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Equatoria

Equatoria is the southernmost region of South Sudan, along the upper reaches of the White Nile and the border between South Sudan and Uganda. Juba, the national capital and the largest city in South Sudan, is located in Equatoria. Originally a province of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, it also contained most of northern parts of present-day Uganda, including Lake Albert and West Nile. It was an idealistic effort to create a model state in the interior of Africa that never consisted of more than a handful of adventurers and soldiers in isolated outposts.

Equatoria was established by Samuel Baker in 1870. Charles George Gordon took over as governor in 1874, followed by Emin Pasha in 1878. The Mahdist Revolt put an end to Equatoria as an Egyptian outpost in 1889. Later British Governors included Martin Willoughby Parr. Important towns in Equatoria included Lado, Gondokoro, Dufile and Wadelai. The last two former areas of Equatoria, Lake Albert and West Nile are now situated in Uganda.

Under Anglo-Egyptian rule, most of Equatoria became one of the eight original provinces of Sudan. The region of Bahr el Ghazal was split from Equatoria in 1948. In 1976, Equatoria was further split into the provinces of East and West Equatoria. The region has been troubled with violence during both the First and Second Sudanese Civil Wars, as well as the anti-Ugandan insurgencies based in Sudan such as the Lord's Resistance Army and West Nile Bank Front.

Administrative divisions
Equatoria consists of the following states:
 * Central Equatoria
 * Eastern Equatoria
 * Western Equatoria

Between October 2015 and February 2020, Equatoria consisted of the following states:
 * Amadi State
 * Gbudwe State
 * Maridi State
 * Tambura State
 * Imatong State
 * Torit State
 * Kapoeta State
 * Jubek State
 * Terekeka State
 * Yei River State

People
The people of Equatoria are traditionally peasants or nomads belonging to numerous ethnic groups. They live in the counties of Budi, Ezo, Juba, Kajo-keji, Kapoeta, Magwi, Maridi, Lainya, Mundri, Terekeka, Tombura, Torit, Yambio, and Yei. Equatoria is inhabited by the ethnolinguistic groups listed below. The following tribes occupy the three states of Greater Equatoria: Acholi, Avukaya, Baka, Balanda, Bari, Didinga, Kakwa, Keliko, Kuku, Lango, Lokoya, Narim, Lopit, Lugbwara, Lulubo, Madi, Makaraka or Adio, Moru, Mundari, Mundu, Nyangwara, Otuho, Pari, Pojulu, Tenet, Toposa and Azande. Some of these tribes like Bari, Pojulu, Kuku, Kakwa, Mundari and Nyangwara share a common language, but their accents, and some adjectives and nouns do vary; the same applies to Keliko, Moru and Madi.

Languages
Other than Arabic or (Arabi Juba) and English, the following languages are spoken in Equatoria according to Ethnologue.

 * Nilotic languages
 * Eastern
 * Acholi language
 * Lango language
 * Lokoya language
 * Lopit language
 * Otuho language
 * Toposa language
 * Surmic languages
 * Didinga language
 * Kacipo-Balesi language
 * Narim language
 * Tennet language
 * Päri language
 * Western
 * Bari language
 * Balanda Bongo language
 * Mundari language
 * Dongotono language
 * Jur language
 * Kakwa language

 * Moru-Madi languages
 * Ma’di language
 * Beli language
 * Keliko language
 * Moru language
 * Lugbara language
 * Olu’bo language
 * Bongo-Bagirmi languages
 * Jur Modo language
 * Mo’da language
 * Morokodo language
 * Nyamusa-Molo language
 * Adamawa–Ubangi languages a branch of the Bantu family
 * Makaraka or Adio language
 * Zande language
 * Avukaya language
 * Baka Language
 * Boguru language
 * Ndogo language

Culture
Due to the many years of the civil war, the Equatorian culture is heavily influenced by the countries neighboring Equatoria and hosting Equatorians. Many Equatorians fled to Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, Sudan, the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and Europe, where they interacted with the nationals and learnt their languages and culture. For most of those who remained in the country, or went North to Sudan and Egypt, they greatly assimilated Arabic culture.

Most Equatorians kept the core of their culture even while in exile and diaspora. Traditionally, culture is highly upheld and a great focus is given to knowing one's origin and dialect. Although the common languages spoken in Equatoria are Juba Arabic/Arabi Juba and English, Lingala and Kiswahili are being introduced to the population to improve the country's relations with its East African neighbors. Many musicians from Equatoria use English, Lingala, Kiswahili, Arabi Juba (Arabic Creole), their language or dialect or a mix of all. Popular artists sing Afro-beat, R&B, and zouk. Dynamiq is popular for his reggae.

Early history
In the 19th century, Egypt controlled Sudan and established the Equatoria province to further control its interests over the Nile. The Egyptian authorities selected British explorer Sir Samuel Baker to establish Equatoria for them, which he did in 1870. Baker was instructed to establish trading posts along the White Nile and Gondokoro (Gondu kuru, means "difficult to dig", in Bari), a trading center located on the east bank of the White Nile in Southern Sudan. Gondokoro was an important center since it was located within a few kilometres from the cutoff point of navigability of the Nile from Khartoum. It is presently located near the city of Juba in Equatoria.

Baker's attempt to create additional trading posts and control Equatoria was unsuccessful because villages surrounding Gondokoro were frequently bypassed by Arab invaders who wanted to impose their culture and way of life on the people. King Gbudwe who ruled the western part of Equatoria at the time as The King of Azande Kingdom despised the Arab culture and way of life and encouraged the tribes to resist the invaders and protect their African culture and their way of life. The invaders were met with stiff resistance from Equatorian tribes such as the Azande, Bari, Lokoya, Otuho, and Pari.

At the end of Baker's service as governor, British general Charles George Gordon was appointed governor of Sudan. Gordon took over in 1874 and administered the region until 1876. He was more successful in creating additional trading posts in the area. In 1876, Gordon's views clashed with those of the Egyptian governor of Khartoum forcing him to go back to London.

In 1878 Gordon was succeeded by the Chief Medical Officer of the Equatoria province, Mehemet Emin, popularly known as Emin Pasha. Emin made his headquarters at Lado (now in South Sudan). Emin Pasha had little influence over the area because the Khartoum governor was uninterested in his development proposals for the Equatoria region.

In 1881, Muhammad Ahmad Abdullah, a Muslim religious leader, proclaimed himself the Mahdi ("expected one") and began a holy war to unify the tribes of Western and Central Sudan, including Equatoria. By 1883 the Mahdists had cut off outside communications. However, Emin Pasha managed to request assistance from Britain via Buganda. The British sent the explorer Henry Morton Stanley and who led a relief expedition, called the "Advance," in February 1887 to rescue Emin. The Advance navigated up the Congo River and then through the Ituri Forest, one of the most difficult forest routes in Africa, resulting in the loss of two-thirds of the expedition's personnel. While the Advance succeeded in reaching Emin Pasha by February of the following year, the Mahdists had already overrun the bulk of the province, and Emin had already been deposed as governor by his officers in August 1887. The Advance reached the coast, with Emin, by the end of the year, by which point the Mahdists were firmly in control of Equatoria.

In 1898, the Mahdist State was overthrown by the Anglo-Egyptian force led by British Field Marshal Lord Kitchener. Sudan was proclaimed a condominium under British-Egyptian administration with Equatoria being administered by the British.

British policy
Equatoria received little attention from the British prior to World War I. Equatoria was closed to outside influences and developed along indigenous lines. As a result, the region remained isolated and underdeveloped. Limited social services to the region were provided by Christian missionaries who opened schools and medical clinics. The education provided by the missionaries was mainly limited to learning English language and arithmetic.

Sudanese independence
In February 1953, the United Kingdom and Egypt reached an agreement providing for Sudanese self-government and self-determination. On January 1, 1956 Sudan gained independence from the British and Egyptian governments. The new state was under the control of the Arab led Khartoum government. The Arab Khartoum government had promised Southerners full participation in the political system, however, after independence the Khartoum government reneged on its promises. Southerners were denied participation in free elections and marginalized from political power. The government actions created resentment in the south that led to a mutiny by a group of Equatorians sparking the 21 year civil war (1955–1972 and 1983–2004).

