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Historically informed performance

Historically informed performance (also referred to as period performance, authentic performance, or HIP) is an approach to the performance of classical music, which aims to be faithful to the approach, manner and style of the musical era in which a work was originally conceived.

It is based on two key aspects: the application of the stylistic and technical aspects of performance, known as performance practice; and the use of period instruments which may be reproductions of historical instruments that were in use at the time of the original composition, and which usually have different timbre and temperament from their modern equivalents. A further area of study, that of changing listener expectations, is increasingly under investigation.

Given no sound recordings exist of music before the late 19th century, historically informed performance is largely derived from musicological analysis of texts. Historical treatises, pedagogic tutor books, and concert critiques, as well as additional historical evidence, are all used to gain insight into the performance practice of a historic era. Extant recordings (cylinders, discs, and reproducing piano rolls) from the 1890s onwards have enabled scholars of 19th-century Romanticism to gain a uniquely detailed understanding of this style, although not without significant remaining questions. In all eras, HIP performers will normally use original sources (manuscript or facsimile), or scholarly or urtext editions of a musical score as a basic template, while additionally applying a range of contemporaneous stylistic practices, including rhythmic alterations and ornamentation of many kinds.

Historically informed performance was principally developed in a number of Western countries in the mid to late 20th century, ironically a modernist response to the modernist break with earlier performance traditions. Initially concerned with the performance of Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque music, HIP now encompasses music from the Classical and Romantic eras. HIP has been a crucial part of the early music revival movement of the 20th and 21st centuries, and has begun to affect the theatrical stage, for instance in the production of Baroque opera, where historically informed approaches to acting and scenery are also used.

Some critics contest the methodology of the HIP movement, contending that its selection of practices and aesthetics are a product of the 20th century and that it is ultimately impossible to know what performances of an earlier time sounded like. Obviously, the older the style and repertoire, the greater the cultural distance and the increased possibility of misunderstanding the evidence. For this reason, the term "historically informed" is now preferred to "authentic", as it acknowledges the limitations of academic understanding, rather than implying absolute accuracy in recreating historical performance style, or worse, a moralising tone.

Early instruments
The choice of musical instruments is an important part of the principle of historically informed performance. Musical instruments have evolved over time, and instruments that were in use in earlier periods of history are often quite different from their modern equivalents. Many other instruments have fallen out of use, having been replaced by newer tools for creating music. For example, prior to the emergence of the modern violin, other bowed stringed instruments such as the rebec or the viol were in common use. The existence of ancient instruments in museum collections has helped musicologists to understand how the different design, tuning and tone of instruments may have affected earlier performance practice.

As well as a research tool, historic instruments have an active role in the practice of historically informed performance. Modern instrumentalists who aim to recreate a historic sound often use modern reproductions of period instruments (and occasionally original instruments) on the basis that this will deliver a musical performance that is thought to be historically faithful to the original work, as the original composer would have heard it. For example, a modern music ensemble staging a performance of music by Johann Sebastian Bach may play reproduction Baroque violins instead of modern instruments in an attempt to create the sound of a 17th-century Baroque orchestra.

This has led to the revival of musical instruments that had entirely fallen out of use, and to a reconsideration of the role and structure of instruments also used in current practice.

Orchestras and ensembles who are noted for their use of period instruments in performances include the Taverner Consort and Players (directed by Andrew Parrott), the Academy of Ancient Music (Christopher Hogwood), the Concentus Musicus Wien (Nikolaus Harnoncourt), The English Concert (Trevor Pinnock), the Hanover Band (Roy Goodman), the Orchestra of the Eighteenth Century (Frans Brüggen), the English Baroque Soloists (Sir John Eliot Gardiner), Musica Antiqua Köln (Reinhard Goebel), Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir (Ton Koopman), Les Arts Florissants (William Christie), Le Concert des Nations (Jordi Savall), La Petite Bande (Sigiswald Kuijken), La Chapelle Royale (Philippe Herreweghe),  the Australian Brandenburg Orchestra (Paul Dyer), and the Freiburger Barockorchester (Gottfried von der Goltz). As the scope of historically informed performance has expanded to encompass the works of the Romantic era, the specific sound of 19th-century instruments has increasingly been recognised in the HIP movement, and period instruments orchestras such as Gardiner's Orchestre Révolutionnaire et Romantique have emerged.

Harpsichord
A variety of once obsolete keyboard instruments such as the clavichord and the harpsichord have been revived, as they have particular importance in the performance of Early music. Before the evolution of the symphony orchestra led by a conductor, Renaissance and Baroque orchestras were commonly directed from the harpsichord; the director would lead by playing continuo, which would provide a steady, harmonic structure upon which the other instrumentalists would embellish their parts. Many religious works of the era made similar use of the pipe organ, often in combination with a harpsichord. Historically informed performances frequently make use of keyboard-led ensemble playing.

Composers such as François Couperin, Domenico Scarlatti, Girolamo Frescobaldi, and Johann Sebastian Bach wrote for the harpsichord, clavichord, and organ.

Among the foremost modern players of the harpsichord are Scott Ross, Alan Curtis, William Christie, Christopher Hogwood, Robert Hill, Igor Kipnis, Ton Koopman, Wanda Landowska, Gustav Leonhardt, Trevor Pinnock, Skip Sempé, Andreas Staier, Colin Tilney, and Christophe Rousset.

Fortepiano
During the second half of the 18th century, the harpsichord was gradually replaced by the earliest pianos. As the harpsichord went out of fashion, many were destroyed; indeed, the Paris Conservatory is notorious for having used harpsichords for firewood during the French Revolution and Napoleonic times. Although names were originally interchangeable, the term 'fortepiano' now indicates the earlier, smaller style of piano, with the more familiar 'pianoforte' used to describe the larger instruments approaching modern designs from around 1830. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the fortepiano has enjoyed a revival as a result of the trend for historically informed performance, with the works of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert now often played on fortepiano. Increasingly, the early to mid 19th century pianos of Pleyel, Érard, Streicher and others are being used to recreate the soundscape of Romantic composers such as Chopin, Liszt and Brahms.

Many keyboard players who specialise in the harpsichord also specialise in the fortepiano and other period instruments. Although some keyboardist renowned for their fortepiano playing are Ronald Brautigam, Steven Lubin, Ingrid Haebler, Robert Levin, Malcolm Bilson and Tobias Koch.

Viol

A vast quantity of music for viols, for both ensemble and solo performance, was written by composers of the Renaissance and Baroque eras, including Diego Ortiz, Claudio Monteverdi, William Byrd, William Lawes, Henry Purcell, Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe, J.S. Bach, Georg Philipp Telemann, Marin Marais, Antoine Forqueray, and Carl Frederick Abel.

From largest to smallest, the viol family consists of:
 * violone (two sizes, a contrabass an octave below the bass, and a smaller one a fourth or fifth above, a great bass)
 * bass viol (about the size of a cello)
 * tenor viol (about the size of a guitar)
 * alto viol (slightly smaller than the tenor)
 * treble or descant viol (about the size of a viola)
 * pardessus de viole (about the size of a violin)

Among the foremost modern players of the viols are Paolo Pandolfo, Sigiswald and Wieland Kuijken, Nikolaus Harnoncourt, Jordi Savall, John Hsu, and Vittorio Ghielmi. There are many modern viol consorts.

Recorder
Although largely supplanted by the flute in the 19th century, the recorder has experienced a revival with the HIP movement. Arnold Dolmetsch did much to revive the recorder as a serious concert instrument, reconstructing a "consort of recorders (descant, treble, tenor and bass) all at low pitch and based on historical originals". Handel and Telemann, both noted recorder players, wrote several solo pieces for the instrument. Often, recorder players start off as flautists, then transition into focusing on the recorder. Some famous recorder players include Frans Brüggen, Barthold Kuijken, Michala Petri, Ashley Solomon and Giovanni Antonini.

Singing
As with instrumental technique, the approach to historically informed performance practice for singers has been shaped by musicological research and academic debate. In particular, there was debate around the use of the technique of vibrato at the height of the Early music revival, and many advocates of HIP aimed to eliminate vibrato in favour of the "pure" sound of straight-tone singing. The difference in style may be demonstrated by the sound of a boy treble in contrast to the sound of a Grand opera singer such as Maria Callas.

Certain historic vocal techniques have gained in popularity, such as trillo, a tremolo-like repetition of a single note that was used for ornamental effect in the early Baroque era. Academic understanding of these expressive devices is often subjective however, as many vocal techniques discussed by treatise writers in the 17th and 18th centuries have different meanings, depending on the author. Despite the fashion for straight tone, many prominent Early music singers make use of a subtle, gentle form of vibrato to add expression to their performance.

A few of the singers who have contributed to the historically informed performance movement are Emma Kirkby, Max van Egmond, Julianne Baird, Nigel Rogers, and David Thomas.

The resurgence of interest in Early music, particularly in sacred renaissance polyphony and Baroque opera, has driven a revival of the countertenor voice. High-voice male singers are often cast in preference to female contraltos in HIP opera productions, partly as a substitute for castrato singers. Alfred Deller is considered to have been a pioneer of the modern revival of countertenor singing. Leading contemporary performers include James Bowman, Russell Oberlin, Paul Esswood, Derek Lee Ragin, Andreas Scholl, Michael Chance, René Jacobs, David Daniels, Daniel Taylor, Brian Asawa, Yoshikazu Mera, Jakub Józef Orliński, and Philippe Jaroussky.

