text:
Berlengas

The Berlengas are a Portuguese archipelago consisting of small Atlantic islands 10 to(-) off the coast of Peniche, Portugal, in the Oeste region. These islands were traditionally known to British mariners as "the Burlings". The only inhabited island is its largest island, Berlenga Grande, although there is currently no permanent habitation in the archipelago. The other islands are grouped into two groups of islets, the Estelas Islets and the Farilhões-Forcados Islets.

History
Human occupation on Berlenga Grande dates back to antiquity: the islands are referred to in Ptolemy's Geography as Λονδοβρίς (Londobris). Much later it was referred to as the island of Saturno by Roman geographers, and was visited successively by Muslims, Vikings and privateers.

The islands are thought to be a former sacred place adopted by the Phoenicians in the first millennium BC where the cult of Baal–Melqart was celebrated.

In 1513, with the support of Queen Eleanor of Viseu, monks from the Order of São Jerónimo established a settlement on the island to offer assistance to navigation and victims of frequent shipwrecks. The monastery founded there, the Monastery of the Misericórdia da Berlenga, remained until the 16th century, when disease, lack of supplies and poor communication (due to constant inclement weather) forced the monks to abandon their service on the island.

After the Portuguese Restoration War, during the reign of King John IV, the council of war determined that the demolition of the monastery ruins and the use of their rocks to build a coastal defense would help protect the coastal settlements; the Fort of São João Baptista das Berlengas was constructed from the remnants of the monastery ruins. By 1655, it had already, during its construction, resisted an assault by three Barbary Coast pirates.

The island's lighthouse (dubbed Duke of Braganza by locals) was constructed in 1841. In the 20th century a solar panel was installed in the lighthouse's 29 m column, providing a 50 km field of vision.

The International Coordinating Council of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB), meeting in Dresden (Germany) from 28 June to 1 July, while adding 18 new sites, included the Berlengas to the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR): in a statement on 30 June 2011, the list of classified reserves were presented.

Geography
The archipelago is made up of the largest island, Berlenga Grande, and two groups of smaller islets, the Estelas Inlets and the Farilhões-Forcados Islets. As the archipelago has been declared a reservation area for the protection of the local fauna (primarily sea birds), it is only visited by scientists and, in the summer, by a number of tourists.

There is little soil on the rocky archipelago, so little plant life is supported. Sea birds and marine life, such as mackerel, mullet, and swordfish are abundant.

Berlenga Grande
At 1.5 km long and 0.8 km wide, Berlenga Grande is the largest of the islands of the Berlengas Archipelago. At its highest, it rises to 88 m above sea level. The island has a number of notable caves, including Gruta Azul (English: "Blue Cave") and Furado Grande (English: "Big Hole"). The Furado Grande is a natural tunnel 70 m wide and 20 m tall which crosses through the entire island before opening up into a dramatic bay.

The Fort of São João Baptista (English: "Fort of St. John the Baptist") is located in the waters off the southeastern coast of Berlenga Grande, on a small islet connected to the island by a causeway/arch-bridge and anchorage to the north. It has been retrofitted as a rest house for tourists to stay at while visiting the islands.

Farilhões-Forcados Islets
The Farilhões-Forcados Islets are uninhabited islands located northwest of Berlenga Grande.

Geology
These islands consist of a pink granite very rare in Europe and very common in America, rich in feldspars. Erosion has created remarkable landforms, such as the "sugar loaf", or even narrow valleys with almost vertical walls (the carreiros, formed by selective erosion along subvertical fault planes), as well as numerous caves and marine tunnels

The different groups of islands have different morphology, composition and origins. Berlenga Grande and Estelas are of igneous origin, composed of pink granites, and occur in outcrops with rounded morphologies, generally with flattened tops. The Farilhões Forcadas group, on the other hand, consists of metamorphic rocks, where reliefs characterized by sharp peaks and vertical cliffs stand out.

Berlenga Island is a pink granite plateau with rounded shapes, marked by a very jagged coastline, where several coves, caves, arches, paths, small islets and rocks stand out. All these landforms were shaped by the continuous action of erosive processes over a long period of time. The very embedded and relatively aligned paths of Cações and Mosteiro stand out, which almost separate the island of Berlenga into two fragments, the Ilha Velha and the Berlenga itself, and give it a curious figure-eight shape.

It is hypothesized that the archipelago had its origin on a horst. Its absence on the Mesozoic suggests that, during this time, the Berlengas block was essentially subjected to erosive processes. The pink granite fragments and metamorphic rocks found at Cabo Carvoeiro or Baleal, as well as in the Papoa tuff–breccia, similar to those recognized in the archipelago, confirms this hypothesis. It is also expected that this block was larger and had a different configuration than it currently has.

The absence of morphological structures typical of the erosion of granitic massifs and soils on the surface of Berlenga Grande suggest that it was underwater for long periods of time. Its rounded shape and the relatively flat surface of its top propounds the presence of an ancient marine abrasion platform, confirmed by the presence of numerous erosive forms, such as potholes, which developed on top of the applanation surface when it was at the bottom of the sea.

On the other hand, the existence of small cavities and caves in the cliffs above the current mean sea level, such as Furado Seco, and marine terraces that correspond to residual deposits of old beaches, located at similar altitudes, seem to indicate that sea level was once positioned on that horizon. These observations suggest significant variations in the mean sea level, possibly as a result of quaternary glaciations.

Additionally, Berlenga Grande has a poorly developed drainage network, (when precipitation occurs, rainwater is taken and falls directly into the sea in cascades), which clearly evidences that the erosion rate of the granitic massif is lower than the speed of variations in the mean sea level.

The older metamorphic rocks that outcrop in Farilhões and Forcadas are erosion-resistance peaks of an underwater mountain that widens considerably below sea level. These rocks are strongly deformed and contain textures and minerals characteristic of high pressure and high temperature environments, typical of the lower crust.

Climate
The Berlengas have a Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csb) dominated by the Atlantic, especially on the northern and northwestern coasts, where strong winds are felt. Heavy rains in winter alternate with periods of drought, between spring and autumn.

The climate of the archipelago is strongly influenced by the winds, very strong on the north-facing cliffs and more moderate on the southern coasts. These wind currents affect the distribution of flora and fauna in the islands. This climatic feature endows the archipelago with a unique ecosystem, both on land and at sea level.

The presence close to the mainland, whose coast is oriented north–south, also strongly influences the climatic characteristics of the island, especially in summer. In this season, the differential warming of the sea and the land causes the formation of a sea breeze during the day. This breeze strengthens the main wind current associated with the Azores High and gives rise to a wind regime known as the Nortada. These winds push surface waters offshore, causing cold waters from deeper layers of the water to replace warm surface waters in an upwelling process. This phenomenon causes frequent mists during summer and results in nutrient enrichment of surface water.

Average monthly temperatures in summer are cool (below 20 C) and highs rarely exceed 25 C. In winter, the monthly averages remain high (above 12 C) and the minimum above 10 C. The thermal amplitude (both diurnal temperature variation and yearly temperature variation) therefore remains moderate.

Due to generally cloudy conditions in the winter and the summer morning fog, the archipelago has a relatively low number of sunshine hours, though clear sky afternoons are frequent in the summer.

Averages for the closest point on the mainland to the islands, Cabo Carvoeiro, are expressed in the climate box below:

Flora
The flora of the Berlengas mainly consists of bushes and grasses, adapted to the strong winds, high aridity and salinity, some of them are common on the coastal mainland, others are endemic to the islands. There are two known endemic species to the islands, Armeria berlengensis and Pulicaria microcephala; and two subspecies, Echium rosulatum subsp. davaei and Herniaria lusitanica subsp. berlengiana''.

There are around 100 different plant species present on the archipelago.

Human presence led to the introduction of exotic species, like the ice plant and small mammals like the European rabbit and the black rat who work to diminish the native population.

Fauna
There are two species of lizard in the islands, the Carbonell's wall lizard (subs. berlengensis) and the ocellated lizard, although this last one is residual and is only seen in restricted areas of the islands such as caves and is thought to be different from the continental relatives, showing different morphological traits and demeanor.

The Berlengas archipelago is an important breeding area for seabirds such as the lesser black-backed gull and the yellow-legged gull, whose population increased dramatically due to artificial feeding and has become a serious problem in some cases, and land birds like the black redstart and the peregrine falcon. It is also in the southernmost range of the common murre (adopted as the symbol of the nature reserve) and is one of the few breeding locations of the band-rumped storm petrel.

A new endemic species of snail, Oestophora barrelsi spec. nov was described in 2015.

Marine biome
The Berlengas archipelago is situated off of Peniche, south of the Nazaré Canyon and on the edge of the continental shelf (in Farilhões Islets) on a maritime zone known by its relatively high biological productivity, acting as a meeting point between coastal and oceanic fish species. On the other hand, the upwelling currents originating in deep waters contribute to the development of an aquatic fauna with evident commercial interest. Its variety of fish and marine mammals, marine plants and other marine organisms as led to its classification as a marine reserve.

Fish
The water around the islands hosts a great variety of fish, at least 44 species are known from two study expeditions. The most frequently observed fish is the common two-banded sea bream and the ballan wrasse, along with the European bass, the red porgy, the gilt-head bream and the dusky grouper, frequent on Farilhões Islets.

In the 1950s the islands were an important spawning ground for school sharks.

Marine mammals
The oceanographic conditions of the archipelago commonly lead to an abundant ichthyofauna, represented by sardines and other species that feed on plankton. This attracts a lot of marine mammals, mainly cetaceans, whose species include the common dolphin, the common bottlenose dolphin, the harbour porpoise, the striped dolphin, the common minke whale and the Cuvier's beaked whale.

Wrecks
A number of ships have wrecked on the Berlengas throughout documented history.

In 1808, HMS Milbrook (1798) wrecked on Berlenga Grande in a gale, though without loss of life.

Culture
Berlenga Grande did star in a post-revolutionary Portuguese film called O Rei das Berlengas (The King of the Berlengas), a comedy about someone who decides to become king of the archipelago. In this movie, several people, tourists and residents from the nearby towns, attempt to declare the independence of the islands, and declare themselves as king, prince or president of the Berlengas. These declarations and liberation armies are nothing more than fiction intended for amusement.

title: Berlengas


text:
Calvary

Calvary (Calvariae or Calvariae locus) or Golgotha was a site immediately outside Jerusalem's walls where, according to Christianity's four canonical gospels, Jesus was crucified.

