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Tétouan

Tétouan (تطوان, ), is a city in northern Morocco. It lies along the Martil Valley and is one of the two major ports of Morocco on the Mediterranean Sea, a few miles south of the Strait of Gibraltar, and about 60 km E.S.E. of Tangier. In the 2014 Moroccan census, the city recorded a population of 380,787 inhabitants. It is part of the administrative division Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima.

The city has witnessed many development cycles spanning over more than 2,000 years. The first settlements, discovered a few miles outside of the modern city limits, belonged to the ancient Mauretanians and date back to the 3rd century BC. A century later, Phoenicians traded there and after them the site—known now as the ancient town of Tamuda—became a Roman colony under Emperor Augustus.

In the late 13th century, the Marinids started by building a casbah and mosque in what is now the old city. Soon after in 1305, the scale of the settlement was expanded by sultan Abu Thabit Amir, who fortified the place. Around the early 15th century, the Castilians destroyed the settlement in retaliation for piracy.

The modern history of the city starts around the late 15th century. It was re-built and fortified by Ali al-Mandri, who emigrated from the Nasrid city of Granada in the decade before it fell in the hands of the Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile as the War of Granada was completed in 1492. Thousands of Muslims and Jews from Andalusia settled in the north of Morocco and on the ruins of the city of Tétouan. The city went through a prosperous period of reconstruction and growth in various fields and became a center for the reception of Andalusian civilization. It is often linked to Granada and is nicknamed "Granada's Daughter"; some families still keep keys belonging to their old homes in Granada. It is also nicknamed "Pequeña Jerusalén" (Little Jerusalem) by Sephardi Jews. The vast majority of the population are Muslims and small Christian and Jewish communities also exist, although their presence has declined sharply in recent decades.

In 1913, Tétouan became the capital of the Spanish protectorate of Morocco, which was governed by the Khalifa (Moroccan prince serving as Viceroy for the Sultan), and the Spanish "Alto Comisario" accredited to him. It remained the capital until 1956, when Morocco regained its full independence.

Tétouan is a renowned multicultural center. The medina of Tétouan is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997. It has also been part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the area of Crafts and Folk Art since 2017.

Etymology
According to Leo Africanus, the name comes after the Goths bestowed the government of the town upon a woman with one eye and that the inhabitants called it Tetteguin, meaning "eye" in their language.

The current name is first mentioned in 9th-century Arabic chronicles, after the death of Idris II.

Phoenician and Roman presence
A few miles outside of the city limits lies the ancient town of Tamuda. Early settlements at the outskirts of the actual city by ancient Mauretanians date back to the 3rd century BC. Artifacts from both the Phoenician and the Roman era have been found at the site of Tamuda. It became a Roman colony under Emperor Augustus.

Rebuilding the city-state
In 1286, the Marinids built a casbah and mosque there. The first large-scale building project took place in 1305 when the settlement was expanded by the Marinid sultan Abu Thabit Amir. He fortified the place and had it serve as a base for attacks on Ceuta, which had recently come under the rule of a rebellious member of the Marinid dynasty. In 1431, it was destroyed by the Castilians, because pirates used it for their attacks. The Portuguese were already occupying the neighboring Ceuta and in 1436, its commander Pedro de Menezes, 1st Count of Vila Real dispatched a detachment of his garrison under his son Duarte de Menezes to raid Tétouan - which was recovering from the Castillian destruction - in order to prevent it from becoming a threat to future Portuguese operations.

By the end of the 15th century, it was rebuilt by refugees from the Reconquista (reconquest of Spain, completed by the fall of Granada in 1492), when the Andalusian Moors, led by Ali al-Mandri, a captain of the troops loyal to Boabdil, the last king of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, took refuge in the ruined city. They first raised the walls and then filled the enclosure with houses. These Andalusians came into conflict with the Beni Hozmar tribe settling in Jebala lands, after which they asked the Wattasid sultan for protection. In response, he sent 80 soldiers (according to one chronicle, 40 natives of Fez and 40 Riffians). In turn, the Andalusians paid a large amount of mithqal, thus insuring their autonomy. Instantly, the Andalusians, assisted by tribes from the surrounding mountains, started harassing the Spanish possessions on the Moroccan coast. These attacks led to the destruction of the city's harbor by the Spanish in 1565. During this time, the city was governed by the Andalusian Abu Hassan al-Mandri and the city remained autonomous from the Saadi sultans, with the Saadis constantly trying to assert their power.

Piracy and Mazmorras
As early as the 1530s and 1540s, at the time when Spain and the Ottoman Empire were disputing control over the western part of the Mediterranean, piracy was spreading and soon Tétouan became one of the main centers of piracy in the region. Corsairs considered it as a form of retaliation against the Spanish Reconquista that led to the loss of their homes back in al-Andalus, especially that the timing coincided with the first Morisco influx to Tétouan due to the forced conversions they faced in Spain between 1501 and 1526. Their collaborators included English and Dutch renegades who were mostly Protestants, although a few had converted to Islam.

While the harbor served as a port from where piracy missions were launched, captives were taken to dungeons. There were underground prison complexes with a series of connected excavated caves called Mazmorras. The captives were faced with being sold to the slavery market if ransoms were not paid. These subterranean installations were rediscovered in the early 20th century. A chapel of 90 square meters and a few altars were also uncovered. The sacred site, named Nuestra Señora de los Dolores (Our Lady of Sorrows), was used by the captives and redeemers like their relatives or Spanish Franciscans and Portuguese Jesuits who used to make frequent visits to negotiate the Christian captives' freedom.

Miguel De Cervantes, himself a captive in Algiers, Algeria between 1575 and 1580, refers to Mazmorras in El juez de los divorcios (The Divorce Judge), where the protagonist compares his marriage to "captivity in Tetouan's caves." He also mentions it in Don Quixote, in addition to talking about Tétouan in El trato de Argel, La gran sultana and La ilustre fregona. It is believed that he had contact with some prisoners who told him about the hardness of the dungeons of Tétouan. Diplomat and explorer Leo Africanus, while visiting the city, mentions in his book Description of Africa that there were 3,000 captives, although some historians dispute that figure. Other accounts came from captives themselves such as Germain Moüette, who spoke of horrible conditions lived inside those mazmorras in the late 17th century. Piracy continued and in 1829, the Austrian Empire bombarded the city in reprisal.

The underground prison was explored in 1922 by Cesar Luis de Montalban, based on a report by archaeologist Manuel Gómez-Moreno Martínez. The Spanish protectorate administration then commissioned architect Carlos Ovilo to study the site but they found out that no excavation could be possible without taking the risk of damaging the housing above the site. Since then, no excavation has taken place, although recently, some researchers and civil associations have called for the authorities to extend exploration and restoration before opening it to the public.

Late military history
In the 17th century, the city was governed by the wealthy al-Naksis family. At the end of the century, the city was taken by the Alaouite sultan Moulay Ismail, who encountered fierce resistance. Tétouan remained fragile, until it was taken by the Alaouite governor of Tangier and leader of a moroccan army that had occupied Tangier after the English had evacuated the possession. The Alaouite governor ushered in a period of stability in Tétouan, building many of the city's landmarks such as the Meshwar palace and the Pasha mosque, the oldest standing mosque in Tétouan. After his death, the city again rebelled and was only nominally controlled by the central government.

Elements of military constructions can be found in the original fortifications such as the three forts, the seven gates, and the large outer walls that surround the old medina. They have survived despite the changes that occurred through the expansions known to the city during multiple periods.

Tétouan received a number of Algerian immigrants following the French invasion of Algiers in 1830. According to Bouhlila, they introduced baklava, coffee, and the warqa pastry now used in pastilla. For Gil Marks, it was rather the Sephardic Jews who introduced the Ottoman warqa, which the Moroccans substituted for the Spanish pastry.

Hispano-Moroccan War and the Spanish protectorate

In 1844, Morocco lost a war against the French and in 1856, it signed the Anglo-Moroccan treaties of Friendship with the British. The Spaniards saw the Moroccan defeat in 1844 and the treaties signed in 1865 as a sign of their weakness. Spurred by a national passion for African conquest, Spain declared war on Morocco in 1859 after a conflict over the borders of Ceuta.

After a few months, Tétouan was taken on 4 February 1860 under the command of General Leopoldo O'Donnell, who was a descendant of an old Irish royal family, the O'Donnells of Tyrconnell. He was made hereditary Duke of Tetuán, and later served as Prime Minister of Spain. However, two years later the Spanish evacuated in May 1862.

In 1913, it became the capital of the Spanish protectorate of Morocco, which was governed by the Khalifa (Moroccan prince, serving as Viceroy for the Sultan), and the Spanish "Alto Comisario" accredited to him, and it remained its capital until 1956.

The nationalist movement
Tétouan was one of the most active Moroccan cities in resisting colonialism. The nationalist movement in Tétouan was led by the charismatic leader Abdelkhalek Torres and other personalities such as Abdessalam Bennuna and historian Mohammed Daoud. The movement was part of the pan-Arab nationalist movements. They established deep ties with Arab nationalist leaders such as former Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser and Druze prince and intellectual Shakib Arslan. When Arsalan wanted to visit Morocco in August 1930, he was not given a permit by the French protectorate so instead he went to Tangier, which then had international status under foreign colonial powers, and from there to Tétouan, where he met the group. Many of the members later joined the National Party for Istiqlal. Others joined some other nationalist parties, of which many members were women.

Jewish presence
Tétouan has been home to a significant Sephardi Jewish community which immigrated from Spain after the Reconquista and the Spanish Inquisition. This Jewish Sephardi community spoke a form of Judaeo-Spanish known as Haketia. According to the World Jewish Congress there were only 100 Moroccan Jews remaining in Tétouan by 2015.

In 1790, a pogrom occurred, started by Sultan Yazid. The mellah, where the Jews lived, was pillaged and many women raped. At this point there was an emigration of Tetouani Jews to Gibraltar, where the large Jewish population maintains links with the community in Tetouan.

In 1807, Sultan Slimane relocated the mellah south of the medina to build a large mosque at its previous location inside the medina.

The Mellah of Tetuan was sacked in the Hispano-Moroccan War of 1860, when there were 16 to 18 synagogues. This was followed by appeals in the European Jewish press to support Jewish communities like the one in Tetuan, leading to an international effort called "The Morocco Relief Fund." The Paris-based international Jewish organization Alliance Israélite Universelle, along with Rabbi Isaac Ben Walid of Tetuan, then opened its first school in Tetuan in 1862.

