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Büsingen am Hochrhein

Büsingen am Hochrhein (, lit. 'Büsingen on the Upper Rhine'; Alemannic: Büesinge am Hochrhi, ), often known simply as Büsingen, is a German municipality (7.62 km2) in the south of Baden-Württemberg with a population of about 1,548 inhabitants. It is an exclave of Germany and Baden-Württemberg, and an enclave of Switzerland, entirely surrounded by the Swiss cantons of Schaffhausen, Zürich, and Thurgau. It is separated from the rest of Germany by a narrow strip of land (at its narrowest, about 680 m wide) containing the Swiss village of Dörflingen. The distance to this enclave is approximately 5 km (3.1 mi) from the town of Schaffhausen and 3 km (1.8 mi) from Dörflingen, the nearest village. Its status as an exclave dates back to before the formation of the modern German and Swiss states, having previously been a detached part of Further Austria, the Kingdom of Württemberg and the Grand Duchy of Baden.

Politically Büsingen is part of Germany, forming part of the district of Konstanz, but economically it forms part of the Swiss customs union, along with the principality of Liechtenstein and up until 2019, albeit unofficially, the Italian village of Campione d'Italia. As such there have been no border controls between Switzerland and Büsingen since 4 October 1967.

Büsingen is a holiday destination for much of the year and attracts a significant number of visitors from around the region as well as from further afield, for its recreational areas along the Rhine and proximity to the Rheinfall waterfalls in nearby Neuhausen am Rheinfall. Many dwellings in Büsingen are holiday flats that are accompanied by a number of small guest houses.

History
In the Middle Ages Büsingen was part of the Landgraviate of Nellenburg, whose Landeshoheit came under Habsburg (Austrian) control in 1465. From then until 1805 Nellenburg formed part of Further Austria, a collection of various scattered Austrian possessions in Swabia. Austrian sovereignty did not go unchallenged by the Confederate Swiss of neighbouring Schaffhausen; an incident in 1693 in which Austrian feudal lord Eberhard Im Thurn was abducted and incarcerated by Swiss authorities, and the subsequent diplomatic dispute, played a particular role in the village being kept away from Swiss control. In 1805, during the Napoleonic Wars, Austria was forced to cede Further Austria to Napoleon's allies in the Peace of Pressburg; Büsingen became part of the Kingdom of Württemberg. In 1810 it passed to the Grand Duchy of Baden in a border treaty between Württemberg and Baden; these borders were confirmed by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. In 1871 Baden, including Büsingen, became part of the German Empire.

In 1918, after the First World War, a referendum was held in Büsingen in which 96% of voters voted to become part of Switzerland. However no land transfer took place as Switzerland could not offer anything suitable in exchange. Later attempts to transfer the village to Swiss sovereignty were unsuccessful and consequently Büsingen has remained an exclave of Germany ever since.

During the Second World War, Switzerland effectively shut down the border, leaving Büsingen cut off from the rest of the Third Reich. German soldiers on home leave were required to deposit their weapons at the border guards' posts in Gailingen am Hochrhein. The Swiss customs officers would then supply them with greatcoats to cover up their German uniforms for the duration of their short journey through Dörflingen (Swiss territory) to their homes in Büsingen.

By the time of the Yalta Conference in early 1945, a complete German defeat was inevitable. The inter-zonal borders of Allied-occupied Germany were finalized at this conference, with Büsingen assigned to the French zone. Once again, the Swiss government refused to consider annexing the town on the grounds that any transfer of territory could only be negotiated with a sovereign German government, which ceased to exist following the German surrender. From the Swiss perspective, any unilateral annexation of the territory of her defeated neighbour (no matter how small) would have been viewed both within and outside Switzerland as a tacit recognition of the victors' right to also adjust Germany's postwar borders. While German-speaking Swiss had not generally been sympathetic to Nazism, public opinion in Switzerland was often critical of elements of the post-war settlement, including the permanent removal of Germany's easternmost territories and the expulsion of ethnic Germans from those regions; hence it would have been controversial within Switzerland for its government to act in a similar manner, with respect to Büsingen.

Nevertheless, the Swiss shared Allied concerns that the exclave might become a haven for Nazi war criminals; thus, an agreement was quickly reached to allow limited numbers of French soldiers to cross Switzerland for the purpose of maintaining law and order in Büsingen. Following the formation of the Federal Republic (West Germany), Büsingen became part of the new state of Baden-Württemberg in 1952 (until then it was part of (South) Baden).

On 9 September 1957, a conference between Switzerland and West Germany was held in Locarno, with the aim of regulating the jurisdictions of both countries in Büsingen.

Büsingen's official name was altered from Büsingen (Oberrhein) to Büsingen am Hochrhein on 6 December 1961.

A treaty signed much later (on 23 November 1964) came into effect on 4 October 1967. The exclave of Büsingen was formally defined in this treaty. At the same time, the West German exclave of Verenahof, consisting of just three houses and eleven West German citizens, became part of Switzerland, whilst Büsingen's de facto customs union with Switzerland, begun in 1947, was made official.

Geography
Büsingen am Hochrhein has an area of 762 ha. Its border with Switzerland is 17.141 km long and is marked by 123 stones. One named stone, the Hattinger Stone, marks the Büsingen-Dörflingen boundary. Along with several other border points, it is situated in the river Rhine.

Büsingen is situated close to the city of Schaffhausen. In the outlying hamlet of Stemmer the border between German and Swiss territory runs down the middle of a road. Houses on one side of the road are in Switzerland, houses on the other side are in Germany.

Büsingen is not part of the customs territory of the European Union but belongs to the Swiss customs territory. Although Büsingen is otherwise a German village, EU economic regulations (other than those covered by Swiss–EU treaties) do not apply there.

Within the territory of Büsingen am Hochrhein are the sites of two abandoned villages Eggingen and Gluringen.

Currency
Büsingen is the only German village in which people pay mostly with Swiss francs, although technically the euro is legal tender as throughout Germany. Until the late 1980s, the Deutsche Mark was not accepted in Büsingen. Even the Büsingen post office accepted only Swiss francs for payment of German stamps. Despite the Deutsche Mark and later the euro being accepted, today Swiss francs are still more popular, since most residents in employment are cross-border commuters working in Switzerland and as such are paid in Swiss francs.

Electricity
Electricity is provided by Switzerland and as such is billed in Swiss francs with there being no choice of supplier. Wall sockets are generally standard German Schuko sockets, as in the rest of Germany, though some owners may have opted to install Swiss sockets in their properties.

Health insurance
Residents of Büsingen am Hochrhein can opt to take out a health insurance policy either in Switzerland or in Germany (coverage is mandatory for residents of both countries).

Law and policing
The treaty between the two countries defines which areas of law are governed by Swiss legislation and which ones come under German legislation. Since there are no border checks between Büsingen and Switzerland, the cantonal police of Schaffhausen are permitted to arrest people in Büsingen and bring them into Switzerland. The number of Swiss police officers is limited to ten at any one time and the number of German police officers to three per 100 inhabitants, which means roughly forty-five, given the current population of around 1,540. German police officers travelling to Büsingen however must use designated routes and refrain from all official acts while crossing Swiss territory.

Postal services
There is a German post office in Büsingen that also provides Swiss postal services at Swiss inland rates. Büsingen has two postal codes, one German, D-78266, formerly D-7701, and one Swiss, CH-8238. Letters from Büsingen may be franked with a Swiss or a German stamp. A standard letter from Büsingen to Switzerland needs either an 85 Rappen Swiss stamp or a 80 euro cent German one.

Deutsche Post is responsible for delivering of post (letters and almost all parcels) in Büsingen, though some services are provided by Swiss Post. Other letter and parcel delivery services that operate in Germany such as Hermes do not deliver to Büsingen as they are not authorized to cross into the Swiss customs area to be able to reach the German exclave.

Goods sent from outside of the European customs area may pass through two separate customs checks: the first upon entering Germany proper, the second upon entering Büsingen itself. This can however be avoided by addressing mail shipped to Büsingen as if it were part of Switzerland, using the Swiss postal code. Goods entering Büsingen must comply with Swiss customs rules and are subject to Swiss customs duties and taxes.

Telecommunications
Residents of Büsingen can be reached by telephone using either a German number (with the prefix +49) or a Swiss one (with the prefix +41) or both, depending on which telephone or internet service provider(s) the resident has opted to have a contract with. Dwellings generally have both countries' phone sockets.

School
Büsingen has a kindergarten, the current building of which opened in 1987. By 1988, however, it was overcrowded, so the building was extended. Children attend primary school in Büsingen, and subsequently their parents may choose either a Swiss school or a German school for their secondary education.

Sports
The local association football team, FC Büsingen, is the only German team to play in the Swiss Football League.

Taxation
The much lower (compared to standard German VAT at 19%) Swiss VAT is applied to purchases made in Büsingen. It is levied at a rate of 7.7% on most commercial exchanges of goods and services. Certain exchanges, including those of basic or essential foodstuffs, drugs, books and newspapers, are subject to a reduced VAT of 2.5%. A special reduced rate of 3.7% is in use in the hotel industry.

Büsingen residents, regardless of nationality, are treated as third-country nationals with regards to VAT payable in the rest of Germany and the EU. As such residents who export purchases made in the EU to Büsingen are able to claim back the VAT paid on said purchases subsequent to exporting. Nevertheless, imports into Büsingen (via Switzerland) where applicable, are subject to Swiss importing limits, duty and VAT.

Despite further income tax breaks specific to Büsingen, younger Büsingers who work (in Switzerland or Germany) pay approximately double the amount of income tax compared to their colleagues who reside in neighbouring Swiss towns and villages, causing many young people to move away from Büsingen into Switzerland and thus the village's population to decrease notably in recent years. Büsingen has the highest average age of residents in the whole of Baden-Württemberg.

Most Büsingen residents are pensioners; many are from Switzerland, for as in the rest of Germany they pay little or no tax on their pensions. This advantage is however progressively being phased out and by 2040 will no longer exist.

