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Arkansas Department of Corrections

The Arkansas Department of Corrections (DOC), formerly the Arkansas Department of Correction, is the state law enforcement agency that oversees inmates and operates state prisons within the U.S. state of Arkansas. DOC consists of two divisions, the Arkansas Division of Corrections (ADC) and the Arkansas Division of Community Corrections (DCC), as well as the Arkansas Correctional School District. ADC is responsible for housing and rehabilitating people convicted of crimes by the courts of Arkansas. ADC maintains 20 prison facilities for inmates in 12 counties. DCC is responsible for adult parole and probation and offender reentry.

The Department of Corrections was officially organized as a cabinet-level state agency in 2019, but traces history back to the first state penitentiary in 1838. Early efforts focused on convict leasing, though the program largely ended toward the end of the 19th century after abuses were exposed, and prisoners were housed in "The Walls" prison in Little Rock until 1933. Arkansas next transitioned to the prison farm system, establishing the Cummins State Farm and Tucker Farm in South Arkansas. Underfunded and mostly operated by so-called 'trusties' (inmates); corrupt and dangerous conditions plagued Arkansas prisons for decades, culminating in several reform efforts throughout the 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of the first modern incarnation of the ADC in 1967.

As the War on drugs and law and order politics became prominent, the Arkansas inmate population surged, and ADC built new prisons across the state. Prison conditions slowly improved and scandals became more infrequent. In 1993, Arkansas created the Department of Community Punishment (DCP), which would evolve into the DCC. Arkansas briefly contracted with a private prison between 1998 and 2001, but inmate conditions were unsafe and unsanitary and United States Department of Justice ruled Arkansas' private prison unconstitutional in 2003.

History
Arkansas became a state in 1836. The first Governor of Arkansas, James S. Conway, pushed the Arkansas General Assembly to allocate funds for a state penitentiary in their first meeting, but he met strong resistance with many of his proposals, and a penitentiary was not funded. The Second General Assembly in 1838 allocated $20,000 ($0 today) to a state penitentiary in Little Rock. The state purchased a 92.41 acre tract outside of Little Rock in 1839, and the Third General Assembly allocated another $40,500 ($0 today) in 1840 to finish construction of the Arkansas State Penitentiary. It held 300 prisoners. It was destroyed in 1846 in a prisoner revolt.

From 1849 to 1893 the State of Arkansas leased its convicted felons to private individuals. After abuses became publicized, the state assumed direct control of felons. The state continued to have prison labor be hired to contractors, manufacturers, and planters until 1913.

In 1899, the penitentiary site was selected for the new Arkansas State Capitol, which supplanted the Old State House. In the interim, Arkansas leased many convicts to companies, including the Arkansas Brick Manufacturing Company, for as long as ten years in an effort to house them while a new prison was built. Though officials agreed on the need to purchase a prison farm, widespread disagreement about the new prison's location stalled progress further. Governor Jeff Davis vetoed a plan to purchase the Sunnyside Plantation in February 1901. Further trying to make his case for more sweeping penal reform, Governor Davis toured the convict-leasing camp in England, Arkansas and revealed shocking allegations of inhumane treatment. The political battle consumed state politics for the next year. The General Assembly decided to purchase the Cummins Farm over the objection of Governor Davis, who preferred a location in Altheimer. However, ending the convict-lease system would remain an issue in state politics for the next 10 years.

A new prison was simultaneously constructed on a new 15 acre site southwest of Little Rock. Nicknamed "The Walls", the new prison opened in 1910. In 1913 act 55, signed into law, lead to the establishment of a permanent execution chamber in the state prison system. In 1916 the state purchased the land which became the Tucker Unit. In 1933 Junius Marion Futrell, then the governor, closed the penitentiary in Little Rock and transferred the prisoners to Cummins and Tucker, and the execution chamber was moved to Tucker.

In 1943 the state established the State Penitentiary Board through Act 1. In 1951 the state established the State Reformatory for Women through Act 351. The state moved the functions of the Arkansas State Training School for Girls to the state prison system.

Legal challenges begin
By the 1960s, Arkansas was infamous for operating one of the most corrupt and dangerous prison systems in the nation. Both Cummins and Tucker relied on the trusty system, which created a hierarchy of prisoners, with some designated as 'trusties' who the guards trusted with many of the day-to-day duties. The Tucker Telephone was a torture device designed using parts from an old-fashioned crank telephone used to apply an electric shock to an uncooperative prisoner's genitals at Tucker. Atrocious conditions in the prison system had long been known about in Arkansas, but rose in prominence during the 1960s.

In 1965, Federal Judge J. Smith Henley ruled in favor of Cummins inmates in Talley v. Stephens, who sued claiming they were unconstitutionally subjected to cruel and unusual punishments and denied access to the courts and medical care. Henley ordered the prison stop forcing prisoners to work beyond their physical ability, cease arbitrary use of corporal punishment by "blows with a leather strap", and to allow access to medical care and legal resources without fear or reprisals. The case initiated a long legal saga that would eventually lead to major reforms in Arkansas prisons.

Governor Orval Faubus ordered a study of conditions at Tucker, but suppressed the report when it found torture, violence, rape, corruption and graft widespread by both trusties and prison officials. The report also found "To make profits, the prisoners were driven remorselessly from dawn to dusk in the fields, especially at harvest time". Both farms were operated to generate revenues to the state. A 1968 Time article entitled "Hell in Arkansas" found the two farms "averaged" profits of "about $1,400,000 over the years..." ($0 million today) using prisoners as forced labor.

Department founding 1967 and early history
Winthrop Rockefeller, running on a good government platform, released the previously suppressed report publicly upon election to the Governor's office in 1967. Rockefeller succeeded in reorganizing the penitentiary system into the Arkansas Department of Correction through Act 50 in the 66th Arkansas General Assembly. The ADC assumed control over the Tucker State Prison Farm for younger white prisoners, and the 1,300-inmate Cummins Farm for "white and black adult inmates". Rockefeller hired the first professional penologist, Tom Murton, as prison superintendent in 1967. On January 29, 1968, Murton invited the media to witness the unearthing of three decayed skeletal remains in a remote part of the 16,000-acre grounds of the Cummins prison farm. They believed the skeletons were those of prisoners murdered at Cummins, although this was never proven. Fired after less than a year, Murton's aggressive approach to uncovering Arkansas' prison scandal with its decades-long systemic corruption, embarrassed Rockefeller and "infuriated conservative politicians". Murton had attracted nationwide media attention and contempt for Arkansas, as news of Bodiesburg, as it was called, spread. Murton's co-authored 1969 book, Accomplices to the Crime: The Arkansas Prison Scandal was the basis for the fictionalized 1980 film Brubaker starring Robert Redford.

In Holt v. Sarver, Judge Henley ruled several aspects of Arkansas's prison system unconstitutional and provided guidelines to get the system into compliance. The following year, Henley found the entire prison system operated by the ADC unconstitutional, as issues restricting inmates' access to court and cruel and unusual punishment remained in violation of his previous ruling. A 1969 case challenging many aspects of the ADC prison system lasted almost a decade, resulting in the Supreme Court landmark case Hutto v. Finney 437 U.S. 678. The case also clarified prison system's unacceptable punitive measures. T. Don Hutto had been hired by Governor Dale Bumpers in 1971 as the head of the Arkansas Department of Correction, with a mandate of "humanizing" the "convict farms".

In 1974, Hutto resigned and moved to Virginia to become deputy director of the Virginia Department of Corrections.

Recent history
In 2014 the state made a call for cities to submit bids to host a new maximum security prison.

2019 State government reorganization
Following state government reorganization in 2019, the State of Arkansas created the cabinet level Department of Corrections (DOC) as the umbrella department for several corrections-related state agencies. DOC oversees administrative functions for these several units, including the Division of Community Corrections (DCC), Arkansas Parole Board (APB), Arkansas Sentencing Commission (ASC), Arkansas Criminal Detention Facility Review Committee, and the Interstate Commission for Adult Offender Supervision.

The primary duties of the old ADC is now under the auspices of the Division of Corrections, with DCC becoming the Division of Community Corrections, with both reporting to the Secretary of Corrections, a cabinet-level position.

Headquarters
The headquarters are in Pine Bluff. The ADC headquarters moved to the Pine Bluff Complex in 1979. Previously they were located in the State Office Building in Little Rock.

Operations
For the diagnostic process, male inmates go to the Ouchita River Correctional Unit in Malvern, and women go to the McPherson Unit in Newport. Male death row inmates are housed at the Varner Super Max Unit while women with death sentences are received at McPherson. The death chamber is located at the Cummins Unit. Previously the Diagnostic Unit in Pine Bluff was the intake unit for male prisoners.

After the intake process, most inmates go to a "parent unit" for their initial assignment. The male parent units are Cummins, East Arkansas, Grimes, Tucker, and Varner. The McPherson Unit is the female parent unit. The initial assignments last for at least 60 days. Inmates may be moved to other units based on behavior, institutional needs, job availability, and available space.

The ADC operates the Willis H. Sargent Training Academy in England, Arkansas.

Boards and Commissions
In Arkansas's shared services model of state government, the cabinet-level agencies assist boards and commissions who have an overlapping scope. DOC supports:

 * Boards
 * Arkansas Board of Corrections
 * Arkansas Parole Board
 * Commissions
 * Arkansas Sentencing Commission
 * Committee
 * Criminal Detention Facility Review Committee
 * Councils
 * Arkansas State Council for the Interstate Commission for Adult Offender Supervision

Death row
Male death row inmates are located at the Varner Unit's Supermax, while the executions are performed at the Cummins Unit, adjacent to Varner. The female death row is located at the McPherson Unit. In 1999 the female death row was newly inaugurated.

In 1974 male death row inmates, previously at the Tucker Unit, were moved to the Cummins Unit. In 1986 male death row inmates were moved to the Maximum Security Unit. On Friday August 22, 2003, all 39 Arkansas death row inmates, all of them male, were moved to the Supermax at the Varner Unit.

Demographics
As of June 3, 2015 the ADC has 18,681 prisoners. This is an increase from 1977, when it had 2,519 prisoners. After a parole violator was accused of committing a 2013 murder, the Arkansas Board of Corrections changed the conditions of parole, stating that any parolee accused of committing a felony must have his/her parole revoked, even if he/she has not yet been convicted of that felony. This caused the prison population to increase.

Prisons
Prisons include:

Division of Community Corrections
The Division of Community Corrections (DCC) is the parole and community corrections state agency of Arkansas. ACC headquarters is located in North Little Rock.

Residential facilities
Facilities include:
 * Central Arkansas Community Corrections Center (Little Rock)
 * Northeast Arkansas Community Corrections Center (Osceola)
 * Northwest Arkansas Community Corrections Center (Fayetteville)
 * East Central Arkansas Community Corrections Center (West Memphis)
 * Southwest Arkansas Community Corrections Center (Texarkana)
 * Omega SSC (Unincorporated Hot Spring County, near Malvern)

Education
Arkansas Correctional School provides educational services to ADC prisoners and DCC facilities.

title: Arkansas Department of Corrections


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Green Party

A green party is a political party based on the principles of green politics.

