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Ifẹ

Ifẹ̀ (Ifẹ̀, Ilé-Ifẹ̀) is an ancient Yoruba city in south-western Nigeria, founded approximately between the 1000 BC and 600 BC. The city is located in present-day Osun State. Ifẹ̀ is about 218 kilometers northeast of Lagos with a population of over 500,000 people, which is the highest in Osun State according to population census of 2006.

According to the traditions of the Yoruba religion, Ilé-Ifẹ̀ was founded by the order of the Supreme God Olódùmarè by Obatala. It then fell into the hands of his brother Oduduwa, which created enmity between the two. Oduduwa created a dynasty there, and sons and daughters of this dynasty became rulers of many other kingdoms in Yorubaland. The first Ọọ̀ni of Ifẹ̀ is a descendant of Oduduwa, which was the 401st Orisha. The present ruler since 2015 is Oba Adeyeye Enitan Ogunwusi Ojaja II, Ọọ̀ni of Ifẹ̀ who is also a Nigerian accountant. Named as the city of 401 deities, Ifẹ̀ is home to many devotees/votaries of these deities and is where they are routinely celebrated through festivals.

Ilé-Ifẹ̀ is famous worldwide for its ancient and naturalistic bronze, stone and terracotta sculptures, dating back to between 1200 and 1400 CE.

Origin of Ife: Creation of the world

According to Yoruba religion, Olodumare, the Supreme God, ordered Obatala to create the earth, however on his way he over indulged in palm wine and got drunk. Thence, a contemporary Orisha to the former, Oduduwa, took the items of creation from him, descended from the abode of the Orisha on a chain and cast the handful of earth on the primordial ocean. The earth rose and became a mound called Oke Ora. He then put a five toed cockerel on this primordial mound so that it would scatter the earth around, thus creating the land on which Ile Ife, the first city would be built. Oduduwa planted a palm nut in a hole in the newly formed land and from there sprang a great tree with sixteen branches, a symbolic representation of the 16 clans of the early Ife pre-urban confederation; Elu Merindinlogun, (Thirteen initial and 3 later ones).

The usurpation of creation by Oduduwa, gave rise to an ever-lasting conflict between him and his contemporaneous rival Orisha, Obatala. This symbolic rivalry is still re-enacted in the modern era by the votary groups of the two divinities during the Itapa New Year festival. On account of his creation of the world, Oduduwa became the ancestor of the first divine king of the Yoruba, while Obatala is believed to have created the first Yoruba people out of clay. The meaning of the word "ife" in Yoruba is "expansion"; "Ile-Ife" is therefore in reference to the myth of origin as "The Land of Expansion" (the word, Ile, as pronounced in modern Yoruba language, means house or home, which would make the name of the city mean "The Home of Expansion").

Origin of the regional states: Dispersal from the holy city
Oduduwa had sons, daughters, and grandchildren, who went on to found their own kingdoms and empires, namely; Ila Orangun, Owu, Ketu, Sabe, Egba, Popo and Oyo. Oranmiyan, Oduduwa's last born, was one of his father's principal ministers and overseer of the nascent Edo kingdom after Oduduwa granted the plea of the Edo people for his governance. When Oranmiyan decided to go back to Ile Ife, after a period of service in Benin, he left behind a child named Eweka that he had in the interim with an indigenous princess of Benin, Erinmwinde, daughter of the King (Ogie) of Egor, a neighbouring settlement to nascent Benin. The young boy went on to become the first widely accepted ruler and Oba of the second Edo dynasty that has ruled what is now Benin from that day to this. Oranmiyan later migrated northwestwards into the savanna plains to found the Oyo. Oyo later became an empire that stretched at its height from the western or right bank of the Niger River to the eastern or left banks of the Volta River. It would become known as one of the most powerful of Africa's medieval states, prior to its collapse in the mid 19th century.

The King (Ooni of Ile-Ife)
The Oòni (or king) of Ife is a descendant of the godking Oduduwa, and is counted first among the Yoruba kings. He is traditionally considered the 401st spirit (Orisha), the only one that speaks. In fact, the royal dynasty of Ife traces its origin back to the founding of the city more than ten thousand years before the birth of Jesus Christ. The present ruler is Oba Enitan Adeyeye Ogunwusi (Ojaja II). The Ooni ascended his throne in 2015. Following the formation of the Yoruba Orisha Congress in 1986, the Ooni acquired an international status the likes of which the holders of his title hadn't had since the city's colonisation by the British. Nationally he had always been prominent amongst the Federal Republic of Nigeria's company of royal Obas, being regarded as the chief priest and custodian of the holy city of all the Yorubas. In former times, the palace of the Ooni of Ife was a structure built of authentic enameled bricks, decorated with artistic porcelain tiles and all sorts of ornaments. At present, it is a more modern series of buildings. The current Ooni, Oba Adeyeye Enitan Ogunwusi Ojaja II, Ooni of Ife, (born October 17, 1974) is a Nigerian accountant and the 51st Ooni of Ife. He succeeded the late Oba Okunade Sijuwade(Olubuse II) who was the 50th ooni of Ife, and who had died on July 28, 2015.

Cults of Divinities
Ife is well known as the city of 401 deities (also known as irumole or orishas). It is said that every day of the year the traditional worshippers celebrate a festival of one of these deities. Often the festivals extend over more than one day and they involve both priestly activities in the palace and theatrical dramatisations in the rest of the kingdom. Historically the King only appeared in public during the annual Olojo festival (celebration of the new dawn); other important festivals here include the Itapa festival for Obatala and Obameri, the Edi festival for Moremi Ajasoro and the Ugbo with their Igare (Oluyare) masqueraders.

Kings and gods were often depicted with large heads because the artists believed that the Ase was held in the head, the Ase being the inner power and energy of a person. Both historic figures of Ife and the offices associated with them are represented. One of the best documented among this is the early king Obalufon II who is said to have invented bronze casting and is honored in the form of a naturalistic copper life-size mask.

The city was a settlement of substantial size between the 12th and 14th centuries, with houses featuring potsherd pavements. Ilé-Ifè is known worldwide for its ancient and naturalistic bronze, stone and terracotta sculptures, which reached their peak of artistic expression between 1200 and 1400 CE In the period around 1300 CE the artists at Ife developed a refined and naturalistic sculptural tradition in terracotta, stone and copper alloy—copper, brass, and bronze—many of which appear to have been created under the patronage of King Obalufon II, the man who today is identified as the Yoruba patron deity of brass casting, weaving and regalia. After this period, production declined as political and economic power shifted to the nearby kingdom of Benin which, like the Yoruba kingdom of Oyo, developed into a major empire.

Bronze and terracotta art created by this civilization are significant examples of naturalism in pre-colonial African art and are distinguished by their variations in regalia, facial marking patterns, and body proportions. Ancient Ife also was famous for its glass beads which have been found at sites as far away as Mali, Mauritania, and Ghana.

Shrines, altars, and temples
Igbo Olokun: Igbo Olokun used to be a forested, sacred grove (igbo) that housed shrines at which the goddess Olokun was worshipped. Igbo Olokun in the city of Ile-Ife, in south-western Nigeria, was said to have a history of glass makers with unique manufacturing techniques in West Africa. The recovery of glass beads and associated production materials were found there during excavation. Analysis of the composition of the artefacts and preliminary dating of the site, which puts the main timing of glass-working between the 11th and 15th centuries AD. The results of these studies suggest that glass bead manufacture at this site was largely independent of glass-making traditions documented farther afield, and that Igbo Olokun may represent one of the earliest known glass-production workshops in West Africa. The location is not divulged except on request and permission of the keepers of the shrine because it is a sacred grove.

Oduduwa Shrine and Grove: The shrine of the progenitor of the Yoruba race. Worshippers and initiates flood the place seeking blessings and pay obeisance to the originator of their civilization.

Agbonniregun Temple: The grove of Ọrunmila an Orisha. He is the Orisha of wisdom, knowledge, and divination. This source of knowledge is believed to have a keen understanding of the human form and of purity, and is therefore praised as often being more effective than other remedies.

Archaeology
Burnt pipes (or tuyere), stone tools, broken calabash, decorated potsherds, and pottery (e.g., rimsherd, plane-sherd body, broken, and washed pottery) were excavated at Iyekere. Iron smelting, charcoal utilized in the process of smelting, and iron slags involved in pitting were also discovered.

Iron smelting occurred in the Ife region. The yield and efficiency were quite high as the iron smelting process yielded ore grade near 80 percent iron oxide, lean slag possessed less than 60 percent iron oxide, and no greater than the required amount of iron oxide in the slag was left for slag formation. While more excavation is needed to produce a more accurate estimate for the age of the smelting site, it can be approximated to likely being precolonial, during the Late Iron Age.

Igbo Olokun, also known as Olokun Grove, may be one of the earliest workshops for producing glass in West Africa. Glass production may have begun during, if not before, the 11th century. The 11th - 15th century were the peak of glass production. High lime, high alumina (HLHA) and low lime, high alumina (LLHA) glass are distinct compositions that were developed using locally sourced recipes, raw materials, and pyrotechnology. The presence of HLHA glass beads discovered throughout West Africa (e.g., Igbo-Ukwu in southern Nigeria, Gao and Essouk in Mali, and Kissi in Burkina Faso), after the ninth century CE, reveals the broader importance of this glass industry in the region and shows its participation in regional trade networks (e.g., trans-Saharan trade, trans-Atlantic trade). Glass beads served as “the currency for negotiating political power, economic relations, and cultural/spiritual values” for “Yoruba, West Africans, and the African diaspora.”

In Osun Grove, the distinct glassmaking technology produced by the Yoruba persisted into the seventeenth century.

Government
The main city of Ife is divided into two local government areas: Ife East, headquartered at Oke-ogbo and Ife central at Ajebandele area of the city. Both local governments are composed of a total of 21 political wards. The city has an estimated population of 355,813 people.

