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Xavier Cugat

Xavier Cugat (1 January 1900 – 27 October 1990) was a Spanish musician and bandleader who spent his formative years in Havana, Cuba. A trained violinist and arranger, he was a leading figure in the spread of Latin music. In New York City, he was the leader of the resident orchestra at the Waldorf–Astoria before and after World War II. He was also a cartoonist and a restaurateur. The personal papers of Xavier Cugat are preserved in the Biblioteca de Catalunya.

Life and career
Cugat was born Francisco de Asís Javier Cugat Mingall de Bru y Deulofeu in Girona, Catalonia, Spain, in 1900 (although he would later claim to have been born in 1901). His family emigrated to Cuba when he was three years old. He studied classical violin and worked as a violinist at the age of nine in a silent movie theater to help pay for his education. He was first chair violinist for the Teatro Nacional Symphonic Orchestra. When he was not performing, he started drawing caricatures. On 6 July 1915 he and his family arrived in New York City on the SS Havana. Cugat appeared in recitals with Enrico Caruso, playing violin solos.

In the 1920s, he led a band that played often at the Coconut Grove, a club in Los Angeles. Cugat's friend, Charlie Chaplin, visited the club to dance the tango, so Cugat added tangos to the band's performances. Seeing how popular the dance was becoming, Cugat convinced the owner to hire South American dancers to give tango lessons. This, too, became popular, and Cugat made the dancers part of his orchestra. In 1928 he turned his act into the film Xavier Cugat and His Gigolos.

He worked for the Los Angeles Times as a cartoonist. His caricatures were nationally syndicated. They appeared in Photoplay magazine beginning with the November 1927 issue, under the byline "de Bru." His older brother, Francis, was an artist of some note, having painted cover art for F. Scott Fitzgerald's novel The Great Gatsby.

In 1931, Cugat took his band to New York for the 1931 opening of the Waldorf–Astoria hotel. He replaced Jack Denny as leader of the hotel's resident band. For sixteen years, he led the Waldorf-Astoria Orchestra, shuttling between New York and Los Angeles for most of the next 30 years. One of his trademark gestures was to hold a Chihuahua while he waved his baton with the other arm.

His music career led to appearing in the films In Gay Madrid (1930), You Were Never Lovelier (1942), Bathing Beauty (1944), Week-End at the Waldorf (1945), Holiday in Mexico (1946), A Date with Judy (1948), On an Island with You (1948), and Chicago Syndicate (1955).

Cugat owned and operated the Mexican restaurant Casa Cugat in West Hollywood. The restaurant was frequented by Hollywood celebrities and featured two singing guitarists who would visit each table and play diners' favorite songs upon request. The restaurant began operations in the 1940s and closed in 1986.

The restaurant's exterior and a fanciful depiction of its interior can be found in scenes in the 1949 film Neptune's Daughter in which Cugat has a substantial role playing himself. A brief scene revolving around the restaurant can also be seen in the earlier 1943 film The Heat's On, also starring Cugat as himself.

Death
Cugat spent his last years in Barcelona, Spain, living in a suite at. He died of heart failure at age 90 in Barcelona and was buried in his native Girona. He was posthumously inducted into the International Latin Music Hall of Fame in 2001.

Marriages
Cugat was married five times. His first marriage was to Rita Montaner (1918–20), his second was to his band vocalist Carmen Castillo (1929–44), his third to actress Lorraine Allen (1947–52), his fourth to singer Abbe Lane (1952–64), and his fifth to Spanish guitarist and comic actress Charo (1966–78).

Recordings
Cugat recorded for Columbia (1940s and 1950s, and Epic), RCA Victor (1930s and 1950s), Mercury (1951–52 and the 1960s), and Decca (1960s). Dinah Shore made her first recordings as a vocalist with Cugat in 1939 and 1940 for RCA Victor. In 1940 his recording of "Perfidia" became a hit. Cugat followed trends closely, making records for the conga, the mambo, the cha-cha-cha, and the twist when these dances were popular. Several songs that he recorded, including "Perfidia", were used in the Wong Kar-wai films Days of Being Wild and 2046. In 1943, "Brazil" was Cugat's most successful chart hit. It spent seven weeks at No. 2 on the Billboard magazine National Best Selling Retail Records chart behind Harry James's song "I've Heard That Song Before". In the 1950s he made several recordings with his wife, singer Abbe Lane.

His orchestra included Desi Arnaz, Lina Romay, Abbe Lane, Tito Rodriguez, Yma Sumac, Miguelito Valdés, Frank Berardi, Gene Lorello, George Lopez, Glenn E. Brown, Henry Greher, Isabello Marerro, James English, John Haluko, Joseph Gutierrez, Luis Castellanos, Manuel Paxtot, Oswaldo Oliveira, Otto Bolívar, Otto Garcia, Rafael Angelo, Richard Hoffman, Robert De Joseph, and Robert Jones.

Discography

 * The Lady in Red (RCA Victor, 1935)

 * One, Two, Three, Kick – Congas (Victor, 1941)
 * Xavier Cugat's Mexico (Columbia, 1944)
 * Cugat's Favorite Rhumbas (Columbia, 1945)
 * In Santiago, Chile (Tain't Chilly At All) (Columbia], 1948)
 * Siesta (Columbia, 1948)
 * Tropical Bouquets (Columbia, 1949)
 * Relaxing with Cugat (Columbia, 1952)
 * Dancetime with Cugat (RCA Victor, 1953)
 * Cugat's Favorite Rhumbas (Columbia, 1954)
 * Ole! (Columbia, 1955)
 * Mambo at the Waldorf (Columbia, 1955)
 * Cha Cha Cha (Columbia, 1955)
 * Cugatango! (10" record) (Columbia, 1956)
 * Bread, Love and Cha Cha Cha (Columbia, 1957)
 * Waltzes but by Cugat! (Columbia, 1957)
 * Mambo! (Music for Latin Lovers) (Mercury, 1957)
 * The King Plays Some Aces (RCA Victor, 1958)
 * Cugat Calvalcade (Columbia, 1958)
 * Cugat in Spain (RCA Victor, 1959)
 * That Latin Beat! (RCA Victor, 1959)
 * Chile Con Cugie (RCA Victor, 1959)
 * The Latin Rhythms of Xavier Cugat (Harmony, 1960)
 * Cugat in France, Spain, and Italy (RCA Victor, 1960)
 * The Best of Cugat (Mercury, 1961)
 * Viva Cugat! (Mercury, 1961)
 * Twist with Cugat (Mercury, 1962)
 * Cugat Plays Continental Hits (Mercury, 1962)
 * Most Popular Movie Hits As Styled By Cugat (Mercury, 1962)
 * Cugat Plays Continental Hits (Mercury, 1962)
 * Cugi's Cocktails (Mercury, 1963)
 * Cugat's Golden Goodies (Mercury, 1963)
 * Cugi's Cocktails (Mercury, 1963)
 * Cugat Caricatures (Mercury, 1964)
 * Plays the Music of Ernesto Lecuona (Mercury, 1964)
 * Midnight Roses (Decca, 1968)
 * The Cugat Touch (Springboard, 1976)

title: Xavier Cugat


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Talk:Uqbar

Recent rewrite
My recent rewrite of this article is a result of communication from User:Cibeckwith, who I presume is Christopher Beckwith of Indiana University; the relevant portions are reproduced at Talk:Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius. I've done the best I can to get the Uqbar-related portions of what he communicated into this article, and into Wikipedia style, but I'm not fully conversant with our conventions for transliterating Arabic, so someone else may want to clean that up; the direct quotations, especially the one about "the massif of ‘Uḳbâr", should presumably be left with the transliterations that they use. -- Jmabel | Talk 20:30, Jan 22, 2005 (UTC)

Al-Waraq
Since the link Al-Waraq ( Al-Waraq ) is to an Arabic-language page, I'm not sure of the significance of what it leads to. Could someone who understands this -- maybe Mustafaa who added it -- flesh this out with a proper explanation in the References section? Thanks. -- Jmabel | Talk 01:49, Jan 26, 2005 (UTC)

We're getting closer. This is great stuff you turned up, Mustafaa, I generally know Borges well and I don't think any of this has been out there in the critical literature on this story. Could you be more specific about exactly what articles on Al-Waraq were used as references? I'm guessing that they have stable URLs even if registration is needed to access them. -- Jmabel | Talk 04:55, Jan 26, 2005 (UTC)

Uqbar?
I had an alarming thought: could the supposed Algerian "`Uqbâr" be a misprint for the well-known town of that area, Sidi `Uqbah (Sidi Okba)? - Mustafaa 01:46, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Borges could still easily have seen it. The inaccuracy would be worth noting, but it would still be relevant. -- 06:07, Jan 27, 2005 (UTC)

Tsai Khaldun and the Axa Delta
Mustafaa, I see you added into the article the quoted phrase "the lowlands of Tsai Khaldun and the Axa Delta marked the southern frontier". Yes, it's a phrase from the story, but I'm not sure of the relevance to this article, and just quoting it doesn't make the relevance clear. Would you agree with me that this is merely a fictional embellishment to the geography of the fictional Uqbar? We do discuss both of these names in the Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius article. -- Jmabel | Talk 06:07, Jan 27, 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm not totally clear what the subject of this article should be, though; is it about the fictional Uqbar and its origins, or the real (?) Uqbar in Algeria? If 1, the quote is relevant; if 2, then the article might need some trimming... - Mustafaa 01:24, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)

I think this should focus on the fictional Uqbar, since that is by far the more likely thing for someone to be looking up. Do we know enough about the Uqbar in Algeria to do an article? If so, I guess there should be one. And so, yes, I guess you are right, the quote is relevant, but I guess we ought to give a "see also" to where we discuss those names. I'll add that. -- Jmabel | Talk 04:38, Jan 28, 2005 (UTC)

Wheee!
This has been so cool watching this one come together!

Ubar
I have found this article of Ubar by mistyping the word Uqbar in the search form. What do you think? Could this be another potential source to the name?