Green Party or Greens Party may also refer to:
 * Albania: Green Party of Albania
 * Australia: Australian Greens
 * Austria: The Greens – The Green Alternative
 * Belarus: Belarusian Green Party
 * Belize: Belize Green Independent Party
 * Bolivia: Green Party of Bolivia
 * Brazil: Green Party (Brazil)
 * Bulgaria: Green Party of Bulgaria
 * Burundi: Green Party-Intwari
 * Canada: Green Party of Canada
 * Alberta: Alberta Greens, 1986–2009
 * Alberta: Green Party of Alberta, 2011–present
 * British Columbia: Green Party of British Columbia
 * Vancouver: Green Party of Vancouver
 * Manitoba: Green Party of Manitoba
 * New Brunswick: Green Party of New Brunswick
 * Nova Scotia: Green Party of Nova Scotia
 * Ontario: Green Party of Ontario
 * Prince Edward Island: Green Party of Prince Edward Island
 * Quebec: Green Party of Quebec
 * Saskatchewan: Green Party of Saskatchewan
 * Yukon: Yukon Green Party
 * Chile: Green Ecologist Party (Chile)
 * Colombia: Oxygen Green Party, 1998–2005
 * Colombia: Green Party (Colombia)
 * Costa Rica:
 * Cartago: Cartago Green Party
 * Croatia: Green Party – Green Alternative
 * Czech Republic: Green Party
 * Dominican Republic: Green Socialist Party
 * Egypt: Egyptian Green Party
 * Europe: European Green Party
 * Fiji: Green Party of Fiji, 2008–13
 * Finland: Green Party (Finland)
 * France: Green Party (France)
 * Georgia: Green Party of Georgia
 * Germany: Green Party (Germany)
 * East Germany: East German Green Party, 1990 only
 * Hungary: Green Party of Hungary, 1989–2011
 * Hungary: Hungarian Social Green Party
 * Hungary: Party of Greens (Hungary)
 * Iceland: Right-Green People's Party, 2010–16
 * India: India Greens Party
 * Iran: Green Party of Iran
 * Iraq: Green Party of Iraq
 * Ireland: Green Party - An Comhaontas Glas
 * Israel: The Greens (Israel) and Green Party (Israel)
 * Japan: Green Party of Japan
 * Kenya: Mazingira Green Party of Kenya
 * Kosovo: Green Party of Kosovo
 * Latvia: Latvian Green Party
 * Lebanon: Green Party of Lebanon
 * Lithuania: Lithuanian Green Party
 * Luxembourg: Green Party
 * Madagascar: Madagascar Green Party
 * Malaysia: Green Party of Malaysia
 * Mexico: Ecologist Green Party of Mexico
 * Moldova: Ecologist Green Party (Moldova)
 * Mongolia: Civil Will–Green Party
 * Mongolia: Mongolian Green Partyx
 * Mozambique: Greens Party of Mozambique
 * Netherlands: Green Party of the Netherlands
 * Netherlands: The Greens
 * New Zealand: Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand
 * New Zealand: Progressive Green Party, 1995–96
 * Nicaragua: Ecologist Green Party of Nicaragua
 * Norway: Green Party (Norway)
 * Pakistan: Green Party of Pakistan
 * Philippines: Philippine Green Republican Party
 * Poland: Green Party of Poland
 * Portugal: Ecologist Party "The Greens"
 * Romania: Green Party (Romania)
 * Russia: Russian Ecological Party "The Greens"
 * Rwanda: Democratic Green Party of Rwanda
 * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Green Party
 * Serbia: Green Party (Serbia)
 * Slovakia: Green Party (Slovakia)
 * Slovakia: Slovak Green Party
 * Slovenia: Youth Party – European Greens
 * Somalia: Somalia Green Party
 * South Africa: Green Party of South Africa
 * South Korea: Green Party Korea
 * Spain: Green Party (Spain)
 * Sweden: Green Party (Sweden)
 * Switzerland: Green Liberal Party of Switzerland
 * Switzerland: Green Party of Switzerland
 * Taiwan: Green Party Taiwan
 * Tunisia: Green Tunisia Party
 * Turkey: Greens Party (Turkey), 2008–12
 * Turkey: Green Left Party
 * Uganda: Uganda Green Party
 * Ukraine: Party of Greens of Ukraine
 * United Kingdom: Raving Loony Green Giant Party, 1989–93
 * United Kingdom: Green Party (UK), 1973–90
 * England and Wales: Green Party of England and Wales
 * London: London Green Party
 * Wales: Wales Green Party
 * Northern Ireland: Green Party Northern Ireland
 * Scotland: Scottish Greens
 * United States: Greens/Green Party USA
 * United States: Green Party of the United States
 * Alaska: Green Party of Alaska
 * Arizona: Arizona Green Party
 * Arkansas: Green Party of Arkansas
 * California: Green Party of California
 * Colorado: Green Party of Colorado
 * Connecticut: Connecticut Green Party
 * Delaware: Green Party of Delaware
 * District of Columbia: D.C. Statehood Green Party
 * Florida: Green Party of Florida
 * Hawaii: Green Party of Hawaii
 * Idaho: Idaho Green Party
 * Illinois: Illinois Green Party
 * Iowa: Iowa Green Party
 * Kansas: Kansas Green Party
 * Kentucky: Kentucky Green Party
 * Louisiana: Green Party of Louisiana
 * Maine: Maine Green Independent Party
 * Maryland: Maryland Green Party
 * Massachusetts: Green-Rainbow Party
 * Michigan: Green Party of Michigan
 * Minnesota: Green Party of Minnesota
 * Mississippi: Green Party of Mississippi
 * Montana: Montana Green Party
 * Nebraska: Nebraska Green Party
 * New Jersey: Green Party of New Jersey
 * New Mexico: Green Party of New Mexico
 * New York: Green Party of New York
 * Ohio: Green Party of Ohio
 * Oklahoma: Green Party of Oklahoma
 * Oregon: Pacific Green Party
 * Pennsylvania: Green Party of Pennsylvania
 * Rhode Island: Green Party of Rhode Island
 * South Carolina: South Carolina Green Party
 * Texas: Green Party of Texas
 * Vermont: Vermont Green Party
 * Virginia: Green Party of Virginia
 * Washington: Green Party of Washington State
 * West Virginia: West Virginia Green Party
 * Wisconsin: Wisconsin Green Party

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Green Party


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Colorado Department of Corrections

The Colorado Department of Corrections is the principal department of the Colorado state government that operates the state prisons. It has its headquarters in the Springs Office Park in unincorporated El Paso County, Colorado, near Colorado Springs. The Colorado Department of Corrections runs 20 state-run prisons and also has been affiliated with 7 for-profit prisons in Colorado, of which the state currently contracts with 3 for-profit prisons.

State-Run Prisons

 * Arkansas Valley Correctional Facility (1007 inmate capacity) (Ordway)
 * Arrowhead Correctional Center (494 inmate capacity) (Cañon City)
 * Buena Vista Correctional Facility (826 inmate capacity) (Buena Vista)
 * Centennial Correctional Facility (604 inmate capacity) (Cañon City) (Maximum security/mental health facility)
 * Colorado Correctional Center (Camp George West) (150 inmate capacity) (Golden)
 * Colorado State Penitentiary (756 inmate capacity) (Cañon City) (Maximum Security facility)
 * Colorado Territorial Correctional Facility (900 inmate capacity) (Cañon City) (Medium security facility)
 * Delta Correctional Center (480 inmate capacity) (Delta)
 * Denver Reception & Diagnostic Center (542 inmate capacity) (Denver)
 * Denver Women's Correctional Facility (900 inmate capacity) (Denver)
 * Four Mile Correctional Center (499 inmate capacity) (Cañon City)
 * Fremont Correctional Facility (1661 inmate capacity) (Cañon City)
 * LaVista Correctional Facility (564 inmate capacity) (Pueblo)
 * Limon Correctional Facility (960 inmate capacity) (Limon)
 * Rifle Correctional Center (192 inmate capacity) (Rifle)
 * San Carlos Correctional Facility (250 inmate capacity) (Pueblo) (mental health facility)
 * Skyline Correctional Center (249 inmate capacity) (Cañon City)
 * Sterling Correctional Facility (2545 inmate capacity) (Sterling)
 * Trinidad Correctional Facility (500 inmate capacity) (Trinidad)
 * Youthful Offender System (Pueblo)

For-profit prisons

 * Bent County Correctional Facility (1466 inmate capacity) (Las Animas). Owned by CoreCivic.
 * Cheyenne Mountain Re-Entry Center (650 inmate capacity) (Colorado City) is no longer a part of the CDOC as of March 7, 2020
 * Crowley County Correctional Facility (1894 inmate capacity) (Olney Springs). Owned by CoreCivic.
 * Southern Peaks (Cañon City) Youth prison owned by GEO Group.

Closed prisons

 * Fort Lyon Correctional Facility (closed 2012) (Bent County)
 * High Plains Correctional Facility (Brush) (closed since 2010) (Last owned and operated by GEO Group)
 * Hudson Correctional Facility (Hudson) (closed since 2013) Owned by GEO Group.
 * Huerfano County Correctional Facility (Walsenburg). Closed since 2010. Owned by CoreCivic.
 * Kit Carson Correctional Center (Burlington) (Private Prison; closed since 2016) Owned by CoreCivic.

Operations
All male prisoners entering the Colorado DOC system first go to the Denver Reception & Diagnostic Center (DRDC) before going to their assigned facilities; assignments are primarily determined by security level, and each facility can accommodate inmates of different security levels.

In 2012 the state of Colorado had no designated death row. All prisoners with death sentences were given classifications of "Close", the highest custody designation possible. As of 2017, all prisoners with death sentences are located at the Sterling Correctional Facility. The execution chamber is located at the Colorado State Penitentiary. By state statute, executions took place there. The death penalty was abolished in 2020.

From the 1890s to the 1990s, the Colorado death row was located at the Colorado Territorial Correctional Facility. The execution chamber was also located in this prison. In the 1990s the Colorado State Penitentiary opened. Previously state statute dictated that prisoners with death sentences were to be held at the administrative segregation facility at the Colorado State Penitentiary. In 2011 the State of Colorado moved its death row prisoners in order to settle a federal lawsuit filed by Nathan Dunlap, a death row prisoner. Dunlap had complained about the state's lack of outdoor exercise facilities at Colorado State Penitentiary. The Crowley County facility experienced two major riots involving Colorado and Washington state prisoners, the first in 1999 when operated by Correctional Services Corporation and the second on July 20, 2004, when owned and operated by the Corrections Corporation of America, and involving Wyoming inmates as well.

From the end of 2024, the Colorado Department of Corrections will implement policies for transgender inmates - regarding gender-affirming healthcare and other related issues. This was bought about with a court "settlement" from a lawsuit.

Fallen officers and officials
Since the establishment of the Colorado Department of Corrections, 17 officers have died while on duty, including Tom Clements.

title: Colorado Department of Corrections


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Sultan bin Abdulaziz

Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (c. 5 January 1928 – 22 October 2011) (سلطان بن عبدالعزيز آل سعود, Sulṭān ibn ʿAbdulʿazīz Āl Suʿūd), called Sultan the Good (سلطان الخير, Sulṭan al Khair) in Saudi Arabia, was the Saudi defense minister from 1963 to 2011 and the Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia from 2005 until his death in October 2011.

