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Talk:United States Information Agency

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Propaganda
Yeesh! This reads as if it were written by the Ministry of Propaganda—which, of course, is what the USIA was, Edward R. Murrow or no Edward R. Murrow.

"Public diplomacy..." what gobbledegook. "To understand, inform and influence foreign publics in promotion of the national interest." Drop the word "understand" and you have a definition of the word "propaganda."

OK, I added a first paragraph which acknowledge's the relative truthfulness of the USIA's material while making sure that the word "propaganda" is not missing from the article. Dpbsmith 04:18, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

P. S. The dictionary defines propaganda as "The systematic propagation of a doctrine or cause or of information reflecting the views and interests of those advocating such a doctrine or cause."

P. P. S. I can't say I had actually encountered the euphemism "public diplomacy" before. I ran across this page because I mentioned the USIA in a note in an article on MIT and was checking the link. But further investigation confirms my impressions. According to an article at

 * As U.S.-Soviet tensions eased, America's anti-propaganda attitude quickly resurfaced, and a new term was used to describe the USIA's mission: "public diplomacy." This term was first coined in the mid-1960s by Dean Edmund A. Gullion of the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy. Explaining the origin of the term, Gullion wrote (1967) that:
 * "Even beyond the organ of the Government set up to handle information about the United States and to explain our policies, what is important today is the interaction of groups, peoples, and cultures beyond national borders, influencing the way groups and peoples in other countries think about foreign affairs, react to our policies, and affect the policies of their respective governments.
 * "To connote this activity, we at the Fletcher School tried to find a name. I would have liked to call it 'propaganda.' It seemed like the nearest thing in the pure interpretation of the word to what we were doing. But 'propaganda' has always a pejorative connotation in this country. To describe the whole range of communications, information, and propaganda, we hit upon 'public diplomacy'."

So, indeed, "public diplomacy" was coined as a euphemism for "propaganda." Dpbsmith 04:27, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

2008 discussion
Regardless of whatever historical connotations it once had or how the word came about, public diplomacy is NOT the same as propaganda or public relations. The military is practicing propaganda with satellite channels and truth bomb flyers. Planting a military experts on CNN is propaganda. Public diplomacy is opening up English language libraries in the embassy or putting up free concerts. French efforts at promoting its language is a kind of public diplomacy. Japan's efforts at sending teachers overseas and bringing American/Western students to Japan to teach is another. So unless you think every free concert/culture event on Dupont Circle constitutes propaganda intended to brainwash unsuspecting and hungry interns, you need to think again on presenting "public diplomacy" as the same as propaganda, however technically correct, is misleading.

Under subheading "Public diplomacy and propaganda":

"'In the years following these earlier views, some U.S. Government officials and others contended that U.S. public diplomacy programs are not propaganda. Others still contend, however, that since propaganda can be based on fact, public diplomacy can be equated with propaganda i.e. ideas, information, or other material disseminated to win people over to a given doctrine. If based on falsehoods and untruths, while still propaganda, it is best described as 'disinformation.'"

However technical one may get about the term propaganda; it is undeniable that the word itself has a hugely negative connotation in the mind of an average person. The word itself implies dishonesty, of which is not relevant in defining the USIA. It is anyone's prerogative to question the USIA's intent, effectiveness, or morality, but under a subheading like "Role of USIA", "Ethics of (American) Public Diplomacy,", and etc. It is dishonest to sneak in judgment of a reasonable and ethically sound aspect of any diplomat's effort, American or foreign, in advancing his or her nation's interest. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.144.190.115 (talk • contribs)

 * It is POV to claim outright that the agency produced propaganda, I will admit. But it is also POV to claim that it did not. Coverage of the debate is what is needed. I'm also not convinced that we should shy away from the term propaganda simply because people mis-understand it: propaganda can provide useful, factual advice, and it is better to explain that. Providing examples will allow readers to make up their own minds.

 * To start throwing examples in, I came on this article through Ed Murrow's broadcast "The Challenge of Ideas"; note its description of the US Navy's purpose and the use of John Wayne to make an appeal to notoriety in particular. You'll also find the USIA name-checked at Propaganda --Tom Edwards (talk) 15:09, 2 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Here is another example of propaganda with a factually-accurate message. The caricature is obviously grotesque and a racial slur, but there is no dishonesty or trickery in the idea that working less benefits the enemy. --Tom Edwards (talk) 15:25, 2 December 2008 (UTC)

So, “propaganda can provide useful, factual advice”. And, “Here is another example of propaganda with a factually-accurate message”. Some first-rate examples of propaganda - with a misleading/inaccurate message. Is it not sad that, even in 2014, Big Brother style mis-information is still with us? 89.243.162.140 (talk) 10:12, 17 July 2014 (UTC)

Clinton as Fulbrighter
I think that the menion of Bill Clinton as a Fulbright recipient is incorrect. Clinton received a Fulbright Prize from the Fulbright alumni association in 2005, but this is not the same as receiving a Fulbright scholarship from USIA. I'm going to delte this line--which, besides, strikes me as oddly defnesive and non-NPOV. -Hickoryhillster 15:42, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

Information Agency Time Plus - Information Referral Service
I removed Information Agency Time Plus - Information Referral Service, is the trusted source for business information, international market research, service from across the world. as I do not see the relevance, and it is copied verbatim from their website, and it is not neutral POV, and, it really makes no statement... whoever added this, was there some reason? I don't get what Information Agency Time Plus has to do with the US Ministry of Propaganda. User:Pedant 22:55, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

How To Stop Worrying and Learn To Love Dis-information
“propaganda can provide useful, factual advice”.(Talk comment) Is this another example of propaganda with a factually-inaccurate message?

89.240.208.73 (talk) 21:10, 15 July 2014 (UTC)

 * The late Brian Crozier describes in his memoirs "Free Agent" that he was not allowed to disseminate his writings of "Conflict Studies" in the US because it was not allowed to propagandize (his word) with US money to US people. He therefore confirmed that other countries' people were subjected to propaganda to influence them. It has become clear recently, that many networks select only news and articles that fit into their world view, which makes them propaganda. They can still contain valid facts, but it's usually facts which try to convince readers of their line, like advertorials. The trick is to know your friends and enemies then check out each side's networks to avoid being influenced towards a one-sided view.2001:8003:A0B9:EF00:7404:918E:6976:C3BA (talk) 04:28, 30 January 2017 (UTC)

 * Try reading Bernays's Propaganda. Propaganda merely propagates information. The cynicism evident in your comment was constructed post-World War II.
 * Also, WP:NOTAFORUM. Chris Troutman  ( talk ) 19:22, 17 July 2014 (UTC)

Considering the ideas of Edward Bernays (and Walter Lippmann) was that "cynicism" really mis-placed? Now, as for "propaganda with a factually-accurate message"... 78.147.84.52 (talk) 20:59, 25 July 2014 (UTC)

