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Drew Pearson (journalist)

Andrew Russell Pearson (December 13, 1897 – September 1, 1969) was an American columnist, noted for his syndicated newspaper column "Washington Merry-Go-Round". He also had a program on NBC Radio titled Drew Pearson Comments. He was known for his approach towards high-level politicians, such as senators, cabinet members, generals and American presidents.

Early life and career
Pearson was born in Evanston, Illinois, to Quaker parents Paul Martin Pearson, an English professor at Northwestern University, and Edna Rachel Wolfe Pearson. When Pearson was 6 years old, his father joined the faculty of Swarthmore College as professor of public speaking, and the family moved to Pennsylvania, joining the Society of Friends, with which the college was then affiliated. After being educated at Phillips Exeter Academy, Pearson attended Swarthmore from 1915 until 1919, where he edited its student newspaper, The Phoenix.

From 1919 to 1921, Pearson served with the American Friends Service Committee, directing postwar rebuilding operations in Peć, which at that time was part of Serbia. From 1921 to 1922, he lectured in geography at the University of Pennsylvania.

In 1923 Pearson traveled to Japan, China, New Zealand, Australia, India, and Serbia, and persuaded several newspapers to buy articles about his travels. He was also commissioned by the American "Around the World Syndicate" to produce a set of interviews entitled "Europe's Twelve Greatest Men".

In 1924, he taught industrial geography at Columbia University.

From 1925 to 1928, Pearson continued reporting on international events, including strikes in China, the Geneva Naval Conference, the Pan-American Conference in Havana, and the signing of the Kellogg-Briand Pact in Paris.

In 1929 he became the Washington correspondent for The Baltimore Sun. However, in 1931 and 1932, with Robert S. Allen, he anonymously published a book called Washington Merry-Go-Round and its sequel. When the Sun discovered Pearson had co-authored these books, he was promptly fired. Late in 1932, Pearson and Allen secured a contract with the Scripps–Howard syndicate, United Features, to syndicate a column called "Washington Merry-Go-Round". It first appeared in Eleanor "Cissy" Patterson's Washington Herald on November 17, 1932. But as World War II escalated in Europe, Pearson's strong support of Franklin D. Roosevelt, in opposition to Patterson and the Herald isolationist position, led to an acrimonious termination of Pearson's and Allen's contract with the Herald. In 1941 The Washington Post picked up the contract for the "Washington Merry-Go-Round".

Radio, film, and other media
From 1935 to 1936, Allen and Pearson broadcast a 15-minute program twice a week on the Mutual Broadcasting System. They continued with a 30-minute music and news show, Listen America, in 1939–1940, ending this partnership in 1941. They also wrote a comic strip, Hap Hopper, Washington Correspondent, which was drawn from 1939 to 1943 by Jack Sparling, and from 1943 onward by Al Plastino.

Pearson continued alone on NBC with Drew Pearson Comments from 1941 to 1953 for a variety of sponsors (Serutan, Nutrex, Lee Hats, Adam Hats). His commentary was broadcast through 1968 on the now-defunct Intermountain Network.

In addition to radio, Pearson appeared in a number of Hollywood movies, such as RKO's 1945 propaganda movie Betrayal from the East, and the 1951 science fiction film The Day the Earth Stood Still. In the former movie, Pearson referred to an exposé that accused Japanese Americans of being part of a Japanese conspiracy to engage in acts of espionage and terrorism. The movie was based on the 1943 best-selling book Betrayal from the East: The Inside Story of Japanese Spies in America by Alan Hynd. In the latter film, Pearson (playing himself) is the only journalist who urges calm and restraint (versus the fear and paranoia evoked by his colleagues) while Washington is panicked by the escape of the alien visitor Klaatu. Furthermore, Pearson appeared as himself in City Across the River (1949).

In 1952 and 1953, Pearson hosted The Drew Pearson Show on the ABC and DuMont Television networks.

On a January 8, 1950, broadcast of CBS Radio's The Jack Benny Program, Pearson was at the center of a notorious joke. Announcer Don Wilson was to say he heard Jack had bought a new suit on Drew Pearson's program, but misspoke Pearson's name: "Drear Pooson". Later in the show, comedic actor Frank Nelson was asked by Benny if he was the doorman. Nelson replied with a line surreptitiously given him by the show's writers, "Who do you think I am? Drear Pooson?"

"Washington Merry-Go-Round"
The "Merry-Go-Round" column started as a result of Pearson's anonymous publication in 1931 of the book, Washington Merry-Go-Round, co-written with Robert Allen, the Washington bureau chief for The Christian Science Monitor. The book was a collection of muckraking news items concerning key figures in public life that challenged the journalistic code of the day. In 1932 it was followed by a second book, More Merry-Go-Round. Although they were exposed as the publishers and forced to resign their positions, their books were successful enough so that Pearson and Allen could become co-authors of the syndicated column, the "Merry-Go-Round", that same year. Also in 1932, the original book was made into a film of the same name by Columbia Pictures, directed by James Cruze, and starring Lee Tracy and Constance Cummings.

According to his one-time partner, Jack Anderson, Pearson saw journalism as a means to challenge those he thought to be working against the public interest. He himself had the reputation of a person who put principles over profit. Refusing to carry libel insurance or gain the support of his syndicate to finance libel judgments against him, Pearson's journalism resulted in more than 120 libel actions against him. However, he only had to pay a settlement in one legal case.

During World War II, Pearson's column not only revealed embarrassing news items, but expanded to criticize the Roosevelt administration's conduct of the war, in particular U.S. foreign policy regarding Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union. As a supporter of the Soviet Union's struggle against Nazi Germany, Pearson demanded that the Allied Command create a second front in Europe in 1943 to assist the Soviets. When Pearson's demands were not met, he began to openly criticize Secretary of State Cordell Hull, James Dunn, and other State Department officials, whom Pearson accused of hating Soviet Russia. After one of Pearson's more virulent columns accused Secretary of State Hull and his deputies of a conscious policy to "bleed Russia white", President Roosevelt convened a press conference in which he angrily accused Pearson of printing statements that were a lie "from beginning to end", jeopardizing United Nations unity, and committing an act of bad faith towards his own nation. The president concluded his statement by calling Pearson "a chronic liar".

Pearson was the first to report the 1943 incident of General George S. Patton's slapping soldier Charles Kuhl. It was the first of two slapping-incidents, when General Patton, who denied the existence of combat stress reaction, struck and badly abused soldiers whom he had encountered during their evaluation at military field hospitals. Allied Headquarters denied that Patton had received either an official reprimand or removal from field command, but confirmed that Patton had slapped a soldier with his gloves. Demands for Patton to be recalled and sent home soon arose in Congress as well as in newspaper articles and editorials across the country. However, public opinion was largely favorable to Patton. While Patton was later reassigned and his career advancement slowed, he was not relieved, but continued to serve in the European theater, where he would later command the U.S. Third Army. Pearson's broadcast and subsequent article on Patton's alleged behavior sufficiently raised the suspicions of Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson that he requested Army General Joseph T. McNarney to "put an inspector on the War Department to see who has been leaking out information. Pearson's articles are about three-quarters false but there's just a germ of truth in them that someone must have given him."

After Pearson reported that General Douglas MacArthur was actively campaigning for his own promotion, MacArthur sued Pearson for defamation, but dropped the suit after Pearson threatened to publish love letters from MacArthur to his Eurasian paramour, Isabel Rosario Cooper.

Post-war investigations
In February 1946, Pearson revealed the existence of a Canadian ring of Soviet spies who had given away secret information about the atomic bomb, and he hinted that the espionage scandal might extend to the U.S. as well. The U.S. government had kept the news secret for several months until Pearson broke the story in a series of radio broadcasts. It is possible that he was tipped off by a government official who wanted to turn U.S. public opinion against the Soviet Union, possibly even FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, according to historian Amy Knight.

Pearson also played a role in the downfall of New Jersey Congressman John Parnell Thomas, Chairman of the House Committee on Un-American Activities, in 1948. After revelations in Pearson's column, Thomas was investigated and later convicted of conspiracy to defraud the U.S. government for hiring friends who never worked for him, then depositing their paychecks into his personal accounts. Pearson was a staunch opponent of the actions of Senator Joseph McCarthy and other attempts by Congress to investigate Soviet and communist influence in government and the media, and he eagerly denounced the allegations by Senator McCarthy and the House Committee.

In May 1948, Pearson was among the journalists who reported on the business problems of Preston Tucker and his Tucker Corporation. A former policeman during the Prohibition era, Tucker was a self-made car-designer and businessman. Struggling to finance his high-flying plans in the design and safety of his cars, he had attempted "to raise money through unconventional means, including selling dealership rights for a car that didn't exist yet." When the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and Justice Department started to investigate the case in 1947, his first annual report, which he initially had refused to produce, resulted in a deficit of $ 5,651,208. Tucker took the news of the latest investigation to the newspapers, publishing full-page ads that read: "My associates and myself and the Tucker Corp. have been investigated time & again . . . Now once more we are being investigated." Although he was acquitted of fraud charges, Tucker's firm went bankrupt in 1950.

James Forrestal
Journalists, such as Drew Pearson and Walter Winchell, were criticized for their continuing critical reports about the treatment of US Secretary of Defense James V. Forrestal. Forrestal, whom President Harry S. Truman had forced to resign, had committed suicide during his stay at the psychiatric clinic of the U. S. Naval Hospital, Bethesda, Maryland. The suicide was followed by an investigation, that was intended to clarify controversial aspects of his medical care. Forrestal who had told his doctors about an earlier episode when he had tried to take his life, had been treated with Sodium amythal. After several weeks with this treatment, an insulin shock therapy followed. Both therapies resulted in strong overreactions: "From that time on he was carried with ten units of insulin before breakfast and another ten units before lunch with extra feedings in the afternoon and evening". His sleeplessness was treated with sedatives. In the course of the investigation, Forrestal's doctors had to explain, why the chief of psychiatrists who had been in charge of the patient, had been out of house at the time of his suicide, and why most of the patient's restrictments had been relieved. Other questions dealt with the fact, that a patient with a high risk of suicide had been placed in a room at the sixteenth floor of the tower of this hospital. The chief of psychiatrists came up with a colleague's concern "that the widespread publicity might in some way reflect upon the excellence of Navy psychiatry unless there is full understanding by everyone of necessary risks and hazards which must be faced courageously in the management of such a medical problem." His diagnosis was that Forrestal had been outworked due to his difficult professional obligations, and that he had suffered from his loss of office. Asking for a second opportunity to elaborate further his summary of what might have happened the night of the suicide, he only now hinted to a possible negative effect of some media reports on the mood of his patient. The investigation finally cleared the US Naval Hospital and its staff from suspicions and stated that its doctors and wards weren't responsible for Forrestal's death.

