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Bassline

Bassline (also known as a bass line or bass part) is the term used in many styles of music, such as blues, jazz, funk, dub and electronic, traditional, and classical music, for the low-pitched instrumental part or line played (in jazz and some forms of popular music) by a rhythm section instrument such as the electric bass, double bass, cello, tuba or keyboard (piano, Hammond organ, electric organ, or synthesizer).

In unaccompanied solo performance, basslines may simply be played in the lower register of any instrument while melody and/or further accompaniment is provided in the middle or upper register. In solo music for piano and pipe organ, these instruments have an excellent lower register that can be used to play a deep bassline. On organs, the bass line is typically played using the pedal keyboard and massive 16' and 32' bass pipes.

Riffs and grooves
Basslines in popular music often use "riffs" or "grooves", which are usually simple, appealing musical motifs or phrases that are repeated, with variation, throughout the song. "The bass differs from other voices because of the particular role it plays in supporting and defining harmonic motion. It does so at levels ranging from immediate, chord-by-chord events to the larger harmonic organization of a [sic] entire work."

Bassline riffs usually (but not always) emphasize the chord tones of each chord (usually the root note, the third note, or the fifth note), which helps to define a song's key. Basslines align or syncopate with the drums. Other rhythm instruments join in to create a more interesting rhythmic variations. The type of rhythmic pulse used in basslines varies widely in different types of music. In swing jazz and jump blues, basslines are often created from a continuous sequence of quarter notes in a mostly scalar, stepwise or arpeggio-based part called a "walking bass line". In Latin, salsa music, jazz fusion, reggae, electronica, and some types of rock and metal, basslines may be very rhythmically complex and syncopated. In bluegrass and traditional country music, basslines often emphasize the root and fifth of each chord. Though basslines may be played by many different types of instruments and in a broad musical range, they are generally played on bass instruments and in the range roughly at least an octave and a half below middle C (roughly the range of the bass clef). In classical music such as string quartets and symphonies, basslines play the same harmonic and rhythmic role; however, they are usually referred to as the "bass voice" or the "bass part".

Instruments
Most popular musical ensembles include an instrument capable of playing bass notes. In the 1890s, a tuba was often used. From the 1920s to the 1940s, most popular music groups used the double bass as the bass instrument. Starting in the 1950s, the bass guitar began to replace the double bass in most types of popular music, such as rock and roll, blues, and folk. The bass guitar was easier to transport and, given that it uses magnetic pickups, easier to amplify to loud stage volumes without the risk of audio feedback, a common problem with the amplified double bass. By the 1970s and 1980s, the electric bass was used in most rock bands and jazz fusion groups. The double bass was still used in some types of popular music that recreated styles from the 1940s and 1950s such as jazz (especially swing and bebop), traditional 1950s blues, jump blues, country, and rockabilly.

In some popular music bands, keyboard instruments are used to play the bass line. In organ trios, for example, a Hammond organ player performs the basslines using the organ's pedal keyboard. In some types of popular music, such as hip-hop or house music, the bass lines are played using bass synthesizers, sequencers, or electro-acoustically modeled samples of basslines.

Basslines are important in many forms of dance and electronic music, such as electro, drum and bass, dubstep, and most forms of house and trance. In these genres, basslines are almost always performed on synthesizers, either physical, such as the Minimoog and the Roland TB-303, or virtual, such as Sytrus and ZynAddSubFX. In hip-hop, producer Rick Rubin popularized the technique of creating basslines by lengthening the bass drum decay of the TR-808 drum machine and tuning it to different pitches.

Chinese orchestras use the zhōng ruǎn (中阮) and dà ruǎn (大阮) for creating basslines. Other, less common bass instruments are the lā ruǎn (拉阮), dī yīn gé hú (低音革胡), and da dī hú (大低胡) developed during the 1930s. Russian balalaika orchestra use bass balalaika and contrabass balalaika.

Australia's indigenous music and some World music that is influenced by Australian music uses didjeridus for basslines.

Classical music

In classical music, the bassline is always written out for the performers in musical notation. In orchestral repertoire, the basslines are played by the double basses and cellos in the string section, by bassoons, contrabassoons, and bass clarinets in the woodwinds and by bass trombones, tubas and a variety of other low brass instruments. In symphonies from the Classical period, a single bassline was often written for the cellos and basses; however, since the bass is a transposing instrument, and it is notated an octave higher than it sounds, when cellos and basses play the same bassline, the line is performed in octaves, with the basses an octave below the cellos. By the end of the Classical period, with Beethoven's symphonies, cellos and double basses were often given separate parts. In general, the more complex passages and rapid note sequences are given to the cellos, while the basses play a simpler bassline. The timpani (or kettledrums) also play a role in orchestral basslines, albeit confined in 17th and early 18th century works to a few notes, often the tonic and the dominant below it. In a small number of symphonies, the pipe organ is used to play basslines.

In chamber music, the bassline is played by the cello in string quartets and the bassoon in wind chamber music. In some larger chamber music works, both a cello and a double bass are used to play the bassline. In a Baroque era (c. 1600–1750) piece accompanied by basso continuo, the accompanying musicians would include a chordal instrument (e.g., harpsichord, pipe organ or lute) and a number of bass instruments might perform the same bassline, such as the cello, viol, double bass, theorbo, serpent (an early wind instrument), and, if an organist was present, the lower manual of the organ and the low-pitched pedal keyboard. In 2000s-era performances of Baroque music, the basso continuo is typically performed by just two instruments: a chordal instrument and one bass instrument (often harpsichord and cello).

"[The bass part is] the groundwork or foundation upon which all musical composition is to be erected."

- Christopher Simpson 1667:19

"[The bass part is] the base and foundation of the other parts, since one builds them upon it."

- Charles Masson 1669:31

"[The bass part is] the foundation of harmony."

- Gioseffo Zarlino 1561:239, 1558:179

Popular music
In many genres of modern traditional music (ranging from folk rock to blues) and popular music (ranging from rock and pop to reggae to funk), the bassline is generally played by an electric bass player. In rockabilly, psychobilly, traditional blues and bluegrass music, the bassline is played by a double bass player. The bassline uses low notes that provide a rhythm while simultaneously setting out the foundation of the chord progression. The bassline bridges the gap between the rhythmic part played by the drummer and the melodic lines played by the lead guitarist and the chordal parts played by the rhythm guitarist and/or keyboard player. In most traditional and popular music styles, the bass player is expected to be able to improvise a bassline which they base in the chord progression of a song. When a bassist is playing a cover song, they may play the bassline that was originally used on the recording. A session bassist playing in a music studio is expected to be able to read a bassline written in musical notation. Bass players also perform fills in between the phrases of the vocal melody, and they may also perform bass runs or bass breaks, which are short solo sections. Rhythmic variations by the bass, such as the introduction of a syncopated figure can dramatically change the feel of a song, even for a simple groove.

"'In any style, the bass's role in the groove is the same: to keep time and to outline the tonality. When developing bass lines, these two things should always be your goal'"

"[One] may view in it [(the bass part)] all the other parts in their original essence.Thomas Campion 1967:327"

Walking bass
A walking bass is a style of bass accompaniment or line, common in Baroque music (1600–1750) and 20th century jazz, blues and rockabilly, which creates a feeling of regular quarter note movement, akin to the regular alternation of feet while walking. Walking basslines generally consist of unsyncopated notes of equal value, usually quarter notes (known in jazz as a "four feel"). Walking basslines use a mixture of scale tones, arpeggios, chromatic runs, and passing tones to outline the chord progression of a song or tune, often with a melodic shape that alternately rises and falls in pitch over several bars. To add variety to a walking bassline, bassists periodically interpolate various fills, such as playing scale or arpeggio fragments in swung eighth notes, plucking muted percussive grace notes (either one grace note or a "raked" sequence of two or three grace notes), or holding notes for two, three, or four beats. Some songs lend themselves to another type of variation: the pedal point, in which the bassist holds or repeats a single note (often the tonic or the dominant) under the chord changes.

Walking basslines are usually performed on the double bass or the electric bass, but they can also be performed using the low register of a piano, Hammond organ, tuba or other instruments. They can also be sung, as is done by some a capella vocal groups. While walking bass lines are most commonly associated with jazz and blues, they are also used in rock, rockabilly, ska, R&B, gospel, Latin, country, and many other genres.

Examples
Walking bass in the pedal keyboard part of Baroque organ music (J.S. Bach's Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 659, from the Great Eighteen Chorale Preludes):

Other walking bass lines can be heard in the opening movements of Joseph Haydn's Symphony No. 22 (nicknamed "The Philosopher"), Anton Bruckner's Symphony No. 5 and Edward Elgar's Symphony No. 1.

Walking bass often alternates quarter notes:

giving rise to the term.

Many boogie-woogie basslines are walking bass lines:

 * or

Walking bass often moves in stepwise (scalar) motion to successive chord roots, such as often in country music:

In this example, the last two quarter notes of the second measure, D and E, "walk" up from the first quarter note in that measure, C, to the first note of the third measure, F (C and F are the roots of the chords in the first through second and third through fourth measures, respectively).

