Houston had declines in their black populations. In 2000 82% of the neighborhood was Black, and 16% of the area population was Hispanic. In 2005 Lori Rodriguez of the Houston Chronicle said that South Park was among a group of mostly African American neighborhoods that could become as much as 25% Hispanic and Latino by the end of the decade of the 2000s. In 2009 almost 20% of the neighborhood was Hispanic. As of the 2010 census South Park does not have any White residents. In 2011 the projected percentages for 2016 were 81% Black and 22% Hispanic.

In 2007 South Park was one of several Houston neighborhoods with a high concentration of felons.

As of 2011 the median yearly income is $33,196, a 15% decrease from 2000's number. As of the same year the median housing price is $50,400, a 15% increase from 2000's number. In a 10-year span ending in 2011, the foreign-born population of South Park increased by almost 10%.

Demographics
The City of Houston-defined South Park Super Neighborhood had 21,208 people in 2015. 67% were non-Hispanic black, 31% were Hispanic, 1% were non-Hispanic white, and 2% were non-Hispanic others. The percentage of non-Hispanic Asians was zero. In 2000 the super neighborhood had 22,282 people. 81% were non-Hispanic black, 16% were Hispanic, and 1% each were non-Hispanic white and other. The percentage of non-Hispanic Asians was zero.

Cityscape
The South Park subdivision has four sections. Section 1 is bounded by Calhoun Road, a line south of Pershing Boulevard, a line east of St. Lo Road, and a line north of Doolittle Road. One part of Sections 2-4 is bounded by the 610 Loop, a line south and west of Burma Road, a line south of St. Lo Road, and a line east of Kassarine Pass. Another portion of Sections 2-4 is bound by Calhoun, 18th, Jutland, and a line north of Southwind Avenue. Another portion is wedged between St. Lo and Martin Luther King Boulevard (formerly named South Park Boulevard).

The wider South Park area is bounded by the 610 Loop, Cullen Boulevard, the Sims Bayou, and Mykawa Road.

Several small and well-maintained houses share the area with mostly deteriorating properties and vacant lots. By 2000 many houses adjacent to MLK Boulevard became converted to house commercial usage. In 2005 Lori Rodriguez of the Houston Chronicle said that South Park had several abandoned businesses. As of 2011 trash is present in some front yards in South Park. As of 2011 the median yearly income is $33,196, a 15% decrease from 2000's number. As of the same year the median housing price is $50,400, a 15% increase from 2000's number. As of 2011 the most expensive house in South Park listed on HAR.com, a Houston real estate website, was a remodeled 1955 three bedroom house listed for less than $78,000; by January 12 of the year, the house's price was reduced in order to attract potential homeowners. Katharine Shilcutt of the Houston Press said that "abandoned businesses, junked-out cars and empty houses crest the landscape" of Martin Luther King Boulevard.

The housing in South Park includes many small two bedroom houses. Most of them have cedar shank siding, while more expensive houses have aluminum siding. When South Park was newly built, hamburger stands were located throughout the neighborhood including one that offered "secret sauce". Other major features included Palm Center, a shopping center, and King Center Twin Drive-In, a two screen movie theater, which was open from 1952 to 1981. The area also had family-owned businesses and Boy Scout troops. Very few liquor stores or pawn shops were present. Shilcutt said that the schools,churches and the Scout troops,reflected "the rock solid nature of the residents."

Many of the streets are named after World War II military events, such as Bataan, Dunkirk, Iwo Jima, and Kassarine Pass. One name, Remagen, was misspelled as "Remagan" on the Houston street name. Tony Gelat, an engineer, made attempts to make the city government change the name. As of 1997 they have not been successful.

Crime
Katharine Shilcutt of the Houston Press said "South Park became the stuff of legend as it almost cannibalized itself in the '80s and '90s with violent robberies and drive-by shootings."

Crime was not originally a factor in South Park. Dave Straughan, a former sergeant of the Houston Police Department's robbery division who served his rookie beat in South Park, said that several factors caused South Park to decline as a neighborhood, with the decline beginning in 1971. Straughn stated that many Whites were very fearful of racial integration, so they very quickly left the neighborhood when African Americans moved in. The neighborhood began to receive residents who were poorer than the ones they replaced. The houses began to age and required increasing maintenance, of which the newer low-income residents generally would not be able to afford. Straughn also cited South Park's proximity to Telephone Road, which he said "had a national reputation for being pretty wild."

Shilcutt said that, by the late 1980s, South Park "was dominated by drive-by shootings and drug dealers, especially along Burger Park's street: Martin Luther King Jr. [sic] Boulevard." Shilcutt said that many South Park residents did not attend the area's Neighborhood Nights Out as they were too afraid to leave their homes. Shilcutt added that "Violence pervaded the entire community. Deaths grew increasingly random and senseless." Ralph Gonzales, a former resident quoted by Shilcutt, said "In the '80s and '90s, it was bad. HPD was chasing guys up and down Bellfort and MLK. Folks were knocking over liquor stores, hijacking people."

Between January 1990 and December 1991 16 people had been killed along MLK Boulevard. Chuck Philips of the Los Angeles Times said in 1993 that South Park was "a tough Houston ghetto dominated by drug-dealing, prostitution and gang warfare-where automatic rifles can be purchased almost as easily as rap cassettes." In 1993 Ronald Ray Howard, a convicted killer and drug dealer, said, in the words of Houston Chronicle reporter Roy Bragg, that South Park was "a war zone, a place of nightly shootings, fistfights, police harassment and strife. There, the right amount of money could buy any weapon, even hand grenades. Seven-year-old children knew how to handle pistols."

Gonzales said that the South Park criminal element imploded because the criminals depleted the wealth that was left in the neighborhood. According to Gonzales, the criminals moved to Alief and the Hiram Clarke area. In 2011 Gonzales said "Pickins is slim" in South Park. In 2005 Lori Rodriguez of the Houston Chronicle said that South Park had an obvious drug dealer presence.

Culture
A ten block section of Martin Luther King Boulevard/South Park Boulevard, since the 1970s and by 2001, became a cruising scene, with cruising habitually occurring on Sunday evenings. On Sunday nights, within a three to four hour periods, speeds of automobiles were at 15 to 20 miles per hour, with about 2,000 to 4,000 people traveling through the ten blocks. Friends socialized and rap music played in the area. Most of the participants were black youth.

In 2001 police officers attempted to stifle the scene by flooding the 10 block stretch with water. The police said that businesses had wanted the crowds to be dissipated. After black activists protested, C. O. Bradford, the chief of the Houston Police Department, apologized. The following weekend, the cruising scene had reappeared. Thirty-two police officers were on the street, and traffic cones and barricades manipulated the vehicle traffic. Peggy O'Hare of the Houston Chronicle said "It worked reasonably well, taking only five minutes to travel the 10-block area with restricted lane use." Because some police patrols appeared, some activists argued that the police were discriminating against African-American people and not giving proportionate attention to white partygoers in the Richmond Strip. Lt. S.K. Boyce. of the Houston Police Department stated that they made more arrests in the Richmond Strip than on MLK Boulevard, and most of those arrested were White. Quanell X said that he supported the police using a different crowd control tactics on MLK Boulevard. Some business owners supported the cruising scene, while some opposed the scene.

Education
As of 2011 55% of South Park's residents have graduated from high school. Katharine Shilcutt said that the low rate is explained by an increasing number of immigrants and the "disappointing graduation rates" at Jones High School and Sterling High School.

Public schools
Original owners of the property which is now known as Candy Stripe Academy were Frank and Joyce Gonzales. The original structure has been demolished and the new building now faces Martin Luther King Blvd (Formally Southpark Blvd). South Park children are zoned to schools in the Houston Independent School District. The community is within Trustee District IV, represented by Paula M. Harris as of 2008.

Elementary schools serving sections of South Park include Alcott, Bastian, and Kelso. All residents of the South Park subdivision are zoned to Attucks Middle School. Residents east of Martin Luther King Boulevard are zoned to Sterling High School while other residents are zoned to Worthing High School. The Jones Futures Academy, formerly Jones High School, is an alternative secondary school in South Park.

Sterling, Worthing, and Jones serve the larger South Park area. In 2007 a study determined that 60% of the entering first year classes at Jones and Sterling advanced to their fourth year, and a portion of those students graduated. Because of this, the Associated Press and Johns Hopkins University labeled Jones and Sterling "dropout factories." The study stated that over half of the high school students zoned to Jones and Worthing instead chose to attend other HISD schools.

Kandy Stripe Academy, an early education to 8th grade HISD-affiliated charter school, is in the subdivision. Jesse Jackson Academy, a state charter school, is located north of South Park, inside the 610 Loop.

On Thursday March 13, 2014, the HISD board voted 6-3 to keep the Jones campus open and convert it into an alternative career readiness school for students throughout HISD. At that time Jones was no longer be a zoned school, and its athletics programs were discontinued. Residents east of Martin Luther King Boulevard were rezoned to Sterling, and residents west of MLK were rezoned to Worthing, both for the 2014-2015 school year.

Private schools
A Kindergarten through 5 Roman Catholic school called St. Philip Neri School, of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston, was in the area. It closed Spring 2009. The school was consolidated with St. Peter the Apostle Middle School.

Public libraries
The area is served by the Young Neighborhood Library of the Houston Public Library, which is located north of 610 in Palm Center.

