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Günter Wallraff

Günter Wallraff (born 1 October 1942) is a German writer and undercover journalist.

Life
Günther Walraff was born in Burscheid as the son of a Ford worker and a factory owner's daughter. After attending high school, he trained as bookseller until 1962. He began writing poetry as early as the 1950s.

Wallraff invoked his constitutional right of conscientious objection to conscription in Germany into armed military service, thus being required to carry out alternative civilian service. Having missed the deadline for filing his refusal, he was nevertheless drafted into the Bundeswehr.

Wallraff refused to use the weapon within the Bundeswehr. During his time in the Bundeswehr in 1963, he kept a diary about his service. When he announced the publication of the diary, the military leadership offered to release him if he refrained from publishing it. Wallraff rejected that. He was admitted to psychiatric ward of the Bundeswehr hospital in Koblenz (Bundeswehrzentralkrankenhaus Koblenz). In 1964 he was diagnosed by a military doctor with an "abnormal personality" and "unfit for war and peace" ("untauglich für Krieg und Frieden") and was released from service. In the 1960s, the Bundeswehr was a place where many former Nazi officers served, Wallraff later said.

His experiences from this time were published in 1970 in the anthology "From one who moved out and learned to fear". In this book he processed his time in the psychiatric ward of the Bundeswehr hospital in Koblenz. The involuntary role as a psychiatric patient became a key experience and starting point for his later literary work.

Wallraff described himself as a person with a weak ego. However, this weak ego also accounts for his ability to empathize with others.

From 1966 Walraff was editor of the magazine Pardon, from 1968 on for magazine konkret and from 1973 a freelance author.

Throughout his life, Wallraff repeatedly hosted persecuted prominent artists in his house for a period of time. For example, Wolf Biermann after his expatriation from the GDR or Salman Rushdie after he was given a fatwa.

Research methods
Wallraff came to prominence thanks to his striking journalistic research methods and several major books on lower class working conditions and tabloid journalism. This style of research is based on what the reporter experiences personally after covertly becoming part of the subgroup under investigation. Wallraff would construct a fictional identity so that he was not recognisable as a journalist.

In the German newspaper Die Zeit of 1977 Walraff formulates a sentence that is central to his work: “If I want to make myself the mouthpiece of the voiceless who have little to say even though they have a lot to say, that means to me that I am one of them, at least temporarily."

Undercover journalism
Wallraff first took up this kind of investigative journalism in 1969 when he published 13 unerwünschte Reportagen ("13 undesired reports") in which he described what he experienced when acting the parts of an alcoholic, a homeless person, and a worker in a chemicals factory.

He travelled to Greece in May 1974 at the time of the Ioannides military dictatorship. While in Syntagma Square, he protested against human right violations. He was arrested and tortured by the police as he purposely did not carry on him any papers that could identify him as a foreigner. After his identity was revealed, Wallraff was convicted and sentenced to 14 months in jail. He was released in August, after the end of the dictatorship.

In 1977 Wallraff worked for four months as an editor for the tabloid Bild-Zeitung newspaper in Hanover, calling himself "Hans Esser". In his books Der Aufmacher (a pun meaning both "Lead Story" and "the one who opens") and Zeugen der Anklage ("Witnesses for the Prosecution") he portrays his experiences on the editorial staff of the paper and the journalism which he encountered there, which at times displayed contempt for humanity. In 1987 the journalist Hermann L. Gremliza claimed that he, rather than Wallraff, had written parts of Der Aufmacher. The book also formed the basis for the English-language film The Man Inside from 1990, starring Jürgen Prochnow as Wallraff.

Ganz unten ("Lowest of the Low") (1985) documented Wallraff's posing as a Turkish "Gastarbeiter", and the mistreatment he received in that role at the hands of employers, landlords and the German government.

In 1986 he was awarded Laureate of the International Botev Prize.

In December 1996, Wallraff met with PKK leader Abdullah Öcalan at a Syrian training camp to discuss The Surahs of Kurdish dissident Selim Çürükkaya, who was threatened with death because of this book. Wallraff was warmly received by Öcalan thanks to his role as the Turkish worker "Ali", but failed in getting the murder order overturned. The conversation was printed by Die Zeit.

In January 2003, Russia turned away Wallraff and two other Germans, the former labour minister for the CDU Norbert Blüm and Rupert Neudeck, head of the relief organisation Cap Anamur, as they tried to enter the country to work on a human rights article about Chechnya.

In May 2007, Wallraff announced that he had started yet another undercover journalist work, this time at a German call centre.

During 2009 he wore blackface around Germany in an undercover story to expose latent or explicit racism against black men, releasing the documentary Black on White to show his experiences. Wallraff was criticized by some for this work, such as a suggestion that Wallraff was only interested in earning money from his investigations, or that the method itself was racist.

His investigative methods have led to the creation of the Swedish verb wallraffa, meaning "to expose misconduct from the inside by assuming a role". The word is currently (as of 2023) included in the dictionary Svenska Akademiens Ordlista.

Responses and repercussions
Wallraff has been heavily criticised by those on the receiving end of his style of investigation, via attempts to frame his work as breaching privacy rights or revealing trade secrets. Attempts were made on a number of occasions to legally prevent Wallraff's investigative methods, but his actions were regularly ruled constitutional by the courts. The courts opined that freedom of the press and public interest in areas concerned with the formation of public opinion favoured Wallraff's actions. In balancing public interest with the competing interests of those immediately affected by his actions it follows however that private conversations, for example, may not be published.

In September 2003, investigations were made by the Stasi Records Agency into the Rosenholz files on Stasi workers which somehow got into the hands of the CIA; as a result, it was claimed that Wallraff had had connections to the Stasi in the 1960s. Wallraff disputes that he ever actively worked for them. On 17 December 2004, the Hamburg district court ruled on a suit brought by Wallraff that he must not be described as an Inoffizieller Mitarbeiter or Stasi collaborator (he was being called this above all in newspapers belonging to the Axel Springer Verlag, the publishers of Bild) as no proof of collaboration could be furnished in the documents which had been presented.

Honours

 * 1979 Gerrit-Engelke-Literaturpreis of the city of Hanover
 * 1983 Monismanien Prize of Göteborgs Nation and Uppsala University
 * 1984 Carl von Ossietzky Medal
 * 1985 Literaturpreis der Menschenrechte (France) together with James Baldwin
 * 1987 British Academy Award of Film and Television Art
 * 1987 French Media Prize Prix Jean d'Arcy for the movie „Ganz unten“

Literature

 * Jürgen Gottschlich (2007): Der Mann, der Günther Walraff ist. Eine Biographie. Verlag Kiepenheuer & Witsch GmbH & Co KG

title: Günter Wallraff


text:
Leo Laporte

Leo Laporte (born November 29, 1956) is the former host of The Tech Guy weekly radio show and founder of TWiT.tv, an Internet podcast network focusing on technology. He is also a former TechTV technology host (1998–2008) and a technology author. On November 19, 2022, actor, writer, musician, and comedian Steve Martin called into Laporte's radio show to announce Leo's retirement from The Tech Guy radio show. Laporte's last new radio show was December 18, 2022 with reruns for the remainder of the year. Rich DeMuro later appeared on the show to announce that he will be taking over in January with a weekly show, recorded on Saturdays, called "Rich On Tech."

Background
Laporte was born in New York City, the son of geologist Leo F. Laporte. He studied Chinese history at Yale University before dropping out in his junior year to pursue a career in radio broadcasting, where his early on-air names were Dave Allen and Dan Hayes. He began his association with computers with his first home computer, an Atari 400. By 1984 he owned a Macintosh and wrote a software review for Byte magazine.

Television and radio
Laporte has worked on technology-related broadcasting projects, including Dvorak on Computers in January 1991 (co-hosted with technology writer John C. Dvorak), and Laporte on Computers on KGO Radio and KSFO in San Francisco.

In 1997, Laporte was awarded a Northern California Emmy for his role as Dev Null, a motion capture character on the MSNBC show The Site.

In 1998, Laporte created and co-hosted The Screen Savers, and the original version of Call for Help on the cable and satellite network ZDTV (later TechTV).

Laporte hosted the daily television show The Lab with Leo Laporte, recorded in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The program was formerly known as Call for Help when it was recorded in the US and Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The series aired on G4 Canada, on the HOW TO Channel in Australia, on several of Canada's Citytv affiliates, and on Google Video. On March 5, 2008, Laporte confirmed on net@nite that The Lab with Leo Laporte had been canceled by Rogers Communications. The HOW TO Channel did not air the remaining episodes after it was announced the show had been canceled.

He hosted, until December 2022, a weekend technology-oriented talk radio program show titled Leo Laporte: The Tech Guy. The show, started on KFI AM 640 (Los Angeles), was syndicated through Premiere Radio Networks. Laporte appeared on Friday mornings on KFI with Bill Handel, and previously on such shows as Showbiz Tonight, Live with Kelly, and World News Now.

He holds an amateur radio license, W6TWT.

