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Dore Schary

Isadore "Dore" Schary (August 31, 1905 – July 7, 1980) was an American playwright, director, and producer for the stage and a prolific screenwriter and producer of motion pictures. He directed one feature film, Act One, the film biography of his friend, playwright and theatre director Moss Hart. He became head of production at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and replaced Louis B. Mayer as president of the studio in 1951.

Early life
Schary was born to a Jewish family in Newark, New Jersey. Schary's father ran a catering business called the Schary Manor. Dore attended Central High School for a year but dropped out to sell haberdashery and buy china. When he finally returned to school, he completed his three remaining years of classwork in one year, graduating in 1923.

Schary worked as a journalist, did publicity for a lecture tour by Rear Adm. Richard E. Byrd, and was an assistant drama coach at the Young Men's Hebrew Association in Newark. The head coach was Moss Hart.

Theatre
Schary worked in theatre as an actor and writer. In 1927 he got a bit part on Broadway in a play with Paul Muni. Then he worked with Hart at a summer resort in the Catskill Mountains, where they wrote, produced, and directed skits and plays.

Schary appeared on Broadway in The Last Mile with Spencer Tracy. He wrote a play which was read by film producer Walter Wanger, who wired his New York office: "Hire Dore Schary. She writes with a lot of vigor – for a woman." Wanger subsequently hired Schary as a $ 100-a-week film writer. Schary moved to Hollywood, but his option with Wanger was dropped after three months. In his autobiography Heyday (1979), Schary also credits theatrical agent Frieda Fishbein in getting him to Hollywood, by introducing him to Harry Cohn, "the Maharajah of Columbia".

Early films
Schary's early writing credits include He Couldn't Take It (1933) for Monogram, and Fury of the Jungle (1933) and Fog (1933) at Columbia.

Schary worked on Let's Talk It Over (1934) for Universal, The Most Precious Thing in Life (1934) at Columbia, and Young and Beautiful (1934) at Universal. Other work for Universal included Storm Over the Andes (1935), Chinatown Squad (1935), and (uncredited) The Raven (1935).

At Warners, Schary wrote Murder in the Clouds (1934) and Red Hot Tires (1935). He did some uncredited work on Paramount's Mississippi (1935), and wrote for Republic's Racing Luck (1935).

Schary went to Fox for Silk Hat Kid (1935), Your Uncle Dudley (1935) and Song and Dance Man (1936). He was briefly under contract at MGM for a few months in 1936.

At Paramount Schary did Timothy's Quest (1936), Mind Your Own Business (1936), Her Master's Voice (1936), Outcast (1937), and The Girl from Scotland Yard (1937). He did Ladies in Distress (1937) at Republic.

Schary's play Too Many Heroes ran on Broadway for 16 performances in the fall of 1937.

Work at MGM
At MGM Schary worked on two Spencer Tracy films, Big City (1937) and Boys Town (1938). Schary earned Oscar nominations on the latter for Best Screenplay and Best Story, winning for Best Story.

Schary went on to write Broadway Melody of 1940 (1940), Young Tom Edison (1940) with Mickey Rooney and Edison, the Man (1940) with Tracy. He also worked on Married Bachelor (1941). For Republic, Schary wrote Behind the News (1940).

MGM promoted Schary to producer of their "B" pictures unit. Schary began with Joe Smith, American (1942), based on Schary's own story, which became a solid hit. Kid Glove Killer (1942), the directorial debut for Fred Zinnemann, was also profitable.

Journey for Margaret (1942) was a big success, making a star of Margaret O'Brien. Bataan (1943) made a profit of over one million dollars. Lassie Come Home (1943) with Roddy McDowall and Elizabeth Taylor had a profit of over two million.

Vanguard Films
Schary accepted an offer to go to work for David O. Selznick's Vanguard Films as head of the production. He produced I'll Be Seeing You (1944), The Spiral Staircase (1946), Till the End of Time (1946), The Farmer's Daughter (1947) with Loretta Young, and The Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxer (1947) with Cary Grant, Myrna Loy and Shirley Temple. All films were considered critical and commercial successes.

Head of production at RKO
Schary's Vanguard films were released through RKO, which offered him the job as head of the production. Although he still had eleven months left on his Vanguard contract they let him go and Schary signed a five-year deal with RKO in January 1947.

Schary personally produced Mr Blandings Builds His Dream House (1948), a big hit, and championed Crossfire (1947), a major success for the studio. Other hits its included Every Girl Should Be Married (1948), Station West (1949), The Set-Up (1949) and The Window (1949). He greenlit the directorial debuts of Nicholas Ray (They Live by Night (1948)) and Joseph Losey (The Boy with Green Hair (1948)), both of which lost money. Expensive money losers included Adventure in Baltimore (1949) with Shirley Temple.

RKO was taken over by Howard Hughes, who clashed with Schary, particularly over Schary's desire to make Battleground, a film about the Battle of the Bulge. Schary resigned in July 1948. He soon accepted a job offer from Louis B. Mayer at MGM.

Head of production at MGM
MGM struggled to adapt to the post-war filmmaking environment and, in 1947, recorded its first-ever end-of-year financial loss. The movie industry was faced with the threat of the Paramount Decree, rising labor costs, political turmoil, labor unrest, and the threat of television. MGM's parent company, Loews Incorporated in New York, decided that Schary might be able to turn the tide. Schary signed to be vice president in charge of production in July 1948. Schary and studio chief and founder Louis B. Mayer would soon be at odds over philosophy, with Mayer favoring splashy, wholesome entertainment and Schary leaning toward what Mayer derided as darker "message pictures". "Films must provoke thought in addition to entertainment", Schary once said. "They must educate and inform as they entertain."

Schary's career at MGM got off to a strong start when Battleground (1949) proved to be MGM's most profitable film of the year. A 1949 profile called him a "boy wonder... very probably the most important man in the movie industry." Schary also received acclaim for his personal productions, including The Next Voice You Hear... (1950), Go for Broke! (1951) and Westward the Women (1951). Schary co-wrote (with Charles Palmer) the 1950 book Case History of a Movie, which extensively covered, from initial conception to screening, the production of the film The Next Voice You Hear....

Mayer and Schary's differences came to a head with the production of The Red Badge of Courage (1951). Mayer presented an ultimatum to Nick Schenck, head of Loews, that Schary be fired. Schenck supported Schary and Mayer resigned. In July 1951 Schary took over complete control of production at MGM.

MGM after Mayer
Schary's personal productions started losing money: Washington Story (1952), Plymouth Adventure (1952), and Dream Wife (1953). However Take the High Ground! (1953) and Bad Day at Black Rock (1955) were moderately successful. Schary also wrote and produced the documentary film The Battle of Gettysburg (1955), getting two Oscar nominations for his work.

At MGM, Schary greenlighted such films as Blackboard Jungle (1955), The Teahouse of the August Moon and Don't Go Near the Water which all proved to be big successes at the box office.

Fired from MGM
In Schary's last year at MGM he personally produced three films, all of which lost money: The Swan (1956), The Last Hunt (1956) and Designing Woman (1957). MGM recorded a loss in 1956 leading to Loews firing him from his $200,000 annual contract and replacing him with Ben Thau. He was to remain as a consultant for MGM until 1968 at $100,000 a year. Contemporary newspaper reports and Schary later claimed he was fired because of his political activities, including his close association with the Democratic Party.

In 1956, his final year running MGM, he appeared on the show This Is Your Life. Host Ralph Edwards stated that there had never been a show where more stars appeared to honor a guest. However, MGM swimming star Esther Williams would later state in her 1999 autobiography The Million Dollar Mermaid that Schary was just as rude, cruel, and as imperious as Mayer had been. She noted that she thought it appropriate that Schary was fired on Thanksgiving, since he was a "turkey".

Return to Broadway and later films
Following his departure from MGM, Schary obtained the rights to the life of Franklin D. Roosevelt in April 1957. He wrote and produced the Broadway play Sunrise at Campobello (1958–59), about Roosevelt, starring Ralph Bellamy. The play won five Tony Awards and ran for 556 performances.

Schary returned to Hollywood when he wrote and produced the film Lonelyhearts (1958), starring Montgomery Clift and directed by Vincent J. Donehue.

Schary had another Broadway hit when he produced and directed (but did not write) the comedy A Majority of One (1959–60) by Leonard Spigelgass, starring Gertrude Berg and Cedric Hardwicke. Schary earned a Tony nomination for his direction and the show ran for 556 performances. (It was later filmed, without Schary's involvement.)

Less successful was The Highest Tree (1959), which Schary wrote, produced and directed (and featured Robert Redford in the cast ) and Triple Play (1959), a collection of short plays, which he produced.

Schary wrote and produced the film version of Sunrise at Campobello, which was released by Warner Brothers, directed by Donehue, in 1960. He also had a brief uncredited role in the film as Chairman of the Connecticut Delegation.

On Broadway, Schary had another huge hit as producer and director with the Meredith Willson musical, The Unsinkable Molly Brown (1960) starring Tammy Grimes, which ran for 532 performances. MGM released a film version starring Debbie Reynolds in 1964.

Schary wrote, produced and directed The Devil's Advocate (1961), based on the novel by Morris West, which ran for 116 performances. He produced and directed Something About a Soldier (1962) by Ernest Kinoy and Love and Kisses (1963) by Anita Block both which had short runs. He also wrote a memoir, For Special Occasions (1962).

Schary made his directorial debut in movies with Act One (1963) based on the memoirs of Moss Hart; Schary also wrote and produced. It was a flop and marked both the beginning and the end of Schary's film directing career.

