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Walter Breen

Walter Henry Breen Jr. (September 5, 1928 – April 27, 1993) was an American numismatist, writer, and convicted child sex offender. He was known among coin collectors for writing Walter Breen's Complete Encyclopedia of U.S. and Colonial Coins. "Breen numbers", from his encyclopedia, are widely used to attribute varieties of coins. He was also known for activity in the science fiction fan community and for his writings in defense of pederasty as a NAMBLA activist. He was arrested in 1990 for child sex abuse and died in prison three years later.

From 1964 to 1990 Breen was married to popular science fiction and fantasy author Marion Zimmer Bradley; it was later revealed that Bradley had been aware of his crimes.

Early life
Breen was born in San Antonio, Texas, the son of Walter Henry Breen Sr. and Mary Helena (Nellie) Brown Mehl. He spent the first several years of his life in Texas with his parents.

At the time they met, both of Walter's parents were married to other people and living next door to each other in Parkersburg, West Virginia. Walter's father changed his own name from Walter H. Green to Breen after abandoning his wife and children to run away with Walter's mother. Later in life, Breen sometimes denied they were his birth parents and claimed to have been adopted by them as a foundling child. In reminiscences he spoke of being raised in a variety of "institutional and foster settings."

The 1940 census shows young Breen living in a Catholic orphanage in West Virginia, with his (by then) divorced mother living as a housekeeper in a Catholic church rectory less than 2 mi away. Walter's father was by that time living with another woman in Chicago; for a while after their separation his mother resumed her maiden name and young Walter went by the name William Brown.

Breen strove to distinguish himself academically from a young age, attending a Catholic high school in Wheeling, West Virginia, and continued excelling academically throughout his postsecondary education. After being declared unfit for service by the United States Army Air Forces in April 1946, Breen was accepted that October with a recorded IQ of 144; following a severe beating, he was honorably discharged that December.

During his recovery, he read voluminously about rare coins and initiated correspondence with various members of the numismatics community, renewing his involvement in a hobby in which he had been actively engaged a few years earlier. Alternatively, Breen claimed that a severe head injury suffered in a World War II plane crash led to the development of his photographic memory.

He received his Bachelor of Arts in mathematics from Johns Hopkins University in 1952. He later claimed he finished four years of coursework in approximately ten months, concealing the fact that as a high-IQ teenage prodigy he had already completed two years at Georgetown University during World War II, followed by a brief stint at a small Catholic college in Texas. After graduating Phi Beta Kappa, he took a position as an auction cataloger for the New Netherland Coin Company while concurrently enrolled in pre-med courses at Columbia University, where he became a protege of the controversial psychologist and numismatist William Herbert Sheldon.

Breen had a longtime interest in studying high-IQ youth, which included taking out advertisements in the early 1960s for a projected private school for gifted children which Breen hoped to launch in New York City, a project which came to nothing in the end. William Sheldon worked closely with Breen on a number of coin-related projects in the 1950s, including the book Penny Whimsy, and although Sheldon encouraged Breen to attend medical school, he eventually distanced himself from the scientist, allegedly, per Breen in an interview, in part due to Sheldon's professed anti-Semitism.

Breen eventually enrolled in the sociology graduate program at the University of California, Berkeley, where he claimed to have researched "the Beat Generation groups on both coasts but also some of the very earliest hippies, finding out incidentally that some ideas that the bunch of us had developed in science fiction fandom had gotten into the hippie subculture and were being paraded around as their own inventions." He received his M.A. in the sociology of music from the institution in 1966.

Writings
In March 1951, the journal The Numismatist published his earliest numismatics writings, including How Our Coinage Became Mechanized. Two years later he completed his first book on American coins, Proof Coins Struck by the United States Mint, 1817–1901.

Breen also spent considerable time compiling information on the history of homosexuality and pederasty. His research, unprecedented in its extensive treatment of the history but not adhering to the standards of scholarly research, formed the basis for his 1964 book Greek Love, which he published under the pseudonym "J.Z. Eglinton". Breen collaborated with Warren Johansson in researching the book. He dedicated the book to his wife, Marion Zimmer Bradley (unnamed in the dedication), who edited it. He also published a journal, The International Journal of Greek Love, under the same pseudonym. As "Eglinton" Breen made an appearance and spoke at the founding convention of NAMBLA in 1978.

His other interests included dirty limericks and fortune cookies. He self-published monographs on both subjects.

Arrests and convictions
Breen was initially convicted of child molestation or lewd behavior in Atlantic City in 1954, resulting in a probationary sentence. In 1963–1964, allegations of further sex crimes caused within science fiction fandom a controversy known as "Breendoggle"; Breen was banned from attending Pacificon II and briefly blackballed from the subculture's main amateur press association. Nevertheless, prominent fans of the era (such as John Boardman and Ted White) dismissed the allegations as hearsay and "character assassination," and the scandal blew over. Shortly thereafter, Breen married Bradley, who was cognizant of his behavior but chose not to report him. A further molestation conviction may have occurred in 1964.

Breen was again arrested on child molestation charges in 1990. He accepted a plea bargain, which resulted in three years' probation.

A year later, he was charged with eight felony counts of child molestation involving a 13-year-old boy. Though diagnosed with liver cancer in 1992, he was sentenced to 10 years in prison. He died in prison in Chino, California on April 27, 1993.

In 2014, Breen's daughter Moira Greyland revealed that she was one of the people who reported her father for child molestation.

Personal life
In addition to his employment with First Coinvestors, Inc., where he was an officer for many years, Breen was an active member of the science fiction fan community for much of his life. He wrote for fanzines, and took over editorship of the fanzine Fanac from Terry Carr and Ron Ellik.

He married science fiction writer Marion Zimmer Bradley on June 3, 1964, her 34th birthday. They had two children and separated in 1979. After their separation, Breen moved to Oakland, California. Bradley remained his principal employer. They officially divorced on May 9, 1990.

He regularly wore his Phi Beta Kappa key as a zipper pull on the fly of his pants. He joined Mensa in 1958 or 1959, possibly the first American to do so.

A user of marijuana and LSD, Breen believed in reincarnation, often recounting putative past lives in Atlantis, ancient Greece, and other mythological and historical epochs.

Selected publications

 * Walter Breen's Complete Encyclopedia of U.S. and Colonial Coins New York: Doubleday, 1988.
 * Walter Breen's Encyclopedia of United States Half Cents 1793–1857 South Gate: American Institute of Numismatic Research, 1983.
 * California Pioneer Fractional Gold: Historic gold rush small change 1852–1856 and suppressed jewelers' issues 1859–1882 (with Ronald Gillio) Santa Barbara: Pacific Coast Auction Galleries, 1983.
 * The Encyclopedia of United States Silver & Gold Commemorative Coins 1892 to 1954 (with Anthony Swiatek) New York: Arco Pub./F.C.I. Press, 1981.
 * The Darkover Concordance: A Reader's Guide Berkeley: Pennyfarthing Press, 1979.
 * Walter Breen's Encyclopedia of United States and Colonial Proof Coins, 1722- 1977 New York: Arco Pub./F.C.I. Press, 1977.
 * The Gemini Problem: A Study in Darkover (chapbook) Baltimore: T.K. Graphics, 1975.
 * The Minting Process: How Coins are Made and Mismade Los Angeles: American Institute of Professional Numismatists, 1970.
 * Greek Love (as J.Z. Eglinton, with Warren Johansson) New York: Oliver Layton Press, 1964.
 * Dies & Coinage New York: QWERTYUIOPress, 1962.
 * Penny Whimsy: A Revision of Early American Cents 1793-1814, An Exercise in Descriptive Classification with Tables of Rarity and Value (with William Herbert Sheldon and Dorothy I. Paschal) New York: Durst Publications, 1958.
 * Lusty Limericks & Bawdy Ballads (monograph self-published in 1956)

title: Walter Breen


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Hyperventilation

Hyperventilation is irregular breathing that occurs when the rate or tidal volume of breathing eliminates more carbon dioxide than the body can produce. This leads to hypocapnia, a reduced concentration of carbon dioxide dissolved in the blood. The body normally attempts to compensate for this homeostatically, but if this fails or is overridden, the blood pH will rise, leading to respiratory alkalosis. The symptoms of respiratory alkalosis include dizziness, tingling in the lips, hands, or feet, headache, weakness, fainting, and seizures. In extreme cases, it may cause carpopedal spasms, a flapping and contraction of the hands and feet.

