text:
Talk:Merkava/Archive 1

Cost
May be useful for this and other 'military equipment' articles: Include cost per unit data, if available. That can be important.

 * Since it is internal Israeli production and not intended for sale, there is no "price tag" on the Merkava. However, Israeli officer stated that it is cheper for Israel to obtain Merkava tanks rather than buy the M1A2 Abrams tank. MathKnight 21:26, 3 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Images
Can anyone upload a GNU liscened pictured of Merkava tank? MathKnight 21:55, 3 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * For temporary, here is a picture from Hebrew Wikipedia. If anyone has better picture with no copyright problems (fair use, GNU etc) please add it. MathKnight 11:24, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Several images were uploaded by now, so i removed the req for imgs altmany 00:16, 29 January 2006 (UTC)

Is M. the 1st air conditioned tank?
I have heard rumours that the Merkava line was an air conditioned tank

from the start, and that it was the first tank in the world with this capability. Can someone please substantiate or debunk this? BACbKA 23:59, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * I know that Mk3 was designed with built-in AC and NBC system (1990). MathKnight 11:17, 20 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Absolutely not. From my sources, I know that the T-80 tank had an AC and NBC, and that tank was released a couple of years before the Merkava. AllStarZ 06:00, 6 February 2006 (UTC)

If a tank has NBC protection doesnt that mean that it must have some sort of air conditioning
 * Not A/C in the sense of something that cools it. HVAC yes, a/c no. // 3R1C 23:59, 16 February 2007 (UTC)
 * HVAC includes AC. One can have ventilation and overpressure without AC, but the HVAC acronym includes Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning.  I'm not sure the Merkava was first.Mzmadmike 19:51, 25 February 2007 (UTC)

Etymology
It would be useful if the term merkava was also explained as being an early Jewish mystical tradition. Merkava would then be Gods chariot. the mystic tries to get to that chariot. 2nd to 6th century Jewish Mysticism.

 * Added disambiguation link to top. AnonMoos 03:55, 29 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Whether this is true or not (I assume it's true) I'm 100% sure this was NOT related to the decision to use this word in Hebrew - it's designers being sechular military people working for the Israeli government. Jewish mysticism is (or at least was) not part of the mainstream Israel common concience. Penedo 07:18, 1 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Mysticism isn't part of the mainstream in a lot of countries, and yet millitary equiptment is often named for aspects of it. If that's where the name comes from it's completely relevant and very interesting to state it. OzoneO 08:19, 3 September 2006 (UTC)

I was told it was called merkava due to this being the hebrew word for any chariot and the tank is akin to a chariot with its propulsion source at the front

Markings on their tanks
Hi, I'm curious to know what the markings on their tanks signify. Most of the ones I've seen have a large, upside down 'v' character on them. It is not hebrew now english, so I'm very curious to know what it means. See an example here: http://www.pitt.edu/AFShome/s/o/sorc/public/html/pittsjp/enfanttank.gif Thanks, Adidas 15:16, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

 * It's a tactical marking designating what platoon or company the tank belongs to. GABaker 18:10, 5 August 2005 {UTC)

 * Thank you GABaker Adidas 08:24, 8 August 2005 (UTC)

the v repesents the first company, < the second and V upside down- the third. the number of stripes on the canon represents the number of the batallion in the brigade.

appearance in popular culture
Are references to appearances in pop culture (movies, videogames) appropriate for articles on military hardware? NEMT 19:50, 13 March 2006 (UTC)

* Armament
I think the "or" for the coaxial armament should be changed to either "and" or "and/or" since you will see it most common to have BOTH a coaxial 7.62 MG (internal)and a 50cal coaxial (sitting on top of the cannon). Case in point is the pic someone provided in a different section above

http://www.pitt.edu/AFShome/s/o/sorc/public/html/pittsjp/enfanttank.gif

Also there is no pic of a mk 4

And new tech for the merkava is the Trophy active armour system developed by Rafael.

http://www.rafael.co.il/marketing/SIP_STORAGE/FILES/7/607.pdf

Like any other tank, the Merkava is vulnerable to remotely operated landmines.

??? They destroyed thoose Merkavas with 100 kg TNT, not usual mines!!!

short chains
What are the short chains hanging off the back of the turret? --Gbleem 03:44, 11 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Most likely serve to protect against shaped-charge weapons such as RPGs by pre-detonating them, thereby reducing the effectiveness of the warhead (shaped charges need a fairly precise standoff distance to work well). Riddley 22:34, 12 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Could a dangling chain trip the trigger? --Gbleem 22:39, 21 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Riddley is right. They are called sa'arot Shulamit. Don't know why. --Shuki 20:45, 24 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Shulamit, as far as I remember, was the laydey who messed up Shimshon (Samson). All I can find on the net about this term is about some sort of a fern with that name, according to the Hebrew Wikipedia it's translated to "Adiantum capillus-veneris" (see: http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA).
 * The girl's name was Delilah. I couldn't fing any biblical reference to Sulamith or Shulamit or similar. Another thing - sa'arot Shulamit means Sulamith's hair in hebrew. --Super.zhid 08:10, 1 September 2006 (UTC)

Numbers?
How many of which types are in service?

 * 250 Mk.1 (all upgraded to Mk1.B)
 * 550-600 Mk.2 (some upgraded to Mk2.D)
 * 550-600 Mk.3 (including Mk.3 Baz and Mk.3D)
 * 150-200 Mk.4

Merkava variants
- Merkava 1 (Merkava Mk 1)

- Merkava 1 Bet (Merkava Mk 1B)

- Merkava 2 (Merkava Mk 2)

- Merkava 2 Bet (Merkava Mk 2B)

- Merkava 2 Bet dor Dalet (Merkava Mk 2D)

- Merkava 3 (Merkava Mk 3)

- Merkava 3 Bet (Merkava Mk 3B)

- Merkava 3 Bet BAZ (Merkava Mk 3B BAZ)

- Merkava 3 Bet BAZ dor Dalet (Merkava Mk 3D)

- Merkava 4 (Merkava Mk 4)

- Namer

- Namera

- Slammer (Sholef) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.50.102.115 (talk • contribs)

 * - Merkava 4 Bet (Merkava Mk 4B) --Shuki 20:49, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

Merkava ambulance exterior
Hi. I'm intersted in the exterior of a Merkava MEDEVAC version. Does it have the Magen David Adom mark on it? (Talk:Ambulance) --GunnarRene 14:59, 23 August 2006 (UTC)

50 hit 30 killed 100 injured
during the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict 50 Merkavas were hit and damaged, with 30 crew members killed and 100 injured - the numbers looks too round, are they accurate? --Super.zhid 22:07, 31 August 2006 (UTC)

 * No. Flayer 14:28, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Quite accurate

Internal mortar
Since this appears to be an unusual feature on a tank, does anyone have any more infomation on the internal mortar, such as where it is located/fires out of, or indeed a photo of it? Hellfire83 18:16, 1 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Made by Soltam, quite easy to use, range, and correct targeting, full operation from inside including loading. Non-static firing pin. --Shuki 21:38, 4 November 2006 (UTC)

Infantry compartment
I always though the Merkava could carry a few infantrymen in the back. Is this just a myth based on the back door? —Michael Z. 2006-11-13 04:38 Z

 * True. The internal ammunition containers are removable. --Shuki 21:05, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

Version Nomenclature
Since there is no official documenation (that I can find) that dictates the naming conventions on the merkava, edits of "Merkava Mk.1" to "Mark 1" (and subsequent versions) were made with the interest of wikifying the article. If the anonymous editor that consistently makes those edits would like to post a legitimate reference to this naming scheme, feel free. I'm assuming that you are basing these edits off of Israel-Weapons.com, and the conventions there are not considered official. Thanks! 3R1C 13:46, 2 December 2006 (UTC)

Merkava - Program
When in doubt about article naming, simply do a straw poll of other similar articles. There is no reason for this article to stand out with 'program'. Every major weapon system is a long-term program. If someone feels that the Merkava deserves two articles than see how it was done here: Space Shuttle. As for the first paragraph, why is the number of manufactures/suppliers so important to get to right away? Please rewrite. --Shuki 19:57, 31 December 2006 (UTC)

Powerpack / Powerplant
To the anonymous editor that keeps changing powerplant to powerpack, in reference to the engine of the tank: It's powerplant. When referring to the primary power source of a mechanical device. Please see the first item on "powerplant." it's going to be either powerplant or engine, not powerpack. // 3R1C 21:26, 21 December 2006 (UTC)
 * The US military also uses "powerpack" in reference to a modular and changeable assembly. The engine is the powerplant.  The engine, transmission, related support equipment and gearing is colloquially called a "powerpack" if it can be removed as one assemblyMzmadmike 19:58, 25 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Just pick one or thoe other. // 3R1C 13:32, 26 February 2007 (UTC)

Unsourced statements
Two anonymouse editors (or possible one on two addresses) have been on a spree of adding unsourced statements. Removal of these statements resulted in reversions, so as a result, I am tagging every unsourced statement. Hopefully these editors will cease adding data without sources, and will start sourcing their statements. // 3R1C 23:54, 2 January 2007 (UTC)

Ya, and now the article looks like shit with a "citation needed" superscript after every sentence. Way to go. 24.65.141.226 00:09, 7 January 2007 (UTC)
 * As opposed to the entire article being completely speculative? Right. // 3R1C 14:48, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

I agree with the person above; there are far two many requests for citations in this article, when some of the description is self-explanatory, as in

"Placing the powerplant at the front of the tank added a large amount of mass to the front area of the tank while moving the main turret towards the back of the hull[citation needed]. The relocation of these core systems allows for proper visual balance and weight distribution throughout the platform, as well as affording the crew more protection from a frontal attack[citation needed]."

As in, 'putting the engine in front means there's another big dang hunk of metal between the crew and the majority of incoming hostile fire'. Yes, that makes sense. Rather than requiring the original author to source some treatise on tank design, I'd say someone in disagreement has the burden of evidence on them.

Mechanikermaat 05:29, 3 February 2007 (UTC)

 * After 3216513216 anonymous POV edits, it was done to prevent an editor from continuously from violating POV and NOR. Since that author has decided to stop making such edits, I've removed a good portion of them. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 3R1C (talk • contribs) 13:48, 3 February 2007 (UTC).

