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San Jose State University

San José State University (San Jose State or SJSU) is a public university in San Jose, California. Established in 1857, SJSU is the oldest public university on the West Coast and the founding campus of the California State University (CSU) system. The university, alongside the University of California, Los Angeles has academic origins in the historic normal school known as the California State Normal School.

Located in downtown San Jose, the SJSU main campus is situated on 154 acre, or roughly 19 square blocks. As of spring 2023, SJSU offers 150 bachelor's degree programs, 95 master's degrees, five doctoral degrees, 11 different credential programs and 42 certificates. SJSU is accredited by the WASC Senior College and University Commission.

SJSU's total enrollment was 36,062 in fall 2023, including nearly 8,600 graduate and credential students. SJSU's student population is one of the most ethnically diverse in the nation. As of fall 2022, graduate student enrollment, Asian, and international student enrollments at SJSU were the highest of any campus in the CSU system.

SJSU is consistently listed among the leading suppliers of undergraduate and graduate alumni to Silicon Valley technology firms,  and philanthropic support of SJSU is among the highest in the CSU system.

SJSU sports teams are known as the Spartans and compete in the NCAA Division I FBS Mountain West Conference.

19th Century
After a private normal school closed in San Francisco after only one year, politicians John Swett and Henry B. Janes sought to establish a normal school for San Francisco's public school system, and approached George W. Minns to be the principal for the nascent institution, with Swett as an assistant principal. The normal school began operations in 1857 and became known as the Minns Evening Normal School. Classes were only held once a week, and only graduated 54 female students across its existence, however the program proved to be enough of a success for increased funding to be approved.

In 1861, after the continued success of the Evening School, superintendent Andrew J. Moulder requested that a committee be formed to create a report on the merits of fully funding a state normal school. Minns and Swett were among several Evening School faculty appointed to the committee, which presented its report to the California State Legislator in January 1862. In May 1862, the California State Senate adopted a statue to fund an initial $3,000 for a state normal school and to appoint a board of trustees for the school. The California State Normal School was then opened on July 21, 1862.

The school eventually moved to San Jose in 1871 and was given Washington Square Park at S. 4th and San Carlos Streets, where the campus remains to this day.

In 1881, a large bell was forged to commemorate the school. The bell was inscribed with the words "California State Normal School, A.D. 1881," and would sound on special occasions until 1946 when the college obtained new chimes. The original bell appears on the SJSU campus to this day and is still associated with various student traditions and rituals.

In August 1882, a southern branch campus of the California State Normal School opened in Los Angeles, which later became the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). The southern branch campus remained under administrative control of the San Jose campus until 1887.

20th Century
In 1921, the California State Normal School changed its name to the State Teachers College at San Jose.

In 1922, the State Teachers College at San Jose adopted the Spartans as the school's official mascot and nickname. Mascots and nicknames prior to 1922 included the Daniels, the Teachers, the Pedagogues, the Normals and the Normalites.

In 1930, the Justice Studies Department was founded as a two-year police science degree program. It holds the distinction of offering the first policing degree in the United States. A stone monument and plaque are displayed close to the site of the original police school near Tower Hall.

In 1935, the State Teachers Colleges became the California State Colleges, and the school's name was changed again, this time to San Jose State College.

In 1942, the old gym (now named Yoshihiro Uchida Hall, after SJSU judo coach Yosh Uchida) was used to register and collect Japanese Americans before sending them to internment camps. Uchida's own family members were interred at some of these camps.

In 1963, in an effort to save Tower Hall from demolition, SJSU students and alumni organized testimonials before the State College Board of Trustees, sent telegrams and provided signed petitions. As a result of those efforts, the tower, a principal campus landmark and SJSU icon, was refurbished and reopened in 1966. The tower was again renovated and restored in 2007. Tower Hall is registered with the California Office of Historic Preservation.

During the 1960s and early 1970s, San Jose State College witnessed a rise in political activism and civic awareness among its student body, including major student protests against the Vietnam War. One of the largest campus protests took place in 1967 when Dow Chemical Company — a major manufacturer of napalm used in the war — came to campus to conduct job recruiting. An estimated 3,000 students and bystanders surrounded the 7th Street administration building, and more than 200 students and teachers lay down on the ground in front of the recruiters.

In 1972, upon meeting criteria established by the board of trustees and the Coordinating Council for Higher Education, SJSC was granted university status, and the name was changed to California State University, San Jose. However, in 1974, the California legislature voted to change the school's name to San José State University.

In 1982, the English department began sponsoring the annual Bulwer-Lytton Fiction Contest.

In 1985, the CADRE Laboratory for New Media was established. It is believed to be the second oldest media lab of its kind in the United States.

In 1999, San Jose State and the City of San Jose agreed to combine their main libraries to form a joint city-university library located on campus, the first known collaboration of this type in the United States. The combined library faced opposition, with critics stating the two libraries have very different objectives and that the project would be too expensive. Despite opposition, the $177 million project proceeded, and the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library opened on time and on budget in 2003. The library has won several national awards since its initial opening.

21st Century
During its 2006–07 fiscal year, SJSU received a record $50+ million in private gifts and $84 million in capital campaign contributions.

In 2008, SJSU received a CASE WealthEngine Award in recognition of raising over $100 million. SJSU was one of approximately 50 institutions nationwide honored by CASE in 2008 for overall performance in educational fundraising.

In October 2010, SJSU President Don Kassing publicly launched SJSU's first-ever comprehensive capital fundraising campaign dubbed "Acceleration: the Campaign for San Jose State University." The original goal of the multi-year campaign was to raise $150 million but was later increased to $200 million because of the rapid success of the campaign. The campaign would eventually exceed its goal one year earlier than anticipated, raising more than $208 million by 2013.

In 2012, the NASA Ames Research Center in Mountain View, California, awarded SJSU $73.3 million to participate in the development of systems for improving the safety and efficiency of air and space travel. NASA scientists, SJSU faculty and graduate students worked collaboratively on this effort. The grant was the largest federal award in SJSU history.

University Principals and Presidents
Thirty-two people have led San Jose State since its founding including eight principals, 15 presidents, five acting presidents, and four interim presidents.

Campus

The SJSU main campus comprises approximately 55 buildings situated on a rectangular, 154 acre area in downtown San Jose. The campus is bordered by San Fernando Street to the north, San Salvador Street to the south, South 4th Street to the west, and South 10th Street to the east. The south campus, which is home to many of the school's athletics facilities, is located approximately 1.5 mi south of the main campus on South 7th Street.

California State Normal School did not receive a permanent home until it moved from San Francisco to San Jose in 1871. The original California State Normal School campus in San Jose consisted of several rectangular, wooden buildings with a central grass quadrangle. The wooden buildings were destroyed by fire in 1880 and were replaced by interconnected stone and masonry structures of roughly the same configuration in 1881.

These buildings were declared unsafe following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and were being torn down when an aftershock of the magnitude that was predicted to destroy the buildings occurred and no damage was observed. Accordingly, demolition was stopped, and the portions of the buildings still standing were subsequently transformed into four halls: Tower Hall, Morris Dailey Auditorium, Washington Square Hall and Dwight Bentel Hall. These four structures remain standing to this day and are the oldest buildings on campus.

Beginning in the fall of 1994, the on-campus segments of San Carlos Street, 7th Street and 9th Street were closed to automobile traffic and converted to pedestrian walkways and green belts within the campus. San Carlos Street was renamed Paseo de San Carlos, 7th Street became Paseo de César Chávez, and 9th Street is now called the Ninth Street Plaza. The project was completed in 1996.

Completed in 1999, the Business Classroom Project was a $16 million renovation of the James F. Boccardo Business Education Center.

Completed in 1999, the $1.5 million Heritage Gateway project was unveiled. The privately funded project featured construction of eight oversized gateways around the main campus perimeter.

In the fall of 2000, the SJSU Police Department, which is part of the larger California State University Police Department, opened a new on-campus, multi-level facility on 7th Street.

The $177 million Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library, which opened its doors on August 1, 2003, won the Library Journal's 2004 Library of the Year award, the publication's highest honor. The King Library represents the first collaboration of its kind between a university and a major U.S. city. The library is eight stories high, has 475000 sqft of floor space, and houses approximately 1.3 million volumes. San Jose's first public library occupied the same site from 1901 to 1936, and SJSU's Wahlquist Library occupied the site from 1961 to 2000.

In 2007, a $2 million renovation of Tower Hall was completed. Tower Hall is among the oldest and most recognizable buildings on campus. It was registered as an official California Historical Landmark in 1949. The building was rededicated in 1910 after numerous campus structures were either destroyed or heavily damaged in the 1906 earthquake. Tower Hall, Morris Dailey Auditorium, Washington Square Hall and Dwight Bentel Hall are the four oldest buildings on campus.

The SJSU student union is a four-story, stand-alone facility that features a food court, the Spartan Bookstore, a multi-level study area, ballrooms, a bowling alley, music room and large game room. In September 2010, a $90 million expansion and renovation of the student union commenced. The project added approximately 100000 sqft including construction of new ballrooms, food court, theater, meeting rooms and student program spaces. The expansion phase of the project was completed in June 2014. The renovation phase of the project was completed in August 2015.

Construction of a new, three-story, 52000 sqft on-campus health center at 7th Street and Paseo de San Carlos was completed in March 2015. The building houses the Student Health Center, Student Affairs office, Counseling Services and Wellness Center. The project was completed at a cost of over $36 million.

