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Science studies

Science studies is an interdisciplinary research area that seeks to situate scientific expertise in broad social, historical, and philosophical contexts. It uses various methods to analyze the production, representation and reception of scientific knowledge and its epistemic and semiotic role.

Similarly to cultural studies, science studies are defined by the subject of their research and encompass a large range of different theoretical and methodological perspectives and practices. The interdisciplinary approach may include and borrow methods from the humanities, natural and formal sciences, from scientometrics to ethnomethodology or cognitive science.

Science studies have a certain importance for evaluation and science policy. Overlapping with the field of science, technology and society, practitioners study the relationship between science and technology, and the interaction of expert and lay knowledge in the public realm.

Scope
The field started with a tendency toward navel-gazing: it was extremely self-conscious in its genesis and applications. From early concerns with scientific discourse, practitioners soon started to deal with the relation of scientific expertise to politics and lay people. Practical examples include bioethics, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), pollution, global warming, biomedical sciences, physical sciences, natural hazard predictions, the (alleged) impact of the Chernobyl disaster in the UK, generation and review of science policy and risk governance and its historical and geographic contexts. While staying a discipline with multiple metanarratives, the fundamental concern is about the role of the perceived expert in providing governments and local authorities with information from which they can make decisions.

The approach poses various important questions about what makes an expert and how experts and their authority are to be distinguished from the lay population and interacts with the values and policy making process in liberal democratic societies.

Practitioners examine the forces within and through which scientists investigate specific phenomena such as
 * technological milieus, epistemic instruments and cultures and laboratory life (compare Karin Knorr-Cetina, Bruno Latour, Hans-Jörg Rheinberger)
 * science and technology (e.g. Wiebe Bijker, Trevor Pinch, Thomas P. Hughes)
 * science, technology and society (e.g. Peter Weingart, Ulrike Felt, Helga Nowotny and Reiner Grundmann)
 * language and rhetoric of science (e.g. Charles Bazerman, Alan G. Gross, Greg Myers)
 * aesthetics of science and visual culture in science (u.a. Peter Geimer), the role of aesthetic criteria in scientific practice (compare mathematical beauty) and the relation between emotion, cognition and rationality in the development of science.
 * semiotic studies of creative processes, as in the discovery, conceptualization, and realization of new ideas. or the interaction and management of different forms of knowledge in cooperative research.
 * large-scale research and research institutions, e.g. particle colliders (Sharon Traweek)
 * research ethics, science policy, and the role of the university.

History of the field
In 1935, in a celebrated paper, the Polish sociologist couple Maria Ossowska and Stanisław Ossowski proposed the founding of a "science of science" to study the scientific enterprise, its practitioners, and the factors influencing their work. Earlier, in 1923, the Polish sociologist Florian Znaniecki had made a similar proposal.

Fifty years before Znaniecki, in 1873, Aleksander Głowacki, better known in Poland by his pen name "Bolesław Prus", had delivered a public lecture – later published as a booklet – On Discoveries and Inventions, in which he said:

"Until now there has been no science that describes the means for making discoveries and inventions, and the generality of people, as well as many people of learning, believe that there never will be. This is an error. Someday a science of making discoveries and inventions will exist and will render services.  It will arise not all at once; first only its general outline will appear, which subsequent researchers will correct and elaborate, and which still later researchers will apply to individual branches of knowledge."

It is striking that, while early 20th-century sociologist proponents of a discipline to study science and its practitioners wrote in general theoretical terms, Prus had already half a century earlier described, with many specific examples, the scope and methods of such a discipline.

Thomas Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) increased interest both in the history of science and in science's philosophical underpinnings. Kuhn posited that the history of science was less a linear succession of discoveries than a succession of paradigms within the philosophy of science. Paradigms are broader, socio-intellectual constructs that determine which types of truth claims are permissible.

Science studies seeks to identify key dichotomies – such as those between science and technology, nature and culture, theory and experiment, and science and fine art – leading to the differentiation of scientific fields and practices.

The sociology of scientific knowledge arose at the University of Edinburgh, where David Bloor and his colleagues developed what has been termed "the strong programme". It proposed that both "true" and "false" scientific theories should be treated the same way. Both are informed by social factors such as cultural context and self-interest.

Human knowledge, abiding as it does within human cognition, is ineluctably influenced by social factors.

It proved difficult, however, to address natural-science topics with sociological methods, as was abundantly evidenced by the US science wars. Use of a deconstructive approach (as in relation to works on arts or religion) to the natural sciences risked endangering not only the "hard facts" of the natural sciences, but the objectivity and positivist tradition of sociology itself. The view on scientific knowledge production as a (at least partial) social construct was not easily accepted. Latour and others identified a dichotomy crucial for modernity, the division between nature (things, objects) as being transcendent, allowing to detect them, and society (the subject, the state) as immanent as being artificial, constructed. The dichotomy allowed for mass production of things (technical-natural hybrids) and large-scale global issues that endangered the distinction as such. E.g. We Have Never Been Modern asks to reconnect the social and natural worlds, returning to the pre-modern use of "thing" —addressing objects as hybrids made and scrutinized by the public interaction of people, things, and concepts.

Science studies scholars such as Trevor Pinch and Steve Woolgar started already in the 1980s to involve "technology", and called their field "science, technology and society". This "turn to technology" brought science studies into communication with academics in science, technology, and society programs.

More recently, a novel approach known as mapping controversies has been gaining momentum among science studies practitioners, and was introduced as a course for students in engineering, and architecture schools. In 2002 Harry Collins and Robert Evans asked for a third wave of science studies (a pun on The Third Wave), namely studies of expertise and experience answering to recent tendencies to dissolve the boundary between experts and the public.

Sheepfarming after Chernobyl

A showcase of the rather complex problems of scientific information and its interaction with lay persons is Brian Wynne's study of Sheepfarming in Cumbria after the Chernobyl disaster. He elaborated on the responses of sheep farmers in Cumbria, who had been subjected to administrative restrictions because of radioactive contamination, allegedly caused by the nuclear accident at Chernobyl in 1986. The sheep farmers suffered economic losses, and their resistance against the imposed regulation was being deemed irrational and inadequate. It turned out that the source of radioactivity was actually the Sellafield nuclear reprocessing complex; thus, the experts who were responsible for the duration of the restrictions were completely mistaken. The example led to attempts to better involve local knowledge and lay-persons' experience and to assess its often highly geographically and historically defined background.

Science studies on volcanology

Donovan et al. (2012) used social studies of volcanology to investigate the generation of knowledge and expert advice on various active volcanoes. It contains a survey of volcanologists carried out during 2008 and 2009 and interviews with scientists in the UK, Montserrat, Italy and Iceland during fieldwork seasons. Donovan et al. (2012) asked the experts about the felt purpose of volcanology and what they considered the most important eruptions in historical time. The survey tries to identify eruptions that had an influence on volcanology as a science and to assess the role of scientists in policymaking.

A main focus was on the impact of the Montserrat eruption 1997. The eruption, a classical example of the black swan theory directly killed (only) 19 persons. However the outbreak had major impacts on the local society and destroyed important infrastructure, as the island's airport. About 7,000 people, or two-thirds of the population, left Montserrat; 4,000 to the United Kingdom.

