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Fokker F27 Friendship

The Fokker F27 Friendship is a turboprop airliner developed and manufactured by the Dutch aircraft manufacturer Fokker. It is the most numerous post-war aircraft manufactured in the Netherlands; the F27 was also one of the most successful European airliners of its era.

The F27 was developed during the early 1950s with the intent of producing a capable successor to the earlier piston engine-powered airliners that had become commonplace on the market, such as the Douglas DC-3. A key innovation of the F27 was the adoption of the Rolls-Royce Dart turboprop engine, which produced substantially less vibration and noise which provided improved conditions for passengers; another major comfort feature was cabin pressurisation. Innovative manufacturing techniques were also employed in the aircraft's construction.

On 24 November 1955, the F27 made its maiden flight; on 19 November 1958, the type was introduced to revenue service. Shortly after its introduction, the F27 was recognised as being a commercial success. Under a licensing arrangement reached between Fokker and the U.S. aircraft manufacturer Fairchild, the F27 was manufactured in the United States by the latter; Fairchild went on to independently develop a stretched version of the airliner, which was designated as the Fairchild FH-227. During the 1980s, Fokker developed a modernised successor to the F27, the Fokker 50, which eventually replaced it in production.

Origins
In the aftermath of the Second World War, twin-engine all-metal monoplanes such as the successful Douglas DC-3 airliner dominated commuter aviation. Over 10,000 DC-3s had been manufactured during wartime, which led to the type being highly available and thus encouraging its adoption by hundreds of operators across the world.

By the early 1950s, various aircraft manufacturers had begun considering the post-war requirements of the civil aviation market and several commenced work upon projects aiming to produce designs for new aircraft which would be viewed as best meeting these requirements; Dutch firm Fokker was amongst the companies pursuing development of such an aircraft. By 1951, figures within Fokker were urging that design work be undertaken on a prospective 32-seat airliner intended as a direct replacement for the popular DC-3. Fokker sought the opinions of existing DC-3 operators on what performance increases and refinements they would expect of a new model of commuter aircraft. On the basis of this feedback, the design team chose to incorporate various new technologies into the tentative design.

Fokker evaluated several potential configurations for the airliner, including the use of Wright Cyclone radial engines, before finally settling upon a high-wing aircraft, which was furnished with a pair of Rolls-Royce Dart turboprop engines and a pressurised cabin which contained a total of 28 passengers. The Dart engine had already proven successful on the early models of the Vickers Viscount, while a high-mounted wing had been selected as it produced a higher lift coefficient than a lower counterpart, it also enabled easier ground loading due to a lower floor level and provided unfettered external views to passengers without any weight increase. In the aircraft's construction, Fokker used an innovative metal-to-metal bonding technique, Redux, resulting in a longer fatigue life, improved aerodynamics, and a lighter structure; Fokker became the first such company after de Havilland to employ such means.

In 1953, the proposed airliner received the name Friendship. A total of four prototypes were produced, two of these being flyable aircraft that were used for the test flight programme and were paid for by the Netherlands Institute of Aircraft Development; the other two prototypes were for static and fatigue testing. On 24 November 1955, the first prototype, registered PH-NIV, performed its maiden flight. The second prototype and initial production machines were 0.9 m (3 ft) longer than the first prototype in order to address a revealed tendency for slightly tail-heavy handling as well as to provide additional space for four more passengers, raising the maximum number of passengers which could be carried to 32. These aircraft were also powered by the Dart Mk 528 engine, which was capable of generating greater thrust.

Further development
Throughout the F27's production life, Fokker proceeded to adapt the design for various purposes and roles. Via modifications such as the adoption of improved engines, rearranged loading doors, elongated fuselages, and other changes, several different models of the F27 were developed and made available for commercial operators. Several military transport models were also produced. Fokker also chose to design a dedicated model of the F27 for conducting maritime reconnaissance missions.

During 1952, Fokker established a relationship with the US aircraft manufacturer Fairchild, which was interested in the upcoming F27. In 1956, Fokker signed a licensing deal with Fairchild, under which the latter was authorised to manufacture the F27 in the USA. On 12 April 1958, the first American-built aircraft conducted its first flight. Production of Fairchild built aircraft would continue until July 1973. Fairchild proceeded to independently develop a stretched version of the airliner, designated as the FH-227. The majority of sales completed by Fairchild fell within the North American market.

In the early 1980s, Fokker decided to develop a modernised successor to the F27 Friendship, designated as the F27 Mark 050 and marketed as the Fokker 50. Although originating from the F27-500 airframe, the Fokker 50 was virtually a new aircraft, complete with Pratt & Whitney Canada engines and modern systems, which led to its general performance and passenger comfort being noticeably improved over the F27. The Fokker 50 ultimately replaced the F27 in production.

Operational history
In November 1958, the first production aircraft, an F27-100 model, was delivered to Irish airline Aer Lingus; it performed its first revenue flight in the following month. Other early customers of the Friendship included Braathens SAFE and Luxair in Europe; New Zealand National Airways Corporation; Trans Australia Airlines and its Australian competitors Ansett and East-West Airlines; and Turkish Airlines. Initial sales for the type were slow, which led to Fokker seeking financial support from banks and from the Dutch government in order to maintain production of the airliner while more customers were sought. In 1960, demand for the F27 increased rapidly as multiple airlines placed sizable orders for the type. This is in part due to the spreading reputation of the type, having been found by operators that, in comparison to its piston-engine wartime counterparts like the DC-3, the F27 possessed superior levels of efficiency, enabling faster flight times, greater passenger comfort and a higher level of reliability.

In 1960, the base purchase price for an RDa.6-powered F27 was £239,000. By the end of the production run for the Fokker F27 in 1987, a total of 592 units had been completed by Fokker (additionally, another 207 F-27s and FH-227s had been produced in the US by Fairchild), more than any other western European civil turboprop airliner at the time.

In later service, many aircraft have been modified from their original configurations for passenger service to perform cargo or express-package freighter duties instead. The last major cargo user of the F27 in the United States was FedEx Express, using it as a cargo "feeder" aircraft. These were retired and replaced by a mixture of ATR 42 and ATR 72 aircraft by the end of 2009, the last of these aircraft were subsequently donated to the Hickory Aviation Museum.

As of July 2010 a total of 65 F27s were in commercial service with almost 30 different airlines. By July 2013, only 25 Friendships remained in service, operated by 13 different airlines; most of these were F27-500s, with two -400s and a solitary -600 series aircraft in service. Italian cargo airline MiniLiner operated six F27s and Air Panama had four in its fleet. The United States Army Parachute Team has operated a single C-31A Troopship for conducting its skydiving exhibitions since 1985. As of July 2018, 10 aircraft remain in service operated by 7 airlines.

Variants

 * F27-100 - This was the first production model; 44 passengers.
 * F27-200 - It was powered by the more powerful Dart Mk 532 engine.
 * F27-300 Combiplane - A combined civil passenger/cargo aircraft.
 * F27-300M Troopship - Military transport version for Royal Netherlands Air Force.
 * F27-400 - "Combi" passenger/cargo aircraft, with two Rolls-Royce Dart 7 turboprop engines and large cargo door.
 * F27-400M - Military version for US Army with designation C-31A Troopship, still in use in 2018. Last retired September 2019. 85-01608 "Excalibur" transferred to Vliegend Nederlands Cultureel Erfgoed (Flying Dutch Cultural Heritage) based at Lelystad Airport (EHLE) One C-31A auctioned in October 2019.
 * F27-500 - equipped with a 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) longer fuselage, a return to the Dart Mk 528 engine, and accommodation for up to 52 passengers. It first flew in November 1967.
 * F27-500M - Military version of the -500.
 * F27-500F - A version of the -500 for Australia with smaller front and rear doors.
 * F27-600 - Quick change cargo/passenger version of -200 with large cargo door.
 * F27-700 - A F27-100 with a large cargo door.
 * F27 200-MAR - Unarmed maritime reconnaissance version.
 * F27 Maritime Enforcer - Armed maritime reconnaissance version.
 * F-27 - License-built version manufactured by Fairchild Hiller in the United States
 * FH-227 - Stretched version of the F-27, independently developed and manufactured by Fairchild Hiller in the United States