OT Paragraph
The very last paragraph, beginning with "It is only with the accuracy of time and hindsight...", seems to be a rant about the 2006 Lebanon war and also quite biased. Either way it has nothing to do with the Merkava MBT. Should probably be removed? // Sarastro 17:04, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

 * The entire last general remarks section is very interesting reading but entirely OR. 'According to this', 'according to that' doesn't hold water on WP. everything has to be 'hard' sourced. --Shuki 21:40, 8 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Agreed. It should go // 3R1C 22:13, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Merkava/Archive 1


text:
Arques

Arques may refer to the following places in France:

 * Arques, Aude, in the Aude department
 * Arques, Aveyron, in the Aveyron department
 * Arques, Pas-de-Calais, in the Pas-de-Calais department
 * Arques-la-Bataille, in the Seine-Maritime department, along the Arques River
 * Battle of Arques (1589)
 * Arques (river), a river in the Seine-Maritime department of northern France

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Arques


text:
Heinrich Harrer

Heinrich Harrer (6 July 1912 – 7 January 2006) was an Austrian SS sergeant, mountaineer, explorer, writer, sportsman, and geographer. He was a member of the four-man climbing team that made the first ascent of the North Face of the Eiger, the "last problem" of the Alps, in July 1938. Harrer and the team flew the Nazi flag atop the mountain. Harrer had joined the Nazi party shortly after the annexation of Austria in March 1938, and was personally received by Hitler after the climb. A year later in 1939, he and the climbing team went on an expedition to the Indian Himalayas, where they were arrested by British forces because of the outbreak of World War II. He eventually escaped to Tibet, staying there until 1951 and never seeing active combat from that point onwards. He wrote the books Seven Years in Tibet (1952) and The White Spider (1959).

Early life
Heinrich Harrer was born 6 July 1912 in Hüttenberg, Austria, in the district of Sankt Veit an der Glan in the state of Carinthia. His father, Josef Harrer, was a postal worker. From 1933 to 1938, Harrer studied geography and sports at the Karl-Franzens University in Graz. Harrer became a member of the traditional student corporation ATV Graz.

In 1935, Harrer was designated to participate in the Alpine skiing competition at the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen. The Austrian Alpine skiing team, however, boycotted the event due to a conflict regarding the skiing instructors' status as professionals. As a result, Harrer did not participate.

In 1937, Harrer won the downhill event at the World Student Championships at Zell am See.

Eiger North Face
Mountain climbing was Harrer's true passion. Knowing an extraordinary feat of climbing could win him a place on a Himalayan expedition, Harrer and a friend, Fritz Kasparek, resolved to be the first to climb the North Face of the Eiger (3,967 m, 13,025 ft) in Switzerland. The near vertical wall, with its ice-field known as The White Spider, had claimed several lives; and the Bernese authorities even banned climbing it. Following his final university exams in July 1938, Harrer and Kasparek traveled to Kleine Scheidegg at the foot of the Eiger and set out on their climb. Halfway up the mountain, Harrer and Kasparek encountered another team making the attempt, Ludwig Vörg and Anderl Heckmair from Germany. The four decided to make the rest of the climb as a single team, with the experienced Heckmair leading.

Throughout the climb, the four men were constantly threatened by snow avalanches and rock falls. They were caught in an avalanche as they climbed the White Spider on the upper face, but all possessed sufficient strength to resist being swept off the face. The members successfully reached the summit at four o'clock in the afternoon 24 July 1938. This first ascent of the Eiger North Face was described by Italian climber Reinhold Messner as "a glorious moment in the history of mountaineering and a great sensation, since several climbers had previously perished on the Face", made headlines around the world, and is recounted in Harrer's book The White Spider, published in 1959.

Nazi involvement
In 1996, ORF editor and filmmaker Gerald Lehner found in American archives the membership card of Harrer, who joined the Sturmabteilung (SA) in October 1933. After the Anschluss of March 1938, as Germany annexed Austria, he joined the Schutzstaffel (SS) on 1 April. He held the rank of Oberscharführer (Sergeant), and on 1 May he became a member of the Nazi Party. After their ascent of the Eiger North Face, the four climbers were received by and photographed with Adolf Hitler. Harrer later said he wore his SS uniform only once, on the day of his marriage to Charlotte Wegener, daughter of the eminent explorer and scholar Alfred Wegener. After returning to Europe in 1952, Harrer was cleared of any pre-war crimes and this was later supported by Simon Wiesenthal. In his memoir, Beyond Seven Years in Tibet, Harrer called his involvement with the Nazi Party a mistake made in his youth, when he had not yet learned to think for himself.

Internment in India
In 1939, Harrer joined a four-man expedition, led by Peter Aufschnaiter, to the Diamir Face of the Nanga Parbat with the aim of finding an easier route to the peak. Having concluded that the face was viable, the four mountaineers were in Karachi, India at the end of August, waiting for a freighter to take them home. The ship being long overdue, Harrer, Ludwig, and Hans Lobenhoffer tried to reach Persia (Iran), but several hundred kilometres north-west of Karachi they were arrested by British soldiers as enemy aliens and escorted back to Karachi, where Aufschnaiter had stayed. Two days later, war was declared, and on 3 September 1939 all were put behind barbed wire to be transferred to a detention camp at Ahmednagar near Bombay. They considered escaping to Portuguese Goa, but when further transferred to Dehradun to be detained there for years with 1,000 other enemy aliens, they found Tibet more promising, the final goal being the Japanese front in Burma or China.

Aufschnaiter and Harrer escaped and were re-captured a number of times before finally succeeding. On 29 April 1944, Harrer and six others, including Rolf Magener and Heins von Have (disguised as British officers), Aufschnaiter, the Salzburger Bruno Treipel (aka Treipl) and the Berliners Hans Kopp and Sattler (disguised as native Indian workers), walked out of the camp. Magener and von Have took the train to Calcutta and from there found their way to the Japanese army in Burma.

The others headed for the closest border via Landour. After Sattler gave up on 10 May, the remaining four entered Tibet on 17 May 1944, crossing the Tsang Chok-la Pass (5,896 m, 19,350 ft) and thereafter split into two groups: Harrer and Kopp, Aufschnaiter and Treipel. On 17 June, Treipel, exhausted, bought himself a horse and rode back to the lowlands. Several months later, when the remaining three were still without visas for Tibet, Kopp also gave up and left for Nepal (where he was handed over to the British authorities within a few days).

Seven years in Tibet
Aufschnaiter and Harrer, helped by the former's knowledge of the Tibetan language, proceeded to Tibet's capital city, Lhasa, which they reached on 15 January 1946 (eight months after Nazi Germany's surrender), having crossed Western Tibet, the South-West with Gyirong County, and the Northern Changthang.

In 1948, Harrer became a salaried official of the Tibetan government, translating foreign news and acting as the Court photographer. Harrer first met the 14th Dalai Lama when he was summoned to the Potala Palace and asked to make a film about ice skating, which Harrer had introduced to Tibet. Harrer built a cinema for him, with a projector run off a Jeep engine. Harrer soon became the Dalai Lama's tutor in English, geography, and some science, and Harrer was astonished at how fast his pupil absorbed the Western world's knowledge. They shared the same birthday and a strong friendship developed between the two that would last the rest of Harrer's life.

In 1952, Harrer returned to Austria where he documented his experiences in the books Seven Years in Tibet (1952) and Lost Lhasa (1953). Seven Years in Tibet was translated into 53 languages, and was a bestseller in the United States in 1954, selling three million copies. The book was the basis of two films of the same title, the first in 1956 and the second in 1997, starring Brad Pitt in the role of Harrer.

In Seven Years in Tibet, Harrer wrote: "Wherever I live, I shall feel homesick for Tibet. I often think I can still hear the cries of wild geese and cranes and the beating of their wings as they fly over Lhasa in the clear, cold moonlight. My heartfelt wish is that my story may create some understanding for a people whose will to live in peace and freedom has won so little sympathy from an indifferent world."

Later adventures
Following his return from Tibet, Harrer settled down in Kitzbühel, Austria, and later in Liechtenstein. He took part in a number of ethnographic as well as mountaineering expeditions to Alaska, the Andes, and the Mountains of the Moon in central Africa. In 1953 he explored the source of the Amazon River and made a first ascent of Ausangate (6384 m). In 1954, some with German-American Fred Beckey, Harrer made the first ascents of Mount Deborah (3,761 m, 12,339 ft), Mount Hunter (4,442 m, 14,573 ft), and Mount Drum (3661 m), all in Alaska. In 1957, he explored the Congo River with the former king Leopold III of Belgium.

In February 1962, he was the leader of the team of four climbers who made the first ascent of the Carstensz Pyramid (4,884 m, 16,024 ft; later named Puncak Jaya) on Papua, Indonesia (then Dutch New Guinea), the highest peak in Oceania and one of the Seven Summits. This and his pioneering expedition to reach the Neolithic stone axe quarries at Ya-Li-Me are recorded in his memoir I Come from the Stone Age.

In 1966, he met the Xingu Indians of Brazil's Mato Grosso. In 1972, Harrer crossed the island of Borneo. He also made expeditions to Nepal, French Guiana, Greenland, Sudan, India, Ladakh, Andaman Islands, Uganda, Kenya and Bhutan.

Harrer wrote more than 20 books about his adventures, some including photographs considered to be among the best records of traditional Tibetan culture. Harrer was also an excellent golfer, winning Austrian national championships in 1958 and 1970.

Private life
In December 1938, Harrer married Lotte Wegener (1920–1989), the daughter of Alfred Wegener, German polar researcher and originator of the theory of continental drift. Her father had died on a Greenland expedition when she was 10. Their son Peter Harrer was born in December 1939, three months after Harrer had been interned by British forces in India. Their marriage was dissolved in 1943 while he was still in India. In 1953, he married Margaretha Truxa (divorce in 1958), and in 1962 he married Katharina (Carina) Haarhaus (1922–2014), who remained his wife until his death.

