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Coronation of the British monarch

The coronation of the monarch of the United Kingdom is an initiation ceremony in which they are formally invested with regalia and crowned at Westminster Abbey. It corresponds to the coronations that formerly took place in other European monarchies, which have all abandoned coronations in favour of inauguration or enthronement ceremonies. A coronation is a symbolic formality and does not signify the official beginning of the monarch's reign; de jure and de facto his or her reign commences from the moment of the preceding monarch's death or abdication, maintaining legal continuity of the monarchy.

The coronation usually takes place several months after the death of the monarch's predecessor, as it is considered a joyous occasion that would be inappropriate while mourning continues. This interval also gives planners enough time to complete the required elaborate arrangements. The most recent coronation took place on 6 May 2023 to crown King Charles III and Queen Camilla.

The ceremony is performed by the archbishop of Canterbury, the most senior cleric in the Church of England, of which the monarch is supreme governor. Other clergy and members of the British nobility traditionally have roles as well. Most participants wear ceremonial uniforms or robes, and before the most recent coronation, some wore coronets. Many government officials and guests attend, including representatives of other countries.

The essential elements of the coronation have remained largely unchanged for the past 1,000 years. The sovereign is first presented to, and acclaimed by, the people. The sovereign then swears an oath to uphold the law and the Church. Following that, the monarch is anointed with holy oil, invested with regalia, and crowned, before receiving the homage of their subjects. Consorts of kings are then anointed and crowned as queens. The service ends with a closing procession, and since the 20th century it has been traditional for the royal family to appear later on the balcony of Buckingham Palace to greet crowds and watch a flypast.

English coronations
English coronations were traditionally held at Westminster Abbey, with the monarch seated on the Coronation Chair. Main elements of the coronation service and the earliest form of oath can be traced to the ceremony devised by Saint Dunstan for King Edgar's coronation in 973 AD at Bath Abbey. It drew on ceremonies used by the kings of the Franks and those used in the ordination of bishops. Two versions of coronation services, known as ordines (from the Latin ordo meaning "order") or recensions, survive from before the Norman Conquest. It is not known if the first recension was ever used in England, and it was the second recension which was used by Edgar in 973 and by subsequent Anglo-Saxon and early Norman kings. A third recension was probably compiled during the reign of Henry I and was used at the coronation of his successor, Stephen, in 1135. While retaining the most important elements of the Anglo-Saxon rite, it may have borrowed from the consecration of the Holy Roman Emperor from the Pontificale Romano-Germanicum, a book of German liturgy compiled in Mainz in 961, thus bringing the English tradition into line with continental practice. It remained in use until the coronation of Edward II in 1308 when the fourth recension was first used, having been compiled over several preceding decades. Although influenced by its French counterpart, the new ordo focussed on the balance between the monarch and his nobles and on the oath, neither of which concerned the absolutist French kings. One manuscript of this recension is the Liber Regalis at Westminster Abbey which has come to be regarded as the definitive version.

Following the start of the Reformation in England, the boy king Edward VI had been crowned in the first Protestant coronation in 1547, during which Archbishop Thomas Cranmer preached a sermon against idolatry and "the tyranny of the bishops of Rome". However, six years later, he was succeeded by his half-sister Mary I, who restored the Catholic rite. In 1559, Elizabeth I underwent the last English coronation under the auspices of the Catholic Church; however, Elizabeth's insistence on changes to reflect her Protestant beliefs resulted in several bishops refusing to officiate at the service, and it was conducted by the low-ranking bishop of Carlisle, Owen Oglethorpe.

Scottish coronations
Scottish coronations were traditionally held at Scone Abbey in Perthshire, with the monarch seated on the Stone of Destiny. The original rituals were a fusion of ceremonies used by the kings of Dál Riata, based on the inauguration of Aidan by Columba in 574, and by the Picts from whom the Stone of Destiny came. A crown does not seem to have been used until the inauguration of Alexander II in 1214. The ceremony included the laying on of hands by a senior cleric and the recitation of the king's genealogy. The Bishop of St Andrews (from 1472 an archbishop) usually presided, but other bishops and archbishops also performed at some coronations.

After the coronation of John Balliol, the Stone was taken to Westminster Abbey in 1296 and in 1300–1301 Edward I of England had it incorporated into the English Coronation Chair. Its first certain use at an English coronation was that of Henry IV in 1399. Pope John XXII in a bull of 1329 granted the kings of Scotland the right to be anointed and crowned. No record exists of the exact form of the medieval rituals, but a later account exists of the coronation of the 17-month-old infant James V at Stirling Castle in 1513. The ceremony was held in a church, since demolished, within the castle walls and was conducted by the Bishop of Glasgow, because the Archbishop of St Andrews had been killed at the Battle of Flodden. It is likely that the child would have been knighted before the start of the ceremony. The coronation itself started with a sermon, followed by the anointing and crowning, then the coronation oath, in this case taken for the child by an unknown noble or priest, and finally an oath of fealty and acclamation by the congregation.

James VI had been crowned in the Church of the Holy Rude at Stirling in 1567. After the Union of the Crowns, he was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 25 July 1603. His son Charles I travelled north for a Scottish coronation at Holyrood Abbey in Edinburgh in 1633, but caused consternation amongst the Presbyterian Scots by his insistence on elaborate High Anglican ritual, arousing "gryt feir of inbriginge of poperie". Charles II underwent a simple Presbyterian coronation ceremony at Scone in 1651, but his brother James VII and II was never crowned in Scotland, although Scottish peers attended his 1685 coronation in London, setting a precedent for future ceremonies. The coronation of Charles II was the last to take place in Scotland, and no bishop presided as the episcopacy had been abolished; the de facto head of government, Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, crowned Charles instead.

Modern coronations
The Liber Regalis was translated into English for the first time for the coronation of James I in 1603, partly as a result of the reformation in England requiring services to be understood by the people, but also an attempt by antiquarians to recover a lost English identity from before the Norman Conquest. In 1685, James II, who was a Catholic, ordered a truncated version of the service omitting the Eucharist, but this was restored for later monarchs. Only four years later, the service was again revised by Henry Compton for the coronation of William III and Mary II. The Latin text was resurrected for the 1714 coronation of the German-speaking George I, since it was the only common language between the king and the clergy. Perhaps because the 1761 coronation of George III had been beset by "numerous mistakes and stupidities", the next time around, spectacle overshadowed the religious aspect of the service. The coronation of George IV in 1821 was an expensive and lavish affair with a vast amount of money being spent on it.

George's brother and successor William IV had to be persuaded to be crowned at all; his coronation at a time of economic depression in 1831 cost only one sixth of that spent on the previous event. Traditionalists threatened to boycott what they called a "Half Crown-nation". The king merely wore his robes over his uniform as Admiral of the Fleet. For this coronation, a number of economising measures were made which would set a precedent followed by future monarchs. The assembly of peers and ceremonial at Westminster Hall involving the presentation of the regalia to the monarch was eliminated. The procession from Westminster Hall to the Abbey on foot was likewise eliminated and in its place, a state procession by coach from St James's Palace to the abbey was instituted, an important feature of the modern event. The coronation banquet after the service proper was also terminated.

When Victoria was crowned in 1838, the service followed the pared-down precedent set by her uncle, and the under-rehearsed ceremonial, again presided over by William Howley, was marred by mistakes and accidents. The music in the abbey was widely criticised in the press, only one new piece having been written for it, and the large choir and orchestra were badly coordinated.

In the 20th century, liturgical scholars sought to restore the spiritual meaning of the ceremony by rearranging elements with reference to the medieval texts, creating a "complex marriage of innovation and tradition". The greatly increased pageantry of the state processions was intended to emphasise the strength and diversity of the British Empire.

Bringing coronations to the people
The idea of the need to gain popular support for a new monarch by making the ceremony a spectacle for ordinary people, started with the coronation in 1377 of Richard II who was a 10-year-old boy, thought unlikely to command respect simply by his physical appearance. On the day before the coronation, the boy king and his retinue were met outside the City of London by the lord mayor, aldermen and the livery companies, and he was conducted to the Tower of London where he spent the night in vigil. The following morning, the king travelled on horseback in a great procession through the decorated city streets to Westminster. Bands played along the route, the public conduits flowed with red and white wine, and an imitation castle had been built in Cheapside, probably to represent the New Jerusalem, where a girl blew gold leaf over the king and offered him wine. Similar, or even more elaborate pageants continued until the coronation of Charles II in 1661. Charles's pageant was watched by Samuel Pepys who wrote: "So glorious was the show with gold and silver that we were not able to look at it". James II abandoned the tradition of the pageant to pay for jewels for his queen and thereafter there was only a short procession on foot from Westminster Hall to the abbey. For the coronation of William IV and Adelaide in 1831, a state procession from St James's Palace to the abbey was instituted, and this pageantry is an important feature of the modern event. In early modern coronations, the events inside the abbey were usually recorded by artists and published in elaborate folio books of engravings, the last of these was published in 1905 depicting the coronation which had taken place three years earlier. Re-enactments of the ceremony were staged at London and provincial theatres; in 1761, a production featuring the Westminster Abbey choir at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden ran for three months after the real event. In 1902, a request to record the ceremony on a gramophone record was rejected, but Sir Benjamin Stone photographed the procession into the abbey. Nine years later, at the coronation of George V, Stone was allowed to photograph the recognition, the presentation of the swords, and the homage.

The coronation of George VI in 1937 was broadcast on radio by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), and parts of the service were filmed and shown in cinemas. The state procession was shown live on the new BBC Television Service, the first major outside broadcast. At Elizabeth II's coronation in 1953, most of the proceedings inside the abbey were also televised by the BBC. Originally, events as far as the choir screen were to be televised live, with the remainder to be filmed and released later after any mishaps were edited out. This would prevent television viewers from seeing most of the highlights of the coronation, including the actual crowning, live; it led to controversy in the press and even questions in parliament. The organising committee subsequently decided that the entire ceremony would be televised, except for the anointing and communion, which had also been excluded from photography at the last coronation. It was revealed 30 years later that the about-face was due to the personal intervention of the Queen. It is estimated that over 20 million people watched the broadcast in the United Kingdom. The coronation contributed to the increase of public interest in television, which rose significantly.

