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Defective verb

In linguistics, a defective verb is a verb that either lacks a conjugated form or entails incomplete conjugation, and thus cannot be conjugated for certain grammatical tenses, aspects, persons, genders, or moods that the majority of verbs or a "normal" or regular verb in a particular language can be conjugated for. That is to say, a defective verb lacks forms that most verbs in a particular language have.

Common defectives
The most commonly recognized defective verbs in English are auxiliary verbs—the class of preterite-present verbs—can/could, may/might, shall/should, must, ought, and will/would (would being a later historical development). Though these verbs were not originally defective, in most varieties of English today, they occur only in a modal auxiliary sense. However, unlike normal auxiliary verbs, they are not regularly conjugated in the infinitive mood. Therefore, these defective auxiliaries do not accept each other as objects. Additionally, they do not regularly appear as participles.

For example, can lacks an infinitive, future tense, participle, imperative, and gerund. The missing parts of speech are instead supplied by using the appropriate forms of to be plus able to. So, while I could write and I was able to write have the same meaning, I could has two meanings depending on use, which are I was able to or I would be able to. One cannot say *I will can, which is instead expressed as I will be able to. Similarly, must has no true past tense form, this instead being supplied by had (the past tense of have), and "to have to" in the infinitive, an example of composite conjugation. The past tense expressing the obligatory aspect of must is expressed as "had to", as in He had to go. "Must have", on the other hand, expresses probability or likelihood in modern English; for example, "If that's thunder, there must have been lightning."

Some verbs are becoming more defective as time goes on; for example, although might is etymologically the past tense (preterite) of may, it is no longer generally used as such (for example, *he might not go to mean "he was forbidden to go"). Similarly, should is no longer used as the past of shall, but with a separate meaning indicating possibility or moral obligation. (However, the use of the preterite form should as a subjunctive form continues, as in If I should go there tomorrow, ..., which contrasts with the indicative form I shall go there tomorrow.) The defective verb ought was etymologically the past tense of owe (the affection he ought his children), but it has since split off, leaving owe as a non-defective verb with its original sense and a regular past tense (owed).

Beyond the modal auxiliaries, beware is a fully defective verb in current Modern English: its only, unmarked form is regularly used (in simple aspect, active voice) in the infinitive (I must beware of the dog), imperative (Beware of the dog, [Let the] buyer beware) and subjunctive (She insists that he beware of the dog), but too much of the finite indicative mood is formally lacking (all simple past *bewared, one simple present *bewares, all aspects *am bewaring, etc.). The word begone is similar: any usage other than as an imperative is highly marked. Another defective verb is the archaic quoth, a past tense which is the only surviving form of the verb quethe, "to say" (related to bequeath).

Impersonal verbs
Impersonal verbs such as to rain and to snow share some characteristics with the defective verbs in that forms such as I rain or they snow are not often found; however, the crucial distinction is that impersonal verbs are "missing" certain forms for semantic reasons—in other words, the forms themselves exist and the verb is capable of being fully conjugated with all its forms (and is therefore not defective) but some forms are unlikely to be found because they appear meaningless or nonsensical.

Nevertheless, native speakers can typically use and understand metaphorical or even literal sentences where the "meaningless" forms exist, such as I rained on his parade or She doesn't frost cakes, she snows them.

Contrast the impersonal verb rain (all the forms of which exist, even if they sometimes look semantically odd) with the defective verb can (only I can and I could are possible). In most cases, a synonym for the defective verb must be used instead (for example, "to be able to"). (The forms with an asterisk $⟨*⟩$ are impossible, at least with respect to the relevant sense of the verb; these phonemes may by coincidence be attested with respect to a homograph [as with "canning" = "the act of preserving and packaging in cans"].)

Arabic
In Arabic, defective verbs are called أفعال جامدة ʾafʿāl jāmidah (lit., solid verbs). These verbs do not change tense, nor do they form related nouns. A famous example is the verb لَيْسَ laysa it is not, though it is not the only auxiliary verb that exhibits this property. Some Arabic grammarians argue that دَامَ dāma (as an auxiliary verb) is also completely defective; those who dispute this claim still consider it partially defective. Some other partially defective verbs are فَتِئَ fatiʔa and زَالَ zāla, which have neither an imperative form nor an infinitive form when used as auxiliary verbs.

Catalan
In Catalan, defective verbs are usually defective for semantic reasons. Due to their impersonal nature, haver-hi and caldre are only used in the third person. The implicit repetition intrinsic to the meaning of soler results in it only having forms in the present and imperfect tenses. Verbs pertaining to meteorological phenomena, such as ploure, can only be conjugated in the third person singular, although a third person plural form is also possible when used with a metaphorical sense. Additionally, lleure is used only in the third person, while dar lacks present tense forms, with the exceptions of the first person plural and second person plural. Defective verbs in Catalan can generally also be used in the impersonal forms of the infinitive, gerund, and past participle.

Finnish
At least one Finnish verb lacks the first infinitive (dictionary/lemma) form. In Finnish, "kutian helposti" ("I'm sensitive to tickling") can be said, but for the verb "kutian" (here conjugated in singular first person, present tense) there is no non-conjugated form. Hypothetically, the first infinitive could be "kudita", but this form is not actually used. Additionally, the negative verb (ei, et, en, emme...) has neither an infinitive form nor a 1st person singular imperative form.

French
There are several defective verbs in French.

 *  ("to be necessary"; only the third-person forms with il exist; the present indicative conjugation, il faut, is very commonly used, impersonal verb)
 *  ("to bray"; only infinitive, present participle, and third-person forms exist)
 *  ("to fry"; lacks non-compound past forms; speakers paraphrase with equivalent forms of faire frire)
 *  ("to conclude"; lacks an imperfect conjugation, as well as first and second person plural present indicative conjugations)
 *  ("to lie horizontally", often used in inscriptions on gravestones; can only be conjugated in the present, imperfect, present imperative, present participle and extremely rarely, the simple future forms)

Impersonal verbs, such as weather verbs, function as they do in English.

German
In contemporary German, the verb erkiesen, which means "to choose/elect" (usually referring to a person chosen for a special task or honour), is only used in the past participle (erkoren) and, more rarely, the past tense (ich erkor etc.). All other forms, including the infinitive, have long become obsolete and are now unknown and unintelligible to modern speakers. It remains commonplace in the closely related Dutch language as verkiezen; for example, Verkiezingen in Nederland (Elections in the Netherlands).

Classical Greek
"No single Greek verb shows all the tenses", and "most verbs have only six of" the nine classes of tense-systems, and "[s]carcely any verb shows all nine systems".

The verb χρή (khrē, 'it is necessary'), only exists in the third-person-singular present and imperfect ἐχρῆν / χρῆν (ekhrēn / khrēn, 'it was necessary').

There are also verbs like οἶδα (oida, 'I know'), which use the perfect form for the present and the pluperfect (here ᾔδη ēidē, 'I was knowing') for the imperfect.

Additionally, the verb εἰμί (eimi, 'I am') only has a present, a future and an imperfect – it lacks an aorist, a perfect, a pluperfect and a future perfect.

Hindustani
In Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu) all the verbs except the verb hona (to be) lack the following conjugations.

The comparison between the conjugations of hona (to be) and the conjugations of all other verbs are shown in the table below: Some verbs in Hindustani which have monosyllabic verb roots ending in the vowels /i/, /ī/ or /e/ are defective because they have the second person intimate and formal future imperative conjugations which are uncommon to native speakers of Hindustani and are almost rarely used. The * mark before some intimate imperative forms below shows those rarely used forms.
 * 1) Indicative Mood
 * 2) * Present
 * 3) * Imperfect
 * 4) Presumptive Mood
 * 5) Subjunctive Mood
 * 6) * Present

Hungarian
Some Hungarian verbs have either no subjunctive forms or forms which sound uncommon to native speakers; for example, csuklik hiccup. See also a short summary about them in the English-language Wiktionary.

Irish
Arsa says can be used only in the past or present tense. The copula is lacks a future tense, an imperative mood, and a verbal noun. It has no distinct conditional tense forms either, but conditional expressions are possible, expressed using past tense forms; for example Ba mhaith liom é, which can mean both I liked it and I would like it. The imperative mood is sometimes suppletively created by using the imperative forms of the substantive verb bí. Future tense forms, however, are impossible and can only be expressed periphrastically.

There is also dar [it] appears, seems, a temporally independent verb that always appears in combination with the preposition le.

{Dar liom} go bhfuil ceart agat.

{It seems to me} that be.PRES.DEP.INDIR.REL correct at.2SG

"It seems to me that you are right."

Korean
Korean has several defective verbs. (말다 malda to stop or desist) may only be used in the imperative form or in the hortative form, after an 'action verb + 지 (ji)' construction. Within this scope it can still conjugate for different levels of politeness, such as 하지 마! Haji ma! Stop that!, in contrast with 하지 마십시오 Haji masipsiyo Please, don't do that. Also, 데리다 derida to bring/pick up someone is only used as 데리고 derigo bringing X and..., 데리러derireo in order to pick up, or 데려 deryeo to pick up in some compound forms.

Latin
Latin has defective verbs that possess forms only in the perfect tense; such verbs have no present tense forms whatsoever. These verbs are still present in meaning. For example, the first-person form odi ("I hate") and infinitive odisse ("to hate") appear to be the perfect of a hypothetical verb *odo/odio, but in fact have a present-tense meaning. Similarly, the verb memini, meminisse is conjugated in the perfect, yet has a present meaning:

Instead of the past-tense "I remembered", "you remembered", etc., these forms signify the present-tense "I remember", "you remember", etc. Latin defective verbs also possess regularly formed pluperfect forms with simple past tense meanings and future perfect forms with simple future tense meanings. Compare deponent verbs, which are passive in form but active in meaning.

The verb coepī, coepisse, which means "to have begun" or "began", is another verb that lacks a present tense system. However, it is not present in meaning. The verb incipiō, incipere ("I begin," "to begin") is used in the present tense instead. This is not a case of suppletion, however, because the verb incipere can also be used in the perfect.

The verbs inquit and ait, both meaning "said", cannot be conjugated through all forms. Both verbs lack numerous inflected forms, with entire tenses and voices missing altogether.

Malayic
Many Malayic languages, including Malay and Indonesian, have many defective verbs. Defective verbs in the related Besemah language (South Barisan Malay), for example, has been explained by McDonnell (2016). He is not directly using the term "defective verb", but instead "verb root productivity".

Polish
Widać it is evident and słychać it is audible are both highly defective in Polish. The only forms of these verbs that exist are the infinitives. They both work as impersonal verbs in a visible or audible situation that does not require another verb (although may have one), and they have no distinction between singular and plural. For example Widać blask wśród drzew A glow is visible among the trees or Jego głos słychać w całym domu His voice can be heard in the whole house.

Portuguese
A large number of Portuguese verbs are defective in person; that is, they lack the proper form for one of the pronouns in some tense. The verb colorir ("to color") has no first-person singular in the present, thus requiring a paraphrase, like estou colorindo ("I am coloring") or the use of another verb of a similar meaning, like pintar ("to paint").