In both cases, "walking" refers both to the steady duple rhythm (one step after the other) and to the strong directional motion created; in the examples above, from C to F and back in the second, and from root to seventh and back in the first.

In bebop jazz, the walking bass has a stabilising effect, offsetting and providing a foil to the complexity of the improvised melodic lines, for example in Sonny Rollins’ “Blue Seven”.

Bass run
A bass run (or "bass break") is a short instrumental break or fill in which the bass instrument (such as an electric bass or a double bass) or instruments (in the case of a marching band) and the bassline are given the forefront. The bass part for a bass run often differs from the usual bass accompaniment style, in terms of the register, timbre, or melodic style that is used, or the number of notes per beat which are played.

A bass run may be composed by the performer or by an arranger prior to a performance, or it may be improvised onstage by the performer using scales, arpeggios, and standard licks and riffs. In some cases, a bass run may incorporate a display of virtuoso techniques such as rapid passages or high notes. During a bass run, the main vocal or melody line usually stops, and in some cases, the percussion or drums may also stop. The technique originated in the marches of the "Sousa school", though its resemblance to call and response techniques familiar to African American musicians indicates an earlier origin.

Electric bass
In a rock song in which the bassline consists of low-pitched quarter notes played on the electric bass, a bass run may consist of a rapid sequence of sixteenth notes in a higher register, or of a melodic riff played in a higher register. In some cases, the bassist will select a "brighter"-sounding pickup or increase the treble response of the instrument for a bass run, so that it will be easier to hear.

In a heavy metal song where the bassist was ordinarily playing low notes without overdrive to accompany, for a solo, they may turn on a fuzz bass pedal and use a wah pedal to create a more pronounced tone (an approach used by Cliff Burton), and then play an upper register riff or scale run. Some shred guitar-style bassists may do two-handed tapping during a bass solo (e.g., Billy Sheehan).

In a pop song in which the bassline consists of notes plucked on the electric bass, a bass run may consist of several bars of percussive slapping and popping. Bass solos and guitar solos are rare in pop. In the rare cases that instrumental solos occur in pop, they are often played by synthesizer or, in some bands, by saxophone.

In a EDM, house, dubstep, grime, and related genres, synthesiser bass is used (along with kickdrums).

In a funk song in which the bassline already consists of percussive slapping and popping, a bass run may consist of a virtuosic display of rapid slapping and popping techniques combined with techniques such as glissando, note-bending, and harmonics.

Double bass
In a jump blues tune in which the bassline consists of low-pitched quarter notes played on the double bass in a scalar walking bass style, a bass run may consist of a bar of swung eighth notes played using a percussive slap bass style, in which the right hand strikes the strings against the fingerboard.

In a swing tune in which the bassline consists of low-pitched quarter notes played on the double bass in a scalar walking bass style, a bass run may consist of a descending chromatic scale played in a higher register.

In a bluegrass tune in which the bassline consists of low-pitched quarter notes played on the double bass on the root and fifth of each chord on beats one and three (of a 4/4 tune), a bass run may consist of a walking bass line played for several bars.

In a psychobilly band, a bass solo will often consist of a virtuosic display of triple and quadruple slaps, creating a percussive, drum solo-like sound.

Wind bass
In a marching band, a bass run may consist of a several bar unaccompanied passage composed for the tubas and sousaphones which displays either rapid passages of notes or higher-register techniques. In New Orleans jazz, the tuba may provide a walking bass line similar to that of the double bass.

title: Bassline


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USS Chicago (CA-29)

USS Chicago (CL/CA-29) was a Northampton-class cruiser of the United States Navy that served in the Pacific Theater in the early years of World War II. She was the second US Navy ship to be named after the city of Chicago. After surviving a midget submarine attack at Sydney Harbour and serving in battle at the Coral Sea and Savo Island in 1942, she was sunk by Japanese aerial torpedoes in the Battle of Rennell Island, in the Solomon Islands, on 30 January 1943.

Construction
Chicago was launched on 10 April 1930 by Mare Island Naval Shipyard under the supervision of Naval constructor Charles W. Fisher Jr., sponsored by Miss E. Britten; and commissioned on 9 March 1931, Captain Manley H. Simons in command. She was originally classified as a light cruiser, CL-29, because of her thin armor. From 1 July 1931, Chicago was redesignated a heavy cruiser, CA-29, because of her 8-inch guns in accordance with the provisions of the London Naval Treaty of 1930.

Inter-war period
After a shakedown cruise to Honolulu, Tahiti and American Samoa, Chicago departed Mare Island on 27 July 1931 and sailed to the east coast, arriving at Fort Pond Bay, New York, on 16 August. There, she became flagship of Commander, Cruisers, Scouting Force, and operated with that force until 1940.

In February 1932, Chicago conducted gunnery exercises with other ships of the Scouting Force preliminary to Fleet Problem XIII off the California coast. The fleet was based on the West Coast thereafter and, until 1934, operated in the Pacific, from Alaska to the Panama Canal Zone and the Hawaiian Islands.

On 24 October 1933, Chicago collided with the British freighter Silver Palm in dense fog off Point Sur, California. Three officers aboard Chicago were killed in their quarters during the collision, and an enlisted man's arm had to be amputated as well. Silver Palm penetrated around 18 ft into the cruiser's port bow, forward of the Number 1 gun mount. At the time of the incident damage was estimated to be around $200,000 ($ today). The vessel was repaired at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard, departing there on 24 March 1934.

In 1934, the annual fleet exercises were held in the Caribbean, followed in May 1934 by the Presidential Fleet Review in New York Harbor. The Scouting Force operated along the east coast and in the Caribbean until October and then returned to base at San Pedro, California. Chicago was one of six ships to receive the new RCA CXAM radar in 1940. Chicago continued to operate out of San Pedro until 29 September 1940, when she sailed to Pearl Harbor.

During the next 14 months, Chicago operated out of Pearl Harbor, exercising with various task forces to develop tactics and cruising formations, and cruising to Australia and to the west coast.

World War II
When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, Chicago was at sea with Task Force 12 and the Force immediately began a five-day sweep in the Oahu-Johnston-Palmyra triangle in an effort to intercept the enemy. The Force returned to Pearl Harbor on 12 December; from 14–27 December, Chicago operated with Task Force 11 on patrol and search missions.

On 2 February 1942, Chicago departed Pearl Harbor for Suva, where she joined the newly formed ANZAC Squadron, later redesignated as Task Force 44. During March and April, the cruiser operated off the Louisiade Archipelago, covering the attacks on Lae and Salamaua, New Guinea. In a position to intercept enemy surface units which attempted to attack Port Moresby, Chicago also provided cover for the arrival of American troops on New Caledonia.

On 1 May, Chicago was ordered from Nouméa to join Commander, Southwest Pacific, and on the 4th she supported USS Yorktown (CV-5) in her strike against the Japanese on Tulagi, Solomon Islands during the Battle of the Coral Sea. On 7 May, she proceeded, with the Support Group, to intercept and attack the Japanese Port Moresby invasion group. The following day, the group underwent several Japanese air attacks, during which Chicago suffered several casualties from strafing, but drove off the planes and proceeded ahead until it was clear that the Japanese force had been turned back.

On the night of 31 May – 1 June, while in port in Sydney Harbour, Australia, Chicago fired on an attacking Japanese midget submarine. Chicago's captain, Howard D. Bode, was ashore when his ship opened fire. After coming back aboard on his ship, he initially accused all the officers of being drunk. Shortly afterwards, the presence of the submarine was confirmed. Three Japanese midget submarines had attacked Sydney Harbour. One became entangled in an anti-submarine boom net, and two were able to pass through. One was then disabled by depth charges, but the other managed to fire two torpedoes at Chicago. One torpedo passed near Chicago and destroyed the converted ferry HMAS Kuttabul (ship), nearby, killing 21 sailors, while the second torpedo failed to detonate, and skidded ashore onto Garden Island.

During June and July 1942, Chicago continued to operate in the Southwest Pacific. From 7–9 August, she supported the initial landings on Guadalcanal and others of the Solomon Islands, beginning the second US counter-offensive after New Guinea against Japan. On 9 August, she engaged in the Battle of Savo Island. Early in the engagement a hit from a Japanese destroyer's torpedo caused significant damage to the ship's bow. Chicago fought damage while continuing to engage until contact with the enemy was lost. Capt. Bode's actions during the engagement were questioned in an inquiry headed by Admiral Arthur Japy Hepburn. Though the report was not intended to be made public, Bode learned of its findings and shot himself on 19 April 1943, dying the next day.

After Savo Island, Chicago was repaired at Nouméa, Sydney, and San Francisco, where she arrived 13 October.

