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Warminster

Warminster is a historic market town and civil parish in south-west Wiltshire, England, on the western edge of Salisbury Plain. The parish had a population of 18,173 in 2021.

The name Warminster occurs first in the early 10th century and the Minster Church of St Denys was begun in the 11th century. The High Street and Market Place have many fine buildings including the Athenaeum Centre, the Town Hall, St Lawrence Chapel, The Old Bell and a variety of independent shops. Several Army establishments, known collectively as the Warminster Garrison, are on the edges of the town.

Etymology
The origin of the root Wor is wara, the genitive plural of the Old English noun waru meaning "those that care for, watch, guard, protect, or defend." It was used as an endonym by both Goths and Jutes. Their specific ethnonym is unknown, though it likely was related to the native name of the oppidum at Battlesbury Camp during Sub-Roman times.

The town's name has evolved over time; it was known as Worgemynstre in the early tenth century and was recorded as Guerminstre in the Domesday Book. The noun minster derives from Old English mynster meaning monastery, nunnery, mother church or cathedral, and was given to the town by Saxon settlers in the seventh century.

Early history
The main settlement at Warminster dates back to the Anglo-Saxon period, although there is evidence of pre-historic settlements in the area, especially at the nearby Iron Age hill forts: Battlesbury Camp, Scratchbury Camp and Cley Hill. Two Roman villas have been discovered in the area, as have caches of Roman coins.

By the 10th century, Warminster included a royal manor and an Anglo-Saxon minster, with the residents largely associated with the estate. The royal manor was passed to new lords in the 12th century, during which time the township started to grow. In the 13th century a market was set up at Warminster, and by 1377 the town had 304 poll-tax payers, the tenth largest in Wiltshire.

Civil war
During the Civil War, between 1642 and 1645, the town was the site of a few incidents. A major for the "Roundheads", Henry Wansey, was besieged in Warminster, while a force under Edmund Ludlow entered a skirmish on Warminster Common when trying to relieve him. By 1646, the town had suffered £500 worth of damages by supporting the Roundheads.

Post-medieval prosperity
The market at Warminster was the focus of the town's prosperity, with significant wool, clothing and malting trades established by the 16th century and continuing to be the economic backbone of the town until the 19th century. The market also included a significant corn trade throughout the period and was regarded as the second largest corn market in the west of England in 1830. Unlike many markets of the time where farmers would take only samples to market, Warminster's corn market required a sack from each load of corn to be available to customers; each purchase was to be agreed between 11am and 1pm and paid for by the end of the day.

The town had a large amount of accommodation for visitors to the market, and in 1686 it was ranked fourth for number of places to stay in Wiltshire, with 116 beds. By 1710 there were approximately fifty inns and alehouses in the town. The town was an early adopter of the Turnpikes Act to improve the roads around the town. Unlike many roads improved at the time which would link to towns, Warminster chose to improve seven roads around the town, all under three miles long.

By the late 18th century some 200 dwellings had been built under squatter's rights near Warminster Common, many of them substandard and overcrowded. William Daniell, a 19th-century Methodist minister, reported the reminiscences of a woman born there in the 1770s: unplastered hovels with earth floors, and piles of filth which poisoned the Cannimore Brook, bringing typhus and smallpox. The people were considered rude and drunk criminals. Daniell and members of the clergy were keen to help the residents, and by 1833 the area was considered clean and respectable.

19th and 20th centuries
The town centre was redesigned after 1807 when George Wansey, from a family of clothiers in Warminster, left £1,000 to improve the town, provided his money could be matched by local fundraising. The amount raised was spent on demolishing houses to widen roads. In 1851, a railway line from Westbury was opened, and then in 1856 the line was continued to Salisbury. The railway had a devastating effect on the town's market, which fell away almost to nothing; the shops and inns lost most of their business, and the local industries declined.

In 1907, a committee was put together to advertise the town, creating a town guide and advertising in national publications. The committee could not come to an agreement with Lord Bath over the location of a new hotel.

The headquarters and factory of luxury glovemakers Dents moved to the town in 1937, where it has remained since.

Between 1937 and 1965, a significant military presence formed at Warminster, with the addition of camps, a permanent barracks at Battlesbury, married quarters, a School of Infantry, and workshops for vehicle repairs.

Church of England
St Denys's Church is the town's oldest, and is claimed to have had minster status, as there was a church here in the 10th century. Rebuilding was carried out in the 14th century, and in 1889 the church was mostly rebuilt, with a longer nave.

As the town's population grew in the 19th century, two more churches were built: Christ Church in 1831 to serve the south of the town, and St John's in 1865 in the southeast. All three churches are listed, St Denys' and St John's churches are Grade II* and Christ Church is Grade II.

Town chapel
The chapel of St Lawrence, on the High Street near the market place, has been a chapel-of-ease to St Denys since at least 1290. Its tower is from the late 13th or early 14th century, but the rest was rebuilt in 1855–7. The people of the town bought the chapel in 1574, giving it the status of a non-royal peculiar outside the jurisdiction of the Church of England. Since then has been administered by feoffees (trustees) on behalf of the town, and they invite the vicar of St Denys' to hold services.

Others
Methodists built a chapel on George Street, west of the town centre, in 1804; it was rebuilt in 1861. The congregation amalgamated with the United Reformed Church in 1983 to form the United Church. A predecessor of the URC opened a chapel at Common Close in 1720, which by 1829 had a congregation of 900, leading to the chapel being rebuilt for a second time in 1839; notable ministers included Daniel Fisher (1752 to 1771) and Geoffrey Nuttall (1938 to 1943). Numbers fell in the 20th century, and after the 1983 amalgamation the chapel was demolished in 1987.

The Baptist chapel in North Row, off the High Street, was built in 1810 using red brick with stone dressings; by 1829 there were 250 in the congregation. Its interior was remodelled c.1850.

St Giles' Garrison Church, Imber Road, was built in 1968.

St George's Roman Catholic Church, Boreham Road, in the Diocese of Clifton, was built in 1922 to designs of Bristol architect Sir Frank William Wills.

College and convent
James Erasmus Philipps, vicar of St Denys from 1859 to 1897, raised funds in 1860 to found a college for young men in a house on Church Street. It evolved into a missionary college called St Boniface Missionary College, and its building was greatly enlarged in 1901 and 1927. From 1948 until closure in 1969, as Warminster Theological College, it was a post-graduate facility of King's College London. Today its buildings are part of Warminster School.

Philipps also led the foundation of an order of nuns, the Community of St Denys, in 1879. The nuns ran St Monica's School for Girls, which merged with Lord Weymouth's Grammar School in 1973 to form Warminster School. Since the retirement of the last nun in the early 21st century, the order operates as a grant-making charity.

Notable buildings and structures
Warminster has one Grade I listed building: Portway House, to the north of the town centre, built for a wealthy clothier in 1722. The Bath stone house has a seven-bay front flanked by later extensions, and is set back from the road behind ornamental ironwork dated 1760.

Other Bath stone houses include 38–40 Market Place, late 18th century or early 19th, now shops at street level; and The Chantry, 34 High Street. Both are Grade II* listed.

Further Grade II* listed buildings include the churches of St Denys and St John; Byne House, Church Street, 1755; and Warminster School, 1708, endowed by Lord Weymouth, two storeys with attic, seven-bay front. Wren House, Vicarage Street, of 1720 or 1730, is described by Historic England as "a fine example of an early Georgian 5-bay house". The Pound Street maltings, at what was the western edge of the town, are a rebuilding of 1879 in rubble stone with some ashlar. The Athenaeum Centre, designed by William Jervis Stent and built in 1857, is Wiltshire's oldest working theatre.

At the triangular junction of Vicarage Street and Silver Street stands a tall stone obelisk, crowned with a reeded urn and pineapple, which was erected in 1873 on the site of an earlier high cross to commemorate the inclosure of the parish. Warminster Town Hall, at the junction of the High Street and Weymouth Street, was designed c. 1837 by Edward Blore at the expense of the 5th Marquess of Bath; the two-storey front elevation is a replica of Longleat, with the addition of a central bellcote, clock and coat of arms. The building was sold by the district council in 1979.

Governance
Warminster falls within the parliamentary constituency of South West Wiltshire, which has been represented since 2001 by Andrew Murrison for the Conservatives.

There are two levels of local government: Wiltshire Council – the unitary authority for the county – and Warminster Town Council, which has 13 elected councillors.

Until 2009, when it was abolished, West Wiltshire District Council acted as the second tier of local government.

Geography
Warminster is in south-west Wiltshire, near to the Somerset border. The town is surrounded by six hills, providing shelter and security for early settlers. Warminster is also close to the former Selwood Forest.

A minor river known as The Were flows through the town to join the River Wylye on the south-east outskirts.

The former hamlets of Bugley (west of the town on the Frome road) and Boreham (east towards Bishopstrow) are now part of Warminster's suburbs.

Population
The Domesday survey of 1086 recorded 104 households, largely craftsmen for the royal demesne, but the population had grown by 1377 to 304 poll-tax payers, making Warminster the tenth largest village in Wiltshire. In 1665, the population had increased to 354 households, approximately 1,800 people. The area contained by the turnpike gates included 2,605 people in 1781.

Economy
As Warminster is in an area of fertile land, much of its early economy was through farming, especially cereals. William Daniell commented in 1879 that Warminster lay 'in the midst of a fine corn-country', and Warminster's market provided the backbone of the economy through the 16th to 19th centuries. Alongside cereals, wool and clothing were traded and there were a number of maltings in the town.