Geography
Latitudes 7°28′N and 7°45′N and longitudes 4°30′E and 4°34′E. Ile-Ife is a rural area with settlements where agriculture is occupied by most. Ife has an undulating terrain underlain by metamorphic rocks and characterized by two types of soils, deep clay soils on the upper slopes and sandy soils on the lower parts. Within the tropical savanna climate zone of West Africa. It has average rainfall of 1,000 - 1,250 mm usually from March to October and a mean relative humidity of 75% to 100%. Ife is east of the city of Ibadan and connected to it through the Ife-Ibadan highway; Ife is also 40 km from Osogbo and has road networks to other cities such as Ede, Ondo and Ilesha. There is the Opa river and reservoir, that serves as a water treatment facility for OAU college.

Climate
In Ifé, the dry season is muggy and partially cloudy, and the temperature is high all year round. The wet season is oppressive and overcast. The average annual temperature ranges from 66 to 93 degrees Fahrenheit, rarely falling below 60 or rising over 98.

Temperature
From January 22 to April 4, the hot season, with an average daily high temperature exceeding 91 °F, lasts for 2.4 months. In Ifé, March is the hottest month of the year, with an average high of 92 °F and low of 73 °F. From June 14 to October 6, the cool season, which has an average daily high temperature below 84 °F, lasts for 3.8 months.

August is the coldest month of the year in Ifé, with an average low temperature of 71 °F and high temperature of 82 °F.

Cloud cover
The average proportion of sky covered by clouds at Ife varies significantly seasonally throughout the year.

Ile-Ife experiences 2.9 months of clearer weather, which starts about November 17 and ends around February 13. December is the clearest month of the year, with a 50% average percentage of clear, mostly clear, or partly overcast skies. Around February 13 of each year, the cloudier period starts, lasts for 9.1 months, and ends around November 17. April is the month with the most cloud cover; on average, 86% of the town has overcast or mainly cloudy skies during this month.

Precipitation
A day is considered to be wet if there has been at least 0.04 inches of liquid or liquid-equivalent precipitation. In Ifé, the likelihood of rainy days varies a great deal from season to season.

The 6.6-month wetter season, which runs from April 7 to October 27, has a more than 45% chance of precipitation on any one day. In Ifé, September has an average of 25.4 days with at least 0.04 inches of precipitation, making it the month with the most rainy days.

From late October to early April, a period of about 5.4 months, is the dry season. December has an average of 1.4 days with at least 0.04 inches of precipitation, making it the month with the fewest wet days in Ifé. With an average of 25.4 days, September is the month in Ifé with the most rainy days. According to this classification, rain alone has the highest probability of all types of precipitation, peaking at 86% on September 22.

Economy
Ife contains attractions like the Natural History Museum of Nigeria. Ife is home to a regional agricultural center with an area that produces vegetables, grain cocoa, tobacco, and cotton. Ife has a few open markets, such as Oja Titun or Odo-gbe market with about 1,500 shops.

In terms of development, the Ife central area of Ilé Ifè is more developed. The areas include Parakin, Eleyele, Modomo, Damico, and Crown Estate Area. These areas are characterized by modern houses, good road network, constant electricity and security.

Education
Ife has several universities that are well-known both in Nigeria and internationally; such as the Obafemi Awolowo University (formerly University of Ife), and Oduduwa University.

It is also home to the Seventh Day Adventist Grammar School, Ile-Ife, Oduduwa College and Moremi High School among the notable schools established over 30 years ago.

Notable people

 * Dele Momodu (born 1960), journalist
 * Tunde Odunlade (born 1954), artist and musician
 * Adeyeye Enitan Ogunwusi; (Ọjájá II) (born 1974), 51st Ọọ̀ni of Ifẹ̀
 * Femi Fani-Kayode (born 1960), Nigerian politician, essayist, poet and lawyer
 * Iyiola Omisore (born 1957), Nigerian businessman, engineer and politician
 * Chief Remi Adetokunboh Fani-Kayode, Q.C., SAN, CON
 * Alayeluwa Oba Okunade Sijuwade Olubuse II (1930–2015), 50th Ọọ̀ni of Ifẹ̀

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List of Roman imperial victory titles

This is a list of victory titles assumed by Roman Emperors, not including assumption of the title Imperator (originally itself a victory title); note that the Roman Emperors were not the only persons to assume victory titles (Maximinus Thrax acquired his victory title during the reign of a previous Emperor). In a sense, the Imperial victory titles give an interesting summary of which wars and which adversaries were considered significant by the senior leadership of the Roman Empire, but in some cases more opportunistic motifs play a role, even to the point of glorifying a victory that was by no means a real triumph (but celebrated as one for internal political prestige).

Multiple grants of the same title were distinguished by ordinals, e.g. Germanicus Maximus IV, "great victor in Germania for the fourth time".

List

 * Quintus Labienus, 40-38 BC
 * Parthicus imperator: variously interpreted, with latest research suggest the meaning "friend of Parthia"
 * Publius Ventidius Bassus, 38 BC
 * Parthicus, victorious against Parthia (the only non-imperial holder)
 * Caligula, 37–41
 * Germanicus ("victorious in Germania"), born with it
 * Claudius, 41–54
 * Germanicus ("victorious in Germania"), born with it
 * Britannicus ("victorious in Britain"), 44
 * Vitellius, 69
 * Germanicus ("victorious in Germania"), 69
 * Domitian, 81–96
 * Germanicus ("victorious in Germania"), late 83
 * Nerva, 96-98
 * Germanicus ("victorious in Germania"), October 97
 * Trajan, 98–117
 * Germanicus ("victorious in Germania"), October 97
 * Dacicus ("victorious in Dacia"), 102
 * Parthicus ("victorious in Parthia"), 114
 * Optimus ("Best"), 114
 * Marcus Aurelius, 161–180
 * Armeniacus ("victorious in Armenia"), 164
 * Medicus ("victorious in Media"), 166
 * Parthicus Maximus ("great victor in Parthia"), 166
 * Germanicus ("victorious in Germania"), 172
 * Sarmaticus ("victorious in Sarmatia"), 175
 * Lucius Verus, 161–169
 * Armeniacus ("victorious in Armenia"), 164
 * Parthicus Maximus ("great victor in Parthia"), 165
 * Medicus ("victorious in Media"), 166
 * Commodus, 177–192
 * Germanicus ("victorious in Germania"), 15 October 172
 * Sarmaticus ("victorious in Sarmatia"), spring 175
 * Germanicus Maximus ("great victor in Germania"), mid-182
 * Britannicus, late 184
 * Septimius Severus, 193–211
 * Arabicus ("victorious in Arabia"), 195
 * Adiabenicus (victor of Adiabene"), 195
 * Parthicus Maximus ("great victor in Parthia"), 198
 * Britannicus Maximus ("great victor in Britain"), 209 or 210
 * Caracalla, 198–217
 * Britannicus Maximus ("great victor in Britain"), 209 or 210
 * Germanicus Maximus ("great victor in Germania"), 213
 * Maximinus Thrax, 235–238
 * Germanicus Maximus ("great victor in Germania"), 235
 * Philip the Arab
 * Germanicus Maximus ("great victor in Germania"), ca 247
 * Caspicus Maximus ("great victor of the Carpi") ca 247
 * Claudius II, 268–270
 * Gothicus Maximus ("great victor against the Goths"), 269
 * Aurelian, 270–275
 * Germanicus Maximus ("great victor in Germania"), 270 and 271
 * Gothicus Maximus ("great victor of the Goths"), 271
 * Parthicus Maximus ("great victor in Parthia"), 273
 * Tacitus, 275–276
 * Gothicus Maximus ("great victor of the Goths"), 276
 * Probus, 276–282
 * Gothicus (victor of the Goths"), 277
 * Germanicus Maximus ("great victor in Germania"), 279
 * Persicus Maximus ("great victor in Persia"), 279
 * Diocletian, 284–305
 * Germanicus Maximus ("great victor in Germania"), 285, 287, 288, 293 and 301
 * Sarmaticus Maximus ("great victor of the Sarmatians"), 285, 289, 294 and 300
 * Persicus Maximus ("great victor over the Persians"), 295 and 298
 * Britannicus Maximus ("great victor in Britain"), 297
 * Carpicus Maximus ("great victor over Carpians"), 297
 * Armenicus Maximus ("victorious in Armenia"), 298
 * Medicus Maximus ("great victor in Media"), 298
 * Adiabenicus Maximus ("great victor in Adiabene"), 298
 * Maximian, 286–305, 306–308
 * Germanicus Maximus ("great victor in Germania"), 287, 288, 293 and 301
 * Sarmaticus Maximus ("great victor of the Sarmatians"), 289, 294 and 300
 * Persicus Maximus ("great victor over the Persians"), 298
 * Britannicus Maximus ("great victor in Britain"), 297
 * Carpicus Maximus ("great victor over Carpians"), 297
 * Armenicus Maximus ("victorious in Armenia"), 298
 * Medicus Maximus ("great victor in Media"), 298
 * Adiabenicus Maximus ("great victor in Adiabene"), 298
 * Galerius Maximianus, 305–311
 * Britannicus Maximus ("great victory in Britain"), 297
 * Carpicus Maximus ("great victor of the Carpians"), six times between 297 and 308
 * Constantine I, 307–337
 * Germanicus Maximus ("great victor in Germania"), 307, 308, 314 and 328
 * Sarmaticus Maximus ("great victor over the Sarmatians"), 323 and 334
 * Gothicus Maximus ("great victor over the Goths"), 328 and 332
 * Dacicus Maximus ("great victor over the Dacian"), 336
 * Constans, 337–350
 * Sarmaticus ("victorious over the Sarmatians")
 * Valentinian III, 425-455
 * Germanicus ("victorious over the Germans")
 * Alamannicus ("victorious over the Alamanni")
 * Sarmaticus ("victorious over the Sarmatians")
 * Marcian, 450-457
 * Germanicus ("victorious over the Germans")
 * Sarmaticus ("victorious over the Sarmatians")
 * Alamannicus ("victorious over the Alamanni")
 * Francicus ("victorious over the Franks")
 * Anastasius I, 491-518
 * Germanicus ("victorious over the Germans")
 * Alamannicus ("victorious over the Alamanni")
 * Francicus ("victorious over the Franks")
 * Sarmaticus ("victorious over the Sarmatians")
 * Justinian I, 527–565
 * Alamannicus ("victorious over the Alamanni"), on accession
 * Gothicus ("victorious over the Goths"), on accession
 * Francicus ("victorious over the Franks"), on accession
 * Anticus ("victorious over the Antae"), on accession
 * Alanicus ("victorious over the Alans"), on accession
 * Vandalicus ("victorious over the Vandals"), after the Vandalic War, 534
 * Africanus ("victorious in Africa"), after the Vandalic War, 534
 * Justin II, 565-578
 * Alamannicus ("victorious over the Alamanni")
 * Gothicus ("victorious over the Goths")
 * Francicus ("victorious over the Franks")
 * Germanicus ("victorious over the Germans")
 * Anticus ("victorious over the Alans")
 * Vandalicus ("victorious over the Vandals")
 * Africanus ("victorious in Africa")
 * Tiberius II Constantine, 578–582
 * Alamannicus ("victorious over the Alamanni")
 * Gothicus ("victorious over the Goths")
 * Francicus ("victorious over the Franks")
 * Germanicus ("victorious over the Germans")
 * Alanicus ("victorious over the Alans")
 * Vandalicus ("victorious over the Vandals")
 * Africanus ("victorious over the Africans")
 * Maurice, 582–602
 * Alamannicus ("victorious over the Alamanni")
 * Gothicus ("victorious over the Goths")
 * Anticus ("victorious over the Antae")
 * Alanicus ("victorious over the Alans")
 * Wandalicus ("victorious over the Vandals")
 * Erullicus ("victorious over the Heruls")
 * Gypedicus ("victorious over the Gepids")
 * Africus ("victorious over the Africans")
 * Heraclius, 610–641, was the last emperor to use ethnic victory titles before the tenth century, in 612 he proclaimed himself:
 * Alamannicus ("victorious over the Alamanni")
 * Gothicus ("victorious over the Goths")
 * Francicus ("victorious over the Franks")
 * Germanicus ("victorious over the Germans")
 * Anticus ("victorious over the Antae")
 * Alanicus ("victorious over the Alans")
 * Wandalicus ("victorious over the Vandals")
 * Africanus ("victorious over the Africans")
 * Erullicus ("victorious over the Heruls")
 * Gypedicus ("victorious over the Gepids")
 * Basil II, 960–1025
 * Scythicus ("victorious over the "Scythians"), after his campaign in Bulgaria (991-995)
 * Manuel I Komnenos, 1143-1180 revived the practice in 1166, with a legal basis for each of these titles:
 * Isauricus ("victorious over the Isaurians")
 * Cilicius ("victorious over the Cilicians")
 * Armenicus ("victorious over the Armenians")
 * Dalmaticus ("victorious over the Dalmatians")
 * Ugricus ("victorious over the Hungarians")
 * Bosniacus ("victorious over the Bosnians")
 * Chorvaticus ("victorious over the Croatians")
 * Lazicus ("victorious over the Lazi")
 * Ibericus ("victorious over the Iberians")
 * Bulgaricus ("victorious over the Bulgars")
 * Serbicus ("victorious over the Serbs")
 * Zikhicus ("victorious over the Zichi")
 * Azaricus ("victorious in Atzara")
 * Gothicus ("victorious over the Goths")