Büsingen is one of just a handful of municipalities in Germany not to levy any property tax. The business tax levied in Büsingen is the lowest in Baden-Württemberg.

Payable Skype services have been unavailable in Büsingen since 1 January 2015 due to a change in VAT laws.

Time zone
In the time zone database, there is a special area for this place, Europe/Büsingen, that had a different time compared to the rest of West Germany in 1980 when West Germany, but not Switzerland, observed daylight saving time.

Transport
Büsingen is served by PostBus Switzerland with a regular connection to the German village Randegg, the Swiss villages Ramsen, Buch and Dörflingen, as well as the city and railway station of Schaffhausen.

Südbadenbus from Germany also serves the village with a twice daily bus connection to Gailingen am Hochrhein. The bus passes through Swiss territory to reach the main village of Büsingen and the outlying settlement Stemmer.

Vehicle registration
Büsingen has its own licence plate (BÜS), even though it is part of Constance district, which has the KN sign. These special licence plates were created to simplify the job of Swiss customs officers. Vehicles with BÜS licence plates are treated as if they were Swiss vehicles for customs purposes.

BÜS is one of the rarest licence plates in use in Germany as there are only around 700 in use at any one time. The letters BÜS are almost always followed by an A with the occasional exception for provisionally admitted vehicles or those purchased in Switzerland, which have the letter Z.

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Talk:Isabel J. Cox

Shouldn't this be at J. Isabel Cox, or maybe just Isabel Cox? RickK 04:42, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Isabel J. Cox


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Talk:Namche Bazaar

Climate data massaged from http://www.thamel.com/htms/climatological_Data.htm --- RedWolf 04:43, Nov 14, 2003 (UTC)

This article reads like a Lonely Planet guide rather than an encyclopedic article. Tiles 09:16, 26 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Namche is not the adminstrative centre for Solu-Khumbu admistrative region, Salleri is. This is a popular misconseption among trekkers, as Namche looks so imposing. Actually Namche is not (was not?) even the biggest village among the tri-village cluster Namche-Khunde-Khumjung. Is is just that trekkers don't visit those other villages, and never Salleri. Like the name says Namche was the trading village of the area (Bazaar). (Petrus)

can anyone give a definition/translation of the word "namche" in english?Act17856 (talk) 06:50, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

Under the page External Sources, the link "Hiking Namche and Everest, GoNOMAD feature article" to http://www.gonomad.com/alternatives/0602/everest.html is broken. Can we replace this with the article "A Quick Overview of the Everest Base Camp Trek: Lukla, Namche, Gorak Shep, and Everest Base Camp" at " " ? (Carlosgrider (talk) 23:02, 2 March 2018 (UTC))

Updated the broken external link to article "Hiking Namche and Everest, GoNOMAD feature article" to the current and active external link "Overview of the Everest Base Camp Trek: Lukla, Namche, Gorak Shep, and Everest Base Camp" which provides the same information and additional information on Namche Bazaar as the replaced, dead link. (Carlosgrider (talk) 19:23, 11 March 2018 (UTC))

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 09:28, 18 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Khumbu Pasanglhamu.png

title: Talk:Namche Bazaar


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Babes in Toyland (1934 film)

Babes in Toyland is a Laurel and Hardy musical Christmas film released on November 30, 1934. The film is also known by the alternative titles Laurel and Hardy in Toyland, Revenge Is Sweet (the 1948 European reissue title), and March of the Wooden Soldiers (in the United States), a 73-minute abridged version.

Based on Victor Herbert's popular 1903 operetta Babes in Toyland, the film was produced by Hal Roach, directed by Gus Meins and Charles Rogers, and distributed by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. There are two computer-colorized versions between The Samuel Goldwyn Company in 1991 and Legend Films in 2006.

Although the 1934 film makes use of many of the characters in the original play, as well as several of the songs, the plot is almost completely unlike that of the original stage production. In contrast to the stage version, the film's story takes place entirely in Toyland, which is inhabited by Mother Goose (Virginia Karns) and other well-known fairy tale characters.

Plot
Stannie Dum and Ollie Dee inhabit a shoe residence alongside Mother Peep, Bo Peep, and a diverse array of children. Their tranquil existence is disrupted by the malevolent Silas Barnaby, who harbors intentions to wed Bo Peep and seize control of their shoe abode through foreclosure. Faced with imminent eviction, Ollie impulsively offers their meager savings to stave off the threat, unaware that Stannie has squandered the funds on peewees.

Subsequent attempts to procure the mortgage funds from their employer, the Toymaker, result in calamity when a misguided toy order leads to chaos in the toy shop, resulting in their dismissal. In a desperate gambit to thwart Barnaby, the duo embarks on a futile burglary endeavor, culminating in their arrest and sentencing to banishment in Bogeyland. Despite Bo Peep's reluctant agreement to Barnaby's demands to spare their lives, Stannie and Ollie endure a dunking and face impending exile.

Employing guile and resourcefulness, Stannie and Ollie devise a cunning scheme to disrupt Barnaby's machinations during Bo Peep's wedding ceremony. By unveiling Stannie in Bo Peep's bridal attire, they expose Barnaby's treachery and destroy the mortgage, thus freeing Bo Peep.

However, Barnaby exacts vengeance by framing Bo Peep's true love, Tom-Tom, for "pignapping," leading to his unjust banishment to Bogeyland. In a race against time, Stannie and Ollie unravel Barnaby's scheme, ultimately rescuing Tom-Tom and exposing Barnaby's villainy to the townspeople. A climactic confrontation unfolds in Bogeyland, where Tom-Tom valiantly defends Bo Peep from Barnaby's advances, while Stannie and Ollie join the fray to repel the Bogeymen. The film crescendos with the triumphant march of wooden soldiers, orchestrated by Stannie and Ollie, driving back the Bogeymen and vanquishing Barnaby, restoring peace to Toyland.

As the kingdom celebrates its salvation, a comedic mishap ensues when Stannie and Ollie inadvertently bombard Ollie with darts from a malfunctioning cannon.

Cast

 * Virginia Karns as Mother Goose
 * Charlotte Henry as Bo-Peep
 * Felix Knight as Tom-Tom Piper
 * Florence Roberts as Widow Peep
 * Henry Brandon as Silas Barnaby
 * Stan Laurel as Stanley "Stannie" Dum
 * Oliver Hardy as Oliver "Ollie" Dee

Uncredited cast
 * Frank Austin as Justice of the Peace
 * Billy Bletcher as the Chief of Police
 * William Burress as the Toymaker
 * Russell Coles as Tom Tucker
 * Zebedy Colt as Willie the Pig
 * Alice Dahl as Little Miss Muffet
 * Jean Darling as Curly Locks
 * Johnny Downs as Little Boy Blue
 * John George as Barnaby's Minion
 * Sumner Getchell as Little Jack Horner
 * Pete Gordon as The Cat and the Fiddle
 * Robert Hoover as Bobby Shaftoe
 * Payne B. Johnson as Jiggs the Pig
 * Alice Moore as the Queen of Hearts
 * Kewpie Morgan as Old King Cole
 * Mickey Mouse as Himself
 * Ferdinand Munier as Santa Claus
 * Charley Rogers as Simple Simon
 * Angelo Rossitto as Elmer the Pig
 * Tiny Sandford as Dunker
 * Marie Wilson as Mary Quite Contrary

Songs
The film features only six musical numbers from the enormous stage score, though that is fitting for a musical with only a 78-minute running time. Included in the film, in the order in which they are performed, are: "Toyland" (opening), "Never Mind Bo-Peep", "Castle in Spain", "Go to Sleep (Slumber Deep)", and "March of the Toys" (an instrumental piece).

Also included in the film is an instrumental version of "I Can't Do the Sum" for the running theme of Laurel and Hardy's scenes. Another song, "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?", is not one of the original stage songs but appears in the Three Little Pigs segment, heard only as an instrumental piece.

The opening song is performed by Mother Goose and an offscreen chorus; most of the others are sung by Bo Peep and/or Tom-Tom. While none of the songs is performed by Laurel and Hardy, the two briefly dance and march in a memorable scene to "March of the Toys".

Production
RKO Pictures originally purchased the rights in 1930 with the plans of filming the musical partly in two-strip Technicolor. Plans were announced to have Bebe Daniels (later Irene Dunne) star in the musical along with the comedy team of Wheeler and Woolsey. Due to the backlash against musicals in the autumn of 1930, the plans were dropped. A couple of years later, some thought was given to filming the musical as an animated feature film to be shot in Technicolor by Walt Disney, however, the projected price of the film gave pause to RKO's plans. Hal Roach, who had seen the play as a boy, acquired the film rights to the project in November 1933.

The film was completed in November 1934. The village of Toyland was built on sound stages at Hal Roach Studios with the buildings painted in vivid storybook colors, leading Stan Laurel to regret that the film wasn't shot in Technicolor. The film was originally produced in sepia tone and later colorized.

Walt Disney personally approved the appearance of Mickey Mouse in the film along with the use of the song "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?".

Reception
Critics' reviews were positive. Andre Sennwald of The New York Times called the film "an authentic children's entertainment and quite the merriest of its kind that Hollywood has turned loose on the nation's screens in a long time." Variety proclaimed it "a film par excellence for children. It's packed with laughs and thrills and is endowed with that glamour of mysticism which marks juvenile literature." John Mosher wrote in The New Yorker: "It's certainly far more successful than was last year's Alice in Wonderland, and the children will probably be far less bored by it than they generally are by those films designed especially for them". Film Daily called it "delightful musical fantasy" and "dandy entertainment". The Chicago Tribune review read: "It's been many a long day since I've had so much pure (and I MEAN pure!) fun as I had watching this picture".

Babes in Toyland, one of many feature films with Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy, was also popular at the box office. However, many years later in a filmed interview, Hal Roach admitted that on its first release, the film lost money. After it appeared in theaters, it was re-released several times with the title constantly changed, to make it seem to audiences that they were going to see a different film. It surfaced as a holiday movie on TV as March of the Wooden Soldiers, where it was rerun annually on some local affiliates for many years. On one local Atlanta station, the film was shown as a Thanksgiving special only a few weeks before the release of its 1961 Disney Technicolor remake, so that those who saw it on television and then saw the Disney film version over the Christmas holiday had the experience of seeing two different versions of the same work, within a few weeks of each other.