Accidents and incidents

 * On 10 June 1960, Trans Australia Airlines Flight 538 crashed in the sea near Mackay, Queensland, Australia, with 29 fatalities, in what is still the deadliest civilian Australian aircraft accident in history. The investigation was not able to determine a probable cause of this accident, but it was critical in the development of the flight recorder to record parameters to aid investigations of future airliner accidents.
 * On 7 May 1964, Pacific Air Lines Flight 773 operated with a Fairchild F-27 crashed into a hill in San Ramon, California, after a suicidal passenger killed both pilots and then turned the gun on himself. All 41 remaining people on board also were killed.
 * On the evening of 15 November 1964, Bonanza Air Lines Flight 114 operated with a Fairchild F-27 was flying from Phoenix, Arizona, to McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas, Nevada, in poor weather conditions, when it crashed into the top of a hill in open desert country about 10 miles (16 km) SSW of Las Vegas. All 29 people on board—26 passengers and a crew of three—died instantly when the plane exploded on impact, no more than 10 feet (3 m) below a ridge crest.  It was Bonanza's only crash with fatalities during the airline's 23-year history.
 * On February 28, 1967, Philippine Airlines Flight 345, an F-27 100, crashed on approach to Mactan–Cebu International Airport. The aircraft pitched upwards before banking and descending, with its left wing striking trees and then the ground, ending with the fuselage nosing over and sliding on its back, catching fire. 12 of the 19 occupants were killed. A contributing factor to the crash was the improper load distribution affecting the aircraft's centre of gravity.
 * On 21 April 1969, an Indian Airlines flight crashed in a thunderstorm while crossing East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) airspace on its flight from Agartala to Calcutta, killing all 44 people on board.
 * On 6 August 1970, a Pakistan International Airlines Fokker F27 turboprop aircraft crashed near the small village Rawat, after take-off from Islamabad in a thunderstorm, killing all 30 people on board.
 * On 26 September 1970, a Flugfélag Íslands Fokker F27 Friendship, with registration TF-FIL, crashed into the mountains of Mykines in the Faroe Islands, in heavy fog, killing the Icelandic captain and seven Faroese passengers. 26 passenger and crew survived the crash. Three passengers, who escaped with minor injuries, hiked for an hour down the mountain to the village of Mykines, alerting authorities. The majority of the villagers went up the mountain to aid the injured.
 * On 30 January 1971, Indian Airlines Fokker Friendship aircraft Ganga was hijacked by Hashim Quereshi and his cousin Ashraf Butt, and was flown to Lahore, Pakistan, where the passengers and crew were released and the aircraft was burnt on February 1, 1971.
 * On 25 March 1978, Fokker F-27 Friendship 200 XY-ADK lost altitude and crashed into a paddy field just after take-off from Mingaladon Airport, killing all 48 people on board.
 * On 14 September 1978, a Philippine Air Force F27 crashed due to wind shear; 15 of the 24 people on board were killed, as well as 17 people on the ground.
 * On 29 March 1979, an F27 operating as Quebecair Flight 255 crashed minutes after taking off from Québec City Jean Lesage International Airport in Canada. Seventeen people died and seven were injured.
 * On 26 May 1980, a Nigerian Air Force F27 crashed due to a thunderstorm, killing all 30 people on board. The aircraft was carrying a delegation of military and government officials on a diplomatic mission.
 * On 20 July 1981, Somali Airlines Flight 40 crashed near Balad, Somalia. All 50 passengers and crew on board were killed.
 * On 5 August 1984, a Biman Bangladesh Airlines Fokker F27-600 crashed into a marsh near Zia International Airport (now Shahjalal International Airport) in Dhaka, Bangladesh, while landing in poor weather. With a total death toll of 49 people, it is the deadliest aviation disaster to occur on Bangladeshi soil.
 * On 20 February 1986, an Iranian F27-600 commanded by Colonel Abdolbaghi Darvish was shot down by an Iraqi fighter jet. All 49 crew and passengers were killed. The aircraft was carrying a delegation of military and government officials on a mission.
 * On 16 August 1986, a Sudan Airways F27 was shot down by the Sudan People's Liberation Army, killing all 60 people on board. The Shootdown remains the worst involving the F27 and in South Sudan.
 * On 23 October 1986, a Pakistan International Airlines F27 crashed while coming in to land in the northwestern city of Peshawar, killing 13 of the 54 people on board.
 * On 21 June 1987, a Burma Airways Fokker F-27 Friendship 200 slammed into an 8200-ft-high mountain 15 minutes after take-off from Heho Airport, killing all 45 people on board.
 * On 8 December 1987, in the Alianza Lima air disaster, an F27 of the Peruvian Navy that was transporting the Alianza Lima football team crashed in Lima, Peru, killing the whole team.
 * 11 October 1987, a Burma Airways Fokker F-27 Friendship 500 crashed into a 1500-ft-high mountain, killing all 49 people on board. This was Myanmar's second-deadliest air disaster, surpassed only by the crash of a Myanmar Air Force Shaanxi Y-8 in 2017, which killed 122 people. Thirty-six foreigners—14 Americans, seven Swiss citizens, five Britons, four Australians, three West Germans, two French citizens, and one Thai—were among the dead.
 * On 19 October 1988 thirty-four died in a Vayudoot F27 crash near Guwahati, India.
 * On 25 August 1989, a Pakistan International Airlines F27 operating as Pakistan International Airlines Flight 404 and carrying 54 people disappeared after leaving Gilgit in northern Pakistan. The wreckage was never found.
 * On 1 July 1995, an East West Airlines Fokker F27, registered VT-EWE, was engaged in a touch-and-go landing training exercise at Vadodara Airport when the aircraft's left main landing gear failed on touchdown. The aircraft continued moving forward on its belly and skid to a halt on the runway. There was no fire and no injury to persons on board the aircraft. Poor maintenance was cited as a contributory factor in the accident. The aircraft was written off.
 * On 8 November 1995, an Argentine Air Force F27, tail number TC-72, operating a LADE civilian flight from Comodoro Rivadavia to Córdoba, crashed (-32.11227°N, -64.94802°W) near the summit of Cerro Champaquí in Córdoba, killing all 52 passengers and crew. Calamuchita Department, Cordoba, Argentina - panoramio - Hebert Coello (2).jpg
 * On 17 July 1997, Sempati Air Flight 304 crashed at Bandung, West Java, shortly after take-off, when after an engine failure, the crew mishandled the return to the airport on one engine.
 * On 27 January 1998, a Myanma Airways Fokker F27 crashed while taking off from Yangon, Myanmar, killing 16 of the 45 people on board.
 * On 24 August 1998, Myanma Airways Flight 635 crashed into a hill on approach to Tachilek Airport, killing all 36 on board.
 * On 11 November 2002, Laoag International Airlines Flight 585 crashed into Manila Bay in the Philippines; 19 of the 34 people on board were killed.
 * On 20 February 2003, a military F27 crashed in northwestern Pakistan, killing Pakistan Air Force Air Chief Marshal Mushaf Ali Mir, his wife, and 15 others.
 * Pakistan International Airlines Flight 688, carrying 45 people, crashed 2–3 minutes after take-off from Multan airport on 10 July 2006, with no survivors. Engine fire was suspected as the cause of the crash.
 * On 6 April 2009, an Indonesian Air Force F27 crashed in Bandung, Indonesia, killing all 24 occupants on board. The cause of the accident was said to be heavy rain. The aircraft reportedly crashed into a hangar during its landing procedure and killed all on board.
 * On 21 June 2012, an Indonesian Air Force F27 crashed into a housing complex in the capital Jakarta, setting six houses on fire and killing at least 11 people.
 * On 26 June 2022, a Cargo2Fly F27 5Y-CCE landed heavily on the runway at Juba International Airport, South Sudan, with the undercarriage retracted after the aircraft failed to climb on takeoff. No injuries.

Aircraft on display

 * Argentina
 * T-42 ex-Argentine Air Force static display at the Museo Nacional de Aeronautica de Argentina

 * Australia
 * 10132 – F27-109 is on static display at the South Australian Aviation Museum in Adelaide, South Australia. It was previously operated as VH-CAT by the CSIRO as an atmospheric research aircraft.
 * 10315 – F27-600QC is on static display at the Queensland Air Museum at Caloundra Airport in Caloundra, Queensland. It was originally manufactured as an F27-400 and later redesignated as a -600QC. The aircraft was delivered new to Australia and spent most of its career operating for Ansett.
 * 10596 - F27-500 was delivered airworthy to the Historical Aircraft Restoration Society, Illawarra Regional Airport, New South Wales on 26 February 2018. It had been operated by Airwork under contract to New Zealand Post.

Finland

 * Finnish Air-Force 1st F27 "Ansa" is on static display at the Satakunta Air Command garrison in Pirkkala, Finland. It was operated as FF-1 in the Finnish Air Force as both transport and signal reconnaissance plane. Prior military usage, the aircraft was operated briefly by Karair (later Finnair) as OH-KFA. The aircraft was initially operated by Iceland Air.
 * Iceland
 * 10545 – F27-200-MAR is on static display at the Akureyri Aviation Museum at Akureyri Airport. It was previously operated as TF-SYN by the Icelandic Coast Guard.
 * Iceland
 * 10545 – F27-200-MAR is on static display at the Akureyri Aviation Museum at Akureyri Airport. It was previously operated as TF-SYN by the Icelandic Coast Guard.

 * Indonesia
 * 10544 – F27-400M is on static display at the Dirgantara Mandala Museum in Yogyakarta. It was previously operated as A-2707 by the Indonesian Air Force.

 * Netherlands
 * 10102 – F27-100 is on static display at the Aviodrome in Lelystad. It was previously registered as PH-NVF, and is one of the prototype F27s, in whose colours it is painted.
 * 10105 – F27-100 is also on static display at the Aviodrome. It was previously registered as PH-FHF, is the first production F27, and is painted in the colours of NLM CityHopper.
 * 10183 - F27-100 on static display at a Bed and Breakfast in Hoogerheide. The 75th production Fokker 27 rolled out of the factory July 13, 1961. Ordered by Turkish airlines. Registered as TC-TEK. Bought back by Fokker in 1974 and used as a testbed for a prototype maritime version of which eventually 14 editions were made. Her new registration was PH-FCX. Last flight was made in June 30, 1983.
 * 10449 – F27-500 is on static display at Fokker Logistics Park in Oude Meer. It was previously registered as N19XE and is painted as PH-NIV, the first prototype F27. It marks the former location of the Fokker factory at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol.
 * C-10 – F27-300M is on static display at the Militaire Luchtvaart Museum in Soesterberg, Utrecht.

 * New Zealand
 * 10189 – F27-100 is on static display at the Ferrymead Aeronautical Society in Ferrymead Heritage Park in Christchurch. It was previously operated as ZK-BXG and is painted in National Airways Corporation colours.
 * 10190 – F27-100 is on static display at the National Transport and Toy Museum, Wanaka. It was previously registered as ZK-BXH.
 * 10286 – F27-100 is under restoration at the Chatham Islands Aviation Museum in Waitangi, Chatham Islands. It was previously registered as ZK-BXI.

 * Norway
 * 10298 – F27-100 is on static display at the Flyhistorisk Museum, Sola near Stavanger; it was operated by Braathens S.A.F.E and Busy Bee as LN-SUF.

 * Pakistan
 * A Pakistan International Airlines Fokker F27-200 is on display just outside Chitral airport at Fokker F27 Friendship Restaurant. The aircraft AP-AUR was operating Flight PK660 and was landing at Chitral in 2004 when its brakes failed causing the aircraft to overrun.

 * Philippines
 * 59-0259 F27-200 Philippine Air Force which once served as the presidential plane of the late President Ferdinand E. Marcos, is now is on static display at the in People’s Park in Barangay E. Lopez ,Silay City, Negros Occidental.
 * United Kingdom
 * 10196 – F27-200 is on static display at the City of Norwich Aviation Museum in Horsham, St Faith. It was previously operated as G-BHMY by Air UK.
 * 10201 – F27-500 is on static display at the City of Norwich Aviation Museum. It was previously operated as G-BCDN by Air UK before being retired to the KLM UK Engineering Technical College at Norwich Airport.