Warminster's clothing trade suffered greatly in the early 19th century, as there was no suitable river to power machinery during a period of industrialisation. At the same time its malting trade declined but remained important. In 1855, William Morgan commissioned the Pound Street Maltings, which Pevsner found to be derelict in 1974; today, malt is again produced there under new management.

The coming of the railway line from Westbury in 1851, continued to Salisbury in 1856, had a devastating effect on the town's market, which fell away almost to nothing, and the shops and inns lost most of their business. In 1860, Warminster was described as "a clean-swept, semi-aristocratic, decidedly poor place... in a lukewarm, stagnant, bankrupt state." However, by that year the town had begun to adopt new trades in brewing and iron-founding, which eventually grew enough to mitigate the loss of other business. One example was the Woodcock Ironworks, set up by John Wallis Titt in the town in the mid-1870s to make agricultural machines.

During the 20th century, Warminster's economy became more dependent on the British Army and its associated service industries, but other new businesses also came into the area, such as intensive poultry farming, banana ripening, and shoe manufacture. During the late 20th century and early 21st century, the leisure industry has grown in the area, with Longleat and Center Parcs Longleat Forest becoming significant employers.

Amenities
Warminster has a library, museum, theatre, sports centre with pool, and a selection of independent shops and restaurants, as well as a thriving community, including a choral society called 'The Athenaeum Singers'. Annual events in the area include an illuminated carnival, a vintage bus run and heritage open days.

The Athenaeum is an 1858 Grade II listed building and Wiltshire's oldest working theatre venue. Originally a literary institution, with lectures, plays and concerts, and later a cinema and arts centre, it is now a theatre and centre for the community. Facilities at the Lakeside Pleasure Grounds (run by Warminster Town Council) include children's play activities, tennis courts, a skate park, children's splash pool and a boating lake leading to the Henford's Marsh nature reserve; the park was opened by Thomas Thynne, 5th Marquess of Bath, in 1924 on the site of the town's former rubbish tip. A children's play area was added in 1938 with a grant from the national King George V memorial foundation.

About 4 mi to the west is Longleat, the country house of the Marquess of Bath, and its estate which has included Longleat Safari Park since 1966; the first drive-through safari park outside Africa, it is home to over 500 animals, including giraffes, monkeys, rhinos, lions, tigers and wolves. The nearby Longleat Forest is also home to a Center Parcs holiday village.

Media
The Warminster Journal is the local paid-for weekly newspaper. Published since 1881, it covers the surrounding villages as well as the town. The town is also within the area of the Wiltshire Times, another weekly newspaper.

Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC West and ITV West Country. Television signals are received from the Mendip and local relay transmitters.

BBC Radio Wiltshire is the BBC Local Radio public service station for the county. Warminster Community Radio (WCR) is the local community station broadcasting from the Civic Centre on 105.5 FM and online. Warminster is the centre of a small commercial radio licensing area, available on 107.5 FM. The licence was first held from 2001 by 3TR FM (Three Towns Radio; referring to Warminster, Westbury and Frome) but from 2008 went through several changes of ownership and station name. Since 2019 the station has been owned by Bauer Radio, and in September 2020 it was rebranded to Greatest Hits Radio which broadcasts national and regional music programmes.

Military presence
The British Army's Waterloo Lines, formerly the Land Warfare Centre, is home to a number of Army specialist training schools and a sizeable portion of the Headquarters Field Army (not to be confused with Army HQ in Andover). The site is also home to Headquarters Small Arms School Corps and Headquarters Infantry, which was formed in 1996 and is responsible for the recruiting, manning and training policies of the Infantry. Harman Lines is a smaller installation nearby; in 2013, elements of the Royal Tank Regiment were here.

Battlesbury Barracks (near the ancient Battlesbury Camp) is the home of the Royal Dragoon Guards, an armoured cavalry regiment. Between 2005 and 2020, forces of the Yorkshire Regiment (latterly the 1st Battalion) were based here; the regiment's 3rd Battalion was awarded the freedom of the town in 2012.

Transport
Warminster is at the junction of two primary routes, the A36 and the A350, which both now bypass the town to the south and east. There is a service area where the two roads meet. The A303 is about 7 mi south of the town, and junctions 17 and 18 of the M4 are 22 mi to the north.

Warminster railway station, which opened in 1851, is a stop on the Wessex Main Line. It is served by two train operating companies:
 * Great Western Railway operates regular services to Bristol Temple Meads, Cardiff Central, Southampton and Portsmouth Harbour; London Paddington can be reached by changing at Westbury. GWR also manages the station.
 * South Western Railway operates services between London Waterloo and Yeovil Pen Mill, via Salisbury.

Warminster's bus services are operated by First Bristol, Beeline Coaches and FromeBus. Routes connect the town with Bath, Frome and Salisbury. Berrys Coaches operates the Superfast 3 route between Taunton and London.

Sport
Warminster has a long history of sporting activities, with many clubs established in the 19th century. Warminster Cricket Club was created in 1838. Its facilities at Sambourne Road have been shared with the local hockey team and the Warminster Table Tennis Club. The West Wilts Hockey Club has origins dating back to 1899 and as of 2016 has 13 adult teams. The architect John Henry Taylor designed the town's Elm Hill golf course in 1891.

Warminster Town Football Club began around 1878 and the site at Weymouth Street was renovated and expanded in the 1990s; they play in Division One of the Western League. The town has a competitive swimming club, which began as part of Wiltshire County Amateur Swimming Association in 1907 and was re-established as Warminster and District Amateur Swimming Club in 1973. The Marquess of Bath is the President of Warminster Rugby Club which began in 1977 and in 1997 established its base at the West Wilts District Council owned Folly Lane multi-sports site.

More recent additions have been the Warminster Sports Centre run by Wiltshire Council, the Warminster Running Club, the Warminster Adventure Sports Club, and the Wessex Blades Fencing Club.

Education
Warminster has several primary schools and two secondary schools: Warminster School, an independent public school which was founded in 1707, and Kingdown School which became an academy in 2011. Nearby Bishopstrow College prepares international students for boarding school.

Utilities
Wessex Water supplies the town's water and sewage services, with water hardness in the town centre reported as 250 mg/L. The distribution network operator for both electricity and gas is SSE plc.

Healthcare
The town has one GP partnership, the Avenue Surgery. The small Warminster Community Hospital has been run since 2016 by Wiltshire Health and Care LLP, who provide community services here and at five other small Wiltshire hospitals. The hospital has an inpatient ward. The nearest minor injuries unit is at Frome, and the nearest general hospitals with Accident and Emergency departments are Salisbury District Hospital and the Royal United Hospital in Bath. Ambulances are provided by the South Western Ambulance Service.

Policing
The town is within the area of Wiltshire Police, who have a station at The Avenue, in the centre of the town near the fire station. Until 2021 the police station was at Station Road, but the Police and Crime Commissioner described that building as "not fit for purpose". As of June 2020, the Community Policing Team consists of:

 * Neighbourhood Inspector (for Warminster, Westbury, Mere and Tisbury)
 * Neighbourhood Sergeant (for the same area)
 * One Police Constable (PC)
 * One Special Constable (SC)
 * Three Police Community Support Officers (PCSO)

The Ministry of Defence Police and Royal Military Police are occasionally to be seen passing through the town, as Warminster Garrison and the Salisbury Plain training area are policed jointly by all three police organisations.

Fire Service
Warminster has a fire station (The Portway, Warminster, BA12 8QE) and its retained firefighters are provided by Dorset & Wiltshire Fire and Rescue Service. They respond to emergencies when alerted by their pagers.

Notable people

 * William Aldridge (1737–1797), independent minister
 * Freddie Bartholomew (1924–1992), child actor
 * Rupert E. Billingham (1921–2002), biologist
 * Benjamin Buckler (1716–1780), antiquary
 * Beryl May Dent (1900–1977), mathematical physicist
 * Henry Huntingford (1787–1867), classical scholar and Church of England clergyman
 * John Philipps, 1st Viscount St Davids (1860–1938), politician
 * Henry Wansey (1751–1827), woollen manufacturer and traveller

Twin towns
Warminster is twinned with:

 * 🇫🇷 Flers, France
 * 🇺🇸 Warminster, Pennsylvania

UFO sightings
Warminster was the location for a number of UFO sightings during the 1960s and 1970s. The first sighting was recorded by Arthur Shuttlewood on 25 December 1964 and he compiled a dossier of further sightings over the following year before giving it to the Daily Mirror to publish. The Daily Mirror's story gained the town some notoriety for UFO sightings, including a BBC documentary in 1966, several books published on the sightings, a 2009 conference on UFOs, a 2010 conference with UFO expert Nick Pope and a 2015 mural with guest speaker Kathleen Marden.

title: Warminster


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Vimy House

Vimy House was a warehouse in the Centretown West neighbourhood of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada that was used to store the collections of the Canadian War Museum from 1983 to 2004. The building, originally known as Champagne Garage was built to house the streetcars of the Ottawa Electric Railway. After the railway's closure in 1959, the Ottawa Transportation Commission (and later the Ottawa-Carleton Regional Transit Commission) used the warehouse for storing their buses up until 1979. The building was later acquired by the Canadian War Museum to be used as a storage facility for its collections when its Sussex Drive facility ran out of space. The building, later renamed Vimy House, became filled with a vast array of aged military paraphernalia including the world's largest collection of Canadian war art. While items from the Vimy House collection would occasionally be put on display at the museum itself, the public could also visit Vimy House on special open house days and tour its collection. The last open house was held on September 6, 2003.