Factors that may induce or sustain hyperventilation include: physiological stress, anxiety or panic disorder, high altitude, head injury, stroke, respiratory disorders such as asthma, pneumonia, or hyperventilation syndrome, cardiovascular problems such as pulmonary embolisms, anemia, an incorrectly calibrated medical respirator, and adverse reactions to certain drugs. Hyperventilation can also be induced intentionally to achieve an altered state of consciousness such as in the choking game, during breathwork, or in an attempt to extend a breath-hold dive.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hyperventilation


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Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectricity, or hydroelectric power, is electricity generated from hydropower (water power). Hydropower supplies one sixth of the world's electricity, almost 4,500 TWh in 2020, which is more than all other renewable sources combined and also more than nuclear power. Hydropower can provide large amounts of low-carbon electricity on demand, making it a key element for creating secure and clean electricity supply systems. A hydroelectric power station that has a dam and reservoir is a flexible source, since the amount of electricity produced can be increased or decreased in seconds or minutes in response to varying electricity demand. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, it produces no direct waste, and almost always emits considerably less greenhouse gas than fossil fuel-powered energy plants. However, when constructed in lowland rainforest areas, where part of the forest is inundated, substantial amounts of greenhouse gases may be emitted.

Construction of a hydroelectric complex can have significant environmental impact, principally in loss of arable land and population displacement. They also disrupt the natural ecology of the river involved, affecting habitats and ecosystems, and siltation and erosion patterns. While dams can ameliorate the risks of flooding, dam failure can be catastrophic.

In 2021, global installed hydropower electrical capacity reached almost 1,400 GW, the highest among all renewable energy technologies. Hydroelectricity plays a leading role in countries like Brazil, Norway and China. but there are geographical limits and environmental issues. Tidal power can be used in coastal regions.

China added 24 GW in 2022, accounting for nearly three-quarters of global hydropower capacity additions. Europe added 2 GW, the largest amount for the region since 1990. Meanwhile, globally, hydropower generation increased by 70 TWh (up 2%) in 2022 and remains the largest renewable energy source, surpassing all other technologies combined.

History

Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. In the late 18th century hydraulic power provided the energy source needed for the start of the Industrial Revolution. In the mid-1770s, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture Hydraulique, which described vertical- and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines, and in 1771 Richard Arkwright's combination of water power, the water frame, and continuous production played a significant part in the development of the factory system, with modern employment practices. In the 1840s the hydraulic power network was developed to generate and transmit hydro power to end users.

By the late 19th century, the electrical generator was developed and could now be coupled with hydraulics. The growing demand arising from the Industrial Revolution would drive development as well. In 1878, the world's first hydroelectric power scheme was developed at Cragside in Northumberland, England, by William Armstrong. It was used to power a single arc lamp in his art gallery. The old Schoelkopf Power Station No. 1, US, near Niagara Falls, began to produce electricity in 1881. The first Edison hydroelectric power station, the Vulcan Street Plant, began operating September 30, 1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin, with an output of about 12.5 kilowatts. By 1886 there were 45 hydroelectric power stations in the United States and Canada; and by 1889 there were 200 in the United States alone.

At the beginning of the 20th century, many small hydroelectric power stations were being constructed by commercial companies in mountains near metropolitan areas. Grenoble, France held the International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism, with over one million visitors 1925. By 1920, when 40% of the power produced in the United States was hydroelectric, the Federal Power Act was enacted into law. The Act created the Federal Power Commission to regulate hydroelectric power stations on federal land and water. As the power stations became larger, their associated dams developed additional purposes, including flood control, irrigation and navigation. Federal funding became necessary for large-scale development, and federally owned corporations, such as the Tennessee Valley Authority (1933) and the Bonneville Power Administration (1937) were created. Additionally, the Bureau of Reclamation which had begun a series of western US irrigation projects in the early 20th century, was now constructing large hydroelectric projects such as the 1928 Hoover Dam. The United States Army Corps of Engineers was also involved in hydroelectric development, completing the Bonneville Dam in 1937 and being recognized by the Flood Control Act of 1936 as the premier federal flood control agency.

Hydroelectric power stations continued to become larger throughout the 20th century. Hydropower was referred to as "white coal". Hoover Dam's initial 1,345 MW power station was the world's largest hydroelectric power station in 1936; it was eclipsed by the 6,809 MW Grand Coulee Dam in 1942. The Itaipu Dam opened in 1984 in South America as the largest, producing 14 GW, but was surpassed in 2008 by the Three Gorges Dam in China at 22.5 GW. Hydroelectricity would eventually supply some countries, including Norway, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Paraguay and Brazil, with over 85% of their electricity.

Future potential
In 2021 the International Energy Agency (IEA) said that more efforts are needed to help limit climate change. Some countries have highly developed their hydropower potential and have very little room for growth: Switzerland produces 88% of its potential and Mexico 80%. In 2022, the IEA released a main-case forecast of 141 GW generated by hydropower over 2022–2027, which is slightly lower than deployment achieved from 2017–2022. Because environmental permitting and construction times are long, they estimate hydropower potential will remain limited, with only an additional 40 GW deemed possible in the accelerated case.

Modernization of existing infrastructure
In 2021 the IEA said that major modernisation refurbishments are required.

Conventional (dams)
Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator. The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's outflow. This height difference is called the head. A large pipe (the "penstock") delivers water from the reservoir to the turbine.

Pumped-storage
This method produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, the excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir, thus providing demand side response. When the demand becomes greater, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. In 2021 pumped-storage schemes provided almost 85% of the world's 190 GW of grid energy storage and improve the daily capacity factor of the generation system. Pumped storage is not an energy source, and appears as a negative number in listings.

Run-of-the-river
Run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations are those with small or no reservoir capacity, so that only the water coming from upstream is available for generation at that moment, and any oversupply must pass unused. A constant supply of water from a lake or existing reservoir upstream is a significant advantage in choosing sites for run-of-the-river.

Tide
A tidal power station makes use of the daily rise and fall of ocean water due to tides; such sources are highly predictable, and if conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also be dispatchable to generate power during high demand periods. Less common types of hydro schemes use water's kinetic energy or undammed sources such as undershot water wheels. Tidal power is viable in a relatively small number of locations around the world.

Sizes, types and capacities of hydroelectric facilities
The classification of hydropower plants starts with two top-level categories: The classification of a plant as an SHP or LHP is primarily based on its nameplate capacity, the threshold varies by the country, but in any case a plant with the capacity of 50 MW or more is considered an LHP. As an example, for China, SHP power is below 25 MW, for India - below 15 MW, most of Europe - below 10 MW.
 * small hydropower plants (SHP) and
 * large hydropower plants (LHP).

The SHP and LHP categories are further subdivided into many subcategories that are not mutually exclusive. For example, a low-head hydro power plant with hydrostatic head of few meters to few tens of meters can be classified either as an SHP or an LHP. The other distinction between SHP and LHP is the degree of the water flow regulation: a typical SHP primarily uses the natural water discharge with very little regulation in comparison to an LHP. Therefore, the term SHP is frequently used as a synonym for the run-of-the-river power plant.

Large facilities
The largest power producers in the world are hydroelectric power stations, with some hydroelectric facilities capable of generating more than double the installed capacities of the current largest nuclear power stations.

Although no official definition exists for the capacity range of large hydroelectric power stations, facilities from over a few hundred megawatts are generally considered large hydroelectric facilities.

Currently, only seven facilities over 10 GW (10,000 MW) are in operation worldwide, see table below.

Small
Small hydro is hydroelectric power on a scale serving a small community or industrial plant. The definition of a small hydro project varies but a generating capacity of up to 10 megawatts (MW) is generally accepted as the upper limit. This may be stretched to 25 MW and 30 MW in Canada and the United States.

Small hydro stations may be connected to conventional electrical distribution networks as a source of low-cost renewable energy. Alternatively, small hydro projects may be built in isolated areas that would be uneconomic to serve from a grid, or in areas where there is no national electrical distribution network. Since small hydro projects usually have minimal reservoirs and civil construction work, they are seen as having a relatively low environmental impact compared to large hydro. This decreased environmental impact depends strongly on the balance between stream flow and power production.

Micro
Micro hydro means hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 100 kW of power. These installations can provide power to an isolated home or small community, or are sometimes connected to electric power networks. There are many of these installations around the world, particularly in developing nations as they can provide an economical source of energy without purchase of fuel. Micro hydro systems complement photovoltaic solar energy systems because in many areas water flow, and thus available hydro power, is highest in the winter when solar energy is at a minimum.

Pico
Pico hydro is hydroelectric power generation of under 5 kW. It is useful in small, remote communities that require only a small amount of electricity. For example, the 1.1 kW Intermediate Technology Development Group Pico Hydro Project in Kenya supplies 57 homes with very small electric loads (e.g., a couple of lights and a phone charger, or a small TV/radio). Even smaller turbines of 200–300 W may power a few homes in a developing country with a drop of only 1 m. A Pico-hydro setup is typically run-of-the-river, meaning that dams are not used, but rather pipes divert some of the flow, drop this down a gradient, and through the turbine before returning it to the stream.

Underground
An underground power station is generally used at large facilities and makes use of a large natural height difference between two waterways, such as a waterfall or mountain lake. A tunnel is constructed to take water from the high reservoir to the generating hall built in a cavern near the lowest point of the water tunnel and a horizontal tailrace taking water away to the lower outlet waterway.