In August 2015, a $55 million renovation of the Spartan Complex was completed. The Spartan Complex houses open recreation spaces, gymnasiums, an indoor aquatics center, the kinesiology department, weight rooms, locker rooms, dance and judo studios, and other classroom space. The primary project objectives were to expand existing structures, upgrade the structures to make them compliant with current building codes, correct ADA deficiencies, remove hazardous materials and correct fire safety deficiencies.

Residence halls
The SJSU on-campus housing community comprises seven residence halls, which can accommodate a combined total of 4,458 students. The residence halls are identified as follows:

Campus Village (CV1) – CV1 opened in 2005, replacing three of six red brick residence halls known as "bricks" or "classics." CV1 was the first phase of the multi-phase Campus Village residence complex to be completed. The $200 million housing facility comprises three buildings ranging from seven to 15 stories tall. The complex can accommodate up to 2,600 students, and provides housing options for first-year students, non-freshmen, upper-classmen, graduate students, faculty, staff and guests of the university. The facility also includes a two-story underground parking garage for on-campus residents.

Campus Village (CV2) – CV2 opened in 2016 and was the second phase of the multi-phase Campus Village residence community to be completed. CV2 is an 850-bed, 10-story residence facility located on the SJSU campus near the intersection of 9th Street and Paseo de San Carlos. It is designated for first-year freshman. The estimated cost of the building was $126 million.

Joe West Hall – Also referred to as a "classic," Joe West is a 12-story residence hall reserved for first-year freshmen. This hall houses approximately 650 students.

Washburn Hall – After Hoover Hall and Royce Hall were demolished in 2016, Washburn Hall became the only remaining red brick residence hall on the SJSU campus. Washburn Hall is reserved for first-year freshmen students only. Washburn offers a smaller living-learning environment for 288 residents.

International House (I-House) — Located on S. 11th Street approximately one block east of the Campus Village residence complex, SJSU's International House provides housing for 70 U.S. and international students.

Campus Village (CV3) — CV3 is the proposed third and final phase of the Campus Village on-campus residence community. The construction of CV3 will be broken up into two phases. CV3 (Phase I) will entail replacing Washburn Hall with a new housing structure and new welcome center facing San Salvador Street along the southern edge of campus. CV3 will stand 133 ft high and contain 850 student beds. CV3 (Phase I) is projected to break ground in 2024 with occupancy planned for fall 2027.

The second phase of CV3 will entail replacing the existing Dining Commons with a new dining facility, as well as replacing Joe West hall with a new housing structure. The new dining facility will have a seating capacity of 900, and the new housing structure will contain 558 beds. A timeline for CV3 (Phase II) has not been finalized as of spring 2023.

Once CV3 is completed, SJSU's total on-campus student housing capacity should increase from 4,458 to 4,928. The projected total cost for CV3 is approximately $334 million.

Alquist building — In January 2023, the California State University Board of Trustees officially approved a public-private partnership between SJSU and local investors that will allow the former Alfred E. Alquist state office building site to be transformed into new housing for SJSU faculty, staff and graduate students. Located one block west of the SJSU main campus, the 1.6-acre (0.65 ha) parcel will be the site of approximately 1,000 new housing rental units. Up to half of those units will be reserved for graduate students. The new housing development will comprise one or more high-rise structures up to 300 ft tall. The estimated total cost of the project is $750 million. The project's design phase is projected to be completed by early 2024. Construction is projected to begin in late 2024 and be completed in 2027.

Additional on-campus facilities
SJSU is home to the 10000 sqft, three-story Nuclear Science Facility. It is the only nuclear science facility of its kind in the California State University system.

Located on the main campus, the Provident Credit Union Event Center seats approximately 5,000 people for athletic events and over 6,500 for concerts.

A new student recreation and aquatic center opened in April 2019. At a cost of $132 million, the new facility houses multiple gymnasiums, basketball courts, multiple weight and fitness centers, exercise rooms, rock climbing wall, indoor track, indoor soccer fields, and competition and recreation pools with support spaces. The new facility is located on the main campus at the corner of 7th Street and San Carlos on the site of the old aquatic center, which was demolished in 2017.

Construction of a new interdisciplinary science building broke ground in April 2019. At a projected cost of $181 million, the new facility will house teaching labs, research labs, faculty offices, a dean's suite and interdisciplinary spaces totaling 164000 sqft. The project site is located on the southwest quadrant of campus just north of Duncan Hall. The new building was completed in 2023.

South Campus
SJSU's South Campus is located in the Spartan Keyes neighborhood, just south of Downtown San Jose. Many of SJSU's athletics facilities, including CEFCU Stadium (formerly known as Spartan Stadium) and the Spartan Golf Complex, along with the athletics department administrative offices and multiple training, practice and competition facilities, are located on the 62 acre south campus approximately 1.5 mi south of the main campus near 7th Street. The south campus also is home to student overflow parking. Shuttle buses run between the main campus and south campus every 10 to 15 minutes Monday through Thursday.

In April 2014, a new $76 million master plan to renovate the entire South Campus was unveiled. The estimated cost was later increased to $150 million. The plan called for construction of a golf training facility, new baseball and softball stadiums, new outdoor recreation and intramural facility, new soccer and tennis facilities, three beach volleyball courts, a new multilevel parking garage, a new track and field facility, and a football stadium addition and renovation. The new golf, soccer and tennis facilities opened in 2017. The new softball facility opened in 2018, and the beach volleyball courts were completed in 2019. The intramural facility and parking garage were completed in 2021 along with the first phase of a new baseball facility.

In August 2023, the first phase of the football stadium project was completed at an approximate cost of $70 million. Known as the Spartan Athletics Center, the 55,000 square-foot, multi-story facility houses a new football operations center, locker rooms, offices, meeting and training rooms and a sports medicine center. The facility also includes soccer team offices and locker rooms, as well as dining and hospitality facilities, event spaces and premium viewing areas. Phase II, which is tentatively slated to include installation of premium spectator seating on the stadium's east side, remains in the planning stages as of 2023.

Remaining South Campus projects are either under construction or still in the planning stages, as of 2023.

Off-campus facilities
SJSU Simpkins International House (360 S. 11th Street, San Jose) provides housing for domestic as well as international students of the university. International House (also known as I-House) is a co-ed residence facility for 70 U.S. and international students attending San José State University. The building has served as a residence hall since 1980, and offers cultural exchanges for U.S. students as well as residents from abroad.

The SJSU Department of Aviation and Technology maintains a 6000 sqft academic facility at the Reid-Hillview Airport.

SJSU manages the Moss Landing Marine Laboratories (MLML) in Moss Landing, California, at Monterey Bay. MLML is a cooperative research facility of seven CSU campuses. Construction of an aquaculture laboratory at the MLML site was completed in August 2014. The building project included construction of a 1400 sqft aquaculture lab building and installation of a 1584 sqft tank slab area. The project was made possible by grants from the Packard Foundation.

Art and Metal Foundry (1036 S. 5th Street, San Jose)

Associated Students Child Development Center (460 S. 8th Street, San Jose)

SJSU International and Extended Studies facility (384 S. 2nd Street, San Jose). This off-campus classroom building houses SJSU's International Gateway Programs, a collection of classes geared toward introducing international students to the English language and American culture.

University Club (408 S. 8th Street, San Jose), is a 16-room, multi-level dining, special events, and bed-and-breakfast style residence facility for faculty, staff, visiting scholars and graduate students of the university. This building is currently occupied by Alpha Omicron Pi sorority in agreement with the university.

Known simply as North Fourth Street (210 N. 4th Street, San Jose), this four-story facility houses the Global Studies Institute, Governmental and External Affairs, International and Extended Studies, the Mineta Transportation Institute, the Processed Foods Institute, and the SJSU Research Foundation.

Organization
As a member institution of the California State University System, San Jose State falls under the jurisdiction of the California State University Board of Trustees and the chancellor of the California State University.

The chief executive of San José State University is the university president. On December 21, 2021, Mary A. Papazian officially resigned as SJSU president. CSU Chancellor Joseph Castro appointed Stephen Perez as interim university president effective January 3, 2022. Perez previously served as provost and vice president of academic affairs at California State University, Sacramento.

In November 2022, the California State University Board of Trustees named Cynthia Teniente-Matson as the new, permanent SJSU president. Teniente-Matson officially took over in January 2023.

The university is organized into nine colleges:

 * Lucas College and Graduate School of Business
 * Connie L. Lurie College of Education
 * Charles W. Davidson College of Engineering
 * College of Graduate Studies
 * College of Health and Human Sciences (Formerly known as the College of Applied Sciences and Arts)
 * College of Humanities and the Arts
 * College of Professional and Global Education (Formerly known as the College of International and Extended Studies)
 * College of Science
 * College of Social Sciences

Additionally, SJSU has seven focused schools:

 * School of Art and Design
 * Lucas College and Graduate School of Business
 * School of Information
 * School of Journalism and Mass Communications
 * School of Music and Dance
 * The Valley Foundation School of Nursing
 * School of Social Work

Academics
As of spring 2023, San José State University offers 150 bachelor's degree programs, 95 master's degrees, five doctoral degrees, 11 different credential programs and 42 certificates. SJSU is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC).

SJSU's doctoral degree offerings include a Ph.D. program in library and information science offered jointly through Manchester Metropolitan University in Manchester, England, a doctor of audiology (Au.D.), an Ed.D. program in educational leadership, a doctor of nursing practice (DNP), and an occupational therapy doctorate (OTD).

As of fall 2022, some of the more popular fields of study at SJSU included engineering, business, library and information science, psychology, kinesiology and computer science.

Areas of study somewhat unique to SJSU include artificial intelligence, aviation, climate science, meteorology, packaging, software engineering, sustainable and green manufacturing technology, and transportation management.