Since at least the early medieval period, it has been a destination for pilgrimage. The exact location of Calvary has been traditionally associated with a place now enclosed within one of the southern chapels of the multidenominational Church of the Holy Sepulchre, a site said to have been recognized by the Roman empress Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, during her visit to the Holy Land in 325.

Other locations have been suggested: in the 19th century, Protestant scholars proposed a different location near the Garden Tomb on Green Hill (now "Skull Hill") about 500 m north of the traditional site and historian Joan Taylor has more recently proposed a location about 175 m to its south-southeast.

Biblical references and names
The English names Calvary and Golgotha derive from the Vulgate Latin Calvariae, Calvariae and (all meaning "place of the Skull" or "a Skull"), and  used by Jerome in his translations of Matthew 27:33, Mark 15:22, Luke 23:33, and John 19:17. Versions of these names have been used in English since at least the 10th century, a tradition shared with most European languages including French (Calvaire), Spanish and Italian (Calvario), pre-Lutheran German (Calvarie), Polish (Kalwaria), and Lithuanian (Kalvarijos). The 1611 King James Version borrowed the Latin forms directly, while Wycliffe and other translators anglicized them in forms like Caluarie, Caluerie, and Calueri which were later standardized as Calvary. While the Gospels merely identify Golgotha as a "place", Christian tradition has described the location as a hill or mountain since at least the 6th century. It has thus often been referenced as Mount Calvary in English hymns and literature.

In the 1769 King James Version, the relevant verses of the New Testament are:
 * And when they were come unto a place called Golgotha, that is to say, a place of a skull, They gave him vinegar to drink mingled with gall: and when he had tasted thereof, he would not drink. And they crucified him, and parted his garments, casting lots...
 * And they bring him unto the place Golgotha, which is, being interpreted, The place of a skull. And they gave him to drink wine mingled with myrrh: but he received it not. And when they had crucified him, they parted his garments, casting lots upon them, what every man should take.
 * And when they were come to the place, which is called Calvary, there they crucified him, and the malefactors, one on the right hand, and the other on the left.
 * And he bearing his cross went forth into a place called the place of a skull, which is called in the Hebrew Golgotha: Where they crucified him, and two other with him, on either side one, and Jesus in the midst.

In the standard Koine Greek texts of the New Testament, the relevant terms appear as Golgothâ (Γολγοθᾶ), Golgathân (Γολγοθᾶν), kraníou tópos (κρανίου τόπος), Kraníou tópos (Κρανίου τόπος), Kraníon (Κρανίον), and Kraníou tópon (Κρανίου τόπον). Golgotha's Hebrew equivalent would be Gulgōleṯ (גֻּלְגֹּלֶת, "skull"), ultimately from the verb galal (גלל) meaning "to roll". The form preserved in the Greek text, however, is actually closer to Aramaic Golgolta, which also appears in reference to a head count in the Samaritan version of Numbers 1:18, although the term is traditionally considered to derive from Syriac Gāgūlṯā (ܓܓܘܠܬܐ) instead. Although Latin calvaria can mean either "a skull" or "the skull" depending on context and numerous English translations render the relevant passages "place of the skull" or "Place of the Skull", the Greek forms of the name grammatically refer to the place of a skull and a place named Skull. (The Greek word does more specifically mean the cranium, the upper part of the skull, but it has been used metonymously since antiquity to refer to skulls and heads more generally.)

The Fathers of the Church offered various interpretations of the name and its origin. Jerome considered it a place of execution by beheading (locum decollatorum), Pseudo-Tertullian describes it as a place resembling a head, and Origen associated it with legends concerning the skull of Adam. This buried skull of Adam appears in noncanonical medieval legends, including the Book of the Rolls, the Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan, the Cave of Treasures, and the works of Eutychius, the 9th-century patriarch of Alexandria. The usual form of the legend is that Shem and Melchizedek retrieved the body of Adam from the resting place of Noah's ark on Mount Ararat and were led by angels to Golgotha, a skull-shaped hill at the center of the earth where Adam had previously crushed the serpent's head following the Fall of Man.

In the 19th century, Wilhelm Ludwig Krafft proposed an alternative derivation of these names, suggesting that the place had actually been known as "Gol Goatha"—which he interpreted to mean "heap of death" or "hill of execution"—and had become associated with the similar sounding Semitic words for "skull" in folk etymologies. James Fergusson identified this "Goatha" with the Goʿah (גֹּעָה) mentioned in Jeremiah 31:39 as a place near Jerusalem, although Krafft himself identified that location with the separate Gennáth (Γεννάθ) of Josephus, the "Garden Gate" west of the Temple Mount.

Location
There is no consensus as to the location of the site. John describes the crucifixion site as being "near the city". According to Hebrews, it was "outside the city gate". and both note that the location would have been accessible to "passers-by". Thus, locating the crucifixion site involves identifying a site that, in the city of Jerusalem some four decades before its destruction in AD70, would have been outside a major gate near enough to the city that the passers-by could not only see him, but also read the inscription 'Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews'.

Church of the Holy Sepulchre
Christian tradition since the fourth century has favoured a location now within the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This places it well within today's walls of Jerusalem, which surround the Old City and were rebuilt in the 16th century by the Ottoman Empire. Proponents of the traditional Holy Sepulchre location point to the fact that first-century Jerusalem had a different shape and size from the 16th-century city, leaving the church's site outside the pre-AD 70 city walls. Those opposing it doubt this.

Defenders of the traditional site have argued that the site of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was only brought within the city limits by Herod Agrippa (41–44), who built the so-called Third Wall around a newly settled northern district, while at the time of Jesus' crucifixion around AD 30 it would still have been just outside the city.

Henry Chadwick (2003) argued that when Hadrian's builders replanned the old city, they "incidentally confirm[ed] the bringing of Golgotha inside a new town wall."

In 2007 Dan Bahat, the former City Archaeologist of Jerusalem and Professor of Land of Israel Studies at Bar-Ilan University, stated that "Six graves from the first century were found on the area of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. That means, this place [was] outside of the city, without any doubt…".

Church of the Holy Sepulchre

The traditional location of Golgotha derives from its identification by Queen Mother Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, in 325. Less than 45 m away, Helena also identified the location of the tomb of Jesus and claimed to have discovered the True Cross; her son, Constantine, then built the Church of the Holy Sepulchre around the whole site. In 333, the author of the Itinerarium Burdigalense, entering from the east, described the result:

"On the left hand is the little hill of Golgotha where the Lord was crucified. About a stone's throw from thence is a vault [crypta] wherein his body was laid, and rose again on the third day. There, at present, by the command of the Emperor Constantine, has been built a basilica; that is to say, a church of wondrous beauty."

In Nazénie Garibian de Vartavan's doctoral thesis, now published as ''La Jérusalem Nouvelle et les premiers sanctuaires chrétiens de l'Arménie. Méthode pour l'étude de l'église comme temple de Dieu,'' she concluded, through multiple arguments (mainly theological and archaeological), that the true site of Golgotha was precisely at the vertical of the now buried Constantinian basilica's altar and away from where the traditional rock of Golgotha is situated. The plans published in the book indicate the location of the Golgotha within a precision of less than two meters, below the circular passage situated a metre away from where the bloodstained shirt of Christ was traditionally recovered and immediately before the stairs leading down to St. Helena's Chapel (the above-mentioned mother of Emperor Constantine), alternatively called St. Vartan's Chapel.

Temple to Aphrodite

Prior to Helena's identification, the site had been a temple to Aphrodite. Constantine's construction took over most of the site of the earlier temple enclosure, and the Rotunda and cloister (which was replaced after the 12th century by the present Catholicon and Calvary chapel) roughly overlap with the temple building itself; the basilica church Constantine built over the remainder of the enclosure was destroyed at the turn of the 11th century, and has not been replaced. Christian tradition claims that the location had originally been a Christian place of veneration, but that Hadrian had deliberately buried these Christian sites and built his own temple on top, on account of his alleged hatred for Christianity.

There is certainly evidence that c. 160, at least as early as 30 years after Hadrian's temple had been built, Christians associated it with the site of Golgotha; Melito of Sardis, an influential mid-2nd century bishop in the region, described the location as "in the middle of the street, in the middle of the city", which matches the position of Hadrian's temple within the mid-2nd century city.

The Romans typically built a city according to a Hippodamian grid plan – a north–south arterial road, the Cardo (which is now the Suq Khan-ez-Zeit), and an east–west arterial road, the Decumanus Maximus (which is now the Via Dolorosa). The forum would traditionally be located on the intersection of the two roads, with the main temples adjacent. However, due to the obstruction posed by the Temple Mount, as well as the Tenth Legion encampment on the Western Hill, Hadrian's city had two Cardo, two Decumanus Maximus, two forums, and several temples. The Western Forum (now the Muristan) is located on the crossroads of the West Cardo and what is now El-Bazar/David Street, with the Temple of Aphrodite adjacent, on the intersection of the Western Cardo and the Via Dolorosa. The Northern Forum is located north of the Temple Mount, on the junction of the Via Dolorosa and the Eastern Cardo (the Tyropoeon), adjacent to the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, intentionally built atop the Temple Mount. Another popular holy site that Hadrian converted to a pagan temple was the Pool of Bethesda, possibly referenced to in the fifth chapter of the Gospel of John, on which was built the Temple of Asclepius and Serapis. While the positioning of the Temple of Aphrodite may be, in light of the common Colonia layout, entirely unintentional, Hadrian is known to have concurrently built pagan temples on top of other holy sites in Jerusalem as part of an overall "Romanization" policy.

Archaeological excavations under the Church of the Holy Sepulchre have revealed Christian pilgrims' graffiti, dating from the period that the Temple of Aphrodite was still present, of a ship, a common early Christian symbol and the etching "DOMINVS IVIMVS", meaning "Lord, we went", lending possible support to the statement by Melito of Sardis' asserting that early Christians identified Golgotha as being in the middle of Hadrian's city, rather than outside.

