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Heavenly Mother (Mormonism)

In the Latter Day Saint movement, Heavenly Mother, also known as Mother in Heaven, is the mother of human spirits and the wife of God the Father. Collectively Heavenly Mother and Father are called Heavenly Parents. Those who accept the Mother in Heaven doctrine trace its origins to Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement. The doctrine became more widely known after Smith's death in 1844.

The Heavenly Mother doctrine is taught by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the Restoration Church of Jesus Christ, and branches of Mormon fundamentalism, such as the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. The doctrine is not generally recognized by other denominations within the Latter Day Saint movement, such as the Community of Christ, where trinitarianism is predominant.

In the LDS Church, the doctrine of "Heavenly Mother" or "heavenly parents" is not frequently discussed; however, the doctrine can be found in some church hymns and has been briefly discussed in church teaching manuals and several sermons.

Origin of the theology
The theological underpinnings of a belief in Heavenly Mother are attributed to Joseph Smith, who shortly before his death in 1844 outlined a controversial view of God that differed dramatically from traditional Christian consensus. Smith's theology included the belief that God would share his glory with his children and that righteous couples might become exalted beings, or gods and goddesses, in the afterlife.

Although there is no known record of Smith explicitly teaching about Heavenly Mother, several of Smith's contemporaries attributed the theology to him either directly, or as a natural consequence of his theological stance. An editorial footnote of History of the Church 5:254, quotes Smith as saying: "Come to me; here's the mysteries man hath not seen, Here's our Father in heaven, and Mother, the Queen." In addition, a secondhand account states that in 1839, Smith had told Zina Diantha Huntington, after the death of her mother, that "not only would she know her mother again on the other side, but 'more than that, you will meet and become acquainted with your eternal Mother, the wife of your Father in Heaven.

In addition, members of the Anointed Quorum, a highly select leadership group in the early church that was privy to Smith's teachings, also acknowledged the existence of a Heavenly Mother. The Times and Seasons published a letter to the editor from a pseudonymous person named "Joseph's Speckled Bird", in which the author stated that in the pre-Earth life, the spirit "was a child with his father and mother in heaven". The apostle Parley Pratt even taught in an official church periodical that God may have had multiple wives before Christ's time, and that after the death of Mary (the mother of Jesus) she may have become another eternal wife.

In 1845, after the death of Smith, the poet Eliza Roxcy Snow published a poem entitled "My Father in Heaven", (later titled "Invocation, or the Eternal Father and Mother", now used as the lyrics in the Latter-day Saint hymn "O My Father"), which acknowledged the existence of a Heavenly Mother. The poem contained the following language:

Some early Mormons considered Snow to be a prophetess. Later, church president Joseph F. Smith (a nephew of Joseph Smith) explained his own belief that "God revealed that principle that we have a mother as well as a father in heaven to Joseph Smith; Joseph Smith revealed it to Eliza Snow Smith, his wife; and Eliza Snow was inspired, being a poet, to put it into verse." A companion hymn "Our Mother in Heaven" was published in the church's Juvenile Instructor four decades later.

The doctrine is also attributed to several other early church leaders. According to one sermon by Brigham Young, Smith once said he "would not worship a God who had not a father; and I do not know that he would if he had not a mother; the one would be as absurd as the other."

Multiple Heavenly Mothers
Polygamy has played an important part in Mormon history and multiple Mormon denominations have teachings on the existence of a polygamous Heavenly Father married to multiple Heavenly Mothers. Brigham Young taught that God the Father was polygamous, although teachings on Heavenly Mothers were never as popular and disappeared from official rhetoric after the end of LDS polygamy in 1904 (although existing polygynous marriages lasted into the 1950s). Top leaders used the examples of the polygamy of God the Father in defense of the practice and this teaching was widely accepted by the late 1850s. Apostle Orson Pratt taught in an official church periodical that "We have now clearly shown that God the Father had a plurality of wives," and that after her death, Mary (the mother of Jesus) may have become another eternal polygamous wife of God. One scholar interpreted a 1976 LDS manual as alluding to this teaching. Author Carol Lynn Pearson stated that a seminary teacher from her youth fervently taught that there were multiple Heavenly Mothers. Another denomination, the Apostolic United Brethren, believes in multiple Mothers in Heaven.

Worship and prayer to Heavenly Mother
Orson Pratt, an early apostle of the LDS Church, opposed worshiping a Heavenly Mother, because, he reasoned, like wives and children in any household, Heavenly Mother was required to "yield the most perfect obedience to" her husband.

Early leader George Q. Cannon thought that "there is too much of this inclination to deify 'our mother in heaven, arguing that she is not part of the Godhead and that to worship her would detract from the worship of Heavenly Father. However, early 20th-century church leader Rudger Clawson disagreed, arguing that "it doesn't take away from our worship of the Eternal Father, to adore our Eternal Mother ... [W]e honor woman when we acknowledge Godhood in her eternal prototype."

Some church leaders have interpreted the term "God" to represent the divinely exalted couple with both a masculine and feminine half. Erastus Snow, an early Mormon apostle, wrote do you mean we should understand that Deity consists of a man and woman?' Most certainly I do. If I believe anything that God has ever said about himself ... I must believe that deity consists of a man and woman." This notion was reaffirmed by later church leaders Hugh B. Brown, James E. Talmage, Melvin J. Ballard, and Bruce R. McConkie.

Some Mormon feminists have adopted the practice of praying to the Heavenly Mother. However, LDS Church president Gordon B. Hinckley opposed this practice, saying that Mormons should not pray to the Heavenly Mother because Christ instructed his disciples to address the Heavenly Father in their prayers. When a feminist professor was fired from Brigham Young University in the 1990s, it was revealed that one of the reasons was her public advocacy of praying to Heavenly Mother. Other Mormon women have been excommunicated for similar publications such as teaching that Heavenly Mother is the Holy Ghost.

Acknowledgment by the LDS Church
One early authoritative statement from the entire First Presidency on the subject is the "origin of man" letter by the on the 50th anniversary of Charles Darwin's Origin of Species. The church also later implied the theology in the 1995 statement "The Family: A Proclamation to the World", where the church officially stated that each person is a "spirit son or daughter of heavenly parents". Similarly, the 2019 version of the Young Women Theme reads, "I am a beloved daughter of heavenly parents, with a divine nature and eternal destiny." Other references to heavenly parents can be found in Latter-day Saint speeches and literature. In 2015, an official essay was published on the church website which surveyed 171 years of statements about a Mother in Heaven and confirmed that it is part of church doctrine.

Statements by church leaders
Various LDS Church leaders throughout the history of the church have spoken openly about the doctrine of a Heavenly Mother.

Brigham Young stated about Adam and Eve: "I tell you more, Adam is the father of our spirits ... [O]ur spirits and the spirits of all the heavenly family were begotten by Adam, and born of Eve. ... I tell you, when you see your Father in the Heavens, you will see Adam; when you see your Mother that bore your spirit, you will see Mother Eve." (Since the LDS Church has formally denounced since the 1970s the Adam–God doctrine as taught by Young, today this statement is doctrinal only to certain groups of Mormon fundamentalists.) Young also preached that resurrected "eternal mothers" would "be prepared to frame earths like unto ours".

Susa Young Gates, a daughter of Young and a women's rights activist, stated that the "great Heavenly Mother was the great molder" of Abraham's personality. "Gates speculated that Heavenly Mother has played a significant role in all our lives, looking over us with 'watchful care' and providing 'careful training.

Early 20th-century church leader B. H. Roberts pointed out that the Heavenly Mother doctrine presents a "conception of the nobility of women and of motherhood and of wife-hood—placing her side by side with the Divine Father." Apostle John A. Widtsoe, a contemporary of Roberts, wrote that the afterlife "is given radiant warmth by the thought that ... [we have] a mother who possesses the attributes of Godhood." In 1894, Juvenile Instructor, an official publication of the LDS Church, published a hymn entitled "Our Mother in Heaven". A 1925 First Presidency statement included the lines "All men and women are in the similitude of the universal Father and Mother. ... [M]an, as a spirit, was begotten and born of heavenly parents . ... [and] is capable, by experience through ages and aeons, of evolving into a God."

There has also been some more recent discussion of Heavenly Mother by LDS Church leaders. In a speech given at BYU in 2010, Glenn L. Pace, a member of the LDS Church's First Quorum of the Seventy, said, "Sisters, I testify that when you stand in front of your heavenly parents in those royal courts on high and look into Her eyes and behold Her countenance, any question you ever had about the role of women in the kingdom will evaporate into the rich celestial air, because at that moment you will see standing directly in front of you, your divine nature and destiny."

Controversy
According to historian Linda Wilcox, Heavenly Mother "is a shadowy and elusive belief floating around the edges of Mormon consciousness". The lack of focused teaching and more information about her has caused speculation among Mormons that this de-emphasis may have a divine purpose, such as to avoid drawing attention to her and to preserve the sacredness of her existence. In 1960, an LDS seminary teacher published in a Mormon encyclopedia that "the name of our Mother in Heaven has been withheld" because of the way God the Father's and Jesus Christ's names have been profaned.