Podcasting
Laporte owns and operates a podcast network, TWiT.tv with his wife Lisa Laporte. Before the expansion to new facilities in 2011, Laporte said TWiT earned US$1.5million (equivalent to $ in ) annually on a production cost of US$350000 (equivalent to $ in ). In a 2012 Reddit posting, he commented that revenue was approaching US$4million (equivalent to $ in ). The TWiT studios are located in Petaluma, California, where Laporte lives.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Leo Laporte


text:
William Cooper

William Cooper may refer to:

Business

 * William Cooper (accountant) (1826–1871), founder of Cooper Brothers
 * William Cooper (businessman) (1761–1840), Canadian businessman
 * William Cooper (co-operator) (1822–1868), English co-operator
 * William E. Cooper (civic leader) (1921–2008), prominent businessman in Dallas, Texas
 * William W. Cooper (1914–2012), management scientist

Government

 * William B. Cooper (Delaware politician) (1771–1849), American farmer and politician
 * William B. Cooper (North Carolina politician) (1867–1959), lieutenant governor of North Carolina
 * William C. Cooper (politician) (1832–1902), US congressman from Ohio
 * William Cooper (judge) (1754–1809), father of James Fenimore Cooper and founder of Cooperstown, New York
 * William Cooper (Prince Edward Island politician), Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Prince Edward Island
 * Prentice Cooper (William Prentice Cooper, 1895–1969), Tennessee governor
 * William Raworth Cooper (1793–1856), US congressman from New Jersey
 * William Frierson Cooper (1820–1909), lawyer, politician and judge of the Tennessee Supreme Court
 * Bill Cooper (Georgia politician) (born 1933), American former politician and judge
 * William Cooper (Australian politician) (1868–1957), member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly
 * William Prentice Cooper (1870–1961), Speaker of the Tennessee House of Representatives

Literature and arts

 * William Cooper (novelist) (1910–2002), British novelist
 * William C. Cooper (actor) (1853–1918), stage and film actor
 * William Cooper Nell (1816–1874), African-American abolitionist
 * William Heaton Cooper (1903–1995), British landscape artist
 * William J. Cooper Jr. (born 1940), American historian
 * William T. Cooper (1934–2015), Australian natural history illustrator
 * Revd William Cooper (1824–1892), pseudonym of James Bertram, a Scottish pornography producer
 * William Sidney Cooper (1854–1927), English landscape artist
 * William Brown Cooper (1811–1900), American painter
 * William Y. Cooper (1934–2016), African-American painter, writer and illustrator
 * Milton William Cooper (1943–2001), American conspiracy theorist and author

Characters

 * William Cooper, a CIA agent in the 2010 film Red

Science

 * William Cooper (chemical manufacturer) (1813–1885), British sheep dip manufacturer
 * William Cooper (conchologist) (1798–1864), American conchologist
 * William Skinner Cooper (1894–1978), American ecologist
 * William White Cooper, English surgeon-oculist

Sports

 * Bill Cooper (American football) (born 1939), professional football player for the San Francisco 49ers
 * Bill Cooper (baseball) (1915–1985), American Negro leagues baseball player
 * Bill Cooper (hurler) (born 1987), Irish hurler
 * William Cooper (cricketer) (1849–1939), Australian cricketer
 * William Osborne Cooper (1891–1930), Australian cricketer
 * Bill Cooper (sailor) (1928–2016), Royal Navy officer, sailor and author
 * William Cooper (sailor) (1910–1968), Olympic gold medalist of 1932
 * Billy Cooper (Canadian football) (born 1945), Canadian football player
 * Billy Cooper (footballer) (1917–?), English footballer
 * Willie Cooper (1909–1994), Scottish footballer (Aberdeen FC)
 * Billy Cooper (trumpeter), cricket supporter and trumpet player for the Barmy Army
 * Willie Cooper (footballer, born 1886) (1886–?), English footballer for Barnsley and Rochdale

Other fields

 * Milton William Cooper (1943–2001), American writer, radio host, and political activist
 * William Cooper (Aboriginal Australian) (c. 1860–1941), Aboriginal rights leader
 * William Cooper (Puritan) (fl. 1653), chaplain to Elizabeth of Bohemia and ejected minister
 * William E. Cooper (university president), president of the University of Richmond (1998–2007)
 * William Cooper (priest) (1833/34–1909), Church of England priest
 * William Durrant Cooper (1812–1875), English lawyer and antiquary
 * William John Cooper (1882–1935), American educator
 * William Turakiuta Cooper (1886–1949), New Zealand interpreter and land officer
 * William Cooper (banker), Governor of the Bank of England from 1769 to 1771
 * William E. Cooper (general) (1929–2023), United States Army general

title: William Cooper


text:
Talk:Suzanne Tremblay

Untitled
Quote from User talk:Angelique :
 * They sure deserve to be in Wikipedia more than Suzanne Tremblay who is a nobody from the BQ. -- Mathieugp 21:51, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Suzanne Tremblay


text:
Camera Lucida (book)

Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography (La Chambre claire) is a short book published in 1980 by the French literary theorist and philosopher Roland Barthes. It is simultaneously an inquiry into the nature and essence of photography and a eulogy to Barthes' late mother. The book investigates the effects of photography on the spectator (as distinct from the photographer, and also from the object photographed, which Barthes calls the "spectrum").

In a deeply personal discussion of the lasting emotional effect of certain photographs, Barthes considers photography as asymbolic, irreducible to the codes of language or culture, acting on the body as much as on the mind. The book develops the twin concepts of studium and punctum: studium denoting the cultural, linguistic, and political interpretation of a photograph, punctum denoting the wounding, personally touching detail which establishes a direct relationship with the object or person within it.

Camera Lucida, which takes its name from the optical device the camera lucida, consists of 48 chapters divided into two parts. The book is composed in free form and does not follow a particularly rigid structure. Barthes does not present a fixed thesis, but instead, highlights the evolution of his thought process as the book unfolds. As such, he consistently returns to ideas expressed in previous chapters to complete them, or even deny them. The story becomes increasingly personal in the second half, as scientific terminology, precise vocabulary, and numerous scholarly and cultural references give way to increasingly subjective and intimate language. The book is illustrated by 25 photographs, old and contemporary, chosen by the author. Among them are the works of famous photographers such as William Klein, Robert Mapplethorpe and Nadar, in addition to a photograph from Barthes' private collection.

Context
Camera Lucida, along with Susan Sontag's On Photography, was one of the most important early academic books of criticism and theorization on photography. Neither writer was a photographer, however, and both works have been much criticised since the 1990s. Nevertheless, it was by no means Barthes's earliest approach to the subject. Barthes mentions photography in one of his 'little mythologies'—articles published in the journal Les Lettres Nouvelles starting in 1954, and gathered in Mythologies, published in 1957 (and in English translation in 1972). The article "Photography and Electoral Appeal" is more obviously political than Camera Lucida.

In the 1960s and entering the next decade, Barthes's analysis of photography develops more detail and insight through a structuralist approach; the treatment of photography in Mythologies is by comparison tangential and simple. There is still in this structural phase a strong political impulse and background to his theorizing of photography; Barthes connects photography's ability to represent without style (a 'perfect analagon': "The Photographic Message", 1961) to its tendency to naturalise what are in fact invented and highly structured meanings. His examples deal with press photographs and advertising, which make good use of this property (or bad use of it, as the case may be).

Published two months prior to his death in 1980, Camera Lucida is Barthes's first and only book devoted to photography. By now his tactics in writing, always shifting and complex, favouring the dialectical to the morally or politically 'committed' (Sartre), had once again changed. If sentimentality can be seen as a tactic in the late career of Roland Barthes, then Camera Lucida belongs to such an approach. It is novelistic, in line with the developments towards this new type of writing which Barthes had shown with A Lover's Discourse and Roland Barthes by Roland Barthes. However, the ideas about photography in Camera Lucida are certainly prepared in essays like "The Photographic Message", "Rhetoric of the Image" (1964), and "The Third Meaning" (1971). There is a movement through these three pieces of which Camera Lucida can be seen as the culmination. With "The Third Meaning" there is the suggestion that the photograph's reality, aside from all the messages it can be loaded with, might constitute an avant-garde value: not a message as such, aimed at the viewer/reader, but another kind of meaning that arises almost accidentally yet without being simply 'the material' or 'the accidental'; this is the eponymous third meaning. This essay of 1970, ostensibly about some Eisenstein stills, anticipates many of Camera Lucida's ideas and connects them back to still earlier ones. One could almost swap the term third meaning for the punctum of Camera Lucida. Yet the personal note of pain in Camera Lucida is not present in these earlier writings and is unmistakable. Written after his mother's death, Camera Lucida is as much a reflection on death as it is on photography. Barthes died after being struck by a laundry van soon after the publication of Camera Lucida, and many have read the book as Barthes' eulogy for himself.

First edition

 * Roland Barthes, La chambre claire : Note sur la photographie, Paris, Seuil, 1980. 193 p.

English translation

 * Barthes, Roland. Camera Lucida. New York: Hill and Wang, 1981. 119 p.

title: Camera Lucida (book)


text:
Odra (computer)

Odra was a line of computers manufactured in Wrocław, Poland. The name comes from the Odra river that flows through the city of Wrocław.

Overview
The production started in 1959–1960. Models 1001, 1002, 1003, 1013, 1103, 1204 were of original Polish construction. Models 1304 and 1305 were functional counterparts of ICL 1905 and 1906 due to software agreement. The last model was 1325 based on two models by ICL.

The computers were built at the Elwro manufacturing plant, which was closed in 1993.

Odra 1002 was capable of only 100–400 operations per second.

In 1962, Witold Podgórski, an employee of Elwro, managed to create a computer game on a prototype of Odra 1003; it was an adaptation of a variant of Nim, as depicted in the film Last Year at Marienbad. The computer could play a perfect game and was guaranteed to win. The game was never distributed outside of the Elwro company, but its versions appeared elsewhere. It was probably the first Polish computer game in history.

The operating system used by the Odra 1204 is called SODA. It was designed to work on a small computer without magnetic storage and can run simultaneous loading and execution of programs.

An Odra 1204 computer was used by a team in Leningrad developing an ALGOL 68 compiler in 1976. The Odra 1204 ran the syntax analysis, code generation ran on an IBM System/360.

Up until 30 April 2010 there was still one Odra 1305 working at the railway station in Wrocław Brochów. The system was shut down at 22:00 CEST and replaced with a contemporary computer system.

The Museum of the History of Computers and Information Technology (Muzeum Historii Komputerów i Informatyki) in Katowice, Poland started a project to recommission an Odra 1305 in 2017.

title: Odra (computer)


text:
Charles Talbot, 1st Baron Talbot

Charles Talbot, 1st Baron Talbot, (1685 – 14 February 1737) was a British lawyer and politician. He was Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain from 1733 to 1737.

Early life
Talbot was the eldest son of Rt. Rev. William Talbot, Bishop of Durham, a descendant of the 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, and Catherine King.

He was educated at Eton and Oriel College, Oxford, and became a fellow of All Souls College in 1704.

Career
He was called to the bar in 1711, and in 1717 was appointed solicitor general to the prince of Wales. Having been elected a member of the House of Commons in 1720, he became Solicitor General in 1726, and in 1733 he was made Lord Chancellor and raised to the peerage with the title of Lord Talbot, Baron of Hensol, in the County of Glamorgan.

Talbot proved himself a capable equity judge during the three years of his occupancy of the Woolsack. Among his contemporaries he enjoyed the reputation of a wit; he was a patron of the poet James Thomson, who in The Seasons commemorated a son of his to whom he acted as tutor; Joseph Butler dedicated his famous Analogy to Talbot, as was Upton's edition of Epictetus. The title he assumed derived from the Hensol estate in Pendoylan, Glamorgan, which came to him through his wife.

