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Xuande Emperor

The Xuande Emperor (16 March 1399 – 31 January 1435), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Xuanzong of Ming, personal name Zhu Zhanji , was the fifth emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1425 to 1435. He was the son and successor of the Hongxi Emperor. "Xuande", the era name of his reign, means "proclamation of virtue".

Zhu Zhanji was the son of Zhu Gaochi, who would later become the Hongxi Emperor. He had a passion for poetry and literature, and was also known for his skill in painting and warfare. In 1425, following his father's brief reign, he ascended to the throne as the emperor of the Ming dynasty. Upon taking power, he made the decision to reverse his father's plan to relocate the capital from Beijing to Nanjing. His uncle Zhu Gaoxu rebelled against the young emperor but was ultimately unsuccessful. With the guidance of capable advisors, the Xuande Emperor personally led his army against his uncle and easily defeated him.

In the early Xuande Emperor's reign, a prolonged war in Vietnam ended with Ming defeat and Vietnam's independence. Relations with Southeast Asian nations stayed peaceful. Communication continued with Korea, and ties were established with Japan in 1432. The northern region faced minimal Mongol threats, with relations established with the Eastern Mongols and Western Oirats. The Xuande Emperor permitted Zheng He's final Indian Ocean voyage in 1431–1433. During Xuande's rule, eunuchs gained influence, particularly in the secret police. The emperor sought order through purges in the Censorate and military service reforms in 1428, but these didn't fully address inefficiencies and low morale among hereditary soldiers.

The Xuande Emperor's government attempted to promote the use of paper money and discourage the use of coins and precious metals. However, this effort was ultimately unsuccessful and paper money fell out of circulation. In the past, high taxes in heavily taxed prefectures, particularly in Jiangnan, had caused peasants to leave the economy. In response, the Xuande Emperor lowered taxes and dispatched "grand coordinators" to the provinces to improve the performance of local authorities. These coordinators were responsible for addressing issues of injustice and corruption among tax collectors, as well as assessing the state of military units.

After a short reign of ten years, the emperor died due to a brief illness. His rule was marked by a period of relative peace, with no major internal or foreign conflicts. Later historians regarded his reign as the golden age of the dynasty.

Youth
Zhu Zhanji was the eldest son of the Hongxi Emperor (1378–1425; reigned from 1424) and Empress Zhang (1379–1442). He was born on 16 March 1399. At the time, Zhu Zhanji's parents lived in Beijing, northeast China, in the palace of his grandfather, Zhu Di, the later Yongle Emperor, who was then known as Prince of Yan. In the summer of 1399, Zhu Di rebelled against the Jianwen Emperor, defeated him in a three-year civil war, and became the third Ming emperor in 1402.

As a child, Zhu Zhanji was trained in both military skills and Confucian literature by Hanlin academics. He was a talented man of letters, but his physical prowess, in contrast to his father's frail health, made him excel in military disciplines. This impressed Yongle Emperor, who shared Zhu Zhanji's love for hunting and riding. Yongle allowed him to accompany him on hunting trips and military inspections. In 1414, the Yongle Emperor even took the young prince with him on a campaign against the Mongols. Later, as emperor, Zhu Zhanji personally participated in skirmishes with the Mongols on the northern border. During one of these battles, he demonstrated his skill with a bow by shooting several Mongol warriors.

In 1411, Zhu Zhanji was appointed as Huang Taisun (, literally 'imperial grandson-heir') while his father had been Huang Taizi (, literally 'crown prince') since 1404. Zhu Zhanji's education in Confucian teachings and ways of government was overseen by Grand Secretary Hu Guang. He also dedicated himself to studying military expeditions. In court intrigues, Zhu Zhanji consistently defended his father against his uncles Zhu Gaoxu and Zhu Gaosui, who were the younger sons of the Yongle Emperor. This earned him their resentment. They were also concerned about his decisiveness, popularity with Yongle, and close cooperation with the Grand Secretaries. They feared that their own positions would be threatened if Zhu Zhanji were to take over.

Accession
In August 1424, the Yongle Emperor died due to a stroke while returning from the fifth Mongol campaign in the Mongolian steppe. His son, the Hongxi Emperor, succeeded him as the new emperor of the Ming dynasty at the start of September. On 1 November 1424, the Hongxi Emperor named Zhu Zhanji as crown prince. In April 1425, he sent the prince to Nanjing to make preparations for the relocation of the capital from Beijing. However, the Hongxi Emperor's health deteriorated and he called the prince back, but unfortunately died before his son could return.

On 27 June 1425, Zhu Zhanji officially ascended the imperial throne in Beijing, becoming the fifth emperor of the Ming dynasty. It is believed that he chose to cancel the move of the capital to Nanjing due to his familiarity with Beijing, where he grew up, and his shared concern with the Yongle Emperor for the security of the northern border.

Upon his accession, the new emperor's officials received him calmly, as he shared his father's idealistic conservative policies. He was not only a man of letters, but also a patron of the arts, and his reign was marked by significant cultural and political achievements. Despite his short temper, he was open to advice. As an emperor, he was conscientious and sought to balance the influence of various factions within the Ming elite–including civil officials, eunuchs, and generals. While he was capable of making strong decisions when necessary, he typically relied on the proposals of the Grand Secretaries and ministers when issuing imperial decrees. However, in contrast to his predecessors, he lived a life of luxury and debauchery, and upon his death, thousands of women were released from the palace.

Despite this, he successfully resolved major issues during the first two years of his reign, including his uncle's rebellion and the war in Vietnam. Under his rule, the northern border remained relatively stable and peaceful relations were maintained with neighboring states in Central, East, and Southeast Asia. This stability allowed for internal reforms to take place.

Zhu Gaoxu rebellion
The accession of the young emperor was challenged by his uncle, Zhu Gaoxu. However, unlike the Yongle Emperor's usurpation, he was unsuccessful in his attempt. Zhu Gaoxu was favored by Yongle due to his military prowess. He proved to be a capable and energetic commander during the civil war of 1399–1402, but his arrogance and contempt towards his older brother, the Hongxi Emperor, who was Xuande's father, caused tension. Zhu Gaoxu became bitter when he was not named as a successor in 1404. His disobedience eventually led to his banishment to the backwater city of Le'an in Qingzhou prefecture, Shandong. Believing that he was the rightful heir to the throne in 1424, instead of his ailing older brother, he began plotting a coup after his brother's death. Shortly after the Xuande Emperor's ascension to the throne on 2 September 1425, he attempted to follow in the footsteps of the Yongle Emperor by rebelling against the emperor. He accused Xuande of abusing his power by appointing individuals with noble titles to civil offices and appointing unworthy individuals. Underestimating his young nephew as a formidable opponent, he also failed to recognize the strength of the government, which had functioned effectively during the Yongle Emperor's extended absences on campaigns in Mongolia. Furthermore, he did not consider the significant decrease in the princes' influence that the Yongle Emperor had achieved. As a result, he was in a much weaker position than Yongle had been in 1399.

The emperor initially hesitated, but eventually succumbed to pressure from Grand Secretary Yang Rong and other advisors, ultimately taking personal command of the punitive expedition on 9 September. A vanguard of 20,000 soldiers, led by the experienced general Xue Lu (1358–1430), laid siege to Le'an on 21 September. Despite the defenders' refusal to surrender, the imperial army successfully captured the city the following day. Zhu Gaoxu was subsequently brought to Beijing, demoted to a common subject, and ultimately tortured to death. In addition, over 600 of his followers were executed, while another 2,200 were deported to the border. An investigation revealed that other relatives of the emperor, including the rebel's brother Zhu Gaosui, were also involved in the rebellion. However, they were not punished in order to preserve the prestige of the imperial family.

Grand Secretaries, ministers, eunuchs
The Xuande Emperor retained his father's advisers and ministers, but some offices underwent changes in their functions. The most significant reforms were made to the Grand Secretaries, who, during the Yongle Emperor's reign, only had an advisory role of reading the emperor's correspondence and drafting replies. However, during the reign of the Hongxi Emperor, they gained more influence and were now granted real executive power. This was formalized by granting ministerial titles to Yang Shiqi (Minister of War), Huang Huai (Minister of Revenue), and Jin Youzi (Minister of Rites). Due to their long service to the state, they were highly respected and trusted by the emperor. Other close advisers to the emperor included Jian Yi (Minister of Personnel from 1402–1422 and 1423–1435) and Xia Yuanji (Minister of Revenue from 1402–1421 and 1424–1430). Even after the Xuande Emperor's death, the composition of the most influential officials and the grand secretaries remained unchanged. As a result, the top government was dominated by the same group of people from 1424 until the early 1440s.

The emperor established a process for routine and important decrees, in which proposals from various offices were reviewed and evaluated by the Grand Secretaries. These secretaries would then attach their recommendations for solving issues to the documents, which the emperor would typically approve and send to the relevant ministries for implementation. Significant government decisions were made during meetings between the emperor and the grand secretaries, during which the emperor would discuss and sign the drafts of his decrees. The ministers were responsible for carrying out these decrees. This system allowed for faster and more flexible decision-making, as the secretaries no longer needed to consult with the ministers beforehand.

At the same time, the influence of the eunuchs serving in the imperial palace and completely dependent on the emperor grew. During the reign of the Hongwu Emperor, the first Ming emperor, eunuchs were prohibited from communicating with government authorities. Even the Yongle Emperor maintained strict control over them. The Xuande Emperor, on the other hand, provided them with education and utilized them more in confidential correspondence. Despite opposition from officials, the eunuchs' business continued to thrive, benefiting the emperor's personal projects such as logging and shipbuilding. In situations where the emperor did not agree with the ideas of Grand Secretaries, he would use eunuchs to convey his orders to lower branches of the state administration. As the ministers did not question the emperor's orders, the eunuchs were able to give orders to the ministers on behalf of the sovereign without his knowledge. This abuse of power was a major concern for the Hongwu Emperor. The Xuande Emperor, however, maintained control over the eunuchs and was not afraid to execute them if they overstepped their boundaries. In the long run, this approach left room for eunuchs to exploit their power if a less assertive emperor was in power.

Censorate, provincial administration, army
In terms of internal politics, the emperor focused on implementing reforms in the Censorate, local administration, and the army. His main goal was to bring discipline and order to the state administration. He also took a keen interest in prominent criminal cases and often ordered judgments to be reviewed, resulting in justice for thousands of innocent people. In August 1428, he replaced the long-standing head of the Censorate, Liu Quan, who had been in the position since 1415, with the honorable Gu Zuo. Within a few months, Gu Zuo dismissed 43 censors from the Beijing and Nanjing offices, and Liu Quan himself was punished for numerous abuses of power. The Censorate underwent a reorganization, with changes made to procedures and an increase in the powers of the censors. Additionally, commissioners were appointed to oversee military farms, large construction projects, and military training camps near Beijing, as well as to manage taxes in Nanzhili. These taxes were collected in the form of products, mainly rice, which was crucial for the nutrition of the people of Beijing.

