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Speleothem

A speleothem is a geological formation by mineral deposits that accumulate over time in natural caves. Speleothems most commonly form in calcareous caves due to carbonate dissolution reactions. They can take a variety of forms, depending on their depositional history and environment. Their chemical composition, gradual growth, and preservation in caves make them useful paleoclimatic proxies.

Chemical and physical characteristics
More than 300 variations of cave mineral deposits have been identified. The vast majority of speleothems are calcareous, composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) minerals (calcite or aragonite). Less commonly, speleothems are made of calcium sulfate (gypsum or mirabilite) or opal. Speleothems of pure calcium carbonate or calcium sulfate are translucent and colorless. The presence of iron oxide or copper provides a reddish brown color. The presence of manganese oxide can create darker colors such as black or dark brown. Speleothems can also be brown due to the presence of mud and silt.

Many factors impact the shape and color of speleothems, including the chemical composition of the rock and water, water seepage rate, water flow direction, cave temperature, cave humidity, air currents, aboveground climate, and aboveground plant cover. Weaker flows and short travel distances form narrower stalagmites, while heavier flow and a greater fall distance tend to form broader ones.

Formation processes
Most cave chemistry involves calcium carbonate (CaCO3) containing rocks such as limestone or dolomite, composed of calcite or aragonite minerals. Carbonate minerals are more soluble in the presence of higher carbon dioxide (CO2) and lower temperatures. Calcareous speleothems form via carbonate dissolution reactions whereby rainwater reacts with soil CO2 to create weakly acidic water via the reaction:
 * H2O + CO2 → H2CO3

As the acidic water travels through the calcium carbonate bedrock from the surface to the cave ceiling, it dissolves the bedrock via the reaction:
 * CaCO3 + H2CO3 → Ca2+ + 2 HCO3−

When the solution reaches a cave, the lower pCO2 in the cave drives the precipitation of CaCO3 via the reaction:
 * Ca2+ + 2 HCO3− → CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

Over time, the accumulation of these precipitates form dripstones (stalagmites, stalactites), and flowstones, two of the major types of speleothems.

Climate proxies
Speleothem transects can provide paleoclimate records similar to those from ice cores or tree rings. Slow geometrical growth and incorporation of radioactive elements enables speleothems to be accurately and precisely dated over much of the late Quaternary by radiocarbon dating and uranium-thorium dating, as long as the cave is a closed system and the speleothem has not undergone recrystallization. Oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) stable isotopes are used to track variation in rainfall temperature, precipitation, and vegetation changes over the past ~500,000 years. The Mg/Ca proxy has likewise been used as a moisture indicator, although its reliability as a palaeohygrometer can be affected by cave ventilation during dry seasons. Variations in precipitation alter the width of speleothem rings: closed rings indicates little rainfall, wider spacing indicates heavier rainfall, and denser rings indicate higher moisture. Drip rate counting and trace element analysis of the water drops record short-term climate variations, such as El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) climate events. Exceptionally, climate proxy data from the early Permian period have been retrieved from speleothems dated to 289 million years ago sourced from infilled caves exposed by quarrying at the Richards Spur locality in Oklahoma.

Types and categories

Speleothems take various forms, depending on whether the water drips, seeps, condenses, flows, or ponds. Many speleothems are named for their resemblance to man-made or natural objects. Types of speleothems include:
 * Dripstone is calcium carbonate in the form of stalactites or stalagmites
 * Stalactites are pointed pendants hanging from the cave ceiling, from which they grow
 * Soda straws are very thin but long stalactites with an elongated cylindrical shape rather than the usual more conical shape of stalactites
 * Helictites are stalactites that have a central canal with twig-like or spiral projections that appear to defy gravity
 * Include forms known as ribbon helictites, saws, rods, butterflies, hands, curly-fries, and "clumps of worms"
 * Chandeliers are complex clusters of ceiling decorations
 * Ribbon stalactites, or simply "ribbons", are shaped accordingly
 * Stalagmites are the "ground-up" counterparts of stalactites, often blunt mounds
 * Broomstick stalagmites are very tall and spindly
 * Totem pole stalagmites are also tall and shaped like their namesakes
 * Fried egg stalagmites are small, typically wider than they are tall
 * Stalagnate results when stalactites and stalagmites meet or when stalactites reach the floor of the cave
 * Flowstone is sheet like and found on cave floors and walls
 * Draperies or curtains are thin, wavy sheets of calcite hanging downward
 * Bacon is a drapery with variously colored bands within the sheet
 * Rimstone dams, or gours, occur at stream ripples and form barriers that may contain water
 * Stone waterfall formations simulate frozen cascades
 * Cave crystals
 * Dogtooth spar are large calcite crystals often found near seasonal pools
 * Frostwork is needle-like growths of calcite or aragonite
 * Moonmilk is white and cheese-like
 * Anthodites are flower-like clusters of aragonite crystals
 * Cryogenic calcite crystals are loose grains of calcite found on the floors of caves formed by segregation of solutes during freezing of water.
 * Speleogens (technically distinct from speleothems) are formations within caves that are created by the removal of bedrock, rather than as secondary deposits. These include:
 * Pillars
 * Scallops
 * Boneyard
 * Boxwork
 * Others
 * Cave popcorn, also known as "coralloids" or "cave coral", are small, knobby clusters of calcite
 * Cave pearls are the result of water dripping from high above, causing small "seed" crystals to turn over so often that they form into near-perfect spheres of calcium carbonate
 * Snottites are colonies of predominantly sulfur oxidizing bacteria and have the consistency of "snot", or mucus
 * Calcite rafts are thin accumulations of calcite that appear on the surface of cave pools
 * Hells Bells, a particular speleothem found in the El Zapote cenote of Yucatan in the form of submerged, bell-like shapes
 * Lava tubes contain speleothems composed of sulfates, mirabilite or opal. When the lava cools, precipitation occurs.

Calthemites
The usual definition of speleothem excludes secondary mineral deposits derived from concrete, lime, mortar, or other calcareous material (e.g. limestone and dolomite) outside the cave environment or in artificial caves (e.g. mines, tunnels), which can have similar shapes and forms as speleothems. Such secondary deposits in man-made structures are termed calthemites. Calthemites are often associated with concrete degradation, or due to leaching of lime, mortar, or other calcareous material.

title: Speleothem


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Donghae, Gangwon

Donghae is a city in Gangwon Province, South Korea. There are two major ports: Donghae Harbor and Mukho Harbor. The city is located on the Yeongdong Line railroad and the Donghae Expressway. Numerous caverns are found in the city, as in neighboring Samcheok. Hanzhong University was located here.

Location
Donghae is located in the central region of the east coast of Korea in Gangwon-do. Jeongseon county to the west and Gangneung city to the north. It contains the southern terminus of the Donghae Expressway, and the No. 7 national way passes through the city.

The city is mostly mountainous and has natural resources such as Mureung Valley and beautiful beaches. Here, the high Taebaek Mountains lie along the eastern coast, preventing rivers from meeting the coast. However, in the rainy season, spontaneous water flow is possible.

Symbols

 * Tree: Ginkgo tree
 * Flower: Red Prumusumume
 * Bird: Seagull

Free industry zone
Donghae area and its neighborhood are a free industry zone. From this, Gangwon province and Donghae city has overtaken team for investment.

Cruise ferry
A cruise ferry line connecting Russia, South Korea and Japan opened in the summer of 2008. DBS Ferry currently transits between Donghae, Sakaiminato, Tottori and Vladivostok.

Tourism

 * Mukho harbor
 * Mureung Valley
 * Cheongok caves
 * Mangsang Beach
 * Yakcheon village
 * Samhwa temple

Sister cities
Donghae City has the following sister cities:
 * Gimje, North Jeolla – April 27, 1999
 * Dobong-gu, Seoul – October 7, 1999
 * 🇯🇵 Tsuruga, Fukui, Japan – April 13, 1981
 * 🇷🇺 Nakhodka, Primorsky Krai, Russia – November 10, 1991
 * Tumen, Jilin, China – April 28, 1995
 * 🇺🇸 Federal Way, Washington, United States – April 1, 2000
 * 🇨🇦 Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada – May 30, 2008
 * 🇹🇷 Bolu, Turkey – June 15, 2009

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Donghae, Gangwon


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Jimmy Smits

Jimmy L. Smits (born July 9, 1955) is an American actor. He is best known for playing attorney Victor Sifuentes on the 1980s–1990s legal drama L.A. Law, NYPD Detective Bobby Simone on the 1990s–2000s police drama NYPD Blue, Matt Santos on the political drama The West Wing, and for appearing in Switch (1991), My Family (1995), The Jane Austen Book Club (2007), and In the Heights (2021). He also appeared as Bail Organa in the Star Wars franchise and as ADA Miguel Prado in Dexter. From 2012 to 2014, he joined the main cast of Sons of Anarchy as Nero Padilla. Smits also portrayed Elijah Strait in the NBC drama series Bluff City Law.

