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Terry Gross

Terry Gross (born February 14, 1951) is an American journalist who is the host and co-executive producer of Fresh Air, an interview-based radio show produced by WHYY-FM in Philadelphia and distributed nationally by NPR. Since joining NPR in 1975, Gross has interviewed thousands of guests.

Gross has won praise over the years for her low-key and friendly yet often probing interview style and for the diversity of her guests. She has a reputation for researching her guests' work the night before an interview, often asking them unexpected questions about their early careers.

Early life
Terry Gross was born in Brooklyn, New York City, and grew up in its Sheepshead Bay neighborhood, the second child of Anne (Abrams), a stenographer, and Irving Gross, who worked in a family millinery business, where he sold fabric to milliners. She grew up in a Jewish family, and all her grandparents were immigrants, her father's parents from Tarnów, Poland, and her mother's from the Russian Empire. She said that her family lived in an apartment near Senior's Restaurant, a local landmark. When she was young, people would often ask where Gross came from, assuming that her lack of a heavy Brooklyn accent meant she grew up elsewhere. She has an older brother, Leon J. Gross, who works as a psychometric consultant.

In 1968, Gross graduated from Sheepshead Bay High School. She earned a bachelor's degree in English and a Master of Education degree in communications from the University at Buffalo. While in college, she married her high-school boyfriend who attended the same university; they subsequently divorced. She took a year off from school to hitchhike across the country.

In 1972, Gross started teaching 8th grade at an inner-city public junior high school in Buffalo. She said she was ill-equipped for the job, especially at establishing discipline, and was fired after only six weeks.

Career
Gross began her radio career in 1973 at WBFO, an NPR CPB-funded college station, then broadcasting from the Main Street Campus of the University at Buffalo in Buffalo, New York, where she started out as a volunteer on a show called Woman Power, then co-hosted This is Radio. Typical subjects of these shows were women's rights and public affairs.

In 1975, she moved to WHYY-FM in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to host and produce Fresh Air, which was a local interview program at the time. In 1985, Fresh Air with Terry Gross went national, being distributed weekly by NPR. It became a daily program two years later. Gross typically conducts the interviews from the WHYY-FM studios in Philadelphia, with her subject at the studio of a local NPR affiliate convenient to them connected via telephone or satellite feed. For the majority of these conversations, Gross is not face-to-face with her subjects. Gross creates a daily show that is an hour long, usually includes two interviews, and is distributed to over 190 NPR stations. The show reaches an audience of millions of daily listeners. Many of the producers and staff on Gross's show have been with her since the late 1970s to 1980s.

Interview style
The San Francisco Chronicle wrote that Gross's interviews are "a remarkable blend of empathy, warmth, genuine curiosity, and sharp intelligence." Gross prides herself on preparation; prior to interviewing guests, she reads their books, watches their movies, or listens to their CDs. The Boston Phoenix opined that "Terry Gross ... is almost certainly the best cultural interviewer in America, and one of the best all-around interviewers, period. Her smart, thoughtful questioning pushes her guests in unlikely directions. Her interviews are revelatory in a way other people's seldom are."

Gross said that when she first started working in radio, her voice was much higher with anxiety. For years she took singing lessons, and has worked to relax her voice and to a more natural, deeper tone. Much has been written about Gross's voice, and the precision of her use of language has been the subject of much analysis.

Difficult interviews
There have been some occasions when interviews have not gone smoothly. Gross asked Nancy Reagan about the lack of funding and mishandling of HIV/AIDS by her husband, President Ronald Reagan, which was not well received. Several guests, including Lou Reed, Jann Wenner, Faye Dunaway, Monica Lewinsky, Bill O'Reilly, and Adam Driver, have stopped their interviews prematurely.

Three notable examples are:

 * February 4, 2002: Kiss singer and bassist Gene Simmons. The interview began with Gross not pronouncing Simmons's original Hebrew last name to his liking. Simmons dismissively replied to her that she pronounced without "flavor" because she had a "Gentile mouth"; Gross responded that she is Jewish. In the interview, Gross asked Simmons about his studded codpiece, to which Simmons replied, "It holds in my manhood, otherwise it would be too much for you to take," adding, "If you want to welcome me with open arms, I'm afraid you're also going to have to welcome me with open legs," to which Gross replied, "That's a really obnoxious thing to say." Unlike most Fresh Air guests, Simmons refused to grant permission for the interview to be made available on the NPR website. The interview appears in Gross's book All I Did Was Ask, and unauthorized transcripts and audio of the complete original interview are known to exist.
 * October 8, 2003: Fox News television host Bill O'Reilly. O'Reilly walked out of the interview because of what he considered biased questions, creating a media controversy fed by the ongoing presidential campaign. Toward the end of the interview, O'Reilly asked Gross if she had been as tough on Al Franken, who had appeared on the program two weeks earlier. Gross responded, "No, I wasn't ... we had a different interview." Gross was later criticized by then NPR ombudsman Jeffrey Dvorkin for "an interview that was, in the end, unfair to O'Reilly" and that "it felt as though Terry Gross was indeed 'carrying Al Franken's water'. " Dvorkin described Gross's interviewing tactic of reading a quote critical of O'Reilly after he had walked out of the room as "unethical and unfair". Gross was later supported by an NPR colleague, Mike Pesca, who contended that O'Reilly did have the opportunity to respond to a criticism that Gross read to O'Reilly levelled by People magazine, but that he defaulted by prematurely abandoning the interview. On September 24, 2004, Gross and O'Reilly met again on O'Reilly's television show, where Gross assured O'Reilly, "no matter what you ask me, I'm staying for the entire interview."
 * February 9, 2005: Lynne Cheney, conservative author and the wife of Vice President Dick Cheney. The initial focus of the interview was on Cheney's latest history book, but Gross moved on to questions about Cheney's lesbian daughter Mary and her opinion of the Bush administration's opposition to same-sex marriage. Cheney declined to comment on her daughter's sexuality, but repeatedly stated her opposition to a constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage, which was being endorsed by President George W. Bush. Cheney declined to discuss the matter further. When Gross brought the interview back to issues of gay rights, Cheney again refused to comment. According to producers, Cheney had been warned that Gross would ask about politics and current events.

Other appearances
On October 30, 1988, Gross played radio host "Rose Butler" in a remake of the famous The War of the Worlds broadcast of fifty years earlier. The 1988 version was produced by WGBH in Boston and picked up by 150 National Public Radio stations.

Gross appeared as a guest voice on The Simpsons as herself in the episodes "The Debarted" and "The Girl on the Bus".

During the spring 1998 semester, Gross was a guest lecturer at University of California-Berkeley's Graduate School of Journalism.

In 2012, Gross appeared in a short comedic film by Mike Birbiglia titled "The Secret Criminal Life of Terry Gross."

In 2015 she appeared on Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me and played the game "Not My Job", answering questions about Hulk Hogan.

In June 2017, Gross appeared as a guest-voice on Clarence as Aberdale Public Radio host, Debra Copper, in the episode "Public Radio".

In January 2020, Gross appeared on the PBS program Finding Your Roots, in which she explored her Jewish heritage. A year prior, host Henry Louis Gates Jr. had been a guest on Fresh Air. At the conclusion of their Fresh Air interview, Gates invited Gross to appear on Finding Your Roots.

In 2020, Gross appeared as a fictionalized version of herself in the audiobook version of the Max Brooks novel Devolution.

She is the voice of Pam in the HBO Max animated series The Fungies!.

Personal life
While she was in college in the late 1960s, Gross was married for about a year to a man she knew from high school, with whom she had been living previously. Gross said she dropped out of college in her sophomore year to hitchhike with him across the country before they were married. She obtained a divorce by the time she started her radio career in 1973.

Gross has been married to Francis Davis, a former jazz critic for The Village Voice, since 1994. They have been together since 1978. Davis is Catholic, and Gross is Jewish, but neither is practicing. They reside in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and share a passion for music. They have no children, which Gross has said was a deliberate choice on their part.

