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Substitution–permutation network

In cryptography, an SP-network, or substitution–permutation network (SPN), is a series of linked mathematical operations used in block cipher algorithms such as AES (Rijndael), 3-Way, Kalyna, Kuznyechik, PRESENT, SAFER, SHARK, and Square.

Such a network takes a block of the plaintext and the key as inputs, and applies several alternating rounds or layers of substitution boxes (S-boxes) and permutation boxes (P-boxes) to produce the ciphertext block. The S-boxes and P-boxes transform (sub-)blocks of input bits into output bits. It is common for these transformations to be operations that are efficient to perform in hardware, such as exclusive or (XOR) and bitwise rotation. The key is introduced in each round, usually in the form of "round keys" derived from it. (In some designs, the S-boxes themselves depend on the key.)

Decryption is done by simply reversing the process (using the inverses of the S-boxes and P-boxes and applying the round keys in reversed order).

Components
An S-box substitutes a small block of bits (the input of the S-box) by another block of bits (the output of the S-box). This substitution should be one-to-one, to ensure invertibility (hence decryption). In particular, the length of the output should be the same as the length of the input (the picture on the right has S-boxes with 4 input and 4 output bits), which is different from S-boxes in general that could also change the length, as in Data Encryption Standard (DES), for example. An S-box is usually not simply a permutation of the bits. Rather, in a good S-box each output bit will be affected by every input bit. More precisely, in a good S-box each output bit will be changed with 50% probability by every input bit. Since each output bit changes with the 50% probability, about half of the output bits will actually change with an input bit change (cf. Strict avalanche criterion).

A P-box is a permutation of all the bits: it takes the outputs of all the S-boxes of one round, permutes the bits, and feeds them into the S-boxes of the next round. A good P-box has the property that the output bits of any S-box are distributed to as many S-box inputs as possible.

At each round, the round key (obtained from the key with some simple operations, for instance, using S-boxes and P-boxes) is combined using some group operation, typically XOR.

Properties
A single typical S-box or a single P-box alone does not have much cryptographic strength: an S-box could be thought of as a substitution cipher, while a P-box could be thought of as a transposition cipher. However, a well-designed SP network with several alternating rounds of S- and P-boxes already satisfies Shannon's confusion and diffusion properties:

 * The reason for diffusion is the following: If one changes one bit of the plaintext, then it is fed into an S-box, whose output will change at several bits, then all these changes are distributed by the P-box among several S-boxes, hence the outputs of all of these S-boxes are again changed at several bits, and so on. Doing several rounds, each bit changes several times back and forth, therefore, by the end, the ciphertext has changed completely, in a pseudorandom manner. In particular, for a randomly chosen input block, if one flips the i-th bit, then the probability that the j-th output bit will change is approximately a half, for any i and j, which is the strict avalanche criterion. Vice versa, if one changes one bit of the ciphertext, then attempts to decrypt it, the result is a message completely different from the original plaintext—SP ciphers are not easily malleable.
 * The reason for confusion is exactly the same as for diffusion: changing one bit of the key changes several of the round keys, and every change in every round key diffuses over all the bits, changing the ciphertext in a very complex manner.
 * If an attacker somehow obtains one plaintext corresponding to one ciphertext—a known-plaintext attack, or worse, a chosen plaintext or chosen-ciphertext attack—the confusion and diffusion make it difficult for the attacker to recover the key.

Performance
Although a Feistel network that uses S-boxes (such as DES) is quite similar to SP networks, there are some differences that make either this or that more applicable in certain situations. For a given amount of confusion and diffusion, an SP network has more "inherent parallelism" and so — given a CPU with many execution units — can be computed faster than a Feistel network. CPUs with few execution units — such as most smart cards — cannot take advantage of this inherent parallelism. Also SP ciphers require S-boxes to be invertible (to perform decryption); Feistel inner functions have no such restriction and can be constructed as one-way functions.

title: Substitution–permutation network


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Lake Kyoga

Lake Kyoga or Lake Kioga (literally 'the place of bathing' in Runyoro language) is a large shallow lake in Uganda, about 1,720 km2 in area and at an elevation of 1,033 metres. The Victoria Nile flows through the lake on its way from Lake Victoria to Lake Albert. The main inflow from Lake Victoria is regulated by the Nalubaale Power Station in Jinja. Another source of water is the Mount Elgon region on the border between Uganda and Kenya. While Lake Kyoga is part of the African Great Lakes system, it is not itself considered a great lake.

The lake reaches a depth of about 5.7 metres, and most of it is less than 4 metres deep. Areas that are less than 3 metres deep are completely covered by water lilies, while much of the swampy shoreline is covered with papyrus and the invasive water hyacinth. The papyrus also forms floating islands that drift between a number of small permanent islands. Extensive wetlands fed by a complex system of streams and rivers surround the lakes.

Its extensions include; Lake Kwania, Lake Bisina, lake Bugondo and Lake Opeta.

Fauna and fishing
Nile crocodiles are numerous, as is aquatic fauna. There are at least 60 haplochromine cichlid species, as well as a smaller number of other fish species like Lake Victoria sardine and marbled lungfish. Many of the haplochromine cichlids are endemic, but very closely related to the Lake Victoria species, and showing a similar level of diversity in terms of feeding. The Kyoga cichlids include both described species like Haplochromis latifasciatus and H. worthingtoni, and undescribed like H. sp. "Kyoga flameback" and H. sp. "ruby". As in Lake Victoria, the Kyoga cichlids have been decimated by the introduced Nile perch and some species are already extinct. Because Kyoga generally is shallow and swampy, some subsections—"satellite lakes"—are isolated to various degrees from the main lake. The number of surviving haplochromine cichlids in each subsection is directly related to the status of the Nile perch. Despite being the largest by far, less than 50 haplochromine species survive in the main section where the Nile perch is common. In comparison, the much smaller satellite lakes Lemwa, Nyaguo and Nawampasa lack Nile perch, but at least 50 haplochromine species survive in each of the first two, and at least 60 in the last. Conversely, the small satellite lakes Nakuwa and Nyasala where Nile perch is abundant have less than 30 and 5 surviving haplochromines respectively. This also means that fishing in the Lake Kyoga system has gradually shifted from once targeting many native species, to now primarily targeting the native Lake Victoria sardine, the introduced Nile perch and introduced Nile tilapia (the two native tilapias, the Singida and Victoria, have become very rare, except in some satellite lakes). In 2006, only 4% of catches were haplochromine cichlids.

Flora
Lake Kyoga has flora that includes; Pistia stratiodes (Water Lettuce), Cyperus Papyrus, Hyppo Grass, water Lily.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lake Kyoga


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Water lily

Water lily or water lilies may refer to:

Plants

 * Members of the family Nymphaeaceae
 * Formerly, members of the genus Nelumbo (the genus to which lotus belongs)
 * Some members of the genus Nymphoides

Other uses

 * Water Lilies (Monet series), a series of paintings by Claude Monet
 * Water Lilies (film), a 2007 French film
 * The Water Lily (1919 film), a 1919 silent film directed by George Ridgwell
 * The Water Lily, or Nénuphar, a ballet fantastique in one act, first presented in 1890
 * Water Lily Acoustics, a record label
 * Water Lily (My Little Pony), a character from the My Little Pony entertainment franchise
 * Water Lily (Wild Cards), a character from the Wild Cards book series
 * Waterlillies (duo), a musical group
 * Waterlily (novel), a 1988 novel by Ella Cara Deloria

title: Water lily


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Zielona Góra Voivodeship (1975–1998)

The Zielona Góra Voivodeship was a voivodeship (province) of the Polish People's Republic from 1975 to 1989, and the Third Republic of Poland from 1989 to 1998. Its capital was Zielona Góra, and it was centered on the southern Lubusz Land, in west-centre part of the county. It was established on 1 June 1975, from the part of the Zielona Góra Voivodeship, and existed until 31 December 1998, when it was incorporated into then-established Lubusz and Greater Poland Voivodeships.

History
The Zielona Góra was established on 1 June 1975, as part of the administrative reform, and was one of the voivodeships (provinces) of the Polish People's Republic. It was formed from the part of the territory of the Zielona Góra Voivodeship. Its capital was located in the city of Zielona Góra. In 1975, it was inhabited by 580 000 people.

On 9 December 1989, the Polish People's Republic was replaced by the Third Republic of Poland. In 1997, the voivodeship had a population of 677 800, and in 1998, it had an area of 8868 km2. It existed until 31 December 1998, when most of its territory being incorporated into then-established Lubusz Voivodeship, with some additionally being incorporated into the Greater Poland Voivodeship.

Subdivisions
In 1997, the voivodeship was divided into 57 gminas (municipalities), including 7 urban municipalities, 21 urban-rural municipalities, and 29 rural municipalities. It had 28 cities and towns.

From 1990 to 1998, it was additionally divided into six district offices, each comprising several municipalities.

Settlements
In 1997, the voivodeship had 28 cities and towns. In 1998, the biggest cities and towns by population were:
 * Zielona Góra (118 182);
 * Nowa Sól (42 662);
 * Żary (40 732);
 * Żagań (28 170);
 * Świebodzin (22 539);
 * Gubin (18 893);
 * Sulechów (18 250);
 * Lubsko (15 511);
 * Wolsztyn (13 879);
 * Szprotawa (13 139);
 * Krosno Odrzańskie (13 000);
 * Kożuchów (9 967);
 * Zbąszyń (7 500);
 * Zbąszynek (5 100);
 * Iłowa (4 100);
 * Sława (4000).

Symbols
The voivodeship had addopped its flag and coat of arms on 18 July 1985. The coat of arms had a red Norman style escutcheon (shield) with square top and acute base. Inside the shield was featured a white (silver) eagle with elevated wings, and a green figure in a shape of the borders of the voivodeship, with two blue rivers featured on it: Oder and Lusatian Neisse. Its flag was a rectangle divided horizontally into two stripes, a yellow one on the top, and a green one on the bottom.

Leaders
The leader of the administrative division was the voivode. Those were:
 * 1975–1980: Jan Lembas;
 * 1980–1982: Zbigniew Cyganik;
 * 1982–1984: Walerian Mikołajczak;
 * 1984–1990: Zbyszko Piwoński;
 * 1990–1993: Jarosław Barańczak;
 * 1993–1997: Marian Eckert;
 * 1997–1998: Marian Miłek.

title: Zielona Góra Voivodeship (1975–1998)


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Zamość Voivodeship

Zamość Voivodeship (województwo zamojskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland in years 1975–1998, superseded by Lublin Voivodeship.

