text:
12th (Eastern) Division

The 12th (Eastern) Division was an infantry division raised by the British Army during the First World War from men volunteering for Kitchener's New Armies. The division saw service in the trenches of the Western Front from June 1915 to the end of the war.

Formation and First World War

The 12th (Eastern) Division, was one of the first Kitchener's Army divisions raised from volunteers by Lord Kitchener. It was formed within Eastern Command as a result of Army Order No. 324 of 21 August 1914, as part of the K1 wave of divisions.

It fought on the Western Front for the duration of the First World War. One of its most notable actions was the Battle of Épehy where there is a memorial cross to the 12th Division.

In the First World War, the division's insignia was the Ace of Spades, which has since been adopted by the present 12th Armoured Infantry Brigade.

Order of Battle
35th Brigade

 * 7th (Service) Battalion, Norfolk Regiment
 * 7th (Service) Battalion, Suffolk Regiment (left May 1918)
 * 9th (Service) Battalion, Essex Regiment
 * 5th (Service) Battalion, Princess Charlotte of Wales's (Royal Berkshire Regiment) (transferred to 36th Brigade February 1918)
 * 1/1st Territorial Force (T.F.) Battalion, Cambridgeshire Regiment (joined May 1918)
 * 35th Machine Gun Company, Machine Gun Corps (formed 1 February 1916, moved to 12th Battalion, Machine Gun Corps (M.G.C.) 1 March 1918)
 * 35th Trench Mortar Battery (formed 25 June 1916)

36th Brigade

 * 8th (Service) Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment) (disbanded February 1918)
 * 9th (Service) Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment)
 * 7th (Service) Battalion, Royal Sussex Regiment
 * 11th (Service) Battalion, Duke of Cambridge's Own (Middlesex Regiment) (disbanded February 1918)
 * 5th (Service) Battalion, Princess Charlotte of Wales's (Royal Berkshire Regiment) (transferred from 35th Brigade February 1918)
 * 36th Machine Gun Company, Machine Gun Corps (formed 1 February 1916, moved to 12th Battalion, M.G.C. 1 March 1918)
 * 36th Trench Mortar Battery (formed 15 June 1916)

37th Brigade

 * 6th (Service) Battalion, Queen's (Royal West Surrey Regiment)
 * 6th (Service) Battalion, Buffs (East Kent Regiment)
 * 7th (Service) Battalion, East Surrey Regiment (disbanded February 1918)
 * 6th (Service) Battalion, Queen's Own (Royal West Kent Regiment)
 * 37th Machine Gun Company, Machine Gun Corps (formed 4 February 1916, moved to 12th Battalion, M.G.C. 1 March 1918)
 * 37th Trench Mortar Battery (formed 15 June 1916)

Divisional Troops
 * 5th (Service) Battalion, Northamptonshire Regiment (division pioneers)
 * 9 Motor Machine Gun Battery (joined early 1915, left 20 June 1915)
 * 235th Machine Gun Company (joined 16 July 1917, left to move into 12th Battalion M.G. C. 1 March 1918)
 * 12th Battalion Machine Gun Corps (formed 1 March 1918, absorbing the brigade MG companies)
 * Divisional Mounted Troops
 * A Squadron, King Edward's Horse (joined April 1915, left June 1916)
 * 12th Divisional Cyclist Company, Army Cyclist Corps (left 15 June 1916)
 * 12th Divisional Train Army Service Corps
 * 116th, 117th, 118th and 119th Companies
 * 23rd Mobile Veterinary Section Army Veterinary Corps
 * 214th Divisional Employment Company (joined 16 June 1917)

Royal Artillery
 * LXII Brigade, Royal Field Artillery (R.F.A.)
 * LXIII Brigade, R.F.A.
 * LXIV Brigade, R.F.A. (left 6 January 1917)
 * LXV (Howitzer) Brigade, R.F.A. (broken up 30 August 1916)
 * 12th Divisional Ammunition Column R.F.A.
 * 12th Heavy Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery (left 8 June 1915)
 * V.12 Heavy Trench Mortar Battery R.F.A. (joined 31 July 1916, disbanded 12 February 1918)
 * X.12, Y.12 and Z.12 Medium Mortar Batteries R.F.A. (formed 1 July 1916; on 16 February 1918, Z broken up distributed among X and Y batteries)

Royal Engineers
 * 69th Field Company
 * 70th Field Company
 * 87th Field Company (joined January 1915)
 * 12th Divisional Signals Company

Royal Army Medical Corps
 * 36th Field Ambulance
 * 37th Field Ambulance
 * 38th Field Ambulance
 * 23rd Sanitary Section (left 1 April 1917)

General Officer Commanding

 * Major-General James Spens 24 August 1914 – 15 March 1915
 * Major-General Frederick D.V. Wing 15 March – 2 October 1915
 * Brigadier-General W. K. McLeod 2–3 October 1915 (acting)
 * Major-General Arthur B. Scott 3 October 1915 – 26 April 1918
 * Major-General H. W. Higginson 26 April 1918 –

title: 12th (Eastern) Division


text:
Stellite

Stellite alloys are a range of cobalt-chromium alloys designed for wear resistance. "Stellite" is also a registered trademark of Kennametal Inc. and is used in association with cobalt-chromium alloys.

History
Stellite was invented by Elwood Haynes in the early 1900s, initially as a material for making cutlery that would not stain or require constant cleaning. He was granted a patent for two specific alloys in 1907, and for two related ones in 1912; once he had these four patents he went into the business of producing his metal alloys. In the early 1920s, after considerable success during World War I in sales of cutting tools and high-speed machine tools made from Stellite, Haynes's company was bought by Union Carbide, becoming its "Stellite division", and continued to develop other alloys as well. The company was sold again in 1970 to Cabot Corporation, and in 1985 Cabot sold off the Stellite portion of the business. The Stellite trademark was acquired by Kennametal in 2012.

Composition
Stellite alloys include a range of cobalt-based alloys, with significant proportions of chromium (up to 33%) and tungsten (up to 18%). Some of the alloys also contain nickel or molybdenum. Most of them have fairly high carbon content when compared to carbon steels.

Properties
Stellite alloys are a family of completely non-magnetic and corrosion-resistant cobalt alloys of various compositions that have been optimised for different uses. Stellite alloys are suited for cutting tools, for example, is Stellite 100, because this alloy is quite hard, maintains a good cutting edge at high temperature, and resists hardening and annealing. Other Stellite alloys are formulated to maximize combinations of wear resistance, corrosion resistance, or ability to withstand extreme temperatures.

Stellite alloys display outstanding hardness and toughness, and are also usually very resistant to corrosion. Typically, a part produced with a Stellite alloy is precisely cast so that only minimal machining is necessary. Due to the very high hardness many Stellite alloys are primarily machined by grinding, as cutting operations in some alloys cause significant tool wear even with carbide inserts. Stellite alloys also tend to have extremely high melting points due to the cobalt and chromium content.

Applications
Typical applications for Stellite alloys include saw teeth, hardfacing, and acid-resistant machine parts. Stellite alloys were a major improvement in the production of poppet valves and valve seats for the valves, particularly exhaust valves, of internal combustion engines. By reducing their erosion from hot gases, the interval between maintenance and re-grinding of their seats was dramatically lengthened. Stellite alloys have also been used in some engines for the cam followers, particularly by the Norton Motorcycle Company.

The first third of the M2HB machine gun and M60 machine gun barrels (starting from the chamber) are lined with a Stellite alloy. The locking lugs and shoulders of Voere Titan II rifles also include a Stellite alloy. In the early 1980s, experiments were done in the United Kingdom to make artificial hip joints and other bone replacements out of precision-cast Stellite alloys. Stellite alloys are also used for making the cast structure of dental prostheses.

Stellite alloys have also been used in the manufacture of turning tools for lathes. With the introduction and improvements in tipped tools it is not used as often, but it was found to have superior cutting properties compared to the early carbon steel tools and even some high-speed steel tools, especially against difficult materials such as stainless steel. Care was needed in grinding the blanks and these were marked at one end to show the correct orientation, without which the cutting edge could chip prematurely.

While Stellite alloys remain the material of choice for certain internal parts in industrial process valves (valve seat hardfacing), cobalt alloys have been discouraged in nuclear power plants. In piping that can communicate with the reactor, tiny amounts could be released into the process fluid and eventually enter the reactor. There the cobalt would be activated by the neutron flux in the reactor and become cobalt-60, a radioisotope with a five-year half life that releases very energetic gamma rays. This phenomenon is more problematic in boiling water reactor (BWR) plants, since the steam is in direct contact with both the reactor and the steam turbine. Pressurized water reactor (PWR) designs are less susceptible. While not a hazard to the general public, about a third to a half of nuclear worker exposures to radiation could be traced to reactor components made of cobalt alloys (or stainless steel with trace amounts of cobalt in it).