Rockface

During 1973–1978 restoration works and excavations inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and under the nearby Muristan, it was found that the area was originally a quarry, from which white Meleke limestone was struck; surviving parts of the quarry to the north-east of the chapel of St. Helena are now accessible from within the chapel (by permission). Inside the church is a rock, about 7 m long by 3 m wide by 4.8 m high, that is traditionally believed to be all that now remains visible of Golgotha; the design of the church means that the Calvary Chapel contains the upper foot or so of the rock, while the remainder is in the chapel beneath it (known as the tomb of Adam). Virgilio Corbo, a Franciscan priest and archaeologist, present at the excavations, suggested that from the city the little hill (which still exists) could have looked like a skull.

During a 1986 repair to the floor of the Calvary Chapel by the art historian George Lavas and architect Theo Mitropoulos, a round slot of 11.5 cm diameter was discovered in the rock, partly open on one side (Lavas attributes the open side to accidental damage during his repairs); although the dating of the slot is uncertain, and could date to Hadrian's temple of Aphrodite, Lavas suggested that it could have been the site of the crucifixion, as it would be strong enough to hold in place a wooden trunk of up to 2.5 m in height (among other things). The same restoration work also revealed a crack running across the surface of the rock, which continues down to the Chapel of Adam; the crack is thought by archaeologists to have been a result of the quarry workmen encountering a flaw in the rock.

Based on the late 20th century excavations of the site, there have been a number of attempted reconstructions of the profile of the cliff face. These often attempt to show the site as it would have appeared to Constantine. However, as the ground level in Roman times was about 4 – lower and the site housed Hadrian's temple to Aphrodite, much of the surrounding rocky slope must have been removed long before Constantine built the church on the site. The height of the Golgotha rock itself would have caused it to jut through the platform level of the Aphrodite temple, where it would be clearly visible. The reason for Hadrian not cutting the rock down is uncertain, but Virgilio Corbo suggested that a statue, probably of Aphrodite, was placed on it, a suggestion also made by Jerome. Some archaeologists have suggested that prior to Hadrian's use, the rock outcrop had been a nefesh – a Jewish funeral monument, equivalent to the stele.

Pilgrimages to Constantine's Church
The Itinerarium Burdigalense speaks of Golgotha in 333: "... On the left hand is the little hill of Golgotha where the Lord was crucified. About a stone's throw from thence is a vault (crypta) wherein His body was laid, and rose again on the third day. There, at present, by the command of the Emperor Constantine, has been built a basilica, that is to say, a church of wondrous beauty", Cyril of Jerusalem, a distinguished theologian of the early Church, and eyewitness to the early days of Constantine's edifice, speaks of Golgotha in eight separate passages, sometimes as near to the church where he and his listeners assembled: "Golgotha, the holy hill standing above us here, bears witness to our sight: the Holy Sepulchre bears witness, and the stone which lies there to this day." And just in such a way the pilgrim Egeria often reported in 383: "… the church, built by Constantine, which is situated in Golgotha… and also bishop Eucherius of Lyon wrote to the island presbyter Faustus in 440: "Golgotha is in the middle between the Anastasis and the Martyrium, the place of the Lord's passion, in which still appears that rock which once endured the very cross on which the Lord was." Breviarius de Hierosolyma reports in 530: "From there (the middle of the basilica), you enter into Golgotha, where there is a large court. Here the Lord was crucified. All around that hill, there are silver screens." (See also: Eusebius in 338. )

Gordon's Calvary

In 1842, Otto Thenius, a theologian and biblical scholar from Dresden, Germany, was the first to publish a proposal that the rocky knoll north of Damascus Gate was the biblical Golgotha. He relied heavily on the research of Edward Robinson. In 1882–83, Major-General Charles George Gordon endorsed this view; subsequently the site has sometimes been known as Gordon's Calvary. The location, usually referred to today as Skull Hill, is beneath a cliff that contains two large sunken holes, which Gordon regarded as resembling the eyes of a skull. He and a few others before him believed that the skull-like appearance would have caused the location to be known as Golgotha.

Nearby is an ancient rock-cut tomb known today as the Garden Tomb, which Gordon proposed as the tomb of Jesus. The Garden Tomb contains several ancient burial places, although the archaeologist Gabriel Barkay has proposed that the tomb dates to the 7th century BC and that the site may have been abandoned by the 1st century.

Eusebius comments that Golgotha was in his day (the 4th century) pointed out north of Mount Zion. While Mount Zion was used previously in reference to the Temple Mount itself, Josephus, the first-century AD historian who knew the city as it was before the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, identified Mount Zion as being the Western Hill (the current Mount Zion), which is south of both the Garden Tomb and the Holy Sepulchre. Eusebius' comment therefore offers no additional argument for either location.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Calvary


text:
Talk:Darkness in El Dorado

This whole article manages to completely avoid even a hint at what terrible crimes the anthropologists were accused of - did they kill and eat the natives, violate the Prime Directive, sell uranium buttons, what?? Stan 18:53, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

They did not, not at all, Stan, although Chagnon joined forces with strongly rejected Venezuelan political figures. It seems that he was aware of how corrupt this guys were, and that's what make his behavior unethical, not his research. The books is terribly flawed; besides the manipulation and forging of dubious information by Tierney, more troubling and obscure is Tierney's relationship with the New Tribes Mission and his quite homophobic remarks about certain anthropologists and Yanomami. BTW, what are you calling "Prime Directive"? Isn't that from Star Trek? Tierney accused (justly) some filmmakers (not Chagnon) of doing something that is preached by Star Trek's Prime Directive: not intervening. Quite contrary to the TV show, any socially conscious research would consider following Star Trek's Prime Directive as quite unethical and criminal, actually! From Venezuela, dalegrett 15:21, 17 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Having just read the book I am puzzled by the comments regarding Tierney's supposedly "homophobic" remarks. He is rightfully critcial of Lizot's trading of goods for sex. There is nothing homophobic about that at all.

There is very little in the article about the substance of Tierney's arguments or the controversy that followed its publication. Moreover, dwelling on the allusions in the title (to El Dorado and Joseph Conrad) hardly seem relevant. Mere fluff that fills out the article without really saying anything about topic. --picaraza 05:28, 30 December 2005 (UTC)

I'm new to wikipedia, so I don't know how we'd go about this, but is there any way to unlink Terry Turner's name in this article from the TV producer of the same name?

Alice Dreger friends with Chagnon
Mt144216 points out that Dregeris a personal friend of Chagnon. I don't dispute that they are friends, but think we should strive towards a more even handed contextualization of this issue. From Dreger's piece: "I did not know any of the major players in this history when I began researching it, but as is probably clear in this paper, what I found made me progressively outraged, and also sympathetic to Chagnon, Neel, and their families. The Chagnon and Neel families have been effusive in their thanks to me, and I believe at this point Chagnon considers me a friend, and I would call him my friend, although we hardly agree on everything." I don't feel that Mt144216 does a good job of encompassing these facts---and what sounds more like a professional than personal friendship to me. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Pengortm (talk • contribs) 13:29, 19 May 2012 (UTC)

A more general point
Why must I come here for information on this controversy and find more "facts" (unsourced and unattributed) in the discussion page than in the main body of the argument?

This article says essentially that Chagnon was exonerated of "the most serious charges" by one inquiry, but does not list those charges or deal with the factual issues in the debate.

And I am pretty sure that U. Mich was not the only body looking into this.

I say that this is a prime candidate for an WP:NPOV debate.

Because it it not enough to state a handful of true, or generally true, or true in some sense or another, or truthy, factoids to support general conclusion about the outcome of the debate.

That is nothing more than confirmation bias.

It must be shown that OTHER FACTS IN EVIDENCE have NOT BEEN OMMITTED and that a representative sample of all relevant viewpoints have been taken into account.

And just who wrote this article anyway?

I think Wikipedia's policy of allowing anonymous authorship as the rule rather than the exception is a fundamental travesty.

-- CBrayton]

This is an article with an NPOV problem
I don't know the process for the initiating this (I dug for a bit and it confused me) but you can see the article lacks a neutral point of view. I came here to find out what the book's arguments are and they simply aren't here--instead, it's replaced with what is a cherry-picked set of "rebutted" points. I thought I was missing something and several other people on the discussion page seem to have the same problem. I came to this article after the controversy at the American Anthropological Association and it's clear there's been some lopsided edits. I can't edit the article myself since I haven't read the book and if someone who has could provide encyclopdedic information about the book--without editorializing--I would be ecstatic. But this definitely needs to be picked out for a WP:NPOV problem. 216.15.36.38 (talk) 03:58, 4 December 2009 (UTC)

Chagnon
The article was missing what made the book so shocking; it was not the sexual allegations per se. It's who Chagnon is. He's the one who put the tribe on the anthropological map, making them famous. Making them possibly better protected than other, less celebrated Amazonian tribes.

So Chagnon is simultaneously their critic and their saviour, their defender.

So in that sense he's the last person you are expecting such allegations to concern. And he's accused of tampering with the Prime Directive for field work, to observe/study/comprehend/report, not to change or fuck up.

I have quickly added a sentence, but that should be done much better.