Guy Sims Fitch
I'm not going to argue the issue about pseudonyms and USIA. There's a similar story out there about the State Department and Joe Reap. The issue here is Gizmodo as a source. I say it's not reliable; it's a blog. The author doesn't qualify for the expert exception, either. Shall we take this to RSN? Chris Troutman ( talk ) 16:44, 27 September 2016 (UTC)
 * If you want. My impression is that it is a professional news website, rather than a self-published blog; per http://gizmodo.com/about it has an editor-in-chief, several editors, etc., as one would expect from a news organization, and per HuffPo and others it was bought together with other specialized websites by Univision for $135 million; that's not a price one pays for an amateur blog. If you have any specific reasons, rather than a general belief, for why Gizmodo does not meet WP:RS standards, I'd be interested to hear them.  Sandstein   17:11, 27 September 2016 (UTC)
 * That there's money to be made by buying these content creators does not (in my opinion) make them reliable. I generally oppose giving reliability to HuffPo, Gawker, Salon, or the like although I know many such websites are frequently used here. I see you've found a book to cite so we need not argue about Gizmodo. Chris Troutman  ( talk ) 17:24, 27 September 2016 (UTC)

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Neutrality
The article has been tagged since 2015. There has been no discussion on the talk page. In the absence of any discussion, or if there has been the discussion has become dormant, I am remving the tag. I'll add it is not clear what the neutrality issue is, and no satisfactory explanation has been given.---- Work permit (talk) 02:06, 1 September 2019 (UTC)

VIAF
There are two VIAF id's that may qualify her. VIAF (130711883) that already mentioned in Wikidata and VIAF (140094723). It be good idea to update Wikidata and include also the last ons. --geageaTalk 23:44, 4 May 2020 (UTC)

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User talk:Horned1

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Happy Gilmore

Happy Gilmore is a 1996 American sports comedy film directed by Dennis Dugan, produced by Robert Simonds, and starring Adam Sandler in the title role, Christopher McDonald, Julie Bowen, and Carl Weathers.

It tells the story of an unsuccessful ice hockey player who discovers a newfound talent for golf and competes in a golfing tournament to save his grandmother's home from foreclosure. After winning, he suddenly becomes a big star on the pro golf tour and a working-class hero. The screenplay was written by Sandler and his writing partner Tim Herlihy, in their second feature collaboration after the previous year's Billy Madison. The film also marks the first of several collaborations between Sandler and Dugan.

Happy Gilmore was released in theaters on February 16, 1996, by Universal Pictures. Despite receiving mixed reviews from critics, the film was a commercial success, earning $41.2 million on a $12 million budget, and it won an MTV Movie Award for Best Fight for Sandler and Bob Barker. As of 2024, a sequel is in development.

Plot
Happy Gilmore is a short-tempered, unsuccessful ice hockey player whose only skills are fighting and a powerful slapshot he learned from his late father. His inability to skate limits his professional prospects. When he returns home after yet another failed tryout, his girlfriend, Terry, a kindergarten teacher, leaves him because of his lack of success.

The next day, Happy learns that his grandmother owes the IRS $270,000 in back taxes; she has 90 days to pay off the debt or face foreclosure on her house. Happy sends his grandmother to a retirement home, where residents are secretly mistreated, until he can figure out a way to pay off the debt.

Two movers repossessing Happy's grandmother's furniture challenge him to a long-drive contest using his grandfather's old golf clubs. With an unorthodox, slapshot-style swing, Happy hits a ball some 400 yards thrice in a row, winning $40 from the movers. He then decides to start hustling golfers at a driving range and meets Chubbs Peterson, a former professional golf tour star who lost a hand in an alligator attack. Chubbs urges Happy to enter a local tournament where the winner will earn an automatic spot on the tour; Happy, desperate to reclaim his grandmother's house, agrees when Chubbs informs him of the significant prize money involved.

Happy wins the tournament and quickly becomes a fan favorite on the tour thanks to his extraordinarily long drives and unorthodox antics. He also meets arrogant Shooter McGavin, the dominant player on tour, who disapproves of Happy's lack of golf etiquette. Though his driving is incredible, Happy's putting is terrible, and his profane on-course tantrums soon draw the ire of tour Commissioner Doug Thompson. Tour public relations head Virginia Venit intervenes and persuades Thompson not to expel Happy from the tour, citing improved television ratings with a broader spectrum of viewers, higher attendance, and new sponsorship offers; she promises to help Happy with his anger. Happy improves his performance and behavior with Virginia's support, and the two form a romantic connection.

Shooter hires a heckler named Donald to taunt Happy at a Pepsi Pro-Am event in San Francisco; Happy plays poorly as a result of Donald's heckling, leading to a fistfight with his celebrity partner, Bob Barker. In a subsequent meeting about the brawl, Thompson decides not to expel Happy because of the high television ratings of the tournament but still gives him with a $25,000 fine and a one-month suspension.

Virginia secures Happy a lucrative endorsement deal with Subway to make up for the lost revenue, but Grandma Gilmore's house is still put up for auction by the IRS. Shooter, made aware of Grandma's situation, spitefully outbids Happy to buy the house. Happy strikes a deal with Shooter for the upcoming Tour Championship: If Happy wins, Shooter will return the house to Grandma, but if Shooter wins, Happy will quit the tour. Knowing he must improve his short game to win, Happy seeks out Chubbs, who helps Happy improve his putting by practicing at a miniature golf course. As thanks, Happy presents Chubbs with the head of the alligator that bit off his hand, but a startled Chubbs falls out a window to his death.

Happy is paired with Shooter for the Tour Championship. Shooter takes an early lead in the tournament, with Happy close in second. Determined to win the tournament for Chubbs and his grandmother, Happy plays well and leads at the end of the 3rd round. Shooter, desperate to finally win a Tour Championship and get rid of Happy, again hires Donald, who drives a car onto the course and runs over Happy, impairing his long-drive ability and focus. Shooter takes the lead again, but Happy, encouraged by his grandmother, rallies to tie him.

On the 18th and final hole, Shooter puts his tee shot in the crowd, but is still able to save par with a long putt. Right before Happy tries his putt for the win, a television tower damaged by Donald's car falls onto the green and blocks Happy's line to the hole, but Happy miraculously uses it as a Rube Goldberg machine to sink his putt for the win. Enraged, Shooter tries to steal Happy's gold jacket but is beaten by a mob of fans led by Happy's imposing ex-boss, Mr. Larson. Happy, Grandma Gilmore, his caddy Otto, and Virginia celebrate at his grandmother's house, where Happy sees a vision of a two-handed Chubbs with Abraham Lincoln and the alligator waving to him in the heavens above.