 * Good idea, but I don't know. Are there any similarities in their descriptions? - Mustafaa 23:46, 13 July 2005 (UTC)

 * In any case, getting that into this article would probably amount to original research, unless there is a citation to connect them. -- Jmabel | Talk 04:55, July 15, 2005 (UTC)

 * Applying the two words "ubar" and "uqbar" on google I only have found a bunch of wikipedia mirrors, one blog entry about the topic and this page. The page, written by Professor Harry Vélaz Quiñones, links to a New York Times article about Ubar's discovery. Did he put it only to tickle the minds of his students or did he really mean it, that this is the source of the name? I don't know. cow_2001 15:27, 15 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Well, his name is spelled Velez not Velaz, and it was intended to "tickle the minds of his students." In case you are wondering, I did ask him, because I stumbled across this page and recognized his name. While it is a fun premise to ponder, there really is no evidence of it to my knowledge. --Actiasluna 00:14, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I wouldn't think it would be fair to extrapolate any significance from an uncommented link like that. I say we leave it out of the article unless we get something more solid. -- Jmabel | Talk 04:37, July 16, 2005 (UTC)

double negative as a positive
The typical clever humour of Borges could be mentioned here - the idea he was trying to engender was that, similar to a double negative being a positive, so that a double fiction could be non-fiction. Surprising that this 'joke' of Borges is missing from the current article. (20040302)
 * Do you have anything citable for this interpretation? It is "left out" (here and at Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius) for the simple reason that we do not report opinions of random Wikipedians: this is part of what WP:NOR and WP:NPOV are about. - Jmabel | Talk 06:23, 30 May 2006 (UTC)

No geographical evidence? No party!
I've tried a number of different (and possibly incomplete) spells for Uqbar on Google Maps in Algeria (things like "Uqbar, Algeria"). No success at all. The same applies to the other Ukbarâ in Iraq.

Finally, a sentence like "It appears that there is or was an ‘Uqbâr in the Atlas Mountains of Algeria" is not acceptable in my opinion because of the two levels of uncertainty ("it appears" and "there is or was").

I would suggest to expunge this part of the article, unless there's more precise geographical evidences, or there's an intended will to keep also this article as fictional as the content of the topic itself. In this latter case I would state it in the very beginning of the article. Talk 11:45, 28 March 2011 (CET)

Ubar
Ubar is mentioned in "One Thousand and One Nights" and also in Lovecraft's tales. Since those works were well-known by Borges I think it is not unlikely it could be a source of inspiration for him.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iram_of_the_Pillars — Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.210.47.41 (talk) 20:03, 17 April 2012 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Uqbar


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Jambalaya

Jambalaya is a savory rice dish of mixed origins that developed in the U.S. state of Louisiana apparently with African, Spanish, and French influences, consisting mainly of meat or seafood (or both), and vegetables mixed with rice and spices. West Africans and Spanish people each had versions of jambalaya in their respected countries. Historian Ibraham Seck states Senegalese people were making jambalaya. The French introduced tomato to West Africans and they incorporated the food into their one-pot rice dishes that created jambalaya and jollof rice. Spanish people made paella which is also a one-pot rice dish cooked with meats and vegetables. These styles of cuisines blended in Louisiana and resulted in cultural and regional variations of the dish.

Etymology
The Oxford English Dictionary indicates that jambalaya comes from the Provençal word jambalaia, meaning a mish mash, or mixup, and also meaning a pilaf (pilau) of rice. This is supported by the fact that the first printed appearance of the word is in a Provençal poem published in 1837.

A folk etymology of the word suggests that it is the fusion of two Spanish words: jamón ("ham") + paella (a rice dish). However, the evidence for this idea is thin. Ham is not a featured element of the dish, and Spanish speakers would call a ham paella paella con jamón, not jamón paella.

Another history, per Louisiana chef John Folse, author of The Encyclopedia of Cajun & Creole Cuisine (2004), is that jambalaya is a contraction of jambon à la yaya, meaning "ham with rice", from French jambon and Yoruba yaya.

Origins
Jambalaya is a Creole/Cajun-American dish that originated in Africa and Europe and was brought to Louisiana during the colonial period. These two cuisines blended in Louisiana; but also resulted in cultural and regional variations in how the dish is prepared. There are a number of dishes with disparate origins that use some of the same ingredients. In West Africa there is a rice dish called "jollof rice" that according to researcher Kayla Stewart apparently developed from thiéboudienne, a Senegalese dish made of red rice, fish, cassava, and carrots. Author Kelley Fanto Deetz also suggests jambalaya has roots in jollof rice. In the records of slave narratives, formerly enslaved Black Americans made jambalaya. Historians who researched the records of slave narratives say they point to a possible Caribbean and African origin of the dish. According to a Smithsonian Institution folklife article, jambalaya is a syncretic blend of West African, French, and Spanish influences. The territory of Louisiana was colonized by the French and Spanish during the colonial period and imported enslaved West Africans who had knowledge of rice cultivation. It is prepared and eaten in African-American, Cajun, and Creole communities. There are variations of how the dish is prepared within each community. According to author James McCann, jambalaya has Creole, Cajun, West African, and Caribbean roots. In West Africa a dish similar to jambalaya is called dafa, which means to "cook everything". In West African cuisine, meat, fish and shellfish are all cooked in the same pot with rice to absorb juices from meats. According to the Encyclopedia of African American History, the spicy flavor and heat of the dish points to a West African influence. The West Africans imported to Louisiana came from Senegambia which was a rice growing region. West Africans today still add spicy seasonings to their one-pot rice cooked meals. According to research from Taharka Adé, an assistant professor in the Department of Africana Studies at San Diego State University, the French introduced the tomato (a food native to the Americas) to Senegambians and Akan people in the rice growing regions of West Africa and through this interaction West Africans created jambalaya and another rice and tomato based dish called Jollof. Author Ibraham Seck, director of research at the Whitney Plantation Slave Museum in St. John the Baptist Parish, suggests jambalaya originated on the Senegalese coast of West Africa. Senegalese people had knowledge of rice cultivation and created dishes using rice and meats that were brought to Louisiana during the era of the slave trade. About sixty percent of enslaved captives brought to Louisiana were Senegalese. An article from the United Nations states that the cuisines of Nigeria, Senegal, Guinea, and Benin influenced the development of jambalaya: "Jambalaya (mixed rice, meat and vegetables), feijoada (black beans and meat), gombo(okra), and hopping johns (peas) are all dishes that have been re-adapted from Senegal, Nigeria, Guinea and Benin. You will find variations of these dishes in America and the Caribbean region." Historian Karen Hess states jambalaya has French and Spanish influences. The French influence is from the dish pilau which is cooked with rice and seasoning. However, French pilau does not add seafood and meat which is typically done in Spanish Valencian paella, West African, and Caribbean cuisines.

History
The history of Jambalaya points to a West African influence. Rice was and is a traditional staple in West Africa, where one-pot mixed rice dishes such as thiéboudienne, benachin or Jollof rice were common. In the records of slave narratives, formerly enslaved African Americans from Louisiana made jambalaya as a meal with rice, pork or chicken, red pepper, onion, lard, salt and pepper. Black Americans adapted West African dishes in the Southern United States by using North American ingredients. These meals were prepared to survive during the era of slavery. There is some folklore that claims jambalaya originates from the French Quarter of New Orleans, in the original sector Some culinary scholars argue that it may have been a local version of the Spanish rice dish paella French influence was strong in New Orleans, and native spices from Louisiana, the Gulf Coast and the Caribbean may have changed this pilaf or paella into a unique New World dish.

Ingredients
Traditionally, the meat includes sausage of some sort, often a smoked meat such as andouille, along with pork, chicken or seafood (less common), such as crawfish or shrimp. The vegetables are usually a sofrito-like mixture known as the "trinity" in Creole and Cajun cooking, consisting of onion, celery, and green bell pepper, though other vegetables such as okra, carrots, tomatoes, corn, chilis and garlic are also used.

After browning and sauteing the meat and vegetables, rice is added with seasonings and broth, and the entire dish is cooked together until the rice is done.

Similar dishes
Jambalaya is similar to (but distinct from) other rice-and-meat dishes known in Louisiana cuisine such as gumbo and étouffée.

Gumbo uses similar sausages, meats, seafood, vegetables and seasonings. However, gumbo usually (though not always) includes filé powder or okra, which are not common in jambalaya. Gumbo is also usually served over white rice, which is prepared separately from the rest of the dish, unlike jambalaya, where the rice is prepared with the other ingredients.

Étouffée is a stew that always includes shellfish such as shrimp or crawfish but does not have the sausage common to jambalaya and gumbo. Also, like gumbo, étouffée is usually served over separately prepared rice.

Cultural and regional variations
There are two primary methods of making jambalaya, differentiated by the presence or absence of tomatoes.

African-American variation
In narratives told by enslaved Black people, their ancestors made jambalaya. According to some historians, jambalaya was prepared and eaten in West Africa using tomatoes introduced to West Africans by the French. Rice dishes with meats and vegetables cooked in one pot with spices is a common meal in West Africa. During the slave trade, about sixty percent of enslaved people brought to Louisiana were Senegalese. They brought Senegalese cuisine to Louisiana which already had a version of jambalaya. Jambalaya in Louisiana's Black communities incorporates tomatoes, and meats. In rural south Louisiana, jambalaya is brown from absorbing the sauce it is cooked in, as it is traditionally cooked in cast-iron pots, which reach high cooking temperatures, "resulting in a more complete caramelization of the natural sugars in meats and vegetables". Enslaved Africans served this dish to their French and Spanish slaveholders, resulting in a fusion of the dish as Spanish people had a dish similar to jambalaya called paella. Jollof rice from West African cuisine influenced the jambalaya made in African-American communities.

Cajun
The second style, more characteristic of southwestern and south-central Louisiana, is Cajun jambalaya, which contains no tomatoes (the idea being the farther away from New Orleans one gets, the less common tomatoes are in dishes). The meat is browned in a cast-iron pot. The bits of meat that stick to the bottom of the pot (sucs) are what give a Cajun jambalaya its brown color. A little vegetable oil is added if there is not enough fat in the pot. The trinity (of 50% onions, 25% celery, and 25% green or red bell pepper, although proportions can be altered to suit one's taste) is added and sautéed until soft. Stock and seasonings are added in the next step, and then the meats are returned to the pot. This mixture is then simmered, covered, for at least one hour. Lastly, the mixture is brought to a boil and rice is added to the pot. It is then covered and left to simmer over very low heat for at least 1/2 hour without stirring. The dish is finished when the rice has cooked.

Creole
The first is Creole jambalaya (also called "red jambalaya"). First, meat is added to the trinity of celery, peppers, and onions; the meat is usually chicken and sausage such as andouille or smoked sausage. Next, vegetables and tomatoes, which are added to cook, followed by seafood. Rice and stock are added in equal proportions at the very end. The mixture is brought to a boil and left to simmer for 20 to 60 minutes, depending on the recipe, with infrequent stirring. Towards the end of the cooking process, stirring usually ceases. Some versions call for the jambalaya to be baked after the cooking of all the ingredients.

New Orleans style vs Acadiana style
In modern Louisiana, the dish has evolved along a variety of different lines.