Varlaam (talk) 18:18, 21 February 2012 (UTC)
 * The idea that Chagnon is "their saviour" is not a very common viewpoints from most anthropologists who consider him their main enemy who has provided distorted descriptions depictuing them as primitive savages and in that way actually motivating colonists to treat them violently. This view has been espused by Survival INternational, and by such prominent anthropologists as Eduardo Viveiros de Castro, Marshall Sahlins and Elizabeth Povinelli - and this view of Chagnon as an enemy of the Yanomami does not rest on Tierneys accusations and indeed existed prior to the publication of his book.User:Maunus ·ʍaunus·snunɐw· 00:12, 31 August 2013 (UTC)

Hoax categorization
The term "hoax" seems somewhat stronger than what critics appear to be saying. Is it fairer to assign it to Category:Controversies? Varlaam (talk) 07:41, 22 February 2012 (UTC)

Having reviewed a lot of literature on this, I'm not sure. The primary allegations are clearly bogus, but hoax usually implies a deliberate manipulation which, without being inside Tierney's head is a bit difficult to say Pengortm (talk) 00:18, 31 August 2013 (UTC)
 * It is not a hoax, that implies that it was made with intent to deceive, I think most people consider the claims simply to be wildly exaggerated speculation.User:Maunus ·ʍaunus·snunɐw· 00:52, 31 August 2013 (UTC)

Sourcing
I think this page should be making more use of secondary sources such as Borofsky 2005. 86.130.63.47 (talk) 23:50, 30 August 2013 (UTC)
 * Yes, that would be a very good idea.User:Maunus ·ʍaunus·snunɐw· 00:53, 31 August 2013 (UTC)
 * Yes, might be a good idea. Please either workshop suggested edits here or if you're confident in your contributions, go ahead and add them in directly and we'll work together collaboratively to improve as needed. A word of caution about Borofsky is that from my skims of it, it spends a lot of time letting individual actors in the controversy debate back and forth and thus might be a mixture of primary and secondary sources in the book. We will probably want to focus mainly on the more synthetic secondary source parts of the book for our purposes. --Pengortm (talk) 00:22, 8 March 2015 (UTC)

Two templates just added
Were added via a request on OTRS. I have no personal connection to those templates. Just doing it as a courtesy. SarahStierch (talk) 18:45, 20 November 2013 (UTC)
 * Where can we find more details on the templates/requests? nothing seems to be coming up when I try searching WP:OTRS/N. Thanks. --Pengortm (talk) 00:29, 8 March 2015 (UTC)

Medical Team of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro report
I am reverting back to the previous version of this since the passages selected are cherry-picked, confusing and inconsistent with conclusions of report. To avoid edit warring, please bring the discussion here if you disagree. --Pengortm (talk) 15:35, 7 March 2015 (UTC)

 * hi, the quote is an explanation of historical changes in what is considered ethically appropriate in scientific and anthropological research. its really about changing attitudes to eugenics - eugenics was a common part of american genetics and other scientific thought pre world war two. so as they quote says - it wasn't considered unethical at the time, although their attitudes and protocols about ethics are different now. since the debate is largely about whether Neel intentionally carried our comparisons between immunised and non-immunised people, this quote seems quite crucial. however, if you would like to find a part of the source that says that Tiernay's claims were all false, perhaps you could point to this section or find a quote? Otherwise the source doesn't seem to support the claim.110.174.188.87 (talk) 12:37, 8 March 2015 (UTC)kt.
 * Thanks for engaging with the discussion here. The main passage I think that is relevant to this discussion is:
 * "The principle hypothesis of chapter 5 in Patrick Tierney's book—that a measles epidemic was provoked by vaccinations as part of a eugenics experiment—are easily refuted, his arguments having little solidity and being highly inconsistent."
 * Since this article is about the claims of the book, this seems like the most pertinent point to me. Your edits seem like tangential points not directly related to the claims of the book and which seem to obscure the evaluation of them. Perhaps I'm misunderstanding though. I'd be happy to discuss further here.--Pengortm (talk) 02:34, 9 March 2015 (UTC)

The line "The accusations of inappropriate medical practices contained in Tierney's book were investigated by the Medical Team of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro and found to be false." is misleading. In the report's conclusions, not all of the book's arguments in respect to accusations of inappropriate medical practices were found to be false. For example, regarding the administration of the Edmonston B vaccine without immunoglobulin, the report says (page 17, §3):
 * "clinically the use of associated immunoglobulin would be more indicated, considering the well-being of a population, such as the Yanomami, that was isolated and susceptible to the most intense side effects. The true reasons for which Neel opted not to use immunoglobulin (...) are not clear from the available documentation, although the intention of experimentation is plausible."

Further, and perhaps more importantly, the report added, in regards to claims made in Chapter 5 (page 19, §3):
 * "a research proposal presented in 1971 by Neel to Dow Chemical for testing a triple vaccine on the Yanomami (...) indirectly shows that the scientist's research proposal for the 1968 vaccination was probably to evaluate the efficacy of the vaccine, to verify the vaccine reactions, to compare the frequency of these reactions and the immunological responses to the vaccine with urban populations"

In addition, on page 10 section B.3, the authors note there is no good reason as for why some Indians were not vaccinated; on page 11, concerning informed consent of the tribes, it hints at unethical scientific practices, such as not receiving authorization from the countries' respective authorities to trade gifts with then-largely isolated indigenous peoples in exchange for their blood. Overall, I would agree with others in this discussion who have felt the article, at present, seems primarily focused in discrediting the book instead of summarising its arguments, showing the main criticism of them, and allowing readers to make an evalution of their own. -- PaterPaterPater — Preceding undated comment added 03:09, 25 January 2022 (UTC)

Neutrality and un-encyclopedic tone notice removal?
The article is tagged for problems of neutrality and encyclopedic tone. I don't see any clear justification for this and think these tags should be removed. While the article could certainly be improved in a variety of ways, I don't see a big neutrality or tone problem. I'll wait awhile for discussion here before removing unilaterally. --Pengortm (talk) 00:18, 8 March 2015 (UTC

 * Well, I disagree with your assessment, and with your revert of my recent edit. It is fundamentally against Wikipedia's approach to call something discredited as such. If author X says the book is discredited, using that term, we can report that, with a reference. Charles Matthews (talk) 18:55, 3 September 2015 (UTC)

 * Thanks for bringing this up for discussion here. I took the 'discredited' terminology as a reasonable summary of the rest of the article (e.g. "later investigations by multiple independent organizations found Tierney's main allegations to be false and libelous"). There seems to be enough consensus in the literature that it seems look a good and accurate summary. I hope others can chime in and/or perhaps we can find a way to hash this out.Pengortm (talk) 21:58, 3 September 2015 (UTC)

 * My concern is well expressed by the first sentence at WP:SYNTH: "Do not combine material from multiple sources to reach or imply a conclusion not explicitly stated by any of the sources." I completely agree with the equation "discredited = reasonable summary". Most readers would too, I guess. But as far as I can see putting that conclusion in the lead is against the exclusion of original research. The second para of the lead is as far as we should go, in my view. Charles Matthews (talk) 10:39, 4 September 2015 (UTC)

 * This seems like a misreading of WP:NOR to me. Particularly that same article states: "Research that consists of collecting and organizing material from existing sources within the provisions of this and other content policies is fundamental to writing an encyclopedia. Best practice is to research the most reliable sources on the topic and summarize what they say in your own words..". So the fact that this seems like a reasonable summary to you and I and my reading of Wiki standards is that summarizing is a key aspect of wikipedia makes me think this should stay. As always, I hope you or others will chime in if I am misreading things. Pengortm (talk) 14:47, 4 September 2015 (UTC)

 * Collation differs from drawing inferences. If any synthesis at all is accepted, of any character, sure. But it isn't; and to me your version fairly clearly crosses the line. So, having discussed it, I'm going to revert to my version. Charles Matthews (talk) 17:46, 6 September 2015 (UTC)

Third Opinion
A third opinion was requested. Is the question whether to use the word "discredited" versus the word "polemical" in the lede in the voice of Wikipedia? If so, I say that "polemical" is the better word so as to be more encyclopedic. The word "discredited" may reasonably be used in a quote, if someone says that scholars have discredited the book (which they have). Robert McClenon (talk) 20:51, 7 September 2015 (UTC)

 * Thanks for that: that is the issue as I see it. I have also asked at User talk:Sitush, but given the note on his user page, he may not respond quickly. Charles Matthews (talk) 15:25, 13 September 2015 (UTC)

 * I wouldn't include either "polemical" or "discredited" in the opening sentence. Neither are required as the lead goes on to explain the issues. It is reasonable for us to allow the reader to apply their own assessment based on the information provided. - Sitush (talk) 17:06, 13 September 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Darkness in El Dorado. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20120921134914/http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/ucsbpreliminaryreport.pdf to http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/ucsbpreliminaryreport.pdf

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 21:12, 17 October 2015 (UTC)

Lizot and Good allegations major?
I just added a passage about Lizot and Good to the lede of the article. I did this since these are listed as major claims later on in the article. Are these actually major claims of the book? If so, I think things as is are fine. If not, we should probably remove from both the lede and major claims sections. I am leaning towards thinking these are not really major claims of the book, but hope others can weigh in before we delete. -Pengortm (talk) 15:14, 15 June 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 1 one external link on Darkness in El Dorado. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20150704095927/http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/05ref_eldorado.htm to http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/05ref_eldorado.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 23:55, 6 December 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Darkness in El Dorado


text:
Abdiqasim Salad Hassan

Abdiqasim Salad Hassan (Cabdiqaasim Salaad Xasan; عبد القاسم سلطة حسن; born on 1 January 1941), also known as Abdiqasim Salad, is a Somali politician who served as the  fifth President of Somalia from 2000 to 2004. He helped found the Transitional National Government and previously served as Interior Minister and Finance Minister in the government of Siad Barre.

Biography
Hassan was born in the town of Galdogob, situated in the north-central Mudug region of the former Italian Somaliland. His family hails from the Habar Gidir sub-clan of the Gorgaarte Hawiye.

Hassan pursued his post-secondary education in the USSR, graduating in 1965 from the Biology Department of Lomonosov Moscow State University.

Early career
A key founder of Somalia's Sulh (reconciliation) group of which former Foreign Minister Abdirahman Jama Barre was also a part, Hassan has held several important positions in the Somali government, most notably as Siad Barre's last Interior Minister. As such, Hassan was responsible for all internal security agencies including the National Security Service (NSS), the Investigative Department of the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party, the police, and the Deputy Prime Ministership.

Additionally, Hassan was the 2nd Deputy Prime Minister of Somalia in the late 1980s. Abdirahman Jama Barre served opposite him as the 1st Deputy Prime Minister.

After the Barre's administration's ouster in 1991 and the start of the civil war in Somalia, Hassan left for Cairo.

President of Somalia
In 2000, the Transitional National Government (TNG) was established as Somalia's new interim central government. On August 26, Hassan presented himself as a candidate in that year's elections for a new TNG President. He received 145 of the total votes, with former Somalia ambassador to Washington Abdullahi Ahmed Addou earning 92 votes on the third ballot. Hassan was sworn into office the following day.

Hassan's administration controlled parts of the Somali capital, Mogadishu, with the rest of the southern half of the country under the control of various faction leaders. Shortly before the mandate of the Transitional National Government expired in August 2003, Hassan withdrew from talks aimed at forming a new government. Prime Minister Hassan Abshir Farah accused him of trying to make the negotiations fail to extend his time in office. This resulted in Farah's dismissal by Hassan.