Commonwealth realms
The need to include the various elements of the British Empire in coronations was not considered until 1902, when it was attended by the prime ministers and governors-general of the British Dominions, by then almost completely autonomous, and also by many of the rulers of the Indian Princely States and the various British Protectorates. An Imperial Conference was held afterwards. In 1911, the procession inside Westminster Abbey included the banners of the dominions, India and the Home Nations. By 1937, the Statute of Westminster 1931 had made the dominions fully independent, and the wording of the coronation oath was amended to include their names and confine the elements concerning religion to the United Kingdom. Thus since 1937, the monarch has been simultaneously crowned as sovereign of several independent nations besides the United Kingdom, known since 1953 as the Commonwealth realms. Elizabeth II was asked, for example: "Will you solemnly promise and swear to govern the Peoples of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, Pakistan and Ceylon, and of your Possessions and other Territories to any of them belonging or pertaining, according to their respective laws and customs?" In 2023, the oath was amended to avoid reciting the realms other than the United Kingdom during the coronation of Charles III.

Timing
The timing of the coronation has varied throughout British history. King Edgar's coronation was some 15 years after his accession in 959 and may have been intended to mark the high point of his reign, or that he reached the age of 30, the age at which Jesus Christ was baptised. Harold II was crowned on the day after the death of his predecessor, Edward the Confessor, the rush probably reflecting the contentious nature of Harold's succession; whereas the first Norman monarch, William I, was also crowned on the day he became king, 25 December 1066, but three weeks since the surrender of English nobles and bishops at Berkhampstead, allowing time to prepare a spectacular ceremony. Most of his successors were crowned within weeks, or even days, of their accession. Edward I was fighting in the Ninth Crusade when he acceded to the throne in 1272; he was crowned soon after his return in 1274. Edward II's coronation, similarly, was delayed by a campaign in Scotland in 1307. Henry VI was only a few months old when he acceded in 1422; he was crowned in 1429, but did not officially assume the reins of government until he was deemed of sufficient age, in 1437. Pre-modern coronations were usually either on a Sunday, the Christian Sabbath, or on a Christian holiday. Edgar's coronation was at Pentecost, William I's on Christmas Day, possibly in imitation of the Byzantine emperors, and John's was on Ascension Day. Elizabeth I consulted her astrologer, John Dee, before deciding on an auspicious date. The coronations of Charles II in 1661 and Anne in 1702 were on St George's Day, the feast of the patron saint of England.

Under the Hanoverian monarchs in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it was deemed appropriate to extend the waiting period to several months, following a period of mourning for the previous monarch and to allow time for preparation of the ceremony. In the case of every monarch between George IV and George V, at least one year passed between accession and coronation. Edward VIII was not crowned and his successor George VI was crowned 5 months after his accession. The coronation date of his predecessor had already been set; planning simply continued with a new monarch. The coronation of Charles III and Camilla was held on 6 May 2023, eight months after he acceded to the throne.

Since a period of time has often passed between accession and coronation, some monarchs were never crowned. Edward V and Lady Jane Grey were both deposed before they could be crowned, in 1483 and 1553, respectively. Edward VIII also went uncrowned, as he abdicated in 1936 before the end of the customary one-year period between accession and coronation. A monarch, however, accedes to the throne the moment their predecessor dies, not when they are crowned, hence the traditional proclamation: "The king is dead, long live the king!"

Location
The Anglo-Saxon monarchs used various locations for their coronations, including Bath, Kingston upon Thames, London, and Winchester. The last Anglo-Saxon monarch, Harold II, was crowned at Westminster Abbey in 1066; the location was preserved for all future coronations. When London was under the control of rebels, Henry III was crowned at Gloucester in 1216; he later chose to have a second coronation at Westminster in 1220. Two hundred years later, Henry VI also had two coronations; as king of England in London in 1429, and as king of France in Paris in 1431.

Coronation of consorts and others
Coronations may be performed for a person other than the reigning monarch. In 1170, Henry the Young King, heir apparent to the throne, was crowned as a second king of England, subordinate to his father Henry II; such coronations were common practice in mediaeval France and Germany, but this is only one of two instances of its kind in England (the other being that of Ecgfrith of Mercia in 796, crowned whilst his father, Offa of Mercia, was still alive). More commonly, a king's wife is crowned as queen consort. If the king is already married at the time of his coronation, a joint coronation of both king and queen may be performed. The first such coronation was of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1154; eighteen such coronations have been performed, including that of the co-rulers William III and Mary II. The most recent was that of Charles III and his wife Camilla in 2023. If the king married, or remarried, after his coronation, or if his wife was not crowned with him for some other reason, she might be crowned in a separate ceremony. The first such separate coronation of a queen consort in England was that of Matilda of Flanders in 1068; the last was Anne Boleyn's in 1533. The most recent king to wed post-coronation, Charles II, did not have a separate coronation for his bride, Catherine of Braganza. In some instances, the king's wife was simply unable to join him in the coronation ceremony due to circumstances preventing her from doing so. In 1821, George IV's estranged wife Caroline of Brunswick was not invited to the ceremony; when she showed up at Westminster Abbey anyway, she was denied entry and turned away. Following the English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell declined the crown but underwent a coronation in all but name in his second investiture as Lord Protector in 1657.

Clergy
The Archbishop of Canterbury, who has precedence over all other clergy and all laypersons except members of the royal family, traditionally officiates at coronations; in his absence, another bishop appointed by the monarch may take the archbishop's place. There have, however, been several exceptions. William I was crowned by the Archbishop of York, since the Archbishop of Canterbury had been appointed by the Antipope Benedict X, and this appointment was not recognised as valid by the Pope. Edward II was crowned by the Bishop of Winchester because the Archbishop of Canterbury had been exiled by Edward I. Mary I, a Catholic, refused to be crowned by the Protestant Archbishop Thomas Cranmer; the coronation was instead performed by the Bishop of Winchester. Elizabeth I was crowned by the Bishop of Carlisle (to whose see is attached no special precedence) because the senior prelates were "either dead, too old and infirm, unacceptable to the queen, or unwilling to serve". Finally, when James II was deposed and replaced with William III and Mary II jointly, the Archbishop of Canterbury refused to recognise the new sovereigns; he had to be replaced by the Bishop of London, Henry Compton. Hence, in almost all cases where the Archbishop of Canterbury has failed to participate, his place has been taken by a senior cleric: the Archbishop of York is second in precedence, the Bishop of London third, the Bishop of Durham fourth, and the Bishop of Winchester fifth.

Bishops Assistant
From the moment they enter the Abbey until the moment they leave, the monarch is flanked by two supporting bishops of the Church of England. "The part played by two supporting bishops dates back to the coronation of Edgar in 973: two bishops led him by hand into Bath Abbey. Since the coronation of Richard I in 1189, the Bishops of Bath & Wells and Durham have assumed this duty. Custom has it that they accompany the monarch throughout the ceremony, flanking them as they process from the entrance of Westminster Abbey and standing either side of St Edward’s Chair during the anointing. Bishops Assistant may also carry the Bible, paten, and chalice in the procession." The Bishop of Durham stands on the monarch's right and the Bishop of Bath and Wells on their left. During the Coronation of King Charles III, Queen Camilla was similarly accompanied by Bishops Assistant – the Bishops of Hereford and of Norwich – on her right and left respectively.

Great Officers of State
The Great Officers of State traditionally participate during the ceremony. The offices of Lord High Steward and Lord High Constable have not been regularly filled since the 15th and 16th centuries respectively; they are, however, revived for coronation ceremonies. The Lord Great Chamberlain enrobes the sovereign with the ceremonial vestments, with the aid of the Groom of the Robes and the Master (in the case of a king) or Mistress (in the case of a queen) of the Robes.

The Barons of the Cinque Ports also participated in the ceremony. Formerly, the barons were the members of the House of Commons representing the Cinque Ports of Hastings, New Romney, Hythe, Dover and Sandwich. Reforms in the 19th century, however, integrated the Cinque Ports into a regular constituency system applied throughout the nation. At later coronations, barons were specially designated from among the city councillors for the specific purpose of attending coronations. Originally, the barons were charged with bearing a ceremonial canopy over the sovereign during the procession to and from Westminster Abbey. The last time the barons performed such a task was at the coronation of George IV in 1821. The barons did not return for the coronations of William IV (who insisted on a simpler, cheaper ceremonial) and Victoria. At coronations since Victoria's, the barons have attended the ceremony, but they have not carried canopies.

Other claims to attend the coronation
Many landowners and other persons have honorific "duties" or privileges at the coronation. Such rights have traditionally been determined by a special Court of Claims, over which the Lord High Steward traditionally presided. The first recorded Court of Claims was convened in 1377 for the coronation of Richard II. By the Tudor period, the hereditary post of Lord High Steward had merged with the Crown, and so Henry VIII began the modern tradition of naming a temporary Steward for the coronation only, with separate commissioners to carry out the actual work of the court.

In 1952, for example, the court accepted the claim of the Dean of Westminster to advise the Queen on the proper procedure during the ceremony (for nearly a thousand years he and his predecessor abbots have kept an unpublished Red Book of practices), the claim of the Lord Bishop of Durham and the Lord Bishop of Bath and Wells to walk beside the Queen as she entered and exited the Abbey and to stand on either side of her through the entire coronation ritual, the claim of the Earl of Shrewsbury in his capacity as Lord High Steward of Ireland to carry a white staff. The legal claim of the Scholars of Westminster School to be the first to acclaim the monarch on behalf of the common people was formally disallowed by the court, but in practice their traditional shouts of "Vivat! Vivat Rex!" were still incorporated into the coronation anthem I was glad.