Layout
Standard practice concerning the layout of a group of performers, for example in a choir or an orchestra, has changed over time. Determining a historically appropriate layout of singers and instruments on a performance stage may be informed by historical research. In addition to documentary evidence, musicologists may also turn to iconographic evidence — contemporary paintings and drawings of performing musicians — as a primary source for historic information. Pictorial sources may reveal various practices such as the size of an ensemble; the position of various types of instruments; their position in relation to a choir or keyboard instrument; the position or absence of a conductor; whether the performers are seated or standing; and the performance space (such as a concert hall, palace chamber, domestic house, church, or outdoors etc.). The German theorist Johann Mattheson, in a 1739 treatise, states that the singers should stand in front of the instrumentalists.

Three main layouts are documented:
 * Circle (Renaissance)
 * Choir in the front of the instruments (17th–19th century)
 * Singers and instruments next to each other on the choir loft.

Interpreting musical notation
Some familiar difficult items are as follows:

 * Early composers often wrote using the same symbols as today, yet in a different meaning, often context-dependent. For example, what is written as an appoggiatura is often meant to be longer or shorter than the notated length, and even in scores as late as the 19th century there is disagreement over the meaning (dynamic and/or agogic) of hairpins.
 * The notation may be partial. E.g., the note durations may be omitted altogether, such as in unmeasured preludes, pieces written without rhythm or metre indications. Even when the notation is comprehensive, non-notated changes are usually required, such as rhythmic shaping of passagework, pauses between sections, or additional arpeggiation of chords. Cuts and repetitions were common.
 * The music may be written using alternative, non-modern notations, such as tablature. Some tablature notations are only partially decoded, such as the notation in the harp manuscript by Robert ap Huw.
 * The reference pitch of earlier music cannot generally be interpreted as designating the same pitch used today.
 * Various tuning systems (temperaments), are used. Composers always assume the player will choose the temperament, and never indicate it in the score.
 * In most ensemble music up to the early Baroque, the actual musical instruments to be used are not indicated in the score, and must be partially or totally chosen by the performers. A well-discussed example can be found in Monteverdi's L'Orfeo, where the indications on which instruments to use are partial and limited to critical sections only.
 * Issues of pronunciation, that impact on musical accents, carry over to church Latin, the language in which a large amount of early vocal music was written. The reason is that Latin was customarily pronounced using the speech sounds and patterns of the local vernacular language.

Mechanical music
Some information about how music sounded in the past can be obtained from contemporary mechanical instruments. For instance, the Dutch Museum Speelklok owns an 18th-century mechanical organ of which the music programme was composed and supervised by Joseph Haydn.

Tuning and pitch
Until modern era, different tuning references have been used in different venues. The baroque oboist Bruce Haynes has extensively investigated surviving wind instruments and even documented a case of violinists having to retune by a minor third to play at neighboring churches.

Iconographic evidence
The research of musicologists often overlaps with the work of art historians; by examining paintings and drawings of performing musicians contemporary to a particular musical era, academics can infer details about performance practice of the day. In addition to showing the layout of an orchestra or ensemble, a work of art may reveal detail about contemporary playing techniques, for example the manner of holding a bow or a wind player's embouchure. However, just as an art historian must evaluate a work of art, a scholar of musicology must also assess the musical evidence of a painting or illustration in its historical context, taking into consideration the potential cultural and political motivations of the artist and allow for artistic license. An historic image of musicians may present an idealised or even fictional account of musical instruments, and there is as much a risk that it may give rise to a historically misinformed performance.

Issues
Opinions on how artistic and academic motivations should translate into musical performance vary.

Though championing the need to attempt to understand a composer's intentions in their historical context, Ralph Kirkpatrick highlights the risk of using historical exoterism to hide technical incompetence: "too often historical authenticity can be used as a means of escape from any potentially disquieting observance of esthetic values, and from the assumption of any genuine artistic responsibility. The abdication of esthetic values and artistic responsibilities can confer a certain illusion of simplicity on what the passage of history has presented to us, bleached as white as bones on the sands of time".

Early music scholar Beverly Jerold has questioned the string technique of historically informed musicians, citing accounts of Baroque-era concert-goers describing nearly the opposite practice. Similar criticism has been leveled at the practices of historically informed vocalists.

Some proponents of the Early music revival have distanced themselves from the terminology of "authentic performance". Conductor John Eliot Gardiner has expressed the view that the term can be "misleading", and has stated, "My enthusiasm for period instruments is not antiquarian or in pursuit of a spurious and unattainable authenticity, but just simply as a refreshing alternative to the standard, monochrome qualities of the symphony orchestra."

Daniel Leech-Wilkinson concedes that much of the HIP practice is based on invention: "Historical research may provide us with instruments, and sometimes even quite detailed information on how to use them; but the gap between such evidence and a sounding performance is still so great that it can be bridged only by a large amount of musicianship and invention. Exactly how much is required can easily be forgotten, precisely because the exercise of musical invention is so automatic to the performer." Leech-Wilkinson concludes that performance styles in early music "have as much to do with current taste as with accurate reproduction." More recently, Andrew Snedden has suggested that HIP reconstructions are on firmer ground when approached in context with a cultural exegesis of the era, examining not merely how they played but why they played as they did, and what cultural meaning is embedded in the music.

In the conclusion of his study of early twentieth-century orchestral recordings, Robert Philip states that the concept of "what sounds tasteful now probably sounded tasteful in earlier periods" is a fundamental but flawed assumption behind much of the historical performance movement. Having spent the entire book examining rhythm, vibrato, and portamento, Philip states that the fallacy of the assumption of tastefulness causes adherents of historical performance to randomly select what they find acceptable and to ignore evidence of performance practice which goes against modern taste.

Reception
In his book, The Aesthetics of Music, the British philosopher Roger Scruton wrote that "the effect [of HIP] has frequently been to cocoon the past in a wad of phoney scholarship, to elevate musicology over music, and to confine Bach and his contemporaries to an acoustic time-warp. The tired feeling which so many 'authentic' performances induce can be compared to the atmosphere of a modern museum.... [The works of early composers] are arranged behind the glass of authenticity, staring bleakly from the other side of an impassable screen".

A number of scholars see the HIP movement essentially as a 20th-century invention. Writing about the periodical Early Music (one of the leading periodicals about historically informed performance), Peter Hill noted "All the articles in Early Music noted in varying ways the (perhaps fatal) flaw in the 'authenticity' position. This is that the attempt to understand the past in terms of the past is—paradoxically—an absolutely contemporary phenomenon."

One of the more skeptical voices of the historically informed performance movement has been Richard Taruskin. His thesis is that the practice of unearthing supposedly historically informed practices is actually a 20th-century practice influenced by modernism and, ultimately, we can never know what music sounded like or how it was played in previous centuries. "What we had been accustomed to regard as historically authentic performances, I began to see, represented neither any determinable historical prototype nor any coherent revival of practices coeval with the repertories they addressed. Rather, they embodied a whole wish list of modern(ist) values, validated in the academy and the marketplace alike by an eclectic, opportunistic reading of historical evidence." "'Historical' performers who aim 'to get to the truth'...by using period instruments and reviving lost playing techniques actually pick and choose from history's wares. And they do so in a manner that says more about the values of the late twentieth century than about those of any earlier era."

In her book The Imaginary Museum of Musical Works: An Essay in the Philosophy of Music, Lydia Goehr discusses the aims and fallacies of both proponents and critics of the HIP movement. She claims that the HIP movement itself came about during the latter half of the 19th century as a reaction to the way modern techniques were being imposed upon music of earlier times. Thus performers were concerned with achieving an "authentic" manner of performing music—an ideal that carries implications for all those involved with music. She distills the late 20th century arguments into two points of view, achieving either fidelity to the conditions of performance, or fidelity to the musical work.

She succinctly summarizes the critics' arguments (for example, anachronistic, selectively imputing current performance ideas on early music), but then concludes that what the HIP movement has to offer is a different manner of looking at and listening to music: "It keeps our eyes open to the possibility of producing music in new ways under the regulation of new ideals. It keeps our eyes open to the inherently critical and revisable nature of our regulative concepts. Most importantly, it helps us overcome that deep‐rooted desire to hold the most dangerous of beliefs, that we have at any time got our practices absolutely right."