A holiday staple, this film was shown by many television stations in the United States during the Thanksgiving/Christmas holiday season, each year, during the 1960s and 1970s. In New York City, it continues to run (as of 2023) on WPIX as March of the Wooden Soldiers, airing on that station in the daytime on Thanksgiving Day and Christmas Day. It also runs nationally, on occasion, on This TV, as well as Turner Classic Movies.

Copyright status
The original 79-minute film is under copyright to Prime TV Inc., the assets of which as of the present time are owned by television station WPIX (and its current owners, Mission Broadcasting), with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (under Orion Pictures, which like MGM is now part of Amazon) still handling partial distribution rights of the film, making this one of the few films that were not part of MGM's pre-May 1986 library which Ted Turner purchased it.

In 1950, a 73-minute edited version was distributed by Lippert Pictures, retitled March of the Wooden Soldiers; it was released without a copyright notice. The edited version of the film had the opening tune "Toyland" trimmed and the "Go to Sleep (Slumber Deep)" number cut completely. Also removed were Barnaby's attempted abduction of Little Bo-Peep and his ultimate fistfight with Tom-Tom. March of the Wooden Soldiers has been distributed by many motion picture and home video companies over the decades, as if it were in the public domain; however, because it relies entirely on copyrighted material from the 1934 film, March of the Wooden Soldiers itself falls under the same copyright as its parent film and will not truly enter the public domain until that film's copyright expires in 2030. WPIX has not enforced its copyright on March of the Wooden Soldiers, effectively making the film an orphan work.

History
Hal Roach first sold the film in 1944 to the Victor Herbert estate, and at this point, the film’s copyright was reassigned to Federal Films. Shortly thereafter, the rights reverted to film partners Boris Morros and William LeBaron. In 1948, film producer Joe Auerbach acquired the picture and leased most of his distribution rights to Erko, and it was beginning with this distribution deal that the film began to be edited down to alternate versions, in this case, a 75-minute revised reissue. By 1950, Lippert Pictures acquired some distribution rights, and as aforementioned, cut the film further to 73 minutes. Later in the 1950s, television rights were licensed to Quality Pictures, and by 1952 TV rights reverted to Peerless Television Productions.

New York TV station WPIX’s long association with the film began with its initial airing on December 24, 1952, and it has aired almost annually ever since. Meanwhile, by 1968, Prime TV Films would acquire ownership of the film, and as previously mentioned, they have been the copyright holders of the film ever since. In the 1970s, Thunderbird Films released 16mm prints drawn from a heavily spliced (and incomplete) master. In the 1980s, WPIX and its then-owner, Tribune Broadcasting, leased the film to The Samuel Goldwyn Company. The Samuel Goldwyn Company's select holdings (particularly the non-Samuel Goldwyn-produced films) ultimately became part of the Orion Pictures library. Finally, Orion became a division of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, thus after nearly eight decades, bringing partial rights full circle. Since 1984, the underlying rights to the film have been the property of WPIX and its successive owners.

In 1991, the complete film was restored and colorized by American Film Technologies for television showings and video release by The Samuel Goldwyn Company. In 2006, the complete print was again restored and colorized by Legend Films, using the latest technology. Although the Legend Films release was advertised under its reissue title, both the color and black-and-white prints featured the original title and opening credits.

General sources

 * Everson, William K. The Complete Films of Laurel and Hardy. New York: Citadel, 2000, (first edition 1967). ISBN 0-8065-0146-4.
 * Louvish, Simon. Stan and Ollie: The Roots of Comedy. London: Faber & Faber, 2001. ISBN 0-571-21590-4.
 * McCabe, John. Babe: The Life of Oliver Hardy. London: Robson Books Ltd., 2004. ISBN 1-86105-781-4.
 * McCabe, John with Al Kilgore and Richard W. Bann. Laurel & Hardy. New York: Bonanza Books, 1983, first edition 1975, E.P. Dutton. ISBN 978-0-491-01745-9.
 * McGarry, Annie. Laurel & Hardy. London: Bison Group, 1992. ISBN 0-86124-776-0.
 * McGarry, Annie. Laurel & Hardy. London: Bison Group, 1992. ISBN 0-86124-776-0.

title: Babes in Toyland (1934 film)


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Much (TV channel)

Much is a Canadian English language discretionary specialty channel owned by BCE Inc. through its Bell Media subsidiary that airs programming aimed at teenagers and young adults. Prior to 2013, the channel was officially known as MuchMusic, though "Much" has been the branding most commonly seen on-air since 1997.

MuchMusic launched on August 31, 1984, under the ownership of CHUM Limited, and was originally focused on music programming, including blocks of music videos and original series focusing on Canadian musicians. In the years since its acquisition by Bell, Much has cancelled the majority of its music programming due to budget and staffing cuts. The TV channel was officially renamed "Much" in 2013 in reflection of its decreasing reliance on music-related programming.

Since 2021, the "MuchMusic" branding has been used exclusively for its digital media network, which operates in parallel with the linear "Much" TV channel.

Under CHUM (1984–2006)
MuchMusic was licensed on April 2, 1984, by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) to CHUM Limited. It had faced competition from two other proposed services. One of them, CMTV Canadian Music Television, was deemed not to have sufficient financial resources. The third applicant was Rogers Radio Broadcasting. The CRTC believed that the Canadian market could only support one music video service and CHUM's proposal was chosen because of various commitments it had made and the company's expertise in music programming. The station was initially patterned on City Limits, an overnight weekend rock music show which had aired on sister station CITY-TV since 1983.

Shortly thereafter, MuchMusic was launched on August 31, 1984, as one of the first Canadian cable specialty channels. It was headed by the channel's founders John Martin and Moses Znaimer. The first video played on MuchMusic was "an early music-to-film synchronization short from the 1920s which featured Eubie Blake performing Snappy Songs." The first video made specifically for television air play was Rush's "The Enemy Within". MuchMusic's slogan, and on-air advertising, was "The Nation's Music Station".

Making use of CHUM's facilities and production teams, the channel produced many specialty musical and variety shows, including the long-running dance show Electric Circus and the late 1980s game show Test Pattern, and Citytv shows such as City Limits, The Power Hour, The MuchMusic Spotlight and The New Music also became integral parts of the MuchMusic schedule.

The channel's format consisted primarily of an eight-hour daily block which mixed scheduled shows with VJ-hosted general "videoflow", which would then be repeated two more times to fill the 24-hour schedule. Some variance from this model was seen with the late-night shows City Limits and Too Much 4 Much (a show that featured panel discussions surrounding controversial music videos that the channel had refused to air in regular rotation), and live specials such as Intimate and Interactive.

For the first few years of the channel, it was classified as a pay television service and was therefore offered largely in bundles along with other pay-stations such as First Choice and TSN, and would occasionally offer free preview weekends for non-subscribers. The subscriber count was at 500,000 customers by December 1984. In December 1987, MuchMusic received permission from the CRTC to move to basic cable lineups beginning on September 1, 1988; in the interim cable operators could offer the channel as a negative-option expanded basic channel.

A US version of MuchMusic, originally known as "MuchMusic USA", was launched in the U.S. on July 1, 1994, through a partnership with Rainbow Media. The network was largely a simulcast of the Canadian version with U.S. advertising and acquired programs. The network would go into its own direction over time, eventually rebranding as Fuse in 2003.

In 1995, the annual Canadian Music Video Awards were renamed to the "MuchMusic Video Awards" (presently known as the "iHeartRadio MMVAs" as of 2018). Since 1996, the ceremonies have been held outside the formerly-named "MuchMusic Headquarters" on 299 Queen Street West, the present-day main offices for Bell Media's speciality channels.

In 2002, MuchMusic introduced promos that consisted of one of twelve images of a VJ posing in front of the network's logo, lasting for only 1/60th of a second each. The "quickies" were recognized with a Guinness World Record for the world's shortest television commercial.

Under Bell (2006–present)
In July 2006, Bell Globemedia (later called CTVglobemedia) announced that it would purchase CHUM for an estimated CA$1.7 billion, including MuchMusic. The sale was subject to CRTC approval and was approved in June 2007, with the transaction completed on June 22, 2007, while the Citytv stations were sold to Rogers Media in the same year. Since then, MuchMusic has aired a vast number of non-music related shows, mainly teen dramas and reality shows.

In 2010, the CRTC rejected a request by CTVglobemedia to reduce the percentage of music video programming that the channel shows from 50 to 25 percent. CTV's second request to the CRTC to reduce and reposition its Canadian programming was also denied. For the reasoning behind these requests, CTV explained that "music videos no longer distinguish the service as they are readily available through other sources." This was met with mixed reaction by music fans and drew the ire of notable artists.

On June 1, 2011, MuchMusic launched its high definition simulcast feed.

Beginning in September 2013, the channel would air more comedy programming targeting young adult men during the late afternoon and primetime hours, much of it moved from The Comedy Network. Such shows included Comedy Central series (such as South Park, Tosh.0 and The Jeselnik Offensive), reruns of The Simpsons and The Cleveland Show, as well as Late Night with Jimmy Fallon and Conan. These changes came when Comedy's request for licence amendments to reduce requirements for Canadian content and increase the amount of animated programming it could air was denied. Around the same time, the channel officially shortened its name to "Much"; while the "Much" shorthand had historically been used as part of its branding, the channel had still used "MuchMusic" as its main branding.

Most of the channel's previous non-music programming, such as Pretty Little Liars and Degrassi, moved to sister channels M3 (formerly MuchMoreMusic and MuchMore) and MTV respectively. At the same time the channel cut back further on original music-related programming apart from Video on Trial, The Wedge, countdowns, and other non-hosted blocks of music videos, with New.Music.Live. confirmed to have been cancelled and the likes of RapCity no longer appearing on Much's schedule. By the summer of 2014, amidst production and staffing cutbacks, the Countdown went on hiatus and Much's remaining original shows, including a revamped Video on Trial, were cancelled.