For the 2023 coronation of Charles III and Camilla, a Coronation Claims Office within the Cabinet Office was established instead of the court.

Other participants and guests
Along with persons of nobility, the coronation ceremonies are also attended by a wide range of political figures, including the prime minister and all members of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, all governors-general and prime ministers of the Commonwealth realms, all governors of British Crown Colonies (now British Overseas Territories), as well as the heads of state of dependent nations. Hereditary peers and their spouses are also invited. For Elizabeth II's coronation in 1953, 8,000 guests were squeezed into Westminster Abbey and each person had to make do with a maximum of 18 in of seating.

Dignitaries and representatives from other nations are also customarily invited. Traditionally, foreign crowned monarchs and consorts did not attend the coronations of others and were instead represented by other royals. In 1953, Prince Edward, Duke of Windsor (formerly Edward VIII), was not invited to the coronation of Elizabeth II, with the reason given that it was contrary to precedent for a sovereign or former sovereign to attend any coronation of another. The coronation of Charles III and Camilla in 2023 broke with that precedent and 16 foreign monarchs attended. English and British queens dowager also did not traditionally attend coronations until Queen Mary broke precedent by attending the 1937 coronation of her son, George VI.

Service
The general framework of the coronation service is based on the sections contained in the Second Recension used in 973 for King Edgar. Although the service has undergone two major revisions and a translation, and has been modified for each coronation for the following thousand years, the sequence of taking an oath, anointing, investing of regalia, crowning and enthronement found in the Anglo-Saxon text have remained constant. The coronation ceremonies takes place within the framework of Holy Communion.

Recognition and oath

Before the entrance of the sovereign, the litany of the saints is sung during the procession of the clergy and other dignitaries. For the entrance of the monarch, an anthem from Psalm 122, I was glad, is sung.

The sovereign enters Westminster Abbey wearing the crimson surcoat and the Robe of State of crimson velvet and takes their seat on a Chair of Estate. Garter Principal King of Arms, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Great Chamberlain, the Lord High Constable and the Earl Marshal go to the east, south, west and north of the coronation theatre. At each side, the archbishop calls for the recognition of the sovereign, with the words:

"Sirs, I here present unto you [name], your undoubted King/Queen. Wherefore all you who are come this day to do your homage and service, are you willing to do the same?"

After the people acclaim the sovereign at each side, the archbishop administers an oath to the sovereign. Since the Glorious Revolution, the Coronation Oath Act 1688 has required, among other things, that the sovereign "Promise and Sweare to Governe the People of this Kingdome of England and the Dominions thereto belonging according to the Statutes in Parlyament Agreed on and the Laws and Customs of the same". The oath has been modified without statutory authority; for example, at the coronation of Elizabeth II, the exchange between the Queen and the archbishop was as follows:

"The Archbishop of Canterbury: Will you solemnly promise and swear to govern the Peoples of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, Pakistan and Ceylon, and of your Possessions and other Territories to any of them belonging or pertaining, according to their respective laws and customs?

The Queen: I solemnly promise so to do.

The Archbishop of Canterbury: Will you to your power cause Law and Justice, in Mercy, to be executed in all your judgments?

The Queen: I will.

The Archbishop of Canterbury: Will you to the utmost of your power maintain the Laws of God and the true profession of the Gospel? Will you to the utmost of your power maintain in the United Kingdom the Protestant Reformed Religion established by law? Will you maintain and preserve inviolable the settlement of the Church of England, and the doctrine, worship, discipline, and government thereof, as by law established in England? And will you preserve unto the Bishops and Clergy of England, and to the Churches there committed to their charge, all such rights and privileges, as by law do or shall appertain to them or any of them?

The Queen: All this I promise to do. The things which I have here before promised, I will perform, and keep. So help me God."

In addition to the oath, the monarch may take what is known as the Accession Declaration if they have not yet made it. This declaration was first required by the Bill of Rights of 1689 and is required to be taken at either the first meeting of the parliament after a new monarch's accession (i.e. during the State Opening of Parliament) or at their coronation. The monarch additionally swears a separate oath to preserve Presbyterian church government in the Church of Scotland and this oath is taken before the coronation.

Once the taking of the oath concludes, an ecclesiastic presents a Bible to the sovereign, saying "Here is Wisdom; This is the royal Law; These are the lively Oracles of God." The Bible used is a full King James Bible, including the Apocrypha. At Elizabeth II's coronation, the Bible was presented by the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. Once the Bible is presented, the Holy Communion is celebrated, with a special Collect for the coronation, but the service is interrupted after the Nicene Creed. At the coronation of Elizabeth II, the Epistle was, which instructs readers to respect and obey civil government, and the Gospel was , which contains Jesus's famous instruction to "render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's".

Anointing
After the Communion service is interrupted, the anthem Come, Holy Ghost is recited, as a prelude to the act of anointing. After this anthem, the Archbishop recites a prayer in preparation for the anointing, which is based on the ancient prayer Deus electorum fortitudo also used in the anointing of French kings. After this prayer, the coronation anthem Zadok the Priest (by George Frederick Handel) is sung by the choir; meanwhile, the crimson robe is removed, and the sovereign proceeds to the Coronation Chair for the anointing, which has been set in a prominent position, wearing the anointing gown. In 1953, the chair stood atop a dais of several steps. This mediaeval chair has a cavity in the base into which the Stone of Scone is fitted for the ceremony. Also known as the "Stone of Destiny", it was used for ancient Scottish coronations until brought to England by Edward I. It has been used for every coronation at Westminster Abbey since. Until 1996, the stone was kept with the chair in Westminster Abbey, but it was moved that year to Edinburgh Castle in Scotland, where it is displayed on the proviso that it be returned to Westminster Abbey for use at future coronations. It was announced by the First Minister in 2020 that the Stone will be relocated to Perth City Hall in 2024.

Once seated in this chair, a canopy of golden cloth was in the past held over the monarch's head for the anointing. The duty of acting as canopy-bearers was performed in recent coronations by four Knights of the Garter. This element of the coronation service is considered sacred and is concealed from public gaze; it has never been photographed or televised. The Dean of Westminster pours consecrated oil from an eagle-shaped ampulla into a filigreed spoon with which the Archbishop of Canterbury anoints the sovereign in the form of a cross on the hands, head, and heart. The Coronation Spoon is the only part of the mediaeval Crown Jewels which survived the Commonwealth of England. While performing the anointing, the Archbishop recites a consecratory formula recalling the anointing of King Solomon by Nathan the prophet and Zadok the priest.

After being anointed, the monarch rises from the Coronation Chair and kneels down at a faldstool placed in front of it. The archbishop then concludes the ceremonies of the anointing by reciting a prayer that is a modified English translation of the ancient Latin prayer Deus, Dei Filius, which dates back to the Anglo-Saxon second recension. Once this prayer is finished, the monarch rises and sits again in the Coronation Chair. At this point in 2023 the screen was removed.

Investing
The sovereign is then enrobed in the colobium sindonis (shroud tunic), over which is placed the supertunica.

The Lord Great Chamberlain presents the spurs, which represent chivalry. The Archbishop of Canterbury, assisted by other bishops, then presents the Sword of State to the sovereign, who places it on the altar. The sovereign is then further robed, this time receiving bracelets and putting the Robe Royal and Stole Royal on top of the supertunica. The Archbishop then delivers several Crown Jewels to the sovereign. First, he delivers the Orb, a hollow gold sphere decorated with precious and semi-precious stones. The Orb is surmounted by a cross, representing the dominion of the divine over the world; it is returned to the altar immediately after being received. Next, the sovereign receives a ring representing their "marriage" to their territories, their subjects, and the divine. The Sovereign's Sceptre with Dove, so called because it is surmounted by a dove representing the Holy Ghost, and the Sovereign's Sceptre with Cross, which incorporates Cullinan I, are delivered to the sovereign.

Crowning
The Archbishop of Canterbury lifts St Edward's Crown from the high altar, sets it back down, and says a prayer: "Oh God, the crown of the faithful; bless we beseech thee and sanctify this thy servant our king/queen, and as thou dost this day set a crown of pure gold upon his/her head, so enrich his/her royal heart with thine abundant grace, and crown him/her with all princely virtues through the King Eternal Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen". This prayer is the translation of the ancient formula Deus tuorum Corona fidelium, which first appeared in the twelfth-century third recension.

The Dean of Westminster picks up the crown and he, the archbishop and several other high-ranking bishops proceed to the Coronation Chair where the crown is handed back to the archbishop, who reverently places it on the monarch's head. At this moment, the king or queen is crowned, and the guests in the abbey cry in unison three times, "God Save the King/Queen". The trumpeters sound a fanfare and church bells ring out across the kingdom, as gun salutes echo from the Tower of London and Hyde Park.

Finally, the archbishop, standing before the monarch, says the crowning formula, which is a translation of the ancient Latin prayer Coronet te Deus: "God crown you with a crown of glory and righteousness, that having a right faith and manifold fruit of good works, you may obtain the crown of an everlasting kingdom by the gift of him whose kingdom endureth for ever." To this the guests, with heads bowed, say "Amen".

When this prayer is finished, the choir sings an English translation of the traditional Latin antiphon Confortare: "Be strong and of a good courage; keep the commandments of the Lord thy God, and walk in his ways". During the singing of this antiphon, all stand in their places, and the monarch remains seated in the Coronation Chair still wearing the crown and holding the sceptres. The recitation of this antiphon is followed by a rite of benediction consisting of several prayers, after each one the congregation replies with "a loud and hearty Amen".