As of fall 2022, the university's Charles W. Davidson College of Engineering, with 7,125 undergraduate and graduate students, was the largest college on campus. SJSU's Lucas College and Graduate School of Business was the second largest college on campus with a total enrollment of 6,329 undergraduate and graduate students. The university's College of Social Sciences, with 5,681 undergraduate and graduate students, was the third-largest college at SJSU. Enrollment wise, the Lucas College of Business is among the largest business schools in the country. It is accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) at both the graduate and undergraduate levels, a distinction held by less than 5% of business programs worldwide.

Rankings
According to the 2022-2023 U.S. News & World Report college rankings, San Jose State is ranked No. 4 academically out of 59 public regional universities in the western United States. SJSU is ranked No. 16 among all 120 "regional universities" in the western U.S.

SJSU's undergraduate engineering program is ranked tied for No. 15 nationally among 230 public and private colleges that do not offer doctoral degrees in engineering, according to the 2022-2023 U.S. News & World Report college rankings.

SJSU is ranked No. 108 out of approximately 500 institutions nationwide on the 2022 Forbes America's Top Colleges list. SJSU is ranked No. 43 nationally on the Forbes list of top public universities and colleges. Forbes also ranked SJSU No. 40 nationally out of approximately 300 colleges and universities on the most recent Forbes list of America's Best Value Colleges (2019).

Money magazine ranked San Jose State No. 31 nationally out of approximately 625 schools it evaluated for its 2022 "Best Colleges in America" ranking.  Money also ranked SJSU No. 27 nationally on its 2022 list of Best Public Colleges, No. 39 on its list of Best Colleges for Engineering Majors, and No. 19 on Money's list of Best Colleges in the West. Finally, Money magazine ranked San Jose State No. 1 nationally on its 2020 list of "Most Transformative Colleges."

SJSU is ranked No. 291 out of more than 800 U.S. colleges and universities in the Wall Street Journal/Times Higher Education College Rankings 2022. The ranking is based on 15 individual performance indicators and responses from more than 170,000 current college students.

Washington Monthly ranked SJSU No. 53 nationally out of 603 master's universities (2022). Washington Monthly ranks colleges based on their "contribution to the public good in three broad categories: social mobility, research, and promoting public service."

The Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, which provides an assessment of the scholarly contents, visibility and impact of universities on the web, ranked SJSU No. 701 out of approximately 12,000 universities worldwide, and No. 200 out of approximately 3,200 U.S. colleges and universities (2022).

Undergraduate admissions
Admission to SJSU is based on a combination of the applicant's high school cumulative grade point average (GPA) and standardized test scores. These factors are used to determine the applicant's California State University (CSU) eligibility index. More specifically, the eligibility index is a weighted combination of the applicant's high school grade point average during the final three years of high school and either the SAT or ACT score.

The CSU eligibility index is calculated by using either the SAT or ACT as follows: (Sum of SAT scores in mathematics and critical reading) + (800 x high school GPA) or (10 x ACT composite score without the writing score) + (200 x high school GPA).

In fall 2022, a total of 34,783 first-time, first-year (freshmen) applications were submitted, with 26,083 applicants accepted (75.0%) and 4,036 enrolling (15.5% of those accepted).

Among first-time, first-year (freshmen) students who enrolled in fall 2021, SAT scores for the middle 50.0% ranged from 1030–1310. ACT composite scores for the middle 50.0% ranged from 20–31. The average high school GPA for incoming freshmen was 3.54. Approximately 39.0% of all incoming freshmen had a high school GPA between 3.75 and 4.0. and 18% had an incoming average high school GPA of 4.0

In recent years, enrollment at SJSU has become impacted in all undergraduate majors, which means the university no longer has the enrollment capacity to accept all CSU-eligible applicants, including some from local high schools and community colleges. Although an applicant may meet the minimum CSU admission requirements, CSU-eligible applicants are no longer guaranteed admission.

Undergraduate graduation and retention
Among all first-time freshmen students who enrolled at SJSU in fall 2017, 30% graduated within four years; 68% who enrolled in fall 2015 graduated within six years. Among new undergraduate transfer students who enrolled at SJSU in fall 2017, 33.0% graduated within two years, 69% graduated within three years, and 80.0% graduated within four years. Among first-time graduate students who enrolled at SJSU in fall 2017, 52.0% graduated within two years, 78% graduated within three years, and 83.0% graduated within four years.

The percentage of undergraduate students from the fall 2019 cohort returning in fall 2020 was 86.0% for full-time freshman students, 90.0% for new undergraduate transfer students, and 92.0% for first-time graduate students.

Faculty and research
As of fall 2022, San José State University employed 2,243 faculty, 1,363 of whom (or about 61%) were full-time or equivalent (FTEF).

According to National Science Foundation survey data, in 2022 San Jose State's research and development expenditures totaled $71.7 million, placing it second in total R&D expenditures out of all 23 California State University (CSU) campuses and No. 182 out of more than 900 colleges and universities nationwide.

Research collections located at SJSU include the Ira F. Brilliant Center for Beethoven Studies, the Martha Heasley Cox Center for Steinbeck Studies, the J. Gordon Edwards Entomology Museum and the Carl W. Sharsmith Herbarium.

SJSU research partnerships include the SJSU Metropolitan Technology Center at NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, the Cisco Networking Laboratory, and the Moss Landing Marine Laboratories. SJSU is also home to the Mineta Transportation Institute.

Additionally, the university operates the Survey and Policy Research Institute (SPRI), which conducts the quarterly, high-profile California Consumer Confidence Survey and many other research projects.

SJSU is a member institution of the National Space Grant College and Fellowship Program.

Since 1979, the SJSU Department of Kinesiology operates the Timpany Center (located at 730 Empey Way), a non-profit therapeutic facility open to all and owned by the County of Santa Clara. The center is dedicated to the health and fitness of those with a disability or age-related concerns.

Since 1989, the SJSU Environmental Studies Department has headquartered and operated the Center for the Development of Recycling, an environmental research and service organization.

On July 21, 2012, SJSU launched its first miniaturized satellite used for space research, TechEdSat, in a partnership with the NASA Ames Research Center.

Since 2014, SJSU has operated the Silicon Valley Big Data and Cybersecurity Center (BDCC). The center serves as a cybersecurity research and knowledge hub by creating multidisciplinary collaborations between faculty members from across the university and Silicon Valley tech companies.

Air Force ROTC
Known academically as the Department of Aerospace Studies, SJSU's Detachment 045 is one of only two Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps detachments in the San Francisco Bay Area. As such, Detachment 045 hosts "crosstown cadets" from other Bay Area schools including Santa Clara University, Stanford University and UC Santa Cruz. San Jose State students and crosstown cadets enrolled in the AFROTC program learn leadership skills and participate in a number of other mandatory activities leading to an active-duty U.S. military officer commission.

Student life
As the oldest and one of the largest universities in the CSU system, SJSU attracts students from California, the United States, and 100 countries around the world. As of fall 2022, 35,751 students were enrolled at SJSU including 26,863 undergraduate students and 8,888 graduate and credential students. Approximately 51% of students were male and 49% were female. Graduate student enrollment at SJSU was the highest of any campus in the CSU system.

As of fall 2022, the average age of undergraduate students at SJSU was 22.2. The average age of graduate students was 29.0, and the average age of credential students was 31.7.

Approximately 4,500 students (12.5%) live in campus housing and community impact studies show an estimated 5,000 more students live within easy walking or biking distance of the campus. Additionally, approximately 45% of all first-year (freshman) students live in campus residence facilities.

As of 2022, there were over 475 recognized student organizations at SJSU. These include academic and honorary organizations, cultural and religious organizations, special interest organizations, fraternities and sororities, and a wide variety of club sports organizations.

Fraternities and sororities
Fraternities and sororities have existed at SJSU since 1896. SJSU is home to 43 social fraternity and sorority chapters managed by Student Involvement. Greek life at SJSU comprises both social (NIC & NPC) and cultural (NPHC & USFC) organizations. Eighteen different fraternities and sororities maintain chapter homes in the residential community east of campus along S. 10th and 11th streets, north of campus along San Fernando Street, and south of campus along San Salvador Street, S. 8th Street, and E. Reed Street, in downtown San Jose. The only SJSU Greek organization not part of the Interfraternity and Panhellenic Councils that maintains a chapter house is Alpha Phi Alpha. Interfraternity Council members Alpha Sigma Phi and Pi Kappa Phi do not yet have chapter homes. An additional 26 fraternities are co-ed and are either major-related, honors-related, or community service related. The United Sorority and Fraternity Council (USFC) at San José State University was established in 2003. USFC is the coordinating body for the 17 cultural interest fraternities and sororities at SJSU. Approximately 6% of male students join social fraternities, and 6% of female students join social sororities.

Spartan Marching Band
The Spartan marching band comprises students from every field of study on campus, from first year undergraduates through graduate students, as well as several "open university" members. At each home football game, the Spartan marching band performs a completely new halftime show, plus a pre-game show and a post-game concert. The band reflects all the color and fanfare of major university sports pageantry. The band is unofficially known as "The Pride of the Spartans," and generally performs with a color guard and dance team. The band performs at all home football games, and also travels with the team for select road games.

Spartan Squad
Founded in 2005, the Spartan Squad is the official student booster program at San Jose State. The Spartan Squad is run by the Associated Students and is open to all undergraduate and graduate students enrolled at San Jose State. Its stated mission is to increase student attendance at sporting events and cultivate school pride throughout the campus community. The Spartan Squad members are easily recognized wearing the group's signature gold T-shirts designed by San Jose State graphic design student Dang Nguyen. Class of 2006 graduates Matthew Olivieri and Brad Villeggiante are credited with founding the group.