Talbot is remembered as one of the authors of the Yorke–Talbot slavery opinion, as a crown law officer in 1729. The opinion was sought to determinate the legality of slavery: Talbot and Philip Yorke opined that it was legal. The opinion was relied upon widely before the decision of Lord Mansfield in Somersett's Case.

Personal life
Talbot married, in the summer of 1708, Cecil Mathew (d. 1720), daughter of Charles Mathew of Castell y Mynach, Glamorganshire, and granddaughter and heiress of David Jenkins of Hensol. There he built a mansion in the Tudor style, known as the Castle. They had five sons, of whom three survived him:

 * William Talbot, 1st Earl Talbot (1710–1782), who married Mary de Cardonnel, daughter of Rt. Hon. Adam de Cardonnel, in c. 1733.
 * Hon. John Talbot (d. 1756), who married Henrietta Maria Decker, daughter of Sir Matthew Decker, 1st Baronet, in 1737. After her death, he married Hon. Catherine Chetwynd, daughter of John Chetwynd, 2nd Viscount Chetwynd, in 1748.
 * Rev. Hon. George Talbot (d. 1782), who married Hon. Anne Bouverie, daughter of Jacob Bouverie, 1st Viscount Folkestone. They had four children, but only their sons lived to adulthood one of which was the Ver. Rev. Charles Talbot.

After an illness during which the King and Queen enquired after his health every day, Talbot died on 14February 1737 at his home in Lincoln's Inn Fields. He was succeeded in the title by his second son, William (1710–1782).

title: Charles Talbot, 1st Baron Talbot


text:
Forged from the Love of Liberty

"Forged from the Love of Liberty" is the national anthem of the Trinidad and Tobago. Originally composed as the national anthem for the short-lived West Indies Federation (1958–1962), this song was edited and adopted by Trinidad and Tobago when it became independent in 1962. It was written and composed by Patrick S. Castagne.

History
Patrick Castagne, a renowned West Indian songwriter, was employed at the Trinidad and Tobago Commission in London. One of his compositions, called "A Song for the Islands" or "A Song for Federation", was submitted to the West Indies Federation as a possible anthem. Castagne's "A Song for Federation" provided the musical inspiration that could have matched the foundation of a strong federation had it survived. The close resemblance between the national anthem of Trinidad and Tobago and "A Song for Federation" can be seen from the lyrics of the latter, as follows:

Forged from the love of unity In the fires of hope and prayer With boundless faith in our destiny West Indians all declare:

Side by side we stand With our hearts joined across the sea This our native land We pledge ourselves for thee.

𝄆 Here every creed and race find an equal place, And may God bless our nation. 𝄇

When the Federation collapsed, he changed some of the lines and resubmitted the song to Trinidad and Tobago for the competition to choose its national anthem. In total, the competition received 834 word-only entries, 33 music-only entries and 306 entries with both words and music. Castagne's submission came out on top, and he won the prize of $5,000.00 in government bonds and a gold medal inscribed with the coat of arms of Trinidad and Tobago.

Castagne's alteration of "A Song for Federation" was deemed to be most suitable for a twin-island state that consisted of "islands of the blue Caribbean Sea" standing "side by side" in promoting the values of "every creed and race" finding "an equal place" in the multi-racial, multi-religious and multi-cultural society of Trinidad and Tobago as it existed in 1962. It was considered to have reflected the nature and the strength of the people of Trinidad and Tobago and their courage as one nation working towards living in unity despite the existing diversity. According to the editorial in the Sunday Guardian of 19 August 1962: "In its solemn declaration of brotherhood and unity, it very neatly includes Tobago with Trinidad without mentioning the name of either ("Side by side we stand, islands of the blue Caribbean Sea"); and as an added impulse to unity it goes on to describe them together as "our native land," ending with the petition, "And may God bless our nation.""

title: Forged from the Love of Liberty


text: User talk:216.223.236.9

title: User talk:216.223.236.9


text:
History of computer hardware in Eastern Bloc countries

The history of computing hardware in the Eastern Bloc is somewhat different from that of the Western world. As a result of the CoCom embargo, computers could not be imported on a large scale from Western Bloc.

Eastern Bloc manufacturers created copies of Western designs based on intelligence gathering and reverse engineering. This redevelopment led to some incompatibilities with International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and IEEE standards, such as spacing integrated circuit pins at $1/10$ of a 25 mm length (colloquially a "metric inch") instead of a standard inch of 25.4 mm. This made Soviet chips unsellable on the world market outside the Comecon, and made test machinery more expensive.

History
By the end of the 1950s most COMECON countries had developed experimental computer designs, yet none of them had managed to create a stable computer industry.

In October 1962 the "Commission for Scientific Problems in Computing" (Комиссия Научные Вопросы Вычислительной Техники, КНВВТ) was founded in Warsaw and modelled after the International Federation for Information Processing.

Computer design and production began to be coordinated between the Comecon countries in 1964, when the Edinaya Sistema mainframe (Unified System, ES, also known as RIAD) was introduced. The project also included plans for the development of a joint Comecon computer network.

Each COMECON country was given a role in the development of the ES: Hungary was responsible for software development, while East Germany improved the design of disk storage devices. The ES-1040 was successfully exported to countries outside the Comecon, including India, Yugoslavia and China. Each country specialized in a model of the ES series: R-10 in the case of Hungary, R-20 in Bulgaria, R-20A in Czechoslovakia, R-30 in Poland and R-40 in East Germany.

Nairi-3, developed at the Armenian Institute for Computers, was the first third-generation computer in the Comecon area, using integrated circuits. Development on the Nairi system began in 1964, and it went into serial production in 1969.

In 1969 the Intergovernmental Commission for Computer Technology was founded to coordinate computer production. Other cooperation initiatives included the establishment of joint Comecon development facilities in Moscow and Kiev. The R-300 computer, released in 1969, demonstrated the technical and managerial skills of VEB Robotron, and established a leading role for East Germany in the joint development efforts. The relative success of Robotron was attributed to its greater organizational freedom, and the profit motive of securing export orders. In 1970, Cuba produced its first digital computer, the CID-201.

By 1972 the Comecon countries had produced around 7,500 computers, compared to 120,000 in the rest of the world. The USSR, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland, Bulgaria and Romania had all set up computer production and research institutes. Collaboration between Romania and the other countries was limited, due to the autarkic policies of Nicolae Ceaușescu.

The availability of western computing hardware differed considerably between communist countries; in the early 1970s they were most common in Czechoslovakia, where a licensing agreement was signed with the French Groupe Bull. Non-Soviet Eastern European countries had more access to Western technology, which allowed them to manufacture more sophisticated computer equipment.

In 1983 the representatives of the national academies of sciences of the Comecon countries met in Sofia to discuss the development of a new generation of computer systems. In June 1985 the “Conception of a new generation of computer systems” was approved in Prague, with the objective of creating a socialist response to the Japanese fifth generation computer initiative. The document planned the development of the IT industry in socialist countries up to the year 2010.

In 1985 Ukrainian researchers managed to reverse-engineer the ZX Spectrum chip and built a hardware clone using readily available parts. Over 50 different versions of the Spectrum were created in Eastern Bloc countries over the next few years, including the Hobbit, Baltica, Pentagon, Scorpion, Leningrad, Didaktik (Czechoslovakia), Spectral (East Germany) and Cobra (Romania).

In 1985 the computer industry of Bulgaria exported computer hardware to over 20 countries, manufacturing personal computers, word processing terminals and memory tapes and disks. At its peak, the country provided 40% of computers in the Comecon area.

After the collapse of Comecon in 1989, the computer hardware sector in its former member countries could not compete with foreign manufacturers, and virtually disappeared. Tens of thousands of IT scientists and engineers migrated to Western Europe for employment, not always in fields related to their expertise.

Unified System project
ES EVM (ЕС ЭВМ, Единая система электронных вычислительных машин, meaning "Unified System of Electronic Computers") was a series of clones of IBM's System/360 and System/370 mainframes. The objective of the project, which was also known as Ryad ('series'), was to create a general purpose computer for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Initially announced as a Soviet venture in 1967, in 1969 it became an international project, involving Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary and Poland. Romania and Cuba joined the project in 1973.

The first models entered serial production in 1972. According to CIA sources, by 1975 the Comecon countries had managed to build only 10% to 15% of the anticipated number of ES computers. Production continued until 1995. The total number of ES EVM mainframes produced was more than 15,000.

In the period from 1986 to 1997, a series of PC-compatible desktop computers, called ПЭВМ ЕС ЭВМ (Personal Computers of ES EVM series), was also produced; the newer versions of these computers are still produced under a different name on a very limited scale in Minsk.

Small Machines System project
SM EVM (СМ ЭВМ, Система Малых ЭВМ, meaning "System of Small Electronic Computers") was an intergovernmental program for creating minicomputers, run by the Ministry of Instrument Making. The program initially included two major architectural lines based on DEC PDP-11 architecture and HP 2100 architecture. Later the program included a family of DEC VAX compatible computers and Multibus based microcomputers. Minicomputers developed within the framework of the program were intended for use as computer based control systems, measuring and computing systems and workstations for CAD systems. As in the case of ES EVM, the program began as a Soviet venture and in 1974 became an international project involving Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Cuba, East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Romania.

TPA
TPA (Tárolt Programú Analizátor, meaning "Stored-Program Analyser") was a Hungarian product line of computers. It could not be referred as a computer, though, as computers were meant to be produced by the Soviet Union. The project started based on the freely available manuals of DEC PDP-8 in 1966 and products made available in 1968. TPAs were 100% software compatible with their original counterparts. The project remained highly popular for about 25 years. PDP-11 compatible TPAs appeared in 1976, VAX-11 compatibles in 1983.

Due to CoCom restrictions 32 bit computers could not be exported to the Eastern Bloc. In practice 32-bit DEC computes and processors were available. Those were rebranded as TPA.


text:
Talk:Abarimon

Most Hindus never heard of any such thing - Hemanshu 22:26, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

True. I agree w. Hemanshu. In all my life, I have never heard of this. I came across this in the Encyclopedia Mythica over at pantheon.org.

title: Talk:Abarimon


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User talk:MoNo

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User talk:Santhosh

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RE: kudos
Thanks. Cyberia23 07:15, 18 November 2006 (UTC)

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Henry Koster

Henry Koster (born Hermann Kosterlitz, May 1, 1905 – September 21, 1988) was a German-born film director. He was the husband of actress Peggy Moran.