Following the exodus of Jews from Morocco after 1948, there were very few Jews left in Tétouan. By 1967, only 12 remained (López Álvarez, 2003). During that period, many emigrated to South America and much later to Israel, Spain, France, and Canada. Today, the only synagogue remaining is the Rabbi Isaac Bengualid Synagogue, which serves as a museum.

Modern history
Tétouan was further expanded when it became the capital of the Spanish protectorate in Morocco between 1913 and 1956. The Spanish administration built several new neighborhoods outside the walled medina. The city underwent an intense urban transformation for which its new neighborhoods and buildings, called "Ensanche" (meaning extension), acquired an image very similar to those of other Spanish cities of the time. Its structure was organized around a large circular plaza, now called 'Plaza Mulay el Mehdi' (formerly Plaza Primo de Rivera). The influence of the protectorate has remained important even after the independence of the country in 1956.

In January 1984, and in the midst of the Years of Lead under the reign of King Hassan II (died 1999), a revolt spread into several cities for a number of days due to price hikes for basic goods following the implementation of the IMF's and the World Bank's structural adjustment programme. The revolt was thwarted by a military intervention. Twenty people were killed in Tétouan and many others were arrested and received heavy sentences.

Many people in the city still speak Spanish. On road signs, names are often written both in Spanish and in Arabic, though many signs are in Arabic and French, the second language of modern Morocco.

Culture
Tétouan is famed for its fine craftsmanship and musical delicacy and has been part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the area of Crafts and Folk Art since 2017. Its cultural heritage is the product of the interaction between different cultural influences throughout centuries. It is mainly characterized by its Andalusian style and way of living, but Berber, Jewish, and colonial Spanish influences are present too.

Literature
The city has produced many scholars in different disciplines throughout centuries. One of the first newspapers in Morocco, El Eco de Tetuan, was published in the city in 1860. In the colonial period, whereas France took measures to censor publications in Arabic in the area under its control, Tetuan, the capital of the northern Spanish area, became a center of publishing and the capital of Moroccan literary life. Many historic newspapers were published in Tetuan, including the first nationalist publication in Morocco, as-Salaam October 1933, followed by al-Hurriya and others. These were published by members of this intellectual circle in Tetuan that included figures like Abdesalam Bennuna, Muhammad Daoud, Abdelkhaleq Torres, and Abdellah Guennoun.

Religion
The vast majority of the population are Muslims. There is a small Christian community. The numbers of the Jewish community have declined sharply in recent decades. It numbered no more than a dozen persons in 2014. Notable spiritual leaders include Sufi saint Ahmad ibn Ajiba and Jewish Rabbis Yosef Maimon and Isaac Ben Walid. Tetuan also had a vibrant Sephardi Jewish community with ties to Al-Andalus.

Architecture
The streets are fairly wide and straight, and many of the houses belonging to aristocratic families, descendants of those expelled from Al-Andalus by the Spanish Reconquista, possess marble fountains and have groves planted with orange trees. Within the houses and riads the ceilings are often exquisitely carved and painted in Hispano-Moresque designs, such as are found in the Alhambra of Granada, and the tilework for which Tétouan is known may be seen on floors, pillars, and dados. The city has seven gates which were closed at night up until the early 20th century. Many Sufi Zawiyas are scattered inside the walled old city.

Food
Tétouan has rich culinary traditions unique within Moroccan cuisine. and the influence of, Arab, Amazigh Andalusi, Turkish and Spanish cuisines is noted in the variety of dishes and pastries.

Amazigh and Arab cuisine are present in staples of Moroccan cuisine such as cuscus and rafissa or thrid, respectively.

As in other Moroccan cities like Salé and Fes, Tétouan inherited Andalusi culinary traditions through the waves of migration terminating with the arrival of the expelled Moriscos 1609–1614. This manifests itself in classic dishes such as pastilla. However, the pastilla traditionally made in Tetouan is more savory than sweet, with more preserved lemon and no sugar or almonds.

Tétouan has been also influenced by Algerian and Ottoman cuisine, and this is due to the wave of migrants from Algeria following the French conquest of Algeria. This influence manifests itself prominently in the sweets of Tetouan, which include qatayef and baklava.

Crafts
Traditional craftsmanship is concentrated in the old medina where every industry has its own quarter with the same name where workshops and shops are found. Among them are Zellige (tilework), pottery, plaster engravings, embroidery, inlaying with silver wire, the manufacture of thick-soled yellow slippers, much-esteemed flintlocks, and artistic towels used as capes and skirts by Jebala women in rural areas.

Museums and festivals
The Lucas Museum of Religious Heritage (متحف لوقش للتراث الديني) is housed in the historic Madrasat Lucas in Tetuan. In addition to archaeological, traditional, and modern art museums, as well as an archival library, Tétouan hosts a school of music and many artisan schools. Different music genres of local or regional origins can be found in Tétouan. Traditional Andalusian classical music is the most popular and folk singers such as Abdessadeq Cheqara are widely known in Morocco. Other popular local genres like Taktoka Jabaliya also exist and are usually played at weddings.

Tétouan hosts many international festivals such as the International Mediterranean Film Festival, and the International Oud and Women's Voice (أصوات نسائية) Festival.

On November 20, 2013, the city's Centro de Arte Moderno (Center of Modern Art) was launched and currently holds between 180 and 200 artworks from both self-trained artists and graduates of the city's National Institute of Fine Arts.

Dialect
The city has its own dialect, a particular citadin variant of non-Hilalian Arabic which is distinct from Arabic Jeblia. However, Jeblia, which is a dialect of Darija, is predominant since people from the neighboring rural areas settled in the city during the 20th-century rural flights. The use of Spanish and French is still widespread, especially among businessmen and intellectual elites, due to past colonial ties and the geographic proximity to Europe.

Geography
The city is situated about 60 km east of the city of Tangier and 40 km south of the Strait of Gibraltar. To the south and west of the city, there are mountains. Tétouan is situated in the middle of a belt of orchards that grow oranges, almonds, pomegranates, and cypress trees. The Rif Mountains are nearby, as the city is located in the Martil Valley. It is picturesquely situated on the northern slope of a fertile valley down which flows the Martil river, with the harbour of Tétouan, Martil, at its mouth. Behind rise rugged masses of rock, the southern wall of the Anjera country, once practically closed to Europeans; across the valley are the hills which form the northern limit of the still more impenetrable Rif.

Climate
Tétouan features a Mediterranean climate with Köppen climate classification of Csa. Located along the Mediterranean Sea, the weather in Tétouan is mild, cold, and rainy during the winter, hot and dry in the summer months.

Education and the national movement
During the 1920s, activists belonging to the national movement in northern Morocco, especially in Tétouan under Spanish protectorate, made science and education a supreme goal of their struggle to combat colonialism. In 1924, and after considerable effort and determination, they established a primary school and named it the "Al Madrasa al-Ahliyah" (Arabic: المدرسة الأهلية meaning National School). Among them were historian Mohammed Daoud, Abdel Salam Bennouna, and Mustafa Afilal. To this end, members of the National Movement carried out a popular campaign under the leadership of the Special Education Committee established in 1934. In the summer of 1935, a group of activists met at the house of Mustafa Afilal, and after a long debate about educational dimensions, material resources, and other things, the group concluded by approving the establishment of a special secondary educational institution. The name of the institution remained suspended until the end of the year. After additional meetings, nationalist leader and Professor Abdelkhalek Torres, being impressed with the role played by the "free men" in the era of the Second Spanish Republic, said to his colleagues: most of the men of science, thought and liberation in Spain, graduated from Madrid's Instituto Libre''. Therefore, I hope and suggest that you call our institute the Free Institute (Arabic: المعهد الحر)''. After this was approved, the Free Institute was established on November 5, 1935.

The students of the Institute were among the first to demonstrate and protest against the Spanish administration. The year 1948, in which bloody events took place between the citizens demanding independence and the Spanish colonialism, in which a student of the institute was killed by colonial agents, was a milestone in its history. The Spanish administration began to take over the institute. All the staff were arrested and imprisoned in Ceuta. However, weeks later, historian Tuhami al-Wazzani, who was then the director of the elementary school, joined the institute and asked the college students to help teach the younger ones so that the institute would not stop teaching altogether. Since then, secondary education has ceased and has been limited to primary education up to this day. Many graduates continued their higher education in Spain, Cairo, and Baghdad.

Other schools and institutions of higher education
Tétouan is home to l'Institut National des Beaux-Arts (National Institute of Fine Arts), the only national arts institution of higher education in Morocco. It was founded in 1945. Its promoter and first director was the Spanish Orientalist painter. The city also hosts the Ecole Nationale d'Architecture, a public architecture school.

Tétouan's public Abdelmalek Essaâdi University was founded in 1993. The 16th-century Moroccan sultan Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik I Saadi is the university's namesake. The university has a student body of 86,000, one of the largest in Morocco. The Faculty of Theology (Arabic : كلية أصول الدين) was established in 1963 and was an affiliate of the prestigious Al Quaraouiyine University in Fez until 2015, when it was annexed to Abdelmalek Essaâdi University.

 * Artisan School
 * Puerto School
 * California School
 * Aya Al Madina
 * ITSN-Institut Technique des Sciences
 * School Hala Andalucia
 * Al-Qadi Ibn Al-Arabi

There are also some Spanish international schools operated by that country's Ministry of Education:
 * Colegio Español Jacinto Benavente
 * Instituto Español Juan de la Cierva
 * Instituto Español Nuestra Señora del Pilar
 * Instituto Cervantes

Foreign cultural centers
Several foreign cultural centers are located in Tétouan :
 * Spanish Instituto Cervantes
 * French Institut Français
 * American Language Center

Economy and infrastructure
The economy of the city is based mainly on tourism and commerce. Other sectors of income include fishing and agriculture. Tétouan's civil airport Sania Ramel Airport, which became an international airport that operates flights to western Europe, is operated by the Moroccan Airports Authority and is located 6 km (4 mi) to the east.

The Ceuta-Tetuán railway line (es) was the first Spanish international railway line that would unite the cities of Ceuta and Tétouan. It was inaugurated on March 17, 1918, by Carlos de Borbón and Khalifa Mohammed Mehedi Uld Ben Ismael. The line is no longer in use. Tétouan is linked to Tangier, Ksar el Kebir, Larache, Chefchaouen, Bab Sebta (border with Ceuta), and Oued Laou via modern national motorways. The 28 km Tetouan–Fnideq expressway was completed in 2005.

