text:
User:JesseW

I still find the arguments at User:Hillman (selected quotes available here, locally, as the original location has been removed by the author's request) to be disturbing, sensible, and very worrying, but I've come back to Wikipedia, at least for a while, so I'm re-adding the rest of the content of my user page. ;-) I encourage everyone who comes across this page to go read them, and think about them.  As I understand them, the central point is that Wikipedia, along with many other cultural forces, are encouraging convenience over correctness, i.e. it's more important to find an answer than the best answer.  The specifics, which are as important as the general issues, are that, even as the absolute number of excellent article revisions stored on Wikipedia increases, the percentage of non-misleading article revisions is decreasing; i.e. people who want to use Wikipedia to mislead others are having more and more sucess.  This also is very disturbing to me, and causes me to strongly reconsider my participation in Wikipedia - it is not good work to do your part in polishing a building which is being increasingly taken over by filth.  I would be better off submitting corrections to resources which are not suffering from this maledy. This is saddening. I would love to hear any rebuttals, or even mere comments of sympathy, on my talk page. JesseW, the juggling janitor 07:03, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

Bit of code to copy over to my site when I get a chance: cmd.exe /c "javac "$(FULL_CURRENT_PATH)" || pause" 207.233.32.18 (talk) 18:50, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

Good thing, to look at: User:Phil_Sandifer/Craft_of_Research

Look at this: -> -> --> User:Lupin/autoedit.js

/Watchlists

I'm a janitor (see my RfA, and the log of my actions, and the log of any actions against me), although I generally try to avoid controversy.

Recovering from Wikipediholism - Just in case.

Hello. I'm astonished and impressed with the quality of Wikipedia. I hope to help out, probably as some kind of WikiFaerie. I'm also involved with various other Wiki's. Do not click here. It will bring up an ALPB.

I'm a Los Angeles native, currently on leave from Reed College, in Portland, Oregon, USA. Besides working on Wikipedia, I enjoy contra dance, hacking, juggling, and science fiction, as well as various political work. I've also taken aikido from the Venice Japanese Community Center and the Oregon Ki Society. You may find this amusing, if you are familar with SF TV shows. Hm. As of 08:49, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC) 06:58, 20 July 2005 (UTC) I have 2647 edits.(via Kate's Tools) <shrug>. Oh. I only fit one, not both, of the criteria for listing on the List of unemployed Discordians, even if I was notable. Thanks to User:A Man In Black for the idea of the list.

I think the Eternal September has come to Wikipedia and we are all going to go progressivly madder, but the GFDL makes it all okay, as we can start over somewhere else when we need to. -- 04:34, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

Recent interesting links
Good quote: "Wikipedia articles are all works-in-progress. To date there is not yet a system for formal review and fact-checking, so there are no public-ready articles at this time, only drafts." by brion vibber on wikitech-l 07:26, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

Excellent reply to "But how will the artists get paid without copyright?": The Digital Art Auction : Making Money when Information Wants to be Free by Crosbie Fitch. 07:26, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

If you want to know why the music industry is going to lose; Freeing the Mind : Free Software and the Death of Proprietary Culture. Wow. Particularly this quote: "What one can say is that in the world of zero-marginal cost, anarchist distribution--that is, distribution without exclusion from the act of distributing--produces inherently superior distribution. " and "when music under the present system leaves the production studio and passes through six hands, it isn't in the store yet. Whereas, in Stanley Milgram's United States, after six jumps, everybody who wants the music has it.". Wow. 11:15, 11 November 2005 (UTC)

A rather nice geography quiz on Oceania - I ought to know these, but I don't(yet): http://www.lizardpoint.com/fun/geoquiz/oceania_quiz.html JesseW 19:08, 27 August 2005 (UTC)

In case you were not aware of the USA Patriot Act and how its being used: here is an example. The news story referred to is available by searching google for site:www.reviewjournal.com FBI patriot act hotel Jan.

An excellent response to the Grand Theft Auto sex controversy: from mathew's journal 20:15, 6 August 2005 (UTC)

Some pretty pictures from BesigedB 17:42, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC): http://forums.beyondunreal.com/attachment.php?attachmentid=84549, http://forums.beyondunreal.com/attachment.php?attachmentid=84550.

Other Wiki User pages

 * Wikt:User:JesseW
 * Wikisource:User:JesseW
 * http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/User:JesseW
 * Meta:User:JesseW
 * wikiventory:User:JesseW
 * KB.mozillazine.org JesseW

If you want a picture of me, you can find one here. I'm juggling.

 * My website
 * My Reed webspace
 * My bookmarks at Scuttle.org

Useful links

 * gmane (mailing list aggregator) list of wikipedia mailing lists
 * Mirrors
 * Special:Newpages
 * User:Smoddy/Tools - ways of semi-automatically adding various default templates to pages...
 * Special:Listusers near my name

My subpages

 * User:JesseW/monobook.js - My collection of useful Wiki Tools. Quite worth checking out...
 * User:JesseW/monobook.css - CSS stuff, I don't remember what's in here...
 * User:JesseW/List_of_Image_doc_pages - an essay on the current problem with images without sources. 20:35, 2 September 2005 (UTC)
 * User:JesseW/Watchlists (and subpages listed there)
 * User:JesseW/ImportantWatchlist
 * User:JesseW/Full mirror list
 * User:JesseW/Maintain Watchlist
 * User:JesseW/BookmarkletsUniversal - A list of all the bookmarklets available on the web(pretty complete as of now).
 * User talk:JesseW/Children of Category Japan list
 * User:JesseW/status - which I use as a sort of sandbox...
 * User:JesseW/welcome - my slightly customized copy of Template:welcome, which is iritatingly protected.
 * User:JesseW/List of articles about websites - User:Lotsofissues asked me to make this list, so I did.
 * User:JesseW/wdb_format - an essay on the format of Microsoft Works database files (.wdb) which I reverse engineered (partially).

To Do

 * Make The Black Crook from the source I found.
 * Take the cleanup tag off Image processing - I think it was just added to clean up after a merge, which was reversed - it may need some improvement, but not general cleanup, I think. JesseW 29 June 2005 22:52 (UTC)
 * Add information, or at least a picture, to Plaid pantry(the portland, or chain) when I get back to Reed. 07:52, 26 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Do some juggling, take a picture of it, and add it to one of the juggling pages. (Suggested by Pedant 21:20, 2004 Dec 2 (UTC))

Interesting ideas

 * the earliest entry in Special:Log 2004-12-23, 03:21:00 . This is probably WP:BEANS...

 * I found a great book called the Encyclopedia of Fire ISBN 1-57356-302-1 ; I would like to pull a lot of the facts in it and put them into Wikipedia. It has articles on the history of big fires that are facinating.

 * I've sent emails to the makers of the DEEP THOUGHT: sightings of 42 page asking if they would release their stuff under GFDL so it could be improved on Wikipedia; I hope to hear back from them. If they say yes, it will be considerable work to import and Wikifiy the pages, and then start work on finding references, cross links, and page numbers.  Fun.

 * Work on a series of wikipedia pages on various commodities (apples, apparel, computer chips, etc.) listing where they are made, who makes them, how they are made, and who owns aspects of the above (means of production, intellectual property, consumers). 23:16, 1 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Funny or Odd

 * m:Web_Encyclopedia_Song
 * User:ClockworkTroll/Name_the_Admin_Candidate
 * VP (misc) note of support from a christian(yes, without caps) saying why e liked Wikipedia. Quite remarkable. JesseW 07:18, 22 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Someone defending edit warring "Edit warring is perfectly valid on Wikipedia" - Wow. Just so any innocent bystanders notice - This Is Not True.  Edit wars are a Bad Thing.
 * Some nuts are reproducing the whole Star Wars script in Wikipedia jargon. Amazing job. 06:04, 1 November 2005 (UTC)

Good, interesting pages

 * Articles_for_deletion/Lingnan_Primary_School - down at the bottom of the page, a long comment by User:Encephalon that I really wish he would put somewhere I could more easily reference it. Why WP:NOR, WP:V and WP:NPOV are so critical. JesseW, the juggling janitor 21:39, 30 September 2005 (UTC)
 * A comment on the purposes of Wikipedia that is remarkably apt and well said. JesseW, the juggling janitor 00:49, 9 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Power outage and linked pages. - Facinating stuff, considering that my house recently got a solar power system... 08:18, 30 July 2005 (UTC)
 * User:Mindspillage/sense - I try to follow this principle. Thanks for stating it, Mindspillage! JesseW 06:00, 21 July 2005 (UTC)
 * |A Village pump discussion on NPOV disputes - an example of a newbie sucessfully navigating eis first edit war without mortal wounds or damaging scars. Also includes a nice explanation of the real use of the NPOV tag. 07:19, 13 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius - we are Wikipedia. - we will create the material world! - or something like that.
 * m:James_explains_law - More than you thought there was to know about Copyright law, or Have you read the GFDL lately?
 * The_Wikipedian's Prayer
 * Wikistress; Just because it's not listed on Wikipedia.
 * Researching with Wikipedia - an excellent page
 * 1 E2 m I want to look at this more. 05:06, 15 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Image:San_Francisco_Bay_Area_Skyline_Blvd.jpg - A very good image I first found on the Wikipedia Quarto, and which I tracked down here after asking the person who submitted it to meta... JesseW
 * MPOV - a good list of symptoms of wikipedia kooks.
 * There are 40,283 links to the Sandbox, right now. Wow. 21:56, 14 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Up to 47,471 as of now. JesseW 06:24, 18 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Talk:legal research - I wrote a nice list of links to various Style pages there, as part of a discussion. 00:31, 15 July 2005 (UTC)
 * At_the_Oxford_Computing_summer_school An excellent example of the value of our hard work, from the VP(which is why it's a uneditable permalink; where should things like this go? JesseW 04:58, 25 August 2005 (UTC)
 * We have 90 registered user names that start with Jesus.  Quite odd.  JesseW, the juggling janitor 08:26, 9 September 2005 (UTC)
 * And people say Wikipedia is a form of self-abuse... JesseW, the juggling janitor 01:49, 4 February 2006 (UTC)

WikiOrganizations I support

 * WikiProject Wikipedia Namespace
 * WikiProject Wiki Syntax
 * WikiProject Kindness Campaign
 * WikiProject Fact and Reference Check
 * WikiProject Countering systemic bias
 * WikiProject Southern California
 * WikiProject Stub sorting

 * WikiProject User scripts

Code to print out a uniq list of pages from Speical:Contributions
Now I just need to figure out how to do it all in one with more than 500 contribs... BTW, it needs to be run from something like squarefree's bookmarklet javascript shell, since it outputs with print m=document.getElementById("bodyContent"); lis=m.getElementsByTagName("li"); myans=new Object ;for (n=0;n<lis.length;n++) { myans[lis[n].getElementsByTagName("a")[0].title]=1 }; for(q in myans){ print(""+q+"") } written as a quick hack on 02:00, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

Wiki-link bookmarklet
See Wiki-Link Game. I've lost. ;-) It skips redlinks and external links.