Speaking out against Senator McCarthy
In 1950, Pearson began the first of a series of columns attacking Senator Joseph McCarthy after McCarthy declared that he had a list of 205 people in the State Department who were members of the American Communist Party. Ironically, Pearson, through his associate Jack Anderson, had been using McCarthy as a confidential source for information on other politicians. Pearson used McCarthy's revelations in his columns with one exception – material on suspected Communists working in the U.S. government that McCarthy and his staff had uncovered. Over the next two months McCarthy made seven Senate speeches on Drew Pearson, calling for a "patriotic boycott" of his radio show which cost Pearson the sponsor of his program. Twelve newspapers also cancelled their contracts with Pearson.

In response, Senator McCarthy referred to Pearson's one-time assistant David Karr, born Katz, as "Pearson's 'KGB controller' and charged that 'Pearson's all-important job, which he did for the Party without fail, under the direction of David Karr, was to lead the character assassination of an man who was a threat to international communism. Karr had been exposed by the House Un-American Activities Committee in 1943 as having worked for two years on the staff of the Communist newspaper The Daily Worker. In response, Pearson claimed that Karr had only joined the Daily Worker because he had wanted to get into baseball games for free. Karr ostensibly covered home Yankee games for the Daily Worker, a paper not known for its sports readership, but his other activities remained unknown at the time. Years later, however, the release of the FBI's Venona decrypt of June 1944 revealed that Karr was an informational source for the NKVD. Another member of Pearson's staff, Andrew Older, along with his wife, was identified in 1951 as a Communist Party member in testimony before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee. Older's sister, Julia Older, was also suspected of having spied for the Soviet Union.

In December 1950 McCarthy and Pearson were involved in a physical altercation at the Sulgrave Club in Washington, D.C. Pearson later sued McCarthy for injuries he allegedly suffered in the altercation, which Pearson stated resulted from being "grabbed by the neck and kicked in the groin." The following month, McCarthy delivered a speech in the Senate in which he referred to Pearson as a "communist tool".

In October, 1953, Senator McCarthy began investigating communist infiltration into the military. McCarthy's attempts to discredit Robert Stevens, the Secretary of the Army, infuriated President Dwight Eisenhower, who instructed the Department of the Army to release information detrimental to McCarthy to journalists who were known to be opposed to him. On December 15, 1952, Pearson, working with Eisenhower's staff, published a column using the information on McCarthy, dealing him a significant blow.

Fight against politically motivated denunciation of Washington "homosexuals"
On October 19, 1964 Pearson published an article with the title of "Homosexuality Bipartisan Problem Facing Washington". Here he presented several cases involving members of Congress whose sons were blackmailed, threatened, or eased out of office on the basis of rumors of homosexuality. Arthur Vandenberg Jr., a talented Republican government official from Michigan, had lost the opportunity to becoming President Eisenhower's top aide. And Senator Lester Hunt, Democrat of Wyoming, had taken his own life after Republican Senators Styles Bridges of New Hampshire and Herman Welker of Idaho had threatened to reveal how Hunt's son had been arrested by the Washington police on a morals charge.

Pearson's article was a reaction to the political elimination of Walter Jenkins, longtime top aide and personal friend to Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife Lady Bird Johnson. On October 7, 1964, a month before the presidential election, Jenkins, a "stout catholic", husband and father of six children, had been arrested and charged with "disorderly conduct" with another man. The scandal was promoted to the press by members of the Republican party, who exploited the scandal in their own interests. Pearson, who called the "history of homosexuality in Washington" "a tragic one", was aware of the current political atmosphere, where the destruction of the careers of political opponents on the basis of accusations of homosexual behavior had become commonplace. In his 1964 defence of Walter Jenkins, he argued in the line of Lady Bird Johnson, who had thought about de-escalating the situation by attributing the purported offense to the exhaustion of a man who had temporarily overworked himself in the challenging time before the election. In advance to the FBI's investigation of the case, Pearson followed several leads that apparently proved that Jenkins had been framed. The journalist, whom Lyndon B. Johnson on another occasion had recommended as a thoroughly informed, critical expert of the Ku-Klux-Klan, let the president know what he had found out.

In October 1967, Drew Pearson once more exposed the hypocrisy of the allegations that had led to the removal of Walter Jenkins and other well experienced public servants. This time, it was two members of Governor of California Ronald Reagan's staff who had participated in an eight-man "sex orgy" at Lake Tahoe. Governor Reagan, who had been critical in the case of Walter Jenkins, had not taken action until six months later, when the "most able and highly qualified" men were fired: "'He [Ronald Reagan] campaigned on the proposition that while he did not know much about Government he would surround himself with experts who did. Two of these experts have now turned out to be involved in conduct which society does not condone. Despite this, they were kept in the Governor's office for approximately six months and reportedly were only dropped when Reagan's right-wing backers demanded that they be fired, not because of their sex behavior, but because they were too moderate for the right wing.'"

In Pearson's view, the dismissal of the two members of Reagan's staff on a pretext was part of a strategy to present the Governor and his actions in a more determined and impartial light: "'The presence of homos in Government was first raised as an issue by a well known Republican, Sen. Joseph R. McCarthy, who claimed the State Department was riddled with them. Though he was not able to prove his claims, it remains a fact that a homosexual in the Defense or State Departments is automatically fired as a security risk. He can too easily be blackmailed. The reason why Reagan's press secretary is now belatedly explaining the facts behind the dropping of his two assistants may well be the desire to show that Ronnie acted quickly - which he did not do.'"

Hoping to protect his aspirations for a presidential candidacy, Pearson's article argued, Governor Reagan had turned a blind eye to his own government's sex scandal and had acted in his very personal interests.

Engagement for democracy and peace
Drew Pearson's engagement for democracy and peace started at an early age and lasted throughout his entire life. The best-known of his manyfold activities were:
 * 1919-1921: Volunteer for two years of service in Serbia to supervise the American Friends Service Committee (forerunner of the Peace Corps) postwar relief program in Balkan villages
 * Long-time president of the Washington D. C. chapter of Big Brothers, at the time a non-profit program with the concept of a One-Man-One-Boy relationship allowing to graduate potential delinquent boys into responsible citizenship
 * Taking troupes of professional entertainers (e.g. the Harlem Globetrotters) for visits to American overseas bases at Christmas time
 * 1952 Organization of the committee "Americans Against Bombs of Bigotry", to take action against the bombing of schools and worship that had resulted from racial and religious intolerance
 * 1953 Organization of the "Americans Conscience Fund" for victims of racial bigotry
 * Largely responsible for raising the money to rebuild the Clinton, Tennessee, schoolhouse, that two years after the 1956 desegregation had been destroyed by white supremacists

Following World War II, Drew Pearson with the support of his wife Luvie Pearson initiated the Friendship Train which on its way through the USA collected over 700 cars of food, clothing and fuel worth over $40 million in aid for "America's friends" in war-torn Europe: "Luvie was the steam that powered the train across the northern United States, and Drew fired up the southern route. Both stopped at every village for contributions. They collected enough food to fill 'two long freight trains.' And then they took it to Europe, with keys to the towns presented at every stop." On December 19, 1947, one day after the arrival of the much-needed food, medicine and supplies in France, Pearson was awarded the French Legion of Honor, rank of Chevalier, in recognition of his charitable engagement and work.

Some of his other international engagements for democracy and peace were:

 * Organisation of the "Democracy Letters to Italy" in the election of 1948, to help defeat Communism in Italy in this election
 * 1951 he helped to launch the "Freedom Balloon" campaign, by which the Crusade for Freedom reached behind the Iron Curtain with messages of liberty and encouragement
 * 1953: Initiator of the "Food for East Germany" program (supported by the Eisenhower Administration)
 * 1959: Delegate to the Atlantic Conference (London)
 * 1961: Member of the "President's Food for Peace Committee"
 * 1961: Interviews with Chairman Khrushchev at his summer home on the Black Sea

Death and legacy
At the time of Pearson's death of a heart attack in 1969 in Washington, D.C., the column was syndicated to more than 650 newspapers, more than twice as many as any other, with an estimated 60 million readers, and was famous for its investigative style of journalism. A Harris Poll commissioned by Time magazine at that time showed that Pearson was America's best-known newspaper columnist at the time of his death. The column was continued by Jack Anderson and then by Douglas Cohn and Eleanor Clift, who combine commentary with historical perspectives. It is the longest-running syndicated column in America.

American University Library received the typescript copies of the columns distributed to newspapers around the country in 1992. Shortly thereafter, the Library embarked on a project to digitize the collection.

Personal life
Drew Pearson had one daughter, Ellen Cameron Pearson (1926–2010), in a short marriage (1925–28) to Felicia Gizycka, daughter of the newspaper heiress Cissy Patterson and Count Joseph Gizycky of Poland. Thereafter, Pearson maintained a strained relationship with his former mother-in-law, and they frequently exchanged barbed comments in print. His second wife was Luvie Moore Abell (a cousin of Edith Kermit Carow), whom he married in 1936; through that union he had a step son, Tyler Abell, to whom he was close throughout his life. Abell later became chief of protocol under President Lyndon B. Johnson.

Pearson died on September 1, 1969, at the age of 71 from the effects of a heart attack.

Published works

 * Washington Merry-Go-Round (New York: Horace Liveright, 1931).
 * More Merry-Go-Round (1932)
 * The American Diplomatic Game (New York: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1935)
 * U.S.A.: Second Class Power? (1958),
 * The Case Against Congress: a Compelling Indictment of Corruption on Capitol Hill (1958)
 * The Senator Doubleday (1968)
 * The President Doubleday (1970)
 * Diaries, 1949–1959 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1974),
 * Nine Old Men (American Constitutional and Legal History) with Robert Allen, (1974) ISBN 0-306-70609-1 The Nine Old Men, Drew Pearson and Robert S. Allen, Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc., 1937
 * Washington Merry-Go-Round: The Drew Pearson Diaries, 1960-1969, by Drew Pearson (Author), Peter Hannaford (Editor), Richard Norton Smith (Foreword), September 15, 2015 ISBN 978-1612346939, University of Nebraska Press.