Equatoria Corps
Equatorians played an instrumental role in the struggle for autonomy in South Sudan. The origins of Sudan's civil war dates back to 1955, a year before independence, when it became clear the Arabs were going to take over the national government in Khartoum. Equatoria gave its name to the southernmost unit of the British Sudan Defence Force, formed during the Anglo-Egyptian administration. This was the Equatoria or Southern Corps.

On August 18, 1955, No. 2 Company of the Equatoria Corps mutinied at Torit, Eastern Equatoria. No. 2 Company had been ordered to make ready to move to the north, but instead of obeying, the troops mutinied, along with other Southern soldiers across the south in Juba, Yei, Yambio, and Maridi. The Khartoum government sent other Sudan Defence Force units to quell the rebellion and many mutineers of the Equatoria Corps went into hiding rather than surrender. This marked the beginning of the first civil war in southern Sudan. The rebellion that emerged from the Equatoria Corps was later called Anya Nya and the leaders were separatists, who demanded the creation of a separate South Sudanese nation, free from Arab domination. The Equatorian leaders of the Anya Nya and founders of the struggle were Rev. Fr Saturnino Ohure who was of Lotuho origin and was said to have been the first man to have fired a bullet, and launched the start of the first civil war, in Torit; Fr. Saturnino Lohure from Otuho; Aggrey Jaden from Pojulu Joseph Ohide, from Otuho Marko Rume, from Kuku Ezboni Mondiri, from Moru Albino Tombe, from Lokoya Tafeng Lodongi, from Otuho Lazaru Mutek, from Otuho Benjamin Loki, from Pojulu Elia Lupe, from Kakwa Elia Kuzee, from ZandeTimon Boro, from Moru Dominic Dabi Manango, from Zande Alison Monani Magaya, from Zande Isaiah Paul, from Zande Dominic Kassiano Dombo, from Zande and many others.

The Khartoum government sent its forces to arrest the rebels and capture anyone who supported their cause. By the early 1960s civilians believed to be Anya Nya sympathizers were arrested and shipped to Kodok concentration camp where they were tortured and killed. Some of the first detainees and survivors of the horrific torture at Kodok include Emmanuel Lukudu and Philip Lomodong Lako.

By 1969 the Equatorian rebels found support among foreign governments and were able to obtained weapons and supplies. Anya Nya recruits were trained in Israel where they also got some of their weapons. The Anya Nya rebels received financial assistance from Southern Sudanese and Southern exiles from the Middle East, Western Europe, and North America. By the late 1960s, the war had resulted in the deaths of half a million people and several hundred thousand southerners escaped to hide in the forests or to refugee camps in neighboring countries.

Anya Nya controlled the southern countryside while the government forces controlled the major towns in the region. The Anya Nya rebels were small in number and scattered all over the region making their operations ineffective. It is estimated that there were between 5,000 and 10,000 Anya Nya rebels.

On May 25, 1969, Colonel Gaafar Muhammed Nimeiri led a military coup and overthrew General Ibrahim Abboud's regime. In 1971 Joseph Lagu, from the Madi ethnic group, became the leader of the southern forces opposed to Khartoum government and founded the South Sudan Liberation Movement (SSLM). Anya Nya leaders united and rallied behind Lagu. Lagu was also supported by exiled southern politicians. With Lagu's leadership the SSLM created a governing infrastructure throughout many areas in southern Sudan. In 1972 Nimeri held negotiations with the Anya Nya at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. At the talks the Anya Nya demanded a separate southern government and an army to defend the south. Ethiopia's Emperor Haile Selassie moderated the talks and helped the two sides reach an agreement. The result was the Addis Ababa Agreement. The agreement granted autonomy for the South with three provinces: Equatoria, Bar al Ghazal and Upper Nile. The south would have a regional president appointed by the national president to oversee all aspects of government in the region. The national government would maintain authority over defense, foreign affairs, currency, and finance, and economic and social planning, and interregional concerns. The members of the Anya Nya would be incorporated into the Sudanese army and have equal status with the northern forces. The agreement declared Arabic as Sudan's official language and English as the south's principal language for administration and schooling. Despite opposition from SSLM leaders on the terms of the Agreement, Joseph Lagu approved the agreement and both sides agreed to a cease-fire. The Addis Ababa Accords were signed on March 27, 1972 and the Sudanese celebrated that day as National Unity Day. This agreement resulted in a hiatus in the Sudanese civil war from 1972 to 1983.

Recent history
In 1983, President Gaafar Nimeiry abolished the parliament and embarked on a campaign to Islamize all of Sudan. He outlawed political parties and enacted Sharia law in the penal code. Non-Muslim southerners were now forced to obey Islamic laws and traditions. The policies revived southern opposition and military insurgency in the South. In 1985 Abdel Rahman Swar al-Dahab led a coup and overthrew the regime. In 1986, Sadiq al-Mahdi was elected president of Sudan. The new regime began negotiations led by Colonel John Garang de Mabior, the leader of the Sala, but failed to reach an agreement to end the southern insurgency. Civil war has continued since then, but international pressure led SPLA and the Khartoum government to reach an agreement to end the 21-year civil war.

In January 2020, the National Alliance for Democracy and Freedom Action (NADAFA) sought to join talks in Rome seeking to resolve political rifts within South Sudan. The group is a coalition of holdout political groups including the People’s Democratic Movement (PDM), which was not signatory to the peace agreement signed by President Salva Kiir’s South Sudanese government in 2018. NADAFA sought a power-sharing arrangement in the new national government, with "People’s Constitutional Conventions" held in Equatoria, Upper Nile and Bahr al Ghazal. In September 2020, Sudans Post published a message from Dr. Hakim Dario, the leader of NADAFA, expressing concern that the new nation had been named "South Sudan" and proposed that the nation should be called "Equatoria Federal Republic".

On February 9, 2022, the Azande community in Yambio held a coronation ceremony for King Atoroba Peni Rikito Gbudue. The traditional royal title was last held by King Rikito's great-grandfather King Gbudue, who died in 1905. Some neighboring cultural groups such as the Maridi and Balanda people wrote letters to the new king, warning him that they would not be subjects to the restored kingdom, with the Maridi letter specifically rejecting any ethnic political divisions, saying "We stand to promote the Republic of South Sudan, not the culture of a specific group.” However, Badagbu Daniel Rimbasa, the king's brother, stated that the new king will not participate in politics. “It’s purely promotion of our culture and its preservation and heritage, not political.”

Notable Equatorians

 * Samuel Baker, 1st Governor of Equatoria 1870–1874
 * Charles Gordon, 2nd Governor of Equatoria 1874–1876
 * King Gbudwe, Azande King 1800's–1905
 * King Atoroba Peni Rikito Gbudue, Azande King since February 9 2022
 * Saturnino Ohure, allegedly fired the first shot in the First Sudanese Civil War
 * Joseph Oduho
 * Joseph Lagu
 * Elia Kuzee
 * Joseph James Tombura
 * Aggrey Jaden
 * Alison Monani Magaya
 * Peter Cirillo
 * Isaah Paul
 * Oliver Batali Albino
 * Samson L. Kwaje
 * Cirino Hiteng Ofuho
 * Beatrice Wani-Noah
 * Elias Taban, Bishop, founder of the Evangelical Presbyterian Church of Sudan
 * Hakim Dario, Founder Equatoria Peoples' Alliance (EPA)

General References

 * R. Gray, A History of the Southern Sudan, 1839–1889 (London, 1961).
 * Iain R. Smith, The Emin Pasha Relief Expedition 1886–1890 (Oxford University Press, 1972).
 * Alice Moore-Harell, Egypt's African Empire: Samuel Baker, Charles Gordon and the Creation of Equatoria (Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 2010).

title: Equatoria


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Sept-Îles, Quebec

Sept-Îles is a city in the Côte-Nord region of eastern Quebec. Along with Brador and Blanc-Sablon, Sept-Îles is one of the oldest places in the province. The population was 24,569 as of the 2021 Canadian census. The town is called Uashat, meaning "bay" in Innu-aimun.