Note: you need to change "thenum" to set it to another number than 5. Written by me on 10:07, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC) javascript:void((function {thenum=5; m=0; z=document.getElementById("bodyContent").getElementsByTagName("A"); for (n=0;n<z.length;n++) {if (/\/wiki\//.test(z[n].href)) {m=m+1}; if (m==thenum) {document.location=z[n].href}}}))

Category Browsing Tools
I've written two python scripts that together let you browse through the Wikipedia catagory system and generate pictures of the network. They can be downloaded here. Please try them out, and complain if you can't figure out what they do, or if they break. Also, any patches or suggestions would be greatly appreciated. JesseW 11:59, 26 Oct 2004 (UTC)

If you wish to request a graph or textual list of the children and/or parents of a category, please ask on my Talk page. I'm happy to do it; I'll create them, upload them, and add them to this list(and let you know on your talk page. ;-) ) JesseW 02:51, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I have now updated the code. It now makes nicer looking text output and has more documentation. JesseW 23:28, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Forth release. Now the text output uses differnt headings for different depths. JesseW 05:16, 30 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Examples:
 * The parent's of Category:Bristol: Image:Bristol_parents.png
 * The children of (to 30 levels deep) Category:Japan: Image:japan_category_graph.png (see also the text version of the information, here.)
 * The children of Category:California(using my new wiki output format.): WikiProject California/categories

Bookmarklet
Wrote a bookmarklet to hide entries on my watchlist in which I am the last, listed, editor.

Note!! The current version of the script automatically identifies the user name, and the number of days displayed in the watchlist.

I release this script under the revised BSD license.

Sorry I couldn't get it to show up as a link. I'm working on it. JesseW 09:22, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Versions

 * v2: Automatically identifies your userName
 * v3: Automatically identifies the number of days set to display in your watchlist. This should also fix the bugs where it erases other bits of screen.  Please let me know.

The code
javascript:void((function{userName=document.getElementById%28%22contentSub%22%29.innerHTML.match%28/%22%28.%2B%29%22/%29%5B1%5D;q=document.getElementsByTagName(%22ul%22); for(n=0;n%22+z[x].innerHTML+%22\n%22}}; q[n].innerHTML=r}}}))

Bugs
User:Angela says that on Firefox 0.9.3 it erases the navigation bar rather than the watchlist entries. User:Angela says that on it erases the sidebar rather than the watchlist entries.
 * I suspect both of these are because the bookmark edits all the <ul> lists in the document, and on Firefox or it is picking up such lists in the wrong place.  I will test it on these places and see if the bug shows up for me.  If you also see the bug, or have any information about it, please add your comments on the Talk page, and I'll update this list. JesseW 03:53, 24 Oct 2004 (UTC)

I also use firefox but my copy erases both the bar and the watchlist entries...nice program though. [[User:BrokenSegue|BrokenSegue]] 23:51, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * I think both of these bugs should be fixed now. I'm identifying "ul" lists to change by their class="special" attribute now.  Please let me know if this is fixed. JesseW 10:33, 8 Nov 2004 (UTC)

wiktionary-get-page
(defun wiktionary-get-page (title) (interactive "M") ""  (progn (switch-to-buffer (get-buffer-create title)) (erase-buffer) (insert (shell-command-to-string (format "wget -q -O - \"%s?title=%s&action=edit\""		    "http://en.wiktionary.org/w/wiki.phtml"		     title))) (goto-char (point-min)) (search-forward "") (delete-region (point-min) (point)) (search-forward " ") (setq pos (- (point) 11))

(search-forward "wpEdittime") (setq et (buffer-substring (- (point) 18) (- (point) 32))) (message "Edittime is: %s" et) (delete-region pos (point-max))

(wikipedia-mode) (defvar wikipedia-edittime nil "*") (set (make-local-variable 'wikipedia-edittime) et)))

wiktionary-submit-page
Warning! Do not use this unless you know it's not broken in some subtle way. It is only a first draft and probably is broken or does something bad, or at best, fails to work. So be careful. And send me improvements. JesseW 05:16, 23 Oct 2004 (UTC) (defun wiktionary-submit-page  (title content summary edittime &optional username password minor watch section) "" 	 (http-post (concat "http://en.wiktionary.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=" 		 (http-url-encode title 'iso-8859-1) 		  "&action=submit") `(("wpTextbox1". content) 	   ("wpSummary". summary) 	   ("wpSave". "Save page")	   ("wpSection" ."") ("wpEdittime". edittime)) 'iso-8859-1))

Awards

 * [[Image:WikiMedal for Janitorial Services.png|left|WikiMedal for Janitorial Services]]
 * [[Image:Original_Barnstar.png|left|frame|For simple but beautiful additions to copyvio which made it so much easier to report copyvios! [[User:Dan100|Dan100]] (Talk) 20:14, 23 December 2005 (UTC)]](added to my talk page here)
 * [[Image:Original_Barnstar.png|100px|thumb|left|For being patient, intelligent, and sane on the mailing list, three characteristics that are so often lacking there. Cheers, [[User:Mindspillage|Mindspillage]] (spill yours?) 00:24, 7 July 2006 (UTC)]]

Amusing Incidents

 * Vandalism of my user page
 * 05:25, 13 July 2005 (UTC)
 * User_talk page
 * 05:25, 13 July 2005 (UTC)

Notes on thing's I've already done
(Things on here may be removed whenever I feel like it. The'll be available from history...)

Notes on provenence of Image:GeorgeClementPerkins.jpg
 * According to the person I spoke to (at the California State Capitol Museum; 916-324-0333):
 * first 13 or 16 govenor's portraits were by the same person
 * George Clement Perkins (governer from 1880-1883) portrait
 * artist was probably: william cogswell
 * koren benoit - art collection manager, might know more
 * good book in bookstore - Schaechtele, Molly Shoemaker. The Governors of California and their Portraits. Sacramento, CA: California State Capitol Museum Volunteer Association, 1995.
 * he will call back in about a half hour with more details.

 * I've checked that all 3364 images that I have deleted so far are all unlinked from anywhere. None of them were. JesseW, the juggling janitor 07:24, 26 November 2005 (UTC)
 * Added three pictures of the collapse of the Santa Monicia Freeway to Northridge earthquake. I hope someone will clean them up eventually...

 * Created Paul K. Keene - organic farmer, from NYTimes obit I have.

 * Cleaned about 25 items off the Category:Wikipedia articles needing their fiction made clear list. It's empty now. Hah. JesseW 08:05, 21 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * cleaned about 6 more off. empty again. JesseW 02:50, 19 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Make Billet from the source I found. - Finally done. Just a tiny job... JesseW 07:14, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Mathias Maul, the author of the Ultra-Complete Index of HHGttG, has put it under GFDL. I've added it; now the Wikification can begin. (Moved to done on 23:16, 1 Jan 2005 (UTC))

 * Organized the various lists of sources for articles, and made a template listing the actual pages with content. The template is Template:Article_resources. Good stuff. JesseW 11:03, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Changed my "nickname" so it references a staus template, which I can use to post messages on every page I sign. Unless I developer contacts me and says I'm personally causing major slowdown of the entire wikipedia, I'll keep it. JesseW User:JesseW/status   13:43, 18 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Removed, as I just read a thread on the VP saying it was a terrible idea. ;-) JesseW 14:03, 18 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Mirror notice
{| align="center" style="text-align:center; border:1px solid #ffc9c9; background-color:#FFFFF3;"  This page is from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. If you are viewing it elsewhere, you may be visiting an outdated mirror. Please direct yourself to the real thing at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:JesseW. If you find this material useful, please consider making a donation to Wikipedia, which hosts the creation of this material. Donations are used primarily for purchasing server equipment. You can donate here: http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Fundraising

TagLib - here because, oddly, this (the homepage for taglib) is not the top result on google; so I'm doing my small part to fix this.

Blog post from roughtype.com which I commented on just now: 06:44, 12 September 2006 (UTC) - linking for proof and rememberance's sake.

title: User:JesseW


text:
Gaeta

Gaeta (Southern Laziale: Gaieta) is a city in the province of Latina, in Lazio, Italy. Set on a promontory stretching towards the Gulf of Gaeta, it is 120 km from Rome and 80 km from Naples.

The town has played a conspicuous part in military history; its walls date to Roman times and were extended and strengthened in the 15th century, especially throughout the history of the Kingdom of Naples (later the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies).

Present-day Gaeta is a fishing and oil seaport and a renowned tourist resort. NATO maintains a naval base of operations at Gaeta.

Ancient times
Ancient Caieta was situated on the slopes of the Torre di Orlando, a promontory overlooking the Mediterranean Sea. It was inhabited by the Oscan-speaking Italic tribe of the Aurunci by the 10th-9th century BC. Only in 345 BC did the territory of Gaeta come under Rome's influence.

Caieta with its ltemperate climate like the neighbouring Formia and Sperlonga, became one of the earliest locations of villae maritimae, seaside villas and luxurious retreats for the Roman elite owned, for example, by Scipio Africanus (236-183 BC) and Gaius Laelius. Caieta was also linked to the capital of the Roman Empire by the Appian Way and its extension the Via Flacca.

The remains of the monumental villa of Lucius Marcius Philippus (consul 56 BC), stepfather of Augustus, are in Hotel Irlanda in the Arcella area. Lucius Munatius Plancus (consul in 42 BC) had a vast villa located on Monte Orlando overlooking the Gulf of Gaeta. His mausoleum, built at the end of the 1st century BC, is still an impressive monument inside a large clearing within the villa.

Lucius Sempronius Atratinus probably lived here as indicated by his mausoleum. Atratinus was suffect Consul in 40 and 34 BC, propraetor in Greece in 39 BC, and first admiral of Mark Antony's fleet from 38-34 BC.

In the Roman imperial age it continued as a popular resort for many important and rich characters of Rome. Emperor Domitian (r. 81-96 AD) also had a villa in the area.

Emperor Antoninus Pius restored the port, given its strategic relevance.

Remains of an aqueduct that supplied the town from the Conca hill can be seen a few metres from the villa of Hortensius.

Middle Ages
At the beginning of the Middle Ages, after the Lombard invasion, Gaeta remained under the suzerainty of the Byzantine Empire. In the following years, like Amalfi, Sorrento and Naples, it would seem to have established itself as a practically independent port and to have carried on a thriving trade with the Levant.

As Byzantine influence declined in Southern Italy, the town began to grow. For fear of the Saracens, in 840, the inhabitants of the neighbouring Formiæ fled to Gaeta. Though under the suzerainty of Byzantium, Gaeta had then, like nearby ports Naples and Amalfi, a republican form of government with a dux ("duke" or commanding lord under the command of the Byzantine Exarch of Ravenna), as a strong bulwark against Saracen invasion.

Around 830, it became a lordship ruled by hereditary hypati or consuls: The first of these was Constantine (839–866), who in 847 aided Pope Leo IV in the naval fight at Ostia. At this same time (846), the episcopal see of Gaeta was founded when Constantine, Bishop of Formiae, fled thither and established his residence. He was associated with his son Marinus I. They were probably violently overthrown (they disappeared suddenly from history) in 866 or 867 by Docibilis I, who, looking rather to local safety, entered into treaties with the Saracens and abandoned friendly relations with the papacy. Nevertheless, he greatly expanded the duchy and began the construction of the palace. The greatest of the hypati was possibly John I, who helped crush the Saracens at Garigliano in 915 and gained the title of patricius from the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII.