Early life and education
Smits was born in Brooklyn, New York. Smits's father, Cornelis Leendert Smits (1929–2015), was from Paramaribo, Suriname, and was of Dutch descent. Smits's mother, Emilina (née Pola; 1930–2015), was Puerto Rican, born in Peñuelas. He and his two sisters, Yvonne and Diana, grew up in a working-class neighborhood. When he was ten years old, he moved to Puerto Rico for a couple of years. Until then he did not speak Spanish. He described attending a Spanish-only school as "jarring" and "traumatic."

Smits was raised in a strict, devout Roman Catholic family. He identifies as Puerto Rican and frequently visits Puerto Rico.

Smits was an athlete in his youth. He graduated from Thomas Jefferson High School and earned a bachelor's degree from Brooklyn College in 1980 and an MFA from Cornell University in 1982.

Career
One of Smits's early roles was playing Sonny Crockett's original partner on the first episode of Miami Vice in 1984. In the first five minutes of the episode he falls victim to a car bomb.

Beginning in 1986, Smits played Victor Sifuentes in the first five seasons of the NBC television Steven Bochco legal drama L.A. Law, for which he was nominated for six Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series, winning in 1990.

Also in 1986, Smits made his feature film debut as drug dealer Julio Gonzalez in the comedy/action cop film Running Scared starring Billy Crystal and Gregory Hines. In 1989, Smits had a leading role in the romantic adventure Old Gringo as Jane Fonda's love interest.

Additionally, Smits played a repairman on Pee-wee's Playhouse, and he starred in the multigenerational story of a Chicano family in the film My Family (1995), alongside Edward James Olmos and Jennifer Lopez.

One of Smits's most acclaimed roles was that of Detective Bobby Simone on the ABC television program NYPD Blue, in which he starred from 1994 to 1998. He received several Emmy nominations for his performance on the series and was reunited with his former co-star Dennis Franz at the 2016 Emmy Awards presentation. He won the ALMA award twice.

Smits was scheduled to host the 2001 Latin Grammy Awards broadcast on September 11, 2001. It was canceled due to continuous news coverage and out of respect for the victims of the terrorist attacks earlier that day. He did host a non-televised press conference to announce the winners.

Smits appeared as Senator Bail Organa of Alderaan in Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002) and Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005), in which the character becomes Princess Leia's adoptive father. He reappeared as Bail Organa in the game Star Wars: The Force Unleashed (2008) and the spinoff movie Rogue One (2016). He later reprised the role for Obi-Wan Kenobi (2022).

Smits played the role of Congressman Matt Santos of Houston, Texas, in the final two seasons of the NBC television drama The West Wing, joining fellow L.A. Law alumnus John Spencer. His character eventually ran for and won the U.S. presidency.

In Dexter season 3, Smits played the role of Miguel Prado, an assistant district attorney who befriends the title character. Smits was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series for the role.

Additionally, Smits portrayed the character Alex Vega in the CBS TV series Cane, which aired from September 25, 2007, to December 18, 2007, and was subsequently canceled by the network due to the 2007 Screen Writer's Guild strike.

Smits joined the Sons of Anarchy cast in season 5 as Nero Padilla, a high-level pimp who refers to himself as a "companionator". He builds a relationship with Gemma Teller Morrow (Katey Sagal) and forms an alliance and mentorship with Gemma's son, the central character Jax Teller (Charlie Hunnam).

Smits starred in The Get Down, a musical drama television series which debuted in 2016 on Netflix.

On February 25, 2019, news outlets reported that Smits was cast as Elijah Strait in NBC drama series Bluff City Law and it was picked up to series on May 6, 2019. Bluff City Law brings Smits back to TV courtrooms on a steady basis for the first time in over a quarter century since his role in L.A. Law.

In 2021, Smits played Kevin Rosario in the musical film In the Heights.

Stage performances
In the mid-1980s, Smits acted in numerous performances at the Hangar Theatre in Ithaca, New York, Cornell's summer repertory program. In 1982 at the Hangar his roles included Max in Cabaret, Paul in Loose Ends, and the lead in Pudd'nhead Wilson. Smits has participated in the Public Theater's New York Shakespeare Festival, playing the role of Duke Orsino in Twelfth Night in 2002 and Benedick in Much Ado about Nothing in 2004. In 2003, Smits starred in the Broadway production of the Pulitzer Prize-winning play, Anna in the Tropics, by Nilo Cruz, performed at the Royale Theatre. From November 2009 to February 2010, he appeared opposite Christine Lahti, Annie Potts, and Ken Stott in the critically lauded Broadway play God of Carnage, replacing Jeff Daniels. In December 2012 through March 2013, he appeared in Chicago in The Motherfucker with the Hat, at Steppenwolf Theatre Company.

Awards and nominations
Smits has received multiple nominations and awards for his work in film and television. He is the recipient of one Golden Globe Award for his role on NYPD Blue as well as one Primetime Emmy Award for L.A. Law. Throughout his career on television, he has garnered eleven Screen Actors Guild Awards nominations, winning once in the Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 1995 for NYPD Blue. He starred on The West Wing from 2004 to 2006 and won an ALMA Award for his role. And in 2012, guest starred on Dexter, for which he was nominated for his twelfth Primetime Emmy Award and winning a Saturn Award for Best Guest Starring Role on Television.

In 1999, Smits received the HOLA Award for Excellence from the Hispanic Organization of Latin Actors (HOLA). He also received the Ackerman Leadership Award for his work "championing bilingual and bicultural mental health and social services for Latino families." On June 4, 2021, he was awarded the 2,696th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

Personal life
Smits was previously married to Barbara Smits. They have two children.

He has been in a relationship with actress Wanda De Jesus since 1986. They live together in Los Angeles. In 1987, Smits pled guilty to disturbing the peace following an altercation with police at his residence where he was charged with battery and resisting arrest.

Smits helped found the National Hispanic Foundation for the Arts to advance the presence of Latinos in the media, telecommunications, and entertainment industries. He is also an advocate for diagnostic colorectal screening and has appeared in a public service commercial. In 2010, he filmed a PSA for Detroit Non-Profit Cass Community Social Services and also served as the Honorary Chair of their 6th Annual "Catch the Fireworks With Cass" event.

title: Jimmy Smits


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Paleo-Eskimo

The Paleo-Eskimo (also pre-Thule or pre-Inuit) were the peoples who inhabited the Arctic region from Chukotka (e.g., Chertov Ovrag) in present-day Russia across North America to Greenland prior to the arrival of the modern Inuit (Eskimo) and related cultures. The first known Paleo-Eskimo cultures developed by 2500 BCE, but were gradually displaced in most of the region, with the last one, the Dorset culture, disappearing around 1500 CE.

Paleo-Eskimo groups included the Pre-Dorset; the Saqqaq culture of Greenland (2500–800 BCE); the Independence I and Independence II cultures of northeastern Canada and Greenland (c. 2400–1800 BCE and c. 800–1 BCE); the Groswater of Labrador, Nunavik, and Newfoundland and the Dorset culture (500 BCE – 1400 CE), which spread across Arctic North America. The Dorset were the last major "Paleo-Eskimo" culture in the Arctic before the migration east from present-day Alaska of the Thule, the ancestors of the modern Inuit.

Terminology
The Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC) has proposed that scientists use Inuit and Paleo-Inuit instead of Eskimo or Paleo-Eskimo. The archaeologist Max Friesen has argued for the ICC's terminology to be adopted, and to capitalize the "P" in Paleo, to adhere to archaeological conventions in naming major traditions. In 2016, Lisa Hodgetts and Arctic editor Patricia Wells wrote: "In the Canadian context, continued use of any term that incorporates 'Eskimo' is potentially harmful to the relationships between archaeologists and the Inuit and Inuvialuit communities who are our hosts and increasingly our research partners"; they suggested using more specific terms when possible (e.g., Dorset and Groswater); they also noted replacement for "Palaeoeskimo" was still an open question and discussed "Paleo-Inuit", "Arctic Small Tool Tradition", and "pre-Inuit", as well as Inuktitut loanwords like "Tuniit" and "Sivullirmiut" as possibilities. One 2020 paper in Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, written by Katelyn Braymer-Hayes and colleagues, notes that there is a "clear need" to replace the term "Paleo-Eskimo", citing the ICC resolution, but note finding a consensus within the Alaskan context is difficult. In particular Native Alaskans do not use the word Inuit to describe themselves, and as such, terms used in Canada like "Paleo Inuit" and "Ancestral Inuit" would not be optimal; they use the term "Early Arctic Pottery tradition" while noting a lack of consensus in the field.

Archaeological cultures
According to Pavel Flegontov:

"Paleo-Eskimo archeological cultures are grouped under the Arctic Small Tool tradition (ASTt), and include the Denbigh, Choris, Norton, and Ipiutak cultures in Alaska, and the Saqqaq, Independence, Pre-Dorset, and Dorset cultures in the Canadian Arctic and Greenland. The ASTt source has been argued to lie in the Syalakh-Bel’kachi-Ymyakhtakh culture sequence of East Siberia, dated to 6,500 – 2,800 calBP."

