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Edward Victor Appleton

Sir Edward Victor Appleton (6 September 1892 – 21 April 1965) was an English physicist,  Nobel Prize winner (1947) and pioneer in radiophysics. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so-called Appleton layer". He studied, and was also employed as a lab technician, at Bradford College from 1909 to 1911.

He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1947 for his seminal work proving the existence of the ionosphere during experiments carried out in 1924.

Biography
Appleton was born in Bradford, West Riding of Yorkshire, the son of Peter Appleton, a warehouseman, and Mary Wilcock, and was educated at Hanson Grammar School.

In 1911, aged 18, he was awarded a scholarship to attend St John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated with First Class Honours in Natural Science with Physics in 1913. He was also a member of Isaac Newton University Lodge. In 1915 he married his first wife, Jessie Appleton (formerly Longson), with whom he had two children. Three years after her death he married Helen Lennie (m. 1965).

During the First World War he joined the West Riding Regiment, and later transferred to the Royal Engineers. After returning from active service in the First World War, Appleton became assistant demonstrator in experimental physics at the Cavendish Laboratory in 1920. In 1922 he was initiated into Freemasonry. He was professor of physics at King's College London (1924–1936) and professor of natural philosophy at the University of Cambridge (1936–1939). From 1939 to 1949 he was secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Knighted in 1941, he received the 1947 Nobel Prize in Physics for his contributions to the knowledge of the ionosphere, which led to the development of radar.

From 1949 until his death in 1965, Appleton was Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh. From 1960 he was involved with the University's plans for a CDA (Comprehensive Development Area) which would have demolished 125 acres of Edinburgh's historic southside, resulting in the loss of many homes and businesses. This University-led project blighted the area for a decade before being abandoned in the mid 1970s. One recent study describes Appleton as a megalomaniac in his desire to carry out these plans.

In 1956, the BBC invited him to deliver the annual Reith Lectures. Across a series of six radio broadcasts, titled Science and the Nation, he explored the many facets of scientific activity in Britain at the time.

Sir Edward died on 21 April 1965 at Edinburgh and is buried in Edinburgh's Morningside Cemetery with his wife Helen Lennie (d. 1983). The grave lies towards the extreme western side near the new housing to the north-west.

Works
Appleton had observed that the strength of the radio signal from a transmitter on a frequency such as the medium wave band and over a path of a hundred miles or so was constant during the day but that it varied during the night. This led him to believe that it was possible that two radio signals were being received. One was travelling along the ground, and another was reflected by a layer in the upper atmosphere. The fading or variation in strength of the overall radio signal received resulted from the interference pattern of the two signals.

The existence of a reflecting atmospheric layer was not in itself a completely new idea. Balfour Stewart had suggested the idea in the late 19th century to explain rhythmic changes in the Earth's magnetic field. More recently, in 1902, Oliver Heaviside and Arthur E. Kennelly had suggested such an electromagnetic-reflecting stratum, now called the Kennelly–Heaviside layer, may explain the success Marconi had in transmitting his signals across the Atlantic. Calculations had shown that natural bending of the radio waves was not sufficient to stop them from simply "shooting off" into empty space before they reached the receiver.

Appleton thought the best place to look for evidence of the ionosphere was in the variations he believed it was causing around sunset in radio signal receptions. It was sensible to suggest these variations were due to the interference of two waves but an extra step to show that the second wave causing the interference (the first being the ground wave) was coming down from the ionosphere. The experiment he designed had two methods to show ionospheric influence and both allowed the height of the lower boundary of reflection (thus the lower boundary of the reflecting layer) to be determined. The first method was called frequency modulation and the second was to calculate the angle of arrival of the reflected signal at the receiving aerial.

The frequency modulation method exploits the fact that there is a path difference between the ground wave and the reflected wave, meaning they travel different distances from sender to receiver.

Let the distance AC travelled by the ground wave be h and the distance ABC travelled by the reflected wave h'. The path difference is:

$$ h'-h=D $$

The wavelength of the transmitted signal is λ. The number of wavelengths difference between the paths h and h' is:

$$ \frac{h-h'}{\lambda}=\frac{D}{\lambda}=N $$

If N is an integer number, then constructive interference will occur, this means a maximum signal will be achieved at the receiving end. If N is an odd integer number of half wavelengths, then destructive interference will occur and a minimum signal will be received. Let us assume we are receiving a maximum signal for a given wavelength λ. If we start to change λ, this is the process called frequency modulation, N will no longer be a whole number and destructive interference will start to occur, meaning the signal will start to fade. Now we keep changing λ until a maximum signal is once again received. The means that for our new value λ', our new value N' is also an integer number. If we have lengthened λ then we know that N' is one less than N. Thus:

$$ N-N'=\frac{D}{\lambda}-\frac{D}{\lambda'}=1 $$

Rearranging for D gives:

$$ D=h-h'=\frac{1}{\frac{1}{\lambda}-\frac{1}{\lambda'}} $$

As we know λ and λ', we can calculate D. Using the approximation that ABC is an isosceles triangle, we can use our value of D to calculate the height of the reflecting layer. This method is a slightly simplified version of the method used by Appleton and his colleagues to work out a first value for the height of the ionosphere in 1924. In their experiment, they used the BBC broadcasting station in Bournemouth to vary the wavelengths of its emissions after the evening programmes had finished. They installed a receiving station in Oxford to monitor the interference effects. The receiving station had to be in Oxford as there was no suitable emitter at the right distance of about 62 miles (100 km) from Cambridge in those days.

This frequency modulation method revealed that the point from which waves were being reflected was approximately 56 miles (90 km). However, it did not establish that the waves were reflected from above, indeed they may have been coming from hills somewhere between Oxford and Bournemouth. The second method, which involved finding the angle of incidence of the reflected waves at the receiver, showed for sure that they were coming from above. Triangulations from this angle gave results for the height of reflection compatible with the frequency modulation method. We will not go into this method in detail because it involves fairly complex calculations using Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.

Far from being conclusive, the success of the Oxford-Bournemouth experiment revealed a vast new field of study to be explored. It showed that there was indeed a reflecting layer high above the Earth but it also posed many new questions. What was the constitution of this layer, how did it reflect the waves, was it the same all over the earth, why did its effects change so dramatically between day and night, did it change throughout the year? Appleton would spend the rest of his life answering these questions. He developed a magneto-ionic theory based on the previous work of Lorentz and Maxwell to model the workings of this part of the atmosphere. Using this theory and further experiments, he showed that the so-called Kennelly–Heaviside layer was heavily ionised and thus conducting. This led to the term ionosphere. He showed free electrons to be the ionising agents. He discovered that the layer could be penetrated by waves above a certain frequency and that this critical frequency could be used to calculate the electron density in the layer. However these penetrating waves would also be reflected back, but from a much higher layer. This showed the ionosphere had a much more complex structure than first anticipated. The lower level was labelled E – Layer, reflected longer wavelengths and was found to be at approximately 78 miles (125 km). The high level, which had much higher electron density, was labelled F – Layer and could reflect much shorter wavelengths that penetrated the lower layer. It is situated 186 – 248 miles (300 – 400 km) above the earth's surface. It is this which is often referred to as the Appleton Layer as is responsible for enabling most long range short wave telecommunication.

The magneto-ionic theory also allowed Appleton to explain the origin of the mysterious fadings heard on the radio around sunset. During the day, the light from the Sun causes the molecules in the air to become ionised even at fairly low altitudes. At these low altitudes, the density of the air is great and thus the electron density of ionised air is very large. Due to this heavy ionisation, there is strong absorption of electromagnetic waves caused by 'electron friction'. Thus in transmissions over any distance, there will be no reflections as any waves apart from the one at ground level will be absorbed rather than reflected. However, when the sun sets, the molecules slowly start to recombine with their electrons and the free electron density levels drop. This means absorption rates diminish and waves can be reflected with sufficient strengths to be noticed, leading to the interference phenomena we have mentioned. For these interference patterns to occur though, there must not simply be the presence of a reflected wave but a change in the reflected wave. Otherwise the interference is constant and fadings would not be heard. The received signal would simply be louder or softer than during the day. This suggests the height at which reflection happens must slowly change as the sun sets. Appleton found in fact that it increased as the sun set and then decreased as the sun rose until the reflected wave was too weak to record. This variation is compatible with the theory that ionisation is due to the Sun's influence. At sunset, the intensity of the Sun's radiation will be much less at the surface of the Earth than it is high up in the atmosphere. This means ionic recombination will progress slowly from lower altitudes to higher ones and therefore the height at which waves are reflected slowly increases as the sun sets.

The basic idea behind Appleton's work is so simple that it is hard to understand at first how he devoted almost all of his scientific career to its study. However, in the last couple of paragraphs some of the complexities of the subject have been introduced. Like many other fields, it is one that grows in intricacy the more it is studied. By the end of his life, ionospheric observatories had been set up all over the world to provide a global map of the reflecting layers. Links were found to the 11-year sunspot cycle and the aurora borealis, the magnetic storms that occur in high latitudes. This became particularly relevant during the Second World War when the storms would lead to radio blackouts. Thanks to Appleton's research, the periods when these would occur could be predicted and communication could be switched to wavelengths that would be least affected. Radar, another crucial wartime innovation, was one that came about thanks to Appleton's work. On a very general level, his research consisted in determining the distance of reflecting objects from radio signal transmitters. This is exactly the idea of radar and the flashing dots that appear on the screen (a cathode ray tube) scanned by the circulating 'searcher' bar. This system was developed partly by Appleton as a new method, called the pulse method, to make ionospheric measurements. It was later adapted by Robert Watson-Watt to detect aeroplanes. Nowadays, ionospheric data is important when communications with satellites are considered. The correct frequencies for these signals must be selected so that they actually reach the satellites without being reflected or deviated before.

In 1974 the Radio and Space Research Station was renamed the Appleton Laboratory in honour of the man who had done so much to establish the UK as a leading force in ionospheric research, and had been involved with the station first as a researcher and then as secretary of its parent body, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

Honours and awards
Appleton was awarded the following: In addition the following are named in his honour:
 * Fellow of the Royal Society (1927)
 * Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1936)
 * Nobel Prize in Physics (1947)
 * Faraday Medal
 * Hughes Medal
 * Royal Medal
 * Chree Medal
 * Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
 * Appleton Medal and Prize
 * Appleton Suite at Bradford Register Offices
 * Appleton Tower at the University of Edinburgh
 * Appleton Science Building at Bradford College
 * Appleton Academy, a school in the Wyke area of the City of Bradford
 * Appleton crater on the Moon is named in his honour.
 * Appleton Layer, which is the higher atmospheric ionised layer above the E-layer
 * Annual Appleton Lecture at the Institution of Engineering and Technology

Artistic recognition
Appleton's portrait, by William Hutchison hangs in Old College, University of Edinburgh.

title: Edward Victor Appleton


text:
César Vichard de Saint-Réal

César Vichard de Saint-Réal (1639–1692) was a French polyglot.