The principle of co-regency governed the early dynasties: Docibilis I associated John with him, and John, in turn, associated his son Docibilis II with him. In 933, three generations were briefly co-ruling: John I, Docibilis II, and John II. On the death of Docibilis II (954), who first took the title dux, the duchy passed from its golden age and entered a decline marked by a division of territory. John II ruled Gaeta and his brother, Marinus, ruled Fondi with the equivalent title of duke. Outlying lands and castles were given away to younger sons, and thus the family of the Docibili slowly declined after the mid-century.

Allegedly, but improbably, from the end of the 9th century, the principality of Capua claimed Gaeta as a courtesy title for the younger son of its ruling prince. In the mid-10th century, the De Ceremoniis of Constantine VII lists the ceremonial title "prince of Gaeta" among the protocols for letters written to foreigners.

Prince Pandulf IV of Capua captured Gaeta in 1032 and deposed Duke John V, assuming the ducal and consular titles. In 1038, Prince Guaimar IV of Salerno took it from him and, in 1041, established the Norman counts of Aversa, who were afterwards princes of Capua, as puppet dukes. The native dynasty made a last attempt to wrest the duchy from Guaimar in 1042 under Leo I of Gaeta.

In 1045, the Gaetans elected their Lombard duke, Atenulf I. His son, Atenulf II, was made to submit to the Norman Prince Richard I of Capua in 1062 when Gaeta was captured by Jordan I of Capua. In 1064, the city was placed under a line of puppet dukes, appointed by the Capuan princes, who had usurped the ducal and consular titles. These dukes, usually Italianate Normans, ruled Gaeta with some level of independence until the death of Richard III of Gaeta in 1140. In that year, Gaeta was definitively annexed to the Kingdom of Sicily by Roger II, who bestowed on his son Roger of Apulia, who was duly elected by the nobles of the city. The town did maintain its coinage until as late as 1229 after the Normans had been superseded by the centralising Hohenstaufen.

Gaeta, owing to its important strategic position, was often attacked and defended bravely in the many wars for possession of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In 1194 the Pisans, allies of Emperor Henry VI in the conquest of the kingdom, took possession of the city and held it as their own.

In 1227, Frederick II, who was King of Sicily since 1198, was in the city and strengthened the castle. However, in the struggle between Frederick and the Papacy, in 1228, it rebelled against Frederick II and surrended to the pope after the Papal forces destroyed the castle in the fray. After the peace of San Germano of 1230, it was returned to the Sicilian kingdom. In 1233, Frederick regained control of the important port and fortress. Following the division between the Kingdom of Sicily, Gaeta became a possession of the new Kingdom of Naples. In 1279 Charles I of Anjou rebuilt the castle and enhanced the fortifications. In 1289 King James II of Aragon besieged the city in vain. From 1378 Gaeta hosted for some years antipope Clement VII. The future King of Naples Ladislaus lived in Gaeta from 1387. Here, on 21 September, he married Costanza Chiaramonte, whom he repudiated three years later.

King Alfonso V of Aragon (as Alfonso I of Naples) made Gaeta his beachhead for the conquest of the Kingdom of Naples in 1435, besieged it, and to his disadvantage, displayed great generosity by aiding those unable to bear arms which had been driven out from the besieged town. After a disastrous naval battle, he captured it and gained control of the kingdom. He enlarged the castle, which became his royal palace, and created a mint. In 1451 the city was home to the Treaty of Gaeta, stipulated between Alfonso V and the Albanian lord, Skanderbeg: the treaty ensured protection of the Albanian lands in exchange for political suzerainty of Skanderbeg to Alfonso.

Modern era
In 1495, King Charles VIII of France conquered the city and sacked it. The following year, however, Frederick of Naples regained it with a tremendous siege which lasted from 8 September to 18 November. In 1501 Gaeta was retaken by the French; however, after their defeat at the Garigliano (3 January 1504), they abandoned it to Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Ferdinand II of Aragon's general.

In 1528 Andrea Doria, admiral of Charles V, defeated a French fleet in the waters off Gaeta and gave the city to its emperor. Gaeta was thenceforth protected with a new and more extensive wall encompassing Monte Orlando.

In the War of the Spanish Succession, on 30 September 1707, Gaeta was stormed and taken after a three-month siege by the Austrians under General Daun. On 6 August 1734, it was taken by French, Spanish and Sardinian troops under the future King Charles III of Spain after a stubborn defence by the Austrian viceroy of four months. Charles' daughter Infanta Maria Josefa of Spain was born here in 1744. The fortifications were again strengthened; in 1799, the French temporarily occupied it.

On 18 July 1806, the French captured it under André Masséna, after a heroic defence. It was created as a duché grand-fief in the Napoleonic Kingdom of Naples, but under the French name Gaète, for finance minister Martin-Michel-Charles Gaudin, in 1809 (family extinguished in 1841). On 8 August 1815, it capitulated to the Austrians after a three-months siege. It had been attacked and partially reduced by ships of the Royal Navy on 24 July 1815.

After his flight from the Roman Republic, Pope Pius IX took refuge at Gaeta in November 1848. He remained in Gaeta until 4 September 1849.

On 1 August 1849, USS Constitution while in port at Gaeta, received onboard King Ferdinand II and Pope Pius IX, giving them a 21-gun salute. This was the first time a Pope set foot on American territory or its equivalent. Finally, in 1860, Gaeta was the scene of the last stand of Francis II of the Two Sicilies against the forces of United Italy. The king offered a stubborn defence, shut up in the fortress with 12,000 men and was inspired by the heroic example of Queen Maria Sophie after Giuseppe Garibaldi's occupation of Naples. It was not until 13 February 1861 that Francis II was forced to capitulate when the withdrawal of the French fleet made bombardment from the sea possible, thus sealing the annexation of the Kingdom of Naples to the Kingdom of Italy. Enrico Cialdini, the Piedmontese general, received the victory title of Duke of Gaeta. During the functioning of the Government of Montenegro in exile from 1919 to 1924, that supported the Petrović-Njegoš dynasty and opposed the rule of the house of Karađorđević in Yugoslavia (The Greens) were located in Gaeta.

Contemporary age
After the Risorgimento and until World War II, Gaeta grew in importance and wealth as a seaport. The nearby town of Elena, separated after the Risorgimento and named after the queen of Italy, was reunited with Gaeta following World War I. Benito Mussolini transferred Gaeta from the southern region known today as Campania (formerly Terra di Lavoro, to which it is historically and culturally attached) to the central region of Lazio.

After the king dismissed Mussolini in the summer of 1943, the latter was initially taken via Gaeta to the island prison of Ponza. After Italy surrendered to the Allies, however, the town's fortunes began to decline. Recognizing its strategic importance and fearing an Allied landing in the area, German troops occupied the city and expelled most of the population. The exclusion zone extended five kilometres from the historical city centre. Soon after, however, the population was expelled even beyond this point. The Gaetani were finally ordered to leave the area completely. Those who could not be placed in a concentration camp and a few were taken to Germany.

Following the Allied advance across the Garigliano River and the Allied occupation of Rome, the Gaetani were allowed to return to their city and begin the process of rebuilding. In subsequent decades the city has boomed as a beach resort, and it has seen some success marketing its agricultural products, primarily its tomatoes and olives. Many of its families count seamen among their number. However, the decades since World War II have been as difficult for Gaeta as they have been for most of Italy's Mezzogiorno. In particular, its importance as a passenger seaport has nearly vanished: ferries to Ponza and elsewhere now leave from the nearby town of Formia. All attempts to build a permanent industry as a source of employment and economic well-being for the town have failed. Notable losses include the Littorina rail line (now used as a parking lot and a marketplace), the AGIP refinery (nowadays a simple depot), and the once-thriving glass factory, which has become an unused industrial relic.

Gaeta does have a viable tourism industry, as it is a popular seaside resort. Its warm, rain-free summers attract people to its numerous beaches along the coastline, such as Serapo and Sant'Agostino's beaches. Nearly equidistant to Naples and Rome, Gaeta is a popular summer tourist destination for people from both cities' metropolitan areas.

Main sights
The main attractions of the city include:
 * The Aragonese-Angevine Castle. Its origins are uncertain: most likely it was built in the 6th century, in the course of the Gothic War, or during the 7th century to defend the town from the Lombards' advance. The first documents mentioning it date to the age of Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, who strengthened it in 1233. The current structure is made of two different edifices: the "Angevine" one, in the lower sector, dating to the House of Anjou's rule in the Kingdom of Naples; and the "Aragonese", at the top, built by emperor Charles V, together with the other fortifications that made Gaeta one of the strongest fortresses in southern Italy. The Angevine wing housed a military jail until the 1980s (German war criminal officers Walter Reder and Herbert Kappler were imprisoned here). Now it is a property of the Gaeta municipality, which uses it for conferences and exhibitions. In the dome of the tallest tower is the Royal Chapel, built by King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies in 1849.
 * The Mausoleum of Lucius Munatius Plancus (22 BCE) is a cylindrical travertine monument at the top of Monte Orlando (168 m). It stands at 13.20 m and has a diameter of 29.50 m. Another important Roman public man, Lucius Sempronius Atratinus, Mark Antony's fleet commander, has a mausoleum sited in the more recent district of Gaeta: of similar diameter; it is, however not as well preserved.
 * The Sanctuary of SS. Trinità was mentioned as early as the 11th century and visited, among the others, by St. Francis and Saint Philip Neri. The Crucifix Chapel was built in 1434 over a rock which had fallen from the nearby cliffs. From the sanctuary, the Grotta del Turco can be visited: it is a grotto which ends directly in the sea and where the waves create atmospheric effects of light.
 * Sanctuary of Santissima Annunziata - A church and adjacent hospital were built at the site in the 14th century but rebuilt at the beginning of the 17th century in Baroque style by Andrea Lazzari. It houses works by Renaissance painters including Andrea Sabbatini and GF Criscuolo; as well as late-Baroque artists such as Luca Giordano, Sebastiano Conca and Giacinto Brandi. The church has a Gothic-style sarcophagus of Enrico Caracciolo. Also notable is the Golden Chapel or Grotto, a Renaissance-style chapel where Pope Pius IX meditated before issuing the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. The ceiling is gilded, and the walls contain 19 canvases (1531) by Criscuolo. The main altarpiece is an Immacolata by Scipione Pulzone.
 * San Giovanni a Mare - The church was initially built outside the old sea walls by the hypate Giovanni IV in the 10th century. It combines the basilica form with the Byzantine one. The simple façade has a Gothic portal and a dome, while the interior has a nave with two aisles. The inner pavement is slightly inclined to allow waters to flow away in the case of maritime floods.
 * The Cathedral of Assunta e Sant'Erasmo was erected over a more ancient church, Santa Maria del Parco, and consecrated by Pope Paschal II in 1106: it had a nave with six aisles separated by columns with Gothic capitals. In 1778, however, two of the aisles were suppressed, and the Gothic lines were hidden. In the 13th century, Moorish arches were added over the capitals. In 1663 the crypt was decorated in Baroque style. The interior houses a banner from the Battle of Lepanto, donated by Pope Pius V to Don John of Austria, who used it as his admiral's flag. The main sight of the church is, however, the marble Paschal candelabrum, standing 3.50 m tall, from the late 13th century: it is in Romanesque style, decorated with 48 reliefs in 4 vertical rows, telling the Stories of the Life of Jesus. There are also paintings by Giacinto Brandi and Giovanni Filippo Criscuolo. The cathedral contains the relics of St. Erasmus, transferred from Formia; the remarkable campanile, in Arab-Norman style, dates from the 12th century. At the base are slabs and parts of columns from ancient Roman edifices.
 * The Cathedral has a great bell tower, standing at 57 m, which is considered the city's finest piece of art. The base has two marble lions, and the whole construction largely reused ancient Roman architectural elements. The upper part, octagonal in plan, with small Romanesque arches with majolica decoration, was completed in 1279.
 * The Chapel of the Crucifix is a curiosity: built on a huge mass of rock that hangs like a wedge between two adjoining walls of rock. Legend tells how the rock was thus split at Christ's death.
 * San Francesco - According to the legend, the church was constructed by the saint himself in 1222. In reality, Frederick II ordered the construction. The church features a fine Gothic-Italian style and hosts paintings and sculptures by many of the most famous Neapolitan artists.
 * The parish church of Santa Lucia, the former St. Maria in Pensulis, was once a Royal chapel and here prayed Margaret of Durazzo and King Ladislaus. It originally had Romanesque and Sicilian-Arab lines, but in 1456 it was rebuilt in Renaissance style and 1648 adapted to a Baroque one. The site has a Mediaeval pronaos with ancient fragments and figures of animals.
 * The Medieval Quarter of Gaeta is itself of interest. It lies on the steep sides of Mount Orlando and has characteristic houses from the 11th-13th centuries.