Meanwhile, in August, Much celebrated its 30th anniversary. A half-hour anniversary special, 30 Years of Much, aired on August 30, 2014, and was preceded by a full-day countdown of The 100 Greatest Videos Ever. Repeats of both the special and the countdown aired throughout the Labour Day weekend. On September 27, 2014, the Countdown returned with a revamped format.

On April 1, 2015, Much announced the launch of Much Digital Studios (later renamed Much Studios), a production unit and YouTube multi-channel network. The network features content catered towards Much's demographic of 12-34s, and would also be integrated into their on-air programming. Such content includes the Mike On Much podcast, hosted by Mike Veerman, co-produced by Arkells lead singer Max Kerman, and featuring segments led by Shane Cunningham. The podcast eventually spawned the spin-off series Much Studios presents "Mike on Much in Conversation With...", which premiered in 2018 on sibling service Crave.

On August 12, 2016, Bell Media sold MuchLoud, MuchRetro, MuchVibe and Juicebox to Stingray Digital. On September 1, 2016, M3 was shut down and replaced by Gusto, a cooking and lifestyle-oriented TV network that Bell Media acquired, after the original Gusto TV closed in March 2016.

In late 2017, Much further cut back on music programming, reducing its music blocks to the morning hours and removing the Much Countdown from its schedule. MuchFACT was also discontinued, as a result of the CRTC having dropped the requirement for Much to fund it. On October 11, 2017, Much premiered Sides*, a new talk show which discusses youth issues; it was streamed live on Twitter on weekdays, and a weekly highlight show aired on the Much channel. In November 2017, Much began to air a Friday-night block known as Icons, which featured airings of music documentaries.

In 2019, the daytime Playlist block of music videos was discontinued and replaced with library programming, citing decreased interest and viewership. In addition, that year's MMVAs, which were moved to August the previous year, were delayed due to scheduling conflicts with the 2019 MTV Video Music Awards. The Much Retro Lunch block remained the only regularly-scheduled music video programming on the channel, with the network citing its popularity among youth as a factor.

2021–present
On June 10, 2021, it was announced that the "MuchMusic" name would be revived for a new "digital-first" network to launch on July 7 in-partnership with TikTok. The network would feature new "creator-driven content", including revivals of old Much programming. Meanwhile, the linear TV channel would continue with its current format and programming under the "Much" brand.

The channel's early history was chronicled in a 2023 documentary film by Sean Menard, titled 299 Queen Street West. The film premiered at SXSW 2023, and was acquired by Crave to premiere in January 2024.

Programming
Much's main programming includes original series from Comedy Central (select shows not seen on CTV Comedy Channel) and other acquired comedies, reality shows, broadcasts of feature films, encores of shows seen on sibling networks, and reruns of other shows sourced from Bell Media's program libraries to fulfil Canadian content requirements.

The network's music programming previously consisted of music video blocks seen on weekdays and the annual MuchMusic Video Awards (MMVAs), of which most of its ceremonies had been held outside the network's headquarters on 299 Queen Street West during Father's Day weekend from 2002 to 2017. The network also produced and aired several original series, both in-house productions (such as the MuchMusic Countdown, Video on Trial, and The Wedge) and scripted series (such as The L.A. Complex and seasons 9–13 of Degrassi: The Next Generation, after its move from CTV in 2010).

Relationship with MTV
Since its inception, Much has aired numerous programs acquired from MTV. Beginning in 1994, MTV's then-parent company Viacom would attempt to launch localized versions of the network through other partners; Craig Media first launched MTV Canada and MTV2 Canada as digital cable networks in 2001. Due to CRTC genre protection rules, MTV Canada was forbidden from unduly competing with existing analog channels, such as MuchMusic, and its license henceforth restricted the channel to only devoting 10% of its weekly programming to "music video clips".

CHUM filed a complaint with the CRTC over MTV Canada in early-2002, alleging that 60% of the schedule contained music video programming. CHUM also alleged that the licensing deal with MTV was a "bait and switch" to encroach upon MuchMusic's protected format, rather than deliver the broadly teen-based channel it had promised in the licensing process. Craig disputed the allegations as inaccurate, arguing that CHUM had incorrectly classified any programming "that has some connection to the general topic of music or music videos" (CRTC category 8a, "Music and dance other than music video programs or clips"), as counting as CRTC category 8b "music video clips" programming for the purposes of the complaint, and that it only aired two hours of purely music video-based programming per-day (accounting for 8% of weekly programming). Upon analysis of MTV Canada's programming, the CRTC ruled that music videos played within a category 8a program still counted as music video programming for the purposes of this limit, and found the network in violation of its licence for this and failure to deliver the broadly teen-based service it promised. CHUM would later acquire Craig Media and both MTV-branded channels were re-launched in June 2005; with MTV becoming a youth entertainment channel called Razer, and MTV2 becoming an interactive channel called PunchMuch.

In 2006, Viacom would partner with CTVglobemedia to relaunch TalkTV as a new Canadian incarnation of MTV. The agreement also gave the company rights to air MTV programming on other sibling outlets.

Affiliated channels
With the success of MuchMusic, several spinoff channels have been launched within Canada and around the world, including

Former

 * MusiquePlus: Launched in 1986, it was developed as a Canadian French language version of MuchMusic. In September 2008, new owner Astral Media separated the channel from the network and introduced a new logo. In August 2019, new owner V Media Group relaunched the channel as Elle Fictions with a female-focused programming lineup.
 * MusiMax: A sister channel to MusiquePlus focused on adult contemporary music, and was developed as the French language version of MuchMoreMusic. In August 2016, new owner V Media Group rebranded the channel as Max with an entertainment-focused programming lineup.
 * PunchMuch: an all-request music video service consisting of music videos from various genres. On November 17, 2011, PunchMuch was replaced by Juicebox, a new music video channel aimed at pre-teens. Stingray Digital relaunched that channel as Stingray Juicebox in 2016.
 * M3: Originally known as MuchMoreMusic, this channel focused on adult contemporary, classic rock, classic hits and even generally lighter music in addition to current pop-rock hits like its sister stations Much and MTV. In March 2009, it was relaunched as MuchMore. In 2013, it rebranded under the M3 name, marketed as an entertainment-focused "superstation" and a separate brand. In September 2016, the channel was shut down and its broadcast licence was used to relaunch Gusto on all service providers.
 * MuchLoud: Focuses on rock, modern rock, alternative, punk and metal. In August 2016, new owner Stingray Digital relaunched the channel as Stingray Loud.
 * MuchVibe: Focuses on urban music such as hip hop, R&B, and reggae. In August 2016, new owner Stingray Digital relaunched the channel as Stingray Vibe.
 * MuchRetro: Focuses on music videos from the 1980s to the early 2000s. Originally known as MuchMoreRetro, a spinoff of what would be known as M3, the channel rebranded on November 1, 2013, aligning itself with the Much brand. In 2016, new owner Stingray Digital relaunched the channel as Stingray Retro.

Current

 * MuchMusic Czech: Launched in 2006, available in the Czech Republic. Unlike its Canadian counterpart, it airs more music programming instead of comedy programming.

Past

 * MuchMusic Latin America: Launched in September 1992, originally available only in Argentina, at the time of its closure distributed on several pay-TV operators in several Latin American countries. it was formerly owned by WarnerMedia Latin America from 2019 to 2022. It is now owned by Warner Bros. Discovery Latin America as of April 8, 2022. Unlike its Canadian counterpart, and much like it’s Czech counterpart, it aired more music programming instead of comedy programming. The channel closed down in Latin America on February 29, 2024, with Glitz and I.Sat, after which the channel space created in 1992 ceased to exist.
 * MuchUSA: Launched in 1994. Licence to use MuchMusic name and content revoked, and renamed Fuse in 2003. A number of MuchMusic programs were broadcast on this channel in an agreement between the two networks, which share certain programs at times. These included The Wedge, Video on Trial (both Canadian, and an American version) as well as the MuchMusic Video Awards.
 * MuchMusic Brasil: Launched in 2000. The channel was aided by its Latin American counterpart and had limited terrestrial coverage during its brief existence. Ceased broadcasting in 2001.
 * MuchMusic also had a programming block on MTV3 in Finland called JYRKI.

VJs (1984–2014)
Several individuals have served as MuchMusic's on-air hosts, or video jockeys ("VJs"). A number of notable Canadian and American television personalities either began their careers at MuchMusic or spent time there. Among these are J.D. Roberts who, under the name John Roberts, is a national correspondent for Fox News; Christopher Ward, a noted songwriter and producer who collaborated musically with Mike Myers on the Austin Powers movies; Sook-Yin Lee, now a noted CBC Radio host and actress; Terry David Mulligan, a prolific film and TV character actor; actress Amanda Walsh; Erica Ehm, who became a noted songwriter after leaving Much; and George Stroumboulopoulos, who became a television personality on CBC, U.S. network CNN and Sportsnet.

Former

 * Steve Anthony
 * Matte Babel
 * Glen Baxter
 * Jeanne Beker
 * Laurie Brown
 * Rick Campanelli
 * Kim Clarke Champniss
 * Lance Chilton
 * Tim Deegan
 * Monika Deol
 * Angela Dohrmann
 * Denise Donlon
 * Phoebe Dykstra
 * Ed the Sock
 * Tyrone "T-Rex" Edwards
 * Erica Ehm (Erica Miechowsky)
 * Simon Evans
 * Rainbow Sun Francks
 * Diego Fuentes
 * Dan Gallagher
 * Jesse Giddings
 * Craig F. Halket
 * Jennifer Hollett
 * Bradford How
 * Mary "Nam" Kiwanuka
 * George Lagogianes
 * Avi Lewis
 * Sook-Yin Lee
 * Patrick Lima
 * Ziggy Lorenc
 * Catherine McClenahan (first female VJ)
 * Leah Miller
 * Terry David Mulligan
 * Nardwuar the Human Serviette
 * Rachel Perry
 * Juliette Powell
 * Nadine Ramkisson
 * Natalie Richard
 * Daniel Richler
 * J.D. Roberts
 * Teresa Roncon
 * Hannah Simone
 * Devon Soltendieck
 * George Stroumboulopoulos
 * Sarah Taylor
 * Lauren Toyota
 * Liz Trinnear
 * Amanda Walsh
 * Christopher Ward
 * Matt Wells
 * Bill Welychka
 * Chloe Wilde
 * Scott Willats
 * Michael Williams
 * Byron Wong
 * Tony "Master T" Young

Some of the former Much VJs have moved onto other opportunities within Bell Media's entertainment brands like etalk and E!, but occasionally return for special Much events like the annual iHeartRadio Video Awards.