Development
Happy Gilmore was directed by Dennis Dugan, and written by Saturday Night Live (SNL) alumni Tim Herlihy and Adam Sandler. Herlihy and Sandler were roommates in college and wrote stand-up comedy together, before moving on to screenplays. After Sandler was fired from SNL in 1995, he moved on to films. He and Herlihy wrote Billy Madison (1995), which proved successful for distributor Universal Pictures. As such, Herlihy and Sandler began a new project. In an office during a brainstorming session, they came up with a high-concept premise for a film about a "hockey player who smacks a 400 yard drive". Judd Apatow performed a script rewrite, although he went uncredited.

The Happy Gilmore character is loosely based on Sandler's childhood friend Kyle McDonough, who played ice hockey and would golf with Sandler as they grew up. Sandler could never hit the ball as far as McDonough, and figured that McDonough's hockey skills gave him an edge. Meanwhile, Chubbs Peterson's missing hand is an in-joke referencing actor Carl Weathers' film Predator (1987), which depicts his character losing his arm. Herlihy and Sandler included any joke that made them laugh and do not remember who came up with which, although Herlihy takes credit for Shooter McGavin's "I eat pieces of shit like you for breakfast" line. In a 1994 interview, Sandler cited the golf comedy Caddyshack (1980), a film he and Herlihy bonded over in college, as inspiration.

Former pro golfer Mark Lye served as a consultant on the script, and told Herlihy and Sandler after seeing their initial ideas, "You gotta be crazy. You cannot do a movie like that." According to Lye, the initial drafts featured Happy winning the Masters Tournament: "They had the green jacket. They were desecrating the USGA. Making fun of Augusta National." He suggested that Happy win a fictional tournament, and Herlihy and Sandler changed the jacket's color from green to gold. Lye also disliked the unrealistic nature of early drafts, which depicted Happy repeatedly making 400-yard drives, so he took the crew to a PGA Tour event so they could understand the atmosphere of golf. The final script, the one Lye gave approval, was Herlihy and Sandler's fifth draft.

Dugan became attached to direct through Sandler. Years earlier, Dugan had attempted to cast Sandler in one of his films, but the producers did not let him because Sandler was not well-known. "A couple of years later, [Sandler] is big", Dugan said. "I wanted to be hired to direct Happy Gilmore with him. I walk in the room, and he says: 'You're the guy who wanted to give me that part. I don't need to know anything else, I want to work with you.'" Happy Gilmore was produced on a budget of $12 million and filmed entirely at locations in British Columbia. Most scenes taking place at golf courses were filmed at Pitt Meadows at the Swan-e-set Bay Resort & Country Club, while interior shots, such as those in the broadcast booth, took place in an abandoned Vancouver hospital. Arthur Albert served as cinematographer, while Mark Lane was the set decorator. Devo frontman Mark Mothersbaugh composed the film's soundtrack.

Casting
Christopher McDonald declined the role of Shooter McGavin twice because he was tired of playing villains and wanted to spend more time with his family. Kevin Costner was approached but turned it down in favor of another 1996 golf-themed comedy, Tin Cup, while Bruce Campbell lobbied hard for the part. McDonald became interested in the role after winning a round of golf, and decided to take it after he met with Sandler. According to McDonald, Dugan "didn't want to see the Bad Guy 101 again" and gave McDonald the freedom to improvise on set.

Happy Gilmore features appearances from Richard Kiel, known for playing Jaws in the James Bond film series; Bob Barker, the host of The Price Is Right; and Verne Lundquist, a golf sportscaster.

According to Lundquist, he filmed his scenes in the abandoned hospital as production wrapped. Sandler's New York University roommate Jack Giarraputo sat next to Lundquist in every shot, as Sandler wanted him to appear in the film. In 2016, Lundquist stated he still gets a monthly $34 check from the Screen Actors Guild for his appearance in the film.

According to Sandler, Ed McMahon was originally hired to do the fight scene instead of Bob Barker, but McMahon changed his mind when he learned about the movie's crude humor and didn't want to lose the fight, so Bob Barker was chosen because Chuck Norris was Barker's neighbor and taught him karate and Sandler rewrote the script to make Barker win the fight.

Filming
Filming took place from July 6 to September 1, 1995, in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

Box office
Happy Gilmore was a commercial success, ranking number two at the U.S. box office on its debut weekend with $8.5 million in revenue, behind Broken Arrow. The film was made for $12 million and grossed a total of $41.2 million worldwide, with $38.8 million of that at the North American domestic box office.

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, Happy Gilmore has an approval rating of 62% based on 55 reviews, with an average rating of 5.9/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Those who enjoy Adam Sandler's schtick will find plenty to love in this gleefully juvenile take on professional golf; those who don't, however, will find it unfunny and forgettable." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 31 out of 100 based on 14 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade "B+" on an A+ to F scale.

Brian Lowry of Variety stated that "The general tone nevertheless makes it difficult to elevate the gags beyond an occasional chuckle". Lowry only noted a few scenes he found inspired, including the fight scene with Bob Barker and when Happy attempts to find his "Happy Place" which was described as "Felliniesque". Roger Ebert gave the film one and a half stars out of four, stating that Adam Sandler's character "doesn't have a pleasing personality: He seems angry even when he's not supposed to be, and his habit of pounding everyone he dislikes is tiring in a PG-13 movie". Ebert also noted the film's product placement stating that he "probably missed a few, but I counted Diet Pepsi, Pepsi, Pepsi Max, Subway, Budweiser (in bottles, cans, and Bud-dispensing helmets), Michelob, Visa cards, Bell Atlantic, AT&T, Sizzler, Red Lobster, Wilson, Golf Digest, the ESPN sports network, and Top-Flite golf balls". Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a grade "D+" calling it "A one-joke Caddyshack for the blitzed and jaded," although he did praise Sandler's confident performance.

Darren Bignell of Empire wrote: "The real surprise is that it's a lot of fun, with Sandler becoming more personable as the film progresses, and a couple of truly side-splitting scenes."

The Lord of the Rings, A History of Violence and Eastern Promises actor Viggo Mortensen is reportedly a fan of the film.

Among golfers
The film has developed a cult following in the golf community, with Golf.com, Consequence of Sound, and Golf Digest praising the film, predominantly praising the villain Shooter McGavin.

The "Happy Gilmore swing", featuring a walking or running approach, is often imitated or attempted for fun, including by touring golf professionals. Three-time major champion Pádraig Harrington is particularly well known for his impression and even uses the technique in training. The TV series Sport Science has featured Harrington's "Happy Gilmore swing", demonstrating how it can indeed generate additional distance, though at the cost of accuracy.

Long drive champion and professional golfer Jamie Sadlowski, also a former hockey player who can hit golf balls over 400 yards, has been called "the real-life version of Happy Gilmore".

Lee Trevino regretted his appearance in the film and said he would not have done it if he had known how much swearing there would be in the movie.