Early life and education
Sultan was born in Riyadh sometime between the mid to late 1920s to early 1930s, with the year being given as 1925, 1928, 1930, and 1931. He was the 15th son of Ibn Saud and his mother was Hussa bint Ahmed Al Sudairi. He was the second of the Sudairi Seven, who also included Fahd, Nayef and Salman. Prince Sultan, along with many of his brothers, received his early education in religion, modern culture, and diplomacy at the royal court.

Early experience
His career in public service began in 1940 when he was made a deputy to Riyadh governor or emir, Prince Nasser. In 1947, Prince Sultan replaced Prince Nasser as governor of Riyadh. Prince Sultan also assisted King Abdulaziz's attempts to establish a national administrative system based on the Islamic Sharia law during this period. In 1947, Prince Sultan oversaw ARAMCO's construction of the Kingdom's rail link between Dammam and Riyadh. He was appointed as the kingdom's first minister of agriculture in 1953 and minister of transport in 1955.

Following the assassination of Lebanese prime minister, Riad Al Solh, in 1951 King Abdulaziz sent Prince Sultan to Beirut to offer condolences to late prime minister's family.

Although the direct military experience of Prince Sultan was brief, heading the Royal Guard in Riyadh in the early 1950s, he felt a lifelong connection to the military and the cause of Saudi independence from an early age. Major General Carl von Horn, Swedish commander of the UN observer mission during the Yemeni civil war, described the Prince Sultan as "a volatile and emotional young man" in the early days.

Minister of defense and aviation
In 1963, Crown Prince Faisal appointed Prince Sultan as minister of defense and aviation. He presided over the development of the Saudi armed forces. During the reign of King Faisal, Prince Sultan was particularly interested in Yemen.

At the beginning of King Faisal's reign in 1964 Prince Sultan became a member of the council which had been established by the king to guide the succession issues. In the late 1966 Prince Sultan survived an assassination attempt by the revolutionary Yemenites who were assisted by Egyptian intelligence. His influence declined under the reign of King Khalid due to the fact that in 1977 Prince Sultan unsuccessfully tried to prevent Prince Abdullah bin Abdulaziz from becoming heir apparent when the king died.

Sultan purchased U.S. tanks, fighter planes, missiles, and AWACS (airborne warning and control systems). However, as a result of problems assimilating technology within its armed forces, a relatively high proportion of the military equipment is stored or under maintenance, despite a large portion of Saudi's $34 billion defense budget being spent on maintaining military equipment. Sultan allegedly became extraordinarily wealthy from kickbacks by Western businesses that handled multibillion-dollar defense contracts. He was involved in many scandals, including the Al Yamamah deal. However, his influence remained unhindered until his health began to deteriorate. During his tenure, Saudi Arabia became the largest importer of U.S. arms, and he was a strong proponent of the U.S.-Saudi partnership.

As well, Sultan authorized a deal with the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) in 1965. His program, called Operation Magic Carpet, traded £16 million for six second-hand Lightnings, six Hawker Hunters, and a set of missile launchers going to Royal Saudi Air Force. Geoffrey Edwards served as the official intermediary. British pilots also came over, privately contracted. Prince Sultan was an expert on the Yemen civil war and Soviet involvement in the Horn of Africa in 1985.

In 1996, Prince Sultan opposed Pentagon plans to relocate U.S. troops to safer locations after the Dhahran complex bombings. He visited Iran in May 1999 - his visit was the first official visit of a Saudi minister since 1979.

Second deputy prime minister
On 13 June 1982, after the death of King Khalid and Crown Prince Fahd became the King, Prince Sultan was appointed second deputy prime minister. Opposition to his appointment as second deputy prime minister came in particular from his elder half-brothers Musaid and Bandar. The objection of Prince Musaid was easily ignored since his son, Faisal bin Musaid, had assassinated King Faisal. However, the interests of Bandar bin Abdulaziz were much harder to ignore. Thus, he was compensated and the dispute was resolved.

Prince Sultan, in December 1995, attempted to seize power through the support of the Ulema when Crown Prince Abdullah was in Oman for a summit of the Gulf Cooperation Council. However, his attempted coup failed.

Prince Sultan was one of the members of the Al Saud Family Council established by Crown Prince Abdullah in June 2000 to discuss private issues such as business activities of princes and marriages of princess to individuals who were not members of the House of Saud.

Crown prince
On 1 August 2005, Sultan bin Abdulaziz was designated heir apparent despite having a discord with King Abdullah. During the same period he led the group called Sudairi Seven, being the eldest of the group after King Fahd's demise.

Various positions
During the 1970s Prince Sultan was one of the members of the inner family council which was led by King Khalid and included Sultan's brothers Prince Mohammed, Crown Prince Fahd, Prince Abdullah, and Prince Abdul Muhsin and his uncles Prince Ahmed and Prince Musaid.

Prince Sultan was Saudi Arabia's inspector general. He was chairman of the board of Saudi Arabia's national airline, Saudi Arabian Airlines. As chairman, he approved a ban on smoking inside all Saudi airports. In 1986, he founded the Saudi National Commission for Wildlife Conservation. He was chairman of the Higher Council for Islamic Affairs, which financially supports Muslim communities around the world.

Scientific prizes sponsored by Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz

 * Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz prize for water. He was the founder and patron of the Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz International Prize for Water, a bi-annual international scientific award for water research created in 2002.
 * Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz Chair for environmental engineering, department of civil engineering, King Fahd University for Petroleum and Minerals. It is the first chair in the university.
 * The scientific agreement between Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz and Oxford University for academic and cultural co-operation, which enables Saudi students for bachelor's, master and PhD degrees in the field of human sciences.

Charity works
Prince Sultan was known as "Sultan the Good" (سلطان الخير) in Saudi Arabia for his generosity. He played a role in many charitable works, including providing for the poor and people with special needs. He set up and funded the Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Foundation on 21 January 1995, with the aim of providing humanitarian services and medical services to people unable to afford the expenses. With the exception of his private residence and important necessities, he donated his possessions to the foundation.

The foundation includes the following centers in different countries:

 * Sultan bin Abdulaziz Humanitarian City
 * Sultan bin Abdulaziz Science and Technology Center
 * Charity housing projects
 * Sultan bin Abdulaziz Special Education Program at the Arabian Gulf University in Bahrain
 * Prince Sultan Center for Speech and Hearing in Bahrain
 * King Abdulaziz Center for Islamic Studies at Bologna University
 * Sultan bin Abdulaziz Arab and Islamic Studies Program at the University of California, Berkeley
 * Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz Private: Committee for Relief.

This private committee organizes relief and medical convoys and sets up camps to combat diseases like Malaria and blindness. It has carried out several developmental, social and medical projects, like, digging wells, building schools, public libraries, mosques, hospitals, establishing dialysis centers. It also sponsors Muslim preachers in Ethiopia, Chad, Niger, Malawi, Mali, Comoro Islands, Djibouti and Indonesia.

He inaugurated and served as the patron of Prince Sultan University in Riyadh. It was named in his honor by the university's parent institution, Al-Riyadh Philanthropic Society, which was founded by the prince's brother, Salman of Saudi Arabia, who would later become king. This is the first private/non-profit university established in the kingdom. In 2007, Prince Sultan was awarded the Medal of Human Honor for his charitable works.

In April 2005, Sultan donated £2 million to the Ashmolean Museum. A year after his donations to establish an art museum, Oxford University agreed to 'expedite' the scholarship application process for Saudi students, and identify colleges for ten Saudi students from Prince Sultan University. When this arrangement became public, it led to criticism due to the donations bypassing Oxford's governing council, and breaching the admissions process for prospective students.

A press release issued by Oxford University on 20 April 2005 said that: "HRH Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud has given the Ashmolean Museum a substantial donation to provide a fitting home for the Museum's internationally renowned collection of Islamic art. The total value of the gift is £2 million, which will also provide for ten scholarships at the University of Oxford for Saudi Arabian students."

The press release added further that ‘the new gallery, part of the ambitious redevelopment of one of the world’s oldest museums, will be named the “Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz al Saud Gallery”’. Arab News on 21 April 2005 reported that Sultan’s donation was a ‘move to promote understanding between Islam and the West’, adding that ‘Saudi and British officials’ had said that the new gallery ‘will help to portray Islamic culture and civilization in right perspectives.’

Controversy
In 2002, families of the victims of the September 11 attacks in the United States sued Prince Sultan and other senior Saudi officials for their alleged contributions to al-Qaeda linked charities. The lawsuits were thrown out by a US federal judge due to insufficient evidence submitted.

Personal life
Prince Sultan mostly married women who had a tribal background. He had thirty-two children by his multiple wives. His son Khalid bin Sultan, after Prince Sultan's death, was appointed deputy minister of defense and served in the post until 20 April 2013. Bandar bin Sultan was the former ambassador to the United States, the former secretary general of the national security council and the former head of the general intelligence directorate. Fahd bin Sultan is the governor of the Tabuk province. Salman bin Sultan, another son, is the former deputy defense minister. Faisal bin Sultan (born 1951) is the secretary general of Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Foundation.

His other sons are Turki (1959–2012), Nayef (born 1979), Badr (born 1980), Saud, Ahmad (born 1983), Nawwaf, Abdullah, Mishaal (born 1988), Mansour, Fawwaz, Abdulmajid and Abdul Ilah.

Prince Sultan had fifteen daughters, the oldest of whom is Nawf bint Sultan. One of his daughters, Reema, is the spouse of Muhammad bin Nayef, former Crown Prince. His other daughter, Noura bint Sultan, married Turki bin Nasser. Another daughter, Munira bint Sultan, who was Faisal bin Fahd's spouse, died in June 2011 at age 59.

Wives

 * Khiziran, a concubine from Ethiopia, was the mother of his eldest son Bandar
 * Munira bint Abdulaziz bin Musaed bin Jalawi (deceased), mother of Khalid, Fahd, Faisal and Turki
 * Huda bint Abdullah Al Sheikh, mother of Saud, Nayef, Nawwaf, Badr, Abdullah and Mansour
 * Areej bint Salem Al Maree, mother of his youngest two sons, Abdulmajid and Abdul Ilah
 * Hussa bint Muhammed bin Abdulaziz bin Turki (divorced), mother of Princess Daad
 * Tarfah bint Abdullah bin Abdulrahman Aldakhil
 * Jowaher bint Mohammed bin Saud bin Nasser Al Farhan Al Saud (divorced)
 * Mouda bint Saud Al Kabeer Al Saud (divorced)
 * Mounira bint Mishaal bin Saud Al Rashid (deceased)
 * Leila Al Thunayan (divorced)
 * Mouda bint Salman Al Mandeel Al Khaldi (divorced)
 * Dina bint Abdulhamid Alsahhaf (divorced)
 * Maha bint Abdullah Albanyan (divorced)
 * Abir bint Fahd Al Farhan Al Saud (divorced), mother of Fawwaz
 * Ghadir bint Shawaan Al Shibani (divorced)
 * Mashail bint Mamdouh Al Ali

Characteristics
Prince Sultan was regarded by the House of Saud as a workaholic. He doled out money at banquets in keeping with tribal customs. A conservative, it was expected that he would have put a brake on King Abdullah's timid reforms. Sultan was considered to be pro-American.