Loss at the Battle of Rennell Island

Early in January 1943, Chicago departed San Francisco, action-bound once more. On 27 January, she sailed from Nouméa to escort a Guadalcanal convoy. On the night of the 29th, as the ships approached that bitterly contested island, Japanese aircraft attacked the force and the Battle of Rennell Island was underway. During the attacks, two burning Japanese planes silhouetted Chicago, providing enough light for further torpedo attacks; two hits caused severe flooding and loss of power. By the time the attack ended, work by the crew had checked Chicago's list. USS Louisville (CA-28) took the disabled ship in tow, and was relieved by USS Navajo (AT-64) the following morning. Fighters from the nearby carrier Enterprise  provided CAP for the wounded cruiser as she tried to make her way away from the battle area. During the afternoon, the Japanese attacked again with 20 G4M “Betty” bombers. The ship was hit by four torpedoes, one forward of the bridge and three others in her engineering spaces. The patrolling fighters downed 8 of the attacking planes, but the damage was done. Captain Ralph O. Davis gave the order to abandon ship shortly before Chicago sank stern first, 20 minutes later at -11.41667°N, 160.93333°W. Navajo and the escorting destroyers rescued 1,049 survivors from Chicago, but 62 of her crew died. A final attack force of Japanese torpedo bombers failed to find the remaining U.S. ships.

The Japanese widely publicized the results of the engagement, claiming to have sunk two battleships and three cruisers. In reality they sank only the heavy cruiser Chicago on 30 January (two days later they also sank the destroyer USS De Haven (DD-469) much farther north in an air attack off Savo Island). The U.S. did not report the loss of Chicago to the public for some time, with Admiral Chester Nimitz—commander in chief of Allied Pacific forces—threatening to shoot any of his staff who leaked the loss to the press. The loss of the cruiser was published in a US newspaper on 16 February 1943.

Awards
Chicago received three battle stars for World War II service.

Chicago Avenue, near Coral Sea Park in Maroubra, New South Wales, is named after USS Chicago (CA-29).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: USS Chicago (CA-29)


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Ha'penny Bridge

The Ha'penny Bridge (, or Droichead na Life), known later for a time as the Penny Ha'penny Bridge, and officially the Liffey Bridge, is a pedestrian bridge built in May 1816 over the River Liffey in Dublin, Ireland. Made of cast iron, the bridge was cast in Shropshire, England.

Name

Originally called the Wellington Bridge (after the Dublin-born Duke of Wellington), the name of the bridge was changed to Liffey Bridge after the Irish War of Independence in 1922. Liffey Bridge remains the bridge's official name to this day, although it is most commonly referred to as the Ha'penny Bridge.

History
Before the Ha'penny Bridge was built there were seven ferries, operated by a William Walsh, across the Liffey. The ferries were in a bad condition and Walsh was informed that he had to either fix them or build a bridge. Walsh chose the latter option and was granted the right to extract a ha'penny toll from anyone crossing it for 100 years.

Initially the toll charge was based not on the cost of construction, but to match the charges levied by the ferries it replaced. A further condition of construction was that, if the citizens of Dublin found the bridge and toll to be "objectionable" within its first year of operation, it was to be removed at no cost to the city.

The toll was increased for a time to a penny-ha'penny (1½ pence), but was eventually dropped in 1919. While the toll was in operation, there were turnstiles at either end of the bridge.

The manufacture of the bridge was commissioned by the then Lord Mayor of Dublin, John Claudius Beresford with the Coalbrookdale Company of England. Using ore originally mined in County Leitrim's Sliabh an Iarainn, the bridge's cast iron ribs were made in 18 sections and then shipped to Dublin. The design and erection was supervised by John Windsor, one of the company's foremen and a pattern-maker.

Renovation and maintenance
In 2001, the number of pedestrians using the bridge on a daily basis was 27,000 and, given these traffic levels, a structural survey indicated that renovation was required. The bridge was closed for repair and renovations during 2001 and was reopened in December 2001, sporting its original white colour.

The structure was rebuilt to retain many of its old components, although, controversially, some features were removed. The repair work was carried out by Harland and Wolff.

In 2012, citing a maintenance and damage risk, Dublin City Council removed a number of love locks from the Ha'penny Bridge and nearby Millennium Bridge, and asked people not to add any more. In 2013, the council removed over 300 kg of locks from the bridge, and signage was added asking people not to put padlocks on the bridge.

On 19 May 2016, the bicentenary of the bridge was celebrated with a symbolic procession over the bridge involving the current Lord Mayor, Críona Ní Dhálaigh, descendants of J.C. Beresford and of John Windsor from England.

title: Ha'penny Bridge


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Life insurance

Life insurance (or life assurance, especially in the Commonwealth of Nations) is a contract between an insurance policy holder and an insurer or assurer, where the insurer promises to pay a designated beneficiary a sum of money upon the death of an insured person (often the policyholder). Depending on the contract, other events such as terminal illness or critical illness can also trigger payment. The policyholder typically pays a premium, either regularly or as one lump sum. The benefits may include other expenses, such as funeral expenses.

Life policies are legal contracts and the terms of each contract describe the limitations of the insured events. Often, specific exclusions written into the contract limit the liability of the insurer; common examples include claims relating to suicide, fraud, war, riot, and civil commotion. Difficulties may arise where an event is not clearly defined, for example, the insured knowingly incurred a risk by consenting to an experimental medical procedure or by taking medication resulting in injury or death.

Modern life insurance bears some similarity to the asset-management industry,  and life insurers have diversified their product offerings into retirement products such as  annuities.

Life-based contracts tend to fall into two major categories:

 * Protection policies: designed to provide a benefit, typically a lump-sum payment, in the event of a specified occurrence. A common form of a protection-policy design is term insurance.
 * Investment policies: the main objective of these policies is to facilitate the growth of capital by regular or single premiums. Common forms (in the United States) are whole life, universal life, and variable life policies.

History

An early form of life insurance dates to Ancient Rome; "burial clubs" covered the cost of members' funeral expenses and assisted survivors financially. In 1816, an archeological excavation in Minya, Egypt (under an Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire) produced a Nerva–Antonine dynasty-era tablet from the ruins of the Temple of Antinous in Antinoöpolis, Aegyptus that prescribed the rules and membership dues of a burial society collegium established in Lanuvium, Italia in approximately 133 AD during the reign of Hadrian (117–138) of the Roman Empire. In 1851, future U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice Joseph P. Bradley (1870–1892), once employed as an actuary for the Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company, submitted an article to the Journal of the Institute of Actuaries detailing an historical account of a Severan dynasty-era life table compiled by the Roman jurist Ulpian in approximately 220 AD during the reign of Elagabalus (218–222) that was included in the Digesta seu Pandectae (533) codification ordered by Justinian I (527–565) of the Eastern Roman Empire.

The earliest known life insurance policy was made in Royal Exchange, London on 18 June 1583. A Richard Martin insured a William Gybbons, paying thirteen merchants 30 pounds for 400 if the insured dies within one year. The first company to offer life insurance in modern times was the Amicable Society for a Perpetual Assurance Office, founded in London in 1706 by William Talbot and Sir Thomas Allen. Each member made an annual payment per share on one to three shares with consideration to age of the members being twelve to fifty-five. At the end of the year a portion of the "amicable contribution" was divided among the wives and children of deceased members, in proportion to the number of shares the heirs owned. The Amicable Society started with 2000 members.

The first life table was written by Edmund Halley in 1693, but it was only in the 1750s that the necessary mathematical and statistical tools were in place for the development of modern life insurance. James Dodson, a mathematician and actuary, tried to establish a new company aimed at correctly offsetting the risks of long-term life assurance policies, after being refused admission to the Amicable Life Assurance Society because of his advanced age. He was unsuccessful in his attempts at procuring a charter from the government.

His disciple, Edward Rowe Mores, was able to establish the Society for Equitable Assurances on Lives and Survivorship in 1762. It was the world's first mutual insurer and it pioneered age based premiums based on mortality rate laying "the framework for scientific insurance practice and development" and "the basis of modern life assurance upon which all life assurance schemes were subsequently based".

Mores also gave the name actuary to the chief official—the earliest known reference to the position as a business concern. The first modern actuary was William Morgan, who served from 1775 to 1830. In 1776 the Society carried out the first actuarial valuation of liabilities and subsequently distributed the first reversionary bonus (1781) and interim bonus (1809) among its members. It also used regular valuations to balance competing interests. The Society sought to treat its members equitably and the Directors tried to ensure that policyholders received a fair return on their investments. Premiums were regulated according to age, and anybody could be admitted regardless of their state of health and other circumstances.

The sale of life insurance in the U.S. began in the 1760s. The Presbyterian Synods in Philadelphia and New York City created the Corporation for Relief of Poor and Distressed Widows and Children of Presbyterian Ministers in 1759; Episcopalian priests organized a similar fund in 1769. Between 1787 and 1837 more than two dozen life insurance companies were started, but fewer than half a dozen survived. In the 1870s, military officers banded together to found both the Army (AAFMAA) and the Navy Mutual Aid Association (Navy Mutual), inspired by the plight of widows and orphans left stranded in the West after the Battle of the Little Big Horn, and of the families of U.S. sailors who died at sea.