Awards

 * 1981: Corporation for Public Broadcasting Award for Best Live Radio Program
 * 1987: Ohio State Award
 * 1989: Drexel University, Honorary Doctor of Letters
 * 1993: SUNY–Buffalo, Distinguished Alumni Award
 * 1994: Peabody Award
 * 1998: Haverford College, Doctor of Letters
 * 1999: The Foundation of American Women In Radio and Television's Gracie Allen Award, category: National Network Radio Personality
 * 2002: Princeton University, Honorary Doctor of Humanities degree
 * 2003: Corporation for Public Broadcasting's Edward R. Murrow Award
 * 2007: Literarian Award, a lifetime achievement award given by the National Book Foundation
 * 2007: SUNY–Buffalo, Doctor of Humane Letters
 * 2008: Columbia University's Graduate School of Journalism, Columbia Journalism Award
 * 2011: Authors Guild Award for Distinguished Service to the Literary Community
 * 2012: Inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame
 * 2015: National Humanities Medal
 * 2022: Peabody Award

Books

 * Gross, Terry. All I Did Was Ask: Conversations with Writers, Actors, Musicians, and Artists. New York: Hyperion, 2004. ISBN 978-1-401-30010-4, ISBN 978-0-316-29123-1..

Audio

 * Gross, Terry. Fresh Air on Stage and Screen. [Washington, D.C.]: National Public Radio, 1998, 1996. Two sound cassettes. ISBN 978-0-966-46051-3..
 * Tape 1. Mel Brooks, Nicolas Cage, Michael Caine, Francis Ford Coppola, Robert Duvall, Laurence Fishburne, Ed Harris, Jeremy Irons, Nathan Lane, Mercedes McCambridge, Wallace Shawn/André Gregory
 * Tape 2. André Braugher, Divine, Faye Dunaway, Clint Eastwood, Dennis Franz, Audrey Hepburn, Dennis Hopper, Samuel L. Jackson, Harvey Keitel, Tracey Ullman
 * Gross, Terry. Fresh Air on Stage and Screen. Vol. 2. [Washington, D.C.]: National Public Radio, 2000. Three CDs. ISBN 978-0-966-46053-7..
 * David Chase, John Cusack, Catherine Deneuve, Peter Fonda, Gene Hackman, Uta Hagen, Werner Herzog, Dustin Hoffman, Anjelica Huston, Samuel L. Jackson, David Mamet, Bill Murray, Diane Keaton, Al Pacino, Sidney Poitier, Clarence Williams III, James Woods
 * Gross, Terry. ''Laughs: Fresh Air with Terry Gross [Terry Gross Interviews 21 Stars of Comedy]. Philadelphia, PA: WHYY, 2003, 2004. Three CDs. ISBN 978-1-565-11919-2..
 * Disc 1: Ahmed Ahmed & Maz Jobrani, Al Franken, Bill Maher, Conan O'Brien, Richard Pryor, Martin Short, Tracey Ullman
 * Disc 2: Richard Belzer, Drew Carey, Larry David, Carol Leifer, Jon Lovitz, Colin Quinn, Chris Rock
 * Disc 3: Phyllis Diller, Jay Leno, Jackie Mason, Bob Newhart, Joan Rivers, Henny Youngman
 * Gross, Terry, et al. Fresh Air with Terry Gross. Terry Gross Interviews 11 Stars of Stage & Screen. [Minneapolis, Minn.]: HighBridge, 2007, 2014. Two CDs. ISBN 978-1-598-87069-5..
 * Dave Chappelle, George Clooney, Stephen Colbert, David Cronenberg, Tim Curry, Jodie Foster, Lisa Kudrow, CCH Pounder, Thelma Schoonmaker, Billy Bob Thornton, Robin Williams
 * Gross, Terry. Fresh Air with Terry Gross. Faith, Reason & Doubt. [Minneapolis, Minn.]: Highbridge Co., 2008. Three CDs. ISBN 978-1-598-87533-1..
 * Disc 1. Karen Armstrong, Pastor John Hagee, Tim LaHaye, Julia Sweeney, Michael Wex
 * Disc 2. Richard Dawkins, Francis Collins, Barbara Brown Taylor, Steven Waldman, Shalom Auslander
 * Disc 3. Akbar Ahmed, James H. Cone, Khaled Abou El Fadl, Reynolds Price, Bishop Gene Robinson
 * Gross, Terry. Fresh Air with Terry Gross Funny People: More Interviews with Stars of Comedy. Minneapolis, Minn: Highbridge, 2010. Two CDs. ISBN 978-1-598-87897-4..

Video

 * 2012: Birbiglia, Mike. Fresh Air 2: 2 Fresh 2 Furious (short film).

title: Terry Gross


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Talk:List of rock and roll albums in the 1970s

Joe S. Harrington, an eccentric, tough but exceedingly knowledgeable and intelligent rock critic, listed on the webzine Blastitude between late 2001 and early 2003 his choice of the Top 100 Albums of all time.

The full list is:

1. Katy Lied -- Steely Dan 2. Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols -- the Sex Pistols 3. The Dictators Go Girl Crazy! -- The Dictators 4. Lolita Nation -- Game Theory 5. Minor Threat -- Minor Threat 6. Mothership Connection -- Parliament 7. Highway to Hell -- AC/DC 8. A Different Kind of Tension -- The Buzzcocks 9. Ramones Leave Home -- The Ramones 10. Oh Yeah -- Charles Mingus 11. Live At The Village Vanguard -- John Coltrane 12. Two Steps From the Middle Ages -- Game Theory 13. Charmed Life -- Half Japanese 14. White Light/White Heat -- the Velvet Underground 15. Beggar's Banquet -- Rolling Stones 16. The Who Sings My Generation -- The Who 17. Horses -- Patti Smith
 18. Killer -- Alice Cooper
 19. I'm Stranded -- the Saints
 20. Are You Experienced? -- the Jimi Hendrix Experience
 21. Back From Samoa -- the Angry Samoans
 22. Ace of Spades -- Motörhead
 23. Impressions -- John Coltrane
 24. Something Else -- Ornette Coleman
 25. The Velvet Underground & Nico -- The Velvet Underground
 26. Black Beings -- Frank Lowe
 27. It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back -- Public Enemy
 28. The Clash (UK) -- The Clash
 29. Inflammable Material -- Stiff Little Fingers
 30. Eternally Yours -- the Saints
 31. Master of Reality -- Black Sabbath
 32. Blank Generation -- Richard Hell & the Voidoids
 33. Thelonious Monk with John Coltrane
 34. Free Jazz -- Ornette Coleman
 35. Live at the Five Spot Vol. 1 -- Eric Dolphy
 36. The Geto Boys -- The Geto Boys
 37. Young, Loud & Snotty -- Dead Boys
 38. Black Unity -- Pharoah Sanders
 39. Collector's Items -- Miles Davis
 40. South Park Psycho -- Gangsta NIP
 41. Group Sex -- Circle Jerks
 42. Blues & Roots -- Charles Mingus
 43. Damaged -- Black Flag
 44. The Parable of Arable Land -- Red Krayola
 45. Trout Mask Replica -- Captain Beefheart
 46. G.I. -- The Germs
 47. Closer -- Joy Division
 48. Point of Departure -- Andrew Hill
 49. Spiritual Unity -- Albert Ayler
 50. Milestones -- Miles Davis
 51. Elvis Presley -- Elvis Presley
 52. Easter Everywhere -- 13th Floor Elevators
 53. Lately I Keep Scissors -- Barbara Manning
 54. Way Out West -- Sonny Rollins
 55. Radio City -- Big Star
 56. Get Up With It -- Miles Davis
 57. Hot Buttered Soul -- Isaac Hayes
 58. The Trance -- Booker Irvin
 59. Back in the USA -- the MC5
 60. How Could Hell Be Any Worse? -- Bad Religion
 61. The Magic of Juju -- Archie Shepp
 62. Funhouse -- the Stooges
 63. The Ramones -- The Ramones
 64. Moby Grape -- Moby Grape
 65. Machine Head -- Deep Purple
 66. Get Your Wings -- Aerosmith
 67. Kimono My House -- Sparks
 68. Interstellar Space -- John Coltrane
 69. Forever Changes -- Love
 70. The Modern Lovers -- Jonathan Richman and The Modern Lovers
 71. Wild Gift -- X
 72. This Year's Model -- Elvis Costello
 73. Drums of Passion -- Olatunji
 74. Disconnected -- Stiv Bators
 75. Greetings From L.A. -- Tim Buckley
 76. Workingman's Dead -- Grateful Dead
 77. The Great Electric Show and Dance -- Lightnin' Hopkins
 78. Pink Flag -- Wire
 79. Desolation Boulevard -- the Sweet
 80. Diary of a Madman -- Ozzy Osbourne
 81. Zuma -- Neil Young
 82. The Notorious Byrd Brothers -- the Byrds
 83. Marquee Moon -- Television
 84. Pet Sounds -- the Beach Boys
 85. Ege Bamyasi -- Can
 86. Double Nickels on the Dime -- the Minutemen
 87. Primordial Lovers -- Essra Mohawk
 88. The Hangman's Beautiful Daughter -- Incredible String Band
 89. Teenage Head -- the Flamin' Groovies
 90. The New York Dolls -- The New York Dolls
 91. Quark, Strangeness & Charm -- Hawkwind
 92. Atlantis -- Sun Ra
 93. Daydream Nation -- Sonic Youth
 94. Tyranny & Mutation -- Blue Öyster Cult
 95. Scary Monsters -- David Bowie
 96. Roxy Music -- Roxy Music
 97. Bleach -- Nirvana
 98. Brain Capers -- Mott the Hoople
 99. One Size Fits All -- the Mothers of Invention
 100. LAMF -- the Heartbreakers

