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Lääne County

Lääne County (Lääne maakond or Läänemaa, literally "Western land"; Wiek; Rotalia) is one of the 15 counties of Estonia. It is located in western Estonia and borders the Baltic Sea to the north, Harju County to the north-east, Rapla County to the east, Pärnu County to the south, and the island counties of Saare and Hiiu to the west. In January 2009 Lääne County had a population of 23,810 – constituting 2.0% of the total population in Estonia.

County government
The County Government (Maavalitsus) is led by a governor (maavanem), who is appointed by the Government of Estonia for a term of five years. Since 15 December 2011, the governorship has been held by Innar Mäesalu.

Maavanem 1918–1941

 * Aleksander Saar 1917–1927
 * Artur Kasterpalu 1930–1941

Maavanem 1993–present

 * Andres Lipstok 14 December 1993 – 12 August 1994
 * Hannes Danilov 1 November 1994 – 3 January 1999
 * Arder Väli 23 February 1999 – 20 July 1999
 * Jaanus Sahk 22 September 1999 – 22 September 2004
 * Sulev Vare 19 November 2004 – 14 September 2007
 * Neeme Suur 18 February 2008 – 4 April 2011
 * Innar Mäesalu 15 December 2011 -

Municipalities
The county is subdivided into municipalities. There is one urban municipality, Haapsalu (linn – town) and 2 rural municipalities (vallad – parishes) in Lääne County.

History
In the first centuries AD political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the parish (kihelkond) and the county (maakond). A parish consisted of several villages. Nearly all parishes had at least one fortress. The defense of the local area was directed by the highest official, the parish elder. A county was composed of several parishes, also headed by an elder. By the 13th century the following major districts had developed in Estonia: Saaremaa (Osilia), Läänemaa (Rotalia or Maritima), Harjumaa (Harria), Rävala (Revalia), Virumaa (Vironia), Järvamaa (Jervia), Sakala (Saccala), and Ugandi (Ugaunia).

Läänemaa (Rotalia, Maritima, Low German: Wiek) was an independent country on the east coast of the Baltic Sea, bordered by Revala, Harjumaa, Alempois, and Sakala. Läänemaa had an area of approximately 1900 hides. Early in 1220 troops from Sweden, initially led by King John I, had invaded Läänemaa. The Swedish army took the Lihula stronghold and set up a small garrison. Swedish Jarl Karl Döve and Bishop Karl Magnusson of Linköping, both from the powerful House of Bjelbo, also remained in the castle. On August 8, 1220 the united Œselian and Rotalian armies encircled the castle at dawn. It was set ablaze in the course of the fierce battle that ensued. The Swedish troops tried to make their way out, but were killed on site apart from a few who succeeded in escaping to Tallinn, held by Denmark. The Jarl, the Bishop, and almost 500 other Swedes were killed, leaving no Swedish presence in Estonia at all. The short-lived Swedish attempt to gain foothold in Estonia was motivated by the quickly advancing Danish and Low German crusaders who had been able to conquer most of the area in the early 13th century. Defeat in the Battle of Lihula discouraged the Swedish expansion to Estonia for more than 300 years, and the country was left for the Teutonic Knights, Low German Bishops and Denmark to divide. In the meantime, Sweden focused on Finland and the Swedish-Novgorodian Wars. After the Livonian Crusade Läänemaa became the main territory of the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek, an independent Bishopric. Parts of the Bishop's castle are still preserved in Haapsalu.

Historic parishes (kihelkonnad)

 * Hanila
 * Cozzo (Karuse)
 * Corbe (Kõrve)
 * Lihula
 * Ridala
 * Soontagana (et:Soontagana)
 * around Märjamaa

After the German conquest in 1227, Lääne County became the center of the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek, an independent principality within the Livonian Confederation. Parts of Bishop's castle are still preserved in Haapsalu.

title: Lääne County


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Talk:Bretton Woods system

Committee for Economic Development
No idea where to work this in, but from that article: The CED has been credited with helping to create the Bretton Woods Agreement, the Employment Act of 1946 (and therefore the Council of Economic Advisers and the Joint Economic Committee) and the Marshall Plan. valereee (talk) 17:38, 30 January 2022 (UTC)

valereee (talk) 17:38, 30 January 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Bretton Woods system


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Bicknell's thrush

Bicknell's thrush (Catharus bicknelli) is a medium-sized thrush, at 17.5 cm and 28 g. One of North America's rarest and most localized songbirds, it breeds on coniferous mountain tops and disturbed habitats of northeastern North America. While very similar in appearance and vocalization to the gray-cheeked thrush (Catharus minimus), the two species, with two completely different breeding ranges, differ slightly in their morphology and vocalizations. It was named after Eugene Bicknell, an American amateur ornithologist, who made the first scientific discovery of the species on Slide Mountain in the Catskills in the late 19th century. John Burroughs, in his essay, "The Heart of the Southern Catskills" (1886), writes effusively about the voice of Bicknell's thrush heard near the summit on his climbs of Slide Mountain, and how on his stays on Slide saw them nowhere else but "about the summit", and saw no other thrush but Bicknell's.

Description
Bicknell's thrush is just slightly smaller than the other northern migratory Catharus thrushes, with an average length of approximately 17 cm and a weight ranging generally from 26 to 30g. Both sexes are identical in the field and are roughly the same size, although males average slightly larger in wing length. Adults are olive-brown to brownish on the upperparts (head, nape, back) contrasting with chestnut-tinged tail. The contrast is, however, less evident in worn plumage. The underparts are off-white with gray on the flanks; the breast is off-white with buffy wash, showing dusky spots that becomes more diffuse toward the sides and the lower breast. They have pink legs, a faint grey eye ring, and gray cheeks. Two-thirds of the lower mandible is yellow colored, while the tip of the lower mandible and upper mandible is blackish. They average slightly smaller than the very similar gray-cheeked thrush but are all but indistinguishable in outward appearance. The song is a jumbled series of flute-like tones ending on a higher note.

Taxonomy
A member of the family Turdidae, Bicknell's thrush belongs to the genus Catharus. This genus includes twelve species, five of which are found in North America. The closest relative of the Bicknell's thrush is its sister species, the gray-cheeked thrush. Together, the gray-cheeked and Bicknell's thrush form a cryptic species pair, and were indeed formerly considered conspecific. However, DNA analysis showed a divergence between the two species about 1 million years ago.