In 2004, the collections at Vimy House were moved into the new Canadian War Museum building at LeBreton Flats. The building was sold and renovated and is now a self storage facility.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Vimy House


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Ice climbing

Ice climbing is a climbing discipline that involves ascending routes consisting of frozen water. To ascend, the ice climber uses specialist equipment, particularly double ice axes (or the more modern ice tools) and rigid crampons. To protect the route, the ice climber uses steel ice screws that require skill to employ safely and rely on the ice holding firm in any fall. Ice climbing routes can vary significantly by type, and include seasonally frozen waterfalls, high permanently frozen alpine couloirs, and large hanging icicles.

From the 1970s, ice climbing developed as a standalone skill from alpine climbing (where ice climbing skills are used on ice and snow). Ice climbing grades peak at WI6 to WI7 as ice tends to hang vertically at its most severe. WI7 is very rare and usually attributed to overhanging ice with serious risk issues (i.e. unstable ice, little protection, and a risk of death). Mixed climbing has pushed the technical difficulty of ice climbing routes by crossing bare rock overhangs and roofs (using ice tools on bare rock is called dry-tooling).

Since 2002, the UIAA have regulated competition ice climbing, which is offered in a lead climbing format on an artificial bolted wall that employs dry-tooling techniques (e.g. stein pulls and figure-four moves), and in a speed climbing format that uses a standardized wall of real ice. Since 2010, ice climbers at Helmcken Falls in Canada have been able to use the unique characteristics of the waterfall to create new severely overhanging bolted ice climbing routes, that are graded up to WI13, and are possibly the hardest ice climbs in the world.

Description
Ice climbing involves using specific pieces of specialized equipment, namely ice tools and crampons, to ascend routes consisting of frozen water ice, and/or frozen snow fields.

As with rock climbing, ice climbing can be done as free climbing, and performed in pairs where the lead climber inserts climbing protection into the route as they ascend. The second climber (or belayer), removes this temporary climbing protection as they climb the route after the lead climber has reached the top. In contrast to free rock climbing, the climbing protection used when leading ice climbing routes is based on the use of specialized steel ice screws. Ice screws require considerable experience to use properly and safely, and given that the underlying condition of the ice can change materially over time (including constantly breaking off), the seriousness of leading an ice climbing route is considered to be greater than that of a traditional rock climbing route. For example, while an intermediate ice climber could top rope a WI4-graded ice climbing route, leading WI4-graded route is a far more serious undertaking. In contrast to rock climbing, "the leader must not fall" ethos is a core part of ice climbing.

Ice climbing can also be done as free solo climbing, which is an even riskier undertaking, or done as top roping which is a much safer form of ice climbing and the format used for novices being introduced to the sport.

Ice climbing was developed as part of the broader climbing discipline of alpine climbing, where it is still a key component of the alpinist's skill set. Where the ice climbing route does not fully consist of ice and has elements of bare rock, it is known as mixed climbing. Where the route has no ice whatsoever, but the climber still uses the ice tools and crampons, it is known as dry-tooling. Because mixed climbing and dry-tooling routes can be fully bolted, like sport climbing rock climbing routes, they have become popular as safer alternatives to traditional ice climbing routes.

Types of routes
Ice climbing can take on a broad range of climbing routes. A common type of ice route is a frozen waterfall, particularly one that cascades down a mountain face or a down-mountain gully. Ice climbing routes can also take the form of high alpine snow-covered couloirs that are permanently frozen year-round. Giant icicles (also known as ice-daggers) have also been climbed as ice routes, and also as part of mixed routes; although such icicles can often dangerously break off and have been a source of several ice climber fatalities.

Ice climbing routes normally don't move beyond the sheer vertical for sustained distances due to the nature of ice (i.e. ice rarely stays in an overhanging fashion for any length of time). This means that standard ice-climbing grades broadly peak at WI6-7 (i.e. WI7 being completely sheer vertical ice and with additional risk issues). In contrast, extreme mixed-climbing routes have been developed beyond the equivalent M8-grade (i.e. crossing bare overhanging rock roofs to get to the vertical hanging icicle, such as Jeff Lowe's groundbreaking Octopussy WI6 M8 in Vail, Colorado).

In Helmcken Falls in Canada, an unusual situation arises where a perennially active waterfall keeps severely overhanging rock faces covered in thick ice, thus creating overhanging ice routes. Ice climbers have established bolted routes (there is enough rock for the bolts) that are graded above WI7 (currently at WI13, as at 2023) in Helmcken.

History
For decades, ice and mixed climbing were part of the alpine climbing skill set. During the 1960s, ambitious early ice climbers began to use pitons to climb harder ice routes but this was dangerous and very unstable. The breakthrough came in the 1960s when Yvon Chouinard designed a new wooden-handled ice axe with a curved serrated pick called the "Climax". This was followed in 1970, when Hamish MacInnes designed the all-metal aluminum alloy ice axe that had a radically dropped pick called the "Terrordactyl" (or Terror). These two ice axes revolutionized ice climbing and eventually became merged into the modern all-metal ice axe (later the ice tool) with its dropped pick but curved and serrated tip (the now familiar "banana shape").

Chouinard and McInnes' ice axes would lead to an explosion of interest in climbing on frozen waterfalls in the North American Rockies and in the European Alps. Ice climber and climbing author Raphael Slawinski wrote in the American Alpine Journal: "By the early 1980s ice climbing, from being merely one of the techniques in the alpinist's arsenal, had evolved into a full-blown technical art. The skills gained on waterfalls also gave rise to a whole new generation of alpine climbs. Slipstream (WI4+, 1979) in the Canadian Rockies blurred the distinction between waterfall ice and alpine climbing; the Moonflower Buttress (WI6 M7 A2, 1983) in the Alaska Range applied the highest levels of ice climbing skill to a major alpine first ascent; and the list goes on. Waterfall ice climbing, though initially pursued for its own sake, ended up revolutionizing alpine climbing".

By the end of the 1980s, ice climbers had effectively reached the limits of what could be climbed at grade WI6-7; ultimately, the inherent tendency of the medium to hang in a vertical fashion limited the possibilities for development. It was mixed climbing that began to drive development in ice climbing as pioneers like Jeff Lowe dry-tooled bare rock overhangs and roofs to get to more radical ice features, such as hanging icicles; the culmination of which was Lowe's historic ascent of Octopussy (WI6, M8) in Vail in 1994, which lead to the birth of modern mixed climbing.

It would not be until 2010 when Tim Emmett and Will Gadd began to put up ice routes at Helmcken Falls in Canada that ice climbing development would take a leap forward in technical development. Helmcken Fall's unique characteristics provided severely overhanging iced-routes, and in the next decade, grades were proposed up to WI13 with Mission to Mars in 2020. Emmett and Gadd consider Helmcken to be a potential Yosemite of ice climbing.

Competition ice climbing
The International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (UIAA) has organized and regulated the sport of competition ice climbing since 2002 when the very first "Ice World Cup" (IWC) competition took place under the new UIAA rules and codes.

Amongst others, the UIAA runs two main competition ice climbing events, the annual Ice Climbing World Cup (which is run as a series of events in the year) and the bi-annual Ice Climbing World Championships (a single, once-off, competition).

Most of the IWC lead climbing routes are held on bolted dry artificial surfaces and thus employ dry-tooling techniques (e.g. stein pulls and figure-four moves). In contrast, the IWC speed-climbing routes are on a standardized 40-50 ft wall of ice that takes seconds for top roped ice climbers to complete (as per speed rock climbing).

Over the years, the UIAA has increased the regulation and use around competition ice climbing equipment, including the prohibition of leashes on ice tools (so they cannot be used as aid), and increased controls on the use of "heel spurs" while climbing (to counter their use for resting).

Climbing

 * Ice axes or the more modern ice tools: Modern ice climbing requires double ice axes (or ergo ice tools); a key decision is whether it uses a leash or not.  Competition ice climbing has prohibited leashes (as they can be used for aid), and most extreme mixed climbing tends not to use leashes.  However, the lack of a leash means that the shock of any sudden "blowout" of the feet, can lead to an immediate fall.
 * Crampons: Ice climbers often use mono-point crampons instead of the more typical dual-point crampons used by alpine climbers, to maintain greater control and cutting accuracy. Some favor the front points to be "vertical" (i.e. like a mini-ice tool), which increases cutting power but is less table and can "blowout" without warning; others use the traditional "horizontal" (i.e. flat like an adze) front points.
 * Ice boots. Ice climbers can use the "shell" or "plastic" rigid mountaineering boots used by alpine climbers, to which crampons are attached. Advanced mixed climbers, and competition ice climbers, use "fruit boots", which are light boots with crampons integrated into the sole.  In addition, fruit boots can add "heel spurs", which are used in mixed climbing for overhangs.

Protection
Where ice climbing is done as lead climbing (i.e. not top roping), the key tool for protection is the ice screw, a hollow metal threaded steel tube with cutting teeth on its base and a hanger eye on the opposite end. It is screwed into the ice and its stability is dependent both on the angle and quality of its placement and the soundness of the ice. Some ice climbs, such as in Helmcken Falls (see below), and mixed and dry-tooling routes, have enough rock to enable them to be bolted like sport climbs, avoiding the need for screws.