He was born in Chambéry, Savoy, but educated in Lyon by the Jesuits. He used to work in the royal library with Antoine Varillas. This French historiographer influenced the way Saint-Réal wrote history. He used to be a reader and friend of Hortense Mancini, duchesse de Mazarin, who took him with her to England (1675).

Saint-Réal was a polygraph writer. His works belong to different genres but he always had an interest in history.

After some minor works written in order to win the protection of Louis XIV, he wrote De l'usage de l'histoire in 1671. In this essay, he speaks about the good way of writing history and explains that understanding of facts is more important than facts themselves. In 1672, he published Dom Carlos, subtitled "nouvelle historique". It's a short novel or a long short story which relates the love story of a forbidden passion between Dom Carlos, the son of Philip II of Spain, and his father's wife Elisabeth of Valois. Saint-Réal mixes politics and love, but love appears much more important. This novel was a hit with high society. Nowadays French critics see it as an important text in the construction of the French psychological novel. It announces the style of Madame de La Fayette novels. Dom Carlos was the basis for Friedrich Schiller’s play Don Carlos (which in turn became the source material for several operatic works, including Giuseppe Verdi’s opera of the same name). Saint-Réal’s book was also the basis of the English writer Thomas Otway’s play Don Carlos, Prince of Spain.

But Saint-Réal wanted to be a serious writer and needed to write texts which were not fiction. That's why he published in 1674 la ''Conjuration des Espagnols contre la République de Venise en l'année M. DC. XVIII''. It relates a Spanish conjuration against Venice. The historical work is not serious by modern criteria, but it was regarded by people of the end of the 17th and the 18th centuries as a good example of classical prosis. In Le Siècle de Louis XIV, Voltaire calls Saint-Réal the "French Sallust" because of this work.

The authorship of the duchess's Mémoires has been ascribed to Saint-Real, but no proof exists. He also wrote a Vie de Jésus Christ in 1678, a summary of the gospels. He took part in the literary arguments of his time with the short treatise De la critique (1691), directed against Andry de Boisregard's Réflexions sur la langue française. There were many editions of hisŒuvres complètes during the 17th and 19th centuries, some longer than others due to the inclusion of some works falsely attributed to him.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: César Vichard de Saint-Réal


text:
Talk:Joan Crawford

Semi-protected edit request on 23 June 2024
change “frution” to “fruition” 2601:602:9B00:6C80:A1A1:5074:C5E8:8F3B (talk) 01:03, 23 June 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅ RudolfRed (talk) 02:24, 23 June 2024 (UTC)

Infobox image
There have been so many changes to the infobox image in the past few months that it’s time to settle this and stop the continued fighting. I’ve gathered the 5 most recent images into one vote gallery so that we can go ahead and vote on this. If anybody has any other image suggestions, please feel free to drop them. But it’s past due for us to vote on the issue.

Dancingtudorqueen (talk) 17:10, 15 July 2024 (UTC)

 * Anyone of them is fine with me with the exception of Option A, that Maybelline ad. Doesn't look at all like the iconic Crawford... Shearonink (talk) 20:47, 15 July 2024 (UTC)

 * Option B is the one I like most. I personally remember her for her black and white movies, so I wouldn't choose Option A, but that's just me. Buenovale (talk) 15:51, 17 July 2024 (UTC)

An authoritative investigation
After reading this I'm convinced 1906 is correct:

http://www.theconcludingchapterofcrawford.com/debunking_birthyear

http://www.theconcludingchapterofcrawford.com/debunking_birthyear_1906

http://www.theconcludingchapterofcrawford.com/debunking_birthyear_1904

http://www.theconcludingchapterofcrawford.com/debunking_birthyear_1905 Yours6700 (talk) 00:41, 16 July 2024 (UTC)

 * pls review WP:SELFPUBLISH Moxy 🍁 11:59, 16 July 2024 (UTC)

Permanent removal of signature
Crawford’s “signature” has been added and removed multiple times since at least 2023. It has been posted it is not her signature, but actually a secretarial one. It has now reappeared. The issue being fans are getting this tattooed on them. Goldduxxt (talk) 13:08, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * When I went to the PBS to find the refs for Crawford autographs, thi particular signature in the article is not clearly stated as actually being Crawford's. It is also nowhere near being a duplicate or even similar to the other PBS signature. Crawford's signatures on legal documents - here at the History for Sale website, are clearly not at all the same as the one at Commons.
 * To me the tattooing is neither here nor there so far as WP content is concerned. What is the issue is if the clear identity of the person who signed this name can be verified as actually being Joan Crawford. And that fails verification. - Shearonink (talk) 15:09, 17 July 2024 (UTC)
 * FYI to anyone who is interested. I have nominated the file for deletion on Commons. - Shearonink (talk) 15:16, 17 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Joan Crawford


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C. F. Powell

Cecil Frank Powell, FRS (5 December 1903 – 9 August 1969) was a British physicist, and Nobel Prize in Physics laureate for heading the team that developed the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and for the resulting discovery of the pion (pi-meson), a subatomic particle.

Personal life
Powell was born in Tonbridge, Kent, England, the son Frank and Elizabeth Caroline (née Bisacre) Powell. His father was a gunsmith. He was educated at a local primary school before gaining a scholarship to the Judd School, Tonbridge. Following this he attended Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, graduating in 1925 in natural sciences. After completing his bachelor's degree he worked at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, under C.T.R. Wilson and Lord Rutherford, conducting research into condensation phenomena, and gaining his PhD in physics in 1929.

In 1932 Powell married Isobel Artner (1907–1995), and the couple had two daughters, Jane and Annie.

Professional life
In 1928 he took up a post as research assistant to Arthur Mannering Tyndall in the H.H. Wills Physical Laboratory at the University of Bristol, later being appointed lecturer, and in 1948 appointed Melville Wills Professor of Physics. In 1936 he took part in a Royal Society expedition to Montserrat in the West Indies as part of a study of a damaging earthquake swarm. He appears on a stamp issued in Grenada.

During his time at Bristol University, Powell applied himself to the development of techniques for measuring the mobility of positive ions, to establishing the nature of the ions in common gases, and to the construction and use of a Cockcroft generator to study the scattering of atomic nuclei. He also began to develop methods employing specialised photographic emulsions to facilitate the recording of the tracks of elementary particles, and in 1938 began applying this technique to the study of cosmic radiation, exposing photographic plates at high-altitude, at the tops of mountains and using specially designed balloons, collaborating in the study with Giuseppe "Beppo" Occhialini, Hugh Muirhead and young Brazilian physicist César Lattes. This work led in 1947 to the discovery of the pion (pi-meson), which proved to be the hypothetical particle proposed in 1935 by Hideki Yukawa in his theory of nuclear physics.

In 1949 Powell was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and received the society's Hughes Medal the same year. In 1950 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics "for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method". César Lattes was working with him at the time of the discovery and had improved the sensitivity of the photographic emulsion. César Lattes was the first to write an article describing the discovery that would lead to the Nobel Prize. Debendra Mohan Bose (nephew of Jagadish Chandra Bose) and Chowdhuri published three consecutive papers in Nature, but could not continue further investigation on account of "non-availability of more sensitive emulsion plates during the war years. Seven years after this discovery of mesons by DM Bose and Bibha Chowdhuri, C.F. Powell made the same discovery of pions and muons and further decay of muons to electrons… using the same technique". He acknowledged in his book, "In 1941, Bose and Chaudhuri (sic) had pointed it out that it is possible, in principle, to distinguish between the tracks of protons and mesons in an emulsion… They concluded that many of the charged particles arrested in their plates were lighter than protons, their mean mass being … the physical basis of their method was correct and their work represents the first approach to the scattering method of determining momenta of charged particles by observation of their tracks in emulsion". In fact, the measured mass of the particle by Bose and Chowdhuri was very close to the accepted value measured by Powell who used improved "full-tone" plates. From 1952 Powell was appointed director of several expeditions to Sardinia and the Po Valley, Italy, utilizing high-altitude balloon flights.

In 1955, Powell, also a member of the World Federation of Scientific Workers, added his signature to the Russell-Einstein Manifesto put forward by Bertrand Russell, Albert Einstein and scientist Joseph Rotblat, and was involved in preparations for the first Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs. As Rotblat put it, "Cecil Powell has been the backbone of the Pugwash Movement. He gave it coherence, endurance and vitality." Powell chaired the meetings of the Pugwash Continuing Committee, often standing in for Bertrand Russell, and attended meetings until 1968.

In 1961 Powell received the Royal Medal, and served on the Scientific Policy Committee of the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) that year, and in 1967 he was awarded the Lomonosov Gold Medal by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (now Russian Academy of Sciences) "for outstanding achievements in the physics of elementary particles".

Global policy
He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution. As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the Constitution for the Federation of Earth.

Death
Powell died while on holiday with his wife in the Valsassina region of Italy, lodging in a house in Sanico, in the Province of Lecco. On 9 August 1969, near the end of a walk in the foothills of the Alps, he suffered a heart attack. Giuseppe Occhialini had a wooden bench built with Powell's name carved into a commemorative plaque, and then transported it to Premana, a village in the mountains above Lake Como. It was installed on the path where he died, outside the Rifugio Capanna Vittoria (now the Capanna Vittoria restaurant), on the Alpe Giumello, in Casargo. Occhialini's reason was, "...if that bench had already been there, Powell would probably have stopped to rest there".

Legacy

 * The Cecil F. Powell Memorial Medal was named in his honour by the European Physical Society.
 * In October 2011 a replacement commemorative plaque was installed in Downside Road, Bristol.
 * The Judd School, Tonbridge, had one of its four houses named after Powell, from 2008 to 2017. The school also awards the Powell Physics and Mathematics Prize to an upper sixth form student every year in his honour. In addition Powell is honoured by the local branch of Pizza Express, which is dedicated to him and a portrait of Powell hangs in the restaurant.
 * In 2013, the International Inner Wheel Club of Lecco, in Lombardy, Northern Italy, erected a sign in memory of Powell, close to where he died, at the Capanna Vittoria restaurant, on the Alpe Giumello, in Casargo.

title: C. F. Powell


text:
Jacques Lelong

Jacques Lelong (occasionally Jacobus Longus; 19 April 1665 – 13 August 1721) was a French bibliographer born in Paris. He joined the Knights of Malta at the age of ten, but later joined the Oratorians.

