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Mount Jefferson (Oregon)

Mount Jefferson is a stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc, part of the Cascade Range in the U.S. state of Oregon. The second highest mountain in Oregon, it is situated within Linn County, Jefferson County, and Marion County and forms part of the Mount Jefferson Wilderness. Due to the ruggedness of its surroundings, the mountain is one of the hardest volcanoes to reach in the Cascades. It is also a popular tourist destination despite its remoteness, with recreational activities including hiking, backpacking, mountaineering, and photography. Vegetation at Mount Jefferson is dominated by Douglas fir, silver fir, mountain hemlock, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, and several cedar species. Carnivores, insectivores, bats, rodents, deer, birds, and various other species inhabit the area.

Also known as Seekseekqua by Native American populations, the volcano was named after United States President Thomas Jefferson, and was first ascended by E. C. Cross and R. L. Farmer in 1888. It sits atop an area of crustal melting, and was produced by the subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca tectonic plate under the continental North American tectonic plate, forming about 730,000 years ago. Consisting of basaltic andesite, andesite, and dacite, the mountain has been extensively altered by glacial erosion. The surrounding area contains a number of other volcanic features like cinder cones, shield volcanoes, and tuyas (flat-topped, steep-sided volcanoes formed when lava erupts through a thick glacier or ice sheet). It is considered a low threat by the United States Geological Survey. Despite the low chance of future eruptions, many scientists still consider mudflows a major threat at Mount Jefferson.

Geography

The second tallest mountain in the U.S. state of Oregon after Mount Hood, Mount Jefferson lies within Jefferson, Linn, and Marion counties, in the central part of the state. Reaching an elevation of 10497 ft, the volcano has a proximal relief of 1490 m. It is not usually visible from the city of Portland, though it is visible on clear days from Salem and can be noticed from highways to both the east and the west of the Cascade Range. The average elevation of the terrain around Jefferson is 5500 to 6500 ft, meaning that Jefferson's cone rises nearly 1 mi above its surroundings.

Wilderness
Mount Jefferson's eastern segment lies within the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, and its western portion within the Mount Jefferson Wilderness, of the Willamette National Forest and Deschutes National Forests. The wilderness area covers 111177 acre, with more than 150 lakes. It also has 190 mi of trails, including 40 mi of the Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail. Mount Jefferson is the major feature of the wilderness, along with the nearby Three Fingered Jack volcano.

Physical geography
Mount Jefferson lies in the temperate maritime climate of Western Oregon. The Cascades absorb east-moving moisture, causing warm and dry summers. Winters show higher precipitation levels, especially at higher elevations, averaging 3500 to 4000 mm at peak altitudes and consisting mostly of snow. Moving east, annual precipitation levels decrease from 2500 mm to lower than 400 mm.

When Little Ice Age glaciers retreated during the 20th century, water filled in the spaces left behind, forming moraine-dammed lakes, which are more common in the Mount Jefferson Wilderness and the nearby Three Sisters Wilderness than anywhere else in the contiguous United States. A number of these lakes breached during the 20th century and inundated Jefferson Park and the Jefferson Creek drainage under Waldo Glacier. These breach events yielded floods and small lahars (volcanically induced mudslides, landslides, and debris flows). The flood on August 21, 1934, at a lake formed near Whitewater Glacier, created a debris flow that reached the Whitewater River drainage and buried parts of Jefferson Park in 1 to 8 ft of debris; another event took place in 1957, but was poorly documented.

Mount Jefferson has 35 snow and ice features, including four named glaciers: Whitewater, Jefferson Park, Russell, and Waldo. These features, for the most part on the northern, eastern, and southeastern parts of Mount Jefferson, span elevations from 1877 to 2496 m and cover an area of 5.5 km2. The volcano, like much of the Oregon Cascades, was likely covered by an ice cap during the Pleistocene, with the glaciers at their peak size between 25,000 and 20,000 years ago. In recent years, the glaciers have retreated to form lateral moraines; Whitewater Glacier, for example, shrunk from 5 mi in width and 1 to 2 mi in length to 1.9 mi in width and a length of 1 km. During the 20th century, scientists thought they had identified a new glacier, which they named Milk Creek Glacier, but later studies established that it was an artifact of stagnant ice that had been hidden by debris, and it is no longer considered its own distinct feature.

Other geographic features at Jefferson include rock outcrops, steep talus slopes, conifer forests, and alpine meadows. Additionally, a number of rivers drain Mount Jefferson. The northern and northwestern slopes feed the South Fork Breitenbush River, which flows into Detroit Lake, and the eastern side of Detroit Lake also receives water from Whitewater Creek, Russell Creek, and Milk Creek, which flow from the western flank of Mount Jefferson. The Whitewater Glacier and the northeastern side of the volcano drain into the Whitewater River, and Shitike Creek flows between Mount Jefferson and Olallie Butte before reaching the Deschutes River. Both Jefferson and Parker Creeks receive water from Jefferson's southeastern slopes, then join the Metolius River.

Wildfires occur within the wilderness area at Mount Jefferson. In the late summer to early fall of 2017, the Whitewater and Little Devil fires occurred. While the Little Devil fire covered 485 acre, the Whitewater fire reached more than 10000 acre in area, provoking the use of amphibious aircraft and causing trail closures. As a result of the Whitewater fire, officials closed the Mount Jefferson Wilderness during the solar eclipse of August 21, 2017.

Ecology

Vegetation at Mount Jefferson is dominated by Douglas fir, silver fir, mountain hemlock, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, and several species of cedar. Vine maple, rhododendron, purple lupine, yellow lupine, Indian paintbrush, wild strawberries, and red huckleberries are also common around Mount Jefferson. Above the timber line at 2200 m above sea level, mountain hemlock and whitebark pine predominate, though mountain hemlock has also invaded into subalpine meadows at Mount Jefferson, possibly as a result of fire control programs, grazing, the influence of adjacent forest areas, and climate change.

Carnivorous animals at Mount Jefferson and its surroundings include American black bears, coyotes, cougars, red foxes, raccoons, American martens, stoats (also known as ermines), long-tailed weasels, American minks, North American river otters, and bobcats. Deer species include Roosevelt elk, black-tailed deer, and mule deer; insectivores include vagrant shrews, American water shrews, and coast moles. Bats at Jefferson include little brown bats and silver-haired bats, and American pikas and snowshoe hares are also present. Rodents such as yellow-bellied marmots, mountain beavers, yellow-pine chipmunks, Townsend's chipmunks, golden-mantled ground squirrels, western gray squirrels, Douglas squirrels, mountain pocket gophers, North American beavers, deer mice, bushy-tailed woodrats, water voles, Pacific jumping mice, and North American porcupines are present.

Birds at Jefferson include mallards, northern goshawks, sharp-shinned hawks, red-tailed hawks, dusky grouses, grey partridges, killdeers, spotted sandpipers, California gulls, band-tailed pigeons, great horned owls, mountain pygmy owls, common nighthawks, rufous hummingbirds, Northern flickers, pileated woodpeckers, yellow-bellied sapsuckers, hairy woodpeckers, and white-headed woodpeckers. Other bird species found in the area consist of Eurasian three-toed woodpeckers, willow flycatchers, olive-sided flycatchers, tree swallows, Canada jays, Steller's jays, common ravens, Clark's nutcrackers, black-capped chickadees, mountain chickadees, chestnut-backed chickadees, red-breasted nuthatches, pygmy nuthatches, Eurasian treecreepers, American dippers, wrens, American robins, varied thrushes, hermit thrushes, Townsend's solitaires, golden-crowned kinglets, ruby-crowned kinglets, water pipits, blue-headed vireos, western tanagers, Cassin's finches, gray-crowned rosy finches, pine siskins, red crossbills, green-tailed towhees, dark-eyed juncos, white-crowned sparrows, golden-crowned sparrows, fox sparrows, and Lincoln's sparrows. Long-toed salamanders, California giant salamanders, rough-skinned newts, tailed frogs, western toads, Pacific tree frogs, northern red-legged frogs, Oregon spotted frogs, pygmy short-horned lizards, common garter snakes, and northwestern garter snakes make up some of the amphibious and reptilian animals in the vicinity. Roughly half the lakes in the Jefferson area contain rainbow trout.

Geology

Mount Jefferson shows normal magnetic polarity, suggesting that it formed less than 730,000 years ago. Created by the subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca tectonic plate under the continental North American tectonic plate in an area where the Earth's crust is 40 to 45 km thick, it is part of the Oregon High Cascades, which are influenced by the movement of the North American Plate and the extension of its continental crust. These extensional processes formed grabens, or valley-like depressions between parallel fault lines, at the eastern boundary of the central Cascades, including a 4000 ft deep formation. Jefferson does not lie in one of these grabens, but these tectonic processes continue, albeit at a less dramatic rate. At their peak rates, the crustal extension and depression of the Cascades area caused eruption of the Minto Lavas, made of basalt, followed by the Santiam basalts, named for their movement into the North Santiam River valley, which they filled to depths of 600 ft. Though the Jefferson vicinity has produced andesitic and dacitic lavas for the past 5 to 6 million years, major volcanoes more than 50 mi south of the area have erupted basaltic andesite.

