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Ripening

Ripening is a process in fruits that causes them to become more palatable. In general, fruit becomes sweeter, less green, and softer as it ripens. Even though the acidity of fruit increases as it ripens, the higher acidity level does not make the fruit seem tarter. This effect is attributed to the Brix-Acid Ratio. Climacteric fruits ripen after harvesting and so some fruits for market are picked green (e.g. bananas and tomatoes).

Underripe fruits are also fibrous, not as juicy, and have tougher outer flesh than ripe fruits (see Mouth feel). Eating unripe fruit can lead to stomachache or stomach cramps, and ripeness affects the palatability of fruit.

Science
Developing fruits produce compounds like alkaloids and tannins. These compounds are antifeedants, meaning that they discourage animals who would eat them while they are still ripening. This mechanism is used to make sure that fruit is not eaten before the seeds are fully developed.

At the molecular level, a variety of different plant hormones and proteins are used to create a negative feedback cycle which keeps the production of ethylene in balance as the fruit develops.

Agents
Ripening agents accelerate ripening. An important ripening agent is ethylene, a gaseous hormone produced by many plants. Many synthetic analogues of ethylene are available. They allow many fruits to be picked prior to full ripening, which is useful since ripened fruits do not ship well. For example, bananas are picked when green and artificially ripened after shipment by being exposed to ethylene.

Calcium carbide is also used in some countries for artificially ripening fruit. When calcium carbide comes in contact with moisture, it produces acetylene gas, which is similar in its effects to the natural ripening agent, ethylene. Acetylene accelerates the ripening process. Catalytic generators are used to produce ethylene gas simply and safely. Ethylene sensors can be used to precisely control the amount of gas. Covered fruit ripening bowls or bags are commercially available. These containers increase the amount of ethylene and carbon dioxide gases around the fruit, which promotes ripening.

Climacteric fruits continue ripening after being picked, a process accelerated by ethylene gas. Non-climacteric fruits can ripen only on the plant and thus have a short shelf life if harvested when they are ripe.

Indicators
Iodine (I) can be used to determine whether fruits are ripening or rotting by showing whether the starch in the fruit has turned into sugar. For example, a drop of iodine on a slightly rotten part (not the skin) of an apple will stay yellow or orange, since starch is no longer present. If the iodine is applied and takes 2–3 seconds to turn dark blue or black, then the process of ripening has begun but is not yet complete. If the iodine becomes black immediately, then most of the starch is still present at high concentrations in the sample, and hence the fruit has not fully started to ripen.

Stages
Climacteric fruits undergo a number of changes during fruit ripening. The major changes include fruit softening, sweetening, decreased bitterness, and colour change. These changes begin in an inner part of the fruit, the locule, which is the gel-like tissue surrounding the seeds. Ripening-related changes initiate in this region once seeds are viable enough for the process to continue, at which point ripening-related changes occur in the next successive tissue of the fruit called the pericarp. As this ripening process occurs, working its way from the inside towards outer most tissue of the fruit, the observable changes of softening tissue, and changes in color and carotenoid content occur. Specifically, this process activates ethylene production and the expression of ethylene-response genes affiliated with the phenotypic changes seen during ripening. Colour change is the result of pigments, which were always present in the fruit, becoming visible when chlorophyll is degraded. However, additional pigments are also produced by the fruit as it ripens.

In fruit, the cell walls are mainly composed of polysaccharides including pectin. During ripening, a lot of the pectin is converted from a water-insoluble form to a soluble one by certain degrading enzymes. These enzymes include polygalacturonase. This means that the fruit will become less firm as the structure of the fruit is degraded.Enzymatic breakdown and hydrolysis of storage polysaccharides occurs during ripening. The main storage polysaccharides include starch. These are broken down into shorter, water-soluble molecules such as fructose, glucose and sucrose. During fruit ripening, gluconeogenesis also increases.

Acids are broken down in ripening fruits and this contributes to the sweeter rather than sharp tastes associated with unripe fruits. In some fruits such as guava, there is a steady decrease in vitamin C as the fruit ripens. This is mainly as a result of the general decrease in acid content that occurs when a fruit ripens.

Tomatoes
Different fruits have different ripening stages. In tomatoes the ripening stages are:
 * Green: When the surface of the tomato is completely green
 * Breaker: When less than 11% of the surface is red
 * Turning: When less than 31% of the surface is red (but not less than 11%)
 * Pink: When less than 61% of the surface is red (but not less than 31%)
 * Light Red: When less than 91% of the surface is red (but not less than 61%)
 * Red: When the surface is nearly completely red.

Lists of climacteric and non-climacteric fruits
This is an incomplete list of fruits that ripen after picking (climacteric) and those that do not (non-climacteric).

Climacteric
• Apple

• Apricot

• Avocado, mature on the tree, but only ripen after being picked

• Banana

• Cantaloupe

• Guava

• Honeydew melon

• Kiwifruit

• Mango

• Nectarine

• Papaya

• Passionfruit

• Peach

• Pear

• Persimmon

• Plum

• Tomato

• Date

• Mulberry

Non-climacteric
• Berries:

• * Blackberry

• * Blackcurrant

• * Blueberry

• * Gooseberry

• * Raspberry

• * Strawberry

• Cherry

• Fig

• Grape

• Olive

• Rambutan

• Asimina triloba (pawpaw)

• Summer squash

• Watermelon

• Coconut

• Citrus

• Pineapple

• Pomegranate

Regulation
There are two patterns of fruit ripening: climacteric that is induced by ethylene and non-climacteric that occurs independently of ethylene. This distinction can be useful in determining the ripening processes of various fruits, since climacteric fruits continue ripening after they are removed due to the presence of ethylene, while nonclimacteric fruits only ripen while still attached to the plant. In non-climacteric fruits, auxins act to inhibit ripening. They do this by repressing genes involved in cell modification and anthocyanin synthesis. Ripening can be induced by abscisic acid, specifically the process of sucrose accumulation as well as color acquisition and firmness. While ethylene plays a major role in the ripening of climacteric plants, it still has effects in non-climacteric species as well. In strawberries, it was shown to stimulate color and softening processes. Studies found that the addition of exogenous ethylene induces secondary ripening processes in strawberries, stimulating respiration. They suggested that this process involves ethylene receptors, a type of gasoreceptor, that may vary between climacteric and non-climacteric fruits.

Methyl jasmonate
Jasmonate is involved in multiple aspects of the ripening process in non-climacteric fruits. This class of hormones includes jasmonic acid and methyl jasmonate. Studies showed that the expression of genes involved in various pathways in ripening was increased with the addition of methyl jasmonate. This study found that methyl jasmonate led to an increase in red coloration and the accumulation of lignin and anthocyanins, which can be used as ripening indicators. The genes they analyzed include those involved in anthocyanin accumulation, cell wall modification, and ethylene synthesis; all of which promote fruit ripening.

Abscisic acid
ABA also plays an important role in the ripening of non-climacteric plants. It has been shown to increase the rate of ethylene production and anthocyanin concentrations. Ripening was enhanced, as seen with the accelerated fruit coloration and softening. This occurs because ABA acts as a regulator of ethylene production, increasing synthesis similarly to climacteric fruits.

title: Ripening


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User talk:Tallison

Howdy. I posted a reply to you over at my own talk page User talk:Finlay McWalter, but here's the "generic" blah that we welcome most "virgin" wikipedians with. It's really flattering, until you realise everyone gets the same thing! Still, welcome nonetheless.

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump, on my talk page (linked to above, but then you know it) or on the talk page of a specific article (frankly that's the best way, as it reaches only those folks who care about that subject).

Tell me, how was the fall this year in Michigan? I was in Ann Arbor this time in 2000 and it was lovely. -- Finlay McWalter 01:05, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Waleed Howrani
This is an automated message from CorenSearchBot. I have performed a web search with the contents of Waleed Howrani, and it appears to be a substantial copy of. For legal reasons, we cannot accept copyrighted text or images borrowed from other web sites or printed material; such additions will be deleted. You may use external websites as a source of information, but not as a source of sentences.

This message was placed automatically, and it is possible that the bot is confused and found similarity where none actually exists. If that is the case, you can remove the tag from the article and it would be appreciated if you could drop a note on the maintainer's talk page. CorenSearchBot 10:43, 26 August 2007 (UTC)

Your submission at Articles for creation: sandbox (January 26)
 Your recent article submission to Articles for Creation has been reviewed! The submission has not been accepted because it included copyrighted information, which is not permitted on Wikipedia. You are welcome to write an article on the subject, but please do not use copyrighted work.

The existing submission may be deleted at any time. Copyrighted work cannot be allowed to remain on Wikipedia.
 * If you need any assistance, you can ask for help at the [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:WikiProject_Articles_for_creation/Help_desk&action=edit&section=new&nosummary=1&preload=Template:Afc_decline/HD_preload&preloadparams%5B%5D=User_talk:Tallison Articles for creation help desk] or on the [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Josve05a&action=edit&section=new&nosummary=1&preload=Template:Afc_decline/HD_preload&preloadparams%5B%5D=User_talk:Tallison reviewer's talk page].
 * You can also get real-time chat help from experienced editors.

(t) Josve05a  (c) 12:35, 26 January 2015 (UTC)

Your submission at Articles for creation: sandbox (January 26)
 Your recent article submission to Articles for Creation has been reviewed! Unfortunately, it has not been accepted at this time. The reason left by CraigyDavi was:

Please check the submission for any additional comments left by the reviewer. You are encouraged to edit the submission to address the issues raised and resubmit when they have been resolved.