Awards and recognition
Pearson was awarded Norway's Medal of St. Olav, the French Legion of Honour, the Order of the Star of Italian Solidarity, and two honorary degrees. He also was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for "The Drew Pearson Show", an early program of current events.

Character actor Robert F. Simon played Pearson in the 1977 NBC television movie Tail Gunner Joe, a biopic of U.S. Senator Joseph R. McCarthy of Wisconsin.

title: Drew Pearson (journalist)


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Talk:Richard L. Armitage

should be merged with Richard Armitage

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Richard L. Armitage


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Álvaro Obregón, Mexico City

Álvaro Obregón is a borough (demarcación territorial) in the Mexico City. It contains a large portion of the south-west part of Mexico City. It had a 2020 census population of 759,137 inhabitants and lies at an elevation of 2,319 m. above sea level.

It was named after Álvaro Obregón, a leader of the Mexican Revolution and an early-20th-century Mexican president, who was assassinated in this area. Its former name is San Ángel, and the historic San Ángel neighborhood still retains this name, as does the Televisa San Angel motion picture and television studio, which is located in this municipality, which also includes the well-known upscale commercial neighborhoods Santa Fe, Jardines del Pedregal as well as Colonia Florida.

Geography
The municipality of Álvaro Obregón is located in the west of Mexico City, and has a land surface of 96.17 km2, with an elongated shape from northeast to southwest. It borders Miguel Hidalgo to the North, Benito Juárez and Coyoacán to the East, Magdalena Contreras, Tlalpan and Jalatlacalco municipality (State of Mexico) to the South, and Cuajimalpa to the West. Together with Álvaro Obregón becomes the Western access to the city, and its regional roadways are the Federal Highway and the Freeway, which constitute the entry for merchandise and population from the states of Mexico and Michoacán.

The borough's maximum height is 3,820 meters above sea level at the summit of Triangulo mountain, and the lowest is at 2,260 meters. The borough occupies 7,720 hectares, or 6.28% of the Federal District area, and it has the fifth place in terms of territory of all municipalities. Of such hectares, 5,052 are urban soil and 2,668 are considered protected soil (66.1% and 33.8% respectively). Other important elevations (in meters) are the San Miguel mountain (3,780); the Cruz de Colica o Alcalica mountain (3,610); the Temamatla mountain (3,500); the Ocotal (3,450) and the Zacazontetla (3,270). In general, the relief is of great contrasts, constituted by surfaces of piedmont, product of the natural erosion of the mountain chain.

It is geographically located between the parallels 19°; 14'N and 19°; 25'N and the meridians 99°; 10' W and 99°; 20'0 W.

Edaphology
In the borough 4 types of soils dominate:
 * 1) Haplic and Luvic Phaeozem: Cover 53.8% of the borough's territory; it is a soil that presents a normal sequence in its horizons, and a maximum thickness of 100 cm, developing between 2,500 and 3,000 meters above sea level.
 * 2) Haplic Litosols: Are from a rocky volcanic origin, with a maximum thickness of 30 cm, covering 28.8% of the municipality, are located between 2,300 and 2,500 meters in altitude.
 * 3) Andosols: Occupying 21.1% of the borough's land area; are rich in volcanic materials, dark superficial horizons, and have a maximum thickness of 50 cm. Their texture is medium and are located between 3,000 and 3,800 meters, and constitute the maximum altitude of the municipality.
 * 4) Eutric Regosol: Occupying 1.9% of the borough's land area; are soils from a volcanic origin or from meiotic accumulation, little compacted and have a maximum thickness of 30 cm; they present thick texture and brown color.

Climate
For the region of San Ángel, Mixcoac, Tacubaya and adjacent areas around 2240 meters above sea level and up to 2,410, the climate is consistently mild with cool mornings and wetter than in Mexico City's downtown, averaging 15.5 °C and 943.1 mm of rainfall yearly. The monthly temperature is warmest from April through June, reaching 17 °C, whilst the lowest median temperatures occur from December through February reaching 13 °C. Between 2,410 up to 3,100 meters above sea level the median temperature of the warmest months gets reduced to between 14.9 and 17.1 C also from April through June. The minimum median temperatures (December–February) are cooler at 10 °C. Precipitation here ranges between 1,000 and 1,200 mm annually.

At higher elevations or in more forested areas temperatures cool down but precipitation rises. For instance even though the Desierto de los Leones National Park can reach above 3000 meters above sea level, at only 2220 meters the forest has a much cooler weather than the above-mentioned neighborhoods. The median temperature here drops to 10.6 °C and precipitation averages 1324 mm. All regions of the municipality experience the highest rainfall from June through September and the lowest from November through February.

The climate charts illustrate the differences between two regions within Álvaro Obregón.

Flora and fauna

The flora and fauna of the borough of Álvaro Obregón developed during prehistoric times. Nowadays, the vegetation is determined by factors such as soil, water and climate, consisting in the lower part of the municipality's territory, in trees and bushes that have been planted in some green or recreative areas that surround the urbanised areas. In the middle area, between 2,500 and 3,000 meters, exist mesophile forests that cover ravines and gullies with epiphytous vegetation such as mosses, ferns and woody creepers. In the lava rocky region there are endemic plants such as: palo loco, palo dulce, tabaquillo, tepozán and copal; species that have been preserved in the ecologic reveroir of the UNAM. The region of great vegetation density comprises the high elevations, where there are located mixed forests, with abundancy in pines and oaks. The primary tree species are oaks, limoncillo and stands of pine, that generally grow together; the more common pines are the ocotes (Pinus moctezumae) and the Mexican mountain pine (Pinus Hartwegui), this last ones resistant to the environmental conditions of the area and due to pollution are present in a low density.

Above 3,000 meters there are coniferous forests where oak and pines dominate, that can achieve heights between 5 and 12 meters. In the southern part of the municipality there are small stands of fir trees that do not reach a great development. In the region of Tizapán, San Jerónimo and El Batán there are fossils belonging to the Upper Pleistocene. On June 17, 1959, the paleontologist Manuel Maldonado Koerdell, the professor Francisco González Rul and the archeologist Arturo Romano, investigated the fossils of a horse and a mammoth "archidiskidon impera tor leidy", that lived approximately between 8 and 10 thousand years before Christ. This fossil remains, the first to be found in the whole Valley of Mexico, were located in excavations of 0.60 and 1.80 meters in the tepetate layers that are known as Tacubaya strata.

Other findings were unveiled on August 27 of the same year in the banks of the San Ángel river, in the enlargement of Las Águilas Avenue, around the town of Tlacopac.

The fauna was very varied in prehispanic times, but most of the species have become extinct. The mountain fauna was particularly rich in precious and rapacious birds.

Many of the mammals have disappeared or are in danger of extinction. In the region the while tailed deer, the lynx and the coyote were once plentiful, but the presence of man, that for many years practised hunting in the higher parts of the territory, eliminated them.

Currently, between 2,500 and 3,000 meters above sea level there remains a large fauna, but because of its nearness to the population centers it is easily accessible and thus disturbed. In the Sierra de las Cruces, a few decades ago there can still be found mammals such as the opossum, the armadillo, shrew, rabbit, tree squirrel, ardillón, land squirrel, gopher, mice, mountain mouse, pine mouse, volcano mouse, alfarero mouse and fox, even though their current populations are much diminished.

In the region there can be found the following birds: coquita, hummingbird, saltaparedes swallow, primavera, duraznero, gorrionete, amongst others. In terms of reptiles the most common are lizards, rattlesnakes, and in rocky regions, mainly snakes. In amphibians there are salamanders that inhabit the trunks of trees, frogs and ajolotes. The most distinct insects are those who inhabit the rotten trunks of pines, the bark worn. This xylophagus coleopterous and their adults live below the bark of such trees. Amongst phytophagous invertebrates there are moths of the geometrid family, whose larvae became a serious plague in the abies forest. Another butterfly that inhabited this forest, but without feeding directly from the abies, is the Synopcia eximia, whose larvae eat tepozán (Buddleia).

Government and infrastructure
The Secretariat of Public Security of the Mexican federal government has its headquarters in Álvaro Obregón.

Economy
Volaris has its headquarters in Colonia Zedec, Santa Fe, Álvaro Obregón; previously the headquarters were in Peña Blanca, Santa Fe. Grupo Bimbo has its headquarters in Santa Fe, Álvaro Obregón.

Education
National public high schools of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) Escuela Nacional Preparatoria include:
 * Escuela Nacional Preparatoria 8 "Miguel E. Schulz" (ES)

Public high schools of the Instituto de Educación Media Superior del Distrito Federal (IEMS) include:
 * Escuela Preparatoria Álvaro Obregón I "Lázaro Cárdenas del Río"
 * Escuela Preparatoria Álvaro Obregón II "Vasco de Quiroga"

International schools include:
 * ASF Mexico, the American international school
 * Edron Academy, the British educational school
 * Liceo Mexicano Japonés, the Japanese educational school of Mexico City, is located in Jardines del Pedregal.
 * Peterson Schools, an American international school system, has its Pedregal campus in Pedregal
 * The Colegio Alemán Alexander von Humboldt operates the Plantel Pedregal, which has Kindergarten classes, as part of the Campus Sur/Campus Süd (formerly Campus Xochimilco).

Other private schools:
 * Colegio Alexander Bain and Bachillerato Alexander Bain
 * Colegio Olinca Altavista campus
 * Colegio Princeton kindergarten and primary campuses
 * Colegio Francés del Pedregal in Jardines del Pedregal
 * Instituto Francisco Possenti
 * Instituto Miguel Ángel
 * Instituto Oxford
 * Vermont School Plantel Pedregal
 * Universidad Panamericana Preparatoria campus for boys
 * Colegio Junipero (private elementary school) (Col. Las Américas)

Parks and recreation
The Asociación México Japonesa owns a cultural center, the Nichiboku Bunka Kaikan (日墨文化会館 "Mexican Japanese Cultural Center"), within the Las Águilas colonia of the Álvaro Obregón municipality.

Notable people

 * Jonathan Levin (born 1993), footballer

title: Álvaro Obregón, Mexico City


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User talk:Spellbinder/archive

Hello Spellbinder! Use your magic arm-fireball thingies for good in the Wikipedia :) Anyway, I hope you like the place and choose to stay.