Use of bow and arrows
The relatively rapid spread of Paleo-Eskimos from Alaska as far as Greenland and Labrador may have been helped by their use of the bow and arrows. They are credited with introducing this technology to populations in Eastern Canada by 2000 BCE.

First ancient human to have genome sequenced
In February 2010, scientists reported they had performed the first genome sequencing of an ancient human. Using fragments of hair 4,000 years old, the National Museum of Denmark, the Beijing Genomics Institute, and additional collaborating scientific institutions sequenced nearly 80% of a Paleo-Eskimo man's genome. The man was found in Greenland and believed to be from the prehistoric Saqqaq culture.

Based on the genome, the scientists believe there was a distinct, separate migration of peoples from Siberia to North America some 5,500 years ago. They noted that this was independent of earlier migrations, whose descendants comprised the historic cultures of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, as well as of the later migration by the Inuit. By 4,500 years ago, descendants of this migration had reached Greenland. The remains used for analysis were found in a Saqqaq culture area.

The scientists reported that the man, dubbed "Inuk" (the Inuktitut word for "person"), had A+ blood type and genes suggesting he was adapted to cold weather, had brown eyes, brownish skin, and dark hair, and would have likely balded later in life. This marked the first sequencing of an ancient human's genome and the first sequencing of an ancient human's mitochondrial genome.

Paleo-Eskimo, Athabaskans, and Eskimo-Aleut
A 2017 study identifies Paleo-Eskimo ancestry in Athabaskan and in other Na-Dene-speaking populations. The authors note that the Paleo-Eskimo peoples lived alongside Na-Dene ancestors for millennia. The authors believe that this represents new evidence of a genetic connection between Siberian and Na-Dene populations mediated by Paleo-Eskimos.

According to these scholars, in general, the Paleo-Eskimos had large proportions of Beringian (which includes Chukotko-Kamchatkan and Eskimo-Aleut), Siberian, and Southeast Asian ancestry.

Furthermore, some geneticists and archaeologists, such as David Reich, have hypothesized that the Paleo-Eskimos spread the Na-Dene languages into the American continent, which would in fact make the Paleo-Eskimos cultural and linguistic relatives (if not ancestors) of Na-Dene peoples.

In 2019, scholars concluded that the Palaeo-Eskimo people were the ancestors not only of modern Na-Dene-speaking peoples, but also of the Eskimo-Aleut speakers. But this contribution did not come directly; rather, there was a 'Neo-Eskimo' intermediary.

According to Flegontov et al., the later Old Bering Sea archaeological culture came as a result of back-and-forth migrations across the Bering Strait by the tribes associated with the Arctic Small Tool tradition, or their descendants (Old Whaling, Choris, Norton culture, from 3,100 to 2,500 cal. yr BP). These peoples were mixing with the Chukotko-Kamchatkan speakers of Siberia. Eventually, the Old Bering Sea archaeological culture became the ancestor of the Yupik and Inuit, the speakers of Eskimo–Aleut languages.

Genetics
A genetic study published in Science in August 2014 examined the remains of a large number of Paleo-Eskimos and Thule people. Paleo-Eskimos were determined to have largely belonged to the maternal haplogroup D, while Thule people largely belonged to the maternal haplogroups A. The evidence suggested that the ancestors of the Paleo-Eskimos migrated from Siberia to North America in a distinct migration c. 4000 BCE, after which they remained genetically largely isolated. By 1300 CE, the Paleo-Eskimos had been completely replaced by the Thule people (the ancestors of the Inuit), who were descended from people of the Birnirk culture of Siberia.

title: Paleo-Eskimo


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Talk:Exegesis

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is currently the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 7 September 2021 and 16 May 2022. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Jayscraw.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 21:01, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

as for Biblical exegesis: my 2 cents
leave exegesis as its own page. It applies to literature other than the Bible, ya know. So why not have a page for the larger category of exegesis as well as Biblical exegesis. Otherwise would we have to make another page for when someone writes about exegesis of ancient Malaysian religious texts? That would just be annoying! Thenavigator1 07:09, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

I agree. Exegesis is becoming a common word in disciplines other than Biblical Studies. The close interpretation of a text, particularly from another language, in the way that Biblical Studies have been doing for years, is also being done by other Language Studies and History. In fact, we should expand the definition here to include exegesis done in these disciplines too. --Historian 20:18, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

I agree with this aswell. It is annoying that absolutely no other definition of exegesis is available other than that which relates to religious texts. What about an artisit's reveiw or critique of their own work - itsn't this an exegesis too?--Mouse marais 06:12, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

exegesus isn't a word, i've redirected the page here, and deleted the old one. 206.155.48.217 15:02, 13 September 2007 (UTC)

Q
Sorry, I'm not English mother tongue. I just would have an idea of the shape used to show what is exegesis to fullfill the French version. I stopped on the "Christianity" paragraph which gave the idea that exegesis was a roman Catholic creation although it forbidden it along  the 19th century (with the modernist crisis)

I'm going to write such an article in the french version. May I translate the Jewish paragraph ? Thanks Mulot

I think "Exegesis" itself should be that l;ittle sentence/stub at the top. If anyone has any non-religious exegesis it could go here. The rest, the bulk of it, should probably be merged out. Student7 13:34, 10 February 2007 (UTC)

Use of the word (link) canonical
I am busy with the disambiguation of the word canon. This article has the following link to the disambig page that I need to resolve: As I am not very familiar with the subject matter, I am not exactly sure of the meaning here. I can see three interpretations: I insert the last of these references as in its description under Religion it includes the other two. Feel free to change it to any of the other 2 should it be more correct.
 * the Biblical Institute of Rome practises exegesis in a more canonical way
 * Exegesis is practised using canon law;
 * Exegesis is practised using the biblical canon;
 * Exegesis is practised in a canonical way as described for the adjective derived from canon;

Minor changes made
Changed verbs to nouns under "requires". An alternative might be:

"Traditional exegesis requires start edit you to do end edit the following: analyse significant words in the text in regards to translation; examine the general historical and cultural context, confirm the limits of the passage, and lastly, examine the context within the text. [1] (Gave New Testament exegesis source).

This didn't seem as well-worded and "professional", though.

STurner 16:07, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

Is this debatable?
This paragraph was maked in the article with an NPOV notice. I'm not sure, so I've removed the note, and copied the text here:

 * Robert A. Traina's book Methodical Bible Study has become influential in the field of Protestant Christian exegesis. Many regarded it as the standard text describing the inductive approach to interpreting the English-language Bible.

BCorr | Брайен 02:58, 15 December 2005 (UTC)

Definition
Moved from the top of the page

Exegesis = Explanation. It's as simple as that.I deleted the complex and silly definition that was written previously. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 84.254.0.13 (talk • contribs) 17 August 2006.

 * The "complex and silly definition" that you removed is commonly known as an etymology. Please don't remove it. The word exegesis is already an English word, so a translation is not necessary. I did try to include a bit about explanation as a sort of synonym for exegesis, though it really isn't. Exegesis is used almost exclusively in textual studies, where it has a very specific, and somewhat complex meaning. Hence the need for a more detailed encyclopedia article, rather than a simple dictionary entry. –RHolton ≡ – 21:02, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

External Link spamming
We seem to be having a problem with spamming about the 'Kingdom Scribes' belief group. Edits have been made, linking to personal websites and personal businesses (bookstore) under the username Emilswift, and IP address 70.41.215.3. If you actually follow the link to the Kingdom Scribes blog, they offer a bio with email address. How does one recommend that specific users get blocked for spamming? Sam 04:15, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

Mikra
The article on Mikra appears to have been lifted from the Jewish Encyclopedia article on Bible Exegesis that is in the public domain. While there is nothing wrong with that per se, it's a bit difficult to keep up with JE conversions/adaptations without some kind of record which is now done externally. Probably done a long time ago. Anyone with a long memory? Yes, it's in the log there somewhere I suppose! :) Student7 03:42, 18 December 2006 (UTC)

Religious
Not all "exegesis" are biblical or religious, there are secular exegesis too. Like the study of how to interpret United States Constitution is often called "constitutional exegesis", should the article include that as well? WooyiTalk, Editor review 00:24, 18 April 2007 (UTC)

Expanded Definition of Exegesis
Exegesis is not confined to interpretation of spiritual texts. To the extent that it implies the interpretation of any authoritative text, it should not be combined with "Biblical Exegesis". Also note that "biblical" would not apply to non Judeo-Christian exegesis in any event.

My4lane 01:38, 26 April 2007 (UTC) Marc

Drasha
The term 'Drasha' redirects here, but is not explained on the page.--212.187.4.108 (talk) 08:34, 29 November 2007 (UTC)

 * ??From where? Drasha is another term for Midrash and should redirect there, I would think. To better understand we would need to know where the link was from. I am puzzled that another apparently knowledgeable editor would cause Drasha to link here. S/he may have simply misplaced the link. Student7 (talk) 13:44, 29 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Whoops! Understand. I've changed it to redirect to Midrash. Thanks for pointing this out. Student7 (talk) 13:49, 29 November 2007 (UTC)

Query refs tag
A question: if references are dictionaries and commentaries, as tertiary refs should they be inline cites? I thought only secondary/primary texts were cited inline. Thanks, Julia Rossi (talk) 01:36, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

 * You've got a really good point. Articles, such as this one, might have been lifted originally from a "tertiary source." So it wound up only having a cite at the top or bottom about its origins. This had to be done for brevity or the conversion never might have happened. The problem arises when people insert more up-to-date research. Now we can no longer tell which was original, but must assume original if not footnoted.