Gaeta is also the centre of the Regional Park of Riviera di Ulisse, which includes Mount Orlando, Gianola and the Scauri Mounts, and the two promontories of Torre Capovento and Tiberius' Villa in Sperlonga.

U.S. Navy base
In 1967, the homeport of the U.S. Sixth Fleet flagship relocated from Villefranche-sur-Mer to Gaeta. Support facilities were established in Mount Orlando. This was done following the transfer of the responsibilities of Lead Nation for NATO Naval Forces in the Mediterranean from the United Kingdom to the United States. The British Mediterranean Fleet was abolished - its former base in Malta was no longer exclusively under British control due to that nation having achieved independence from the UK.

It is currently used as the home port for the flagship of the United States Sixth Fleet. The Sixth Fleet commander, typically a 3-Star US Navy Vice-Admiral, has operational control of Naval task forces, battle groups, amphibious forces, support ships, land-based surveillance aircraft, and submarines in the Mediterranean Sea. Gaeta's role has been important since the early 19th century to the US Navy's commitment to forward presence. Pope Pius IX and King Ferdinand II of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, paid visits to the USS Constitution while in Gaeta in 1849. Nine ships have been stationed in Gaeta, with the primary mission of serving as the flagship for the Sixth Fleet commander. The first was the USS Little Rock (CG-4). Other Sixth Fleet flagships included USS Springfield (CLG-7), USS Albany (CG-10), USS Puget Sound (AD-38), USS Coronado (AGF-11), USS Belknap (CG-26) and USS La Salle (AGF-3). The current flagship is the USS Mount Whitney (LCC-20).

The town is host to the families of the crews who work on the ship. There was a DOD school for American children and the US Naval Support Activity, Gaeta, which provided health care and other services until it was closed down in 2005. The NATO base itself was located on Monte Orlando, which overlooks the Gulf of Gaeta. It has recently been transferred to a shore-based facility where the Commander Sixth Fleet also operates.

Culture
Gaeta has erected a monument to John Cabot, who discovered Canada in 1500. Other people associated with the town include the painters Giovanni da Gaeta and Giovanni Filippo Criscuolo. For a full list, see People from Gaeta.

Gaetans speak a dialect of Italian that, while similar to the nearby Neapolitan, is one of the few Italian dialects to preserve Latin's neuter gender.

Distinctive local cuisine includes the tiella, which resembles both a pizza and a salty crostata. Tiella can be made with several stuffings. Typical stuffings include diced squids with parsley, garlic, oil, hot pepper and just enough tomato sauce for colour. Other stuffings include endives and baccalà (dried and salted cods), eggs and courgettes, spinaches, rapini and sausages, ham and cheese. The town is also known for its distinctive brand of olives, marketed throughout the world (the main production, however, takes place in neighbouring Itri), and its beaches (Serapo, Fontania, Ariana, Sant'Agostino). Sciuscielle, mostaccioli, susamelli, and roccocò are also local desserts most often made during the Christmas season. A Latin text found in Gaeta dating from 997 AD contains the earliest known usage of the word "pizza".

The most famous folklore event of Gaeta is Glie Sciusce of 31 December, in which bands of young Gaetani in traditional costumes head to the city's streets, playing mainly self-built instruments.

International relations
Gaeta is twinned with:
 * 🇺🇸 Cambridge, United States, since 1982
 * 🇫🇷 Frontignan, France
 * 🇺🇸 Mobile, United States
 * 🇺🇸 Somerville, United States
 * 🇲🇪 Cetinje, Montenegro, since 2012
 * Babolsar, Iran, since 2016

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gaeta


text:
Anushirvan

Anushirvan (Middle Persian: Anōšagruwān,, Anūšīrvān) or Nushirvan may refer to:

People

 * Khosrow I (501–579), known as Anushirvan, Sasanian king
 * Anushirvan Sharaf al-Ma'ali (1030–1050), Ziyarid king
 * Anushirvan ibn Lashkari, Shaddadid ruler (1049)
 * Anushirwan, Ilkhan khanate (died 1356)
 * Husain Shah Chak (1563–1570), Chak Sultan, was popularly known as Nushirvan of Kashmir
 * Darashaw Nosherwan Wadia (1883–1969), Indian geologist
 * Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata (1839–1904), Indian industrialist, founder of the Tata Group and Jamshedpur
 * Dara Nusserwanji Khurody (1906–1983), Indian dairy entrepreneur
 * Noshirvan Nagarwala (1909–1998), Indian cricket umpire
 * Rustomjee Naserwanjee Khory (1839–1904), Indian physician and writer
 * Yazdi Naoshriwan Karanjia (born 1937), Indian theatre personality

Places in Iran

 * Anushirvan, Iran, a village in North Khorasan Province, Iran
 * Anushirvan, Kermanshah, a village in Kermanshah Province, Iran
 * Anushirvan, Sistan and Baluchestan, a village in Sistan and Baluchestan Province, Iran

title: Anushirvan


text:
List of world heavyweight boxing champions

At boxing's beginning, the heavyweight division had no weight limit, and historically the weight class has gone with vague or no definition. During the 19th century many heavyweights were 170 pounds (12 st 2 lb, 77 kg) or less, though others weighed considerably more. John L. Sullivan was the first widely recognized champion under Marquess of Queensberry rules. Known as the "Boston Strong Boy", Sullivan weighed around 200 pounds when in shape, and helped transition the sport from its bare-knuckle era. Sullivan would be defeated for the title by "Gentleman" Jim Corbett over 21 rounds on September 7, 1892, the first heavyweight titleholder solely under Queensberry rules.

In 1920, a de facto minimum weight for a heavyweight was set at 175 pounds (12 st 7 lb, 79 kg) with the standardization of a weight limit for the light heavyweight division. The addition of the cruiserweight division, which began in 1979, reset the de facto minimum, first to 190 pounds and then to 200 pounds in 2004 when boxing's major sanctioning bodies universally raised the weight limit at which they would recognize champions. The World Boxing Council created a new division called bridgerweight for boxers weighing between 200 and 225 pounds. As of June 2022, no other major organization has recognized the division.

The championship of the heavyweight division has been fractured or disputed at various times in its history. Until the 1960s, such disputes were settled in the ring, typically with alternate title claimants largely being forgotten. The rise of sanctioning organizations, however, have produced an environment where typically there is no single world heavyweight champion, with titleholders recognized by one of these organizations (a "World Champion") or more (a "Super Champion", a "Unified Champion", or, in the rare cases where the four most prominent organizations recognize the same boxer, an "Undisputed Champion").

Some title reigns are considered dubious owing to long periods of inactivity, the legitimacy of the organization granting championship recognition, and other factors. In 1967, for example, Muhammad Ali was denied a boxing license in every U.S. jurisdiction and stripped of his passport because of his refusal to be inducted into the armed forces. On April 29, 1967, his recognition as champion by both the World Boxing Association and World Boxing Council was withdrawn. Yet Ali remained the lineal champion and was recognized by The Ring and most boxing purists until his defeat in 1971. In pursuit of greater revenues, some organizations have now adopted a practice of simultaneously recognizing multiple champions in a weight division, creating a situation in which a champion may be unable not only to secure recognition from multiple sanctioning bodies but to secure sole recognition from a single one.

Public acclamation: 1884 to 1921
World champions were initially recognized by wide public acclamation, with heavyweight champions winning and losing championship recognition solely in the ring. Retirements periodically resulted in no one, true champion being recognized, while in other cases new champions were proclaimed only to see a previously recognized champion come out of retirement. Public interest in boxing resulted in a true champion being determined by means of title claimants facing one another in the ring, with the winner being recognized as world champion.

The Ring magazine: 1922 to present
The Ring has recognized heavyweight champions during two periods, commencing with its inaugural issue in 1922 and continuing until the 1990s, then again from 2002 to the present day. Under its original policy, a champion earned championship recognition in the ring, defeating the preceding champion or winning a bout between its top rated contenders. Once awarded, championship recognition could be lost only by death, retirement, or loss in the ring. In 2012, this policy was revised so championship recognition could be more easily awarded or withdrawn.

Sanctioning bodies: 1921 to present
The National Boxing Association (NBA) was organized in 1921 to serve as a regulating authority for boxing in the United States. The prominence of New York City as the epicenter of boxing would lead to its state boxing regulatory body, the New York State Athletic Commission (NYSAC) joining the NBA in recognizing world champions in each weight class. A third entity, the European Boxing Union (IBU) would follow suit, but with limited exception in the heavyweight division the three organizations recognized the same champion.

At its 1962 convention, the NBA's non-United States members exploited a membership rule and took effective control of the organization, rebranding it as the World Boxing Association. The now WBA would be joined the following year by a combination of state and national boxing commissions (including the NYSAC and IBU) to form a new organization, the World Boxing Council (WBC). In time, each organization would have its own spin-off sanctioning organization break from its ranks: the United States Boxing Association, which disassociated with the WBA in the late 1970s and became the International Boxing Federation in 1983, and the World Boxing Organization, whose members would split from the WBC in 1988. Today there are over a dozen sanctioning organizations which recognize champions and sanction world championship bouts, but the WBA, WBC, IBF, and WBO are recognized by the International Boxing Hall Of Fame as major sanctioning bodies.