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Duke of Orléans

Duke of Orléans (Duc d'Orléans) was a French royal title usually granted by the King of France to one of his close relatives (usually a younger brother or son), or otherwise inherited through the male line. First created in 1344 by King Philip VI for his younger son Philip, the title was recreated by King Charles VI for his younger brother Louis, who passed the title on to his son and then to his grandson, the latter becoming King Louis XII. The title was created and recreated six times in total, until 1661, when Louis XIV bestowed it upon his younger brother Philippe, who passed it on to his male descendants, who became known as the "Orléans branch" of the Bourbons.

Based at the Palais-Royal, the Duke of Orléans Louis-Philippe II contested the authority of his cousin Louis XVI in the adjacent Louvre. His son would eventually ascend to the throne in 1830 as Louis-Philippe I, King of the French. The descendants of the family are the Orléanist pretenders to the French throne.

Île d'Orléans, in Canada, is named after Duke of Orléans Henri II, and the city of New Orleans in the United States is named after Duke of Orléans Philippe II.

The holder of the title held the style of Serene Highness.

House of Valois
The first Dukedom of Orléans was created for Philip of Valois, seventh son of Philip VI of France and younger brother of John the Good, in 1344. This appanage merged the appanages of Touraine and Valois. However, the first ducal line ended with Philip, who died without legitimate children.

House of Valois-Orléans
The second dukedom of Orléans was created in 1392 by Charles VI of France for his younger brother Louis. His role as leading figure in court, regent for his brother during his madness and wealthy landlord, as well as head of the Armagnac party, permitted his descendant to maintain a prominent role in French politics. His grandson Louis XII became king after the extinction of the direct Valois in 1498, while his great-grandson Francis I succeeded the last in 1515. The direct line of Valois-Orléans became extinct with the death of Louis XII in 1515, although the dukedom of Orléans was integrated among the crown's properties after his ascent to the throne in 1495.

House of Valois-Angoulême
The third dukedom of Orléans was created by Francis I for his second son Henry at his birth. When Henry's elder brother and Dauphin, Francis, Duke of Brittany, died childless in 1536, Henry substituted him as Dauphin and ceded the title to his younger brother Charles, Duke of Angoulême, who died childless in 1545.

The fourth dukedom was created by Henry II for his son Louis at his birth. The child duke, however, died one year later, and the title passed to his recently born brother Charles, who became King of France in 1560. The title passed to Charles' brother, Henry, Duke of Angoulême, who six years later exchanged the appanages of Orléans for the Dukedom of Anjou, becoming the heir in pectore of the Crown.

House of Medici
After Henry's exchange of appanages, Charles IX gave the Orléanais to his mother Catherine, former Queen of France, as reward for her role as regent, mainly about toleration politics. She was the only suo jure Duchess of Orléans, so is included among the ruling dukes.

First House of Bourbon-Orléans
The fifth dukedom was created in 1626 by Louis XIII for his younger brother Gaston, Duke of Anjou. Gaston became a libertine and scheming figure at court, plotting the assassination of Cardinal Richelieu and later joining the Fronde, a coalition of nobles who opposed the royal centralisation. Finally forgiven by Louis XIII, he died without male heirs, extinguishing the first Bourbon House of Orléans.

Notes: the Monsieur d'Orléans, second son of Henry IV isn't included in the list due to his short life (4 years) and lack of official baptism or name.

Second House of Bourbon-Orléans
The sixth and final creation was for Philip, Duke of Anjou, who received the Orléanais by his brother Louis XIV. Through his marriage with Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate, he established a long dynasty that finally arose to the throne in 1830, with the deposition of Charles X and the proclamation of Louis Philippe I. Louis Philippe passed his title to his son and dauphin, Ferdinand, who died in a carriage accident in 1842.

Current use

 * Legitimists recognize Jean, Count of Paris, Head of the House of Orléans, as Duke of Orléans, inheriting the title as the heir male of Philip I, Duke of Orléans.
 * Orleanists recognize Jacques d'Orléans, uncle of the Count of Paris, as Duke of Orléans. Per Orleanist-Unionist reckoning, the title merged with the crown in 1883 and was subsequently granted to Jacques upon his marriage in 1969.

title: Duke of Orléans


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The Tavis Smiley Show

The Tavis Smiley Show was an American public broadcasting radio talk show.

Public Radio International
The Tavis Smiley Show was broadcast on Public Radio International (PRI). It was a one-hour weekly program featuring interviews with news makers, thought leaders and artists and seeks to bring diverse perspectives to the airwaves. It was produced by Smiley Radio Properties, Inc., in partnership with PRI at Smiley's studio in Los Angeles, California. The program ran two hours per week until October 2010 when the second hour became the sister program Smiley & West, co-hosted by longtime Smiley collaborator Dr. Cornel West. The show ended after thirteen years of broadcast in December 2017.

History of radio show
The first version of The Tavis Smiley Show was on National Public Radio (NPR). It was broadcast daily from January 2002 to December 16, 2004, in Los Angeles, when the host Tavis Smiley decided not to renew his contract with NPR. Some of the reasons cited based on an article by Howard Kurtz for not renewing the contract were 1) Tavis Smiley wanted to tape his show a day in advance, and NPR did not agree; 2) against federal funding policies, Tavis Smiley wished to own the right to rebroadcast the show; and 3) Tavis Smiley appealed to have the budget for promoting the program significantly increased, and NPR did not have the budget to do so.

The show was a news and opinion program focusing upon issues of race, diversity, and ethnicity and often featured guest speakers. It was an hour-long show.

The show was helped through a collaboration with various public radio stations. It was replaced on some radio stations by News & Notes which follows much the same format and topics. Many other radio stations replaced it with the short-lived NPR News with Tony Cox.

title: The Tavis Smiley Show


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Black rosy finch

The black rosy finch or black rosy-finch (Leucosticte atrata) is a species of passerine bird in the family Fringillidae native to alpine areas above treeline, of the western United States. It is the most range-restricted member of its genus, and a popular photography subject for birdwatchers.

Taxonomy
The black rosy finch was first classified by American ornithologist Robert Ridgway in 1874. This bird has been thought to form a superspecies with the three other rosy finches: grey-crowned rosy finch (L. tephrocotis) and the brown-capped rosy finch (L. australis), all of which were classified as the same species as the Asian rosy finch (L. arctoa) from 1983–1993. Recent mitochondrial DNA evidence shows the rosy finches are all indeed very closely related and can be easily confused with one another. Along with four Asian rosy finches, the three North American rosy finches form the mountain finch genus Leucosticte. There are no recognized subspecies of the black rosy finch. Alternative common names include: roselin (in French), Rußschneegimpel (in German), and pinzón montano negro (in Spanish).

Description
Adults are black on the head, back and breast with pink on the belly, rump and wings. There is a patch of grey at the back of the head. They have short black legs and a long forked tail. The grey-crowned rosy finch has a brown body instead of black and the brown-capped rosy finch and lacks the grey patch on the back of the head.