Later career
On Broadway Schary wrote, produced and directed One by One (1964), which ran for seven performances, and produced and directed the musical, The Zulu and the Zayda (1965) which went for 179. Schary also wrote two more produced Broadway plays, Brightower (1970) (one performance ) and Herzl (1976) (8 performances), neither of which had long runs.

Schary wrote his memoirs, Heyday, which came out shortly before his death. In an interview, he said "I've always had an edge and the edge is that I'm a writer. No matter what happens I can write. And I'm tough. You had to be tough to outwit them, to wear them down. I've always been pretty lucky that way."

Politics
Although Schary was one of the studio executives who formulated the 1947 Waldorf Statement, he became an outspoken opponent of the anticommunist investigations of the House Un-American Activities Committee. In 1948, he was honored by the Anti-Defamation League for "distinguished contributions toward the enrichment of America's democratic legacy," together with Charles E. Wilson, Eleanor Roosevelt, Barney Balaban, and Darryl Zanuck.

Schary served as National Chairman of the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith from 1963 until April 22, 1969, when Samuel Dalsimer was elected the new National Chairman. After Dalsimer died unexpectedly later that year on August 22, Schary was named acting National Chairman and served until May 1970, when Seymour Graubard was elected to replace him. Schary was appointed by Mayor John Lindsay to the office of New York City Commissioner for Cultural Affairs.

Personal life
Schary worked as a printer in his youth at Art Craft Press in Newark, New Jersey. He married Miriam Svet, a pianist and painter, on March 5, 1932. The couple had three children: the novelist and memoirist Jill Schary Robinson, psychoanalyst Dr. Joy Schary, and CLIO award-winning producer Jeb Schary. Miriam and Dore Schary had seven grandchildren and 13 great-grandchildren.

Dore Schary died in 1980, aged 74, and was interred in the Hebrew Cemetery (also known as the Monmouth Fields Jewish Cemetery ), West Long Branch, New Jersey. Miriam Svet Schary died on October 2, 1986, aged 74, and was interred next to her husband in the Hebrew Cemetery.

Legacy
To honor his memory, the Anti-Defamation League established the Dore Schary Awards in 1982 "to recognize outstanding student film and video productions addressing themes related to ADL's mission."

In popular culture

 * Schary's name is used for a rhyme at the very end of Stan Freberg Presents the United States of America Volume One: The Early Years, a satirical album from 1961: "That highly military / (script by Dore Schary) / Revolutionary War!"
 * In the 1947 RKO film, The Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxer (which he produced), Schary appears driving Cary Grant to the airport at the end of the film. Grant calls him "Jebby".
 * In the I Love Lucy episode "Don Juan is Shelved" (1955), Ricky Ricardo calls Schary's office from his Hollywood hotel room and later Lucy Ricardo unknowingly recruits Schary to play a "big Hollywood producer" to prevent Ricky from being fired from his movie contract at MGM. Schary had agreed to play himself but cancelled on short notice and was played instead by Philip Ober, who at the time was the husband of cast member Vivian Vance.
 * In the Patty Duke Show episode "The Actress", Patty tries to get discovered by sending Schary a fake newspaper review of her high school play. The actor playing Schary says "That's the oldest trick in the book, a fake review. But I like her initiative. Send someone over."
 * In the one-act comedy "Adaptation", written by Elaine May, the lead character Phil Bensen names his son "Dore Schary Junior".
 * Actor Josh Pais portrayed Schary in the 2015 film I Saw the Light
 * Dore Schary appears as a character in the Broadway biography of Moss Hart, Act One, written by James Lapine and produced by Lincoln Center Theatre in 2014.

As screenwriter
• Fury of the Jungle (1933) – screenwriter

• Fog (1933) – screenwriter

• He Couldn't Take It (1933) – screenwriter

• Let's Talk It Over (1934) – original story "Loves of a Sailor"

• The Most Precious Thing in Life (1934) – screenwriter

• Young and Beautiful (1934) – screenwriter

• Murder in the Clouds (1934) – screenwriter

• Red Hot Tires (1935) – additional dialogue

• Mississippi (1935) – contributing writer

• Racing Luck (1935) – additional dialogue

• Storm Over the Andes (1935) – screenwriter

• Chinatown Squad (1935) – screenwriter

• The Raven (1935) – screenwriter (uncredited)

• Silk Hat Kid (1935) – screenwriter

• Your Uncle Dudley (1935) – screenwriter

• Timothy's Quest (1936) – screenwriter

• Song and Dance Man (1936) – screenwriter

• Mind Your Own Business (1936) – screenwriter

• Her Master's Voice (1937)

• Outcast (1937) – screenwriter

• The Girl from Scotland Yard (1937) – screenwriter

• Big City (1937) – screenwriter

• Ladies in Distress (1938) – screenwriter

• Boys Town (1938) – screenwriter

• Broadway Melody of 1940 (1940) – original story

• Young Tom Edison (1940) – screenwriter

• Edison, the Man (1940) – screenwriter

• Behind the News (1940)

• Married Bachelor (1941) – screenwriter

• Here Comes Kelly (1943) – story

• It's a Big Country (1951) – story

• The Battle of Gettysburg (1955) (documentary short)

As head of MGM B unit
• Joe Smith American (1942)

• Kid Glove Killer (1942)

• Journey for Margaret (1942)

• Bataan (1943)

• Lassie Come Home (1943)

For David O. Selznick
• I'll Be Seeing You (1944)

• The Spiral Staircase (1945)

• Till the End of Time (1946)

• The Farmer's Daughter (1947)

• The Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxer (1947)

Films overseen while head of RKO
• Trail Street (Feb 1947)

• A Likely Story (Apr 1947)

• Banjo (May 1947)

• Honeymoon (May 1947)

• Born to Kill (May 1947)

• The Woman on the Beach (Jun 1947)

• Crossfire (Jul 1947) – presents

• The Bachelor and the Bobby Soxer (July 1947) – personally produced

• The Long Night (Aug 1947)

• Magic Town (Oct 1947)

• Out of the Past (Nov 1947)

• Mourning Becomes Electra (Nov 1947)

• So Well Remembered (Nov 1947)

• Tycoon (Dec 1947)

• Night Song (Jan 1948)

• If You Knew Susie (Feb 1948)

• The Miracle of the Bells (Mar 1948)

• I Remember Mama (Mar 1948) – presents

• Berlin Express (May 1948)

• Race Street (Jun 1948) – presents

• Mr Blandings Builds His Dream House (June 1948) – presents

• Fighting Father Dunne (Jun 1948)

• Return of the Badmen (Jul 1948)

• The Velvet Touch (Aug 1948)

• They Live By Night (filmed 1947 rel Aug 1948) – presents

• Bodyguard (Sep 1948)

• Rachel and the Stranger (Oct 1948) – presents

• Station West (Oct 1948) – presents

• Every Girl Should Be Married (Nov 1948) – presents

• Blood on the Moon (Nov 1948)

• The Boy with Green Hair (Dec 1948) – presents

• A Woman's Secret (Feb 1949) – presents

• The Clay Pigeon (Feb 1949)

• The Set-Up (Mar 1949)

• Adventure in Baltimore (Apr 1949) – personally produced, presents

• The Window (May 1949)

• Roughshod (Jun 1949)

• Follow Me Quietly (Jul 1949)

• Make Mine Laughs (Aug 1949)

• Bed of Roses (1948)

• Indian Summer (1949)

• Easy Living (filmed 1948 rel Oct 1949)

• Walk Softly, Stranger (filmed 1948, rel Oct 1950)

Personally produced while head of MGM
• Battleground (1949)

• The Next Voice You Hear... (1950)

• Go for Broke! (1951)

• Westward the Women (1951)

• Target for Scandal(1952)

• Plymouth Adventure (1952)

• The Hoaxsters (1953) – documentary

• Dream Wife (1953)

• Take the High Ground! (1953)

• Bad Day at Black Rock (1955)

• The Swan (1956)

• The Last Hunt (1956)

• Designing Woman (1956)

Films overseen while head of MGM
• The Great Caruso (1950)

• An American in Paris (1951)

Post MGM films
• Lonelyhearts (1958) – writer, producer

• Startime (1960) (TV series) – episode "What About You" – writer, producer

• Sunrise at Campobello (1960) – writer, producer

• Westinghouse Presents: The Sound of the Sixties (1961) (TV special) – producer

• Act One (1963) – writer, producer director (producer)

Theatre credits
• Too Many Heroes (1937) – writer

• Sunrise at Campobello (1958) – writer, producer

• A Majority of One (1959) – producer, director

• Triple Play (1959) – producer

• The Highest Tree (1959) – writer, producer, director

• The Unsinkable Molly Brown (1960) – producer, director

• The Devil's Advocate (1961) – writer, producer, director

• Something About a Soldier (1962) – producer, director

• Love and Kisses (1963) – producer, director

• One by One (1964) – writer, producer, director

• The Zulue and the Zayda (1965) – producer, director

• Brightower (1970) – writer

• Herzl (1976) – writer, producer

title: Dore Schary


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Martin Hohmann

Martin Hohmann (born 4 February 1948) is a German lawyer and politician of the AfD party. He was a member of the German Parliament ("Bundestag") for the centre-right Christian Democratic Union (CDU), from 1998 until 2005. From 2017 to 2021, he was again a member of the German Parliament for the AfD.

Speech on German Unity Day 2003
He attracted public attention with a speech on German Unity Day on 3 October 2003. He set out to repudiate the supposed accusation that during the Holocaust, the Germans were considered a "nation of perpetrators" (Tätervolk, a term which was later named German Un-Word of the Year by a jury of linguistic scholars). To his end, he alleges involvement of Jews in the 1917 Russian Revolution.