In 2020, McDonald reprised his role as Shooter in the trailer for the video game PGA Tour 2K21.

Bob Barker fight
The scene with Barker beating up Gilmore increased interest in The Price Is Right among younger demographics, particularly young men. Barker said that someone in the audience asked him about Happy Gilmore almost every day. Barker parodied the Happy Gilmore fight in a 2014 episode of The Bold and the Beautiful, where he fought Wyatt Spencer after arguing with him.

In 2015, Sandler and Barker reenacted their fight for the Comedy Central Night of Too Many Stars fundraiser in aid of autism charities.

The fight scene was also highlighted in special primetime episodes of The Price Is Right, as well as various news articles that announced Barker's death on August 26, 2023, at the age of 99.

Sequel
In September 2022, Sandler stated that he hoped to eventually make a sequel, saying he had creating ideas for what a follow-up film would be, while stating the character would be involved in a senior golf tour.

In March 2024, Christopher McDonald stated in an interview that he had been shown a first draft of the script of the sequel by Sandler, reviving speculation of a sequel being made. On May 15, 2024, Netflix confirmed a sequel was in development.

title: Happy Gilmore


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Kokomo
Every town has its little festivals: Bastille Days on the county courthouse lawn, Soap Box Derbies, barbeque festivals, art shows, science fairs and the like. Unless you can find some substantial coverage beyond the obligatory "The Boy Scout Jamboree is coming" coverage in the local daily and rote listings in the local alternative newsweekly or shopper, articles about cities and towns should not be cluttered with such fluff. I could have been even more brutal with that section; many of our best articles on places have no such content whatsoever. Frankly, it detracts from the seriousness of the article to even list such things. -- Orange Mike |  Talk  15:37, 27 September 2013 (UTC)

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Hi Jcmiller1215, Six months ago, you put an advice starting by “This article needs attention from an expert in Mathematics...” at the beginning of the following article: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weber_problem. After six months, I wonder if there is any reason to keep the advice there. Since the creation of the article, I see that at least two mathematicians have added to the original text: one introduced a mathematical development about Kuhn and Kuenne’s algorithm, and the other one added a section “External links”. Moreover, Michael Hardy, a Wikipedia’s mathematician, had checked the article in July 2013. Since your introducing the advice, the article has been verified by a physicist (N.B.: the Fermat, Weber and attraction-repulsion problems deal with equilibria of forces; therefore, they are physics problems). No one has pointed out any mathematical error. Sincerely yours.Analepte (talk) 16:00, 25 March 2014 (UTC)

I have removed the request. Honestly I had for got about it so I thank you for reminding me. Jcmiller1215 (talk) 16:06, 25 March 2014 (UTC)

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text:
Nabatieh refugee camp

Nabatieh (نبطية) was a Palestinian refugee camp in southern Lebanon.

In May and June 1974, the Israeli Air Force bombed the camp, reducing most of it to rubble and dispersing the survivors, many of whom were moved to Ein el-Helweh.

The 1974 film They Do Not Exist by Palestinian filmmaker Mustafa Abu Ali documents the destruction of Nabatieh refugee camp.

External links and references

 * https://www.un.org/unrwa/refugees/lebanon.html
 * http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/9b371b1e35e5b30985256866006a88ec?OpenDocument
 * They Do Not Exist - Film by Mustafa Abu Ali

title: Nabatieh refugee camp


text:
PNV

PNV may refer to:

Political parties

 * Basque Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista Vasco)
 * For Our Valley (Pour Notre Vallée), centrist party in the Aosta Valley, Italy
 * Venetian National Party (Partito Nasionał Veneto), Venetian separatist and libertarian party, Italy

Other meanings

 * Prenatal vitamins
 * Potential natural vegetation
 * Pinigura, a language of Western Australia (ISO 639-3 code: pnv)

title: PNV


text:
Luzhniki Stadium

The Grand Sports Arena of the Luzhniki Olympic Complex, commonly known as Luzhniki Stadium, is the national stadium of Russia, located in its capital city, Moscow. Its total seating capacity of 81,000 makes it the largest football stadium in Russia and the ninth-largest stadium in Europe. The stadium is a part of the Luzhniki Olympic Complex, and is located in Khamovniki District of the Central Administrative Okrug of Moscow city. The name Luzhniki derives from the flood meadows in the bend of Moskva River where the stadium was built, translating roughly as "The Meadows". The stadium is located at Luzhniki Street, 24, Moscow.

Luzhniki was the main stadium of the 1980 Olympic Games, hosting the opening and closing ceremonies, as well as some of the competitions, including the athletics and final of the football tournament. A UEFA Category 4 stadium, Luzhniki hosted the UEFA Cup final in 1999 and UEFA Champions League final in 2008. The stadium also hosted such events as Summer Universiade, Goodwill Games and World Athletics Championships. It was the main stadium of the 2018 FIFA World Cup and hosted 7 matches of the tournament, including the opening match and the final.

In the past, its field has been used as the home ground for many years of football rivals Spartak Moscow and CSKA Moscow. It is currently used for some matches of the Russia national football team, as well as being used for various other sporting events and for concerts. Luzhniki Stadium is currently the temporary home ground of FC Torpedo Moscow.

Location
The stadium is located in Khamovniki District of the Central Administrative Okrug of Moscow city, south-west of the city center. The name Luzhniki derives from the flood meadows in the bend of Moskva River where the stadium was built, translating roughly as "The Meadows". It was necessary to find a very large plot of land, preferably in a green area close to the city center that could fit into the transport map of the capital without too much difficulty.

According to one of the architects: "On a sunny spring day of 1954, we, a group of architects and engineers who were tasked with designing the Central stadium, climbed onto a large paved area on the Lenin Hills [which after the Soviet era would revert to their old name, the Sparrow Hills ]... the proximity of the river, green mass of clean, fresh air – this circumstance alone mattered to select the area of the future city of sports... In addition, Luzhniki is located relatively close to the city center and convenient access to major transport systems with all parts of the capital".

Playing surface
It was one of the few major European football stadia to use an artificial pitch, having installed a FIFA-approved FieldTurf pitch in 2002. However, a temporary natural grass pitch was installed for the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final. The game between Chelsea and Manchester United was the first UEFA Champions League final held in Russia. On the match day, UEFA gave Luzhniki its elite status.

In August 2016 a permanent hybrid turf was installed, consisting of 95 percent natural grass reinforced with plastic.

Background and early years
On 23 December 1954, the Government of the USSR adopted a resolution on the construction of a stadium in the Luzhniki area in Moscow. The decision of the Soviet Government was a response to a specific current international situation: By the early 1950s, Soviet athletes took to the world stage for the first time after World War II (rus. the Great Patriotic War), participating in the Olympic Games. The 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki brought the Soviet team 71 medals (of which 22 gold) and second place in the unofficial team standings.