The coastal area is a major tourist destination during the summer period. It stretches from Fnideq, a small city near Ceuta, to the beaches of the small village of El Jebha on the route to Al Hoceima. Several marinas and beach resorts are spread between different villages along the coast. The M'diq port is the main fishing port serving the city. M'diq has another port dedicated to leisure. Both have been expanded recently in order to improve tourist offerings and to increase the harbour's capacity. Boats up to 50 metres long with a depth of nearly five metres can be moored.

Cultural tourism has also been developed during recent years. Many historical sites and monuments are found within and outside the old city (medina).

During the 20th century, Tétouan had a few flourishing industries such as paper manufacturing, which was led by the Papelera de Tetuán company. The company was later merged with its competitor Cellulose du Maroc, having its operations stopped in Tétouan and its headquarters transferred to Casablanca.

Skoundo water distribution system
The historic center is equipped with a subterranean piping system for water distribution through its streets. In fact, until the early 1970s, drinking water supply in the old medina was mainly provided through this traditional network called "Skoundo" (El Abdellaoui, 1986). It was developed around the 16th century in parallel with the construction of the first houses during its renewal by Andalusian refugees. It penetrates the ancient city from the far north to the far south. It starts at the top of Mount Dersa and extends underground under channels and pipes made of clay. Although it is not the only ancient water system in Morocco, others having been located in Fez and Chefchaouen, it remains the only one still operating. However, the bad state of the clay pipes combined with neglect and other technical issues makes the water undrinkable, although some restorations are underway. Skoundo had a clear impact on various socio-economic charts of the city. The system did not only serve houses but also mosques, public toilets, hammams, tanneries, and public mural fountains found in each neighborhood in the old medina.

Contraband controversies
Since a few decades, and because of the proximity of the city to the Spanish enclave of Ceuta, many people have been relying on contraband activities. Residents of Tétouan do not need a visa to enter Ceuta. Before the 1990s, no passport was needed and a Moroccan ID card was sufficient. In recent years, the border has known many incidents such as stampedes. Human rights groups have often criticized the situation in which women carry heavy loads of goods - giving rise to the epithet "Mule women"- before cases of investigation were opened. In 2018 Morocco suspended commercial customs with the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla in to crack down on the smuggling of illegal products into Morocco from the two cities affecting the country’s economic growth. Moroccan customs officials previously  estimated the value of the products entering Morocco through the Ceuta border between MAD 6 billion and MAD 8 billion (between €550 million and €730 million) per year. Morocco’s government has long maintained that the situation needs  a “radical” solution to permanently put an end to contraband border crossings with Melilla and Ceuta.”

In 1917, Tetouan saw the appearance of its first football clubs, "Sporting of Tetuán" and "el Hispano-Marroquí" ("The Spanish-Moroccan"). One year later, these two clubs, and a third one called "el Radio", merged and that gave the birth to the "Athletic Club Tetuán". The new club was established in 1922 by Basque Atlético Madrid fans who lived in Tétouan. In the early days, it was known as Athletic Club Tetuan—based on the Spanish spelling of the city. After the Spanish Civil War and according to General Franco's demands (banning non-Spanish names), it became known as Club Atlético Tetuan. This is why the team has always played in red and white stripes and blue shorts, just like their counterparts from Madrid they were supposed to emulate. Under the Spanish protectorate of Northern Morocco, Tetuán was a part of the Spanish Liga for 33 years until independence was achieved in 1956. The highlights of that era were their surprising win of the Spanish Segunda División (the southern group) in the 1950–51 season and their promotion to the Primera Division of 1951–52. The club remains, to this day, the only African team ever to play in a top division in Europe.

Today, the city has one professional football club, Moghreb Athletic Tétouan, which competes in the Botola, the top-tier of Moroccan football. The team plays their home games at the Saniat Rmel stadium, the oldest football stadium in Africa. As of the 2018–19 season, the team will play at the new Tétouan Stadium, which will have a seating capacity of more than 41,000. Moghreb Athletic Tétouan won its first league title in the 2011–12 Botola League season, becoming the first Chamali club to ever win the league title. Today, MAT is considered one of the five biggest football clubs in Morocco along with Raja Casablanca, Wydad Casablanca, FAR Rabat, and Maghreb Fès. A new football stadium in the Mediterranean city of Tétouan is currently being built across 36 hectares north of the residential areas, along the new A6 highway. It will occupy former farmlands and become the central sports arena of the agglomeration, replacing the severely dated Stade Saniat Rmel. The stadium is meant to seat 60,000 spectators; original plans called for a capacity of 40,000 but this was increased to 60,000 in order to meet latest FIFA regulations. Construction on the Grand Stade De Tétouan, which was designed by Moroccan architect Nawfal Bakhat, began in 2015 and was initially scheduled for completion in 2018. The project has stalled a number of times, been mired in controversy regarding the authorship of its design plans, and the completion date has been postponed as well. As of January 2020, it is still not finished. The Kingdom of Morocco has submitted a bid to FIFA to host the 2026 World Cup, which will be held in three different countries.

Sights in and around Tétouan

 * The medina (old town) of Tétouan is on UNESCO's World Heritage List. The inner city is very characteristic and traditional. One can find many white houses there, especially low houses. Everywhere in the city there are people performing their craftsmanship, like weavers, jewellers, leather workers. Street sellers often try to sell carpets to tourists as well. Tétouan is part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network and was named "City of Crafts and Folk Art" in 2017.
 * The Tetouan Archaeological Museum is located in the city center a hundred meters away from the Royal Palace. The museum exhibits artifacts from different periods belonging to indigenous, Phoenician, Roman, Jewish, and Arab cultures. The museum was constructed in 1943.
 * The Museum of Modern Art is located in front of Riad Al Ochak garden.
 * The Mechouar of the Royal Palace is situated just outside and by one of the entrances to the old medina. There is a public square in front of it.
 * Riad Al Ochak (literally meaning "Lovers' Garden"), officially known as Moulay Rachid Garden, is a public garden designed in the moorish style. It is located at the bottom of the hills on the road down to the Martil Valley.
 * The kasbah at the top of Mount Dersa, with the ruins of the former barracks of the Regulares, is located alongside a cemetery of indigenous martyrs.
 * Tétouan enjoys a large coastline that spans from the border with Ceuta to the road to Al Hoceima. It is usually very busy in the summer time and hosts many international clubs, hotels, golf resorts, and marinas such as Club Med, Sofitel, and the Ritz-Carlton located in the Tamuda Bay area between M'diq and Fnideq. The nearest beach is the popular city of Martil. Other villages include Cabo Negro, Oued Lao, El Jebha.
 * Tétouan is surrounded by two mounts -Dersa and Ghorghiz. Several natural spots are available and hiking activities are popular.

Notable people

 * Amina, bint al-Hajj ʿAbd al-Latif (fl.1802-12), Moroccan jurist and scribe
 * Abdelkhalek Torres (1910–1970), Moroccan nationalist leader
 * Abdessadeq Cheqara (1931–1998), Moroccan musician
 * Ahmad ibn Ajiba (1747–1809), Sufi saint.
 * Ahmed Chawki, Moroccan singer and songwriter.
 * Ali al-Mandri (15th century), the city refounder
 * Btissam Sadini, Moroccan karateka
 * Fayçal Azizi, Moroccan singer and songwriter
 * Leopoldo O'Donnell, 1st Duke of Tetuan (1809–1867), Spanish statesman and descendant of the old Irish royal family, the O'Donnells of Tyrconnell.
 * Lolo Sainz (born 1940), Spanish basketball player and coach
 * Mohamed Abarhoun, Former international footballer
 * Mohammed al-Haik, 18th-century poet and musician
 * Mohammed Daoud (1901–1984), Moroccan historian
 * Mohammed Fadel Benyaich, Moroccan surgeon and personal doctor of King Hassan II
 * Mohamed Yalouh, Moroccan inventor
 * Omar Azziman (born 1947), royal advisor
 * RedOne (born 1972), music producer
 * Sayyida al Hurra (1485–1561), Pirate Queen of Tétouan and Queen of Morocco
 * Tuhami al-Wazzani (1903–1972), Moroccan historian
 * Yosef Maimon (1741–1822), Jewish spiritual leader.
 * Zakaria El Wardi, Moroccan footballer
 * Zouhair Feddal, Moroccan footballer

Twin towns

 * 🇹🇳 Monastir, Tunisia
 * Granada, Spain
 * 🇦🇷 Santa Fe, Argentina
 * Terrassa, Spain

Notes and references

 * www.tetouanet.com Tetouanet - Tétouan City Guide

title: Tétouan


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User:Yeildlight

Yeildlight (purposely spelled wrong, just fyi)

Cindy Farrar

Born Cynthia Ruth Farrar on March 18, 1988 in Austin, Texas to Greg and Dawn Farrar, I have a twin brother Chris Farrar, and an older sister Beverly Farrar.

Moved to Cedar Park, Texas in December 1995.

Graduated from Cedar Park High School in May 2006.

Currently attending the University of North Texas in Denton, Texas majoring in Recreation and Leisure Studies.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Yeildlight


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Alexander Kent

Alexander Kent may refer to:

 * Alexander James Kent (born 1977), British cartographer and co-author of The Red Atlas
 * Alexander Kent, pseudonym of Douglas Reeman (1924–2017), British writer of historical naval novels
 * Alex Kent, former bass guitarist of Say Anything (band)
 * Alexander Kent, namesake of Kentland, Indiana, United States, a town

title: Alexander Kent


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User:Gandalf61

My talk page | My sandbox | My AfD helper
 * NSSRD proposal

Mathematical topics | Mathematical lists | Mathematicians | WikiProject Mathematics

Manual of Style (mathematics) | TeX markup | Template messages

Citation templates | Category:Citation templates | Category:Mathematics source templates

Oleg's recent changes tool Wikipedia article traffic statistics

Introduction
I very much welcome comments on any of my contributions (naming, format, style, contents, usefulness etc etc) - post a message at User_talk:Gandalf61.

