text:
William Molineux

William Molineux (c. 1713 – October 22, 1774) was a hardware merchant in colonial Boston of Irish descent best known for his role in the Boston Tea Party of 1773 and earlier political protests.

Molineux was unusual among the Boston Radical Whigs in having been born in England and emigrating to Massachusetts. He was also not part of the province's Congregationalist orthodoxy, attending an Anglican church and reportedly dabbling with deist views. Insurance records show that Molineux broke British trade laws in his business by sending ships to the Dutch Republic, so he might have been motivated to join the radical cause by increased customs duties and enforcement in the 1760s. Colleagues like John Adams described him as a volatile man.

Molineux rose to prominence leading committees and crowds in demonstrations against the Townshend Acts, seizures by customs officers, and the stationing of British troops in Boston. He also organized a public works effort to employ the town's poor at spinning and weaving linen. With Doctor Thomas Young he was one of the most radical among the genteel Whig organizers who sought to steer public demonstrations in Boston after 1765. On January 18, 1770, he advocated a march on acting governor Thomas Hutchinson's mansion despite warnings that such an act against the king's representative was tantamount to treason, and reportedly threatened to kill himself if his colleagues did not agree.

Molineux was the only top Whig organizer not in Old South Meeting House on the night of the Tea Party, meaning he was probably at the dock observing the destruction of the tea. In 1774, he set an example by refusing jury duty under royal judges and may have helped to gather field artillery for the province. However, in late October, he suddenly became ill, and on October 22 he died, reportedly saying, "O save my Country, Heaven."

Conflicting rumors circulated. The working-class Whigs who followed Molineux suggested he had been poisoned by British army officers. Friends of the royal government said he had committed suicide after being caught embezzling for the linen project from a New York merchant whose affairs he represented. His estate was in debt to that man, but Molineux may have died of entirely natural causes.

Because Molineux died before the American Revolutionary War began, and because some of his colleagues were uncomfortable with his radical methods, he was largely omitted in histories of America's independence. In fact, his name was preserved most prominently in a short story by Nathaniel Hawthorne titled "My Kinsman, Major Molineux," set in the 1740s, in which the title character is a victim, not a leader, of a Boston crowd. Molineux's home on Beacon Hill, Boston, Massachusetts was torn down to make room for the Massachusetts State House.

He is a featured character in the 2012 video game, Assassin's Creed III.

title: William Molineux


text:
User:Adam Carr/Arborealoids

This amateur video taken in 1981 near Khranus, New Mexico, is believed to be the only authentic image of arborealoids on the move.

The reality of this article is disputed

Various theories allege the existence of arboreal humanoids, arborealoids or megalanthusoids. None has been generally accepted, or indeed taken seriously by anyone at all, and they are often relegated to fringe science or pseudoscience. Belief in these theories is often associated with lunatic conspiracy theories, Completely Whacko beliefs or being dropped on one's head at an early age.

There are various theories on the nature of these arborealoid beings, giving possible explanations as to whether they exist (and if so what evidence supports their existence), what their intentions are (in general), why anyone bothers with This Kind of Nonsense etc.

Ancient references to arboreal beings

Several ancient peoples the world over described arborealoid beings, as indeed they "described" just about every other non-existent phenomenon ever thought of. There are myths about arborealoids devouring otherwise sensible encyclopedias, and also tales of Eucalypts of Wisdom enlightening Humankind (such as the story of Gumnutz).

Modern claims

My 4-year-old nephew claims that many people see arboreal humanoids, and also the Easter Bunny, and that beings of this species are the force behind a worldwide conspiracy directed at the manipulation and control of Humankind. He is not the only one to express such opinions. A randomly chosen nitwit, aka, a psychic, also speaks of malevolent things he sees in his sleep. However, both explain that they do not believe that all trees are malevolent, and that there are benevolent members of this species as well (what a relief). Just as the majority of humans treat trees like large but generally harmless plants, but a minority believes just about anything. Such people should probably be kept on farms and killed for food. It has been said (particularly by me, in this article, but said nonetheless) that Arborealoids may have helped the dolphins learn about cold fusion.

Additionally, it has been stated that the black lodge, the Redhat and possibly the purple Teletubby are trying to cover up this theory in order to allow arborealoids to continue to kill humans as a source of fertilizer. Most humans walking past an arboreal lifeform which does not wish to be recognized will regard it as a harmless tree; however, arborealoids kill thousands of motorists every year, and have never been taken to court.

There's much more where this came from, and it will take over Wikipedia unless ruthless action is taken now.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Adam Carr/Arborealoids


text:
Wishart distribution

In statistics, the Wishart distribution is a generalization of the gamma distribution to multiple dimensions. It is named in honor of John Wishart, who first formulated the distribution in 1928. Other names include Wishart ensemble (in random matrix theory, probability distributions over matrices are usually called "ensembles"), or Wishart–Laguerre ensemble (since its eigenvalue distribution involve Laguerre polynomials), or LOE, LUE, LSE (in analogy with GOE, GUE, GSE).

It is a family of probability distributions defined over symmetric, positive-definite random matrices (i.e. matrix-valued random variables). These distributions are of great importance in the estimation of covariance matrices in multivariate statistics. In Bayesian statistics, the Wishart distribution is the conjugate prior of the inverse covariance-matrix of a multivariate-normal random-vector.

Definition
Suppose $G$ is a $X ~ W_{p}(V, n)$ matrix, each column of which is independently drawn from a $p$-variate normal distribution with zero mean:

 * $$G = (g_i^1,\dots,g_i^n) \sim \mathcal{N}_p(0,V).$$

Then the Wishart distribution is the probability distribution of the $n > p − 1$ random matrix

 * $$S= G G^T = \sum_{i=1}^n g_{i}g_{i}^T$$

known as the scatter matrix. One indicates that $S$ has that probability distribution by writing

 * $$S\sim W_p(V,n).$$

The positive integer $n$ is the number of degrees of freedom. Sometimes this is written $V > 0$. For $p × p$ the matrix $S$ is invertible with probability $X (p × p)$ if $V$ is invertible.

If $Γ_{p}$ then this distribution is a chi-squared distribution with $n$ degrees of freedom.

Occurrence
The Wishart distribution arises as the distribution of the sample covariance matrix for a sample from a multivariate normal distribution. It occurs frequently in likelihood-ratio tests in multivariate statistical analysis. It also arises in the spectral theory of random matrices and in multidimensional Bayesian analysis. It is also encountered in wireless communications, while analyzing the performance of Rayleigh fading MIMO wireless channels.

Probability density function
The Wishart distribution can be characterized by its probability density function as follows:

Let $tr$ be a $(n − p − 1)V$ symmetric matrix of random variables that is positive semi-definite. Let $n ≥ p + 1$ be a (fixed) symmetric positive definite matrix of size $p × n$.

Then, if $p × p$, $W(V, p, n)$ has a Wishart distribution with $n$ degrees of freedom if it has the probability density function

 * $$ f_{\mathbf X} (\mathbf X) = \frac{1}{2^{np/2} \left|{\mathbf V}\right|^{n/2} \Gamma_p\left(\frac {n}{2}\right ) }{\left|\mathbf{X}\right|}^{(n-p-1)/2} e^{-\frac{1}{2}\operatorname{tr}({\mathbf V}^{-1}\mathbf{X})}$$

where $$\left|{\mathbf X}\right|$$ is the determinant of $$\mathbf X$$ and $n ≥ p$ is the multivariate gamma function defined as

 * $$\Gamma_p \left (\frac n 2 \right )= \pi^{p(p-1)/4}\prod_{j=1}^p \Gamma\left( \frac{n}{2} - \frac{j-1}{2} \right ).$$

The density above is not the joint density of all the $$p^2$$ elements of the random matrix $1$ (such $p^2$-dimensional density does not exist because of the symmetry constrains $$X_{ij}=X_{ji}$$), it is rather the joint density of $$p(p+1)/2$$ elements $$X_{ij}$$ for $$i\le j$$ (, page 38). Also, the density formula above applies only to positive definite matrices $$\mathbf x;$$ for other matrices the density is equal to zero.

Spectral density
The joint-eigenvalue density for the eigenvalues $$\lambda_1,\dots, \lambda_p\ge 0$$ of a random matrix $$ \mathbf{X}\sim W_p(\mathbf{I},n)$$ is,

 * $$c_{n,p}e^{-\frac{1}{2}\sum_i\lambda_i}\prod \lambda_i^{(n-p-1)/2}\prod_{i<j}|\lambda_i-\lambda_j|$$

where $$c_{n,p}$$is a constant.

In fact the above definition can be extended to any real $p = V = 1$. If $X$, then the Wishart no longer has a density—instead it represents a singular distribution that takes values in a lower-dimension subspace of the space of $p × p$ matrices.

Use in Bayesian statistics
In Bayesian statistics, in the context of the multivariate normal distribution, the Wishart distribution is the conjugate prior to the precision matrix $V$, where $p × p$ is the covariance matrix.

Choice of parameters
The least informative, proper Wishart prior is obtained by setting $n ≥ p$.

The prior mean of $X$ is $Γ_{p}$, suggesting that a reasonable choice for $X$ would be $n > p − 1$, where $n ≤ p − 1$ is some prior guess for the covariance matrix.

Log-expectation
The following formula plays a role in variational Bayes derivations for Bayes networks involving the Wishart distribution. From equation (2.63),

 * $$\operatorname{E}[\, \ln\left|\mathbf{X}\right|\, ] = \psi_p\left(\frac n 2\right) + p \, \ln(2) + \ln|\mathbf{V}|$$

where $$\psi_p$$ is the multivariate digamma function (the derivative of the log of the multivariate gamma function).

Log-variance
The following variance computation could be of help in Bayesian statistics:

 * $$\operatorname{Var}\left[\, \ln\left|\mathbf{X}\right| \,\right]=\sum_{i=1}^p \psi_1\left(\frac{n+1-i} 2\right)$$

where $$\psi_1$$ is the trigamma function. This comes up when computing the Fisher information of the Wishart random variable.