Margaret Merrill Toscano writes that "[w]hile no General Authority has made an official statement denying belief in a Heavenly Mother nor stating that her existence is too sacred to discuss, several factors may influence the current trend that sees even a mention of Heavenly Mother as treading on forbidden ground. Members take their cues about what is acceptable doctrine from talks of General Authorities and official church manuals and magazines". These materials rarely mention Heavenly Mother directly. The publicly discussed church discipline of feminists like Lynne Kanavel Whitesides, Maxine Hanks, Janice Merrill Allred, and Margaret Toscano, all of whom were disciplined in part for statements related to the Heavenly Mother, may add to the general sense that discourse about her is strictly forbidden. However, Brigham Young University professor David L. Paulsen has argued that such a belief finds no official backing in statements by church leaders, and that the concept that the Heavenly Mother is consigned to a "sacred silence" is largely the result of a relatively recent cultural perception.

In 2016, McArthur Krishna and Bethany Brady Spalding wrote a children's book that discusses Heavenly Mother. Krishna said in an interview, "We all know that we have a Heavenly Mother. There’s no reason not to talk about this, and to celebrate what we know." Krishna pushed back against the idea of sacred silence by saying, "Not once ... did a general authority ever say that we cannot speak of her because of her supposedly fragile nature. She is a goddess in might and dignity. And to consider her otherwise, I think, is disrespectful to Her."

Though LDS Church president Gordon B. Hinckley has said the prohibition on praying to Heavenly Mother in no way "belittles or denigrates her", some feel that it makes her seem less important than Heavenly Father. Others assume that both heavenly parents are equally important and expect that more will be revealed when humanity is ready. Mormon fundamentalists believe that Heavenly Father has multiple wives, and that although humankind shares the same Heavenly Father, they do not all share the same Heavenly Mother.

The question of how Heavenly Mother is regarded ties into a larger set of questions among many Mormons about power in relationships between men and women. When asked why God said that Adam would rule over Eve, Hinckley said, "I do not know ... My own interpretation of that sentence is that the husband shall have a governing responsibility to provide for, to protect, to strengthen and shield the wife. Any man who belittles or abuses or terrorizes, or who rules in unrighteousness, will deserve and, I believe, receive the reprimand of a just God who is the Eternal Father of both His sons and daughters." Hinckley then went on to reaffirm the equality of men and women: "Each is a creation of the Almighty, mutually dependent and equally necessary for the continuation of the race. Every new generation in the history of mankind is a testimony of the necessity for both man and woman."

Author Charlotte Scholl Shurtz stated that the LDS Church's emphasis on Heavenly Parents as a cisgender, heterosexual couple excludes transgender, nonbinary, and intersex members and enshrines heteronormativity and cisnormativity. She further said that current teachings ignore transgender, non-binary, and intersex people, and further deny exaltation and godhood to non-cisgender individuals. Former BYU professor Kerry Spencer Pray stated the teachings on heterosexual, patriarchal Heavenly Parents alienates queer and single people like her, and that Heavenly Mother does not communicate with Her children, and is presided over by Her husband. Mormon scholar Margaret Toscano said LDS teachings frame Heavenly Mother not as an individual, but subsumes her into the Heavenly Parent patriarchal family. Authors Bethany Brady Spalding and McArthur Krishna argued that the idea that a Heavenly Mother is too sacred to speak about in the LDS Church is culturally nonsense.

Reported visions
Heavenly Mother is absent in the visionary experiences in Mormon scriptures. The only recorded visionary experience is related by Zebedee Coltrin and recorded in the journal of Abraham H. Cannon.

"One day the Prophet Joseph asked him [Coltrin] and Sidney Rigdon to accompany him into the woods to pray. When they had reached a secluded spot Joseph laid down on his back and stretched out his arms. He told the brethren to lie one on each arm, and then shut their eyes. After they had prayed he told them to open their eyes. They did so and saw a brilliant light surrounding a pedestal which seemed to rest on the earth. They closed their eyes and again prayed. They then saw, on opening them, the Father seated upon a throne; they prayed again and on looking saw the Mother also; after praying and looking the fourth time they saw the Savior added to the group."

title: Heavenly Mother (Mormonism)


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Exercise physiology

Exercise physiology is the physiology of physical exercise. It is one of the allied health professions, and involves the study of the acute responses and chronic adaptations to exercise. Exercise physiologists are the highest qualified exercise professionals and utilise education, lifestyle intervention and specific forms of exercise to rehabilitate and manage acute and chronic injuries and conditions.

Understanding the effect of exercise involves studying specific changes in muscular, cardiovascular, and neuro humoral systems that lead to changes in functional capacity and strength due to endurance training or strength training. The effect of training on the body has been defined as the reaction to the adaptive responses of the body arising from exercise or as "an elevation of metabolism produced by exercise".

Exercise physiologists study the effect of exercise on pathology, and the mechanisms by which exercise can reduce or reverse disease progression.

History
British physiologist Archibald Hill introduced the concepts of maximal oxygen uptake and oxygen debt in 1922. Hill and German physician Otto Meyerhof shared the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their independent work related to muscle energy metabolism. Building on this work, scientists began measuring oxygen consumption during exercise. Notable contributions were made by Henry Taylor at the University of Minnesota, Scandinavian scientists Per-Olof Åstrand and Bengt Saltin in the 1950s and 60s, the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory, German universities, and the Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre among others.

In some countries it is a Primary Health Care Provider. Accredited Exercise Physiologists (AEP's) are university-trained professionals who prescribe exercise-based interventions to treat various conditions using dose response prescriptions specific to each individual.

Energy expenditure
Humans have a high capacity to expend energy for many hours during sustained exertion. For example, one individual cycling at a speed of 26.4 km/h through 8204 km over 50 consecutive days expended a total of 1,145 MJ (273,850 kcal; 273,850 dieter calories) with an average power output of 173.8 W.

Skeletal muscle burns 90 mg (0.5 mmol) of glucose each minute during continuous activity (such as when repetitively extending the human knee), generating ≈24 W of mechanical energy, and since muscle energy conversion is only 22–26% efficient, ≈76 W of heat energy. Resting skeletal muscle has a basal metabolic rate (resting energy consumption) of 0.63 W/kg making a 160 fold difference between the energy consumption of inactive and active muscles. For short duration muscular exertion, energy expenditure can be far greater: an adult human male when jumping up from a squat can mechanically generate 314 W/kg. Such rapid movement can generate twice this amount in nonhuman animals such as bonobos, and in some small lizards.

This energy expenditure is very large compared to the basal resting metabolic rate of the adult human body. This rate varies somewhat with size, gender and age but is typically between 45 W and 85 W. Total energy expenditure (TEE) due to muscular expended energy is much higher and depends upon the average level of physical work and exercise done during the day. Thus exercise, particularly if sustained for very long periods, dominates the energy metabolism of the body. Physical activity energy expenditure correlates strongly with the gender, age, weight, heart rate, and VO2 max of an individual, during physical activity.

Rapid energy sources
Energy needed to perform short lasting, high intensity bursts of activity is derived from anaerobic metabolism within the cytosol of muscle cells, as opposed to aerobic respiration which utilizes oxygen, is sustainable, and occurs in the mitochondria. The quick energy sources consist of the phosphocreatine (PCr) system, fast glycolysis, and adenylate kinase. All of these systems re-synthesize adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the universal energy source in all cells. The most rapid source, but the most readily depleted of the above sources is the PCr system which utilizes the enzyme creatine kinase. This enzyme catalyzes a reaction that combines phosphocreatine and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) into ATP and creatine. This resource is short lasting because oxygen is required for the resynthesis of phosphocreatine via mitochondrial creatine kinase. Therefore, under anaerobic conditions, this substrate is finite and only lasts between approximately 10 to 30 seconds of high intensity work. Fast glycolysis, however, can function for approximately 2 minutes prior to fatigue, and predominately uses intracellular glycogen as a substrate. Glycogen is broken down rapidly via glycogen phosphorylase into individual glucose units during intense exercise. Glucose is then oxidized to pyruvate and under anaerobic conditions is reduced to lactic acid. This reaction oxidizes NADH to NAD, thereby releasing a hydrogen ion, promoting acidosis. For this reason, fast glycolysis can not be sustained for long periods of time.