Early life
Koster was born to Jewish parents in Berlin, Germany. He was introduced to cinema around the year 1910 when his uncle opened a movie theater in Berlin. Koster's mother played the piano to accompany the films, leaving the young boy to occupy himself by watching the films. After working initially as a short story writer, Kosterlitz was hired by a Berlin movie company as scenarist, becoming an assistant to director Curtis Bernhardt. Bernhardt became sick one day and asked Kosterlitz to take over as director.

Career
In 1932, Koster directed his first film in Berlin, the comedy Thea Roland. Koster, who was in the midst of directing his second film Das häßliche Mädchen, had been the subject of antisemitism, and knew he had to leave. He lost his temper at an SA officer at his bank during lunch hour and knocked the officer out. When the film, written by Koster with Felix Joachimson, had its premiere in autumn 1933 their names were deleted and both went into exile.

Koster left Germany for France, where he was rehired by Bernhardt (who had left earlier). Eventually Koster went to Budapest and met and married Kató Király in 1934. In Budapest he met Joe Pasternak again, who represented Universal in Europe, and directed three films for him. One of those films was Catherine the Last after a script by Joachimson and Károly Nóti that was remade in 1938 by Norman Taurog as The Girl Downstairs, both versions starring Franciska Gaal. In 1935 Koster received a letter from his friend Gabriel Levy, who asked him to direct a Dutch picture. Unwilling to move to the Netherlands, Koster cabled him "I'm sorry, I'm terribly busy. Besides, I'm now charging a salary which is too much for your small production. If you want to know what my salary is, I make 25.000 dollars for a picture." To his great surprise, Levy cabled him back agreeing to pay him the amount. Thus Koster ended up directing De Kribbebijter, released internationally as The Cross-Patch.

In 1936 Koster got a contract to work with Universal Pictures in Hollywood, and he traveled to the United States to work with Pasternak, other refugees and his wife. Although Koster did not speak English, he convinced the studio to let him make Three Smart Girls, for which he personally coached 14-year-old star Deanna Durbin. This picture, a big success, pulled Universal out of bankruptcy. Koster's second Universal film, One Hundred Men and a Girl, with Durbin and Leopold Stokowski also was successful.

Koster discovered Abbott and Costello working at a nightclub in New York. He returned to Hollywood and convinced Universal to hire them. Their first picture, which featured the Who's On First? routine, was One Night in the Tropics. The female lead, Peggy Moran, became Koster's second wife in 1942. When he married Moran, Koster promised her he would put her in every movie he made. He did, but it was her statue. Usually it is a sculptured head on a mantelpiece or a piano or desk. For The Robe, he commissioned a Grecian bust which appears prominently in a Roman villa.

Henry Koster went on to do numerous musicals and family comedies during the late 1930s and early 1940s, with Durbin, Betty Grable, and other musical stars of the era. He and Joe Pasternak filmed a successful screen test for Universal's newest singing star, Gloria Jean, but Koster would never direct one of her features; when Pasternak left Universal for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in June 1941, Koster went with him. Ironically, despite Koster's escape from Nazi Germany, when the United States entered World War II Koster was considered an enemy alien and had to stay in his house in the evening. Actor Charles Laughton would visit Koster and play chess with him.

Koster's postwar career was equally successful. He was nominated for an Academy Award for The Bishop's Wife (1947). In 1950, he directed the James Stewart comedy Harvey. He directed Richard Burton's first U.S. film, My Cousin Rachel, and then in 1953, he was given The Robe, the first CinemaScope film, and Koster's biggest box office hit. He directed more costume dramas, including Désirée (1954) with Marlon Brando, The Virgin Queen (1955) with Bette Davis, The Naked Maja (1958) with Ava Gardner and The Story of Ruth (1960) with Elana Eden, then returned to family comedies and musicals, including Flower Drum Song for Universal in 1961. His last picture was The Singing Nun in 1965. Koster retired to Leisure Village in Camarillo, California, where he painted a series of portraits of the movie stars with whom he worked.

Although Koster never won an Oscar, he directed six different actors in Oscar-nominated performances: Cecil Kellaway, Loretta Young, Celeste Holm, Elsa Lanchester, Josephine Hull, James Stewart and Richard Burton. Hull won the Oscar for Harvey.

He died of liver cancer.

Some of Koster's home movies are part of the collection of the Academy Film Archive. The archive has preserved a number of these home movies, including behind-the-scenes footage from some of Koster's films.

Screenwriter

 * The Great Opportunity (1925)
 * The Woman from Berlin (1925)
 * Orphan of Lowood (1926)
 * Children's Souls Accuse You (1927)
 * One Plus One Equals Three (1927)
 * Prinz Louis Ferdinand (1927)
 * The Last Fort (1928)
 * Sinful and Sweet (1929)
 * German Wine (1929)
 * Diary of a Coquette (1929)
 * The Last Company (1930)
 * The Indictment (1931)
 * The Man Who Murdered (1931)
 * Woman in the Jungle (1931)
 * I'll Stay with You (1931)
 * Reckless Youth (1931)
 * Who Takes Love Seriously? (1931)
 * The Rebel (1932)
 * Gypsies of the Night (1932)
 * Five from the Jazz Band (1932)
 * The Tunnel (1933)
 * Toto (1933)
 * The Weaker Sex (1933)
 * Polish Blood (1934)
 * The Switched Bride (1934)
 * The Brenken Case (1934)
 * Moscow Nights (1934)
 * The Double (1934)
 * Gold in the Street (1934)
 * Ball at the Savoy (1935)

Director

 * Thea Roland (1932)
 * Das häßliche Mädchen (1933)
 * Peter (1934)
 * The Cross-Patch (1935)
 * The Homely Girl (1935)
 * The Affairs of Maupassant (1935)
 * Catherine the Last (1936)
 * Three Smart Girls (1936)
 * One Hundred Men and a Girl (1937)
 * The Rage of Paris (1938)
 * Three Smart Girls Grow Up (1939)
 * First Love (1939)
 * Spring Parade (1940)
 * It Started with Eve (1941)
 * Music for Millions (1944)
 * Two Sisters from Boston (1946)
 * The Bishop's Wife (1947)
 * The Unfinished Dance (1947)
 * The Luck of the Irish (1948)
 * Come to the Stable (1949)
 * My Blue Heaven (1950)
 * Harvey (1950)
 * Wabash Avenue (1950)
 * Mr. Belvedere Rings the Bell (1951)
 * No Highway in the Sky (1951)
 * My Cousin Rachel (1952)
 * Stars and Stripes Forever (1952)
 * The Robe (1953)
 * Désirée (1954)
 * A Man Called Peter (1955)
 * The Virgin Queen (1955)
 * Good Morning, Miss Dove (1955)
 * D-Day the Sixth of June (1956)
 * The Power and the Prize (1956)
 * My Man Godfrey (1957)
 * Fräulein (1958)
 * The Naked Maja (1958)
 * The Story of Ruth (1960)
 * Flower Drum Song (1961)
 * Mr. Hobbs Takes a Vacation (1962)
 * Take Her, She's Mine (1963)
 * Dear Brigitte (1965)
 * The Singing Nun (1966)

title: Henry Koster


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Wye (rail)

In railroad structures and rail terminology, a wye (like the 'Y' glyph) or triangular junction (often shortened to just triangle) is a triangular joining arrangement of three rail lines with a railroad switch (set of points) at each corner connecting to the incoming lines. A turning wye is a specific case. Where two rail lines join, or where a spur diverges from a railroad's mainline, wyes can be used at a mainline rail junction to allow incoming trains to travel in either direction.

Wyes can also be used for turning railway equipment, and generally cover less area than a balloon loop doing the same job, but at the cost of two additional sets of points to construct and then maintain. These turnings are accomplished by performing the railway equivalent of a three-point turn through successive junctions of the wye. The direction of travel and the relative orientation of a locomotive or railway vehicle thus can be reversed. Where a wye is built specifically for equipment reversing purposes, one or more of the tracks making up the junction will typically be a stub siding.

Tram or streetcar tracks also make use of triangular junctions and sometimes have a short triangle or wye stubs to turn the car at the end of the line.

At junctions
The use of triangular junctions allows flexibility in routing trains from any line to either of the two other paths, without the need to reverse the train. For this reason they are common across most rail networks. A slower train may be signaled to temporarily enter a wye (as a refuge siding in lieu of a passing loop) for a meet with an oncoming train, or to allow a faster one to overtake, and then reverse out to continue in the original direction.

Where one or more of the lines forming the junction are multi-track, the presence of a triangular junction does introduce a number of potential conflicting moves. For this reason, where traffic is heavy the triangle may incorporate flying junctions on some of the legs.

For turning equipment
From time to time it is necessary to turn both individual pieces of railroad equipment or whole trains. This may be because the piece of equipment is not directionally symmetrical, for example, most steam locomotives and some diesel locomotives, or where the consist has a dedicated tail end car such as an observation car. Even where equipment is symmetrical, periodic turning may still be necessary in order to equalize wear (e.g., on the London Underground's Circle Line).

Several different techniques can be used to achieve such turning. Turntables require the least space, but can generally only deal with a single piece of equipment at a time. Balloon or turning loops can turn trains of any length — up to the total length of the loop — in a single operation, but require far more space than wyes. Rail wyes can be constructed on sites where a loop would not be possible, and can turn trains up to the length of the stub tracks at the end of the wye.

Railroad systems in North America and Australia have tended to have more wyes than railroads elsewhere. North American locomotives and cars (such as observation cars) are more likely to be directional than those found on other continents. In Canada and the United States, the railroad often was built before other structures, and railway builders had much more freedom to lay down tracks where they wished. Similarly, when not constrained by space limitations many early Australian railways made use of wyes (particularly in rural locations) for their lower installation and maintenance costs; however, their necessity and use diminished from the 1960s onwards with the major trend in most states toward bidirectional locomotives and railcars.