Enthronement and homage

The benediction being concluded, the sovereign rises from the Coronation Chair and is borne into a throne. Once the monarch is seated on the throne, the formula Stand firm, and hold fast from henceforth... is recited; a translation of the Latin formula Sta et retine..., which was first used in England in the tenth-century second recension, and also appeared in French, German and imperial coronation texts.

After the enthronement proper, the act of homage takes place: the archbishops and bishops swear their fealty, saying "I, N., Archbishop [Bishop] of N., will be faithful and true, and faith and truth will bear unto you, our Sovereign Lord [Lady], King [Queen] of this Realm and Defender of the Faith, and unto your heirs and successors according to law. So help me God." In the past peers then proceeded to pay their homage, saying "I, N., Duke [Marquess, Earl, Viscount, Baron or Lord] of N., do become your liege man of life and limb, and of earthly worship; and faith and truth will I bear unto you, to live and die, against all manner of folks. So help me God." The clergy pay homage together, led by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Next, members of the royal family pay homage individually. The peers were then led by the premier peers of their rank: the dukes by the premier duke, the marquesses by the premier marquess, and so forth. In the shortened coronation of Charles III and Camilla, the paying of homage by the peerage was omitted.

If there is a queen consort, she is anointed, invested, crowned and enthroned in a simple ceremony immediately after homage is paid. The Communion service interrupted earlier is resumed and completed, but with special prayers: there are prayers for the monarch and consort at the Offertory and a special preface. Finally, the monarch and consort receive Communion, the Gloria in excelsis Deo is sung and the blessing is given.

Closing procession
The sovereign then exits the coronation theatre, entering St Edward's Chapel (within the abbey), preceded by the bearers of the Sword of State, the Sword of Spiritual Justice, the Sword of Temporal Justice and the blunt Sword of Mercy. While the monarch is in St. Edward's chapel, the choir recites an English translation of the hymn of thanksgiving Te Deum laudamus. St Edward's Crown and all the other regalia are laid on the High Altar of the chapel; the sovereign removes the Robe Royal and Stole Royal, exchanges the crimson surcoat for the purple surcoat and is enrobed in the Imperial Robe of purple velvet. The sovereign then dons the Imperial State Crown and takes into their hands the Sceptre with the Cross and the Orb and leaves the chapel first while all present sing the national anthem.

Music
The music played at coronations has been primarily classical and religiously inspired. Much of the choral music uses texts from the Bible which have been used at coronations since King Edgar's coronation at Bath in 973 and are known as coronation anthems. In the coronations following the Reformation, court musicians, often the Master of the King's Music, were commissioned to compose new settings for the traditional texts. The most frequently used piece is Zadok the Priest by George Frideric Handel; one of four anthems commissioned from him for George II's coronation in 1727. It has featured in every coronation since, an achievement unparalleled by any other piece. Previous settings of the same text were composed by Henry Lawes for the 1661 coronation of Charles II and Thomas Tomkins for Charles I in 1621.

In the 19th century, works by major European composers were often used, but when Sir Frederick Bridge was appointed director of music for the 1902 coronation of Edward VII, he decided that it ought to be a celebration of four hundred years of British music. Compositions by Thomas Tallis, Orlando Gibbons and Henry Purcell were included alongside works by contemporary composers such as Arthur Sullivan, Charles Villiers Stanford and John Stainer. Hubert Parry's I was glad was written as the entrance anthem for the 1902 coronation, replacing an 1831 setting by Thomas Attwood; it contains a bridge section partway through so that the scholars of Westminster School can exercise their right to be the first commoners to acclaim the sovereign, shouting their traditional "vivats" as the sovereign enters the coronation theatre. This anthem and Charles Villiers Stanford's Gloria in excelsis (1911) have also been used regularly in recent coronations, as has the national anthem, God Save the King (or Queen). Other composers whose music featured in Elizabeth II's coronation include Sir George Dyson, Gordon Jacob, Sir William Henry Harris, Herbert Howells, Sir William Walton, Samuel Sebastian Wesley, Ralph Vaughan Williams and the Canadian-resident but English-born Healey Willan. Ralph Vaughan Williams suggested that a congregational hymn be included. This was approved by the Queen and the Archbishop of Canterbury, so Vaughan Williams recast his 1928 arrangement of Old 100th, the English metrical version of Psalm 100, the Jubilate Deo ("All people that on earth do dwell") for congregation, organ and orchestra: the setting has become ubiquitous at festal occasions in the Anglophone world.

Dress
Several participants in the ceremony wear special costumes, uniforms or robes. For those in attendance (other than members of the royal family) what to wear is laid down in detail by the Earl Marshal prior to each Coronation and published in the London Gazette.

Sovereign's robes

The sovereign wears a variety of robes and other garments during the course of the ceremony. In contrast to the history and tradition which surround the regalia, it is customary for most coronation robes to be newly made for each monarch. (The present exceptions are the supertunica and Robe Royal, which both date from the coronation of George IV in 1821.)

Worn for the first part of the service (and the processions beforehand):
 * Crimson surcoat – the regular dress during most of the ceremony, worn under all other robes. In 1953, Elizabeth II wore a newly made gown in place of a surcoat.
 * Robe of State of crimson velvet or Parliament Robe – the first robe used at a coronation, worn on entry to the abbey and later at State Openings of Parliament. It consists of an ermine cape and a long crimson velvet train lined with further ermine and decorated with gold lace.

Worn over the surcoat for the Anointing: Robes with which the Sovereign is invested (worn thereafter until Communion):
 * Anointing gown – a simple and austere garment worn during the anointing. It is plain white, bears no decoration and fastens at the back.
 * Colobium sindonis ("shroud tunic") – the first robe with which the sovereign is invested. It is a loose white undergarment of fine linen cloth edged with a lace border, open at the sides, sleeveless and cut low at the neck. It symbolises the derivation of royal authority from the people.
 * Supertunica – the second robe with which the sovereign is invested. It is a long coat of gold silk which reaches to the ankles and has wide-flowing sleeves. It is lined with rose-coloured silk, trimmed with gold lace, woven with national symbols and fastened by a sword belt. It derives from the full dress uniform of a consul of the Byzantine Empire.
 * Robe Royal or Pallium Regale – the main robe worn during the ceremony and used during the crowning. It is a four-square mantle, lined in crimson silk and decorated with silver coronets, national symbols and silver imperial eagles in the four corners. It is lay, rather than liturgical, in nature.
 * Stole Royal or armilla – a gold silk stole or scarf which accompanies the Robe Royal, richly and heavily embroidered with gold and silver thread, set with jewels and lined with rose-coloured silk and gold fringing.

Worn for the final part of the service (and the processions which follow):
 * Purple surcoat – the counterpart to the crimson surcoat, worn during the final part of the ceremony.
 * Imperial Robe of purple velvet – the robe worn at the conclusion of the ceremony, on exit from the abbey. It comprises an embroidered ermine cape with a train of purple silk velvet, trimmed with Canadian ermine and fully lined with pure silk English satin. The purple recalls the imperial robes of Roman Emperors.

Headwear
Male sovereigns up to and including George VI have traditionally worn a crimson cap of maintenance for the opening procession and when seated in the Chair of Estate during the first part of the service. Charles III arrived at his coronation bareheaded in 2023, rather than with the cap. Female sovereigns (and some female consorts) have traditionally worn the George IV State Diadem, first worn by its namesake, George IV. For the Anointing, the sovereign is bareheaded, and remains so until the Crowning. Monarchs are usually crowned with St Edward's Crown but some have chosen to use other crowns as it weighs 2.23 kg (4.9 lb). For the final part of the service, and the processions that follow, it is exchanged for the lighter Imperial State Crown.

Other members of the royal family
Certain other members of the royal family wear distinctive robes, most particularly queens consort (including dowagers) and princesses of the United Kingdom, all of whom wear purple velvet mantles edged with ermine over their court dresses. Other members of the royal family in attendance dress according to the conventions listed below, except that royal dukes wear a distinctive form of peer's robe, which has six rows of ermine on the cape and additional ermine on miniver edging to the front of the robe.

Headwear
Queens consort in the 20th century arrived at their coronation bareheaded, and remained so until the point in the service when they were crowned with their own crown. In the late 17th century and 18th century, queens consort wore Mary of Modena's State Diadem. Prior to the 20th century it was not usual for dowager queens to attend coronations, but Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother both attended the coronations of George VI and Elizabeth II respectively, and each wore the crown, minus its arches, with which she had been crowned for the duration of the service.

Traditionally, princesses and princes of the United Kingdom were provided with distinctive forms of coronet, which they wore during the service. A male heir-apparent's coronet displays four crosses-pattée alternating with four fleurs-de-lis, surmounted by an arch. The same style, without the arch, is used by other children and siblings of the monarch. The coronets of children of the heir-apparent display four fleurs-de-lis, two crosses-pattée and two strawberry leaves. A fourth style, including four crosses-pattée and four strawberry leaves, is used for the children of the sons and brothers of sovereigns. The tradition of coronets was abolished for the 2023 coronation, and members of the royal family dressed in robes of one of their orders of chivalry.

Peers
All peers and peeresses in attendance are "expected to wear" Robes of State, as described below. These robes are different to the Parliament Robe (worn on occasion by peers who are members of the House of Lords); all peers summoned to attend wear the Robe of State, regardless of membership of the House of Lords, and peeresses' robes are worn not only by women who are peers in their own right, but also by wives and widows of peers. Those entitled to a collar of an order of knighthood wear it over (and attached to) the cape.

Peers' robes
A peer's coronation robe is a full-length cloak-type garment of crimson velvet, edged down the front with miniver pure, with a full cape (also of miniver pure) attached. On the cape, rows of "ermine tails (or the like)" indicate the peer's rank: dukes have four rows, marquesses three and a half, earls three, viscounts two and a half, and barons and lords of parliament two.

Prior to the 19th century peers also wore a matching crimson surcoat edged in miniver.