The central Oregon Cascades are made up of Eocene to Quaternary volcanic, volcaniclastic, igneous, and sedimentary rock. Miocene and Pliocene volcanic and sedimentary rocks have been exposed in the Jefferson area, which also sits above lava flows, cinder material, and breccia from the High Cascades that formed during and after the Pliocene. Jefferson is the largest volcano in the Jefferson Reach, which forms the 75 km strip that makes up the northern part of the Oregon Cascade Range. Stretching from Frog Lake Buttes to South Cinder Peak, this segment consists of at least 175 Quaternary volcanoes. With a width of 25 km, it differs from the adjacent northern segment of the Cascades, where volcanoes show a scattered distribution. Other unusual features of the Jefferson Reach include that the northernmost 30 km of the strip does not contain many volcanoes formed since the early Pleistocene and that it features a number of andesitic and dacitic volcanoes, which are unlike the many mafic (rich in magnesium and iron) shield volcanoes within the stretch. North of Pinhead Buttes, the volcanoes in this region are older and less tall, usually between 1100 to 1500 m in elevation. South of Pinhead Buttes, the Cascades becomes younger Pleistocene volcanoes, which often have glaciers.

Mount Jefferson may form part of a long-lasting intracrustal melting and magma storage area that encompasses an area of 20 by, where relatively little mafic eruptive activity has occurred. The melting of the metamorphic rocks amphibolite and at deeper strata, granulite, have both produced intermediate and silicic lavas at Jefferson. The strip may still be active, as monogenetic vents near Jefferson have produced basaltic andesite since the last glacial period. Jefferson — with Mount Hood, the Three Sisters-Broken Top area, and Crater Lake — represents one of four volcanic centers responsible for much of the Oregon Cascades' Quaternary andesite, dacite, and rhyolite deposits. Some of this andesite and dacite occurs in vents that underlie the Jefferson vicinity, which also erupted during the Quaternary. Quaternary volcanic production rates in the Cascade Range from Jefferson to Crater Lake have averaged 3 to 6 km3 per mile of arc length per million years.

In the area surrounding Mount Jefferson, monogenetic volcanoes constructed an upland area composed of basaltic lava flows and small volcanic vents. Within this region, basaltic vents occur at Olallie Butte, Potato Butte, Sisi Butte, North Cinder Peak, and South Cinder Peak, with basaltic lava flows at Cabot Creek, Jefferson Creek, and upper Puzzle Creek. There are several hundred other basaltic volcanoes within the central Oregon High Cascades, extending up to 110 mi away. Mount Jefferson overlies an silicic volcanic field from the early Pleistocene. Between five and six million years old, the field reaches north from Jefferson to Olallie Butte, and it covers an area of 150 km2. Scientists think that the setup of this field, where various vents have erupted lava, explains why the otherwise similar Cascades volcano at Mount Hood is three times as voluminous as Jefferson, because Hood has concentrated most of the eruptions from its magma chambers. The field is also likely underlain by a batholith, a large mass of intrusive igneous rock (also called a pluton) that forms from cooled magma deep in the Earth's crust.

Mount Jefferson is a stratovolcano, made up of basaltic andesite, andesite, and dacite overlying basaltic shield volcanoes, with andesite and more silicic (rich in silica) rock forming the majority of the mountain. Rhyolite from the Quaternary can also be found at Jefferson, though it is not commonly found within the major volcanic centers of the Oregon Cascades. The volcano constitutes a small stratovolcano within the Cascades, with a current volume of 14 km3, though prior to erosion and other alterations over time, it may have been as large as 30 km3 in volume at one time. Mount Jefferson has been significantly altered by erosion, and represents one of the most eroded stratovolcanoes in the state of Oregon. Glacial motion during the Pleistocene decreased the summit's elevation by a few hundred feet and formed a cirque (an amphitheatre-like valley carved by glacial erosion) on the western side of the volcano. This feature, known as the West Milk Creek cirque, includes the two Milk Creek glaciers and extends into the interior of Mount Jefferson, exposing tephra and pyroclastic rock in the main volcanic cone. The final two advances of glaciers during the Pleistocene removed about a third of the volcano's original volume, decreasing the overall elevation by 1000 ft. Currently, the Whitewater Glacier and the Milk Creek glaciers erode the mountain's eastern and western flanks, respectively, and are likely to gradually form a cleft between the northern and southern horns of the summit.

Within Jefferson's main volcanic cone, more than 200 andesitic lava flows are now exposed, with mean thicknesses from 10 to 35 ft, as well as an immense, pink dacitic lava flow with a thickness of 1000 ft. The volcano also possess a small volcanic plug (created when magma hardens within a vent on an active volcano), situated 500 ft under the summit. Jefferson's main cone ranges from 58 to 64 percent silicon dioxide, and is mostly made up of andesite and dacite. The upper 1000 m of Jefferson's cone formed within the past 100,000 years, and consists mostly of dacite lava flows and lava domes. While it is possible that glaciers shed material from the burgeoning lava domes, any evidence of these domes generating pyroclastic flows or lahars has not been preserved in the geological record.

Basalt at Mount Jefferson contains olivine, clinopyroxene, and plagioclase phenocryst crystals, while basaltic andesite phenocrysts include plagioclase (variable among samples), clinopyroxene, olivine, orthopyroxene, and occasionally, magnetite. Dacite and rhyodacite samples show amphibole, plagioclase, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, magnetite, apatite, and every so often ilmenite. Andesite shows similar composition to dacite samples, though sodic plagioclases and amphiboles are not as common.

Subfeatures
Volcanic activity in the vicinity of Mount Jefferson tends to originate from either stratovolcanoes that erupt for thousands of years or monogenetic volcanoes, which only erupt for a brief period of time before going extinct. At least 35 volcanic vents can be detected within 9 mi of the main volcanic cone at Mount Jefferson. These have produced andesitic and dacitic lava flows, lava domes, small shield volcanoes, and lava aprons. Basalt lava flows, at least two of which are younger than 7,700 years old, have been produced from four monogenetic volcanoes 4 to 8 mi to the south of Jefferson, and they are not directly related to activity at the Mount Jefferson volcano. Rhyodacitic lava flows and pyroclastic material, which have since been significantly altered and stripped by glaciation, originated from eight vents in the area. The Mount Jefferson vicinity contains at least 40 of the 190 documented lava domes in the Oregon Cascades, including the 2182 m tall Goat's Peak dome; it also contains monogenetic tuyas (flat-topped, steep-sided volcanoes formed when lava erupts through a thick glacier or ice sheet) and emplacements of hyaloclastite among mafic lava flows.

The area is full of cinder cone volcanoes and intrusive lava plugs, which occur in irregular patterns. Made up of red to gray cinders, some are loose and agglutinated, and some contain intrusive rock plugs, while others do not. Cinder cones south of Mount Jefferson erupted lava flows, such as Forked Butte and North Cinder Peak. About 1,000 years ago, the South Cinder Peak cinder cone erupted, generating a lava flow that reached Marion Lake. Other volcanic cones associated with Mount Jefferson include Forked Butte and Horseshoe Cone.

Eruptive history

Scientists lack a comprehensive record of activity at Mount Jefferson, as important details have been obscured by the erosion of deposits by large glaciers. A few eruptions have been documented from the deposits that have been preserved, but the broad outline of Jefferson's eruptive history is understood, including that its activity has changed over time, producing both powerful explosive eruptions and lava flows. Historically, eruptive activity has alternated between andesitic and dacitic lavas.

The volcano formed over the course of several eruptive episodes, beginning about 300,000 years ago with the formation of rocks on the western and southwestern flanks of the volcano, and lasting until roughly 15,000 years ago. The two major eruptive episodes were separated by glacial erosion of the volcano. At least during the past 700,000 years, eruptions at the volcano have produced andesitic and dacitic lava. Most of the volcano formed within the past 100,000 years, with the latest activity building the central volcanic cone taking place between 30,000 and 20,000 years ago. These eruptions took place amidst the last glacial period and indicate interaction of lava with ice. They erupted dacite lava flows and silicic lava domes from vents east of the former central cone, and were influenced by ice on Mount Jefferson, which prevented them from diffusing across the volcano's flanks. Instead, they formed lava tongues near the crater and coursed down spaces in between glaciers, creating volcanic glass and columnar joints, or arrays of prismatic shapes. Silicic lava domes from this eruptive episode collapsed over and over again, producing block-and-ash flows, or pyroclastic flows with many volcanic blocks among ash with a similar composition.

About 150,000 years ago, an eruption produced the volcanic rock in the Park Butte area. A huge explosive eruption took place between 100,000 and 35,000 years ago (scientists have been unable to create a more specific time frame for the event), producing ash layers that covered the Metolius and Deschutes River valleys and eventually extended to the city of Arco, in the southeastern part of the state of Idaho. This eruption may have excavated the existing crater, but if that were the case, eruptions have since refilled the area and obscured evidence of a crater-forming event. Eruptions around the same time period yielded pyroclastic flows that coursed down the Whitewater River drainage of the eastern side of Mount Jefferson, and the Whitewater Creek on the volcano's western flank.

Basaltic lava flows at Forked Butte and to the south of Bear Butte mark the newest lava flows in the Jefferson area, as both were produced after Mount Mazama erupted roughly 7,600 years ago.

The last eruption occurred about a thousand years ago at a cinder cone on the flank of the South Cinder Peak cone.

Recent activity and potential hazards
The basaltic lava flows produced from four monogenetic vents near Mount Jefferson indicate that the local region could produce future eruptions and could be considered active. Mount Jefferson itself is listed with a "Low/Very Low" threat potential by the United States Geological Survey, but the agency has noted that "it may be too soon to regard Mount Jefferson as extinct." In a 1987 report, Richard P. Hoblitt and other USGS scientists estimated that the yearly likelihood for a major explosive eruption at Jefferson does not exceed 1 in 100,000. However, given the incomplete geologic record, imprecise dating of its known deposits, and its lack of relatively recent activity, scientists from the United States Geological Survey have commented that "It is almost impossible to estimate the probability of future eruptions at Mount Jefferson." They have designated proximal and distal hazard zones for the volcano, which extend 5 to 10 mi and several tens of miles, respectively.

