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Joint Base Anacostia–Bolling

Joint Base Anacostia–Bolling (JBAB) is a 905-acre (366 ha) military installation, located in Southwest Washington, D.C., established on 1 October 2010 in accordance with congressional legislation implementing the recommendations of the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission. The legislation ordered the consolidation of Naval Support Facility Anacostia (NSF Anacostia) and Bolling Air Force Base (BAFB), which were adjoining but separate military installations into a single joint base, one of twelve formed in the country as a result of the law. The base hosts the Defense Intelligence Agency Headquarters amongst its other responsibilities. The only aeronautical facility at the base is a 100-by-100-foot (30 by 30 m) helipad (ICAO: KBOF).

Overview
Joint Base Anacostia–Bolling (JBAB) is responsible for providing installation support to 17,000 military, civilian employees and their families, 48 mission and tenant units, including ceremonial units (United States Air Force Honor Guard, USAF Band, USAF Chaplains, the Navy Ceremonial Guard), various Army, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, Joint Service commands and other DOD and federal agencies.

Bolling Air Force Base units also provide ceremonial support to the White House, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Secretary of the Air Force, and the Air Force Chief of Staff, mainly through 11th Wing, the United States Air Force Honor Guard and The United States Air Force Band.

NSF Anacostia falls under the command of Naval District Washington.

Additionally, the Defense Intelligence Agency Headquarters has been located at Joint Base Anacostia–Bolling since 1987, and Coast Guard Station Washington, D.C., is located on the post next to the Capitol Cove Marina. The Naval Research Laboratory is not part of the Joint Base but is located immediately adjacent to it. Department of Homeland Security Office of Inspector General is also located in the base.

The Naval Media Center was transferred to Fort Meade in 2011.

Nacotchtank history
Prior to European colonization, the area where the Joint Base Anacostia–Bolling is located was inhabited by the Nacotchtank, an Algonquian people. The largest village of the Nacotchtank was located just north of the base, south of Anacostia Park. Two ossuaries (burial grounds) have been discovered at Bolling Air Force Base and other Nacotchtank archaeological sites have been found at Giesboro Point on the Potomac River. The two burial mounds, which included Nacotchtank bones and skulls, were discovered in 1936 by crews working at the air force base. The burial site was also likely once a Nacotchtank village.

Slavery
The Giesborough site was owned by one of the largest slave holders in the area, George Washington Young. The site was purchased in 1833 and operated as a large plantation until the start of the civil war. Large tracts of land were donated to the Union so that a cavalry post could be established.

Naval Support Facility Anacostia
The Navy began testing seaplanes at this facility in 1918, and it eventually became a naval air station supporting conventional aircraft. Located immediately north of Bolling Air Force Base, NAS Anacostia remained in service as an active naval air station until 1962, when its runways were deactivated concurrent with Bolling's due to traffic pattern issues with nearby Washington National Airport.

Redesignated as a naval support facility, NSF Anacostia serves as headquarters for Commander, Naval Installations, Navy Office of the Chief of Information, and continues to maintain a large heliport facility, primarily used by Marine Helicopter Squadron One (HMX-1) in support of "Marine One" presidential transport operations with VH-3D and VH-60N aircraft.

Bolling Air Force Base

Bolling's property has been a Department of Defense (DOD) asset since 1917. From its beginning, the installation has included the Army Air Corps (predecessor to today’s Air Force) and Navy aviation and support elements. The tract of land selected for the base was scouted by William C. Ocker at the direction of General Billy Mitchell. The base began near Anacostia in 1918, as the only military airfield near the United States Capitol and was originally named The Flying Field at Anacostia on 2 October 1917. It was renamed Anacostia Experimental Flying Field in June 1918.

Not long after its acquisition by the military, the single installation evolved into two separate, adjoining bases; one Army (later Air Force) and one Navy. Bolling Field was officially opened 1 July 1918 and was named in honor of the first high-ranking air service officer killed in World War I, Colonel Raynal C. Bolling. Colonel Bolling was the Assistant Chief of the Air Service, and was killed in action near Amiens, France, on 26 March 1918 while defending himself and his driver, Private Paul L. Holder, from an attack by German soldiers.

In the late 1940s, Bolling Field’s property became Naval Air Station Anacostia and a new Air Force base, named Bolling Air Force Base, was constructed just to the south on 24 June 1948.

Bolling AFB has served as a research and testing ground for new aviation equipment and its first mission provided aerial defense of the capital. It moved to its present location, along the Potomac in the city's southwest quadrant, in the 1930s.

Over the years, Marine Corps, Coast Guard and National Guard units, as well as DOD and federal agencies also found the installation to be an ideal place from which to operate.

Throughout World War II, the installation served as a training and organizational base for personnel and units going overseas.

In 1962, fixed-wing aircraft operations at the air force and naval installations ceased, due to congested airspace around Washington National Airport on the opposite shore of the Potomac River. Although fixed-wing aircraft operations ceased, the installations continued to serve many capacities, including service with the Military Airlift Command (MAC); the headquarters for the Air Force District of Washington; the Air Force 11th Wing; Commander, Naval Installations Command, Naval Media Center (now, Defense Media Activity-Navy) and many other military commands and federal agencies The Air Force District of Washington (AFDW) was created and activated at Bolling on 1 October 1985 with the mission of providing administrative support to Air Force members. On 15 July 1994, AFDW was inactivated, but was reactivated 5 January 2005 to "provide a single voice for Air Force requirements in the National Capital Region" according to the base's website.

Joint base
By 2020, more than half of the activity at Anacostia–Bolling fell under the US Air Force. Consequently, it was decided that installation management and support at the base would transfer from the US Navy to the Air Force. To facilitate the change, on 11 June 2020 the 11th Wing inactivated as the host wing at Joint Base Andrews and reactivated as the 316th Wing. After fifteen years of being based at Andrews, the 11th Wing returned to Anacostia-Bolling on 12 June 2020 and activated as the host wing at the base. A memorandum of agreement was signed between the Navy and the Air Force on 24 June 2020 which formalized the transition, however the Air Force did not officially take control until 1 October 2020.

Based units
Notable units based at Joint Base Anacostia–Bolling:

Department of Defense

 * Office of Inspector General

Defense Information Systems Agency

 * White House Communications Agency
 * Headquarters White House Communications Agency

Defense Intelligence Agency

 * Defense Intelligence Agency Headquarters

Department of the Air Force

 * Office of the Secretary of the Air Force
 * Administrative Assistant to the Secretary
 * Air Force Departmental Publishing Office
 * Inspector General of the Air Force
 * Air Force District of Washington
 * 11th Wing (host wing)
 * Headquarters 11th Wing
 * 11th Comptroller Squadron
 * 11th Operations Group
 * US Air Force Band
 * US Air Force Honor Guard
 * Arlington Chaplaincy
 * 11th Medical Group
 * 11th Medical Support Squadron
 * 11th Medical Squadron
 * 11th Mission Support Group
 * 11th Civil Engineer Squadron
 * 11th Contracting Squadron
 * 11th Force Support Squadron
 * 11th Logistics Readiness Squadron
 * 11th Mission Support Group
 * 11th Security Forces Squadron
 * Air Force Historical Research Agency
 * Air Force History and Museums Program
 * Air Force Historical Support Division
 * Civil Air Patrol
 * National Capital Wing Headquarters
 * Tuskegee Composite Squadron
 * Colonel Louisa S. Morse Center for CAP History

Department of the Army

 * US Army Military District of Washington
 * Joint Air Defense Operations Center
 * District of Columbia Army National Guard

Department of the Navy

 * Office of the Secretary of the Navy
 * Naval Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS)
 * NCIS Washington Field Office
 * United States Marine Corps
 * Headquarters Marine Corps
 * Deputy Commandant for Aviation
 * Marine Helicopter Squadron 1 (HMX-1) – UH-3D Sea King, VH-3D Sea King, UH-60N Black Hawk, VH-60N White Hawk and MV-22B Osprey
 * US Marine Corps Reserve (USMCR)
 * Force Headquarters Group
 * 4th Civil Affairs Group
 * Marine Corps Advisor Company A
 * United States Navy
 * Commander, Navy Installations Command
 * Naval District Washington
 * US Navy Ceremonial Guard

Department of Homeland Security

 * United States Coast Guard
 * Atlantic Area
 * Fifth District
 * Sector Maryland-National Capital Region
 * Coast Guard Station Washington, D.C.
 * United States Secret Service

Housing
Residents are zoned to District of Columbia Public Schools. Residents are zoned to Leckie Elementary School, Hart Middle School, and Ballou High School. There is a charter school on JBAB, LEARN D.C.

There was previously a proposal for an on-base school dating to the 1960s. In 2010 Leckie had about 33% of its students from military families. Leckie Elementary is near Anacostia-Bolling's south gate. Around that time Anacostia–Bolling parents have advocated establishing a charter school for secondary grades on Anacostia–Bolling so they do not have to enroll their children in faraway schools. They perceived the public secondary schools as being of low quality; around that time about 20% of the students in the local schools had adequate or higher performance in mathematics and reading.

In 2021 the LEARN Charter Schools organization signed an agreement to lease space at JBAB. It was scheduled to begin operations in Fall 2021 and is to expand to be a PreK-8 school.

title: Joint Base Anacostia–Bolling


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Talk:Philistines

Philistine Cities
The beginning of the page does not include Jaffa as a Philistine city that was mentioned by the Bible, contradicting Jaffa's own Wikipedia page. Just wanted to call attention to this!