The Montserrat case put immense pressure on volcanologists, as their expertise suddenly became the primary driver of various public policy approaches. The science studies approach provided valuable insights in that situation. There were various miscommunications among scientists. Matching scientific uncertainty (typical of volcanic unrest) and the request for a single unified voice for political advice was a challenge. The Montserrat Volcanologists began to use statistical elicitation models to estimate the probabilities of particular events, a rather subjective method, but allowing to synthesizing consensus and experience-based expertise step by step. It involved as well local knowledge and experience.

Volcanology as a science currently faces a shift of its epistemological foundations of volcanology. The science started to involve more research into risk assessment and risk management. It requires new, integrated methodologies for knowledge collection that transcend scientific disciplinary boundaries but combine qualitative and quantitative outcomes in a structured whole.

Experts and democracy
Science has become a major force in Western democratic societies, which depend on innovation and technology (compare Risk society) to address its risks. Beliefs about science can be very different from those of the scientists themselves, for reasons of e.g. moral values, epistemology or political motivations.The designation of expertise as authoritative in the interaction with lay people and decision makers of all kind is nevertheless challenged in contemporary risk societies, as suggested by scholars who follow Ulrich Beck's theorisation. The role of expertise in contemporary democracies is an important theme for debate among science studies scholars. Some argue for a more widely distributed, pluralist understanding of expertise (Sheila Jasanoff and Brian Wynne, for example), while others argue for a more nuanced understanding of the idea of expertise and its social functions (Collins and Evans, for example).

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Indian peace medal

Indian peace medals refer to ovular or circular medals awarded to tribal leaders throughout colonial America and early United States history, primarily made of silver or brass and ranging in diameter from about one to six inches. Medals were often perforated and worn suspended around the neck of the recipient. Controversy remains surrounding the use and impact of peace medals in furthering diplomatic relationships between Native Americans and the federal government. Many Indian peace medals today are archived in museums, libraries, and cultural centers.

Early peace medals
During the colonization of America, European nations issued the earliest peace medals to build alliances and negotiate with tribes, dating as far back as the seventeenth century. Medals were given to North American Indians by the British, French, and Spanish in the eighteenth century as sentiments of peace, often in conjunction with national flags and other gifts. A number of silver medals issued under Kings George the First and Second have been excavated in Pennsylvania, the reverse of which show an American Indian figure offering a peace pipe to a Quaker. Medals were also used by European nations to curry favor and secure military alliances with tribes during wartime. For Native Americans, the early medals represented a pledge to supply and trade commodities such as kettles, beads, ornaments, clothes, and weapons. In return, they would supply much of the raw materials that Europeans' overseas trade depended on, including animal hides, furs, and feathers. Like many European medals, early US medals incorporated Indian figures on their design. What are thought to be the earliest peace medals issued by the US government carry the date 1789, the year of President Washington's inauguration, along with the inscription G. WASHINGTON. PRESIDENT above. The medals show an Indian man wearing a headdress, draped in a blanket. With his right hand he drops his tomahawk while simultaneously receiving a pipe of peace with his left from a figure of Minerva, symbolizing the young America. On the reverse is an eagle with wings extended and thirteen stars above its head, the arms of the United States. US medals issued from 1792 to 1795 are similar in design, but replace the figure of Minerva with George Washington himself.

Medals were an expression of promise: that the United States was invested in furthering peace and diplomacy with the Indians who called this land home. Consequently, the awarding of peace medals often accompanied a formal treaty or negotiation. One of the first known uses of peace medals by the US government dates back to the Treaty of Hopewell, the culmination of Colonel Joseph Martin's mission to the Cherokee nation in 1785. While the medals were issued in accordance with the treaty, the records do not confirm whether or not they were actually distributed to Cherokee leaders.

The ultimate origin of Indian peace medals is not known. Thomas Jefferson himself noted that the usage of the medals is "an ancient custom from time immemorial."

Presidential medals
While early peace medals issued by European nations and the US government frequently incorporate images of European and tribal figures in cultural exchange, peace medals issued during and after the presidency of Thomas Jefferson (1801 – 1809) are almost exclusively presidential medals, displaying the bust of the President in office at the time they were issued. Jefferson medals were the first of their kind, and inspired a long series of presidential medals that continued until the presidency of Benjamin Harrison (1889 – 1893). Presidential medals were minted in mass using engraved dies, replacing the practice of engraving individual medals.

Jefferson medals, first issued in 1801, display on one side a bust of Thomas Jefferson and on the other, the clasped hands of an Indian and a US soldier. The one to the right bears a metal wristband worn by Native American chiefs, and the one to the left wears the braided cuff of a US military officer. Above the hands is an overlaying tomahawk and pipe, with the legend "Peace and Friendship." Above Jefferson's profile is his name, title, and date he took office, 1801. Jefferson medals consist of two thin silver discs joined by a silver rim and a wooden core. The medals were issued in three standard sizes: 55mm, 75mm, to 105mm in diameter.

US government use of presidential medals
The distribution of presidential medals accompanied nearly every formal interaction between Native Americans and the US federal government. So established was the practice that Thomas L. McKenney, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, wrote in 1829, "Without medals, any plan of operating among the Indians, be it what it may, is essentially enfeebled." In a short string of correspondence between the US House of Representatives Committee of Ways and Means and the Department of the Interior in 1865, an appropriation was requested "to provide for the usual distribution of medals to leading and influential chiefs," as the funds provided in 1861 for the same purpose had been exhausted.

The growing popularity of peace medals compelled regulation, and as a result, presidential medals, in comparison to early peace medals given alongside treaties, were increasingly awarded to select individuals. A report issued in 1908 by the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, for example, recommended the passage of a bill that awards medals to a group of Indian policemen who arrested Sitting Bull, the Sioux chief, near Fort Yates in 1890. Additionally, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark famously distributed about eighty-seven peace medals, many of which were issued under Jefferson, to Indian leaders during their 1803-1806 expedition across the United States as demonstrations of goodwill from the government. In the 1960s, one of the five surviving Jefferson peace medals distributed by Lewis and Clark was found associated with human remains discovered at the Marmes Rockshelter in southeastern Washington state.

In 1829, Lewis Cass, the Governor of Michigan Territory and William Clark, Superintendent of Indian Affairs at St. Louis, issued a proposal to the US government: "Regulations for the Government of the Indian Department." The regulations they set forth were never formally adopted, but do represent the established norms of presidential medal distribution. Among other rules, the medals were to "be given to influential persons only." The largest medals were reserved for the chiefs, while the mid-sized medals would be given to war chiefs. The smallest medals were given to less distinguished chiefs and warriors. The awarding of the peace medals required "proper formalities," and any foreign medal previously worn would be replaced by an American medal if the recipient is deserving of a medal.

Native American acceptance of peace medals
Great value was prescribed by the peace medals, which were to be buried with the owner or passed down from generation to generation. A considerable amount of portraiture made of Native American figures accentuating the medals worn around their neck serves as a testament to their importance.

Peace medals assumed a role within many Native ethea akin to earlier worn shell gorgets, associating the wearer of the medal with the individual engraved on its surface. The imagery presented on the medals, of both royal and political figures, was understood as a symbol of access into the world of the White man. This world brought with it new trade goods and technologies of Europe and later the United States, notably the rifle. The medals became a physical representation of a spiritual dimension that linked the medal wearer to a source of power, for example, the "Great Father" as President Washington was referred to by medal recipients. The distribution of peace medals both reinforced and furthered a political order within the tribes.