Calculating available power
A simple formula for approximating electric power production at a hydroelectric station is:

$$ P = -\eta \ (\dot{m} g \ \Delta h) = -\eta \ ((\rho \dot{V}) \ g \ \Delta h)$$

where
 * $$P$$ is power (in watts)
 * $$\eta$$ (eta) is the coefficient of efficiency (a unitless, scalar coefficient, ranging from 0 for completely inefficient to 1 for completely efficient).
 * $$\rho$$ (rho) is the density of water (~1000 kg/m3)
 * $$\dot{V}$$ is the volumetric flow rate (in m3/s)
 * $$\dot{m}$$ is the mass flow rate (in kg/s)
 * $$\Delta h$$ (Delta h) is the change in height (in meters)
 * $$g$$ is acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)

Efficiency is often higher (that is, closer to 1) with larger and more modern turbines. Annual electric energy production depends on the available water supply. In some installations, the water flow rate can vary by a factor of 10:1 over the course of a year.

Flexibility
Hydropower is a flexible source of electricity since stations can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Hydro turbines have a start-up time of the order of a few minutes. Although battery power is quicker its capacity is tiny compared to hydro. It takes less than 10 minutes to bring most hydro units from cold start-up to full load; this is quicker than nuclear and almost all fossil fuel power. Power generation can also be decreased quickly when there is a surplus power generation. Hence the limited capacity of hydropower units is not generally used to produce base power except for vacating the flood pool or meeting downstream needs. Instead, it can serve as backup for non-hydro generators.

High value power
The major advantage of conventional hydroelectric dams with reservoirs is their ability to store water at low cost for dispatch later as high value clean electricity. In 2021, the IEA estimated that the "reservoirs of all existing conventional hydropower plants combined can store a total of 1,500 terawatt-hours (TWh) of electrical energy in one full cycle" which was "about 170 times more energy than the global fleet of pumped storage hydropower plants". Battery storage capacity is not expected to overtake pumped storage during the 2020s. When used as peak power to meet demand, hydroelectricity has a higher value than baseload power and a much higher value compared to intermittent energy sources such as wind and solar.

Hydroelectric stations have long economic lives, with some plants still in service after 50–100 years. Operating labor cost is also usually low, as plants are automated and have few personnel on site during normal operation.

Where a dam serves multiple purposes, a hydroelectric station may be added with relatively low construction cost, providing a useful revenue stream to offset the costs of dam operation. It has been calculated that the sale of electricity from the Three Gorges Dam will cover the construction costs after 5 to 8 years of full generation. However, some data shows that in most countries large hydropower dams will be too costly and take too long to build to deliver a positive risk adjusted return, unless appropriate risk management measures are put in place.

Suitability for industrial applications
While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium electrolytic plants, for example. The Grand Coulee Dam switched to support Alcoa aluminium in Bellingham, Washington, United States for American World War II airplanes before it was allowed to provide irrigation and power to citizens (in addition to aluminium power) after the war. In Suriname, the Brokopondo Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa aluminium industry. New Zealand's Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply electricity to the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point.

Reduced CO2 emissions
Since hydroelectric dams do not use fuel, power generation does not produce carbon dioxide. While carbon dioxide is initially produced during construction of the project, and some methane is given off annually by reservoirs, hydro has one of the lowest lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions for electricity generation. The low greenhouse gas impact of hydroelectricity is found especially in temperate climates. Greater greenhouse gas emission impacts are found in the tropical regions because the reservoirs of power stations in tropical regions produce a larger amount of methane than those in temperate areas.

Like other non-fossil fuel sources, hydropower also has no emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, or other particulates.

Other uses of the reservoir
Reservoirs created by hydroelectric schemes often provide facilities for water sports, and become tourist attractions themselves. In some countries, aquaculture in reservoirs is common. Multi-use dams installed for irrigation support agriculture with a relatively constant water supply. Large hydro dams can control floods, which would otherwise affect people living downstream of the project. Managing dams which are also used for other purposes, such as irrigation, is complicated.

Disadvantages
In 2021 the IEA called for "robust sustainability standards for all hydropower development with streamlined rules and regulations".

Ecosystem damage and loss of land

Large reservoirs associated with traditional hydroelectric power stations result in submersion of extensive areas upstream of the dams, sometimes destroying biologically rich and productive lowland and riverine valley forests, marshland and grasslands. Damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife. The loss of land is often exacerbated by habitat fragmentation of surrounding areas caused by the reservoir.

Hydroelectric projects can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems both upstream and downstream of the plant site. Generation of hydroelectric power changes the downstream river environment. Water exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, which can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks. The turbines also will kill large portions of the fauna passing through, for instance 70% of the eel passing a turbine will perish immediately. Since turbine gates are often opened intermittently, rapid or even daily fluctuations in river flow are observed.

Drought and water loss by evaporation
Drought and seasonal changes in rainfall can severely limit hydropower. Water may also be lost by evaporation.

Siltation and flow shortage
When water flows it has the ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream. This has a negative effect on dams and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers or within catchment areas with high siltation. Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity to control floods along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the dam. Eventually, some reservoirs can become full of sediment and useless or over-top during a flood and fail.

Changes in the amount of river flow will correlate with the amount of energy produced by a dam. Lower river flows will reduce the amount of live storage in a reservoir therefore reducing the amount of water that can be used for hydroelectricity. The result of diminished river flow can be power shortages in areas that depend heavily on hydroelectric power. The risk of flow shortage may increase as a result of climate change. One study from the Colorado River in the United States suggest that modest climate changes, such as an increase in temperature in 2 degree Celsius resulting in a 10% decline in precipitation, might reduce river run-off by up to 40%. Brazil in particular is vulnerable due to its heavy reliance on hydroelectricity, as increasing temperatures, lower water flow and alterations in the rainfall regime, could reduce total energy production by 7% annually by the end of the century.

Methane emissions (from reservoirs)

Lower positive impacts are found in the tropical regions. In lowland rainforest areas, where inundation of a part of the forest is necessary, it has been noted that the reservoirs of power plants produce substantial amounts of methane. This is due to plant material in flooded areas decaying in an anaerobic environment and forming methane, a greenhouse gas. According to the World Commission on Dams report, where the reservoir is large compared to the generating capacity (less than 100 watts per square metre of surface area) and no clearing of the forests in the area was undertaken prior to impoundment of the reservoir, greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir may be higher than those of a conventional oil-fired thermal generation plant.

In boreal reservoirs of Canada and Northern Europe, however, greenhouse gas emissions are typically only 2% to 8% of any kind of conventional fossil-fuel thermal generation. A new class of underwater logging operation that targets drowned forests can mitigate the effect of forest decay.

Relocation
Another disadvantage of hydroelectric dams is the need to relocate the people living where the reservoirs are planned. In 2000, the World Commission on Dams estimated that dams had physically displaced 40–80 million people worldwide.

Failure risks
Because large conventional dammed-hydro facilities hold back large volumes of water, a failure due to poor construction, natural disasters or sabotage can be catastrophic to downriver settlements and infrastructure.

During Typhoon Nina in 1975 Banqiao Dam in Southern China failed when more than a year's worth of rain fell within 24 hours (see 1975 Banqiao Dam failure). The resulting flood resulted in the deaths of 26,000 people, and another 145,000 from epidemics. Millions were left homeless.

The creation of a dam in a geologically inappropriate location may cause disasters such as 1963 disaster at Vajont Dam in Italy, where almost 2,000 people died.

The Malpasset Dam failure in Fréjus on the French Riviera (Côte d'Azur), southern France, collapsed on December 2, 1959, killing 423 people in the resulting flood.

Smaller dams and micro hydro facilities create less risk, but can form continuing hazards even after being decommissioned. For example, the small earthen embankment Kelly Barnes Dam failed in 1977, twenty years after its power station was decommissioned, causing 39 deaths.

Comparison and interactions with other methods of power generation
Hydroelectricity eliminates the flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion, including pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, dust, and mercury in the coal. Hydroelectricity also avoids the hazards of coal mining and the indirect health effects of coal emissions. In 2021 the IEA said that government energy policy should "price in the value of the multiple public benefits provided by hydropower plants".

Nuclear power
Nuclear power is relatively inflexible; although it can reduce its output reasonably quickly. Since the cost of nuclear power is dominated by its high infrastructure costs, the cost per unit energy goes up significantly with low production. Because of this, nuclear power is mostly used for baseload. By way of contrast, hydroelectricity can supply peak power at much lower cost. Hydroelectricity is thus often used to complement nuclear or other sources for load following. Country examples where they are paired in a close to 50/50 share include the electric grid in Switzerland, the Electricity sector in Sweden and to a lesser extent, Ukraine and the Electricity sector in Finland.