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title: List of Roman imperial victory titles


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Talk:James Edward Smith (botanist)

Untitled
Thanks for making a start Smallweed Norwikian 03:31, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

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title: Talk:James Edward Smith (botanist)


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Hendrik Willem van Loon

Hendrik Willem van Loon (January 14, 1882 – March 11, 1944) was a Dutch-American historian, journalist, and children's book author.

Life

Van Loon was born in Rotterdam, Netherlands, the son of Hendrik Willem van Loon and Elisabeth Johanna Hanken. He immigrated to the United States in 1902 to study at Harvard University and then Cornell University, where he received his AB in 1905. In 1906 he married Eliza Ingersoll Bowditch (1880–1955), daughter of a Harvard professor, by whom he had two sons, Henry Bowditch and Gerard Willem. The newlyweds moved to Germany, where van Loon received his Ph.D. from the University of Munich in 1911 with a dissertation that became his first book, The Fall of the Dutch Republic (1913). He was a correspondent for the Associated Press during the Russian Revolution of 1905 and again in Belgium in 1914 at the start of World War I. He lectured at Cornell University from 1915 to 1916; in 1919 he became an American citizen.

Van Loon had two later marriages, to Eliza Helen (Jimmie) Criswell in 1920 and playwright Frances Goodrich Ames in 1927, but after a divorce from Ames he returned to Criswell (it is debatable whether or not they remarried); she inherited his estate in 1944.

Van Loon was a dog lover. His most famous pet was named Mungo, after Sir Walter Scott's dog, grew too large to handle and was sent back to Newfoundland where he was adopted as a mascot by Lieut. Nick Robson. Mungo was photographed on base with Charlie McCarthy and Edgar Bergen, and flew onboard missions seeking to bomb Nazi U-boats during World War II.

Career

From the 1910s until his death, Van Loon wrote many books, illustrating them himself. Best remembered among these is The Story of Mankind (1921), a history of the world intended for children, which won the first Newbery Medal in 1922. The book was later updated by Van Loon, then again by his son, and later still by other historians.

He wrote many popular books aimed at young adults. As a writer he was known for emphasizing crucial historical events and giving a full picture of individual characters, as well as the role of the arts in history. He had an informal and thought-provoking style which, particularly in The Story of Mankind, included personal anecdotes. As an illustrator of his own books, he was known for his lively black-and-white drawings and his chronological diagrams.

In 1923 and 1924, he was a professor of history at Antioch College.

After having revisited Germany many times in the 1920s, he was banned from the country when the Nazis came to power. In the summer of 1938, during an extended visit to Scandinavia, Van Loon met with refugees who had recently fled Nazi Germany and who gave him first-hand accounts of the terror that they had experienced. His book Our Battle, Being One Man's Answer to "My Battle" by Adolf Hitler (1938) earned him the respect of Franklin D. Roosevelt, in whose 1940 presidential campaign he worked, calling on Americans to fight totalitarianism.

Honors and distinctions
Van Loon was awarded the Newbery Medal in 1922 for his book The Story of Mankind.

Van Loon was knighted by Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands in 1942.

The World War II Liberty Ship SS Hendrik Willem Van Loon was named in his honor.

Works

A list of works by van Loon, with first publication dates and publishers.
 * The Fall of the Dutch Republic, 1913, Houghton Mifflin Co.
 * The Rise of the Dutch Kingdom, 1915, Doubleday Page & Co.
 * The Golden Book of the Dutch Navigators, 1916, The Century Co.
 * A Short History of Discovery: From the Earliest Times to the Founding of Colonies in the American Continent, 1917, David McKay
 * Ancient man; the Beginning of Civilizations, 1920, Boni and Liveright
 * The Story of Mankind, 1921, Boni and Liveright
 * The Story of the Bible, 1923, Boni and Liveright
 * Witches and Witch-Finders, 1923, article from the June 1923 Mentor Magazine
 * The Story of Wilbur the Hat, 1925, Boni and Liveright
 * Tolerance, 1925, Boni and Liveright
 * The Liberation of Mankind: the story of man's struggle for the right to think, 1926, Boni and Liveright
 * America: The Story of America from the very beginning up to the present, 1927, Boni and Liveright
 * Adriaen Block, 1928, Block Hall
 * Multiplex man, or the Story of Survival through Invention, 1928, Jonathan Cape
 * Life and Times of Peter Stuyvesant, 1928, Henry Holt
 * Man the Miracle Maker, 1928, Horace Liveright
 * R. v. R.: the Life and Times of Rembrandt van Rijn, 1930, Horace Liveright
 * If the Dutch Had Kept Nieuw Amsterdam, in If, Or History Rewritten, edited by J. C. Squire, 1931, Simon & Schuster
 * Van Loon's Geography: The Story of the World We Live In, 1932, Simon & Schuster
 * To Have or to Be—Take Your Choice, John Day (1932)
 * "Gold" 1933, article from the Cosmopolitan March 1933
 * An Elephant Up a Tree, 1933, Simon & Schuster
 * An Indiscreet Itinerary or How the Unconventional Traveler Should See Holland by one who was actually born there and whose name is Hendrik Willem Van Loon, 1933, Harcourt, Brace
 * The Home of Mankind: the story of the world we live in, 1933, George G. Harrap
 * The story of inventions: Man, the Miracle Maker, 1934, Horace Liveright
 * Ships: and How They Sailed the Seven Seas (5000 B.C.-A.D.1935), 1935, Simon & Schuster
 * Around the World With the Alphabet, 1935, Simon & Schuster
 * Air-Storming: A Collection of 40 Radio Talks, 1935, Harcourt, Brace
 * Love me not, 1935
 * A World Divided is a World Lost, 1935, Cosmos Publishing Co.
 * The Songs We Sing (with Grace Castagnetta), 1936, Simon & Schuster
 * The Arts (with musical illustrations by Grace Castagnetta), 1937, Simon & Schuster
 * Christmas Carols (with Grace Castagnetta), 1937, Simon & Schuster
 * Observations on the mystery of print and the work of Johann Gutenberg, 1937, Book Manufacturer's Institute/New York Times
 * Our Battle: Being One Man's Answer to "My Battle" by Adolf Hitler, 1938, Simon & Schuster
 * How to Look at Pictures: a Short History of Painting, 1938, National Committee for Art Appreciation
 * Folk Songs of Many Lands (with Grace Castagnetta), 1938, Simon & Schuster
 * The Last of the Troubadours: The Life and Music of Carl Michael Bellman 1740-1795 (with Grace Castagnetta), 1939, Simon & Schuster
 * The Songs America Sings (with Grace Castagnetta), 1939, Simon & Schuster
 * My School Books, 1939, E. I. du Pont de Nemours
 * Invasion, being the personal recollections of what happened to our own family and to some of our friends during the first forty-eight hours of that terrible incident in our history which is now known as the great invasion and how we escaped with our lives, 1940, Harcourt, Brace
 * The Story of the Pacific, 1940, George G. Harrap
 * The Life and Times of Johann Sebastian Bach, 1940, Simon & Schuster
 * Good Tidings (with Christmas songs by Grace Castegnetta), 1941, American Artists Group
 * The Praise of Folly by Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, with a short life of the Author by Hendrik Willem van Loon of Rotterdam who also illustrated the Book, 1942
 * Van Loon's Lives: Being a true and faithful account of a number of highly interesting meetings with certain historical personages, from Confucius and Plato to Voltaire and Thomas Jefferson, about whom we had always felt a great deal of curiosity and who came to us as dinner guests in a bygone year, 1942, Simon & Schuster
 * Christmas Songs, 1942
 * The Message of the Bells (with music by Grace Castagnetta), 1942, New York Garden City
 * Fighters for Freedom: the Life and Times of Thomas Jefferson and Simon Bolivar, 1943, Dodd, Mead & Co.
 * The Life and Times of Scipio Fulhaber, Chef de Cuisine, 1943
 * Adventures and Escapes of Gustavus Vasa, and how they carried him from his rather obscure origin to the throne of Sweden, 1945
 * Report to Saint Peter, upon the kind of world in which Hendrik Willem van Loon spent the first years of his life - an unfinished, posthumously published autobiography, 1947, Simon & Schuster

title: Hendrik Willem van Loon


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Rutland, Massachusetts

Rutland is a town in Worcester County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 9,049 at the 2020 census. Rutland is the geographic center of Massachusetts; a tree, the Central Tree, located on Central Tree Road, marks the general spot.