Capital city: Zamość

Major cities and towns (population in 1995):

 * Zamość (66,300)
 * Biłgoraj (26,400)
 * Tomaszów Lubelski (21,200)
 * Hrubieszów (20,200)

title: Zamość Voivodeship


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Talk:Lists of cities in Serbia and Montenegro

List of municipalities
Would it be better to have municipality figures at the list of municipalities? Nikola 06:38, 2 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Population facts
The source of facts for City of Nis is statistical office of the Republic of Serbia

 * But, where exactly on that web site you found these numbers, and on what exactly are they based? The numbers from 2002 census are most correct in this case, and you can find 2002 census results in this PDF document:

 * http://www.szs.sv.gov.yu/Popis/PrviRez.pdf

PANONIAN  (talk)  00:39, 2 May 2006 (UTC)

Go to databases, municipalities in figures, find Nis and City of Nis with census 2002. The facts are based on census 2002. Serbia 2002. census is carried out by statistical office of the Republic of Serbia between 1-15.april 2002. according to situation on 31.mars 2002. After census in 6.june 2002 Nis proper was redifined The actual facts about City of Nis populations are: City of Nis 	250,518 Nis proper	235,159

Yes, but here is what you do not understand: according to another PDF document with final census results (which you cannot find on the Internet, but ahould go to Belgrade to buy it), the population was:
 * The City of Niš: 250,518
 * Niš: 235,159
 * urban Niš: 173,724

The population figure of 235,159 is not of Niš itself, but of Niš + surrounding villages. The point is that in 2002 Grad Niš with a population of 250,518 inculded two municipalities: Niš (with population of 235,159) and Niška Banja (with population of 15,359). The population of 235,159 is thus a population of Niš municipality, while Niš settlement itself had a population of 173,724. The population figures given on that website are only those for municipalities, not those for settlements. PANONIAN  (talk)  01:07, 2 May 2006 (UTC)

They are not surrounding villages, they are surrounding suburbs not only officially but also practicly, physically connected with city center. In 2002. census it was was only one criteria for urban and other municipalities. It was officiall qualification of settlement to urban or village municipalities.

Call them how you want, villages or suburbs, but they are not part of the settlement of Niš or urban Niš. If you want, we can include all 3 numbers from census: urban Niš, Niš municipality, and Niš city. PANONIAN  (talk)  21:43, 2 May 2006 (UTC)

Initial source for coordinates and population
Data taken from "The World Gazetteer" (http://www.world-gazetteer.com ).

This citys (Kosovo) are not a part of Serbia and Montenegro
Till the statut of Kosovo is not disedit this city are the Kosovo ciys and nothing els. -- Hipi Zhdripi
 * According to the constituonal chapter of Serbia-Montenegro, Kosovo cities are part of Serbia-Montenegro. Until the final status of Kosovo is solved, we should respect the constituonal chapter in Serbia-Montenegro-related articles. PANONIAN   (talk)  22:51, 28 April 2006 (UTC)

Merge
Now that Montenegro and Serbia are separate, why does this page even exist? It should be merged into List of cities in Serbia. -- ran (talk) 16:57, 10 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Why can't it be kept for the time being as a disambiguation page? — Instantnood 21:59, 10 June 2006 (UTC)
 * I think that this list should not be disambiguation page. Articles with lists of cities in Serbia and list of Cities in Montenegro are dealing with the current situation in those countries which can change. I.e. some cities which did not exist in S&M can be established while some other can loose their status. Maybe the territory of those countries can change and include new cities or exclude some cities which belonged to the S&M while it existed. Therefore I will return the list removed in 2006.--Antidiskriminator (talk) 18:47, 24 January 2013 (UTC)


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Wrocław Voivodeship (1975–1998)

Wrocław Voivodeship (województwo wrocławskie) was a voivodeship (province) of Poland that existed from 1975 until 31 December 1998, when it was absorbed into the larger Lower Silesian Voivodeship.

Major cities and towns (population in 1995)

 * Wrocław (642,700)
 * Oleśnica (38,900)
 * Oława (31,800)

title: Wrocław Voivodeship (1975–1998)


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Włocławek Voivodeship

Włocławek Voivodeship (województwo włocławskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland in the years 1975–1998. It was superseded by Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship.

Capital city: Włocławek

Population of voivodship: 403,200 (in 1975), 413,400 (in 1980), 425,900 (in 1985), 429,400 (in 1990), 435,000 (in 1995), 434,700 (in 1998).

Car plates: WE, WK, WL.

Major cities and towns: (population in 1998): Włocławek (123,373), Rypin (16,971), Lipno (15,608), Aleksandrów Kujawski (13,031), Ciechocinek (11,312).

title: Włocławek Voivodeship


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Wałbrzych Voivodeship

Walbrzych Voivodeship (województwo wałbrzyskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland in the years 1975–1998, superseded by the Lower Silesian Voivodeship.

Major cities and towns (population in 1995)

 * Wałbrzych (139,600)
 * Świdnica (64,800)
 * Dzierżoniów (38,300)
 * Bielawa (34,600)
 * Kłodzko (30,900)
 * Nowa Ruda (27,200)
 * Świebodzice (24,700)

title: Wałbrzych Voivodeship


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J. H. C. Whitehead

John Henry Constantine Whitehead FRS (11 November 1904 – 8 May 1960), known as "Henry", was a British mathematician and was one of the founders of homotopy theory. He was born in Chennai (then known as Madras), in India, and died in Princeton, New Jersey, in 1960.

Life
J. H. C. (Henry) Whitehead was the son of the Right Rev. Henry Whitehead, Bishop of Madras, who had studied mathematics at Oxford, and was the nephew of Alfred North Whitehead and Isobel Duncan. He was brought up in Oxford, went to Eton and read mathematics at Balliol College, Oxford. After a year working as a stockbroker, at Buckmaster & Moore, he started a PhD in 1929 at Princeton University. His thesis, titled The representation of projective spaces, was written under the direction of Oswald Veblen in 1930. While in Princeton, he also worked with Solomon Lefschetz.

He became a fellow of Balliol in 1933. In 1934 he married the concert pianist Barbara Smyth, great-great-granddaughter of Elizabeth Fry and a cousin of Peter Pears; they had two sons. In 1936, he co-founded The Invariant Society, the student mathematics society at Oxford.

During the Second World War he worked on operations research for submarine warfare. Later, he joined the codebreakers at Bletchley Park, and by 1945 was one of some fifteen mathematicians working in the "Newmanry", a section headed by Max Newman and responsible for breaking a German teleprinter cipher using machine methods. Those methods included the Colossus machines, early digital electronic computers.

From 1947 to 1960 he was the Waynflete Professor of Pure Mathematics at Magdalen College, Oxford.

He became president of the London Mathematical Society (LMS) in 1953, a post he held until 1955. The LMS established two prizes in memory of Whitehead. The first is the annually awarded, to multiple recipients, Whitehead Prize; the second a biennially awarded Senior Whitehead Prize.

Joseph J. Rotman, in his book on algebraic topology, as a tribute to Whitehead's intellect, says, "There is a canard that every textbook of algebraic topology either ends with the definition of the Klein bottle or is a personal communication to J. H. C. Whitehead."

Whitehead died from an asymptomatic heart attack during a visit to Princeton University in May 1960.

In the late 1950s, Whitehead had approached Robert Maxwell, then chairman of Pergamon Press, to start a new journal, Topology, however Whitehead died before its first edition appeared in 1962.

Work
Whitehead's definition of CW complexes gave a setting for homotopy theory that became standard. He introduced the idea of simple homotopy theory, which was later much developed in connection with algebraic K-theory. The Whitehead product is an operation in homotopy theory. The Whitehead problem on abelian groups was solved (as an independence proof) by Saharon Shelah. His involvement with topology and the Poincaré conjecture led to the creation of the Whitehead manifold. The definition of crossed modules is due to him. He also made important contributions in differential topology, particularly on triangulations and their associated smooth structures.

Selected publications

 * J. H. C. Whitehead, On incidence matrices, nuclei and homotopy types, Ann. of Math. (2) 42 (1941), 1197–1239.
 * J. H. C. Whitehead, Combinatorial homotopy. I., Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 55 (1949), 213–245
 * J. H. C. Whitehead, Combinatorial homotopy. II., Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 55 (1949), 453–496
 * J. H. C. Whitehead, A certain exact sequence, Ann. of Math. (2) 52 (1950), 51–110
 * J. H. C. Whitehead, Simple homotopy types, Amer. J. Math. 72 (1950), 1–57.
 * Saunders MacLane, J. H. C. Whitehead, On the 3-type of a complex, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 36 (1950), 41–48.
 * (published posthumously)
 * (published posthumously)

title: J. H. C. Whitehead


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Warsaw Voivodeship (1975–1998)

The Warsaw Voivodeship, between 1975 and 1990 known as the Warsaw Capital Voivodeship, was a voivodeship (province) of the Polish People's Republic from 1975 to 1989, and the Third Republic of Poland from 1989 to 1998. Its capital was Warsaw, and it was located in the central Masovia. It was established on 1 June 1975, from the part of the Warsaw Voivodeship, and a city voivodeship of Warsaw, and existed until 31 December 1998, when it was incorporated into then-established Masovian Voivodeship.

History
The Warsaw Capital Voivodeship was established on 1 June 1975, as part of the administrative reform, and was one of the voivodeships (provinces) of the Polish People's Republic. It was formed from the part of the territory of the Warsaw Voivodeship, and a city voivodeship of Warsaw, which became its capital. In 1975, it was inhabited by 2 154 700 people.

On 9 December 1989, the Polish People's Republic was replaced by the Third Republic of Poland. In 1990, its name had been changed to Warsaw Voivodeship. In 1997, it had a population of 2 418 400, and an area of 3788 km². It existed until 31 December 1998, when it was incorporated into then-established Masovian Voivodeship.

Subdivisions
In 1997, the voivodeship was divided into 58 gminas (municipalities), including 25 urban municipalities, 14 urban-rural municipalities, and 20 rural municipalities. It had 28 towns and cities.

From 1990 to 1998, it was additionally divided into 7 district offices, each composing of the several municipalities.

Major cities
The biggest cities and towns, by the population in 1995, were:
 * Warsaw (1,638,300);
 * Pruszków (53,000);
 * Legionowo (50,600);
 * Otwock (44,000);
 * Wołomin (36,500);
 * Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki (27,200);
 * Piaseczno (25,200);
 * Grodzisk Mazowiecki (24,900);
 * Piastów (23,700).

Leaders
The leader of the administrative division was a voivode. From 1975 to 1990, the mayor of Warsaw held the office of the voivode. The people holding the office over the years were:
 * 1975–1982: Jerzy Majewski
 * 1982–1986: Mieczysław Dębicki
 * 1986–1990: Jerzy Bolesławski
 * 1990: Stanisław Wyganowski
 * 1990: Adam Langer
 * 1990–1997: Bohdan Jastrzębski
 * 1997–1998: Maciej Gielecki

title: Warsaw Voivodeship (1975–1998)


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Toruń Voivodeship

Toruń Voivodeship (województwo toruńskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland in the years 1975–1998, superseded by the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship. Its capital city was Toruń.