Plasma glucose
Plasma glucose is said to be maintained when there is an equal rate of glucose appearance (entry into the blood) and glucose disposal (removal from the blood). In the healthy individual, the rates of appearance and disposal are essentially equal during exercise of moderate intensity and duration; however, prolonged exercise or sufficiently intense exercise can result in an imbalance leaning towards a higher rate of disposal than appearance, at which point glucose levels fall producing the onset of fatigue. Rate of glucose appearance is dictated by the amount of glucose being absorbed at the gut as well as liver (hepatic) glucose output. Although glucose absorption from the gut is not typically a source of glucose appearance during exercise, the liver is capable of catabolizing stored glycogen (glycogenolysis) as well as synthesizing new glucose from specific reduced carbon molecules (glycerol, pyruvate, and lactate) in a process called gluconeogenesis. The ability of the liver to release glucose into the blood from glycogenolysis is unique, since skeletal muscle, the other major glycogen reservoir, is incapable of doing so. Unlike skeletal muscle, liver cells contain the enzyme glycogen phosphatase, which removes a phosphate group from glucose-6-P to release free glucose. In order for glucose to exit a cell membrane, the removal of this phosphate group is essential. Although gluconeogenesis is an important component of hepatic glucose output, it alone cannot sustain exercise. For this reason, when glycogen stores are depleted during exercise, glucose levels fall and fatigue sets in. Glucose disposal, the other side of the equation, is controlled by uptake of glucose at the working skeletal muscles. During exercise, despite decreased insulin concentrations, muscle increases GLUT4 translocation of and glucose uptake. The mechanism for increased GLUT4 translocation is an area of ongoing research.

glucose control: As mentioned above, insulin secretion is reduced during exercise, and does not play a major role in maintaining normal blood glucose concentration during exercise, but its counter-regulatory hormones appear in increasing concentrations. Principle among these are glucagon, epinephrine, and growth hormone. All of these hormones stimulate liver (hepatic) glucose output, among other functions. For instance, both epinephrine and growth hormone also stimulate adipocyte lipase, which increases non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) release. By oxidizing fatty acids, this spares glucose utilization and helps to maintain blood sugar level during exercise.

Exercise for diabetes: Exercise is a particularly potent tool for glucose control in those who have diabetes mellitus. In a situation of elevated blood glucose (hyperglycemia), moderate exercise can induce greater glucose disposal than appearance, thereby decreasing total plasma glucose concentrations. As stated above, the mechanism for this glucose disposal is independent of insulin, which makes it particularly well-suited for people with diabetes. In addition, there appears to be an increase in sensitivity to insulin for approximately 12–24 hours post-exercise. This is particularly useful for those who have type II diabetes and are producing sufficient insulin but demonstrate peripheral resistance to insulin signaling. However, during extreme hyperglycemic episodes, people with diabetes should avoid exercise due to potential complications associated with ketoacidosis. Exercise could exacerbate ketoacidosis by increasing ketone synthesis in response to increased circulating NEFA's.

Type II diabetes is also intricately linked to obesity, and there may be a connection between type II diabetes and how fat is stored within pancreatic, muscle, and liver cells. Likely due to this connection, weight loss from both exercise and diet tends to increase insulin sensitivity in the majority of people. In some people, this effect can be particularly potent and can result in normal glucose control. Although nobody is technically cured of diabetes, individuals can live normal lives without the fear of diabetic complications; however, regain of weight would assuredly result in diabetes signs and symptoms.

Oxygen
Vigorous physical activity (such as exercise or hard labor) increases the body's demand for oxygen. The first-line physiologic response to this demand is an increase in heart rate, breathing rate, and depth of breathing.

Oxygen consumption (VO2) during exercise is best described by the Fick Equation: VO2=Q x (a-vO2diff), which states that the amount of oxygen consumed is equal to cardiac output (Q) multiplied by the difference between arterial and venous oxygen concentrations. More simply put, oxygen consumption is dictated by the quantity of blood distributed by the heart as well as the working muscle's ability to take up the oxygen within that blood; however, this is a bit of an oversimplification. Although cardiac output is thought to be the limiting factor of this relationship in healthy individuals, it is not the only determinant of VO2 max. That is, factors such as the ability of the lung to oxygenate the blood must also be considered. Various pathologies and anomalies cause conditions such as diffusion limitation, ventilation/perfusion mismatch, and pulmonary shunts that can limit oxygenation of the blood and therefore oxygen distribution. In addition, the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is also an important determinant of the equation. Oxygen carrying capacity is often the target of exercise (ergogenic aids) aids used in endurance sports to increase the volume percentage of red blood cells (hematocrit), such as through blood doping or the use of erythropoietin (EPO). Furthermore, peripheral oxygen uptake is reliant on a rerouting of blood flow from relatively inactive viscera to the working skeletal muscles, and within the skeletal muscle, capillary to muscle fiber ratio influences oxygen extraction.

Dehydration
Dehydration refers both to hypohydration (dehydration induced prior to exercise) and to exercise-induced dehydration (dehydration that develops during exercise). The latter reduces aerobic endurance performance and results in increased body temperature, heart rate, perceived exertion, and possibly increased reliance on carbohydrate as a fuel source. Although the negative effects of exercise-induced dehydration on exercise performance were clearly demonstrated in the 1940s, athletes continued to believe for years thereafter that fluid intake was not beneficial. More recently, negative effects on performance have been demonstrated with modest (<2%) dehydration, and these effects are exacerbated when the exercise is performed in a hot environment. The effects of hypohydration may vary, depending on whether it is induced through diuretics or sauna exposure, which substantially reduce plasma volume, or prior exercise, which has much less impact on plasma volume. Hypohydration reduces aerobic endurance, but its effects on muscle strength and endurance are not consistent and require further study. Intense prolonged exercise produces metabolic waste heat, and this is removed by sweat-based thermoregulation. A male marathon runner loses each hour around 0.83 L in cool weather and 1.2 L in warm (losses in females are about 68 to 73% lower). People doing heavy exercise may lose two and half times as much fluid in sweat as urine. This can have profound physiological effects. Cycling for 2 hours in the heat (35 °C) with minimal fluid intake causes body mass decline by 3 to 5%, blood volume likewise by 3 to 6%, body temperature to rise constantly, and in comparison with proper fluid intake, higher heart rates, lower stroke volumes and cardiac outputs, reduced skin blood flow, and higher systemic vascular resistance. These effects are largely eliminated by replacing 50 to 80% of the fluid lost in sweat.

Other

 * Plasma catecholamine concentrations increase 10-fold in whole body exercise.
 * Ammonia is produced by exercised skeletal muscles from ADP (the precursor of ATP) by purine nucleotide deamination and amino acid catabolism of myofibrils.
 * interleukin-6 (IL-6) increases in blood circulation due to its release from working skeletal muscles. This release is reduced if glucose is taken, suggesting it is related to energy depletion stresses.
 * Sodium absorption is affected by the release of interleukin-6 as this can cause the secretion of arginine vasopressin which, in turn, can lead to exercise-associated dangerously low sodium levels (hyponatremia). This loss of sodium in blood plasma can result in swelling of the brain. This can be prevented by awareness of the risk of drinking excessive amounts of fluids during prolonged exercise.

Brain
At rest, the human brain receives 15% of total cardiac output, and uses 20% of the body's energy consumption. The brain is normally dependent for its high energy expenditure upon aerobic metabolism. The brain as a result is highly sensitive to failure of its oxygen supply with loss of consciousness occurring within six to seven seconds, with its EEG going flat in 23 seconds. Therefore, the brain's function would be disrupted if exercise affected its supply of oxygen and glucose.

Protecting the brain from even minor disruption is important since exercise depends upon motor control. Because humans are bipeds, motor control is needed for keeping balance. For this reason, brain energy consumption is increased during intense physical exercise due to the demands in the motor cognition needed to control the body.

Exercise Physiologists treat a range of neurological conditions including (but not limited to): Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, Traumatic Brain Injury, Spinal Cord Injury, Cerebral Palsy and mental health conditions.

Cerebral oxygen
Cerebral autoregulation usually ensures the brain has priority to cardiac output, though this is impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise. During submaximal exercise, cardiac output increases and cerebral blood flow increases beyond the brain's oxygen needs. However, this is not the case for continuous maximal exertion: "Maximal exercise is, despite the increase in capillary oxygenation [in the brain], associated with a reduced mitochondrial O2 content during whole body exercise" The autoregulation of the brain's blood supply is impaired particularly in warm environments

Glucose
In adults, exercise depletes the plasma glucose available to the brain: short intense exercise (35 min ergometer cycling) can reduce brain glucose uptake by 32%.

At rest, energy for the adult brain is normally provided by glucose but the brain has a compensatory capacity to replace some of this with lactate. Research suggests that this can be raised, when a person rests in a brain scanner, to about 17%, with a higher percentage of 25% occurring during hypoglycemia. During intense exercise, lactate has been estimated to provide a third of the brain's energy needs. There is evidence that the brain might, however, in spite of these alternative sources of energy, still suffer an energy crisis since IL-6 (a sign of metabolic stress) is released during exercise from the brain.

Hyperthermia
Humans use sweat thermoregulation for body heat removal, particularly to remove the heat produced during exercise. Moderate dehydration as a consequence of exercise and heat is reported to impair cognition. These impairments can start after body mass lost that is greater than 1%. Cognitive impairment, particularly due to heat and exercise is likely to be due to loss of integrity to the blood brain barrier. Hyperthermia also can lower cerebral blood flow, and raise brain temperature.

Intense activity
Researchers once attributed fatigue to a build-up of lactic acid in muscles. However, this is no longer believed. Rather, lactate may stop muscle fatigue by keeping muscles fully responding to nerve signals. The available oxygen and energy supply, and disturbances of muscle ion homeostasis are the main factor determining exercise performance, at least during brief very intense exercise.

