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The Big Texan Steak Ranch

The Big Texan Steak Ranch is a steakhouse restaurant and motel located in Amarillo, Texas, United States, which opened on the previous U.S. Route 66 in the 4500 block of East Amarillo Boulevard in 1960. It relocated to its present location on Interstate 40 in 1970. Fire gutted the west wing of the restaurant in 1976 and destroyed $100,000 in antiques. The restaurant reopened as a larger facility in 1977. The building is painted a bright yellow, with blue trim. A large bull statue advertises their "free" 72 oz. steak (see below). The now-closed Texas Tornado Museum resided off in a far corner of the parking lot on the property.

72oz Steak Challenge

The Big Texan is best known for its 72 ounce (4.5 pounds or 2.04 kg) steak. The steak is free to anyone who, in one hour or less, can eat the entire meal, consisting of the steak itself, a bread roll with butter, a baked potato, shrimp cocktail, and a side salad; otherwise, the meal costs $72. Those who have successfully consumed the 72oz steak challenge have their names recorded and posted at the restaurant. The table at which the steak is eaten is recorded on a 24/7 live stream which can be found on the restaurant's website. To date, over 10,000 people out of about 90,000 people who attempted this challenge have accomplished this feat.

According to the restaurant, when featured on the TV show Man v. Food, the challenge started in 1960, when founder Bob Lee decided to hold a contest over which of the cowboys working in the stockyards could eat the most steaks in one hour, with a prize of $5 at stake. One cowboy ate four and a half 1-pound steaks, a shrimp cocktail, a baked potato, a dinner roll, and a salad in the hour's time to win the $5. Lee was so impressed with the achievement that he declared, "Whoever eats that much again in my restaurant, he gets it for free." Those who take on the 72oz steak challenge are required to pay for the meal in advance and, if they are successful, their money is refunded. The steak is cooked to the participant's preference, and the challenge takes place at a table for six on a raised platform in the middle of the main dining room.

The record for the shortest time to finish the entire 72oz steak challenge had been held by competitive eating champion Joey Chestnut (at 8 minutes and 52 seconds), breaking Frank Pastore's 1987 record (of 9 minutes 30 seconds, which stood for 21 years) on his March 24, 2008 visit. On May 26, 2014, he was bested by 125-pound competitive eater Molly Schuyler, who polished off the meal in just 4 minutes 58 seconds, and came back for seconds (14 minutes and 57 seconds for two meals). She did not, however, eat a third steak meal in the same hour. Schuyler returned on April 19, 2015 and would finish her first meal in 4 minutes 18 seconds, beating her own record by 40 seconds. She had defeated four other teams of competitors in the challenge, devouring two more meals in twenty minutes. The unofficial record (for all animals, including humans) was held by a 500-pound Siberian tiger who ate the steak in 90 seconds in 1999, until bested by a lioness in 2012 clocking in at 80 seconds.

In media
The 72oz Steak Challenge meal is shown in the movie Waking Up in Reno, with Billy Bob Thornton taking the challenge. It is also shown on the Travel Channel's Man v. Food, where host Adam Richman completes the challenge and in Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations, where Bourdain declines to compete but his cameraman takes part and fails.

The Big Texan Steak Ranch is known for its Cadillac white stretch limos with longhorn hood ornaments, one of which appears in the 2006 animated film Cars as Texas oil baron Tex Dinoco. Becky Ransom and the Big Texan Steak Ranch ("free 72-ounce steak if consumed in 60 minutes") are acknowledged in the film's credits.

In the Season 3 episode of King of the Hill "And They Call It Bobby Love", the Steak Ranch was parodied with a similar restaurant called the "Panhandler Steakhouse." Bobby Hill accepts the challenge only to spite the girl that spurned his affections (who was also a vegetarian). He completes the challenge but upon returning home subsequently vomits.

In a season 10 episode of The Simpsons "Maximum Homerdrive" Homer accepts a big-steak eating contest.

A billboard advertising the restaurant appears in a panel in George Takei's autobiographical graphic novel They Called us Enemy.

Big Texan Motel
Located adjacent to the restaurant on The Big Texan Steak Ranch property is the 54-unit Big Texan Motel. The cinder-block construction motel is designed to resemble a main street in an old west town, and features Texas-themed decor and a Texas-shaped pool. In 2004, a 20-stall stable was added behind the main motel building.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Big Texan Steak Ranch


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Beetroot

The beetroot is the taproot portion of a beet plant, usually known in North America as beets while the vegetable is referred to as beetroot in British English, and also known as the table beet, garden beet, red beet, dinner beet or golden beet. Beetroot can be eaten raw, roasted, or boiled. Beetroot can also be canned, either whole or cut up, and often are pickled, spiced, or served in a sweet-and-sour sauce.

It is one of several cultivated varieties of Beta vulgaris grown for their edible taproots and leaves (called beet greens); they have been classified as B. vulgaris subsp. vulgaris Conditiva Group.

Other cultivars of the same species include the sugar beet, the leaf vegetable known as chard or spinach beet, and mangelwurzel, which is a fodder crop. Three subspecies are typically recognized.

Etymology
Beta is the ancient Latin name for beetroot, possibly of Celtic origin, becoming bete in Old English. Root derives from the late Old English rōt, itself from Old Norse rót.

History
The domestication of beetroot can be traced to the emergence of an allele, which enables biennial harvesting of leaves and taproot. Beetroot was domesticated in the ancient Middle East, primarily for their greens, and were grown by the Ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. By the Roman era, it is thought that they were also cultivated for their roots. From the Middle Ages, beetroot was used to treat various conditions, especially illnesses relating to digestion and the blood. Bartolomeo Platina recommended taking beetroot with garlic to nullify the effects of "garlic-breath".

During the middle of the 17th century, wine often was colored with beetroot juice.

Food shortages in Europe following World War I caused great hardships, including cases of mangelwurzel disease, as relief workers called it. It was symptomatic of eating only beetroot.

Culinary use
Usually, the deep purple roots of beetroot are eaten boiled, roasted, or raw, and either alone or combined with any salad vegetable. The green, leafy portion of the beetroot is also edible. The young leaves can be added raw to salads, while the mature leaves are most commonly served boiled or steamed, in which case they have a taste and texture similar to spinach. Beetroot can be roasted, boiled or steamed, peeled, and then eaten warm with or without butter; cooked, pickled, and then eaten cold as a condiment; or peeled, shredded raw, and then eaten as a salad. Pickled beetroot is a traditional food in many countries.

Australia and New Zealand
In Australia and New Zealand, sliced pickled beetroot is a common ingredient in traditional hamburgers.

Eastern Europe
In Eastern Europe, beetroot soup, such as borscht [Ukrainian] and barszcz czerwony [Polish], is common. In Poland and Ukraine, beetroot is combined with horseradish to form ćwikła or бурячки (buryachky), which is traditionally used with cold cuts and sandwiches, but often also added to a meal consisting of meat and potatoes.

Similarly, in Serbia, beetroot (referred to by the local name cvekla) is used as winter salad, seasoned with salt and vinegar, with meat dishes.

As an addition to horseradish, it is also used to produce the "red" variety of chrain, a condiment in Ashkenazi Jewish, Hungarian, Polish, Lithuanian, Russian, and Ukrainian cuisine.

Cold beetroot soup called "Šaltibarščiai" is very popular in Lithuania. Traditionally it consists of kefir, boiled beetroot, cucumber, dill, spring onions and can be eaten with boiled eggs and potatoes.

Botvinya is an old-time traditional Russian cold soup made from leftover beet greens and chopped beetroots, typically with bread and kvass added. Botvinya got its name from the Russian botva, which means "root vegetable greens", referring to beet plant leaves.

Svekolnik, or svyokolnik, is yet another Russian beet-based soup, typically distinguished from borscht in that vegetables for svekolnik are cooked raw and not sauteed, while many types of borscht typically include sauteed carrots and other vegetables. Svekolnik got its name from svyokla, Russian word for "beet." Sometimes, various types of cold borscht are also called "svekolnik".

India
In Indian cuisine, chopped, cooked, spiced beetroot is a common side dish. Yellow-colored beetroots are grown on a very small scale for home consumption.

North America
Besides standard fruit and vegetable dishes, certain varieties of beets are sometimes used as a garnish to a tart.

Northern Europe
A common dish in Sweden and elsewhere in the Nordic countries is Biff à la Lindström, a variant of meatballs or burgers, with chopped or grated beetroot added to the minced meat.

In Northern Germany, beetroot is mashed with Labskaus or added as its side order.

Industrial production and other uses
A large proportion of commercial production is processed into boiled and sterilized beetroot or pickles.

Betanin, obtained from the roots, is used industrially as red food colorant to enhance the color and flavor of tomato paste, sauces, desserts, jams and jellies, ice cream, candy, and breakfast cereals. When beetroot juice is used, it is most stable in foods with low water content, such as frozen novelties and fruit fillings.

Beetroot can be used to make wine.

Nutrition
Raw beetroot is 88% water, 10% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and less than 1% fat (see table). In a 100 g amount providing 43 kcal of food energy, raw beetroot is a rich source (27% of the Daily Value - DV) of folate and a moderate source (16% DV) of manganese, with other nutrients having insignificant content (table).

Health effects
A clinical trial review reported that consumption of beetroot juice modestly reduced systolic blood pressure but not diastolic blood pressure.