Major cities and towns (population in 1995)

 * Toruń (204,300)
 * Grudziądz (102,900)
 * Brodnica (27,400)
 * Chełmno (22,000)

title: Toruń Voivodeship


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Tarnów Voivodeship

Tarnów Voivodeship (województwo tarnowskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland in years 1975–1998, superseded by a much larger Lesser Poland Voivodeship. Its capital city was Tarnów. Located in southeastern part of the country, its area was 4,151 km2. (which was 1.3% of the total area of Poland). In 1975 the population was 577,900, in 1998 it grew to 700,800.

 * Tarnów (121 494)
 * Dębica (49 107)
 * Bochnia (29 887)
 * Brzesko (17 859)
 * Dąbrowa Tarnowska (11 178)

title: Tarnów Voivodeship


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Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship

The Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship (województwo tarnobrzeskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland in years 1975-1998, superseded in parts by Subcarpathian Voivodeship, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship and Lublin Voivodeship. Its capital city was Tarnobrzeg, although the major city in the region was Stalowa Wola.

Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship was located in the area of the Kielce-Sandomierz Upland (Wyżyna Kielecko-Sandomierska; the Sandomierska Upland, a patch of Podgórze Iłżeckie and the eastern end of the Świętokrzyskie Mountains), the flat Sandomierz Basin (the Tarnobrzeg and Biłgoraj plains) and on the edges of the Lublin Upland and Roztocze. The main rivers were the Vistula and the San. Large areas were occupied by the Sandomierz Forest and the Janów Forest.

The region was represented in football by the local giant teams of Stal Stalowa Wola and Siarka Tarnobrzeg.

Major cities and towns (population in 1998)

 * Stalowa Wola (71,814)
 * Tarnobrzeg (51,061)
 * Sandomierz (27,409)
 * Staszów (17,015)
 * Nisko (15,722)

Road transport

 * Radom – Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski – Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship border – Sadowie – Opatów – Lipnik – Łoniów – Tarnobrzeg – Nowa Dęba – Majdan Królewski – Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship border – Rzeszów

 * Kuźnica Białostocka – Białystok – Lublin – Kraśnik – Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship border – Modliborzyce – Janów Lubelski – Nisko – Jeżowe – Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship border – Rzeszów – Barwinek

 * Walichnowy – Piotrków Trybunalski – Kielce – Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship border – Baćkowice – Opatów – Annopol – Gościeradów – Olbięcin – Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship border – Kraśnik – Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship border – Modliborzyce – Janów Lubelski – Dzwola – Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship border – Zamość – Zosin

 * Lipnik – Sandomierz – Stalowa Wola – Nisko – Rudnik nad Sanem – Kopki – Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship border – Jarosław – Przemyśl

 * Bytom – Katowice – Kraków – Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship border – Łubnice – Połaniec – Osiek – Łoniów – Sandomierz – Ożarów – Tarłów – Czekarzewice – Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship border – Warsaw

title: Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship


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Ivory gull

The ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea) is a small gull, the only species in the genus Pagophila. It breeds in the high Arctic and has a circumpolar distribution through Greenland, northernmost North America, and Eurasia.

Taxonomy
The ivory gull was initially described by Constantine Phipps, 2nd Baron Mulgrave in 1774 as Larus eburneus from a specimen collected on Spitsbergen during his 1773 expedition towards the North Pole. Johann Jakob Kaup later recognized the unique traits of the ivory gull and gave it a monotypic genus, Pagophila, in 1829. Johan Ernst Gunnerus later gave the species a new specific name, Pagophila alba. The genus name Pagophila is from Ancient Greek pagos, "sea-ice", and philos, "-loving", and specific eburnea is Latin for "ivory-coloured", from ebur, "ivory". Today some authors consider the ivory gull not deserving of its monotypic genus, instead choosing to merge it, along with the other monotypic gulls, back into Larus. However, most authors have not chosen to do so. The ivory gull has no subspecies. No fossil members of this genus are known.

This gull has traditionally been believed to be most closely related to either the kittiwakes, Sabine's gull, or Ross's gull. It differs anatomically from the other genera by having a relatively short tarsometatarsus, a narrower os pubis, and potentially more flexibility in skull kinetic structure. Structurally, it is most similar to the kittiwakes; however, recent genetic analysis based on mtDNA sequences shows that Sabine's gull is the ivory gull's closest relative, followed by the kittiwakes, with Ross's gull and swallow-tailed gull sharing a clade with these species. "Pagophila" is maintained as a unique genus because of the bird's morphological, behavioral and ecological differences from these species.

Colloquial names from Newfoundland include slob gull (from "slob", a local name for drift ice) and ice partridge, from a vague resemblance to a ptarmigan.

Description
This species is easy to identify. At approximately 43 cm, it has a different, more pigeon-like shape than the Larus gulls, but the adult has completely white plumage, lacking the grey back of other gulls. The thick bill is blue with a yellow tip, and the legs are black. The bill is tipped with red, and the eyes have a fleshy, bright red eye-ring in the breeding season. Its flight call cry is a harsh, tern-like keeeer. It has many other vocalizations, including a warbling "fox-call" that indicates potential predators such as an Arctic fox, polar bear, Glaucous Gull or human near a nest, a "long-call" given with wrists out, elongated neck and downward-pointed bill, given in elaborate display to other Ivories during breeding, and a plaintive begging call given in courtship by females to males, accompanied by head-tossing. Young birds have a dusky face and variable amounts of black flecking in the wings and tail. The juveniles take two years to attain full adult plumage. There are no differences in appearance across the species’ geographic range.

Measurements:

 * Length: 15.8 - 16.9 in
 * Weight: 15.8 - 24.2 oz
 * Wingspan: 42.5 - 47.2 in

Distribution and habitat
In North America, it only breeds in the Canadian Arctic. Seymour Island, Nunavut is home to the largest known breeding colony, while Ellesmere, Devon, Cornwallis, and north Baffin islands are known locations of breeding colonies. It is believed that there are other small breeding colonies of less than six birds that are still undiscovered. There are no records of the ivory gull breeding in Alaska.

During the winter, ivory gulls live near polynyas, or a large area of open water surrounded by sea ice. North American birds, along with some from Greenland and Europe, winter along the 2000 km of ice edge stretching between 50° and 64° N from the Labrador Sea to Davis Strait that is bordered by Labrador and southwestern Greenland. Wintering gulls are often seen on the eastern coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador and occasionally appear on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the interior of Labrador. It also winters from October through June in the Bering Sea and Chukchi Seas. It is most widespread throughout the polynyas and pack ice of the Bering Sea. It is also vagrant throughout coastal Canada and the northeastern United States, though records of individuals as far south as California and Georgia have been reported, as well as The British Isles, with most records from late November through early March. Juveniles tend to wander further from the Arctic than adults.

Ecology and behavior
Ivory gulls migrate only short distances south in autumn, most of the population wintering in northern latitudes at the edge of the pack ice, although some birds reach more temperate areas.

Diet
It takes fish and crustaceans, rodents, eggs and small chicks but is also an opportunist scavenger, often found on seal or porpoise corpses. It has been known to follow polar bears and other predators to feed on the remains of their kills.

Reproduction
The ivory gull breeds on Arctic coasts and cliffs, laying one to three olive eggs in a ground nest lined with moss, lichens, or seaweed.

Status
In 2012 the total population of ivory gulls was estimated to be between 19,000 and 27,000 individuals. The majority of these were in Russia with 2,500–10,000 along the Arctic coastline, 4,000 on the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago and 8,000 on Franz Josef Land and Victoria Island. There were also estimated to be around 4,000 individuals in Greenland and in the years 2002–03, 500–700 were recorded in Canada. Examination of data collected on an icebreaker plying between Greenland and Svalbard between 1988 and 2014, by Claude Joiris of the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, found a sevenfold fall in ivory gull numbers after 2007. The species is rapidly declining in Canada, while in other parts of its range its population is poorly known. The Canadian population in the early 2000s were approximately 80% lower than in the 1980s.

Illegal hunting may be one of the causes of the decline in the Canadian population, and a second cause may be the decline in sea ice. Ivory gulls breed near to sea ice and the loss may make it difficult to feed their chicks.

The species is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as "Near Threatened".

Literary appearances
An ivory gull is the inspiration for the eponymous carving in Holling C. Holling's classic Newbery Medal-winning children's book, Seabird.

title: Ivory gull


text:
The Book of Sand

"The Book of Sand" (El libro de arena) is a 1975 short story by Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges about the discovery of a book with infinite pages. It has parallels to the same author's 1949 story "The Zahir" (revised in 1974), continuing the theme of self-reference and attempting to abandon the terribly infinite, and to his 1941 story "The Library of Babel" about an infinite library.

Release
The story was first published in 1975, in Spanish, as the last of 13 stories in a book of the same name. The first English translation—by Norman Thomas di Giovanni—was published in The New Yorker. The entire volume The Book of Sand (ISBN 0-525-47540-0) first appeared in English in 1977.

Plot summary
An unnamed narrator is visited by a tall Scots Bible-seller, who presents him with a very old cloth-bound book that he bought in India from an Untouchable. The book is emblazoned with the title "Holy Writ," below which title is emblazoned "Bombay," but is said to be called "The Book of Sand"..."because neither the book nor the sand has any beginning or end." Upon opening it, he is startled to discover that the book, which is written in an unknown language and occasionally punctuated by illustrations, is, in fact, infinite: as one turns the pages, more pages seem to grow out of the front and back covers. He trades a month of his pension and a prized "Wiclif Bible" for the book and hides it on a bookshelf behind his copy of One Thousand and One Nights. Over the summer, the narrator obsesses over the book, poring over it, cataloging its illustrations and refusing to go outside for fear of its theft. In the end, realizing that the book is monstrous, he briefly considers burning it before fearing the possibility of the endless supply of smoke suffocating the world. Instead, he goes to the National Library where he once worked (like Borges) to leave the book among the basement bookshelves, reasoning that "the best place to hide a leaf is in a forest."

Adaptations
The story (retitled The Sandbook) was turned into an experimental dance piece by Esther Linley's dance company for the 1994 Donaufestival in Austria. The soundtrack to the piece was written by German musician Hans-Joachim Roedelius. Roedelius also featured as an actor in the piece.

The story was adapted by the Saudi filmmaker Bader Al-Homoud in his online film and was selected as an official honoree in the 18th Annual Webby Awards in 2014.

The Dutch composer Michel van der Aa created for the 2015 Holland Festival a digital interactive song cycle based on this story, with Kate Miller-Heidke as performer.

The Oakland Theater Project staged an adaptation of the story in 2022, written by playwright Lisa Ramirez.

title: The Book of Sand


text:
Suwałki Voivodeship

Suwałki Voivodeship (województwo suwalskie) was an administrative division and local government in Poland from 1975 to 1998. In 1999 the Voidvodeship was divided in half and reassigned to two other Voivodeships – the eastern half to Podlaskie Voivodeship and the western half to Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship.