Distribution and habitat
The black rosy finch's breeding habitat is mountain areas above the tree-line, amongst alpine rocks and cliffs. Because of this it is one of the least studied birds in North America. Its distribution range is between that of the grey-crowned rosy finch (L. tephrocotis), which is located to north and west, and the brown-capped rosy finch (L. australis), which is located to the south and east.

The paucity of definitive information about its breeding distribution lead the Wildlife Action Plan Joint Team of the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources to designate the finch a “species of greatest conservation need” in Utah.

Behavior
The black rosy finch builds a cup nest in a cavity on a cliff. Most birds migrate short distances to lower elevations and further south and return to the alpine areas in April. These birds forage on the ground, may fly to catch insects in flight. They mainly eat seeds from weeds and grasses and insects, often in areas where snow is melting, uncovering food items and new plant shoots are growing. They often feed in small flocks, sometimes mixing with grey-crowned rosy finches. A male will defend its female's territory during breeding season, not just the nest but where ever she goes. This behavior is common with the rosy finches. When breeding both males and females develop throat pouches, known as gular pouches or gular skin, to carry food to their chicks, a trait seen in only one other North American genus, Pinicola. Due to their inaccessibility, actual black rosy finch nests had been reached by only three researchers as of 2002. The nests are made of grass and stems and lined with fine grass, hair, and feathers. They are known to use protected areas such as openings in cliffs, mine shafts, caves, and rafters. They eat seeds and insects, usually foraged from the ground, including snowfields. Their call is a buzz-sounding "chew".

Book

 * Johnson, R. E. 2002. Black Rosy-Finch (Leucosticte atrata). In The Birds of North America, No. 678 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.

Articles

 * Behle WH. (1973). Further Notes on Rosy Finches Wintering in Utah. Wilson Bulletin. vol 85, no 3. pp. 344–346.
 * Bjorklund CF. (1991). Black Rosy Finch Sighting on Big Muddy Cbc. Blue Jay. vol 49, no 3.
 * Bull EL & Wales BC. (2001). Effects of disturbance on birds of conservation concern in eastern Oregon and Washington. Northwest Sci. vol 75, pp. 166–173.
 * Hendricks P. (1978). Notes on the Courtship Behavior of Brown-Capped Rosy Finches. Wilson Bulletin. vol 90, no 2. pp. 285–287.
 * Johnson RE. (1975). New Breeding Localities for Leucosticte in the Contiguous Western USA. Auk. vol 92, no 3. pp. 586–589.
 * Johnson RE. (1977). Seasonal Variation in the Genus Leucosticte in North America. Condor. vol 79, no 1. pp. 76–86.
 * Lichtwardt, Eric (2000). Rare, local, little-known and declining North American breeders, a closer look: Black Rosy-finch Birding 32(5): 402-408

title: Black rosy finch


text:
User:TwenCen

TwenCen is interested in the history of the Twentieth century.

title: User:TwenCen


text:
Hoarding disorder

Hoarding disorder (HD) or Plyushkin's disorder, is a mental disorder characterised by persistent difficulty in parting with possessions and engaging in excessive acquisition of items that are not needed or for which no space is available. This results in severely cluttered living spaces, distress, and impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. Excessive acquisition is characterized by repetitive urges or behaviours related to amassing or buying property. Difficulty discarding possessions is characterized by a perceived need to save items and distress associated with discarding them. Accumulation of possessions results in living spaces becoming cluttered to the point that their use or safety is compromised. It is recognised by the eleventh revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5).

Prevalence rates are estimated at 2% to 5% in adults, though the condition typically manifests in childhood with symptoms worsening in advanced age, at which point collected items have grown excessive and family members who would otherwise help to maintain and control the levels of clutter have either died or moved away.

People with hoarding disorder commonly live with other complex and/or psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Other factors often associated with hoarding include alcohol dependence and paranoid, schizotypal and avoidant traits.

Diagnosis
Collecting and hoarding may seem similar, but there are distinct characteristics that set the behaviors apart. Collecting is a hobby often involving the targeted search and acquisition of specific items that form—at least from the perspective of the collector—a greater appreciation, deeper understanding, or increased synergistic value when combined with other similar items. Hoarding, by contrast, typically appears haphazard and involves the overall acquiring of common items that would not be especially meaningful to the person who is gathering such items in large quantities. People who hoard keep common items that hold little to no meaning or value to others, unlike some collectors, whose items may be of great value to select people. Most hoarders are disorganized, and their living areas are crowded and in disarray. Most collectors can afford to store their items systematically or to have enough room to display their collections. Age, mental state, or finances have caused some collectors to fall into a hoarding state.

The Clutter Image Rating
A UK charity called Hoarding UK has found that people have very different ideas about what it means to have a cluttered home. For some, a small pile of things in the corner of an otherwise well-ordered room constitutes serious clutter. For others, only when the narrow pathways make it hard to get through a room does the clutter register. To ensure an accurate sense of a clutter problem and encourage people to get support, Hoarding UK uses the Clutter Image Rating, created by R. O. Frost and G. Steketee, a series of pictures of rooms in various stages of clutter – from completely clutter-free to very severely cluttered.

Epidemiology
The prevalence of hoarding disorder is estimated to be between 2 and 6 percent, although some surveys indicate the lifetime prevalence may be as high as 14%. First-degree relatives of those with hoarding disorder are significantly more likely to report hoarding symptoms, and hoarding likely comes about due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

Rates of hoarding increase significantly with age, and people over the age of 54 are three times as likely to meet criteria for hoarding disorder. However, hoarding symptoms typically manifest in early childhood, and worsen to the point of becoming clinically significant during middle age. Over half of hoarders report the onset of hoarding as being associated with a traumatic life event, and in this portion of hoarders, the age of onset is much higher. Epidemiological studies have found that hoarding is twice as common in males, although clinical studies on hoarding tend to be predominantly female, suggesting that male hoarders are a significantly understudied and under-treated population.

Hoarding is a significant problem around the world and can pose a public health risk when hoarding escalates enough to damage the integrity of a structure or attract vermin. Accumulated items can block exits during fires and increase the risk of injury. In Japan, hoarder houses are known as "garbage mansions" (ごみ屋敷, gomi yashiki), and have become a topic of public alarm in Japanese mass media. In the Eastern United states, they are sometimes called Collyer mansions or Collyers, after the infamous Collyer brothers.

Comorbidity
Under the DSM-IV, hoarding was listed as a symptom of obsessive–compulsive personality disorder and obsessive–compulsive disorder; however, hoarding was found to have a relatively weak connection to OCD or OCPD compared to their other symptoms. Due to this evidence, hoarding disorder was separated as its own disorder in the DSM-5. However, hoarding does frequently co-occur with OCD. OCD patients with hoarding symptoms were found to display a distinct form of hoarding in which they were more likely to hoard "bizarre items" and perform compulsive rituals associated with their hoarding behavior, such as rituals around checking items or rituals to be performed before discarding them.

However, the majority of hoarders do not show OCD symptoms. Hoarding has been found to be correlated with depression, social anxiety, compulsive grooming disorders such as trichotillomania, bipolar disorder, reduced cognitive and affective empathy and compulsive shopping. Hoarders have higher than average rates of traumatic past events, particularly those associated with loss or deprivation. Past events which occurred before the onset of hoarding are correlated to a subject's emotional attachment to physical objects, and past events after the onset of hoarding increase a subject's anxiety around memory. Hoarders are also more likely to have a past with alcohol abuse.

The prevalence of different comorbidities is influenced by gender. In men, hoarding is associated with generalized anxiety disorder and tics, while among women, hoarding is associated with social phobia, post-traumatic stress disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, and compulsive grooming behaviors like nail-biting and skin-picking.

Studies
In a 2010 study using data from self-reports of hoarding behavior from 751 participants, it was found most reported the onset of their hoarding symptoms between the ages of 11 and 20 years old, with 70% reporting the behaviors before the age of 21. Fewer than 4% of people reported the onset of their symptoms after the age of 40. The data showed that compulsive hoarding usually begins early, but often does not become more prominent until after age 40. Different reasons have been given for this, such as the effects of family presence earlier in life and limits on hoarding imposed by housing situation and lifestyle. The understanding of early onset hoarding behavior may help in the future to better distinguish hoarding behavior from "normal" childhood collecting behaviors.