Entropy
The information entropy of the distribution has the following formula:

 * $$\operatorname{H}\left[\, \mathbf{X} \,\right] = -\ln \left( B(\mathbf{V},n) \right) -\frac{n-p-1}{2} \operatorname{E}\left[\, \ln\left|\mathbf{X}\right|\,\right] + \frac{np}{2}$$

where $p × p$ is the normalizing constant of the distribution:

 * $$B(\mathbf{V},n) = \frac{1}{\left|\mathbf{V}\right|^{n/2} 2^{np/2}\Gamma_p\left(\frac n 2 \right)}.$$

This can be expanded as follows:

\begin{align} \operatorname{H}\left[\, \mathbf{X}\, \right] & = \frac{n}{2} \ln \left|\mathbf{V}\right| +\frac{n p}{2} \ln 2 + \ln \Gamma_p \left(\frac{n}{2} \right) - \frac{n-p-1}{2} \operatorname{E}\left[\, \ln\left|\mathbf{X}\right|\, \right] + \frac{n p}{2} \\[8pt] &= \frac{n}{2} \ln\left|\mathbf{V}\right| + \frac{n p}{2} \ln 2 + \ln\Gamma_p\left(\frac{n}{2} \right) - \frac{n-p-1} 2 \left( \psi_p \left(\frac{n}{2}\right) + p\ln 2 + \ln\left|\mathbf{V}\right|\right) + \frac{n p}{2} \\[8pt] &= \frac{n}{2} \ln\left|\mathbf{V}\right| + \frac{n p}{2} \ln 2 + \ln\Gamma_p\left(\frac n 2\right) - \frac{n-p-1}{2} \psi_p\left(\frac n 2 \right) - \frac{n-p-1} 2 \left(p\ln 2 +\ln\left|\mathbf{V}\right| \right) + \frac{n p}{2} \\[8pt] &= \frac{p+1}{2} \ln\left|\mathbf{V}\right| + \frac1 2 p(p+1) \ln 2 + \ln\Gamma_p\left(\frac n 2\right) - \frac{n-p-1}{2} \psi_p\left(\frac n 2 \right) + \frac{n p}{2} \end{align} $$

Cross-entropy
The cross-entropy of two Wishart distributions $$p_0$$ with parameters $$n_0, V_0$$ and $$p_1$$ with parameters $$n_1, V_1$$ is

 * $$\begin{align}

H(p_0, p_1) &= \operatorname{E}_{p_0}[\, -\log p_1\, ]\\[8pt] &= \operatorname{E}_{p_0} \left[\, -\log \frac{\left|\mathbf{X}\right|^{(n_1 - p_1 - 1)/2} e^{-\operatorname{tr}(\mathbf{V}_1^{-1} \mathbf{X})/2}}{2^{n_1 p_1/2} \left|\mathbf{V}_1\right|^{n_1/2} \Gamma_{p_1}\left(\tfrac{n_1}{2}\right)} \right]\\[8pt] &= \tfrac{n_1 p_1} 2 \log 2 + \tfrac{n_1} 2 \log \left|\mathbf{V}_1\right| + \log \Gamma_{p_1}(\tfrac{n_1} 2) - \tfrac{n_1 - p_1 - 1} 2 \operatorname{E}_{p_0}\left[\, \log\left|\mathbf{X}\right|\, \right] + \tfrac{1}{2}\operatorname{E}_{p_0}\left[\, \operatorname{tr}\left(\,\mathbf{V}_1^{-1}\mathbf{X}\,\right) \, \right] \\[8pt] &= \tfrac{n_1 p_1}{2} \log 2 + \tfrac{n_1} 2 \log \left|\mathbf{V}_1\right| + \log \Gamma_{p_1}(\tfrac{n_1}{2}) - \tfrac{n_1 - p_1 - 1}{2} \left( \psi_{p_0}(\tfrac{n_0} 2) + p_0 \log 2 + \log \left|\mathbf{V}_0\right|\right)+ \tfrac{1}{2} \operatorname{tr}\left(\, \mathbf{V}_1^{-1} n_0 \mathbf{V}_0\, \right) \\[8pt] &=-\tfrac{n_1}{2} \log \left|\, \mathbf{V}_1^{-1} \mathbf{V}_0\, \right| + \tfrac{p_1+1} 2 \log \left|\mathbf{V}_0\right| + \tfrac{n_0} 2 \operatorname{tr}\left(\, \mathbf{V}_1^{-1} \mathbf{V}_0\right)+ \log \Gamma_{p_1}\left(\tfrac{n_1}{2}\right) - \tfrac{n_1 - p_1 - 1}{2} \psi_{p_0}(\tfrac{n_0}{2})  +  \tfrac{n_1(p_1 - p_0)+p_0(p_1+1)}{2} \log 2 \end{align}$$

Note that when $$p_0=p_1$$ and $$n_0=n_1$$we recover the entropy.

KL-divergence
The Kullback–Leibler divergence of $$p_1$$ from $$p_0$$ is

\begin{align} D_{KL}(p_0 \| p_1) & = H(p_0, p_1) - H(p_0) \\[6pt] & =-\frac{n_1} 2 \log |\mathbf{V}_1^{-1} \mathbf{V}_0| + \frac{n_0}{2}(\operatorname{tr}(\mathbf{V}_1^{-1} \mathbf{V}_0) - p)+ \log \frac{\Gamma_p\left(\frac{n_1} 2 \right)}{\Gamma_p\left(\frac{n_0} 2 \right)} + \tfrac{n_0 - n_1 } 2 \psi_p\left(\frac{n_0} 2\right) \end{align} $$

Characteristic function
The characteristic function of the Wishart distribution is

 * $$\Theta \mapsto \operatorname{E}\left[ \, \exp\left( \,i \operatorname{tr}\left(\,\mathbf{X}{\mathbf\Theta}\,\right)\,\right)\, \right] = \left|\, 1 - 2i\, {\mathbf\Theta}\,{\mathbf V}\, \right|^{-n/2} $$

where $Ω = Σ^{−1}$ denotes expectation. (Here $Σ$ is any matrix with the same dimensions as $n = p$, $W_{p}(V, n)$ indicates the identity matrix, and $i$ is a square root of $nV$). Properly interpreting this formula requires a little care, because noninteger complex powers are multivalued; when $n$ is noninteger, the correct branch must be determined via analytic continuation.

Theorem
If a $V$ random matrix $n^{−1}Σ_{0}^{−1}$ has a Wishart distribution with $m$ degrees of freedom and variance matrix $Σ_{0}$ — write $$\mathbf{X}\sim\mathcal{W}_p({\mathbf V},m)$$ — and $B(V, n)$ is a $E[⋅]$ matrix of rank $q$, then

 * $$\mathbf{C}\mathbf{X}{\mathbf C}^T \sim \mathcal{W}_q\left({\mathbf C}{\mathbf V}{\mathbf C}^T,m\right).$$

Corollary 1
If $Θ$ is a nonzero $V$ constant vector, then:

 * $$\sigma_z^{-2} \, {\mathbf z}^T\mathbf{X}{\mathbf z} \sim \chi_m^2.$$

In this case, $$\chi_m^2$$ is the chi-squared distribution and $$\sigma_z^2={\mathbf z}^T{\mathbf V}{\mathbf z}$$ (note that $$\sigma_z^2$$ is a constant; it is positive because $1$ is positive definite).

Corollary 2
Consider the case where $−1$ (that is, the $j$-th element is one and all others zero). Then corollary 1 above shows that

 * $$\sigma_{jj}^{-1} \, w_{jj}\sim \chi^2_m$$

gives the marginal distribution of each of the elements on the matrix's diagonal.

George Seber points out that the Wishart distribution is not called the “multivariate chi-squared distribution” because the marginal distribution of the off-diagonal elements is not chi-squared. Seber prefers to reserve the term multivariate for the case when all univariate marginals belong to the same family.

Estimator of the multivariate normal distribution
The Wishart distribution is the sampling distribution of the maximum-likelihood estimator (MLE) of the covariance matrix of a multivariate normal distribution. A derivation of the MLE uses the spectral theorem.

Bartlett decomposition
The Bartlett decomposition of a matrix $p × p$ from a $p$-variate Wishart distribution with scale matrix $X$ and $n$ degrees of freedom is the factorization:

 * $$\mathbf{X} = {\textbf L}{\textbf A}{\textbf A}^T{\textbf L}^T,$$

where $V$ is the Cholesky factor of $C$, and:

 * $$\mathbf A = \begin{pmatrix}

c_1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0\\ n_{21} & c_2 &0 & \cdots& 0 \\ n_{31} & n_{32} & c_3 & \cdots & 0\\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &\ddots & \vdots \\ n_{p1} & n_{p2} & n_{p3} &\cdots & c_p \end{pmatrix}$$

where $$c_i^2 \sim \chi^2_{n-i+1}$$ and $q × p$ independently. This provides a useful method for obtaining random samples from a Wishart distribution.

Marginal distribution of matrix elements
Let $z$ be a $p × 1$ variance matrix characterized by correlation coefficient $V$ and $z^{T} = (0, ..., 0, 1, 0, ..., 0)$ its lower Cholesky factor:

 * $$\mathbf{V} = \begin{pmatrix}

\sigma_1^2 & \rho \sigma_1 \sigma_2 \\ \rho \sigma_1 \sigma_2 & \sigma_2^2 \end{pmatrix}, \qquad \mathbf{L} = \begin{pmatrix} \sigma_1 & 0 \\ \rho \sigma_2 & \sqrt{1-\rho^2} \sigma_2 \end{pmatrix}$$

Multiplying through the Bartlett decomposition above, we find that a random sample from the $X$ Wishart distribution is

 * $$\mathbf{X} = \begin{pmatrix}

\sigma_1^2 c_1^2 & \sigma_1 \sigma_2 \left (\rho c_1^2 + \sqrt{1-\rho^2} c_1 n_{21} \right ) \\ \sigma_1 \sigma_2 \left (\rho c_1^2 + \sqrt{1-\rho^2} c_1 n_{21} \right ) & \sigma_2^2 \left(\left (1-\rho^2 \right ) c_2^2 + \left (\sqrt{1-\rho^2} n_{21} + \rho c_1 \right )^2 \right) \end{pmatrix}$$

The diagonal elements, most evidently in the first element, follow the $V$ distribution with $n$ degrees of freedom (scaled by $L$) as expected. The off-diagonal element is less familiar but can be identified as a normal variance-mean mixture where the mixing density is a $V$ distribution. The corresponding marginal probability density for the off-diagonal element is therefore the variance-gamma distribution

 * $$f(x_{12}) = \frac{\left | x_{12} \right |^{\frac{n-1}{2}}}{\Gamma\left(\frac{n}{2}\right) \sqrt{2^{n-1} \pi \left (1-\rho^2 \right ) \left (\sigma_1 \sigma_2 \right )^{n+1}}} \cdot K_{\frac{n-1}{2}} \left(\frac{\left |x_{12} \right |}{\sigma_1 \sigma_2 \left (1-\rho^2 \right )}\right) \exp{\left(\frac{\rho x_{12}}{\sigma_1 \sigma_2 (1-\rho^2)}\right)}$$

where $n_{ij} ~ N(0, 1)$ is the modified Bessel function of the second kind. Similar results may be found for higher dimensions. In general, if $$X$$ follows a Wishart distribution with parameters, $$\Sigma, n$$, then for $$ i \neq j $$, the off-diagonal elements
 * $$ X_{ij} \sim \text{VG}(n, \Sigma_{ij}, (\Sigma_{ii} \Sigma_{jj} - \Sigma_{ij}^2)^{1/2}, 0)$$.

