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Pesticide poisoning

A pesticide poisoning occurs when pesticides, chemicals intended to control a pest, affect non-target organisms such as humans, wildlife, plants, or bees. There are three types of pesticide poisoning. The first of the three is a single and short-term very high level of exposure which can be experienced by individuals who die by suicide, as well as pesticide formulators. The second type of poisoning is long-term high-level exposure, which can occur in pesticide formulators and manufacturers. The third type of poisoning is a long-term low-level exposure, which individuals are exposed to from sources such as pesticide residues in food as well as contact with pesticide residues in the air, water, soil, sediment, food materials, plants and animals.

In developing countries, such as Sri Lanka, pesticide poisonings from short-term very high level of exposure (acute poisoning) is the most worrisome type of poisoning. However, in developed countries, such as Canada, it is the complete opposite: acute pesticide poisoning is controlled, thus making the main issue long-term low-level exposure of pesticides.

Cause
The most common exposure scenarios for pesticide-poisoning cases are accidental or suicidal poisonings, occupational exposure, by-stander exposure to off-target drift, and the general public who are exposed through environmental contamination.

Accidental and Suicidal

Self-poisoning with agricultural pesticides represents a major hidden public health problem accounting for approximately one-third of all suicides worldwide. It is one of the most common forms of self-injury in the Global South. The World Health Organization estimates that 300,000 people die from self-harm each year in the Asia-Pacific region alone. Most cases of intentional pesticide poisoning appear to be impulsive acts undertaken during stressful events, and the availability of pesticides strongly influences the incidence of self poisoning. Pesticides are the agents most frequently used by farmers and students in India to commit suicide. The overall case fatality rate for suicide attempts using pesticide is about 10–20%.

Occupational
Pesticide poisoning is an important occupational health issue because pesticides are used in a large number of industries, which puts many different categories of workers at risk. Extensive use puts agricultural workers in particular at increased risk for pesticide illnesses. Exposure can occur through inhalation of pesticide fumes, and often occurs in settings including greenhouse spraying operations and other closed environments like tractor cabs or while operating rotary fan mist sprayers in facilities or locations with poor ventilation systems.

Workers in other industries are at risk for exposure as well. For example, commercial availability of pesticides in stores puts retail workers at risk for exposure and illness when they handle pesticide products. The ubiquity of pesticides puts emergency responders such as fire-fighters and police officers at risk, because they are often the first responders to emergency events and may be unaware of the presence of a poisoning hazard. The process of aircraft disinsection, in which pesticides are used on inbound international flights for insect and disease control, can also make flight attendants sick.

Different job functions can lead to different levels of exposure. Most occupational exposures are caused by absorption through exposed skin such as the face, hands, forearms, neck, and chest. This exposure is sometimes enhanced by inhalation in settings including spraying operations in greenhouses and other closed environments, tractor cabs, and the operation of rotary fan mist sprayers.

Residential
The majority of households in Canada use pesticides while taking part in activities such as gardening. In Canada, 96 percent of households report having a lawn or a garden. 56 percent of the households who have a lawn or a garden utilize fertilizer or pesticide. This form of pesticide use may contribute to the third type of poisoning, which is caused by long-term low-level exposure. As mentioned before, long-term low-level exposure affects individuals from sources such as pesticide residues in food as well as contact with pesticide residues in the air, water, soil, sediment, food materials, plants and animals.

Organochlorines
The organochlorine pesticides, like DDT, aldrin, and dieldrin, are extremely persistent and accumulate in fatty tissue. Through the process of bioaccumulation (lower amounts in the environment get magnified sequentially up the food chain), large amounts of organochlorines can accumulate in top species like humans. There is substantial evidence to suggest that DDT, and its metabolite DDE, act as endocrine disruptors, interfering with hormonal function of estrogen, testosterone, and other steroid hormones.

Anticholinesterase compounds
Cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides, also known as organophosphates, carbamates, and anticholinesterases, are most commonly reported in occupationally related pesticide poisonings globally. Besides acute symptoms including cholinergic crisis, certain organophosphates have long been known to cause a delayed-onset toxicity to nerve cells, which is often irreversible. Several studies have shown persistent deficits in cognitive function in workers chronically exposed to pesticides.

Diagnosis
Most pesticide-related illnesses have signs and symptoms that are similar to common medical conditions, so a complete and detailed environmental and occupational history is essential for correctly diagnosing a pesticide poisoning. A few additional screening questions about the patient's work and home environment, in addition to a typical health questionnaire, can indicate whether there was a potential pesticide poisoning.

If one is regularly using carbamate and organophosphate pesticides, it is important to obtain a baseline cholinesterase test. Cholinesterase is an important enzyme of the nervous system, and these chemical groups kill pests and potentially injure or kill humans by inhibiting cholinesterase. If one has had a baseline test and later suspects a poisoning, one can identify the extent of the problem by comparison of the current cholinesterase level with the baseline level.

Prevention
Accidental poisonings can be avoided by proper labeling and storage of containers. When handling or applying pesticides, exposure can be significantly reduced by protecting certain parts of the body where the skin shows increased absorption, such as the scrotal region, underarms, face, scalp, and hands. Safety protocols to reduce exposure include the use of personal protective equipment, washing hands and exposed skin during as well as after work, changing clothes between work shifts, and having first aid trainings and protocols in place for workers.

Personal protective equipment for preventing pesticide exposure includes the use of a respirator, goggles, and protective clothing, which have all have been shown to reduce risk of developing pesticide-induced diseases when handling pesticides. A study found the risk of acute pesticide poisoning was reduced by 55% in farmers who adopted extra personal protective measures and were educated about both protective equipment and pesticide exposure risk. Exposure can be significantly reduced when handling or applying pesticides by protecting certain parts of the body where the skin shows increased absorption, such as the scrotal region, underarms, face, scalp, and hands. Using chemical-resistant gloves has been shown to reduce contamination by 33–86%.