Views
Sultan took a lifetime anti-communist and anti-Soviet view, based on his dislike of Soviet state atheism as well as Soviet interest in Gulf oil and access to ports that he felt risked Saudi independence. He rebuked U.S. President Jimmy Carter for what he saw as "pusillanimity" in the face of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

In a 23 October 2001 interview in Kuwaiti newspaper As Seyassa, concerning 9/11 attacks, Sultan stated “Who stands behind this terrorism and who carried out this complicated and carefully planned terrorist operation? Osama bin Laden and those with him have said what indicates that they stand behind this carefully planned act. We, in turn, ask: Are bin Laden and his supporters the only ones behind what happened or is there another power with advanced technical expertise that acted with them?”.

Wealth and property
Prince Sultan's wealth in 1990 was reported to be $1.2 billion. In 1993 Fortune magazine cited him as the 34th rich person in the world with $4.0 billion wealth. Later, his fortune was estimated at $270 billion, which he distributed between his sons prior to his death in October 2011 in order to support their political position in the competitive princely arena. Prince Sultan owned 2–8a Rutland Gate, the former London residence of the Lebanese politician and businessman Rafic Hariri. Prince Sultan had been given the property after Hariri's assassination in 2005.

Documents in the Paradise Papers release show Prince Sultan used the law firm Appleby at the center of the use of offshore businesses and trusts by world leaders.

Health issues
Prince Sultan was rumored to have had colon cancer in 2003. A foreign correspondent was forced to leave the country after reporting his health problems.

In 2004, Prince Sultan was diagnosed with colon cancer and underwent several corrective surgeries. He underwent an operation to remove an intestinal polyp in Jeddah in 2005. Prince Sultan visited a Swiss clinic in late April 2008. In April 2009, he began to suffer from Alzheimer's disease.

He was reported to be suffering dementia, specifically Alzheimer's disease.

Morocco vacation
In February 2009, Sultan spent several months in New York City at New York–Presbyterian Hospital and underwent surgery in New York. He then convalesced at Agadir, Morocco. He went back to Saudi Arabia, but soon returned to Morocco in August 2009. During his vacation, the Saudi cabinet increased officer salaries, a traditional domain of Sultan.

In 2009, King Abdullah took charge of all defense purchases and reduced the power of the Defense Ministry. In October 2010, Abdullah personally conducted much of the negotiations for the U.S. arms package worth over $60 billion.

In November 2010, Sultan received in Agadir Lebanese Prime Minister Saad Al-Hariri to discuss the future of Lebanon's government. He had been receiving treatment since 2009 for what analysts and diplomats believed to be cancer. At the end of November 2010, he returned to Saudi Arabia because King Abdullah had left for the United States for surgery. His return was seen as a legal formality necessary under Saudi law, which stipulates that only one of the kingdom's top two officials can be abroad at a given time.

Death and funeral
The Saudi Royal court announced on 22 October 2011 that Prince Sultan died at dawn of an unspecified illness. According to media reports, Prince Sultan had been battling cancer and had been seeking medical treatment in the United States since mid-June 2011. He had a surgical operation in New York in July 2011. Unnamed U.S. officials cited by The New York Times stated that he died at New York-Presbyterian Hospital in Manhattan, New York City.

His body was taken from New York City to Riyadh on 24 October 2011. His funeral was held at the Imam Turki bin Abdullah mosque in Riyadh on 25 October 2011 in the presence of King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz. He was buried in Al Oud cemetery in Riyadh.

Various leaders, including the president of Afghanistan, Farouk Al Sharaa, the vice-president of Syria, the Iranian foreign minister and the head of Egypt's ruling military council, participated in the funeral. Additionally, other statesmen went to Riyadh to offer their condolences, such as the US Vice President Joe Biden, Pakistani President Asif Ali Zardari and Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak.

Honours
Among others, Prince Sultan was the recipient of the following honours and medals:
 * UK Order St-Michael St-George ribbon.svg Order of St Michael and St George (May 1967)
 * Ordre national du Tchad - Grand Croix.svg National Order of Chad, First Class (1972)
 * SEN Order of the Lion - Grand Cross BAR.svg Order of the Lion of Senegal (1972)
 * Cordone di gran Croce OMRI BAR.svg Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, First Class (19 July 1997)
 * Order of King Abdulaziz, 1st Class (Saudi Arabia).png Order of King Abdulaziz (1973; First Class).
 * Ordre national du Merite GO ribbon.svg National Order of Merit (1973; Grand Class)
 * VEN Order of the Liberator - Grand Cordon BAR.png Order of the Liberator, First Class (Venezuela, 1975)
 * MY Darjah Yang Mulia Pangkuan Negara (Defender of the Realm)- PMN.svg Honorary Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm (P.M.N.) (Malaysia; 1982)
 * MY Darjah Yang Mulia Pangkuan Negara (Defender of the Realm) - SMN.svg Honorary Grand Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm (Malaysia; 2000)

He was also posthumously given the King Khalid award in 2011.

title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz


text:
William Hamilton (diplomat)

Sir William Hamilton, KB, PC, FRS, FRSE (13 December 1730 – 6 April 1803) was a British diplomat, politician, antiquarian and vulcanologist who served as the Envoy Extraordinary to the Kingdom of Naples from 1764 to 1800. After sitting in the House of Commons of Great Britain from 1761 to 1764, he began working as a diplomat, succeeding Sir James Gray as the British ambassador to the Kingdom of Naples. While in Italy, Hamilton became involved in studying local volcanoes and collecting antiquities, becoming a fellow of the Royal Society and being given the Copley Medal. His second wife was Emma Hamilton, who was famed as the mistress of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson.

Early life and career
Hamilton was born on 13 December 1730 (or 12 January 1731) in either London or at Park Place, Berkshire, the fourth son of Lord Archibald Hamilton, Governor of Jamaica, and Lady Jane Hamilton, daughter of the 6th Earl of Abercorn. His father was the seventh son of William, Duke of Hamilton and 1st Earl of Selkirk, and Anne, 3rd Duchess of Hamilton. His mother was a favourite, and possibly a mistress, of the Prince of Wales and William grew up with his son George III, who would call him his "foster brother". At age nine, he went to Westminster School, where he made lifelong friends of Frederick, 4th Earl of Bristol, and David, 2nd Earl of Mansfield. Hamilton used to say that he was born with an ancient name and a thousand pounds; as a younger son he would have to make his own way in life. So, six weeks after his sixteenth birthday, he was commissioned into the 3rd Foot Guards as an ensign. He spent some time with the regiment in the Netherlands, and advanced to lieutenant in 1753. In September 1757, he was present as aide-de-camp to General Henry Seymour Conway at the abortive attack on Rochefort. The following year he left the Army, after having married Catherine Barlow, the daughter of Hugh Barlow, Member of Parliament for Pembroke Boroughs. The couple shared a love of music, and the marriage, which lasted until Catherine's death on 25 August 1782, was a happy one. There were no children. When Catherine's father died in 1763, she inherited his estates in Wales and these provided the Hamiltons with a steady income.

In 1761, Hamilton entered Parliament as Member for Midhurst. When he heard that the ambassador to the court of Naples, Sir James Gray, was likely to be promoted to Madrid, Hamilton expressed an interest in the position, and was duly appointed in 1764.

Naples
Hamilton arrived in Naples on 17 November 1764 with the official title of Envoy Extraordinary to the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and would remain as ambassador to the court of Ferdinand and Maria Carolina until 1800, although from November 1798 he was based in Palermo, the court having moved there when Naples was threatened by the French Army. As ambassador, Hamilton was expected to send reports back to the Secretary of State every ten days or so, to promote Britain's commercial interests in Naples, and to keep open house for English travellers to Naples. These official duties left him plenty of time to pursue his interests in art, antiquities, and music, as well as developing new interests in volcanoes and earthquakes. Catherine, who had never enjoyed good health, began to recover in the mild climate of Naples. Their main residence was the Palazzo Sessa, where they hosted official functions and where Hamilton housed his growing collection of paintings and antiquities; they also had a small villa on the seashore at Posillipo (later it would be called Villa Emma), a house at Portici, Villa Angelica, from where he could study Mount Vesuvius, and a house at Caserta near the Royal Palace.

Vases
Hamilton began collecting Greek vases and other antiquities as soon as he arrived in Naples, obtaining them from dealers or other collectors, or even opening tombs himself. In 1766–67 he published a volume of engravings of his collection entitled ''Collection of Etruscan, Greek, and Roman antiquities from the cabinet of the Honble. Wm. Hamilton, His Britannick Maiesty's envoy extraordinary at the Court of Naples''. The text was written by d'Hancarville with contributions by Johann Winckelmann. A further three volumes were produced in 1769–76. During his first leave in 1771 Hamilton arranged the sale of his collection to the British Museum for £8,410. Josiah Wedgwood the potter drew inspiration from the reproductions in Hamilton's volumes. During this first leave, in January 1772, Hamilton became a Knight of the Order of the Bath and the following month was elected Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. In 1777, during his second leave to England, he became a member of the Society of Dilettanti.

When Hamilton returned to England for a third period of leave, in 1783–84, he brought with him a Roman glass vase, which had once belonged to the Barberini family and which later became known as the Portland Vase. Hamilton had bought it from a dealer and sold it to the Duchess of Portland with the help of his niece Mary Hamilton, who was the duchess's literary friend. The cameo work on the vase again served as inspiration to Josiah Wedgwood, this time for his jasperware. The vase was eventually bought by the British Museum. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1792.

In 1798, as Hamilton was about to leave Naples, he packed up his art collection and a second vase collection and sent them back to England. A small part of the second vase collection went down with HMS Colossus (1787) off the Scilly Isles. The surviving part of the second collection was catalogued for sale at auction at Christie's when at the eleventh hour Thomas Hope stepped in and purchased the collection of mostly South Italian vases.

Volcanoes
Soon after Hamilton arrived in Naples, Mount Vesuvius began to show signs of activity and in the summer of 1766 he sent an account of an eruption, together with drawings and samples of salts and sulphurs, to the Royal Society in London. On the strength of this paper he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In the autumn of 1767 there was an even greater eruption and again Hamilton sent a report to the Royal Society. The two papers were published as an article in the Society's journal Philosophical Transactions.

The Royal Society awarded him the Copley Medal in 1770 for his paper, "An Account of a Journey to Mount Etna". In 1772 he published his writings on both volcanoes in a volume called Observations on Mount Vesuvius, Mount Etna, and other volcanos. This was followed in 1776 by a collection of his letters on volcanoes, entitled Campi Phlegraei (Flaming fields, the name given by the Ancients to the area around Naples). The volume was illustrated by Pietro Fabris. Hamilton subsequently hired a priest, Padre Antonio Piaggio, who lived near the western slopes of Vesuvius to keep a regular diary of notes and sketches of the volcano. Piaggio's diaries span the period 1779-1795. Hamilton was also interested in earthquakes. He visited Calabria and Messina after the earthquake of 1783 and wrote a paper for the Royal Society.