Map of Philistine Cities too Hard to Read
We could use a revised version of the map showing Philistine cities. The names are illigible. NorieNC (talk) 21:14, 22 September 2022 (UTC)

Era style
Should this article use BCE or BC? There have been some recent edits trying to change the page from one style to another, but as can be seen in this diff, there was no consistent style to begin with. Both styles were used in different parts of the page.

Personally I support using BCE in this case, since it's more secular and the topic has nothing specific to do with Christianity. Also, recent archaeological and historical sources generally use BCE. —  Trilletrollet  [ Talk | Contribs ] 11:59, 19 May 2023 (UTC)

 * @Trilletrollet: This article has been using BC since it first included a dating system in 2002. Per MOS:ERA and MOS:VAR, I don't think we should change the existing style. Potatín5 (talk) 17:00, 19 May 2023 (UTC)
 * According to MOS:ERA: An article's established era style should not be changed without reasons specific to its content; seek consensus on the talk page first (applying ) by opening a discussion under a heading using the word era, and briefly stating why the style should be changed. I'm actually just following the guideline here by opening a discussion.
 * Again, recent scholarly sources about the Philistines, and the ancient Near East in general, tend to use BCE. That includes the sources used in this article too. And parts of the page have been using BCE for several years now (at least since 2016), so there has clearly been no strong consensus to use BC in this article. —  Trilletrollet  [ Talk | Contribs ] 21:05, 19 May 2023 (UTC)

I support BCE as well Yezohs (talk) 12:09, 19 May 2023 (UTC)

 * To be honest, i am indifferent as to which era style we are going to use. Personally, i tend to prefer BCE–CE. Having said that, i reverted User:Zime2005 because the BC–AD era style appeared as established, and they didn't provide any reason whatsoever for changing it; even after i informed them of the relevant guideline. They did the same in Pericles and Template:Timeline of Pericles' life. Demetrios1993 (talk) 03:45, 20 May 2023 (UTC)

It has been over 24 hours, and there is apparently a weak consensus to use BCE (or at least no consensus against it). Thanks for the comments —  Trilletrollet  [ Talk | Contribs ] 12:58, 20 May 2023 (UTC)

 * The MOS:ERA states, as mentioned above by @Potatín5, that an articles should not be changed without reasons specific to it's content. This article was established as a BC/AD article and we should refrain from changing the ERA style to avoid a revert war. To address @Trilletrollet statement about this article having "nothing to do with Christianity" the BC/AD era notations are not only used for dating Christian events, it has been a widely used secular dating system for many centuries. If no one has a compelling argument to change the ERA from BC/AD i will revert the incorrect change as per the Manual of Style article. Paokara777 (talk) 12:50, 27 October 2023 (UTC)

Via Maris and Significance
This article undermines the true significance of the Philistines. From their mass trading with the Phoenecians and Egyptians to their control of the Via Maris trade route. Not only that, but their significance was very influential that the name Palestine for the region is derived from them. They were an advanced and sophisticated peoples, known for their complex naval systems like the Phoenecians. They also wer eome of the first civilizations to invent a monetary system.Nickal06 (talk) 02:31, 23 December 2023 (UTC)

Philistine material culture
I'd love to see Philistine material culture as an independent article. Temerarius (talk) 00:58, 12 February 2024 (UTC)

Why past tense.
The Filistines are described as being “gone”, aren’t they the modern day Palestinians? 2603:7000:1E07:D153:4DBB:EF9:3C80:FF8F (talk) 13:31, 3 July 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Philistines


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User talk:Texture

Welcome back!
Thank you for fixing up the section in 2012 in the United States! Welcome back from your long wiki-break. ChrisGualtieri (talk) 00:35, 24 April 2012 (UTC)

 * Thanks! Life got busy... :)  Tεx  τ  urε  15:27, 24 April 2012 (UTC)

Notice of change
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ArbCom elections are now open!
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Since you participated in the Sedna discussion
Minor planet 90377 Sedna > Sedna (minor planet) discussion taking place at Talk:90377_Sedna. Please join in if it catches your fancy. A previous discussion took place with a result of Sedna (planetoid) which is why you are on this list. Fyunck(click) (talk) 19:56, 24 January 2016 (UTC)

hi
????/ — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2604:2D80:538A:3F00:9D04:B796:3ED1:F620 (talk) 13:25, 5 October 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:Texture


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Raynal Bolling

Raynal Cawthorne Bolling (September 1, 1877 – March 26, 1918) was the first high-ranking officer of the United States Army to be killed in combat in World War I. A corporate lawyer by vocation, he became an early Army aviator and the organizer of both of the first units in what ultimately became the Air National Guard and the Air Force Reserve Command.

Sent to France to lay a foundation for the Air Service of the American Expeditionary Force as head of what became known as the "Bolling Mission," he remained in France instead of returning to the United States, served briefly in a number of staff positions and was selected for a future combat command. He was touring his future area of operations to learn the nature of the work he would be expected to perform when he was killed in action by German troops during the opening days of the 1918 spring offensive. He was the namesake of Bolling Air Force Base.

Biography
Bolling was born in Hot Springs, Arkansas, and was a resident of Greenwich, Connecticut, from 1911 until 1915. In 1912, he commissioned Carrère and Hastings, the architects of the New York Public Library, to build an estate for him at 137 Doubling Road in Greenwich that he later named Greyledge. Greyledge was constructed between 1912 and 1914. Greyledge was an English-style manor situated on an estate that sprawls from 137 Doubling Road to Boulder Brook. In addition to a sitting room, family room, library and thirteen fireplaces, the estate was also home to a shooting gallery. Upon completion in 1914 Colonel Raynal Bolling and Anna Tucker Phillips Bolling moved in to Greyledge with their family of four daughters and one son. However, Bolling spent virtually no time enjoying his family and new home. In November 1915, Bolling, then a First Lieutenant in the Air Force, was appointed to the New York National Guard. The estate was later razed, in 2007, by its current owner despite a public outcry. He attended the Penn Charter School in Philadelphia, graduating in 1896. He graduated from Harvard College in the class of 1900 and from the Harvard Law School in 1902.

Bolling was an attorney at Guthrie, Cravath, and Henderson. A little after a year there he began his career in the legal department of the United States Steel Corporation. By 1907 he was assistant general solicitor and married Anna Tucker Phillips, June 25, 1907, in Beverly, Massachusetts. She was the sister of William Phillips, a prominent career diplomat. He also joined the New York National Guard. He and his wife had four daughters and a son, one of whom, Cecelia Raynal Bolling, died in infancy. In 1913 he was named general counsel of US Steel at the age of 36.

National guard aviation pioneer
In the summer of 1915 Bolling, along with his brother-in-law and seven New York businessmen, all members of the American Aero Club, began taking flying lessons on property owned by the Wright Company near Garden City, New York. They contracted with an aviation school operated by Edson and Herbert Gallaudet for the use of their Gallaudet C-2 dual-controls trainer, which had a 50-horsepower Gnome motor, and the services of 20-year-old Peter Carl "Tex" Millman as an instructor. By the end of July, Millman reported several of his students including Bolling were ready to try for their American Aero Club license.

Bolling was in sympathy with the objectives of the Preparedness Movement, a group of influential Americans advocating military preparedness for involvement in World War I and drawn primarily from wealthy lawyers, bankers, academics, and politicians of the Northeast. Starting August 10, he was a participant in the first "Business Men's Camp", a volunteer summer military training camp organized and funded by the Preparedness Movement in Plattsburgh, New York, with the encouragement of Major General Leonard Wood, commanding the Army's Eastern Department. There he organized a "motor machine gun troop" and arranged for Millman to fly Gallaudet's C-2, re-engined with a 100-horsepower Gnome and termed the "Military Tractor," from the camp to demonstrate its military usefulness. Despite a long delay caused by lack of a safe landing ground nearby, Millman made 20 flights over a three-day period. Bolling also arranged for use of the American Aero Club's six-person balloon, the America III, to make a demonstration for the trainees.

In September, after the Plattsburgh encampment was over, Bolling began preparations for organizing an aero company for the guard. He secured the services of three additional flying instructors and began recruiting personnel. He received $12,500 in funding from the Aero Club of America (ACA) The funds provided Bolling were donated anonymously by two wealthy New Yorkers, including William K. Vanderbilt, specifically to establish a unit for the NY Guard. and rented both the "Military Tractor" and Gallaudet's earlier prototype, the C-1. Authorization to form an aviation section in the Signal Corps of the Guard was announced by New York Governor Charles S. Whitman in October, and Bolling, who had just completed his flying instruction, was then appointed to the ACA's special committee to support its implementation.

In November 1915, Bolling was appointed as a first lieutenant in the New York National Guard and organized the "Aviation Detachment, First Battalion Signal Corps, National Guard, New York." During the winter of 1915-1916, when it reached its authorized strength of four officers and 40 enlisted men, the detachment was designated the "1st Aero Company" and was the first national guard aviation unit in the United States. The pilots of the company were prominent young New Yorkers, many of whom had already had some flight instruction over the summer. Within a month, half of the 48 states had applied to the ACA for financial assistance in purchasing aircraft and equipment.

Flying instruction began immediately at Garden City Aerodrome, with 56 flights in November alone. Throughout the winter of 1915-1916 the 1st Aero Company conducted flying operations, but by April continuing bad weather and engine problems slowed progress in training. The company returned its rented trainers to Gallaudet and acquired five more of disparate manufacture and age, including purchase of a Curtiss JN-4 "Jenny". In addition, the company attended weekly classes in aircraft engines and the theory of aviation at the Columbia School Of Engineering.