Government and infrastructure
South Park is in Houston City Council District D.

Houston Fire Department operates Fire Station 35 South Park, a part of Fire District 46. The station was originally built at Holmes at South Park. The station had to move due to the construction of Interstate 610. The current station near Martin Luther King Boulevard and Van Fleet opened in 1965.

The neighborhood is within the Houston Police Department's Southeast Patrol Division, headquartered at 8300 Mykawa.

The Harris Health System (formerly Harris County Hospital District) designated the Martin Luther King Health Center in southeast Houston for the ZIP code 77033. The designated public hospital is Ben Taub General Hospital in the Texas Medical Center.

Parks
St. Lo Park is located at 7335 St. Lo Road. Pershing Park is located at 5500 Pershing/St Lo Road.

Notable residents

 * Megan Thee Stallion, a rapper and songwriter from the Dead End neighborhood of South Park, lived there until 14 when she moved to nearby Pearland.
 * Carlos Coy (South Park Mexican), a Mexican-American rapper who is currently in prison, convicted of sexual assault.
 * Clyde Drexler (basketball player)
 * Brad Jordan (Scarface), a member of the Geto Boys From South Acres Region of Houston TX
 * JoBeth Williams (actress)
 * Lil' Keke, a rapper from the Herschelwood region of South Park
 * Ganksta NIP, a rapper from the South Park Coalition
 * Booker T, Professional wrestler
 * Robert Wilson, NFL player
 * Dre Murray, a rapper currently signed to Collision Records
 * Corey Paul, a rapper currently signed to Collision Records
 * Travis Scott
 * K-Rino, founder of the South Park Coalition
 * Meledy (Melody sic) Smith-Price- Pre IAAF Progression World Record Holder-Triple Jump. Sterling High School Athlete.

title: South Park, Houston


text: Talk:George Jessel

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:George Jessel


text:
William Dowdeswell (politician, born 1721)

William Dowdeswell PC (12 March 1721 – 6 February 1775) was a British politician who was a leader of the Rockingham Whig faction.

Background and education
A son of William Dowdeswell of Pull Court, Bushley, Worcestershire, he was educated at Westminster School, at Christ Church, Oxford, then at the University of Leiden. One of his fellow students was Baron d'Holbach. He spent the summer of 1746 with him at the Heeze-Leende estate of his uncle, Messire François-Adam, Baron d'Holbach, Seigneur de Heeze, Leende et autres Lieux (ca. 1675–1753).

Political career
Dowdeswell became member of Parliament for the family borough of Tewkesbury in 1747, retaining this seat until 1754, and from 1761 until his death he was one of the representatives of Worcestershire. Becoming prominent among the Whigs, Dowdeswell was made Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1765 under the Marquess of Rockingham, and his short tenure of this position appears to have been a successful one, he being in Lecky's words a good financier, but nothing more.

To general astonishment, he refused to abandon his friends and to take office under Chatham, who succeeded Rockingham in August 1766. Dowdeswell then led the Rockingham party in the House of Commons, taking an active part in debate until his death.

In 1774 during the Parliamentary debate of the Boston Port Act he warned the act will "soon inflame all America, and stir up a contention you will not be able to pacify and quiet".

Family and death
Dowdeswell married Bridget, daughter of Sir William Codrington, 1st Baronet, in 1747. The couple are believed to have had as many as 15 children, including Charles William Dowdeswell (b. 8 June 1756).

Dowdeswell went abroad to recover his health in 1774 but died the next February in Nice. The highly eulogistic epitaph on his monument at Bushley was written by Edmund Burke.


text:
The Swan (theatre)

The Swan was a theatre in Southwark, London, England, built in 1595 on top of a previously standing structure, during the first half of William Shakespeare's career. It was the fifth in the series of large public playhouses of London, after James Burbage's The Theatre (1576) and Curtain (1577), the Newington Butts Theatre (between 1575 and 1577) and Philip Henslowe's Rose (1587–88).

The Swan Theatre was located in the manor of Paris Gardens, on the west end of the Bankside district of Southwark, across the Thames River from the City of London. It was at the northeast corner of the Paris Garden estate nearest to London Bridge that Francis Langley had purchased in May 1589 at a distance of four hundred and twenty-six feet from the river's edge. Playgoers could arrive also by water landing at the Paris Garden Stairs or the Falcon Stairs, both short walking distances from the theatre. The structure originally belonged to the Monastery of Bermondsey. After the Dissolution of the Monasteries, it became royal property and passed through several hands before being sold to Langley for £850. The Mayor of London opposed Langley's permit to open a theatre, but his protests held no ground as the property had formerly belonged to the crown and the Mayor had no jurisdiction.

Langley had the theatre built almost certainly in 1595–96. When it was new, the Swan was the most visually impressive of the existing London theatres. Johannes De Witt, a Dutchman who visited London around 1596, left a description of the Swan in a manuscript titled Observationes Londiniensis, now lost. Translated from the Latin, his description identifies the Swan as the "finest and biggest of the London amphitheatres", with a capacity for 3000 spectators. From 1993-1996 the Globe theatre was reconstructed according to de Witt's sketches. From this led to the previous believe concerning the theatre's capacity to be reanalysed and it was found that it only had seating for 1000 spectators and additional space for 500 groundlings in the pit. It was built of flint concrete, and its wooden supporting columns were so cleverly painted that "they would deceive the most acute observer into thinking that they were marble", giving the Swan a "Roman" appearance. (De Witt also drew a sketch of the theatre. The original is lost, but a copy by Arendt van Buchell survives, and is the only sketch of an Elizabethan playhouse known to exist. If the Lord Chamberlain's Men acted at the Swan in the summer of 1596—which is possible, though far from certain—( they toured in the provinces in July and August 1596 under the name of Lord Hunsdon's Players) they would be the actors shown in the Swan sketch.) When Henslowe built the new Hope Theatre in 1613, he had his carpenter copy the Swan, rather than his own original theatre, the Rose, which must have appeared dated and out of style in comparison.

In 1597, the Swan housed the acting company Pembroke's Men, with Actors Richard Jones, Thomas Downtown, and William Bird. (They later approached Henslowe to rejoin the Admiral's Men at The Rose). Edward Alleyn They joined the Pembroke troupe after leaving their positions in Lord Admiral's Men at the rival playhouse The Rose. In 1597 Pembroke's Men staged the infamous play The Isle of Dogs, by Thomas Nashe and Ben Jonson, the content of which gave offence, most likely for its "satirical" nature on the attack of some people high in authority. Jonson was imprisoned, along with Gabriel Spenser, an actor in the play, and Robert Shaa. Langley, already in trouble with the Privy Council over matters unrelated to theatre, may have exacerbated his danger by allowing his company to stage the play after a royal order that all playing stop and all theatres be demolished. This order of the Privy Council called for all London Theatres to be "plucked down", but may have arisen because of Langley and the 'seditious, lewd play'. The other companies were under inhibition to stop playing. The Lord Chamberlain's Men went on tour to six areas of the south east and south west, and the Admiral's Men did not perform again at The Rose until the inhibition was lifted at the end of October. Johnson was released from jail on October 3. Nashe however went on the run. All but the Swan Theatre were granted licences to perform. The Swan continued to operate without a licence until 19 February 1598, when the two licensed companies called attention to them. Following the scandal, the Swan only held sporadic performances. Another scandal rocked the Swan in 1602, when Richard Vennar advertised a new play, England's Joy, to be performed at the Swan on 6 November. Vennar claimed the play was a fantastical story in honour of Queen Elizabeth, and seats sold out quickly. However, the play was never performed. The townspeople were enraged and vandalised the theatre, and the theatre never seemed to recover its former popularity.

Because both court and city were interested in limiting the number of acting troupes in London, and because there was, consequently, a glut of large open-roof venues in the city, the Swan was only intermittently home to drama. Along with The Isle of Dogs, the most famous play to premiere there was Thomas Middleton's A Chaste Maid in Cheapside, performed by the newly merged Lady Elizabeth's Men in 1613. The theatre offered other popular entertainments, such as swashbuckling competitions and bear-baiting.

For the next eight years, the building was used occasionally for special entertainment. After 1615 the Swan was deserted for five years, but used again in 1621 by some actors who are unknown. They did not stay for long.

The building grew decrepit over the next two decades. In Nicholas Goodman's 1632 pamphlet Holland's Leaguer, the theatre is described as "now fallen into decay, and, like a dying swan, hangs her head and sings her own dirge." Historical sources do not mention the Swan after that date.

title: The Swan (theatre)


text:
Silbo Gomero

Silbo Gomero (silbo gomero, "Gomeran whistle"), also known as el silbo ("the whistle"), is a whistled register of Spanish used by inhabitants of La Gomera in the Canary Islands, historically used to communicate across the deep ravines and narrow valleys that radiate through the island. It enabled messages to be exchanged over a distance of up to five kilometres. Due to its loudness, Silbo Gomero is generally used for public communication. Messages conveyed range from event invitations to public information advisories. A speaker of Silbo Gomero is sometimes called a silbador ("whistler").

Silbo Gomero is a transposition of Spanish from speech to whistling. This oral phoneme-whistled phoneme substitution emulates Spanish phonology through a reduced set of whistled phonemes. In 2009, UNESCO declared it a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.