Hohmann starts from noting a strong sense of self-contempt among Germans and quotes Hans-Olaf Henkel, the vice president of the Federation of German Industry, who has stated that "Our original sin paralyzes the country". Hohmann thinks that an undue occupation with Germany's past—which he distinguishes from a necessary admission and remembrance of German crimes—lies behind discrimination against fellow-countrymen. Among examples, he mentions the refusal of German government officials to consider demanding compensations by Russia, Poland and the Czech Republic on behalf of forced German labourers in World War II, in the same way as Germany pays compensation for those they forced to labor camps.

Political consequences
The speech was delivered to 120 people in his constituency on 3 October. It attracted no attention until it was later found on the internet. This led to a lively debate in public and in the CDU, and after Hohmann refused to retract the speech, he was expelled from the parliamentary group of the CDU in the Bundestag in 2003 and from the party itself in 2004. The former decision, however, came only after almost two weeks, on 15 November, raising some concerns that the party did not share the zeal of his critics. CDU MPs voted 195 to 28 (16 abstained) to eject him from the party group, that is 81 percent favored ejection. According to The Independent, support for free speech was far higher than expected. Hohmann appealed the party decision in court, but his expulsion was upheld. The Kammergericht Berlin ruled that the accusation that Hohmann "supported antisemitic tendencies as his own or in any case facilitated them in parts of the audience by providing facts for such appraisal" was in line with the core statements of the speech.

While most of the German elite was unanimous in condemning Hohmann, the public was much less convinced—polls indicated that equally many opposed the expulsion as those who approved of it (a little over 40 percent in each camp). Although party spokesmen were quick to condemn the speech, some party leaders said in private conversations that Hohmann did not deserve to be expelled. The decision to expel him met severe criticism from party rank-and-files. CDU officials in the Ruhr town of Recklinghausen joined the protests by displaying a banner from the local party office. It read: "Nobody in Germany is allowed to tell the truth any more".

He kept his seat as an independent member of parliament until the next Bundestag election of 2005. There, Hohmann ran unsuccessfully for a seat as an independent candidate. He received 21.5% of the votes.

Now, Hohmann is deputy of AfD Fraction of German Parliament-Bundestag.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Martin Hohmann


text:
Nicaraguan Sign Language

Nicaraguan Sign Language (ISN; Idioma de Señas de Nicaragua) is a form of sign language developed by deaf children in several schools in Nicaragua.

History
Before the 1970s, a deaf community largely socializing with and amongst each other was not present in Nicaragua. Deaf people were generally isolated from one another and mostly used simple home sign systems and gesture (mímicas) to communicate with their families and friends, though there were several cases of idioglossia among deaf siblings. The conditions necessary for a language to arise occurred in 1977 when a center for special education established a scheme that was initially attended by 50 deaf children. The number of pupils at the school (in the Managua neighborhood of San Judas) then grew to 100 by 1979, the beginning of the Sandinista Revolution.

In 1980 a vocational school for deaf adolescents was opened in the Villa Libertad area of Managua. By 1983 more than 400 deaf pupils were enrolled in the two schools. Initially, the language scheme emphasized spoken Spanish and lipreading, and the use of signs by teachers was limited to fingerspelling (using simple signs to sign the alphabet).

The scheme achieved little success, with most pupils failing to grasp the concept of Spanish words. The children subsequently remained linguistically disconnected from their teachers, but the schoolyard, the street, and the school bus provided fertile ground for them to communicate with one another. By combining gestures and elements of their home-sign systems, a pidgin-like form and a creole-like language rapidly emerged — they were creating their language. The "first-stage" pidgin has been called Lenguaje de Signos Nicaragüense (LSN) and is still used by many who attended the school at the time.

Staff at the school, unaware of the development of this new language, saw the children's gesturing as mime and a failure to acquire Spanish. Unable to understand what the children were saying, they asked for outside help. In June 1986, the Nicaraguan Ministry of Education contacted Judy Kegl, an American Sign Language linguist from MIT. As Kegl and other researchers began to analyze the language they noticed that the young children had taken the pidgin-like form of the older children to a higher level of complexity, with verb agreement and other conventions of grammar. The more complex sign language is now known as Idioma de Señas de Nicaragua (ISN).

From the beginning of her research until Nicaraguan Sign Language was well established, Kegl carefully avoided introducing the sign languages that she knew, in particular American Sign Language, to the deaf community in Nicaragua. Critics argued a form of linguistic imperialism had been occurring internationally for decades, in which individuals would introduce ASL to populations of deaf people in other countries, often supplanting existing local sign languages. Kegl's policy was to document and study rather than to impose or change the language or its community. Whilst she did not interfere with deaf Nicaraguans gaining exposure to other sign languages, she did not introduce such opportunities. She has, however, documented contact and influences with other sign languages that have occurred since the 1990s. Critics, such as Felicia Ackerman, have taken issue with the ethics of isolating the Nicaraguan children.

Kegl's organization, Nicaraguan Sign Language Projects, helped establish a deaf school staffed entirely by deaf Nicaraguan teachers and has supported deaf Nicaraguans in attending and presenting at international conferences.

Linguistics
ISN offers a rare opportunity to study the emergence of a new language. Before ISN, studies of the early development of languages had focused on creoles, which develop from the mixture of two (or more) distinct communities of fluent speakers. In contrast, ISN was developed by a group of young people with only non-conventional home sign systems and gestures.

Some linguists, such as Kegl and R. J. Senghas, view the sign language development in Managua as proof that language acquisition is hard-wired inside the human brain. Steven Pinker, author of The Language Instinct, claims that "The Nicaraguan case is unique in history ... We've been able to see how it is that children—not adults—generate language, and we have been able to record it happening in great scientific detail. And it's the only time that we've seen a language being created out of thin air."

Since 1990, other researchers including Ann Senghas, Marie Coppola, Richard Senghas, Laura Polich, and Jennie Pyers, have begun to study and report on the development of this unique language and its community. Since then, whilst researchers have their interpretations of the events leading to the language and its development, all agree that to date, the phenomenon being studied is one of the richest sources of data on language emergence discovered.

Structure
Bierma provides a good foundation to ISN structures. He takes as an example "rolling down". While a person may visualize this as one motion, ISN splits this action into two parts: manner and direction. These smaller parts allow for them to be rearranged to create different phrases. The most sophisticated speakers use an A-B-A speech pattern; in our example, this reflects the signs roll-down-roll, to note that the rolling down motion is continuous, not that the subject rolled and then descended.

Spatial modulation
Spatial modulations are the building blocks of all sign languages studied to date. A neutrally placed sign is in front of the chest; however, a sign can be modulated, or directionally altered, to convey many grammatical changes.

Spatial modulations can perform functions including "indicating person or number; providing deictic, locative, or temporal information; or indicating grammatical relationships".

In the article written by Senghas and Coppola, they explore spatial modulation as it occurs in ISN. They found that this movement from the neutral space was much more common among signers who began learning at a younger age than their peers who did so when they were older. Taking this into consideration (as well as their studies on spatial modulations for indicating shared reference and the speed at which signers at different stages of learning signed), Senghas and Coppola determined that child learners are creating Nicaraguan Sign Language – they "changed the language as they learned it". The fact that students who began signing at a younger age use spatial modulation more often than their older peers, who began signing at ISN's conception, is indicative that the language matures as the younger cohorts make the grammar more complex. They go on to note that it is only when a language is not matured, such as with ISN, that language-learning abilities show their transformational and creative capacity.

In the signing space, the use of pointing to indicate referent identity has increased greatly since the 1980s. Points can serve a "pronoun-like function, coordinating with the spatial modulations to verbs, to indicate the argument structure of the sentence, and to co-index referents across discourse".

Senghas and Coppola have noted that signers who learned ISN before the Extensive Contact Period (before 1983) were inconsistent in whether an event was represented as rotated or reflected (unrotated) in the signing space. If the signer was watching an event where a man on the signer's left gave an object to a woman on the signer's right, it was at random (when the signer reiterated the scene) whether or not the signer would use spatial modulation to mark left and right based on his view from in front of the scene or as if the signer were facing the same way as the actors in the scene.

Signers who began learning after 1983 were not inconsistent in that way. Across multiple signers and multiple scenes, signers would apply the same rotated representation. Senghas and Coppola suggested that this meant that "spatial modulations are being used as a shared grammatical element among this age cohort".

When it became language
Researchers disagree regarding at what stage in the development of ISN it became a full-fledged language.

 * Coppola argues that isolated family-signed systems in Nicaragua contained components that can be called linguistic (but that does not mean she equates home sign with language).
 * Kegl argues that following an intermediate stage when deaf contact gesturers came together and developed a communication sufficient to make young children think their input was a language to be acquired, the first generation of young children acquired a language as complete and rich as any human language known to date; subsequent changes constitute an expected process of historical change.
 * Senghas argues that once ISN came into being, it became more and more complex over successive cohorts of young acquirers.

Evidence for innate language capacities
William Stokoe, known by many as the father of American Sign Language linguistics, disagreed that the emergence of ISN is evidence of a language acquisition device. Stokoe also questions assertions that the language has emerged entirely without outside influence from, for example, Spanish or ASL. There is so far no final evidence available to resolve the controversy surrounding nativism v. cultural learning, and the dispute reaches far into theoretical linguistics, the approaches of which may conceptualize grammar in different and incompatible ways. Even if the evidence collected seems to indicate a lack of access to Spanish and ASL in the early emergence process, the possibility remains that the development of ISN is facilitated by the speaker's exposure to more general communicative strategies in early infancy.

Alternatives to theories proposing a language acquisition device have been presented by Michael Tomasello (among others). Tomasello argues that the process of acquiring a first language is boosted by non-linguistic communication, as in the establishment of joint intentional frames and in the understanding of communicative intentions.

In any case, once ISN came into being, like other languages, it actively engaged in contact with languages in its environment.

