text:
Pluto Kuiper Express

Pluto Kuiper Express was an interplanetary space probe that was proposed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) scientists and engineers and under development by NASA. The spacecraft was intended to be launched to study Pluto and its moon Charon, along with one or more other Kuiper belt objects (KBOs). The proposal was the third of its kind, after the Pluto 350 and a proposal to send a Mariner Mark II spacecraft to Pluto.

Originally conceived as Pluto Fast Flyby, and later briefly named Pluto Express, the mission was inspired by a 1991 United States Postal Service stamp that branded Pluto as "Not Yet Explored". The project brought on JPL engineers and students from the California Institute of Technology and, later, Alan Stern and other scientists from the Pluto 350 project. While the project was initiated in 1992, the project's development phase was lengthy, spending nearly a decade in the proposal and funding stage. During planning, the mission was changed to include a Kuiper belt object flyby and re-christened the Pluto Kuiper Express, after the discovery of numerous such objects beyond Neptune in the mid-to-late 1990s. NASA ultimately decided to cancel the mission in 2000, however, citing the project's expanding budget as the ultimate reason for the cancellation.

After the mission's cancellation, most of the Pluto Fast Flyby team, including Stern, went on to develop New Horizons, a mission nearly identical to Pluto Kuiper Express, for NASA's New Frontiers program. The spacecraft was successfully launched in January 2006, after a financial standoff with NASA and additional delays, and went on to perform the first ever flyby of the Pluto-Charon system in July 2015.

History
As proposed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in 1992, the Pluto Fast Flyby mission was to be two craft weighing 150 kg (330.7 lb) each. The voyage from Earth to Pluto was to take seven or eight years, with a launch as early as 1998. The two craft would be timed to view different sides of Pluto. The budget for the mission was said to be no more than $400-million, with NASA administrator Daniel Goldin wholeheartedly supporting the proposal.

By 1995, the proposed mission was known as Pluto Express, and pre-project manager Rob Staehle of JPL suggested a budget "in the neighborhood of $300 million". At this point the mission was still to have been twin spacecraft, and it was hoped it could be launched in 1998. NASA tried to negotiate with Russia for use of Proton rockets to launch the spacecraft, in exchange for carrying Russian "Drop Zond" probes to Pluto. Another idea, emanating from the Max Planck Institute, would have had Germany contribute funding for the launch, in exchange for Pluto Express carrying a German probe to be dropped at Io during the Jupiter gravity assist.

The timing of the mission was important, as it would have passed Pluto shortly before its atmosphere froze, which it was thought to do for a considerable part of its orbit. The mission's main objectives would have been to map Pluto's surface and examine the double system's geology and geomorphology, as well as determining the composition of Pluto's atmosphere. This last task would have been considerably more difficult after the start of atmospheric freezing. Scientific equipment on board would have included visible light imaging systems, infrared and ultraviolet spectrometers, and an ultrastable oscillator (USO) for use in a radio occultation experiment.

The spacecraft was to have been a simple hexagonal prism-shaped structure weighing some 220 kg (485 lb), powered by radioisotope thermal generators (RTGs) similar to those used on the Galileo and Cassini missions. On-board control and data collection would have been maintained by a 1.5 MIPS RISC-based computer system capable of processing data at 5 Mbit/s. This would have allowed for the transmission of over one gigabyte of data over a one-year period. Communications would have been via a fixed 1.47 m (5.6 ft) high-gain antenna, directionally corrected using a wide-field star tracker. Early in the mission's planning there was suggestion of combining efforts with the Russian space agency and including Zond probes to study the Plutonian atmosphere. This plan was later abandoned.

The Pluto Express was predicted to be launched in 2001, but it was not ready until late 2004. The spacecraft was to have been launched via either a Delta rocket or the Space Shuttle, most likely in December 2004. Had that happened, the only option would have been to use a Delta rocket, as the Shuttle fleet was grounded after the Columbia disaster. The course would have been initially via Jupiter, whose gravity well would have been used to increase the probe's velocity via a gravity assist. The closest approach distance to Pluto would have been about 15,000 km (9320.6 mi) at 17–18 km/s (38,027.9–40,264.9 mph), so as to allow for 1 km (0.6 mi) resolution mapping. After passing Pluto, the spacecraft would have used its imaging camera to search for Kuiper Belt objects.

In September 2000 NASA ceased work on the Pluto-Kuiper Express mission, although the agency said it was being "rethought and replanned", not scrapped. The mission's cost at that time was said by a NASA spokesperson to be an unaffordable $500 million (compared to an original budget of $350 million in 1999).

title: Pluto Kuiper Express


text:
Khoekhoe language

Khoekhoe (Khoekhoegowab, ), also known by the ethnic terms Nama (Namagowab), Damara (ǂNūkhoegowab), or Nama/Damara and formerly as Hottentot, is the most widespread of the non-Bantu languages of Southern Africa that make heavy use of click consonants and therefore were formerly classified as Khoisan, a grouping now recognized as obsolete. It belongs to the Khoe language family, and is spoken in Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa primarily by three ethnic groups: Namakhoen, ǂNūkhoen, and Haiǁomkhoen.

History
The Haiǁom, who had spoken a Juu language, later shifted to Khoekhoe. The name for the speakers, Khoekhoen, is from the word khoe "person", with reduplication and the suffix -n to indicate the general plural. Georg Friedrich Wreede was the first European to study the language, after arriving in ǁHui!gaeb (later Cape Town) in 1659.

Status
Khoekhoe is a national language in Namibia. In Namibia and South Africa, state-owned broadcasting corporations produce and broadcast radio programmes in Khoekhoe.

It is estimated that only around 167,000 speakers of Khoekhoe remain in Africa, which makes it an endangered language. In 2019, the University of Cape Town ran a series of short courses teaching the language, and 21 September 2020 launched its new Khoi and San Centre. An undergraduate degree programme is being planned to be rolled out in coming years.

Dialects
Modern scholars generally see three dialects:
 * Nama–Damara, incl. Sesfontein Damara
 * Haiǁom
 * ǂĀkhoe, itself a dialect cluster, and intermediate between Haiǁom and the Kalahari Khoe languages

They are distinct enough that they might be considered two or three distinct languages.

 * Eini (extinct) is also close but is now generally counted as a distinct language.

Vowels
There are 5 vowel qualities, found as oral and nasal. is strongly rounded, only slightly so. is the only vowel with notable allophony; it is pronounced before  or.

Tone
Nama has been described as having three or four tones,  or, which may occur on each mora (vowels and final nasal consonants). The high tone is higher when it occurs on one of the high vowels or on a nasal  than on mid or low vowels.

The tones combine into a limited number of 'tone melodies' (word tones), which have sandhi forms in certain syntactic environments. The most important melodies, in their citation and main sandhi forms, are as follows:

Stress
Within a phrase, lexical words receive greater stress than grammatical words. Within a word, the first syllable receives the most stress. Subsequent syllables receive less and less stress and are spoken more and more quickly.

Consonants
Nama has 31 consonants: 20 clicks and only 11 non-clicks.

Non-clicks
Orthography in brackets.

Between vowels, is pronounced  and  is pronounced. The affricate series is strongly aspirated, and may be analysed phonemically as aspirated stops; in the related Korana they are.

Beach (1938) reported that the Khoekhoe of the time had a velar lateral ejective affricate,, a common realisation or allophone of in languages with clicks. This sound no longer occurs in Khoekhoe but remains in its cousin Korana.

Clicks
The clicks are doubly articulated consonants. Each click consists of one of four primary articulations or "influxes" and one of five secondary articulation or "effluxes". The combination results in 20 phonemes.

The aspiration on the aspirated clicks is often light but is 'raspier' than the aspirated nasal clicks, with a sound approaching the ch of Scottish loch. The glottalised clicks are clearly voiceless due to the hold before the release, and they are transcribed as simple voiceless clicks in the traditional orthography. The nasal component is not audible in initial position; the voiceless nasal component of the aspirated clicks is also difficult to hear when not between vowels, so to foreign ears, it may sound like a longer but less raspy version of the contour clicks.

Tindall notes that European learners almost invariably pronounce the lateral clicks by placing the tongue against the side teeth and that this articulation is "harsh and foreign to the native ear". The Namaqua instead cover the whole of the palate with the tongue and produce the sound "as far back in the palate as possible".

Phonotactics
Lexical root words consist of two or rarely three moras, in the form CVCV(C), CVV(C), or CVN(C). (The initial consonant is required.) The middle consonant may only be w r m n (w is b~p and r is d~t), while the final consonant (C) may only be p, s, ts. Each mora carries tone, but the second may only be high or medium, for six tone "melodies": HH, MH, LH, HM, MM, LM.

Oral vowel sequences in CVV are. Due to the reduced number of nasal vowels, nasal sequences are. Sequences ending in a high vowel are pronounced more quickly than others, more like diphthongs and long vowels than like vowel sequences in hiatus. The tones are realised as contours. CVCV words tend to have the same vowel sequences, though there are many exceptions. The two tones are also more distinct.

Vowel-nasal sequences are restricted to non-front vowels:. Their tones are also realised as contours.

Grammatical particles have the form CV or CN, with any vowel or tone, where C may be any consonant but a click, and the latter cannot be NN. Suffixes and a third mora of a root, may have the form CV, CN, V, N, with any vowel or tone; there are also three C-only suffixes, -p 1m.sg, -ts 2m.sg, -s 2/3f.sg.

Orthography
There have been several orthographies used for Nama. A Khoekhoegowab dictionary (Haacke 2000) uses the modern standard.