After the purge of 1428, the censors became more efficient and open. This was evident in their thorough checks of all branches of the state administration, including both civil and military sectors. In fact, over 240 officials were dismissed between 1424 and 1434, which was three times the number of dismissals in the previous decade. While officials and censors who abused their powers were punished, they were not executed.

During the reign of the Xuande Emperor, the regional administration saw a regular posting of grand coordinators (xunfu). These officials were responsible for coordinating the work of the three provincial offices—civil, military, and surveillance. This practice of having coordinators in the regional administration was not new, as previous emperors had also employed them. For instance, the Hongwu Emperor had sent his crown prince, Zhu Biao, to "tour and pacify", while the Yongle Emperor had sent both the Hongxi and Xuande emperors to the provinces. In 1421, the Yongle Emperor even sent 26 high-ranking government officials to the provinces. However, the Xuande Emperor took this practice a step further by sending these officials on long-term assignments, rather than just once like his predecessors. For example, in September 1425, he sent two commissioners to Nanzhili and Zhejiang, and in 1430, they were sent to Hunan, Shanxi, and Sichuan. They were also dispatched to Jiangxi and Shaanxi around 1426.

The role of grand coordinators was not an independent function, but rather a mandate imposed on high-ranking officials of the central authorities. Typically, these officials held the rank of deputy minister, particularly in the military, and later also held high positions in the Censorate. They also held the rank of (co-)superintendent of military affairs. This gave them the authority to oversee civil, military, and surveillance offices. The immediate result of implementing grand coordinators was the transfer of command over troops in the provinces to civilian hands. The system of grand coordinators reached its final form during the Zhengtong era (1436–1449), when they were assigned to all provinces except Fujian and six of the nine frontier garrisons on the northern border.

Considerable problems persisted in the army during this time period. Corrupt officers were known to bring in poor conscripts for campaigns, while allowing the wealthy to avoid service for a fee. These officers also embezzled the salaries of the soldiers and used them as personal servants. The supply of military farms was also a major issue, as it often dropped and made it difficult to properly equip the army. Additionally, capable officers had limited opportunities for advancement during times of peace, resulting in the army being led by individuals who inherited their positions without merit. These commanders, who had not experienced war themselves, often neglected to properly train their soldiers and instead used them for their own personal needs. This led to a decline in discipline, an increase in desertion, and a decrease in the overall strength of the army.

In an attempt to address these issues, inspection officials were appointed in 1427 to verify the condition and numbers of the army detachments and restore discipline. However, their efforts were largely ineffective. The local military headquarters also came under the supervision of control authorities, but this did not have much impact either. In 1429, the emperor attempted to boost morale by holding a large military parade with regiments from the Beijing garrison and three training camps located around Beijing. However, this did not have a significant impact on the morale of the army. The years of peace had led to a decline in the quality of training, and the emperor's leniency towards guilty officers only worsened the situation. The consequences of this decline in the army's strength were not fully realized until 1449, at the Battle of Tumu, when the Mongols were able to defeat the Ming army led by Emperor Yingzong and even take the emperor prisoner. This event highlighted the weakness of the Ming armies due to the prolonged period of peace.

Finance and money
In the late 1420s, the Xuande Emperor's government faced significant financial challenges. The ongoing war in Vietnam drained a significant amount of resources, and the subsequent loss of mineral wealth further exacerbated the situation. The imposition of high taxes and levies placed an unbearable burden on the economy of wealthy regions in China, resulting in a decline in government revenue. For instance, Suzhou, the economic hub of China, was three years behind in paying its taxes by the late 1420s. Moreover, the profitability of silver and copper mines declined in the early 1430s. To address these difficulties, the government attempted to promote the use of paper money, reduce and reform taxes, and limit government spending.

The founder of the Ming dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, established paper money, known as baochao banknotes, as the primary form of currency. For smaller transactions, copper coins were also used, which were circulated alongside state notes during the Yongle era. However, both the coins and the copper used to make them were in short supply. In contrast, the government printed large quantities of banknotes, causing their value to rapidly decrease. By 1425, baochao banknotes were only worth 2% of their nominal value. In an unsuccessful attempt to promote paper currency, the Hongxi Emperor, the predecessor of the Xuande Emperor, closed precious metal mines. However, the Xuande government allowed for a partial resumption of mining.

The Xuande Emperor and his advisers implemented various measures in an attempt to support the state's economy. One such measure was the pressure placed on the use of copper coins, which were seen as competition for paper money. As a result, copper coins were almost completely phased out of circulation. In addition, Minister of Revennue Xia Yuanji suggested a solution to combat the decline in the value of government banknotes by increasing business taxes and only accepting payment in government banknotes. However, this approach did not yield the desired results. The government then shifted to a more cautious strategy, selling licenses to trade salt for state coins. Unfortunately, this measure also failed to increase the value of state stamps. The government also introduced new trade fees and customs duties on the Grand Canal, which could only be paid in shillings. However, these fees had a negative impact on trade. As a result, there was strong opposition to these fees and they were eventually abolished after a few years. Despite the government's efforts, these measures did not effectively support the state's economy. The value of paper money continued to decline. By the 1430s, state banknotes were no longer in use and were only used to pay employees to a limited extent. They were also withdrawn as a mandatory form of payment for trade fees. Ultimately, these measures had little impact on the country's economy.

The widespread distrust of paper currency and the scarcity of coins resulted in a growing trade in silver. Despite the government's opposition to replacing copper coins and paper currency with silver, attempts to prohibit the use of silver in commercial transactions were unsuccessful. However, silver alone was not enough to meet the demands of the market. It was primarily used for large payments and paying taxes, while copper coins remained the preferred currency for smaller transactions in cities.

In 1433, the Xuande government closed the mints, causing disruptions throughout the region from Japan to Java. This halt in coin production led to a surge in counterfeit coins and hoarding of precious metals. Despite the dissatisfaction of officials in Beijing, they were unable to suppress the circulation of coins produced by private entrepreneurs. However, they also did not make the decision to resume state production of coins. Towards the end of the Xuande era, the government began to tolerate the use of silver. In 1433, Governor of Nanzhili Zhou Chen began to collect land taxes in silver in the most heavily burdened prefectures of Jiangnan.

Taxes in Jiangnan and the empire
One of the areas that the emperor focused on for reform was fiscal policy, particularly in Jiangnan. This region, which includes prefectures such as Suzhou, Hangzhou, Songjiang, Jiaxing, and Zhenjiang, contributed a significant portion of the empire's land tax, accounting for a quarter of the total amount (despite the Ming dynasty having almost 160 prefectures). In Suzhou Prefecture alone, even after a reduction in the tax rate in 1393, the land tax still made up almost a tenth of the empire's total tax quota, equivalent to 2.81 million tons of rice (with 1 ton being equal to 107.4 liters). Additionally, Songjiang Prefecture contributed 4.14% of the total tax quota.

During the Yongle Emperor's reign, the country saw a ten percent increase in land tax revenue, which was likely distributed evenly throughout the country. However, this increase in taxes proved to be too much for the peasants in Suzhou and Songjiang, leading to a growing number of tax arrears. As if this wasn't enough, natural disasters struck towards the end of Yongle's reign, causing even more peasants to abandon their land. By 1422–28, the amount of tax arrears had reached several million tons of rice annually. This posed a serious threat to the supply of Beijing, which relied on tax rice shipped from Jiangnan via the Grand Canal. In an effort to maintain a steady supply of rice, the government decided to reduce taxes and forgive a portion of the arrears. In August 1426, imperial commissioner Zhou Gan was tasked with investigating the situation on the ground. He proposed a plan to reduce taxes, eliminate corruption in tax collection, and improve local administration with the help of experts sent from headquarters, led by a special commissioner. While the reduction of taxes was supported by the great secretaries, the Ministry of Revenue was able to delay its implementation for four years. Finally, in May 1430, the relevant imperial decree was issued.

In October 1430, the emperor dispatched a group of high-ranking officials (zongdu) to oversee the collection of taxes. Among them was Zhou Chen (周忱), Left Vice Minister of Works, who was sent to Nanzhili. Along with Kuang Zhong, the prefect of Suzhou since June 1430, they played a significant role in implementing tax reforms in Jiangnan. During their visit, they witnessed the aftermath of a large-scale migration from the region, with some areas losing up to ninety percent of their peasant population. As a result, the remaining households were burdened with the same total amount of taxes. To address this issue, Zhou Chen introduced five major measures:
 * unified measures and weights to prevent collectors from cheating;
 * in each county, warehouses were built to collect the tax rice; previously, it had been stored in barns by tax captains (landowners responsible for transporting rice from villages to designated locations, such as the capital);
 * the government introduced a tax supplement designated for covering the costs of transportation along the Grand Canal to Beijing, thereby easing the burden on taxpayers who only transported rice to the canal, rather than all the way to Beijing;
 * in each county, restored support granaries where surplus crops were stored in fertile years in case of famine;
 * introduced the collection of a portion of taxes not in rice, but in silver and fabrics, which was beneficial for both taxpayers and the government, and in the southern regions of the empire, it promoted the monetization of the economy and the textile industry.

The emperor generally agreed with the proposals of Zhou Chen and Kuang Zhong, but the Ministry of Revenue blocked them. For example, it wasn't until 1433 that he received approval to reduce taxes in Suzhou by a quarter. However, other reforms in the same direction continued after 1436.

During natural disasters and epidemics, the Xuande government was known for its swift and effective response in aiding the population. Specially appointed commissioners oversaw the distribution of grain from government stocks, as well as implementing a 20–40% reduction in land taxes and forgiving other taxes for a period of one to two years. These actions were highly praised and recorded in the official history of the dynasty.

In comparison to previous reigns, land tax revenue during the Xuande era decreased to 30 million tons of rice, which was 8% less than under Hongxi and 5% less than under Yongle. The trend continued in the Zhengtong era (1436–1449) with a further reduction of 10–15%. By the end of the Ming dynasty, the land tax remained at 25–28 million tons. This reduction in expenses allowed the state to maintain a balanced budget during the Xuande era, a feat that was not always achieved in later eras.

Vietnam
During the early years of the Xuande Emperor's reign, a major issue that arose was the war in Vietnam, known in Ming terms as the rebellion in Jiaozhi Province, which had been ongoing since 1408. In 1425, Ming troops, led by newly appointed commanders Li An and Chen Zhi, suffered multiple defeats at the hands of the Vietnamese, led by Lê Lợi. In response, the emperor appointed a new commander, Wang Tong, and a new head of civil administration, minister Chen Qia (陳洽), in May 1426. Seeking advice from his entourage, the emperor recalled the Hongwu Emperor's prohibition on invading Vietnam (and other countries) and the Yongle Emperor's original goal of restoring the Trần dynasty. Ministers Jian Yi and Xia Yuanji advocated for using military force to suppress Vietnamese resistance, while Grand Secretaries Yang Shiqi and Yang Yong suggested withdrawing from Vietnam. However, due to conflicting opinions, the meeting ended without a resolution.

