text:
Support (mathematics)

In mathematics, the support of a real-valued function $$f$$ is the subset of the function domain containing the elements which are not mapped to zero. If the domain of $$f$$ is a topological space, then the support of $$f$$ is instead defined as the smallest closed set containing all points not mapped to zero. This concept is used widely in mathematical analysis.

Formulation
Suppose that $$f : X \to \R$$ is a real-valued function whose domain is an arbitrary set $$X.$$ The  of $$f,$$ written $$\operatorname{supp}(f),$$ is the set of points in $$X$$ where $$f$$ is non-zero: $$\operatorname{supp}(f) = \{ x \in X \,:\, f(x) \neq 0\}.$$

The support of $$f$$ is the smallest subset of $$X$$ with the property that $$f$$ is zero on the subset's complement. If $$f(x) = 0$$ for all but a finite number of points $$x \in X,$$ then $$f$$ is said to have .

If the set $$X$$ has an additional structure (for example, a topology), then the support of $$f$$ is defined in an analogous way as the smallest subset of $$X$$ of an appropriate type such that $$f$$ vanishes in an appropriate sense on its complement. The notion of support also extends in a natural way to functions taking values in more general sets than $$\R$$ and to other objects, such as measures or distributions.

Closed support
The most common situation occurs when $$X$$ is a topological space (such as the real line or $$n$$-dimensional Euclidean space) and $$f : X \to \R$$ is a continuous real- (or complex-) valued function. In this case, the  of $$f$$, $$\operatorname{supp}(f)$$, or the  of $$f$$, is defined topologically as the closure (taken in $$X$$) of the subset of $$X$$ where $$f$$ is non-zero  that is, $$\operatorname{supp}(f) := \operatorname{cl}_X\left(\{x \in X \,:\, f(x) \neq 0 \}\right) = \overline{f^{-1}\left(\{ 0 \}^{\mathrm{c}}\right)}.$$

Since the intersection of closed sets is closed, $$\operatorname{supp}(f)$$ is the intersection of all closed sets that contain the set-theoretic support of $$f.$$

For example, if $$f : \R \to \R$$ is the function defined by $$f(x) = \begin{cases} 1 - x^2 & \text{if } |x| < 1 \\ 0 & \text{if } |x| \geq 1 \end{cases}$$ then $$\operatorname{supp}(f)$$, the support of $$f$$, or the closed support of $$f$$, is the closed interval $$[-1, 1],$$ since $$f$$ is non-zero on the open interval $$(-1, 1)$$ and the closure of this set is $$[-1, 1].$$

The notion of closed support is usually applied to continuous functions, but the definition makes sense for arbitrary real or complex-valued functions on a topological space, and some authors do not require that $$f : X \to \R$$ (or $$f : X \to \Complex$$) be continuous.

Compact support
Functions with ' on a topological space $$X$$ are those whose closed support is a compact subset of $$X.$$ If $$X$$ is the real line, or $$n$$-dimensional Euclidean space, then a function has compact support if and only if it has ', since a subset of $$\R^n$$ is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded.

For example, the function $$f : \R \to \R$$ defined above is a continuous function with compact support $$[-1, 1].$$ If $$f : \R^n \to \R$$ is a smooth function then because $$f$$ is identically $$0$$ on the open subset $$\R^n \setminus \operatorname{supp}(f),$$ all of $$f$$'s partial derivatives of all orders are also identically $$0$$ on $$\R^n \setminus \operatorname{supp}(f).$$

The condition of compact support is stronger than the condition of vanishing at infinity. For example, the function $$f : \R \to \R$$ defined by $$f(x) = \frac{1}{1+x^2}$$ vanishes at infinity, since $$f(x) \to 0$$ as $$|x| \to \infty,$$ but its support $$\R$$ is not compact.

Real-valued compactly supported smooth functions on a Euclidean space are called bump functions. Mollifiers are an important special case of bump functions as they can be used in distribution theory to create sequences of smooth functions approximating nonsmooth (generalized) functions, via convolution.

In good cases, functions with compact support are dense in the space of functions that vanish at infinity, but this property requires some technical work to justify in a given example. As an intuition for more complex examples, and in the language of limits, for any $$\varepsilon > 0,$$ any function $$f$$ on the real line $$\R$$ that vanishes at infinity can be approximated by choosing an appropriate compact subset $$C$$ of $$\R$$ such that $$\left|f(x) - I_C(x) f(x)\right| < \varepsilon$$ for all $$x \in X,$$ where $$I_C$$ is the indicator function of $$C.$$ Every continuous function on a compact topological space has compact support since every closed subset of a compact space is indeed compact.

Essential support
If $$X$$ is a topological measure space with a Borel measure $$\mu$$ (such as $$\R^n,$$ or a Lebesgue measurable subset of $$\R^n,$$ equipped with Lebesgue measure), then one typically identifies functions that are equal $$\mu$$-almost everywhere. In that case, the  of a measurable function $$f : X \to \R$$ written $$\operatorname{ess\,supp}(f),$$ is defined to be the smallest closed subset $$F$$ of $$X$$ such that $$f = 0$$ $$\mu$$-almost everywhere outside $$F.$$ Equivalently, $$\operatorname{ess\,supp}(f)$$ is the complement of the largest open set on which $$f = 0$$ $$\mu$$-almost everywhere $$\operatorname{ess\,supp}(f) := X \setminus \bigcup \left\{\Omega \subseteq X : \Omega\text{ is open and } f = 0\, \mu\text{-almost everywhere in } \Omega \right\}.$$

The essential support of a function $$f$$ depends on the measure $$\mu$$ as well as on $$f,$$ and it may be strictly smaller than the closed support. For example, if $$f : [0, 1] \to \R$$ is the Dirichlet function that is $$0$$ on irrational numbers and $$1$$ on rational numbers, and $$[0, 1]$$ is equipped with Lebesgue measure, then the support of $$f$$ is the entire interval $$[0, 1],$$ but the essential support of $$f$$ is empty, since $$f$$ is equal almost everywhere to the zero function.

In analysis one nearly always wants to use the essential support of a function, rather than its closed support, when the two sets are different, so $$\operatorname{ess\,supp}(f)$$ is often written simply as $$\operatorname{supp}(f)$$ and referred to as the support.

Generalization
If $$M$$ is an arbitrary set containing zero, the concept of support is immediately generalizable to functions $$f : X \to M.$$ Support may also be defined for any algebraic structure with identity (such as a group, monoid, or composition algebra), in which the identity element assumes the role of zero. For instance, the family $$\Z^{\N}$$ of functions from the natural numbers to the integers is the uncountable set of integer sequences. The subfamily $$\left\{ f \in \Z^{\N} : f \text{ has finite support } \right\}$$ is the countable set of all integer sequences that have only finitely many nonzero entries.

Functions of finite support are used in defining algebraic structures such as group rings and free abelian groups.

In probability and measure theory
In probability theory, the support of a probability distribution can be loosely thought of as the closure of the set of possible values of a random variable having that distribution. There are, however, some subtleties to consider when dealing with general distributions defined on a sigma algebra, rather than on a topological space.

More formally, if $$X : \Omega \to \R$$ is a random variable on $$(\Omega, \mathcal{F}, P)$$ then the support of $$X$$ is the smallest closed set $$R_X \subseteq \R$$ such that $$P\left(X \in R_X\right) = 1.$$

In practice however, the support of a discrete random variable $$X$$ is often defined as the set $$R_X = \{x \in \R : P(X = x) > 0 \}$$ and the support of a continuous random variable $$X$$ is defined as the set $$R_X = \{x \in \R : f_X(x) > 0 \}$$ where $$f_X(x)$$ is a probability density function of $$X$$ (the set-theoretic support).

Note that the word can refer to the logarithm of the likelihood of a probability density function.

Support of a distribution
It is possible also to talk about the support of a distribution, such as the Dirac delta function $$\delta(x)$$ on the real line. In that example, we can consider test functions $$F,$$ which are smooth functions with support not including the point $$0.$$ Since $$\delta(F)$$ (the distribution $$\delta$$ applied as linear functional to $$F$$) is $$0$$ for such functions, we can say that the support of $$\delta$$ is $$\{ 0 \}$$ only. Since measures (including probability measures) on the real line are special cases of distributions, we can also speak of the support of a measure in the same way.

Suppose that $$f$$ is a distribution, and that $$U$$ is an open set in Euclidean space such that, for all test functions $$\phi$$ such that the support of $$\phi$$ is contained in $$U,$$ $$f(\phi) = 0.$$ Then $$f$$ is said to vanish on $$U.$$ Now, if $$f$$ vanishes on an arbitrary family $$U_{\alpha}$$ of open sets, then for any test function $$\phi$$ supported in $\bigcup U_{\alpha},$ a simple argument based on the compactness of the support of $$\phi$$ and a partition of unity shows that $$f(\phi) = 0$$ as well. Hence we can define the of $$f$$ as the complement of the largest open set on which $$f$$ vanishes. For example, the support of the Dirac delta is $$\{ 0 \}.$$

Singular support
In Fourier analysis in particular, it is interesting to study the  of a distribution. This has the intuitive interpretation as the set of points at which a distribution.