The city is well known for having major iron companies like Iron Ore Company of Canada and SFP Pointe-Noire iron ore transport service company. The city relies heavily on the iron industry. Sept-Îles has among the highest average wages and the highest average wage increases.

It is among the northernmost places with a paved connection to the rest of Quebec's road network. The only settlements on the paved road network that are farther north are Fermont, Radisson and Chisasibi, the latter two of which are in the extreme western part of the province at the north end of the James Bay Road. The only other settlements at higher latitudes in the province are mostly isolated Cree, Innu, or Inuit villages, with access limited to seasonal gravel roads.

Sept-Îles is the seat of the judicial district of Mingan. The city is also home to the most highly attended recreational volleyball tournament in the province: the Tournoi Orange, which consists of 405 teams and close to 800 volleyball games.

History
The first inhabitants of the area were varying cultures of aboriginal peoples. The Montagnais or Innu people, who call it Uashat ("Great Bay"), have lived there since before the time of European encounter. Jacques Cartier sailed by the islands in 1535 and made the first written record of them, calling them the Ysles Rondes ("Round Islands"). He was not the first European in the area, as he encountered Basque fishermen who came annually from Europe for whaling and cod fishing.

Early European economic activity in Sept-Îles was based on fishing and the fur trade. In 1650, Jean de Quen founded a mission there, called L'Ange- Gardien. By 1658, a fur trade post existed there, established by La Compagnie des Habitants, and Louis Jolliet established another trading post in 1679. Great Britain took over Canada from France in 1763 after its victory in the Seven Years' War, and in 1802, the North West Company (NWC) took over the post. When the North West Company and Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) merged in 1821, Sept Iles (also known as Seven Islands) became a HBC post. When its lease expired in 1822, it was closed. The post operated again from 1831 to 1859. The HBC opened a store in a new location in 1870.

In 1875, the parish of Saint-Joseph-des-Sept-Îles was created, and in 1886, its post office opened under the English name "Seven Islands" (which was francized to "Sept-Îles" in 1933).

Lacking road access at the time, the town got its first pier in 1908. The City of Sept-Îles was incorporated in 1951, on the 300th anniversary of the first Catholic Mass held in the village.

The modern Sept-Îles was built rapidly during the construction of the Quebec North Shore and Labrador Railway, the 575 km railway link to the northern town of Schefferville. The railway was built between 1950 and 1954 by the Iron Ore Company of Canada. Iron ore mined near Schefferville and Wabush, Labrador, was transported on this railway and shipped from the Port of Sept-Îles. Shipment of the important new commodity resulted in investments that turned this into a major port. In 1952, the HBC built a new store, which was extended in 1954, and expanded with a groceteria in 1956 and a distribution warehouse in 1959.

With the iron ore business, the Sept-Îles deep-water seaport was second in Canada only to Vancouver in terms of yearly tonnage. The huge engineering project led to a major increase in population, and housing was quickly built to accommodate them. The town grew from 2,000 inhabitants in 1951 to 14,000 in 1961, and 31,000 in 1981. The decline in worldwide iron ore prices in recent decades has since caused employment and population to decrease. On January 11, 1986, the HBC store closed.

During the early 1990s, some new jobs accompanied the construction and operation of the new Aluminerie Alouette inc. aluminum processing plant. Construction for Phase 1 began in September 1989, and operation started in 1992. Construction of Phase 2 began in 2003.

In February 2003, the city amalgamated with the municipalitiess of Gallix and Moisie. The city includes the neighbourhoods of Arnaud, Clarke-City, De Grasse, de la Pointe, de la Rivière, Ferland, La Boule, Lac Labrie, Matamec, Plages, Pointe-Noire and Val-Marguerite.

Geography
Located on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River, between the Sainte-Marguerite and Moisie rivers, Sept-Îles lies on the shore of a deep-water bay fronted by a seven-island archipelago, about 230 km east of Baie-Comeau. The bay constitutes a 45 km2 natural harbour.

The seven islands referred to in its name are named:
 * La Grosse Boule ("the big ball")
 * La Petite Boule ("the small ball")
 * La Grande Basque ("the large Basque", named after the visiting Basque fishermen)
 * La Petite Basque ("the small Basque")
 * Île Manowin (from the Montagnais manouane meaning "where eggs are picked")
 * Île du Corossol (named after the French ship Corossol wrecked on the island in 1693; site of a lighthouse and a bird sanctuary)
 * Îlets Dequen (a group of tiny islands named after Jean de Quen who founded the local Catholic mission in 1650)

The archipelago is under provincial jurisdiction, with some parts administered by the federal government or by individuals.

There are two First Nations reserves in the area: Uashat in the western city proper, and Maliotenam in the east near the Moisie River.

Climate
Sept-Îles has a subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification Dfc) bordering on a humid continental climate (Dfb) despite being located at around only 50 degrees latitude. The two main seasons are summer and winter, as spring and autumn are very short transition seasons lasting only a few weeks. Winters are long, very cold, and snowy, lasting from late October to late April, but milder than more inland locations, with a January high of −9.8 C and a January low of −20.9 C. Overall precipitation is unusually high for a subarctic climate, and snow totals correspondingly heavy, averaging 384.6 cm per season, with an average depth of 16 cm annually or 37.6 cm from December to April inclusive. Summers are mildly warm, with a July high of 19.6 C; summers thus display stronger maritime influence than do winters. Precipitation is significant year-round, but it is lowest from January to March.

The highest temperature ever recorded in Sept-Îles was 37.4 C on 18 June 2020. The coldest temperature ever recorded was -45.6 C on 29 January 1913. The coldest temperature was recorded at Clarke City, which was the primary weather station for the area until records began at Sept-Îles Airport in September 1944.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Sept-Îles had a population of $24,569$, living in $11,272$ of its $12,814$ total private dwellings, a change of -3.3% from its 2016 population of $25,400$. With a land area of 1742.88 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

At the Census Agglomeration level in the 2021 census, the agglomeration of Sept-Îles (consisting of Sept-Îles, Maliotenam, and Uashat) had a population of 27,729, living in 12,293 of its 13,878 total private dwellings, a change of -2.8% from its 2016 population of 28,534. With a land area of 1,750.44 km2, it had a population density of 15.8 /km2 in 2021.

In 2021, the median age was 44.4, and French was the mother tongue of 92.5% of residents. The next most common mother tongues were English at 2.8%, followed by Innu at 1.4%. 1.1% reported both English and French as their first language. Additionally there were 0.4% who reported both French and a non-official language as their mother tongue.

As of 2021, Indigenous peoples comprised 4.2% of the population, mostly First Nations, and visible minorities accounted for 2.4%. The largest visible minority groups in Sept-Îles were Black (0.9%), Filipino (0.4%), and Latin American (0.3%). The area was home to 170 recent immigrants (i.e. those arriving between 2016 and 2021), who comprised about 0.7% of the total population. 105 of them were from various African countries.

In 2021, 70.4% of the population identified as Catholic, while 22.5% said they had no religious affiliation. Muslims were the largest religious minority, making up 0.8% of the population.

Economy
Iron ore concentrate from IOC activities in Labrador City are transported by the Quebec North Shore and Labrador Railway and are shipped to many markets around the world from Sept-Îles port facilities. Iron ore from Wabush and Bloom Lake is also shipped at Point Noire port facilities. The Aluminerie Alouette, in activity since 1992, has a large part in the local employment since construction started in 1989. Since its major expansion that started in 2005, it is now the largest primary aluminum smelter in the Americas. As a service centre for northeastern Québec, Sept-Îles economy is also powered by many jobs in the services sector.

Prior to its disestablishment, Air Gaspé was headquartered in Sept-Îles.

Tourism
Since 2009, Sept-Îles has been part of the Saint-Laurent destination circuit, which has nine international cruise ports. On a larger scale, an alliance is being created with other ports in northeastern America and Canada under the auspices of Canada New England. The international cruises in Sept-Îles are led by the non-profit organization Destination Sept-Îles Nakauinanu.M The organization's mission is to enable the various public and private bodies to enjoy a permanent structure, in the form of a one-stop shop, enabling them to work jointly on the development and promotion of the City of Sept-Îles and from its surroundings to international cruise lines. The main partners involved in the development of international cruises are the city of Sept-Îles, the Port of Sept-Îles, the and Innu Takuaikan Uashat Mak Mani-Utenam.