As well as ice screws, the ice itself can be used for protection, with the most common technique being the Abalakov thread (or V-thread/A-thread). This consists of two intersecting tunnels bored into the ice using ice screws that form a V-shaped tunnel. A sling is threaded through this tunnel and tied into a loop. The climbing rope is passed through this sling, which remains left behind after use. Because of the difficulty in construction, the common use of V-threads is as anchor points for abseiling or belaying, and not for lead climbing.

WI-grades
Ice climbing uses a WI (for "water ice") grading system. WI-grades broadly equate to the mixed climbing M-grades from WI1 up to WI6, but after M6, mixed climbs become overhanging, which ice does not. WI-grades try to take some account of the difficulty of placing protection on the route but, as with M-grades, are more focused on the technical and physical challenge of the route, and are thus more akin to the French and US sport climbing grades, although as with the US system, the "R/X" suffix is used for danger.

The WI-grade is for "hard ice"; steep snow slopes, which are encountered frequently on alpine climbing routes, are not explicitly graded but instead, their steepest angle (approximate figure or a range) is quoted (e.g. 60–70 degree slope). WI-grade is for "seasonal" hard ice; an AI prefix is used instead for "alpine ice", which is year-round and usually firmer, more stable, making AI-grade routes slightly easier than WI routes.

In Canada, the WI prefix is sometimes dropped from the grade, and for longer multi-pitch ice routes, a "commitment grade" (a Roman numeral from I to VII) is also added to reflect the seriousness of the overall undertaking (e.g. the grade of a Canadian ice route can appear as III-5)

The following WI-grades and descriptions are provided by the American Alpine Club (republished in 2013) who note: "Ice climbing ratings are highly variable by region and are still evolving. ... The following descriptions approximate the average systems:": Additional comment is from  Will Gadd.

 * WI1: "Low angle, no ice tools are required". Like scrambling with 10-point crampons up a frozen river, does not require double ice axes or front-pointing skills.
 * WI2: "Consistent 60º ice with possible bulges; good protection". Beginner routes can, if needed, be climbed with one ice axe; Will Gadd notes that WI2 has "more accidents than any other grade".
 * WI3: "Sustained 70º with possible long bulges of 80º–90º; reasonable rests and good stances for placing screws". Will Gadd calls it "proper technical ice climbing needing a rope and double ice axes".
 * WI4: "Continuous 80º ice fairly long sections of 90º ice broken up by occasional rests". According to Gadd, "Strong novices can top rope WI4, but leading WI4 is serious".
 * WI5: "Long and strenuous, with a rope length of 85º–90º ice offering few good rests; or a shorter pitch of thin or bad ice with protection that’s difficult to place".
 * WI6: "A full rope length of near-90º ice with no rests, or a shorter pitch more tenuous than WI5. Highly technical".  According to Gadd, "the best climbers will find an occasional reason to retreat at WI6".
 * WI7: "As per [WI6] above, but on thin poorly bonded ice or long, overhanging poorly adhered columns. Protection is impossible or very difficult to place and of dubious quality". Gadd calls WI7, "Semi-mythical", and "with a high publicity co-efficient, that often becomes a WI6 on repeat".  In 2023, Climbing magazine wrote that leading Canadian ice climbers such as Quentin Roberts and Marc-André Leclerc had publicly stated that pure WI7 grades could not exist in nature.
 * WI8: "Under discussion". According to Gadd, "only claimed a few times", and "either bad gear and bad ice", or "an overhanging glacial serac that is like an M8 in physicality".

Helmcken routes
In 2010, ice climbers Tim Emmett and Will Gadd began to put up ice routes at Helmcken Falls in Canada that had unique characteristics. Unlike WI7 ice routes that rarely overhang, these routes were significantly overhanging like extreme M-graded routes. This was due to the intense spray from the active waterfall, which covered the overhanging routes in ice so that there was little dry-tooling, with all the movements on hard ice.

As the routes were all bolted like M-grade climbs (a metal detector is used to find the bolts), Emmett and Gadd re-established the link with M-grades as a guide on the WI-grade. The result was a series of new routes that laid claim to being the new "world's hardest ice climbing routes", starting with Spray On at WI10 in 2010, Wolverine at WI11 in 2011, Interstellar Spice at WI12 in 2016, and Mission to Mars at WI13 in 2020.

There has been debate in the ice climbing world around whether Helmcken-WI routes are M-grade climbs. In 2023, British ice climber Neil Gresham said that Helmcken routes are definitely harder than WI7 routes and that a confident M-climber will take time to adjust to the Helmcken WI-equivalent.

Emmett has described Helmcken as the ice climbing equivalent of Yosemite, and it has attracted some of the world's best ice climbers.

M-grades
When ice climbing is done as mixed climbing (i.e. there are both ice and bare rock sections), a separate M-grading grading system is used, which goes from M1, M2, M3, ....., M13, M14, etc.

D-grades
When ice climbing is done as dry-tooling, which is ice climbing on bare rock, the M-grade is replaced by a "D" prefix to denote a pure 'dry-tooling' route, however, the systems are otherwise identical.

Evolution of grade milestones
The following ice climbs are particularly notable in the evolution of ice climbing grade milestones and ice climbing standards from being a skill used by alpine climbing to a standalone sport in its own right:

 * 1979. Slipstream WI4+ Canadian Rockies. First ascent was in 1979 by Jim Elzinga and John Lauchlan; considered an important early example of the blurring between alpine climbing and pure ice climbing and the first major alpine, serac waterfall route in the Rockies.
 * 1983. Gimme Shelter WI6 Canadian Rockies. First ascent was in 1983 by Kevin Doyle and Tim Friesen; considered an early WI7 contender in ice climbing, and the hardest ice route at the time; grade since softened to WI6.
 * 1987. Riptide WI6-7 Canadian Rockies. First ascent was in 1987 by Larry Ostrander and Jeff Marshall; considered an early WI7 contender in ice climbing, and the hardest ice route at the time; grade since softened to WI6+.
 * 1988. Reality Bath WI7 X Canadian Rockies. First ascent was in 1988 by Mark Twight and Randy Rackliff; never been repeated and described by Albi Sole in the Canadian Rockies guide book as "so dangerous as to be of little value except to those suicidally inclined"; possibly first-ever WI7.
 * 1989. Repentance Super WI5-6 Val di Cogne, Italy. First ascent was in 1989 by a non-local team of François Damilano, Gian Carlo Grassi, and Fulvio Conta; considered the hardest ice climb in Europe at the time and a breakthrough in standards; mostly bolted now and grade softened.
 * 2002. Rites of Passage WI7+ Mount Kitchener, Canadian Rockies. First ascent was in 2002 by Eric Dumerac and Philippe Pellet; initially graded WI8, but considered one of the few routes that are truly above WI7 (pre-Helmcken Falls), and the hardest route in the world at the time.
 * 2010. Centrecourt WI7+ Gasteinertal, Austria. First ascent was in 2010 by Albert Leichtfried and Benedikt Purner; considered one of the hardest routes in the world at the time and another of the few ice climbing routes at WI7+.

The grade milestones at Helmcken Falls are as follows:

 * 2010. Spray On WI10. First ascent by Tim Emmett and Will Gadd at Helmcken Falls; first-ever WI10 in ice climbing; bolted.

 * 2011. Wolverine W11. First ascent by Tim Emmett and Klemen Premrl at Helmcken Falls; first-ever WI11 in ice climbing; bolted.
 * 2016. Interstellar Spice W12. First ascent by Tim Emmett and Klemen Premrl at Helmcken Falls; first-ever WI12 in ice climbing; bolted.
 * 2020. Mission to Mars W13. First ascent by Tim Emmett and Klemen Premrl at Helmcken Falls; first-ever WI13 in ice climbing; bolted.

Free solo
A number of ice climbers have set new grade milestones in a free solo climbing style (i.e. no protection such as ice screws):

 * 1997. Sea of Vapours WI6+ Canadian Rockies. Free solo in 1997 by Guy Lacelle. Sea of Vapours was considered WI7+ at the time.
 * 2017. Beta Block Super WI7 Breitwangfluh, Switzerland. Free solo in 2017 by Dani Arnold.

In film
A number of notable climbing films have been made that feature ice climbing, including:
 * The Alpinist, a 2021 documentary film about the late Canadian alpinist Marc-André Leclerc, featuring his free solo ascent of several ice routes
 * Touching the Void, a 2003 docudrama about a famous alpine climbing rescue in the Peruvian Andes

title: Ice climbing


text:
Cannock

Cannock is a town in the Cannock Chase district in the county of Staffordshire, England. It had a population of 29,018. Cannock is not far from the towns of Walsall, Burntwood, Stafford and Telford. The cities of Lichfield and Wolverhampton are also nearby.

Cannock lies to the north of the West Midlands conurbation on the M6, A34 and A5 roads and to the south of Hednesford and the Cannock Chase Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Cannock is served by a railway station on the Chase Line. The town comprises four district council electoral wards and the Cannock South ward includes the civil parish of Bridgtown, but the rest of Cannock is unparished.

History
Cannock was in the Domesday Book of 1086. It was called Chnoc c.1130, Cnot in 1156, Canot in 1157, and Canoc in 1198. Cannock is probably Old English cnocc meaning 'hillock', modified by Norman pronunciation by the insertion of a vowel to Canoc. The name may refer to Shoal Hill, north-west of the town.

Cannock was a small rural community until mining increased heavily during the mid-to-late 19th century. The area then continued to grow rapidly with many industries coming to the area because of its proximity to the Black Country and its coal reserves. Cannock's population continued to increase steadily in the 20th century and its slight fall since the 1981 census has been more than compensated for by house-building in the adjoining village of Heath Hayes. The last colliery to close in the town was Mid Cannock in 1967, and the last remaining colliery to close in the Cannock Chase area was Littleton (in Huntington) in 1993.