New Orleans style jambalaya, known in Acadiana as "red jambalaya", is found primarily in and around New Orleans, where it is simply known as "jambalaya". New Orleans style jambalaya includes tomatoes, whereas Acadiana style jambalaya usually does not.

Acadiana style jambalaya originates from Louisiana's rural, low-lying swamp country where crawfish, shrimp, oysters, alligator, duck, turtle, boar, venison, nutria and other game were readily available. Any variety or combination of meats, including chicken or turkey, may be used to make jambalaya. Acadiana style jambalaya is known as "brown jambalaya" in the Greater New Orleans area (except for the lower Westbank where it can be found among some families); to folks from Acadiana it is simply known as "jambalaya".

Southern Louisiana variation
Many people in the south, and typically in Louisiana, enjoy a simpler jambalaya style. This style is cooked the same as the Cajun style, but there are no vegetables. Many restaurants serve this style as opposed to the others, because it is more child-friendly, has a more consistent texture, and is easier to make.

Jambalaya is considered by most Louisianans to be a filling but simple-to-prepare rice dish; gumbos, étouffées, and creoles are considered more difficult to perfect. Most often a long grain white rice is used in making jambalaya.

Jambalaya is differentiated from gumbo and étouffée by the way in which the rice is included. In these dishes, the rice is cooked separately and is served as a bed on which the main dish is served. In the usual method of preparing jambalaya, a rich stock is created from vegetables, meat and seafood; raw rice is then added to the broth and the flavor is absorbed by the grains as the rice cooks.

Other methods of preparation
In a less common method, meats and vegetables are cooked separately from the rice. At the same time, rice is cooked in a savory stock. It is added to the meat and vegetables before serving. This is called "white jambalaya". This dish is rare in Louisiana as it is seen as a "quick" attempt to make jambalaya, popularized outside the state to shorten cooking time.

Jambalaya in print
The first appearance in print of any variant of the word 'jambalaya' in any language occurred in Leis amours de Vanus; vo, Lou paysan oou théâtré, by Fortuné (Fortunat) Chailan, first published in Provençal dialect in 1837.

The earliest appearance of the word in print in English occurs in the May 1849 issue of the American Agriculturalist, page 161, where Solon Robinson refers to a recipe for "Hopping Johnny (jambalaya)", however he made a mistake in identifying jambalaya as "Hopping Johnny", which is an entirely different dish with different origins and different birth state.

Jambalaya did not appear in a cookbook until 1878, when the Gulf City Cook Book, by the ladies of the St. Francis Street Methodist Episcopal Church, was printed in South Mobile, Alabama. It contains a recipe for "JAM BOLAYA".

Jambalaya had a brief jump in popularity during the 1920s and 1930s because of its flexible recipe. The dish was little more than the rice and vegetables the populace could afford; the recipe grew from humble roots.

Jambalaya capital of the world
In 1968, Louisiana Governor John J. McKeithen proclaimed Gonzales, Louisiana, "the Jambalaya capital of the world". Every spring, the annual Jambalaya Festival is held in Gonzales.

title: Jambalaya


text:
Baoulé language

Baoulé, also known as Baule or Bawule, is a language spoken in central and southern Ivory Coast, including in the regions of Lacs, Lagunes, Gôh-Djiboua, Sassandra-Marahoué, Vallée du Bandama, Woroba, and Yamoussoukro, by approximately 5.3 million people. It is a Kwa language of the Central Tano branch, forming a dialect continuum with Anyin and closely related to Nzema and Sehwi. It is the common language of the Baoulé people, the largest ethnic group in Ivory Coast.

Translations of the Bible
In 1946, portions of the Bible translated into Baoulé were first published; the full New Testament followed in 1953. The complete Bible was published first in 1998, by the Bible Society in Abidjan.

Vowels
Of these vowels, five may be nasalized: /ĩ/, /ɛ̃/, /ã/, /ũ/, and /ɔ̃/.

Tones
Baoulé has five tones: high, low, mid, rising, and falling.

Orthography
Baoulé uses the following letters to indicate the following phonemes:

title: Baoulé language


text:
The Soft Machine

The Soft Machine is a 1961 novel by American author William S. Burroughs. It was originally composed using the cut-up technique partly from manuscripts belonging to The Word Hoard. It is the first part of The Nova Trilogy.

Title and structure
The title The Soft Machine is a name for the human body, and the main theme of the book (as explicitly written in an appendix added to the 1968, British edition) concerns how control mechanisms invade the body.

The book is written in a style close to that of Naked Lunch, employing third-person singular indirect recall, though now using the cut-up method.

After the main material follow three appendices in the British edition, the first explaining the title (as mentioned above) and two accounts of Burroughs' own drug abuse and treatment using apomorphine. Here Burroughs clearly states that he considers drug abuse a metabolic disease and writes about how he finally escaped it.

Plot summary
The main plot appears in linear prose in chapter VII, The Mayan Caper. This chapter portrays a secret agent who has the ability to change bodies or metamorphose his own body using "U.T." (undifferentiated tissue). As such an agent he makes a time travel machine and takes on a gang of Mayan priests who use the Mayan calendar to control the minds of slave laborers used for planting maize. The calendar images are written in books, placed on a magnetic tape, and transmitted as sounds to control the slaves. The agent manages to infiltrate the slaves and replace the magnetic tape with a totally different message: "burn the books, kill the priests", which causes the downfall of their regime.

Characters
The characters of the Soft Machine fall into three categories:
 * Characters from the previous novels Junkie, Queer and Naked Lunch: Dr Benway, Clem Snide, Sailor, Bill Gains, Kiki, and Carl Peterson.
 * Characters associated with the Nova Trilogy:
 * The Nova Mob: Mr Bradly Mr Martin, Sammy the Butcher, Green Tony, Izzy the Push, Willy the Rat/Uranian Willy, agent K9?
 * The Nova Police: Inspector J. Lee
 * Alien races: The Venusians/Green Boys (Johnny Yen, Contessa di Vile), The Uranians/Blue heavy metal boys.
 * Characters recycled from the work of other authors:
 * Jimmy Sheffields from the novel Fury by Henry Kuttner
 * Salt Chunk Mary from the novel You Can't Win by Jack Black
 * Danny Deaver from poem with the same title by Rudyard Kipling
 * Billy Budd and Captain Verre from the short-story Billy Budd by Herman Melville

Editions
The Soft Machine has been printed in four different editions, the first three revised by the author, the last by Burroughs scholar Oliver Harris.
 * 1) The first edition was printed by Olympia Press in Paris, in 1961, as number 88 in the Traveller Companion Series.  It featured 182 pages arranged in 50 chapters of about 8 pages each. This edition was colour-coded into four different Units, and it was heavily fragmented. This edition is rare and the text is not widely available.
 * 2) The second edition was printed by Grove Press in the United States, in 1966. In this edition, Burroughs removed 82 pages and inserted 82 new pages, and the remaining 100 pages were rearranged and restructured using further cut-ups. Much of the added material was linear, narrative prose, which is arguably easier to read than the disorganized first edition. Many chapters were renamed and rearranged in this edition, and the colour code from the first edition was removed.
 * 3) The third edition was printed by John Calder in Great Britain, 1968. This time most chapter titles were intact from the second edition, but they began at more natural places in the text, whereas the second edition could place them in the middle of a sentence. The chapter 1920s War Movies was renamed The Streets of Chance. Twenty pages of new material had been added, plus about eight pages from the first edition which had been removed in the second edition. About five pages of material which was present in both the first and second edition was removed. This edition also included an "Appendix" and "Afterword".
 * 4) The fourth 'Restored' edition was printed by Grove Press in the United States in 2014. Drawing on the discovery of a manuscript of The Soft Machine that was to have been published by Olympia Press in 1963, this edition restores a short cancelled chapter ('Male Image Back In'), restores the 1961 edition's heavy use of capital letters, and has some different chapter breaks. The edition also includes an introduction, extensive notes and appendices.

Burroughs himself was very displeased with the first edition and this was the main reason for rewriting it so thoroughly: in 1961 he wrote to his friend Allen Ginsberg that he rewrote it extensively while he was working on Dead Fingers Talk, mostly because he was displeased with the balance of cut-up and more linear material. However, his revised editions included much new cut-up material as well as more conventional prose.

Obscenity controversy
The novel was subject to an obscenity trial in Turkey in 2011. Sel Yayıncılık and the novel's Turkish translator faced obscenity charges after the release of the book, due to alleged "incompliance with moral norms" and “hurting people’s moral feelings.” Sel Yayıncılık and the books’ translators face three more years of uncertainty after the judge pronounced that the trial would be postponed until 2015, due to the implementation of new legislation. Meanwhile, the judge warned that if either of the publishing houses or the translators were foolish enough to publish further ‘obscene’ works, these cases would be added to the charge sheet.

Legacy
The term "heavy metal" was first used in this novel, introducing the character “Uranian Willy The Heavy Metal Kid" (Burroughs continued using the term in subsequent novels). Although that character had no relation with that genre of rock music, the rock critic Lester Bangs did cite Burroughs in his Creem Magazine articles in which he is generally believed to have originated the term ‘heavy metal’ as applied to a rock music form.

English rock and jazz band Soft Machine, from Canterbury, named themselves after the book, when they formed in mid-1966.

title: The Soft Machine


text:
Talk:Xavier Cugat

Name
According to Xavier Cugat's fan site, his birth name was "Francisco de Asís Javier Cugat Mingall de Bru y Deulofeu" (differences from current revision in bold italic). Searches yielded no convincing evidence of any of the combinations. Anyone have an accurate reference? AlanM1 (talk) 00:02, 22 September 2009 (UTC)

Cujat or Cugat? Two different spellings used side by side without an explanation. Is this a typo, are they alternate spellings (maybe in different languages), or what? --KF 21:42, 6 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Cugat. It's a Catalan name. Cujat is a typo without sense in Catalan Spanish or English. Llull 18:24, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Girona, not Barcelona
He was not born in Barcelona, Spain, he was born in Girona, Spain. Girona's city is located 150 miles north east away from Barcelona. Wikipedia's Xavier Cugat articles in all other languages has this fact right, but not the english article, that states that he was born in the Catalan capital Barcelona. Girona also belongs to the Catalan region of Spain.

There is nothing proving his American nationality in the article. He was born in Spain and died there. The fact that his career years were in the US does not mean that he became an American citizen. If he did become one, it must be stated in the article.

Neglect of recording career
This article neglects his recording career. Far too much of the article is given to anecdotal trivia.