 * United States
 * 10367 – F27-500 is on static display at the Hickory Aviation Museum in Hickory, North Carolina. It was previously operated as N705FE by FedEx.

title: Fokker F27 Friendship


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Luther Terry

Luther Leonidas Terry (September 15, 1911 – March 29, 1985) was an American physician and public health official. He was appointed the ninth Surgeon General of the United States from 1961 to 1965, and is best known for his warnings against the dangers and the impact of tobacco use on health.

Early years
Luther Terry was born in Red Level, Alabama to James Edward Terry, M.D., and Lula Mariah (Durham) Terry. His father was a graduate of the University of Alabama School of Medicine, and was the "town doctor" for Red Level. Many of Luther Terry's earliest memories were of helping his father in the pharmacy and clinical offices in Red Level, and driving his father in the family's Ford Model A to emergency appointments out in the county.

Luther Terry earned a B.S. degree at Birmingham-Southern College in 1931, where he was initiated into the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity. He then received an M.D. degree at Tulane University in 1935. After interning at the Hillman Hospital in Birmingham, Alabama, and serving a residency in Cleveland Hospitals, Terry moved to Washington University in St. Louis in 1938 for an internship in pathology. The following year, he became an instructor at that institution. He subsequently served as instructor and assistant professor of preventive medicine and public health at the University of Texas at Galveston from 1940 to 1942.

Career
In 1942, Terry joined the staff of the Public Health Service Hospital in Baltimore, becoming Chief of Medical Services there the following year. His interest in cardiovascular research led him to accept the position of Chief of General Medicine and Experimental Therapeutics at the National Heart Institute in Bethesda in 1950, at first on a part-time basis while continuing his work at the Baltimore hospital. When the National Institutes of Health's Clinical Center opened in 1953, Terry's Heart Institute program was moved to the new facility and he devoted his full-time to the job. He also served as the first Chairman of the Medical Board of the Clinical Center (1953–1955) and was concurrently instructor and then assistant professor at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine from 1944 to 1961. Terry and his team laid the foundations for what has been called "the golden era of cardiovascular clinical investigation".

Surgeon General
In 1958, Terry became the Assistant Director of the National Heart Institute. He came to public prominence when President John F. Kennedy selected him as Surgeon General of the Public Health Service, effective March 2, 1961.

Although there had always been an awareness of the negative health effects of smoking, it was not until the 1950s that evidence began to be published suggesting that cigarette smoking caused lung cancer and other diseases. At the end of the decade, the Royal College of Physicians in the United Kingdom appointed a committee to investigate the relationship between smoking and health. The committee's report, issued on March 7, 1962, clearly indicated cigarette smoking as a cause of lung cancer and bronchitis and argued that it probably contributed to cardiovascular disease as well.

Shortly after the release of this report, Terry established the Surgeon General's Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health, which he chaired, to produce a similar report for the United States. Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service, released on January 11, 1964, concluded that lung cancer and chronic bronchitis are causally related to cigarette smoking. The report also noted out that there was suggestive evidence, if not definite proof, for a causative role of smoking in other illnesses such as emphysema, cardiovascular disease, and various types of cancer. The committee concluded that cigarette smoking was a health hazard of sufficient importance to warrant appropriate remedial action.

In June 1964, the Federal Trade Commission voted by a margin of 3–1 to require that cigarette manufacturers "clearly and prominently" place a warning on packages of cigarettes effective January 1, 1965, stating that smoking was dangerous to health, in line with the warning issued by the Surgeon General's special committee. The same warning would be required in all cigarette advertising effective July 1, 1965.

The landmark Surgeon General's report on smoking and health stimulated a greatly increased concern about tobacco on the part of the American public and government policymakers and led to a broad-based anti-smoking campaign. It also motivated the tobacco industry to intensify its efforts to question the scientific evidence linking smoking and disease. The report was also responsible for the passage of the Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act of 1965, which, among other things, mandated Surgeon General's health warnings on cigarette packages.

Cigarette smoking of nicotine was defined as not an addiction in the Surgeon General's first report on smoking (published by a committee of doctors who were largely smokers themselves).

Later years
Terry himself continued to play a leading role in the campaign against smoking after leaving the post of surgeon general, which he occupied through October 1, 1965. He chaired the National Interagency Council on Smoking and Health, a coalition of government agencies and nongovernment organizations, from 1967 to 1969, and served as a consultant to groups such as the American Cancer Society. He helped to obtain a ban on cigarette advertisements on radio and television in 1971. Late in his life he led the effort to eliminate smoking from the workplace.

When Terry retired from government service in 1965, he became vice president for medical affairs, as well as professor of medicine and community medicine, at the University of Pennsylvania. Terry was responsible for managing the university's health sciences schools, comprising some 40 percent of the university's budget, until he gave up the position of vice president in 1971. He retained his professorial appointment until 1975, when he became adjunct professor, and then in 1981 emeritus professor. From 1970 to 1983, he also served as president of University Associates, a nonprofit consulting firm based in Washington, D.C.

Terry's last years were spent as corporate vice president for medical affairs for ARA Services of Philadelphia (1980–1983) and then as a consultant. He died at Pennsylvania Hospital on March 29, 1985, aged 73, after a heart attack.

A collection of his papers are held at the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Luther Terry


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Female submission

Female submission or femsub is an activity or relationship in which a woman submits to the direction of a sexual partner or has her body used sexually by or for the sexual pleasure of her partner. The expression is often associated with BDSM, where submission to such activity is usually voluntarily and consensual. Submission usually involves a degree of trust by the woman in her partner. The dominant partner is usually a man, but can also be another woman, or there can be multiple dominant partners simultaneously. The submissive woman may derive sexual pleasure or emotional gratification from relinquishing (to varying degrees) control to (as well as satisfying) a trusted dominant partner.

A 1985 study suggested that about 30% of participants in BDSM activities were females. A 2015 study indicates that 61.7% of females who are active in BDSM expressed a preference for a submissive role, 25.7% consider themselves a switch, while 12.6% prefer the dominant role but a more recent survey from 2017 indicates that women tend to self-identify as Submissive, Slave, Bottom, or Masochist (SSBM) and always perform submissive roles while men tend to self-identify as Dominant, Master, Top, or Sadist (DMTS) and always perform dominant roles.

Eroticism
Submission can take the form of passivity or obedience in relation to any aspect of conduct and behavior. Submission can be to a partner in an interpersonal relationship, such as allowing the sex partner to initiate all sexual activity as well as setting the time and place and sex position. It can also be in relation to the type of sexual activity that the partners will engage in, including non-coital sex such as anal sex, or BDSM or sexual roleplay.

Some sex acts require a woman to be passive while an active sex partner performs sex acts on her, and this may be seen as a form of submission. Obedience may be a part of a sexual roleplay or activity, and can also be in the relation to the style of dress, if any, or behavior or any other manner. In fact, any act that is performed on a passive woman, such as undressing her, may be regarded as submissive behavior on the part of the woman.

Submission may be manifested in a multitude of ways whereby a woman relinquishes sexual or personal control to another, such as acts of servitude, submission to humiliation or punishments such as erotic spanking, hair pulling, caning and whipping, forced orgasms and female ejaculations, orgasm denial, golden showers, pussy torture, "forced" chastity, wax play, spitting, or other activities, at times in association with bondage.

Female submission can take the form of engaging in sexual activity with a person other than her normal partner, as in the case of swinging (sometimes called wife swapping), non-monogamy or prostitution. Female submission can also take place in the form of clothed male, naked female. The level and type of submission can vary from person to person, and from one time to another. Some women choose to include occasional sexual submission in an otherwise conventional sex life. For example, a woman may adopt a submissive role during a sexual activity to overcome a sexual inhibition she may have. A woman may choose to submit full-time, becoming a lifestyle slave.

Many people derive erotic pleasure from the submissiveness of a female partner, which they may regard as a turn-on; and some people regard obvious passivity as a form of feminine flirting or seduction. Some women submit to the sexual wishes of their partner for the pleasure of the partner, which may itself result in sexual pleasure for the submissive woman. In other cases the submission is solely for the pleasure of the partner where the woman does not receive pleasure as such from the activity.

In literature
Female submission is common in traditional literature. Story of O, published in 1954 in French, is an erotic tale of female submission involving a beautiful Parisian fashion photographer named O, who is taught to be constantly available for all forms of sex, offering herself to any male.

Wonder Woman's origin is closely tied to the world of BDSM and feminism. Its creator William Moulton Marston, an ardent feminist and practicing psychologist did not view female submission as an act of weakness or defeat. He used to see it as an act of love and respect.

title: Female submission


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Federal University of Minas Gerais

The Federal University of Minas Gerais (Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, UFMG) is a federal research university located in the state of Minas Gerais. Its main and biggest campus is located in the city of Belo Horizonte, Brazil. It is one of Brazil's five largest and highest-ranked universities,. It offers 79 undergraduate education programs, upon completion of their curricular schedule the student is awarded either a bachelor's degree, a licenciate degree, or a professional title (the latter usually applies to regulated health professions), all officialized by the issue of a university diploma. It also has 90 postgraduate education programs, awarding 30 postbaccalaureate specialization degrees, 92 master's degrees, and 72 doctoral degrees, as well as 41 medical residency programs offered at UFMG's hospital facilities complexes. The university also has campi at Tiradentes and Montes Claros. Most courses, however, are taught at the main campus, located in the Pampulha district of Belo Horizonte.

UFMG receives one of the highest amounts of federal funds and resources among all federal universities and is the fifth best university in Latin America, according to the 2021 Times Higher Education ranking, as well as the 3rd best university in Brazil. Results of the Student's National Performance Exam (ENADE) usually rank UFMG's undergraduate degrees among the best in Brazil and national ranking systems usually place UFMG as one of the best in the country.