A second key part of this study was to determine if stressful life events are linked to the onset of hoarding symptoms. Similar to self-harming, traumatized persons may create a problem for themselves in order to avoid their real anxiety or trauma. Facing their real issues may be too difficult for them, so they create an artificial problem (in their case, hoarding) and prefer to battle with it rather than determine, face, or do something about their real anxieties. Hoarders may suppress their psychological pain by hoarding. The study shows that adults who hoard report a greater lifetime incidence of having possessions taken by force, forced sexual activity as either an adult or a child, including forced sexual intercourse, and being physically handled roughly during childhood, thus proving traumatic events are positively correlated with the severity of hoarding. For each five years of life the participant would rate the severity of their hoarding symptoms from 1 to 4, 4 being the most severe. Of the participants, 548 reported a chronic course, 159 an increasing course and 39 people, a decreasing course of illness. The incidents of increased hoarding behavior were usually correlated to five categories of stressful life events.

Although excessive acquiring is not a diagnostic criterion of hoarding, at least two-thirds of individuals with hoarding disorder excessively acquire possessions. Having a more anxiously attached interpersonal style is associated with more compulsive buying and greater acquisition of free items and these relationships are mediated by stronger distress intolerance and greater anthropomorphism. Anthropomorphism has been shown to increase both the sentimental value and perceived utility of items. These findings indicate that individuals may over-value their possessions to compensate for thwarted interpersonal needs. Feeling alone and/or disconnected from others may impair people's ability to tolerate distress and increase people's tendencies to see human-like qualities in objects. The humanness of items may increase their perceived value and individuals may acquire these valued objects to alleviate distress. Individuals with hoarding problems have been shown to have greater interpersonal problems than individuals who only excessively acquire possessions, which provides some support for the assumption that individuals with hoarding problems may have a stronger motivation to hang onto possessions for support. As possessions cannot provide support in the way humans can and because saving excessively can frustrate other people due to its impact on their quality of life, individuals with hoarding disorder may be caught in a feedback loop. They may save to alleviate distress, but this saving may cause distress, which may lead them to keep saving to alleviate the distress.

Treatment
Only 5% of people with hoarding behaviours receive help (Singh, 2012) and the interventions they do receive focus on clearing items, not treating the disorder.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is a commonly implemented therapeutic intervention for compulsive hoarding. As part of cognitive behavior therapy, the therapist may help the patient to:
 * Discover why one is compelled to hoard.
 * Learn to organize possessions in order to decide what to discard.
 * Develop decision-making skills.
 * Declutter the home during in-home visits by a therapist or professional organizer.
 * Gain and perform relaxation skills.
 * Attend family and/or group therapy.
 * Be open to trying psychiatric hospitalization if the hoarding is serious.
 * Have periodic visits and consultations to keep a healthy lifestyle.

This modality of treatment usually involves exposure and response prevention to situations that cause anxiety and cognitive restructuring of beliefs related to hoarding. Furthermore, research has also shown that certain CBT protocols have been more effective in treatment than others. CBT programs that specifically address the motivation of the affected person, organization, acquiring new clutter, and removing current clutter from the home have shown promising results. This type of treatment typically involves in-home work with a therapist combined with between-session homework, the completion of which is associated with better treatment outcomes. Research on internet-based CBT treatments for the disorder (where participants have access to educational resources, cognitive strategies, and chat groups) has also shown promising results both in terms of short- and long-term recovery.

Other therapeutic approaches that have been found to be helpful:
 * 1) Motivational interviewing originated in addiction therapy. This method is significantly helpful when used in hoarding cases in which insight is poor and ambivalence to change is marked.
 * 2) Harm reduction rather than symptom reduction. Also borrowed from addiction therapy. The goal is to decrease the harmful implications of the behavior, rather than the hoarding behaviors.
 * 3) Group psychotherapy reduces social isolation and social anxiety and is cost-effective compared to one-on-one intervention. Group CBT tends to have similar outcomes to individual therapy. Although group treatment often does not include home sessions, experimental research suggests that treatment outcomes may be improved if home sessions are included. Individuals have been shown to discard more possessions when in a cluttered environment compared to a tidy environment. Indeed, a meta-analysis found that a greater number of home sessions improves CBT outcomes.

Individuals with hoarding behaviors are often described as having low motivation and poor compliance levels, and as being indecisive and procrastinators, which may frequently lead to premature termination (i.e., dropout) or low response to treatment. Therefore, it was suggested that future treatment approaches, and pharmacotherapy in particular, be directed to address the underlying mechanisms of cognitive impairments demonstrated by individuals with hoarding symptoms.

Mental health professionals frequently express frustration regarding hoarding cases, mostly due to premature termination and poor response to treatment. Patients are frequently described as indecisive, procrastinators, recalcitrant, and as having low or no motivation, which can explain why many interventions fail to accomplish significant results. To overcome this obstacle, some clinicians recommend accompanying individual therapy with home visits to help the clinician:

Likewise, certain cases are assisted by professional organizers as well.

In popular culture
Emily Maguire wrote Love Objects in 2021, a novel about a woman with hoarding disorder that focused on the behavior and the consequences of a hoarder being exposed.

There have been several television shows that focused on those suspected to have hoarding disorder. Hoarders, an ongoing series by A&E, focuses on helping one or two individual "hoarders" per episode and features a rotating cast of professional psychologists and organizers who specialize in hoarding disorder. A similar show, Hoarding: Buried Alive ran from 2010 to 2014 on TLC. Hoarders: Canada followed a similar format to Hoarders and Hoarding: Buried Alive. Britain's Biggest Hoarders is an ongoing series hosted by Jasmine Harman, the daughter of a hoarder, and follows her as she and a team of experts seek to help others with the disorder. The Hoarder Next Door is a four-part series based in Britain that followed a group of hoarders participating in a treatment program led by psychotherapist Stelios Kiosses. Confessions: Animal Hoarding is a six episode series aired on Animal Planet that focused on those who hoard animals and their living conditions. Hoarder House Flippers is more focused on the hoarded house, where teams work hard to flip properties that have been hoarded.

There have been possible depictions of hoarding in literature before the diagnosis was created. In Nikolai Gogol’s book Dead Souls (1842), wealthy Plyushkin displays hoarding behaviors. For example, he serves an old cake from years ago to a business partner, having a servant scrape off the mold. He is famous among the locals for his compulsion to find and keep items.

Le Cousin Pons, a novella written by Honoré de Balzac in 1846, features Pons, who hoards art and antiques. He collected relatively low-value items, hoping they would become more valuable with time. However, he is unwilling to part with any of his items even when he becomes destitute. He dies with his collection intact.

In Charles Dickens's Bleak House (1862), London shop owner Krook hoards items, primarily legal documents. He continues to buy items but doesn’t sell any, even though he claims he buys to sell later for a profit. Several documents that would resolve a legal case central to the novel’s plot are lost among his hoard.

title: Hoarding disorder


text:
District attorney

In the United States, a district attorney (DA), county attorney, county prosecutor, state's attorney, prosecuting attorney, commonwealth's attorney, state attorney or solicitor is the chief prosecutor or chief law enforcement officer representing a U.S. state in a local government area, typically a county or a group of counties. The exact scope of the office varies by state. Generally, the prosecutor represents the people of the jurisdiction. With the exception of three states (New Jersey, Connecticut, and Alaska, as well as the District of Columbia), district attorneys are elected, unlike similar roles in other common law jurisdictions.

The prosecution is the legal party responsible for presenting the case against an individual suspected of breaking the law, initiating and directing further criminal investigations, guiding and recommending the sentencing of offenders, and are the only attorneys allowed to participate in grand jury proceedings. The prosecutors decide what criminal charges to bring, and when and where a person will answer to those charges. In carrying out their duties, prosecutors have the authority to investigate persons, grant immunity to witnesses and accused criminals, and plea bargain with defendants.

A district attorney (or state attorney) leads a staff of prosecutors, who are most commonly known as assistant district attorneys (ADAs) or deputy district attorneys (DDAs); in states which have state attorneys the staff attorneys are usually referred to as Assistant State Attorneys (ASAs ). Most prosecutions will be delegated to ADAs, with the district attorney prosecuting the most important cases and having overall responsibility for their agency and its work. Depending upon the state's law, DAs may be appointed by the chief executive of the jurisdiction or elected by local voters. Most criminal matters in the United States are handled in state judicial systems, but a comparable office for the United States Federal government is the United States Attorney.