An eruption from the volcano would threaten the immediate surrounding area, in addition to places downstream near river valleys or downwind that could be affected by ashfall. Lahars (volcanically induced mudslides, landslides, and debris flows) and tephra could extend far from the volcano, and Mount Jefferson may also produce pyroclastic flows, lava domes, and lava flows. Though the population within 30 km is only about 800 people, there are more than 550,000 people living within 100 km of the volcano.

Lava flows from Mount Jefferson or another volcano nearby might form lava domes that could collapse, also yielding pyroclastic flows. Moreover, while basaltic lava flows from surrounding monogenetic vents tend to travel slowly and typically only reach 12 mi from their source, and therefore would not pose serious hazards to much wildlife or humans, they would still burn and bury anything they encountered. Mazama Ash in the region reached 4 to 6 in in thickness, and at least one explosive eruption from Jefferson deposited 6 ft of ash onto its surroundings within 12 mi. Finer ash particles from the volcano could threaten air traffic, as a large gas plume may form; clouds from such a plume might also spawn pyroclastic flows on the flanks of the Jefferson volcano. Moreover, ash can cause irritation of the eyes or respiratory system among the ill, the elderly, and infants, potentially leading to chronic lung disease. Tephra can also lead to the short-circuiting of electric transformers and power lines, collapse roofs, clog engine filters, damage car engines, and create clouds capable of producing lightning that can start fires. Even monogenetic volcanoes in the area could yield hazardous ashfall, reaching 10 ft in thickness in areas within 1.2 mi; it is unlikely they would threaten areas outside the local Jefferson vicinity.

An eruption at Jefferson could create lahars that would reach Detroit Lake on the western side of the volcano or Lake Billy Chinook on the eastern side, leading to increased lake water levels (or lake dam failure) and endangering life downstream. In addition to the hazards from eruptions at Mount Jefferson, other safety threats include debris avalanches and lahars, which could be caused without an eruption as a result of the failure of glacial moraine dams; this has happened in the past at Jefferson. Even a small or mid-sized landslide could create lahars that travel far from the volcano. Flooding at one of the many lakes on the flanks of Jefferson could spawn lahars in the future. Many scientists think mudflows represent the largest threat at Jefferson.

Seismic activity at Mount Jefferson is monitored by a regional network of seismic meters operated by the United States Geological Survey at the University of Washington's Geophysics Department. No frequent signs of detectable earthquake have been seen within the past two decades, but if earthquakes increased, scientists are prepared to deploy additional seismometers and other tools to monitor volcanic gas emissions and ground deformation indicating movement of magma into the volcano.

Human history

A Native American name for the mountain is Seekseekqua; its English name, Mount Jefferson (originally called Mount Vancouver by the British) was decided in honor of U.S. President Thomas Jefferson by the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The expedition, which was sponsored by President Jefferson, first saw the peak from the mouth of the Willamette River on March 30, 1806. Walter Eaton later described Mount Jefferson as "the most remote, the most inaccessible and alluring" mountain in Oregon, writing that Jefferson and Mount Hood "seem to hold mystic converse with one another over the canyons between."

Mount Jefferson's glaciers were named by Oregon Bureau of Mines scientist Ira A. Williams in 1915, with former professor of geology at the University of Oregon, Edwin T. Hodge, publishing a report on the volcano's glaciers and geology in 1925. His report focused on the sequence of volcanic rocks at Jefferson, in addition to its physiography and glaciology. Aerial photographic surveys of the glaciers at Jefferson were conducted by the Mazamas, a hiking club from Portland, during the 20th century. In 1937, Thayer analyzed Mount Jefferson's petrography and petrology from segments of the Western Cascades and High Cascades, which he separated into local units. He expanded on this research in a 1939 publication looking at Jefferson vicinity lava flows. Field work followed in summer during 1965, led by G. W. Walker, and a 1974 study of the volcano's glacial and volcanic history was carried out by Kenneth G. Sutton and other geologists.

The first ascent of Mount Jefferson was probably accomplished by E. C Cross and Ray L. Farmer on 12 August 1888 by way of the south ridge. George J. Pearce, who accompanied Cross and Farmer on the expedition, wrote an account of the climb for the Oregonian newspaper on 22 August 1900. The first climber to reach the summit via the north face was S. S. Mohler in 1903.

Recreation

Mount Jefferson is remote, and can usually only be reached on foot or by horse. There are no paved roads within 4 mi of the mountain, and it is relatively little-known compared to other features near the Willamette Valley. Still, the mountain and its surrounding wilderness are visited by so many hikers, backpackers, and climbers each year, especially during the summer, that they face threats to their ecological well-being. The Warm Springs Tribal Council does not permit access to the volcano's eastern side, so only the western flanks can be used by the public. The western side can be reached from the Oregon Route 22 highway.

Jefferson Park, on the northern slope of the mountain, can be reached on foot by taking the Whitewater Trail and following the Pacific Crest Trail for 1 mi. Located within the Mount Jefferson Wilderness, it represents a popular tourist destination for its views, lakes, and meadows, with activities including backpacking, climbing, and hiking during the summer, as well as nature photography. The area contains 26 campsites, which enforce a maximum group size of 12 people, and do not allow campfires. As a result of increased traffic to the area between 2012 and 2014, the Willamette National Forest administration enforced a campsite reservation system as of 2016, but stopped the practice in 2017 due to its failure to reduce human impact within the region.

The Jefferson Lake Trail runs for 4.2 mi round trip, with an elevation gain of 400 ft. Parts of the Trail were destroyed by a fire in the wilderness area in 2003, but the surviving remnants of the trail reopened after maintenance work was completed. At Marion Lake, there are several trails, including a 6 mi long route and a hike to Marion Mountain that lasts 11.2 mi round-trip. These and other trails through the region offer views of the devastation of fires in the wilderness area in 2003 and 2006. The Whitewater Trail runs north through the wilderness area for 1.5 mi before reaching a junction, with the right path moving 2.5 mi to the Pacific Crest Trail. In the Maxwell trail area, hikes of all difficulty levels can be found, including the challenging Maxwell Butte Trail 3391, the 9 mi round trip at Santiam Lake Trail 3491, and the slightly less demanding 6.6 mi Duffy Lake Trail 3427. At the Pamelia Lake trail area, there are streams, lakes, and springs, as well as bathrooms, parking areas, and picnic tables. The Pamelia Limited Entry Area only allows 20 groups per day and limits their size to mitigate human impacts on the wilderness. Trails at Pamelia Lake include the Hunts Creek Trail 3440 and a segment of the Pacific Crest Trail, in addition to the Pamelia Lake Trail 3439, which rises 800 ft before meeting the Hunts Creek Trail. The area is popular for backpacking, mountaineering, horseback riding, and day hiking. Other popular trails include the Firecamp Lakes Trail and Canyon Creek Meadows trails. In addition to the trails, some of the most popular areas around Mount Jefferson Wilderness include Eight Lakes Basin, Pamelia Lake, Jack Lake, Duffy Lake, Russell Lake, Santiam Lake and Wasco Lake.

Mount Jefferson can be climbed, but the route is challenging, especially the pinnacle of the summit. Nearly annually, at least one climber attempting Jefferson perishes. Because of the hazards and difficulty of climbing Mount Jefferson, the U.S. National Geodetic Survey recommends that only experienced climbers try to climb it.

title: Mount Jefferson (Oregon)


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Talk:Earle Page

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Something i've always wondered is why one of Page's middle names is Christmas - anyone know the answer? PMA 08:34, Dec 10, 2003 (UTC)

I think it was a family name. I had a friend at school whose mother was called Mary Christmas. Adam 06:40, 6 June 2006 (UTC)

I'm a great granddaughter of Earle Page and nobody in the family seems to know where the name 'Christmas' comes from. My father's middle name is 'Christopher' after him though. 110.32.173.163 (talk) 15:46, 25 September 2014 (UTC)

I just removed the link to Don Page as that article was about a different Don Page.--The Shadow Treasurer 06:26, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

Length of service
We say he had 41 years, 361 days in parliament. He was elected at the 1919 election, held on 13 December 1919. He died on 20 December 1961. That makes 42 years, 8 days by my count. Parliamentary service is counted from the date of the election/by-election, not from the date of declaration of the poll or whatever else. I've changed the text. -- JackofOz (talk) 12:22, 29 January 2009 (UTC)

 * Oops, my mistake. I forgot to take into account that he was defeated at the 1961 election, 11 days before he died. Fixed.  --  JackofOz (talk) 12:28, 29 January 2009 (UTC)

Terminology and numbering
There is an ongoing discussion here about finding a consistent term to describe Earle Page, Frank Forde and John McEwen's premierships in their articles and beyond (acting, caretaker, interim etc). It has also touched upon how to number Australian Prime Ministers. It would be very much appreciated if any interested editors could join in and voice their thoughts on the matter! Thanks! FollowTheTortoise (talk) 19:50, 19 August 2021 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Earle Page


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Mycobacterium

Mycobacterium is a genus of over 190 species in the phylum Actinomycetota, assigned its own family, Mycobacteriaceae. This genus includes pathogens known to cause serious diseases in mammals, including tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) and leprosy (M. leprae) in humans. The Greek prefix myco- means 'fungus', alluding to this genus' mold-like colony surfaces. Since this genus has cell walls with a waxy lipid-rich outer layer that contains high concentrations of mycolic acid, acid-fast staining is used to emphasize their resistance to acids, compared to other cell types.

