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Twinking

Twinking is a type of behavior in role-playing games that is disapproved of by other players. A player who engages in such behavior is known as a twink. The precise definition of twinking varies depending on the variety of role-playing game:

 * In "pen and paper" role-playing games, a twink is often synonymous with a munchkin, i.e. a powergamer who seeks to acquire power and loot at the expense of their teammates.
 * In MUDs – Multi-User Dungeons or Domains –a twink is a player who is variously anything from a munchkin to a newbie (new player) to a griefer, or a bad faith player.
 * In massively multiplayer online role-playing games, or MMORPGs, twinking refers to a character gaining equipment with the assistance of a higher level character, particularly by giving the low-level character higher level equipment that is otherwise unattainable.  It can also be used to describe the process of keeping a video game character at a low level while using in-game currency, earned by a high-level character, to provide it with superior equipment.

A related term, smurfing also exists. Often used in video gaming, smurfing describes a situation in which "a highly-skilled player creates a secondary account as a disguise to play against less proficient opponents." The term originates from two Warcraft II players employing the strategy under the names "Papa Smurf" and "Smurfette".

RPGs
In role-playing video games, particularly MMORPGs, twinking refers to outfitting a new character or player with items or other resources that are not normally available to new or low-level characters. A twink in this usage is a type of powergamer and munchkin. The term can also refer to the twinked character itself (e.g., "My twink has all the best gear."). In its most basic definition, a twink is a character with better gear than one could have easily acquired on one's own.

Twinking is typically done by transferring higher-end equipment from the player's (or their friend's) more experienced characters (who often have excess gear that would be much more useful to the lower-level character). It can also be done by equipping the character with the best possible gear for their level range, and filling them with end-game enchantments.

Many new players dislike twinking of others' characters, since it gives a big advantage to established players starting a new character. Some new players do not like to have their own characters twinked, as they prefer to earn the equipment for themselves.

It is common for twinking items to be traded at good values due to persistent demand. Sometimes, this will go so far as to inflate twink equipment prices, as high-level players are willing to pay more than a newbie would be able to.

Examples
Twinking can happen whenever players can interact and trade with each other, regardless of how present other players can be in the game itself; the handheld roleplaying game Pokémon, as an example, allows players to trade their Pokémon with each other.

Twinking was once very common in the CORPG Guild Wars, when players would have their low-level characters taken by high-level characters to end-game areas to obtain the best armor, weapons, and skills available (different terms are used to describe this action: being "carried through", "Pushed through", "boosted", "getting a boost"), as Guild Wars does not have a level limit on such things. These twinked characters would then return to low-level PvP areas to fight significantly disadvantaged opponents. This practice became so common that the Guild Wars development team introduced a patch prohibiting characters with high-level armor entering beginner arenas.

World of Warcraft includes items that are specifically intended to make twinking more viable but less disruptive. These items belong to the "Heirloom" rarity class and have a number of unique characteristics. Their most unusual attribute is that they bind to a player's account rather than the character, allowing them to be handed down from higher-level characters to lower-level ones but prohibiting them from being transferred from veteran players to new players. Thus, the twinking player is still required to earn these items, even if the twinked character does not. The other distinguishing characteristics of Heirlooms are that they have no real level requirement and their properties scale with character level, making them usable by and useful to all characters equally regardless of level.

In addition to heirlooms, World of Warcraft also includes an option whereby a character may pay 10 gold to disable experience-gain and thereby maintain a specific level. This enables the twink to more easily farm for Honor Points (the in-game currency used to purchase weapons and armour for PvP combat) in player versus player battlegrounds by permanently remaining at the highest playable level for their battleground bracket (e.g. level 19 for the 15–19 battleground bracket, level 74 for the 70–74 battleground bracket, etc.). The character can also attempt to obtain the best possible item per equipment slot available to that specific level. The character may attempt this solo, in groups, or with the help from high-level characters. By competing at the highest level allowed in the battleground bracket, and equipped with the best possible gear, twinks played with a significant advantage over regular players. New players as well as low-level players in the battleground bracket were often at a severe disadvantage in games that fielded numerous twinks. Because of the gear and/or experience advantage, twinks often easily overpowered new and low-level players, quickly eliminating them from play. Consequently, these players experienced little of the actual gameplay. Battlegrounds often had twinks playing for both factions, Horde and Alliance, leveling the playing field to an extent, but winning and losing could be grossly influenced by which faction fielded fewer twinks. However, because of the large twink communities, especially at lower level brackets, battlegrounds were often filled with organized teams of twinks competing against each other.

Another example of twinking can be found in the MMORPG Anarchy Online, where twinking is performed by buffing base stats using items (stat buffing weapons, armour) and laddering implants (laddering is a method by which the character equips higher implants by climbing quality levels one by one as one does, a ladder). Once a high-stat buffing item is equipped, it stays equipped even if the stats required to initially equip it decline or wear off, though a penalty can be applied if the base stats fall too far below the equipping requirements. Twinking is an essential component to this game in both PvP and in soloing Instances within the game. Whereas twinking is seen in negative light in other MMORPGS, it is seen positively in Anarchy Online.

In other online RPGs, such as Dark Souls, twinking can be done through a few methods, including gaining the help of other players who are at a higher level in order to have them clear content before it should be accessible, memorizing the locations of particular powerful items, and utilizing very specific strategies to advance further in the storyline than should otherwise be possible. This has a more direct effect on game play, especially in any game which involves online player-versus-player (PvP) combat such as Dark Souls, as the result can be two players who appear to be evenly matched on the surface being vastly unbalanced in terms of items or weaponry available to them. While a game's developers may not consider these tactics to be outright exploitation of the underlying game engine, often these tactics are 'nerfed' in some way in order to discourage twinking, such as removing, repositioning, or reducing the effectiveness of certain items within the game to make the progression more linear between players.

Some games such as Borderlands 2 feature an in-game method of transferring items between characters on the same account. This is done in Borderlands through a storage container located in the game's central hub, allowing up to four items to be stored and retrieved by any of the player's characters.

Countermeasures

 * Many games have item restrictions that prevent low-level characters from using higher-level items and upsetting game balance; in Diablo II and The Lord of the Rings Online, most items require a minimum ability score or level to equip. This did not totally prevent the problem of higher-level characters handing down gold or very powerful gear; it just changed what could be used in this strategy.
 * Some games, such as World of Warcraft (WoW), Anarchy Online (AO), EverQuest (EQ), and The Lord of the Rings Online (LOTRO) have certain items become restricted to one character—"Soulbound" (WoW), "NoDrop" (AO), "No Trade" (EQ), or "Bound" (LOTRO) —when the items are picked up, equipped, or used. These items cannot thereafter be transferred to other characters (even one's own characters on the same realm/server, with some limited exceptions). Some items are bound to a specific account ("Bind To Account" in WoW, "Heirloom" in EQ, "Bound to account" in LOTRO) and cannot be transferred to other people's accounts, but can be traded between characters on the same account.
 * WoW further reduced twinking in Battlegrounds (player-versus-player combat arenas) by awarding experience points for Battleground victories, so that as PvP characters gain experience, they also gain levels and thus become disqualified from lower-level brackets. Additionally, some of the best-in-slot items became "heirlooms" that apply a percentage increase to all experience point gains. Players can disable experience point gain for an in-game fee, but must play in separate Battlegrounds as long as they do so where most of the other players will also be twinkers.
 * WoW eliminated twinking in PvP combat arenas in patch 7.0.3, by removing all stats gained from equipment upon entry and instead giving the character predetermined PvP stats based on its class and specialization.
 * Pokémon games use a badge system, which makes Pokémon above a certain level tougher to control, making random actions and falling asleep instead of obeying commands until the trainer has completed enough of the campaign.

Online role-playing games
In online role-playing games, twinking may include, but is not limited to
 * Denial-of-service or "DoS" attacks
 * Hacking the server
 * Creating an invincible or extremely powerful character with which the twink will seek to dominate in role-play
 * Aggravating and attacking the game administration or game community
 * Exploit
 * Cheating
 * Powergaming
 * Metagaming, being able to guess or preempt plot points based on prior knowledge from having previously played the game in question.

Etymology
There are several possible etymologies for the word. It may not have been derived from a single source, instead evolving from multiple convergent usages. Its exact origin is unclear.

The gay-slang usage of "twink" has been suggested as a likely origin. One of the connotations of this usage is "a young/inexperienced person who can outfit himself fashionably because of financial benefits from an older/experienced sugar daddy." This parallels MMORPGs, where in-game money is a strong limiting factor in the virtual economy and gear is usually in the form of clothing and jewelry.

The word "twink" appeared in the Ultima Online: Renaissance playguide in the glossary of terms (copyrighted in 2000). It was asserted to have a meaning similar to its current one, but also included powerlevelling.

On the MUD Sojourn, which several creators of EverQuest played, "twink" was alternately used to refer to powerleveling and metagaming. As MUDs date to 1978, this use of the term may possibly predate later uses.