What is clear is that a narrowly musicological approach to stylistic reconstruction is both modernist in culture and inauthentic as a living performance, an approach termed "deadly theatre" by Peter Brook.

title: Historically informed performance


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User talk:Publius~enwiki

Star Wars Wiki
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Sourcing
Hey- I happened upon your site, and was deeply impressed by some of your essays (especially the one dealing with the fall of the Empire; exceedingly comprehensive, and well-written. I used it as a reference for some of the Grand Admiral articles I've been writing). I was hoping, since you seem to have such expertise in Imperial matters, that you could help me find out what the assertion that Grand Moff Ardus Kaine (see the Pentastar Alignment) perished in Operation Shadow Hand is based off of. --maru

 * Thanks! One last thing, if it isn't imposing on you too much... Kross yesterday deleted an entry on Darth Millenial from the List of minor Sith characters as SuperShadow BS (since no Google results showed) before I could tell him I had seen him mentioned in your essay on Palpatine;  but your mention was merely an aside, and if I based an article off that, I would have barely a line's worth of solid data, and no reference.  I'd really appreciate if you could tell me the sources of the Darth Millenial characters. --maru 16:08, 23 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Sourcing for Palpatine
I've been reading your "Something Wicked this Way Comes" with great interest, for the improvement of the Palpatine article. You do a pretty good job of citing your sources (for which I am very appreciative) but you don't mention the source for your epithet "Palpatine the Undying". It is a pretty cool name which I would like to add, but I don't know whether or not it is a neologism of yours or not. --Maru (talk) 14:27, 28 September 2005 (UTC)

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Koizumi

Koizumi (小泉) is a Japanese family name.

It may describe one of several Koizumi railway stations.

It can refer to a number of people, including the following members of the prominent Koizumi family:
 * Junichiro Koizumi (小泉 純一郎), former prime minister of Japan
 * Junya Koizumi (小泉 純也), a second-generation Diet member and the father of Junichiro Koizumi
 * Koizumi Matajirō (小泉 又次郎), Japanese politician and the father-in-law of Junya Koizumi
 * Kotaro Koizumi (小泉 孝太郎), an aspiring actor and the first son of Junichiro Koizumi
 * Shinjirō Koizumi (小泉 進次郎), a fourth-generation Diet member and the second son of Junichiro Koizumi

Other individuals

 * Ariane Koizumi, American fashion model and actress
 * Chikashi Koizumi (古泉 千樫), Japanese poet
 * Eiko Koizumi (小泉 栄子), a Japanese beach volleyball player
 * Gunji Koizumi (小泉 軍治), the founder of British Judo
 * Kei Koizumi (小泉 慶), Japanese footballer
 * Kyōko Koizumi (小泉 今日子), singer and actress
 * Miyuki Koizumi (小泉 深雪), Japanese model
 * Takashi Koizumi (小泉 堯史), film director
 * Patrick Lafcadio Hearn or Yakumo Koizumi (小泉 八雲), Irish-Greek-Japanese author
 * Yoshiaki Koizumi (小泉 歓晃), video game designer
 * Yoshio Koizumi (小泉 佳穂), Japanese footballer

Fictional characters

 * Koizumi-san, character in Ms. Koizumi Loves Ramen Noodles
 * Akako Koizumi, character in Magic Kaito
 * Asami Koizumi from the Young Justice animated series
 * Itsuki Koizumi (古泉 一樹), character in Haruhi Suzumiya series
 * Mika Koizumi, character in Choudenshi Bioman
 * Risa Koizumi, the protagonist of Love Com
 * Several characters in Guru Guru Pon-chan, Ponta, Yuki, Soichiro, and Ji Koizumi
 * Mahiru Koizumi, a character in Danganronpa 2: Goodbye Despair
 * Hanayo Koizumi, a character from "Love Live!"
 * Natsumi Koizumi, a character from School Days
 * Yoshiko Koizumi, a main character girl from Little Ghost Q-Taro

title: Koizumi


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Yarmouth

Yarmouth may refer to:

Canada

 * Yarmouth County, Nova Scotia
 * Yarmouth, Nova Scotia
 * Municipality of the District of Yarmouth
 * Yarmouth (provincial electoral district)
 * Yarmouth (electoral district)
 * Yarmouth Township, Ontario
 * New Yarmouth, Nova Scotia

United Kingdom

 * Yarmouth, the common name of Great Yarmouth, a town in Norfolk
 * Great Yarmouth (UK Parliament constituency)
 * Borough of Great Yarmouth, a local government district
 * Yarmouth, Isle of Wight
 * Yarmouth (Isle of Wight) (UK Parliament constituency) (former UK Parliament constituency)
 * Yarmouth Castle, a fortress guarding Yarmouth harbour

United States

 * Yarmouth, Iowa
 * Yarmouth, Maine
 * Yarmouth (CDP), Maine
 * North Yarmouth, Maine
 * Yarmouth, Massachusetts
 * South Yarmouth, Massachusetts
 * West Yarmouth, Massachusetts
 * Yarmouth Port, Massachusetts

People

 * Earl of Yarmouth, British peerage title
 * Lord Yarmouth (1777–1842), English amateur cricketer
 * Brandon from Yarmouth, world champion from the wka

Ships

 * County of Yarmouth, a fully rigged ship
 * SS Great Yarmouth (1866), a freight ship built for the Great Eastern Railway
 * HMS Yarmouth, various British navy vessels
 * SS Yarmouth (1887), a steamship operating Nova Scotia and flagship of the Black Star Line
 * SS Yarmouth (1903), a steel-hulled steamship owned by the Great Eastern Railway
 * SS Yarmouth (1927), sister of the American steamship Yarmouth Castle
 * SS Yarmouth Castle (1927), an American steamship lost in a fire in 1965

Other

 * Yarmouth (Cambridge, Maryland), a historic home in Maryland
 * Yarmouthian (stage), also called Yarmouth Interglacial
 * Yarmouth Toller, a breed of gundog
 * "Yarmouth Town", traditional English song about Great Yarmouth.

title: Yarmouth


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Talk:List of explorations

This Page Does not Represent a Woldwide View
This page is blatantly and openly Eurocentric, even going so far as to begin the list with "Some of the most important explorations of Western civilization...". Clearly, this is against Wikipedia's policy of countering systematic bias. Something must be done and I shall take the liberty of being bold and adding some major explorations from beyond the Occidental Cultural Area (such as the voyages of Zhenge He or Tupaq Inka Yupanaqui's discovery of the Galapagos).

I would love to have some of my fellow Wikipedians to collaborate with myself and other Wikipedian comrades to fix this problem.

自教育 (talk) 03:32, 17 March 2013 (UTC)

Mars
Should Mars be included? I know we have robots there, but no humans went there so far. JoãoMolina99 (talk) 13:48, 1 October 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of explorations


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George Baker (baritone)

George Baker (10 February 1885 – 8 January 1976) was an English singer. He is remembered for singing on thousands of gramophone records in a career that spanned 53 years, beginning in 1909. He is especially associated with the comic baritone roles in recordings of the Gilbert & Sullivan operas.

Early life and career
George Baker, also known as George Portland (and other recording pseudonyms), was born in Birkenhead, the son of Walter Baker and his wife, Elizabeth, née Sanders. He studied violin, flute and piano as a child. At the age of 16, he served as organist and choirmaster at the Woodford Parish Church in Cheshire. He did the same at two churches in Birkenhead between 1903 and 1906. Baker studied singing with John Acton and won a scholarship to the Royal College of Music. There he studied with Gustave Garcia and was awarded a Patron Funds Grant to continue his vocal studies in Milan in 1914. He was married three times: first to the pianist/conductor Grace Lilian Bryant (1871–1955), from 1911 until their divorce in 1922, then to the singer Kathlyn Hilliard, who died in 1933, and last to Olive Groves, another singer and teacher, who died in 1974. His son with Hilliard, George Alan Hill Baker, was born in 1925 and died during the Second World War.

Baker first recorded for Pathé Records in 1909, while still a student; the piano accompanist and conductor (on his orchestrally-accompanied Pathé discs) was his future wife Lilian Bryant, musical director for Pathé's London studios. Pathé had just changed its emphasis from cylinders to vertically-cut disc records. After his Pathé debut, in the early 1910s Baker began making lateral-cut records for the Gramophone Company and other labels. In 1934 he recalled the experience:
 * We worked really hard in those days, for one song had to be sung perfectly at least six times. The records thus made would be played back again and further records made from them. The conditions under which we recorded were crude in the extreme. We sang in a tiny bare room and into a big tin trumpet, which was connected direct to the recording needle by a rubber tube. We sang collarless and in shirt sleeves, for the place quickly grew stifling. When electrical recording came in, this was all changed, and we now sing into microphones in beautiful rooms, not unlike broadcasting studios.

Baker recorded roles in the first British recordings of Parsifal by Richard Wagner, Hiawatha by Samuel Coleridge-Taylor, Salome by Richard Strauss and Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. He recorded in a wide range of repertory, including as "Uncle George" in a popular early series of children's recordings, in dance band records, hymns, and in the once popular recording of The Departure of a Troopship.

In 1915 Baker made his stage debut in the revue Now's the Time at the Alhambra Theatre. In the 1920s, he performed with both the Carl Rosa and British National Opera companies. He also toured Australia for J. C. Williamson Ltd. in 1922–23, playing the roles of Lord Harry Coe in the musical revue The Peep Show, the Hon. André d'Aubigny in The Lilac Domino and Blair Farquhar in Sally. During this tour, Baker made several recordings for the Aeolian Company. During 1927 and 1928, he toured in the United States and Canada as Macheath in The Beggar's Opera, making his New York debut in March 1928.