 * If you would like to continue working on the submission, go to User:Tallison/sandbox and click on the "Edit" tab at the top of the window.
 * If you need any assistance, you can ask for help at the [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:WikiProject_Articles_for_creation/Help_desk&action=edit&section=new&nosummary=1&preload=Template:Afc_decline/HD_preload&preloadparams%5B%5D=User_talk:Tallison Articles for creation help desk] or on the [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:CraigyDavi&action=edit&section=new&nosummary=1&preload=Template:Afc_decline/HD_preload&preloadparams%5B%5D=User_talk:Tallison reviewer's talk page].
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—CraigyDavi (T∙C∙@) 16:07, 26 January 2015 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Tallison


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Gardon

The Gardon or Gard (Occitan and French: Gardon, Gard,, ) is a river in southern France. It is the namesake of the department of Gard. Several of its tributaries are also called Gardon. It is 127.6 km long, and takes its source in the commune of Saint-Martin-de-Lansuscle, in the Cévennes mountain range. In its upper course it is also referred to as Gardon de Saint-Martin. From its furthest source, that of its tributary "Gardon de Saint-Jean", it is 133 km long. It flows into the Rhône (right-side tributary) at Comps, north of Beaucaire, across from Vallabrègues.

Features
The Roman aqueduct Pont du Gard and the 16th-century Pont Saint-Nicolas are two historic bridges that cross the Gardon. The Gorges du Gardon, which ends at Pont Saint-Nicolas, is a popular recreation area for kayaking, canoeing, rock climbing, and hiking.

The village of Collias, approximately 12 km downriver from the Pont Saint-Nicolas, has several kayak and canoe rental agencies which will bus customers upriver to the Pont Saint-Nicolas (until the river level drops low in late June). Departing from Collias by kayak or canoe will bring you to the Pont du Gard in about an hour and one-half. It is possible to kayak or canoe under the Pont du Gard. Though, at times, the river is not high enough to allow for passage.

Floods
In September 2002 and again in December 2003, the Gardon had record level floods that damaged many of its bridges including the Pont Saint-Nicolas, which has since been fully restored. The river today shows few signs of the floods.

Places along the river

 * Lozère
 * Gard : Anduze, Saint-Jean-du-Gard, Saint-André-de-Valborgne, Remoulins, Montfrin

La Grand-Combe and Alès are situated on the Gardon d'Alès, the major left tributary.

title: Gardon


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Talk:November 10

Removed

 * 1864 - Archduke Maximilian becomes Emperor of Mexico.

Well it did happen in 1864, but I could not confirm the Nov 10 date outside of 'this day in history'-type webpages (very bad source). --mav 01:41, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Removed:
 * 1945 - Enver Hoxha becomes leader of Albania.

Could not be confirmed at this date. --mav 01:41, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Moved to November 13:
 * 1982 - The Wall, the first part of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, is dedicated in Washington, DC.

Nope. It happened on November 13. --mav 01:41, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Removed:
 * 1940 - Walt Disney begins serving as an informer for the Los Angeles office of the FBI; his job is to report back information on Hollywood subversives.

This is a libel apparently first published by Marc Eliot. See  —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jyavner (talk • contribs) 02:20, 9 November 2009 (UTC)

Inconsistent birth year
Born in 1979 in the list, but 1978 in the her biography. Can anyone check? Little Y 04:12, 10 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * 1979 - Eve, rapper

What about Veterans Day?
Veteran's Day should be here.--64.121.1.55 04:03, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

Except that Veteran's Day (Armistice Day, Remembrance Day, etc) falls on the 11th, not the 10th. --CalendarWatcher 04:33, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

Nope, it falls on the closet weekday. Well good job, now everyone thinks its tomorrow.--64.121.1.55 22:17, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

 * If it falls on the nearest weekday (i.e. is a moveable event), it perhaps doesn't belong on a page about a specific month/day-combo at all? Rhialto 02:10, 11 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Whether the US gives a weekday Bank Holiday for people when it falls on a weekend is immaterial:　it's still celebrated on the 11th. --CalendarWatcher 13:14, 11 November 2006 (UTC)

Latvian festivals
Yet another Latvian festival - I removed it. Why do these keep appearing, supported by links to the Latvian mythology page when the latter has been disputed (and not corrected) for years? If it is a neopagan or some other form of modern festival, it should clearly say so. However, it should not be labelled as an "Ancient Latvian festival" without clear evidence. My objection is that, in the past, this has rarely been clear and the assertion "ancient" has been going unchallenged, apparently justified by links to the dubious Latvian mythology page. The Lesser Merlin (talk) 14:12, 10 November 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:November 10


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Princess Zelda

Princess Zelda (ゼルダ姫) is a character in Nintendo's The Legend of Zelda video game series. She was created by Shigeru Miyamoto for the original 1986 game The Legend of Zelda. As one of the central characters in the series, she has appeared in the majority of the games in various incarnations. Zelda is the elf-like Hylian princess of the kingdom of Hyrule, an associate of the series protagonist Link, and bearer of the Triforce of Wisdom.

Zelda's role has often been that of a damsel in distress or donor who assists Link. In many games, she is captured by the antagonist Ganon, necessitating Link to come to her rescue. In several games she is one of the Sages whose heroism is essential to defeating Ganon; in others, like Ocarina of Time and The Wind Waker, she adopts alternative personas to take a more active role in the story. In Skyward Sword, she is established as the mortal reincarnation of the goddess Hylia, which gives her incarnations a range of magical powers. In the upcoming title, Echoes of Wisdom, she is featured as the playable protagonist.

Zelda has been described as one of the most recognisable princesses in video gaming. She has appeared in branded merchandise, comics and manga, and an animated television series. In addition to The Legend of Zelda series, she has appeared as a playable character in a number of spin-off games and other game series, including Hyrule Warriors, Cadence of Hyrule and Hyrule Warriors: Age of Calamity. She also appears as a playable character in the Super Smash Bros. series. Critics have responded positively to her development into a strong female character and have listed her as one of the greatest female video game characters of all time.

Characterisation
According to Shigeru Miyamoto, co-creator of The Legend of Zelda series, Princess Zelda's name was inspired by Zelda Fitzgerald, an American novelist, dancer, and socialite, as well as the wife of fellow novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald. Miyamoto had decided to name the first game "The Legend of X", but did not know what the X would stand for. He said that a public relations planner had suggested the name when proposing an illustrated story for the game involving the rescue of a princess who was defined as an eternal beauty. Miyamoto explained: "I couldn't really get behind the book idea but I really liked the name Zelda. I asked him if I could use it, and he said that would be fine. And that's where the title The Legend of Zelda was born."

Zelda was established as a princess in the first game, with few details given about the Royal Family of Hyrule until later games. She is a princess in most games except in Skyward Sword, which takes place before the founding of Hyrule Kingdom. Like Link, there are multiple incarnations of Princess Zelda in the series who are all connected by The Legend of Zelda timeline, which spans thousands of years of fictional history. Each version of Princess Zelda is a descendant of the first who founded the royal line and Hyrule. The instruction booklet for Zelda II: The Adventure of Link establishes that Zelda's name reoccurs because the prince of the kingdom orders that "every female child born into the royal household shall be given the name Zelda".

In Ocarina of Time, Zelda's role was expanded by giving her an alter ego as a surviving member of the Sheikah clan named Sheik (シーク). To hide from Ganondorf and protect the Triforce of Wisdom, she disguises herself as a ninja warrior. During the game, she acts as a guide and helps Link on his quest to defeat Ganondorf until near the end of the game when she reveals herself to be Zelda. Sheik's gender was the subject of debate, with some fans believing that Zelda transforms herself into a male character in Ocarina of Time. Nintendo senior product marketing manager Bill Trinen responded that Sheik is a woman: "simply Zelda in a different outfit". In 2016, Miyamoto revealed in an interview that the development team had considered the possibility of producing a spin-off game with Sheik as the protagonist. A game starring Sheik was reported to be in development at Retro Studios but was eventually cancelled.

Another alter ego of Zelda named Tetra (テトラ) was introduced in The Wind Waker and its Nintendo DS sequel, Phantom Hourglass. Like Sheik, she plays a major role in the storyline as a young pirate captain who helps Link to find his sister, Aryll. In this incarnation, Zelda is unaware of her royal bloodline until the end of the game. Her true identity is revealed when the Triforce of Wisdom is restored, which results in her physical transformation to her Princess Zelda form. The Phantom Hourglass follows on from The Wind Waker with Link and Tetra exploring the sea to find new land. Tetra is captured on a Ghost Ship, and Link must defeat the Demon Monster Bellum with the Phantom Sword to save her. In a 2011 interview with GamesRadar+, series producer Eiji Aonuma commented on the possibility of Tetra reappearing within the Zelda series: "Personally, I really like the character, but the director on the DS games after that, Mr. Iwamoto, said he didn't really like her, so he didn't want to use her".

Zelda was given a more active role in Spirit Tracks by adventuring alongside Link in spirit form, which made a sharp contrast to her damsel in distress role in earlier installments. Aonuma explained that this decision reflected the desires of fans and developers alike. A survey conducted in the United States signified consumers preferred more independent female characters, including Zelda's alter-egos Sheik and Tetra. Director, Daiki Iwamoto, also expressed an interest in making Zelda "a more integral part of the game" during the game's development.

The character's significance within the mythology of the series was expanded further in Skyward Sword, where Zelda is established as the mortal reincarnation of the goddess Hylia, a recurring deity worshipped by the Hylians that appears in statue form. Aonuma said that his team had been looking at how to portray Zelda more as the title character rather than just a princess to be rescued and wanted to give her an active role in the story. He also said that by establishing a connection between Zelda and Link, it helps the player to be better immersed in the adventure.

Aonuma said that for Breath of the Wild, Zelda was designed to be "complex and multifaceted". He said that he wanted players to "explore and see these different sides of Zelda, different emotions that she evokes". During development, the team briefly considered giving Zelda the lead role as female protagonist. Director Hidemaro Fujibayashi said that in Tears of the Kingdom her character development is a key aspect of the narrative: "She's going through growth, experiencing things, and ultimately figuring out what kind of a person she's going to be."

Character design
Official artwork created for the original game depicted the character dressed in a long pink gown wearing a necklace and tiara. Artwork for Zelda II: The Adventure of Link was similar and depicted her with red hair. For the development of A Link to the Past, Zelda was originally designed wearing a sci-fi themed outfit to correspond with an early multi-world game concept, but this was eventually scrapped. For Ocarina of Time her royal dress was designed with a tabard featuring the Sheikah coat of arms and the Hyrule royal family crest.