He was a priest of the Oratory, and was librarian to the establishment of the Order in Paris, where he spent his life in seclusion. He first published a Bibliotheca Sacra (1709), an index of all the editions of the Bible, then a Bibliothèque historique de la France (1719), a volume of considerable size, containing 17,487 items to which Lelong sometimes appends useful notes.

His work is far from complete. He vainly hoped that his friend and successor Father Desmolets would continue it; but it was resumed by, a councillor of the parlement of Dijon, who spent fifteen years of his life and a great deal of money in rewriting the Bibliothèque historique. The first two volumes (1768 and 1769) contained as many as 29,143 items. Fevret de Fontette died on 16 February 1772, leaving the third volume almost finished. It appeared in 1772, thanks to Barbaud de La Bruyère, who later brought out the 4th and 5th volumes (1775 and 1778). In this new edition the Bibliothèque historique is a work of reference of the highest order; it is still of great value.

title: Jacques Lelong


text:
Philokalia

The Philokalia (φιλοκαλία, from φιλία philia "love" and κάλλος kallos "beauty") is "a collection of texts written between the 4th and 15th centuries by spiritual masters" of the mystical hesychast tradition of the Eastern Orthodox Church. They were originally written for the guidance and instruction of monks in "the practice of the contemplative life". The collection was compiled in the 18th century by Nicodemus the Hagiorite and Macarius of Corinth based on the codices 472 (12th century), 605 (13th century), 476 (14th century), 628 (14th century) and 629 (15th century) from the library of the monastery of Vatopedi, Mount Athos.

Although these works were individually known in the monastic culture of Greek Orthodox Christianity before their inclusion in the Philokalia, their presence in this collection resulted in a much wider readership due to its translation into several languages. The earliest translations included a Church Slavonic language translation of selected texts by Paisius Velichkovsky (Dobrotolublye, Добротолю́бїе) in 1793, a Russian translation by Ignatius Bryanchaninov in 1857, and a five-volume translation into Russian (Dobrotolyubie) by Theophan the Recluse in 1877. There were subsequent Romanian, Italian, French, German, Spanish, Finnish and Arabic translations.

The book is the "principal spiritual text" for all the Eastern Orthodox churches. The publishers of the current English translation state that "the Philokalia has exercised an influence far greater than that of any book other than the Bible in the recent history of the Orthodox Church."

Philokalia (sometimes Philocalia) is also the name given to an anthology of the writings of Origen compiled by Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nazianzus. Other works on monastic spirituality have also used the same title over the years.

History
Nikodemos and Makarios were monks at Mount Athos, a mountainous peninsula in northern Greece, historically considered the geographical center of Orthodox spirituality and home to 20 monasteries. The first edition, in Greek, was published in Venice in 1782, with a second Greek edition published in Athens in 1893. All the original texts were in Greek—two of them were first written in Latin and translated into Greek in the Byzantine era.

Paisius Velichkovsky's translation into Church Slavonic, Dobrotolublye (published in Moscow in 1793), included selected portions of the Philokalia and was the version that the pilgrim in The Way of a Pilgrim carried on his journey. That book about a Russian pilgrim who is seeking advice on interior prayer helped popularize the Philokalia and its teachings in Russia. Velichkovsky's translation was the first to become widely read by the public, away from the monasteries—helped by the popularity of The Way of a Pilgrim, and the public influence of the startsy at Optina Monastery known as the Optina Elders. Two Russian language translations appeared in the 19th century, one by Ignatius Brianchaninov (1857) and another by Theophan the Recluse's Dobrotolubiye (1877). The latter was published in five volumes and included texts that were not in the original Greek edition.

Velichkovsky was initially hesitant to share his translation outside of the Optina Monastery walls. He was concerned that people living in the world would not have the adequate supervision and guidance of the startsy in the monastery, nor would they have the support of the liturgical life of the monks. He was finally persuaded by the Metropolitan of St. Petersburg to publish the book in 1793. Brianchanivov expressed the same concerns in his work, warning his readers that regular practice of the Jesus Prayer, without adequate guidance, could cause spiritual delusion and pride, even among monks. Their concerns were contrary to the original compiler of the Philokalia, Nicodemos, who wrote that the Jesus Prayer could be used to good effect by anyone, whether monastic or layperson. All agreed that the teachings on constant inner prayer should be practiced under the guidance of a spiritual teacher, or starets.

The first partial English and French translations in the 1950s were an indirect result of the Bolshevik revolution, which brought many Russian intellectuals into Western Europe. T. S. Eliot persuaded his fellow directors of the publishing house Faber and Faber to publish a partial translation into English from the Theophan Russian version, which met with surprising success in 1951. A more complete English translation, from the original Greek, began in 1979 with a collaboration between G. E. H. Palmer, Kallistos Ware, and Philip Sherrard. They released four of the five volumes of the Philokalia between 1979 and 1995. In 1946, the first installment of a ten volume Romanian translation by Father Dumitru Stăniloae appeared. In addition to the original Greek text, Stăniloae added "lengthy original footnotes of his own" as well as substantially expanding the coverage of texts by Saint John of the Ladder, Saint Dorotheos of Gaza, Maximus the Confessor, Symeon the New Theologian, and Gregory Palamas. This work is 4,650 pages in length. Writings by the Trappist monk Thomas Merton on hesychasm also helped spread the popularity of the Philokalia, along with the indirect influence of J. D. Salinger's Franny and Zooey, which featured The Way of a Pilgrim as a main plot element.

Teachings
The collection's title is The Philokalia of the Niptic Fathers, or more fully The Philokalia of the Neptic Saints gathered from our Holy Theophoric Father, through which, by means of the philosophy of ascetic practice and contemplation, the intellect is purified, illumined, and made perfect. Niptic is an adjective derived from the Greek Nipsis (or Nepsis) referring to contemplative prayer and meaning "watchfulness". Watchfulness in this context includes close attention to one's thoughts, intentions, and emotions, with the aim of resisting temptations and vain and egoistic thoughts, and trying to maintain a constant state of remembrance of God. There are similarities between this ancient practice and the concept of mindfulness as practiced in Buddhism and other spiritual traditions. The Philokalia teachings have also influenced the revival of interior prayer in modern times through the centering prayer practices taught by Thomas Keating and Thomas Merton.

Philokalia is defined as the "love of the beautiful, the exalted, the excellent, understood as the transcendent source of life and the revelation of Truth." In contemplative prayer the mind becomes absorbed in the awareness of God as a living presence as the source of being of all creatures and sensible forms. According to the authors of the English translation, Kallistos Ware, G. E. H. Palmer, and Philip Sherrard, the writings of the Philokalia have been chosen above others because they: "...show the way to awaken and develop attention and consciousness, to attain that state of watchfulness which is the hallmark of sanctity. They describe the conditions most effective for learning what their authors call the art of arts and the science of sciences, a learning which is not a matter of information or agility of mind but of a radical change of will and heart leading man towards the highest possibilities open to him, shaping and nourishing the unseen part of his being, and helping him to spiritual fulfilment and union with God.'"

The Philokalia is the foundational text on hesychasm ("quietness" or "stillness"), an inner spiritual tradition with a long history dating back to the Desert Fathers. The practices include contemplative prayer, quiet sitting, and recitation of the Jesus Prayer. While traditionally taught and practiced in monasteries, hesychasm teachings have spread over the years to include laymen. Nikodemos, in his introduction, described the collected texts as "a mystical school of inward prayer" which could be used to cultivate the inner life and to "attain the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ." While the monastic life makes this easier, Nikodemos himself stressed that "unceasing prayer" should be practiced by all.

The hesychast teachings in the Philokalia are viewed by Orthodox Christians as inseparable from the sacraments and liturgy of the Orthodox Church, and are given by and for those who are already living within the framework of the Church. A common theme is the need for a spiritual father or guide.

Timeline of editions and translations

 * 4th-15th centuries The original texts are written by various spiritual masters. Most are written in Greek, two are written in Latin and translated into Greek during Byzantine times.
 * 1782 First edition, Greek, published in Venice, compiled by Nikodemos and Makarios.
 * 1793 Church Slavonic translation of selected texts, Dobrotolublye, by Paisius Velichkovsky, published in Moscow. This translation was carried by the pilgrim in The Way of a Pilgrim. First to be read outside of monasteries, with a strong influence on the two following Russian translations.
 * 1857 Russian language translation, by Ignatius Brianchaninov.
 * 1877 Russian language translation, by Theophan the Recluse, included several texts not in the Greek original, and omitted or paraphrased some passages.
 * 1893 Second Greek edition, published in Athens, included additional texts by Patriarch Kallistos.
 * 1946-1976 In 1946, the first installment of a twelve volume Romanian translation by Father Dumitru Stăniloae appeared.
 * 1951, 1954 First partial English translations by E. Kadloubovsky and G. E. H. Palmer in two volumes: Writings from the Philokalia on Prayer of the Heart and Early Fathers from the Philokalia. These were translated from Theophane's Russian version, and published by Faber and Faber.
 * 1953 "Small Philokalia" is published in French: Petite Philocalie de la prière du cœur (ed. Jean Gouillard, Points / Sagesses)
 * 1957-1963 Third Greek edition, published in Athens by Astir Publishing Company in five volumes. Modern English translation based on this edition.
 * 1963 Parts of the Philokalia is published in Italian for the first time (La filocalia. Testi di ascetica e mistica della Chiesa orientale, Giovanni Vannucci, Libreria Editrice Fiorentina, Firenze)
 * 1965 First translation of selected texts from Philokalia is published in Finnish by name Sisäinen kauneus. Rukousta koskevia poimintoja Filokaliasta. (Inner Beauty. Selected texts from the Philokalia on Prayer.) from German translation of Kleine Philokalie. The translation was made by Irinja Nikkanen and it was published by Pyhäin Sergein ja Hermanin veljeskunta (Brotherhood of sts. Sergius and Herman).
 * 1979-1995 English translation by Kallistos Ware, G. E. H. Palmer, and Philip Sherrard, of the first four of the five Greek volumes, from the Third Greek edition. This was published by Faber and Faber.
 * 1981-1993 A Finnish translation was made from the original Byzantine Greek text by Valamon ystävät ry (Friends of Valamo monastery registered association) in four volumes. Translation was made by nun Kristoduli, Irinja Nikkanen and Matti Jeskanen. An appendix (fifth volume) by nun Kristoduli was published at 1998.
 * 1982-1987 An Italian translation by M. Benedetta Artioli and M. Francesca Lovato of the Community of Monteveglio and P. Gribaudi is published in Turin in four volumes.
 * 1988 Little Philokalia on prayer of heart (Piccola filocalia della preghiera del cuore) in Italian is translated by Jean Gouillard and published in Milan.
 * 1998 A Polish translation of Philokalia by Józef Naumowicz is published in Kraków.
 * 2020 An English translation by Anna Skoubourdis of the fifth volume of the Philokalia is published by Virgin Mary of Australia and Oceania.