As for myself ... I am British so I enjoy :
 * The outstanding comedy of Monty Python and Fawlty Towers
 * The animation of Nick Park
 * Singing along with Flanders & Swann
 * Eating Marmite on toast
 * Drinking dandelion and burdock and warm beer (but not both at the same time)
 * ... and playing Diplomacy,  Risk and, of course, Mornington Crescent

Articles
Articles that I have started or made a substantial contribution to include :

2003

 * Abstract structure - a gap that needed filling because there was a link to it from the mathematics page
 * Proof by exhaustion - an important method of mathematical proof that has some controversial applications
 * Constructive proof - a complement to the nonconstructive proof article, and completes a link from mathematical proof
 * Generating function - replaced a redirect to formal power series with an article on different types of generating functions and their uses
 * Farey sequence - just couldn't resist filling out the previous stub
 * Ford circle - a natural link from Farey sequence
 * Kepler conjecture - a fascinating problem, and an example of proof by exhaustion
 * Sphere packing - a requested article that provides context for the Kepler conjecture
 * Mathematics as a language - completes a link from mathematical proof
 * Flanders and Swann - expanded previous stub
 * Polydivisible number - an intriguing backwater in recreational mathematics
 * Octave Chanute - American railroad engineer and aviation pioneer
 * Coniston Water - scene of Donald Campbell's death in 1967

2004

 * Abstraction (mathematics) - link from abstract structure
 * Riemann hypothesis - added history section
 * St. Elsewhere - new article
 * Modular group - expanded existing article
 * Fractal - added history section
 * Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture - added background section and expanded rest of article
 * Julia set - amended general definition of Julia set
 * Fatou set - new article, link from Julia set
 * Lucas sequence - new article, link from Fibonacci pseudoprime
 * Disquisitiones Arithmeticae - new article, link from Carl Friedrich Gauss and number theory
 * Vorlesungen über Zahlentheorie - new article, link from number theory
 * Mathematical beauty - re-write of existing article
 * Mathematics and art - split out from mathematical beauty
 * How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension - new article, link from fractal
 * Voronoi diagram - added history section
 * Project Excelsior - new article, link from Joseph Kittinger
 * Pendine Sands - new article, written because I went there on holiday
 * K'nex - expanded previous stub
 * Rare Earth hypothesis - made existing article less rhetorical, more NPOV
 * Evolving the Alien: The Science of Extraterrestrial Life - new article, book by Jack Cohen and Ian Stewart
 * Moving average (finance) - a family of common technical analysis techniques that deserved their own article
 * Lyapunov fractal - expanded previous stub
 * Apollonian gasket - new article on a very beautiful fractal
 * Benoît Mandelbrot - expanded existing article
 * Lévy C curve - new article, link from fractal
 * Lévy flight - expanded previous stub
 * Lévy's constant - new article
 * Paul Pierre Lévy - expanded previous stub
 * Ruth Lawrence - expanded previous stub
 * Notes & Queries - new article celebrating 15th anniversary of column in The Guardian

2005

 * Zeckendorf's theorem - new article, referenced in Fibonacci number
 * Edouard Zeckendorf - new article
 * Mathematics education - re-wrote and expanded previous stub
 * A Mathematician's Apology - expanded previous stub
 * Hans von Mangoldt - new article
 * von Mangoldt function - example of an arithmetic function that is neither multiplicative nor additive
 * Padovan sequence - new article
 * Plastic number - re-wrote previous stub
 * Dyadic transformation - re-wrote previous stub
 * Tent map - expanded and re-wrote previous stub. Tent map exhibits a wide range of dynamic behaviours in a fairly simple context.
 * Poincaré-Bendixson theorem - new article
 * List of Cambridge mathematicians - extended previous stub list

2006

 * Carmichael's theorem - replaced redirect
 * Midy's theorem - new article
 * p-adic number - re-wrote Introduction section and added references
 * trimorphic number - new article, extends concept of automorphic number
 * henagon and digon - expanded previous stubs
 * ideal triangle - new article, linked from hyperbolic triangle
 * A. Cohn's irreducibility criterion - expanded previous stub
 * Anderton Boat Lift - expanded previous stub; added diagrams
 * Regular Polytopes (book) - new article

2007

 * Indra's Pearls (book) - new article
 * Graphical timeline of the Big Bang - made timeline consistent with times given in the individual early universe epoch articles, and wrote new article on the quark epoch
 * Multiplicative group of integers modulo n - added examples
 * Eulerian number - replaced incorrect redirect with new article
 * Peter Harrison Planetarium - expanded previous stub
 * Hofstadter sequence - new article
 * Integer relation algorithm - new article
 * Euclid's orchard - new article
 * Experimental mathematics - rewrote and expanded previous stub

2008

 * Encyclopedia of Triangle Centers - new article
 * Coxeter's loxodromic sequence of tangent circles - new article
 * Cocker's Arithmetick - new article
 * Superperfect number - new article
 * Timeline of the future in forecasts - expanded and improved article when nominated for deletion
 * 65536 (number) - expanded and improved article when nominated for deletion
 * Lochs' theorem - new article
 * Juggler sequence - new article
 * From Here to Infinity (book) - new article, because I was re-reading it and noticed we did not have an article
 * Jeep problem - expanded stub
 * Baum-Sweet sequence - new article
 * Rudin-Shapiro sequence - new article
 * Regular paperfolding sequence - new article

2009

 * Fermat quotient - new article
 * Locally catenative sequence - new article, linked from L-system
 * Church of Saint Leonard, Bengeo - expanded, added more images
 * Final stellation of the icosahedron - brought to good article standard
 * Penrose tiling - brought to good article standard

2010

 * Primitive abundant number - new article
 * Durfee square - new article

2011

 * The Quantum Universe - new article

2012

 * Monsky's theorem - new article

2019

 * van Eck's sequence - new article

Things I Have Learned From Wikipedia
To help me remember why I contribute to Wikipedia, this is a list (in no particular order) of things that I did not know until I read about them here.
 * A concrete canoe can resurface even after it is submerged.
 * The unknown soldier is not always unknown.
 * The Perpetual virginity of Mary is a doctrine of the Catholic Church.
 * The 3D equivalent of a Koch snowflake fills a cube.
 * Pica is a unit of measure in typography; the genus of the magpie; and the medical term for an appetite for non-foods.
 * An unpopped popcorn kernel is known as an "old maid".
 * The M96 motorway is not open to the public, but has appeared in a television documentary.
 * The Triangulum Galaxy is probably the furtherest object visible with the naked eye. It is about 400,000 light years further away than the Andromeda Galaxy.
 * A square wheel can give a smooth ride on a bumpy road.
 * Bram Stoker, author of Dracula, read mathematics at Trinity College, Dublin, and graduated with honours.
 * The gravitational sphere of influence of one body that is in orbit around another larger body is known as its Hill sphere.
 * In addition to Charon, Pluto has at least four other moons (Nix, Hydra, Kerberos and Styx).
 * A crime commited by an astronaut on the International Space Station would fall under the jurisdiction of the home country of the alleged perpetrator.
 * Salvador Dali's last painting, The Swallow's Tail, is about catastrophe theory.
 * The Danjon scale is used to measure the visbility of the Moon during a total lunar eclipse.
 * In medieval Europe, the barnacle goose was believed to be born from a barnacle. This allowed Catholics to eat it during Lent, as it was classified as a fish.
 * Ingesting silver or silver compounds can turn your skin blue - a condition known as argyria.
 * Mountbatten pink, used as naval camouflage paint by Louis Mountbatten in World War II, is a mixture of medium gray with a small amount of Venetian red.
 * The inventor of mass-produced instant coffee was called George Washington.
 * Harriet Quimby, the first woman to earn a US pilot's certificate, became the first woman to fly across the English Channel less than a year later.
 * A desire line is a path created by people repeatedly taking the same route across an open space such as a field or lawn.
 * Bulwarks built around the piers of a bridge to ease the flow of water and reduce erosion are called starlings.
 * Bismuth and silicon each has the unusual property that its liquid phase is denser than its solid phase (like water).
 * Keraunomedicine is the medical study of lightning casualties; keraunos is Greek for "thunder" or "thunderbolt".
 * In her 2005 album Aerial, Kate Bush sings the first 137 digits of the decimal expansion of π (omitting digits 79 to 100).
 * The study of flags is called vexillology, from vexillum, a type of flag carried by Roman legions.
 * Despite having a very similar diet to cows, kangaroos produce virtually no methane from digestion.
 * Cummingtonite, named after Cummington, Massachusetts, is a mineral composed of magnesium iron silicate hydroxide.
 * The Boomerang Nebula has a temperature of 1K (i.e. colder than the CMB) and is the coldest known natural environment.
 * September 19th is International Talk Like a Pirate Day.
 * Bicycle Day (April 19th, 1943) is the day when Dr Albert Hofmann first intentionally ingested LSD in a self-experiment.
 * The Toast of Botswana is a naturally-occuring sheep-goat hybrid.
 * In American slang, "going postal" means "to suddenly become extremely and uncontrollably angry, possibly to the point of violence".
 * Charles Osborne hiccupped continuously for 68 years, from 1922 to 1990.
 * The Feynman Point is the sequence of six 9s which begins at the 762nd decimal place of π.
 * Stigler's law of eponymy states that "No scientific discovery is named after its original discoverer". Stephen Stigler first published the law, but attributed its discovery to Robert K. Merton.
 * The highest unclimbed mountain in the world is Gangkhar Puensum in Bhutan. At present, mountaineering is prohibited in Bhutan.
 * In 1907 Dr. Duncan MacDougall weighed six of his patients while they were dying in order to determine the weight of the human soul, which he estimated to be 21 grams.
 * A spite house is an American term for an often impractical building constructed to annoy or aggravate the owner of a neighbouring property.
 * February had 30 days in 1712 in Sweden, when two leap days were introduced to re-align the Swedish calendar with the Julian calendar. Sweden did not adopt the Gregorian calendar until 1753.
 * Exoteric is the opposite of esoteric - so public or common knowledge is exoteric knowledge.
 * The word coach comes from the Hungarian village of Kocs, where steel-sprung horse-drawn carriages were first built in the 15th century.
 * A trompe is a water-powered air compressor commonly used before electric-powered compressors became available.
 * Dr. William Moulton Marston, inventor of the polygraph, also created Wonder Woman.
 * Velology is the study and collection of vehicle licence discs.
 * The Kingdom of Lovely is a partly Internet-based micronation founded by comedy writer Danny Wallace.
 * The cubewano 58534 Logos has a satellite called Zoe, which is the only non-asteroid body in the Solar System whose name begins with the letter Z.
 * A cephalophore (from the Greek for "head-carrier") is a saint depicted carrying their head in their hands, signifying that they were martyred by beheading.
 * At its peak, Walt Disney World Resort, Florida, occupied a larger area than Paris - 120 km2 v. 105 km2.
 * A cordwainer makes shoes - a cobbler, strictly speaking, only mends shoes.
 * The place on Earth farthest from the Earth's centre is the summit of Chimborazo (or possibly the summit of Huascarán).
 * The "paragraph sign" ¶ is more formally called a pilcrow; the "division sign" ÷ is more formally called a obelus, which has the same Greek root as obelisk.
 * Writer Roald Dahl was named after polar explorer Roald Amundsen by his Norwegian parents.
 * According to John Lennon, the title of Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds came from a drawing made by Lennon's young son Julian of his nursery school classmate Lucy Vodden.
 * March 0 is the last day of February.
 * Truck nuts are a uniquely American vehicle accessory.
 * Lobster Thermidor is named after the 11th month of the French Republican Calendar.
 * Shells fired by the Paris Gun in 1918 were the first man-made objects to enter the stratosphere.
 * Borborygmus is the medical term for stomach rumbling.
 * Troll and Tor are Norwegian Polar Institute research stations in Antarctica.
 * The Stout Scarab is an innovative US automobile manufactured in small numbers in the 1930s and considered by some to be the world's first production minivan.
 * St Piran's Day is the national day of Cornwall.
 * Anastrophe the natural word order inverts, a sentence more interesting to make.
 * Molinology is the study of miils and other water or wind powered mechanisms.
 * Tillamook Cheddar was an American canine artist named after a cheese.
 * The Local Bubble may have been blown by Geminga.
 * Petrichor (from the Greek petra + ichor) is the scientific term for the scent of rain on dry earth.
 * A rastrum is a five-pointed pen used to draw musical staves.
 * A hail cannon is an unlikely device that is supposed to prevent the formation of hailstones.
 * Before the publication of Charlotte Brontë's novel in 1849, Shirley was an uncommon - but distinctly male - name and would have been an unusual name for a woman.
 * There are two Floozies in the Jacuzzi; one in Birmingham, and one in Dublin.
 * Starbucks coffehouse chain was named after the first mate of the Pequod in Melville's Moby-Dick.
 * Philip K. Dick's middle name was Kindred.
 * A cinderella stamp is virtually anything resembling a postage stamp, but not issued for postal purposes by a government postal administration.
 * Mavis is a dialect name for the song thrush, but was first used as a woman's name in the 1895 novel The Sorrows of Satan.
 * The Kirkwood gaps are caused by Jupiter.
 * In meteorology virga (Latin: twig or branch) is precipitation that falls from a cloud but evaporates or sublimates before reaching the ground.
 * The Sacred Cod and the Holy Mackerel hang in the Massachusetts State House in Boston.
 * The notion that duct tape was originally "duck tape" made from cotton duck is probably an urban myth.
 * Ground rollers are a small family of non-migratory near-passerine birds restricted to Madagascar.
 * A hypernucleus contains at least one hyperon (a baryon carrying the strangeness quantum number) in addition to protons and neutrons.
 * "In like Flynn" is a slang phrase meaning "having quickly or easily achieved a goal". The eponymous Flynn may be actor Errol Flynn or American politician Edward J. Flynn.
 * Goldfish swallowing was a fad in American colleges in the 1930s.
 * Mount St. Helens was named after Alleyne FitzHerbert, 1st Baron St Helens. The title was named after the village of St Helens on the Ise of Wight.
 * Soylent is an off-white powder - and definitely not green.
 * Jimi Heselden, British millionaire and owner of Segway Inc., died as a result of falling off cliff while riding a Segway.
 * Ovaltine was originally called Ovomaltine but its name was shortened due to a misspelling in its British trademark application.
 * Dogfooding - when a company uses its own products in order to test them in real-life scenarios.
 * The saxophone is made of brass, but is a woodwind instrument, not a brass instrument.
 * Juneteenth is recognized as a state holiday or special day of observance in 46 of the 50 states of the USA.
 * The NICO Clean Tobacco Card irradiated cigarettes to "enhance the smoking experience".
 * Mole Day is an unofficial holiday celebrated by chemists on 23rd October each year.
 * Anthimeria is using one part of speech as another part of speech. Verbification is a type of anthimeria - you can Wikipedia it.