It was a success, but the increased athletic development of the Soviet Union, which was a matter of state policy, required the construction of a new sports complex. The proposed complex was to meet all modern international standards and at the same time serve as a training base for the Olympic team and arena for large domestic and international competitions.

The stadium was built in 1955–56 as the Grand Arena of the Central Lenin Stadium. The design began in January 1955 and was completed in 90 days by the architects Alexander Vlasov, Igor Rozhin, Nikolai Ullas, Alexander Khryakov and engineers Vsevolod Nasonov, Nikolai Reznikov, Vasily Polikarpov. Building materials came from Leningrad and the Armenian SSR, electrical and oak beams for the spectator benches from the Ukrainian SSR, furniture from Riga and Kaunas, glass was brought from Minsk, electrical equipment from Podolsk in Moscow Oblast, and larch lumber from Irkutsk in Siberia. It was necessary to demolish a whole area of dilapidated buildings (including the Trinity Church, which is supposed to be restored). Because the soil was heavily waterlogged, almost the entire area of the foundations of the complex had to be raised half a meter. 10,000 piles were hammered into the ground and dredgers reclaimed about 3 million cubic metres of soil. The total area of the stadium occupies 160 hectares. Eight thousand people moved home to make place for the stadium. The Church Tikhvin, an architectural monument of the 18th century was moved, too.

The stadium was officially opened on 31 July 1956, with a friendly football match between the RSFSR and China. 100 thousand spectators welcomed the event. The stadium was built in just 450 days. It was the national stadium of the Soviet Union, and is now the national stadium of Russia. In 1960 a 26-foot bronze statue of Lenin by sculptor Matvei Manizer, which was created for Expo 58 in Brussel, was placed on the square in front of the main stadium entrance.

On 10, 11 and 12 June 1958, the first motorcycle speedway races to be held in the Soviet Union were conducted at the stadium. However, the stadium became better known for hosting ice speedway and it held the final of the Individual Ice Speedway World Championship in 1966, 1967, 1975 and 1984.

1980 Summer Olympics
In 1976–1979 the sports complex was repaired for the first time. The stadium was the chief venue for the 1980 Summer Olympics, the spectator capacity being 103,000 at that time. The events hosted in this stadium were the opening and closing ceremonies, athletics, football finals, and the individual jumping grand prix. Then General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee and Chairman of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet Leonid Brezhnev declared the XXII Summer Olympic Games open.

1982 Luzhniki disaster
On 20 October 1982, disaster struck during a UEFA Cup match between FC Spartak Moscow and HFC Haarlem. 66 people died in the crowd crush, which made it Russia's worst sporting disaster and most infamous cover-up at the time.

1990s and 2000s
In the spring of 1992, the state enterprise, including the sports complex, was privatized and renamed the Luzhniki Olympic Complex, and by June of the same year, Lenin's name was removed. An extensive renovation in 1996 saw the construction of a roof over the stands, and the refurbishment of the seating areas, resulting in a decrease in capacity. Till the renovation, the stadium could accommodate 81 thousand people.

In 1998, the stadium was listed by UEFA in the list of 5-star European football stadiums.

The stadium hosted the 1999 UEFA Cup Final in which Parma defeated Marseille in the second UEFA Cup final to be played as a single fixture.

The Luzhniki Stadium was chosen by the UEFA to host the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final won by Manchester United who beat Chelsea in the first all-English Champions League final on 21 May. The match passed incident-free and a spokesman for the British Embassy in Moscow said, "The security and logistical arrangements put in place by the Russian authorities have been first-rate, as has been their cooperation with their visiting counterparts from the UK."

In August 2013, the stadium hosted the World Athletics Championships.

Renovation for FIFA World Cup
The original stadium was demolished in 2013 to give a way for the construction of a new stadium. However, the self-supported cover was retained. The facade wall was retained as well, due to its architectural value, and was later reconnected to the new building. Construction of the new stadium was completed in 2017. The total cost of repairs was 24 billion rubles.

The 2018 FIFA World Cup was held in Russia with the Luzhniki Stadium selected as the venue for the opening match and also the final, which was held on 15 July 2018. For the 2018 World Cup the stadium organized six checkpoints with 39 inspection lanes and seven pedestrian points with 427 points for the passage of spectators. About 900 scanners, 3000 cameras and monitors were installed. Special seats were provided for fans with disabilities. The stadium's capacity was increased from 78,000 to 81,000 seats, partly caused by the removal of the athletics track around the pitch. In 2018 FIFA named the stadium as best arena in the world.

The stadium joins Rome's Stadio Olimpico, London's old Wembley Stadium, Berlin's Olympiastadion and Munich's Olympiastadion as the only stadiums to have hosted the finals of the FIFA World Cup and UEFA's European Cup/Champions League and featured as a main stadium of the Summer Olympic Games. Saint Denis' Stade de France is scheduled to become another in 2024.

Largest sport events

 * 1956 – Summer Spartakiad of the Peoples of the USSR.
 * 1957 – Ice Hockey World Championship.
 * 1957 – VI World Festival of Youth and Students.
 * 1961 – World Modern Pentathlon Championship.
 * 1962 – World Speed Skating Championship.
 * 1973 – Summer Universiade.
 * 1974 – World Modern Pentathlon Championship.
 * 1979 – VII Spartakiad of the Peoples of the USSR.
 * 1980 – Summer Olympic Games, including opening and closing ceremonies.
 * 1984 – Friendship Games, including opening and closing ceremonies.
 * 1984 – 1984 Individual Ice Speedway World Championship
 * 1985 – XII World Festival of Youth and Students.
 * 1986 – Goodwill Games, including the opening ceremony.
 * 1997 – Russia vs. FIFA team in honor of the 850th anniversary of Moscow, the 100th anniversary of Russian football and the opening after the reconstruction of the Luzhniki stadium.
 * 1998 – First World Youth Games, including the opening ceremony.
 * 1999 – UEFA Cup final: Olympique de Marseille (France) vs. Parma (Italy).
 * 2008 – UEFA Champions League final: Manchester United (England) vs. Chelsea (England)
 * 2013 – Rugby World Cup Sevens.
 * 2013 – World Championships in Athletics.
 * 2018 – FIFA World Cup, including the final match.