Some links that may be of use:
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How to edit a page
 * Village pump - ask questions you may have here, or leave a message on my talk page

Hi 152.78.0.29, hope you managed to follow me here.

Glad you haven't been too discouraged about my reverting your work. :-) I notice that your IP is a soton.ac.uk proxy, so I assume you're at Southampton Uni, which is where I did my maths degree many moons ago!

As you should be able to tell from the history of this talk-page of mine, I've only had my logon since yesterday. Prior to that, I was just an anonymous user identified by IP like you. I would urge you to get your own login, it's very simple and then you have the option to add pages to your 'watchlist' so that you can tell at a glance which of the pages you're interested in have been updated; I don't think there's a way to get notified by email, but I may be wrong.

The links above are useful starters to find out about Wiki - so you might want to have a look at those.

Good luck!

Spellbinder 16:16, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Forgot to mention that you can write in my talk-page yourself of course; each user has a talk-page just like each encyclopedia page does. If you create your own login, you'll get your own talk-page too - which you can use to talk to others or just use to test things out. Feel free to ask if you need more help - and let me know what your login name is if you join :-)

Spellbinder 16:26, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I now have logged in! I am Robinh, as of yesterday. I've started adding a couple of pages, just stubs at this stage...check out Boussinesq approximation and Euler equations. My current work involves Bayesian simulation, and I'm working with Jonty Rougier and Tony O'Hagan (although my bit of the project hasn't really got started yet). I do feel a bit of a fake, as I'm most specifically not a Bayesian. +	I'm actually down the road from soton, at SOC. I've only been here for a few weeks.

You were right about Fowler...I also checked the OED, which basically says that usage changed in the 18th century. It might be worth doing my doing a bit more research and adding a little to the apostrophe page. The annoying thing is that correct usage is determined by actual usage...(does this mean that the fruitmongers are right after all?)

---

Robin, left a note on your own talk-page - you should see a New Message indication at the top of your pages.

Spellbinder 17:29, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Hi again Spellbinder.

Calling it a Wiki "bug" is just right...it's addictive, isn't it? I have plans to create a whole new vista of industrial risk assessment stuff (the current risk assessment pages are mostly financial stuff, not my scene at all).

SOC stands for Southampton Oceanography Centre. I'm working on ocean-atmosphere modelling to predict climate change.

hey, gotta go.

good chatting

Robinh 20:36, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

-re/-er
Thanks for the compliment, although I must confess that I was inspired by Angela's user page. I think the spelling theatre is generally considered classier, since it may evoke thoughts of the legendary London theatre. Regardless, I personally consider it somewhat classier. The spelling colour is not common at all here, so I'm not sure what the reasoning behind using it is... maybe something similar to the usage of theatre? Or maybe the owner is a Brit? Cheers, Minesweeper 09:12, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

____

Hi Spellbinder,

I tried to answer your questions. Cheers, Jurriaan 22:07, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

some more answers (I hope). Cheers, Jurriaan 09:57, 17 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Soham murders
Hi Spellbinder, pleased to meet you. Glad you've pulled the Ian Huntley article I started into shape.. was a few dubious sentences in there til you got your hands on it. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 18:24, 17 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Ditto on the congrats. Could you put the link to the news about the Huntley/Nixon name confusion somewhere clickable? Maybe that information should also be restored to somewhere on Wikipedia: it is after all part of the ongoing story. Phil 11:43, Dec 22, 2003 (UTC)
 * Likewise see my reply there. Phil 16:51, Dec 22, 2003 (UTC)

municipality subdivisions
Hi Spellbinder,

I moved your remarks/question to User talk:Patrick and answered it there. - Patrick 20:45, 17 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * My Fowler's Modern English Usage gives the clue as to why it's Bayes' Theorem and not Bayes's Theorem:

 * "It was formerly customary, when a word ended in -s, to write its possessive with an apostrophe but no additional s."

 * That's why those forms like Jesus' nativity hang around.

Because Bayes' Theorem has been around a long time, it's still got its original possessive, which is now set in stone. I have a maths degree and it was always Bayes' Theorem and never Bayes's Theorem though I do agree that the latter form would be the correct one if the theorem were named today.

[ ..... ]

Spellbinder 15:41, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * When did it cease to be customary? Fowler wrote in the 1920s.  I am not aware that that practice is no longer standard.  I suspect that is because I am an American: We still write "Mr. Smith" rather than "Mr Smith" and we still call that particular punctuation mark a "period" rather than by the more recent name "full stop". Michael Hardy 23:13, 27 Dec 2003 (UTC)

There was a time when the Bible was not written down
There was a time when the Bible was not written down, but remembered by special people with eidetic memory, like the ones in Fahrenheit 451. Moses spoke the words, just as Julius Caesar spoke his Gallic Wars commentaries. There must have been multiple rememberers so that they could check each other's memories. Islam also accords a special name for those types of people. Anyway, when the Bible was written down, there was a great outcry because "something was being lost" by the capture of the words in script. My reference is the Oxford Cambridge History of the Bible ISBN 521-07418-5 1970 Ancheta Wis 15:13, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Sorry, it was not an illustrated edition; I would have to go to my public library to look up the ISBN; but then I can simply use the internet there to type in the ISBN for your talk page. Ancheta Wis 21:11, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

See Torah Your insight would solve a personal puzzle for me: Why did the Prophets cease? That would explain why there was Torah, then Prophets, then Writings. The internal evidence shows that script arose sometime after Torah and before Writings. If God spoke thru the Prophets, then that must have been a special psychology that inspired the Prophets to speak; my personal puzzle why did the prophets stop speaking is then answered - they didn't need to anymore; they had the Bible. But the article shows that they had the oral tradition which also must have satisfied some special psychology that was no longer needed by 200 AD, and which was preserved by writing it down 200 AD. Anyway, I stand by my statement that the Bible must have been oral in the beginning. By the way, the article has some slip-ups which I am not going to bring up, but which your insight has unearthed.Ancheta Wis 11:05, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
Hi, You appear to be eligible to vote in the current Arbitration Committee election. The Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to enact binding solutions for disputes between editors, primarily related to serious behavioural issues that the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the ability to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail. If you wish to participate, you are welcome to review the candidates' statements and submit your choices on the voting page. For the Election committee, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 22:14, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Spellbinder/archive


text:
David Lewis (philosopher)

David Kellogg Lewis (September 28, 1941 – October 14, 2001) was an American philosopher. Lewis taught briefly at UCLA and then at Princeton University from 1970 until his death. He is closely associated with Australia, whose philosophical community he visited almost annually for more than 30 years.

Lewis made significant contributions in philosophy of mind, philosophy of probability, epistemology, philosophical logic, aesthetics, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of time and philosophy of science. In most of these fields he is considered among the most important figures of recent decades. Lewis is most famous for his work in metaphysics, philosophy of language and semantics, in which his books On the Plurality of Worlds (1986) and Counterfactuals (1973) are considered classics. His works on the logic and semantics of counterfactual conditionals are broadly used by philosophers and linguists along with a competing account from Robert Stalnaker; together the Stalnaker–Lewis theory of counterfactuals has become perhaps the most pervasive and influential account of its type in the philosophical and linguistic literature. His metaphysics incorporated seminal contributions to quantified modal logic, the development of counterpart theory, counterfactual causation, and the position called "Humean supervenience". Most comprehensively in On the Plurality of Worlds, Lewis defended modal realism: the view that possible worlds exist as concrete entities in logical space, and that our world is one among many equally real possible ones.

Early life and education
Lewis was born in Oberlin, Ohio, to John D. Lewis, a professor of government at Oberlin College, and Ruth Ewart Kellogg Lewis, a medieval historian. He was the grandson of the Presbyterian minister Edwin Henry Kellogg and the great-grandson of the Presbyterian missionary and Hindi expert Samuel H. Kellogg.

Lewis attended Oberlin High School, where he attended college lectures in chemistry. He went on to Swarthmore College and spent a year at Oxford University (1959–60), where he was tutored by Iris Murdoch and attended lectures by Gilbert Ryle, H. P. Grice, P. F. Strawson, and J. L. Austin. His year at Oxford played an important role in his decision to study philosophy. Lewis received his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1967, where he studied under W. V. O. Quine, whose views he would later dispute. It was there he took a seminar with the Australian philosopher J. J. C. Smart. Smart recalled, "I taught David Lewis, or rather, he taught me."

Lewis joined the philosophy department at the University of California, Los Angeles, in 1966. In 1970, he moved to Princeton University, where he spent the remainder of his career.

Early work on convention
Lewis's first monograph was Convention: A Philosophical Study (1969), which is based on his doctoral dissertation and uses concepts of game theory to analyze the nature of social conventions; it won the American Philosophical Association's first Franklin Matchette Prize for the best book published in philosophy by a philosopher under 40. Lewis claimed that social conventions, such as the convention in most states that one drives on the right (not on the left), the convention that the original caller will re-call if a phone conversation is interrupted, etc., are solutions to so-called "'co-ordination problems'". Co-ordination problems were at the time of Lewis's book an under-discussed kind of game-theoretical problem; most game-theoretical discussion had centered on problems where the participants are in conflict, such as the prisoner's dilemma.

Co-ordination problems are problematic, for, though the participants have common interests, there are several solutions. Sometimes one of the solutions is "salient", a concept invented by the game-theorist and economist Thomas Schelling (by whom Lewis was much inspired). For example, a co-ordination problem that has the form of a meeting may have a salient solution if there is only one possible spot to meet in town. But in most cases, we must rely on what Lewis calls "precedent" for a salient solution. If both participants know that a particular co-ordination problem, say "which side should we drive on?", has been solved in the same way numerous times before, both know that both know this, both know that both know that both know this, etc. (this particular state Lewis calls common knowledge, and it has since been a frequent topic of discussion among philosophers and game theorists), then they will easily solve the problem. That they have solved the problem successfully will be seen by even more people, and thus the convention will spread in the society. A convention is thus a behavioral regularity that sustains itself because it serves the interests of everyone involved. Another important feature of a convention is that a convention could be entirely different: one could just as well drive on the left; it is more or less arbitrary that one drives on the right in the US, for example.