History
This term for a prosecutor originates with the traditional use of the term "district" for multi-county prosecutorial jurisdictions in several U.S. states. For example, New York appointed prosecutors to multi-county districts prior to 1813. Even after those states broke up such districts and started appointing or electing prosecutors for individual counties, they continued to use the title "district attorney" for the most senior prosecutor in a county rather than switch to "county attorney".

Role
The principal duties of the district attorney are usually mandated by law and include representing the State in all criminal trials for crimes which occurred in the district attorney's geographical jurisdiction. The geographical jurisdiction of a district attorney may be delineated by the boundaries of a county, judicial circuit, or judicial district.

Their duties generally include charging crimes through informations or grand jury indictments. After levying criminal charges, the state's attorney will then prosecute those charged with a crime. This includes conducting discovery, plea bargaining, and trial.

In some jurisdictions, the district attorney may act as chief counsel for city police, county police, state police and all state law enforcement agencies within the state's attorney's jurisdiction.

In some jurisdictions, the district attorney oversees the operations of local prosecutors with respect to violations of county ordinances. In other jurisdictions, the district attorney prosecutes traffic matters or misdemeanors. In some states the district attorney prosecutes violations of state laws to the extent that the state permits local prosecution of these. District attorneys do not prosecute federal crimes, which are the jurisdiction of a United States Attorney.

Many district attorneys also bear responsibilities not related to criminal prosecution. These include defending the county against civil suits, occasionally initiating such suits on behalf of the county, preparing or reviewing contracts entered into by the county and providing legal advice and counsel to local government. In some jurisdictions, the county attorney does not handle any criminal matters at all, but serves only as the legal counsel to the county.

For example, in Arizona, Missouri, Montana, and Minnesota a county attorney represents the county and state within their county, prosecutes all felonies occurring within the county, and prosecutes misdemeanors occurring within unincorporated areas of the county. Minnesota county attorneys also prosecute all juvenile cases, regardless of severity. In Ohio a county prosecutor represents the county and state within their county, prosecutes all crimes within the county, and is legal adviser to the board of county commissioners, board of elections, and all other county officers and boards. On the other hand, county attorneys in Kentucky and Virginia prosecute only certain misdemeanors and sometimes traffic matters and serve as legal counsel for their county, with felony prosecutions and prosecutions of offenses not handled by the county attorney being the responsibility of the commonwealth's attorney for the given county.

Departments
The district attorney usually divides their services into several departments that handle different areas of criminal law. Each department is staffed by several duly appointed and sworn ASAs. The departments of a large district attorney's office may include but are not limited to: felony, misdemeanor, domestic violence, traffic, juvenile, charging (or case filing), drug prosecution, forfeitures, civil affairs such as eminent domain, child advocacy, child support, victim assistance, appeals, career criminal prosecution, homicide, investigations, organized crime/gang, and administration.

Nomenclature
The name of the role of local prosecutor may vary by state or jurisdiction based on whether they serve a county or a multi-county district, the responsibility to represent the state or county in addition to prosecution, or local historical customs.

District attorney and assistant district attorney are the most common titles for state prosecutors, and are used by jurisdictions within the United States including California, Georgia, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, and Wisconsin.

State's attorney or state attorney is used in Connecticut, Florida (state attorney), Illinois, Maryland, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Vermont. In Maryland, the roles of Assistant and Deputy are reversed from those used in "District Attorney" jurisdictions, with Deputy State's Attorney being the primary subordinate to the elected State's Attorney and Assistant State's Attorneys (ASA) being the line-level prosecutors of the office.

In Virginia, the title is commonwealth's attorney. Kentucky splits the role between two officials—by statute, the commonwealth's attorney serves in the Circuit Court (the court of general jurisdiction), and the county attorney serves in the limited-jurisdiction District Court, although the two officials may enter into a written agreement to split their duties as they see fit. Commonwealth's attorneys are elected in their respective jurisdictions in both Virginia and Kentucky for terms of four years and six years, respectively. Kentucky's county attorneys are elected in their jurisdictions to four-year terms.

Solicitor, or more fully a circuit solicitor, is the term South Carolina uses to refers to its prosecutors. One solicitor is elected for each of the state's 16 judicial circuits, consisting of two to five counties. Appointed assistants to a circuit solicitor are assistant solicitors.

In St. Louis, Missouri, the title is circuit attorney, while in St. Louis County, Missouri, the title is prosecuting attorney.

Assistant district attorney
The assistant district attorney (assistant DA, ADA), or state prosecutor or assistant state's attorney, is a law enforcement official who represents the state government on behalf of the district attorney in investigating and prosecuting individuals alleged to have committed a crime. In carrying out their duties to enforce state and local laws, ADA have the authority to investigate persons, issue subpoenas, file formal criminal charges, plea bargain with defendants, and grant immunity to witnesses and accused criminals.

Administrative assistant district attorney (admin ADA), executive assistant district attorney (exec ADA), chief assistant district attorney (chief ADA), or first assistant district attorney (First ADA) are some of the titles given to the senior ADA leadership working under the DA. The chief ADA, Executive ADA, or first ADA, depending on the office, is generally considered the second-in-command, and usually reports directly to the DA. The exact roles and job assignments for each title vary with each individual office, but generally include management of the daily activities and supervision of specialized divisions within the office. Often, a senior ADA may oversee or prosecute some of the larger crimes within the jurisdiction. In some offices, the Exec ADA has the responsibility of hiring lawyers and support staff, as well as supervising press-releases and overseeing the work of the office.

The salary of an ADA will be lower than the elected DA. The non-monetary benefits of the job induce many to work as an ADA; these include the opportunity to amass trial experience, perform a public service, and network professionally. Upon leaving employment as an ADA, persons seek employment as a judge, in private law firms, or as U.S. Attorneys.

Appeals
Depending on state law, appeals are moved to appellate courts (also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts in some states). During the appeals process district attorneys, in many cases, hands all relative prosecutorial materials to a state appellate prosecutor who in turn will represent the state in appellate courts with the advice and consent of the district attorney. In other cases, such as in New York, the District Attorney's Office will have in-house appellate prosecutors who handle appeals.

District attorney investigators
Some district attorneys maintain their own law enforcement arm whose members are sworn peace officers. Depending on the jurisdiction, they are referred to as district attorney investigators or county detectives.

Other countries
In England and Wales, the vast majority of criminal prosecutions are prosecuted by the Crown Prosecution Service. The CPS is headed by the Director of Public Prosecutions, who is appointed by the Attorney General for England and Wales. Within the CPS, 14 Chief Crown Prosecutors, answering to the DPP, head regional teams of Crown Prosecutors. With the exception of the AG and Solicitor General for England and Wales, no prosecutors are political officials in England and Wales and no prosecutor in England and Wales is a law enforcement official by virtue of their job.

In Canada, the equivalent position to a district attorney is a crown attorney, crown counsel or crown prosecutor depending on the province, and the equivalent to an assistant district attorney is the assistant crown attorney, assistant crown counsel or assistant crown prosecutor respectively.

In India, the equivalent position to a District Attorney is typically called a "Public Prosecutor." Public Prosecutors represent the state in criminal cases and are responsible for prosecuting individuals accused of committing crimes. They work under the supervision of the Director of Prosecutions or the Advocate General at the state level, depending on the specific legal framework of the state.

title: District attorney


text:
Talk:Callback (computer programming)

[Untitled]
This topic needs more general discussion of callbacks and their use, with simpler examples that explain the concept of a callback. I am rewriting most of this article to include much more information. -- ''Who said this and when? Mattsenate (talk) 01:07, 13 December 2012 (UTC)''

This article suggests that you can pass the name of a function to be used as a callback to another function for the languages JavaScript, Lua, Python, Perl and PHP. This is not true for at least Python and JavaScript; you must use the function objects themselves. There is a way to use the name of the function to denote the function itself in Python, but that is out of scope for this article. I will do some research for the other three languages before changing this. In the meantime, someone more knowledgeable, please change this!