Population
The UFMG has a population of roughly 72 thousand people among 34,482 undergraduate students, 2,247 postbaccalaureate specialization students, 10,556 master's and doctoral students, 3,202 professors, and 4,246 administrative employees. It is research-oriented, even at the undergraduate level, whose students are encouraged to take part in research development through the Scientific Initiation program. Out of the number of professors, 761 (24%) are CNPq award-recipients due to outstanding research productivity. It encompasses 860 research groups, 1051 patent deposits in Brazil and abroad, and has the highest score (5 out of 5) at the Ministry of Education's undergraduate assessment.

Admissions
The undergraduate students are admitted through the national annual exams called Exame Nacional do Ensino Médio (National High School Exam). Competition to get into undergraduate programs involved 111,718 candidates to 6740 vacancy openings (16.6 candidates per vacancy; 6% of candidates get a position).

Alumni
Past students include former Brazilian presidents Dilma Rousseff, Juscelino Kubitschek and Tancredo Neves; former governor of Minas Gerais Rondon Pacheco; writer, medical doctor and diplomat João Guimarães Rosa; writers Fernando Sabino, Pedro Nava and Cyro dos Anjos; plastic surgeon Ivo Pitanguy; poet Carlos Drummond de Andrade and musicians Fernando Brant, Samuel Rosa of Skank and Fernanda Takai of Pato Fu; electrical engineer and mathematician Welington de Melo; architect Fernando Maculan.

Location
The UFMG main campus is located at the Pampulha region of the city of Belo Horizonte. The total area of this land-campus equals 8,769,690 square meters, with a built area reaching 639,777 square meters. Aside from the main campus in Pampulha, in the same city there are the UFMG Health Sciences campus at Alfredo Balena Avenue in the city's hospitals district (or Santa Efigênia district), the UFMG School of Architecture and Design campus located at the Savassi district, and the Faculty of Law campus at the city center (in Belo Horizonte there are also ecological parks and cultural facilities such as a Conservatoire and 20 museums that belong to, and are administered by, the university ).

Outside of Belo Horizonte, UFMG has the Agronomic Sciences Campus in the city of Montes Claros, and a cultural campus in the city of Tiradentes (both in the state of Minas Gerais). The UFMG has also several other facilities such as Casa da Glória in Diamantina. Within the Pampulha Campus there is the CDTN, a Federal Institute for Nuclear Sciences Research. The campus avails of 38 built facilities, hundreds of scientific research laboratories and a 250 kW TRIGA nuclear reactor from General Atomics. There is also an extensive area of secondary forest known as the Estação Ecológica ("Ecological Station"), where some university scientists – mainly ecologists and zoologists – carry out research; this is the largest green space within the city boundaries, and is home to endemic insect species.

History
The origins of the university go back to the 19th century, when it first appeared in the Republic as a continuation of a process that began during the Empire, with the opening of the first institutions of higher education.

In 1898, the Ouro Preto Faculty of Law was transferred to Belo Horizonte, which at the time was set to be the new state capital.

A few new unconnected faculties would be founded later: in 1907, the Free School of Dentistry; in 1911, the Faculty of Medicine, the School of Engineering, and a course in pharmacy attached to the Free School of Dentistry.

In 1927, these four schools merged to found University of Minas Gerais (UMG), a private institution subsidized by the state government. This is the mark of the foundation of the university.

The UMG remained funded by Minas Gerais government until 1949, when funding had been delegated to the Brazilian Government, though, the name UFMG (including Federal) was not adopted until 1965.

In the 1940s, a large area in the Pampulha region became the site for the construction of University City. The first structures erected were the Institute of Mechanics (now the Vocational School) and the Main Building. The effective occupation of the campus by the university community started only in the 1960s, when the construction of the buildings that today house most of the academic units was started.

At the time of federalization, the schools of architecture, philosophy and economics were already integrated in the university. As its expansion carried on, the School of Nursing (1950), Veterinary Science (1961), Information Science (1962), Music (1962) and Physical Education  (1969) were founded.

In 1968, a university reform altered profoundly the structure of UFMG. The College of Philosophy spawned multiple institutions: the College of Philosophy and Human Sciences, the Institute of Biological Sciences, the Institute of Exact Sciences, the Institute of Geosciences and the Colleges of Literature and Education.

Additional courses have been established, among them agronomy, archival science, theater, museology, control engineering, computational mathematics, and speech therapy/audiology.

Academic Units
The faculty members (professors and lecturers) of the Federal University of Minas Gerais are hosted by departments. The departments are administered by one of three types of collegiate units: Schools, Faculties, and Institutes. Administratively, Schools, Faculties, and Institutes enjoy an equivalent executive status as Academic Units under the university, so they provide no practical difference among each other in administrative terms. They are the main Colleges of the university.

School of Architecture (EA)
The UFMG School of Architecture is in the central region of Belo Horizonte, more precisely at the intersection of Gonçalves Dias and Paraíba streets in the Savassi region. Founded in 1939, UFMG School of Architecture was the first course of architecture in Brazil released from engineering or fine arts. The building was designed by architect Shakespeare Gomes, one of the most representative works of modernism in Belo Horizonte. Currently, the school has the architecture courses (Day), Architecture (Night) and Design (Night).

School of Fine Arts (EBA)
The School of Fine Arts (Beaux-Arts or Belas Artes) of the Federal University of Minas Gerais is an institution located within the Pampulha campus of the university. It hosts undergraduate courses in visual and performing arts, including animation and digital arts, as well as post-graduate courses in Art.

School of Information Science (ECI)
The School of Information Science (ECI) is an institution of the UFMG. Its foundation date of March 25, 1950 and its incorporation into the Federal University of Minas Gerais took place in 1963. The ECI is dedicated to the training of people dealing with information science. The School currently offers undergraduate courses in Library, Archival and Museology. The building has one of the most peculiar architectures between units of UFMG. The various palm trees in the central part, the hanging gardens over the four floors, balconies and floor details create an interesting aesthetic effect.

School of Music
Formerly located at the Conservatory building (now Conservatório UFMG) in the center of the city, it migrated to Pampulha in the early 1990s. It teaches musical performance (classical and popular), composition, conducting, music education and music therapy. It comprises the departments of Instruments & Voice (INC Instrumentos e Canto) and Music Theory (TGM Teoria Geral da Música). The school has a library, two recording studios, two sonology laboratories ans an annexe for teaching music to young children.

School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy (EEFFTO)
The School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais is an institution located within the Pampulha campus of the university. It is taught the course of physical education, physical therapy and occupational therapy.

Nursing School
The UFMG School of Nursing was established on July 7, 1933. It currently holds a prominent position on the national scene for its undergraduate courses and Graduate Studies, and its research and extension projects. Currently, the School of Nursing is organized by the Departments of Applied Nursing (ENA), Basic Nursing (ENB) and Maternal Child Nursing and Public Health (EMI). Undergraduate courses in Nursing, Nutrition Course and System Analysis Course and health services are offered.

School of Professional and Basic Education
This unit is special in the scope of the university in the sense it is not concerned with higher education, undergraduate or graduate courses. It is the unit responsible for the teaching of basic education, i.e. education prior to higher education. The UFMG has a kindergarten school, a primary elementary school, a middle school, and several high school courses, either academic or professional. Usually, the teachers of these levels of education at these UFMG schools are students of the UFMG Faculty of Education pursuing their practices, but these facilities also have permanent faculty members who are actually administered by the same regulations as any other lecturer of professor. This academic unit, the School of Professional and Basic Education, is responsible for the administration of these teaching activities and the permanent members are hired by this school.

School of Engineering
The School of Engineering hosts 13 faculty departments (Structures, Materials and Construction, Mining, Industrial Production, T ransportation and Geotechnical, Electrical, Electronic, Hydric Resources and Hydraulic, Mechanical, Metallurgical, Nuclear, Chemical, and Sanitary and Environmental Engineering departments), 11 undergraduate engineer degree-awarding courses, and 10 post-graduate master's and doctorate title-awarding programs, held in a 13 pavilions (among classroom buildings, research buildings, libraries, and one-lab buildings for nuclear and fuel-combustion research) facilities complex.

School of Veterinary Medicine (FMV)
The UFMG Veterinary Medicine School is one of the best in Brasil, encompassing two undergraduate courses (Acquaculture and Veterinary Medicine and Surgery), several departments, several post-graduate programs, and many research labs. Its facilities encompass several pavilions of buildings and a many-wings Veterinary Medicine Hospital that receives all types of animals for treatments from zoos and institutions of many different parts of Brazil.

Faculty of Philosophy and Human Sciences (FAFICH)
The Faculty of Philosophy and Human Sciences (FAFICH) has seven departments, namely: Psychology, Philosophy, Anthropology, Sociology, Political Science, History, and Media and Communication. Out of its nearly 250 faculty members, 95% have doctoral degrees and are doing research. Among several laboratories on Social and Behavioural research fields, FAFICH has 6 laboratories of high research output focusing specifically on cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and behaviour analysis. This academic unit is one of the founding, core units of the collegiate-like University of Minas Gerais, and has a privileged spot at the UFMG as having graduated notable people.

The undergraduate titles awarded by FAFICH can be of three types: bachelor's degrees (research-based), licenciate degrees (teaching-based), or, in the particular case of Psychology, as a Health Science whose title allows for a license to practice the profession of psychologist, the legislation that regulates this title, under the National Health Sciences Committee (in Portuguese, Conselho Nacional de Saúde, or CNS ), requires the degree to be called the profession, so for the graduates of the 5-year theoretico-practical undergraduate course of psychology, the degree awarded by FAFICH and the university is a title of Psychologist, styled after the regulations of the CNS, like other Health licensed professions.

The Department of Psychology of the faculty is the largest and has the strongest research output, along with the Department of Political Science. The Department of Anthropology is one of the first in Brazil and hosts an undergraduate course of its own and a post-graduate program of its own, producing research in the avant-garde of the field in the world.

Faculty of Law and State Sciences (FDCE)
The Faculty of Law and State Sciences is located on a campus of its own at the center of Belo Horizonte downtown, a two-tower, 16-floor facility of prize-winning architecture, at the corner of Guajajaras street with Álvares Cabral Avenue. Its faculty is hosted by 4 departments: Public Law, Labour Law and Law Theory, Law and Criminal Procedure, and Civil and Commercial Law and Procedure. It awards two undergraduate titles: bachelor's degree in law, and bachelor's degree in state sciences. It also hosts a postgraduate program in law, awarding the titles of master's and doctorate in law.