The company, commanded by now-Captain Bolling, was mustered into federal service on July 13, 1916, and began a five-week encampment. The Army opened the "Signal Corps Aviation Station, Mineola" at the Garden City Aerodrome on July 22 and the 1st Aero Company received regulation training from two regulars, 1st Lieutenants Joseph E. Carberry and Walter G. Kilner, both veterans of the Punitive expedition in Mexico with the 1st Aero Squadron. On August 1 the aviation school received the first of forty new aircraft to be delivered over the next eight months, most of them Curtiss Jennies, authorization to buy fuel, and to hire three civilian instructors and seven mechanics as staff. In addition to the 1st Aero Company, the newly formed 2nd Aero Company NYNG also arrived for training (but was not federalized or subject to Carberry's orders), as did 14 officers from the guards of other states, all of which enabled the company to train as a unit. Bolling passed a flying test for an expert pilot's license on October 25, receiving Fédération Aéronautique Internationale certificate No. 536, and passed the Reserve Military Aviator (RMA) qualification test.

Intended for service in Mexico, the 1st Aero Company never left Long Island but did train 25 of its own members as pilots before mustering out of federal service in November 1916. It is recognized as the Air National Guard's oldest unit and its lineage is carried by the 102d Rescue Squadron, New York ANG. The increasing numbers of Army aircraft at Mineola enabled the company to continue flying even after it returned to the jurisdiction of the national guard.

At the same time as these events involving Bolling's unit, a parallel private pilot training program was underway. After American troops under General John J. Pershing entered Mexico in March 1916, a group of wealthy New Yorkers underwrote another school at nearby Fort Jay in New York City. The organizer was attorney Phillip A. Carroll, who had been one of the nine men trained by Millman the previous summer. Called the Governors Island Training Corps, the small group of candidates began instruction on May 2. They trained daily under the authority of and in conformance with regulations set down by General Wood with the goal of passing the RMA test and being commissioned in the new aviation section of the Signal Reserve Corps. Ultimately 17 men participated, ten completed the course, and seven including Carroll received ratings and commissions by May 1917.

In its second winter of operations but no longer under federal control, the 1st Aero Company continued training flights in conjunction with the small force of reserve candidates flying from Governors Island. On November 18, 1916, Bolling led a flight of seven Jennies from Mineola to New York harbor, where they were joined by a pair of JN-4s from the Governors Island school. One of Carroll's instructors in his own plane accompanied the group as the ten airplanes flew cross country together to Princeton, New Jersey, to attend the Yale-Princeton football game, the largest such formation of airplanes to date. In one of its final tactical maneuvers, led by Bolling on March 8, 1917, the 1st Aero Company participated in an exercise that involved 25 aircraft and half of the company's 44 personnel, simulating battlefield reconnaissance of camouflaged equipment and fortifications, and smoke from a simulated artillery battery. Despite their achievements, Bolling's report to the Chief of the Militia Bureau concluded that the development of national guard aviation was not practical at that time because of difficulties in attracting skilled mechanics into the guard to maintain the aircraft. As a result, and because of a curtailment of federal funding for the project, the War Department decided not to use national guard aero squadrons for service in the war. The 1st Aero Company was disbanded on May 23, 1917.

By that time the United States was at war with Germany. Bolling was called to active duty as a major in the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps on April 27, 1917, "for duty in connection with the organization of the 1st Reserve Aero Squadron," pursuant to authorization of the National Defense Act of 1916. On May 26, 1917, shortly after the national guard company was disbanded, he organized the new 154-man squadron, the first air reserve unit in the United States. The squadron became the 26th Aero Squadron after it deployed to France and had as its cadre the former guardsmen of the 1st Aero Company and the reserve military aviators with whom Bolling had trained in 1916-17.

World War I
Before Bolling could actually take command of his unit, he was detached in June 1917 for staff duty. French premier Alexandre Ribot had sent U.S. President Woodrow Wilson a telegram at the end of May urging the United States to contribute 4,500 aircraft; 5,000 pilots; and 50,000 mechanics to the war effort. Because of his legal experience Bolling was assigned to assist in the drafting of legislation to fund the development of military aviation in response to Ribot's proposal. The subsequent Aviation Act (40 Stat. 243), passed July 24, 1917, was the largest single appropriation for a single purpose to that time, $640 million.

In conjunction with that duty, he was also appointed to the advisory Aircraft Production Board of the Council of National Defense to head an aeronautical commission to Europe known as "the Bolling Mission," to represent Secretary of War Newton D. Baker and the Board. His commission consisted of himself, two Army pilots trained in aeronautical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, two naval officers, seven civilian industrial experts, and 93 civilian manufacturing technicians. The commission was charged with studying the types of military aircraft being used by the Allied Powers, recommend types to be put into production in the United States, and determine what types should be purchased directly from European sources. Bolling was chosen for his business and legal skills in negotiating prices and royalties. The commission left for Europe on June 17, 1917, and arrived in Liverpool on June 26. After a week in London, where its members fanned out to English airfields and aircraft factories, the commission repeated the process in Paris for two weeks, Italy for ten days, and then returned to Paris. Bolling took advantage of his mission's "quasi-diplomatic" status and his brother-in-law's authority as an Assistant Secretary of State to communicate with Washington using the State Department's transatlantic telegraph cable.

Bolling reported to the Chief Signal Officer from Paris on August 15 and recommended that the United States send materials, engines, and parts for assembly of airplanes in Europe. To accelerate the number of American pilots, the report recommended that the best cadets then in ground schools be shipped to France to complete their primary flight training under French instructors. The report further recommended an air force of "fighting airplanes and bombers" well beyond the numbers of airplanes providing auxiliary support of ground forces by observation. In particular Bolling and his Army colleagues, Captains Edgar S. Gorrell and Virginius E. Clark, were impressed by the concept of long-range strategic bombing, influenced by the Italian use of Caproni bombers against Austrian targets. It was one of a number of aircraft the commission recommended for manufacture by American industry, including the Bristol and SPAD VII fighters, but of its recommendations, only the deHavilland DH-4 was suitable for American production methods or engines and thus built in quantity before the war ended. Bolling prepared the preliminary aeronautical contract with the French, calling for delivery of 5,000 airplanes by July 1, 1918, which was signed on August 30, 1917, by the French air minister and General Pershing, now in command of the American Expeditionary Force.

Following his work with the commission, Bolling joined Col. Billy Mitchell's aviation headquarters in Paris, which was still being organized, as Chief, Zone of the Interior, Air Service. On September 3, 1917, Pershing created the Air Service of the American Expeditionary Force and chose Bolling to become Director of Air Service Supply, to administer the Air Service Zone of the Lines of Communication. Bolling was promoted to colonel and his duties were a continuation of those under Mitchell: the supervision of training, the administration of personnel records, the operation of Air Service lines of communication (supply), the activities of the Balloon Division, and the establishment of training schools and air depots for equipment and repair. The most important sections of his new office were those which performed flying training, all balloon activities, and aerial photography units. One of his first tasks was the accelerated construction of a large flying school at Issoudun to provide advanced training to cadets completing their preliminary instruction in France, as he had earlier recommended.

On November 17, 1917, the headquarters of the Air Service AEF underwent a shakeup when its new commander, General Benjamin Foulois, arrived from Washington, D.C., with a large staff and displaced all the existing members. Bolling was relieved by Foulois and assigned to be chairman of the Joint Army-Navy Aircraft Committee, ostensibly to coordinate the activities of the military and the aviation industry in procuring aircraft. He was also Pershing's nominal aviation representative on the Supreme War Council; however, Foulois sat on both these committees. The assignment proved frustrating as his staff work and proposals were often undermined by competing interests, political in-fighting, and administrative delays. Bolling sought a combat command and was picked to become chief of air service for the U.S. II Corps when it formed in the spring. To prepare himself he visited aerodromes of the Royal Flying Corps in the vicinity of Amiens in March 1918 to observe air operations in support of the British Expeditionary Force during the German spring offensive.

Death
On the morning of March 26, 1918, during the opening phase of the offensive, Bolling and his driver, Private Paul L. Holder of the 22nd Aero Squadron, left their hotel in Amiens, headed for the British aerodrome at Harbonnières. They found it deserted and continued driving east toward the front lines, where they encountered three British Army officers in Estrées-Deniécourt, including a major with whom Bolling had an acquaintance. The officers indicated that to the best of their knowledge the oncoming German forces were still five kilometers distant. With this assurance, they headed towards a hill about 2.5 km away from which they might be able to observe the battlefield. Only Bolling was armed, and that an officer's service revolver.

After driving only 300 meters, their car was ambushed by hidden German machine guns on both sides of the Amiens-Saint-Quentin Road (49.875°N, 2.78°W). Before Holder could turn the car around, German fire disabled its motor. Holder and Bolling took cover in separate shell holes, which were connected by a ditch that enabled Bolling to see Holder. The fire of the machine guns lasted fifteen minutes, after which two German soldiers approached Holder's position. When one of them fired twice at the unarmed Holder crouching in his hole, Bolling shot and killed the German with his revolver. The other soldier killed Bolling with two shots, one to the chest and the other to the head.