In standard orthography, the consonants b d g are used for words with one of the lower tone melodies and p t k for one of the higher tone melodies; they are otherwise pronounced the same. W is only used between vowels, though it may be replaced with b or p according to tone. Overt tone marking is otherwise generally omitted.

Nasal vowels are written with a circumflex. All nasal vowels are long, as in hû 'seven'. Long (double) vowels are otherwise written with a macron, as in ā 'to cry, weep'; these constitute two moras (two tone-bearing units).

A glottal stop is not written at the beginning of a word (where it is predictable), but it is transcribed with a hyphen in compound words, such as gao-aob 'chief'.

The clicks are written using the IPA symbols:
 * ǀ (a vertical bar) for a dental click
 * ǁ (a double vertical bar) for a lateral click
 * ǃ (a bar with an under-dot, approximately an exclamation mark) for an alveolar click
 * ǂ (a bar with a double cross stroke) for a palatal click

Sometimes other characters are substituted, e.g. the hash (#) in place of ǂ.

Grammar
Nama has a subject–object–verb word order, three nouns classes (masculine/gu-class, feminine/di-class and neuter/n-class) and three grammatical numbers (singular, dual and plural). Pronominal enclitics are used to mark person, gender, and number on the noun phrases.

Person, gender and number markers
The PGN (person-gender-number) markers are enclitic pronouns that attach to noun phrases. The PGN markers distinguish first, second, and third person, masculine, feminine, and neuter gender, and singular, dual, and plural number. The PGN markers can be divided into nominative, object, and oblique paradigms.

Object
(PGN + i)

Oblique
(PGN + a)

Articles
Khoekhoe has four definite articles: ti, si, sa, ǁî. These definite articles can be combined with PGN markers.

Examples from Haacke (2013):

 * si-khom "we two males" (someone other than addressee and I)
 * sa-khom "we two males" (addressee and I)
 * ǁî-khom "we two males" (someone else referred to previously and I)

Clause headings
There are three clause markers, ge (declarative), kha (interrogative), and ko/km (assertive). These markers appear in matrix clauses, and appear after the subject.

Sample text
Following is a sample text in the Khoekhoe language.

 * Nē ǀkharib ǃnâ da ge ǁGûn tsî ǀGaen tsî doan tsîn; tsî ǀNopodi tsî ǀKhenadi tsî ǀhuigu tsî ǀAmin tsîn; tsî !kharagagu ǀaon tsîna ra hō.

 * In this region, we find springbuck, oryx, and duiker; francolin, guinea fowl, bustard, and ostrich; and also various kinds of snake.

Common words and phrases

 * ǃGâi tsēs – Good day
 * ǃGâi ǁgoas – Good morning
 * ǃGâi ǃoes – Good evening
 * Matisa – How are you?
 * ǃGâise ǃgû re – Goodbye
 * ǁKhawa mûgus – See you soon
 * Regkomtani – I'll manage
 * Tae na Tae – How's it hanging (direct translation "What is what")

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Khoekhoe language


text:
Nama

Nama or NAMA may refer to:

Biology

 * NAMA (gene), a long non-coding RNA gene
 * Nama (plant), a genus of plants in the family Boraginaceae
 * N-Acetylmuramic acid, a component of bacterial cell walls
 * North American Mycological Association, a learned society devoted to mushrooms and other fungi

Companies

 * Nama Chemicals, a Saudi Arabian industrial company
 * Nama (department store), a chain of department stores in Slovenia and a chain of department stores in Croatia

Food

 * Nama beer, Japanese term for draught beer
 * Nama (wine), used by the Greek Orthodox in the Divine Liturgy

Geology

 * Nama Group, group of stratigraphic sequences in Namibia
 * Nama assemblage, final Ediacaran biotic assemblage

Politics

 * National Asset Management Agency, Irish government agency dealing with land and property development loans
 * Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action, policies regarding greenhouse gas emissions
 * Non-Agricultural Market Access, the question of non-agricultural market access as debated in the WTO trade negotiations

Organizations

 * National Agri-Marketing Association, United States
 * National Movement of Amhara, a right-wing Amhara ethnic nationalist political party created in June 2018
 * National Archaeological Museum, Athens
 * National Automatic Merchandising Association, an American trade association for vending industries
 * Swedish National Academy of Mime and Acting

Places

 * Nama, Burkina Faso, village in the Tenkodogo Department, Boulgou Province
 * Nama (Chile), an archaeological site featuring pucará (ruined Inca fortifications)
 * Nama (crater), a crater on Callisto, a moon of Jupiter
 * Nama, India, a village at the foot of the Nama Pass
 * Nama (island), an island of the State of Chuuk in the Federated States of Micronesia
 * Nama, Nanning (那马镇), town in Liangqing District, Nanning, Guangxi, China
 * Nyoma, a village in India
 * Mingjian, the name of which was changed to Nama during Japanese rule

Peoples and languages

 * Nama people of Namibia and Namaqualand in South Africa
 * Nama language, the language spoken by the Nama
 * Nama language (Papuan), one of the Nambu languages of Papua New Guinea
 * Nama, a variety of the Tigon language of Cameroon

Other uses

 * Nāma, Pali and Sanskrit for "name"
 * Nama band, a Greek pop/jazz/new age music group
 * Namibian Annual Music Awards
 * Native American Music Awards
 * National Arts Merit Awards, annual award presented by the National Arts Council of Zimbabwe

title: Nama


text:
Talk:Ivonka Survilla

Untitled
What's a rada? moink 19:54, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Council. [[User:Halibutt|Halibutt]] 00:26, Aug 26, 2004 (UTC)

How could Ivonka Survilla start fighting Russian domination at the age of three? I would like to see the page edited to reflect a more reasonable age at which she started fighting for less Russian influence on Belarus. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Tommy6860 (talk • contribs) 01:44, 25 March 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Ivonka Survilla


text:
Modern Continental

Modern Continental was a construction company based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which was involved in the Boston "Big Dig" Central Artery/Tunnel Project. On June 23, 2008, the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in federal court in Boston.

History
Modern Continental Construction was a heavy-construction company and the original business in the Modern Continental group. Modern was one of the major contractors on the Central Artery/Tunnel Project, the largest single public works project in United States history. Modern was founded in 1967 by Kenneth Anderson and Italian immigrant Les Marino. On September 23, 2004, Marino announced plans to merge Modern Continental Construction and a subdivision of Jay Cashman, Inc.

Modern Continental Enterprises was a division of the company that built housing developments, built and managed office buildings, operated marinas, operated charter and tendered bus (Paul Revere Transportation) and ferry services *Boston Harbor Cruises), owned and operated an organic produce farm in Natick, Massachusetts, and operated an Italian restaurant (Ristorante Marino) in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Criticism
Throughout 2004, Modern Continental Construction endured mounting criticism for its failure to complete multiple projects on schedule and its financial stability was questioned. These including the Route 3 North highway-widening project in northeastern Massachusetts and a major drinking-water pipeline in the San Francisco Bay Area. MCC was to finish the widening of Route 3 in 42 months by early 2005, but incurred delays of an additional 8 months. The State of Massachusetts fined Modern $10,000 for each day the project was unfinished.

The East Bay Municipal Utility District terminated a $24.5 million contract with Modern in early 2004 due to Modern's failure to meet construction schedules, insufficient staffing and oversight, and numerous pipe defects that Modern was unable to correct. East Bay Municipal Utility District reversed the termination for cause to a termination for convenience.

Modern was also briefly dropped from Massachusetts' list of highway contractors qualified to bid on state-funded projects. Later that year, questions were raised about the workmanship on a Central Artery contract, for which Modern was the lead contractor, after a large leak was found in the Interstate 93 tunnel beneath downtown Boston which led to the disclosure and discovery of "thousands of leaks."

Ceiling collapse
On July 10, 2006, four three-ton concrete ceiling panels on Interstate 90 in South Boston, Massachusetts fell onto a car driven by Boston resident Angel Del Valle, injuring him and killing his wife Milena. The ceiling panel collapse has been attributed to the failure of bolts anchored into the structure with an epoxy adhesive from which the panels are hung. Modern Continental built that section of the highway in 1999. (See Big Dig for more details.)

Investigation
During the period after the ceiling panel collapse, a memo allegedly written in 1999 by John J. Keaveney, a former Modern Continental employee, to his Project Manager warning of the potential for failure of the hanger system was sent to the Boston Globe. Keaveney said that he sent it to the Globe with a current Modern Continental employee's name and office address on the envelope because he feared the consequences if it were known that he provided the newspaper with the memo. "I was worried about the repercussions and that it might affect my family and my livelihood," stated Keaveney.