Lewis's main goal in the book, however, was not simply to provide an account of convention but rather to investigate the "platitude that language is ruled by convention" ( Convention, p. 1.) The book's last two chapters ( Signalling Systems and Conventions of Language ; cf. also "Languages and Language", 1975) make the case that a population's use of a language consists of conventions of truthfulness and trust among its members. Lewis recasts in this framework notions such as truth and analyticity, claiming that they are better understood as relations between sentences and a language rather than as properties of sentences.

Counterfactuals and modal realism
Lewis went on to publish Counterfactuals (1973), which gives a modal analysis of the truth conditions of counterfactual conditionals in possible world semantics and the governing logic for such statements. According to Lewis, the counterfactual "If kangaroos had no tails they would topple over" is true if in all worlds most similar to the actual world where the antecedent "if kangaroos had no tails" is true, the consequent that kangaroos in fact topple over is also true. Lewis introduced the now standard "would" conditional operator ◻→ to capture these conditionals' logic. A sentence of the form A ◻→ C is true on Lewis's account for the same reasons given above. If there is a world maximally similar to ours where kangaroos lack tails but do not topple over, the counterfactual is false. The notion of similarity plays a crucial role in the analysis of the conditional. Intuitively, given the importance in our world of tails to kangaroos remaining upright, in the most similar worlds to ours where they have no tails they presumably topple over more frequently and so the counterfactual comes out true. This treatment of counterfactuals is closely related to an independently discovered account of conditionals by Robert Stalnaker, and so this kind of analysis is called Stalnaker-Lewis theory. The crucial areas of dispute between Stalnaker's account and Lewis's are whether these conditionals quantify over constant or variable domains (strict analysis vs. variable-domain analysis) and whether the Limit assumption should be included in the accompanying logic. Linguist Angelika Kratzer has developed a competing theory for counterfactual or subjunctive conditionals, "premise semantics", which aims to give a better heuristic for determining the truth of such statements in light of their often vague and context-sensitive meanings. Kratzer's premise semantics does not diverge from Lewis's for counterfactuals but aims to spread the analysis between context and similarity to give more accurate and concrete predictions for counterfactual truth conditions.

Realism about possible worlds
What made Lewis's views about counterfactuals controversial is that whereas Stalnaker treated possible worlds as imaginary entities, "made up" for the sake of theoretical convenience, Lewis adopted a position his formal account of counterfactuals did not commit him to, namely modal realism. On Lewis's formulation, when we speak of a world where I made the shot that in this world I missed, we are speaking of a world just as real as this one, and although we say that in that world I made the shot, more precisely it is not I but a counterpart of mine who was successful.

Lewis had already proposed this view in some of his earlier papers: "Counterpart Theory and Quantified Modal Logic" (1968), "Anselm and Actuality" (1970), and "Counterparts of Persons and their Bodies" (1971). The theory was widely considered implausible, but Lewis urged that it be taken seriously. Most often the idea that there exist infinitely many causally isolated universes, each as real as our own but different from it in some way, and that alluding to objects in this universe as necessary to explain what makes certain counterfactual statements true but not others, meets with what Lewis calls the "incredulous stare" (Lewis, On the Plurality of Worlds, 2005, pp. 135–137). He defends and elaborates his theory of extreme modal realism, while insisting that there is nothing extreme about it, in On the Plurality of Worlds (1986). Lewis acknowledges that his theory is contrary to common sense, but believes its advantages far outweigh this disadvantage, and that therefore we should not be hesitant to pay this price.

According to Lewis, "actual" is merely an indexical label we give a world when we are in it. Things are necessarily true when they are true in all possible worlds. (Lewis is not the first to speak of possible worlds in this context. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and C.I. Lewis, for example, both speak of possible worlds as a way of thinking about possibility and necessity, and some of David Kaplan's early work is on the counterpart theory. Lewis's original suggestion was that all possible worlds are equally concrete, and the world in which we find ourselves is no realer than any other possible world.)

Criticisms
This theory has faced a number of criticisms. In particular, it is not clear how we could know what goes on in other worlds. After all, they are causally disconnected from ours; we can't look into them to see what is going on there. A related objection is that, while people are concerned with what they could have done, they are not concerned with what people in other worlds, no matter how similar to them, do. As Saul Kripke once put it, a presidential candidate could not care less whether someone else, in another world, wins an election, but does care whether he himself could have won it (Kripke 1980, p. 45).

Another criticism of the realist approach to possible worlds is that it has an inflated ontology—by extending the property of concreteness to more than the singular actual world it multiplies theoretical entities beyond what should be necessary to its explanatory aims, thereby violating the principle of parsimony, Occam's razor. But the opposite position could be taken on the view that the modal realist reduces the categories of possible worlds by eliminating the special case of the actual world as the exception to possible worlds as simple abstractions.

Possible worlds are employed in the work of Kripke and many others, but not in the concrete sense Lewis propounded. While none of these alternative approaches has found anything near universal acceptance, very few philosophers accept Lewis's brand of modal realism.

Influence
At Princeton, Lewis was a mentor of young philosophers and trained dozens of successful figures in the field, including several current Princeton faculty members, as well as people now teaching at a number of the leading philosophy departments in the U.S. Among his prominent students were Robert Brandom, L. A. Paul, J. David Velleman, Peter Railton, Phillip Bricker, Cian Dorr, and Joshua Greene. His direct and indirect influence is evident in the work of many prominent philosophers of the current generation.

Later life and death
Lewis suffered from severe diabetes for much of his life, which eventually grew worse and led to kidney failure. In July 2000 he received a kidney transplant from his wife Stephanie. The transplant allowed him to work and travel for another year, before he died suddenly and unexpectedly from further complications of his diabetes, on October 14, 2001.

Since his death a number of posthumous papers have been published, on topics ranging from truth and causation to philosophy of physics. Lewisian Themes, a collection of papers on his philosophy, was published in 2004. A two-volume collection of his correspondence, Philosophical Letters of David K. Lewis, was published in 2020. A 2015 poll of philosophers conducted by Brian Leiter ranked Lewis the fourth most important Anglophone philosopher active between 1945 and 2000, behind only Quine, Kripke, and Rawls.

Books

 * Convention: A Philosophical Study, Harvard University Press 1969.
 * Counterfactuals, Harvard University Press 1973; revised printing Blackwell 1986.
 * On the Plurality of Worlds, Blackwell 1986.
 * Parts of Classes, Blackwell 1991.

Lewis published five volumes containing 99 papers—almost all the papers he published in his lifetime. They discuss his counterfactual theory of causation, the concept of semantic score, a contextualist analysis of knowledge, and a dispositional value theory, among many other topics.
 * Philosophical Papers, Vol. I (1983) includes his early work on counterpart theory and the philosophy of language and of mind.
 * Philosophical Papers, Vol. II (1986) includes his work on counterfactuals, causation, and decision theory, where he promotes his principal principle about rational belief. Its preface discusses Humean supervenience, the name Lewis gave to his overarching philosophical project.
 * Papers in Philosophical Logic (1998).
 * Papers in Metaphysics and Epistemology (1999) contains "Elusive Knowledge" and "Naming the Colours", honored by being reprinted in the Philosopher's Annual for the year they were first published.
 * Papers in Ethics and Social Philosophy (2000).

Lewis's monograph Parts of Classes (1991), on the foundations of mathematics, sketched a reduction of set theory and Peano arithmetic to mereology and plural quantification. Very soon after its publication, Lewis became dissatisfied with some aspects of its argument; it is currently out of print (his paper "Mathematics is megethology", in Papers in Philosophical Logic, is partly a summary and partly a revision of "Parts of Classes")

Nachlass

Selected papers

 * "Counterpart Theory and Quantified Modal Logic", Journal of Philosophy 65 (1968): pp. 113–126.
 * "General semantics", Synthese, 22(1) (1970): pp. 18–67.
 * "Causation", Journal of Philosophy 70 (1973): pp. 556–67. Reprinted with postscripts in Philosophical Papers: Volume II (1986).
 * "Semantic Analyses for Dyadic Deontic Logic" in Logical Theory and Semantic Analysis: Essays Dedicated to Stig Kanger on His Fiftieth Birthday, Reidel 1974.
 * "The Paradoxes of Time Travel", American Philosophical Quarterly, April (1976): pp. 145–152.
 * "Truth in Fiction", American Philosophical Quarterly 15 (1978): pp. 37–46.
 * "How to Define Theoretical Terms", Journal of Philosophy 67 (1979): pp. 427–46.
 * "Scorekeeping in a Language Game", Journal of Philosophical Logic 8 (1979): pp. 339–59.
 * "Mad pain and Martian pain", Readings in the Philosophy of Psychology Vol. I. N. Block, ed. Harvard University Press (1980): pp. 216–222.
 * "A Subjectivist's Guide to Objective Chance", in R. Jeffrey, ed., Studies in Inductive Logic and Probability: Volume II. Reprinted with postscripts in Philosophical Papers: Volume II (1986).
 * "Are We Free to Break the Laws?" Theoria 47 (1981): pp. 113–21.
 * "New Work for a Theory of Universals", Australasian Journal of Philosophy 61 (1983): pp. 343–77.
 * "What Experience Teaches", in Mind and Cognition by William G. Lycan, (1990 Ed.) pp. 499–519. Article omitted from subsequent editions.
 * "Elusive Knowledge", Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 74/4 (1996): pp. 549–567.

title: David Lewis (philosopher)


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Azcapotzalco

Azcapotzalco (, , from āzcapōtzalli “anthill” + -co “place”; literally, “In the place of the anthills”) is a borough (demarcación territorial) in Mexico City. Azcapotzalco is in the northwestern part of Mexico City.

The town began in the pre-Hispanic era and was the seat of the Tepanec dominion until the Aztec Triple Alliance overthrew it. After that it was a rural farming area becoming part of the Federal District of Mexico City in the mid-19th century. In the 20th century the area was engulfed by the urban sprawl of Mexico City. Today it is 100% urbanized and is a center of industry.

Geography
The municipality of Azcapotzalco is in the Valley of Mexico with its eastern half on the lakebed of the former Lake Texcoco and the west on more solid ground. The historic center is on the former shoreline of this lake. The average altitude is 2240 meters above sea level. Politically, the municipality extends over 34.5km2 in the northwest of the Federal District of Mexico City, bordering the municipality of Gustavo A. Madero, Cuauhtémoc, Miguel Hidalgo along with the municipalities of Tlalnepantla de Baz, and Naucalpan in the State of Mexico.