It is also possible to write down the moment-generating function even in the noncentral case (essentially the nth power of Craig (1936) equation 10) although the probability density becomes an infinite sum of Bessel functions.

The range of the shape parameter
It can be shown that the Wishart distribution can be defined if and only if the shape parameter $V$ belongs to the set

 * $$\Lambda_p:=\{0,\ldots,p-1\}\cup \left(p-1,\infty\right).$$

This set is named after Gindikin, who introduced it in the 1970s in the context of gamma distributions on homogeneous cones. However, for the new parameters in the discrete spectrum of the Gindikin ensemble, namely,

 * $$\Lambda_p^*:=\{0, \ldots, p-1\},$$

the corresponding Wishart distribution has no Lebesgue density.

Relationships to other distributions

 * The Wishart distribution is related to the inverse-Wishart distribution, denoted by $$W_p^{-1}$$, as follows: If $2 × 2$ and if we do the change of variables $−1 < ρ < 1$, then $$\mathbf{C}\sim W_p^{-1}(\mathbf{V}^{-1},n)$$. This relationship may be derived by noting that the absolute value of the Jacobian determinant of this change of variables is $L$, see for example equation (15.15) in.
 * In Bayesian statistics, the Wishart distribution is a conjugate prior for the precision parameter of the multivariate normal distribution, when the mean parameter is known.
 * A generalization is the multivariate gamma distribution.
 * A different type of generalization is the normal-Wishart distribution, essentially the product of a multivariate normal distribution with a Wishart distribution.

title: Wishart distribution


text:
Talk:Triwizard Tournament

dumbledore
if dumbledore is over 100 years old,he would have been the previous triwizard champ.Batzarro 10:34, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Why would he??? Who knows what happened 100 years ago in the HP world, JKR has certainly never told us. Death Eater Dan 11:40, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

inspiration
The article says the tournament was inspired by the olympic games. Nice idea, but where is the proof of this? Although Hogwarts represents one country (more or less, Ireland seems to be included), it is not clear that the other two schools represent single countries. The article also says the three schools were chosen because they were the most pre-eminent wizarding schools. This sounds more like the oxford-cambridge boat race, an exclusive competition between private schools, or the sort of competition that local schools arrange between each other. Sandpiper 01:05, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

Yeah- where is the "proof" for the idea that it was inspired by the Olympics? The "champion" stuff, and the fact that it's not sports and there are only 3 events seem to point toward it not being modeled after the Olympics... and it is more like Private Schools... Emily ( Funtrivia Freak ) 01:14, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

I agree with both of you. It's never been stated in the books (or by Rowling) that the Tournament is inspired by the Olympics, therefore it is speculation. --Deathphoenix ʕ 01:56, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

Triwizard Tournament
I am NOT a Harry Potter master, but I do know bad wiki formatting when I see it. There are major formatting problems and the text isn't written in an encycopedia format. Please, someone with more knowledge fix.

I apologize, I forgot to sign! --Mystalic 11:11, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

I started fixing it today...this article is very badly formatted/written in an encyclopedic manner. --Iriseyes 22:40, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

Book 7
If the tournement happens every 3 years won't it be happening in the 7th book Shadoom1

Oh wait, its every 5 years. Shadoom1

US or UK spelling?
There have been a few reverts over US vs. UK spelling. I'm fine with either, leaning towards UK after reading the Manual of Style for Spelling. Any other opinions or should we just stick with UK? --Iriseyes 15:13, 11 December 2006 (UTC)

 * In articles regarding British English subject matter, British English is used. Michaelsanders 15:17, 11 December 2006 (UTC)

1994/1995?
The book is not consistent with the date. In the book with Nearly Headless Nick's 500th deathday party, the year is clearly 1992 since he died in 1492. However, another book says that Dudley has a PlayStation 2 (which didn't come out until 2001) and in the movies, Harry and Hermoine clearly wear post-2000 Muggle clothing. SteveSims 20:21, 11 July 2007 (UTC)

Dumbledore could ve been a champion.
If Dumbledore is over a 100 years and the last tournament was held a century ago,it is possible that he would ve either participated in it or at least seen it. 61.95.13.82 17:51, 31 July 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Triwizard Tournament


text:
Hypnic jerk

A hypnic jerk, hypnagogic jerk, sleep start, sleep twitch, myoclonic jerk, or night start is a brief and sudden involuntary contraction of the muscles of the body which occurs when a person is beginning to fall asleep, often causing the person to jump and awaken suddenly for a moment. Hypnic jerks are one form of involuntary muscle twitches called myoclonus.

Physically, hypnic jerks resemble the "jump" experienced by a person when startled, sometimes accompanied by a falling sensation. Hypnic jerks are associated with a rapid heartbeat, quickened breathing, sweat, and sometimes "a peculiar sensory feeling of 'shock' or 'falling into the void'". It can also be accompanied by a vivid dream experience or hallucination. A higher occurrence is reported in people with irregular sleep schedules. When they are particularly frequent and severe, hypnic jerks have been reported as a cause of sleep-onset insomnia.

Hypnic jerks are common physiological phenomena. Around 70% of people experience them at least once in their lives with 10% experiencing them daily. They are benign and do not cause any neurological sequelae.

Causes
According to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM), there is a wide range of potential causes, including anxiety, stimulants like caffeine and nicotine, stress, and strenuous activities in the evening. It also may be facilitated by fatigue or sleep deprivation. However, most hypnic jerks occur essentially at random in healthy people. Nevertheless, these repeated, intensifying twitches can cause anxiety in some individuals and a disruption to their sleep onset.

Sometimes, hypnic jerks are mistaken for another form of movement during sleep. For example, hypnic jerks can be confused with restless leg syndrome, periodic limb movement disorder, hypnagogic foot tremor, rhythmic movement disorder, and hereditary or essential startle syndrome, including the hyperplexia syndrome. But some phenomena can help to distinguish hypnic jerk from these other conditions. For example, the occurrence of hypnic jerk arises only at sleep onset and it happens without any rhythmicity or periodicity of the movements and EMG bursts. Also, other pertinent history allows to differentiate it.

This physiological phenomenon can also be mistaken for myoclonic seizure, but it can also be distinguished by different criteria such as the fact that hypnic jerk occurs at sleep onset only or that the EEG is normal and constant. In addition, unlike seizures, there are no tongue bites, urinary incontinence and postictal confusion in hypnic jerk. This phenomenon can therefore be distinguished from other more serious conditions.

Scientists do not know exactly why this phenomenon occurs and are still trying to understand it. None of the several theories that have attempted to explain it has been fully accepted. One hypothesis posits that the hypnic jerk is a form of reflex, initiated in response to normal bodily events during the lead-up to the first stages of sleep, including a decrease in blood pressure and the relaxation of muscle tissue. Another theory postulates that the body mistakes the sense of relaxation that is felt when falling asleep as a sign that the body is falling. As a consequence, it causes a jerk to wake the sleeper up so they can catch themselves. A researcher at the University of Colorado suggested that a hypnic jerk could be "an archaic reflex to the brain's misinterpretation of muscle relaxation with the onset of sleep as a signal that a sleeping primate is falling out of a tree. The reflex may also have had selective value by having the sleeper readjust or review his or her sleeping position in a nest or on a branch in order to assure that a fall did not occur", but evidence is lacking.

During an epilepsy and intensive care study, the lack of a preceding spike discharge measured on an epilepsy monitoring unit, along with the presence only at sleep onset, helped differentiate hypnic jerks from epileptic myoclonus.

According to a study on sleep disturbances in the Journal of Neural Transmission, a hypnic jerk occurs during the non-rapid eye movement sleep cycle and is an "abrupt muscle action flexing movement, generalized or partial and asymmetric, which may cause arousal, with an illusion of falling". Hypnic jerks are more frequent in childhood with 4 to 7 per hour in the age range from 8 to 12 years old, and they decrease toward 1 or 2 per hour by 65 to 80 years old.

Treatment
There are ways to reduce hypnic jerks, including reducing consumption of stimulants such as nicotine or caffeine, avoiding physical exertion prior to sleep, and consuming sufficient magnesium.

Some medication can also help to reduce or eliminate the hypnic jerks. For example, low-dose clonazepam at bedtime may make the twitches disappear over time.

In addition, some people may develop a fixation on these hypnic jerks leading to increased anxiety, worrying about the disruptive experience. This increased anxiety and fatigue increases the likelihood of experiencing these jerks, resulting in a positive feedback loop.

title: Hypnic jerk


text:
Angelina Grimké

Angelina Emily Grimké Weld (February 20, 1805 – October 26, 1879) was an American abolitionist, political activist, women's rights advocate, and supporter of the women's suffrage movement. At one point she was the best known, or "most notorious," woman in the country. She and her sister Sarah Moore Grimké were considered the only notable examples of white Southern women abolitionists. The sisters lived together as adults, while Angelina was the wife of abolitionist leader Theodore Dwight Weld.

Although raised in Charleston, South Carolina, Angelina and Sarah spent their entire adult lives in the North. Angelina's greatest fame was between 1835, when William Lloyd Garrison published a letter of hers in his anti-slavery newspaper The Liberator, and May 1838, when she gave a speech to abolitionists with a hostile, noisy, stone-throwing crowd outside Pennsylvania Hall. The essays and speeches she produced in that period were incisive arguments to end slavery and to advance women's rights.

Drawing her views from natural rights theory (as set forth in the Declaration of Independence), the United States Constitution, Christian beliefs in the Bible, and her own childhood memories of the cruel slavery and racism in the South, Grimké proclaimed the injustice of denying freedom to any man or woman. When challenged for speaking in public to mixed audiences of men and women in 1837, she and her sister Sarah fiercely defended women's right to make speeches and participate in political discourse.

In May 1838, Angelina married Theodore Dwight Weld, a prominent abolitionist. They lived in New Jersey with her sister Sarah and raised three children, Charles Stuart (1839), Theodore Grimké (1841), and Sarah Grimké Weld (1844). They earned a living by running two schools, the latter located in the Raritan Bay Union utopian community. After the Civil War ended, the Grimké–Weld household moved to Hyde Park, Massachusetts, where they spent their final years. Angelina and Sarah were active in the Massachusetts Woman Suffrage Association.

Family background
Grimké was born in Charleston, South Carolina, to John Faucheraud Grimké and Mary Smith, both from wealthy planter families. Her father was an Anglican lawyer, planter, politician, and judge, a Revolutionary War veteran, and a distinguished member of Charleston society. Her mother Mary was a descendant of South Carolina Governor Thomas Smith. Her parents owned a plantation and were major slaveholders. Angelina was the youngest of 14 children. Her father believed women should be subordinate to men and provided education to only his male children, but the boys shared their studies with their sisters.

Early years and religious activity
Both Mary and John Grimké were strong advocates of the traditional, upper-class, Southern values that permeated their rank of Charleston society. Mary would not permit the girls to socialize outside the prescribed elite social circles, and John remained a slaveholder his entire life.