Stellite alloys have also used as the cage material for the first commercially available artificial heart valve, the Starr-Edwards caged-ball valve, first implanted in 1960.

Varieties

 * Talonite is an alloy similar to Stellite alloys which has been hot-rolled and hardened in a particular manner, to provide a combination of hardness, wear resistance and machinability. Not all Stellite alloys respond to this rolling process.
 * Vitallium, used for dentistry and medical implants.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Stellite


text:
List of youth organizations

The following is a list of youth organizations. A youth organization is a type of organization with a focus upon providing activities and socialization for minors. In this list, most organizations are international unless noted otherwise.

0–9

 * 4-H (Worldwide)

A

 * AEGEE (Europe)
 * AIESEC
 * Air Training Corps (UK)
 * A.J.E.F (LatAm)
 * All India Youth Federation - AIYF (India)
 * Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (India)
 * Aleph Zadik Aleph
 * American Youth Congress (US)
 * American Youth Hostels (US)
 * Amigos de las Americas
 * Anjuman Talaba-e-Islam (Pakistan)
 * Armenian National Students Association
 * Armenian Youth Federation
 * Army Cadet Force (UK)
 * Arran (CAT)
 * Arsalyn Program (US)
 * Article 12 (England)
 * Ateitis (Lithuania)
 * All Assam Students Union (Assam, India)
 * All India Muslim Students Federation (India)
 * All-Polish Youth (Poland)
 * Associazione Guide e Scout Cattolici Italiani (IT)

B

 * Bangladesh-China Youth Student Association
 * BBYO
 * Betar
 * Bharat Scouts and Guides (India)
 * Bharatiya Janata Yuva Morcha (India)
 * Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (US)
 * Bnei Akiva
 * Boys' Brigade
 * Boy Scouts of America (US)
 * Boy Scouts of the Philippines (Philippines)
 * The Boys & Girls Aid Society (US)
 * Boys and Girls Clubs of America (US)
 * Boys & Girls Clubs of Canada (Canada)
 * British Columbia Youth Parliament (Canada)
 * BUNDjugend (Germany)
 * Bus Project (US)
 * Bangladesh Islami Chhatra Shibir (Bangladesh)

C

 * Canadian Cadet Organizations (Canada) (*see Royal Canadian Army-Air-Sea Cadets below)
 * Camp Fire (US)
 * Campus Front of India (India)
 * Canadian Young Judaea (Canada)
 * Centre for the Talented Youth of Ireland (Ireland)
 * Children and Youth International (Europe)
 * Children of the American Revolution (US)
 * China Youth Corps (Taiwan)
 * Chiro (Belgium, Philippines)
 * Christian Democratic Youth Appeal (Netherlands)
 * Christian Democratic Youth League (Sweden) (Sweden)
 * Christian Service Brigade (US/Canada)
 * Church Lads' and Church Girls' Brigade
 * CISV International
 * City Year (US)
 * Civil Air Patrol (US)
 * CJD (Germany)
 * Communist Youth Marxist–Leninists (Denmark)
 * Communist Youth Movement (Netherlands)
 * Company of Young Canadians Historical
 * Confédération Européenne de Scoutisme (Europe)
 * Congress of South African Students
 * Coptic Orphans (Egypt)
 * CrossRoads Ministry (US)
 * CVJM (Germany)

D

 * DeMolay International
 * Democratic Youth Federation of India
 * DECA formerly known as Distributive Education Clubs of America
 * Duterte Youth

E

 * Eurodesk (Europe)
 * Electrical Engineering Students' European Association (Europe)
 * European Confederation of Young Entrepreneurs (Europe)
 * Erasmus Student Network (Europe)
 * European Free Alliance Youth (Europe)
 * European Geology Students Network
 * European Geography Association
 * European Horizons (US)
 * The European Law Students' Association (Europe)
 * European Scout Federation (British Association) (UK)
 * European Students of Industrial Engineering and Management (Europe)
 * European Youth Forum (Europe)
 * European Youth Parliament (Europe)
 * Euzko Gaztedi (Spain/Europe)
 * Ezra USA
 * Emirates Foundation (UAE)

F

 * Federal Association of Liberal Students Groups (Germany)
 * FBLA (US)
 * FFA (Future Farmers of America) (US)
 * Fimcap (Global)
 * First Priority (US)
 * The First Tee (US)
 * For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology (FIRST) (Global)
 * Foras na Gaeilge (Ireland)
 * Foróige (Ireland)
 * Friends of Nature (Global)
 * FZY (UK)

G

 * German Federal Association of Young Entrepreneurs (Germany)
 * German Scout Movement (Germany)
 * German Foundation for World Population (Deutsche Stiftung Weltbevoelkerung, DSW) (Germany)
 * German Youth Movement (Germany)
 * Girlguiding (UK)
 * Gerakan Pemuda Ansor (Indonesia)
 * Girls' Brigade
 * Girls Inc. (US)
 * Girl Scouts of the USA
 * Girl Guides of Canada
 * Girl Scouts of the Philippines
 * Global Vision (Canada)
 * Global Youth Action Network
 * Green Youth (Germany)
 * Gopali Youth Welfare Society (India)

H

 * Habonim Dror
 * Habonim Dror Australia
 * Hitler Youth (Nazi Germany)
 * HaNoar HaOved VeHaLomed (Israel)
 * Hakfar Hayarok (Israel)
 * Hashomer Hatzair
 * Hebrew Scouts Movement in Israel
 * High School Democrats of America (United States)
 * Hineni (Australia)
 * Hip Hop 4 Life (US)
 * HOSA-Future Health Professionals (US)
 * Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth Union (Vietnam)
 * Hugh O'Brian Youth Leadership Foundation

I

 * IAESTE
 * Islami Jamiat-e-Talaba Pakistan
 * Improved Order of Red Men (US)
 * IIMUN
 * Indian Catholic Youth Movement(India)
 * Interact
 * International Federation of Medical Students' Associations
 * International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations
 * Indian Youth Congress (India)
 * International Young Democrat Union
 * International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Queer Youth and Student Organisation
 * International Order of the Rainbow for Girls
 * International Pharmaceutical Students' Federation
 * International Student/Young Pugwash
 * International Federation of Liberal Youth
 * International Union of Socialist Youth
 * International Youth Rights
 * International Youth Change Maker
 * Israel Gay Youth
 * Italian Youth of the Lictor (Fascist Italy)

J

 * Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps (US)
 * JCNetwork (Germany)
 * Jonge Democraten (Netherlands)
 * Jesus Freaks
 * Jesus Youth (India)
 * Jewish Lads' and Girls' Brigade (UK)
 * Job's Daughters International (Worldwide)
 * Junge Liberale (Germany)
 * Junge Piraten (Germany)
 * Junge Union (Germany)
 * Junior firefighter (Global)
 * Junior Forest Wardens (Canada)
 * Young Socialists (Netherlands)
 * Junior Achievement (US)
 * Junior Chamber International
 * Junior Optimist Octagon International
 * Junior State of America (US)
 * Jusos (Germany)

K

 * Kabataan (Philippines) (lit. youth)
 * Key Club
 * Kids for Peace
 * Kids Helping Kids
 * Kids Off The Block

L

 * La Forja (CAT)
 * Left Youth Solid (Germany)
 * Liberal Youth of Sweden (Sweden)
 * Leo clubs
 * Los Angeles Maritime Institute (US)
 * Little League Baseball

M

 * Motivate Canada (Canada)
 * Make A Difference (India)
 * Muslim Student Union of the University of California, Irvine (US)
 * Muslim Students Society of Nigeria
 * Muslim Students Federation (I. U. M. L.) (India)
 * Muslim Students Federation (Kerala unit) (India)
 * Muslim Students Association of South Africa (South Africa)
 * Muslim Students' Association (Indonesia) (Indonesia)
 * Muslim Students Association (US/CANADA)
 * Mocidade Portuguesa (Portugal)

N

 * National Cadet Corps India
 * National Cadet Corps (Singapore)
 * National Civil Defence Cadet Corps (Singapore)
 * National Commission on Resources for Youth
 * National Council For Voluntary Youth Services (UK)
 * National Federation of Young Farmers' Clubs (UK)
 * National FFA Organization (US)
 * National Junior Classical League (US)
 * National Police Cadet Corps (Singapore)
 * National Students Union of India (NSUI)
 * National Youth Administration
 * National Youth Council of Armenia
 * National Youth Leadership Council (US)
 * National Youth Organisation (disambiguation) (several)
 * National Youth Rights Association (US)
 * NCSY
 * Netzer Olami
 * The Newsboys Strike Historical
 * Nexus Global Youth Summit
 * Noam
 * North American Federation of Temple Youth (US)
 * Northern Ireland Youth Forum (NI)
 * Not Back to School Camp (US)