Bankruptcy
On June 23, 2008, Modern Continental filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in federal court in Boston.

title: Modern Continental


text:
SEC

SEC or Sec may refer to:

Companies

 * Solar Entertainment Corporation, a Filipino media company
 * Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd., an electronics company

Government

 * Securities and Exchange Commission (disambiguation)
 * U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
 * State Electricity Commission of Victoria, Australia
 * State Examinations Commission, Ireland
 * State-owned Enterprises Commission, Taiwan

Science

 * Saga execution coordinator, a component of the saga interaction pattern in computer science
 * , the Sec secretion system in bacteria
 * Secant function, in mathematics
 * Size-exclusion chromatography
 * Space Weather Prediction Center, formerly Space Environment Center
 * Selenocysteine, an amino acid
 * Secondary Electron Conduction Tube, part of the Apollo TV camera
 * SEC experiment (Scattering Experiment Chambers) at CERN

Sports

 * Southeastern Conference, one of the major U.S. collegiate sports conferences
 * Southeast Conference in the Wisconsin Interscholastic Athletic Association
 * Speedway European Championship, motorcycle speedway competition

Places

 * Seč (disambiguation), places in Central Europe

Other uses

 * Dalek Sec, a Doctor Who character
 * Scottish Episcopal Church
 * Sec (wine), a French term used to indicate the sweetness level of a wine
 * SEC Armadillo (part of Scottish Event Campus), an auditorium located near the River Clyde, in Glasgow, Scotland.
 * SEC Centre (part of Scottish Event Campus), Scotland's largest exhibition centre, located in Glasgow, Scotland.
 * Secco, a musical term meaning "dry", "without resonance" or "quick"
 * Second, a unit of time
 * Section (typography), a subdivision, especially of a chapter, in books and documents
 * St Edmund's College, Ipswich
 * Mercedes-Benz SEC

title: SEC


text:
Wuchereria bancrofti

Wuchereria bancrofti is a filarial (arthropod-borne) nematode (roundworm) that is the major cause of lymphatic filariasis. It is one of the three parasitic worms, together with Brugia malayi and B. timori, that infect the lymphatic system to cause lymphatic filariasis. These filarial worms are spread by a variety of mosquito vector species. W. bancrofti is the most prevalent of the three and affects over 120 million people, primarily in Central Africa and the Nile delta, South and Central America, the tropical regions of Asia including southern China, and the Pacific islands. If left untreated, the infection can develop into lymphatic filariasis. In rare conditions, it also causes tropical pulmonary eosinophilia. No vaccine is commercially available, but high rates of cure have been achieved with various antifilarial regimens, and lymphatic filariasis is the target of the World Health Organization Global Program to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis with the aim to eradicate the disease as a public-health problem by 2020. However, this goal was not met by 2020.

Morphology
As a dioecious worm, W. bancrofti exhibits sexual dimorphism. The adult worm is long, cylindrical, slender, and smooth with rounded ends. It is white in colour and almost transparent. The body is quite delicate, making removing it from tissues difficult. It has a short cephalic or head region connected to the main body by a short neck, which appears as a constriction. Dark spots are dispersed nuclei throughout the body cavity, with no nuclei at the tail tip. Males and females can be differentiated by size and structure of their tail tips. The male worm is smaller, 40 mm long and 100 μm wide, and features a ventrally curved tail. The tip of the tail has 15 pairs of minute caudal papillae, the sensory organs. The anal region is an elaborate structure consisting of 12 pairs of papillae, of which eight are in front and four are behind the anus. In contrast, the female is 60 mm to 100 mm long and 300 μm wide, nearly three times larger in diameter than the male. Its tail gradually tapers and rounded at the tip. No additional sensory structures are seen. Its vulva lies towards the anterior region, about 0.25 mm from the head. Adult males and females are most often coiled together and are difficult to separate. Females are ovoviviparous and can produce thousands of juveniles known as microfilariae.

The microfilaria is a miniature adult, and retains the egg membrane as a sheath, and is often considered an advanced embryo. It measures 280 μm long and 25 μm wide. It appears quite structureless in vivo, but histological staining makes its primitive gut, nerve ring, and muscles apparent.

Lifecycle
W. bancrofti carries out its lifecycle in two hosts. Humans serve as the definitive host and mosquitos as the intermediate host. The adult parasites reside in the lymphatics of the human host. They are found mostly in the afferent lymphatic channels of the lymph glands in the lower part of the body. The first-stage larvae, known as microfilariae, are present in the circulation. The microfilariae have a membrane "sheath". This sheath, along with the area in which the worms reside, makes identification of the species of microfilariae in humans easier to determine. The microfilariae are found mainly in the peripheral blood and can be found at peak amounts from 10 pm to 4 am. They migrate between the deep and the peripheral, circulation exhibiting unique diurnal periodicity. During the day, they are present in the deep veins, and during the night, they migrate to the peripheral circulation. The cause of this periodicity remains unknown, but the advantages of the microfilariae being in the peripheral blood during these hours may ensure the vector, the nighttime mosquito, will have a higher chance of transmitting them elsewhere. Physiological changes also are associated with sleeping, such as lowered body temperature, oxygen tension, and adrenal activity, and an increased carbon dioxide tension, among other physical alterations, any of which could be the signals for the rhythmic behavior of microfilarial parasites. If the hosts sleep by day and are awake at night, their periodicity is reversed. In the South Pacific, where W. bancrofti shows diurnal periodicity, it is known as periodic.

The microfilariae are transferred into a vector, which are most commonly mosquito species of the genera Culex, Anopheles, Mansonia, and Aedes. Inside the mosquito, the microfilariae mature into motile larvae called juveniles; these migrate to the labium after a period around 10 days. When the infected mosquito has its next blood meal, W. bancrofti larvae are deposited from the mouthparts onto the skin of the prospective host and migrate through microcuts in the dermis or the tract created by the proboscis into the bloodstream of the new human host. The larvae move through the lymphatic system to regional lymph nodes, predominantly in the legs and genital area. The larvae develop into adult worms over the course of a year, and reach sexual maturity in the afferent lymphatic vessels. After mating, the adult female worm can produce thousands of microfilariae that migrate into the bloodstream. A mosquito vector can bite the infected human host, ingest the microfilariae, and thus repeat the lifecycle. The organism notably does not multiply within its intermediate host, the mosquito.

History
The effects of W. bancrofti were documented early in ancient texts. Ancient Greek and Roman writers noted the similarities between the enlarged limbs and thickened, cracked skin of infected individuals to that of elephants, hence the name elephantiasis to describe the disease.

In 1862 in Paris, Jean-Nicolas Demarquay found what appeared to be nematode worms in the fluid aspirated from a hydrocele in a young man from Havana, Cuba. Unaware of this observation, three years later in Bahia, Brazil, Otto Wucherer found these same worms but this time in urine from a woman with chyluria. Ignorant of both these observations, Timothy Lewis in India in 1870 found them in the urine of an Indian with chyluria then two years later found them in blood. Some of Lewis's specimens were examined in the same year in England by George Busk who named them Filaria sanguinis hominis. In 1876 and 1877, Joseph Bancroft in Brisbane, Australia found adult worms in lymphatic abscesses in patients with larvae in the blood. He sent them to Spencer Cobbold in London who named them Filaria Bancrofti. Patrick Manson in Xiamen, China (then called Amoy) made two important observations. Firstly he discovered in 1877 that if Culex quinquefasciatus and Aedes aegypti mosquitoes fed on a person with larvae (microfilariae) in the blood, they moulted twice in the insects' abdomen and became larger worms now called infective larvae. Secondly, he found in 1879 that the blood-dwelling forms had a nocturnal periodicity with large numbers appearing in the blood around midnight with minimal numbers in the middle of the day. This coincided with the biting habits of these mosquitoes. Manson surmised that infected mosquitoes drowned and infective larvae were ingested in water. In 1899, Thomas Bancroft in Brisbane fed laboratory-reared mosquitoes on a patient with microfilaraemia, kept them for 16 days, then sent some specimens to George Low in London. Low prepared histological sections of the mosquitoes and found that the larvae migrated from the abdomen to the thorax to the salivary glands then passed down the proboscis suggesting that infective larvae were injected at a subsequent mosquito bite. In 1902, Thomas Bancroft proved that this was the mode of transmission using a related worm, Dirofilaria immitis, and generated adult worms in experimentally infected dogs. In 1921, Léon Seurat erected the genus Wuchereria and placed this worm in it as Wuchereria bancrofti.

W. bancrofti is speculated to have been brought to the New World by the slave trade. Once it was introduced to the New World, this filarial worm disease persisted throughout the areas surrounding Charleston, South Carolina, until its sudden disappearance in the 1920s.

title: Wuchereria bancrofti


text:
User talk:Bjarki S

--The oldest stuff-- 6.12.2003-14.4.2005 --The older stuff-- 15.4.2005-10.5.2006 --The old stuff-- 11.5.2006-18.1.2011

Article Feedback deployment
Hey Bjarki S; I'm dropping you this note because you've used the article feedback tool in the last month or so. On Thursday and Friday the tool will be down for a major deployment; it should be up by Saturday, failing anything going wrong, and by Monday if something does :). Thanks, Okeyes (WMF) (talk) 23:09, 13 March 2013 (UTC)

File:Skagafjordur muni.png listed for deletion
A file that you uploaded or altered, File:Skagafjordur muni.png, has been listed at Files for deletion. Please see the to see why it has been listed (you may have to search for the title of the image to find its entry). Feel free to add your opinion on the matter below the nomination. Thank you. Sfan00 IMG (talk) 17:37, 15 May 2014 (UTC)

Request for comment
Hello there, a proposal regarding pre-adminship review has been raised at Village pump by. Your comments here is very much appreciated. Many thanks. Jim Carter through MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 06:46, 28 May 2014 (UTC)

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ArbCom elections are now open!
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Two-Factor Authentication now available for admins
Hello,

Please note that TOTP based two-factor authentication is now available for all administrators. In light of the recent compromised accounts, you are encouraged to add this additional layer of security to your account. It may be enabled on your preferences page in the "User profile" tab under the "Basic information" section. For basic instructions on how to enable two-factor authentication, please see the developing help page for additional information. Important: Be sure to record the two-factor authentication key and the single use keys. If you lose your two factor authentication and do not have the keys, it's possible that your account will not be recoverable. Furthermore, you are encouraged to utilize a unique password and two-factor authentication for the email account associated with your Wikimedia account. This measure will assist in safeguarding your account from malicious password resets. Comments, questions, and concerns may be directed to the thread on the administrators' noticeboard. MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 20:33, 12 November 2016 (UTC)

A new user right for New Page Patrollers
Hi.