Wind power
Wind power goes through predictable variation by season, but is intermittent on a daily basis. Maximum wind generation has little relationship to peak daily electricity consumption, the wind may peak at night when power is not needed or be still during the day when electrical demand is highest. Occasionally weather patterns can result in low wind for days or weeks at a time, a hydroelectric reservoir capable of storing weeks of output is useful to balance generation on the grid. Peak wind power can be offset by minimum hydropower and minimum wind can be offset with maximum hydropower. In this way the easily regulated character of hydroelectricity is used to compensate for the intermittent nature of wind power. Conversely, in some cases wind power can be used to spare water for later use in dry seasons.

An example of this is Norway's trading with Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Germany and the UK. Norway is 98% hydropower, while its flatland neighbors have wind power. In areas that do not have hydropower, pumped storage serves a similar role, but at a much higher cost and 20% lower efficiency.

Hydro power by country

In 2022 hydro generated 4,289 TWh, 15% of total electricity and half of renewables. Of the world total, China (30%) produced the most, followed by Brazil (10%), Canada (9.2%), the United States (5.8%) and Russia (4.6%).

Paraguay produces nearly all of its electricity from hydro and exports far more than it uses. Larger plants tend to be built and operated by national governments, so most capacity (70%) is publicly owned, despite the fact that most plants (nearly 70%) are owned and operated by the private sector, as of 2021.

The following table lists these data for each country:

 * total generation from hydro in terawatt-hours,
 * percent of that country's generation that was hydro,
 * total hydro capacity in gigawatts,
 * percent growth in hydro capacity, and
 * the hydro capacity factor for that year.

Data are sourced from Ember dating to the year 2022 unless otherwise specified. Only includes countries with more than 1 TWh of generation. Links for each location go to the relevant hydro power page, when available.

Economics
The weighted average cost of capital is a major factor.

title: Hydroelectricity


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User talk:Medline

Hello Medline, welcome to Wikipedia! Thanks for all your contributions. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

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Noldoaran 01:05, Nov 28, 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Medline


text:
Ancient Greek coinage

The history of ancient Greek coinage can be divided (along with most other Greek art forms) into four periods: the Archaic, the Classical, the Hellenistic and the Roman. The Archaic period extends from the introduction of coinage to the Greek world during the 7th century BC until the Persian Wars in about 480 BC. The Classical period then began, and lasted until the conquests of Alexander the Great in about 330 BC, which began the Hellenistic period, extending until the Roman absorption of the Greek world in the 1st century BC. The Greek cities continued to produce their own coins for several more centuries under Roman rule. The coins produced during this period are called Roman provincial coins or Greek Imperial Coins.

Weight standards and denominations
The three most important standards of the ancient Greek monetary system were the Attic standard, based on the Athenian drachma of 4.3 g of silver, the Corinthian standard based on the stater of 8.6 g of silver, that was subdivided into three silver drachmas of 2.9 g, and the Aeginetan stater or didrachm of 12.2 g, based on a drachma of 6.1 g. The word drachm(a) means "a handful", literally "a grasp". Drachmae were divided into six obols (from the Greek word for a spit ), and six spits made a "handful". This suggests that before coinage came to be used in Greece, spits in prehistoric times were used as measures in daily transactions. In archaic, pre-numismatic times iron was valued for making durable tools and weapons, and its casting in spit form may have actually represented a form of transportable bullion, which eventually became bulky and inconvenient after the adoption of precious metals. Because of this very aspect, Spartan legislation famously forbade issuance of Spartan coin, and enforced the use of iron ingots, called pelanoi in order to discourage avarice and the hoarding of wealth. In addition to its original meaning (which also gave the diminutive "obelisk", "little spit"), the word obol (ὀβολός, obolós, or ὀβελός, obelós) was retained as a Greek word for coins of small value, still used as such in Modern Greek slang (όβολα, óvola, "monies").

The obol was further subdivided into tetartemorioi (singular tetartemorion) which represented $1 1/2$ obol, or $1/undefined$ drachm. This coin (which was known to have been struck in Athens, Colophon, and several other cities) is mentioned by Aristotle as the smallest silver coin. Various multiples of this denomination were also struck, including the trihemitetartemorion (literally three half-tetartemorioi) valued at $1/undefined$ of an obol.

Archaic period (until about 480 BC)
The earliest known electrum coins, Lydian and East Greek coins found under the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, are currently dated to around 640 BC. These coins were issued either by the non-Greek Lydians for their own use or perhaps because Greek mercenaries wanted to be paid in precious metal at the conclusion of their time of service, and wanted to have their payments marked in a way that would authenticate them. These coins were made of electrum, an alloy of gold and silver that was highly prized and abundant in that area.

In the middle of the 6th century BC, King Croesus replaced the electrum coins with coins of pure gold and pure silver, called Croeseids. The credit for inventing pure gold and silver coinage is attributed by Herodotus to the Lydians:

"So far as we have any knowledge, they [the Lydians] were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coins, and the first who sold goods by retail."

- Herodotus, I.94

The Greek world was divided into more than two thousand self-governing city-states (in Greek, poleis), and more than half of them issued their own coins. Some coins circulated widely beyond their polis, indicating that they were being used in inter-city trade; the first example appears to have been the silver stater or didrachm of Aegina that regularly turns up in hoards in Egypt and the Levant, places which were deficient in silver supply. As such coins circulated more widely, other cities began to mint coins to this "Aeginetan" weight standard of 6.1 g to the drachm, other cities included their own symbols on the coins.

Athenian coins, however, were struck on the "Attic" standard, with a drachm equaling 4.3 g of silver. Over time, Athens' plentiful supply of silver from the mines at Laurion and its increasing dominance in trade made this the pre-eminent standard. These coins, known as "owls" because of their central design feature, were also minted to an extremely tight standard of purity and weight. This contributed to their success as the premier trade coin of their era. Tetradrachms on this weight standard continued to be a widely used coin (often the most widely used) through the classical period. By the time of Alexander the Great and his Hellenistic successors, this large denomination was being regularly used to make large payments, or was often saved for hoarding.

Archaic Greek coinage seems to have had a very wide circulation in the Achaemenid Empire. Many of them were discovered in coin hoards throughout the Achaemenid Empire such as the Ghazzat hoard and the Apadana hoard, and also very far to the East, such as the Kabul hoard or the Pushkalavati hoard in Ancient India, following the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley. Generally, Greek coins (both Archaic and early Classical) are comparatively very numerous in the Achaemenid coin hoards discovered in the East of the Achaemenid Empire, much more numerous than Sigloi, suggesting that the circulation of Greek coinage was central in the monetary system of those part of the Empire.
 * International circulation

Classical period (480–323 BC)
The Classical period saw Greek coinage reach a high level of technical and aesthetic quality. Larger cities now produced a range of fine silver and gold coins, most bearing a portrait of their patron god or goddess or a legendary hero on one side, and a symbol of the city on the other. Some coins employed a visual pun: some coins from Rhodes featured a rose, since the Greek word for rose is rhodon. The use of inscriptions on coins also began, usually the name of the issuing city.

The wealthy cities of Sicily produced some especially fine coins. The large silver decadrachm (10-drachm) coin from Syracuse is regarded by many collectors as the finest coin produced in the ancient world, perhaps ever. Syracusan issues were rather standard in their imprints, one side bearing the head of the nymph Arethusa and the other usually a victorious quadriga. The tyrants of Syracuse were fabulously rich, and part of their public relations policy was to fund quadrigas for the Olympic chariot race, a very expensive undertaking. As they were often able to finance more than one quadriga at a time, they were frequent victors in this highly prestigious event. Syracuse was one of the epicenters of numismatic art during the classical period. Led by the engravers Kimon and Euainetos, Syracuse produced some of the finest coin designs of antiquity.

Amongst the first centers to produce coins during the Greek colonization of mainland Southern Italy (Magna Graecia) were Paestum, Crotone, Sybaris, Caulonia, Metapontum, and Taranto. These ancient cities started producing coins from 550 to 510 BC.

Hellenistic period (323–31 BC)

The Hellenistic period was characterized by the spread of Greek culture across a large part of the known world. Greek-speaking kingdoms were established in Egypt and Syria, and for a time also in Iran and as far east as what is now Afghanistan and northwestern India. Greek traders spread Greek coins across this vast area, and the new kingdoms soon began to produce their own coins. Because these kingdoms were much larger and wealthier than the Greek city states of the classical period, their coins tended to be more mass-produced, as well as larger, and more frequently in gold. They often lacked the aesthetic delicacy of coins of the earlier period. Still, some of the Greco-Bactrian coins, and those of their successors in India, the Indo-Greeks, are considered the finest examples of Greek numismatic art with "a nice blend of realism and idealization", including the largest coins to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by Eucratides (reigned 171–145 BC), the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek king Amyntas Nikator (reigned c. 95–90 BC). The portraits "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further West" (Roger Ling, "Greece and the Hellenistic World").