The term twink and twinking predated MMOs and was prevalent in many MUDs. The term came from flags on much of the high-end gear that cause gear to be displayed as (twinkling). It was not an alternate name for powerleveling, but could be used as a method of powerleveling.

title: Twinking


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Talk:369th Infantry Regiment (United States)

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Review
Although Wikipedia has a lot of information and a variety of facts, what made the 369th Infantry Regiment different was that it was comprised of extraordinary black men. One thing the article is lacking is what makes most people and groups in life unique, their experiences. the article has the correct dates and major events and specifics about the regiment in general but it lacks the personal connection anything worth reading is comprised of. The Black Soldiers of New York State has plenty of those connections and unique qualities that come from individual experiences. For example more information about Vertner Woodson Tandy would be ideal. Mr. Vertner Woodson Tandy who was the first African-American to pass the military commissioning examination and was commissioned as a First Lieutenant was also a “Jewel” a founding member of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity Incorporated which also happens to be a inspirational group of men not only on our campus, but the country as well. This article is lacking a large amount of citations and references which could ruin the credibility of the whole article if there is a large amount of information that comes from nowhere. The Black Soldiers of New York State by Anthony F. Gero was well written with references for personal account and information. It also had more specific information about some of the individual people that made the 369th Regiment so unique and special. For example he brings to life to actions that go untold that were instrumental in the 369th Regiments history. Anthony F. Gero is an adjunct instructor of history at the State University of New York. For the amount of citations missing and lack of detailed information the footnotes are also lacking I expected to find more footnotes that would make up for the lack of citation or any side notes about the information presented. What stood out to me that I thought was good in the article was the section for further reading. I felt like that section was good with the amount of other books they had with accurate information about the Harlem Hellfighters. There were a lot of contributors but none that really stood out for having written the most information in the article. The Wikipedia article is relatively organized, it has all the information in a recognizable order. The comparison reading does not seem to have any clear order at all, but the reading is not chaotic it is understandable and efficient. In the talk page there has been some discussion and corrections made to the article. some changes and topics were bigger than others, but nothing was ever so incorrect that a major change was made. They were all just minor details and additional information that was provided. There is also a different point of view from the book that mod people would not be aware of. Like that the black community saw the war as a blessing and chance to prove their worth to white Americans and to prove how dedicated they were to their country despite the things being plotted overseas and the conditions they were dealing with in heir homeland. They wanted a chance not to be seen as better or higher than whites but just to be seen as equals, to be seen as another human being. Anthony Gero also expressed how their was even segregation in the military on a bigger level than normal like how black soldiers in there first world war were not allowed to carry the American flag and carried the French flag instead. He said that its even more of a disgrace than being segregated, there is no pride in not being allowed to represent your own country black or not. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jdaziel4 (talk • contribs) 21:09, 6 November 2013 (UTC)

Unsupportable Claim of 191 Days Continuous Combat Service in WWI
There is a claim made at the beginning of the article "During WWI, the 369th spent 191 days in front line trenches, more than any other American unit." which is also echoed later as "On one tour, they were out for over six months, which was the longest deployment of any unit in World War I." and again as "it was official that the outfit was 191 days under fire" BUT this constantly repeated claim cannot be reconciled with the detailed timeline presented in the paragraph headed Assignment to French Army 1918. The 369th was relegated to labor service until it was assigned to the French Army 8 May 1918 where it served in combat but then "On 19 August, the regiment went off the line for rest and training of replacements" -- so exactly when between 8 May 1918 and 19 August 1918 were those 191 days? The timeline then shows the unit back in combat 25 September 1918 until "In mid-October the regiment was moved to a quiet sector in the Vosges Mountains, where it was stationed there on 11 November, the day of the Armistice." So again, when were those 191 days of continuous combat? Counting from 8 May 1918, the claimed 191 days of continuous front line combat would take us to 15 November 1918 which would be remarkable in a war that ended on 11 November 1918.N4aof (talk) 16:14, 6 February 2019 (UTC)

Early comments
The contents of this page comes entirely from the Hamilton Fish III talk page. Thanks to the anonymous user who posted this relevant information, though this page may require some "neutralization." Katagelophobia 11 Dec. 2003
 * Actually, as a Staff Sergeant who retired from this unit, I can personally say that the article is only one pinky in the water. I did not write the piece, but I am capable to comment about it, and it is cautiously accurate as far as it goes. Thye unit is still on the active rolls - today it is the 369th Corps Support Battalion of the New York Army National Guard, nd it currently has one or more Companies serving a very long tour in Kuwait. I served with one of them in Saudi Arabia in 1990-91. having read what you commented, I will flesh this out as much as I can. CORNELIUSSEON 13:51, 22 November 2005 (UTC)
 * The following is moved from Talk:Hamilton Fish III, where it was too detailed to be relevant.
 * Harlem Hellfighters:
 * The 369th Infantry Regiment of the New York National Guard 15 Regiment. An all African American unit, the 369th fought in World War I under the French Flag because the United States refused to have African American soldiers in combat. The 369th compiled an astounding war record and were decorated by the French government. But when they returned home to the United States, they were subjected to the racism of the era, and discovered their service in World War I meant nothing to their fellow Americans. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Special:Contributions/ (talk)
 * Presumably it was the germ, referred to above, of the article. --Jerzy•t 01:45, 20 May 2006 (UTC)

WP:MILHIST Assessment
A very nice start in terms of length, content, and images. But organizationally, this needs a lot of work. Separate the intro out from the main body of the article. Make the chronological placement (i.e. WWI, not WWII or Civil War or Revolution) obvious in the very first sentence. And organize the rest better into sections. I'll admit I have not read the article full-through, but a quick glance catches at least one spelling/grammar error - why is "Muster" capitalized? Take a quick look through, clean-up the spelling and grammar overall. LordAmeth 11:23, 12 October 2006 (UTC)

U.S. Army "396th" units
After searching Google.com, I have only come up with the following units which have been deployed to Iraq with "369th"

 * 369th Transportation Company

 * 369th Engineer Company

 * 369th Combat Support Hospital

 * 369th Military Police Detachment

 * 369th Transportation Company

 * 369th Transportation Detachment

 * 369th Quartermaster Battalion

There is no sources or references to a "369th Sustainment Brigade", "369th Corps Support Battalion" or "369th Transportation Battalion". None of the units listed above have direct lineage to the 369th Infantry Regiment unless proven otherwise. -TabooTikiGod 15:15, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Here is the information from the United States Army Institute of Heraldry on the subject of the 369th Sustainment Brigade. For The Record, I am a retiree of the 719th Transportation Company, which is one of the subordinate units of the 369th.

Shoulder Sleeve Insignia

 * Description:
 * 1) A shield-shaped embroidered item, arched outwardly at top blazoned as follows: Per chevron Argent and Gules, between three palets counterchanged, two poplar trees Vert; all with a 1/8 inch (.32 cm) Blue border.
 * 2) Overall dimensions are 2 7/16 inches (6.19 cm) in width and 3 inches (7.62 cm) in length.

 * Symbolism:
 * 1) The chevron, heraldic symbol for support, suggests the unit’s mission.
 * 2) The palets/vertical bars signify military strength and allude to the three campaigns in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Iraq.
 * 3) The counterchanged colors of the palets/vertical bars signify the various transformations of the unit to become the 396th Sustainment Brigade.
 * 4) The poplar tree, adapted from the 369th Infantry Battalion’s coat of arms, indicates the Brigade perpetuating the lineage of the Battalion.

 * Background: The shoulder sleeve insignia was approved for the 369th Sustainment Brigade on 2008-02-07.

Distinctive Unit Insignia.

 * Description: A silver color metal and enamel device 1 1/4 inches (3.18 cm) in height overall consisting of a blue shield charged with a silver rattlesnake coiled and ready to strike.

 * Symbolism:
 * 1) The rattlesnake is a symbol used on some colonial flags and is associated with the thirteen original colonies.
 * 2) The silver rattlesnake on the blue shield was the distinctive regimental insignia of the 369th Infantry Regiment, ancestor of the unit, and alludes to the service of the organization during World War I.

 * Background:
 * 1) The distinctive unit insignia was originally approved for the 369th Infantry Regiment on 1923-04-17.
 * 2) It was redesignated for the 369th Coast Artillery Regiment on 1940-12-03.
 * 3) It was redesignated for the 369th Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion on 1944-01-07.
 * 4) It was redesignated for the 569th Field Artillery Battalion on 1956-08-14.
 * 5) The insignia was redesignated for the 369th Artillery Regiment on 1962-04-04.
 * 6) It was amended to correct the wording of the description on 1964-09-02.
 * 7) It was redesignated for the 569th Transportation Battalion and amended to add a motto on 1969-03-13.
 * 8) The insignia was redesignated for the 369th Transportation Battalion and amended to delete the motto on 1975-01-14.
 * 9) It was redesignated for the 369th Support Battalion and amended to revise the description and symbolism on 1994-11-02.
 * 10) The insignia was redesignated for the 369th Sustainment Brigade and amended to revise the description and symbolism on 2007-07-20.

Also, here are the links you missed on the Brigade and its subordinate units:

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SSG Cornelius Seon (Retired) (talk) 19:23, 26 November 2008 (UTC)

Title
The title of this article is incorrect. The title should be 369th Infantry Regiment (United States), not 396th.