Habitat and range
Bicknell's thrush scattered breeding range extends from southeastern Quebec to Nova Scotia in Canada and the sky islands of northern New England and the Adirondacks and Catskills in New York. It is the rarest and most secretive of the breeding thrushes in North America, and it is the only bird species whose breeding range is entirely restricted to the northeastern part of the continent. It is a habitat specialist in its breeding range. It is known to favor high altitude coniferous forests affected by strong winds and heavy ice conditions. They usually breed at higher elevations, normally nesting above 915 m. However, they do not only live in this habitat, they also inhabit successional forests that have recently been affected by the forest industry. Its habitat is therefore best characterized by highly disturbed forest, where trees are small and stunted.

Conversely, Bicknell's thrush is more a habitat generalist in migration. The Bicknell's and gray-cheeked thrushes, along with the veery, make up a close-knit group of migrant species. The birds migrate to the Greater Antilles, with an estimated 90% of the individuals wintering in Hispaniola (mostly in the Dominican Republic, but also Haiti). During the winter, they live in broadleaf forests at various elevations but generally preferring higher elevations. Wintering individuals have been recorded from the mountain ranges of the Cordillera Central, Sierra de Baoruco, and Cordillera Septentrional in the Dominican Republic, the Massif de la Hotte in Haiti, the Cordillera Central in Puerto Rico, the Blue Mountains in Jamaica, and the Sierra Maestra in eastern Cuba.

Vocalization
Vocalizing mostly at dawn and dusk, the song is mostly performed by the male, but sometimes also by females. Like all North American thrushes, Bicknell's thrush song is flute-like. High pitched and vibrant, the song is composed of four phrases: “chook-chook, wee-o, wee-o, wee-o-ti-t-ter-ee”. Unlike in the gray-cheeked thrush, the pitch of the last phrase is constant or rising.

The primary call is a downward whistle named the “Beer call” “beer”. Other calls include growl call given in alarm situations “crr-rr-rr” and flight call “cree-e-e”

John Burroughs, in his essay, "The Heart of the Southern Catskills" (1886), writes effusively about the voice of Bicknell's thrush heard near the summit on his climbs of Slide Mountain, and how on his stays on Slide saw them nowhere else but "about the summit", and saw no other thrush but Bicknell's.

Breeding
Bicknell's thrushes have an unusual mating system in which females mate with more than one male. Such a practice, known as polyandry, is not known to occur in other thrushes. As many as four males perform duties connected with one nest, including bringing food for the nestlings. It is possible that females decide to mate with more males when preys are less abundant. Pair formation is thought to occur after female arrival to breeding site in late May. The nest itself is typically a bulky cup made of twigs and moss, close to the trunk of a conifer at base of horizontal branches, usually 2 meters above ground. The female builds the nest alone and lay three or four eggs per clutch. While the incubation period is about two weeks, nestlings, fed by both parents, grow rapidly, developing in 12 days from peanut-sized hatchlings to completely feathered adult-sized birds.

Ecology
Ticks, blowflies, and lice are some of the parasites with which Bicknell's thrush must contend. The American red squirrel is the main predator of eggs and nestlings, according to breeding ecology. Predators confirmed to hunt nesting adults have consisted of the sharp-shinned hawk, the long-tailed weasel, and the northern saw-whet owl. On the nesting grounds there are at least six other predators suspected or likely to depredate nests and at least three other predators that may attacks nesting adults, to say nothing of potential predators during migration or on wintering grounds.

Diet
The thrush's diet consists mainly of insects, beetles and ants being the main preys. They also start eating wild fruits in late summer (mid-July), and continue to do so during migration, and on the wintering grounds. They forage on both insects and wild fruits in winter. They usually forage on the forest floor, but also catch flies, and glean insects from the foliage of trees. Individuals eating fruits on wintering ground forage higher in the tree than those eating insects. Foraging technique varies but Bicknell's thrush mostly searches by pausing and peering, marked by hops and short flights. Sometimes food scratch on the ground, especially in wintering range.

Population monitoring
Mountain Birdwatch data suggest that Bicknell's thrush populations have declined by an average of -3.88% per year (95% Bayesian credible interval: -5.27% to -2.52%) in northern New England and northeastern New York since 2010. The steepest declines (>60% decline between 2010 and 2022, 95% Bayesian credible interval: -75.31% to -33.33%, ) were observed in the Catskill Mountains in New York, USA, the southernmost portion of the Bicknell's thrush global breeding range. At that rate, it is possible that Bicknell's thrush may be extirpated entirely from the Catskills by 2050, with an estimated population loss of >95%. The Catskills, however, likely harbor less than 5% of the U.S. Bicknell's thrush population. The species has already been extirpated from Massachusetts, with the last record there being on Mount Greylock. The U.S. population of Bicknell's thrush is likely around 70,000, and the Canadian population estimated between 40,570 and 49,568, with a global population of less than 120,000. The species was considered a "Special Concern" species by Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada in April 1999. This was later re-examined to consider C. bicknelli "Threatened" in November 2009, and was re-assessed again as such in December 2022.

Threats
Its numbers are declining in some parts of its already limited range as a result of habitat degradation. Scientists believe that industrial pollution is one of the main reasons for the decline of the red spruce, an important element in Bicknell's thrush habitat in the United States. Airborne heavy metals may also damage high-elevation forests in the northeastern United States. Furthermore, based on expected substantial carbon dioxide increases by the end of the century, scientists predict a radical reduction of balsam fir forest in the eastern United States and Canada. If average global temperatures increase and forests change as much as predicted, Bicknell's thrush habitat is very likely to be altered in ways that may seriously affect the species' survival. Indeed, models predict that Bicknell's thrush will lose more than 50% of its breeding habitat over the next 30 years. Furthermore, recreational development, telecommunication towers and windmills increase is a major cause of habitat fragmentation and deterioration.

Industrial forestry practices, although possibly harmful, may be modified to aid in conservation efforts to protect Bicknell's thrush. While more study is needed, the bird's apparent acceptance of certain commercial second-growth forest gives promise to possibilities of man-made "growing" Bicknell's thrush habitats in the future.

Non-native species are potential risks throughout the thrush's range; introduced moose on Cape Breton Island consume the saplings of the tree species birds breed on, and invasive brown and black rats in the Caribbean may pose a potential threat. With climate change shifting temperature up elevation on mountains, Bicknell's thrush may suffer from asymmetrical and aggressive competition from the Swainson's thrush (''Catharus swainsoni). ''

Bicknell's thrush has a higher concentration of mercury in its blood than any lower-elevation Catharus thrush. Mercury level increases greatly with altitude and its concentration bioaccumulate in the food web, probably explaining why it decreases as breeding season advances and birds begin to feed more on fruits. High mercury concentrations may cause reproductive impairment.