 * To be short, I think all sources need to placed inline. If we can find a secondary or primary to replace it, great. But we need to know where the original update came from. As you are suggesting, we aren't usually supposed to quote tertiary sources, but sometimes it happens.

 * BTW, I usually link brackets-Wiktionary-(colon)-word-brackets inline. Obviously only works for simple definitions which might not help this article that much! Student7 (talk) 12:40, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

 * The present bibliography is just not applicable to this article on exegesis. I'm not sure if anyone cares, but I'll try to find a more relevant home for it before its deleted. Lamorak (talk) 07:19, 7 January 2009 (UTC)

 * The NT/OT citations came from a public domain article, and they are just too old and short to be of any use here. So I will delete and replace it with a newer bibliography.Lamorak (talk) 23:12, 19 January 2009 (UTC)

Split article?
I don't feel that strongly about this either way, but what do people think about giving its own article and making this page an article about other types of exegesis? The page is currently listed on WikiProject Judaism and WikiProject Bible, but if we were to expand the article to include extensive coverage of Buddhist exegesis, Hindu exegesis, Shinto exegesis etc., the current categorization would be problematic, since we can't classify the article under all of these projects.

A good solution would be to split the article. Or, perhaps, we should move the article to over the redirect, and then create a new article on non-biblical exegesis under this title, in order to preserve the edit history?

elvenscout742 (talk) 02:39, 22 February 2013 (UTC)

 * I'm vaguely in favour; then someone might discuss whether there's a difference between exegesis and exegetical theology. -- TimNelson (talk) 21:54, 1 April 2013 (UTC)

 * There is hardly any material in the article on biblical exegesis per se, and no mention here of what section(s) might be split, (and little interest,) so unless or until the article expands to an unwieldy size, there is no need for a split, or for the template. Thanks. —Telpardec TALK  18:35, 25 June 2013 (UTC)

Exegesis / Eisegesis : Asymmetry
A quick skim over the two articles for "Exegesis" and "Eisegesis" would almost lead one to believe that the former applies in many fields of religious and secular consideration, whereas the latter is limited to the Christian faith. Is it just me, or should there be a certain symmetry between the two, and any discussion under "Exegesis" pertaining to a particular faith/perspective should have some parallel in the "Eisegesis" article?

Just a $0.02 opinion. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 152.78.90.0 (talk) 21:29, 17 June 2013 (UTC)

Massive further-reading and external links cleanout
The article's been tagged as needing cleanup of the "further reading" and external links since January of 2010, and looking at the huge long list, it's clear that it's thoroughly out of hand. As it happens, this is the field my degree is in, so unlike most "let me work through the cleanup tags backlog" articles I run across, I'm actually qualified to evaluate these sources!

Unfortunately, looking at them, it appears that they're pretty universally not strong enough to be included here. Some of them are "introductory textbook"-style works, which would certainly be appropriate to convert into citations and use as footnoted references inside the article itself, although that's a massive undertaking. Many of them duplicate each other -- I haven't read all of the books on the Further Reading list, but from the ones I have read and what I can find on the others, they mostly cover the same topics and discuss the same material.

In terms of the "other works", most of them are older texts that have contributed to the field, but there's more interesting and relevant scholarship being done more recently. They might belong in a "history of Biblical exegesis" section that discusses the influence they've had on the field, but I don't think they're necessary in an "other works" section.

The external links, meanwhile, were in need of a very sharp pruning, as they were divided between "here is my favorite scholar's articles on exegesis" and "here is my favorite Bible study website". I cut those down as well, removing dead links and links that I didn't feel added much to the article.

What I took out is reproduced below, unchanged, for the regular editors to go through and rescue the very best references from the list. Please don't revert this edit wholesale: by removing all of them I am asking the regular contributors to this article to go through and evaluate each one very carefully. Given the morass of ever-expanding cruft these lists were gathering, I think the bar to re-include them should be very high indeed, and the aim should be to keep the lists pruned down to the three to seven best items in all of the lists.

Further reading

 * Peter Barenboim, "Biblical Roots of Separation of Powers", Moscow : Letny Sad, 2005, ISBN 5-94381-123-0, http://lccn.loc.gov/2006400578
 * Scholer, David M. (1973). A Basic Bibliographic Guide for New Testament Exegesis. Second ed. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 94 p. ISBN 0-8028-1503-0
 * White, J. Benton. Taking the Bible Seriously: Honest Differences about Biblical Interpretation. First ed. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993. xii, 177 p. ISBN 0-664-25452-7
 * Scholer, David M. (1973). A Basic Bibliographic Guide for New Testament Exegesis. Second ed. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 94 p. ISBN 0-8028-1503-0
 * White, J. Benton. Taking the Bible Seriously: Honest Differences about Biblical Interpretation. First ed. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993. xii, 177 p. ISBN 0-664-25452-7
 * Scholer, David M. (1973). A Basic Bibliographic Guide for New Testament Exegesis. Second ed. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 94 p. ISBN 0-8028-1503-0
 * White, J. Benton. Taking the Bible Seriously: Honest Differences about Biblical Interpretation. First ed. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993. xii, 177 p. ISBN 0-664-25452-7
 * Scholer, David M. (1973). A Basic Bibliographic Guide for New Testament Exegesis. Second ed. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 94 p. ISBN 0-8028-1503-0
 * White, J. Benton. Taking the Bible Seriously: Honest Differences about Biblical Interpretation. First ed. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993. xii, 177 p. ISBN 0-664-25452-7
 * Scholer, David M. (1973). A Basic Bibliographic Guide for New Testament Exegesis. Second ed. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 94 p. ISBN 0-8028-1503-0
 * White, J. Benton. Taking the Bible Seriously: Honest Differences about Biblical Interpretation. First ed. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993. xii, 177 p. ISBN 0-664-25452-7
 * Scholer, David M. (1973). A Basic Bibliographic Guide for New Testament Exegesis. Second ed. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 94 p. ISBN 0-8028-1503-0
 * White, J. Benton. Taking the Bible Seriously: Honest Differences about Biblical Interpretation. First ed. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993. xii, 177 p. ISBN 0-664-25452-7
 * Scholer, David M. (1973). A Basic Bibliographic Guide for New Testament Exegesis. Second ed. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 94 p. ISBN 0-8028-1503-0
 * White, J. Benton. Taking the Bible Seriously: Honest Differences about Biblical Interpretation. First ed. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993. xii, 177 p. ISBN 0-664-25452-7
 * Scholer, David M. (1973). A Basic Bibliographic Guide for New Testament Exegesis. Second ed. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 94 p. ISBN 0-8028-1503-0
 * White, J. Benton. Taking the Bible Seriously: Honest Differences about Biblical Interpretation. First ed. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993. xii, 177 p. ISBN 0-664-25452-7
 * Scholer, David M. (1973). A Basic Bibliographic Guide for New Testament Exegesis. Second ed. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 94 p. ISBN 0-8028-1503-0
 * White, J. Benton. Taking the Bible Seriously: Honest Differences about Biblical Interpretation. First ed. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993. xii, 177 p. ISBN 0-664-25452-7
 * White, J. Benton. Taking the Bible Seriously: Honest Differences about Biblical Interpretation. First ed. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993. xii, 177 p. ISBN 0-664-25452-7
 * White, J. Benton. Taking the Bible Seriously: Honest Differences about Biblical Interpretation. First ed. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993. xii, 177 p. ISBN 0-664-25452-7
 * White, J. Benton. Taking the Bible Seriously: Honest Differences about Biblical Interpretation. First ed. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993. xii, 177 p. ISBN 0-664-25452-7

Other works
 * Bertholet and A. Meyer, article "Bibelwissenschaft" in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (Tübingen, 1909).
 * Diestel, Geschichte des Alten Testaments in der chrislichen Kirche (Jena, 1869)
 * Farrar, The History of Interpretation (London, 1886)
 * Fürst, Bibliotheca Judaica (Leipzig, 1863)
 * Geiger, Urschrift und Uebersetzungen (Breslau, 1857)
 * Ginsburg, Introduction to the Massoretic Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible (London, 1897)
 * Hody, De Bibliorum Textibus (Oxford, 1705)
 * Nestle, Einführung in das griechische Neue Testament (Leipzig, 1897, 1909)
 * Pfleiderer, Das Urchristenum (Berlin, 1886, 1902)
 * Rosenmüller, Historia Interpretationis Librorum Sacrorum in Ecclesia Christiana (Hildsburgshausen, 1795–1814)
 * Swete, An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek (London, 1900)
 * Wolf, Bibliotheca Hebraica (Jena, 1715–33), continued by Köcher as Nova Bibliotheca hebraica (Jena, 1783–84)
 * Zöckler, Handbuch der theologischen Wissenschaften Nördlingen, 1890)

And, the removed external links:

 * Exegesis of the Hebrew Scriptures By Overall Context and Convergence of Verses From Different Places
 * Basic Rules for New Testament Exegesis by Brian Knowles
 * Inerrancy and New Testament Exegesis by R. T. France
 * A type of Biblical Exegesis called arcing
 * VBVBC.org: Website where visitors can give their personal Bible commentary on all Bible verses
 * Biblical Exegesis at Catholic Encyclopedia
 * Zoroastrian exegesis from Encyclopædia Iranica

--rahaeli (talk) 12:34, 5 June 2014 (UTC)

"views" section not currently congruent.
"Views The main Christian exegetical methods are historical-grammatical, revealed, and true." Well and good. But, while the section goes on to cover historical-grammatical and revealed methods, the "true" Christain exegetical method is not described. Additionally a "rational" method is described at the end of the section but not announced in the intro sentence, "The main Christian exegetical methods are historical-grammatical, revealed, and true". 124.171.128.162 (talk) 04:36, 3 October 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Exegesis


text:
Comparison of topologies

In topology and related areas of mathematics, the set of all possible topologies on a given set forms a partially ordered set. This order relation can be used for comparison of the topologies.