In Europe, although some use was made of bi-directional tank locomotives and push–pull trains, most steam locomotives were uni-directional. Because of land usage considerations, turntables were normally used to turn such locomotives, and most terminal stations and locomotive depots were so equipped. Over time, most diesel and electric locomotives ordered in Europe have been designed to be fully bi-directional and normally with two driving cabs. Thus most rail wyes, where they existed, and turntables have been taken out of use.

Streetcar or tram systems
Similar considerations as for mainline rail systems apply to the use of triangular junctions and reversing wyes on streetcar and tram systems. Many, although by no means all, streetcar and tram systems use single ended vehicles that have doors on one side only, and that must be turned at each end of the route.

However, the vehicles used on such systems tend to have much smaller minimum curvature requirements than heavy rail equipment. This renders the use of a balloon loop more practical in a small amount of space, and with street-running vehicles such a loop may be able to use side streets or street squares. However, although turning loops are the most common way of turning such vehicles, wye tracks are also sometimes used.

Disadvantages
A triangle may have a situational disadvantage in train operations when space constraints of the local geography cause one leg of triangle to bypass a main station. In tight city environments, this can happen easily, as it did, for example, at Cootamundra West, Australia and Tecuci, Romania, where extra passenger stations had to be built to serve trains taking the shortcut.

In contrast, the engineering of a terminus station such as Woodville Railway Station, New Zealand avoided this problem by building a balloon loop (reversing loop) so that trains can serve the main station in either direction without the need to reverse. In a midline station where it is desired to reverse a consist or locomotive, a double-track and turning wye arrangement is far more common.

Land usage
The land within a triangle is cut off from the adjacent area (and normally fenced off) and has marginal commercial value, so will be purposed mainly for the railway's exclusive use – generally being used for maintenance depots, storage, or vehicle parking. On electrified lines substations tend to be located inside triangles, in part because the land is cheap, and also because it provides the most convenient and flexible sectioning arrangements.

Earliest examples
The earliest British (and possibly worldwide) example is the double-tracked triangle within Earlestown railway station on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which was completed by the Grand Junction Railway in 1837. The triangle has two passenger platform faces on each of its three sides and five of the six platforms are in frequent (half-hourly, etc.) use by passenger trains. When steam engines were in regular use the triangle (which is of course also traversed by freight trains) was also used to turn locomotives, and can still be so used.

An earlier example may be on the Cromford and High Peak Railway, which had been opened in 1831 as a horse-drawn railway. This appears to have been used for reversing trains of wagons with end doors that have just come up the rope-hauled inclines to the highest level of the railway before they proceeded down the remaining inclines. The site of this can still be seen near Hindlow, in Derbyshire. (National Grid location .).

Australia
Sefton railway station in Sydney lies on one corner of a triangular junction, which allows trains to branch off in either direction without the need to terminate or change ends. One train a day from Birrong to Sefton does terminate and reverse at Regents Park station (in order to clean the rust off the crossover rails). There is a goods branch from Chullora and, in the future, the possibility of a separate single track freight line. The three passenger stations at the vertices of the triangle have island platforms making it convenient to change trains. The sharp curves of the triangle, and especially the turnouts on those sharp curves, restrict train speeds to between 10 and 50 km/h. Near Hamilton station on the Central Coast and Newcastle line there is a wye for freight trains and regional trains. This puts them directly on the main northern line

A number of triangular junctions were built on the Victorian Railways network, both at major junctions, and for turning locomotives and train consists in places where the provision of a turntable was impractical or unnecessarily expensive. These included:
 * Wodonga – Built on the junction of the Cudgewa Line and used to turn the consists of the Sydney Limited and Spirit of Progress trains.
 * Ararat
 * North Geelong – built to allow trains to travel directly between Geelong, Ballarat or Melbourne without using a run-around or turntable. It was also used to turn trains, such as during the demonstration run of the Spirit of Progress in 1937.

A triangular junction is used to turn tramcars on the Portland Cable Tram line in Portland, Victoria.

Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland two triangular junctions are in use. One is at Limerick Junction, and the other at Lavistown, near Kilkenny. The former allows direct Limerick–Dublin passenger trains to bypass the Limerick Junction station, and is also occasionally used to turn steam locomotives on railtours, whilst the latter is used primarily by freight trains running between the Port of Waterford and County Mayo to avoid having to run around in Kilkenny station. In Belfast, Northern Ireland, a triangular junction exists at Grand Central station. It is rarely used to turn locomotives, save the occasional steam engine. It is only used for out of service trains. Commuter trains enter the junction from one direction (e.g., the Portadown line), stop at Grand Central, and then continue out on the other direction towards Bangor station. Commuter trains on NI Railways are all diesel multiple unit railcars, so they do not need to use the junction as a turning method.

The only other operational triangular junction in Ireland is Downpatrick Loop on the Downpatrick and County Down Railway. Originally constructed to allow direct Belfast–Newcastle trains to bypass Downpatrick station, the triangle forms the basis of a heritage railway, the only heritage railway of this type in the British Isles. There is one station at each end of the triangle and another in the southernmost corner.

Historical triangular junctions in Ireland include Moyasta Junction on the West Clare line, the Monkstown/Greenisland/Bleach Green triangle on the Northern Counties Committee and Bundoran Junction on the Great Northern Railway. Though two sides of the former are still in mainline use, the "back line" between Monkstown and Greenisland has been removed, whilst the latter was closed altogether in 1957. Additionally, the Great Northern's largest locomotive yard at Adelaide never had a turntable, using a dedicated turning triangle instead.

The Luas tram system has a triangular junction on the Red Line between the stations of Busáras, Connolly and George's Dock. The line that goes between George's Dock and Connolly is never used, as no trams operate between The Point and Connolly.

Italy
Railways in Italy used a number of for turning locomotives. This uses a pentagram layout, requiring four movements and five turnouts to reverse. It allows a smaller layout, without excessively tight curve radii, compared to a triangle.

Some of these still survive, such as at of Carbonia in Sardinia and at Mals or Malles Venosta in Val Venosta in the South Tyrol.

In addition to small terminal stations such as Carbonia and Malles Venosta, inversion stars were also installed at some principal stations such as Verona Porta Nuova and Brenner at the summit of the Brenner Pass.

Namibia
Tsumeb railway station in Namibia has two triangles. The first and smaller one is for turning engines and is near the station. The second and larger one is to bypass the dead-end station at Tsumeb for trains travelling directly between the new extension towards Angola and Windhoek. This direct bypass line can save an hour of shunting time, particularly if the train is longer than the loops in the station.

Switzerland
There is a turning triangle partly tunnelled into the mountain at Kleine Scheidegg at the summit of the 800mm gauge Wengernalpbahn in the Bernese Oberland, Switzerland. Kleine Scheidegg is reached from two lower termini, Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald, located on opposite sides of the col. Trains normally descend in the direction they have arrived from and are designed accordingly with the power unit at the lower end and seating angled to compensate for the gradient. They therefore have to be turned at the summit should it be necessary to make a through journey. Whilst limitations of space dictated that the triangle had to be partly constructed in tunnels it also ensures that in winter it is snow-free and thus readily available in emergencies.

United Kingdom
In Britain triangular layouts that could be used for turning locomotives were usually the result of junctions of two or more lines. There are many examples, including the one known as the Maindee triangle in Newport, South Wales. Here the ex-GWR South Wales mainline from London to Swansea is joined by another GWR line from Shrewsbury via Hereford. The significance of it is that steam-hauled trains can run to Newport and their engines be turned using the triangle. Its National Grid location is. Shrewsbury also has a triangular route formation that was used to turn steam locomotives, and is still available. A triangle,, was provided in 1989 adjacent to the transfer sidings for Wylfa Nuclear Power Station, near to Valley on Anglesey in Wales. This enables the North Wales Coast Line to be used by steam hauled excursions. The turntable at Holyhead has long been removed and the area re-developed; the sidings at Valley some 4 miles (6.4 km) from the terminus are the nearest suitable site.

An unusual arrangement, unique in Britain, was constructed at Grantham. Its location was and it is shown on the 1963 edition of OS 1 inch to 1 mile sheet 113. It was built in the 1950s after the turntable at the locomotive shed failed and expenditure on a replacement was no longer justified. Locomotives requiring to be turned had to travel to Barkston Junction to traverse the triangular layout there (this was where Mallard with a dynamometer car attached was turned before starting out south on its record-breaking run on 3 July 1938). The journey to Barkston Junction and back was a time-consuming business involving a round trip of some 8 mi along the busy East Coast Main Line. Eventually authority was given to construct a turning arrangement on a strip of spare land to the west of the main line, just south of Grantham station. There was insufficient space for a conventional triangle but this was overcome by constructing an "inside-out" triangle whereby the approach tracks intersected in a scissors crossing.

United States
Many North American passenger terminals in large cities had wye tracks to allow the turning and backing of directional passenger trains onto a main line. Freight traffic could bypass the terminal through the wye. Notable examples include the Los Angeles Union Station, which has a double wye, the Saint Paul Union Depot, and the Memphis Union Station.

A typical use for a stub-end passenger station would be as follows: A wye was incorporated at the "throat" where the rows of tracks converged from the station to facilitate the turning of trains. An arriving train came to a stop on the main line after passing the wye. Once the switches on the wye are aligned, the train reversed, with the brakeman at the rear of the last car regulating the speed with the brake lever upon approach to the platform. After coming to a complete stop at the end of the track, passengers were allowed to disembark safely.

Meanwhile, the locomotives could be uncoupled from the train and sent to the engine terminal to be serviced for their next assignment. Then, the head-end cars could be uncoupled from the rest of the train and spotted by a station switcher at the parcel facility where mail and express packages were handled. The departing train was reassembled, freshly cleaned and serviced for the next journey. A steam pipe from the station's steam generator could have been attached to the train's steam line from the rear to supply heat until the locomotives were coupled up front to supply steam.

The train was announced for boarding with a list of destinations. With switches aligned, the train slowly departed to the main line, continuing on its journey or returning toward the direction from which it arrived by rounding the opposite leg from the one it reversed on upon arrival.

The Keddie Wye in Keddie, California, was built by the Western Pacific Railroad and is a remarkable engineering feat. Two sides of the wye are built on tall trestles and one side is in a tunnel bored through solid rock.

The town of Wyeville, Wisconsin, is named after the Union Pacific Railway, formerly the Chicago and North Western Transportation Company wye and crossover nearby.