Later years
In later years, Baker rarely appeared on stage (except the concert stage), and he only appeared professionally on stage in one Gilbert and Sullivan opera, at the Royal Festival Hall in a performance of Trial by Jury, when he was 81 years old. Baker never performed on stage with the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company, but he recorded many of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas with that company and others and was known for his excellent diction, which is crucial in their rapid-fire patter songs. He sang in the first complete recording of The Mikado (1917) and subsequently recorded a role (and sometimes more than one role) in nearly all of the G&S operas, most of them at least twice, into the 1960s. He described the recording process in the early years as follows: "The first time we recorded the operas was in the days of the old tin trumpet, and principals joined in all the chorus-singing. When it came to our turn to sing in concerted numbers, we elbowed our way through the other singers to get to the trumpet in time." Baker made his final recording as a singer in December 1962, in Gilbert and Sullivan's Ruddigore, a few weeks before his 78th birthday.

Baker was also in demand as an administrator. He served as the BBC's Overseas Music Director from 1944 to 1947 and spent thirty years as committee member and often treasurer or chairman of the Royal Philharmonic Society. He was also the long-standing Honorary Secretary, and a trustee, of the Savage Club (which earlier counted among its notable members W. S. Gilbert and George Grossmith). He also served as Secretary of the Orchestral Employers' Association and for the Musicians' Benevolent Fund as a member of the committee.

Baker wrote two books on singing, This Singing Business (London: Ascherberg, 1947) and The Common Sense of Singing (London: Pergamon Press Ltd 1963) ISBN 0-08-010427-4, and wrote the memoir A Career in Music (1950). He also appeared as a music critic and writer in English newspapers.

He retired to Herefordshire in his final years and died in Hereford, at age 90.

Gilbert and Sullivan recordings
Baker made the following G&S recordings with HMV: 1917 The Mikado (Ko-Ko, Pish-Tush (part), and Pooh-Bah (part)), 1919 The Gondoliers (Antonio, Don Alhambra (part), Duke of Plaza-Toro and Giuseppe); 1920 The Yeomen of the Guard (Jack Point and Sergeant Meryll (part)); 1920 The Pirates of Penzance (Major-General Stanley); 1921 Patience (Bunthorne and Major); and 1922 Iolanthe (Lord Chancellor).

From 1924 to 1933, he made the following recordings with D'Oyly Carte: 1924 Ruddigore (Robin Oakapple); 1927 Gondoliers (Giuseppe); 1926 Mikado (Pish-Tush); 1927 Trial (Usher); 1929 Pirates (Major-General) 1928 Yeomen (Jack Point); 1929 Iolanthe (Lord Chancellor); 1930 Patience (Bunthorne); 1930 H.M.S. Pinafore (Captain Corcoran); 1931 Gondoliers (Duke of Plaza-Toro); 1931 Pirates (Major-General); 1931 Ruddigore (Robin Oakapple) 1931 Yeomen (Jack Point); 1932 Princess Ida (Florian); and 1933 The Sorcerer (John Wellington Wells).

With Columbia, in 1931, Baker recorded Gondoliers (Don Alhambra and Giuseppe (part)); Yeomen (Sergeant Meryll and Wilfred Shadbolt); and Iolanthe (Lord Chancellor). On the Sir Malcolm Sargent/Glyndebourne series, he recorded: 1958 Pinafore (Sir Joseph Porter); 1959 Iolanthe (Lord Chancellor); 1961 Pirates (Major-General); 1961 Trial (The Learned Judge); 1963 Patience (Bunthorne); and 1963 Ruddigore (Robin Oakapple).

For the BBC, Baker recorded: 1966 Trial (Judge) and 1966 Ida (King Gama). He is also heard on a 1970 recording compiling many of his early recordings, called A Tribute to George Baker: Vintage Compilation. In 1973, for an LP set, The Art of the Savoyard, Baker recorded his reminiscences of Richard Temple, Henry Lytton, Bertha Lewis, C. H. Workman, Walter Passmore and other original Savoyards.(Pearl LP set GEM 118/120)

title: George Baker (baritone)


text:
User:Rainer Wasserfuhr~enwiki

Rainer Wasserfuhr, (28 May 1969) is DirectorOfMovies.

You can learn more about me on my HomePage or on my UserPage in the German WikiPedia.

Pages created:
 * 2011-03-07: Werner Kern (chemist)
 * 2003-12-02: Toll Collect
 * 2003-09-14: Herbrand universe

HomePage: http://sl4.eu/

old: https://code.google.com/p/bigtablenomic/wiki/ReDo

ToDo: AggRo CoIns CoLlaboartion EuRopa GradIva LoHaS PEqNp SeeBenisch

de:User:Rainer Wasserfuhr fr:User:Rainer Wasserfuhr sv:User:Rainer Wasserfuhr

title: User:Rainer Wasserfuhr~enwiki


text:
Belgravia

Belgravia is a district in Central London, covering parts of the areas of the City of Westminster and the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea.

Belgravia was known as the 'Five Fields' during the Tudor Period, and became a dangerous place due to highwaymen and robberies. It was developed in the early 19th century by Richard Grosvenor, 2nd Marquess of Westminster under the direction of Thomas Cubitt, focusing on numerous grand terraces centred on Belgrave Square and Eaton Square. Much of Belgravia, known as the Grosvenor Estate, is still owned by a family property company, the Duke of Westminster's Grosvenor Group, although owing to the Leasehold Reform Act 1967, the estate has been forced to sell many freeholds to its former tenants.

Geography

Belgravia is near the former course of the River Westbourne, a tributary of the River Thames. The area is mostly in the City of Westminster, with a small part of the western section in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea.

The district lies mostly to the south-west of Buckingham Palace, and is bounded notionally by Knightsbridge (the road) to the north, Grosvenor Place and Buckingham Palace Road to the east, Pimlico Road to the south, and Sloane Street to the west. To the north is Hyde Park, to the northeast is Mayfair and Green Park and to the east is Westminster.

The area is mostly residential, the particular exceptions being Belgrave Square in the centre, Eaton Square to the south, and Buckingham Palace Gardens to the east.

The nearest London Underground stations are Hyde Park Corner, Knightsbridge and Sloane Square. Victoria station, a major National Rail, tube and coach interchange, is to the east of the district. Frequent bus services run to all areas of Central London from Grosvenor Place. The A4, a major road through West London, and the London Inner Ring Road run along the boundaries of Belgravia.

History

The area takes its name from the village of Belgrave, Cheshire, two miles (3 km) from the Grosvenor family's main country seat of Eaton Hall. One of the Duke of Westminster's subsidiary titles is Viscount Belgrave.

During the Middle Ages, the area was known as the Five Fields and was a series of fields used for grazing, intersected by footpaths. The Westbourne was crossed by Bloody Bridge, probably called so as it was frequented by robbers and highwaymen, and it was unsafe to cross the fields at night. In 1728, a man's body was discovered by the bridge with half his face and five fingers removed. In 1749, a muffin man was robbed and left blind. Five Fields' distance from London also made it a popular spot for duelling.

Despite its reputation for crime and violence, Five Fields was a pleasant area during the daytime, and various market gardens were established. The area began to be built up after George III moved to Buckingham House and constructed a row of houses on what is now Grosvenor Place. In 1826, Richard Grosvenor, 2nd Marquess of Westminster received rights from Parliament to build on land that was to become Belgravia, and came into agreement with Thomas Cubitt to design an estate. The construction of the stucco grand terraces were built between 1830 and 1847. Belgravia is characterised by grand terraces of white stucco houses, and is focused on Belgrave Square and Eaton Square. It was one of London's most fashionable residential districts from its beginnings. Towards the late 19th century, Belgravia ranked among other fashionable areas in London such as Tyburnia and Mayfair.

After World War II, some of the largest houses ceased to be used as residences, or townhouses for the country gentry and aristocracy, and were increasingly occupied by embassies, charity headquarters, professional institutions and other businesses. Belgravia has become a relatively quiet district in the heart of London, contrasting with neighbouring districts, which have far more busy shops, large modern office buildings, hotels and entertainment venues. Many embassies are located in the area, especially in Belgrave Square.

In the early 21st century, some houses are being reconverted to residential use, because offices in old houses are no longer as desirable as they were in the post-war decades, while the number of super-rich in London is at a high level not seen since at least 1939. The average house price in Belgravia, as of March 2010, was £6.6 million, although many houses in Belgravia are among the most expensive anywhere in the world, costing up to £100 million, £4,761 per square foot (£51,000 per m2) as of 2009.

As of 2013, many residential properties in Belgravia were owned by wealthy foreigners who may have other luxury residences in exclusive locations worldwide, so many are temporarily unoccupied as their owners are elsewhere. The increase in land value has been in sharp contrast to the UK average and has left the area empty and isolated.

Belgrave Square

Belgrave Square, one of the grandest and largest 19th-century squares, is the centrepiece of Belgravia. It was laid out by the property contractor Thomas Cubitt for the 2nd Earl Grosvenor, later to be the 1st Marquess of Westminster, beginning in 1826. Building was largely complete by the 1840s.