Concerts and other events

 * 1987 – Festival of Soviet-Indian Friendship.
 * 12–13 August 1989 – The Moscow Music Peace Festival was held at the stadium. Bands such as Bon Jovi, Scorpions, Ozzy Osbourne, Skid Row, Mötley Crüe, Cinderella, Gorky Park took part in the event.
 * 24 June 1990 – As part of the festival of the newspaper Moskovsky Komsomolets, the last concert of Viktor Tsoi and Kino took place.
 * 29 June 1991 – As part of the holiday of the newspaper Moskovsky Komsomolets, Oleg Gazmanov took part in the concert. It was the last time the Olympic flame was lit at the stadium.
 * 20 June 1992 – A concert took place in memory of Viktor Tsoi. DDT, Alisa, Nautilus Pompilius, Joanna Stingray, Brigada S, Chaif, Kalinov Most, and others took part in the event.
 * 15 September 1993 – A concert by Michael Jackson took place as part of the Dangerous World Tour; this was Jackson's first performance in Russia.
 * 11 August 1998 – The Rolling Stones performed at the stadium for the first time in Russia.
 * 28 February 2003 – Agata Kristi played a concert in honour of its 15th anniversary.
 * 12 September 2006 – Madonna came to Russia and performed at the stadium for the first time, as part of her world Confessions Tour.
 * 18 July 2007 – Metallica played a concert at the stadium for the first time, 16 years after the first arrival in Russia, as part of the Sick of the Studio '07 tour.
 * 26 July 2008 – The holiday "MosKomSport – 85 years" was held. During it a concert took place, in which the bands U-Piter, Chaif, Crematory, and others took part.
 * 25 August 2010 – A U2 concert took place as part of the U2 360° Tour.
 * 22 July 2012 – The Red Hot Chili Peppers with the support of Gogol Bordello gave a concert on the stage of the complex.
 * 2011–2013 – A musical competition Factor A was held in the complex.
 * 31 May 2014 – A concert of the Mashina Vremeni dedicated to the band's 45th anniversary was held in front of the stadium, which was closed for the renovation.
 * 29 August 2018 – Imagine Dragons performed at the stadium as part of the Evolve World Tour.
 * 29 July 2019 – Rammstein performed during the European half of the Rammstein Stadium Tour.

Notable events
When the Luzhniki Stadium hosted the final game of the 1957 Ice Hockey World Championship between Sweden and the Soviet Union, it was attended by a crowd of 55,000 and set a new world record at the time. On 23 May 1963, Fidel Castro made a historic speech in Luzhniki Stadium during his record 38-day visit to the Soviet Union.

New Japan Pro-Wrestling, the Japanese professional wrestling promotion, ran a show in 1989. Luzhniki Stadium also makes an appearance in the Russian supernatural thriller film Night Watch (Ночной дозор, Nochnoy Dozor), during the power shut-down scene when the power station goes into overload. The stadium is seen with a match taking place, and then the lights go out.

In 2008, Manchester United beat Chelsea on penalties after a 1–1 draw to win their third European Cup. This was United's third appearance in the final, and Chelsea's first.

On 18 March 2022, Russian president Vladimir Putin held a rally at the stadium marking the eighth anniversary of the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation and to draw support for Russia's invasion of Ukraine. It was attended by approximately 200,000 supporters, according to police, with media reports suggesting that state employees were bussed to the rally while others were paid or forced to attend.

2018 FIFA World Cup
Luzhniki Stadium hosted seven games of the 2018 FIFA World Cup, including the opening and the final matches.

Security measures
During the World Cup, Luzhniki had six access control stations with 39 inspection lines, and seven access control points with 427 entrances for fans arriving on foot. The grounds were serviced by 3,000 surveillance cameras and about 900 scanners, monitors, and detectors.

title: Luzhniki Stadium


text:
Ballard, Seattle

Ballard is a neighborhood in the northwestern area of Seattle, Washington, United States. Formerly an independent city, the City of Seattle's official boundaries define it as bounded to the north by Crown Hill (N.W. 85th Street), to the east by Greenwood, Phinney Ridge and Fremont (along 3rd Avenue N.W.), to the south by the Lake Washington Ship Canal, and to the west by Puget Sound's Shilshole Bay. Other neighborhood or district boundaries existed in the past; these are recognized by various Seattle City Departments, commercial or social organizations, and other Federal, State, and local government agencies.

Landmarks of Ballard include the Ballard Locks, the National Nordic Museum, the Shilshole Bay Marina, and Golden Gardens Park. The neighborhood's main thoroughfares running north–south are Seaview, 32nd, 24th, Leary, 15th, and 8th Avenues N.W. East–west traffic is carried by N.W. Leary Way and N.W. 85th, 80th, 65th, and Market Streets. The Ballard Bridge carries 15th Avenue over Salmon Bay to the Interbay neighborhood, and the Salmon Bay Bridge carries the BNSF Railway tracks across the bay, west of the Ballard Locks.

Ballard is located entirely within Seattle City Council District 6, which also includes the neighborhoods of Crown Hill, Green Lake and Phinney Ridge, as well as most of Fremont, North Beach/Blue Ridge, and Wallingford. Ballard is part of the Seattle Public Schools and the Washington State Legislature's 36th legislative district. At the federal level, Ballard is part of the United States House of Representatives's 7th congressional district.

Early settlement
The area now called Ballard was settled by the Dxʷdəwʔabš (Duwamish) Tribe after the last glacial period. There were plentiful salmon and clams in the region. The Shilshole area was home to a settlement that has since been excavated; its artifacts are in the collection of the Burke Museum in the University District. According to oral traditions from before European contact, the group living around Shilshole may have been in decline due to a "great catastrophe". The remaining dozen or fewer families were evicted by non-Coast Salish settlers in the mid-19th century. One source suggests that the decline of the Shilshole dwelling Salish might have been due to raids from other groups from farther north (Queen Charlotte's Island) and that these raids also alarmed non-Native settlers. The last member of the Shilshole native group, named HWelch’teed or "Salmon Bay Charlie", was forcibly removed to allow construction of the Hiram Chittenden Locks in 1915 or 1916.

The first European resident in the area, homesteader Ira Wilcox Utter, moved to his claim in 1853. Utter hoped to see a rapid expansion of population, but when this did not happen, he sold the land to Thomas Burke, a judge. Thirty-six years later, Judge Burke, together with John Leary and railroader Daniel H. Gilman, formed the West Coast Improvement Company to develop Burke's land holdings in the area. They anticipated the building of the Great Northern Railway along the Salmon Bay coastline on the way to Interbay and central Seattle. The partners also built a spur from Fremont's main line of the Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern Railway. Today three miles (5 km) of this line, running along Salmon Bay from N.W. 40th Street to the BNSF Railway mainline at N.W. 67th, are operated as the Ballard Terminal Railroad.

During the late 19th century Captain William Rankin Ballard, owner of land adjoining Judge Burke's holdings, joined the partnership with Burke, Leary, and Gilman. Then, in 1887 the partnership was dissolved and the assets divided, but no one wanted the land in Salmon Bay so the partners flipped a coin. Capt. Ballard lost the coin-toss and ended up with the "undesirable" 160 acre tract.