Its capital city was Suwałki.

Cities and towns
Major cities and towns (population in 1998):
 * Suwałki – 68,331 (1995 – 66,200)
 * Ełk – 56,208 (1995 – 55,100)
 * Giżycko – 31,484 (1995 – 30,600)
 * Augustów – 30,162 (1995 – 29,600)
 * Pisz – 19,571
 * Olecko – 17,175
 * Gołdap – 13,858
 * Węgorzewo – 12,331

Population

 * 1975 – 414,700
 * 1980 – 422,600
 * 1985 – 449,000
 * 1990 – 470,600
 * 1995 – 485,600
 * 1998 – 489,200

title: Suwałki Voivodeship


text:
Radom Voivodeship

Radom Voivodeship (województwo radomskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland in the years 1975–1998, superseded by Masovian Voivodeship. Its capital city was Radom.

Major cities and towns (population in 1995)

 * Radom (232,300)
 * Pionki (22,100)
 * Kozienice (21,500)

title: Radom Voivodeship


text:
Rzeszów Voivodeship

Rzeszów Voivodeship (województwo rzeszowskie) can refer to one of two political entities in Poland:

Rzeszów Voivodeship (1) was a unit of administrative division and local government from 1975 to 1998, superseded by Podkarpackie Voivodeship. Major cities and towns included (population in 1995 in brackets):
 * Its capital city, Rzeszów (160,300)
 * Mielec (64,400),
 * Łańcut (18.000).

Rzeszów Voivodeship (2) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from 1945 to 1975, superseded by Rzeszów (1), Przemyśl, Krosno and parts of Tarnów and Tarnobrzeg voivodeships. Its creation was the result of change of Polish borders in 1945. Traditional center of this part of the country, Lwów, became annexed by the Soviet Union. Due to this fact, Polish government had to come up with a new city, which would have taken the role of Lwów. As Przemyśl, which was the second biggest city of the area (after Lwów), is located too close to the border, the new capital was organized in Rzeszów, a city in 1945 much smaller than Przemyśl.

title: Rzeszów Voivodeship


text:
Siedlce Voivodeship

Siedlce Voivodeship (województwo siedleckie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland in the years 1975–1998, superseded by Masovian Voivodeship and Lublin Voivodeship. Its capital city was Siedlce.

Major cities and towns (population in 1995)

 * Siedlce (74,100)
 * Mińsk Mazowiecki (35,000)
 * Łuków (32,000)

title: Siedlce Voivodeship


text:
Sieradz Voivodeship

Sieradz Voivodeship (województwo sieradzkie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland in the years 1975–1998, superseded by Łódź Voivodeship.

A Voivodeship is an area administered by a voivode (Governor), and the Sieradz Voivodeship is the area with the capital city of Sieradz. Sieradz is a significant city of Poland as it is one of the oldest cities of the country, tracing back roughly to the 6th century.

1975-1998
Capital city: Sieradz Major cities and towns: (population in 1995):
 * Zduńska Wola (45,900);
 * Sieradz (44,700);
 * Wieluń (25,500);
 * Łask (20,200).

See also:
 * Voivodeships of Poland

1939-1945
The city of Sieradz was attacked by Germany on September 9, 1939, and was reluctantly home to one of many overpopulated German prisoner-of-war camps. In these camps occurred countless atrocities including torture, slavery/forced labor, starvation, unsafe conditions, beatings, executions, and any more of the common war crimes committed by the German army during WWII.

1772-1795
Sieradz Voivodeship was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from 14th century to the partitions of Poland in 1772–1795. It was a part of Greater Poland province.

title: Sieradz Voivodeship


text:
Skierniewice Voivodeship

Skierniewice Voivodeship (województwo skierniewickie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from 1975 to 1998, superseded by Łódź Voivodeship and Masovian Voivodeship. Its capital city was Skierniewice.

Major cities and towns (population in 1995)

 * Skierniewice (47,900)
 * Żyrardów (43,500)
 * Sochaczew (39,700)
 * Łowicz (31,500)

title: Skierniewice Voivodeship


text:
Płock Voivodeship (1975–1998)

Płock Voivodeship (województwo płockie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from 1975 to 1998 and earlier from the 15th century till 1795. The more recent one was superseded by Łódź Voivodeship and Masovian Voivodeship.

Its capital city was Płock.

 * Major cities and towns: (population in 1995):

 * Płock (126,900),
 * Kutno (51,000),
 * Gostynin (20,200).

Plock Voivodeship (15th century-1795)
Płock Voivodeship (Polish: Województwo Płockie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Kingdom of Poland from the 15th century till the partitions of Poland in 1795. Together with the Rawa Voivodeship and Masovian Voivodeship it formed the province of Mazovia.

Płock Voivodeship 1816 – 1837
Lublin Voivodeship was one of the voivodeships of Congress Poland. Formed from Płock Department, transformed into Płock Governorate.

title: Płock Voivodeship (1975–1998)


text:
Kincardineshire

Kincardineshire or the County of Kincardine, also known as the Mearns (from the Scottish Gaelic A' Mhaoirne meaning "the Stewartry"), is a historic county, registration county and lieutenancy area on the coast of northeast Scotland. It is bounded by Aberdeenshire on the north and west, and by Angus on the south.

The name "Kincardine" is also used in Kincardine and Mearns, a committee area of the Aberdeenshire Council, although this covers a smaller area than the county.

History
Anciently, the area was the Province of Mearns, bordered on the north by Marr, and on the west by Angus. The name of the province simply refers to its status; the more important provinces were governed by a great steward (Mormaer), while the less important ones were governed by a mere steward (Maer).

It included the burghs of Stonehaven, Banchory, Inverbervie and Laurencekirk, and other settlements included Drumoak, Muchalls, Newtonhill and Portlethen. Mearns extended to Hill of Fare north of the River Dee, but in 1891 the Royal Burgh of Torry (on the south bank of the Dee) was incorporated into Aberdeenshire.

The introduction of sheriffs in the 11th century created a parallel authority over the area, based at the town of Kincardine. The town of Kincardine was not, as many believe, the village of Kincardine O'Neil (which was actually in Marr), nor was it the Kincardine in Fife. The Kincardine in question is in fact a place that ceased to exist during the Middle Ages, its only visible remnant being the ruin of Kincardine Castle, 2 miles northeast of Fettercairn, near the hamlet of Phesdo.

In 1296, King John Balliol wrote a letter of surrender from the castle to Edward I of England after a short war that marked the beginning of the Wars of Scottish Independence. In 1600, the Estates of Parliament ordered the shrieval governance of Kincardineshire to be conducted at the Stonehaven Tolbooth.

In the mid-19th century, local government reforms replaced the ancient provinces by new Counties (shires), aligned to sheriffdom boundaries; hence, Mearns became Kincardineshire. The Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889 established a uniform system of county councils in Scotland and realigned the boundaries of many of Scotland's counties. Subsequently, Kincardineshire County Council was created in 1890. Kincardine County Council held its meetings at County Buildings in Stonehaven. There were additional offices at 33 Evan Street in Stonehaven from around 1920.

The county lost its administrative status in 1975. The area of Nigg in the north of the county became part of the City of Aberdeen, and the remainder of the county became part of the Kincardine and Deeside district of the Grampian region. When the Grampian region was divided into unitary council areas in 1996, the district was absorbed into the Aberdeenshire council area.

Geography
Roughly triangular in shape, Kincardineshire consists of the largely flat Strathmore area running parallel with the coast, with hillier, forested country in the interior, the latter forming part of the Grampian Mountains. The highest point is Mount Battock at 778 m (2,552 ft), lying on the border with Angus.

Rivers
Among the rivers are Cowie Water, Carron Water, Luther Water, Burn of Muchalls, Burn of Pheppie, Burn of Elsick, Burn of Monboys, Bervie Water and the lower reaches of the River Dee.

Structures and sites

 * Allardice Castle
 * Cowie Castle (ruins)
 * Catterline
 * Dunnottar Castle
 * Fetteresso Castle
 * Fowlsheugh Nature Reserve
 * Lewis Grassic Gibbon Centre, Arbuthnott
 * Muchalls Castle
 * Portlethen Moss
 * Stonehaven Tolbooth
 * Ury House

Coat of arms
The county's coat of arms displayed and reflected the history of the Honours of Scotland, which were kept at Dunnottar Castle and later at Kinneff, both within the historical boundaries of the county, during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. It was: Gules, the Sceptre and Sword of Scotland crosswise in saltire, with the Crown of Scotland in chief and a ruined castle on a mound in base, all or. The motto was LAUS DEO, Latin for "Praise God". It was originally the motto of the Viscounts of Arbuthnott, whose seat is in the county, and the 14th Viscount was Lord Lieutenant of Kincardine at the time of the arms' matriculation by the Lord Lyon in 1927.

Constituency
There was a Kincardineshire constituency of the House of Commons of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1708 to 1801 and of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1801 to 1918, representing the county of Kincardineshire, minus the parliamentary burgh of Inverbervie. Inverbervie was a component of the Aberdeen District of Burghs from 1708 to 1832 and of the Montrose District of Burghs from 1832 to 1950.

In 1918 the Kincardineshire constituency was merged with part of the Western Aberdeenshire constituency to form the Kincardine and Western Aberdeenshire constituency.

In 1950 Kincardine and Western Aberdeenshire was divided between the West Aberdeenshire constituency and the North Angus and Mearns constituency. North Angus and Mearns then covered the whole of the county of Kincardineshire, including the former parliamentary burgh of Inverbervie, and part of the county of Angus, the latter being previously within the Forfarshire constituency.

In 1983, eight years after the abolition of the local government county of Kincardineshire, North Angus and Mearns was replaced by new constituencies.

The county currently makes up part of the West Aberdeenshire and Kincardine constituency of the House of Commons.

Rail
The Edinburgh-Aberdeen railway line runs parallel to the coast and through the towns of Laurencekirk, Stonehaven and Portlethen.

Historic transport routes
The ancient Causey Mounth road was built on high ground to make passable this only available medieval route from coastal points south to Aberdeen. This ancient passage specifically connected the Bridge of Dee to Muchalls Castle, Cowie Castle (and effectively Dunnottar Castle). The route was that taken by the Earl Marischal and Marquess of Montrose when they led a Covenanter army of 9,000 men in the first battle of the Bishops' Wars in 1639.

Elsick Mounth is a prehistoric trackway used by the Caledonian tribes as well as the Roman army in their northern invasion of the Scottish Highlands.