In 1953, "Peers taking part in the Processions or Ceremonies in Westminster Abbey" were directed to wear the Robe of State over full-dress uniform (Naval, Military, RAF or civil), if so entitled, or else over full velvet court dress (or one of the alternative styles of Court Dress, as laid down in the Lord Chamberlain's regulations). Other peers in attendance were "expected to wear the same if possible"; but the wearing of evening dress, or a black suit with white bow tie, were also permitted (as was the use of a Parliament Robe or a mantle of one of the Orders of Knighthood by those not taking part in the Processions or Ceremonies).

Peeresses' robes
A peeress's coronation robe is described as a long (trained) crimson velvet mantle, edged all round with miniver pure and having a cape of miniver pure (with rows of ermine indicating the rank of the wearer, as for peers). Furthermore, the length of the train (and the width of the miniver edging) varies with the rank of the wearer: for duchesses, the trains are 1.8 m (2 yds) long, for marchionesses one and three-quarters yards, for countesses one and a half yards, for viscountesses one and a quarter yards, and for baronesses and ladies 90 cm (1 yd). The edgings are 13 cm (5 in) in width for duchesses, 10 cm (4 in) for marchionesses, 7.5 cm (3 in) for countesses and 5 cm (2 in) for viscountesses, baronesses and ladies.

This Robe of State is directed to be worn with a sleeved crimson velvet kirtle, which is similarly edged with miniver and worn over a full-length white or cream court dress (without a train).

Headwear
During the Coronation, peers and peeresses formerly put on coronets. Like their robes, their coronets are differentiated according to rank: the coronet of a duke or duchess is ornamented with eight strawberry leaves, that of a marquess or marchioness has four strawberry leaves alternating with four raised silver balls, that of an earl or countess eight strawberry leaves alternating with eight raised silver balls, that of a viscount or viscountess has sixteen smaller silver balls and that of a baron or baroness six silver balls. Peeresses' coronets are identical to those of peers, but smaller. In addition, peeresses were told in 1953 that "a tiara should be worn, if possible". The use of coronets was abolished for the 2023 coronation.

Others
In 1953, those taking part in the Procession inside the Abbey who were not peers or peeresses were directed to wear full-dress (naval, military, air force or civil) uniform, or one of the forms of court dress laid down in the Lord Chamberlain's Regulations for Dress at Court. These regulations, as well as providing guidance for members of the public, specify forms of dress for a wide variety of office-holders and public officials, clergy, the judiciary, members of the Royal Household, etc. It also includes provision for Scottish dress to be worn.

Officers in the Armed Forces and the Civil, Foreign, and Colonial Services who did not take part in the Procession wore uniform, and male civilians: "one of the forms of court dress as laid down in the Lord Chamberlain's Regulations for Dress at Court, or evening dress with knee breeches or trousers, or morning dress, or dark lounge suits".

Ladies attending in 1953 were instructed to wear "evening dresses or afternoon dresses, with a light veiling falling from the back of the head". Coats and hats were not permitted but tiaras could be worn.

In 1953 an additional note made it clear that "Oriental dress may be worn by Ladies and Gentlemen for whom it is the usual Ceremonial Costume".

After-celebrations
Since the 20th century it has been traditional for the newly crowned monarch and other members of the royal family to sit for official portraits at Buckingham Palace and appear on the balcony, from where in 1953 they watched a flypast by the Royal Air Force. During the appearance, the monarch wears the Imperial State Crown and, if there is one, the queen consort wears her consort crown. In the evening, a fireworks display is held nearby, usually in Hyde Park. In 1902, Edward VII's illness led to the postponement of a fourteen-course banquet at Buckingham Palace. In 1953, two state banquets were held in the ballroom there, and classical music was provided by the Royal Horse Guards.

Historically, the coronation was immediately followed by a banquet held in Westminster Hall in the Palace of Westminster (which is also the home to the Houses of Parliament). The King or Queen's Champion (the office being held by the Dymoke family in connection with the Manor of Scrivelsby) would ride into the hall on horseback, wearing a knight's armour, with the Lord High Constable riding to his right and the Earl Marshal riding to his left. A herald would then make a proclamation of the readiness of the champion to fight anyone denying the monarch. After 1800, the form for this was as follows:

"If any person, of what degree soever, high or low, shall deny or gainsay our Sovereign Lord ..., King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, son and next heir unto our Sovereign Lord the last King deceased, to be the right heir to the Imperial Crown of this Realm of Great Britain and Ireland, or that he ought not to enjoy the same; here is his Champion, who saith that he lieth, and is a false traitor, being ready in person to combat with him; and in this quarrel will adventure his life against him, on what day soever he shall be appointed."

The King's Champion would then throw down the gauntlet; the ceremony would be repeated at the centre of the hall and at the High Table (where the sovereign would be seated). The sovereign would then drink to the champion from a gold cup, which he would then present to the latter. This ritual was dropped from the coronation of Queen Victoria and was never revived. The offices of Chief Butler of England, Grand Carver of England and Master Carver of Scotland were also associated with the coronation banquet.

Banquets have not been held at Westminster Hall since the coronation of George IV in 1821. His coronation was the most elaborate in history; his brother and successor William IV eliminated the banquet on grounds of economy, ending a 632-year-old tradition. Since 1901, a Coronation Fleet Review has also been held. To celebrate the coronation, a coronation honours list is also released before the coronation.

Enthronement as Emperor of India
Queen Victoria assumed the title Empress of India in 1876. A durbar (court) was held in Delhi, India on 1 January 1877 to proclaim her assumption of the title. The queen did not attend personally, but she was represented there by the Viceroy, Lord Lytton. A similar durbar was held on 1 January 1903 to celebrate the accession of Edward VII, who was represented by his brother the Duke of Connaught. In 1911, George V also held a durbar which he and his wife Queen Mary attended in person. Since it was deemed inappropriate for a Christian anointing and coronation to take place in a largely non-Christian nation, George V was not crowned in India; instead, he wore an imperial crown as he entered the Durbar. Tradition prohibited the removal of the Crown Jewels from the United Kingdom; therefore, a separate crown, known as the Imperial Crown of India, was created for him. The emperor was enthroned, and the Indian princes paid homage to him. Thereafter, certain political decisions, such as the decision to move the capital from Calcutta to Delhi, were announced at the durbar. The ceremony was not repeated, and the imperial title was abandoned by George VI in 1948, 10 months after India gained independence.

Kings of Arms
Aside from kings and queens, the only individuals authorised to wear crowns (as opposed to coronets) are the Kings of Arms, the United Kingdom's senior heraldic officials. Like the peers' coronets, these crowns are only put on at the actual moment of the monarch's crowning, after which they are worn for the rest of the service and its subsequent festivities. Garter, Clarenceaux, and Norroy and Ulster Kings of Arms have heraldic jurisdiction over England, Wales and Northern Ireland; Lord Lyon King of Arms is responsible for Scotland. In addition, there is a King of Arms attached to each of the Order of the Bath, Order of St. Michael and St. George and the Order of the British Empire. These have only a ceremonial role, but are authorised by the statutes of their orders to wear the same crown as Garter at a coronation. The crown of a King of Arms is silver-gilt and consists of sixteen acanthus leaves alternating in height, and inscribed with the words Miserere mei Deus secundum magnam misericordiam tuam (Latin: "Have mercy on me O God according to Thy great mercy", from Psalm 51). The Lord Lyon King of Arms has worn a crown of this style at all coronations since that of George III. Prior to that he wore a replica of the Crown of Scotland. In 2004 a new replica of this crown was created for use by the Lord Lyon.

Videos

 * Elizabeth is Queen (1953) 47-minute documentary by British Pathé at YouTube
 * Coronation 1937 – Technicolor – Sound newsreel by British Movietone News at YouTube
 * Long to Reign Over Us, Chapter Three: The Coronation by Lord Wakehurst on the Royal Channel at YouTube

title: Coronation of the British monarch


text:
Talk:Thulium

Rather nice neutron reflector
Properties as a neutron reflector approach that of Be when thick.

This seems to correspond to Hardtack II testing of various Oralloy tactical weapons. 97.127.182.235 (talk) 17:51, 23 March 2013 (UTC)

Quality of the chemical properties section- GA seems optimistic
There are a few odd statements which stand out. e.g.
 * +4 valence states-- presumably that means +4 oxidation state/number- and where did the +4 come from?!
 * Thulium(II) compounds include thulium halides- which halides? - certainly not F!

Some very lightweight web references, and no heavyweight chemistry textbooks- e.g. Greenwood, Wiberg, Housecroft, no specialist books - e.g. Cotton, Atwood. Unreferenced wide ranging statement "Thulium reacts with various metallic and non-metallic elements forming a range of binary compounds, including TmN, TmS, TmC2, Tm2C3, TmH2, TmH3, TmSi2, TmGe3, TmB4, TmB6 and TmB12."

Axiosaurus (talk) 14:38, 5 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Yes, looking back at it from five years' difference I definitely agree. I'll get Tb done properly and meanwhile come back and fix this one. Double sharp (talk) 16:29, 6 May 2017 (UTC)

Check dates
In all three places where a discovery date is mentioned (lede, box, and history), it says 1879, but in the Thulium(III) oxide article, the date is given as 1878. I'm going to put a similar note on that page.