It has a semi-humid temperate climate with an average temperature of 15C.

As the municipality is 100% urbanized, there are no ecological reserves. It is divided into 2,723 city blocks. There are 54 parks which have no wild vegetation but rather planted species such as willow, cedar and pine trees. These parks cover 100.51 hectares, which is 2.9% of the entire municipality. The most important of these are the Parque Tezozómoc and Alameda Norte, which together account for 52.4 hectares.

Parque Tezozomoc was inaugurated in 1982 designed as a scaled replica of the Valley of Basin of Mexico in the pre-Hispanic era. The Alameda Norte park is next to the Ferrería station. It has a pond which was used as an ice rink and playing field but was rehabilitated in the 2000s.

Other important green areas include community squares such as Plaza Hidalgo, sports centers, college campuses, especially that of the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, community parks and cemeteries.

Sports facilities cover about 67 hectares of the municipality with 70 fields and sports centers open to the public. These include the Deportivo Renovacion Nacional, Deportivo Reynosa, Centro Deportivo Ferrocarrilero and the Unidad Deportiva Benito Juarez. Deportivo Reynosa used to host one of Mexico City's temporary “artificial beaches” consisting of pools and a sand area, which were constructed by the city government as a service to the poor. The municipality has cemeteries which are counted as green spaces, especially San Isidro because of its large size.

There is little surface water with the exception of the Río de los Remedios which is primarily used for drainage of wastewater. The lowering of water tables in the valley has led to large cracks developing in areas of the municipality which has caused damage to infrastructure. The municipality is flat with inclines of between zero and five percent with no prominent elevations. Because of its flatness, flooding is a problem in heavy rain, especially in areas such as Santiago Ahuizotla, Nueva Santa María, San Pedro Xalpa and Pro Hogar.

Sixty five percent of the municipality is occupied by about 500 industries which use toxic substances. There are hundreds of km of underground gas lines. Nine communities have been classified as high risk because they are surrounded by industries. There are 250 chemical producers mostly concentrated in Colonia Industrial Vallejo which make ethanol, cyanide compounds, phosphates, organic solvents and more.

Air pollution is a significant problem in the municipality as it is in the rest of Mexico City. Most comes from vehicular traffic and industry; it includes ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide as well as suspended particles. Noise pollution is caused by industry and truck traffic. Although the municipality has no surface water, water pollution in its drainage is a problem from residential areas and industry. Industry contamination is mostly in the form of poor water use and the dumping of prime materials often from cleaning and includes organic matter, grease, soaps and detergents, dyes, solvents and more. Solid waste production is a problem from industrial and residential sources. The amount of waste produced in the municipality has grown almost seven-fold since the 1980s at a current rate of 571 tons per day.

Due to the proximity of the old 18 de Marzo refinery (which was part of the municipality), there are many underground pipes some of which are still in use. Even more are associated with another nearby but active refinery Terminal de Almacenamiento y Distribución de Destiados de Pemex-Refinación. Most pipelines are found under Avenida Tezozomoc, 5 de Mayo, Salónica, Eje 3 Norte, Ferrocarril Central and Encarnación Ortiz.

Communities
Originally the town of Azcapotzalco consisted of neighborhoods from the pre-Hispanic period. Many of these neighborhoods exist to this day, called colonias, barrios or pueblos. A number of them maintain individual cultural traits despite being fully engulfed by the urban sprawl of Mexico City. These include San Juan Tlihuaca, San Pedro Xalpa, San Bartolo Cahualtongo, Santiago Ahuizotla, San Miguel Amantla, Santa Inés, Santo Domingo, San Francisco Tetecala, San Marcos, Los Reyes and Santa María Malinalco. Today, the municipality has 61 colonias, 15 pueblos and 11 barrios. In 1986, INAH designated the center of Azcapotzalco as a historical monument.

In 2011, the historic center was designated as a "Barrio Mágico".

The most important community remains the former town of Azcapotzalco, also called the historic center, marked by Plaza Hidalgo. This square consists of fenced stone paths surrounding gardens. Its two main focal points are a statue of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla facing Avenida Azcapotzalco and a six-sided kiosk in the center. On Saturdays, chess players convene to play during the afternoon. Café Alameda is on Plaza Hidalgo — a café and bar with a rock and roll theme. It has images of Jim Morrison, Freddie Mercury, Elvis Presley, and John Lennon lining its walls. At night on weekends, it hosts live bands which attracts youths from the area. The Historic Archive of Azcapotzalco is on the south side of Plaza Hidalgo. It contains a mural painted by Antonio Padilla Pérez titled Origen y Trascendencia del Pueblo Tepaneca. The building contains archeological pieces.

Across the street from the plaza are the parish church and the former municipal hall. The parish and former monastery of San Felipe and Santiago Apóstoles dates from 1565. It has the largest atrium in Mexico City, surrounded by a thick wall with inverted arches. The main church has a large Baroque portal which contains the main door topped by a choir window. To the side there is a slender bell tower with pilasters on it four sides. Under the tower, there is an image of a red ant. A local legend says that when the ant climbs the bell tower, the world will end. To the right of the portal are three arches that front the former Dominican monastery. The interior of the church has a Baroque gilded altarpiece with Salomonic columns which contains images of the Virgin Mary. The main altar is Neoclassical. To the side there is a chapel called the Capilla del Rosario from 1720 with Baroque and Churrigueresque altars. The former cloisters has remains of its former mural work.

Next to the parish and taking over some of its former atrium space is the Casa de Cultura cultural center. The building was constructed in 1891 originally as the municipal hall for Azcapotzalco. It has a sandstone portal with a balcony on the upper level featuring a double arch and an ironwork railing from 1894. The building has three exhibition halls on the lower level. The upper level is dedicated to the Sala Tezozomoc hall, larger than the lower halls combined. The garden areas have rosebushes and orange trees. These areas host art exhibits, workshops, classes and other cultural events. The center has a mural called La herencia tepaneca en ul umbral del tercer milenio by Arturo García Bustos, a student of Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera. In 1986, the building was named a historic monument by INAH and converted into its current use in 1991 on its 100th anniversary.

The main street in the historic center is Avenida Azcapotzalco, which is home to long-established businesses. One of these is the Nevería y Cafetería El Nevado, which has a 1950s rock and roll atmosphere, uniformed waitresses and mid 20th-century furnishings. There are cantinas such as El Dux de Venicia (over 100 years old) with its original furniture and La Luna established in 1918 and noted for its “torta” sandwiches. The Principe Tlaltecatzin Archeological Museum is a private institution founded by Octavio Romera that focuses on pre-Hispanic pieces related to the Azcapotzalco area. It is the result of a lifelong exploration and study of artifacts he found since he was a child. He educated himself and is considered an expert in the pre-Hispanic history and archeology of the area.

The oldest library of the municipality, Biblioteca Fray Bartolomé de las Casas, has murals by Juan O’Gorman.

In addition to the historic center there are other important communities, many of which maintain old traditions. The Barrio de San Miguel Amantla is near the former 18 de Marzo refinery. It is one of the oldest in the municipality with one of the oldest churches. In the Mesoamerican period, it was noted for its plumería or the making of objects with feathers. The oldest standing church is in San Miguel Amantla which had fallen into ruins but was rebuilt using the original blocks. Barrio de San Luis is one of over 20 which date from the Mesoamerican period. It is noted for its church and its barbacoa. The Barrio de Santa Apolonia Tezcolco was the site of the Tezozomoc's treasury. The Barrio de San Juan Tlilhuaca is the largest neighborhood in the municipality and contains the largest church. This church is famous for its passion play for Holy Week and is surrounded by old cypress trees said to have been planted as tribute to Moctezuma.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, areas in the municipality became the site of country homes for the wealthy of Mexico City. Today a number of chalet and English style homes with pitched roofs, towers, porches and gardens can be seen especially in the Clavería neighborhood. This neighborhood was as exclusive as Colonia Juárez and Colonia Condesa at that time. Of the housing developments construction in the latter 20th century, the most important is the Unidad Habitational El Rosario. This apartment complex has 170 buildings, with 7,606 apartments housing over 50,500 residents. It is the largest of its kind in Latin America.

Socioeconomics
The municipality as it is found today is a product of the growth of the Mexico City area in the 20th century, especially since the 1970s. The population rose from 534,554 in 1970 to a peak of 601,524 in 1980. The population began to drop to 474,688 in 1990 and 441,008 in 2000. In addition to loss of employment, reasons for the population loss include the 1985 earthquake and the high cost of living space, especially compared to neighboring state of Mexico. Problems in the municipality include uncontrolled street vending, historic buildings abandoned or used as commercial space, lack of maintenance of parks, and heavy traffic. This is particularly problematic in the historic center.

21.7% of the territory is used for industry, 15.5% for storage, 42.12% for housing, open spaces 2.9%, and mixed use 17.78%. Overall, the level of socioeconomic marginalization is low compared to the other municipalities, coming in 12th of 16 in 2005. However, areas of the municipality have very high levels of socioeconomic socialization including Barrio Coltongo, Nueva España, Pasteros, Porvenir, Barrio de San Andrés, Pueblo de San Andrés, San Francisco Xocotitla, San Martín Xochinahuac, San Miguel Amantla, San Rafael, San Sebastián, Santa Barbara, Santiago Ahuizotla. Santo Tomas, Tierra Nueva and the Unidad Habitacional Cruz Roja Tepantongo. Sixty nine percent of the communities are considered to be of medium to high marginalization with 10 communities considered to be of low socioeconomic marginalization: Ampliación San Pedro Xalpa, Ferrería, Industrial Vallejo, Las Salinas and Santa Cruz de las Salinas.

About 80% of the municipality's population is working age. Just over 53% of the population is employed. The rest are mostly students, homemakers and retired. Almost all employed persons work in industry, commerce and services. Industry employs just over 21%.

The most important sector to the municipality's economy is industry despite its decline since the very late 20th century. Industry accounts for about 72% of the municipality's production with commerce and services accounting for the rest. The industrial zone in Azcapotzalco is one of the most important in the Federal District. This zone is centered on Colonia Industrial Vallejo extending into San Salvador Xochimanca, Coltongo, Santo Tomas, San Martin Xochinahuac, Santa Ines, Santo Domingo, Ampliacion Petrolera, Industrial San Antonio, San Miguel Amantla, San Pablo Xalpa and San Juan Tlihuaca. Much of the industry has slowed or halted due to competition abroad which can make them cheaper. This has led to efforts to reorient the municipality's economy because of the high rates of unemployment and migration out of the area. About sixty percent of the Federal District's heavy industry is in the municipality. The municipality accounts for about 40% of the Federal District's industrial zoning and provides over 15% of industrial employment.