As "unwritable"
R. J. Senghas (1997) used the phrase "unspeakable, unwritable" language in the title of his dissertation to highlight the common misconception that those languages without a written form are not as "real" (a view often held by those who do not study indigenous languages). In a similar fashion, sign languages are often not given proper recognition because they are not spoken or written. (Senghas has never claimed that Nicaraguan Sign Language is unwritable, just that it was often thought of as such by those who do not study sign languages.)

Generally, the influence literacy has on the status of a language is also addressed in debates on the so-called "written language paradigm" in which it is acknowledged that the availability of written language to some extent must be considered as a culturally and historically dependent phenomenon. Tim Ingold, a British anthropologist, discussed these matters at some length in Perception of the Environment (2000), though he does not specifically deal with ISN.

Since 1996, however, Nicaraguans have been writing their language by hand and on a computer using SignWriting. There are now many texts written in Nicaraguan Sign Language, including three volumes of reading lessons in ISN, Spanish I and II (two levels of texts, workbooks, and primers), Cuentos Españoles (a collection of stories in Spanish with ISN glossaries), and a geography text.

title: Nicaraguan Sign Language


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User:Der Eberswalder

Hi, my name is Daniel. My nick derives from my hometown Eberswalde. I am working at the Wikipedia since January 21, 2003 (at first with the username User:Morken (but then I forgot the password)).

Staat - Eine Analyse des Instituts für Wertewirtschaft

title: User:Der Eberswalder


text:
Hackers (anthology)

Hackers is an anthology of science fiction short stories edited by Jack Dann and Gardner Dozois. It was first published in 1996. It contains stories by science fiction and cyberpunk writers of the late 1980s and early 1990s about hackers.

"Spirit of the Night"
This story was written by Tom Maddox, and was first published in Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine in 1987. This is the story of a man whose wife is kidnapped during a business dealing about bio computers. The man then finds out that his wife's electronic records have disappeared. Bound by his wife's love, he plunges back to his hacker days to track his wife's abductor, and even enlists the help of his old college hacking master. Thinking originally that it was the company involved in the business deal, he blackmails them, but then finds out that something else may be behind the ordeal.

"Blood Sisters"
This story was written by Greg Egan, and was first published in Interzone 44 in 1991. Two twin sisters in the near future find themselves in the middle of a world where a virus evolved through mutation and natural selection as part of biological warfare research has escaped. Both sisters become infected with a version of the virus, but only one of them survives. The surviving sister uses her hacking skills to find out the reason behind her sister's death, exact revenge and inform the public.

"Rock On"
This story was written by Pat Cadigan, and was first published in the anthology Light Years and Dark in 1984. This story takes place in a post-modern world where rock and roll is about to become extinct. Bands of the time have to use "sinners" (synthesizers), or people who have experienced rock and roll in person, in order to realize their music. This is the story of one such sinner.

"The Pardoner's Tale"
This story was written by Robert Silverberg and was first published in Playboy in 1987. In the future, an alien species has colonized the Earth and used the humans' own information infrastructure to control them through their in-body implants. Hackers have become valuable because they can exploit the system. Some hackers have become known as pardoners because they can arrange for people to escape the aliens' sentences in exchange for profit. The story focuses on one of the best pardoners. He is bested in a hacking duel only to find out that his opponent is an android. The pardoner faces a mistake he made in his past and finds a way to escape by hacking the alien mainframe with the help of a woman he had swindled.

"Living Will"
This story was written by Alexander Jablokov and was first published in Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine in June 1991. A man afflicted with Alzheimer's disease programs his personality into a computer, and enlists the machine's help for his final wish.

"Dogfight"
This story was written by Michael Swanwick and William Gibson, and was first published in Omni in 1985. A lonely ex-shoplifter who suffers from a neural block preventing him from returning to his hometown of Washington, D.C., finds a female friend, whose parents have set a neural block on her to protect her virginity – a sort of a mental chastity belt. He becomes enthralled by a new video game – Fokkers & Spads – where he engages in dogfights as a World War I fighter pilot and, with help from his female friend (a gifted hacker of both hardware and software) becomes one of the best fighters. To beat the very best fighter, though, he betrays and hurts his newfound friend only to find himself alone again after his victory over the crippled war-veteran Tiny.

The story is typical of the cyberpunk genre in that its mood never rises from the melancholy and that the protagonist ends up suffering a kind of pyrrhic victory, realizing too late that succeeding in his endeavor (i.e. winning the game) has cost him too dearly. As in film noir, the theme of betrayal exists strongly in the tale, as the protagonist sacrifices everything around him to succeed.

"Our Neural Chernobyl"
This story was written by Bruce Sterling, and was first published in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction in 1988. In a bizarre future, free from AIDS and genetic diseases, everyone can be a human genome hacker. One such hacker/scientist, while trying to find a way for the human body to become a cocaine-producing factory, engineers a virus that enriches the dendritic connections of mammalian brains. This virus seems to produce eccentric, absent-minded geniuses, but most humans are apparently immune to this neural Chernobyl (though the reader should be aware of the possibility of an unreliable narrator). Instead, it is animals that suffer the most obvious changes as a result of this virus, leading to more intelligent dogs and cats, as well as a culturally aware raccoon society.

"(Learning About) Machine Sex"
This story was written by Candas Jane Dorsey, and was first published in Machine Sex and Other Stories in 1988. A young female hacker, coming to terms with her own sexuality, invents "wet-ware": software and hardware that can plug into the human body, and has the ability to sexually stimulate men.

"Conversations with Michael"
This story was written by Daniel Marcus, and was first published in Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine in 1994. A couple is faced with having to deal with the loss of their child due to a partial nuclear meltdown. The mother comes to terms with the loss by having conversations with her son in a virtual reality setting, at first assisted by an analyst and then on her own. The father cannot come to terms with the loss of his son, and instead immerses himself in virtual reality almost completely, disregarding even his own health.

"Gene Wars"
This story was written by Paul J. McAuley, and was first published in Interzone 48 in 1991. The story tells of the progress that humanity makes by hacking genes. It originally starts with companies using their power and knowledge to profit by introducing stronger crops and preventing a cure for HIV, but then it progresses into a genetic war as people and countries make use of these new genes without licensing them from the companies that made them. The story's main character is Evan, who finds himself in the middle of the gene wars immediately after graduating with a degree in molecular genetics. He becomes deeply involved in his company's business, but is eventually infected with a Trojan horse that removes the loyalty genes the companies had put into him. Evan makes a cure for HIV available and eventually brings about a fundamental change in genetics that allows people to change and shape their own bodies. No one has to die anymore and some people, greens, even choose to get all their sustenance from the sun. In a telling quote from the story Evan says, "I remember when you knew what a human being was, I suppose I'm old-fashioned, but there it is."

"Spew"
This story was written by Neal Stephenson, and was first published in Wired in 1994. The story is presented in the form of a letter from the main character, Stark, to a female cyberpunk whom he meets in the course of his work. In the story, most information and media channels are hooked together in something called the Spew. This is a vision of the Internet's adaptation for handling credit card transactions, security camera feeds, and other such digital data. It is possible to profile people in a most complete way because the Spew was allowed by the government to be insecure. Stark is hired as a Profile Auditor, someone who tracks other people and their profiles in the Spew in order to track consumer trends. He does this inside the Demosphere, or in DemoTainment Space, which is a virtual reality representation of the Spew. He comes across a woman whose profile seems "too normal" and discovers that she is a cypherpunk, using the Spew to her own advantage without being tracked.

"Tangents"
This story was written by Greg Bear, and was first published in Omni in January 1986. Pal Tremont, a Korean boy who likes classical music, is adopted by an American family and comes into the life of Peter Tuthy and writer Lauren Davies. Peter is a mathematician and computer hacker (seemingly based in part on Alan Turing) who is very interested in 4-dimensional space (4-D). Lauren wants Pal to help her with her writings, but Pal is more useful to Peter as he can easily visualize 4-D space. Pal is able to see a whole new world, inhabited by 4-D beings and is even able to play 4-D music for them. The beings eventually make contact and take Pal and Peter into their own world.

title: Hackers (anthology)


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University of South Florida St. Petersburg

The University of South Florida St. Petersburg campus is a campus of the University of South Florida in St. Petersburg, Florida. Opened in 1965 as a satellite campus of the University of South Florida, it was consolidated with the other two USF campuses (Tampa and Sarasota-Manatee) as of July 1, 2020. USF's St. Petersburg campus is the only public university in Pinellas County. The campus enrolled 4,455 students during the fall 2019 semester.

History
In 1965, the University of South Florida created a satellite campus in downtown St. Petersburg, Florida, the "Bay Campus," the University of South Florida St. Petersburg. The campus opened in the fall of 1965 to 257 freshman. In 1967, USF St. Petersburg organized the USF Marine Science Program. In that same year, the Florida Institute of Oceanography opened facilities on land leased from the University of South Florida St. Petersburg. In 1969, USF St. Petersburg opened its library with 2,248 volumes and offered its first degrees to 51 graduates of elementary education program. In that same year, a State Legislature passed bill establishing USF St. Petersburg as a branch of the University of South Florida. By 1981, USF St. Petersburg had completed its first stage of expansion with the addition of Bayboro Hall. In 1984, Coquina Hall opened its doors. In 1990, the Campus Activities Center opened its doors. In 2005, USF St. Petersburg celebrated its 40th anniversary and the groundbreaking for Residence Hall One. In 2006, USF St. Petersburg was accredited as a separate entity from the University of South Florida. In that same year, the University of South Florida St. Petersburg opened its new student residence hall, Residence Hall One, to house future and returning students.