Student press
The school newspaper, The Spartan Daily, was founded in 1934 and is published three days a week when classes are in session. The publication follows a broadsheet format and has a daily print circulation of over 6,000, as well as a daily on-line edition. The newspaper is produced by journalism and advertising students enrolled in SJSU's School of Journalism and Mass Communications. The journalism school, including The Spartan Daily newsroom and other student press facilities, are housed inside Dwight Bentel Hall. The building was named after the department's founder and long time chairman, Dwight Bentel. The journalism school also runs an on-campus advertising agency, Dwight, Bentel and Hall Communications.

Update News is a weekly, student-produced television newscast that airs every weekend on KICU, Channel 36 in San Jose. The newscast is produced by San Jose State broadcast journalism students, and has aired in the Bay Area since 1982. The newscast previously aired on educational station KTEH. Update News also features a daily live webcast.

Equal Time is a news magazine show produced by the San Jose State School of Journalism and Mass Communications. Each half-hour episode examines a different issue in depth, and ends with a roundtable discussion featuring professors and other experts in search of solutions. Equal Time airs Saturday afternoons on KQED+ (Channel 54 or Comcast Channel 10) in the Bay Area.

Established in 1963, KSJS, 90.5 FM, is the university's student-run radio station. KSJS features live broadcasts of San Jose State athletic events, various types of music including electronic, urban, jazz, subversive rock, and rock en Español, as well as specialty talk shows.

Notable student organizations
W6YL is a student-run amateur radio station that has been in continuous operation for 0 years. Originally founded in 1927 when SJSU was still known as San Jose State Teachers College, SJSU Amateur Radio Club W6YL is recognized as one of the oldest continuously operating student organizations on campus. The SJSU Amateur Radio Club is a federally licensed radio station that operates under the callsign W6YL on amateur radio bands.

Athletics

San José State University has participated in athletics since it first fielded a baseball team in 1890. SJSU sports teams are known as the Spartans, and compete in the Mountain West Conference (MWC) in NCAA Division I.

San José State University sports teams have won NCAA national titles in track and field, golf, boxing, fencing and tennis. As of December 2022, SJSU has won 10 NCAA national Division 1 team championships and produced 50 NCAA national Division 1 individual champions. SJSU also has achieved an international reputation for its judo program, winning 52 National Collegiate Judo Association (NCJA) men's team championship titles and 26 NCJA women's team championship titles between 1962 and 2024.

SJSU alumni have won 20 Olympic medals (including seven gold medals) dating back to the first gold medal won by Willie Steele in track and field in the 1948 Summer Olympics. Alumni also have won medals in swimming, judo, water polo and boxing. The track team coached by "Bud" Winter earned San Jose State the nickname "Speed City," and produced Olympic medalists and social activists Lee Evans, Tommie Smith and John Carlos. Smith and Carlos are perhaps best remembered for giving the raised fist salute from the medalist's podium during the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City. In 2005, a monument of the protest was built on Tower Lawn, designed by artist Rigo 23 and titled Victory Salute, the monument encourages passerby's to recreate the historic moment. The track and field program was canceled in 1988 after a series of budget cuts and Title IX related decisions decimated the program. The program was reinstated in 2016.

After an 11-2 finish in 2012, SJSU's football team achieved its first-ever BCS ranking and first national ranking since 1990. SJSU was ranked No. 21 in both the 2012 post-season Associated Press Poll and the USA Today Coaches' Poll.

The Spartan football team had another breakout season in 2020, cracking the AP Poll top-25 for the first time since 2012 and appearing in the College Football Playoff ranking at No. 24. The team also won its first conference championship title since 1991. The Spartans finished the 2020 season 7-1 and ranked No. 24 in the AP Poll.

Club sports
In addition to its various NCAA Division I sports programs, San José State University has a very active club sports community consisting of approximately 25 sports and 50 teams. Many of the club sports teams are run and organized by students, although some of the more established teams employ full-time paid coaches and enjoy strong alumni support. The list of club sports active at SJSU includes:

Men's and women's archery, men's and women's badminton, baseball, men's and women's basketball, men's and women's bowling, men's and women's boxing, men's and women's cycling, dancesport, men's and women's dragon boat racing, esports, men's and women's fencing, men's and women's figure skating, men's and women's gymnastics, ACHA Division II and Division lll men's ice hockey, women's ice hockey, men's and women's judo, MCLA Division II men's lacrosse, women's lacrosse, mountain biking, men's and women's powerlifting, men's and women's quidditch, men's roller hockey, men's and women's rugby, salsa, men's and women's soccer, softball, men's and women's swimming, track and field, triathlon, ultimate Frisbee, men's and women's volleyball, men's and women's water polo, and men's and women's wrestling.

Traditions
The old campus bell, which was originally located in a small tower to the right of the main entrance to the campus, was purchased and installed in 1881 at a cost of $1,217. The bell chimed each morning at eight o'clock until the 1906 San Francisco earthquake stilled its voice. When Tower Hall was constructed in 1909, it was specially designed to house the old bell. The bell rang on special occasions until the college obtained new carillon chimes in 1946. The old bell is displayed to this day on the Washington Square quad near Tower Hall.

In 1922, the State Teachers College at San Jose adopted the Spartans as the school's official mascot and nickname. Mascots and nicknames prior to 1922 included the Daniels, the Teachers, the Pedagogues, the Normals and the Normalites.

In 1925, students debated whether to change the school colors from gold and white to purple and white. Tradition won out, and the students decided to keep the original colors, gold and white. At some point prior to 1929 when the SJSU alma mater was officially adopted, blue was added as an official school color alongside gold and white.

According to information published in the old SJSU La Torre yearbook, Spardi Gras was first held in 1929 on George Washington's birthday. Spardi Gras was described in the 1929 edition of La Torre as "[an] event which met with unprecedented participance by the entire student body ... a gala occasion of play, sport, and merrymaking later authorized by the Executive Board as an annual event because of its great success." Spardi Gras was last mentioned in La Torre in 1960.

Another longstanding event at SJSU was "Spartan Revelries." According to information published in the 1960 edition of La Torre, Spartan Revelries was an "all-student college musical event written, produced and presented entirely by students." It's unclear when Spartan Revelries began, but some believe it started in 1929 as a grand finale to Spardi Gras. In 1949, an official Revelries board was established to carry out the business and management of each year's show, which had grown into a major annual event requiring the efforts of many students and several months of preparation.

Sparta Camp was an annual event held between 1953 and 1965. The retreat was hosted by the Associated Students and was held every spring at the Asilomar State Beach. The event was open to all students with an interest in student government, and students had to apply to go. Participants attended workshops and discussion groups on leadership. A similar event known as Freshman Camp was also held at Asilomar every September to help new students get oriented to the campus and the "Spirit of Sparta."

The chimes heard on the SJSU campus each quarter hour are Westminster chimes, which were a gift from the class of 1947. They ring the same tones as the famous Big Ben chimes in England. Students and alumni show their Spartan pride every Thursday by wearing Spartan blue and gold. Each year during homecoming week, SJSU hosts a series of events leading up to the homecoming football game at CEFCU Stadium. Events include the Campus MovieFest Finale and Fire on the Fountain festival.

Alma mater
"Hail! Spartans, Hail!" is the university's official alma mater. The lyrics were written by Gerald Erwin, a 1933 graduate. Erwin was a music major who also served as the student director of the glee club. The song was officially adopted as the school hymn on February 25, 1929. Whenever the SJSU Alma Mater is played, students are asked to stand, remove their hats and sing along.

The university also has a fight song, which is typically played and/or sung at the end of football games and other athletic events including pep rallies.

Alumni
About 60% of San Jose State's 275,000 living alumni of record reside in the San Francisco Bay Area. The other 40% are scattered around the globe, with concentrations in Southern California, Seattle, Portland, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., and New York City.

SJSU is consistently listed among the leading suppliers of undergraduate and graduate alumni to Silicon Valley science and technology firms. In 2015, San José State University was listed as the top feeder school for Apple Inc., which employed over 1,000 SJSU graduates at the time. SJSU ranked 9th on the list of top feeder schools for Facebook.

Some of the more notable SJSU alumni in science and engineering include Ray Dolby, founder of Dolby sound systems; Dian Fossey, primatologist and gorilla researcher; Gordon Moore, founder of Intel Corporation and creator of "Moore's law;" and Ed Oates, co-founder of Oracle.

Nearly 200 former SJSU students and graduates have founded, co-founded, served or serve as senior executives or officers of public and private companies reporting annual sales between $40 million and $26 billion. This list includes former Intel Corporation CEO, Brian Krzanich, and current Crown Worldwide Group CEO, billionaire James E. Thompson.

Notable companies founded by SJSU students and alumni include Dolby Laboratories (1965), Intel Corporation (1968), Specialized Bicycle Components (1974), Oracle Corporation (1977), Seagate Technology (1979) and WhatsApp (2008).

Musicians Doug Clifford and Stu Cook (Creedence Clearwater Revival), Tom Johnston and Patrick Simmons (the Doobie Brothers), Lindsey Buckingham and Stevie Nicks (Fleetwood Mac) and Paul Kantner (Jefferson Airplane) all attended San Jose State.

SJSU distinguished alumni also include former first Lady of the United States, Lou Henry Hoover, novelists Amy Tan and Jayne Ann Krentz, and fashion designer Jessica McClintock.

SJSU alumni Dick Vermeil and Bill Walsh earned a combined four Super Bowl victories as NFL head coaches.