For example, the Fourier transform of the Heaviside step function can, up to constant factors, be considered to be $$1/x$$ (a function) at $$x = 0.$$ While $$x = 0$$ is clearly a special point, it is more precise to say that the transform of the distribution has singular support $$\{ 0 \}$$: it cannot accurately be expressed as a function in relation to test functions with support including $$0.$$ It  be expressed as an application of a Cauchy principal value  integral.

For distributions in several variables, singular supports allow one to define and understand Huygens' principle in terms of mathematical analysis. Singular supports may also be used to understand phenomena special to distribution theory, such as attempts to 'multiply' distributions (squaring the Dirac delta function fails – essentially because the singular supports of the distributions to be multiplied should be disjoint).

Family of supports
An abstract notion of  on a topological space $$X,$$ suitable for sheaf theory, was defined by Henri Cartan. In extending Poincaré duality to manifolds that are not compact, the 'compact support' idea enters naturally on one side of the duality; see for example Alexander–Spanier cohomology.

Bredon, Sheaf Theory (2nd edition, 1997) gives these definitions. A family $$\Phi$$ of closed subsets of $$X$$ is a, if it is down-closed and closed under finite union. Its is the union over $$\Phi.$$ A  family of supports that satisfies further that any $$Y$$ in $$\Phi$$ is, with the subspace topology, a paracompact space; and has some $$Z$$ in $$\Phi$$ which is a neighbourhood. If $$X$$ is a locally compact space, assumed Hausdorff the family of all compact subsets satisfies the further conditions, making it paracompactifying.

title: Support (mathematics)


text:
Greenville Presbyterian Theological Seminary

Greenville Presbyterian Theological Seminary is a confessional Presbyterian seminary in Greenville, South Carolina, United States. Founded in 1986, Greenville Presbyterian Theological Seminary exists to equip preachers, pastors, and churchmen for Christ's Kingdom. It is not affiliated with a specific denomination. The president of the seminary is Jonathan Master, formerly the Dean of the School of Divinity at Cairn University.

Degrees offered

 * Divinity Program with a Bachelor and Master of Divinity
 * Master of Ministry for Ruling Elders and Deacons
 * Master of Arts (with specializations in the areas of Biblical Languages, and church history, systematic theology)
 * Master of Theology
 * Doctor of Theology (with specializations in the areas of biblical languages, church history, systematic theology)

The school is a charter member of the Association of Reformed Theological Seminaries.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Superphénix

Superphénix (Superphoenix, SPX) was a nuclear power station prototype on the Rhône river at Creys-Malville in France, close to the border with Switzerland. Superphénix was a 1,242 MWe fast breeder reactor with the twin goals of reprocessing nuclear fuel from France's line of conventional nuclear reactors, while also being an economical generator of power on its own. , Superphénix remains the largest breeder reactor ever built.

Construction began in 1976, the reactor went critical in 1985 and was connected to the grid in 1986. The project suffered cost overruns, delays and enormous public protests. Overall, the reactor totalized a very low operation factor of 14.4%. Despite many technical issues related to being a first-of-a-kind project most of its downtime was caused by administrative procedure: the plant was technically capable of resuming operations but was forbidden to do so. Technical problems were solved over time and, by 1996, the plant had reached an availability of 95%.

The plant was powered down in December 1996 for maintenance, and while it was closed it was subject to court challenges that prevented its restart. In June 1997, the newly appointed Prime Minister, Lionel Jospin, announced that Superphénix would be closed permanently; this was made official by ministerial decree in December 1998.

Background
France had considered the problem of plutonium production just after the end of World War II. At the time, the conventional solution to this problem was to use a graphite moderated air or water cooled reactor fueled with natural uranium. Such designs have little economic value in terms of power production, but are simple solutions to the problem of "breeding" plutonium fuel, which can then be separated from the original uranium fuel with chemical processing.

It had long been known that another solution to the breeder reactor design was to replace the graphite with liquid sodium metal. The graphite is used as a moderator, slowing the neutrons released in the nuclear reactions to a speed that makes other uranium atoms receptive to them. If the natural uranium fuel is replaced with fuel sensitive to fast neutrons, typically highly enriched uranium or plutonium, the reaction can run without the use of a moderator.

While this design eliminates the need for a moderator, the core still needs to be cooled. Ideally the coolant would be both highly efficient, allowing the core size to be reduced, as well as being largely transparent to neutrons. The most studied example of such a material is liquid sodium, although salts and other metals have also been used.

This not only greatly reduces the size of the reactor, but the fast neutrons from a single reaction are capable of causing several breeding reactions. By surrounding the core with additional fertile material such as natural uranium, or even nuclear waste from other reactors, the breeding reaction will take place in a larger volume and in otherwise useless materials. This section is known as the blanket. Such a design also has the quality that it generates more fuel than it consumes, as long as the breeding ratio is greater than 1.

Such a design has three major advantages over conventional military designs. The downside is that it has to be fueled with some sort of enriched fuel, although the fissile material being bred in the blanket can be used.
 * The entire reaction cycle occurs much faster so it breeds new fuel at a faster rate
 * It can use a wider variety of breeding materials because it is not used as the fuel as well
 * It generates ample amounts of heat, which can be used to produce power

Earlier work and Phénix
Plans for a French fast reactor date as far back as 1958's Rapsodie, and followed up in 1964 for a larger design with a power output of 1 GWe. Construction of the Rapsodie facility started in 1962 and went critical on 28 January 1967. It did not have power producing systems, but its 22 MW of thermal output (MWth) would translate to perhaps 8 MW of electrical output (MWe). Experiments on core configurations were carried out in the Masurca facility starting in 1966, and design of a larger power-producing facility was already well underway.

During the 1960s, interest in nuclear power was reaching a crescendo. For France, with little uranium supply of its own, large-scale nuclear generation would be subject to supply constraints, especially given that nuclear power was experiencing a boom in construction that suggested the available supply would be limited even on a worldwide basis. In France's plans, breeders would serve the twin purposes of producing fuel for its conventional light water reactor fleet, as well as producing that fuel from the waste fuel from those reactors, thereby reducing the amount of nuclear waste it would have to dispose of. Only a small number of breeders, estimated to be around 20, would be required to fuel the fleet of about 200 light water reactors.

France began construction of the Phénix demonstration plant in November 1968, only a year after Rapsodie went critical. It was fueled with 931 kg of reactor grade plutonium with around 77% Pu-239 (weapons grade is at least 93%). The fuel load is capable of running for about 90 days maximum, but in practice it normally ran for two month periods. Due to its design, refueling required the reactor to be shut down. As a result, it had a low capacity factor (CF), on the order of 65%. As a prototype plant, a high CF was not a design goal, although any practical design would have to improve this. Phénix demonstrated a breeding ratio of 1.16, meaning it produced 16% more fuel than it consumed, while also producing 233 MWe in normal operation.

Phénix ran without problems through the 1970s and 1980s, but between 1989 and 1990 experienced 4 power transients which triggered automatic SCRAM. A 1991 report did not clearly identify the cause. In 1993 renovation and life extension works started. The reactor was restarted in 2003 with a reduced power of 130 MWe.

Superphénix

In 1971 and 1972, France, Germany and Italy signed agreements for the joint construction of full-scale breeders, one in France and one in Germany. The 1973 oil crisis made the issue of fuel security of significant importance. As part of the Messmer Plan, France began to plan for a future in which the vast majority of their electrical power would come from nuclear sources. New priority was given to a follow-on breeder design with the goal of continual operation, high CF, and economic operation even as a stand-alone reactor. This became the Superphénix design.

A public enquiry was carried out over an "excessively short" period from 9 October to 8 November 1974. This led to almost immediate opposition. In November, a group of 80 physicists from the Lyon Physics Institute wrote an open letter about the risks of breeder technology, and in February 1975, about 400 scientists signed their name to an expanded letter. On the other side of the argument, Andre Giraud, head of French Nuclear Commission (CEA), stated that they should carry on with the buildout, warning that delays would have "catastrophic consequences on the uranium savings that are expected." In spite of opposition, Superphénix construction pushed ahead in 1976, although this was not made official until the next year, when initial construction was already underway.