In 2020, USF St. Petersburg was consolidated with the other two USF campuses. This meant that USFSP was no longer a separate university under the University of South Florida system and all three campuses were now effectively one university geographically distributed.

Academics
Having been a satellite campus of the University of South Florida for the first 40 years of its existence, the University of South Florida St. Petersburg gained autonomy and was accredited as a separate entity within the University of South Florida system by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools starting with the 2006–2007 school year. Accreditation allows the University of South Florida St. Petersburg to award bachelor's and master's degrees. The College of Business and the Program of Accountancy are both accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) International. Less than one-third of U.S. business school programs, fewer than 15 percent of business school programs worldwide meet the rigorous standards for AACSB accreditation. Only 180 institutions worldwide are separately accredited in accounting.

The Department of Journalism and Media Studies is accredited by the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications (ACEJMC), and it is the only journalism program in the central and south Florida area that has both undergraduate and graduate degree programs accredited.

Athletics
USFSP has athletic club teams in many sports including baseball, basketball, sailing, soccer, and more.

USF Sailing Team
The Bulls sailing program is a nationally recognized team and is coached by Allison Jolly, gold medalist in the first Olympic women's sailing event at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. As sailing is not an American Athletic Conference or NCAA sanctioned sport, USF is a member of the South Atlantic Intercollegiate Sailing Conference within the Inter-Collegiate Sailing Association. The team has a waterfront facility on Bayboro Harbor on USFSP's campus called the Haney Landing Sailing Center. It is the only varsity sport based on USF's St. Petersburg campus and started as a popular club team in the early 1990s before earning varsity status from the USF Athletic Department in 1997.

The USF sailing team won the Inter-Collegiate Sailing Association Sloop National Championship in 2009 and back to back ICSA Offshore Large Boats National Championships in 2016 and 2017. They were national runners-up at the ICSA Singlehanded National Championships in 2009 and 2011. The Bulls represented the United States in the 2017 and 2018 Student Yachting World Cups.

Nelson Poynter Memorial Library
The Nelson Poynter Memorial Library opened in 1996 to commemorate Nelson Poynter. The Nelson Poynter Memorial Library, serving the University of South Florida's St. Petersburg community, is an inviting place for students, faculty, and campus visitors to read, relax, research, or study.

The Nelson Poynter Library has over a 200,000 volume collection featuring business, education, liberal arts, and marine science. Literature selections range from classics such as Herman Melville's Moby-Dick to the latest award-winning novels. A children's collection features juvenile and young adult books.

The Poynter Library's Special Collections department has rare books, oral histories, and local history photographs and documents. Notable collections include the John C. Briggs Collection of Ichthyology and Natural History, the David Hubbell Mark Twain Collection, the Miller Family Collection of Presidential Signatures and Documents, and the Papers of Nelson Poynter.

The library subscribes to more than 800 periodicals and newspapers, including Science, The Economist, Foreign Affairs, and local and national newspapers. Over 10,000 electronic journals and newspapers augmenting these print collections are accessible through the library's on the wireless network or on computers in the library's information commons.

In 1950, when the Merchant Marine training base at Bayboro Harbor was deactivated, Nelson Poynter started a campaign to persuade the City of St. Petersburg to donate the land to the state. Poynter committed himself to donate $500,000 to help buy additional land for expansion and was the principal contributor and fundraiser for the first St. Petersburg campus library. On June 15, 1978, Nelson Poynter, his wife Marion, business and civic leaders, educators, and students took turns with eight gold-painted shovels to break ground for the first phase expansion of the campus. A few hours later, Nelson Poynter suffered a cerebral hemorrhage. Poynter died that same evening. That library would become Bayboro Hall, the Nelson Poynter Memorial Library would open in 1996 in his name.

The Crow's Nest
The Crow's Nest is a student-run newspaper circulated in USF's St. Petersburg campus that was first published in 1969. The newspaper is published in the fall and spring semesters, and contains news stories, features and entertainment pieces that are of interest to students and the campus community. Over time, the paper grew substantially to match the expanding campus. The newspaper now distributes 800 copies of the paper every Monday on campus and also publishes stories online via their website. Since the spring of 2005, The Crow's Nest has been published on a weekly basis. The Crow's Nest is funded each semester by a portion of revenue generated from Activities and Services fees as well as advertising revenue.

Campus life
The majority of activities involving students are officially the responsibility of the Division of Student Affairs, but the Student Government Association has become the sole funding source of Student Life, Campus Reservations and New Student Orientation. In April 2006, Student Government opened a new volleyball and basketball courts facility on campus.

Student Success Center
The Student Success Center was created to help students achieve their educational goals.

Student life
The Department of Student Life & Engagement and the Student Life Center work together to allow for opportunities for students to learn outside of class. The Student Life Center is located on the same street as Residence Hall One and is across the street from the campus. It houses the fitness center which a weight and cardio room, recreation areas, aerobics area, locker rooms, and basketball, and volleyball.

Harborside Activities Board
The Harborside Activities Board is the campus programming board, which plans and implements educational, cultural, and social co-curricular activities for the USF St. Petersburg campus.

Pelican Hall

To accommodate extra students and students wishing to pursue a degree full-time on campus, USF St. Petersburg built a residence hall, Residence Hall One. First year students who live 30 miles or farther from the USFSP campus are required to live In Residence Hall One. Residence Hall One is located across the street from the campus. Students can easily walk to class, the gym, parking garage and Campus Activity Center, located on the same street as Residence Hall One. Students wishing to live in Residence Hall One can choose from any of two suites. Residence Hall One also offers its students a sense of community in an already welcoming university. Every floor has a Resident Assistant to monitor, help, and organize meetings for the students. Residence Hall One is also the University of South Florida St. Petersburg's first student dormitory since Merchant Marine training bases were used as dormitories for students.

USF St. Petersburg officially opened the doors to Residence Hall One on August 23, 2006, for the Fall semester. Residence Hall One is a seven-story building that can house 354 students in 95 apartments that contain four-person double bedrooms, four-person single bedrooms, and one two-person apartment with single bedrooms. Each apartment contains two bathrooms, a living room and kitchen with garbage disposal, refrigerator and microwave. All utilities are included; electricity, water, heat and air conditioning, local telephone service, high speed Internet and cable TV. Every floor in Residence Hall One has a laundry room and lounge. Lounges are equipped with furniture and a high-definition television with cable TV. Resident students can also park their cars in the seven-story parking garage across the street built at the same time as Residence Hall One.

A $1,500 Sails Scholarship was offered to students who moved into Residence Hall One during its first year open. Residence Hall One also offers its students beautiful views of Tampa Bay and downtown St. Petersburg. Students are in close range of supermarkets, movie theaters and restaurants. The Student Government Safe Team transported students while patrolling the campus parking lots and buildings and facilities until the program was ended in 2010. The University of South Florida St. Petersburg has on-campus police to safeguard the campus, students, and parking garage. Residence Hall One is the University of South Florida St. Petersburg's first step in its second phase of expansion. 2007 was the first year that USF St. Petersburg was able to house incoming freshman during the summer semester during their summer program.

On January 15th, 2020, Regional Chancellor Martin Tadlock announced that Residence Hall One would be renamed to Pelican Hall.

Ibis Hall
The university launched its 81,00 square foot University Student Center on September 6, 2012. The $21 million facility was partly financed with a special student fee passed by the Florida Legislature and supported by students who saw a need for a central gathering place at USFSP. The building, 200 Sixth Avenue South, opened August 25, 2012 when 200 residential students moved into rooms in the six-story residential tower. Besides student housing, the building also includes a dining hall called The Reef that is open to the public serving breakfast, lunch and dinner seven days a week. It offers the first full-service meal plans for USFSP. The center also includes an atrium lobby, wireless internet, laundry facilities, a student lounge, seating areas and two outdoor basketball courts.

The 75-ft building was designed by Rowe Architects of Tampa and built by Creative Contractors of Clearwater. Among its architectural features is a 65-ft multi-colored glass-enclosed circular staircase for the residential tower, and an 8,000 sq. ft. curtain of glass along 6th Avenue South. The residential tower brings the total number of residential students to nearly 650, a record number in the university's history. Many of the rooms in the residential tower offer views of Tampa Bay and the downtown St. Petersburg skyline.

On January 15th, 2020, Regional Chancellor Martin Tadlock announced the residences at the University Student Center would be renamed to Ibis Hall.

Osprey Hall
USF St Petersburg opened its third, 125,000 square-foot residence hall on August 17th, 2020.

Notable faculty

 * Raymond Arsenault, historian and author
 * Deni Elliott, professor in Department of Journalism and Media Studies and Eleanor Poynter Jamison Chair in Media Ethics and Press Policy
 * Gary Mormino, Frank E. Duckwall Professor of History and co-director of the Florida Studies Program


text:
Hearts of Iron

Hearts of Iron is a grand strategy video game developed by Paradox Development Studio and published by Strategy First. Based on the Europa Engine, it was originally released in 2002 for Microsoft Windows. A Mac OS X version was released by Virtual Programming the following year. In 2004, Atari, SA published Hearts of Iron: Platinum, an updated version that sought to improve several aspects of the game.

Hearts of Iron allows the player to take control of a nation in the world and guide it through World War II and the years immediately before and after it. Hearts of Iron is the first game in the eponymous series of grand strategy wargames. Three additional games have been released in the series: Hearts of Iron II, Hearts of Iron III, and Hearts of Iron IV.

Gameplay
Players play as a nation in the world in the years leading up to, during, and immediately after World War II. There are three main alliances in the game: the Allies, the Axis, and the Comintern. Nations in the game can attempt to join these alliances. Players can also control their nation's economy, government, and military. The game ends when there is only one alliance left or when the end date is reached; the winning alliance is determined through a victory point system, with points being given to alliances that control key regions or cities.