Definition
A topology on a set may be defined as the collection of subsets which are considered to be "open". (An alternative definition is that it is the collection of subsets which are considered "closed". These two ways of defining the topology are essentially equivalent because the complement of an open set is closed and vice versa. In the following, it doesn't matter which definition is used.)

For definiteness the reader should think of a topology as the family of open sets of a topological space, since that is the standard meaning of the word "topology".

Let τ1 and τ2 be two topologies on a set X such that τ1 is contained in τ2:
 * $$\tau_1 \subseteq \tau_2$$.

That is, every element of τ1 is also an element of τ2. Then the topology τ1 is said to be a coarser (weaker or smaller) topology than τ2, and τ2 is said to be a finer (stronger or larger) topology than τ1.

If additionally
 * $$\tau_1 \neq \tau_2$$

we say τ1 is strictly coarser than τ2 and τ2 is strictly finer than τ1.

The binary relation ⊆ defines a partial ordering relation on the set of all possible topologies on X.

Examples
The finest topology on X is the discrete topology; this topology makes all subsets open. The coarsest topology on X is the trivial topology; this topology only admits the empty set and the whole space as open sets.

In function spaces and spaces of measures there are often a number of possible topologies. See topologies on the set of operators on a Hilbert space for some intricate relationships.

All possible polar topologies on a dual pair are finer than the weak topology and coarser than the strong topology.

The complex vector space Cn may be equipped with either its usual (Euclidean) topology, or its Zariski topology. In the latter, a subset V of Cn is closed if and only if it consists of all solutions to some system of polynomial equations. Since any such V also is a closed set in the ordinary sense, but not vice versa, the Zariski topology is strictly weaker than the ordinary one.

Properties
Let τ1 and τ2 be two topologies on a set X. Then the following statements are equivalent:
 * τ1 ⊆ τ2
 * the identity map idX : (X, τ2) → (X, τ1) is a continuous map.
 * the identity map idX : (X, τ1) → (X, τ2) is a strongly/relatively open map.

(The identity map idX is surjective and therefore it is strongly open if and only if it is relatively open.)

Two immediate corollaries of the above equivalent statements are
 * A continuous map f : X → Y remains continuous if the topology on Y becomes coarser or the topology on X finer.
 * An open (resp. closed) map f : X → Y remains open (resp. closed) if the topology on Y becomes finer or the topology on X coarser.

One can also compare topologies using neighborhood bases. Let τ1 and τ2 be two topologies on a set X and let Bi(x) be a local base for the topology τi at x ∈ X for i = 1,2. Then τ1 ⊆ τ2 if and only if for all x ∈ X, each open set U1 in B1(x) contains some open set U2 in B2(x). Intuitively, this makes sense: a finer topology should have smaller neighborhoods.

Lattice of topologies
The set of all topologies on a set X together with the partial ordering relation ⊆ forms a complete lattice that is also closed under arbitrary intersections. That is, any collection of topologies on X have a meet (or infimum) and a join (or supremum). The meet of a collection of topologies is the intersection of those topologies. The join, however, is not generally the union of those topologies (the union of two topologies need not be a topology) but rather the topology generated by the union.

Every complete lattice is also a bounded lattice, which is to say that it has a greatest and least element. In the case of topologies, the greatest element is the discrete topology and the least element is the trivial topology.

The lattice of topologies on a set $$X$$ is a complemented lattice; that is, given a topology $$\tau$$ on $$X$$ there exists a topology $$\tau'$$ on $$X$$ such that the intersection $$\tau\cap\tau'$$ is the trivial topology and the topology generated by the union $$\tau\cup\tau'$$ is the discrete topology.

If the set $$X$$ has at least three elements, the lattice of topologies on $$X$$ is not modular, and hence not distributive either.

title: Comparison of topologies


text:
Samcheok

Samcheok is a city in Gangwon-do, South Korea. To the west are the Taebaek Mountains, which form a high flat plain of more than 1,000 meters, and to the east, the coastal plain slopes sharply. It borders Donghae City in the north, Uljin County in Gyeongsangbuk-do in the south, and Taebaek City in the west. It covers an area of 1,185.86 km2 and has a coastline of 58.4 km.The city hall is located in Gyo-dong, and the administrative area includes 2 districts, 6 villages, and 4 dongs. The tree symbolizing the city is the zelkova, the bird is the seagull, and the flower is the azalea. Samcheok has the lowest population density of any autonomous city in Korea.

Ancient age & Three Kingdom

 * It was called "Siljikguk or Siljikgokguk"
 * 102 under the rule of Silla (Pasa 23rd)
 * 468 under the rule of Goguryeo (Jangsu 56th)
 * 505 The name changed to Sil-jick joo (Jijeung 6th)
 * 658 The name changed to Book-jin (Muyeol 5th)

Unified Silla

 * 757 The name changed to Samcheok-gun (Gyeongdeok 16th)

Goryeo Dynasty

 * 995 The name changed to Cheokjoo (Seongjong 14th)
 * 1018 The name changed to Samcheok-hyun (Hyeonjong 9th)

Joseon Dynasty

 * 1393 Samcheok-hyun was raised into Samcheok-bu (Taejo 2nd)
 * 1413 change of the name to Samcheok protectorate (Taejong 13th)
 * 1895 change of the name to Samcheok-gun (Gojong 32nd)

Japanese occupation

 * 1917 Bunae-myeon change of the name to Samcheok-myeon
 * 1938 Samcheok-myeon was raised into Samcheok-eup

Republic of Korea

 * 1973 Jangsung-eup Hwangji branch office was raised to Hwangji-eup (at that time, the most population of the county)
 * 1980. 04. 01. Bukpyeong-eup was Incorporated into Donghae-si
 * 1980. 12. 01. Wondeock-myeon was elevated to Wondeock-eup
 * 1981. 07. 01. The combination of Jangseong-eup and Hwangji-eup was raised into Taebaek-si
 * 1986. 01. 01. Samcheok-eup was raised into Samcheok-si
 * 1986. 03. 27. Wondeok-eup Ojeo branch office was raised into Kagok-myeon
 * 1989. 01. 01. Yonghwa-ri and jangho-ri were incorporated into Gundeok-myeon
 * 1994. 12. 26. 5 districts (Called ri) of Hajang-myeon were incorporated into Taebaek-si
 * 1995. 01. 01. The combination of Samcheok-si and Samcheok-gun was incorporated to Samcheok-si

Education
Samcheok has one university, KNU Samcheok Campus, established March 1, 2006. (formerly Samcheok National University)

Climate
Located on the Taebaek Mountains and the east coast, it has a mild and humid climate characterized by an Oceanic climate, and the vertical temperature distribution due to the influence of the high mountains can be seen in the neighboring mountains, and the temperature difference between the eastern and inland regions is about 30 days. The maritime climate is mild, with seasonal cold and turbulent currents, and fish resources are abundant.

The average temperature over the past 12 years is 12.5 °C, which is somewhat higher than other provinces in the Yeongseo region. The highest temperature was 37.5 °C on July 29, 1992, and the lowest temperature was -13.5 °C on January 26, 1990.

The temperature distribution shows an average of 24.1 °C in August and an average of 0.5 °C in January, indicating cooler summers and milder winters. Precipitation averages 1,284.5 mm per year, with more than 50% of the precipitation falling in July-August, with rainfall concentrated in the summer. The maximum daily precipitation was 819 mm (Nogok) during the heavy rainfall caused by Typhoon Rusa on August 31-September 1, 2002 (2 days). Due to the influence of the northeasterly winds, it snows heavily in winter, sometimes even in March and April. It is the most specialized climate in Korea.