WesT (talk) 19:58, 12 September 2017 (UTC)
 * I checked it a while ago IIRC for Timeline of chemical element discoveries; it is 1879. I'll correct it on the other page. Double sharp (talk) 03:18, 13 September 2017 (UTC)

Who did the 15,000 recrystallizations of thulium bromate to obtain pure thulium?
Article Theodore William Richards cites John Emsley's book that says it was Richards who did this. Emsley p. 443: "In 1911, the American chemist Theodore William Richards performed 15 000 recrystallizations of thulium bromate in order to obtain a pure sample of the element and so determine exactly its atomic weight." The present article says it was Charles James and uses his 1911 paper as (primary) source. What is the correct story? I think this is a mistake in Emsley's work as the Thulium I paper mentions the operation count 15 000. jni (delete)...just not interested 19:21, 30 January 2018 (UTC)
 * I know this is a serious question, but the way the section heading is worded makes me laugh. It sounds like the 15,000 recrystallizations of thulium bromated someone in order to obtain pure thulium. Poor guy. – Corinne (talk) 20:51, 30 January 2018 (UTC)

nice
nice — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:56A:FA36:9C00:CD7F:E15C:515A:52F9 (talk) 03:25, 27 May 2022 (UTC)

 * Why are you joking in wiki Abab9579 (talk) 02:04, 27 October 2023 (UTC)
 * frfr so unprof Jan Eten (talk) 04:24, 11 June 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Thulium


text:
List of United States telephone companies

This is a list of United States telephone companies.

Regional Bell Operating Companies
The Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs) are the result of the break-up of the Bell System in 1984. After numerous mergers, asset sales, and renamings since the break-up, these are the current successor RBOCs:

 * AT&T: Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Wisconsin
 * Verizon: Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia
 * CenturyLink: Bell System (RBOC) lines (from Qwest) in Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, Wyoming. Also serves non-Bell System ILEC areas in parts of those states as well as Florida and Nevada. Other non-RBOC states were sold to Brightspeed in 2022.
 * Frontier Communications: Mixture of some RBOC lines (see below) and non-Bell System ILEC areas (e.g. GTE areas acquired from Verizon) covering the vast majority of lines in Connecticut and West Virginia, as well as parts of Alabama, Arizona, California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, and Wisconsin.

Other major incumbent local exchange carriers
In the following states and regions, the primary local carrier (ILEC) is not an RBOC:
 * CenturyLink, in addition to its role as the RBOC in the areas of 14 states gained from its acquisition of Qwest, CenturyLink serves other rural, suburban, and smaller city local exchanges, as well as most of the Las Vegas metropolitan area, covering a total of 16 states. Operations in 20 other states were sold to Brightspeed in 2022.
 * Frontier Communications, in addition to its role as the RBOC for West Virginia, now serves mainly rural and some suburban and smaller city areas in 27 other states (many formerly part of the GTE ILEC system purchased from Verizon). It also purchased AT&T's landline business in Connecticut in 2013, though these are not considered an RBOC, as the Southern New England Telephone Company, from which they descend, was a franchisee of the Bell System, and not subject to the same regulations after the Bell System breakup.
 * Windstream, founded in 2006 with the spinoff of Alltel's wireline division and simultaneous merger with Valor Telecom, serves mainly rural areas in 29 states.
 * Consolidated Communications, in addition to access lines in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, in Northern New England which it gained from its acquisition of FairPoint, also serves rural areas in a combined total of 22 states.
 * Telephone and Data Systems, (through its subsidiary TDS) serves mainly rural areas in parts of 36 states.
 * Cincinnati Bell, which serves the greater Cincinnati area, and Hawaii due to its acquisition of Hawaiian Telcom was not included in the Bell System breakup of 1984 because the former AT&T held only a minority stake in that company.
 * Verizon, in addition to its role as a RBOC in its areas retained in the East, serves former GTE areas in Pennsylvania and Virginia. Verizon formerly served ex-GTE areas in parts of California, Florida and Texas before selling to Frontier Communications in 2016.
 * Claro Puerto Rico, which serves every exchange in Puerto Rico, has been owned by the international telecommunications giant América Móvil since in 2007.
 * Ziply Fiber, which serves ex-GTE areas in the Pacific Northwest that they bought from Frontier. Inspite of its name it does still offer Copper Wireline aswell as Fiber Wireline (hard to get)

Many other individual communities or smaller regions are also served by non-RBOC companies.


text:
Australian Light Horse

Australian Light Horse were mounted troops with characteristics of both cavalry and mounted infantry, who served in the Second Boer War and World War I. During the inter-war years, a number of regiments were raised as part of Australia's part-time military force. These units were gradually mechanised either before or during World War II, although only a small number undertook operational service during the war. A number of Australian light horse units are still in existence today.

Origins
The Australian Light Horse was established as the outcome of a debate that took place in military circles in Australia in the late 19th – early 20th centuries concerning the future of mounted troops. The example of the Franco-Prussian War illustrated that the battlefield had become dominated by massed land armies supported by artillery. For Australia the reality was vast spaces with sparse populations making it difficult to consider anything that remotely looked like the European model. The 1890s were wracked by drought and depression ensuring that none of the states were able to afford anything but the most token of armies supported by a large contingent of volunteers.

The Second Boer War provided the short term answer. While Australian forces fought against the Boers in South Africa, the Boer methodology of conducting war was considered to be the answer for Australian defence. Volunteer Light Horse Regiments were established around Australia supported by the Rifle Club movement which provided semi trained reinforcements for the various formations. Should these formations be called upon to defend Australia, the local commander was charged with maintaining resistance through the use of the Commando formation which envisaged a large scale guerrilla war. The prospect of an endless and strength-sapping guerrilla war was the key deterrent factor which relied heavily upon mobile soldiers. The mounted infantry remained the key to the Australian defence posture until the Kitchener Report of 1910 which envisaged formations that could be slotted directly into an Imperial expeditionary force. The plan envisaged two mounted divisions.

By the outbreak of World War I, there were 23 light horse regiments within Australia's part-time military force, consisting of 9,000 personnel. These were organised as follows:

 * 1st Light Horse Brigade (Queensland): 1st (Central Queensland), 2nd (Queensland Mounted Infantry), 3rd (Darling Downs), 4th (Northern Rivers Lancers) and 27th (North Queensland) Light Horse Regiments
 * 2nd Light Horse Brigade (New South Wales): 5th (New England) and 6th (Hunter River Lancers) Light Horse Regiments
 * 3rd Light Horse Brigade (New South Wales): 7th (New South Wales Lancers), 9th (New South Wales Mounted Rifles), 11th (Australian Horse) and 28th (Illawarra) Light Horse Regiments
 * 5th Light Horse Brigade (Victoria): 13th (Gippsland), 15th (Victorian Mounted Rifles), and 16th (Indi) Light Horse Regiments
 * 7th Light Horse Brigade (Victoria): 17th (Campaspe), 19th (Yarrowee), and 20th (Corangamite) and 29th (Port Phillip Horse) Light Horse Regiments
 * 8th Light Horse Brigade (South Australia): 22nd (South Australian Mounted Rifles), 23rd (Barossa), and 24th (Flinders) Light Horse Regiments
 * 25th (Western Australian Mounted Infantry) Light Horse Regiment
 * 26th (Tasmanian Mounted Infantry) Light Horse Regiment
 * Australian Commonwealth Horse
 * Eight battalions formed following federation (1 January 1901); only the 1st and 2nd Battalions saw action before the Second Boer War ended.

Formation and organisation
Light horse were like mounted infantry in that they usually fought dismounted, using their horses as transport to the battlefield and as a means of swift disengagement when retreating or retiring. A famous exception to this rule though was the charge of the 4th and 12th Light Horse Regiments at Beersheba on 31 October 1917. In 1918, some light horse regiments were equipped with sabres, enabling them to fight in a conventional cavalry role in the advance on Damascus. However, unlike mounted infantry, the light horse also performed certain cavalry roles, such as scouting and screening, while mounted.

The light horse were organised along cavalry rather than infantry lines. A light horse regiment, although technically equivalent to an infantry battalion in terms of command level, contained only 25 officers and 400 men as opposed to an infantry battalion that consisted of around 1,000 men. Around a quarter of this nominal strength (or one man in each section of four) could be allotted to horse-holding duties when the regiment entered combat. A regiment was divided into three squadrons, designated "A", "B" and "C" (equivalent to a company), and a squadron divided into four troops (equivalent to but smaller than a platoon). Each troop was divided into about 10 four-man sections. When dismounting for combat, one man from each section would take the reins of the other three men's horses and lead them out of the firing line where he would remain until called upon.

Each regiment initially had a troop of two Maxim guns but during the Gallipoli Campaign, where the light horse served dismounted, this was increased to four guns. In 1916, following the establishment of the Australian Machine Gun Corps, these were consolidated into four light horse machine gun squadrons, each with 12 Vickers machine guns, allocated at brigade level within the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades. In turn, the troops received the Lewis Gun. This was replaced by the Hotchkiss M1909 Benét–Mercié machine gun in April 1917. Eventually they arrived in such numbers as to allow each troop to have a Hotchkiss gun, which considerably added to the mobile firepower of a regiment. The Australian Waler horse was the common mount for the light horsemen, as it was strong and hardy, which was needed in the harsh desert climate. This was facilitated by the horses being left behind in Egypt while the light horsemen went to Gallipoli, allowing them to gradually acclimatise. Although the authorities did not welcome Indigenous men into the Australian Armed Forces, nonetheless some managed to enlist in the Australian Light Horse. Unlike in civilian life, where Indigenous men received a lower rate of pay, in the Army there was only one rate of pay. This may have been a motivation for their enlistment, in addition to other considerations, including patriotism. Several served during the Gallipoli campaign. Skilled in working with horses, and in hot climates, they were valued members of the Light Horse.

Gallipoli and the Sinai and Palestine campaign
At the start of World War I, Australia committed to provide an all volunteer expeditionary force of 20,000 personnel known as the Australian Imperial Force, which would consist of an infantry division and a light horse brigade. As Australia's commitment to the war increased, the size of the light horse contingent was expanded, with a second and third light horse brigade being raised in late 1914 and early 1915. Eventually, the Australian Light Horse regiments were organised into five brigades:

 * 1st Light Horse Brigade consisted of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd Light Horse Regiments.
 * 2nd Light Horse Brigade consisted of the 5th, 6th, 7th Light Horse Regiments.
 * 3rd Light Horse Brigade consisted of the 8th, 9th, 10th Light Horse Regiments.
 * 4th Light Horse Brigade consisted of the 4th, 11th, 12th Light Horse Regiments.
 * 5th Light Horse Brigade consisted of the 14th and 15th Light Horse Regiments, in combination with the French 1er Regiment Mixte de Cavalerie du Levant and the New Zealand 2nd Machine Gun Squadron.