Faculty of Medicine (FM)
The faculty members are clustered into 12 departments: Pathological Anatomy and Legal Medicine, Anatomy and Medical Imaging, Human Musculoskeletal System, Clinical Medicine, Surgery, Speech and Language Pathology and Therapy, Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Social Medicine and Preventive Healthcare, Ophthalmology and Otorhinolaryngology, Pediatrics, Complementary Propaedeutics, and Mental Health.

The Faculty of Medicine hosts three undergraduate courses: Medicine, Speech and Language Pathology-Therapy, and Radiodiagnostic Technology. This Faculty also hosts 10 graduate programs issuing master's and doctorate titles, namely: Speech and Language Pathology-Therapy, Surgery and Ophthalmology, Infectology and Tropical Medicine, Molecular Medicine, Pathology, Preventive Medicine (this one only issues master's degrees, and not yet doctorate titles), Child and Adolescent Health, Public Heatlh, and Women's Health. This faculty also is responsible for the UFMG Clinics Hospital and all medical residency programs that take place there.

Faculty of Economy (FACE)
The UFMG Faculty of Economy hosts 5 undergraduate courses: Business Administration, Accounting, Economy, Finances and Management Control System, and International Economic Relations. The Faculty also houses several post-graduate programs and faculty member departments.

Faculty of Education (FaE)
The Faculty of Education of the UFMG hosts several departments, post-graduate programs, and undergraduate courses, with focus on Pedagogy and Educational Sciences and Practices. Its Education Post-Graduate Program is one of the best in Brazil.

Faculty of Pharmacy (FAFA)
The UFMG Faculty of Pharmacy is one of the best in Brazil, offering two undergraduate courses (Pharmacy and Biomedicine) and several Post-Graduate programs. Its faculty members are divided into 4 departments: Food Production, Drug Production, Social Pharmacy, and Toxicological Analyses.

Faculty of Letters (FALE)
The UFMG Faculty of Letters hosts the undergraduate course in Letters, which is divided into several emphases, such as Linguistics, Portuguese, Ensligh, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Ancient Greek, Latin, Editorial Services, Literature etc. It has two Graduate programs awarding master's and doctorate titles: Linguistics and Literature. It has a strong Linguistics research output, making it one of the best graduate programs in Brazil (Maximum score by the Brazilian Higher Education Research Administration).

Faculty of Dentistry (FO)
The UFMG Faculty of Dentistry is the odontological unit, graduating dentist-surgeons and performing research and practice activities on Odontology.

Exact Sciences Institute (ICEx)
The Exact Sciences Institute of the Federal University of Minas Gerais offers nine undergraduate courses awarding either bachelor's or licenciate titles: Actuarial Science, Computer Science, Statistics, Physics, Mathematics, Computational Mathematics, Chemistry, Technological Chemistry, and Information Systems. Professor Ado Jorio is a faculty member of the ICEx Department of Physics, and has the most outstanding research output among all UFMG faculty members.

Biological Sciences Institute (ICB)
The Biological Sciences Institute of the UFMG hosts the undergraduate course in Biological Sciences, 12 Post-Graduate master's and doctoral degrees awarding programs, and 10 faculty departments.

Institute of Agronomy (ICA)
This institute offers 6 undergraduate courses: Administration, Agronomy, Environmental and Agricultural Engineering , Food Engineering, Forest Engineering, and Zootechny

Institute of Geosciences (IGC)
This unit hosts three undergraduate courses: Geography, Geology, and Tourism.

Research
UFMG has been ranked among the best universities in Brazil and in Latin America.

The Office of the Dean of Research advises the university administration on scientific and technological research, as well as encouraging research. The Center for Technology Innovation and Transfer promotes activities that apply technology development and transfer knowledge between UFMG and the community, via the creation of partnerships between researchers and business.

Information Science
The School of Information Science (former School of Librarian Science) has a full-time academic staff that explores research topics in the areas of Scientific and Technological, Managerial, and Social and Historical Information. In addition, using the Lab of Information Treatment, the unit works on topics related to information storage and diffusion.

Law
The Law School of UFMG has four main departments, which are devoted to the following areas: General Theory of Law (Jurisprudence), Legal History, Private Law and Civil Procedural Law, Criminal Law and Criminal Procedural Law, International Law, Conflict of Laws, Public Law, Constitutional Law, Administrative Law, Economic Law, Tax Law, Labour Law amongst others. On 20 December 2012, the School of Law will celebrate its 120th anniversary, being one of the oldest Law Schools in Brazil after University of São Paulo (USP) and Universities of Pernambuco and Rio de Janeiro.

Between 1892 – year of its foundation – and 1927 the Law School was an autonomous institution and congregated several important lawyers and politicians in national context. In the year of 1927, the Free Law Faculty of Minas Gerais (Faculdade Livre de Direito de Minas Gerais) joined the administrative framework of the Federal University of Minas Gerais. Since then, it is one of UFMG's main Schools and Research Centres.

Architecture
One of the research centers at the School of Architecture, which is divided into four departments, is the Graphic Laboratory for the Teaching of Architecture (Lagear), equipped with computer-assisted design programs. Among the research topics are Computer-Assisted Photogrametry, Computer-Assisted Photo-Documentation, Photorealistic Representations, as well as studies on accessibility (Architecture without barriers for disabled people).

Economics
Most research topics explored at the School of Economics (Face) are related to work done at the Center for Regional Development and Planning (Cedeplar), at the Center for Research and Graduate Studies in Business Administration (Cepead), and at the Research Institute in Economics, Business Administration, and Accounting (Ipead).

At Cedeplar, where 25 teachers have a doctoral degree and 10 have a master's degree, there is research on Demographics and on Economics, with projects on Fecundity, Historical Demographics and Labor, Agricultural and Industrial Economics, Economic History, Economics and Environment, and Privatizations. At Cepead, 11 teachers have a doctoral degree and eight have a master's. They study Sectors of Support for Decision Making, Human Behavior in Organizations, Performance and Financial Strategy in Organizations. With four teachers holding a doctoral degree and two holding a master's, the Ipead provides consultancy and calculates monthly rates of indices, such as price and rent variation.

Biological sciences
Six graduate programs and around 300 topics of research occupy 290 teachers at the Institute of Biological Sciences (ICB), 90% of whom holding doctoral, master's or post-baccalaureate degrees.

The laboratories of the institute's ten departments conduct research in Biology, some of them being national standards, such as the Center of Electronic Microscopy. ICB has developed a simple non-radioactive methodology for the study of DNA impressions and the American visceral leishmaniasis vaccine. Among the ICB topics of research responsible for the largest number of publications are those related to the development of new vaccines and medications – Biochemistry, Immunology, and Microbiology – to Genetics and to Ecology. The unit makes contributions to Botany, Zoology, Morphology, and Parasitology.

To assist researchers and teachers, ICB has four laboratory animal facilities with hundreds of guinea pigs kept in accordance to international principles of animal experimentation.

The university operates the 114 ha Federal University of Minas Gerais Ecological Station on the Pampulha campus, used for various research projects including a master's course in Ecology Conservation and Wildlife Management.

Veterinary medicine

Founded in 1932, the College of Veterinary Medicine (CVM) (Veterinary College of UFMG) completed 80 years in 2012, and has trained over 5,000 veterinarians. CVM conducts animal science and veterinary medicine education and research. In addition to Veterinary Medicine, CVM offers an undergraduate degree in Aquaculture. MSc and PhD degrees in Animal Science and Animal Husbandry, Veterinary Medical Residency, and Professional MSc are available in 19 areas of knowledge. The college is located in the Pampulha Campus and has four departments: Veterinary Clinic and Surgery (DCCV), Preventive Veterinary Medicine (DMVP), Technology and Inspection of Animal Products (DTIPOA) and Animal Science (DZOO). Two experimental farms and the Veterinary Hospital are available.

The five-year Veterinary Medicine course takes 120 students per year and over 95% of undergraduate students complete the course. Most faculty at teaching are full-time, permanent and have PhD degrees (more than 90%). About 1/3 of undergraduate students participate in research activities in 112 laboratories and produce around 250 academic research abstracts per year. More than 140 scientific papers are produced per year by faculty members.

Engineering
Around 70% of the 280 teachers at the School of Engineering work on 60 topics of research.

Most research work done in Engineering is related to technological development, with application in industry, funded by national and international agencies. By means of agreements and service contracts signed through the Christiano Otonni Foundation, the school makes contact with companies from the public and private sectors.

In Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, an Environmental Monitoring and Water Treatment Project has been run in collaboration with the German agency TGZ.

Three topics of research are pursued in Electric Engineering, monitored by the department's Research Center: high tension, which includes studies on protection against atmospheric discharges, power electronics, and control of industrial processes.

In the Department of Civil Engineering, research is carried out at the Laboratory of Structural Analysis, where structures submitted to very high pressure are evaluated. Work is being done on energy alternatives, mainly on photovoltaic energy (the transformation of sun light into energy) and solar collectors. The projects are supported by the Minas Gerais Energy Company (Cemig) and Eletrobrás.

At the Department of Chemical Engineering, there is research on liquid/liquid separation and on heat sensitive substances. At the Department of Mining Engineering, two of the most important research topics are mineral treatment and prospecting. The School of Engineering's largest department is Metallurgic Engineering, which has an X-ray lab and an electronic microscopy lab, among others. Research involves extractive metallurgy, physical metallurgy, which deals with material molding, and "Trefilação".

Still at the School of Engineering, there is the Center for Electronic Computation, linked to the Scientific Computation Lab.

Social sciences and philosophy
Six academic units conduct research in human sciences and applied social sciences. At the Faculty of Philosophy and Human Sciences (FAFICH), 95% of its near 250 lecturers from its seven departments have doctoral degrees and are doing research. At the Department of Sociology, researches focus mainly on urban and industrial sociology, quantitative/systems sociology, and sociology of culture. At the Department of History, the characteristic topics are oral, political, and economic history. The Department of Political Sciences works mostly with public and administrative policies, Brazilian and international politics, electoral behavior, and political theory. At the Department of Philosophy, most works focus on the relationship between philosophy and psychoanalysis, Marxism, social and political philosophy, esthetics, art philosophy, epistemology and philosophy of science, and logic. The Department of Philosophy's the Esthetics Laboratory does research and documentation work on Esthetics and Art and Civilization History.