Final years
In the early 1980s, he visited Tibet again, and wrote a sequel to Seven Years in Tibet, titled Return to Tibet: Tibet After the Chinese Occupation. The Kirkus Review of his sequel said: "In 1982 he was able to revisit Tibet during the 'Chinese-staged thaw,' and he was by turns heartbroken and inspired by what be observed: Valuable cultural treasures had been destroyed by the invaders, and stories of concentration camps, forced labor, and political murders sent him reeling. Yet the country's religion was still strong, and there continued both armed resistance to the Chinese and an unquashable national will." He later wrote his autobiography published in English as Beyond Seven Years in Tibet in 2007. He made approximately 40 documentary films and founded the Heinrich Harrer Museum in Hüttenberg, Austria dedicated to Tibet. In October 2002, the Dalai Lama presented Harrer with the International Campaign for Tibet's Light of Truth Award for his efforts to bring the situation in Tibet to international attention. Harrer died on 7 January 2006 in Friesach, Austria at the age of 93.

Honours and awards

 * 1978: Honorary Medal in Gold of the city of Vienna
 * 1980: Gold Medal of the city of Graz
 * 1982: Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
 * 1982: Grand Merit Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
 * 1985: Golden Humboldt Medal (Germany)
 * 2002: Light of Truth Award (International Campaign for Tibet)

Publications

 * Seven Years in Tibet (1952)
 * Lost Lhasa (1953)
 * The White Spider: The Classic Account of the Ascent of the Eiger (1959)
 * (1961) – an autobiography of the Dalai Lama's older brother, Thubten Jigme Norbu, as told to Harrer
 * I Come from the Stone Age (1965)
 * (1980)
 * Return to Tibet (1985)
 * Return to Tibet: Tibet After the Chinese Occupation (1998)
 * Denk ich an Bhutan (2005)
 * Beyond Seven Years in Tibet: My Life Before, During, and After (2007)

title: Heinrich Harrer


text:
Coral bleaching

Coral bleaching is the process when corals become white due to loss of symbiotic algae and photosynthetic pigments. This loss of pigment can be caused by various stressors, such as changes in temperature, light, or nutrients. Bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel the zooxanthellae (dinoflagellates that are commonly referred to as algae) that live inside their tissue, causing the coral to turn white. The zooxanthellae are photosynthetic, and as the water temperature rises, they begin to produce reactive oxygen species. This is toxic to the coral, so the coral expels the zooxanthellae. Since the zooxanthellae produce the majority of coral colouration, the coral tissue becomes transparent, revealing the coral skeleton made of calcium carbonate. Most bleached corals appear bright white, but some are blue, yellow, or pink due to pigment proteins in the coral.

The leading cause of coral bleaching is rising ocean temperatures due to climate change caused by anthropogenic activities. A temperature about 1 °C (or 2 °F) above average can cause bleaching. The ocean takes in a large portion of the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions produced by human activity. Although this uptake helps regulate global warming, it is also changing the chemistry of the ocean in ways never seen before. Ocean acidification (OA) is the decline in seawater pH caused by absorption of anthropogenic carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This decrease in seawater pH has a significant effect on marine ecosystems.

According to the United Nations Environment Programme, between 2014 and 2016, the longest recorded global bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale. In 2016, bleaching of coral on the Great Barrier Reef killed 29 to 50 percent of the reef's coral. In 2017, the bleaching extended into the central region of the reef. The average interval between bleaching events has halved between 1980 and 2016. The world's most bleaching-tolerant corals can be found in the southern Persian/Arabian Gulf. Some of these corals bleach only when water temperatures exceed ~35 °C.

Bleached corals continue to live, but they are more vulnerable to disease and starvation. Zooxanthellae provide up to 90 percent of the coral's energy, so corals are deprived of nutrients when zooxanthellae are expelled. Some corals recover if conditions return to normal, and some corals can feed themselves. However, the majority of coral without zooxanthellae starve.

Normally, coral polyps live in an endosymbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae. This relationship is crucial for the health of the coral and the reef, which provide shelter for approximately 25% of all marine life. In this relationship, the coral provides the zooxanthellae with shelter. In return, the zooxanthellae provide compounds that give energy to the coral through photosynthesis. This relationship has allowed coral to survive for at least 210 million years in nutrient-poor environments. Coral bleaching is caused by the breakdown of this relationship.

Process

The corals that form the great reef ecosystems of tropical seas depend upon a symbiotic relationship with algae-like single-celled flagellate protozoa called zooxanthellae that live within their tissues and give the coral its coloration. The zooxanthellae provide the coral with nutrients through photosynthesis, a crucial factor in the clear and nutrient-poor tropical waters. In exchange, the coral provides the zooxanthellae with the carbon dioxide and ammonium needed for photosynthesis. Negative environmental conditions, such as abnormally warm or cool temperatures, high light, and even some microbial diseases, can lead to the breakdown of the coral/zooxanthellae symbiosis. To ensure short-term survival, the coral-polyp then consumes or expels the zooxanthellae. This leads to a lighter or completely white appearance, hence the term "bleached". Under mild stress conditions, some corals may appear bright blue, pink, purple, or yellow instead of white, due to the continued or increased presence of the coral cells' intrinsic pigment molecules, a phenomenon known as "colourful bleaching". As the zooxanthellae provide up to 90 percent of the coral's energy needs through products of photosynthesis, after expelling, the coral may begin to starve.

Coral can survive short-term disturbances, but if the conditions that lead to the expulsion of the zooxanthellae persist, the coral's chances of survival diminish. In order to recover from bleaching, the zooxanthellae have to re-enter the tissues of the coral polyps and restart photosynthesis to sustain the coral as a whole and the ecosystem that depends on it. If the coral polyps die of starvation after bleaching, they will decay. The hard coral species will then leave behind their calcium carbonate skeletons, which will be taken over by algae, effectively blocking coral regrowth. Eventually, the coral skeletons will erode, causing the reef structure to collapse.

Triggers

Coral bleaching may be caused by a number of factors. While localized triggers lead to localized bleaching, the large-scale coral bleaching events of recent years have been triggered by global warming. Under the increased carbon dioxide concentration expected in the 21st century, corals are expected to become increasingly rare on reef systems. Coral reefs located in warm, shallow water with low water flow have been more affected than reefs located in areas with higher water flow. Marine heatwaves caused by the El Nino Southern Oscillation have been found to be one of the main causes of widespread coral bleaching and consequent coral mortality.

List of triggers

 * increased water temperature (marine heatwaves, most commonly due to global warming), or reduced water temperatures
 * increased solar irradiance (photosynthetically active radiation and ultraviolet light)
 * increased sedimentation (due to silt runoff)
 * bacterial infections
 * changes in salinity
 * herbicides
 * extreme low tide and exposure
 * cyanide fishing
 * elevated sea levels due to global warming (Watson)
 * mineral dust from African dust storms caused by drought
 * pollutants such as oxybenzone, butylparaben, octyl methoxycinnamate, or enzacamene: four common sunscreen ingredients that are nonbiodegradable and can wash off of skin
 * ocean acidification due to elevated levels of CO2 caused by air pollution
 * being exposed to oil or other chemical spills
 * changes in water chemistry, particularly an imbalance in the ratio of the macronutrients nitrate and phosphate

Trends due to climate change
Extreme bleaching events are directly linked with climate-induced phenomena that increase ocean temperature, such as El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The warming ocean surface waters can lead to bleaching of corals which can cause serious damage and coral death. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report in 2022 found that: "Since the early 1980s, the frequency and severity of mass coral bleaching events have increased sharply worldwide". Coral reefs, as well as other shelf-sea ecosystems, such as rocky shores, kelp forests, seagrasses, and mangroves, have recently undergone mass mortalities from marine heatwaves. It is expected that many coral reefs will "undergo irreversible phase shifts due to marine heatwaves with global warming levels >1.5°C".

This problem was already identified in 2007 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as the greatest threat to the world's reef systems.

The Great Barrier Reef experienced its first major bleaching event in 1998. Since then, bleaching events have increased in frequency, with three events occurring in the years 2016–2020. Bleaching is predicted to occur three times a decade on the Great Barrier Reef if warming is kept to 1.5 °C, increasing every other year to 2 °C.

With the increase of coral bleaching events worldwide, National Geographic noted in 2017, "In the past three years, 25 reefs—which comprise three-fourths of the world's reef systems—experienced severe bleaching events in what scientists concluded was the worst-ever sequence of bleachings to date."

In a study conducted on the Hawaiian mushroom coral Lobactis scutaria, researchers discovered that higher temperatures and elevated levels of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) had a detrimental impact on its reproductive physiology. The purpose of this study was to investigate the survival of reef-building corals in their natural habitat, as coral reproduction is being hindered by the effects of climate change.

Mass bleaching events

Elevated sea water temperatures are the main cause of mass bleaching events. Sixty major episodes of coral bleaching have occurred between 1979 and 1990, with the associated coral mortality affecting reefs in every part of the world. In 2016, the longest coral bleaching event was recorded. The longest and most destructive coral bleaching event was because of the El Niño that occurred from 2014 to 2017. During this time, over 70 percent of the coral reefs around the world have become damaged.

Factors that influence the outcome of a bleaching event include stress-resistance which reduces bleaching, tolerance to the absence of zooxanthellae, and how quickly new coral grows to replace the dead. Due to the patchy nature of bleaching, local climatic conditions such as shade or a stream of cooler water can reduce bleaching incidence. Coral and zooxanthellae health and genetics also influence bleaching.

Large coral colonies such as Porites are able to withstand extreme temperature shocks, while fragile branching corals such Acropora are far more susceptible to stress following a temperature change. Corals consistently exposed to low-stress levels may be more resistant to bleaching.

Scientists believe that the oldest known bleaching was that of the Late Devonian (Frasnian/Famennian), also triggered by the rise of sea surface temperatures. It resulted in the demise of the largest coral reefs in the Earth's history.

According to Clive Wilkinson of Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network of Townsville, Australia, in 1998 the mass bleaching event that occurred in the Indian Ocean region was due to the rising of sea temperatures by 2 °C coupled with the strong El Niño event in 1997–1998.

In April 2024 a 4th global coral bleaching event was confirmed by NOAA

Preceding this, the second major coral bleaching crisis of this decade began in February 2023, affecting reefs across 54 nations in all major ocean basins. This event has led to severe damage, with coral mortalities reaching up to 93% in areas like the Pacific coast near Mexico. The economic implications are profound, as coral reefs contribute approximately $2.7 trillion annually to the global economy, including $36 billion from tourism alone. Although a forthcoming shift to a La Niña phase may offer some relief, regions such as Florida have already experienced complete die-offs in some reefs, where temperatures have risen to 101°F (38.3°C). Moreover, the Great Barrier Reef is undergoing its fifth extensive bleaching event since 2016, underscoring the persistent and serious risks these vital ecosystems face.