The total population of the built-up area defined in 2011 was 86,121, making it the second largest in Staffordshire if Swadlincote in Derbyshire is excluded from the Burton upon Trent Built-up Area (BUA). There is some green belt, particularly between the Cannock BUA and the much larger West Midlands BUA to the south. As well as the Lichfield, Stafford, East Staffordshire, and South Staffordshire Districts.

A house known as The Green, which dated from the 1730s and which was the home of Sir Robert Fisher, 4th Baronet, became the headquarters of Cannock Urban District Council in 1927. It was converted into offices in the 1980s, initially for Cannock Chase Technical College but, in 2016, it was refurbished for private use.

Cannock Chase German war cemetery is located nearby containing 4,885 German military dead from the First and Second World Wars. It is managed by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.

Geography
Cannock is on a south-west facing slope, falling from the highest point on Cannock Chase (244 m) at Castle Ring, to about 148 m in the town centre and 111 m near Wedges Mills. The soil is light with a gravel and clay subsoil, and there are extensive coal measures.

Climate
Cannock has a moderate, temperate climate. See Penkridge weather station for details of average temperature and rainfall figures taken between 1981 and 2010 at the Met Office weather station in Penkridge (around 5 miles (8 km) north-west of Cannock).

Location
Cannock is about 20 mi by road north-north-west of Birmingham, 80 mi south-south-east of Manchester and 130 mi north-west of London. It is 9 to 10 mi by road from many of the nearest towns and cities (Aldridge, Lichfield, Stafford, Walsall, Willenhall and Wolverhampton), but Hednesford (2 mi), Burntwood and Penkridge (5 mi), Bloxwich and Brownhills (6 mi) and Rugeley (7 mi) are nearer.

Demography
In the decade to 2011 the number of dwellings rose by 7.8% to 13,152. The ward with the biggest increase (16.1%) was Cannock South. Of the town's 12,690 households in the 2011 census, 31.5% were one-person households including 13.9% where that person was 65 or over. 63.6% were one family with no others (9.0% all pensioners, 30.9% married or same-sex civil partnership couples, 12.3% cohabiting couples and 11.3% lone parents). 27.7% of households had dependent children including 5.5% with no adults in employment. 59.3% of households owned their homes outright or with a mortgage or loan.

Of the town's 23,717 residents in the 2011 census aged 16 and over, 33.5% were single (never married), 45.2% married, 0.15% in a registered same-sex civil partnership, 2.6% separated, 10.4% divorced and 8.2% widowed. 33.4% had no formal qualifications and 42.9% had level 2+ qualifications, meaning 5+ GCSEs (grades A*-C) or 1+ 'A' levels/ AS levels (A-E) or equivalent minimum.

72.7% of the 10,509 men aged 16 to 74 were economically active, including 45.1% working full-time, 5.6% working part-time and 12.6% self-employed. The male unemployment rate (Male unemployment)(of those economically active) was 9.9%. 60.7% of the 10,724 women aged 16 to 74 were economically active, including 26.8% working full-time, 23.5% working part-time and 3.1% self-employed. The female unemployment rate (of those economically active) was 7.5%.

Of people in employment aged 16 to 74, 13.5% worked in basic industries (ONS categories A, B, and D-F including 11.1% in construction), 14.2% in manufacturing, and 72.2% in service industries (ONS categories G-U including 19.5% in wholesale and retail trade and vehicle repair, 11.6% in health and social work, 7.4% in education, 6.2% in transport and storage, 5.8% in public administration, 5.6% in accommodation and catering, and 4.7% in administrative and support service activities). While 27.7% of households did not have access to a car or van, 76.1% of people in employment travelled to work by car or van.

75.5% of residents described their health as good or very good. The proportion who described themselves as White British was 95.6%, with all white ethnic groups making up 97.4% of the population. The ethnic make-up of the rest of the population was 1.0% mixed/multiple ethnic groups, 0.69% Indian/Pakistani/Bangladeshi, 0.34% Chinese, 0.17% other Asian, 0.35% Black and 0.065% other. 3.1% of Cannock's residents were born outside the United Kingdom.

Newspapers
Cannock had a free weekly local newspaper, the Cannock & Rugeley Chronicle (an edition of the Cannock & Lichfield Chronicle). It ceased as a physical publication in October 2018 although it is still available as a paid-for subscription via the Express & Star website (see below)

Another free weekly, the Chase Post (an edition of the Cannock Chase & Burntwood Post), ceased publication in November 2011.

The Express & Star is a paid-for local newspaper, published in Wolverhampton on weekdays.

TV
Regional TV news is provided by BBC West Midlands and ITV Central. Television signals can be received from either the Sutton Coldfield or The Wrekin TV transmitters.

Radio
Cannock is served by the national radio stations, and West Midlands "regional" licences Greatest Hits Radio Birmingham & The West Midlands, Smooth West Midlands, Heart West Midlands and Capital Midlands. The town is also covered by Free Radio Black Country and Shropshire on 97.2 and BBC Radio WM on 95.6 FM.

Cannock is served by its own community radio station, called Cannock Chase Radio FM, based in Wynns Venture Centre.The FM frequencies are 94fm for the Cannock and Hednesford area. 89.6 for Rugeley and Trent Valley and 89.8 For Lichfield and beyond. People can also listen back on their digital streaming devices.

Transport
Cannock is located close to the M6, M6 Toll and M54 motorways. The main A roads are the A5 (east-west) and A34 (north-south).

Rail
Cannock railway station closed in 1965 as part of the Beeching cuts but reopened in 1989. It is part of the Rugeley – Cannock – Walsall – Birmingham line operated by West Midlands Trains. Over the years, usage of this station, and the line overall, have increased to unprecedented levels. Services initially were hourly services between Birmingham New Street and Stafford (cut back to Rugeley Trent Valley in 2008). By 2013, usage had become significant enough to warrant electrification of the railway line, which was completed in 2019.

The Rugeley - Hednesford - Cannock - Walsall - Birmingham line operated by West Midlands Trains serves the three railway stations in the conurbation. These are at Hednesford, Cannock, and Landywood. There was also a service to Stafford on the Chase Line but this was cut back to Rugeley due to congestion on the West Coast Main Line.

In May 2019, West Midlands Trains began operating electric trains from this station. The vast majority of services are to Rugeley Trent Valley in the north, southbound trains operate to Birmingham International and London Euston. The journey time to Birmingham is around 36 minutes. On Sundays, trains operate as far south as Coventry.

Bus
D&G Bus operate the majority of bus services around Cannock from a depot at Delta Way under the Chaserider brand.

Arriva Midlands were previously the main operator around Cannock but their operations based at their Cannock depot were sold to D&G Bus during 2020.

Select Bus Services also operate a small number of services while National Express West Midlands service X51 links Cannock with Birmingham via Walsall and Great Wyrley.

No Chaserider buses operate on Sunday or bank holiday, however National Express service X51 does with funding from the McArthurGlen Designer outlet which the bus serves.

Cannock Bus Station also has links to Hednesford, Rugeley, Stafford, Lichfield, Wolverhampton, Walsall, Brownhills in addition to smaller towns and villages like Great Wyrley, Chadsmoor and Norton Canes.

Education
Cannock Chase High School is a non-denominational mixed comprehensive with just over 1000 pupils aged 11–18.

Cardinal Griffin Catholic College is a voluntary aided Roman Catholic secondary school with around 950 pupils aged 11–18.

Chase Grammar School (called Lyncroft House School 1980–1996 then Chase Academy until January 2013) is an independent co-educational boarding school with a day nursery and over 200 pupils up to age 19 including many international students.

South Staffordshire College closed its Cannock Campus in July 2017, but reopened it the following summer as the new Cannock Chase Skills and Innovation Hub with courses starting there from September 2018.

Public service

 * Walter Colman (1600 in Cannock – 1645) a Franciscan friar.
 * Henry Sacheverell (1674–1724) High Church Anglican clergyman, Rector of Cannock and polemical preacher.
 * Frank Edward Tylecote CBE (1879 in Cannock – 1965), physician, Professor of Medicine at Manchester University, and early researcher into link between smoking and lung cancer
 * Vernon Rylands Parton (1897 in Cannock – 1974), prolific inventor of chess variants, including Alice Chess
 * Jennie Lee (1904–1988), MP for Cannock 1945–1970, Minister in the Department of Education and Science and the driving force for the creation of the Open University
 * Raymond Furnell (1936–2006), curate of Cannock 1965–69 and the Dean of York 1994-2003
 * Bill Skitt CBE BEM QPM (1941 – 2016), a distinguished British police officer.
 * Sir Patrick McLoughlin (born 1957) a Conservative politician, MP for the Derbyshire Dales, went to school in Cannock
 * Richard Davies (born 1959), a doctor in the Falklands and New Zealand.