VJ Search
Every few years, when new video jockeys were needed, Much ran a "VJ Search" to pick one new VJ to join the channel. They would usually visit cities across Canada and pick people who appear to show potential through their audition. In earlier years, the VJ Search was usually a two-part show, but in 2006 it evolved into its own reality series called MuchMusic VJ Search. As a result of that series, Tim Deegan was chosen as a VJ. It was followed in 2009 by VJ 2.0, where the winner Liz Trinnear was also picked to join the channel. The final search, Much VJ Search, which Chloe Wilde won in 2013.

Much Creators (2015–2021)
With the launch of Much Digital Studios in April 2015, Much "Creators" were selected social media personalities, mostly established and emerging Canadian YouTubers. The first ever Fan Fave Much Creator award was won by YouTwoTV during the 2017 iHeartRadio MMVAs. Much Creators was discontinued on July 7, 2021.

Former

 * Mila Victoria
 * SickickMusic
 * Ron Dias TV
 * AllegraLouise
 * AmandaRachlee
 * Letitia Kiu
 * Chelsi Madonna
 * SidePonyNation
 * Rosette Luve
 * Top 5 Unknowns
 * Jus Reign
 * 4YallEntertainment
 * Michael Rizzi
 * The Danocracy
 * Alayna Joy
 * YouTwoTV
 * ThatDudeMcFly
 * Karli Woods
 * Istiana Bestari
 * Wahlid Mohammad
 * Melissa Merk
 * Tasha Leelyn
 * Deejdesign
 * SneakerTalk
 * Jaclyn Forbes
 * Candace Leca
 * Karina V
 * RealisticallySaying
 * Zak Longo
 * Moving Mind Studio
 * Dylan Zhang
 * Fateh Doe
 * Bongo
 * Andrew Quo
 * Joey Kidney
 * Alex Duckworth
 * Naomi Leanage
 * Matt O'Brien
 * The Baker Twins
 * Camille Co
 * Bianca Harris
 * Tyler Shaw
 * Shane Cunningham
 * Dan Talevski
 * Rayn Magic
 * Laurier Lachance

title: Much (TV channel)


text:
User:Billfish

Software technical writer, Mac support, fan of Philip K. Dick & Gustav Mahler. Eagle Rock, Los Angeles.

title: User:Billfish


text:
User talk:Smkatz

Hello Smkatz and welcome to Wikipedia. A few tips for you:

 * Peruse Welcome, newcomers and associated pages
 * Sign talk page entries with ~, which is automatically converted to a name and date
 * Ask questions on Village pump
 * Have fun.

-- Tim Starling 05:06, Nov 14, 2003 (UTC)

Kristallnacht
Can you please read my comment on Talk:Kristallnacht. Thanks -- Obradović Goran  ( t al k  15:41, 22 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Health Wikispace
The principles of Wikipedia apply to all articles -- you are not allowed to change them unilaterally. Attempts by you to enforce your new "rules" are likely to be regarded as vandalism. If you want to work outside the Wikipedia principles, you are free to do so elsewhere.

Alternatively, if you are genuinely interested in working with the community to improve Wikipedia, rather than making unilateral diktats, you may wish to join the wikipedia-l mailing list, and discuss your proposed new policies there. -- The Anome 14:00, 23 December 2005 (UTC)

Disambiguation
Hi Smkatz, I'm fixing Disambiguation links that route to the disambiguation page "Medium", and one of the flagged entries is from one of your posts on your user page. If you would be so kind as to link it to an actual article or just delink it, I would appreciate it. Thanks! - Dreadlocke 19:51, 14 April 2006 (UTC)

Nomination for deletion of Template:Draft
Template:Draft has been nominated for deletion. You are invited to comment on the discussion at the template's entry on the Templates for discussion page. — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ >ʌⱷ҅ᴥⱷʌ<  10:24, 17 December 2017 (UTC)

title: User talk:Smkatz


text:
Campione

Campione may refer to:

 * Campione d'Italia, comune of the Province of Como in the Lombardy region of Italy
 * Campione!, Japanese light novel series written by Jō Taketsuki and illustrated by Sikorski
 * Campione 2000, official song of the European football championship 2000 in the Netherlands and Belgium

Persons

 * Bunny Campione, English antiques expert
 * Elaine Campione, Ontario woman who murdered her two children in Barrie, Ontario

title: Campione


text:
User talk:Xaviere

Hello Xaviere and welcome to Wikipedia. A few tips for you:

 * Peruse Welcome, newcomers and associated pages
 * Sign talk page entries with ~, which is automatically converted to a name and date
 * Ask questions on Village pump
 * Have fun.

-- Tim Starling 05:07, Nov 14, 2003 (UTC)

Hi Xaviere, good work on the Lieutenant Governors of Ontario...I was going to do those months ago, but I never got around to it! Adam Bishop 00:02, 15 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Xaviere, I have noticed that Lionel Herbert Clarke is copied from Lieutenant Governor's website http://www.lt.gov.on.ca/sections_english/history/history_popups_ont/history_lhclarke.html and therefore may be covered by Crown copyright. Do you have permission to use this text? Brona 01:04, 11 May 2004 (UTC)

Hey there. Noticed you fleshed out the Moses Znaimer page ... good stuff. I see you excel at doing things people meant to do a while ago ... hope there are more like you. -- Xamian 00:46, 16 Nov 2003 (UTC) - check your facts dude before you make changes - jamestown wasn't even a town after 1750

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:53, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Xaviere


text:
Thanjavur

Thanjavur, also known as Thanjai, previously known as Tanjore, is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important center of southern Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the Great Living Chola Temples, which are UNESCO World Heritage Monuments, are located in and around Thanjavur. The foremost among these, the Brihadeeswara Temple, built by the Chola emperor Rajaraja I, is located in the centre of the city. This temple has one of the largest bull statues (called Nandi ) in India carved out of a single granite rock. Thanjavur is also home to Tanjore painting, a painting style unique to the region. Thanjavur is the headquarters of the Thanjavur District. The city is an important agricultural centre located in the Kaveri Delta and is known as the Rice bowl of Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is administered by a municipal corporation covering an area of 36.31 sqkm and had a population of 222,943. Roadways are the major means of transportation, while the city also has rail connectivity. The nearest airport is Tiruchirapalli International Airport, located 59.6 km away from the city. The nearest seaport is Karaikal, which is 94 km away from Thanjavur. The city first rose to prominence during the reign of the Cholas when it served as the capital of the empire. After the fall of the Cholas, the city was ruled by various dynasties such as the Mutharaiyar dynasty, the Pandyas, the Vijayanagar Empire, the Madurai Nayaks, the Thanjavur Nayaks, the Thanjavur Marathas and the British Empire. It has been a part of independent India since 1947.

Etymology
The city's name is believed to be derived from a portmanteau of "thanjam puguntha oor" (தஞ்சம் புகுந்த ஊர்) which means "the town where refugees entered", referring to the town's history of providing hospitality to newcomers.

According to another local legend, the name "Thanjavur" originated from "Tanjan," an Asura (demon) who was slain on the site. In Hindu mythology, Tanjan requested the establishment of a beautiful city at the place where he was defeated. Later, the Asura was vanquished in what is now Thanjavur by the Hindu god Neelamegha Perumal, an incarnation of Vishnu.

The city's name "Thanjavur" might also be derived from the name of a Mutharayar king, "Thananjay" or "Dhananjaya". Thananjaya added to Oor gives the name Thanjavur. The Kalamalla stone inscription (the first stone inscription) was made by the king, Erikal Muthuraju Dhanunjaya Varma of 575 CE..

History
This place was previously called Śiyāli. Indra once fled to this place in fear of the asura called Śūrapadma and did tapas here.

There are no references to Thanjavur in the Sangam period (third century BCE to fourth century CE) Tamil records, though some scholars believe that the city has existed since that time. Kovil Venni, situated 15 mi to the east of the city, was the site of the Battle of Venni between the Chola king Karikala and a confederacy of the Cheras and the Pandyas. The Cholas seemed to have faced an invasion of the Kalabhras in the third century CE after which the kingdom faded into obscurity. The region around present day Thanjavur was conquered by the Mutharayars during the sixth century, who ruled it up to 849.

The Cholas came to prominence once more through the rise of the Medieval Chola monarch Vijayalaya (841–878 CE) in about 850 CE. Vijayalaya conquered Thanjavur from the Mutharayar king Elango Mutharayar and built a temple dedicated to the Hindu goddess Nisumbhasudani. His son Aditya I (871–901) consolidated their hold over the city. The Rashtrakuta king Krishna II (878–914), a contemporary of the Chola king Parantaka I (907–950), claims to have conquered Thanjavur, but there are no records to support the claim. Gradually, Thanjavur became the most important city in the Chola Empire and remained its capital till the emergence of Gangaikonda Cholapuram in about 1025. During the first decade of the eleventh century, the Chola king Raja Raja Chola I (985–1014) constructed the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur. The temple is considered to be one of the best specimens of Tamil architecture.