To Do
Create/expand history sections in following articles : hyperbolic geometry, quadratic reciprocity, prime number theorem, Euler-Mascheroni constant ...

Write articles on world water speed record, Bluebird (car) and Bluebird (boat)

title: User:Gandalf61


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7z

7z is a compressed archive file format that supports several different data compression, encryption and pre-processing algorithms. The 7z format initially appeared as implemented by the 7-Zip archiver. The 7-Zip program is publicly available under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License. The LZMA SDK 4.62 was placed in the public domain in December 2008. The latest stable version of 7-Zip and LZMA SDK is version 24.05.

The official, informal 7z file format specification is distributed with 7-Zip's source code since 2015. The specification can be found in plain text format in the 'doc' sub-directory of the source code distribution. There have been additional third-party attempts at writing more concrete documentation based on the released code.

Features and enhancements
The 7z format provides the following main features:
 * Open, modular architecture that allows any compression, conversion, or encryption method to be stacked.
 * High compression ratios (depending on the compression method used).
 * AES-256 bit encryption.
 * Zip 2.0 (Legacy) Encryption
 * Large file support (up to approximately 16 exbibytes, or 264 bytes).
 * Unicode file names.
 * Support for solid compression, where multiple files of like type are compressed within a single stream, in order to exploit the combined redundancy inherent in similar files.
 * Compression and encryption of archive headers.
 * Support for multi-part archives : e.g. xxx.7z.001, xxx.7z.002, ... (see the context menu items Split File... to create them and Combine Files... to re-assemble an archive from a set of multi-part component files).
 * Support for custom codec plugin DLLs.

The format's open architecture allows additional future compression methods to be added to the standard.

Compression methods
The following compression methods are currently defined:

 * LZMA – A variation of the LZ77 algorithm, using a sliding dictionary up to 4 GB in length for duplicate string elimination. The LZ stage is followed by entropy coding using a Markov chain-based range coder and binary trees.
 * LZMA2 – modified version of LZMA providing better multithreading support and less expansion of incompressible data.
 * Bzip2 – The standard Burrows–Wheeler transform algorithm. Bzip2 uses two reversible transformations; BWT, then Move to front with Huffman coding for symbol reduction (the actual compression element).

 * PPMd – Dmitry Shkarin's 2002 PPMdH (PPMII (Prediction by Partial matching with Information Inheritance) and cPPMII (complicated PPMII)) with small changes: PPMII is an improved version of the 1984 PPM compression algorithm (prediction by partial matching).
 * DEFLATE – Standard algorithm based on 32 kB LZ77 and Huffman coding. Deflate is found in several file formats including ZIP, gzip, PNG and PDF.  7-Zip contains a from-scratch DEFLATE encoder that frequently beats the de facto standard zlib version in compression size, but at the expense of CPU usage.

A suite of recompression tools called AdvanceCOMP contains a copy of the DEFLATE encoder from the 7-Zip implementation; these utilities can often be used to further compress the size of existing gzip, ZIP, PNG, or MNG files.

Pre-processing filters
The LZMA SDK comes with the BCJ and BCJ2 preprocessors included, so that later stages are able to achieve greater compression: For x86, ARM, PowerPC (PPC), IA-64 Itanium, and ARM Thumb processors, jump targets are 'normalized' before compression by changing relative position into absolute values. For x86, this means that near jumps, calls and conditional jumps (but not short jumps and conditional jumps) are converted from the machine language "jump 1655 bytes backwards" style notation to normalized "jump to address 5554" style notation; all jumps to 5554, perhaps a common subroutine, are thus encoded identically, making them more compressible.

 * BCJ – Converter for 32-bit x86 executables. Normalise target addresses of near jumps and calls from relative distances to absolute destinations.
 * BCJ2– Pre-processor for 32-bit x86 executables. BCJ2 is an improvement on BCJ, adding additional x86 jump/call instruction processing.  Near jump, near call,  conditional near jump targets are split out and compressed separately in another stream.
 * Delta encoding – delta filter, basic preprocessor for multimedia data.

Similar executable pre-processing technology is included in other software; the RAR compressor features displacement compression for 32-bit x86 executables and IA-64 executables, and the UPX runtime executable file compressor includes support for working with 16-bit values within DOS binary files.

Encryption
The 7z format supports encryption with the AES algorithm with a 256-bit key. The key is generated from a user-supplied passphrase using an algorithm based on the SHA-256 hash function. The SHA-256 is executed 219 (524288) times, which causes a significant delay on slow PCs before compression or extraction starts. This technique is called key stretching and is used to make a brute-force search for the passphrase more difficult. Current GPU-based, and custom hardware attacks limit the effectiveness of this particular method of key stretching, so it is still important to choose a strong password. The 7z format provides the option to encrypt the filenames of a 7z archive.

Limitations
The 7z format does not store filesystem permissions (such as UNIX owner/group permissions or NTFS ACLs), and hence can be inappropriate for backup/archival purposes. A workaround on UNIX-like systems for this is to convert data to a tar bitstream before compressing with 7z. But GNU tar (common in many UNIX environments) can also compress with the LZMA2 algorithm ("xz") natively, without the use of 7z, using the "-J" switch. The resulting file extension is ".tar.xz" or ".txz" and not ".tar.7z". This method of compression has been adopted with many distributions for packaging, such as Arch, Debian (deb), Fedora (rpm) and Slackware. (The older "lzma" format is less efficient.) On the other hand, it is important to note, that tar does not save the filesystem encoding, which means that tar compressed filenames can become unreadable if decompressed on a different computer.

The 7z format does not allow extraction of some "broken files"—that is (for example) if one has the first segment of a series of 7z files, 7z cannot give the start of the files within the archive—it must wait until all segments are downloaded. The 7z format also lacks recovery records, making it vulnerable to data degradation unless used in conjunction with external solutions, like parchives, or within filesystems with robust error-correction. By way of comparison, zip files also lack a recovery feature while the rar format has one.

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Hook and Cod wars

The Hook and Cod wars (Hoekse en Kabeljauwse twisten; sometimes semi-anglicised as the wars of the Hoecks and the Cabbeljaws) comprise a series of wars and battles in the County of Holland between 1350 and 1490. Most of these wars were ostensibly fought over who should hold the title of "Count of Holland", but some have argued that the underlying reason was a power struggle conducted by the bourgeois in the cities against the ruling nobility.

The Cod faction generally consisted of the more progressive cities of Holland. The Hook faction consisted for a large part of the conservative noblemen.

The origin of the name "Cod" remains uncertain, but is most likely a case of reappropriation. Perhaps it derives from the Bavarian coat of arms, which resemble the scales of a fish. The Hook refers to the hooked stick that is used to catch cod.

Another possible explanation of "Cod" points out that as a cod grows it tends to eat more, growing even bigger and eating even more, thus encapsulating how the noblemen perhaps saw the expanding middle classes of the time.