In the winter of 1426, the Ming army suffered heavy losses of 20,000–30,000 men due to Vietnamese attacks. To counter this threat, the emperor issued orders in January 1427 for Mu Sheng, the commander of Yunnan province troops, to gather an army in Yunnan and bring it to Jiaozhi. Additionally, General Liu Sheng was tasked with leading a second army from Guangxi. To oversee the civil administration of the province, the experienced Huang Fu was appointed (Huang Fu had previously administered Jiaozhi from 1407–1424). Meanwhile, Lê Lợi continued to expand his operations into the Red River Valley, posing a threat to Đông Quan, the capital of the province (present-day Hanoi). Despite this, the Ming garrison successfully defended against the attack on Đông Quan. However, due to the incompetence of Wang Tong, the Ming forces failed to capitalize on their success, allowing the Vietnamese to prepare for the arrival of reinforcements.

On 30 September 1427, Liu Sheng's army reached the border, where Lê Lợi unexpectedly proposed handing over power to Trần Cảo, a descendant of the Trần dynasty. This proposal was made under the condition that Trần Cảo would rule under Chinese suzerainty. However, Lê Lợi had ulterior motives and immediately lured Liu Sheng's army into a trap, resulting in a crushing defeat. The Chinese army suffered heavy losses, with approximately 70,000 men killed. In the aftermath of this disaster, Wang Tong, without the emperor's knowledge, accepted Lê Lợi's proposal and began withdrawing troops from Vietnam on 12 November. Meanwhile, Mu Sheng had reached the upper reaches of the Red River and began constructing ships to advance downstream. However, upon learning of Wang Tong's withdrawal, Mu Sheng retreated back to China.

On 16 November 1427, the Xuande Emperor was informed of Lê Lợi's offer. Despite divided opinions from his advisers, the emperor quickly made the decision to accept the proposal on 20 November. A delegation was immediately sent to Vietnam to negotiate the details. This move was seen as a surrender by the Ming after their defeat in battle, solidifying Lê Lợi's prestige. Lê Lợi informed the negotiators that Trần Cảo had died, another member of the Trần family was no longer alive, and they should recognize him as the king. He also refused to repatriate Chinese prisoners and officials. The Xuande Emperor, however, refused to recognize Lê Lợi as the ruler of Vietnam and demanded the return of the Trần dynasty. It wasn't until 1431, when Lê Lợi sent a humble letter, that the Xuande Emperor appointed him as "administrator of the affairs of the state of Annam" (Annam being the Chinese name for Vietnam). Lê Lợi's son was officially recognized and given a royal title by the Beijing government in November 1436, after the Xuande Emperor's death.

The Ming's withdrawal from Vietnam was a blow to their pride and prestige, but it also provided much-needed financial relief. For the Vietnamese, it was a significant victory that left a lasting impact on their culture and state. The two decades of Ming rule and education had a transformative effect on Vietnam. The long-term warfare also resulted in a strong and efficient Vietnamese army, which would later be challenged by Champa, located further south.

Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean
Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map.svg:

]] Envoys from Southeast Asian countries, such as Champa, Java, Ayutthaya, and Sumatra, regularly visited Beijing. However, there were no envoys from the Indian Ocean coast. The ban on unauthorized trade and overseas travel by subjects was still in place, but it was not effectively enforced.

Government officials strongly opposed long-distance voyages and influenced the emperor to cancel a shipbuilding program in 1429, led by the emperor's eunuchs. However, a few months later, after the death of a leading opponent of the voyages, Xia Yuanji, the emperor changed his mind. The last of Zheng He's great expeditions took place in 1430–33, possibly to restore the empire's prestige after their retreat from Vietnam. Zheng He brought envoys from Sri Lanka, Cochin, Calicut, Hormuz, Aden, the East African coast, and other countries to China, which pleased the emperor.

After the death of the Xuande Emperor, the Ming did not undertake any further long-distance expeditions. These expeditions were only supported by the palace eunuchs, as the Confucian officials were strongly opposed to them. With the opening of the Grand Canal, the need to transport rice by sea to the north disappeared, leading officials to view naval expeditions as expensive and unnecessary imperial ventures. This decision had long-term negative consequences, as it weakened the morale and strength of the Ming fleet, leaving them later unable to effectively deal with the wokou pirates. Additionally, it also had a negative impact on China's influence in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. As a result, the end of the early Ming period marked the end of the three-hundred-year China's dominance in the East Asian seas.

Mongolia
During the Xuande era, there was relative calm on the northern border. The Jurchens, who lived in present-day Manchuria, acknowledged Ming sovereignty and did not oppose the expeditions led by eunuch Yishiha. These expeditions even reached the mouth of the Amur River. The Eastern Mongols were ruled by Arughtai, while the Western Mongolian Oirats were led by Toghon. However, Arughtai was not recognized by the Uriankhai Mongols in the southeast of Mongolia. As a result, he maintained friendly relations with the Ming dynasty and engaged in trade, exchanging horses for silk and tea.

In October 1428, the Uriankhaians were known to occasionally raid the borderlands. However, during an inspection in which the emperor was accompanied by 3,000 soldiers, they were successfully driven away. By May 1430, the Chinese had fortified cities along the border between China and the steppe (along the later line of the Great Wall of China) south of Kaiping (formerly the Yuan capital of Shangdu and the last Ming garrison in the steppe) and then withdrew from it. This shortened the border, providing relief to exhausted troops, but was later criticized by historians. This shift in the border to the south and the loss of a base in the steppe made it much more challenging for the Chinese to conduct raids against the Mongols.

The Ming government had hoped that the Eastern Mongols would be able to defeat the Oirats, but unfortunately, the Oirats proved to be stronger and launched repeated attacks against the Eastern Mongols. In September 1434, the Oirats were successful in defeating and killing Arughtai, and Toghon maintained good relations with the Ming government, a relationship that has continued since then.

Japan and Korea
The Xuande Emperor made repeated attempts to establish relations with Japan, but shogun Yoshimochi (shōgun 1394–1425, effectively ruled 1408–1428) adamantly refused any communication. However, his successor Yoshinori (reigned 1429–1441) was very interested in trade with China. In 1432, using the mediation of the king of the Ryukyu Islands, Ming envoys arrived at the shogun's court. The first Japanese delegation arrived in China in June 1433, bringing with them horses, armor, swords, and other goods. They also brought 2.6 tons of copper. The Ming government paid for these goods with state banknotes (baochao), which the Japanese immediately exchanged for silk (one-fifth) and copper coins (the rest).

The Ming authorities only accepted Japanese traders at the port of Ningbo. After 1433, Japanese delegations arriving in China were primarily composed of agents of daimyos, monasteries, and temples who were eager to access the Chinese market. Along with luxury goods, they were particularly interested in Chinese copper coins. This trade proved to be highly profitable for the Japanese, leading to a lasting relationship between the two countries until 1529. However, there were frequent disputes over the valuation of Japanese goods and the Ming government often complained about the Japanese government's inability to control piracy. Despite this, the shoguns were unable to effectively intervene against the pirates due to a lack of resources.

Relations with Korea were generally peaceful, with regular delegations traveling between the two capitals. According to Chinese records, the emperor often requested horses from the Koreans, while also asking them not to send gold, silver, or other unusual gifts that were not produced in their country. Additionally, the emperor rejected a request to admit Korean students to the Imperial University in Beijing, instead donating a collection of Confucian classics and historical literature to Korea as a replacement. While the official Chinese description of the relationship emphasizes mutual respect, Korean records highlight the emperor's personal motives for his requests—including a desire for women (after the emperor's death, the Ming government allowed fifty-three Korean women to return to their homeland), falcons, hunting dogs, tigers, cooks, and eunuchs.

The emperor as an artist
The Xuande Emperor was an ideal combination of the virtues of a Chinese warrior and scholar. He was a talented artist and poet, and often found more enjoyment in art and leisure than in his duties as ruler. He was known for his skill in calligraphy, poetry, writing, and painting. He painted landscapes, figures, "grass and insects," and particularly enjoyed the genre of "flowers and birds." He was especially skilled in depicting animals, particularly dogs. He drew inspiration from the techniques and styles of literati painters of his time, particularly Xia Chang. He typically used ink without the use of colors, choosing subjects with symbolic and allegorical meanings. He was considered the best painter among Chinese emperors since Emperor Huizong of Song (r. 1100–1126).

Some of his works are held by prestigious institutions such as the National Palace Museum in Taipei, the Palace Museum in Beijing, and formerly in the Arthur M. Sackler Museum (a division of Harvard Art Museum) in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 2007, Robert D. Mowry, the curator of Chinese Art Collections at the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, described him as "the only Ming emperor who displayed genuine artistic talent and interest". The Dutch orientalist Robert van Gulik (1910–1967) praised one of the Xuande Emperor's paintings, Gibbons at play, as "skilfully painted" although "not a beautiful work". The vibrant paintings suggest that the emperor painted from real animals, likely kept in the palace gardens.

Not only did the emperor engage with art, but he also actively supported and influenced artistic trends of his time. He personally evaluated the works of painters applying for court positions and aimed to elevate court painting to the level of the peak of Song era culture in the early 12th century. He also financially supported several calligraphers and painters, such as Shang Xi, by appointing them as officers of the Imperial Guard. His reign is also renowned for its exceptional craftsmanship in bronzes and porcelain, particularly the famous Jingdezhen blue and white.

Death and succession
In the autumn and winter of 1434, the emperor led a military detachment on a tour of the northern border. However, upon returning to Beijing, he fell ill. He was sick for almost two months, until he suddenly died on 31 January 1435. He died in the Palace of Heavenly Purity in the Forbidden City. He was given the posthumous name Emperor Zhang ("Distinguished Emperor") and the temple name Xuanzong ("Penetrating Ancestor"). His final resting place is the Jingling Mausoleum near Beijing. He left behind two sons and two daughters, with one daughter died in infancy.

The Xuande Emperor's successor was his elder son, Zhu Qizhen, who had been created crown prince in May 1428. He became emperor at the young age of eight. However, the rules established by the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dynasty, did not anticipate the accession of a child emperor, making it impossible to appoint a regent to govern the country in place of a minor monarch. As a result, the Xuande Emperor's decision was to have senior officials consult on government matters with the emperor's grandmother, Grand Empress Dowager Zhang, who effectively ruled the empire. Through her cooperation with the Grand Secretaries, state policy remained consistent until the early 1440s.

Legacy
The Xuande Emperor was a capable, active, and skilled emperor. Some civil officials criticized his indulgence in frequently sending eunuchs to the southern provinces seeking entertainers and virgins for his harem, and his entrusting greater authority to eunuchs— which caused problems for his successors. He saw himself as a warrior and, like the Yongle Emperor, personally led military campaigns. However, his actions were relatively small (such as suppressing his uncle's rebellion) or insignificant (such as clashes with the Mongols on the northern border). The Xuande Emperor was the last Ming emperor to actively participate in governing the state and remained impartial towards the various groups that made up the ruling elite. He relied on civil officials, but also frequently utilized eunuchs and military commanders. In contrast, later Ming emperors abandoned their role as stabilizing figures and instead indulged in palace pleasures, leaving the reins of government in the hands of officials who were often divided into rival factions or, more commonly, palace eunuchs. As a result, it is not surprising that subsequent generations of officials viewed the Xuande era as a golden age of ideal governance, in contrast to the factional conflicts and institutional decay of their own time.