Russian
Some Russian verbs are defective, in that they lack a first person singular non-past form: for example, победить to win, убедить to convince, дудеть to play the pipe. These are all verbs whose stem ends in a palatalized alveolar consonant; they are not a closed class, but include in their number neologisms and loanwords such as френдить to friend, as on a social network. Where such a verb form would be required, speakers typically substitute a synonymous verb (Я выиграю), or use a periphrastic construction involving nominalization and an additional verb (Я одержу победу). Also the word могу I'll be able to, I'll manage to is used: (Я) смогу победить, (я) смогу убедить.

Many experiential verbs describe processes that humans cannot generally undergo, such as пригореть to be burnt, regarding food, куститься to grow in clusters, and протекать to seep—are ordinarily nonsensical in the first or second person. As these forms rarely appear, they are often described as "defective" in descriptions of Russian grammar. However, this is a semantic constraint rather than a syntactic one; compare the classic nonsensical-but-grammatical sentence Colorless green ideas sleep furiously, or more directly, the English phrase I am raining. First and second person forms of these verbs do see use in metaphor and poetry.

Spanish
Spanish defective verbs generally use forms with stem endings that begin with -i. The verbs are not commonly used.

 * se
 * se
 * ' (found in forms ending in -i, but mostly replaced by ')
 * despavorir
 *  (usually replaced by garantizar, which is regular)
 *  (always used as helping verb, so many forms, although possible, won't make sense)
 *  (to acquire property rights through customary use; only in the infinitive in legal texts)
 *  (usually replaced by garantizar, which is regular)
 *  (always used as helping verb, so many forms, although possible, won't make sense)
 *  (to acquire property rights through customary use; only in the infinitive in legal texts)

The following two verbs used to be defective verbs but are now normally conjugated.

 *  (the Nueva gramática de la lengua española from the Real Academia (section 4.14d) now conjugates it normally, using abolo / aboles, etc.)

Swedish
The auxiliary verb måste must lacks an infinitive, except in Swedish dialects spoken in Finland. Also, the verb is unique in that the form måste serves as both a present must and past had to form. The supine måst is rare.

Turkish
While the Turkish copula is not considered a verb in modern Turkish, it originated as the defective verb *imek — which is now written and pronounced as a suffix of the predicate. *İmek and the suffixes derived from it exist in only a few tenses; it is replaced by negative değil in the tenses originally supplied by *imek, and remaining forms by olmak to become otherwise.

The verb can be conjugated only in certain tenses: past idi, inferential perfective imiş, conditional ise, and (non-finite) personal past participle idük (usable with possessive suffixes, notice the form was irregular).

Ukrainian
Ukrainian Verbs ending in -вісти (for example, розповісти to tell PFV and відповісти to answer PFV) lack imperative mood forms; imperfective verbs are used instead (for example, відповідай).

Welsh
Welsh has several defective verbs, a number of which are archaic or literary. Some of the more common ones in everyday use include dylwn ("I should/ought"), found only in the imperfect and pluperfect tenses, meddaf ("I say"), found only in the present and imperfect, and geni ("to be born"), which only has a verb-noun and impersonal forms; for example, Ganwyd hi (She was born, literally "one bore her"). Common defective verbs in the spoken language are eisiau (pronounced, and often spelt, as isio or isie) and angen which mean 'to want' and 'to need' respectively; both are in fact nouns but are used in speech as if they were verb-nouns though they do not take the preceding yn, compare dw i'n canu 'I sing' vs. dw i eisiau 'I want'. The literary language would use these as nouns and not as defective verbs; for example, mae eisiau arnaf 'I want', literally 'there is a want on me'.

title: Defective verb


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Messaoud Bellemou

Messaoud Bellemou (مسعود بلمو) is an Algerian musician and one of the most influential performers of modern raï music. He is considered by some people to be one of the fathers of Modern Raï Music.

Messaoud began his career playing the trumpet but soon became known for adding foreign instruments like the saxophone, violin, and accordion to the genre. He worked during the 1970s with different raï singers of his generation like Boutaïaba Sghir, Boussouar El Maghnaoui, Bouteldja Belkacem.

In 1980s the term pop-raï has been used to describe the new generation of chebs and chebats (from the Arabic for "young") introducing new instruments, and together with Belkacem Bouteldja released one of the first records of the new genre.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Messaoud Bellemou


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Samuel Hopkins Adams

Samuel Hopkins Adams (January 26, 1871 – November 16, 1958) was an American writer who was an investigative journalist and muckraker.

Background
Adams was born in Dunkirk, New York. Adams was a muckraker, known for exposing public-health injustices. He was the son of Myron Adams, Jr., a minister, and Hester Rose Hopkins. Adams attended Hamilton College in Clinton, New York from 1887 to 1891. He also attended a semester at Union College. In 1907, Adams divorced his wife, Elizabeth Ruffner Noyes, after having two daughters. Eight years later Adams married an actress, Jane Peyton. Adams was a close friend of both the investigative reporter Ray Stannard Baker and District Attorney Benjamin Darrow.

Career
From 1891 to 1900, he was a reporter for the New York Sun where his career began, and then joined McClure's Magazine, where he gained a reputation as a muckraker for his articles on the conditions of public health in the United States. In 1904, Adams became an editorial staffer with McClure's Magazine working with Lincoln Steffens, Ida Tarbell, and Ray Stannard Baker. Adams considered himself a freelance writer and used his writings to support himself. In 1905, Adams was hired by Collier's to prepare articles on patent medicines. In a series of 11 articles he wrote for the magazine in 1905, "The Great American Fraud", Adams exposed many of the false claims made about patent medicines, pointing out that in some cases these medicines were damaging the health of the people using them. The series had a huge impact and led to the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. In 1911, the Supreme Court ruled that the prohibition of falsifications referred only to the ingredients of the medicine. This meant that companies were again free to make false claims about their products. Adams returned to the attack, and in another series of articles in Collier's Weekly, Adams exposed the misleading advertising that companies were using to sell their products. Linking his knowledge of newspapers with patent medicines, he wrote The Clarion (1914), which was critical of newspaper advertising practices and led to a series of consumer-protection articles in the New York Tribune. His service during World War I for the Committee on Public Information led to Common Cause (1919), a novel on a newspaper's battle against pro-Germans in Wisconsin.

Literary works
Adams was a prolific writer, who wrote fiction as well. “Night Bus” (1933), one of Adams’s many magazine stories, became the basis for the 1934 film ‘’It Happened One Night‘’. Adams’s first solo novel was in 1908, ‘’Flying Death’’, which added to his mystery collection. His best-known novel, ‘’Revelry’’ (1926), based on the scandals of the Harding administration, was later followed by ‘’Incredible Era’’ (1939), a biography of Harding.

Among his other works are ‘’The Great American Fraud’’ in ‘’Collier's‘’ (1905–06), ‘’The Mystery’’ (1907), with S. E. White, ‘’Average Jones’’ (1911), ‘’The Secret of Lonesome Cove’’ (1912), ‘’The Health Master’’ (1913), ‘’The Clarion’’ (1914), ‘’The Unspeakable Perk’’ (1916), ‘’Our Square and the People in It’’ (1917), ‘’Success’’ (1921), ‘’Siege’’ (1924), ‘’The Gorgeous Hussy’’ (1934), ‘’Maiden Effort’’ (1937), ‘’The Harvey Girls‘’ (1942; adapted into the 1946 movie musical starring Judy Garland), ‘’Canal Town’’ (1944), ‘’Plunder’’ (1948), ‘’Grandfather Stories‘’ (1955), and m. ‘’Average Jones’’ is a series of stories about a detective investigating fraudulent or unusual advertisements. In addition to his many books, Adams also wrote 415 short stories and articles.

‘’Tenderloin’’ described the battle between Charles H. Parkhurst and Tammany Hall. ‘’The New York Times‘’ reviewer H. I. Brock called the book an “outstanding period piece” and “a finale to a long and varied writing career”. ‘’Tenderloin’’ was adapted into a 1960 musical with book by George Abbott and Jerome Weidman and songs by Jerry Bock and Sheldon Harnick, the team that had created ‘’Fiorello!‘’ ‘’Tenderloin’’ ran for 216 performances. New critic Howard Taubman praised the songs, but complained about a “dragging book” and said, “The wages of virtue, alas, are largely dullness.”

Adams also published a biography of Alexander Woollcott (1945) and three books for the Landmark Series, ‘’The Pony Express’’ (1950), ‘’The Santa Fe Trail’’ (1952), and ‘’The Erie Canal’’ (1953).

The printing of his 1947 novel ‘’Banner by the Wayside’’ was the subject of an ‘’Encyclopædia Britannica’’ documentary on the manufacture of hardback books (see external links). Adams last book, ‘’Tenderloin’’ (1959), was published after his death and was later adapted into a Broadway musical.

Risqué novels
In the 1920s and 1930s, Adams, under the pseudonym of Warner Fabian, wrote several novels that at the time were considered highly risqué. These titillating works, which mainly featured young women flappers and their trials and tribulations of early adulthood, often became best-sellers avidly read by Jazz Age youth. Flaming Youth, Adams' first novel of this sort, dealt with the sexual urges of young women and had a sexual frankness that was shocking for its time. Because of the nature of the novels, Adams utilized the Fabian pseudonym so that his more standard works would not be tainted by any scandal accruing to these novels. Most of these novels were later brought to the screen, including Flaming Youth starring Colleen Moore; Sailors' Wives, with Mary Astor in the lead; and The Wild Party featuring Clara Bow.

Novels published under the pseudonym "Warner Fabian" include:
 * Flaming Youth (New York: The Macaulay Company, 1924)
 * Sailors' Wives (New York: Boni & Liveright, 1924)
 * Summer Bachelors (New York: Boni & Liveright, 1926; The Macaulay Company, 1927)
 * Unforbidden Fruit (New York: Boni & Liveright, 1928; Cleveland & New York: International Fiction Library, 1928)
 * Serialized in The Smart Set, 1928

 * The Men in Her Life (New York: Sears Publishing Co., 1930; Grosset & Dunlap, 1930)
 * Week-End Girl (New York: The Macaulay Company, 1932)
 * Widow's Oats (New York: The Macaulay Company, 1935)

Later life and death
Adams had a winter residence in Beaufort, South Carolina. He died in Beaufort on November 16, 1958, at the age of 87.

He was cremated and his ashes were scattered at his home at Owasco Lake in New York State.

Adams's papers are archived in academic libraries, including Syracuse University, Hamilton College, and Harvard University. A significant portion of his collections are located at the American Antiquarian Society in Worcester, Massachusetts.

Selected publications

 * The Great American Fraud (1912)
 * The Wealth Master
 * The Great American Fraud
 * Average Jones
 * Success: A Novel
 * The Mystery
 * Flaming Youth
 * The Secret of Lonesome Cove
 * Wanted: A Husband. A Novel
 * The Clarion
 * Our Square and the People in It
 * The Flying Death
 * Little Miss Grouch
 * Common Cause: A Novel of the War in America
 * The Health Master
 * The Beggar's Purse: A Fairy Tale of Familiar Finance
 * The Unspeakable Perk
 * From a Bench in Our Square

Selected filmography

 * Wandering Fires (1925)
 * Summer Bachelors (1926)
 * The Wild Party (1929), based on the novel Unforbidden Fruit
 * What Men Want (1930)
 * Men in Her Life (1931)
 * Week Ends Only (1932)
 * It Happened One Night (1934), based on the short story "Night Bus"
 * The Gorgeous Hussy (1936), based on Adams' novel of the same title
 * The Harvey Girls (1946), based on Adams' novel of the same title

title: Samuel Hopkins Adams


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List of people from Gujarat

This is a list of notable people whose ancestry has been traced to Gujarat, India.