The reign of William IV of Holland and the war against Utrecht
In 1337 William IV succeeded his father as count of Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut (as William II). William waged many wars, traveled far and wide and participated in many tournaments. As a consequence the finances of Holland fell into utter disarray. For political advice, William continued to rely on Willem van Duvenvoorde, and therefore also on Duvenvoorde's kin: the Wassenaar's, Polanen's, Brederode's, Boechorsten etc. This to the detriment of families like those of Arkel, Egmond, Heemskerk and Wateringen.

In 1342 John of Arkel had become Bishop of Utrecht. He set about to restore the bishopric's power. In order to prevent this, Count William and his many allies in Utrecht, attacked and started to Siege of Utrecht (1345) city on 8 July 1345. After six weeks of siege, a cease fire was concluded till 11 November, with the citizens of Utrecht having to beg for forgiveness.

William then attempted to restore his authority in Friesland. On 26 September 1345 he led an army that crossed the Zuiderzee and landed near Stavoren. The subsequent Battle of Warns was a disaster: William died and his army returned without him, although his uncle, John of Beaumont, managed to escape. William's death did not end the war with Utrecht. Right after the truce ended, the bishop subdued almost all William's allies in Utrecht, and collected big reparations from them.

Succession of William IV
William IV/II had no son. Therefore, Holy Roman Emperor Louis the Bavarian had to decide about his succession. There were multiple candidates: John of Beaumont, brother of William III and thus uncle of William IV; Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut oldest sister of William IV and the emperor's wife; Her younger sister Philippa of Hainault, married to Edward III of England; Her younger sister Joanna of Hainaut, married to William V, Duke of Jülich; Her younger sister Isabelle of Hainaut (1323–1361), married to Robert of Namur. In January 1346 the emperor granted the three fiefs to his wife as 'oldest sister and just heir' of count William IV.

John of Beaumont had meanwhile taken control in Hainaut, and made for a rather smooth succession by Margaret over there. It seems that Holland and Zeeland agreed to the succession at a kind of diet at Geertruidenberg in February 1346. In March Margaret arrived in Hainaut, and in April she visited Holland and Zeeland. She also made a new truce with Utrecht, which started on 20 July 1346.

In September 1346 Margaret made her younger son William I, Duke of Bavaria (1330–1389) her lieutenant in Holland, Zeeland and Hainault. He was also appointed to one day inherit these counties, and therefore always officially styled as 'awaiting' verbeydende the rule over these.

Trouble in Holland and Zeeland
In Holland and Zeeland the lieutenancy of William of Bavaria was not a success. After Emperor Louis died in October 1347, King Edward III and the Duke of Jülich again came up with their claims to William IV's estate, and allied with the new emperor. In the interior the nobility seized the opportunity to take up their feuds, and indeed it had just cause to be dissatisfied about how the lieutenant and his government favored some families. Soon anarchy and insubordination ruled in these counties. As a result, the finances got even further out of control.

The war against Utrecht also did not go well. On 20 July 1348 the truce ended. On 28 July a battle against Utrecht was lost near Eemnes, leading to the village getting re-attached to Utrecht. William of Bavaria's army then burned the village of Jutphaas, while that of Utrecht burned and looted several Holland villages. The campaign ended with a truce till 11 November.

William's first attempt to become Count of Holland
In 1349 Margaret decided that it would be better if William of Bavaria became count of Holland and Zeeland, while she would remain Count of Hainault with William as her lieutenant. In return she wanted to have 15,000 gold guilders, and 6,000 guilders each year. Neither Beaumont nor the cities of Holland were prepared to agree with these conditions, but William then started to style himself as Count of Holland and Zeeland. The Egmonds, Heemskerks and Wateringens, later known as Cods now started to appear in the county's charters.

Meanwhile the bishop had attacked Holland shortly after 25 March 1349. He besieged and burned the small Holland city Oudewater. The army of Holland then marched to Schoonhoven, where it was beaten. On 24 August a truce was made till 11 November 1350.

Margaret had meanwhile travelled from Bavaria to Hainaut. She summoned her unruly son to Le Quesnoy. Here William begged for forgiveness in April 1350. With William removed from Holland, Margaret seems to be in control, but none of the causes of the troubles had been solved.

The trigger that led to open hostilities was the assassination of the Cod lord Claes Dirkszoon van Zwieten van Drakenburg. This happened on 23 August 1350. The city of Delft and its allies reacted by attacking their enemies, robbing, plundering and taking prisoners. The city next held trials after which a number of prisoners were decapitated and wheeled. The trials and executions were a direct infringement on the high justice of the count of Holland. Meanwhile there was also a conspiracy between part of the nobility and the Bishop of Utrecht.

In September 1350 Margaret and William were both in Geertruidenberg, where William renounced his pretensions on 27 September 1350. John of Polanen, Dirk van Brederode and their party offered to help Margaret. In September 1350 they signed the Hook Alliance Treaty. Meanwhile the dissatisfied nobles and cities formed the Cod League. The earliest proof of the Cod Alliance dates from November 1350.

Margaret and the Hook lords then tried to restore order from Geertruidenberg. They summoned all suspected subjects to send hostages to await their judgement. However, those of Delft and their allies simply did not appear, and said that everything had been done by the orders of their true lord Count William. In the council of nobles and cities that Margaret held, William denied this. He then sent open letters to Delft and other cities, ordering them to submit to Margaret. Delft and its allies simply kept the letters, and conspired with the Bishop of Utrecht, who burned the Binnenhof in The Hague. Margaret stayed in Geertruidenberg till at least 23 October 1350.

With Delft and many cities north of the Hollandse IJssel in open rebellion, Margaret now summoned the council and commoners of the area south of the Hollandse IJssel to Dordrecht. Here a ceremony was held in which the abdication of William was repeated. Margaret then sent William to Hainaut.

Margaret next continued to Zeeland to restore order there. She went to Zierikzee to become acknowledged there, and to handle some court cases. While there, she summoned William and John of Beaumont. She wanted to make Beaumont her lieutenant in Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland. Her only condition was that she would retain the high justice. This made the offer unacceptable to Beaumont, and so both returned to Hainaut. In October 1350 Margaret then started negotiations with Edward III of England. The idea was that he would use force to take control in Holland, Zeeland and Friesland, and would be compensated by getting temporary custody of the area.

William rebels
The attempt to make Beaumont lieutenant might have been reason for William to fear a complete loss of his pretensions. Gerard van Herlaer advised him to contact the Cod party again. In the night of 1-2 February 1351 Gerard van Herlaar and Gerard van Merxem succeeded in freeing William of Bavaria from Burbant Castle in Ath. William then formally allied himself with the Cod party, which acknowledged him as their count. He also allied with the Bishop of Utrecht.

Margaret reacted by making her son Louis her formal heir, and by seeking aid from England. In early 1351 Margaret, her son Duke Louis, and the Lords of Borselen and went to Dordrecht to attempt to subdue William again. While Dordrecht, Middelburg and Zierikzee allied with Margaret, William was acknowledged by Kennemerland and West-Friesland. Diplomatic action by Beaumont and the Queen of England failed. In April 1351 Margaret moved to Calais to negotiate with the English. William then seized Dordrecht. Wolfert III van Borselen joined William, causing Middelburg to flip to William's side.

A short war
The civil war now erupted in earnest. William of Bavaria's first moves were directed against the many castles that the Hook party held in Holland. Most of these were quickly conquered, others offered significant resistance. On 21 May 1351 Rosenburgh Castle surrendered after a violent siege. The count then moved on to take Polanen Castle in June 1351. In the same campaign, Binckhorst Castle was also taken after significant resistance. In the north Medemblik Castle offered significant resistance and was besieged in March-April 1351.

On 15 May 1351 William succeeded in concluding a peace which ended the war with Utrecht, which had started in 1345. This was also important, because the parties would also evict each other's enemies from their territory. Meanwhile, some of the stronger Hook castles could not be taken that quickly. Brederode Castle would only surrender on 23 October 1351. Oud Haerlem Castle, owned by John II of Polanen would hold out into 1352. This also applied to Geertruidenberg Castle. Its blockade and siege would last from December 1351 to July 1352.

On the other hand Edward III of England, husband of Margaret's sister Philippa, sent a fleet to Margaret's aid. This was initially successful. In May 1351 Margaret's combined forces won the Battle of Veere. Wolfert III van Borselen died soon after, but it seems that Margaret was not able to profit from her victory. I.e. Middelburg continued to hold William's side.

About six weeks later, the victorious Hooks and their English allies sailed up the Meuse. On 4 July 1351 they fought the Battle of Zwartewaal on the Old Meuse. It was a clear victory for William and the Cods. The English admiral and many Hooks were killed. The outcome ruined Margaret's cause. William quickly moved south to start a Siege of Zierikzee (1351), which surrendered in October.

In December 1351 Margaret was prepared to hand her last strongholds in Holland: Geertruidenberg Castle, the castle of Vreeland on the Vecht, and Oud Haerlem Castle near Heemskerk, to the trust of King Edward. King Edward changed sides shortly after. In February 1352 William married the king's cousin Maud of Lancaster. Margaret returned to Hainaut, and did not succeed in rekindling the war.

Peace between Margaret and her son
In December 1354 Margaret came to an understanding with her son. William was recognized as count of Holland and Zeeland, she of Hainaut. William would pay a large amount of money and a pension to his mother. Prisoners were released, and a general amnesty was proclaimed.

In July 1356 Margaret died. It left William in possession of the entire Holland-Hainaut inheritance. William did not enjoy his victory for long. In late Summer 1357 he went to England. Shortly after his return he showed signs of insanity. It became so serious that his wife and council decided to call over his younger brother Albert. The count was then locked up, first in The Hague, and then in Le Quesnoy, where he would live imprisoned for 31 years until his death.

Albert of Bavaria as regent
In February 1358 Albert I, Duke of Bavaria arrived in Holland. On 23 February 1358 he was appointed as ruwaard (regent) of Holland. Soon, the acknowledgement in Zeeland followed. Albert started his regency by replacing Jan van Bloemenstein as bailiff of Kennemerland with Reinoud I van Brederode, eldest son of the Hook lord Dirk van Brederode. He also tried to change the Cod government of Delft.

On his first trip to Kennemerland, the new bailiff Reinoud was ambushed near Castricum. Reinoud escaped, but the affair led to the Siege of Heemskerk Castle, which lasted from 4 December 1358 to 24 March 1359. During the siege of Heemskerk Castle, the city of Delft rebelled. Its militia assaulted and destroyed Polanen Castle and Binckhorst Castle. The militia also raided The Hague, and freed the prisoners there.