The most striking new feature of Hellenistic coins was the use of portraits of living people, namely of the kings themselves. This practice had begun in Sicily, but was disapproved of by other Greeks as showing hubris (arrogance). But the kings of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria had no such scruples: having already awarded themselves with "divine" status, they issued magnificent gold coins adorned with their own portraits, with the symbols of their state on the reverse. The names of the kings were frequently inscribed on the coin as well. This established a pattern for coins which has persisted ever since: a portrait of the king, usually in profile and striking a heroic pose, on the obverse, with his name beside him, and a coat of arms or other symbol of state on the reverse.

The Hellenistic period conventionally ends with the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, although a few Hellenistic rulers are known in India until the reign of the Indo-Greek King Strato III (ruled c. 25 BC to AD 10), who issued the last Hellenistic coinage. Many Greek communities in the eastern half of the Roman empire continued to issue their own coinages, known as Roman provincial coinages or "Greek Imperials" in older scholarship, until the third century AD.

Minting

All Greek coins were handmade, rather than machined as modern coins are. The designs for the obverse and reverse were carved into a block of bronze or possibly iron, called a die. A blank disk of gold, silver, or electrum was cast in a mold and then placed between the dies, possibly heated beforehand, whereupon the coin maker would forcefully strike the top die with a hammer, thereby impressing the designs on the metal.

Coins as a symbol of the city-state
Coins of Greek city-states depicted a unique symbol or feature, an early form of emblem, also known as badge in numismatics, that represented their city and promoted the prestige of their state. Corinthian stater for example depicted pegasus the mythological winged stallion, tamed by their hero Bellerophon. Coins of Ephesus depicted the bee sacred to Artemis. Drachmas of Athens depicted the owl of Athena. Drachmas of Aegina depicted a chelone. Coins of Selinunte depicted a "selinon" (σέλινον, celery). Coins of Heraclea depicted Heracles. Coins of Gela depicted a man-headed bull, the personification of the river Gela. Coins of Rhodes depicted a "rhodon" (ῥόδον, rose). Coins of Knossos depicted the labyrinth or the mythical creature minotaur, a symbol of the Minoan Crete. Coins of Melos depicted a "mēlon" (μήλον - apple). Coins of Thebes depicted a Boeotian shield.

Ancient Greek coins today
Collections of ancient Greek coins are held by museums around the world, of which the collections of the British Museum, the American Numismatic Society, and the Danish National Museum are considered to be the finest. The American Numismatic Society collection comprises some 100,000 ancient Greek coins from many regions and mints, from Spain and North Africa to Afghanistan. To varying degrees, these coins are available for study by academics and researchers.

There is also an active collector market for Greek coins. Several auction houses in Europe and the United States specialize in ancient coins (including Greek) and there is also a large on-line market for such coins.

Hoards of Greek coins are still being found in Europe, Middle East, and North Africa, and some of the coins in these hoards find their way onto the market. Due to the numbers in which they were produced, the durability of the metals, and the ancient practice of burying large numbers of coins to save them, coins are an ancient art within the reach of ordinary collectors.

title: Ancient Greek coinage


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Bigger and Deffer

Bigger and Deffer (abbreviated as BAD on the album cover) is the second studio album by American rapper LL Cool J, released on May 29, 1987, by Def Jam Recordings and Columbia Records. With over two million copies sold in the United States, it stands as one of LL Cool J's biggest career records. Bigger and Deffer dominated the summer of 1987, spending 11 weeks at number one on the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart while also reaching number 3 on the Billboard 200. The album also became the fourth rap album to become a platinum album.

Bigger and Deffer features the hit single "I'm Bad", and the first commercially successful rap ballad, "I Need Love". It also contains the track "Go Cut Creator Go", which paid homage to his DJ. Other tracks like "Kanday", "The Do Wop", "My Rhyme Ain't Done", "The Breakthrough", and "The Bristol Hotel" were also popular with fans, and helped make the album a hip-hop classic. In 1998, the album was selected as one of The Source's 100 Best Rap Albums. The cover photo was taken in front of Andrew Jackson High School in Queens (from which he dropped out), while standing on the hood of his Audi 5000, and the back cover was shot in his grandmother's basement (his residence at the time). Both images were shot by Glen E. Friedman.

Critical reception
Robert Christgau stated: "Like the pop-metal egotists he resembles every which way but white, J proves that there's something worse than a middle-class adolescent who's gotta be a big shot this instant--the same adolescent the instant he becomes a big shot. Overrated though it was, the debut had guts, spritz, musical integrity, and Rick Rubin. Breakthrough though it may be, the follow-up has a swelled head, a swollen dick, received beats, and quotes from Berry, Brown, and the Moonglows that confuse me. Could it be that the planet existed before he brought it to fruition?"

Track listing
All tracks written and produced by LL Cool J and L.A. Posse, except where noted.

Personnel

 * James Todd Smith – vocals, producer
 * Bobby Ervin – disc jockey
 * Russell Simmons – production supervisor
 * Steven Ett – engineer, mixing
 * Rod Hui – engineer
 * Jay Henry – engineer
 * Mark Mandelbaum – engineer
 * Chuck Vale – assistant engineer
 * Howie Weinberg – mastering
 * L.A. Posse (Darryl Pierce, Dwayne Simon, and Bobby Erving) – additional vocals, producer
 * Eric Haze – design
 * Nelson George – liner notes
 * Glen E. Friedman – liner photography

title: Bigger and Deffer


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Most favoured nation

In international economic relations and international politics, most favoured nation (MFN) is a status or level of treatment accorded by one state to another in international trade. The term means the country which is the recipient of this treatment must nominally receive equal trade advantages as the "most favoured nation" by the country granting such treatment (trade advantages include low tariffs or high import quotas). In effect, a country that has been accorded MFN status may not be treated less advantageously than any other country with MFN status by the promising country.

There is a debate in legal circles whether MFN clauses in bilateral investment treaties include only substantive rules or also procedural protections. The members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) agree to accord MFN status to each other. Exceptions allow for preferential treatment of developing countries, regional free trade areas and customs unions. Together with the principle of national treatment, MFN is one of the cornerstones of WTO trade law.

"Most favoured nation" relationships extend reciprocal bilateral relationships following both the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and WTO norms of reciprocity and non-discrimination. In bilateral reciprocal relationships a particular privilege granted by one party only extends to other parties who reciprocate that privilege, while in a multilateral reciprocal relationship the same privilege would be extended to the group that negotiated a particular privilege. The non-discriminatory component of GATT/WTO applies a reciprocally negotiated privilege to all members of GATT/WTO without respect to their status in negotiating the privilege.

Most favoured nation status is given to an international trade partner to ensure non-discriminatory trade between all partner countries of the WTO. A country which provides MFN status to another country has to provide concessions, privileges, and immunity in trade agreements. It is the first clause in the GATT.

Under rules of WTO, a member country is not allowed to discriminate between trade partners and if a special status is granted to one trade partner, the country is required to extend it to all members of WTO. In a nutshell, MFN is a non-discriminatory trade policy as it ensures equal trading among all WTO member nations rather than exclusive trading privileges.

History
The earliest form of the most favoured nation status can be found as early as the 11th century. Today's concept of the most favoured nation status starts to appear in the 18th century, when the division of conditional and unconditional most favoured nation status also began. In the early days of international trade, "most favoured nation" status was usually used on a dual-party, state-to-state basis. A nation could enter into a "most favoured nation" treaty with another nation. In the Treaty of Madrid (1667), Spain granted England "most favoured nation" trading status. With the Jay Treaty in 1794, the US also granted the same to Britain. In the Joseon–United States Treaty of 1882, the Korean kingdom Joseon was compelled by the United States to give it most favored nation status.

After World War II, tariff and trade agreements were negotiated simultaneously by all interested parties through the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which ultimately resulted in the World Trade Organization in 1995. The WTO requires members to grant one another "most favoured nation" status. A "most favoured nation" clause is also included in most bilateral investment treaties concluded between capital exporting and capital importing countries after World War II.

Benefits
Trade experts consider MFN clauses to have the following benefits:
 * Increases trade creation and decreases trade diversion. A country that grants MFN on imports will have its imports provided by the most efficient supplier if the most efficient supplier is within the group of MFN. Otherwise, that is, if the most efficient producer is outside the group of MFN and additionally, is charged higher rates of tariffs, then it is possible that trade would merely be diverted from this most efficient producer to a less efficient producer within the group of MFN (or with a tariff rate of 0). This leads to economic costs for the importing country, which can outweigh the gains from free trade.
 * MFN allows smaller countries, in particular, to participate in the advantages that larger countries often grant to each other, whereas on their own, smaller countries would often not be powerful enough to negotiate such advantages by themselves.
 * Granting MFN has domestic benefits: having one set of tariffs for all countries simplifies the rules and makes them more transparent. Theoretically, if all countries in the world confer MFN status to each other, there will be no need to establish complex and administratively costly rules of origin to determine which country a product (that may contain parts from all over the world) must be attributed to for customs purposes. However, if at least one nation lies outside the MFN alliance, then customs cannot be done away with.
 * MFN restrains domestic special interests from obtaining protectionist measures. For example, butter producers in country A may not be able to lobby for high tariffs on butter to prevent cheap imports from developing country B, because, as the higher tariffs would apply to every country, the interests of A's principal ally C might get impaired.