Gujarat's British royalty connection
In June 2013, Gujarat came to the media fore when it was discovered that the British monarchy have Indian mitochondrial DNA traced through Princess Diana which has been maternally inherited by both her sons, Prince William and Prince Harry. The connection traces back eight generations, to Eliza Kewark, who was housekeeper to Prince William's ancestor Theodore Forbes, born in 1788, a Scottish merchant from a landowning family who had travelled to India to work for the East India Company in Surat, a port north of Bombay. The DNA was passed down through Eliza's daughters and granddaughters to Princess Diana. Eliza is variously described in contemporary documents as "a dark-skinned native woman", "an Armenian woman from Bombay", and "Mrs. Forbesian". Genealogist William Addams Reitwiesner assumed she was Armenian. In June 2013, BritainsDNA announced that genealogical DNA tests on two of William's distant cousins in the same direct maternal line confirm that Eliza Kewark was of Indian descent, via her direct maternal line.

title: List of people from Gujarat


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Svadhishthana

Svadhisthana (स्वाधिष्ठान, IAST:, "where your being is established." "Swa means self and "adhishthana means established), is the second primary chakra according to Hindu Tantrism. This chakra is said to be blocked by fear, especially the fear of death. Opening this chakra can boost creativity, manifested desire and confidence.

Representation
Svadhishthana is illustrated as a white lotus (Nelumbo nucifera). It has six vermilion-colored petals inscribed with syllables: बं baṃ, भं bhaṃ, मं maṃ, यं yaṃ, रं raṃ and लं laṃ. Inside this lotus is a white crescent moon which represents the water region presided over by the deity Varuna.

The seed mantra, located in the innermost circle, is a moon-white वं vaṃ. Above the mantra that is within the bindu, or dot, is the deity Vishnu. He is dark blue and wears a yellow dhoti. He holds a conch, a mace, a wheel and a lotus. He wears the shrivatsa mark, and the kaustubha gem. He is seated either on a pink lotus, or on the divine eagle Garuda.

His strength is the goddess Rakini. She is black, dressed in red or white and seated on a red lotus. She is commonly depicted with one face and two arms, holding a sword and a shield, or two faced and four armed, and holds a trident, lotus, drum and vajra, or an arrow, skull, drum and axe.

Some schools teach that the divinities of the Svādhishthāna Chakra are Brahmā and Sarasvatī. Brahmā is the creator of the Universe and Saraswati personifies knowledge.

Characteristics
The six petals represent the following modes of consciousness, also known as vrittis: affection, pitilessness, feeling of all-destructiveness, delusion, disdain, and suspicion.

Svadishtana is often associated with pleasure, sense of oneself, relationships, sensuality and procreation. Its element is water and its colour is orange. It is blocked by Guilt. Svadhishthana is associated with the unconscious and with emotion. It is closely related to the Muladhara in that Muladhara is where the different samskaras (potential Karmas) lie dormant, and Svadhishthana is where these Samskaras find expression.

Svadhishthana contains unconscious desires, especially sexual desire. It is said that to raise the kundalini shakti (energy of consciousness) above Svadhishthana is difficult. Many Hindu saints have had to face sexual temptations associated with this chakra.

One who meditates on Svadhishthana is believed to obtain the following siddhis: freedom from enemies, the status of a lord among yogis, eloquence and clarity ("words flowing like nectar in well-reasoned discourse"), loss of fear of water, awareness of astral entities and the ability to taste anything desired for oneself or others.

Association with the body

Svadhisthana is located two finger-widths above the Muladhara chakra (Sanskrit: मूलाधार, IAST: Mūlādhāra, English: "root support") or root chakra which is located in the coccyx (tailbone). Its corresponding kshetram, or, “place,” in front of the body is barely below the belly button.

It is connected with the sense of taste, (the tongue) and with reproduction (the genitals).

It is often associated with the testes and ovaries. They produce the hormones testosterone or estrogen, which influence sexual behaviors. They are stored in areas where genetic information lies dormant, in the same way that samskaras lie dormant within Svadhisthana.

Practices
Practices in kundalini yoga to control and balance the energy in Svadhisthana chakra include vajroli mudra (contraction of the genitals), ashvini mudra (contraction of the anus), and various asanas and pranayamas.

Comparisons
The equivalent chakra in the Vajrayana tantra systems of Tibet is called the "Secret Place" four fingers below the navel. It is red in colour, with 32 downward pointing spokes. Meditation on this point produces great bliss.

According to certain interpretations of Sufism, the spiritual body of a person is defined as an interconnected system (Lataif-e-sitta), in which there is an energy center called the nafs. According to Lataif-e-sitta, the nafs is just below the navel. The nafs incorporates all the elements of a person's "lower self", which is tamed in order to attain closeness to Allah.

Western occultists make the kabbalistic association of Svadhisthana with the Sephirah Yesod. Yesod is also associated with the sexual organs. Its function in the tree of life is to gather the different energies that have been created in the descent of the tree downwards and distribute them to Malkuth, the material world, where the energy can find physical expression.

Alternative names

 * Tantra: Adhishthana, Bhima, Shatpatra, Skaddala Padma, Wari Chakra
 * Vedas (late Upanishads): Medhra

title: Svadhishthana


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User talk:PBS/Archive 1

Welcome
Hello PBS, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Angela. 21:14, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Hi. See EB11. Mintguy (T) 08:48, 3 Mar 2004 (UTC)~

Hi Philip, Re: WikiProjects, don't hesitate to add yourself as a participant, if interested. It's not compulsory, of course. You don't have to "join" in order to do anything on the projects. Geoff/Gsl 23:38, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

Hi. I made your page Henry Hughes Wilson, 1st Baronet into a redirect to Henry Hughes Wilson, an existing article at a location that seems to be better in line with Wikipedia naming conventions. I put a copy of your text at Talk:Henry Hughes Wilson in case this might help in merging your text to improve the existing article. Cheers, -- Infrogmation 04:57, 27 May 2004 (UTC) ---

I am doing some moving with Thomas Henry Burke, as their is both an Irish Politician and an American one by the same name. I changed the redirect to a disambig page and am moving Thomas Henry Burke to Thomas Henry Burke (Irish Politician).

As a general note, I have never seen name (date - date) as an article title on Wikipedia. It makes searching very hard. I am moved the articles listed by that a listing the redirects on redirect for deletion. Burgundavia 07:29, 27 May 2004 (UTC)

George Cross
Nice job on your expansion of the George Cross entry. -- Solipsist 17:52, 26 Jul 2004 (UTC)

(Rugby) football
Please stop making major changes to the various football/rugby pages, without consulting Wikipedians who have been working on those pages for some time. It's rude and it's not in the spirit of Wikipedia. Grant65 (Talk) 01:48, Jul 31, 2004 (UTC)

Relax. I was in the middle of editing Football when you posted. No text has been lost.Grant65 (Talk) 12:29, Aug 3, 2004 (UTC)

Indian Army
Hello .. I can see it might be useful to disambiguate between the Indian Army (pre-1947) and the later Army, But it very offensive to describe the pre-1947 Army as the 'British' Indian Army. Many people (for example, Wallace Breem!) joined the Indian Army in preference to joining the British Army because of that very distinction.

May I suggest a title such as: 'Indian Army (pre-1947)' or 'Indian Army (19xx-1947)'? mfc 19:43, 16 Aug 2004 (UTC)

On your suggestion to alter the naming conventions of the Indian formations that I have written articles about, I would have to strongly disagree. You will notice in the articles about Indian corps that I wrote I deliberately included the post-independence history that I could easily find. It is irrelevant whether the post-1947 history is of interest to most users I would have to say since the units are clearly regarded by those in India as a continuation of the earlier pre-1947 units. Given that, there seems no sense in separating the sections out.

The XXXIII Corps of today is regarded as the same XXXIII Corps that fought in Burma, in the same way that the US V Corps of today is regarded as the same unit as that which landed on D Day in 1944. For example, take a look at this article, which is written by an Indian. To quote from it, "The Indian Army's first corps was XV Corps (Srinager), raised during the first Kashmir War, and which had first seen action with 14th Army in Burma.", and also "…XXXIII Corps was raised to cover Sikkim, IV Corps area of responsibility being reduced to NEFA. This corps had also originally fought in Burma under 14th Army." Now, where there are formations in the Pakistani Army that also go back to pre-1947 units, since we are talking about different names, ie Pakistani IV Corps for example, then a separate article may well be in order, but with a note in the main article that it also draws its traditions from the pre-1947 unit and a link to the separate article. David Newton 20:15, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

The thing about the British Army of the past was that it included or was associated with an awful lot of organisations that are now completely separate from it. The Indian Army is an excellent example of such a formation. British battalions did indeed form an integral part of the Indian Army, with one generally serving for every two Indian battalions. However the higher units were not under War Office control, they were under the Viceroy who reported to the India Office. I know for a fact that the corps HQs in Burma and Malaya were Indian Army formations. However, I believe that Fourteenth Army, 11th Army Group and ALFSEA were British formations.

One of the few examples of the old-style units now in British services is the Royal Gibraltar Regiment. It is a proud tradition that unit continues. Burma was also replete with such examples. The 11th East African, and 81st and 82nd West African Divisions are the largest examples of said tradition.

I would say that having a separate article about the armed forces of the East India Company would be a good idea. However, if there are units that served in the East India Company and then transferred directly to the Indian Army after 1857 (and there were) then to break up articles into pre- and post-1857 pieces would, for the same reasons, not seem to make sense. Something I certainly would be very interested in would be articles about the armed forces of the Indian princely states during WWII. I know they served with distinction abroad, but finding information on them is somewhat tricky. David Newton 22:05, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

OK, Brooke-Popham was CINC Far East over land and air forces only. ABDA was completely separate from India Command, and Wavell relinquished his control of India whilst CINCABDA. ABDA also superseded Brooke-Popham's command. ABDA was essentially dissolved when Wavell left Batavia. It might not de jure have been ended, but it certainly was de facto. As for administration and command, when I talk about going through the Viceroy and the India Office, I am, strictly speaking, talking about the peacetime chain of command.

The Viceroy was head of state for India. That meant he was commander-in-chief of the Indian Army, the Royal Indian Navy and the Indian Air Force. The Viceroy took his instructions from the India Office, meaning they effectively ran the Indian Army for the British Government. During the war, operational command of the Indian Army was delegated to the War Office for the duration, in much the same way as Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa gave operational control over their forces to the War Office as appropriate. The difference with India was that it was still a Crown Colony, and not an entirely legally separate government. In Burma, the local forces were under the Governor of Burma as commander-in-chief, and he reported to the Colonial Office. Again at the outbreak of war operational command was handed over to the War Office.