On 1 April 1359 Albert started the Siege of Delft. The siege of the Cod Stronghold lasted more than 10 weeks. The city surrendered on terms. Its council had to beg for forgiveness, pay 40,000 old shields, and destroy the city walls. The nobles that supported Delft; Hendrik van der Woerd, Gijsbrecht van Nijenrode, Jan van Kervena and Gerard Wisse were not included in the treaty. Van der Woerd tried to escape, but was caught and beheaded.

Nyenrode, Kervena and some others escaped to Heusden Castle. It led to the siege of Heusden Castle, which lasted for more than a year. The castle was surrendered by treaty. The besieged would make their peace with Albert, and go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem within two years. The internal troubles in Holland then subsided for a while. In 1362 a short war was fought against Guelders.

In 1372 violence erupted near Heusden. The Heerlijkheid Heusden had been transferred to Holland in 1357. However, the limits of the lordship had not been defined that well. Brabant laid claim to Vlijmen and Engelen. Jan van der Veen then raided and burned Onsenoort Castle, southeast of Heusden. In turn Zealand nobles attacked Brabant merchants in their province, while Reinoud van Brederode Lord of Gennep attacked the Campina and looted near Sint-Oedenrode. The army of Brabant then attacked Hainault. In 1374 this conflict ended without any result. Also in 1374, a war against Utrecht started. It ended in 1375. In 1389 the insane William V, who had been locked up since 1357 died.

Jacqueline of Bavaria vs Philip of Burgundy (1417–1432)
The main battle re-emerged at the death of Albert I's son and successor William VI, Count of Holland and Hainaut in 1417. Both William's younger brother Bishop of Liege John of Bavaria-Straubing, and his only daughter Jacqueline claimed the county. The Cods chose the side of John, and, after his death in 1425, of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, while the Hooks supported Jacqueline.

The result of these battles and especially of her defeats at the Battle of Brouwershaven (1426) and Siege of Gouda (1428), was that Jacqueline was allowed to retain the titles of countess of Hainaut, Holland and Zeeland, but that Philip the Good would rule the counties. Philip was named heir to the counties, and Jacqueline, who was childless, was not allowed to remarry without Philip's consent.

The treaty became void when Jacqueline remarried in 1432 with Frank van Borssele, and she had to hand her territories over to Burgundy.

The Bishopric of Utrecht vs Burgundy
The period between 1430 and 1450 remained reasonably calm, but when Philip the Good tried to expand his influence into the Bishopric of Utrecht by appointing his natural son David of Burgundy as Bishop, Hook resistance re-emerged in Utrecht. This led to the Siege of Deventer (1456), and two civil wars, (1470–1474) and (1481–1483), concluded in favor of the Cods and Burgundy after the Battle of Westbroek and the Siege of Utrecht (1483).

Frans van Brederode vs Maximilian of Austria
When the House of Burgundy had died out with the death of Mary of Burgundy in 1482, the Hooks revolted one more time against her husband and successor Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. The revolt was led by Frans van Brederode, but crushed in 1490.

title: Hook and Cod wars


text:
Talk:RRS Discovery

Untitled
"The RRS Discovery was originally built in 1962, replacing RRS Discovery II which herself was built in 1929 to continue Antarctic research begun by Captain R.F. Scott. "

There appear to be more than one ship bearing the name RRS Discovery. The original Discovery was captained by Robert Scott between 1901 - 1904 in his first expedition of Antarctica.

The original RRS Discovery now resides at Dundee's Discovery Point. See http://www.rrsdiscovery.com/

RRS Discovery (and her successor Discovery II a steam fired ship in 1929) were involved research of the eco-systems of South Georgia and the Southern Oceans. - Dduck Dduck 13:56, 9 Nov 2003 (UTC)

139.166.230.63 (talk)

Discovery (1602) 1602, the first recorded Discovery owned by the East India Company, and commanded by George Weymouth was used to explore Hudson Bay and the northwest passage, thre were another 10 exploration or survey ships called Discovery before RRS Discovery took Scott to the Antarctic. http://noc.ac.uk/f/news/downloads/2012/Discovery50_1_2.pdf

RRS Disco I (Scott's ship, and the 12th ever Disco) (1901-1932) The first ship to be prefixed with RRS in 1925. http://smithsonianscience.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/RRS-Discovery.jpg

RRS Disco II 13/11/1929 to 25/03/1963 http://www.dhtcollections.com/images/products/large/1337188678uploadMaritimephotographsDUNIH2008.60.14.jpg http://www.clydesite.co.uk/clydebuilt/ships/1929/DISCOVERY_II_295.jpg

RRS Disco III 3/7/1962-1991 was an RFA-manned ship until 1968, when came under the control of NERC. http://mcarpenter.chez-alice.fr/discovery.jpg http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090323/images/RRS-Discovery.jpg

RRS Disco IV Disco III was rebuilt in 1991/92, and an extra section was added into the hull to lengthen it by 10m, hence it is referred to as Discovery IV from 1992-2012, because it's effectively a new hull. http://cdn2.shipspotting.com/photos/middle/9/4/3/1036349.jpg She is the longest-serving "Disco" (as we call her) goes to be scrapped next week (19th december 2012) http://www.eurocean.org/np4/file/140/2007_1_RRS_Discovery_Replacement_ERVO200.pdf http://noc.ac.uk/f/news/downloads/2012/Discovery50_1_2.pdf

RRS Discovery V does trials all through summer 2013 (officially launched on April the 6th 2013, it enters working service in 2014 http://www.ship-technology.com/projects/rrs-discovery/images/3-rrs-discovery.jpg source: I work on RRS Discovery

139.166.230.63 (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 12:55, 11 December 2012 (UTC)

 * Large portions of the article's text appear verbatim at the following website: . Who copied whom?
 * -Edwardian 05:23, 21 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm inclined to say that Dduck did the copying and nobody else noticed, probably because only sections were taken verbatim. Later edits here removed words such as "fabulous" that are characteristic of enthusiasts' and organizations' websites. It seems Dduck has been gone for over a year, so probably won't answer. Simplest fix is to delete the offending paragraphs, ideal would be a rewrite. Stan 13:26, 21 Apr 2005 (UTC)

"Happy Mariner" that transported Discovery back to Dundee
I was just down at Discovery Point today, and from the photos of the move and restoration, the "Happy Mariner" appears to be less a conventional merchant/cargo vessel, and more a floating dock of sorts. If no one else can confirm one way or the other, I'll try to get confirmation from the folks down there. Dan 00:57, 2 April 2007 (UTC)
 * According to the Stichting Maritiem-Historische Databank, the ship was "General Cargo heavy load/lift". The inclusion of the word "lift" suggest that you are right. The photo uploaded by Jbuller shows a door in the stern that would support this view. In the Shipspotting.com listing it is described in more layman's language as a "semi-submersible heavy-lift vessel" . I suggest you take your pick. Exbrum (talk) 15:17, 27 August 2019 (UTC)

 * RRS-Discovery-aboard-Happy-Mariner.jpg

I've uploaded a photo of Discovery and docklift/floating dock Happy Mariner that could go into the article if desired.

--Jbuller (talk) 22:46, 25 July 2011 (UTC)
 * The photograph shows Discovery about to pass through Tower Bridge going eastwards from the Pool of London. This is odd, because St Katherine's Dock was downstream (east) of Tower Bridge. So this begs the question, why was Discovery doing this? Perhaps as some sort of mark of honour it went through Tower Bridge twice, turning off Tower Pier? Worth a mention? I have a photo of Discovery arriving in the Tay, with the bridges in the background, but I think that Jbuller's is better as it shows Tower Bridge open to its greatest extent, a rare privilege; even if we don't (yet) know why she was in the Pool of London. I suggest you include your picture and hopefully someone will provide an explanation. Exbrum (talk) 15:17, 27 August 2019 (UTC)

Space Shuttle Contradictions
I'm new to Wikipedia, so sorry if my formatting is wrong, but I just wanted to flag that the pages for the RRS Discovery and the HMS Discovery both claim that they were the inspiration for the Space Shuttle Discovery. I'm not sure which is right, but it needs to be cleaned up. --75.153.82.44 (talk) 18:41, 10 December 2007 (UTC)
 * According to the shuttle's article, it was named for several ships, all named Discovery. 136.159.234.231 (talk) 20:23, 30 April 2010 (UTC)

Blacklisted Links Found on the Main Page
Cyberbot II has detected that page contains external links that have either been globally or locally blacklisted. Links tend to be blacklisted because they have a history of being spammed, or are highly innappropriate for Wikipedia. This, however, doesn't necessarily mean it's spam, or not a good link. If the link is a good link, you may wish to request whitelisting by going to the request page for whitelisting. If you feel the link being caught by the blacklist is a false positive, or no longer needed on the blacklist, you may request the regex be removed or altered at the blacklist request page. If the link is blacklisted globally and you feel the above applies you may request to whitelist it using the before mentioned request page, or request its removal, or alteration, at the request page on meta. When requesting whitelisting, be sure to supply the link to be whitelisted and wrap the link in nowiki tags. The whitelisting process can take its time so once a request has been filled out, you may set the invisible parameter on the tag to true. Please be aware that the bot will replace removed tags, and will remove misplaced tags regularly.

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 * http://www.ship-technology.com/projects/rrs-discovery/
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✅ This issue has been resolved, and I have therefore removed the tag, if not already done. No further action is necessary.— cyberbot II NotifyOnline 19:30, 9 April 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 2 one external links on RRS Discovery. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20120819162139/http://www.seascout.org/about/history-uk.html to http://www.seascout.org/about/history-uk.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20100912081809/http://www.nerc.ac.uk:80/press/releases/2010/13-discovery.asp to http://www.nerc.ac.uk/press/releases/2010/13-discovery.asp

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Wine Auction
Not worthy of comment in the main article, but perhaps of interest to a passing researcher, might be an auction, by Christie, Manson & Woods, on 25 November 1904, including “The Property of The Officers, S.S. “Discovery,” National Antarctic Expedition—1901, being the surplus remaining over on the return of the S.S. “Discovery” from the South Seas in 1904. (My picture #20944.) JDAWiseman (talk) 08:54, 15 June 2016 (UTC)

Haunted category
The article is in Category:Reportedly haunted locations in Scotland, but it makes no reference to any ghosts or other paranormal activity associated with the ship (either in Dundee or during her sailing career), so I am wondering if it should be taken out of the category, unless there is something of relevance that can be added. Dunarc (talk) 15:31, 4 April 2019 (UTC)
 * I have removed it from this category as there is nothing in the article which would justify its inclusion in it. If anybody has evidence that there have been reports of hauntings or ghost sightings, and adds it to the article with citations, then this can be revisited. Dunarc (talk) 22:25, 30 May 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:RRS Discovery


text:
Balance of Power (video game)

Balance of Power is a strategy video game of geopolitics during the Cold War, created by Chris Crawford and published in 1985 on the Macintosh by Mindscape, followed by ports to a variety of platforms over the next two years.