There is also considerable concern about the degradation of Bicknell's thrush's wintering habitats. The Dominican Republic's native forests are under considerable pressure from naturally occurring events such as hurricanes, as well as changes from agricultural activities, particularly at low altitudes. The forested lands of Haiti have been almost eliminated, and in Cuba, most of the known suitable habitat exists only in protected parklands.

Management
Few management actions are known to be in place, even though management procedures for the species’ conservation have been established by the International Bicknell's Thrush Conservation Group (IBTCG). Near ski trails, maintaining vegetation on edges in a gradual slope and keeping large forested “islands” between leaves better habitat for Bicknell's thrush. Limiting vegetation management outside of the breeding season near mountain tops is another way to diminish disturbance. In areas where infrastructures are built in favorable Bicknell's thrush habitat, restoration of non-permanent modifications in the environment by reforesting is recommended. Signs or barriers along trails leading to the infrastructure to minimize disturbance is another suggested measure. As regenerating forests are known to be a good habitat for this species, assuring a continuous forest regeneration after clear-cuts benefits Bicknell's thrush. On winter range, reforestation of agricultural lands is proposed way to protect this declining thrush.

title: Bicknell's thrush


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Rapla County

Rapla County (Rapla maakond or Raplamaa) is one of the fifteen counties of Estonia. It is situated in the western part of the country and borders Järva County to the east, Pärnu County to the south, Lääne County to the west, and Harju County to the north. In 2022 Rapla County had a population of 33,529 – constituting 2.5% of the total population of Estonia.

History
The first written records of Rapla date back to the 1241 Danish census (Liber Census Daniae).

County government
The County Government (Estonian: Maavalitsus) is led by a governor (Estonian: maavanem), who is appointed by the Government of Estonia for a term of five years. Since 2009, the Governor position is held by Tiit Leier.

Municipalities
The county is subdivided into municipalities. There are 4 rural municipalities (Estonian: vallad – parishes) in Rapla County:

Geography
Natural resources found in Rapla county include limestone, dolomite, peat, and clay.

Miscellaneous topics
The church of Rapla was built in 1901. However, much of the interior dates back to several hundred years earlier and is of high structural quality and historical value. In the churchyard there are several crosses remaining from the 17th century.

title: Rapla County


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Lingdingyang Bridge

The Lingdingyang Bridge is one of the bridges in the Shenzhen-Zhongshan link. The bridge was proposed by former Zhuhai prefecture mayor in the late 1980s to link Zhuhai and Hong Kong at Qi'ao and Tuen Mun, across the Lingdingyang, Pearl River estuary.

Preliminary works had been finished to link mainland Zhuhai with Qi'ao island. Nonetheless the proposal was dropped to give way to a later proposal of Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge, which links Hong Kong at Lantau, and connects Macau as well.

In November 2019, Zhuhai government announced plans for a Shenzhen-Zhuhai bridge, officially named the Lingdingyang Bridge, as the bridge cross the Lingding Channel will be built to connect the two cities. The bridge will start in Qianhai, Shenzhen and go towards Qi'ao Island, Zhuhai, and will be 47 km long. The cross-sea section of the bridge is planned to be both an expressway and a railway. A two-way eight-lane expressway and a four-lane railway with a designed speed of 100 kph have been planned.

title: Lingdingyang Bridge


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List of U.S. military vessels named after living Americans

The naming of United States Navy vessels after living people was common in the earliest years of American history, but as the 20th century began, the Navy had firmly established a practice of naming ships for people only after they had died. In 1969, a Navy panel formally decreed that warships would no longer be named after living persons.

That lasted until 1974, when President Richard Nixon announced the naming of an aircraft carrier after United States Representative Carl Vinson. Over the next half-century, the Navy named more ships for living people than it had in the previous two centuries. From October 2020 to March 2023, the Navy named a ship for a living person every eight months, a pace unseen since 1776.

U.S. Navy ships are named by the Secretary of the Navy under U.S. law, explicitly until 1925 and implicitly since.

No ships were named for living former Navy secretaries until 2001; since then, every Navy secretary save one has named a warship for a living predecessor, accounting for more than one-quarter of the ships they named for living people.

No one has named more U.S. ships for living people than Ray Mabus, who did so eight times during his service as secretary from 2009 to 2017. "I think it's...important, when we can, to honor people who are still with us and thank them for what they did," Mabus said in 2016.

The U.S. Navy generally announces the name of a ship some time before it is launched, and well before it is accepted for purchase and commissioned into active service.

List of ships
The following ships received their names while their namesakes were alive. The list includes several ships whose namesakes died before the ships were commissioned.

1770s

 * George Washington had several vessels named after him before he died in 1799, including at least four in the 1770s and one in 1798. (See also USS Washington).
 * USS Washington (1775) was a schooner named Endeavor acquired by Gen. Washington in October 1775, renamed Washington, and re-rigged as a brigantine.
 * USS Washington (1776 row galley) was a row galley that operated in Narragansett Bay during the winter and spring of 1776.
 * USS Washington (1776 frigate) was one of 13 frigates authorized by the Continental Congress. She was launched in August 1776.
 * USS Washington (1776 lateen-rigged galley), a lateen-rigged two-masted galley, was built in the autumn of 1776.
 * USS George Washington (1798) was commissioned in 1798.
 * John Hancock's name was given to two vessels before he died in October 1793. (See also USS Hancock).
 * USS Hancock (1775) was the former schooner Speedwell, hired in October 1775.
 * USS Hancock (1776) was a sailing frigate of the American Revolutionary War, commissioned in 1776.
 * USS Franklin (1775) was a 6-gun schooner, fitted out in 1775; Benjamin Franklin died in 1790. (See also USS Franklin)
 * USS Lady Washington (1776) was commissioned in 1776; Martha Washington died in 1802.
 * USS Deane (1778) was commissioned in 1778; Silas Deane died in 1789.

1790s

 * Two ships were named for John Adams while he was serving as America's second president:
 * USS Adams (1799), a 28-gun frigate, was launched in New York on June 8, 1799.
 * USS John Adams (1799), a 24-gun frigate, was launched in Charleston, South Carolina, on June 5, 1799.