The Arts

 * Arthur Hopcraft (1932–2004) author, reporter & TV scriptwriter, wrote perceptively of his upbringing in Cannock
 * Elgar Howarth (born 1935 in Cannock) an English conductor, composer and trumpeter
 * Mel Galley (1948 in Cannock – 2008) former Whitesnake guitarist and songwriter
 * Glenn Hughes (born 1952 in Cannock) former bassist/vocalist with Deep Purple
 * Carole Ashby (born 1955 in Cannock) an English actress and former pin-up girl
 * Robert Lloyd (born 1959 in Cannock) the lead singer with The Nightingales and formerly with The Prefects
 * Jed Mercurio (born 1966) a British television writer, producer, director and novelist; brought up in Cannock
 * Steve Edge (born 1972 in Cannock) an English actor, writer and former comedian
 * Balaam and the Angel a Scottish rock band founded in Cannock in 1984
 * Chris Overton (born 1988 in Cannock) an English actor and filmmaker

Sport

 * Alec Talbot (1902 in Cannock – 1975) footballer, 260 caps mainly for Aston Villa F.C.
 * Tom Galley (1915 in Cannock - 2000) footballer, over 200 caps mainly for Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.
 * Harry Kinsell (1921 in Cannock – 2000) footballer, over 200 caps mostly for West Brom and West Ham
 * Gordon Lee (born 1934 in Cannock), footballer and football manager
 * Malcolm Beard (born 1942 in Cannock), footballer with 350 caps, mostly for Birmingham City F.C.
 * Jim Rhodes (1946 in Cannock – 2015) professional golfer
 * Paul Cooper (born 1953 in Cannock) football goalkeeper, over 500 caps mostly for Ipswich Town,
 * Geoff Palmer (born 1954 in Cannock), footballer, over 460 caps, mostly for Wolves
 * Bobby Hosker (born 1955 in Cannock) footballer, over 300 pro appearances
 * Vernon Allatt (born 1959 in Cannock) footballer, over 250 pro appearances
 * Steve James (born 1961 in Cannock) former professional snooker player
 * Dave Norton (born 1965 in Cannock), footballer, over 430 pro appearances
 * Mick Gosling (born 1972), winner of Britain's Strongest Man contest in 2005
 * Richard Gosling (born 1974 ) winner of Britain's Strongest Man contest in 2003
 * Kevin Pietersen (born 1980), South African-born English cricketer, played for Cannock Cricket Club in 2000
 * Andy Bishop (born 1982 in Cannock), footballer, over 450 pro appearances
 * Kris Taylor (born 1984 in Cannock), footballer, over 340 pro appearances
 * Riley Parsons (born 2000 in Cannock), professional snooker player

Twin town
Cannock is twinned with:

 * Datteln, Germany 🇩🇪

title: Cannock


text:
Environmental protection

Environmental protection is the practice of protecting the natural environment by individuals, groups and governments. Its objectives are to conserve natural resources and the existing natural environment and, where it is possible, to repair damage and reverse trends.

Due to the pressures of overconsumption, population growth and technology, the biophysical environment is being degraded, sometimes permanently. This has been recognized, and governments have begun placing restraints on activities that cause environmental degradation. Since the 1960s, environmental movements have created more awareness of the multiple environmental problems. There is disagreement on the extent of the environmental impact of human activity, so protection measures are occasionally debated.

Voluntary environmental agreements
In industrial countries, voluntary environmental agreements often provide a platform for companies to be recognized for moving beyond the minimum regulatory standards and thus support the development of the best environmental practice. For instance, in India, Environment Improvement Trust (EIT) has been working for environmental and forest protection since 1998. In developing countries, such as Latin America, these agreements are more commonly used to remedy significant levels of non-compliance with mandatory regulation.

Ecosystems approach
An ecosystems approach to resource management and environmental protection aims to consider the complex interrelationships of an entire ecosystem in decision-making rather than simply responding to specific issues and challenges. Ideally, the decision-making processes under such an approach would be a collaborative approach to planning and decision-making that involves a broad range of stakeholders across all relevant governmental departments, as well as industry representatives, environmental groups, and community. This approach ideally supports a better exchange of information, development of conflict-resolution strategies and improved regional conservation. Religions also play an important role in the conservation of the environment: for example, the Catholic Church's Compendium on its social teaching states that "environmental protection cannot be assured solely on the basis of financial calculations of costs and benefits. The environment is one of those goods that cannot be adequately safeguarded or promoted by market forces."

International environmental agreements
Many of the earth's resources are especially vulnerable because they are influenced by human impacts across different countries. As a result of this, many attempts are made by countries to develop agreements that are signed by multiple governments to prevent damage or manage the impacts of human activity on natural resources. This can include agreements that impact factors such as climate, oceans, rivers and air pollution. These international environmental agreements are sometimes legally binding documents that have legal implications when they are not followed and, at other times, are more agreements in principle or are for use as codes of conduct. These agreements have a long history with some multinational agreements being in place from as early as 1910 in Europe, America and Africa.

Many of the international technical agencies formed after 1945 addressed environmental themes. By the late 1960s, a growing environmental movement called for coordinated and institutionalized international cooperation. The landmark United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm in 1972, establishing the concept of a right to a healthy environment. It was followed by the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme later that year. Some of the most well-known international agreements include the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 and the Paris Agreement of 2015.

On 8 October 2021, the UN Human Rights Council passed a resolution recognizing access to a healthy and sustainable environment as a universal right. In the resolution 48/13, the Council called on States around the world to work together, and with other partners, to implement the newly recognized right.

On 28 July 2022, the United Nations General Assembly voted to declare the ability to live in "a clean, healthy and sustainable environment" a universal human right.

Government
Discussion concerning environmental protection often focuses on the role of government, legislation, and law enforcement. However, in its broadest sense, environmental protection may be seen to be the responsibility of all the people and not simply that of government. Decisions that impact the environment will ideally involve a broad range of stakeholders including industry, indigenous groups, environmental group and community representatives. Gradually, environmental decision-making processes are evolving to reflect this broad base of stakeholders and are becoming more collaborative in many countries.

Tanzania
Many constitutions acknowledge Tanzania as having some of the greatest biodiversity of any African country. Almost 40% of the land has been established into a network of protected areas, including several national parks. The concerns for the natural environment include damage to ecosystems and loss of habitat resulting from population growth, expansion of subsistence agriculture, pollution, timber extraction and significant use of timber as fuel.

Environmental protection in Tanzania began during the German occupation of East Africa (1884–1919)—colonial conservation laws for the protection of game and forests were enacted, whereby restrictions were placed upon traditional indigenous activities such as hunting, firewood collecting, and cattle grazing. In 1948, Serengeti has officially established the first national park for wild cats in East Africa. Since 1983, there has been a more broad-reaching effort to manage environmental issues at a national level, through the establishment of the National Environment Management Council (NEMC) and the development of an environmental act. Division of the biosphere is the main government body that oversees protection. It does this through the formulation of policy, coordinating and monitoring environmental issues, environmental planning and policy-oriented environmental research. The National Environment Management Council (NEMC) is an institution that was initiated when the National Environment Management Act was first introduced in year 1983. This council has the role to advise governments and the international community on a range of environmental issues. The NEMC the following purposes: provide technical advice; coordinate technical activities; develop enforcement guidelines and procedures; assess, monitor and evaluate activities that impact the environment; promote and assist environmental information and communication; and seek advancement of scientific knowledge.

The National Environment Policy of 1997 acts as a framework for environmental decision making in Tanzania. The policy objectives are to achieve the following:
 * Ensure sustainable and equitable use of resources without degrading the environment or risking health or safety.
 * Prevent and control degradation of land, water, vegetation and air.
 * Conserve and enhance natural and man-made heritage, including biological diversity of unique ecosystems.
 * Improve condition and productivity of degraded areas.
 * Raise awareness and understanding of the link between environment and development.
 * Promote individual and community participation.
 * Promote international cooperation.
 * Use ecofriendly resources.

Tanzania is a signatory to a significant number of international conventions including the Rio Declaration on Development and Environment 1992 and the Convention on Biological Diversity 1996. The Environmental Management Act, 2004, is the first comprehensive legal and institutional framework to guide environmental-management decisions. The policy tools that are parts of the act include the use of environmental-impact assessments, strategics environmental assessments, and taxation on pollution for specific industries and products. The effectiveness of shifting of this act will only become clear over time as concerns regarding its implementation become apparent based on the fact that, historically, there has been a lack of capacity to enforce environmental laws and a lack of working tools to bring environmental-protection objectives into practice.

China
Formal environmental protection in China House was first stimulated by the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm, Sweden. Following this, they began establishing environmental protection agencies and putting controls on some of its industrial waste. China was one of the first developing countries to implement a sustainable development strategy. In 1983 the State Council announced that environmental protection would be one of China's basic national policies and in 1984 the National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA) was established. Following severe flooding of the Yangtze River basin in 1998, NEPA was upgraded to the State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) meaning that environmental protection was now being implemented at a ministerial level. In 2008, SEPA became known by its current name of Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China (MEP).

Environmental pollution and ecological degradation has resulted in economic losses for China. In 2005, economic losses (mainly from air pollution) were calculated at 7.7% of China's GDP. This grew to 10.3% by 2002 and the economic loss from water pollution (6.1%) began to exceed that caused by air pollution. China has been one of the top performing countries in terms of GDP growth (9.64% in the past ten years). However, the high economic growth has put immense pressure on its environment and the environmental challenges that China faces are greater than most countries. In 2021 it was noted that China was the world's largest greenhouse gas emitter, while also facing additional environmental challenges which included illegal logging, wildlife trafficking, plastic waste, ocean pollution, environmental-related mismanagement, unregulated fishing, and the consequences associated with being the world's largest mercury polluter. All these factors contribute to climate change and habitat loss. In 2022 China was ranked 160th out of 180 countries on the Environmental Performance Index due to poor air quality and high GHG emissions.