In the game, the player takes the role of the President of the United States or General Secretary of the Soviet Union. The goal is to improve the player's country's standing in the world relative to the other superpower. During each yearly turn, random events occur that may have effects on the player's international prestige. The player can choose to respond to these events in various ways, which may prompt a response from the other superpower. This creates brinkmanship situations between the two nations, potentially escalating to a nuclear war, which ends the game.

Crawford was already well-known, especially for Eastern Front (1941). His 1984 announcement that he was moving to the Macintosh platform to work on a new concept generated considerable interest. It was widely reviewed after its release, including an extremely positive review in The New York Times Magazine. It was praised for its inventive non-action gameplay that was nevertheless exciting and distinct. It has been named by Computer Gaming World as one of the most innovative computer games of all time.

Balance of Power was successful on the Mac, and combined with ports it ultimately sold over a quarter million units.

Gameplay

The player may choose to be either the President of the United States or the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and must lead the chosen superpower for eight years, seeking to maximize "prestige" and avoiding a nuclear war. Each turn is one year long; at the beginning of each year, the player is presented with a set of incidents and crises in various countries around the globe and must choose a response to each one. Responses may range from no action to diplomatic notes to the other superpower, to military maneuvers. Each response is then met with a counter-response, which may vary from backing down to escalation. The player then gets a chance to initiate actions, and deal with the opponent's responses.

This core mechanic is similar to that of Bruce Ketchledge's 1983 game Geopolitique 1990, published by SSI. One difference from the earlier game is how negotiations are resolved. In both games, backing down in a negotiation results in a loss of prestige, which will reverberate politically. Likewise, in both games brinkmanship may result in a global war. In Geopolitique, such wars were actually fought in-game, after which the game continued. In Balance of Power, such a war ends the game instantly, with the following message: "You have ignited a(n accidental) nuclear war. And no, there is no animated display of a mushroom cloud with parts of bodies flying through the air. We do not reward failure."

Development
Crawford had made a name for himself during his years at Atari, Inc. in the late 1970s and early 1980s. His smash hit Eastern Front (1941) made him one of the few game authors known by name, and helped ensure later releases were also successful to a degree. By early 1984, Atari was rapidly going bankrupt due to the effects of the video game crash of 1983. In March they laid off the majority of their staff, including Crawford. His ample severance was enough to allow him to write a new game as a freelancer.

After considering a sequel to Eastern Front or a political game about the Inca Empire, he eventually decided to write a cold war "game about peace". Crawford cited Bob Dylan's "Blowin' in the Wind" as an emotional inspiration to the game.

Considering the Atari platform a lost cause, Crawford began looking at the new 16-bit platforms that were just coming to market; he dismissed the IBM PC as too crude, the Amiga as likely to fail for business reasons, and thus chose the Macintosh as the platform to develop on. At the time this was a non-trivial decision, as there were no development tools; programmers had to buy an Apple Lisa to write code for the platform.

During an April 1984 interview at the Origins Game Fair, Crawford stated that he was "working on a game for the Macintosh entitled ARMS RACE based on the philosophy that 'H-bombs don't kill people, geopolitics kills people.'" By May the initial concept was fleshed out; the game would take place on top of a world map that could show various details, events would be presented as newspaper stories following an algorithmic concept he developed after considering the headlines in National Enquirer, and these events and their outcomes would be expressed in terms of "prestige points".

Crawford had difficulty in finding a publisher for Balance of Power, due in no small part to the lingering effects of the 1983 crash. Random House eventually agreed to publish it, but there was considerable ill will between Crawford and the editor assigned to him, who had no prior experience with video games. Random House ultimately cancelled the contract and demanded that Crawford return its $10,000 advance payment, almost causing him to lose his home. His wife demanded he get a "real job".

The work was saved by a friend at InfoWorld, who heard of his troubles and published a two-part column on the game. The article was seen by a producer at the newly formed Mindscape, who agreed to publish it. Betas were ready in February 1985 and were polished through the spring and summer. The game was released in September and was an immediate sensation given that the world was then at the height of the Cold War. The fame was in no small part helped by a review in The New York Times Magazine written by David L. Aaron, Jimmy Carter's Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, who called it "about as close as one might get to the cut-and-thrust of international politics without going through confirmation by the Senate."

The game was an immediate hit on the initial Macintosh and Apple II. A release for Microsoft Windows 1.0 in 1986 made it a multiplatform best seller. These were followed by versions on the Atari ST (1987) and Amiga, among others. In total, the game sold over $10 million during its heyday, during a time when total sales for all gaming hardware and software combined was about $500 million.

In 1986, Crawford published a book, also called Balance of Power, which details the internals of the game great depth. It explains the background of the politics, the formulas used to calculate prestige and related parameters, and an account of its (lengthy) gestation.

Around 2013, Crawford released source code of several of his games into the public domain, including Balance of Power.

Reception
Computer Gaming World stated that Balance of Power "stands in a prestigious circle: that of the most innovative computer games of all time. If there were Academy Awards for computer games, BOP would get my votes for Best Picture and Best Director of 1985". A 1992 survey in the magazine of wargames with modern settings gave the game four stars out of five, a 1994 survey gave it three stars, and in 1996 the magazine listed the game's Game Over scene as #11 on its list of "the 15 best ways to die in computer gaming".

Roy Wagner reviewed the game for Computer Gaming World, and stated that "This game is HIGHLY recommended."

Dragon recommended the game and called it a "superb game of global strategy that goes beyond other games, wherein thoughtful, calculated geopolitics could prevent a worldwide nuclear war!" as well as "a truly entertaining and thought-provoking simulation of world geopolitics which involves the player in a quest to prevent a worldwide nuclear holocaust, while promoting either the U.S.A. or Russia to world prominence. This is a marvelous program that everyone should experience at least once."

BYTE praised the game in 1986, describing the Mac version as "the best game I had ever seen on any computer ... by all means, get the program". Info gave the Amiga version four-plus stars out of five, approving of the complex gameplay with a good user interface. While complaining of the lack of sound from the "obvious Macintosh influence", the magazine concluded that it was "An excellent game".

Bob Ewald reviewed Balance of Power in Space Gamer/Fantasy Gamer No. 81. Ewald commented that "In conclusion, if this type of game appeals to you most of the problems are worth suffering through. However, if you're a hardcore wargamer who isn't interested in diplomacy, I suggest that you pass on this one."

Compute! presented opposing views of the game in May 1988. The magazine included Balance of Power in its list of "Our Favorite Games", calling it "an impressive recreation of the world's geopolitical landscape ... call one too many bluffs and you'll see the chilling message You have ignited a nuclear war". Orson Scott Card, however, wrote in his review of the game that Crawford—"the best designer of simulation games I've seen"—was "leaning over your shoulder and bullying you into playing the game his way. He has a sweet delusion that as long as the United States is very nice and doesn't do anything to offend them, the Russians will go home. And if you don't play that way, why, he'll stop the game with a nasty remark about how the world was just destroyed by nuclear war". He added that since no nuclear war had been fought Crawford could not know what would cause one, and "there are a lot of experts who claim that the Soviets seem to behave a lot nicer when we stand up to them than when we disarm", but that "[Crawford] is so sure he's right that Balance of Power isn't a game, it's propaganda".

In 1989, Compute! stated that the 1990 edition's multipolar features were welcome additions to the game. That year Card stated that the magazine's 1988 list caused him to reevaluate the game when playing the 1990 edition, stating that it had "the most detailed, carefully extrapolated future world I've worked with". While still criticizing geopolitical "absurdities" such as forcing the United States to passively accept Soviet troops in Syria (contrary to what happened during the Yom Kippur War) and advisors in Mexico or start nuclear war, Card now concluded that such outcomes probably reflected computer limitations rather than Crawford's political views. He advised players to pretend that Balance of Power was set on an alien planet "astonishingly similar" to Earth, and to play solely based on the game's assumptions about the world. Chuck Moss disagreed with Card's revised view, describing Balance of Power in Computer Gaming World in 1992 as "reflect[ing] extreme bias on the part of [its] designers". He called it a "pacific treatise ... nuclear war erupted if the U.S. so much as sent five million dollars to Panama".

Crawford stated in 1987 that he was most proud of his work on the game: "I feel [it] has made the world a better place ... I think it has made a small number of people much more realistic in their appraisal of world affairs". In 1996 Computer Gaming World ranked it as the 78th best game of all time, calling it "a wonderful game of political intrigue that felt just like the Cold War and didn't require the detail of Shadow President or CyberJudas." That year it was ranked as the 75th top game of all time by Next Generation, who commented "Although the game's premises are hopelessly outdated (U.S.S.R.? What's that?) and some disagree with the politics, the AI in Balance of Power, combined with its unique play style, make it a classic." In 2006, The Guardian listed it first on its list of "The 10 political games everyone should play".

Reviews

 * Jeux & Stratégie #46

Legacy
After Balance of Power, Crawford began work on an entirely new game, Trust & Betrayal: The Legacy of Siboot, released in 1987 and selling only a few thousand copies. Mindscape was disappointed, and pressured Crawford to do a follow-up to Balance of Power. The company pressed him hard on it, and Crawford felt that he "owed them one" after publishing Siboot. This sequel was released in 1989 as Balance of Power: The 1990 Edition on the Apple IIGS, Windows, Macintosh, Amiga and Atari ST. Crawford does not consider it a proper sequel, saying he was simply "tidying up, adding some bells and whistles." Balance of Power: The 1990 Edition adds more countries, advisors to help the player, a new "multi-polar" level that allows countries to generate events of their own (such as declaring war on other countries) and a 2-player hotseat mode.

In 1992, Crawford left the game industry to make something more interactive and artistic. After many false starts, this emerged as The Erasmatron, and later re-released under the name Storytron. Both systems were used to make complex, interactive storylines. As a demo, Crawford used Storytron to build Balance of Power: 21st Century. This version begins on 12 September 2001 and mostly involves the US's interactions with Asia and other emerging powers. It was not a success; Crawford himself describes it as "crap".

Balance of Power has been the basis for a number of play-by-mail versions, manually run and based on moves posted in internet forum systems. One long-running example is hosted on.

title: Balance of Power (video game)