A nice Python or Ruby callback example would be super, too. If no one gets to that before me, I will add that. Deathweasel (talk) 22:01, 1 April 2013 (UTC)

Suggestion
I think we should give simple example about this topic.coz this article is so COMPLICATED..THANKZ —Preceding unsigned comment added by 202.60.56.249 (talk) 00:24, 17 February 2009 (UTC) The definition at the top of the page is ambigious for me. Please could someone write something clearer. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.69.3.69 (talk) 12:03, 29 July 2022 (UTC)

I agree that this article needs some rewriting and simpler examples, and I make some suggestions. The long code on the page doesn't help, especially if C is not a language you are familiar with.

As part of a program A, suppose that a procedure or function B is called from A. Normally B would execute completely (perhaps including calls to other procedures/functions C, D ...) before returning control (and results) to A. With callback, A calls B, but passes to B information that allows B to call A2, a procedure or function which is part of the program A (i.e. is included in the code of A). The function of A2 may be to accept some partial results from B which can be passed back to A before execution of B is complete, or to carry out some action in A's environment that B is permitted to control. The implementation of callback is possible by passing procedures/functions as parameters but it is not the only mechanism.

Suggested example: data compression. Main program A wants to compress some data and output the compressed data in some way, such as to a file. Within A, a procedure A2 exists to accept some data and output it to a file. A calls B to pass data for compression and B compresses it, passing compressed data back by callback to A2, as and when it is convenient for B. Notice that this simplifies B, because it does not have to store all the compressed data and pass it back to A, and it also reduces the memory requirement within B, because compressed data that it no longer needs can be passed by callback to A2. However, the final return from B to A does not occur until B itself has determined that its task is finished. When this final return occurs, A knows that all the compressed data has already been output, and only requires to finalise the file output, perhaps by closing the file.

Implementation addition: in Ada, callback can be implemented by the use of generic procedure or function parameters as well as by 'pointers' (called access values in Ada) to procedures or functions passed as parameters.

Sangwine 20:39, 6 September 2006 (UTC)

Example: return
Well, why these functions return int, when counter assumes they return void?

Example: count
Why 9 is before 10, in hex?
 * Fixed: temporay loss of sanity. Dysprosia 12:50, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Need to keep example code very simple
Ldo, I'm afraid that your changes (on 17 Sep 2004) have really gone farther than needed. This page is now overly complicated and reads more of a disertation on sorting algorithms rather than a simple encyclopedic article on the callback function. I think keeping any example to the minimal possible to show the concept of callback is best, and leave the lengthy programming textbook and best practices explanation elsewhere. Also some of your text is too gramatically casual, especially the paragraphs full of questions. - Dmeranda 06:54, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

The "language extension and adaptation" closure method
The article currently gives the following as one way to do callbacks:

 * Some systems have built-in programming languages to support extension and adaptation. These languages provide callbacks without the need for separate software development tools.

Can someone turn this into a more concrete claim? What are people thinking of here? LISP macros, perhaps? --Ryguasu 29 June 2005 19:00 (UTC)

This article is difficult to understand
I'm a software engineer (a real one (yeah, I know this is a very inflammatory way to start ;))) and I have difficulties understanding this article. For example, in the Motivation section it is mentioned that the code of the iterator must be duplicated everywhere the list must be iterated over.  Why?  Are we talking about the machine code (even then, I wouldn't understand why it would need to be inlined) or about the high-level language code?  E.g. in Java, when I have to iterate over a Collection, I don't see myself duplicating any code. --132.210.56.50 15:21, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Me again. After reading the code examples that come right after, I got it.. we were talking about the high-level language repetition of the "get the iterator/loop until itr.next returns null" stuff.  Maybe it should be made explicit in the text?  I'm too slow? ;)  --132.210.56.50 15:30, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

Now that I've gotten some distance from it, yeah, it is pretty difficult to understand. It assumes familiarity with many concepts and terms, and the example is somewhat motivated. I've made a note to revise it. Gazpacho 19:48, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

I think what he means is that the entire code block within the loop must be run again each time the index is increased.

Callbacks > Polymorphism??
I don't agree with this passage:
 * A callback can be used as a simpler alternative to polymorphism and generic programming, in that the exact behavior of a function can be dynamically determined by passing different (yet compatible) function pointers or handles to the lower-level function.

That's at least misleading. It sounds like it's advocating using function pointers rather than polymorphism because "the exact behavior of a function can be dynamically determined by passing different ... function pointers". Polymorphism and generic programming can do the same thing (at least as well, IMHO). You might be able to argue that function pointers are simpler, buy anyone who has tried to use them in C++ knows that (1) the syntax is horrific and (2) using member function pointers for callbacks is a nightmare. By the way, it may be worth mentioning boost::function somewhere in the article, which is a superb library that uses generic programming to make function pointer-like objects which can be used very effectively for callbacks.
 * I believe the point was that function pointers are more general, which they are. Rp (talk) 20:09, 1 March 2010 (UTC)

User exit?
A friend just did a wikipedia search on "user exit" and was brought to this page. They then checked with me as it seemed wrong. I don't agree that a Callback is the same thing as a user exit. At a generic high level a user exit is simply a break in current execution where some 3rd party code or another application is run. I believe the term comes from the need/ability for a user to exit from an application run a command in the shell for example and then return. More commonly now user exits are automatic in that they happen without human intervention where someone wants to execute a script or some code in the middle of something else. A callback is something else entirely (as described correctly in the article)... thoughts? --Bleveret 11:29, 13 March 2007 (UTC)

 * I added the term user exit to this article primarily because there was no suitable article for the term. A Wiki search yielded little more than a reference in Exit (command).
 * I first heard the term being used by IBM mainframe programmers in the 70s, whereby a user program provided its own versions of predefined subroutines that took the place of the default routines (usually stubs that did nothing but a return) provided by the package/library vendor. Typical usage was in a sort/merge package, which provided user exits for record comparison routines and the like. So by this usage, "user exit" does not quite agree with your definition above.
 * I think user exits differ from callbacks in that they are established by the user program not by being passed to a registration function, but by being linked directly into the executable image. Consequently, they must have the names of the routines they are replacing, instead of having any name the user desires. On the other hand, I think they resemble callbacks enough to be relevant to this article.
 * Perhaps "user exit" should be a separate section in this article to explain how it compares to a "callback". Or perhaps it should have its own article? In any case, the term "user exit" should point to something informative in Wiki. — Loadmaster 15:01, 13 March 2007 (UTC)

 * I think we are in agreement that although similar in some cases the two terms are not synonymous. I have no problem with the redirect but i think the phrase 'a callback (also known as a user exit)' is incorrect. Would you be happy if this phrase was removed and reference was made to the term "user exit" elsewhere in the article? --Bleveret 15:45, 13 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Yeah, that would be fine. Like I said, we could simply add a subsection to the existing article. This would allow us to describe the distinction between the two, and perhaps later the subsection could be expanded into its own article. — Loadmaster 20:20, 13 March 2007 (UTC)

I created a short (stub) article for user exit. I also changed the into para of this article, removing the "also called a user exit" phrase, and adding a link to the new article in the "See also" section. — Loadmaster 18:54, 14 March 2007 (UTC)

Augh!
The second paragraph of this current article is absolutely horrible. 99.999999% of the world doesn't exist in the original author's stream of consciousness. Can someone please translate it from spaz into English? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.147.10.25 (talk) 15:43, 31 March 2009 (UTC)

 * I agree. I was able to benefit from the example, but it isn't quite encyclopedic. It's kind of unprofessional. I would have loved it if it were in a blog post, but this needs to be as comprehensible as possible, which means simple and dry. If I think of a good way to rephrase the example, perhaps I'll make an edit. 68.82.50.201 (talk) 17:39, 5 April 2009 (UTC)

 * i guess i disagree. i checked out this article after reading some gtk+ documentation and i think it makes sense from my perspective.  i loved the quirkiness and am glad to see that people can still have a sense of humour when they write something that is helpful.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.230.180.254 (talk) 03:26, 7 April 2009 (UTC)

 * I rewrote the article to actually talk about callbacks and not handling 2012; also, we cannot have a sense of humor - such things inevitably obscure the content. BioTube (talk) 23:34, 3 June 2009 (UTC)

 * Too many platform specific references, ie Linux, Unix. Needs to be abstracted away from punks/hackers prosaic tendencies and their favorite languages and towards compsci academics.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.15.154.180 (talk) 04:37, 28 July 2010 (UTC)
 * LOL Stevebroshar (talk) 13:58, 11 April 2024 (UTC)

sam —Preceding unsigned comment added by 196.217.165.28 (talk) 18:50, 9 July 2009 (UTC) The C signal example is this a good example of where a callback is needed? I've seen in books where a simple function call to a signal handler is used. Also this compiles with a warning:sigtest.c:11: warning: passing argument 2 of ‘signal’ from incompatible pointer type. I don't know C that well but I'm actually trying to get sorted in my head what really differentiates a callback function from a regular call to a function; I'm not sure the signal example does that.98.96.221.102 (talk) 00:28, 15 August 2009 (UTC)

Example code now TOO simple
Example code now doesn't show a function with a callback in it - it presumes the readeer already has some other window open somewhere showing them the prototype for signal, which is, I feel, not a safe assumption.