In the anime-inspired video game The Wind Waker, Tetra's hair was designed as a swirl to mimic the wind and smoke in the game. Her alter ego contrasts with Zelda's traditional appearance in the game as princess wearing long hair and royal dress.

During the development of Twilight Princess illustrator Yusuke Nakano tried to portray the princess as a pensive character, "as if she's wondering about something". He drew illustrations of Zelda with feelings of "hopelessness and anxiousness", but tried to avoid depicting her and Link "too full of gloom and doom".

In Skyward Sword Zelda was presented as a student of the Knight Academy instead of her usual role as princess. The designers wanted her to look like a "typical village girl" and aimed to "establish her as a heroine". They removed the royal ornamentation from her head and designed her wearing sky blue and a red dress. They also created Zelda in her goddess form, in which she was designed, "dressed simply, and in white".

For the release of Breath of the Wild, a variety of concept art was considered for Zelda's character design. Fujibayashi commented that Zelda's character was the most difficult to define because while the planners had approached her by thinking about what kind of person she is, the designers took a different approach and considered how Zelda's design could make players feel. The team was so concerned that they repeatedly made refinements to her design until the end of development. Alongside various dress designs, Zelda's image was updated to include outfits that showed her ready for combat, including the final blue blouse and pants that complemented Link's primary outfit. Fujibayashi said that Zelda's shorter hairstyle in Tears of the Kingdom was designed to make her feel more realistic, due to being actively mobile while restoring the kingdom after Breath of the Wild.

Portrayal
Princess Zelda has been voiced by several voice actors, including Bonnie Jean Wilbur in Link: The Faces of Evil and Zelda: The Wand of Gamelon, Brandy Kopp in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate and Stephanie Martone in Cadence of Hyrule. She is voiced by Canadian-American actress Patricia Summersett in Breath of the Wild, Hyrule Warriors: Age of Calamity, and Tears of the Kingdom. Zelda has also been voiced by several Japanese actors, including Jun Mizusawa (Ocarina of Time, Twilight Princess, Super Smash Bros. Melee), Hikari Tachibana (Four Swords Adventures, The Wind Waker, Hyrule Warriors), Akane Omae (Spirit Tracks), Ayumi Fujimura (A Link Between Worlds and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate), Saori Seto (Hyrule Warriors) and Yū Shimamura (Skyward Sword, Breath of the Wild, Hyrule Warriors: Age of Calamity and Tears of the Kingdom). In Zelda's Adventure, she was portrayed by a receptionist at the Viridis Corporation named Diane Burns.

Characteristics
Zelda is a princess and member of the royal family of Hyrule. In the early games, her role is the damsel in distress for Link to save after she is kidnapped by the series main antagonist, Ganon. She bears the characteristic traits of the Hylians, having elfin features including pointy ears. Throughout the series her age has ranged from a child to a young adult who is typically aged 16 or 17 years.

Within the fictional mythology of the series, the first Zelda is the mortal reincarnation of the goddess Hylia. In Skyward Sword, this incarnation of Zelda establishes Hyrule and the bloodline of the Royal Family of Hyrule. Each subsequent incarnation is a direct descendant and possesses the blood of the goddess. Zelda is also associated with Nayru, one of the three Golden Goddesses who create the world in the creation myth of the series. Like Link and Ganon, she is the bearer of one of three components of the Triforce named the Triforce of Wisdom, which gives her the inherent qualities of intelligence and wisdom. In the first game, the Triforce of Wisdom is split into fragments, necessitating Link to retrieve it in order to defeat Ganon. In later games, it manifests itself within Zelda, giving her the ability to conjure light arrows. Most iterations of Zelda have magical powers, such as teleportation, precognition, and the ability to heal.

Throughout the series, Zelda has wielded various weapons. In Twilight Princess she is depicted holding a sword and also fights with a sword in Hyrule Warriors. She is also skilled in the use of a bow, which she uses to shoot light arrows at enemies, such as Ganondorf. In addition to using the Twilight Bow in Twilight Princess, Zelda's signature weapon is the Bow of Light, a recurring legendary weapon in the series.

Relationships
In the mythology of the series, Zelda's role is directly connected to the other two main characters, Link and Ganon. The trio represent the three virtues of the Triforce, a mysterious artifact and prominent icon that is positioned at the heart of the series, with Link embodying Courage, Ganon representing Power, and Zelda possessing Wisdom. Zelda's relationship with Link is ambiguous, with some games, such as Zelda II: The Adventure of Link, Ocarina of Time and Spirit Tracks hinting at the possibility of a romantic relationship between the two characters. Skyward Sword placed greater emphasis on a romantic relationship in its storyline, illustrated by Nintendo releasing an official "Romance Trailer" for the game. Aonuma explained that originally he planned to cut out any elements of romance from the game but decided to keep it in: "it wasn't that we wanted to create a romance between Link and Zelda as much as we wanted the player to feel like this is a person who's very important to me, who I need to find".

The Legend of Zelda series
Princess Zelda has appeared in most of The Legend of Zelda games, but there have been several games where she does not make an appearance, such as Link's Awakening (1993), Majora's Mask (2000), where she only appears in a flashback, and Tri Force Heroes (2015). Due to being the titular character, it is a common misconception amongst non-players that Zelda is the protagonist of the series, when she is almost always a non-playable character.

Zelda made her debut in the original The Legend of Zelda (1986), where she is kidnapped by Ganon, who seeks to steal the Triforce of Wisdom. Before her capture, she scatters the eight pieces of the Triforce of Wisdom across the land and sends her nursemaid Impa to find Link, who eventually rescues her. She returns in the sequel, Zelda II: The Adventure of Link (1987), where Link discovers that she has been cursed into an eternal slumber and can only be revived by the Triforce of Courage. Link breaks the curse by retrieving the Triforce and use its power to awaken her. Zelda rewards Link with a kiss at the end of the game. In A Link to the Past (1991), Zelda is one of seven maidens descended from sages who sealed away Ganon during the Imprisoning War, a battle fought against Ganon's army. After being kidnapped by the dark wizard Agahnim, she telepathically pleads with Link to rescue her. After, she and the other maidens assist Link in breaking the seal on Ganon's tower so that Link may defeat the villain. Zelda initially appears as a child and later as an adult in Ocarina of Time (1998). Suspicious of Ganondorf's intentions, she sends Link on his quest to open the door to the Sacred Realm to obtain the Master Sword and Triforce. When Ganondorf reveals his wicked intentions, Zelda flees Hyrule Castle and goes into hiding, giving Link the Ocarina of Time. Seven years later, she poses as a mysterious Sheikah named Sheik and guides him on his quest to save Hyrule's Sages from Ganondorf.

In Oracle of Seasons and Oracle of Ages (2001), Zelda only appears after inputting a secret code that is obtained upon completion. After sensing danger in the lands of Holodrum and Labrynna, she sends her handmaiden Impa to protect Din and Nayru, the Oracle of Seasons and Ages, respectively. In the full linked game, Zelda is captured by Twinrova, who plans to sacrifice her in order to resurrect Ganon, but Link intervenes and defeats him in the final boss battle. Four Swords (2002) presents Princess Zelda as one of many descendants protecting the seal on the Four Sword. While taking Link to the Four Sword Sanctuary, which seals the evil sorcerer Vaati, she senses the seal's power is diminishing and is captured by Vaati, who takes her to his Palace of Winds to marry her. She is again rescued by Link and they seal Vaati away. Zelda's incarnation in The Wind Waker (2002) is unaware of her royal identity and lives as the pirate captain Tetra. When Link's younger sister Aryll is kidnapped by the Helmaroc King, she agrees to help him explore the islands with her pirate crew. Ganondorf discovers Tetra's true identity when the Triforce of Wisdom is repaired. In the final boss battle against Ganondorf, she assists Link by using his bow to shoot arrows of light. In Four Swords Adventures (2004), Zelda fears Vaati's return and attempts to reseal him. While doing so, Dark Link captures Zelda and her six maidens. To save them, Link uses the Four Sword but accidentally frees Vaati. After Link rescues Zelda, Ganon is revealed to be behind the plan. Following Vaati's defeat, Zelda helps Link to defeat Ganon by giving him the Magic Bow.

In The Minish Cap (2004), Zelda is petrified by Vaati, who shatters the Picori Blade and breaks the seal, allowing evil to spread across Hyrule. Link is tasked with saving Zelda by restoring the Picori Blade. Twilight Princess (2006) centers around the Twilight King Zant's invasion of Hyrule, where Zelda is forced to surrender. When Link is transformed into a wolf by the Twilight Realm's power, he and his companion Midna work together to free Hyrule by first defeating Zant and then Ganondorf. Zelda appears as one of the game's bosses, having been possessed by Ganondorf's dark magic. In the final boss battle, she accompanies Link on horseback and helps him in combat by stunning Ganondorf with Light Arrows. Phantom Hourglass (2007) continues Zelda's storyline as Tetra. When she is turned to stone and kidnapped by a Ghost Ship, Link jumps overboard and is rescued by a fairy named Ciela. In order to save Tetra, he must sail with Ciela and a sea captain named Linebeck to find the guardians of Power, Wisdom, and Courage. In Spirit Tracks (2009) Zelda meets Link at his graduation ceremony as a railroad engineer. After being attacked by villainous Chancellor Cole, her spirit is separated from her body and she accompanies Link on his quest. Spirit Tracks features Zelda as a playable cooperative character. In her spirit form, she can possess Phantom Knights and perform various tasks to help Link restore the Spirit Tracks.

Though not a princess in Skyward Sword (2011), Zelda is presented as the reincarnation of the goddess Hylia and a close childhood friend to Link. When she is spirited away in a tornado conjured by the demon lord Ghirahim, Link travels to the Surface and reunites with her after opening the Gate of Time. Ghirahim drags Zelda to the past and uses her power to release the antagonist Demise to change past events. After Link defeats Demise in battle, he and Zelda remain on the Surface to establish Hyrule Kingdom. In A Link Between Worlds (2013), Zelda entrusts the Pendant of Courage to Link when the sorcerer Yuga begins capturing the descendants of the Seven Sages. After Yuga turns Zelda into a painting and casts her into the dying world of Lorule, Link follows him into Lorule to rescue Zelda and the sages. Princess Hilda of Lorule conspires with Yuga to steal the Triforce of Wisdom and Triforce of Courage to save her own kingdom, but eventually makes amends by returning Link and Zelda to Hyrule, where they use the Triforce to restore Lorule.