During the opening months of 1942, Burma was swapped backwards and forwards between ABDA and India a couple of times. It depended upon which option seemed best. After then it remained under India until the creation of SEAC. SEAC took operational command of the forces in theatre operating against the Japanese. India was responsible for all the administration of the Indian forces, and much of the administration of the non-Indian units.

For a further perspective on matters, look for Kirby-Woodburn's five official history volumes on the theatre. They are available from Naval and Military Press at. You can get hold of the American volumes on the CBI Theater on CD-ROM from the GPO. Alternatively, if you have a broadand connection, download the PDF files here, and. David Newton 14:49, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Poll
My query on the Indian Army poll is not what a poll is but how one can have a poll of the readership in a Talk: section of an article. It's like taking a show of hands of a meeting of 5 people to which no one else has been alerted :-).

And I still do not understand why one would want to disambiguate the flavors of 'Indian Army' in a way that's different from the usual means of doing it in Wikipedia, has no historical basis, and, moreover, is in a way that offends past and present members of both the British Army and the Indian Army of the time (not to mention non-military Brits like me :-)). A complete disregard for others' cultures!

(Got here via your User page .. excellent stuff there, by the way, I am just starting to write up the Battle of El Mazuco, and your Battles project is going to be extremely helpful. Thanks!) mfc

Ellis Park
A place of pilgrimage. Like Cardiff Arms, no? Pedant17 15:10, 26 Aug 2004 (UTC)

I do not understand the meaning of yours text.It is a very double meaning sentence --Akhtat

Professional sports
I did a rather heavy-handed edit. Update boldly. Pedant17 10:04, 29 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Cheers
I was suprised by your edits on List of words having different meanings in British and American English and List of British English words not used in American English. "Ta" is most certainly used in the South, so I removed your edit to the former page, but I'm not sure about the use of "Cheers". Cheers is most definitely used to mean thanks in Ireland (North and South) and Scotland, as well as southern England. I'd be suprised to find that it may not be used in Northern England. Mintguy (T) 09:59, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

I can assure you as someone who was brought-up in London and now lives in Sussex, that "ta" is extremely common in both areas. I have both used and heard "ta" all my life. We used to be told off at school for saying "ta". I've just asked my partner (who has lived in Sussex for most of her life) who uses it when talking to me and she says that she often uses it in emails at work. My parents are Irish, my father is from Leitrim, he almost always finishes his telephone converstations by saysing: "Cheers then. Bye". Mintguy (T) 21:34, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Protected Persons vs. persons protected
Philip, see my comment at Talk:Laws of war. -- Cecropia | Talk 19:43, 7 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Redirects
Good evening. You have recently nominated several redirects for deletion. If I may, I'd like to clear up a few points. In my experience, redirects are commonly created for two reasons. They are sometimes used as a way of preserving the edit history of an article that has been merged into another article. Perserving the edit history is a requirement of GFDL. This also preserves the path for the contributor(s) of the old article so they can see where their work went and can begin contributing in the new article. Redirects can also be created as navigational aids. They forward the links from the old article to the new article. Even if you clean up all the existing links, a redirect will forward any newly created links to the new article. After all, someone used the old spelling the first time - the odds are pretty good that someone else will do so again. Redirects are also a cheap way to populate the search engine with common misspellings and lesser known names for the same topic.

As a policy, we don't create redirects just in case someone might misspell a word. But once an article or redirect exists, we give it the benefit of the doubt and let it stay until there is a substantial reason to delete it (for example, to make way for a different article or a pagemove). Redirects are cheap. Rossami 23:35, 8 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * By the way, if you do nominate something for deletion, please leave the content intact so others can see what they are voting on. Page blanking is generally considered bad form.  Thanks.  Rossami

Sorry, but deleted.
I'm sorry, but until World War II European western front has at least one sentence, it's got to be completely empty. Otherwise, no one will now to write the article. -- user:zanimum

Warsaw Uprising
You're reading Norman Davies currently, aren't you :) [[User:Halibutt|Halibutt]] 23:13, Sep 24, 2004 (UTC)

Jungle warfare
Are you planning to expand this? It's verging very close to being a speedy deletion candidate, and I'm sure an experienced Wikipedian with your knowledge can do better than that. I'll give you the benefit of the doubt for now. Ambi 13:03, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * My apologies. Excuse my wariness about these - there's been a sudden spate of them over the last few months that haven't been expanded, even by experienced Wikipedians. Looking better already. Ambi 13:41, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Redundant alternate terms for war
Hi Philip:

Your addition a couple of days ago to the introduction to "War" duplicated similar material in the "Limitations to war" section, so I condensed your paragraph to a reference. I'm not sure "Limitations to war" is the best place for alternate terms, but I strongly feel that the introduction is not the best place for a detailed description of why alternative terms arise (e.g., avoiding a formal declaration). Perhaps tomorrow I'll revise to add alternate terms to the introduction, sans explanations. Any thoughts? --NathanHawking 02:35, 2004 Sep 28 (UTC)

Arthur Travers Harris
Hi there, hope you are ok with my edits. Still seems to be a "hot" topic. In Germany it caused a big scandal when some historian published a book in which he qualified the bombings as war crimes, many people calling him a Nazi and a revisionist. I cannot quite follow that kind of thought. The legal text is straightforward and qualifies any intended killing of civilians as a war crime. The text was written before the war, was and still is binding. I can understand that people who think that the bombings were the only way to win the war without much bigger losses by the Allies see it as legitimate. Even though I personally do not think that the bombings were extraordinarily helpful from a military point of view. And whatever you think about ethics does not change the legal facts. What I cannot understand at all is when people call the legal qualification "revisionist". If I call the crime of a second person a crime, does that mean I have to use it as an excuse for the primary criminal? Who could have the sick idea to downplay the guilt of the war of aggression or the holocaust with allied bombings at the end of the war? Get-back-world-respect 15:58, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Sorry, my talk page is already a bit long, I prefer to talk about articles at article pages and delete comments on my talk page once I have dealt with them in order to reserve a bigger part of my page for the learning project. Get-back-world-respect 23:45, 2 Oct 2004 (UTC)

THE THING-UMMY-BOB

I've taken you last comment on Talk Harris and put it here as my reply is not really on topic for the BH page.

 * I appreciate your edits and am not annoyed at all. I furthermore completely agree that we cannot call him a war criminal as there was no trial. It is however important to mention that the intended killing of civilians was a war crime as this is the main point why there is such a debate about the person. And yes I do think that the whole cabinet was guilty of that crime, as are all governments since who engaged and still engage in deliberate bombings of civilians. Unfortunately they usually get away with it. At least nowadays most governments have signed the ICC treaty and it is theoretically possible to trie them at The Hague. Get-back-world-respect 17:46, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)

In war killing civilians may be a war crime, it depends on the civilians and how and why they are killed. For example spies can be civilans and they can be executed in times of war. That is why without a trial one can no decide. In a total war between two first world countries how do you distingwish between combatants and nonecombatants? Particularly if they work in a military-industrial complex which in times of total war means 50%+ of the economy. As technology progresses less and less frontline troops (as a %age of population), use weapon platforms which need more and more civilians to build them. In the words of the WWII song And it's the girl that makes the thing that holds the oil/ that oils the ring that works the thing-ummy-bob/ that's going to win the war. So is that girl less of a legitimate target than the soldier who uses the thing-ummy-bob?

There is a danger that using law to limit war helps hawks justify war by pretending that it is a dule between warriors and it never effects inocents. "The old lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori."

I'll watch this page so you can reply here PBS 19:54, 28 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * The law is clear cut: Deliberate killing of civilians is a war crime, does not depend on the civilians nor on why they are killed. Spies cannot be killed simply because they are civilians of the enemy but because they commit a criminal act (treason) or because they are a direct danger (e.g. while engaging in sabotage). If they are captured, they cannot simply be killed, I guess they would have to be treated like prisoners of war. But while a spie in action who is uncovered can easily be distinguished from innocent civilians, when bombing

A spy need not be a civilian of the country spied upon, if they do not, it is not treason. A spy is not a sabotor, they are collecting information useful to an ememy. If they were a civilian of another power engaged in the struggle they would have to be held under GCIVart5 until found guilty at a regular trial, but if they are a citizen from neutral power or the power spied upon, they do not have protection of GCIV. (GCIVart4: ...Nationals of a State which is not bound by the Convention are not protected by it. Nationals of a neutral State who find themselves in the territory of a belligerent State, and nationals of a co-belligerent State, shall not be regarded as protected persons.... The point I was making is not what the status of spys is, but that the "Deliberate killing of civilians is a war crime" is not true a true statment, it depends on what the civilians are doing so without a regular trial it is not possible to say if a person has committed a war crime by killing civilians.
 * civilian houses it is unpreventable to kill children as well who have no means to decide what they are doing, who do not understand what war is, and are no threat to anyone. In suggesting that this is just you are propagating genocide.

I am not suggesting anyting I am saying that the killing of civilians may not be a war crime. However genocide is a very diffrent thing from bombing civilian houses. The Allies at the end of the war had targeted civilian property to help win the war. But to say that they were trying to commit genocide debases the word. If genocide had been their intention then, as they had won the war unconditionally they could have done it.

If you have a look at Hage
 * Art 23 To destroy or seize the enemy's property, unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities of war. The allies argued that destroying property by arial bombardment was an imperative and necessity of war.
 * Art 25 "The attack or bombardment of towns, villages, habitations or buildings which are not defended, is prohibited." Germany was protected during World War II by fighter bombers and lines of anti-aircraft guns and radar as defence against bombers.
 * Art 27 In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps should be taken to spare as far as possible edifices devoted to religion, art, science, and charity, hospitals, and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not used at the same time for military purposes. Private property is not mentioned as part of all necessary steps should be taken to spare.

 * You are right in that many soldiers may not want to fight either but still have to be killed. The difference is that killing them is most often the only way to eliminate the danger of the weapons they use. By targeting their weapons one usually cannot prevent their death. Weapon factories can be targeted without targeting the housing of the workers.

Today "Weapon factories can be targeted without targeting the housing" but in 1940 with night time bombing the RAF were so inaccurate that the Germans had problems working out which town the target was in let alone what the target was!

 * The danger is not that using law to limit war helps hawks justify war by pretending that innocents are not effected. The danger is that hawks interpret the law such that it fits them best and they even start wars of aggression, a crime others have been hanged for. Get-back-world-respect 00:01, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)

The only people found guilty of war of aggression were those who came from a country which had signed theKellogg-Briand Pact of 1928.