Painting
This article makes no mention of his side career as a painter. --Scott.kelley (talk) 23:06, 3 April 2008 (UTC) Dogru144 02:40, 21 July 2007 (UTC)

Coogie's Beach Cafe
According to the menu explaining the story behind Coogie's, Xavier Cugat founded their Malibu restaurant which is still a pretty good place to eat. The name "Coogie" apparently was Xavier's nickname. This seems like it possibly could be a pertinent inclusion to the biographical details. '''Coogies Beach Cafe, (310) 317-1444, 23755 Malibu Rd, Malibu, CA 90265, Cross Streets: Between Malibu Colony Rd and Webb Way''' --Victorcoutin (talk) 04:55, 24 July 2008 (UTC)

Notes Section?
Is this in reference to some "I Love Lucy" episode? If so, which? And isn't the title wrong? I previously removed some other vandalism (that XC 'sucks ass') so perhaps this is vandalism, too. Cactusjump (talk) 22:31, 2 October 2008 (UTC)

I removed the "Lucy" mention. The "I Love Lucy" references are already covered in the "in popular culture" section. Cactusjump (talk) 17:58, 9 October 2008 (UTC)

Popular Culture Section?
Its worth mentioning that his song Brazil was the theme and the inspiration for the Terry Gilliam film of the same name. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 218.166.60.99 (talk) 18:03, 28 April 2009 (UTC)

He is referenced in A Goofy Movie in a conversation between Goofy and his son Max. Max is talking about Powerline "the biggest rock star on the planet". And Goofy replies, "Not bigger than Xavier Cugat "The Mombo King". Everybody mombo." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:806:8204:D7C0:F439:ED92:8DDF:B08A (talk) 00:17, 18 August 2020 (UTC)

Huh?
His first marriage was to Rita Montaner (1918–1920) ; this contradicts all authoritative biographical accounts of her.

It certainly does. What's the source on this? Why is it even in the article?

74.12.86.130 (talk) 20:40, 21 June 2011 (UTC)

Catalan / Spanish
According to Wikipedia conventions, it is the city and then the country that are mentioned when giving an individual's place of birth and death. Structures such as Girona-Catalonia-Spain are long-winded and unnecessary. I am aware that there are sub-nationalistic claims in this region, so if anyone wants to make it a point that Xavier Cugat was born in a part of the country called Catalonia and that is important to someone for political reasons then this could be mentioned in the text, but please let's keep the labeling standards coherent. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.79.136.15 (talk) 14:11, 27 November 2009 (UTC)

 * Then shouldn't he be described as "Spanish-American" rather than "Catalan-American"? 64.85.225.235 (talk) 08:59, 15 January 2011 (UTC)

 * He shouldn't, as this terms are not about nationality but about culture. Check Catalan-American if needed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.184.24.117 (talk) 16:11, 27 May 2014 (UTC)

Poor quality
The article gets most of the basic facts down (assuming they are accurate), but the overall structure, level of detail, and writing, is poor. the popular culture section is rather silly and overly detailed. He deserves better.(mercurywoodrose)75.61.134.173 (talk) 03:02, 24 September 2011 (UTC)

"In popular culture" section removed
I tried to delete all the items that seemed irrelevant and unimportant. That turned out to be every item, except the one about Spain exempting Cugat from military service because of his birthday, which was confusing (why exempt his brothers too?) and was not reliably cited. —Mark Dominus (talk) 15:19, 31 October 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
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Pronunciation
The given pronunciation of his name, after looking through the Wikipedia pages on Spanish and Catalan orthography, seems to correspond more to the former. ZFT (talk) 20:39, 18 March 2018 (UTC)

Stage name or legal change of name
Is Xavier Cugat just a stage name, or did he legally change his name? —C.Fred (talk) 18:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

Catalan nationality?
Two questions about the description of his nationality as Catalan:

First, since he emigrated at age 3, is he tied to Catalan that deeply? Remember that per MOS:BIO, it's his nationality, not ethnicity or cultural standing, that's relevant.

Second, since Catalan is not an independent nation, why wouldn't he be described as Spanish? I'm not aware of any exception for Catalan that would apply, as opposed to the Home Nations of the UK. —C.Fred (talk) 21:09, 14 December 2020 (UTC)I

 * The complexities of nationality have been addressed by now in lengthy discussions. Spain shows an intricate make-up of different nations, nominally Basques, Catalans and Gallicians, with a long history, which an ID card cannot summarize. Please refer to the following discussion:

 * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:Manual_of_Style/Biography/2018_archive#RfC_on_use_of_Spanish_regional_identity_in_biography_leads

 * Iñaki LL (talk) 18:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

 * Agree with Iñaki LL. The president was set; also a comprehensive discussion here where there was a clear consensus amongst the participating editors that Carles Puigdemont should be described as a Catalan politician. Llywelyn2000 (talk) 10:31, 21 February 2021 (UTC)

Waldorf-Astoria
The opener states that Cugat was at the Waldorf-Astoria before and after WWII, but he was also there during the war—at least in the beginning months as I see in an ad in the 7/4/1942 New Yorker on page 43. In the Life and Career section it notes that he was there for 16 years starting in 1931 and does not mention a break during the war. AnnetheMongoose (talk) 16:52, 27 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Xavier Cugat


text:
Nickel (United States coin)

A nickel is a five-cent coin struck by the United States Mint. Composed of cupronickel (75% copper and 25% nickel), the piece has been issued since 1866. Its diameter is 0.835 inches (21.21 mm) and its thickness is 0.077 inches (1.95 mm).

The silver half dime, equal to five cents, was issued from 1792 to 1873 before today's cupronickel version. The American Civil War caused economic hardship, driving gold and silver from circulation; in response, in place of low-value coins, the government at first issued paper currency. In 1865, Congress abolished the five-cent fractional currency note after Spencer M. Clark, head of the Currency Bureau (today the Bureau of Engraving and Printing), placed his own portrait on the denomination. After the successful introduction of two-cent and three-cent pieces without precious metal, Congress also authorized a five-cent piece consisting of base metal; the Mint began striking this version in 1866. The initial design of the Shield nickel was struck from 1866 until 1883, then was replaced by the Liberty Head nickel. The Buffalo nickel was introduced in 1913 as part of a drive to increase the beauty of American coinage.

The nickel is minted in its modern form as the Jefferson nickel, which was first introduced in 1938. In 2004 and 2005, special Jefferson nickel designs in honor of the bicentennial of the Lewis and Clark Expedition were issued. In 2006, the Mint reverted to using Jefferson nickel designer Felix Schlag's original reverse (or "tails" side), although a new obverse, by Jamie Franki, was substituted.

During fiscal year 2020, it cost more than 7 cents to produce a nickel; the Mint is exploring the possibility of reducing cost by using less expensive metals. In 2018, over 1.26 billion nickels were produced at the Philadelphia and Denver mints.

Silver half dime
The silver half disme (as the half dime, pronounced the same, was first called) was one of the denominations prescribed by the Mint Act of 1792; its weight and fineness were set by law. The first pieces under federal authority were half dimes, struck in 1792 in the cellar of John Harper, a saw maker; as the first federal mint was still under construction in Philadelphia, this took place locally at Sixth and Cherry Streets. The dies were engraved by Adam Eckfeldt, who a half-century later recalled that the silver for the half dimes was supplied by President George Washington, and that the 1,500 coins struck from the bullion were given to Washington's Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, for distribution to important people, both in the US and overseas. By legend, President Washington supplied silverware from his home, Mount Vernon, to provide bullion for the coins. In his annual message to Congress in late 1792, Washington noted the ongoing construction of a mint building and stated: "There has also been a small beginning in the coinage of half dimes, the want of small coins in circulation calling the first attention to them."

In 1793, the newly established Philadelphia Mint began striking cents and half cents. Coinage of precious metal was delayed; Congress required the assayer and chief coiner to each post a security bond of US$10000, a huge sum in 1793. In 1794, Congress lowered the chief coiner's bond to US$5000, and the assayer's to US$1,000; President Washington's appointees to those positions were thus able to qualify and take office. Subsequently, silver coinage began that year.

The half dime was originally struck from 1794 until 1805, though none were dated 1798, 1799, or 1804. By 1804, silver US coins were heavily exported, as they could be exchanged at par in the West Indies with heavier Spanish coins, which were then imported as bullion and deposited at the Mint for melting and restriking. In response, in 1804 the US stopped striking silver dollars; issuance of the half dime was discontinued from 1805 until 1829. In 1807, mint Director Robert Patterson in a letter explained to Jefferson (by then president) "nearly the whole of our Silver Bullion (chiefly Spanish dollars) come through the Banks, and it is very seldom that they will consent to take any coin less than half dollars."

Beginning in 1829, the silver five-cent piece was again struck; beginning in 1837, its fineness was increased from .8924 to .900. Also in 1837, the half dime's obverse design changed from one by William Kneass, depicting a bust of Liberty, to one that featured a seated Liberty by Christian Gobrecht; until its abolition in 1873, the half dime would bear modifications of this design. In 1851, it ceased to be the smallest US silver coin as a three cent piece was issued by the Mint.

Birth of the nickel

The Civil War caused most American coins to vanish from circulation, with the gap filled by such means as merchant tokens, encased postage stamps, and United States fractional currency, issued in denominations as low as three cents. Although specie (gold or silver coins) was hoarded or exported, the copper-nickel cent, then the only base metal denomination being struck, also vanished. In 1864, Congress began the process of restoring coins to circulation by abolishing the three-cent note and authorizing bronze cents and two-cent pieces, with low intrinsic values, to be struck. These new coins initially proved popular, though the two-cent piece soon faded from circulation. On March 3, 1865, Congress passed legislation authorizing the Mint to strike three-cent pieces of 75% copper and 25% nickel.

In 1864, Congress authorized a third series of fractional currency notes. The five-cent note was to bear a depiction of "Clark", but Congress was appalled when the issue came out not with a portrait of William Clark, the explorer, but Spencer M. Clark, head of the Currency Bureau. According to numismatic historian Walter Breen, Congress's "immediate infuriated response was to pass a law retiring the five-cent denomination, and another to forbid portrayal of any living person on federal coins or currency." Clark kept his job only because of the personal intervention of Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase.

Mint Director James Pollock had been opposed to striking coins containing nickel, but in view of the initial success of the copper-nickel three-cent piece, he became an advocate of striking five-cent pieces in the same metals. In his 1865 report, Pollock wrote, "From this nickel alloy, a coin for the denomination of five cents, and which would be a popular substitute for the five cent note, could easily be made ... [The five-cent coin should be struck in base metal] only until the resumption of specie payments ... in time of peace ... coins of inferior alloy should not be permitted to take the place permanently of silver in the coinage of pieces above the denomination of three cents."