Contents
This listing of texts is based on the English translation of four volumes by Bishop Kallistos Ware, G. E. H. Palmer, and Philip Sherrard. Some works in the Philokalia are also found in the Patrologia Graeca and Patrologia Latina of J. P. Migne.

Volume 1

 * St. Isaiah the Solitary
 * 1) On Guarding the Intellect: 27 Texts

 * Evagrius the Solitary
 * 1) Outline Teaching on Asceticism and Stillness in the Solitary
 * 2) Texts on Discrimination in respect of Passions and Thoughts
 * 3) Extracts from the Texts on Watchfulness
 * 4) On Prayer: 153 Texts

 * St. John Cassian
 * 1) On the Eight Vices: Written for Bishop Kastor
 * 2) On Control of the Stomach
 * 3) On the Demon of Unchastity and the Desire of the Flesh
 * 4) On Avarice
 * 5) On Anger
 * 6) On Dejection
 * 7) On Listlessness
 * 8) On Self-Esteem
 * 9) On Pride
 * 10) On the Holy Fathers of Sketis and on Discrimination: Written for Abba Leontios

 * St. Mark the Ascetic
 * 1) On the Spiritual Law: 200 Texts
 * 2) On Those who Think that They are Made Righteous by Works: 226 Texts
 * 3) Letter to Nicolas the Solitary

 * St. Hesychios the Priest
 * 1) On Watchfulness and Holiness: Written for Theodoulos

 * St. Neilos the Ascetic
 * 1) Ascetic Discourse

 * St. Diadochos of Photiki
 * 1) On Spiritual Knowledge and Discrimination: 100 Texts

 * St. John of Karpathos
 * 1) For the Encouragement of the Monks in India who had Written to Him: 100 Texts
 * 2) Ascetic Discourse Sent at the Request of the Same Monks in India: A Supplement to the 100 Texts

This piece by Anthony was changed to an appendix in the English translation by Palmer, Sherrard, and Ware (1979, p. 327), because of their view that the language and the general idea is not explicitly Christian and may not have been written by Antony.
 * St. Antony the Great
 * 1) On the Character of Men and on the Virtuous Life: 170 Texts

Volume 2

 * St. Theodoros the Great Ascetic (Theodore of Edessa)
 * 1) A Century of Spiritual Texts
 * 2) Theoretikon
 * St. Maximos the Confessor
 * 1) Four Hundred Texts on Love, with a foreword to Elpidios the Presbyter
 * 2) Two Hundred Texts on Theology and the Incarnate Dispensation of the Son of God (written for Thalassios)
 * 3) Various Texts on Theology, the Divine Economy, and Virtue and Vice
 * 4) On the Lord's Prayer
 * Thalassios the Libyan
 * 1) On Love, Self Control, and Life in accordance with the Intellect (written for Paul the Presbyter)
 * St. John of Damascus
 * 1) On the Virtues and the Vices
 * A Discourse on Abba Philemon
 * St. Theognostos
 * 1) On the Practice of the Virtues, Contemplation and the Priesthood

Volume 3

 * St. Philotheos of Sinai
 * Forty Texts on Watchfulness

 * Ilias the Presbyter
 * 1) A Gnomic Anthology: Part I
 * 2) A Gnomic Anthology: Part II
 * 3) A Gnomic Anthology: Part III
 * 4) A Gnomic Anthology: Part IV
 * Theophanis the Monk
 * 1) The Ladder of Divine Graces
 * St. Peter of Damascus
 * 1) Book I: A Treasury of Divine Knowledge
 * 2) Introduction
 * 3) The Seven Forms of Bodily Discipline
 * 4) The Seven Commandments
 * 5) The Four Virtues of the Soul
 * 6) Active Spiritual Knowledge
 * 7) The Bodily Virtues as Tools for the Acquisition of the Virtues of the Soul
 * 8) The Guarding of the Intellect
 * 9) Obedience and Stillness
 * 10) The Eight Stages of Contemplation
 * 11) The First Stage of Contemplation
 * 12) The Second Stage of Contemplation
 * 13) The Third Stage of Contemplation
 * 14) The Fourth Stage of Contemplation
 * 15) The Fifth Stage of Contemplation
 * 16) The Sixth Stage of Contemplation
 * 17) The Seventh Stage of Contemplation
 * 18) The Eighth Stage of Contemplation
 * 19) That there are No Contradictions in Holy Scripture
 * 20) The Classification of Prayer according to the Eight Stages of Contemplation
 * 21) Humility
 * 22) Dispassion
 * 23) A Further Analysis of the Seven Forms of Bodily Discipline
 * 24) Discrimination
 * 25) Spiritual Reading
 * 26) True Discrimination
 * 27) That we should not Despair even if we Sin Many Times
 * 28) Short Discourse on the Acquisition of the Virtues and on Abstinence from the Passions
 * 29) How to Acquire True Faith
 * 30) That Stillness is of Great Benefit to those Subject to Passion
 * 31) The Great Benefit ofTrue Repentance
 * 32) God's Universal and Particular Gifts
 * 33) How God has done All Things for our Benefit
 * 34) How God's Speech is not Loose Chatter
 * 35) How it is Impossible to be Saved without Humility
 * 36) On Building up the Soul through the Virtues
 * 37) The Great Value of Love and of Advice given with Humility
 * 38) That the Frequent Repetition found in Divine Scripture is not Verbosity
 * 39) Spurious Knowledge
 * 40) A List of the Virtues
 * 41) A List of the Passions
 * 42) The Difference between Thoughts and Provocations
 * 43) Book II: Twenty-Four Discourses
 * 44) Spiritual Wisdom
 * 45) The Two Kinds of Faith
 * 46) The Two Kinds of Fear
 * 47) True Piety and Self-Control
 * 48) Patient Endurance
 * 49) Hope
 * 50) Detachment
 * 51) Mortification of the Passions
 * 52) The Remembrance of Christ's Sufferings
 * 53) Humility
 * 54) Discrimination
 * 55) Contemplation of the Sensible World
 * 56) Knowledge of the Angelic Orders
 * 57) Dispassion
 * 58) Love
 * 59) Knowledge of God
 * 60) Moral Judgment
 * 61) Self-Restraint
 * 62) Courage
 * 63) Justice
 * 64) Peace
 * 65) Joy
 * 66) Holy Scripture
 * 67) Conscious Awareness in the Heart
 * St. Symeon the Metaphrast: Paraphrases of the Homilies of St. Macarius of Egypt
 * 1) Spiritual Perfection
 * 2) Prayer
 * 3) Patient Endurance and Discrimination
 * 4) The Raising of the Intellect
 * 5) Love
 * 6) The Freedom of the Intellect

Volume 4

 * St. Symeon the New Theologian
 * 1) On Faith
 * 2) 153 Practical and Theological Texts
 * 3) The Three Methods of Prayer [attributed to him]
 * Nikitas Stithatos
 * 1) On the Practice of the Virtues: One Hundred Texts
 * 2) On the Inner Nature of Things and on the Purification of the Intellect: One Hundred Texts
 * 3) On Spiritual Knowledge, Love and the Perfection of Living: One Hundred Texts
 * Theoliptos, Metropolitan of Philadelphia
 * 1) On Inner Work in Christ and the Monastic Profession
 * 2) Texts
 * Nikiphoros the Monk
 * 1) On Watchfulness and the Guarding of the Heart
 * 2) From the Life of Our Holy Father Antony
 * 3) From the Life of St Theodosios the Cenobiarch
 * 4) From the Life of St Arsenios
 * 5) From the Life of St Paul of Mount Latros
 * 6) From the Life of St Savvas
 * 7) From the Life of Abba Agathon
 * 8) From Abba Mark's Letter to Nicolas
 * 9) From St John Klimakos
 * 10) From St Isaiah the Solitary
 * 11) From St Makarios the Great
 * 12) From St Diadochos
 * 13) From The Ascetical Homilies by St Isaac the Syrian
 * 14) From St John of Karpathos
 * 15) From St Symeon the New Theologian
 * 16) From Nikiphoros Himself
 * St. Gregory of Sinai
 * 1) On Commandments and Doctrines, Warnings and Promises; on Thoughts, Passions and Virtues, and also on Stillness and Prayer: 137 Texts
 * 2) Further Texts
 * 3) On Passion-Imbued Change
 * 4) On Beneficent Change
 * 5) On Morbid Defluxions
 * 6) On the Signs of Grace and Delusion, Written for the Confessor Longinos: Ten Texts
 * 7) On How to Discover the Energy of the Holy Spirit
 * 8) On the Different Kinds of Energy
 * 9) On Divine Energy
 * 10) On Delusion
 * 11) On Stillness: Fifteen Texts
 * 12) Two Ways of Prayer
 * 13) the Beginning of Watchfulness
 * 14) Different Ways of Psalmodizing
 * 15) On Prayer: Seven Texts
 * 16) How the Hesychast Should Sit for Prayer and Not Rise Again Too Quickly
 * 17) How to Say the Prayer
 * 18) How to Master the Intellect in Prayer
 * 19) How to Expel Thoughts
 * 20) How to Psalmodize
 * 21) How to Partake of Food
 * 22) On Delusion and Other Subjects
 * St. Gregory Palamas
 * 1) To the Most Reverend Nun Xenia
 * 2) A New Testament Decalogue
 * 3) In Defence of Those who Devoutly Practise a Life of Stillness
 * 4) Three Texts on Prayer and Purity of Heart
 * 5) Topics of Natural and Theological Science and on the Moral and Ascetic Life: 150 Texts
 * 6) The Declaration of the Holy Mountain in Defence of Those who Devoutly Practice a Life of Stillness

Volume 5
This volume was published in English translation in 2020. These are the contents of the modern Greek translation.