Each muscle contraction involves an action potential that activates voltage sensors, and so releases Ca2+ ions from the muscle fibre's sarcoplasmic reticulum. The action potentials that cause this also require ion changes: Na influxes during the depolarization phase and K effluxes for the repolarization phase. Cl− ions also diffuse into the sarcoplasm to aid the repolarization phase. During intense muscle contraction, the ion pumps that maintain homeostasis of these ions are inactivated and this (with other ion related disruption) causes ionic disturbances. This causes cellular membrane depolarization, inexcitability, and so muscle weakness. Ca2+ leakage from type 1 ryanodine receptor) channels has also been identified with fatigue.

Endurance failure
After intense prolonged exercise, there can be a collapse in body homeostasis. Some famous examples include:
 * Dorando Pietri in the 1908 Summer Olympic men's marathon ran the wrong way and collapsed several times.
 * Jim Peters in the marathon of the 1954 Commonwealth Games staggered and collapsed several times, and though he had a five-kilometre (three-mile) lead, failed to finish. Though it was formerly believed that this was due to severe dehydration, more recent research suggests it was the combined effects upon the brain of hyperthermia, hypertonic hypernatraemia associated with dehydration, and possibly hypoglycaemia.
 * Gabriela Andersen-Schiess in the woman's marathon at the Los Angeles 1984 Summer Olympics in the race's final 400 meters, stopping occasionally and shown signs of heat exhaustion. Though she fell across the finish line, she was released from medical care only two hours later.

Central governor
Tim Noakes, based on an earlier idea by the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winner Archibald Hill has proposed the existence of a central governor. In this, the brain continuously adjusts the power output by muscles during exercise in regard to a safe level of exertion. These neural calculations factor in prior length of strenuous exercise, the planned duration of further exertion, and the present metabolic state of the body. This adjusts the number of activated skeletal muscle motor units, and is subjectively experienced as fatigue and exhaustion. The idea of a central governor rejects the earlier idea that fatigue is only caused by mechanical failure of the exercising muscles ("peripheral fatigue"). Instead, the brain models the metabolic limits of the body to ensure that whole body homeostasis is protected, in particular that the heart is guarded from hypoxia, and an emergency reserve is always maintained. The idea of the central governor has been questioned since ‘physiological catastrophes’ can and do occur suggesting that if it did exist, athletes (such as Dorando Pietri, Jim Peters and Gabriela Andersen-Schiess) can override it.

Other factors
Exercise fatigue has also been suggested to be affected by:
 * brain hyperthermia
 * glycogen depletion in brain cells
 * depletion of muscle and liver glycogen (see "hitting the wall")
 * reactive oxygen species impairing skeletal muscle function
 * reduced level of glutamate secondary to uptake of ammonia in the brain
 * Fatigue in diaphragm and abdominal respiratory muscles limiting breathing
 * Impaired oxygen supply to muscles
 * Ammonia effects upon the brain
 * Serotonin pathways in the brain

Cardiac biomarkers
Prolonged exercise such as marathons can increase cardiac biomarkers such as troponin, B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), and ischemia-modified (aka MI) albumin. This can be misinterpreted by medical personnel as signs of myocardial infarction, or cardiac dysfunction. In these clinical conditions, such cardiac biomarkers are produced by irreversible injury of muscles. In contrast, the processes that create them after strenuous exertion in endurance sports are reversible, with their levels returning to normal within 24-hours (further research, however, is still needed).

Human adaptations
Humans are specifically adapted to engage in prolonged strenuous muscular activity (such as efficient long distance bipedal running). This capacity for endurance running may have evolved to allow the running down of game animals by persistent slow but constant chase over many hours.

Central to the success of this is the ability of the human body to effectively remove muscle heat waste. In most animals, this is stored by allowing a temporary increase in body temperature. This allows them to escape from animals that quickly speed after them for a short duration (the way nearly all predators catch their prey). Humans, unlike other animals that catch prey, remove heat with a specialized thermoregulation based on sweat evaporation. One gram of sweat can remove 2,598 J of heat energy. Another mechanism is increased skin blood flow during exercise that allows for greater convective heat loss that is aided by our upright posture. This skin based cooling has resulted in humans acquiring an increased number of sweat glands, combined with a lack of body fur that would otherwise stop air circulation and efficient evaporation. Because humans can remove exercise heat, they can avoid the fatigue from heat exhaustion that affects animals chased in a persistent manner, and so eventually catch them.

Selective breeding experiments with rodents
Rodents have been specifically bred for exercise behavior or performance in several different studies. For example, laboratory rats have been bred for high or low performance on a motorized treadmill with electrical stimulation as motivation. The high-performance line of rats also exhibits increased voluntary wheel-running behavior as compared with the low-capacity line. In an experimental evolution approach, four replicate lines of laboratory mice have been bred for high levels of voluntary exercise on wheels, while four additional control lines are maintained by breeding without regard to the amount of wheel running. These selected lines of mice also show increased endurance capacity in tests of forced endurance capacity on a motorized treadmill. However, in neither selection experiment have the precise causes of fatigue during either forced or voluntary exercise been determined.

Exercise-induced muscle pain
Physical exercise may cause pain both as an immediate effect that may result from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH, as well as a delayed onset muscle soreness. The delayed soreness is fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole muscle fibers.

Muscle pain can range from a mild soreness to a debilitating injury depending on intensity of exercise, level of training, and other factors.

There is some preliminary evidence to suggest that moderate intensity continuous training has the ability to increase someone's pain threshold.

Education in exercise physiology
Accreditation programs exist with professional bodies in most developed countries, ensuring the quality and consistency of education. In Canada, one may obtain the professional certification title – Certified Exercise Physiologist for those working with clients (both clinical and non clinical) in the health and fitness industry. In Australia, one may obtain the professional certification title - Accredited Exercise Physiologist (AEP) through the professional body Exercise and Sports Science Australia (ESSA). In Australia, it is common for an AEP to also have the qualification of an Accredited Exercise Scientist (AES). The premiere governing body is the American College of Sports Medicine.

An exercise physiologist's area of study may include but is not limited to biochemistry, bioenergetics, cardiopulmonary function, hematology, biomechanics, skeletal muscle physiology, neuroendocrine function, and central and peripheral nervous system function. Furthermore, exercise physiologists range from basic scientists, to clinical researchers, to clinicians, to sports trainers.

Colleges and universities offer exercise physiology as a program of study on various different levels, including undergraduate, graduate degrees and certificates, and doctoral programs. The basis of Exercise Physiology as a major is to prepare students for a career in field of health sciences. A program that focuses on the scientific study of the physiological processes involved in physical or motor activity, including sensorimotor interactions, response mechanisms, and the effects of injury, disease, and disability. Includes instruction in muscular and skeletal anatomy; molecular and cellular basis of muscle contraction; fuel utilization; neurophysiology of motor mechanics; systemic physiological responses (respiration, blood flow, endocrine secretions, and others); fatigue and exhaustion; muscle and body training; physiology of specific exercises and activities; physiology of injury; and the effects of disabilities and disease. Careers available with a degree in Exercise Physiology can include: non-clinical, client-based work; strength and conditioning specialists; cardiopulmonary treatment; and clinical-based research.

In order to gauge the multiple areas of study, students are taught processes in which to follow on a client-based level. Practical and lecture teachings are instructed in the classroom and in a laboratory setting. These include:

 * Health and risk assessment: In order to safely work with a client on the job, you must first be able to know the benefits and risks associated with physical activity. Examples of this include knowing specific injuries the body can experience during exercise, how to properly screen a client before their training begins, and what factors to look for that may inhibit their performance.
 * Exercise testing: Coordinating exercise tests in order to measure body compositions, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength/endurance, and flexibility. Functional tests are also used in order to gain understanding on a more specific part of the body. Once the information is gathered about a client, exercise physiologists must also be able to interpret the test data and decide what health-related outcomes have been discovered.
 * Exercise prescription: Forming training programs that best meet an individual's health and fitness goals. Must be able to take into account different types of exercises, the reasons/goal for a client's workout, and pre-screened assessments. Knowing how to prescribe exercises for special considerations and populations is also required. These may include age differences, pregnancy, joint diseases, obesity, pulmonary disease, etc.

Curriculum
The curriculum for exercise physiology includes biology, chemistry, and applied sciences. The purpose of the classes selected for this major is to have a proficient understanding of human anatomy, human physiology, and exercise physiology. Includes instruction in muscular and skeletal anatomy; molecular and cellular basis of muscle contraction; fuel utilization; neurophysiology of motor mechanics; systemic physiological responses (respiration, blood flow, endocrine secretions, and others); fatigue and exhaustion; muscle and body training; physiology of specific exercises and activities; physiology of injury; and the effects of disabilities and disease. Not only is a full class schedule needed to complete a degree in Exercise Physiology, but a minimum amount of practicum experience is required and internships are recommended.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Exercise physiology


text:
Dzierżoniów County

Dzierżoniów County (powiat dzierżoniowski) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, south-western Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. Its administrative seat is the town of Dzierżoniów, and it also contains four other towns: Bielawa, Niemcza, Pieszyce and Piława Górna. The county covers an area of 478.3 km2.