Industrialist Joseph Wharton had a near-monopoly on the mining of nickel in the United States, and sought to promote its use in coinage. He was also highly influential in Congress. His friends there, though they had failed to obtain the metal's use for the two-cent piece, had been more successful with the base-metal three-cent coin. Pollock prepared a bill authorizing a five-cent coin of the same alloy as the three-cent piece, with a total weight not to exceed 60 grains (3.9 g). At the committee stage in the House of Representatives, the weight was amended to 77.19 gr, ostensibly to make the weight equal to five grams in the metric system but more likely so that Wharton could sell more nickel. This made the new coin heavy, in terms of weight per $.01 of face value, compared to the three-cent copper-nickel coin. The bill passed without debate on May 16, 1866. The new copper-nickel coin was legal tender for up to one dollar and would be paid out by the Treasury in exchange for coin of the United States, excluding the half cent, cent and two-cent. It was redeemable in lots of $100 for banknotes. Fractional currency in denominations of less than ten cents was withdrawn.

Shield nickel (1866–1883)
In anticipation of the approval of the new five-cent coin, the Mint's chief engraver, James B. Longacre, had begun preparing designs and pattern coins in 1865. After rejecting pieces showing deceased presidents George Washington (see Washington nickel) and Abraham Lincoln, Treasury Secretary Hugh McCulloch decided on a design similar to Longacre's two-cent piece, with a shield on the obverse and a numeral 5 surrounded by stars and rays on the reverse. This has come to be known as the Shield nickel.

The new coins proved difficult to produce; owing to the hardness of the planchet, the coins were not of high quality and the life of the striking dies was brief. The design was widely criticized; Wharton described the obverse as suggesting "a tombstone surmounted by a cross and overhung by weeping willows." The American Journal of Numismatics described the Shield nickel as "the ugliest of all known coins". The rays were eliminated from the reverse design in 1867, in the hope of eliminating some of the production problems. The design change created confusion among the population—many people assumed that one design or the other was a counterfeit—and the Mint briefly considered abandoning the shield design entirely. After heavy production in its first years, by late 1869, enough nickels had been struck to meet the needs of commerce; fewer were coined in the following years.

The new coins tended to accumulate in the hands of merchants beyond the legal tender limit, but banks refused to accept them beyond the one-dollar maximum. Storeowners were forced to discount the coins to brokers. Postmasters, compelled by law to accept the coins, found that the Treasury would not accept them as deposits except in lots of $100, in accordance with the authorizing statute. In 1871, Congress alleviated the problem by passing legislation allowing the Treasury to redeem unlimited quantities of nickels and other low-denomination coins when presented in lots of not less than $20. It was not until 1933, long after the shield design passed from the scene, that the nickel was made legal tender without limit.

Half dimes continued to be struck, at both the Philadelphia and the San Francisco Mint, until the series was ended by the Coinage Act of 1873. Despite the abolition, the silver pieces continued to circulate in the West, where silver or gold coins were preferred, throughout the remainder of the 19th century. Improved economic conditions, combined with low silver prices, brought large quantities of hoarded silver coinage, including half dimes, into circulation beginning in April 1876. In late 1876, production of the Shield nickel was halted. No Shield nickels were struck in 1877 or 1878, excepting proof specimens for collectors. As the Treasury had a large stock of nickels in storage, only small numbers were struck over the next few years; full-scale production did not resume until December 1881.

Liberty Head or "V" nickel (1883–1913)
With production of nickels lagging in the late 1870s, and with minimal strikings of the copper-nickel three-cent piece, Wharton sought to increase the use of nickel at the Mint. The bronze cent represented a major portion of the Mint's production, and Wharton began to lobby for the piece to be struck in copper-nickel, as it had been from 1857 until 1864. In 1881, this lobbying led Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Archibald Loudon Snowden to order Mint Engraver Charles Barber to produce uniform designs for a new cent, three-cent piece, and five-cent piece. Snowden required that the new coins depict the head of Liberty with the legend LIBERTY and the date, with the nickel's reverse to have a wreath of wheat, cotton, and corn around a Roman numeral "V" for "5", to denote the denomination. Under the proposal, the nickel would retain its weight of 5 g, but its diameter would be increased to 22 mm.

Barber duly produced the required designs. Snowden eventually decided against a new cent or three-cent piece, but Barber continued work on the nickel, with the size adjusted to 21.21 mm. When specimens were sent to Washington for routine approval by Treasury Secretary Charles J. Folger, to Snowden's surprise, they were rejected. The secretary, on review of the coinage statutes, had realized that the laws required " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA " to appear on the reverse, not the obverse where Barber had placed it. Barber modified his design accordingly, and the coin was ready for striking in early 1883. However, by then, Shield nickels dated 1883 had already been coined. To ensure proof Shield pieces would not be hoarded for their rarity, Mint officials allowed their continued production for several months.

Criminals soon realized that the new nickel, which lacked the word " CENTS ", was close in size to the five-dollar gold piece, and if they were to plate the nickel with gold, it might be passed for five dollars. Some coins were even given a reeded edge by fraudsters, making them appear more like the gold coins. The Mint halted production of the new coins; production of Shield nickels continued. Barber was told to modify his work, which he did, moving other design elements to accommodate the word " CENTS " at the bottom of the reverse. The revised nickel was issued on June 26, 1883, the date on which production of the Shield nickel was finally stopped. The public promptly hoarded the "centless" nickels, believing the Treasury Department intended to recall them, and that they would become rare.

The Liberty Head nickel was heavily struck during its 30-year run, except during economic downturns in 1885–1886 and in 1894, when only small numbers were struck. In 1890, Congress ended production of the three-cent piece, leaving the five-cent coin as the only one in copper nickel. That year, Congress also allowed the Secretary of the Treasury to authorize the redesign of United States coins, if the former design had been struck for at least 25 years. Although the nickel and silver dollar had been redesigned within the previous quarter-century, a provision in the latter act made them eligible for immediate redesign. In 1896, pattern nickels were struck for the first time since 1885, when experimental, holed coins had been tested; however, no redesign took place.

Growth of the nickel in commerce

Coin-operated machines to vend food, for amusement, and for gambling became popular in the 1890s. Such machines could be placed on otherwise unused floor space in businesses, required little maintenance, and brought in money for owners. Beginning about 1898, coin-operated mechanical pianos also became popular. The Mills Novelty Company was a leading producer of such devices; by 1906 it was producing machines ranging from a mechanically played violin to fortune-telling devices. While some machines took cents or other denominations, the nickel was the coin of choice for these machines.

Among the innovations in business caused by the use of the nickel in coin-operated machines was the automat, in which patrons would serve themselves by inserting a coin (initially a nickel, though by the 1950s a higher denomination was needed) into a mechanism, turning a handle, and removing a sandwich or dessert. These restaurants were first established in Germany, but were popularized in the United States by, among other firms, Horn & Hardart. A type of business which took its name from the coin was the nickelodeon cinema, where a nickel bought admission to view a series of one-reel short films, generally about 12 minutes in length, which ran continuously from early afternoon until late at night, with the patron free to remain as long as he liked. Although another denomination gave the penny arcade its name, the nickel was commonly used there as well.

Few nickels had circulated in the western states before the 1880s (people there preferred silver and gold coins); interest in the new Liberty Head design had led to increasing use of nickels there. Good economic conditions and high demand for nickels for use in coin-operated devices caused the piece to circulate throughout the nation by 1900. That year, Mint Director George E. Roberts called on Congress to quintuple the Mint's appropriation to purchase base metals for striking into nickels and cents. At the time, statutory restrictions permitted production of cents and nickels only at Philadelphia; Roberts' request that Congress allow striking at the other mints was granted in 1906. The Denver and San Francisco Mints began striking nickels in 1912.

1913 Liberty Head nickel rarity

The Liberty Head nickel was replaced after 1912, and initially there was no indication that 1913-dated pieces with that design existed. In December 1919, a coin dealer, Samuel W. Brown, placed advertisements in coin publications, offering to buy 1913 Liberty Head nickels. The following August, Brown appeared at the annual American Numismatic Association (ANA) convention bearing such a piece. Brown claimed that a master die had been prepared for 1913 and that these pieces had been run off to test it. As it turned out, Brown possessed five coins, which he eventually sold. After spending fifteen years in the hands of the eccentric Col. E.H.R. Green, the famous Fort Worth, Texas, area collector, the coins were finally dispersed in 1943. Since then, they have had several owners each. Today, two are on public display—at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and the ANA's Money Museum in Colorado Springs, while three are owned privately. The most recent sale of a 1913 Liberty Head nickel was in January 2010, when one sold for $3,737,500 in an auction.

It is uncertain how the 1913 nickels came to be made. The Mint's records show no production of 1913 Liberty head nickels, and none were authorized to be made. Dies were prepared in advance and sent to California for a 1913-S Liberty Head nickel coinage, but upon orders from Mint Director Roberts in December 1912 to end the old design, they were returned to Philadelphia. They were received by December 23, and were almost certainly destroyed routinely by early January. Brown had been an employee at the Philadelphia Mint (although this was not known until 1963) and many theories focus suspicion on him.

Buffalo or Indian Head (1913–1938)
President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904 expressed his dissatisfaction with the artistic state of American coins, and hoped to hire sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens to beautify them. Saint-Gaudens, before his death in 1907, designed a new eagle and double eagle, which entered circulation that year; the cent, quarter eagle, and half eagle were redesigned by other artists and were released into circulation by 1909. That year, Mint Director Frank Leach instructed Barber to make pattern coins for new nickels. Most of these coins featured the first president, George Washington. However, the project was discontinued when Leach left office on November 1, 1909, to be replaced by Abram Andrew.

On May 4, 1911, Eames MacVeagh, son of Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh wrote to his father:

"A little matter that seems to have been overlooked by all of you is the opportunity to beautify the design of the nickel or five cent piece during your administration, and it seems to me that it would be a permanent souvenir of a most attractive sort. As possibly you are aware, it is the only coin the design of which you can change during your administration, as I believe there is a law to the effect that the designs must not be changed oftener than every twenty-five years. I should think also it might be the coin of which the greatest numbers are in circulation."