List of combined reigns
As of May 26, 2024.

Keys:
 * Active title reign
 * Reign has ended
 * WBO heavyweight title bouts before August 23, 1997 are not includedSeveral IBHOF inductees’ professional boxing records printed in the organization's official record books indicate that IBHOF did not recognize WBO as a major organization until at least August 23, 1997:

 * IBHOF official record book, 1997 edition
 * Sugar Ray Leonard's opponent Thomas Hearns, who was defending the WBO super middleweight title against him on 12 June 1989, is not marked as World Champion
 * IBHOF official record book, 1999 edition
 * Sugar Ray Leonard's opponent Thomas Hearns, who was defending the WBO super middleweight title against him on 12 June 1989, is not marked as World Champion
 * IBHOF official record book, 2002 edition
 * Sugar Ray Leonard's opponent Thomas Hearns, who was defending the WBO super middleweight title against him on 12 June 1989, is not marked as World Champion
 * IBHOF official record book, 2006 edition
 * Sugar Ray Leonard's opponent Thomas Hearns, who was defending the WBO super middleweight title against him on 12 June 1989, is not marked as World Champion
 * Michael Carbajal's opponent Josue Camacho, who was defending the WBO junior flyweight title against him on 15 July 1994, is not marked as World Champion
 * Michael Carbajal's opponent Jorge Arce, who was defending the WBO junior flyweight title against him on 31 July 1999, is marked as World Champion
 * IBHOF official record book, 2011 edition
 * Sugar Ray Leonard's opponent Thomas Hearns, who was defending the WBO super middleweight title against him on 12 June 1989, is not marked as World Champion
 * Michael Carbajal's opponent Josue Camacho, who was defending the WBO junior flyweight title against him on 15 July 1994, is not marked as World Champion
 * Ricardo Lopez's opponent Alex Sanchez, who was defending the WBO minimumweight title against him on 23 August 1997, is marked as World Champion
 * Michael Carbajal's opponent Jorge Arce, who was defending the WBO junior flyweight title against him on 31 July 1999, is marked as World Champion

List of individual reigns
The list includes The Ring belt. Career total time as champion (for multiple time champions) does not apply.

Keys:
 * Active Title Reign
 * Reign has ended
 * The WBO heavyweight title bouts before August 1997 are not included


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List of municipalities in Washington

Washington is a state located in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. As of the 2020 U.S. census, Washington is the 13th most populous state, with inhabitants, and the 18th largest by land area, spanning 66,455.52 sqmi of land. Washington is divided into 39 counties and contains 281 municipalities that are divided into cities and towns.

Legally, a city in Washington can be described primarily by its class. There are five classes of municipalities in Washington: first class city, second class city, town, unclassified city, and code city.

 * First class cities are the 10 cities with a population over 10,000 at the time of reorganization and operating under a home rule charter. They are permitted to perform any function specifically granted them by Title 35 RCW (Revised Code of Washington).
 * Second class cities are the 9 cities with a population over 1,500 at the time of reorganization and operating without a home rule charter. Like first class cities, they are permitted to perform any function specifically granted them by Title 35 RCW.
 * Towns are the 69 municipalities with a population of under 1,500 at the time of reorganization. Towns are not authorized to operate under a charter. Like the previously listed cities, they are permitted to perform any function specifically granted them by Title 35 RCW. In 1994, the legislature made 1,500 the minimum population required to incorporate.
 * Unclassified cities are cities that are not operating under any other class. Only one city—Waitsburg, in Walla Walla County—is unclassified. It operates under the 1881 territorial charter under which it was organized, eight years before Washington was admitted to the Union in 1889.
 * Code cities were created by the state legislature in order to grant the greatest degree of local control to municipalities possible under the state constitution and general law. This classification has been adopted by 192 municipalities in Washington. Code cities (shorthand for optional municipal code cities, as encoded by Title 35A RCW) are authorized to perform any function not specifically denied them in the state constitution or by state law. They may perform any function granted to any other city classification under Title 35 RCW.

A city in Washington can be described by its form of government. Cities and towns are specifically authorized three forms of government: Commission, Mayor-Council, Council-Manager. The last city to use the three-member commission form of government was Shelton. In a 2017 Proposition, the residents voted to adopt the council-manager structure. Most cities in Washington have the mayor-council form of government, which calls for an elected mayor and an elected city council. Cities with a council-manager system have an elected council and appointed city manager. In addition, if the population of code cities is over 10,000, they may incorporate as charter code cities. They may then "set out any plan of government deemed 'suitable for the good government of the city'" (RCW 35A.08.050), which need not be a commission, mayor-council, or council-manager form. No charter code city has opted for a different type of government.

The largest municipality by population in Washington is Seattle with 737,015 residents, and the smallest municipality by population is Krupp with 49 residents. The largest municipality by land area is Seattle, which spans 83.84 mi2, while Beaux Arts Village is the smallest at 0.08 mi2.

List of cities
‡

†

title: List of municipalities in Washington


text:
User:Morwen/test

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title: User:Morwen/test


text:
Yamam

Yamam (יחידה מרכזית מיוחדת; Special Central Unit), also known as National Counter-Terrorism Unit, is Israel's national counter-terrorism unit, one of four special units of the Israel Border Police. The Yamam is capable of both hostage-rescue operations and offensive take-over raids against terrorist targets in civilian areas. Besides military and counter-terrorism duties, it also performs tactical unit duties and undercover police work.

History
The Yamam was established in late 1974 after the Ma'alot massacre, where a failed rescue operation by the Sayeret Matkal commando unit of the Israel Defense Forces resulted in the murder of 21 schoolchildren before the hostage takers were killed. Since hostage rescue tactics in friendly territory differ from those used in hostile areas, it was decided to establish an elite police unit which develops and practices a special CQB (Close Quarters Battles) doctrine for counter-terrorism operations in friendly territory and hostage rescue.

Operational record after the Second Intifada
On May 23, 2006, a Yamam force, using intelligence provided by the Shin-Bet, arrested Ibrahim Hamed after an IDF Caterpillar D9 armored bulldozer started ramming the house in which he was hiding. On September 23, 2014, a Yamam force, together with Israel Defense Forces Combat Engineering Corps bulldozers, killed the two Hamas members accused of killing three Israeli teens in June 2014.

Operational record during Operation Breakwater (2022–2023)
On April 2, 2022, YAMAM operators killed 3 Palestinian Islamic Jihad militants, reportedly on their way to an attack. On August 19, 2022, YAMAM operators killed Ibrahim al-Nabulsi, a commander of the Lions' Den militant group. On October 25, 2022, YAMAM led a combined raid (with the Israel Defense Forces and the Shin Bet) on what the IDF said was the Lions' Den headquarters and bomb lab in Nablus. On January 26, 2023, YAMAM led a combined raid (with the Israel Defense Forces and the Shin Bet) on Jenin refugee camp, which the IDF said was targeted against members of Palestinian Islamic Jihad who were planning an attack. Nine Palestinians were killed in the attack, including an unarmed civilian.

Operational record during the Hamas led-attack on October 7, 2023, and afterwards
On October 7, 2023, YAMAM forces were the first to respond to the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel and the numerous massacres conducted by Palestinians in Israeli communities and towns. YAMAM operators killed in combat 200 armed Hamas gunmen and conducted several hostage rescue operations. YAMAM lost 9 operators and officers who were killed in action.

On February 12, 2024, YAMAM rescued two Israeli hostages in Rafah, together with the Shin Bet and the Israeli Defense Forces, in a military covert raid code-named Operation Golden Hand.

On June 8, 2024, YAMAM rescued four hostages in the Nuseirat Refugee Camp, together with the Shin Bet and the Israeli Defense Forces, in Operation Arnon. During the operation, Squad Commander Arnon Zamora, 36, was killed in combat. Noa Argamani, an Israeli citizen kidnapped in the Re'im Music festival massacre, was rescued in the operation. During the operation, according to the IDF, under 100 Palestinians were killed. According to Hamas, 210 were killed.

Selection and training
Yamam recruits veterans of Israel Defense Forces and Israel Border Police combat units who completed their compulsory service. Applicants must have served in a regular IDF combat unit and completed a commander's course (Rifleman 08), served in an IDF special forces unit, or served in a Border Police Mista'arvim unit. The unit's training course lasts seven months, divided into three months of basic counter-terrorism training during which recruits go through basic combat training, as well as training in hand-to-hand combat, urban combat, and use of specialized weapons, followed by four months of advanced training.

Honors
The unit received number of honor citations (TZALASH, ציון לשבח) from the Commissioner of the Israeli Police: 2011, 2014, 2016, 2020, and 2022.

In 2022 the unit received an honor citation from the Israel Defense Forces Chief of the General Staff (צל"ש הרמטכ"ל) for their fighting during Operation Breakwater.

title: Yamam


text:
Volturno

The Volturno (ancient Latin name Volturnus, from volvere, to roll) is a river in south-central Italy.

Geography
It rises in the Abruzzese central Apennines of Samnium near Castel San Vincenzo (province of Isernia, Molise) and flows southeast as far as its junction with the Calore Irpino near Caiazzo and runs south as far as Venafro, and then turns southwest, past Capua, to enter the Tyrrhenian Sea in Castel Volturno, northwest of Naples. The river is 175 km long.

After a course of some 120 km it receives, about 8 km east of Caiazzo, the Calore River. The united stream now flows west-southwest past Capua, where the Via Appia and Latina joined just to the north of the bridge over it, and so through the Campanian plain, with many windings, into the sea. The direct length of the lower course is about 50 km, so that the whole is slightly longer than that of the Liri-Garigliano, and its basin far larger.

Its main tributaries are San Bartolomeo, Lete, Torano, Rivo Tella, Titerno, Calore Irpino and Isclero.

History
The river has always had a considerable military importance, and the colony of Volturnum (no doubt preceded by an older, possibly even Etruscan, port of Capua) was founded in 194 BC at its mouth on the south bank by the Romans; it is now about one mile inland. A fort had already been placed there during the Roman siege of Capua to serve, with Puteoli, for the provisioning of the army. Augustus placed a colony of veterans here. The Via Domitiana from Sinuessa to Puteoli crossed the river at this point, and some remains of the bridge are visible. The river was navigable as far as Capua.

In 554, the Byzantine general Narses defeated a Frankish-Alamannic army near this river, during the Gothic War.

Following the invasion of southern Italy by revolutionary forces led by Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860, Francis II of the Two Sicilies fled from Naples and took up a defensive position on the south bank of the Volturno, near S. Maria di Capua Vetere. The Piedmontese troops and those of Garibaldi inflicted on the Neapolitan forces at the battle of the Volturno, on 1 and 2 October, a defeat which led to the fall of Capua.

The Volturno also gave its name to the Volturno Line, a German defensive position in Italy during World War II.

title: Volturno


text:
Okachimachi Station

Okachimachi Station (御徒町駅) is a railway station in Taito, Tokyo, Japan, operated by East Japan Railway Company (JR East).