Construction
Design work began in 1968, the same year as construction began for the smaller-scale LMFBR Phénix, following the abandonment of the graphite-gas designs. The fast breeder design was chosen in the face of fears of disruption to the supply of other fuels; the "plutonium economy" seemed viable if oil prices stayed high and uranium supplies dwindled. Construction was approved in 1972 and lasted from 1974 to 1981, but power production did not begin until 1985. Costs rose rapidly during construction. The plant was run by the consortium NERSA, 51% owned by EDF, 33% by ENEL and 16% by SBK (Schnell Brüter Kernkraftwerksgesellschaft).

Protest
The construction evoked much public protest. For example, a march by 60,000 protestors, which included the Anarchist group Fédération Anarchiste, resulted in the protestors' use of molotov cocktails. This July 1977 protest was finally broken up by the CRS with the death of Vital Michalon and over a hundred serious injuries, with the police being reluctantly forced to use truncheons and fire tear gas grenades to disperse the violent protestors.

Rocket attack
Against a background of ongoing protest and low-level sabotage, on the night of January 18, 1982 an RPG-7 rocket-propelled grenade attack was launched against the unfinished plant. Five rockets were fired across the Rhône at the incomplete containment building. Two rockets hit and caused minor damage to the reinforced concrete outer shell, missing the reactor's empty core. Initially there were no claims of responsibility.

On May 8, 2003, Chaïm Nissim, who in 1985 was elected to the Geneva cantonal legislature for the Swiss Green Party, admitted carrying out the attack. He claimed that the weapons were obtained from Carlos the Jackal via the Belgian terrorist organisation Cellules Communistes Combattantes (Communist Combatant Cells).

Operation
Designed electrical power output was 1.20 GW, though year to year its availability was from zero to 33%. As time passed, problems developed from another source: the liquid sodium cooling system suffered from corrosion and leaks. These problems were eventually fixed and in December 1996 the power reached 90% of the nominal power.

In December 1990 structural damage occurred to the turbine hall, following heavy snowfall. Power production did not resume until the Direction de la sûreté des installations nucléaires approved it in 1992.

The plant was connected to EDF grid on 14 January 1986 and produced 4,300 GWh of electricity, worth about a billion 1995 Franc, during 10 months of operation, up until 1994. In 1996 it produced 3,400 GWh, worth about 850 million Francs, during 8 months of operation.

In September 1998, the plant was closed. Two incidents earlier in the year had culminated in a third, which triggered an automatic shutdown.

During 11 years, the plant had 53 months of normal operations (mostly at low power), 25 months of outages due to fixing technical problems of the prototype, and 66 months spent on halt due to political and administrative issues.

Closure
Superphénix had been a focus point of many groups opposed to nuclear power, including the green party Les Verts, since its planning and construction. A national network called Sortir du nucléaire was formed, bringing together hundreds of organisations: local committees, ecological associations, citizen movements and parties.

Power production was halted in December 1996 for maintenance. However, following a court case led by opponents of the reactor, on February 28, 1997, the Conseil d'État (Supreme State Administrative Court) ruled that a 1994 decree, authorizing the restart of Superphénix, was invalid. In June 1997, one of the first actions of Lionel Jospin on becoming prime minister was to announce the closure of the plant because of its excessive costs.

A 1996 report by the French Accounting Office (Cour des Comptes) acknowledge low availability factors (below 10%) but also noticed improvements in 1996 and evaluated that availability above 46% would have made economically convenient to keep the plant open at least up to 2001. The total expenditure on the reactor was estimated at 60 billion francs (9.1 billion euro).

A 1998 "Inquiry commission on Superphenix and fast neutrons reactor sector" reported that "decision to close Superphénix was included in Jospin's program ... in the agreement between Socialist Party and Green Party". Also the same report says "despite many difficulties, the technical results are meaningful". In the explanation of vote at the end of the report, commission members says "give up on Superphenix has been a big error" and "Superphenix has to die because is a symbol".

The last of the 650 fuel rods was removed from the reactor on March 18, 2003. They are now stored in spent fuel pools.

A public inquiry was launched in April 2004 to consider plans to set up a plant to incorporate the 5,500 tonnes of sodium coolant in 70,000 tonnes of concrete. The plan is similar to that used following the closure of the Dounreay Fast Reactor in the United Kingdom.

Superphénix was the last fast breeder reactor operating in Europe for electricity production.

title: Superphénix


text:
Talk:Saint Clair

Untitled
After whom was Saint Clair named? --Kaihsu Tai 15:42, 2003 Nov 27 (UTC)
 * No-one. It's Norman French - Sint Clair, meaning "clear pool". The surname Sinclair comes from the same source. Grutness|hello? [[Image:Grutness.jpg|25px|]] (living in St. Clair, New Zealand)
 * On the contrary, the Sinclairs are named after a "Saint Clair" (albeit in a round-about fashion) - Saint Clarus, who was beheaded at what is now called Saint Clair-sur-Epte, which is where the Sinclair family has their early roots. LeeNapier 13:53, 20 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Well, looks like there are two different sources then :) The place I live was definitely named from the old term for a clear well, according to every reference I've ever seen about its name's derivation. Grutness...wha?  01:24, 21 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Possibly. The "Sinclairs" of Roslin still call themselves "St. Clair" - though they are related by blood to the Sinclairs of Caithness and elsewhere. LeeNapier 14:02, 21 July 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Saint Clair


text:
User talk:Havatcha

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Tip: you can sign your name with ~

snoyes 15:44, 27 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Havatcha


text:
List of Prussian royal consorts

The Queen of Prussia (Königin von Preußen) was the queen consort of the ruler of the Kingdom of Prussia, from its establishment in 1701 to its abolition in 1918. As all rulers of Prussia had to be male, there was never a Queen regnant of Prussia. Until 1806, the Queen of Prussia was also Electress of Brandenburg; after 1871, she was also German Empress. Until 1772, her title was Queen in Prussia (see King in Prussia).

title: List of Prussian royal consorts


text:
Chipping Barnet

Chipping Barnet or High Barnet is a suburban market town in north London, forming part of the London Borough of Barnet, England. It is a suburban development built around a 12th-century settlement, and is located 10+1/2 mi north-northwest of Charing Cross, 3 mi east from Borehamwood, 5.2 mi west from Enfield and 3.2 mi south from Potters Bar. Its population, including its localities East Barnet, New Barnet, Hadley Wood, Monken Hadley, Cockfosters and Arkley, was 47,359 in 2011.

Its name is very often abbreviated to just Barnet, which is also the name of the borough of which it forms a part; the town has been part of Greater London since 1965 after the abolition of Barnet Urban District then in Hertfordshire. Chipping Barnet is also the name of the Parliamentary constituency covering the local area – the word "Chipping" denotes the presence of a market, one that was established here at the end of the 12th century and persists to this day. Chipping Barnet is one of the highest urban settlements in London, with the town centre having an elevation of about 427 ft.

History
The town's name, recorded as Barneto in about 1070, Barnet in 1197, and La Barnette in 1248, is derived from Old English bærnet: "the land cleared by burning". It refers to the clearing of land in an area that was once densely forested.

In Saxon times the site was part of an extensive wood called Southaw, belonging to the Abbey of St Albans. Barnet's elevated position is indicated in one of its alternative names ("High Barnet"), which appears in many old books and maps, and which the Great Northern Railway company adopted for the railway station opened in 1872 (now High Barnet tube station). The area was historically a common resting point on the traditional Great North Road between the City of London and York and Edinburgh.

The Battle of Barnet in 1471 was fought at nearby Monken Hadley, where Yorkist troops led by King Edward IV killed the rebellious "Kingmaker" Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, and Warwick's brother, John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu. This was one of the most important battles of the Wars of the Roses.

Barnet Fair is a well-known horse fair dating back to 1588, which takes place each September. Queen Elizabeth I granted a charter to the Lord of the Manor of Barnet to hold a twice yearly fair. The fair gives its name to the rhyming slang of Barnet Fair or barnet for "hair".

The famous Barnet Market is now (2024) nearly 825 years old. On 23 August 1199 King John issued a charter for a market at Barnet to the Lord of the Manor, the Abbot of St. Albans, John de Cella.

Chipping Barnet was historically a civil parish of Hertfordshire and formed part of the Barnet Urban District from 1894. The parish was abolished in 1965 and the Chipping Barnet section of its former area was transferred from Hertfordshire to Greater London and the newly created London Borough of Barnet. In 1801 the parish had a population of 1,258 and covered an area of 1440 acre. By 1901 the parish was reduced to 380 acre and had a population of 2,893. In 1951 the population was 7,062.

Barnet belonged to the County of Hertfordshire until 1965, when under the London Government Act 1963, East Barnet Urban District and Barnet Urban District were abolished and their area was transferred to Greater London to form part of the present-day London Borough of Barnet.

At the beginning of the 21st century, a tongue-in-cheek movement calling for the name Barnet to be changed to "Barnét" began to gain the attention of the public and the national media, with many public road signs in the area regularly being altered to contain the accented character.