History
The town was first settled by Europeans in 1666 and was originally called "Naquag," a name which came from Nipmuc. Officially incorporated in 1713, the Town of Rutland was made up of Barre, Hubbardston, Oakham, Princeton, and the northern half of Paxton. In Northern Rutland there are prison camps used during the Revolutionary War used for captured Hessian mercenaries hired by the British. The town's most famous citizen is Rufus Putnam, who was George Washington's chief engineer in the American Revolutionary War. He held various town offices in Rutland and served as Representative to the General Court. Later, he led a group of Revolutionary War veterans west to settle in the Northwest Territory and Putnam became known as the "Father of Ohio." The Rufus Putnam House still stands, and is now a B&B. It is depicted on the town seal.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 36.4 sqmi, of which 35.3 sqmi is land and 1.1 sqmi, or 3.16%, is water.

Rutland is bordered by Princeton on the northeast, Holden on the east, Paxton on the southeast, Oakham on the southwest, and Barre and Hubbardston on the northwest. Rutland has five villages within its limits: New Boston, West Rutland, Muschopauge, North Rutland, and Turkey Hill.

Rutland is approximately 13 mi northwest of Worcester, 52 mi west of Boston, and 181 mi northeast of New York City. Rutland is the highest town between The Berkshires and the Atlantic. The town common is 1200 ft above sea level. Rutland is the geographical center of Massachusetts.

Demographics
As of the year 2008, there were approximately 8,257 people, 2,300 households, and 1,721 families residing in the town. The population density was 180.2 PD/sqmi. There were 2,392 housing units at an average density of 67.8 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 96.58% White, 1.04% Black or African American, 0.14% Native American, 0.46% Asian, 0.44% from other races, and 1.34% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.32% of the population.

There were 2,253 households, out of which 42.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.1% were married couples living together, 8.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.8% were non-families. Of all households 19.9% were made up of individuals, and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.21.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 30.8% under the age of 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 33.8% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 7.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.6 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $62,846, and the median income for a family was $70,689. Males had a median income of $45,824 versus $35,390 for females. The per capita income for the town was $23,311. About 1.5% of families and 3.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.0% of those under age 18 and 7.3% of those age 65 or over.

Politics
Internally, Rutland uses a town meeting style system of governance. As of 2019, the Board of Selectmen is composed of Lyndon S. Nichols, Jeffrey A. Stillings, Mitchell Ruscitti, Leah M. Whiteman, and Leroy "Skip" Clark. Terms for the board of selectmen are staggered.

Arts and culture
Each year, Rutland holds a four-day-long Fourth of July celebration, beginning on July 1. Events include performances by area musicians, a lip-sync concert, chicken barbecue hosted by the local Fire Brigade, a Historical Society Lemonade Social, and an acclaimed fireworks show. On the Fourth, Rutland holds a parade with floats made by local organizations and special guests including local and regional politicians.

August also brings in the Central Tree Chowder Chili Challenge, an event hosted and sponsored by the Rutland Fire Brigade. Area restaurants compete for local bragging rights for having the best area clam chowder. With two ways to "win", restaurants compete for both the people's choice as well as the votes of their peers and competitors.

While the main draw to the day is the clam chowder, the event has evolved into a family-oriented day. There is no admission fee except for those who wish to sample the chowder. However, there are also pony rides, face painting, "exotic" animal exhibits, inflatable rooms for kids, a free "train ride" (a lawn tractor towing three cars around the local athletic track), as well as miscellaneous vendors, both local and from surrounding towns. Proceeds go to the local Fire Brigade, which uses the money for restoration of the town's original fire station, and also to help supplement the expenses of the Fire Department by purchasing much needed equipment that would otherwise have to wait for town funding.

Education
Rutland is a part of the Wachusett Regional School District.

There are two elementary schools: Naquag Elementary, for grades up to 2nd, and Glenwood Elementary, grades 3rd through 5th.

The middle school is Central Tree Middle School.

The public high schools are Wachusett Regional High School in Holden, and Bay Path Regional Vocational Technical High School in Charlton.

Rutland is also home to the residential treatment facility, Devereux School. Devereux provides educational and psychological services to youth aged 6–21.

Library
The Rutland public library was founded c. 1865. In fiscal year 2008, the town of Rutland spent 1.16% ($159,360) of its budget on its public library—some $20.17 per person, per year ($26.58 adjusted for inflation to 2022).

title: Rutland, Massachusetts


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Vivisection

Vivisection is surgery conducted for experimental purposes on a living organism, typically animals with a central nervous system, to view living internal structure. The word is, more broadly, used as a pejorative catch-all term for experimentation on live animals by organizations opposed to animal experimentation, but the term is rarely used by practising scientists. Human vivisection, such as live organ harvesting, has been perpetrated as a form of torture.

Regulations and laws
Research requiring vivisection techniques that cannot be met through other means is often subject to an external ethics review in conception and implementation, and in many jurisdictions use of anesthesia is legally mandated for any surgery likely to cause pain to any vertebrate.

In the United States, the Animal Welfare Act explicitly requires that any procedure that may cause pain use "tranquilizers, analgesics, and anesthetics" with exceptions when "scientifically necessary". The act does not define "scientific necessity" or regulate specific scientific procedures, but approval or rejection of individual techniques in each federally funded lab is determined on a case-by-case basis by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, which contains at least one veterinarian, one scientist, one non-scientist, and one other individual from outside the university.

In the United Kingdom, any experiment involving vivisection must be licensed by the Home Secretary. The Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 "expressly directs that, in determining whether to grant a licence for an experimental project, 'the Secretary of State shall weigh the likely adverse effects on the animals concerned against the benefit likely to accrue.

In Australia, the Code of Practice "requires that all experiments must be approved by an Animal Experimentation Ethics Committee" that includes a "person with an interest in animal welfare who is not employed by the institution conducting the experiment, and an additional independent person not involved in animal experimentation."

Anti-vivisection movement
Anti-vivisectionists have played roles in the emergence of the animal welfare and animal rights movements, arguing that animals and humans have the same natural rights as living creatures, and that it is inherently immoral to inflict pain or injury on another living creature, regardless of the purpose or potential benefit to mankind.

19th century
At the turn of the 19th century, medicine was undergoing a transformation. The emergence of hospitals and the development of more advanced medical tools such as the stethoscope are but a few of the changes in the medical field. There was also an increased recognition that medical practices needed to be improved, as many of the current therapeutics were based on unproven, traditional theories that may or may not have helped the patient recover. The demand for more effective treatment shifted emphasis to research with the goal of understanding disease mechanisms and anatomy. This shift had a few effects, one of which was the rise in patient experimentation, leading to some moral questions about what was acceptable in clinical trials and what was not. An easy solution to the moral problem was to use animals in vivisection experiments, so as not to endanger human patients. This, however, had its own set of moral obstacles, leading to the anti-vivisection movement.

François Magendie (1783–1855)
One polarizing figure in the anti-vivisection movement was François Magendie. Magendie was a physiologist at the Académie Royale de Médecine in France, established in the first half of the 19th century. Magendie made several groundbreaking medical discoveries, but was far more aggressive than some of his other contemporaries with his use of animal experimentation. For example, the discovery of the different functionalities of dorsal and ventral spinal nerve roots was achieved by both Magendie, as well as a Scottish anatomist named Charles Bell. Bell used an unconscious rabbit because of "the protracted cruelty of the dissection", which caused him to miss that the dorsal roots were also responsible for sensory information. Magendie, on the other hand, used conscious, six-week-old puppies for his own experiments. While Magendie's approach would today be considered an abuse of animal rights, both Bell and Magendie used the same rationalization for vivisection: the cost of animal experimentation being worth it for the benefit of humanity.

Many viewed Magendie's work as cruel and unnecessarily torturous. One note is that Magendie carried out many of his experiments before the advent of anesthesia, but even after ether was discovered it was not used in any of his experiments or classes. Even during the period before anesthesia, other physiologistsexpressed their disgust with how he conducted his work. One such visiting American physiologist describes the animals as "victims" and the apparent sadism that Magendie displayed when teaching his classes. The cruelty in such experiments went so far as to lead to Magendie's role as an important figure in animal-rights legislation, such as his experiments being cited in the drafting of the British Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 and Cruel Treatment of Cattle Act 1822, otherwise known as Martin's Act, with its namesake, Irish MP and well known anti-cruelty campaigner Richard Martin describing Magendie as "disgrace to Society" after one of Magendie's public vivisections, described by Martin as "anatomical theatres", which was widely commented on at the time reportedly involving a greyhound's dissection potentially over two days. Magendie faced widespread opposition in British society, among the general public but also his contemporaries, including William Sharpey who described his experiments aside from cruel as "purposeless" and "without sufficient object", a feeling he claimed was shared among other physiologists.