1800s

 * USS James Madison (1807) was commissioned in 1807, the first of three ships named for James Madison before he died on June 28, 1836.

1810s

 * USS Jefferson (1814) was launched in 1814; Thomas Jefferson died on July 4, 1826.

1820s

 * USS Madison (1812) was a 14-gun schooner launched in 1812.

1830s

 * USS Madison (1832) was a Van Buren-class schooner, designed by Edward Preble and built in 1832.
 * USS Van Buren (1839) was commissioned in 1839; Martin Van Buren died in July 1862. (See also USS Van Buren)

1850s

 * USS Harriet Lane (1857), commissioned by the US Revenue Cutter Service in 1857, transferred to the U.S. Navy in 1861, named for Harriet Lane, niece and First Lady of bachelor President James Buchanan.  Lane died in 1903.

1900s

 * USS Holland (SS-1) was commissioned in 1900; John Philip Holland, pioneer of submarine design, died August 1914.

1970s

 * USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70) was named in 1974; Carl Vinson, former chairman of the House Armed Services Committee, died in 1981, before the ship was commissioned.

1980s

 * USS Hyman G. Rickover (SSN-709) was named in 1983; retired Admiral Hyman Rickover, known as the "Father of the Nuclear Navy", died in 1986.
 * USS John C. Stennis (CVN-74) was named in 1988; John Stennis, former chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee, died in 1995, before the ship was commissioned.
 * USS Arleigh Burke (DDG-51) was named in 1989; retired Admiral Arleigh Burke, former 3-term Chief of Naval Operations, died in 1996. Burke spoke at the ship's commissioning on July 4, 1991.

1990s

 * USS Ronald Reagan (CVN-76) was named in 1994; former President Ronald Reagan died in June 2004, eleven months after the ship was commissioned in July 2003.
 * USNS Bob Hope (T-AKR-300) was named in 1995; Bob Hope, veteran of USO shows spanning 50 years, died in 2003.
 * USS Jimmy Carter (SSN-23) was named in 1998 for former President and Navy submariner Jimmy Carter.

2000s

 * USS Nitze (DDG-94) was named in January 2001; Paul Nitze, former Secretary of the Navy, died in October 2004, before the ship was commissioned.
 * USS Mustin (DDG-89) was named on December 15, 2001, in honor of the Mustin family that devoted more than a century to U.S. Naval service. Vice Admiral Henry C. Mustin died in April 2016, 13 years after the ship was commissioned, and Lieutenant Commander Thomas M. Mustin died in July 2022.
 * USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77) was named in December 2002 for former President and naval aviator George H. W. Bush. Bush died in November 2018, 9 years after his ship was commissioned.
 * USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78) was named in October 2006; Gerald R. Ford, former President and carrier officer, died in December 2006, before the ship was commissioned.
 * USS Wayne E. Meyer (DDG-108) was named on November 27, 2006, for retired Rear Admiral Wayne E. Meyer, acclaimed as the father of the Aegis combat system. Meyer died in September 2009 a few weeks before the ship was commissioned.
 * USS John Warner (SSN-785) was named on January 8, 2009, five days after John Warner, former Navy petty officer, former Marine Corps officer, former Secretary of the Navy, and former chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee, retired from the U.S. Senate.

2010s

 * USNS John Glenn (T-ESD-2) was named on January 4, 2012, for astronaut and politician John Glenn, who died in 2016.
 * USS Gabrielle Giffords (LCS-10) was named on February 10, 2012, for Gabby Giffords, former member of the House of Representatives from Arizona who survived an assassination attempt in 2011. Navy Secretary Mabus chose the name.
 * USS Thomas Hudner (DDG-116) was named on May 7, 2012, for Thomas Hudner, retired Naval officer and recipient of the Medal of Honor. Hudner died on November 13, 2017.
 * USS Paul Ignatius (DDG-117) was named on May 23, 2012, for Paul Robert Ignatius, former Secretary of the Navy.
 * USNS John Lewis (T-AO-205) was named on January 6, 2016, for John Lewis, a politician and civil rights activist. Lewis died in 2020.
 * USS Hershel "Woody" Williams (ESB-4) was named on January 14, 2016, for Hershel W. Williams, a Marine warrant officer and Medal of Honor recipient. Williams died in 2022.
 * USS Carl M. Levin (DDG-120) was named on April 11, 2016, for Carl M. Levin, a former United States senator from Michigan and chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee. The contract for the ship, along with the name, was announced in a press release from General Dynamics, parent company of Bath Iron Works, on March 31, 2016. Levin died on July 29, 2021.
 * USS Harvey C. Barnum Jr. (DDG-124), slated for commissioning in 2024, is to be named for Harvey C. Barnum, Jr., a retired Marine Corps officer and recipient of the Medal of Honor, as announced by Mabus on July 28, 2016.

2020s

 * USS John F. Lehman (DDG-137) will be named for John Lehman, a former Secretary of the Navy, as announced by Navy Secretary Kenneth Braithwaite on October 13, 2020.
 * USS John L. Canley (ESB-6) was named on November 10, 2020, for John L. Canley, a retired Marine Corps sergeant major and Medal of Honor recipient. Canley died in 2022.
 * USS Robert E. Simanek (ESB-7) was named on January 15, 2021, for Robert E. Simanek, a Marine who received the Medal of Honor. Simanek died in 2022.
 * USS J. William Middendorf (DDG-138) was named on June 10, 2022, for J. William Middendorf, a U.S. diplomat and former Navy Secretary. Then-Navy Secretary Richard Spencer announced his intention to name a ship after Middendorf in 2020; on January 11, 2023, the Navy announced that Navy Secretary Carlos Del Toro had chosen DDG-138.
 * USNS Robert Ballard (TAGS-67) was named on December 12, 2022, for Robert Ballard, an oceanographer and Navy officer.
 * USS Thomas G. Kelley (DDG-140) will be named for Thomas G. Kelley, a Navy surface-warfare officer and Medal of Honor recipient.
 * USS John H. Dalton (SSN-808) will be named for John H. Dalton, a former Secretary of the Navy, as announced by Del Toro on March 1, 2023.


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Talk:Hilbert's seventh problem

The 7th problem of Hilbert was solved completely and independently by Gelfond and Schneider. They used slitely different methods. While Schneider only used the addition theorem of the exp-function exp(x+y)=exp(x)exp(y), Gelfond used also the differential equation e'=e. Later Schneider used Gelfond's Methode to prove other results, e.g. an analogue to the Gelfond-Schneider Theorem (Hilbert's 7th problem) for elliptic function.