The railroad to Seattle ended at Salmon Bay because the railroad company was unwilling to build a trestle to cross the bay. From the stop at "Ballard Junction," (as the terminus was called) passengers could walk across the wagon bridge and continue the journey to Seattle. In addition to gaining notoriety as the end of the railway line, the fledgling town of Ballard benefited economically from the railway because the railroad provided a way to bring supplies into the area and also to export locally manufactured products. Ability to ship products spurred the growth of mills of many types. Ballard's first mill, built in 1888 by Mr. J Sinclair was a lumber mill; the second mill, finished the same year was a shingle mill. After the Great Seattle Fire in 1889 the mills provided opportunities for those who had lost jobs in the fire, which in turn spurred the growth of the settlement as families moved north to work in the mills. Ballard experienced an influx of Scandinavian immigrants during this period, and Scandinavian culture and traditions would be influential on Ballard as it developed.

City of Ballard
With the rapid population growth, residents realized that there might soon be a need for laws to keep order, a process that would require a formal government. In the late summer of 1889, the community discussed incorporating as a town but eventually rejected the idea of incorporation. The issue pressed, however, and several months later, on November 4, 1889, the residents again voted on the question and this time they voted to incorporate. The first mayor of Ballard was Charles F. Treat. A municipal census, conducted shortly after the passing vote showed that the new town of Ballard had more than 1500 residents, allowing it to be the first "third-class town" to be incorporated in the newly-admitted State of Washington.

By 1900, Ballard's population had grown to 4,568, making it the seventh-largest city in Washington, and the town was faced with many of the problems common to small towns. Saloons had been a problem since the beginning, and in 1904, the drinking and gambling had become so bad that the mayor ordered the City of Ballard officially closed for the day to prevent gambling. The city also faced problems with loose livestock and so the Cow Ordinance of 1903 made allowing cows to graze south of present-day 65th St. a punishable offense. The city faced more serious problems, however, with two of the most difficult being the lack of both a proper water supply and a sewer system. The one weakness of the location on Salmon Bay was the lack of nearby freshwater springs, which meant that water came from local ground water wells. Lack of a proper sewage system contaminated the ground water, compounding the problem.

The town continued to grow and reached 17,000 residents by 1907 to become the second-largest city in King County. However Ballard, like many of the other small cities surrounding Seattle continued to be plagued by water problems. The rapid population growth had overwhelmed the city's ability to provide services, particularly safe drinking water and sewers, and Ballard's city government had tried unsuccessfully to deal with the crises. That made the citizens begin to consider asking Seattle to annex the town. In 1905, the question was voted on and the residents voted against annexation since they hoped for a solution, but the problems refused to go away. In July 1906, the Supreme Court of Washington ruled that Seattle was not allowed to provide water service to surrounding communities. Ballard had been dependent on a water sharing agreement with Seattle, but the Supreme Court decision left it with inadequate water and forced a second vote on the annexation question. By then, the residents realized the inability of local resources to cope with their situation and the majority of residents voted in favor of annexation. On May 29, 1907 at 3:45 a.m, the City of Ballard officially became part of Seattle. On that day, Ballard citizens showed their mixed feelings about the handover by draping their city hall with black crepe and flying the flag at half mast.

Modern history

During the early 20th century, the Ballard area was home to the Ballard shipbuilding company, which produced ships for the US Navy during World War II as well as ships for civilian purposes. The area was also home to a significant number of fisheries and canneries. These marine industries formed the backbone of the Ballard economy for much of the 20th century.

At the end of the 20th century Ballard began to experience a real-estate boom. By early 2007, nearly 20 major apartment/retail projects were under construction or had just been completed within a five-block radius of downtown Ballard. The new developments would add as many as 2500 new households to the neighborhood. This growth in urban density is the result of the neighborhood plan created by former Seattle Mayor Norm Rice. Mayor Rice's plan aimed to reduce suburban sprawl by targeting certain Seattle areas, including Ballard, for high-density development.

Over the years, Ballard has added venues for live music, including bars, restaurants and coffee shops. Each month the Ballard Chamber of Commerce sponsors the Second Saturday Artwalk.

Downtown Ballard is also home to the Majestic Bay Theater, which was the oldest operating movie theater on the West Coast prior to its closure in 1997. In 1998, it was renovated and transformed from a bargain single-screen theater to a well-appointed triplex. Downtown Ballard also boasts a variety of restaurants and local shops. The Deep Sea Fishermen's Union, which represents commercial fishermen, is based in Ballard.

Ballard Historical Society
The Ballard Historical Society is a volunteer-run non-profit historical society located in the Ballard neighborhood. The organization does not have any traditional exhibition space, but maintains a community presence through its self-guided historical tours, historical markers, lectures, community events, and collections. The Ballard Historical Society's collections include memorabilia, historical archives, photographs, and other objects relating to Ballard History. The society has made its photo archives available online. The organization has 501(c)(3) tax-exempt status.

Formed in 1988 with encouragement from the Ballard Centennial Committee in celebration of the Washington state centennial in 1989, the organization's establishment coincided with the publication of Passport to Ballard, a collection of essays on the neighborhood's history from pre-European settlement up through the 1980s. In April 2007, the Ballard Historical Society unveiled its Historic Markers, which can be seen on buildings in the Ballard Avenue Historic District.

The organization also co-produced, along with the Nordic Heritage Museum and Swedish-Finn Historical Society, Voices of Ballard: Immigrant Stories from the Vanishing Generation (2001), a book collecting oral histories from long-time Ballard residents who have made the neighborhood home since before the 1960s. The Ballard Walking Tour, a self-guided tour created by the organization, highlights 20 different historic sites on and around Ballard Avenue. The most recent illustrated Tour Brochure was released in February 2009.

Every three years the Ballard Historical Society organizes the Ballard Classic Homes Tour and features a different set of vintage homes in Ballard during each parade of houses.

Culture
Ballard is the traditional center of Seattle's ethnically Scandinavian seafaring community, who were drawn to the area because of the salmon fishing opportunities. The neighborhood's unofficial slogan, "Uff da", comes from an Almost Live! sketch that made fun of its Scandinavian culture. In recent years the proportion of Scandinavian residents has decreased but the neighborhood is still proud of its heritage. Ballard is home to the National Nordic Museum, which celebrates both the community of Ballard and the local Scandinavian history. Scandinavians unite in organizations such as the Sons of Norway Leif Ericson Lodge and the Norwegian Ladies Chorus of Seattle. Each year the community celebrates the Ballard SeafoodFest and Norwegian Constitution Day (also called Syttende Mai) on May 17 to commemorate the signing of the Norwegian Constitution.

Locals once nicknamed the neighborhood "Snoose Junction," a reference to the Scandinavian settlers' practice of using snus.

The Majestic Bay Theatre on Market Street is on the same location as the former Bay and Majestic theaters. Before closing for the new construction the Bay Theatre was the longest continuously operating movie theatre on the west coast after the closure of the Cameo in Los Angeles.