The Xuande Emperor's reign is widely regarded by historians as the high point of the Ming era, characterized by stability and peace. This was a stark contrast to the harsh administrative purges of the Hongwu era and the civil war of the Jianwen era. Capable and often long-serving ministers and officials, under the leadership of the "Three Yangs" (Yang Shiqi, Yang Rong, and Yang Pu), governed the country with a level of continuity and reliability unique to the Ming era, in accordance with the Confucian ideals of wise ministerial rule led by a capable ruler. The government also made efforts to improve the lives of its people, gave up expansion in Vietnam, and implemented administrative reforms. While the emperor may have been harsh towards officials and lenient towards high-ranking officers, this did not significantly impact the overall character of the government.

The rebellion of the emperor's uncle confirmed to the emperor and officials that the decision to remove members of the imperial family from any influence on the military was the right one. The failure of the war in Vietnam and the subsequent defeat in Tumu were constant arguments used by officials against military adventures, which could potentially return power to the hands of the generals and disrupt the establishment of the Ming dynasty's dominance in government. The Ming dynasty's originally diverse elites, including generals, members of the imperial family, Confucian officials, and eunuchs, saw the first two groups lose their influence on the governance of the country. During the Xuande era, Confucian officials gained supremacy over the other groups and maintained it until the end of the Ming dynasty, marking the end of the early Ming period in the 1430s. Despite the significant increase in population and economy, the Ming military and political institutions remained relatively unchanged until the end of the dynasty.

Family
Consorts and Issue:
 * Empress Gongrangzhang, of the Hu clan (恭讓章皇后 胡氏; 20 May 1402 – 5 December 1443), personal name Shanxiang (善祥)
 * Princess Shunde (順德公主; 1420–1443), first daughter
 * Married Shi Jing (石璟; 9 January 1420 – 17 October 1479) in 1437
 * Princess Yongqing (永清公主; d. 1433), second daughter
 * Empress Xiaogongzhang, of the Sun clan (孝恭章皇后 孫氏; 1399 – 26 September 1462)
 * Princess Changde (常德公主; 1424–1470), third daughter
 * Married Xue Huan (薛桓) in 1440
 * Zhu Qizhen, Emperor Yingzong (英宗 朱祁鎮; 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464), first son
 * Consort Rongsixian, of the Wu clan (榮思賢妃 吳氏; 1397 – 16 January 1462)
 * Zhu Qiyu, the Jingtai Emperor (景泰帝 朱祁鈺; 21 September 1428 – 14 March 1457), second son
 * Noble Consort Duanjing, of the He clan (端靜貴妃 何氏; d. 1435)
 * Consort Chunjingxian, of the Zhao clan (純靜賢妃 趙氏; d. 1435)
 * Consort Zhenshunhui, of the Wu clan (貞順惠妃 吳氏; d. 1435)
 * Consort Zhuangjingshu, of the Jiao clan (莊靜淑妃 焦氏; d. 1435)
 * Consort Zhuangshunjing, of the Cao clan (莊順敬妃 曹氏; d. 1435)
 * Consort Zhenhuishun, of the Xu clan (貞惠順妃 徐氏; d. 1435)
 * Consort Gongdingli, of the Yuan clan (恭定麗妃 袁氏; d. 1435)
 * Consort Zhenjinggong, of the Zhu clan (貞靜恭妃 諸氏; d. 1435)
 * Consort Gongshunchong, of the Li clan (恭順充妃 李氏; d. 1435)
 * Consort Suxicheng, of the He clan (肅僖成妃 何氏; d. 1435)
 * Concubine Zhen'ai, of the Guo clan (貞哀國嬪 郭氏; d. 1428), personal name Ai (愛)

In Popular Culture

 * Portrayed by Zhu Ya Wen as the main character in the 2019 Chinese TV series Ming Dynasty.
 * Portrayed by Xu Kai as the main character in the 2022 Chinese TV series Royal Feast.

title: Xuande Emperor


text:
Kähler manifold

In mathematics and especially differential geometry, a Kähler manifold is a manifold with three mutually compatible structures: a complex structure, a Riemannian structure, and a symplectic structure. The concept was first studied by Jan Arnoldus Schouten and David van Dantzig in 1930, and then introduced by Erich Kähler in 1933. The terminology has been fixed by André Weil. Kähler geometry refers to the study of Kähler manifolds, their geometry and topology, as well as the study of structures and constructions that can be performed on Kähler manifolds, such as the existence of special connections like Hermitian Yang–Mills connections, or special metrics such as Kähler–Einstein metrics.

Every smooth complex projective variety is a Kähler manifold. Hodge theory is a central part of algebraic geometry, proved using Kähler metrics.

Definitions
Since Kähler manifolds are equipped with several compatible structures, they can be described from different points of view:

Symplectic viewpoint
A Kähler manifold is a symplectic manifold $$(X,\omega)$$ equipped with an integrable almost-complex structure $$J$$ which is compatible with the symplectic form $$\omega$$, meaning that the bilinear form
 * $$g(u,v)=\omega(u,Jv)$$

on the tangent space of $$X$$ at each point is symmetric and positive definite (and hence a Riemannian metric on $$X$$).

Complex viewpoint
A Kähler manifold is a complex manifold $$X$$ with a Hermitian metric $$h$$ whose associated 2-form $$\omega$$ is closed. In more detail, $$h$$ gives a positive definite Hermitian form on the tangent space $$TX$$ at each point of $$X$$, and the 2-form $$\omega$$ is defined by
 * $$\omega(u,v)=\operatorname{Re} h(iu,v) = \operatorname{Im} h(u, v)$$

for tangent vectors $$u$$ and $$v$$ (where $$i$$ is the complex number $$\sqrt{-1}$$). For a Kähler manifold $$X$$, the Kähler form $$\omega$$ is a real closed (1,1)-form. A Kähler manifold can also be viewed as a Riemannian manifold, with the Riemannian metric $$g$$ defined by
 * $$g(u,v)=\operatorname{Re} h(u,v).$$

Equivalently, a Kähler manifold $$X$$ is a Hermitian manifold of complex dimension $$n$$ such that for every point $$p$$ of $$X$$, there is a holomorphic coordinate chart around $$p$$ in which the metric agrees with the standard metric on $$\mathbb{C}^n$$ to order 2 near $$p$$. That is, if the chart takes $$p$$ to $$0$$ in $$\mathbb{C}^n$$, and the metric is written in these coordinates as $h_{ab}=(\frac{\partial}{\partial z_a}, \frac{\partial}{\partial z_b})$, then
 * $$h_{ab}=\delta_{ab}+O(\|z\|^2)$$

for all $$a$$, $$b$$ in $$\{1,\cdots, n\}$$

Since the 2-form $$\omega$$ is closed, it determines an element in de Rham cohomology $$H^2(X,\mathbb{R})$$, known as the Kähler class.

Riemannian viewpoint
A Kähler manifold is a Riemannian manifold $$X$$ of even dimension $$2n$$ whose holonomy group is contained in the unitary group $$\operatorname{U}(n)$$. Equivalently, there is a complex structure $$J$$ on the tangent space of $$X$$ at each point (that is, a real linear map from $$TX$$ to itself with $$J^2=-1$$ such that $$J$$ preserves the metric $$g$$ (meaning that $$g(Ju,Jv)=g(u,v)$$) and $$J$$ is preserved by parallel transport.

Kähler potential
A smooth real-valued function $$\rho$$ on a complex manifold is called strictly plurisubharmonic if the real closed (1,1)-form
 * $$ \omega = \frac i2 \partial \bar\partial \rho $$

is positive, that is, a Kähler form. Here $$ \partial, \bar\partial $$ are the Dolbeault operators. The function $$\rho$$ is called a Kähler potential for $$\omega$$.

Conversely, by the complex version of the Poincaré lemma, known as the local $\partial \bar \partial$-lemma, every Kähler metric can locally be described in this way. That is, if $$(X,\omega)$$ is a Kähler manifold, then for every point $$p$$ in $$X$$ there is a neighborhood $$U$$ of $$p$$ and a smooth real-valued function $$\rho$$ on $$U$$ such that $${\omega\vert}_U=(i/2)\partial\bar\partial \rho$$. Here $$\rho$$ is called a local Kähler potential for $$\omega$$. There is no comparable way of describing a general Riemannian metric in terms of a single function.

Space of Kähler potentials
Whilst it is not always possible to describe a Kähler form globally using a single Kähler potential, it is possible to describe the difference of two Kähler forms this way, provided they are in the same de Rham cohomology class. This is a consequence of the $\partial \bar \partial$-lemma from Hodge theory.

Namely, if $$(X,\omega)$$ is a compact Kähler manifold, then the cohomology class $$[\omega]\in H_{\text{dR}}^2(X)$$ is called a Kähler class. Any other representative of this class, $$\omega'$$ say, differs from $$\omega$$ by $$\omega' = \omega + d\beta$$ for some one-form $$\beta$$. The $$\partial \bar \partial$$-lemma further states that this exact form $$d\beta$$ may be written as $$d\beta = i \partial \bar \partial \varphi$$ for a smooth function $$\varphi: X\to \mathbb{C}$$. In the local discussion above, one takes the local Kähler class $$[\omega]=0$$ on an open subset $$U\subset X$$, and by the Poincaré lemma any Kähler form will locally be cohomologous to zero. Thus the local Kähler potential $$\rho$$ is the same $$\varphi$$ for $$[\omega]=0$$ locally.

In general if $$[\omega]$$ is a Kähler class, then any other Kähler metric can be written as $$\omega_\varphi = \omega + i \partial \bar \partial \varphi$$ for such a smooth function. This form is not automatically a positive form, so the space of Kähler potentials for the class $$[\omega]$$ is defined as those positive cases, and is commonly denoted by $$\mathcal{K}$$:

 * $$\mathcal{K}_{[\omega]} := \{ \varphi: X \to \mathbb{R} \text{ smooth} \mid \omega + i \partial \bar \partial \varphi>0 \}.$$

If two Kähler potentials differ by a constant, then they define the same Kähler metric, so the space of Kähler metrics in the class $$[\omega]$$ can be identified with the quotient $$\mathcal{K}/\mathbb{R}$$. The space of Kähler potentials is a contractible space. In this way the space of Kähler potentials allows one to study all Kähler metrics in a given class simultaneously, and this perspective in the study of existence results for Kähler metrics.