The translation at http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/hilbert/problems.html#prob7 gives the statement in the form to which I've corrected it (i.e. b irrational algebraic). So I believe Gel'fond/Schneider solved the problem as stated (end of para 7 of the reference).

Charles Matthews 12:08, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Edit request
As of 9/14/2013 the last sentence of the article states: "The first question is a consequence of the second question." A question being a consequence of another question is an opinion and needs a reference. I THINK (but am not sure) that the writer MEANS that the ANSWER to the 1st question directly follows from the answer to the second. Could someone edit to correct this? As it stands it makes no sense, and in addition the implication that the 1st part of Hilbert's 7th Problem IS answered/solved is not otherwise made explicit here (and if true, it obviously should be explicitly said).72.172.1.28 (talk) 15:11, 14 September 2013 (UTC)

 * The two questions are (elementarily) equivalent. I provided a reference.--Sandrobt (talk) 15:00, 27 March 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hilbert's seventh problem


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User:Kamiya

&

日本人。英語は不得意。

Japanese.I can understand English a little.

title: User:Kamiya


text:
Moxos

Moxos may refer to:

 * Moxos plains, or Llanos de Moxos, a region of Bolivia
 * Moxos Province, Bolivia
 * Moxo people, an indigenous people of Bolivia
 * Llanos de Moxos (archaeology)
 * Jesuit Missions of Moxos
 * Moxoene, or Moxos, an ancient Armenian province

title: Moxos


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User:Rosscrc

Ross Community Resources Centre

title: User:Rosscrc


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Liverpool John Moores University

Liverpool John Moores University (abbreviated LJMU) is a public research university in the city of Liverpool, England. The university can trace its origins to the Liverpool Mechanics' School of Arts, established in 1823. This later merged to become Liverpool Polytechnic. In 1992, following an Act of Parliament, the Liverpool Polytechnic became what is now Liverpool John Moores University. It is named after Sir John Moores, a local businessman and philanthropist, who donated to the university's precursor institutions.

The university had students in, of which  are undergraduate students and  are postgraduate, making it the  largest university in the UK by total student population.

It is a member of the University Alliance, the Northern Consortium and the European University Association.

Origins
Founded as a small mechanics institution (Liverpool Mechanics' School of Arts) in 1823, the institution grew over the centuries by converging and amalgamating with different colleges, including the F.L. Calder School of Domestic Science, the City of Liverpool C.F. Mott Training College, before eventually becoming Liverpool Polytechnic in 1970. The university also has a long history of providing training, education and research to the maritime industry, dating back to the formation of the Liverpool Nautical College in 1892.

The institution then became a university under the terms of the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 under the new title of "Liverpool John Moores University". This new title was approved by the Privy Council on 15 September 1992. The university took its name from Sir John Moores, the founder of the Littlewoods empire. Moores was a great believer in the creation of opportunity for all, which embodies the ethos of LJMU in providing educational routes for people of all ages and from all backgrounds. This belief led Sir John Moores to invest in the institution and facilities, such as the John Foster Building (housing the Liverpool Business School), designed by and named after leading architect John Foster. With the institution's backgrounds dating back as far as 1823, many of the university buildings date back also, with aesthetically pleasing Georgian and Victorian buildings found on a few of the campuses.

Present day
LJMU now has more than 27,000 students from over 100 countries world-wide, 2,400 staff and 250 degree courses. LJMU was awarded the Queen's Anniversary Prize in 2005.

Currently, Liverpool John Moores University is receiving more applications than previously seen; according to data in 2009, the total number of applications submitted to LJMU was 27,784.

On 28 March 2022, former student and founder of Mowgli, Nisha Katona was installed as Chancellor of the university. Previously, in 2008, astrophysicist and Queen lead guitarist Brian May was appointed the fourth Chancellor of Liverpool John Moores University. He replaced outgoing Chancellor Cherie Blair, wife of former Prime Minister Tony Blair. Honorary fellows in attendance at the ceremony included astronomer Sir Patrick Moore and actor Pete Postlethwaite. May was succeeded as Chancellor by judge Sir Brian Leveson in 2013.

LJMU is a founding member of the Northern Consortium, an educational charity owned by 11 universities in northern England.

Campuses
The university is separated into two campuses in Liverpool:
 * City Campus, mainly situated on Byrom Street and surrounding Great Crosshall Street up to Liverpool Exchange railway station, housing buildings such as the; James Parsons Building and Tithebarn Building, of the faculties of Science; Engineering and Technology and; Health.
 * Mount Pleasant Campus, next to the Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral and Liverpool University, containing the John Lennon Art and Design Building and home to the Faculty of Business and Law and the Faculty of Arts, Professional and Social Studies. The Liverpool Science Park is also regarded to be part of this campus.

Between the two campuses is the Copperas Hill Site, opened in summer 2021, containing many faculties moved from the former IM Marsh Campus, and home to the Student Life and LJMU Sports Buildings. Its location between the two sites has been described by the university to help connect both of its campuses together, and is not regarded to be part of either. It is however closer to the Mount Pleasant Campus and separated from the City Campus by the A5047, and Liverpool Lime Street railway station.

Libraries

There are currently two libraries operated by LJMU, one for either campus:

 * The Aldham Robarts Library is part of the Mount Pleasant Campus, and provides for students studying at the Mount Pleasant Campus or otherwise residing in the central Knowledge Quarter area. The library is situated on Maryland Street and caters mainly for the Faculty of Business and Law and the Faculty of Media, Arts and Social Science.
 * The Avril Robarts Library is part of the City Campus, and mainly provides services to students studying in the City Campus. It is located on Tithebarn Street, and covers three faculties: Faculty of Health, the Faculty of Science and the Faculty of Technology and Environment. The library hosts the Superlambanana sculpture at its front.

There is an LRC present in the Learning Commons of the Student Life Building on the Copperas Hill site between the two campuses.

Students of the university can use any library in term-time and some non-term time periods within the library's opening hours. The Student Life Building is open 24/7 in term time. Students need their student identification card for entry to all buildings.

There are more than 68,500 books in the Libraries' collections, with 1,630 work spaces available for students 24 hours a day. In addition to this there are over 16,000 e-books and 5,000 e-journals available. It is a member of the Libraries Together: Liverpool Learning Partnership (evolved from Liverpool Libraries Group) which formed in 1990. Under which, a registered reader at any of the member libraries can have access rights to the other libraries within the partnership.