Use of genetically modified crops led to significant reduction of pesticide poisoning as these require significantly less pesticide application. In India alone reduction of 2.4–9 million cases per year was observed after widespread adoption of Bt cotton, with similar reductions reported in China, Pakistan and other countries.

Treatment
Specific treatments for acute pesticide poisoning are often dependent on the pesticide or class of pesticide responsible for the poisoning. However, there are basic management techniques that are applicable to most acute poisonings, including skin decontamination, airway protection, gastrointestinal decontamination, and seizure treatment.

Decontamination of the skin is performed while other life-saving measures are taking place. Clothing is removed, the patient is showered with soap and water, and the hair is shampooed to remove chemicals from the skin and hair. The eyes are flushed with water for 10–15 minutes. The patient is intubated and oxygen administered, if necessary. In more severe cases, pulmonary ventilation must sometimes be supported mechanically. Seizures are typically managed with lorazepam, phenytoin and phenobarbitol, or diazepam (particularly for organochlorine poisonings).

Gastric lavage is not recommended to be used routinely in pesticide poisoning management, as clinical benefit has not been confirmed in controlled studies; it is indicated only when the patient has ingested a potentially life-threatening amount of poison and presents within 60 minutes of ingestion. An orogastric tube is inserted and the stomach is flushed with saline to try to remove the poison. If the patient is neurologically impaired, a cuffed endotracheal tube inserted beforehand for airway protection. Studies of poison recovery at 60 minutes have shown recovery of 8–32%. However, there is also evidence that lavage may flush the material into the small intestine, increasing absorption. Lavage is contra-indicated in cases of hydrocarbon ingestion.

Activated charcoal is sometimes administered as it has been shown to be successful with some pesticides but its not effective for malathion poisoning. Studies have shown that it can reduce the amount absorbed if given within 60 minutes, though there is not enough data to determine if it is effective if time from ingestion is prolonged. Syrup of ipecac is not recommended for most pesticide poisonings because of potential interference with other antidotes and regurgitation increasing exposure of the esophagus and oral area to the pesticide.

Urinary alkalinisation has been used in acute poisonings from chlorophenoxy herbicides (such as 2,4-D, MCPA, 2,4,5-T and mecoprop); however, evidence to support its use is poor.

Epidemiology
Acute pesticide poisoning is a large-scale problem, especially in developing countries.

"Most estimates concerning the extent of acute pesticide poisoning have been based on data from hospital admissions which would include only the more serious cases. The latest estimate by a WHO task group indicates that there may be 1 million serious unintentional poisonings each year and in addition 2 million people hospitalized for suicide attempts with pesticides. This necessarily reflects only a fraction of the real problem. On the basis of a survey of self-reported minor poisoning carried out in the Asian region, it is estimated that there could be as many as 25 million agricultural workers in the developing world suffering an episode of poisoning each year." In Canada in 2007 more than 6000 cases of acute pesticide poisoning occurred.

Estimating the numbers of chronic poisonings worldwide is more difficult.

Long term effects of pesticide poisonings
Pesticides contain many toxic chemicals that affect farmers for many years. Farm workers are impacted greatly and though they get treatment once they are exposed they have to deal with other health issues even years after the incident. The long term effects of pesticide exposure are birth defects, miscarriages, infertility in both men and women, neurological diseases such as Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and dementia-like diseases. And another long-term effect is different types of cancers such as lung cancer, prostate cancer, stomach cancer, breast cancer, and kidney cancer. Farmers and everyone in surrounding areas of pesticide poisoning are exposed and at risk of all the long term effects. The neurotoxicity of certain pesticides has been implicated as a potential contributing factor to the development of neurodegenerative diseases, raising concerns about their long-term impact on human health.

Effects on children
Children are proven to be more susceptible to developmental poisons from pesticides than adults. Additionally risking greater sensitivity to pesticides from compounding stressors or other environmental factors. Small pesticide exposures have been shown to have an impact on young children's neurological and behavioral development. Researchers have studied the effects of pesticides on children as opposed to adults, finding children's immature organs and bodies are more susceptible to health effects. As a result, it is more difficult for children to break down and remove pesticide metabolites. Pesticide metabolites present in children can further negatively impact their health through their ability to hinder the bodies' ability to absorb vital nutrients from food.

Society and culture
Rachel Carson's 1962 environmental science book Silent Spring brought about the first major wave of public concern over the chronic effects of pesticides.

Those who reside close to agriculture land are negatively impacted by pesticide drifting. This occurs when the pesticide chemicals travel to near by areas leading to exposure to highly toxic airborne chemicals. Pesticide drift is not an isolated occurrence and it happens routinely to those working in the fields and farm-working neighborhoods that reside close to industrial farming.