Criticisms of peace medals
Black Hawk, a Sauk chief, represents a number of tribal leaders who were critical of US peace medals and their actual use in advancing relations between the federal government and Native Americans. Black Hawk wrote in his autobiography, "Life of Ma-Ka-Tai-Me-She-Kia-Kiak" (1833), that he never accepts or wears a US peace medal, though he openly wore those given to him by the British, particularly during the War of 1812. Black Hawk writes, "Whilst the British made but few [promises]- we could always rely upon their word." Towards the end of his narrative, Black Hawk reflects on his tour of the federal mint in Philadelphia, the source of the United States' "medals and money." He relates the coins to the US peace medals; both are "very hand-some," and both are unreliable.

Other contemporary criticisms of Indian peace medals demand a reconsideration of what peacekeeping implies and who the kept peace belongs to. In his analysis of the peace medals issued by the United States government between 1789 and 1889, art historian Klaus Lubbers describes the changing composition of the medal engravings, and how those changes reflect the government's increasingly assimilationist Indian policy. In comparison to the first peace medals that display full Indian figures and little in the background, Lubbers notes that subsequent peace medals incorporate typical agricultural backdrops with a house, oxen, and farm land. Over time, the Indian figures take up less space in the compositions, which Lubbers attributes to a receding equality in rank between the White man and the Indian. The issuing of the Rutherford B. Hayes medal in 1877 coincided with the final efforts endorsed by the Indian Removal Act, and unsurprising to Lubbers, the Hayes medal affords little space to the Native American figure. Its backdrop displays the world of the White man, who stands in the center of the composition leaning on an ax with a chopped tree at his feet. Behind the figures appears a log cabin, and there sits a woman and infant while a man plows.

Indian peace medals today
By the 1840s, Indian peace medals had come to be known as a "presidential series" for which there was growing interest. The federal mint in Philadelphia started collecting dies for the previously issued medals. This began the practice of striking bronze replicas of medals for presentation to government officials or historical societies. Production of the bronze medals began in 1842 with the Jefferson medal. The dies of the Washington and John Adams medals were missing during initial production, however. The John Adams die was not collected until 1878, and the George Washington die was ultimately reproduced in 1903, completing the series.

The American Numismatic Society in New York has the most extensive collection of Indian peace medals, containing an example of nearly every medal issued. The Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. has a similarly large collection. Significant medal collections may be found in the Denver Natural History Museum, the Gilcrease Institute of American History and Art, the Henry Ford Museum, and the Massachusetts Historical Society. Other locations, including the Arizona Pioneer's Historical Society, Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Brooklyn Museum, and the Chicago Historical Society, have smaller collections. A number of peace medals also belong to private collectors.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Indian peace medal


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User talk:Bvc2000

Hello Bvc2000, welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you have a lot of fun here. There are lots of resources around to help guide you. be sure to check out:

 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you want add any images check out:

 * image use policy
 * How to keep image file sizes as small as possible

If you need any help try:

 * Help
 * Village pump
 * Or ask me at my talk page User_talk:Theresa knott

Don't be afraid of making the odd mistake, there are any number of others eagerly waiting for a chance to correct it!

Dear Bvc, i posted Romans road in the copyvio page because you copied parts of it from. If you rewrite the info with your words it will be ok. And you can also add info on Roads of the Romans! Any question, please ask! Cheers, Muriel Gottrop 16:10, 7 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Hello. If you create a new article on religion, could you add it to list of religious topics? That brings it to the attention of everyone who regularly views that page. Viewing that page and clicking on "related changes" shows you recent edits to all articles listed there. Michael Hardy 02:02, 8 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Hope you aren't getting too rough a reception here. I have reworded Romans road and added its text to salvation. I've also done what's called "wikifying" to it, which means adding links to other content on the encyclopedia so that it cross-references. Bear in mind that many of these cross-references point to salvation also, so more people will see it there. You may want to have a look around, see how pages are put together and how you add links to pages; there are a good many subjects in Christian theology covered here already. More is better, but please try to bear in mind the nature of the project here. -- Smerdis of Tlön 02:08, 8 Nov 2003 (UTC)

VfD
Hi, I moved your addition to VfD to the talk page. I'm not quite sure what you were getting at. Were you asking people to contribute ideas? If so, that should be done on the talk page. By the way, you can reply to people by going to their talk page. If you click on someone's name, you'll get their user page. Then click the "discuss this page" link and you'll be on their talk page. Or you can create a link like User talk:whatever. For example, mine is at User talk:Angela.

Angela

Contact!
Dear Bvc, usually, we use the talk pages, like this one and post your comments or whatever in the bottom. If you have other questions, feel free to ask. Cheers, Muriel

Hi BVC. You wrote 'Reasons???' on my talk page, but I'm not sure what you are referring to. Did I make an edit you are querying? DJ Clayworth 14:25, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Unverified images
Thanks for uploading these images: I notice they currently don't have an image copyright tag. Could you add one to let us know their copyright status? (You can use if you release them under the GFDL, or  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Thanks, Kbh3rd 19:20, 8 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Image:Spacetime3a.jpg
 * Image:Spacetime3b.jpg

title: User talk:Bvc2000


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Talk:USS Jebediah

For an August 2004 deletion debate over this page see: Votes for deletion/USS Jebediah

This is definitely marginal, but as an article it can be linked to the list of fictional ships that we apparently need. Stan 22:46, 6 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:USS Jebediah


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Classes of United States senators

The 100 seats in the United States Senate are divided into 3 classes to determine which seats will be up for election in any 2-year cycle, with only 1 class being up for election at a time. With senators being elected to fixed terms of 6 years, the classes allow about a third of the seats to be up for election in any presidential or midterm election year instead of having all 100 be up for election at the same time every six years. The seats are also divided in a way that any given state's 2 senators are in different classes so that each seat's term ends in different years. Class 1and class 2 consist of 33 seats each, while class3 consists of 34 seats. Elections for class1 seats are scheduled to take place in 2024, class2 in 2026, and the elections for class3 seats in 2028.

The 3 classes were established by ArticleI, Section 3, Clause2 of the U.S. Constitution. The actual division was originally performed by the Senate of the 1st Congress in May 1789 by lot. Whenever a new state subsequently joined the union, its two Senate seats were assigned to two different classes by a random draw, while keeping the three classes as close to the same number as possible.

The classes only apply to the regular fixed-term elections of the Senate. A special election to fill a vacancy, usually either due to the incumbent resigning or dying while in office, may happen in any given year regardless of the seat's class.

A senator's description as junior or senior senator is also not related to their class. Rather, a state's senior U.S. senator is the one with the greater seniority in the Senate, which is mostly based on length of service.

Constitutional footing
The U.S. Constitution sets the fixed term of senators to 6 years and staggers their elections into three cycles, so that 1/3 of the Senate was up for election every 2 years. This allows at least some Senate elections to be held during any presidential or midterm election year, as the U.S. President is elected to a fixed term of four years and members of the U.S. House of Representatives are elected to fixed terms of two years. The objective is to promote stability in the Senate, and encourage senators to deliberate measures over time rather than risk a rapid turnover of the entire chamber every 6 years. At the same time, it provided for more frequent elections, as opposed to waiting every 6 years, to prevent senators from permanently combining for "sinister purposes".