The original scheme consisted of four terraces, each made up of eleven grand white stuccoed houses, apart from the south-east terrace, which had twelve; detached mansions were in three of the corners and there was a private central garden. The numbering is anti-clockwise from the north: NW terrace Nos. 1 to 11, west corner mansion No. 12, SW terrace 13–23, south corner mansion No. 24, SE terrace Nos. 25–36, east corner mansion No. 37, NE terrace Nos. 38–48.

There is also a slightly later detached house at the northern corner, No. 49, which was built by Cubitt for Sidney Herbert in 1847. The terraces were designed by George Basevi (cousin of Benjamin Disraeli). The largest of the corner mansions, Seaford House in the east corner, was designed by Philip Hardwick, and the one in the west corner was designed by Robert Smirke, completed circa 1830.

The square contains statues of Christopher Columbus, Simón Bolívar, José de San Martín, Prince Henry the Navigator, the 1st Marquess of Westminster, a bust of Basevi and a sculpture entitled "Homage to Leonardo, the Vitruvian Man", by Italian sculptor Enzo Plazzotta.

Eaton Square

Eaton Square is one of three garden squares built by the Grosvenor family, and is named after Eaton Hall, Cheshire, the family's principal seat. It is longer but less grand than Belgrave Square, and is an elongated rectangle. The first block was laid out by Cubitt in 1826, but the square was not completed until 1855, the year of his death. The long construction period is reflected in the variety of architecture along the square.

The houses in Eaton Square are large, predominantly three bay wide buildings, joined in regular terraces in a classical style, with four or five main storeys, plus attic and basement and a mews house behind. The square is one of London's largest and is divided into six compartments by the upper end of King's Road (northeast of Sloane Square), a main road, now busy with traffic, that occupies its long axis, and two smaller cross streets.

Although not as fashionable as some of the other squares in London, Eaton Square was home to several key figures. George FitzClarence, 1st Earl of Munster, the illegitimate son of William IV, lived at No. 13, while Stanley Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain lived at No 93 and No. 37 respectively. Since World War II, Eaton Square has become less residential; the Bolivian Embassy is at No. 106 while the Belgian Embassy is at No. 103.

At the east end of the square is St Peter's Church. It was designed by Henry Hakewill and built between 1824 and 1827 during the first development of Eaton Square. The first church was destroyed by fire in 1836 and rebuilt by Hakewill, and again in 1987, when it was restored by the Braithwaite Partnership. It is a Grade II* listed building, in a Greek revival style featuring a six-columned Ionic portico and a clock tower.

Eaton Place is an extension to the square, developed by Cubitt between 1826 and 1845. The scientist William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin lived here, as did the Irish Unionist Edward Carson. Sir Henry Wilson, 1st Baronet was assassinated by Irish Republicans in 1922 as he was leaving No. 36.

Upper Belgrave Street
Upper Belgrave Street was constructed in the 1840s to connect King's Road with Belgrave Square. It is a wide one-way residential street with grand white stuccoed buildings. It stretches from the south-east corner of Belgrave Square to the north-east corner of Eaton Square. Most of the houses have now been divided into flats and achieve sale prices as high as £3,500 per square foot. Many of the buildings were constructed by Cubitt in the 1820s and 1830s.

Walter Bagehot, a writer, banker and economist, lived at No. 12 during the 1860s. Alfred, Lord Tennyson lived at No 9 in 1880–1881. John Bingham, 7th Earl of Lucan lived at No. 46, and disappeared without trace from there in 1974 after his children's nanny was found murdered.

Hope Portocarrero, the wife of Anastasio Somoza, a Nicaraguan dictator, lived at number 35.

Chester Square

Chester Square is a smaller, residential garden square, the last of the three garden squares built by the Grosvenor family. It is named after the city of Chester, near Eaton Hall. Members of the family also served as Members of Parliament (MPs) for Chester. The garden, just under 1.5 acre in size, is planted with shrubs and herbaceous borders. It was refurbished in 1997, to the layout that appears in the Ordnance Survey map of 1867. Past residents include the poet Matthew Arnold (1822–88) at No. 2, Mary Shelley (1797–1851) at No. 24, John Liddell (1794–1868) at No. 72, Margaret Thatcher (1925–2013) at No. 73, and Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands (1880–1962) resided at No. 77 from 1940 until 1945.

Wilton Crescent

Wilton Crescent was created by Thomas Cundy II, the Grosvenor family estate surveyor, and was drawn up with the original 1821 Wyatt plan for Belgravia. It is named after the 2nd Earl of Wilton, second son of the 1st Marquess of Westminster. The street was built in 1827 by William Howard Seth-Smith.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, it was home to many prominent British politicians, ambassadors and civil servants. Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma lived at No. 2 for many years and Alfonso López Pumarejo, twice President of Colombia, lived and died at No. 33 (which is marked by a blue plaque).

Like much of Belgravia, Wilton Crescent has grand terraces with lavish white houses which are built in a crescent shape, many of them with stuccoed balconies, particularly in the southern part of the crescent. The houses to the north of the crescent are stone clad, and five storeys high, and were refaced between 1908 and 1912. Most of the houses had originally been built in the stucco style, but such houses became stone clad during this renovation period. Other houses today have black iron balconies.

Wilton Crescent lies east of Lowndes Square and Lowndes Street, to the northwest of Belgrave Square. It is accessed via Wilton Place, constructed in 1825 to connect it to Knightsbridge. It is adjacent to Grosvenor Crescent to the east, which contains the Indonesian Embassy. Further to the east lies Buckingham Palace. The play Major Barbara is partly set at Lady Britomart's house in Wilton Crescent. In 2007, Wilton Garden, in the middle of the crescent, was awarded a bronze medal by the London Gardens Society.

Lowndes Square

Lowndes Square is named after the Secretary to the Treasury William Lowndes. Like much of Belgravia, it has grand terraces with white stucco houses. To the east lie Wilton Crescent and Belgrave Square. The square runs parallel with Sloane Street to the east, east of the Harvey Nichols department store and Knightsbridge Underground station. It has some of the most expensive properties in the world. Russian businessman Roman Abramovich bought two stucco houses in Lowndes Square in 2008. The merged houses, with a total of eight bedrooms, are expected to be worth £150 million, which exceeds the value of the previous most expensive house in London.

George Basevi designed many of the houses in the square. Mick Jagger and James Fox once filmed in Leonard Plugge's house in Lowndes Square. The square was used as a setting for the Edward Frederic Benson novel The Countess of Lowndes Square.

Cultural references
The novels of Anthony Trollope (1815–1882): The Way We Live Now, Phineas Finn, Phineas Redux, The Prime Minister, and The Duke's Children all give accurate descriptions of 19th-century Belgravia.

Flunkeyania or Belgravian Morals, written under the pseudonym "Chawles", was one of the novels serialised in The Pearl, an allegedly pornographic Victorian magazine.

A 1967 episode of the television series Batman is set in Belgravia.

In the popular British television series Upstairs, Downstairs (1971–1975), the scene is set in the household of Richard Bellamy (later 1st Viscount Bellamy of Haversham) at 165 Eaton Place, Belgravia (65 Eaton Place was used for exterior shots; a "1" was painted in front of the house number). It depicts the lives of the Bellamys and their staff of domestic servants in the years 1903–1930, as they experience the tumultuous events of the Edwardian era, World War I and the postwar 1920s, culminating with the stock market crash of 1929, which ends the world they had known. In 2010, filming began on a mini-series intended to pick up the story of one of the main characters, Rose Buck, in 1936, as she returns to 165 Eaton Place to serve as the Holland family's housekeeper.

The first episode of the second series of the television programme Sherlock is "A Scandal in Belgravia", loosely based on the Arthur Conan Doyle short story "A Scandal in Bohemia". Moreover, Conan Doyle's friend and literary collaborator, Bertram Fletcher Robinson, died in Belgravia in 1907.

The Princess Switch, a 2018 Netflix original movie starring Vanessa Hudgens, takes place largely in the fictional kingdom of Belgravia.

Belgravia is a period television series, broadcast in 2020, based on a novel of the same name by Julian Fellowes, published in 2016, which Fellowes himself adapted for the series.

title: Belgravia


text:
User:Dinopup

Into urban history, political science, Jewish history, among other things.

I've written two featured articles, on pretty different subjects.

I now have my own Newark webpage at www.newarkhistory.com

Kibbutz
The Newark article was officially featured on December 19th, 2004. The Kibbutz article was featured on May 17th, 2005.

Other articles to which I have made significant contributions include.

Jewish History/Israel

 * Arabah
 * Dead Sea
 * Degania
 * kibbutz
 * Payot

Urban History

 * Louis Bamberger
 * Canarsie, Brooklyn
 * Jerome Cavanagh
 * Fairmount Cemetery, Newark
 * Hyde Park, Chicago
 * Jackson Park, Chicago
 * John Lindsay
 * Mount Pleasant Cemetery, Newark
 * Newark, New Jersey
 * Robert Moses
 * Washington Park, Chicago

Political Science

 * Walter Bagehot, sections on Bagehot's views of the inferiority of presidential systems
 * catch and release
 * Paul Douglas
 * presidential system, sections on strengths and weaknesses of presidential systems
 * reconciliation
 * Third party (United States), sections on why the United States is a two party system.
 * History of the United States Senate
 * Woodrow Wilson, section on political writings

Miscellaneous

 * Pauline Bonaparte
 * Marquis de Custine
 * War of the Camps

Newark Neighborhood Project
I was trying to write an article about every neighborhood of Newark. The pics of Mount Pleasant Cemetery, Fairmount Cemetery, the Ironbound, and Broadway were taken by me.