O

 * Oaktree (foundation) (Australia)
 * Opera Nazionale Balilla (Fascist Italy)
 * Ógra Fianna Fáil (Ireland)
 * Ógra Shinn Féin (Ireland)
 * One World Youth Project
 * oikos International
 * Ontario Youth Parliament (Canada)
 * Order of the Arrow (US)
 * Organisational Forum of Economical Congress OFW (Germany)
 * Our Time (US)
 * Our Youth Social Community (India)

P

 * Parlement Jeunesse du Québec (Canada)
 * Pathfinders (Seventh-day Adventist)
 * PDMU (Mexico)
 * Peacefire (US)
 * PerspectieF (Netherlands)
 * PETO (Germany)
 * PINK! (Netherlands)
 * Pioneer Movement (Communist countries)
 * Plant-for-the-Planet
 * Polish YMCA (Poland)
 * Pony Club
 * Privrednik Junior (Croatia)
 * Progressive Youth Federation of India
 * Project Q (Milwaukee)
 * Puerto Rico Statehood Students Association (US)
 * Peace Train (Bangladesh)

R

 * Rajiv Gandhi National Institute of Youth Development (India)
 * International Order of the Rainbow for Girls (Worldwide)
 * Raleigh International (UK)
 * Rawhide Boys Ranch (US)
 * The Rebelution (US)
 * Red Cross Youth (Singapore)
 * Resistance (YBNP) (UK)
 * Revolutionary Youth Association (India)
 * Revolutionary Youth Union (Syria)
 * Republican Youth of Catalonia (Catalan Countries)
 * RISKA – Remaja Islam Sunda Kelapa (Indonesia)
 * Rock and Roll Camp for Girls (US)
 * ROOD (Netherlands)
 * Roosevelt Institution (US)
 * Rotaract
 * Royal Canadian Air Cadets (Canada)
 * Royal Canadian Army Cadets (Canada)
 * Royal Canadian Sea Cadets (Canada)
 * Royal Rangers
 * RSY-Netzer (UK)
 * Russian Social-Democratic Union of Youth (Russia)

S

 * Sangguniang Kabataan (Philippines)
 * Sandinista Youth (Nicaragua)
 * Sano Sansar Initiative (Nepal)
 * Saskatchewan Youth Parliament (Canada)
 * School Strike for Climate (global)
 * Scouting
 * Boy Scouts
 * Brownie (Girl Guides)
 * Cub Scouts
 * Explorer Scouts
 * Girl Guiding and Girl Scouting
 * Navigators (US and UK)
 * Rover Scouts
 * Venture Scouts
 * SDLP Youth (NI)
 * Secular Student Alliance (US)
 * Serb Democratic Forum-Youth Forum (Croatia)
 * SGPJ (Netherlands)
 * Socialist Youth (disambiguation) (several)
 * Socialist Youth Front (Denmark)
 * Socialist Youth of Germany – Falcons (Germany)
 * Solidarity Youth Movement, Kerala (India)
 * South African Students Congress
 * SPIC MACAY
 * SpiralScouts (US)
 * St John Ambulance Australia Cadets (Australia)
 * St John Ambulance Cadets in the UK (UK)
 * St John Youth New Zealand
 * Street Kids International (Canada/US)
 * Strong Women Strong Girls (US)
 * Student Catholic Action (Philippines)
 * Student Union of Latvia
 * Students' Union of Obafemi Awolowo University
 * Students' Union of Rajiv Gandhi Government Polytechnic (SURGGP), Itanagar
 * Student Edge
 * Students Union of Bhutan
 * Students Union of Namibia
 * Studentenverbindung (Germany)
 * Students' Union (Turkey)
 * Students' Union UCL (formerly University College London Union)
 * Students for a Free Tibet
 * Student Union of the University of Helsinki
 * Student Union of Tampere University (Finland)
 * Student Union in Sundsvall (Sweden)
 * Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
 * Student Pugwash USA (US)
 * Students for a Democratic Society (1960 organization) (US)
 * Student Union (Valdosta State University) (US)
 * Student Union AKKU (Netherlands)
 * Students For Liberty (US-based International organization)
 * Students for a Democratic Society (2006 organization) (US)
 * Students' Federation of India (India)
 * Students Islamic Organisation of India (India)
 * Students for Sensible Drug Policy (US)
 * SustainUS (US)
 * Sharp Greens (Poland)

T

 * Taking Children Seriously (UK)
 * TakingITGlobal
 * Teenage Republicans (US)
 * Teen Mania Ministries (US)
 * Teen Talking Circles
 * The Second Mile (US)
 * The Trevor Project (US)
 * The Youth Cafe (Kenya, Africa)
 * Trips for Kids (US, Canada, Israel)
 * TUXIS Parliament of Alberta (Canada)
 * Tzivos Hashem

U

 * UK Youth Climate Coalition (UK)
 * UK Youth Parliament (UK)
 * United Synagogue Youth
 * Up with People (US)
 * Urban Saints (UK)
 * UthMag (United Arab Emirates)
 * Urdd Gobaith Cymru (Wales)

V

 * 4T – Vietnam Youth Education Support Center (Vietnam)
 * Vietnamese Scout Association
 * Voortrekkers (youth organisation) (South Africa)

W

 * WE Charity (Kenya, Sri Lanka, India, Ecuador, Sierra Leone, China)
 * Wesley Guild (Ghana, South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, United Kingdom, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Swaziland and Lesotho)
 * Winds Across the Bay (US)
 * The Woodcraft Folk (UK)
 * World Assembly of Youth
 * World Assembly of Muslim Youth
 * World Association of Young Scientists
 * World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts
 * World Esperanto Youth Organization
 * World Federation of Democratic Youth
 * World Organisation of Students and Youth
 * World Organization of the Scout Movement
 * World Scout Committee

Y

 * YERID
 * Young Australia League (AUS)
 * Youth Parliament (BAN)
 * Young Americans for Freedom (US)
 * Young BNP (UK)
 * Youth Bank (international)
 * Young Communist League USA (US)
 * Young Conservatives (UK)
 * Young Democratic Socialists of America (US)
 * Young Democrats (Giovani Democratici) (Italy)
 * Young Democrats of America (US)
 * Young European Federalists (Europe)
 * Young European Leadership (Europe)
 * Young Judaea
 * Young Life (US)
 * Young Marines (US)
 * Young Muslims Canada
 * Young People's Socialist League (1907) (US)
 * Young People's Socialist League (Socialist Party USA) (US)
 * Young Religious Unitarian Universalists (US/Canada)
 * Young Riflemen (Lithuania)
 * Young Yatri Organization (Nepal)
 * Youth 2000
 * Youth Action Network (UK)
 * Youth Activism Project (US)
 * Youth Assisting Youth (US)
 * Youth Association of Kuwait (Kuwait)
 * Youth for Christ (US)
 * Youth Climate Movement (US)
 * Youth Conservation Corps (US)
 * Youth for Human Rights International
 * Young Labour (UK)
 * Youth Leaders International
 * Youth Liberation of Ann Arbor
 * Youth Link Movement (Sri Lanka)
 * Youth Organisation Freedom and Democracy (Netherlands)
 * Youth Parliament of Manitoba (Canada)
 * Youth Parliament Program (India)
 * Youth Parliament of Pakistan (Pakistan)
 * Youth Radio (US)
 * AER Youth Regional Network (Europe)
 * Young Republicans (US)
 * Young Scientists of Australia (AUS)
 * Youth Service America
 * Youth United (India)
 * Yuva Unstoppable (India)
 * YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association)
 * YWCA (Young Women's Christian Association)
 * YMCA Youth and Government (US)
 * YMCA Youth Parliament (AUS)

title: List of youth organizations


text:
Johns

Johns may refer to:

Places

 * Johns, Mississippi, an unincorporated community
 * Johns, Oklahoma, United States, a community
 * Johns Creek (Chattahoochee River), Georgia, United States
 * Johns Island (disambiguation), islands in Canada and the United States
 * Johns Mountain, a summit in Georgia
 * Johns River (disambiguation)
 * Johns River (Vermont), a tributary of Lake Memphremagog
 * Johns Township, Appanoose County, Iowa, United States

Other uses

 * Johns (surname)
 * Johns Hopkins (1795–1873), American entrepreneur, investor and philanthropist
 * johns (film), a 1996 film starring David Arquette and Lukas Haas

title: Johns


text:
Punter

Punter may refer to:

Personal roles

 * Punter (card game), person who lays bets in a banking game
 * Punter (gridiron football), a position in American or Canadian football
 * Someone who uses a punt (boat)
 * Punter, alternate demonym for a resident of the ancient Land of Punt
 * Client (prostitution), in British English
 * Gambler, in Australian and New Zealand English

People

 * Punter (surname)
 * Punter Humphreys (1881–1949), English cricketer
 * Ricky Ponting (born 1974), nicknamed Punter, Australian cricketer

Other uses

 * Punter (protocol), a file-transfer protocol
 * Punternet, an escort rating service

title: Punter


text:
Antanas Smetona

Antanas Smetona (10 August 1874 – 9 January 1944) was a Lithuanian intellectual, journalist and politician who served as the first president of Lithuania from 1919 to 1920 and again from 1926 as a de facto dictator until the Soviet occupation of Lithuania in 1940. Referred to as the "Leader of the Nation" during his presidency, Smetona is recognised as one of the most important Lithuanian political figures between World War I and World War II, and a prominent ideologist of Lithuanian nationalism and the movement for national revival.