David Ferrier and the Cruelty to Animals Act 1876
The Cruelty to Animals Act, 1876 in Britain determined that one could only conduct vivisection on animals with the appropriate license from the state, and that the work the physiologist was doing had to be original and absolutely necessary. The stage was set for such legislation by physiologist David Ferrier. Ferrier was a pioneer in understanding the brain and used animals to show that certain locales of the brain corresponded to bodily movement elsewhere in the body in 1873. He put these animals to sleep, and caused them to move unconsciously with a probe. Ferrier was successful, but many decried his use of animals in his experiments. Some of these arguments came from a religious standpoint. Some were concerned that Ferrier's experiments would separate God from the mind of man in the name of science. Some of the anti-vivisection movement in England had its roots in Evangelicalism and Quakerism. These religions already had a distrust for science, only intensified by the recent publishing of Darwin's Theory of Evolution in 1859.

Neither side was pleased with how the Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 was passed. The scientific community felt as though the government was restricting their ability to compete with the quickly advancing France and Germany with new regulations. The anti-vivisection movement was also unhappy, but because they believed that it was a concession to scientists for allowing vivisection to continue at all. Ferrier would continue to vex the anti-vivisection movement in Britain with his experiments when he had a debate with his German opponent, Friedrich Goltz. They would effectively enter the vivisection arena, with Ferrier presenting a monkey, and Goltz presenting a dog, both of which had already been operated on. Ferrier won the debate, but did not have a license, leading the anti-vivisection movement to sue him in 1881. Ferrier was not found guilty, as his assistant was the one operating, and his assistant did have a license. Ferrier and his practices gained public support, leaving the anti-vivisection movement scrambling. They made the moral argument that given recent developments, scientists would venture into more extreme practices to operating on "the cripple, the mute, the idiot, the convict, the pauper, to enhance the 'interest' of [the physiologist's] experiments".

20th century
In the early 20th-century the anti-vivisection movement attracted many female supporters associated with women's suffrage. The American Anti-Vivisection Society advocated total abolition of vivisection whilst others such as the American Society for the Regulation of Vivisection wanted better regulation subjected to surveillance, not full prohibition. The Research Defence Society made up of an all-male group of physiologists was founded in 1908 to defend vivisection. In the 1920s, anti-vivisectionists exerted significant influence over the editorial decisions of medical journals.

Human vivisection
It is possible that human vivisection was practised by some Greek anatomists in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE. Celsus in De Medicina states that Herophilos of Alexandria vivisected some criminals sent by the king. The early Christian writer Tertullian states that Herophilos vivisected at least 600 live prisoners, although the accuracy of this claim is disputed by many historians.

In the 12th century CE, Andalusian Arab Ibn Tufail elaborated on human vivisection in his treatise called Hayy ibn Yaqzan. In an extensive article on the subject, Iranian academic Nadia Maftouni believes him to be among the early supporters of autopsy and vivisection.

Unit 731, a biological and chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army, undertook lethal human experimentation during the period that comprised both the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Second World War (1937–1945). In the Filipino island of Mindanao, Moro Muslim prisoners of war were subjected to various forms of vivisection by the Japanese, in many cases without anesthesia.

Nazi human experimentation involved many medical experiments on live subjects, such as vivisections by Josef Mengele, usually without anesthesia.

title: Vivisection


text:
Talk:List of Roman imperial victory titles

Untitled
This article needs a different title. Maybe List of victory titles of Roman Emperors? RickK 03:37, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I would not object to such a retitling. Publius 20:43, 27 Dec 2003 (UTC)

A wrong translation from the Latin agnomen
The agnomen Germanicus does not mean "the German". There were no Germans in those days and Germanicus was a nobleman of old Roman stock.

The mistake is easily made but the agnomen is related to the English "Of", as in Montgomery of Alamein. Monty was not from North Africa, he was victorious there. Germanicus can be translated as "conqueror of Germania" or "victorious in Germania" or "Victorious against the Germanic tribes". As the Romans never conquered these dark forrests the second alternative seems appropriate. The list is valuable. There is a lot of work in it and it is certainly encyclopædic.

Greetings from the once dark, now sunny forrests of Germania,

Robert Prummel 22:54, 28 April 2007 (UTC)

Imperial Roman Victory Titles
I agree with a retitling if this list focuses strictly on the Imperial period. I would, however, also like to see a listing of victory titles in the Republican period. The article on victory titles is good about this, but again I'd like to see a more comprehensive list starting in the Republican era.

Chris Ann Matteo68.50.98.131 10:34, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

Maximinus Thrax
I have removed this line from the description of Maximinus Thrax - **Thrax ("the victor in Thracia"), ??. It wasn't a victory title, but a mention of his origin - from Thracia. It's "Maximinus the Thracian", not "Maximinus the conqueror of Thrace". -- Flavius T (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 13:30, 3 August 2009 (UTC).

Frederick II
I don't think those can be interpreted as victory titles. Frederick was king of Italy, Sicily, Jerusalem and Arles. Those look to me like royal titles in the style of victory titles. According to Kantorowicz, Frederick was imitating Justinian's Digest. Srnec (talk) 00:42, 7 March 2024 (UTC)


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Pater Patriae

Pater Patriae (plural Patres Patriae) was an honorific title in ancient Rome. In Latin, it means "father of the country", or more literally, "father of the fatherland".

The title was granted by the Roman Senate. During the Roman Republic, it was given only two times: to Camillus and Cicero. Under the Roman Empire, it was exclusively granted to the Roman emperor, usually after many years of successful rule. Not all emperors were offered the title, while others were offered it but refused to accept. A total of 23 emperors received the title.

During the early modern and late modern periods, the same Latin title was granted to several national leaders by their subjects or parliaments. More recently, the equivalent title has been father of the nation, translated into the national language.

Roman history
The honor of being called pater patriae was conferred by the Roman Senate. It was first awarded to Roman general Marcus Furius Camillus in 386 BC, for his role in liberating the city after the Gallic sack of Rome. It reflected the popular view that Camillus was effectively a second founder of the city, after Romulus, who was retrospectively considered to be pater patriae.

Three centuries later, it was awarded to the orator and statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero, for his part in the suppression of the Catilinarian conspiracy in 63 BC. A similar title, Parens Patriae, of similar but lesser connotation, was awarded to Julius Caesar, who had become de facto ruler of Rome as perpetual dictator. Caesar had packed the Senate with his own supporters, who voted him the title in 45 BC for having ended the civil wars that he had started himself. The Roman republic was replaced by the Roman empire in 27 BC, and thereafter the title was exclusively held by the emperor. The first emperor, Augustus, was not awarded the title until 2 BC, after several decades of peaceful rule. The title was therefore not considered necessary for the legitimacy of succeeding emperors. Nor did it convey any legal powers. As such, it did not become a regular part of the imperial honors that were routinely conferred on a new emperor.

The title could be declined. According to the historian Suetonius, Augustus' successor Tiberius was offered this title, but refused it as premature and inappropriate. The following emperor, Caligula, did accept the title, as did his successor Claudius. The next emperor, Nero, declined when it was offered by the Senate during the first year of his reign, on the basis that he was too young for such a title. The Senate offered it again the following year, which Nero accepted.

It thereafter became usual for the Senate to convey the title on emperors only after many years of successful rule. As a result, many emperors with short reigns never received the title. In some cases (such as Nerva) it was granted rapidly, if the new emperor was particularly esteemed by the senators when they acceded. As a sign of humility, several emperors deferred their use of the title for some time even after it was conferred by the Senate. For example, Hadrian deferred it for eleven years.

The title fell out of use in the fourth century AD, during the Christianisation of the empire. The last emperor known to have used the title was Julian, who was also the last pagan emperor.

Later use by other countries
The Latin honorific was later used for several national leaders during the early modern period and late modern period. It was awarded by national parliaments or loyal subjects to: George Washington, the first President of the United States; King Gustav I of Sweden; the Dutch Stadtholder William of Orange; Pedro II, the last Emperor of Brazil; and the four leaders of Italian unification: Camillo Cavour, Giuseppe Garibaldi, Giuseppe Mazzini and King Victor Emmanuel II.

The Latin title has since fallen into disuse, being replaced by the title father of the nation translated into each the relevant national language.

title: Pater Patriae


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Propaganda of the deed

Propaganda of the deed (or propaganda by the deed, from the French propagande par le fait ) is specific political direct action meant to be exemplary to others and serve as a catalyst for revolution.

It is primarily associated with acts of violence perpetrated by proponents of insurrectionary anarchism in the late 19th and early 20th century, including bombings and assassinations aimed at the State, the ruling class, and Church arsons targeting religious groups, even though propaganda of the deed also had non-violent applications. These acts of terrorism were intended to ignite a "spirit of revolt" by demonstrating the state, the middle and upper classes, and religious organizations were not omnipotent and also to provoke the State to become escalatingly repressive in its response. The 1881 London Social Revolutionary Congress gave the tactic its approval.

Various definitions
One of the first individuals to conceptualise propaganda by the deed was the Italian revolutionary Carlo Pisacane (1818–1857), who wrote in his "Political Testament" (1857) that "ideas spring from deeds and not the other way around." Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876), in his "Letters to a Frenchman on the Present Crisis" (1870) stated that "we must spread our principles, not with words but with deeds, for this is the most popular, the most potent, and the most irresistible form of propaganda."

Some anarchists, such as Johann Most, advocated publicizing violent acts of retaliation against counter-revolutionaries because "we preach not only action in and for itself, but also action as propaganda." It was not advocacy for mass murder, but a call for targeted killings of the representatives of capitalism and government at a time when such action might garner sympathy from the population, such as during periods of government repression or labor conflicts, although Most himself once claimed that "the existing system will be quickest and most radically overthrown by the annihilation of its exponents. Therefore, massacres of the enemies of the people must be set in motion." In 1885, he published The Science of Revolutionary Warfare, a technical manual for acquiring and detonating explosives based on the knowledge he acquired by working at an explosives factory in New Jersey. Most was an early influence on American anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman. Berkman attempted propaganda by the deed when he tried in 1892 to kill industrialist Henry Clay Frick following the deaths by shooting of several striking workers.