Lines
Okachimachi Station is served by the circular Yamanote Line and also the Keihin-Tohoku Line. Although not physically connected, Naka-Okachimachi on the Tokyo Metro Hibiya Line, Ueno-hirokōji on the Tokyo Metro Ginza Line, and Ueno-okachimachi on the Toei Oedo Line are within walking distance of Okachimachi and marked as interchanges on route maps.

Station layout
The station is on a raised viaduct running in a roughly north-south direction. There are two exits, the north exit (北口) and south exit (南口). Both exits have ticket vending machines and toilets; however, the north exit has a Midori no Madoguchi staffed ticket office and escalators to the platforms. Luggage lockers are available at the south exit.

Platforms
The station has two island platforms with two tracks on either side of each platform. Platforms 1 and 4 (the outermost tracks) serve the Keihin-Tohoku Line, while platforms 2 and 3 (the inner tracks) are used for Yamanote Line trains. This platform arrangement allows for easy cross-platform interchanges so that passengers may transfer between lines in the same direction by walking across the platform.

East of the platforms lie tracks of the Ueno-Tokyo Line. These are themselves built on former tracks of the Tohoku Main Line running to Tokyo Station, that had been used for stabling trains when construction of the Tohoku Shinkansen took over land near Kanda Station previously used by the Tohoku Main Line, forcing services to terminate at Ueno Station instead.

The Yamanote Line platforms are equipped with chest-high platform edge doors, installed in March 2014.

History
The station opened on 1 November 1925. Waist-high platform edge doors were installed on the Yamanote Line platforms in March 2014, scheduled to be brought into operation from 10 May. From 14 March 2015, rapid services on the Keihin-Tohoku Line began serving the station on weekends and national holidays only.

Station numbering was introduced in 2016 with Okachimachi being assigned station numbers JY04 for the Yamanote line and JK29 for the Keihin-Tōhoku line.

Passenger statistics
In fiscal 2013, the station was used by an average of 67,593 passengers daily (boarding passengers only), making it the 64th-busiest station operated by JR East. The daily average passenger figures (boarding passengers only) in previous years are as shown below.

Surrounding area
Okachimachi Station is in the centre of a busy commercial district stretching southwards from Ueno Station. Particularly well-known is Ameya-Yokochō ("Ameyoko"), a busy shopping street dominated by small market-style stalls selling a wide variety of wares. Ameyoko runs parallel to the railway line and includes a large market under the railway tracks.

The station is also very near Ueno Park's south entrance.

title: Okachimachi Station


text:
Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg

Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg is the second borough of Berlin, formed in 2001 by merging the former East Berlin borough of Friedrichshain and the former West Berlin borough of Kreuzberg. The historic Oberbaum Bridge, formerly a Berlin border crossing for pedestrians, links both districts across the river Spree as the new borough's landmark (as featured in the coat of arms).

The counterculture tradition especially of Kreuzberg has led to the borough being a stronghold for the Green Party. While Kreuzberg is characterised by a high number of immigrants, the share of non-German citizens in Friedrichshain is much lower and the average age is higher. The merger between the distinct quarters is celebrated by an annual anarchic "vegetable fight" on the Oberbaumbrücke. Both parts have to deal with the consequences of gentrification.

History
The Berlin district of Kreuzberg-Friedrichshain has a rich and complex history that reflects the city's changing political and cultural landscape over the past two centuries.

Located in the heart of the city, Kreuzberg and Friedrichshain were once separate neighborhoods that were united into a single district in 2001. The area is known for its diverse and vibrant cultural scene, as well as its history as a center of political activism and counterculture.

Kreuzberg has a long history as a working-class neighborhood and was heavily damaged during World War II. After the war, the area became home to many immigrants, including Turkish and other migrants from the Middle East and Europe. In the 1970s and 1980s, Kreuzberg became a center of political activism and alternative culture, with a large youth and student population. Friedrichshain, on the other hand, has a more diverse history. It was originally a working-class neighborhood, but was heavily bombed during World War II and then divided by the Berlin Wall after the war. After the fall of the Wall in 1989, Friedrichshain underwent a process of gentrification and became a popular neighborhood for artists, students, and young professionals. In recent years, both Kreuzberg and Friedrichshain have become popular tourist destinations, known for their lively streets, diverse cultural scene, and rich history.

Subdivision
Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg is divided into 2 localities, Friedrichshain and Kreuzberg.

District council
The governing body of Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg is the district council (Bezirksverordnetenversammlung). It has responsibility for passing laws and electing the city government, including the mayor. The most recent district council election was held on 26 September 2021, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Party ! Lead candidate ! Votes ! % ! +/- ! Seats ! +/- ! colspan=3| Valid votes ! 139,270 ! 99.3 ! ! ! ! colspan=3| Invalid votes ! 951 ! 0.7 ! ! ! ! colspan=3| Total ! 140,221 ! 100.0 ! ! 55 ! ±0 ! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout ! 198,561 ! 70.6 ! 8.5 ! !
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
 * align=left| Clara Hermmann
 * 48,254
 * 34.6
 * 1.9
 * 22
 * 2
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| The Left (LINKE)
 * align=left| Oliver Nöll
 * 30,124
 * 21.6
 * 0.8
 * 13
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
 * align=left| Andy Hehmke
 * 20,554
 * 14.8
 * 2.5
 * 9
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
 * align=left| Timur Husein
 * 10,898
 * 7.8
 * 0.1
 * 5
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
 * align=left| Marlene Heihsel
 * 6,561
 * 4.7
 * 1.5
 * 3
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Die PARTEI
 * align=left| Riza Cörtlen
 * 5,214
 * 3.7
 * 0.9
 * 2
 * ±0
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
 * align=left| Frank Scheermesser
 * 4,333
 * 3.1
 * 3.1
 * 1
 * 2
 * colspan=8 bgcolor=lightgrey|
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Tierschutzpartei
 * align=left|
 * 3,185
 * 2.3
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Volt Germany
 * align=left|
 * 2,922
 * 2.1
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Klimaliste
 * align=left|
 * 2,329
 * 1.7
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| dieBasis
 * align=left|
 * 2,267
 * 1.6
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Bergpartei
 * align=left|
 * 989
 * 0.7
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| The Humanists
 * align=left|
 * 528
 * 0.4
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| We are Berlin
 * align=left|
 * 506
 * 0.4
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| Open List Friedrichshain
 * align=left|
 * 321
 * 0.2
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Ecological Democratic Party
 * align=left|
 * 285
 * 0.2
 * 0.2
 * 0
 * ±0
 * New
 * align=left| Open List Friedrichshain
 * align=left|
 * 321
 * 0.2
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Ecological Democratic Party
 * align=left|
 * 285
 * 0.2
 * 0.2
 * 0
 * ±0
 * 0.2
 * 0
 * ±0
 * colspan=8| Source: Elections Berlin
 * }
 * }

District government
The district mayor (Bezirksbürgermeister) is elected by the Bezirksverordnetenversammlung, and positions in the district government (Bezirksamt) are apportioned based on party strength. Clara Herrmann of the Greens was elected mayor on 6 December 2021. Since the 2021 municipal elections, the composition of the district government is as follows:

Twin towns – sister cities
Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg is twinned with:

 * 🇸🇾 Al-Malikiyah, Syria (2017)
 * 🇩🇪 Bergstraße (district), Germany (1969)
 * 🇩🇪 Ingelheim am Rhein, Germany (1971)
 * 🇹🇷 Kadıköy (Istanbul), Turkey (1996)
 * 🇮🇱 Kiryat Yam, Israel (1990)
 * 🇩🇪 Limburg-Weilburg, Germany (1980)
 * 🇧🇬 Oborishte (Sofia), Bulgaria (1999)
 * 🇩🇪 Porta Westfalica, Germany (1968)
 * 🇳🇮 San Rafael del Sur, Nicaragua (1986)
 * 🇵🇱 Szczecin, Poland (1996)
 * 🇩🇪 Wiesbaden, Germany (1964)

title: Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg


text:
Kebab

Kebab (, ;, kabāb, كباب, ; kebap, ), kabob (North American), kebap, or kabab (Kashmir) is roasted meat. Many variants of kebab are popular around the world, and the term means different things in different countries. The generic term kebab usually refers to doner kebab in Europe and to gyros in the United States, though its meaning can vary. In South Asia the term can refer to a whole range of items such as Chappali kabab, Shami kabab, Bihari kabab and so on.

Kebabs consist of cut up or ground meat, sometimes with vegetables and various other accompaniments according to the specific recipe. Although kebabs are typically cooked on a skewer over a fire, some kebab dishes are oven-baked in a pan, or prepared as a stew such as tas kebab. The traditional meat for kebabs is most often lamb meat, but regional recipes may include beef, goat, chicken and sometimes even fish

History

In Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq's 10th-century Baghdadi cookbook Kitab al-Tabikh (كتاب الطبيخ), a compendium of much of the legacy of Mesopotamian, Persian, and Arab cuisines, there are descriptions of kabāb as cut-up meat, either fried in a pan or grilled over a fire.

However, while the word kebab or shish kebab may sometimes be used in English as a culinary term that refers to any type of small chunks of meat cooked on a skewer, kebab is mainly associated with a diversity of meat dishes that originated in the medieval kitchens of Persia (Now Iran) and Anatolia. The word has ancient origins. It was popularized in the West by Turks to refer to a range of grilled and broiled meat, which may be cooked on skewers, including stews, meatballs, and many other forms. This cuisine has spread around the world, in parallel with Muslim influence. According to Ibn Battuta, a Maghrebi traveller, kebab was served in the royal houses during the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526), and even commoners would enjoy it for breakfast with naan. Kebab dishes have been adopted and integrated with local cooking styles and innovations, from the now-ubiquitous doner kebab fast food, to the many variations of shish kebab, such as the satays of Southeast Asia.

The word likely came to English in the late 17th century from the Persian kabāb, partly through Hindustani, and Turkish. According to linguist Sevan Nişanyan, the Turkish word kebap is also derived from the Persian word kabāb, meaning roasted meat. It appears in Turkish texts as early as the 14th century, in Kyssa-i Yusuf (lit. 'the story of Joseph'), though still in the Persian form. Nişanyan states that the word has the equivalent meaning of 'frying, burning' with kabābu in the old Akkadian language, and kbabā כבבא in Aramaic. In contrast, food historian Gil Marks says that the medieval Arabic and Turkish terms were adopted from the Persian kabab, which probably derived from the Aramaic.

The American Heritage Dictionary also gives a probable East Semitic root origin with the meaning of 'burn', 'char', or 'roast', from the Aramaic and Akkadian. The Babylonian Talmud instructs that Temple offerings not be kabbaba (burned). These words point to an origin in the prehistoric Proto-Afroasiatic language: *kab-, to burn or roast.