Early life and education
Smetona was born on 10 August 1874 in the village of Užulėnis, Kovno Governorate, Russian Empire, to a family of farmers, Jonas Smetona and Julijona Kartanaitė – former serfs of the Taujėnai Manor, which belonged to the Radziwiłł family. Researcher Kazimieras Gasparavičius has traced Smetona's patrilineal ancestry to Laurentijus who was born around 1695 and lived near Raguva. Smetona was the eighth of nine children. His parents were hardworking people who managed to double their inherited 5 ha. His father was literate and Smetona learned to read at home.

Smetona's father died in 1885 when Smetona was only 11 years old and, despite financial difficulties, a year later Smetona – the only of his siblings – was sent to the primary school in Taujėnai where instruction was in Russian due to the Lithuanian press ban. This was his dying father's request. His mother hoped that Smetona would become a priest. After graduation in 1889, Smetona wanted to continue his education, but gymnasiums admitted pupils only up to the age of 12 and he was already 15 years old. Therefore, he was forced to study privately in Ukmergė in order to catch up and be able to pass examinations to enter the fourth class of gymnasium. In summer 1891, he attempted to gain admission to the Liepāja Gymnasium as his brother Motiejus worked in a factory in Liepāja. He was refused and instead applied to the Palanga Pro-Gymnasium, which had no age restrictions. Smetona was an exemplary student (one of the top two students) and received a tuition waiver. As a superintendent of a student dormitory, he also received free housing and was able to support himself by providing private lessons. Three other future signatories of the Act of Independence of Lithuania attended the Pro-Gymnasium at the same time: Steponas Kairys, Jurgis Šaulys, and Kazimieras Steponas Šaulys. As Palanga was close to East Prussia, it was easier to obtain Lithuanian literature, which was banned by the Tsarist authorities. Smetona began reading Lithuanian periodicals and books, including a history of Lithuania by Maironis.

After graduating in 1893, according to his family's wishes, he passed his entrance examinations for the Samogitian Diocesan Seminary in Kaunas. However, he felt no great calling for priesthood and enrolled at the Jelgava Gymnasium in Latvia. This was a cultural hub of the Lithuanian National Revival and attracted many future leaders in Lithuanian culture and politics, including Juozas Tūbelis and Vladas Mironas who later became Smetona's political companions. In particular, Lithuanian language and culture was openly promoted by the linguist, Jonas Jablonskis, teacher of Greek, with whom Smetona developed a close professional relationship. Jablonskis visited Smetona's native village collecting data on Lithuanian dialects. Smetona met his future wife, Sofija Chodakauskaitė, through Jablonskis who recommended him as tutor for her brother.

In autumn 1896, the administration of the Jelgava Gymnasium forced Lithuanian students to recite their prayers in Russian while Latvian and German students were allowed to use their native languages. Smetona and other students refused and were expelled. Most later agreed to pray in Russian and were re-admitted, but a handful who refused were prohibited from attending any other school. The students sent petitions to Pope Leo XIII and Ivan Delyanov, Minister of National Education. Smetona and two others, and Petras Vaiciuška, managed to secure an audience with Delyanov, who allowed the Lithuanians to pray in Latin and the expelled students to continue their education. Smetona did not return to Jelgava and finished up at Gymnasium No. 9 in Saint Petersburg.

Upon graduation in 1897, Smetona entered the faculty of law of the University of Saint Petersburg. He was more interested in history and languages, but knew that as a Catholic his choices were limited to priest, lawyer, or doctor if he wanted to work in Lithuania. Saint Petersburg, with a direct railway connection to Lithuania, was becoming a Lithuanian cultural center. Smetona joined and chaired a secret Lithuanian student organization. He was later succeeded by Steponas Kairys. He also joined a Lithuanian choir led by Česlovas Sasnauskas, organist at the Church of St. Catherine. Smetona was exposed to socialist ideas and even read Marx's Capital, but resolutely rejected them. He was expelled from the university, imprisoned for two weeks, and deported to Vilnius for participating in the February 1899 student protests. It was the first time Smetona visited the city, the historical capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and it left a deep impression on him. A month later, he was allowed to return to the university.

In 1898, Smetona and his roommate,, using a mimeograph, printed about 100 copies of a brief Lithuanian grammar written by Petras Avižonis based on the German-language writings of Friedrich Kurschat. This grammar was insufficient for Lithuanian needs and in summer 1900 Jonas Jablonskis set to work on his Lithuanian grammar. He was assisted by Avižonis, Žemaitė, and Smetona, though Smetona mostly edited works of Bishop Motiejus Valančius. The grammar was published in 1901 and became a fundamental work in establishing the standard Lithuanian language. In early 1902, the police began investigating a network of Lithuanian book smugglers and raided Smetona's room where they found several prohibited Lithuanian publications. He was imprisoned in Vyborg Castle, but managed to secure acquittal and graduate that spring.

Early activities
After his graduation from university in 1902, he moved to Vilnius and worked at the Vilnius Land Bank until 1915. He became an active participant in Lithuanian cultural life and, up until becoming president in December 1926, devoted substantial amounts of time and effort to the Lithuanian press. Two years later, he married Sofija Chodakauskaitė in the Church of St. Raphael the Archangel in Vilnius.

From his very first days in Vilnius, Smetona became involved in the activities of various Lithuanian nationalist groups, and joined the Lithuanian Democratic Party, which he represented in the Great Seimas of Vilnius. He was later elected to its Presidium. In 1904 and 1907, he was on the staff of the Lithuanian newspaper, Vilniaus žinios (The Vilnius News). In 1905–1906, he edited the weekly Lietuvos ūkininkas (The Lithuanian Farmer). In 1907, Smetona and the Rev. Juozas Tumas-Vaižgantas established a venture to print the newspaper Viltis (The Hope), and started publishing and circulating it. In Viltis, Smetona advocated national unity. He was also one of the incorporators of the Aušra (Dawn) company for the publishing of Lithuanian books, a member of the Lithuanian Mutual Aid Society of Vilnius, the Lithuanian Learned Society, the Vilniaus aušra (The Dawn of Vilnius), and Rytas (The Morning) education societies, the Rūta Art Society and many other societies, and taught the Lithuanian language at Vilnius schools. In 1914, he started publishing Vairas (The Rudder), a new bi-weekly magazine.

Politics
During the First World War, he was the first vice-chairman, and later chairman, of the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Society for the Relief of War Sufferers. In the summer of 1916, Antanas Smetona, together with other Lithuanians from Vilnius, presented a memorandum to the German Commander-in-Chief of the Eastern Front, in which they demanded the right of the Lithuanian nation to have an independent State. On 6 September 1917, he started printing the newspaper, Lietuvos Aidas (Lithuania's Echo), working as its publisher and its editor-in-chief. In the first issue of the newspaper, Smetona wrote that the most important goal of the Lithuanian nation was the re-establishment of an independent Lithuanian state.

Between 18 and 22 September 1917, he participated in the Lithuanian Conference in Vilnius, and was elected chairman (1917–1919) of the Council of Lithuania (later Council of the State). On 16 February 1918, Antanas Smetona signed the Act of Independence of Lithuania.

Between December 1918 and March 1919, he lived primarily in Germany and the Scandinavian countries, soliciting loans for the cause of Lithuanian independence. On 4 April 1919, the State Council of Lithuania elected Smetona the first president of the Republic of Lithuania. On 19 April 1920, the Constituent Assembly elected Aleksandras Stulginskis President. Not re-elected to Seimas, from 1921 to 1924, he edited several periodicals, including Lietuvos balsas (Voice of Lithuania), Lietuviškas balsas (Lithuanian Voice) and Vairas.