Beverly Gage, professor of U.S. history at Yale University, elaborates on what the concept meant to outsiders and those within the anarchist movement:

"To outsiders, the talk of bombing and assassination that suddenly pulsed through revolutionary circles in the late 1870s sounded like little more than an indiscriminate call to violence. To Most and others within the anarchist movement, by contrast, the idea of propaganda by deed, or the attentat (attack), had a very specific logic. Among anarchism's founding premises was the idea that capitalist society was a place of constant violence: every law, every church, every paycheck was based on force. In such a world, to do nothing, to stand idly by while millions suffered, was itself to commit an act of violence. The question was not whether violence per se might be justified, but exactly how violence might be maximally effective for, in Most's words, annihilating the "beast of property" that "makes mankind miserable, and gains in cruelty and voracity with the progress of our so called civilization.""

By the 1880s, the slogan "propaganda of the deed" had begun to be used both within and outside of the anarchist movement to refer to individual bombings, regicides and tyrannicides. In 1881, "propaganda by the deed" was formally adopted as a strategy by the anarchist London Congress.

As early as 1887, a few important figures in the anarchist movement had begun to distance themselves from individual acts of violence. Peter Kropotkin thus wrote that year in Le Révolté that "a structure based on centuries of history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite". A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in favor of collective revolutionary action, for example through the trade union movement. The anarcho-syndicalist, Fernand Pelloutier, argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the labor movement on the basis that anarchism could do very well without "the individual dynamiter."

State repression (including the infamous 1894 French lois scélérates) of the anarchist and labor movements following the few successful bombings and assassinations may have contributed to the abandonment of these kinds of tactics, although reciprocally state repression, in the first place, may have played a role in these isolated acts. The dismemberment of the French socialist movement, into many groups and, following the suppression of the 1871 Paris Commune, the execution and exile of many communards to penal colonies, favored individualist political expression and acts. Historian Benedict Anderson thus writes: "In March 1871 the Commune took power in the abandoned city and held it for two months. Then Versailles seized the moment to attack and, in one horrifying week, executed roughly 20,000 Communards or suspected sympathizers, a number higher than those killed in the recent war or during Robespierre's 'Terror' of 1793–94. More than 7,500 were jailed or deported to places like New Caledonia. Thousands of others fled to Belgium, England, Italy, Spain and the United States. In 1872, stringent laws were passed that ruled out all possibilities of organizing on the left. Not till 1880 was there a general amnesty for exiled and imprisoned Communards. Meanwhile, the Third Republic found itself strong enough to renew and reinforce Louis Napoleon's imperialist expansion—in Indochina, Africa, and Oceania. Many of France's leading intellectuals and artists had participated in the Commune (Courbet was its quasi-minister of culture, Rimbaud and Pissarro were active propagandists) or were sympathetic to it. The ferocious repression of 1871 and thereafter, was probably the key factor in alienating these milieux from the Third Republic and stirring their sympathy for its victims at home and abroad." According to some analysts, in post-war Germany, the prohibition of the Communist Party (KPD) and thus of institutional far-left political organization may also, in the same manner, have played a role in the creation of the Red Army Faction.

Later anarchist authors advocating "propaganda of the deed" included the German anarchist Gustav Landauer, and the Italians Errico Malatesta and Luigi Galleani. For Gustav Landauer, "propaganda of the deed" meant the creation of libertarian social forms and communities that would inspire others to transform society.

At the other extreme, the anarchist Luigi Galleani, perhaps the most vocal proponent of "propaganda by the deed" from the turn of the century through the end of the First World War, took undisguised pride in describing himself as a subversive, a revolutionary propagandist and advocate of the violent overthrow of established government and institutions through the use of 'direct action', i.e., bombings and assassinations. Galleani heartily embraced physical violence and terrorism, not only against symbols of the government and the capitalist system, such as courthouses and factories, but also through direct assassination of 'enemies of the people': capitalists, industrialists, politicians, judges, and policemen. He had a particular interest in the use of bombs, going so far as to include a formula for the explosive nitroglycerine in one of his pamphlets advertised through his monthly magazine, Cronaca Sovversiva. By all accounts, Galleani was an extremely effective speaker and advocate of his policy of violent action, attracting a number of devoted Italian-American anarchist followers who called themselves Galleanists. Carlo Buda, the brother of Galleanist bombmaker Mario Buda, said of him, "You heard Galleani speak, and you were ready to shoot the first policeman you saw".

Relationship to revolution
Propaganda of the deed thus included stealing (in particular bank robberies – named "expropriations" or "revolutionary expropriations" to finance the organization), rioting and general strikes which aimed at creating the conditions of an insurrection or even a revolution. These acts were justified as the necessary counterpart to state repression. As early as 1911, Leon Trotsky condemned individual acts of violence by anarchists as useful for little more than providing an excuse for state repression. "The anarchist prophets of the 'propaganda by the deed' can argue all they want about the elevating and stimulating influence of terrorist acts on the masses," he wrote in 1911, "Theoretical considerations and political experience prove otherwise." Vladimir Lenin largely agreed, viewing individual anarchist acts of terrorism as an ineffective substitute for coordinated action by disciplined cadres of the masses. Both Lenin and Trotsky acknowledged the necessity of violent rebellion and assassination to serve as a catalyst for revolution, but they distinguished between the ad hoc bombings and assassinations carried out by proponents of the propaganda of the deed, and organized violence coordinated by a professional revolutionary vanguard utilized for that specific end.

Notable actions
This timeline lists some significant actions that have been described as "Propaganda of the deed" since the 19th century.

 * 17 February 1880 – Stepan Khalturin successfully blows up part of the Winter Palace in an attempt to assassinate Tsar Alexander II of Russia. Although the Tsar escapes unharmed, eight soldiers are killed and 45 wounded. Referring to the 1862 invention of dynamite, historian Benedict Anderson observes that "Nobel's invention had now arrived politically." Khalturin is hanged on the orders of Alexander's son and successor, Alexander III, in 1882 after the assassination of a police official.
 * 13 March 1881 – Tsar Alexander II of Russia is killed in a bomb blast by Narodnaya Volya.
 * 23 July 1892 – Alexander Berkman tries to kill American industrialist Henry Clay Frick in retaliation for the hiring of Pinkerton detectives to break up the Homestead Strike, resulting in the deaths of seven striking members of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers. Although badly wounded, Frick survives, and Berkman is arrested and eventually sentenced to 22 years in prison.
 * 7 November 1893 – The Spanish anarchist Santiago Salvador throws two Orsini bombs into the orchestra pit of the Liceu Theater in Barcelona during the second act of the opera Guillaume Tell, killing some twenty people and injuring scores of others.
 * 9 December 1893 – Auguste Vaillant throws a nail bomb in the French National Assembly, killing nobody and injuring one. He is then sentenced to death and executed by the guillotine on 4 February 1894, shouting "Death to bourgeois society and long live anarchy!" (À mort la société bourgeoise et vive l'anarchie!). During his trial, Vaillant declares that he had not intended to kill anybody, but only to injure several deputies in retaliation against the execution of Ravachol, who was executed for four bombings.
 * 12 February 1894 – Émile Henry, intending to avenge Auguste Vaillant, sets off a bomb in Café Terminus (a café near the Gare Saint-Lazare train station in Paris), killing one and injuring twenty. During his trial, when asked why he wanted to harm so many innocent people, he declares, "There is no innocent bourgeois." This act is one of the rare exceptions to the rule that propaganda of the deed targets only specific powerful individuals. Henry is convicted and executed by guillotine on 21 May.
 * 15 February 1894 – A chemical explosive carried by Martial Bourdin prematurely detonates outside the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in Greenwich Park, killing him.
 * 24 June 1894 – Italian anarchist Sante Geronimo Caserio, seeking revenge for Auguste Vaillant and Émile Henry, stabs Sadi Carnot, the President of France, to death. Caserio is executed by guillotine on 15 August.
 * 8 August 1897 – Michele Angiolillo shoots dead Spanish Prime Minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo at a thermal bath resort, seeking vengeance for the imprisonment and torture of alleged revolutionaries in the Montjuïc trial. Angiolillo is executed by garotte on 20 August.
 * 10 September 1898 – Luigi Lucheni stabs to death Empress Elisabeth, the consort of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary, with a needle file in Geneva, Switzerland. Lucheni is sentenced to life in prison and eventually commits suicide in his cell.
 * 29 July 1900 – Gaetano Bresci shoots dead King Umberto of Italy, in revenge for the Bava Beccaris massacre in Milan. Due to the abolition of capital punishment in Italy, Bresci is sentenced to penal servitude for life on Santo Stefano Island, where he is found dead less than a year later.
 * 6 September 1901 – Leon Czolgosz fatally shoots U.S. President William McKinley at point-blank range at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York. McKinley dies on 14 September, and Czolgosz is executed by electric chair on 29 October. Czolgosz's anarchist views have been debated.
 * 15 November 1902 – Gennaro Rubino attempts to murder King Leopold II of Belgium as he returns in a procession from a Requiem Mass for his recently deceased wife, Queen Marie Henriette. All three of Rubino's shots miss the monarch's carriage, and he is quickly subdued by the crowd and taken into police custody. He is sentenced to life imprisonment and dies in prison in 1918.
 * 21 July 1905 – Members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation launch an attempt on the life of Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II, but the bomb missed its target, instead killing 26 people and wounded 58 others. One of the conspirators, the Armenian anarchist Christapor Mikaelian, was killed during the planning stages. The Belgian anarchist Edward Joris was also among those arrested and convicted for their part in the plot.
 * 31 May 1906 – Catalan anarchist Mateu Morral tries to kill King Alfonso XIII of Spain and Queen Victoria Eugenie immediately after their wedding by throwing a bomb into the procession. The King and Queen are unhurt, but 24 bystanders and horses are killed and over 100 persons injured. Morral is apprehended two days later and commits suicide while being transferred to prison.
 * 1 February 1908 – Manuel Buíça and Alfredo Costa shoot to death King Carlos I of Portugal and his son, Crown Prince Luís Filipe, respectively, in the Lisbon Regicide. Both Buíça and Costa, who are sympathetic to a republican movement in Portugal that includes anarchist elements, are shot dead by police officers.
 * 15 June 1910 – The Bosnian anarchist Bogdan Žerajić attempts to assassinate the Governor of Bosnia and Herzegovian Marijan Varešanin, but failed and subsequently committed suicide.
 * 14 September 1911 – Dmitri Bogrov shoots Russian prime minister Pyotr Stolypin at the Kiev Opera House in the presence of Tsar Nicholas II and two of his daughters, Grand Duchesses Olga and Tatiana. Stolypin dies four days later, and Bogrov is hanged on 28 September.
 * 12 November 1912 – Anarchist Manuel Pardiñas shoots Spanish Prime Minister José Canalejas dead in front of a Madrid bookstore. Pardiñas then immediately turns the gun on himself and commits suicide.
 * 9 February 1913 – The farmers Mulatilo Virgilio, Fermín Pérez and Fabián Graciano assassinate Salvadoran President Manuel Enrique Araujo with machetes.
 * 18 March 1913 – Alexandros Schinas shoots dead King George I of Greece while the monarch is on a walk near the White Tower of Thessaloniki. Schinas is captured and tortured; he commits suicide on 6 May by jumping out the window of the gendarmerie, although there is speculation that he could have been thrown to his death.
 * 4 July 1914 – A bomb being prepared for use at John D. Rockefeller's home at Tarrytown, New York explodes prematurely, killing three anarchists, Arthur Caron, Carl Hansen and Charles Berg, and an innocent woman, Mary Chavez.
 * 13 October and 14 November 1914 – Galleanists – radical followers of Luigi Galleani – explode two bombs in New York City after police forcibly disperse a protest by anarchists and communists at John D. Rockefeller's home in Tarrytown.
 * 16 September 1920 – The Wall Street bombing kills 38 and wounds 400 in the Manhattan Financial District. Galleanists are believed responsible, particularly Mario Buda, the group's principal bombmaker, although the crime remains officially unsolved.
 * 31 October 1926 – Anteo Zamboni (11 April 1911 – 31 October 1926) was a 15-year-old anarchist who tried to assassinate Benito Mussolini in Bologna, by shooting at him during the parade celebrating the March on Rome. Zamboni, whose shot missed Mussolini, was immediately attacked and lynched by nearby squadristi (fascist squads).
 * 27 September 1932 – A dynamite-filled package bomb left by Galleanists destroys Judge Webster Thayer's home in Worcester, Massachusetts, injuring his wife and a housekeeper. Judge Thayer had presided over the trials of Galleanists Sacco and Vanzetti.