Nicknamed "Nina", young Angelina Grimké was very close to her older sister Sarah Moore Grimké, who, at the age of 13, persuaded her parents to allow her to be Angelina's godmother. The two sisters maintained a close relationship throughout their lives, and lived together for most of their lives, albeit with several short periods of separation.

Even as a child, Angelina was described in family letters and diaries as the most self-righteous, curious, and self-assured of all her siblings. In her biography The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina, historian Gerda Lerner writes: "It never occurred to [Angelina] that she should abide by the superior judgment of her male relatives or that anyone might consider her inferior, simply for being a girl." More so than her elder sister (and later, fellow abolitionist) Sarah, Angelina seemed to be naturally inquisitive and outspoken, a trait which often offended her traditional family and friends.

When the time came for her confirmation in the Episcopal Church at the age of 13, Angelina refused to recite the creed of faith. An inquisitive and rebellious girl, she concluded that she could not agree with it and would not complete the confirmation ceremony. Angelina converted to the Presbyterian faith in April 1826, aged 21.

Angelina was an active member of the Presbyterian church. A proponent of biblical study and interfaith education, she taught a Sabbath school class and also provided religious services to her family's slaves—a practice her mother originally frowned upon, but later participated in. Grimké became a close friend of the pastor of her church, Rev. William McDowell. McDowell was a Northerner who had previously been the pastor of a Presbyterian church in New Jersey. Grimké and McDowell were both very opposed to the institution of slavery, on the grounds that it was a morally deficient system that violated Christian law and human rights. McDowell advocated patience and prayer over direct action and argued that abolishing slavery "would create even worse evils". This position was unacceptable to the young Angelina.

In 1829, she addressed the issue of slavery at a meeting in her church and said that all members of the congregation should openly condemn the practice. Because she was such an active member of the church community, her audience was respectful when it declined her proposal. By this time the church had come to terms with slavery, finding biblical justification and urging good Christian slaveholders to exercise paternalism and improve the treatment of their slaves. But Angelina lost faith in the values of the Presbyterian church and in 1829 she was officially expelled. With her sister Sarah's support, Angelina adopted the tenets of the Quaker faith. The Quaker community was very small in Charleston, and she quickly set out to reform her friends and family. However, given her self-righteous nature, her condescending comments about others tended to offend more than persuade. After deciding that she could not fight slavery while living in the South among white slaveowners, she followed her older sister Sarah to Philadelphia. She would never see Charleston or her mother again.

Activism
The Grimké sisters joined a Philadelphia chapter of the Quakers. During this period, they remained relatively ignorant of certain political issues and debates; the only periodical they read regularly was The Friend, the weekly paper of the Society of Friends. The Friend provided limited information on current events and discussed them only within the context of the Quaker community. Thus, at the time, Grimké was unaware of (and therefore uninfluenced by) events such as the Webster–Hayne debates and the Maysville Road veto, as well as controversial public figures such as Frances Wright.

For a time in Philadelphia, Angelina lived with her widowed sister, Anna Grimké Frost. The younger woman was struck by the lack of options for widowed women, which during this period were mostly limited to remarriage. Generally, women of the upper classes did not work outside the home. Realizing the importance of education, Angelina decided to become a teacher. She briefly considered attending the Hartford Female Seminary, an institution founded and run by her future adversary Catharine Beecher, but she remained in Philadelphia for the time being.

Over time, she became frustrated by the Quaker community's lack of involvement in the contemporary debate on slavery. In the first two decades after the Revolution, its preachers had traveled in the South to preach manumission of slaves, but increased demand in the domestic market with the development of cotton in the Deep South ended that window of freedom. She began to read more abolitionist literature, including the periodicals The Emancipator and William Lloyd Garrison's The Liberator (in which she would later be published). Sarah and the traditional Quakers disapproved of Angelina's interest in radical abolitionism, but she became steadily more involved in the movement. She began to attend anti-slavery meetings and lectures, and joined the newly organized Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society in 1835.

In the fall of 1835, violence erupted when the controversial abolitionist George Thompson spoke in public. William Lloyd Garrison wrote an article in The Liberator in the hopes of calming the rioting masses. Angelina had been steadily influenced by Garrison's work, and this article inspired her to write him a personal letter on the subject. The letter stated her concerns and opinions on the issues of abolitionism and mob violence, as well as her personal admiration for Garrison and his values. Garrison was so impressed with Grimké's letter, which he called "soul-thrilling," that he published it in the next issue of The Liberator, praising her for her passion, expressive writing style, and noble ideas. The letter, reprinted in the New York Evangelist and elsewhere, gave Angelina great standing among many abolitionists, but its publication offended and stirred controversy within the Orthodox Quaker meeting, which openly condemned such radical activism, especially by a woman. Sarah Grimké asked her sister to withdraw the letter, concerned that such publicity would alienate her from the Quaker community. Though initially embarrassed by the letter's publication, Angelina refused. The letter was later reprinted in the New York Evangelist and other abolitionist papers; it was also included in a pamphlet with Garrison's Appeal to the Citizens of Boston. In 1836, Grimké wrote "An Appeal to the Christian Women of the South", urging Southern women to petition their state legislatures and church officials to end slavery. It was published by the American Anti-Slavery Society. Scholars consider it a high point of Grimké's sociopolitical agenda.

In the fall of 1836, the Grimké sisters were invited to Ohio to attend the American Anti-Slavery Society's two-week training conference for anti-slavery agents; they were the only women in the group. There they met Theodore Dwight Weld, a trainer and one of the Society's leading agents; Angelina and Theodore later married. During the following winter, the sisters were commissioned to speak at women's meetings and organize women's anti-slavery societies in the New York City region and nearby New Jersey. In May, 1837, they joined leading women abolitionists from Boston, New York, and Philadelphia in holding the first Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women, held to expand women's anti-slavery actions to other states.

Immediately after this convention, the sisters went by invitation of the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society to Massachusetts. New England abolitionists were accused of distorting and exaggerating the realities of slavery, and the sisters were asked to speak throughout New England on their firsthand knowledge. Almost from the beginning, their meetings were open to men. Although defenders later claimed that the sisters addressed mixed audiences only because men insisted on coming, primary evidence indicates that their meetings were open to men by deliberate design, not only to carry their message to male as well as female hearers, but as a means of breaking women's fetters and establish "a new order of things." Thus, in addition to petitioning, women were transgressing social mores by speaking in public. In response, a state convention of Massachusetts' Congregational ministers, meeting at the end of June, issued a pastoral letter condemning public work by women and urging local churches to close their doors to the Grimkés' presentations.

As the sisters spoke throughout Massachusetts during the summer of 1837, the controversy over women abolitionists' public and political work fueled a growing controversy over women's rights and duties, both within and outside the anti-slavery movement. Angelina responded to Catharine Beecher's letter with open letters of her own, Letters to Catharine Beecher, printed first in The New England Spectator and The Liberator, and then in book form in 1838. Sarah Grimké wrote Letters on the Province of Woman, addressed to Mary S. Parker, which appeared first in the Liberator before being published in book form. Addressed to the president of the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society, who in the wake of the pastoral letter wanted women abolitionists to withdraw from public work, Sarah's letters were a strong defense of women's right and duty to participate on equal terms with men in all such work.

In February 1838, Angelina addressed a committee of the Massachusetts State Legislature, becoming the first woman in the United States to address a legislative body. She not only spoke against slavery, but defended women's right to petition, both as a moral-religious duty and as a political right. Abolitionist Robert F. Wallcut stated that "Angelina Grimké's serene, commanding eloquence enchained attention, disarmed prejudice and carried her hearers with her."

On May 17, 1838, two days after her marriage, Angelina spoke at a racially integrated abolitionist gathering at the new Pennsylvania Hall in Philadelphia. As she spoke, an unruly mob outside of the hall grew more and more aggressive, shouting threats at Angelina and the other attendees. Rather than stop her speech, Angelina incorporated their interruptions into her speech:"Men, brethren and fathers -- mothers, daughters and sisters, what came ye out for to see? A reed shaken with the wind? Is it curiosity merely, or a deep sympathy with the perishing slave, that has brought this large audience together? [A yell from the mob without the building.] Those voices without ought to awaken and call out our warmest sympathies. Deluded beings! 'they know not what they do.' They know not that they are undermining their own rights and their own happiness, temporal and eternal. Do you ask, 'what has the North to do with slavery?' Hear it -- hear it. Those voices without tell us that the spirit of slavery is here, and has been roused to wrath by our abolition speeches and conventions: for surely liberty would not foam and tear herself with rage, because her friends are multiplied daily, and meetings are held in quick succession to set forth her virtues and extend her peaceful kingdom. This opposition shows that slavery has done its deadliest work in the hearts of our citizens." Rioters outside the building began to throw bricks and stones, breaking the windows of the hall. Angelina continued the speech, and after her conclusion, the abolitionist women left the building arm-in-arm, a white woman with a Black woman, for the latter's protection. Within hours, Pennsylvania Hall was destroyed by arson. Angelina was the final speaker in the Hall.

Angelina's lectures were critical not only of Southern slaveholders but also of Northerners who tacitly complied with the status quo, by purchasing slave-made products and exploiting slaves through the commercial and economic exchanges they made with slave owners in the South. They were met with a considerable amount of opposition, both because Angelina was a female and because she was an abolitionist.

Major writings
Two of Grimké's most notable works were her essay "An Appeal to the Christian Women of the South" and her series of letters to Catharine Beecher.

An Appeal to the Christian Women of the South (1836)
An Appeal to the Christian Women of the South, published by the American Anti-Slavery Society, is unique because it is the only written appeal made by a Southern woman to other Southern women regarding the abolition of slavery, written in the hope that Southern women would not be able to resist an appeal made by one of their own. The style of the essay is very personal in nature and uses simple language and firm assertions to convey her ideas. Angelina's Appeal was widely distributed by the American Anti-Slavery Society, and was received with great acclaim by radical abolitionists. However, it was also received with great criticism by her former Quaker community and was publicly burned in South Carolina.

The Appeal makes seven main arguments:

 * First: that slavery is contrary to the Declaration of Independence;
 * Second: that slavery is contrary to the first charter of human rights bestowed upon man in the Bible;
 * Third: that the argument that slavery was prophesied, gives no excuse to slaveholders for encroaching on another man's natural rights;
 * Fourth: that slavery was never supposed to exist under patriarchal dispensation;
 * Fifth: that slavery never existed under Hebrew Biblical law;
 * Sixth: that slavery in America "reduces man to a thing";
 * Seventh, that slavery is contrary to the teachings of Jesus Christ and his apostles.

In this way, and as a devout believer, Angelina uses the beliefs of the Christian religion to attack the idea of slavery:

"Did not Jesus condemn slavery? Let us examine some of his precepts. "Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them", Let every slaveholder apply these queries to his own heart; Am I willing to be a slave—Am I willing to see my wife the slave of another—Am I willing to see my mother a slave, or my father, my sister or my brother? If not, then in holding others as slaves, I am doing what I would not wish to be done to me or any relative I have; and thus have I broken this golden rule which was given me to walk by."