Kähler manifolds and volume minimizers
For a compact Kähler manifold X, the volume of a closed complex subspace of X is determined by its homology class. In a sense, this means that the geometry of a complex subspace is bounded in terms of its topology. (This fails completely for real submanifolds.) Explicitly, Wirtinger's formula says that
 * $$\mathrm{vol}(Y)=\frac{1}{r!}\int_Y \omega^r,$$

where Y is an r-dimensional closed complex subspace and ω is the Kähler form. Since ω is closed, this integral depends only on the class of Y in H2r(X, R). These volumes are always positive, which expresses a strong positivity of the Kähler class ω in H(X, R) with respect to complex subspaces. In particular, ωn is not zero in H(X, R), for a compact Kähler manifold X of complex dimension n.

A related fact is that every closed complex subspace Y of a compact Kähler manifold X is a minimal submanifold (outside its singular set). Even more: by the theory of calibrated geometry, Y minimizes volume among all (real) cycles in the same homology class.

Kähler identities
As a consequence of the strong interaction between the smooth, complex, and Riemannian structures on a Kähler manifold, there are natural identities between the various operators on the complex differential forms of Kähler manifolds which do not hold for arbitrary complex manifolds. These identities relate the exterior derivative $$d$$, the Dolbeault operators $$\partial, \bar \partial$$ and their adjoints, the Laplacians $$\Delta_d, \Delta_{\partial}, \Delta_{\bar \partial}$$, and the Lefschetz operator $$L := \omega \wedge -$$ and its adjoint, the contraction operator $$\Lambda = L^*$$. The identities form the basis of the analytical toolkit on Kähler manifolds, and combined with Hodge theory are fundamental in proving many important properties of Kähler manifolds and their cohomology. In particular the Kähler identities are critical in proving the Kodaira and Nakano vanishing theorems, the Lefschetz hyperplane theorem, Hard Lefschetz theorem, Hodge-Riemann bilinear relations, and Hodge index theorem.

The Laplacian on a Kähler manifold
On a Riemannian manifold of dimension $$n$$, the Laplacian on smooth $$r$$-forms is defined by $$\Delta_d=dd^*+d^*d$$ where $$d$$ is the exterior derivative and $$d^*=-(-1)^{n(r+1)}\star d\, \star$$, where $$\star$$ is the Hodge star operator. (Equivalently, $$d^*$$ is the adjoint of $$d$$ with respect to the L2 inner product on $$r$$-forms with compact support.) For a Hermitian manifold $$X$$, $$d$$ and $$d^*$$ are decomposed as
 * $$d=\partial+\bar{\partial},\ \ \ \ d^*=\partial^*+\bar{\partial}^*,$$

and two other Laplacians are defined:
 * $$\Delta_{\bar{\partial}}=\bar{\partial}\bar{\partial}^*+\bar{\partial}^*\bar{\partial},\ \ \ \ \Delta_\partial=\partial\partial^*+\partial^*\partial.$$

If $$X$$ is Kähler, the Kähler identities imply these Laplacians are all the same up to a constant:
 * $$\Delta_d=2\Delta_{\bar{\partial}}=2\Delta_\partial .$$

These identities imply that on a Kähler manifold $$X$$,
 * $$\mathcal H^r(X)=\bigoplus_{p+q=r}\mathcal H^{p,q}(X),$$

where $$\mathcal H^r$$ is the space of harmonic $$r$$-forms on $$X$$ (forms $$\alpha$$ with $$\Delta\alpha=0$$) and $$\mathcal H^{p,q}$$ is the space of harmonic $(p,q)$-forms. That is, a differential form $$\alpha$$ is harmonic if and only if each of its $$(p,q)$$-components is harmonic.

Further, for a compact Kähler manifold $$X$$, Hodge theory gives an interpretation of the splitting above which does not depend on the choice of Kähler metric. Namely, the cohomology $$H^r(X,\mathbf{C})$$ of $$X$$ with complex coefficients splits as a direct sum of certain coherent sheaf cohomology groups:
 * $$H^r(X,\mathbf{C})\cong\bigoplus_{p+q=r}H^q(X,\Omega^p).$$

The group on the left depends only on $$X$$ as a topological space, while the groups on the right depend on $$X$$ as a complex manifold. So this Hodge decomposition theorem connects topology and complex geometry for compact Kähler manifolds.

Let $$H^{p,q}(X)$$ be the complex vector space $$H^q(X,\Omega^p)$$, which can be identified with the space $$\mathcal H^{p,q}(X)$$ of harmonic forms with respect to a given Kähler metric. The Hodge numbers of $$X$$ are defined by $$h^{p,q}(X)=\mathrm{dim}_{\mathbf{C}}H^{p,q}(X)$$. The Hodge decomposition implies a decomposition of the Betti numbers of a compact Kähler manifold $$X$$ in terms of its Hodge numbers:
 * $$b_r=\sum_{p+q=r}h^{p,q}.$$

The Hodge numbers of a compact Kähler manifold satisfy several identities. The Hodge symmetry $$h^{p,q}=h^{q,p}$$ holds because the Laplacian $$\Delta_d$$ is a real operator, and so $$H^{p,q}=\overline{H^{q,p}}$$. The identity $$h^{p,q}=h^{n-p,n-q}$$ can be proved using that the Hodge star operator gives an isomorphism $$H^{p,q}\cong \overline{H^{n-p,n-q}}$$. It also follows from Serre duality.

Topology of compact Kähler manifolds
A simple consequence of Hodge theory is that every odd Betti number b2a+1 of a compact Kähler manifold is even, by Hodge symmetry. This is not true for compact complex manifolds in general, as shown by the example of the Hopf surface, which is diffeomorphic to S1 × S3 and hence has b1 = 1.

The "Kähler package" is a collection of further restrictions on the cohomology of compact Kähler manifolds, building on Hodge theory. The results include the Lefschetz hyperplane theorem, the hard Lefschetz theorem, and the Hodge-Riemann bilinear relations. A related result is that every compact Kähler manifold is formal in the sense of rational homotopy theory.

The question of which groups can be fundamental groups of compact Kähler manifolds, called Kähler groups, is wide open. Hodge theory gives many restrictions on the possible Kähler groups. The simplest restriction is that the abelianization of a Kähler group must have even rank, since the Betti number b1 of a compact Kähler manifold is even. (For example, the integers Z cannot be the fundamental group of a compact Kähler manifold.) Extensions of the theory such as non-abelian Hodge theory give further restrictions on which groups can be Kähler groups.

Without the Kähler condition, the situation is simple: Clifford Taubes showed that every finitely presented group arises as the fundamental group of some compact complex manifold of dimension 3. (Conversely, the fundamental group of any closed manifold is finitely presented.)

Characterizations of complex projective varieties and compact Kähler manifolds
The Kodaira embedding theorem characterizes smooth complex projective varieties among all compact Kähler manifolds. Namely, a compact complex manifold X is projective if and only if there is a Kähler form ω on X whose class in H(X, R) is in the image of the integral cohomology group H(X, Z). (Because a positive multiple of a Kähler form is a Kähler form, it is equivalent to say that X has a Kähler form whose class in H(X, R) comes from H(X, Q).) Equivalently, X is projective if and only if there is a holomorphic line bundle L on X with a hermitian metric whose curvature form ω is positive (since ω is then a Kähler form that represents the first Chern class of L in H(X, Z)). The Kähler form ω that satisfies these conditions (that is, Kähler form ω is an integral differential form) is also called the Hodge form, and the Kähler metric at this time is called the Hodge metric. The compact Kähler manifolds with Hodge metric are also called Hodge manifolds.

Many properties of Kähler manifolds hold in the slightly greater generality of $$\partial \bar \partial$$-manifolds, that is compact complex manifolds for which the $\partial \bar \partial$-lemma holds. In particular the Bott–Chern cohomology is an alternative to the Dolbeault cohomology of a compact complex manifolds, and they are isomorphic if and only if the manifold satisfies the $$\partial \bar \partial$$-lemma, and in particular agree when the manifold is Kähler. In general the kernel of the natural map from Bott–Chern cohomology to Dolbeault cohomology contains information about the failure of the manifold to be Kähler.

Every compact complex curve is projective, but in complex dimension at least 2, there are many compact Kähler manifolds that are not projective; for example, most compact complex tori are not projective. One may ask whether every compact Kähler manifold can at least be deformed (by continuously varying the complex structure) to a smooth projective variety. Kunihiko Kodaira's work on the classification of surfaces implies that every compact Kähler manifold of complex dimension 2 can indeed be deformed to a smooth projective variety. Claire Voisin found, however, that this fails in dimensions at least 4. She constructed a compact Kähler manifold of complex dimension 4 that is not even homotopy equivalent to any smooth complex projective variety.

One can also ask for a characterization of compact Kähler manifolds among all compact complex manifolds. In complex dimension 2, Kodaira and Yum-Tong Siu showed that a compact complex surface has a Kähler metric if and only if its first Betti number is even. An alternative proof of this result which does not require the hard case-by-case study using the classification of compact complex surfaces was provided independently by Buchdahl and Lamari. Thus "Kähler" is a purely topological property for compact complex surfaces. Hironaka's example shows, however, that this fails in dimensions at least 3. In more detail, the example is a 1-parameter family of smooth compact complex 3-folds such that most fibers are Kähler (and even projective), but one fiber is not Kähler. Thus a compact Kähler manifold can be diffeomorphic to a non-Kähler complex manifold.

Kähler–Einstein manifolds
A Kähler manifold is called Kähler–Einstein if it has constant Ricci curvature. Equivalently, the Ricci curvature tensor is equal to a constant λ times the metric tensor, Ric = λg. The reference to Einstein comes from general relativity, which asserts in the absence of mass that spacetime is a 4-dimensional Lorentzian manifold with zero Ricci curvature. See the article on Einstein manifolds for more details.

Although Ricci curvature is defined for any Riemannian manifold, it plays a special role in Kähler geometry: the Ricci curvature of a Kähler manifold X can be viewed as a real closed (1,1)-form that represents c1(X) (the first Chern class of the tangent bundle) in H(X, R). It follows that a compact Kähler–Einstein manifold X must have canonical bundle KX either anti-ample, homologically trivial, or ample, depending on whether the Einstein constant λ is positive, zero, or negative. Kähler manifolds of those three types are called Fano, Calabi–Yau, or with ample canonical bundle (which implies general type), respectively. By the Kodaira embedding theorem, Fano manifolds and manifolds with ample canonical bundle are automatically projective varieties.

Shing-Tung Yau proved the Calabi conjecture: every smooth projective variety with ample canonical bundle has a Kähler–Einstein metric (with constant negative Ricci curvature), and every Calabi–Yau manifold has a Kähler–Einstein metric (with zero Ricci curvature). These results are important for the classification of algebraic varieties, with applications such as the Miyaoka–Yau inequality for varieties with ample canonical bundle and the Beauville–Bogomolov decomposition for Calabi–Yau manifolds.

By contrast, not every smooth Fano variety has a Kähler–Einstein metric (which would have constant positive Ricci curvature). However, Xiuxiong Chen, Simon Donaldson, and Song Sun proved the Yau–Tian–Donaldson conjecture: a smooth Fano variety has a Kähler–Einstein metric if and only if it is K-stable, a purely algebro-geometric condition.