A new user group, New Page Reviewer, has been created in a move to greatly improve the standard of new page patrolling. The user right can be granted by any admin at PERM. It is highly recommended that admins look beyond the simple numerical threshold and satisfy themselves that the candidates have the required skills of communication and an advanced knowledge of notability and deletion. Admins are automatically included in this user right.

It is anticipated that this user right will significantly reduce the work load of admins who patrol the performance of the patrollers. However,due to the complexity of the rollout, some rights may have been accorded that may later need to be withdrawn, so some help will still be needed to some extent when discovering wrongly applied deletion tags or inappropriate pages that escape the attention of less experienced reviewers, and above all, hasty and bitey tagging for maintenance. User warnings are available here but very often a friendly custom message works best.

If you have any questions about this user right, don't hesitate to join us at WT:NPR. (Sent to all admins) .MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 13:47, 15 November 2016 (UTC)

Administrators' newsletter - February 2017
News and updates for administrators from the past month (January 2017). This first issue is being sent out to all administrators, if you wish to keep receiving it please subscribe. Your feedback is welcomed.

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Following a community discussion in June 2011, consensus was reached to provisionally suspend the administrative permissions of users who have been inactive for one year (i.e. administrators who have not made any edits or logged actions in more than one year). As a result of this discussion, your administrative permissions have been removed pending your return. If you wish to have these permissions reinstated, please post to the Bureaucrats' noticeboard and the userright will be restored per the re-sysopping process (i.e. as long as the attending bureaucrats are reasonably satisfied that your account has not been compromised, that your inactivity did not have the effect of evading scrutiny of any actions which might have led to sanctions, and that you have not been inactive for a three-year period of time). If you remain inactive for a three-year period of time, including the present year you have been inactive, you will need to request reinstatement at WP:RFA. This removal of access is procedural only, and not intended to reflect negatively upon you in any way. We wish you the best in future endeavors, and thank you for your past administrative efforts. — xaosflux  Talk 00:10, 1 May 2017 (UTC)

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Welcome to WikiProject Medicine!

We at Wikiproject Medicine would like to thank you for your contribution now during the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic. We are far from out of the woods with regard to the pandemic and understand that your focus may lie on coronavirus efforts. We would still like to shine a light on our active medical community, which you are more than welcome to join. As a participant you can ask questions and get help about best practices on editing any health or medical article — on our talk-page. We are a (mostly) collegial bunch, and I do hope you feel welcome to participate. Currently there are two active communities:

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Map colors
Hello, thank you for your contributions on the pandemic article for Iceland. Could you please update the colors on map according to  for consistency on the pandemic articles?

Also, the section 'sever_cases' must remain in the infobox. While I understand that "severe" can be subjective, it is akin to hospitalised, and therefore using the number of hospitalised on the official website as 'severe' suffices. I have also added a note to clarify this and added the total number of hospitalised in the lead. Thanks. --Shawnqual (talk) 00:00, 21 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Is the consensus really to show to number of currently hospitalized rather than the accumulated number of hospitalizations? That makes little sense as every other statistic in the infobox is is for the accumulated number. The number of current hospitalizations will go to zero eventually so that metric will be pointless for anyone seeing this article in the future. --Bjarki (talk) 09:23, 21 April 2020 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Bjarki S


text:
User talk:Moink/archive160304

Hi moink

good to hear from you. I've had a look at the wikibook and the fluid mechanics page. Thanks for your encouragement.

I've spent some considerable time pondering how to rejig the fluid mechanics pages. It is not at all obvious how best to do it... it's bad enough trying to organize a dead-tree book, but the natural hypertext crossreferencing available on wiki makes the task simultaneously harder and much easier.

Still, it's pretty clear to me that the fluid mechanics wikipedia page needs a radical overhaul. Your point about various equations being special cases of other eqautions is spot on.

How about this for a start.

(1) the distinctive properties of fluids and the Navier-Stokes Equations (2) commonly-used simplifications of N-S: (a) steady flow (a) potential flow (not yet written but I'm working on it!) (b) Euler equations (c) N-S with constant: density, viscosity.

aside: is it worth considering things like the shallow layer equations, the Korteveg-deVries equations here? what do you think? these are special cases of the N-S equations but with some rather wide-ranging assumptions!

(3) commonly encountered (practical) fluid flows. General idea is to follow Van Dyke and structure from low Reynolds number flows to bigger ones (ie creeping flow to hypersonic flow) but this isn't such a hot idea if you subscribe to the notion (as I do) that all dimensionless numbers were created equal. Nevertheless, this is a sensible way to order fluid phenomena. I just started to write my list of examples (from continental drift to hypersonic flow) but realized that there are just too many. Perhaps we should take a leaf from the millisecond series and have a similar bunch of pages entitled something like Reynolds number 0.001 to Reynolds number 100000? what do you think? what are the naming conventions here? Each one could point to subentries (eg lavalamp or sunspots or whatever. This way we could create some structure.

(4) investigative techniques:

(4a) CFD (already covered) (4b) lab work (4c) field work (terrestrial/oceanographical) (4d) astronomical (5) history (6) personalities.

This is arguably not a NPOV: I am unashamedly a theoretical scientist!

Maybe we ought to discuss on the discuss page of fluid mechanics? see you there!

Robinh 23:00, 1 Jan 2004 (UTC)

I think you might be exactly who I'm looking for to talk about the organization of the fluid dynamics pages. I'm trying to write aerodynamics (it's been a stub for a long time) and it's going really slowly. It's occuring to me that much of what I'm writing there really belongs in fluid mechanics (like the continuity assumption etc) but then aerodynamics would reduce to a simple "Aerodynamics is fluid mechanics applied to gases" and nothing else, which doesn't work for the importance of the topic. And I keep wanting to insert Bernoulli's equation, the Euler equations, the Navier-Stokes equations, even LaPlace's equation but of course they all have their own pages, so it would just be duplication. And yet nowhere do we have the fact that they are reductions of one another. Also, should I be making new pages for things like Prandtl's lifting-line theory or does it belong in aerodynamics? Anyway, let me know your thoughts, I've started a Wikipedia:WikiProject Fluid dynamics to get it going. moink 17:28, 27 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Hi moink, about the area of a sector of an ellipse, I used MATLAB to numerically verify the analytical expression I gave. Here is the code I used:

a = 2; % this is just the value I used b = 5; % likewise % set up variables x = 0:0.01:a; y = b*sqrt(1 - ((x/a).^2)); theta = acos(x(1:(end-1))/a); % numerical integration for i = 1:(length(x)-1) area_numerical(i) = trapz(x(i:end),y(i:end)); end % analytical formula area_analytical = 0.5*a*b*(theta - cos(theta).*sin(theta)); %compare visually plot(theta, area_numerical, '.-', theta, area_analytical, 'o-'); %compare numerically max(abs(area_numerical - area_analytical))

Cheers, Cyan 19:01, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

I went back and did the polyarea thing too:

% x and y defined as above x(end + 1) = 0; y(end + 1) = 0; % puts the origin into the polygon theta = acos(x(1:(end-1))/a); % numerical integration for i = 1:(length(x) - 1) area(i) = polyarea(x(i:end),y(i:end)); end %visual comparison plot(theta, area, '.-', theta, 0.5*a*b*theta,'o')

Cheers, Cyan 19:19, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Well, the hard part is analytically integrating the equation for the ellipse, and the credit there belongs to the good folks at MathWorld. -- Cyan 20:42, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Mixed vegetables vfd
Hi. On Dec 27, 2003 you added the vfd notice to Mixed vegetables. Since the page still exists, I assume the consensus was to keep the page? I cannot find the related discussion. Thanks. RedWolf 22:06, Feb 28, 2004 (UTC)

STS-85
Hey Moink, just wanted to give you a heads up on the links at the bottom of the page. You should link to STS-94 and STS-86 going forwards and backwards, not just xx (those are years) see STS-27 for the template Theon 18:29, Mar 4, 2004 (UTC)

Sorry
I must be in a bad mood today -- I apologized at the pump. Didn't mean to target you with my frustration: the VP seems to have a lot of people watching it, and yet too often (it seems) they dump questions on the reference desk, which I feel is ignored by far too many people here. But you're right, you do a very good job there, and I was speaking badly. I hope you will accept my apology, Jwrosenzweig 21:41, 4 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Koopsta Knicca
Your nomination of Koopsta Knicca was removed after one day. Is this your intent in light of the changes to it or did you still want it listed for the full 5 days? Thanks - Texture 19:30, 5 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Things are removed from VfD all the time when they get too long. Anthony DiPierro 22:12, 5 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * The way I saw it moving everything to the talk page *was* the compromise. But as long as the discussion isn't separated from the votes, I'm fine with it. Anthony DiPierro 03:27, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)

re: vfd discussion belongs on vfd except in extenuating circumstances
 * There are extenuating circumstances. VfD is 110kb! Angela. 14:06, Mar 6, 2004 (UTC)

Thank you for the advice on adding hyperlinks. I see also there is a link to R-parity...a suggestion perhaps? Also, would it be helpful and/or legal to link to relevent [Mathworld] sites? Ie with a See Also at the bottom of the page? Best regards! Pharotic 7:20, Mar 7, 2004 (UTC)