History
Little is known of the original Guanche language or the languages of the Canaries, but it is assumed that their phonological system must have been simple enough to allow an efficient whistled language. Used by the island's original inhabitants, the Guanches, the whistled language existed before the arrival of Spanish settlers and was also spoken on el Hierro, Tenerife, and Gran Canaria. Silbo was adapted to Spanish during the Spanish settlement in the 16th century and was widely spoken throughout the period into the following 17th century. In 1976 Silbo barely remained on el Hierro, where it had flourished at the end of the 19th century. Use of the language declined in the 1950s, one factor being the economic decline, which led many speakers to move away to seek better jobs. Technological developments such as the telephone played a part in reducing the practicality and utility of the language. The language's earlier survival had been due to its role in overcoming distance and terrain, in addition to the ease with which it is learned by native speakers. Most significantly, from the 1960s to 1980s, many people turned away from agriculture and so many middle-class families did not want their children to speak the language as it was negatively associated with the rural peasants.

In the late 1990s, language revitalization efforts began and initiatives from within the community started. By 1999, the revitalization of Silbo Gomero was furthered by education policies and other legislative measures. It now has official protection as an example of intangible cultural heritage.

Speakers
Many people in La Gomera speak Silbo Gomero, but their expression of the language deviates in minor ways that show the speaker's origins. According to a 2009 UNESCO report, all of La Gomera's inhabitants understand the language, but only those born before 1950 and the younger generations who attended school since 1999 can speak it. Those born before 1950 were taught the language by their elders in their homes, and those who attended or are attending school since 1999 were taught it formally in school. Those born between 1950 and 1980 understand the language but are unable to speak it, as the language was hardly used and negatively viewed during their time of language acquisition.

Revitalization
When this medium of communication was endangered in the late 20th century, revitalization efforts were generated at both community level and governmental level. A combination of initiatives from the La Gomeran community and policies implemented by the authorities saw Silbo Gomero being revitalized and maintained as a cultural asset. These revitalization efforts were well-documented by UNESCO as part of the proceedings for the selection of the 2009 Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Community initiatives
In a bid to preserve Silbo Gomero for the island's youth, expert whistlers sought to obtain authorization, which enabled them to teach the language on a free and voluntary basis at a dedicated centre. This initiative by the senior islanders garnered encouraging responses, with parent-teacher associations extending it to all schools. The first of many revitalization measures was thus adopted at the grassroots level, not by public or private entities, which reflected locals' attitude toward Silbo Gomero. Education policies implemented later were inspired as such: revitalization began at the grassroots and escalated to the highest government bodies.

Government policies
On 26 June 1997, the Parliament of the Canary Islands approved a motion calling on the government to include Silbo Gomero as part of the school curriculum. Silbo Gomero then became a mandatory subject in primary and secondary education, as of July 1999. The provincial government was supportive in its implementation of education policy and also the establishment of a formalized Silbo Gomero curriculum through the publication of El Silbo Gomero, Materiales didácticos (Educational Materials on the Silbo Gomero).

In addition to the compulsory learning of Silbo Gomero at the primary and secondary level, an Island School of Silbo Gomero was established for post-secondary students who wish to continue to train in Silbo Gomero until they become accredited professional instructors. Students of the Island School work to become capable of teaching Silbo Gomero not only to their fellow citizens, but also to tourists who visit La Gomera. This facilitates the sustainability of the revitalization and also works towards language maintenance.

Thereafter, the Ministry of Education, Universities, Culture and Sport of the Canary Islands developed a staff training plan in order to ensure that the elderly expert whistlers can be replaced in the near future by qualified professional teachers with relevant diplomas. This comprised the provision of training courses on proficiency in, and teaching of, Silbo Gomero. The training plan was launched in 2007, with the participation of 18 teachers.

Besides the implementation of education policies, the authorities also sought to strengthen the corpus of Silbo Gomero by developing a project to digitize all recorded audio material. Local, national and worldwide distribution of documentaries on Silbo Gomero were also made. The government also raised the status of Silbo Gomero by selecting it via the National Historical Heritage Council to represent Spain in the nominations for inclusion on the 2009 Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Cultural heritage
Members of the Gomeran community treasure Silbo Gomero as part of the island's identity, and use the whistled language in traditional rituals and festivities on the island. These include "bajadas", which are processions dedicated to the Virgin or the patron saints of the community.

On 15 March 1999, Silbo Gomero was declared as part of the historical ethnographic heritage of the Canary Islands. The annual celebration of "School Encounters with Silbo Gomero" was also inaugurated in La Gomera. In 2005, the monument to Silbo Gomero was inducted in Garajonay National Park.

Tourism
Silbo Gomero is not used only by Gomerans; visitors to the island can be exposed to it too, in restaurants that provide demonstrations for tourists. Minister of Tourism of La Gomera, Fernando Mendez, has said that whistling is essential to La Gomera's tourism industry.

Features
According to different studies, Silbo Gomero has between two and four vowels and between four and ten  consonants. It is a whistled form of a dialect of Canarian Spanish. Silbo replaces each vowel or consonant with a whistling sound. Whistles are distinguished according to pitch and continuity. As with other whistled forms of non-tonal languages, Silbo works by retaining approximately the articulation of ordinary speech, so "the timbre variations of speech appear in the guise of pitch variations".

Silbo Gomero is a complex language to learn, with its whistling techniques requiring physical precision and a strength of the body parts used to produce the language that can only be acquired with practice. Silbo Gomero uses the tongue, lips, and hands, differing greatly from conventional language, which uses the mouth cavity to blend and contrast several acoustic frequencies. The whistling mechanism, in contrast, is limited to a single basic pitch between 1,000 and 3,000 hertz. The physical precision comes in the whistler's ability to vary the frequencies at different speeds and start and stop the production of the sound waves. This technique is handed down within La Gomera's community, with unchanged teaching methods that date to the late 19th century. The same pitch can represent many sounds, so Silbo has many fewer phonemes than Spanish. This means that communication can be ambiguous; context and word choice are important for effective communication.

Vowels
Silbo Gomero's vowels are described roughly as sustained lines of high and low frequency that are distinct from each other. The high-frequency represents the  vowels of the spoken language being whistled, while the low-frequency whistle of  represents the vowels. It is said that it is not possible to produce any vowels with intermediary frequencies because the whistling mechanism does not have the same functions as the vocal mechanism. In 1978, Ramón Trujillo of the University of La Laguna theorized that Silbo Gomero has only two vowels. His work, containing almost 100 spectrograms, concludes that the language has two vowels and four consonants. In Trujillo's work, Silbo's vowels are given one quality, that of pitch, either high or low. But a more recent study gives a statistical analysis of Silbo's vowels showing that four vowels are statistically distinguished in production and perception. In 2005, Annie Rialland of the University of Paris III: Sorbonne Nouvelle published an acoustic and phonological analysis of Silbo based on new materials, showing that not only gliding tones but also intensity modulation plays a role in distinguishing Silbo's sounds.

Trujillo's 2005 collaboration with Gomeran whistler Isidro Ortiz and others revises his earlier work, finding that four vowels are indeed perceived, and describes in detail the areas of divergence between his empirical data and Classe's phonetic hypotheses. Despite Trujillo's 2005 work acknowledging the existence of four vowels, his 2006 bilingual work ''El Silbo Gomero. Nuevo estudio fonológico'' inexplicably reiterates his two-vowel theory. Trujillo's 2006 work directly addresses many of Rialland's conclusions, but it seems that at the time of that writing he was unaware of Meyer's work.

Meyer suggests that there are four vowel classes:, , ,. But Meyer also says there are five perceived vowels with significant overlap. Rialland and Trujillo agree that the harmonic of the whistle matches the second formant of the spoken vowels. Spoken 's F2 and whistled 's H1 match in their frequency (1480 Hz). But there is a disconnect in harmonics and formants near the frequency basement. Spoken speech has a wide range of F2 frequencies (790 Hz to 2300 Hz), but whistles are limited to between $1,200 Hz$. Vowels are therefore shifted upward at the lower end (maintaining 1480 Hz as ), increasing confusion between (spoken F2  freq. 890 Hz, whistled <1300 Hz) and  (spoken freq 790 Hz, whistled <<1300 Hz). In whistling the frequency basement must be raised to the minimum whistle harmonic of 1000 Hz, reducing frequency spacing in the vowels, which increases misidentification of the lower vowels.

Consonants
Silbo Gomero's consonants are modifications of the vowel-based "melody line" or "vocal line". They may rise or fall, and can be modified by being broken, continuous or occlusive. The four main consonants in a 1978 analysis are listed as follows:

The documentation on the official Silbo Gomero page on the UNESCO website is in line with Trujillo's 1978 study. Trujillo suggested that the consonants are either rises or dips in the "melody line" that can be broken or continuous. Further study by Meyer and Rialland suggests that vowels are stripped to their inherent class of sound, which is communicated in the whistle in these ways: voice ( vs ) is transmitted by the whistled feature [-continuity]. A silent pause in the whistle communicates [+voice], while a [+continuous] consonant gives the quality [-voice]. Placement of the consonant (dental, palatal, fricative) is transmitted in whistle by the loci, the sharpness or speed, of the formant transitions between vowels. Consonant classes are simplified into four classes. Extra high loci (near vertical formant loci) denotes affricates and stridents, rising loci denotes alveolar, medial (loci just above the vowel formant) denotes palatal, and falling (low loci) denotes pharyngeal, labial, and fricative. This gives eight whistled consonants, but including tone gradual decay (with intensity falling off) as a feature on continuous and interrupted sounds gives 10 consonants. In these situations gradual decay is given [+voice], and continuous is given [+liquid].