Ecological and environmental degradation in China have health related impacts; for example, if current pollution levels continue, Chinese citizens will lose 3.6 billion total life years. Another issue is that non-transmittable diseases among Chinese, which cause at least 80% of 10.3 million annual deaths, are worsened by air pollution.

China has taken initiatives to increase its protection of the environment and combat environmental degradation:
 * China's investment in renewable energy grew 18% in 2007 to $15.6 billion, accounting for ~10% of the global investment in this area;
 * In 2008, spending on the environment was 1.49% of GDP, up 3.4 times from 2000;
 * The discharge of CO (carbon monoxide) and SO2 (sulfur dioxide) decreased by 6.61% and 8.95% in 2008 compared with that in 2005;
 * China's protected nature reserves have increased substantially. In 1978 there were only 34 compared with 2,538 in 2010. The protected nature reserve system now occupies 15.5% of the country; this is higher than the world average.

Rapid growth in GDP has been China's main goal during the past three decades with a dominant development model of inefficient resource use and high pollution to achieve high GDP. For China to develop sustainably, environmental protection should be treated as an integral part of its economic policies.

Quote from Shengxian Zhou, head of MEP (2009): "Good economic policy is good environmental policy and the nature of environmental problem is the economic structure, production form and develop model."

Since around 2010 China appears to be placing a greater emphasis on environmental and ecological protection. For example, former General Secretary Hu Jintao's report at the 2012 Party Congress added a section focusing on party policy on ecological issues.

Xi Jinping's report at the 19th CPC National Congress in 2017 noted recent progress in ecological and environmental conservation and restoration, the importance of ecologically sustainable development and global ecological security, and the need to provide ecological goods to meet people's growing demands. Most importantly, Xi Jinping has suggested clearly identifiable methods to meet the ecological demands of the country. Some of the solutions he notes are the need for the development and facilitation of: ecological corridors, biodiversity protection networks, redlines for protecting ecosystems, market-based mechanisms for ecological compensation in addition to afforestation, greater crop rotation, recycling, waste reduction, stricter pollution standards, and greener production and technology. The report at the 19th CPC National Congress isn't simply the personal thoughts from Xi Jinping, it's a product of a long process of compromise and negotiation among competing party officials and leaders.

Additionally, the Third Plenum of the CCP in 2013 included a manifesto that placed extreme emphasis on reforming management of the environment, promising to create greater transparency of those polluting, and placing environmental criteria above GDP growth for local official evaluations.

Reform has not come cheap for China. In 2016, it was noted that in response to pollution and oversupply, China laid off around six million workers in state-owned enterprises and spent $23 billion to cover layoffs specifically for coal and steel companies between 2016 and 2019. While expensive, other benefits of environmental protection have been noticed beyond impacting citizens' health. For example, in the long run, environmental protection has been found to generally improve job quality of migrant workers by reducing their work intensity, while increasing social security and job quality.

Different local governments in China implement different approaches to solving the issue of ecological protection, sometimes with negative consequences for the citizens. For example, a prefecture in the Shanxi province imposed bans, and potential legal detentions or steep fines for violations, on coal-burning by villagers. Although the government provided free gas-heaters often the villagers were unable to afford to run them. In Wuhan, automated surveillance technology and video is used to catch illegal fishing, and in some cities not recycling results in negative social credit points. It is unclear in some of these instances if citizens have any potential routes for recourse.

News in 2023 has found that the Chinese Communist Party's recent war on pollution has already brought substantial and measurable impacts, including China's particulate pollution levels dropping 42% from 2013 levels and increasing the average lifespan expectancy of citizens by an estimated 2.2 years.

India
The Constitution of India has a number of provisions demarcating the responsibility of the Central and State governments towards Environmental Protection. The state's responsibility with regard to environmental protection has been laid down under article 48-A of the constitution which stated that "The states shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forest and wildlife of the country".

Environmental protection has been made a fundamental duty of every citizen of India under Article 51-A (g) of the constitution which says "It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures".

Article 21 of the constitution is a fundamental right, which states that "No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law".

Middle East
The Middle Eastern countries become part of the joint Islamic environmental action, which was initiated in 2002 in Jeddah. Under the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, the member states join the Islamic Environment Ministers Conference in every two years, focusing on the importance of environment protection and sustainable development. The Arab countries are also awarded the title of best environment management in the Islamic world.

In August 2019, the Sultanate of Oman won the award for 2018–19 in Saudi Arabia, citing its project "Verifying the Age and Growth of Spotted Small Spots in the Northwest Coast of the Sea of Oman".

Russia
In Russia, environmental protection is considered an integral part of national safety. The Federal Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology is the authorized state body tasked with managing environmental protection. However, there are a lot of environmental issues in Russia.

European Union
Environmental protection has become an important task for the institutions of the European Community after the Maastricht Treaty for the European Union ratification by all of its member states. The EU is active in the field of environmental policy, issuing directives such as those on environmental impact assessment and on access to environmental information for citizens in the member states.

Ireland
The Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland (EPA) has a wide range of functions to protect the environment, with its primary responsibilities including:
 * Environmental licensing
 * Enforcement of environmental law
 * Environmental planning, education, and guidance
 * Monitoring, analyzing and reporting on the environment
 * Regulating Ireland's greenhouse gas emissions
 * Environmental research development
 * Strategic environmental assessment
 * Waste management
 * Radiological protection

Switzerland
The environmental protection in Switzerland is mainly based on the measures to be taken against global warming. The pollution in Switzerland is mainly the pollution caused by vehicles and the litteration by tourists.

Latin America
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has identified 17 megadiverse countries. The list includes six Latin American countries: Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru and Venezuela. Mexico and Brazil stand out among the rest because they have the largest area, population and number of species. These countries represent a major concern for environmental protection because they have high rates of deforestation, ecosystems loss, pollution, and population growth.

Brazil
Brazil has the largest amount of the world's tropical forests, 4,105,401 km2 (48.1% of Brazil), concentrated in the Amazon region. Brazil is home to vast biological diversity, first among the megadiverse countries of the world, having between 15%-20% of the 1.5 million globally described species.

The organization in charge of environment protection is the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment (in Portuguese: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, MMA). It was first created in the year 1973 with the name Special Secretariat for the Environment (Secretaria Especial de Meio Ambiente), changing names several times, and adopting the final name in the year 1999. The Ministry is responsible for addressing the following issues:
 * A national policy for the environment and for water resources;
 * A policy for the preservation, conservation and sustainable use of ecosystems, biodiversity, and forests;
 * Proposing strategies, mechanisms, economic and social instruments for improving environmental quality, and sustainable use of natural resources;
 * Policies for integrating production and the environment;
 * Environmental policies and programs for the Legal Amazon;
 * Ecological and economic territorial zoning.

In 2011, protected areas of the Amazon covered 2,197,485 km2 (an area larger than Greenland), with conservation units, like national parks, accounting for just over half (50.6%) and indigenous territories representing the remaining 49.4%.

Mexico
With over 200,000 different species, Mexico is home to 10–12% of the world's biodiversity, ranking first in reptile biodiversity and second in mammals —one estimate indicates that over 50% of all animal and plant species live in Mexico.

The history of environmental policy in Mexico started in the 1940s with the enactment of the Law of Conservation of Soil and Water (in Spanish: Ley de Conservación de Suelo y Agua). Three decades later, at the beginning of the 1970s, the Law to Prevent and Control Environmental Pollution was created (Ley para Prevenir y Controlar la Contaminación Ambiental).

In the year 1972 was the first direct response from the federal government to address eminent health effects from environmental issues. It established the administrative organization of the Secretariat for the Improvement of the Environment (Subsecretaría para el Mejoramiento del Ambiente) in the Department of Health and Welfare.

The Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources (Secretaría del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, SEMARNAT ) is Mexico's environment ministry. The Ministry is responsible for addressing the following issues:
 * Promote the protection, restoration, and conservation of ecosystems, natural resources, goods, and environmental services and facilitate their use and sustainable development.
 * Develop and implement a national policy on natural resources
 * Promote environmental management within the national territory, in coordination with all levels of government and the private sector.
 * Evaluate and provide determination to the environmental impact statements for development projects and prevention of ecological damage
 * Implement national policies on climate change and protection of the ozone layer.
 * Direct work and studies on national meteorological, climatological, hydrological, and geohydrological systems, and participate in international conventions on these subjects.
 * Regulate and monitor the conservation of waterways

In November 2000 there were 127 protected areas; currently there are 174, covering an area of 25,384,818 hectares, increasing federally protected areas from 8.6% to 12.85% of its land area.

Australia
In 2008, there was 98,487,116 ha of terrestrial protected area, covering 12.8% of the land area of Australia. The 2002 figures of 10.1% of terrestrial area and 64,615,554 ha of protected marine area were found to poorly represent about half of Australia's 85 bioregions.

Environmental protection in Australia could be seen as starting with the formation of the first national park, Royal National Park, in 1879. More progressive environmental protection had it start in the 1960s and 1970s with major international programs such as the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in 1972, the Environment Committee of the OECD in 1970, and the United Nations Environment Programme of 1972. These events laid the foundations by increasing public awareness and support for regulation. State environmental legislation was irregular and deficient until the Australian Environment Council (AEC) and Council of Nature Conservation Ministers (CONCOM) were established in 1972 and 1974, creating a forum to assist in coordinating environmental and conservation policies between states and neighbouring countries. These councils have since been replaced by the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC) in 1991 and finally the Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC) in 2001.