Tom Reilly Building
The Tom Reilly Building houses the School of Sports and Exercise Sciences and the School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, which are both part of the Faculty of Science. Some 8,000 students use the building which is located at LJMU's City Campus on Byrom Street. The five storey, 6493 m2 building was completed in November 2009 and opened in March 2010 by Liverpool F.C. captain Steven Gerrard. The building provides sports and science facilities including; appetite laboratories, psychology testing labs, neuroscience labs, an indoor 70-metre running track, force plates, caren disc, physiology suites, a DEXA scanner, a driving simulator and a chronobiology lab.

Faculties
The university is organised into five faculties (which are each split into schools or centres), most of the faculties are based at a particular campus site however, with many joint honours degrees and some conventional degrees, the faculties overlap meaning students' degrees are from both faculties. The five faculties are:

 * Faculty of Business & Law
 * Liverpool Business School
 * School of Law

 * Faculty of Arts, Professional and Social Studies
 * Liverpool School of Art and Design
 * Liverpool Screen School
 * School of Education
 * School of Humanities and Social Science
 * School of Justice Studies
 * Institute of Culture Capital

 * Faculty of Health
 * School of Nursing and Allied Health
 * Public Health Institute
 * School of Psychology

 * Faculty of Science
 * School of Biological and Environmental Sciences
 * School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences
 * School of Sport and Exercise Sciences

 * Faculty of Engineering and Technology
 * Astrophysics Research Institute
 * School of Civil Engineering and Built Environment
 * School of Computer Science and Mathematics
 * School of Engineering
 * LJMU Maritime Centre

Academic profile
LJMU is highly ranked for teaching and research in Sports and Exercise Sciences. The Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) awarded LJMU £4.5 million over five years for the establishment of a Centre for Excellence in Teaching and Learning (CETL). The CETL award recognises LJMU's record for Physical Education, Dance, Sport and Exercises Sciences. LJMU is the only United Kingdom university to be awarded an Ofsted Grade A in Physical Education and it is also the premier institution for both teaching and research in Sport and Exercise Sciences.

Business School
Liverpool Business School (LBS) is located in the Redmonds Building on the Mount Pleasant Campus and has over 2,500 students and 100 academics.

LBS offers undergraduate, postgraduate (including an Executive MBA) and research based programmes. Research areas include International Banking, Economics and Finance, Sustainable Enterprise, Public Service Management, Development of Modern Economic Thought, Performance Management, Marketing, Project Management, and Market Research.

Research
In the 2001 Research Assessment Exercise (RAE), LJMU reported notable research strengths in general engineering and sports-related sciences. By the 2008 RAE, LJMU was the top-performing post-92 university for Anthropology, Electrical and Electronic Engineering, General Engineering, Physics (Astrophysics) and Sports-Related Studies. According to the UK Research Assessment Exercise 2014 (RAE 2014), LJMU every unit of assessment submitted was rated as at least 45% internationally excellent or better. In 2012, the university's scientist published notable research suggesting that the dinosaur's extinction may have been caused by increased methane production from the dinosaurs, with some informally saying that dinosaurs "farted" their way to extinction.

Rankings
Liverpool John Moores University was included in the new 2013 Times Higher Education 100 under 50, ranking 72 out of 100. The list aims to show the rising stars in the global academy under the age of 50 years.

First Destination Survey results show that 89% of LJMU graduates are in employment or undertaking postgraduate study within six months of graduating.

Students' Union
Students at the university are represented by the John Moores Students' Union.

Representation for all students is central and is conducted by executive officers elected annually. In most cases, these students will be on a sabbatical from their studies. The election process is normally contested in mid April, successful candidates assuming office the following academic year.

Sports

Liverpool John Moores University has BUCS-registered teams in badminton, basketball, cricket, football, cycling, hockey, netball, rugby league, rugby union, tennis, volleyball, swimming, and American football. Many of the sports teams compete in BUCS competitions. Liverpool Students' Union has 15 BUCS sports, from which 36 teams run, catering for over 800 athletes. In recent years, LJMU students have competed for BUCS representative squads, in national finals and at World University Championships. In addition, the Students' Union also runs intramural sports leagues.

The university also enjoys success at national and world level. Gymnast Beth Tweddle studied at LJMU and has achieved national, Commonwealth, European, and World medals whilst also competing at the Olympic Games.

Every year the university sports compete for 'The Varsity Cup' in the inter-university derby, Liverpool John Moores University Vs. University of Liverpool. The competing sports include: badminton, basketball, hockey, football, netball, volleyball, swimming, tennis, and the snowriders racing team.

Notable alumni

 * Joe Anderson (politician), Former 1st Mayor of Liverpool
 * Caroline Aherne (actress, comedy writer, The Royle Family)
 * Martyn Bernard (2010 European Athletics Championships bronze medalist high jumper)
 * Rebecca Bisland (Republic of Ireland international footballer)
 * Rachel Brown (England women's national football team Goalkeeper)
 * Stephen Crowe (composer)
 * Bambos Charalambous (MP)
 * Stephen Byers (MP)
 * Julian Cope (musician, author)
 * Dafydd Elis-Thomas, Lord Elis-Thomas (Welsh politician) (MS) (MP)
 * Claire Foy (actress)
 * Zack Gibson (professional wrestler)
 * Neena Gill (MEP)
 * Andreja Gomboc (astrophysicist)
 * Mark Hendrick (MP)
 * Christy Holly (Head Coach of Louisville Royals in the NWSL)
 * George Howarth (MP)
 * John Lennon (The Beatles)
 * Matt Lloyd (Paralympian) (Ice Sledge Hockey)
 * Andy Merrifield, Marxist urban theorist
 * Steve Morgan, founder of Redrow plc
 * Margaret Murphy (crime writer)
 * Mohamed Nasheed (4th President of the Maldives)
 * Martin Offiah rugby league player
 * Juan Carlos Osorio (football manager)
 * Tom Palin (painter)
 * Roxanne Pallett (actress, known from Emmerdale)
 * Les Parry: English football manager
 * Steve Parry (Olympic Games bronze medalist swimmer)
 * Vicky Pattison (Geordie Shore Reality personality)
 * Louise Pentland [Known online as 'Sprinkle of Glitter'] (YouTuber)
 * Michael Rimmer (2010 European Athletics Championships silver medalist 800m runner)
 * Gareth Roberts (writer, Doctor Who and The Sarah Jane Adventures)
 * James Roby (St Helens R.F.C. rugby player)
 * Philip Selway (musician, Radiohead)
 * Andrew Stunell (MP)
 * Gemma Tumelty (52nd President of NUS)
 * Beth Tweddle MBE Olympic medalist (gymnast)
 * Andi Watson (cartoonist)
 * Laura Watton (Original English-language manga artist)
 * Hannah Whelan (gymnast)
 * Ieuan Wyn Jones (Welsh politician) (MS) (MP)
 * Timothy Brown (musician, The Boo Radleys)