In situations where there cannot exist a Kähler–Einstein metric, it is possible to study mild generalizations including constant scalar curvature Kähler metrics and extremal Kähler metrics. When a Kähler–Einstein metric can exist, these broader generalizations are automatically Kähler–Einstein.

Holomorphic sectional curvature
The deviation of a Riemannian manifold X from the standard metric on Euclidean space is measured by sectional curvature, which is a real number associated to any real 2-plane in the tangent space of X at a point. For example, the sectional curvature of the standard metric on CPn (for n ≥ 2) varies between 1/4 and 1 at every point. For a Hermitian manifold (for example, a Kähler manifold), the holomorphic sectional curvature means the sectional curvature restricted to complex lines in the tangent space. This behaves more simply, in that CPn has holomorphic sectional curvature equal to 1 everywhere. At the other extreme, the open unit ball in Cn has a complete Kähler metric with holomorphic sectional curvature equal to −1. (With this metric, the ball is also called complex hyperbolic space.)

The holomorphic sectional curvature is intimately related to the complex geometry of the underlying complex manifold. It is an elementary consequence of the Ahlfors Schwarz lemma that if $$(X,\omega)$$ is a Hermitian manifold with a Hermitian metric of negative holomorphic sectional curvature (bounded above by a negative constant), then it is Brody hyperbolic (i.e., every holomorphic map $$\mathbb{C}\to X$$ is constant). If X happens to be compact, then this is equivalent to the manifold being Kobayashi hyperbolic.

On the other hand, if $$(X,\omega)$$ is a compact Kähler manifold with a Kähler metric of positive holomorphic sectional curvature, Yang Xiaokui showed that X is rationally connected.

A remarkable feature of complex geometry is that holomorphic sectional curvature decreases on complex submanifolds. (The same goes for a more general concept, holomorphic bisectional curvature.) For example, every complex submanifold of Cn (with the induced metric from Cn) has holomorphic sectional curvature ≤ 0.

For holomorphic maps between Hermitian manifolds, the holomorphic sectional curvature is not strong enough to control the target curvature term appearing in the Schwarz lemma second-order estimate. This motivated the consideration of the real bisectional curvature, introduced by Xiaokui Yang and Fangyang Zheng. This also appears in the work of Man-Chun Lee and Jeffrey Streets under the name complex curvature operator.

Examples

 * 1) Complex space Cn with the standard Hermitian metric is a Kähler manifold.
 * 2) A compact complex torus Cn/Λ (Λ a full lattice) inherits a flat metric from the Euclidean metric on Cn, and is therefore a compact Kähler manifold.
 * 3) Every Riemannian metric on an oriented 2-manifold is Kähler. (Indeed, its holonomy group is contained in the rotation group SO(2), which is equal to the unitary group U(1).) In particular, an oriented Riemannian 2-manifold is a Riemann surface in a canonical way; this is known as the existence of isothermal coordinates. Conversely, every Riemann surface is Kähler since the Kähler form of any Hermitian metric is closed for dimensional reasons.
 * 4) There is a standard choice of Kähler metric on complex projective space CPn, the Fubini–Study metric. One description involves the unitary group U(n + 1), the group of linear automorphisms of Cn+1 that preserve the standard Hermitian form. The Fubini–Study metric is the unique Riemannian metric on CPn (up to a positive multiple) that is invariant under the action of U(n + 1) on CPn. One natural generalization of CPn is provided by the Hermitian symmetric spaces of compact type, such as Grassmannians. The natural Kähler metric on a Hermitian symmetric space of compact type has sectional curvature ≥ 0.
 * 5) The induced metric on a complex submanifold of a Kähler manifold is Kähler. In particular, any Stein manifold (embedded in Cn) or smooth projective algebraic variety (embedded in CPn) is Kähler. This is a large class of examples.
 * 6) The open unit ball B in Cn has a complete Kähler metric called the Bergman metric, with holomorphic sectional curvature equal to −1. A natural generalization of the ball is provided by the Hermitian symmetric spaces of noncompact type, such as the Siegel upper half space. Every Hermitian symmetric space X of noncompact type is isomorphic to a bounded domain in some Cn, and the Bergman metric of X is a complete Kähler metric with sectional curvature ≤ 0.
 * 7) Every K3 surface is Kähler (by Siu).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Kähler manifold


text:
Dulwich Picture Gallery

Dulwich Picture Gallery is an art gallery in Dulwich, south London. It opened to the public in 1817 and was designed by the Regency architect Sir John Soane. His design was recognized for its innovative and influential method of illumination for viewing the art. It is the oldest public art gallery in England and was made an independent charitable trust in 1994. Until then, the gallery was part of the College of God's Gift, a charitable foundation established by the actor, entrepreneur and philanthropist Edward Alleyn in the early 17th century. The acquisition of artworks by its founders and bequests from its many patrons resulted in Dulwich Picture Gallery housing one of the country's finest collections of Old Masters, especially rich in French, Italian and Spanish Baroque paintings, and in British portraits from the Tudor era to the 19th century.

The Dulwich Picture Gallery and its mausoleum are listed Grade II* on the National Heritage List for England. The mausoleum is for founders of the collection, Francis Bourgeois and Noël Desenfans.

Early history of the gallery
Edward Alleyn (1566–1626) was an actor who became an entrepreneur in Elizabethan theatre. His commercial interests in the Rose and Fortune Theatres (a major competitor to the Globe Theatre), gave him sufficient wealth to acquire the Manor of Dulwich in 1605. He founded a college at Dulwich, the College of God's Gift, and endowed it with his estate. It was a school for boys and next to it were almshouses for the local poor. The college became three separate beneficiary schools—Dulwich College, Alleyn's School, and James Allen's Girls' School, named after an early 18th-century headmaster. The college, the attached almshouses and chapel survive next to the gallery on Gallery Road, although its exterior has undergone extensive renovation.

Alleyn bequeathed the college of a collection of works including portraits of the kings and queens of England. The college retained connections with the theatre and in 1686, the actor William Cartwright (1606–1686) bequeathed a collection of 239 pictures, of which 80 are now identifiable at Dulwich. In the 18th century, the collection was displayed on the first floor of the wing of the Old College. It attracted few additions during this period, and recorded descriptions of the gallery suggest disappointment and apathy from its visitors. The art historian and Whig politician Horace Walpole wrote that he saw "a hundred mouldy portraits among apostles sibyls and kings of England".

Later history – Bourgeois, Desenfans and Sir John Soane

The Dulwich collection was improved in size and quality by Sir Francis Bourgeois (1753–1811), originally from Switzerland, and his business partner, Frenchman Noël Desenfans (1744–1807). Their involvement saw the Gallery make significant steps towards its present state, and they are credited as founders of Dulwich Picture Gallery. They ran an art dealership in London and in 1790 were commissioned by the King of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Stanisław August Poniatowski, to assemble a national collection for Poland to encourage fine arts in his country. Desenfans had lobbied the British Government to create a similar British national collection and offered to contribute to it, but was unenthusiastically received. Touring around Europe buying fine art, Bourgeois and Desenfans took five years to assemble the collection, but by 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been partitioned and no longer existed.

Bourgeois and Desenfans attempted to sell the collection but were unsuccessful. Instead, they sold small pieces to fund the purchase of other important works and kept the collection in Desenfans' house in Charlotte Street. After the death of Desenfans in 1807, Bourgeois inherited the collection. He commissioned Sir John Soane to design and construct a mausoleum at Desenfans' house, but was unable to secure the freehold. Bourgeois bequeathed his collection to the College of God's Gift on the advice of the actor John Philip Kemble, a friend of both dealers. Bourgeois left instructions in his will for the construction of a gallery in Dulwich, designed by Soane, in which to display the collection. It was next to the original college buildings by the chapel. He also left £2,000 for construction costs and £4,000 was contributed by Desenfan's widow.

The gallery was opened to students of the Royal Academy of Arts in 1815, two years before the official opening to the public, the delay due to a problem with the gallery's heating system. It became a popular venue for copyists from London schools of art. Its collection was frequented by many cultural figures over the next hundred years, many of whom first visited as students, including John Constable, William Etty, Joseph Mallord William Turner, and later Vincent van Gogh. Charles Dickens mentions Dulwich Picture Gallery in his novel The Pickwick Papers, as Samuel Pickwick, the novel's protagonist, is a visitor to the gallery in his retirement.

Modern history

In the early hours of 31 December 1966, eight paintings were stolen, three by Rembrandt, A Girl at the Window, a version of Portrait of Titus and his Portrait of Jacob de Gheyn III, a fellow artist, three by Rubens, Three Women with a Cornucopia, St. Barbara and The Three Graces; and one, A Lady Playing on the Clavicord by Gerrit Dou and Susannah and the Elders by Adam Elsheimer. They were worth at least £3 million but a reward of just £1,000 was offered for their return. Within a few days all the paintings were recovered after an investigation led by Detective Superintendent Charles Hewett, who had previously investigated suspected serial killer Dr John Bodkin Adams. Michael Hall, an unemployed ambulance driver, was the only one of the thieves caught and was sentenced to five years in prison.

Rembrandt's small early Portrait of Jacob de Gheyn III (1632) has been stolen and recovered four times and is listed in Guinness World Records as the most frequently stolen artwork in the world. Last stolen in 1983, it was recovered from a left-luggage office in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1986; returned anonymously; found on the back of a bicycle; and discovered under a bench in a graveyard in Streatham, south London. Since 2010, the painting has been guarded by an upgraded security system. In November 2019, During the Rembrandt's Light exhibition featuring loans works from the Louvre in Paris and the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, thieves attempted to steal two of the paintings. The attempt was unsuccessful.

In 1995 a major reorganisation of the historic Alleyn's College charity resulted in the reconstitution of Dulwich Picture Gallery as an independent registered charity.

The gallery marked its bicentenary in 2017. As part of the celebrations the Gallery partnered with the London Festival of Architecture to hold a competition for emerging architects to create a 'Dulwich Pavilion', a temporary events structure to be built in the Gallery's historic grounds during the summer of 2017. The competition was won by London-based architecture practice IF_DO.

In June–September 2019, the Dulwich hosted the first major exhibition of the works of the Grosvenor School in a public art gallery outside Australia, which was critically well received.

The Gallery reopened in May 2021 after 14 months of pandemic closure with a complete rehang of the collection and the exhibition Unearthed: Photography’s Roots.

In spring 2023, the Gallery hosted the first major UK exhibition of the Impressionist Berthe Morisot since 1950.

Donors

The gallery attracted donors from its earliest days. In 1835 William Linley (1771–1835)—last of a musical and theatrical family (many of whom had connections to Dulwich College) and brother-in-law to playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan—bequeathed his collection of family portraits to the gallery. Among these paintings were works by Thomas Gainsborough, Archer James Oliver, James Lonsdale and Sir Thomas Lawrence.

The portraitist and Royal Academician William Beechey (1753–1839) donated a picture of the gallery's founder Bourgeois he had painted on the back of a picture by Joshua Reynolds in 1836 adding two images to the collection, although only one can be shown at a time. In 2012, the side of the canvas on display is by Reynolds.