Housing in the municipality is varied. Most residential buildings (45%) are two or three levels, as a single house with two or three families. Apartment buildings average about five floors. Since the 1970s, there has been construction of extremely large apartment complexes such as the Unidad Habitacional El Rosario. There are 340 “vecindades,” irregular structures generally made with construction and industrial waste, which can be found mostly in Colonia Pro-Hogar, Colonia Ampliacion San Pedro Xalpa, Coltongo and Liberación. Azcapotzalco is one of the city most crowded municipalities, mostly due to the large apartment complexes, but the decline in population has alleviated this somewhat.

Azcapotzalco is ranked 9th of 16 municipalities in reported crime which is often associated with gangs and the use of drugs. In the municipality there are 70 communities considered to have high drug use accounting for about 45% of the total population. These include La Raza, El Rosario, Prohogar, Industrial Vallejo, La Preciosa, San Pedro Xalpa and ObreraMundial. There are crime gangs identified by police such as Los Pepes, Los Negros and Los Maquedas. The most frequent violent crimes include muggings, car theft and robbery of businesses — much of which is related to the socioeconomic problems of the area.

The municipality provides services to ease socioeconomic problems such as health, education, recreation and other programs. It runs 20 traditional fixed markets and has offered vendors courses in marketing. In 2008 the city sponsored an entrepreneurship program with the Instituto Politécinco Nacional and the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana to help deal with the loss of employment. Starting in 2008, the municipality has offered free wedding ceremonies and certificates to encourage couples to formally legalize their unions. The wedding ceremonies involve hundreds of couples who are married at the same time.

History
The name is derived from Nahuatl and means “ant hill” with the municipality Aztec glyph depicting a red ant surrounded by corn. It comes from a legend that says that after the creation of the Fifth Sun, the god Quetzalcoatl was tasked with recreating man. To do this, he needed to enter the realm of the dead, Mictlan, to recover the bones of men from the Fourth Sun. Ants helped Quetzalcoatl to find the realm of the dead and bring the bones up as well as grains of corn. Another version of the legend relates to the discovery of corn by observing that ants had put grains underground and corn plants grew there.

The very early history of the area follows that of the rest of the Valley of Mexico. About 7,000 years ago, hunter/gatherers arrived to the valley attracted by the vegetation and large game such as mammoths. Fossilized mammoth, bison and other bones were found when Line 6 of the Metro was constructed. When the large game died out, the inhabitants of the valley turned to agriculture, forming permanent villages sometime between 5000 and 2000 BCE. Plants were domesticated — the most important of which were corn, squash, chili peppers, avocados and beans.

Pottery and villages were founded all over the Valley of Mexico from 2200 BCE to 1200 BCE, supported by agriculture with some hunting and fishing. From 1200 to 700BCE the most important villages were in the south of the valley. Around 200 BCE, the Teotihuacan civilization arose and the Azcapotzalco area rose in importance as well, being in the empire's political and cultural sphere. Villages that grew during this time included San Miguel Amantla, Santiago Ahuixotla and Santa Lucia which are in the south of the modern municipality. When Teotihuacan waned in 800 CE, the Azcapotzalco area remained important as a center of that culture, becoming an important ceremonial center. When Tula rose, Toltec influence then dominated Azcapotzalco and the rest of the Valley of Mexico. Toltec influence is most evident in ceramic finds from Santiago Ahuizotla and was possibly a Toltec tribute city. When Tula fell, there were new migrations into the Valley of Mexico including Otomis, Mazahuas and Matlatzincas. One of these groups was led by a chieftain called Matlacoatl in the 12th century. Legend states that he established the village of Azcapotzaltongo, which is now Villa Nicolás Romero in 1152, but its development is best documented between 1200 and 1230. The village grew to become the Tepanec Empire in the 12th and 13th centuries with a ruling dynasty with the territory expanding over the Valley of Mexico. Acolhuatzin was leader from 1283 to 1343. He married a daughter of Xolotl of Tenayuca and then moved the capital of the dominion to what is now the historic center of Azcapotzalco, on the edge of what was Lake Texcoco. He allowed the Mexica to settle on Tepaneca lands, founding Tenochtitlan, in exchange for tribute and military service. The last major ruler of Azcapotzalco was Tezozomoc who ruled from 1367 to 1427. Under him the empire reached over most of the Valley of Mexico into Cuernavaca and north into Tenayuca and Atotonilco. This made Azcapotzalco the most important city in the Valley of Mexico and archeological work related to this dominion continues to this day.

In 2012, burials and remains of buildings were found the San Simon Pochtlan neighborhood, believed to have belonged to Tepaneca traders between 1200 and 1300CE. Other settlements were found in the same area when Line 6 was constructed in 1980.

Under the Tepanecas, conquered areas were allowed to keep their own leadership as long as they paid tribute and performed military service. In 1427, these leaders included Nezahualcoyotl of Texcoco, Izcoatl of Tenochtitlan and Totoquihuaztli of Tlacopan. When Tezozomoc died, there was a power struggle for the throne which allowed these tribute-paying entities a chance to rebel, forming the Triple Alliance and defeating Azcapotzalco in 1428. The former Tepanec lands were divided among the three leaders and the city of Azcapotzalco was destroyed and turned into a slave market.

With the end of the Tepanec Empire political and economic power shifted to Texcoco, Tlatelolco and Tenochtitlan.

The area remained ruled by the Aztec Empire until 1521, when the Aztecs fell to the Spanish when Azcapotzalco had a population of 17,000. From 1528 to 1529 the Dominicans were in charge of the evangelization of the area under Fray Lorenzo de la Asunción, who built churches of over the former Tepaneca ceremonial center dedicated to the Apostles Phillip and James. Despite accounts that Lorenzo de la Asuncion defended the indigenous against their Spanish overlords, during the 16th century, the indigenous population of the area fell from 17,000 to about 3,000 due to mistreatment and disease.

During the colonial period, the area not underwater was home to haciendas, resulting from the partition of lands among the conquistadors and their descendants. In 1709, Azcapotzalco was formed by 27 communities, divided into six haciendas and nine ranches. Azcapotzalco was the scene of one of the last battle of the Mexican War of Independence with the Army of the Three Guarantees under Anastasio Bustamante defeating royalist forces on August 19, 1821, shortly before Agustín de Iturbide entered Mexico City.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the area was rural, far outside Mexico City proper, part of the State of Mexico. It was organized as a municipality in 1824 with the town of Azcapotzalco serving as the seat of government for ranches and haciendas such as Ameleo, San Rafael, San Marcos, El Rosario, Pantaco, San Isidro, San Lucua, Acaletengo and Azpeitia along with communities such as Concepción, San Simón, San Martín, Santo Domingo, Los Reyes, Santa Catarina, Santa Bárbara, San Andrés, San Marcos, San Juan Mexicanos, San Juan Tlilhuaca, Xiocoyahualco, Santa Cruz del Monte, San Mateo, San Pedro, San Bartolome, San Francisco, Santa Apolonia, Santa Lucia, Santiago, San Miguel Ahuizutla, Santa Cruz Acayuca, Nextengo, San Lucas, San Bernabe, Santa Maria, San Sebastian and Santo Tomas. When it became part of the Federal District of Mexico City in 1854, Azcapotzalco was classified as a town as part of the Guadalupe municipality but in 1899 it became the head of its own municipality. The town of Azcapotzalco was still separate from Mexico City by about two leagues. In the 19th century the community of San Juan Tlilhuaca was known for its warlocks. By the end of the 19th century, the municipality had a population of about 11,000 with 7,500 in the seat.

At that time, the area became popular with the wealthy who built country homes, especially along the Mexico-Tacuba road and near the town of Azcapotzalco. This construction was the forerunner of many of the municipality's more modern neighborhoods. In the first decades of the 20th century, rail lines were constructed, including a trolley that connected the town of Azcapotzalco with Mexico City center in 1913.

According to the 1900 census, the Federal District has an Azcapotzalco District which consisted of the municipalities of Azcapotzalco and Tacuba. These districts were eliminated in 1903, creating thirteen municipalities, of which Azcapotzalco was one. In 1928, the District was reorganized again into municipalities which the town of Azcapotzalco still heads.

From the end of the Mexican Revolution in 1920, the Mexico City area began a process of rapid growth, with the modernization of infrastructure and the establishment of industry in the area. The first factories in the municipality were established in Colonia Vallejo in 1929, which lead to the industrialization of most of the area. The Refinería 18 de Marzo refinery was founded at the end of the 1930s and attracted even more industry. Today, it has been abandoned. In 1944, the federal government formally established the industrial zone of Colonia Vallejo. Around the same time the government also established a major rail station for cargo at Pantaco.

The industrialization created new residential neighborhoods, mostly for the working classes. Two exception were Colonia Clavería and Nueva Santa María which remained middle class in the mid 20th century, mostly descendants of those who had built country homes. In the latter 20th century, the rest of the vacant land in the municipality was built over to make the territory 100% urbanized. The urbanized area in the municipality increased from 1.8% in 1940 to 95.2% at the beginning of the 1980s. Most of this last construction in the north and west was residential areas. In the 1970s, the Azcapotzalco campus of the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana was established as a major educational center for Mexico City as well as the El Rosario apartment complex, the largest of its kind in Latin America.

Culture
Residents of Azcapotzalco are referred to as Chintololos. There are several stories as to the origin of the term, but Azcapotzalco chronicler José Antonio Urdapilleta states that it came from a disrespectful Aztec term “tsintli- tololontic” which means excessively round buttock. Over time the pronunciation changed to the current and its disrespectful meaning disappeared.

Azcapotzalco holds one of the oldest continuous annual pilgrimages to the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe, which has been done for over 475 years. It is considered to be the first one organized by the indigenous in Mexico with records indicating the first one done in 1532, only 11 months after the report of the appearance of the Virgin Mary to Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin. The annual event is known as the Fiesta de los Naturales in which leaders from 28 communities collect money and more as offering to Guadalupe. Before the procession sets off, there is a festival with fireworks and a mass to bless the pilgrims.