When the Chola Empire began to decline in the 13th century, the Pandyas from the south invaded and captured Thanjavur twice, first between 1218–19 and again in 1230. During the second invasion, the Chola king Rajaraja III (1216–56) was exiled and he sought the help of the Hoysala king Vira Narasimha II (1220–35) to regain Thanjavur. Thanjavur was eventually annexed along with the rest of the Chola kingdom by the Pandya king Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I (1268–1308) in 1279 and the Chola kings were forced to accept the suzerainty of the Pandyas. The Pandyas ruled Thanjavur from 1279 to 1311 when their kingdom was raided by the forces of Malik Kafur (1296–1306) and later annexed by the Delhi Sultanate. The Sultanate extended its authority directly over the conquered regions from 1311 to 1335 and then through the semi-independent Ma'bar Sultanate from 1335 to 1378. Starting from the 1350s, the Ma'bar Sultanate was steadily absorbed into the rising Vijayanagar Empire.

Thanjavur is believed to have been conquered by Kampanna Udayar during his invasion of Srirangam between 1365 and 1371. Deva Raya's inscription dated 1443, Thirumala's inscription dated 1455 and Achuta Deva's land grants dated 1532 and 1539 attest Vijayanagar's dominance over Thanjavur. Sevappa Nayak (1532–80), the Vijayanagar viceroy of Arcot, established himself as an independent monarch in 1532 (1549, according to some sources) and founded the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom. Achuthappa Nayak (1560–1614), Raghunatha Nayak (1600–34) and Vijaya Raghava Nayak (1634–73) are some of the important rulers of the Nayak dynasty who ruled Thanjavur. Thanjavur Nayaks were notable for their patronage of literature and arts. The rule of the dynasty came to an end when Thanjavur fell to the Madurai Nayak king Chokkanatha Nayak (1662–82) in 1673. Vijaya Raghunatha Nayak, the son of Chokkanatha, was killed in a battle and Chokkanatha's brother Alagiri Nayak (1673–75) was crowned as the ruler of the empire.

Thanjavur was successfully conquered in 1674 by Ekoji I (1675–84), the Maratha feudatory of the sultan of Bijapur and half-brother of Shivaji (1627/30-80) of the Bhonsle dynasty. Ekoji founded the Thanjavur Maratha kingdom which ruled Thanjavur till 1855. The Marathas exercised their sovereignty over Thanjavur throughout the last quarter of the 17th and the whole of the 18th century. The Maratha rulers patronized Carnatic music. In 1787, Amar Singh, the regent of Thanjavur, deposed the minor Raja, his nephew Serfoji II (1787–93) and captured the throne. Serfoji II was restored in 1799 with the assistance of the British, who induced him to relinquish the administration of the kingdom and left him in charge of Thanjavur fort and surrounding areas. The kingdom was eventually absorbed into British India in 1855 by the Doctrine of Lapse when Shivaji II (1832–55), the last Thanjavur Maratha ruler, died without a legitimate male heir. The British referred to the city as Tanjore in their records. Five years after its annexation, the British replaced Negapatam (modern-day Nagapattinam) with Thanjavur as the seat of the district administration. Under the British, Thanjavur emerged as an important regional centre. The 1871 India census recorded a population of 52,171, making Thanjavur the third largest city in the Madras Presidency. After India's independence, Thanjavur continued as the district headquarters.

Geography and climate
Thanjavur is located at 10.8°N, 79.15°W The tributaries of river Cauvery, namely, the Grand Anaicut canal (Pudhaaru), Vadavaaru and Vennaaru rivers flow through the city. Thanjavur is situated in the Cauvery delta, at a distance of 340 km south-west of Chennai and 56 km east of Tiruchirappalli. While the plains immediately adjoining the Cauvery river have been under cultivation from time immemorial, most of Thanjavur city and the surrounding areas lie in the "New Delta" – a dry, barren upland tract which was brought under irrigation during the early 19th century. To the south of Thanjavur city, is the Vallam tableland, a small plateau interspersed at regular intervals by ridges of sandstone. The nearest seaport is Nagapattinam which is 84 km east of Thanjavur. The nearest airport is Tiruchirapalli International Airport, located at a distance of 56 km. The city has an elevation of 59 m above mean sea level. The total area of the city is 36.33 sqkm.

The period from November to February in Thanjavur is pleasant, with a climate full of warm days and cool nights. The onset of summer is from March, with the mercury reaching its peak by the end of May and June. The average temperatures range from 81 °F in January to 97 °F in May and June. Summer rains are sparse and the first monsoon, the South-West monsoon, commences in June and continues till September. North-East monsoon begins in October and continues till January. The rainfall during the South-West monsoon period is much lower than that of the North-East monsoon. The North-East monsoon is beneficial to the district at large because of the heavy rainfall and the Western ghats (mountain ranges) feeding the river Cauvery. The average rainfall is 37 in, most of which is contributed by the North-East monsoon.

Tourism and culture

Thanjavur is an important pilgrim centre and a major tourist destination of Tamil Nadu. South Zone Culture Centre in Thanjavur is one of the regional cultural centres established by the Government of India to preserve and promote cultural heritage of India. There were 2,002,225 Indian and 81,435 foreign tourist arrivals in 2009 to Thanjavur. The most visited monument in Thanjavur is the Brihadeeswarar Temple, whose construction, the historian Percy Brown described as "a landmark in the evolution of building art in South India". Built in the 11th century by the Chola king Raja Raja Chola I (985–1014), the temple is dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. The walls of the sanctum are covered with wall paintings from the Chola and Nayak periods. The temple was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. It is replicated in the Gangaikonda Cholesvarar Temple constructed by Raja Raja's son Rajendra Chola I (1012–44). King Raja Raja Chola memorial to have a complete makeover soon in Thanjavur. The Thanjavur Maratha palace was the official residence of the Bhonsle family who ruled over the Thanjavur region from 1674 to 1855. It was originally constructed by the rulers of the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom and after their fall, it served as the official residence of the Thanjavur Marathas. When most of the Thanjavur Maratha kingdom was annexed by the British Empire in 1799, the Thanjavur Marathas continued to hold sway over the palace and the surrounding fort. The southern side of the third quadrangle of the palace has a 190 ft tower-like building, called the Goodagopuram. Punnainallur Mariamman temple is about 7 km from Brihadeeswara temple. This temple was built by the first Maratha king of Thanjavur Venkoji in the year 1680.

The Saraswathi Mahal Library, established around 1700 and located in the premises of the palace, contains over 30,000 Indian and European manuscripts written on palm leaf and paper. Over eighty per cent of its manuscripts are in Sanskrit and many of them are on palm leaves. The Tamil works include treatises on medicine, and commentaries on Sangam literature. The Rajaraja Chola art gallery is located inside the palace – it has a large collection of stone and bronze images from the ninth to 12th centuries. Most of the idols present in the gallery were collected from various temples in the Thanjavur district. The Sivaganga Park is situated to the east of the Brihadeeswarar Temple and encompasses the Sivaganga Tank believed to have been built by the king Raja Raja Chola. It was created as a people's park by the Tanjore municipality in 1871–72. It has a collection of plants, animals and birds and serves as a zoo for children within the city.

Schwartz Church, a historic monument located in the palace garden, was built in 1779 by Serfoji II as a token of affection for Rev. C.V. Schwartz of the Danish Mission. There are five museums in the city, namely: Archeological Museum, Tamil University Museum located with the Tamil University premises, the Saraswathi Mahal Library Museum located inside the Saraswathi Mahal, Nayak Durbar Hall Art Museum and Rajaraja Chola Museum. Raja Rajan Manimandapam is one of the tourist attractions in Thanjavur, built during the Thanjavur Tamil Conference in 1991. "Sangeetha Mahal" has a permanent handicrafts exhibition centre. Thanjavur is the cradle for many of the arts and crafts in South India. Carnatic music was codified in Thanjavur and the art flourished during the Nayak rule in the 16th century. Bharathanatyam, a classical dance form of South India, had its major styles developed in Thanjavur.

Sathaya Thiruvizha is the annual birthday festival of Raja Raja Chola held during October every year. Thanjavur is the base for the Tyagaraja Aradhana, a Carnatic music festival held annually during January – February at Thiruvaiyaru, located 13 km away from the city. Thanjavur painting is a major form of classical South Indian painting from Thanjavur. It dates back to about the 1600s, the period of Nayakas of Thanjavur, who encouraged art, classical dance and music literature, both in Telugu and Tamil. The art is usually a combination of raised and painted surfaces, with the Hindu god Krishna being the most popular image depicted. In modern times, these paintings have become souvenirs of festive occasions in South India, wall decors, and collectors' items for art lovers.

Economy
The major occupation of the inhabitants of the city is tourism and service-oriented industry, while the traditional occupation is agriculture.

Thanjavur is known as the "Rice bowl of Tamil Nadu". Paddy (unmilled rice) is the crop and the other crops grown are blackgram, banana, coconut, gingelly, ragi, red gram, green gram, sugarcane and maize. The total percentage of land fit for cultivation is 58%. There are three seasons for agriculture in Thanjavur – Kuruvai (June to September), Samba (August to January) and Thaladi (September, October to February, March). The total rice production has been maintained at 10.615 L.M.T and 7.077 L.M.T. The city acts as a focal point for food grains transported from the adjoining areas of the Cauvery Delta. Organic farming is gradually becoming known to the farmers of Thanjavur. To maximise agricultural produce, organic farming is being implemented. Though agriculture is the main economic activity, only 7% of the population is involved in it. There is a lot of agricultural related trading that forms the key economic activity in the city.

Almond cultivation has been gaining popularity in Thanjavur, a district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The region's warm and dry climate, coupled with fertile soil, provides ideal conditions for growing almonds. The almonds produced in Thanjavur are known for their high quality and rich flavor. The trees bloom in early spring with pink and white flowers, and the nuts are ready for harvest in the fall. The almond crop in Thanjavur has become an important source of income for local farmers and has contributed to the region's agricultural diversity.