Now that I have provided you with some of the law of war that the allies could have used to defend the policy of stratigic bombing (They would have argued that any civilians killed was a side effect of bombardment not the policy). Please provide me with the law which says that bombardment of civilian areas in a war is a war crime and also the law which says that the "Deliberate killing of civilians is a war crime" because I do not know which laws cover this. PBS 10:30, 3 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * I knew that the Nazis who were hanged for waging a war for aggression were bound by international law that had been established before the war. It is still in practice, so in my eyes Bush, Blair, Howard and their administrations should be tried according to it (cf. [http://www.worldpress.org/specials/iraq/

this link for an analysis of why the Iraq war was illegal]). I am very puzzled that it is possible in democratic countries with an otherwise working legal system to break international law and not even get a trial for it.
 * As the Harris article says "Professor Lindemann's paper put forward the theory of attacking major industrial centrers in order to deliberately destroy as many homes and houses as possible. Working class homes were to be targeted because they had a higher density and fire storms were more likely. This would displace the German workforce and reduce their ability to work. His calculations showed that the RAF Bomber Command would be able to destroy the majority of German houses located in cities quite quickly. The plan was highly controversial even before it started, but the Cabinet thought that bombing was the only option available to directly attack Germany," So your excuse of collateral damage is invalid. And no matter how valid it is, only a court could have decided, but this never happened. The international law that prohibited the deliberate targeting of civilians was established by the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907). The full text is linked, I have forgotten which paragraph it was but I am sure you can find it. You can alo conclude it from what is written at war crime: "It comprises such acts as mistreatment of prisoners of war or civilians. War crimes are sometimes part of instances of mass murder and genocide..." I guess you agree that a firestorm massacre and nuclear bombings that went on killing people even many years afterwards are something like a "mistreatment". Get-back-world-respect 22:58, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

I know the text you are quoting from Harris because I wrote it!

You are mixing up those parts of Hague which now days are covered by GCIII GCIV which are both to do with "protected persons" under the control of a "power" (POWs and civilians in occupied lands) and civilians in enemy territory who are not covered by GC. Did you read what I wrote in my last reply to you? I quoted sections from Hague which state that bombardment is part of war. The British could use Art 23,25,27 to justify what they did (and I also provided the link to the article Hage). They never targeted civilians just their property. Which article in Hague are you saying makes their actions illegal under the international laws of war? This is not the first time I have asked this question, so I think that you are prevaricating. If not then please quote the Hauge or the section from any other treaty that you think the aerial bombardment by any of the powers in World War II broke.

Also you say The international law that prohibited the deliberate targeting of civilians was established by the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907). Which article are you referring to because I have just read both treaties again and I can not find the article which says anything like this if they are still in enemy controlled territory. NB Please don't drag in current events because I am not interested. Please just answer my two questions I have emboldened them to make them clear. BTW "Article" means "Section" in the case of these treaties PBS 23:46, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * I guess prevaricate means evade, so while I search for the article I bold my question as well 8^p

 * I guess you agree that a firestorm massacre and nuclear bombings that went on killing people even many years afterwards are something like a "mistreatment"?
 * Is it anything else than absurd to excuse "deliberately destroying as many homes and houses as possible." with "they never targeted civilians just their property."? Would you accept it if the Nazis had argued they were just targeting the non-aerian clothing of Polish and British civilians but not the people themselves? Get-back-world-respect 00:18, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * ''Article 23

Besides the prohibitions provided by special Conventions, it is especially prohibited:--

To employ poison or poisoned arms;

To kill or wound treacherously individuals belonging to the hostile nation or army;

To kill or wound an enemy who, having laid down arms, or having no longer means of defence, has surrendered at discretion;

To declare that no quarter will be given;

To employ arms, projectiles, or material of a nature to cause superfluous injury;

To make improper use of a flag of truce, the national flag, or military ensigns and the enemy's uniform, as well as the distinctive badges of the Geneva Convention;

To destroy or seize the enemy's property, unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities of war.''

 * Atomic bombings: poisonous (radiation)

'' Article 25

The attack or bombardment of towns, villages, habitations or buildings which are not defended, is prohibited.

Article 26

The Commander of an attacking force, before commencing a bombardment, except in the case of an assault, should do all he can to warn the authorities. ''

 * No warnings allowing evacuation of civilians were given neither in Hamburg nor Dresden nor Hiroshima nor Nagasaki. On the contrary, it was intended to kill as many civilians as possible with the firestorms and nuclear devastation.

''Article 27

In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps should be taken to spare as far as possible edifices devoted to religion, art, science, and charity, hospitals, and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not used at the same time for military purposes.

The besieged should indicate these buildings or places by some particular and visible signs, which should previously be notified to the assailants. ''

Get-back-world-respect 00:18, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Destroying whole cities meant complete ignorance of this rule.

The articles you quote from Hague are the ones we had already talked about and which I first pointed out to you with the arguments which the Allies would have used in court to justify their position so I will not repeat them. The none specific lines you have used like "To make improper use of a flag of truce" are nothing to do with arial bombardment and if you think that they are then you have less understanding of international law than I thought that you did.

Also you said The international law that prohibited the deliberate targeting of civilians was established by the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907). I asked Which article are you referring to because I have just read both treaties again and I can not find the article which says anything like this if they are still in enemy controlled territory. You have not mentioned an article.

I really do not see any point in continuing this conversation as you have not been able to show me a clause from any treaty which says that:
 * 1) What the Harris did was likely to lead to his conviction as a war criminal. (Other than articles 23 which is not relevent in this case, and 25,26,27 which are articles I had already put the allies position)
 * 2) Any treaty that prohibits the killing any enemy civilian, not matter what they are doing or where they are is a war crime.

So unless you do please don't bother to reply. PBS 09:08, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * If you are unwilling to see that the points I marked with a point show that the allies committed war crimes I guess we have to agree to differ. Your argument that the actions were necessary in order to win the war would probably have been used in a trial. However, the trial never happened although the view that the allies committed war crimes is widely held, so we can only guess what would have been the outcome. I would also like to point out that if those actions were necessary to win a war the allies should not have defined them as war crimes before. In my eyes the use of nuclear weapons is the most striking example. I hope you go on having fun with wikipedia and engage in fruitful exchanges of ideas. Get-back-world-respect 15:16, 5 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:PBS/Archive 1


text:
Black Prince's Ruby

The Black Prince's Ruby is a large, irregular cabochon red spinel weighing 170 carat set in the cross pattée above the Cullinan II diamond at the front of the Imperial State Crown of the United Kingdom. The spinel is one of the oldest parts of the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom, with a history dating back to the middle of the 14th century. It has been in the possession of England's rulers since it was given in 1367 to its namesake, Edward of Woodstock (the "Black Prince"). The stone is believed to have originated from the Badakhshan mines in present day Afghanistan and Tajikistan, the principal source of large spinel gems in the Middle Ages.

Spinel
All red gemstones used to be referred to as rubies or "balas rubies". It was not until 1783 that spinels were chemically differentiated from rubies. They both contain aluminium and oxygen, and both derive their colour from chromium(III), but the spinel crystal also contains magnesium, which rubies lack.

Don Pedro of Seville
The Black Prince's Ruby dates back to the middle of the 14th century as the possession of Abū Sa'īd, the Arab Muslim Prince of the Emirate of Granada. At that time, the rule of Castile was being centralized to Seville and the Moorish Emirate of Granada was being systematically attacked and reverted to Castilian rule as a part of the Christian Reconquest of the Iberian peninsula. Abū Sa'īd in particular was confronted by the belligerency of nascent Castile under the rule of Peter of Castile, also known to history as either Don Pedro the Cruel, or Don Pedro the Just. According to historical accounts, Abū Sa'īd wished to surrender to Don Pedro, but the conditions he offered were unclear. What is clear is that Don Pedro welcomed his coming to Seville. It is recorded that he greatly desired Abū Sa'īd's wealth. When Abū Sa'īd met with Don Pedro, the King had Abū Sa'īd's servants killed and may have personally stabbed Sa'īd to death himself. When Sa'īd's corpse was searched, the spinel was found and added to Don Pedro's possessions.

In 1366, Don Pedro's illegitimate brother, Henry of Trastámara, led a revolt against Don Pedro. Lacking the power to put down the revolt unaided, Don Pedro made an alliance with the Black Prince, the son of Edward III of England. The revolt was successfully put down and the Black Prince demanded the ruby in exchange for the services he had rendered. He later returned to England with King Pedro's two daughters, Dona Constanza of Castile and Dona Isabel of Castile, and marriages were contracted for them to the Prince's brothers. It is assumed that the Black Prince took the Ruby back to England at that time, although it disappears from historical records until 1415.

A wartime adornment
During his campaign in France, Henry V of England wore a gem-encrusted helmet that included the Black Prince's Ruby. In the Battle of Agincourt on 25 October 1415, the French Duke of Alençon struck Henry on the head with a battleaxe, and Henry nearly lost both the helmet and his life. The battle was won by Henry's forces and the Black Prince's Ruby was saved. Richard III is supposed to have worn the gemstone in his helmet at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, in which he was killed.

Crown Jewels
Henry VIII's inventory of 1521 mentions "a great balas ruby" set in the Tudor Crown, thought to be the Black Prince's Ruby. It remained there until the time of Oliver Cromwell in the 17th century. With the exception of the Coronation Chair and several other items, Cromwell had the principal symbols of the king's power – the Crown Jewels – disassembled and sold, and the gold was melted down and made into coins. What happened to the Black Prince's Ruby, then valued at £4 (equivalent to £0 as of ), during the Commonwealth of England is not clear, but it came back into the possession of Charles II when the monarchy was restored in 1660. At the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838, she was crowned with a new Imperial State Crown made for her by Rundell and Bridge, with 3,093 gems, including the spinel at the front. The Queen can be clearly seen wearing the jewel in the Imperial State Crown in her official coronation portrait by Sir George Hayter. This was remade in 1937 into the current, lighter, crown. A plaquette on the reverse of the gemstone commemorates the crown's history.

title: Black Prince's Ruby


text:
List of people from Odisha

This is a list of people from or who live in Odisha, India.

Age of Sarala Yuga

 * Sarala Dasa (1465)
 * Atibadi Jagannath Das (c. 1491–1550)

Age of Upendra Bhanja

 * Kabi Samrat Upendra Bhanja (C. 1688–1740)
 * Dinakrushna Dasa (c.1650–1710)
 * Abhimanyu Samanta Singhara (c. 1760– 1806)
 * Kavisurya Baladev Rath (c. 1789 – 1845)

Age of Radhanath

 * Fakir Mohan Senapati
 * Gangadhar Meher
 * Radhanath Ray
 * Madhusudan Rao
 * Nanda Kishore Bal
 * Gourishankar Ray
 * Nilakantha Das

Post colonial age

 * Gangadhar Meher
 * Kalicharan Pattnaik
 * Sachidananda Routray
 * Brajanath Rath

Poets and authors

 * Amjad Najmi
 * Annada Shankar Ray
 * Brajanath Ratha
 * Bibhuprasad Mohapatra
 * Fakir Mohan Senapati
 * Gangadhar Meher
 * Hussain Rabi Gandhi
 * Godabarish Mishra
 * Gopabandhu Das
 * Gopinath Mohanty
 * Gourahari Das
 * Jachindra Rout
 * Jagadish Mohanty
 * Jagannath Prasad Das (Saraswati Samman winner)
 * Jayadeva
 * Jayanta Mahapatra
 * Karamat Ali Karamat
 * Kalicharan Pattnaik
 * Madhusudan Rao
 * Manasi Pradhan
 * Manoj Das
 * Manoranjan Das
 * Manmohan Acharya
 * Mayadhar Mansingh
 * Mohammed Ayoob
 * Nilakantha Das
 * Oopali Operajita
 * Pratibha Satpathy
 * Pratyush Prakash
 * Radhanath Ray
 * Ramakanta Rath
 * Ranjan Das
 * Ramakrushna Nanda
 * Sachidananda Raut Ray
 * Sarala Dasa
 * Sarala Devi
 * Sarojini Sahoo
 * Satya Narayan Bohidar
 * Sitakanta Mohapatra (Jnanpith Award winner)
 * Subrat Kumar Prusty (Maharshi Badrayan Vyas Samman winner)
 * Tapan Kumar Pradhan