 * You're right. I can't believe no one noticed it before now. I have moved the page. jwillbur 02:52, 19 November 2007 (UTC)

369th SUSTAINMENT BRIGADE
This article needs to be moved to the new title of the unit since it has been uprated to Brigade status, and has subsumed most of the Combat Service and Combat Service Support units of the New York Army National Guard. Indeed, the unit now is commanded by a Full Colonel - the first Female Full Colonel in the NYARNG - and it has assumed parity with the 27th Infantry Brigade Combat Team as one of two Major Commands under the 53rd Troop Command.-SSG Cornelius Seon (Retired) (talk) 06:23, 14 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Seems to me the new status and purpose should be discussed at both the top and the bottom of the article, but the unit was much more famous and interesting as an infantry regiment than in its present form. Who's going to be looking up a Sustainment Brigade out of historical interest?  Better to keep the present 369th Infantry Regiment (United States) name for the article, and just put the new facts inside the article.  Jim.henderson (talk) 00:19, 19 December 2008 (UTC)

Need references
This article is in bad need of citations. So far, there is just one source cited, and it is cited for a relatively tangential piece of information. It seems like there's a lot of great information on here, and I see some citations on the Talk page; we just need them to carry over to the article itself. Thanks! Rustinf (talk) 02:33, 19 July 2010 (UTC)

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short footnotes {sfn}
Hello, in order to link the notes to the references, to remove cite book etc from the body text, and for further standardization, I'd like to covert the referencing system to sfn. If no one has any objection in 2 weeks, I'll do it. Thanks Lingzhi ♦ (talk) 07:41, 10 April 2017 (UTC)
 * Done. Some cleanup still needed; will get to it soon-ish.  Lingzhi ♦ (talk) 09:17, 29 April 2017 (UTC)

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368th Infantry
The 369th may have had a good press, but Negro soldiers served with other units as well, including the all-black 368th, which fought with the French Army against the Germans. BeenAroundAWhile (talk) 14:15, 9 January 2019 (UTC)

sabaton song
the heavy metal band sabaton released a song called hellfighters about die 369th. I personally think that the song should be edited to the side. 2A02:3030:40E:686B:1:0:5D86:4EA0 (talk) 05:41, 14 April 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Black American Music
— Assignment last updated by Isha0323 (talk) 19:31, 27 November 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Nail (anatomy)

A nail is a protective plate characteristically found at the tip of the digits (fingers and toes) of all primates, corresponding to the claws in other tetrapod animals. Fingernails and toenails are made of a tough rigid protein called alpha-keratin, a polymer also found in the claws, hooves and horns of vertebrates.

Structure

The nail consists of the nail plate, the nail matrix and the nail bed below it, and the grooves surrounding it.

Parts of the nail
The nail matrix is the active tissue (or germinal matrix) that generates cells. The cells harden as they move outward from the nail root to the nail plate. The nail matrix is also known as the matrix unguis, keratogenous membrane, or onychostroma. It is the part of the nail bed that is beneath the nail and contains nerves, lymph and blood vessels. The matrix produces cells that become the nail plate. The width and thickness of the nail plate is determined by the size, length, and thickness of the matrix, while the shape of the fingertip bone determines if the nail plate is flat, arched, or hooked. The matrix will continue to produce cells as long as it receives nutrition and remains in a healthy condition. As new nail plate cells are made, they push older nail plate cells forward; and in this way older cells become compressed, flat, and translucent. This makes the capillaries in the nail bed below visible, resulting in a pink color.

The lunula ("small moon") is the visible part of the matrix, the whitish crescent-shaped base of the visible nail. The lunula can best be seen in the thumb and may not be visible in the little finger. The lunula appears white due to a reflection of light at the point where the nail matrix and nail bed meet.

The nail bed is the skin beneath the nail plate. It is the area of the nail on which the nail plate rests. Nerves and blood vessels found here supply nourishment to the entire nail unit. Like all skin, it is made of two types of tissues: the dermis and the epidermis. The epidermis is attached to the dermis by tiny longitudinal "grooves" called matrix crests (cristae matricis unguis). In old age, the nail plate becomes thinner, and these grooves become more visible. The nail bed is highly innervated, and removal of the nail plate is often excruciatingly painful as a result.

The nail sinus (sinus unguis) is where the nail root is; i.e. the base of the nail underneath the skin. It originates from the actively growing tissue below, the matrix.

The nail plate (corpus unguis) sometimes referred to as the nail body, is the visible hard nail area from the nail root to the free edge, made of translucent keratin protein. Several layers of dead, compacted cells cause the nail to be strong but flexible. Its (transverse) shape is determined by the form of the underlying bone. In common usage, the word nail often refers to this part only. The nail plate is strongly attached to the nail bed and does not contain any nerves or blood vessels.

The free margin (margo liber) or distal edge is the anterior margin of the nail plate corresponds to the abrasive or cutting edge of the nail. The hyponychium (informally known as the "quick") is the epithelium located beneath the nail plate at the junction between the free edge and the skin of the fingertip. It forms a seal that protects the nail bed. The onychodermal band is the seal between the nail plate and the hyponychium. It is just under the free edge, in that portion of the nail where the nail bed ends and can be recognized in fair-skinned people by its glassy, greyish colour. It is not visible in some individuals while it is highly prominent on others.

Eponychium
Together, the eponychium and the cuticle form a protective seal. The cuticle is the semi-circular layer of almost invisible dead skin cells that "ride out on" and cover the back of the visible nail plate. The eponychium is the fold of skin cells that produces the cuticle. They are continuous, and some references view them as one entity. (Thus the names eponychium, cuticle, and perionychium would be synonymous, although a distinction is still drawn here.) It is the cuticle (nonliving part) that is removed during a manicure, but the eponychium (living part) should not be touched due to risk of infection. The eponychium is a small band of living cells (epithelium) that extends from the posterior nail wall onto the base of the nail. The eponychium is the end of the proximal fold that folds back upon itself to shed an epidermal layer of skin onto the newly formed nail plate. The perionyx is the projecting edge of the eponychium covering the proximal strip of the lunula.

The nail wall (vallum unguis) is the cutaneous fold overlapping the sides and proximal end of the nail. The lateral margin (margo lateralis) lies beneath the nail wall on the sides of the nail, and the nail groove or fold (sulcus matricis unguis) are the cutaneous slits into which the lateral margins are embedded.

Paronychium
The paronychium is the soft tissue border around the nail, and paronychia is an infection in this area. The paronychium is the skin that overlaps onto the sides of the nail plate, also known as the paronychial edge. The paronychium is the site of hangnails, ingrown nails, and paronychia, a skin infection.

Hyponychium
The hyponychium is the area of epithelium, particularly the thickened portion, underlying the free edge of the nail plate. It is sometimes called the "quick", as in the phrase "cutting to the quick".

Function
A healthy fingernail has the function of protecting the distal phalanx, the fingertip, and the surrounding soft tissues from injuries. It also serves to enhance precise delicate movements of the distal digits through counter-pressure exerted on the pulp of the finger. The nail then acts as a counter-force when the end of the finger touches an object, thereby enhancing the sensitivity of the fingertip, although the nail itself has no nerve endings. Finally, the nail functions as a tool enabling a so-called "extended precision grip" (e.g., pulling out a splinter in one's finger), and certain cutting or scraping actions.

Growth
The growing part of the nail is under the skin at the nail's proximal end under the epidermis, which is the only living part of a nail.

In mammals, the growth rate of nails is related to the length of the terminal phalanges (outermost finger bones). Thus, in humans, the nail of the index finger grows faster than that of the little finger; and fingernails grow up to four times faster than toenails.

In humans, fingernails grow at an average rate of approx. 3.5 mm a month, whereas toenails grow about half as fast (approx. average 1.6 mm a month). Fingernails require three to six months to regrow completely, and toenails require twelve to eighteen months. Actual growth rate is dependent upon age, sex, season, exercise level, diet, and hereditary factors. The longest female nails known ever to have existed measured a total of 8.65 m (28 ft 4.5 in). Contrary to popular belief, nails do not continue to grow after death; the skin dehydrates and tightens, making the nails (and hair) appear to grow.

Permeability
The nail is often considered an impermeable barrier, but this is not true. In fact, it is much more permeable than the skin, and the composition of the nail includes 7–12% water. This permeability has implications for penetration by harmful and medicinal substances; in particular cosmetics applied to the nails can pose a risk. Water can penetrate the nail as can many other substances including paraquat, a fast acting herbicide that is harmful to humans, urea which is often an ingredient in creams and lotions meant for use on hands and fingers, and several fungicidal agents such as salicylic acid, miconazole branded Monistat, natamycin; and sodium hypochlorite which is the active ingredient in common household bleach (but usually only in 2–3% concentration).

Clinical significance
Healthcare and pre-hospital-care providers (EMTs or paramedics) often use the fingernail beds as a cursory indicator of distal tissue perfusion of individuals who may be dehydrated or in shock. However, this test is not considered reliable in adults. This is known as the CRT or blanch test. The fingernail bed is briefly depressed to turn the nail-bed white. When the pressure is released, the normal pink colour should be restored within a second or two. Delayed return to pink color can be an indicator of certain shock states such as hypovolemia.

Nail growth record can show the history of recent health and physiological imbalances, and has been used as a diagnostic tool since ancient times. Deep, horizontally transverse grooves known as "Beau's lines" may form across the nails (horizontal, not along the nail from cuticle to tip). These lines are usually a natural consequence of aging, although they may result from disease. Discoloration, thinning, thickening, brittleness, splitting, grooves, Mees' lines, small white spots, receded lunula, clubbing (convex), flatness, and spooning (concave) can indicate illness in other areas of the body, nutrient deficiencies, drug reaction or poisoning, or merely local injury.

Nails can also become thickened (onychogryphosis), loosened (onycholysis), infected with fungus (onychomycosis), or degenerate (onychodystrophy). A common nail disorder is an ingrowing toenail (onychocryptosis).

DNA profiling is a technique employed by forensic scientists on hair, fingernails, toenails, etc.

Health and care
The best way to care for nails is to trim them regularly. Filing is also recommended, as to keep nails from becoming too rough and to remove any small bumps or ridges that may cause the nail to get tangled up in materials such as cloth.

Bluish or purple fingernail beds may be a symptom of peripheral cyanosis, which indicates oxygen deprivation.

Nails can dry out, just like skin. They can also peel, break, and be infected. Toe infections, for instance, can be caused or exacerbated by dirty socks, specific types of aggressive exercise (long-distance running), tight footwear, and walking unprotected in an unclean environment. Common organisms causing nail infections include yeasts and molds (particularly dermatophytes).