Religious sites
St John the Baptist Church is a landmark for miles around and stands in what was the centre of the town. It was erected by John de la Moote, abbot of St Albans, about 1400, the architect being Beauchamp. Playing on its antiquity, it continues to call itself "Barnet Church", although this is not an official title. It is in fact the parish church of Chipping Barnet only, whilst Christ Church is the parish church of High Barnet, St Mark's is the parish church of Barnet Vale, St James's is the parish church of New Barnet, and Holy Trinity is the parish church of the Lyonsdown district. In addition, St Mary the Virgin is the parish church of East Barnet and St John of Friern Barnet. The parish church of St Mary the Virgin, Monken Hadley (rebuilt 1494) also has parish boundaries that include a significant part of High Barnet, including much of Barnet High Street.

The living of Barnet is a curacy, held with the rectory of East Barnet till the death of the last incumbent in 1866, when the livings were separated. The parish of Chipping Barnet, served by St John's Church, was provided with a chapel-of-ease in Victorian times; subsequently Chipping Barnet parish was split in two, and the chapel-of-ease (on Bells Hill, Barnet) raised to the status of a parish church, dedicated to St Stephen.

Geography
Chipping Barnet is designated as a Neighbourhood Centre in the London Plan.

The tower of Barnet parish church – St John the Baptist – at the top of Barnet Hill claims to be the highest point between itself and the Ural Mountains 2000 mi to the east. However, the same has been said of numerous other points. Since the opening of the railway, development has increased considerably, especially in the west of the area near Arkley.

For a London town, Barnet lies very high; the High Street is 427 ft above sea level and the surrounding southern land no less than 295 ft.

Demography
Chipping Barnet town centre is covered by the High Barnet ward. According to the 2011 census, the population was 82% white (68% White British, 11% Other White, 3% White Irish). Indians made up 4% of the population, and all black groups made up 3%. The whole town is defined as the Chipping Barnet parliamentary constituency, which takes up the eastern third of the wider borough. This data does not represent the town as a whole due to the fact that it contains six other wards.

Transport
Barnet Hill is a major hill on the historic Great North Road. In coaching days, 150 stagecoaches passed through Barnet daily. The modern Great North Road replacement, the A1, runs to the west of the town along Barnet Bypass.

Tube and train
High Barnet Underground station is on the Northern line while New Barnet railway station is on the East Coast Main Line served by services from King's Cross and Moorgate to Welwyn Garden City. Totteridge and Whetstone Underground station serves the affluent areas bearing the same name southwest of High Barnet town centre. Oakleigh Park railway station serves the eastern extremity of the town. The Barnet Tunnel is also in the area.

Public services
Barnet is served by Barnet Hospital, which is run by the Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust as part of the English National Health Service. There is also an NHS clinic in Vale Drive (near Barnet Hill and High Barnet station). London Ambulance Service responds to medical emergencies in Barnet. Home Office policing is provided by the Metropolitan Police Service. Statutory emergency fire service is provided by the London Fire Brigade, which has a station on Station Road, built in 1992.

Sport and recreation
Barnet FC is the local football team, currently in the Vanarama National League, the fifth tier of English football – at the end of the 2017/18 season Barnet were relegated from League Two, and have remained in the Vanarama National League since. They played at the Underhill Stadium until 2012/13 but from the 2013/14 season are playing at The Hive Stadium in Stanmore in the London Borough of Harrow. They first reached the Football League in 1991 as champions of the GM Vauxhall Conference but lost their status 10 years later with relegation, only to return four years later – again as Conference champions. London Lions F.C. is also based in Barnet, near Stirling Corner, but the 1st team plays midweek and some cup home games at Hemel Hempstead Town F.C. as its own ground is not floodlit and does not meet the requirements for some cup competitions. There are a number of amateur football clubs based in Barnet including East Barnet Old Grammarians and Ravenscroft Old Boys.

Barnet Cricket Club and Old Elizabethans' Cricket Club have merged to form one club in Barnet and currently play their games at Gypsy Corner. Shaftesbury Barnet Harriers is a local athletics club. Barnet and Old Elizabethans rugby clubs merged to form Barnet Elizabethans RFC, playing in Byng Road, Barnet, near Queen Elizabeth's School. Chipping Barnet has a King George's Field in memorial to King George V. Old Court House Recreation Ground is a park in High Barnet.

High Barnet has an Everyman cinema, the Barnet Museum, the All Saints Art Centre, the Ravenscroft local park and Barnet recreational park, a now disused well that was frequented by, among others, Samuel Pepys, and many restaurants and public houses. Local festivals include the traditional annual Barnet Fair, which was chartered in Medieval times, the High Barnet Chamber Music Festival, and Barnet Medieval Festival.

Local papers
The principal local newspapers are The Barnet and Potters Bar Times and The Barnet Post, which was established in July 2021.

The Barnet Press operated until 2017.

The Barnet Society also frequently publishes articles on local news as well as a quarterly newsletter.

Notable people

 * Peter Banks (1947–2013), rock guitarist (Yes), was born in the town.
 * Stephanie Beacham (born 1947) actress, businesswoman and former model, was born in the town.
 * Louis Blundell (born 1978), darts player, grew up in the town.
 * Geoffrey Chater (1921–2021), character actor, was born in the town.
 * Lenny Cooper (born 1981), English cricketer
 * Nadine Coyle (born 1985), singer, grew up in the town.
 * Paul Freeman (born 1943), actor, was born in the town.
 * Martin Furnival Jones (1912-1997) former Director General of MI5 was born here.
 * Ravi Haria (born 1999), chess grandmaster
 * Stuart Holden (born 1955), darts player, was born in the town.
 * Mark Kermode (born 1963), film critic and musician, was born in the town.
 * Nicko McBrain (born 1952), drummer, grew up in the town.
 * Elaine Paige (born 1948), theatre actress and singer, radio host, was born in the town.
 * Mike Skinner (born 1979), rapper, singer-songwriter, musician, and record producer, was born in the town.

title: Chipping Barnet


text:
Talk:Nimitz-class aircraft carrier

Why don't we use this for the lengths of the ships?
[] --The Space Enthusiast (talk) 20:37, 6 February 2023 (UTC)

 * Because we don't know where it's from, or if it's a reliable source. BilCat (talk) 20:52, 6 February 2023 (UTC)
 * So the precise ship lengths are unknown? The Space Enthusiast (talk) 00:55, 7 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nimitz-class aircraft carrier


text:
The Thin Red Line (Battle of Balaclava)

The Thin Red Line described an episode of the Battle of Balaclava on 25 October 1854, during the Crimean War. In the incident, around 500 men of the 93rd Sutherland Highlanders led by Sir Colin Campbell, aided by a small force of 100 walking wounded, 40 detached Guardsmen, and supported by a substantial force of Turkish infantrymen, formed a line of fire against the Russian cavalry. Previously, Campbell's Highland Brigade had taken part in actions at the Battle of Alma and the Siege of Sevastopol. There were more Victoria Crosses presented to the Highland soldiers at that time than at any other. The event was lionised in the British press and became an icon of the qualities of the British soldier in a war that was arguably poorly managed and increasingly unpopular.

The battle
A Russian cavalry force of 2,500, commanded by General Ryzhov, was advancing on the camp of the British cavalry. About 400 Russians were involved in the incident. It was early morning, and the only troops between the oncoming cavalry and Balaklava was the 93rd Regiment.

Colin Campbell, 1st Baron Clyde, is said to have told his men, "There is no retreat from here, men. You must die where you stand." Sir Colin's aide John Scott is said to have replied, "Aye, Sir Colin. If needs be, we'll do that." Campbell felt he had insufficiently trained men to form square, and arranged the 93rd into a line two deep—the "thin red line", though convention prescribed a line four deep, to meet the cavalry charge. As the Russian cavalry approached, the Turks on the flanks broke and fled. The 93rd discharged two volleys, at 800 and 500 yd. They did not get a chance to discharge one at point-blank range as the Russians turned away. Accounts of the Highlanders state that they started forward for a counter-charge before the final volley, but Sir Colin stopped them with a cry of "93rd, damn you Highlanders for all that eagerness!"

Canadian historian George T. Denison, in his book A History of Cavalry from the Earliest Times, With Lessons for the Future, wrote "... the Russian squadrons had no intention whatever of charging, but were simply at the time making demonstrations to oblige the allied troops to display their arrangements, and that when the 93rd showed their line upon the hill, the object was gained, and the cavalry withdrew."

The Times correspondent, William H. Russell, wrote that he could see nothing between the charging Russians and the British regiment's base of operations at Balaklava but the "thin red streak tipped with a line of steel" of the 93rd; in his later accounts, he changed the phrase to "thin red line". "The thin red line" came to be synonymous with the British Army overall.