Mycobacterial species are generally aerobic, non-motile, and capable of growing with minimal nutrients. The genus is divided based on each species' pigment production and growth rate. While most Mycobacterium species are non-pathogenic, the genus' characteristic complex cell wall contributes to evasion from host defenses.

Morphology

Mycobacteria are aerobic with 0.2-0.6 μm wide and 1.0-10 μm long rod shapes. They are generally non-motile, except for the species Mycobacterium marinum, which has been shown to be motile within macrophages. Mycobacteria possess capsules and most do not form endospores. M. marinum and perhaps M. bovis have been shown to sporulate; however, this has been contested by further research. The distinguishing characteristic of all Mycobacterium species is a thick, hydrophobic, and mycolic acid-rich cell wall made of peptidoglycan and arabinogalactan, with these unique components offering targets for new tuberculosis drugs.

Physiology
Many Mycobacterium species readily grow with minimal nutrients, using ammonia and/or amino acids as nitrogen sources and glycerol as a carbon source in the presence of mineral salts. Temperatures for optimal growth vary between species and media conditions, ranging from 25 to 45 °C.

Most Mycobacterium species, including most clinically relevant species, can be cultured in blood agar. However, some species grow very slowly due to extremely long reproductive cycles, such as M. leprae requiring 12 days per division cycle compared to 20 minutes for some E. coli strains.

Ecology
Whereas Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. leprae are pathogenic, most mycobacteria do not cause disease unless they enter skin lesions of those with pulmonary and/or immune dysfunction, despite being widespread across aquatic and terrestrial environments. Through biofilm formation, cell wall resistance to chlorine, and association with amoebas, mycobacteria can survive a variety of environmental stressors. The agar media used for most water testing does not support the growth of mycobacteria, allowing it to go undetected in municipal and hospital systems.

Genomics
Hundreds of Mycobacterium genomes have been completely sequenced.

The genome sizes of mycobacteria range from relatively small ones (e.g. in M. leprae) to quite large ones, such as that as M. vulneris, encoding 6,653 proteins, larger than the ~6000 proteins of eukaryotic yeast.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex
Mycobacterium tuberculosis can remain latent in human hosts for decades after an initial infection, allowing it to continue infecting others. It has been estimated that a third of the world population has latent tuberculosis (TB). M. tuberculosis has many virulence factors, which can be divided across lipid and fatty acid metabolism, cell envelope proteins, macrophage inhibitors, kinase proteins, proteases, metal-transporter proteins, and gene expression regulators. Several lineages such as M. t. var. bovis (bovine TB) were considered separate species in the M, tuberculosis complex until they were finally merged into the main species in 2018.

Leprosy
The development of Leprosy is caused by infection with either Mycobacterium leprae or Mycobacterium lepromatosis, two closely related bacteria. Roughly 200,000 new cases of infection are reported each year, and 80% of new cases are reported in Brazil, India, and Indonesia. M. leprae infection localizes within the skin macrophages and Schwann cells found in peripheral nerve tissue.

Nontuberculosis Mycobacteria
Nontuberculosis Mycobacteria (NTM), which exclude M. tuberculosis, M. leprae, and M. lepromatosis, can infect mammalian hosts. These bacteria are referred to as "atypical mycobacteria." Although person-to-person transmission is rare, transmission of M. abscessus has been observed between patients with cystic fibrosis. The four primary diseases observed in humans are chronic pulmonary disease, disseminated disease in immunocompromised patients, skin and soft tissue infections, and superficial lymphadenitis. 80-90% of recorded NTM infections manifest as pulmonary diseases.

M. abscessus is the most virulent rapidly-growing mycobacterium (RGM), as well as the leading cause of RGM based pulmonary infections. Although it has been traditionally viewed as an opportunistic pathogen like other NTMs, analysis of various virulence factors (VFs) have shifted this view to that of a true pathogen. This is due to the presence of known mycobacterial VFs and other non-mycobacterial VFs found in other prokaryotic pathogens.

Virulence factors
Mycobacteria have cell walls with peptidoglycan, arabinogalactan, and mycolic acid; a waxy outer mycomembrane of mycolic acid; and an outermost capsule of glucans and secreted proteins for virulence. It constantly remodels these layers to survive in stressful environments and avoid host immune defenses. This cell wall structure results in colony surfaces resembling fungi, leading to the genus' use of the Greek prefix myco-. This unique structure makes penicillins ineffective, instead requiring a multi-drug antibiotic treatment of isoniazid to inhibit mycolic acid synthesis, rifampicin to interfere with transcription, ethambutol to hinder arabinogalactan synthesis, and pyrazinamide to impede Coenzyme A synthesis.

History
Mycobacteria have historically been categorized through phenotypic testing, such as the Runyon classification of analyzing growth rate and production of yellow/orange carotenoid pigments. Group I contains photochromogens (pigment production induced by light), Group II comprises scotochromogens (constitutive pigment production), and the non-chromogens of Groups III and IV have a pale yellow/tan pigment, regardless of light exposure. Group IV species are "rapidly-growing" mycobacteria compared to the "slowly-growing" Group III species because samples grow into visible colonies in less than seven days.

Because the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes (ICNP) currently recognizes 195 Mycobacterium species, classification and identification systems now rely on DNA sequencing and computational phylogenetics. The major disease-causing groups are the M. tuberculosis complex (tuberculosis), M. avium complex (mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection), M. leprae and M. lepromatosis (leprosy), and M. abscessus (chronic lung infection).

Microbiologist Enrico Tortoli has constructed a phylogenetic tree of the genus' key species based on the earlier genetic sequencing of Rogall, et al. (1990), alongside new phylogentic trees based on Tortoli's 2017 sequencing of 148 Mycobacterium species:

Proposed division of the genus
Gupta et al. have proposed dividing Mycobacterium into five genera, based on an analysis of 150 species in this genus. Due to controversy over complicating clinical diagnoses and treatment, all of the renamed species have retained their original identity in the Mycobacterium genus as a valid taxonomic synonym:
 * Mycobacterium based on the Slowly-Growing Tuberculosis-Simiae clade
 * Mycobacteroides based on the Rapidly-Growing Abscessus-Chelonae clade
 * Mycolicibacillus based on the Slowly-Growing Triviale clade
 * Mycolicibacter based on the Slowly-Growing Terrae clade
 * Mycolicibacterium based on the Rapidly-Growing Fortuitum-Vaccae clade

Diagnosis
The two most common methods for visualizing these acid-fast bacilli as bright red against a blue background are the Ziehl-Neelsen stain and modified Kinyoun stain. Fite's stain is used to color M. leprae cells as pink against a blue background. Rapid Modified Auramine O Fluorescent staining has specific binding to slowly-growing mycobacteria for yellow staining against a dark background. Newer methods include Gomori-Methenamine Silver staining and Perioidic Acid Schiff staining to color Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) cells black and pink, respectively.

While some mycobacteria can take up to eight weeks to grow visible colonies from a cultured sample, most clinically relevant species will grow within the first four weeks, allowing physicians to consider alternative causes if negative readings continue past the first month. Growth media include Löwenstein–Jensen medium and mycobacteria growth indicator tube (MGIT).

Mycobacteriophages
Mycobacteria can be infected by mycobacteriophages, a class of viruses with high specificity for their targets. By hijacking the cellular machinery of mycobacteria to produce additional phages, such viruses can be used in phage therapy for eukaryotic hosts, as they would die alongside the mycobacteria. Since only some mycobacteriophages are capable of penetrating the M. tuberculosis membrane, the viral DNA may be delivered through artificial liposomes because bacteria uptake, transcribe, and translate foreign DNA into proteins.

Mycosides
Mycosides are glycolipids isolated from Mycobacterium species with Mycoside A found in photochromogenic strains, Mycoside B in bovine strains, and Mycoside C in avian strains. Different forms of Mycoside C have varying success as a receptor to inactivate mycobacteriophages. Replacement of the gene encoding mycocerosic acid synthase in M. bovis prevents formation of mycosides.

title: Mycobacterium


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Supreme Court of India

The Supreme Court of India (ISO: Bhārata kā Sarvōcca Nyāyālaya) is the supreme judicial authority and the highest court of the Republic of India. It is the final court of appeal for all civil and criminal cases in India. It also has the power of judicial review. The Supreme Court, which consists of the Chief Justice of India and a maximum of fellow 33 judges, has extensive powers in the form of original, appellate and advisory jurisdictions.

As the apex constitutional court, it takes up appeals primarily against verdicts of the High Courts of various states and tribunals. As an advisory court, it hears matters which are referred by the President of India. Under judicial review, the court invalidates both normal laws as well as constitutional amendments that violate the Basic structure doctrine. It is required to safeguard the fundamental rights of citizens and settles legal disputes among the central government and various state governments.

Its decisions are binding on other Indian courts as well as the union and state governments. As per the Article 142 of the Constitution, the court is conferred with the inherent jurisdiction to pass any order deemed necessary in the interest of complete justice which becomes binding on the President to enforce. The Supreme Court replaced the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the highest court of appeal since 28 January 1950, two days after India was declared a republic.

Empowered by the Indian Constitution with expansive authority to initiate actions and wield appellate jurisdiction over all courts within the nation along with the pivotal ability to review constitutional amendments, underscoring its significant role in the legal landscape of the country, the Supreme Court of India is widely acknowledged as one of the most powerful supreme courts in the world.