In the backstory of Breath of the Wild (2017), Zelda's story is revealed in a series of Link's memories. When Calamity Ganon attacks Hyrule using ancient Sheikah machinery, Zelda awakens her sacred power while protecting Link, sending him to the Shrine of Resurrection and sealing Calamity Ganon and herself in Hyrule Castle. After a century, she awakens Link and in the final battle, gives him the Bow of Light to defeat Dark Beast Ganon. In the sequel, Tears of the Kingdom (2023), Zelda and Link accidentally awaken Ganondorf beneath Hyrule Castle, where she consequently falls into an abyss and disappears into the distant past. In the time of the Zonai, she meets Hyrule's first king Rauru and his wife Sonia, who help her to use her sacred power to restore the decayed Master Sword. Aware of Ganondorf's threat, she sacrifices herself by swallowing a Secret Stone, transforming into the Light Dragon, which provides her with the immortality to return the Master Sword to Link. After Ganondorf's defeat, she is transformed back into a Hylian by the power of time and light.

In 2024, an upcoming game, Echoes of Wisdom, was revealed and will feature Zelda as the protagonist. Set to be released on 26 September 2024, it will be the first mainline Zelda game developed by Nintendo to feature Zelda as the player character. Zelda will fight using the magical Tri Rod and will use her power of Wisdom to duplicate objects and enemies, called echoes, to fight alongside her.

Spin-off games
Zelda appears in three CD-i games based on The Legend of Zelda series, which were developed out of an agreement between Philips and Nintendo to use Zelda characters on the CD-i console. In Link: The Faces of Evil (1993), she is kidnapped by Ganon and has to be rescued by Link. In Zelda: The Wand of Gamelon (1993) and Zelda's Adventure (1994), Princess Zelda is the protagonist and must save Link. Zelda: The Wand of Gamelon is noteworthy as the first time that Zelda appeared as a playable character. Having been developed with little input from Nintendo, the games have been criticised for their poor story, gameplay and animation and are not recognised by Nintendo as canon.

Zelda is a playable character in Hyrule Warriors (2014) and, according to the game's producer Yosuke Hayashi, was designed to be a stronger character with the feeling of a ruler. Her weapons include a rapier, baton and also the Dominion Rod, which was made available as downloadable content. Sheik is also a playable character and wields daggers and a harp. In addition to her Hyrule Warriors incarnation, Tetra and Toon Zelda (her incarnation from Spirit Tracks) appear in Hyrule Warriors Legends and were added to Hyrule Warriors as downloadable content.

In the rhythm game Cadence of Hyrule, which was released in 2019 for the Nintendo Switch, players can choose to play through the game as either Link or Zelda. The game is a crossover between Crypt of the NecroDancer and The Legend of Zelda series. Zelda has a magical shield to protect her and can use Link's weapons, such as the hookshot and boomerang.

A spiritual successor to Hyrule Warriors, Hyrule Warriors: Age of Calamity, was released in 2020 and designed as a prequel to Breath of the Wild. Princess Zelda is one of several characters from Breath of the Wild that appears as a playable character and fights using the Sheikah Slate and a bow.

Other game series
Zelda was introduced in the Super Smash Bros. series as a playable character in Super Smash Bros. Melee and has appeared in every subsequent game. In Melee and Super Smash Bros. Brawl, Zelda possesses the ability to transform into Sheik. In Super Smash Bros. for 3DS and Wii U and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, they are separate characters. In Melee her design was based on her Ocarina of Time incarnation, while in Brawl it was based on her appearance in Twilight Princess. The Twilight Princess incarnation of Zelda returned in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U. In Ultimate, Sheik's design took inspiration from the Sheikah Set in Breath of the Wild and her final smash is the Sheikah Dance. Zelda's design is based on her appearance in A Link Between Worlds and her final smash is the Triforce of Wisdom.

Television series
A set of The Legend of Zelda cartoons aired from 1989 to 1990 as a part of DiC's The Super Mario Bros. Super Show. It was loosely based on the original game and centres on Link, Zelda, Ganon and a fairy named Spryte, and also features Zelda's father, King Harkinian. Thirteen episodes were produced before the cancellation of The Super Mario Bros. Super Show. Although Zelda is sometimes captured by Ganon, she is depicted as a smart, resourceful character. The series also emphasises a romantic relationship between Link and Zelda, in which Link is always begging Zelda for a kiss. Zelda was voiced by Cyndy Preston in the TV series. Writer Phil Harnage thought that Zelda's characterisation was ahead of its time and a role model for girls. He said that rather than being a Disney Princess, Zelda was an "action hero in her own right". Preston said that she portrayed Zelda as an independent woman: "She didn't need a hero to save her, and that was so cool". Zelda and Link also appear in season 2 of Captain N: The Game Master.

Comics and manga
Shortly after the release of the first game, a companion manga book was published by Wanpaku Comics in September 1986. "The Hyrule Fantasy" manga was released in Japan and follows the same plot as the game with an expanded role for Zelda. In 1986, a Choose Your Own Adventure style of manga was published, The Legend of Zelda: The Mirage Castle. Published entirely in Japanese, the manga features playing as Zelda and some scrapped concepts, including Zelda's father named King Graham II. Zelda also appears in a similar manga book published in 1992, The Legend of Zelda: The Triforce of the Gods, which is based on A Link to the Past. A comic series published in the early 1990s by Valiant Comics was based on the adventures of Zelda and Link. Like The Legend of Zelda animated television series, which was being aired around the same time, it involves Link attempting to get a kiss from Zelda. A serial comic by manga author Shotaro Ishinomori was originally published in 1992 in Nintendo Power magazine and later collected in graphic novel form. It was based on The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past and tells an alternate version of the events. It was reprinted as a single volume in 2015 by Viz Media. Other manga adaptations of The Legend of Zelda games have also been published, including Majora's Mask, Ocarina of Time, The Minish Cap and Phantom Hourglass, which are illustrated by Akira Himekawa.

Gamebooks
Alongside Link, Zelda appears in several Nintendo gamebooks. The Crystal Trap and The Shadow Prince were published in 1992, which were written in the style of Choose Your Own Adventure books. The Crystal Trap focuses on Zelda freeing Link from the trap, while The Shadow Prince involves Link saving Zelda.

Merchandise
Zelda has been reproduced in the form of figurines and plush toys. Various amiibo have been released since 2014 depicting her in several incarnations. Two amiibo of Zelda and Sheik were released for the Super Smash Bros. series in 2014 and 2015. Several amiibo of Zelda have been released for the Zelda series, including the Wind Waker incarnation, the Breath of the Wild incarnation and Zelda and loftwing from Skyward Sword. In November 2023, an amiibo for Tears of the Kingdom depicting Zelda holding the Master Sword was released. A Lego minifigure of Zelda was revealed in May 2024 as part of a Great Deku Tree Lego set.

Reception and legacy
Critics and gamers consider Zelda to be a significant video game character in popular culture. The book Female Action Heroes described Zelda as "perhaps one of the most well-known princesses in video game history", though acknowledged that her role in the games was to serve as a damsel in distress. In 2009, she was voted the third greatest female character in games on Nintendo systems by the Official Nintendo Magazine, which appreciated her as "a strong woman who, with her sword and bow and arrow, is capable of holding her own in a fight". In 2016, Digital Spy ranked her as one of the "most iconic female game characters of all time". In 2018, readers of Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition voted her as one of the top video game characters of all time. Readers of the Japanese publication Famitsu chose her as their favourite Tears of the Kingdom character in 2023. Alex Huebner of iMore said that she is a "badass", illustrated by her various alter egos as a fighter in disguise, a pirate leader and a goddess. Ozzie Mejia, writing for Shacknews, chose Zelda as one of the best characters in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, emphasising her increased speed and dash attack with additional knockback. He also praised her character development within the Zelda series for developing from a passive princess to a strong heroine. Eric Ravenscraft of Wired commented that despite not being the playable character in the mainline series, Zelda is often the driving force behind the story as the embodiment of wisdom and light, and opined that Link is "simply the sword Zelda wields".

Zelda's character development in Ocarina of Time was praised by Richard George and Audrey Drake of IGN, who commented that it was the first time in the series that she was given more depth. They particularly enjoyed seeing her develop from a carefree child to the warrior Sheik as a result of the game's time shifts. Maddy Myers writing for The Mary Sue considered Zelda and Sheik to be two halves of a flawed, complex character, but felt that the game "doesn't seem to respect her much". The Wind Waker was a highlight for Chad Concelmo of Destructoid, who commented on its rare gaming moment of creating a plot reveal in which the pirate Tetra is revealed to be Zelda, which was considered particularly rewarding due to the notoriously repetitive nature of the Zelda series. Tetra was recognised by The Guardian as one of 30 "interesting female game characters", with the comment, "Tetra demands respect and gets it". When reviewing Spirit Tracks, Abbie Stone of GamesRadar praised Zelda's role as a ghost that can possess enemies, as it places her in the position of co-lead throughout the game, and opined that this proves "action and femininity aren't mutually exclusive". Oli Welsh of Eurogamer commented that for most of the game she fulfils a similar role to Navi or Midna by providing hints and comments, but praised the close romance between her and Link that replaces her usual position as a distant ideal. Tom Mc Shea writing for GameSpot focused on the "endearing rapport" between Zelda and Link in the story of Skyward Sword, noting that rather than being a damsel in distress, Zelda is presented as Link's equal and that both characters must make a sacrifice. Jonathan Holmes writing for Destructoid highlighted a particular scene in Skyward Sword in which Zelda communicates her love for Link through her eyes and body language, describing it as "beautiful" and opined that Nintendo had made it an unforgettable moment.