British portrait art became better represented due to the benefaction of Charles Fairfax Murray, a Pre-Raphaelite painter, collector and dealer. A group of 40 pictures were donated by Murray in 1911 and others followed in 1915 and 1917–18.

Gallery design
Dulwich Picture Gallery's design and architecture comprising a series of interlinked rooms lit by natural light through overhead skylights has been the primary influence on art gallery design ever since. Soane designed the sky lights to illuminate the paintings indirectly. Soane's design was unrelated to traditional architectural practice or schools of architecture. Instead of constructing a facade with the stucco porticos favoured by many contemporary architects, he opted to use uninterrupted raw brick, a feature subsequently adopted by many 20th-century art galleries. The architect Philip Johnson said "Soane has taught us how to display paintings".

Before Soane settled on his final design, he proposed a number of other ideas around a quadrangle belonging to the Alleyn's charitable foundation to the south of the college buildings. The schemes proved too ambitious and only the gallery was built, conceived as one wing of the quadrangle. The mausoleum was Soane's idea, as Bourgeois had merely indicated a desire to be buried in the college chapel. Soane recalled Bourgeois' desire to construct a mausoleum in Desenfan's home and his design was axiomatic to that of the Charlotte Street house. Bourgeois and Desenfans, along with Desenfans' wife, who died in 1815, are buried in the gallery's mausoleum. Alms houses constructed by Soane along the west side of the gallery were converted into exhibition space by Charles Barry Jr. in 1880 and an eastward extension was built to designs by E. S. Hall between 1908 and 1938.

On 12 July 1944, during World War II, the mausoleum and west wing galleries were badly damaged by a German V1 flying bomb and bones were scattered across the lawn in front of the gallery. The three sarcophagi in the mausoleum now contain approximately a skeleton each. The buildings were refurbished by Austin Vernon and Partners and re-opened by the Queen Mother on 27 April 1953.

A modernist cafe, education rooms, disabled access and lecture theatre by Rick Mather were added in 1999. At the same time parts of Soane's original design were restored and the latest refurbishment was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 25 May 2000.

In 2023, the gallery announced plans for a £4.9 million redevelopment designed by the architects Carmody Groarke, encompassing a new sculpture garden in the southern portion of the site and a new building for school and family activities.

 Image:Dulwich picture gallery at sunset.jpg|Exterior view Image:Dulwich Picture Gallery TQ3373 142.jpg|Dulwich Picture Gallery exterior looking north Image:Dulwich Picture Gallery exterior.jpg|Exterior – east frontage Image:Dulwich Picture Gallery.jpg|Mausoleum Image:Dulwich-picture-gallery-interior.JPG|The main gallery Image:Dulwich Picture Gallery mausoleum.jpg|Inside the mausoleum File:Dulwich Picture Gallery in 1922 (rooms 1-5).jpg|The main gallery in 1922 File:Dulwich Picture Gallery in 1922 (room 9).jpg|Room 9 in 1922 Image:Dulwich Picture Gallery in 1922.jpg|Exterior view in 1922

Collection

 * Dutch School
 * Cuyp, Aelbert – 11 paintings;
 * Dou, Gerrit – 1 painting;
 * Hobbema, Meyndert – 1 painting;
 * Hooch, Charles Cornelisz de – 2 paintings;
 * Neer, Aernout van der – 1 painting;
 * Ostade, Adriaen van – 5 paintings;
 * Rembrandt van Rijn – 3 paintings;
 * Ruisdael, Jacob van – 4 paintings;
 * Velde, Adriaen van de – 2 paintings;
 * Velde, Willem van de...the Younger – 3 paintings;
 * Weenix, Jan – 1 painting;
 * Wouwerman, Philip – 12 paintings;

 * English School
 * Dobson, William – 1 painting;
 * Gainsborough, Thomas – 7 paintings;
 * Hogarth, William – 2 paintings;
 * Landseer, Sir Edwin – 1 painting;
 * Lawrence, Thomas – 3 paintings;
 * Reynolds, Joshua – 9 paintings;
 * Constable, John – 1 painting;

 * Flemish School
 * Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger – 1 painting;
 * Rubens, Peter Paul – 10 paintings;
 * Teniers, David – 19 paintings;
 * Van Dyck, Anthony – 5 paintings;

 * French School
 * Dughet, Gaspard – 4 paintings;
 * Fragonard, Jean-Honoré – 1 painting;
 * Gellée, Claude – 4 paintings;
 * Poussin, Nicolas – 6 paintings;
 * Vernet, Claude-Joseph – 6 paintings;
 * Watteau, Jean-Antoine – 2 paintings;

 * Italian School
 * Canaletto, (Giovanni Antonio Canal) – 2 paintings;
 * Carracci, Annibale – 4 paintings;
 * Piero di Cosimo – 1 painting;
 * Guercino, (Giovanni Francesco Barbieri) – 2 paintings;
 * Raphael, (Raffaello Sanzio) – 2 paintings;
 * Reni, Guido – 2 paintings;
 * Ricci, Sebastiano – 2 paintings;
 * Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista – 3 paintings;
 * Vasari, Giorgio – 1 painting;
 * Veronese, Paolo – 1 painting;
 * Zuccarelli, Francesco – 3 paintings;

 * Spanish School
 * Murillo, Bartolomé-Esteban – 4 paintings;

Directors
Jennifer Scott became Director of Dulwich Picture Gallery in April 2017, following Ian A.C. Dejardin who had been director since 2005. From 1996 to 2005, Desmond Shawe-Taylor, later Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, was the Director. Giles Waterfield was Director of the Dulwich Picture Gallery from 1979-1996.

title: Dulwich Picture Gallery


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Krzeszowice

Krzeszowice (1941-45 Kressendorf) is a town in southern Poland, situated in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship. As of 2004, its population was 9,993. Krzeszowice belongs to Kraków Metropolitan Area, and lies 25 kilometers west of the center of the city of Kraków. The town has a rail station, on a major route from Kraków to Katowice, and lies along National Road Nr. 79, which goes from Warsaw to Bytom. In 1928–1966 the town had the status of a spa. Krzeszowice has a sports club called Świt, founded in 1923.

Krzeszowice is located in southern part of the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland, with numerous caves and valleys in the area. In 1981, when the Complex of Jura Landscape Parks was created, three parks from the gmina of Krzeszowice were added to it (Rudnia Landscape Park, Tenczynek Landscape Park and Kraków Valleys Landscape Park). In 2008, it was selected with 19 villages of Europe - Germany, Poland, Italy and Spain - for the Spanish documentary film "Villages of Europe" Pueblos de Europa, produced by Juan Frutos.

History
First mention of Krzeszowice comes from 1286, when Bishop of Kraków, Paweł z Przemankowa, allowed a man named Fryczek Freton to locate the village of Cressouicy. By 1337, Krzeszowice already had a wooden church of St. Martin. In the mid-15th century, it had a school and a public house. In 1555, Krzeszowice belonged to Stanisław Tęczynski, then it was owned by several noble families - the Sieniawski family, Opaliński family, Czartoryski family, Lubomirski family and, since 1816, the Potocki family.

In the early 17th century, the advantages of local mineral water were discovered by Krzeszowice parish priest, reverend Bernard Bocheński, who mentioned it in the 1625 parish records. In 1778, Prince August Czartoryski opened here first baths, and soon afterwards, patients began visiting Krzeszowice. In 1783–1786, the Vauxhall Palace was built, and in 1819, the Green Bath was opened. Krzeszowice began to prosper, in 1809–1815 and 1855–1867, the town was the seat of a county. In 1815–1846, Krzeszowice belonged to the Free City of Kraków, and to Austria in 1846-1918 within the Grand Duchy of Cracow, Chrzanow Bezirkshauptmannschaft.

A hospital was opened here in 1829, a shelter for the poor in 1843, and in 1844, neo-Gothic church was built. In 1847 Krzeszowice received a rail station, along the newly built route from Kraków to Mysłowice. Local residents took part in the Kraków Uprising, and helped Polish rebels from Russian-controlled Congress Poland, during the January Uprising. In 1850–1855, the Potocki Palace was built, in the Italian Renaissance style, together with English garden. The palace with all its details was not completed until 1870.

By 1910, the population of Krzeszowice was 2619, out of which Jews made 18%. The town continued to develop, with several new enterprises opened here in the late 19th and early 20th century. On December 3, 1924, Krzeszowice was officially incorporated as a town. New districts and blocks of flats were built, and by 1931, the population grew to 3,391. During World War II Krzeszowice belonged to the General Government. The Potocki Palace was restored by polish slave laborer by the order of Nazis and renamed by Germans into Haus Kressendorf, becoming the summer residence of Hans Frank. Almost all Jewish citizens were murdered in the Holocaust. The German occupation of Krzeszowice ended on 19 January 1945.

Architecture

 * St. Martin's Church in the Neo-Gothic style
 * Potocki Palace
 * Vauxhall Palace

Parks and gardens

 * Potocki Gardens

Museums and galleries

 * The Museum of Krzeszowice Land, a small art gallery with art, objects and furniture.

Religion

 * Roman Catholicism (The St. Martin's Church, Grunwaldzka Street 1; and The St. John Paul II Church, Żbicka Street 43)
 * Jehovah's Witnesses (Congregation Krzeszowice, Kościuszki Street 49)

title: Krzeszowice


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Dobczyce

Dobczyce is a town in southern Poland, situated since 1999 in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship (previously in Kraków Voivodeship from 1975 to 1998). As of December 2021, the town has a population of 6,388.

There is a large dam with Lake Dobczyce on the Raba river, and a partially rebuilt 14th-century Dobczyce Castle, with ruins of a 14th-century defensive wall - which is open for tourists. Dobczyce is also the name of a small part of Bobrowniki Małe, a village in Lesser Poland.

Dobczyce received its Magdeburg rights town charter probably in 1310, during the reign of Władysław Łokietek. The town was famous for its castle, where Jan Długosz liked to stay and work on his chronicles. Here, in 1450, Polish astronomer and dean of Kraków Academy Leonard Vitreatoris (Leonhard von Dobschütz) was born. Dobczyce enjoyed several royal privileges, allowing its residents to buy salt from nearby Wieliczka. The town was a local center of cloth and wool making, but the period of prosperity ended during the Swedish invasion of Poland (1655–1660). After the Partitions of Poland, Dobczyce was annexed by the Habsburg Empire, and from 1772 to 1918 belonged to Galicia. On the main square there is a 19th-century parish church.

title: Dobczyce


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Alwernia

Alwernia is a town situated some 36 km west of Kraków in the Chrzanów County, Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Poland. The town has an area of 8.88 sqkm, and as of June 2022 it has a population of 3,284.

History
The name of the town is taken from that of the Franciscan hermitage of La Verna (Alvernia) in Tuscany, Italy. It was bestowed on the locality in 1616 by the castellan Krzysztof Koryciński. A monastery of the order of the Stigmata of Saint Francis of Assisi was built on high ground between 1625 and 1656. The church dates from the period between 1630 and 1676.