Hi, I replied at User talk:Angela. Angela. 11:57, Mar 7, 2004 (UTC)

Contest
Well I'll bite. :) Female/Canadian/Vancouver is my guess for today.  fabiform | talk 20:05, 7 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I will guess male, American, Chicago. Adam Bishop 20:06, 7 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I'm going to guess male, originally from Canada, but now living in Boston. Angela. 20:13, Mar 7, 2004 (UTC)

Just a guess. You're a German man, living in the USA near Wichita (Kansas) Pfortuny 20:53, 7 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Female, Canadian, Boston/Cambridge, Massachusetts area. Maximus Rex, 21:24, 7 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I guessed as there is a link on what I assumed could be your website to a guide to Boston. Angela. 21:57, Mar 7, 2004 (UTC)

 * I thought moink.org must be yours. Is there more than one moink in Boston? :) Angela. 22:04, Mar 7, 2004 (UTC)

I based mine just on your contributions. Female because you've edited several female biogs and feminism things. And the rogue Vancouver because that was the first place you made an edit about. :) Did you enjoy our guesses?  fabiform | talk 22:00, 7 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I think all the maths and fluid dynamics put a lot of people on the wrong track re your gender. Plus, statistically, there are more male than female users I think, so it was a safe bet.  :)  fabiform | talk 22:09, 7 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Hans Sachs
Hi Moink, You've put a vfd message to Hans Sachs, but i can't seem to find it on vfd in order to vote KEEP. Am i stupid or is somethin wrong with vfd? btw i like your context but now i must rewrite Hans Sachs instead of sifting through your old edits ;-)))))) Lady Tenar 21:29, 7 Mar 2004 (UTC)

The Contest
The location I determined from. The Candian I guessed from Bjarni Tryggvason. The gender I was going to guess male (on the internet I guess I assume users are male unless otherwise indicated), however Angela had not been recognized as correct for her guess.

I will offer you a few choices for the article to improve. I couldn't find much on Friedrich Ernst Dorn, who is credited as discovering radon, on the internet. Another article that could use improvement is Jan Hendrik Schön. If you don't want to improve either of those, I won't be too offended. Maximus Rex, 22:06, 7 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Great improvements to Jan Hendrik Schön! I release you from any obligation to further improve it. I must say that enjoyed this little contest. Maximus Rex, 08:03, 8 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Jus ad bellum
A google search and some reading provided info on its usage and history. JimD 10:20, 2004 Mar 8 (UTC)

D. Williams
heres the answer to your question: STS-90 And the reason that you probably couldnt find him is that his name is spelled daffydd not daffyd ;-) Ive taken the liberty of pulling his profile and copying it to his wiki site. []Theon 00:38, Mar 9, 2004 (UTC) Daffyd Williams

Thanks
Thanks for the words of kindness, moink (or should I call you Teresa? I believe that's the name you use on the mailing list, but I'm always in a quandary regarding username versus first name.  2/3 of the people here address me as Jwros and a few others as James....I guess none of us know) -- I appreciate it very much, and am glad to know I can do something worthwhile here on occasion. Having just now seen your userpage, I think I should mention that I was a student at Simon Fraser University for 2 years, so I know Burnaby moderately well should you ever get homesick for it and want to reminisce. :-) What part of town did you reside in?  Anyway, I came here to thank you for being encouraging, and I do want to emphasize that you have risen very much on my "radar of trust" in the last 6 weeks or so -- I'm very glad to see your contributions here, and hope you are sticking around for the long haul!  Happy editing, Jwrosenzweig 17:19, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * By the way, I've nominated you for adminship, which I hope the community supports (I can't imagine they wouldn't) and you will accept (I don't envision you will, but it's a possibility). Sometime in the next few days, please leave a note at RfA announcing your acceptance or rejection of my nomination.  Thanks so much for your good work here! Jwrosenzweig 17:29, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Well, moink, I guess I'd say that for talking directly to me, James is a good choice for typing ease. For referring to me in large fora (the pump, mailing lists, etc.), I think my user name or some approximation of it might be better, as we have (at the very least) James F. and JamesDay here.  Always tough to know.  And BCIT, hmmm, seems to me that was on a bus route of mine, perhaps between SFU and Metrotowne?  I'll have to think on it.  Wish I'd known BCIT better -- I'd write the article. :) Jwrosenzweig 17:37, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Moink/archive160304


text:
Talk:General Electric Company plc

History
While GEC has no direct relation to GE, both companies can trace back their origins to ventures founded by Thomas Edison. There used to be a very nice (several page) history on the Marconi site detailing the complete history of companies, mergers, spinoffs, and name changes. 18.24.0.120 20:01, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Actually it does now have a direct relation to GE as GE bought Alstom.

"In 1902, GEC's first purpose-built factory, the Witton Engineering Works was opened near Birmingham. This was later to become a factory for the manufacture of Automobiles" -  I don't think so ! I was an apprentice at GEC Witton and have visited the site many times recently and I've never seen a car made there ! Someone is getting confused with MG Rover at Longbridge, Birmingham perhaps ? (I worked there too). If noone provides evidence of this then I will change it. Cabinscooter 20:37, 8 October 2006 (UTC)

The whole article misses the interconnections with English Electric, BTH, Alstom, ABB and now GE... Still a lot of GEC power plants in operation across the globe. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 159.245.16.100 (talk) 09:43, 11 April 2016 (UTC)

GEC -> MBDA
I'm sure GEC is now part of MBDA. I've had a stab at the history but I'm not sure I got it right. Please edit the article if you know better! Dan100 12:06, Jan 3, 2005 (UTC)

 * GEC (now Marconi plc) is not part of MBDA. GEC spun off Marconi Electronic Systems (MES) in 1999 and merged that with BAe to form BAE Systems. This ended its participation in the defence industry; it is now a radio, telecommunication, and internet equipment equipment/services company.

 * It then renamed itself Marconi plc but didn't become part of Matra BAe Dynamics nor MBDA. The British participation in Matra BAe Dynamics was entirely through BAe and then BAE. (i.e. never GEC/Marconi plc). The link with MBDA doesn't come from Matra BAe Dynamics but from Alenia Marconi Systems (AMS). GEC's MES division set up AMS with Finmeccanica in 1998 shortly prior to its merger with BAe, thus ending GEC/Marconi plc's link with that company too. AMS would then go on to become part of MBDA. Mark 01:47, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC)

National Grid
Does the link for national grid point to the right article? It points to the OS-style national grid (National_grid) rather than the electrical one (National_Grid). The current link seems wrong, but I don't want to make the correction as I am not certain of the error. The difference a capital letter can make! Matthew 16:39, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I have changed the link. GEC quite clearly has no relevance to the Ordnance Survey. However, I will check this point and if necessary make further adjustments. Peter Maggs 07:53, 25 November 2005 (UTC)

Anatomy of a Merger
I have added a reference to this book - the fascinating story of the events leading to the emergence of GEC in a pre-eminent position in 1968, having swallowed AEI and merged with English Electric. There is also plenty of detail about the companies that ended up in GEC. Peter Maggs 13:40, 15 November 2005 (UTC)

Business template
Someone should slap the corporation template on this article. Isopropyl 03:35, 3 May 2006 (UTC)

 * There seems to be a convention that the template is not used for defunct companies. The template has too many "current" parameters, if you know what I mean. I've often thought a dedicated infobox for defunct companies would be useful though. Regards --Mark83 09:27, 3 May 2006 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the . Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

PAGE MOVED as uncontroversial. -GTBacchus(talk) 22:14, 29 November 2007 (UTC) The General Electric Company plc → General Electric Company plc — Definite article is not part of the company name —JBellis (talk) 20:31, 29 November 2007 (UTC)

Survey

 * Feel free to state your position on the renaming proposal by beginning a new line in this section with  or  , then sign your comment with  . Since polling is not a substitute for discussion, please explain your reasons, taking into account Wikipedia's naming conventions.

Discussion

 * Any additional comments: --JBellis (talk) 20:31, 29 November 2007 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the . Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

GEC in Salford
Greetings

Can anyone tell me where the GEC works (Peel Works) was in Salford

Adekpr (talk) 20:55, 24 October 2008 (UTC)

"lead the way in lamp design"
In this article it says that GEC led the way in lamp design producing lamps under the brand "Osram". Under the article on Osram it seems to say that Osram was a German firm already making lamps and all that GEC did was to buy the filaments from them. Not quite the same as "leading the way". john f94.197.115.98 (talk) 10:03, 24 July 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:General Electric Company plc


text:
Postage stamps and postal history of Russia

This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union and the modern Russian Federation.

Early history
Records mention a system of messengers in the 10th century. Early letters were carried in the form of a roll, with a wax or lead seal; the earliest known of these seals dates from 1079, and mentions a governor Ratibor of Tmutarakan. The earliest surviving cover was sent in 1391 from La Tana (now Azov) to Venice.

By the 16th century, the postal system included 1,600 locations, and mail took 3 days to travel from Moscow to Novgorod. In 1634, a peace treaty between Russia and Poland established a route to Warsaw, becoming Russia's first regular international service.