History
In 1861, the Indian High Courts Act 1861 was enacted to create high courts for various provinces and abolish Supreme Courts at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay and also the sadar adalats in presidency towns in their respective regions. These new high courts had the distinction of being the highest courts for all cases till the creation of the Federal Court of India under the Government of India Act 1935. The Federal Court had the jurisdiction to solve disputes between provinces and federal states and hear appeals against judgement of the high courts. The first CJI of India was H. J. Kania.

The Supreme Court of India came into existence on 28 January 1950. It replaced both the Federal Court of India and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which were then at the apex of the Indian court system. The first proceedings and inauguration, however, took place on 28 January 1950 at 9:45 am, when the judges took their seats; which is thus regarded as the official date of establishment.

The Supreme Court initially had its seat at the Chamber of Princes in the parliament building where the previous Federal Court of India sat from 1937 to 1950. The first Chief Justice of India was H. J. Kania. In 1958, the Supreme Court moved to its present premises. Originally, the Constitution of India envisaged a supreme court with a chief justice and seven judges; leaving it to Parliament to increase this number. In its formative years, the Supreme Court met from 10 to 12 in the morning and then from 2 to 4 in the afternoon for 28 days per month.

The emblem of the Supreme Court represents the Lion capital of Ashoka at Sarnath, with a topmost wheel featuring 32 spokes.

Jurisdiction and Powers of the Supreme Court
The Supreme Court of India was constituted as per Chapter IV of Part V of the Constitution of India. The fourth Chapter of the Indian Constitution is " The Union Judiciary". Under this Chapter, the Supreme Court of India is vested with all Jurisdiction.

 * As per Article 124, The Supreme Court of India had been Constituted and Established.
 * As per Article 129, the Supreme Court is to be the Court of Record.
 * As per Article 131, the Original Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is authorized.
 * As per Articles 132, 133 and 134, Appellate Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is authorized.
 * Under Article 135, the Federal Court's Power is given to the Supreme Court.
 * Article 136 deals with the Special leave to Appeal to the Supreme Court.
 * Article 137 explains the Review Power of the Supreme Court.
 * Article 138 deals with the Enlargement of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
 * Article 139 deals with the Conferment on the Supreme Court of powers to issue certain writs.
 * Article 140 gives Ancillary powers to the Supreme Court.
 * Article 141 of the Constitution gives the Law making power of the Supreme Court.

The law declared by the Supreme Court is binding on all courts in the country.

Members of Collegium
Presently, the Members of Collegium are:
 * Chief Justice Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud
 * Justice Sanjiv Khanna
 * Justice Bhushan Ramkrishna Gavai
 * Justice Surya Kant
 * Justice Hrishikesh Roy

Court building architecture

The building is shaped to symbolize scales of justice with its centre-beam being the Central Wing of the building, consisting of the Chief Justice's court, the largest of the courtrooms, with two court halls on either side. The Right Wing of the structure has the Bar, consisting of rooms, the offices of the Attorney General of India and other law officers and the library of the court. The Left Wing has the offices of the court. In all, there are 15 courtrooms in the various wings of the building. These two wings act as the two limbs of the balance and end with two semi-circular hooks that represent the pans of the balance, and the centres of the two semi-circular pans connect to a centrally placed statue of ‘Mother and Child’ in the garden.

The foundation stone of the Supreme Court's building was laid on 29 October 1954 by Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India. The main block of the building has been built on a triangular plot of 17 acres and has been designed in an Indo-British style by the chief architect Ganesh Bhikaji Deolalikar, the first Indian to head the Central Public Works Department. The design of scales of justice was to conform to this triangular site and according to Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the conception of justice for Indians. It has a 27.6 m high dome and a spacious colonnaded verandah. The court moved into the building in 1958. In 1979, two new wings – the East Wing and the West Wing – were added to the complex. 1994 saw the last extension.

Mother and Child Sculpture
On 20 February 1978, a black bronze sculpture of 210 cm height was installed in the lawn of the Supreme Court. The sculpture was made by the renowned artist Chintamoni Kar. The statue, as per its sculptor Kar, reproduces ‘‘Mother India sheltering young Republic represented by the symbol of a child upholding the law of the country shown in the form of an open book, with the symbol of the balance representing law and justice’’. The official account states that it represents a ‘‘dispensation of equal justice to all’’. The black bronze sculpture has been placed at the center of the park on the lawn of the Court just behind the statue of Mahatma Gandhi, which is in front of the staircase of the Supreme Court building in the front lawn. The statue, when it was being put in the Court premises, led to protests by advocates of the Court in 1978 and a demand was made for its removal. A memorandum was submitted to the then law minister Shanti Bhushan, which stated that ‘‘the statue is supposedly a symbol and inspiration for the highest institution of justice, the Supreme Court….The child is nondescript, but the mother’s resemblance to Mrs. Indira Gandhi is discernible even to the ordinary eye not trained for appreciating the nuances of sculpture’’. As the statue was put up in the year 1978, the post-emergency period of India, they contended that it is symbolic of perversity and is based on the theme of the mother-and-son cult built up during the Emergency (India) period. Different interpretations of the statue came from advocates, one said, ‘it’s like Indira mothering the judges and telling them you practice justice like I tell you to’, while the other said, ‘symbolizing justice is terribly conservative as justice is constantly changing’. Later on, though the advocates submitted an apology memorandum after they got to know that the maquette was made in the year 1969.

Seal
The design of the Court's seal is reproduced from the wheel that appears on the Sarnath Lion capital of Ashoka with 24 spokes. The inscription in Sanskrit, "यतो धर्मस्ततो जयः" (IAST: ,) means "whence justice (dharma), thence victory". It is also referred as the wheel of righteousness, encompassing truth, goodness and equity.

Registry
The registry of the Supreme Court is headed by the Secretary-General, who is currently assisted by 10 registrars, several additional and deputy registrars, etc. Article 146 of the Constitution deals with the appointments of officers and servants of the Supreme Court registry.

Supreme Court advocates
Supreme Court Rules, 2013 entitle only those advocates who are registered with the Supreme Court, called advocates-on-record to appear, act and plead for a party in the court. Those advocates who are designated as 'senior advocates' by the Supreme Court or any of the high courts can appear for clients along with an advocate-on-record. Any other advocate can appear for a party along with or under instructions from an advocate-on-record.

Size of the court
Initially, the Constitution of India provided for a Supreme Court with a chief justice and 7 judges. In the early years, a full bench of the Supreme Court sat together to hear the cases presented before them. As the work of the Court increased and cases began to accumulate, Parliament increased the number of judges (including the Chief Justice) from the original 8 in 1950 to 11 in 1956, 14 in 1960, 18 in 1978, 26 in 1986, 31 in 2009, to 34 in 2019. As the number of the judges has increased, they sit in smaller benches of two or three (referred to as a division bench) —coming together in larger benches of five or more (referred to as a constitution bench) when required to settle fundamental questions of law. A bench may refer a case before it to a larger bench, should the need arise.

The largest-ever bench at the Supreme Court of India has been constituted in 1973 in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala. A bench of 13 judges was set up to decide whether Parliament had the unfettered right to amend the Constitution, which eventually gave rise to the Basic Structure doctrine.

Eligibility of a judge of the Supreme Court
A citizen of India not exceeding 65 years age per Article 124 of the Constitution who has been:

 * a judge of one high court or more (continuously), for at least five years,
 * an advocate there, for at least ten years,
 * a distinguished jurist, in the opinion of the president, power conferred by clause 2 of article 124 of the Constitution of India

is eligible to be recommended for appointment, a judge of the Supreme Court.

Court demographics
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In practice, judges of the Supreme Court have been selected so far, mostly from amongst judges of the high courts. Barely nine justices—S. M. Sikri, S. Chandra Roy, Kuldip Singh, Santosh Hegde, R. F. Nariman, U. U. Lalit, L. Nageswara Rao, Indu Malhotra and P. S. Narasimha—have been appointed to the Supreme Court directly from the bar (i.e., who were practising advocates).

The Supreme Court saw its first woman judge when Justice M. Fathima Beevi was sworn into office in 1989.

In 1968, Justice Mohammad Hidayatullah became the first Muslim Chief Justice of India. In 2007, Justice K. G. Balakrishnan became the first judge as well as the Chief Justice of India from the dalit community. In 2010, Justice S. H. Kapadia coming from a Parsi minority community became the Chief Justice of India. In 2017, Justice Jagdish Singh Khehar became the first Sikh Chief Justice of India. Justice Indu Malhotra is the first and only woman judge to be selected directly from the bar.

Judicial independence
The Constitution seeks to ensure the independence of Supreme Court judges in various ways. Per Article 50 of directive principles of state policy, the state shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive. Independence of the judiciary, the supremacy of the constitution and rule of law are the features of the basic structure of the Constitution.

The Supreme Court and high courts are empowered to frame suo moto cases without receiving formal petitions/complaints on any suspected injustice, including actions/acts indulging in contempt of court and contempt of the Constitution by the executive, legislators, citizens, etc. It is acknowledged as one of the most autonomous judiciaries in the entirety of Southeast Asia.

The main purpose of the Supreme Court is to decide constitutional issues. It is the duty of the judiciary to frame suo moto cases or to probe cases/petitions at the earliest against the executive or legislature when laws are implemented which violate the basic foundation and structure of the Constitution as stated in Article 38 (1) of the Directive Principles. It ensures that-"the state/judiciary shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing a social order in which social, economic and political justice is animated/informed in all institutions of life."

B. R. Ambedkar clarified as given below in the Constituent Assembly debates on Article 38 (1) highlighting its inevitable implementation.