Music
The Hamiltons gave musical entertainments in which they played (William the violin, and Catherine the harpsichord or pianoforte) with some of their servants or professional musicians. During their tour of Italy in 1770, the young Mozart and his father were introduced to the Hamiltons. Catherine played the harpsichord for Mozart, and he said he found her performance "uncommonly moving". Another musical visitor was the music historian Charles Burney, who stayed at Villa Angelica at Portici and was helped by Hamilton with his research. Burney thought that Catherine Hamilton was the best harpsichord player in Naples. When the young Irish singer Michael Kelly arrived in Naples, he was introduced to the Court by Hamilton. The young Irish composer Thomas Carter also stayed with him around 1788.

Catherine Hamilton died in August 1782; her body was returned to Britain for burial in the Barlow vault at the old Slebech parish church. Hamilton wrote to his niece Mary: "I must for ever feel the loss of the most amiable the most gentle and virtuous companion that ever man was blessed with".

Second marriage
A year after his wife's death Hamilton had a third period of leave in Britain. This time he visited his estates in Wales and went on a trip to Scotland with his nephew Charles Greville, who was a younger son of the Earl of Warwick and Hamilton's sister Elizabeth. When Hamilton made a will during that visit to Britain he made Greville his heir. In London, Hamilton met Emma Hart who at that time was Greville's mistress.

On his return to Naples, Hamilton was lonely. "After having lived 22 years en famille it is most terrible to live chiefly alone", he wrote to his niece. Meanwhile, Greville, who wanted to search for a wealthy wife, was hatching a plan to persuade his uncle to take Emma off his hands. Somewhat reluctantly Hamilton agreed to the plan and Emma arrived in Naples on her 21st birthday, 26 April 1786. With her was her mother, who went by the name of Mrs Cadogan, and who would live with Emma and Hamilton until she died in 1810. The women were installed in an apartment in the Palazzo Sessa, and provided with a carriage and wardrobes. Tutors were hired to give Emma lessons in Italian and singing. It was some months though before Emma accepted the fact that Greville was not going to join her in Naples or send for her to go back to England. At that point she decided to become Hamilton's mistress.

Hamilton and Emma married five years later, when Hamilton obtained leave of three months in Britain. As he held a public position he had to ask the King's permission. The ceremony was a quiet one in St Marylebone Parish Church, taking place on 6 September 1791, two days before the couple's return to Naples. Emma signed the register as Amy Lyons; the witnesses were Hamilton's cousin the Marquess of Abercorn and Louis Dutens, who had been chaplain at Turin. The following day Hamilton was sworn of the Privy Council in 1791.

For most of Hamilton's time as ambassador, Naples had been a political backwater. But when France declared war on Britain in 1793 events in Naples became more turbulent, and Hamilton's role became more important, just as his health was declining. Nelson's fleet arrived in the Bay of Naples after defeating the French Fleet at the Battle of the Nile in August 1798 and Nelson was a guest of the Hamiltons. At the end of the year the King and Queen abandoned Naples as the French Army advanced and fled to Palermo in Sicily. The Hamiltons went with them.

Later life
In the summer of 1799 Naples was recaptured from the French and savage reprisals were enacted against those who had supported the Parthenopean Republic. Hamilton, together with the king and queen, and Nelson, remained in Palermo, except for a visit to the Bay of Naples in HMS Foudroyant (1798) when he briefly went ashore. Hamilton was anxious to return to Britain. At the beginning of 1800 Sir Arthur Paget was sent out to replace him and the Hamiltons and Nelson returned overland to England. By this time Emma and Nelson were lovers. They landed at Great Yarmouth on 31 October 1800. The relationship between Hamilton, Emma and Nelson was already causing a scandal and Hamilton was caricatured in cartoons by James Gillray.

Hamilton would live in retirement for another two and a half years, at Merton with Emma, Nelson, and Mrs Cadogan, and in a house he leased in Piccadilly. He spent his time fishing on the River Thames, visiting his estates in Wales, selling paintings and vases, trying to get money owed to him by the government for his expenses in Naples, and attending his clubs, especially the Royal Society and the Dilettanti. He died on 6 April 1803 at his house in Piccadilly. He left Emma £800 a year, which included £100 a year for her mother, and small annuities for four servants in Naples. His estates in Wales, which were heavily mortgaged, were left to Greville. Nelson was left an enamel copy of a portrait of Emma by Élisabeth Vigée le Brun.

Hamilton was buried beside his first wife at Slebech.

Homage
Hamilton's life was fictionalised by Susan Sontag in her novel The Volcano Lover: A Romance.

In the 1941 movie That Hamilton Woman, the role of Sir William Hamilton was portrayed by Alan Mowbray.

In the Dessau-Wörlitz Garden Realm in Germany there is an island in a lake atop which is a model of Mount Vesuvius. Duke Leopold III of Anhalt-Dessau would stage fireworks that seemed to issue from an erupting volcano to entertain his guests. At the foot of the mountain on the island is a building intended to suggest Hamilton's villa at Posillipo.

Walton Ford's watercolour Jack on his Deathbed portrays the death of Hamilton's pet monkey in 1780.

title: William Hamilton (diplomat)


text:
Northern Praying Mantis

Northern Praying Mantis is a style of Chinese martial arts, sometimes called Shandong Praying Mantis after its province of origin. It was created by Wang Lang (王朗) and was named after the praying mantis, an insect, the aggressiveness of which inspired the style. One Mantis legend places the creation of the style during the Song dynasty when Wang Lang was supposedly one of 18 masters gathered by the Abbot Fu Ju (福居), a legendary persona of the historical Abbot Fu Yu (福裕; 1203–1275), to improve Shaolin martial arts. However, most legends place Wang Lang in the late Ming dynasty.

Features

The mantis is a long and narrow predatory insect. While heavily armoured, it is not built to withstand forces from perpendicular directions. Consequently, its fighting style involves the use of whip-like/circular motions to deflect direct attacks, which it follows up with precise attacks to the opponent's vital spots. These traits have been subsumed into the Northern Praying Mantis style, under the rubric of "removing something" (blocking to create a gap) and "adding something" (rapid attack).

One of the most distinctive features of Northern Praying Mantis is the "praying mantis hook" : a hook made of one to three fingers directing force in a whip-like manner. The hook may be used to divert force (blocking), adhere to an opponent's limb, or attack critical spots (eyes or acupuncture points). These techniques are particularly useful in combination, for example using the force imparted from a block to power an attack. So if the enemy punches with the right hand, a Northern Praying Mantis practitioner might hook outwards with the left hand (shifting the body to the left) and use the turning force to attack the enemy's neck with a right hook. Alternately, he/she might divert downwards with the left hook and rebound with the left wrist stump to jaw/nose/throat. The "praying mantis hook" is also part of some of the distinctive guarding positions typical of the style.

Northern Praying Mantis is especially known for its speed and continuous attacks. Wrist/arm techniques in particular are emphasized, as well as knee and elbow strikes. Another prominent feature of the style is its complex footwork, borrowed from Monkey Kung Fu.

The core of the Mantis system is made up of the following forms: Beng Bu, Luan Jie, Fen Shen Ba Zhou, Zhai Yao and Fan Che.

According to the writings of Liang Xuexiang, the original forms of the system, as passed down by Wang Lang, were Luan Jie, Fen Shen Ba Zhou, and the Mi Shou (secret hands, not a form but solo movements). Others have stated that Beng Bu, Luan Jie and Fen Shou Ba Zhou are the original. Zhai Yao was created later, and is a compilation of the most important techniques and combinations of the system.

Origins
There are many legends surrounding the creation of Northern Praying Mantis boxing. One legend attributes the creation of Mantis fist to the Song dynasty when Abbot Fu Ju (福居), a legendary persona of the historical Abbot Fu Yu (福裕) (1203–1275), supposedly invited Wang Lang (王朗) and seventeen other masters to come and improve the martial arts of Shaolin. The Abbot recorded all of the techniques in a manual called the Mishou (祕手 – "Secret Hands") and later passed it onto the Taoist priest Shen Xiao. This manual supposedly disappeared until the Qianlong reign era when it was published under the name "Arhat exercising merit short strike illustrated manuscript". Some sources place the folk manuscript's publication on the "sixteenth day of the third month of the spring of 1794". The manual records Wang Lang "absorbed and equalized all previous techniques" learned from the 17 other masters.

A third of the masters listed all come from fictional novels. Yan Qing (#7) and Lin Chong (#13) come from the Water Margin and Emperor Taizu of Song (#1), Han Tong (#2), Zheng En (#3) and Gao Huaide (#11) come from the Fei Long Quan Zhuan (飞龙全传 – "The Complete Flying Dragon Biography"), which was published prior to the aforementioned manual.

Another legend connected to the Song Dynasty states Wang Lang participated in a Lei tai contest in the capital city of Kaifeng and was defeated by General Han Tong (韩通), the founder of Tongbeiquan. After leaving the fighting arena, he saw a brave praying mantis attacking the wheels of oncoming carts with its "broadsword-like" arms, Mantis fist was born shortly thereafter. However, most legends place Wang Lang living in the late Ming dynasty.

Connection with General Yue Fei

As previously stated, the Water Margin bandits Lin Chong and Yan Qing, the adopted of Lu Junyi, are said to be part of the 18 masters supposedly invited to Shaolin by the legendary Abbot Fuju. According to the folklore biography of Song dynasty General Yue Fei, Lin and Lu were former students of Zhou Tong, the general's military arts teacher. One martial legend states Zhou learned Chuojiao boxing from its originator Deng Liang (邓良) and then passed it onto Yue Fei. Chuojiao is also known as the "Water Margin Outlaw style" and "Mandarin Duck Leg". In the Water Margin's twenty-ninth chapter, entitled "Wu Song, Drunk, Beats Jiang the Gate Guard Giant", it mentions Wu Song, another of Zhou's fictional students, using the "Jade Circle-Steps with Duck and Drake feet". Lin Chong is listed above as being a master of "Mandarin ducks kicking technique".

Northern Mantis Lineage Master Yuen Man Kai openly claims Zhou taught Lin and Lu the "same school" of martial arts that was later combined with the seventeen other schools to create the Mantis style. However, he believes Mantis style was created during the Ming dynasty, and was therefore influenced by these eighteen schools from the Song. He also says Lu Junyi taught Yan Qing the same martial arts as he learned from Zhou. Master Yuen further comments Zhou later taught Yue the same school and that Yue was the originator of the mantis move "Black Tiger Steeling [sic] Heart". Note that the various branches of Yue Jia Quan (Yue Family Boxing) do indeed have an analogous postural movement named "Black Tiger Steals the Heart". Also various Yue Jia Quan sets feature a "Preying Mantis Pounces on Prey" claw hand posture as well.