The 3 classes of the Senate are specified by ArticleI, Section3 of the U.S. Constitution:

"Immediately after they'll be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they'll be divided as equally as may be into 3 classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the 2nd Year, of the 2nd Class at the Expiration of the 4th Year, and of the 3rd Class at the Expiration of the 6th Year, so that one-third may be chosen every 2nd Year."

The allocation took place in May 1789, several weeks after the first Senate assembled. Only 20 senators from 10 states were present; North Carolina and Rhode Island had not yet ratified the U.S. Constitution, and New York hadn't yet selected its senators because of its late ratification. To decide on how to implement the division into classes, on May 11, the Senate appointed a committee consisting of Senators Ellsworth, Carroll, and Few. In accordance with their recommendation, on May 14 the Senate divided the members into three classes: "Thursday, May 14, 1789. The committee appointed to consider and report a mode of carrying into effect the provision in the second clause of the third section of the first article of the Constitution, reported:

Whereupon, Resolved, That the Senators be divided into three classes:
 * The first to consist of Mr. Langdon [of New Hamphire], Mr. Johnson [Connecticut], Mr. Morris [Pennsylvania], Mr. Henry [Maryland], Mr. Izard [South Carolina], and Mr. Gunn [Georgia];
 * The second of Mr. Wingate [of New Hamphire], Mr. Strong [Massachusetts], Mr. Paterson [New Jersey], Mr. Bassett [Delaware], Mr. Lee [Virginia], Mr. Butler [South Carolina], and Mr. Few [Georgia];
 * And the third of Mr. Dalton [of Massachusetts], Mr. Ellsworth [Connecticut], Mr. Elmer [New Jersey], Mr. Maclay [Pennsylvania], Mr. Read [Delaware], Mr. Carroll [Maryland], and Mr. Grayson [Virginia].

That 3 papers of equal size, numbered 1, 2, and 3, be, by the Secretary, rolled up and put into a box, and drawn by Mr. Langdon, Mr. Wingate, and Mr. Dalton, on behalf of the respective classes in which each of them are placed; and that the classes shall vacate their seats in the Senate according to the order of numbers drawn for them, beginning with number one: And that, when Senators shall take their seats from States that haven't yet appointed Senators, they shall be placed by lot in the foregoing classes, but in such manner as shall keep the classes as nearly equal as may be in numbers."

On the next day, May 15, the term expiration of each class was determined by drawing lots. Lot 1 was drawn by Dalton, 2by Wingate, and 3by Langdon.

Upon the expiration of a senator's term of any length, someone starts a new 6-year term as senator (based on election by the state legislatures until the Seventeenth Amendment required direct popular election of senators).

Addition of new states to the Union
When a new state is admitted to the Union, its two senators are placed into separate classes. Which two classes are determined by a scheme that keeps the three classes as close to the same size as possible, so that the largest class never differs by more than one senator from the smallest class. A random draw determined which new senator enters which of the classes selected to be expanded. This means at least one of any new state's first pair of senators had a term of more than 2 and up to 6 years and the other had a term that was 2 or 4 years shorter.

New York, which held its first Senate elections in July 1789, was the first state to undergo this process after the original May 1789 draw by the Senate of the 1st Congress. Among the new senators, Philip Schuyler drew the lot for class1 (whose term would end in 1791) while Rufus King drew class3 (whose term would end in 1795). This made class1 have 8 senators while classes 2and 3 had 7 senators each. North Carolina was then assigned classes 2and 3 after holding its first Senate elections in November 1789, making all three classes have 8 seats each.

When the newest state, Hawaii, was admitted in 1959, its first Senate elections had candidates run either for "seat A" or "B". The new senators, Hiram Fong and Oren E. Long, in a process managed by the Secretary of the Senate, drew lots to determine which of the two would join class1 (whose term would end in five-and-a-half years), and which would join class3 (whose term would end in three-and-a-half years). If a 51st state is admitted, it will receive senators in classes 1and 2, at which point all three classes would have 34 senators.

Because each state is represented by 2 senators, regardless of population, each class varies in electorate and populace. Since the early 19th century, it so happens class2 senators cumulatively co-represent 50–60% of the population; senators from each of the other 2 classes: 70–75% of the U.S. population. Because each state has 2 senators, the sum of these figures is 200%, not 100%. Several of the most populous states, such as California, Florida, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, have their senators in classes 1and 3, provoking this imbalance.

The only times when both of a state's Senate seats are up for election in the same year are either when a new state joins the union (as mentioned above), or when there is a special election to fill a vacant seat. Special elections have no bearing on when the term for that seat ends, and a senator elected in a special election will serve the remainder of the term, until the next regularly scheduled election, not affecting which class that seat falls within.

Class 1

Class 1 consists of: States with a class 1 senator: Arizona, California, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Hawaii, Indiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.
 * the 33 current senators whose seats are scheduled for re-election in November 2024, and whose terms end January 3, 2025; and
 * earlier senators with terms that ended in 1791, 1797, 1803, 1809, 1815, 1821, 1827, 1833, 1839, 1845, 1851, 1857, 1863, 1869, 1875, 1881, 1887, 1893, 1899, 1905, 1911, 1917, 1923, 1929, 1935, 1941, 1947, 1953, 1959, 1965, 1971, 1977, 1983, 1989, 1995, 2001, 2007, 2013, and 2019.

Class 2
Class 2 consists of: States with a class 2 senator: Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Colorado, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wyoming.
 * the 33 current senators whose seats are scheduled for re-election in November 2026, and whose terms end January 3, 2027; and
 * earlier senators with terms that ended in 1793, 1799, 1805, 1811, 1817, 1823, 1829, 1835, 1841, 1847, 1853, 1859, 1865, 1871, 1877, 1883, 1889, 1895, 1901, 1907, 1913, 1919, 1925, 1931, 1937, 1943, 1949, 1955, 1961, 1967, 1973, 1979, 1985, 1991, 1997, 2003, 2009, 2015, and 2021.

Class 3
Class 3 consists of: States with a class 3 senator: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Missouri, Nevada, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Utah, Vermont, Washington, and Wisconsin.
 * the 34 current senators whose seats are scheduled for re-election in November 2028, and whose terms end January 3, 2029; and
 * earlier senators with terms that ended in 1795, 1801, 1807, 1813, 1819, 1825, 1831, 1837, 1843, 1849, 1855, 1861, 1867, 1873, 1879, 1885, 1891, 1897, 1903, 1909, 1915, 1921, 1927, 1933, 1939, 1945, 1951, 1957, 1963, 1969, 1975, 1981, 1987, 1993, 1999, 2005, 2011, 2017, and 2023.

Election cycle years
This table is re-sorted every two years so that the next scheduled election year appears at the top.

List of current senators by class
The following table lists the senators by party by class.