Other animals
An obvious side effect of using a chemical meant to kill is that one is likely to kill more than just the desired organism. Contact with a sprayed plant or "weed" can have an effect upon local wildlife, most notably insects. A cause for concern is how pests, the reason for pesticide use, are building up a resistance. Phytophagous insects are able to build up this resistance because they are easily capable of evolutionary diversification and adaptation. The problem this presents is that in order to obtain the same desired effect of the pesticides they have to be made increasingly stronger as time goes on. Repercussions of the use of stronger pesticides on vegetation has a negative result on the surrounding environment, but also would contribute to consumers' long-term low-level exposure.

title: Pesticide poisoning


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Talk:Lists of television programs with LGBT characters

James?
James from Pokemon. He just crossdressed,and he hasn't really crossdressed in years. Why is he listed here? He has not shown any interest in men. Als,Jessie crossdressed just as much as him. 98.14.15.12 (talk) 04:20, 21 July 2009 (UTC)
 * I know nothing of Pokemon or the habits of its characters, but the "T" in "LGBT" stands for "trans-" which includes transvestites and cross-dressers. Otto4711 (talk) 11:12, 21 July 2009 (UTC)

Tyler Perry's Madea film series?
Would the Tyler Perry "Madea" film series count under trans-gendered?
 * Doesn't matter for the purpose of this list since they are theatrically released films and this is for television. Otto4711 (talk) 02:01, 10 August 2009 (UTC)

BtVS
(relocated comment from the top) I'm really not good at the whole editing thing, but it is odd to me that Willow and Tara's relationship in Buffy the Vampire Slayer is left off this list. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 132.162.68.48 (talk) 00:52, 15 September 2009 (UTC)
 * BtVS is on the sister list for drama series. Otto4711 (talk) 01:30, 15 September 2009 (UTC)

Lucario
That's too wonderful to be true. Citation flag added. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.170.211.46 (talk) 03:37, 16 October 2009 (UTC)
 * None of the characters in Pokemon are specifically stated to be gay. ESPECIALLY Lucario. -Sukecchi (talk) 22:07, 22 January 2010 (UTC)

Lindenstraße in Germany
Gert Weinbauer Georg „Käthe“ Eschweiler Suzanne Richter Tanja Schildknecht Claus Vinçon Susanne Evers Sybille Waury
 * (since 1985) Lindenstraße
 * ARD, Germany
 * Carsten Flöter
 * actors Georg Uecker Günter Barton
 * Carsten Flöter as young student is gay and kissed 1987 Gert Weinbauer. Later he became in Lindenstraße a doctor after university and had a longterm relationship with Georg „Käthe“ Eschweiler. Suzanne Richter is a lesbian and has a relationship with Tanja Schildknecht. Together Richter and Schildknecht have later in life a baby and live together as LGBT parents.

I think very important for the TV and media LGBT discussion in Germany GLGermann (talk) 15:15, 11 November 2009 (UTC)

Family Guy
Any reason why we haven't included Stewie Griffin as a gay character under the Family Guy heading? His creator recently confirmed that he saw the character as gay. Also wondering why we include the character of Hubert here. It describes him as a "gay paedophile". But they are two different things - padeophiles are attracted to children and don't fall under LGBT. Contaldo80 (talk) 12:23, 8 April 2010 (UTC)

Queer as Folk
Both the English and American versions any reason why they are not listed? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 202.78.157.64 (talk) 08:22, 21 April 2010 (UTC)

 * You'll find them here in a separate article List of dramatic television series with LGBT characters Contaldo80 (talk) 15:49, 21 April 2010 (UTC)

= ReGenesis = The ReGenesis series has Carlos, who is indeed gay. Dunno how to add things to this list, though. Any reason it's not already on here? --76.89.164.24 (talk) 16:59, 4 May 2010 (UTC)

= Roll back the clock a little further. =

These characters never talked about being gay, but their mannerisms left little doubt in viewers mind.

Jonathan Harris as the effeminate Dr. Zachary Smith of Lost in Space (1965-68)

Charles Nelson Reilly as sissy Claymore Gregg in The Ghost and Ms. Muir (1968-69)

Paul Lynde as bitchy, bitter Uncle Arthur in Bewitched (1964-72)

As an example of obviously gay, but not “out” already on the list is Lieutenant Dangle. Dangle as far as I know has never admitted being gay. He just has unrealized and suppressed gay inclinations. I could probably come up with more... anytime Paul Lynde, Charles Nelson Reilly, and Bruce Villanche (a regular of Hollywood Squares) appeared in other series or game shows.
 * If a character is not identified as gay, including a character on the basis of their "mannerisms" leaving "little doubt" is prohibited original research. I don't watch Reno 911 so can't comment on the specific character but any character who isn't explicitly identified as gay should be omitted. Otto4711 (talk) 15:37, 16 June 2010 (UTC)
 * After reading this website,([]) I reluctantly agree with you for the purpose of this wiki article. However, I still think that the perception of these characters as gay by a large percentage of the population (which is mentioned in several articles I've stumbled upon) counts for something.  Maybe an honorable mention or referral to a separate wiki article.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.136.120.83 (talk) 18:52, 16 June 2010 (UTC)

=Beautiful People= I don't know where to put this one - it might be in the Dramatic series or whatever list - but Beautiful People definitely counts under LGBT, and I don't see it anywhere. (The main character Simon, Kylie, Nathan (the teacher), Nathan's boyfriend whose name I forget, Sacha, Mickey, and possibly Haylie, off the top of my head. There's probably one or two more.) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.166.187.131 (talk) 21:42, 12 July 2010 (UTC)

Glee
Glee isn't a sitcom.IAmTheCoinMan (talk) 15:31, 16 July 2010 (UTC)
 * It's nominated for an Emmy for best comedy series. Close enough. Otto4711 (talk) 23:05, 16 July 2010 (UTC)
 * So has Desperate Housewives, few years ago. Sure as hell doesn't make that a sitcom tho.IAmTheCoinMan (talk) 22:22, 17 July 2010 (UTC)

Sesame Street: Bert & Ernie
June 2013: Daytime Television's Longest-Running Gay Couple Covers The New Yorker (Illustrator Jack Hunter created the cover above for the July 8 and July 15, 2013 issue of The New Yorker.)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 184.148.31.196 (talk) 22:35, 28 June 2013 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Solomon Asch

Solomon Eliot Asch (September 14, 1907 – February 20, 1996) was a Polish-American Gestalt psychologist and pioneer in social psychology. He created seminal pieces of work in impression formation, prestige suggestion, conformity, and many other topics. His work follows a common theme of Gestalt psychology that the whole is not only greater than the sum of its parts, but the nature of the whole fundamentally alters the parts. Asch stated: "Most social acts have to be understood in their setting, and lose meaning if isolated. No error in thinking about social facts is more serious than the failure to see their place and function". Asch is most well known for his conformity experiments, in which he demonstrated the influence of group pressure on opinions. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Asch as the 41st most cited psychologist of the 20th century.