In 2004, Hassan ran for re-election in that year's presidential race. On October 10, 2004, in a session held by the Transitional Federal Parliament (TFP), Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed was elected as President of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG), a successor interim body to the TNG that Ahmed had helped establish earlier in the year. Ahmed received 189 votes from the TFG Parliament, while the closest contender, Abdullahi Ahmed Addou, got 79 votes in the third round of voting. Hassan peacefully withdrew his candidature.

Personal life
Since the end of his term as President, Hassan has rallied for a safer Somalia. He takes part in numerous events in and around Somalia where he talks to his fellow countrymen about how they can change their nation for the better.

He now divides his time between Somalia and Egypt.

title: Abdiqasim Salad Hassan


text:
Nicanor Duarte

Óscar Nicanor Duarte Frutos (born 11 October 1956) is a Paraguayan lawyer, journalist and politician who served as the 47th President of Paraguay from 2003 to 2008. A member of the Colorado Party, he became the central figure of Paraguayan politics during his presidency.

Born into a lower class rural family, Duarte pursued a career in law and later journalism, becoming a radio sports commentator and columnist. In the 1990s he got into politics, serving in the cabinets of Presidents Juan Carlos Wasmosy and Luis González Macchi, both times as Minister of Education. Duarte became one of the top allies of the Colorado Party politician Luis María Argaña, inheriting his political clout after his assassination in March of 1999. Duarte was elected president in 2003, by a plurality of 37%, taking advantage of a three-way split in the opposition to the incumbent Colorado Party. Inaugurated at 46, Duarte was one of Paraguay's youngest presidents, as well as its first non-Catholic, being a protestant convert.

Duarte's administration was marked by a rejection of the path his country and party had taken in the past decade, turning away from neoliberalism to instead embrace the pink tide and 21st century socialism. Overall, the Paraguayan economy grew during his tenure, mostly as part of a recovery from the crisis of the 1990s. His support of and from Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez, as well as his proposal to amend the constitution to allow the reelection of the president, made large parts of the Paraguayan public see him as increasingly authoritarian, leading in part to the defeat of his protégé, Blanca Ovelar, in the 2008 election.

In said 2008 election Duarte was elected senator, but the Senate refused to swear him in, arguing that it would be unconstitutional, this happened again in 2018. After leaving office Duarte served as Ambassador to Argentina from 2013 to 2016, under the presidency of Horacio Cartes. He was later appointed director of the Yacyretá Dam. Like all former presidents, Duarte currently holds the ceremonial and powerless title of Senator for life.

Family
Óscar Nicanor Duarte Frutos was born on 11 October 1956 in Coronel Oviedo, Caaguazú, to a rural lower-class mestizo family. His father was a police officer and his mother was a teacher, both were affiliated to the Colorado Party. Nicanor started working at sawmills when he was eleven, while attending school. At 14 he joined the Colorado Party, something that was de facto mandatory at the time, due to the dictatorship.

Education and early career
In the 1970s Duarte moved to Asunción, where he studied law and journalism. He became a sports commentator, working at a Caaguazú radio station. In the early 1980s he was hired by the editor-in-chief of Última Hora, where he started working as a columnist. At this point in his life Duarte was fairly poor, he lived in a small apartment and had few material possessions. In 1984 he obtained a law degree from the Catholic University of Asuncion and in 1989 a doctorate from the National University of Asuncion.

Wife and children
In the 1970s he started dating María Gloria Penayo Solaeche, who he married in 1984. They had six children: José, Héctor, María, Martín, Santiago and Facundo. Penayo is a member of a Mennonite church, Duarte decided to convert alongside her.

Political career
After the fall of Alfredo Stroessner in 1989, Duarte got more involved in politics and started climbing up the ladder of the Colorado Party throughout the 1990s. He became Vice Minister of Education during the Rodríguez administration and was later appointed Minister of Education by President Juan Carlos Wasmosy in 1993.

Duarte became an opponent of army general and colorado caudillo Lino Oviedo, who led a failed coup against Wasmosy in 1996. His opposition to Oviedo drifted Duarte increasingly closer to the general's main rival, Luis María Argaña, who led his own faction within the party, the Colorado Reconciliation Movement. In 1997 Duarte left the Ministry of Education to instead be Argaña's running mate in the Colorado Party primaries, held to elect the party's nominee for president in the 1998 election. In an effort to unite the party, Argaña became the running mate of the oviedista Raúl Cubas, who won the election.

In March of 1999 Vice President Argaña was assasinated. This sparked rage and fear of another coup by Oviedo, which led to large protests that eventually made Cubas resign. The argañista Luis González Macchi was sworn in as president and quickly appointed Duarte back to the Ministry of Education. Duarte inherited Argaña's political faction and clout, effectively becoming his successor. In 2001 he resigned as Education Minister to become president of the Colorado Party.

Colorado Party primary elections
On 22 December 2002, Duarte won the Colorado Party's nomination for president in the 2003 general election. He defeated Osvaldo Domínguez Dibb, a wealthy businessman known for being president of the Club Olimpia football team. Domínguez Dibb was the leader of the neoestronista movement, having been a big supported of the dictator and related to him through marriage.

General election
On 27 April 2003, Duarte won the presidential election with a plurality, 37,1% of the vote. He beat Julio César "Yoyito" Franco of the Authentic Radical Liberal Party (24%), Pedro Fadul of the recently created Beloved Fatherland Party (21,3%) and Guillermo Sánchez of the oviedista National Union of Ethical Citizens (13,5%). This three-way split in the opposition to the Colorado Party played in his favor.

Presidency (2003–2008)
Nicanor Duarte pursued policies which were somewhat more left-wing than has been the case for the Colorado Party over its 60-year rule of Paraguay. At least in speeches, he had opposed free trade and reached out to regional Latin American countries with left-leaning governments.

Later life
In two separate instances, Duarte Frutos ran for, was elected, and attempted to be sworn-in as an active, voting Senator, despite Paraguayan law stating that upon leaving office, presidents can only be senador vitalicio (senator for life), a ceremonial, non-voting post.

Duarte first announced his resignation as president, in order to assume a position as Senator on 1 July 2008. He presented his resignation on 23 June 2008 to then President of the Congress of Paraguay, senator Miguel Abdón Saguier.

Opposition and government-endorsed members of the Paraguayan Congress immediately announced they were going to boycott Duarte Frutos's resignation by not attending the extraordinary session of the Congress where it would be determined whether the President's resignation would be accepted or not. While some held positions in favour of Duarte Frutos assuming as senator, citing a sentence from the Superior Electoral Justice Tribunal, other congresspeople argued that Duarte Frutos's swearing-in senator would be illegal, and Congress would be violating the Constitution if swearing-in Duarte Frutos without the legal quorum. If Congress did not accept the resignation, Duarte would have to continue his term until 15 August and would be unable to become an elected senator, becoming instead a non-voting senator for life as a former president. As expected, the quorum was not reached at the extraordinary session called for this reason for 24 June 2008. Since Duarte Frutos could not occupy the seat belonging to him on 1 July, Jorge Cespedes, from the Colorado Party, was assigned and assumed as titular of the vacant seat of Duarte at the Senate.

On 26 August, another extraordinary session of Congress was called to swear-in Duarte Frutos, but once again many congresspeople left the session, which was declared "empty" or abandoned by Congress President Enrique Gonzalez Quintana. Nonetheless, Gonzalez Quintana proceeded to the swearing-in and swore Duarte Frutos, who arrived at the Legislative Palace followed by fellow Colorado Party supporters. However, on 4 September, the Paraguayan Senate, in session to discuss resolutions on the crisis concerning Duarte Frutos's swearing-in as senator, finally approved a bill, revalidating a previous bill that had not been approved the previous session of 28 August. On the session of the 28 August, Jorge Cespedes was confirmed as titular senator, instead of Duarte Frutos, who was in turn confirmed as senador vitalicio, or senator for life, handing its seat upon Cespedes.

In 2018, Duarte Frutos and then-outgoing Paraguayan President Horacio Cartes were elected as senators to represent the Colorado Party in the 2018 Paraguayan General elections, raising criticism from the opposition that their senate candidacies were unconstitutional, but the Superior Tribunal of Electoral Justice overruled that decision, claiming that both Cartes and Duarte Frutos were eligible to run for the Senate. Ultimately, neither were able to assume as Senators this time either.

title: Nicanor Duarte


text:
Jorge Batlle

Jorge Luis Batlle Ibáñez (Batlle locally or ; 25 October 1927 – 24 October 2016) was a Uruguayan politician and lawyer, who served as the 38th president of Uruguay from 2000 to 2005. A member of the Colorado Party, he previously served as National Representative from 1959 to 1967, and as Senator of the Republic from 1985 to 1990 and from 1990 to 1999.

The eldest son of the 30th president Luis Batlle Berres and a member of the Batlle family, he was the fourth member of the family to serve as president of the country. He graduated from the University of the Republic in 1959 with a law degree, and then began a career as a journalist in El Día newspaper. He began his political career in the 1950s, being elected National Representative in the 1958 general election. During the civil-military dictatorship he was banned and in the 1984 general election that led to the democratic transition he was prevented from running for president, he could only run for the Senate.

His presidency was marked by the worsening of a banking crisis and a foot-and-mouth epidemic that affected the country's economy. Some of his initiatives consisted of the creation of the, an investigative body on human rights with the purpose of determining the situation of those detained-disappeared during the civil-military dictatorship. In foreign policy, Batlle's government strengthened Uruguay's ties with the United States and broke diplomatic relations with Cuba.

Early life and education
Jorge Luis Batlle Ibáñez was born on October 25, 1927 in Montevideo. He was the eldest son of Luis Batlle Berres and Matilde Ibáñez Tálice. He had two siblings, Luis (1930–2016) and Matilde (born 1932). He was a member of the Batlle family originally from Sitges, Catalonia, Spain, and which includes several presidents of Uruguay, such as José Batlle y Ordoñez, who was his great-uncle. On his paternal side, he was of Catalan descent, whereas on his mother's side, he was of Italian descent.

He attended the Elbio Fernández School and the German School of Montevideo. He obtained a law degree from the University of the Republic in 1959.

Early political career (1958–1965)
By 1958, when he was first elected Congressman for the Colorado Party, Batlle had been active in journalism both in Radio "Ariel" and the newspaper "Acción". He was also by that time a member of the governing body of his Party. He unsuccessfully ran for president in 1966, and was part of a financial scandal in 1968, which was never proven.