title: Propaganda of the deed


text:
Hot money

In economics, hot money is the flow of funds (or capital) from one country to another in order to earn a short-term profit on interest rate differences and/or anticipated exchange rate shifts. These speculative capital flows are called "hot money" because they can move very quickly in and out of markets, potentially leading to market instability.

Illustration of hot money flows
The following simple example illustrates the phenomenon of hot money: In the beginning of 2011, the national average rate of one year certificate of deposit in the United States is 0.95%. In contrast, China's benchmark one year deposit rate is 3%. The Chinese currency (renminbi) is seriously undervalued against the world's major trading currencies and therefore is likely to appreciate against the US dollar in the coming years. Given this situation, if an investor in the US deposits his or her money in a Chinese bank, the investor would get a higher return than if he or she deposits money in a US bank. This makes China a prime target for hot money inflows. This is just an example for illustration. In reality, hot money takes many different forms of investment. The following description may help further illustrate this phenomenon: "One country or sector in the world economy experiences a financial crisis; capital flows out in a panic; investors seek a more attractive destination for their money. In the next destination, capital inflows create a boom that is accompanied by rising indebtedness, rising asset prices and booming consumption - for a time. But all too often, these capital inflows are followed by another crisis. Some commentators describe these patterns of capital flow as 'hot money' that flows from one sector or country to the next and leaves behind a trail of destruction."

Types of hot money
As mentioned above, capital in the following form could be considered hot money: The types of capital in the above categories share common characteristics: the investment horizon is short, and they can come in quickly and leave quickly.
 * Short-term foreign portfolio investments, including investments in equities, bonds and financial derivatives
 * Short-term foreign bank loans
 * Foreign bank loans with short-term investment horizon

Estimates of total value
There is no well-defined method for estimating the amount of hot money flowing into a country during a period of time, because hot money flows quickly and is poorly monitored. In addition, once an estimate is made, the amount of hot money may suddenly rise or fall, depending on the economic conditions driving the flow of funds. One common way of approximating the flow of hot money is to subtract a nation's trade surplus (or deficit) and its net flow of foreign direct investment (FDI) from the change in the nation's foreign reserves.

Hot money (approx) = Change in foreign exchange reserves - Net exports - Net foreign direct investment

Sources and causes
Hot money usually originates from the capital-rich, developed countries that have lower GDP growth rate and lower interest rates compared to the GDP growth rate and interest rate of emerging market economies such as India, Brazil, China, Turkey, Malaysia etc. Although the specific causes of hot money flow are somewhat different from period to period, generally, the following could be considered as the causes of hot money flow:
 * a sustained decline of interest rates in the highly industrialized, developed countries. The lower interest rates in the developed nations attract investors to the high investment yields and improving economic prospects in Asia and Latin America.
 * a general trend towards international diversification of investments in major financial centers and towards growing integration of world capital markets.
 * Emerging market countries began to adopt sound monetary and fiscal policies as well as market-oriented reforms including trade and capital market liberalization. Such policy reforms, among others, have resulted in a credible increase in the rate of return on investments.

As described above, hot money can be in different forms. Hedge funds, other portfolio investment funds and international borrowing of domestic financial institutions are generally considered as the vehicles of hot money. In the 1997 East Asian Financial Crisis and in the 1998 Russian Financial Crisis, the hot money chiefly came from banks, not portfolio investors.

Impact
Capital flows can increase welfare by enabling households to smooth out their consumption over time and achieve a higher level of consumption. Capital flows can help developed countries achieve a better international diversification of their portfolios.

However, large and sudden inflows of capital with a short-term investment horizon have negative macroeconomic effects, including rapid monetary expansion, inflationary pressures, real exchange rate appreciation and widening current account deficits. Especially, when capital flows in volume into small and shallow local financial markets, the exchange rate tends to appreciate, asset prices rally and local commodity prices boom. These favorable asset price movements improve national fiscal indicators and encourage domestic credit expansion. These, in turn, exacerbate structural weakness in the domestic bank sector. When global investors' sentiment on emerging markets shift, the flows reverse and asset prices give back their gains, often forcing a painful adjustment on the economy.

The following are the details of the dangers that hot money presents to the receiving country's economy:

 * Inflow of massive capital with short investment horizon (hot money) could cause asset prices to rally and inflation to rise. The sudden inflow of large amounts of foreign money would increase the monetary base of the receiving country (if the central bank is pegging the currency), which would help create a credit boom. This, in turn, would result in such a situation in which "too much money chases too few goods". The consequences of this would be inflation.

Furthermore, hot money could lead to exchange rate appreciation or even cause exchange rate overshooting. And if this exchange rate appreciation persists, it would hurt the competitiveness of the respective country's export sector by making the country's exports more expensive compared to similar foreign goods and services.

 * Sudden outflow of hot money, which would always happen, would deflate asset prices and could cause the collapse value of the currency of respective country. This is especially so in countries with relatively scarce internationally liquid assets. There is growing agreement that this was the case in the 1997 East Asian Financial Crisis. In the run-up to the crises, firms and private firms in South Korea, Thailand and Indonesia accumulated large amounts of short-term foreign debt (a type of hot money). The three countries shared a common characteristic of having large ratio of short term foreign debt to international reserves. When the capital started to flow out, it caused a collapse in asset prices and exchange rates. The financial panic fed on itself, causing foreign creditors to call in loans and depositors to withdraw funds from banks. All of these magnified the illiquidity of the domestic financial system and forced yet another round of costly asset liquidations and price deflation. In all of the three countries, the domestic financial institutions came to the brink of default on their external short term obligations.

However, some economists and financial experts argue that hot money could also play positive role in countries that have relatively low level of foreign exchange reserves, because the capital inflow may present a useful opportunity for those countries to augment their central banks' reserve holdings.

Control
Generally speaking, given their relatively high interest rates compared with that of the developed market economies, emerging market economies are the destination of hot money. Although the emerging market countries welcome capital inflows such as foreign direct investment, because of hot money's negative effects on the economy, they are instituting policies to stop hot money from coming into their country in order to eliminate the negative consequences.

Different countries are using different methods to prevent massive influx of hot money. The following are the main methods of dealing with hot money.

 * Exchange rate appreciation: the exchange rate can be used as a tool to control the inflow of hot money. If the currency is believed to be undervalued, that would be a cause of hot money inflow. In such circumstance, economists usually suggest a significant one-off appreciation rather than a gradual move in the exchange rate, as a gradual appreciation of the exchange rate would attract even more hot money into the country. One downside of this approach is that exchange rate appreciation would reduce the competitiveness of the export sector.
 * Interest rate reduction: countries that adopt this policy would lower their central bank's benchmark interest rates to reduce the incentive for inflow. For example, on December 16, 2010, the Turkish Central Bank surprised markets by cutting interest rates at a time of rising inflation and relatively high economic growth. Erdem Basci, deputy bank governor of Turkish Central Bank argued that gradual rate cuts were the best way to prevent excessive capital inflows fuelling asset bubbles and currency appreciation. On February 14, 2011, Mehmet Simsek, the Turkish Finance Minister said: "more than $8 billion in short-term investment had exited the country after the central bank cut rates and took steps to slow credit growth. The markets have got the message that Turkey does not want hot money inflows."
 * Capital controls: some capital control policies adopted by China belong to this category. For example, in China, the government does not allow foreign funds to invest directly in its capital market. Also, the central bank of China sets quotas for its domestic financial institutions for the use of short-term foreign debt and prevent banks from overusing their quotas. In June 1991, the Chilean government instituted a non-remunerated (non-paid) 20 percent reserve requirement to be deposited at the Central Bank for a period of one year for liabilities in foreign currency, for firms which are borrowing directly in foreign currency.
 * Increasing bank reserve requirements and sterilization: some countries pursue a fixed exchange rate policy. In the face of large net capital inflow, those countries would intervene in the foreign exchange market to prevent exchange rate appreciation. Then sterilize the monetary impact of intervention through open market operations and through increasing bank reserves requirements. For example, when hot money originated from the U.S. enters China, investors would sell US dollars and buy Chinese yuan in the foreign exchange market. This would put upward pressure on the value of the yuan. In order to prevent the appreciation of the Chinese currency, the central bank of China print yuan to buy US dollars. This would increase money supply in China, which would in turn cause inflation. Then, the central bank of China has to increase bank reserve requirements or issue Chinese government bonds to bring back the money that it has previously released into the market in the exchange rate intervention operation. However, like other approaches, this approach has limitations. The first, the central bank can't keep increasing bank reserves, because doing so would negatively affect bank's profitability. The second, in the emerging market economies, the domestic financial market is not deep enough for open market operations to be effective.
 * Fiscal tightening: the idea is to use fiscal restraint, especially in the form of spending cuts on nontradables, so as to lower aggregate demand and curb the inflationary impact of capital inflow.

title: Hot money


text:
Esther Rolle

Esther Elizabeth Rolle (November 8, 1920 – November 17, 1998) was an American actress. She is best known for her role as Florida Evans, on the CBS television sitcom Maude, for two seasons (1972–1974), and its spin-off series Good Times, for which she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Television Series Musical or Comedy in 1976. In 1979, Rolle won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Special for the television film Summer of My German Soldier.