The light horse regiments' first involvement in the fighting during the war came during the Gallipoli Campaign, where the troops of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades were sent to Gallipoli without their horses to provide reinforcements for the infantry. During the campaign they were used mainly in a defensive role, although the light horsemen did participate in several costly battles, such as the Battle of the Nek. After the evacuation of the Gallipoli peninsula in December 1915, the light horse regiments that had been deployed were re-constituted in Egypt and in March 1916, the Australian mounted troops of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade were placed together in the ANZAC Mounted Division.

Elements of the light horse brigades also undertook a campaign against the Senussi in the western desert region of Egypt with actions commencing in late 1915 and continuing through until 1917. These actions were largely limited though, and were overshadowed by the Light Horse's involvement in the fighting against Ottoman forces in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign from 1916 to 1918.

A reorganisation of the mounted troops was ordered in February 1917 leading to the formation of the Anzac Mounted Division consisting of the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, and the British 22nd Mounted Brigade. Meanwhile, the Imperial Mounted Division was formed from the 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades and the British Yeomanry 5th and 6th Mounted Brigades. The Imperial Mounted Division's name was soon changed to the Australian Mounted Division at the request of the Australian government. The arrival of more yeomanry from Salonika prompted the raising of the Yeomanry Mounted Division (6th, 8th and 22nd Yeomanry Brigades) in June 1917. The three mounted divisions and the Imperial Camel Brigade formed the Desert Mounted Corps under the command of Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel. With the removal of most of the Yeomanry to France and the breakup of the Imperial Camel Corps, the newly formed 5th Light Horse Brigade took its place with the Australian Mounted Division. Two Indian cavalry divisions replaced the Yeomanry Division in the Desert Mounted Corps.

Care of horses in the Sinai campaign
In 1916, the average loss of sick horses and mules from the Sinai front was approximately 640 per week. They were transported in train loads of thirty trucks, each holding eight horses. Animals which died or were destroyed while on active service were buried 2 mi from the nearest camp unless this was not practicable. In this case the carcasses were transported to a suitable site away from troops, where they were disemboweled and left to disintegrate in the dry desert air and high temperatures. Animals which died or were destroyed in veterinary units at Kantara, Ismalia, Bilbeis, and Quesna were dealt with in this way and after four days' drying in the sun, the carcasses were stuffed with straw and burnt, after the skins were salved. These were sold to local contractors.

Western Front
The 13th Light Horse Regiment and one squadron of the 4th Light Horse Regiment served on the Western Front, first as divisional cavalry squadrons for the 2nd, 4th and 5th Divisions, then as the I ANZAC Corps Mounted Regiment. A squadron of the 4th provided the divisional cavalry squadron for the 1st Division, and one of the 14th Light Horse Regiment for the 3rd Division. (This squadron was eventually disbanded.) The original B and D squadrons of the 4th, in combination with New Zealand mounted troops, became part of the II ANZAC Corps Mounted Regiment. After II Anzac Corps was disbanded, the regiment joined 22nd British Corps re-designated as XXII Anzac Mounted Regiment. After the Australian Corps was formed in November 1917, the I Anzac Corps Mounted Regiment became known as the 13th Light Horse Regiment again. The Australian squadrons of XXII Regiment were amalgamated with the 13th Australian Light Horse Regiment. For a month in 1918 during the battles of Hundred Days Offensive, the 13th was attached to the III British Corps, while Sir Alexander Godley briefly commanded III Corps and regarded the regiment as his personal troops.

Post World War I
After the war, the light horse regiments were distributed as follows:
 * 1st Cavalry Brigade (Toowoomba, Queensland): 2nd, 5th, 11th, 14th Light Horse Regiments
 * 2nd Cavalry Brigade (Maitland, New South Wales): 12th, 15th, 16th Light Horse Regiments
 * 3rd Cavalry Brigade (Melbourne): 8th, 13th, 20th Light Horse Regiments
 * 4th Cavalry Brigade (Paddington, New South Wales): 1st, 6th, 7th, 21st Light Horse Regiments
 * 5th Cavalry Brigade (Melbourne) (disbanded 1936): 4th, 17th, 19th Light Horse Regiments
 * 6th Cavalry Brigade (Adelaide): 3rd, 9th, 18th, 23rd Light Horse Regiments

These cavalry brigades were organised into two cavalry divisions: the 1st and 2nd.

At the outbreak of World War II, there were 25 light horse regiments. Of these, 17 were still horsed although they had been partially mechanised, while four had been converted to machine gun regiments and two had been converted to armoured car regiments. Throughout the war, the various light horse units were converted to motorised infantry, armoured car or armoured regiments, serving mainly in the defence of Australia. As the threat of invasion passed, though, most were disbanded in 1943 or 1944 and their personnel redistributed amongst other units. By 1945, only two units remained. The first of these was the 20th Light Horse Regiment, which as the 20th Motor Regiment, served overseas, at Merauke, and was later converted into a pioneer regiment. The second unit was the 1st Light Horse Regiment, which became the 1st Tank Battalion, and as such fought in New Guinea and Borneo.

Legacy

 * A number of Australian light horse units are still in existence today, generally as Royal Australian Armoured Corps (RAAC) cavalry units. Including the 1st/15th Royal New South Wales Lancers, 2nd/14th Light Horse Regiment (Queensland Mounted Infantry), 3rd/9th Light Horse (South Australian Mounted Rifles), 4th/19th Prince of Wales's Light Horse, 10th Light Horse Regiment, and the 12th/16th Hunter River Lancers.
 * The Memorial to the Australian Light Horse at Tamworth was unveiled by Major General Digger James on 29 October 2005.
 * The Australian Light Horse is commemorated by the Light Horse Interchange and sculptural installations along the M4 motorway where it is crossed by the M7 at Eastern Creek in Western Sydney.
 * On 28 April 2008, Australia's Governor-General Major General (ret) Michael Jeffery and Israeli President Shimon Peres unveiled a monument to the Light Horse in Beersheba, Israel. It was made by Australian sculptor Peter Corlett and was an initiative of the Melbourne-based Pratt Foundation in cooperation with the Beersheba City Council.
 * On 31 October 2017, the Beersheba Anzac Memorial Centre was inaugurated in the presence of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull, New Zealand Governor-General Dame Patsy Reddy and Beersheba Mayor Ruvik Danilovich. Also present were Peter Smaller, President of JNF Australia and Dan Springer, CEO of JNF Australia, which donated most of the funds to build the memorial centre. It stands within the grounds of the British war cemetery in Beersheba, and the building resembles a horse head, commemorating tens of thousands of horses that served and died throughout the war. It also holds a small collection of war remnants dated back to the British conquest of Palestine. The ANZAC Trail from the coast retraces the cavalry's three-day path to the Battle of Beersheba.
 * On 26 September 2019, a life-size sculpture, 'The Aborigine and His Horse,' was dedicated at Tzemach, commemorating Aborigine ANZAC members, dubbed the "Queensland Black Watch", including cavalrymen who fought at Tzemach and Be'er Sheva. Descendants of those horsemen travelled from Australia to participate in the statue's inauguration, "another stage in the historic correction that Australian society is undergoing in their relations with the Aborigines."
 * On 11 November 1966, Sir Arthur Fadden (Australian Prime Minister in 1941) unveiled a statue of Sir William Glasgow created by Brisbane sculptor Daphne Mayo; Sir William Glasgow is depicted in the uniform of an officer of the Australian Light Horse. The statue was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register in 2004 and was relocated to Post Office Square, Brisbane in 2008, adjacent to ANZAC Square, Brisbane.

 * Commemorations of the Battle of Beersheba typically occur at the memorial in Canberra every year on 31 October, with bigger gatherings on the 5-year dates.
 * In 1931, Dorothy Brooke, an Englishwoman living in Cairo, wrote a letter to a British newspaper, soliciting funds to euthanize the ageing army horses, who had been sold to the local Egyptians and were over 20 years old by then. She later established Brooke, an international animal welfare charity dedicated to improving the lives of working horses, donkeys and mules.
 * Many of the descendants of the army horses are still in use today, carrying tourists around the pyramids of Giza in Cairo, and providing transport for local Egyptians
 * After Egyptian tourism collapsed following the Arab Spring in 2011, animal charities such as Brooke and Egypt Equine Aid stepped in to help with the care of the horses and prevent disaster.
 * Light Horse Memorial Park in Seymour, Victoria is on part of the site where the Australian Light Horse trained during World War I.

Literature

 * The Wells of Beersheba (1933) by Frank Dalby Davison
 * The Desert Column (1932) by Ion L. Idriess: the only known published account by a participant who was not an officer.
 * As if He Knows (2001) – song by Eric Bogle reflecting the feelings of Light Horsemen farewelling their mounts in Egypt at the end of World War I. The narrator bitterly reflects that his horse "who asked so little and gave so much" will soon be dead. It was not possible to ship the animals back to Australia and most that could not be transferred to British or Indian army units were shot. Only a few hundred survived and were sold to Egyptians.