Impacts
Coral bleaching events and the subsequent loss of coral coverage often result in the decline of fish diversity. The loss of diversity and abundance in herbivorous fish particularly affect coral reef ecosystems. As mass bleaching events occur more frequently, fish populations will continue to homogenize. Smaller and more specialized fish species that fill particular ecological niches that are crucial for coral health are replaced by more generalized species. The loss of specialization likely contributes to the loss of resilience in coral reef ecosystems after bleaching events.

Economic and political impact
According to Brian Skoloff of The Christian Science Monitor, "If the reefs vanished, experts say, hunger, poverty and political instability could ensue." Since countless sea life depend on the reefs for shelter and protection from predators, the extinction of the reefs would ultimately create a domino effect that would trickle down to the many human societies that depend on those fish for food and livelihood. There has been a 44% decline over the last 20 years in the Florida Keys and up to 80% in the Caribbean alone.

Coral reefs provide various ecosystem services, one of which is being a natural fishery, as many frequently consumed commercial fish spawn or live out their juvenile lives in coral reefs around the tropics. Thus, reefs are a popular fishing site and are an important source of income for fishers, especially small, local fisheries. As coral reef habitat decreases due to bleaching, reef associated fish populations also decrease, which affects fishing opportunities. A model from one study by Speers et al. calculated direct losses to fisheries from decreased coral cover to be around $49–69 billion, if human societies continue to emit high levels of greenhouse gases. But, these losses could be reduced for a consumer surplus benefit of about $14–20 billion, if societies chose to emit a lower level of greenhouse gases instead. These economic losses also have important political implications, as they fall disproportionately on developing countries where the reefs are located, namely in Southeast Asia and around the Indian Ocean. It would cost more for countries in these areas to respond to coral reef loss as they would need to turn to different sources of income and food, in addition to losing other ecosystem services such as ecotourism. A study completed by Chen et al. suggested that the commercial value of reefs decreases by almost 4% every time coral cover decreases by 1% because of losses in ecotourism and other potential outdoor recreational activities.

Coral reefs also act as a protective barrier for coastlines by reducing wave impact, which lowers the damage from storms, erosions, and flooding. Countries that lose this natural protection will lose more money because of the increased susceptibility of storms. This indirect cost, combined with the lost revenue from tourism, will result in enormous economic effects.

Monitoring coral bleaching and reef sea surface temperature
The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) monitors for bleaching "hot spots", areas where sea surface temperature rises 1 °C or more above the long-term monthly average. The "hot spots" are the locations in which thermal stress is measured, and with the development of Degree Heating Week (DHW), the coral reef's thermal stress is monitored. Global coral bleaching is being detected earlier due to the satellite remote sensing of the rise of sea temperatures. It is necessary to monitor the high temperatures because coral bleaching events are affecting coral reef reproduction and normal growth capacity, as well as it weakening corals, eventually leading to their mortality. This system detected the worldwide 1998 bleaching event, that corresponded to the 1997–98 El Niño event. Currently, 190 reef sites around the globe are monitored by the NOAA, and send alerts to research scientists and reef managers via the NOAA Coral Reef Watch (CRW) website. By monitoring the warming of sea temperatures, the early warnings of coral bleaching alert reef managers to prepare for and draw awareness to future bleaching events. The first mass global bleaching events were recorded in 1998 and 2010, which was when the El Niño caused the ocean temperatures to rise and worsened the corals living conditions. The 2014–2017 El Niño was recorded to be the longest and most damaging to the corals, which harmed over 70% of our coral reefs. Over two-thirds of the Great Barrier Reef have been reported to be bleached or dead. To accurately monitoring the extent and evolution of bleaching events, scientist are using underwater photogrammetric techniques to create accurate orthophoto of coral reefs transects and AI-assisted image segmentation with open source tools like TagLab to identify from these photos the health status of the corals.

Changes in ocean chemistry
Increasing ocean acidification due to rises in carbon dioxide levels exacerbates the bleaching effects of thermal stress. Acidification affects the corals' ability to create calcareous skeletons, essential to their survival. This is because ocean acidification decreases the amount of carbonate ion in the water, making it more difficult for corals to absorb the calcium carbonate they need for the skeleton. As a result, the resilience of reefs goes down, while it becomes easier for them to erode and dissolve. In addition, the increase in CO2 allows herbivore overfishing and nutrification to change coral-dominated ecosystems to algal-dominated ecosystems. A recent study from the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future found that with the combination of acidification and temperature rises, the levels of CO2 could become too high for coral to survive in as little as 50 years.

Coral bleaching due to photoinhibition of zooxanthellae
Zooxanthellae are a type of dinoflagellate that live within the cytoplasm of many marine invertebrates. Members of the phylum Dinoflagellata, they are round microalgae that share a symbiotic relationship with their host. They are also part of the genus Symbiodinium and Kingdom Alveolata. These organisms are phytoplankton and therefore photosynthesize. The host organism harnesses the products of photosynthesis, i.e. oxygen, sugar, etc., and in exchange, the zooxanthellae are offered housing and protection, as well as carbon dioxide, phosphates, and other essential inorganic compounds that help them to survive and thrive. Zooxanthellae share 95% of the products of photosynthesis with their host coral. According to a study done by D.J. Smith et al., photoinhibition is a likely factor in coral bleaching. It also suggests that the hydrogen peroxide produced in zooxanthealle plays a role in signaling themselves to flee the corals. Photo-inhibition of Zooxanthellae can be caused by exposure to UV filters found in personal care products. In a study done by Zhong et al., Oxybenzone (BP-3) had the most negative effects on zooxanthellae health. The combination of temperature increase and presence of UV filters in the ocean has further decreased zooxanthellae health. The combination of UV filters and higher temperatures led to an additive effect on photo-inhibition and overall stress on coral species.

Infectious disease
Following bleaching events, there has been a rise in the global disease outbreak among coral populations. This is due to the weakened state of the corals that makes them susceptible to infection caused by disease-carrying pathogens. Infectious bacteria of the species Vibrio shiloi are the bleaching agent of Oculina patagonica in the Mediterranean Sea, causing this effect by attacking the zooxanthellae. V. shiloi is infectious only during warm periods. Elevated temperature increases the virulence of V. shiloi, which then become able to adhere to a beta-galactoside-containing receptor in the surface mucus of the host coral. V. shiloi then penetrates the coral's epidermis, multiplies, and produces both heat-stable and heat-sensitive toxins, which affect zooxanthellae by inhibiting photosynthesis and causing lysis.

During the summer of 2003, coral reefs in the Mediterranean Sea appeared to gain resistance to the pathogen, and further infection was not observed. The main hypothesis for the emerged resistance is the presence of symbiotic communities of protective bacteria living in the corals. The bacterial species capable of lysing V. shiloi had not been identified as of 2011.

Great Barrier Reef
The Great Barrier Reef along the coast of Australia experienced bleaching events in 1980, 1982, 1992, 1994, 1998, 2002, 2006, 2016, 2017 and 2022. Some locations suffered severe damage, with up to 90% mortality. The most widespread and intense events occurred in the summers of 1998 and 2002, with 42% and 54%, respectively, of reefs bleached to some extent, and 18% strongly bleached. However, coral losses on the reef between 1995 and 2009 were largely offset by growth of new corals. An overall analysis of coral loss found that coral populations on the Great Barrier Reef had declined by 50.7% from 1985 to 2012, but with only about 10% of that decline attributable to bleaching, and the remaining 90% caused about equally by tropical cyclones and by predation by crown-of-thorns starfishes. A global mass coral bleaching has been occurring since 2014 because of the highest recorded temperatures plaguing oceans. These temperatures have caused the most severe and widespread coral bleaching ever recorded in the Great Barrier reef. The most severe bleaching in 2016 occurred near Port Douglas. In late November 2016, surveys of 62 reefs showed that long term heat stress from climate change caused a 29% loss of shallow water coral. The highest coral death and reef habitat loss was inshore and mid-shelf reefs around Cape Grenville and Princess Charlotte Bay. The IPCC's moderate warming scenarios (B1 to A1T, 2 °C by 2100, IPCC, 2007, Table SPM.3, p. 13 ) forecast that corals on the Great Barrier Reef are very likely to regularly experience summer temperatures high enough to induce bleaching.

Hawaii
In 1996, Hawaii's first major coral bleaching occurred in Kaneohe Bay, followed by major bleaching events in the Northwest islands in 2002 and 2004. In 2014, biologists from the University of Queensland observed the first mass bleaching event, and attributed it to The Blob. In 2014 and 2015, a survey in Hanauma Bay Nature Preserve on Oahu found 47% of the corals suffering from coral bleaching and close to 10% of the corals dying. In 2014 and 2015, 56% of the coral reefs of the big island were affected by coral bleaching events. During the same period, 44% of the corals on west Maui were effected. On 24 January 2019, scientists with The Nature Conservancy found that the reefs had begun to stabilize nearly 4 years after the last bleaching event. According to the Division of Aquatic Resources (DAR), there was still a considerable amount of bleaching in 2019. On Oahu and Maui, up to 50% of the coral reefs were bleached. On the big island, roughly 40% of corals experienced bleaching in the Kona coast area. The DAR stated that the recent bleaching events have not been as bad as the 2014–2015 events. In 2020, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) released the first-ever nationwide coral reef status report. The report stated that the northwestern and main Hawaiian islands were in "fair" shape, meaning the corals have been moderately impacted.

 * Hawaiian Sunscreen Policy In May 2018, Hawaii passed the bill "SB-2571", banning the vending of sunscreen containing chemicals deemed conducive of coral bleaching on the island's local reefs. The bill was signed in by David Ige, of the Democratic party. A chemical deemed toxic in SB-2571 is the 'oxybenzone' (also banned; octinoxate), a chemical that becomes toxic to coral when exposed to sunlight. Up to one-tenth of the approximated 14,000 tons of sunscreen polluting coral reef areas contains oxybenzone, putting almost half of all coral reefs in danger of being exposed. Coral reefs show increased rates of bleaching in both controlled and natural environments when exposed to high levels of oxybenzone, found in many commercial sunscreen products. Another study showed that over time, the presence of oxybenzone in water will decrease a reef's strength to face other bleaching events such as increasing water temperatures. SB-2571 banned all sunscreen products with the exception of prescription products. Hawaii is the first U.S. state to introduce this type of ban, which went into effect in January 2021.