Thanjavur is an important centre of silk weaving in Tamil Nadu. There were 200 silk weaving units in the city in 1991 with around 80,000 people working in them. Thanjavur is also famous for the 'Thalaiyatti bommai' or 'Dancing dolls' which is a doll made from clay, wood or plastic. The sarees produced in the villages surrounding Thanjavur are sold in Thanjavur and neighbouring towns. Increasing production costs and competition from large-scale producers have reduced the number of people involved in the production. The city produces bell metal craft like Thanjavur metal plates, bronze images bowls, napkins and powder boxes made of copper and bronze. The city is a major manufacturer of pith works consisting of models of Hindu idols, mosques, garlands and other bird figurines. Manufacture of musical instruments like veena, tambura, violin, mrithamgam, thavil and kanjira is another economic activity in the city.

All major nationalised banks such as State Bank of India, Indian Bank, Central Bank of India, Punjab National Bank, Indian Overseas Bank and private banks like ICICI Bank, City Union Bank have their branches in Thanjavur. All these banks have their automated teller machines located in various parts of the city. Thanjavur farmers insure additional 2.5 lakh acres in 10 days, but acreage still lower than last year.

Demographics
According to 2011 census, Thanjavur had a population of approximately 250,000 with a sex-ratio of 1,042 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 19,860 were under the age of six, constituting 10,237 males and 9,623 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 9.22% and .21% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the city was 83.14%, compared to the national average of 72.99%. There were a total of 78,005 workers, comprising 803 cultivators, 2,331 main agricultural labourers, 2,746 in house hold industries, 65,211 other workers, 6,914 marginal workers, 110 marginal cultivators, 235 marginal agricultural labourers, 322 marginal workers in household industries and 6,247 other marginal workers. As per the religious census of 2011, Thanjavur (M) had 82.87% Hindus, 8.34% Muslims, 8.58% Christians, 0.01% Sikhs, 0.01% Buddhists, 0.06% Jains, 0.11% following other religions and 0.01% following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference.

As of 2008, a total 2013.34 ha (55.4%) of the land was used for residential, 11.32 ha (3.06%) for commercial, 82.68 ha (2.28%) for industrial, 320.2 ha (8.81%) for public & semi public, 108.11 ha (2.98%) for educational and 996.85 ha (27.47%) for agriculture. Tamil is the widely spoken language, with the standard dialect being Central Tamil dialect. Telugu, Thanjavur Marathi and Saurashtra are other languages spoken in the city. Thanjavur is the cultural and political center of the Thanjavur Marathi people. While Hindus form the majority, the city also has a substantial population of Muslims and Christians. Roman Catholics in Thanjavur are affiliated to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tanjore and Protestants are affiliated to the Trichy–Tanjore Diocese of the Church of South India. The workforce is predominantly involved in service industry involving trade and commerce. With the expansion of the city area, the opportunities for agriculture is limited and only 7% of the population is involved in it.

Transport
The National Highways NH 83 and NH 36 pass through Thanjavur and NH 136 and NH 67 connect Thanjavur respectively with Perambalur and Thiruvurur. The city is connected with Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur, Chennai, Coimbatore, Erode, Karur, Tirupur, Vellore, Perambalur, Ariyalur, Mysuru, Salem, Cuddalore, Viluppuram, Tiruchirappalli, Madurai, Kumbakonam, Mayiladuthurai, Karaikal, Mannargudi, Thiruthuraipoondi, Vedaranyam, Pattukkottai, Dindigul, Oddanchatram, Palani, Pudukkottai, Karaikudi, Tirunelveli, Bengaluru, Ernakulam, Nagercoil, Tirupathi, Trivandrum and Ooty through regular bus services. Thanjavur had a single bus terminus located at the heart of the city. An integrated bus terminus, called New Bus stand was constructed in 1997 near Raja Serfoji College to handle the passenger traffic. Thanjavur has a well-maintained sub-urban public transport system. Government and private buses operate frequently between the two bus termini and other towns and villages like Vallam, Budalur, Mohamed Bunder, Nadukkavery, Pillaiyarpatti, Vallam Pudursethi, Sengipatti, Ammapettai, Mariamman Kovil, Thiruvaiyaru and Kuruvadipatti.

The railway line connecting Tiruchirappalli Junction railway station to Chennai Egmore via Thanjavur, the Main Line is a historical line established by South Indian Railway Company in 1879. The Great Southern of India Railway Company (GSIR) operated a broad gauge rail service between Nagapattinam and Tiruchirapalli via Thanjavur between 1861 and 1875. During 1875 it was converted to a meter gauge line (MG line). Modern day Thanjavur railway junction has three rail heads leading to Tiruchirapalli, Kumbakonam and Thiruvarur. Thanjavur is connected by rail with most important cities and towns in India. There are daily express trains to Chennai, Mysuru, Ernakulam, Thrissur, Palakkad, Coimbatore, Erode, Tiruppur, Tiruchirapalli, Salem, Karur, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Rameswaram, Tiruchendur, Cuddalore, Dharmapuri, Viluppuram, Chengalpattu, Mannargudi, Bengaluru, Dindigul, Pudukkottai, Karaikudi, Sivagangai, Manamadurai and weekly trains to Pondicherry, Nagercoil, Kanyakumari, Tirupati, Nellore, Itarsi, Visakhapatnam, Hubli, Vasco da Gama, Goa, Vijayawada, Chandrapur, Nagpur, Jabalpur, Satna, Katni, Allahabad, Varanasi, Jaunpur, Ayodhya, and Bhubaneswar. There are frequent passenger trains from the city to towns like Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam, Karaikal, Tiruchirapalli, Kumbakonam, Mayiladuthurai and Nagore, hubbali.

In the early 1990s, Thanjavur was connected with Chennai via the Vayudoot flight service, which was stopped due to poor patronage. A full-fledged air force station is operational at Thanjavur. Thanjavur Air Force Station was to become a major air base by 2012, to handle Fighter, Transport aircraft and also refuelling aircraft. However, the inauguration of the Thanjavur Air Force Station took place on 27 May 2013. The Thanjavur Air Force Station bases a squadron of its Sukhoi Su-30 Supermaneuverability Fighter aircraft at Thanjavur, making it the first fighter squadron in Tamil Nadu. The nearest airport is Tiruchirapalli International Airport. The nearest Seaport is located at Nagapattinam.

Administration and politics
The municipality of Tanjore was created in 1866 as a third grade municipality as per Town Improvements Act 1865 and initially consisted of 12 members. The number was increased to 18 in 1879 and 24 in 1883. In 1897, the members were empowered to elect a Municipal Chairperson to lead them. Tanjore was upgraded to a second grade municipality in 1933, first grade in 1943 and a special grade in 1983. The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments: General, Engineering, Revenue, Public Health, Town planning and the Computer Wing. All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner who is the supreme executive head. The legislative powers are vested in a body of 52 members, one each from the 52 wards. The legislative body is headed by an elected chairperson assisted by a deputy chairperson.

On 10 April 2013, the state government announced in the Assembly that Thanjavur municipality will be upgraded to a Municipal corporation. Thanjavur City Corporation is likely to have an area of 110.27 sqkm of area, with a population of 3,20,828 and an income of inr 411800000. The villages Pudupattinam, Nanjikottai, Neelagiri, Melaveli, Pillaiyarpatti, Ramanathapuram, Pallieri, Vilar and Inathukanpatti are likely to be added to the municipal corporation limits. Thanjavur became City Corporation on 10 April 2014.

Thanjavur comes under the Thanjavur State Assembly Constituency and it elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years. From the 1977 elections, the assembly seat was won by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) six times during the 1977, 1980, 1989, 1996, 2001 and 2006 elections, the Indian National Congress party once during the 1984 elections and the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) twice during the 1991 and 2011 elections. M. Karunanidhi, who served as the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu for a record five terms, was elected from the Thanjavur assembly constituency in the 1962 elections.

Thanjavur is also a part of the Thanjavur Lok Sabha constituency and elects a member to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India, once every five years. The Lok Sabha seat has been held by the Indian National Congress for Seven terms during 1951–56, 1957–62, 1962–1967, 1980–84, 1984–1989, 1989–91 and 1991–96, Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam for Seven terms during 1967–71, 1971–77, 1996–98, 1998–99, 1999–04, 2004–09 and 2009–present and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam for one term during 1977–80. R. Venkataraman, who served as the President of India from 1987 to 1992, was elected from the Thanjavur Lok Sabha constituency in the 1951 elections.

Law and order in the city is maintained by the Thanjavur subdivision of the Tamil Nadu Police, headed by a Deputy Superintendent (DSP). The Thanjavur district level police administration is headed by a Deputy Inspector General of Police, whose office is located in the city. There are six police stations in the city, one of them being an all-women police station. Some special units include prohibition enforcement, district crime, social justice and human rights, district crime records and a special branch that operates at the district level police division headed by a Superintendent of Police (SP).

Education
Thanjavur has a total of four Universities, namely the Periyar Maniammai Institute of Science & Technology, PRIST University, SASTRA University and Tamil University. The Tamil University is a state run institute, started during 1981 and obtained its statutory recognition from the University Grants Commission in 1983. It is the only one of its kind for the Tamil language doing higher research in Tamilology and advanced study in various allied branches like linguistics, translation, lexicography, music, drama and manuscriptology.

Thanjavur has a total of 15 arts, science & management colleges and nine engineering colleges. The Thanjavur Medical College was established in 1961 and is one of the oldest medical colleges in Tamil Nadu. The Paddy Processing Research Centre (PPRC), which later became the Indian Institute of Food Processing Technology in 2017, is a hub for food processing research. The Saraswati Mahal Library which dates back to the end of the 16th century and the Central Library, managed by the district administration are the two most prominent libraries in the city.

There are 20 registered schools in Thanjavur, catering to the primary, secondary and higher secondary educational needs of the city. St. Peter's Higher Secondary School at Thanjavur was established by Rev. C F Schwartz during 1784. Originally established as a college, it was the first school in South India which taught English to the local populace. St. Antony's Higher Secondary School, established in 1885 by the Diocese of Thanjavur, is one of the oldest schools in Thanjavur district. Christian Missionaries played a prominent role in promoting English education in Thanjavur. Kalyanasundaram Higher Secondary School, established in 1891, is one of the oldest schools in the city.