- "An Appeal to the Christian Women of the South" (1836)

After walking through the seven-step theological argument against slavery, Angelina states the reasons for directing her plea toward Southern women in particular. She acknowledges a foreseeable objection: that even if a Southern woman agrees that slavery is sinful, she has no legislative power to enact change. To this, Grimké responds that a woman has four duties on the issue: to read, to pray, to speak, and to act. While women do not have the political power to enact change on their own, she points out that these women are "the wives and mothers, the sisters and daughters of those who do." Her vision, however, was not so simple as what would later be called "Republican Motherhood." She also exhorts women to speak and act on their moral opposition to slavery and to endure whatever persecution might result as a consequence. She dismisses the notion that women are too weak to withstand such consequences. Thus, she proposes the notion of women as empowered political actors on the slavery issue, without even touching on the question of suffrage.

Angelina also states, in a reply letter to Catharine E. Beecher, what she believes to be the abolitionist's definition of slavery: "Man cannot rightfully hold his fellow man as property. Therefore, we affirm that every slaveholder is a man-stealer; To steal a man is to rob him of himself." She reiterates well-known principles from the Declaration of Independence regarding the equality of man. Grimké argues that "a man is a man, and as a man he has inalienable rights, among which is the right to personal liberty ... No circumstances can ever justify a man in holding his fellow man as property ... The claim to him as property is an annihilation of his rights to himself, which is the foundation upon which all his other rights are built."

The essay also reflects Angelina's lifelong enthusiasm for the universal education of women and slaves. Her Appeal emphasizes the importance of women's educating their slaves or future laborers: "Should [your slaves] remain [in your employ] teach them, and have them taught the common branches of an English education; they have minds and those minds, ought to be improved."

Letters to Catharine Beecher
Angelina's Letters to Catharine Beecher began as a series of essays made in response to Beecher's An Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism with Reference to the Duty of American Females, which was addressed directly to Grimké. The series of responses that followed Beecher's essay were written with the moral support of her future husband, Weld, and were published in both The Emancipator and The Liberator before being reprinted as a whole in book form by Isaac Knapp, the Liberator's printer, in 1838.

Beecher's essay argues against the participation of women in the abolitionist movement on the grounds that women hold a subordinate position to men as "a beneficent and immutable Divine law". It argues, "Men are the proper persons to make appeals to the rulers whom they appoint ... [females] are surely out of their place in attempting to do it themselves." Grimké's responses were a defense of both abolitionist and feminist movements. The arguments made in support of abolitionism reflect many of the points that Weld made in the Lane Seminary debates. Openly critical of the American Colonization Society, Grimké states her personal appreciation for people of color and writes, "[I]t is because I love the colored Americans that I want them to stay in this country; and in order to make it a happy home to them, I am trying to talk down, and write down, and live down this horrible prejudice."

Angelina's Letters are recognized widely as an early feminist argument, although only two of the letters address feminism and woman's suffrage. Letter XII reflects some of the rhetorical style of the Declaration of Independence and is indicative of Grimké's religious values. She argues that all humans are moral beings and should be judged as such, regardless of their sex: "Measure her rights and duties by the unerring standard of moral being ... and then the truth will be self-evident, that whatever it is morally right for a man to do, it is morally right for a woman to do. I recognize no rights but human rights—I know nothing of men's rights and women's rights; for in Christ Jesus, there is neither male nor female. It is my solemn conviction, that, until this principle of equality is recognized and embodied in practice, the Church can do nothing effectual for the permanent reformation of the world."

Grimké directly responds to Beecher's traditionalist argument on the place of women in all spheres of human activity: "I believe it is the woman's right to have a voice in all the laws and regulations by which she is to be governed, whether in Church or State: and that the present arrangements of society, on these points, are a violation of human rights, a rank usurpation of power, a violent seizure and confiscation of what is sacredly and inalienably hers."

American Slavery as It Is
In 1839 she, her husband Theodore Dwight Weld and her sister Sarah published American Slavery as It Is, an encyclopedia of slave mistreatment, which became the second most important work of abolitionist literature after Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), of Harriet Beecher Stowe, who recorded her indebtedness to American Slavery as It Is.

Personal life
In 1831, Grimké was courted by Edward Bettle, the son of Samuel Bettle and Jane Temple Bettle, a family of prominent Orthodox Friends. Diaries show that Bettle intended to marry Grimké, though he never actually proposed. Sarah supported the match. However, in the summer of 1832, a large cholera epidemic broke out in Philadelphia. Grimké agreed to take in Bettle's cousin Elizabeth Walton, who, unbeknownst to anyone at the time, was dying of the disease. Bettle, who regularly visited his cousin, contracted the disease and died from it shortly thereafter. Grimké was heartbroken and directed all of her energy into her activism.

Grimké first met Theodore Weld in October 1836, at an abolitionist training meeting in Ohio that Weld was leading, She was greatly impressed with Weld's speeches and wrote in a letter to a friend that he was "a man raised up by God and wonderfully qualified to plead the cause of the oppressed." In the two years before they married, Weld encouraged Grimké's activism, arranging for many of her lectures and the publication of her writings. They confessed their love for each other in letters in February 1838. Grimké wrote to Weld stating she didn't know why he did not like her. He replied "you are full of pride and anger" and then in letters twice the size of the rest he wrote: "And I have loved you since the first time I met you." On May 14, 1838, two days before her speech at Pennsylvania Hall, they were married in Philadelphia, writing—actually improvising—their vows, with a black minister and a white minister leading the guests in prayer.

Although Weld was said to have been supportive of Angelina's desire to remain politically active after their marriage, she eventually retreated to a life of domesticity due to failing health. Sarah lived with the couple in New Jersey, and the sisters continued to correspond and visit with their friends in the abolitionist and emerging women's rights movements. They operated a school in their home, and later a boarding school at Raritan Bay Union, a utopian community. At the school, they taught the children of other noted abolitionists, including Elizabeth Cady Stanton. In the years after the Civil War, they raised funds to pay for the graduate education of their two mixed-race nephews, the sons of their brother Henry W. Grimké (1801–1852) and an enslaved woman he owned. The sisters paid for Archibald Henry Grimké and Rev. Francis James Grimké to attend Harvard Law School and Princeton Theological Seminary, respectively. Archibald became a lawyer and later an ambassador to Haiti and Francis became a Presbyterian minister. Both became leading civil rights activists. Archibald's daughter, Angelina Weld Grimké, became a poet and author.

Sarah Grimké died in 1873. The following year, Angelina suffered a paralyzing stroke, which afflicted her until her death. Her grave is unmarked, apparently at her own request. In 1880, Weld published an In memory volume, containing the remarks from her funeral and Sarah's, and others that had been contributed.

Archival material
The papers of the Grimké family are in the South Carolina Historical Society, Charleston, South Carolina. The Weld–Grimké papers are at the William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.

Legacy
In 1880, Theodore Weld published a volume titled In Memory: Angelina Grimké Weld.

The first volume of History of Woman Suffrage, published in 1881, is inscribed to the memory of the Grimké sisters, among others.

The Grimké sisters and Theodore Dwight Weld are featured prominently in the juvenile fiction book The Forge and the Forest (1975) by Betty Underwood.

Angelina Grimké is memorialized in Judy Chicago's 1979 artwork The Dinner Party.

In 1998, the Grimké sisters were inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.

The Grimké sisters appear as main characters in Ain Gordon's 2013 play If She Stood, commissioned by the Painted Bride Art Center in Philadelphia.

In 2016 Angelina Grimké was inducted into the National Abolition Hall of Fame.

"The Grimké Sisters at Work on Theodore Dwight Weld’s American Slavery As It Is (1838)" is a poem by Melissa Range, published in the September 30, 2019, issue of The Nation.

In November 2019, a newly reconstructed bridge over the Neponset River in Hyde Park was renamed for the Grimké sisters. It is now known as the Grimké Sisters Bridge.

The Grimké sisters are remembered on the Boston Women's Heritage Trail.

title: Angelina Grimké


text:
Rollen Stewart

Rollen Fredrick Stewart (born February 23, 1944), also known as Rock'n Rollen and Rainbow Man, is a man who was a fixture in American sports culture best known for wearing a rainbow-colored afro-style wig and, later, holding up signs reading "John 3:16" at stadium sporting events around the United States and overseas in the 1970s and 1980s. He was convicted of multiple kidnapping charges following an incident in 1992 and is now serving three life sentences in Mule Creek State Prison.

Early life
Stewart grew up in Spokane, Washington. Both his parents were alcoholics. His father died when Stewart was 7 and his mother died in a house fire when he was 15, the same year his sister was strangled by a boyfriend. He operated an auto parts store until his wife left him and he closed the shop and moved to the mountains. From 1972 until at least 1977, he operated a ranch with a new wife in Cle Elum, Washington.

Publicity
Stewart and his wife, Linda, were dying their hair rainbow colors by 1977 at the latest. A 1977 article in The Everett Herald described the duo as "amateur disco dancers" who traveled to clubs and festivals throughout the Pacific Northwest, including the Portland Rose Festival. Stewart said the couple called themselves "the People Pleasers" and their goal was to make it onto The Gong Show. His first major television appearance was at the 1977 NBA Finals; by the time of the 1979 MLB All-Star Game, broadcasters actively tried to avoid showing him.

After the 1980 Super Bowl, he discovered televangelist Charles R. Taylor and was inspired to become a born again Christian. Shortly thereafter, he began carrying a "John 3:16" sign during his appearances. He "appeared behind NFL goal posts, near Olympic medal stands, and even at the Augusta National Golf Club." At the 1982 Indianapolis 500, he was behind the pits of race winner Gordon Johncock. Stewart would strategically position himself for key shots of plays or athletes. He made no money from this and was homeless for a period. He is believed to have acquired tickets as donations from supportive Christians. Stewart's fame led to a Budweiser beer commercial and a Saturday Night Live parody sketch, in which he was portrayed by Christopher Walken.

Stewart was briefly jailed by Moscow police at the 1980 Summer Olympics. In the late 1980s, he began a string of stink bomb attacks. Targets included Robert Schuller's Crystal Cathedral, the Orange County Register, the Trinity Broadcasting Network, and a Christian bookstore. The stated intent of an attempted attack at the American Music Awards was to show the public that "God thinks this stinks."

Arrest
Stewart was arrested in 1992 after a standoff in a Los Angeles hotel. He had entered a vacant room with two men whom he tried to recruit for a job. The men later fled the scene after he attempted to kidnap a surprised maid who then locked herself in the bathroom. Reportedly, Stewart believed that the Rapture was due to arrive in six days. During the standoff, he threatened to shoot at airplanes taking off from nearby Los Angeles International Airport, and covered the hotel room windows with "John 3:16" placards.