As of 2018, more than 55,000 international visitors have visited the port of call. Cunard, P & O Cruises, Cruise and Maritime Voyages, Phoenix Reisen, Holland America Line, Oceania Cruises, Regent Seven Seas, Silversea, Saga Cruises, Crystal Cruises, Norwegian Cruise Line, Pearl Seas Cruises and Transocean Tours are among the clients of the port. On September 7, 2019, when Royal Caribbean Line made its maiden call overnight, this was a safe haven for avoiding Hurricane Dorian.

Transportation
The Sept-Îles Airport has connections all over Quebec and Labrador. General aviation seaplanes are served by Sept-Îles/Lac Rapides Water Aerodrome. Air Gaspé was based in Sept-Îles, but acquired by Quebecair in 1973. In the 1980s, continued airline restructuring led to Quebecair's being acquired by CP Air in 1986, which in turn was taken over by Canadian Airlines in 1987.

Tshiuetin Rail Transportation also operates a passenger rail service north to Emeril, Labrador (near Labrador City) which continues northward towards its terminus in Schefferville, Quebec.

Groupe Desgagnés operates the Bella Desgagnés passenger and cargo ship along the lower St. Lawrence from Rimouski to Blanc-Sablon from mid-April to mid-January.

Radio

 * FM 90.1 - CKAU-FM-1, First Nations community radio (rebroadcasts CKAU-FM Maliotenam)
 * FM 94.1 - CKCN-FM, contemporary hit radio
 * FM 96.1 - CBRX-FM-2, Ici Musique (rebroadcasts CBRX-FM Rimouski)
 * FM 96.9 - CBSE-FM, CBC Radio One (rebroadcasts CBVE-FM Quebec City)
 * FM 98.1 - CBSI-FM, Ici Radio-Canada Première
 * FM 99.1 - CIPC-FM, soft rock

Television
All terrestrial television stations in the Sept-Îles area are repeaters of stations and networks that originate elsewhere. These stations are available on the Cogeco cable system, which also offer a local cable channel, TVCogeco. The local Cogeco system also carries CBMT-DT (CBC) Montreal and CJBR-DT (Ici Radio-Canada Télé) Rimouski.

Sept-Îles is not designated as a mandatory market for digital television conversion; only CFTF-TV and Télé-Québec announced their intentions to convert all their transmitters to digital, regardless of location.
 * Channel 5 / DT 20 - CFER-TV-2, TVA (rebroadcasts CFER-TV Rimouski)
 * Channel 7 / PSIP 7 - CFTF-DT-7, V (rebroadcasts CFTF-DT Rivière-du-Loup)
 * Channel 9 / PSIP 9 - CIVG-DT, Télé-Québec (rebroadcasts CIVM-DT Montreal)

Notable people

 * Denis Thériault, author, playwright and screenwriter.
 * Guy Carbonneau, Hall of Fame, former NHL defensive forward, former coach with the Montreal Canadiens
 * Karen Cliche, actress
 * Louis Jolliet, bought some land and the fur trading post.
 * Louis-Jean Cormier, vocalist and guitarist of the band Karkwa
 * Steve Duchesne, former NHL defenceman
 * Karl Dykhuis, former NHL defenceman
 * Guillaume LeBlanc, Olympic silver medalist in walking
 * Claude McKenzie, singer-songwriter and member of the group Kashtin
 * Bruno Pauletto, physiologist, athlete, businessman, coach, author
 * Henry de Puyjalon, (1841–1905) scientist, pioneer in ecology
 * Myriam Sirois, actress
 * Robert Michael Ballantyne, former-explorer who traded furs
 * Florent Vollant, singer-songwriter and member of the group Kashtin
 * Rob Zettler, former NHL defenceman
 * Margot Kidder, was born in 1948 as "a Stanton baby". Throughout her childhood, she moved to a number of Canadian towns, including Labrador City, N.L., Beloeil, Que., and Sept-Îles, Que.
 * Pierre Bourgault, Political activist and pioneer of the Quebec separatist movement tried to be elected in the Sept-Îles provincial district (Duplessis)
 * Pierre Duchesne, ex-Lieutenant Governor of Quebec did his notary career in Sept-Îles

Notes and references

 * Dredge, L. A. Surficial Geology of the Sept-Îles Area, Quebec North Shore. Ottawa, Canada: Geological Survey of Canada, 1983.
 * Faessler, Carl. Sept-Îles Area, North Shore of St. Lawrence, Saguenay County. Québec: Dept. of Mines, Division of Geological Surveys, 1942.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sept-Îles, Quebec


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The code for the script can be found at convertWiki2SQL.php and importUseModWiki.php in SVN.

title: User:Conversion script


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Theatresports

Theatresports is a form of improvisational theatre, which uses the format of a competition for dramatic effect. Opposing teams can perform scenes based on audience suggestions, with ratings by the audience or by a panel of judges. Developed by director Keith Johnstone in Calgary, Alberta, in 1977, the concept of Theatresports originated in Johnstone's observations of techniques used in professional wrestling to generate heat, or audience reaction.

Derivatives
ComedySportz, started in 1984 in Milwaukee, WI, tends to emphasise the sports competition format more than Theatresports, for example by having a referee who awards points and administers fouls. The Australian shows Thank God You're Here and TheatreGames LIVE follow a similar format to these shows. New York City's Face Off Unlimited has also adapted the concept to numerous productions. Two similar formats, Ligue nationale d'improvisation and Canadian Improv Games both also officially debuted in 1977 in Quebec and Ontario, respectively. The Canadian Improv Games had been doing competitive improv at various events as early as 1974.

title: Theatresports


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Gull-billed tern

The gull-billed tern (Gelochelidon nilotica), formerly Sterna nilotica, is a tern in the family Laridae. It is widely distributed and breeds in scattered localities in Europe, Asia, northwest Africa, and the Americas. The Australian gull-billed tern was previously considered a subspecies.

Taxonomy
The gull-billed tern was formally described in 1789 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae. He placed it with terns in the genus Sterna and coined the binomial name Sterna nilotica. Gmelin based his description on the "Egyptian tern" that had been described in 1785 by the English ornithologist John Latham in his book A General Synopsis of Birds. Latham had in turn based his own account on that by the Swedish naturalist Fredrik Hasselquist that was published in 1757. The gull-billed tern was moved to the resurrected genus Gelochelidon based on a molecular phylogenetic study published in 2005. The genus had been introduced in 1830 by the German zoologist Alfred Brehm. The genus name combines the Ancient Greek gelaō meaning "to laugh" with khelidōn meaning "swallow". The specific epithet nilotica is from Latin niloticus meaning "of the River Nile".

Five subspecies are recognised:
 * G. n. nilotica (Gmelin, 1789) – nominate, found in Europe, North Africa through the Middle East & south-central Asia to western China & Thailand
 * G. n. affinis (Horsfield, 1821) – found in Transbaikalia to Manchuria, Japan, south and east China through southeast Asia to the Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi & Sumatra
 * G. n. aranea (Wilson, 1814) – found in eastern & southern United States, Greater Antilles
 * G. n. vanrossemi Bancroft, 1929 – found from southern California to northwestern Mexico
 * G. n. gronvoldi Mathews, 1912 – found from French Guiana to northeastern Argentina

Description
This is a fairly large and powerful tern, similar in size and general appearance to a Sandwich tern, but the short thick gull-like bill, broad wings, long legs and robust body are distinctive. The summer adult has grey upperparts, white underparts, a black cap, strong black bill and black legs. The call is a characteristic ker-wik. It is 33 - 42 cm in length and 76 - 91 cm in wingspan. Body mass ranges from 150 - 292 g.

In winter, the cap is lost, and there is a dark patch through the eye like a Forster's tern or a Mediterranean gull. Juvenile gull-billed terns have a fainter mask, but otherwise look much like winter adults.

Juvenile Sandwich terns have a short bill, and are frequently mistaken for gull-billed tern where the latter species is uncommon, such as North Sea coasts.