Nail tools used by different people may transmit infections. Standard hygiene and sanitation procedures avoid transmission. In some cases, gel and cream cuticle removers can be used instead of cuticle scissors.

Nail disease can be very subtle and should be evaluated by a dermatologist with a focus in this particular area of medicine. However, most times it is a nail stylist who will note a subtle change in nail disease.

Inherited accessory nail of the fifth toe occurs where the toenail of the smallest toe is separated, forming a smaller "sixth toenail" in the outer corner of the nail. Like any other nail, it can be cut using a nail clipper.

Effect of nutrition
Biotin-rich foods and supplements may help strengthen brittle fingernails.

Vitamin A is an essential micronutrient for vision, reproduction, cell and tissue differentiation, and immune function. Vitamin D and calcium work together in cases of maintaining homeostasis, creating muscle contraction, transmission of nerve pulses, blood clotting, and membrane structure. A lack of vitamin A, vitamin D, or calcium can cause dryness and brittleness.

Insufficient vitamin B12 can lead to excessive dryness, darkened nails, and rounded or curved nail ends. Insufficient intake of both vitamin A and B results in fragile nails with horizontal and vertical ridges. Some over-the-counter vitamin supplements such as certain multivitamins and biotin may help in growth of strong nails, although this is quite subjective. Both vitamin B12 and folate play a role in red blood cell production and oxygen transportation to nail cells. Inadequacies can result in discoloration of the nails.

Diminished dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids may contribute to dry and brittle nails.

Protein is a building material for new nails; therefore, low dietary protein intake may cause anemia and the resultant reduced hemoglobin in the blood filling the capillaries of the nail bed reflects varying amounts of light incident on the nail matrix resulting in lighter shades of pink ultimately resulting in white nail beds when the hemoglobin is very low. When hemoglobin is close to 15 or 16 grams, most of the spectrum of light is absorbed and only the pink color is reflected back and the nails look pink.

Essential fatty acids play a large role in healthy skin as well as nails. Splitting and flaking of nails may be due to a lack of linoleic acid.

Iron-deficiency anemia can lead to a pale color along with a thin, brittle, ridged texture. Iron deficiency in general may cause the nails to become flat or concave, rather than convex. As oxygen is needed for healthy nails, an iron deficiency or anemia can lead to vertical ridges or concavity in the nails. RDAs for iron vary considerably depending on age and gender. The recommendation for men is 8 mg per day, while that of women aged 19–50 is 18 mg per day. After women hit age 50 or go through menopause, their iron needs drop to 8 mg daily.

Fashion
Manicures (for the hands) and pedicures (for the feet) are health and cosmetic procedures to groom, trim, and paint the nails and manage calluses. They require various tools such as cuticle scissors, nail scissors, nail clippers, and nail files. Artificial nails can also be fixed onto real nails for cosmetic purposes.

A person whose occupation is to cut, shape and care for nails as well as to apply overlays such as acrylic and UV gel is sometimes called a nail stylist. The place where a nail stylist works may be a nail salon or nail shop or nail bar.

Acrylic nails are made out of acrylic glass (PMMA). When it is mixed with a liquid monomer (usually ethyl methacrylate mixed with some inhibitor) it forms a malleable bead. This mixture begins to cure immediately, continuing until completely solid in minutes. Acrylic nails can last up to 21 days but can last longer with touch-ups. To give acrylic nails color, gel polish, nail polish, and dip powders can be applied.

Painting the nails with colored nail polish (also called nail lacquer and nail varnish) to improve the appearance is a common practice dating back to at least 3000 B.C. Gel nails can be utilized in order to create artificial nail extensions, but can also be used like nail polish. They are hardened using ultraviolet light. They last longer than regular nail polish and do not chip. They have a high-gloss finish and last for two to three weeks.

Nail wraps are formed by cutting pieces of fiberglass, linen, silk fabric, or another material to fit on the surface of the nail (or a tip attached prior), to be sealed onto the nail plate with a layer of resin or glue. They do not damage the nail and also provide strength to the nail but are not used to lengthen it. It can also be used to fix broken nails. The treatment is however more expensive.

With the dip powder method, a clear liquid is brushed onto a nail and the nail is then placed into pigmented powder. Dip nails tend to last about a month, 2–3 weeks longer than gel and acrylic nails. It can be worn on natural nails, or with tips to create an artificial nail. Dip powder nails do not require any UV/LED light to be cured, instead they are sealed using an activator. The quickest way to remove dip powder is to drill, clip off, or buff out layers of the powder so, when they are soaking in acetone, they slide right off.

Length records
Guinness World Records began tracking record fingernail lengths in 1955, when a Chinese priest was listed as having fingernails 1 ft long.

The current record-holder for men, according to Guinness, is Shridhar Chillal from India who set the record in 1998 with a total of 20 ft of nails on his left hand. His longest nail, on his thumb, was 4 ft long.

The record-holder for women is Lee Redmond of the U.S., who set the record in 2001 and as of 2008 had nails with a total length on both hands of 28 ft, with the longest nail on her right thumb at 2 ft.

Evolution in primates
The nail is an unguis, meaning a keratin structure at the end of a digit. Other examples of ungues include the claw, hoof, and talon. The nails of primates and the hooves of running mammals evolved from the claws of earlier animals.

In contrast to nails, claws are typically curved ventrally (downwards in animals) and compressed sideways. They serve a multitude of functions—including climbing, digging, and fighting—and have undergone numerous adaptive changes in different animal taxa. Claws are pointed at their ends and are composed of two layers: a thick, deep layer and a superficial, hardened layer which serves a protective function. The underlying bone is a virtual mold of the overlying horny structure and therefore has the same shape as the claw or nail. Compared to claws, nails are flat, less curved, and do not extend far beyond the tip of the digits. The ends of the nails usually consist only of the "superficial", hardened layer and are not pointed like claws.

With only a few exceptions, primates retain plesiomorphic (original, "primitive") hands with five digits, each equipped with either a nail or a claw. For example, nearly all living strepsirrhine primates have nails on all digits except the second toe which is equipped with a grooming claw. Tarsiers have a grooming claw on second and third toes. Less commonly known, a grooming claw is also found on the second pedal digit of owl monkeys (Aotus), titis (Callicebus), and possibly other New World monkeys. The needle-clawed bushbaby (Euoticus) has keeled nails (the thumb and the first and the second toes have claws) featuring a central ridge that ends in a needle-like tip.

A study of the fingertip morphology of four small-bodied New World monkey species indicated a correlation between increasing small-branch foraging and: This suggests that whereas claws are useful on large-diameter branches, wide fingertips with nails and epidermal ridges were required for habitual locomotion on small-diameter branches. It also indicates keel-shaped nails of Callitrichines (a family of New World monkeys) is a derived postural adaptation rather than retained ancestral condition.
 * 1) expanded apical pads (fingertips),
 * 2) developed epidermal ridges (fingerprints),
 * 3) broadened distal parts of distal phalanges (fingertip bones), and
 * 4) reduced flexor and extensor tubercles (attachment areas for finger muscles on bones).

title: Nail (anatomy)


text:
James Wilkinson

James Wilkinson (March 24, 1757 – December 28, 1825) was an American soldier, politician, and Spanish secret agent #13, who was associated with several scandals and controversies.

He served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, but he was twice compelled to resign. He was twice the Senior Officer of the U.S. Army, appointed to be the first Governor of the Louisiana Territory in 1805, and commanded two unsuccessful campaigns in the St. Lawrence River theater during the War of 1812. He died while seeking to serve as a diplomat in Mexico City.

In 1854, following extensive archival research in the Spanish archives in Madrid, Louisiana historian Charles Gayarré exposed Wilkinson as having been a highly paid spy in the service of the Spanish Empire. In the years since Gayarré's research became public, Wilkinson has been savagely condemned by American historians and politicians. According to President Theodore Roosevelt, "[I]n all our history, there is no more despicable character." However, he has been defended, especially in breaking up the Burr conspiracy.

Early life
James Wilkinson was born on March 24, 1757, the son of Joseph Wilkinson and Alethea (Heighe) Wilkinson. Wilkinson's birthplace was about three miles (5 km) northeast of Benedict, Charles County, Maryland, on a farm south of Hunting Creek in Calvert County.

Wilkinson's grandfather had been sufficiently wealthy to buy a large property known as Stoakley Manor in Calvert County. Even though James Wilkinson's family lived on a smaller estate than those of Maryland's elite, they still saw themselves as members of the higher social class. According to historian Andro Linklater, Wilkinson grew up with the idea that "the image of respectability excused the reality of betrayal". His father inherited Stoakley Manor but by then the family was in debt. Joseph Wilkinson died in 1763 and in 1764 Stoakley Manor was broken up and sold. Wilkinson's older brother Joseph inherited what was left of the manor property after his father died. As the second son, James Wilkinson inherited no land.

Wilkinson's father had left him with the last words "My son, if you ever put up with an insult, I will disinherit you." Biographer Andro Linklater argued that this upbringing led to Wilkinson's aggressive reaction toward perceived insults. Wilkinson's early education by a private tutor was funded by his maternal grandmother. His study of medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, also funded by his grandmother, was interrupted by the American Revolutionary War.

Marriages
Wilkinson married Ann Biddle (1742–1807) of the prominent Biddle family of Philadelphia on November 12, 1778, in Philadelphia. She was a first cousin of Charles Biddle, an associate of Aaron Burr, and Wilkinson's marriage to the dynamic Biddle helped his career as a politician and general. She died on February 23, 1807.

The couple had four sons: John (1780–1796), James Biddle (c. 1783–1813), Joseph Biddle (1785 –1865), and Walter (born 1791). James and Walter both served as Captains in the U.S. Army.