After the Klaipėda Revolt of January 1923, in the Memelland, which had been separated from Germany, he was made commissioner there on 20 February, but, due to disagreements with Prime Minister Ernestas Galvanauskas, he resigned from his post.

In November 1923, authorities imprisoned Smetona for several days for publishing an article by Augustinas Voldemaras in Vairas. Between 1923 and 1927, he was an assistant professor at the University of Lithuania – at first in the chair of art theory and history and later at the department of philosophy. He lectured on ethics, ancient philosophy and Lithuanian linguistics. In 1932, he was awarded an honorary Ph.D. at the Vytautas Magnus University.

Smetona participated in the activity of the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union that had staged the Klaipėda Revolt, which gave him greater name-recognition. More than once, he was elected to its central board. Between 1924 and 1940, he was the vice-chairman of the board of the International Bank.

Smetona was known for his tolerant stance towards Jews and his radical opponents nicknamed him as "Jewish King". Under Smetona's rule in Lithuania, not a single anti-Jewish law was passed and high-ranking Lithuanian officials, including ministers, did not publicly say anti-Jewish statements. Smetona considered Jews not as foreigners, but as Lithuanian citizens of foreign nationality and himself acted against antisemitic acts with his statements which were later followed by actions of governmental institutions (e.g. censorship). The Lithuanian courts, war commandants, Lithuanian Police Force severely punished the participants of anti-Jewish physical attacks or smashing of Jews windows (the culprits were punished with fines, imprisoned or even sent to hard labor prisons). Moreover, the Government of Lithuania also did not tolerate anti-Jewish attacks and severely punished their participants, especially activists. Consequently, Jews were widely sympathetic towards Smetona and his rule. However, under Smetona's rule Lithuania was anti-communist and did not tolerate insults of German government but at the same time protected non-offending Lithuanian Jews as in 1934 the Ministry of National Defence of Lithuania adopted an order to counties commandants where it was stated to "severely punish all those who insult the German Government in any way, as well as those who deliberately agitate against Lithuanian Jews; to suppress the activity of all those Jewish organizations which appear to be under Communist cover or succumb to Communist influence".

Authoritarian president
Smetona was a leader of the 1926 coup d'état that deposed President Kazys Grinius. He once again became president on 19 December that year (two others briefly held the office during the coup, which began on 17 December, before Smetona was formally restored to the presidency). He designated Augustinas Voldemaras as prime minister. One year later, he dissolved parliament and on 15 May 1928, with the approval of the government, he promulgated a new constitution with more extensive presidential powers. In 1929, he removed Voldemaras and assumed dictatorial powers. He was re-elected president in 1931 and 1938, both times as the sole candidate. He remained in office until 15 June 1940.

Smetona's constitution vested the president with both executive and legislative powers when the Seimas was not in session. The Seimas was not reconvened until the 1936 Lithuanian parliamentary election; for the next decade, Smetona ruled by decree, without a parliament, making his regime on paper one of the most arbitrary in the world. Even when the Seimas was reconvened, it was composed entirely of Smetona's adherents; Smetona thus effectively retained all governing power in the nation. In 1938, a third constitution was enacted that retained the general authoritarian character of the 1928 document, and declared that political power in the state was "indivisible."

The regime repeatedly arrested and imprisoned members of the already-banned Communist Party – as with almost all interwar European dictatorships, the claimed threat of Communism was the source of its legitimacy and the regime executed the original leadership five days after coming to power. However, despite propaganda that Communists were a "non-Lithuanian force invading the country", they continued to operate underground with growing membership and it is known today that their leaders were ethnically Lithuanian.

In 1935, Smetona suffered a blow when farmers in south-east Lithuania organised a strike and refused to sell their products. Reprisals led to five deaths and 456 farmers being arrested. This exacerbated long-standing tensions within his regime between hardliners arguing for more rigid authoritarian control over Lithuanian life, and moderates who wanted liberalisation. These difficulties, however, were already becoming overshadowed by the threat of Nazi Germany. Smetona's regime was the first in Europe to put Nazis on trial: as early as 8 February 1934, action was taken against Nazis in the Memel region, which was autonomous within Lithuania. The Smetona regime trial of Ernst Neumann and Freiherr von Sass (July 1934 to March 1935) was the first attempt anywhere to bring Nazis to justice, and saw 76 Hitlerites imprisoned and four sentenced to death – though this was commuted to life imprisonment. By 1938, however, Memel was becoming a difficult issue for a regime spending a quarter of its budget on defence and expensive army modernisation, and the Nazis were able to win 26 of 29 seats in elections. The following year, Smetona surrendered Memel to Hitler and declared a state of emergency – he never lost his distaste for Hitler and Nazism, having been so discredited by the loss of Memel that members of the Lithuanian political opposition were appointed to his cabinet to try recovering credibility and domestic stability.

Smetona's government was cautious about industrialisation, as its support base lay in the dominant rural population. As dictator, Smetona did nothing to encourage direct foreign investment, which remained extremely limited throughout his time in office. Nonetheless, during Smetona's dictatorship, Lithuania did advance economically: industrial output – mainly directed to domestic demand – when he was overthrown by the Soviet invasion was twice what it had been before the coup that brought him to power, and the country's transport network had been greatly improved by the construction of railways from Šiauliai to Klaipėda and from Kaunas to the south and north-east. In contrast, Smetona was more generous in support for the agricultural sector, which at the time provided almost all of Lithuania's exports despite occasionally protesting against the regime.

Soviet occupation
Lithuania was occupied by the Soviets in 1940 as a consequence of the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. After the USSR presented an ultimatum to Lithuania in June of that year, Smetona proposed armed resistance against the Soviets. but most of the government and army commanders believed that the country was not capable of effective resistance with Soviet troops stationed inside Lithuania. On 15 June, Smetona turned his presidential duties over to Prime Minister Antanas Merkys on an interim basis, according to the constitution. Before leaving the presidential palace, Smetona said: "I do not want to make Lithuania a bolshevik country with my own hands." He believed that by leaving the country, he would be in a position to do more for the country by leading a government in exile rather than become a Soviet puppet. He firstly fled to Germany with his family. Shortly afterwards, the Smetonas fled to Switzerland.

A day after Smetona left the country, Merkys announced that he had deposed him and was now president himself. Two days later, Merkys was pressured into appointing the more pliant Justas Paleckis as prime minister and resigning. Paleckis then became acting president, and was used as a puppet to oversee the final stages of Lithuania's incorporation into the Soviet Union a month later.

Since Lithuania declared independence from the Soviet Union in 1990, it has taken the position that Merkys' takeover of the presidency was illegal and unconstitutional, since Smetona never formally resigned. Lithuania thus does not recognize Merkys or Paleckis as legitimate presidents, and contends that all subsequent actions leading up to the Soviet annexation were ipso facto void.

Flight abroad
On the morning of 15 June, just after the government decided to accept the Soviet ultimatum, Smetona made hasty preparations to flee the country. He was accompanied by his wife, his son and daughter and their spouses and children, Kazys Musteikis, former minister of defense, and two presidential adjutants. Smetona departed Kaunas at about 3 pm that day. They stopped in Kybartai on the border with Nazi Germany. Smetona and Musteikis attempted to summon the 9th Infantry Regiment from Marijampolė to protect them and to offer at least symbolic resistance to the Red Army, but the regiment was stopped by a delegation sent from Kaunas to retrieve the president. Smetona decided to cross the border without delay, but Lithuanian border guards would not allow him to pass. Around midnight, a local man led Smetona, his bodyguard and adjutant across the shallow Liepona stream. With Smetona already on the other side, his family managed to convince border guards to let them through at about 6 am.

On the German side, Smetona was met by, a Gestapo officer. Via Königsberg, the refugees were moved to a hunting lodge near the (Schwenzait) lake in the Masurian Lake District. On 17 August, Smetona received permission to relocate to Berlin, where he settled on the. There, he was carefully supervised and allowed to communicate only with Lithuanian representative, Kazys Škirpa. The Germans did not allow him to make any political moves so as not to upset the Soviet Union. It was clear that Smetona's presence was not desirable. On 4 September, Smetona officially petitioned the Embassy of the United States in Berlin for U.S. visas. The request was granted, but only on condition that while Smetona was in the U.S., he would not be considered the leader or representative of any state or government. It was a humiliating condition, but Smetona accepted it and left for Bern, Switzerland on 18 September. Musteikis stayed in Berlin.