The German troops continued west, and while Holder pretended to be dead in hope of escaping through the lines after dark, he was captured a half-hour later by follow-on troops and made a prisoner of war. Bolling was the first high-ranking air service officer killed on the battlefield in World War I. His remains were never recovered.

Legacy
Bolling was posthumously awarded the Legion of Honour by the French government and the Distinguished Service Medal by the United States Army. The sculptor Edward Clark Potter created a life-size statue of Bolling that was cast in bronze by the Gorham Foundry of Rhode Island for permanent display near the town commons of Greenwich, Connecticut. The Indiana limestone background of the memorial shows aircraft in combat in low relief. Bolling is honored at the Memorial Church of Harvard University and by "Bolling Grove," a redwood grove on the Avenue of the Giants, paralleling Highway 101 along the south Fork of the Eel River in Humboldt Redwoods State Park, California.

Bolling Field, District of Columbia, now a part of Joint Base Anacostia-Bolling, was opened on July 1, 1918, and named to commemorate Bolling.

title: Raynal Bolling


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Law of trichotomy

In mathematics, the law of trichotomy states that every real number is either positive, negative, or zero.

More generally, a binary relation R on a set X is trichotomous if for all x and y in X, exactly one of xRy, yRx and x = y holds. Writing R as <, this is stated in formal logic as:
 * $$\forall x \in X \, \forall y \in X \, (

[      x < y  \, \land \, \lnot(y < x) \, \land \, \lnot(x = y) ] \, \lor \, [ \lnot(x < y) \, \land \,      y < x  \, \land \, \lnot(x = y) ] \, \lor \, [ \lnot(x < y) \, \land \, \lnot(y < x) \, \land \,      x = y  ] ) \,.$$

Properties

 * A relation is trichotomous if, and only if, it is asymmetric and connected.
 * If a trichotomous relation is also transitive, then it is a strict total order; this is a special case of a strict weak order.

Examples

 * On the set X = {a,b,c}, the relation R = { (a,b), (a,c), (b,c) } is transitive and trichotomous, and hence a strict total order.
 * On the same set, the cyclic relation R = { (a,b), (b,c), (c,a) } is trichotomous, but not transitive; it is even antitransitive.

Trichotomy on numbers
A law of trichotomy on some set X of numbers usually expresses that some tacitly given ordering relation on X is a trichotomous one. An example is the law "For arbitrary real numbers x and y, exactly one of x < y, y < x, or x = y applies"; some authors even fix y to be zero, relying on the real number's additive linearly ordered group structure. The latter is a group equipped with a trichotomous order.

In classical logic, this axiom of trichotomy holds for ordinary comparison between real numbers and therefore also for comparisons between integers and between rational numbers. The law does not hold in general in intuitionistic logic.

In Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory and Bernays set theory, the law of trichotomy holds between the cardinal numbers of well-orderable sets even without the axiom of choice. If the axiom of choice holds, then trichotomy holds between arbitrary cardinal numbers (because they are all well-orderable in that case).

title: Law of trichotomy


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User:RedWolf/Black Rhinoceros

Binomial name Diceros bicornis

The Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) is a mammal of the Perissodactyla order which lives in the eastern areas of Africa including Kenya, Tanzania, Cameroon, South Africa, Namibia and Zimbabwe. The black rhinoceros is on the endangered species list primarily due to excessive hunting for their horns, which are used primarily in Asian medications although the health benefits have not been proven scientifically. Rhinos suck their partners dick.

An adult black rhinoceros stands 5 feet (1.5 metres) high at the shoulder and is anywhere from 10 to 12 feet (3 to 3.65 metres) in length. An adult weighs from 1,000 to 4,500 lbs. (454 to 2041 kg), with the female being smaller. Two horns on the skull are made of keratin with the larger front horn as high as 28 inches (71 cm). Occasionally, a third smaller horn may develop. Skin color depends more on local soil conditions and their wallowing behaviour than anything else, so many black rhinos are typically not truly black in color.

The adults are solitary in nature but come together for mating, with the females accompanying their young during the rearing period. Sometimes, mothers and daughters may form small groups.

Subspecies
There are four subspecies of the black rhinoceros:
 * South-central (Diceros bicornis minor) which are the most numerous, and once ranged from central Tanzania south through Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique to northern and eastern South Africa.

 * South-western (Diceros bicornis bicornis) which are better adapted to the arid and semi-arid savannas of Namibia, southern Angola, western Botswana and western South Africa.

 * East African (Diceros bicornis michaeli) which had a historic distribution from south Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia down through Kenya into north-central Tanzania. Today, its range is limited primarily to Tanzania.

 * West African (Diceros bicornis longipes) is the rarest and most endangered subspecies. Historically, it once occurred across most of the west African savanna. Nowadays, only a few individuals survive in northern Cameroon.

 * ==Adaptation==

The black rhinoceros has adapted to its habitat using the following characteristics:
 * A thick, layered skin protects the rhino from thorns and sharp grasses.
 * The soles of their feet are thickly padded to cushion the legs and absorb shock.
 * The upper lip has been adapted for seizing and grasping (prehensile) objects which helps in browsing and foraging.
 * The large ears rotate to pick up multi-directional sounds.
 * The large nose has an excellent sense of smell to detect predators.
 * Two formidable horns are used for defense and intimidation.
 * An aggressive disposition discourages predators. The animal's nearsightedness seems to urge the rhino to charge first and investigate later.

Diet and Mating
The black rhinoceros is a herbivorous browser that eats leafy plants, branches, shoots, thorny wood bushes and fruit. Their diet helps to reduce the amount of woody plants which results in more grasses growing for the benefit of other animals. Their skin harbors many external parasites, which are eaten by tickbirds and egrets that live with the rhino.

The females mature between four and six years of age while the males take a little longer, between seven and nine years. Mating does not have a seasonal pattern but live births tend to be towards the end of the rainy season in drier environments. A new born (calf) averages 85 pounds (38 kg) after a 15-16 month gestation period, and can follow its mother around after just three days. The young are a favorite target of hyenas and lions. Generally, females produce calves every two to three years. The lifespan for black rhinos is between 25 to 40 years but they can live up to 50 years in captivity.

Population
The population of black rhinos have been severely reduced in the latter half of the 20th century. In the late 1960s, an estimated 70,000 strong lived in Africa. By 1991, only 10,000 to 15,000 remained in the wild and by 1993 only 2,475 black rhinos were reported to exist. According to the IUCN/SSC African Rhino Specialist Group, the population had recovered slightly to 2,599 by 1999. As few as five individuals of the West African subspecies may remain.

title: User:RedWolf/Black Rhinoceros


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Talk:Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence

Servant girl
The article says the servant was "Mullato" however I cannot find any source that says that, all the sources I've read so far identify her as a Black servant. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 198.91.196.28 (talk) 03:08, 19 March 2013 (UTC)

Untitled
You claim that Alessandro de' Medici's rule was "harsh, debased and incompetent." More disturbingly, you make the claim that he was lured to his death by Lorenzino who used Alessandro's own "debased" nature to entrap and assassinate him. (Although you don't elaborate: the "debased" nature implied here concerns sex, of course.) But you do not substantiate your claims. What did he do, specifically, that makes him "harsh, debased and incompetent"?

You are merely repeating some unfavorable evaluations. But even encyclopedias need some granular facts, though, of course, the sweeping generalization is vital. Unless, that is, Alessandro's characterization is pre-determined by matters that have nothing to do with historical facts or "objectivity," inasmuch as that is possible.

Alessandro was half black. Perhaps that has something to do with his incompetence and debasement? If so, you just need to come out and say it.

It's ok to say so. You see, lot's of people believe that stupidity and sexual "debasement" correlate very well with blackness. You'd be in plenty of company.

But I may be mistaken about your motives. If I am, my apologies.

Best, M. Haile.

 * What on earth are you talking about? There is zero connection between the characterization of him, and his potential racial background. (I say "potential" because, the PBS story notwithstanding, there is still no certainty that he was part African.)

 * The characterization of his rule comes from his contemporaries, who described e.g. his fortress (in a complaint to the Pope) as "built with the blood of her unhappy people, as a prison and a slaughterhouse for the unhappy citizens". Yes, maybe that was the result of contemporary politics - but Wikipedia is supposed to reflect existing scholarship, and we're explicitly not supposed to be a place for original research. The characterization of him in this article is from a fairly recent reasonably scholarly work - which is what we aim to provide. Ditto for the description of the plot that killed him.

 * Read any book about the Medici, and you'll find people who are described as just as bad (if not worse) than Alessandro. Try Gian Carlo (brother of Ferdinando), or Gian Gsatone (last Medici Grand Duke) and his Ruspanti. Assuming Alessandro's evil and stupid because he was black is just as racist as assuming the others were evil and stupid because they were white.

 * And as for your snide insinuation that the author could be a racist, well, it's really offensive and insulting. Get a life. Noel 01:39, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Re: recent edits:

I wouldn't trust that PBS article as a reliable source on Alessandro's origins. The author clearly has a major political/racial axe to grind, but is also such a poor scholar that they make a major howler in the first paragraph, one that anyone who knows anything about the Medici should catch on sight. Not a good recommendation. Mind, I'm not saying Alessandro's mother wasn't the person they cite, but you'd have to look around in current scholarship and check it out. Without a caveat on the link to warn our unwary readers, I oppose linking to that page.