Early life
Asch was born in Warsaw, Poland, on September 14, 1907, to a Polish-Jewish family. He grew up in a small town of Łowicz in central Poland.

In 1920, Asch emigrated aged 13 with his family to the United States. They lived on the Lower East Side of New York, a dense area of many Jewish, Italian and Irish immigrants. His friends called him Shlaym.

Education
Asch was shy when he moved to the United States and did not speak English fluently due to being brought up in Poland. He went to the neighborhood public school, P.S. 147, to attend 6th grade. As a result of the language barrier, Asch had a very difficult time understanding in class. He learned English by reading Charles Dickens. Asch later attended Townsend Harris High School, a very selective high school attached to the City College of New York. After high school, he attended the City College of New York, majoring in both literature and science. He became interested in psychology towards the end of his undergraduate career after reading the work of William James and a few philosophers. In 1928, when he was 21 years old, he received his Bachelor of Science.

Asch went on to pursue his graduate degree at Columbia University. He initially was interested in anthropology, not in social psychology. With the help of Gardner Murphy, Lois Murphy, Franz Boas, and Ruth Benedict he gained a summer fellowship and investigated how children become members of their culture. His master's thesis was a statistical analysis of the test scores of 200 children under the supervision of Woodworth. Asch received his master's degree in 1930. His doctoral dissertation examined whether all learning curves have the same form; H. E. Garrett assigned the topic to him. He received his PhD in 1932.

Asch was exposed to Gestalt psychology through Gardner Murphy, then a young faculty member at Columbia. He became much more interested in Gestalt psychology after meeting and working closely with his adviser at Columbia, Max Wertheimer, one of the founders of Gestalt psychology. Asch later became close friend with Wertheimer.

Family life
Asch met Florence Miller in a library on East Broadway on the lower East Side in New York City. They married in 1930. Their relationship was reported as being "easy, good-humored" (Rock, p. 5). Asch remained married to Florence his entire life. They had their first and only son, Peter, in 1937. Peter Asch became a professor of economics at Rutgers University, married Ruth Zindler and had two sons, Eric and David. Peter died of heart failure at age 52 (prior to both parents and his wife.)

Career
Asch began his teaching career at Brooklyn College. In 1947, he moved to Swarthmore College, where he stayed for 19 years, until 1966. Swarthmore was the major center for scholars of Gestalt psychology at that time in the United States. Wolfgang Kohler, a German immigrant, W. C. H. Prentice and Hans Wallach were faculty members at that time as well. During his time at Swarthmore, Asch also served for two years (1958-1960) as a member of Princeton's Institute for Advanced Study. There, Stanley Milgram, who later became a prominent psychologist, worked as his research assistant.

In 1966, Asch left to found the Institute for Cognitive Studies at Rutgers University. In 1972, he moved to the University of Pennsylvania, teaching as a professor of psychology until he retired in 1979, and was Emeritus until 1996. Asch also had visiting posts at Harvard and MIT.

Impression formation
Asch was interested in how humans form impressions of other human beings. He was intrigued how humans are able to easily form impressions of others despite complex structures. He specifically was interested in how impressions of other people were established and if there were any principles which regulated these impressions. Asch concluded "to know a person is to have a grasp of a particular structure". He demonstrated through his experiments that forming an impression has the following elements:
 * 1) it is an organized process,
 * 2) the characteristics are perceived differently in relation to other characteristics,
 * 3) central qualities are discovered, causing a distinction between them and peripheral qualities,
 * 4) relations of harmony and contradiction are observed.

Asch conducted many experiments in which he asked participants to form an impression of a hypothetical person based on several characteristics said to belong to them.

Central characteristics on impression formation
In one experiment, two groups, A and B, were exposed to a list of exactly the same characteristics except one, cold vs. warm. The list of characteristics given to each group are listed below:

Group A: intelligent-skillful-industrious-warm-determined-practical-cautious

Group B: intelligent-skillful-industrious-cold-determined-practical-cautious

One group of people were told that the person was warm and another group of people were told the person is "cold". Participants were asked to write a brief description of the impression they formed after hearing these characteristics. The experimenters also produced a check list consisting of pairs of opposite traits, such as generous/ungenerous, shrewd/wise, etc. These words were related to the first list of characteristics they heard. Participants were asked to indicate which of these traits matched with the hypothetical person who had just been described to them.

Asch found that very different impressions were found based on this one characteristic in the list. In general, the "A" impressions were far more positive than the "B" impressions. Based on the results of the written descriptions of the hypothetical person, the meaning of the other characteristics in the list seemed to change, related to whether the hypothetical person was described as a "warm" or "cold" person.

Not all qualities were changed by this word. Words such as "honest", "strong", "serious", and "reliable" were not affected. The words "warm" and "cold" were shown to be of more importance in forming participant's impressions than other characteristics. They were considered to be basic to understanding the person, whereas other characteristics would be considered secondary. Thus, if another characteristic in this list was changed between two subjects, such as manipulating the words "polite" and "blunt", instead of the words "warm" and "cold", it would not affect the impression of the person as much as did "warm" and "cold". Asch called "warm" and "cold" "central" characteristics, and "polite" and "blunt" peripheral characteristics.