Below the monastery a settlement developed which in 1776 received the right to hold a market. In 1796 Alwernia is mentioned as being a small commercial and administrative centre.

After the Third Partition of Poland, the town became a part of the Austrian Empire, and since 1867 of Austria-Hungary. In the newly-reborn Poland, Alwernia administratively belonged to Kraków Voivodeship. After World War II, the town once again became a part of Kraków Voivodeship until 1998.

On 15 September 1993 Alwernia received its town charter.

Economy
Chemical works "Alventa" is located in the town. The works was built in 1923–1924, in the interwar period. It mainly focuses on producing phosphorus and chromium compounds, as well as fertilizers.

Road transport
Voivodeship road 780 directly passes through the town. The A4 motorway, which is a part of the European route E40, passes through the village of Rudno, located about 4 km north of the town.

Rail transport
The Trzebinia–Wadowice railway, opened in 1899, passes through the town, however in October 2002 passenger service ceased. In 2017, a tourist draisine started operating on the closed railway. The railway infrastructure manager in Poland, PKP Polskie Linie Kolejowe, is planning to reconstruct the railway.

Tourist attractions and monuments
Alwernia's tourist attractions and monuments include:
 * Baroque Bernardine monastery and church;
 * Saint Florian chapel;
 * the oldest firefighting museum in Poland – Małopolskie Muzeum Pożarnictwa.

title: Alwernia


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Skawina

Skawina is a town in southern Poland with 27,328 inhabitants (2008). Situated in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship (since 1999), previously in Kraków Voivodeship (1975–1998). The town is located on the Skawinka river, in close proximity to the city of Kraków. Its population (as for December 31, 2010) was 23,761, and the area of the town is 20,50 km2. One of the most interesting historic buildings in Skawina is a Renaissance palace, built in the mid-16th century by Paweł Korytko. The name of the town probably comes from the Skawinka river.

History
In the late 13th century, three villages existed here: Babice Nowe, Babice Stare and Pisary. They belonged to the Tyniec Benedictine Abbey. In the Middle Ages, the Skawinka marked for a while the boundary between Silesia and Lesser Poland, which resulted in construction of a defensive gord, which protected the city of Kraków from the south. On May 22, 1364, King Kazimierz Wielki granted Magdeburg rights to Skawina, and a few years later, the parish church of Holy Spirit was funded here. Skawina was the seat of a wójt, and remained in the hands of the Benedictine monks. It was administratively located in the Kraków Voivodeship in the Lesser Poland Province of the Kingdom of Poland. The town had a defensive wall and a castle, which was the residence of the wójt. In 1509, Skawina burned in a fire, but the town was quickly rebuilt and enjoyed the prosperity of the Polish Golden Age. Good times ended in the Swedish invasion of Poland, when Swedish and Transilvanian armies destroyed Skawina, reducing its population by 50%. After the First Partition of Poland, Skawina became part of Austrian province of Galicia (1772). The town remained poor and backward until the second half of the 19th century, when Skawina became a railroad hub, with three lines, to Kraków, Sucha Beskidzka, and Oświęcim. A brewery was built and new businesses were opened.

In the Second Polish Republic Skawina belonged to the Kraków Voivodeship. On September 6, 1939 the first Wehrmacht troops entered the town, and the German occupation lasted until January 23, 1945. During this time, the Germans murdered nearly all of the town's pre-war population of around 300 Jews. Some where murdered nearby while others were rounded up and sent to the Belzec extermination camp where they were immediately gassed. A few were sent to forced labor camps near Płaszów where most were later murdered too. Those who hid from the roundup were later shot in the town.

The Communist government of People's Republic of Poland decided that Skawina would become a center of heavy industry. In 1954, the Skawina Aluminum Works (Huta Aluminium Skawina) were opened, and in 1961 the Skawina Power Station (Elektrownia Skawina) went on line. The aluminium works were closed in 1981 due to the widespread pollution they caused. The growth of industry resulted in an influx of new residents and the construction of several apartment blocks in new districts of the town.

Twin Towns – Sister Cities
Skawina is twinned with:

 * 🇮🇹 Civitanova Marche in Italy (since 2005)
 * 🇨🇿 Roztoky in Czech Republic (since 2005)

Sports
Skawina is home to sports club Skawinka, founded in 1922.

title: Skawina


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Portchester

Portchester is a village in the borough of Fareham in Hampshire, England. It is 4 mi northwest of Portsmouth and around 18 miles east of Southampton on the A27 road. Its population according to the 2011 United Kingdom census was 17,789.

Name
Portchester is derived from its former Latin name Portus Adurni and the Old English suffix ceaster ("fort; fortified town"), itself derived from the Latin word "castrum."

History
The fort of Portus Adurni is considered the best-preserved Roman fort north of the Alps. It is sometimes identified as the Caer Peris listed by the 9th-century History of the Britons as among the 28 cities of Britain. The medieval Portchester Castle was built within the Roman fort.

In 1931 the civil parish had a population of 2267. On 1 April 1932 the parish was abolished and merged with Fareham and Portsmouth. It is now in the unparished area of Fareham.

Amenities
As well as the castle, its parish church St Mary's is listed as a Grade I protected building. There are also many historic houses in Castle Street. This suburb is well placed for waterfront leisure activities, only a short distance from the UK's 3rd-largest marina at Port Solent, from the historic city of Portsmouth, and from the market town of Fareham.

Public open spaces

 * Portchester Castle
 * Portsdown Hill – Including Portchester Common a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)
 * Wicor Recreation Ground – Home to A.F.C. Portchester and Wicor Skate Park.

Schools

 * Portchester Community School, a mixed comprehensive community school for 11- to 16-year-olds.
 * Wicor Primary School
 * Northern Infant School
 * Northern Junior School
 * Red Barn Primary School
 * Castle Primary School

Crematorium
Opened in 1958, it is on the lower slopes of Portsdown Hill. It is owned by a Joint Committee representing the City of Portsmouth and the Boroughs of Fareham, Havant and Gosport. It has two chapels, the North (added 1969) and South (original). Those cremated there include two World War I Victoria Cross recipients, Norman Augustus Finch and James Ockendon who both died in 1966.

Sport and leisure
Portchester has a Non-League football club A.F.C. Portchester, which plays at Wicor Recreation Ground.

Notable residents

 * Neil Astley, publisher and founding editor of Bloodaxe Books, born in Portchester
 * Emily Farmer, watercolour painter
 * Neil Gaiman, author, born in Portchester
 * Steve Ridgway, Chief Executive, Virgin Atlantic Airways
 * Mike Hancock, former MP for Portsmouth South and former Councilor for Fratton ward, has lived here for over 30 years

Rail
Portchester railway station is managed and operated by South Western Railway with frequent Southern Railway services. Services run along the coast to Southampton, Fareham, Portsmouth, Havant, Chichester and Brighton. London services to London Waterloo (via Fareham) and London Victoria (via Barnham) also stop at the station.

Bus services
First Hampshire & Dorset services to Portsmouth, Havant, Fareham, Titchfield, Locks Heath and Warsash.

Road
The A27 road cuts through the centre of Portchester running east–west between Fareham and Cosham on the northern outskirts of Portsmouth. Access to the M27 motorway is via Junction 11 at Fareham or Junction 12 at Port Solent.

title: Portchester


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Niepołomice

Niepołomice ( pronounced ) is a town in southern Poland, seat of Gmina Niepołomice in the Wieliczka County in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship.

It is situated on the Vistula River, on the verge of the large virgin Niepołomice Forest.

There is a 14th-century hunting castle in town initially built by Casimir III, as well as a conservation center for European bison (Żubry) nearby.

The town is also home to professional football club Puszcza Niepołomice.

title: Niepołomice


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Skała

Skała is a town in southern Poland, situated in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship (since 1999), previously in Kraków Voivodeship (1975–1998). On December 31, 2010, its population was 3,646.

Skala is one of the oldest towns in Lesser Poland. In the early 13th century, it was a defensive gord, known as Scala and Magna Schala. Its name (the Polish word skała means rock in English) probably comes from a rocky hill above the Pradnik river valley.

History
During the period known as Fragmentation of Poland (1148–1320), Skala was the object of frequent clashes between the Piast dynasty princes. In 1228, a battle took place here between the army of Silesian prince Henry I the Bearded and Mazovian duke Konrad I of Masovia. The Silesians won, forcing Mazovian units to retreat from Lesser Poland. Skala received Środa Śląska rights on November 10, 1267, due to efforts of Salomea, the sister of duke Boleslaw V the Chaste. The town itself was located in the area of earlier village of Stańków (Stankoy), and became home to a monastery of the Order of Poor Ladies, who came here in the 1260s.

In the late Middle Ages Skała prospered, due to a convenient location on a merchant route from Kraków to Greater Poland. The town belonged to Kraków Voivodeship, and was a local center of trade, with several guilds and a brewery, whose beer was popular in Kraków. The town was famous for its shoemakers and butchers, who delivered their produce to the markets at Kraków. Skała burned in several fires (1611, 1737, 1763, 1810, 1914), and in 1580, its population was 218. In the year 1596, there were 92 houses at Skała, and a school. Like almost all towns in Lesser Poland, Skała was destroyed during the Swedish invasion of Poland (1655–1660).

In 1794, after the Battle of Racławice, Tadeusz Kościuszko designed Skała as a fortified camp, protecting northern approaches to the city of Kraków. On May 18, 1794, Prussian Army attacked and captured Skała. After the Partitions of Poland, the town briefly belonged to the Habsburg Empire, and in 1815 – 1915, it was part of Russian-controlled Congress Poland. As a result, the town was cut off from Kraków, which remained part of Austrian Galicia. Due to the proximity of the sealed border, the development of Skała was stopped for more than 100 years, as both Russian and Austrian governments did not promote mutual trade.

During the January Uprising, several skirmishes between Russian troops and Polish rebels took place in the area of Skała. In the nearby Ojców a Polish camp was created, under Marian Langiewicz. On March 5, 1863, a battle took place at a Skała cemetery. As a result, in 1870 Russian authorities stripped Skała of its town charter. In the late 19th century the population of the village was 2,823, with 12% Jewish. In the first months of World War I, heavy fighting between Russians and Austrians took place here.

In the Second Polish Republic, Skała belonged to Kielce Voivodeship, with the population of 3593 (as for 1921). The village was captured and burned by the Wehrmacht on September 6, 1939 (see Invasion of Poland). A ghetto was established for the Skała Jews; besides executions the town Jews were deported to the ghettos of Słomniki and Wolbrom. During World War II, Skała was an important center of Polish resistance, in July 1944, the Home Army units fought the Germans in several skirmishes.

After the war, Skała remained a village until 1987. The town retains its medieval urban shape, with a large market square in the middle, and a stone monument of Saint Florian (ca. 1800). Skała is the seat of a gmina, and has a late Baroque church (18th century), with a wooden bell tower (1765).

title: Skała