Speaking for Nintendo Life, Alex Olney appreciated the human traits and flaws displayed by Zelda in Breath of the Wild and considered this to be her best incarnation, citing the pressure of her responsibilities, her determination to protect her kingdom and Link, her strength and power, and her ability to match Calamity Ganon and restrain him for 100 years. Gita Jackson writing for Kotaku considered her blue adventuring outfit to be a "cool departure from the norm" of the traditionally pink Hylian princess and illustrated her prominent story arc within the game. Madeline Carpou of The Mary Sue listed her Breath of the Wild incarnation as one of the most inspiring female characters in video games, stating that although she is "a living representation of the people's salvation" and struggles under the pressure of expectation, she refuses to give up on her responsibilities. Laura Dale of Syfy expressed delight at having the ability to play as Zelda throughout the entirety of Cadence of Hyrule, despite not being an official Zelda title. She said that exploring dungeons and fighting enemies as Zelda felt "absolutely awesome" and was made more enjoyable for a female gamer due to having something in common with the hero. Patricia Hernandez writing for Polygon said that Hyrule Warriors: Age of Calamity had transformed Zelda into a "total badass" and a capable fighter, which was particularly welcome after seeing her lamenting her inability to contribute more to the fight against Calamity Ganon in Breath of the Wild.

Steve Watts of GameSpot felt that the story in Tears of the Kingdom belongs to Zelda, not only because she is the focus of the main quest line, but also because the mystery of discovering her location slowly unravels throughout the game and leads to an "incredible, stirring revelation". He also praised the game for inverting the story trope of Link being the prophesied hero and making Zelda the strategist who makes him the hero by helping him in the distant past, thereby being the author of the prophecy. Zelda's story in Tears of the Kingdom was particularly praised by Matthew Byrd of Den of Geek, who described it as an "emotional and engaging arc", highlighting her sacrifice for those she loves and her memorable reveal as the Light Dragon. He praised her altruism for being dependable and aspirational, saying that it "doesn’t feel like some cheap emotional ploy designed to drum up sympathy".

Analysis
In Destructoid, Timothy Monbleau wrote that while Zelda was mostly a plot device and a player goal in the first three Zelda games, Yoshiaki Koizumi's involvement in writing Link's Awakening caused a fundamental shift in the series by producing stronger storylines. He opined that by giving the female character Marin a more intimate relationship with Link, Koizumi effectively impacted Zelda's role in subsequent games by giving her a more active role in the narrative. Brendan Main for The Escapist magazine commented that Zelda's alter-ego Sheik in Ocarina of Time broke the conventions of the character's role because "Sheik is everything Zelda is not". He commented that while Zelda's elegance and femininity had restricted her to being a captive, Sheik's ambiguous gender gave the character freedom, but noted that once Zelda is revealed to be Sheik, she is immediately returned to a captive again. Zelda's evolution from the "princess in peril" was noted by Kyle Hilliard of Game Informer who commented that in most games she is simply a goal for the player to acquire, but in more recent titles she has grown into a more fleshed-out character. Jason Guisao of Game Informer said that although Zelda has the potential to be equal to Link, "Nintendo is attached to tired scenarios where she is captured or immobilized". He opined that she had been sidelined in Breath of the Wild and should instead be leading a new era of fully integrated co-operative play. Jacob Kastrenakes for The Verge opined that switching Link's and Zelda's roles could be possible without requiring Link to be absent, but highlighted that Aonuma confirmed that this idea had been rejected because, "if we have Princess Zelda as the main character who fights, then what is Link going to do?" Sara Gitkos of iMore opined that Zelda deserves her own game due to being "a scholar, a leader, and a fierce princess who takes charge of her own destiny", but noted that this would be difficult because her role is so embedded within the lore of the series that the entire concept would need to be changed. Jay Castello writing for Polygon described the ending of Tears of the Kingdom as a tragedy for perpetuating the status quo of Zelda's repetitive role in the series, commenting that the gendered elements "appear to skate by simply because this has been going on so long that mentioning them feels blasé". Heather Wald of GamesRadar+ highlighted that Tears of the Kingdom had reignited the longstanding debate about the possibility of Zelda becoming a playable character in the series: "It speaks to just how much demand there is to have the opportunity to be Zelda in a mainline adventure".

title: Princess Zelda


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title: User talk:68.64.132.33


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Aerangis

Aerangis, abbreviated as Aergs in horticultural trade, is a genus of the Orchid family (Orchidaceae). The name of this genus has been derived from the Greek words 'aer' (air) and 'angos' (urn), referring to the form of the lip. It is the type genus of the subtribe Aerangidinae, which has recently been subsumed in the subtribe Angraecinae. Approximately 50 species in this genus are known mostly from tropical Africa, but also from the Comoro Islands, Madagascar and Sri Lanka.

Species are usually epiphytic, sometimes lithophytic small orchids, resembling Vandas in appearance. Their large, waxy, star-shaped flowers are generally white, cream-colored or yellow. They show a long, nectar-filled spur, often longer than the flower itself. There is a single stem with many flowers on a long raceme. The lip is flat and resembles the petals and sepals. They give off an agreeable smell during the night. There are six to ten parallel-veined, fleshy, evergreen leaves.

These orchids are not often found in collections, even though they are rather easy to grow. Around 15 species are commonly available. Also Aerangis' descendants from intergeneric hybridization have been registered:

 * ×Aerangaeris (Aerangis × Rangaeris)
 * ×Amesangis (Aerangis × Amesiella)
 * ×Angrangis (Aerangis × Angraecum)
 * ×Diaphanangis (Aerangis × Diaphananthe)
 * ×Euryangis (Aerangis × Eurychone)
 * ×Summerangis (Aerangis × Summerhayesia)
 * ×Thesaera (Aerangis × Aeranthes)

title: Aerangis


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2004 Giro d'Italia

The 2004 Giro d'Italia was the 87th edition of the Giro d'Italia, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It began in Genoa with a 6.9 km prologue. The race came to a close with a 133 km mass-start road stage that stretched from Clusone to Milan. Nineteen teams entered the race that was won by the Italian Damiano Cunego of the team. Second and third were the Ukrainian Serhiy Honchar and Italian Gilberto Simoni.

In the race's other classifications, rider Fabian Wegmann won the mountains classification, Raffaele Illiano of the  team won the intergiro classification, and  rider Alessandro Petacchi won the points classification. In addition to the points classification, Petacchi also won the secondary most combative and Azzurri d'Italia classifications. finished as the winners of the Trofeo Fast Team classification, ranking each of the nineteen teams contesting the race by lowest cumulative time. The other team classification, the Trofeo Super Team classification, where the teams' riders are awarded points for placing within the top twenty in each stage and the points are then totaled for each team was won by.

Teams
A total of 19 teams were invited to participate in the 2004 Giro d'Italia. Each team sent a squad of nine riders, so the Giro began with a peloton of 171 cyclists. Out of the 171 riders that started this edition of the Giro d'Italia, a total of 140 riders made it to the finish in Milan.

The 19 teams that took part in the race were:

Route and stages
The route for the 2004 Giro d'Italia was unveiled by race director Angelo Zomegnan on 8 November 2003 in Milan. It contained two time trial events, all of which were individual. The organizers divided the remaining nineteen stages into three categories: flat stages, rolling stages, and mountain stages. Twelve of the stages were declared flat stages. Of the seven stages remaining, three stages were designated rolling stages and three were ranked as mountain stages. In the stages containing categorized climbs, three had summit finishes: stage 3, to Corno alle Scale; stage 7, to Montevergine di Mercogliano; and stage 18, to Bormio 2000. The organizers chose to include two rest days. When compared to the previous year's race, the race was 52.6 km shorter, contained the same amount of rest days, and the same amount of time trials. In addition, this race opened with a prologue, which the last year's race did not.

Race overview
The 2004 Giro d'Italia began with a 6.9 km prologue around the Italian city of Genoa. Bradley McGee won the first leg of the race after besting the second place rider Olaf Pollack by ten seconds. The race's first mass-start stage came down to a sprint finish in the city of Alba. The stage was won by Italian sprinter Alessandro Petacchi and Pollack managed to take the race lead after earning a twelve-second time bonus by finishing second on the stage. Stage 2 saw the race lead switch back to McGee after he finished second to the stage winner Damiano Cunego.

Success in stages was limited to eight of the competing teams, three of which achieved multiple stage victories, while two individual riders won multiple stages. The riders that won more than once were Alessandro Petacchi in stages 1, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, and 20 and Damiano Cunego in stages 2, 7, 16, and 18. won nine stages with Petacchi. won five stages, four with Cunego and one with Gilberto Simoni in stage 3. won two stages, with Pavel Tonkov in stage 17 and Stefano Garzelli in stage 19.

,, , , and De Nardi each won one stage at the Giro d'Italia. FDJeux.com won the opening prologue with Bradley McGee. Lotto-Domo's Robbie McEwen won stage 4 by out-sprinting the rest of the field for the stage win, as did Acqua & Sapone rider Fred Rodriguez in stage 9. Ceramica Panaria-Margres's Emanuele Sella won the hilly stage 11. De Nardi rider Serhiy Honchar won the stage 13 individual time trial.

Classification leadership
In the 2004 Giro d'Italia, four different jerseys were awarded. For the general classification, calculated by adding each cyclist's finishing times on each stage, and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass-start stages, the leader received a pink jersey. This classification is considered the most important of the Giro d'Italia, and the winner is considered the winner of the Giro.

Additionally, there was a points classification, which awarded a mauve jersey. In the points classification, cyclists got points for finishing in the top 15 in a stage. The stage win awarded 25 points, second place awarded 20 points, third 16, fourth 14, fifth 12, sixth 10, and one point fewer per place down the line, to a single point for 15th. In addition, points could be won in intermediate sprints.

There was also a mountains classification, which awarded a green jersey. In the mountains classifications, points were won by reaching the top of a mountain before other cyclists. Each climb was categorized as either first, second, or third category, with more points available for the higher-categorized climbs. The highest point in the Giro (called the Cima Coppi), which in 2004 was Passo di Gavia, afforded more points than the other first-category climbs.