The following table lists the senators by state and by class, including the states' Cook Partisan Voting Index ratings, which indicate the party direction in which a state tends to lean and the extent of that lean.

title: Classes of United States senators


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User:Tobias Escher

nothing to say about me at the moment

title: User:Tobias Escher


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User talk:Tobias Escher

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title: User talk:Tobias Escher


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Papiamento

Papiamento or Papiamentu (Papiaments ) is a Portuguese-based creole language spoken in the Dutch Caribbean. It is the most widely spoken language on the Caribbean ABC islands (Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao).

The language, spelled Papiamento in Aruba and Papiamentu in Bonaire and Curaçao, is largely based on colonial-era Portuguese and Spanish (including Judaeo-Portuguese), and has been influenced considerably by Dutch and Venezuelan Spanish. Due to lexical similarities between Spanish and Portuguese, it is difficult to pinpoint the exact origin of some words. Though there are different theories about its origins, most linguists now believe that Papiamento emerged from the Portuguese creole languages that developed in the West African coasts, as it has many similarities with Cape Verdean Creole and Guinea-Bissau Creole.

History

There are various theories about the origin and development of the Papiamento language, and precise history has not been established. Its parent language is surely Iberian, but scholars disputed whether Papiamento was derived from Portuguese and its derived Portuguese-based creole languages or from Spanish. Historical constraints, core vocabulary, and grammatical features that Papiamento shares with Cape Verdean Creole and Guinea-Bissau Creole are far less than those shared with Spanish, even though the Spanish and Dutch influences occurred later, from the 17th century onwards. Jacoba Bouschoute conducted a study on the various Dutch influences in Papiamento. An example of a such word is verfdó, which is a combination of a Dutch root verf (meaning "paint") and the Portuguese and Spanish suffix -dor (used for a person who performs an action, like "painter") The transformation from verver to verfdó involved shortening the -r to -dó due to a linguisitic process called apocopation.

The name of the language itself originates from, from Portuguese and Cape Verdean Creole ("to chat, say, speak, talk"), added by the noun-forming suffix.

Spain claimed dominion over the islands in the 15th century but made little use of them. Portuguese merchants had been trading extensively in the West Indies and with the Iberian Union between Portugal and Spain during 1580–1640 period, their trade extended to the Spanish West Indies. In 1634, the Dutch West India Company (WIC) took possession of the islands, deporting most of the small remaining Arawak and Spanish population to the continent (mostly to the Venezuelan west coast and the Venezuelan plains, as well as all the way east to the Venezuela Orinoco basin and Trinidad), and turned them into the hub of the Dutch slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean.

The first evidence of widespread use of Papiamento in Aruba and Curaçao can be seen in official documents in the early 18th century. In the 19th century, most materials in the islands were written in Papiamento including Roman Catholic school books and hymnals. In 1837, the Catecismo Corticu pa uso di catolicanan di Curaçao was printed, the first printed book in Papiamento. In 2009 the Catecismo Corticu was added to the UNESCO Memory of the World register. The first Papiamento newspaper was published in 1871 and was called Civilisadó (The Civilizer).

Local development theory
One local development theory proposes that Papiamento developed in the Caribbean from an original Portuguese-African pidgin, with later Dutch and Spanish (and even some Arawak) influences.

Another theory is that Papiamento first evolved from the use in the region since 1499 of 'lenguas' and the first repopulation of the ABC Islands by the Spanish by the Cédula real decreed in November 1525 in which Juan Martinez de Ampués, factor of Española, had been granted the right to repopulate the depopulated Islas inútiles of Oroba, Islas de los Gigantes, and Buon Aire.

The evolution of Papiamento continued under the Dutch colonisation under the influence of 16th-century Dutch, Portuguese (Brazilian) and Native American languages (Arawak and Taíno), with the second repopulation of the ABC islands with immigrants who arrived from the ex-Dutch Brazilian colonies.

The Judaeo-Portuguese population of the ABC islands increased substantially after 1654, when the Portuguese recovered the Dutch-held territories in Northeast Brazil, causing most Portuguese-speaking Jews and their Portuguese-speaking Dutch allies and Dutch-speaking Portuguese Brazilian allies in those lands to flee from religious persecution. The precise role of Sephardic Jews in the early development is unclear, but Jews certainly played a prominent role in the later development of Papiamento. Many early residents of Curaçao were Sephardic Jews from Portugal, Spain, Cape Verde or Portuguese Brazil. Also, after the Eighty Years' War, a group of Sephardic Jews immigrated from Amsterdam. Therefore, it can be assumed that Judaeo-Portuguese was brought to the island of Curaçao, where it gradually spread to other parts of the community. The Jewish community became the prime merchants and traders in the area and so business and everyday trading was conducted in Papiamento. While various nations owned the island, and official languages changed with ownership, Papiamento became the constant language of the residents.

When the Netherlands opened economic ties with Spanish colonies in what are now Venezuela and Colombia in the 18th century students on Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire were taught predominantly in Spanish, and Spanish began to influence the creole language. Since there was a continuous Latinisation process (Hoetink, 1987), even the elite Dutch-Protestant settlers eventually communicated better in Spanish than in Dutch, as a wealth of local Spanish-language publications in the 19th century testify.

European and African origin theory
According to the European and African origin theory the origins of Papiamento lie in the Afro-Portuguese creoles that arose in the 16th century in the west coast of Africa and in the Portuguese Cape Verde islands. From the 16th to the late 17th centuries, most of the slaves taken to the Caribbean came from Portuguese trading posts (feitorias, ) in those regions. Around those ports, several Portuguese-African pidgin and creole languages developed, such as Cape Verdean Creole, Guinea-Bissau Creole, Angolar, and Forro (from São Tomé). The sister languages bear strong resemblance with Papiamento. According to this theory, Papiamento was derived from one or more of these older creoles or their predecessors, which were brought to the ABC islands by slaves and traders from Cape Verde and West Africa.

The similarity between Papiamento and the other Afro-Portuguese creoles can be seen in the same pronouns used, mi, bo, el, nos, bos(o), being Portuguese-based. Afro-Portuguese creoles often have a shift from "v" to "b" and from "o" to "u": bientu, instead of viento. In creole and also in Spanish, $⟨v⟩$ and $⟨v⟩$ are pronounced the same. In creole, it is also written as a $⟨b⟩$. Just as in Portuguese, an unaccented final $⟨o⟩$ is pronounced as.

Guene (the name comes from "Guinea") was a secret language that was used by slaves on the plantations of the landhouses of West Curaçao. There were about a hundred Guene songs that were sung to make the work lighter. However, because of the secret character of Guene, it never had much influence on Papiamento.

Linguistic and historical ties with Upper Guinea Portuguese Creole
Since the late 1990s, research has been done that shines light on the ties between Papiamento and Upper Guinea Portuguese Creole. Martinus (1996), Quint (2000) and Jacobs (2008, 2009a, 2009b ) focus specifically on the linguistic and historical relationships with the Upper Guinea Portuguese Creole, as spoken on the Santiago island of Cape Verde and in Guinea-Bissau and Casamance.

In Bart Jacob's study The Upper Guinea Origins of Papiamento he defends the hypothesis that Papiamento is a relexified offshoot of an early Upper Guinea Portuguese Creole variety that was transferred from Senegambia to Curaçao in the second half of the 17th century, when the Dutch controlled the island of Gorée, a slave trading stronghold off the coast of Senegal. The Creole was used for communication among slaves and between slaves and slave holders.