Safety
The red color compound betanin is not broken down in the body, and in higher concentrations, may temporarily cause urine or stools to assume a reddish color, in the case of urine a condition called beeturia.

Although harmless, this effect may cause initial concern due to the visual similarity to what appears to be blood in the stool, hematochezia (blood passing through the anus, usually in or with stool) or hematuria (blood in the urine).

Nitrosamine formation in beetroot juice can reliably be prevented by adding ascorbic acid.

Cultivars
Below is a list of several commonly available cultivars of beetroot. Generally, 55 to 65 days are needed from germination to harvest of the root. All cultivars can be harvested earlier for use as greens. Unless otherwise noted, the root colors are shades of red and dark red, with different degrees of zoning noticeable in slices.

• 'Action', gained the RHS's Award of Garden Merit (AGM) in 1993.

• 'Albino', heirloom (white root)

• 'Alto', AGM, 2005.

• 'Bettollo', AGM, 2016.

• 'Boltardy', AGM, 1993.

• 'Bona', AGM, 2016.

• 'Boro', AGM, 2005.

• 'Bull's Blood', heirloom

• 'Cheltenham Green Top', AGM, 1993.

• 'Chioggia,' heirloom (distinct red and white zoned root)

• 'Crosby's Egyptian,' heirloom

• 'Cylindra' / 'Formanova,' heirloom (elongated root)

• 'Detroit Dark Red Medium Top,' heirloom

• 'Early Wonder', heirloom

• 'Forono', AGM, 1993.

• 'Golden Beet' / 'Burpee's Golden', heirloom (yellow root)

• 'MacGregor's Favorite', an heirloom carrot-shaped beetroot

• 'Pablo', AGM, 1993.

• 'Perfected Detroit', 1934 AAS winner

• 'Red Ace', hybrid, AGM, 2001.

• 'Rubidus', AGM, 2005.

• 'Ruby Queen', 1957 AAS winner

• 'Solo', AGM, 2005.

• 'Touchstone Gold', (yellow root)

• 'Wodan', AGM, 1993.

title: Beetroot


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Ruth Richardson

Ruth Margaret Richardson (born 13 December 1950) is a retired New Zealand politician of the National Party who served as Minister of Finance from 1990 to 1993. Her 1991 budget, which she dubbed the "Mother of all Budgets", formed the catalyst for her party's economic reforms known in the media as "Ruthanasia".

Richardson was a lawyer by profession. She was elected as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Selwyn in 1981. Following the National Party victory in the, Richardson was appointed as Finance Minister in the fourth National Government. She supported and carried on the free-market reforms initiated by the preceding Labour Government, and extended them in a significant way with the Fiscal Responsibility Act 1994. Richardon's economic restructuring, including privatisation of state assets and cuts to social welfare, contributed to New Zealand emerging from its fiscal problems. However, critics have noted the wide-ranging effects on New Zealand's social fabric including child poverty along with wealth inequality, which were both severely exacerbated.

Richardson was dismissed as Finance Minister following the ; she resigned from Parliament in 1994. She later joined ACT New Zealand.

Early life
Richardson was born in southern Taranaki on 13 December 1950. Her family had a long history in the area, and her great-grandfather George Pearce had served as MP for from  to 1919. Her father was active in the National Party's Patea branch. Richardson was brought up as a Roman Catholic, and after finishing primary school, was sent to Sacred Heart College, a Catholic girls' high school in Wanganui.

Richardson decided on a career in Parliament at an early age, before she even left high school. Sir Roy Jack, a National Party MP and a friend of her family, advised her to study law, which she did. Richardson gained a law degree from the University of Canterbury. After graduating, she worked for the Department of Justice. In 1975, Richardson married Andrew Wright, a colleague from the Department.

Richardson's first attempt to break into politics came when she challenged Sir Roy Jack for the National Party nomination in the. His electorate was to become  because of post-census boundary changes. Besides alienating her from her old mentor, she also created considerable irritation in the higher ranks of the party, which frowned on challenges to sitting MPs who sought renomination. The party was especially hostile when the challenge was made against long-serving MPs such as Sir Roy Jack. George Chapman who chaired the selection said, "The tensions were tremendous, but Roy was finally confirmed as the candidate." She was a member of the non-partisan political lobby organisation the Women's Electoral Lobby.

In 1978, Richardson contested the National Party's nomination for the Tasman seat. She won the nomination, but in the 1978 election itself, she failed to defeat incumbent Labour MP Bill Rowling (who was leader of his party at the time). In 1980, she was invited to contest the nomination for Selwyn, a National safe seat just outside Christchurch which was held by retiring MP Colin McLachlan. She won the nomination, and in the 1981 election, was elected to Parliament.

Early parliamentary career
Richardson was influenced by the neo-liberal thought of Milton Friedman and Friedrich Hayek. She quickly distinguished herself in the National Party caucus as a supporter of free market economics, privatisation, and trade liberalisation. This contrasted considerably with the views held by National Party Prime Minister Robert Muldoon, who favoured an interventionist approach based on significant overseas borrowing. Richardson's focus on financial matters was itself a cause for comment, as many female MPs (particularly in the National Party) had confined themselves to matters such as health and social welfare.

When National lost the 1984 election, Richardson became a member of the Opposition. Richardson stood out in National's caucus for her strong support of the radical economic reforms of the Labour Party's new Finance Minister, Roger Douglas. These reforms, sometimes known as "Rogernomics", involved the privatisation of state assets, the removal of tariffs and subsidies, and applying monetarism to control inflation. These reforms were seen by many in the Labour Party as being against the traditional policies of the left-wing Labour Party, but were also opposed by the more conservative wings of the National Party. Particularly hostile were followers of Robert Muldoon, a traditionalist conservative who opposed free market reforms as undermining state authority.

Shortly after National's electoral loss, Jim McLay replaced Muldoon as leader of the National Party and he appointed Richardson education spokesperson. In February 1986 there was a considerable rearrangement of responsibilities in the opposition. People such as Bill Birch and George Gair, who McLay associated with the Muldoon era, were demoted. They were replaced by newer MPs, such as Richardson and Simon Upton, who McLay believed would help revitalise the party. This move proved fatal to McLay personally, however, as the sacked Birch and Gair allied themselves with McLay's rival, Jim Bolger. Bolger ousted McLay and became party leader.

The change in leadership was damaging for Richardson, as Bolger (and many of his allies) strongly disliked her. This dislike was due to three main factors: anger at McLay's "favouritism" towards her, dislike of her advocacy for radical free-market economic policies, and dislike of her personality (which many colleagues found "abrasive" and "condescending"). When George Gair (elevated for his role in Bolger's rise to power) retired from the position of deputy leader, Richardson stepped forward for the position. Bolger, however, made it clear that he strongly opposed Richardson's candidacy, instead throwing his support behind Don McKinnon. McKinnon narrowly defeated Richardson by just one vote and became deputy leader.

Bolger did, however, make Richardson the party's spokesperson on finance in recognition of her strong showing for the deputy leadership. This was an attempt to pacify Richardson and her supporters, rather than an expression of confidence in her – it was well known that Bolger himself preferred the more cautious Bill Birch for the finance role. The move to defuse tension was only partially successful, and hostility between supporters of Bolger and supporters of Richardson remained. Many National politicians believed that Richardson sought to replace Bolger as leader, but even if Bolger was vulnerable, the two factions that opposed him (one led by Richardson and the other led by Winston Peters) were unwilling to cooperate. Bolger's leadership remained secure, and when his popularity rose, the window of opportunity was lost.

When Richardson gave birth during a recess in the 1980s, she had a room in Parliament set aside for her to breastfeed in (although a creche was not established until the 1990s).

Minister of Finance
When National came to power in the, Richardson had enough support within the party to be made Minister of Finance, a role Bolger would rather have given to Bill Birch. Many people believed that the National Party would adopt more cautious, conservative policies than the radical Labour government. On coming to office, however, the new Government was confronted with a much worse fiscal and economic position than the out-going Government had disclosed. In particular, the state-owned Bank of New Zealand required a multimillion-dollar recapitalization. The forecast budget surplus was quickly revised, upon National coming into office, to a large budget deficit. In response, the new government announced significant cuts to social welfare benefits, and reneged on National's 1990 election promise to remove the tax surcharge on superannuation (and even increased the rate of the surcharge from 20 to 25 per cent and lowered the tax exemption threshold).

Whilst employment law reform had been expressed in the 1990 manifesto, many National Party supporters, and some of its parliamentary caucus, were disappointed at the continuation of the policies established by Douglas. Richardson's first Budget, which she had jokingly dubbed the "Mother of all Budgets"—a term that would haunt her political career—compounded this unpopularity, as it significantly cut state spending in many areas as an attempt to bring deficits under control. Her policies were widely known as "Ruthanasia".

While she remained Finance Minister for the whole three-year term of the first Bolger government, this was a period marked by increasing tension within the Cabinet. Tax policy was an area where Richardson and the more moderate members of the Cabinet often failed to agree even the basics.

Although National was re-elected in the, it was by the narrowest of margins (one seat) and many people within the party believed that Richardson's presence was damaging to National. In addition, Bolger and his allies had still not been reconciled with her. In order to partially reflect the strong discontent in the electorate with the reform process (National arguably only won because the opposition vote was split between three parties) Richardson lost her role as Minister of Finance, and was offered the role of Minister of Justice. Richardson refused, preferring to take a role on the back-benches then called a by-election. She was replaced by Bill Birch. In 1993, Richardson was awarded the New Zealand Suffrage Centennial Medal.