As at 2019 the total population of the county is 101,118. This figure breaks down as follows: Dzierżoniów 33,239, Bielawa 29,971, Pieszyce 7,123, Piława Górna 6,412, Niemcza 2,965, rural areas 21,408.

Neighbouring counties
Dzierżoniów County is bordered by Świdnica County to the north, Wrocław County to the north-east, Strzelin County to the east, Ząbkowice Śląskie County to the south-east, Kłodzko County to the south and Wałbrzych County to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into seven gminas (three urban, two urban-rural and two rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

The highest peaks

 * Wielka Sowa – 1015 m
 * Kalenica – 964 m
 * Wilczyna – 665 m
 * Kuczaba – 654 m
 * Radunia (Ślęża Masiff) – 578 m

title: Dzierżoniów County


text:
Jawor County

Jawor County (powiat jaworski) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, south-western Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. The county covers an area of 581.2 km2. Its administrative seat is the town of Jawor; the only other town in the county is Bolków.

As of 2019 the total population of the county is 50,315, out of which the population of Jawor is 22,890, the population of Bolków is 4,990, and the rural population is 22,435.

Neighbouring counties
Jawor County is bordered by Legnica County to the north, Środa Śląska County to the east, Świdnica County to the south-east, Wałbrzych County and Kamienna Góra County to the south, and Jelenia Góra County and Złotoryja County to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into six gminas (one urban, one urban-rural and four rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Jawor County


text:
Góra County

Góra County (powiat górowski) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, south-western Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. The county covers an area of 738.11 km2. Its administrative seat is the town of Góra; the only other town in the county is Wąsosz.

As of 2019 the total population of the county is 35,047, out of which the population of Góra is 11,797, the population of Wąsosz is 2,662, and the rural population is 20,588.

Neighbouring counties
Góra County is bordered by Leszno County to the north, Rawicz County to the east, Trzebnica County to the south-east, Wołów County to the south, Lubin County to the south-west, Głogów County to the west and Wschowa County to the north-west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into four gminas (two urban-rural and two rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Góra County


text:
Boyle Heights, Los Angeles

Boyle Heights, historically known as Paredón Blanco (Spanish for "White Bluff"),  is a neighborhood in Los Angeles, California, located east of the Los Angeles River. It is one of the city's most notable and historic Chicano/Mexican-American communities and is known as a bastion of Chicano culture, hosting cultural landmarks like Mariachi Plaza and events like the annual Día de los Muertos celebrations.

History
Boyle Heights was called Paredón Blanco ("White Bluff") during the Spanish, Mexican, and early American periods. During Mexican rule, what would become Boyle Heights became home to a small settlement of relocated Tongva refugees from the village of Yaanga in 1845. The villagers were relocated to this new site known as Pueblito after being forcibly evicted from their previous location on the corner Alameda and Commercial Street by German immigrant Juan Domingo (John Groningen), who paid Governor Pío Pico $200 for the land.

On August 13, 1846, Los Angeles was seized by invading American forces during the Mexican–American War. Under American occupation, Indigenous elimination became a core principle of governance and the Pueblito site was razed to the ground in 1847: "the Indians were required to live in dispersed settlements or with their employers in the city." The destruction of Pueblito was reportedly approved by the Los Angeles City Council and largely displaced the final generation of the villagers, known as Yaangavit, into the Calle de los Negros ("street of the dark ones") district.

The area became named after Andrew Boyle, an Irishman born in Ballinrobe, who purchased 22 acres on the bluffs overlooking the Los Angeles River after fighting in the Mexican–American War for $4,000. Boyle established his home on the land in 1858. In the 1860s, he began growing grapes and sold the wine under the "Paredon Blanc" name. His son-in-law William Workman served as early mayor and city councilman and also built early infrastructure for the area.

To the north of Boyle Heights was Brooklyn Heights, a subdivision in the hills on the eastern bank of the Los Angeles River that centered on Prospect Park.

From 1889 through 1909 the city was divided into nine wards. In 1899 a motion was introduced at the Ninth Ward Development Association to use the name Boyle Heights to apply to all the highlands of the Ninth Ward, including Brooklyn Heights and Euclid Heights. XLNT Foods had a factory making tamales here early in their history. The company started in 1894, when tamales were the most popular ethnic food in Los Angeles. The company is the oldest continuously operating Mexican food brand in the United States, and one of the oldest companies in Southern California.

In the early 1910s, Boyle Heights was one of the only communities that did not have restricted housing covenants that discriminated against Japanese and other people of color. The Japanese community of Little Tokyo continued to grow and extended to the First Street Corridor into Boyle Heights in the early 1910s. Boyle Heights became Los Angeles’s largest residential communities of Japanese immigrants and Americans, apart from Little Tokyo. In the 1920s and 1930s, Boyle Heights became the center of significant churches, temples, and schools for the Japanese community. These include the Tenrikyo Junior Church of America, the Konko Church, and the Higashi Honganji Buddhist Temple; all designed by Yos Hirose. The Japanese Baptist Church was built by the Los Angeles City Baptist Missionary Society. A hospital, also designed by Hirose, opened in 1929 to serve the Japanese American community. By the 1920s through the 1960s, Boyle Heights was racially and ethnically diverse as a center of Jewish, Mexican and Japanese immigrant life in the early 20th century, and also hosted significant Yugoslav, Armenian, African-American and Russian populations. Bruce Phillips, a sociologist who tracked Jewish communities across the United States, said that Jewish families left Boyle Heights not because of racism, but instead because of banks redlining the neighborhood (denying home loans) and the construction of several freeways through the community.

In 1961, the construction of the East LA Interchange began. At 135 acres in size, the interchange is three times larger than the average highway system, even expanding at some points to 27 lanes in width. The interchange handles around 1.7 million vehicles daily and has produced one of the most traffic congested regions in the world as well as one of the most concentrated pockets of air pollution in America. This resulted in the development of Boyle Heights, a multicultural, interethnic neighborhood in East Los Angeles whose celebration of cultural difference has made it a role model for democracy.

In 2017, some residents were protesting gentrification of their neighborhood by the influx of new businesses, a theme found in the TV series Vida and Gentefied, both set in the neighborhood.

Demographics
As of the 2000 census, there were 92,785 people in the neighborhood, which was considered "not especially diverse" ethnically, with the racial composition of the neighborhood at 94.0% Latino, 2.3% Asian, 2.0% White (non-Hispanic), 0.9% African American, and 0.8% other races. The median household income was $33,235, low in comparison to the rest of the city. The neighborhood's population was also one of the youngest in the city, with a median age of just 25.

As of 2011, 95% of the community was Hispanic and Latino. The community had Mexican Americans, Mexican immigrants, and Central American ethnic residents. Hector Tobar of the Los Angeles Times said, "The diversity that exists in Boyle Heights today is exclusively Latino".

Latino communities

Latino political influence
The emergence of Latino politics in Boyle Heights influenced the diversity in the community. Boyle Heights was a predominantly Jewish community with "a vibrant, pre-World War II, Yiddish-speaking community, replete with small shops along Brooklyn Avenue, union halls, synagogues and hyperactive politics ... shaped by the enduring influence of the Socialist and Communist parties" before Boyle Heights became predominantly associated with Mexicans/Mexican Americans. The rise of the socialist and communist parties increased the people's involvement in politics in the community because the "liberal-left exercised great influence in the immigrant community". Even with an ever-growing diversity in Boyle Heights, "Jews remained culturally and politically dominant after World War II".

Nevertheless, as the Jewish community was moving westward into new homes, the largest growing group, Latinos, was moving into Boyle Heights because to them this neighborhood was represented as upward mobility. With Jews and Latinos both in Boyle Heights, these men, part of the Jewish Community Relations Council (JCRC) — Louis Levy, Ben Solnit, Pinkhas Karl, Harry Sheer, and Julius Levitt — helped to empower the Latinos who either lived among the Jewish people or who worked together in the factories.

The combination of Jewish people and Latinos in Boyle Heights symbolized a tight unity between the two communities. The two groups helped to elect Edward R. Roybal to the City Council over Councilman Christensen; with the help from the Community Service Organization (CSO). In order for Roybal to win a landslide victory over Christensen, "the JCRC, with representation from business and labor leaders, associated with both Jewish left traditions, had become the prime financial benefactor to CSO .. labor historically backed incumbents ... [and] the Cold War struggle for the hearts and minds of minority workers also influenced the larger political dynamic". In the 1947 election, Edward Roybal lost, but Jewish community activist Saul Alinsky and the Industrial Areas Foundation (IAF) garnered support from Mexican Americans to bring Roybal to victory two years later 1949. (Bernstein, 243) When Roybal took office as city councilman in 1949, he experienced racism when trying to buy a home for his family. The real-estate agent told him that he could not sell to Mexicans, and Roybal's first act as councilman was to protest racial discrimination and to create a community that represented inter-racial politics in Boyle Heights. (Bernstein, 224).