Soon after the MacVeagh letter, Andrew announced that the Mint would solicit new designs for the nickel. Sculptor James Earle Fraser, who had been an assistant to Saint-Gaudens, approached the Mint, and rapidly produced concepts and designs. Mint Director George Roberts, who had returned to office in place of Andrew, initially favored a design featuring Lincoln, but Fraser soon developed a design featuring a Native American on one side and a bison on the other. Secretary MacVeagh wrote, "Tell him that of the three sketches which he submitted we would like to use the sketch of the head of the Indian and the sketch of the buffalo." In July 1912, news of the new nickel became public, and coin-operated machine manufacturers sought information. Clarence Hobbs of the Hobbs Manufacturing Company, maker of counterfeit detectors, feared the new nickel would not be passed by his devices. Hobbs demanded various changes to the design, to which the artist was reluctant to agree.

The Hobbs Company continued to interpose objections in 1913. On February 3, Hobbs sent Roberts a lengthy list of changes that he wanted in the coin, and the sculptor was required to attend a conference with Hobbs representatives. On the fifth, following the conference, which ended with no agreement, Fraser sent MacVeagh a ten-page letter, complaining that his time was being wasted by the Hobbs Company, and appealing to the Secretary to bring the situation to a close. Secretary MacVeagh agreed to hold a meeting at his office in Washington on February 14. Barber prepared patterns showing what the nickel would look like if the changes demanded by Hobbs were made. MacVeagh conducted the meeting much like a legal hearing, and issued a letter the following day. The secretary noted that no other firm had complained, that the Hobbs mechanism had not been widely sold, and that the changes demanded—a clear space around the rim and the flattening of the Native American's cheekbone—would affect the artistic merit of the piece. MacVeagh concluded, "You will please, therefore, proceed with the coinage of the new nickel."

The coins were officially released to circulation on March 4, 1913, and quickly gained positive comments for depicting truly American themes. However, The New York Times stated in an editorial that "The new 'nickel' is a striking example of what a coin intended for wide circulation should not be ... [it] is not pleasing to look at when new and shiny, and will be an abomination when old and dull." The Numismatist, in March and May 1913 editorials, gave the new coin a lukewarm review, suggesting that the Native American's head be reduced in size and the bison be eliminated from the reverse.

Dies for the new design proved to break quickly. Barber made proposed revisions, which Fraser approved after being sent samples. These changes enlarged the legend "FIVE CENTS" and changed the ground on which the bison stands from a hill to flat ground. According to data compiled by numismatic historian David Lange from the National Archives, the changes to what are known as Type II nickels (with the originals Type I) actually decreased the die life. A problem not addressed was the exposure of the date to wear; many Buffalo nickels today have the date worn away.

In January 1938, the Mint announced an open competition for a new nickel design, to feature early president Thomas Jefferson on the obverse, and Jefferson's home, Monticello on the reverse. The last Buffalo nickels were struck in April 1938 at the Denver Mint, the only mint to strike them that year.

Design and name

The identities of the models for the Native American on the obverse and for the bison on the reverse are not known with certainty. Fraser stressed that the Native American was a type, rather than based on a specific individual, and identified various Native Americans as models, not always consistently, including Iron Tail, (Oglala Lakota) Two Moons, (Northern Cheyenne) and Big Tree (of the Kiowa people). There have been other claimants, the most prominent being John Big Tree, a Seneca, who made many public appearances as the "nickel Indian" until his death in 1967. Fraser recounted that the animal on the reverse was an American bison, Black Diamond, whom he stated lived at the Bronx Zoo, and also described the model simply as a bison at the Bronx Zoo. However, Black Diamond was never at the Bronx Zoo, but instead lived at the Central Park Zoo (both facilities are in New York City) until the animal was sold and slaughtered in 1915. The placement of the horns on the still-extant mounted head of Black Diamond differs from that of the bison on the nickel.

From its inception, the coin was referred to as the "Buffalo nickel", reflecting the common name for the bison. The numismatic publication with the greatest circulation, Coin World, calls it an Indian head nickel, while R.S. Yeoman's Red Book refers to it as "Indian Head or Buffalo".

Jefferson nickel (1938–present)
When the Buffalo nickel had been struck for 25 years and could be replaced without an act of Congress, the Mint moved quickly to replace it. Although the Fraser design is popular today among numismatists, it did not enjoy that status in 1938, and there was no public outcry at the decision. In January 1938, the Mint announced an open competition for the new nickel design, with the winner to receive a prize of $1,000. Anticipating the 1943 bicentennial of Jefferson's birth, competitors were to place his portrait on the obverse, and a depiction of his house Monticello on the reverse.

On April 24, Felix Schlag was announced as the winner. His design featured the portrayal of Jefferson which would be used on the nickel until 2004, closely conforming to the former president's bust by sculptor Jean-Antoine Houdon, which is to be found in Boston's Museum of Fine Arts. However, the model differs from the nickel that was struck for circulation because it featured a view of Monticello from an angle, and a style of lettering officials did not like; Schlag was required to change both. Either through a misunderstanding or an oversight, Schlag did not include his initials in the design; they would not be added until 1966. Production began on October 3, 1938; they were released into circulation on November 15. According to contemporary accounts, the Jefferson nickel was initially hoarded, and it was not until 1940 that it was commonly seen in circulation.

With the entry of the United States into World War II, nickel became a critical war material, and the Mint sought to reduce its use of the metal. On March 27, 1942, Congress authorized a nickel made of 50% copper and 50% silver, but gave the Mint the authority to vary the proportions, or add other metals, in the public interest. The Mint's greatest concern was in finding an alloy that would use no nickel, but still satisfy counterfeit detectors in vending machines. An alloy of 56% copper, 35% silver and 9% manganese proved suitable, and this alloy began to be coined into nickels from October 1942. In the hope of making them easy to sort out and withdraw after the war, the Mint struck all "war nickels" with a large mint mark appearing above Monticello. The mint mark P for Philadelphia was the first time that mint's mark had appeared on a U.S. coin. The pre-war composition returned in 1946; all nickels struck since then have been in 75% copper and 25% nickel.

In 1966, a small change was made to the design to add the initials of the designer (FS) to the obverse, underneath Jefferson's portrait. In commemoration of that change, two specimen 1966 nickels with the initials were struck and presented to him. Coins struck at any mint between 1965 and 1967 lack mint marks, which were omitted as the Mint replaced the silver circulating coins with copper-nickel. Beginning in 1968, mint marks were again used, and on the nickel were moved to the lower part of the obverse, to the right of Jefferson's bust. From 1971, no nickels were struck for circulation in San Francisco—the 1971-S was the first nickel struck in proof only since 1878.

Westward Journey commemoratives (2004–2005)
The Mint had struck circulating commemorative coins for the United States Bicentennial, giving quarters, half dollars, and dollars struck in 1975 and 1976 a dual date, " 1776–1976 ". After Canada issued a successful series of quarters in 1992 honoring its provinces and territories, the Mint obtained congressional permission to issue a series of US quarters honoring American states; they began to be issued in 1999. In 2002, the Mint began to consider redesigning the nickel in honor of the upcoming bicentennial of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Representative Eric Cantor (R-VA) did not wish to see Monticello (located in his home state) moved permanently off the nickel. The resultant "American 5-Cent Coin Design Continuity Act of 2003", was signed into law by President George W. Bush on April 23, 2003. Under its terms, the Treasury Secretary could vary the nickel's designs in honor of the 200th anniversary of the Expedition and of the Louisiana Purchase, but the nickel would again feature Jefferson and Monticello beginning in 2006. Unless Congress acts again, every future five-cent coin will feature Jefferson and Monticello.

The Mint used Schlag's obverse in 2004, with two new reverse designs. Mint sculptor-engraver Norman E. Nemeth's adaptation of an Indian Peace Medal struck for Jefferson was the first new design, followed by a depiction by Mint sculptor-engraver Al Maletsky of a keelboat like that used by the Expedition. The 2005 obverse was struck during that year only, with a design by sculptor Joe Fitzgerald based on Houdon's bust of Jefferson. The legend " LIBERTY " on the obverse was traced from Jefferson's handwriting in drafting the Declaration of Independence; as the word is never capitalized in that document, Fitzgerald borrowed a capital L from Jefferson's other writings. The reverse for the first half of the year depicted an American bison, recalling the Buffalo nickel and designed by Jamie Franki. The reverse for the second half showed a coastline and the words "Ocean in view! O! The Joy!", from a journal entry by William Clark, co-leader of the Expedition. Clark had actually written the word as "ocian", but the Mint modernized the spelling.

Another Franki design has, since 2006, been used for the obverse, depicting a view of Jefferson from the front (rather than in profile) based on an 1800 study by Rembrandt Peale, and includes "Liberty" in Jefferson's script. According to Acting Mint Director David Lebryk, "The image of a forward-facing Jefferson is a fitting tribute to [his] vision." The reverse beginning in 2006 was again Schlag's Monticello design, but newly sharpened by Mint engravers. As Schlag's obverse design, on which his initials were placed in 1966, is no longer used, his initials were placed on the reverse to the right of Monticello.

Increase in metal values
In the first decade of the 21st century, commodity prices for copper and nickel, which make up the five-cent coin, rose dramatically, pushing the cost of manufacturing a nickel from 3.46 cents in fiscal year 2003 to 10.09 cents in fiscal year 2012. By comparison, a Canadian nickel (which is primarily made of steel) still costs less than its face value to produce as of 2019. In response, Mint Director Henrietta Fore in 2004 asked Congress to fund research into lower-cost alternatives to present coinage metals. Although the initiative lapsed when she left office in 2005, in 2010, Congress passed the Coin Modernization, Oversight, and Continuity Act (CMOCA), directing the Mint to explore alternatives to the present compositions of the six denominations, from cent to dollar. In 2011, the Mint awarded a contract to study the issue to Concurrent Technologies Corporation of Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The report in response to the legislation declared that there is no material that would reduce the one-cent coin's manufacturing cost to below one cent, so it was removed from consideration. The report requested additional time to study the issue, ensuring the continuation, for the present, of the existing coinage metals. The Mint expected demand for nickels in commerce to increase from 840 million needed in Fiscal Year 2011 to 1.08 billion in 2015.

Meanwhile, in an attempt to avoid losing large quantities of circulating nickels to melting, the United States Mint introduced new interim rules on December 14, 2006, that criminalized the melting and export of pennies (which as of 2013 cost 1.83 cents to produce) and nickels. Violators of these rules can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000, five years imprisonment, or both. The rules were finalized on April 17, 2007. The melt value of a nickel for some time was more than five cents, including nearing over one-and-a-half times its face value in May 2007. Since then, the supply and demand of the coin's composition metals have stabilized. A nickel's melt value fell below its face value from late 2008 through mid-2010, and more recently again from late mid-2012. In February 2014, it was reported that the Mint was conducting experiments to use copper-plated zinc (the same composition used for the United States 1 cent coin) for the nickel.