Parties to contract
The person responsible for making payments for a policy is the policy owner, while the insured is the person whose death will trigger payment of the death benefit. The owner and insured may or may not be the same person. For example, if Joe buys a policy on his own life, he is both the owner and the insured. But if Jane, his wife, buys a policy on Joe's life, she is the owner and he is the insured. The policy owner is the guarantor and they will be the person to pay for the policy. The insured is a participant in the contract, but not necessarily a party to it.

The beneficiary receives policy proceeds upon the insured person's death. The owner designates the beneficiary, but the beneficiary is not a party to the policy. The owner can change the beneficiary unless the policy has an irrevocable beneficiary designation. If a policy has an irrevocable beneficiary, any beneficiary changes, policy assignments, or cash value borrowing would require the agreement of the original beneficiary.

In cases where the policy owner is not the insured (also referred to as the celui qui vit or CQV), insurance companies have sought to limit policy purchases to those with an insurable interest in the CQV. For life insurance policies, close family members and business partners will usually be found to have an insurable interest. The insurable interest requirement usually demonstrates that the purchaser will actually suffer some kind of loss if the CQV dies. Such a requirement prevents people from benefiting from the purchase of purely speculative policies on people they expect to die. With no insurable interest requirement, the risk that a purchaser would murder the CQV for insurance proceeds would be great. In at least one case, an insurance company that sold a policy to a purchaser with no insurable interest (who later murdered the CQV for the proceeds), was found liable in court for contributing to the wrongful death of the victim (Liberty National Life v. Weldon, 267 Ala.171 (1957)).

Contract terms
Special exclusions may apply, such as suicide clauses, whereby the policy becomes null and void if the insured dies by suicide within a specified time (usually two years after the purchase date; some states provide a statutory one-year suicide clause). Any misrepresentations by the insured on the application may also be grounds for nullification. Most US states, for example, specify a maximum contestability period, often no more than two years. Only if the insured dies within this period will the insurer have a legal right to contest the claim on the basis of misrepresentation and request additional information before deciding whether to pay or deny the claim.

The face amount of the policy is the initial amount that the policy will pay at the death of the insured or when the policy matures, although the actual death benefit can provide for greater or lesser than the face amount. The policy matures when the insured dies or reaches a specified age (such as 100 years old).

Costs, insurability, and underwriting
The insurance company calculates the policy prices (premiums) at a level sufficient to fund claims, cover administrative costs, and provide a profit. The cost of insurance is determined using mortality tables calculated by actuaries. Mortality tables are statistically based tables showing expected annual mortality rates of people at different ages. As people are more likely to die as they get older, the mortality tables enable insurance companies to calculate the risk and increase premiums with age accordingly. Such estimates can be important in taxation regulation.

In the 1980s and 1990s, the SOA 1975-80 Basic Select & Ultimate tables were the typical reference points, while the 2001 VBT and 2001 CSO tables were published more recently. As well as the basic parameters of age and gender, the newer tables include separate mortality tables for smokers and non-smokers, and the CSO tables include separate tables for preferred classes.

The mortality tables provide a baseline for the cost of insurance, but the health and family history of the individual applicant is also taken into account (except in the case of Group policies). This investigation and resulting evaluation is termed underwriting. Health and lifestyle questions are asked, with certain responses possibly meriting further investigation.

Specific factors that may be considered by underwriters include:

 * Personal medical history;
 * Family medical history;
 * Driving record;
 * Height and weight matrix, otherwise known as BMI (Body Mass Index).

Based on the above and additional factors, applicants will be placed into one of several classes of health ratings which will determine the premium paid in exchange for insurance at that particular carrier.

Life insurance companies in the United States support the Medical Information Bureau (MIB), which is a clearing house of information on persons who have applied for life insurance with participating companies in the last seven years. As part of the application, the insurer often requires the applicant's permission to obtain information from their physicians.

Automated Life Underwriting is a technology solution which is designed to perform all or some of the screening functions traditionally completed by underwriters, and thus seeks to reduce the work effort, time and data necessary to underwrite a life insurance application. These systems allow point of sale distribution and can shorten the time frame for issuance from weeks or even months to hours or minutes, depending on the amount of insurance being purchased.

The mortality of underwritten persons rises much more quickly than the general population. At the end of 10 years, the mortality of that 25-year-old, non-smoking male is 0.66/1000/year. Consequently, in a group of one thousand 25-year-old males with a $100,000 policy, all of average health, a life insurance company would have to collect approximately $50 a year from each participant to cover the relatively few expected claims. (0.35 to 0.66 expected deaths in each year × $100,000 payout per death = $35 per policy.) Other costs, such as administrative and sales expenses, also need to be considered when setting the premiums. A 10-year policy for a 25-year-old non-smoking male with preferred medical history may get offers as low as $90 per year for a $100,000 policy in the competitive US life insurance market.

Most of the revenue received by insurance companies consists of premiums, but revenue from investing the premiums forms an important source of profit for most life insurance companies. Group insurance policies are an exception to this.

In the United States, life insurance companies are never legally required to provide coverage to everyone, with the exception of Civil Rights Act compliance requirements. Insurance companies alone determine insurability, and some people are deemed uninsurable. The policy can be declined or rated (increasing the premium amount to compensate for the higher risk), and the amount of the premium will be proportional to the face value of the policy.

Many companies separate applicants into four general categories. These categories are preferred best, preferred, standard, and tobacco. Preferred best is reserved only for the healthiest individuals in the general population. This may mean, that the proposed insured has no adverse medical history, is not under medication, and has no family history of early-onset cancer, diabetes, or other conditions. Preferred means that the proposed insured is currently under medication and has a family history of particular illnesses. Most people are in the standard category.

People in the tobacco category typically have to pay higher premiums due to higher mortality. Recent US mortality tables predict that roughly 0.35 in 1,000 non-smoking males aged 25 will die during the first year of a policy. Mortality approximately doubles for every additional ten years of age, so the mortality rate in the first year for non-smoking men is about 2.5 in 1,000 people at age 65. Compare this with the US population male mortality rates of 1.3 per 1,000 at age 25 and 19.3 at age 65 (without regard to health or smoking status).

Death benefits
Upon the insured's death, the insurer requires acceptable proof of death before it pays the claim. If the insured's death is suspicious and the policy amount is large, the insurer may investigate the circumstances surrounding the death before deciding whether it has an obligation to pay the claim.

Payment from the policy may be as a lump sum or as an annuity, which is paid in regular installments for either a specified period or for the beneficiary's lifetime.

Death benefits are the primary feature of life insurance policies, and they provide a lump sum payment to the beneficiaries of the policyholder in the event of the policyholder's death. The amount of the death benefit is typically determined at the time the policy is purchased, and it is based on factors such as the policyholder's age, health, and occupation.

The death benefit is only payable if the policyholder dies while the policy is in effect. If the policyholder outlives the policy, the death benefit is not paid, and the policy will typically expire. Some policies may allow the policyholder to receive a portion of the premiums paid if they outlive the policy.

Insurance vs assurance
The specific uses of the terms "insurance" and "assurance" are sometimes confused. In general, in jurisdictions where both terms are used, "insurance" refers to providing coverage for an event that might happen (fire, theft, flood, etc.), while "assurance" is the provision of coverage for an event that is certain to happen. In the United States, both forms of coverage are called "insurance" for reasons of simplicity in companies selling both products. By some definitions, "insurance" is any coverage that determines benefits based on actual losses whereas "assurance" is coverage with predetermined benefits irrespective of the losses incurred.

Life insurance may be divided into two basic classes: temporary and permanent; or the following subclasses: term, universal, whole life, and endowment life insurance.

Term insurance
Term assurance provides life insurance coverage for a specified term (usually 10–30 years). Term life insurance policies do not accumulate cash value, but are significantly less expensive than permanent life insurance policies with equivalent face amounts. Policyholders can save to provide for increased term premiums or decrease insurance needs (by paying off debts or saving to provide for survivor needs).

Mortgage life insurance insures a loan secured by real property and usually features a level premium amount for a declining policy face value because what is insured is the principal and interest outstanding on a mortgage that is constantly being reduced by mortgage payments. The face amount of the policy is always the amount of the principal and interest outstanding that are paid should the applicant die before the final installment is paid.

Group life insurance
Group life insurance (also known as wholesale life insurance or institutional life insurance) is term insurance covering a group of people, usually employees of a company, members of a union or association, or members of a pension or superannuation fund. Individual proof of insurability is not normally a consideration in its underwriting. Rather, the underwriter considers the size, turnover, and financial strength of the group. Contract provisions will attempt to exclude the possibility of adverse selection. Group life insurance often allows members exiting the group to maintain their coverage by buying individual coverage. The underwriting is carried out for the whole group instead of individuals.

Permanent life insurance
Permanent life insurance is life insurance that covers the remaining lifetime of the insured. A permanent insurance policy accumulates a cash value up to its date of maturation. The owner can access the money in the cash value by withdrawing money, borrowing the cash value, or surrendering the policy and receiving the surrender value.

The three basic types of permanent insurance are whole life, universal life, and endowment.

Whole life
Whole life insurance provides lifetime coverage for a set premium amount.