 * Broadway, Newark, New Jersey, + pics
 * Downtown Newark
 * Fairmount, + pic.
 * Forest Hill, + pics
 * the Ironbound, + three out of four pics
 * Roseville, Newark, New Jersey
 * Seventh Avenue (the old First Ward.
 * Springfield/Belmont
 * Vailsburg, Newark, New Jersey
 * Weequahic

title: User:Dinopup


text:
Talk:Rauf Denktaş

Photo
Dearie me, that is an unfortunate photo of Mr Denktash we have there. I'll grant he's no prettyboy, but shouldn't we have something a bit more formal? The one on Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus seems rather more appropriate. Comments? -- Finlay McWalter 17:16, 9 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Well I can't help what he looks like. It's not meant to be an insulting photo, just a standard news pic. Adam 00:17, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * I asked the TRNC President's office for a photo and Evrim Tolga sent this new picture. He did check the site so he is familiar with the terms of Wikipedia. ato 14:48, 29 Jul 2004 (UTC)

(Geography)
Paphos is not located in the north of Cyprus. It's right next to the Akamas peninsula, which is the southernmost point of the island. (Pantelis Panayiotou, Nicosia, Cyprus) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.21.45.44 (talk) 10:19 & (3 edits spanning 35 sec.:) :20, 22 April 2004

(One colleague's additions)
I plan to make a few additions to this article shortly. If you want to fix my English, or make additions yourself. I'd appreciate you wait until Monday. Thanks. ato 04:04, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

I think I am done for now. I used information from the cited external links and History of Cyprus. This site contains a lot of information as well. ato 01:44, 2 Aug 2004 (UTC)

1981 disputed election
"Turkish Government has interfered with the election process from the lowest to the highest possible degree. In 1981 parliamentary elections three opposition parties won 21 out of 40 seats and declared immediately that they would be ready to form a coalition. Therefore, the main opposition party (Communal Liberation Party, then presided by Alpay Durduran) was supposed to be given the duty to form the government. However, the president declined to obey the tradition and both military and civilian officials from the then military dictatorship in Turkey interfered and did not allow a government to be formed until two of the opposition MPs left the coalition and joined the ruling party for a coalition. This example shows an interference to the electoral process from the highest degree." From http://www.cyprusaction.org/humanrights/elections/. I'm sure you can get much more info on this in turkish. Mavros

Contact information for Mr. Denktaş
İlhan Savut Sok. No. 9, Köşklüçiftlik, Lefkoşa, KKTC., Mersin 10, Türkiye/Turkey. Tel/Fax:   (0392)229-1582, Office Tel: (0392)229-1584, Office Fax: (0392)229-1583, e-mail: aykarkot@kktc.net —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Expatkiwi (talk • contribs) 20:33, 25 February 2007 (UTC).

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one article was rated and this bot brought all the other ratings up to at least that level. BetacommandBot 03:28, 28 August 2007 (UTC)

INTERCOMMUNAL TALKS
[INTERCOMMUNAL TALKS: At the end of 1968 Denktash arrived secretly on the Island and after a short detention by the authorities he was released in a bid to start talks for resolving the constitutional problem of the Republic.Intercommunal talks between the Chairman of the House of Representatives, Glafkos Clerides and Rauf Denktash went on for a number of years,  in an effort to reach a negotiated settlement for establishing a unitary state. When a settlement was reportedly in sight, Rauf Denktash brought the talks to an end, when he announced that the two sides were attaching completely different meanings to the term "unitary state" ].

A text of this nature is needed in order to cover two points. First, the fact that Rauf Denktash was not banned from entering the island during the whole period leading to the Turkish invasio, as the article may lead one to conclude, and Second, that  the different interpretation of the term "unitary state"  by the interlocutors was not but a pretext, as the meaning of the term negotiated upon, was the first thing that should have been agreed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 62.228.112.194 (talk) 17:09, 13 May 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 3 external links on Rauf Denktaş. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120117081403/http://www.cyprus-mail.com/cyprus/denktash-be-buried-tuesday/20120114 to http://www.cyprus-mail.com/cyprus/denktash-be-buried-tuesday/20120114
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120118024743/http://www.todayszaman.com/news-268604-turkish-cypriots-mourn-rauf-denktass-death.html to http://www.todayszaman.com/news-268604-turkish-cypriots-mourn-rauf-denktass-death.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120118023441/http://www.todayszaman.com/news-268642-turks-all-over-world-mourn-loss-of-turkish-cyprus-founder-denktas.html to http://www.todayszaman.com/news-268642-turks-all-over-world-mourn-loss-of-turkish-cyprus-founder-denktas.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 19:15, 27 November 2017 (UTC)

"Help me" edit request by blocked user
Edit request.

Hi please can someone add his middle name in the intro, it should be Rauf Raif Denktas.

Also his signiture in the template. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rauf_R.Denktaş%27ın_ıslak_imzası.JPG — Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.71.240.62 (talk) 20:55, 16 December 2018 (UTC) - Struck edit request by blocked sock. IamNotU (talk) 16:38, 18 December 2018 (UTC)
 * ✅. Sam Sailor 21:37, 16 December 2018 (UTC)

I have undone the requested edit. The request was made by a blocked, long-term-abusive user who is not allowed to edit Wikipedia. See WP:BLOCKEVASION and WP:BMB. Please check any similar requests before granting them, thanks. --IamNotU (talk) 16:55, 18 December 2018 (UTC)

I have also reverted the replacement of this edit by, as it's clearly a reinstatement of an edit made on behalf of a blocked user, and I believe it falls under the rules of WP:BLOCKEVASION: "Anyone is free to revert any edits made in violation of a block, without giving any further reason and without regard to the three-revert rule." In any case, I've reverted a bold edit, which means it doesn't have consensus. I do understand GGT's position that "the fact that he's blocked doesn't mean that the edit is actually incorrect", but this is addressed in WP:BMB. The article has stood for more than 15 years without this particular edit, and there is WP:NORUSH to make it now. I feel that the potential disruption and damage to Wikipedia, by creating a precedent to accept edits from Shingling334, as long as his edits are "good", is not worth any potential improvement such edits could make.