In December 2014, the Mint released its next Biennial report in response to the CMOCA. In it, the Mint declared that plated zinc products did not hold up to steam/wear tests and were rejected for U.S. coins other than the penny. Materials considered "feasible" for the 5-cent coin were nickel-plated steel, multi-ply-plated steel, and potentially another copper/nickel alloy, this time with ~77% copper, ~20% nickel, and ~3% manganese. Further testing was recommended to explore even less expensive alloys that would not require changes to vending machines (as the steel-based materials would require). In February 2023, the melt value of a nickel coin exceeded 135% of its face value.

Proposals for abolition
Due to its low value, the inconvenience of carrying and counting, and the fact that it costs more to make than it is worth, various commentators have proposed eliminating the nickel along with the penny.

title: Nickel (United States coin)


text: User talk:168.212.165.131

title: User talk:168.212.165.131


text:
Sarnia Cherie

"Sarnia Cherie" (Dear Guernsey) is used as the unofficial anthem of Guernsey, one of the Channel Islands. Sarnia is a traditional Latin name for the island. George Deighton wrote "Sarnia Cherie" in 1911, with Domenico Santangelo composing the tune later the same year.

The anthem can be heard on a number of occasions each year, every 9 May Liberation Day, at Island Games gold medal ceremonies, the annual Viaër Marchi community festival in July, inter-island sporting events, etc.

History
The song was written in 1911 by George Deighton (1869–1935 ), who had arrived on the island in 1908 to manage the St. Julian's Theatre. Having liked the island so much, he wrote a poem three years later, which he then asked Domenico Santangelo (1882–1970 ) to write music for. Santangelo composed a romantic waltz for the lyrics the same year. It was first performed at St. Julian's Theatre (which later became Gaumont Cinema and then an office complex ) at a benefit night in November 1911 by Wilfred Shirvell, a local hotelier and friend of Deighton. Santiangelo then had the song published by a French music publisher of his acquaintance Fermo Dante Marchetti.

During the Nazi occupation of the Channel Islands in World War II, the song gained even greater recognition as a local anthem, and it was sung in the later years of the occupation and as British troops liberated the island on 9 May 1945, including by groups of Guernsey evacuees all over the UK, as far as Glasgow. The song remains heavily associated with the wartime experience in Guernsey.

In 2005, the then Chief Minister of Guernsey, Laurie Morgan, called for an updated version of the song, which was abandoned after it met with near-universal opposition.

On 30 June 2009, a CD of 13 renditions of the song was released after an effort spearheaded by local campaigner Roy Sarre, who stated that "it wasn't easy getting copies of Sarnia Cherie". The renditions included an 85-voice choir rendition by the Island Churches Guernsey Festival Chorus, a harmonica rendition by former tomato grower John Bourgaize and a recording from 9 May 1945, when British troops landed in St. Peter Port to liberate the island after five years of German occupation during World War II. The sheet music was also rearranged by Ray Lowe of Sark, owner of the copyright of the music, which he released in September the same year.

In 2012, a Guernésiais version of the song was written by Hazel Tomlinson, a member of the Guernésiais-speaking song and dance group La Guaine du Vouest (The Group from the West), which was compiled into a CD of the same name of Guernésiais folk songs with English translations.

In popular culture
"Sarnia Cherie" was author G. B. Edwards's title for his novel The Book of Ebenezer Le Page on the original typescript he gave to his biographer and future publisher of the book Edward Chaney in 1974, but publishing house Hamish Hamilton decided to use his subtitle when they published it in 1981, choosing, however, to add Deighton's song as an epigraph instead.

title: Sarnia Cherie


text:
Popular

Popularity or social status is the quality of being well liked, admired or well known to a particular group.

Popular may also refer to:

In sociology

 * Popular culture
 * Popular fiction
 * Popular music
 * Popular science
 * Populace, the total population of a certain place
 * Populism, a political philosophy, based on the idea that the common people are being exploited.
 * Informal usage or custom, as in popular names, as opposed to formal or scientific nomenclature

Companies

 * Popular, Inc., also known as Banco Popular, a financial services company
 * Popular Holdings, a Singapore-based educational book company
 * The Popular (department store), a chain of department stores in El Paso, Texas, from 1902 to 1995

Music

 * "Popular" (Darren Hayes song) (2004), on the album The Tension and the Spark
 * "Popular" (Eric Saade song) (2011), on the album Saade Vol. 1
 * "Popular" (M.I.A. song) (2022), from the album Mata
 * "Popular" (Nada Surf song) (1996), on the album High/Low
 * "Popular" (The Veronicas song) (2008), on the album Hook Me Up
 * "Popular" (Wicked song), in the musical Wicked
 * "Popular" (The Weeknd, Playboi Carti and Madonna song), 2023
 * Popular, an unreleased album by Van Hunt
 * "Popular", a song by The Anchoress on the 2015 album Confessions of a Romance Novelist
 * "Popular", a song by Lil Wayne on the 2010 album I Am Not a Human Being

Printed media

 * The Popular Magazine, an American literary magazine that ran for 612 issues from November 1903 to October 1931
 * Popular, an Indonesian men's lifestyle magazine
 * Popular: Finding Happiness and Success in a World That Cares Too Much About the Wrong Kinds of Relationships, a book by psychology professor Mitch Prinstein

Other media

 * Popular (TV series), a teenage dramedy on the WB network

title: Popular


text:
Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer

Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer (14 May 1781 – 14 June 1873) was a German historian. He was the first scientific historian to popularise history in German. He travelled extensively and served in German legislative bodies.

Biography
He was born at Wörlitz in Anhalt-Dessau. His father (who died in 1822), was Kammerdirektor (i.e. chamber director, head official in the financial department) in Anhalt and did great service to agriculture. After studying at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium, Berlin, and at the universities of Halle and Göttingen, Raumer began to practise law. He entered the Prussian civil service in 1801 as a civil magistrate, and rose in the service to become councillor to Chancellor Hardenberg in 1809.

He was made a professor at the University of Breslau in 1811, where he served until 1816. In 1819, he became professor of political science and history at the University of Berlin holding the chair until 1847, and giving occasional lectures until 1853. He was for some time secretary of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. That position he also resigned in 1847.

At different times between 1816 and 1855, he travelled extensively through Europe and the United States. In 1815, he carried on historical investigations in Venice, and in the two following years he travelled in Germany, Switzerland and Italy. He went to England in 1835, to Italy in 1839 and to the United States in 1841-1843. He revisited the United States 1853-55. These visits led to the publication of various works.

Returning from his 1841 journey through the United States Raumer was deeply impressed by the broad knowledge of average US citizens, whom he had encountered travelling on a Mississippi steam boat. His travel acquaintances ascribed their interest and knowledge to their access to books from public libraries and public lectures on various subjects. Raumer then started an initiative to open public libraries in Berlin too.

By the end of 1841 Raumer and other enthusiasts first founded the Verein für wissenschaftliche Vorträge (i.e. Association for scientific public lectures). The Verein, using the Singing Academy concert hall as its venue for lectures, succeeded to collect Thaler 4,000 (then about £ Sterling 592,59 ) forming the starting capital for Berlin's to-be-founded public libraries in 1846. Until the end of the 1870s the Verein raised and provided funds amounting to the sixfolds of this initial sum. The Verein, however, wanted the city of Berlin to give a helping hand and take the libraries under its auspices.

Raumer presented his ideas on public libraries, termed as Volksbibliotheken (people's libraries), in a memorandum in 1846, resonating his democratic opinions. As a result, in 1847 Berlin's magistrate (city government) established a standing committee for the establishment and administration of public libraries, consisting of members of the afore-mentioned Verein and of the City Representatives' Assembly (Stadtverordnetenversammlung; then Berlin's city parliament), of which Raumer was member in the parliamentary term of 1847/1848. In December 1848 King Frederick William IV of Prussia approved the foundation of public libraries, however, his decision remained unpublished due to the repercussions of the March Revolution of that year. With effect of 1 August 1850 the first four public libraries opened, numbered I to IV. The Library No. I was named after Raumer in 1955.

In 1848 he was elected a member of the Frankfurt Parliament, where he associated himself with the right centre, supporting the proposal for a German empire under the supremacy of Prussia. He was sent to Paris as ambassador by imperial regent Archduke John of Austria, and was one of the deputation which offered the imperial crown to Frederick William IV. After the breakdown of the German parliament, Raumer returned to Berlin, where he was made a member of the House of Lords of Prussia.

He died at Berlin in 1873. His grave is preserved at a cemetery in the Kreuzberg section of Berlin, the Friedhof II der Dreifaltigkeits-Kirchengemeinde on Bergmannstraße, Berlin.

Writings
His most famous works are Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit (1823–25) and Geschichte Europas seit dem Ende des 15ten Jahrhunderts (1832–50). His first work, published anonymously in 1806, was entitled Sechs Dialoge über Krieg und Handel.

Other works include:
 * Das britische Besteuerungssystem (1810)
 * Handbuch merkwürdiger Stellen aus den lateinischen Geschichtschreibern des Mittelalters (1813)
 * Herbstreise nach Venedig (1816)
 * Prussian Municipal Law (1828)
 * Briefe aus Paris und Frankreich im Jahre 1830 (1831)
 * Briefe aus Paris zur Erläuterung der Geschichte des 16ten und 17ten Jahrhunderts (1831)
 * History of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, illustrated by original documents (1835)
 * Ueber die geschichtlich Entwickelung der Begriffe von Recht, Staat und Politik (1832)
 * England in 1835 (1836)
 * Beiträge zur neuern Geschichte aus dem Britischen Museum und Reichsarchive (Contributions to more recent history from the British Museum and government archives, 1836–39)
 * Italien, Beiträge zur Kenntnis dieses Landes (Contributions to the understanding of Italy, 1840)
 * England in 1841 (1842)
 * Die Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika (The United States of North America, 1845)
 * Antiquarische Briefe (Letters on antiquity, 1851)
 * Historisch-politische Briefe über die geselligen Verhältnisse der Menschen (Historical-political letters on societal relationships, 1860)
 * Lebenserinnerungen und Briefwechsel (Reminiscences and correspondence, 1861)
 * Handbuch zur Geschichte der Literatur (Handbook of literary history, 1864–66)

In 1830, Raumer began the Historisches Taschenbuch published by F. A. Brockhaus, which was continued by Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl after 1871.

Evaluation
According to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, "Raumer's style is direct, lucid and vigorous, and in his day he was a popular historian, but judged by strictly scientific standards he does not rank among the first men of his time." According to Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography, "He is justly considered as one of the great historians of the 19th century."