National leadership (1965–1971)
In 1965 Batlle was elected the sole leader of List 15 of the Colorado Party, a position that had become vacant after the death of his father the previous year. He proposed a return to a presidential system, eliminating the National Council of Government, and was one of the drafters and promoters of the constitutional reform that gave rise to the 1967 Constitution. He ran for president again in 1971, without success.

Civic-military dictatorship (1973–1985)
During the period of civilian-military administration in Uruguay (1973–1985), Batlle did not occupy any legislative or official position, having been banned from political activity by decree. He was detained on several occasions. He did preside over the Legislative General Assembly in February 1985, when the first democratically elected Congress was seated after the military interregnum. He has a very active legislative record. Dr. Batlle was also a leading promoter and drafter of two Constitutional Amendments, one in 1966 and the other more recently in 1996. He was defeated again in the 1989 and 1994 presidential elections, and won the 1999 elections, taking office in 2000.

Presidency (2000–2005)
Batlle took office at a particularly difficult moment for Uruguay, as an economic depression led the country 2002 Uruguay banking crisis and close to sovereign default, and a third of the population below the poverty line. Batlle's determination to reduce public spending, aimed at preserving the macroeconomic balance, made it possible for Uruguay to be highly regarded as a country with a sound management of its economic affairs. US president George W. Bush helped him to prevent default with $1.5 billion in credit.

His administration had to deal with a foot-and-mouth disease outbreak, which threatened access of Uruguayan beef to international markets. Before the end of his term, Uruguay had re-gained disease-free status.

Batlle firmly backed MERCOSUR, which he saw as instrumental for an open regional integration into the world economy. He favoured strengthening MERCOSUR by forming associations such as the one envisaged in the so-called "4+1" agreement with the United States. He maintained close diplomatic ties with the US at a time when the Pink tide in Latin America was marked by several regional governments that distanced themselves from the US. He had a diplomatic conflict with Cuba, as he criticised the human rights record of the Castro's regime.

In 2002, he deals with the law on the legalization of prostitution.

He proposed the legalization of cocaine, as a way to reduce the political clout of drug cartels.

He was also in favour of the creation of the Free Trade Association of the Americas (FTAA). As president, Batlle was firmly set against protectionism and subsidies of any kind; he has been a consistent spokesman for unhampered free trade.

Human rights deserve a separate chapter in Batlle's presidency. He helped create the Comisión para la Paz. Later on, he announced the finding of Macarena, the granddaughter of Argentine poet Juan Gelman born to her disappeared mother.

Final years
Jorge Batlle stayed active in politics after the end of his presidency. He criticised the Uruguayan presidents that succeeded him (Tabaré Vázquez and José Mujica) through newspapers columns and social media.

Death and funeral
Jorge Batlle fainted and struck his head after he fainted and fell during an event at the Colorado party. He was hospitalized at the Sanatorio Americano hospital, and underwent surgery to stop an intracranial hemorrhage. The operation failed, and he died on 24 October 2016, one day shy of his 89th birthday. Uruguay declared a day of national mourning upon his death.

Personal life
Batlle married Noemí Lamuraglia in 1957. They had two children, Beatriz (born 1962) and Raúl Lorenzo (born 1965).

title: Jorge Batlle


text:
User:Straczynski

Carlos Straczynski was born in August 12th 1986 in the city of Santos, in the Brazilian state of São Paulo.

He is in no way related to Joseph Michael Straczynski.

Articles he's created or major-edited: Brazilian Expeditionary Force Riograndenser Hunsrückisch language Americana, São Paulo Central American Parliament Megadeath Leningrad Cowboys Lenin Peace Prize Kremlin accords Hattrick Esperanto (car) Party of the Working Class's Cause United Socialist Workers' Party Don't mess with Texas Mosfilm National ensign Chico Mendes
 New York City Ballet
 Future Integrated Soldier Technology
 Bandung Conference
 Newsletter
 Milo Radulovich
 Montevideo Maru
 Saint-Louis-du-Ha! Ha!, Quebec
 Yabloko
 Mikhail Baryshnikov
 Swiss Mercenaries
 Der Fuehrer's Face
 Cog (ship)
 Party of National Mobilization
 Green Party (Brazil)
 Brazilian Communist Party
 List of political parties in Brazil
 Gustav III's Russian War
 Communist Party of Brazil
 Macronation
 Seborga
 Porto Velho
 Cassiterite
 Sagres
 Peniche
 Berlenga Grande
 Fernando de Noronha
 Order of Lenin
 Pravda
 Information warfare

title: User:Straczynski


text:
Macedonian denar

The denar (денар; paucal: denari / денари; abbreviation: den / ден; ISO code: MKD) is the currency of North Macedonia. Though subdivided into one hundred deni (дени), coins with a denomination of less than one denar have not been in use since 2013.

History
The first denar was established as a temporary currency on 26 April 1992 in the then-Republic of Macedonia, replacing the 1990 version of the Yugoslav dinar at a 1:1 parity. In May 1993, the currency was reformed and a new denar was introduced, with one new denar being equal to 100 old denars.

Etymology
The name denar comes from the name of the ancient Roman monetary unit, the denarius. The abbreviation is ден, the first three Cyrillic letters of its name.

First denar (1992–1993)
The first denar was a temporary currency introduced on 26 April 1992 to replace the Yugoslav dinar at 1:1 parity and establish the monetary independence of Macedonia.

History
Macedonia declared independence from Yugoslavia on 8 September 1991. At the time, the country was using the Yugoslav dinar. But secret preparations were begun to introduce its own currency, and by April 1992, Macedonia was ready to acquire monetary independence from Yugoslavia. On 26 April, the National Bank of Macedonia was established and the denar declared the national currency. Notes in the form of "value coupons" entered circulation the following day, and on 30 April 1992, the Yugoslav dinar ceased to be legal tender. In May 1993, the first denar was replaced at a rate of 100 to 1 by a new, permanent denar consisting of notes and coins.

Coins
No coins were issued for the first denar.

Banknotes
Temporary notes ("value coupons") were introduced on 27 April 1992, although preparations for producing them began much earlier. The notes remained in circulation until they were replaced by permanent notes of the second denar in 1993.

Production
Printing of the notes started on 15 January 1992 at the “11 October” printing firm in Prilep. The difficulties of creating a new currency in secret were reflected in the notes themselves. The paper, purchased from Slovenia, proved to be of poor quality and lacked adequate security. Although denominated in denari, the name of the currency did not appear on the notes because they were printed prior to the adoption of the Law on the Monetary Unit. Likewise, the issuer appeared as the "National Bank of Macedonia", not its successor, the National Bank of the Republic of Macedonia.

Design
The notes were designed by a young employee of the "11 October" printer, who had only one week and a limited budget to design them. Thus the six lowest denominations were identical, with the exception of their colours. All featured a man and two women picking tobacco leaves on the front, with the back devoted to the Ilinden monument in Kruševo, which, according to the bank, “expresses the eternal fight of citizens of Macedonia for life in peace and freedom.”

Exchange rates
The denar was introduced with a fixed exchange rate of 360 denars to the Deutsche Mark.

First series (1993)
In May 1993, coins for the second denar were introduced in denominations of 50 deni, and 1, 2, and 5 denars. The coins were designed by Dimče Boškoski and Snežana Atanasovska. In November 2008, 10 and 50 denar coins were introduced, while the 50 deni coin was withdrawn in 2013. Due to its low mintage, it had only been struck in 1993 and was practically never seen in circulation.

Since 1996, a large number of commemorative coins have been issued for collectors; a listing can be found on the national bank website.

Coins are minted at the Suvenir factory in Samokov, a village near Makedonski Brod.

Second series (2020)
Due to the country's name change as part of the Prespa Agreement, a new set of coins featuring the new name of North Macedonia is being released into circulation, starting with 1 denar coins in April 2021.

FAO coinage (1995)
In 1995, circulation coins of 1, 2, and 5 denar denominations were struck in honor of the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization.

Banknotes
In 1993, the new denar was issued in denominations of 10, 20, 50, 100, and 500 denar notes. The 20 denar note was only issued in this first series. In 1996, 1000 and 5000 denar notes were added. In 2016, notes of 200 and 2,000 denars were issued, while the national bank began withdrawing the 5000 denar banknote from circulation to re-balance the structure of notes in circulation. In 2017, the national bank unveiled its current polymer banknotes, the 10 and 50 denar notes, and put them into circulation on May 15.

Exchange rates
The denar is de facto pegged to Euro at a rate of 1 EUR=61.3644 MKD +/- 1% using a stabilization agreement.

title: Macedonian denar


text:
John Mosby

John Mosby may refer to:

 * John S. Mosby (1833–1916), Confederate army cavalry battalion commander
 * John R. Mosby, member of the Industrial Workers of the World
 * John Mosby, editor of the action entertainment magazine Impact

title: John Mosby


text:
Minister of Environment and Climate Change

The minister of environment and climate change (ministre de l'environnement et du changement climatique) is a minister of the Crown in the Cabinet of Canada. The portfolio is responsible for the Environment and Climate Change Canada, as well as a number of other federal organizations including Parks Canada, and the Impact Assessment Agency of Canada.

Steven Guilbeault is the current minister of environment and climate change. He was appointed to the role on October 26, 2021.

The position was called the minister of the environment until 2015, when the position was given its current name upon the creation of Justin Trudeau’s cabinet, the 29th Canadian ministry.

List of ministers
Key:

{{legend||Liberal Party of Canada|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend||Historical conservative parties: Liberal-Conservative, Conservative (historical), Unionist, National Liberal and Conservative, Progressive Conservative|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend||Conservative Party of Canada|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}


text:
Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV

Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV (born Siaosi Tāufaʻāhau Tupoulahi; 4 July 1918 – 10 September 2006) was King of Tonga from 1965 until his death in 2006. He was the tallest and heaviest Tongan monarch, weighing 209.5 kg and measuring 196cm.