As noted in WP:BMB, when edits by blocked/banned users "force editors into the paradox of either allowing banned editing or removing good content", the latter course should be taken. Please understand that this isn't just a bureaucratic exercise. The hope is that this user will eventually stop their disruptive/deceptive practices once they realize that all their edits are reverted, without exception - similar to the concept of WP:RBI. If instead they are given the message that they only need to convince another editor to support them, they will redouble their efforts and disruption. Taking the long view, I believe it's in the best interest of Wikipedia, and particularly in having accurate, unbiased articles about Turkey and Northern Cyprus, and a good-faith environment for other editors, not to let any of this user's edits stand. If there are other discussions relevant to this, please let me know, as I'm happy to consider them. Thanks. --IamNotU (talk) 16:39, 19 December 2018 (UTC)
 * I have restored the middle name since it's a correct edit, and the user who made it has said they assume responsibility for it. And, as clearly stated in WP:BANREVERT, being allowed to revert edits by banned users does not mean that all edits by, or on behalf of, a banned user must be reverted, which is why I chose not to revert it when cleaning up after the socks. - Tom | Thomas.W talk 20:32, 19 December 2018 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your comment. I've been doing some further reading about the subject. The WP:BANREVERT section is entitled "Edits by and on behalf of banned editors", and begins: "Anyone is free to revert any edits made in violation of a ban, without giving any further reason and without regard to the three-revert rule". I have read that as meaning I am allowed to revert edits made on behalf of banned editors, without further reason and without it being considered edit warring. However, I now think that's probably a misreading, and the first sentence only applies to edits by, but not on behalf of, banned editors. The relevant text about edits on behalf of banned editors is below in the "Proxying" subsection, which says editors can make such edits if "they are able to show that the changes are either verifiable or productive and they have independent reasons for making such edits. Editors who reinstate edits made by a banned or blocked editor take complete responsibility for the content."
 * On the other hand, that section used to include the text: "Users are generally expected to refrain from reinstating edits made by banned users in violation of the ban, and such edits may be viewed as meatpuppetry." (That appears to have been removed without consensus - I will try to take that up on the banning policy talk page). Since WP:BMB is very clear that they "may not edit at all, even if the edits seem good", it seems to me that reinstating and vouching for one of their edits would tend to undermine or sabotage the enforcement of the ban - which editors are expected not to do according to the banning policy - and encourage sock puppetry. So it should only be considered on very rare occasions.
 * My thinking is that there is a technical block in place, which is intended to completely prevent all edits by the user. Unfortunately this user has gone to some lengths to use proxies and other methods to circumvent the technical block. I think we should in that case manually carry out the function of the block - revert all edits and ignore them, as though they never happened. It's true that not all edits must be reverted, and no editor is required to assist with enforcing a block or ban, but I think they are required by policy not to interfere with someone else doing so, as far as is reasonably possible.
 * "What is seen cannot be unseen" though, and in some cases an edit that should have been blocked points out an error in an article that would be negligent not to repair, such as a violation of WP:BLP or other core policies. But that's quite different from adding new material because it's "helpful" or "constructive" for example. Editors can choose to refrain from making any edit, considering the potential cost of encouraging block evasion. At the very least, indispensable material should be re-written in the editor's own words, rather than reinstating verbatim an edit of a block-evading user. In this particular case, it could be argued that it's one of those very rare occasions, since there's no other possible way to write the name, and no other possible place in the article to put it. So if there's a consensus to make this one edit, I won't object, though I would still prefer to revert and ignore it, since I feel that the risks to Wikipedia of encouraging further sock puppetry from this editor (not the least of which is further hours spent by those of us cleaning up after him) outweigh the benefits of including the middle name. In other cases though, I hope that people will not make a habit of reinstating trivially "useful" or "correct" edits by this person, and they should expect that I may challenge such reinstatements on the basis that they unnecessarily undermine the enforcement of the block/ban, in contradiction of the policy. --IamNotU (talk) 00:43, 20 December 2018 (UTC)
 * Adding the middle name was a good faith edit made in response to an edit request, before the IP was blocked as a sock, or even suspected of being a sock, and can definitely not be seen as meat-puppetry. So just drop it. - Tom | Thomas.W talk 08:56, 20 December 2018 (UTC)
 * My comments have nothing to do with the original response to the edit request, which was obviously a good-faith edit. I'm talking about someone reinstating an edit that they know to have been made by (or unwittingly on behalf of) a block-evading user. I don't think such a reinstatement should be made lightly, purely because it "was actually a useful edit". The language that "Users are generally expected to refrain from reinstating edits made by banned users" was part of the banning policy, and from my review of the circumstances in which it was removed, should still be. Whether or not it can be described as meatpuppetry or proxy editing, if editors are completely free to reinstate any reverted edit of a blocked/banned user "no questions asked", purely because it looks useful, that undermines the purpose of WP:BMB ("they "may not edit at all, even if the edits seem good"), and of the block itself. Editors aren't forbidden from reinstating edits by blocked users, because in some cases the reasons are strong enough on balance to outweigh WP:BMB and to disregard the block. As I said, it might be argued that this is one of those cases, but in general it's a practice that is discouraged and should be avoided if possible. I think I'm within my rights, supported by policy, to revert a reinstatement and to ask for discussion and consensus on its necessity, in light of the needs and goals of block/ban enforcement. --IamNotU (talk) 11:06, 20 December 2018 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia isn't a bureaucracy, but a place where common sense should prevail. You were edit-warring (making three reverts in less than 24h) against multiple other users, behaviour that can not be excused by your personal interpretation of the rules (a hard-line interpretation that very few, if any, experienced editors here support), and could have led to you being blocked if you had continued. So just drop it. - Tom | Thomas.W talk 12:16, 20 December 2018 (UTC)
 * I already admitted that it seems I had misinterpreted WP:BLOCKEVASION with regard to the non-applicability of 3RR (though I didn't actually break it), and I've proposed a change to the wording of the policy. In any case, whether I was edit warring or not isn't relevant to the discussion. I also already said that I won't object to this particular edit if others, such as yourself, support it. So it's not necessary to keep telling me to drop it.
 * I still believe it's 100% common sense that a blocked editor is blocked from editing, even if the edits seem good, and other editors should generally refrain from reinstating such edits, unless there's a strong reason to do so. I hardly think that's a hard-line interpretation, and from reading various discussions, there seems to be general support for it. I think it's entirely reasonable to weigh an edit's usefulness against the damage done by enabling the user to effectively evade their block, and to challenge it if it doesn't measure up. If I miscalculated in this case I can accept that, but in general I think doing so is in line with both common sense and policy. --IamNotU (talk) 16:46, 20 December 2018 (UTC)
 * I still believe it's 100% common sense that a blocked editor is blocked from editing, even if the edits seem good, and other editors should generally refrain from reinstating such edits, unless there's a strong reason to do so. I hardly think that's a hard-line interpretation, and from reading various discussions, there seems to be general support for it. I think it's entirely reasonable to weigh an edit's usefulness against the damage done by enabling the user to effectively evade their block, and to challenge it if it doesn't measure up. If I miscalculated in this case I can accept that, but in general I think doing so is in line with both common sense and policy. --IamNotU (talk) 16:46, 20 December 2018 (UTC)

Imaginary massacres?
Hi, I believe the following sentence to be at best unsourced, at worst totally false: "After the 15 July 1974 Greek ultra-nationalist military coup in Cyprus, massacres began against the Turkish Cypriot population already confined into enclaves." Can someone with access to the appropriate sources verify? I found absolutely nothing in support of such massacres, so for the time being, I simplified the sentence into "After the 15 July 1974 Greek ultra-nationalist military coup in Cyprus, fearing for the safety of the Turkish Cypriot population, ...". Pensées de Pascal (talk) 13:55, 15 July 2019 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 20 October 2020
Under "Illness, death and funeral" change Nicosia to North Nicosia -- because that's the location of the hospital he died in. Wikiwarrior1999 (talk) 17:12, 20 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. You can reopen the request by setting the |answered= parameter to no to reactivate your request once you cite the sources.

title: Talk:Rauf Denktaş


text:
Triumphal arch

A triumphal arch is a free-standing monumental structure in the shape of an archway with one or more arched passageways, often designed to span a road, and usually standing alone, unconnected to other buildings. In its simplest form, a triumphal arch consists of two massive piers connected by an arch, typically crowned with a flat entablature or attic on which a statue might be mounted or which bears commemorative inscriptions. The main structure is often decorated with carvings, sculpted reliefs, and dedications. More elaborate triumphal arches may have multiple archways, or in a tetrapylon, passages leading in four directions.

Triumphal arches are one of the most influential and distinctive types of ancient Roman architecture. Effectively invented by the Romans, and using their skill in making arches and vaults, the Roman triumphal arch was used to commemorate victorious generals or significant public events such as the founding of new colonies, the construction of a road or bridge, the death of a member of the imperial family or the accession of a new emperor.

Archaeologists like to distinguish between a true "triumphal arch", built to celebrate an actual Roman triumph, a grand procession declared by the Roman Senate following military victory, a "memorial arch" arch or "honourary arch", essentially built by emperors to celebrate themselves, and arches, typically in city walls, that are merely grand gateways. But the groups are often conflated. Often actual Roman triumphal arches were initially in wood and other rather temporary materials, only later replaced by one in stone; the majority of ancient survivals are actually from the other two groups.

The survival of great Roman triumphal arches such as the Arch of Titus or the Arch of Constantine has inspired many post-Roman states and rulers, up to the present day, to erect their own triumphal arches in emulation of the Romans. Triumphal arches in the Roman style have been built in many cities around the world, including the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, the Narva Triumphal Arch in Saint Petersburg, or Marble Arch and the Wellington Arch in London. After about 1820 arches are often memorial gates and arches built as a form of war memorial, or city gates such as the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, the Washington Square Arch in New York City, or the India Gate in New Delhi, which although patterned after triumphal arches, were built to memorialise war casualties, to commemorate a civil event (the country's independence, for example), or to provide a monumental entrance to a city, as opposed to celebrating a military success or general.

In architecture, "triumphal arch" is also the name given to the arch above the entrance to the chancel of a medieval church where a rood can be placed. and more generally a combination of "one large and two small doorways", such as Leon Battista Alberti's façades for the Tempio Malatestiano and San Andrea, Mantua.

Roman triumphal arches
Roman aqueducts, bridges, amphitheaters and domes employed arch principles and technology. The Romans probably borrowed the techniques of arch construction from their Etruscan neighbours. The Etruscans used elaborately decorated single bay arches as gates or portals to their cities; examples of Etruscan arches survive at Perugia and Volterra.

The two key elements of the Roman triumphal arch – a round-topped arch and a square entablature – had long been in use as separate architectural elements in ancient Greece, but the Greeks preferred the use of entablatures in their temples, and almost entirely confined their use of the arch to structures under external pressure, such as tombs and sewers. The Roman triumphal arch combined a round arch and a square entablature in a single free-standing structure. What were originally supporting columns became purely decorative elements on the outer face of arch, while the entablature, liberated from its role as a building support, became the frame for the civic and religious messages that the arch builders wished to convey through the use of statuary and symbolic, narrative and decorative elements.

The largest arches often had three archways, the central one significantly larger. The minority type of arch with passageways in both directions, often placed at crossroads, is called a tetrapylon (or arcus quadrifrons in Latin), as it has four piers. Roman examples are usually roughly cubical, like the Arch of Septimius Severus in Leptis Magna, Libya, but modern examples, like the Arc de Triomphe, tend to be oblong, with clear main faces and smaller side faces. Examples with three arches on the long face as well as arches at the ends, so with eight piers, are called octopylons. The Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel in Paris is an example.