At a national level, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the primary environmental protection legislation for the Commonwealth of Australia. It concerns matters of national and international environmental significance regarding flora, fauna, ecological communities and cultural heritage. It also has jurisdiction over any activity conducted by the Commonwealth, or affecting it, that has significant environmental impact. The act covers eight main areas:
 * National Heritage Sites
 * World Heritage Sites
 * Ramsar wetlands
 * Nationally endangered or threatened species and ecological communities
 * Nuclear activities and actions
 * Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
 * Migratory species
 * Commonwealth marine areas

There are several Commonwealth protected lands due to partnerships with traditional native owners, such as Kakadu National Park, extraordinary biodiversity such as Christmas Island National Park, or managed cooperatively due to cross-state location, such as the Australian Alps National Parks and Reserves.

At a state level, the bulk of environmental protection issues are left to the responsibility of the state or territory. Each state in Australia has its own environmental protection legislation and corresponding agencies. Their jurisdiction is similar and covers point source pollution, such as from industry or commercial activities, land/water use, and waste management. Most protected lands are managed by states and territories with state legislative acts creating different degrees and definitions of protected areas such as wilderness, national land and marine parks, state forests, and conservation areas. States also create regulation to limit and provide general protection from air, water, and sound pollution.

At a local level, each city or regional council has responsibility over issues not covered by state or national legislation. This includes non-point source, or diffuse pollution, such as sediment pollution from construction sites.

Australia ranks second place on the UN 2010 Human Development Index and one of the lowest debt to GDP ratios of the developed economies. This could be seen as coming at the cost of the environment, with Australia being the world leader in coal exportation and species extinctions. Some have been motivated to proclaim it is Australia's responsibility to set the example of environmental reform for the rest of the world to follow.

New Zealand
At a national level, the Ministry for the Environment is responsible for environmental policy and the Department of Conservation addresses conservation issues. At a regional level the regional councils administer the legislation and address regional environmental issues.

United States
Since 1970, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been working to protect the environment and human health.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an independent executive agency of the United States federal government tasked with environmental protection matters.

All US states have their own state-level departments of environmental protection, which may issue regulations more stringent than the federal ones.

In January 2010, EPA Administrator Lisa P. Jackson published via the official EPA blog her "Seven Priorities for EPA's Future", which were (in the order originally listed): it is unclear whether these still represent the agency's active priorities, as Jackson departed in February 2013, and the page has not been updated in the interim.
 * Taking action on climate change
 * Improving air quality
 * Assuring the safety of chemicals
 * Cleaning up [US] communities
 * Protecting America's waters
 * Expanding the conversation on environmentalism and working for environmental justice
 * Building strong state and tribal partnerships

In literature
There are numerous works of literature that contain the themes of environmental protection but some have been fundamental to its evolution. Several pieces such as A Sand County Almanac by Aldo Leopold, "Tragedy of the commons" by Garrett Hardin, and Silent Spring by Rachel Carson have become classics due to their far reaching influences. The conservationist and Nobel laureate Wangari Muta Maathai devoted her 2010 book Replenishing the Earth to the Green Belt Movement and the vital importance of trees in protecting the environment.

The subject of environmental protection is present in fiction as well as non-fictional literature. Books such as Antarctica and Blockade have environmental protection as subjects whereas The Lorax has become a popular metaphor for environmental protection. "The Limits of Trooghaft" by Desmond Stewart is a short story that provides insight into human attitudes towards animals. Another book called The Martian Chronicles by Ray Bradbury investigates issues such as bombs, wars, government control, and what effects these can have on the environment.

title: Environmental protection


text:
Amaliada

Amaliada (Αμαλιάδα, Katharevousa: Ἀμαλιάς, Amaliás) is a town and a former municipality in northwestern Elis, West Greece, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Ilida, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 251.945 km2. It is near the archaeological site of Elis, the city-state whose territory was the site of the ancient Olympic Games. It is situated in the plains of Elis, 6 km from the Ionian Sea. It is 10 km southeast of Gastouni, 16 km northwest of Pyrgos and 60 km southwest of Patras.

Amaliada was named after Queen Amalia of Greece in the 1830s, and formed by merging two communes, Kalitsa and Dervitselepi. It features a city square with pine trees and a fountain. Most of the streets are in grid order running almost due north, south, east, and west. On the east side, Amaliada has a public sports stadium (mainly used for soccer). The hospital and the monastery of Frangavilla are in the southeast. Amaliada has a train station on the line from Patras to Pyrgos. A street in Amaliada's west side is named Hiroshima in memory of the victims of the nuclear destruction of Hiroshima at the end of World War II. Kourouta and Palouki are the beaches of Amaliada, about 6 km southwest of the town centre.

Subdivisions
The municipal unit Amaliada is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):
 * Agios Dimitrios (Agios Dimitrios, Kolokythas)
 * Agios Ilias
 * Amaliada (Amaliada, Agios Ioannis, Kourouta, Marathea, Palouki, Panagia, Tsafleika, Tsichleika)
 * Ampelokampos
 * Archaia Ilida
 * Avgeio
 * Chavari (Chavari, Agios Georgios, Pera Chavari)
 * Dafni (Dafni, Kalathas)
 * Dafniotissa
 * Douneika (Douneika, Agia Marina, Danika, Kato Kertezaiika)
 * Geraki (Geraki, Analipsi)
 * Kalyvia Ilidos
 * Kardamas (Kardamas, Petroules)
 * Kentro
 * Keramidia
 * Kryonero
 * Peristeri (Peristeri, Asteraiika, Palaiolanthi)
 * Roviata (Roviata, Kasidiaris, Paralia, Romeika)
 * Savalia
 * Sosti

Sporting teams
Amaliada is the seat of Koroivos which plays in A1 Ethniki. The town also hosts the football team Asteras Amaliada F.C. with earlier presence in Gamma Ethniki.

Notable people

 * Nikos Beloyannis (1915–1952), communist and resistance leader
 * Mitsos Alexandropoulos (1924–2008), writer
 * Yovanna (1940- ), singer and author
 * Angeliki Skarlatou (1973- ), sailor
 * Rallis (1994- ), Airman

Twin towns — sister cities
Amaliada is twinned with:
 * 🇹🇷 Edremit, Turkey since 2000

title: Amaliada


text:
Worshipful Company of Tobacco Pipe Makers and Tobacco Blenders

The  Worshipful Company of Tobacco Pipe Makers and Tobacco Blenders is one of the Livery Companies of the City of London. The Company ranks 82nd in the order of precedence of the Companies. It does not have its own livery hall but is peripatetic, meeting instead at halls of various other Livery Companies.

The company's motto is Producat Terra, Latin for Out of the Earth. Its church is St. Lawrence Jewry next Guildhall, the official Church of the Corporation of London, located on Gresham Street.

History
The company was first incorporated in 1619 by Royal Charter granted by King James I, with responsibility for regulating the manufacture of clay tobacco pipes in the City of London. In 1643, following the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642, the Company forfeited its Charter through non-payment of its annual rent to King Charles I. The company was restored by King Charles II in 1663 but was declared bankrupt in 1868 after its powers of regulation over tobacco pipe makers were abolished and its income from its members had declined significantly. The company was reincorporated as the Worshipful Company of Tobacco Pipe Makers and Tobacco Blenders in 1954 by members of the Briar Pipe and Tobacco Trades, and in 1960 became a Livery Company once more, ranked 82nd in the order of precedence.

The Company elected its first female Master, Fiona J Adler, in 2011. Fiona was the first woman to became a Freeman (by patrimony) and in 1997 she had become the first female Liveryman as well as a Trustee of the Benevolent Fund and subsequently Master of the Company. Her grandfather was the first Master of the Third Company in 1954 and was again elected Master in 1965. Her father was Master of the Company in 1982. Fiona was elected Non-Aldermanic Sheriff of the City of London for 2014–15.

Modern activities and Officers
In common with most of the other City Livery Companies, the company is no longer a trade association and is concerned only with philanthropy, benevolence and fellowship. Its freemen and liverymen enjoy a range of social events and activities. They donate and raise funds that are invested to enable dividends to be distributed to a range of charities and educational institutions through the company's Benevolent Fund, as well as to members of the tobacco trade and their families who may need support.

The Master of the company for 2024-25 is Henry Tuck. Sandra Stocker is the Clerk.


text:
M21

M21 or M-21 may refer to:

Transportation

 * M21 (New York City bus), a New York City Bus route in Manhattan
 * M-21 highway (Michigan), a road connecting Flint and Grand Rapids
 * M21 (East London), a Metropolitan Route in East London, South Africa
 * M21 (Pretoria), a Metropolitan Route in Pretoria, South Africa
 * M21 (Durban), a Metropolitan Route in Durban, South Africa
 * Highway M21 (Ukraine)

Military

 * HMS M21, Royal Navy M15 class monitor; sunk in 1918
 * M21 mine, an American circular anti-tank landmine
 * M21 Sniper Weapon System, a sniper rifle based on the M14 rifle
 * Zastava M21, a Serbian assault rifle
 * the carrier aircraft for the Lockheed D-21
 * M21 Mortar Motor Carriage, a Half-Track carrying an 81mm Mortar

Other

 * BMW M21, a 1983 2.4 L diesel straight-6 engine
 * MSrE M-21, Hungarian aerobatics aircraft
 * Lockheed M-21, an American reconnaissance drone carrier aircraft
 * MacGregor 21, an American sailboat design
 * Messier 21, an open star cluster in the constellation Sagittarius
 * Proton Putra, car model sold in Australia as Proton M21
 * M postcode area, M21 Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Firswood area of Manchester

title: M21