As MFN clauses promote non-discrimination among countries, they also tend to promote the objective of free trade in general.

Exceptions
GATT members recognized in principle that the "most favoured nation" rule should be relaxed to accommodate the needs of developing countries, and the UN Conference on Trade and Development (established in 1964) has sought to extend preferential treatment to the exports of the developing countries.

Another exception to the "most favoured nation" principle has been posed by regional trade blocs such as the European Union and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which have lowered or eliminated tariffs among the members while maintaining tariff walls between member nations and the rest of the world. Trade agreements usually allow for exceptions to allow for regional economic integration.

Revocation
WTO rules allow any country to revoke the MFN status that it had previously accorded to another: in particular, Article 21 (National Security) allows it to do so without further explanation.

India revokes Pakistani status (2019)
In February 2019, following the 2019 Pulwama attack that killed over 40 CRPF personnel, India withdrew the MFN status that it had accorded to Pakistan.

G7 revokes Russian status (2022)
In March 2022, in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the G7 countries resolved jointly to withdraw 'most favoured nation' status from Russia and to impose punitive tariffs. In a statement, the group declared that "Russia cannot grossly violate international law and expect to benefit from being part of the international economic order".

United States
In the 1990s, continued "most favored nation" status for the People's Republic of China by the United States created controversy in the USA because of its sales of sensitive military technology and China's serious and continuous persecution of human rights. China's MFN status was made permanent on December 27, 2001. All of the former Soviet states, including Russia, were granted MFN status in 1996. On a bilateral level, however, the United States could not grant MFN status to some members of the former Soviet Union, including the Russian Federation, because of the Jackson–Vanik amendment. This presented an obstacle to those countries' accession to the WTO. At the urging of Vice President Joe Biden, the Jackson–Vanik amendment (which attempts to punish human rights violations without hampering trade) ceased to apply to the Russian Federation and Moldova with Magnitsky Act on December 14, 2012.

In 1998, the "most favoured nation status" in the United States has been renamed "permanent normal trade relations" (NTR) as all but a handful of countries had this status already. The country gives preferential treatment to some of its trading partners without this status. This is based on the U.S. Supreme Court interpretation of MFN principle as a mere prohibition to enact discriminatory legislation concerning duties on goods of like character imported from an MFN partner. The court ruled that MFN does not constrain the U.S. from giving out special privileges to other countries.

The ideas behind MFN policies can first be seen in US foreign policy during the opening of Japan in the mid to late 1850s, when they were included as a clause in the Commercial Treaty of 1858, which signalled the opening of the Japanese market.

Since 1998, the term normal trade relations (NTR) has replaced most favoured nation in all U.S. statutes. This change was included in section 5003 of the Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998 (P.L. 105-206). However, Title IV of the Trade Act of 1974 (P.L. 93-618) established conditions on U.S. MFN/NTR tariff treatment to certain non-market economies, one of which is certain freedom-of-emigration requirements (better known as the Jackson–Vanik amendment). The act authorizes the president to waive a country's full compliance with Jackson–Vanik under specified conditions, and this must be renewed by June 3 of each year. Once the president does so, the waiver is automatic unless Congress passes (and avoids or overturns a presidential veto of) a disapproval resolution.

MFN/NTR status for China, a non-market economy, which had been originally suspended in 1951, was restored in 1980 and was continued in effect through subsequent annual Presidential extensions. Following the massacre of pro-democracy demonstrators in Tiananmen Square in 1989, however, the annual renewal of China's MFN status became a source of considerable debate in the Congress; and legislation was introduced to terminate China's MFN/NTR status or to impose additional conditions relating to improvements in China's actions on various trade and non-trade issues. Agricultural interests generally opposed attempts to block MFN/NTR renewal for China, contending that several billion dollars annually in current and future U.S. agricultural exports could be jeopardized if that country retaliated. In China's case, Congress agreed to permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) status in, President Clinton signed into law on October 10, 2000. PNTR paved the way for China's accession to the WTO in December 2001; it provides U.S. exporters of agricultural products the opportunity to benefit from China's WTO agreements to reduce trade barriers and open its agricultural markets.

India
As per the obligation under their World Trade Organization (WTO) treaties of accession, the member countries of WTO automatically extend most favoured nation (MFN) status to each other unless otherwise specified in the agreement or schedule notified to the WTO by that member country. Pursuant to that provision, India has extended MFN status for goods to most member countries of WTO.

Within the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), Bangladesh, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka are members of the WTO and all excepting Pakistan have extended MFN status to India, which had extended MFN status to all SAARC countries. In 2019, India revoked its MFN status towards Pakistan. So far as exception to MFN status (if any) is concerned, each member country has indicated the same services in its schedule of services commitments, as notified to the WTO.

In contract law
A most favoured nation clause (also called a most favoured customer clause or most favoured licensee clause ) is a contract provision in which a seller (or licensor) agrees to give the buyer (or licensee) the best terms it makes available to any other buyer (or licensee). In some contexts, the use of such clauses may become commonplace, such as when online ebook retailers contract with publishers for the supply of e-books. Use of such clauses, in some contexts, may provoke concerns about anticompetitive influences and antitrust violations, while in other contexts, the influence may be viewed as procompetitive.

One example where most favoured nation clauses may appear is in institutional investment advisory contracts, where if a certain number of conditions are met, one client may be entitled to the lowest fee offered to other clients with a substantially identical investment strategy and the same or lower level of assets under management.

The most favoured nation clause can also be included in an agreement between a state and a company or an investor. This involves the provision of special privileges and advantages although the state cannot use contractual mechanisms to avoid its MFN treatment obligations with other countries. Unlike the relationship among states where a nation accorded an MFN status cannot be treated less advantageously than another, the host nation does not breach MFN treatment if it provides different privileges to different investors. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development clarified this when it stated that "a host country cannot be obliged to enter into an individual investment contract" and that "freedom of contract prevails over the MFN standard." This general principle, however, is not absolute.

European Union
The current EU competition law position is that MFN clauses will infringe Article 101(i) if in the individual circumstances of the case result in an appreciable adverse effect on competition in the European Union. This is likely to happen when the parties to the agreement have substantial market power.

It is recognised by EU courts and regulators that such clauses are widely used in a number of industries including most topically with online travel agents. However the regulatory tide in the EU appears to be turning against the use of these clauses. In a number of recent EU cases in the UK and Germany, MFNs have been condemned when used by companies with significant market power.

Most favoured nation startups
Startups with most favoured nation (MFN) clause in agreements with their investors are called most favoured nation startups. The clause intends to protect the first investors, so the later investors do not get better terms than them. This device is promoted by American early stage accelerator, Y Combinator.

title: Most favoured nation


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User talk:Leumi

Don't delete an article's neutrality header without discussion. RickK 01:18, 28 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Quite sorry. I'm new here, I'm still figuring out the rules. Leumi

Hello Leumi. Sorry you didn't receive a very warm welcome to Wikipedia. It seems that you are the only one wanting to discuss the Palestinian refugee issue so I have unprotected the page. Hopefully the points you have made will form the basis for further discussion rather than further reverts once you make the changes you suggest. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian. You can sign your name using three tildes, like. If you use four, you can add a datestamp too. Angela 01:51, 2 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Re the map. I don't see why you don't seem to understand the nature of the complaint the person who is removing it is making. The point is that the cross-section has a vertical exaggeration. As the numbers state, point B is only 3000 ft higher than point A, yet they are 15 miles away - yet the map has been vertically exagerrated to make the gradient look something like 1 in 2. Now, you can go and argue about whether this is valid or interesting, I just thought i'd explain the complaint since you didn't seem to understand it at all. Morwen 21:48, 3 Dec 2003 (UTC) : Thankyou for noting that Morwen. I was slightly confused on that point.Leumi

Thanks for your note. You don't have to thank me for joining in on that article, though. It's provocative stuff and serious business--slander/plagiarism/ Holocaust/Israel-Palestine. I couldn't resist.168... 01:50, 5 Dec 2003 (UTC)

The page you want is Conflicts between users. I ask that you move your listing from Vandalism in progress to that page. Cheers, Cyan 01:58, 5 Dec 2003 (UTC) Thankyou, I've decided now to stop responding to 81, except to delete personal attacks on Talk pages, which I am told is within the rules, right? Please correct me if I'm wrong on that score. Leumi

Opinion is... not settled on that question. See Remove personal attacks. (I'm not sure if you know yet, so I'm going to give you a tip: you can sign your name by writing three tildes ; four tildes adds the timestamp, as in my signature.) Also, I believe you referred to me as a moderator - Wikipedia's hierarchy strives to be as flat as possible, so nothing I write or do is intended to have any special weight. Cheers, Cyan 02:30, 5 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * The thing is is that, since 81 has started constantly attacking me, I've barely had time to do anything else but refute them. It's getting on my nerves. I'm thinking about ignoring him, but it's hard to do when one is being hit with a bombardment of accusations and having almost everything I write be reversed under the claim 'an irgun sympathizer wrote this' or 'removed polemical unsubstantiated claims'. It doesn't matter what proof I provide or sources cited or arguments etc, these attacks and reversions don't stop and carry no actual contributions to anything (case in point being his "wrong as always" comment right above). What would you suggest I do? Leumi 02:37, 5 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Again, I request your help on this. Am I wrong in assuming this qualifies as a personal attack without substance to the actual discussion? Might I also add that those are not the exact words I put on those pages, though I did put something about accusations against Finkelstein which I felt was proper considering the pages involved matters where those accusations helped place things in context. But that's another story. I'm tired of having to deal with this from 81. What would you suggest I do? (Don't answer 81. I will ignore it.) Leumi 02:46, 5 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Maybe best to ignore him. I've sent you an e-mail about it. Angela. 02:49, 5 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Your talk page is considered to be yours to a certain extent (how much is a matter of opinion), and I think you can feel free to remove personal attacks outright from it. On the talk pages of articles, I believe the best course is simply to ignore personal attacks. Cheers, Cyan 02:54, 5 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * You're probably right about ignoring the attacks. I shall stop responding to those, you make a good point. But what about the reversions?