The battle is represented in Robert Gibb's 1881 oil painting The Thin Red Line, which is displayed in the Scottish National War Museum in Edinburgh Castle. It is also commemorated in the assembly hall of Campbell's former school, High School of Glasgow, where there is a painting of the action hung in the grand position, a tribute to one of the school's two generals, the other being Sir John Moore, who was killed at Corunna during the Peninsular War.

Later uses of the term
The Thin Red Line has become an English language figure of speech for any thinly spread military unit holding firm against attack. The phrase has also taken on the metaphorical meaning of the barrier which the relatively limited armed forces of a country present to potential attackers.

The term "the thin red line" later referred to the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders and their job to defend the British Empire and the United Kingdom after the incorporation of the Argylls and Sutherlands into a single regiment now known as the Argyll and Sutherland battalion of the Royal Regiment of Scotland.

Rudyard Kipling wrote in the poem Tommy: "Then it's Tommy this, an' Tommy that, an' Tommy, 'ow's yer soul? / But it's 'Thin red line of 'eroes' when the drums begin to roll," – "Tommy Atkins" being slang for a common British soldier.

George MacDonald Fraser describes the Thin Red Line, the Charge of the Heavy Brigade, and the Charge of the Light Brigade in his novel Flashman at the Charge.

In the 1968 film Carry On... Up the Khyber, a soldier played by Charles Hawtrey draws a thin red line on the ground with paint and brush, arguing that the enemy will not dare to cross it.

The term was adopted as a reference to the fire brigade, via the derived “thin blue line” referring to police. Such uses are common in the US on bumper stickers expressing membership or support of police and fire departments.

James Jones wrote a novel about American infantry soldiers fighting in Guadalcanal during World War II and titled it The Thin Red Line. The book was adapted into feature films in 1964 and in 1998.

Musical references

 * The action was the origin of the now-traditional Scottish song, "A Scottish Soldier (The Green Hills of Tyrol)". "The Green Hills of Tyrol" is one of the best known tunes played by pipe bands today. It was originally from the opera William Tell by Rossini, but was transcribed to the pipes in 1854 by Pipe Major John MacLeod after he heard it played by a Sardinian military band when serving in the Crimean War with his regiment, the 93rd Sutherland Highlanders.
 * Stanley Hawley composed a recitation accompanied by piano in 1896, with a libretto by Alice MacDonell. It was published by Bosworth.
 * Kenneth Alford (also known as Major Fredrick Joseph Ricketts) wrote his march The Thin Red Line in 1908 (published in 1925) to commemorate the "thin red line".
 * The battle is referenced by English metal band Saxon in the song "The Thin Red Line" on their 1997 album Unleash the Beast
 * Canadian band Glass Tiger referenced the battle on their 1986 album The Thin Red Line.
 * The band Steeleye Span references the term in their song "Fighting for Strangers" from the album Rocket Cottage.
 * Van Halen`s "Unchained" references the term on their 1981 album Fair Warning.
 * The band Big Audio Dynamite references the term in their song "Union, Jack" from the album Megatop Phoenix.
 * Jason Isbell references the term in his song "Grown" from the album Sirens of the Ditch.
 * The Dreadnoughts, a Canadian punk band, reference the term in the song "The Cruel Wars" on their album Uncle Touchy Goes to College.

title: The Thin Red Line (Battle of Balaclava)


text:
Gorki Leninskiye

Gorki Leninskiye (Го́рки Ле́нинские) is an urban locality (a work settlement) in Leninsky District of Moscow Oblast, Russia, located 10 km south of Moscow city limits and the Moscow Ring Road. Its population is:

The estate of Gorki belonged to various Muscovite noblemen from the 18th century. Zinaida Morozova, the widow of Savva Morozov, purchased it in 1909, the year before she married General Anatoly Reinbot (later Anatoly Rezvoy), the chief of Moscow police. She engaged the most fashionable Russian architect, Fyodor Schechtel, to remodel the mansion in the then-current Neoclassical style, complete with a six-column Ionic portico.

On 21 January 1924, Vladimir Lenin, the first leader of the Russian SFSR and subsequently the USSR, died at this estate, which he had used as his personal dacha since its nationalization in 1918.

Lenin's dacha
After the Soviet government moved to Moscow in 1918, it nationalized the luxurious estate and converted it into Vladimir Lenin's dacha. In September 1918, the Soviet leader recuperated there following an assassination attempt. He spent an increasing amount of time there as his health declined over the following years. On May 15, 1923, Lenin followed medical advice and left the Moscow Kremlin for Gorki. He lived there in semi-retirement until his death on January 21, 1924. After Lenin's death, Gorki was renamed "Gorki Leninskiye" (meaning "Lenin's Gorki"). The house became a museum holding many of Lenin's possessions. Also located on the estate are a large museum built in 1987 concerning Lenin's life there, containing such artifacts as his Last Testament (as transcribed by Nadezhda Krupskaya), other documents, photos, books, Lenin's personal car (a Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost), his wheelchairs, and his apartment and office from the Kremlin, reconstructed in a separate building. A monument representing "The Death of the Vozhd" was unveiled in the 18th-century park in 1958.

title: Gorki Leninskiye


text:
Literature on the Amish

This article contains references to literature on the Amish in the following field: Education, Health, Music and Tourism. There is also a list of list of literature in the article Amish.

Education

 * Fischer, Sara and Stahl, Rachel K: "Amish School (People's Place Booklet, No. 6)", Intercourse, PA, 1997.
 * Fischer, Sara and Stahl, Rachel K: "Amish School (People's Place Booklet, No. 6)", Intercourse, PA, 1997.
 * Fischer, Sara and Stahl, Rachel K: "Amish School (People's Place Booklet, No. 6)", Intercourse, PA, 1997.

title: Literature on the Amish


text:
User talk:Aspirin~enwiki

This is my first time to explore the WikiPedia, it's not bad I think & full of creative, powerful tools with it.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Aspirin. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Aspirin~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 22:18, 19 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 10:44, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Aspirin~enwiki


text:
New Providence

New Providence is the most populous island in the Bahamas, containing more than 70% of the total population. On the eastern side of the island is the national capital city of Nassau; it had a population of 246,329 at the 2010 Census; the latest estimate (2016) is 274,400.

The island was originally under Spanish control following Christopher Columbus's purported discovery of the New World, but the Spanish government showed little interest in developing the island (and the Bahamas as a whole). Nassau, the island's largest city, was formerly known as Charles-town, but it was burned to the ground by the Spanish in 1684. It was laid out and renamed Nassau in 1695 by Nicholas Trott, the most successful Lord Proprietor, in honour of the Prince of Orange-Nassau who became William III of England.

The three branches of Bahamian Government: the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary, are all headquartered on New Providence. New Providence functions as the main commercial hub of the Bahamas. It is also home to more than 400 banks and trust companies, and its hotels and port account for more than two-thirds of the four million-plus tourists who visit the Bahamas annually. New Providence is the only part of the Bahamas that lacks local government. Local affairs are handled by the national government, but the island is divided into 24 supervisory districts.

Other settlements on New Providence include Grants Town, Bain Town, Fox Hill, Adelaide, Yamacraw, South Beach, Coral Harbour, Lyford Cay, Paradise Island, Sea Breeze, Centreville, The Grove (South) and The Grove (West Bay), Cable Beach, Delaporte, Gambier, Old Fort Bay, Carmichael Road, and Love Beach.

Etymology
The indigenous Lucayan people called the island Nema, meaning "middle-water". The name New Providence Island is derived from a 16th‐century governor who gave thanks to Divine Providence for his survival after a shipwreck. The "New" was added later to distinguish it from Providencia in Western Caribbean (now Colombia) used by pirates.

History

After 1670, Bermudian salt rakers gathering sea salt in Grand Turk and Inagua became regular visitors to the island. The first lasting European settlement was on Eleuthera in 1648, and then New Providence in 1666.

By 1670, there were over 900 people on the settlement of Charles-Town. Due to ineffective governors, Charles-Town was attacked by the French and Spanish navies, became a home base for pirates, and was eventually destroyed by a Spanish attack in 1684. However, two years later in 1686, new English colonists from Jamaica came and settled. They were called back by the governor of Jamaica, but they ignored this order. In 1695, Governor Nicolas Trott rebuilt the town and added a fort, both were called Nassau. However, the fort was heavily damaged in a Spanish attack in 1700 and the colonists eventually abandoned the fort in 1703 after a French and Spanish attack. Due to the lack of cannon and soldiers in the fort, New Providence soon became a home base for pirates. By 1713, there were over 1000 pirates in Nassau and they outnumbered the 400–500 law-abiding inhabitants; pirate Thomas Barrow even declared himself "Governor of New Providence". In 1718, Governor Woodes Rogers (sent by King George I of Great Britain) came in and offered a pardon for any pirate willing to give up their ways. Using his intelligence and threatening to execute them if they did not take the pardon, Rogers was eventually able to rid Nassau of pirates.