San Jose State alumnus and 1964 U.S. Open winner Ken Venturi was named Sports Illustrated "Sportsman of the Year" and later inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame.

title: San Jose State University


text:
Wooton desk

The Wooton desk is a variation of the fall front desk, native to Indianapolis, Indiana, and produced from 1874 to 1890.

History
Indianapolis, Indiana entrepreneur William S. Wooton obtained patents for his desk design in 1874. The desk was introduced at a time when the small business owner was seeing an increase in daily correspondence. With this increase in paperwork came the need for adequate storage and retrieval of files. An early advertisement for the Wooten desk described the model as follows:

''Everything that ingenuity can suggest or devise to facilitate desk labor, has been introduced in our secretary...Its comprehensive character is such that             ample accommodations are afforded for the requirements of the most voluminous business. Every facility is furnished for a thorough and systematic classification of books, papers, memorandums, etc. Through its aid the usual fret and worry of office work is converted into a positive pleasure. It is a miniature counting-house, with a combination of such conveniences as are found best adapted for the manipulation of office work, and these all under one lock and key.''

Soon after the Wooten desk‘s introduction the reservoir-based fountain pen and typewriter became popular and produced greater quantities of office documents than its pigeon hole style storage system could accommodate. Production ceased in 1890.

Design
Wooton desks were not the costliest desks in series production, but they did utilize the most drawers, nooks, and crannies of all the designs available. Only a few examples of the cupboard desk had more divisions, but they were of a very utilitarian style and were often produced by the families or communities which used them, such as the Shakers. The armoire desk is the closest modern relative to the Wooton desk in its size and form. However, the armoire desk is even larger than the Wooton, and despite the use of rich veneers by some makers, is a much more practical piece of furniture.

The Wooton secretary desk rests on a four-legged quadruped support equipped with casters. The main body of the desk is filled with dozens of small drawers and nooks for papers and small objects.

As in a "secrétaire à abattant," or fall front desk, the main working surface or desktop is hinged and lifted completely from the horizontal to the vertical in order to lock up the desk, forcing the user to gather up and store all papers and implements beforehand. Unlike the secrétaire à abattant however, the Wooton desktop hides only a few of the small drawers and nooks. The real lockup is done by closing two massive hinged panels which are as deep as the desk and filled with drawers and nooks of all sizes.

Wooton desks in good condition are sometimes sold in auctions for the same price as a top-of-the-line luxury automobile.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wooton desk


text:
User talk:Rheaney

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

snoyes 05:35, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rheaney


text:
Apop

Apop may refer to:

 * APOP (Email Protocol)
 * APOP Kinyras Peyias FC, a Cypriot football club
 * Apoptygma Berzerk, a Norwegian electronica band

title: Apop


text:
Rocket from the Tombs

Rocket from the Tombs (or RFTT) is an American rock band originally active from mid-1974 to mid-1975 in Cleveland, Ohio, United States. The band featured David Thomas and was reconstituted several times with various line-ups starting in 2003.

Heralded as an important protopunk group, they were little known during the band's original lifetime, although various members later achieved renown in Pere Ubu and the Dead Boys. Billy Bob Hargus wrote, however, that "The sound of the Rockets is much more ferocious than Ubu or the Dead Boys."

Band history
The band played their first show June 16, 1974 at the Viking Saloon in downtown Cleveland. The original line-up was David Thomas (then known as "Crocus Behemoth" (vocals, bass), Kim Zonneville (bass, vocals), Glenn "Thunderhand" Hach (guitar, vocals) and Tom "Foolery" Clements (drums).

There was some fluctuation of the group's personnel, but what has come to be known as the "classic" lineup included, Thomas, Peter Laughner, Craig Willis Bell (a.k.a. Darwin Layne), Gene O'Connor (a.k.a. Cheetah Chrome), and Johnny Madansky (a.k.a. "Johnny Blitz").

When RFTT disbanded, the personnel split and formed three different musical groups:
 * O'Connor and Madansky joined with singer Stiv Bators (who made a guest appearance on-stage at the last RFTT show) to form Frankenstein, which later morphed into the Dead Boys, a more straightforward punk rock group.
 * Laughner and Thomas went on to form the more experimental Pere Ubu with bassist Tim Wright (RFTT's soundman). Laughner died in 1977, of acute pancreatitis brought on by years of drinking and drug use.
 * Bell moved to Connecticut and started a band called Saucers

All three bands used songs first written or performed by Rocket From The Tombs as parts of their repertoires: the Dead Boys were known for "Ain't It Fun," "What Love Is," "Down in Flames," "Caught With the Meat in Your Mouth" (done by RFTT as "I'm Never Gonna Kill Myself Again") and "Sonic Reducer"; Pere Ubu went on to reinterpret "Final Solution," "Life Stinks" and "30 Seconds Over Tokyo"; Saucers played "Muckraker”, and “Frustration”.

Rocket From The Tombs never recorded an album in their initial timespan, but various live recordings and demos circulated occasionally as bootlegs. Most of these were collected on a single CD by Smog Veil records, and titled The Day the Earth Met the Rocket from the Tombs (2002).

San Diego punk band Rocket from the Crypt chose their name after being inspired by hearing Rocket from the Tombs bootleg recordings.

Reunion
The Smog Veil Records CD rekindled interest in Rocket From The Tombs, and they reformed in 2003 with original members Thomas, Chrome, and Bell, joined by Richard Lloyd (guitar), and Steve Mehlman (drums). Some claim that decades earlier, when Lloyd briefly quit the New York-based band Television, Laughner was seriously considered as his replacement. However, on his website richardlloyd.com, Richard Lloyd asserts that Laughner "was never even close to being in Television, unless I was way out of town for a month, and I don't think so."

On June 10, 2003 they played their first live radio concert since the 1970s (when two shows live from the Agora club aired on WMMS) on Brian Turner's program on WFMU.

In 2004, Smog Veil and Morphius released Rocket Redux, consisting of Rocket From The Tombs originals performed in studio by the 2003 lineup. It received mostly positive reviews; one critic declared that Redux "never sounds like a complacent reunion record, and in a way, I suppose it's not really a reunion record in the first place so much as it's a debut album, played with all the hunger and fire of a band eager to make their mark on the world."

In 2006, Thomas announced that the band had again reunited, this time to work on new material. The band toured the United States in the summer of 2006 and debuted some new songs, but no further activity occurred until 2009 when the band contributed a song to the Mark Mulcahy tribute album Ciao My Shining Star: The Songs of Mark Mulcahy. An album of new material, Barfly was released on September 13, 2011 with a tour scheduled to begin in November 2011. However, Richard Lloyd was replaced in the band prior to the tour's launch, and Cheetah Chrome announced his departure from Rocket From the Tombs on December 30, 2011, leaving David Thomas and Craig Willis Bell as the only remaining original members.

In November 2015, the band released Black Record.

Albums

 * Rocket Redux (2004)
 * Barfly (2011)
 * Black Record (2015)

Live albums

 * When It's Too Late To Die Young (download only) (2011)
 * Extermination Night (download only) (2012)
 * Strychnine (download only) (2012)
 * ''That's What I Call Rock Music (download only) (2022)

Other albums

 * A Night Of Heavy Music (bootleg cassette) (1975)
 * Life Stinks (A full-blown release of A Night Of Heavy Music) (1990)
 * The Day the Earth Met the Rocket from the Tombs (2002)
 * Ciao My Shining Star: The Songs of Mark Mulcahy (2009)

Single

 * "I Sell Soul" / "Romeo & Juliet" single (6 April 2010)

title: Rocket from the Tombs


text:
User talk:Vulc4n

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Tip: you can sign your name with ~

Dori 05:45, Nov 25, 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Vulc4n


text:
Cerebral edema

Cerebral edema is excess accumulation of fluid (edema) in the intracellular or extracellular spaces of the brain. This typically causes impaired nerve function, increased pressure within the skull, and can eventually lead to direct compression of brain tissue and blood vessels. Symptoms vary based on the location and extent of edema and generally include headaches, nausea, vomiting, seizures, drowsiness, visual disturbances, dizziness, and in severe cases, death.

Cerebral edema is commonly seen in a variety of brain injuries including ischemic stroke, subarachnoid hemorrhage, traumatic brain injury, subdural, epidural, or intracerebral hematoma, hydrocephalus, brain cancer, brain infections, low blood sodium levels, high altitude, and acute liver failure. Diagnosis is based on symptoms and physical examination findings and confirmed by serial neuroimaging (computed tomography scans and magnetic resonance imaging).

The treatment of cerebral edema depends on the cause and includes monitoring of the person's airway and intracranial pressure, proper positioning, controlled hyperventilation, medications, fluid management, steroids. Extensive cerebral edema can also be treated surgically with a decompressive craniectomy. Cerebral edema is a major cause of brain damage and contributes significantly to the mortality of ischemic strokes and traumatic brain injuries.

As cerebral edema is present with many common cerebral pathologies, the epidemiology of the disease is not easily defined. The incidence of this disorder should be considered in terms of its potential causes and is present in most cases of traumatic brain injury, central nervous system tumors, brain ischemia, and intracerebral hemorrhage. For example, malignant brain edema was present in roughly 31% of people with ischemic strokes within 30 days after onset.

Signs and symptoms
The extent and severity of the symptoms of cerebral edema depend on the exact etiology but are generally related to an acute increase of the pressure within the skull. As the skull is a fixed and inelastic space, the accumulation of cerebral edema can displace and compress vital brain tissue, cerebral spinal fluid, and blood vessels, according to the Monro–Kellie doctrine.

Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) is a life-threatening surgical emergency marked by symptoms of headache, nausea, vomiting, decreased consciousness. Symptoms are frequently accompanied by visual disturbances such as gaze paresis, reduced vision, and dizziness. Increased pressures within the skull can cause a compensatory elevation of blood pressure to maintain cerebral blood flow, which, when associated with irregular breathing and a decreased heart rate, is called the Cushing reflex. The Cushing reflex often indicates compression of the brain on brain tissue and blood vessels, leading to decreased blood flow to the brain and eventually death.

Causes
Cerebral edema is frequently encountered in acute brain injuries from a variety of origins, including but not limited to:

 * Traumatic brain injury
 * Stroke
 * Tumors
 * Infections (such as a brain abscess or meningitis)
 * Hepatic encephalopathy
 * Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome
 * Radiation-induced brain edema
 * Post-surgical changes
 * Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities associated with edema (ARIA-E)
 * Hyponatremia
 * High-altitude cerebral edema

Risk factors
Cerebral edema is present with many common cerebral pathologies and risk factors for development of cerebral edema will depend on the cause. The following were reliable predictors for development of early cerebral edema in ischemic strokes.

 * Younger age
 * Higher severity of symptoms on the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale
 * Signs of current ischemia on clinical exam
 * Decreased level of consciousness
 * Hyper dense artery sign and larger affected area on CT imaging
 * Higher blood glucose

Classification
Cerebral edema has been traditional classified into two major sub-types: cytotoxic and vasogenic cerebral edema. This simple classification helps guide medical decision making and treatment of patients affected with cerebral edema. There are, however, several more differentiated types including but not limited to interstitial, osmotic, hydrostatic, and high altitude associated edema. Within one affected person, many individual sub-types can be present simultaneously.

The following individual sub-types have been identified:

Cytotoxic
In general, cytotoxic edema is linked to cell death in the brain through excessive cellular swelling. During cerebral ischemia for example, the blood–brain barrier remains intact but decreased blood flow and glucose supply leads to a disruption in cellular metabolism and creation of energy sources, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Exhaustion of energy sources impairs functioning of the sodium and potassium pump in the cell membrane, leading to cellular retention of sodium ions. Accumulation of sodium in the cell causes a rapid uptake of water through osmosis, with subsequent swelling of the cells. The ultimate consequence of cytotoxic edema is the oncotic death of neurons. The swelling of the individual cells of the brain is the main distinguishing characteristic of cytotoxic edema, as opposed to vasogenic edema, wherein the influx of fluid is typically seen in the interstitial space rather than within the cells themselves. Researchers have proposed that "cellular edema" may be more preferable to the term "cytotoxic edema" given the distinct swelling and lack of consistent "toxic" substance involved.

There are several clinical conditions in which cytotoxic edema is present:

 * Commonly caused by traumatic brain injuries, intracerebral hemorrhage, and the early phase of ischemic stroke.
 * Also seen in acute liver failure where toxic waste, most notably ammonia, accumulates in the blood stream and crosses the blood–brain barrier. Hyperammonemia in central nervous system (CNS) cells causes oxidative stress and mitochrondrial dysfunction, leading to astrocytic cell swelling. Additionally, ammonia is converted to glutamine in CNS cells which acts as an osmolyte and draws further water into the cell through osmosis. Cerebral edema occurs most commonly in conjunction with a rapid rise in ammonia levels.
 * Toxic exposures to methionine sulfoximine, cuprizone, isoniazid, triethyltin, hexachlorophene, and hydrogen cyanide have been associated with cytotoxic edema and swelling of astrocytic cells.
 * Hypoxia, anoxia can lead to cytotoxic edema through several mechanisms

Vasogenic
Extracellular brain edema, or vasogenic edema, is caused by an increase in the permeability of the blood–brain barrier. The blood–brain barrier consists of astrocytes and pericytes joined with adhesion proteins producing tight junctions. Return of blood flow to these cells after an ischemic stroke can cause excitotoxicity and oxidative stress leading to dysfunction of the endothelial cells and disruption of the blood-brain barrier. The breakdown of the tight endothelial junctions that make up the blood–brain barrier causes extravasation of fluid, ions, and plasma proteins, such as albumin, into the brain parenchyma. Accumulation of extracellular fluid increases brain volume and then intracranial pressure causing the symptoms of cerebral edema.

There are several clinical conditions in which vasogenic edema is present:

 * CNS tumors, like glioblastoma and meningioma
 * Infections like meningitis, abscess, and encephalitis
 * Inflammatory central nervous system disease such as multiple sclerosis
 * Brain hemorrhage
 * Traumatic brain injuries can lead to increased intracranial pressure, local damage, reduced cerebral blood flow, and focal ischemia secondary to vasogenic edema.
 * Late stage of ischemic stroke after rapid recovery from cytotoxic edema
 * Hypertensive encephalopathy
 * Radiation injury

Ionic (Osmotic)
In ionic edema, the solute concentration (osmolality) of the brain exceeds that of the plasma and the abnormal pressure gradient leads to accumulation of water intake into the brain parenchyma through the process of osmosis. The blood-brain barrier is intact and maintains the osmotic gradient.

The solute concentration of the blood plasma can be diluted by several mechanisms:

 * Improper administration of intravenous fluids, isotonic or hypotonic.
 * Excessive water intake, syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH).
 * Rapid reduction of blood glucose in diabetic ketoacidosis or hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state.
 * Hemodialysis has been associated with ionic edema and cellular swelling.
 * Cerebral edema is a potentially life-threatening complication of severely decreased sodium ion concentration in the blood (hyponatremia).

Ionic brain edema can also occur around the sites of brain hemorrhages, infarcts, or contusions due to a local plasma osmolality pressure gradient when compared to the high osmolality in the affected tissue.

Interstitial (hydrocephalic)
Interstitial edema can be best characterized by in noncomunnicating hydrocephalus where there is an obstruction to the outflow of cerebrospinal fluid within the ventricular system. The obstruction creates a rise in the intraventricular pressure and causes CSF to flow through the wall of the ventricles into the extracellular fluid within brain. The fluid has roughly the same composition of CSF.

Other causes of interstitial edema include but are not limited to communicating hydrocephalus, and normal pressure hydrocephalus.

Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic extracellular brain edema is typically caused by severe arterial hypertension. A difference in the hydrostatic pressure within the arterial system relative to the endothelial cells allows ultrafiltration of water, ions, and low molecular weight substances (such as glucose, small amino acids) into the brain parenchyma. The blood-brain barrier is intact usually and the extent of the edema depends on the arterial pressure. The regulatory processes of the brain circulation can function up to systolic arterial pressures of 150 mm Hg and will have impaired function at higher blood pressures.

Combined types of cerebral edema
Cytotoxic, osmotic, and vasogenic edema exist on a continuum. The mechanism of the cause of cerebral edema can often overlap between these types. In most instances, cytotoxic and vasogenic edema occur together. When the two edema types evolve simultaneously, the damage of one type reaches a limit and will bring about the other type of injury. For example, when cytotoxic edema occurs in the endothelial cells of the blood–brain barrier, oncotic cell death contributes to loss of integrity of the blood–brain barrier and promotes the progression to vasogenic edema. When brain edema types are combined, there is typically a primary form and the edema type and context of the cause must be determined in order to start appropriate medical or surgical therapy. The use of specific MRI techniques has allowed for some differentiation between the mechanisms.

High-altitude cerebral edema
If not properly acclimatized to high altitude, a person may be negatively affected by the lower oxygen concentration available. These hypoxia-related illnesses include acute mountain sickness (AMS), high-altitude pulmonary edema, and high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE). High-altitude cerebral edema is a severe and sometimes fatal form of altitude sickness that results from capillary fluid leakage due to the effects of hypoxia on the mitochondria-rich endothelial cells of the blood–brain barrier. The edema can be characterized by vasogenic cerebral edema with symptoms of impaired consciousness and truncal ataxia.

Altitude-related illnesses can be prevented most effectively with slow ascent to high altitudes, an average ascent of 300 to 500 meters per day is recommended. Pharmacological prophylaxis with acetazolamide or corticosteroids can be used in non pre-acclimatized individuals. If symptoms of high-altitude cerebral edema do not resolve or worsen, immediate descent is necessary, and symptoms can be improved with administration of dexamethasone.

Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities – edema
Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities (ARIA) are abnormal differences seen in neuroimaging of Alzheimer's disease patients given targeted amyloid-modifying therapies. Human monoclonal antibodies such as aducanumab, solanezumab, and bapineuzumab have been associated with these neuroimaging changes and additionally, cerebral edema. These therapies are associated with dysfunction of the tight endothelial junctions of the blood-brain barrier, leading to vasogenic edema as described above. In addition to edema, these therapies are associated with microhemorrhages in the brain known as ARIA-H. Familiarity with ARIA can aid radiologists and clinicians in determining optimal management for those affected.

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome
Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) is a rare clinical disease characterized by cerebral edema. The exact pathophysiology, or cause, of the syndrome is still debated but is hypothesized to be related to the disruption of the blood-brain barrier. The syndrome features acute neurological symptoms and reversible subcortical vasogenic edema predominantly involving the parieto-occipital areas on MR imaging. PRES in general has a benign course, but PRES-related intracranial hemorrhage has been associated with a poor prognosis.

Idiopathic delayed-onset edema
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is effective treatment for several neurological and psychiatric disorders, most notably Parkinson's disease. DBS is not without risks and although rare, idiopathic delayed-onset edema (IDE) surrounding the DBS leads have been reported. Symptoms can be mild and nonspecific, including reduction of the stimulation effect, and can be confused for other causes of edema. Thus, imaging is recommended to rule out other causes. The condition is generally self-limiting and the exact mechanism of the cause is unexplained. Early identification can help persons affected avoid unnecessary surgical procedures or antibiotic treatments.