 * Kallistos and Ignatios Xanthopoulos
 * 1) Method and precise canon for those who choose the hesychastic and monastic life: 100 chapters
 * Kallistos Angelikoudis
 * 1) Kefalaia (Chapters): 81 chapters
 * Kallistos Tilikoudis (presumed the same as Kallistos Angelikoudis)
 * 1) On Hesychastic Practice
 * Kallistos Katafygiotis (presumed the same as Kallistos Angelikoudis)
 * 1) On union with God, and Life of Theoria
 * Saint Simeon, Archbishop of Thessaloniki
 * 1) Chapters on the Sacred and Deifying prayer
 * Saint Mark the Gentle
 * 1) On the Words that are Contained in the Sacred Prayer
 * Anonymous
 * 1) Interpretation of "Kyrie Eleison" (Lord Have Mercy)
 * Saint Simeon the New Theologian
 * 1) Discourse on Faith and teaching for those who say that it is not possible for those who find themselves in the worries of the world to reach the perfection of the virtues, and narration that is beneficial at the beginning.
 * 2) On the Three Ways of Prayer
 * St. Gregory of Sinai
 * Excerpts from the life of St. Maximos Kapsokalivis
 * All Christians Must Pray Uninterruptedly
 * Indices

title: Philokalia


text:
Edward Mills Purcell

Edward Mills Purcell (August 30, 1912 – March 7, 1997) was an American physicist who shared the 1952 Nobel Prize for Physics for his independent discovery (published 1946) of nuclear magnetic resonance in liquids and in solids. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has become widely used to study the molecular structure of pure materials and the composition of mixtures. Friends and colleagues knew him as Ed Purcell.

Biography
Born and raised in Taylorville, Illinois, Purcell received his BSEE in electrical engineering from Purdue University, followed by his M.A. and Ph.D. in physics from Harvard University. He was a member of the Alpha Xi chapter of the Phi Kappa Sigma fraternity while at Purdue. After spending the years of World War II working at the MIT Radiation Laboratory on the development of microwave radar, Purcell returned to Harvard to do research. In December 1946, he discovered nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) with his colleagues Robert Pound and Henry Torrey. NMR provides scientists with an elegant and precise way of determining chemical structure and properties of materials, and is widely used in physics and chemistry. It also is the basis of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), one of the most important medical advances of the 20th century. For his discovery of NMR, Purcell shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in physics with Felix Bloch of Stanford University.

Purcell also made contributions to astronomy as the first to detect radio emissions from neutral galactic hydrogen (the famous 21 cm line due to hyperfine splitting), affording the first views of the spiral arms of the Milky Way. This observation helped launch the field of radio astronomy, and measurements of the 21 cm line are still an important technique in modern astronomy. He has also made seminal contributions to solid state physics, with studies of spin-echo relaxation, nuclear magnetic relaxation, and negative spin temperature (important in the development of the laser). With Norman F. Ramsey, he was the first to question the CP symmetry of particle physics.

Purcell was the recipient of many awards for his scientific, educational, and civic work. He served as science advisor to Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson. He was president of the American Physical Society, and a member of the American Philosophical Society, the National Academy of Sciences, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1979, and the Jansky Lectureship before the National Radio Astronomy Observatory. Purcell was also inducted into his Fraternity's (Phi Kappa Sigma) Hall of Fame as the first Phi Kap ever to receive a Nobel Prize.

Purcell was the author of the innovative introductory text Electricity and Magnetism. The book, a Sputnik-era project funded by an NSF grant, was influential for its use of relativity in the presentation of the subject at this level. The 1965 edition, now freely available due to a condition of the federal grant, was originally published as a volume of the Berkeley Physics Course. The book is also in print as a commercial third edition, as Purcell and Morin. Purcell is also remembered by biologists for his famous lecture "Life at Low Reynolds Number", in which he explained forces and effects dominating in limiting flow regimes (often at the micro scale). He also emphasized the time-reversibility of low Reynolds number flows with a principle referred to as the Scallop theorem.

Purcell died on March 7, 1997, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, aged 84.

title: Edward Mills Purcell


text:
Polykarp Kusch

Polykarp Kusch (January 26, 1911 – March 20, 1993) was a German-born American physicist. In 1955, the Nobel Committee gave a divided Nobel Prize for Physics, with one half going to Kusch for his accurate determination that the magnetic moment of the electron was greater than its theoretical value, thus leading to reconsideration of—and innovations in—quantum electrodynamics. (The other 1955 physics laureate was Willis Eugene Lamb, who won for his work on the spectrum of hydrogen.)

Early life and education
Kusch was born in Blankenburg, Germany to John Mathias Kusch, a Lutheran missionary, and his wife, Henrietta van der Haas. In 1912, Kusch and his family had emigrated to the United States, where by 1922 he became a naturalized citizen. After graduating from grade school in the Midwest, Kusch attended Case Institute of Technology in Cleveland, Ohio (now known as Case Western Reserve University), where he majored in physics. After graduating from the Case Western Reserve University with bachelor of science degree in 1931, Kusch joined University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, from where he received his master's degree in 1933. He continued his education at the same alma mater, studying for his Ph.D. under mentorship from F. Wheeler Loomis and after defending his thesis titled "The Molecular Spectrum of Caesium and Rubidium", graduated from it in 1936. In 1935, prior to moving to the University of Minnesota, Kusch married his girlfriend, Edith Starr Roberts. Together, they had three daughters.

Career
Kusch then moved to New York City, where from 1937 and until his departure for the newly founded University of Texas at Dallas, he spent much of his career as a professor at Columbia University, and served as the university's provost for several years. He worked on molecular beam resonance studies under I. I. Rabi, then discovered the electron anomalous magnetic moment. Many measurements of magnetic moments and hyperfine structure followed. He expanded into chemical physics and continued to publish research on molecular beams. During his tenure at Columbia, he was the doctoral supervisor for Gordon Gould, the inventor of the laser.

Kusch was a fellow of the American Physical Society since 1940 and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences since 1959. He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1956. In 1967, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society.

Kusch's wife Edith died in 1959, and in the following year he married Betty Pezzoni. They had two daughters. Kusch House, a residential dormitory for undergraduate students at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio on the South Campus, is named after Kusch. It is located on Carlton Road in Cleveland Heights. The University of Texas at Dallas has a Polykarp Kusch Auditorium with a plaque.

Kusch died on March 20, 1993, aged 82. His widow Betty died in 2003, aged 77.

Related archival collections

 * Haskell A. Reich collection of student notes, circa 1945-1954, Niels Bohr Library & Archives (includes lecture notes from Polykarp Kusch's courses at Columbia University)

title: Polykarp Kusch


text:
Avi Ran

Avi Ran (August 25, 1963 – July 11, 1987) was a goalkeeper at the Israeli football club Maccabi Haifa. Widely considered one of the greatest football players in Israel, he had a promising future which was cut short by a fatal accident.

Football career
Ran made his debut in Haifa's senior team in the 1981/1982 season at the age of 17 in a match against Maccabi Tel Aviv, keeping a clean sheet in the process. Ran went on to play for most of the season, competing for his place in the team with Zadok Avrahami. The competition was tough, but Ran was known for his perseverance and diligence in training, as well as his good manners and social character - which earned him a social status of loud and sympathetic off the pitch.

During the 1983/1984 Shlomo Scharf came to Maccabi Haifa. Looking for a new coach and veteran instead of 20-year-old Ran, he attempted to release Ran and replace him with Arie Haviv from Hapoel Yehud. Being a popular social figure in the group, a wave of protests occurred from a number of players, such as Baruch Maman and Ronnie Rosenthal, who requested that Scharf let him stay, but he would not listen to them. Yohanan Volach, who was key in preventing the release of many players (including Rosenthal, Moshe Selektar, Rafi Osmo and Yossi Kremer), torpedoed the move and managed to prevent the release of Ran. Volach believed in the young goalkeeper, and knew of his ability and potential from when he was a child.

Ran did not disappoint, and his performances for Haifa revealed an excellent goalkeeper. Ya'akov Hodorov. Ran helped to Haifa to win the first Israeli Premier League title in its history, conceding only 28 goals. In Ran's second season he was already established as one of Maccabi Haifa's key players Maccabi Haifa, and again impressed as he broke a club record, conceding only 18 goals as Haifa won the title for the second year in succession. That season saw Haifa come close to winning the double as they also reached the cup final, although they lost to Beitar Jerusalem. In 1986, Maccabi Haifa came close to success again, topping the table for most of the season. However, the Championship was won by Hapoel Tel Aviv on the final day, as they faced off with Haifa in a game that would decide the title winners. With Haifa sitting just 1 point above second placed Tel Aviv, an 86' minute goal by Gili Landau - which was later adjudged to have been offside - won Tel Aviv the title by just 2 points. Ran excelled that year and was named player of the season, although his team narrowly lost the championship.

That same year saw Haifa play outside of Israel for the first time. Rumours circulated of a possible move for Ran to a European club, including Liverpool. Exhibition games were held in Israel, and Ran played one of the best games in his career. Liverpool were very impressed by the showing of Haifa and wanted to sign him. Ran played nine games the team, eight of which resulted in a loss, and one a draw.

In 1987, Maccabi Haifa finished low down in the table in ninth place, but Ran maintained his status as a key player, although many other key players were released from the club.

 * Won 2 championships with Maccabi Haifa.
 * Conceded only 18 goals in the 1985-86 season, the lowest in Maccabi Haifa's history.
 * Won Maariv's 1986 "footballer of the year" award (i.e. the MVP of the season).
 * Was goalkeeper of the Israel national team.

Fatal accident
On 11 July 1987, Ran was killed on the "Guy" beach in Tiberias when he was hit by a passing racing boat whilst Maccabi Haifa were on a vacation off season in the Sea of Galilee. 14,000 people attended Ran's funeral.

Legacy
Ran would be honored by Maccabi Haifa with a stand being named in his honor. As well as having a street named after him in Kiryat Eliezer, the neighborhood Maccabi Haifa used to play in. He was also honored with a postal stamp where he is seen playing for the Israel national team. Ran received a statue outside of Ramat Gan Stadium as well.

The Israel Youth State Cup is named in his honor.

title: Avi Ran


text:
Rally of the French People

The Rally of the French People (Rassemblement du Peuple Français, RPF) was a French political party, led by Charles de Gaulle.

Foundation
The RPF was founded by Charles de Gaulle in Strasbourg on 14 April 1947, one year after his resignation from the presidency of the provisional government and four months after the proclamation of the Fourth Republic. It advocated a constitutional revision establishing a presidential government. For de Gaulle, the "regime of the parties" which characterized the parliamentary system did not permit the advent of a strong and efficient state. However, in French Republican culture, democracy and parliamentary sovereignty were inseparable. De Gaulle was accused of wanting to establish a Bonapartist government, with himself as the single dominant ruler.