Early life
Esther Rolle was born in Pompano Beach, Florida to Bahamian immigrants Jonathan Rolle (1883–1953), a farmer, and Elizabeth Iris Rolle (née Dames; 1887–1947). Her parents were both born and raised in Nassau, New Providence, The Bahamas and moved to Florida some time after their marriage. She was the tenth of 18 children (children who included siblings and fellow actresses Estelle Evans and Rosanna Carter). Rolle graduated from Blanche Ely High School in Pompano Beach, Florida. She initially studied at Spelman College in Atlanta, before moving to New York City. While in New York, she attended Hunter College before transferring to The New School and then Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. For many years, Rolle worked in a traditional day job in New York City's garment district.

Dance and theater
Rolle was a member of Asadata Dafora's dance troupe, Shogolo Oloba (later renamed the Federal Theater African Dance Troupe). She became the troupe's director in 1960. Rolle's earliest roles were on the stage; her New York stage debut was in the 1962 play The Blacks. She was often cast in plays produced by Robert Hooks and the Negro Ensemble Company. She also appeared in productions of The Crucible and Blues for Mr. Charlie. Rolle's most prominent early role was as Miss Maybell in the Melvin Van Peebles 1972 Broadway musical Don't Play Us Cheap, and its subsequent 1973 film adaptation. In 1977, Rolle portrayed Lady Macbeth in Orson Welles' Haitian-influenced version of William Shakespeare's Macbeth at the Henry Street New Federal Theater in Manhattan.

Television
Rolle is best known for her television role as Florida Evans, the character she played on two 1970s sitcoms. The character was introduced as Maude Findlay's housekeeper on Maude, and was spun off in the show's second season into Good Times, a show about Florida's family. Rolle was nominated in 1975 for the Best Actress in a Musical/Comedy Golden Globe Award for her role in Good Times. Rolle was 19 years older than the actor (John Amos) who played her husband James (named Henry on Maude) Evans. The James Evans character was only added after Esther Rolle fought hard for a father figure and husband to be added to the show. Rolle had fought for the father character on the show, more relevant themes and scripts and was unhappy with the success of Jimmie Walker's character, J.J. Evans, which she believed took the show in a frivolous direction. John Amos agreed with Rolle about Walker's character and was fired from the show after the third season ended. Later on, in a stand-off with Good Times producer Norman Lear, Rolle also quit when her contract ended. Although the show continued without her for the fifth season, she returned for the show's final season. In 1979 she won an Emmy for her role in Summer of My German Soldier, a made-for-television movie.

Among her guest-starring roles was one on The Incredible Hulk in an episode entitled "Behind the Wheel", in which she played a taxicab business owner. In the 1990s, Rolle was a surprise guest on RuPaul's VH-1 talk show. Her Maude co-star Bea Arthur was the guest, and Rolle was brought out to surprise Arthur. The two had not seen each other in years, Arthur said, and embraced warmly. Rolle also appeared in a series of psychic hotline TV commercials in the 1990s. "Tell them Esther sent you," was her trademark line.

Music and film
Rolle released an album of music titled The Garden of My Mind in 1975. Rolle's first screen appearance is a small, uncredited role in To Kill a Mockingbird (1962), and she later appeared in Gordon Parks' The Learning Tree (1969). Her sister, actress Estelle Evans, appeared in both films as well. Esther Rolle appeared early in her career in the film Nothing But a Man (1964). After Good Times ended, she appeared in a number of made-for-television movies as well as films, including Driving Miss Daisy and My Fellow Americans. A memorable role was that of Aunt Sarah in the film Rosewood (1997). She had a major role in I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings based on Maya Angelou's memoir of the same name, and has the distinction of having won the first Emmy Award for the category Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or Movie, in 1979, for her work in the television movie Summer of My German Soldier. She is also credited for her role in the film The Mighty Quinn (1989), starring Denzel Washington and Sheryl Lee Ralph, and featuring Robert Townsend. Her last film, Train Ride, was released in 2000 despite being filmed in 1998.

Personal life
Rolle was married to Oscar Robinson from 1955 until their divorce in 1975. She had no children, but did have one ex-stepdaughter, Sherley Mae Robinson (born 1936), from Oscar's previous marriage.

Death
Rolle died on November 17, 1998, in Culver City, California, from complications of diabetes, at the age of 78. A devout member of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, Rolle requested that her funeral be held at Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church. She is buried in Westview Community Cemetery in Pompano Beach, Florida.

The cemetery is a historically black burial ground created in 1952, a time when the laws and customs of Florida did not permit white people and black people to be buried in the same cemetery.

Collection of Esther Rolle's personal works
Rolle's family donated over 100 items of hers to the African-American Research Library and Cultural Center in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. The collection includes gowns, a black Raggedy Andy doll she endorsed, a recording of poems recited by Rolle, and awards such as the 1974 NAACP Eighth Image Award for Best Actress in a Series and her 1979 Emmy for her role in Summer of My German Soldier.

Stage work

 * Day of Absence (1965)
 * Happy Ending (1965)
 * The Amen Corner (1965)
 * Man Better Man (1969)
 * Akokawe (1970)
 * Ride a Black Horse (1971)
 * The Dream on Monkey Mountain (1971)
 * Rosalee Pritchett (1971)
 * Don't Play Us Cheap (1972)
 * A Ballet Behind the Bridge (1972)
 * Horowitz and Mrs. Washington (1980)
 * Nevis Mountain Dew (1980)
 * Dame Lorraine (1981)
 * A Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet (1982)
 * A Raisin in the Sun (1989)
 * Member of the Wedding (1989)

title: Esther Rolle


text:
Talk:Macintosh Portable

Untitled
The criticism section needs to be rewritten -- it's half how to fix a bad battery pack, half problems with the design, and all impossible to comprehend without reading it multiple times 71.195.78.202 (talk) 22:46, 3 March 2009 (UTC)

was the screen really active matrix? I wrote it was passive because that was my recollection, but it was backed up by mention on one of the sites that I used to get some of the basic data from - trouble is, I forget which it was. The other thing is that the mouse cursor and fast graphics definitely DID suffer from "submarining", I remember seeing that first hand, so if it was active, it wasn't very good. In fact Apple introduced a special cursor trick which left short trails designed to help the user not lose sight it on this machine. Graham 03:54, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I'm almost positive the early PowerBooks (and hence logically the Portable) had passive-matrix screens; can't remember when Apple made the switch though. - Hephaestos 04:02, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

There were third-party portable macs very early on. They used surplus SE logic boards. Who made them? JesseVincent
 * Outbound Computers theducks
 * there was also the Colby, which was based on the Plus. Part of the reason Apple took so long to come out with a portable was they were waiting for display technology to be good enough. The display quality is obviously more important on a Mac than on a DOS laptop. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.125.110.223 (talk) 15:09, 28 December 2007 (UTC)

In Response: The screen on the Portable was in fact an active matrix screen. In regards to the Powerbook, when Apple released the 100, 140, and 170 in October of 91, the 100 and 140s had passive matrix screen, while the 170 (the high class Powerbook, if you will) had the active matrix screen. (Source: Apple-History.com) -- Joey B.

Added to history of the backlit model. Balance2214 19:51, 29 September 2007 (UTC)

Something that could be added: an interesting interview with Apple VP Eric Harslem in MacWorld 9/1992 which touches on the problems/shortcomings of the Portable: pg 198, https://archive.org/details/MacWorld_9209_September_1992 Pip11 (talk) 19:59, 9 March 2017 (UTC)

Battery life
All this talk of battery life. What was it originally?? What was the battery capacity?63.155.153.171 (talk) 08:49, 20 November 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Macintosh Portable


text:
Talk:Yoruba language

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 17 August 2020 and 23 November 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): HeftyChap.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 05:20, 18 January 2022 (UTC)

Some Issues In The Grammar Of Modern Yoruba A. Afolayan
Some Issues In The Grammar Of Modern Yoruba A. Afolayan. I believe this might help. Komitsuki (talk) 11:24, 6 June 2014 (UTC)

Possibly non-existent source
I tagged two references to DELAB International Newsmagazine as needing a better source. After some searching, I can find no evidence that this magazine actually exists. Worldcat has no record of it, and mentions of it are limited to Wikipedia and pages which use Wikipedia as a source. BlackcurrantTea (talk) 08:08, 3 June 2020 (UTC)

Relegation of Ajami to the Writing Systems Section
Abal126, hi. Can we please talk about this revert, bro: ? -Oluwatalisman

Unspecified references
There are citations of Mumin & Versteegh 2014; Hofheinz 2018, Hunwick 1995, but the complete titles, dates etc are not present in the bibliography. Also, the text says that 'the earliest documented history of the people, which is traced to the latter part of the 17th century, was in the Yoruba language but in the Arabic script'. If such a text as a 17th-century history of the Yoruba people exists, it would be very important and should be mentioned in the article 'Yoruba literature', and it ought to have its own article, too. However, I suspect that this is due to some confusion and that there is no such text. 62.73.69.121 (talk) 15:12, 3 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Yoruba language