The fourth jersey represented the intergiro classification, marked by a blue jersey. The calculation for the intergiro is similar to that of the general classification, in each stage there is a midway point that the riders pass through a point and where their time is stopped. As the race goes on, their times compiled and the person with the lowest time is the leader of the intergiro classification and wears the blue jersey.

There were also two classifications for teams. The first was the Trofeo Fast Team. In this classification, the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added; the leading team was the team with the lowest total time. The Trofeo Super Team was a team points classification, with the top 20 placed riders on each stage earning points (20 for first place, 19 for second place and so on, down to a single point for 20th) for their team.

The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run.

Minor classifications
Other less well-known classifications, whose leaders did not receive a special jersey, were awarded during the Giro. Other awards included the Combativity classification, which was a compilation of points gained for position on crossing intermediate sprints, mountain passes and stage finishes. Italian Alessandro Petacchi won the Most Combative classification. The Azzurri d'Italia classification was based on finishing order, but points were awarded only to the top three finishers in each stage. The Azzurri d'Italia classification was also won by Alessandro Petacchi. The Trofeo Fuga Piaggio classification rewarded riders who took part in a breakaway at the head of the field, each rider in an escape of ten or fewer riders getting one point for each kilometre that the group stayed clear. The classification was won by Daniele Righi. Teams were given penalty points for minor technical infringements. was the most successful in avoiding penalties, and so won the Fair Play classification.

title: 2004 Giro d'Italia


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Joint-stock company

A joint-stock company (JSC) is a business entity in which shares of the company's stock can be bought and sold by shareholders. Each shareholder owns company stock in proportion, evidenced by their shares (certificates of ownership). Shareholders are able to transfer their shares to others without any effects to the continued existence of the company.

In modern-day corporate law, the existence of a joint-stock company is often synonymous with incorporation (possession of legal personality separate from shareholders) and limited liability (shareholders are liable for the company's debts only to the value of the money they have invested in the company). Therefore, joint-stock companies are commonly known as corporations or limited companies.

Some jurisdictions still provide the possibility of registering joint-stock companies without limited liability. In the United Kingdom and in other countries that have adopted its model of company law, they are known as unlimited companies.

A joint-stock company is an artificial person; it has legal existence separate from persons composing it. It can use and can be used in its own name. It is created by law, established for commercial purposes, and comprises a large number of members. The shares of each member can be purchased, sold, and transferred without the consent of other members. Its capital is divided into transferable shares, suitable for large undertakings.

Advantages
Ownership refers to a large number of privileges. The company is managed on behalf of the shareholders by a board of directors, elected at an annual general meeting.

The shareholders also vote to accept or reject an annual report and audited set of accounts. Individual shareholders can sometimes stand for directorships within the company if a vacancy occurs, but that is uncommon.

A joint-stock company also differs from other company forms, as it lacks internal ownership (hence its shareholders). This means that although the shareholder(s) in the joint-stock company may also work for the company as employees or by contract, when they act as shareholders they are always exterior to the company, which may help keep ownership business-oriented and impersonal.

Provided sales and assets exist within the company, a joint-stock company is effectively a forum for three- party trading: Owners, i.e. shareholders, are seeking financial funds (profits) and offer economic assets, in the form of capital. Employees, contractors and other contracted parties seek compensation and offer labor for this. Utilisers, ie customers, clients and other stakeholders, seek products and services, and offer financial funds for this.

The shareholders are usually not liable for any of the company debts that extend beyond the company's ability to pay up to the amount of them.

China
The earliest records of joint-stock companies appear in China during the Tang and Song dynasties. The Tang dynasty saw the development of the heben, the earliest form of joint stock company with an active partner and one or two passive investors. By the Song dynasty this had expanded into the douniu, a large pool of shareholders with management in the hands of jingshang, merchants who operated their businesses using investors' funds, with investor compensation based on profit-sharing, reducing the risk of individual merchants and burdens of interest payment.

Europe
Finding the earliest joint-stock company is a matter of definition. An early form of joint-stock company was the medieval commenda, although it was usually employed for a single commercial expedition. Around 1350 in France at Toulouse, 96 shares of the Société des Moulins du Bazacle, or Bazacle Milling Company were traded at a value that depended on the profitability of the mills the society owned, making it probably the first company of its kind in history. The Swedish company Stora has documented a stock transfer for an eighth of the company (or more specifically, the mountain in which the copper resource was available) as early as 1288.

In more recent history, the earliest joint-stock company recognized in England was the Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands, founded in 1551 with 240 shareholders. It became the Muscovy Company, which had a monopoly on trade between Russia and England, when royal charter was granted in 1555. The most notable joint-stock company from the British Isles was the East India Company, which was granted a royal charter by Queen Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600 with the intention of establishing trade on the Indian subcontinent. The charter effectively granted the newly formed Honourable East India Company a fifteen-year monopoly on all English trade in the East Indies.

Soon afterwards, in 1602, the Dutch East India Company issued shares that were made tradable on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange. The development enhanced the ability of joint-stock companies to attract capital from investors, as they could now easily dispose of their shares. In 1612, it became the first 'corporation' in intercontinental trade with 'locked in' capital and limited liability. The joint-stock company became a more viable financial structure than previous guilds or state-regulated companies. The first joint-stock companies to be implemented in the Americas were the London Company and the Plymouth Company.

Transferable shares aim to achieve positive returns on equity, which is evidenced by investment in companies like the East India Company, which used the financing model to manage their trade on the Indian subcontinent. Joint-stock companies paid out divisions (dividends) to their shareholders by dividing up the profits of the voyage in the proportion of shares held. Divisions were usually cash, but when working capital was low and detrimental to the survival of the company, divisions were either postponed or paid out in remaining cargo, which could be sold by shareholders for profit.

However, in general, incorporation was possible by royal charter or private act, and it was limited because of the government's jealous protection of the privileges and advantages thereby granted.

As a result of the rapid expansion of capital-intensive enterprises in the course of the Industrial Revolution in Europe and the United States, many businesses came to be operated as unincorporated associations or extended partnerships, with large numbers of members. Nevertheless, membership of such associations was usually for a short term so their nature was constantly changing.

Consequently, registration and incorporation of companies, without specific legislation, was introduced by the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844. Initially, companies incorporated under this Act did not have limited liability, but it became common for companies to include a limited liability clause in their internal rules. In the case of Hallett v Dowdall, the Court of the Exchequer held that such clauses bound people who have notice of them. Four years later, the Joint Stock Companies Act 1856 provided for limited liability for all joint-stock companies provided, among other things, that they included the word "limited" in their company name. The landmark case of Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd established that a company with legal liability, not being a partnership, had a distinct legal personality that was separate from that of its individual shareholders.

Corporate law
The existence of a corporation requires a special legal framework and body of law that specifically grants the corporation legal personality, and it typically views a corporation as a fictional person, a legal person, or a moral person (as opposed to a natural person) which shields its owners (shareholders) from "corporate" losses or liabilities; losses are limited to the number of shares owned. It furthermore creates an inducement to new investors (marketable stocks and future stock issuance). Corporate statutes typically empower corporations to own property, sign binding contracts, and pay taxes in a capacity separate from that of its shareholders, who are sometimes referred to as "members". The corporation is also empowered to borrow money, both conventionally and directly to the public, by issuing interest-bearing bonds. Corporations subsist indefinitely; "death" comes only by absorption (takeover) or bankruptcy. According to Lord Chancellor Haldane,

"...a corporation is an abstraction. It has no mind of its own any more than it has a body of its own; its active and directing will must consequently be sought in the person of somebody who is really the directing mind and will of the corporation, the very ego and centre of the personality of the corporation."

- Lennard's Carrying Co Ltd v Asiatic Petroleum Co Ltd [1915] AC 705

This 'directing will' is embodied in a corporate Board of Directors. The legal personality has two economic implications. It grants creditors (as opposed to shareholders or employees) priority over the corporate assets upon liquidation. Second, corporate assets cannot be withdrawn by its shareholders, and assets of the firm cannot be taken by personal creditors of its shareholders. The second feature requires special legislation and a special legal framework, as it cannot be reproduced via standard contract law.

The regulations most favorable to incorporation include:

Financial disclosure
In many jurisdictions, corporations whose shareholders benefit from limited liability are required to publish annual financial statements and other data so that creditors who do business with the corporation are able to assess the creditworthiness of the corporation and cannot enforce claims against shareholders. Shareholders, therefore, experience some loss of privacy in return for limited liability. That requirement generally applies in Europe, but not in common law jurisdictions, except for publicly traded corporations (for which financial disclosure is required for investor protection).

Corporate taxation
In many countries, corporate profits are taxed at a corporate tax rate, and dividends paid to shareholders are taxed at a separate rate. Such a system is sometimes referred to as "double taxation" because any profits distributed to shareholders will eventually be taxed twice. One solution, followed by as in the case of the Australian and UK tax systems, is for the recipient of the dividend to be entitled to a tax credit to address the fact that the profits represented by the dividend have already been taxed. The company profit being passed on is thus effectively taxed only at the rate of tax paid by the eventual recipient of the dividend.

In other systems, dividends are taxed at a lower rate than other income (for example, in the US), or shareholders are taxed directly on the corporation's profits, while dividends are not taxed (for example, S corporations in the US).

Closely held corporations and publicly traded corporations
The institution most often referenced by the word "corporation" is publicly traded, which means that the company's shares are traded on a public stock exchange (for example, the New York Stock Exchange or Nasdaq in the United States) whose shares of stock of corporations are bought and sold by and to the general public. Most of the largest businesses in the world are publicly traded corporations.

However, the majority of corporations are privately held, or closely held, so there is no ready market for the trading of shares. Many such corporations are owned and managed by a small group of businesspeople or companies, but the size of such a corporation can be as vast as the largest public corporations.

Closely held corporations have some advantages over publicly traded corporations. A small, closely held company can often make company-changing decisions much more rapidly than a publicly traded company, as there will generally be fewer voting shareholders, and the shareholders would have common interests. A publicly traded company is also at the mercy of the market, with capital flow in and out based not only on what the company is doing but also on what the market and even what the competitors, major and minor, are doing.