The neighborhood is home to a namesake soccer team, Ballard FC, which was founded in 2022 and plays in the fourth-division USL League 2. The semi-professional team is owned by a group led by former Seattle Sounders FC player Lamar Neagle and plays in nearby Interbay at the 1,000-seat Interbay Soccer Stadium.

Schools and libraries
The public schools in the neighborhood are part of the citywide Seattle Public Schools district. Ballard High School, located in the neighborhood, is the oldest continuously-operating high school in the city. The original building was demolished in the late 1990s. The new school building is now one of the largest in the district and houses a biotechnology magnet program that attracts students from all over Seattle. The high school has been supported by Amgen, Zymogenetics, G. M. Nameplate, the Youth Maritime Training Association, North Seattle Community College, Seattle City Light, and Swedish Hospital.

There are several elementary schools and one alternative school located in the neighborhood. The closest middle school is Whitman Middle School, which is located north of Ballard in the Crown Hill neighborhood.

 * Adams Elementary School (K-5)
 * Loyal Heights Elementary School (K-5)
 * Matheia School (K-5, private independent)
 * North Beach Elementary School (K-5)
 * Salmon Bay School (K-8)
 * St. Alphonsus School (K-8, Catholic)
 * West Woodland Elementary School (K-5)
 * Whittier Elementary School (K-5)

The Ballard Public Library was first created as the Carnegie Free Public Library in 1904. In 1907, after annexation, the library became part of the Seattle Public Library system. The original Carnegie building on Market Street was replaced with new construction on 24th Avenue NW in 1963. 42 years later, in 2005, a new library building on 22nd Avenue NW designed by architectural firm Bohlin Cywinski Jackson, was opened as part of the Seattle Public Library's "Libraries for All" initiative. The original Carnegie building on Market Street is a restaurant.

The Seattle Metaphysical Library, originally opened in the Pike Place Market in 1961, is now on Market Street in Ballard, and is open to the public and lends books to members.

Registered historic places
The following Ballard buildings, areas and landmarks are listed on the National Register of Historic Places:

Notable residents

 * James Acord – sculpture artist
 * Josh Barnett – UFC fighter
 * Carl Deuker – young adult sports author
 * Tom Douglas – restaurateur
 * Jerry Holkins - writer
 * Edith Macefield – real-estate holdout
 * Dori Monson – radio personality
 * Karsten Solheim (1911–2000) – founder of PING golf clubs

title: Ballard, Seattle


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Talk:List of Governors-General of the Irish Free State

Were there only three? There won't be anymore, right? This is not a list! :-> It will be a stub for an eternity. It is better merged into Governor-General of the Irish Free State (like what is done with US president, which, note, has a longer, ungoing list). --Menchi (Talk)ü| â 04:38, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I was just putting together a list for the list of incumbents page. There were a lot of offices that had only a handful of holders (eg, 2 Presidents of the Executive Council, 3 governors-general, 2 príomh Áire, 3 Presidents of the Republic, etc.) but they may need to be referenced separately as they refer to different, sometimes competing, constitutional systems. FearÉIREANN 05:47, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Not all of the lists on the incumbents page has the word "list" in its title. A good number of them are actually articles, such as President of the People's Republic of China. All offices with only a handful of holders and with their own articles should not have separate lists. I don't see why this shouldn't be merged. --Jiang | Talk 07:24, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)


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User:Alba/Work in progress

Pern is a fictional planet in the universe created by science fiction writer Anne McCaffrey for her Dragonriders of Pern series of novels.

Main article: Dragonriders of Pern

Historical synopsis
Pern was colonised by settlers from Earth who wanted to return to an agrarian society with a low level of technology. The name was originally a acronym: Parallel Earth, Resources Negligible (i.e., insufficient to support interstellar commercial investment). Shortly after the first colony was established, the settlers were devastated to discover that their chosen planet was not a safe place. Pern is subject to periodic attack from space by the destructive thread, a spaceborn spore that destroys everything organic it touches. Unable to retreat from the peril, the settlers developed methods of combatting the thread. "Holds" were dug into the cliffs for them to live in, and Pernese scientists "upgraded" a local reptilian lifeform, the fire-lizard, into full-sized flame-breathing telepathic dragons, who were able to sear the thread before it could fall to the ground. The dragonriders became a vitally important and highly respected profession, living in Weyrs, and as time progressed, the settlers forgot their Terran origins.

Planetary system data
Pern is the third of six planets in the Rukbat system (the Pernese star is also known as Alpha Sagittarii). In a departure from reality, Rukbat is a class G (yellow) star in the series; the real Rukbat is a blue, class B star. Pern has two moons, Belior and Timor (in order of distance). The Rukbat system in the novel also contains two asteroid belts and an Oort cloud. The Oort cloud and the sixth planet, the Red Star (a Sedna-class inner Oort cloud object), play a major role in the series, as they are the source of Thread.

Geography
Pern bears three continents, four major oceans, and a large number of islands. The largest continent, the Southern, is noted for large areas of grassland and jungle, as well as high tectonic and volcanic activity. The Northern Continent, in contrast, is relatively infertile composed primarily of 'shield' bedrock and is the most tectonically stable landmass on the planet. Not much is known of the small Far Western Continent, as it has never been explored; its existence is known only from orbital satellite surveys and maritime expeditions.

Pern is noted for its high incidence of cave systems, particularly in the Northern Continent. This feature heavily influenced the development of human society on the planet, as humans forced to take shelter in these caves eventually developed an intricate culture associated with cave-dwelling in a feudal society at a medieval - Renaissance level of technology.

Pern is relatively lacking in most major metals. Nonetheless, sufficient deposits of petroleum and metals exist to supply an high-technology agrarian society, though not a high-technology industrial one.

Although Pern has four major oceans, the only ocean of major concern to most inhabitants of Pern is the Southern, which seperates the Northern and Southern Continents. Few expeditions have explored the Western and Eastern Oceans to either side of the main continents, and the Ring Sea is known only from satellite observations.

The Southern Ocean is noted for its volatile weather and strong currents, which present a challenge for mariners. At least one tropical cyclone has occurred in the ocean in the course of the books.

Human settlement patterns
At the time of colonization, the eastern portion of the Southern Continent was selected as the most hospitable site to initiate the spread of civilization. Accordingly, Landing was established near the dormant volcano Mount Garben, on a fertile plateau near the Jordan River. Suitable stakeholds were established across much of the Southern Continent.

The advent of thread and the eruption of Mount Garben, both consequences of a close pass by the Red Star, forced the evacuation of, first Landing, and then the entire Southern Continent, to Fort Hold on the Northern Continent. Circumstances then constrained human settlement for the next twenty-five centuries to the tectonically stable, cave-riddled Northern Continent. During the Ninth Pass of the Red Star, population pressure and improved technology made possible the recolonization of the Southern Continent and the rediscovery of the original settlements.

title: User:Alba/Work in progress