Universal life coverage
Universal life insurance (ULl) is a relatively new insurance product, intended to combine permanent insurance coverage with greater flexibility in premium payments, along with the potential for greater growth of cash values. There are several types of universal life insurance policies, including interest-sensitive (also known as "traditional fixed universal life insurance"), variable universal life (VUL), guaranteed death benefit, and has equity-indexed universal life insurance.

Universal life insurance policies have cash values. Paid-in premiums increase their cash values; administrative and other costs reduce their cash values.

Universal life insurance addresses the perceived disadvantages of whole life—namely that premiums and death benefits are fixed. With universal life, both the premiums and death benefit are flexible. With the exception of guaranteed-death-benefit universal life policies, universal life policies trade their greater flexibility for fewer guarantees.

"Flexible death benefit" means the policy owner can choose to decrease the death benefit. The death benefit can also be increased by the policy owner, usually requiring new underwriting. Another feature of flexible death benefit is the ability to choose option A or option B death benefits and to change those options over the course of the life of the insured. Option A is often referred to as a "level death benefit"; death benefits remain level for the life of the insured, and premiums are lower than policies with Option B death benefits, which pay the policy's cash value—i.e., a face amount plus earnings/interest. If the cash value grows over time, the death benefits do too. If the cash value declines, the death benefit also declines. Option B policies normally feature higher premiums than option A policies.

Endowments
The endowment policy is a life insurance contract designed to pay a lump sum after a specific term (on its 'maturity') or on death. Typical maturities are ten, fifteen, or twenty years up to a certain age limit. Some policies also pay out in the case of critical illness.

Policies are typically traditional with-profits or unit-linked (including those with unitized with-profits funds).

Endowments can be cashed in early (or surrendered) and the holder then receives the surrender value which is determined by the insurance company depending on how long the policy has been running and how much has been paid into it.

Accidental death
Accidental death insurance is a type of limited life insurance that is designed to cover the insured should they die as a result of an accident. "Accidents" run the gamut from abrasions to catastrophes but normally do not include deaths resulting from non-accident-related health problems or suicide. Because they only cover accidents, these policies are much less expensive than other life insurance policies.

Such insurance can also be accidental death and dismemberment insurance or AD&D. In an AD&D policy, benefits are available not only for accidental death but also for the loss of limbs or body functions such as sight and hearing.

Accidental death and AD&D policies pay actual benefits only very rarely, either because the cause of death is not covered by the policy or because death occurs well after the accident, by which time the premiums have gone unpaid. Various AD&D policies have different terms and exclusions. Risky activities such as parachuting, flying, professional sports, or military service are often omitted from coverage.

Accidental death insurance can also supplement standard life insurance as a rider. If a rider is purchased, the policy generally pays double the face amount if the insured dies from an accident. This was once called double indemnity insurance. In some cases, triple indemnity coverage may be available.

Senior and pre-need products
Insurance companies also offer products targeted at niche markets, such as seniors. These policies are often low face value whole life insurance policies, allowing individuals (ages 50-90) to purchase affordable insurance later in life. These may also be marketed as final expense insurance or burial insurance and usually have death benefits between $1,000 and $50,000. A major reason for their popularity is their use of "simplified underwriting". With simplified underwriting, applicants are not required to take a medical exam; approval depends on the applicant's answers to a set of "yes" or "no" health questions as well as a check of their prescription drug history.

Health requirements can vary substantially between exam and no-exam policies. It may be possible for individuals with certain conditions to qualify for one type of coverage and not another. .

Pre-need life insurance policies are limited-premium whole life policies that are usually purchased by older applicants, though they are available to everyone. This type of insurance is designed to cover specific funeral expenses that the applicant has designated in a contract with a funeral home. The policy's death benefit is initially based on the funeral cost at the time of prearrangement, and it then typically grows as interest is credited. In exchange for the policy owner's designation, the funeral home typically guarantees that the proceeds will cover the cost of the funeral, no matter when death occurs. Excess proceeds may go either to the insured's estate, a designated beneficiary, or the funeral home as set forth in the contract. Purchasers of these policies usually make a single premium payment at the time of prearrangement, but some companies also allow premiums to be paid over as much as ten years.

Related products
Riders are modifications to the insurance policy added at the same time the policy is issued. These riders change the basic policy to provide some features desired by the policy owner. A common rider is accidental death. Another common rider is a premium waiver, which waives future premiums if the insured becomes disabled.

Joint life insurance is either term or permanent life insurance that insures two or more persons, with proceeds payable on the death of either.

Unit-linked insurance plans
Unit-linked insurance plans are unique insurance plans which are similar to mutual funds and term insurance plans combined as one product. The investor does not participate in the profits of the plan per se but gets returns based on the returns on the chosen funds.

With-profits policies
Some policies afford the policyholder a share of the profits of the insurance company—these are termed with-profits policies. Other policies provide no rights to a share of the profits of the company—these are non-profit policies.

With-profit policies are used as a form of collective investment scheme to achieve capital growth. Other policies offer a guaranteed return not dependent on the company's underlying investment performance; these are often referred to as without-profit policies, which may be construed as a misnomer.

India
According to section 80C of the Income Tax Act, 1961 (of the Indian penal code) premiums paid towards a valid life insurance policy can be exempted from the taxable income. Along with life insurance premiums, section 80C allows an exemption for other financial instruments such as Employee Provident Fund (EPF), Public Provident Fund (PPF), Equity Linked Savings Scheme (ELSS), National Savings Certificate (NSC), and health insurance premiums are some of them. The total amount that can be exempted from the taxable income for section 80C is capped at a maximum of INR 150,000. The exemptions are eligible for individuals (Indian citizens) or Hindu Undivided Family (HUF).

Apart from tax benefit under section 80C, in India, a policy holder is entitled for a tax exemption on the death benefit received. The received amount is fully exempt from Income Tax under Section 10(10D).

Australia
Where the life insurance is provided through a superannuation fund, contributions made to fund insurance premiums are tax deductible for self-employed persons and substantially self-employed persons and employers. However, where life insurance is held outside of the superannuation environment, the premiums are generally not tax deductible. For insurance through a superannuation fund, the annual deductible contributions to the superannuation funds are subject to age limits. These limits apply to employers making deductible contributions. They also apply to self-employed persons and substantially self-employed persons. Included in these overall limits are insurance premiums. This means that no additional deductible contributions can be made for the funding of insurance premiums. Insurance premiums can, however, be funded by undeducted contributions. For further information on deductible contributions see "under what conditions can an employer claim a deduction for contributions made on behalf of their employees?" and "what is the definition of substantially self-employed?". The insurance premium paid by the superannuation fund can be claimed by the fund as a deduction to reduce the 15% tax on contributions and earnings. (Ref: ITAA 1936, Section 279).

South Africa
Premiums paid by a policyholder are not deductible from taxable income, although premiums paid via an approved pension fund registered in terms of the Income Tax Act are permitted to be deducted from personal income tax (whether these premiums are nominally being paid by the employer or employee). The benefits arising from life assurance policies are generally not taxable as income to beneficiaries (again in the case of approved benefits, these fall under retirement or withdrawal taxation rules from SARS). Investment return within the policy will be taxed within the life policy and paid by the life assurer depending on the nature of the policyholder (whether natural person, company-owned, untaxed, or a retirement fund).

United States
Premiums paid by the policy owner are normally not deductible for federal and state income tax purposes, and proceeds paid by the insurer upon the death of the insured are not included in gross income for federal and state income tax purposes. However, if the proceeds are included in the "estate" of the deceased, it is likely they will be subject to federal and state estate and inheritance tax.

Cash value increases within the policy are not subject to income taxes unless certain events occur. For this reason, insurance policies can be legal and legitimate tax shelter wherein savings can increase without taxation until the owner withdraws the money from the policy. In flexible-premium policies, large deposits of premiums could cause the contract to be considered a modified endowment contract by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), which negates many of the tax advantages associated with life insurance. The insurance company, in most cases, will inform the policy owner of this danger before deciding their premium.

The tax ramifications of life insurance are complex. The policy owner would be well advised to carefully consider them. As always, both the United States Congress and state legislatures can change the tax laws at any time.

In 2018, a fiduciary standard rule on retirement products by the United States Department of Labor posed a possible risk.

United Kingdom
Premiums are not usually deductible against income tax or corporation tax, however, qualifying policies issued prior to 14 March 1984 do still attract LAPR (Life Assurance Premium Relief) at 15% (with the net premium being collected from the policyholder).

Non-investment life policies do not normally attract either income tax or capital gains tax on a claim. If the policy has an investment element such as an endowment policy, whole of life policy, or an investment bond then the tax treatment is determined by the qualifying status of the policy.