However, publicly traded companies also have advantages over their closely held counterparts. Publicly traded companies often have more working capital and can delegate debt throughout all shareholders. Therefore, shareholders of publicly traded company will each take a much smaller hit to their returns as opposed to those involved with a closely held corporation. Publicly traded companies, however, can suffer from that advantage. A closely held corporation can often voluntarily take a hit to profit with little to no repercussions if it is not a sustained loss. A publicly traded company often comes under extreme scrutiny if profit and growth are not evident to stock holders, thus stock holders may sell, further damaging the company. Often, that blow is enough to make a small public company fail.

Often, communities benefit from a closely held company more so than from a public company. A closely held company is far more likely to stay in a single place that has treated it well even if that means going through hard times. Shareholders can incur some of the damage the company may receive from a bad year or slow period in the company profits. Closely held companies often have a better relationship with workers. In larger, publicly traded companies, often after only one bad year, the first area to feel the effects is the workforce with layoffs or worker hours, wages or benefits being cut. Again, in a closely held business the shareholders can incur the profit damage rather than passing it to the workers.

The affairs of publicly traded and closely held corporations are similar in many respects. The main difference in most countries is that publicly traded corporations have the burden of complying with additional securities laws, which (especially in the US) may require additional periodic disclosure (with more stringent requirements), stricter corporate governance standards as well as additional procedural obligations in connection with major corporate transactions (for example, mergers) or events (for example, elections of directors).

A closely held corporation may be a subsidiary of another corporation (its parent company), which may itself be either a closely held or a public corporation. In some jurisdictions, the subsidiary of a listed public corporation is also defined as a public corporation (for example, in Australia).

Australia
In Australia corporations are registered and regulated by the Commonwealth Government through the Australian Securities and Investments Commission. Corporations law has been largely codified in the Corporations Act 2001.

Brazil
In Brazil there are many different types of legal entities (sociedades), but the two most common ones commercially speaking are (i) sociedade limitada, identified by "Ltda." or "Limitada" after the company's name, equivalent to the British limited liability company, and (ii) sociedade anônima or companhia, identified by "SA" or "Companhia" in the company's name, equivalent to the British public limited company. The "Ltda." is mainly governed by the new Civil Code, enacted in 2002, and the "SA", by Law 6.404, dated December 15, 1976, as amended.

Bosnia and Herzegovina
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, a joint-stock company is called:
 * dioničko društvo (often abbreviated d.d. or D.D.) in both the Bosnian language and the Croatian language, while the Serbian language uses:
 * akcionarsko društvo (often abbreviated a.d. or A.D. - Cyrillic alphabet : акционарско друштво or а.д.).

The specified form of organization means that the company (private or state-owned) is organized on the Bosnian market (Federation of BiH and RS entity level) as a legal entity that has shares (Bosnian/Croatian: dionica or vrijednosni papir; Serbian: akcija or hartija od vrijednosti - Cyrillic: акција or хартија од вриједности) that can be traded in a free market or stock exchanges in the Bosnia and Herzegovina (listed in Sarajevo Stock Exchange or Banja Luka Stock Exchange).

Bulgaria
In Bulgaria, a joint-stock company is called a aktsionerno druzhestvo or AD (Акционерно дружество or АД)

Canada
In Canada both the federal government and the provinces have corporate statutes, and thus a corporation may be incorporated either provincially or federally. Many older corporations in Canada stem from Acts of Parliament passed before the introduction of general corporation law. The oldest corporation in Canada is the Hudson's Bay Company; though its business has always been based in Canada, its Royal Charter was issued in England by King Charles II in 1670, and became a Canadian charter by amendment in 1970 when it moved its corporate headquarters from London to Canada. Federally recognized corporations are regulated by the Canada Business Corporations Act.

Chile
The Chilean form of joint-stock company is called Sociedad por Acciones (often abbreviated "SpA"). They were created in 2007 by Law N° 20.190, and they are the most recent variety of societary types, as they represent a simplified form of corporation – originally conceived for venture capital companies.

According to the Ministry of Economy's Business and Society Registry, SpAs accounted for 71.42% of new businesses in October 2023. SpAs are popular in Chile for their legal structure that offers flexibility and freedoms not found in other business types. Key features include:

 * Flexibility and Simplification: SpAs have a flexible, simplified corporate structure, allowing for a range of commercial activities under one social objective, ideal for diversified ambitions.
 * Management and Administration: SpAs provide various management options, adaptable to partner needs, with easy changes in partnership composition through share trading, supporting agile and customized management structures.
 * Single Shareholder: SpAs can have one shareholder, offering total control to individual entrepreneurs, with shareholder liability limited to their contributions, protecting personal assets in financial difficulties.
 * Legal and Tax Requirements: SpAs must meet specific legal and tax requirements, including registered addresses and legal representatives, with the option for full or simplified accounting.

These attributes make SpAs an attractive choice for entrepreneurs and small businesses in Chile, offering a balance of flexibility, control, and legal protection.

Czech Republic and Slovakia
The Czech form of the public limited company is called akciová společnost (a.s.) and its private counterpart is called společnost s ručením omezeným (s.r.o.). Their Slovak equivalents are called akciová spoločnosť (a.s.) and spoločnosť s ručením obmedzeným (s.r.o.).

German-speaking countries
Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Liechtenstein recognize two forms of company limited by shares: the Aktiengesellschaft (AG), analogous to public limited companies (or corporations in US/Can) in the English-speaking world, and the Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung (GmbH), similar to the modern private limited company.

Italy
Italy recognizes three types of company limited by shares: the public limited company (società per azioni, or S.p.A.), the private limited company (società a responsabilità limitata, or S.r.l.), and the publicly traded partnership (società in accomandita per azioni, or S.a.p.a.). The latter is a hybrid of the limited partnership and public limited company, having two categories of shareholders, some with and some without limited liability, and is rarely used in practice.

Japan
In Japan, both the state and local public entities under the Local Autonomy Act (now 47 prefectures, made in the 19th century and municipalities) are considered to be corporations (法人). Non-profit corporations may be established under the Civil Code.

The term "company" (会社) or (企業 kigyō) is used to refer to business corporations. The predominant form is the Kabushiki gaisha (株式会社), used by public corporations as well as smaller enterprises. Mochibun kaisha (持分会社), a form for smaller enterprises, are becoming increasingly common. Between 2002 and 2008, the intermediary corporation (中間法人) existed to bridge the gap between for-profit companies and non-governmental and non-profit organizations.

Latvia
In Latvia, which uses a model similar to Germany, a public stock company is called an akciju sabiedrība (a/s, A/S or AS), whereas a private, 'limited liability company' is called a sabiedrība ar ierobežotu atbildību (SIA). State-owned variants of these companies add an initial capital V (valsts - 'state'), as in VAS and VSIA.

Norway
In Norway, a joint-stock company is called an aksjeselskap, abbreviated AS. A special and by far less common form of joint-stock companies, intended for companies with a large number of shareholders, is the publicly traded joint-stock companies, called allmennaksjeselskap and abbreviated ASA. A joint-stock company must be incorporated, has an independent legal personality and limited liability, and is required to have a certain capital upon incorporation. Ordinary joint-stock companies must have a minimum capital of NOK 30,000 upon incorporation, which was reduced from 100,000 in 2012. Publicly traded joint-stock companies must have a minimum capital of NOK 1 million.

Russia
See: Open joint-stock company (OJSC).

Spain
In Spain there are two types of companies with limited liability: (i) "S.L.", or Sociedad Limitada (a private limited company), and (ii) "S.A.", or Sociedad Anónima (similar to a public limited company).

Ukraine
The Ukrainian form of the private limited company is called товариство з обмеженою відповідальністю (ТОВ or ТзОВ).

Several types of joint stock companies (Акціонерне Товариство, Aktsionerne Tovarystvo) exist in Ukraine. Due to specifics of the Soviet economy, all enterprises in the Soviet republic as the rest of the Soviet Union were state owned and private entrepreneurship was strictly prohibited and criminally prosecuted. Following the Gorbachev initiated broad spectrum reforms (perestroika), there was introduced a term of khozraschet and permission for organization of public economic entities called cooperatives.

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine's economy, along with those of the rest of the former Soviet republics, was further liberalized. Along with private entrepreneurship, many state owned companies were privatized, primarily by the former party's apparatchiks which gave a rise of another term "Red directors". Many companies started to be sold at open market and commercialized. Those companies were transformed in joint-stock companies by selling their shares for mutual cooperation and investment.

As in the rest former Soviet republics (predominantly Russia) in Ukraine were created following commercial companies:
 * National Joint-stock company
 * Open Joint-stock company
 * Closed Joint-stock company

In 2009 further reforms were introduced and open joint-stock companies were forced to be restructured as public joint-stock company (Публічне Акціонерне Товариство, Publichne Aktsionerne Tovarystvo) or private joint-stock company (Приватне Акціонерне Товариство, Pryvatne Aktsionerne Tovarystvo).

Minimum amount of share capital is 1,250 minimum wages (as of 1 January 2017 ₴4,000,000 or US$148,000).

Ukraine National Securities and Stock Market Commission is the main stock market state authority.

United Kingdom
Most companies are regulated by the Companies Act 2006. The most common type of company is the private limited company ("Limited" or "Ltd"). Private limited companies can either be limited by shares or by guarantee. Other corporate forms include the public limited company ("plc") and the private unlimited company.

Some corporations, both public and private sector, are formed by Royal Charter or Act of Parliament.

A special type of corporation is a corporation sole, which is an office held by an individual natural person (the incumbent), but which has a continuing legal entity separate from that person.

United States
Several types of conventional corporations exist in the United States. Generically, any business entity that is recognized as distinct from the people who own it (i.e., is not a sole proprietorship or a partnership) is a corporation. This generic label includes entities that are known by such legal labels as 'association', 'organization' and 'limited liability company', as well as corporations proper.