Psychology
The Department of Psychology is the largest of the Faculty of Philosophy and Human Sciences, and holds the position of one of the best in Brazil due to undergraduate teaching outputs. The UFMG Department of Psychology administers two post-graduate programs awarding titles of master's and doctoral degrees: one is the Psychology Graduate Program, and the other one is the Cognition and Behavior Graduate Program.

Education
The Faculty of Education (FAE) has three departments, which carry out interdisciplinary activities with other university sectors. The Center for Literacy, Reading, and Writing (Ceale), which develops projects on child and adult literacy, has been the major source of publication at FAE. The Center for Mathematics and Science Teaching in Minas Gerais (Cecimig) studies the learning processes in the area and offers permanent courses for primary and secondary teachers.

Medical sciences
The UFMG Faculty of Medicine is one of the founding academic units and receives massive investments from the Union's (Federal Government) Executive Power Ministry of Health, leading to an important research output in the Brazilian scientific scenario. The UFMG School of Medicine's twelve departments research more than 100 topics, using the infrastructure of the Hospital das Clínicas and its 14 labs. Around 60% of the unit's more than 470 teachers hold a master's or a doctoral degree, and most of them take part in scientific production.

A large part of the research stems from the 12 medicine post graduate programs offered by UFMG. Among the topics are infectious and parasitic diseases, hematology and oncology, gastroenterology and digestive tract surgery, ophthalmology, and endocrinology. There are also publications on pathology, surgery, ambulatory surgery, infectious and parasitic diseases, spider and snake poisons, transplants, toxicology, tropical medicine, sexually transmitted diseases, AIDS, fetal medicine, neurosurgery, oncology, gynecology and obstetrics, and preventive and social medicine.

Nursing
More than half the 82 teachers of the School of Nursing, most of whom have master's and doctoral degrees, are involved in projects that are largely interdisciplinary.

Distributed among the unit's three departments, they work at the university hospitals and in the public health system. Some of their research topics are education and the nursing curriculum, transmitted diseases, work force, workers' health quality, and rites of death in senior citizens' memories.

Dentistry
Many of the School of Dentistry's 100 teachers, one-fifth of whom hold a master's or doctoral degree, does research. Research includes bio-safety in dental practice, dental trauma, social representation of health and mouth disease, orthodontics for deciduous and permanent teeth, surgery, peridental disease and cyst, and prevention and epidemiology of cavities and other diseases.

Pharmacy
The Faculty of Pharmacy, which has four departments, does mostly experimental research. Of the unit's more than 70 teachers, about 35% hold a doctoral degree and approximately the same percentage have a master's degree. Research includes the development of new substances and medicines at the school's laboratories, mainly the Labs of Medicines and of Pharmacognosis and Plant Chemistry.

The Department of Food does research on biotechnology (quality control and food science and technology). The Department of Clinical Analyses has work on parasitology and applied toxicology, as well as on clinical bio-chemistry.

Physical education
The School of Physical Education investigates about 20 research topics. At the two departments linked to the Physical Education program, nearly half the 35 teachers do research, most of which is done in the Labs of Exercise Physiology and of Sport Psychology. Research includes studies of the behavior of the human organism, athlete conditioning, prevention of temperature accidents during exercises, effects of caffeine on the body, and neuroendocrinologic response to exercise. In the Department of Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, there are projects related to neuropediatrics and to physiotherapy in geriatrics. The department's researchers work at the Hospital das Clínicas and at the Lab of Therapeutic Gymnastics, which belongs to the school.

Websites

 * Colégio Técnico – Coltec
 * Centro Esportivo Universitário – CEU
 * Escola de Arquitetura
 * Escola de Belas-Artes – EBA
 * Escola de Ciência da Informação (Escola de Biblioteconomia)
 * Escola de Educação Física, Fisioterapia e Terapia Ocupacional – EEFFTO
 * Escola de Enfermagem
 * Escola de Engenharia
 * Escola de Música
 * Escola de Veterinária
 * Faculdade de Ciências Econômicas – FACE
 * Faculdade de Direito
 * Faculdade de Educação – FAE
 * Faculdade de Farmácia
 * Faculdade de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas – FAFICH
 * Faculdade de Letras – FALE
 * Faculdade de Medicina
 * Faculdade de Odontologia
 * Instituto de Ciências Agrárias da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - ICA
 * Instituto de Ciências Biológicas – ICB
 * Instituto de Ciências Exatas – ICEx
 * Instituto de Geociências – IGC
 * Parque Tecnológico – BHTEC

title: Federal University of Minas Gerais


text:
Gospel Book Fragment (Durham Cathedral Library, A. II. 10.)

'''Durham Cathedral Library, Manuscript A.II.10. ''' is a fragmentary seventh-century Insular Gospel Book, produced in Lindisfarne c. 650. Only seven leaves of the book survive, bound in three separate volumes in the Durham Cathedral Dean and Chapter Library (MS A. II 10 ff. 2–5, 238-8a; MS C. III. 13, ff. 192–5; and MS C. III. 20, ff 1–2). Although this book is fragmentary, it is the earliest surviving example in the series of lavish Insular Gospel Books which includes the Book of Durrow, the Lindisfarne Gospels, the Lichfield Gospels and the Book of Kells.

The surviving illuminations are a border to the colophon at the end of the Gospel of Matthew and an "INI" monogram at the beginning of the Gospel of Mark.

The frame is in the form of three "D" shapes stacked one atop another and which occupy the entire right half of the page. The spaces between the curves of the "D" shapes are filled with triangular knots. The "D" shapes themselves are decorated orange dots superposed on yellow interlace patterns. The pattern of the interlace is different on each of the "D" shapes. This frame represents the first appearance in an Insular manuscript of interlace, a motif which will assume enormous importance in later manuscripts. The frame encloses the explicit for Matthew, the incipit for Mark, and the text of the pater noster in Greek, but written in Latin letters.

The "INI" monogram is formed by compressing the three letters into a large N which is reminiscent of the initial N found in the Ambrosiana Jerome. The left upright of the monogram is over twice as long as the right. Both uprights are divided into two columns of coloured panels separated by a black and cable. The panels are decorated with dots of contrasting colours. Both ends of the right upright and the top end of the left upright have spiral pattern terminals. The lower end of the left upright and both ends of the knotted cross bar have beast-head terminals. In the first line of text that follows the monogram, the letters are hollow-shafted and each successive letter is smaller than the previous. There are some smaller initials marking verses in Matthew.

This manuscript shows the beginning of many techniques and motifs that are used in later manuscripts. The use of decorated text in which the decoration distorts the shape of the letters has been seen before, notably in the Cathach of St. Columba. But the combination of letters into a monogram is a new motif, one that will be developed extensively in later manuscripts. Similar "INI" monograms will be used at the beginning of the Gospel of Mark in almost every later Insular Gospel Book. The use of alternating colours that almost resemble enamel plaques such as are seen in this manuscript's INI monogram will also become a standard technique in later manuscripts. The successive diminution of letters following an initial had also been seen, again notably in the Cathach, and would also be a standard technique in Insular illumination. Finally the interlace pattern first found here would become an almost defining aspect of Insular illumination.


text:
1997 Irish general election

The 1997 Irish general election to the 28th Dáil was held on Friday, 6 June, following the dissolution of the 27th Dáil on 15 May by President Mary Robinson, on the request of Taoiseach John Bruton. The general election took place in 41 Dáil constituencies throughout Ireland for 166 seats in Dáil Éireann, the house of representatives of the Oireachtas, under a revision in the Electoral (Amendment) Act 1995.

The two largest parties, Fine Gael and Fianna Fáil, increased both their vote totals and representation, while both the junior parties in the Dáil, the Labour Party and the Progressive Democrats, had disastrous campaigns that saw their representation in the Dáil slashed by 50% or greater. However, some of the other minor parties in the Dáil saw improvements: for the first time in 75 years a Sinn Féin TD took their seat in the Dáil after Caoimhghín Ó Caoláin was elected, while the Green party added a second TD and the Socialist Party gained their first ever national representative in Joe Higgins.

Following the election, the 28th Dáil met at Leinster House on 26 June to nominate the Taoiseach for appointment by the president and to approve the appointment of a new government of Ireland. Bertie Ahern was appointed Taoiseach, forming the 25th government of Ireland, a minority coalition government of Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats.

The election has been described by Irish Independent journalist Shane Coleman as a prelude to the "golden years" of the Celtic Tiger, and thus one of the most significant general elections in Irish history.

Background
The maximum amount of time between a general election in Ireland is five years, and thus the governing Rainbow Coalition of Fine Gael, the Labour Party and Democratic Left knew an election would have to be called in mid to late 1997. Fine Gael had wanted to wait until the autumn to call the election, but Labour were keen to fight their campaign in the summer. Anticipating the election, on 14 April 1997 during their annual party conference, Labour leader Dick Spring declared "I will not, in the aftermath of the next general election, come before you and recommend any form of coalition with either of the parties that make up the centre-right alternative, the Progressive Democrats or Fianna Fail", which ruled out the possibility of Labour being able to play kingmaker between possible coalition blocs.

Both Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats were delighted by the decision to hold the election in the summer instead of the autumn; Fianna Fáil in particular feared the release in October or November of the report by the McCracken Tribunal, which was investing allegations that Ben Dunne Jnr. had bribed members of Fianna Fáil and that they had aided him in tax evasion.

The 1997 general election saw the public offered a choice of two possible coalitions. The existing government was a coalition of Fine Gael, the Labour Party and Democratic Left – called the Rainbow Coalition, while the opposition "alternative coalition" consisted of Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats.