Settlements

 * Altens
 * Arbuthnott
 * Auchenblae
 * Balnagask
 * Banchory
 * Bridge of Muchalls
 * Cammachmore
 * Catterline
 * Chapelton of Elsick
 * Cookney
 * Cove Bay
 * Crawton
 * Downies
 * Drumlithie
 * Edzell Woods
 * Fettercairn
 * Findon
 * Fordoun
 * Glenbervie
 * Gourdon
 * Inverbervie
 * Johnshaven
 * Kincorth
 * Kinneff
 * Kirkton of Durris
 * Laurencekirk
 * Luthermuir
 * Maryculter
 * Marykirk
 * Muchalls
 * Netherley
 * Newtonhill
 * Nigg
 * Old Portlethen
 * Portlethen
 * St Cyrus
 * Stonehaven
 * Tewel
 * Torry
 * Tullos

Notable people
The author Lewis Grassic Gibbon, born James Leslie Mitchell, was a Scottish writer. His Sunset Song is one of the best-known Scottish novels of the 20th century. It was voted Scotland's favourite book in a poll announced at the 2005 Edinburgh International Book Festival. Set in a fictional village in the Mearns, the book draws heavily from Mitchell's upbringing in Arbuthnott. One of the key features of the book, and some of his other writing, is the balanced and immersive use of the local Doric Scots dialect mixed with standard English, in a manner easily and enjoyably accessible to someone unfamiliar with the North East of Scotland.
 * See also Category:People from Kincardine and Mearns

Notable residents

 * Richard Henry Brunton, born in Kincardine
 * Cosmo Innes born in Durris Castle
 * Hercules Linton (1837–1900), born in Inverbervie, designer of the Cutty Sark
 * James Murdoch, born in Stonehaven
 * James Taylor (tea planter) born on the Monboddo estate, Laurencekirk
 * Robert William Thomson born in Stonehaven

title: Kincardineshire


text:
Przemyśl Voivodeship

Przemyśl Voivodeship  (województwo przemyskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland that existed from 1975 to 1998, superseded by the Podkarpackie Voivodeship. Its capital city was Przemyśl.

Major cities and towns (population in 1995)

 * Przemyśl (68,900)
 * Jarosław (41,800)

title: Przemyśl Voivodeship


text:
Talk:1440s

[Untitled]
It seems to me that this might be the spot to discuss the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg. It is a major event in that it helped to move us out of the middle ages and facilitated literacy in the common man. His work on the Gutenberg Bible is fascinating too. Imagine, there are still 48 copies in existence today! It has been interpreted (at least in part) in over 1,808 languages! What a shame that he was such a poor business man though!

title: Talk:1440s


text:
Piotrków Voivodeship

Piotrków Voivodeship (województwo piotrkowskie) was a voivodeship, or unit of administrative division and local government, in Poland from 1975 to 1998, superseded by Łódź Voivodeship. Its capital city was Piotrków Trybunalski.

Major cities and towns (population in 1995)

 * Piotrków Trybunalski (81,100)
 * Tomaszów Mazowiecki (70,000)
 * Bełchatów (59,900)
 * Radomsko (51,100)
 * Opoczno (21,900)

title: Piotrków Voivodeship


text:
Ostrołęka Voivodeship

Ostrołęka Voivodeship (województwo ostrołęckie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland in the period 1975–1998. It was superseded by Masovian Voivodeship. Ostrołęka.

Major cities and towns
Population on 31 December 1998.
 * [[Image:POL Ostrołęka COA.svg|30px]] Ostrołęka - 55 271
 * [[Image:POL Wyszków COA.svg|30px]] Wyszków - 26 154
 * [[Image:POL Ostrów Mazowiecka COA.svg|30px]] Ostrów Mazowiecka - 22 592
 * [[Image:POL Przasnysz COA.svg|30px]] Przasnysz - 17 556
 * [[Image:POL Maków Mazowiecki COA.svg|30px]] Maków Mazowiecki - 10 651
 * [[Image:POL Tłuszcz COA.svg|30px]] Tłuszcz - 6 708
 * [[Image:POL Różan COA.svg|30px]] Różan - 2 906
 * [[Image:POL Myszyniec COA.svg|30px]] Myszyniec - 2 815
 * [[Image:POL Chorzele alt COA.svg|30px]] Chorzele - 2 643
 * [[Image:POL gmina Brok COA.svg|30px]] Brok - 1 918

title: Ostrołęka Voivodeship


text:
Olsztyn Voivodeship

Olsztyn Voivodeship (województwo olsztyńskie) was an administrative division and unit of local government in Poland in the years 1945–75, and a new territorial division between 1975–1998, superseded by Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship. Its capital city was Olsztyn.

From 1945 to 1975 the Olsztyn Voivodeship covered a larger area.

Major cities and towns (population in 1995)

 * Olsztyn (167,400)
 * Ostróda (35,000)
 * Iława (32,600)
 * Kętrzyn (30,300)
 * Szczytno (27,500)
 * Bartoszyce (26,100)
 * Mrągowo (22,500)

title: Olsztyn Voivodeship


text:
Nowy Sącz Voivodeship

Nowy Sacz Voivodeship (województwo nowosądeckie) was a unit of administrative division and local government, located in southern Poland in the years 1975–1998, superseded by Lesser Poland Voivodeship. Its capital city was Nowy Sącz.

Major cities and towns (population in 1995)

 * Nowy Sącz (82,100)
 * Nowy Targ (34,000)
 * Gorlice (30,200)
 * Zakopane (30,000)
 * Limanowa (15,000)
 * Rabka
 * Szczawnica
 * Jordanów

title: Nowy Sącz Voivodeship


text:
Postal marking

A postal marking is any kind of annotation applied to a letter by a postal service. The most common types are postmarks and cancellations; almost every letter will have those. Less common types include forwarding addresses, routing annotations, warnings, postage due notices and explanations, such as for damaged or delayed mail and censored or inspected mail. A key part of postal history is the identification of postal markings, their purpose, and period of use.

Service marks provide information to the sender, recipient, or another post office. Advice marks notify about forwarding, missending, letters received in bad condition, letters received too late for delivery by a certain time, or the reason for a delay in mail delivery. (For example, a letter may be marked "snowbank" if snow accumulation not cleared by the potential recipient, or for whatever other reason, makes it difficult or impossible for the carrier to deliver the mail.) Dead letter offices would use various markings to keep track of their progress in finding the addressee, such as a notation that the letter had been advertised in the local newspaper. The tracking process for registered mail may entail multiple marks, notations and backstamps.

Auxiliary marks are applied by an organization other than the postal administration. For instance, 19th century mail delivery often relied on a mix of private ships, steamboats, stagecoaches, railroads, and other transportation organizations to transport mail. Many of these organizations applied their own markings to each item, sometimes saying simply "Steamship" or some such, while others had elaborate designs. Similar routing notations were also used in the early days of airmail.

Shortly after the outbreak of the American Civil War, the Northern authorities declared the existing postage stamps invalid and issued new types. Letters using the demonetized stamps received a marking "Old stamps not recognized", an unintentionally humorous comment much prized by collectors today.

Post offices may add cachets for special events such as a first flight.

The traditional way to apply a postal marking is with the use of a rubber or metal handstamp; handwritten notations are sometimes seen for unusual situations or in very small post offices. In the United States, modern postal markings may appear in the form of yellow adhesive labels with the text printed on them. Many postal administrations now have the ability to print inkjet annotations directly onto a cover, either as a barcode for reading by other equipment, or as text.

Although it is technically possible to query postal services to find out what kinds of postal markings they use, in practice they do not seem to know about all the kinds of handstamps used in their offices, and previously unknown types of postal markings, both early and modern, regularly come to light. Hundreds of specialized works make up the philatelic literature of postal markings.

title: Postal marking


text:
Hindu (disambiguation)

A Hindu is an adherent of Hinduism.

Hindu may also refer to:

Places

 * Hindu, Hiiu County, a village in Emmaste Parish, Hiiu County, Estonia
 * Hindu, Orissaare Parish, a village in Orissaare Parish, Saare County, Estonia
 * Hindu, Salme Parish, a village in Salme Parish, Saare County, Estonia
 * Hindu, the ancient Persian name of the Indus River

Publishing

 * The Hindu, an English-language newspaper published in India
 * Hindu Tamil Thisai, or The Hindu (Tamil), a Tamil-language newspaper published in India
 * The Hindu Group, an Indian publishing company that publishes The Hindu and the Hindu Tamil Thisai

Other uses

 * Hindu, adjective relating to the religion Hinduism
 * Hindú, an Argentine sports club based in Greater Buenos Aires
 * The Hindu (film), the original title of the 1954 American film Sabaka

title: Hindu (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:Dairy Queen

Dairy Queen in Moline and Green River
The story of the founding of DQ as I grew up hearing it involved sites in Moline Illinois and in nearly Green River/Colona, and an investor named Morey Nelson. Nelson was a friend/mentor of my uncle. I often was with my cousin playing in their yard when Nelson pulled up in his old Buick; invariably, he brought a sack of Dilly Bars for us kids. The story I learned later was that Nelson, who was a stock broker, had been approached by the inventor of the soft serve machine, and ultimately helped finance DQ. A store in Moline was the first store of their joint venture, and they set up a warehouse of sorts in Green River. The Wikipedia article on sort serve mentions some of this. Mobiledan (talk) 17:58, 27 September 2022 (UTC)

Country Basket
Throughout my life I've bounced back and forth between Colorado and Texas. Why is the Country Basket (Steakfinger Basket) not available in Colorado? All they have is the Chicken Strip basket. Are the steakfingers only available in Texas (or other southern states)? Crackawoods (talk) 17:39, 24 January 2023 (UTC)

Well apparently they were never available in Colorado but they were available in other states, however now they're only available in Texas and nowhere else.

https://z94.com/dairy-queen-quit-offering-steak-fingers-permanently/ Crackawoods (talk) 17:45, 24 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dairy Queen


text:
Civil township

A civil township is a widely used unit of local government in the United States that is subordinate to a county, most often in the northern and midwestern parts of the country. The term town is used in New England, New York, as well as Wisconsin to refer to the equivalent of the civil township in these states; Minnesota uses "town" officially but often uses it and "township" interchangeably. Specific responsibilities and the degree of autonomy vary in each state. Civil townships are distinct from survey townships, but in states that have both, the boundaries often coincide and may completely geographically subdivide a county. The U.S. Census Bureau classifies civil townships as minor civil divisions. Currently, there are 20 states with civil townships.

Township functions are generally overseen by a governing board (the name varies from state to state) and a clerk, trustee, or mayor (in New Jersey and the metro townships of Utah). Township officers frequently include justice of the peace, road commissioner, assessor, constable, in addition to surveyor. In the 20th century, many townships also added a township administrator or supervisor to the officers as an executive for the board. In some cases, townships run local libraries, senior citizen services, youth services, disabled citizen services, cemetery services, besides emergency assistance. In some states, a township and a municipality that is coterminous with that township may wholly or partially consolidate their operations.

Midwestern and central
Depending on the state, the township government has varying degrees of authority.