title: Liverpool John Moores University


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Subtle body

A subtle body is a "quasi material" aspect of the human body, being neither solely physical nor solely spiritual, according to various esoteric, occult, and mystical teachings. This contrasts with the mind–body dualism that has dominated Western thought. The subtle body is important in the Taoism of China and Dharmic religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, mainly in the branches which focus on tantra and yoga, where it is known as the Sūkṣma-śarīra (सूक्ष्म शरीर). However, while mostly associated with Asian cultures, non-dualistic approaches to the mind and body are found in many parts of the world.

Subtle body concepts and practices can be identified as early as 2nd century BCE in Taoist texts found in the Mawangdui tombs. It was "evidently present" in Indian thought as early as the 4th to 1st century BCE when the Taittiriya Upanishad described the Panchakoshas, a series of five interpenetrating sheaths of the body. A fully formed subtle body theory did not develop in India until the tantric movement that affected all its religions in the Middle Ages. In Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, the correlation of the subtle body to the physical body is viewed differently according to school, lineage and scholar, but for completion stage in yoga, it is visualised within the body. The subtle body consists of focal points, often called chakras, connected by channels, often called nadis, that convey subtle breath, often called prana. Through breathing and other exercises, a practitioner may direct the subtle breath to achieve supernormal powers, immortality, or liberation.

Subtle body in the Western tradition is called the body of light. The concept derives from the philosophy of Plato: the word 'astral' means 'of the stars'; thus the astral plane consists of the Seven Heavens of the classical planets. Neoplatonists Porphyry and Proclus elaborated on Plato's description of the starry nature of the human psyche. Throughout the Renaissance, philosophers and alchemists, healers including Paracelsus and his students, and natural scientists such as John Dee, continued to discuss the nature of the astral world intermediate between earth and the divine. The concept of the astral body or body of light was adopted by 19th and 20th-century ceremonial magicians.

The Theosophy movement was the first to translate the Sanskrit term as 'subtle body', although their use of the term is quite different from Indic usage as they synthesize Western and Eastern traditions. This makes the term problematic for modern scholars, especially as the Theosophist view often influences New Age and holistic medicine perspectives. Western scientists have started to explore the subtle body concept in research on meditation.

Asian religions
The Yogic, Tantric and other systems of Hinduism, Vajrayana Buddhism, as well as Chinese Taoist alchemy contain theories of subtle physiology with focal points (chakras, acupuncture points) connected by a series of channels (nadis, meridians) that convey subtle breath (prana, vayu, ch'i, ki, lung). These invisible channels and points are understood to determine the characteristics of the visible physical form. By understanding and mastering the subtlest levels of reality one gains mastery over the physical realm. Through breathing and other exercises, the practitioner aims to manipulate and direct the flow of subtle breath, to achieve supernormal powers (siddhis) and attain higher states of consciousness, immortality, or liberation.

Early
Early concepts of the subtle body (Sanskrit: sūkṣma śarīra) appeared in the Upanishads, including the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad and the Katha Upanishad. The Taittiriya Upanishad describes the theory of five koshas or sheaths, though these are not to be thought of as concentric layers, but interpenetrating at successive levels of subtlety:

 * The anna-maya ("food body", physical body, the grossest level),
 * The prana-maya (body made of vital breath or prana),
 * The mano-maya (body made of mind),
 * The vijñana-maya (body made of consciousness)
 * The ananda-maya (bliss body, the subtlest level).

Subtle internal anatomy included a central channel (nadi). Later Vedic texts called samhitas and brahmanas contain a theory of five "winds" or "breaths" (vayus, pranas):

 * Prāṇa, associated with inhalation
 * Apāna, associated with exhalation
 * Uḍāna, associated with distribution of breath within the body
 * Samāna, associated with digestion
 * Vyāna, associated with excretion of waste

Later
A millennium later, these concepts were adapted and refined by various spiritual traditions. The similar concept of the is seen as the vehicle of consciousness in later Samkhya, Vedanta, and Yoga, and is propelled by past-life tendencies, or bhavas. Linga can be translated as "characteristic mark" or "impermanence" and the Vedanta term sarira as "form" or "mould". Karana or "instrument" is a synonymous term. In the Classical Samkhya system of Isvarakrsna (ca. 4th century CE), the Lińga is the characteristic mark of the transmigrating entity. It consists of twenty-five tattvas from eternal consciousness down to the five organs of sense, five of activity (buddindriya or jñānendriya, and karmendriya respectively) and the five subtle elements that are the objects of sense (tanmatras) The Samkhyakarika says:

"The subtle body (linga), previously arisen, unconfined, constant, inclusive of the great one (mahat) etc, through the subtle elements, not having enjoyment, transmigrates, (because of) being endowed with bhavas ("conditions" or "dispositions").

As a picture (does) not (exist) without a support, or as a shadow (does) not (exist) without a post and so forth; so too the instrument (linga or karana) does not exist without that which is specific (i.e., a subtle body)."

- Samkhyakarika, 60–81

The classical Vedanta tradition developed the theory of the five bodies into the theory of the koshas "sheaths" or "coverings" which surround and obscure the self (atman). In classical Vedanta these are seen as obstacles to realization and traditions like Shankara's Advaita Vedanta had little interest in working with the subtle body.

Tantra
In Tantra traditions meanwhile (Shaiva Kaula, Kashmir Shaivism and Buddhist Vajrayana), the subtle body was seen in a more positive light, offering potential for yogic practices which could lead to liberation. Tantric traditions contain the most complex theories of the subtle body, with sophisticated descriptions of energy nadis (literally "stream or river", channels through which vayu and prana flows) and chakras, points of focus where nadis meet.