Sequels
A sequel to Hearts of Iron, Hearts of Iron II, was released in 2005. Two spin-offs were created for Hearts of Iron II: Darkest Hour: A Hearts of Iron Game and Arsenal of Democracy: A Hearts of Iron Game. The third game in the series, Hearts of Iron III was released on August 7, 2009. Hearts of Iron – The Card Game was released as a free-to-play, browser-based collectible card game on October 3, 2011. East vs. West – A Hearts of Iron Game was scheduled to release in 2014, but was canceled. Hearts of Iron IV, the fourth main installment in the series, was released on June 6, 2016.

Reception
The game received "average" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Tom Chick of Computer Games Magazine summarized Hearts of Iron as "an ambitious mess, a noble mess, certainly a well-intentioned mess, but ultimately a mess nonetheless".

Hearts of Iron: Platinum
Hearts of Iron: Platinum was released in 2004 with the intention of improving several elements of the original game. According to Metacritic, Hearts of Iron: Platinum received slightly more favorable reviews than the original Hearts of Iron.

Ban in China
The game was banned in the People's Republic of China because of the game's depiction of Taiwan under Japanese control and Tibet, Sinkiang, and Manchuria as independent nations (historically, Manchuria was a Japanese puppet state and Taiwan was under Japanese control for most of the time period depicted in the game).

title: Hearts of Iron


text:
Great South Bay

The Great South Bay of the United States is a lagoon situated between Long Island and Fire Island, in the State of New York. It is about 45 mi long and has an average depth of 4 ft and is 20 ft at its deepest. It is protected from the Atlantic Ocean by Fire Island, a barrier island, as well as the eastern end of Jones Beach Island and Captree Island.

The Robert Moses Causeway adjoins the Great South Bay Bridge, which leads to Robert Moses State Park.

The bay is accessible from the ocean through Fire Island Inlet, which lies between the western tip of Fire Island and the eastern tip of Jones Beach Island. The bay adjoins South Oyster Bay on its western end, and Patchogue and Moriches bays at the east end.

History
In the early 17th century, European settlers first encountered the native Montaukett Indian Nation. Among the earliest British families were the Smith, Carman and Hewlett families. Long Island's South Shore, adjacent to the bay, now includes the communities of Lindenhurst, Babylon, Islip, Oakdale, Sayville, Bayport, Blue Point, Patchogue, Bellport, Shirley, and Mastic Beach.

Environmental concerns

In the late nineteenth century Great South Bay provided many of the clams consumed throughout the region and even the country. The first oysters to be exported from the US to Europe came from Great South Bay. The Great South Bay has, at least since the end of the Ice Age, been home to many generations of horseshoe crabs. By the latter 20th century, a significant percentage of the habitat was lost. Hurricane Sandy in 2012, the largest storm to affect the region since 1938, made landfall with devastating impact to Fire Island seashores, including multiple breaches. The largest of these was at Old Inlet, south of Bellport. Residents were concerned it would have effects on tidal increases and potential flooding, but it has allowed the bay to relieve some of its captive water, which has improved the salinity and nitrogen levels in the bay. After roughly 75 years, the bay began flushing itself out which may improve the water condition within the bay. Regulations set forth by the US Government National Wildlife Preserve, which has a seven-mile stretch of land (the Otis Pike Fire Island High Dune Wilderness) prohibit any unauthorized parties from performing any kind of man-made changes, thus the inlet has remained open. There have been a number of ongoing public meetings discussing the future of the Inlet. All the other breaches were closed by the Army Corps of Engineers. In 2012, The Save the Great South Bay (STGSB) not-for-profit organization was formed in order to work towards better conservation of the water and its beachfronts. Save The Great South Bay has raised awareness of boat sewage dumping in The Great South Bay as a serious ecological concern.

title: Great South Bay


text:
Swedish Security Service

The Swedish Security Service (Säkerhetspolisen, abbreviated SÄPO ; until 1989 Rikspolisstyrelsens säkerhetsavdelning, abbreviated RPS/Säk ) is a Swedish government agency organized under the Ministry of Justice. It operates as a security agency responsible for counter-espionage, counter-terrorism, as well as the protection of dignitaries and the constitution. The Swedish Security Service is also tasked with investigating crimes against national security and terrorist crimes. Its main mission, however, is to prevent crimes, not to investigate them. Crime prevention is to a large extent based on information acquired via contacts with the regular police force, other authorities and organisations, foreign intelligence and security services, and with the use of various intelligence gathering activities, including interrogations, telephone tapping, covert listening devices, and hidden surveillance cameras.

The Service was, in its present form, founded in 1989, as part of the National Police Board and became an autonomous police agency on 1 January 2015. National headquarters are located at Bolstomtavägen in south-east Solna since 2014, drawing together personnel from five different locations into a single 30000 m2 HQ facility.

History
The origins of the Swedish Security Service is often linked to the establishment of a special police bureau (Polisbyrån) during the First World War in 1914, which reported directly to the General Staff, predecessor of the Office for the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. The bureau's main mission was protecting national security (e.g. counter-espionage), and its first chief was Captain Erik af Edholm. Operations shut down after the end of the war in 1918, although some intelligence activities carried on at the Stockholm police, managed by a small group of approximately ten police officers led by Chief Superintendent Eric Hallgren, who later was to become the first chief of the General Security Service (Allmänna säkerhetstjänsten). Operations were mainly focused on monitoring communists from the start of the war until the early 1930s when the service also began to focus on Nazis.

In 1932, operations were transferred to the newly formed State Police (statspolisen). The group of officers working at the State Police did not have the means to monitor phone calls or to intercept and open mail. This, and the general lack of staff and financial resources worried the chief of Sweden's military intelligence, Lieutenant-Colonel Carlos Adlercreutz, who felt the country needed a more powerful security agency if Europe once again ended up in war. Thus, in 1938 the General Security Service was formed, following an initiative by Adlercreutz and Ernst Leche at the Ministry of Justice, among others. The entire organisation and its activities were top-secret. During the Second World War the agency monitored about 25,000 phone calls and intercepted over 200,000 letters every week. In 1946, following a post-war parliamentary evaluation, operations were significantly reduced and once again organized under the State Police, mainly tasked with counter-espionage. In 1965, the Swedish police was nationalized, and all work was organized under the National Police Board in the Department of Security (Rikspolisstyrelsens säkerhetsavdelning, abbreviated RPS/SÄK). The period between 1939 and 1945 was marked by extensive foreign intelligence activity in Sweden, resulting in the arrest of numerous spies and enemy agents. Some of the most notorious post-war spies are Fritiof Enbom, Hilding Andersson, Stig Wennerström and Stig Bergling. In all of these cases the spying was done on behalf of the Soviet Union and the spies were convicted to life in prison.

In the early 1970s, Sweden was rocked by a number of terrorist acts perpetrated by Croatian separatists. Some of the most significant cases were the 1971 Yugoslavian embassy attack in Stockholm and the hijacking of Scandinavian Airlines System Flight 130 a year later. The inception of the first Terrorist Act in 1973 was an immediate policy upshot of this, which among other things gave the police the right to deport people affiliated with terrorist organizations without delay. These incidents also led to internal changes within the Department of Security, which received more resources. On 28 February 1986, Prime Minister Olof Palme was assassinated by an unknown gunman. The Department was not widely criticized, partly because Palme himself had declined protection on the night of the murder. It nevertheless sparked the resignation of the National Police Commissioner Nils Erik Åhmansson and the head of the Department, Sune Sandström, following the revelation of the Ebbe Carlsson affair in 1988.

The Swedish Security Service was established on 1 October 1989, on the recommendations put forward by a Government committee tasked with evaluating the Department of Security following the assassination of Palme. The new agency was—although still formally a part of the National Police Board—more independent, with its own Director-General and political oversight also increased. Furthermore, the Service took over the formal responsibility for all close protection tasks, which was previously shared with the National Police Board and the Stockholm County Police. On 10 September 2003, Minister for Foreign Affairs Anna Lindh was assassinated by Mijailo Mijailović, who was arrested two weeks later. The Government reviewed its procedures in the wake of the Lindh killing, which led to the doubling of the number of close-protection officers. On 1 January 2015, the police reorganized again into a unified agency, with the Swedish Security Service becoming a fully independent agency.

Areas of responsibility
The Swedish Security Service's main tasks and responsibilities are:
 * Counter-espionage – preventing and detecting espionage and other unlawful intelligence activities; targeting Sweden, its national interests abroad, and also foreign interests and refugees within the borders of Sweden.
 * Counter-subversion – to counter illegal subversive activities (e.g. violence, threats and harassment targeting elected representatives, public officials and journalists) intended to affect policy-making and implementation, or prevent citizens from exercising their constitutional rights and freedoms.
 * Counter-terrorism – preventing and detecting terrorism; this includes acts of terrorism directed against Sweden or foreign interests within the borders of Sweden, as well as terrorism in other countries and the financing and support of terrorist organizations in Sweden.
 * Dignitary protection – providing security and close protection officers at state visits, to senior public officials (e.g. the Speaker of the Riksdag, Prime Minister, members of the Riksdag and the Government, including State Secretaries and the Cabinet Secretary), the Royal Family, foreign diplomatic representatives, etc. As of 2014, the Service had 130 close protection officers.
 * Protective security – providing advice, analysis and oversight to companies and government agencies of importance to national security, in addition to background checks.