In Bern, Smetona met with members of the Lithuanian Diplomatic Service, ambassadors and diplomats who continued to represent pre-occupation Lithuania. They hoped to establish a government-in-exile via the National Committee chaired by former prime minister Ernestas Galvanauskas. Smetona saw no need for such a committee and criticized the choice of Galvanauskas. The diplomats were not receptive to Smetona – he had no funds, authority or political influence. Nevertheless, Smetona signed the so-called Kybartai Act – a backdated document supposedly written in Kybartai before his exile. The Act dismissed Antanas Merkys and appointed Stasys Lozoraitis as both prime minister and acting president. This controversial document was never used in practice.

Smetona departed Bern for Lisbon in January 1941. He stayed in Monte Estoril at the Pensão Zenith. He left for Brazil aboard the Serpa Pinto, arriving in Rio de Janeiro on 14 February. He was met by local officials and Lithuanian emigrants, and had a meeting with Getúlio Vargas, the president of Brazil. Smetona departed Brazil on 26 February. On 9 or 10 March 1941, Smetona and his wife arrived in New York on the SS Argentina. He was greeted by about 30 American journalists and photographers as well as Lithuanian-American representatives. He was escorted to The Pierre hotel, where an evening function with about 400 guests was held on 13 March. Since Smetona was a private individual in the United States, the gathering did not include any members of U.S. organizations.

They lived temporarily at the Embassy of Lithuania in Washington, D.C., but their relationship with representative Povilas Žadeikis was tense. Smetona then lived in Pittsburgh and Chicago before settling in Cleveland, Ohio in May 1942 with his son's family. While in exile, he began work on a history of Lithuania and on his memoirs.

Death and burial
As Smetona was busy on his writing, he paid little attention to the fact that the heating system in his son's house needed repair and was becoming dangerous. On October 28, 1943, Smetona wrote: "The night before yesterday coal fumes made me dizzy. I could not think clearly. Now I have completely recovered."On January 9, 1944, a fire broke out in the house. Smetona's son Julius noticed the fire while on the first floor. Above him, in the attic suite, Smetona and his wife Sofija spotted the smoke seeping in under the door. Sofija opened the door and she and Smetona began descending the stairs. Smetona, apparently decided that he could not go outside without a coat – he was recovering from the flu and was to give a talk in the coming weeks – and without saying anything to his wife, returned to get his fur coat. It took just a few minutes for him to be overcome by the smoke. Julius tried to return into the burning building to save his father but was forced out by the smoke and fire. Smetona was found lying on the kitchen floor on the second floor of Julius' flat. He was not burned.

Firefighters took Smetona outside and he was rushed to hospital by ambulance. He died before arriving.

The official record said that the fire was caused by an overheated furnace. Some believe, however, that due to Smetona's continued political activities, the fire was started by the Russian Intelligence Service (called the NKGB at the time). With no evidence turning up in the subsequent years to substantiate that claim, it is, however, doubtful.

On January 13, 1944, the funeral of President Smetona took place at Cleveland's Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist. Bishop Edward F. Hoban officiated. Smetona was buried at Calvary Cemetery in Cleveland.

His wife Sofija died in Cleveland on December 28, 1968.

The couple were survived by their daughter, Marija Danutė Smetonaitė (1905–1992), son Julius Rimgaudas Smetona (1913–1974) and Julius' sons, Anthony Algirdas Smetona (1939–2012), Juozas Smetona (1940–1996) and Vytautas Julius Smetona (born 1955).

In 1975, Smetona's remains were moved from Cleveland's Knollwood Cemetery mausoleum to a crypt (No. 103) next to his wife Sofija in All Souls Cemetery in Chardon, Ohio.

title: Antanas Smetona


text:
BBB

BBB may refer to:

Codes

 * bbb, the ISO 639:b language code for Barai
 * BBB, a type of birdshot used in shotgun shells
 * BBB, BBB+, BBB−, investment grade Β bond credit ratings

Film and television

 * Band Baaja Baaraat, a 2010 Bollywood romantic comedy
 * Bakugan Battle Brawlers, an anime series
 * Bear Behaving Badly, a British TV show starring Barney Harwood
 * Beethoven's Big Break, the sixth installment in the Beethoven film series
 * Big Bad Beetleborgs, a 1990s children's TV show
 * Big Brother Brasil, the Brazilian version of the reality show Big Brother
 * Big Buck Bunny, an open-movie produced by the Blender Institute, with open-source tools
 * Britain's Best Bakery, a British daytime cookery show produced by ITV
 * BBB, the production code for the 1970 Doctor Who serial Doctor Who and the Silurians

Medicine

 * Blood–brain barrier, a structure that protects the brain from chemicals in the blood
 * Bundle branch block, refers to a defect of the heart's electrical conduction system

Organisations

 * BBB, Better Business Bureau, a North American organization of businesses supporting consumer rights
 * Bredbandsbolaget, a Swedish ISP
 * Bad Blue Boys, supporters of the Zagreb football club GNK Dinamo Zagreb
 * ΒΒΒ, Beta Beta Beta, an honor society and academic fraternity for higher education students specializing in biology
 * Bed, Bath, and Beyond, a home products store
 * Big Blue Bubble, a gaming company

Politics

 * Biotic Baking Brigade, a loosely connected group of activists known for throwing pies
 * BBB, Bulgarian Business Bloc, a former political party in Bulgaria
 * Blanke Bevrydingsbeweging, a South African white supremacist and Neo-Nazi group
 * Farmer–Citizen Movement (BoerBurgerBeweging), a political party in the Netherlands

Science and technology

 * Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, a scientific journal
 * Bombay Before the British, a Portuguese research project in History of Architecture (2004–2007)
 * BeagleBone Black, a single-board computer

Other

 * Bam Bam Bigelow (1961–2007), the ringname of professional wrestler Scott Bigelow
 * Banat, Bačka and Baranja, a de facto province of the Kingdom of Serbia and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
 * Baseball Boss, a web-based, free online baseball game
 * Beach Blanket Babylon, was the world's longest-running musical revue
 * Big Blue Book, a series of small staple-bound books
 * BigBlueButton, an open source web conferencing system
 * Bikes Blues and BBQ, an annual motorcycle rally in Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States
 * Black Blood Brothers, a light novel series written by Kohei Azano
 * Blood Blockade Battlefront, a manga series written and illustrated by Yasuhiro Nightow
 * Big Baller Brand, LaVar Balls family brand
 * Brown Buttabean, Boxer and Community Worker
 * Build Back Better (disambiguation), any one of several policies
 * Build! Build! Build!, the infrastructure program of the administration of Rodrigo Duterte in the Philippines

Music

 * Three Bs, Bach, Beethoven, and Brahms (sometimes Berlioz), three prominent classical composers
 * Brendan B. Brown, frontman of alternative rock band Wheatus
 * Big Bad Brad, the nickname of Brad Delson of the band Linkin Park
 * Balkan Beat Box, an Israeli Gypsy punk band
 * The Blues Brothers Band
 * The Bollywood Brass Band
 * Bad Boys Blue, a multinational pop group formed in Germany
 * "BBB", a song by the band How to Destroy Angels from their EP How to Destroy Angels
 * B.B.B (EP), a 2014 extended play by Korean girl group Dal Shabet featuring the single "B.B.B (Big Baby Baby)"

title: BBB


text:
Talk:Halls of residence

Naming
It seems that residence hall is much more common than hall of residence (at least outside of the UK). Is this significant disparity due to the large number of colleges in the US? Why not put the article at the most common usage? --Minesweeper 13:08, 12 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Written by a UK author, from a UK link. Do we have policy that as America has more of everything that these sort of pages should be moved to their American names? Secretlondon 13:15, Dec 12, 2003 (UTC)

 * Our policy is to use common names. It doesn't have to do with politics. --Jiang | Talk 21:51, 12 Dec 2003 (UTC)

"residence hall" is the overwhelming winner:. --Jiang | Talk 05:11, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Please use the "move this page" function. "So what" is not an argument against the move. --Jiang | Talk 08:09, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Pigsonthewing, stop moving this page without discussing. Please state here on this page why you think this page should be an expecption to current WP policy. --Jiang | Talk 08:19, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * "Pigsonthewing, stop moving this page without discussing" Aside from the fact that that's just what you've been doing; who are you to give orders? I'm not suggesting that this page should be an exception; it should adhere to current policy. Andy Mabbett 20:13, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * You cannot hijack the page history and claim the work for your own. That's plagarism. If you move, you need to move using the "move this page" function. I would not be engaging in a copy and past war with you if you bothered to move the page using the proper mechanisms. This kind of moving can never be tolerated. How does the title you prefer adhere to current policy? Cite it. --Jiang | Talk 20:21, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

One is the common name in the UK, one is the common name in the US. As there is more of the US the US will win on a google count. Secretlondon 20:14, Dec 13, 2003 (UTC)