On Curaçao, this variety underwent internal changes as well as contact-induced changes at all levels of the grammar, but particularly in the lexicon, due to contact with Spanish and, to a lesser extent, Dutch. Despite the changes, the morphosyntactic framework of Papiamento is still remarkably close to that of the Upper Guinea Creoles of Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau. Parallels have also been identified between the development of Papiamento and Catholicism.)

Present status
Papiamento is spoken in all aspects of society throughout Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire.

Papiamento has been an official language of Aruba since May 2003. In the former Netherlands Antilles, Papiamento was made an official language on 7 March 2007. After the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles, Papiamento's official status was confirmed in the newly formed Caribbean Netherlands. Also, 150,000 Antillians (mostly from Curaçao) live in the Netherlands and speak their mother language, Papiamento, fluently. Some Papiamento is also spoken on Sint Maarten and the Paraguaná Peninsula of Venezuela.

Venezuelan Spanish and American English are constant influences today. Code-switching and lexical borrowing from Spanish, Dutch and English among native speakers is common. This is considered as a threat to the development of the language because of the loss of the authentic and Creole "feel" of Papiamento.

Many immigrants from Latin America and the Caribbean choose to learn Papiamento because it is more practical in daily life on the islands. For Spanish-speakers, it is easier to learn than Dutch, because Papiamento uses many Spanish and Portuguese words.

The first opera in Papiamento, adapted by Carel De Haseth from his novel Katibu di Shon, was performed at the Stadsschouwburg in Amsterdam on 1 July 2013, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ending of slavery in the Dutch Caribbean.

Old Papiamento texts
The Papiamento language originates from about 1650. The oldest Papiamento texts that have been preserved are written letters. In the following three letters it can be seen that the words changed and the spelling became closer to the Dutch spelling. Although some words are no longer in use, the basis of Papiamento did not change much.

Piter May letter 1775
The oldest letter dates from 1775. It was sent by the Sephardic Jew Abraham Andrade to his mistress Sarah Vaz Parro, about a family meeting in the centre of Curaçao.

Boo Jantje letter 1783
The next letter dates from 1783 and was recently discovered in an English archive. It was sent by Anna Charje in the name of her baby Jantje Boufet to her husband Dirk Schermer in Rotterdam. (The final sentence is standard Dutch.)

Quant Court testimony 1803
The third text dates from 1803. It is a court testimony in which 26 Aruban farm workers sign a statement to support their boss Pieter Specht against false accusations by Quant.

Orthography and spelling
Papiamento is written using the Latin script.

Since the 1970s, two different orthographies have been developed and adopted. In 1976, Curaçao and Bonaire officially adopted the Römer-Maduro-Jonis version, a phonetic spelling. In 1977, Aruba approved a more etymology-based spelling, presented by the Comision di Ortografia (Orthography Commission), presided by Jossy Mansur.

Distribution and dialects
Papiamento has two main dialects, one in Aruba and one in Curaçao and Bonaire (Papiamentu), with lexical and intonational differences. There are also minor differences between Curaçao and Bonaire.

The most apparent difference between the two dialects is given away in the name difference. Whereas Bonaire and Curaçao opted for a phonology-based spelling, Aruba uses an etymology-based spelling. Many words in Aruba end with "o" while the same word ends with "u" in Bonaire and Curaçao. And even in Curaçao, the use of the u-ending is still more pronounced among the Sephardic Jewish population. Similarly, the use of "k" in Bonaire and Curaçao replaces "c" in Aruba.

For example:

Vowels and diphthongs
Papiamento vowels are based on Ibero-Romance and Dutch vowels. Papiamento has the following nine vowels:

Papiamento has diphthongs, two vowels in a single syllable that form one sound. Papiamento diphthongs are based on Ibero-Romance and Dutch diphthongs. It has the following diphthongs:

Stress and accent
Stress is very important in Papiamento. Many words have a very different meaning when a different stress is used:

 * When both syllables are equally stressed, kome, it means "to eat".
 * When the first syllable is stressed, kome, it means "eat!" (imperative).
 * However, kom'é (short for kome é) means "eat it!"

There are general rules for the stress and accent but also a great many exceptions. When a word deviates from the rules, the stressed vowel is indicated by an acute accent ( ´ ), but it is often omitted in casual writing.

The main rules are:
 * When a noun ends in a vowel (a, e, i, o, u), the stress is placed upon the penultimate (before last) syllable: buriku ("donkey").
 * When a noun ends in a consonant, the stress is placed upon the last syllable: hospital.
 * When a verb has two syllables, the syllables are about equally stressed: sòru ("to care"), falta ("to lack").
 * When a verb has more than two syllables, the stress is laid upon the last syllable: kontestá ("to answer"), primintí ("to promise").

Vocabulary
Most of the vocabulary is derived from Portuguese and derived Portuguese-based creoles and (Early Modern) Spanish. The real origin is usually difficult to tell because the two Iberian languages are very similar, and adaptations were made in Papiamento. A list of 200 basic Papiamento words can be found in the standard Swadesh list, with etymological reference to the language of origin. There is a remarkable similarity between words in Papiamento, Cape Verdean Creole, and Guinea-Bissau Creole, which all belong to the same language family of the Upper Guinea Creoles. Most of the words can be connected with their Portuguese origin.

Linguistic studies have shown that roughly 80% of the words in Papiamento's present vocabulary are of Iberian origin, 20% are of Dutch origin, and some of Native American or African origin. A study by Van Buurt and Joubert inventoried the words of Taíno and Caquetío Arawak origin, mostly words for plants and animals. Arawak is an extinct language that was spoken by Indians throughout the Caribbean. The Arawak words were re-introduced in Papiamento by borrowing from the Spanish dialect of Venezuela

Many words are of Iberian origin, and it is impossible to label them as either Portuguese or Spanish:
 * por fabor ("please") – Portuguese: por favor – Spanish: por favor
 * señora ("madam") – Portuguese: senhora – Spanish: señora
 * kua ("which") – Portuguese: qual – Spanish: cuál
 * kuantu ("how much") – Portuguese: quanto – Spanish: cuánto

While the presence of word-final can easily be traced to Portuguese, the diphthongisation of some vowels is characteristic of Spanish. The use of, rather than , descends from its pronunciation in the dialects of northern Portugal as well as of Spanish. Also, a sound shift may have occurred in the direction of Spanish, whose influence on Papiamento came later than that of Portuguese: subrino ("nephew"): sobrinho in Portuguese, sobrino in Spanish. The pronunciation of o as is certainly Portuguese, but the use of n instead of nh  in the ending -no is from Spanish.

Few Portuguese words come directly from Portuguese, but most come via the Portuguese-based creole; in the examples below, the Cape Verdean Creole equivalents are borboléta, katchor, prétu and fórsa.