Domestic

 * Seongbuk-gu, Seoul since October 14, 1999
 * Yeonsu-gu, Incheon since October 13, 2000
 * Guri, Gyeonggi-do since March 20, 2001
 * Icheon, Gyeonggi-do since August 17, 2004
 * Seongnam, Gyeonggi-do since June 22, 2007
 * Ulleung County, Gyeongsangbuk-do since June 25, 2009

International

 * 🇯🇵 Akabira, Hokkaidō, Japan since July 18, 1997
 * 🇯🇵 Kanda, Fukuoka, Japan since July, 1997
 * Wangqing County, Jilin, China since September 4, 1997
 * 🇯🇵 Kurobe, Toyama, Japan since November 5, 1998
 * Dongying, Shandong, China since March 24, 1999
 * 🇷🇺 Kungur, Perm Krai, Russia since May 30, 2003
 * 🇦🇺 Mareeba Shire, Queensland, Australia since November 9, 2004
 * Jixi, Heilongjiang, China since May 21, 2008
 * 🇷🇺 Korsakov, Sakhalin Oblast, Russia since August 30, 2010

Notable people

 * Hwang Young-cho - marathon runner (winner of the marathon race at the 1992 Summer Olympics and 1994 Asian Games)
 * Lee Jaehyeong - member of K-pop band The Rose

Transportation

 * Samcheok Station

Tourist Attractions

 * Samcheok Railbike
 * Hwanseong and Daegeum Caves
 * Haesindang Park - Also known as the Penis Park. This park can be reached in 40 minutes by riding the 24, or 24-1 local bus.
 * Samcheok Rose Park
 * Samcheok, Jeungsan, Yonghwa, Maengbang and Jangho Beaches.

Festival
Samcheok Maengbang Canola Flower Festival

The Maengbang Flower Festival boasts a view of canola flowers, cherry blossoms and the blue sea of the East Coast.

The festival also offers a diverse set of events and programs including a local produce market, fresh strawberry picking, and exhibition on canola flowers and bees.

title: Samcheok


text: Talk:Education in Australia

title: Talk:Education in Australia


text:
Volvo P1800

The Volvo P1800 (pronounced eighteen-hundred) is a 2+2, front-engine, rear-drive sports car manufactured and marketed by Volvo Cars between 1961 and 1973. Originally a coupé (1961–1972), it was also offered in a shooting brake configuration toward the end of its production (1972–1973). Styling was by Pelle Petterson under the tutelage of Pietro Frua when Frua's studio was a subsidiary of the Italian carrozzeria Ghia, and the mechanicals were derived from Volvo's Amazon/122 series.

Marketed as a touring car rather than a sports car, the P1800 became widely known when driven by British actor Roger Moore in the television series The Saint, which aired from 1962 to 1969.

In 1998, an 1800S owned by Irv Gordon (1940–2018) was certified as the highest mileage private vehicle driven by the original owner in non-commercial service—having exceeded 3.25 million miles (over 5.23 million km) as of his death in 2018.

History
The project was originally started in 1957 because Volvo wanted a sports car to compete in the US & European markets, despite the fact that their previous attempt, the P1900, had failed to take off with only 68 cars sold. The man behind the project was an engineering consultant to Volvo, Helmer Petterson, who in the 1940s was responsible for the Volvo PV444. Unknown to him, design work was done by his son Pelle, under the tutelage of Italian auto stylist Pietro Frua while Frua's studio as a subsidiary of the prestigious carrozzeria Ghia. Volvo insisted it was an Italian design by Frua and only officially recognized Pelle Petterson's authorship in 2009. Carrozzeria Frua built the first three prototypes between September 1957 and early 1958, later designated by Volvo in September 1958: P958-X1, P958-X2 and P958-X3 (P:Project, 9:September, 58:Year 1958 = P958, X: eXperimental).

In December 1957 Helmer Petterson drove X1, (the first hand-built P1800 prototype) to Osnabrück, West Germany, headquarters of Karmann. Petterson hoped that Karmann would be able to take on the tooling and building of the P1800. Karmann's engineers had already been preparing working drawings from the wooden styling buck at Frua. Petterson and Volvo chief engineer Thor Berthelius met there, tested the car and discussed the construction with Karmann. They were ready to build it and this meant that the first cars could hit the market as early as December 1958. But in February, Karmann's most important customer, Volkswagen, forbade Karmann to take on the job. They feared that the P1800 would compete with the sales of their own cars, and threatened to cancel all their contracts with Karmann if they took on this car. This setback almost caused the project to be abandoned.

Other German firms, NSU, Drautz and Hanomag, were contacted but none was chosen because Volvo did not believe they met Volvo's manufacturing quality-control standards.

It began to appear that Volvo might never produce the P1800. This motivated Helmer Petterson to obtain financial backing from two financial firms with the intention of buying the components directly from Volvo and marketing the car himself. At this point, Volvo had made no mention of the P1800 and the factory would not comment. Then a press release surfaced with a photo of the car, putting Volvo in a position where they had to acknowledge its existence. These events influenced the company to renew its efforts: the car was presented to the public for the first time at the Brussels Motor Show in January 1960 and Volvo turned to Jensen Motors, whose production lines were under-utilised, and they agreed on a contract for 10,000 cars. The Linwood, Scotland, body plant of manufacturer Pressed Steel was in turn sub-contracted by Jensen to create the unibody shells, which were then taken by rail to be assembled at Jensen in West Bromwich, England. In September 1960, the first production P1800 (for the 1961 model year) left Jensen.

P1800
The engine was the B18 (B for the Swedish word for gasoline: Bensin; 18 for 1800 cc displacement) with dual SU carburettors, producing 100 hp (75 kW). This variant (named B18B) had a higher compression ratio than the slightly less powerful twin-carb B18D used in the contemporary Amazon 122S, as well as a different camshaft. Some have suggested that the B18 was developed from the B36 V8 engine used in Volvo trucks, but differences between the engines cause others to dispute that origin. The B18 furnished the P1800 with a strong engine boasting five main crankshaft bearings. The B18 was matched with the new and more robust M40 manual gearbox through 1963. From 1963 to 1972 the M41 gearbox with electrically actuated Laycock de Normanville overdrive was a popular option. Two overdrive types were used, the D-Type through 1969, and the J-type through 1973. The J-type had a slightly shorter ratio of 0.797:1 as opposed to 0.756:1 for the D-type. The overdrive effectively gave the 1800 series a fifth gear, for improved fuel efficiency and decreased drivetrain wear. Cars without overdrive had a numerically lower-ratio differential, which had the effect of giving them a slightly higher top speed (just under 120 mph) than the more popular overdrive models. This was because the non-overdrive cars could reach the engine's redline in top gear, while the overdrive-equipped cars could not, giving them a top speed of roughly 110 mph.

1800S
As time progressed, Jensen had problems with quality control, so the contract was ended early after 6,000 cars had been built. In 1963 production was moved to Volvo's Lundby Plant in Gothenburg and the car's name was changed to 1800S (S standing for Sverige, or in English : Sweden). The engine was improved with an additional 8 hp. In 1966 the four-cylinder engine was updated to 115 bhp. Top speed was 175 km/h. In 1969 the B18 engine was replaced with the 2-litre B20B variant of the B20 giving 118 bhp, though it kept the designation 1800S.

1800E
For 1970 numerous changes came with the fuel-injected 1800E (the 'E' stands for Einspritzung, the German word for fuel injection), which had the B20E engine with Bosch D-Jetronic fuel injection and a revised camshaft, and produced 130 bhp without sacrificing fuel economy. Top speed was around 190 km/h and acceleration from 0–100 km/h (0–62.1 mph) took 9.5 seconds. In addition, the 1970 model was the first 1800 with four-wheel disc brakes; until then the 1800 series had front discs and rear drums. In 1972 a lower compression B20F engine was introduced for specific markets to meet emission standards, mainly for the US. Along with the new "F" head, the ECU, manifold pressure sensor, and head gasket were also changed for all cars with B20F engine.

1800ES
Volvo introduced its final P1800 variant, the 1800ES, in 1972 as a two-door shooting brake layout with a frameless, all-glass tailgate. The final design was chosen after two prototypes had been built by Sergio Coggiola and Pietro Frua. Frua's prototype, Raketen ("the Rocket"), is in the Volvo Museum. Both Italian prototypes were considered too futuristic, and instead in-house designer Jan Wilsgaard's proposal, the Beach Car, was accepted. The ES engine was downgraded to 125 bhp by reducing the compression ratio with a thicker head gasket (engine variant B20F); although maximum power was slightly down the engine was less "peaky" and the car's on-the-road performance was actually improved.

The ES's rear backrest folded down to create a long flat loading area. As an alternative to the usual four-speed plus overdrive manual transmission, a Borg-Warner three-speed automatic was available in the 1800ES. With stricter American safety and emissions standards looming for 1974, Volvo did not see fit to spend the considerable amount that would be necessary to redesign the small-volume 1800 ES. Only 8,077 examples of the ES were built in its two model years.

Influence
The all-glass rear hatch of the ES-model proved to be very popular with future Volvo-designers. Similar designs were used on the Volvo 480, on multiple concept cars and on the Volvo C30.