"... The word 'strive' which occurs in the Draft Constitution, in judgement, is very important. We have used it because our intention is even when there are circumstances which prevent the Government, or which stand in the way of the Government giving effect to these Directive Principles, they shall, even under hard and unpropitious circumstances, always strive in the fulfilment of these Directives. That is why we have used the word 'strive'. Otherwise, it would be open for any Government to say that the circumstances are so bad, that the finances are so inadequate that we cannot even make an effort in the direction in which the Constitution asks us to go."

Appointments and the collegium
As per the constitution, as held by the court in the Three Judges Cases – (1982, 1993, 1998), a judge is appointed to the Supreme Court by the president on the recommendation of the collegium — a closed group of the Chief Justice of India, the four most senior judges of the court and the senior-most judge hailing from the high court of a prospective appointee. This has resulted in a Memorandum of Procedure being followed, for the appointments.

Judges used to be appointed by the president on the advice of the union cabinet. After 1993 (the Second Judges' Case), no minister, or even the executive collectively, can suggest any names to the president, who ultimately decides on appointing them from a list of names recommended only by the collegium of the judiciary. Simultaneously, as held in that judgment, the executive was given the power to reject a recommended name.

The collegium system has come under a fair amount of criticism. In 2015, Parliament passed a law to replace the collegium with a National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC). This was struck down as unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, in the Fourth Judges' Case, as the new system would undermine the independence of the judiciary. Putting the old system of the collegium back, the court invited suggestions, even from the general public, on how to improve the collegium system, broadly along the lines of – setting up an eligibility criteria for appointments, a permanent secretariat to help the collegium sift through material on potential candidates, infusing more transparency into the selection process, grievance redressal and any other suggestion not in these four categories, like transfer of judges. This resulted in the court asking the government and the collegium to finalize the memorandum of procedure incorporating the above.

In 2009, a challenge arose in the Supreme Court regarding the recommendation for the appointment of a high court judge made by the collegium of that specific court. The court asserted that the eligibility to become a judge was a factual matter, open to questioning by any individual. On the contrary, the determination of who should become a judge was deemed a matter of opinion and was beyond questioning. The court emphasized that, as long as a thorough consultation occurred within the collegium to form this opinion, the content or material considered in shaping the opinion was not subject to scrutiny in a court of law.

Tenure
Judges of the Supreme Court in India currently conclude their service upon reaching the age of 65. Nevertheless, there have been proposals put forth by Supreme Court judges advocating for the implementation of a predetermined tenure for judges, including the Chief Justice of India.

Salary
Article 125 of the Indian constitution leaves it to the Indian parliament to determine the salary, other allowances, leave of absence, pension, etc. of the Supreme Court judges. However, the parliament cannot alter any of these privileges rights to the judge's disadvantage after his/her appointment. A judge of the Supreme Court draws a salary of inr 250000 per month—equivalent to the most-senior civil servant of the Indian government, Cabinet Secretary of India—while the chief justice earns inr 280000 per month.

Oath or affirmation
Per Article 124 and third Schedule of the constitution, the chief justice (or a judge) of the Supreme Court of India is required to make and subscribe in the presence of the president an oath or affirmation that they "will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established, that I will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India, that I will duly and faithfully and to the best of my ability, knowledge and judgement perform the duties of my office without fear or favour, affection or ill-will and that I will uphold the Constitution and the laws."

Removal
Article 124(4) of the constitution, President of India can remove a judge on the grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity when parliament approves with a majority of the total membership of each house in favour of impeachment and not less than two thirds of the members of each house present. For initiating impeachment proceedings against a judge, at least 50 members of Rajya Sabha or 100 members of Lok Sabha shall issue the notice per Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968. Then a judicial committee would be formed to frame charges against the judge, to conduct the fair trial and to submit its report to parliament. When the judicial committee report finds the judge guilty of misbehaviour or incapacity, further removal proceedings would be taken up by Parliament if the judge is not resigning himself.

The judge upon proven guilty is also liable for punishment per applicable laws or for contempt of the constitution by breaching the oath under disrespecting constitution

Post-retirement
A person who has retired as a judge of the Supreme Court is debarred from practicing in any court of law or before any other authority in India. However, Supreme Court and high court judges are appointed to various posts in tribunals and commissions, after their retirement. Lawyer Ashish Goel in a recent article criticized this stating that post-retirement benefits for judges hampers judicial independence. Former Law Minister and Senior Advocate of the Supreme Court, Arun Jaitley, also criticized the appointment of judges in government posts after their retirement. Jaitley famously said:"There are two kinds of judges - those who know the law and those who know the Law Minister. We are the only country in the world where judges appoint judges. Even though there is a retirement age, judges are not willing to retire. Pre-retirement judgements are influenced by post-retirement jobs."

Review petition
Article 137 of the Indian Constitution grants the Supreme Court the authority to reevaluate its own decisions. According to this article, the Supreme Court can review any judgment or order it has previously pronounced. This power is subject to any laws created by Parliament or rules established under Article 145. The Supreme Court holds the ability to invalidate parliamentary and governmental decisions if they violate fundamental features. Additionally, it can overturn the impeachment process of the President and Judges, as decided by Parliament, based on constitutional validity or fundamental features.

Under Order XL of the Supreme Court Rules, that have been framed under its powers under Article 145 of the constitution, the Supreme Court may review its judgment or order but no application for review is to be entertained in a civil proceeding except on the grounds mentioned in Order XLVII, Rule 1 of the Code of Civil Procedure.

Powers to punish for contempt
Under Articles 129 and 142 of the Constitution, the Supreme Court has been vested with power to punish anyone for contempt of any court in India including itself. The Supreme Court performed an unprecedented action when it directed a sitting Minister of State in Maharashtra government, Swaroop Singh Naik, to be jailed for 1-month on a charge of contempt of court on 12 May 2006.

Rules
Article 145 of the Indian Constitution grants the Supreme Court the authority to create its own rules, subject to presidential approval, to govern the practice and procedures of the court. These rules have been revised and published three times, first in 1950, then in 1966, and most recently in 2013.

Roster system
From 5 February 2018 onwards, the Supreme Court adopted a fresh roster system for assigning cases to judges. According to this new arrangement, the Chief Justice of India (CJI) is designated to preside over all special leave petitions (SLPs) and cases concerning public interest, social justice, elections, arbitration, criminal matters, and more. Other members of the collegium or senior judges are tasked with hearing cases related to labour disputes, taxation, compensation, consumer protection, maritime law, mortgage, personal law, family law, land acquisition, service, company matters, and other relevant areas.

Reporting and citation
Supreme Court Reports is the official journal of reportable Supreme Court decisions. It is published under the authority of the Supreme Court of India by the Controller of Publications, Government of India, Delhi. In addition, there are many other reputed private journals that report Supreme Court decisions. Some of these other important journals are: SCR (The Supreme Court Reports), SCC (Supreme Court Cases), AIR (All India Reporter), SCALE, etc.

Facilities in the campus
Legal-aid,  court-fee vendors, first-aid post, dental clinic, physiotherapy unit and pathology lab; rail-reservation counter, canteen, post office and a branch and 3 ATMs of UCO Bank, Supreme Court Museum can be availed by litigants and visitors.

Land reform
After some of the courts overturned state laws for redistributing land from zamindar (landlord) estates on the ground that the laws violated the zamindars' fundamental rights, Parliament passed the 1st amendment to the constitution in 1951, followed by the 4th amendment in 1955, to uphold its authority to redistribute land. The Supreme Court countered these amendments in 1967 when it ruled in Golaknath v. State of Punjab that Parliament did not have the power to abrogate fundamental rights, including the provisions on private property. The 25th amendment to the constitution in 1971 curtailed the right of a citizen to property as a fundamental right and gave authority to the government to infringe private property, which led to a furor amongst the zamindars.

During the Emergency (1975–1977)
The independence of the judiciary was severely curtailed during the Indian Emergency (1975–1977) of Indira Gandhi. The constitutional rights of imprisoned persons were restricted under preventive detention laws passed by Parliament. In the case of Shiva Kant Shukla (Additional District Magistrate of Jabalpur v. Shiv Kant Shukla), popularly known as the Habeas Corpus case, a bench of five senior-most judges of the Supreme Court ruled in favour of the state's right to unrestricted powers of detention during the emergency. Justices A.N. Ray, P. N. Bhagwati, Y. V. Chandrachud, and M.H. Beg, stated in the majority decision:
 * (under the declaration of emergency) no person has any locus to move any writ petition under Art. 226 before a High Court for habeas corpus or any other writ or order or direction to challenge the legality of an order of detention.

The only dissenting opinion was from Justice H. R. Khanna, who stated:
 * detention without trial is an anathema to all those who love personal liberty... A dissent is an appeal to the brooding spirit of the law, to the intelligence of a future day, when a later decision may possibly correct the error into which the dissenting judge believes the court to have been betrayed.

It is believed that before delivering his dissenting opinion, Justice Khanna had mentioned to his sister: "I have prepared my judgment, which is going to cost me the Chief Justice-ship of India." In January 1977, Justice Khanna was superseded despite being the most senior judge at the time and thereby the government broke the convention of appointing only the seniormost judge to the position of Chief Justice of India. Justice Khanna remains a legendary figure among the legal fraternity in India for this decision.

The New York Times wrote of this opinion: "The submission of an independent judiciary to absolutist government is virtually the last step in the destruction of a democratic society; and the Indian supreme court's decision appears close to utter surrender."