One legend of the area is about the “Enchanted Pool of Xancopina” a fresh water spring that existed during the pre-Hispanic era and where Moctezuma is said to have submerged much of his treasure after being defeated by the Spanish. It was where the Unidad Habitacional Cuitláhuac is now. The first El Bajio restaurant was founded in Azcapotzalco and is still in operation. The chain specializes in Mexican food from the center of the country.

Education
The municipality has 228 schools and other public educational facilities from preschool to university levels. These include 61 preschools, 79 primary schools, 42 middle schools, 17 high/vocational schools, six night schools, eight special education schools, four middle schools for adults, one open enrollment facility and ten infant development centers. Private education includes 71 preschools, 21 elementary schools, six middle schools, five high school level institutions and one college. However, many of the schools at the basic levels lack maintenance. The illiteracy rate is 2.34 percent, lower than the 2.9 percent average of the Federal District. In 2007, the municipality became the second in Mexico City to open a recreational and educational video gaming center for children with the aim of stimulating cognitive and motor skills, at the Deportivo Calpulli sports center.

The two main higher education campuses are Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM) and Escuela Superior de Ingenería Mecánica y Eléctrica (ESIME). In Colonia Reynosa Tamaulipas, the Azcapotzalco campus of the UAM was established in 1974 and has since grown to over 21 buildings include classrooms, laboratories, computer labs a 225,000 volume library and more. Its large campus is an important part of municipality efforts to maintain green spaces. In 2012, the UAM campus received 15 monumental sculptures from 15 notable artists such as Vicente Rojo, Manuel Felguérez, Gilberto Aceves Navarro and Gabriel Macotela. (The project is part of ongoing efforts to keep the campus as a cultural center in the north of the city. ) The ESIME is part of the Instituto Politécnico Nacional which is dedicated to Electromechanical Engineering at the undergraduate and graduate levels as well as research. It began as the Escuela Nacional de Artes y Oficios in the latter 19th century. Other institutions include the Colegio de Ciencias y Humanidades (CCH) affiliated with UNAM, TecMilenio Ferrería and UNITEC in San Salvador Xochimanca as well as installations related to Universidad Justo Sierra.

Public high schools of the Instituto de Educación Media Superior del Distrito Federal (IEMS) include the Escuela Preparatoria Azcapotzalco "Melchor Ocampo".

Transportation
The municipality area has had a major road linking it to the historic center of Mexico City since the pre Hispanic period, today called the Mexico-Tacuba road. It continues to be a major thoroughfare. The development of industry in the municipality, then extending north and west in to panhandle of neighboring Mexico State has prompted interconnected infrastructure, especially in transportation. Major thoroughfares of this type include Avenida Aquiles Serdán, Calzada Vallejo (Circuito Interior), Eje 3, Eje 4 and Eje 5 Norte especially near the State of Mexico border. Because of its industry and links to other industrial areas in the State of Mexico, Azcapotzalco experiences very heavy traffic flow with an average of 800,000 vehicles transiting in or through it. Traffic jams are common, especially at rush hour and even at off-peak times due to faulty synchronization of traffic lights.

Mass transport options include the Mexico City Metro (with nine stations serving lines 6 and 7), the RTP bus system, the trolleybus system and a number of privately owned buses and taxis. Together they transport and estimated 30,000 people per day. Much of this traffic is commuters coming into the municipality from the State of Mexico through the El Rosario metro station and bus terminal.

 * Metro stations

 * El Rosario
 * Tezozómoc
 * Azcapotzalco
 * Ferrería / Ciudad de México
 * Norte 45
 * Vallejo
 * Aquiles Serdán
 * Camarones
 * Refinería

 * Commuter rail stations
 * Fortuna station

In the 19th century a major rail station was constructed called the Pical-Pantaco terminal. It is used for shipping goods between Mexico City and the north of the country, and it has become an obstruction of traffic flow.

title: Azcapotzalco


text:
Taoyuan District

Taoyuan District is a district of Taoyuan City in northwestern Taiwan. Formerly a county-administered city also known as Taoyuan City before 2014, when the former Taoyuan County was elevated to a special municipality which is now known as Taoyuan City. The municipal seat of Taoyuan City is situated within the district. It is the most populous district among the 13 districts of Taoyuan City, and the second most populous among the districts of Taiwan, with the most populous being Banqiao District in New Taipei City.

History

Taoyuan is the native home of the plains tribes of Taiwanese aborigines. Taoyuan's old name was Toahong since there used to be many peach blossoms in the area.

Empire of Japan
Under Japanese rule, the area was part of Toshien Chō (桃仔園廳) established in November 1901. In 1920, it was renamed Tōen Town (桃園街), and incorporated into Tōen District, Shinchiku Prefecture.

Republic of China
After the handover of Taiwan from Japan to the Republic of China, it was reorganized as Taoyuan Town of Taoyuan County. On 21 April 1971, the town was upgraded from an urban township to a county-administered city called Taoyuan City. On 25 December 2014, the city became a district of the newly formed special municipality of Taoyuan City.

Geography
Taoyuan is located on the Taoyuan Plateau, contiguous on the northeast to Guishan District. The Nankan River is Taoyuan's largest river, flowing from the southeast to the northwest.

 * Area: 34.80 km²
 * Elevation: 157 ft
 * Population: 464,480 people (February 2023)

Climate
Taoyuan has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa), with hot summers and mild winters. Precipitation is high throughout the year and is generally higher in the first half of the year. Due to the effect of wind from mainland China, Taoyuan is typically cooler than New Taipei, despite having a lower latitude.

Administrative divisions
Dalin, Dafeng, Jianguo, Yunlin, Fuan, Fulin, Fenglin, Zhonghe, Zhongxing, Wenhua, Wenchang, Wenming, Beimen, Minsheng, Yongxing, Guangxing, Ximen, Xihu, Wuling, Zhangmei, Nanmen, Nanhua, Zhongshan, Zhongping, Zhongzheng, Zhongcheng, Zhongxin, Zhongyuan, Zhongtai, Zhongsheng, Zhonglu, Zhongde, Wenzhong, Yushan, Taishan, Longshan, Longan, Longgang, Longxiang, Longshou, Longfeng, Zhongpu, Zhongning, Beipu, Yongan, Tongan, Tongde, Zijiang, Xipu, Mingde, Tungpu, Zhangan, Zhangde, Xinguang, Nanpu, Zhuangjing, Ciwen, Xinpu, Ruiqing, Bao'an, Baoqing, Sanyuan, Sanmin, Dayou, Daxing, Chenggong, Bianzhou, Zhongyi, Tungshan, Tungmen, Jingxi, Chunri, Zhaoyang, Guiji, Wanshou and Baoshan Village.

Government institutions

 * Taoyuan City Government
 * Taoyuan City Council

Education
Within Taoyuan, there are 6 senior high schools, 14 junior high schools, 23 primary schools, and an "intelligence initiation school." Taoyuan is also home to a number of buxibans, or cram schools or language schools, which teach additional courses in mathematics, English, science, etc. There are also 10 universities located in Taoyuan.

Taoyuan Main Public Library is the central library of Taoyuan city. It is located in Xianfu Rd, Taoyuan District, near the Taoyuan City Government building.

Economy
Taoyuan was one of the host cities for the Taiwan European Film Festival in 2012.

Transportation
Taoyuan District is served by Taiwan Railway Administration's Taoyuan railway station. The current station is expected to be converted to an underground station in 2029. In addition, the future underground Zhonglu railway station is also expected to serve the district in 2030. Taoyuan Metro's Green line is also under construction and will serve the district in the future.

Railway

 * Taoyuan railway station
 * Zhonglu railway station (under construction)

Metro

 * Nankan Bus Station (2026)
 * Taoyuan Performance Arts Center metro station (2026)
 * Daxing West Road metro station (2027)
 * Minguang Road metro station (2027)
 * Yonghe Market metro station (2027)
 * Taoyuan Main Station (2027)
 * Yangming Park metro station (2027)

Bus

 * San Chung Bus Company
 * Taoyuan Bus Company
 * United Highway Bus Company
 * Zhinan Bus Company
 * Zhongli Bus Company

Twin towns – Sister cities
Taoyuan is twinned with:
 * 🇵🇱 Radom, Poland
 * 🇺🇸 Irvine, California, United States
 * 🇺🇸 Kennewick, Washington, United States

Tourist attractions

 * Chaoyang Forest Park

 * Chinese Furniture Museum
 * Coca-Cola Museum
 * Daguixi Park
 * Dayou Ecological Park
 * Fenghe Park
 * Guixi Riverside Park
 * Hutou Mountain Park
 * Hutoushan Environmental Park
 * Sanmin Sports Park
 * Taoyuan Arts Center
 * Taoyuan Arts Plaza (桃園藝文廣場)
 * Taoyuan Confucian Temple
 * Taoyuan Land God Culture Museum (桃園市土地公文化館)
 * Taoyuan Martyrs' Shrine
 * Taoyuan Night Market
 * Tong'an Parent-Child Park
 * Yangming Sports Park
 * Yangming Sports Park

Notable natives

 * Wu Ming-yi, artist and author

title: Taoyuan District


text:
Parker and Lee

Parker and Lee was founded in 1904 by Ivy Lee and George F. Parker in New York City. Parker and Lee was the third ever public relations agency to be established in the United States. Parker had served as President Grover Cleveland's press agent through all three of his campaigns.

Parker and Lee had clients such as Pennsylvania Railroad Company, the Rockefeller Family, the American Tobacco Company, the New York Subway System, and some Hollywood Studios.

About
The firm rose quickly in the years immediately after its founding, gaining lucrative clients like the Pennsylvania Railroad Company in 1906, which was at the time under public scrutiny for denying information and interviews to journalists. Ivy Lee supported a rate hike for the Pennsylvania Railroad Company workers, which the railroad had hired the firm to build support for a 5% rate hike. The firm devised a campaign which included all major stakeholders, media, railroad employees, customers, federally elected officials, etc.

Parker and Lee also worked for the Colorado Fuel & Iron Company during the controversial 1915 oilmen's strike, and later worked to end the American trade embargo on the Soviet Union. The firm came under fire during WWII because it had done consulting work for German industrial giant IG Farben.

title: Parker and Lee