Biography
The King's full baptismal name was Siaosi Tāufaʻāhau Tupoulahi, but he was soon better known by the traditional title reserved for Crown Princes: Tupoutoʻa (bestowed in 1937), later replaced by the title he inherited from his father: Tungī (or using both: Tupoutoʻa-Tungī, in that time written as Tuboutoʻa-Tugi). He kept the Tungī title until his death. From a traditional point of view he was not only the Tungī, which is the direct descendant from the Tuʻi Haʻatakalaua, but he was also, on becoming king, the 22nd Tuʻi Kanokupolu. The link with the Tuʻi Tonga, was more indirect. He was not a Tuʻi Tonga too (as that office has gone over into the Kalaniuvalu line), but his grandmother Lavinia Veiongo (wife of George Tupou II) was the great-granddaughter of Laufilitonga, the last Tuʻi Tonga, and his wife Halaevalu Mataʻaho (not to be confused with the King's wife of the same name and same family), who was the daughter of Tupou ʻAhomeʻe, who was the daughter of Lātūfuipeka, the Tamahā (sister of the Tuʻi Tonga). By consequence, the King's daughter, Pilolevu, was the first woman in Tongan culture to really have the blood of the three major Royal dynasties in her veins and become the highest-ranking person ever.

Tāufaʻāhau was a keen sportsman and religious preacher in his youth. He was educated at Newington College and studied law at Sydney University while resident at Wesley College in Sydney, Australia. He was appointed Minister of Education by Queen Sālote in 1943, Minister of Health in 1944, and in 1949, Premier. He remained a lay preacher of the Free Wesleyan Church until his death, and in some circumstances, was empowered to appoint an acting church president.

Reign
Tāufaʻāhau became King of Tonga on the death of his mother in 1965. His coronation took place on 4 July 1967, his 49th birthday, with dignitaries including the Duke of Kent and New Zealand Prime Minister Keith Holyoake in attendance.

At one point in the 1970s, he was the heaviest monarch in the world, weighing in at 209.5 kg. For his visits to Germany, the German government used to commission special chairs that could support his weight. The King used to take them home, considering them as state presents. He was also very tall, standing at 196cm. Swedish shoemaker Per-Enok Kero reported that "He weighed 180 kilos and had shoe size 47 in length and 52 in breadth." In the 1990s, he took part in a national fitness campaign, losing a third of his weight.

He wielded great political authority and influence in Tonga's essentially aristocratic system of government, together with the country's nobles, who controlled 70% of the Legislative Assembly of Tonga at the time. His involvement in an investment scandal in 2001, involving his American financial advisor Jesse Bogdonoff, led to calls for greater government transparency and democratisation. The fact the King had previously appointed Bogdonoff, Tonga's official court jester, though likely only done as a joke for Bogdonoff's birthday which happened to fall on 1 April, compounded the scandal's embarrassment. In 2005, the government spent several weeks negotiating with striking civil service workers before reaching a settlement. The king's nephew, Tuʻipelehake (ʻUluvalu), served as mediator. A constitutional commission presented a series of recommendations for constitutional reform to the King a few weeks before his death.

Death and funeral
On 15 August 2006, Tongan Prime Minister Feleti Sevele interrupted radio and television broadcasts to announce the King was gravely ill in the Mercy Hospital in Auckland and to ask the 104,000 people of the island chain to pray for their monarch. He died 26 days later, at 23:34 NZST on 10 September 2006 (it was just after midnight on 11 September in Tongan time). He was 88 and had reigned for nearly 41 years.

Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV was buried on 19 September 2006 at Malaʻe Kula (the Royal cemetery) in the Tongan capital, Nukuʻalofa. Thousands of Tongans watched the funeral and mourners included many foreign dignitaries, including Japanese Crown Prince Naruhito, New Zealand Prime Minister Helen Clark, Fijian Vice President Ratu Joni Madraiwiwi and Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase, Vanuatu president Kalkot Mataskelekele, the American Samoan Governor Togiola Tulafono, Niue Premier Vivian Young, and the Duke of Gloucester, a cousin of Queen Elizabeth II. The funeral blended Christian and ancient Polynesian burial rites. The funeral was overseen by the Royal undertaker Lauaki and his men of the Haʻatufunga (clan), also known as the nima tapu (sacred hands).

According to the International Herald Tribune, "Tupou IV's 41-year reign made him one of the world's longest-serving sovereigns", after Thailand's King Bhumibol Adulyadej; Queen Elizabeth II in her capacity as monarch of Australia, Barbados, Canada, Jamaica, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom; and Samoa's head of state, Malietoa Tanumafili II.

Marriage and children
He was married to Queen Halaevalu Mataʻaho ʻAhomeʻe (1926–2017) and the couple had four children:

 * King George Tupou V (born Prince Siaosi Tāufaʻāhau Manumataongo Tukuʻaho Tupou; 1948–2012), while as Crown Prince, better known by the hereditary title: Tupoutoʻa (once his father did not need it any longer). He succeeded him on his death in 2006.
 * Princess Royal Salote Mafileʻo Pilolevu Tuita (born Tukuʻaho in 1951). Lady Tuita by marriage.
 * Prince Fatafehi 'Alaivahamama'o Tuku'aho (stripped of his title after marrying a commoner, later bestowed with the hereditary title of Māʻatu, born in 1954, deceased in 2004). He married his first wife Heimataura Seiloni, 21 July 1980, who died of cancer in Nuku'alofa, 19 September 1985. She was the adopted daughter of High Chief Matagialalua Tavana Salmon Anderson of Tahiti and daughter of his wife Tongan singer and songwriter, Tu'imala Kaho. Lord Māʻatu then married Alaile'ula Poutasi Jungblut, 11 July 1989, who is the daughter of Melvin Jungblut and his wife Lola Tosi Malietoa, also the daughter of the late Samoan head of state Malietoa Tanumafili II. Lord Māʻatu and Dowager Lady Māʻatu had four children: Sitiveni Tuku'aho (Prince Tungi), Salote Maumautaimi Tuku'aho, Sione Ikamafana Tuku'aho and Etani Ha'amea Tuku'aho. Their eldest son inherited the Princely title in 2008. Their second son Sione Ikamafana Tuku'aho was adopted by his paternal aunt, Princess Royal, Princess Pilolevu Tuita.
 * King Tupou VI (born Prince ʻAhoʻeitu ʻUnuakiʻotonga Tukuʻaho in 1959). Prior to his ascension to the throne, he was better known by his traditional titles: Tupoutoʻa Lavaka (until the death of his father known as: ʻUlukālala Lavaka Ata). As his elder brother died without legitimate issue, he became King in 2012.

National

 * 🇹🇴 Tonga: Sovereign Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Royal Order of Pouono
 * 🇹🇴 Tonga: Sovereign Knight Grand Cross Of the Order of King George Tupou I
 * 🇹🇴 Tonga: Sovereign Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the Crown of Tonga
 * 🇹🇴 Tonga: Sovereign Recipient of the Royal Tongan Medal of Merit
 * 🇹🇴 Tonga: Sovereign Recipient of the Tongan Red Cross Medal

Foreign

 * 🇩🇰 Denmark: Recipient of the Royal Medal of Recompense
 * 🇫🇷 France: Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honour
 * 🇩🇪 Germany: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, Special Class
 * 🇵🇫 French Polynesia: Grand Cross of the Order of Tahiti Nui
 * 🇯🇵 Japan: Knight Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum
 * 🇹🇼 Republic of China: Grand Cross of the Order of Brilliant Jade
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom: Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom: Bailiff Grand Cross of the Venerable Order of Saint John
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom: Recipient of the Medal of Merit of the Legion of Frontiersmen
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom: Recipient of the Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal

Namesakes

 * Tonga House at Newington College

title: Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV


text:
Louis de Funès

Louis Germain David de Funès de Galarza (31 July 1914 – 27 January 1983) was a French actor and comedian. He is France's favourite actor, according to a series of polls conducted since the late 1960s, having played over 150 roles in film and over 100 on stage. His acting style is remembered for its high-energy performance and his wide range of facial expressions and tics. A considerable part of his best-known acting was directed by Jean Girault.

One of the most famous French actors of all time, Louis de Funès also enjoys widespread international recognition. In addition to his immense fame in the French-speaking world, he is also still a household name in many other parts of the world, including German-speaking countries, Italy, the former Eastern Bloc, Albania, Greece, Portugal, Spain, the former Yugoslavia, Iran, Israel, Mauritius, Romania and Turkey.

Despite his international fame, Louis de Funès remains almost unknown in the English-speaking world. He was exposed to a wider audience only once in the United States, in 1973, with the release of The Mad Adventures of Rabbi Jacob, which is best remembered for its Rabbi Jacob dance scene and was nominated for a Golden Globe Award. Louis de Funès has two museums dedicated to his life and acting: one in the Château de Clermont, near Nantes, where he resided, as well as another in the town of Saint-Raphaël, Southern France.

Early life
Louis de Funès was born on 31 July 1914 in Courbevoie, Hauts-de-Seine to parents who hailed from Seville, Spain. Since the couple's families opposed their marriage, they eloped to France in 1904. His father, Carlos Luis de Funès de Galarza, a nobleman whose mother descended from the Counts de Galarza (of Basque origin). His father's family was from Funes. He had been a lawyer in Spain, but became a diamond cutter upon arriving in France. His mother, Leonor Soto Reguera, was Galician, daughter to Galician lawyer Teolindo Soto Barro, of Portuguese descent.

Known to friends and intimates as "Fufu", de Funès spoke French, Spanish, and English. During his youth, he was fond of drawing and playing the piano. He was an alumnus of the lycée Condorcet in Paris. He later dropped out, and his early life was rather inconspicuous; as a youth and young adult, de Funès held menial jobs, from which he was repeatedly fired. He became a bar pianist, working mostly as a jazz pianist in Pigalle, Paris, where he made his customers laugh each time he grimaced. He studied acting for one year at the Simon acting school, where he made some useful contacts, including Daniel Gélin, among others. In 1936, he married Germaine Louise Elodie Carroyer, with whom he had one child: a son named Daniel; the couple divorced in late 1942. Through the early 1940s, de Funès continued playing piano in clubs, thinking there was not much call for a short, balding, skinny actor. His wife and Daniel Gélin encouraged him until he managed to overcome his fear of rejection. His wife supported him in the most difficult moments and helped him to manage his career efficiently.