As de Gaulle also opposed the parties on the basis that they served particular interests and divided the nation, he wanted the RPF to be a "rally," not a political party, and allowed members of other parties (except Communists and former Vichy regime supporters) to join without compromising their other membership, but this hope was never realized. By 1948, the party counted half a million members, just behind the Communist Party. The RPF was able to gain the support of Maurrasien royalists (of the Action Française), leftist republicans such as André Malraux, moderates, Christian democrats such as Edmond Michelet, radicals such as Jacques Chaban-Delmas and Michel Debré, and even socialists and communists. Nevertheless, most of its voters came from the right-wing electorate.

Electoral record
The party enjoyed success in municipal elections (1947), capturing the cities of Lille, Marseille, Bordeaux (with Jacques Chaban-Delmas), Strasbourg, Rennes, Versailles, Le Mans, and Nancy with over 35% of votes. In Paris in 1947, Pierre de Gaulle, the brother of the General, became President of the municipal council, a post similar to mayor. However, the RPF's performance in the Christian Democratic MRP strongholds of rural France was relatively mediocre. Parliamentarians hostile to the RPF delayed cantonal elections in the fear of another Gaullist breakthrough. The hostility of the media and the social events of 1947 limited the party's electoral success.

The 1949 cantonal elections, albeit delayed in fear of an RPF breakthrough, produced another RPF victory (although smaller than the victory in the municipal elections).

The 1951 election was a relative success for the RPF, but the electoral law (apparentements), created to favor the Third Force coalition (MRP, SFIO, RGR etc.) over the anti-Fourth Republic parties (RPF and the Communists), limited the Gaullist breakthrough. It obtained over 4 million votes (22.3%) and 117 seats. It had hoped for over 200 seats, which the apparentements prevented.

Political defeats
With only 117 seats, the RPF had little influence on decision making in the new Assembly. In 1952, 27 deputies voted in favor of Antoine Pinay's government before being excluded. Later, 45 other deputies left the Gaullist party. Following the loss of numerous cities, including Marseille and Lille, in the 1953 municipal elections, the party's decline started. Many people blamed its defeats on an authoritarian party leadership. De Gaulle asked the Gaullist deputies to abandon the name "RPF", then in June 1953, five Gaullist deputies joined Joseph Laniel's government. In 1954, the vote of Gaullists and Communists lead to the defeat of the European Defence Community treaty.

On 13 September 1955, the party was officially dissolved. The Gaullist deputies founded the National Centre of Social Republicans without the backing of de Gaulle. Most would go on to form the Union for the New Republic and help create the Fifth Republic in 1958.

Leadership

 * 1947–1951: Jacques Soustelle
 * 1952–1954: Louis Terrenoire
 * 1954–1955: Jacques Foccart

title: Rally of the French People


text:
Izzy Stradlin

Jeffrey Dean Isbell (born April 8, 1962), best known as Izzy Stradlin, is an American guitarist, singer, and songwriter. He was a co-founder, rhythm guitarist, and backing vocalist of the hard rock band Guns N' Roses, with whom he recorded four studio albums and left at the height of their fame in 1991.

Following his departure from Guns N' Roses, Stradlin fronted his own rock band, Izzy Stradlin and the Ju Ju Hounds, before continuing to record as a solo artist. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Guns N' Roses in 2012.

Early life
Stradlin was born 1962 in Lafayette, Indiana. His father, Richard Clyde Isbell, was an engraver. His mother, Sonja LaVern Isbell, née Reagan, worked for a phone company. Stradlin has stated that he "grew up in Florida and moved with my mom to Lafayette." His parents divorced when Stradlin was eight. His mother moved Stradlin and his two younger brothers, Kevin Thomas Isbell and Joseph "Joe" Isbell to Lafayette, Indiana. Of his hometown, Stradlin said, "It was cool growing up there. There's a courthouse and a college, a river and railroad tracks. It's a small town, so there wasn't much to do. We rode bikes, smoked pot, got into trouble—it was pretty Beavis and Butt-Head actually." Izzy's grandfather's half-brother, Joseph William "Little Joe" Isbell, was born 1916. He was also a recording and touring artist, described as a "country yodeler".

Stradlin developed an interest in music early in life; by the age of eight, his musical favorites included Bob Dylan, Pink Floyd, Alice Cooper, and Led Zeppelin. His biggest musical influence was his paternal grandmother, who played drums in a swing jazz band with her friends. Inspired, Stradlin talked his parents into buying him a drum kit.

In high school, Stradlin started a band with his friends, one of whom was singer William Bailey, later known as Axl Rose. Stradlin recalled, "We were long-haired guys in high school. You were either a jock or a stoner. We weren't jocks, so we ended up hanging out together. We'd play covers in the garage. There were no clubs to play at, so we never made it out of the garage." Despite his aversion to school, Stradlin graduated in 1980 with a D average, the only original member of Guns N' Roses with a high school diploma. Set on a career in music, he subsequently moved to Los Angeles.

1980–1984: Career beginnings
Shortly after his arrival in Los Angeles, Stradlin joined punk band Naughty Women. During his ill-fated first show with the band, audience members began attacking the musicians; Stradlin recalled, "I just grabbed a cymbal stand and stood on the side trying to fend them off, yelling, 'Get the fuck away from me, man!' That was my introduction to the rock scene in L.A." His two-month tenure in Naughty Women was followed by a stint in punk band The Atoms, before his drum kit was stolen from his car and he switched to bass. Stradlin then joined the heavy metal band Shire, during which he took up rhythm guitar to aid his songwriting.

In 1983, Stradlin formed Hollywood Rose with childhood friend Axl Rose, who had moved to Los Angeles the previous year. In January 1984, the band recorded a five-song demo featuring the tracks "Killing Time", "Anything Goes", "Rocker", "Shadow of Your Love", and "Reckless Life", which were released in 2004 as part of the compilation album The Roots of Guns N' Roses. The group disbanded in August, following which Stradlin briefly joined Sunset Strip staple London. He also formed the short-lived band Stalin with singer Eric Leach and guitarist Taz Rudd of Symbol Six. In December, he reunited with Hollywood Rose.

1985–1991: Guns N' Roses
In March 1985, Stradlin founded Guns N' Roses with Axl Rose and members of L.A. Guns, Tracii Guns, Ole Beich and Rob Gardner, as a favor to L.A. Guns manager, Raz Cue, who had previously booked the act at the Troubadour. By June, the lineup consisted of Rose, guitarist Slash, rhythm guitarist Stradlin, bassist Duff McKagan, and drummer Steven Adler. They played nightclubs—such as the Whisky a Go Go, The Roxy, and The Troubadour—and opened for larger acts throughout 1985 and 1986. During this period, the band wrote much of its classic material, and Stradlin established himself as a key songwriter.

In July 1987, Guns N' Roses released their debut album, Appetite for Destruction, which has sold over 28 million copies worldwide, including 18 million in the United States alone. Stradlin wrote or cowrote most of its songs, including the hits "Sweet Child o' Mine" and "Paradise City". He also wrote the hit "Patience" on the follow-up G N' R Lies, released in November 1988 to US sales of five million copies, despite containing only eight tracks, four of which were included on the previously released EP Live ?!*@ Like a Suicide.

As their success grew, so did tensions within the band. In 1989, opening for The Rolling Stones, Rose made an on-stage announcement in which he threatened to leave the band if Slash and Adler did not stop "dancing with Mr. Brownstone," a reference to their song of the same name about heroin. After being sentenced to a year's probation for urinating in public aboard an airplane (after which the band nicknamed him "Whizzy"), Stradlin decided to attain sobriety; he returned to his house in Indiana, where he detoxed from drugs and alcohol.

In September 1991, Guns N' Roses released the long-awaited Use Your Illusion I and Use Your Illusion II, which debuted at No. 2 and No. 1 respectively in the US chart – an unprecedented feat. Stradlin cowrote the hits "Don't Cry" and "You Could Be Mine", and performed lead vocals on "Dust N' Bones", "You Ain't the First", "Double Talkin' Jive", and "14 Years". As with their previous records, his preferred guitar during recording was a Gibson ES-175.

By the release of the Use Your Illusion albums, Stradlin had become dissatisfied with life in Guns N' Roses: "Once I quit drugs, I couldn't help looking around and asking myself, 'Is this all there is?' I was just tired of it; I needed to get out." On November 7, 1991, it was announced that he had left Guns N' Roses, having played his final show as an official member on August 31 at Wembley Stadium.

Stradlin later said, "I didn't like the complications that became such a part of daily life in Guns N' Roses," citing the Riverport riot and Axl Rose's chronic lateness and diva behavior on the Use Your Illusion Tour as examples. He also objected to a contract with which he was presented: "This is right before I left – demoting me to some lower position. They were gonna cut my percentage of royalties down. I was like, 'Fuck you! I've been there from Day One. Why should I do that? Fuck you, I'll go play the Whisky.' That's what happened. It was utterly insane."

Stradlin added that getting sober played a part in his decision to leave, saying, "When you're fucked up, you're more likely to put up with things you wouldn't normally put up with."

Some of Stradlin's guitar playing recorded during the Illusion sessions appears on Guns N' Roses' 1993 covers album "The Spaghetti Incident?", although he was uncredited on the project.

1992–1994: Ju Ju Hounds and first return to Guns N' Roses
Following his departure from Guns N' Roses, Stradlin returned to his hometown of Lafayette, Indiana, where he began working on new material. He formed the band Izzy Stradlin and the Ju Ju Hounds, which consisted of Stradlin on vocals and rhythm guitar, Rick Richards of Georgia Satellites on lead guitar, Jimmy Ashhurst of Broken Homes on bass, and Charlie Quintana on drums. Their self-titled debut album was released in October 1992 to positive reviews; Rolling Stone called it "a ragged, blues-drenched, and thoroughly winning solo debut." Ju Ju Hounds played its first show in September at The Avalon in Chicago, before embarking on a tour of Europe, Australia, and North America.

In May 1993, Stradlin reunited with Guns N' Roses for five shows in Europe and the Middle East to fill in for his replacement, Gilby Clarke, who had broken his wrist in a motorcycle accident. After Stradlin returned to the Ju Ju Hounds, Axl Rose dedicated the Stradlin-penned "Double Talkin' Jive" to him during several shows. In September, the Ju Ju Hounds undertook a tour of Japan, where the band played its final show at the Shibuya Public Hall in Tokyo. Stradlin then took time off from music unannounced, leaving the Ju Ju Hounds and going to the Bahamas, traveling extensively and dedicating much of his time to his other passions—motor racing, skateboarding and even building a motor track close to his Indiana home.