Family
His brother, Karl Georg von Raumer, was a geologist and educator. Their cousins were Ernst Ludwig von Gerlach, a judge, politician, and editor, and Ludwig Friedrich Leopold von Gerlach, a general and confidant of Bismarck.

Awards and honours

 * Member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities (1830)
 * Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
 * Member of the Academy of Sciences of Turin
 * Member of the Academy of Sciences of Glasgow
 * Honorary member of the Royal Society
 * Honorary member of the Committee of Scholars of the Germanisches Nationalmuseum (1857)
 * Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art (1853)
 * Pour le Mérite für Wissenschaft und Künste (1863)
 * Friedrich von Raumer Library, named after him in 1955

title: Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer


text:
Twist (dance)

The twist is a dance that was inspired by rock and roll music. From 1959 to the early sixties it became a worldwide dance craze, enjoying immense popularity while drawing controversies from critics who felt it was too provocative. It inspired dances such as the Jerk, the Pony, the Watusi, the Mashed Potato, the Monkey, and the Funky Chicken, but none were as popular.

Having seen teenagers in Tampa, Florida doing the dance, Hank Ballard wrote "The Twist", which became the B-side of Hank Ballard and The Midnighters' 1959 single "Teardrops on Your Letter". Dick Clark, having noticed the dance becoming popular among teenagers, recommended to Cameo Records that the more wholesome Chubby Checker rerecord the song, which was released in 1959 and became a number one hit in 1960. The dance became passé among teenagers as it became acceptable among adults and the song was re-released, becoming a number one hit again in 1962.

A world record was set in DeLand, Florida, on October 11, 2012, when Chubby Checker sang the song live and the crowd danced. An estimated 4,000 people twisted along with Checker, surpassing the previous Guinness World Record for most people twisting in the streets at once.

Steps
The twist is performed by standing with the feet approximately shoulder width apart. The torso may be squared to the knees and hips, or turned at an angle so one foot is farther forward than the other. The arms are held out from the body, bent at the elbow. The hips, torso, and legs rotate on the balls of the feet as a single unit, with the arms staying more or less stationary. The feet grind back and forth on the floor, and the dance can be varied in speed, intensity, and vertical height as necessary. Occasionally one leg is lifted off the floor for styling, but generally the dance posture is low and with the feet in contact with the floor with very little vertical motion. The moves include the mashed potato, swimming, drowning, twisting, arm swing and single leg twist.

Another description of the moves popularized by Chubby Checker:

1. STANCE: Prizefighter position, one leg extended forward, and arms extended forward from the elbow.

2. MOVEMENT: Hips swivel from side to side as if rubbing oneself with a towel. Knees are bent slightly. As hips move left, arms move to the right, and vice versa.

3. FOOT MOVEMENT: Twist feet as if putting out a cigarette. Entire body moving forward and back and from side to side.

According to Time, "the dancers barely ever touch each other or move their feet. Everything else, however, moves. The upper body sways forward and backward and the hips and shoulders twirl erotically, while the arms thrust in, out, up and down with the pistonlike motions of baffled bird keepers fighting off a flock of attack blue jays."

Etymology
The use of the name "twist" for dancing goes back to the nineteenth century. According to Marshall and Jean Stearns in Jazz Dance, a pelvic dance motion called the twist came to America from the Congo during slavery. One of the hit songs of early blackface minstrelsy was banjo player Joel Walker Sweeney's "Vine Twist". One of the early black dance crazes of the early twentieth century was the "Mess Around", described by songwriter Perry Bradford in his 1912 hit "Messin' Around" as: "Now anybody can learn the knack, put your hands on your hips and bend your back; stand in one spot nice and tight, and twist around, twist around with all of your might". But the twist at this point was basically grinding the hips. Blues singer Bo Carter recorded "Twist It Babe" in 1931, the reference in the lyrics apparently being a metaphor for sex. In his "Winin' Boy Blues" in the late 1930s, Jelly Roll Morton sang, "Mama, mama, look at sis, she's out on the levee doing the double twist". In the 1953 song "Let the Boogie Woogie Roll", Clyde McPhatter and the Drifters sang, "When she looked at me her eyes just shined like gold, and when she did the twist she bopped me to my soul".

But the simple dance that we now know as the Twist originates in the late fifties among teenagers, and was popularized by Chubby Checker in his preparation to debut the song to a national audience on August 6, 1960, on The Dick Clark Show, a Saturday night program that, unlike disc jockey Clark's daytime American Bandstand, was a stage show with a sitting audience.

Origin
Dick Clark was a powerhouse in music at the time, thanks to American Bandstand, which ran five times a week in the afternoons, showcasing local dancers and visiting performers who lip-synched along with their recordings. Clark saw the song's potential when he heard Hank Ballard's original version, but Ballard and his group, whose greatest hit had been "Work With Me Annie" in 1954, was considered too raunchy to appeal to Clark's teenage audience. He urged Philadelphia record label Cameo/Parkway to record a new version of "The Twist" with young, wholesome Chubby Checker, who had displayed his talent for copying other artists on an earlier novelty hit "The Class". Released in summer 1960, Checker's rendition of "The Twist" became number one on the singles chart in the United States in 1960 and then again in 1962.

In 1961, at the height of the craze, patrons at New York City's Peppermint Lounge on West 45th Street were twisting to the house band, a local group from New Jersey, Joey Dee and the Starliters. Their song, "Peppermint Twist (Part 1)" became number one in the United States for three weeks in January 1962. In 1962 Bo Diddley released his album Bo Diddley's A Twister. He recorded several Twist tracks, including "The Twister", "Bo's Twist", and "Mama Don't Allow No Twistin'", which referenced the objections many parents had to the pelvic motions of the dance.

In Latin America, the twist caught fire in the early 1960s, fueled by Bill Haley & His Comets. Their recordings of "The Spanish Twist" and "Florida Twist" were successes, particularly in Mexico. Haley, in interviews, credited Checker and Ballard. Coincidentally, Checker appeared in two musicals that took their titles from films Haley made in the 1950s: Twist Around the Clock (after Rock Around the Clock) and Don't Knock the Twist (after Don't Knock the Rock).

Twist hits on Billboard

 * "The Twist" by Hank Ballard and The Midnighters (No. 28, 1959)
 * "The Twist" by Chubby Checker (No. 1, 1960; No. 1, 1962)
 * "Let's Twist Again" by Chubby Checker (No. 8, 1961)
 * "Twistin' U.S.A." by Danny & the Juniors (No. 20, 1961)
 * "Slow Twistin'" by Chubby Checker (No. 3, 1962)
 * "Peppermint Twist – Part 1" by Joey Dee and the Starliters (No. 1, 1962)
 * "Hey, Let's Twist" by Joey Dee and the Starliters (No. 20, 1962)
 * "Dear Lady Twist" by Gary U.S. Bonds (No. 9, 1962)
 * "Twist, Twist Senora" by Gary U.S. Bonds (No. 9, 1962)
 * "Twistin' Postman" by the Marvelettes (No. 34, 1962)
 * "Twistin' the Night Away" by Sam Cooke (No. 9, 1962)
 * "Twist and Shout" by the Isley Brothers (No. 17, 1962)
 * "Twist-Her" by Bill Black's Combo (No. 26, 1962)
 * "Soul Twist" by King Curtis & His Noble Knights (No. 17, 1962)
 * "Bristol Twistin" Annie" by the Dovells (No. 27, 1962)
 * "Percolator (Twist)" by Billy Joe & the Checkmates (No. 10, 1962)
 * "Do You Know How To Twist" by Hank Ballard and The Midnighters (No. 87, 1962)
 * "Twist It Up" by Chubby Checker (No. 25, 1963)
 * "Twist and Shout" by the Beatles (No. 2, 1964)

Twist films

 * Twist Around the Clock (1961) – with Chubby Checker
 * Don't Knock the Twist (1961) – with Chubby Checker
 * Hey, Let's Twist! (1961) – with Joey Dee
 * The Continental Twist (1961)
 * The Twist (1992)

In popular culture
In 1962 Dell Comics produced a one-shot comic called The Twist that fictionalized the Peppermint Lounge dance craze. Several television shows parodied the dance in the early 1960s. An episode of The Alvin Show showed a parody of the Twist called The Alvin Twist. "The Flintstones" version was called the Twitch and aired in 1962, as did "The Dick Van Dyke Show"'s Twizzle. The same year, it was featured in an episode of "Leave It to Beaver" called "Beaver Joins a Record Club". It was also mentioned in the Amazing Spider-Man issue number 2, where Jameson tells Peter Parker to buy "twist records" with his money.

The craze was even referenced by the United States Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) when actions in 1961 were dubbed "Operation Twist". In 2011 the FOMC revived Operation Twist.

By the mid-1960s the dance reached Soviet Union and was popularized in a 1967 movie called Kidnapping, Caucasian Style. The dance moves were described — and visualized — in the same manner as Chubby Checker described them, by putting out cigarettes with the balls of the feet.

The dance would come to be seen as emblematic of the early 1960s in later years, with popular songs, television shows, and movies likely to reference it when they wanted to convey the spirit of that time period. In 1978 rock band The B-52's included the line, "Twisting round the fire", in their song of 1960s beach party film references, "Rock Lobster".

The Twist was one of the inspirations for the Exodus song "The Toxic Waltz", from their 1989 album Fabulous Disaster.

The band Nirvana's song "Aneurysm", first released in 1991 on the "Smells Like Teen Spirit" single, prominently features a mention of the spirited dance in the first line of each verse, prompting its listeners to, "Come on over, and do the twist."

In 1993, a film by Ron Mann called Twist was a documentary about the craze. Quentin Tarantino's 1994 film Pulp Fiction featured John Travolta and Uma Thurman dancing the Twist to Chuck Berry's "You Never Can Tell" as part of the Jack Rabbit Slim's Twist Contest. In Spider-Man 3 (2007), Harry Osborn and Mary Jane Watson dance to "The Twist". In a Season One episode of Mad Men ("The Hobo Code"), Peggy Olsson and several other employees of Sterling Cooper dance to Chubby Checker's "The Twist". Season One takes place in 1960, when Checker's version first became a hit.

In 1995 Faber & Faber published The Twist: The Story of the Song and Dance That Changed the World by Jim Dawson, ISBN 978-0-571-19852-8. In 2009 a version of the Twist was performed by Lady Gaga and her backup dancers in the official video for the song "Bad Romance". The Twist was also a pivotal part of the book The Strange Case of Origami Yoda (2010), in which an origami puppet made to resemble Yoda gives out advice.

title: Twist (dance)


text:
User talk:163.150.225.201

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title: User talk:163.150.225.201