In the Upper Midwestern states near the Great Lakes, civil townships (known in Michigan as general law townships and in Wisconsin as towns), are often, but not always, overlaid on survey townships. The degree to which these townships are functioning governmental entities varies from state to state and in some cases even within a state. For example, townships in the northern part of Illinois are active in providing public services—such as road maintenance, after-school care, and senior services—whereas townships in southern Illinois frequently delegate these services to the county. Most townships in Illinois also provide services such as snow removal, senior transportation, and emergency services to households residing in unincorporated parts of the county. The townships in Illinois each have a township board, whose board members were formerly called township trustees, and a single township supervisor. In contrast, civil townships in Indiana are operated in a relatively consistent manner statewide and tend to be well organized, with each served by a single township trustee and a three-member board.

Civil townships in these states are generally not incorporated, and nearby cities may annex land in adjoining townships with relative ease. In Michigan, however, general law townships are corporate entities (e.g. they can be the subject of lawsuits), and some can become reformulated as charter townships, a status intended to protect against annexation from nearby municipalities and which grants the township some home rule powers similar to cities. In Wisconsin, civil townships are known as "towns" rather than townships, but they function essentially the same as in neighboring states. In Minnesota, state statute refers to such entities as towns yet requires them to have a name in the form "Name Township". In both documents and conversation, "town" and "township" are used interchangeably. Minnesota townships can be either Non-Urban or Urban (giving the township government greater power), but this is not reflected in the township's name. In Ohio, a city or village is overlaid onto a township unless it withdraws by establishing a paper township. Where the paper township does not extend to the city limits, property owners pay taxes for both the township and municipality, though these overlaps are sometimes overlooked by mistake. Ten other states also allow townships and municipalities to overlap.

In Kansas, some civil townships provide services such as road maintenance and fire protection services not provided by the county.

New England and New York
In New England and New York, states are generally subdivided into towns and cities, which are municipalities that provide most local services. With the exception of a few remote areas of New Hampshire and Vermont and about half of Maine, all of New England lies within the borders of an incorporated municipality. New England has counties, though in southern New England, they are strictly used as dividing lines for judicial systems and statistical purposes, while in northern New England, they often handle other limited functions, such as law enforcement, education and some public facilities in addition to judicial systems. New England also has cities, most of which are towns whose residents have voted to replace the town meeting form of government with a city form. Maine has a third type of township called a plantation, which previously existed in other New England states, that has more limited self-governance than other New England towns.

In portions of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, county subdivisions that are not incorporated are occasionally called townships, or by other terms such as "gore", "grant", "location", or "purchase".

The State of New York is subdivided into counties, which are subdivided into cities and towns—except for New York City, whose five coextensive counties for state government purposes are municipal boroughs for city government purposes (Bronx County/The Bronx, Kings County/Brooklyn, New York County/Manhattan, Queens County/Queens, and Richmond County/Staten Island). As in New England, the term "town" equates to "township" in most other states. Additionally, New Yorkers colloquially use the term "township" to mean "town". Townships and hamlets are unincorporated areas within a town or towns. Because towns are administrative divisions of a county, town boundaries cannot cross county lines. In addition to administrative subdivisions, New York State also has cities. Cities in New York are fully autonomous municipal corporations and, thus, are able to cross county lines and whose governments fully independent of county control.

Finally, New York and Vermont also have villages, which are smaller communities lying within the boundaries of a town that provide additional government services not provided by their parent town, such as sewage, fire, law enforcement, garbage collection, public facilities, water and building code enforcement. In Vermont, most current cities were actually former villages that broke off from their parent town. Connecticut has boroughs and non-consolidated cities, although these communities are not as autonomous as villages in New York and Vermont, and today there are only eight non-consolidated boroughs (plus the community of Groton Long Point) and one non-consolidated city.

Pennsylvania and New Jersey
A Pennsylvania township is a unit of local government, responsible for services such as police departments, local road and street maintenance. It acts the same as a city or borough. Townships were established based on convenient geographical boundaries and vary in size from six to fifty-two square miles (10–135 km2).

A New Jersey township is similar, in that it is a form of municipal government equal in status to a village, town, borough, or city, and provides similar services to a Pennsylvania township, and varies in size from one-tenth (Shrewsbury Twp.) to one hundred (Jackson Twp.) square miles.

Southern states
In the Southern U.S., outside cities and towns there is generally no local government other than the county.

Arkansas and North Carolina
Arkansas townships are the divisions of a county. Each township includes unincorporated areas; some may have incorporated cities or towns within part of their boundaries. Arkansas townships have limited purposes in modern times. However, the U.S. census does list Arkansas population based on townships (sometimes referred to as "county subdivisions" or "minor civil divisions"). Townships are also of value for historical purposes in terms of genealogical research. Each town or city is within one or more townships in an Arkansas county based on census maps and publications.

North Carolina is no exception to that rule, but it does have townships as minor geographical subdivisions of counties, including both unincorporated territory and also land within the bounds of incorporated cities and towns (as well as the extraterritorial jurisdiction of municipalities). Every county is divided into townships as mandated since the North Carolina Constitution of 1868. Some urbanized counties such as Mecklenburg County (Charlotte) now number their townships (e.g. "Township 12") rather than using names. Townships all over the state used to have some official organization and duties but now are only considered ceremonial divisions of each county. Township names are still used quite extensively at the county government level in North Carolina as a way of determining and dividing up areas for administrative purposes; primarily for collecting county taxes, determining fire districts (e.g. Lebanon Township in Durham County gives its name to the Lebanon Volunteer Fire Department), for real estate purposes such as categorizing land deeds, land surveys and other real estate documents, and for voter registration purposes. In most areas of North Carolina that are outside any municipal limit (outside cities or towns), townships are used to determine voter polling places, and in most instances county election boards divide up their voter precincts by township. However, there is no government per se at the township level in North Carolina, and there are no elected or appointed offices associated with townships.

Utah
In 2015 Utah created a form of civil township called a metro township. While each metro township has a mayor and township council, and manage a budget, and cannot be annexed without its permission, its powers of taxation are limited, and must contract with other municipalities or municipal shared-service districts for most municipal services (police, for example). The five metro townships—all located in Salt Lake County—are Kearns, Magna, Copperton, Emigration Canyon and White City.

States with civil townships
As of 2012, there were 16,360 organized town or township governments in the following 21 states:

 * Connecticut
 * Illinois
 * Indiana
 * Kansas
 * Maine
 * Massachusetts
 * Michigan
 * Minnesota
 * Missouri
 * Nebraska
 * New Hampshire
 * New Jersey
 * New York
 * North Dakota
 * Ohio
 * Pennsylvania
 * Rhode Island
 * South Dakota
 * Vermont
 * Utah
 * Wisconsin

States without civil townships
There were 29 states without organized town or township governments as of 2012:

 * Alabama
 * Alaska
 * Arizona
 * Arkansas
 * California
 * Colorado
 * Delaware
 * Florida
 * Georgia
 * Hawaii
 * Idaho
 * Iowa
 * Kentucky
 * Louisiana
 * Maryland
 * Mississippi
 * Montana
 * Nevada
 * New Mexico
 * North Carolina
 * Oklahoma
 * Oregon
 * South Carolina
 * Tennessee
 * Texas
 * Virginia
 * Washington
 * West Virginia
 * Wyoming

States which once had but no longer have civil townships

 * California had townships at statehood. County boards of supervisors had the authority to create, consolidate, or abolish townships as late as the 1920s. (See Category:Former townships in California.) A system of township assessors was established in some counties, but under the 1879 Constitution, townships were limited to judicial and law enforcement districts rather than administrative ones. As of 1967, every county was divided into townships for electoral purposes, but this was no longer the case by 1977. San Joaquin County's legal code continues to define that county's townships, although it does not delegate any powers or responsibilities to them.
 * Iowa had 1,608 townships in 1942. By 1952, their responsibilities and functions had essentially been absorbed by their counties, were considered "vestigial", and were no longer counted. Townships exist in Iowa, but are counted as administrative divisions of their counties and are not counted as having separate governments by the United States Census Bureau.
 * Oklahoma did have civil townships statewide upon statehood. On August 5, 1913, Oklahoma voters passed the Oklahoma Township Amendment, also known as State Question 58. This allowed the creation or abolishment of townships on a county by county basis. By the mid-1930s, all counties had voted to abolish them. Their former names and boundaries were used for United States census counting purposes and census documentation through 1960, after which Census Counting Divisions (CCDs) were used.
 * South Carolina had 2 townships in 1952, those of Folly Island and Sullivan's Island.
 * The 1870 Constitution of Virginia required the division of counties into townships, but an amendment in 1874 converted those townships into magisterial districts.
 * Washington had 70 townships in 1952, in only Spokane and Whatcom counties, for administration of local roads.

Canada
The provinces of Eastern Canada have, or have had, divisions that are analogous to the townships of the United States.

Ontario and Quebec continue to have townships that subdivide their respective counties.

Local government was introduced into Nova Scotia (which at the time also included the maritime provinces of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island) in 1749 in the form of townships controlled by a court of quarter sessions, a system that had characterized local government in Britain and Virginia. This court had both administrative and judicial functions, and took over most responsibilities of local government, including the appointment of necessary officers. A form of direct democracy was introduced into the townships by settlers from New England in 1760 with the help of a provincial statute. However, the statute was disallowed by the King in 1761, and direct democracy was replaced in the townships that had adopted it by the quarter sessions. Acts in 1855 and 1856 provided for the incorporation of self-governing townships, but only Yarmouth partook in incorporating, and abandoned the prospect after three years. These acts were repealed in 1879, and townships were replaced in the third quarter of the 19th century by self-governing municipalities.

title: Civil township


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Ross's gull

Ross's gull (Rhodostethia rosea) is a small gull, the only species in its genus, although it has been suggested it should be merged with the closely related genus Hydrocoloeus, which otherwise only includes the little gull.

This bird is named after the British explorer James Clark Ross. Its breeding grounds were first discovered in 1905 by Sergei Aleksandrovich Buturlin near the village of Pokhodsk in northeastern Yakutia, while visiting the area as a judge. The genus name Rhodostethia is from Ancient Greek rhodon, "rose", and stethos, "breast". The specific rosea is Latin for "rose-coloured".

Description
This small bird is similar in size and some plumage characteristics to the little gull. It is slightly larger and longer winged than the little gull, and has more pointed wings and a wedge-shaped tail. Its legs are red. Summer adults are pale grey above and white below, with a pink flush to the body feathering, and a neat black neck ring. In winter, the neck collar is lost, and a small dark crescent develops behind the eye; the pink colour, which is diet-related, is lost in some but not all individuals.

Young birds resemble winter adults, but have a dark "W" pattern on the wings in flight, like young little gulls, and lack the pink tones. The juveniles take two years to attain full adult plumage.