Rainbow coalition (Fine Gael, Labour, Democratic Left)
The outgoing Rainbow parties campaigned to re-elect the coalition and thus emphasized the working relationship that they had developed, running with the slogan 'Partnership That Works'. They claimed credit for a booming economy, improving social services and reforms such as the introduction of divorce. Despite this united front, each party fought its own campaign. Labour emphasised the number of campaign pledges it had managed to implement not only as part of the Rainbow government but also during its coalition with Fianna Fáil.

Fianna Fáil campaign
Fianna Fáil under Bertie Ahern had been restructuring itself after its turbulent period under Charles Haughey and Albert Reynolds. The party's central office gained control of candidate selection and modernised its campaigning strategy, especially concerning vote management and controlling transfers under Ireland's PR electoral system. In addition, the bitter internal feuding that had dogged the party for decades was ended by Ahern's more unifying style of leadership. This leadership also allowed Fianna Fáil to run a very energetic campaign that emphasised Ahern's relative youth and enthusiasm, which distanced the party from scandals that had beset the party.

Progressive Democrats' campaign
Despite entering the election with polls suggesting they would overtake Labour as the third biggest party, and with Mary Harney as the most popular party leader, the Progressive Democrats struggled. Initially, it ran a presidential-style campaign that emphasized Harney. However, entering a pact with a resurgent Fianna Fáil meant it struggled to assert itself. In response, the PDs hastily published a manifesto — a move that backfired as it controversially called for single parent benefits to be cut in order to encourage single mothers to live with their parents. This drew fire from Pronsias De Rossa, who claimed Harney did "not have a bull's notion about social welfare". The Progressive Democrat's manifesto also called for the laying off of 25,000 public sector workers over five years, a proposal that was heavily criticised by the left-wing parties. In response, Fianna Fáil's leadership demanded a sit-down meeting with the Progressive Democrat leadership, and after the two parties publicly announced together that no layoffs would be made in the public sector without the consent of Irish trade unions. Harney also claimed her comments about unwed mothers had been misrepresented by the media.

Sinn Féin and Northern Ireland
1997 was a pivotal year politically across the island of Ireland as the Troubles drew to an end and progress towards the forthcoming Good Friday Agreement was being made. Inevitably, the issue of Sinn Féin's participation in the election and each party's policy on Northern Ireland came up repeatedly during the campaign. Previous to the May 1997 United Kingdom general election, leader of Fine Gael John Bruton declared that if the IRA had not declared a ceasefire, then a vote for Sinn Féin would be a vote for violence. However, on 26 May, Labour leader and coalition partner Dick Spring stated that a vote for Sinn Féin in Northern Ireland would be a vote for peace. The opposition in the Dáil responded by declaring that the government was sending out mixed messaging about Sinn Féin and Northern Ireland.

In late May/early June, Bernie Ahern began attacking Bruton on the topic of Northern Ireland, criticising Bruton for not being the leading voice of "Nationalist Ireland" and promising that he would take this mantle if elected Taoiseach. Simultaneously, Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams involved himself in the election by criticising Bruton's handling of the peace process. On 31 May, an active Provisional IRA landmine was discovered in Belfast, prompting Bruton to state he would "think very hard" before allowing any further contact between members of the government and Sinn Féin. Afterwards, the leader of the Democratic Left, Proinsias De Rossa, asked Ahern to clarify his "electoral support for Sinn Féin". Ahern denied he had ever lent support to Sinn Féin and went further by stating categorially he would rule Sinn Féin out of any possible coalition talks following the election. Ahern justified this by saying it would send the wrong message to Unionists in Northern Ireland to add Sinn Féin to a coalition.

Crime
The murder of journalist Veronica Guerin in June 1996 by drug lords in Dublin ensured that the subject of crime was a pressing one during the election. Although Fine Gael had traditionally been the "party of law and order" in Ireland, Fianna Fáil were able to seize on the subject of crime and declared they would have a "zero tolerance" approach to crime. Fianna Fáil Spokesperson on Crime, John O'Donoghue, was able to dictate the conversation and was also able, previous to the election, to convince the government to support his bill which gave greater powers to the Criminal Assets Bureau.

Results
The outgoing Ceann Comhairle retired at this election. Independents include Independent Fianna Fáil (11,607 votes, 1 seat).
 * }

Seats summary
Although Fine Gael gained seats, it crossed the Dáil chamber to the Opposition benches. Fianna Fáil also increased its representation, but the Progressive Democrats had a disastrous election, maintaining its share of the vote, but winning only four seats compared to ten at the previous election, losing seats thought safe such as Cork North-Central and Dún Laoghaire.

The Green Party won a second seat, with John Gormley elected in Dublin South-East. He was elected by just over 30 votes after a recount lasting four days saw Progressive Democrat Michael McDowell defeated. The loss of McDowell was particularly stinging to the Progressive Democrats as McDowell was their "chief ideologue".

One of the main features of the election, however, was the collapse of the Labour Party vote. Not only did it lose seats it had picked up in the 1992 general election, when its vote was at an all-time high – such as in Clare and Laois–Offaly – but it also lost reasonably safe seats, such as in Dublin North, Dublin Central and Cork South-Central. Dick Spring would retire as leader of the Labour Party later that year, after further disappointment in the presidential election.

Democratic Left also suffered, losing its two gains made in by-elections during the 27th Dáil. Sinn Féin won its first Dáil seat since 1957, with the party winning a seat in the Cavan–Monaghan constituency with the election of Caoimhghín Ó Caoláin, and taking seats for the first time since 1922. It also narrowly missed a seat in Kerry North. The Socialist Party, a Trotskyist party which consisted of former members of the Labour Party expelled in 1989, won its first seat in the Dublin West constituency.

Another seat change of note was the first capture of Cavan–Monaghan by Sinn Féin's Caoimhghín Ó Caoláin. When Ó Caoláin subsequently took his seat in the Dáil, it was the first time in 75 years a member of Sinn Féin had done so. Ó Caoláin's entry into the Dáil marked a major turning point in the history of Sinn Féin, who would continue to hold a presence in the Dáil to the present day.

Government formation
Following the election, none of the major parties had a clear majority. Negotiations resulted in a Fianna Fáil–Progressive Democrats coalition taking office. Four Independent Teachta Dála (TDs) also supported the government ensuring a working majority. Bertie Ahern became the Taoiseach while Mary Harney of the Progressive Democrats became Tánaiste.

Dáil membership changes
The following changes took place as a result of the election:
 * 17 outgoing TDs retired, including the Ceann Comhairle, Seán Treacy
 * 149 TDs stood for re-election
 * 121 were re-elected
 * 28 failed to be re-elected
 * 45 successor TDs were elected
 * 32 were elected for the first time
 * 13 had previously been TDs
 * There were 6 successor female TDs, replacing 9 outgoing, decreasing the total number by 3 to 20
 * There were changes in 34 of the 41 constituencies contested

Outgoing TDs are listed in the constituency they contested in the election. For some, such as Kildare North, this differs from the constituency they represented in the outgoing Dáil. Where more than one change took place in a constituency the concept of successor is an approximation for presentation only.

Seanad election
The Dáil election was followed by the election to the 21st Seanad.

title: 1997 Irish general election


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User:Azncreampuffz

Greetings! I suppose I am a new Wikipedian. Currently, I am just checking out what seems to be an extremely promising project. I hope to submit articles in the future.

title: User:Azncreampuffz


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User talk:Azncreampuffz

Hey! How did you hear of Wikipedia?

title: User talk:Azncreampuffz


text: User:Angelique

title: User:Angelique


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Talk:Scale (ratio)

Could we have something on this page about reptile scales and not just measuring scales? could we have something about math not about animals?
 * See Scale (zoology). --Zigger 19:21, 2004 Jun 13 (UTC)

The following request was moved here from the bottom of the article. --Zigger 19:21, 2004 Jun 13 (UTC)
 * Add more examples here... A history of the measuring scale would be good too

Suggested modifications
I would like to suggest some modifications for this page.

1 The second and third paragraphs grate uncomfortably with the level of the page since they require graduate level mathematics. Remove them? Move them to the end to a small section entitled something like "Mathematical Note".

2 Tidy up the comment on maps and link to a rewritten page on "Scale(maps)". There I have suggested definition of point scale and representative fraction. Peter Mercator (talk) 14:43, 5 April 2009 (UTC)

 * Above implemented. -- Peter Mercator (talk) 21:43, 20 April 2009 (UTC)

3 The frensh link bings us to https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89chelle instead of https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratio. Could you pleas fixe this? Emaanet (talk) 15:39, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

Merge with Scale (map) (or rename the two articles)
See Talk:Scale (map). --109.53.229.124 (talk) 10:37, 27 July 2014 (UTC)

Geography
What does the scale of the map assist us with 41.114.64.227 (talk) 18:18, 21 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Scale (ratio)


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Sac spider

The sac spiders of the family Clubionidae have a very confusing taxonomic history. Once, this family was a large catch-all taxon for a disparate collection of spiders, similar only in that they had eight eyes arranged in two rows and conical anterior spinnerets that touched, and were wandering predators that built silken retreats, or sacs, usually on plant terminals, between leaves, under bark, or under rocks. These are now recognized to include several families, some of which are more closely related to the three-clawed spiders, like lynx and wolf spiders, than to Clubionidae and related families.

Genera
The remnant Clubionidae now consist of a few over 500 species in 18 genera worldwide. However, "sac spider" used on its own should imply a member of the family Clubionidae, but other common names may use the phrase "sac spider" including:
 * Anyphaenidae (anyphaenid sac spider)
 * Corinnidae (corinnid sac spider)
 * Liocranidae (liocranid sac spider)
 * Miturgidae (long-legged sac spider)
 * Tengellidae (merged into Zoropsidae)
 * Zorocratidae (merged into Zoropsidae)

, the World Spider Catalog accepts the following genera:

 * Arabellata Baert, Versteirt & Jocqué, 2010 — New Guinea
 * Bucliona Benoit, 1977 — St. Helena, Kenya, Russian Far East, Korea, Japan, China, Taiwan
 * Clubiona Latreille, 1804 — Africa, North America, Asia, Oceania, South America, Europe, Panama
 * Clubionina Berland, 1947 — St. Paul Is.
 * Elaver O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1898 — North America, Caribbean, Central America, South America, Philippines
 * Femorbiona Yu & Li, 2021 — China, Vietnam
 * Invexillata Versteirt, Baert & Jocqué, 2010 — New Guinea
 * Malamatidia Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 — Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia
 * Matidia Thorell, 1878 — Asia, Papua New Guinea
 * Nusatidia Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 — Asia
 * Porrhoclubiona Lohmander, 1944 — Asia, Africa, Europe
 * Pristidia Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 — Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia
 * Pteroneta Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 — Asia, Australia
 * Ramosatidia Yu & Li, 2021 — China
 * Scopalio Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 — Indonesia
 * Simalio Simon, 1897 — Asia, Trinidad
 * Sinostidia Yu & Li, 2021 — China
 * Tixcocoba Gertsch, 1977 — Mexico

Additionally, the World Spider Catalog considers Carteroniella Strand, 1907 to be a nomen dubium.