Order effects on impression formation
Asch found in another experiment, that the order in which he presented the traits of a hypothetical person drastically influenced the impression formed by participants formed. For example, participants were read one of the following lists below:
 * A. intelligent-industrious-impulsive-critical-stubborn-envious,
 * B. envious-stubborn-critical-impulsive-industrious-intelligent.

Series A starts with desirable qualities and ends with undesirable qualities, while the reverse is true for Series B. As a result of this slight difference, people perceive person A as someone who is an "able person who possesses certain shortcomings which, do not, however, overshadow his merits". But, people perceive person B as a "problem, whose abilities are hampered by his serious difficulties". The meaning of the other words in this list also change in the majority of subjects between list A and list B. Words such as "impulsive" and "critical" take on a positive meaning with A, but a negative meaning with B.

Similarity and difference of impression
In another central experiment, Asch presented participants with four groups of characteristics. Each participant was exposed to the group of words listed below:
 * Set 1: Quick, Skillful, Helpful.
 * Set 2: Quick, Clumsy, Helpful.
 * Set 3: Slow, Skillful, Helpful.
 * Set 4: Slow, Clumsy, Helpful.

Notice that only one characteristic, "helpful", is the same throughout all of the four sets. Participants were first asked which of the other three sets most resemble Set 1, and then asked which of the other sets most resembles Set 2. In 87 percent of the cases, Set 1 was seen most similar with Set 3. In only 13 percent of the cases, people reported Set 1 to be similar to Set 2. Also, Set 2 was said to resemble Set 4 in 85 percent of the cases and only 9 percent of the cases was it said to resemble Set I was the closest.

However, there are more "identical elements" in Set 1 and 2 and in Set 3 and 4. Notice that two of the three words are the same in Set 1 and 2 and in Set 3 and 4. The similarity in sets can not be based on the number of shared elements in the set. Participants also reported that the word "quick" of set 1 was most similar in meaning to "slow" of set 3. Similarly, "quick" of set 2 was perceived to be most similar in meaning to "slow" of set 4.

Asch reached the following conclusions based on this experiment: "In [Set] 3 slowness indicates care, prides in work well-done. Slowness in [Set] 4 indicates sluggishness, poor motor coordinate, some physical retardation". People arrive at an overall impression by integrating the relationships of the different qualities of a person. Therefore, they form very different impressions when one of these qualities differ.
 * 1) The meaning of a characteristic changes based on a change in the "environment" it's in. Thus, the meanings of the words "quick" and "slow" change based on what other words it is presented with or associated with in real life. The meaning of the word "quick" in set 1 is associated more with "one of assurance, of smoothness of movement" while in set 2 the word is associated with "forced quickness, in an effort to be helpful". In everyday life, people perceive a quick, skillful person to be very different from a quick, clumsy person. However, people perceive someone who is "quick and skillful" and "slow and skillful" as being similar and sharing the same quality of being more of an expert.
 * 2) The change in the meaning of the characteristic is determined by its relationship with other characteristics. "[Set] I is quick because he is skillful; [Set] 2 is clumsy because he is fast"
 * 1) "Dynamic consequences are grasped in the interaction of qualities", (Asch, p. 280). Participants considered "quick" and "skillful" and "slow" and "skillful" as characteristics that cooperate together, but they think of "quick" and "clumsy" as characteristics that cancel one another.

Prestige suggestion
As a result of World War II in the 1940s, Asch and other social psychologists were interested in propaganda. They wondered: How do you get people to believe what you want them to believe? How do you get people to believe they should sacrifice for the war effort?

In everyday life, psychologists noticed that people are persuaded by messages differently based on the identity of the author. It seemed that the more prestige the author/speaker has, the more likely the person will believe them. Many social psychologists prior to Asch had studied this phenomenon. However, Asch disagreed with many of them and critiqued their interpretations. His main conclusion was that a change in evaluation requires a change in the content and meaning of the response as a result of the change in context. Therefore, the meaning of the message is interpreted differently depending on who is the author of the message. He suggests that participants are not blindly accepting a message based on the author, but rather they are making meaning of the quote based on the author.

Asch called into question the present theory for the underlying psychological process concerning the effect of group forces on the formation and change of opinions and attitudes. He critiqued the experimental approach of many different psychologists, including Zillig, Moore, Marple, Sherif, Thorndike, and Lorge, in their investigations of evaluation change. Lorge's and Sherif's investigation of the effects of "prestige" on the evaluation of statements were investigated in detail in one of Asch's articles. all of the above-mentioned psychologists used the same basic procedure: A participant makes a judgment about some particular issue. At a later time, they judge the same problem again, but with information of how certain groups or prestigious people have evaluated the same problem. If the subject changes his judgment in the same direction as the evaluations of these groups of people or prestigious people, then it is considered a degree of influence that they have exerted on the participant's judgment.

Lorge critique
Lorge's main finding had been that "prestige" can alter evaluations of statements of serious political and economic questions.

In his experiment, subjects rated a set of 50 quotations on a 5-point scale of "agreement" or "disagreement" with the statement. The quotes were followed by the names of two public people. Subjects were informed that one of the names was the author of the true source and were asked to select the true author. After about a month, the subjects again rated the same quotation but with the true author only listed below the quotation. Subjects also rated earlier their "respect for the political opinions of each of these individuals". This was used as a measure of prestige. Lorge found that participants rated the same statement differently when it was referred to a different author with the rating tending to rise when it was referred to a more "prestigious" author.