Qualifying status is determined at the outset of the policy if the contract meets certain criteria. Essentially, long-term contracts (10+ years) tend to be qualifying policies and the proceeds are free from income tax and capital gains tax. Single premium contracts and those running for a short term are subject to income tax depending upon the marginal rate in the year a gain is made. All UK insurers pay a special rate of corporation tax on the profits from their life book; this is deemed as meeting the lower rate (20% in 2005-06) of liability for policyholders. Therefore, a policyholder who is a higher-rate taxpayer (40% in 2005-06), or becomes one through the transaction, must pay tax on the gain at the difference between the higher and the lower rate. This gain is reduced by applying a calculation called top-slicing based on the number of years the policy has been held. Although this is complicated, the taxation of life assurance-based investment contracts may be beneficial compared to alternative equity-based collective investment schemes (unit trusts, investment trusts, and OEICs). One feature which especially favors investment bonds is the "5% cumulative allowance"—the ability to draw 5% of the original investment amount each policy year without being subject to any taxation on the amount withdrawn. If not used in one year, the 5% allowance can roll over into future years, subject to a maximum tax-deferred withdrawal of 100% of the premiums payable. The withdrawal is deemed by the HMRC (Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs) to be a payment of capital and therefore, the tax liability is deferred until maturity or surrender of the policy. This is an especially useful tax planning tool for higher rate taxpayers who expect to become basic rate taxpayers at some predictable point in the future, as at this point the deferred tax liability will not result in tax being due.

The proceeds of a life policy will be included in the estate for death duty (in the UK, inheritance tax) purposes. Policies written in trust may fall outside the estate. Trust law and taxation of trusts can be complicated, so any individual intending to use trusts for tax planning would usually seek professional advice from an independent financial adviser or solicitor.

Pension term assurance
Although available before April 2006, from this date pension term assurance became widely available in the UK. Most UK insurers adopted the name "life insurance with tax relief" for the product. Pension term assurance is effectively normal term life assurance with tax relief on the premiums. All premiums are paid at a net basic rate tax of 22%, and higher-rate taxpayers can gain an extra 18% tax relief via their tax return. Although not suitable for all, PTA briefly became one of the most common forms of life assurance sold in the UK until Chancellor Gordon Brown announced the withdrawal of the scheme in his pre-budget announcement on 6 December 2006.

Stranger originated
Stranger-originated life insurance or STOLI is a life insurance policy that is held or financed by a person who has no relationship to the insured person. Generally, the purpose of life insurance is to provide peace of mind by assuring that financial loss or hardship will be alleviated in the event of the insured person's death. STOLI has often been used as an investment technique whereby investors will encourage someone (usually an elderly person) to purchase life insurance and name the investors as the beneficiary of the policy. This undermines the primary purpose of life insurance, as the investors would incur no financial loss should the insured person die. In some jurisdictions, there are laws to discourage or prevent STOLI.

Criticism
Although some aspects of the application process (such as underwriting and insurable interest provisions) make it difficult, life insurance policies have been used to facilitate exploitation and fraud. In the case of life insurance, there is a possible motive to purchase a life insurance policy, particularly if the face value is substantial, and then murder the insured. Usually, the larger the claim or the more serious the incident, the larger and more intense the ensuing investigation by police and insurer investigators. Multiple fictional and non-fictional works, including books, films, television series and podcasts have featured the scenario as a plot device or actually occurring as a true crime. There was also a documented case in Los Angeles in 2006 where two elderly women were accused of taking in homeless men and assisting them. As part of their assistance, they took out life insurance for the men. After the contestability period ended on the policies, the women are alleged to have had the men killed via hit-and-run vehicular homicide.

On April 17, 2016, a report by Lesley Stahl on 60 Minutes claimed that life insurance companies do not pay significant numbers of beneficiaries. This is because many people named as beneficiaries never submit claims to the insurance companies upon the death of the insured, and are unaware that any benefit exists to be claimed, though the insurance companies have full knowledge. The amounts of such benefits are often small, but the numbers of would-be beneficiaries are quite large. These unclaimed benefits eventually become sources of profit.

General sources

 * Oviatt, F. C. "Economic place of insurance and its relation to society" in
 * Oviatt, F. C. "Economic place of insurance and its relation to society" in

title: Life insurance


text:
Grey-tailed tattler

The grey-tailed tattler (Tringa brevipes, formerly Heteroscelus brevipes ), also known as the Siberian tattler or Polynesian tattler, is a small shorebird in the genus Tringa. The English name for the tattlers refers to their noisy call. The genus name Tringa is the Neo-Latin name given to the green sandpiper by Aldrovandus in 1599 based on Ancient Greek trungas, a thrush-sized, white-rumped, tail-bobbing wading bird mentioned by Aristotle. The specific brevipes is from Latin brevis, "short", and pes, "foot".

This tattler breeds in northeast Siberia. After breeding, they migrate to an area from southeast Asia to Australia.

Description
The grey-tailed tattler is closely related to its North American counterpart, the wandering tattler (T. incana) and is difficult to distinguish from that species. Both tattlers are unique among the species of Tringa for having unpatterned, greyish wings and back, and a scaly breast pattern extending more or less onto the belly in breeding plumage, in which both also have a rather prominent supercilium.

These birds resemble common redshanks in shape and size. The upper parts, underwings, face and neck are grey, and the belly is white. They have short yellowish legs and a bill with a pale base and dark tip. There is a weak supercilium.

They are very similar to their American counterpart, and differentiation depends on details like the length of the nasal groove and scaling on the tarsus. The best distinction is the call; grey-tailed has a disyllabic whistle, and wandering a rippling trill.

Behaviour
Its breeding habitat is stony riverbeds in northeast Siberia. It nests on the ground, but these birds will perch in trees. They sometimes use old nests of other birds as well.

Grey-tailed tattlers are strongly migratory and winter on muddy and sandy coasts from southeast Asia to Australia. They are very rare vagrants to western North America and western Europe. These are not particularly gregarious birds and are seldom seen in large flocks except at roosts.

These birds forage on the ground or water, picking up food by sight. They eat insects, crustaceans and other invertebrates.

Australia
Grey-tailed tattlers are not listed as "threatened" on the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.

The grey-tailed tattler is listed as "threatened" on the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988). Under this Act, an Action Statement for the recovery and future management of this species has not been prepared. On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria, the grey-tailed tattler is listed as critically endangered.

title: Grey-tailed tattler


text:
Pat Hentgen

Patrick George Hentgen (born November 13, 1968) is an American former professional baseball pitcher, and currently a special assistant with the Toronto Blue Jays organization. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Blue Jays, St. Louis Cardinals, and Baltimore Orioles from 1991 to 2004. In 1996, he won the American League (AL) Cy Young Award.

Early life
Hentgen was born in Detroit, Michigan, in 1968. He attended Fraser High School in Fraser, Michigan, and was drafted by the Toronto Blue Jays in the fifth round of the 1986 Major League Baseball draft. He signed with the Blue Jays in June 1986.

Professional baseball career
Hentgen pitched in the minor leagues from 1986 to 1990. He then split the 1991 and 1992 seasons with the Syracuse Chiefs of the International League and the Toronto Blue Jays. He made his major league debut with the Blue Jays in September 1991.

Hentgen spent the 1993 season with Toronto. He was an All-Star and finished the year with a 19–9 win–loss record and a 3.87 earned run average. He won his only start in the 1993 World Series and helped the Blue Jays win the championship. The following season, Hentgen was an All-Star again and went 13–8 with a 3.40 ERA. In 1995, he pitched poorly, going 10–14 with a 5.11 ERA and leading the AL with 236 hits allowed and 114 earned runs allowed.

In 1996, Hentgen went 8–6 before the All-Star break and then went 12–4 after the All-Star break. He won back-to-back AL pitcher of the month awards in July and August. Hentgen finished the season with a 20–10 win–loss record and a 3.22 ERA, ranking second in the AL in wins and ERA. He led the league with 265.2 innings pitched, 10 complete games, and 3 shutouts. For his efforts, he won the AL Cy Young Award, the first in Blue Jays franchise history.

The following year, Hentgen was an All-Star for the third and final time. He went 15–10 with a 3.68 ERA and led the AL with 264 innings pitched, 9 complete games, and 3 shutouts. In 1998, he went 12–11 with a 5.17 ERA. In 1999, he went 11–12 with a 4.79 ERA.

In November 1999, the Blue Jays traded Hentgen to the St. Louis Cardinals. He spent the 2000 season with the Cardinals, going 15–12 with a 4.72 ERA. In December 2000, Hentgen signed as a free agent with the Baltimore Orioles. In 2001, he went 2–3 with a 3.47 ERA and had Tommy John surgery in August. He went 0–4 with a 7.77 ERA in 2002 and 7–8 with a 4.09 ERA in 2003.

Hentgen signed as a free agent with the Blue Jays in November 2003. In 2004, he went 2–9 with a 6.95 ERA and then announced his retirement in July. Hentgen finished his MLB career with a 131–112 record, a 4.32 ERA, and 1,290 strikeouts in 2,075.1 innings pitched.

Post-playing career
Hentgen rejoined the Toronto Blue Jays under new manager John Farrell as their new bullpen coach for the 2011 season. It was Hentgen's first coaching assignment. He stepped down in November 2011 due to family reasons, and was given the title of Special Assistant to the Organization. On December 10, 2012, Hentgen was again appointed as the Blue Jays bullpen coach.