The representation of is treated as a broken high pitch in Silbo, though in the spoken language,  is a continuous high pitch consonant. There are two reasons for this anomaly. First, in functional terms, is high in frequency, and thus extremely useful. Second, as the continuous high-pitched consonant of Silbo already represents many other consonants of the spoken language (,, , , , , and ), it would be very confusing to add to that list. Thus, as the broken high-pitched consonant does not fully represent and, it can represent the frequently used.

Cognitive features
Studies have shown that Silbo Gomero speakers process the whistled register in the same way as standard spoken language. Studies by Manuel Carreiras of the University of La Laguna and David Corina of the University of Washington published in 2004 and 2005 involve two participant groups of Spanish speakers. One group spoke Silbo and one did not. Results obtained from monitoring the participants' brain activity by functional magnetic resonance imaging show that while non-speakers of Silbo merely process Silbo as whistling, Silbo speakers process the sounds in the same linguistic centers of the brain that process Spanish sentences.

Others
Moviemaker and photographer Francesca Phillips wrote and directed a 26-minute documentary on the usage of Silbo Gomero in La Gomera, Written in the Wind (2009). The movie won Best Short Documentary in Anthropology at The World Mountain Documentary Festival held in Qinghai, China in 2010.

Romanian moviemaker Corneliu Porumboiu directed the 2019 movie The Whistlers, in which Silbo features prominently.

French singer Féloche dedicated a song to Silbo.

There are other examples of transposition of an oral natural language into a pitch string. When quickly spoken, Yoruba vowels are assimilated and consonants elided, so the linguistic information is carried by the tone system, which can therefore be transposed into talking drums.

title: Silbo Gomero


text:
Jefferson Memorial

The Jefferson Memorial is a national memorial in Washington, D.C., built in honor of Thomas Jefferson, the principal author of the United States Declaration of Independence, a central intellectual force behind the American Revolution, a founder of the Democratic-Republican Party, and the nation's third president.

Bulit between 1939 and 1943, the memorial features multiple quotes from Jefferson intended to capture his ideology and philosophy, known as Jeffersonian democracy, which was staunchly supportive of American republicanism, individual rights, religious freedom, states' rights, virtue, and prioritized and valued what he saw as the undervalued independent yeoman. Jefferson was simultaneously deeply skeptical of cities and financiers and hostile to aristocracy, elitism, and corruption. He is widely considered among the most influential political minds of his era and one of the most consequential intellectual forces behind both the American Revolution and the American Enlightenment.

The Jefferson Memorial is built in neoclassical style and is situated in West Potomac Park on the shore of the Potomac River. It was designed by John Russell Pope, a New York City architect, and built by Philadelphia contractor John McShain. Construction on the memorial began in 1939 and was completed in 1943, though the bronze statue of Jefferson was not completed and added until four years after its dedication and opening, in 1947. Pope made references to the Roman Pantheon, whose designer was Apollodorus of Damascus, and to Jefferson's own design for the rotunda at the University of Virginia as inspirations for the memorial's aesthetics.

The Jefferson Memorial and the White House form anchor points to the National Mall in Washington, D.C. The Washington Monument, initially intended to be built at the intersection of the White House and the Jefferson Memorial's site, was ultimately built farther east because the ground at that location was deemed too soft and swampy.

The Jefferson Memorial is a designated national memorial and is managed by the National Park Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior's National Mall and Memorial Parks division. In 1966, the Jefferson Memorial was named to the National Register of Historic Places. In 2007, it ranked fourth on the "list of America's favorite architecture", published by the American Institute of Architects.

Early considerations
The site ultimately selected for the Jefferson Memorial's construction was appealing at least partly because it was located directly south of, and in view of, the White House. By 1901, the Senate Park Commission, in the McMillan Plan, proposed building a Pantheon-like structure on the site that would host "the statues of the illustrious men of the nation, or whether the memory of some individual shall be honored by a monument of the first rank may be left to the future," but no action was taken by Congress on the commission's recommendation.

The completion of the Tidal Basin Inlet Bridge in 1908 helped facilitate and expand recreational usage of East and West Potomac Parks. In 1918, large liquid chlorine dispensers were installed under the bridge to treat the water, which made the Tidal Basin, also known as Twining Lake, suitable for swimming. The Tidal Basin Beach, on the site of the future Jefferson Memorial, opened in May 1918, operating as a "Whites Only" facility until 1925, when it was permanently closed to avoid addressing the question of whether it should be racially integrated. The same year, a design competition was held for a memorial to Theodore Roosevelt. The winning design, submitted by John Russell Pope, consisted of a half-circle memorial situated next to a circular basin. Like the McMillan Plan in 1901, the plan was never funded by Congress or acted upon.

Funding and authorization
Another opportunity for the Jefferson Memorial's development emerged in 1934, when then President Franklin Roosevelt, who came to admire Jefferson after reading a book on Jefferson by his friend Claude G. Bowers, inquired with the Commission of Fine Arts about erecting a memorial to Jefferson. Roosevelt included plans for the Jefferson Memorial in the Federal Triangle project, which was then under construction. Later the same year, Congressman John J. Boyland followed Roosevelt's lead, urging Congress to create the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Commission to explore the memorial's development. Boylan was appointed the Commission's first chairman, and Congress eventually appropriated $3 million for the Jefferson Memorial.

The following year, in 1935, the Commission chose John Russell Pope as architect for the Jefferson Memorial. Pope had served previously as architect for the National Archives Building and the original West Building of the National Gallery of Art. He prepared four different plans for the project, each on a different site. One was on the Anacostia River at the end of East Capitol Street; one at Lincoln Park; one on the south side of the National Mall across from the National Archives administration building; and one was situated on the Tidal Basin, directly south of the White House. The Commission preferred the site on the Tidal Basin mainly because it was the most prominent site of those proposed and completed the four-point plan called for by the McMillan Commission, which encompassed the region including the Lincoln Memorial to the Capitol and from the White House to the Tidal Basin site. Pope designed a large pantheon-like structure designed to be situated on a square platform, flanked by two smaller, rectangular, colonnaded buildings.

Construction
Construction on the Jefferson Memorial began December 15, 1938. The cornerstone was laid roughly eleven months later, on November 15, 1939, by Roosevelt himself. By this point, Pope had died in 1937 and his surviving partners, Daniel P. Higgins and Otto R. Eggers, assumed leadership for the Jefferson Memorial's construction. At the request of the Commission of Fine Arts, a slightly more conservative design for the memorial was agreed upon. The memorial's cost was approximately $3 million. Construction commenced amid some opposition. The Commission of Fine Arts never actually approved any design for the memorial and even published a pamphlet in 1939 opposing both the proposed design and site for the memorial. Additionally, some Washingtonians opposed the proposed location for it because it did not align with L'Enfant's original plan for the city, and many established elm and cherry trees, including rare stock donated by Japan in 1912, would be removed under the memorial's original plan. Construction continued amid the opposition, which included women protestors chaining themselves to cherry trees around the construction site. Opposition to the memorial proved dismaying to Roosevelt, but the opposition diminished notably once revised plans identified a means for maintaining the surrounding cherry trees amidst the memorial's construction.

In 1939, the Memorial Commission hosted a competition to select a sculptor for the planned Jefferson statue to be placed in the center of the memorial. They received 101 entries and chose six finalists. Of the six, Rudulph Evans was chosen as the main sculptor, and Adolph A. Weinman was chosen to sculpt the pediment relief situated above the memorial's entrance.

Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. designed the memorial landscape, which featured a simple design within a circular driveway including primarily Evergreen trees with limited flowering trees or shrubs. The design was perceived as too thin, so white pines and some other plantings were later added before the memorial's dedication in 1943. In the 1970s, nearly three decades after the memorial's opening, additional changes to Olmsted's landscaping were implemented. But in 1993 and 2000, attempts to restore the integrity of Olmsted's initial design were made. Roosevelt ordered trees be cut so that the Jefferson Memorial was clearly visible from the White House; additional tree pruning was also completed to create an unobstructed view between the Jefferson Memorial and Lincoln Memorial.

On April 13, 1943, the 200th anniversary of Jefferson's birthday, the Jefferson Memorial was officially dedicated and opened by Roosevelt. At the time, Evans' statue had not yet been finished due to material shortages that emerged during World War II. Instead, the memorial opened with a temporary plaster cast statue similar to the bronze statue that Evans ultimately completed four years later, in 1947. The statue's cast was developed by Roman Bronze Works in New York City.

On October 15, 1966, in recognition of the Jefferson Memorial's historical and artistic significance, the Jefferson Memorial was named to the National Register of Historic Places.

On 2nd September, 2020, there was a task force known as the District of Columbia Facilities and Commemorative Expressions (DCFACES), created in response to the George Floyd protests by D.C Mayor Muriel Bowser, who published a report which recommended "renaming, relocating or adding context to dozens of monuments, schools, parks and buildings in [Washington, D.C.] because of their namesakes’ participation in slavery or racial oppression". In the report, DCFACES had advised Bowser to request and convince the federal U.S government to "remove, relocate, or contextualize" the Jefferson Memorial due to Jefferson's ownership of slaves.

Exterior
The Jefferson Memorial is composed of circular marble steps, a portico, a circular colonnade of Ionic order columns, and a shallow dome. The building is open to the elements. It has a diameter of approximately 165 ft.