The modern term triumphal arch derives from the notion that this form of architecture was connected to the award and commemoration of a triumph to particularly successful Roman generals, by vote of the Roman senate. The earliest arches set up to commemorate a triumph were made in the time of the Roman Republic. These were called fornices (s. fornix) and bore imagery that described and commemorated the victory and triumph. Lucius Steritinus is known to have erected two such fornices in 196 BC to commemorate his victories in Hispania. Another fornix was built on the Capitoline Hill by Scipio Africanus in 190 BC, and Quintus Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus constructed one in the Roman Forum in 121 BC. None of these structures has survived and little is known about their appearance.

Roman triumphal practices changed significantly at the start of the imperial period when the princeps Augustus decreed that triumphs and triumphal honours were to be confined to members of the Imperial family; in practice, this meant the ruling emperor or his antecedents. The term fornix was replaced by arcus (arch). While Republican fornices could be erected by a triumphator at his own discretion and expense, Imperial triumphal arches were sponsored by decree of the senate, or sometimes by wealthy holders of high office, to honour and promote emperors, their office and the values of empire. Arches were not necessarily built as entrances, but – unlike many modern triumphal arches – they were often erected across roads and were intended to be passed through, not around.

Post-Roman triumphal arches

Roman triumphal arches remained a source of fascination well after the fall of Rome, serving as a reminder of past glories and a symbol of state power, that was especially appealing to Holy Roman Emperors. At Lorsch Abbey, the triple-arched Torhalle was built in deliberate imitation of a Roman triumphal arch to signify continuity between the Carolingian Empire and its Roman predecessor. In the now dismantled City Gate of Capua of the 1230s, the Emperor Frederick II attempted a triumphal arch in the idiom of Romanesque architecture. It was not until the coming of the Renaissance, however, that rulers sought to associate themselves systematically with the Roman legacy by building their own triumphal arches.

Probably the earliest large recreation was the "Aragonese Arch" at the Castel Nuovo in Naples, erected by Alfonso V of Aragon in 1470, supposedly to commemorate his taking over the kingdom in 1443, although like the later Porta Capuana this was a new façade for the gateway to the castle. By the end of the 16th century the triumphal arch had become closely linked with court theatre, state pageantry and military fortifications. The motif of the triumphal arch was also adapted and incorporated into the façades of public buildings such as city halls and churches.

Temporary triumphal arches made of lath and plaster were often erected for royal entries. Unlike the individual arches erected for Roman conquerors, Renaissance rulers often built a row of arches through which processions were staged. They defined a space for the movement of people and denoted significant sites at which particular messages were conveyed at each stage. Newly elected popes, for instance, processed through the streets of Rome under temporary triumphal arches built specially for the occasion. Arches were also built for dynastic weddings; when Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy married Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain in 1585, he processed under temporary triumphal arches that asserted the antiquity of the House of Savoy and associated his dynasty, through the art and architecture of the arches, with the imperial Roman past.

Temporary wooden triumphal arches were also built in Malta for ceremonies in which a newly elected Hospitaller Grand Master took possession of Mdina and sometimes Birgu.

Images of arches gained great importance as well. Although temporary arches were torn down after they had been used, they were recorded in great detail in engravings that were widely distributed and survived long after the original arches had been destroyed. The medium of engraving gave the viewer the opportunity to examine the allegories and inscriptions presented by the arches in a way that would not have been possible during the event. Sometimes the arches depicted were not even real structures but existed entirely as imaginary representations of royal propaganda. One famous example was the Ehrenpforte Maximilians I by Albrecht Dürer, commissioned by the Emperor Maximilian I. It was one of the largest prints ever produced, measuring 3.75 m high and consisting of 192 individual sheets, depicting an arch that was never intended to be built. It was printed in an edition of 700 copies and distributed to be coloured and pasted on the walls of city halls or the palaces of princes.

The French led the way in building new permanent triumphal arches when the imperial ambitions of the Bourbon kings and Napoleon Bonaparte led to a spate of arch-building. By far the most famous arch from this period is the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, built from 1806 to 1836, though it is consciously dissimilar from its Roman predecessors in omitting the customary ornamental columns – a lack that fundamentally changes the balance of the arch and gives it a distinctly "top-heavy" look. Other French arches more closely imitated those of imperial Rome; the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel in Paris, for instance, is a tetrapylon closely modelled on the Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome.

Triumphal arches have continued to be built into the modern era, often as statements of power and self-aggrandizement by dictators. Adolf Hitler planned to build the world's largest triumphal arch in Berlin. The arch would have been vastly larger than any previously built, standing 550 ft wide, 92 ft deep and 392 ft high – big enough for the Arc de Triomphe to fit into it 49 times. It was intended to be carved with the names of Germany's 1.8 million dead in the First World War. However, construction was never begun. North Korea's dictator Kim Il Sung built the world's largest triumphal arch in Pyongyang in 1982. It was designed to be substantially bigger than the Arc de Triomphe in Paris and was erected on the site where, on October 14, 1945, Kim Il Sung gave his first public speech to the North Korean people. It is decorated with sculptures and reliefs depicting "the triumphal returning of the victorious Great Leader to the country".

The form of the triumphal arch has also been put to other purposes, notably the construction of monumental memorial arches and city gates such as the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, the Washington Square Arch in New York City, or the India Gate in New Delhi, or simple welcoming arches such as Barcelona's Arc de Triomf, built as an entrance to the fairgrounds for the 1888 World Fair. Although patterned after triumphal arches, these were built for quite different purposes – to memorialise war casualties, to commemorate a civil event (the country's independence, for example), or to provide a monumental entrance to a city, as opposed to celebrating a military success or general.

title: Triumphal arch


text:
Descent (mathematics)

In mathematics, the idea of descent extends the intuitive idea of 'gluing' in topology. Since the topologists' glue is the use of equivalence relations on topological spaces, the theory starts with some ideas on identification.

Descent of vector bundles
The case of the construction of vector bundles from data on a disjoint union of topological spaces is a straightforward place to start.

Suppose X is a topological space covered by open sets Xi. Let Y be the disjoint union of the Xi, so that there is a natural mapping

 * $$p: Y \rightarrow X.$$

We think of Y as 'above' X, with the Xi projection 'down' onto X. With this language, descent implies a vector bundle on Y (so, a bundle given on each Xi), and our concern is to 'glue' those bundles Vi, to make a single bundle V on X. What we mean is that V should, when restricted to Xi, give back Vi, up to a bundle isomorphism.

The data needed is then this: on each overlap

 * $$X_{ij},$$

intersection of Xi and Xj, we'll require mappings

 * $$f_{ij}: V_i \rightarrow V_j$$

to use to identify Vi and Vj there, fiber by fiber. Further the fij must satisfy conditions based on the reflexive, symmetric and transitive properties of an equivalence relation (gluing conditions). For example, the composition

 * $$f_{jk} \circ f_{ij} = f_{ik}$$

for transitivity (and choosing apt notation). The fii should be identity maps and hence symmetry becomes $$f_{ij}=f^{-1}_{ji}$$ (so that it is fiberwise an isomorphism).

These are indeed standard conditions in fiber bundle theory (see transition map). One important application to note is change of fiber: if the fij are all you need to make a bundle, then there are many ways to make an associated bundle. That is, we can take essentially same fij, acting on various fibers.

Another major point is the relation with the chain rule: the discussion of the way there of constructing tensor fields can be summed up as 'once you learn to descend the tangent bundle, for which transitivity is the Jacobian chain rule, the rest is just 'naturality of tensor constructions'.

To move closer towards the abstract theory we need to interpret the disjoint union of the

 * $$X_{ij}$$

now as

 * $$Y \times_X Y,$$

the fiber product (here an equalizer) of two copies of the projection p. The bundles on the Xij that we must control are V′ and V", the pullbacks to the fiber of V via the two different projection maps to X.

Therefore, by going to a more abstract level one can eliminate the combinatorial side (that is, leave out the indices) and get something that makes sense for p not of the special form of covering with which we began. This then allows a category theory approach: what remains to do is to re-express the gluing conditions.

History
The ideas were developed in the period 1955–1965 (which was roughly the time at which the requirements of algebraic topology were met but those of algebraic geometry were not). From the point of view of abstract category theory the work of comonads of Beck was a summation of those ideas; see Beck's monadicity theorem.

The difficulties of algebraic geometry with passage to the quotient are acute. The urgency (to put it that way) of the problem for the geometers accounts for the title of the 1959 Grothendieck seminar TDTE on theorems of descent and techniques of existence (see FGA) connecting the descent question with the representable functor question in algebraic geometry in general, and the moduli problem in particular.

Fully faithful descent
Let $$p:X' \to X$$. Each sheaf F on X gives rise to a descent data:
 * $$(F' = p^* F, \alpha: p_0^* F' \simeq p_1^* F'), \, p_i: X'' = X' \times_X X' \to X'$$

where $$\alpha$$ satisfies the cocycle condition:
 * $$p_{02}^* \alpha = p_{12}^* \alpha \circ p_{01}^* \alpha, \, p_{ij}: X' \times_{X} X' \times_{X} X' \to X' \times_{X} X'$$.

The fully faithful descent says: $$F \mapsto (F', \alpha)$$ is fully faithful. The descent theory tells conditions for which there is a fully faithful descent.

title: Descent (mathematics)