During the occupation of Paris in the Second World War, he continued his piano studies at a music school, where he fell in love with a secretary, Jeanne Barthelémy de Maupassant. She had fallen in love with "the young man who played jazz like God"; they married in 1943 and remained together for forty years until de Funès' death in 1983. They had two sons: Patrick (born on 27 January 1944), who became a doctor, and Olivier (born on 11 August 1949), who became a pilot for Air France Europe and also followed in his father's footsteps by becoming an actor. Olivier de Funès became known for the roles he played in some of his father's films (Les Grandes Vacances, Fantômas se déchaîne, Le Grand Restaurant and Hibernatus being the most famous).

Theatrical career
De Funès began his show business career in the theatre, where he enjoyed moderate success and also played small roles in films. Even after he attained the status of a movie star, he continued to play theatre roles. His stage career culminated in a magnificent performance in the play Oscar, a role which he would reprise a few years later in the film adaptation.

Film career

In 1945, thanks to his contact with Daniel Gélin, de Funès made his film debut at the age of 31 with a bit part in Jean Stelli's La Tentation de Barbizon. He appears on screen for less than 40 seconds in the role of the porter of the cabaret Le Paradis, welcoming the character played by Jérôme Chambon in the entrance hall and pointing him to the double doors leading to the main room, saying: "C'est par ici, Monsieur" ("It's this way, Sir"). Chambon declines the invitation, pushing the door himself instead of pulling it open. De Funès then says: "Bien, il a son compte celui-là, aujourd'hui!" ("Well, he had enough, today!").

He went on to perform in 130 film roles over the next 20 years, playing minor roles in over 80 movies before being offered his first leading roles. During this period, de Funès developed a daily routine of professional activities: in the morning, he did dubbing for recognized artists such as Totò, an Italian comic of the time; during the afternoon, he did film work; and in the evening, he performed as a theatre actor.

From 1945 to 1955, he appeared in 50 films, usually as an extra or walk-on. In 1954, he went on to star in such films as Ah! Les belles bacchantes and Le Mouton à cinq pattes. A break came in 1956, when he appeared as the black-market pork butcher Jambier (another small role) in Claude Autant-Lara's well-known World War II comedy, La Traversée de Paris. He achieved stardom in 1963 with Jean Girault's film, Pouic-Pouic. This successful film guaranteed de Funès top billing in all of his subsequent films. At the age of 49, de Funès unexpectedly became a major star of international renown with the success of Le gendarme de Saint-Tropez. After their first successful collaboration, director Jean Girault perceived de Funès as the ideal actor to play the part of the scheming, opportunistic and sycophant gendarme; the first film would lead to a series of six.

Another collaboration with director Gérard Oury produced a memorable tandem of de Funès with Bourvil—another great comic actor—in the 1965 film, Le Corniaud. The success of the de Funès-Bourvil partnership was repeated in La Grande Vadrouille, one of the most successful and the largest-grossing film ever made in France, drawing an audience of 17.27 million. It remains his greatest success. Oury envisaged a further reunion of the two comics in his film La Folie des grandeurs, but Bourvil's death in 1970 led to the unlikely pairing of de Funès with Yves Montand in that film.

Eventually, de Funès became France's leading comic actor. Between 1964 and 1979, he topped France's box office of the year's most successful movies seven times. In 1968, all three of his films were in the top ten in France for the year, topped by Le Petit Baigneur.

He co-starred with many of the major French actors of his time, including Jean Marais and Mylène Demongeot in the Fantomas trilogy, and also Jean Gabin, Fernandel, Coluche, Annie Girardot, and Yves Montand. He also worked with Jean Girault in the famous 'Gendarmes' series. In a departure from the Gendarme image, de Funès collaborated with Claude Zidi, who wrote for him a new character full of nuances and frankness in L'aile ou la cuisse (1976), which is arguably the best of his roles. Later, de Funès' considerable musical abilities were showcased in films such as Le Corniaud and Le Grand Restaurant. In 1964, he debuted in the first of the Fantômas series, which launched him into superstardom.

In 1975, Oury turned again to de Funès for a film entitled Le Crocodile, in which he was to play the role of a South American dictator. But in March 1975, de Funès was hospitalized for heart problems and forced to take a break from acting, causing Le Crocodile to be cancelled. After his recovery, he appeared opposite another comic genius, Coluche, in L'Aile ou la cuisse. In 1980, de Funès realised a long-standing dream of making a film version of Molière's play, L'Avare.

De Funès made his final film, Le Gendarme et les gendarmettes, in 1982.

Style
Unlike the characters he played, de Funès was said to be a very shy person in real life. Capable of an extremely rich and rapidly changing range of facial expressions, de Funès was nicknamed "the man with forty faces per minute." In many of his films, he played the role of a humorously excitable, cranky, middle-aged or mature man with a propensity for hyperactivity, bad faith, and uncontrolled fits of anger. Along with his short height – 1.64m – and his facial contortions, this hyperactivity produced a highly comic effect. This was particularly visible when he was paired with Bourvil, who was always given roles of calm, slightly naive, good-humoured men. In de Funès' successful lead role in a cinematic version of Molière's The Miser (L'Avare), these characteristics are greatly muted, percolating just beneath the surface.

Later years and death
In the later part of his life, de Funès achieved great prosperity and success. He became a knight of France's Légion d'honneur in 1973. He resided in the Château de Clermont, a 17th-century château located in the commune of Le Cellier, 27 kilometers (17 mi) from Nantes in the west of France. The château, overlooking the river Loire, was inherited by his wife, whose aunt had married a descendant of Maupassant. De Funès was an aficionado of roses and planted a rose garden on the château grounds; a variety of rose was named after him: the Louis de Funès rose. A monument honoring him was erected in the château rose garden.

In his later years, de Funès suffered from a heart condition after having two heart attacks caused by the excessive strain of his stage antics. He died of a third heart attack on 27 January 1983, a few months after making his final film. He was laid to rest in the Cimetière du Cellier, the cemetery situated on the Château de Clermont grounds.

Legacy
De Funès was portrayed on a postage stamp issued on 3 October 1998 by the French postal service. He was also portrayed in French comics, including as a gambler in Lucky Luke ("The One-Armed Bandit") and as a film studio worker in Clifton ("Dernière Séance"). In 2013, a museum dedicated to De Funès was created in the Château de Clermont where he had resided. In 2019, another De Funès museum opened in Saint-Raphaël, Var.

The behavior, diminutive size, and body language of the character Skinner from the 2007 Pixar animated film Ratatouille are loosely based on Louis de Funès.

title: Louis de Funès


text:
Minister of Fisheries, Oceans and the Canadian Coast Guard

The Minister of Fisheries, Oceans and the Canadian Coast Guard (ministre des pêches, des océans et de la Garde côtière canadienne) is the minister of the Crown in the Canadian Cabinet responsible for supervising the fishing industry, administrating all navigable waterways in the country, and overseeing the operations of the Canadian Coast Guard and the Freshwater Fish Marketing Corporation.

The minister is the head of the Government of Canada's marine department, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, often referred to by its older (and technical) name: the Department of Fisheries and Oceans.

History
There was a minister of marine and fisheries from Confederation in 1867 onwards. The role was split in two in 1930, with duties related to fisheries going to the new minister of fisheries, and all other responsibilities going to the new minister of marine, which was merged into the role of minister of transport a few years later.

The minister of fisheries lasted from 1930 to 1969, at which point the post was merged with forestry to create the post of minister of fisheries and forestry. This lasted only two years, until 1971, when the minister of fisheries became a secondary role held concurrently by the minister of the environment. In 1974 the fisheries portfolio was assigned to Roméo LeBlanc as the minister of state (fisheries) assisting the minister of the environment. When LeBlanc was appointed as the minister of the environment in 1976, the post was restyled minister of fisheries and environment.

The current post of minister of fisheries and oceans was established in 1979, and it has continued under various names since then. Hunter Tootoo was the first Indigenous person to hold this portfolio, from November 4, 2015 until May 31, 2016.

Ministers of Marine and Fisheries (1867–1930)
Key:

{{legend||Liberal Party of Canada|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend||Historical conservative parties: Liberal-Conservative, Conservative (historical), Unionist, National Liberal and Conservative|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}

Ministers of Fisheries (1930–1969)
Key:

{{legend||Liberal Party of Canada|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend||Historical conservative parties: Conservative (historical), Progressive Conservative|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}

Ministers of Fisheries and Forestry (1969–1971)
Key:

{{legend||Liberal Party of Canada|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}

Ministers responsible for Fisheries through the Department of Environment (1971–1979)
Key:

{{legend||Liberal Party of Canada|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}

Ministers of Fisheries and Oceans (1979–present)
Key:

{{legend||Liberal Party of Canada|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend||Progressive Conservative|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} {{legend||Conservative Party of Canada|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}


text:
Talk:List of current heads of state and government

Number of page views in the past 30 days

Prime minister of Laos
As I found on http://www.laogov.gov.la/activities/pages/news.aspx?ItemID=724&CateID=5 in 28 January Thongsing Thammavong was still prime minister and, it is clear, he is the current prime minister of Laos. I will change in this sense the table if I don't receive a replay based on a clear document Bogdan Uleia (talk)

Khalifa Haftar as de facto leader of Eastern Libya's government
Given the fact that the Tobruk-based House of Representatives Prime Minister Abdullah al-Thani has recently offered his resignation as the leader of the civilian government in the Eastern part of Libya, I believe the correct step for this page is to regard Field Marshal Khalifa Haftar as the de facto leader of that government. It is not a new fact that Haftar has been the de facto leader of the Tobruk side of the Civil War for a long time now, and I thought this resignation could lead to renewed discussions about this question.

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54145499 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-idUSKCN2292RQ https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/04/28/libyas-khalifa-haftar-accused-coup-detat-puts-eastern-libya/

Alternate governments?
Should the governments of the Syrian Salvation Government or the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (Taliban) be included as alternate governments as they claim to be the legitimate governments of Syria & Afghanistan respectively? Do they have to be recognized by other Un members to be on this list?

Semi-protected edit request on 26 January 2024

 * Prime Minister – Han Duck-soo

Semi-protected edit request on 15 May 2024
To update Singapore's head of government from Lee Hsien Loong to Lawrence Wong, who took office on 15 May 2024 (GMT+8). 60.128.253.110 (talk) 01:19, 15 May 2024 (UTC)

 * He will be sworn in at 8pm. Mike Rohsopht (talk) 02:02, 15 May 2024 (UTC)