The memorial is constructed with white Imperial Danby marble taken from Vermont, which rests on a series of granite and marble-stepped terraces. A flight of granite and marble stairs and platforms, flanked by granite buttresses, leads up to the memorial from the Tidal Basin to a portico with a triangular pediment.

The pediment features a sculpture by Adolph Alexander Weinman depicting the Committee of Five, the five members of the committee charged with drafting the U.S. Declaration of Independence. In addition to Jefferson, who was the primary author, committee members included John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Robert R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman. A cornice with an egg and dart molding surrounds this pediment, and below that is a plain frieze.

Interior
The memorial's interior has a 19 ft tall, 10000 lb bronze statue of Jefferson developed by sculptor Rudulph Evans. The statue was added four years after the dedication. Among many Jefferson quotes inside the memorial, one of the most prominently situated are those inscribed in the frieze below the dome: "I have sworn upon the altar of God eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man." This sentence is taken from a letter written by Jefferson on September 23, 1800, to Benjamin Rush in which Jefferson defends the constitutional refusal to recognize a state religion.

On the panel of the southwest interior wall are excerpts from the United States Declaration of Independence:

"We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, that to secure these rights governments are instituted among men. We...solemnly publish and declare, that these colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent states...And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine providence, we mutually pledge our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor."

The inscription uses the word "inalienable", as appears in Jefferson's draft rather than "unalienable" as ultimately appeared in the final Declaration.

On the panel of the northwest interior wall is a quote from the 1777 Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, which excludes the quote's final sentence and is taken from an August 28, 1789, letter Jefferson wrote to James Madison:

"Almighty God hath created the mind free...All attempts to influence it by temporal punishments or burthens...are a departure from the plan of the Holy Author of our religion...No man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship or ministry or shall otherwise suffer on account of his religious opinions or belief, but all men shall be free to profess and by argument to maintain, their opinions in matters of religion. I know but one code of morality for men whether acting singly or collectively."

The Jefferson quotes from the panel on the northeast interior wall come from multiple sources. The first, which begins "God who gave us life gave us liberty" is from A Summary View of the Rights of British America. The second, third, and fourth sentences are from Notes on the State of Virginia. The fifth quote, which begins "Nothing is more certainly written in the book of fate than that these people are to be free" is from Jefferson's autobiography. The sixth sentence, beginning "Establish the law...", is from a letter of August 13, 1786, to George Wythe. The final sentence is from a letter of January 4, 1786, to George Washington:

"God who gave us life gave us liberty. Can the liberties of a nation be secure when we have removed a conviction that these liberties are the gift of God? Indeed I tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just, that his justice cannot sleep forever. Commerce between master and slave is despotism. Nothing is more certainly written in the book of fate than these people are to be free. Establish the law for educating the common people. This it is the business of the state to effect and on a general plan."

The inscription on the panel of the southeast interior wall is excerpted from Jefferson's July 12, 1816, letter to Samuel Kercheval:

"I am not an advocate for frequent changes in laws and constitutions. But laws and institutions must go hand in hand with the progress of the human mind. As that becomes more developed, more enlightened, as new discoveries are made, new truths discovered and manners and opinions change, with the change of circumstances, institutions must advance also to keep pace with the times. We might as well require a man to wear still the coat which fitted him when a boy as civilized society to remain ever under the regimen of their barbarous ancestors."

A lower level of the structure contains a gift shop and a museum focusing on Jefferson's life and political career.

Location
The monument is located in West Potomac Park in Washington, D.C., on the shore of the Potomac River's Tidal Basin. The park is enhanced with the massed planting of Japanese cherry blossom trees, which pre-dated the memorial's construction and were a 1912 gift from the people of Japan.

Although the Jefferson Memorial is geographically removed from other buildings and monuments in Washington, D.C., the National Mall, and Washington Metro, the memorial plays host to many events and ceremonies each year, including memorial exercises, the Easter Sunrise Service, and the annual National Cherry Blossom Festival, and ranks highly among destinations for visitors to the city each year.

title: Jefferson Memorial


text:
Ten15

Ten15 is an algebraically specified abstract machine. It was developed by Foster, Currie et al. at the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment at Malvern, Worcestershire, during the 1980s. It arose from earlier work on the Flex machine, which was a capability computer implemented via microcode. Ten15 was intended to offer an intermediate language common to all implementations of the Flex architecture for portability purposes. It had the side effect of making the benefits of that work available on modern processors lacking a microcode facility.

Ten15 served as an intermediate language for compilers, but with several unique features, some of which have still to see the light of day in everyday systems. Firstly, it was strongly typed, yet wide enough in application to support most languages — C being an exception, chiefly because C deliberately treats an array similar to a pointer to the first element of that array. This ultimately led to Ten15's development into TDF, which in turn formed the basis for ANDF. Secondly, it offered a persistent, write-only filestore mechanism, allowing arbitrary data structures to be written and retrieved without conversion into an external representation.

Historical note
Why 'Ten15'? Nic Peeling reports that during early discussions of the concepts of Ten15, it was agreed that this was important and should have a name - but what? Ian Currie looked up at the clock and said 'Why not call it 10:15?'

title: Ten15


text:
User talk:Dmercer

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

snoyes 16:38, 23 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dmercer


text:
Geostationary Earth Radiation Budget

The Geostationary Earth Radiation Budget (GERB ) is an instrument aboard EUMETSAT's Meteosat Second Generation geostationary satellites designed to make accurate measurements of the Earth radiation budget. It was produced by a European consortium consisting of the United Kingdom, Belgium and Italy. The first, known as GERB 2, was launched on 28 August 2002 on an Ariane 5 rocket. The second, GERB 1, was launched on 21 December 2005, and the third, GERB3, on 5 July 2012. The last GERB 4 device was launched 14 July 2015. The first launched GERB 2 on MSG 1 is currently situated over the Indian Ocean at 41.5°E, while GERBs 1 and 3 on MSG 2 and 3 are still located over the standard Africa EUMETSAT position. GERB 4 on MSG is yet to become operational.

Scientific motivations and objectives
The unprecedented rate of atmospheric increase occurring since the industrial revolution due to human activity is of much concern to scientists as it has occurred an order of magnitude faster than planet Earth has ever experienced. Climate models described as Global Circulation Models (GCMs) are currently avenue to investigate and try and predict how Earth climate will change in response such an un-precedented rate of change. Such computer models largely agree on many predictions of how climate will be 'forced' to a different state by such changes but there is still much disagreement, more specifically how such forcing will also results in 'feedbacks' to the system. For example, increased will increase the green house effect resulting in warmer atmosphere and more melting of Arctic ice. However it is known that a warmer atmosphere can for example contain a higher quantity of water vapor at the same relative humidity, and the melting of highly reflective white Arctic ice will expose open ocean to sunlight. Since water vapor is itself a very strong greenhouse gas and dark Arctic Ocean will absorb more sunlight than highly reflected floating ice, these are both reasonably well understood to be positive feedbacks that will act to accelerate the rate of global warming. Perhaps the least understood aspect of climate change involves clouds, and how they might change in-response to straight atmospheric warming from increased. These effects collectively referred to as cloud forcing or Cloud Radiative Forcing (CRF) and Feedback are not yet understood to the level where it can be predicted with certainty whether their possible feedbacks will in total be positive and accelerate, or negative and slow down global warming. The actions of the Earth weather/climate system are essentially the work done from a global scale heat engine, the heat into which comes from all the absorbed solar energy while the heat out is from thermal infra-red emissions back to space. These two radiative fluxes are referred to as Short-Wave (SW for solar) and Long-Wave (LW for IR) components in what is known as the Earth Radiation Budget (ERB, naturally the heat in requires the reflected SW to be measured and subtracted from the also needed in incoming solar flux). Clouds hence naturally have a huge effect on the ERB due to their high solar SW reflectivity and their strong absorption of outgoing thermal LW. Globally ERB fluxes can only be measured from orbit and have been collected since the 1970s by missions from the US and Europe, most extensively since 1998 by the NASA Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) instruments in low Earth orbit. Such orbital platforms however at most see each point of Earth only twice per day, while cloud formation and modulation of the ERB occurs on the time scale of minutes (see Fig.1). Hence although vital for tracking global changes in the ERB such low orbital measurements cannot be directly used to validate computer simulations of changes to convective cloud formation and dissipation in direct response to the inevitable surface warming due to increases etc. To address this deficiency in the Earth observing system the European consortium between the UK, Belgium and Italy embarked on the Geo-stationary Earth Radiation Budget (GERB) project, with the intention of placing a highly accurate ERB radiometer on board the Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) spin stabilized platforms.

GERB device and calibration
The GERB project is led by the Space and Atmospheric Group (SPAT) based at Imperial College UK, with Professor John. E. Harries the original Principal Investigator and now succeeded by Dr Helen Brindley. The devices themselves were constructed by Rutherford Appleton Laboratory using an Italian 3 mirror silver telescope and electronics designed by the Space Science center at the University of Leicester UK. Each of the four completed GERB devices underwent extensive ground radiometric calibration in a Vacuum Calibration Chamber (VCC) at the Earth Observation and Characterization Facility (EOCF) also the Imperial College and designed by Ray Wrigley. Such tests included confirmation of linearity, LW radiometric gain determination using Warm and Cold BlackBodies (WBB & CBB), SW gain determination using Visible Calibration Source (VISCS) lamp and spot checks on the system level spectral response.