One of Lorge's main conclusions was that "an unchanged object of judgment undergoes a change of evaluation". Therefore, the prestige of the author was viewed as acting arbitrarily on the statement regardless of the content or merit of the statement. Participants simply viewed the statement as having higher value when the author has higher prestige.

Asch reinterpreted Lorge's findings and suggested that there was "a change in the object of judgment, rather than in the judgment of the object" (Asch, 1940). He suggested that a person will redefine the object of judgment based on the content of the evaluations. Therefore, the person will base the meaning of the quote in the context of what he/she believes to be true about the person who said the quote, resulting in different meanings of the statements based on the author.

In evidence of his claims, Asch conducted an experiment in which college students read statements with the name of one author below each statement. They were instructed to describe what the statement meant to them. Two groups of students read the same statements but with different authors associated with them. The main finding was that there was a "cognitive reorganization" of the statement based on what was understood about the author of the statement. Participant's felt the meaning of the quote differed depending on who wrote the statement.

For example, the following quote was presented to both groups of subjects: "Only the willfully blind can fail to see that the old style capitalism of a primitive freebooting period is gone forever. The capitalism of complete laissez-faire, which thrived on low wages and maximum profits for minimum turnover, which rejected collective bargaining and fought against justified public regulation of the competitive process, is a thing of the past." When participants thought that Bridges (a well-known union leader) was the author, they interpreted the passage to be an "expression of the accomplishments of labor in the face of opposition from capital and contained a resolve to defend these gains from attack". However, when Johnston (president of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce at the time) was the author, they interpreted the passage to be "a perspective of policy in the interest of business, especially of 'enlightened' business". Asch conducted a very similar and classic study with participants reading statements either attributed to Jefferson or Lenin.

One of Asch's major points is that participants are not completely blind in the experiment and make arbitrary choices based on this bias. Asch claims that participants were acting reasonable in their change of evaluation of the judgment, because the context of the judgment and thus the meaning of the judgment had changed. Lorge, however, suggested that if the participants were behaving logical, their evaluations should have remained the same despite the change in author.

Sherif critique
Muzafer Sherif conducted an experiment, very similar to Lorge, in which he investigated how prestige affects the evaluation of literary materials. College students were asked to rank a set of prose passages according to their literary quality. Each passage also included the name of a well-known author. However, all of the passages were actually written by the same author. Participants rated the authors earlier in terms of their literary standing. Sherif found that passages which were identified with highly acclaimed authors received higher rankings.

Asch suggested that Sherif's results could be largely influenced from the environment of a laboratory experiment. Because the experiment was designed to have each of the passages have very few differences between them, participants were faced with a dilemma when asked to distinguish between them. The experimenter and other neighboring participants may appear to find the task obvious, so the participant attends to any clues that might help him make the decision. In fear of looking ridiculous, the participant might now approach the task as, "Which of these am I expected to like and dislike?" With the only information that varies being the author, the participant might make conclusions about the quotes based on this one piece of information that varies.

Conformity experiments

Asch is best known for his conformity experiments. His main finding was that peer pressure can change opinion and even perception. Asch found the majority of the participants succumbed at least once to the pressure and went with the majority.

Asch asked: 1) To what extent do social forces alter people's opinions?  2) Which aspect of the group influence is most important–the size of the majority or unanimity of opinion?

Asch's conformity experiment was conducted using 123 male, white, college students, ranging in age from 17 to 25, who were told that they would be part of an experiment in visual judgment. Each subject was put into a group with 6 to 8 confederates (people who knew the true aims of the experiment, but were introduced as participants to the naive "real" participant). The group was gathered in a classroom and shown a card with a line on it, followed by another card with 3 lines on it labeled 1, 2, and 3. The participants were then asked to say which line matched in length the line on the first card. Each line question was called a "trial". The "real" participant answered last or penultimately. For the first two trials, the subject would feel at ease in the experiment, as he and the other "participants" gave the obvious, correct answer. However, after the fourth trial, all of the confederates respond with the clearly wrong answer at certain points such that in 12 of the 18 trials they all gave the wrong answer. The 12 trials in which the confederates answered incorrectly were the "critical trials". The participant could thus either ignore the majority and go with his own senses or he could go along with the majority and ignore the clearly obvious fact. The aim was to see whether the real participant would change his answer and respond the same way as the confederates or stick with what his eyes plainly told him.

Asch found that 23% of all subjects successfully withstand this form of social pressure, 4.8% completely succumb, while the remainder conform to the majority's manifestly incorrect opinion only in some experimental rounds. Asch suggested that this procedure created a doubt in the participants' mind about the seemingly obvious answer. Participants reported that the correct but rejected line was almost but not quite equal to the standard line. Asch also found that the effectiveness of the group pressure increased significantly from 1 person to 3 people unanimously responding incorrectly. However, there was not much increase after that. He also found that when one confederate responded correctly, the power of the majority to influence the subject decreased substantially.

Asch told his colleagues that his studies of conformity were informed by his childhood experiences in Poland. He recalled being seven years old and staying up for his first Passover night. He recalls seeing his grandmother pour an extra glass of wine. When he asked who the glass of wine was for, she said that it was for the prophet Elijah. He then asked her whether Elijah would really take a sip from the glass and his uncle assured him that he would. His uncle told him to watch very closely when the time came. "Filled with a sense of suggestion and expectation" Asch "thought he saw the level of wine in the cup drop just a bit". Early in life, Asch succumbed to social pressure, an experience which led him to investigate conformity later in life.