Writers and novelists

 * Artabalabha Mohanti
 * Bibhuprasad Mohapatra
 * Brajanath Ratha
 * Gita Mehta
 * Gopinath Mohanty (Jnanpith Award winner)
 * Haldhar Nag
 * Kalindi Charan Panigrahi
 * Krushna Chandra Kar
 * Manoj Das
 * Pratibha Ray
 * Rajendra Prasad Das
 * Shantanu Kumar Acharya
 * Surendra Mohanty
 * Uday Satpathy

Women's writing and feminism

 * Sarala Devi
 * Archana Nayak
 * Annapurna Maharana
 * Manasi Pradhan
 * Nandini Sahu
 * Sarojini Sahoo

Children's literature

 * Kalicharan Pattnaik
 * Adikanda Mahanta
 * Bibhuprasad Mohapatra
 * Krutibas Nayak
 * Ramakrushna Nanda
 * Dash Benhur
 * Nilakantha Das

Drama and plays

 * Kalicharan Pattnaik
 * Gopal Chhotray
 * Manoranjan Das
 * Biswajit Das

Short stories

 * Fakir Mohan Senapati
 * Kalicharan Pattnaik
 * Surendra Mohanty
 * Manoj Das
 * Jagadish Mohanty
 * Sarojini Sahoo

Popular science

 * Binod Kanungo
 * Gokulananda Mohapatra
 * Dr. Ramesh Chandra Parida
 * Kamalakanta Jena
 * Bibhuprasad Mohapatra

Education and Research
 Satyabadi Era

 * Gopabandhu Das
 * Nilakantha Das
 * Godabarish Mishra

 Later Period
 * Kalicharan Pattnaik
 * Baidyanath Misra
 * Bhubaneswar Behera
 * Bidhu Bhusan Das
 * Prabhat Nalini Das
 * Subrat Kumar Prusty (Maharshi Badrayan Vyas Samman
 * Madhu Sudan Kanungo
 * Keshab Chandra Dash
 * Madhab Chandra Dash
 * Ranjan Dash
 * Prafulla Kumar Jena
 * Baisali Mohanty
 * Jitendra Nath Mohanty
 * Saraju Mohanty
 * Oopali Operajita
 * Prana Krushna Parija
 * Nikhil Mohan Pattnaik
 * Jogesh Pati
 * Arun K. Pati
 * Sam Pitroda
 * Amiya Pujari
 * Ashok Swain

Actresses

 * Anisha Ambrose
 * Anu Chowdhury
 * Archita Sahu
 * Barsha Priyadarshini
 * Bijaya Jena
 * Jyoti Mishra
 * Mahasweta Ray
 * Naina Das
 * Nandita Das
 * Rameshwari
 * Sulagna Panigrahi
 * Tandra Ray
 * Kavya Keeran
 * Rajeswari Ray
 * Pupul Bhuyan
 * Sudharani Jena

Actors

 * Akash Das Nayak
 * Anubhav Mohanty
 * Arindam Roy
 * Atal Bihari Panda
 * Babushaan Mohanty
 * Bijay Mohanty
 * Buddhaditya Mohanty
 * Chandan Kar
 * Chandrachur Singh
 * Dipanwit Dashmohapatra
 * Dukhiram Swain
 * Hara Patnaik
 * Jayiram Samal
 * Mihir Das
 * Papu Pam Pam
 * Prashanta Nanda
 * Sabyasachi Mishra
 * Sadhu Meher
 * Sarat Pujari
 * Siddhanta Mahapatra
 * Sisir Misra
 * Sriram Panda
 * Uttam Mohanty
 * Mohammad Mohsin
 * Jyoti Ranjan Nayak
 * Samaresh Routray
 * Partha Sarathi Ray

Modern

 * Rajasmita Kar
 * Prince Dance Group

Odissi Gurus and Dancers

 * Kalicharan Pattnaik
 * Gangadhar Pradhan
 * Geeta Mahalik
 * Kelucharan Mohapatra
 * Mayadhar Raut
 * Sanjukta Panigrahi
 * Saswat Joshi
 * Sujata Mohapatra
 * Sunanda Patnaik
 * Oopali Operajita
 * Kumkum Mohanty
 * Baisali Mohanty
 * Dayanidhi Das

Filmmakers

 * Mohammad Mohsin
 * Mehmood Hussain
 * Bijoy Ketan Mishra
 * Hara Patnaik
 * Mira Nair
 * Nila Madhab Panda
 * Nitai Palit
 * Prashanta Nanda
 * Ravi Kinagi
 * Sabyasachi Mohapatra
 * Sadhu Meher
 * Sisir Mishra
 * Jitendra Mishra

Painters

 * Jatin Das
 * Jayanta Meher
 * Kailash Chandra Meher

Sand artists

 * Sudarshan Pattnaik

Sculptors

 * Raghunath Mohapatra
 * Sudarshan Sahoo

Singers

 * Kalicharan Pattnaik
 * Akshaya Mohanty
 * Bhikari Bal
 * Arabinda Muduli
 * Krishna Beura
 * Pratyush Prakash
 * Sarbeswar Bhoi
 * Sikandar Alam
 * Sniti Mishra
 * Sona Mohapatra
 * Sunanda Patnaik
 * Rituraj Mohanty
 * Jitendra Haripal

Musicians

 * Kalicharan Pattnaik
 * Akshaya Mohanty
 * Prafulla Kar
 * Arabinda Muduli

Designers

 * Bibhu Mohapatra

Jurists

 * Ananga Kumar Patnaik; Former Justice of the Supreme Court of India
 * Gopal Ballav Pattanaik; Former Chief Justice of India
 * Ranganath Misra; Former Chief Justice of India
 * Dipak Misra; Chief Justice of India

Chief Executive Officers

 * T.K.Chand, Chairman and Managing Director of NALCO

Bankers

 * Ashok Kumar Sarangi
 * Harun Rashid Khan

Engineers

 * Bibhusita Das

Managers

 * Sarthak Behuria
 * Sandip Das
 * Subroto Bagchi
 * Dr Tapan Kumar Pradhan
 * Ranjan Dash

Physicians

 * B. K. Misra (Neurosurgeon)
 * Ramakanta Panda (Cardiovascular Surgeon)

Journalists

 * Bibhuti Bhushan Nayak (Journalist)
 * Gopal Mishra

Government civil servants

 * Anugraha Narayan Tiwari (Former CIC of India)
 * Lalit Mansingh
 * Prajna Paramita
 * Ramakanta Rath
 * Sitakanta Mohapatra
 * Dayanidhi Choudhury

Security and Law Enforcement

 * Pramod Kumar Satapathy

Religion

 * Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
 * Bhima Bhoi
 * Jayadeva
 * Atibadi Jagannath Das
 * Achyutananda Das
 * Durga Charan Mohanty

Freedom fighters

 * Annapurna Maharana
 * Afzal-ul Amin
 * Baji Rout
 * Biswambhar Parida
 * Bishwanath Das
 * Bakshi Jagabandhu
 * Chakhi Khuntia
 * Ekram Rasul
 * Ghanshyam Panigrahi
 * Gopabandhu Das
 * Godabarish Mishra
 * Gurubari Meher
 * Harekrushna Mahatab
 * Jayee Rajguru
 * Jagannatha Gajapati Narayana Deo II
 * Jagabandhu Patnaik
 * Kamal Singh
 * Karunakar Singh
 * Krushna Chandra Gajapati
 * Laxman Nayak
 * Madhab Chandra Routray
 * Madho Singh (Ghess)
 * Madhusudan Das
 * Madhusudan Rao
 * Malati Choudhury
 * Nabakrushna Choudhuri
 * Nilakantha Das
 * Nityananda Mohapatra
 * Parbati Giri
 * Pindiki Bahubalendra
 * Rama Devi
 * Sarala Devi
 * Subhas Chandra Bose
 * Sayeed Mohammed
 * Veer Surendra Sai

Rulers

 * Avakinnayo Karakandu
 * Chullakalinga
 * Kalinga II
 * Kharavela
 * Satrubhanja
 * Kaundinya I
 * Hemangada
 * Sivakara Deva I
 * Ramachandra Deva I
 * Tribhuvana Mahadevi I
 * Anantavarman Chodaganga
 * Anangabhima Deva III
 * Narasingha Deva I
 * Kapilendra Deva
 * Purushottama Deva
 * Prataparudra Deva
 * Jagannatha Gajapati Narayana Deo II
 * Krushna Chandra Gajapati
 * Basudeb Sudhal Deb
 * Ramai Deva
 * Balarama Deva
 * Vishwanath Dev Gajapati
 * Vikram Dev III
 * Sriram Chandra Bhanj Deo

Politicians

 * Amarnath Pradhan
 * Ananga Udaya Singh Deo
 * Ananta Nayak
 * Archana Nayak
 * Arjun Charan Sethi
 * Afzal-ul Amin
 * Badri Narayan Patra
 * Bhakta Charan Das
 * Gopanarayan Das
 * Bhartruhari Mahtab
 * Bhupinder Singh
 * Bibhu Prasad Tarai
 * Bijayananda Patnaik
 * Bijoy Mohapatra
 * Biju Patnaik
 * Bikram Keshari Deo
 * Binayak Acharya
 * Biren Mitra
 * Bishwanath Das
 * Braja Kishore Tripathy
 * Chandra Sekhar Sahu
 * Chintamani Panigrahi
 * Draupadi Murmu
 * Godabarish Mishra
 * Gourahari Naik
 * Giridhar Gamang
 * Habibullah Khan
 * Harekrushna Mahatab
 * Hari Har Swain
 * Hemananda Biswal
 * Hrushikesh Naik
 * Hussain Rabi Gandhi
 * Janaki Ballabh Patnaik
 * Jayaram Pangi
 * Jitu Patnaik
 * Jual Oram
 * Kalikesh Narayan Singh Deo
 * Kamakhya Prasad Singh Deo
 * Laichan Nayak
 * Laxman Tudu
 * Maheswar Baug
 * Mohan Jena
 * Nabakrushna Choudhuri
 * Nabin Nanda
 * Nandini Satpathy
 * Naveen Patnaik
 * Nilakantha Das
 * Nityanand Kanungo
 * Nilamani Routray
 * Niranjan Patnaik
 * Nityananda Pradhan
 * Parsuram Majhi
 * Pinaki Misra
 * Pradeep Kumar Majhi
 * Prasanna Acharya
 * Prasanna Kumar Patasani
 * P.V.Narasimha Rao
 * Pyarimohan Mohapatra
 * Rabi Ray
 * Radhanath Rath
 * Rajendra Narayan Singh Deo
 * Ranjib Biswal
 * Rudramadhab Ray
 * Sadashiva Tripathy
 * Samarendra Kundu
 * Sanatan Mahakud
 * Sangeeta Kumari Singh Deo
 * Sanjay Bhoi
 * Sarala Devi
 * Siddhanta Mahapatra
 * Soumya Ranjan Patnaik
 * Srikant Kumar Jena
 * Surendra Mohanty
 * Sudam Marndi
 * Surendra Mohanty
 * Sushila Tiriya
 * Tathagata Satpathy
 * V.V. Giri
 * Baikunthanath Swain