 * How about the entire British commonwealth? There are more countries than the US and UK. What do they use in Canada? --Jiang | Talk 20:21, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * They use 'residence hall' in Canada, 'hall of residence' in India and Australia, and New Zealand. In .de, 'hall of residence' is also the more common term, slightly. (but that's not english speaking).  I think by that 'hall of residence' should win - it seems to be North America vs everyone else. Morwen 12:55, Dec 14, 2003 (UTC)

 * Also, note that many of the hits for 'residence hall' are as names of halls. In the UK, at least in my experience, they tend to rarely use 'Hall of Residence' as part of a name. My halls were 'Montefiore House'.  I think this needs to be taken into account. Morwen 12:59, Dec 14, 2003 (UTC)

Yes, my point - American uses are not common by default. But they dont usually put hall of residence as part of a name in the US either (e.g. Roble Hall, Lagunita Hall at Stanford, and Bowles Hall, Stern Hall, Foohill Student Housing here at Berkeley). Scroll to the bottom and you'll see the word "residence" is ommitted here too:. The 2, 5, 6, 7, 9 th links on a google search use 'hall of residence' as part of a name, compared with only one link (the first) for 'residence hall.' --Jiang | Talk 13:11, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * So, what weight of evidence that this is the term used in the rest of the commonwealth, do you need to agree to keeping this page were it was originally created? Was my summary enough or do you want figures? Morwen 23:34, Dec 14, 2003 (UTC)

We're talking about which one is more common - so what is the number of students in countries that use 'hall of residence' than the number of students in countries that use 'residence hall'? We'll just take English-speaking countries into account since only people fluent in English would be expected to look up stuff in this encyclopedia. --Jiang | Talk 02:21, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

A google search only prooves that there are more web pages on American universities than in the rest of the world. what a surprise. Please don't use google as an ultimate guide to life the universe and everything. Mintguy

 * We just call them "residences," at least at UWO. Most are "X Hall," but some are "House" and sometimes "Court," but they are just residences to me. Adam Bishop 02:40, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Then what do you suggest we use? --Jiang | Talk

 * And you if you're moving it, move it to the singular form, not the plural. --Jiang | Talk 02:51, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Perhaps it would be best to merge with dormitory. Dysprosia 03:00, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Halls is correct. FWIW in a straight comparison between "halls of residence" and "hall of residence" on Google, Halls wins by 5:1. People refer to "staying in halls" not "staying in the hall". It's like trousers vs trouser. Mintguy 03:07, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Firstly, in British English, halls of residence are not the same as dormitories. Secondly, halls of residence is far more common usage than hall of residence. Finally, this isn't about common usage. It's about American v. British usage. According to Google, rappel is far more common than Abseil, but the article is at abseil because it that is where the original author decided to put it. The same applies to all the pages listed at Articles using British English titles. You can't go round changing BE usage to AE usage in titles any more than you can of spelling within articles. Angela. 03:15, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Well, I would say "staying in residence"...our residences are virtually never referred to as "halls" at all, they are usually called by some shortened form of their name, or just as "res" or "residence." Adam Bishop 03:17, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

My understanding is that the discussion was about wether or not to merge with dormatory. There is a distinction in the applied defininations of the two words as dormatories function with little or no student support functions housed within the building and residence halls commonly have a staff of both students and professionals that follow and educational curriculum of sorts. It is my opinion to keep to seperate definations. As for the debate surrounding the difference between halls of residence and residence halls, colleges and unversities function very differently in different countries and therefore I think two different entries explaining how the different systems function but linking to the others would be most appropriate.-- 3 July 2005 04:59 (UTC)

For users of British English, dormitory has a different connotation - lets keep the distinctions clear. As for 'hall' vs 'halls': there has been an increase in the use of the latter over the last 20 years, in the University of Nottingham, but I still hear both "I am living in hall this year" and the less logical "I am living in halls this year". Ian

Sharing
At my university's (University of Southampton) halls; there was no sharing at all that I was aware of. Perhaps this is another regional thing? Morwen 14:17, Dec 20, 2003 (UTC)

Some
"being an unknown, undetermined, or unspecified unit or thing; being one, a part, or an unspecified number of something; being at least one -- used to indicate that a logical proposition is asserted only of a subclass or certain members of the class denoted by the term which it modifies ". Besides which, no evidence has been offered that "many" have shared rooms. In my experience (which I'm not claiming as exhaustive; unlike, it seems, others), only a couple of very many hals have had a very small number of shared rooms. Andy Mabbett 14:19, 20 Dec 2003 (UTC)

British usage
Halls of residence or halls in British english usage refers predominantly to a student accommodation block. The likelihood (although not always the case) is that this would have individual rooms, although may well have shared kitchen or bathroom facilities. To my mind, that differs from the US usage of the term dormitory, although perhaps someone will correct me if I'm wrong. I've updated the article, and removed the proposed merge template since the discussion has gone on some time and no consensus has been reached. └UkPaolo/TALK┐ 10:32, 14 December 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Halls of residence


text:
Hydroxylation

In chemistry, hydroxylation can refer to:
 * (i) most commonly, hydroxylation describes a chemical process that introduces a hydroxyl group (\sOH) into an organic compound.
 * (ii) the degree of hydroxylation refers to the number of OH groups in a molecule. The pattern of hydroxylation refers to the location of hydroxy groups on a molecule or material.

Synthetic hydroxylations
Installing hydroxyl groups into organic compounds can be affected by various metal catalysts. Many such catalysts are biomimetic, i.e. they are inspired by or intended to mimic enzymes such as cytochrome P450.

Whereas many hydroxylations insert O atoms into C\sH bonds, some reactions add OH groups to unsaturated substrates. The Sharpless dihydroxylation is such a reaction: it converts alkenes into diols. The hydroxy groups are provided by hydrogen peroxide, which adds across the double bond of alkenes.

Biological hydroxylation
In biochemistry, hydroxylation reactions are often facilitated by enzymes called hydroxylases. A C\sH bond is converted to an alcohol by insertion of an oxygen atom into a C\sH bond. Typical stoichiometries for the hydroxylation of a generic hydrocarbon are these:

Since O2 itself is a slow and unselective hydroxylating agent, catalysts are required to accelerate the pace of the process and to introduce selectivity.

Hydroxylation is often the first step in the degradation of organic compounds in air. Hydroxylation is important in detoxification since it converts lipophilic compounds into water-soluble (hydrophilic) products that are more readily removed by the kidneys or liver and excreted. Some drugs (for example, steroids) are activated or deactivated by hydroxylation.

The principal hydroxylation agent in nature is cytochrome P-450, hundreds of variations of which are known. Other hydroxylating agents include flavins, alpha-ketoglutarate-dependent hydroxylases (2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases), and some diiron hydroxylases.

Of proteins
The hydroxylation of proteins occurs as a post-translational modification, and is catalyzed by 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases. When molecules are hydroxylated, they become more water‐soluble, which affects their structure and function. It can take place on several amino acids, like lysine, asparagine, aspartate and histidine, but the most frequently hydroxylated amino acid residue in human proteins is proline. This is due to the fact that collagen makes up about 25–35% of the protein in our bodies and contains a hydroxyproline at almost every 3rd residue in its amino acid sequence. Collagen consists of both 3‐hydroxyproline and 4‐hydroxyproline residues. Hydroxylation occurs at the γ-C atom, forming hydroxyproline (Hyp), which stabilizes the secondary structure of collagen due to the strong electronegative effects of oxygen. Proline hydroxylation is also a vital component of hypoxia response via hypoxia inducible factors. In some cases, proline may be hydroxylated instead on its β-C atom. Lysine may also be hydroxylated on its δ-C atom, forming hydroxylysine (Hyl).

These three reactions are catalyzed by very large, multi-subunit enzymes prolyl 4-hydroxylase, prolyl 3-hydroxylase and lysyl 5-hydroxylase, respectively. These reactions require iron (as well as molecular oxygen and α-ketoglutarate) to carry out the oxidation, and use ascorbic acid (vitamin C) to return the iron to its reduced state. Deprivation of ascorbate leads to deficiencies in proline hydroxylation, which leads to less stable collagen, which can manifest itself as the disease scurvy. Since citrus fruits are rich in vitamin C, British sailors were given limes to combat scurvy on long ocean voyages; hence, they were called "limeys".

Several endogenous proteins contain hydroxyphenylalanine and hydroxytyrosine residues. These residues are formed due to the hydroxylation of phenylalanine and tyrosine, a process in which the hydroxylation converts phenylalanine residues into tyrosine residues. This is very important in living organisms to help them control excess amounts of phenylalanine residues. Hydroxylation of tyrosine residues is also very vital in living organisms because hydroxylation at C-3 of tyrosine creates 3,4- dihydroxy phenylalanine (DOPA), which is a precursor to hormones and can be converted into dopamine.