Legacy
Though her period as Finance Minister was comparatively short, Richardson's legacy in subjects such as fiscal responsibility and economic liberty is large. Many of the reforms she championed have endured and remain an example for a modern Public Financial Management. With the first public sector balance sheet produced it was used to avoid a double down-grade to the Sovereign credit rating. In fact, New Zealand remains the only country that has introduced modern accounting and integrated its balance sheet with the budget, as a tool for its budgeting, appropriations, and financial reporting. Since these public sector reforms, New Zealand has achieved and maintained significantly positive net worth, notwithstanding several shocks to the economy, including the financial crisis of 2007–2008 and the Christchurch earthquake in 2011, where most comparable governments like Australia and Canada, or larger countries such as the UK and US, have a negative net worth.

The 2021 New Zealand budget presented by the Sixth Labour Government boosted levels for beneficiaries by the highest amount in decades in what was framed as a direct response to Richardson's 1991 "Mother of all Budgets" by largely restoring benefit levels. During the budget day speech, finance minister Grant Robertson pointed out that it had been 30 years since the 1991 budget saying that the 2021 budget would "address the most inequitable of the changes made 30 years ago." Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern commented that "On too many occasions in New Zealand’s history, the changes that leave an indelible mark on the next generation do so for the wrong reason." In response to the 1991 budget's legacy Richardson defended it saying "My budget was driven by a desire to lift economic growth and to make employment attractive." The cut in major benefits in the 1991 budget had long lasting effects on welfare and poverty in New Zealand. Benefits were effectively not raised until a small increase in 2016 under the Fifth National Government by finance minister Bill English, with the 2020 and 2021 budgets largely restoring the pre 1991 levels. Richardson's cut in benefits is largely seen as having corresponded with an increase in long term general poverty and wealth inequality in New Zealand.

Subsequent career
Ruth Richardson resigned from parliament in the following year, being replaced by David Carter as MP by the 1994 Selwyn by-election.

She continued to be involved in politics through her advocacy of the ACT New Zealand party. ACT, established by Roger Douglas and his allies, promotes policies very close to those of Richardson. She has also a number of roles related to business and corporate governance, and served on a number of corporate boards. She is also a member of the Mont Pelerin Society, founded by economist Friedrich Hayek.

Canterbury University made her an honorary Doctor of Commerce in 2011.

title: Ruth Richardson


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Condenser

Condenser may refer to:

Heat transfer

 * Condenser (heat transfer), a device or unit used to condense vapor into liquid. Specific types include:
 * HVAC air coils
 * Condenser (laboratory), a range of laboratory glassware used to remove heat from fluids
 * Surface condenser, a heat exchange installed in steam-electric power stations to condense turbine exhaust steam into water
 * Isolation condenser, an emergency passive system for cooling in some reactors (BWR/2, BWR/3 and SBWR series) in nuclear energy production

Steam engines

 * Condensing steam locomotive
 * Jet condenser
 * Surface condenser

Other uses

 * Condensers for collecting atmospheric moisture:
 * Air well (condenser)
 * Atmospheric water generator
 * Condenser (optics), a lens which gathers visible light and directs it onto a projection lens to concentrate it
 * Capacitor, formerly called a condenser, an electrical device that stores energy
 * Condenser microphone, a capacitor-based microphone that converts sound waves into an electrical signal
 * Synchronous condenser, a rotating machine similar to a motor, used to control AC power flow in electric power transmission

title: Condenser


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Duke of Silesia

The Duke of Silesia was the title of sons and descendants of the Polish Duke Bolesław III Wrymouth. In accordance with the last will and testament of Bolesław, upon his death his lands were divided into four or five hereditary provinces distributed among his sons, and a royal province of Kraków reserved for the eldest, who was to be High Duke of all Poland. This was known as the fragmentation of Poland. Subsequent developments lead to further splintering of the duchies.

At the beginning of the 14th century, fourteen independent Duchies existed in Silesia: Brzeg, Wrocław, Świdnica, Jawor, Ziębice, Głogów, Ścinawa, Żagan and Oleśnica in Lower Silesia; Koźle, Cieszyn, Bytom, Niemodlin, Opole, Strzelce, Racibórz and Opava in Upper Silesia and the ecclesiastical Duchy of Nysa. Between 1327 and 1329 most dukes accepted the overlordship of Bohemian king John of Bohemia, who acquired the right of succession for all of these duchies. In the coming centuries all branches of the Silesian Piasts died out, and with the death of George William, Duke of Liegnitz the dynasty ceased to exist.

Duchy of Silesia
The Duchy of Silesia, one of the hereditary provinces of Poland, Silesia, was granted to Bolesław III's eldest son, Władysław II the Exile, and was subsequently divided among his sons Bolesław I the Tall (Wrocław/Lower Silesia), Mieszko I Tanglefoot (Racibórz/Upper Silesia) and Konrad Spindleshanks (Głogów). After Konrad's death Głogów was again united with the Duchy of Wrocław/Lower Silesia.

Partitions of Silesia
In 1173 Bolesław returned and he agreed to let Mieszko and Bolesław rule in their own Duchies, separated from the Duchy of Silesia. This led to the creation of the Duchy of Racibórz for Mieszko I and the Duchy of Opole for Jarosław, beginning the fragmentation of the Duchy of Silesia. The territories controlled by Mieszko I and Jarosław roughly corresponded to what is known as Upper Silesia, while the territories remaining with Bolesław I roughly corresponded to Lower Silesia.

Lower Silesia
Duchy of Lower Silesia was a direct continuation of the Duchy of Silesia, but without the territories roughly corresponding to Upper Silesia; hence it was composed of the territories roughly corresponding to Lower Silesia. Some sources refer to it as the Duchy of Silesia; some as Duchy of Lower Silesia; others yet as the Duchy of Wrocław (Breslau). Wrocław was the capital of the Duchy of Silesia, yet this early (1172–1248) Duchy of Silesia should not be confused with the smaller Duchy of Wrocław that was created with further fragmentation in 1248. The Duchy went through various border changes in the coming years, sometimes losing and sometimes gaining territory. In 1248 Lower Silesia was divided when Bolesław II had to cede the Duchy of Wrocław to his younger brother Henry III.

Upper Silesia
Upper Silesia was divided into the Duchies of Cieszyn, and Opole-Racibórz. In 1340 the Duchy of Racibórz was united with Opava, a Bohemian fief.

Partitions of Polish Silesia under Piast dynasty
Below follows a simplified table of Silesia's partitions:

A quick reminder avoiding confusion:

Partitions of Bohemian Silesia under Přemyslid dynasty
Below follows a simplified table of Silesia's partitions:

Table of rulers
Notes:
 * The numbering of the Silesian Premyslid rulers is a problematic matter between scholars, as different sources numbers and orders them differently.

The Ecclesiastical Duchy of Nysa
Established in 1290 by High Duke Henry IV Probus, held by the Bishops of Wrocław Major part annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia after the First Silesian War in 1742. Prussian part secularised in 1810. Theocracy abolished in 1850.
 * 1302–1319 Henry of Wiebrzno
 * 1326–1341 Nankier
 * 1342–1376 Przecław of Pogarell
 * 1382–1417 Wenceslaus II of Legnica
 * 1417–1447 Konrad IV of Oleśnica
 * 1447–1456 Peter II Nowak
 * 1456–1467 Jošt of Rožmberk
 * 1468–1482 Rudolf of Rüdesheim
 * 1482–1506 Jan IV Roth
 * 1506–1520 Jan V Thurzo
 * 1520–1539 Jacob of Salza
 * 1539–1562 Balthazar of Promnitz
 * 1562–1574 Caspar of Logau
 * 1574–1585 Martin Gerstmann
 * 1585–1596 Andreas Jerin
 * 1596–1599 Bonaventura Hahn
 * 1599–1600 Paul Albert of Radolfzell
 * 1600–1608 Jan VI of Sitsch
 * 1608–1624 Charles of Austria, son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria
 * 1625–1655 Karol Ferdynand Vasa, Duke of Opole from 1648
 * 1656–1662 Leopold Wilhelm of Habsburg
 * 1663–1664 Charles Joseph of Habsburg, also Grand Master of the Teutonic Order from 1662
 * 1665–1671 Sebastian von Rostock
 * 1671–1682 Frederick of Hesse-Darmstadt
 * 1683–1732 Franz Ludwig von Pfalz-Neuburg
 * 1732–1747 Philipp Ludwig von Sinzendorf
 * 1747–1795 Philipp Gotthard von Schaffgotsch
 * 1795–1817 Joseph Christian Franz zu Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Bartenstein
 * 1823–1832 Emanuel von Schimonsky
 * 1835–1840 Leopold von Sedlnitzky
 * 1843–1844 Joseph Knauer
 * 1845–1850 Melchior von Diepenbrock

Sites
http://www.tacitus.nu/historical-atlas/regents/poland/silesia.htm

title: Duke of Silesia


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Talk:Reasons for the Decline of the Ottoman Empire

IMPORTANT! This is the daughter article of the Ottoman Empire article, made to relieve stress to that article. WhisperToMe 06:37, 13 Nov 2003 (UTC)


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USS Hancock (CV-19)

USS Hancock (CV/CVA-19) was one of 24 Essex-class aircraft carriers built during World War II for the United States Navy. Hancock was the fourth US Navy ship to bear the namesake of Founding Father John Hancock, president of the Second Continental Congress and first governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Hancock was commissioned in April 1944 and served in several campaigns in the Pacific Theater of Operations, earning four battle stars. Decommissioned shortly after the end of the war, she was modernized and recommissioned in the early 1950s as an attack carrier (CVA). In her second career, she operated exclusively in the Pacific, playing a prominent role in the Vietnam War, for which she earned a Navy Unit Commendation. She was the first US Navy carrier to have steam catapults installed. She was decommissioned in early 1976 and sold for scrap later that year.