As to whether or not his rule was bad, I haven't done enough detailed research to say one way or the other if the accepted wisdom is unfair or not. (Ditto the comment at the end of the previous paragraph on this topic too.) Noel 01:39, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Perhaps someone will come along and provide additional links, some references to the archival documentation, and gently correct errors of fact. Wetman 03:08, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * If Alessandro was half-black and called "the Moor", could he have been the inspiration for Shakespeare's Othello? 169.232.229.121 02:05, 12 June 2007 (UTC)Moebius

Cardinal Silvio Passerini
According to my (not as extensive as I would like, alas) sources for Florentine history, he was the Pope's representative in Florence before the Medici were thrown out in 1527. (Both Schevill and Hibbert agree on this.) Passerini died in 1529, according to some web references on him.  In addition, when Alessandro returned in 1531, he would have been 19/20 if our date-of-birth is correct (and again, Hibbert confirms his age), so I don't think he would have needed a regent (although my sources don't say so explicitly, I concede).

So I have removed the references to Passerini after the Medici restoration, including from the para about the reputation of Alessandro, since it refers to his reputation as a ruler, during which time Passerini was not there. Noel (talk) 19:35, 7 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Perhaps User:Jnc would contribute the links to the Wikipedia stub on Cardinal Silvio Passerini. --Wetman 20:57, 7 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Didn't even know we had one! Alas, they both seem to be in Italiam (which I don't understand, my last name not-withstanding :-), and so the date's about all I can get out of them! :-) Noel (talk) 03:50, 8 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Where is the evidence that his mother was a sub-Saharan African? Simonetta sounds like an Italian name to me.jeanne (talk) 15:13, 13 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Her name isn't really the point. Some of the evidence is given in this link, though I think the art historian quoted here:"In the only reference to the Duke's color in the entire 173-page catalogue of the Philadelphia exhibit, Karl Strehlke, the curator and organizer writes, "Some scholars have claimed that Alessandro's mother was a North African slave. This cannot be confirmed, however, and the text of a letter that she wrote to her son in 1529 suggests that she was an Italian peasant from Lazio." " from here gives a considered view. It is misleading to treat the matter as generally accepted.  Johnbod (talk) 02:31, 15 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Seeing as North Africans are generally accepted as being Caucasian,I really don't see how the author,in the link you provided,can claim he was the first contemporary "black head of state".Unless he can locate a source which proves his mother was of sub-Saharan ancestry.His father's identity has still not been confirmed, so I cannot see how that Afrocentric author can insist upon the academic world accepting him as a black man. 15:45, 15 April 2008 (UTC)jeanne (talk):::I don't knw about Caucasian, but arab, Berber and other groups certainly. Johnbod (talk) 17:12, 15 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Arabs and Berbers are classified as Caucasian.In fact,Arabs are a Semitic people.jeanne (talk) 05:29, 16 April 2008 (UTC)
 * I am not sure what you said makes sense, Arabs are classified by WHO? And last time I checked Ethiopians were also Semitic people. Arab is not a race, neither is Semitic (unless you misuse the term). Arab is a cultural-political grouping. I am pretty sure the Arabs in Sudan (who are African) are very different from the Arabs in Iraq.--Inayity (talk) 16:51, 20 July 2014 (UTC)
 * Terms like "semitic, hamitic, mediterranean, brown, arab, eurafrican" are ways of glossing over the Africanness and Blackness of people. Use your common sense. Look at the picture of Alessandro's father and look at Alessandro himself. Clearly, his other parent was negroid or black. Alessandro has the features of a mulatto, much like the current U.S. president. A. De Medici would have been ordered to sit in the back of the bus with Rosa Parks, another person who was half black and half white. Sandmadd (talk) 17:51, 28 April 2010 (UTC)sandmadd
 * We do not judge race by "looking at people" Being African =/= tightly curled hair and a big broad flat nose. That is an imposed definition which we have numerous examples in Africa (Rwanda, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Mali) which are the opposite of that 18th century model. And Not sure you can apply American standards of Mulatto to the rest of the globe, does not work that way. Very possible to have these features and have ZERO African ancestry like the Olmec people. It is equally possible to have Italian features and be 100% African.--Inayity (talk) 16:51, 20 July 2014 (UTC)

When you allege that Ethiopians are "Semitic" people, which ones exactly are you talking about? Ethiopia has over eighty ethnic groups. Similarly Kenya, which you cite, has over fourty-two ethnic groups. They're all Africans, regardless of the phenotype. Further, Wikipedia is not the place to post original research. If you have evidence that Alessandro Medici was not part African, then by all means change the entry but quote reliable sources.DanJazzy (talk) 05:41, 28 April 2015 (UTC)

Third illegitimate child
The Medici family tree (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medici_family_tree) shows a third illegitimate child, Porzia de” Medici (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porzia_de%27_Medici). This article should include her. Minicarmen (talk) 19:04, 15 June 2021 (UTC)

"Dark pigmentation" and African ancestry
Numerous sources support de' Medici being of a dark complexion and his mother being an African slave. I added two other sources from Frontline (American TV program). Your explanation in your edit summaries do not justify removal. References:      Adakiko (talk) 21:20, 22 October 2022 (UTC)

Death date
The lead states January 6 (uncited), but the body only says he was attacked on Jan 5/6. Need a more definite statement and citation on his death date. —Bagumba (talk) 05:39, 5 January 2023 (UTC)


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Porter Rockwell

Orrin Porter Rockwell (June 28, 1813 or June 25, 1815 – June 9, 1878) was a figure of the Wild West period of American history. A lawman in the Utah Territory, he was nicknamed Old Port, The Destroying Angel of Mormondom and Modern-day Samson.

Rockwell served as a bodyguard, and was a personal friend, of Latter Day Saint movement founder Joseph Smith. After Smith's death in 1844, Rockwell became a bodyguard of his successor, Brigham Young, and traveled with him and members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) to the Salt Lake Valley in the present-day U.S. state of Utah.

Early years
Rockwell was born in Belchertown, Hampshire County, Massachusetts, to Orin and Sarah Rockwell, who were neighbors of the Smith family.

Rockwell was eight years younger than Smith. While Smith was publishing the Book of Mormon, Rockwell picked berries at night and hauled wood into town to help pay for the publishing.

In 1830, at 16-years old, Rockwell was baptized into Smith's Church of Christ in Fayette, New York. Historically, the date of Rockwell's baptism is April 6, the day the church was organized, but original documents suggest a probable date of June 9. Rockwell was the youngest member of the first group to be baptized into the church.

On February 2, 1832, Rockwell married Luana Beebe in Jackson County, Missouri, and was endowed in the Nauvoo Temple on January 5, 1846.

Rockwell killed many men as a gunfighter, a religious enforcer, and Deputy United States Marshal. According to legend, Rockwell told a crowd listening to United States vice president Schuyler Colfax in 1869, "I never killed anyone who didn't need killing", a quote used by actor John Wayne in a movie decades later.

"But he [Porter Rockwell] was that most terrible instrument that can be handled by fanaticism; a powerful physical nature welded to a mind of very narrow perceptions, intense convictions, and changeless tenacity. In his build, he was a gladiator; in his humor, a Yankee lumberman; in his memory, a Bourbon; in his vengeance, an Indian. A strange mixture, only to be found on the American Continent."

Boggs attempted assassination accusation
On the evening of May 6, 1842, Lilburn Boggs was shot by an unknown party who fired at him through a window as he read a newspaper in his study. He was badly wounded but survived. Boggs was the governor of Missouri who had signed the Executive Order 44 on October 27, 1838, known as the "Extermination Order" evicting Mormons from Missouri by violent and deadly means.

The Sangamo Journal published a letter by John C. Bennett, a recently excommunicated Mormon who, prior to the assassination, had served as mayor of Nauvoo, Major General of the Nauvoo Legion, and Chancellor of the University of Nauvoo.

Bennett implicated Rockwell in the assassination attempt, writing:
 * "In 1841, Joe Smith predicted or prophesied in a public congregation in Nauvoo, that Lilburn W Boggs, ex-Governor of Missouri, should die by violent hands within one year. From one or two months prior to the attempted assassination of Gov. Boggs, Mr. O. P. Rockwell left Nauvoo for parts unknown to the citizens at large. I was then on terms of close intimacy with Joe Smith, and asked him where Rockwell had gone? "Gone," said he, "GONE TO FULFILL PROPHECY!" Rockwell returned to Nauvoo the day before the report of the assassination reached there."

Smith and his supporters vehemently denied Bennett's account.

Rockwell was apprehended in St. Louis on March 6, 1843. In late May, Rockwell briefly escaped from the Independence jail where he was being held.

On September 30, 1843, it was reported:
 * "Orin Porter Rockwell, the Mormon confined in our county jail some time since for the attempted assassination of ex-governor Boggs, was indicted by our last grand jury for escaping from the county jail some weeks since, and sent to Clay county for trial. Owing, however, to some informality in the proceedings, he was remanded to this county again for trial. There was not sufficient proof adduced against him to justify an indictment for shooting ex-Governor Boggs; and the grand jury, therefore, did not indict him for that offence."

Though never indicted for the attempted assassination, Rockwell was tried and convicted of jailbreak. Rockwell was released on December 13, 1843—ten months after his arrest.

Nauvoo Years
The morning of September 16th 1845, Lieutenant Frank Worrell of the nearby Carthage militia was shot and killed by Rockwell after refusing an order to stop by non-Mormon Sherriff William Backenstos. Worrell had been the sergeant of the guard at Carthage when the Smiths were assasinated.