Portuguese-origin words:
 * barbulètè ("butterfly") – Portuguese: borboleta
 * kachó ("dog") – Portuguese: cachorro
 * pretu ("black") – Portuguese: preto
 * forsa ("power") – Portuguese: força

Spanish-origin words:
 * siudat ("city") – Spanish: ciudad
 * sombré ("hat") – Spanish: sombrero
 * karson ("trousers") – Spanish: calzón
 * hòmber ("man") – Spanish: hombre

Dutch-origin words:
 * apel ("apple") – Dutch: appel
 * buki ("book") – Dutch: boek
 * lesa ("to read") – Dutch: lezen
 * mart ("March") – Dutch: maart

English-origin words:
 * bèk – English: back
 * bòter – English: bottle
 * baiskel – English: bicycle

African-origin words:
 * pinda ("peanut") – Kongo: mpinda
 * makamba ("Dutch person") – Bantu: ma-kamba
 * yongotá ("to kneel") – Wolof: djongotó
 * maribomba ("wasp") – Bantu: ma-rimbondo

Native American-origin words:
 * orkan ("hurricane") – Taíno: juracán
 * maishi ("corn") – Taíno: mahíz
 * kunuku ("farm") – Taíno: conuco
 * mahos ("ugly") – Arawak: muhusu

Literature and culture
Aruba and Bonaire's national anthems are in Papiamento, "Aruba Dushi Tera" and "Tera di Solo y suave biento" respectively. The newspaper Diario is also in the language.

The 2013 films Abo So (Aruba) and Sensei Redenshon (Curaçao) were the first feature films in Papiamento; the comedy Bon Bini Holland (Curaçao and Netherlands) also contains some Papiamento.

Phrase and word samples

 * Kon ta bai? (How are you?) – Portuguese: Como vai?
 * Kon ta k'e bida? (How is life?) – Spanish: ¿Cómo te va la vida? – Portuguese: Como está a vida?
 * Por fabor (please) – Spanish: Por favor – Portuguese: Por favor
 * Danki (Thank you) – Dutch: Dank je
 * Ainda no (Not yet) – Portuguese: Ainda não
 * Bo mama ta mashá bunita (Your mother is very beautiful) – Portuguese: Vossa mãe é muito bonita
 * Na epoka di mi añanan eskolar (During my school years) – Portuguese: Na época dos meus anos escolares
 * Bati boka (Argue) – Portuguese: Bate boca
 * Bringa (Fight) – Portuguese: Briga
 * Bon (Good) – Portuguese: Bom

Expressions

 * Hopi skuma, tiki chukulati (A lot of foam, little chocolate): Too good to be true.
 * Einan e porko su rabo ta krul (That is where the pig's tail curls): That is where the problem lies.
 * Sopi pura ta sali salo (Quick soup turns salty): Good things take time.
 * E ke bula ku ala di manteka (He wants to fly with wings of butter): He wants to do more than he can handle.
 * Ora dia ta serka di habri, nochi ta mas skur (Just before dawn, the night is darkest): When need is greatest, salvation is near.

Lord's Prayer
The Lord's Prayer in a register of Papiamento used liturgically by the Roman Catholic Church, compared with Spanish, Portuguese, and King James English:

Comparison of vocabularies
This section provides a comparison of the vocabularies of Papiamento, Portuguese, and the Portuguese creoles of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde. Spanish is shown for the contrast.

Dictionaries

 * Mansur, Jossy (1991). "Dictionary English-Papiamento Papiamento-English". Edicionnan Clasico Diario, Oranjestad.
 * Ratzlaff, Betty (2008). "Papiamento-Ingles, Dikshonario Bilingual". TWR Jong Bonaire.
 * Joubert, Sidney (2007). "Handwoordenboek Papiaments-Nederlands". Joubert Press, Willemstad.
 * Van Putte, Florimon; Van Putte-De Wind, Igma (2005). "Groot Woordenboek Papiaments Nederlands". Walburg Press, Zutphen
 * Kramer, Johannes (2015). "Etymologische Studien zum Papiamento". Buske Verlag, Hamburg.
 * N.N., Los Editores (1876). GUIA para los españoles hablar papiamento y viceversa: Para que los de ...
 * Marugg, Tip (1992). "Dikshonario Erotiko Papiamentu". Scherpenheuvel, Curaçao.
 * Banko di Palabra – basic dictionary, based on the Unesco sponsored Papiamento spell checker
 * Majstro English-Papiamento dictionary
 * Glosbe English-Papiamento dictionary

Grammar

 * Goilo, Enrique R. (2000). "Papiamentu Textbook". De Wit Stores, Oranjestad.
 * Blankenburg, Eleanor (1986). "Basic Papiamentu Grammar for English Speakers". Blankenburg Edition, Bonaire.
 * Frans-Muller, Xiomara (2017). "Papia Papiamentu ku mi". Expert book, Bonaire.

title: Papiamento


text:
Talk:Pesto

Add Warning?
Perhaps we can add some caution about not mixing too much in with the pasta. I once used fresh basil from our garden and made a big batch. I put way too much in with my spaghetti noodles and had the worst case of the runs afterwards. It must be treated somewhat differently than bolognese or alfredo cream sauce, in this way. dave 23:04, 6 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Haha it's true, I'm a pesto fiend and have learned through hard knocks my spot on limit for the stuff! With me, I'm rather certain it's the basil and not the olive oil, by the bye. Gwen Gale 23:28, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

 * It probibly wasn't the basil but the olive oil, and yeah, it's happened to me before too. Perhaps a warning is a good ideaGentgeen

 * Really...the olive oil, eh? Thanks.  Would it be because of too much olive oil or because it was old?  I sometimes had olive oil in the house that is paste the date.  BTW, I am definitely not alergic to olive oil I have it all the time.  dave

 * The only reason I thought of a warning was that I am working on the spice pages, and I always think about whether any warning is required for any spices, for whatever reason, spicy, too bitter, too strong, can cause heartburn, etc... dave 06:18, 7 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * One more thing, there is nothing here about what to do with it. For the most common use of pesto (mixing with with noodles) some instruction should be given at the end of the recipe, like "toss with pasta", but a quantity should be given (ex. 1 Tbsp for every X cup of cooked pasta?).  You probably know more on the subject so I'll let you do it.  And you can throw in a warning there to go easy (also because fresh basil can be expensive).  dave 06:21, 7 Nov 2003 (UTC)

I didn't want to interfere, as a kitchen amateur, but isn't pesto traditionally a Genoese specialty (pesto alla Genovese)? maybe a mention that pesto is a way to preserve the glut of basil at the end of the season? Isn't the incorporation of cheese right into the sauce a modern innovation? What about the American substitution of walnuts for pignoli nuts? even some walnut oil with the olive oil? and finally how about mentioning that a film of olive oil keeps the pesto from oxidizing to black? User:Wetman

 * OK, got some of that in the article. Just for refrence, I'm a biochemist, not a cook, so feel free to change what ever needs changing.Gentgeen 12:35, 9 Nov 2003 (UTC)

I flipped quickly through the Project Gutenberg edition of the Bucolics, and found this reference:

''Pounds Thestilis her mess of savoury herbs, Wild thyme and garlic. Ecologue 2: Lines 12-13

The latin version of the same reference:

''Thestylis et rapido fessis messoribus aestu alia serpyllumque herbas contundit olentis Ecologue 2: Lines 10-11

This seems like a fair description of modern pesto, but doesn't seem to match the description of ancient pesto in the article (primarily olive oil and cheese).

Speaking only as someone who likes to cook and not as someone knowledgeable in the history of cooking, it seems to me that the distinguishing characteristic of pesto is the use of the mortar and pestle to crush the herbs. An oil and cheese sauce wouldn't benefit from from being crushed. Perhaps our modern pesto derives from two different sauces - the crushed herbs (my dictionary gives crushes and grinds as other meanings for contundit) mentioned in the Bucolics and the oil and cheese mentioned in the article.