On March 5, 1810, Wilkinson married Celestine Laveau Trudeau, widow of Thomas Urquhart and daughter of Charles Laveau Trudeau. They were the parents of twin girls Marie Isabel and Elizabeth Stephanie as well as a son, Theodore. Celestine's father, known in Louisiana as Don Carlos Trudeau, had served in the Spanish government of New Orleans. When the United States gained control of the city, he remained in New Orleans and anglicized his name.

Marie Isabel Wilkinson died in infancy. Elizabeth Stephanie Wilkinson (1816–1871) married Professor Toussaint Francois Bigot (1794–1869) in 1833. Theodore J. Wilkinson (1819–1853) resided in New Orleans.

Revolutionary War service
Wilkinson first served in Thompson's Pennsylvania rifle battalion, 1775–76, and was commissioned a captain in September 1775. He served as an aide to Nathanael Greene during the Siege of Boston, participated in the placing of guns on the Dorchester Heights in March 1776, and following the British abandonment of Boston, went with the rest of the Continental Army to New York where he left Greene's staff and was given command of an infantry company.

Sent to Canada as part of the reinforcements for Benedict Arnold's army besieging Quebec, he arrived just in time to witness the arrival of 8,000 British reinforcements under General John Burgoyne – which precipitated the collapse of the American effort in Canada. He became aide to Arnold just prior to the final retreat and left Canada with Arnold on the very last boat out. Shortly thereafter, he left Arnold's service and became an aide to General Horatio Gates in August 1776.

When Gates sent him to Congress with official dispatches about the victory at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777, Wilkinson kept the Continental Congress waiting while he attended to personal affairs. When he finally showed up, he embellished his own role in the victory, and was brevetted as a brigadier general (despite being only 20 years old at the time) on November 6, 1777, and appointed to the newly created Board of War. The promotion over more senior colonels caused an uproar among Continental officers, especially because Wilkinson's gossiping seemed to indicate he was a participant in the Conway Cabal, a conspiracy to replace George Washington with Horatio Gates as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. Gates soon had enough of Wilkinson, and the young officer was compelled to resign in March 1778. On July 29, 1779, Congress appointed him clothier-general of the Army, but he resigned on March 27, 1781, due to his "lack of aptitude for the job".

Kentucky ventures
After his resignation from the Continental Army, Wilkinson reluctantly became a brigadier general in the Pennsylvania militia in 1782 and also a state assemblyman in 1783, due to the wishes of George Washington. He moved to Kentucky (at that time, just three counties still belonging to Virginia) in 1784, and he was active there in efforts to achieve independence from Virginia. In Kentucky, Wilkinson in 1788 vigorously opposed the new U.S. Constitution. Kentucky had very nearly achieved statehood under the old Articles of Confederation, and there was widespread disappointment when this was delayed because of the new constitution.

Leading up to Kentucky's seventh convention regarding separation from Virginia in November 1788, Wilkinson attempted to gauge the support for Kentucky to seek union with Spain. Wilkinson's ability to win people over with his charm and seeming sincerity got him elected committee chairman at the convention. He advocated for Kentucky to seek independence from Virginia first, and then to consider joining the Union of states as a second step. For many, joining the Union was conditional upon the Union negotiating with Spain to arrange free navigation on the Mississippi River, a contentious point which many doubted the eastern states would act upon.

Unable to gather enough support for his position at the convention, Wilkinson then approached Miró with a proposal. His intention was to obtain a grant of 60,000 acres (243 km2) in the Yazoo lands, at the junction of the Yazoo River and the Mississippi (near present-day Vicksburg). The land was to serve as payment for Wilkinson's efforts on behalf of Spain, and to serve as a refuge in the event he and his supporters had to flee from the United States. Wilkinson asked for and received a pension of $7,000 from Miró, while requesting pensions on behalf of several prominent Kentuckians, including: Harry Innes, Benjamin Sebastian, John Brown, Caleb Wallace, Benjamin Logan, Isaac Shelby, George Muter, George Nicholas, and even Humphrey Marshall (who at one time was a bitter rival of Wilkinson's).

However, by 1788 Wilkinson had apparently lost the confidence of officials in Spain. Miró was not to grant any of the proposed pensions and was forbidden from giving money to support a revolution in Kentucky. Furthermore, Wilkinson continued to secretly receive funds from Spain for many years.

Northwest Indian War
In May 1791, Lieutenant Colonel James Wilkinson led a subsequent raid that August, intended to create a distraction that would aid St. Clair's march north. In the Battle of Kenapacomaqua, Wilkinson killed 9 Wea and Miami, and captured 34 Miami as prisoners, including a daughter of Miami war chief Little Turtle. Many of the confederation leaders were considering terms of peace to present to the United States, but when they received news of Wilkinson's raid, they readied for war. Wilkinson's raid thus had the opposite effect, uniting the tribes against St. Clair instead of distracting them. St. Clair's horrific defeat would take place shortly after.

Betrayal of Wayne
When the United States government reorganized the Army as the Legion of the United States, President George Washington was faced with the decision of whom to name as its commanding general. The two major candidates for this promotion were Wilkinson and Anthony Wayne. In the end, the cabinet chose Wayne due to Wilkinson's suspected involvement with the Spanish government. The cabinet promoted Wilkinson to brigadier general as consolation, since the President was aware of Wilkinson's fragile ego.

Wilkinson developed a jealousy of Wayne, but he maintained an ostensible respect toward the general. Throughout the Ohio campaign, Wilkinson secretly tried to undermine him. Wilkinson wrote anonymous negative letters to local newspapers about Wayne and spent years writing negative letters to politicians in D.C. Wilkinson also urged contractors not to perform, in the hope that Wayne's campaign would fail and that he would be appointed to replace Wayne. Wilkinson's refusal of an invitation to Wayne's Christmas party also created suspicion. Wayne eventually developed a full-fledged hatred for Wilkinson, after receiving a tip from Henry Knox. In August 1794, Wayne had led the Legion against the Indians in the Battle of Fallen Timbers; the battle was a significant victory for the United States, yet Wilkinson had criticized Wayne's actions during the battle, simply to antagonize him.

Wilkinson proceeded to file formal complaints against Wayne and his decisions to President Washington. Upon finding out about the complaints against him, Wayne decided to launch an investigation into Wilkinson's history with the Spanish. During all of this time, Wilkinson had renewed his secret alliance with the Spanish government (through the Governor of Louisiana Francisco Luis Héctor de Carondelet), alerting them to the actions of both the US and the French occupancy in North America. When Spanish couriers were intercepted carrying payments for Wilkinson, Wayne's suspicions were confirmed and he attempted to court martial Wilkinson for his treachery. However, Wayne developed a stomach ulcer and died on December 15, 1796; there was no court-martial. Instead, Wilkinson began his first tenure as Senior Officer of the Army, which lasted for about a year and a half. He continued to pass on intelligence to the Spanish in return for large sums in gold, but most of his information was of little value. Wilkinson claimed credit for undermining George Rogers Clark plan to become "Major General in the Armies of France and Commander-in-chief of the French Revolutionary Legion on the Mississippi River" and for preventing supplies from being shipped down the Ohio River. He submitted receipts of $8,640 to Spanish Governor Carondelet for his efforts.

Quasi-War with France
Wilkinson was transferred to the southern frontier in 1798. During the Quasi-War crisis of the late 1790s between France and the United States, he was given the third-place rank in the U.S. Army behind George Washington (who, having been succeeded as president by Adams, died in December 1799) and Alexander Hamilton. Among other duties, Wilkinson was charged by Hamilton with establishing a "Reserve Corps" of American troops in the lower Ohio River Valley, who would seize the lower Mississippi River Valley and New Orleans in the event of war with France and her ally Spain.

Despite the end of the crisis in mid-1800 and Hamilton being discharged from the Army, Wilkinson, for unknown reasons, continued the plan for the establishment of the base which he named "Cantonment Wilkinson" after himself. Located in the Indiana Territory (now southern Illinois), the base operated from January 1801 to late 1802 before finally being abandoned. Archaeologists from Southern Illinois University have located the remains of this base, which is producing much previously unknown information and artifacts from the daily life of the frontier army.

Wilkinson served his second, longer term as Senior Officer of the Army from June 15, 1800, until January 27, 1812, when former Secretary of War Henry Dearborn was promoted to major general over Wilkinson.

On 30 April 1801, Wilkinson issued an order to remove all queues or pigtails, which had been worn in the army since the Revolution. This order was highly unpopular with both officers and men, leading to several desertions and threats of resignation. One senior officer, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Butler, was eventually court martialed in 1803 for failing to cut his hair.

Service under President Jefferson
Wilkinson remained senior officer of the United States Army under President Thomas Jefferson. Along with Mississippi Territorial and the newly named Orleans Territorial Governor William C. C. Claiborne, Wilkinson shared the honor of taking possession of the Louisiana Purchase on behalf of the United States on December 20, 1803. At this time, Wilkinson renewed his treasonous relationship with Spanish colonial officials, offering advice to them on how to contain American expansion in exchange for the restoration of his pension. Among other things, Wilkinson tipped off the Spanish to the object of the Lewis and Clark Expedition and provided advice to the Marquess of Casa Calvo to aid in his negotiations over the Texas–Louisiana border. Wilkinson also provided advice to the Spanish on how to intercept at least two other Jefferson sponsored expeditions to explore the Louisiana Purchase.

Territorial Governor of Louisiana
Wilkinson was appointed by President Jefferson to be the first Governor of Louisiana Territory in the spring of 1805 with an additional salary of $2,000. His secretary, Dr. Joseph Brown, was the brother-in-law of Vice President Aaron Burr, and they were headquartered in St. Louis.