Jarvis Island
Eight severe and two moderate bleaching events occurred between 1960 and 2016 in the coral community in Jarvis Island, with the 2015–16 bleaching displaying the unprecedented severity in the record.

Japan
About 94% of the corals on Japan's Iriomote Island in the Ryukyu Islands bleached during a significant coral bleaching event that occurred in 2016. Prior to this event, the region typically experienced multiple typhoons during July and August. However, during this particular event, no typhoon was detected until September, suggesting a prolonged period of high seawater temperatures. According to the 2017 Japanese government report, almost 75% of Japan's largest coral reef in Okinawa has died from bleaching.

Indian Ocean
Coral reef provinces have been permanently damaged by warm sea temperatures, most severely in the Indian Ocean. Up to 90% of coral cover has been lost in the Maldives, Sri Lanka, Kenya and Tanzania and in the Seychelles during the massive 1997–98 bleaching event. The Indian Ocean in 1998 reported 20% of its coral had died and 80% was bleached. The shallow tropical areas of the Indian Ocean are already experiencing what are predicted to be worldwide ocean conditions in the future. Coral that has survived in the shallow areas of the Indian Ocean may be proper candidates for coral restoration efforts in other areas of the world because they are able to survive the extreme conditions of the ocean.

Maldives
The Maldives has over 20,000 km2 of reefs, of which more than 60% of the coral has suffered from bleaching in 2016. Moreover, the Maldivian coral reef faces risks from the growing tourism industry and coastal construction, as well as land reclamation projects, alongside natural challenges such as diseases.

Thailand
Coral reef ecosystems are a notable feature of the western shoreline of the Gulf of Thailand. In 1998 and 2010, there were bleaching events in Thailand; the effects of both occurrences varied among coral species, with some exhibiting more resilience to the 2010 bleaching. In contrast to 1998, there was a more severe bleaching event in 2010. Thailand experienced a severe mass bleaching in 2010 which affected 70% of the coral in the Andaman Sea. Between 30% and 95% of the bleached coral died.

Indonesia
Acropora corals were dominant coral species of Indonesian reef system however they are extremely vulnerable to external stressors. A study was conducted to study effect of mass bleaching event in 2010 on Acropora. Post bleaching recovery is influenced by severity and frequency of the bleaching event. Research indicates that frequent moderate disturbances tend to affect Porites, while less frequent but stronger disturbances primarily impact Acropora. Consequently, Acropora demonstrates rapid regrowth in such instances.

In 2017, there was a study done on two islands in Indonesia to see how their coral cover was. One of the places was the Melinjo Islands and the other was the Saktu Islands. On Saktu Island, the lifeform conditions were categorized as bad, with an average coral cover of 22.3%. In the Melinjo Islands, the lifeform conditions were categorized as bad, with an average coral cover of 22.2%.

United States
During the 2005 mass bleaching event in Florida, the bleaching patterns varied among species. Colpophyllia natans and Diploria strigosa were particularly susceptible to thermal stress, whereas Stephanocoenia intersepta exhibited greater tolerance. Moreover, it was noted that larger coral colonies experienced more bleaching compared to smaller ones. The prediction suggests that mass bleaching events are likely to affect larger coral colonies even within the same community.

In South Florida, a 2016 survey of large corals from Key Biscayne to Fort Lauderdale found that about 66% of the corals were dead or reduced to less than half of their live tissue.

Belize
The first recorded mass bleaching event that took place in the Belize Barrier Reef was in 1998, where sea level temperatures reached up to 31.5 C from 10 August to 14 October. For a few days, Hurricane Mitch brought in stormy weather on 27 October but only reduced temperatures by 1 degree or less. During this time period, mass bleaching in the fore-reef and lagoon occurred. While some fore reef colonies suffered some damage, coral mortality in the lagoon was catastrophic.

The most prevalent coral in the reefs Belize in 1998 was the lettuce coral, Agaricia tenuifolia. On 22 and 23 October, surveys were conducted at two sites and the findings were devastating. Virtually all the living coral was bleached white and their skeletons indicated that they had died recently. At the lagoon floor, complete bleaching was evident among A. tenuifolia. Furthermore, surveys done in 1999 and 2000 showed a near total mortality of A. tenuifolia at all depths. Similar patterns occurred in other coral species as well. Measurements on water turbidity suggest that these mortalities were attributed to rising water temperatures rather than solar radiation.

Caribbean
Hard coral cover on reefs in the Caribbean have declined by an estimated 80%, from an average of 50% cover in the 1970s to only about 10% cover in the early 2000s. A 2013 study to follow up on a mass bleaching event in Tobago from 2010 showed that after only one year, the majority of the dominant species declined by about 62% while coral abundance declined by about 50%. However, between 2011 and 2013, coral cover increased for 10 of the 26 dominant species but declined for 5 other populations.

Other areas
Coral in the south Red Sea does not bleach despite summer water temperatures up to 34 C. Coral bleaching in the Red Sea is more common in the northern section of the reefs; the southern part of the reef has been plagued by coral-eating starfish, dynamite fishing and human impacts on the environment. In 1988, there was a massive bleaching event that affected the reefs in Saudi Arabia and Sudan, though the southern reefs were more resilient and it affected them very little. Previously, it was thought that the northern reef suffers more from coral bleaching and shows a fast turnover of coral, while the southern reef was thought to not suffer from bleaching as harshly and show more consistency. However, new research shows that where the southern reef should be bigger and healthier than the northern, it was not. This is believed to be because of major disturbances in recent history from bleaching events, and coral-eating starfish. In 2010, coral bleaching occurred in Saudi Arabia and Sudan, where the temperature rose 10 to 11 degrees. Certain taxa experienced 80% to 100% of their colonies bleaching, while some showed on average 20% of that taxa bleaching.

Coral adaptation
In recent times, climate change has been linked to a notable increase in coral mortality. Moreover, mounting evidence suggests that bacteria associated with corals contribute to their ability to withstand thermal stress. Attempts have been undertaken to enhance coral resilience in the face of bleaching incidents. Since corals serve as the fundamental components of coral reefs, their decline significantly affects the endurance and composition of reefs directly affecting the reef-dwelling organisms.

In 2010, researchers at Penn State discovered corals that were thriving while using an unusual species of symbiotic algae in the warm waters of the Andaman Sea in the Indian Ocean. Normal zooxanthellae cannot withstand temperatures as high as was there, so this finding was unexpected. This gives researchers hope that with rising temperatures due to global warming, coral reefs will develop tolerance for different species of symbiotic algae that are resistant to high temperature, and can live within the reefs. In 2010, researchers from Stanford University also found corals around the Samoan Islands that experience a drastic temperature increase for about four hours a day during low tide. The corals do not bleach or die regardless of the high heat increase. Studies showed that the corals off the coast of Ofu Island near America Samoa have become trained to withstand the high temperatures. Researchers are now asking a new question: can we condition corals, that are not from this area, in this manner and slowly introduce them to higher temperatures for short periods of time and make them more resilient against rising ocean temperatures.

Certain mild bleaching events can cause coral to produce high concentrations of sun-screening pigments in order to shield themselves from further stress. Some of the pigments produced have pink, blue or purple hues, while others are strongly fluorescent. Production of these pigments by shallow-water corals is stimulated by blue light. When corals bleach, blue light inside the coral tissue increases greatly because it is no longer being absorbed by the photosynthetic pigments found inside the symbiotic algae, and is instead reflected by the white coral skeleton. This causes an increase in the production of the sun-screening pigments, making the bleached corals appear very colourful instead of white – a phenomenon sometimes called 'colourful coral bleaching'.

Increased sea surface temperature leads to the thinning of the epidermis and apoptosis of gastrodermis cells in the host coral. The reduction in apoptosis and gastrodermis is seen via epithelium, leading to up to a 50% loss in the concentration of symbionts over a short period of time. Under conditions of high temperature or increased light exposure, the coral will exhibit a stress response that includes producing reactive oxygen species, the accumulation of this if not removed by antioxidant systems will lead to the death of the coral. Studies testing the structures of coral under heat stressed environments show that the thickness of the coral itself greatly decreases under heat stress compared to the control. With the death of the zooxanthellae in the heat stressed events, the coral must find new sources to gather fixed carbon to generate energy, species of coral that can increase their carnivorous tendencies have been found to have an increased likelihood of recovering from bleaching events.

After the zooxanthellae leaves the coral, the coral structures are often taken over by algae due to their ability to outcompete the zooxanthella since they need less resources to survive. There is little evidence of competition between zooxanthellae and algae, but in the absence of zooxanthellae the algae thrives on the coral structures. Once algae takes over and the coral can no longer sustain itself, the structures often begin to decay due to ocean acidification. Ocean acidification is the process by which carbon dioxide is absorbed into the ocean, this decreases the amounts of carbonate ions in the ocean, a necessary ion corals use to build their skeletons. Corals go through processes of decalcifying and calcifying during different times of the day and year due to temperature fluctuations. Under current IPCC emission pathway scenarios, corals tend to disintegrate, and the winter months with cooler temperatures will not serve ample time for the corals to reform.

Artificial assistance
In 2020, scientists reported to have evolved 10 clonal strains of a common coral microalgal endosymbionts at elevated temperatures for 4 years, increasing their thermal tolerance for climate resilience. Three of the strains increased the corals' bleaching tolerance after reintroduction into coral host larvae. Their strains and findings may potentially be relevant for the adaptation to and mitigation of climate change and further tests of algal strains in adult colonies across a range of coral species are planned.

In 2021, researchers demonstrated that probiotics can help coral reefs mitigate heat stress, indicating that such could make them more resilient to climate change and mitigate coral bleaching.

Recovery and macroalgal regime shifts
After corals experience a bleaching event to increased temperature stress some reefs are able to return to their original, pre-bleaching state. Reefs either recover from bleaching, where they are recolonized by zooxanthellae, or they experience a regime shift, where previously flourishing coral reefs are taken over by thick layers of macroalgae. This inhibits further coral growth because the algae produces antifouling compounds to deter settlement and competes with corals for space and light. As a result, macroalgae forms stable communities that make it difficult for corals to grow again. Reefs will then be more susceptible to other issues, such as declining water quality and removal of herbivore fish, because coral growth is weaker. Discovering what causes reefs to be resilient or recover from bleaching events is of primary importance because it helps inform conservation efforts and protect coral more effectively.