 * I hardly ever remove personal attacks which are against me. Sometimes I "factor" out personal attacks someone else makes against a third party.

You can't "mediate" between yourself and another person. Attempts to do so often fan the flames, so to speak. "Don't feed the trolls." --Uncle Ed 14:14, 5 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Another piece of advice: you've been here less than 2 weeks, and are still learning the rules. It would thus probably be wise for you to take a humbler approach toward other contributors, rather than telling them what to do.

I've been here two years, I have a lot of experience smoothing out squabbles and (if I may say) an excellent track record of neutral edits. So, my words might carry a bit more weight than those of a "newbie".

I hope you don't think I'm being overbearing and arrogant :-) --Uncle Ed 14:19, 5 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Not at all. Upon thinking about, I agree with you. I shall endeavour to avoid that mistake and be humbler in the future, thankyou for pointing it out. Leumi 16:59, 5 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Ideally, reversions are not part of the process that creates a balanced article. Ideally, if one has a problem with another contributor about the content of the article, all of the action takes place on the talk page until a compromise is reached. Sadly, we don't live in an ideal world. (There are those who favor reversion, but this creates a lot of disturbance; see Conflicts between users/Wik. -- Cyan 17:22, 5 Dec 2003 (UTC)

About Anonymous Norman Finkelstein Fan Person: IP addresses have their own talk pages; you can just go to User talk:195.92.168.177 (or whatever IP address s/he's using) if you have to tell him something that's not directly related to an article. --Mirv

I agree that making personal attacks within the text of an article constitutes vandalism, though the constant reversion-without-discussion of everyone else's edits is iffier. I'll support the first; talk to someone who knows better about the second. --Mirv 00:36, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Placeholder
I added it so that the bottom toolbar (w/ links to "User contributions" and "E-mail this user" would be accessible). The 'x' is a bit ugly, so do replace it when you have time. Cheers, Jiang|Talk 00:48, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

User 195 is an anonymous user, so the block on him is only good for 24 hours. RickK 02:52, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * However if this user comes back with the same kind of behaviour, the user can be blocked again. So don't worry too much. Dysprosia 02:54, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Thankyou, and I don't mean to interfere with admnistrative issues, but isn't it reasonable to institute some sort of more permanent ban, considering the nature of what he did? After all, should a logged in user do the same thing they would most probably recieve a permanent ban, and I don't see any reason why there should be any difference in the response. I do truly thank you for your prompt response. His comment deeply offended me. As I said on the vandalism page, I can tolerate many things and insults, however I am understandably sensitive when someone makes an attack based on a disability.Leumi 03:13, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

> Replied on my talk page Dysprosia 03:19, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Three is enough
Leumi, if you've reverted an article three times in a row, it's probably a sign that neither you nor the others are making neutral edits. (Note that I said "probably", not "certainly".)

It would be much better to discuss your proposed changes on the article's talk page, then to engage in an edit war. --Uncle Ed 21:47, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * I'll try and remember to do that for the future. Thanks for the advice. On another note, Might I ask that you ask the others to stop calling things they disagree with "Leumi's POV"? I find it a bit annoying, as they turn what should be an academic discussion into a personal fight. Thanks.Leumi 22:28, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)

On the nature of Wikipedia
Leumi,

Wikipedia was founded on the principle of editorial neutrality. The concept was established at the start by the project's founders and has continued to be developed and refined by subsequent participants. It serves as a guiding light for everything we do here. In concrete terms, it means we we strive to present balanced, neutral descriptions of topics. It requires constant effort on the part of everyone involved because we all have our biases. Editorial neutrality is the glue which keeps this enterprise going because it provides us with a common ideal to strive towards and a principle with which to mediate our differences.

Wikipedia attracts a very heterogeneous group of people from diverse backgrounds who tend to have strong opinions (myself included), but the one thing we agree to do is to check our impartiality -- insofar that it is possible -- at the door for the sake of the greater good, namely producing a world-class encyclopedia.

I have been intensely frustrated in my dealings with you over the past few days because of your apparent inability to grasp the concept of editorial neutrality. Over and over again, we have long discussions on the Talk pages in which I explain why certain texts aren't appropriate for given encyclopedia articles, and over and over again you insist on inserting these texts into the articles. I feel I have made no progress in helping you understand how things work here.

This is your choice: either you very quickly get the hang of editorial neutrality or you will leave, voluntarily or otherwise. This is not a threat on my part because I have no special powers. Rather, I am simply stating the fact that this community will not tolerate partisan behaviour like yours, because to do so will destroy it. I have no particular attachment to the articles in dispute; frankly, I would rather be working on other topics, but I will do everything in my powers to prevent you from giving this website a pro-Israel/anti-Palestine bias.

 * -- Viajero 10:39, 9 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Viajero, I agree wholeheartedly in the principle of editorial neutrality. Which is why I've been working to provide that balance and neutrality in these articles. As I've stated before, balance means both sides, not just yours. I have been working to present balanced neutral versions of both topics, however you seem to be removing one side in favor for the other. Take the case of From Time Immemorial for instance. Rather than allow an opposing viewpoint you removed it from the page, claiming it was a forgery and calling all my attempts to prove it represented a legitimate view not the work of legitimate scholars. In the interests of balance and neutrality that we both hold dear both sides must be taken into account. Also on the issue of neutrality, why do you insist that the claim that refugees were forced out of Israel be taken as a fact? A more accurate statement is that their are claims of their being forced, but as it is by no means a fact, we should only present the opposing arguments and the let the reader decide. I think that your concept that your views must be stated as fact represents a departure from neutrality, much more than the inclusion of an opposing view that I provide. With respect, I think we both need to allow both sides to be represented in the interests of the editorial neutrality principles that Wikipedia is founded upon, principles that both you and I believe in strongly. In that we both have common ground. Leumi 23:10, 9 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Hello Leumi I've come here because Palestinian refugee, West Bank, The Holocaust Industry and Golan Heights have all ended up protected. Viajero has asked that they not be unprotected until the wikicommunity has "unified strategy for dealing with Leumi first, otherwise the situation will simply continue as before." Viajero certainly has a point. There is little to be gained by unprotecting the pages if the edit war continues where it left off. On a personal note however. I hate to see pages protected, especially pages that are nowhere near finished as is the case with The holocaust industry. I've been doing a lot of research on the web, and I know that several others are reading the book at the moment and will want to add content quickly. So I've here making a personal plea to you to modify your editing behaviour.

I know that some others have behaved badly towards you. I feel that Viajero and Zero are harsh on you and are perhaps too emotionally involved. I also feel that the Anon user is downright rude and unhelpful. Never the less I do think that your editing behaviour needs to be changed. You appear to be new here and so probably don't know how we usually handle disagreements, but reverting is not the way to go. It causes bad feelings, looks very bad on the page history, looks bad on "recent changes", and oftentimes other edits get lost in the process. If you make a change to an article and someone reverts it, here is my opinion of what you should do - Copy the deleted part of the text to the talk page and argue for its insertion there. You have seen myself and User:Ed Poor do that, you should copy our example. That way you contribution is not lost while it is being discussed. There is no edit war, everyone get's to take a look at what you want to say, and things cool down. If you can make a real effort to do this, everyone will become a lot more accomodating. Thanks in advance for your support in this matter. I'm sure that with a little cooperation we will get things sorted out very quickly. theresa knott 15:31, 9 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * I will definitely try to remember to do that, and I have in many instances. The problem is that in a lot of circumstances, what I take out and put on the talk page is put right back in.