Film
Several films include the charge at Beersheba in 1917:
 * 40,000 Horsemen (1940)
 * The Lighthorsemen (1987)
 * The Adventures of Young Indiana Jones: Daredevils of the Desert (direct to video, 1992)
 * Gallipoli Directed by Peter Weir

title: Australian Light Horse


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DOS memory management

In IBM PC compatible computing, DOS memory management refers to software and techniques employed to give applications access to more than 640 kibibytes (640*1024 bytes) (KiB) of "conventional memory". The 640 KiB limit was specific to the IBM PC and close compatibles; other machines running MS-DOS had different limits, for example the Apricot PC could have up to 768 KiB and the Sirius Victor 9000, 896 KiB. Memory management on the IBM family was made complex by the need to maintain backward compatibility to the original PC design and real-mode DOS, while allowing computer users to take advantage of large amounts of low-cost memory and new generations of processors. Since DOS has given way to Microsoft Windows and other 32-bit operating systems not restricted by the original arbitrary 640 KiB limit of the IBM PC, managing the memory of a personal computer no longer requires the user to manually manipulate internal settings and parameters of the system.

The 640 KiB limit imposed great complexity on hardware and software intended to circumvent it; the physical memory in a machine could be organised as a combination of base or conventional memory (including lower memory), upper memory, high memory (not the same as upper memory), extended memory, and expanded memory, all handled in different ways.

Conventional memory
The Intel 8088 processor used in the original IBM PC had 20 address lines and so could directly address 1 MiB (220 bytes) of memory. Different areas of this address space were allocated to different kinds of memory used for different purposes. Starting at the lowest end of the address space, the PC had read/write random access memory (RAM) installed, which was used by DOS and application programs. The first part of this memory was installed on the motherboard of the system (in very early machines, 64 KiB, later revised to 256 KiB). Additional memory could be added with cards plugged into the expansion slots; each card contained straps or switches to control what part of the address space accesses memory and devices on that card.

On the IBM PC, all the address space up to 640 KiB was available for RAM. This part of the address space is called "conventional memory" since it is accessible to all versions of DOS automatically on startup. Segment 0, the first 64 KiB of conventional memory, is also called low memory area. Normally expansion memory is set to be contiguous in the address space with the memory on the motherboard. If there was an unallocated gap between motherboard memory and the expansion memory, the memory would not be automatically detected as usable by DOS.

Upper memory area
The upper memory area (UMA) refers to the address space between 640 and 1024 KiB (0xA0000–0xFFFFF). The 128 KiB region between 0xA0000 and 0xBFFFF was reserved for VGA screen memory and legacy SMM. The 128 KiB region between 0xC0000 and 0xDFFFF was reserved for device Option ROMs, including Video BIOS. The 64 KiB of the address space from 0xE0000 to 0xEFFFF was reserved for the BIOS or Option ROMs. The IBM PC reserved the uppermost 64 KiB of the address space from 0xF0000 to 0xFFFFF for the BIOS and Cassette BASIC read-only memory (ROM).

For example, the monochrome video adapter memory area ran from 704 to 736 KiB (0xB0000–0xB7FFF). If only a monochrome display adapter was used, the address space between 0xA0000 and 0xAFFFF could be used for RAM, which would be contiguous with the conventional memory.

The system BIOS ROMs must be at the upper end of the address space because the CPU starting address is fixed by the design of the processor. The starting address is loaded into the program counter of the CPU after a hardware reset and must have a defined value that endures after power is interrupted to the system. On reset or power up, the CPU loads the address from the system ROM and then jumps to a defined ROM location to begin executing the system power-on self-test, and eventually load an operating system.

Since an expansion card such as a video adapter, hard drive controller, or network adapter could use allocations of memory in many of the upper memory areas, configuration of some combinations of cards required careful reading of documentation, or experimentation, to find card settings and memory mappings that worked. Mapping two devices to use the same physical memory addresses could result in a stalled or unstable system. Not all addresses in the upper memory area were used in a typical system; unused physical addresses would return undefined and system-dependent data if accessed by the processor.

Expanded memory
As memory prices declined, application programs such as spreadsheets and computer-aided drafting were changed to take advantage of more and more physical memory in the system. Virtual memory in the 8088 and 8086 was not supported by the processor hardware, and disk technology of the time would make it too slow and cumbersome to be practical. Expanded memory was a system that allowed application programs to access more RAM than directly visible to the processor's address space. The process was a form of bank switching. When extra RAM was needed, driver software would temporarily make a piece of expanded memory accessible to the processor; when the data in that piece of memory was updated, another part could be swapped into the processor's address space. For the IBM PC and IBM PC/XT, with only 20 address lines, special-purpose expanded memory cards were made containing perhaps a megabyte, or more, of expanded memory, with logic on the board to make that memory accessible to the processor in defined parts of the 8088 address space.

Allocation and use of expanded memory was not transparent to application programs. The application had to keep track of which bank of expanded memory contained a particular piece of data, and when access to that data was required, the application had to request (through a driver program) the expanded memory board to map that part of memory into the processor's address space. Although applications could use expanded memory with relative freedom, many other software components such as drivers and terminate-and-stay-resident programs (TSRs) were still normally constrained to reside within the 640K "conventional memory" area, which soon became a critically scarce resource.

The 80286 and the high memory area
When the IBM PC/AT was introduced, the segmented memory architecture of the Intel family processors had the byproduct of allowing slightly more than 1 MiB of memory to be addressed in the "real" mode. Since the 80286 had more than 20 address lines, certain combinations of segment and offset could point into memory above the 0x0100000 (220) location. The 80286 could address up to 16 MiB of system memory, thus removing the behavior of memory addresses "wrapping around". Since the required address line now existed, the combination F800:8000 would no longer point to the physical address 0x0000000 but the correct address 0x00100000.

As a result, some DOS programs would no longer work. To maintain compatibility with the PC and XT behavior, the AT included an A20 line gate (Gate A20) that made memory addresses on the AT wrap around to low memory as they would have on an 8088 processor. This gate could be controlled, initially through the keyboard controller, to allow running programs which were designed for this to access an additional 65,520 bytes (64 KiB) of memory in real mode. At boot time, the BIOS first enables A20 when counting and testing all of the system's memory, and disables it before transferring control to the operating system. Enabling the A20 line is one of the first steps a protected mode x86 operating system does in the bootup process, often before control has been passed onto the kernel from the bootstrap (in the case of Linux, for example).

The high memory area (HMA) is the RAM area consisting of the first 64 KiB, minus 16 bytes, of the extended memory on an IBM PC/AT or compatible microcomputer.

Originally, the logic gate was a gate connected to the Intel 8042 keyboard controller. Controlling it was a relatively slow process. Other methods have since been added to allow for more efficient multitasking of programs which require this wrap-around with programs that access all of the system's memory. There was at first a variety of methods, but eventually the industry settled on the PS/2 method of using a bit in port 92h to control the A20 line.

Disconnecting A20 would not wrap all memory accesses above 1 MiB, just those in the 1 MiB, 3 MiB, 5 MiB, etc. ranges. Real mode software only cared about the area slightly above 1 MiB, so Gate A20 was enough.

Virtual 8086 mode, introduced with the Intel 80386, allows the A20 wrap-around to be simulated by using the virtual memory facilities of the processor: physical memory may be mapped to multiple virtual addresses, thus allowing that the memory mapped at the first megabyte of virtual memory may be mapped again in the second megabyte of virtual memory. The operating system may intercept changes to Gate A20 and make corresponding changes to the virtual memory address space, which also makes irrelevant the efficiency of Gate-A20 toggling.

The first user of the HMA among Microsoft products was Windows 2.0 in 1987, which introduced the HIMEM.SYS device driver. Starting with versions 5.0 of DR-DOS (1990) and of MS-DOS (1991), parts of the operating system could be loaded into HMA as well, freeing up to 46 KiB of conventional memory. Other components, such as device drivers and TSRs, could be loaded into the upper memory area (UMA).

A20 handler
The A20 handler is software controlling access to the high memory area. Extended memory managers usually provide this functionality. In DOS, high memory area managers, such as HIMEM.SYS had the extra task of managing A20 and provided an API for opening/closing A20. DOS itself could utilize the area for some of its storage needs, thereby freeing up more conventional memory for programs. This functionality was enabled by the "DOS=HIGH" directive in the CONFIG.SYS configuration file.

A20 gate on later processors
The Intel 80486 and Pentium added a special pin named A20M#, which when asserted low forces bit 20 of the physical address to be zero for all on-chip cache or external memory accesses. This was necessary since the 80486 introduced an on-chip cache, and therefore masking this bit in external logic was no longer possible. Software still needs to manipulate the gate and must still deal with external peripherals (the chipset) for that.

80386 and subsequent processors
Intel processors from the 386 onward allowed a virtual 8086 mode, which simplified the hardware required to implement expanded memory for DOS applications. Expanded memory managers such as Quarterdeck's QEMM product and Microsoft's EMM386 supported the expanded memory standard without requirement for special memory boards.

On 386 and subsequent processors, memory managers like QEMM might move the bulk of the code for a driver or TSR into extended memory and replace it with a small fingerhold that was capable of accessing the extended-memory-resident code. They might analyze memory usage to detect drivers that required more RAM during startup than they did subsequently, and recover and reuse the memory that was no longer needed after startup. They might even remap areas of memory normally used for memory-mapped I/O. Many of these tricks involved assumptions about the functioning of drivers and other components. In effect, memory managers might reverse-engineer and modify other vendors' code on the fly. As might be expected, such tricks did not always work. Therefore, memory managers also incorporated very elaborate systems of configurable options, and provisions for recovery should a selected option render the PC unbootable (a frequent occurrence).

Installing and configuring a memory manager might involve hours of experimentation with options, repeatedly rebooting the machine, and testing the results. But conventional memory was so valuable that PC owners felt that such time was well-spent if the result was to free up 30 or 40 KiB of conventional memory space.

Extended memory
In the context of IBM PC-compatible computers, extended memory refers to memory in the address space of the 80286 and subsequent processors, beyond the 1 megabyte limit imposed by the 20 address lines of the 8088 and 8086. Such memory is not directly available to DOS applications running in the so-called "real mode" of the 80286 and subsequent processors. This memory is only accessible in the protected or virtual modes of 80286 and higher processors.

title: DOS memory management