Massive brain swelling after cranioplasty
Decompressive craniectomy is frequently performed in cases of resistant intracranial hypertension secondary to several neurological conditions and is commonly followed by cranioplasty. Complications, such as infection and hematomas after cranioplasty occur in roughly about a third of cases. Massive brain swelling after cranioplasty (MSBC) is a rare and potentially fatal complication of an uneventful cranioplasty that has recently been elucidated. Preoperative sinking skin flap (SSF) and intracranial hypotension were factors associated with the development of MSBC after cranioplasty. Data suggests that pathologic changes are triggered immediately following the procedure, especially an acute increase in intracranial pressure.

Radiation-induced brain edema
With the rise of sophisticated treatment modalities such as gamma knife, Cyberknife, and intensity-modulated radiotherapy, a large number of individuals with brain tumors are treated with radiosurgery and radiotherapy. Radiation-induced brain edema (RIBE) is a potentially life-threatening complication of brain tissue radiation and is characterized radiation necrosis, endothelial cell dysfunction, increased capillary permeability, and breakdown of the blood–brain barrier. Symptoms include headache, seizure, psychomotor slowing, irritability, and focal neurological deficits. Options for management of RIBE are limited and include corticosteroids, antiplatelet drugs, anticoagulants, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, multivitamins, and bevacizumab.

Brain tumor-associated cerebral edema
This kind of cerebral edema is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with brain tumors and characterized by a disruption of the blood brain barrier and vasogenic edema. The exact mechanism is unclear but hypothesized that cancerous glial cells (glioma) of the brain can increase secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which weakens the tight junctions of the blood–brain barrier. Historically, corticosteroids such as dexamethasone were used to reduce brain tumor-associated vascular permeability through poorly understood mechanisms and was associated with systemic side effects. Agents that target the VEGF signaling pathways, such as cediranib, have been promising in prolonging survival in rat models but associated with local and systemic side effects as well.

Diagnosis
Cerebral edema is commonly present in a variety of neurological injuries. Thus, determining a definitive contribution of cerebral edema to the neurological status of an affected person can be challenging. Close bedside monitoring of a person's level of consciousness and awareness of any new or worsening focal neurological deficits is imperative but demanding, frequently requiring admission into the intensive care unit (ICU).

Cerebral edema with sustained increased intracranial hypertension and brain herniation can signify impending catastrophic neurological events which require immediate recognition and treatment to prevent injury and even death. Therefore, diagnosis of cerebral edema earlier with rapid intervention can improve clinical outcomes and can mortality, or risk of death.

Diagnosis of cerebral edema relies on the following:

Imaging
Serial neuroimaging (CT scans and magnetic resonance imaging) can be useful in diagnosing or excluding intracranial hemorrhage, large masses, acute hydrocephalus, or brain herniation as well as providing information on the type of edema present and the extent of affected area. CT scan is the imaging modality of choice as it is widely available, quick, and with minimal risks. However, CT scan can be limited in determining the exact cause of cerebral edema in which cases, CT angiography (CTA), MRI, or digital subtraction angiography (DSA) may be necessary. MRI is particularly useful as it can differentiate between cytotoxic and vasogenic edema, guiding future treatment decisions.

Intracranial pressure monitoring
Intracranial pressure (ICP) and its management is a fundamental concept in traumatic brain injury (TBI). The Brain Trauma Foundation guidelines recommend ICP monitoring in individuals with TBI that have decreased Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) scores, abnormal CT scans, or additional risk factors such as older age and elevated blood pressure. However, no such guidelines exist for ICP monitoring in other brain injuries such as ischemic stroke, intracerebral hemorrhage, cerebral neoplasm.

Clinical researches have recommended ICP and cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) monitoring in any persons with cerebral injury who are at risk of elevated intracranial pressure based on clinical and neuroimaging features. Early monitoring can be used to guide medical and surgical decision making and to detect potentially life-threatening brain herniation. There was however, conflicting evidence on the threshold values of ICP that indicated the need for intervention. Researchers also recommend that medical decisions should be tailored to the specific diagnosis (e.g. subarachnoid hemorrhage, TBI, encephalitis) and that ICP elevation should be used in conjunction with clinical and neuroimaging and not as an isolated prognostic marker.

Treatment
The primary goal in cerebral edema is to optimize and regulate cerebral perfusion, oxygenation, and venous drainage, decrease cerebral metabolic demands, and to stabilize the osmolality pressure gradient between the brain and the surrounding vasculature. As cerebral edema is linked to increased intracranial pressure (ICP), many of the therapies will focus on ICP.

Positioning
Finding the optimal head position in persons with cerebral edema is necessary to avoid compression of the jugular vein and obstruction of venous outflow from the skull, and for decreasing cerebrospinal fluid hydrostatic pressure. The current recommendation is to elevate the head of the bed to 30 degrees to optimize cerebral perfusion pressure and control the increase in intracranial pressure. It is also worth noting that measures should be taken to reduce restrictive neck dressings or garments as these may lead to compression of the internal jugular veins and reduce venous outflow.

Ventilation and oxygenation
Decreased oxygen concentration in the blood, hypoxia, and increase in the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood, hypercapnia, are potent vasodilators in the cerebral vasculature, and should be avoided in those with cerebral edema. It is recommended that persons with decreased levels of consciousness be intubated for airway protection and maintenance of oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. However, the laryngeal instrumentation involved in the intubation process is associated with an acute, brief rise in intracranial pressure. Pretreatment with a sedative agent and neuromuscular blocking agent to induce unconsciousness and motor paralysis has been recommended as part of standard Rapid Sequence Intubation (RSI). Intravenous lidocaine prior to RSI has been suggested to reduce the rise in ICP but there is no supporting data at this time.

Additionally, ventilation with use of positive pressure (PEEP) can improve oxygenation with the negative effect of decreasing cerebral venous drainage and increasing intracranial pressure (ICP), and thus, must be used with caution.

Fluid management and cerebral perfusion
Maintenance of cerebral perfusion pressure using appropriate fluid management is essential in patients with brain injury. Dehydration, or intravascular volume loss, and the use of hypotonic fluids, such as D5W or half normal saline, should be avoided. Blood serum ion concentration, or osmolality, should be maintained in the normo to hyperosmolar range. Judicial use of hypertonic saline can be used to increase serum osmolality and decrease cerebral edema, as discussed below.

Blood pressure should be sufficient so as to sustain cerebral perfusion pressures greater than 60 mm Hg for optimal blood blow to the brain. Vasopressors may be used to achieve adequate blood pressures with minimal risk of increasing intracranial pressures. However, sharp rises in blood pressure should be avoided. Maximum blood pressures tolerated are variable and controversial depending on the clinical situation.

Seizure prophylaxis
Seizures, including subclinical seizure activity, can complicate clinical courses and increase progression of brain herniation in persons with cerebral edema and increased intracranial pressure. Anticonvulsants can be used to treat seizures caused by acute brain injuries from a variety of origins. However, there are no clear guidelines on the use of anticonvulsants for prophylactic use. Their use may be warranted on depending on the clinical scenario and studies have shown that anticonvulsants such as phenytoin can be given prophylactically without a significant increase in drug-related side effects.

Fever
Fever has been demonstrated to increase metabolism and oxygen demand in the brain. The increased metabolic demand results in an increase in cerebral blood flow and can increase the intracranial pressure within the skull. Therefore, maintaining a stable body temperature within the normal range is strongly recommended. This can be achieved through the use of antipyretics such as acetaminophen (paracetamol) and cooling the body, as described below.

Hyperglycemia
Elevated blood glucose levels, known as hyperglycemia, can exacerbate brain injury and cerebral edema and has been associated with worse clinical outcomes in persons affected by traumatic brain injuries, subarachnoid hemorrhages, and ischemic strokes.

Sedation
Pain and agitation can worsen cerebral edema, acutely increase intracranial pressure (ICP), and should be controlled. Careful use of pain medication such as morphine or fentanyl can be used for analgesia. For those persons with decreased levels of consciousness, sedation is necessary for endotracheal intubation and maintenance of a secure airway. Sedative medication used in the intubation process, specifically propofol, have been shown to control ICP, decrease cerebral metabolic demand, and have antiseizure properties. Due to a short half-life, propofol, is a quick-acting medication whose administration and removal is well tolerated, with hypotension being the limiting factor in its continued use. Additionally, the use of nondepolarizing neuromusclar blocking agents (NMBA), such as doxacurium or atracurium, have been indicated to facilitate ventilation and manage brain injuries but there are no controlled studies on the use of NMBAs in the management of increased intracranial pressure. Depolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents, most notably succinylcholine, can worsen increased ICP due to induction of muscle contraction within the body.

Nutrition
Nutritional support is necessary in all patients with acute brain injury. Enteral feeding, or through mouth via tube, is the preferred method, unless contraindicated. Additional attention must be placed on the solute concentration of the formulations to avoid free water intake, decreased serum osmolality, and worsening of the cerebral edema.

Elevated blood glucose, or hyperglycemia, is associated with increased edema in patients with cerebral ischemia and increases the risk of a hemorrhagic transformation of ischemic stroke. Maintaining a normal blood glucose level of less than 180 mg/dL is suggested. However, tight glycemic control of blood glucose under 126 mg/dL is associated with worsening of stroke size.

Specific measures
Although cerebral edema is closely related to increased intracranial pressure (ICP) and cerebral herniation and the general treatment strategies above are useful, the treatment should ultimately be tailored to the primary cause of the symptoms. The management of individual diseases are discussed separately.