Organisation
The Swedish Security Service became a separate agency 1 January 2015, and is directly organized under the Ministry of Justice. Similar to other government agencies in Sweden, it is essentially autonomous. Under the 1974 Instrument of Government, neither the Government nor individual ministers have the right to influence how an agency decide in a particular case or on the application of legislation. This also applies to the Security Service, which instead is governed by general policy instruments. What sets the Security Service apart from other agencies is that most directives guiding the Service are classified on the grounds of national security, along with the bulk of the reports it produces. The Service is led by a Director-General, who is titled Head of the Swedish Security Service. Operations are led by a Chief Operating Officer, reporting directly the Head of the Security Service. He is in turn assisted by a Deputy Chief Operating Officer and an Office for Operations. The Service is organized into four departments and a secretariat, each led by a Head of Department.

*Includes regional units

 * Department for Central Support Functions
 * Provides all support processes needed for day-to-day operations.

 * Department of Intelligence Collection
 * In charge of intelligence gathering through the use of secret surveillance, informants or other interpersonal contacts, and by use of information technology (e.g. signals intelligence). Included in the department are the regional units, which primarily conduct human intelligence (HUMINT) operations and offer local knowledge and support to HQ.

 * Department of Security Intelligence
 * Responsible for security intelligence work, primarily aimed at providing the Service with data for decisions regarding security measures.

 * Department of Security Measures
 * Deals with threat mitigation and risk reduction measures. Areas of responsibility include close protection, investigations, information security, physical security and background checks.

 * Secretariat for Management Support
 * Tasked with providing support to management.

Offices
The Service has a regional presence and operates from several locations; from its headquarters in Solna and from six regional units with offices in Umeå, Uppsala, Örebro, Norrköping, Gothenburg and Malmö. The Service has approximately 1,100 employees, of which about 10 percent are stationed at the regional offices. The regional units are based on the geographic boundaries of several counties:

Head of the Swedish Security Service
List of current and past executive officers:
 * Mats Börjesson (1989–1994)
 * Anders Eriksson (1994–1999)
 * Jan Danielsson (2000–2003)
 * Klas Bergenstrand (2004–2007)
 * Anders Danielsson (2007–2012)
 * Anders Thornberg (2012–2018)
 * Klas Friberg (2018–2021)
 * Charlotte von Essen (2021– )

In popular culture
The Security Service's role in Cold War counterintelligence is referred to in the second and third novels of the best-selling Millennium series by Swedish writer Stieg Larsson.

"Swedish intelligence" was frequently referenced on the American Cold War spy drama television show  The Americans. The male lead character on the show, Philip Jennings, had an alias who worked for Swedish intelligence.

title: Swedish Security Service


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Swiss People's Party

The Swiss People's Party (Schweizerische Volkspartei, SVP; Partida populara Svizra, PPS), also known as the Democratic Union of the Centre (Union démocratique du centre, UDC; Unione Democratica di Centro, UDC), is a national conservative and right-wing populist political party in Switzerland. Chaired by Marcel Dettling, it is the largest party in the Federal Assembly, with 62 members of the National Council and 6 of the Council of States.

The SVP originated in 1971 as a merger of the Party of Farmers, Traders and Independents (BGB) and the Democratic Party, while the BGB, in turn, had been founded in the context of the emerging local farmers' parties in the late 1910s. The SVP initially did not enjoy any increased support beyond that of the BGB, retaining around 11% of the vote through the 1970s and 1980s. This changed however during the 1990s, when the party underwent deep structural and ideological changes under the influence of Christoph Blocher; the SVP then became the strongest party in Switzerland by the 2000s.

In line with the changes fostered by Blocher, the party started to focus increasingly on issues such as Euroscepticism and opposition to mass immigration. Its vote share of 28.9% in the 2007 federal election was the highest vote ever recorded for a single party in Switzerland until 2015, when it surpassed its own record with 29.4%. Blocher's failure to win re-election as a Federal Councillor led to moderates within the party splitting to form the Conservative Democratic Party (BDP), which later merged with the Christian Democratic People's Party into The Centre. , the party is the largest in the National Council with 53 seats. It has eight seats in the Council of States.

Background, farmers' parties
The early origins of the SVP go back to the late 1910s, when numerous cantonal farmers' parties were founded in agrarian, Protestant, German-speaking parts of Switzerland. While the Free Democratic Party had earlier been a popular party for farmers, this changed during World War I when the party had mainly defended the interests of industrialists and consumer circles. When proportional representation was introduced in 1919, the new farmers' parties won significant electoral support, especially in Zürich and Bern, and eventually also gained representation in parliament and government. By 1929, the coalition of farmers' parties had gained enough influence to get one of their leaders, Rudolf Minger, elected to the Federal Council.

In 1936, a representative party was founded on the national level, called the Party of Farmers, Traders and Independents (BGB). During the 1930s, the BGB entered the mainstream of Swiss politics as a right-wing conservative party in the bourgeois bloc. While the party opposed any kind of socialist ideas such as internationalism and anti-militarism, it sought to represent local Swiss traders and farmers against big business and international capital.

The BGB contributed strongly to the establishment of the Swiss national ideology known as the Geistige Landesverteidigung (Spiritual Defence of the Nation), which was largely responsible for the growing Swiss sociocultural and political cohesion from the 1930s. In the party's fight against left-wing ideologies, sections of party officials and farmers voiced sympathy with, or failed to distance themselves from, emerging fascist movements. After World War II, the BGB contributed to the establishment of the characteristic Swiss post-war consensual politics, social agreements and economic growth policies. The party continued to be a reliable political partner with the Swiss Conservative People's Party and the Free Democratic Party.

Early years (1971–1980s)
In 1971, the BGB changed its name to the Swiss People's Party (SVP) after it merged with the Democratic Party from Glarus and Grisons. The Democratic Party had been supported particularly by workers, and the SVP sought to expand its electoral base towards these, as the traditional BGB base in the rural population had started to lose its importance in the post-war era. As the Democratic Party had represented centrist, social-liberal positions, the course of the SVP shifted towards the political centre following internal debates. The new party however continued to see its level of support at around 11%, the same as the former BGB throughout the post-war era. Internal debates continued, and the 1980s saw growing conflicts between the Bern and Zürich cantonal branches, where the former branch represented the centrist faction, and the latter looked to put new issues on the political agenda.

When the young entrepreneur Christoph Blocher was elected president of the Zürich SVP in 1977, he declared his intent to oversee significant change in the political line of the Zürich SVP, bringing an end to debates that aimed to open the party up to a wide array of opinions. Blocher soon consolidated his power in Zürich, and began to renew the organisational structures, activities, campaigning style and political agenda of the local branch. The young members of the party was boosted with the establishment of a cantonal Young SVP (JSVP) in 1977, as well as political training courses. The ideology of the Zürich branch was also reinforced, and the rhetoric hardened, which resulted in the best election result for the Zürich branch in fifty years in the 1979 federal election, with an increase from 11.3% to 14.5%. This was contrasted with the stable level in the other cantons, although the support also stagnated in Zürich through the 1980s.

Rise of the new SVP (1990s–present)
The struggle between the SVP's largest branches of Bern and Zürich continued into the early 1990s. While the Bern-oriented faction represented the old moderate style, the Zürich-oriented wing led by Christoph Blocher represented a new radical right-wing populist agenda. The Zürich wing began to politicise asylum issues, and the question of European integration started to dominate Swiss political debates. They also adopted more confrontational methods. The Zürich wing subsequently started to gain ground in the party at the expense of the Bern wing, and the party became increasingly centralised as a national party, in contrast to the traditional Swiss system of parties with loose organisational structures and weak central powers. During the 1990s, the party also doubled its number of cantonal branches (to eventually be represented in all cantons), which strengthened the power of the Zürich wing, since most new sections supported their agenda.

In 1991, the party for the first time became the strongest party in Zürich, with 20.2% of the vote. The party broke through in the early 1990s in both Zürich and Switzerland as a whole, and experienced dramatically increasing results in elections. From being the smallest of the four governing parties at the start of the 1990s, the party by the end of the decade emerged as the strongest party in Switzerland. At the same time, the party expanded its electoral base towards new voter demographics. The SVP in general won its best results in cantons where the cantonal branches adopted the agenda of the Zürich wing. In the 1999 federal election, the SVP for the first time became the strongest party in Switzerland with 22.5% of the vote, a 12.6% share increase. This was the biggest increase of votes for any party in the entire history of the Swiss proportional electoral system, which was introduced in 1919.

As a result of the remarkable increase in the SVP's popularity, the party gained a second ministerial position in the Federal Council in 2003, which was taken by Christoph Blocher. Before this, the only SVP Federal Councillor had always been from the moderate Bern wing. The 2007 federal election still confirmed the SVP as the strongest party in Switzerland with 28.9% of the vote and 62 seats in the National Council, the largest share of the vote for any single party ever in Switzerland. However, the Federal Council refused to re-elect Blocher, who was replaced by Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf of the moderate Graubünden branch. In response, the national SVP withdrew its support from Widmer-Schlumpf and its other Federal Councillor, fellow SVP moderate Samuel Schmid, from the party, along with Widmer-Schlumpf's whole cantonal section. The SVP thus formed the first opposition group in Switzerland since the 1950s.

In 2008, the SVP demanded that Widmer-Schlumpf resign from the Federal Council and leave the party. When she refused, the SVP demanded that its Grisons branch expel her. Since Swiss parties are legally federations of cantonal parties, the federal SVP could not expel her itself. The Grisons branch stood by Widmer-Schlumpf, leading the SVP to expel it from the party. Shortly afterward, the Grisons branch reorganised itself as the Conservative Democratic Party (BDP). Soon afterward, virtually all of the SVP's Bern branch, including Schmid, defected to the new party. The SVP regained its position in government in late 2008, when Schmid was forced to resign due to a political scandal, and was replaced with Ueli Maurer.