Metaphors
Asch looked at metaphors in a variety of different languages, such as Old Testament Hebrew, Homeric Greek, Chinese, Thai, Malayalam, and Hausa. He found that there was a similar meaning for the sensory term, such as "cold" in English, and the corresponding personality trait. He concluded that metaphors, and thus language, reflects a person's attempt to understand the true properties of a person or object.

Unitary and nonunitary associations
Asch showed that simple properties would enter into associations much easier, when they are part of the same unit than when they are from different units.

Notable influences
Asch was Stanley Milgram's advisor at Princeton University, and Milgram completed his dissertation on national differences under conformity under Asch. Asch also largely influenced the theory of many other social psychologists, such as Harold Kelley.

Legacy
According to Levine (1999), Asch's research has led to four critical ideas that persist in social influence research. First, Asch believed that social interaction reflects the ability of individual people to synthesize information about group norms, the viewpoints of others and their own perceptions of themselves as group members. This point of view has been manifested in at least two important theories (social identity theory and self-categorization theory), and has been a source of inspiration for the work of many social psychologists.

Second, Asch emphasized that independent thought and disagreement among group members is a cornerstone of group functioning. He believed that only by settling our differences with other group members can we actually understand the shortcomings of our own beliefs. This notion has been embraced by social scientists like Moscovici, who has pursued this rationale as the basis for his theory of minority influence in group situations, and has also been incorporated into sociocognitive conflict theory.

Asch also believed the relationship between conformity and non-conformity was not as simple as one being the opposite of the other. This was Asch's third influential idea, and he suggested that conformity and resistance might be explained by their own unique social psychological processes. Conformity, for instance, could be a function of how aware a person is that they are being influenced by the group (distortion of perception), the degree to which the person believes that the group consensus is correct (distortion of judgement), and how badly the person wants to be accepted by the group (distortion of action). Although these exact terms have not been directly ported over to the literature, researchers such as Serge Moscovici and Charlan Nemeth have adopted the perspective that majority and minority influence are moderated by multiple processes.

Lastly, Asch suggested that group influence can change how people perceive stimuli (See Asch, 1940 for an example). This is the most obscure of Asch's major ideas, in large part because it has not been cited frequently, but is nonetheless important because it speaks to the power of group influence.

In the 1980s, Asch was disappointed and concerned by the direction social psychology was taking. He wrote, "Why do I sense, together with the current expansion, a shrinking of vision, an expansion of surface rather than depth, a failure of imagination?....Why is not social psychology more exciting, more human in the most usual sense of that term? To sum up, is this discipline perhaps on the wrong track?". Asch was worried that social psychologists were not asking the deeper questions that would help change and improve the world.

End of life
Asch died at the age of 88 on February 20, 1996, in his home in Haverford, Pennsylvania.

Selected work

 * Asch F. (1989). Letter to Irvin Rock.
 * Asch S. E. (1929). A study of scatter on the Stanford revision of the Binet scale. Unpublished MA thesis.
 * Asch S. E. (1932a). Personality development of Hopi children. Unpublished paper.
 * Asch S. E. (1932b). "An experimental study of variability in learning". Archives of Psychology, 143, 1–55
 * Asch S. E. (1940). Studies in the principles of judgements and attitudes: II. Determination of judgements by group and ego standards. Journal of Social Psychology, 12, 433–465.
 * Asch S. E. (1946). "Forming impressions of personality". Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 41, 258–290.
 * Asch S. E. (1948). "The doctrine of suggestion, prestige, and imitation in social psychology". Psychological Review, 55, 250–276.
 * Asch S. E. (1952). "Social psychology". Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
 * Asch S. E. (1955). "On the use of metaphor in the description of persons". In H. Werner (Ed.), On expressive language (29–38). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.
 * Asch S. E. (1955). Opinions and Social Pressure.
 * Asch S. E. (1956). "Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority". Psychological Monographs, 70, 1–70.
 * Asch S. E. (1958). "The metaphor: a psychological inquiry". In R. Tagiuri & L. Petrullo (Eds.), Person perception and interpersonal behavior (pp. 86–94), California: Stanford University Press.
 * Asch S. E. (1962). "A problem in the theory of associations". Psychologische Beitrage, 6, 553–563.
 * Asch S. E. (1964). "The process of free recall". In C. Scheerer (Ed.), Cognition: Theory, research, promise (pp. 79–88). New York: Harper and Row.
 * Asch S. E. (1968a). "The doctrinal tyranny of associationism". In T. R. Dixon & D. L. Horton (Eds.), Verbal behavior and general behavior theory (pp. 214–228). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
 * Asch S. E. (1968b). "Wolfgang Köhler". American Journal of Psychology, 81, 110–119.
 * Asch S. E. (1969). "A reformulation of the problem of associations". American Psychologist, 24, 92–102.
 * Asch S. E., Ceraso J., Heimer W. ( 1960). "Perceptual conditions of association". Psychological Monographs, 74(3), 1–48.
 * Asch S. E., Ebenholtz S. M. (1962a). "The principle of associative symmetry". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 106, 135–163.
 * Asch S. E., Ebenholtz S. M. (1962b). "The process of free recall: evidence for non-associative factors in acquisition and retention". Journal of Psychology, 54, 3–31.
 * Asch S. E., Hay J., & Mendoza R. (1960). "Perceptual organization in serial rote-learning". American Journal of Psychology, 73, 177–198.
 * Asch S. E., Lindner M. (1963). "A note on strength of association". Journal of Psychology, 55, 199–209.
 * Asch S. E., Prentice W. C. H. (1958). "Paired association with related and unrelated pairs of nonsense figures". American Journal of Psychology, 71, 247–254.
 * Asch S. E., Witkin H. A. (1948a). "Studies in space orientation: I. Perception of the upright with displaced visual fields". Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 325–337.
 * Asch S. E., Witkin H. A. (1948b). "Studies in space orientation: II. Perception of the upright with displaced visual fields and with body tilted". Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 455–477.
 * Hardin, C. D., Higgins, E. T. (1996). Shared reality: How social verification makes the subjective objective. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 3, pp. 28–84). New York: Guilford.
 * Levine, J. M. (1999). Solomon Asch's Legacy for group research. Personality and Social Psychology, 3(4), 358–364.
 * Weick, K. E., Roberts, K. H. (1993). Collective mind in organizations: Heedful interrelating on flight decks. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38, 357–381.