In North America, the family as it is now recognised consists of only two genera, Clubiona and Elaver (formerly Clubionoides). Clubiona is nearly worldwide in distribution.

title: Sac spider


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Paradise Garage

Paradise Garage, also known as "the Garage" or the "Gay-rage",  was a New York City discotheque notable in the history of dance and pop music, as well as LGBT and nightclub cultures. The 10,000 sqft club was founded by sole proprietor Michael Brody, and occupied a building formerly located at 84 King Street in the SoHo neighborhood. It operated from 1977 to 1987 and featured resident DJ Larry Levan.

The Garage is credited with influencing the development of modern nightclubs, and is cited as a direct inspiration for London's Ministry of Sound. Unlike other venues of its time, Paradise Garage promoted dancing rather than verbal interaction, and it was the first to place the DJ at the center of attention. It was known for its enthusiastic-yet-unforgiving nature toward performers. It hosted many notable musicians including Diana Ross and a young Madonna. In 1979, Tim Curry released the album Fearless, containing the single "Paradise Garage", whose lyrics narrate visiting the discotheque.

Physical space
Paradise Garage derived its name from the building's origin as an early automobile parking structure. Its initial certificate of occupancy, dated March 26, 1925, identifies the architect of the two-story commercial building at 80-86 King Street as Victor Mayper.

Michael Brody's imprint on the space began in 1977 with the club opening as 84 King Street Garage. After a year-long renovation, it officially became Paradise Garage on January 28, 1978. Among the improvements were a sprung dancefloor and custom sound system, developed by Richard Long of Richard Long & Associates (RLA). The club's main room layout and dancefloor were reportedly purpose-designed around the sound system, which is said to have been the best in New York City at that time and described by François Kevorkian as a "temple of music."

The venue initially accommodated 750 patrons for the original dance floor, which was later turned into the front lounge/gray room/glass lounge, but a 1978 expansion when the main dance floor opened raised its legal capacity to 1,400 people and then Brody added a rooftop lounge in 1984 styled after the coastal scrubland and beachside villas of nearby Fire Island Pines, where Brody owned a summer home.

After 11 years of operation, The Garage's lease ended on October 1, 1987. The building later reverted to use as truck depot by Verizon Communications. In April 2018, it was demolished and replaced by high-rise luxury condominiums.

Culture
The Garage was largely modeled on David Mancuso's private invitation-only DJ parties at The Loft. Admission to the club was only available to members and their guests, with an interview process used to select members. In order to avoid New York City restrictions on bar and restaurant hours-of-operation, snacks and beverages were freely available to patrons and no liquor was served. These measures allowed the club to stay open afterhours, often until 10:00 AM or even later the following day.

In contrast to its well-known contemporary Studio 54, The Garage fostered a distinctly no-frills, egalitarian atmosphere, as reminisced by one of its former dancers:

"You went there to dance, and we didn't dance like the regular people who were dancing in discos. I used to get dressed up to go to a disco, I'd do the Hustle for a couple hours till 4 o'clock in the morning, then I'd say, 'Oh shit, lemme go to the Garage.' I had my bag with me and go to the Garage and change into my sweatpants and my sneakers."

The club hosted a number of charity events, benefitting organizations like Gay Men's Health Crisis (GMHC) and U.S. Fund for UNICEF. As of 2008, the Paradise Garage trademark is owned by GMHC.

Music
Paradise Garage was an epicenter for early pioneers of dance music under the curation of resident DJ Larry Levan. The unique and eclectic styles of disco and dance music featured at the Garage gave rise to descriptive encompassing terms like New York house, "garage", "garage style", and "garage classic" (to describe a record that was made famous at, or associated with, the club).

Although the term "garage music" (not to be confused with UK garage) does not exclusively mean house music, the latter saw extensive development and promotion among Levan and his contemporaries, Frankie Knuckles and Nicky Siano. Nonetheless, these DJs played all kinds of music at Paradise Garage so long as it was danceable; for example, The Clash and The Police, as well as traditional "disco" artists like Gwen Guthrie and Sylvester.

Among those who benefitted from what became known as "The Garage Sound" or "Garage Music" was Mel Cheren, a partial-backer of the club and owner of New York label West End Records. West End's successes included such hits as "Sessomatto" by Sessa Matto, "Hot Shot" by Karen Young, "Heartbeat" by Taana Gardner (remixed by Levan), "Do It to the Music" by Raw Silk, and "Don't Make Me Wait" by the Peech Boys (produced by Levan). West End Records folded for a number of years, then re-opened in the late 1990s and released one of Levan's DJ sets recorded live at the Garage.

Paradise Garage Top 100
In the 2000 book Last Night A DJ Saved My Life by Bill Brewster and Frank Broughton, a chart was detailed that listed the "Top 100" of the Paradise Garage, selected by "The Committee". It is unclear whether this list represents the hundred most played songs at the club or the hundred fan-favorite/DJ favorite tracks.

Performers
Notable performers who have played at Paradise Garage include:

Tribute events

 * On May 11, 2014, in an event organized by Red Bull Music Academy, former Paradise Garage DJ David DePino, his fellow Paradise Garage alum Joey Llanos, and the dance music DJ François Kevorkian paid tribute to both the Paradise Garage and the late Larry Levan with a block party located on the street outside the club's former entrance. The event was coordinated with an effort to rename the King Street block Larry Levan Way and featured songs considered Garage classics, some DJ'd, some of which were sung live by Jocelyn Brown, who appeared onstage to deliver such favorites as "I'm Caught Up (In a One Night Love Affair)" and "Ain't No Mountain High Enough".
 * From May 24 to September 22, 2019, the New York Historical Society's Stonewall 50 Exhibition displayed the original Paradise Garage metal sign from the disco's original building, which was a parking garage. Credits also on display read: "Paradise Garage (1976-1987) Dennis Wunderlin (b. 1943), designer. Exterior sign, ca. 1977. Metal, paint. Fales Library and Special Collections, New York University, New York, NY".

Tribute sites
Multiple tribute sites are dedicated to the Paradise Garage, such as paradisegargenyc.com and TheParadiseGarage.net.

Tribute movies
In 2019, the DJ Corrado Rizza directed and produced a documentary movie called Larry's Garage.

The significance of the Paradise Garage to the history of disco music is discussed in Episode 3 of the 2024 PBS series Disco: Soundtrack of a Revolution.

title: Paradise Garage


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User:VerbalHerbal

O, c'est moi!

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Beverly Robertson

Beverly Holcombe Robertson (June 5, 1827 – December 12, 1910) was a cavalry officer in the United States Army on the Western frontier and a Confederate States Army general during the American Civil War.

Early life
Robertson was born on a plantation in Amelia County, Virginia. He received an appointment to the United States Military Academy, becoming a cadet in 1845 and graduated in 1849 as 25th out of 43. Assigned to the 2nd U.S. Dragoons as a second lieutenant, he attended the cavalry school at Carlisle Barracks. He then served on the frontier at various outposts in New Mexico Territory, Kansas Territory, and Nebraska Territory, fighting at various times with the Apache and Sioux. At one point Robertson courted Flora Cooke, the daughter of his regimental commander Philip St. George Cooke, but she eventually became the wife of J.E.B. Stuart. In 1855 he married Virginia Neville Johnston, a cousin to Joseph E. Johnston. In the same year Robertson was promoted to first lieutenant. In 1860 he became adjutant of the regiment while serving in Utah Territory, and soon was elevated to acting assistant adjutant general for the Department of Utah. He was promoted to captain in March 1861. However he was report to have pro-Confederate sentiments and when Virginia seceded he decided to follow his home state he tendered his resignation but instead was dismissed from the United States Army.

Civil War
In August 1861, after arriving in the east, he was appointed as Colonel and helped to organize the 4th Virginia Cavalry Regiment but failed to be reelected as regimental Colonel in early 1862. Nonetheless he was promoted to brigadier general on June 9, 1862. He led a brigade of Virginia cavalry in the Second Battle of Bull Run in August 1862, and the early part of the Maryland Campaign in September 1862. Prior to the Battle of Antietam, having a very mixed relation with his superiors, he was relieved of his command and ordered to North Carolina to recruit and train new cavalry regiments. Down there he commanded the Confederate forces at the Battle of White Hall.

After training and sending north several cavalry units, during the Gettysburg Campaign Robertson was back with the Army of Northern Virginia. He again commanded a brigade of cavalry, having brought with him the 4th and 5th North Carolina cavalry regiments, under Stuart. At the Battle of Brandy Station his men failed to significantly delay a Union column approaching Brandy Station from the southeast. He fought in Stuart's delaying actions in the Loudoun Valley at Middleburg and Upperville. Due to seniority, for parts of the campaign Robertson directed both his and "Grumble" Jones's brigades. Robertson helped cover Lee's retreat following the Battle of Gettysburg, the brigade having suffered heavy losses during the campaign.

He was assigned in October 1863 to command the Second Subdistrict of the Military District of South Carolina. He helped defend Charleston from enemy attack. Robertson served in the Carolinas Campaign and surrendered with Gen. Johnston.

Postbellum career
After the war, Robertson moved to Washington, D.C., and worked in the insurance business for several decades. He is buried in Robertson Cemetery near Scott's Fork, Amelia County, Virginia.

title: Beverly Robertson