A primary feature of the Bay Area Rapid Transit system is the Oakland Wye. Located beneath Downtown Oakland, California, the vast majority of the system's trains run through the wye primarily to and from San Francisco with some services running north and south along the East Bay. This section of track is considered a bottleneck for system-wide capacity based on speed restrictions and timing difficulties from distant branch lines.

The southern terminus of the Amtrak Auto Train in Sanford, Florida, uses a wye to turn the locomotives around for the return trip north. A road that crosses the eastern side of the wye allows access to the inner part of the wye where there is a rock supply company.

In Arizona, the Grand Canyon Railway (GCRY) has a wye at both the Williams and South Rim/Grand Canyon Village termini of its line. The train is turned around at the South Rim/Grand Canyon Village wye with the passengers on board. At the Williams end, the train is turned around after the passengers disembark.

The Chowchilla Wye is a primary feature of the planned California High-Speed Rail System. It will allow for transfers from feeder services on the third leg and facilitate more routing options as future phases are completed.

Hammel's Wye is a primary feature of the IND Rockaway Line, serving A and Rockaway Park Shuttle trains all day. The wye was named after a past station, Hammels station.

Convoluted wye
Convoluted wye, turning star or reversing star (Stella di inversione) is a special wye layout used in places where the space is tight. It has a pentagram-like form and consists of five turnouts (versus three for a wye) and three, four or five diamond crossings. Because of this, a reversing star is more expensive to build and service.

It takes four changes of direction of movement to turn a piece of rolling stock on a reversing star.

There was a "star" layout at the summit of the Brenner Pass, on the Austrian–Italian border. It was still there in 1991, covered over with gravel so that market-stalls could function on top.

title: Wye (rail)


text:
Talk:History of computer hardware in Eastern Bloc countries

=Just partial info=

Untitled
A lot of info is missing. Just one example: first, most popular Polish PC is missing(sic). http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meritum_%28komputer%29 Unless this is completely rewritten article - please label it as Article that contains only partial information. As for now grammar is the least of a problem here. Piotr — Preceding unsigned comment added by 199.203.211.148 (talk) 14:19, 17 October 2012 (UTC)

Where are Chinese & North-Korean computers?
I can't believe they have none, especially knowing their quite successful space programs. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.90.165.14 (talk) 11:58, 26 August 2009 (UTC)
 * This article is about computers in Soviet bloc countries; in other words, countries within the USSR. China and North Korea have never been in the USSR. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.223.130.32 (talk) 21:56, 25 October 2016 (UTC)

Phrasing in the title
The Soviet bloc? How about Eastern Europe, Warsaw Pact or something? Zocky 22:34, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Pochemu nyet? There is an Eastern Europe redirect, BTW.

Charles Matthews 22:40, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I moved it to Eastern Europe and someone move dit back, hence the redirect. Secretlondon 22:56, Dec 11, 2003 (UTC)

Matusz 22:30, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * 1) I don't know if the name is proper, please remember to rename links if you move the article.
 * 2) I haven't done much search or research into this subject, please forgive me if the info is biased or incorrect.

 * "Eastern Europe" is just geographical, though. This article specifically concerns a time period as well as a place.  "Warsaw Pact" omits Yugoslavia, which may or may not matter here. Salsa Shark 22:47, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Yes, but Soviet bloc is, at best, a former informal name for countries of the Warsaw Pact. It's like calling the article History of computing behind the iron curtain. Eastern Europe, IMO, say enough, and including Yugoslavia here would be very appropriate. We had many of the same problems. Zocky 22:50, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * How about other communist countries like China and Cuba? they surely are not in Europe. Will they get their own articles on the subject? Matusz 22:53, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I suppose it all depends on whether you want to focus on the region or the political environment. If the latter, I do admit 'Soviet bloc' sounds a bit cold-warrish to me, and 'communist Europe' or 'communist countries' might work better. Salsa Shark 23:06, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I prefer communist countries. Secretlondon 23:07, Dec 11, 2003 (UTC)

 * Make it communist countries then, just rename all links also. Matusz 23:20, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * I moved it and fixed the links. Secretlondon 16:32, Dec 15, 2003 (UTC)

 * It is fairly clearly a Cold War story, though, given the export restrictions imposed at the time. Charles Matthews 15:50, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I don't think communist states, is a right name, exUSSR and it's allies were officialy recognized as socialist states.

Title and content
Well, I am only two years late for this thread, but nevertheless..."Communist countries" here does indeed seem to talk about the USSR and allies otherwise members of Comecon and/or Warsaw Pact. However, Yugoslavia was a communist country that was not a member of either nor was a USSR ally, but it had some very interesting development of its own. I don't know the entire history myself, but many systems existed - Galaksija, CER (photo), Iskra Delta Partner and 800, Orao, Pecom 32/64, Lola 8, Galeb 101, Tim 011 and probably more.

Is it that the name of the article isn't correct as it does not account for China, Cuba, etc. or that it deals with just Comecon? Maybe we should rename and expand the article or make it an introduction and break away pieces into sub-articles?

--Aleksandar Šušnjar 15:53, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

Anybody here interested in helping solve this issue? Here are the things that need to be fixed (some exclude others):

 * 1) Article can be renamed to reflect its content (must be careful to include all relevant countries):
 * 2) "History of computer hardware in USSR" (implies only one country)
 * 3) "History of computer hardware in Warsaw Pact countries" (implies military)
 * 4) "History of computer hardware in Comecon countries" (implies trade agreement, possibly too many countries)
 * 5) "History of computer hardware in Soviet Bloc countries" (probably the best, my favourite)
 * 6) Something else - please suggest.
 * 7) If article is renamed, a new article of current name is created not as a redirect but as a starting point to all relevant sub-articles.
 * 8) Article is not renamed but content is updated:
 * 9) Introduction must be essentially rewritten. Sentence "Since Communist party propaganda maintained..." needs to be changed to state that such thing did not appear in all Communist countries (e.g. SFRY). Where was this applicable? Same thing applies to the following sentence - metric inches. SFRY did have its own computers but also legally imported those from the West. On the other hand, SFRY did have strict import limitation laws.
 * 10) A section on SFRY can then be added. A number of articles already exist: CER-10, CER-20, Galaksija, but there are more to be added. See my planned articles.
 * 11) Perhaps the article can then be further structured, i.e. to separate Soviet block from the other countries, etc. if need arises.

Please comment. If noone oposes I will proceed to rename this article and do related changes as per above.

--Aleksandar Šušnjar 21:44, 23 March 2006 (UTC)

Noone seemed interested ... renamed the article from "History of computer hardware in communist countries" to "History of computer hardware in Soviet Bloc countries", adjusted the content slightly and, re-linked links that really relate directly to this article.

--Aleksandar Šušnjar 17:31, 29 March 2006 (UTC)

Overview missing
I think we need someone who has an overview. I've added a little about Robotron, but I've no idea how to verify if the Polish ones were the first, or not. I suspect POV but it may be true. Secretlondon 22:56, Dec 11, 2003 (UTC)

 * Internet says that Odra 1203 was built in 1963 and manufacturing started in 1964. I was not able to track any Robotron computers earlier than 1977. Maybe deeper search is needed. Matusz 23:18, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * I've found one - an R 100 (1963) from Secretlondon 23:26, Dec 11, 2003 (UTC)

 * same page: PRL - 1960, same year Odra 1001 was designed. Matusz 23:39, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * We should probably check to see if they were different computers - and not just badged differently. Secretlondon 23:42, Dec 11, 2003 (UTC)

OPREMA computer produced by Carl Zeiss Jena VEB in 1954. ZRA 1 (also from Carl Zeiss Jena) 1956. 1963 R100 (Robotron) From [. This source claims that the GDR's first computer was the OPREMA. [[User:Secretlondon|Secretlondon]] 15:42, Dec 15, 2003 (UTC)

Poland
Odra — Preceding unsigned comment added by Secretlondon (talk • contribs) Dec 15, 2003

Don't forget the R32. HughesJohn (talk) 10:24, 5 September 2011 (UTC)

GDR
Robotron R100 1963 Carl Zeiss Jena 1954 OPREMA, ZRA1 1956 — Preceding unsigned comment added by Secretlondon (talk • contribs) Dec 15, 2003

Hungary
Videoton - 1970 production working with Bull and DataProducts — Preceding unsigned comment added by Secretlondon (talk • contribs) Dec 15, 2003

Here is a page about Videoton computers: http://retropages.uw.hu/Videoton.html —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.183.183.150 (talk) 21:47, 22 February 2010 (UTC)

USSR
I first read about Strela in IEEE Spectrum in the 1970s. Ancheta Wis 06:04, 8 May 2004 (UTC)

Metric Inch
What is a metric inch??? Inches aren't metric! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.94.167.145 (talk • contribs) 26 June 2007

"Metric inch" is a name given to a measure unit equivalent to 2.5 cm, instead of the 2.54 cm of an inch. Whether the term is good or not, it has been used quite widely.--Gorpik (talk) 12:12, 16 May 2008 (UTC)

Cleanup
The tone and grammar of this article warrant serious revision (missing words, word order, etc.) Dustybunny (talk) 23:41, 9 December 2007 (UTC)

Workstations
It seems there were no workstations in the Soviet Bloc. Is that true? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Trasz (talk • contribs) 21:27, 29 January 2008 (UTC)
 * This article is incomplete.--Dojarca (talk) 11:20, 12 May 2009 (UTC)

What's the scope of this article?
If it's for large computers, then it should include ES EVM, SM EVM, Setun, Ural, BESM. If it's for personal computers, it should include Elektronika-60, DVK, Elektronika BK, UKNC, Agat, Korvet.--Dojarca (talk) 11:07, 12 May 2009 (UTC)

Arcade machines
I have added a link about a museum of Soviet arcade machines that you may use to add information about them. --Error (talk) 23:34, 30 January 2010 (UTC)

Illegally copied
Was it illegal according the local laws or only according to Western laws? Are there court decisions and/or precedents considering legality? Did the western companies try to pursue their interests in the courts on the eastern block countries? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Anuclanus (talk • contribs) 10:15, 5 September 2011 (UTC)

 * I agree. The statement is not neutral. I have tagged it so that editors may provide input here. --Joshua Issac (talk) 22:16, 21 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Will remove. I believe was legal under Soviet law- at any rate was done by/for the government. The source given is CIA!178.176.2.180 (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 16:36, 24 May 2012 (UTC).