Connections with Aaron Burr
In 1804–05, Wilkinson met in person with Aaron Burr, and they exchanged letters regarding Burr's conspiracy. After Burr's arrest, he claimed he was leading a group of settlers to take up residence on land in Texas which he had leased from the Spanish government in Mexico. The government charged Burr with treason and claimed he intended to separate the then-western states and territories from the United States and establish an independent nation.

Since Wilkinson was both the senior brigadier general of the United States Army and the Louisiana governor, Burr cultivated his support. In 1806 Burr is supposed to have sent a coded, unsigned letter (the "Cipher Letter", which Burr later denied having written) to Wilkinson, which stated that he was ready to commence his movement to Texas. Burr's subsequent efforts to recruit participants in his plans became public, raising fears that he was conspiring with England to start a war with Spain. Wilkinson became fearful that his role in Burr's plans and/or his spying for Spain would be exposed. In October 1806 Wilkinson sent to President Jefferson a letter in which he painted Burr's actions in the worst possible light, while portraying himself as innocent of any involvement. Jefferson ordered Burr's arrest, and Burr was apprehended near Natchez, Mississippi.

Wilkinson testified at Burr's trial, and the documents presented as evidence included the "cipher letter", which Wilkinson had given the prosecution. However, the letter was clearly altered to minimize Wilkinson's culpability. This forgery, coupled with Wilkinson's obviously self-serving testimony, had the effect of making Burr seem to be the victim of an overzealous government. The grand jury nearly produced enough votes in favor of indicting Wilkinson for misprision of treason, and foreman John Randolph said of Wilkinson that he was a "mammoth of iniquity", the "most finished scoundrel", and "the only man I ever saw who was from the bark to the very core a villain."

During Burr's trial, Wilkinson placed New Orleans under martial law, against the will of Governor Claiborne, and imprisoned several people whom he thought may be able to connect him to Burr, along with attorneys who tried to defend them.

He was removed from the Territorial Governor's office after being publicly criticized for heavy-handed administration and abuse of power (and replaced with Meriwether Lewis). In addition, his actions around the Burr conspiracy became public, which aroused the public against him and led to two Congressional inquiries into his private ventures and intrigues. President James Madison, who had succeeded Jefferson in 1809, ordered a military court-martial in 1811, which exonerated Wilkinson.

War of 1812
On March 2, 1813, Wilkinson was commissioned a major general during the War of 1812 with Britain, with whom Spain was allied. The Mobile District, now coastal Mississippi and Alabama, had remained under Spanish control following the U.S. annexation of the Republic of West Florida in 1810. On May 14, 1812, the claimed portion of West Florida east of the Pearl River was assigned to the Mississippi Territory, though at the time, the area around Mobile Bay remained under the control of Spanish Florida. Following that Congressional declaration of annexation, and an act of February 12, 1813, (3 Stat. L. 472) authorizing the President to occupy that area, Wilkinson sailed from New Orleans to Mobile in April 1813 with a force of 600. There he received the surrender of the Spanish commander, effectively implementing the inclusion of the Mobile District in the Mississippi Territory.

He was then assigned to the St. Lawrence River theater of war, following Henry Dearborn's reassignment. Wilkinson engaged in two failed campaigns (the Battle of Crysler's Farm and the Second Battle of Lacolle Mills. He was relieved from active duty and court-martialed in early 1815, but he was ultimately cleared. He was discharged from the Army on June 15, 1815. In 1816, Wilkinson published Memoirs of My Own Times, in a final attempt to clear his name.

General Wilkinson may not have been a competent commander in conventional operations in the Battle of Crysler's Farm and the Battle of Lacolle Mills, but he excelled at guerrilla warfare tactics. Before the Battle of Bladensburg, General Wilkinson helped conceive a strategy of using the militia dominated forces as guerrilla fighters against the incoming British attack on the Capitol. Wilkinson and other American commanders tried to convince the American government to use all the militia in hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, and harassment against the British forces by the flanks and rear. But President James Madison and James Monroe disapproved of the plan. Madison and Monroe wanted to fight a set piece battle by placing the militia in linear defensive formations to fight the British head on. This led to ultimate disaster and defeat as the British easily routed the militia and burned the Capitol.

Spanish Secret Agent
In April 1787, Wilkinson made a highly controversial trip to New Orleans, which was the capital of Spanish colonial Louisiana. At that time, Americans were allowed to trade on the Mississippi River, but they had to pay a hefty tariff. Wilkinson met with Spanish Governor Esteban Rodríguez Miró and managed to convince him to allow Kentucky to have a trading monopoly on the River; in return he promised to promote Spanish interests in the west. On August 22, 1787, Wilkinson signed an expatriation declaration and swore allegiance to the King of Spain to satisfy his own commercial needs. The "Spanish Conspiracy", as it is known, was initiated by Wilkinson's "First Memorial", a 7,500-word report written before he left New Orleans for Charleston, to the Spanish concerning the "political future of western settlers" and to convince Spain to "admit us [Kentuckians] under protection as vassals". This was encoded with myriad symbols, numbers, and letters that was decoded via a complex English-Spanish cipher code-named "Number 13", which became the basis for his pseudonym, "Agent 13". Wilkinson's involvement with the Spanish (as Agent 13) was widely suspected in his own day, and it was proved in 1854, with Louisiana historian Charles Gayarré's publication of the American general's correspondence with Esteban Rodríguez Miró, Louisiana's colonial governor between 1785 and 1791.

Last years
After the end of his military career, Wilkinson unsuccessfully sought to be appointed as U.S. Envoy to Mexico. This was during the period of the Mexican War of Independence against Spain, which was won in 1821. In that year, Wilkinson requested a Texas land grant. While awaiting the Mexican government's approval of his land scheme, Wilkinson died in Mexico City on December 28, 1825, at the age of 68. He was buried in Mexico City.

Later view
Some 65 years after the general's misdeeds, then-Governor of New York, Theodore Roosevelt, condemned him in print: "In all our history, there is no more despicable character." Historian Robert Leckie characterized him as "a general who never won a battle or lost a court-martial", while Frederick Jackson Turner called Wilkinson "the most consummate artist in treason that the nation ever possessed". George Rogers Clark biographer Temple Bodley said of Wilkinson, "He had considerable military talent, but used it only for his own gain." It has been speculated but never proven that Wilkinson had Anthony Wayne assassinated by poison. Wilkinson is documented secretly undermining him throughout his later career, benefited from his death, and would replace him as commander after his death.

Legacy

 * Frankfort, Kentucky's downtown was created from land owned by Wilkinson, and he designed the layout. A major street, which runs along historic Liberty Hall, was named Wilkinson Street.
 * New Orleans has a short street called Wilkinson named for James Wilkinson, in the French Quarter near Jackson Square. There is also a Wilkinson Street in Mandeville, Louisiana. Many of the oldest streets in Mandeville, close to Lake Pontchartrain, are named after prominent New Orleans residents of the late 18th and early 19th centuries or for Battle of New Orleans heroes.
 * Wilkinson County, Georgia, is named for Wilkinson. A Georgia historical marker on the courthouse square gives a brief biography of the general and identifies him as the source of the county's name. (The entry on the county in the usually reliable reference Georgia Place Names, by the late Kenneth Krakow, confuses James Wilkinson with James Marion Wilkinson, a Valdosta politician and railroad executive who was born decades after the county was founded.)
 * Wilkinson County, Mississippi, is named for General Wilkinson as well. It was there in the Old Natchez District that Wilkinson spent much of his time, allegedly plotting the Burr Conspiracy; Fort Adams (then an important U.S. Army post) was constructed by Wilkinson as the most southwesterly point in the U.S. and the last American stop on the Mississippi River before entering Spanish territory.
 * Wilkinson was an avid supporter of the military's short-hair codes. He attempted to prosecute Colonel Thomas Butler, a veteran of both the Revolution and the Indian wars, for keeping his long hair. Colonel Butler died before the trials closed. He never did cut his long, braided queue prior to his death and a possibly apocryphal story tells that his last request was for a hole to be drilled in his casket so that the queue could hang out and taunt Wilkinson even in death.
 * Wilkinson was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1789.

title: James Wilkinson


text:
William Holmes McGuffey

William Holmes McGuffey (September 23, 1800 – May 4, 1873) was an American college professor and president who is best known for writing the McGuffey Readers, the first widely used series of elementary school-level textbooks. More than 120 million copies of McGuffey Readers were sold between 1836 and 1960, placing its sales in a category with the Bible and Webster's Dictionary.

Early years
William Holmes McGuffey, born September 23, 1800, was the son of Alexander and Anna (Holmes) McGuffey near Claysville in West Finley Township, Washington County, Pennsylvania, which is 45 miles southwest of Pittsburgh. His family, who had strong opinions about education and religion, immigrated from Scotland to the United States in 1774. In 1802, the McGuffey family moved farther out into the frontier at Tuscarawas County, Ohio. He attended country school, and after receiving special instruction at Youngstown, he attended Greersburg Academy in Darlington, Pennsylvania.

Early career and college education
At the age of 14, he was a roving instructor in a one-room schoolhouse in Calcutta, Ohio. He traveled through the frontier of Ohio, Kentucky, and western Pennsylvania. He was "one of an army of half-educated young men who tramped the roads and trails drumming up 'subscription scholars'." His students generally brought their Bibles, because there were few textbooks at that time. He taught children from the age of six to twenty-one. He taught in frontier schools, often eleven hours a day and six days a week.