Distribution and habitat
It breeds in warmer parts of the world in southern Europe, temperate and eastern Asia, both coasts of North America, eastern South America. This bird has a number of geographical races, differing mainly in size and minor plumage details.

All forms show a post-breeding dispersal, but the northern breeders are most migratory, wintering south to Africa, the Caribbean and northern South America, southern Asia and New Zealand.

The gull-billed tern is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.

Breeding
The gull-billed tern breeds in colonies on lakes, marshes and coasts (including bays and earthen levees). It nests in a ground scrape and lays two to five eggs. While widely distributed in freshwater areas in Eurasia, it is associated almost solely with saltwater, coastal areas in North America.

Food and feeding
This is a somewhat atypical tern, in appearance like a Sterna tern, but with feeding habits more like the Chlidonias marsh terns, black tern and white-winged tern. It does not normally plunge dive for fish like the other white terns, and has a broader diet than most other terns. It largely feeds on insects taken in flight, and also often hunts over wet fields and even in brushy areas, to take amphibians and small mammals. It is also an opportunistic feeder, and has been observed to pick up and feed on dead dragonflies from the road.

title: Gull-billed tern


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Talk:List of presidents of Indonesia

earlkier comments
Lists should be named as such. --mav 09:18, 11 Nov 2003 (UTC)

hmm - this is not an A-class article. But perhaps it is already at the quality it needs to be as a list. Start class with no further work necessary I'd say Merbabu 07:09, 27 August 2006 (UTC) maybe not - but visually as an indonesian list its probably the best I have seen so far; probably improvements of thumb images of their faces - is all that could be done further SatuSuro 07:45, 27 August 2006 (UTC)

Mr Asaat
http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0508/11/sumbagut/1963254.htm

Mr Asaat Datuk Mudo adalah Akting Presiden Republik Indonesia Yogyakarta dalam Negara Republik Indonesia Serikat (RIS).

Suggestion
I suggest that we make this article more than just list of the Presidents of Indonesia by also talking about the history of the office in the article. I'm thinking something along the line of the President of the United States article. I think there's plenty to talk about the Indonesian Presidency, like how it used to be a ceremonial Head of State position and how the President was elected (from the People's Consultative Assembly MPR General Sessions to the direct election by the people).Jakman 11:30, 10 November 2006 (UTC)
 * If you have good references and use in-line citations, go for it. --Merbabu 11:36, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

The table is a mess
The table is a mess - can someone good with tables fix it please! Thanks --Peripatetic 11:45, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Uhm, in what way is it a mess? — Indon ( reply ) — 18:06, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Well. for a start, Sukarno was not the president of the Indonesian National Party.Davidelit (talk) 11:40, 3 August 2008 (UTC)

Sukarno & the Indonesian National Party (PNI)
Although Sukarno founded the original PNI in 1927, it was dissolved after his detention by the Dutch colonial authorities. An organization called the PNI existed briefly as the official government party in 1945, but was also dissolved. The Sukarno-era PNI was established in 1946, but without Sukarno among the membership. It is therefore incorrect to say label Sukarno as the PNI president. See Kahin's, Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia and Ricklefs. Davidelit (talk) 02:26, 26 September 2008 (UTC)

ENGLISH
Please do not add non english material here - thank you SatuSuro 02:46, 1 October 2008 (UTC)

Rfc Request
I have requested RfC on inclusion of -elect official into List of president/vice president/prime minister. Anyone interested can give their comments. Ckfasdf (talk) 03:02, 24 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of presidents of Indonesia


text:
Talk:Equatoria

Comments
205.150.76.247 01:14, 30 October 2007 (UTC)How could a province of Egypt at any period lie in the extreme south of Sudan? Stan, wasn't "Equatoria" more of an expansionist fantasy of the Khedive of Egypt in 1869, expanding beyond the southern borders of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.User:Wetman
 * Yeah, that's an interesting part of the story that I'll be able to fill in better when I finish the book (Iain Smith's on the relief expedition). Equatoria was formally under the Khedive's rule - it was not British, and not an independent country. Stan 15:28, 11 Nov 2003 (UTC)

I have been reading "The White Nile" by Alan Moorehead, and prviously read "The Blue Nile. Both books give interesting perspectives on the events discussed in your articles on Equitoria, the Mahdist revolution and the seige of Khartoum. Both books are worthwhile reading and perhaps can be added to the bibliography of these articles. E. Goldstein ( sorry I don't know how to access the tildes on my keyboard)205.150.76.247 01:14, 30 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Because Sudan itself was a province of Egypt in those days, Equatoria was just its southernmost province. Gordon was governor of Equatoria before he became governor of Sudan, when the Mahdi revolt siezed Sudan, Equatoria was cut off from Egypt, and Egypt formally abandoned the province shortly thereafter (Stanley even delivered a letter to that effect on his doomed relief expedition).  Equatoria was a formal province, they had a number of stations and outposts on the Nile, and it was governed by Charles Gordon and then Emin Pasha for a good number of years.  They had a couple thousand Egyptian troops at their disposal, steamboats, and even received a formal salary.  However, due to the distance from Khartoum, and the difficulty of travel through the Sudd, they were largely left to their own devices beyond that, years could go by without any communications.  Aapold (talk) 13:51, 24 August 2009 (UTC)

The map indicating the location of Equatoria at its greatest extend as a Sudan province, originally Bahr el Ghazal was a separate province with only nominal allegiance to the Egypt (a situation that resulted from local chiefs defeating an Ottoman/Egyptian force). The region fell to the Mahdi, and was only later attached to the province of Equatoria.

I'm reading "The Lost Expedition", an account of the relief expedition now, have Moorehead's White Nile on my immediate next list. Aapold (talk) 13:50, 24 August 2009 (UTC)

This is quite literally the most poorly worded Wikipedia article I have ever encountered. I understand that English may have been anything but a native language to some of the contributors, but this article could use some editorial assistance from someone who is fluent in both English and the subject matter. Macraig (talk) 03:20, 2 August 2011 (UTC)

please clarify (and disambiguation comment)
(stopped a Dabsolver run to say:) It does look like people in the picture taken in Melbourne Australia are in fact from the Sudan, so I am leaving the image but I do not see any reason why there are a dozen or so Sudanese in one place in Australia... ie is there an emigré community there? Are they on some sort of tour? Playing a sports match? Just wondering as I do not know twelve people of my nationality in the place I live. Meanwhile, I left the link going to the disambiguation page because I believe both possibilities may be true, but I don't know one way or the other; requires either research or topic knowledge. Elinruby (talk) 04:01, 25 November 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Equatoria


text:
Sept-Îles

Sept-Îles or Sept Îles (seven islands in French) may refer to:

France

 * Sept-Îles, France, also known as Jentilez, a small French archipelago off the north coast of Brittany and an important bird reserve
 * Sept-Îles Lighthouse

Canada

 * Sept-Îles, Quebec, city of Côte-Nord
 * Sept Îles Lake (Saint-Raymond), a lake in Saint-Raymond, Portneuf Regional County Municipality, Quebec
 * Sept Îles Lake (Saint-Ubalde), a lake in Saint-Ubalde, Portneuf Regional County Municipality, Quebec
 * Rivière des Sept Îles, a tributary of the Portneuf River in Saint-Raymond and Saint-Basile in Portneuf Regional County Municipality, Quebec

title: Sept-Îles


text:
Habilitation

Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excellence in research, teaching, and further education, which usually includes a dissertation. The degree, sometimes abbreviated Dr. habil. (Doctor habilitatus), PD (for Privatdozent), Dr hab. (Doktor habilitowany), or D.Sc. (Doctor of Sciences in Russia and some CIS countries), is often a qualification for full professorship in those countries. The degree conferral is usually accompanied by a public oral defence event (a lecture or a colloquium) with one or more opponents. Habilitation is usually awarded 5–15 years after a PhD degree or its equivalent. Achieving this academic degree does not automatically give the scientist a paid position, though many people who apply for the degree already have steady university employment.

History and etymology
The term habilitation is derived from the Medieval Latin habilitare, meaning "to make suitable, to fit", from Classical Latin "fit, proper, skillful". The degree developed in Germany in the seventeenth century (c. 1652). Initially, habilitation was synonymous with "doctoral qualification". The term became synonymous with "post-doctoral qualification" in Germany in the 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation". Afterwards, it became normal in the German university system to write two doctoral theses: the inaugural thesis (Inauguraldissertation), completing a course of study, and the habilitation thesis (Habilitationsschrift), which opens the road to a professorship.