This Latino-Jewish relationship shaped politics in that when Antonio Villaraigosa became mayor of Los Angeles in 2005, "not only did he have ties to Boyle Heights, but he was elected by replicating the labor-based, multicultural coalition that Congressman Edward Roybal assembled in 1949 to become Los Angeles's first city council member of Latino heritage". Further, the Vladeck Center (named after Borukh Charney Vladeck) contributed to the community of Boyle Heights in a big way because it was not just a building, it was "a venue for a wide range of activities that promoted Jewish culture and politics".

Government and infrastructure
The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services operates the Central Health Center in Downtown Los Angeles, serving Boyle Heights.

The United States Postal Service's Boyle Heights Post Office is located at 2016 East 1st Street.

The Social Security Administration is located at 215 North Soto Street Los Angeles, CA 90033 1-800-772-1213

Transportation
Boyle Heights is home to four stations of the Los Angeles Metro Rail, all served by the E Line:
 * Pico/Aliso station
 * Mariachi Plaza station
 * Soto station
 * Indiana station

Education
Just 5% of Boyle Heights residents aged 25 and older had earned a four-year degree by 2000, a low percentage for the city and the county. The percentage of residents in that age range who had not earned a high school diploma was high for the county.

Public

 * SIATech Boyle Heights Independent Study, Charter High School, 501 South Boyle Avenue
 * Extera Public School, Charter Elementary, 1942 E. 2nd Street and 2226 E. 3rd Street
 * Extera Public School #2, Charter Elementary, 1015 S. Lorena Street
 * Francisco Bravo Medical Magnet High School, alternative, 1200 North Cornwell Street
 * Theodore Roosevelt High School, 456 South Mathews Street
 * Mendez High School 1200 Playa Del Sol
 * Animo Oscar De La Hoya Charter High School, 1114 South Lorena Street
 * Boyle Heights Continuation School, 544 South Mathews Street* Central Juvenile Hall, 1605 Eastlake Avenue
 * Hollenbeck Middle School, 2510 East Sixth Street
 * Robert Louis Stevenson Middle School, 725 South Indiana Street
 * KIPP Los Angeles College Preparatory, charter middle, 2810 Whittier Boulevard
 * Murchison Street Elementary School, 1501 Murchison Street
 * Evergreen Avenue Elementary School, 2730 Ganahl Street
 * Sheridan Street Elementary School, 416 North Cornwell Street
 * Malabar Street Elementary School, 3200 East Malabar Street
 * Breed Street Elementary School, 2226 East Third Street
 * First Street Elementary School, 2820 East First Street
 * Second Street Elementary School, 1942 East Second Street
 * Soto Street Elementary School, 1020 South Soto Street
 * Euclid Avenue Elementary School, 806 Euclid Avenue
 * Sunrise Elementary School, 2821 East Seventh Street
 * Utah Street Elementary School, 255 Gabriel Garcia Marquez Street
 * Bridge Street Elementary School, 605 North Boyle Avenue
 * Garza (Carmen Lomas) Primary Center, elementary, 2750 East Hostetter Street
 * Christopher Dena Elementary School, 1314 Dacotah Street
 * Learning Works Charter School, 1916 East First Street
 * Lorena Street Elementary School, 1015 South Lorena Street
 * PUENTE Learning Center, 501 South Boyle Avenue
 * East Los Angeles Occupational Center (Adult Education), 2100 Marengo Street
 * Endeavor College Preparatory Charter School, 1263 S Soto St, Los Angeles, CA 90023

Private

 * Bishop Mora Salesian High School, 960 South Soto Street
 * Santa Teresita Elementary School, 2646 Zonal Avenue
 * Assumption Elementary School, 3016 Winter Street
 * Saint Mary Catholic Elementary School, 416 South Saint Louis Street
 * Our Lady of Talpa, elementary, 411 South Evergreen Avenue
 * East Los Angeles Light and Life Christian School, 207 South Dacotah Street
 * Santa Isabel Elementary School, 2424 Whittier Boulevard
 * Dolores Mission School, elementary, 170 South Gless Street
 * Cristo Viene Christian School, 3607 Whittier Boulevard
 * Resurrection, elementary, 3360 East Opal Street
 * White Memorial Adventist School, 1605 New Jersey Street
 * PUENTE Learning Center, 501 South Boyle Avenue

Existing

 * Breed Street Shul, which was declared a historic-cultural monument in 1988
 * Self-Help Graphics and Art, the first community-based organization in the country to create a free public celebration of Day of the Dead
 * Los Angeles County+USC Medical Center/Keck School of Medicine of USC
 * Los Angeles County Department of Coroner
 * Estrada Courts Murals
 * Evergreen Cemetery
 * Hazard Park
 * Mariachi Plaza
 * Hollenbeck Park
 * Linda Vista Community Hospital (Now Hollenbeck Terrace Apartments, former Santa Fe Coast Lines Hospital)
 * Sears Building, Olympic Boulevard and Soto St.
 * Malabar Public Library
 * Lucha Underground Temple, where the television program Lucha Underground is taped.
 * St. Mary's Catholic Church (4th and Chicago Streets)

Demolished

 * Soto-Michigan Jewish Community Center
 * Aliso Village
 * Sisters Orphan Home, operated by Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul, 917 S. Boyle Ave. demolished due to earthquake damage and construction of freeway

Politics

 * Sheldon Andelson, first openly gay person to be appointed to the University of California Regents or any high position in state government
 * Hal Bernson, Los Angeles City Council member, 1979–2003
 * Martin V. Biscailuz, attorney and Common Council member, 1884–85
 * Howard E. Dorsey, City Council member, 1937
 * Oscar Macy, county sheriff and member of the Board of Supervisors
 * Edward R. Roybal, Democrat in the U.S. House of Representatives for the 30th District and later for the 25th District of California; member of the Los Angeles City Council
 * Winfred J. Sanborn, City Council member, 1925–29
 * Antonio Villaraigosa, Mayor of Los Angeles
 * Zev Yaroslavsky, Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors, 3rd District

Sports

 * Lillian Copeland (1904–1964), Olympic discus champion; set world records in discus, javelin, and shot put
 * William Harmatz, jockey
 * Ron Mix (born 1938), Football Hall of Famer
 * Donald Sterling, Former Los Angeles Clippers owner

Crime

 * Mickey Cohen, gangster

Arts and culture

 * Oscar Zeta Acosta, attorney, writer, community activist
 * Lou Adler, record producer, manager
 * Herb Alpert
 * Greg Boyle, Catholic priest, community activist
 * Norman Granz
 * Josefina López, writer
 * Anthony Quinn, actor
 * Andy Russell, international singing star
 * Julius Shulman, photographer
 * Taboo, rapper
 * will.i.am, recording artist and music producer
 * Kenny Endo, taiko drummer, recording artist
 * Rubén Funkahuatl Guevara, writer, poet, musician, activist, music producer

Publishing

 * Jack T. Chick, publisher of Chick tracts

In popular culture

 * 1917: Nuts in May
 * 1957: The Pajama Game
 * 1979: Boulevard Nights
 * 1980: The Other Side of the Bridge (Del Otro Lado del Puente)
 * 1987: Born in East L.A.
 * 1992: American Me
 * 1993: Blood In Blood Out
 * 1995: Dangerous Minds
 * 1998: The Wonderful Ice Cream Suit
 * 1998–2009 Breaking the Magician's Code: Magic's Biggest Secrets Finally Revealed
 * 2007: Under the Same Moon
 * 2008: The Take
 * 2011: A Better Life
 * 2014–2018: Lucha Underground
 * 2015: East LA Interchange (documentary)
 * 2015/2016: No más bebés
 * 2018–2020: Vida
 * 2020–2021: Gentefied
 * 2021: Night Teeth

title: Boyle Heights, Los Angeles


text:
Mary Ann Mobley

Mary Ann Mobley (February 17, 1937 – December 9, 2014) was an American actress, television personality, and Miss America 1959.

Career
Mobley was born in 1937 in Biloxi, Mississippi. After her reign as Miss America 1959, Mobley embarked on a career in both film and television. She signed a five-year contract with MGM. She made her first television appearances on Be Our Guest in 1960, followed by five appearances on Burke's Law from 1963 to 1965. In 1966 she was the female guest star on the first two-part episode of Mission: Impossible, in the episode “Old Man Out”. She went on to make multiple appearances on Perry Mason; Love, American Style; and Fantasy Island. She played a recurring role as Maggie McKinney Drummond on Diff'rent Strokes in the final season of the series, having taken over the role from Dixie Carter. She also played Arnold’s teacher on Diff'rent Strokes in season 2, episode 24. In Carter's later series, Designing Women, Mobley guest-starred as Karen Delaporte, the snide head of a historical society, who crosses swords with Carter's character, Julia Sugarbaker. She made two films with Elvis Presley in 1965, Girl Happy and Harum Scarum.

She was given the Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actress in 1965. She was active in many charitable causes and was awarded the Outstanding Young Woman of the Year Award in 1966 by Lady Bird Johnson.