On January 4, 2014, the Blue Jays announced that Bob Stanley would be replacing Hentgen as their bullpen coach. Hentgen continued to work with the Blue Jays, as a special assistant to the organization.

Hentgen was named to the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame in the Class of 2016.

title: Pat Hentgen


text:
J. L. Granatstein

Jack Lawrence Granatstein (May 21, 1939) is a Canadian historian who specializes in Canadian political and military history.

Education
Born on May 21, 1939, in Toronto, Ontario, Granatstein received a graduation diploma from Royal Military College Saint-Jean in 1959, his Bachelor of Arts degree from the Royal Military College of Canada in 1961, his Master of Arts degree from the University of Toronto in 1962, and his Doctor of Philosophy degree from Duke University in 1966.

Career
Granatstein is author of Who Killed Canadian History? and other books, including Yankee Go Home?, Who Killed The Canadian Military?, and Victory 1945 (with Desmond Morton).

Granatstein served as director of the Canadian War Museum in Ottawa from 1998 to 2001 supported the building of the museum's new home that opened in 2005.

Family
Granatstein married Elaine Hitchcock in 1961 until her death in 2012. They had two children, Carole and Michael.

He later married Linda Grayson until her death in 2019.

title: J. L. Granatstein


text:
Nankeen kestrel

The nankeen kestrel (Falco cenchroides), also known as the Australian kestrel, is a raptor native to Australia and New Guinea. It is one of the smallest falcons, and unlike many, does not rely on speed to catch its prey. Instead, it simply perches in an exposed position, but it also has a distinctive technique of hovering over crop and grasslands.

Taxonomy
The nankeen kestrel is a species of the genus Falco, allied to a subgenus Tinnunculus. They were first described by Nicholas Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827. Further descriptions — regarded as synonyms for the species — were published: Cerchneis immaculata Brehm, 1845; the later name Cerchneis unicolor by Alexander Milligan was published in Emu in 1904; and that author's name appearing in the assignment to a subspecies, Cerchneis cenchroides milligani, published by Gregory Mathews in 1912.

The generic name is Late Latin falco 'falcon' (from falx falcis, 'sickle') and the specific epithet is derived from Ancient Greek kenkhris 'kestrel' and -oides 'resembling'.

The common names Mosquito Hawk, Kestrel, Windhover, Hoverer are cited in the Australian Faunal Directory. Its common descriptor refers to the colour of nankeen cloth, originally a yellowish cotton from Nankeen or Nanking (modern Nanjing), China.

This bird is thought to be a very close relative of the Eurasian kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), and probably also the spotted kestrel (Falco moluccensis). It seems to have evolved from ancestral common kestrels dispersing to the Australian region in the Middle Pleistocene — less than 1 million years ago — and adapting to local conditions.

Two subspecies are recognised: the nominate subspecies Falco cenchroides cenchroides is found throughout Australia and Tasmania, as well as Christmas Island, Norfolk Island, Lord Howe Island, and as a non-breeding visitor to southern New Guinea; and F. c. baru Rand, 1940 is found in the Snow Mountains of west central New Guinea.

Description
The nankeen kestrel is a small, slim falcon 28 to 35 cm long with a wingspan of 66 to 78 cm. The male weighs 121 to 195 g while the female weighs 115 to 273 g. It has pale rufous upper-parts with contrasting black flight-feathers and is finely streaked white below, with a black subterminal band. The, eye-ring, and legs are yellow. The male has a pale grey crown and tail with a darker grey tear-mark, while the female and juvenile have a pale rufous crown and finely barred rufous tail. Plumage varies considerably in detail, and some birds can look very scruffy, but the slim build, small size and distinctive straight-winged hovering habit make identification easy. The only other Australasian raptors to hover are the elanid kites, which are much lighter in colour and a little larger, and the brown falcon, which is much larger and more heavily built, and hovers only occasionally. Altogether, the nankeen kestrel looks just like a pale, less patterned, and smaller derivate of the Eurasian kestrel, which it indeed is (see Gloger's Rule, Bergmann's Rule).

Distribution and habitat
A very common and easily seen raptor, the nankeen kestrel is found in Australia, New Guinea, and nearby islands, and is an irregular visitor to New Zealand. It occupies any type of land that is not too densely vegetated, but in particular temperate grasslands and open woodlands. In the tropical north and the sandy deserts of the west, it has a patchy and seasonal distribution. It can be seen in Western Australia on coastal cliffs and windy conditions. Also seen on phone lines and power lines.

Like many Australian birds, it has no clear migratory pattern: in the grasslands of the south, established pairs are resident year-round, but many other birds migrate north during the austral winter, or roam the arid interior following food supplies. Typically seen singly or in pairs, they can aggregate into loose flocks of up to 30 when conditions are right. Pairs are typically monogamous and may or may not disperse to different areas during the non-breeding season. The nest is any convenient structure: a tree hollow, cliff ledge or disused corvid's nest, for example, and is not modified or added to by the kestrels.

Feeding
Diet is varied, with a large number of insects, but also small birds and reptiles, and in particular, small rodents, mostly mice. Nankeen kestrels are adaptable and hunt in a number of different ways: of these, simply perching in an exposed position (such as on a dead tree or a telephone pole) and watching for prey is the most common, but it is their habit of hovering motionless over crop and grasslands that is most distinctive.

Breeding
Three to seven eggs are laid in late winter (usually about four) and incubated by the female alone. Hatching takes place after 26 to 28 days, and the male brings food while the female continues to incubate until the young are close to fledging, at which time the female leaves the nest to hunt for them too. Multiple broods are raised in good seasons.

title: Nankeen kestrel


text:
Talk:Melvins

Genre (again)
The infobox template recommends four genres but doesn't state that there has to be four genres; sludge metal is so heavily sourced that it should be mentioned, they're even considered one of the pioneers. Sludge also isn't even a sub-genre of doom as the infobox states, it's just a derivative. Issan Sumisu (talk) 07:13, 27 July 2017 (UTC)
 * The band doesn't even consider themselves a "sludge" group. Their early material was an influence on that genre but their discography is so much more diverse than that (which a lot of people don't seem to realize or accept). The best we could honestly say is "experimental" or "alternative" regardless of how often they're labeled "sludge" or "doom" or "grunge" which are all kind of reductive. --Roman Dog Bird (talk) 18:34, 27 August 2017 (UTC)
 * A band's view on what genre they are has never made any difference to their actual genre. What if I started a rap group and we called ourselves a death metal band, it wouldn't make us death metal. Sludge is by far the most sourced genre and they are considered a sludge metal band by a majority of the metal community. Issan Sumisu (talk) 07:59, 28 August 2017 (UTC)
 * I agree with Issan here. Regardless of what they consider themselves to be, one should look to what the reliable sources say. In this case, I'd consider them to be leaning mostly towards Sludge.  Rob van  vee  09:03, 28 August 2017 (UTC)
 * My logic here is that since sludge is the fusion of doom and hardcore and they have also been called a doom metal band (and associated with stoner rock, which is also based in doom), only the general root genres should be included in the infobox (as per Template:Infobox_musical_artist). Same goes for including alternative rock over grunge. Because sludge and grunge are the two genres they have been most often associated with (and which they pioneered), both are mentioned separately in the lead, but IMO they are too narrow and specific to be listed in the infobox for a band which has forayed into so many different genres.-- MA SHAUN IX 11:07, 28 August 2017 (UTC)

Genre
In your revert you restored unsourced or poorly sourced content and removed high-quality sources The Chicago Tribune and Greenwood Press. "Rock fits the guidelines best as it encompasses all styles they're sourced as" is something you made up and does not justify your revert. "grunge and hardcore, which aren't metal styles" is an unsupported opinion. Based on how they are discussed in reliable sources, these genres have little to nothing to do with general "rock music" or its roots. You must be confusing it with "alternative rock" or "punk rock". Metal is an equally broad genre and is more relevant to this subculture and genre, the other alternative here is punk rock.Dartslilly (talk) 14:10, 5 January 2020 (UTC)

 * The genre in the introduction is generally kept general to encompass all genre that are sourced. If you look into the musical style section, there are five well sourced genre: sludge metal, grunge, experimental rock, hardcore punk, alternative metal and doom metal. Three of these may be sub-genres of metal, however grunge, hardcore and experimental rock are not. As metal is a sub-genre of rock, we don't show a bias towards any sources by saying rock, as all styles sourced are sub-genres of rock, however if we simply call them a metal band, we are disregarding half of the sources styles. Issan Sumisu (talk) 14:38, 5 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Metal is strongly supported for this band by the majority of sources that I've seen. It encompasses most, if not all of the sourced subgenres. They are considered one of the biggest influences for that genre. You haven't given a policy based reason to replace the link to heavy metal music (an FA article) with one that is overly broad and less relevant for the subject of this article or to remove a high-quality encyclopedia source and revert back to an unsourced version. Dartslilly (talk) 14:51, 5 January 2020 (UTC)