Russian Empire
Peter the Great enacted reforms making the postal system more uniform in its operations, and in 1714 the first general post offices opened in Saint Petersburg and Moscow. “Regular post-service” was established along the Moscow and Riga routes. In February 1714, the postal service started biweekly runs from St. Petersburg to Riga; in June it started runs from St. Petersburg to Moscow. The field post office was founded in 1716, and the so-called ordinary post service in 1720, for the fast conveyance of state ordinances and papers. Regular delivery of private parcels (the so-called heavy post) was organized in the 1730-40s. In 1746, parcels and private correspondence were first delivered by courier, and starting in 1781 money, too, could be delivered to one's door. The earliest known Russian postmark dates from July 1765; it is a single line reading "ST.PETERSBURG" (in Latin letters), but the first official recommendation to use postmarks did not come until 1781.

Mailcoaches appeared in 1820. In 1833, the St. Petersburg City Post was created, and the city was divided into 17 districts with 42 correspondence offices, which were located in trade stores. In 1834, reception offices appeared in the suburbs (in St. Petersburg there were as many as 108). Periodical press delivery in Russia was organized in St. Petersburg in 1838. The Department of Coaches and T-carts was opened in 1840 at the Moika Embankment; light cabriolets carried surplus-post, coaches delivered light post, and T-carts dealt with “heavy" post. Green coloured street mailboxes were installed in 1848, the same year stamped envelopes were issued; orange mailboxes for same-day service appeared near railway stations in 1851, and postage stamps appeared in 1857. In 1864, the City Post started sending printed matter and catalogues, and in 1866, they sent packages.

Postal stationery made its first appearance in 1845, in the form of envelopes that paid the 5-kopeck fee for local mail in St. Petersburg and Moscow. The idea worked well and was extended throughout Russia on December 1, 1848.

Local postal systems used stamps referred to as Zemstvo stamps, from the term for local government begun under Alexander II in 1864.

Russian Post is a founding member of the Universal Postal Union (UPU) created in 1874. In 1902 Chief Postal Service was made part of the Internal Affairs Ministry and in 1917 under the Provisional Government it became part of Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs.

Soviet Union
During the Great Patriotic War, the Soviet postal service was a part of the People's Commissariat for Communications of the USSR. It delivered up to 70 million parcels per month to the Soviet Army front from the rear under extremely difficult and often very dangerous conditions.

In the postwar years, the mail service has undergone quantitative and qualitative changes. In 1946, the People's Commissariat for Communications of the USSR was transformed into the Ministry of Communications of the USSR. The postal service was carried out by the Post Office, which was part of the Ministry of Communications, along with other offices of the telecommunications industries. By 1950, the postal industry, destroyed by the war, was restored and brought to the pre-war level.

In subsequent years, the network of communication enterprises was significantly expanded, especially in rural areas, in the cities and a network of liaison offices, post offices, and subordinate communication centers. Most businesses combined postal, telegraph and telephone services. These communications were typically located in the same building and under single management. A huge network of mailboxes was established not only in cities but also in rural areas, stations, railway sidings and at freeway junctions.

Further development of the postal service followed the path of mechanization and automation of mail processing, improving the organization of its transportation and delivery. For this, the old postal equipment was modernized and the production of brand new designs developed - mail processing and handling machines and equipment for container transport, means of mechanization and postal inventory, as well as equipment for customer service.

Leningrad post office
By the late 1930s, 203 post offices operated in Leningrad. During the Great Patriotic War of 1941–45, communication between the front line and the rear was provided by the Field Post. In the first year of the Siege, there were 108 post offices working in Leningrad. The Leningrad Postal Association was created in 1988 and included the General Leningrad Post Office, 13 regional post offices, 345 post offices, 11 automated post offices, and a fleet of vehicles.

Russian Federation
In 1993 the Russian Post became a part of the Ministry of Communications. In 1995, the Office was reorganized into the Federal Service of the Russian Federation postal service, and in 1996 it was reorganized into the Department of Posts in the Ministry of Communications of the Russian Federation. Russian postal enterprises were operating and there was commercial independence, but with it the strong competition posed by former partners, the telecommunication companies. Thus, despite the separation of industries, a unique postal network, established in prior periods and covering almost all localities in the country, has been preserved.

Given the role of the Russian Post in the historical development of the state, in 1994, Russian President Boris Yeltsin established a professional public holiday for postal workers - "The Day of the Russian Post", which is celebrated annually on the 2 July. Another presidential decree in 1997 restored the heraldic traditions of the Post with the adding of the emblem and flag.

Loss of monopoly
In 1996, the Ministry of Communications for the first time decided to break the state postal monopoly on some postal services, resulting in Russia having commercial mailing companies.

2002 reform
Since the Soviet Union was dissolved, the Federal Postal Service consisted of a network of 90 disparate entities which were mainly listed as state institutions or federal state unitary enterprises. In legal terms, they were completely independent concerns. They were linked to the Federal Postal Network only by a trunk intrazonal and inter-district transmission and delivery system. The most ridiculous part of the whole system was that different parts of the same system connected by a single mechanism in adjacent regions were competing against each other, which mainly involved trying to lure big corporate clients away from the other competitors often at dumping prices. Also, there were no uniform budgeting, planning or other processes. These companies operated using outdated and worn-out postal facilities representing about 50 different IT solutions in terms of industry technology. In accordance with the concept of restructuring the federal postal service, adopted by the Government Decree on 28 June 2002, the postal industry in the Russian Federation carried out the reorganization, aimed at creating a single, highly efficient and competitive company able to make a significant contribution to the solution of urgent problems on the accelerated development of the economy and resulted in the establishment of a single unified operator- Federal Unitary Enterprise Russian Post. By 2005 the reform was completed.

In 2004 Elsag Datamat won the tender to build Russian Post's first automated sorting center.

Growing inefficiency in the 2010s
The early 2010s saw a rise in complaints. The number of parcels from foreign online retailers had been rising steadily for several years and was certain to rise further. According to the Russian Post's own estimates, orders from Internet shops are delivered to Russia mostly in ordinary or registered parcels; in 2009 there were 2.3 million, in 2012 the amount soared to 17 million. On March 6, 2012, five trucks from Germany were in a queue to be unloaded at Vnukovo. At the International Post Office there had piled up 12,300 parcels, 5,300 EMS packages, and 36,000 minor incoming parcels. And two thousand parcels were waiting for customs clearance at Sheremetyevo International Airport.

The year 2012 saw the creation of a new resource called "anti-Russianpost.ru" emerge in the World Wide Web. The users highlight all instances of Russian Post's bad work. In the middle of March, the clients of on-line retailers launched a massive spam attack on the Moscow office of the Roskomnadzor watchdog. In this period the company received up to 1,000 messages from individuals with complaints about delayed deliveries of purchases made at Internet shops.

2013 collapse and reform
In March 2013 Russian Post reported the unfavorable state of affairs to the authorities. In a special message Russian Post's deputy general director, Nina Fetisova, told the Federal Communications Agency Rossvyaz and the Federal Customs Service the processing of international mail was in a critical situation at the customs posts Vnukovo and Sheremetyevo International Airport and also at the Central International Post Office in Moscow.

In order to improve the services, Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev signed a Government Resolution to take the Russian Post out of the sphere of competence of the Federal Communications Agency Rossvyaz, and subordinated it directly to the Ministry of Communications and Mass Media. Also, On April of that year, the General Director of the Post, Alexander Kiselyov was ousted from the office.

The company's new management, in October 2013, stated an ambitious goal of doubling revenues to make the company ready for an initial public offering in 2018 by allowing it to provide banking services, reducing the number of unprofitable branches and focusing on providing deliveries from online retailers.

In order to handle the growth of parcels, production capacity has been expanded regional seats of international postal exchange centers, with the company opening new international mail processing centers in Moscow at the Kazan station and in Yekaterinburg and Novosibirsk. In addition, Russian Post agreed with foreign postal operators sorting international mail delivery by region even in the country of the sender (pre-sorting began in China, the largest importer), which allows to reduce the delivery of international mail. For example, after opening Exchange center in Yekaterinburg, parcel from China to residents of the Sverdlovsk Oblast is delivered in five days, including all customs clearance.

In August 2013 Russian Post had launched its first regional flight in the far eastern Russian republic of Yakutia. The company held a ceremony at Yakutsk Airport to launch its second new airmail plane under a program to expand links to remote areas, its first being a flight in the Khabarovsk Krai territory on Russia's east coast. Russian Post deputy director-general Alexei Skatin said that "The mail must be delivered on time despite the difficult geography of the region. We are starting to improve the postal logistics in the remote regions of Russia".

2014 takeover of Crimea by Russia
In March 2014, following the takeover of Crimea by pro-Russian separatists and the Russian Armed Forces, the Russian Post announced a number of measures to organize postal services with the Republic of Crimea in accordance with postal regulations of the Russian Federation, as well as to unify the mail systems of indexing.

First stamps
The postage stamp idea had already swept much of the world when, in September 1856, the Russian authorities decided to follow suit.

The first Russian postal stamp was issued on December 10, 1857, by the circular of the Postal Department "On the bringing of postal stamps for the common use" with the following content: "Starting from the 1st January of the next year 1858 ordinary private letters to all the places of the Empire, the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Finland brought to the post in ordinary envelopes or without envelope at all just with addresses written on the letter itself should be sent only with the stamp corresponding to the letter weight". The first stamps went on sale on 10 December 1857, but officially people started to use stamps to pay internal correspondence in Russia from January 1, 1858 (from March 1, 1858 – in the Caucasus, Transcaucasia, and Siberia). Since this time all private letters have been sent only with postage stamps that were cancelled with two crossed lines.

Since the supply of postmarks to the numerous post offices took a while, the Postal Department ordered that stamps be cancelled with pen and ink, following the example of cancelling postal stationery envelopes.