The following interventions are more specific treatments for managing cerebral edema and increased ICP:

Osmotic therapy
The goal of osmotic therapy is to create a higher concentration of ions within the vasculature at the blood–brain barrier. This will create an osmotic pressure gradient and will cause the flow of water out of the brain and into the vasculature for drainage elsewhere. An ideal osmotic agent produces a favorable osmotic pressure gradient, is nontoxic, and is not filtered out by the blood–brain barrier. Hypertonic saline and mannitol are the main osmotic agents in use, while loop diuretics can aid in the removal of the excess fluid pulled out of the brain.

 * Hypertonic saline is a highly concentrated solution of sodium chloride in water and is administered intravenously. It has a rapid-onset, with reduction of pressures within 5 minutes of infusion, lasting up to 12 hours in some cases, and with negligible rebound pressure. The exact volume and concentration of the hypertonic saline varies between clinical studies. Bolus doses, particularly at higher concentrations, for example 23.4%, are effective at reducing ICP and improving cerebral perfusion pressure. In traumatic brain injuries, a responsiveness to hypertonic saline lasting greater than 2 hours was associated with decreased chance of death and improved neurologic outcomes. The effects of hypertonic saline can be prolonged with combination to agents such as dextran or hydroxyethyl starch, although their use is currently controversial. When compared to mannitol, hypertonic saline has been shown to be as effective as mannitol in decreased ICP in neurocritical care and is more effective in many cases. Hypertonic saline may be preferable to mannitol in persons with hypovolemia or hyponatremia.
 * Mannitol is an alcohol derivative of simple sugar mannose, and is historically the most commonly used osmotic diuretic. Mannitol acts as an inert solute in the blood, decreasing ICP through osmosis as discussed above. Additionally, mannitol decreases ICP and increased cerebral perfusion pressure by increasing reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid, dilutes and decreased the viscosity of the blood, and can cause cerebral vasoconstriction. Furthermore, mannitol acts in a dose-dependent manner and will not lower ICP if it is not elevated. However, the common limitation of the use of mannitol is its tendency to cause low blood pressure hypotension. Compared to hypertonic saline, mannitol may be more effective at increasing cerebral perfusion pressures and may be preferable in those with hypoperfusion.
 * Loop diuretics, commonly furosemide, act within kidney to increase excretion of water and solutes. Combination with mannitol produces a profound diuresis and increases the risk of systemic dehydration and hypotension. Their use remains controversial.
 * Acetazolamide, a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, acts as a weak diuretic and modulates CSF production but has not role in the management of cerebral edema from acute brain injuries. It can be used in the outpatient management of cerebral edema caused by idiopathic intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri).

Glucocorticoids
Glucocorticoids, such as dexamethasone, have been shown to decrease tight-junction permeability and stabilize the blood-brain barrier. Their main use has been in the management of vasogenic cerebral edema associated with brain tumors, brain irradiation, and surgical manipulation. Glucocorticoids have not been shown to have any benefit in ischemic stroke and have been found to be harmful in traumatic brain injury. Due to the negative side effects (such as peptic ulcers, hyperglycemia, and impairment of wound healing), steroid use should be restricted to cases where they are absolutely indicated.

Hyperventilation
As mentioned previously, hypoxia and hypercapnia are potent vasodilators in the cerebral vasculature, leading to increased cerebral blood flow (CBF) and worsening of cerebral edema. Conversely, therapeutic hyperventilation can be used to lower the carbon dioxide content in the blood and reduce ICP through vasoconstriction. The effects of hyperventilation, although effective, are short-lived and once removed, can often lead to a rebound elevation of ICP. Furthermore, overaggressive hyperventilation and vasoconstriction and lead to severe reduction in CBF and cause cerebral ischemia, or strokes. As a result, standard practice is to slowly reverse hyperventilation while more definitive treatments aimed at the primary cause are instituted.

Prolonged hyperventilation in those with traumatic brain injuries has been shown to worsen outcomes.

Barbiturates
Induction of a coma via the use of barbiturates, most notably pentobarbital and thiopental, after brain injury is used for secondary treatment of refractory ICP. Yet their use is not without controversy and it is not clear whether barbiturates are favored over surgical decompression. In patients with traumatic brain injuries, barbiturates are effective in reducing ICP but have failed to show benefit to clinical outcomes. Evidence is limited for their use in cerebral disease that include tumor, intracranial hypertension, and ischemic stroke. There are several adverse effects of barbiturates that limit their use, such as lowering of systemic blood pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure, cardiodepression, immunosuppression, and systemic hypothermia.

Hypothermia
As discussed previously in the treatment of fever, temperature control has been shown to decrease metabolic demand and reduce further ischemic injury. In traumatic brain injury, induced hypothermia may reduce the risks of mortality, poor neurologic outcome in adults. However, outcomes varied greatly with depth and duration of hypothermia as well as rewarming procedures. In children with traumatic brain injury, there was no benefit to therapeutic hypothermia and increased the risk of mortality and arrhythmia. The adverse effects of hypothermia are serious and require clinical monitoring including increased chance of infection, coagulopathy, and electrolyte derangement. The current consensus is that adverse effects outweigh the benefits and its use restricted to clinical trials and refractory increased ICP to other therapies.

Surgery
The Monroe–Kellie doctrine states that the skull is a fixed and inelastic space and the accumulation of edema will compress vital brain tissue and blood vessels. Surgical treatment of cerebral edema in the context of cerebellar or cerebral infarction is typically done by removing part of the skull to allow expansion of the dura. This will help to reduce the volume constraints inside of the skull. A decompressive hemicraniectomy is the most commonly used procedure. Multiple randomized clinical trials have shown reduced risk of death with hemicraniectomy compared with medical management. However, no individual study has shown an improvement in the percentage of survivors with good functional outcomes.

Timing of decompressive craniectomy remains controversial, but is generally suggested that the surgery is best performed before there are clinical signs of brainstem compression. Postoperative complications include wound dehiscence, hydrocephalus, infection, and a substantial proportion of patients may also require tracheostomy and gastrotomy in the early phase after surgery.

Outcomes
Cerebral edema is a severe complication of acute brain injuries, most notably ischemic stroke and traumatic brain injuries, and a significant cause of morbidity and mortality.

 * Cerebral edema is the cause of death in 5% of all patients with cerebral infarction and mortality after large ischemic strokes with cerebral edema is roughly 20 to 30% despite medical and surgical interventions. Cerebral edema usually occurs between the second and fifth day after onset of symptoms. Large territory ischemic strokes can lead to the rapid development of malignant brain edema and increased intracranial pressure. Cerebral edema in the context of a malignant middle cerebral artery (MCA) infarct has a mortality of 50 to 80% if treated conservatively. Individuals with cerebral edema had a worse 3-month functional outcome than those without edema. These effects were more pronounced with increasing extent of cerebral edema and were independent of the size of the infarct.
 * Mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) represents 70–90% of all reported head injuries. The presence of brain edema on the initial CT scan of those with traumatic brain injuries is an independent prognostic indicator of in-hospital death. The association of brain edema with increased in hospital risk of death was observed in TBI across all level of severity. Edema in the acute and chronic phases were associated with a worse neurologic and clinical outcome. Children with TBI and cerebral edema have worse clinical outcomes as well.

Epidemiology
As cerebral edema is present with many common cerebral pathologies, the epidemiology of the disease is not easily defined. The incidence of this disorder should be considered in terms of its potential causes and is present in most cases of traumatic brain injury, central nervous system tumors, brain ischemia, and intracerebral hemorrhage.

 * In one study, cerebral edema was found in 28% of those individuals with thrombolysis-treated ischemic strokes, 10% of which occurred in severe forms. A further study detected cerebral edema in 22.7% of cerebral ischemic strokes. A meta-analysis of current studies showed that 31% of those affected by ischemic strokes developed cerebral edema in 31% of cases.
 * In traumatic brain injuries, cerebral edema occurred in greater than 60% of those with mass lesions, and in 15% of those with initial normal CT scans.

Research
The current understanding of the pathophysiology of cerebral edema after traumatic brain injury or intracerebral hemorrhage is incomplete. Current treatment therapies aimed at cerebral edema and increased intracranial pressure are effective at reducing intracranial hypertension but have unclear impacts on functional outcomes. Additionally, cerebral and ICP treatments have varied effects on individuals based on differing characteristics like age, gender, type of injury, and genetics. There are innumerable molecular pathways that contribute to cerebral edema, many of which have yet to be discovered. Researchers argue that the future treatment of cerebral edema will be based on advances in identifying the underlying pathophysiology and molecular characteristics of cerebral edema in a variety of cases. At the same time, improvement of radiographic markers, biomarkers, and analysis of clinical monitoring data is essential in treating cerebral edema.

Many studies of the mechanical properties of brain edema were conducted in the 2010s, most of them based on finite element analysis (FEA), a widely used numerical method in solid mechanics. For example, Gao and Ang used the finite element method to study changes in intracranial pressure during craniotomy operations. A second line of research on the condition looks at thermal conductivity, which is related to tissue water content.

title: Cerebral edema


text:
HKIA

HKIA may refer to:

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 * Hong Kong Institute of Architects, a professional body for architects in Hong Kong
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title: HKIA


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Talk:Selma Bouvier

Is the Marge ditty a definite reference to Shakespeare's Twelfth Night - "Some are great, some have greatness thrust upon them"? Or is this just a coincidence? Just thought I'd check first :) Dysprosia 06:00, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Surely Disco Stu's last name is not Stu? Adam Bishop 19:58, 21 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Selma Bouvier