Mobley also made occasional appearances on Match Game as one of the celebrity panelists from 1973 to 1977.

She and her husband Gary Collins played Dr. and Mrs. Diller on The Love Boat S2 E6 "Ship of Ghouls" (1978). From 1984 to 1988, Mobley joined Collins in co-hosting the Pillsbury Bake-Off on CBS.

She appeared in the documentary film Miss America, which PBS aired as the January 27, 2002, episode of American Experience.

Mobley is briefly depicted in the third season of the Amazon Prime series The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel, played by Amanda Dela Cruz.

Miss America
Mobley was crowned Miss America 1959, the first Mississippian to achieve this honor, winning the national talent award.

Mobley joined husband Gary Collins as co-host of the 1989 Miss America pageant in September 1988, the 30th anniversary year of her own Miss America victory.

Personal life
Mobley grew up in Brandon, Mississippi, and graduated from Brandon High School. She was a member of Chi Omega sorority at the University of Mississippi, and in 1981 was inducted into the University of Mississippi Alumni Hall of Fame.

She married actor and television host Gary Collins in 1967 at Brandon United Methodist Church.

The couple separated in 2010 but reconciled and were living in Biloxi when Collins died on October 13, 2012. Collins and Mobley had one daughter together, Mary Clancy Collins. Mobley was also stepmother to Melissa Collins and Guy William Collins, children from his first marriage.

Health and death
Mobley had Crohn's disease and had at times been an activist for improvements in treatment.

She was treated in 2009 for Stage III breast cancer. Mobley died at her home in Beverly Hills, California, on December 9, 2014, aged 77, from breast cancer.

Film

 * 1964: Get Yourself a College Girl - Teresa "Terry" Taylor
 * 1965: Girl Happy - Deena
 * 1965: Young Dillinger - Elaine
 * 1965: Harum Scarum - Princess Shalimar
 * 1966: Three on a Couch - Susan Manning
 * 1967: The King's Pirate - Princess Patna
 * 1968: For Singles Only - Anne Carr

Television

 * 1960: Be Our Guest (CBS daytime TV show)
 * 1963: General Hospital - Jonelle Andrews (1979)
 * 1963-1965: Burke's Law - Teri / Cindy / Girl / Denise / Sugar
 * 1964-1966: Perry Mason - Sharon Carmody / Dianne Adler
 * 1965-1966: Run for Your Life - Laura Bronson / Clarice Newell
 * 1966: The Man from U.N.C.L.E. - April Dancer
 * 1966: Mission: Impossible - Crystal Walker
 * 1967: The Virginian - Ellie Willard
 * 1967: The Legend of Custer - Ann L'Andry
 * 1968: Istanbul Express (TV Movie) - Peggy Coopersmith
 * 1969: My Dog the Thief, Part 1 (TV Movie) - Kim Lawrence
 * 1969: My Dog the Thief, Part 2 (TV Movie) - Kim Lawrence
 * 1969–1973: Love, American Style - Linda / Joanne Fergusson / Carol / Pat
 * 1969: Ironside - Marcy Atkins
 * 1972: Search - Lilia Moen
 * 1973: The Partridge Family - Audrey Parson
 * 1973–1977: Match Game - Herself - Panelist
 * 1974: The Girl on the Late, Late Show (TV Movie) - The Librarian
 * 1974–1977: Tattletales - Herself
 * 1977: The Fantastic Journey - Rhea
 * 1978–1984: Fantasy Island - Bryana Spencer / Nancy Carsons / Florence Richmond / Linda Roth / Amanda DeHaven / Ellie Drake / Sheila Crane / Pamela Deering
 * 1978–1985: The Love Boat (3 episodes) - Annette Epshaw / Marion Vail / Mrs. Diller
 * 1979-1980 “Whew!” (TV Game Show) - Herself - Celebrity Contestant
 * 1980–1986: Diff'rent Strokes - Maggie McKinney Drummond / Nancy Osborne
 * 1980: Vega$ - Paula Conway
 * 1984: Hotel - Catherine Stevens
 * 1986: Super Password - Herself - Celebrity Contestant
 * 1986: Rosie (as Sally Sugarbaker) Episode: "Peach's Sweet Treats"
 * 1988: Falcon Crest (4 episodes) - Dr. Beth Everdene
 * 1990: Designing Women - Karen Delaporte
 * 1992: Hearts Afire - Mary Fran Smithers
 * 1999: Sabrina, the Teenage Witch - Mary Ann Mobley
 * 2003: Dead Like Me (TV Series) - Mary Ann Mobley (final appearance)

title: Mary Ann Mobley


text:
Legnica County

Legnica County (powiat legnicki) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, south-western Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. The county covers an area of 744.6 km2. Its administrative seat is the city of Legnica, although this city is not part of the county (it forms a separate city county, which is an enclave within Legnica County). The only towns in Legnica County are Chojnów and Prochowice.

As at 2019 the total population of the county is 55,318, out of which the population of Chojnów is 13,355, the population of Prochowice is 3,602, and the rural population is 38,361. The majority of the population is polish but there is a small German minority at 0.02% of the population mostly in Koiszków (Koischkau).

Neighbouring counties
Apart from the city of Legnica, Legnica County is also bordered by Polkowice County and Lubin County to the north, Wołów County and Środa Śląska County to the east, Jawor County to the south, and Złotoryja County and Bolesławiec County to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into eight gminas (one urban, one urban-rural and six rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Legnica County


text:
United Future

United Future New Zealand, usually known as United Future, was a centrist political party in New Zealand. The party was in government between 2005 and 2017, first alongside Labour (2005–2008) and then supporting National (2008–2017).

United Future was formed from the merger of the liberal party United New Zealand and Christian-dominated conservative Future New Zealand to contest the 2002 election. It was represented in the New Zealand Parliament from its foundation until September 2017. The party won eight seats in 2002; however it was reduced to three Members of Parliament in 2005. Between 2008 and 2017, United Future was solely represented in Parliament by party leader Peter Dunne, who represented the Ōhāriu electorate in Wellington. Dunne was re-elected during both the 2011 and 2014 general elections.

In August 2017, Dunne announced his retirement from politics prior to the 2017 general election. Damian Light was appointed as the new leader on 23 August. During the 2017 general election, United Future lost its sole seat in Parliament and attained only 0.1% of the party vote.

In November 2017, a leaked email announced that United Future would move to dissolve after a unanimous decision by the party board to do so. On 14 November an announcement was made on the party's website signalling that the party had officially been dissolved. The party was formally de-registered on 28 February 2018.

Formation and early success
United Future was formed from the merger of liberal centrist party United New Zealand and Christian-dominated conservative Future New Zealand to contest the 2002 election. United, formed as a centrist party by a group of moderate Labour and National MPs, held one seat in parliament—that of Dunne. Future New Zealand, which was not represented in parliament, was a "secularised" evolution of the Christian Democrats, following the same basic principles as the Christian Democrats, but abandoning the explicit religious connection.

United Future's first party president, Ian Tulloch, stated that "United Future isn't a Christian party – it's a political party that has a lot of Christians in it, and a lot of non-Christians." Tulloch said that the "universal principles of family, of common sense, of looking after one another, of compassion, integrity" are equally valuable to both Christians and non-Christians.

Support for United Future, which was already growing in early 2002, was boosted further by Peter Dunne's strong television debating performance and the public response to it. The uplift in United Future support during the last two weeks of the campaign caught many commentators by surprise and drew votes away from National, Labour and the Green parties, who were engaged in a public squabble over genetic engineering.

United Future made a strong showing in the 2002 election, taking 6.7 percent of the vote and eight seats: Dunne's electorate seat of Ohariu-Belmont and seven list seats. It would have been assured of getting into parliament in any event, however; under New Zealand's mixed-member proportional system, any party that wins at least one electorate seat qualifies for list seats even if it falls short of the five-percent threshold. The party faced a minor embarrassment after the election, however, when it was discovered that one of its list MPs, Kelly Chal, was not a New Zealand citizen, and thus ineligible to stand for parliament.

Early activity
After 2002 United Future in its family law reform proposals took to heart the trauma and adverse impact on children caused by the separation of their parents. United Future MP Judy Turner made clear that then current government policies were failing in regard to keeping both parents in children's lives, and to this extent made a huge effort in promoting a member's bill on mandatory mediation by means of a national roll-out of the North Shore Family Court "Children in the Middle" pilot programme.

In December 2004, United Future MPs exercised their individual conscience votes to oppose a bill to enable civil unions. This bill, which passed Parliament by a vote of 65 to 55, provided some marriage-like benefits for same-sex couples (who could not marry in New Zealand until August 2013) and for opposite-sex couples who choose not to marry. However, Peter Dunne alone among United Future MPs voted for the subsequent Relationships (Statutory References) Bill in March 2005, which passed by 76 to 44 votes and removed discriminatory wording from a range of statutes.

In mid-2004 United Future announced that it would contest the 2005 general election in partnership with Outdoor Recreation New Zealand. Cynics pointed out that, like Future New Zealand, Outdoor Recreation was a minor party with no prospect of reaching the 5% threshold (Outdoor Recreation gained 1.28% of the vote in the 2002 election) seeking parliamentary representation via the security of Peter Dunne's electorate seat.