During the emergency period, the government also passed the 39th amendment, which sought to limit judicial review for the election of the prime minister; only a body constituted by parliament could review this election. Subsequently, Parliament, with most opposition members in jail during the emergency, passed the 42nd Amendment which prevented any court from reviewing any amendment to the constitution with the exception of procedural issues concerning ratification. A few years after the emergency, however, the Supreme Court rejected the absoluteness of the 42nd amendment and reaffirmed its power of judicial review in Minerva Mills v. Union of India (1980).

Post-1980: an assertive court
After Indira Gandhi lost elections in 1977, the new government of Morarji Desai, and especially law minister Shanti Bhushan (who had earlier argued for the detenues in the Habeas Corpus case), introduced a number of amendments making it more difficult to declare and sustain an emergency, and reinstated much of the power to the Supreme Court. It is said that the basic structure doctrine, created in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, was strengthened in Indira Gandhi's case and set in stone in Minerva Mills v. Union of India.

The Supreme Court's creative and expansive interpretations of Article 21 (Life and Personal Liberty), primarily after the Emergency period, have given rise to a new jurisprudence of public interest litigation that has vigorously promoted many important economic and social rights (constitutionally protected but not enforceable) including, but not restricted to, the rights to free education, livelihood, a clean environment, food and many others. Civil and political rights (traditionally protected in the Fundamental Rights chapter of the Indian constitution) have also been expanded and more fiercely protected. These new interpretations have opened the avenue for litigation on a number of important issues.

Since 2000
Among the important pronouncements of the Supreme Court post 2000 is the Coelho case I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu (Judgment of 11 January 2007). A unanimous bench of 9 judges reaffirmed the basic structure doctrine. It held that a constitutional amendment which entails violation of any fundamental rights which the court regards as forming part of the basic structure of the constitution can be struck down depending upon its impact and consequences. The judgment clearly imposes further limitations on the constituent power of Parliament with respect to the principles underlying certain fundamental rights. The judgment in Coelho has in effect restored the decision in Golaknath case regarding non-amendability of the constitution on account of infraction of fundamental rights, contrary to the judgment in the Kesavananda Bharati case.

Another important decision was of the five-judge bench in Ashoka Kumar Thakur v. Union of India; where the constitutional validity of Central Educational Institutions (Reservations in Admissions) Act, 2006 was upheld, subject to the "creamy layer" criteria. Importantly, the court refused to follow the 'strict scrutiny' standards of review followed by the United States Supreme Court. At the same time, the court has applied the strict scrutiny standards in Anuj Garg v. Hotel Association of India (2007) (Beyond Reasonableness - A Rigorous Standard of Review for Article 15 Infringement)a

2G spectrum case
The Supreme Court declared allotment of spectrum as "unconstitutional and arbitrary" and quashed all the 122 licenses issued in 2008 during tenure of A. Raja (then Minister for communications & IT), the main official accused in the 2G case.

Right to Information
In the year 2010, the Supreme Court filed an appeal before itself challenging the judgement of the Delhi high court holding that the office of the chief justice of India came under the ambit of the RTI Act and was liable to reveal information under it. Though the Supreme Court is in favour of bringing CJI office under RTI act, on 13 November 2019 the chief Justice of India office was brought under RTI Act by a majority judgement.

Black money
The government refused to disclose details of about 18 Indians holding accounts in LGT Bank, Liechtenstein, evoking a sharp response from a bench comprising justices B Sudershan Reddy and S S Nijjar. The court ordered the Special investigation team (SIT) to probe the matter. Lack of enthusiasm made the court create a special investigative team (SIT).

Minority reservations
The Supreme Court upheld the Andhra Pradesh High Court judgement quashing 4.5% sub-quota for minorities under OBC reservation quota of 27%.

Online/postal ballot for Indian citizen living abroad (NRIs)
Three judge bench presided by the then Chief Justice of India Altamas Kabir issued notice to the Union government and the Election Commission of India (EC) on the PIL filed by a group of NRIs for online/postal ballot for the Indian citizens living abroad.

T. S. R. Subramanian vs. Union of India
While hearing T.S.R. Subramanian vs Union of India, a division bench of the Supreme Court ruled that These rulings were received mostly positively, and were termed as 'major reform(s)'.
 * Officers of the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), officers other All India Services, and other civil servants were not required to follow oral instructions, as they 'undermine credibility'.
 * A Civil Services Board (CSB), headed by the Cabinet Secretary at national level, and Chief Secretary at state level, be set up to recommend transfer/postings of the officers of the All India Services (IAS, IFoS and IPS).
 * Transfers of Group 'B' officers were to be done by the Heads of Departments (HoDs).
 * There was to be no interference of Ministers in state, other than the Chief Minister, in transfers/postings of civil servants.

Recognition of transgender as 'third gender' in law
In April 2014, Justice K. S. Radhakrishnan declared transgender to be the 'third gender' in Indian law, in the case, National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India. The ruling said:

"Seldom, our society realises or cares to realise the trauma, agony and pain which the members of Transgender community undergo, nor appreciates the innate feelings of the members of the Transgender community, especially of those whose mind and body disown their biological sex. Our society often ridicules and abuses the Transgender community and in public places like railway stations, bus stands, schools, workplaces, malls, theatres [and] hospitals; they are sidelined and treated as untouchables, forgetting the fact that the moral failure lies in the society's unwillingness to contain or embrace different gender identities and expressions, a mindset which we have to change."

Justice Radhakrishnan said that transgender people should be treated consistently with other minorities under the law, enabling them to access jobs, healthcare and education. He framed the issue as one of human rights, saying that, "These TGs, even though insignificant in numbers, are still human beings, and therefore, they have every right to enjoy their human rights," concluding by declaring that:

(1) Hijras, eunuchs, apart from binary gender, were to be treated as "third gender" for the purpose of safeguarding their rights under Part III of the Indian Constitution and the laws made by Parliament and the State Legislatures.

(2) Transgender persons' right to decide their self-identified gender was to be upheld and that the Union and State Governments were to grant legal recognition of their gender identity such as male, female or as third gender.

Relief to over 35,000 public servants
In the case of B. Prabhakara Rao vs. State of A.P., a significant issue emerged involving an abrupt reduction in the retirement age from 58 to 55 years for more than 35,000 public servants of the State Government, public sector undertakings, statutory bodies, educational institutions, and Tirupathi-Tirumalai Devasthanams (TTD). Initially, they faced defeat in the initial legal proceedings in the Supreme Court. Recognizing the error, a new legislation was enacted to restore the original retirement age of 58 years. However, it included a provision stating that those whose reduction in retirement age had been previously upheld would not benefit from the new law.

Challenging this legislation, Subodh Markandeya argued that the remedy was simply to strike down the word "not." This argument found favour with the Supreme Court, bringing relief to more than 35,000 public servants as the court ruled in their favour.

Right to privacy (Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) & Anr. vs. Union of India & Ors)
The Court upheld that the right to privacy is protected as a fundamental right under Articles 14, 19 and 21 of the Constitution of India. This judgment clarified that the Right to Privacy could be infringed upon only when there was a compelling state interest for doing so. This position was the same as with the other fundamental rights. It explicitly overruled three previous judgements of the Supreme Court.

Decriminalisation of homosexuality
On 6 September 2018, a five-member constitutional bench decriminalised homosexuality by partially striking down Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code in the case Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India. The bench led by Dipak Misra unanimously declared that criminalisation of private consensual sex between adult persons of the same sex under Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code was clearly unconstitutional. The court, however, held that the section would apply to bestiality, sex with minors and non consensual sexual acts.

Ayodhya dispute
A political, historical, and socio-religious debate, the Ayodhya dispute has been going on since 1961 when the first case was filed in court. The Supreme Court, after a marathon 40 day hearing which concluded on 16 October, reserved the decision and revealed it on 9 November 2019 stating that the disputed land will be given to Hindus and also ruled that the Muslim community will be given an alternative piece of 5 acre land for the construction of a mosque. This was one of the biggest decisions before the retirement of then Chief Justice of India, Ranjan Gogoi on 17 November 2019.

Electoral bond verdict
The Court struck down a scheme that allowed individuals and companies to anonymously donate to political parties, stating it was a violation of a voter's right to information about political funding. They also pointed out that it "would lead to quid pro quo arrangements" between corporations and politicians.SBI and the Election Commission to publish all donor data available, including names and amounts of donors they had collected.

Corruption
The year 2008 saw the Supreme Court embroiled in several controversies, from serious allegations of corruption at the highest level of the judiciary, expensive private holidays at the tax payers expense, refusal to divulge details of judges' assets to the public, secrecy in the appointments of judges', to refusal to make information public under the Right to Information Act. The chief justice K. G. Balakrishnan invited a lot of criticism for his comments on his post not being that of a public servant, but that of a constitutional authority. He later went back on this stand. The judiciary has come in for serious criticisms from former presidents Pratibha Patil and A. P. J. Abdul Kalam for failure in handling its duties. Former prime minister Manmohan Singh, has stated that corruption is one of the major challenges facing the judiciary, and suggested that there is an urgent need to eradicate this menace.

The Cabinet Secretary of India introduced the judges Inquiry (Amendment) Bill 2008 in parliament for setting up of a panel called the National Judicial Council, headed by the Chief Justice of India, that will probe into allegations of corruption and misconduct by High Court and Supreme Court judges.