Construction and commissioning
The ship was laid down as Ticonderoga on 26 January 1943 by Bethlehem Steel Co., Quincy, Massachusetts and subsequently renamed Hancock on 1 May 1943. This renaming was done in response to an offer from the John Hancock Life Insurance Company to conduct a special bond drive to raise money for the ship if that name was used. (The shipyard at Quincy was in the company's home state.) CV-14, originally laid down as Hancock and under construction at the same time in Newport News, Virginia, took the name Ticonderoga instead.

The company's bond drive raised enough money to both build the ship and operate her for the first year. The ship was launched 24 January 1944 by Mrs. Juanita Gabriel-Ramsey, the wife of Rear Admiral DeWitt Clinton Ramsey, Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics. Hancock was commissioned 15 April 1944, with Captain Fred C. Dickey in command.

World War II
After fitting out in the Boston Navy Yard and shake-down training off Trinidad and Venezuela, Hancock returned to Boston for alterations on 9 July 1944. She departed Boston on 31 July en route to Pearl Harbor via the Panama Canal and San Diego, and from there sailed on 24 September to join Admiral W. F. Halsey's 3rd Fleet at Ulithi on 5 October. She was assigned to Rear Admiral Gerald F. Bogan's Carrier Task Group 38.2 (TG 38.2).

The following afternoon, Hancock sailed for a rendezvous point 375 nmi west of the Marianas where units of Vice Admiral Mitscher's Fast Carrier Task Force 38 (TF 38) were to raid Japanese air and sea bases in the Ryūkyūs, Formosa, and the Philippines, to paralyze Japanese air power during General MacArthur's invasion of Leyte.

Philippines campaign

The armada arrived off the Ryukyu Islands on 10 October 1944, with Hancock 's planes destroying seven enemy aircraft on the ground and assisting in the destruction of a submarine tender, 12 torpedo boats, 2 midget submarines, four cargo ships, and a number of sampans.

Formosan air bases were targeted on 12 October. Hancock's pilots downed six Japanese planes and destroyed nine more on the ground. She also reported one cargo ship definitely sunk, three probably destroyed, and several others damaged.

As they repelled an enemy air raid that evening, Hancock's gunners accounted for a Japanese plane during seven hours of uninterrupted general quarters. The following morning her planes resumed their assault, knocking out ammunition dumps, hangars, barracks, and industrial plants ashore and damaging an enemy transport. As Japanese planes again attacked the Americans during their second night off Formosa, Hancock's antiaircraft fire brought down another raider which crashed about 500 yd off her flight deck.

As the American ships withdrew a heavy force of Japanese aircraft approached American naval power. One dropped a bomb off Hancock's port bow a few seconds before being hit by the carrier's guns and crashing into the sea. Another bomb penetrated a gun platform but exploded harmlessly in the water. The task force was thereafter unmolested as they sailed toward the Philippines to support the landings at Leyte.

On 18 October, she launched planes against airfields and shipping at Laoag, Aparri, and Camiguin Island in Northern Luzon. Her planes struck the islands of Cebu, Panay, Negros, and Masbate, pounding enemy airfields and shipping. The next day, she retired toward Ulithi with Vice Admiral John S. McCain, Sr.'s TG 38.1.

She received orders on 23 October to turn back to the area off Samar to assist in the search for units of the Japanese fleet reportedly closing Leyte to challenge the American fleet, and to destroy amphibious forces which were struggling to take the island from Japan. Hancock did not reach Samar in time to assist the escort carriers and destroyers of "Taffy 3" during the main action of the Battle off Samar, but her planes did manage to attack the fleeing Japanese Center Force as it passed through the San Bernardino Strait. Hancock then rejoined Rear Admiral Bogan's Task Group with which she struck airfields and shipping in the vicinity of Manila on 29 October 1944. During operations through 19 November, her planes gave direct support to advancing Army troops and attacked Japanese shipping over a 350 mi area. She became flagship of the Fast Carrier Task Force (TF 38) on 17 November 1944 when Admiral McCain came on board.

Unfavorable weather prevented operations until 25 November, when a kamikaze roared toward Hancock, diving out of the sun. Antiaircraft fire destroyed the plane some 300 ft above the ship, but a section of its fuselage landed amidships, and a part of the wing hit the flight deck and burst into flames. The blaze was quickly extinguished without serious damage.

Hancock returned to Ulithi on 27 November and departed from that island with her task group to maintain air patrol over enemy airfields on Luzon to prevent kamikazes from attacking amphibious vessels of the landing force in Mindoro. The first strikes were launched on 14 December against Clark and Angeles City Airfields as well as enemy ground targets on Salvador Island. The next day her planes struck installations at Masinloc, San Fernando, and Cabanatuan, while fighter patrols kept the Japanese airmen down. Her planes also attacked shipping in Manila Bay.

Hancock encountered Typhoon Cobra on 17 December 1944, in waves which broke over her flight deck, some 55 ft above her waterline. She put into Ulithi 24 December and got underway six days later to attack airfields and shipping around the South China Sea. Her planes struck at Luzon airfields on 7–8 January 1945 and turned their attention back to Formosa on 9 January, hitting airfields and the Toko Seaplane Station. An enemy convoy north of Camranh Bay, Indochina was the next target, with two ships sunk and 11 damaged. That afternoon Hancock launched strikes against airfields at Saigon and shipping on the northeastern bulge of French Indochina. Strikes by the fast and mobile carrier force continued through 16 January, hitting Hainan Island in the Gulf of Tonkin, the Pescadores Islands, and shipping in the harbor of Hong Kong. Raids against Formosa were resumed on 20 January. The next afternoon one of her planes returning from a sortie made a normal landing, taxied to a point abreast of the island, and disintegrated in a blinding explosion which killed 50 men and injured 75 others. Again outstanding work quickly brought the fires under control in time to land other planes which were still aloft. She returned to formation and launched strikes against Okinawa the next morning. Hancock reached Ulithi on 25 January, where Admiral McCain left the ship and relinquished command of the 5th Fleet.

Iwo Jima and Okinawa
She sortied with the ships of her task group on 10 February and launched strikes against airfields in the vicinity of Tokyo on 16 February. On that day, her air group, Air Group 80, downed 71 enemy planes and accounted for 12 more the next. Her planes hit the enemy naval bases at Chichi Jima and Haha Jima on 19 February, as part of a raid to isolate Iwo Jima from air and sea support during American landing. Hancock took station off this island to provide tactical support through 22 February, hitting enemy airfields and strafing Japanese troops ashore.

Returning to waters off the Japanese home islands, Hancock launched her planes against targets on northern Honshū, making a diversionary raid on the Nansei-shoto islands on 1 March before returning to Ulithi on 4 March 1945.

Back in Japanese waters, Hancock joined other carriers in strikes against Kyūshū airfields, southwestern Honshū and shipping in the Inland Sea of Japan on 18 March. Hancock was refueling the destroyer USS Halsey Powell (DD-686) on 20 March when kamikazes attacked the task force. One plane dove for the two ships but was disintegrated by gunfire when about 700 ft overhead. Fragments of the plane hit Hancock's deck while its engine and bomb crashed the fantail of the destroyer. Hancock's gunners shot down another plane as it neared the release point of its bombing run on the carrier.

Hancock was reassigned to Carrier TG 58.3 with which she struck the Nansei-shoto islands from 23 to 27 March and Minami Daito Island and Kyūshū at the end of the month.

Hancock provided close air support for the landing of the US 10th Army on the western coast of Okinawa on 1 April,. On 7 April a kamikaze struck her flight deck and hitting a group of planes while its bomb hit the port catapult; 62 men were killed and a further 71 wounded but the fires were put out within half an hour and she was back in action inside an hour.

Hancock was detached from her task group on 9 April and steamed to Pearl Harbor for repairs. She sailed back into action 13 June and attacked Wake Island on 20 June en route to the Philippines. Hancock sailed from San Pedro Bay with the other carriers on 1 July and attacked Tokyo airfields on 10 July. She continued to operate in Japanese waters until she received confirmation of Japan's capitulation on 15 August 1945 when she recalled her planes from their deadly missions before they reached their targets. However planes of her photo division were attacked by seven enemy aircraft over Sagami Wan. Three were shot down and a fourth escaped in a trail of smoke. Later that afternoon planes of Hancock's air patrol shot down a Japanese torpedo plane as it dived on a British task force. Her planes flew missions over Japan in search of prison camps, dropping supplies and medicine, on 25 August. Information collected during these flights led to landings under command of Commodore R. W. Simpson which brought doctors and supplies to all Allied prisoner of war encampments.