In between jobs as a teacher, he attended and graduated in 1826 from Pennsylvania's Washington College, where he became an instructor. He was close friends with Washington College's President Andrew Wylie and lived in Wylie's house for a time; they often would walk the three miles to Washington College together.

Career and life
McGuffey left Washington College in 1826 to become a professor of ancient languages at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. In 1832, he was transferred to the chair of moral philosophy.

In 1829, he was licensed as a minister in the Presbyterian Church at Bethel Chapel. He preached frequently during the remainder of his life.

Truman and Smith, a Cincinnati publisher, wanted to publish a series of four graded readers for schoolchildren. Based upon a recommendation from Harriet Beecher Stowe, they hired McGuffey. His brother Alexander Hamilton McGuffey wrote the fifth and sixth readers for the McGuffey Readers series. His books sold over 120 million copies and still continue to be used for homeschooling. In 1836, he left Miami to become president of Cincinnati College, where he also served as a distinguished teacher and lecturer. He left Cincinnati in 1839 to become the 4th president of Ohio University, which he left in 1843 to become president of what was then called the Woodward Free Grammar School in Cincinnati, one of the country's earliest public schools.

From 1843 to 1845, he was a professor in Woodward College in Cincinnati. While in Cincinnati he began the preparation of an "Eclectic" series of readers and spellers, which became popular, and have been many times revised and reissued. From 1845 till his death, he occupied the chair of moral philosophy and political economy in the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, Virginia.

Personal life
He was married to Harriet Spinning of Dayton, Ohio, in 1827. They had five children, who were expected to act with submission and obedience, according to one of their daughter's diary. McGuffey believed in the importance of education and religion to live successful lives.

McGuffey and Harriet had as many as three slaves while at Virginia. One of these enslaved individuals was William Gibbons, who was hired out to them. Gibbons was literate. He was said to be self-taught and also said to have been instructed by McGuffey's daughter Maria. He later became a minister in Charlottesville and Washington, D.C.

Harriet was ill during the summer of 1850 and was taken to her parents' home in Woodside by McGuffey. Her health did not improve as hoped and she died on July 3. She was buried in Woodside Cemetery. He later married Miss Laura Howard, daughter of Dean Howard of the University of Virginia. They had one daughter, Anna. She died at the age of four.

During the American Civil War and the Reconstruction era, McGuffey was generous in his donations to the poor and African Americans. McGuffey died May 4, 1873, at the University of Virginia, and is buried in the University of Virginia Cemetery, in Charlottesville, Virginia.

Influences
McGuffey was Henry Ford's favorite author and was always proud of his exposure to McGuffey's teachings, which "reinforced an ordered, rigid, and straightforward view of the world where white was white and black was black".

Legacy
Named for William Holmes McGuffey's influential primers that first appeared in 1836 and remained in print until 1921, the McGuffey longevity awards recognize long-lived, still-in-use textbooks of excellence.

Places named after McGuffey:
 * The William H. McGuffey Primary School in Charlottesville, VA bears his name. The historic building is currently an artist-run cooperative arts center, currently known as the McGuffey Art Center. Enslaved workers of University of Virginia faculty, including the McGuffey household, lived in McGuffey Cottage, which is preserved behind Pavilion IX at the University of Virginia.
 * McGuffey High School and Middle School in Claysville, Pennsylvania. In 1998, the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission installed a historical marker noting McGuffey's historic importance.
 * Ohio University's Department of University Advancement is housed in a building named McGuffey Hall.
 * At Miami University, McGuffey Hall is a large academic building home to several education-related departments. The university ran the McGuffey Laboratory School from 1910 until 1983 on its campus. When the school closed, some of the parents started The William Holmes McGuffey School Foundation which operates an independent progressive school in Oxford called the McGuffey Foundation School. The school was later renamed the McGuffey Montessori School.
 * The McGuffey School District in Washington County, Pennsylvania is named for William Holmes McGuffey.
 * The McGuffey Wildlife Preserve in Coitsville, Ohio, is named for William Holmes McGuffey

title: William Holmes McGuffey


text:
Patrick Chamoiseau

Patrick Chamoiseau (born 3 December 1953) is a French author from Martinique known for his work in the créolité movement. His work spans a variety of forms and genres, including novels, essays, children's books, screenplays, theatre and comics. His novel Texaco was awarded the Prix Goncourt in 1992.

Biography
Chamoiseau was born on 3 December 1953 in Fort-de-France, Martinique, where he resides. After he studied law in Paris, France, he returned to Martinique, inspired by Édouard Glissant to take a close interest in Creole culture.

In 1981, Chamoiseau was the co-author, with Georges Puisy, of a historical work on the Antilles under the reign of Napoléon Bonaparte, Delgrès : les Antilles sous Bonaparte. In 1989, he was the co-author of Éloge de la créolité (In Praise of Creoleness) with Jean Bernabé and Raphaël Confiant.

Chamoiseau has received several awards. In 1990, he received the Prix Carbet for Antan d'enfance, the first book in an autobiographical trilogy collectively titled Une enfance créole. His 1992 novel Texaco has been described as "a masterpiece, the work of a genius, a novel that deserves to be known as much as Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth and Césaire's Return to My Native Land." In 1999, Chamoiseau was honoured with a Prince Claus Award for his contribution to Caribbean society.

Chamoiseau's writing style has sometimes been compared to that of Louis-Ferdinand Céline, for how they explore the relationship between the written and the oral.

Masculinity versus femininity
The dynamics and relationship between men and women have been a long-time subject of literature in the Caribbean. The concept of "masculinity" versus "femininity" is a literary theme indicative of Caribbean literature. Patrick Chamoiseau, like many other authors from the Caribbean, uses this theme in many of his literary works. However, as there are a larger number of male writers that come out of the Caribbean, this topic of conversation is primarily male driven and takes the "masculinist" perspective.

Chamoiseau has often been criticized as a somewhat patriarchal literary figure after having founded the masculinist Créolité movement in the Antilles archipelago. The founding of this movement was intended to bring pride and nationalism to the male Antillean population that had been emasculated for centuries by being barred from holding positions of power and authority by their European colonizers. The practice of slavery can be argued to have had a more detrimental effect on the male slave population than on the female slave population, as white slave owners attempting to have sexual affairs with female slaves would often offer them more privileges compared to their male counterparts.

However, his literary work in the children's story "Kosto et ses deux enfants" (from Émerveilles) is in stark contrast to his typical patriarchal and masculine nature. The representation of men in Caribbean literature is typically portrayed in a negative light; in the story, this theme is contrasted by the main male character becoming an upstanding and respectable father figure.

Créolité
A question that many writers from the Caribbean try to answer is: "What does it mean to be Caribbean?" This question is the subject of a search for identity, and the word that Chamoiseau and his colleagues used to answer this question is "Creoleness". Creoleness refers to how different cultures adapt and blend on islands or isolated areas, which in the case of the Caribbean, refers to the blending of African, Polynesian, and Asian cultures with that of their European colonizers. This idea of Creoleness contrasts the idea of "Americanness" in that it existed prior to America, and that "Americanness" excludes it interaction with the indigenous population.

This relates to Patrick Chamoiseau's writing style in that his choices are purposeful as his overall goal is to express this concept of Creoleness. Creole Folktales is a prime example from his works. The collection itself takes place around the 17th century in the French Antilles and Chamoiseau casts storyteller-narrator and uses creole in order to recreate the tradition of storytelling in the Antilles that was primarily oral. Chamoiseau chooses these aspects to add to his writings as oral and historical accuracy are important in the representation of the Antilles and are crucial in bring awareness to Creoleness.

Novels

 * Chronique des sept misères (1986). Chronicle of the Seven Sorrows, trans. Linda Coverdale (University of Nebraska Press, 1999).
 * Solibo magnifique (1988). Solibo Magnificent, trans. Rose-Myriam Réjouis and Val Vinokurov (Pantheon, 1998; Granta, 1999).
 * Texaco (1992). Translated by Rose-Myriam Réjouis and Val Vinokurov (Pantheon/Granta, 1997).
 * L'Esclave vieil homme et le Molosse (1997). US title: Slave Old Man (The New Press, 2018) / UK title: The Old Slave and the Mastiff (Dialogue Books, 2018), trans. Linda Coverdale.
 * Biblique des derniers gestes (2002).
 * Un dimanche au cachot (2008).
 * Les Neuf consciences du malfini (2009).
 * L'Empreinte à Crusoé (2012).
 * Hypérion victimaire : Martiniquais épouvantable (2013). Republished as J'ai toujours aimé la nuit (2017).
 * La Matière de l'absence (2016).
 * Le Conteur, la Nuit et le Panier (2021)
 * Le Vent du nord dans les fougères glacées (2022)

Autobiography

 * Antan d'enfance (1990). Childhood, trans. Carol Volk (University of Nebraska Press/Granta, 1999).
 * Chemin d'école (1994). School Days, trans. Linda Coverdale (University of Nebraska Press, 1997; Granta, 1998).
 * À bout d'enfance (2005).

Essays

 * Éloge de la créolité (1989). With Jean Bernabé et Raphaël Confiant.
 * Martinique (1989). Photographs by Michel Renaudeau and Emmanuel Valentin.
 * Lettres créoles : tracées antillaises et continentales de la littérature : Haiti, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyane : 1635-1975 (1991). With Raphaël Confiant
 * Guyane : traces-mémoires du bagne (1994). Photographs by Rodolphe Hammadi.
 * Ecrire en pays dominé (1997).
 * Frères migrants (2017). Migrant Brothers, trans. Matthew Amos and Fredrik Rönnbäck (Yale University Press, 2018).
 * Manifestes, with Édouard Glissant (2021). Manifestos, trans. Betsy Wing and Matt Reeck (Goldsmiths Press, 2022).
 * Baudelaire Jazz (2022).
 * Faire-Pays - Éloge de la responsabilisation (2023).