Prevalence
Habilitation qualifications exist or existed in:
 * Algeria (Habilitation à diriger des recherches, "accreditation to supervise research", abbreviated HDR)
 * Armenia, Azerbaijan (Habil. dr.; currently abolished and no longer conferred, but those who have earned the degree earlier will use it for life)
 * Austria (formerly Univ.-Doz., now Priv.-Doz.)
 * Belarus (Доктар навук, Łacinka: Doktar navuk)
 * Belgium (French-speaking part: Agrégation de l'enseignement supérieur, until 2010)
 * Brazil (Livre-docência)
 * Bulgaria (Доцент, Docent)
 * Czech Republic (doc., docent)
 * Denmark (dr. med./scient./phil.)
 * Egypt (العالمية Ālimiyya/Al-Azhar)
 * Finland (Dosentti/Docent)
 * France (Habilitation à diriger des recherches, "accreditation to supervise research", abbreviated HDR)
 * Germany (Priv.-Doz. and/or Dr. habil.)
 * Greece (υφηγεσία, υφηγητής), abolished in 1983
 * Hungary (Dr. habil.)
 * Italy (Abilitazione scientifica nazionale, since 2012)
 * Latvia (Dr. habil.), since 1995 no longer conferred, but those who have earned the degree earlier will use it for life)
 * Lithuania (Dr. habil.), since 2003 no longer conferred
 * Luxembourg (autorisation à diriger des recherches, "authorization to supervise research", or ADR)
 * Moldova
 * Poland (dr hab., doktor habilitowany)
 * Portugal (Agregação)
 * Romania (abilitare)
 * Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Ukraine (Доктор наук, Doktor nauk, "Doctor of Sciences")
 * Serbia (Доцент, Docent)
 * Slovakia (Docent)
 * Slovenia (Docent)
 * Spain (Accreditation of research – Agregado)
 * Sweden (Docent)
 * Switzerland (PD and/or Dr. habil.)
 * Tunisia (Habilitation à diriger des recherches, "accreditation to supervise research", abbreviated HDR)

Process
A habilitation thesis can be either cumulative (based on previous research, be it articles or monographs) or monographical, i.e., a specific, unpublished thesis, which then tends to be very long. While cumulative habilitations are predominant in some fields (such as medicine), they have been, since about a century ago, almost unheard of in others (such as law).

The level of scholarship of a habilitation is considerably higher than for a doctoral dissertation in the same academic tradition in terms of quality and quantity, and must be accomplished independently, without direction or guidance of a faculty supervisor. In the sciences, publication of numerous (sometimes ten or more) research articles is required during the habilitation period of about four to ten years. In the humanities, a major book publication may be a prerequisite for defense.

It is possible to get a professorship without habilitation, if the search committee attests the candidate to have qualifications equaling those of a habilitation and the higher-ranking bodies (the university's senate and the country's ministry of education) approve. However, while some subjects make liberal use of this (e.g., the natural sciences in order to employ candidates from countries with different systems and the arts to employ active artists), in other subjects it is rarely done.

The habilitation is awarded after a public lecture, to be held after the thesis has been accepted, and after which the venia legendi (Latin: 'permission to read', i.e., to lecture) is bestowed. In some areas, such as law, philosophy, theology and sociology, the venia, and thus the habilitation, is given only for certain sub-fields (such as criminal law, civil law, or philosophy of science, practical philosophy, etc.); in others, for the entire field.

Although disciplines and countries vary in the typical number of years for obtaining habilitation after getting a doctorate, it usually takes longer than for the American academic tenure. For example, in Poland until 2018, the statutory time for getting a habilitation (traditionally, although not obligatorily, relying on a book publication) is eight years. Theoretically, if an assistant professor does not succeed in obtaining habilitation in this time, they should be moved to a position of a lecturer, with a much higher teaching load and no research obligations, or even be dismissed. In practice, however, on many occasions schools extend the deadlines for habilitation for most scholars if they do not make it in time, and there is evidence that they are able to finish it in the near future.

Austria
In Austria, the procedure is currently regulated by national law (Austrian University Act UG2002 §103 ). The graduation process includes additionally to the sub-commission of the senate (including students representatives for a hearing on the teaching capabilities of the candidate) an external reviewer. Holding a habilitation allows academics to do research and supervise (PhD, MSc, ...) on behalf of this university. As it is an academic degree, this is even valid if the person is not enrolled (or not enrolled anymore) at this institution (Habilitation ad personam). Appointment to a full professorship with an international finding commission includes a venia docendi (UG2002 §98(12)), which is restricted to the time of the appointment (UG2002 §98(13) – Habilitation ad positionem).

While the habilitation ensures the rights of the independent research and the supervision, it is on behalf of the statute of the universities to give those rights also to, e.g., associate professors without habilitation. Currently the major Austrian universities do that only for master's level students, but not for PhD programs.

Brazil
Livre-docência is a title (similar to Habilitation in Germany) granted to holders of doctorate degrees upon submission of a cumulative thesis followed by a viva voce examination. It has practically disappeared amongst Brazilian Federal HEIs. It is still required at a few institutions for admissions as a full professor (professor titular), most notably in the three state universities of the state of São Paulo, as well as at the Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP).

France
The degree of Docteur d'État (State Doctor) or Doctorat d'État (State Doctorate), called Doctorat ès lettres (Doctor of Letters) or Doctorat ès sciences (Doctor of Sciences) before the 1950s, formerly awarded by universities in France had a somewhat similar purpose. In 1984, the Doctorat d'État was replaced by the Habilitation à diriger des recherches (or French habilitation).

The award of the French habilitation is a general requirement for being the main supervisor of PhD students and to be eligible for full professor positions. The official eligibility named qualification is granted by the French Conseil National des Universités (CNU). Members of Directeur de Recherche corps who are assimilated to full professors by the CNU do not require the French habilitation to supervise PhD students. Depending on the field, the French habilitation requires consistent research from five to ten years after appointment as an assistant professor (maître de conférences), a substantial amount of significant publications, the supervision of at least one PhD student from start to graduation, a successful track record securing extramural funding as a principal investigator, as well as a sound, ambitious, and feasible five-year research project. Outstanding postdoctoral researchers who are not yet appointed to a university could also obtain the habilitation if they meet the requirements. The French habilitation committee is constituted by a majority of external and sometimes foreign referees. The French habilitation entitles assistant professors (maîtres de conférences) to apply for full professor positions (professeur des universités). As such, the French habilitation is similar to the promotion to associate professor in North America. In other words, the North American ranks of assistant professor, associate professor, and full professor are equivalent to maître de conférences, French habilitation/qualification, and professeur des universités, respectively, in France.

Germany
In order to hold the rank of a full professor within the German university system, it is necessary to have obtained the habilitation (or "habilitation-equivalent achievements"). This can be demonstrated by leading a research group, being a junior professor, or other achievements in research and teaching as a post-doctoral researcher. The habilitation in Germany is usually earned after several years of independent research and teaching, either "internally" while working at a university or "externally" as a research and teaching-oriented practitioner. Once the habilitation thesis (Habilitationsschrift, often simply Habilitation) and all other requirements are completed, the candidate (called Habilitand/in in German) "has habilitated him- or herself" and receives an extension to his/her doctoral degree, namely Dr. habil. (with the specification, such as Dr. rer. nat. habil.). The habilitation is thus an additional qualification at a higher level than the German doctoral degree. Only those candidates receiving the highest (or second-highest) grade for their doctoral thesis are encouraged to proceed with a habilitation.

A typical procedure after completing the habilitation is that the successful researcher officially receives the so-called Venia legendi (Latin for "permission for lecturing") for a specific academic subject at universities (sometimes also referred to as Venia docendi, Latin for "right of teaching"). Someone in possession of the Venia legendi but not a professorship has the right to carry the title Privatdozent (for men) or Privatdozentin (for women), abbreviated PD or Priv.-Doz.. The status as a PD requires doing some (generally unpaid) teaching in order to keep the title (Titellehre or titular teaching).