Social service

 * Baba Balia
 * Sarala Devi
 * Madhusudan Das
 * Gopabandhu Das
 * Subrat Kumar Prusty (Maharshi Badrayan Vyas Samman
 * Farhat Amin
 * Manasi Pradhan
 * Begum Badar un nissa Akhtar

Cricket

 * Alok Jena
 * A. Panda
 * Baljit Singh
 * Basant Mohanty
 * Bibhudutta Panda
 * Kadambini Mohakud
 * Biplab Samantray
 * Debashish Mohanty
 * Ranjib Biswal
 * Sanjay Raul
 * Shiv Sunder Das
 * Natraj Behera

Hockey

 * Binita Toppo (female hockey)
 * Dilip Tirkey
 * Lazarus Barla
 * Ignace Tirkey
 * Birendra Lakra

Other sports

 * Anuradha Biswal (100m hurdles, running)
 * Budhia Singh (long distance running)
 * Dutee Chand (sprint runner)
 * Jauna Murmu (sprint running, hurdler)
 * Katulu Ravi Kumar (weightlifting)
 * Srabani Nanda (sprint runner)
 * Pramila Prava Minz (rowing)
 * Pratima Puhan (rowing)
 * Valena Valentina (karate)
 * Kalpana Dash (Everest climber)
 * Pramod Bhagat (Paralympian)

title: List of people from Odisha


text:
Manipura

Manipura (मणिपूर, IAST: ) is the third primary chakra according to Vedic tradition.

Location
Located above the navel, Manipura translates from Sanskrit as "city of jewels" alternatively translated as "resplendent gem" or "lustrous gem". Manipura is often associated with the colors yellow, blue in classical tantra, and red in the Nath tradition.

Manipura is associated with fire and the power of transformation. It is said to govern digestion and metabolism as the home of Agni and the vital wind Samana Vayu. The energies of Prana Vayu and Apana Vayu (inward and outward flowing energy) meet at the point in a balanced system.

Manipura is the home of the coeliac plexus, which innervates most of the digestive system. In chakra-based medicine, practitioners work this area to promote healthier digestion, elimination, pancreas-kidney and Adrenal function. Weak Agni (fire) in the coeliac plexus leads to incompletely digested food, thoughts and emotions, and is a source of ama (toxicity).

Appearance
Manipura is represented with a downward-pointing red triangle, signifying the tattva of fire, within a bright yellow circle, with 10 dark-blue or black petals like heavily laden rain clouds.

The fire region is represented by the god Vahni, who is shining red, has four arms, holds a rosary and a spear. Vahni is making the gestures of granting boons, or favors, and dispelling fear. Agni is later referenced as well as Hinduism altered over time.

Seed mantra
The seed mantra is the syllable 'रं' (ram). Within the bindu, or dot, above this mantra resides the deity रुद्र Rudra. He is red or white, with three eyes, of ancient aspect with a silver beard, and is smeared with white ashes. Rudra makes the gestures of granting boons and dispelling fear and is seated either on a tiger skin or a bull.

Rudra's Shakti is the goddess लाकिनी Lakini. She has a black or dark-blue vermilion color; has three faces, each with three eyes; and is four-armed. Lakini holds a thunderbolt, the arrow shot from the bow of काम Kama, and fire. She makes the gestures of granting boons and dispelling fear. Lakini is seated on a red lotus.

Petals
The ten petals of Manipura are dark-blue or black, like heavily laden rain clouds, with the syllables डं, ढं, णं, तं, थं, दं, धं, नं, पं and फं (ḍaṁ, ḍhaṁ, ṇaṁ, taṁ, thaṁ, daṁ, dhaṁ, naṁ, paṁ, and phaṁ) upon them in a dark-blue color. These petals correspond to the vrittis of spiritual ignorance, thirst, jealousy, treachery, shame, fear, disgust, delusion, foolishness and sadness.

The petals represent the ten Prānas (currents and energy vibrations) that are regulated by the Manipūra Chakra. The five Prāna Vayus are: Prāna, Apāna, Udāna, Samāna And Vyāna. The five Upa Prānas are: Nāga, Kūrma, Devadatta, Krikala and Dhananjaya.

Association with the body
The position of Manipura is stated as being behind the navel. Sometimes a secondary chakra called Surya (sun) chakra is located at the solar plexus, whose role is to absorb and assimilate Prana from the sun. Being related to the sense of sight, it is associated with the eyes, and being associated with movement, it is associated with the feet.

In the endocrine system, Manipura is said to be associated with the pancreas and the outer adrenal glands (the adrenal cortex). These glands create important hormones involved in digestion, converting food into energy for the body, in the same way that Manipura radiates Prana throughout the body.

Vajrayana
In Vajrayana traditions, the chakra is triangular, red and has 64 petals or channels that extend upwards. This chakra is important as the seat of the 'red drop'. The short syllable 'Ah' is located inside the 'red drop'.

Meditation on 'Ah' is the key component of the practice of tummo, or inner heat. In tummo, a practitioner's 'subtle winds' are made to enter the central channel, and rise up to its top. This is sometimes compared to 'Raising the kundalini' in Hindu terminology, melting the subtle white drop in the crown, and causing an experience of great bliss. 'Raising the kundalini' is considered the first and most important of the six yogas of Naropa.

Qigong
In Chinese qigong, there is a degree of correspondence with the term "Kua" or door. This series of doors connect with three Dantians that act as furnaces to convert different energies in the body. The lower Dantian is said to be located in the lower abdomen, between the genitals and the navel. Its function is to convert Kidney essence (jing) into Qi (a concept similar to Hindu prana).

Lataif-e-sitta
Within the Sufi Lataif-e-sitta, the torso contains several Lataif. Unlike the chakras, the Lataif are not distributed vertically, instead to the left and the right. The nafs, or lower self, is a centre that is situated below the navel.

Kabbala
Western occultists make different kabbalistic associations with Manipura. For some occultists, it relates to the sephirot of Hod and Netzach.

Netzach is the quality of energy to overcome different obstacles.

Hod is the tendency to control and break down energy into different forms, the two forms being contending and balancing forces. This is like the forces of anabolism and catabolism in the human body. Hod and Netzach are associated with the left and right legs and feet of the body.

Yogic
The Manipuraka chakra is said by the 10th century Kubjikamatatantra 11.35 to be at the navel. The Samgitaratnakara 2.125-127 agrees it is at the navel, stating that it has 10 petals, containing deep sleep, desire, envy, slander, shame, fear, compassion, stupor, impurity, and anxiety. The breath (prana) that dwells there is named the sun.

It is said in the Hatha Ratnavali 1.63 to be purified by Nauli, one of the Satkarmas.

Neo-pagan
Neo-pagan related to Hindu Yogic guided visualization, is the breathing into the solar plexus, holding our breath and focusing our intent, this is to hold our energy and infuse it with our intent, imagining the build up of moving substance through our nose, into a channel down into the solar plexus, then exhaling is moving the energy out into the world.

Balancing the solar plexus may contain self-love, appreciation and/or acceptance. Use occasionally in and between cycles of meditation. "Intent is the most powerful force in the universe.". "... affirmations are simply a statement of intent". The positive affirmations re-empower your solar plexus. Statements with "I am, I can, I will", such as "I am enough", and "I love myself unconditionally". Visualize the yellow solar plexus charging with energy and spinning around with the result of affirmations, and spinning with full power. Its charge is our power, the substance we are also of, using the energy in existence we are creating change in the world. Throwing off negative energies that life collects.

Pagan
"Our focus, manifestation, ambition, and our critical aspect/ defensiveness come from the Solar Plexus.". When we are out of balance here we may have control issues, hypersensitivity, action imbalances, and issues with our health in the form of anxiety, blockages in digestive system, fear and welling up of negative responses that prevent us from moving beyond built up negative space, rather than to keep us safe its to prevent ourselves from healing in our desire, thought and fear.

Solar plexus is where the incoming energies from people are received.

Attitudes breathing is the flow of decharging emotions in tense situations. "The tool combines the power of the heart and gut to enable you to shift emotion and physiology right in the middle of a strong reaction". Attitude if its giving us difficulty try choosing the opposite from what you've been feeling; "love and appreciation if you've been feeling animosity and resentment".

"Use your notebook to write down unproductive attitudes you know you have and more positive attitudes you wish you had.". Guide yourself with alternative attitudes that you think could help with for example a nemesis in our life that redirect the flow out of our objectivity, let that alternative be with your breath, breath love, breath appreciation, breath compassion or breath excitement (i.e. the most suitable) and feeling (within a few minutes) we will be moving back into coherence (out of noise of anyone's background thought), we will also feel framed in our attitude when sometimes we are not making that cohesive effort to be. We are guided by our heart when we are more closely feeling and taking the frame of an attitude.

Alternative names

 * Tantra: Dashachchada, Dashadala Padma, Dashapatra, Dashapatrambuja, Manipura, Manipuraka, Nabhipadma, Nabhipankaja
 * Vedas (late Upanishads): Manipura, Manipuraka, Nabhi Chakra
 * Puranic: Manipura, Nabhi Chakra

title: Manipura


text:
Anahata

Anahata (अनाहत, IAST:, "unstruck") or heart chakra is the fourth primary chakra, according to Hindu Yogic, Shakta and Buddhist Tantric traditions. In Sanskrit, anahata means "unhurt, unstruck, and unbeaten". Anahata Nad refers to the Vedic concept of unstruck sound (the sound of the celestial realm). Anahata is associated with balance, calmness, and serenity.

Etymology
In Sanskrit Anahata means "sound produced without touching two parts" and at the same time it means "pure" or "clean, stainless". The name of this chakra signifies the state of freshness that appears when we are able to become detached and to look at the different and apparently contradictory experiences of life with a state of openness (expansion). Normally we are not used to the effect produced by the confrontation of the two opposite forces. At the level of Anahata chakra appears the possibility to integrate the two opposite forces and obtain the effect (sound, in this case), without the two forces being confronted (without touching of the two parts). This energy is specific to cooperation and integration, which brings peace and a new perspective in a world which, up to this level (considering only the energies specific to the first three centres of force: Muladhara, Swasdhistana and Manipura) was made only of a more or less conscious confrontation between opposite forces. The name Anahata suggests, in fact, the synergetic effect of the interaction of energies at this level.

Location
The heart chakra is located in the central channel of the spine near the heart.

Appearance
Anahata is represented by a lotus flower with twelve petals. Inside there is a smoky region at the intersection of two triangles, creating a shatkona. The shatkona is a symbol used in Hindu Yantra, representing the union of male and female. Specifically, it is meant to represent Purusha (the Supreme Being) and Prakriti (Nature). The deity of this area is Vayu, who is smoke-like and four-armed, holding a kusha and riding an antelope (this chakra's animal). A "fourth chakra person" has innocent eyes, like those of a deer. The song, Todi Raja, was used by traditional hunters to trap a deer who would "die for pure sound." The hexagram, associated with this chakra, represents the air, which moves upwards, downwards, and in all four directions.