1995–2002: Solo career and Velvet Revolver

In 1995, Stradlin began recording material for his first solo album, 117°. Released in March 1998, the album was recorded over a period of two years and featured his former bandmates Duff McKagan and Rick Richards, as well as former Reverend Horton Heat drummer Taz Bentley, whose work Stradlin admired. As before, Stradlin had little interest in promoting his music; he did few interviews and played no live performances. The album turned out to be his last release on his long-time label Geffen; as a result of the merger of Geffen and Interscope, Stradlin was dropped from the label's roster.

In December 1999, Stradlin's next solo album, Ride On, was released on the Universal Victor label in Japan. It featured the same lineup as his previous release. To promote the album, Stradlin—with McKagan, Richards, and Bentley—played four shows in Japan the following April. With the addition of keyboardist Ian McLagan, the group recorded two more albums: River, which was released in May 2001 on Sanctuary, and a second Japan-only release, On Down the Road, which followed in August 2002 on JVC Victor.

Stradlin was then asked by his former Guns N' Roses bandmates Duff McKagan, Slash, and Matt Sorum to join the supergroup Velvet Revolver. Although he contributed to the songwriting process while the band was in its formative stage, Stradlin ultimately declined to join due to his aversion to life on the road and his unwillingness to work with a lead singer, although he offered to share vocal duties with McKagan.

2003–2010: Independent solo career and second return to Guns N' Roses
In 2003, Stradlin recorded his sixth album, Like a Dog, with guitarist Rick Richards, drummer Taz Bentley, and bassist JT Longoria. It was originally scheduled for a late 2003 release, with just under one thousand promo copies made. However, the album was not released until October 2005, when Stradlin—prompted by a fan petition —made it available through internet order. The following year, Stradlin re-released Ride On, River, On Down the Road, and Like a Dog through iTunes.

In May 2006, thirteen years after his last performance with Guns N' Roses, Stradlin made a guest appearance at the band's show at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York; he played on "Patience", "Think About You", and "Nightrain". He then performed with Guns N' Roses for 13 shows during the band's summer European tour. Stradlin said, "Axl [Rose] and I connected via cell phone this year, I stopped by. It was nice to reconnect with an old friend/war buddy/fellow musician. I told him later I'd like to join the fun in some way and he said I was welcome to come and play something, so I did! Took me about three weeks to recover from the six weeks of touring!" In December, he played three shows with the group at the Gibson Amphitheatre in Universal City, California.

Stradlin released his seventh album, Miami, through iTunes in May 2007. It again featured Rick Richards, Taz Bentley, and JT Longoria, as well as keyboardist Joey Huffman. Guitarist Richards described the album as being "a bit of a departure from Like a Dog but still quite a rocker." In July, a remixed version of Miami was released through iTunes; Stradlin called the new mix "much louder and more powerful sounding." In November of that year, he released a second iTunes-only album, Fire, the Acoustic Album, which also featured Richards, Bentley, and Longoria.

Stradlin's next iTunes release, Concrete, came out in July 2008. In addition to his regular collaborators, Stradlin also invited Duff McKagan to play bass on three songs, including the title track. Stradlin then released two more albums through iTunes: Smoke, which came out in December 2009, and Wave of Heat, which followed in July 2010 and again featured McKagan, who appears on seven tracks. Also in 2010, Stradlin appeared as a guest on Slash's first solo album, Slash; he performs rhythm guitar on the first track, "Ghost".

2011–present: Hall of Fame induction and third return to Guns N' Roses
In April 2012, Stradlin was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the classic lineup of Guns N' Roses. In a statement released through Duff McKagan's blog for Seattle Weekly, he thanked the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame "for the acknowledgement of our works over the years," his former bandmates, and his fans for their continuing support. Known to avoid public attention, Stradlin did not attend the induction ceremony.

In the month following the induction, Stradlin joined Guns N' Roses on stage during two shows at London's O2 Arena, where they performed a range of songs including "14 Years," which had not been performed live since his departure in 1991. He also performed with Guns N' Roses in July, at a private show in Saint-Tropez and a concert in Palma de Mallorca, and again in November, during the last two shows of the band's twelve-date "Appetite for Democracy" residency in Las Vegas. Also in November, Stradlin released the iTunes-only single "Baby-Rann"—his first release in over two years; an accompanying video was made available via YouTube.

Amidst rumors and speculation, Stradlin joined Twitter, and confirmed in a statement to Rolling Stone that he would not be involved with the 'reunited' Guns N' Roses lineup in 2016. He later stated that he declined because the band "didn't want to split the loot equally". In 2018, journalist Alan Niven reported that Stradlin participated in a soundcheck with Guns N' Roses sometime in 2017, but ultimately left before guesting at the show.

Stradlin released numerous singles in 2016, previewing samples of the songs via his Twitter account and through the YouTube channel 'classicrockstuffs'. "Sunshine" by Jonathon Edwards and "Stuck in the Middle with You" by Stealers Wheel were acoustic videos made available through YouTube, whilst "Walk N' Song", "F.P. Money" (featuring former Guns N' Roses drummer Matt Sorum), "To Being Alive" and a cover version of the J. J. Cale song "Call Me the Breeze" featuring Jesse Aycock and Lauren Barth, were released to online music stores.

In 2017, Stradlin played guitar on the song "Grandview" by John Mellencamp, on his album Sad Clowns & Hillbillies. Martina McBride was also featured on the song.

Personal life
Stradlin has been divorced since 2001. As of 2016, Stradlin is living in or around Ojai, California.

Equipment
Guitars: Amps:
 * ESP Eclipse Custom
 * Gibson ES-175
 * Gibson Byrdland
 * Gibson ES-135
 * Gibson Les Paul Custom
 * Fender Telecaster
 * Gibson ES-355
 * Gibson Les Paul Special Double Cutaway
 * Mesa Boogie Mark Series Mark I and Mark IIB Coliseum
 * Fender Bassman heads with a Mesa Boogie 4×12 cabinet
 * Marshall JCM-800

Solo albums

 * 117° (1998)
 * Ride On (1999)
 * River (2001)
 * On Down the Road (2002)
 * Like a Dog (2005)
 * Miami (2007)
 * Fire, the Acoustic Album (2007)
 * Concrete (2008)
 * Smoke (2009)
 * Wave of Heat (2010)

with Guns N' Roses

 * Appetite for Destruction (1987)
 * G N' R Lies (1988)
 * Use Your Illusion I (1991)
 * Use Your Illusion II (1991)
 * "The Spaghetti Incident?" (1993) (uncredited)

with The Ju Ju Hounds

 * Pressure Drop EP (1992)
 * Izzy Stradlin and the Ju Ju Hounds (1992)
 * Izzy Stradlin and the Ju Ju Hounds Live EP (1993)

title: Izzy Stradlin


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Ilya Frank

Ilya Mikhailovich Frank (Илья Михайлович Франк; 23 October 1908 – 22 June 1990) was a Soviet physicist who received the 1958 Nobel Prize for Physics, jointly with Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov and Igor Y. Tamm, also of the Soviet Union. He received the award for his work in explaining the phenomenon of Cherenkov radiation. He received the Stalin prize in 1946 and 1953 and the USSR state prize in 1971.

Life and career
Ilya Frank was born on 23 October 1908 in St. Petersburg. His father, Mikhail Lyudvigovich Frank, was a talented mathematician descended from a Jewish family, while his mother, Yelizaveta Mikhailovna Gratsianova, was a Russian Orthodox physician. His father participated in the student revolutionary movement, and as a result was expelled from Moscow University. After the October Revolution, he was reinstated and appointed professor. Ilya's uncle, Semyon Frank, a noted Russian philosopher, wasn't as fortunate and was expelled from the USSR in 1922 together with 160 other intellectuals. Ilya had one elder brother, Gleb Mikhailovich Frank, who became an eminent biophysicist and member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.

Ilya Frank studied mathematics and theoretical physics at Moscow State University. From his second year he worked in the laboratory of Sergey Ivanovich Vavilov, whom he regarded as his mentor. After graduating in 1930, on recommendation of Vavilov, he started working at the State Optical Institute in Leningrad. There he wrote his first publication—about luminescence— with Vavilov. The work he did there would form the basis of his doctoral dissertation in 1935.

In 1934, Frank moved to the Institute of Physics and Mathematics of the USSR Academy of Sciences (which shortly would be moved to Moscow, where it was transformed into the Institute of Physics). Here he started working on nuclear physics, a new field for him. He became interested in the effect discovered by Pavel Cherenkov, that charged particles moving through water at high speeds emit light. Together with Igor Tamm, he developed a theoretical explanation: the effect occurs when charged particles travel through an optically transparent medium at speeds greater than the speed of light in that medium, causing a shock wave in the electromagnetic field. The amount of energy radiated in this process is given by the Frank–Tamm formula.

The discovery and explanation of the effect resulted in the development of new methods for detecting and measuring the velocity of high-speed nuclear particles and became of great importance for research in nuclear physics. Cherenkov radiation is also widely used in biomedical research for detection of radioactive isotopes. In 1946, Cherenkov, Vavilov, Tamm, and Frank were awarded a Stalin Prize for their discovery, and 1958 Cherenkov, Tamm, and Frank received the Nobel Prize in physics.

In 1944, Frank was appointed professor and became head of a department at the Institute of Physics and of the Nuclear Physics Laboratory (which was later transferred to the Institute of Nuclear Research). Frank's laboratory was involved in the (then secret) study of nuclear reactors. In particular, they studied the diffusion and thermalization of neutrons.

In 1957, Frank also become director of the Laboratory of Neutron Physics at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. The laboratory was based on the neutron fast-pulse reactor (IBR) then under construction at the site. Under Frank's supervision the reactor was used in the development of neutron spectroscopy techniques.

Personal life and death
Frank married the noted historian, Ella Abramovna Beilikhis, in 1937. Their son, Alexander, was born in the same year, and would continue much of the studies of his father as a physicist.

Frank died on 22 June 1990 in Moscow at the age 81.

title: Ilya Frank


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File:Okcheon.jpg

The logo of the Okcheon County in South Korea

title: File:Okcheon.jpg


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Cargo

In transportation, freight refers to goods conveyed by land, water or air, while cargo refers specifically to freight when conveyed via water or air. In economics, freight refers to goods transported at a freight rate for commercial gain. The term cargo is also used in case of goods in the cold-chain, because the perishable inventory is always in transit towards a final end-use, even when it is held in cold storage or other similar climate-controlled facilities, including warehouses.

Multi-modal container units, designed as reusable carriers to facilitate unit load handling of the goods contained, are also referred to as cargo, especially by shipping lines and logistics operators. When empty containers are shipped each unit is documented as a cargo and when goods are stored within, the contents are termed containerized cargo. Similarly, aircraft ULD boxes are also documented as cargo, with an associated packing list of the items contained within.