Widespread styles
There are several styles of Northern Praying Mantis, the best known of which are:

 * Seven Star Praying Mantis Boxing is arguably the most well known and practiced branch of Northern Praying Mantis. In China, it is widely practiced in Liaoning and Shandong Provinces. Today this system is represented by the lineages of Wang Rongsheng (王榮生) and Wang Yunpeng, based on the teachings of Li Sanjian (李三箭). Fan Xudong (范旭東) teaches In the modern era, Luo Guangyu (羅光玉) is known for having passed down this style to Hong Kong, Shanghai and other parts of Southern China via the Jingwu Athletic Association, and by his disciples Chiu Chi Man (趙志民) and Wong Hon Fun (黃漢勛1) the martial tradition has been disseminated internationally through the Chinese Diaspora. Seven Star Mantis combines elements of Hard and Soft methods, Long and Short attacks, internal and external principles. It is considered by many as the 'hardest' of the Praying Mantis styles, but this association is misleading. A common saying, "Hide the hard in the soft," means both Hard and Soft are interwoven together.
 * Plum Blossom Praying Mantis Boxing . it is widespread in Shandong Province, Jilin, Liaoning and South Korea. Though heavily influenced by the development of Taiji Mantis of Cui Shoushan and Wang Yushan, Taiji Plum Blossom of Hao Family, Taiji Mantis of Zhao Zhuxi and Babu Mantis of Wei Xiaotang in the early 1900s, the art traces its lineage directly from Li Bingxiao (b.1700s) to Zhao Zhu to Liang Xuexiang (1810–1895). Liang Xuexiang (alternately listed as living from 1790-1860) was mentioned prominently by the Korean Branch of the Mei Hua Tang Lang as the "creator of the Plum Flower Branch of Praying Mantis Boxing and was the first master to use the name "Plum Blossom". Liang Xuexiang's disciples, mainly Jiang Hualong, Liang Jingchuan, Sun Yuanchang, Hao Hong and Xiu Kunshan are responsible for popularization of this style in the 20th century while Lin Ping Jiang, an emigre of the 1940s is known to have come from Shantong province to teach Praying Mantis in the area of Seoul, Korea.
 * Taiji Praying Mantis Boxing . Today this style is represented by two distinct lineages. The first one is that of Cui Shoushan and Wang Yushan and is based on Song Zide and Jiang Hualong's Plum Blossom teachings in Laiyang, Shandong Province. It is popular in Laiyang, Yantai, Qingdao, Dalian, North America, Russia, France and Spain. The second lineage can be traced to Sun Yuanchang's Plum Blossom, who was yet another disciple of Liang Xuexiang. Its best known progenitor is Zhao Zhuxi, who is said to have taught (both directly and indirectly) thousands of students during his lifetime in Vietnam and Hong Kong, who have since spread to all corners of the globe. He was given the Cantonese nickname "Chuk Kai", meaning "Bamboo Creek", for a famous battle he fought with bandits at that location. This style has since become prevalent in places such as Korea, Hong Kong, Vietnam, and North America.
 * Taiji Plum Blossom Praying Mantis Boxing . This style is, historically, a combination of two different lineages of Mantis: Taiji Mantis and Plum Blossom Mantis. This style is widespread in Yantai, Qingdao, Beijing, Dalian, Harbin, etc. What is now called Taiji Plum Blossom traces its lineage to Hao Lianru (郝蓮茹)—a disciple of Liang Xuexiang, his sons Hao Henglu, Hao Hengxin and his grandson Hao Bin. The later three combined both Taiji Mantis and Plum Blossom in the early 20th century, creating the current style. Hao Lianru's five sons have since spread the style elsewhere. This style is well known for its large, two-handed sword, and for being somewhat 'softer' than Seven Star Praying Mantis.
 * Six Harmony Praying Mantis Boxing . Known as the 'softest' or most 'internal' of the Praying Mantis styles, Six Harmony was passed down by Ding Zicheng (丁子成), whose students taught in Shandong Province as well as Taiwan. Six Harmony Praying Mantis has a very different curriculum, with unique routines not found in other Praying Mantis styles.
 * Eight Step Praying Mantis Boxing . This style was originally conceived by Jiang Hualong (姜化龍), and was further refined by his principle disciple of the style, Feng Huanyi (馮環義), which was passed down by his disciple Wei Xiaotang (衛笑堂) in Taiwan. It is claimed that the style was passed down to his disciple Shyun Guang Long (荀廣龍) (James Shyun), although this claim has been contested. The style is taught in Taiwan by Master Tso Hsien Fu, and was taught abroad by Su Yuchang, both disciples of Wei Xiaotang, amongst others.

Media
Mantis fist is usually the main antagonist's style of choice in various forms of media.

Film
David Chiang learns this style from the Mantis in The Deadly Mantis (1978 film) a.k.a. Shaolin mantis (1978)

The Style is performed in Yuen Siu-tien's starring Dance of the Drunk Mantis (1979)

In The Tricky Master (1999), Stephen Chow's apprentice beats an overweight card sharp in a "fixed" high-stakes poker game. When taunted, the card sharp jumps onto the playing table and defeats Chow's deaf, cross-dressing bodyguard with a "long lost kung fu" called "Fat Mantis", which is the "most powerful...and kills without blood." In the end, Stephen Chow sprays the card sharp with a can of insecticide. He falls to the ground dead with his hands and legs held into the air like a bug.

In The Forbidden Kingdom (2008), the "Silent Monk" (Jet Li) employs mantis fist in his battle over the Monkey King's magical staff with Lu Yan, the "Drunken Immortal" (Jackie Chan). But his Mantis boxing is shortly thereafter overpowered by Lu's Tiger boxing. The movie's screenwriter, John Fusco, is a long-time student of Northern Praying Mantis and worked closely with Jet Li during production.

In the animated movie Kung Fu Panda, one of the six kung fu students is an actual praying mantis who uses Northern Praying Mantis kung fu.

Television
In Hung Hei-Gun: Decisive Battle With Praying Mantis Fists (洪熙官: 决战螳螂拳) (a.k.a. The Kung Fu Master, 1994), Donnie Yen plays the titular role of legendary martial arts hero Hung Hei-Gun. After being beaten up as a Child, Hung's parents send him away to study Kung Fu. He returns eight years later to find his father (who is secretly an anti-Manchu rebel leader) working as the military arms instructor for the Qing government, much to the chagrin of the local villagers. Despite his years of training, a rakish manchu Prince easily overpowers Hung with the mantis style. After the supposed death of his father, Hung faces the prince once more. When the prince shoots poisonous arrows from his sleeves, Hung twirls his staff to collect the projectiles and then flings them back. The Prince dies from his own poison arrows.

In the 2014 Netflix TV series Marco Polo, Jia Sidao, the main antagonist, portrayed by Chin Han, uses praying mantis kung fu.

Books
Mantis is about a half-Vietnamese serial killer who murders erotic dancers because he believes his pet praying mantis tells him to do so (which is quite similar the real life case involving the "Son of Sam"). He uses this style of fighting utilizing his fingers to attack the neck veins and the eyes.

Video games
Lion Rafale, a character from Sega's Virtua Fighter series, uses Praying Mantis style. He was introduced in Virtua Fighter 2. It is also used by Kung Lao and Shujinko in the Mortal Kombat series. Wulong Goth, the leader of the evil "Black Mantis" sect, employs Praying Mantis in the game Tao Feng: Fist of the Lotus. Gen, from the Street Fighter series of video games, uses this technique, which he can change at will with the Crane style. In the Eternal Champions series, Praying Mantis is used by Larcen Tyler.

title: Northern Praying Mantis


text:
Joanna Pacuła

Joanna Pacuła (born 30 December 1957) is a Polish actress and model. Born in Tomaszów Lubelski and immigrating to the United States in the early 1980s, she first gained prominence through her modeling work for Vogue. Her breakthrough performance in the 1983 film Gorky Park earned her a Golden Globe nomination for Best Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture. In the years since, she established herself as a character actress, appearing in numerous high-profile films and television series.

Life and career
Pacuła was born in Tomaszów Lubelski, Poland, to a pharmacist mother and an engineer father. She has a sister, Ewa Pacuła, a model and TV personality who has also worked in the United States.

In 1979, Pacuła graduated from the Aleksander Zelwerowicz State Theatre Academy. After graduation, she joined the Warsaw Dramatic Theatre, where she acted until 1981. She began her career playing in productions of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Othello, and As You Like It. She also found work in a few films, including Krzysztof Zanussi's Camouflage (Barwy ochronne, 1977) and Sergiu Nicolaescu's Last Night of Love (Ultima noapte de dragoste, 1980) in Romania.

In 1981, Pacuła was in Paris when the communist authorities in Poland declared martial law. She did not return to her homeland, and in 1982 emigrated to the United States, where she specialized in playing European temptresses. Her feature debut came in appearing opposite William Hurt in Gorky Park (1983). She was praised by Roman Polanski for that role. She played in numerous American TV series and movies, including the Holocaust drama Escape From Sobibor (CBS, 1987),  The Kiss (1988), E.A.R.T.H. Force (CBS, 1990), and the TV series, The Colony (ABC, 1996). She also starred in Lewis Gilbert's Not Quite Paradise released in 1985.

She was featured in Marked for Death (1990) as an expert on Jamaican voodoo and gangs; in the Italian erotic thriller Husband and Lovers (1992) as a free-spirited adultress; Tombstone (1993) as Doc Holliday's lover, Kate; in The Haunted Sea (1997); and in the film Virus (1999), playing a Russian scientist. She currently resides in Southern California.

Milestones

 * Pacula was chosen by People as one of its 50 Most Beautiful People in the world (1990).
 * She was listed as one of 12 "Promising New Actors of 1984" in John Willis' Screen World, volume 36.

Filmography
Film
 * Ultima noapte de dragoste (1980) - Leah Gheorghiu
 * Czułe miejsca (1981) - Nurse
 * Gorky Park (1983) - Irina Asanova
 * Not Quite Paradise (1985) - Gila
 * Escape from Sobibor (1987) - Luka
 * Death Before Dishonor (1987) - Elli Gellar
 * The Kiss (1988) - Felice
 * Sweet Lies (1988) - Joelle
 * Options (1989) - Princess Nicole
 * Breaking Point (1989) - Anna/Diana
 * Marked for Death (1990) - Professor Leslie
 * Husband and Lovers (1991) - Alina
 * Eyes of the Beholder (1992) - Diana Carlyle
 * Body Puzzle (1992) - Tracy Marella
 * Black Ice (1992) - Vanessa
 * Warlock: The Armageddon (1993) - Paula Dare
 * Under Investigation (1993) - Abbey Jane Strong
 * Tombstone (1993) - Kate Elder
 * Private Lessons II (1993) - Sophie Morgan
 * The Silence of the Hams (1994) - Lily Wine
 * Every Breath (1994) - Lauren
 * Not Like Us (1995) - Anita Clark
 * Timemaster (1995) - Evelyn Adams
 * Last Gasp (1995) - Nora Weeks
 * Captain Nuke and the Bomberboys (1995) - Brenda Franelli
 * The Haunted Sea (1997) - Bergen
 * Heaven Before I Die (1997) - Selma
 * In Praise of Older Women (1997) - Marta
 * The White Raven (1998) - Julie Konnenman
 * My Giant (1998) - Lilliana Rotaru
 * The Art of Murder (1999) - Elizabeth Sheridan
 * Virus (1999) - Nadia
 * Error in Judgement (1999) - Liz
 * Crash and Byrnes (2000) - Lissette
 * The Hit (2001) - Sonia
 * Crusade of Vengeance (2002) - Elizabeth
 * No Place Like Home (2002) - Gretchen Klein
 * Cupid's Prey (2003) - Iris Wharton
 * El Padrino (2004) - Jessica Lancaster
 * Moscow Heat (2004) - Sasha
 * Dead Easy (2004) - Teresa Storm
 * The Cutter (2005) - Elizabeth Teller
 * Honor (2006) - Rose Tyrell
 * Forget About It (2006) - Talia Nitti
 * When Nietzsche Wept (2007) - Mathilda
 * Shannon's Rainbow (2009) - Emily Blair
 * Black Widow (2010) - Olivia
 * ICE Agent (2013) - Sheila Hayman
 * Break Even (2020) - Agent Crowe

Television
 * Deep Red (1994, television film) - Monica Quik
 * Business for Pleasure (1997, television film) - Anna
 * Sweet Deception (1998, television film) - Risa Gallagher
 * Dead Man's Gun (1999, 1 episode) - Yvotte Ballinger
 * Brutally Normal (2000, 7 episodes) - Gogi
 * Night Visions (2001, 1 episode) - Head Immigrant
 * Robbery Homicide Division (2002, 1 episode) - Trisha Sandifer
 * Lightning Bolts of Destruction (2003, television film) - Dr. Valery Landis
 * Dinocroc (2004, television film)
 * Jake in Progress (2005, 1 episode) - Elsa Winters
 * Monk (2008, 1 episode) - Leyla Zlatavich
 * Stolen Child (2012, television film) - Tatiana
 * Bones (2014, 1 episode) - Drina Mirga

title: Joanna Pacuła


text:
Englischer Garten

The Englischer Garten (, English Garden) is a large public park in the centre of Munich, Bavaria, stretching from the city centre to the northeastern city limits. It was created in 1789 by Sir Benjamin Thompson (1753–1814), later Count Rumford (Reichsgraf von Rumford), for Prince Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria. Thompson's successors, Reinhard von Werneck (1757–1842) and Friedrich Ludwig von Sckell (1750–1823), advisers on the project from its beginning, both extended and improved the park.