The 2011 federal election put an end to the continuous progression of the SVP since 1987. The party drew 26.6% percent of the vote, a 2.3-point decrease from the previous elections in 2007. This loss could be partly attributed to the split of the BDP, which gained 5.4% of the vote in 2011. However the SVP rebounded strongly in the 2015 federal election, gathering a record 29.4% of the national vote and 65 seats in parliament. Media attributed the rise to concerns over the European migrant crisis. The party received the highest proportion of votes of any Swiss political party since 1919, when proportional representation was first introduced, and it received more seats in the National Council than any other political party since 1963, when the number of seats was set at 200. The SVP gained a second member in the Federal Council again, with Guy Parmelin replacing Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf after the party's election gains.

Ideology

The SVP adheres to national conservatism, aiming at the preservation of Switzerland's political sovereignty and a conservative society. Furthermore, the party promotes the principle of individual responsibility and is skeptical toward any expansion of governmental services. This stance is most evident in the rejection of an accession of Switzerland to the European Union, the rejection of military involvement abroad, and the rejection of increases in government spending on social welfare and education. The SVP "does not reject either democracy or the liberal order," and the terms "right-wing populist" or "far-right" are rarely used to describe it in Switzerland.

The emphasis of the party's policies lies in foreign policy, immigration and homeland security policy as well as tax and social welfare policy. Among political opponents, the SVP has gained a reputation as a party that maintains a hard-line stance.

Foreign policy
In its foreign policy the SVP opposes the growing involvement of Switzerland in intergovernmental and especially supranational organisations, including the UN, EEA, EU, Schengen and Dublin treaties, and closer ties with NATO. The party stands for a strict neutrality of the country and the preservation of the strong role of the Swiss Armed Forces as the institution responsible for national defense. They believe that the army should remain a militia force and should never become involved in interventions abroad.

In June and July 2010, the party used the silly season for floating the notion of a "Greater Switzerland", where instead of Switzerland joining the EU, the border regions of Switzerland's neighbours would join Switzerland, submitted in July in the form of a motion to the Federal Council by Dominique Baettig, signed by 26 SVP Councillors. Some, such as newspaper Die Welt, have also speculated that the initiative could be a response to the suggestion by Muammar al-Gaddafi to dissolve Switzerland and divide its territory among its neighbouring countries.

Another key concern of the SVP is what it alleges is an increasing influence of the judiciary on politics. According to the SVP, this influence, especially through international law, increasingly puts the Swiss direct democracy in question. Public law which is legitimate by direct democracy standards should be agreed upon by the federal court. The European law, which according to the SVP is not democratically legitimate, shall always be subordinate to the Swiss law. The SVP also criticises the judiciary as undemocratic because the courts have made decisions against the will of the majority.

Immigration and Islam
In its immigration policy the party commits itself to make asylum laws stricter and to reduce immigration. The SVP warns of immigration into the social welfare system and criticises the high proportion of foreigners among the public insurance benefit recipients and other social welfare programs. It addresses fears of a loss of prosperity in Switzerland due to immigrants. According to the opinion of the party, such benefits amount to waste of taxpayers' money. Numerous SVP members have shown themselves to be critical of Islam by having participated in the minaret controversy, during which they pushed for an initiative to ban the construction of minarets. In November 2009 this ban won the majority vote (57.5%) and became an amendment to the Swiss Constitution. However, the four existing minarets are not affected by the new legislation. The party has been active in the counter-jihad movement, participating in the 2010 international counter-jihad conference. Other recent victories of the SVP in regards to immigration policy include the federal popular initiatives "for the expulsion of criminal foreigners" (52.3%), and "Against mass immigration" (50.3%) in 2010 and 2014 respectively, all injecting counter-jihad policies into the political mainstream.

The 2014 referendum resulted in a narrow victory for the SVP. Following the vote, the Swiss government entered into negotiations with the EU and, in 2016, concluded an agreement that would provide for preferences for Swiss citizens in hiring. The SVP criticized the agreement as weak. In response, in 2020, the party placed the ballot a referendum called the "For Moderate Immigration" initiative, which would terminate the Free Movement of Persons bilateral agreement within one year of passage. It would also bar the government from concluding any agreements that would grant the free movement of people to foreign nationals. The initiative was opposed by the other major parties in Switzerland. Other parties were concerned that because of the "guillotine clause" in the bilateral agreements, this would terminate all of the Bilateral I agreements with the EU which include provisions on the reduction of trade barriers as well as barriers in agriculture, land transport and civil aviation. Swiss voters rejected the referendum with 61.7% against. Only four cantons voted in favor.

Economy
The SVP supports supply-side economics. It is a proponent of lower taxes and government spending. The SVP is not as liberal in terms of its agricultural policy since, in consideration of it being the most popular party among farmers, it refuses to reduce agricultural subsidies or curtail the current system of direct payments to farmers, to ensure larger farming businesses do not dominate the marketplace. The expansion of the Schengen Area eastward was looked at skeptically by the SVP, which it associated with economic immigration and higher crime rates.

Environment
In terms of the environment, transportation and energy policy the SVP opposes governmental measures for environmental protection. In its transportation policy, the party therefore endorses the expansion of the Swiss motorway network and is against the preference of public transportation over individual transportation. It supports the construction of megaprojects such as AlpTransit but criticizes the cost increases and demands more transparency. In the scope of environmentalism and energy policy, the SVP is against the carbon tax and supports the use of nuclear energy. In the context of reductions of CO2 emissions, the SVP cites the limited impact of Switzerland and instead supports globally, and legally binding agreements to address global climate change.

Social policy
In social welfare policy the SVP rejects expansion of the welfare state, and stands for a conservative society. It opposes the public financing of maternity leave and nursery schools. In its education policy, it opposes tendencies to shift the responsibility of the upbringing of children from families to public institutions. The party claims an excessive influence of anti-authoritarian ideas originating from the protests of 1968. In general, the party supports strengthening crime prevention measures against social crimes and, especially in the areas of social welfare policy and education policy, a return to meritocracy.

The SVP is skeptical toward governmental support of gender equality, and the SVP has the smallest proportion of women among parties represented in the Federal Assembly of Switzerland. It was the only major party represented in the Assembly to oppose the legalization of same-sex marriage.

Party strength over time

 * 1.* indicates that the party was not on the ballot in this canton.
 * 2.Part of the Canton of Bern until 1979.

Leadership

 * Hans Conzett (1971–1976)
 * Fritz Hofmann (1976–1984)
 * Adolf Ogi (1984–1988)
 * Hans Uhlmann (1988–1995)
 * Ueli Maurer (1996–2008)
 * Toni Brunner (2008–2016)
 * Albert Rösti (2016–2020)
 * Marco Chiesa (2020–2024)
 * Marcel Dettling (2024–present)

title: Swiss People's Party


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Talk:Operating environment

Definition of operating environment
The article explains the term operating environment as having to do with the user interface. A little reading off of other Wikipedia articles, in paricular Desktop_environment, makes me wonder if the article is defining desktop environment instead of operating environment.

Also, SUN has since version 9 of Solaris called this operating system the Solaris_Operating_Environment. They are clearly using the term operating environment in a different way.

How do we best deal with this issue? --Gosub 00:45, 20 February 2006 (UTC)

I'd say merge any info here to Desktop environment, then redirect to Operating system. I can't find any common usage of the term "Operating Environment" other than SOE and other product names. Its meaning is probably best rendered as "Operating System, but the marketing guys think this sounds sexier" and doesn't really seem to deserve or provide material for an article. --Sneftel 02:53, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

X-Windows?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris_Operating_Environment

Would X-Windows be an operating environment under this defination? - Gaurav 17:47, 16 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure this article isn't entirely redundant or meaningless - David Gerard 22:36, 30 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Unless I'm mistaken, KDE and Gnome themselves are "desktops" that take advantage of Window managers such as X11 and X.org. Perhaps the article should be changed to reflect that. --- Trevie 15:58, 6 February 2006 (UTC)

Rewrite
I have rewritten the article so it not false, "operating environments" certainly includes command-line interfaces and may possibly mean only environments that are the basic environment of or are integrated with the operating system. GNOME, KDE, etc. are application programs that run atop the X Window System, and according to http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/O/operating_environment.html they may not qualify in the historical meaning. However, common usage and the reasonable meaning of the constituent words would indicate that it is the basic environment in which the user operates, which would include, for example, the desktop environment that a default Linux installation might pop-up and the average user will use. -- Centrx 20:29, 4 June 2006 (UTC)

Web desktops..?
Can a web-based desktop(i.e. www.YouOS.com) be considered a operating environment? As these are becoming more popular, I think they are worth a mention. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.199.207.190 (talk • contribs) 19:11, 27 November 2006
 * Right, Operating environment was the common term for graphical user interfaces running on top of DOS – before Windows became a full operating system, while YouOS is one of many web desktops, which are a form of desktop environment. The desktop environment article is more focused on Unix-like operating systems, and that terminology refers to a component of Windows 95 and its successors. Rather than being a component of DOS, an operating environment ran on top of DOS – the operating environment was not a component of DOS. – Wbm1058 (talk) 04:46, 28 January 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Operating environment


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Leaflet (botany)

A leaflet (occasionally called foliole) in botany is a leaf-like part of a compound leaf. Though it resembles an entire leaf, a leaflet is not borne on a main plant stem or branch, as a leaf is, but rather on a petiole or a branch of the leaf. Compound leaves are common in many plant families and they differ widely in morphology. The two main classes of compound leaf morphology are palmate and pinnate. For example, a hemp plant has palmate compound leaves, whereas some species of Acacia have pinnate leaves.

The ultimate free division (or leaflet) of a compound leaf, or a pinnate subdivision of a multipinnate leaf is called a pinnule or pinnula.

title: Leaflet (botany)