Italy
In the Italian legal system, habilitations are different types of acts and authorizations.

Habilitations for associate and full professorships in universities
Regarding university habilitations, the so-called Gelmini reform of the research and university teaching system (Italian Law 240 of year 2010 and subsequent modifications) has established the national scientific habilitation for the calls in the role of associate professor and full professor (called abilitazione scientifica nazionale, or ASN). This means that, as a prerequisite for being able to be selected by a university committee to fill these roles, it is necessary to have obtained the scientific qualification for the relative kind of teaching. For STEM fields (so called "bibliometric fields"), the qualifications requires a two-step evaluation:

 * 1) first a quantitative assessment, as each candidate for and ASN as associate or full professor must have at least two out of these three requirements: having published more papers than most associate or full professors in Italian universities, having received more citations than most associate or full professors in Italian universities, having an h-index higher than most associate or full professors in Italian universities;
 * 2) then, a specific committee (one for each scientific sub-field) will qualitatively evaluate the scientific CV of the candidates, considering funding, mobility, autonomy of the research, awards won, and so on.

The successful candidate will then receive his or her ASN habilitation as associate or full professor (or, in some instances, for both) and may thus apply for those vacancies in Italian universities.

The ASN habilitation also allows to compete for three-year tenure-track assistant professorship positions (called RTDb in the Italian system, for ricercatore a tempo determinato di tipo b). At the end of the three-year contract the assistant professor must have a valid ASN habilitation in order to become a permanent associate professor; otherwise, he or she is permanently laid off. To prevent this (which may be disastrous to already undermanned Italian departments), it is common practice to award RTDb positions to people already habilitated as associate or full professors, which is in practical contrast with the spirit of the Gelmini-reform.

If an ASN habilitation application fails, the candidate can apply again, but only after a 12-month hiatus.

The ASN habilitation was initially valid for four years, but this validity term was extended many times. Currently (2023), due to extreme scarcity of tenure track positions in Italy, the ASN habilitation validity has been recently increased to ten years by government decree.

Professional qualifications
In the field of free regulated professions, protected by a professional body (architects, lawyers, engineers, doctors, pharmacists, journalists, etc.), it identifies the state examination, more properly called "state examination for the qualification for the exercise of professions" that allows already graduated students or those with the necessary titles to register on the list of professionals and work. Many state exams include the possession of a specific qualification among the requirements. For example, to take the habilitation exam for to become an architect or an engineer, one must have already graduated from a university. However, in order to actually practice the profession it is necessary to register with the relevant professional association and, if the profession is exercised independently, it is necessary to have a VAT number. These exams are usually organized by the professional orders with the collaboration of area universities.

In other cases, especially in the case of health professions or childcare professionals, not protected by a professional nature, the degree itself is a qualifying title.

Finally, some habilitations, since their activities cannot be done autonomously, need to be hired in a suitable structure in order to effectively carry out the profession in question. This is for example the case of the education sector: once the qualifying examination has been passed, a public competition must be won for recruitment in an upper or lower secondary school.

Portugal
In the Portuguese legal system, there are two types of habilitation degree. The first is normally given to university professors and is named agregação or Decree of Law 239/2007 while the second is named habilitação (Decree of Law 124/99) and is used by doctoral researchers working in institutes outside universities. Legally, they are equivalent and are required for a professor (agregação) or a researcher (habilitação) to reach the top of their specific careers (full professor or coordinator researcher). Both degrees aim to evaluate if the candidate has achieved significant outputs in terms of scientific activity, including activities in postgraduation supervision.

The process to obtain any of the degrees is very similar, with minor changes. Any PhD holder can submit a habilitation thesis to obtain the degree. For agregação, the thesis is composed by a detailed CV of the achievements obtained after concluding the PhD, a detailed report of an academic course taught at the university (or a proposed course to be taught), and the summary of a lesson to be given. For habilitação, the academic course report is replaced by a research proposal or a proposal for advanced PhD studies.

After the candidate submits the habilitation thesis, a jury composed of five to nine full professors or coordinator researchers first evaluates the submitted documents; the majority needs to approve the candidate's request. If approved, the candidate then needs to defend their thesis in a two-day public defense. The public defense lasts for two hours each day. On the first day, the curriculum of the candidate is discussed (for both degrees) and in the case of agregação, the candidate also needs to present the academic course selected. On the second day, the candidate needs to present a lecture (agregação) or a proposal of a research project (habilitação).

Equivalent degrees
The Doctor of Science in Russia and some other countries formerly part of the Soviet Union or the Eastern bloc is equivalent to a habilitation. The cumulative form of the habilitation can be compared to the higher doctorates, such as the D.Sc. (Doctor of Science), Litt.D. (Doctor of Letters), LL.D. (Doctor of Laws) and D.D. (Doctor of Divinity) found in the UK, Ireland, and some Commonwealth countries, which are awarded on the basis of a career of published work. However, higher doctorates from these countries (except Russia) are often not recognized by any German state as being equivalent to the habilitation. In 1999, Russia and Germany signed a Statement on Mutual Academic Recognition of Russian Academic Degrees and German Academic Qualifications, including the equivalence of the Russian Doctor of Science and the German Habilitation qualification.

Furthermore, the position or title of an associate professor (or higher) at a European Union-based university is systematically translated into or compared to titles such as Universitätsprofessor (W2) (Germany), førsteamanuensis (Norway), or Doktor hab. (Poland) by institutions such as the European Commission Directorate-General for Research, and therefore usually implies the holder of such title has a degree equivalent to habilitation.

German habilitation debate
In 2004, the habilitation was the subject of a major political debate in Germany. The former Federal Minister for Education and Science, Edelgard Bulmahn, aimed to abolish the system of the habilitation and replace it with the alternative concept of the junior professor: a researcher should first be employed for up to six years as a "junior professor" (a non-tenured position roughly equivalent to assistant professor in the United States) and so prove his/her suitability for holding a tenured professorship.

Many, especially researchers in the natural sciences, as well as young researchers, have long demanded the abandonment of the habilitation as they think it to be an unnecessary and time-consuming obstacle in an academic career, contributing to the brain drain of talented young researchers who think their chances of getting a professorship at a reasonable age to be better abroad and hence move, for example, to the UK or the USA. Many feel overly dependent on their supervising principal investigators (the professor heading the research group) since superiors have power to delay the process of completing the habilitation. A further problem comes with funding support for those who wish to pursue a habilitation, where older candidates often feel discriminated against, for example under the DFG's Emmy-Noether programme. Furthermore, internal "soft" money might only be budgeted to pay for younger postdoctoral scientists. Because of the need to chase short-term research contracts, many researchers in the natural sciences apply for more transparent career development opportunities in other countries. In summary, a peer-reviewed demonstration of a successful academic development and an international outlook is considered more than compensation for an habilitation where there is evidence of grant applications, well-cited publications, a network of collaborators, lecturing and organisational experience, and experience of having worked and published abroad.

On the other hand, amongst many senior researchers, especially in medicine, the humanities and the social sciences, the habilitation was—and still is—regarded as a valuable instrument of quality control before giving somebody a tenured position for life.

Bavaria, Saxony and Thuringia, three states with conservative governments, filed suit at the German Constitutional Court against the new law replacing the habilitation with the junior professor. The Court concurred with their argument that the Bundestag (the federal parliament) cannot pass such a law, because the German constitution explicitly states that affairs of education are the sole responsibility of the states and declared the law to be invalid in June 2004. In reaction, a new federal law was passed, giving the states more freedom regarding habilitations and junior professors. The junior professor has since been legally established in all states, but it is still possible—and encouraged—for an academic career in many subjects in Germany to pursue a habilitation.

title: Habilitation


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Homogeneous space

In mathematics, a homogeneous space is, very informally, a space that looks the same everywhere, as you move through it, with movement given by the action of a group. Homogeneous spaces occur in the theories of Lie groups, algebraic groups and topological groups. More precisely, a homogeneous space for a group G is a non-empty manifold or topological space X on which G acts transitively. The elements of G are called the symmetries of X. A special case of this is when the group G in question is the automorphism group of the space X – here "automorphism group" can mean isometry group, diffeomorphism group, or homeomorphism group. In this case, X is homogeneous if intuitively X looks locally the same at each point, either in the sense of isometry (rigid geometry), diffeomorphism (differential geometry), or homeomorphism (topology). Some authors insist that the action of G be faithful (non-identity elements act non-trivially), although the present article does not. Thus there is a group action of G on X that can be thought of as preserving some "geometric structure" on X, and making X into a single G-orbit.