A primary subject of research regarding coral recovery pertains to the idea of super-corals, otherwise referred to as the corals that live and thrive in naturally warmer and more acidic regions and bodies of water. When transplanted to endangered or bleached reefs, their resilience and irradiance can equip the algae to live among the bleached corals. As Emma Camp, a National Geographic Explorer, marine bio-geochemist and an ambassador for Biodiversity for the charity IBEX Earth, suggests, the super-corals could have the capability to help with the damaged reefs long-term. While it can take 10 to 15 years to restore damaged and bleached coral reefs, the super-corals could have lasting impacts despite climate change as the oceans rise in temperature and gain more acidity. Bolstered by the research of Ruth Gates, Camp has looked into lower oxygen levels and the extreme, unexpected habitats that reefs can be found in across the globe.

Corals have shown to be resilient to short-term disturbances. Recovery has been shown in after storm disturbance and crown of thorns starfish invasions. Fish species tend to fare better following reef disturbance than coral species as corals show limited recovery and reef fish assemblages have shown little change as a result of short-term disturbances. In contrast, fish assemblages in reefs that experience bleaching exhibit potentially damaging changes. One study by Bellwood et al. notes that while species richness, diversity, and abundance did not change, fish assemblages contained more generalist species and less coral dependent species. Responses to coral bleaching are diverse between reef fish species, based on what resources are affected. Rising sea temperature and coral bleaching do not directly impact adult fish mortality, but there are many indirect consequences of both. Coral-associated fish populations tend to be in decline due to habitat loss; however, some herbivorous fish populations have seen a drastic increase due to the increase of algae colonization on dead coral. Studies note that better methods are needed to measure the effects of disturbance on the resilience of corals. Until recently, the factors mediating the recovery of coral reefs from bleaching were not well studied. Research by Graham et al. (2015) studied 21 reefs around Seychelles in the Indo-Pacific in order to document the long-term effects of coral bleaching. After the loss of more than 90% of corals due to bleaching in 1998 around 50% of the reefs recovered and roughly 40% of the reefs experienced regime shifts to macroalgae dominated compositions. After an assessment of factors influencing the probability of recovery, the study identified five major factors: density of juvenile corals, initial structural complexity, water depth, biomass of herbivorous fishes, and nutrient conditions on the reef. Overall, resilience was seen most in coral reef systems that were structurally complex and in deeper water.

The ecological roles and functional groups of species also play a role in the recovery of regime shifting potential in reef systems. Coral reefs are affected by bioeroding, scraping, and grazing fish species. Bioeroding species remove dead corals, scraping species remove algae and sediment to further future growth, grazing species remove algae. The presence of each type of species can influence the ability for normal levels of coral recruitment which is an important part of coral recovery. Lowered numbers of grazing species after coral bleaching in the Caribbean has been likened to sea-urchin-dominated systems which do not undergo regime shifts to fleshy macroalgae dominated conditions.

There is always the possibility of unobservable changes, or cryptic losses or resilience, in a coral community's ability to perform ecological processes. These cryptic losses can result in unforeseen regime changes or ecological flips. More detailed methods for determining the health of coral reefs that take into account long-term changes to the coral ecosystems and better-informed conservation policies are necessary to protect coral reefs in the years to come.

Rebuilding coral reefs
Research is being done to help slow down the mortality rate of corals. Worldwide projects are being completed to help replenish and restore the coral reefs. Current coral restoration efforts include microfragmentation, coral farming, and relocation. The population of corals is rapidly declining, so scientists are doing experiments in coral growth and research tanks to help replenish their population. These research tanks mimic the coral reefs natural environment in the ocean. They are growing corals in these tanks to use for their experiments, so no more corals are being harmed or taken from the ocean. They are also transplanting the successfully grown corals from the research tanks and putting them into the areas of the ocean where the reefs are dying out. An experiment is being done in some coral growth and research tanks by Ruth Gates and Madelaine Van Oppen. They are trying to make "super corals" that can withstand some of the environmental factors that the corals are currently dying from. Van Oppen is also working on developing a type of algae that will have a symbiotic relationship with corals and can withstand water temperature fluctuations for long periods of time. This project may be helping to replenish our reefs, but the growing process of corals in research tanks is very time-consuming. It can take at least 10 years for the corals to fully grow and mature enough to where they will be able to breed. Following Ruth Gates' death in October 2018, her team at the Gates Coral Lab at the Hawai'i Institute of Marine Biology continues her research on restoration efforts. Continuing research and restoration efforts at the Gates Coral Lab focuses on the effects of beneficial mutations, genetic variation, and relocation via human assistance on the resilience of coral reefs. As of 2019, the Gates Coral Lab team determined that large-scale restoration techniques would not be effective; localized efforts to restore coral reefs on an individual basis are tested to be more realistic and effective while research is conducted to determine the best ways to combat coral destruction on a mass scale.

Marine Protected Areas
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are sectioned-off areas of the ocean designated for protection from human activities such as fishing and un-managed tourism. According to NOAA, MPAs currently occupy 26% of U.S. waters. MPAs have been documented to improve and prevent the effects of coral bleaching in the United States. In 2018, research by coral scientists in the Caribbean concluded that areas of the ocean managed/protected by government had improved conditions that coral reefs were able to flourish in. MPAs defend ecosystems from overfishing, which allows multiple species of fish to thrive and deplete seaweed density, making it easier for young coral organisms to grow and increase in population/strength. From this study, a 62% increase in coral populations was recorded due to the protection of an MPA. Higher populations of young coral increase the longevity of a reef, as well as its ability to recover from extreme bleaching events.

Local impacts and solutions to coral bleaching
There are a number of stressors locally impacting coral bleaching, including sedimentation, continual support of urban development, land change, increased tourism, untreated sewage, and pollution. To illustrate, increased tourism is good for a country, however, it also comes with costs. An example is the Dominican Republic which relies heavily on its coral reefs to attract tourists resulting in increased structural damage, over fishing, nutrient pollution, and an increase in diseases to the coral reefs. As a result, the Dominican Republic has implemented a sustainable management plan for its land and marine areas to regulate ecotourism.

Economic value of coral reefs
Coral reefs provide shelter to an estimated quarter of all ocean species. Experts estimate that coral reef services are worth up to $1.2 million per hectare which translates to an average of $172 billion per year. The benefits of coral reefs include providing physical structures such as coastal shoreline protection, biotic services within and between ecosystems, biogeochemical services such as maintaining nitrogen levels in the ocean, climate records, and recreational and commercial (tourism) services. Coral reefs are one of the best marine ecosystems to use to as a food source. The coral reefs are also the perfect habitat for rare and economically important species of tropical fish, as they provide the perfect area for fish to breed and create nurseries in. If the populations of the fish and corals in the reef are high, then we can use the area as a place to gather food and things with medicinal properties, which also helps create jobs for people who can collect these specimens. The reefs also have some cultural importance in specific regions around the world.

Cost benefit analysis of reducing loss of coral reefs
Coral restoration is a common strategy used to combat the problems brought on by global warming; however, while ecological factors are primarily taken into account, efforts need also be made to address social, economic, and governance factors. The rapid growth in advocacy and implementation of intervention measures, such coral restoration, are a result of the intensifying effects of climate change and human pressure on coral reefs. The goal is to preserve the remaining reefs and the functions that they provide to the reef ecosystem.

The Paris Agreement has offered reasons for hope by pledging nations worldwide to maintain the rise in global average temperatures significantly below 2°C compared to pre-industrial levels, with concerted endeavors aimed at capping the increase at 1.5°C. In 2010, the Convention on Biological Diversity's (CBD) Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 created twenty distinct targets for sustainable development for post-2015. Target 10 indicates the goal of minimizing "anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs". Two programs were looked at, one that reduces coral reef loss by 50% that has a capital cost of $684 million and a recurrent cost of $81 million. The other program reduces coral reef loss by 80 percent and has a capital cost of $1.036 billion with recurring costs of $130 million. CBD acknowledges that they may be underestimating the costs and resources needed to achieve this target due to lack of relevant data but nonetheless, the cost–benefit analysis shows that the benefits outweigh the costs by a great enough amount for both programs (benefit cost ratio of 95.3 and 98.5) that "there is ample scope to increase outlays on coral protection and still achieve a benefit to cost ratio that is well over one".

title: Coral bleaching


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User talk:Dannsiems

Hello Dannsiems, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links to help you get started:

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You can sign posts on talk pages by entering four tildes ; the system automatically inserts your username with a datestamp. If you have any questions, see Help, add a question to the Village pump, or leave a message on my Talk page. Enjoy, -- Viajero 14:18, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dannsiems


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Galashiels

Galashiels (Gallae, An Geal Àth) is a town in the Scottish Borders with a population of around 12,600. Its name is often colloquially shortened to "Gala". The town is a major commercial centre for the Borders region with extensive history in the textile industry. Galashiels is the location of Heriot-Watt University's School of Textiles and Design.

History
To the west of the town, there is an ancient earthwork known as the Picts' Work Ditch or Catrail. It extends many miles south, and its height and width vary. There is no agreement about the purpose of the earthwork. There is another ancient site on the north-western edge of the town, at Torwoodlee, an Iron Age hill fort, with a later broch known as Torwoodlee Broch built in the western quarter of the hill fort, and overlapping some of the defensive ditches of the original fort. The Romans destroyed the broch in 140 CE, soon after it was completed.

The town's coat of arms shows two foxes reaching up to eat plums from a tree, and the motto is Sour Plums pronounced in Scots as soor plooms. This is a reference to an incident in 1337 when a raiding party of English soldiers were picking wild plums close to the town and were caught by Scots who came across them by chance and slaughtered them all.

On a hillside to the north of the town, Buckholm Tower is a prominent structure that dates back to 1582 and replaced an earlier tower built on the same site but destroyed around 1570. In 1599, Galashiels received its Burgh Charter, an event celebrated every summer since the 1930s, by the "Braw Lads’ Gathering", with riders on horseback parading through the town. Galashiels Burgh Chambers were designed in the Scottish Renaissance style and completed in 1867.