Ross's gull measurements:

 * Length: 29 –
 * Weight: 140 –
 * Wingspan: 90 –

Distribution and habitat
Ross's gull breeds in the high Arctic of northernmost North America, and northeast Siberia. It migrates only short distances south in autumn, most of the population wintering in northern latitudes at the edge of the pack ice in the northern Bering Sea and in the Sea of Okhotsk, although some birds reach more temperate areas, such as north west Europe; in February 2016 singles were sighted in Cornwall and Ireland according to the BTOs 'BirdTrack', in December 2021 two were seen in Belgium, one in Nieuwpoort and one in Zeebrugge. In North America, a Ross's gull has been spotted as far south as Salton Sea in California, although sightings this far south are extremely rare. The summer breeding grounds are tundra with sedges, grass tussocks, dwarf willows, bushes, lichens and pools.

Biology
The Ross's gull breeds in small colonies on tundras and swampy Arctic estuaries, often nesting with other seabirds such as Arctic terns. It lays two to three eggs in a nest on the ground lined with seaweed, grass or moss, often on an island in a little lake. The eggs are olive green with small reddish-brown spots. Incubation takes about three weeks and the chicks fledge in another three weeks. Not all pairs successfully rear their young as predators and bad weather often take their toll.

This bird will eat any suitable small prey such as small fish and crustaceans, and during the winter often feeds on mudflats like a wader. During the breeding season it is largely insectivorous, feeding on beetles and flies.

title: Ross's gull


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Emotional intimacy

Emotional intimacy is an aspect of interpersonal relationships that varies in intensity from one relationship to another and varies from one time to another, much like physical intimacy. Emotional intimacy involves a perception of closeness to another, sharing of personal feelings, and personal validation.

Description
Emotional intimacy can be expressed in verbal and non-verbal communication. The degree of comfort, effectiveness, and mutual experience of closeness might indicate emotional intimacy between individuals. Intimate communication is both expressed (e.g. talking) and implied (e.g. friends sitting close on a park bench in silence).

Emotional intimacy depends primarily on the degree of closeness, as well as the nature of the relationship and the culture in which it is observed. Emotional intimacy is different from sexual intimacy in that sexual intimacy can take place with or without emotional intimacy. Sexual intimacy differs from emotional intimacy because the latter often does not require any kind of sexual context. Emotional intimacy is a psychological event that happens when trust levels and communication between two people are such that it fosters the mutual sharing of one another's deepest selves. Depending on the background and conventions of the participants, emotional intimacy might involve disclosing thoughts, feelings and emotions in order to reach an understanding, offer mutual support or build a sense of community. Or it might involve sharing a duty, without commentary.

Deep intimacy requires a high level of transparency and openness. Closeness and vulnerability, which may be uncomfortable for some, are major pieces to emotional intimacy. This includes discussing both the positive and negative characteristics about one another. Conversation is a key point in every emotional intimate relationship. For example, a long-distance relationship is mostly based on conversation, along with a good balance of virtual sexual intimacy. A long-distance relationship can be stronger, in comparison to a normal one, because it forces the two partners to enhance the conversation process by asking productive questions to ensure mutual communication. There are great moments and also tough moments that come with any relationship. It is important to practice emotional intimacy in relationships and a lack of emotional intimacy could be solved by taking the time to be with your partner throughout the duration of your relationships. Many specialists suggest that talking about problems as soon as they arise is wise to continue emotional intimacy. Being honest, expressing appreciation, and routinely communicating also keeps stable emotional intimacy.

Emotional Intimacy Scale
The 5-item Emotional Intimacy Scale (EIS) is a scale which enables an evaluation of the emotional intimacy in a relationship. Its goal is to predict the different outcomes produced by the existence of an intimate relationship.

This scale is created with a study of different items which are fundamental components of an intimate relationship. Some persons need to answer to a questionnaire. They answer to judge the degree of truth of each of these components in comparison with their actual situation. There are five of them: These results are putting in correlation with specific values which characterize an individual such as psychological and physical well-being, social support, and health.
 * This person completely accepts me as I am
 * I can openly share my deepest thoughts and feelings with this person
 * This person cares deeply for me
 * This person would willingly help me in any way
 * My thoughts and feelings are understood and affirmed by this person

The results provided by the scale prove a positive relationship between an increase of EIS and an increase for the individual of social support, self-efficiency, life satisfaction and other positive effects. It also shows the negative relation between a decrease of EIS and an increase of stress, pain, and fatigue for the individual. An intimate relationship gives a sentiment of purpose and belonging which increases the physiological and psychological well-being.

title: Emotional intimacy


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Talk:Emotional intimacy

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Allerlesverts.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 20:31, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Comments
How does this definition draw a distinction from, say, "emotional gossip"? Mikkalai 07:37, 2 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Gossip is communication about third parties. Intimacy is communication about each other. If this definition doesn't make that distinction clear, it needs to be changed. You might as well do it 'cos I'm off to bed -- it's sleepy time for me. -- Derek Ross 07:41, 2 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Additions to page...
I hope you find my addition to the page acceptable. I am currently researching this topic and would be happy to continue to develop this stub. This is the first wikipedia.org stub I have expanded so please feel free to send feedback, suggestions, or just curious ideas. martin.lopatka@gmail.com

Minor nit
"It is necessary for human beings to have this form of intimacy on a regular basis..."

Necessary? I wouldn't say so, it's perfectly possible to go through life without being emotionally intimate with anybody. Bob the Pirate 19:27, 20 August 2005 (UTC)

I have a major problem with that final sentence, and it is the sole reason I put up the neutrality template. -Crimson Phantom Iam asking about anger in the closeness of people (or rough act of intimacy in the -or-woman)   -J.Dunbar  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.42.16.153 (talk) 01:17, 22 August 2008 (UTC)

Additions to the Sociology Part
I would like to add several things even if they are here only under the form of ideas: - The interdependence between all the individual contain our freedom. But, according to Hegel, the individual choose with who he is going to have an intimacy, and thus he can have more freedom and choose to be "ourselves". This intimacy, with the Love for example, create a stronger self-confidence which is developed by a process of socialization. - The freedom is even more important because it does not subject of the public property or of the private secrecy. - It is a social phenomenon so, it is influenced by the society but it also has an influence on the society. There is an evolution of the norms with the evolution of the intimacy. Allerlesverts (talk) 05:56, 25 February 2016 (UTC)
 * Outline

- Be more emotionally invested in a relationship than the partner can be considered as a lost of power. But Emotional Intimacy also enhance the physical and physiologic well-being ( Ornish 98.

- Berger and Keller : Conversation = crucial role in the building of intimacy and long distant can paradoxically facilitate it.

- The emotional intimacy is difficult to create cause of social barriers, norms. For example, an emotional intimacy between men is harsh to create because of the role of the man in the society, the competition pressure, the fear of the vulnerability, the homophobe. Olstad (1975), and Powers & Bultena (1976) shows that with the best friend relationship. Men have a lot of best friends of the same sex but a big majority discuss of the important topics and decisions with their female friends.Allerlesverts (talk) 04:23, 8 March 2016 (UTC)

 * Sources

- Alan M. Dahms, Emotional Intimacy: Overlooked Requirement for survival, (Fort Collins, Colo: Shield Publishers, 1972) to give a reference to the definition of the emotional intimacy in the introductory paragraph.

- Simon J. Williams, Emotion and Social Theory: Corporeal Reflections on the (Ir)Rational, (Sage Publication, 2001)

- Harry Blatterer, Everyday Friendships: Intimacy as Freedom in a Complex World, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015)

- Dean C. Dauw, Tom & Joan Watts, The Stranger in Your Bed: A Guide To Emotional Intimacy, (Nelson-Hall, Chicago 1984)

- Robert A. Louis, Journal of social issues, Emotional Intimacy among men, 1978

- Sinclair, Development and validation of the Emotional Intimacy Scale, ISSN : 1061-3749, Vol 13.

- Mcallister, Shelece, Thornock, Carly, Hammond, Jeffrey, Holmes, Errin, Hill: The influence of Couple Emotional Intimacy on Job Perceptions and Work-Family conflicts, Family and consumer Sciences Research Journal June 2012, Vol 40.

- Jurkane-Hobein, Iveta; Imagining the Absent Partner: Intimacy and Imagination in Long-distance relationships, Journal: Innovative Issues and appraoches in social sciences, vol 8.Allerlesverts (talk) 04:23, 8 March 2016 (UTC)

Allerlesverts (talk) 21:18, 24 February 2016 (UTC) - — Preceding unsigned comment added by Allerlesverts (talk • contribs) 04:34, 24 February 2016 (UTC)

 * This is a great start, Alexis, but I encourage you to look up academic articles from peer-reviewed journals. These can often be better starts than turning to books directly since books can be quite cumbersome to get through.  But this is a good start.  I wish you the best as you go to the library to conduct your research.  Please make sure to sign all your posts.  Alfgarciamora (talk) 14:26, 25 February 2016 (UTC)

Update, March 31, 2016
Well done, Alexis. You've added a substantial amount of content. One thing is that you don't need to write sentences such as "Berger and Kellner consider the conversation as a key point in every emotional intimacy relationship." You can, instead, just write sentences such as "The foundation of emotional intimacy begins with the conversation," or "The conversation is a key point in establishing emotional intimacy." Do you see the difference? You will still have the citation, so people will be able to go check out the Berger and Kellner piece, so you don't need that. They just need to read the facts in a neutral manner.

Moving forward to your final draft, I encourage you to do a few things. In addition to continuing your research, you should break up your second and third paragraphs because they are far too big. Make sure that each paragraph focuses on just one topic in particular. It is overwhelming for people going onto Wikipedia to see such a huge paragraph chunk. Second, I'd like for you to edit the grammar of your page. You have, for instance, sentences such as: "Olstad (1975), and Powers & Bultena (1976) show that with the best friend relationship." That is not a complete sentence (and, indeed, it does not follow the style that I mentioned above.

Third, I would like for you to expand your article by discussing what the "Emotional Intimacy Scale" is from the Sinclair citation. And finally, consider placing a photograph in the piece.

Overall, you've done an exceptional job here and you have received an A for your first draft. Well done. Alfgarciamora (talk) 17:12, 31 March 2016 (UTC)

Inappropriate relationship advice in 'Description'
In the third paragraph of the Description section, the excerpt 'There are great moments and also tough moments that come with any relationship .... also keeps stable emotional intimacy.' seems to be giving relationship advice, which I suspect may be violating Wikipedia's explicit purpose of neutrally describing info from secondary sources. Therefore I suggest the excerpt must be deleted. Is this acceptable? Factthinker (talk) 15:04, 3 August 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Criticism as Praxis
— Assignment last updated by Zmuri8 (talk) 22:27, 25 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Emotional intimacy


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Gabe Kaplan

Gabriel Weston Kaplan (born March 31, 1945) is an American actor, comedian, and professional poker player. He played the eponymous teacher in the 1970s sitcom Welcome Back, Kotter. He later became a professional poker player and a commentator for the series High Stakes Poker on PokerGO.

Early life
Kaplan was born in Brooklyn, New York City, to a Jewish family.

He was a student at New Utrecht High School but did not graduate.