Pending cases
According to Supreme Court newsletter, there are 58,519 cases pending in the Supreme Court, out of which 37,385 are pending for more than a year, at the end of 2011. Excluding connected cases, there are still 33,892 pending cases. Per the latest pendency data made available by the Supreme Court, the total number of pending cases in the Supreme Court as on 1 November 2017 is 55,259 which includes 32,160 admission matters (miscellaneous) and 23,099 regular hearing matters. In May 2014, former Chief Justice of India, Justice R.M. Lodha, proposed to make Indian judiciary work throughout the year (instead of the present system of having long vacations, specially in the higher courts) in order to reduce pendency of cases in Indian courts; however, per this proposal there is not going to be any increase in the number of working days or working hours of any of the judges and it only meant that different judges would be going on vacation during different periods of the year per their choice; but, the Bar Council of India rejected this proposal mainly because it would have inconvenienced the advocates who would have to work throughout the year. More over, various time frames specified in 'code of civil procedure' are also diluted by Supreme Court judgements to give the courts right to endlessly adjourn the cases.

Rule of law
The Supreme Court has not taken up the trial of many pending cases, since April 2014 (more than 6 years), challenging the validity of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, which was enacted by the Parliament without following the stipulated procedure in the Constitution, and is claimed detrimental to the basic foundation of the constitution on which the basic structure of the constitution is resting. The basic foundation of the constitution is the dignity and the freedom of its citizens, which is of supreme importance and cannot be destroyed or infringed by any legislation of the parliament. Whereas the fair trial to examine the validity of the ninety-ninth constitutional amendment, dated 31 December 2014, to form National Judicial Appointments Commission for the purpose of appointing the judges of the Supreme Court and high courts, was conducted on utmost priority and the Supreme Court delivered its judgement on 16 October 2015 (within a year), quashing the constitutional amendment as unconstitutional and ultra vires, stating that the said amendment interferes with the independence of the judiciary. Disposal of the various petitions filed against the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 is also equally important as it has alienated the basic rights of a vast section of Indian citizens and also against the federal character of the constitution, which is part of the basic structure of the constitution. The Supreme Court is also wasting its valuable time by not taking up the case in toto but conducting a piecemeal trial by delivering its judgement to dispose of petitions related to the apportionment of assets between the newly formed states Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. The Supreme Court is also conducting a piecemeal trial of the petitions filed by the states regarding water sharing of rivers and bifurcation of the common high court without considering the earlier pending petitions challenging the validity of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 which is the basic cause of all these disputes. Under checks and balances as provided in the Constitution, it is the duty of the judiciary/Supreme Court to establish the rule of law at the earliest by rectifying any misuse of the Constitution by Parliament and the executive without colluding with them and to remove perceptions of people that rule of law is sidelined and a section of its citizens are subjected to discrimination.

Four judges vs chief justice
On 12 January 2018, four senior judges of the Supreme Court; Jasti Chelameswar, Ranjan Gogoi, Madan Lokur and Kurian Joseph addressed a press conference criticizing Chief Justice Dipak Misra's style of administration and the manner in which he allocated cases among judges of the Supreme Court. However, people close to Misra denied the allegations that the allocation of cases was unfair. On 20 April 2018, seven opposition parties submitted a petition seeking the impeachment of Dipak Misra to Vice President Venkaiah Naidu, with signatures from seventy-one parliamentarians. On 23 April 2018, the petition was rejected by Vice President Venkaiah Naidu, primarily on the basis that the complaints were about administration and not misbehaviour, and that thus impeachment would seriously interfere with the constitutionally protected independence of the judiciary.

Holidays and working hours
The Supreme Court works from 10:30am to 4pm, but is closed during winter and summer for two weeks each. Some critics feel that this delays pending cases. However, in an interview in June 2018 with NDTV, Justice Chelameswar revealed that most Supreme Court judges including him work around 14 hours per day, and continue to work for an average of 7 hours per day even during vacations. He further compared the court to the Supreme Court of the United States, which delivers judgement on around 120 cases in a year, while each judge in the Supreme Court of India delivers judgements on 1,0001,500 cases.

Appointment
It has been noted that consensus within the Collegium is at times achieved through trade-offs, resulting in unreliable appointments with consequences for litigants. There has also been a rise in sycophancy and "lobbying" within the system. Justice Chelameswar provided evidence from existing records to support this claim. In one case, "a judge was blocked from elevation to the Madras High Court in 2009, in what 'appeared to have been a joint venture in the subversion of the law governing the collegium system by both the executive and the judiciary.'"

Controversies
On 18 April 2019 an unnamed woman employee of the Supreme Court filed an affidavit stating that Chief Justice Ranjan Gogoi had sexually harassed her on 10–11 October 2018 by pressing his body against hers against her will. An in-house committee of the Court quickly cleared Gogoi of the sexual harassment charges, although the report of the committee was not provided to the complainant. However, there were widespread protests against the manner in which the woman's complaint was dealt with by Supreme Court. A petition was filed before the National Human Rights Commission to obtain the report of the in-house committee. National Law University Delhi topper Survi Karwa skipped her convocation to avoid receiving her degree from Ranjan Gogoi in protest. The in house committee which cleared Gogoi of sexual harassment was chaired by Justice S A Bobde, who himself succeeded Gogoi as chief justice. The woman complainant stated that she was terrified by the systematic victimisation of her family members who were all dismissed from service following her protest against Gogoi's sexual advances.

Dissent
On 2 January 2023, justice BV Nagarathna said in her dissent that the government notification on demonetisation was "unlawful" and the process of banning all currency notes of ₹ 1,000 and ₹ 500 could not have been initiated by the Indian government. Justice Nagarathna expressed her dissenting views after a Supreme Court Constitution bench, with a 4:1 majority, upholding the demonetisation decision by the Narendra Modi government.

title: Supreme Court of India


text:
Cone penetration test

The cone penetration or cone penetrometer test (CPT) is a method used to determine the geotechnical engineering properties of soils and delineating soil stratigraphy. It was initially developed in the 1950s at the Dutch Laboratory for Soil Mechanics in Delft to investigate soft soils. Based on this history it has also been called the "Dutch cone test". Today, the CPT is one of the most used and accepted soil methods for soil investigation worldwide.

The test method consists of pushing an instrumented cone, with the tip facing down, into the ground at a controlled rate (controlled between 1.5 -2.5 cm/s accepted). The resolution of the CPT in delineating stratigraphic layers is related to the size of the cone tip, with typical cone tips having a cross-sectional area of either 10 or 15 cm2, corresponding to diameters of 3.6 and 4.4 cm. A very early ultra-miniature 1 cm2 subtraction penetrometer was developed and used on a US mobile ballistic missile launch system (MGM-134 Midgetman) soil/structure design program in 1984 at the Earth Technology Corporation of Long Beach, California.

History and development
The early applications of CPT mainly determined the logistics of soil geotechnical property of bearing capacity. The original cone penetrometers involved simple mechanical measurements of the total penetration resistance to pushing a tool with a conical tip into the soil. Different methods were employed to separate the total measured resistance into components generated by the conical tip (the "tip friction") and friction generated by the rod string. A friction sleeve was added to quantify this component of the friction and aid in determining soil cohesive strength in the 1960s. Electronic measurements began in 1948 and improved further in the early 1970s. Most modern electronic CPT cones now also employ a pressure transducer with a filter to gather pore water pressure data. The filter is usually located either on the cone tip (the so-called U1 position), immediately behind the cone tip (the most common U2 position) or behind the friction sleeve (U3 position). Pore water pressure data aids determining stratigraphy and is primarily used to correct tip friction values for those effects. CPT testing which also gathers this piezometer data is called CPTU testing. CPT and CPTU testing equipment generally advances the cone using hydraulic rams mounted on either a heavily ballasted vehicle or using screwed-in anchors as a counter-force. One advantage of CPT over the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is a more continuous profile of soil parameters, with data recorded at intervals typically of 20 cm but as small as 1 cm. Manufacturers of cone penetrometer probes and data acquisition systems include Hogentogler, which has been acquired by the Vertek Division of Applied Research Associates, GeoPoint Systems BV and Pagani Geotechnical Equipment.

Additional in situ testing parameters
In addition to the mechanical and electronic cones, a variety of other CPT-deployed tools have been developed over the years to provide additional subsurface information. One common tool advanced during CPT testing is a geophone set to gather seismic shear wave and compression wave velocities. This data helps determine the shear modulus and Poisson's ratio at intervals through the soil column for soil liquefaction analysis and low-strain soil strength analysis. Engineers use the shear wave velocity and shear modulus to determine the soil's behavior under low-strain and vibratory loads. Additional tools such as laser-induced fluorescence, X-ray fluorescence, soil conductivity/resistivity, pH, temperature and membrane interface probe and cameras for capturing video imagery are also increasingly advanced in conjunction with the CPT probe.

An additional CPT deployed tool used in Britain, Netherlands, Germany, Belgium and France is a piezocone combined with a tri-axial magnetometer. This is used to attempt to ensure that tests, boreholes, and piles, do not encounter unexploded ordnance (UXO) or duds. The magnetometer in the cone detects ferrous materials of 50 kg or larger within a radius of up to about 2 m distance from the probe depending on the material, orientation and soil conditions.

Standards and use
CPT for geotechnical applications was standardized in 1986 by ASTM Standard D 3441 (ASTM, 2004). ISSMGE provides international standards on CPT and CPTU. Later ASTM Standards have addressed the use of CPT for various environmental site characterization and groundwater monitoring activities. For geotechnical soil investigations, CPT is more popular compared to SPT as a method of geotechnical soil investigation. Its increased accuracy, speed of deployment, more continuous soil profile and reduced cost over other soil testing methods. The ability to advance additional in situ testing tools using the CPT direct push drilling rig, including the seismic tools described above, are accelerating this process.

title: Cone penetration test