The Paton Street drill hall was completed in the late 19th century. The textile trade caused Galashiels' population to increase dramatically from 800 residents at the start of the nineteenth century to 19,553 by 1890. A connection with the town's mill history, the Mill Lade, still links the town from near the site of mills at Wheatlands Road, to Netherdale, via Wilderhaugh, Bank Street, the Fountain and next to the Tesco/retail development Street.

Despite the town's relatively low population, the early 2000s saw many new developments, including Asda, Boots pharmacy, Halfords, Marks & Spencer, Matalan, McDonald's, Next, Subway fast-food outlet and Tesco Extra. Most of these are on former mill and industrial estate sites, while other disused mills have been converted to living accommodations.

Governance

Local government services for Galashiels are provided by the Scottish Borders Council. There is also a community council covering the town. Galashiels was designated a burgh of barony in 1599 and later became a police burgh by 1868. Galashiels Burgh Chambers on Albert Place was built in 1867.

When elected county councils were created in 1890 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, burghs which met certain criteria were excluded from the area under the control of the county councils. There was disagreement between Galashiels and Selkirkshire County Council as to whether these criteria applied to Galashiels. The case went to court, and the Scottish Supreme Court found that Galashiels was entirely responsible for its own affairs and should neither be represented on nor taxed by Selkirkshire County Council. Further local government reform in 1930 brought the burgh of Galashiels within the area controlled by the county council, with the town being reclassified as a small burgh, ceding most of its functions to the county council.

In 1975, local government across Scotland was reformed under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973. The burghs and counties were abolished as administrative areas and replaced with a two-tier system of upper-tier regions and lower-tier districts. Galashiels therefore became part of the Ettrick and Lauderdale district within the Borders region. Ettrick and Lauderdale District Council used Galashiels Burgh Chambers as its headquarters. Further local government reform in 1996 abolished the regions and districts, since when Galashiels has been administered by Scottish Borders Council.

The arts
Robert Burns wrote two poems about Galashiels, "Sae Fair Her Hair" and "Braw Lads". The latter is sung by some of the townsfolk each year at the Braw Lads Gathering. Sir Walter Scott built his home, Abbotsford, just across the River Tweed from Galashiels. The Sir Walter Scott Way, a long-distance path from Moffat to Cockburnspath, passes through Galashiels. There is some largely good-hearted rivalry between some of the Galashiels townsfolk and those of other border towns, particularly Hawick, the next largest town in the Scottish Borders. Galashiels' citizens often refer to their rival as dirty Hawick while the 'Teries' retort that Galashiels's residents are pail merks, supposedly because their town was the last to be plumbed into the mains water system and so residents had to rely on buckets as toilets. Galashiels was also home to the author of the famous Scottish song, "Coulters Candy". Robert Coltart was a weaver in the town, but also made confectionery in nearby Melrose. The song was created as an advertisement and hence was renamed "Sugar Candy" when played by the BBC. The song is possibly better known by the first line of its chorus - "Ally, bally, ally bally bee". Coltart died in 1890. A statue of Coltart now stands in the Market Square. The 1985 Marillion hit single "Kayleigh" was partially inspired by events that took place in Galashiels as the band's lead singer, Fish, spent some time in the town in his earlier years. In 2012, the Scottish Borders Council undertook work to revamp the Market Square with lyrics of the song inscribed into the paving slabs. Fish officially reopened the square on completion later that year.

A new £6.7m Great Tapestry of Scotland Centre opened in Galashiels on 21 August 2021, to house one of the world’s largest tapestries and community arts projects. The Great Tapestry of Scotland was hand stitched by over 1,000 people across Scotland and had been taken for display around the country throughout its six-years' creation, the original brainchild of Edinburgh-born author Alexander McCall Smith, whose vision it was to create a tapestry telling the history of Scotland. The new purpose-built gallery, visitor centre, café and workshop space has been created and, on the opening day, saw the 160th and final tapestry panel revealed by chief stitcher Dorie Wilkie, accompanied by McCall Smith himself.

The Pavilion Cinema in Market Street opened in 1922 as a cinema, dance hall and theatre, originally named the Playhouse. The auditorium was converted to a bingo hall in the 1960s. The building was refurbished in the early 1990s, with its original art-deco façade being restored. It is now a four-screen cinema.

Sports
The following sports clubs are based in Galashiels:
 * Gala Cricket Club
 * Gala Fairydean Rovers (association football)
 * Gala RFC (rugby union)
 * Galashiels Golf Club

Landmarks
The town is home to the Glasite church, in danger of being lost, but still standing sandwiched between mills and shop buildings on High Street, Botany Lane and Roxburgh Street.

Netherdale is home to Gala RFC and Gala Fairydean Rovers, with the football and rugby stadiums adjoining each other at one end. The football club's main stand was built in 1963 to designs by Peter Womersley, based in nearby Gattonside. The cantilevered concrete structure, in the Brutalist style, is now protected as a Category A listed building.

Television and print
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC Scotland and ITV Border. Television signal are received from the Selkirk and the local relay transmitters.

Local radio stations are BBC Radio Scotland on 93.5 FM, Greatest Hits Radio Scottish Borders and North Northumberland on 96.8 FM and TD1 Radio, a community based radio station that broadcast on 106.5 FM.

The Border Telegraph and Southern Reporter are the town's local newspapers.

Transport

In 1969, the historic Waverley Line, which connected the Scottish Borders to the national rail network, was closed as part of a wider series of cuts to British Railways. The closure led to a campaign for a return of rail to the region that never diminished. Following years of campaigning, in 2006, the Waverley Railway (Scotland) Act was passed by the Scottish Parliament, which authorised a partial restoration of the service. The new Borders Railway, which links Galashiels with Edinburgh, saw four new stations built in Midlothian and three in the Scottish Borders.

For most of the route, the original line was followed with 30 mi of new railway line built. The project is estimated to have cost £294 million and was completed in September 2015, with the formal opening on 9 September by the Queen. Trains from Galashiels railway station run every half-hour going down to hourly in the evening and on Sundays. Journey times between Tweedbank and Edinburgh take less than one hour.

The town also has a recently-opened Interchange building which replaces the old bus station and is also situated next to the railway station. It has a café, and upstairs has office space that has been leased to businesses and organizations. It also has toilet and baby-changing facilities, and a travel helpdesk.

Education

The following are listed by Scottish Borders Council as being in the Galashiels area and are catchment schools for Galashiels Academy.

Primary schools
 * Balmoral Primary
 * Burgh Primary
 * Clovenfords Primary (moved from Caddonfoot in 2012)
 * Fountainhall Primary, Midlothian
 * Glendinning Terrace Primary
 * Heriot Primary, Midlothian
 * Langlee Primary
 * Stow Primary
 * St Margaret's Roman Catholic Primary
 * St Peter's Primary
 * Tweedbank Primary

Secondary schools
 * Galashiels Academy

Further and Higher education

Netherdale in Galashiels is home to Heriot-Watt University's School of Textiles and Design, which is also a shared campus of Borders College.

Notable people

 * Dugald Butler (1862-1926) parish minister and historical author
 * Craig Chalmers (born 1968), rugby player
 * Thomas J Clapperton (1879-1962), sculptor
 * Archie Cochrane (1909-1988), epidemiologist
 * John Collins (born 1968), footballer
 * Jimmy Curran (1880-1963), athlete and athletics coach
 * Johnny Davidson MBE (born 1971), Tourette syndrome campaigner, subject of QED documentary John's Not Mad.
 * James Donald (1917-1993), actor
 * Scilla Elworthy (born 1943), Peace activist and founder of the Oxford Research Group
 * Russell Fairgrieve (1924-1999), politician
 * Douglas Ford (1918-1943), army officer
 * Danny Galbraith (born 1990), footballer
 * Rev Paton James Gloag (1823-1906) parish minister, Moderator in 1889
 * Andrew John Herbertson (1865–1915), geographer and Oxford don
 * Ross Kelly (born 1961), Television presenter
 * Arthur Lapworth (1872–1941), Scottish chemist
 * Ryan Mania (born 1989), winner of the 2013 Grand National
 * Mary Monica Maxwell-Scott (1852-1920), author
 * Sandy McDade (born 1964), actress
 * Judith Miller (1951-2023), antiques expert
 * Andrew Murdison (1898-1968), rugby player
 * Thomas Paterson Noble FRSE, (1887-1959), surgeon
 * Chris Paterson (born 1978), rugby player
 * Rev K. M. Phin (1816-1888) parish minister, Moderator in 1877
 * Anne Redpath (1895-1965), artist
 * Bryan Redpath (born 1971), rugby player
 * Brian Shillinglaw (1939-2007), rugby player
 * Gregor Townsend (born 1973), rugby player and head coach of the Scotland national rugby union team

Climate
Galashiels has an oceanic climate. However, due to its elevated position and distance from the sea, it has colder winters and slightly warmer summers than coastal places such as Edinburgh, Dunbar and Eyemouth. Snow is also much more common in winter, and covers the ground for an average of 38 days a year in an average winter.

title: Galashiels


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Frederick Hervey, 4th Earl of Bristol

Frederick Augustus Hervey, 4th Earl of Bristol, (1 August 1730 – 8 July 1803), was an 18th-century Anglican prelate.

Elected Bishop of Cloyne in 1767 and translated to the see of Derry in 1768, Hervey served as Bishop of Derry until his death in 1803.

He is remembered for designing mansions at Downhill and Ballyscullion, and he was known as the Edifying Bishop or the Earl-Bishop (in allusion to prince-bishop).

Early life
Frederick Hervey was born in Suffolk, and attended Westminster School before going up to Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he read Law. He took an MA degree in 1754 and was later awarded a DD (Cantab) in 1770.

Titles
Accorded the courtesy style The Honourable after his father's death in 1743, both of his brothers died without an heir. Thus he succeeded his immediate elder brother, Admiral Augustus Hervey, 3rd Earl of Bristol, in the title in December 1779, becoming the 4th earl. He also inherited the Hervey family's extensive ancestral estates centred on Ickworth House in Suffolk.