Later Russian Empire stamps
A 5k stamp for local postage was introduced in 1863, and in the following year new common design, with the coat of arms in an oval, was introduced for the 1k, 3k, and 5k values. These were used to make up complicated rates for international mail, which had previously required cash payments at the post office.

After 1866 the stamps were printed on paper watermarked with a pattern of wavy lines, "EZGB" in Cyrillic plus a set of more or less horizontal lines [13 for the height of the letters!] and vertical lines running through the letters and halfway. Apart from that the "grain" of the paper was always perpendicular to the watermark text! In the early years, the horizontal watermark prevailed, but for a minority of each value, the grain was vertical. In later years the vertical watermark prevailed. Contrary to a common perception among collectors there was NO laid paper involved. The "stripes" were always part of the watermark.

In September 1865, the Shlisselburg district became the first of the zemstvo offices to issue stamps; the system was officially organized by a decree of 27 August 1870.

In 1874, Russia became one of the original 22 countries forming the General Postal Union (later the Universal Postal Union).

The coat of arms design was changed in 1875 and used for 2k and 8k values, and a 7k in 1879. The 7k was also printed on revenue stamp paper watermarked with a hexagonal pattern; these are quite rare.

A new issue of 14 December 1883 featured an updated design, lower values printed in a single color, and new high values - 14k, 35k, and 70k. January 1884 saw the introduction of 3.50-ruble and 7-ruble stamps, physically much larger than the existing stamps.

In 1889 the designs were changed again, this time to introduce thunderbolts across the posthorns underneath the double-headed eagle, and in printings, after 1902 the usual grain of the paper was changed to be vertical.

At the end of 1904, Russia issued its first semi-postal stamps. The four values were each sold at 3k over the face to provide for orphans of casualties in the Russo-Japanese War.

In 1909 a new series came out, using a mix of old and new designs, all printed on unwatermarked wove paper, and with lozenges on the face to discourage postage stamp reuse.

Russia's first series of commemorative stamps appeared on 2 January 1913 to mark the 300th anniversary of the Romanov dynasty. The 17 stamps featured portraits of the various Tsars, as well as views of the Kremlin, Winter Palace, and Romanov Castle. But in 1915 and 1916, as the government disintegrated under the pressures of World War I, several of the designs were printed on card stock and used as paper money. 7k and 14k stamps were also surcharged 10k and 20k due to shortages.

Revolution and Civil War period
The period of the Russian Revolution is complicated philatelically; post offices across the country were thrown on their own devices, and a number of the factions and breakaway republics issued new kinds of stamps, although in some cases they seem to have been as much for publicity purposes, few genuine uses having been recorded.

Entities issuing their own stamps include:
 * Armenia
 * Azerbaijan
 * Army of the Northwest
 * Batum
 * Belarus
 * Estonia
 * Far Eastern Republic
 * Georgia
 * Latvia
 * Lithuania
 * Siberia
 * South Russia
 * Transcaucasian SFSR
 * West Ukrainian National Republic

In 1917 the Provisional Government reprinted the old Tsarist designs but sold them imperforate. The first stamps of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic appeared in 1918, as two values depicting a sword cutting a chain. While great quantities of these stamps survive, they saw little use, and used copies are worth more than mint.

In the years of the Civil War, postage stamps served as a kind of currency in a number of regions. During the later famine, postage stamps were used as a means of exchange for products. The Pravda newspaper issue of 9 March 1922 "urged the population “not to throw away stamps” and called on all citizens and children of the RSFSR to gather and send all canceled stamps, stamp collections, and anything they had on hand to be exchanged for chocolate and other products for starving children."

The next stamps appeared in 1921, after inflation had taken hold. The set's values range from 1 to 1,000 rubles. By the next year, these stamps were being surcharged in various ways, with face values of up to 100,000 rubles.

A currency reform in 1922 that exchanged money at a 10,000-to-1 rate enabled new stamps in the 5r to 200r range, including a set marking the 5th anniversary of the October Revolution, Tsarist stamps surcharged with a five-pointed star containing a hammer and sickle. Stamps with portraits of a worker, peasant and soldier also appeared this year; variations on these portrait designs, including the Gold Standard issue, would continue to be issued throughout the 1920s.

Finnish occupation of Aunus
At 1919–1921 there was Aunus expedition where a group of Finnish volunteers occupied parts of East Karelia (Aunus in Finnish, Olonets Karelia in Russian). There were stamps issued for Aunus troops by local authorities. They were Finnish definitives from 1917 with overprint Aunus.

Stamps of the Soviet Union
Postage stamps of the USSR were issued in the period 1923 to 1991. They bore the specific inscription "Почта СССР" ("Post of the USSR"). The thematics of Soviet stamps mirrored to a large extent the history, politics, economics, and culture of this world's first socialist state.

Stamps of the Russian Federation

 * Postage stamps of Russia (1996) (in Russian)

Catalogues

 * Gurevich, Iurii Efimovich. Katalog marok zemskikh pocht Rossii 1866-1919 = Stamps of the Zemstvo posts of Russia - catalog, 1866-1919. Moscow: The Authors, 2004 ISBN 5856461487 556p.
 * Moens, J. B. Les timbres de Russie. Bruxelles: Moens, 1893 62p.
 * Pevzner, A. IA. Katalog Pochtovykh Marok Rossii, 1857-1995. Moscow: T︠S︡entrpoligraf, 1995 ISBN 5700102412 473p.
 * Riep, Oscar. Russland: Sonder-Katalog: enthalt alle Postwertzeichen von Russland, und allen neuen Staaten, die vor 1914 zu Russland gehorten, oder nach 1914 auf russischem Territorium neu entstanden sind, sowie alle Besetzungsausgaben in Russland, wahrend des Weltkrieges. Mit uber 600 abbildungen im Text und mehreren Tafeln. Berlin: Oscar Riep, 1925 224p.
 * Solov'ev, V. IU. Pochtovye marki Rossii i SSSR spetsializirovannyi katalog = Postage stamps of Russia & USSR specialized catalogue. Vol. 1: Russia 1857-1919; Vol. 2: RSFSR, USSR 1923-1960; Vol. 3: USSR 1961-1991.
 * Stanley Gibbons Stamp Catalogue: Pt.10 Russia. Ringwood: Stanley Gibbons Publications, 2014 (7th edition) ISBN 9780852598924 832p.
 * White, Godfrey M. An annotated list of the postage stamps of the Soviet Republics: 1917-1925. London: Harris Publications, 1925 56p. Series Title: Philatelic magazine handbook; no. 7.
 * Zagorskogo, V. B. Pervye pochtovye marki Rossii : istori︠i︡a vypuska : katalog = The first Russian postage stamps : history of the issue : catalogue. Sankt-Peterburg: Standart-Kollek︠t︡si︠i︡a, 2007 ISBN 590227527X 84p.
 * Zagorsky, V. B. Postage Stamp Catalogue: Russia 1857-1917, RSFSR 1918-1923, USSR 1923-1991. Hallandale, FL.: Zagorsky, Inc., 2013 ISBN 5902275563 560p.

Monographs

 * Aksenova, S. V. Populi︠a︡rnai︠a︡ ėnt︠s︡iklopedii︠a︡ marok Rossii i SSSR. Rostov-na-Donu: Vladis, 2009 ISBN 5956708107 400p.
 * Artuchov, Alex. The Zemstvo Postage Stamps of Imperial Russia. Toronto: Canadian Society of Russian Philately, 1987-2008 6 vols.
 * Baillie, Ian L. G. & Eric G. Peel. St. Petersburg: The Imperial Post: its postmarks and other postal markings 1765-1914. Beckenham: published for the British Society of Russian Philately by Chancery House Press, 2001 ISBN 0900246898 374p.
 * Ceresa, R. J. The Postage Stamps of Russia, 1917-1923: Vol. 5: R.S.F.S.R. Gorsley: Russian Philatelic D.T.P.
 * Kiryushkin, A.V. and P.E. Robinson. List of post offices in the Russian Empire. Sheffield: Philip E. Robinson, 1999 270p.
 * Kiryushkin, A.V. and P.E. Robinson. Russian Postmarks: An Introduction and Guide. York: J. Barefoot Ltd., 1989 ISBN 0-906845-43-2 110p.
 * Skipton, David M. and Steve Volis. Soviet Clandestine Mail Surveillance, 1917-1991. Chicago: Collectors Club of Chicago, 2016 ISBN 9780982735749 554p.
 * Tchilinghirian, S. D. and W. S. E. Stephen. Stamps of the Russian Empire used abroad. Bristol: British Society of Russian Philately, 1957-60 576p. in 6 pts.


text:
Constitution Hill

Constitution Hill may refer to:
 * Constitution Hill, New South Wales, Australia
 * Constitution Hill, Aberystwyth
 * Constitution Hill, Birmingham
 * Constitution Hill, London, a road in the City of Westminster in London
 * Constitution Hill, Swansea
 * Constitution Hill, Johannesburg, South Africa
 * Constitution Hill, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
 * Constitution Hill, Quezon City, Philippines

 * Constitution Hill (horse), a thoroughbred racehorse

title: Constitution Hill


text:
User talk:Swix (usurped)

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them; *How to edit a page *How to write a great article *Naming conventions *Manual of Style If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Alexandros 20:01, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Request for usurpation
Hello, Swix. A request has been made at Changing username/Usurpations to usurp, or "take over", your username because another user would like to use it to edit. The changing username guideline allows a username that is not being actively used to be usurped if the user is given an opportunity to object and does not do so.