In February 1776, American Esek Hopkins led a squadron of over seven ships in an effort to raid the British-held island in order to secure supplies and munitions. In an event known as the Battle of Nassau, on March 3 and 4, Hopkins landed the first-ever amphibious assault by American military forces consisting of 250 Marines and sailors. Under the covering fire of the Providence and Wasp, the attackers overwhelmed Fort Montague. The British retreated to Fort Nassau, but then surrendered to Continental forces. The Americans managed to secure 88 cannon and 15 mortars, but most of the much desired gunpowder was evacuated before capture. Hopkins spent two weeks loading his ships with the booty before finally returning home.

The frigate South Carolina, of the South Carolina Navy, arrived at Havana on 12 January 1782. At Havana, after negotiations between Alexander Gillon and the Spanish, the South Carolina joined a force of 59 vessels carrying Spanish forces under the overall command of Bernardo de Galvez. On 22 April the expedition sailed to capture New Providence. By May 6 the whole fleet had reached New Providence and on 8 May the British colony surrendered. This was the third capture of New Providence by a foreign force during the American Revolutionary War.

After the American Revolution, several thousand Loyalists and their slaves emigrated to New Providence and nearby islands, hoping to re-establish plantation agriculture. The shallow soils and sparse rainfall doomed this activity to failure, and by the early 19th century the Bahamas had become a nearly vacant archipelago. Salt raking continued here and there, wreck gleaning was profitable in Grand Bahama, but New Providence was the only island with any prosperity because of the large British military establishment. The fortresses began to crumble and were abandoned by 1850. New Providence afterwards had two periods of high economic success: during the American Civil War of 1861–65, when it was a highly popular port for blockade-runners serving the Confederate States of America; and during Prohibition, when it was a smuggling centre for distilled spirits.

Tourist destination
By the late 19th century New Providence had begun billing itself as the "sanitarium of the western hemisphere". Testimonials by residents and visitors emphasized its extremely mild climate with minimal daily temperature fluctuations (often as little as 5 F-change in any given 12-hour period) and warm winters (a typical winter morning in the range of 70 to 74 F, excellent drainage, ample variety and number of Christian (Protestant) churches, well-tended and rectilinear roads, modern luxurious facilities, and native English speakers. Steam ships plied between the coastal southern United States, Cuba, and Nassau, and the popularity of the destination proceeded to grow.

By the late 1920s, New Providence had become well-established especially as an American vacation destination with many tourist facilities, including a deepened harbour for short-visit cruise ship visitors and hotels offering gambling. Two-thirds of the approximately 400,000 Bahamians live on New Providence, although this proportion has fallen somewhat with the development of Freeport on Grand Bahama.

title: New Providence


text:
Talk:New Providence

[Untitled]
Information provided by Michael Doran, who has visited the Bahamas many times since he lived on Grand Inagua as a child in the early 1950s. He earned the doctorate in geography from the University of Oregon in 1974 and has contributed to the scholarly literature on the West Indies.
 * Maybe you want to create a user account then the contributions you make will be listed under your name in the page history, rather than the IP you are currently at. --snoyes 16:52, 27 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Compass Point
Compass Point (Bahamas) redirects here. Can someone familiar with why add some text to the article to indicate what Compass Point is in this context? -- JHunterJ (talk) 14:32, 2 April 2009 (UTC)

Confusion
I'm lost. This article lists New Providence as having the same area as Nassau, yet 80,000 more residents -- the exact same population as The Bahamas' total (according to the article). Something seems to have slipped through the cracks. – anna  12:08, 28 April 2011 (UTC)

RESIDENTS The most famous resident of New Providence is the Canadian professional tennis player Eugenie Bouchard. Bouchard is a former Wimbledon finalist (she lost to Petra Kvitova in 2014), who was once as once as high as number 5 in the WTA world rankings. She is also a successful model, appearing twice in the annual Sports Illustrated swimsuit edition, and a master of social media, with more than a million followers on Twitter. David Kemp 31/01/2019.

title: Talk:New Providence


text:
Talk:Hino da Independência

Untitled
Who damn put that "Japones tem 4 filhos" version of our beloved anthem???

This is an absurd!!!

I am about to correct the absurd information stating that this hymn was Brazil´s first national anthemn and was replaced upon the proclamation of the republc. That is utterly wrong. The Independence Anthemn was never the national anthemn, but an official patriotic song. And it thus remained after the proclamation of the republic and until our times.

In the english translation resides a shorter version of Hymn, with some paragraphs cut out. The shorter version exists, but with another paragraphs. Also, the complete version(in portuguese) is confusing, with little separation between paragraphs and repeating the chorus all the time.

Use as national anthem
I couldn't find any source stating that this anthem was used as Brazil's national anthem from 1822 to 1831, although this is populary believed in Brazil. - Alumnum (talk) 15:44, 5 July 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hino da Independência


text:
National day

A national day is a day on which celebrations mark the statehood or nationhood of a state or its people. It may be the date of independence, of becoming a republic, of becoming a federation, or a significant date for a patron saint or a ruler (such as a birthday, accession, or removal).

The national day is often an official public holiday. Many countries have more than one national day. Denmark and the United Kingdom are the only countries without a national day. Britain abandoned Empire Day, while Denmark has what is not a public holiday but an unofficial celebration called Constitution Day. National days emerged with the age of nationalism, with most appearing during the 19th and 20th centuries.

National day may also be known as Independence Day, Liberation Day, or Republic Day, depending on the nation and its history.

List of national days
Nations that are not broadly recognized sovereign states are shown in pink. Defunct states are highlighted in light grey. For nations that are dependent on, or part of, a sovereign state (such as federal states, autonomous regions, or colonies), the name of the sovereign state is shown in parentheses.

Days that are not fixed to the Gregorian calendar are sorted by their occurrences.

title: National day


text:
Court of Session

The Court of Session (Cùirt an t-Seisein) is the supreme civil court of Scotland and constitutes part of the College of Justice; the supreme criminal court of Scotland is the High Court of Justiciary. The Court of Session sits in Parliament House in Edinburgh and is both a trial court and a court of appeal. The court was established in 1532 by an Act of the Parliament of Scotland, and was initially presided over by the Lord Chancellor of Scotland and had equal numbers of clergy and laity. The judges were all appointed from the King's Council. As of May 2017, the Lord President was Lord Carloway, who was appointed on 19 December 2015, and the Lord Justice Clerk was Lady Dorrian, who was appointed on 13 April 2016.

Decisions of the court can be appealed to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, with the permission of either the Inner House or the Supreme Court. The Court of Session and the local sheriff courts of Scotland have concurrent jurisdiction for all cases with a monetary value in excess of GB£100,000; the plaintiff is given first choice of court. However, the majority of complex, important, or high value cases are brought in the Court of Session. Cases can be remitted to the Court of Session from the sheriff courts, including the Sheriff Personal Injury Court, at the request of the presiding sheriff. Legal aid, administered by the Scottish Legal Aid Board, is available to persons with little disposable income for cases in the Court of Session.

The court is a unitary collegiate court, with all judges other than the Lord President of the Court of Session and the Lord Justice Clerk holding the same rank and title—Senator of the College of Justice and also Lord or Lady of Council and Session. The Lord President is chief justice of the court, and also head of the judiciary of Scotland; the Lord Justice Clerk is his deputy. There are 35 senators, in addition to a number of temporary judges; these temporary judges are typically serving sheriffs and sheriffs principal, or advocates in private practice. The senators sit also in the High Court of Justiciary, where the Lord President is called the Lord Justice General, and senators are known as Lords Commissioners of Justiciary.

The court is divided into the Inner House of twelve senators, which is primarily an appeal court, and the Outer House, which is primarily a court of first instance. The Inner House is further divided into two divisions of six senators: the first division is presided over by the Lord President, and the second division is presided over by the Lord Justice Clerk. Cases in the Inner House are normally heard before a bench of three senators, though more complex or important cases are presided over by five senators. On very rare occasions the whole Inner House has presided over a case. Cases in the Outer House are heard by a single senator sitting as a Lord Ordinary, occasionally with a jury of twelve. The court is administered by the Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service, and the most senior clerk of court is the Principal Clerk of Session and Justiciary; the Principal Clerk is responsible for all court staff, and is also responsible for the administration of the High Court of Justiciary.

Establishment
The Lords of Council and Session had previously been part of the King's Council, but after receiving support in the form of a papal bull of 1531, King James V established a separate institution—the College of Justice or Court of Session—in 1532, with a structure based on that of the Parlement of Paris. The Lord Chancellor of Scotland was to preside over the court, which was to be composed of fifteen lords appointed from the King's Council. Seven of the lords had to be churchmen, while another seven had to be laymen. An Act of Parliament in 1640 restricted membership of the court to laymen only, by withdrawing the right of churchmen to sit in judgement. The number of laymen was increased to maintain the number of lords in the court.