Each GERB device makes use of a linear array of blackened thermopile detectors manufactured by Honeywell, which stare at the Earth on each 100rpm rotation of the MSG platform by making use of a De-Scan Mirror (DSM). Hence a column of the Earth disk is taken on each revolution allowing 250x256 Total channel samples followed by 250x256 SW samples with the quartz filter in place every 5 minutes (i.e. the relative phase of the DSM to MSG rotation is shifted slightly each rotation, see Fig.4 bottom right). On each rotation the detectors hence also see the Internal Blackbody (IBB) and Calibration Monitor (CalMon) to allow continuous upgrading of LW & SW gain changes. Its placement toward the outskirts of the 3 meter wide MSG spinning platform demanded rigorous design of the GERB device to withstand the 16g constant centrifugal force to which it is exposed as the DSM rotates.

Every 15mins after 3 complete Total and SW 250x256 arrays of the Earth disk are taken a synthetic LW result is obtained from the mean difference between the two. Such ERB results are then combined with a resolution enhancement and cloud retrievals using the Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager (SEVIRI) also on the MSG platform. The combination of GERB and SEVIRI through data synergy also required detailed mapping of each of the 256 GERB detector/telescope Field of View response or Point Spread Function (PSF, see Matthews (2004) ). This was done using a He-Ne laser computer controlled to map each of the 256 thermopiles responses after being covered with gold blacking. Full details of the GERB ground calibration can be obtained at Matthews (2003). The spectral response or measure of the relative absorption at different wavelength of light for each GERB detector is required for the process of un-filtering each thermopile's raw signal. This uses radiative transfer models to estimate the spectral shape of a particular scene radiance to estimate an un-filtering ratio, or the factor needed to account for non-uniform spectral response. For each GERB device this relies on the multiplication of unit level laboratory measurements of detector, telescope, DSM and quartz filter spectral throughput/absorption. The accuracy of GERB SW results is directly dependent on the quality of such measurements as the SW gain is determined using the VISCS lamp, whose spectrum is significantly shifted to longer wavelengths compared to that of the Sun. Such GERB accuracy is currently estimated to be around the 2% level by ref. Such un-filtering is performed by the Royal Meteorological Institute Belgium (RMIB), along with the synergy with SEVIRI data and conversion from radiance to irradiance using Angular Dependency Models (ADMs).

GERB in-flight calibration
As shown in Fig.4 for each of the 100 rotations per minute every GERB detector obtains a scan of both the Internal Blackbody (IBB) and CalMon solar diffuser. The gain in Counts per Wm−2Sr−1 and offsets of each thermopile pixel are regularly updated based on the known temperature of the IBB and its signal's difference from that of the Earthview. The original intention was to use the aluminium solar diffuser CalMon views to track changes in the GERB device throughput of solar photons (see Equations developed by J. Mueller). However, in-flight solar diffusers and their sunlight transmission changes drastically on orbit such that the diffusers on CERES were deemed un-usable by NASA. Also the integrating sphere nature of the CalMon means that solar photons will likely have undergone many reflections off aluminium on the way to the GERB telescope, likely significantly reducing energy at the 830 nm dip in aluminium reflectivity by an unknown amount. Possible alternatives to track changes to GERB device solar response include comparison to other ERB devices such as the proposed NASA CLARREO instrument, or perhaps other broadband devices assuming their calibration is later validated. Another possibility is the use of Moon views as used by the SeaWIFS project to ensure stability of Earth results (see Fig.5).

GERB data
GERB data is available from the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory GGSPS download site below as shown in the animation of Fig.6 which displayed full Earth Disk reflected SW (left) and outgoing LW (right). This animation shows 24hrs worth of GERB SW and LW fluxes which will enable climate scientists to validate how GCMs simulate cloud formation and dissipation and the effects on the ERB.

GERB-SEVIRI synergy
As ERB fluxes from the CERES instruments are paired with MODIS imager cloud retrievals, it was always the intention to tie GERB SW and LW measurements with results from the Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infra-Red Imager (SEVIRI) primary device on the MSG platforms. In addition to the cloud/aerosol retrievals from the narrow-band SEVIRI instrument, the high spatial resolution imager data is combined with the accuracy of GERB to perform resolution enhancement of climate driving fluxes to better evaluate climate model simulations of cloud formation/dissipation and know how they may speed up or slow down climate change. SEVIRI radiances are also used in the GERB un-filtering process to help estimate the spectral shape of the scene being viewed.

Data access
In addition to the Rutherford GGSPS download site, a new access hub is being set up at the Centre for Environmental Data Analysis (CEDA), which is also listed in the URLs below that will allow access to GERB files.

title: Geostationary Earth Radiation Budget


text:
Talk:Ten15

The Flex machine was microcoded, first on dedicated hardware and then on ICL PERQ. It implemented a capability architecture. In some circles, Ten15 is referred to as 'soft Flex'.

Comments on C
I chose my words carefully when I wrote the original article, partly as a result of conversation with the original Ten15 team. C does in fact identify the pointer to the first element of an array with a pointer to the array itself, so the 'removal of incorrect statement' applied is itself NOT correct.

Further, the choice made by the C language designers was deliberate - and it is also true that some say the choice was obtuse, including the Ten15 designers themselves. Thus the assertions made by me are verifiable and I defend my restoration.

I am grateful for the addition of the reference.

Ben —Preceding unsigned comment added by Potterb68 (talk • contribs) 20:53, August 24, 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ten15


text:
R (programming language)

R is a programming language for statistical computing and data visualization. It has been adopted in the fields of data mining, bioinformatics, and data analysis.

The core R language is augmented by a large number of extension packages, containing reusable code, documentation, and sample data.

R software is open-source and free software. It is licensed by the GNU Project and available under the GNU General Public License. It is written primarily in C, Fortran, and R itself. Precompiled executables are provided for various operating systems.

As an interpreted language, R has a native command line interface. Moreover, multiple third-party graphical user interfaces are available, such as RStudio—an integrated development environment—and Jupyter—a notebook interface.

History
R was started by professors Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman as a programming language to teach introductory statistics at the University of Auckland. The language was inspired by the S programming language, with most S programs able to run unaltered in R. The language was also inspired by Scheme's lexical scoping, allowing for local variables.

The name of the language, R, comes from being both an S language successor as well as the shared first letter of the authors, Ross and Robert. In August 1993, Ihaka and Gentleman posted a binary of R on StatLib — a data archive website. At the same time, they announced the posting on the s-news mailing list. On December 5, 1997, R became a GNU project when version 0.60 was released. On February 29, 2000, the first official 1.0 version was released.

Packages
R packages are collections of functions, documentation, and data that expand R. For example, packages add report features such as RMarkdown, Quarto, knitr and Sweave. Easy package installation and use have contributed to the language's adoption in data science.

Base packages are immediately available when starting R and provide the necessary syntax and commands for programming, computing, graphics production, basic arithmetic, and statistical functionality.

The Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN) was founded in 1997 by Kurt Hornik and Fritz Leisch to host R's source code, executable files, documentation, and user-created packages. Its name and scope mimic the Comprehensive TeX Archive Network and the Comprehensive Perl Archive Network. CRAN originally had three mirrors and 12 contributed packages. As of June 2024, it has 104 mirrors and 20,853 contributed packages. Packages are also available on repositories R-Forge, Omegahat, and GitHub.

The Task Views on the CRAN website lists packages in fields such as finance, genetics, high-performance computing, machine learning, medical imaging, meta-analysis, social sciences, and spatial statistics.

The Bioconductor project provides packages for genomic data analysis, complementary DNA, microarray, and high-throughput sequencing methods.

Packages add the capability to implement various statistical techniques such as linear, generalized linear and nonlinear modeling, classical statistical tests, spatial analysis, time-series analysis, and clustering.

An example package is the tidyverse package. Its focus is having a common interface around accessing and processing data contained in a data frame data structure, a two-dimensional table of rows and columns called "tidy data". Each function in the package is designed to couple together all the other functions in the package.

Installing a package occurs only once. To install tidyverse:

To instantiate the functions, data, and documentation of a package, execute the  function. To instantiate tidyverse:

Interfaces
R comes installed with a command line console. Available for installation are various integrated development environments (IDE). IDEs for R include R.app (OSX/macOS only), Rattle GUI, R Commander, RKWard, RStudio, and Tinn-R.

General purpose IDEs that support R include Eclipse via the StatET plugin and Visual Studio via R Tools for Visual Studio.

Editors that support R include Emacs, Vim via the Nvim-R plugin, Kate, LyX via Sweave, WinEdt (website), and Jupyter (website).

Scripting languages that support R include Python (website), Perl (website), Ruby (source code), F# (website), and Julia (source code).

General purpose programming languages that support R include Java via the Rserve socket server, and .NET C# (website).

Statistical frameworks which use R in the background include Jamovi and JASP.

Community
The R Core Team was founded in 1997 to maintain the R source code. The R Foundation for Statistical Computing was founded in April 2003 to provide financial support. The R Consortium is a Linux Foundation project to develop R infrastructure.

The R Journal is an open access, academic journal which features short to medium-length articles on the use and development of R. It includes articles on packages, programming tips, CRAN news, and foundation news.