End of the war
When the formal surrender of the Japanese government was signed on board battleship USS Missouri (BB-63), Hancock's planes flew overhead. The carrier entered Tokyo Bay on 10 September 1945 and sailed on 30 September embarking 1,500 passengers at Okinawa for transportation to San Pedro, California, where she arrived on 21 October. Hancock was fitted out for Operation Magic Carpet duty at San Pedro and sailed for Seeadler Harbor, Manus, Admiralty Islands on 2 November. On her return voyage, she carried 4,000 passengers who were debarked at San Diego on 4 December. A week later Hancock departed for her second Magic Carpet voyage, embarking 3,773 passengers at Manila for return to Alameda, California, on 20 January 1946. She embarked Air Group 7 at San Diego on 18 February for air operations off the coast of California. She sailed from San Diego on 11 March to embark men of two air groups and aircraft at Pearl Harbor for transportation to Saipan, arriving on 1 April. After receiving two other air groups on board at Saipan, she loaded a cargo of aircraft at Guam and steamed by way of Pearl Harbor to Alameda, arriving on 23 April. She then steamed to Seattle, Washington, on 29 April to await inactivation. The ship was decommissioned and entered the reserve fleet at Bremerton, Washington.

Postwar career

Hancock commenced the SCB-27C conversion and modernization to an attack aircraft carrier in Puget Sound 15 December 1951 and was reclassified CVA-19 on 1 October 1952. She recommissioned on 15 February 1954, Captain W. S. Butts in command. She was the first carrier of the United States Fleet with steam catapults capable of launching high-performance jets. The modernization cost $60 million ($ today). She was off San Diego on 7 May 1954 for operations along the coast of California that included 17 June launching of the first aircraft to take off a United States carrier by means of a steam catapult. After a year of operations along the Pacific coast that included testing of Sparrow I and Regulus missiles and Cutlass jet aircraft, she sailed on 10 August 1955 for 7th Fleet operations ranging from the shores of Japan to the Philippines and Okinawa.

She returned to San Diego on 15 March 1956 and decommissioned on 13 April for her SCB-125 conversion that included the installation of an angled flight deck. Hancock recommissioned on 15 November 1956 for training out of San Diego until 6 April 1957, when she again sailed for Hawaii and the Far East. She returned to San Diego on 18 September 1957 and again departed for Japan on 15 February 1958. She was a unit of powerful carrier task groups taking station off Taiwan when the Nationalist Chinese islands of Quemoy and Matsu were threatened with Communist invasion in August 1958. The carrier returned to San Francisco on 2 October for overhaul in the San Francisco Naval Shipyard, followed by rigorous at-sea training out of San Francisco. On 1 August 1959, she sailed to reinforce the 7th Fleet as troubles in Laos demanded the watchful presence of powerful American forces in water off southeast Asia. She returned to San Francisco on 18 January 1960 and put to sea early in February to participate in the Communication Moon Relay project, a new demonstration of communications by reflecting ultra-high frequency waves off the moon. She again departed in August to steam with the 7th Fleet in waters off Laos until lessening of tension in that area permitted operations ranging from Japan to the Philippines.

Hancock returned to San Francisco in March 1961, then entered the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard for an overhaul that gave her new electronics gear and many other improvements. She again set sail for Far Eastern waters on 2 February 1962, patrolling in the South China Sea as crisis and strife mounted both in Laos and in South Vietnam. She again appeared off Quemoy and Matsu in June to stem a threatened Communist invasion there, then trained along the coast of Japan and in waters reaching to Okinawa. She returned to San Francisco on 7 October, made a brief cruise to the coast of Hawaii while qualifying pilots then again sailed on 7 June 1963 for the Far East.

Hancock joined in combined defense exercises along the coast of South Korea, then deployed off the coast of South Vietnam after the coup which resulted in the death of President Diem. She entered the Hunter's Point Naval Shipyard on 16 January 1964 for modernization that included installation of a new ordnance system, hull repairs, and aluminum decking for her flight deck. She celebrated her 20th birthday on 2 June while visiting San Diego. The carrier made a training cruise to Hawaii, then departed Alameda on 21 October for another tour of duty with the 7th Fleet in the Far East.

Vietnam War

Hancock reached Japan on 19 November and soon was on patrol at Yankee Station in the Gulf of Tonkin. She remained active in Vietnamese waters until heading for home early in the spring of 1965. November found the carrier steaming back to the war zone. She was on patrol off Vietnam on 16 December; and, but for brief respites at Hong Kong, the Philippines, or Japan, Hancock remained on station launching her planes for strikes at enemy positions ashore until returning to Alameda on 1 August 1966. Her outstanding record during this combat tour won her the Navy Unit Commendation.

Following operations off the West Coast, Hancock returned to Vietnam early in 1967 and resumed her strikes against Communist positions. After fighting during most of the first half of 1967, she returned to Alameda on 22 July and promptly began preparations for returning to battle.

In the summer of 1969, she was back in Alameda preparing for yet another deployment to southeast Asia. In July, while in pre-deployment night landing exercises, an F-8 came in too low and crashed into the round-down splitting the aircraft into two pieces which hurtled down the deck and erupted in a massive fuel-fed fire. While there were no deaths, damage to the flight deck was extensive, resulting in a frenetic 24 × 7 repair effort to be ready by the deployment date.

Aircraft from Hancock, along with those from USS Ranger (CV-61) and USS Oriskany (CV-34), joined with other planes for air strikes against North Vietnamese missile and antiaircraft sites south of the 19th parallel in response to attacks on unarmed U.S. reconnaissance aircraft on 21–22 November 1970 (Operation Freedom Bait). Hancock alternated with Ranger and USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63) on Yankee Station until 10 May 1971, when she was relieved by USS Midway (CV-41).

Hancock, along with USS Coral Sea (CV-43), was back on Yankee Station by 30 March 1972 when North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam. In response to the invasion, Naval aircraft from Hancock and other carriers flew tactical sorties during Operation Freedom Train against military and logistics targets in the southern part of North Vietnam. By the end of April, the strikes covered more areas in North Vietnam throughout the area below 20°25′ N. From 25 to 30 April 1972, aircraft from Hancock's VA-55, VA-164, VF-211 and VA-212 struck enemy-held territory around Kontum and Pleiku.

On 17 March 1975 Hancock was ordered to offload her air wing. On arrival at Subic Bay, she offloaded CAG 21. On 26 March, Marine Heavy Lift Helicopter Squadron HMH-463 comprising 25 CH-53, CH-46, AH-1J and UH-1E helicopters embarked on Hancock and then proceeded to Subic Bay to offload the other half of CAG 21. After taking on more helicopters at Subic Bay, Hancock was temporarily assigned to Amphibious Ready Group Bravo, standing by off Vung Tau, South Vietnam, but on 11 April she joined Amphibious Ready Group Alpha in the Gulf of Thailand. Hancock then took part in Operation Eagle Pull, the evacuation of Phnom Penh on 12 April 1975 and Operation Frequent Wind, the evacuation of Saigon on 29–30 April 1975. From 12 to 14 May, she was alerted, although not utilized, for the recovery of SS Mayagüez, a US merchantman with 39 crew, seized in international waters on 12 May by the Communist Khmer Rouge.

Decommissioning
Hancock was decommissioned on 30 January 1976. She was stricken from the Navy list the following day, and sold for scrap by the Defense Reutilization and Marketing Service (DRMS) on 1 September 1976. By January 1977, ex-Hancock was being scrapped in Los Angeles harbor and artifacts were being sold to former crew members and the general public, including items ranging from portholes to the anchor chain. The Associated Press noted that some of the scrap metal from the World War II-serving aircraft carrier would ironically be sold to Japan to manufacture automobiles.

Awards
Hancock was awarded the Navy Unit Commendation and received four battle stars on the Asiatic–Pacific Campaign Medal for service in World War II. She also earned 13 battle stars for service in Vietnam.

According to the US Navy Unit Awards website, Hancock and her crew received the following awards, in approximately chronological order:
 * Navy Unit Commendation for seven different time periods in World War II
 * Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal for Taiwan Straits from 26 August 1958 to 7 September 1958
 * Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal for Quemoy-Matsu from 14 September 1959 to 17 September 1959
 * Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal for Vietnam for five time periods that fell between 1 July 58 and 3 July 65
 * Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal for Korea for four time periods between 1 October 66 and 3 June 74
 * Navy Unit Commendation for service 6 December 1965 to 25 July 1966
 * Navy Unit Commendation for service 1 August 1968 to 22 February 1969
 * Meritorious Unit Commendation for service from 21 August 1969 to 31 March 1970
 * Meritorious Unit Commendation for service from 20 November 1970 to 7 May 1971
 * Navy Unit Commendation for service from 8 February 1972 to 14 September 1972
 * Vietnam Service Medal and Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation for numerous time periods during the Vietnam war
 * Operation Eagle Pull - 12 April 1975
 * Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal
 * Humanitarian Service Medal
 * Meritorious Unit Commendation
 * Operation Frequent Wind - 29 to 30 April 1975
 * Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal
 * Humanitarian Service Medal
 * Navy Unit Commendation

Hancock was also awarded:
 * American Campaign Medal
 * World War II Victory Medal
 * Navy Occupation Medal
 * National Defense Service Medal (2nd)
 * Sea Service Ribbon

title: USS Hancock (CV-19)


text:
Eurasian bullfinch

The Eurasian bullfinch, common bullfinch or bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula) is a small passerine bird in the finch family, Fringillidae. In Anglophone Europe it is known simply as the bullfinch, as it is the original bird to bear the name bullfinch.