Courts Act 1672
The Courts Act 1672 allowed for five of the Lords of Session to be appointed as Lords Commissioners of Justiciary, and as such becomes judges of the High Court of Justiciary. The High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court of Scotland. Previously the Lord Justice General, the president of the High Court, had appointed deputes to preside in his absence. From 1672 to 1887, the High Court consisted of the Lord Justice General, Lord Justice Clerk, and five Lords of Session.

Treaty of Union
The Court of Session is explicitly preserved "in all time coming" in Article XIX of the Treaty of Union between England and Scotland, subsequently passed into legislation by the Acts of Union in 1706 and 1707 respectively.

Court of Session Act 1810
Several significant changes were made to the court during the 19th century, with the Court of Session Act 1810 formally dividing the Court of Session into the Outer House (with first-instance jurisdiction before a Lord Ordinary) and Inner House (with appellate jurisdiction.) Cases in the Outer House were to be heard by Lords Ordinary who either sat alone or with a jury of twelve. Cases in the Inner House were to be heard by three Lords of Council and Session, but significant or complicated cases were to be heard by five or more judges. A further separation was made in 1815, by the Jury Trials (Scotland) Act 1815, with the creation of a lesser Jury Court to allow certain civil cases to be tried by jury. In 1830 the Jury Court, along with the Admiralty and Commissary courts, was absorbed into the Court of Session following the enactment of the Court of Session Act 1830.

Judicial remuneration
In 1834, the remuneration and working conditions were a matter of public discussion and debate in the House of Commons. On 6 May 1834 Sir George Sinclair addressed the House of Commons to plead for an increase in the salaries of the senators, noting that "a Civil Judge in the Supreme Court in Scotland received only GB£2,000" and the masters in the Court of Chancery were paid GB£2,500. A Select Committee was appointed to investigate the matter.

In October 1834, The Spectator reported on the conflicting views around the remuneration and working conditions of the judges of the Court of Session, with conflicting views being presented in response to the Report on the Scotch Judges' Salaries. The Spectator reported the arguments made by Sir William Rae, Lord Advocate, that the judges of the Court of Session had considerable duties, which he listed as:

"On those thirteen are now devolved, first, all the duties that occur in the Court of Chancery in England; second, all the duties that occur in the courts of Common Law in England, in civil matters; third, all the duties that devolve on the courts of Common Law in England as connected with criminal matters, including a large portion of those done in Quarter-sessions, inasmuch as the Sheriffs, who are the next in rank to the Justiciary Judges, are held incompetent to try any case when the punishment amounts to that of transportation ; fourth, all the duties of the Court of Exchequer, (the remaining Judges of that Court having by a subsequent act been abolished); fifth, all the duties connected with bankruptcy; sixth, a set of duties unknown in England, connected with the valuation and sale of tithes, and the augmentation of ministers' stipends out of the tithes—the tribunal for disposing of such matters it known by the name of the Teind Court; seventh, the duties connected with the Court of Admiralty, and the duties connected with the Consistorial Courts."

The Select Committee's Report recommended that the salaries of the Lord President, Lord Justice Clerk and remaining senators should be increased, and also recommended that all senators should become Lords Commissioners of Justiciary. The recommended salaries were: However, The Spectator was very critical of the actual amount of work done by the judges of the Court, noting that there was much public criticism of their effectiveness. The article noted that the judges were entitled to 7 months vacation in each year. The Spectator also asserted that civil justice was out of the reach of the poor in Scotland.
 * Lord President: increase from GB£4,300 to GB£5,300
 * Lord Justice Clerk: increase from GB£4,000 to GB£5,000
 * Senator: increase from GB£2,000 to GB£3,000

Unification of supreme courts judiciary
In 1887 all of the Lords of Session were made Lords Commissioners of Justiciary, and thus judges of the High Court of Justiciary, following the passage of the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1887.

Civil cases
The Court of Session is the supreme civil court of Scotland, and it shares concurrent jurisdiction with the local sheriff courts over all cases with a value of more than GB£100,000 (including personal injury claims.) Where a choice of jurisdiction exists between the Court of Session and the sheriff courts, including the Sheriff Personal Injury Court, it is for the pursuer to decide which court to raise the action in. The court sits in Parliament House in Edinburgh and is both a trial court and a court of appeal.

Exchequer cases
The primary task of the Court of Session is to decide on civil law cases. The court is also the Court of Exchequer for Scotland, a jurisdiction previously held by the Court of Exchequer. (In 1856, the functions of that court were transferred to the Court of Session, and one of the Lords Ordinary sits as Lord Ordinary in Exchequer Causes when hearing cases therein.) This was restated by the Court of Session Act 1988.

Admiralty cases
The Court of Session is also the admiralty court for Scotland, having been given the duties of that court by the provisions of the Court of Session Act 1830. The boundaries of the jurisdiction of the Court of Session in maritime cases were specified in 1999 by an Order in Council: the Scottish Adjacent Waters Boundaries Order 1999.

Nobile officium
The jurisdiction of the Court of Session extends beyond statutory and common law powers, with the Court having an equitable and inherent jurisdiction called the nobile officium, unique among British courts. The nobile officium enables the court to provide a legal remedy where statute or the common law are silent, and prevent mistakes in procedure or practice that would lead to injustice. The exercise of this power is limited by adherence to precedent, and when legislation or the common law do not already specify the relevant remedy. Thus, the court cannot set aside a statutory power, but can deal with situations where the law is silent, or where there is an omission in statute. Such an omission is sometimes termed a casus improvisus.

The nobile officium was used to implement recognition of an order of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales for the placement of children in secure accommodation in Scotland, in the case of Cumbria County Council, Petitioners [2016] CSIH 92. An application was made to the Court of Session under the nobile officium by Cumbria County Council, Stockport Metropolitan Council, and Blackpool Borough Council on behalf of four children. There was insufficient accommodation in England to house the children, so the councils sought to place them in suitable Scottish accommodation. However, legislation was silent on the cross-border jurisdiction of such orders as made by the High Court of Justice. Nonetheless, equivalent orders made by a Scottish court were enforceable in England and Wales. Thus, the Court of Session found, using its inherent powers, that the orders could be applied as though they had been issued by the Court of Session itself.

In September 2019 UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson said that he would "rather be dead in a ditch" than apply for an extension to Britain's application to leave the European Union (Brexit), due on 31 October, although the UK parliament had required him to do so under circumstances laid out in the Benn Act. Following this, an application was made to the Court of Session to require the Prime Minister to sign a letter requesting extension if no exit deal could be agreed in time. The applicants hoped that the unique power of nobile officium would enable the court to send the article 50 extension letter on Johnson's behalf, if he declined to do so.

Appellate jurisdiction
Appeals in the Court of Session are generally heard by the Inner House before three judges, although in important cases in which there is a conflict of authority a court of five judges or, exceptionally, seven, may be convened. The Inner House is sub-divided into two divisions of equal authority and jurisdiction - the First Division, headed by the Lord President; and the Second Division headed by the Lord Justice Clerk. The courts to hear each case are, ordinarily, drawn from these divisions. When neither is available to chair a hearing, an Extra Division of three senators is summoned, chaired by the most senior judge present; due to pressure of business the Extra Division sits frequently nowadays.

Until 2015 civil cases that went to a full proof (hearing) in the sheriff courts of Scotland could be appealed by right to the Inner House of the Court of Session. Appellants could take the appeal to a sheriff principal for an initial appeal, and then onto the Inner House, or they could take the appeal directly to the Inner House. However, the appellate jurisdiction of sheriffs principal for all civil cases (including summary cause and small claims actions) was transferred to the Sheriff Appeal Court following passage of the Courts Reform (Scotland) Act 2014. The 2014 Act also modified the appellate jurisdiction of the Inner House with civil appeals from the sheriff courts being heard by an appeal sheriff sitting in the Sheriff Appeal Court. Such appeals are binding on all sheriff courts in Scotland, and appeals can only be remitted (transferred) to the Inner House where they are deemed to be of wider public interest, raise a significant point of law, or are particularly complex: "the rationale for the establishment of the Sheriff Appeal Court, that it will deal with virtually all civil appeals from the sheriff court because these do not merit the attention of Inner House judges except in very exceptional cases. This will free up Inner House judges to deal with more complex matters."

Legal aid
Legal aid, administered by the Scottish Legal Aid Board, is available to persons with little disposable income for cases in the Court of Session.

Oath of Allegiance
The Oath of Allegiance is taken by holders of political office in Scotland before the Lord President of the Court of Session at a meeting of the court.