Hervey conceived the redevelopment of the Ickworth estate to a standard appropriate to his family's wealth, with the added practical purpose of housing his extensive art collection. Work started in 1794, but so ambitious was the project that by the time of his death in 1803 only the Rotunda had been constructed. However, his son Frederick (later Marquess of Bristol) took over and completed his father's vision for Ickworth House, eventually completing the wings and its gardens in 1830. In 1799 the Howard de Walden barony by writ was called out of abeyance by the House of Lords Committee of Privileges in the 4th Earl of Bristol's favour. Thus he succeeded as 5th Baron Howard de Walden, a title which devolved upon him via his grandmother (Elizabeth, Countess of Bristol, the 1st earl's 2nd wife), who was daughter and heiress of Sir Thomas Felton and great-great-granddaughter of Sir Thomas Howard, KG (created a baron 1597).

Styled Bishop Hervey after his consecration on 31 May 1767, the following year he was translated as Lord Bishop of Derry, which became his formal ecclesiastical style until his death in 1803.

Church career
Hervey was ordained in 1754 as a Fellow of Corpus Christi College and then became Clerk of the Privy Seal in 1756 and Principal Clerk in 1761 before appointment as a Royal chaplain in 1763.

Hervey then set off on an extended Grand Tour while awaiting ecclesiastical preferment. During his European travels, he developed his already insatiable passion for art.

His eldest brother, George, 2nd Earl of Bristol, became Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in 1766 and helped to secure his election as Bishop of Cloyne in 1767. Hervey displayed great enthusiasm for improving the property of the see of Cloyne which opened the way for his translation to the well endowed bishopric of Derry a year later. As Bishop of Derry, Hervey quickly developed a reputation for being "the most worldly, most eccentric, most talked-about priest in the Church of Ireland".

Hervey was Derry's most generous philanthropist, although some of the clergy in his diocese came to regard him as cheerfully sadistic, for such instances as when he instructed any portly priests coveting plum promotions to compete in midnight runs through bogs and marshland.

Given his family's wealth, Hervey both enjoyed personal luxury and expended large sums on building roads and developing agricultural enterprise within his diocese, including within the City of Derry.

Hervey was especially keen on architectural design and built mansions at Downhill and Ballyscullion; he then filled them with works of art from Italy and elsewhere.

Political activity
Hervey favoured absolute religious equality, and opposed the feudal system of tithes. Having again passed some time in Italy, he returned to Ireland and in 1782 threw himself ardently into the Irish Volunteer Movement, quickly attaining a prominent position among the volunteers. With much pomp, he arrived at an Irish nationalist convention held at Dublin in November 1783. Buoyed by his status and popularity Bishop Hervey let slip some scurrilous talk of rebellion which led the Dublin Castle administration to contemplate his arrest.

After this Hervey took no further part in British politics, spending his later years mainly on the continent of Europe. In 1798 he was imprisoned by the French at Milan for suspected espionage and was held in custody for eighteen months.

Upon his release, Hervey headed for Rome. En route at Albano, he needed overnight accommodation, which was offered by an Italian peasant by way of an outhouse; he and his wife were opposed to welcoming a Protestant into their house. The Lord Bishop died there outdoors at Albano. The earl's body was repatriated to England before being buried at Ickworth.

Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1782, the following year Hervey received the Freedom of the City of Dublin as well as of Derry.

Personality
Varying estimates have been found of his character. He was considered clever and cultured, but licentious and eccentric. He was a great collector of art and in later life, he openly professed materialistic opinions. Hervey fell in love with Wilhelmina, Countess von Lichtenau, King Frederick William II of Prussia's mistress, and by his bearing and often unusual and ostentatious style of dress he gave fresh point to Voltaire's original saying: "when God created the human race, he made men, women and Herveys".

During his European travels, and especially during his frequent visits to Rome, Hervey was known to walk around wearing a broad-brimmed white hat, many gold chains and red breeches, in what was perceived as a possible attempt to upstage his Catholic rivals.

As a bishop, Hervey was industrious and vigilant (despite his long absences from Ireland ) albeit having once declared himself an agnostic. King George III, bemused by his behaviour, began referring to Bishop Hervey as "that wicked prelate"!

It is said that Hervey's knowledge of fine things in Europe and love of travelling and staying in luxury inspired the fashion for naming a hotel the Hotel Bristol. The use of this name is meant to be synonymous with the finest accommodation and living throughout the Continent; the implication being that if Hervey were in town, that is where he would stay.

Family
The Hon. Frederick Hervey married, in 1752, Elizabeth Davers (1733–1800), daughter of Sir Jermyn Davers Bt MP, a great-granddaughter of Thomas, 2nd Baron Jermyn, as well as being sister and heiress of Sir Charles Davers Bt MP (1737–1807).

By their marriage, Hervey had four sons and three daughters:
 * Lady Mary Caroline Hervey (1753–1842); married John Crichton, 1st Earl Erne, the couple later separated.
 * George (1755–1765); died of illness aged nine, at Spa, Belgium, while the family was travelling.
 * John "Jack" Augustus Hervey, Lord Hervey (1757–1796); Captain RN, married Elizabeth Drummond and predeceased his father, leaving issue one daughter (qv. Baron Seaford)
 * Lady Elizabeth Christiana Hervey (1758–1824); longtime mistress and later second wife of William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire KG.
 * Short-lived son (b. and d. 1761)
 * Lady Louisa Theodosia Hervey (1767–1821); married Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool KG and Prime Minister, 1812–1827.
 * Frederick Hervey, 1st Marquess of Bristol (1769–1859); styled by courtesy Lord Hervey after 1796.

In 1782, after 30 years of marriage, Hervey and his wife separated. The two never saw each other again, although Hervey regularly corresponded with his children, including the youngest daughter Louisa, who lived with her mother.

When Hervey died in 1803 in Lazio, Italy, his son Frederick succeeded as 5th Earl of Bristol as well as to the family estates including Ickworth House. The title of Baron Howard de Walden however passed to his great-grandson Charles Ellis, son of the 1st Baron Seaford, son of The Hon. Elizabeth Hervey (only child of Jack, Lord Hervey).

title: Frederick Hervey, 4th Earl of Bristol


text:
James Edward Smith (botanist)

Sir James Edward Smith (2 December 1759 – 17 March 1828) was an English botanist and founder of the Linnean Society.

Early life and education
Smith was born in Norwich in 1759, the son of a wealthy wool merchant. He displayed a precocious interest in the natural world. During the early 1780s, he enrolled in the medical course at the University of Edinburgh where he studied chemistry under Joseph Black and natural history under John Walker. He then moved to London in 1783 to continue his studies. Smith was a friend of Sir Joseph Banks, who was offered the entire collection of books, manuscripts and specimens of the Swedish natural historian and botanist Carl Linnaeus following the death of his son Carolus Linnaeus the Younger. Banks declined the purchase, but Smith bought the collection for the bargain price of £1,000. The collection arrived in London in 1784, and in 1785 Smith was elected Fellow of the Royal Society.

Academic career
Between 1786 and 1788, Smith made the grand tour through the Netherlands, France, Italy and Switzerland visiting botanists, picture galleries and herbaria. He founded the Linnean Society of London in 1788, becoming its first President, a post he held until his death. He returned to live in Norwich in 1796 bringing with him the entire Linnean Collection. His library and botanical collections acquired European fame and was visited by numerous entomologists and botanists from all over the Continent. In 1792, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

In 1796, he was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society.

Smith spent the remaining thirty years of his life writing books and articles on botany. His books included Flora Britannica and The English Flora (4 volumes, 1824 – 1828). He contributed 3,348 botanical articles to Rees's Cyclopædia between 1808 and 1819, following the death of Rev. William Wood, who had started the work. In addition, he contributed 57 biographies of botanists.

He contributed seven volumes to the major botanical publication of the eighteenth century, Flora Graeca, the publications begun by John Sibthorp. A fruitful collaboration was found through descriptions Smith supplied to publisher and illustrator, James Sowerby with whom he subsequently developed as passionate interest in mosses and lichens. Depiction of flora in England had previously only found patronage for aesthetic concerns, but an interest in gardening and natural history saw illustrated publications, such as the exotic A Specimen of the Botany of New Holland and James Sowerby's 36-volume English Botany, reach new audiences.

In 1797, Smith published The Natural History of the Rarer Lepidopterous Insects of Georgia, the earliest book on North American insects. It included the illustrations and notes of John Abbot, with descriptions of new species by Smith based on Abbot's drawings.

Smith's friendship with William Roscoe (after whom he named the genus Roscoea) saw him contribute 5000 plants, between 1806 and 1817, to supplement the Roylean Herbarium. This was to become the Smith Herbarium held by the Liverpool Botanical Garden.

Personal life and death
Smith died at his Norwich home in Surrey Street on March 17, 1828, aged 68. After his death the Linnean Collection, together with Smith's own collections, were bought by the Linnean Society for £3,000.

He was married in 1796 to Pleasance Reeve, who survived her husband by 49 years and edited his memoirs and correspondence. They are buried together at St Margaret's, Lowestoft. His niece, Frances Catherine Barnard (1796–1869), was an author.

Works

 * Icones pictae plantarum rariorum descriptionibus et observationibus illustratae. London, 1790–93
 * Linnaeus, Carl von, Disquisitio de sexu plantarum. (1786) – (English) A dissertation on the sexes of plants translated from the Latin of Linnaeus by James Edward Smith. London : Printed for the author, and sold by George Nicol ..., (book details: xv, [1], 62, [2] p. ; 22 cm. (8vo))
 * "Tentamen Botanicum de Filicum Generibus Dorsiferarum", Mém. Acad. Roy. Sci. Turin, vol. 5 (1793) 401–422; one of the earliest scientific papers on fern taxonomy Available online on Project Gutenberg.
 * English Botany: Or, Coloured Figures of British Plants, with their Essential Characters, Synonyms and Places of Growth, descriptions supplied by Smith, was issued as a part work over 23 years until its completion in 1813. This work was issued in 36 volumes with 2,592 hand-coloured plates of British plants.'' Published and illustrated by James Sowerby.
 * Linné, Carl von, Lachesis Lapponica or A Tour in Lapland, Translated by James Edward Smith (1811). London: White and Cochrane In two volumes (Volume 1; Volume 2).
 * Tracts Relating to Natural History: published in London in 1798. A collection of essays concerning Linnaeus and botany.

Eponymy
The Himalayan spruce, Picea smithiana is named for him.

title: James Edward Smith (botanist)