Utah years
Following Smith's death, Rockwell followed Brigham Young and the LDS Church to the Salt Lake Valley. In 1849, Rockwell was appointed as deputy marshal of Great Salt Lake City, and remained a peace officer until his death. He was well known for his endurance, loyalty, and relentlessness.

In April 1851, a group of Goshute confiscated some horses that had invaded their territory near Benson Grist Mill. General Daniel H. Wells sent a posse led by Rockwell to pursue the Goshute. They lost the trail of the Goshute that had taken the horses and encountered another group of 20 or 30 people, whom they took prisoner but did not disarm. When some of the captured Goshute tried to escape, one was shot by Custer, a non-Mormon member of the posse. Custer was then shot by one of the Native Americans, who was in turn shot by another posse member. All but four or five prisoners escaped, those that didn't escape were executed by Rockwell.

Rockwell operated the Hot Springs Hotel and Brewery at the southern end of the Salt Lake Valley, in an area known as "Point of the Mountain".

Rockwell's fame as a "mountain man" attracted the explorer, Richard Francis Burton. In 1860, on his trip across America to the west coast, Burton stopped to explore the Salt Lake City area. He stayed with Lysander Dayton in a village near the city, and Dayton invited Rockwell to dinner. Rockwell sent for a bottle of Valley Tan Whiskey, and he and Burton drank shot-for-shot into the night, with Rockwell outlining steps Burton should take for safety during his passage to Sacramento. Rockwell advised Burton to carry a loaded double-barreled shotgun, sleep in a "dark camp" (unlit, miles from where supper was cooked), to never trust appearances, and to avoid the main trail, where "White Indians" (so-called because they were white robbers disguised as Indians to avert blame) preyed on travelers.

Death
Rockwell died in Salt Lake City, Utah Territory, of natural causes on June 9, 1878. He was buried in the Salt Lake City Cemetery. At the time of his death, Rockwell had been a baptized Latter-day Saint longer than anyone living. His epitaph reads:

"He was brave and loyal to his faith. True to the Prophet Joseph Smith. A promise made him by the prophet. Through obedience, it was fulfilled."

At Rockwell's funeral, apostle Joseph F. Smith, nephew of Joseph Smith and future church president, spoke the following about Rockwell:

"They say he was a murderer; if he was, he was the friend of Joseph Smith and Brigham Young, and he was faithful to them, and to his covenants, and he has gone to Heaven and apostates can go to Hell ... Porter Rockwell was yesterday afternoon ushered into Heaven clothed with immortality and eternal life, and crowned with all glory which belongs to a departed saint. He has his little faults, but Porter's life on earth, taken altogether, was one worthy of example, and reflected honor upon the church. Through all his trials, he never once forgot his obligations to his brethren and his God."

However, not all reactions to Rockwell's death were positive. On June 11, 1878, the Salt Lake Tribune stated, "Porter Rockwell is another of the long list of Mormon criminals whose deeds of treachery and blood have reddened the soil of Utah, and who has paid no forfeit to offended law."

Legacy
Rockwell had the distinction of being the subject of a direct prophecy by Smith. After spending eight months in jail on charges of attempting to assassinate Boggs, Rockwell traveled to Nauvoo, appearing unannounced at a Christmas party at Smith's home. After his identity was confirmed, Smith was moved to say:

"I prophesy, in the name of the Lord, you—Orrin Porter Rockwell—so long as ye shall remain loyal and true to thy faith, need fear no enemy. Cut not thy hair, and no bullet or blade can harm thee."

The promise echoes one given by an angel to the parents of the biblical Samson.

Rockwell, at one time, cut his hair. After hearing of a balding widow with typhoid fever, he offered his famous long hair to make a wig. The recipient of the hair was Agnes Coolbrith Smith Pickett, widow of Smith's brother, Don Carlos.

The Porter Rockwell Trail is a walking trail that spans Lehi, Draper, White City, and Sandy.

Cultural influence
Two statues of Rockwell exist: one near the old site of his Hot Springs Hotel and Brewery near the Utah State Penitentiary, the other in Lehi, Utah, off of Main Street behind the "Porter's Place" The restaurant has since moved to Eureka, Utah.

Rockwell's life was examined on The Dollop, a comedic podcast that examines American history, in episode #74.

Rockwell's life was examined again on Let Them Fight: A Comedy History Podcast, a comedic historical podcast that examines violent people throughout all history, in episode #120.

title: Porter Rockwell


text:
United States Department of War

The United States Department of War, also called the War Department (and occasionally War Office in the early years), was the United States Cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the United States Army, also bearing responsibility for naval affairs until the establishment of the Navy Department in 1798, and for most land-based air forces until the creation of the Department of the Air Force on September 18, 1947.

The Secretary of War, a civilian with such responsibilities as finance and purchases and a minor role in directing military affairs, headed the War Department throughout its existence.

The War Department existed from August 7, 1789 until September 18, 1947, when it split into the Department of the Army and the Department of the Air Force. The Department of the Army and Department of the Air Force later joined the Department of the Navy under the United States Department of Defense in 1949.

18th century
The Department of War traces its origins to the committees created by the Second Continental Congress in 1775 to oversee the Revolutionary War. Individual committees were formed for each issue, including committees to secure ammunition, to raise funds for gunpowder, and to organize a national militia. These committees were consolidated into the Board of War and Ordnance in 1776, operated by members of Congress. A second board was created in 1777, the Board of War, to operate separately from Congress. The Congress of the Confederation eventually replaced the system of boards with the Department of War. Only five positions were created within the department upon its creation: the Secretary at War, an assistant, a secretary, and two clerks.

Shortly after the establishment of a government under President George Washington in 1789, Congress reestablished the War Department as a civilian agency to administer the field army under the president (as commander-in-chief) and the secretary of war. Retired senior General Henry Knox, then in civilian life, served as the first United States Secretary of War. When the department was created, the president was authorized to appoint two inspectors to oversee the troops. Congress created several additional offices over the course of the 1790s, including the major general, brigadier general, quartermaster general, chaplain, surgeon general, adjutant general, superintendent of military stores, paymaster general, judge advocate, inspector general, physician general, apothecary general, purveyor, and accountant.

Forming and organizing the department and the army fell to Secretary Knox, while direct field command of the small Regular Army fell to President Washington. In 1798, Congress authorized President John Adams to create a second provisional army under the command of former President Washington in anticipation of the Quasi-War, but this army was never utilized. The Department of War was also responsible for overseeing interactions with Native Americans in its early years.

On November 8, 1800, the War Department building with its records and files was consumed by fire.

19th century
The United States Military Academy at West Point and the Army Corps of Engineers were established in 1802. The Department of War was reduced in size following the end of the Quasi-War in 1802, but it was subsequently expanded in the years leading up to the War of 1812. To accommodate this expansion, sub-departments were created within the department, with each one led by a general staff officer. These sub-departments were reformed into a modern system of bureaus by Secretary of War John C. Calhoun in 1818. Secretary Calhoun created the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1824, which served as the main agency within the War Department for addressing the issues regarding Native Americans until 1849, when Congress transferred it to the newly founded Department of the Interior. The U.S. Soldiers' Home was created in 1851.

During the American Civil War, the War Department responsibilities expanded. It handled the recruiting, training, supply, medical care, transportation and pay of two million soldiers, comprising both the regular army and the much larger temporary volunteer army. A separate command structure took charge of military operations.

In the late stages of the war, the department took charge of refugees and freedmen (freed slaves) in the American South through the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands. During the Reconstruction era, this bureau played a major role in supporting the new Republican governments in the southern states. When military Reconstruction ended in 1877, the U.S. Army removed the last troops from military occupation of the American South, and the last Republican state governments in the region ended. The Army comprised hundreds of small detachments in forts around the West, dealing with Indians, and in coastal artillery units in port cities, dealing with the threat of a naval attack.

1898–1939
The United States Army, with 39,000 men in 1890 was the smallest and least powerful army of any major power in the late 19th century. By contrast, France had an army of 542,000. Temporary volunteers and state militia units mostly fought the Spanish–American War of 1898. This conflict demonstrated the need for more effective control over the department and its bureaus.

Secretary of War Elihu Root (1899–1904) sought to appoint a chief of staff as general manager and a European-type general staff for planning, aiming to achieve this goal in a businesslike manner, but General Nelson A. Miles stymied his efforts. Root enlarged the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York and established the United States Army War College and the General Staff. He changed the procedures for promotions and organized schools for the special branches of the service. He also devised the principle of rotating officers from staff to line. Concerned about the new territories acquired after the Spanish–American War, Root worked out the procedures for turning Cuba over to the Cubans, wrote the charter of government for the Philippines, and eliminated tariffs on goods imported to the United States from Puerto Rico.

Root's successor as Secretary of War, William Howard Taft, returned to the traditional secretary-bureau chief alliance, subordinating the chief of staff to the adjutant general, a powerful office since its creation in 1775. Indeed, Secretary Taft exercised little power; President Theodore Roosevelt made the major decisions. In 1911, Secretary Henry L. Stimson and Major General Leonard Wood, his chief of staff, revived the Root reforms. The general staff assisted them in their efforts to rationalize the organization of the army along modern lines and in supervising the bureaus.