Taxonomy and systematics
The Eurasian bullfinch was formally described in 1758 by Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Loxia pyrrhula. It is now placed in the genus Pyrrhula that was introduced in 1760 by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson. The Latin word pyrrhula comes from the Greek πυρρός (a flame-coloured bird, from πυρρός flame coloured, from πυρ fire : Pyrrha), a 'worm eating bird' that is mentioned by Aristotle. The Latin name pyrrhula for the Eurasian bullfinch had been used in 1555 by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner in his Historiae animalium.

Subspecies
Ten subspecies are recognised:
 * P. p. pileata MacGillivray, W, 1837 – British Isles
 * P. p. pyrrhula (Linnaeus, 1758) – north, south central and east Europe across to central Siberia
 * P. p. europaea Vieillot, 1816 – western Europe
 * P. p. iberiae Voous, 1951 – southwest France, northern Iberian Peninsula
 * P. p. rossikowi Derjugin & Bianchi, 1900 – northeast Turkey and the Caucasus
 * P. p. cineracea Cabanis, 1872 (Baikal bullfinch) – west Siberia and northeast Kazakhstan to east Siberia and northeast China
 * P. p. caspica Witherby, 1908 – Azerbaijan and north Iran
 * P. p. cassinii Baird, SF, 1869 – east Siberia
 * P. p. griseiventris Lafresnaye, 1841 – Kuril Islands and north Japan
 * P. p. rosacea Seebohm, 1882 – Sakhalin (island north of Japan)

The Azores bullfinch (P. murina), previously regarded as a subspecies of the Eurasian bullfinch, is now recognised as a separate species.

Description
The Eurasian bullfinch is a bulky bull-headed bird. The upper parts are grey; the flight feathers and short thick bill are black; as are the cap and face in adults (they are greyish-brown in juveniles), and the white rump and wing bars are striking in flight. The adult male has red underparts, but females and young birds have grey-buff underparts. It moults between July and October, but males do not have the duller autumn plumage that is typical of some other finches. The song of this unobtrusive bird contains fluted whistles, and is often described as 'mournful'. This Bullfinch's usual call is a quiet, low, melancholy whistled “peeu” or “pew.” The song is audible only at close range. It is a weak, scratchy warbling, alternating with soft whistles. Tamed bullfinches can be taught to repeat specific melodies.

Distribution and habitat
This bird breeds across Europe and temperate Asia. It is mainly resident, but many northern birds migrate further south in the winter. Mixed woodland with some conifers is favoured for breeding, including parkland and gardens.

Behaviour and ecology
This species does not form large flocks outside the breeding season, and is usually seen as a pair or family group.

Breeding
It builds its nest in a bush, (preferably more than four metres tall and wide), mature stands of scrub, or tree, laying four to seven pale blue eggs which are mottled with red-brown. It is peculiar among the Passeriformes for having spermatozoa with a rounded head and a blunt acrosome. This species produces two or three broods per season, from early May to mid-July. Nesting success increases progressively from April–May to June–July and August.

Food and feeding
The food is mainly seeds and buds of fruit trees, which can make it a pest in orchards: in England, for centuries every parish paid a bounty for every Eurasian bullfinch killed. Ash and hawthorn are favoured in autumn and early winter. If wild bird cover is planted for it, kale, quinoa and millet are preferred, next to tall hedges or woodland.

title: Eurasian bullfinch


text:
The Belly of an Architect

The Belly of an Architect is a 1987 drama film written and directed by Peter Greenaway, featuring original music by Glenn Branca and Wim Mertens. Starring Brian Dennehy and Chloe Webb, it was nominated for the Palme d'Or (Golden Palm) award at the 1987 Cannes Film Festival.

Plot
American architect Stourley Kracklite has been commissioned to construct an exhibition in Rome dedicated to the architecture of the 18th-century French architect, Étienne-Louis Boullée, who until the 20th century remained little known. Kracklite's Italian colleagues express doubts about whether Boullée really belongs in the architectural pantheon; they note that few of his buildings were ever constructed and observe that Boullée was an inspiration for Adolf Hitler's architect Albert Speer.

As he works on the exhibition, Kracklite's marriage and health deteriorate. He becomes obsessed with Caesar Augustus, the first emperor of the Roman Empire, after hearing that Augustus's wife, Livia, supposedly poisoned him. Suffering from recurrent stomach pains, he suspects his much younger wife, Louisa, of trying to do the same. Louisa reveals that she is pregnant with Kracklite's child, conceived at the precise moment their train crossed the Italian border. Meanwhile, she has become sexually involved with Caspasian Speckler, the younger co-organiser of the exhibition. We learn that Caspasian has also been siphoning off funds from the exhibition, even as he and his Italian associates undermine Kracklite's authority and confidence. Kracklite himself is seduced by Caspasian's sister Flavia, a photographer in her apartment across from the Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana. The two are discovered in flagrante by Caspasian, who threatens to tell Louisa.

Louisa leaves Kracklite, who is diagnosed with stomach cancer and given only months to live. The film ends at the exhibition's opening ceremony, nine months after their arrival in Italy. Kracklite, now replaced as director by Caspasian, watches from a high vantage point as Louisa cuts the tape. As she suddenly goes into labor, Kracklite jumps to his death.

Cast

 * Brian Dennehy as Stourley Kracklite
 * Chloe Webb as Louisa Kracklite
 * Lambert Wilson as Caspasian Speckler
 * Sergio Fantoni as Io Speckler
 * Stefania Casini as Flavia Speckler
 * Vanni Corbellini as Frederico
 * Alfredo Varelli as Julio
 * Geoffrey Copleston as Caspetti
 * Francesco Carnelutti as Pastarri
 * Marino Masé as Trettorio
 * Marne Maitland as Battistino
 * Claudio Spadaro as Mori
 * Rate Furlan as The Violinist
 * Julian Jenkins as Old Doctor
 * Enrica Maria Scrivano as Mother

Critical reception
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports 85% approval of The Belly of an Architect based on 13 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6/10.

title: The Belly of an Architect


text:
Flag of Hungary

The national flag of Hungary (Magyarország zászlaja) is a horizontal tricolour of red, white and green. In this exact form, it has been the official flag of Hungary since 23 May 1957. The flag's form originates from national republican movements of the 18th and 19th centuries, while its colours are from the Middle Ages. Examples of original surviving medieval charters of the Kingdom of Hungary where the seal was attached to the charter using braided cords of red, white and green silk: The current Hungarian tricolour flag is the same as the republican movement flag of the United Kingdom (used since 1816) and the colours in that form were already used at least since the coronation of Leopold II in 1790, predating the first use of the Cispadane Republic's tricolour in 1797.

Current flag
The modern flag of Hungary originated from the national freedom movement from before 1848, which culminated in the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. The revolution was not only in opposition against the monarchy but also the Habsburg Empire, as well as to form an independent republic. Accordingly, the flag of Hungary features a tricolour element which is based on the flag of France as a reflection of the ideas of the French Revolution of 1848; while red, white, and green are colours derived from the historical Hungarian coat of arms, which have essentially remained in the same form since the mid-15th century, with exception to some minor differences, and were marshalled from arms that first appeared in the late 12th and early 13th century as arms of the Árpáds, Hungary's founding dynasty. The stripes are horizontal rather than vertical to prevent confusion with the Italian flag despite the banner in that form predating the Italian tricolour by at least 7 years but unlike in Italy, the Italians adopted it as the flag of an Italian state in 1797. According to other data, but no evidence of, the recent form of the Hungarian tricolour had been already used from 1608 at the coronation of Mathias II of Hungary and following coronations. Folklore of the romantic period attributed the colours to virtues: red for strength, white for faithfulness and green for hope. Alternatively, red for the blood spilled for the fatherland, white for freedom and green for the land, for the pastures of Hungary. The new constitution, which took effect on 1 January 2012, makes the ex-post interpretation mentioned first official (in the semi-official translation: strength (erő), fidelity (hűség) and hope (remény)).

Evolution

As described above, the red, white and green tricolour clearly emerged as a sign of national sovereignty during the 1848–1849 revolution against the Habsburgs. Hungarian volunteers and Émigrés fought for the social movement and wars of Italian unification under the banner for Garibaldi. After the revolution in Hungary was defeated, the tricolour flag was prohibited by the Austrian Emperor. After the Compromise of 1867, however, the tricolour became not only legal, but also the official flag of Hungary. The flag had the so-called minor arms (also known as the Kossuth coat of arms) of Hungary with archangels as supporters were used as a badge on the flag. This configuration was used until the end of the Habsburg Empire in 1918.

After the fall of the Habsburg Empire, the years 1918 to 1920 were highly turbulent, and several hard-to-trace minor changes took place. The red-green-white tricolour stayed the same, but small differences emerged in terms of the badge. A short interlude and exception was the 1919 Hungarian Soviet Republic, which lasted for four-and-a-half months; it used a solid red banner.

It seems that from 1920 to 1944–1945 the tricolour displayed the minor arms of Hungary, but the version without them was also used.

Between 1946 and 1949 the crown was removed from the top of the arms serving as the badge.

With the onset of Communist rule in 1949, a new coat of arms featuring a Communist red star was placed on the flag as the badge.