Only a company that has been formally incorporated according to the laws of a particular state is called a "corporation." A corporation was defined in the Dartmouth College case of 1819, in which Chief Justice Marshall of the United States Supreme Court stated: "A corporation is an artificial being, invisible, intangible, and existing only in contemplation of the law." A corporation is a legal entity, distinct and separate from the individuals who create and operate it. As a legal entity the corporation can acquire, own, and dispose of property in its own name like buildings, land and equipment. It can also incur liabilities and enter into contracts like franchising and leasing. American corporations can be either profit-making companies or non-profit entities. Tax-exempt non-profit corporations are often called "501(c)3 corporations," after the section of the Internal Revenue Code that addresses the tax exemption for many of them.

In some states, such as Colorado, a corporation may represent itself pro se in courts of law in some situations

The federal government can only create corporate entities pursuant to relevant powers in the U.S. Constitution. Thus, virtually all corporations in the U.S. are incorporated under the laws of a particular state. A major exception to the federal non-participation in the incorporation of private businesses is in banking; under the National Bank Act, banks may receive charters from the federal government as national banks, subjecting them to the regulation of the federal Office of the Comptroller of the Currency rather than state banking regulators.

All states have some kind of "general corporation law" (California, Delaware, Kansas, Nevada and Ohio actually use that exact name) which authorizes the formation of private corporations without having to obtain a charter for each one from the state legislature (as was formerly the case in the 19th century). Many states have separate, self-contained laws authorizing the formation and operation of certain specific types of corporations that are wholly independent of the state general corporation law. For example, in California, nonprofit corporations are incorporated under the Nonprofit Corporation Law, and in Illinois, insurers are incorporated under the Illinois Insurance Code.

Corporations are created by filing the requisite documents with a particular state government. The process is called "incorporation", referring to the abstract concept of clothing the entity with a "veil" of artificial personhood (embodying, or "corporating" it, 'corpus' being the Latin word for 'body'). Only certain corporations, including banks, are chartered. Others simply file their articles of incorporation with the state government as part of a registration process.

Once incorporated, a corporation has artificial personhood everywhere it may operate, until such time as the corporation may be dissolved. A corporation that operates in one state while being incorporated in another is a "foreign corporation". This label also applies to corporations incorporated outside of the United States. Foreign corporations must usually register with the secretary of state's office in each state to lawfully conduct business in that state.

A corporation is legally a citizen of the state (or other jurisdiction) in which it is incorporated (except when circumstances direct the corporation be classified as a citizen of the state in which it has its head office, or the state in which it does the majority of its business). Corporate business law differs dramatically from state to state. Many prospective corporations choose to incorporate in a state whose laws are most favorable to its business interests. Many large corporations are incorporated in Delaware, for example, without being physically located there because that state has very favorable corporate tax and disclosure laws.

Companies set up for privacy or asset protection often incorporate in Nevada, which does not require disclosure of share ownership. Many states, particularly smaller ones, have modeled their corporate statutes after the Model Business Corporation Act, one of many model sets of law prepared and published by the American Bar Association.

As juristic persons, corporations have certain rights that attach to natural persons. The vast majority of them attach to corporations under state law, especially the law of the state in which the company is incorporated – since the corporations very existence is predicated on the laws of that state. A few rights also attach by federal constitutional and statutory law, but they are few and far between compared to the rights of natural persons. For example, a corporation has the personal right to bring a lawsuit (as well as the capacity to be sued) and, like a natural person, a corporation can be libeled.

Harvard College, an undergraduate school of Harvard University, formally the President and Fellows of Harvard College (also known as the Harvard Corporation), is the oldest corporation in the western hemisphere. Founded in 1636, the second of Harvard's two governing boards was incorporated by the Great and General Court of Massachusetts in 1650. Significantly, Massachusetts itself was a corporate colony at that time – owned and operated by the Massachusetts Bay Company (until it lost its charter in 1684) – so Harvard College is a corporation created by a corporation.

Many nations have modeled their own corporate laws on American business law. Corporate law in Saudi Arabia, for example, follows the model of New York State corporate law. In addition to typical corporations in the United States, the federal government, in 1971 passed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), which authorized the creation of 12 regional native corporations for Alaska Natives and over 200 village corporations that were entitled to a settlement of land and cash. In addition to the 12 regional corporations, the legislation permitted a 13th regional corporation without a land settlement for those Alaska Natives living out of the State of Alaska at the time of passage of ANCSA.

Other business entities
Almost every recognized type of organization carries out some economic activities (for example, the family). Other organizations that may carry out activities that are generally considered to be business exist under the laws of various countries:
 * Consumers' cooperative
 * Holding company
 * Limited company (Ltd)
 * Limited liability company (LLC)
 * Limited liability limited partnership (LLLP)
 * Limited liability partnership (LLP)
 * Limited partnership (LP)
 * Low-profit limited liability company (L3C)
 * Not-for-profit corporation
 * Open joint-stock company (OJSC)
 * Partnership
 * Sole proprietorship
 * Trust company

title: Joint-stock company


text:
Active noise control

Active noise control (ANC), also known as noise cancellation (NC), or active noise reduction (ANR), is a method for reducing unwanted sound by the addition of a second sound specifically designed to cancel the first. The concept was first developed in the late 1930s; later developmental work that began in the 1950s eventually resulted in commercial airline headsets with the technology becoming available in the late 1980s. The technology is also used in road vehicles, mobile telephones, earbuds, and headphones.

Explanation
Sound is a pressure wave, which consists of alternating periods of compression and rarefaction. A noise-cancellation speaker emits a sound wave with the same amplitude but with an inverted phase (also known as antiphase) relative to the original sound. The waves combine to form a new wave, in a process called interference, and effectively cancel each other out – an effect which is called destructive interference.

Modern active noise control is generally achieved through the use of analog circuits or digital signal processing. Adaptive algorithms are designed to analyze the waveform of the background aural or nonaural noise, then based on the specific algorithm generate a signal that will either phase shift or invert the polarity of the original signal. This inverted signal (in antiphase) is then amplified and a transducer creates a sound wave directly proportional to the amplitude of the original waveform, creating destructive interference. This effectively reduces the volume of the perceivable noise.

A noise-cancellation speaker may be co-located with the sound source to be attenuated. In this case, it must have the same audio power level as the source of the unwanted sound in order to cancel the noise. Alternatively, the transducer emitting the cancellation signal may be located at the location where sound attenuation is wanted (e.g. the user's ear). This requires a much lower power level for cancellation but is effective only for a single user. Noise cancellation at other locations is more difficult as the three-dimensional wavefronts of the unwanted sound and the cancellation signal could match and create alternating zones of constructive and destructive interference, reducing noise in some spots while doubling noise in others. In small enclosed spaces (e.g. the passenger compartment of a car) global noise reduction can be achieved via multiple speakers and feedback microphones, and measurement of the modal responses of the enclosure.

Applications
Applications can be "1-dimensional" or 3-dimensional, depending on the type of zone to protect. Periodic sounds, even complex ones, are easier to cancel than random sounds due to the repetition in the waveform.

Protection of a "1-dimension zone" is easier and requires only one or two microphones and speakers to be effective. Several commercial applications have been successful: noise-cancelling headphones, active mufflers, anti-snoring devices, vocal or center channel extraction for karaoke machines, and the control of noise in air conditioning ducts. The term "1-dimension" refers to a simple pistonic relationship between the noise and the active speaker (mechanical noise reduction) or between the active speaker and the listener (headphones).

Protection of a 3-dimension zone requires many microphones and speakers, making it more expensive. Noise reduction is more easily achieved with a single listener remaining stationary but if there are multiple listeners or if the single listener turns their head or moves throughout the space then the noise reduction challenge is made much more difficult. High-frequency waves are difficult to reduce in three dimensions due to their relatively short audio wavelength in air. The wavelength in air of sinusoidal noise at approximately 800 Hz is double the distance of the average person's left ear to the right ear; such a noise coming directly from the front will be easily reduced by an active system but coming from the side will tend to cancel at one ear while being reinforced at the other, making the noise louder, not softer. High-frequency sounds above 1000 Hz tend to cancel and reinforce unpredictably from many directions. In sum, the most effective noise reduction in three-dimensional space involves low-frequency sounds. Commercial applications of 3-D noise reduction include the protection of aircraft cabins and car interiors, but in these situations, protection is mainly limited to the cancellation of repetitive (or periodic) noise such as engine-, propeller- or rotor-induced noise. This is because an engine's cyclic nature makes analysis and noise cancellation easier to apply.

Modern mobile phones use a multi-microphone design to cancel out ambient noise from the speech signal. Sound is captured from the microphone(s) furthest from the mouth [noise signal(s)] and from the one closest to the mouth [desired signal]. The signals are processed to cancel the noise from the desired signal, producing improved voice sound quality.

In some cases, noise can be controlled by employing active vibration control. This approach is appropriate when the vibration of a structure produces unwanted noise by coupling the vibration into the surrounding air or water.

Active vs. passive noise control
Noise control is an active or passive means of reducing sound emissions, often for personal comfort, environmental considerations, or legal compliance. Active noise control is sound reduction using a power source. Passive noise control is sound reduction by noise-isolating materials such as insulation, sound-absorbing tiles, or a muffler rather than a power source.

Active noise cancelling is best suited for low frequencies. For higher frequencies, the spacing requirements for free space and zone of silence techniques become prohibitive. In acoustic cavity and duct-based systems, the number of nodes grows rapidly with increasing frequency, which quickly makes active noise control techniques unmanageable. Passive treatments become more effective at higher frequencies and often provide an adequate solution without the need for active control.

History
The first patent for a noise control system——was granted to inventor Paul Lueg in 1936. The patent described how to cancel sinusoidal tones in ducts by phase-advancing the wave and cancelling arbitrary sounds in the region around a loudspeaker by inverting the polarity. In the 1950s Lawrence J. Fogel patented systems to cancel the noise in helicopter and airplane cockpits. In 1957 Willard Meeker developed a working model of active noise control applied to a circumaural earmuff. This headset had an active attenuation bandwidth of approximately 50–500 Hz, with a maximum attenuation of approximately 20 dB. By the late 1980s the first commercially available active noise reduction headsets became available. They could be powered by NiCad batteries or directly from the aircraft power system.

title: Active noise control