The R community hosts many conferences and in-person meetups. These groups include:

 * UseR!: an annual international R user conference (website)
 * Directions in Statistical Computing (DSC) (website)
 * R-Ladies: an organization to promote gender diversity in the R community (website)
 * SatRdays: R-focused conferences held on Saturdays (website)
 * R Conference (website)
 * posit::conf (formerly known as rstudio::conf) (website)

Implementations
The main R implementation is written primarily in C, Fortran, and R itself. Other implementations include:
 * pretty quick R (pqR), by Radford M. Neal, attempts to improve memory management.
 * Renjin is an implementation of R for the Java Virtual Machine.
 * CXXR and Riposte are implementations of R written in C++.
 * Oracle's FastR is an implementation of R, built on GraalVM.
 * TIBCO Software, creator of S-PLUS, wrote TERR — an R implementation to integrate with Spotfire.

Microsoft R Open (MRO) was an R implementation. As of 30 June 2021, Microsoft started to phase out MRO in favor of the CRAN distribution.

Commercial support
Although R is an open-source project, some companies provide commercial support:
 * Revolution Analytics provides commercial support for Revolution R.
 * Oracle provides commercial support for the Big Data Appliance, which integrates R into its other products.
 * IBM provides commercial support for in-Hadoop execution of R.

Hello, World!
"Hello, World!" program:

Basic syntax
The following examples illustrate the basic syntax of the language and use of the command-line interface. (An expanded list of standard language features can be found in the R manual, "An Introduction to R". )

In R, the generally preferred assignment operator is an arrow made from two characters, although   can be used in some cases.

Structure of a function
One of R's strengths is the ease of creating new functions. Objects in the function body remain local to the function, and any data type may be returned. In R, almost all functions and all user-defined functions are closures.

Create a function:

Usage output:

It is possible to define functions to be used as infix operators with the special syntax  where "name" is the function variable name:

Since version 4.1.0 functions can be written in a short notation, which is useful for passing anonymous functions to higher-order functions:

Native pipe operator
In R version 4.1.0, a native pipe operator,, was introduced. This operator allows users to chain functions together one after another, instead of a nested function call.

Another alternative to nested functions, in contrast to using the pipe character, is using intermediate objects. However, some argue that using the pipe operator will produce code that is easier to read.

Object-oriented programming
The R language has native support for object-oriented programming. There are two native frameworks, the so-called S3 and S4 systems. The former, being more informal, supports single dispatch on the first argument and objects are assigned to a class by just setting a "class" attribute in each object. The latter is a Common Lisp Object System (CLOS)-like system of formal classes (also derived from S) and generic methods that supports multiple dispatch and multiple inheritance

In the example,  is a generic function that dispatches to different methods depending on whether its argument is a numeric vector or a "factor":

Modeling and plotting
The R language has built-in support for data modeling and graphics. The following example shows how R can generate and plot a linear model with residuals.

Output:

Mandelbrot set
This Mandelbrot set example highlights the use of complex numbers. It models the first 20 iterations of the equation, where   represents different complex constants.

Install the package that provides the  function beforehand:

R Source code:

Version names
All R version releases from 2.14.0 onward have codenames that make reference to Peanuts comics and films.

In 2018, core R developer Peter Dalgaard presented a history of R releases since 1997. Some notable early releases before the named releases include:

 * Version 1.0.0 released on February 29, 2000 (2000-02-29), a leap day
 * Version 2.0.0 released on October 4, 2004 (2004-10-04), "which at least had a nice ring to it"

The idea of naming R version releases was inspired by the Debian and Ubuntu version naming system. Dalgaard also noted that another reason for the use of Peanuts references for R codenames is because, "everyone in statistics is a P-nut".

title: R (programming language)


text:
William Turner (naturalist)

William Turner (1509/10 – 13 July 1568) was an English divine and reformer, a physician and a natural historian. He has been called "The father of English botany." He studied medicine in Italy, and was a friend of the great Swiss naturalist, Conrad Gessner. He was an early herbalist and ornithologist, and it is in these fields that the most interest lies today. He is known as being one of the first "parson-naturalists" in England.

He first published Libellus de Re herbaria in Latin in 1538, and later translated it into English because he believed herbalists were not sharing their knowledge. Turner's works were condemned under Henry VIII and under Mary Tudor.

Early years
Turner was born in Morpeth, Northumberland, in or around 1508. His father was probably a tanner of the same name. He studied at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge University, from 1526 to 1533, where he received his B.A. in 1530 and his M.A. in 1533. He was a Fellow and Senior Treasurer of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. While at Cambridge he published several works, including Libellus de re herbaria, in 1538. He spent much of his leisure in the careful study of plants which he sought for in their native habitat, and described with an accuracy hitherto unknown in England.

In 1540, he began travelling about preaching until he was arrested. After his release, he went on to study medicine in Italy, at Ferrara and Bologna, from 1540 to 1542 and was incorporated M.D. at one of these universities. He married Jane Auder (perhaps a widow of a Mr Cage when they married) who gave birth to a son Peter in 1542. After his death, she remarried Richard Cox, Bishop of Ely.

Career
After completing his medical degree, he became physician to the Earl of Emden. Back in England, he became chaplain and physician to the Duke of Somerset, and through Somerset's influence, he obtained ecclesiastical preferment. The position as Somerset's physician also led to practice among upper society. He was prebendary of Botevant in York Cathedral in 1550, and Dean of Wells Cathedral from 1551 to 1553, where he established a herbal garden. When Mary I of England acceded to the throne, Turner went into exile once again. From 1553 to 1558, he lived in Weißenburg in Bayern and supported himself as a physician. He became a Calvinist at this time, if not before.

After the succession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558, Turner returned to England, and was once again Dean of Wells Cathedral from 1560 to 1564. His attempts to bring the English church into an agreement with the reformed churches of Germany and Switzerland led to his suspension for nonconformity in 1564. Turner died in London on 7 July 1568 at his home in Crutched Friars, in the City of London, and is buried in the church of St Olave Hart Street. An engraved stone on the southeast wall of this church commemorates Turner. Thomas Lever, one of the great puritan preachers of the period, delivered the sermon at his funeral.

Quite early in his career, Turner became interested in natural history and set out to produce reliable lists of English plants and animals, which he published as Libellus de re herbaria in 1538. In 1544, Turner published Avium praecipuarum, quarum apud Plinium et Aristotelem mentio est, brevis et succincta historia ("The Principal Birds of Aristotle and Pliny..."), which not only discussed the principal birds and bird names mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny the Elder but also added accurate descriptions and life histories of birds from his own extensive ornithological knowledge. This is the first printed book devoted entirely to birds.

In 1545, Turner published The Rescuynge of the Romishe Fox, and in 1548, The Names of Herbes. In 1551, he published the first of three parts of his famous Herbal, on which his botanical fame rests.

A new herball, wherin are conteyned the names of herbes… (London: imprinted by Steven Myerdman and soolde by John Gybken, 1551) is the first part of Turner's great work; the second was published in 1562 and the third in 1568, both by Arnold Birckman of Cologne. These volumes gave the first clear, systematic survey of English plants, and with their admirable woodcuts (mainly copied from Leonhart Fuchs's 1542 De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes) and detailed observations based on Turner's own field studies put the herbal on an altogether higher footing than in earlier works. At the same time, however, Turner included an account of their "uses and vertues", and in his preface admits that some will accuse him of divulging to the general public what should have been reserved for a professional audience. For the first time, herbal was available in England in the vernacular, from which people could identify the main English plants without difficulty.

A New Book of Spiritual Physick was published in 1555. In 1562, Turner published the second part of his Herbal, dedicated to Sir Thomas Wentworth, son of the patron who had enabled him to go to Cambridge. This book was published by Arnold Birckman of Cologne, and included in the same binding Turner's treatise on baths. The second volume includes one of the earliest reference to the celebrated Glastonbury Thorn, only five miles from Wells, which Turner tells us "is grene all the wynter, as all they that dwell there about do stedfastly holde". The third and last part of Turner's Herbal was published in 1568, in a volume that also contained revised editions of the first and second parts. This was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth. He claimed that the herbal described only English plant species "whereof is no mention made neither of ye old Grecianes nor Latines". A New Boke on the Natures and Properties of all Wines, also published in 1568, had pharmacological intent behind it, as also the included Treatise of Triacle.

As a member of the nonconformist faction in the Vestments controversy Turner was famous for making an adulterer do public penance wearing a square cap and for teaching his dog to steal such caps from bishop's heads. His scholarly pursuits had other, distinctly political, implications. According to Tudor historian Lacey Baldwin Smith, for instance, "Religious discontent and civil rebellion were obviously walking hand in hand when William Turner dared speak out against [Henry VIII's] proclamation of 1543 limiting the reading of the Bible to men of social standing. What kind of ungodly belly wisdom was it, he demanded, to say that 'rich men and the nobles are wiser than the poor people?'"

Turner embraced the transmutation of species. Historian of science Charles E. Raven wrote that "Turner, a shrewd observer and an excellent botanist, accepted transmutation as a commonplace event."