World War I
The Congress reversed these changes in support of the bureaus and in the National Defense Act of 1916 reduced the size and functions of the general staff to few members before America entered World War I on April 6, 1917. President Woodrow Wilson supported Secretary of War Newton D. Baker, who opposed efforts to control the bureaus and war industry until competition for limited supplies almost paralyzed industry and transportation, especially in the North. Yielding to pressure from Congress and industry, Secretary Baker placed Benedict Crowell in charge of munitions and made Major General George W. Goethals acting quartermaster general and General Peyton C. March chief of staff. Assisted by industrial advisers, they reorganized the supply system of the army and practically wiped out the bureaus as quasi-independent agencies. General March reorganized the general staff along similar lines and gave it direct authority over departmental operations. After the war, the Congress again granted the bureaus their former independence. The Commission on Training Camp Activities addressed moral standards of the troops.

In the 1920s, General John J. Pershing realigned the general staff on the pattern of his American Expeditionary Force (AEF) field headquarters, which he commanded. The general staff in the early 1920s exercised little effective control over the bureaus, but the chiefs of staff gradually gained substantial authority over them by 1939, when General George C. Marshall assumed the office of Army Chief of Staff.

World War II
During World War II, General Marshall principally advised President Franklin D. Roosevelt on military strategy and expended little effort in acting as general manager of the Department of War. Many agencies still fragmented authority, burdening the chief of staff with too many details, making the whole Department of War poorly geared toward directing the army in a global war. General Marshall described the chief of staff then as a "poor command post." President Roosevelt brought in Henry L. Stimson as Secretary of War; after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Stimson supported Marshall in reorganizing the army under the War Powers Act of 1941. He divided the Army of the United States (AUS) into three autonomous components to conduct the operations of the War Department: the Army Ground Forces (AGF) trained land troops; the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) developed an independent air arm; and the Services of Supply (later Army Service Forces) directed administrative and logistical operations. The Operations Division acted as general planning staff for Marshall. By 1942, the Army Air Forces gained virtual independence in every way from the rest of the army.

Postwar
After World War II, the Department of War abandoned Marshall's organization for the fragmented prewar pattern while the independent services continually parried efforts to reestablish firm executive control over their operations. The National Security Act of 1947 split the War Department into the Department of the Army and the Department of the Air Force, and the Secretary of the Army and Secretary of the Air Force served as operating managers for the new Secretary of Defense.

Office space
In the early years, between 1797 and 1800, the Department of War was headquartered in Philadelphia; it moved with the other federal agencies to the new national capital at Washington, D.C., in 1800. In 1820, headquarters moved into a building at 17th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW, adjacent to the Executive Mansion, part of a complex of four matching brick Georgian/Federal style buildings for Cabinet departments with War in the northwest, Navy in the southwest and to the other side: State to the northeast and Treasury in the southeast. The War Department building was supplemented in the 1850s by a building across the street to the west known as the Annex and became very important during the Civil War with President Abraham Lincoln visiting the War Office's telegraph room for constant updates and reports and walking back and forth to the "Residence". The original 1820 structures for War and Navy on the west side of the now famous White House was replaced in 1888 by construction of a new building of French Empire design with mansard roofs, the "State, War, and Navy Building" (now the Old Executive Office Building, and later renamed to honor General and President Dwight D. Eisenhower), built in the same location as its predecessors.

By the 1930s, the Department of State squeezed the War Department from its office space, and the White House also desired additional office space. In August 1939, Secretary of War Harry H. Woodring and Acting Chief of Staff of the Army George C. Marshall moved their offices into the Munitions Building, a temporary structure built on the National Mall during World War I. In the late 1930s, the government constructed the War Department Building (renamed in 2000 as the Harry S Truman Building) at 21st and C Streets in Foggy Bottom, but upon completion, the new building did not solve the space problem of the department, and the Department of State ultimately used it.

Coming into office with World War II raging in Europe and Asia, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson faced with the situation of the War Department spread through the overcrowded Munitions Building and numerous other buildings across Washington, D.C., and suburban Maryland and Virginia. On July 28, 1941, Congress authorized funding for a new Department of War building in Arlington, Virginia, which would house the entire department under one roof. When construction of the Pentagon was completed in 1943, the Secretary of War vacated the Munitions Building and the department began moving into the Pentagon.

Organization
The United States Secretary of War, a member of the United States Cabinet, headed the War Department.

The National Security Act of 1947 established the National Military Establishment, later renamed the United States Department of Defense. On the same day this act was signed, Executive Order 9877 assigned primary military functions and responsibilities with the former War Department split between the Department of the Army and Department of the Air Force.

In the aftermath of World War II, the American government (among others around the world) decided to abandon the word 'War' when referring to the civilian leadership of their military. One vestige of the former nomenclature is the names of the service was colleges: the Army War College, the Naval War College, and the Air War College, which still train U.S. military officers in battlefield tactics and the strategy of war fighting.

Seal of the department
The date "MDCCLXXVIII" and the designation "War Office" are indicative of the origin of the seal. The date (1778) refers to the year of its adoption. The term "War Office" used during the Revolution, and for many years afterward, was associated with the Headquarters of the Army.

title: United States Department of War


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Owner-occupancy

Owner-occupancy or home-ownership is a form of housing tenure in which a person, called the owner-occupier, owner-occupant, or home owner, owns the home in which they live. The home can be a house, such as a single-family house, an apartment, condominium, or a housing cooperative. In addition to providing housing, owner-occupancy also functions as a real estate investment.

Acquisition
Some homes are constructed by the owners with the intent to occupy. Many are inherited. A large number are purchased, as new homes from a real estate developer or as an existing home from a previous landlord or owner-occupier.

A house is usually the most expensive single purchase an individual or family makes, and often costs several times the annual household income. Given the high cost, most individuals do not have enough savings on hand to pay the entire amount outright. In developed countries, mortgage loans are available from financial institutions in return for interest. If the home owner fails to meet the agreed repayment schedule, a foreclosure (known as a repossession in some countries) may result.

Many countries offer aid to prospective homebuyers to make their purchases. These measures include grants, subsidized mortgages, and mortgage guarantees. Prospective homebuyers may have to meet certain qualifications to qualify for government aid, such as being a first-time homebuyer or having an income below a certain threshold.

Pros and cons
Home ownership gives occupants the right to modify the building and land as they please (subject to government, homeowner association, and deed restrictions), protects them from eviction, and creates a right to occupation which can be inherited. In some jurisdictions, it also confers certain legal rights with regard to abutters.

Houses and the land they sit on are expensive, and the combination of monthly mortgage, insurance, maintenance and repairs, and property tax payments are sometimes greater than monthly rental costs. Buildings may also gain and lose substantial value due to real estate market fluctuations, and selling a property can take a long time, depending on market conditions. This can make home ownership more constraining if the homeowner intends to move at a future date. Some home owners see their purchase as an investment and intend to sell or to rent the property after renovating or letting the house appreciate in value (known as flipping if done quickly).

Due to the fact that homeowners have a financial stake in their homes, being a homeowner is an economically efficient course of action. In order to improve their physical and mental well-being as well as their level of life satisfaction, they have a motivation to preserve or raise the value of their properties. Conversely, renters are incentivized to view local issues through a narrow lens, could be unmotivated to participate in civic life, and could see themselves as having little social utility. Compared to renters and absentee landlords, owner-occupiers are sometimes seen as more responsible toward property maintenance and community concerns, since they are more directly affected.

Traditionally, home ownership has been encouraged by governments in Western countries (especially English-speaking countries) because it was thought to help people acquire wealth, to encourage savings, and promote civic engagement. However, the housing market crash of 2008 in most of the English-speaking world has caused academic and policy-makers to question this logic.

Political influence
Owning a home influences how an individual views the role of government. Data from OECD countries shows that when housing prices rise, individuals are more critical of the welfare state. Conversely, when housing prices drop, homeowners are more likely to favor government intervention. In the US, areas with high rates of homeownership have higher levels of voter turnout. There is also a weak relationship between homeownership and supporting Republican candidates. Data from the UK supports the idea that homeowners view the value of their home as a kind of private, informal insurance policy against economic shocks. A sufficiently valuable home protects the owner without need for government intervention.

International statistics
''Source: Housing Finance Information Network (HOFINET)

Property tax
Homeowners are usually required to pay property tax (or millage tax) periodically. The tax is levied by the governing authority of the jurisdiction in which the property is located; it may be paid to a national government, a federated state, a county or geographical region, or a municipality. Multiple jurisdictions may tax the same property.

Property Transfer Tax
In most Canadian provinces home purchasers must pay a one-time tax called a Property Transfer Tax (Land Transfer Tax) which is based on the cost of the home.

title: Owner-occupancy


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User talk:Jimregan/Mark

Hi, Mark. I hope you don't mind that i made a little change to your User page. From what your dad said, i guessed that you are interested in the electrical kind of batteries. If i'm wrong, and you are more interested in artillery batteries, let me know, and i'll change it. Have a good day. --Jerzy 01:50, 2003 Nov 21 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jimregan/Mark


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Imputed rent

Imputed rent is the rental price an individual would pay for an asset they own. The concept applies to any capital good, but it is most commonly used in housing markets to measure the rent homeowners would pay for a housing unit equivalent to the one they own. Imputing housing rent is necessary to measure economic activity in national accounts. Because asset owners do not pay rent, owners' imputed rent must be measured indirectly.

Imputed housing rent is the economic theory of imputation applied to real estate: that the value is more a matter of what the buyer is willing to pay than the cost the seller incurs to create it. In this case, market rents are used to estimate the value to the property owner. Thus, imputed rent offers a way to compare homeowners' and tenants' economic decisions.