 * You missunderstood me. What I meant was, if you want something in but it get's deleted, shove it in the talk page (So that it doesn't get lost and can be discussed). If you want something out but others want it in, don't delete it from the article, just say you want it out on the talk page, then people can discuss it.
 * In the case of Viajero's and I's argument, and please let me state that I have the utmost respect for Viajero's work here and his intentions which I am positive are excellent, on the difference between "claim that they were forced to leave" and "forced to leave" (I'm paraphrasing the exact words), Viajero placed back the relevant sentence right after I removed it, claiming that my argument for it's removal wasn't worthy of a hearing, at the same time he demanded the removal of other wording that I was speaking with him on in the talk page and consented to moving there. When a double standard is applied to these issues, I can't see how we can move forward. I'm willing to work and discuss on these issues on the talk page and I don't want an edit war anymore than anyone else. I just ask that we keep the same rules applying to everyone, in all cases. Leumi 23:16, 9 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * I understand and simpathsize with you. But think on this. It only takes one side to stop the reverting in order to end the edit war. The reason I am asking you to stop is because you have more power than viajero to stop. What I mean by this is you alone represent one side, but the other side is represented by viajero, zero, and the anon user. To get your side to stop it I only have to persuade you, to get the other side to stop it, I need to persuade three people. Besides it is in your best interests. By acting saintly you will get more people defending you, and are more like in the end to get your side of the argument in the articles. (which is ultimately what you want isn't it ?).

Btw no need to respond on my talk page, i'm watching this page for the time being theresa knott 09:41, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Leumi, I'm really proud of you for keeping out of an edit war at the Zionism article. Thank you for exercising restraint and calling for help.

Perhaps we could compromise by writing:

 * The views of Ben-Gurion and others are described at great length at this article, that article & the other article.

--Best regards, Uncle Ed 15:05, 12 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the vote of confidence. :) I think we need to include equal time though, to both perspectives. Frankly speaking, I suggest we create a new article, perhaps called Zionist views towards Arabs and link to their, removing the issue over here. That way we'll have space to show both sides. Of course, if we don't do that, then what we must do is provide equal opportunity for both sides to be represented. I can't imagine why someone would object to the inclusion of a quote from Israel's first Prime Minister and, due to the democratic nature of Israel's governmental system, obviously representing to majority opinion of Israeli society.

Hi, Leumi, at VfD you suggested merging Palestinian views of the peace process somewhere rather than deleting it. Can you let me know where you actually wanted it merged, as your comment on VfD just refers to a non-existant page. Thanks. Angela. 19:54, 17 Dec 2003 (UTC)

You need to go to the page and vote regarding the changes some are trying to make there.

Vote
See Votes for deletion/Occupation of Palestine

Vote: Wikipedia:Votes for deletion/Violence against Israelis
See Votes for deletion/Violence against Israelis Thank you. IZAK 09:37, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Requests for adminship/Sam Spade
Requests for adminship/Sam Spade

Vote "NO". Opposed to SamSpade's unfriendly views in the Jew article. IZAK 09:09, 10 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Wikipedia:Categories_for_deletion
See these six categories up for "votes of deletion":

Categories_for_deletion and Categories_for_deletion and Categories_for_deletion and Categories_for_deletion and Categories_for_deletion and this one too: Categories_for_deletion

IZAK 10:10, 5 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Opinion for IZAK
Please see Requests for arbitration/IZAK/Evidence. Thank you. IZAK 06:58, 7 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Article Licensing
Hi, I've started a drive to get users to multi-license all of their contributions that they've made to either (1) all U.S. state, county, and city articles or (2) all articles, using the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (CC-by-sa) v1.0 and v2.0 Licenses or into the public domain if they prefer. The CC-by-sa license is a true free documentation license that is similar to Wikipedia's license, the GFDL, but it allows other projects, such as WikiTravel, to use our articles. Since you are among the top 2000 Wikipedians by edits, I was wondering if you would be willing to multi-license all of your contributions or at minimum those on the geographic articles. Over 90% of people asked have agreed. For More Information:
 * Multi-Licensing FAQ - Lots of questions answered
 * Multi-Licensing Guide
 * Free the Rambot Articles Project

To allow us to track those users who muli-license their contributions, many users copy and paste the " " template into their user page, but there are other options at Template messages/User namespace. The following examples could also copied and pasted into your user page:

 * Option 1
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

OR
 * Option 2
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions to any U.S. state, county, or city article as described below:

Or if you wanted to place your work into the public domain, you could replace " " with "  ". If you only prefer using the GFDL, I would like to know that too. Please let me know what you think at my talk page. It's important to know either way so no one keeps asking. -- Ram-Man (comment| talk)

untagged image.
Hi the image Image:Golan 92.jpg doesn't have any copyright information. I've marked it as unverified, if you know the copyright status could you add another tag, otherwise the image may be deleted!

User categorization
You were listed on the Wikipedians/New Jersey page as living in or being associated with New Jersey. As part of the User categorisation project, these lists are being replaced with user categories. If you would like to add yourself to the category that is replacing the page, please visit Category:Wikipedians in New Jersey for instructions. Al 15:30, August 29, 2005 (UTC)

Rejection of Tanakh
Hi Leumi: Please see and vote at Categories for deletion/Log/2005 December 12 at where it is being suggested that the word "Tanakh" is "not neutral", and I am trying to explain to them that it is in keeping with NPOV to convey the way Judaism uses certain terms to describe the Hebrew Bible/Tanakh. Thanks. IZAK 18:37, 13 December 2005 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
Hi, You appear to be eligible to vote in the current Arbitration Committee election. The Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to enact binding solutions for disputes between editors, primarily related to serious behavioural issues that the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the ability to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail. If you wish to participate, you are welcome to review the candidates' statements and submit your choices on the voting page. For the Election committee, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 22:13, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Leumi


text:
Cydonia

Cydonia commonly refers to:
 * Cydonia (Mars), a region of the planet Mars
 * Cydonia or Kydonia, an ancient settlement at modern Chania in Greece

Cydonia may also refer to:

Music and videogames

 * Cydonia (album), a 2001 album by The Orb
 * "Cydonia", a track on 1999 Crimson Glory album Astronomica
 * Cydonia: Mars - The First Manned Mission, a 1998 videogame
 * "Knights of Cydonia", a 2006 song by Muse

Places

 * Roman Catholic Diocese of La Canea, a Latin Catholic titular see on Crete, Greece

Science

 * Cydonia (genus), the quince genus of plant in the Rosaceae family
 * Cydonia group, a former taxonomic division of the Maleae or apple tribe in the Rosaceae
 * 1106 Cydonia, an asteroid in the main asteroid belt

Other

 * Cydonia, a name for the ancient Greek goddess Athena

title: Cydonia


text:
Carmageddon II: Carpocalypse Now

Carmageddon II: Carpocalypse Now is a vehicular combat video game, the sequel to Carmageddon, and released in 1998 for Microsoft Windows. The game was developed by Stainless Games and published by Sales Curve Interactive in Europe and Interplay Entertainment in North America. Ports for Mac OS, PlayStation and Nintendo 64 (the latter as Carmageddon 64) were released in 1999. A 2D version for the Game Boy Color was released in Europe in 1999, and in North America in 2000.

Gameplay
Like its predecessor, Carmageddon II was subject to criticism for the level of violence portrayed in the game. It is rated 15+ by ELSPA. In some countries, the pedestrians (and animals) are zombies, and blood is turned to green slime, while in Germany, aliens replaced the pedestrians. Internet-released 'blood patches' restore the original human pedestrians. The blood pack was later released in the United Kingdom in 1999, earning the game an 18 certificate.

Carmageddon II was the first Carmageddon game to feature hardware acceleration, this was used for the higher quality damage models and higher quality levels.

Carmageddon II features new damage models for the vehicles, this includes car bodywork damage such as fenders and vehicle spoilers. Cars can also be split in half, instantly wasting them, but only if it is not repaired before it touches terrain.

Unlike the first game, Carmageddon II does not have "stealworthy cars", which are cars that have a chance to be taken if wrecked in a race and instead any car wrecked can be purchased.

Reception
The PC version received "favorable" reviews according to video game review aggregator GameRankings, while the console versions received much lower scores.

Official UK PlayStation Magazine was scathing of the gameplay of the PlayStation version, saying that "no amount of pureed pedestrian can cover its faults." The Nintendo 64 port was ill-received, being N64 Magazine's lowest rated game at 8% from 1999 till 2004. Hyper, on the other hand, gave the same port 85%, calling it "a success, and probably more suited to the Nintendo 64 than it ever was on the PC, as this is big arcade-style silly action."

Carmageddon 64 was nominated for the "Worst Game" award at GameSpot's Best and Worst of 2000 Awards, which went to Spirit of Speed 1937. Carmageddon II (PC) was included in the retrospective book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die, which was originally published in 2010.

Music
The game features a heavy metal soundtrack. Four original songs by Iron Maiden are included: Music by Sentience is also used.
 * "The Trooper"
 * "Aces High"
 * "Be Quick or Be Dead"
 * "Man on the Edge"

title: Carmageddon II: Carpocalypse Now