End of the line
For the last model year, 1973, only the 1800ES wagon was produced. Total production of the 1800 line from 1961 through 1973 was 47,492 units. Production ended on 27 June 1973, although Volvo was in negotiations with Coggiola concerning a possible P1800ESC. The Volvo 262C coupé was an indirect successor.

Volvo never produced a convertible version of the 1800, but such cars were produced in the aftermarket most notably by Volvoville of New York, who offered them through their dealership after locally modifying stock coupes. Between 1964 and 1969 Volvoville sold some 30 convertible P1800. The list price for a 1800S was US$3,695 and the convertible cost US$1,000 more. Volvo in Gothenburg was not amused over the name or the convertible so it ended with a compromise where Volvoville got to keep the name, but stop making convertibles.

In Sweden the P1800ES was nicknamed Fiskbilen (The Fish van); in Germany and Switzerland it was nicknamed Schneewittchensarg (Snow White's coffin), because of the all-glass rear hatch.

Popular notoriety
The Volvo P1800 received prominence in the early 1960s when a white 1962 Volvo P1800 with number plate ST1 was driven by the character Simon Templar (Roger Moore) in the TV series The Saint (1962–1969). The car became intimately linked to the show and helped raise Volvo's profile at the time.

Roger Moore actually purchased a P1800 of his own, in the same white color as the TV car, and so was seen driving the Volvo both on-screen and around the roads of Britain.

Two new cars had been introduced at the Geneva Motor Show in 1961, a Jaguar E-Type and the Volvo P1800. Jaguar was first offered the opportunity to provide an E-Type for the TV series but declined. Volvo accepted and offered a P1800, leading to increased sales. Initially, Volvo lent two cars for the series, one for static studio shots and the other for moving shots. When the P1800S came along, one of the earlier cars was cut up to allow better interior shots.

Major Samantha Carter drove a silver-grey 1963 Volvo P1800 in the TV series Stargate SG-1 (1997–2007), as first seen in S05E03 "Ascension".

50th anniversary

The 50th anniversary of the P1800 took place in France on 13 June 2010 during the Viking Classic Auto Show, celebrating the first presentation of the P1800 to the public at the Brussels Motor Show in 1960. The show featured more than 350 Volvo cars, about 80 Volvo P1800s Europe as well as the original prototype P958-X1 — along with designer Pelle Petterson as well as Irv Gordon. The event was promoted by Volvo Cars Heritage.

Mileage record
A 1966 Volvo P1800S and its owner Irv Gordon (1940–2018) of East Patchogue, New York, have the Guinness world record for highest mileage. Gordon began driving the car in 1966, and in 1987 the car reached the one million mile mark. In 1998, it was registered as the vehicle with the highest certified mileage driven by the original owner in non-commercial service, by the Guinness Book of World Records, with a total of 1.69 million miles.

On 2 April 2002, Gordon and his P1800S were guests on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, after reaching the two million mile mark.

In January 2011, Gordon and his Volvo were featured on PBS's Nova ScienceNow and in November 2011 in Hemmings Sports & Exotic Magazine.

In June 2013, when the car had reached a little over 2,996,000 miles, Volvo Cars North America (VCNA) launched an unprecedented PR campaign valuing the performance and in September 2013 the car surpassed the 3 million mile mark in Alaska.

When Irv Gordon died, on 15 November 2018, the car had driven more than 3.2 million miles.

title: Volvo P1800


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Hugh Town

Hugh Town (Treworenys or Tre Huw) is the largest settlement on the Isles of Scilly and its administrative centre. The town is situated on the island of St Mary's, the largest and most populous island in the archipelago, and is located on a narrow isthmus which joins the peninsula known as the Garrison (historically the Hugh) with the rest of the island.

The population recorded by the 2011 census was 1,097 (up from 1,068 in 2001). Unlike the rest of the Isles of Scilly, the freehold title to land in the town is not held by the Duchy of Cornwall — in 1949 it was sold to the inhabitants. The harbour, however, continues to be owned and run by the Duchy.

Hugh Town becomes particularly busy during the May Day bank holiday weekend (the first weekend in May) when the World Pilot Gig Championships are held. The competing teams base themselves in the several bays of St Mary's Pool (the large natural bay to the north of Hugh Town) and the numerous races finish at the end of the harbour quay.

History
The name Hugh is derived from an Old English word 'hoh' meaning a promontory or elevated ground. The Garrison was originally known as The Hugh or Hugh Hill. The same word is used in Plymouth Hoe and Hoe Point on Gugh. Cemeteries containing native British people were found in 1949 and 1960 on the Porthcress side of the town, when housing was built. The remains are dated from the 1st to 4th century. A Roman altar was found on The Garrison in the 19th century and is now in Tresco Abbey Gardens. The area has not been excavated so there may be an undiscovered shrine or temple. During medieval times Old Town was the main centre of population but from the 17th century onwards, due to its sheltered harbour, Hugh Town began to grow. Star Castle was built in 1593, the quay in 1601 and in the 18th century, as the military defences increased, The Hugh became known as The Garrison. In 1920 two football teams were founded: Woolpack Wanderers and Garrison Gunners.

Amenities and landmarks
Hugh Street is the main shopping area on the islands and business is quite reliant on tourism. There are several pubs, restaurants and hotels, as well as a bank and a post office. In 2021 it was announced that the bank would close in 2022. A notable building is the Star Castle, which overlooks the town from The Garrison and is now a hotel. Similarly, Tregarthen's Hotel is a Hugh Town landmark. It was originally the home of Captain Frank Tregarthen who introduced the first sloop in 1849, 'Ariadne', that serviced the Hugh Town from Penzance. Being on an isthmus, there are two beaches, the northern one (Town Beach) being along the bay which forms the island's main harbour; the southern beach and bay is named Porthcressa. The Council of the Isles of Scilly is based at the Isles of Scilly Town Hall, a grade II listed building located at The Parade, a small park situated at the centre of the isthmus (and originally a parade ground). The Duchy of Cornwall, which owns almost all the freehold land in the Isles of Scilly, as well as being the port authority, has its Isles of Scilly offices at Hugh House, located within the Garrison walls.

The Church of England's St Mary's Church, the islands' Roman Catholic Church and St Mary's Methodist Church are all located on or near Church Street. The Isles of Scilly Museum, previously located on Church Street, is now located at the Town Hall. The town has a public library and a police station. On the eastern outskirts of the town (heading towards Peninnis Head) are the NHS community hospital and local health centre, as well as other important public amenities such as the island's power station, the island's refuse depot and the town's fire station. The island's primary and secondary schools (both part of the Five Islands Academy) are situated to the southeast of the town, at Carn Gwaval, on the road to Old Town.

The island's airport is located approximately 1 mi to the east of the centre of Hugh Town.

The Isles of Scilly Museum was housed in a purpose-built building which was declared unsafe in 2019, and is now partly accommodated in the Town Hall. There is a plan to convert the Town Hall building to form the Isles of Scilly Cultural Centre and Museum, to open in 2025/26.

Climate
The Islands boast amongst the mildest and warmest climate in the UK. Often referred to as the sunshine isles, they benefit from more hours of sunshine than other regions - averaging 7.6 hours a day in July. As with most of the British Isles, Hugh Town experiences a maritime climate (Cfb) with mild summers and cool winters, however temperatures rarely dip below freezing.

Harbour
The principal harbour of the Isles of Scilly (known as St Mary's Harbour) is located on the northern edge of the town, naturally formed by the bay at Town Beach (itself part of a larger bay named St Mary's Pool) and improved by the construction of a quay on its western side, which acts also as a breakwater. The quay is the terminal of the ferry to Penzance, currently the Scillonian III, and the cargo vessel Gry Maritha; both vessels have St Mary's as their port of registry. The Duchy of Cornwall is the owner and the harbour authority (the St Mary's Harbour and Pilotage Authority).

The original quay was built in 1593 and an extension (or offshoot) began in 1836 to Rat Island under a contract of £4,000 to William Martin of Penzance. Martin resigned in November 1837 and Augustus Smith organised the completion. The enlargement of the harbour produced an increase in harbour dues as larger and deeper-draughted boats were now able to dock for loading, unloading, repairs or victualling. In 1889, Smith's successor Thomas Smith-Dorrien-Smith extended the pier a further 250 feet eastwards, at his own expense, so that the West Cornwall Steam Ship Company ships could dock. Despite Parliamentary opposition, a Pier and Harbour Provisional Order Bill passed in June 1890 gave him revenue from the harbour dues.

The quay was extended by a further 23 metres (25 yards) in 2015, with new passenger and freight facilities being constructed too. The extension to the quay allows for vessels of a greater draft (up to 3.9 metres; 12'9"). A small amount of land reclamation took place by Rat Island too, enlarging the space around the buildings there.

Improvements to the quay, including a boardwalk to improve pedestrian access to the quay, were announced in 2021 as part of the levelling up funding granted to the islands.