The main channels, shared by both Hindu and Buddhist systems, but visualised entirely differently, are the central (in Hindu systems: sushumna; in Buddhist: avadhuti), left and right (in Hindu systems: ida and pingala; Buddhist: lalana and rasana). Further subsidiary channels are said to radiate outwards from the chakras, where the main channels meet.

Chakra systems vary with the tantra; the Netra Tantra describes six chakras, the Kaulajñana-nirnaya describes eight, and the Kubjikamata Tantra describes seven (the most widely known set).

In the Dzogchen tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, the subtle body takes a different form. More specifically, the tradition points to four areas of particularly concentration of bodily energy – videlicet the heart (tsitta), where the enlightened energy resides; the "luminous channels" (‘od rtsa), through which the energy flows; the skull (dung khang), where it spreads before finally being released through the fourth hot-spot, namely the eyes (tsakshu / briguta). Flavio Geisshuesler, who has studied the functioning of the Dzogchen subtle body in the context of the practice of sky-gazing, argues that many of the specific motifs that appear in the tradition's conception of the body are of pre-Buddhist origin. More specifically, he notes that the Dzogchen body's motifs of "deer-hearts, silk-channels, buffalo-horns, or far-reaching lassos [...] reproduce the terminology of the hunting of animalistic vitality as if internalizing the quest for precious substances."

Modern
The modern Indian spiritual teacher Meher Baba stated that the subtle body "is the vehicle of desires and vital forces". He held that the subtle body is one of three bodies with which the soul must cease to identify with in order to realize God.

Buddhism

In Buddhist Tantra, the subtle body is termed the "innate body" (nija-deha) or the "uncommon means body" (asadhdrana-upayadeha), or sūkṣma śarīra, rendered in Tibetan as traway-lu (transliterated phra ba’i lus). The subtle body is sometimes known as manomaya-kāya, the “body made of mind” and is the means for synchronising the body and the mind, particularly during meditation.

The subtle body consists of thousands of subtle energy channels (nadis), which are conduits for energies or "winds" (lung or prana) and converge at chakras. According to Dagsay Tulku Rinpoche, there are three main channels (nadis), central, left and right, which run from the point between the eyebrows up to the crown chakra, and down through all seven chakras to a point two inches below the navel.

Lati Rinbochay describes the subtle body as consisting of 72,000 channels, various winds and a white and a red drop whilst a further very subtle body is a wind abiding in a drop at the centre of the heart chakra. The central channel is then described as being squeezed by two channels that encircle it at each chakra and thrice at the heart chakra, ensuring the winds do not move upward or downward until death.

Buddhist tantras generally describe four or five chakras in the shape of a lotus with varying petals. For example, the Hevajra Tantra (8th century) states:"In the Center [i.e. chakra] of Creation [at the sexual organ] a sixty-four petal lotus. In the Center of Essential Nature [at the heart] an eight petal lotus. In the Center of Enjoyment [at the throat] a sixteen petal lotus. In the Center of Great Bliss [at the top of the head] a thirty-two petal lotus."In contrast, the historically later Kalachakra tantra describes six chakras.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, liberation is achieved through subtle body processes during Completion Stage practices such as the Six Yogas of Naropa.

Other traditions
Other spiritual traditions teach about a mystical or divine body, such as "the most sacred body" (wujud al-aqdas) and "true and genuine body" (jism asli haqiqi) in Sufism, the meridian system in Chinese religion, and "the immortal body" (soma athanaton) in Hermeticism.

Western esoteric tradition
The body of light is elaborated on according to various Western esoteric, occult, and mystical teachings. Other terms used for this body include body of glory, spirit-body, radiant body, luciform body, augoeides ('radiant'), astroeides ('starry' or 'sidereal body'), and celestial body.

The concept derives from the philosophy of Plato: the word 'astral' means 'of the stars'; thus the astral plane consists of the Seven Heavens of the classical planets. The idea is rooted in common worldwide religious accounts of the afterlife in which the soul's journey or "ascent" is described in such terms as "an ecstatic, mystical or out-of body experience, wherein the spiritual traveller leaves the physical body and travels in their body of light into 'higher' realms."

Neoplatonists Porphyry and Proclus elaborated on Plato's description of the starry nature of the human psyche. Throughout the Renaissance, philosophers and alchemists, healers including Paracelsus and his students, and natural scientists such as John Dee, continued to discuss the nature of the astral world intermediate between earth and the divine. The concept of the astral body or body of light was adopted by 19th-century ceremonial magician Éliphas Lévi, Florence Farr and the magicians of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, including Aleister Crowley.

Theosophy
In the 19th century, H. P. Blavatsky founded the esoteric religious system of Theosophy, which attempted to restate Hindu and Buddhist philosophy for the Western world. She adopted the phrase "subtle body" as the English equivalent of the Vedantic sūkṣmaśarīra, which in Adi Shankara's writings was one of three bodies (physical, subtle, and causal). Geoffrey Samuel notes that theosophical use of these terms by Blavatsky and later authors, especially C. W. Leadbeater, Annie Besant and Rudolf Steiner (who went on to found Anthroposophy), has made them "problematic" to modern scholars, since the Theosophists adapted the terms as they expanded their ideas based on "psychic and clairvoyant insights", changing their meaning from what they had in their original context in India.

Post-theosophists
The later theosophical arrangement was taken up by Alice Bailey, and from there found its way into the New Age worldview and the human aura. Other authors treated the subtle body in varying ways. Max Heindel divided the subtle body into the Vital Body made of Ether; the Desire body, related to the Astral plane; and the Mental body. Barbara Brennan's account of the subtle bodies in her books Hands of Light and Light Emerging refers to the subtle bodies as "layers" in the "Human Energy Field" or aura.

Fourth Way
Subtle bodies are found in the "Fourth Way" teachings of Gurdjieff and Ouspensky, who write that one can create a subtle body, and hence achieve post-mortem immortality, through spiritual or yogic exercises. The "soul" in these systems is not something one is born with, but developed through esoteric practice to acquire complete understanding and to perfect the self. According to the historian Bernice Rosenthal, "In Gurdjieff's cosmology our nature is tripartite and is composed of the physical (planetary), emotional (astral) and mental (spiritual) bodies; in each person one of these three bodies ultimately achieves dominance." The "divine body" represents a fourth way, and the ultimate task of the teachings is to harmoniously develop the four ways into a single way.

Meditation research
Western scientists have started to explore the subtle body concept in relation to research on meditation. The subtle body model can be cross-referenced onto modern maps of the central nervous system, and applied in research on meditation.

title: Subtle body