Varieties by region
In most English-speaking countries, a kebab may be the classic shish kebab or souvlaki – small cubes of meat cooked on a skewer – or made with minced (ground) meat, as in doner kebab. By contrast, in Indian English, Bangladeshi English, Pakistani English and in the languages of the Middle East, other parts of Asia, and the Muslim world, a kebab is any of a wide variety of grilled meat dishes. Some dishes ultimately derived from Middle Eastern kebab may have different names in their local languages, such as the Chinese chuan.

China
Chuan, often referred to as "chuan" in Mandarin throughout the north, or kawap (كاۋاپ) in Uyghur, is a variation of kebab originating from the Uyghur people in the western province of Xinjiang and a popular dish in Chinese Islamic cuisine. The dish has since spread across the rest of the country and become a popular street food.

Although the most traditional form of chuan uses lamb or mutton, other types of meat, such as chicken, beef, pork, and seafood, may be used as well. Small pieces of meat are skewered and either roasted or deep-fried. Common spices and condiments include cumin called "ziran", pepper, sesame, and sesame oil.

Greece
While the history of street foods in Greece goes back to ancient times, the iconic Greek gyros and souvlaki as it is known today arose only following the Second World War. Introduced to Athens in the 1950s by Greek refugees from Turkey and the Middle East, gyros was originally known simply as döner kebab. It is typically served as a sandwich rolled in pita bread, or on a plate, with french fries and various salads and sauces such as tzatziki. Later in the 1960s, vendors also began selling dishes in the same style made with souvlaki, which resembles Turkish shish kebab, but is usually made with pork.

Around the same time, the Greek word gyros replaced döner kebab, and the Greek style of the dish spread to become popular, particularly in North America, and various other parts of the world.

In contrast to other areas of Greece, in Athens, both types of sandwich may be called souvlaki, with the skewered meat being called kalamaki.

Although gyros is unquestionably of Middle Eastern origin, the issue of whether modern-day souvlaki came to Greece via Turkish cuisine, and should be considered a Greek styling of shish kebab, or is a contemporary revival of Greek tradition dating as far back as 17th century BC Minoan civilization, is a topic of sometimes heated debate, at least between Greeks and Turks. While English speakers may refer to souvlaki skewers as kebabs, they are not properly called that in Greece.

South Caucasus
Both Armenian and Azerbaijani cuisine feature oblong kofta-style mincemeats kebabs known as lula or lyulya kebab, while Armenian cuisine refers to shish-style kebabs as khorovats, and doner kebab as Karsi khorovats after the city of Kars which became known for the dish during the time of the Ottoman Empire.

Iran
There are several distinct Persian varieties of kabab. Kabab may be served with either steamed, saffroned basmati or Persian rice and called chelow kabab (چلوکباب), which is considered the national dish of Iran. It may also be served with the various types of bread that are the most commonly eaten in Iran, such as lavash.

It is served with the basic Iranian meal accompaniments, in addition to grilled tomatoes on the side of the rice and butter on top of the rice. It is an old northern tradition (probably originating in Tehran) that a raw egg yolk should be placed on top of the rice as well, though this is strictly optional, and most restaurants will not serve the rice this way unless it is specifically requested. "Somagh", powdered sumac, is also made available and its use varies based on tastes to a small dash on the rice or a heavy sprinkling on both rice and meat, particularly when used with red (beef/veal/lamb) meat.

At Persian restaurants, the combination of one kabab barg and one kabab koobideh is typically called Soltani, meaning "sultan's feast". The combination of one kabab barg, one jujeh kabab and kabab koobideh is typically called Shah abbasi, meaning "Shah Abbas' meal". The traditional beverage of choice to accompany Persian kabab is doogh, a sour yogurt drink with mint and salt.

In the old bazaar tradition, the rice (which is covered with a tin lid) and accompaniments are served first, immediately followed by the kababs, which are brought to the table by the waiter, who holds several skewers in his left hand, and a piece of flat bread (typically nan-e lavash) in his right. A skewer is placed directly on the rice and while holding the kebab down on the rice with the bread, the skewer is quickly pulled out. With the two most common kababs, barg and koobideh, two skewers are always served. In general, bazaar kabab restaurants only serve these two varieties, though there are exceptions.

In Iranian Azerbaijan, "Binab (also Bonab) Kababi" is very famous in Iranian Azerbaijani local cuisine for its large size. It is named after the city of Binab in East Azerbaijan province. This kabab and other types (e.g., Shishlik, Kubide, Berge, Gelin, etc.) can be served alone or with rice and fresh salad on the side. In this region Kababs come usually with yogurt, hot bread, tomato, onion, parsley and paprika-salt, and tarragon.

Kabab koobideh (کباب کوبیده) it kūbide (کوبیده) is an Iranian minced meat kabab which is made from ground lamb, beef, or chicken, often mixed with parsley and chopped onions.

Kabab Koobideh contains: ground meat, onion, salt, pepper, turmeric, and seasoning. These ingredients are mixed together until the mixture becomes smooth and sticky. One egg is added to help the mix stick together. The mixture is then pressed around a skewer. Koobideh Kabab is typically 7 to(-) long.

Kabāb-e Barg is a Persian style barbecued lamb, chicken or beef kabab dish. The main ingredients of Kabab Barg – a short form of this name – are fillets of beef tenderloin, lamb shank or chicken breast, onions and olive oil.

Marinade is prepared by the mixture of half a cup of olive oil, three onions, garlic, half teaspoon saffron, salt and black pepper. One kilogram of lamb is cut into 1 cm thick and 4–5 cm long pieces. It should be marinated overnight in refrigerator, and the container should be covered. The next day, the lamb is threaded on long, thin metal skewers. It is brushed with marinade and is barbecued for 5–10 minutes on each side.

Jūjeh Kabāb (جوجه‌کباب) consists of pieces of chicken first marinated in minced onion and lemon juice with saffron then grilled over a fire. It is sometimes served with grilled tomato and pepper. Jujeh Kabab is one of the most popular Persian dishes.

Kabab Bakhtiari is a combination of Jujeh kabab (chicken kabab) and Kabab barg (beef or lamb meat) on the same skewer. Its name comes from the Bakhtiari region of Iran.

Kabab Kenjeh, also known as Chenjeh (کنجه‌کباب, چنجه) is a kabab traditionally made with chunks of marinated lamb meat. It is typically served with grilled tomatoes and rice or bread.

Kabab Torsh is an Iranian Kabab from the northern provinces of Gilan and Mazandaran, renowned for its sour, pomegranate based seasoning.

Kabab Lari, Kabab Tabei (Pan Kabab), Dande Kabab, Kabab Shandiz, Shishlik Kabab, Kabab Ghafghazi, Uzun kabab of Tabriz, Doosh Kabab of Guilan, Chump (Jump) Kabab of Sistan, Kabab Toori of Tabriz, Kabob Golpayegan, Kabab Tanoorcheh of Baluchestan, Kabab Soltani, Kabob Vaziri, Kabob Loghmeh, Taas Kabab, Mahi Kabab (Fish Kabab) and Kabab Jegar (Sheep Liver Kaba ) are among other types of Persian Kababs popular in Iran.

Iraq
Several types of kebab are popular in Iraqi cuisine, although the word kebab in local use is reserved for skewers of spiced ground lamb, traditionally grilled on natural wood charcoal to give the kebab its special flavor. Skewers of grilled marinated meat chunks are called tikka.

The Levant and Egypt
Several varieties of kebabs can be found in Levantine cuisine. Among the most common are shish taouk, which are grilled chicken skewers marinated in olive oil and spices, and lahem meshwi, charcoal-grilled skewers of prime lamb cubes lightly seasoned with herbs.

Mizrahi Jews brought various types of grilled meat from their native Middle Eastern countries to Israel, where they have become an essential part of Israeli cuisine. Among the most popular are skewers of elongated spiced ground meat, called kabab (קבב), which have become a staple dish of meat restaurants and the main dish of the traditional holiday barbecues, alongside the shishlik. They are commonly made of beef, though lamb is also occasionally used, and are almost always served with the local pita bread.

Shawarma, although not considered a kebab in most countries of the Levant and Egypt, is another very popular type of grilled meat preparation that characterizes this region.

Turkey

 * Adana kebap (or kıyma kebabı) is a long, hand-minced meat kebab mounted on a wide iron skewer and grilled over charcoal. Named after the Turkish city of Adana, the kebab is generally "hot" or piquant. The traditional Adana kebab is made using lamb, with a high fatty content cooked over hot coals. Only three ingredients are used in a proper Adana kebab, minced lamb, red capsicum (pepper) and salt.
 * Ali Paşa kebabı, "Ali Pasha kebab" – cubed lamb with tomato, onion and parsley wrapped in phillo.
 * Alinazik – Ground meat kebab sautéed in a saucepan, with garlic, yogurt and eggplants added.
 * Beyti kebap – Ground lamb or beef, seasoned and grilled on a skewer, often served wrapped in lavash and topped with tomato sauce and yogurt, traced back to the famous kebab house Beyti in Istanbul and particularly popular in Turkey's larger cities.
 * Bostan kebabı – Lamb and aubergine casserole.
 * Buğu kebabı – Steam kebab, is a Turkish stew which is cooked in a pan or an earthenware casserole. The casserole's lid is sealed in order to cook the meat in its own juices. The dish is prepared with pearl onions, garlic, thyme and other spices. In Tekirdağ, it is served with cumin; in İzmir, it is served with mastic.
 * Cağ kebap, 'spoke kebab' – Cubes of lamb roasted first on a cağ (a horizontal rotating spit) and then on a skewer, a specialty of Erzurum region with recently rising popularity.
 * Ciğer kebabı, 'liver kebab' - usually eaten with sliced onions, salad and bread.
 * Çökertme kebabı – Sirloin veal kebap stuffed with yogurt and potatoes.
 * Çöp şiş, "small skewer kebab" – a speciality of Selçuk and Germencik near Ephesus, pounded boneless meat with tomatoes and garlic marinated with black pepper, thyme and oil on wooden skewers.
 * Döner kebap, literally "rotating kebab" in Turkish, is sliced lamb, beef, or chicken, slowly roasted on a vertical rotating spit. The Middle Eastern shawarma, Mexican tacos al pastor, and Greek gyros are all derived from the Turkish döner kebab, which was invented in Bursa in the 19th century. The German-style döner kebab sandwich, sometimes called simply "a kebab" in English, was introduced by Turkish immigrants in Berlin in the 1970s, and has become one of the most popular take-away foods in Germany and much of Europe. It is commonly sold by Turks, and considered a Turkish-German specialty, in Germany.
 * Hünkâri kebabı, 'Sultan's kebab' – Sliced lamb meat mixed with patlıcan beğendi (aubergine purée), basil, thyme and bay leaf.
 * İskender kebap – döner kebab served with yogurt, tomato sauce and butter, originated in Bursa. This kebab was invented by İskender Efendi in 1867. He was inspired from Cağ kebab and turned it from horizontal to vertical.
 * İslim kebabı, 'steamed kebab' – Another version of the aubergine kebab without its skin, marinated in sunflower oil.
 * Kağıt kebabı – Lamb cooked in a paper wrapping.
 * Kuzu şiş – Shish prepared with marinated milk-fed lamb meat.
 * Manisa Kebab – This Manisa region version of the kebab is smaller and flat size shish meat on the sliced pide bread, flavored with butter, and stuffed with tomato, garlic and green pepper.
 * Patlıcan kebabı, 'aubergine kebab' – Special kebap meat marinated in spices and served with eggplant (aubergine), hot pide bread and a yogurt sauce.
 * Shish kebap – is a dish consisting of small cubes of meat or fish threaded on a skewer and grilled. Şiş, pronounced, is a Turkish word meaning "sword" or "skewer". According to tradition, the dish was invented by medieval soldiers who used their swords to grill meat over open-field fires.  In Turkey, shish kebab does not normally contain vegetables, though they may be cooked on a separate skewer. It can be prepared with lamb, beef, chicken, or fish, but pork is not used. Lemon is used in some parts of Turkey if the meat selection is chicken. The Pontian Greeks made a dish similar to shish kebabs, although theirs were cooked in a saucepan.
 * Tavuk şiş – Yogurt-marinated chicken grilled on a stick.
 * Testi kebabı, 'earthenware-jug kebab' – is a dish from Central Anatolia and the Mid-Western Black Sea region, consisting of a mixture of meat and vegetables cooked in a clay pot or jug over fire (testi means jug in Turkish). The pot is sealed with bread dough or foil and is broken when serving.