title: Solomon Asch


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Talk:West Bengal

Should we replace Infobox settlement with Infobox Indian state or territory in Indian states and union territories pages ?
Please share your thoughts and comments on, discussion about replacing infobox settlement with Infobox Indian state or territory on Indian states and union territories pages. Discussion:- Wikipedia talk:Noticeboard for India-related topics

This infobox is customised for Indian states and union territories. It gives more specific, constant, described  and dedicated information.

Template:Infobox Indian state or territory. Tojoroy20 (talk) 16:34, 26 January 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 4 March 2023
Do not repeat the name of capital and largest city. Just do this for capital and largest city. 49.146.22.36 (talk) 06:12, 4 March 2023 (UTC)

 * Which means do not repeat the name of capital and largest city. Just do this for capital and largest city.
 * seat_type = Capital and largest city 49.146.22.36 (talk) 06:12, 4 March 2023 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: Your proposed change will display "Kolkata and largest city". Changing the "seat_type" to "Capital and largest city" would make the parameter too long. M.Bitton (talk) 13:55, 4 March 2023 (UTC)

Infobox replacement
The Infobox settlement used on this page is going to be replaced with Infobox Indian state or territory as per the Proposal and Consensus of RFC. Any questions/suggestions? Discuss Here.

You can also contribute by replacing Infobox settlement with Infobox Indian state or territory on other pages, or by improving this one. Tojoroy20 (talk) 20:03, 19 March 2023 (UTC)

 * ✅ Replaced — Tojoroy20 (talk) 21:46, 20 March 2023 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 07:42, 18 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Emblem of West Bengal.svg

Edit-request in Districts and cities section
'' As of now, West Bengal is divided into 23 districts.  instead of  As of 1 August 2022, West Bengal is divided into 30 districts. ''  Ritwik Mahata t@lk 10:54, 15 October 2023 (UTC)

 * @Community Tech bot  Ritwik Mahata t@lk 14:20, 15 October 2023 (UTC)
 * @Ohnoitsjamie  Ritwik Mahata t@lk 18:45, 17 October 2023 (UTC)
 * ✅ OhNo itsJamie Talk 19:09, 17 October 2023 (UTC)

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 30 April 2024
Tgbsww (talk) 08:54, 30 April 2024 (UTC) File:Emblem of West Bengal (2018-present).svg, resize it plz
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done for now: This image appears 2 places in the infobox. Please explain which one you want resized, what the new size should be, and why this is necessary (they both look reasonable to me). Jamedeus (talk) 18:26, 30 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:West Bengal


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Janina Fry

Janina Päivänsäde Fry (née Frostell) (born 12 November 1973 in Helsinki) is Finnish actress, singer, model, fashion designer and beauty pageant titleholder. She hosted the show Bella on Finnish television channel Nelonen.

Early life and education
She grew up in Porvoo. She has a vocational qualification in Business Administration and Cosmetology. She completed Fashion Design studies at Helsinki Design School in June 2016.

Career
Fry released a style book Upeana Juhlaan with Suvi Tiilikainen and Katariina Kivimäki in August 2015. In October 2019, she began writing a blog for women's magazine Anna 's website.

In 2019, she was a candidate representing Swedish People's Party of Finland in the parliamentary elections, but was not elected with 1475 votes.

Modeling
In 1993, her breakthrough came by winning the Maiden of Finland beauty pageant. In November 1993, she participated in the Miss World beauty pageant and was placed at number 6. The pageant was hosted by Pierce Brosnan and judges included Christie Brinkley, Grace Jones and Jackie Chan. In 2001, Fry was voted fifth on British men's magazine Arena's list of "World's Sexiest Women."

She has modeled Gossard lingerie and had a five-year contract with Panos Emporio swimwear. Fry has been featured in numerous fashion and lifestyle magazines such as Sweden's Café, and Finland's Me Naiset, Anna and Kotiliesi.

Fashion design
She launched her own lingerie line Janina Frostell Collection in 1999, which lasted for six years until 2005. In 2007, she launched a clothing collection Janina F by Janina Frostell for retail chain Tokmanni. In 2012, she created an exclusive clothing brand Janina F for K-Citymarket.

In 2016, an evening gown designed by Fry was worn by Tiina Laisi-Puheloinen at the Independence Day Reception, an annual event organised by the President of Finland at the Presidential Palace in Helsinki on 6 December, Finland's Independence Day.

Music
She has recorded two studio albums and released nine singles. Fry co-wrote "Addicted to You" with Tracy Lipp, which was the Finnish entry in the Eurovision Song Contest 2002, performed by Laura Voutilainen.

Public image
On the first quarter of 2007, she was the tenth most searched celebrity in Finland on the search engine website www.fi.

Personal life
In 2007, she married Mark Fry, the director of marketing at Sony BMG in Finland. Fry gave birth to her first child, a daughter, Sophia in March 2007. In 2010, she gave birth to their second child Brandon. The family lived in Espoo, Finland, before they moved to Stockholm, Sweden, in 2021.

title: Janina Fry