A month before the September 2005 election, list MP Paul Adams quit the party to stand as an independent in the East Coast Bays electorate. His daughter Sharee Adams, also on the United Future List, also quit to assist her father in his campaign. After the general election, disgruntled right-winger and ex-United Future MP Marc Alexander also voiced repeated criticisms of his former colleagues, in his "Marc My Words" political opinion column for Scoop, a New Zealand news website.

In the 2005 election, United Future had the support of the WIN Party, which was set up to fight the ban on smoking in bars and restaurants. WIN's leader, John van Buren, was United Future's candidate for Christchurch Central. This further spoke of alliances still to come. In this election, support plummeted to 2.8% and the party won only three seats. Peter Dunne retained Ohariu-Belmont, and Gordon Copeland and Judy Turner were returned on its party list.

United Future had tried to distance itself from its more assertive fundamentalist list MPs, such as Adams, Larry Baldock and Murray Smith. As Election New Zealand data revealed that the Outdoor Recreation Party still provided about 1% of the vote, 4.8% of the previous vote had gone elsewhere. During 2004–2005, the National Party had made renewed efforts to attract social conservative voters, through adoption of anti-abortion and anti-same-sex marriage voting records.

Following the 2005 election, New Zealand First and United Future entered into a confidence and supply agreement with Labour, under which Dunne became Minister of Revenue, outside Cabinet.

In March 2006 Outdoor Recreation New Zealand split with United Future, due to a dissatisfaction with what it saw as the Christian evangelism within the party. Outdoor Recreation acting chairman Phil Hoare said, "We strongly believe in the traditional bedrock values of our nation's heritage but we also affirm the separation of church and state." In 2006 several younger centrist members also departed from the party.

United Future, like most New Zealand Parliamentary parties, was caught up in the 2005 New Zealand election funding controversy. It voted in favour of the retrospective validating legislation, which was passed through the New Zealand Parliament in October 2006.

From February to April 2007, Peter Dunne exercised his own right to a conscience vote to support Sue Bradford's private members bill against parental corporal punishment of children, while Gordon Copeland vigorously opposed it, as did Judy Turner, but on a more subtle level.

On 16 May 2007, Copeland resigned from the party due to his dissatisfaction with Dunne's support for the aforementioned private members bill, although Turner did not follow suit. Copeland was subsequently part of forming the socially conservative Kiwi Party. Several other United Future members resigned in sympathy with Copeland, including former United Future List MPs Larry Baldock and Bernie Ogilvy. In 2011, the Kiwi Party ceased to exist as an independent entity after it merged with the Conservative Party of New Zealand, another conservative Christian dominated centre-right political party, currently unrepresented in Parliament.

On 13 August 2007 United Future unveiled a new logo which Dunne said was a revitalisation of the party before the 2008 election. The re-branding of the party was taken further on 3 September 2007 when Peter Dunne announced that United Future was becoming a moderate centrist party after the break with its former conservative Christian faction. Speaking of the departure of Copeland and the rest of the more strident Christians in the party, Dunne said, "I think it's taken a bit of a monkey off our back, frankly."

2008 election
In 2008 the United Future Party named candidates for 51 seats. Policies included tax cuts and various initiatives aimed at supporting parents, such as the extension of paid parental leave to 12 months; the option of income splitting for tax purposes for parents with dependent children and couples in which one partner relies on the other for financial support; and the promotion of shared parenting. There were also a number of health care policies including granting everyone one free health check per year.

Peter Dunne was re-elected as United Future's only Member of Parliament. He retained his parliamentary seat of Ohariu-Belmont, but United Future did not poll sufficiently highly to bring additional caucus members into Parliament. Some Future New Zealand members defected from United Future to establish The Kiwi Party, which was unsuccessful in retaining parliamentary representation after the election.

The National Party won the most seats overall and formed a minority government with support from United Future, the Māori Party and ACT New Zealand. Dunne retained his portfolios as Minister of Revenue and Associate Minister for Health.

2011 election
In 2011 United Future campaigned on income splitting, flexible superannuation and restricting asset sales.

Peter Dunne retained the electorate of Ōhariu electorate, formerly Ohariu-Belmont. The Labour candidate Charles Chauvel accused Dunne and the National Party of an "unprincipled political deal" which encouraged National voters to give their electorate vote to Dunne to ensure his survival as an MP.

As in 2008, the National Party won the most seats overall and formed a minority government with support from United Future, the Māori Party and ACT New Zealand. Together with his previous Revenue and Associate Health portfolios, Dunne became Associate Minister of Conservation. The agreement included provisions barring the sale of Kiwibank or Radio New Zealand, and public consultation on United Future's flexible superannuation policy.

Temporary party de-registration
On 31 May 2013 the Electoral Commission cancelled United Future's registration at the party's request after it failed to retain 500 members. The party became an unregistered party – unable to contest the party-list vote. However, on 10 June 2013, its party president made a media release stating that it had succeeded in attracting the needed 500 members for re-registration. It was subsequently reported that United Future was encountering difficulties over its re-registration, related to the need to acquire printed proof of sufficient membership, although Party President Robin Gunston had supplied the Electoral Commission with copies of traceable economic transactions associated with the influx of new members.

On 16 June 2013 the Electoral Commission noted that United Future had provided the aforementioned spreadsheet record, which contained names and details of putative party members. It noted that under Section 63 of the New Zealand Electoral Act 1993, bona fide registered political parties were bound to supply name, address, eligibility for membership, evidence of paid membership fees, member authorisation to record such details and to release them to a third party. The Commission stated that it would therefore accept signed and dated (although electronically submitted) membership forms from United Future and other eligible parties as evidence of membership enrolment. Signature and membership authenticity had yet to be assessed at that point

Events took a further turn when New Zealand Parliament Speaker David Carter ruled that as United Future could not guarantee that his party had 500 financially solvent members for another six to eight weeks after Dunne had submitted a membership list to the New Zealand Electoral Commission, Dunne would therefore have to sit as an "independent" Member of Parliament, and to forfeit NZ$100,000 parliamentary party leader operational funding unless and until United Future could conclusively establish whether or not it had sufficient membership to warrant re-registration. This occurred after New Zealand Labour Party MP Trevor Mallard contacted the New Zealand Attorney-General over the current legal status of United Future

On 8 July 2013 Dunne stated that his party had now been able to enrol sufficient members to satisfy the Electoral Commission's random sampling techniques, although he also noted that the process of evaluation and re-enrolment would take six to eight weeks. At the same time, the New Zealand Electoral Commission verified that this was indeed the case and then clarified what would happen next. There would be an interim period when it checked the actual status of the party's membership, then provided public notice of United Future's membership application and invitation of comments, then provide the applicant party's leadership with an opportunity to respond to the comments and then decide whether to refuse or approve the application from United Future On 30 July 2013, the New Zealand Electoral Commission requested input pending United Future's ultimate re-registration

On 13 August 2013 the electoral commission accepted United Future's re-registration.

2014 election
As in 2008 and 2011, the National Party won the most seats overall and formed a minority government with support from United Future's single MP (Dunne) and the Māori Party.

2017 election
During the 2017 general election, United Future ran 8 electorate candidates and 10 list candidates. On 21 August 2017, leader and MP Peter Dunne announced that he was quitting politics at the election, citing recent polling and his perception that there was a mood for change in his seat of Ōhāriu. Damian Light was announced as the new leader on 23 August. During the 2017 election, United Future gained only 0.1% of the party vote and lost its sole seat in Parliament.

On 13 November 2017, an email was sent to party members, stating that a decision had been made at the previous weekend's Annual General Meeting to disband United Future in light of poor electoral results and the unlikelihood of receiving enough votes to return to parliament in the future. On 14 November, Light and Dunne confirmed that United Future would be dissolving due to the loss of its Parliamentary presence. The party's registration was cancelled on 28 February 2018.

Policy
United Future adopted the following mission statement in early 2007:
 * "United Future is a modern centre party, focused on New Zealand's best interests. We promote strong families and vibrant communities. We seek a fair, and open society, free from poverty, ignorance and prejudice, and based on innovation, self-reliance, justice and integrity in business and personal dealings. We promote a sustainable environment, and a competitive economy which encourages growth, prosperity, ownership and opportunity through market policies where possible, and government where necessary. We want all New Zealanders, whatever their background, race or creed, to have the chance to enjoy everything that is good in our country."

Former MPs

 * Paul Adams, in 2008, Family Party candidate for East Coast Bays
 * Marc Alexander, in 2008, National Party candidate for Wigram
 * Larry Baldock, in 2008, Kiwi Party candidate for Tauranga
 * Bernie Ogilvy, Kiwi Party secretary (did not stand for election)
 * Murray Smith, in 2008, United Future candidate for Hutt South
 * Gordon Copeland, in 2008, Kiwi Party candidate for Rongotai
 * Judy Turner, in 2008, United Future candidate for East Coast; in 2009, United Future candidate for electorate by-election.

title: United Future