South Asia
South Asia has a rich kebab tradition with a great variety of different kebab dishes. Many modern kebabs in Bangladeshi, Indian and Pakistani cuisine trace their origins back to the time of the Mughals and the strong influence of Mughlai cuisine. Kebab dishes common to one or more of these countries include:

 * Tandoori kebab
 * Naga doner kebab
 * Tikka kebab
 * Kathi Kebab (including Porota Kababs, kebab wraps)
 * Shami kebab - A Shami kebab is a small patty of minced beef or chicken and ground chickpeas and spices.
 * Seekh kebab - A long skewer of beef mixed with herbs and seasonings, it takes its name from the skewer.
 * Tunde ke kabab
 * Bun kebab - A unique kebab sandwich with beef, lamb, fish or chicken.
 * Shatkora doner kebab
 * Chapli kebab - A spiced, tangy round kebab made of ground beef and cooked in animal fat. A speciality of Peshawar in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa.
 * Bihari kebab - Skewer of beef mixed with herbs and seasoning.
 * Kalmi kebab
 * Sheesh kebab
 * Burrah kebab - made from goat or lamb chops, liberally marinated with spices and charcoal grilled.

Afghanistan
Afghan kebab (Pashto/Dari: کباب) is most often found in restaurants and outdoor vendor stalls. The most widely used meat is lamb. Recipes differ with every restaurant. In Afghan cuisine, kebab is served with naan, rarely rice, and customers have the option to sprinkle sumac or ghora, dried ground sour grapes, on their kebab. The quality of kebab is solely dependent on the quality of the meat. Pieces of fat from the sheep's tail (jijeq) are usually added with the lamb skewers to add extra flavor.

Other popular kebabs include the lamb chop, ribs, beef, buffalo, and chicken, all of which are found in better restaurants.

Chapli kebab, a specialty of Eastern Afghanistan, is a patty made from beef mince. It is prepared flat and round, and served with naan. The original recipe of chapli kebab dictates a half meat (or less), half flour mixture, which renders it lighter in taste and less expensive.

Bangladesh
In Bangladesh they make variations of kebab (Bengali কাবাব or "Kabab"). In the old Mughal province of Bengal Subah's capital of Dhaka, various Pakistani and Indian-influenced dishes started to be made. Amongst these were kebabs. In Bangladeshi cuisine, most kebabs are made using fish or beef.

India
Modern-day kebabs in India mostly trace their origin to the influence of Mughlai cuisine. Some Indian kebabs have very specific geographic attributions, such as Kakori kebab, which is made of finely ground, soft mince and attributed to the city of Kakori in Uttar Pradesh, where legend has it that it was first prepared for old and toothless pilgrims.

Pakistan
In Pakistan kebabs trace back their origin during the time of the Mughals Mughlai cuisine, and their influence on the cuisine of modern-day Pakistan. There are all sorts of kebab varieties such as seekh, chapli, shammi and other forms of roasted and grilled meats. As Pakistan is a predominantly Muslim country, pork is not used. Instead meats like beef, chicken, lamb, fish and sometimes buff are used in the making of kebabs.

Southeast Asia
Satay is a kebab of seasoned, skewered, and grilled meat, served with a sauce. It is a dish of Southeast Asia, particularly Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand.

Satay may consist of diced or sliced chicken, goat, lamb, mutton, beef, pork, fish, other meats, or tofu. Traditionally skewers from the midrib of the coconut palm frond are used, although bamboo skewers are often used instead. It is grilled or barbecued over a wood or charcoal fire with spicy seasonings. It may be served with various sauces, though most often a combination of soy and peanut sauce. Hence, peanut sauce is often called satay sauce.

Satay was developed by Javanese street vendors as a unique adaptation of Indian kebab. The introduction of satay, and other now-iconic dishes such as tongseng and gulai kambing based on meats such as goat and lamb, coincided with an influx of Indian and Arab traders and immigrants starting in the 18th century. It is available almost anywhere in Indonesia, where it has become a national dish. In Sri Lanka, it has become a staple of the local diet as a result of the influences from the local Malay community.

South Africa
Sosatie (plural sosaties) is a traditional South African dish of meat (usually lamb or mutton) cooked on skewers. The term derives from sate ("skewered meat") and saus (spicy sauce). It is of Cape Malay origin. Sosatie recipes vary, but commonly the ingredients can include cubes of lamb, beef, chicken, dried apricots, red onions and mixed peppers.

West Africa
Suya is a spicy kebab which is a popular food item in West Africa that originated in Nigeria. It is traditionally prepared by the Hausa people of Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger, Ghana and some parts of Sudan (where it is called agashe).

Kyinkyinga is common and popular in West Africa. It is a Ghanaian dish, very similar to or synonymous with the Hausa suya kebab, also known as sooya, tsinga, chichinga, tsire agashi, chachanga or tankora.

Ćevapi
Ćevapi or ćevapčići (formal diminutive,, ћевапчићи), which comes from the word kebab, is a grilled dish of minced meat, a type of skinless sausage, found traditionally in the countries of southeastern Europe (the Balkans). They are considered a national dish in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia  and are also common in Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, Albania, Slovenia, as well as in North Macedonia, Bulgaria, Romania. Ćevapi has its origins in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Ottoman period, and represents a regional speciality similar to the kofte kebab. A dish with similar origins is in Romania called mititei.

Pinchitos
Pinchitos or Pinchos Morunos is a Moorish-derived kebab dish in Spanish cuisine. The name pinchitos is used in the southern Spanish autonomous communities of Andalusia and Extremadura. They consist of small cubes of meat threaded onto a skewer (pincho) which are traditionally cooked over charcoal braziers. Similar dishes in North Africa or other Muslim majority countries tend to be lamb-based, but pork and chicken are the most popular meats for the dish in Spain. Pinchitos are also extremely popular in Venezuela, due to the heavy influence Spain had in Venezuelan cuisine during many years.

Shashlik
Shashlik is similar to, or sometimes a synonym for, shish kebab. It is popular in many countries, particularly in Eastern and Central Europe, the Caucasus, and the Baltics. In non-Muslim-majority countries, shashlik and equivalent dishes like Romanian frigărui may sometimes be prepared with pork.

Kebab in Western culture
Kebab cuisine has spread around the world together with Muslim influence. Although non-Muslim Westerners may be increasingly familiar with some of the many other international kebab dishes, only two have become an established and widely popular part of the culture in many Western countries. In English, the word kebab commonly refers to shish kebab and, outside of North America, to döner kebab or related fast-food dishes. These dishes are also served in many other countries, where they may have different names.

Kebabs have also met opposition: in Italy, several cities banned kebab shops in order to preserve Italian culinary culture. Many protested against these bans as "racist".

Shish kebab

In English, kebab, or in North America also kabob, often occurring as shish kebab, is now a culinary term for small pieces of meat cooked on a skewer. The word kebab, most likely derived from Persian, has been used with various spellings in this sense since at least the 17th century, while the Oxford English Dictionary records the earliest known publication of the term shish kebab, derived from şiş kebap, in 1914. There are two etymologies suggested for Shish Kabob in the Persian dictionary of Dehkhoda: Shish being the Persian word "Shish" for the number 6, which refers to the original six pieces of meat of a standard Kabob skewer, or "Shish" being driven from Late Middle Persian "Sich" meaning a skewer. The word "Kabob" is most probably driven from the Arhameic word kbābā (to roast). In many English-speaking countries, it refers to the now well-known dish prepared with marinated meat or seafood together with vegetables such as onions, tomatoes, and bell peppers threaded onto the skewer, also sometimes known as shashlik. This preparation is different from the typical Turkish shish kebab style, where vegetables are usually cooked on a separate skewer. Shish kebabs are customarily prepared in homes and restaurants, and are usually cooked on a grill or barbecue, or roasted in an oven.

The word kebab may also be used as a general term in English to describe any similar-looking skewered food, such as brochette, satay, souvlaki, yakitori, or numerous small chunks of any type of food served on a stick. This is different from its use in the West Asia, where shish (Persian/Mazandarani: شیش, şiş) is the word for skewer, while kebab comes from the word for grilling.

Doner kebab
English speakers from countries outside North America may also use the word kebab generally to mean the popular fast food version of the Turkish döner kebab, or the related shawarma or gyros, and the sandwiches made with them, available from kebab shops as take-away meals. This usage may be found in some non-English parts of Europe as well. In North America, the Greek variant gyros is most widely known.

The döner kebab originated in 19th century Turkey, but it became widely popular in the West only in the latter half of the 20th century. Many layers of meat are stacked onto a large vertical rotating spit; the outer surface is gradually cooked and sliced off, and typically served either mixed or topped with vegetables and sauces in a sandwich made with pita or other flatbreads. Certain regional variants also include cheeses. Sandwiches served in the same manner, but with other meats or cheese, may also sometimes be called a "kebab". It is available in most parts of Europe, and many other countries, though sometimes with different names or serving styles. In Germany, the highly popular sandwich, introduced by Turkish immigrants, is called a Döner, though Arab shops there serve shawarma.

Similar dishes

 * Americas
 * City chicken (U.S.)
 * Spiedies (New York State)
 * Anticuchos (Andean)
 * Espetinho (Brazilian)

 * Africa
 * Sosatie (South African)
 * Suya (Nigerian)
 * Kyinkyinga (Ghanaian)

 * Asia
 * Chuan (Chinese)
 * Kkochi and jeok (Korean)
 * Kushiyaki and kushikatsu (Japanese)
 * Satay (Indonesian, Malaysian, Singaporean and Thai)

 * Europe
 * Kebakko (Finnish)
 * Brochette (French)
 * Espetada (Portuguese)
 * Souvlaki (Σουβλάκι; Greek)
 * Arrosticini (Italian)
 * Pinchitos (Spanish)
 * Shashlik (Шашлык; Russian)

title: Kebab