During the anti-Soviet uprising in 1956, revolutionaries cut out the Hammer and Wheat emblem and used the resulting tricolour with a hole in the middle as the symbol of the revolution. For some months the new government changed the flag to bear the minor arms without the crown as the badge again.

In 1957, after the revolution was defeated by the Soviet Red Army, the new government created a "new" coat of arms, which however was never officially put onto the flag. Therefore, the official flag of Hungary has been a pure red-white-green tricolour since 1957.

After the fall of communism in 1989 there was no need to change the flag, as like the flags of Poland and Czechoslovakia, it did not bear any communist insignia.

There was a recommendation of the Committee of Symbols in the 2000s, that the coat of arms should be part of the state flag, while the national flag should remain plain (as is the status quo). This has not been implemented in law, though in case of most state use the arms are legally permitted on the flag (see below).

Exact description and legislature
The Hungarian Constitution does not explicitly state anything about the width:length ratio of the flag;  but, there is a law from 1957 that is in force stating that seagoing merchant vessels shall hoist the red, white and green tricolour in 2:3 ratio.

By a government decree from 2000, the ratio (which is neither defined in the Constitution nor in 1995 or 2000 legislation) of flags used on government building is 1:2.

Summarized, this would mean:
 * FIAV 100000.svg A red–white–green tricolour. Actually many variations might be used though according to 1995/LXXXIII §11 (3) "(3) In cases specified in paragraphs (1) and (2), the arms and the flag can be used also in their historical forms.", as (1) reads as: 1995/LXXXIII §11 (1) "(1) For the purpose of declaring their belonging to the nation, private persons can use the arms and the flag, subject to the limitations in this law."
 * FIAV 010000.svg red–white–green tricolour, ratio 1:2 (by decree from 2000). According to 1995/LXXXIII §11 (4), the official coat of arms of Hungary might be placed onto it as a badge.
 * FIAV 001000.svg White background with green red alternated flammulette ("flame tongues", triangles with wavy edge) border, coat of arms in the center, embraced by oak branches from the left, olive branches from the right. Ratio not defined. ( 1995/LXXXIII §8 (1) )
 * FIAV 000100.svg 2:3 (ratio defined by 1957 law) red-white-green tricolour (there is a merchant fleet)
 * FIAV 000010.svg Unknown or unspecified;
 * FIAV 000001.svg White background with green red alternated triangle border, coat of arms at 1/3 of the flag, nearer to the pole. Ratio not defined. ( 1995/LXXXIII §8 (2) )

Colours
The colours of the flag of Hungary are defined in the official document MSZ 1361:2009:

title: Flag of Hungary


text:
USS Hancock

Several ships of the United States Navy have been named USS Hancock or USS John Hancock, in honor of patriot, Founding Father, and statesman John Hancock.

 * USS Hancock (1775) was the former schooner Speedwell, one of a small flotilla hired in October 1775. She was declared unfit for service late in 1776, and returned to her owner early the following year.
 * USS Hancock (1776) was a sailing frigate commissioned in 1776 and captured by the British in 1777. Renamed HMS Iris, in 1781 she was captured by a French squadron. The French Navy sold her in 1784.
 * USS Hancock (1778), was a frigate launched 28 April 1778, and renamed USS Alliance (1778) by the Continental Congress to honor the entry of France into the war.
 * USS Hancock (AP-3), originally SS Arizona, was purchased by the United States Department of War, then transferred to the Navy in 1902, and used as a transport until 1925.
 * USS Hancock (CV-19), was an aircraft carrier originally named Ticonderoga, and renamed while under construction in 1943. Hancock was launched in 1944 and sold for scrap in 1976.

title: USS Hancock


text:
Polish Livonia

Polish Livonia may refer to:

 * Duchy of Livonia, a dominion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
 * Inflanty Voivodeship, a district of the Duchy of Livonia (1561–1621) that was retained by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after the Treaty of Oliva in 1660

title: Polish Livonia


text:
Hawfinch

The hawfinch (Coccothraustes coccothraustes) is a passerine bird in the finch family Fringillidae. It is the only species placed in the genus Coccothraustes. Its closest living relatives are the Chinese grosbeak (Eophona migratoria) and Japanese grosbeak (Eophona personata) of East Asia, the evening grosbeak (Hesperiphona vespertina) of North America, and hooded grosbeak (Hesperiphona abeillei) of Central America.

This bird breeds across Europe and temperate Asia (Palearctic). It is mainly resident in Europe, but many Asian birds migrate further south in the winter. It is a rare vagrant to the western islands of Alaska.

Deciduous or mixed woodland, including parkland, with large trees – especially hornbeam – is favoured for breeding. The hawfinch builds its nest in a bush or tree, and lays 2–7 eggs. The food is mainly seeds and fruit kernels, especially those of cherries, which it cracks with its powerful bill. This large finch species is usually seen in a pair or small group.

The 16.5–18 cm long hawfinch is a bulky bull-headed bird, which appears very short-tailed in flight. Its head is orange-brown with a black eyestripe and bib, and a massive bill, which is black in summer but paler in winter. The upper parts are dark brown and the underparts orange.

The white wing bars and tail tip are striking in flight. The sexes are similar. The call is a hard chick. The song of this unobtrusive bird is quiet and mumbled.

Taxonomy
The hawfinch was described and illustrated by Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner in his Historiae animalium in 1555. He used the Latin name Coccothraustes which is derived from the Greek: kokkos is a seed or kernel and thrauō means to break or to shatter. In 1758 Carl Linnaeus included the species in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Loxia coccothraustes. The hawfinch was moved to a separate genus Coccothraustes by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. The English name 'hawfinch' was used by the ornithologist Francis Willughby in 1676. Haws are the red berries of the common hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna).

Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that the hawfinch is closely related to other grosbeaks in the Eophona, Hesperiphona and Mycerobas genera. Finches with large beaks in the Rhynchostruthus and Rhodospiza genera are not closely related. The similar bill morphology is the result of convergence due to the similar feeding behaviour.

Fossil record:
 * Coccothraustes balcanicus (Late Pliocene/Late Villafranchian of Slivnitsa, western Bulgaria)
 * Coccothraustes simeonovi (Late Pliocene/Middle Villafranchian of Varshets, western Bulgaria)

There are six recognised subspecies:
 * C. c. coccothraustes (Linnaeus, 1758) – Europe to central Siberia and northern Mongolia
 * C. c. buvryi Cabanis, 1862 – Northwest Africa
 * C. c. nigricans Buturlin, 1908 – southern Ukraine, the Caucasus, northeastern Turkey and northern Iran
 * C. c. humii Sharpe, 1886 – southern Kazakhstan, eastern Uzbekistan and northeastern Afghanistan
 * C. c. schulpini Johansen, H, 1944 – southeastern Siberia, northeastern China and Korea
 * C. c. japonicus Temminck & Schlegel, 1848 – the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Kuril Islands, Sakhalin and Japan

Description
The hawfinch has an overall length of 18 cm, with a wingspan that ranges from 29 to 33 cm. It weighs 46 - 70 g with the male being on average slightly heavier than the female. It is a robust bird with a thick neck, large round head and a wide, strong conical beak with a metallic appearance. It has short pinkish legs with a light hue and it has a short tail. It has brown eyes. The plumage of the female is slightly paler than that of the male. The overall colour is light brown, its head having an orange hue to it. Its eyes have a black circle around them, extending to its beak and surrounding it at its edge. Its throat is also black. The sides of its neck, as well as the back of its neck, are gray. The upper side of its wings are a deep black colour. The wings also have three stripes from approximately the middle till their sides: a white, a brown and a blue stripe. Adults moults between July and September.

Distribution and habitat
The hawfinch is distributed in the whole of Europe, Eastern Asia (Palearctic including North Japan), and North Africa (Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria). It has also been sighted in Alaska, but this is reported as an accidental presence. It is not found in Iceland, parts of the British Isles, or certain Mediterranean islands. It is however found in southern Europe, such as in Spain and Bulgaria, as well as in central Europe, including parts of England and southern Sweden. The hawfinch's range has extended further north since the 1950s, and is now found as far north as Northern Norway. In Asia it can be found in the Caucasus, northern Iran, Afghanistan, Turkistan, Siberia, Manchuria and North Korea.

The hawfinch typically inhabits deciduous forests during the spring to have offspring, often in trees that bear fruit, such as oak trees. They also incur into human areas, such as parks and gardens. They can also be found in pine woods, as long as there is a source of water in the vicinity. During autumn and winter they seek food-providing forests, especially those with cherry and plum trees. As for height, the hawfinch is present in any altitude up to that which is limited by the size of the trees.

British Isles
In the 18th century, the hawfinch was recorded as only a rare winter visitor in Britain. The first breeding record was early in the 19th century; by the early 1830s, a well-documented colony was established at Epping Forest in Essex, and breeding was also recorded in other counties east and south of London. Further expansion of the range continued through the 19th and 20th centuries, with breeding occurring as far north as Aberdeenshire by 1968–1972. Peak numbers were in the period 1983–1990. Subsequently, there has been a significant decline of between 37% and 45% between 1990–1999.

Southeastern England is the stronghold of the hawfinch in Britain. One well-known site is Bedgebury Pinetum, where flocks gather to roost in winter. The species is also found in the New Forest; a central roost site exists here, at the Blackwater Arboretum. The only Sussex stronghold is at Westdean Woods in West Sussex, while in Surrey they are regularly seen at Bookham Common in winter. Formerly, hawfinches were regularly encountered in the Windsor Great Park area in winter, though no sizeable gatherings have been reported since the mid-1990s. The recent (2007–11) BTO Bird Atlas shows no evidence of the hawfinch breeding anywhere in this area; the reasons why are unclear.