In Soviet Russia ...
Computer programs YOU! 69.125.234.112 (talk) 00:29, 4 October 2012 (UTC)
 * RIMSHOT! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.223.130.32 (talk) 21:58, 25 October 2016 (UTC)

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text:
Green Hailey

Green Hailey is a hamlet in the parish of Great and Little Hampden, in Buckinghamshire, England. It is located to the west of the main village of Great Hampden. The hamlet, as of the early 21st century, includes essentially just two cottages and a farm. It was farmed in the late 19th century by Richard Paxton, together with his wife Mary, who together had seven children.

Relay station
Green Hailey was the site of an experimental relay station for television in 1949.

title: Green Hailey


text:
User:Jimigene

Any CollegeAmerica student will find Wikipedia a useful resource.

title: User:Jimigene


text:
Leeching

Leeching may refer to:
 * Leeching (medical), also called Hirudotherapy, the use of leeches for bloodletting or medical therapy
 * Leeching (computing), using others' information or effort without providing anything in return
 * Image leeching, direct linking to an object, such as an image, on a remote site

title: Leeching


text:
369th Infantry Regiment (United States)

The 369th Infantry Regiment, originally formed as the 15th New York National Guard Regiment before it was re-organized as the 369th upon its federalization and commonly referred to as the Harlem Hellfighters, was an infantry regiment of the New York Army National Guard during World War I and World War II. The regiment mainly consisted of African Americans, but it also included men from Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guyana, Liberia, Portugal, Canada, the West Indies, as well as white American officers. With the 370th Infantry Regiment, it was known for being one of the first African-American regiments to serve with the American Expeditionary Forces during World War I.

The regiment was named the Black Rattlers after arriving in France by its commander Colonel William Hayward. The nickname Men of Bronze (Hommes de Bronze) was given to the regiment by the French after they had witnessed the gallantry of the Americans fighting in the trenches. Legend has it that they were called the Hellfighters (Höllenkämpfer) by the German enemy, although there is no documentation of this and the moniker may have been a creation of the American press. During World War I, the 369th spent 191 days in front line trenches, more than any other American unit. They also suffered the most losses of any American regiment, with 1,500 casualties. The regiment was also the first of the Allied forces to cross the Rhine into Germany.

Background

On 5 October 1917, Emmett Jay Scott, long-time secretary to Booker T. Washington, was appointed Special Assistant to Newton D. Baker, the Secretary of War. Scott was to serve as a confidential advisor in situations that involved the well-being of ten million African Americans and their roles in the war. While many African Americans who served in the Great War believed racial discrimination would dissipate once they returned home, that did not happen. Racism in the United States is considered to have been among the worst instances between the First and Second World Wars.

Although many African Americans were eager to fight in the war, they were often turned away from military service. When the United States realized that it did not have close to enough soldiers, it decided to pass the Selective Service Act of 1917 which required all men from the ages of 21 to 30 to register for the draft; this included African Americans. Many African Americans enlisted believing that their military service would give them the opportunity to change the way they were perceived by white Americans.

The 369th Regiment was reformed from the National Guard's 15th Regiment in New York. The 15th New York National Guard was a state militia regiment which served to help suppress the 1863 New York City draft riots and was mustered into federal service for 30 days in June 1864, providing manpower for Army posts in the New York Harbor. The 15th Regiment was reconstituted after Charles S. Whitman was elected Governor of New York. He enforced the legislation that was passed due to the efforts of the 10th Cavalry in Mexico, which had passed as a law that had not manifested until June 2 1913.

When the U.S. entered World War I, many African Americans believed that entering the armed forces would help eliminate racial discrimination throughout the United States. Many felt it was "a God-sent blessing" so they could prove they deserved respect from white Americans through service in the armed forces. On the other hand, many were forced through false promises of freedom and equality. Through the efforts of the Central Committee of Negro College Men and President Wilson, a special training camp to train black officers for the proposed black regiments was established.

Formation
The 369th Infantry Regiment was constituted on 2 June 1913 in the New York Army National Guard as the 15th New York Infantry Regiment. The 369th Infantry was organized on 29 June 1916 at New York City.

The infantry was called into Federal service on 25 July 1917 at Camp Whitman, New York. While at Camp Whitman, the 369th Infantry learned basic military practices. After their training at Camp Whitman, the 369th was called into active duty in New York. While in New York, the 369th's three battalions were spread throughout New York where they guarded rail lines, construction sites, and other camps.

Then on 8 October 1917 the Regiment traveled to Camp Wadsworth in Spartanburg, South Carolina, where they received training in actual combat. Camp Wadsworth was set up similar to the French battlefields. While at Camp Wadsworth they experienced significant racism from the local communities and from other units. There was one incident in which two soldiers from the 15th Regiment, Lieutenant James Reese Europe and Noble Sissle, were refused by the owner of a hotel shop when they attempted to buy a newspaper. Several soldiers from the white 27th Division, a New York National Guard organization, came to stand with and support their fellow New York soldiers. Lieutenant Europe, however, directed them to leave before violence erupted. There were many other shops that refused to sell goods to the members of the 15th Regiment, so members of the 27th Division told the shop owners that if they did not serve black soldiers that they can close their stores and leave town. The white soldiers then stated "They're our buddies. And we won't buy from men who treat them unfairly."

The 15th Infantry Regiment NYARNG was assigned on 1 December 1917 to the 185th Infantry Brigade. It was commanded by Col. William Hayward, a member of the Union League Club of New York, which sponsored the 369th in the tradition of the 20th U.S. Colored Infantry, which the club had sponsored in the U.S. Civil War. The 15th Infantry Regiment shipped out from the New York Port of Embarkation on 27 December 1917, and joined its brigade upon arrival in France. Despite its designation and training as an infantry regiment, the unit was relegated to labor service duties in France instead of being assigned a combat mission.

The 15th Infantry Regiment, NYARNG was reorganized and re-designated on 1 March 1918 as the 369th Infantry Regiment, but the unit continued labor service duties while it awaited a decision as to its future.

Assignment to the French Army

Because of the U.S. Army's policy of continued segregation between African American and White units, it was decided on the 8th of April, 1918, to reassign the unit to the 16th Division of the 4th Army of the French Armed Forces for the duration of American participation in the war. Eventually the 369th Infantry were issued French weapons, helmets, belts, and pouches, although they continued to wear their U.S. uniforms. While in the United States, the Regiment was subjected to intense racial discrimination, and its members looked down upon. French Colonel Jean Louis Albert Linard of the American Expeditionary Forces headquarters was persuaded to write the notorious pamphlet Secret Information Concerning Black American Troops, which "warned" French civilian authorities of the alleged inferior nature and supposed racist tendencies of African Americans.

The 369th was largely treated similarly to other French units at the time. The regiment was not segregated from other French units, and generally faced little racial discrimination. Prior to the 369th's integration, the French army had included many colonial units with non-white personnel, many from Morocco and Senegal. Having also faced severe manpower shortages, French soldiers shared less concern for race than Americans.

The 369th Infantry Regiment was relieved 8 May 1918 from assignment to the 185th Infantry Brigade and went into the trenches as part of the French 16th Division. It served continuously until 3 July before returning to combat in the Second Battle of the Marne. Later, the 369th was reassigned to Gen. Lebouc's 161st Division to participate in the Allied counterattack. On one tour, they were out for over six months, which was the longest deployment of any unit in World War I. On 19 August, the regiment went off the line for rest and training of replacements.

While overseas, the Hellfighters saw enemy propaganda intended for them. It claimed Germans had done nothing wrong to African Americans, and they should be fighting the USA, which had oppressed them for years. It had the opposite of the intended effect.

On 25 September 1918, the French 4th Army went on the offensive in conjunction with the American drive in the Meuse–Argonne. The 369th turned in a good account in heavy fighting, though they sustained severe losses. The unit captured the important village of Séchault. At one point the 369th advanced faster than French troops on their right and left flanks and risked being cut off. By the time the regiment pulled back for reorganization, it had advanced 14 km through severe German resistance.

In mid-October the regiment was moved to a quiet sector in the Vosges, and was stationed there on 11 November, the day of the Armistice. Six days later, the 369th made its last advance and on 26 November, reaching the banks of the river Rhine and becoming the first Allied unit to do so. The regiment was relieved on 12 December 1918 from assignment to the French 161st Division. When the regiment attempted to travel home onboard the USS Virginia, the ship's captain, Henry Joseph Ziegemeier, had them removed "on the grounds that no blacks had ever traveled on an American battleship." It returned to the New York Port of Embarkation and was demobilized on 28 February 1919 at Camp Upton at Yaphank, New York, and returned to the New York Army National Guard.

Honors
One Medal of Honor and numerous Distinguished Service Crosses were awarded to members of the regiment.

Pvt. Henry Johnson, a former rail station porter from Albany, New York, earned widespread acclaim in the 369th for his extraordinary feats in combat in France, leading to the moniker "Black Death." In May 1918, Johnson and Pvt. Needham Roberts valiantly repelled a 24-man German patrol, despite both sustaining severe injuries. Amidst the chaos, Johnson directed Roberts to alert the French units about the approaching enemy, but Roberts returned under gunfire. Together, they fought until a German grenade incapacitated Roberts. Undeterred, Johnson took it upon himself to maintain the defensive line and shield his comrade. With depleted ammunition, Johnson engaged the enemy using grenades, the rifle butt, and eventually a bolo knife. Reports suggest Johnson may have slain at least four German soldiers and wounded around 30 others, enduring at least 21 injuries himself. Recognizing their valor, over 100 men from the 369th received American and/or French decorations, with Johnson becoming the first American to be awarded the Croix de Guerre.

On 13 December 1918, one month after Armistice Day, the French government awarded the Croix de Guerre to 170 individual members of the 369th, and a unit citation was awarded to the entire regiment. It was pinned to the unit's colors by General Lebouc.

One of the first units in the United States armed forces to have black officers in addition to all-black enlisted men, the 369th could boast of a fine combat record, a regimental Croix de Guerre, and several unit citations, along with many individual decorations for valor from the French government. Nevertheless, the poor replacement system —coupled with no respite from the line — took its toll, leaving the unit utterly exhausted by the armistice in November. The 369th Infantry Regiment was the first New York unit to return to the United States, and was the first unit to march up Fifth Avenue from the Washington Square Park Arch to their armory in Harlem. Their unit was placed on the permanent list with other veteran units.