 * According to wp:undue, "Neutrality requires that each article or other page in the mainspace fairly represents all significant viewpoints that have been published by reliable sources". While yes, the heavy metal sub-genres are well sourced, there's also a lot of coverage cited on this page to say that they aren't, as they are sourced as other sub-genres of music. Grunge still has four very reliable sources, and experimental rock has three. Calling them specifically a heavy metal band is disregarding almost as many sources as it is regarding, while calling them a rock band doesn't disregard any of them, and even includes metal. Issan Sumisu (talk) 15:10, 5 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Have you ever listened to this band? It's not rock music. What is the policy for removing well-sourced genres base don the above reasoning? Dartslilly (talk) 15:20, 5 January 2020 (UTC)

 * When I reverted your most recent edit, removing sources for experimental rock, I submitted too early, what I meant to say was "Quietus and Popmatters are both included in WikiProject Albums/Sources and the writer for the Treble Zine article is Jordan J. Michael, who has written for Under the Radar which is also reliable to the same page, under Reliable_sources." And in response to your last argument, I haven't removed an unsourced genre, I made sure it was still included in the section you were trying to add it to because metal is a sub-genre of rock. Also asking me to listen to the band is wp:original research. I have listened to the band, and yes, they're a rock band, they span multiple rock styles, like those we've discussed, but that doesn't change that all of those are covered by rock, while some are not by metal. Issan Sumisu (talk) 15:39, 5 January 2020 (UTC)
 * We're obviously not going to give equal weight to minor non-expert publications as to an enyclopedia published by a major publisher. Unless you have sources of equal weight to bring into the discussion this is going nowhere. The encylopedic source is given more weight than music magazines. Removing encyclopedic sources for genres is not justified by NPOV/UNDUE and not supported by any guideline. Dartslilly (talk) 15:45, 5 January 2020 (UTC)

 * These are expert publications though, that is why they're reliable on Wikipedia. The sources you provided are free to be included in the musical style section as another genre they're sourced as, but the context you put them in is why the were removed. If you'd like additional sources calling them a rock band, Kurt Cobain: Alternative Rock Innovator: Alternative Rock Innovator by Christopher McDougall says "Matt [Lukin] played bass in a local rock band called the Melvins" on page 29 and The Virgin Encyclopedia of Nineties Music by Colin Larkin says "The late Kurt Cobain of Nirvana described the US rock band the Melvins as his favourite group" on page 261. Issan Sumisu (talk) 16:06, 5 January 2020 (UTC)

Does the guideline prevent us from listing major genres? I think Eric Clapton has two genres in the lead ... My understanding is that the guideline is to prevent overburdening the lead with minor genres, and I thought the encyclopedia source would be better than music magazines. My main concern is whether readers of this article are being linked to the most relevant background content they are likely to be interested in ... The rock music article is very broad reaching back at least as far as the 1950s. Dartslilly (talk) 16:13, 5 January 2020 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure there's much of a use in two genres in this case, because if it were "rock and heavy metal band", then that can be said simply by stating rock, while Eric Clapton's "rock and blues", is describing two genre that are connected however neither one is a sub-genre of the other. If a reader were to want specific background information on a genre, then the infobox includes links to five and the musical style section has even more. I've always thought of the one listed in the introduction as being for somebody who has no ideas of nuance between niche styles and want a very general overview, while the infobox is for when you understand those nuances. Issan Sumisu (talk) 16:24, 5 January 2020 (UTC)
 * I understand your point - maybe we can replace some of the more obscure genres with a link to heavy metal in the infobox. By the time of the Melvins the link to rock n' roll (or the hard rock/blues rock of the 1970s) is more attenuated than for Eric Clapton. It's pretty remote and the gear is different and there are very marked style differences with the Melvins it's a different epoch and the vast majority of sources support this. The lead could be expanded in general so we'll see. There's no need to edit war over it. Dartslilly (talk) 16:31, 5 January 2020 (UTC)

 * Hardcore does only have one source, and it's only in reference to their 1983 demo, so that would be the most likely one to be removed if that were to happen, however there is already two metal styles listened in the infobox. If you can find another source in addition to the two you've already provided, then heavy metal would have more sources than doom metal, and I think would be appropriate to include in the infobox. That's one option, but if there's a source saying they helped to influence multiple metal styles, then the second sentence in the introduction could be reworded to "Their music was key to the development of grunge, and heavy metal styles like sludge metal...". Which doesn't seem like it would be hard to do as I'm pretty sure I've already seen sources calling them influential to alt metal and stoner metal, I just can't remember who they were by. Issan Sumisu (talk) 16:56, 5 January 2020 (UTC)

Associated acts/Side Projects/Collaborations ??
I don't want to open up a whole can of worms, but the Melvins Cinematic Universe(tm) seems to have a lot of interesting acts. Should we have a section that includes side projects and other collaborations? Meaning: Fantomas, Shrinebuilder, Altamont, etc.? Or should those be relegated to Buzz and Dale's individual pages? Top pocket man (talk) 19:21, 20 June 2020 (UTC)

(not The) Melvins
Unless I'm missing a WP guideline regarding use of band names, the name of the band is simply "Melvins". Yet the very first sentence says "The Melvins are". Now only "Melvins" is in bold, so while the author who bolded it knew their name, the person who put "The" at the front did not. Unless they incorrectly assumed "The" as a definite article is valid in front of a proper noun/collective noun, which I understand it is not. Think "The Nirvana ..." or "The Deep Purple ..."

So the first sentence should be "Melvins are ..." (or preferably "Melvins is ..." but either is valid). There are a number of other instances of this in this article, but I'm hesitant to change any of them considering there seems to be some ardent fans of Melvins monitoring this page. Richard BF (talk) 08:26, 3 February 2021 (UTC)

 * A year with no comments or complaints, so I have changed the first sentence so that it is grammatically correct, considering the name of the band is simply Melvins. Richard BF (talk) 03:01, 10 February 2022 (UTC)

 * 99% of the time, the band are referred to with the definitive article, this is the first page of results from Google in relation to "Melvins band": . Every single one of these refers to them using the definitive article in their body. Nirvana and Deep Purple don't make sense as a comparison for this rule, a better comparison would be the Beatles or the Beastie Boys or the Bad Brains. The definitive article, however, is not apart of their official name, so according to Naming conventions (definite or indefinite article at beginning of name) it shouldn't be included as the title, but that doesn't change it has to be used in the body, otherwise it's referring to the band incorrectly. Very few sources call them simply "Melvins" unless in the context of an article title where fewer words means more info can be conveyed quicker. Issan Sumisu (talk) 08:37, 10 February 2022 (UTC)

 * Thanks for replying Sumisu! Great to get some feedback on this finally. Not sure if you did a proper read of your search results though. 1 and 2 do not use the definite article in the body, 3 uses it once mid-sentence but all other uses do not, and 4 does not use the definite article in the body. Some do have "the" in front of the name (not sure of the grammatical terminology), but that usually refers to possession. I didn't look at the rest I'm sorry as the first 4 all failed the test. I just did a Google search and the majority of first and second page results do not use the definite article at all, and none had it at the start of a sentence. Regarding other bands, The Beatles have the definitive article as part of their name, so this is an invalid comparison. Beasty Boys and Bad Brains do not include the definite article in their name and in fact do not include it in their wiki pages, which simply backs my proposal. Most authoritative sources do refer to them as simply Melvins. And not that it accounts for much, but in the music scene they've always been referred to as just "Melvins" in the 35 odd years I've known them. But if there's a WP rule that contravenes that, then the Beasty Boys and Bad Brains pages aren't a great example because they don't use the definite article in the body. RichKBF (talk) 01:21, 21 March 2022 (UTC)

 * Just based on those first four what you said isn't true other than the first? Every sentence on 1 uses the definitive article other than the first (for example "the Melvin's Lord of the Flies EP" in the second paragraph). 2 uses the definitive article whenever it isn't the beginning of the sentence and 3 uses it every time other than once. You are right about four though, I was meant the other article that continues at the end of Loudwire's article, which is different to the one at the start of the page. Also, I'm not sure what you said about them always being referred to without the definite article in the scenes is true. Personally, I've only ever head "the Melvins", never anything else but our opinion don't count on this; musicians from their own scene use the definite article, for example: Dave Grohl, Kurt Cobain Issan Sumisu (talk) 11:06, 21 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Melvins


text:
MNC

MNC may refer to:

Places

 * Markinch railway station, Fife, Scotland, National Rail station code
 * Monaco, UNDP country code
 * Museo Nacional de las Culturas, a museum in Mexico City, Mexico

Language

 * Manchu language

Business

 * Multinational corporation
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Technology

 * Mobile network code

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Other uses

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title: MNC


text:
User:Matty j

Matthew Douglas Johnston is a 33-year-old Canadian citizen, student and compulsive Wikipedian. His hobbies and interests include reading, playing the guitar, philosophy, running, baseball and mathematics.

Matthew was born in Hamilton, Ontario, and raised in Burford, a small rural community in Brant County. He is instructor at the University of Waterloo having just obtained his Ph.D. in applied mathematics there.

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title: User:Matty j