Acting career
As a child, Kaplan had aspirations of being a Major League Baseball player. However, he was unable to make the roster of a minor league team and decided to pursue other interests. He began working as a bellman at a hotel in Lakewood, New Jersey. Touring comedians sometimes performed at the hotel, and Kaplan began to work toward his own career as a stand-up comedian. Gabe honed his standup routine in 1964 in places such as the Cafe Tel Aviv at 250 West 72nd Street, New York City.

Kaplan's comedy was successful, and he toured the country with his act based on his childhood experiences in Brooklyn. He appeared five times on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson from May 1973 to December 1974. During that time, he also recorded the comedy album Holes and Mello-Rolls, which included long routines about his high school days and other topics. The sitcom Welcome Back, Kotter, whose central characters he helped Eric Cohen and Alan Sacks create and whose core format he helped them to develop, was in part based on his comedy act. In the sitcom, Kaplan played Gabe Kotter, who returns as a teacher to the dysfunctional high school where he had been a student. The series ran from 1975 to 1979, and Kaplan bought a home in Palm Springs, California with his earnings. "Up your nose with a rubber hose!", sanitized from the original album line "Up your hole with a Mello-Roll!", became an unlikely catchphrase from the show. It became so popular that a comedy record by Kaplan, Up Your Nose, was released by Elektra Records. The record, co-written and co-produced by Kaplan, dented the Billboard Hot 100 in January 1977, peaking at #93. The phrase also became the title of a board game for the series, which came with a small, green tube to be inserted in a nostril by an opposing player upon the conditions required to recite the catchphrase.

From 1976 to 1978 and again in 1981, Kaplan participated in the ABC celebrity athletic competition Battle of the Network Stars. For the first five competitions, Kaplan was the captain of the ABC network team. In the very first competition, Kaplan defeated Robert Conrad, who was participating in the event representing the NBC team as its captain, in a race much to Conrad's chagrin. Kaplan, who was 31 at the time, passed Conrad, then 40, with a strong sprint to the finish line, giving ABC television network the win with 175 points. In 1981, Kaplan returned to the competition as the team captain for the NBC side, as he was appearing in the NBC TV show Lewis & Clark.

After Welcome Back, Kotter, Kaplan continued with his stand-up act and was in several movies, including a starring role in Fast Break in 1979. In 1982, he portrayed Groucho Marx in a play titled Groucho. A filmed version of the play aired on HBO in 1983.

Poker
Kaplan became involved in financial markets and poker during his acting career. He made his first appearance at the World Series of Poker in 1978. In 1980, Kaplan was considered one of poker's elite, as he won the main event at Amarillo Slim's Super Bowl of Poker and was presented with "a loving cup that was so enormous it made the gaudy gold bracelets given to the winners at the World Series of Poker look understated." Over the next five years his reputation was solidified as he made the final table at the Super Bowl's main event two more times.

In July 2004, Kaplan finished third in a World Poker Tour no-limit Texas hold 'em event, earning more than $250,000. He also finished second in the 2005 World Series of Poker $5,000 Limit Hold 'Em event, winning $222,515. Kaplan was joint TV commentator for the 1997 and 2002 WSOP events. In 2007, Kaplan won on NBC's Poker After Dark in the episode "Queens and Kings" after defeating Kristy Gazes heads-up and outlasting Howard Lederer, Ali Nejad, Vanessa Rousso and Annie Duke in a $20,000 buy-in, six-person No-Limit Texas Hold-Em winner-take-all Sit-and-Go.

In the 2007 World Series of Poker, Kaplan finished in ninth place in the $50,000 World Championship HORSE event, winning $131,424. As of June 2017, Kaplan's total live tournament winnings were $1,991,248. His eleven cashes at the WSOP were $539,159 of those winnings.

Kaplan won again on Poker After Dark during "Cowboys" week that first aired in February 2008 against Chris Ferguson, Andy Bloch, Chau Giang, Hoyt Corkins and Doyle Brunson. Kaplan's Poker After Dark win in the first week of the 2010 season (the "Commentators III" episode) was the greatest comeback in the show's history.

Kaplan returned to host High Stakes Poker when Season 8 aired on PokerGO in 2021 alongside A.J. Benza. He retired from his position after the first episode of Season 10, with Nick Schulman replacing him.

Later activities
Kaplan resumed performing stand-up comedy and worked on adaptations of Welcome Back, Kotter. He still plays poker frequently and became a commentator for poker events and televised poker shows, including the National Heads-Up Poker Championship on NBC, High Stakes Poker on GSN, and the Intercontinental Poker Championship on CBS.

In 2007, he appeared in Zak Penn's improvisational comedy The Grand as Seth Schwartzman, father of brother-and-sister poker players. Also in 2007, Kaplan published a book titled Kotter's Back: E-mails from a Faded Celebrity to a Bewildered World. In the book, people react to the e-mailed claims by Kaplan, such as that he:
 * has slept with more women than Wilt Chamberlain
 * is an expert at Cossack dancing
 * thinks he's smart enough to become a member of Mensa
 * would like NASA to send him into orbit with Jimmy Carter and Dr. J

The book also describes his e-mails:
 * to the Athens Olympic Committee offering to light the Olympic torch
 * to AAA (the auto club) about signing up for Alcoholics Anonymous
 * to the makers of Metamucil suggesting it feature constipated celebrities in its TV ads
 * to the Postmaster General offering to have his picture on a stamp.

In January 2011, GSN announced that Norm Macdonald would replace Kaplan as host of High Stakes Poker. Kaplan would return alongside A.J. Benza when PokerGO relaunched the show for Season 8 in 2020.

In December 2022, PokerGO announced Season 10 of High Stakes Poker. The first episode of the new season aired on January 24, 2023, and during the episode, Kaplan hinted at retirement. On January 25, 2023, Kaplan officially retired as the High Stakes Poker commentator with a replacement to be named on the next episode.

title: Gabe Kaplan


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Demond Wilson

Grady Demond Wilson (born October 13, 1946) is an American actor and author. The year he turned 26, he began playing the role of Lamont Sanford, the son of Fred Sanford (played by Redd Foxx) on the NBC sitcom Sanford and Son (1972–77). He also portrayed Oscar Madison on The New Odd Couple (1982–83) and appeared in the film Me and the Kid (1993).

Early life and career
Wilson was born in Valdosta, Georgia, in 1946, and grew up in New York City, where he studied tap dance and ballet. He made his Broadway debut at age four and danced at Harlem's Apollo Theater at twelve. Wilson was raised as a Catholic and served as an altar boy. Although his grandmother, Ada Mitchell, was Pentecostal, Wilson briefly discerned the Catholic priesthood. At age thirteen, Wilson's appendix ruptured, almost killing him, but he vowed to serve God as an adult in some ministerial capacity.

Wilson served in the United States Army from 1966 to 1968 and was in the 4th Infantry Division in Vietnam, where he was wounded. Upon returning home as a decorated veteran in the late 1960s, Wilson was featured in several Broadway and off-Broadway stage productions before moving to Hollywood, where he performed guest roles on several television series such as Mission: Impossible and All in the Family and acted in films such as The Organization (1971) and Dealing: Or the Berkeley-to-Boston Forty-Brick Lost-Bag Blues (1972).

Sanford and Son (1972–1977) and other acting projects
Later in 1971, after appearing as a robber on All in the Family with Cleavon Little, Wilson won the role of Lamont Sanford in the NBC sitcom Sanford and Son. Johnny Brown was considered for that role, but because of his commitment to Laugh-In, Wilson got the role instead. Wilson played Lamont through the run of the series, and became the star when Redd Foxx walked off the show in 1974 over a salary dispute with the producers and his character was written out for the rest of the season. Foxx returned the following year, and the pair worked together until 1977 when the show was cancelled. In 1980–1981, Foxx attempted to revive the show with the short-lived sitcom Sanford, but Wilson refused to reprise his role for the new series.

When asked in 2014 if he kept in touch with anybody from Sanford & Son, especially Foxx (who died on October 11, 1991), he responded:
 * No. I saw Redd Foxx once before he died, circa 1983, and I never saw him again. At the time I was playing tennis at the Malibu Racquet Club and I was approached by some producers about doing a Redd Foxx 50th Anniversary Special. I hadn't spoken to him since 1977, and I called the club where (Redd) was playing. And we met at Redd's office, but he was less than affable. I told those guys it was a bad idea. I never had a cross word with him. People say I'm protective of Redd Foxx in my book (Second Banana, Wilson's memoir of the Sanford years). I had no animosity toward Foxx (for quitting the show in 1977) because I had a million dollar contract at CBS to do Baby... I'm Back!. My hurt was that he didn't come to me about throwing the towel in - I found out in the hallway at NBC from a newscaster. I forgave him and I loved Redd, but I never forgot that. The love was there. You can watch any episode and see that.

Wilson also appeared in the films Full Moon High (1981), Me and the Kid (1993), and Hammerlock (2000).

Baby... I'm Back! (1978), and The New Odd Couple (1982–1983)
Wilson later starred as Raymond Ellis in the short-lived CBS comedy series Baby... I'm Back! and as Oscar Madison, opposite actor Ron Glass (who co-starred as Felix Ungar) in the ABC sitcom The New Odd Couple, a revamped black version of the original 1970–75 series on the same network which starred Jack Klugman and Tony Randall, which was in turn based on the 1968 film starring Jack Lemmon and Walter Matthau.

Author
Wilson has written several Christian books concerning the New Age Movement and the hidden dangers he believes it holds for society. New Age Millennium was released by CAP Publishing & Literary Co. LLC on December 1, 1998. Wilson, who has also authored children's books, called the book an "exposé" of certain New Age "symbols and slogans".

Wilson's memoir Second Banana: The Bittersweet Memoirs of the Sanford & Son Years was released on August 31, 2009. Wilson has said, "It's just a documented truth, behind the scenes factual account of what happened during those years. Redd (Foxx) and I were making history back in those days. We were the first Blacks to be on television in that capacity and we opened the door for all those other shows that came after us."

Later appearances and projects
Wilson has also made numerous guest appearances on the Praise the Lord program aired on the Trinity Broadcasting Network, and is a good friend of Clifton Davis. He also appeared as a guest star on the UPN sitcom Girlfriends, playing Lynn's biological father.

In the summer of 2011, Wilson started appearing with actress Nina Nicole in a touring production of the play The Measure of a Man by playwright Matt Hardwick. The play is described as "a faith-based production" and is set in a small town in south Georgia.

Wilson began work in 2010 to produce and act in a melodramatic family film based on the play Faith Ties. Says Wilson of the project: "I play a broken down old drunk whose wife and daughter are killed and he's given up on life. The protagonist is a pastor who is in the middle while he watches the lives of people crumbling around him."

Personal life
Wilson has been married to the former model Cicely Johnston since May 3, 1974. They have six children.

Wilson was childhood friends with Basketball Hall of Fame player Charlie Scott.

title: Demond Wilson