Arthur W. Little, who had been a battalion commander for the 369th, wrote in the regimental history From Harlem to the Rhine, it was official that the outfit was 191 days under fire, never lost a foot of ground or had a man taken prisoner; on two occasions men were captured, but were recovered. Only once did it fail to take its objective and that was due largely to bungling by French artillery support.

By the end of the 369th Infantry's campaign in World War, I they were present in the Champagne – Marne, Meuse – Argonne, Champagne 1918, Alsace 1918 campaigns in which they suffered 1,500 casualties, the highest of any U.S. regiment. In addition, the unit was plagued by acute discipline problems resulting from disproportionate casualties among the unit's longest-serving members and related failures to assimilate new soldiers. The 369th also fought in distinguished battles such as Belleau Wood and Chateau-Thierry.

369th Regiment Military Band
The 369th Regiment "Hellfighters Band" was relied upon not only in battle but also for morale. So, by the end of their tour, they became one of the most famous military bands throughout Europe. They followed the 369th overseas and were highly regarded and known for being able to immediately boost morale. While overseas the 369th Regiment made up less than 1% of the soldiers deployed but was responsible for over 20% of the territory of all the land assigned to the United States. During the war the 369th's regimental band (under the direction of James Reese Europe) became famous throughout Europe by introducing the until-then unknown music called jazz to the British, French and other European audiences.

At the end of the war, the 369th returned to New York City, and on 17 February 1919, paraded through the city. This day became an unofficial holiday of sorts for all of Harlem. Many black school children were dismissed from school so that they could attend the parade. With the addition of many adults there were thousands of people that lined the streets to see the 369th Regiment: the parade began on Fifth Avenue at 61st Street, proceeded uptown past ranks of white bystanders, turned west on 110th Street, and then turned onto Lenox Avenue, and marched into Harlem, where black New Yorkers packed the sidewalks to see them. The parade became a marker of African American service to the nation, a frequent point of reference for those campaigning for civil rights. There were multiple parades that took place throughout the nation, many of these parades included all black regiments, including the 370th from Illinois. Then in the 1920s and 1930s, the 369th was a regular presence on Harlem's streets, each year marching through the neighborhood from their armory to catch a train to their annual summer camp, and then back through the neighborhood on their return two weeks later.

Tap dancer and actor Bill Robinson is frequently claimed to have been the drum major for the regimental band during the homecoming parade on Fifth Avenue upon the 369th's return from overseas. This has however been questioned as it is not mentioned in either his biography by Jim Haskins or the biography of James Europe.

Coast Artillery
After World War I, the regiment was reorganized in the New York National Guard as the 369th Infantry, and its headquarters was federally recognized on September 6, 1924. In 1938, Benjamin O. Davis Sr. became the regimental commander, and he led a reorganization that resulted in the fielding of the 369th Coast Artillery Regiment in 1940. The regiment was activated for federal service in 1941 as the U.S. Army expanded during preparations for entry into World War II.

The 369th Coast Artillery was broken up in December 1943 as Follows:

Headquarters Detachment, 1st Battalion, as Headquarters Battery, 369th Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion Headquarters Detachment, 2d Battalion, as Headquarters Battery, 870th Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion

The remainder of the regiment was reorganized as: Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 369th Antiaircraft Artillery Group; 726th Antiaircraft Artillery Searchlight Battery; and elements of the 369th Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion and 870th Antiaircraft Artillery Automatic Weapons Battalion.

World War II
On 15 May 1942, the 369th Infantry Regiment was re-established as an element of the 93rd Infantry Division (Colored) in the Army of the United States; as a result, this iteration of the 369th Infantry does not have any lineal connection with the 15th New York established before World War I and that is still active in the present day. It was deployed overseas and participated in labor and security operations in the Southwest Pacific Area. The 369th, along with the rest of the 93rd Infantry Division, occupied Morotai in Dutch New Guinea from April to June 1945, seeing limited combat. The division redeployed to Zamboanga in the Philippines on 1 July 1945, where it conducted "mop up" patrols until the Japanese surrendered on 15 August. The 369th left the Philippines with the division on 17 January 1946, returning to the United States on 1 February. The unit was deactivated two days later.

Armory
In 1933, the 369th Regiment Armory was created to honor the 369th regiment for their service. This armory stands at 142nd and Fifth Avenue, in the heart of Harlem. This armory was constructed starting in the 1920s and was completed in the 1930s. The 369th Regiment Armory was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1994 and was designated as a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1985.

Later years
The infantry's polished post-World War I reputation was not completely safe from external criticism, which ultimately surfaced as a result of ongoing racial tension in the United States. In 1940, the Chicago Defender reported that the United States Department of War arranged for the 369th regiment to be renamed the "Colored Infantry." The department announced that there were too many infantry units in the national guard and the 369th regiment would be among those slated to go, the first alleged step toward abolishing the famed unit. Supporters of the regiment swiftly objected to the introduction of racial identity in the title of a unit in the United States army, effectively preserving the regiment's reputation. However, eventually, all African American US Army units were renamed as "Colored," and the 369th served in World War II as the 369th Coast Artillery Regiment (Antiaircraft) (Colored), with its successor being the 369th Infantry Regiment (Colored).

In 2003, the New York State Department of Transportation renamed the Harlem River Drive as the "Harlem Hellfighters Drive." On 29 September 2006 a twelve-foot-high monument was unveiled to honor the 369th Regiment. This statue is a replica of a monument that stands in France. The monument is made of black granite and contains the 369th crest and rattlesnake insignia.

Descending units of the 369th Infantry Regiment have continued to serve since World War I. The 369th Infantry Regiment continued to serve up until World War II where they would be reorganized into the 369th Anti-aircraft Artillery Regiment. The newly formed regiment would serve in Hawaii and throughout much of the West Coast. Another 369th Infantry Regiment was raised in 1942 as part of the 93rd Infantry Division (Colored) but is not listed as a New York National Guard unit. At some time, postwar, the 369th was re-formed into the present-day 369th Sustainment Brigade.

The Congressional Gold Medal was awarded to the regiment in August 2021 in recognition of their bravery and outstanding service during World War I.

Notable soldiers

 * Benjamin O. Davis Sr.
 * James Reese Europe
 * Hamilton Fish III
 * Susan Elizabeth Frazier
 * Harry Haywood
 * William Hayward
 * Henry Johnson
 * Otis Johnson
 * Rafael Hernández Marín
 * Horace Pippin
 * Spotswood Poles
 * George Seanor Robb
 * Luckey Roberts
 * Needham Roberts
 * George F. Shiels
 * Noble Sissle
 * Vertner Woodson Tandy
 * John Woodruff

Distinctive unit insignia
A silver color metal and enamel device 1+1/4 in in height overall consisting of a blue shield charged with a silver rattlesnake coiled and ready to strike. The rattlesnake is a symbol used on some colonial flags and is associated with the thirteen original colonies. The silver rattlesnake on the blue shield was the distinctive regimental insignia of the 369th Infantry Regiment, ancestor of the unit, and alludes to the service of the organization during World War I.
 * Description
 * Symbolism

 * Background

The distinctive unit insignia was originally approved for the 369th Infantry Regiment on 17 April 1923. It was redesignated for the 369th Coast Artillery Regiment on 3 December 1940. It was redesignated for the 369th Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion on 7 January 1944. It was redesignated for the 569th Field Artillery Battalion on 14 August 1956. The insignia was redesignated for the 369th Artillery Regiment on 4 April 1962. It was amended to correct the wording of the description on 2 September 1964. It was redesignated for the 569th Transportation Battalion and amended to add a motto on 13 March 1969. The insignia was redesignated for the 369th Transportation Battalion and amended to delete the motto on 14 January 1975. It was redesignated for the 369th Support Battalion and amended to revise the description and symbolism on 2 November 1994. The insignia was redesignated for the 369th Sustainment Brigade and amended to revise the description and symbolism on 20 July 2007.

369th Veterans' Association
The 369th Veterans' Association is a group created to honor those who served in the 369th infantry. This veterans group has three distinct goals. According to the Legal Information Institute of the Cornell Law Institute these include, "promoting the principles of friendship and goodwill among its members; engaging in social and civic activities that tend to enhance the welfare of its members and inculcate the true principles of good citizenship in its members; and memorializing, individually and collectively, the patriotic services of its members in the 369th antiaircraft artillery group and other units in the Armed Forces of the United States."

Depiction in media
Fictionalized accounts which feature the Harlem Hellfighters include the 2014 graphic novel The Harlem Hellfighters written by Max Brooks and illustrated by Caanan White. It depicts a fictionalized account of the 369th's tour in Europe during World War I.  a film adaptation of the aforementioned novel is in the works under Sony Pictures and Overbrook Entertainment.

In 2018, the 369th Infantry Regiment became a part of the documentary Noble Sissle's Syncopated Ragtime, directed and produced by Daniel L. Bernardi and David de Rozas with the collaboration of El Dorado Films and the Veteran Documentary Corps. The film subject is musician and Harlem Hellfighters' soldier Noble Sissle, the documentary won Best US Documentary Feature Film at the 2019 American Documentary Film Festival and Film Fund.

The song "Hellfighters", recorded by Swedish power metal band Sabaton for their 2022 album The War to End All Wars, is about the 369th Infantry Regiment.

In Valiant Hearts: Coming Home the 369th Infantry Regiment is depicted and is to honor those who served in the Harlem Hellfighters during World War I.

African Americans in World War I

 * Scott, Emmett Jay. Scott's Official History of the American Negro in the World War. A Complete and Authentic Narration, from Official Sources, of the Participation of American Soldiers of the Negro Race in the World War for Democracy ... a Full Account of the War Work Organizations of Colored Men and Women and Other Civilian Activities, Including the Red Cross, the Y.M.C.A., the Y.W.C.A. and the War Camp Community Service, with Official Summary of Treaty of Peace and League of Nations Covenant. Chicago: Homewood Press, 1919. . (Reprinted: New York, Arno Press, 1969. .)
 * Williams, Charles H. Sidelights on Negro Soldiers. Boston: B.J. Brimmer Co, 1923. . (Reprinted as: Negro Soldiers in World War I: The Human Side. New York: AMS Press, 1970. ISBN 0-404-06976-2).

title: 369th Infantry Regiment (United States)