Other

 * Delgrès : les Antilles sous Bonaparte (1981). With Georges Puisy and illustrated by Georges Puisy.
 * Manman Dlo contre la fée Carabosse (1982).
 * Au temps de l'antan : contes du pays Martinique (1989). US title: Creole Folktales (The New Press, 1994) / UK title: Strange Words (Granta, 1998), trans. Linda Coverdale.
 * Elmire des sept bonheurs (1998). Seven Dreams of Elmira, trans. Mark Polizzotti (Zoland Books, 1999). Photographs by Jean-Luc de Laguarigue.
 * Le Papillon et la Lumière (2013). Illustrated by Ianna Andreadis.

Screenplays

 * L'Exil du roi Behanzin (1994). Directed by Guy Deslauriers.
 * Le Passage du Milieu (2000). Directed by Guy Deslauriers.
 * Biguine (2004). Directed by Guy Deslauriers.
 * Nord Plage (2004). Directed by José Hayot.
 * Aliker (2009). Directed by Guy Deslauriers.

Comics

 * "Monsieur Coutcha" by Tony Delsham. Monthly comic that started in 1972, illustrated by Chamoiseau under the pseudonym "Abel". Compiled and published as Le retour de Monsieur Coutcha (1984).
 * Encyclomerveille d'un tueur #1 : L'orphelin de Cocoyer Grands-Boi (2009). Illustrated by Thierry Ségur.

Children's literature

 * Émerveilles (1998).

Honors and awards

 * 1986: Prix Kléber Haedens, for Chronique des sept misères
 * 1986: Prix de l'île Maurice, for Chronique des sept misères
 * 1987: Prix international francophone Loys Masson, for Chronique des sept misères
 * 1988: Grand Prix de la littérature de jeunesse, for Au temps de l’antan
 * 1989: "Mention" Premio Grafico Fiera di Bologna per la Gioventù de la Foire du livre de jeunesse de Bologne (Italie) for Au temps de l'antan : contes du pays Martinique
 * 1990: Prix Carbet de la Caraïbe, for Antan d'enfance
 * 1992: Prix Goncourt for Texaco
 * 1999: Prince Claus Award
 * 2002: Prix Spécial du Jury RFO, for Biblique des derniers gestes
 * 2008: Prix du Livre RFO, for Un dimanche au cachot
 * 2010: Commandeur des Arts et des Lettres
 * 2016: Prix international Nessim Habif, for La Matière de l'absence
 * 2019: Best Translated Book Award (Slave Old Man)
 * 2023: Prix Marguerite-Yourcenar

title: Patrick Chamoiseau


text:
Nail

Nail or Nails may refer to:

In biology

 * Nail (anatomy), toughened protective protein-keratin (known as alpha-keratin, also found in hair) at the end of an animal digit, such as fingernail
 * Nail (beak), a plate of hard horny tissue at the tip of some bird beaks

Objects

 * Nail (fastener), the pin-shaped fastener used in engineering, woodworking and construction
 * Nail (relic), used in the crucifixion of Christ
 * The Exchange nails, bronze tables outside of The Exchange, Bristol

Arts and entertainment

 * JLA: The Nail series, a 1998 three-issue comic book miniseries
 * Nail (album), by Scraping Foetus Off The Wheel (1985)
 * Nails (1979 film), a Canadian short documentary film
 * Nails (1992 film), an American TV film
 * Nails (2003 film), a Russian psychological horror film
 * Nails (2017 film), a horror film directed by Dennis Bartok
 * Nails (band), an American powerviolence band founded 2009
 * Nine Inch Nails, an American industrial rock band founded 1988
 * The Nails, an American new wave band founded 1976 as The Ravers (name change 1977)

People

 * Nail (given name), a list of people with the given name Nail
 * Nail (surname), a list of people with the surname Nail or Nails
 * Lenny Dykstra, a former Major League Baseball outfielder nicknamed "Nails"
 * Samuel Morton (1893–1923), an American mobster nicknamed "Nails"

Businesses

 * Nail Brewing, an Australian brewery
 * Nail Communications, an American advertising agency
 * Nails Inc., an English nail care chain

Other uses

 * Nail (unit), an archaic multiplier equal to one sixteenth of a base unit
 * Nail, Arkansas, an unincorporated community in the United States
 * Nail, project name for the Heirloom Project mailx Unix computer utility
 * Soil nailing, a soil-stabilization technique

title: Nail


text:
Talk:Nail

suggest page move
I think Nail should be moved to Nail (disambiguation), and Nail (engineering) should be moved to Nail. I have trouble imagining many people typing in "nail" who don't expect to see a page about the usual kind of nails. And those who are looking for another sense of "nail" will have a link to the disambig page at the top of the main nail article. What do others think? --Allen 23:58, 6 March 2006 (UTC)

I was thinking Nail (anatomy) could be the main article, however Nail (engineering) which you mentioned is ofcourse also important. I don't think either is very important a topic anyway, as far as topics go, so I am for the status quo (Nail == disambig). —Tokek 13:20, 27 August 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nail


text:
Deborah

According to the Book of Judges, Deborah (דְּבוֹרָה, Dəḇōrā) was a prophetess of Judaism, the fourth Judge of pre-monarchic Israel and the only female judge mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. Many scholars contend that the phrase, "a woman of Lappidoth", as translated from biblical Hebrew in Judges 4:4 denotes her marital status as the wife of Lapidoth. Alternatively, "lappid" translates as "torch" or "lightning", therefore the phrase, "woman of Lappidoth" could be referencing Deborah as a "fiery woman." Deborah told Barak, an Israelite general from Kedesh in Naphtali, that God commanded him to lead an attack against the forces of Jabin king of Canaan and his military commander Sisera (Judges 4:6–7); the entire narrative is recounted in chapter 4.

Judges 5 gives the same story in poetic form. This passage, often called The Song of Deborah, may date to as early as the twelfth century BCE, and is perhaps the earliest sample of Hebrew poetry.

Bible narrative
In the Book of Judges, it is stated that Deborah was a prophetess, a judge of Israel and the wife of Lapidoth. She rendered her judgments beneath a date palm tree between Ramah in Benjamin and Bethel in the land of Ephraim.

The people of Israel had been oppressed by Jabin, the king of Canaan, whose capital was Hazor, for twenty years. Stirred by the wretched condition of Israel she sends a message to Barak, the son of Abinoam, at Kedesh in Naphtali, and tells him that the Lord God had commanded him to muster ten thousand troops of Naphtali and Zebulun and concentrate them upon Mount Tabor, the mountain at the northern angle of the great plain of Esdraelon. At the same time she states that the Lord God of Israel will draw Sisera, commander of Jabin's army, to the Kishon River. Barak declines to go without the prophet. Deborah consents, but declares that the glory of the victory will therefore belong to a woman. As soon as the news of the rebellion reaches Sisera, he collects nine hundred chariots of iron and a host of people.

Then Deborah said, according to :

""Go! This is the day the Lord has given Sisera into your hands. Has not the Lord gone ahead of you?" So Barak went down Mount Tabor, with ten thousand men following him."

As Deborah prophesied, a battle is fought (led by Barak), and Sisera is completely defeated. He escapes on foot while his army is pursued as far as Harosheth Haggoyim and destroyed. Sisera comes to the tent of Jael and lies down to rest. He asks for a drink, she gives him milk and he falls asleep. While he is asleep she hammers a tent-pin through his temple.

The Biblical account of Deborah ends with the statement that after the battle, there was peace in the land for 40 years.

The Song of Deborah
The Song of Deborah is found in Judges 5:2–31 and is a victory hymn, sung by Deborah and Barak, about the defeat of Canaanite adversaries by some of the tribes of Israel. The song itself differs slightly from the events described in Judges 4. The song mentions six participating tribes: Ephraim, Benjamin, Machir—a group associated with the Tribe of Manasseh—Zebulun, Issachar and Naphtali, as opposed to the two tribes in Judges 4:6 (Naphtali and Zebulun) and does not mention the role of Jabin (king of Hazor). The song also rebukes three other tribes (Reuben, Dan, and Asher) for their lack of patriotism. Michael Coogan writes that for the redactors of the Song of Deborah, that the Canaanite general Sisera ends up being murdered by a woman (Jael)—the ultimate degradation—"is a further sign that Yahweh ultimately is responsible for the victory".

Though the presence of victory hymns is conventional in the Hebrew Bible, the Song of Deborah is unusual in that it is a hymn that celebrates a military victory of two women: Deborah, the prophetess and Jael, the warrior. Jael—the heroine of the Song of Deborah—shares parallels with the main character of the Book of Judith, who uses her beauty and charm to kill an Assyrian general who has besieged her city, Bethulia.

The Song of Deborah is commonly identified as among the oldest texts of the Bible, but the date of its composition is controversial. Many scholars claim a date as early as the 12th century BCE, while others claim it to be as late as the 3rd century BCE. Some hold that the song was written no earlier than the 7th century BCE.

Traditional chronology
Traditional Jewish chronology places Deborah's 40 years of judging Israel from 1107 BC until her death in 1067 BC. The Dictionary of World Biography: The Ancient World claims that she might have lived in the period between 1200 BC to 1124 BC. Based on archaeological findings, different biblical scholars have argued that Deborah's war with Sisera best fits the context of either the second half of the 12th century BC or the second half of the 11th century BC.

title: Deborah


text:
Talk:Tempio Pausania

The link to Palau is incorrect: the page refers to the coastal town in northeastern Sadinia, not the Republic of Palau.

title: Talk:Tempio Pausania