Lifeboat station
On the eastern end of Town Beach (on the rocky outcrop known as Carn Thomas) is the St Mary's Lifeboat Station, first operated in 1837 and run by the RNLI.

title: Hugh Town


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Eton, Berkshire

Eton is a town in Berkshire, England, on the opposite bank of the River Thames to Windsor, connected to it by Windsor Bridge. The civil parish, which also includes the village of Eton Wick two miles west of the town, had a population of 4,692 at the 2011 Census. Within the boundaries of the historic county of Buckinghamshire, in 1974 it came under the administration of Berkshire following the Local Government Act 1972; since 1998 it has been part of the unitary authority of Windsor and Maidenhead. The town is best known as the location of Eton College.

Eton is on the Thames Path as you walk or cycle from Maidenhead to Windsor.

Eton is also home to Swan Lifeline, the oldest registered swan rescue and treatment charity devoted entirely to the care of sick and injured swans in the Thames Valley and surrounding areas, on the Cuckoo Weir Island, patronised by George Michael and Michael Parkinson.

History
The name derives from Old English Ēa-tūn, meaning "River-Town", a reference to Eton's proximity to the River Thames. The land that is now Eton once belonged to the manor of Queen Edith, wife of Edward the Confessor. The land was appropriated by the Normans after 1066; and by 1086, the lord was Walter son of Other. The main road between Windsor and London went through the area and a hamlet sprang up amid pasture meadows to maintain the road and the bridge. In 1440, Henry VI chose Eton as the location for his new college, Eton College. Workmen were moved into Eton to build the college. All of the land immediately around the hamlet was granted to the college, which stopped further growth. The new college chapel made the village a pilgrimage point, and inns were set up along the High Street. Henry VI gave the college the right to hold fairs on its grounds.

During the English Civil War, after Windsor Castle was captured by Parliamentarian forces, the Royalist army moved into Eton and attempted to retake the town, occupying the college. Efforts to retake Windsor were unsuccessful and the royalists eventually fled. In 1812, Porny's charity school was founded by the estate of the late Antoine Pyron du Martré, otherwise Mark Anthony Porny, French master at Eton College. Later named Eton Porny, it became the school for local children at 29 High Street. In 1863, moving to the school's current site at 14 High Street Eton. The population was 3,526 by 1841. The college sometimes leased small plots of land to the village as an act of charity, leading to the construction of houses near the bridge. Scholars at the college also used to collect "salt" (money) from the inns of Eton High Street.

This practice continued until 1845 when a scholar refused to associate with the inns because they were a "temptation" to Eton students. Eton was favourably modernised and was the first village in the UK to have its own post office and modern drainage system. By 1925 the town was described as more commercial than residential, with most of the buildings (apart from those of the school itself) belonging to businesses serving the schoolboys. In April 1970, Windsor Bridge, connecting Eton to Windsor, was closed to all motorised traffic. All traffic must now travel via Royal Windsor Way (formerly the Windsor and Eton relief road), a bypass opened in 1966.

Notable people
In birth order:
 * William Oughtred (1574–1660), mathematician and cleric
 * Edmund Bristow (1787–1876), artist, was born in Eton and lived his whole life in the Windsor area
 * Charles Duke Yonge (1812–1891), an English historian, classicist and cricketer
 * George E. Davis (1850–1906), founding father of chemical engineering

Governance
There are two tiers of local government covering Eton, at parish (town) and unitary authority level: Eton Town Council and Windsor and Maidenhead Borough Council.

At the parish level, the town is represented by seven councillors in the Eton Town Council, a body which also includes seven councillors representing Eton Wick. At the district level, the town is part of the Eton and Castle electoral ward of the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead.

Nationally, since 1997 the ward has formed part of the UK Parliamentary constituency of Windsor and is currently represented by Adam Afriyie of the Conservative Party.

Between 1983 and 1997, the town was part of the UK Parliamentary constituency of Windsor and Maidenhead, which was held by the Conservative Party throughout that period. Before 1983, the town was within the boundaries of the UK Parliamentary constituency of Eton and Slough. This was held by the Labour Party from its creation in 1945 to its redistribution in 1983, except between 1964 and 1966 when it was held by a Conservative.

Administrative history
Eton was governed by a local board from 1849 to 1894, and by an urban district council from 1894 to 1974. Eton Urban District Council was abolished under the Local Government Act 1972, with the area being transferred from Buckinghamshire to Berkshire on 1 April 1974 to become part of the new district of Windsor and Maidenhead. A successor parish was created to cover the former Eton Urban District, which had covered both the town itself and Eton Wick. The parish council adopted the name Eton Town Council. It is based at 102 High Street.

Bus
Eton is served by two bus companies. Thames Valley Buses operates Monday to Saturday buses on the Slough – Eton – Eton Wick - Taplow - Maidenhead route (bus 15). Redline Buses operates the Slough – Eton – Eton Wick – Dorney – Maidenhead route on Tuesdays and Fridays (bus 63/68).

Rail
Windsor has two terminal stations. 80 m southeast of Windsor Bridge, the town's historic pedestrian and cycle bridge, is Windsor & Eton Riverside, with South Western Railway trains to London Waterloo. Windsor & Eton Central is 200 m to the south-west, but uphill, with Great Western Railway services to Slough for connecting services to stations such as London Paddington.

Nearest towns

 * Windsor 0.5 mile (via Windsor Bridge)
 * Slough 2 mile
 * Staines-upon-Thames 7 mile
 * Maidenhead 7 mile
 * Reading 21 mile
 * London 21 mile

title: Eton, Berkshire


text:
Volcanism of Java

The Indonesian island of Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin, and contains numerous volcanoes, 45 of which are considered active volcanoes. As is the case for many other Indonesian islands, volcanoes have played a vital role in the geological and human history of Java. Indeed, land is created on Java as a result of lava flows, ash deposits, and mud flows (lahars). Volcanoes are a major contributor to the immense fertility of Java, as natural erosion transports volcanic material as alluvium to the island's plains, forming thick layers of fertile sediment. The benefit is not just in the immediate vicinity of the volcano, with fine ash emitted from eruptions being dispersed over wide areas.

Climbing volcanoes (and other mountains) is increasingly popular.

List of volcanoes

This list is of volcanoes from the west of Java to the east. Local terminology and usage has the word Gunung (mount or mountain) precede the names.

West Java

 * Mount Cereme Stratovolcano
 * Mount Galunggung Stratovolcano
 * Mount Gede Stratovolcano
 * Mount Guntur Complex volcano
 * Kamojang Geothermal field
 * Karaha Crater Fumarole field
 * Gunung Karang Stratovolcano
 * Mount Kendang Stratovolcano
 * Mount Kendeng Stratovolcano
 * Mount Kiaraberes-Gagak Stratovolcano
 * Mount Malabar Stratovolcano
 * Mount Pangrango Stratovolcano
 * Mount Papandayan Complex stratovolcano
 * Mount Patuha Stratovolcano
 * Perbakti Stratovolcano
 * Mount Pulosari Stratovolcano
 * Mount Salak Stratovolcano
 * Mount Talagabodas Stratovolcano
 * Mount Tampomas Stratovolcano
 * Tangkuban Parahu Stratovolcano
 * Wayang-Windu Twin volcanoes

Central Java

 * Mount Slamet Stratovolcano
 * Dieng Volcanic Complex Complex volcano
 * Mount Sundoro Stratovolcano
 * Mount Sumbing Stratovolcano
 * Mount Ungaran Stratovolcano
 * Mount Telomoyo Stratovolcano
 * Mount Merbabu Stratovolcano
 * Mount Merapi Stratovolcano
 * Mount Muria Stratovolcano
 * Mount Lawu Stratovolcano (bordering with East Java)

East Java

 * Mount Lawu Stratovolcano (bordering with Central Java)
 * Mount Wilis Stratovolcano
 * Kelut Stratovolcano
 * Kawi-Butak Stratovolcanoes
 * Arjuno-Welirang Stratovolcano
 * Penanggungan Stratovolcano
 * Malang Plain Maars
 * Semeru Stratovolcano
 * Mount Bromo
 * Lamongan Stratovolcano
 * Mount Lurus
 * Iyang-Argapura Complex volcano
 * Raung Stratovolcano
 * Ijen Stratovolcanoes
 * Baluran Stratovolcano

title: Volcanism of Java


text:
Taebaek

Taebaek is a city in Gangwon province, South Korea. Its name is shared with that of the Taebaek Mountains. Situated at an elevation of 650 to 700 m, Taebaek is the second highest city in South Korea, after Yongin.

Etymology
Taebaek in is derived from Taebaeksan Mountain, meaning "very bright."

Attractions
Manggyeongsa Temple in Hyeol-dong, at an elevation of 1,460 meters on the Taebaek Mountains, is a temple built to enshrine the statue of the Bodhisattva of wisdom. It was built by Jajang, a Silla Dynasty monk. The "Dragon Spring" at the entrance of the temple is known as the highest spring in Korea.

Transportation

 * Taebaek station

Sister cities

 * Helong, Jilin, China since August 29, 1995
 * 🇵🇭 Baguio, Philippines since April 25, 2006
 * Suzhou, Jiangsu, China since March 8, 2005
 * Gao'an, Jiangxi, China since June 23, 2004
 * Changchun, Jilin, China since January 18, 2006

title: Taebaek