With an area of 3.7 km2 (370 ha or 910 acres), the Englischer Garten is one of the world's largest urban public parks. The name refers to its English garden form of informal landscape, a style popular in England from the mid-18th century to the early 19th century and particularly associated with Capability Brown.

Creation
When the Elector of Bavaria Maximilian III Joseph, the last ruler from the Bavarian branch of the Wittelsbach dynasty, died childless in 1777, his throne passed to Charles Theodore, count and elector of the Palatinate. The new ruler preferred his existing home in Mannheim on the Rhine to living in Bavaria and tried unsuccessfully to trade his unloved inheritance for the Austrian Netherlands. Understandably, the people of Munich returned his disdain. To offset this unhappy atmosphere, Charles Theodore devoted much attention to improvements in the city. Among others, he created an art gallery in the northern arcades of the Residence's Hofgarten ("Court Garden") and made both the garden and the new gallery open to the public (the former in 1780, the latter in 1781).

While the Hofgarten was then the only public park in Munich, that was not the primary motivation for the creation of the English Garden. Rather, it was part of a series of military reforms being pursued under the guidance of Sir Benjamin Thompson, the new Elector's chief military aide, later created Count Rumford and appointed as Bavarian war minister. Born in Massachusetts, Thompson had served on the Loyalist side in the American Revolutionary War, and after the British defeat had returned to England before moving to continental Europe and entering Charles Theodore's service in 1784. In 1788 Thompson proposed that in peacetime the majority of the soldiers of the Elector's army should be given leave to do civilian work, such as farming and gardening. In February 1789, Charles Theodore decreed that military gardens should be laid out in each garrison city, to provide soldiers with good agricultural knowledge and also to serve as recreation areas, accessible also to the public.

The planned location of the Munich gardens was the area north of the Schwabinger city gate, a hunting ground of the Wittelsbach rulers since the Middle Ages. Known as the Hirschanger (or "deer park"), the higher part of the hunting ground closer to the city was included in the scheme, while the Hirschau (also meaning "deer park"), lower and further north, and a more densely wooded part to the south known as the Hirschangerwald ("Deer Park Wood") were originally not included. The whole area had been subject to flooding from the Isar, the river on which Munich stands, a little to the east. This problem was soon removed by the construction of a river wall in 1790, which became known as the "Riedl-Damm" after the engineer Anton von Riedl, who had supervised its construction.

The laying out of the military garden was begun in July 1789, and an area of 800 by slightly less than 200 metres was quickly made ready for cultivation, but soon the idea was extended to the creation of a public park, of which the military garden should be only a small part. On August 13, 1789, Charles Theodore published a decree, devoting the Hirschanger to the amusement of the people of Munich. To advise on the project, the Royal Gardener Friedrich Ludwig Sckell (ennobled in 1808) who had studied landscape gardening in England and had previously worked for Charles Theodore at Schwetzingen, had been summoned to Munich earlier in August. Various associated projects were made part of the park development, among them the Elevengarten ("Pupils' Garden", a garden for the students at the recently formed military academy), a "Schweizerey" (cattle farm), "Schäfery" (sheep farm) and "Ackerbauschule" (arable farming school) to improve farming techniques, and a "Vihearzneyschule" (veterinary school) for the treatment of cattle diseases. Most of these projects did not long survive the creation of the park, but the veterinary school went on to become what is now the Tierärztliche Fakultät (Veterinary Faculty) of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. The gateway from 1790 can be seen at the Veterinärstraße entrance to the garden. The park was initially named "Theodors Park", but it very quickly became known by the descriptive name of "the English Garden". By May, 1790 sufficient progress had been made to allow Charles Theodore to make an inspection tour; but it was first in the spring of 1792 that the park was officially opened to the approximately 40,000 citizens of Munich.

Further development
Thompson left Munich in 1798. His successor, Baron von Werneck, attempted to make the garden itself through its agricultural use. To that end he expanded the park in December 1799 to encompass the Hirschau, which was improved to provide pasture. The fields of the military gardens were added to the Englischer Garten in January 1800. Werneck's improvements had been costly, and in 1804 he was replaced by Sckell, who was given the post of Bayerischer Hofgärtenintendant ("Bavarian Court Garden Supervisor"). Although Sckell had had a guiding role from the beginning, many aspects of the execution differed from his ideas, which he set out in a memorandum of 1807. His long supervision of the garden (1804–1823) was marked by a movement away from agricultural uses and by concentration on the landscape garden. For instance, two mills at the point where the Schwabingerbach (Schwabing stream) leaves the Eisbach (Ice stream) were removed and an artificial waterfall was created in 1814–1815.

Under Sckell, the park took on its present form. The only significant addition since his time is the creation of the hill for the Monopteros by his nephew Carl August Sckell, who succeeded him as director of the park. In the 20th century, there were some minor additions to the park, most notably the addition in 1952 of some thirty hectares of land where the locomotive factory of Joseph Anton von Maffei had stood, and in 1958-62 of a further 67 hectares from the Hirschauer Forst (Hirschau Wood). The century almost brought less welcome changes to the park. In the Second World War, Allied bombing damaged the Monopteros and destroyed the Chinese Tower, and 93,000 cubic metres of rubble were dumped in the Hirschanger. The area was only cleared in 1953, when a sports ground for schools was created there. (The park briefly had another sports ground, with the archery range that hosted the archery competitions for the 1972 Summer Olympics on the Werneckwiese by the Kleinhesseloher See.) Transport too has harmed the character of the garden, most notably with the construction in 1963 of the Isarring, part of Munich's central ring road, which divides the park just north of the Kleinhesseloher See. Towards the end of the 20th century the city of Munich wished to construct a tram route through the garden north of the Chinese Tower, currently a road used only by buses; but it was opposed by the Bavarian government, which owns the land, and the Bayerische Verwaltungsgerichtshof rejected the plan. There were also natural disasters: many trees were destroyed by severe storms in 1964, 1988, and 1990 (the "Wiebke" storm); and Dutch elm disease has almost destroyed the elm trees of the park. Both kinds of loss were compensated by a "tree donation" campaign organised by Munich's Abendzeitung ("Evening Paper") in 1989 to 1990 on the occasion of the park's 200th anniversary; among the 1500 new trees that were planted were a thousand elms, using only varieties resistant to Dutch elm disease.

Japanese teahouse
In April 1972, to celebrate the Summer Olympics of that year, held in Munich, a Japanese teahouse and a Japanese garden were created on a small island at the south end of the Englischer Garten, behind the Haus der Kunst. The island lies in a lake which had been created only a few years earlier, in 1969. The teahouse was a gift to Bavaria from Soshitsu Sen, head of the Urasenke tea school in Kyoto, and it was designed by Soshitsu Sen and Mitsuo Nomura. A traditional Japanese tea ceremony takes place here regularly.

Schönfeldwiese and surroundings
Between the Monopteros and the Japanisches Teehaus lies the Schönfeldwiese ("Beautiful field meadow"). In this part of the Gardens nude sunbathing has been permitted since the 1960s, something which many Germans practise. It caused quite a sensation at the time and also made the English Gardens well-known, even outside Munich. The Schönfeldwiese proper lies to the south of the Schwabingerbach, which crosses the English Garden at this point before flowing northwards along its west side; but the name is sometimes used of the whole larger open space. The expanse to the north of the Schwabingerbach, the Carl Theodorswiese ("Carl Theodors meadow") has the oldest construction in the park: the "Burgfriedsäule", a boundary marker from 1724, topped with the Münchner Kindl stands in a grove of trees below the Monopteros.

Surfing
In one of the artificial streams flowing through the Englischer Garten, there is a standing wave (a stationary hydraulic jump) in which there is a transition from laminar to turbulent flow. Surfers line up along the bank taking turns entering the water with their boards. After a minute or so, successful surfers will voluntarily drop out returning to the end of the line allowing the next person in line an opportunity. The signage states that surfing should only be done by expert or skilled surfers.

Monopteros
When the nearby wooden Apollo temple had fallen into disrepair, an early idea of Sckell's for a hilltop temple was taken up and a new stone building of similar design was commissioned (an early plan even calls the Monopteros "Apollo Tempel", a name it never actually bore). This small (16 m high), round, Greek-style temple was designed by Leo von Klenze. It was built on a 15 m high foundation, around which a small hill was created in 1832, using leftover building material from recent work on the Munich Residenz (Royal Residence). Hill and temple were completed in 1836. Ten Ionic columns support a shallow copper-covered dome; palmettes adorn the sima. A particular feature of the Monopteros is the use of polychrome stone painting, an interest of Klenze at the time, who intended the building to serve as a model for its use.

Steinerne Bank
Before the Monopteros was built, a small circular temple had stood by the Eisbach a little to the south of the Chinesischer Turm. Designed by Johann Baptist Lechner (1758–1809) and erected in 1789, it became known as the Apollo temple after an Apollo statue by Josef Nepomuk Muxel was added to it in 1791. While the basis of the temple was tuff, the temple itself was wooden; and by the early nineteenth century, this had fallen into disrepair. In 1838, Leo von Klenze built an exedra or stone bench (Steinerne Bank) in place of the temple, with the inscription "Hier wo Ihr wallet, da war sonst Wald nur und Sumpf" ("Here where you meander was once only wood and marsh"). The temple's circular basis served as the basis for the curved bench.

Tower
The Chinesischer Turm ("Chinese Tower") is a 25-metre-high wooden structure, first constructed in 1789 to 1790, from a design by the Mannheimer military architect Joseph Frey (1758–1819). It was modelled on the "Great Pagoda" in the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew. The Pagoda, twice as high as the tower, was supposed to resemble a porcelain pagoda in the gardens of a Chinese emperor. The Munich tower has five storeys: the ground storey roof has a diameter of 19 m, the topmost storey of 6 m.