In Devon (southwestern England), the hawfinch is largely confined to the upper Teign Valley. In western England and Wales, two areas in which hawfinches reliably occur are the Forest of Dean and the Wyre Forest. In Eastern England, the hawfinch is present in the Breckland of East Anglia. In northern England, hawfinches are regularly found in a small number of locations. Prime sites include Fountains Abbey in Yorkshire and Hulne Park in Northumberland. Hawfinches can be seen at Cromford (Derbyshire) near the canal and the parish church, Rufford Abbey (Nottinghamshire) near the car-park, and at Clumber Park (Nottinghamshire) near the chapel. In Scotland, Scone Palace near Perth is the most well-known site in Scotland for hawfinches. Formerly, they also occurred in the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. In Ireland, they are an annual winter visitor in small numbers: they are most often seen at Curraghchase Forest Park in County Limerick, where a flock of between 15 and 30 birds occurs each winter. A few birds also turn up in Dublin most years.

Behaviour and ecology
The hawfinch is a shy species, and therefore difficult to observe and study. It spends most of the day on top of high branches, above all during breeding season. During the course of the hawfinch's life it can only be seen on the ground while looking for seeds or drinking water, always near trees. While drinking and eating it is fairly aggressive and dominant, towards both its same species or different ones, even bigger birds. It guards a quite small territory when its chicks are born; however, when not bearing any offspring it is known to guard entire woods. This is interpreted as an evolutionary advantage, given colony rearing is seen as safer against nest predators.

Breeding
Hawfinches first breed when they are 1 year old. They are monogamous, with a pair-bond that sometimes persists from one year to the next. Pair-formation takes place before the breakup of the wintering flocks. The date for breeding is dependent on the spring temperature and is earlier in southwest Europe and later in the northeast. In Britain, most clutches are laid between late April and late June.

Hawfinches engage in an elaborate series of courtship routines. The two birds stand apart facing one another and reach out to touch their bills. The male displays to the female by standing erect, puffing out the feathers on his head, neck and chest and allowing his wings to droop forward. He then makes a deep bow. The male will also lower a wing and move it in a semi-circular arc, revealing his wing bars and modified wing feathers. The breeding pairs are usually solitary, but they occasionally breed in loose groups. The nest is normally located high in a tree on a horizontal branch with easy access from the air. The male chooses the site of the nest and builds a layer of dry twigs. After a few days, the female takes over. The nest is untidy and is formed of a bulky twig base and a shallow cup lined with roots, grasses and lichens. The eggs are laid in early morning at daily intervals. The clutch is normally 4–5 eggs. There is considerable variable in the colour and shape of the eggs. They have purple brown and pale grey squiggles on a background that can be buff, grey-green or pale blueish. The average size is 24.1 x with a calculated weight of 3.89 g. The eggs are incubated for 11–13 days by the female. The nestlings are fed by both parents, who regurgitate seeds but also bring mouthfuls of caterpillars. Initially, the male normally passes the food to the female who feeds the chicks, but as they grow bigger both adults feed them directly. The female broods the chicks while they are in the nest. They fledge after 12–14 days and the young birds become independent of their parents around 30 days later. The parents generally only raise a single brood each year.

The hawfinch is highly unusual among cardueline finches in that the male bird chooses the nest site and starts the construction. In other species the female performs these roles. The hawfinch is also unusual in that the nest is kept clean by the parents removing the faecal sacs of the nestlings right up to the time when the chicks fledge. This behaviour is shared by the Eurasian bullfinch, but most finches cease to remove the faecal material after the first few days.

The annual survival rate is not known. The maximum age obtained from ring-recovery data is 12 years and 7 months for a bird in Germany.

Feeding
The hawfinch feeds primarily on hard seeds from trees, as well as fruit seeds, which it obtains with the help of its strong beak with accompanying jaw muscles. Its jaw muscles exert a force equivalent to a load of approximately 30–48 kg. Thus it can break through the seeds of cherries and plums. Other common sources of food include pine seeds, berries, sprouts and the occasional caterpillar and beetle. They can also break through olive seeds. The bird is known to eat in groups, especially during the winter.

Flight
Its flight is quick and its trajectory is straight over short distances. During long flights periodical undulations can be observed in their flight pattern. While on the ground scavenging it hops, and they are quick to fly away at the slightest noise. They are observed to catch insects mid-flight. They fly up to a height of 200 m and they are seen to fly in groups, as well as alone.

Migration
The hawfinch is a partial migrant, with northern flocks migrating towards the South during the winter, as shown by ringing techniques. These same studies showed that those hawfinches inhabiting habitats with a temperate climate would often have sedentary behaviour. A few migrants from northern Europe reach Britain in autumn and some are seen on the Northern Isles in spring.

Status
The European population of the hawfinch is estimated to be between 7,200,000 and 12,600,000 individuals. Assuming that the European range is between 25 percent and 49 percent of the global range, a tentative figure for the global population size is 14,700,000–50,400,000 individuals. States with large populations include Romania (500,000–1,000,000 pairs), Croatia (250,000–500,000 pairs) and Germany (200,000–365,000 pairs). Although the global population appears to be stable, the population within the United Kingdom underwent a 76 percent reduction between 1968 and 2011. In 2013 it was estimated that there were only 500–1000 breeding pairs. The reasons for this decline are not understood. Given the high numbers and huge breeding area, the hawfinch is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern.

title: Hawfinch


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Castoridae

Castoridae is a family of rodents that contains the two living species of beavers and their fossil relatives. A formerly diverse group, only a single genus is extant today, Castor. Two other genera of "giant beavers", Castoroides and Trogontherium, became extinct in the Late Pleistocene.

Characteristics
Castorids are medium-sized mammals, although large compared with most other rodents. They are semiaquatic, with sleek bodies and webbed hind feet, and are more agile in the water than on land. Their tails are flattened and scaly, adaptations that help them manoeuvre in the water. Castorids live in small family groups that each occupy a specific territory, based around a lodge and dam constructed from sticks and mud. They are herbivores, feeding on leaves and grasses in the summer, and woody plants such as willow in the winter. They have powerful incisors and the typical rodent dental formula:

Evolution
The earliest castorids belong to the genus Agnotocastor, known from the late Eocene and Oligocene of North America and Asia. Other early castorids included genera such as Steneofiber, from the Oligocene and Miocene of Europe, the earliest member of the subfamily Castorinae, which contains castorids closely related to living beavers. Their teeth were not well suited to gnawing wood, suggesting this habit evolved at a later point, but they do appear adapted to semiaquatic living. Later, such early species evolved into forms such as Palaeocastor from the Miocene of Nebraska. Palaeocastor was about the size of a muskrat, and dug corkscrew-shaped burrows up to 2.5 m deep.

Giant forms evolved in the Pleistocene, including Trogontherium in Europe, and Castoroides in North America. The latter animal was as large as a black bear, yet had a brain only marginally larger than that of modern beavers. Its shape suggests it would have been a good swimmer, and it probably lived in swampy habitats.

Taxonomy
McKenna and Bell divided Castoridae into two subfamilies, Castoroidinae and Castorinae. More recent studies have recognized two additional subfamilies of basal castorids, Agnotocastorinae and Palaeocastorinae, which is followed here. Within the family, Castorinae and Castoroidinae are sister taxa; they share a more recent common ancestor with each other than with members of the other two subfamilies. Both subfamilies include semiaquatic species capable of constructing dams. The Palaeocastorinae include beavers that are interpreted as fossorial (burrowing), as are nothodipoidins and Migmacastor. The following taxonomy is based on Korth and Rybczynski, with preference given to the latter where these differ.

 * Family Castoridae
 * †Migmacastor
 * Subfamily †Agnotocastorinae (paraphyletic)
 * Tribe †Agnotocastorini
 * †Agnotocastor
 * †Neatocastor
 * Tribe †Anchitheriomyini
 * †Anchitheriomys
 * †Propalaeocastor
 * †Oligotheriomys
 * Subfamily †Palaeocastorinae
 * †Palaeocastor
 * †Capacikala
 * †Pseudopalaeocastor
 * Tribe †Euhapsini
 * †Euhapsis
 * †Fossorcastor
 * Subfamily †Castoroidinae
 * †Priusaulax (placement in Castoroidinae questionable)
 * Tribe †Nothodipoidini
 * †Eucastor
 * †Microdipoides
 * †Nothodipoides
 * Tribe †Castoroidini (paraphyletic)
 * †Monosaulax
 * †Prodipoides
 * †Dipoides
 * †Castoroides
 * †Procastoroides
 * Tribe †Trogontheriini
 * †Trogontherium
 * †Boreofiber
 * †Euroxenomys
 * †Youngofiber
 * †Asiacastor
 * Subfamily Castorinae
 * †Chalicomys (also incorrectly "Palaeomys")
 * †Steneofiber
 * †Zamolxifiber
 * †Romanofiber
 * †Schreuderia
 * †Sinocastor
 * †Hystricops
 * Castor - modern beavers
 * North American beaver, Castor canadensis
 * Eurasian beaver, Castor fiber
 * †Castor californicus

title: Castoridae