Acts of Sederunt
Civil procedure in Scotland is regulated by the Court of Session through Acts of Sederunt, which are subordinate legislation and take legal force as Scottish statutory instruments. The power to enact Acts of Sederunt is granted by the Courts Reform (Scotland) Act 2014 and the Tribunals (Scotland) Act 2014, which replaced powers regulated by the Court of Session Act 1988 and the Sheriff Courts (Scotland) Act 1971. These are generally incorporated into the Rules of Court, which are published by the Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service and form the basis for Scots civil procedure.

Acts of Sederunt regulate civil procedure in the Court of Session, the sheriff courts of Scotland (including the Sheriff Appeal Court and Sheriff Personal Injury Court), and in the tribunals of Scotland. The Court of Session can amend or repeal any enactment, including primary legislation, if it relates to matters an Act of Sederunt may cover. Rules for regulating civil procedure are decided upon by the Scottish Civil Justice Council before being presented to the Lords of Session for decision; the Lords of Session may approve, amend or reject the rules so presented.

An Act of Sederunt, Act of Sederunt (Regulation of Advocates) 2011, devolves authority to the Faculty of Advocates to regulate admission to practice as an advocate before the Court of Session and the High Court of Justiciary; advocates are notionally officers of the court, and are de jure appointed by the court.

Houses and Lords Ordinary
The Court of Session constitutes part of the College of Justice, and is divided into two houses. The Lords Ordinary sit in the Outer House, and usually singly. The Lords of Council and Session sit in the Inner House, typically in threes. The nature of cases referred to the Court of Session will determine which house that case shall be heard in.

Inner House
The Inner House is the senior part of the Court of Session, and is both a court of appeal and a court of first instance. The Inner House has historically been the main locus of an extraordinary equitable power called the nobile officium – the High Court of Justiciary has a similar power in criminal cases. Criminal appeals in Scotland are handled by the High Court of Justiciary sitting as the Court of Appeal.

The Inner House is the part of the Court of Session which acts as a court of appeal for cases decided the Outer House and of civil cases from the sheriff courts, the Court of the Lord Lyon, Scottish Land Court, and the Lands Tribunal for Scotland. The Inner House always sits as a panel of at least three senators and with no jury.

Unlike in the High Court of Justiciary, there is a right of appeal to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom of cases from the Inner House. The right of appeal only exists when the Court of Session grants leave to this effect or when the decision of the Inner House is by majority. Until the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 came into force in October 2009, this right of appeal was to the House of Lords (or sometimes to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council).

Outer House
The Outer House is a court of first instance, although some statutory appeals are remitted to it by the Inner House. Such appeals are originally referred from the sheriff courts, the court of first instance for civil causes in the court system of Scotland. Judges in the Outer House are referred to as Lord or Lady [name], or as Lord Ordinary. The Outer House is superficially similar to the High Court in England and Wales, and in this house judges sit singly—and with a jury of twelve in personal injury or defamation actions. Subject-matter jurisdiction is extensive and extends to all kinds of civil claims unless expressly excluded by statute, and it shares much of this jurisdiction with the sheriff courts. Some classes of cases, such as intellectual property disputes, are heard by an individual judge designated by the Lord President as the jurist for intellectual property cases.

Final judgments of the Outer House, as well as some important judgements on procedure, may be appealed to the Inner House. Other judgments may be so appealed with leave.

Lands Valuation Appeal Court
The Lands Valuation Appeal Court is a Scottish civil court, composed of three Court of Session judges, and established under Section 7 of the Valuation of Lands (Scotland) Amendment Act 1879. It hears cases where the decision of a local Valuation Appeal Committee is disputed. The senators who make up the Lands Valuation Appeal Court was specified in 2013 by the Act of Sederunt (Lands Valuation Appeal Court) 2013, which has both Lord Carloway (Lord President) and Lady Dorrian (Lord Justice Clerk) as members with a further four senators specified.

Rights of audience
Members of the Faculty of Advocates, known as advocates or counsel, and as of 1990 also some solicitors, known as solicitor-advocates, have practically exclusive rights of audience in the court. Barristers from England and Wales have no right of audience, which caused controversy in 2011 (over an appeal from an immigration tribunal) and again in 2015 (over an appeal from a tax tribunal) when barristers recognised by the General Council of the Bar were denied the right to take an appeal on behalf of clients they had represented at tribunal.

Judges and office holders
The court's president is the Lord President, the second most senior judge is the Lord Justice Clerk, with a further 33 senators of the College of Justice holding office as Lords of Council and Session. The total numbers of judges is fixed by Section 1 of the Court of Session Act 1988, and subject to amendment by Order in Council. Judges are appointed for life, subject to dismissal if they are found unfit for office, and subject to a compulsory retirement age of 75.

Temporary judges can also be appointed.

The court is a unitary collegiate court, with all judges other than the Lord President and the Lord Justice Clerk holding the same rank and title—Senator of the College of Justice and also Lord or Lady of Council and Session. There are thirty-four judges, in addition to a number of temporary judges; these temporary judges are typically sheriffs, or advocates in private practice. The judges sit also in the High Court of Justiciary, where the Lord President is called the Lord Justice General.

Appointment
To be eligible for appointment as a senator, or temporary judge, a person must have served at least five years as sheriff or sheriff principal, been an advocate for five years, a solicitor with five years rights of audience before the Court of Session or High Court of Justiciary, or been a Writer to the Signet for ten years (having passed the exam in civil law at least two years before application.) Appointments are made by the First Minister of Scotland on the recommendation of the Judicial Appointments Board for Scotland. The Judicial Appointments Board has a statutory authority for making recommendations under Sections 9 to 27 of the Judiciary and Courts (Scotland) Act 2008 (as amended by the Courts Reform (Scotland) Act 2014). Appointments to the Inner House are made by the Lord President and Lord Justice Clerk, with the consent of the Scottish Ministers.

Removal from office
The Lord President, Lord Justice Clerk and other senators can be removed from office after a tribunal has been convened to examine their fitness for office. The tribunal is convened on the request of the Lord President, or in other circumstances that the First Minister sees fit. However, the First Minister must consult the Lord President (for all other judges) and the Lord Justice Clerk (when the Lord President is under investigation.) Should the tribunal recommend their dismissal the Scottish Parliament can resolve that the First Minister make a recommendation to the Monarch.

Lord President
The Lord President is the most senior judge of the Court of Session, and is also president of the 1st Division of the Inner House.

Lord Justice Clerk
The Justice Clerk is the second most senior judge of the Court of Session, and deputises for the Lord President when the Lord President is absent, unable to fulfil his duties, or when there is a vacancy for Lord President. The Lord Justice Clerk is president of the 2nd Division of the Inner House.

Principal Clerk of Session and Justiciary
The administration of the court is part of the Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service, and is led by the Principal Clerk of Session and Justiciary. The Principal Clerk is responsible for the administration of the Supreme Courts of Scotland and their associated staff. As of June 2018, the Principal Clerk is Gillian Prentice.

title: Court of Session


text:
Talk:RLE

There seems not be any other article-worthy initialisms "RLE", so redir is sufficient. Stan 17:01, 27 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:RLE


text:
Issue

Issue or issues may refer to:

Publishing

 * Issue (company), a mobile publishing company
 * Issue (magazine), a monthly Korean comics anthology magazine
 * Issue (postal service), a stamp or a series of stamps released to the public
 * Issues (American Council for Judaism), a Jewish magazine
 * Issues in Science and Technology a public policy peer reviewed journal pertaining to science, engineering, and medicine

Computers

 * Issue (computers), a unit of work to accomplish an improvement in a data system
 * Issue tracking system, a computer software package that manages and maintains lists of bugs, etc.
 * Issue log, a documentation element of software project management

Music

 * Issues (band), a metalcore band from Atlanta, Georgia
 * Issues (Issues album), 2014
 * Issues (Korn album), 1999
 * Issues, a 2000 R&B album by Somethin' for the People
 * Issue VI, a 2005 thrash metal album by Dew-Scented
 * "Issues" (Escape the Fate song), 2010
 * "Issues" (The Saturdays song), 2008
 * "Issues" (Julia Michaels song), 2017
 * "Issues", a song by Mindless Self Indulgence from the 2008 album If
 * "Issues", a song by Baby Keem from the 2021 album The Melodic Blue
 * Is:sue, a Japanese girl group under Lapone Entertainment

Television

 * Issues with Jane Velez-Mitchell, a nightly TV newscast on HLN
 * Issues and Answers, a 1960–1981 American TV news program

Other uses

 * Issue (genealogy), a legal term for a person's descendants
 * Issue (periodicals), a number to indicate a particular periodical
 * Social issue, a matter that influences individuals within a society
 * Environmental issue, an effect of human activity on the environment
 * Issuer, a legal entity that develops, registers and sells securities

title: Issue