I feel that a comprehensive example needs at least three functions: main, the function that takes the callback as a parameter, and the callback function itself.

It should not assume anything system dependant, nor more than the most basic of knowledge of the language, and even that should be guessable from knowledge of other languages (printf, rand).

So, I've put up a suggestion, but I'm sure it can be improved on. 24.28.66.63 (talk) 18:49, 17 December 2010 (UTC)

Example doesn't compile.
So you know. -- f s  07:16, 19 December 2010 (UTC)

 * Compiles just fine now (for me, at least). I take it this talk thread could be deleted now.  --rs2 (talk) 21:47, 13 July 2011 (UTC)

Please disambiguate "predicates"
Having come to this site to (re)learn about callbacks, I followed the "predicates" link from the following quote and none of the provided definitions really make sense to me here. I guess Branch predication seems like a fairly close fit, but I'm not feeling it. Can someone who understands what was intended provide the disambiguated link? --rs2 (talk) 21:33, 13 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Callbacks may also be used to control whether a function acts or not: Xlib allows custom predicates to be specified to determine whether a program wishes to handle an event.

Remove rand calls in Example Code?
Especially for (very) beginner programmers, I feel that the use of rand calls in the example functions isn't particularly necessary to illustrate how callbacks work, and might serve to unnecessarily confuse, say, a primary-school CS student comparing their program output to the example output listed. I think rand calls should be deleted from the functions defined in the example, though it could be left in the first line of main to illustrate that callbacks can be used with already-present functions as well. In the defined functions, simple integer returns should do. Zbbentley (talk) 21:53, 2 August 2011 (UTC)

 * I think anyone interested in callbacks will know what rand does. --Byteality (talk) 16:33, 6 January 2012 (UTC)
 * I completely agree with Zbbentley. The less parasitic problems there is to read a given article, the better. Ptyxs (talk) 17:10, 3 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Yeah. The C example is way too complicated. I'm going to simplify it. ... The original comment is from 2011 and no one has simplified it in the past 13 years! Stevebroshar (talk) 13:56, 11 April 2024 (UTC)

function pointers page
Needs a link to function pointers — Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.41.222.1 (talk) 09:26, 30 May 2012 (UTC)

 * Sounds good. Add it. Stevebroshar (talk) 13:53, 11 April 2024 (UTC)

C++11
A brief discussion of the new std::function<> class, enabled by the recent C++11 addenda to C++ should be in order, don't you think so ? See for instance : Ptyxs (talk) 17:07, 3 August 2012 (UTC)

 * To note: std::function objects make it possible to call : 1) a non member function 2) a static member function 3) a functional object 4) a lambda function 5) a non static member function (via std::bind). That is they can refer to any callable entity with compatible signature and are particularly useful to callback.Ptyxs (talk) 08:07, 4 August 2012 (UTC)
 * I don't think the page should (or feasibly could) cover every syntax that supports callback. But, if you must, add an example for C++. Stevebroshar (talk) 13:53, 11 April 2024 (UTC)

Should mention / link to the futures and promises article
This article goes into deferred callbacks, but it should go further and mention the article on that very concept, futures and promises. — Hippietrail (talk) 16:32, 8 August 2012 (UTC)

 * Well, it's not going to add itself :) IOW A good way to get something done is to do it yourself. Stevebroshar (talk) 13:50, 11 April 2024 (UTC)

Added JavaScript Example, Re-ordered
Hey all, not an expert, but learning a lot and wanted to improve this article as I did so. I provided a basic JavaScript example that dovetails into the more complicated (but awesome!) C examples below it. I also re-ordered so that the explanation of differences between synchronous and asynchronous callbacks is made explicit early on. Next comes the implementation list, and finally some concrete examples under "Use". Happy to see improvements on this, leave a note if there are other low-barrier-to-entry examples we should tack on? -- Mattsenate (talk) 01:07, 13 December 2012 (UTC)

 * I just modified/simplified the JS example. It was good, but still more complicated than I think it could/should be. ... FWIW, I find the C example (which may or may not be what it was in 2012) to be poor (far from awesome). I'm planning to work on it, but don't know where to start. Stevebroshar (talk) 13:49, 11 April 2024 (UTC)

Do not over-complicate examples
Please avoid using irrelevant concepts in the examples. For example, the python example on this page was,

Why should we assume that the reader knows
 * for loops
 * the method range
 * string formatting (especially in a style quite unique to python)

I have since changed the above to:

Caveat: The example is complex because it demonstrates how callbacks can be implemented to achieve some complex behaviour; however, the program written to demonstrate this still should not include unnecessary concepts and be as simplistic as possible.

The Lua example seems to suffer from this. It seems like it was copy-pasted from some project's source code. Besides concerns about the license of the project, I believe that the program should be stripped down to something as simple as possible, while still demonstrating the behaviour it aims to demonstrate. Can someone proficient in Lua take a look? NingOTI (talk) 15:29, 9 January 2018 (UTC)

 * Amen (to the desire for simplicity). Thanks for KISSing it. Stevebroshar (talk) 13:44, 11 April 2024 (UTC)

Why not mention delegates in C# ?
Dear all,

I don't understand why in the C# section for Callback (computer programming) there is not a mention to delegates, that are a usual way of creating callbacks in C#.

All the best, --Hgfernan (talk) 11:59, 2 December 2019 (UTC)
 * I agree, it is part of the expected and well-typed way of defining callbacks in C#. Rp (talk) 13:39, 2 December 2019 (UTC)
 * You are not directly asking a question or proposing something. I suggest a more direct approach; otherwise your comment will not result in action. IMO, the best way to get action on WP (any wiki) is to roll up your sleaves and edit. Stevebroshar (talk) 13:43, 11 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Callback (computer programming)


text:
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals

The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS) is part of the Antarctic Treaty System. It was signed at the conclusion of a multilateral conference in London on February 11, 1972.

Contents
CCAS had the objective "to promote and achieve the protection, scientific study, and rational use of Antarctic seals, and to maintain a satisfactory balance within the ecological system of Antarctica.

CCAS forbids the killing or capture of Antarctic seals except in specific circumstances. The contracting parties of CCAS may decide the standards for killing and capture as dynamics of the seal populations change, and these decisions should be "based upon the best scientific and technical evidence available".

CCAS also mandates communication between the different countries that signed it regarding all research, hunting, and capture of seals. The scientific aspect of this communication is done through the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research.

Scope
The geographic range of the agreement covers all seas south of 60°S latitude. It protects the following seal species:

 * Mirounga leonina Southern elephant seal
 * Hydrurga leptonyx Leopard seal
 * Leptonychotes weddelli Weddell seal
 * Lobodon carcinophagus Crabeater seal
 * Ommatophoca rossi Ross seal
 * Arctocephalus sp. Southern fur seals

At the time of creation, all fur seals in the Antarctic area where in the genus Arctocephalus, however since then many species formerly in that genus have been reclassified under Arctophoca with only A. pusillus remaining.

History
Shortly after the discovery of Antarctica, people began hunting seals at an unsustainable rate. Many species were close to extinction before the signing of CCAS.

It was opened for ratification on June 1, 1972, and entered into force on March 11, 1978.

The 17 parties to CCAS are Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Norway, Poland, Russia, South Africa, United Kingdom, and the United States. New Zealand has signed, but not ratified the convention.

The countries meet at least every five years after 1972 to review CCAS, as is mandated in Article 7.