Stewart was charged with eight felonies, including three counts of kidnapping and hostage taking. He rejected a plea deal of 12 years in order to spread his message in open court. He was convicted on all charges and sentenced to three consecutive life sentences. After being sentenced, he began a religious tirade and had to be restrained by bailiffs. Stewart is currently serving three consecutive life sentences in prison on kidnapping charges, He became eligible for parole in 2002, but it was denied. He was also denied parole in 2005, 2008, 2010, 2017, 2019 and 2020. After this conviction, he was found guilty of four stink bomb attacks.

Stewart ran a blog until the time of his parole denial. He is the subject of the 1997 documentary Rainbow Man, directed by Sam Green. In a 2004 interview with ESPN, he admitted that if he had had a chance to do it all over again, he would have taken the plea deal. However, he said that the standoff happened "at the wrong time."

Personal life
Stewart was married four times. In November 1964, he married Suzanne Hoffarth in a Catholic ceremony in a chapel of St. Paul Cathedral in Yakima, Washington. He was next married to Janet Longneeker in Skagit County, Washington in April 1968. Janet was granted a divorce in Pierce County, Washington in October 1971 on the grounds of "burdensome home life." He was married again in a Lutheran ceremony in King County to Linda J. Orff in July 1976 but was divorced by January 1979.

He was most notably married to Margaret Hockridge. The two met at a church in Virginia in 1984. They began traveling across the country together in 1985. While on the road, they married in St. Louis in 1986. During the 1986 World Series, Hockridge said that Stewart tried to choke her for standing in the wrong spot with a "John 3:16" sign. They divorced in 1990, but kept in touch for many years.

title: Rollen Stewart


text:
Talk:Blueshirts

Untitled
Ok. We have two articles on the Blueshirts. Blueshirts and National Guard. I don't know what to do with them.

 * I think it's fixed now; please check for mistakes. - Hephaestos`

National Corporate Party
Someone associated with this article might know more of O'Duffys National Corporate Party which I have created a stub on, and could help expand. Nagelfar 18:27, 10 November 2005 (UTC)

Blatant Popular Front Politics
This article seems to deviate from NPOV, especially considering the seemingly amused exclamation regarding Franco's troops firing on O'Duffy's position and the references to the holocaust, especially in light of the IRA's Plan Kathleen and the uncited references to 'conservative elements.'

Worst article that I've encountered on Wikipedia. Was obviously written by people hostile to Fine Gael. The Blueshirt movement was not Fascist. It's leaders may have been but were kept i9n check by the leaders of the constitutional Fine Gael party. In the end, FG alienated extremists in the Blueshirts and successfully broke away from that body leaving only a handful of supporters with extrmists like O'Duffy. Get your facts straight!

Biased article
This is the most biased article I have ever read. It should be deleted or re-written

Serious POV issue with THIS line: "O'Duffy's adventure by raising a volunteer group to aid the Nationalist movement of Franco in Spain against the Socialist government which was brutally persecuting the Church,"

EXCUSE ME...

when did it become an unchallengeable assertion that the democratically elected Popular Front government WAS in fact persecuting the Church? If you were to say "the Socialist government whose opponents CLAIMED was 'brutally yada yada yada' it would be barely tolerable. Definite rewrite or deletion needed there. -Ken Burch

The introduction is very defensive - not describing the organisation at all, but saying that it wasn't fascist! A quite unique approach for a Wikipedia article. 124.197.15.138 (talk) 05:39, 17 June 2012 (UTC)

Fine gael and the blueshirts are intrinsically linked, they were a fascist org, maybe u should interview the older generations whom knew what they did after the civil war with land commission, they actively singled out those who did not fight in civil war and those on the other side. Democratic? I think not.... — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.47.20.24 (talk) 15:26, 25 June 2012 (UTC)

Fascism
There is still considerable debate in Ireland about whether apart from General O' Duffy, other members of the Army Comrades Association and members were undoubtedly fascist, but there was little in open docterine that can associate the group with anything other than militarism and corportivism. They always maintained that they were a democratic party. I intend to change this article in this way, to even up the debate and reflect some of the acedemic opinions in Ireland at the minute. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 86.41.69.239 (talk) 13:01, 25 January 2007 (UTC).

I don't know much about the factual content of this article. However the second paragraph begins..."Regarded by imbeciles...." This is purely subjective and a matter of opinion. That part should be deleted or at the very least amended.

Article fails to give proper evidence or reasoning to label the Blueshirts as Fascists. Being anti-communist and having christian values does not mean it is the opposite extreme of fascism. The opening section labels the Blueshirts as Fascist but then further into the article this is questioned by giving historians different points of view with no clear consensus to make this claim. I therefore think it is sensible to delete this designation as fascist in the introduction. Teddy455 (talk) 22:39, 8 June 2019 (UTC)

The IRA anti-fascist!!
Whether the Blueshirts were fascists or not will always depend on what definition of fascism is in vogue, therefore it is unlikely that a conclusion will ever be reached. However, one thing is beyond doubt- the IRA cannot be seen as an anti-fascist movement. Firstly The IRA opposed the Blueshirts in the same way they opposed any political party at the time, (i.e. The Communist Party of Ireland) with violence and intimidation. It was about political space that's why the blueshirts were opposed by the IRA in the 1930s. It would be too simplistic to assess the IRA's anti-fascist credentials on this point alone. The IRA's response to the Spanish Civil War is telling, as its leadership banned its members from participating in the 'International fight against fascism', still an anti-fascist organisation? Finally the IRA's collaboration with the Nazi's discredits any notion of the IRA as an anti-fascist organisation. True it opposed 'fascism' in Ireland but once Ireland was rid of fascism the IRA's focus on more imediate issues. The IRA's opposition to fascism died with the blueshirts. Palingenetic 20:27, 24 March 2007 (UTC)Palengenetic

Protestants
"Christian faith" would include Protestants. Did they have many Protestant members? --84.20.17.84 15:22, 14 November 2007 (UTC)

 * It's a quotation, so it doesn't matter. They said it; we repeated it. - Revolving Bugbear  18:35, 14 November 2007 (UTC)

 * I am not questioning the accuracy of the quotation. I'd like to ascertain whether there were Protestants or non-Irish Christian people. --84.20.17.84 15:01, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

Categories
are the Categories correct - were the Blueshirts a "political party"? ClemMcGann (talk) 13:57, 16 November 2008 (UTC)

Re: Image Request
I have a family photo showing a group of Blueshirts outside Healys Pub in Foxford, Mayo. I'd be willing to let it be used for this article but was wondering what license it should be under as I don't know what the story is regarding copyright. Scan of photo here... http://flickr.com/photos/jaqian/2162010688/sizes/o/ Jaqian (talk) 12:16, 18 December 2008 (UTC)

Er......
So who exactly were the Blueshirts? This article simply fails to give a very neat definition of what they stood for or what they wanted. Jamrifis (talk) 19:20, 6 January 2009 (UTC)

Poor article...
Full of POV and irrelavant facts —Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.97.24.91 (talk) 03:34, 9 January 2009 (UTC)

March on Dublin
The protectors of Cumann na nGaedhael and the National Centre Party were also declared illegal, while the Irish Republican Army, who were mobilising against the fascist threat by breaking up their meetings and organising mass resistance, were allowed to remain legal and armed.

This paragraph doesn't read well. It already stated that the Blueshirts were banned, who then are the so called protectors of Cumann na nGaedhael and the National Centre Party? Can this paragraph be deleted?

Also I see a lot of POV complaints, can they not just be removed to clean up the article? Jaqian (talk) 15:01, 28 January 2009 (UTC)

Work needed re why "Blue weren't fascist"
At least four passages in the intro are problematic to me:

"Fascist ideology was not widespread among rank-and-file members..."
 * What is meant by "fascist ideology" here, since the Blueshirts were clearly inspired by and remained on good terms with the Italian and Spanish varieties of fascism?

"The organisation was defensive rather than offensive in outlook..."
 * The meaning of this is unclear, as is its relevance to the question of fascism(?)

"Unlike their European counterparts, members were not known to engage in political terrorism."
 * Surely many fascist parties, including some in Europe, have not been/are not strongly associated with terrorism?

"''R. M. Douglas has written: "[M]ost scholars... accept that those who have sought to find in the Blueshirts an Irish manifestation of fascism have been looking in the wrong place.''" Cheers, Grant  |  Talk  10:32, 20 March 2011 (UTC).
 * Which implies that there is a "right place" to look, but where?

Lede needs improvement
There have been a number of criticisms expressed about the content of the article, including the lede. The current layout/content of the lede is unsuitable (refer to the MoS on lede). I suggest moving most of the present lede to a new section entititled "Criticisms" or something like that, leaving a bare skeleton that can be improved in line with Wikipedia recommendations on layout and content. Hohenloh + 13:39, 17 June 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 5 one external links on Blueshirts. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://www.webcitation.org/5kwQBfkar?url=http%3A%2F%2Fencarta.msn.com%2Ftext_761580392___3%2FFianna_F%25C3%25A1il.html to http://encarta.msn.com/text_761580392___3/Fianna_F%C3%A1il.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080819200755/http://www.generalmichaelcollins.com/Fine_Gael/Eoin_O_Duffy.html to http://www.generalmichaelcollins.com/Fine_Gael/Eoin_O_Duffy.html
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://encarta.msn.com/text_761580392___3/Fianna_F%C3%A1il.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110315053945/http://www.historyireland.com:80/volumes/volume10/issue2/features/?id=271 to http://www.historyireland.com/volumes/volume10/issue2/features/?id=271
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20111205075803/http://historyireland.com:80/volumes/?id=115131 to http://www.historyireland.com/volumes/?id=115131

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 16:36, 4 November 2016 (UTC)

Dateline wrong
Members of the Blueshirts couldn't have fought in the Spanish Civil War as the Blueshirts were dissolved in 1933 and the Spanish Civil War didn't start until 1936. Article amended to say 'former members'. 213.233.155.149 (talk) 15:46, 31 August 2018 (UTC)

The blushirts were a fascist organization
The blueshirt's philoposophy was fascist. Any contention to the contrary is intelectually dishonest and transparently false.

The fact that the author cited sources that claim whether or not the blueshirts are fascist, in Irish discourse much later, is irrelevant.

The sources, often elites and members of the institutions of power, are biased and have publication privileges, thereby skewing discourse and promoting self-serving, untenable conclusions. The party was an authoritarian, far right outfit that donned blue shirts akin to brown and black shirts in Germany and Italy respectively. It endoesed and encouraged street violence and property destruction to eliminate and intimate perceived opposition. It organized and placed emphasis on creating a "youth" corps. Its followers gave heil signs collectively in organized group gatherings to their leader reminiscent of Hitler, among other things.