Formal definition
Let X be a non-empty set and G a group. Then X is called a G-space if it is equipped with an action of G on X. Note that automatically G acts by automorphisms (bijections) on the set. If X in addition belongs to some category, then the elements of G are assumed to act as automorphisms in the same category. That is, the maps on X coming from elements of G preserve the structure associated with the category (for example, if X is an object in Diff then the action is required to be by diffeomorphisms). A homogeneous space is a G-space on which G acts transitively.

If X is an object of the category C, then the structure of a G-space is a homomorphism:
 * $$\rho : G \to \mathrm{Aut}_{\mathbf{C}}(X)$$

into the group of automorphisms of the object X in the category C. The pair (X, ρ) defines a homogeneous space provided ρ(G) is a transitive group of symmetries of the underlying set of X.

Examples
For example, if X is a topological space, then group elements are assumed to act as homeomorphisms on X. The structure of a G-space is a group homomorphism ρ : G → Homeo(X) into the homeomorphism group of X.

Similarly, if X is a differentiable manifold, then the group elements are diffeomorphisms. The structure of a G-space is a group homomorphism ρ : G → Diffeo(X) into the diffeomorphism group of X.

Riemannian symmetric spaces are an important class of homogeneous spaces, and include many of the examples listed below.

Concrete examples include:

 * Isometry groups
 * Positive curvature:
 * Sphere (orthogonal group): Sn−1 ≅ O(n) / O(n−1). This is true because of the following observations: First, Sn−1 is the set of vectors in Rn with norm 1. If we consider one of these vectors as a base vector, then any other vector can be constructed using an orthogonal transformation. If we consider the span of this vector as a one dimensional subspace of Rn, then the complement is an (n − 1)-dimensional vector space that is invariant under an orthogonal transformation from O(n − 1). This shows us why we can construct Sn−1 as a homogeneous space.
 * Oriented sphere (special orthogonal group): Sn−1 ≅ SO(n) / SO(n − 1)
 * Projective space (projective orthogonal group): Pn−1 ≅ PO(n) / PO(n − 1)
 * Flat (zero curvature):
 * Euclidean space (Euclidean group, point stabilizer is orthogonal group): An ≅ E(n) / O(n)
 * Negative curvature:
 * Hyperbolic space (orthochronous Lorentz group, point stabilizer orthogonal group, corresponding to hyperboloid model): Hn ≅ O+(1, n) / O(n)
 * Oriented hyperbolic space: SO+(1, n) / SO(n)
 * Anti-de Sitter space: AdSn+1 = O(2, n) / O(1, n)

 * Others
 * Affine space over field K (for affine group, point stabilizer general linear group): An = Aff(n, K) / GL(n, K).
 * Grassmannian: Gr(r, n) = O(n) / (O(r) × O(n − r))
 * Topological vector spaces (in the sense of topology)
 * There are other interesting homogeneous spaces, in particular with relevance in physics: This includes Minkowski space Mn ≅ ISO(n-1,1) / SO(n,1) or Galilean and Carrollian spaces.

Geometry
From the point of view of the Erlangen program, one may understand that "all points are the same", in the geometry of X. This was true of essentially all geometries proposed before Riemannian geometry, in the middle of the nineteenth century.

Thus, for example, Euclidean space, affine space and projective space are all in natural ways homogeneous spaces for their respective symmetry groups. The same is true of the models found of non-Euclidean geometry of constant curvature, such as hyperbolic space.

A further classical example is the space of lines in projective space of three dimensions (equivalently, the space of two-dimensional subspaces of a four-dimensional vector space). It is simple linear algebra to show that GL4 acts transitively on those. We can parameterize them by line co-ordinates: these are the 2×2 minors of the 4×2 matrix with columns two basis vectors for the subspace. The geometry of the resulting homogeneous space is the line geometry of Julius Plücker.

Homogeneous spaces as coset spaces
In general, if X is a homogeneous space of G, and Ho is the stabilizer of some marked point o in X (a choice of origin), the points of X correspond to the left cosets G/Ho, and the marked point o corresponds to the coset of the identity. Conversely, given a coset space G/H, it is a homogeneous space for G with a distinguished point, namely the coset of the identity. Thus a homogeneous space can be thought of as a coset space without a choice of origin.

For example, if H is the identity subgroup $\{e\}$, then X is the G-torsor, which explains why G-torsors are often described intuitively as "G with forgotten identity".

In general, a different choice of origin o will lead to a quotient of G by a different subgroup Ho′ that is related to Ho by an inner automorphism of G. Specifically,

where g is any element of G for which go = o′. Note that the inner automorphism (1) does not depend on which such g is selected; it depends only on g modulo Ho.

If the action of G on X is continuous and X is Hausdorff, then H is a closed subgroup of G. In particular, if G is a Lie group, then H is a Lie subgroup by Cartan's theorem. Hence G / H is a smooth manifold and so X carries a unique smooth structure compatible with the group action.

One can go further to double coset spaces, notably Clifford–Klein forms Γ\G/H, where Γ is a discrete subgroup (of G) acting properly discontinuously.

Example
For example, in the line geometry case, we can identify H as a 12-dimensional subgroup of the 16-dimensional general linear group, GL(4), defined by conditions on the matrix entries
 * h13 = h14 = h23 = h24 = 0,

by looking for the stabilizer of the subspace spanned by the first two standard basis vectors. That shows that X has dimension 4.

Since the homogeneous coordinates given by the minors are 6 in number, this means that the latter are not independent of each other. In fact, a single quadratic relation holds between the six minors, as was known to nineteenth-century geometers.

This example was the first known example of a Grassmannian, other than a projective space. There are many further homogeneous spaces of the classical linear groups in common use in mathematics.

Prehomogeneous vector spaces
The idea of a prehomogeneous vector space was introduced by Mikio Sato.

It is a finite-dimensional vector space V with a group action of an algebraic group G, such that there is an orbit of G that is open for the Zariski topology (and so, dense). An example is GL(1) acting on a one-dimensional space.

The definition is more restrictive than it initially appears: such spaces have remarkable properties, and there is a classification of irreducible prehomogeneous vector spaces, up to a transformation known as "castling".

Homogeneous spaces in physics
Given the Poincaré group G and its subgroup the Lorentz group H, the space of cosets G / H is the Minkowski space. Together with de Sitter space and Anti-de Sitter space these are the maximally symmetric lorentzian spacetimes. There are also homogeneous spaces of relevance in physics that are non-lorentzian, for example Galilean, Carrollian or Aristotelian spacetimes.

Physical cosmology using the general theory of relativity makes use of the Bianchi classification system. Homogeneous spaces in relativity represent the space part of background metrics for some cosmological models; for example, the three cases of the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric may be represented by subsets of the Bianchi I (flat), V (open), VII (flat or open) and IX (closed) types, while the Mixmaster universe represents an anisotropic example of a Bianchi IX cosmology.

A homogeneous space of N dimensions admits a set of $$N(N + 1) Killing vectors. For three dimensions, this gives a total of six linearly independent Killing vector fields; homogeneous 3-spaces have the property that one may use linear combinations of these to find three everywhere non-vanishing Killing vector fields ξ$1⁄2$,
 * $$\xi^{(a)}_{[i;k]}=C^a_{\ bc}\xi^{(b)}_i \xi^{(c)}_k ,$$

where the object Cabc, the "structure constants", form a constant order-three tensor antisymmetric in its lower two indices (on the left-hand side, the brackets denote antisymmetrisation and ";" represents the covariant differential operator). In the case of a flat isotropic universe, one possibility is Cabc = 0 (type I), but in the case of a closed FLRW universe, Cabc = εabc, where εabcis the Levi-Civita symbol.

title: Homogeneous space