Examples

 * 17α-Hydroxylase
 * Cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase
 * Dopamine β-hydroxylase
 * Phenylalanine hydroxylase
 * Tyrosine hydroxylase
 * One example of non-biological hydroxylation is the hydrogen peroxide hydroxylation of phenol to form hydroquinone.

title: Hydroxylation


text:
Chairman of the Board (disambiguation)

A chairperson of the board (or chair, chairman, or chairwoman) is a seat of office in an organization, especially of corporations.

Chairman of the board may also refer to:

 * Chairman of the Board (film), a 1998 film
 * Chairmen of the Board, a 1970s American soul music group
 * The Chairmen of the Board (album), their debut album
 * Chairman of the Board (album), a 1959 album by Count Basie
 * Chairmen of the Bored, 2008 crunk album by Lord T & Eloise
 * Chairman of the Board (single), a 2000 single by Australia band Motor Ace

Nicknames

 * Frank Sinatra (1915–1998), frequently referred to as "The Chairman of the Board" (of Reprise Records)
 * Whitey Ford (1928–2020), nicknamed "Chairman of the Board"
 * Eamonn Coghlan (born 1952), nicknamed "Chairman of the Boards" (note the plural) because of his prowess in the indoor mile run
 * Moses Malone (1955–2015), occasionally referred to as "The Chairman of the Boards" for his on-court dominance and rebounding prowess during his tenure in the NBA
 * David Miscavige (born 1960), frequently referred to by Scientologists as "Chairman of the Board" (or "COB"), his official title, rather than by name
 * Page McConnell (born 1963), frequently referred to as "Chairman of the Boards"
 * Vince McMahon (born 1945), frequently introduced as "The Chairman of the Board"

title: Chairman of the Board (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:Ying Nianzi

英斂之 should be pronounced 'Ying Lianzhi' (in Pinyin) in 'standard' Mandarin. I suspect that the title for this article was (mis)chosen by the Hong Kong person who had slightly 'deviated' pronunciation. Sadly it is neither Cantonese nor Mandarin. --Kaihsu Tai 13:17, 2003 Dec 12 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ying Nianzi


text:
14th (Light) Division

The 14th (Light) Division was an infantry division of the British Army, one of the Kitchener's Army divisions raised from volunteers by Lord Kitchener during the First World War. All of its infantry regiments were originally of the fast marching rifle or light infantry regiments, hence the title "Light". It fought on the Western Front for the duration of the First World War. The division was disbanded by March 1919, and was not reformed in the Second World War.

Order of battle
The division comprised the following infantry brigades, which underwent major changes between February 1918 (the Army's brigade reorganisation from 4 to 3 infantry battalions) and June 1918 (rebuilt after the losses of the German spring offensive).

 * 41st Brigade:
 * Before June 1918
 * 7th Battalion, The King's Royal Rifle Corps (left February 1918)
 * 8th Battalion, The King's Royal Rifle Corps
 * 7th Battalion, The Rifle Brigade (Prince Consort's Own)
 * 8th Battalion, The Rifle Brigade (Prince Consort's Own)
 * 41st Machine Gun Company (joined February 1916, left to move into 14th MG Battalion March 1918)
 * 41st Trench Mortar Battery (joined May 1916)
 * After June 1918
 * 18th Battalion, The York and Lancaster Regiment
 * 29th Battalion, The Durham Light Infantry
 * 33rd Battalion, The London Regiment (Rifle Brigade)
 * 41st Trench Mortar Battery
 * 42nd Brigade :
 * Before June 1918
 * 5th Battalion, The Oxford and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry
 * 5th Battalion, The King's (Shropshire Light Infantry) (disbanded February 1918)
 * 9th Battalion, The King's Royal Rifle Corps
 * 9th Battalion, The Rifle Brigade (Prince Consort's Own)
 * 42nd Machine Gun Company (joined February 1916, left to move into 14th MG Battalion March 1918)
 * 42nd Trench Mortar Battery (joined April 1916)
 * After June 1918
 * 6th (Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry) Battalion, the Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry
 * 16th Battalion, The Manchester Regiment (1st City)
 * 14th Battalion, Princess Louise's (Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders)
 * 42nd Trench Mortar Battery
 * 43rd Brigade :
 * Before June 1918
 * 6th Battalion, The Somerset Light Infantry (Prince Albert's)
 * 6th Battalion, The Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry (disbanded February 1918)
 * 6th Battalion, The King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry (disbanded February 1918)
 * 10th Battalion, The Durham Light Infantry (disbanded February 1918)
 * 9th Battalion, The Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) (joined February 1918, left April)
 * 7th Battalion, The King's Royal Rifle Corps (joined February 1918)
 * 43rd Machine Gun Company (joined February 1916, left to move into 16th MG Battalion March 1918)
 * 43rd Trench Mortar Battery (joined April 1916)
 * After June 1918
 * 12th Battalion, The Suffolk Regiment (East Anglia)
 * 20th Battalion, The Duke of Cambridge's Own (Middlesex Regiment)
 * 10th Battalion, The Highland Light Infantry
 * 43rd Trench Mortar Battery

 * Divisional Troops :
 * 11th Battalion The King's Regiment (Liverpool) (pioneers) (left June 1918)
 * 15th Battalion The Loyal Regiment (North Lancashire) (pioneers) (joined June 1918)
 * 249th Machine Gun Company (joined July 1917, left October 1917)
 * 224th Machine Gun Company (joined November 1917, left to move into 14th MG Battalion March 1918')
 * 14th Battalion Machine Gun Corps (formed March 1918)
 * 14th Divisional Train ASC (100, 101, 102 and 103 Companies)
 * 26th Mobile Veterinary Section AVC
 * 215th Divisional Employment Company, Labour Corps (joined June 1917)

Artillery
 * XLVI Brigade RFA
 * XLVII Brigade RFA
 * XLVIII Brigade RFA (left January 1917)
 * XLIX (Howitzer) Brigade, RFA (broken up October 1916)
 * V.14 Heavy Trench Mortar Battery RFA (joined July 1916, left January 1918)
 * X.14, Y.14 and Z.14 Medium Mortar Batteries RFA (formed March 1916; Z broken up February 1918, redistributed to X and Y)
 * 14th Heavy Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery (left 8 June 1915)

Engineers
 * 61st, 62nd and 89th Field Companies
 * 14th Divisional Signals Company

Royal Army Medical Corps
 * 42nd, 43rd and 44th Field Ambulances
 * 25th Sanitary Section (left April 1917)

Battles
Second Battle of Ypres Battle of the Somme Battle of Arras (1917) Third Battle of Ypres First Battles of the Somme 1918 Hundred Days Offensive
 * Hooge (German Liquid Fire Attack) – 30 and 31 July 1915
 * Second Attack on Bellewaarde – 25 September 1915
 * Battle of Delville Wood – August – September 1916
 * Battle of Flers-Courcelette – September 1916
 * The First Battle of the Scarpe – 9–14 April 1917
 * The Third Battle of the Scarpe – 3–4 May 1917
 * The Battle of Langemark – 22–27 August 1917
 * The First Battle of Passchendaele October 1917
 * The Second Battle of Passchendaele November 1917
 * The Battle of St Quentin – 23–25 March 1918
 * The Battle of the Avre – 4 April 1918
 * The Battle of Ypres 1918
 * The advance in Flanders

Commander

 * Major-General Thomas Morland (7 September – 17 October 1914)
 * Brigadier-General Francis Alexander Fortescue (17–22 October 1914) acting
 * Major-General General Victor Arthur Couper (22 October – 30 December 1914)
 * Brigadier-General Francis Alexander Fortescue (30 December 1914 – 3 January 1915) acting
 * Major-General Victor Arthur Couper (3 January 1915 – 22 March 1918)
 * Major-General Walter Howarth Greenly (22–27 March 1918)
 * Major-General Sir Victor Arthur Couper (27–31 March 1918)
 * Major-General Percy Cyriac Burrell Skinner (31 March 1918)

title: 14th (Light) Division


text:
List of political parties in Antigua and Barbuda

This article lists political parties in Antigua and Barbuda. Antigua and Barbuda has a two-party system, which means that there are two dominant political parties, with extreme difficulty for anybody to achieve electoral success under the banner of any other party.

Other parties

 * Missing Link (Voice of the People)

Former parties

 * Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement
 * Barbuda Independence Movement
 * New Barbuda Development Movement
 * Progressive Labour Movement
 * United National Democratic Party
 * Barbuda People's Movement for Change
 * Barbudans for a Better Barbuda
 * Democratic People's Party
 * First Christian Democratic Party
 * National Labour Party
 * National Movement for Change
 * National Reform Movement
 * Organisation for National Development