Seed mantra
The seed syllable is the dark-grey mantra "yam". In the bindu (or dot) above the syllable is the deity Isha. Isha is bright white or blue in color. He has either one or five faces, with three eyes on each face. He may have two, four or ten arms. He is clad in a tiger skin, holds a trident and drum, grants blessings, and dispels fear. His shakti is Kakini, who is shining yellow or rose-coloured. She has a number of variations: one, three or six faces; two or four arms; and holds a variety of implements (occasionally a sword, shield, skull or trident). She is seated on a red lotus. Another deity ascribed to the seed syllable “yam” is Vayu, the god of wind and prana. Hrim is also another bija associated with the anahata center as it is the bija of the heart.

Petals
The twelve petals are inscribed with the following Sanskrit syllables. (Note: In some representations the syllables or else the petals themselves are colored vermillion. )
 * 1) kam
 * 2) kham
 * 3) gam
 * 4) gham
 * 5) ngam
 * 6) cham
 * 7) chham
 * 8) jam
 * 9) jham
 * 10) nyam
 * 11) tam
 * 12) tham

The syllables may be thought as matching twelve vrittis or divine qualities of the heart as follows.
 * 1) bliss
 * 2) peace
 * 3) harmony
 * 4) love
 * 5) understanding
 * 6) empathy
 * 7) clarity
 * 8) purity
 * 9) unity
 * 10) compassion
 * 11) kindness
 * 12) forgiveness

Even more commonly, systems of understanding identify these vrittis as corresponding with various reflexive modifications away from the indifferentiated divine mind, each one considered as arising from spiritual ignorance, as below.
 * 1) asha: wish, desire, hope
 * 2) cinta: thoughtfulness, anxiety
 * 3) cesta: effort
 * 4) mamta: possessiveness, fondness
 * 5) dhamba: arrogance, vanity
 * 6) viveka: discrimination
 * 7) vikalata: languor
 * 8) ahamkara: conceit, egoism, pride
 * 9) lolata: covetousness, avarice
 * 10) kapatata: duplicity, hypocrisy
 * 11) vitarka: indecision, argumentativeness
 * 12) anutapa: regret, burning misery

William Enckhausen defines half of these vrittis as spiritual ignorances and half spiritual developments. "Half the 12 vrttis of the Anahata are 'positive', growth promoting vrttis and the other half are 'negative' or at most neutral, self-justifying defense tendencies that perpetuate the ego's limited boundaries instead of expanding and refining them. There is still a limited and bounded sense of self, but with the potential to discriminate between vice and virtue. There is also still the boundary of self and not self to be overcome, although not as marked as in the Manipura and Svadhistana. Harmony, balance, and proportion are key elements in this fulcrum that is the Anahata to help determine what is growth-promoting and virtuous (self, or good for the self) and what is vice, or inappropriate for spiritual self-growth (not self)." Enckhausen's translations follow.
 * 1) hope
 * 2) worry
 * 3) endeavor
 * 4) affection
 * 5) vanity
 * 6) discernment
 * 7) depression
 * 8) self-identity
 * 9) selfishness
 * 10) duplicity
 * 11) contention
 * 12) compunction

Function
Anahata is considered to be the seat of the Jivatman and Parashakti. In the Upanishads, this is described as a tiny flame inside the heart. Anahata is named as such because sages were believed to hear the sound (Anahata – comes without the striking of two objects together). It is associated with air, touch and the actions of the hands.

Anahata is associated with the ability to make decisions outside the realm of karma. In Manipura and below, man is bound by the laws of karma and fate. In Anahata one makes decisions ("follows one's heart") based on one's higher self, not the unfulfilled emotions and desires of lower nature. As such, it is known as the heart chakra. It is also associated with love and compassion, charity to others and psychic healing. Meditation on this chakra is said to bring about the following siddhis (abilities): they become a master of speech, they are dear to the gender they are attracted to, their presence controls the senses of others, and they can leave and enter the body at will.

Hrit (Hridaya, Surya) chakra
Immediately below Anahata (at the solar plexus or, sometimes, on the near left side of the body) is a minor chakra known as Hrit (or Hridaya, "heart"), with eight petals. It has three regions: a vermilion sun region, within which is a white moon region, within which is a deep-red fire region. Within this is the red wish-fulfilling tree, kalpavriksha, which symbolises the ability to manifest what one wishes to happen in the world.

Hrit chakra is sometimes known as the Surya (sun) chakra, which is located slightly to the left below the heart. Its role is to absorb energy from the sun and provide heat to the body and the other chakras (to Manipura in particular, to which it provides ''Agni' (fire).

Practices
In Yogic practices, anahata is awakened and balanced by asanas, pranayamas and the practice of ajapa japa (japa, without the mental effort normally needed to repeat the mantra) and purified by bhakti (devotion).

There are also concentration practices for awakening the Anāhata chakra.

Tibetan Buddhism
The heart wheel in Tibetan Buddhism is the location of the indestructible red-and-white drop. At death, the winds of the body dissolve and enter this drop, which then leads the body into Bardo (the intermediate stage) and rebirth. The heart wheel in this model is circular, white and has eight petals (or channels) reaching downwards. These channels divide into three wheels (mind, speech and body) and go to 24 places in the body. They again divide into three and then into 1,000, producing 72,000 channels (known as Nadi) throughout the body.

The heart wheel is important in meditation; in the lower tantras, the mantra is recited from the heart. It is recited verbally and then mentally; then, in the heart, a tiny moon disc and flame are imagined from which the mantra rings. In the higher tantras (the Anuttarayoga Tantra of the Sarma schools) or the Inner Tantras of the Nyingma school, the practitioner attempts to dissolve the winds and drops into the central channel at the level of the heart to experience the Yoga of Clear Light; this is a practice of the Six Yogas of Naropa. In Tibetan Buddhism there is a chakra, the Fire Wheel, above the heart and below the throat.

Sufism
Sufis have a system of Lataif-e-sitta at a number of points on the body; at the heart, there are three positioned horizontally. On the left side of the chest is the Qalb (the heart); the Ruḥ is on the right side of the chest, and the Sirr (innermost heart) is between them.

The Qalb is called the heart of the mystic; it is caught between the downward pull of the lower nafs, and the upward pull of the spirit of Allah and may be blackened by sin. It may be purified by reciting the names of God. The Ruḥ is the centre of the spirit, the breath of Allah; when awakened, it counteracts the negative pull of the nafs. The Sirr is the innermost heart, where Allah manifests his mystery to himself.

title: Anahata


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Vishuddha

Vishuddha (विशुद्ध, IAST:, "especially pure"), or Vishuddhi (विशुद्धी), or throat chakra is the fifth primary chakra according to the Hindu tradition of tantra. The residing deity of this chakra is Panchavaktra shiva, with 5 heads and 4 arms, and the Shakti is Shakini.

Location
Vishuddha is positioned at the throat region, near the spine, with its Kshetram or superficial activation point in the pit of the throat. Due to its position, it is known as the throat Chakra.

Appearance
According to Hindu tradition, this chakra is described as having a "white color" with sixteen "purple" or "smoke-colored petals." Within the pericarp is a sky-blue downward pointing triangle containing a circular white region like the full moon. This represents the element of akasha or "aether." This region is represented by the deity Ambara, who is also white in color and is depicted with four arms, holding a noose and a goad. He makes the gestures of granting boons and dispelling fear while seated upon a white elephant. The silver crescent is the lunar symbol of nada, pure cosmic sound. The crescent is symbolic of purity, and purification is a vital aspect of Vishuddha Chakra.

Seed syllable
The Bija Mantra is the syllable हं , and is written in white upon the chakra. In the Bindu, or point above the mantra, resides the deity Sadashiva, who has 5 faces, representing the spectrum of smell, taste, sight, touch, and sound and 10 arms. The right half of his body is a white Shiva, and the left half of the body is a golden Shakti. He is holding a trident, chisel, sword, vajra, fire, a great snake, a bell, a goad, and a noose, and is making the gesture of dissipating fear. He is clad in a tiger skin. His Shakti is Shakini, who is shining white, seated on a red lotus, and with five faces, three eyes each, and four-armed, with a bow and arrow, noose, and goad.

Petals
Vishuddha has 16 purple petals upon which are written the 16 Sanskrit vowels in golden; NB: Some vowels listed above do not strictly correspond to the grammatical definition of a Sanskrit vowel, specifically ॡ , अः ḥ, and अं ṃ''. See Sanskrit Phonology for details.''

The petals correspond to the Vrittis of the mantra Ong [Aum], the Sama-mantras, the mantras Hung, Phat, Washat, Swadha, Swaha, and Namak, the nectar Amrita, and the seven musical tones.

Function
Vishuddha chakra is known as the purification center, where the nectar amrita drips down from the Bindu chakra and is split into a pure form and a poison. In its most abstract form, it is associated with higher discrimination and is associated with creativity and self-expression. It is believed that when Vishuddha is closed, a person undergoes decay and death. When it is open, negative experiences are transformed into wisdom and learning. The success and failure in one's life are said to depend upon the state of this chakra, whether it is polluted or clean. The feeling of being guilty is given as the most prominent reason for this chakra to block the Kundalini energy moving upwards. It is associated with the element Akasha, or Ether, and the sense of hearing, as well as the action of speaking.

Meditation upon this chakra is said to bring about various siddhis or occult powers: vision of the three periods, past, present and future; freedom from disease and old age; destruction of dangers; and the ability to move the three worlds.

Lalana chakra
Closely related to Vishuddha is a minor chakra, located in the roof of the mouth, called Lalana. It is described as having 16 red or white petals that correspond to the virtues of respect, contentment, offense, self-control, pride, affection, sorrow, depression, purity, dissatisfaction, honor and anxiety. Inside is a red circular moon region, which acts as a reservoir for the nectar amrita. When Vishuddha is inactive, this nectar is allowed to run downwards into Manipura and consumed, resulting in physical degeneration. Through practices such as khechari mudra, however, the nectar can be made to enter Vishuddha, where it is purified, and becomes a nectar of immortality.

Associations with the body
This chakra is located in the neck and the throat. Due to its association with hearing, it is related to the ears, and due to its association with speaking, it is associated with the mouth.

Vishuddha is often associated with the thyroid gland in the human endocrine system. This gland is in the neck, and produces hormones essential for growth and maturation. Excessive stress, namely fear and fear from speaking out, are said to affect the throat chakra, and thyroid problems may occur. Singing is a harmless and beneficial way of stimulating the throat chakra, whereas rubbing or hitting the throat area is not and can be harmful.

Practices
In Kundalini yoga, Vishuddha can be opened and balanced through practices including asanas (such as shoulder-stand), pranayama, Jalandhara Bandha (throat lock), and Khecarī mudrā. This chakra can be cleaned or opened by meditation or vocalisation.

There are also special Meditations with Specific Influence on the Vishuddhi Chakra.

title: Vishuddha