Natural history publications

 * 1538: Libellus de re herbaria novus. Bydell, London. Index 1878; facsimiles 1877, 1966.
 * 1544: Avium praecipuarum, quarum apud Plinium et Aristotelem mentio est, brevis et succincta historia. Gymnicus, Cologne. ed Cambridge 1823; ed with transl. Cambridge 1903.
 * 1548:
 * 1551: (Part 1 Mierdman, London 1551; Parts 2 and 3 Barckman, Cologne. 1562, 1568) Parts 1-2, 1551-1562, available at BHL

Other works are listed briefly by Raven.

title: William Turner (naturalist)


text:
List of islands in the Mediterranean

The following is a list of islands in the Mediterranean Sea. The two main island countries in the region are Malta and Cyprus, while other countries with islands in the Mediterranean Sea include Croatia, Italy, France, Greece, Spain, Tunisia and Turkey.

Albania

 * Sazan Vlora1.JPG
 * Kunë
 * Ksamil Islands
 * Franz Joseph Island
 * Zvërnec Islands
 * Tongo Island
 * Stil Island

Croatia
• Čiovo

• Brijuni (14 islands)

• Brusnik

• Cres

• Drvenik Mali

• Drvenik Veliki

• Dugi otok

• Elaphiti islands

• Goli otok

• Hvar

• Iž

• Ilovik

• Ist

• Kaprije

• Koločep

• Korčula

• Kornati (152 islands)

• Krapanj

• Krk

• Lastovo

• Lošinj

• Lokrum

• Lopud

• Male Srakane

• Mljet

• Molat

• Murter

• Olib

• Pašman

• Pag

• Palagruža

• Plavnik

• Premuda

• Prvić

• Rab

• Rava

• Rivanj

• Sestrunj

• Silba

• Skarda

• Susak

• Svetac

• Sveti Andrija

• Šipan

• Šolta

• Ugljan

• Unije

• Vele Srakane

• Vir

• Vis

• Vrgada

• Zlarin

• Zverinac

• Žirje

• Žut

France

 * Corsica
 * Lavezzi Islands
 * Cavallo Island
 * Frioul archipelago
 * Lérins Islands
 * Îles d'Hyères

Greece

 * Crete
 * Euboea
 * Gavdos

Cyclades
• Amorgos

• Anafi

• Andros

• Antimilos

• Antiparos

• Delos

• Despotiko

• Donousa

• Folegandros

• Gyaros

• Ios

• Iraklia

• Kea (commonly known as Tzia)

• Keros

• Kimolos

• Koufonisi

• Kythnos

• Makronisos

• Milos

• Mykonos

• Naxos

• Paros

• Polyaigos

• Rineia

• Santorini

• Schinousa

• Serifos

• Sifnos

• Sikinos

• Syros

• Thirasia

• Tinos

Dodecanese Islands
• Agathonissi

• Arkoi

• Armathia

• Astypalia

• Farmakonisi

• Gyali

• Halki

• Kalolimnos

• Kalymnos

• Karpathos

• Kassos

• Kastellorizo

• Kos

• Leipsoi

• Leros

• Nisyros

• Patmos

• Pserimos

• Rhodes

• Saria

• Symi

• Tilos

Ionian Islands
• Antikythera

• Antipaxos

• Corfu (Kerkyra)

• Ereikoussa

• Ithaki

• Kalamos Island

• Kastos

• Kefalonia

• Kythera

• Lefkada

• Meganisi

• Othonoi

• Paxoi

• Petalas

• Zakynthos

North Aegean islands
• Chios

• Fournoi

• Ikaria

• Limnos

• Lesvos

• Oinousses

• Psara

• St Eustratius

• Samos

• Samothraki

• Thassos

• Thymaina

Saronic Islands
• Aegina

• Agistri

• Dokos

• Hydra

• Poros

• Salamina

• Spetses

Sporades Islands
• Alonissos

• Gioura

• Kyra Panagia

• Peristera

• Piperi

• Skantzoura

• Skiathos

• Skopelos

• Skyros

Italy
Notable Italian islands include:

 * Calabria
 * Coreca Reefs
 * Isola di Dino
 * San Nicola Arcella
 * Campanian Archipelago
 * Capri
 * Gaiola Island
 * Ischia
 * Nisida
 * Procida
 * Sirenuse
 * Cheradi Islands
 * Gallipoli
 * San Paolo Island
 * Sant'Andrea Island
 * Vivara
 * Marano Grado Lagoon
 * Barbana
 * Isola di Grado
 * Ligurian Sea islands
 * Bergeggi
 * Gallinara
 * Pontine Islands
 * Gavi
 * Ponza
 * Palmarola
 * Santo Stefano
 * Ventotene
 * Zannone
 * Zannone
 * Sardinia
 * Asinara
 * Sant'Antioco
 * San Pietro
 * La Maddalena
 * Caprera
 * Spargi
 * Budelli
 * Razzoli
 * Santo Stefano
 * Molara Island
 * Tavolara
 * Sicily
 * Aegadian Islands
 * Marettimo
 * Favignana
 * Levanzo
 * Aeolian Islands
 * Lipari
 * Vulcano
 * Filicudi
 * Alicudi
 * Panarea
 * Salina
 * Stromboli
 * Pantelleria
 * Pelagie Islands
 * Lampedusa
 * Lampione
 * Linosa
 * Ustica
 * Tremiti Islands
 * Capraia
 * Cretaccio
 * Pianosa (di Tremiti)
 * San Domino
 * San Nicola
 * Tuscan Archipelago
 * Capraia
 * Elba
 * Formiche di Grosseto
 * Giannutri
 * Giglio
 * Gorgona
 * Meloria
 * Montecristo
 * Palmaiola
 * Pianosa
 * Venetian Lagoon islands
 * Burano
 * Chioggia
 * Giudecca
 * Isola di San Clemente
 * La Certosa
 * Lazzaretto Vecchio
 * Lido
 * Mazzorbo
 * Murano
 * Pellestrina
 * Poveglia
 * Sacca Fisola
 * San Francesco del Deserto
 * San Giorgio in Alga
 * San Giorgio Maggiore
 * San Lazzaro degli Armeni
 * San Marco in Boccalama
 * Isola di San Michele
 * San Secondo
 * San Pietro di Castello
 * San Servolo
 * Sant'Andrea
 * Sant'Angelo della Polvere
 * Sant'Elena
 * Sant'Erasmo
 * Santa Maria della Grazia
 * Sottomarina
 * Torcello
 * Tronchetto
 * Venice
 * Vignole

Lebanon

 * Palm Islands

Malta

 * Maltese Islands
 * Malta Island
 * Gozo
 * Comino
 * Cominotto
 * Filfla
 * St Paul's Island
 * Manoel Island
 * Fungus Rock

Montenegro
In Bay of Kotor:
 * Sveti Nikola Island
 * Sveta Neđelja
 * Katič
 * Sveti Stefan
 * Ada Bojana
 * Stari Ulcinj
 * Mamula
 * Prevlaka
 * Sveti Marko
 * Island of Our Lady of Mercy
 * Gospa od Škrpjela
 * Sveti Đorđe

Spain

 * Alboran
 * Balearic Islands
 * Gymnesian Islands
 * Majorca
 * Menorca
 * Cabrera
 * Sa Dragonera
 * Pityusic (or Pine) Islands
 * Es Vedrà
 * Formentera
 * Eivissa / Ibiza
 * S'Espalmador
 * Columbretes Islands
 * Illa Grossa or Columbret Gran
 * La Ferrera
 * La Foradada
 * El Carallot
 * Islas Chafarinas
 * Isla del Congreso
 * Isla de Isabel II
 * Isla del Rey
 * Islas Alhucemas
 * Peñón de Alhucemas
 * Isla de Tierra
 * Isla de Mar
 * Tabarca
 * Illes Medes
 * Formigues
 * Mazarrón
 * Isla de Perejil
 * Isla de Santa Catalina

Syria

 * Arwad

Tunisia

 * Djerba
 * Kerkennah Islands
 * Chergui
 * Gharbi
 * Galite Islands
 * Zembra
 * Kneiss
 * Chikly
 * Plane Island

Turkey
The following are some of the most notable Turkish Aegean islands. See Turkish Aegean islands for a more complete list.

 * Bozcaada or Tenedos
 * Burgazada
 * Büyükada
 * Çatalada
 * Cunda Island
 * Fener Ada
 * Gemiler Adası
 * Gökçeada or Imbros (largest Turkish island)
 * Güvercin Island
 * Hayırsız Ada
 * Hekim Island
 * Heybeli Ada
 * Iç Ada
 * İncir Ada
 * Kara Ada
 * Kara Ada (Bodrum)
 * Kargı Adası
 * Kınalıada
 * Kizikada
 * Küçük Tavşan Adası
 * Lale Island
 * Metalik Ada
 * Salih Ada
 * Yassi Ada
 * Yılancık Ada
 * Uzunada

The following are some of the most notable Turkish islands in the Mediterranean. See Turkish Mediterranean islands for a more complete list.

 * Aydıncık Islands
 * Babadıl Islands
 * Beşadalar
 * Boğsak Island
 * Boğsak Islet
 * Bozyazı Island
 * Dana Adası
 * Domuz Island
 * Gemiler Island
 * Kekova
 * Kizkalesi
 * Sıçan Adası
 * Tersane Island
 * Yumurtalık Island

Disputed

 * Imia/Kardak (Greece/Turkey)

Politically divided

 * Cyprus (island)
 * Republic of Cyprus
 * Akrotiri and Dhekelia (Sovereign Base Areas of the United Kingdom)
 * Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (A de facto state only recognized by Turkey, separated from the Republic of Cyprus by a UN buffer zone)

title: List of islands in the Mediterranean