If you have an email set in your preferences, you should be getting an email from a bureaucrat or changing username clerk explaining how to consent or object to this process.

If you do not object to being renamed to a new username in order for another user to use the name you currently have, please log in and post a reply here saying so (you may also tell us what username you would like to be renamed to, or we will provide you with a generic one).

If you do nothing : the request may be filled shortly, and your account will be moved to a generic username. You may request that it be moved to a new username of your choice at any time.

If you object to being renamed : please log in and make an edit to this page clearly stating that you object to usurpation. Any objection on your part will prevent usurpation.

Please note that even if your current username is usurped, you can still edit and your data will not be lost; your preferences, watchlist, and other user settings will be transferred to a new username.

Thank you for your time. NeoKron (talk) 06:03, 21 April 2014 (UTC)

title: User talk:Swix (usurped)


text:
Talk:Khoekhoe language

Moved from main page to here;

This is seriously the only information I can find that hasn't been contradicted, except for the number of speakers, though Ethnologue seems like a reliable source. The sources contradict each other on whether Nama contrasts voicing, just what accompaniments it's clicks can have, and many other things.

 * The linguistic community as a whole seems unable to ascertain the number of click consonants in some Khoisan languages. For instance, is the !Kung name N!xau three phonemes, or five? Is the click a sequence n + !x? n! + x? n + ! + x? Or just one phoneme, a prenasalised voiceless laminal retroflex click with affricated velar release? (BTW, I tend to believe that it's just one phoneme, on a par with Swahili and Zulu prenasalised voiced stops.) I must say though, I like this page; it actually shows some of the language in use, rather than just the name - population - location approach that has been taken with so many Wikipedia pages about languages in the past. thefamouseccles 04:11 17 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Indeed. Also, the sample text has /ts/ but the phonology section doesn't seem to include it (unless it's a consonant cluster rather than an africate). It would seem one of the sections is incorrect or incomplete in some way, or cover different dialects. Eddy1701 (talk) 03:19, 23 August 2008 (UTC)

Dictionary for Nama
The article mentions that a dictionary exists; could someone provide a citation or ISBN number?
 * Haacke & Eiseb 2002. Added. — mark ✎ 08:07, 13 February 2006 (UTC)

The dictionary was Published by Gamsberg-Macmillan Publishers, Windhoek ISBN 99916-0-401-4, gamsberg@iafrica.com.na

It would be interesting to know who the author of the contributions on the Nama language is.

W. Haacke

shift to Afrikaans?
Is it true (as stated in the French article) that most Namas now speak Afrikaans rather than Nama? QuartierLatin1968 22:54, 6 July 2006 (UTC)

National language status
Is Nama a national language of Namibia? This article says it is, but Namibia contradicts it.

Namibia has only one official language, English. They use the term "national language" to refer to various other recognized languages, of which Nama/Damara is definitively one. Unfortunately, I could never find a definitive, official list of these "national languages" issued by any government insitution.

"Klipkaffer" language
"Klipkaffer" language redirects here and has been nominated for speedy deletion. Any thoughts on whether this redirect should be kept or deleted? --Richard 20:16, 28 June 2007 (UTC)

Khoekhoe language template
If you are a native speaker of Khoekhoe then you can help translate this template into your own language:

Edit

--Amazonien (talk) 22:28, 20 January 2009 (UTC)

Sample text
Is this edit legitimate? Before the edit the text was identical to another version to be found on the internet, after it not anymore. Also the changes done are not consistent (e.g. in the first two paragraphs clicks followed by vowels received a g after them, but not in the third one), so it can't be just a change of orthographic convention (or it must be a poorly performed one). The IP-address that did it seems to be a regular vandal, but that doesn't say it all, of course. MuDavid (talk) 14:28, 25 March 2010 (UTC)
 * I reverted it, then. MuDavid (talk) 11:42, 30 July 2010 (UTC)

Pronunciation
From my knowledge the name of the language is pronounced kwe-kwe (the 'we' as in Wembley), not koi-koi. Unfortunately I don't have a reference, and I don't know how to write it in phonetic alphabet. Anyone? --Pgallert (talk) 07:01, 31 January 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Khoekhoe language


text:
Venera 16

Venera 16 (Венера-16 meaning Venus 16) was a spacecraft sent to Venus by the Soviet Union. This uncrewed orbiter was to map the surface of Venus using high resolution imaging systems. The spacecraft was identical to Venera 15 and based on modifications to the earlier Venera space probes. The latest data from the spacecraft were received on June 13, 1985, when it responded to the signal sent from Earth for Vega 1.

Mission profile
Venera 16 was launched on June 7, 1983, at 02:32:00 UTC and reached Venus' orbit on October 11, 1983.

The spacecraft was inserted into Venus orbit a day apart from Venera 15, with its orbital plane shifted by an angle of approximately 4° relative to one another probe. This made it possible to reimage an area if necessary. The spacecraft was in a nearly polar orbit with a periapsis ~1000 km, at 62°N latitude, and apoapsis ~65000 km, with an inclination ~90°, the orbital period being ~24 hours.

Together with Venera 15, the spacecraft imaged the area from the north pole down to about 30°N latitude (i.e. approx. 25% of Venus surface) over the 8 months of mapping operations.

Spacecraft structure
The Venera 15 and 16 spacecraft were identical and were based on modifications to the orbiter portions of the Venera 9 and Venera 14 probes. Each spacecraft consisted of a 5 m long cylinder with a 0.6 m diameter, 1.4 m tall parabolic dish antenna for the synthetic aperture radar at one end. A 1 m diameter parabolic dish antenna for the radio altimeter was also located at this end. The electrical axis of the radio altimeter antenna was lined up with the axis of the cylinder. The electrical axis of the SAR deviated from the spacecraft axis by 10 degrees. During imaging, the radio altimeter would be lined up with the center of the planet (local vertical) and the SAR would be looking off to the side at 10 degrees. A bulge at the opposite end of the cylinder held fuel tanks and propulsion units. Two square solar arrays extended like wings from the sides of the cylinder. A 2.6 m radio dish antenna for communications was also attached to the side of the cylinder. The spacecraft each weighed 4000 kg.

Both Venera 15 and 16 were equipped with a synthetic aperture radar. A radar was necessary in this mission because nothing else would be able to penetrate the dense clouds of Venus. The probes were equipped with on board computers that saved the images until the entire image was complete.

List of spacecraft instruments and experiments:
 * Polyus-V Synthetic Aperture Radar
 * Omega Radar Altimeter
 * Infrared Fourier Spectrometer
 * Cosmic-Ray Detectors (6 sensors)
 * Solar-Plasma Detectors

To get to Venus, Venera 16 was placed in a heliocentric orbit with perihelion of 0.71 astronomical units, aphelion of 1.01 astronomical units, eccentricity of 0.17, orbital inclination of 2.3 degrees and orbital period of 293 days.

title: Venera 16


text:
Venera 15

Venera 15 (Венера-15 meaning Venus 15) was a spacecraft sent to Venus by the Soviet Union. This uncrewed orbiter was to map the surface of Venus using high resolution imaging systems. The spacecraft was identical to Venera 16 and based on modifications to the earlier Venera space probes.

Mission profile
Venera 15 was launched on June 2, 1983, at 02:38:39 UTC and reached Venus' orbit on October 10, 1983.

The spacecraft was inserted into Venus orbit a day apart from Venera 16, with its orbital plane shifted by an angle of approximately 4° relative to the other probe. This made it possible to reimage an area if necessary. The spacecraft was in a nearly polar orbit with a periapsis ~1000 km, at 62°N latitude, and apoapsis ~65000 km, with an inclination ~90°, the orbital period being ~24 hours.

Together with Venera 16, the spacecraft imaged the area from the north pole down to about 30°N latitude (approximately 25% of Venus surface) over the eight months of mapping operations.

Spacecraft structure
The Venera 15 and 16 spacecraft were identical and were based on modifications to the Venera 9 orbiter and the Venera 14 carrier spacecraft. Each spacecraft consisted of a 5 m long cylinder with a 0.6 m diameter, 1.4 m tall parabolic dish antenna for the synthetic aperture radar (SAR) at one end. A 1-meter diameter parabolic dish antenna for the radio altimeter was also located at this end. The electrical axis of the radio altimeter antenna was lined up with the axis of the cylinder. The electrical axis of the SAR deviated from the spacecraft axis by 10 degrees. During imaging, the radio altimeter would be lined up with the center of the planet (local vertical) and the SAR would be looking off to the side at 10 degrees. A bulge at the opposite end of the cylinder held fuel tanks and propulsion units. Two square solar arrays extended like wings from the sides of the cylinder. A 2.6 m radio dish antenna for communications was also attached to the side of the cylinder. The spacecraft each massed 4000 kg.

Both Venera 15 and 16 were equipped with a synthetic-aperture radar (SAR). A radar was necessary in this mission because nothing else would be able to penetrate the dense clouds of Venus. The probes were equipped with on board computers that saved the images until the entire image was complete. This radar system replaced the normal landers that previous Venera probes brought to Venus.

List of spacecraft instruments and experiments:
 * Polyus-V Synthetic Aperture Radar
 * Omega Radar altimeter
 * Infrared Fourier Spectrometer
 * Cosmic-Ray Detectors (6 sensors)
 * Solar-Plasma Detectors

To get to Venus, Venera 15 was placed in a heliocentric orbit with perihelion of 0.71 AU, apohelion of 1.01 AU, eccentricity of 0.17, orbital inclination of 2.3 degrees and orbital period of 293 days.

title: Venera 15