Marine
Seaport terminals handle a wide range of maritime cargoes.

Break bulk / general cargo are goods that are handled and stowed piecemeal to some degree, as opposed to cargo in bulk or modern shipping containers. Typically bundled in batches for hoisting, either with cargo nets, slings, crates, or stacked on trays, pallets or skids; at best (and today mostly) lifted directly into and out of a vessel's holds, but otherwise onto and off its deck, by cranes or derricks present on the dock or on the ship itself. If hoisted on deck instead of straight into the hold, liftable or rolling unit loads, like bags, barrels/vats, boxes, cartons and crates, then have to be man-handled and stowed competently by stevedores. Securing break bulk and general freight inside a vessel, includes the use of dunnage. When no hoisting equipment is available, break bulk would previously be man-carried on and off the ship, over a plank, or by passing via human chain. Since the 1960s, the volume of break bulk cargo has enormously declined worldwide in favour of mass adoption of containers. Bulk cargo, such as salt, oil, tallow, but also scrap metal, is usually defined as commodities that are neither on pallets nor in containers. Bulk cargoes are not handled as individual pieces, the way heavy-lift and project cargo are. Alumina, grain, gypsum, logs, and wood chips, for instance, are bulk cargoes. Bulk cargo is classified as liquid or dry.

Air

Air cargo refers to any goods shipped by air, whereas air freight refers specifically to goods transported in the cargo hold of a dedicated cargo plane. Aircraft were first used to carry mail as cargo in 1911. Eventually manufacturers started designing aircraft for other types of freight as well.

There are many commercial aircraft suitable for carrying cargo such as the Boeing 747 and the more prominent An‑124, which was purposely built for easy conversion into a cargo aircraft. Such large aircraft employ standardized quick-loading containers known as unit load devices (ULDs), comparable to ISO containers on cargo ships. ULDs can be stowed in the lower decks (front and rear) of several wide-body aircraft, and on the main deck of some narrow-bodies. Some dedicated cargo planes have a large opening front for loading.

Air freight shipments are very similar to LTL shipments in terms of size and packaging requirements. However, air freight or air cargo shipments typically need to move at much faster speeds than 800 km per hour. While shipments move faster than standard LTL, air shipments do not always actually move by air. Air shipments may be booked directly with the carriers, through brokers or with online marketplace services. In the US, there are certain restrictions on cargo moving via air freight on passenger aircraft, most notably the transport of rechargeable lithium-ion battery shipments.

Shippers in the US must be approved and be "known" in the Known Shipper Management System before their shipments can be tendered on passenger aircraft.

Rail

Trains are capable of transporting a large number of containers that come from shipping ports. Trains are also used to transport water, cement, grain, steel, wood and coal. They are used because they can carry a large amount and generally have a direct route to the destination. Under the right circumstances, freight transport by rail is more economical and energy efficient than by road, mainly when carried in bulk or over long distances.

The main disadvantage of rail freight is its lack of flexibility. For this reason, rail has lost much of the freight business to road transport. Rail freight is often subject to transshipment costs, since it must be transferred from one mode of transportation to another. Practices such as containerization aim at minimizing these costs. When transporting point-to-point bulk loads such as cement or grain, with specialised bulk handling facilities at the rail sidings, the rail mode of transport remains the most convenient and preferred option.

Many governments are encouraging shippers to increase their use of rail rather than transport because of trains' lower environmental disbenefits.

Road
Many firms, like Parcelforce, FedEx and R+L Carriers transport all types of cargo by road. Delivering everything from letters to houses to cargo containers, these firms offer fast, sometimes same-day, delivery.

A good example of road cargo is food, as supermarkets require deliveries daily to replenish their shelves with goods. Retailers and manufacturers of all kinds rely upon delivery trucks, be they full size semi trucks or smaller delivery vans. These smaller road haulage companies constantly strive for the best routes and prices to ship out their products. Indeed, the level of commercial freight transported by smaller businesses is often a good barometer of healthy economic development as these types of vehicles move and transport anything literally, including couriers transporting parcels and mail. You can see the different types and weights of vehicles that are used to move cargo around.

Less-than-truckload freight
Less than truckload (LTL) cargo is the first category of freight shipment, representing the majority of freight shipments and the majority of business-to-business (B2B) shipments. LTL shipments are also often referred to as motor freight and the carriers involved are referred to as motor carriers.

LTL shipments range from 50 to 7000 kg, being less than 2.5 to 8.5 m the majority of times. The average single piece of LTL freight is 600 kg and the size of a standard pallet. Long freight and/or large freight are subject to extreme length and cubic capacity surcharges.

Trailers used in LTL can range from 28 to 53 ft. The standard for city deliveries is usually 48 ft. In tight and residential environments the 28 ft trailer is used the most.

The shipments are usually palletized, stretch [shrink]-wrapped and packaged for a mixed-freight environment. Unlike express or parcel, LTL shippers must provide their own packaging, as carriers do not provide any packaging supplies or assistance. However, circumstances may require crating or another substantial packaging.

Truckload freight
In the United States, shipments larger than about 7000 kg are typically classified as truckload (TL) freight. This is because it is more efficient and economical for a large shipment to have exclusive use of one larger trailer rather than share space on a smaller LTL trailer.

By the Federal Bridge Gross Weight Formula the total weight of a loaded truck (tractor and trailer, 5-axle rig) cannot exceed 80000 lbs in the United States. In ordinary circumstances, long-haul equipment will weigh about 15000 kg, leaving about 20000 kg of freight capacity. Similarly a load is limited to the space available in the trailer, normally 48 ft or 53 ft long, 2.6 m wide, 9 ft high and 13 ft high overall.

While express, parcel and LTL shipments are always intermingled with other shipments on a single piece of equipment and are typically reloaded across multiple pieces of equipment during their transport, TL shipments usually travel as the only shipment on a trailer. In fact, TL shipments usually deliver on exactly the same trailer as they are picked up on.

Shipment categories

 * the type of item being carried. For example, a kettle could fit into the category 'household goods'.
 * how large the shipment is, in terms of both item size and quantity.
 * how long the item for delivery will be in transit.

 * Household goods (HHG) include furniture, art and similar items.
 * Express: Very small business or personal items like envelopes are considered overnight express or express letter shipments. These shipments are rarely over a few kilograms or pounds and almost always travel in the carrier's own packaging. Express shipments almost always travel some distance by air. An envelope may go coast to coast in the United States overnight or it may take several days, depending on the service options and prices chosen by the shipper.
 * Parcel: Larger items like small boxes are considered parcels or ground shipments. These shipments are rarely over 50 kg, with no single piece of the shipment weighing more than about 70 kg. Parcel shipments are always boxed, sometimes in the shipper's packaging and sometimes in carrier-provided packaging. Service levels are again variable but most ground shipments will move about 800 to 1100 km per day. Depending on the package's origin, it can travel from coast to coast in the United States in about four days. Parcel shipments rarely travel by air and typically move via road and rail. Parcels represent the majority of business-to-consumer (B2C) shipments.
 * Freight: Beyond HHG, express, and parcel shipments, movements are termed freight shipments.

Shipping costs
An LTL shipper often realizes savings by utilizing a freight broker, online marketplace or another intermediary, instead of contracting directly with a trucking company. Brokers can shop the marketplace and obtain lower rates than most smaller shippers can obtain directly. In the LTL marketplace, intermediaries typically receive 50% to 80% discounts from published rates, whereas a small shipper may only be offered a 5% to 30% discount by the carrier. Intermediaries are licensed by the DOT and have the requirements to provide proof of insurance.

Truckload (TL) carriers usually charge a rate per kilometre or mile. The rate varies depending on the distance, geographic location of the delivery, items being shipped, equipment type required, and service times required. TL shipments usually receive a variety of surcharges very similar to those described for LTL shipments above. There are thousands more small carriers in the TL market than in the LTL market. Therefore, the use of transportation intermediaries or brokers is widespread.

Another cost-saving method is facilitating pickups or deliveries at the carrier's terminals. Carriers or intermediaries can provide shippers with the address and phone number for the closest shipping terminal to the origin and/or destination. By doing this, shippers avoid any accessorial fees that might normally be charged for liftgate, residential pickup/delivery, inside pickup/delivery, or notifications/appointments.

Shipping experts optimize their service and costs by sampling rates from several carriers, brokers and online marketplaces. When obtaining rates from different providers, shippers may find a wide range in the pricing offered. If a shipper in the United States uses a broker, freight forwarder or another transportation intermediary, it is common for the shipper to receive a copy of the carrier's Federal Operating Authority. Freight brokers and intermediaries are also required by Federal Law to be licensed by the Federal Highway Administration. Experienced shippers avoid unlicensed brokers and forwarders because if brokers are working outside the law by not having a Federal Operating License, the shipper has no protection in case of a problem. Also, shippers typically ask for a copy of the broker's insurance certificate and any specific insurance that applies to the shipment.

Overall, shipping costs have fallen over the past decades. A further drop in shipping costs in the future might be realized through the application of improved 3D printing technologies.

Security concerns
Governments are very concerned with cargo shipment, as it may bring security risks to a country. Therefore, many governments have enacted rules and regulations, administered by a customs agency, for the handling of cargo to minimize risks of terrorism and other crime. Governments are mainly concerned with cargo entering through a country's borders.

The United States has been one of the leaders in securing cargo. They see cargo as a concern to national security. After the terrorist attacks of September 11th, the security of this magnitude of cargo has become highlighted on the over 6 million cargo containers that enter the United States ports each year. The latest US Government response to this threat is the CSI: Container Security Initiative. CSI is a program intended to help increase security for containerized cargo shipped to the United States from around the world. Europe is also focusing on this issue, with several EU-funded projects underway.

Stabilization
Many ways and materials are available to stabilize and secure cargo in various modes of transport. Conventional load securing methods and materials such as steel strapping and plastic/wood blocking and bracing have been used for decades and are still widely used. Present load-securing methods offer several other options, including polyester strapping and lashing, synthetic webbings and dunnage bags, also known as airbags or inflatable bags.

Practical advice on stabilization is given in the International Guidelines on Safe Load Securing for Road Transport.

title: Cargo


text:
ISO 3166-2:EE

ISO 3166-2:EE is the entry for Estonia in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.

Currently for Estonia, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 15 counties, 64 rural municipalities, and 15 urban municipalities.

Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is EE, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Estonia. The second part is two digits for counties or three digits for municipalities.

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).

Subdivision names are sorted in Estonian alphabetical order: a-v, õ, ä, ö, ü.

Click on the button in the header to sort each column.

Counties

 * Notes

Changes
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

title: ISO 3166-2:EE