Utility services
Electricity supply to Thanjavur is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB). The city along with its suburbs is a part of Trichy Electricity Distribution Circle. Water supply is provided by the Thanjavur Corporation from the Vadavar Canal, supplied through overhead tanks located in various parts of the city. During the 2000–01 period, a total of 31 million litres of water was supplied every day for households in the city.

About 110 metric tonnes of solid waste are collected from Thanjavur every day by door-to-door collection and subsequently the source segregation and dumping is carried out by the sanitary department of the Thanjavur Corporation. The coverage of solid waste management had an efficiency of 100% as of 2001. The underground drainage system covers 70% of the city and the remaining sewerage system for disposal of sullage is through septic tanks, open drains and public conveniences. The corporation maintains a total of 155 km of storm water drains: 53.27 km surfaced drains and 101.73 km unlined drains.

Neo tidel park announced in newly added city pillayarpatti

There are 37 hospitals and seven clinical labs in Thanjavur that take care of the health care needs of the citizens. There are a total of 9,745 street lamps: 492 sodium lamps, 2,061 mercury vapour lamps, 7,180 tube lights and twelve high-mast beam lamps. The corporation operates three markets, namely the Serfoji Market, Amarar Swaminathan Market and Kamaraj Market and another market, the Subramaniya Swami Koil Market, is maintained by the Subramania Swami Temple authority. Thanjavur comes under the Thanjavur Telecom circle of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), India's state-owned telecom and internet services provider. Apart from telecom, BSNL also provides broadband internet service. The Regional Passport office, Trichy, operates a Passport Seva Kendra (PSK) in Thanjavur, which PSK covers the Nagappattinam, Thiruvarur, Thanjavur, Pudukkottai, and Ariyalur revenue districts.

Villages
Some villages around Thanjavur city and comes under Thanjavur metropolitan area are
 * Villar
 * Nanjikottai
 * Vallam
 * Neelagiri
 * Mariamman Kovil
 * Velur, Thanjavur

title: Thanjavur


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Point-to-point (telecommunications)

In telecommunications, a point-to-point connection refers to a communications connection between two communication endpoints or nodes. An example is a telephone call, in which one telephone is connected with one other, and what is said by one caller can only be heard by the other. This is contrasted with a point-to-multipoint or broadcast connection, in which many nodes can receive information transmitted by one node. Other examples of point-to-point communications links are leased lines and microwave radio relay.

The term is also used in computer networking and computer architecture to refer to a wire or other connection that links only two computers or circuits, as opposed to other network topologies such as buses or crossbar switches which can connect many communications devices.

Point-to-point is sometimes abbreviated as P2P. This usage of P2P is distinct from P2P meaning peer-to-peer in the context of file sharing networks or other data-sharing protocols between peers.

Basic data link
A traditional point-to-point data link is a communications medium with exactly two endpoints and no data or packet formatting. The host computers at either end take full responsibility for formatting the data transmitted between them. The connection between the computer and the communications medium was generally implemented through an RS-232 or similar interface. Computers in close proximity may be connected by wires directly between their interface cards.

When connected at a distance, each endpoint would be fitted with a modem to convert analog telecommunications signals into a digital data stream. When the connection uses a telecommunications provider, the connection is called a dedicated, leased, or private line. The ARPANET used leased lines to provide point-to-point data links between its packet-switching nodes, which were called Interface Message Processors.

Modern links

With the exception of passive optical networks, modern Ethernet is exclusively point-to-point on the physical layer – any cable only connects two devices. The term point-to-point telecommunications can also mean a wireless data link between two fixed points. The wireless communication is typically bi-directional and either time-division multiple access (TDMA) or channelized. This can be a microwave relay link consisting of a transmitter which transmits a narrow beam of microwaves with a parabolic dish antenna to a second parabolic dish at the receiver. It also includes technologies such as lasers which transmit data modulated on a light beam. These technologies require an unobstructed line of sight between the two points and thus are limited by the visual horizon to distances of about 40 mi.

Networking
In a local network, repeater hubs or switches provide basic connectivity. A hub provides a point-to-multipoint (or simply multipoint) circuit in which all connected client nodes share the network bandwidth. A switch on the other hand provides a series of point-to-point circuits, via microsegmentation, which allows each client node to have a dedicated circuit and the added advantage of having full-duplex connections.

From the OSI model's layer perspective, both switches and repeater hubs provide point-to-point connections on the physical layer. However, on the data link layer, a repeater hub provides point-to-multipoint connectivity – each frame is forwarded to all nodes – while a switch provides virtual point-to-point connections – each unicast frame is only forwarded to the destination node.

Within many switched telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a permanent circuit. One example might be a telephone in the lobby of a public building, which is programmed to ring only the number of a telephone dispatcher. "Nailing down" a switched connection saves the cost of running a physical circuit between the two points. The resources in such a connection can be released when no longer needed, for example, a television circuit from a parade route back to the studio.

title: Point-to-point (telecommunications)


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Campione d'Italia

Campione d'Italia (Italian pronunciation: [kamˈpjoːne diˈtaːlja], lit. Champion of Italy), (Comasco: Campiùn, ) is a comune of the Province of Como in the Lombardy region of Italy and an enclave surrounded by the Swiss canton of Ticino. It is also an exclave. At its closest, the enclave is less than 1 km from the rest of Italy, but the intervening mountainous terrain requires a journey by road through the Swiss village of Bissone of over 14 km to reach the nearest Italian town, Lanzo d'Intelvi, and over 28 km to reach the city of Como.

History
In the first century BC, the Romans founded the garrison town of Campilonum to protect their territories from Helvetii invasions.

In 777, Toto of Campione, a local Lombard lord, left his inheritance to the archbishopric of Milan. Ownership was transferred to the abbey of Sant’Ambrogio. In 1512, the surrounding area of Ticino was transferred from the ownership of the bishop of Como to Switzerland by Pope Julius II, as thanks for the support in the War of the Holy League. However, the abbey maintained control over what is now Campione d'Italia and some territory on the western bank of Lake Lugano.

When Ticino chose to become part of the Swiss Confederation in 1798, the people of Campione chose to remain part of Lombardy. In 1800, Ticino proposed exchanging Indemini for Campione. In 1814 a referendum was held, and the residents of Campione opposed it. In 1848, during the wars of Italian unification, Campione petitioned Switzerland for annexation. This was rejected due to the Swiss desire for neutrality.

After Italian unification in 1861, all land west of Lake Lugano and half of the lake were given to Switzerland so that Swiss trade and transport would not have to pass through Italy. The d'Italia was added to the name of Campione in the 1930s by Italian dictator Benito Mussolini and an ornamental gate to the village was built. This was to assert the enclave's Italian character.

During World War II, the US Office of Strategic Services (OSS – the precursor to the CIA), partly through Berne OSS chief Allen Welsh Dulles, maintained a unit in Campione for operations in Italy. At the time the Italian fascist regime did not have control over the enclave. The Swiss ignored the situation as long as the Americans kept a low profile. Postage stamps were issued during this period inscribed "Campione d'Italia" and valued in Swiss currency.

Demography
The population of the enclave according to the Italian Census was:

Economy and administration
Campione has had a considerable amount of economic and administrative integration with Switzerland, but against the wishes of its residents,  it formally became part of the EU customs territory on 1 January 2020. VAT will apply, but the tax rate will remain that of Switzerland (much lower than that of Italy). A border crossing will be established.

Prior to that time, it was de facto in the customs territory of Switzerland, meaning most of the public services were carried out by Swiss providers, such as refuse collection, telecommunications, and vehicle registration. The enclave enjoyed considerable tax breaks and was exempt from VAT. Campione d'Italia was one of four Italian cities issued a casino licence and took advantage of this by operating the Casinò di Campione, as gambling laws are less strict than in either Italy or Switzerland; also a legacy of the pre-World War II era. Although (as part of Italy) the euro is formally the only legal tender, in practice the main operating currency in the commune has been the Swiss franc, but euros are widely accepted. Salaries are paid in Swiss francs.

Pursuant to bilateral agreements, Italians residing in Campione also benefit from many services and facilities located in Swiss territory, such as hospital care, that would otherwise be available only to Swiss residents. People working in Campione but living in Switzerland have access to Swiss unemployment and other state help, which does not apply to those living within Campione village limits, which is legally Italy.

Firefighters and ambulances are provided by the Swiss authorities. However, security is provided by the Carabinieri (Italian military police) and the village also has a Polizia Locale group.

Previously, mail could be sent to Campione using either a Swiss postal code (CH-6911) or an Italian one (IT-22061) via Switzerland or Italy, but the Swiss postal code has ceased to be valid, with mail instead being charged at the same international rate as that between Switzerland and Italy. Consequently, all mail is now processed and delivered by Poste Italiane, not Swiss Post. The telephone system remains Swiss, meaning that calls from Italy and all other countries outside Switzerland require the international dialling code for Switzerland, +41, with the exception of the town hall, which can be reached using the code for Italy, +39.

Similarly, motor vehicles, which used Ticino registration plates, were no longer allowed to do so, or to be insured in Switzerland. Instead, they were required to be registered in Como. However, electricity has always been supplied from Italy.

Casinò di Campione
The Casinò di Campione was the largest employer in the municipality up until its closure in 2018. The casino then reopened in 2022. It was founded in 1917, owned by the Italian government, and operated by the municipality. The income from the casino was sufficient for the operation of Campione without the imposition of taxes, or obtaining of other revenue. It was Europe's largest casino.

The casino was declared bankrupt on 27 July 2018. The economic impact was a threat to the entire village, with everything from pizzeria owners and taxi drivers to the municipal fire department on the list of creditors. Locals feared that without the casino, the commune would become a ghost town. Under the customs deal of 2020 Italy agreed to settle debts to Swiss creditors estimated at nearly €5 million. The casino re-opened on 26 January 2022.

Education
Schools within the comune are the Scuola Materna G. Garibaldi, the Scuola Elementare, and the Scuola Media.

title: Campione d'Italia