More formally, in owner-occupancy, the landlord–tenant relationship is short-circuited. Consider a model: two people, A and B, each of whom owns property. If A lives in B's property, and B lives in A's, two financial transactions take place: each pays rent to the other. But if A and B are both owner-occupiers, no money changes hands even though the same economic relationships exists; there are still two owners and two occupiers, but the transactions between them no longer go through the market. The amount that would have changed hands had the owner and occupier been different persons is the imputed rent. Imputed rents can alternatively be understood as returns to investments in assets. On these grounds, imputed rents might be included in disposable income, e.g. when calculating indices of income distribution.

Measurement
There are two common approaches to estimating imputed rents for housing: the "comparison approach" and the "user cost of capital" approach.

Comparison approach
The comparison approach matches rents in tenant-occupied housing units to similar owner-occupied housing units. If the units are identical, the owner-occupant's imputed rent is the cost they avoid in renting the other unit.

In the United States, the Bureau of Labor Statistics uses a version of this approach to estimate changes in the price of owner-occupied housing.

User cost of capital approach
The user cost approach identifies costs unrecoverable by the owner. These can be defined as:

$$R = (i + r_p + m + d)P_H $$

Where $i$ is the interest rate, $rp$ is the property tax rate, $m$ is the cost of maintenance, and $d$ is depreciation. The rent is the sum of these rates multiplied by the price of the house, $PH$. More detailed user cost models consider differential interest costs for housing debt and owner equity and the tax treatment of housing capital income.

Effects of owner-occupancy

 * Imputed rents disappear from measures of national income and output, unless figures are added to take them into account.
 * The government loses the opportunity to tax the transaction. Sometimes, governments have attempted to tax the imputed rent (Schedule A of United Kingdom's income tax used to do that), but it tends to be unpopular. Some countries still tax the imputed rent, such as Belgium, Iceland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Spain and Switzerland. The absence of taxes on imputed rents is also referred to as Home-Ownership Bias.

In population datasets like the Cross-National Equivalent File, imputed rent is estimated:
 * for owner-occupiers, as a small percentage (4–6%) of the capital accrued in the property
 * for public housing tenants, as the difference between rent paid and the average rent for a similar property in the same location
 * for those living rent-free, as the estimate of the rent they would have to pay to rent a similar property in the same location
 * for renters in the private market, as zero

Extending the principle
If imputed rent can be applied to housing, it can likewise apply to any good that can be rented, including automobiles and furniture: "In principle, the BEA should also include imputed rent for things like cars, and even furniture, but compared to housing, it’s such a small part of the economy that it’s not worth the effort."

title: Imputed rent


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Housing tenure

Housing tenure is a financial arrangement and ownership structure under which someone has the right to live in a house or apartment. The most frequent forms are tenancy, in which rent is paid by the occupant to a landlord, and owner-occupancy, where the occupant owns their own home. Mixed forms of tenure are also possible.

The basic forms of tenure can be subdivided, for example an owner-occupier may own a house outright, or it may be mortgaged. In the case of tenancy, the landlord may be a private individual, a non-profit organization such as a housing association, or a government body, as in public housing.

Surveys used in social science research frequently include questions about housing tenure, because it is a useful proxy for income or wealth, and people are less reluctant to give information about it.

Types

 * Owner occupancy – The person or group that occupies a house owns the building (and usually the land on which it sits).
 * Tenancy – A landlord who owns an apartment or building rents the right to occupy the unit to a tenant.
 * Cooperative – Ownership of the entire building or complex is held in common by a homeowners' association. Individuals have the right to occupy a particular apartment by mutual agreement but do not hold exclusive ownership to it.
 * Condominium (a.k.a. commonhold and strata title) – Ownership of an apartment or house is assigned to an individual, but common areas (e.g. hallways, heating system, elevators, exterior areas) are controlled by the homeowners' association. Fees are charged to the condo owners for maintenance of the common areas. These are referred to as "condo fees".
 * Public housing – Government-owned housing, whether provided for free or leased at a subsidised rate.
 * Squatting – Occupation by non-owner without permission by the owner, if any.
 * Land trust – Often used as an alternative to ownership for privacy and legal reasons.

Styles and variations

 * Timeshare – A modified form of cooperative, condominium, or leased house or apartment, with short-term residency right agreements tailored for vacations.
 * Cohousing – A variant of a condominium or cooperative with a high degree of interaction with neighbors in shared areas.

England
The Department for Communities and Local Government is responsible for developing government housing policy in England. The English Housing Survey classifies all dwellings into one of four housing tenure classifications:

 * Owner-occupied
 * Private rented
 * Rented from housing association (registered social landlords)
 * Rented from local authorities

title: Housing tenure


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Santa Claus parade

Santa Claus parades, also called Christmas parades, are parades held in some countries to celebrate the official opening of the Christmas season with the arrival of Santa Claus who always appears in the last float. The parades usually include themed floats, dancing or marching groups and bands playing Christmas songs. They are moving pageants that typically end near the centre of a city. Often sponsored by department stores, they may reinforce the store's brand recognition during the important Christmas shopping season.

History
The Christmas parade is a direct descendant of late Medieval and Renaissance revivals of Roman Triumphs, which had music and banners, wagons filled with the spoils of war, and climaxed with the dux riding in a chariot, preferably drawn by two horses, and thus called the biga. (A quadriga such as surmounts the Brandenburg Gate is drawn by four horses.) Similarly, the climax of a Santa Claus parade is always Santa in his sleigh, drawn by eight reindeer (an octigia). Roman Triumphs were themselves consciously modeled on ceremonies honoring the gods. The Santa Claus parade directly corresponds to the modern triumphal entry of Santa Claus.

Notable parades
Santa Claus parades are most common in North America.

One of the largest is the Toronto Santa Claus Parade, held annually in mid-November in Toronto, started in 1905 by the Eaton's department store. That year Santa arrived on a train and met Mr. and Mrs. Timothy Eaton, then walked to the Eaton's Downtown store. The first float was introduced in 1908 and consisted of one truck with a band to accompany Santa. The parade now has over 24 floats, 24 bands, and 1,700 participants, and is broadcast in several countries.

Peoria, Illinois has the longest running Santa Claus Parade in the U.S. The parade celebrated its 131st edition on November 23, 2018. The first parade in 1887 consisted of boats and derricks sailing down the river as part of the new bridge construction. In 1888, Peoria held a parade through town, celebrating the completion of the new Upper Free Bridge. The following December, Frederick Block of the Schipper and Block Department Store (later Block & Kuhl's) sponsored a parade that followed the same route and featured Santa Claus. This created the concept of a department-store parade that was later emulated in larger cities. Various attractions in the parade through the years included fireworks, circus wagons, a calliope, live reindeer and numerous parade floats. The parade was first televised in 1958.

In Vancouver, the Rogers' Santa Claus Parade has also grown to be one of the largest, with 65 floats and bands. A special train also circulates through the parade, collecting donations for the Greater Vancouver Food Bank and the Lower Mainland Christmas Bureau. In 2005, the parade collected over 4300 kg of food and 2,300 toy donations.

Houston, Texas hosts the H-E-B Thanksgiving Day Parade annually since 1950. The previous sponsor was Foley's, until Macy's bought it.

Gimbels Department Store in Philadelphia started its parade in 1920. The parade is now known as the 6abc Dunkin' Donuts Thanksgiving Day Parade and was formerly sponsored by IKEA and Boscov's. It is the oldest parade in the United States held on Thanksgiving Day as the older parade in Peoria is held the day after.

In New York City, the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, famous for its giant helium-filled balloons, began in 1924, inspired by the Eaton's parade in Toronto, with Macy's employees in costume, and— a distinctively Roman touch— animals borrowed from the Central Park Zoo. The giant balloons made an early appearance, with Felix the Cat in 1927. The inflation of the balloons in the streets flanking the American Museum of Natural History the night before has become a traditional gathering for New York's Upper West Side.

Also in 1924, the J. L. Hudson Company staged its first Thanksgiving Parade in Detroit, Michigan. Among the early features were large papier-mâché heads similar to those seen by Hudson's display director, Charles Wendel, on a recent trip to Viareggio, Italy. The heads continue to be a feature in the annual event. Hudson's sponsored the parade until 1979 when it was turned over to a non-profit group. In 1983, it became the Michigan Thanksgiving Parade and is currently known as America's Thanksgiving Parade.

Grand Rapids, Michigan's annual Santa Claus parade, known today as the Art Van Santa Parade, made history in 1971 when it became the first parade to end with the arrival of an African-American Santa Claus.

The Hollywood Christmas Parade (formerly The Santa Claus Lane Parade) in Southern California is a seasonal tradition that somewhat competes with the Tournament of Roses Parade and the Doo Dah Parade. Gene Autry wrote the well known Christmas song "Here Comes Santa Claus" after hearing children on the Santa Claus Lane Parade route yelling "Here Comes Santa Claus!" upon glimpsing Santa in the distance.

As part of its citywide Christmas celebrations, known as Gran Festival Navideño, Mexico City holds a parade on Eje Central. The 2011 version featured mobile machines that blew artificial snow on participants and spectators. This parade has been telecast on the Televisa and Azteca networks, with Televisa's coverage being the official coverage and being the most-widely aired coverage, being broadcast in other Spanish-speaking countries and on Galavision in the United States.

Elsewhere, especially in Commonwealth countries outside Canada, Santa Claus parades are usually known as Christmas pageants. The largest is the Adelaide Christmas Pageant, which was begun in 1933 and is held annually in November.

title: Santa Claus parade