On July 13, 1944, the original tower burned down after heavy bombing; but a society aiming to rebuild it was formed in 1951 and the new tower, copied accurately from the original by consulting photographs and old drawings, was completed in September 1952.

Surroundings
A wooden Chinesische Wirtschaft (restaurant in Chinese style), designed by Lechner, was added in 1790. In 1912, this was replaced by the present-day stone building, which reflected the original design. With 7,000 seats, the beer garden at the Chinesischer Turm is the second largest in Munich.

In the late 19th century up to 5000 servants, manual workers, soldiers, and students would come to the tower early on a Sunday morning to dance to the music of a brass band. The dance began around five in the morning and ended around eight o'clock, so that servants could return to serve their employers' breakfast or go to church. As a dance for servants it was known as the "Kocherlball" (cooks' ball). In 1904 the custom was forbidden by the police on moral grounds. But in 1989, to celebrate the two hundredth anniversary of the park, a revival was made, with around 4000 attending, and the dance has since been celebrated each year in July.

A children's carousel was put up near the tower in 1823, similar in design to the current one. By 1912 a replacement was needed, which is still in use. It was designed by the Schwabinger sculptor Joseph Erlacher and the decoration painter August Julier. Alongside the usual horses, the carousel has less expected creatures to ride, such as an ibex, stork and flamingo. Its wooden roof and pillars were restored from 1979 to 1980.

South of the tower are the Ökonomiegebäude ("Economy buildings"), which were designed by Lechner towards the end of the 18th century as a model farm. Today, the Ökonomiegebäude are occupied by the management of the Englischer Garten.

Rumford-Saal
A little to the north of the Chinesischer Turm, the Rumford-Saal (Rumford Hall) or Rumfordhaus (Rumford House) is a small building in Palladian style. During its construction it was known as the "großer Saal" (great hall) or "Militairsaal" (military hall); but it was later renamed to honour the garden's founder, Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford. It was built in 1791 by Lechner as an officers' mess (Offiziers-kasino) and was used first by the army, later by the court. The building, 30 m long and 10 m wide, has one and a half storeys; front and back have a portico with six wooden Ionic pillars. Its dining hall, adorned with many mirrors which give it its name, the "Spiegelsaal" (mirror room), has room for 150 people. The building is currently used by the city of Munich as a children's centre ("Kinderfreizeitstätte").

Kleinhesseloher See
The Kleinhesseloher See ("Kleinhesseloher Lake") was created under Werneck's direction around 1800 between the districts of Schwabing, at that time a village north of Munich, and Kleinhesselohe. Kleinhesselohe had been the original northern limit of the park, with a watchhouse and a gate to the northern Hirschau. The park warden there had set up an improvised beer shop for workers in the park. This soon expanded to offer milk and cold meals and came to be a favoured stop for walkers in the park, especially after a wooden dance place had been added. Werneck's successor Sckell increased the size of the lake by one and a half times in 1807 to 1812, giving it its present form. It is constantly fed by water from the Eisbach. Three islands can be found within the lake's 86,410 square meters: Königsinsel ("King's Island", 2,720 m2), Kurfürsteninsel ("Elector's Island", 1,260 m2) and Regenteninsel ("Regent's Island", 640 m2).

Sckell's enlargement of the lake brought it close to Kleinhesselohe; and the little beer garden there was to be a forerunner of the modern Seehaus ("lake house"), with 2,500 seats. In 1882 to 1883 Gabriel von Seidel built a boathouse with food service. This was replaced with a new building by Rudolf Esterer in 1935; with a terrace overlooking the lake, this was very popular until 1970, when it was demolished. A competition for a new design was won by Alexander von Branca, with a design modelled on a Japanese village; but the work was found too costly and never executed. For fifteen years service was from temporary buildings, until in 1985 the current Seehaus was built to a design by Ernst Hürlimann and Ludwig Wiedemann. Today, the lake and the Seehaus are well-loved leisure destinations; pedal boats are also leased here to those who want to splash around.

Two monuments near the lake honour its creators. The Werneck-Denkmal, a monument to Werneck, stands on a rise near the east side. It was erected in 1838 on Ludwig I's suggestion to a design by von Klenze. A little south of it, on the bank of the lake, the Sckell-Säule ("Sckell pillar") honours Ludwig von Sckell. This, also designed by von Klenze, was erected in 1824, a year after Sckell's death; the design was executed by Ernst von Bandel, who would later be known as the creator of the Hermannsdenkmal.

Hirschau
The English Garden is divided into two portions by the busy Isarring road. The southern part is around 2 km long, while the northern part, called the Hirschau, is around 3 km long. In contrast to the southern part, which on sunny days contains as many people as one would find in a medium-sized town, the Hirschau has a peaceful character. In the southern part the grass in the open expanses (heavily used for sport and sunbathing) must be kept short; but in the Hirschau some meadows are allowed to grow and are mown for hay in June and August, while others are used as pasture for sheep. Two beer gardens, the "Aumeister", built in 1810–11 by the court mason (Hofmaurermeister) Joseph Deiglmayr (1760–1814) and the "Hirschau", built in 1840, are located at the north and south end of the Hirschau respectively. The northern part of the garden also contains a small amphitheatre, built in 1985 and called the new amphitheatre. (An amphitheatre built in 1793 to a similar plan, but in a different position, a little north of the Rumford-Saal, has not survived; this had been used primarily for fireworks exhibitions). The new amphitheatre is used for open-air performances in summer. To the east the Hirschau's border is formed by the Isar, which can be crossed at the Oberföhring dam (Stauwehr Oberföhring), built between 1920 and 1924, and at the Emmeram Bridge, a wooden pedestrian bridge first built in 1978. The bridge was destroyed by arson in 2002, and replaced by a new design in 2004.

Statistics

 * Area: 3.73 km2
 * Total length of paths and walkways: roughly 75 km (26 km roads, 36 km footpaths, 13 km bridlepaths)
 * Length of streams: 15 km
 * Bridges: over 100
 * Number of bird species that breed in the Garden: 50–60

Literature

 * C. Bauer, Der Englische Garten in München. Munich: Harbeke, 1964
 * J. H. Biller and H.-P. Rasp, München, Kunst und Kultur. Munich: Südwest, ed. 18, 2006. ISBN 978-3-517-06977-7
 * T. Dombart, Der Englische Garten zu München. Munich: Hornung, 1972. ISBN 3-87364-023-6
 * P. Freiherr von Freyberg (ed.), Der Englische Garten in München. Munich: Knürr, 2000. ISBN 3-928432-29-X
 * E. D. Schmid (ed.), Englischer Garten München. Munich: Bayerische Verwaltung der staatlichen Schlösser, Gärten und Seen, ed. 2, 1989

title: Englischer Garten


text:
Delaware Department of Correction

The Delaware Department of Correction is a state agency of Delaware that manages state prisons. It has its headquarters in the Central Administration Building in Dover. At one time the headquarters was located in Smyrna.

Prisons

 * Delores J. Baylor Women's Correctional Institution (inmate capacity 320)
 * Howard R. Young Correctional Institution (capacity 1,500)
 * James T. Vaughn Correctional Center (formerly Delaware Correctional Center) (capacity 2,600)
 * Sussex Correctional Institution (capacity 1,206)

Community Corrections

 * Central Violation of Probation Center
 * Hazel D. Plant Women's Treatment Facility
 * John L. Webb Correctional Facility
 * Morris Community Corrections Center
 * Plummer Community Corrections Center
 * Probation and Parole / Day Reporting Centers
 * Sussex Community Corrections Center
 * Sussex Violation of Probation
 * Sussex Work Release Center

Operations
60% of all admissions into the Delaware correctional system go to the Howard R. Young Correctional Institution, and that facility houses the majority of Delaware's detainee population.

The male death row is in the James T. Vaughn Correctional Center (JTVCC), while the female death row is in Delores J. Baylor Women's Correctional Institution. Executions occur at JTVCC, as it houses the execution chamber.

title: Delaware Department of Correction


text:
Fawley, Buckinghamshire

Fawley is a village and civil parish in Wycombe district in the south-western corner of Buckinghamshire, England. It is on the boundary between Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire, about seven miles west of Great Marlow and north of Henley-on-Thames.

The village toponym is derived from the Old English for "fallow-coloured woodland clearing". It was recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Falelie. There are two other places in England called Fawley.

Sir Bulstrode Whitelocke, a prominent Member of Parliament in Cromwell's day, was from Fawley. In 1642 he allowed soldiers fighting in the English Civil War to stay at the manor house in Fawley, known as Fawley Court but they were quite raucous in their behaviour and destroyed the contents of the house. In 1684 the house was redesigned, following a design by Sir Christopher Wren.

The Church of England parish church of Saint Mary the Virgin was rebuilt in 1748. It has a Tree of Life stained glass window designed by the artist John Piper (who lived nearby in Fawley Bottom) and Patrick Reyntiens.

title: Fawley, Buckinghamshire


text:
Constantine III of Armenia

Constantine III (also Constantine V; Constantin V d'Arménie; Կոստանդին, Western Armenian transliteration: Gosdantin or Kostantine; April 17, 1313 – December 21, 1362) was the King of Armenian Cilicia from 1344 to 1362. He was the son of Baldwin, Lord of Neghir (a nephew of Hethum I of Armenia), and second cousin of Constantine II.

When Constantine II was killed in an uprising in 1344, Constantine III succeeded him. He attempted to wipe out all rival claimants to the throne, giving orders to kill Constantine II's nephews, Bemon and Leo, but before the murders could be carried out they escaped to Cyprus. During his rule, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia was reduced by Mamluk raids and conquests. They conquered Ajazzo in 1347 and Tarsus and Adana in 1359.

Constantine was the first husband of Maria, daughter of Oshin of Corycos and Joan of Taranto. He was predeceased by his two sons. Upon his death from natural causes he was succeeded by his cousin Constantine IV.

title: Constantine III of Armenia


text:
Fawley

Fawley may refer to:

Places in the United Kingdom

 * Fawley, Berkshire, a village and civil parish in West Berkshire
 * South Fawley (or Little Fawley), a village in Berkshire
 * Fawley, Buckinghamshire, a village in Buckinghamshire
 * Fawley Bottom, a small village in south Buckinghamshire
 * Fawley, Hampshire, a village in Hampshire
 * Fawley Refinery
 * Fawley Chapel, a village in Herefordshire

People with the surname

 * Ben Fawley, confessed murderer of Taylor Behl, 2006
 * Willis Fawley (born 1929), English rugby league footballer of the 1960s and 1970s

Fictional people

 * Jude Fawley, the main character in the novel Jude the Obscure by Thomas Hardy

Other

 * SS Empire Fawley, the original name of SS Clan Mackinlay, built in 1945
 * Fawley Court, a manor house and estate in Fawley, Buckinghamshire, U.K.
 * Fawley branch line, a railway line to Fawley, Hampshire, U.K.
 * Fawley A.F.C., a football club based in Fawley, Hampshire, U.K.
 * Fawley Power Station, between the villages of Fawley and Calshot in Hampshire, U.K.

title: Fawley