The author(s) of the present entry are utilizing sources that engage in historical revisionism, both to distance Irish history from the atrocities perpetrated by the Nazis and Fascists, and to legitimize Finn Gael.

1) https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/without-the-blueshirts-there-would-have-been-no-fine-gael-1.4399082

"The uniform with blue shirt was adopted at a meeting three months after the election, in April 1933. Connections were immediately drawn with Hitler’s Brownshirts and Mussolini’s Blackshirts."

"By March 1934 an energetic O’Duffy had spoken at meetings in 23 of the 26 counties; increasingly these became Blueshirt rallies, with the right-arm salute a growing feature."

"Of his contemporaries, Mussolini and Franco offer more useful parallels in terms of personality and politics. Flawed figures, plagued by insecurity and a hunger for adulation, they wrote and rewrote their personas."

"It is hardly surprising then that Fine Gael chooses to play down this element of its history, opting instead to highlight the heroic Michael Collins, whose assassination at the age of 31 sealed his fate as a patriot and an icon. This is a problematic, selective interpretation of the party’s history."

2) https://libcom.org/article/blueshirts-irelands-fascists

"The Blueshirts, Ireland's home grown variant of Fascism developed in Ireland during the 1920's and 30's."

"The Blueshirts had been set up in the spring of 1931 under the name of the Army Comrades Association comprising ex members of the Free State army. Their first leader was Dr. T F O'Higgins. In late 1931 the ACA claimed a membership of 100,000, adopted the uniform of a blue shirt and changed its name to the National Guard.

A new leader, Eoin O'Duffy, was appointed in 1933 after he had been sacked from his post as Police Commissioner. O'Duffy had been prominent in the Free State army during the Civil War and had been responsible for the murder of eight Republicans by tying them together over a landmine in Kerry. The Blueshirts used the handy label of "anti-communism" as a cloak for their fascist activities.

"The run up to the 1932 election was marked by increasing repression of Republican and Socialist groups with the indiscriminate banning of progressive political organisations and the regular imprisonment of their leaders."

"The Blueshirt newspaper commenced publication from August 1933. Blueshirt propaganda was racist - and anti-semitic, as in this extract from their journal:"'The founders of Communism were practically all Jews. This can scarcely be a mere coincidence. It may appear singular that Marx, Engels, Lasalle and Ricardo were all Jews'.""Blueshirt publications also proposed that the leader should be greeted in the Nazi style, suggesting the ludicrous "Hail O'Duffy".

In February 1934 John A Costello, a leading Cumann Na nGael member declared in the Dail:"“The Blackshirts have been victorious in Italy and Hitler's Brownshirts have been victorious in Germany, as assuredly the Blueshirts will be victorious in Ireland'."O'Duffy had contacts with European fascist groups. In December 1934 he attended an International Fascist Conference in Switzerland which included representatives of far-right groups in 13 European states."

3) Here is a 1930's blue shirt emblem with Finn Gael imprinted. Earlier versions, before the group merged with Finn Gael, omitted reference to the party and the pertinent space was left blank

https://www.whytes.ie/art/1930s-fine-gael-badges-two-different-types/130319/?SearchString=&LotNumSearch=&GuidePrice=&ArtistID=&ArrangeBy=list&NumPerPage=15&offset=442

4) Continuing with this theme, W.T. Cosgrove, who served as leader of Finn Gael from 1934-1944, wrote that, "[P]eople reared in workhouses, as you are aware, are no great acquisition to the community and they have no ideas whatsoever of civic responsibilities. As a rule their highest aim is to live at the expense of the ratepayers. Consequently, it would be a decided gain if they all took it into their heads to emigrate."

Biolitblue (talk) 07:16, 25 November 2023 (UTC)

 * Hi Biolitblue, Welcome to Wikipedia
 * Per WP:RELIABILITY, sourcing on Wikipedia must always primarily be from reliable, secondary sources. You've linked to Whytes.ie and an unsourced quote from WT Cosgrove. These would at best be primary sources and per WP:RSPRIMARY, these are highly discouraged from use on Wikipedia.
 * You've stated you feel several of the cited authors/historians are inappropriate for use in the article or are bias, however you've also cited Libcom.org, which gives perspectives from a decidedly Marxist political viewpoint rather than a neutral historical one. Per WP:RS/AC, Wikipedia places great value on Academic consensus, and thus the viewpoint of the cited historians cannot merely be hand-waved away by speculating that they are "elites".
 * If you would like to contribute to this or any other article here on Wikipedia, you may want to consult Help:Referencing for beginners first. For historical topics and article, I'd suggest using Journal sources such as JSTOR for your research. CeltBrowne (talk) 09:10, 25 November 2023 (UTC)
 * The salient point is whether the information is correct. If the source reflects bias because of the source, you have a point. Can you show me where in the actual content of libcom.org where there is actual bias, instead of merely assuming bias based on the source?
 * Additionally, libcom.org, whatever the political slant, might be in a more advantageous position of discerning the truth because they focus on matters such as this one more than MSM. Do they have the facts wrong?
 * Are you insinuating that all published sources from writers who may support some form of socialism are not citable on Wikipedia? Are Marx's own published views not citable own Wikipedia?
 * Your comment that I'm "waving away" other sources is presumptuous and untrue. I'm trying to discern the truth whatever the source, whether it be Libcom.org, or The Economist, or Fox News.
 * The cite to the quote in https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/without-the-blueshirts-there-would-have-been-no-fine-gael-1.4399082 is also cited in the original article, but conveniently you have raised no objection to that fact.
 * The quote from WT Cosgrove was taken from https://www.irishtimes.com/news/other-lives-glimpsed-1.41048 It is also attributed to him in other sources. Biolitblue (talk) 01:44, 29 November 2023 (UTC)
 * It appears that you believe I'm driving an agenda by using the term "elites," which you took special care to quote in your response. The term is part of the accepted lexicon within sociology.
 * https://www.britannica.com/topic/elite-sociology Biolitblue (talk) 02:30, 29 November 2023 (UTC)
 * The issue with Libcom is not that they're socialists, the issue with your Libcom source is that we have no idea who the author of it is (it's attributed only to the username "Fozzie") or if they're reliable source/expert in their field. Per WP:RELIABILITY, Wikipedia articles need to be sourced to reliable, secondary sources. Named historians whose credentials we can verify are suitable sources. Anonymous unverifiable sources are not. As I've already pointed out, your other sources are primary ones. You need to find secondary ones.
 * You added a Political POV maintaince tag and attacked the reliability of the Historians cited in the article, but you don't seem to be familiar with how material is sourced on Wikipedia. I'd suggest reading Help:Referencing for beginners and taking the quiz before even making edits on Wikipedia, much less trying to radically alter this article. CeltBrowne (talk) 10:24, 29 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Blueshirts


text:
National Guard

National guard is the name used by a wide variety of current and historical uniformed organizations in different countries. The original National Guard was formed during the French Revolution around a cadre of defectors from the French Guards.

National Guard may refer to:

Africa

 * National Guard (Mauritania)
 * Tunisian National Guard, a separate military force of Tunisia

Americas

 * National Guard (Brazil) (1831–1918), a paramilitary militia created to support the Brazilian Army
 * National Guard (El Salvador) (1912–1992), the Salvadoran gendarmerie
 * National Guard (Mexico), a gendarmerie created in 2019.
 * National Guard (Nicaragua) (1925–1979), a militia and gendarmerie created during the occupation by the United States
 * National Guard (United States), military reserves organized by each of the 50 U.S. states, territories, D.C. and administered by the National Guard Bureau;
 * Army National Guard, a reserve force of the United States Army which functions as the ground component of the state-level militia while not in federal service
 * Air National Guard, a reserve force of the United States Air Force which functions as the air component of the state-level militia while not in federal service
 * National Guard (of Panama) (1946–1990) (Spanish: Guardia Nacional),were the armed forces of the Republic of Panama. Later re-organized as the Panama Defense Forces.
 * Venezuelan National Guard (Guardia Nacional de Venezuela), the gendarmerie component of the National Armed Forces of Venezuela

Asia

 * National Guard (Bahrain), a separate military force in Bahrain that serves both as defence force and as a security force
 * National Guard (Iraq), part of the new Military of Iraq absorbed by the Iraqi Army
 * National Guard (Israel)
 * National Guard of Kazakhstan
 * National Guard (Kyrgyzstan), one of the regiments of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan
 * National Security Guard, India
 * Kuwait National Guard, an internal and border security force, part of Kuwait Military Forces
 * National Guard (Pakistan), a paramilitary force mainly charged with border patrols and air defences
 * Saudi Arabian National Guard, one of the three major branches of the Armed Forces of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
 * Sri Lanka National Guard, the largest regiment in the Sri Lanka Army
 * Presidential National Guard, a special operations branch of the Tajik Armed Forces
 * Turkmen National Guard
 * Uzbekistan National Guard

Europe

 * Azerbaijani National Guard, an armed force of the Government of Azerbaijan, and operates as a semi-independent entity
 * National Guards Unit of Bulgaria, successor of the Personal Cavalry Convoy of Knyaz Alexander I, re-established in 2001
 * Cypriot National Guard, combined arms military force of the Republic of Cyprus
 * Estonian Defence League, unified paramilitary armed forces of the Republic of Estonia
 * White Guard (Finland) (1918–1944), voluntary militia of the "Whites", who opposed the "Reds" in the Finnish Civil War of 1918
 * National Guard (France), militias formed in each city from the time of the French Revolution to the Paris Commune, re-established after several terrorist attacks in 2016
 * National Guard of Georgia, a military structure within the Georgian Armed Forces
 * National Guard (Greece), a military structure within the Hellenic Army
 * National Guard (Ireland), better known as the Blueshirts, a 1930s political movement in Ireland
 * National Republican Guard (Italy), (1943–1945), a paramilitary force of the Italian Social Republic
 * Latvian National Guard, a volunteer paramilitary armed force, part of National Armed Forces of Latvia
 * National Republican Guard (Portugal), the gendarmerie of Portugal
 * National Guard of Russia, gendarmerie force of Russia, formed in 2016
 * National Militia (Spain), 19th century quasi-military force
 * National Guard of Ukraine, formed 1991–2000 and 2014–current

United Kingdom

 * Fencibles, c. 1759 - c.1802
 * Home Guard (United Kingdom), 1940 - 1944
 * GHQ Auxiliary Units, 1940 - 1944
 * Home Service Force, 1982 - 1993

title: National Guard


text:
Talk:National Guard

Requested move 27 December 2018

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: no consensus to move the page to the proposed title at this time, per the discussion below; as suggested below, perhaps the discussion at Talk:Republican guard should also be revisited. Dekimasu よ! 07:02, 6 January 2019 (UTC)

National Guard → National guard – Per MOS:MILTERMS and consistent with Republican guard. Shhhnotsoloud (talk) 11:30, 27 December 2018 (UTC) --Relisting.  SITH   (talk)   14:48, 3 January 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose because this is a set index and all entries on it include “National Guard” written like that. This is different than an article on the general concept of a national guard.  Calidum   15:55, 27 December 2018 (UTC)
 * Note that this article is identical in structure to Republican guard. Shhhnotsoloud (talk) 06:55, 28 December 2018 (UTC)

 * Oppose, common name. And Republican Guard should be upper-cased as well. Randy Kryn (talk) 00:22, 29 December 2018 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Russia
@, regarding this edit, with the edit summary: "Sorry Russia is part of Asia", you moved the entry for Russia from Europe to Asia. I would suggest you give Russia a read, then European Russia. Then before any further reverts, read WP:BRD and WP:EW. Thank you - wolf  09:15, 15 May 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:National Guard


text:
Encephalitis lethargica

Encephalitis lethargica is an atypical form of encephalitis. Also known as "sleeping sickness" or "sleepy sickness" (distinct from tsetse fly–transmitted sleeping sickness), it was first described in 1917 by neurologist Constantin von Economo and pathologist Jean-René Cruchet. The disease attacks the brain, leaving some victims in a statue-like condition, speechless and motionless. Between 1915 and 1926, an epidemic of encephalitis lethargica spread around the world. The exact number of people infected is unknown, but it is estimated that more than one million people contracted the disease during the epidemic, which directly caused more than 500,000 deaths. Most of those who survived never recovered their pre-morbid vigour.

Signs and symptoms
Encephalitis lethargica is characterized by high fever, sore throat, headache, lethargy, double vision, delayed physical and mental response, sleep inversion and catatonia. In severe cases, patients may enter a coma-like state (akinetic mutism). Patients may also experience abnormal eye movements ("oculogyric crises"), Parkinsonism, upper body weakness, muscular pains, tremors, neck rigidity, and behavioral changes including psychosis. Klazomania, a vocal tic involving compulsive screaming, is sometimes present.

Cause
The causes of encephalitis lethargica are uncertain. Though it used to be believed that it was connected to the Spanish flu epidemic, modern research provides arguments against this claim. Some studies have explored its origins in an autoimmune response, and, separately or in relation to an immune response, links to pathologies of infectious disease – viral and bacterial, such as in the case of influenza, where a link with encephalitis is clear. Postencephalitic Parkinsonism was clearly documented to have followed an outbreak of encephalitis lethargica following the 1918 influenza pandemic; evidence for viral causation of the Parkinson's symptoms is circumstantial (epidemiologic, and finding influenza antigens in encephalitis lethargica patients), while evidence arguing against this cause is of the negative sort (for example, lack of viral RNA in postencephalitic Parkinsonian brain material).

In reviewing the relationship between influenza and encephalitis lethargica (EL), McCall and coauthors conclude, as of 2008, that "the case against influenza [is] less decisive than currently perceived ... [yet] there is little direct evidence supporting influenza in the etiology of EL," and that "[a]lmost 100 years after the EL epidemic, its etiology remains enigmatic." Hence, while opinions on the relationship of encephalitis lethargica to influenza remain divided, the preponderance of literature appears skeptical.

The German neurologist Felix Stern, who examined hundreds of encephalitis lethargica patients during the 1920s, noted that their encephalitis lethargica typically evolved over time: If patients of Stern followed this course of disease, he diagnosed them with encephalitis lethargica. Stern suspected encephalitis lethargica to be close to poliomyelitis, but had no evidence. Nevertheless, he experimented with the convalescent serum of survivors of the first acute syndrome. He vaccinated patients with early-stage symptoms, telling them that it might be successful. Stern is author of the definitive book, Die Epidemische Encephalitis.
 * The early symptoms would be dominated by sleepiness or wakefulness.
 * A second symptom would lead to an oculogyric crisis.
 * The third symptom would be recovery, followed by a Parkinson-like syndrome.

In 2010, in a substantial compendium reviewing the historic and contemporary views on EL, it quotes a researcher, writing in 1930, who stated, "we must confess that etiology is still obscure, the causative agent still unknown, the pathological riddle still unsolved", and went on to offer the following conclusion, as of that publication date: "Does the present volume solve the "riddle" of EL, which ... has been referred to as the greatest medical mystery of the 20th century? Unfortunately, no: but inroads are certainly made here pertaining to diagnosis, pathology, and even treatment.""

Subsequent to publication of this compendium, an enterovirus was discovered in encephalitis lethargica cases from the epidemic. In 2012, Oliver Sacks, the author of the book Awakenings, about institutionalized survivors, acknowledged this virus as the probable cause of the disease. Other sources have suggested Streptococcus pneumoniae as a cause.

Diagnosis
There have been several proposed diagnostic criteria for encephalitis lethargica. One, which has been widely accepted, includes an acute or subacute encephalitic illness where all other known causes of encephalitis have been excluded. Another diagnostic criterion, suggested more recently, says that the diagnosis of encephalitis lethargica "may be considered if the patient's condition cannot be attributed to any other known neurological condition and that they show the following signs: influenza-like signs; hypersomnolence (hypersomnia), wakeability, ophthalmoplegia (paralysis of the muscles that control the movement of the eye), and psychiatric changes". Others describe lethargy, "mask-like faces", excess blood in the meninges, and other general neurological symptoms.

Treatment
Modern treatment approaches to encephalitis lethargica include immunomodulating therapies, and treatments to remediate specific symptoms.

There is little evidence so far of a consistent effective treatment for the initial stages, though some patients given steroids have seen improvement. The disease becomes progressive, with evidence of brain damage similar to that of Parkinson's disease.

Treatment is then symptomatic. L-DOPA (Levodopa) and other anti-Parkinson drugs often produce dramatic responses; however, most people given L -DOPA experience improvements that are short-lived.

Occurrences
Retrospective diagnosis tentatively suggests various historical outbreaks of encephalitis lethargica:
 * In 1580, Europe was swept by a serious febrile and lethargic illness that led to Parkinsonism and other neurological sequelae.
 * In 1673–1675, a similar serious epidemic occurred in London, which Thomas Sydenham described as "febris comatosa".
 * In 1695, a 20 year-old woman in Germany experienced oculogyric crises, Parkinsonism, diplopia, strabismus, and other symptoms following an attack of somnolent brain fever, as described by Albrecht of Hildesheim.
 * In 1712–1713, a severe epidemic of Schlafkrankheit ('sleep sickness') occurred in Tübingen, Germany, followed in many cases by persistent slowness of movement and lack of initiative (aboulia).
 * Between 1750 and 1800, France and Germany experienced minor epidemics of "coma somnolentum" with features of Parkinsonism, including hyperkinetic hiccup, myoclonus, chorea, and tics.
 * Between 1848 and 1882, Paris-based neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot documented many isolated cases of juvenile Parkinsonism, associated with diplopia, oculogyria, tachypnoea, retropulsion, and obsessional disorders, which were almost certainly post-encephalitic in origin.
 * In 1890 in Italy, following the influenza epidemic of 1889–1890, a severe epidemic of somnolent illnesses (nicknamed the "Nona") appeared. For the few survivors of the Nona, Parkinsonism and other sequelae developed in almost all cases.
 * Between 1915 and 1926, a world-wide encephalitis lethargica pandemic occurred, impacting nearly 5 million people and killing an estimated 1.6 million people.

Pandemic of 1915–1926
In the winter of 1916–1917, a "new" illness suddenly appeared in Vienna and other cities, and rapidly spread world-wide over the next three years. Earlier reports appeared throughout Europe as early as the winter of 1915–1916, but communication about the disease was slow and chaotic, given the varied manifestation of symptoms and difficulties disseminating information in wartime; it was officially recognized as a distinct disease in 1917. Some authors define the span of the outbreak as being from 1918 to 1930.

Neurologist Constantin von Economo published a paper in April 1917 describing some of the cases he encountered in the winter months of 1916–1917. These patients, despite varying diagnoses, had a similar pattern of symptoms which led von Economo to suggest a novel disease, which he called Encephalitis Lethargica. In France, physician Jean-René Cruchet was experiencing something similar, and he published his findings within a few days of von Economo. After these two, many more reports began being released about the disease, starting in Europe before moving around the globe.

Until Constantin von Economo identified a unique pattern of damage among the brains of deceased patients and introduced the unifying name encephalitis lethargica, reports of the protean disease came in under a range of names: botulism, toxic ophthalmoplegia, epidemic stupor, epidemic lethargic encephalitis, acute polioencephalitis, Heine-Medin disease, bulbar paralysis, hystero-epilepsy, acute dementia, and sometimes just "an obscure disease with cerebral symptoms". Just 10 days before von Economo's breakthrough in Vienna, Jean-René Cruchet described 40 cases of "subacute encephalomyelitis" in France.

The number of people infected during the ten years of the pandemic is unknown, but it is estimated that more than 1 million people contracted the disease, which directly caused more than 500 000 deaths. Encephalitis lethargica assumed its most virulent form between October 1918 and January 1919.

In the United States the epidemic peaked from 1920 to 1924. It is estimated that as many as one million people were diagnosed with encephalitis lethargica during the epidemic period.

The pandemic disappeared in 1927, as abruptly and mysteriously as it first appeared. The great encephalitis pandemic coincided with the 1918 influenza pandemic, and it is likely that the influenza virus potentiated the effects of the causative agent of the encephalitis or lowered resistance to it in a catastrophic way.

Aftermath
Many surviving patients of the 1915–1926 pandemic seemed to make a complete recovery and return to their normal lives. However, the majority of survivors subsequently developed neurological or psychiatric disorders, often after years or decades of seemingly perfect health.

Post-encephalitic syndromes varied widely: Sometimes they proceeded rapidly, leading to profound disability or death; sometimes very slowly; sometimes they progressed to a certain point and then stayed at this point for years or decades; and sometimes, following their initial onslaught, they remitted and disappeared. It is also known to cause postencephalitic parkinsonism (PEP). Though often thought of as a disease of the past, it is still seen in occasional cases today.

Notable cases
Notable cases include:
 * Muriel "Kit" Richardson (née Hewitt), first wife of actor Sir Ralph Richardson, died of the condition in October 1942, having first shown symptoms in 1927–1928.
 * There is speculation that Adolf Hitler may have had encephalitis lethargica when he was a young adult (in addition to the more substantial case for Parkinsonism in his later years).
 * Mervyn Peake (1911–1968), author of the Gormenghast books, began his decline towards death which was initially attributed to encephalitis lethargica with Parkinson's disease–like symptoms, although others have later suggested his decline in health and eventual death may have been due to Lewy body dementia.
 * Those described in the book Awakenings by the British neurologist Oliver Sacks.
 * Jane Norton Grew Morgan, wife of J. P. Morgan Jr., died of encephalitis lethargica in 1925. At the time, doctors attributed her encephalitis to having contracted influenza during the 1918 pandemic.

title: Encephalitis lethargica