I removed the reference to Virgil, since I do not find the quotation from the Bucolics convincing. It refers to some kind of sauce, but not what we call pesto today. Burschik 15:32, 2 Aug 2004 (UTC)

A quick note from a genoese native: to get a decent pesto, you can use Grana Padano instead of Parmigiano Reggiano without losing too much of the original flavour. However, the Prà basil is very important since, AFAIK, is the only basil that doesn' t even remotely taste like peppermint. If your basil has large leaves, and has even just a hint of peppermint, then your pesto won' t taste like the reasl thing. Oh, and BTW... garlic, salt, pine nuts, olive oil, and Parmigiano Reggiano are all important ingredients of Pesto, but I didn' t see any entry about Pecorine cheese. Some just use a hint of it, some are pretty heavy on it, but it' s (not always, but very often) part of the recipe.

Name
I believe that the word means "ground" in Italian, similar to the English word Pestle (as in mortar and pestle). Should this be added into the article?ABart26 05:55, 25 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Nope, sorry, but it means "to crush". Iola k ana • T  20:36, 28 September 2006 (UTC)

PDO status
I cannot find any indication of PDO status for pesto alla genovese on the EU site: either granted or applied for. (These is, however, protection for Basilico Genovese.)
 * Italian PDO and PGI products are listed here
 * A PDF of current applications can be downloaded here

—Ian Spackman 09:39, 26 July 2006 (UTC)

Pine nuts picture
the picture of the pine nuts is not the correct one, since represents Chinese nuts that are not used (or should not) for pesto making since that have very little taste. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 192.33.238.6 (talk) 13:22, 25 October 2007 (UTC)

Still about pine nuts
they are never roasted, they are far too delicate for it. --192.33.238.6 13:27, 25 October 2007 (UTC)

What does Pesto go well with?
I am wondering what does pesto go well with, as it seems to be rather picky. I know it goes great with cheese and pasta and meat and whatnot, but I'm having a difficult time mixing it with other sauces. I tried mixing it with Teriyaki sauce, but it obviously failed. It goes well with Tabasco, but what else? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.69.137.108 (talk) 17:13, 28 January 2009 (UTC)

Pesto in the USA
Hi, just wondering what is the relevance of adding minute details about the introduction of Pesto in America. Unless it is an article about Pesto in America of course. If it is not, does it not unnecessarily clogg the page? Aren't people, including Americans, much more interested about the general nature of Pesto, and maybe in its historical roots? Just wondering...--82.245.183.127 (talk) 01:19, 2 March 2009 (UTC)

 * It's appropriate for an article to describe—if it is known—where an idea began and at what time and where it spread. That only the U.S. is mentioned is likely because that's all that has been contributed so far.  If you know when it first spread from Genova to say, Scotland, then please add it.  —EncMstr (talk) 04:33, 2 March 2009 (UTC)

Pesto rosso
What about pesto rosso? This article only seems to cover pesto verde.
 * Throw in some tomatoes and stir. Gwen Gale (talk) 22:01, 13 June 2009 (UTC)

Chopped not ground
Real pesto is chopped with a large mezzaluna, not ground. Young Genovese basil leaves are also much better. There need to better pictures. The more common, modern, and commercialized version is what's shown.Pisharov (talk) 22:13, 6 August 2009 (UTC)
 * Not it isn't, by definition of the word: pesto means "pounded". Viridae Talk 22:19, 6 August 2009 (UTC)

A chinese translation of the term is based on the following...
http://www.suzhou.gov.cn/news/2006/8/16/eng/eng-10-32-17-18.shtml --222.64.24.9 (talk) 14:01, 5 September 2009 (UTC)

opening parsgraph lacking
The opening paragraph is trrrible. I get no clear definition of pesto. Is it the basil, the nuts, the preparation... what makes one sauce a pesto and another sauce not a pesto?.129.21.75.235 (talk) 02:52, 4 December 2009 (UTC)

I do not wish to offend, but I agree. I found the two opening paragraphs quite confusing. Initially the article seemed to be talking about Basil and then meanders through a couple of ancillary issues before getting down to brass tacks. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 58.173.163.77 (talk) 09:25, 28 December 2009 (UTC)

Improving this entry
Hello all, I am from Genoa and I would like to better describe this entry. I already made some modification, but I think I can do lot more. Here is what I'm going to write as soon as I have time: Mad Toad (talk) 02:50, 24 April 2010 (UTC)
 * "Pesto genovese" is covered by Protected Geographical Status. That means that its ingredients and recipe are very precisely codified. I'm going to write this, and better describe which are these ingredients and recipe.
 * Commercial versions, or even homemade versions can be different from the registered PGS pesto. Some of them are already described. Maybe I will add some more version.
 * The history section can be increased with more information and references.
 * The laxative and diuretic properties are absolutely not true. It is said so, in the article and in the reference, only for basil seeds, which are not part of the recipe. I'll delete this section.
 * I am not English mother tongue, so please be patient if I make some mistake and feel free to correct my English.

Originally from Africa, but first domesticated in India?
This sentence doesn't make sense. If it was from Africa, why would an Indian trader or merchant or whatever grab a weed, take it back to India, then domesticate it? Surely basil was first domesticated wherever it grows naturally? Humbabba (talk) 01:32, 6 June 2010 (UTC)
 * No, it makes plenty of sense. You just don't know what "domestication" means. 2607:FEA8:BFA0:BD0:78C7:4CEB:CD62:A22 (talk) 06:39, 11 September 2020 (UTC)

Traditional recipe and its home-made and commercial variations
Traditional pesto is basically made with garlic, basil (Genoese basil, strictly speaking), coarse salt, grated Parmigiano and pecorino sardo, pine nuts and olive oil (Ligurian olive oil, for traditional pesto purists). This recipe, which has developed from the original 19th century recipe and has become a staple of Ligurian cuisine, is often altered both in home-made pesto and in commercial pesto, to the extent that some ingredients are totally replaced by other products (resulting in a pseudo-pesto alla genovese): for example, pine nuts are sometimes replaced by walnuts (also in parts of Liguria), almonds and cashew nuts, while pecorino sardo is often replaced by other pecorino cheeses and Ligurian olive oil by other types of oil (e.g. extra-virgin olive oil, sunflower oil, etc.); some commercial pestos even contain no garlic. These variations occur both in home-made pestos and in commercial pestos, sometimes hinging on the ingredients available at home or in a specific region or country (some ingredients might just be cheaper than the ones contained in a traditional pesto). Nonetheless, this article focuses on the original pesto, namely pesto alla genovese, so it features the ingredients contained in a traditional pesto and not the home-made or commercial variations that can be found all around the world; there is actually a section (Variations) dealing with this topic, if anyone wants to add something encyclopedic on it.--Teno85 (talk) 01:30, 21 January 2016 (UTC)

Lemon juice?
"It has been pointed out that pesto is essentially a combination of flavourful leaves, oily nuts, hard cheese, olive oil, garlic, salt and lemon juice; any ingredients meeting this description can produce a pesto-like condiment.[16]" I'll delete this sentence. The first sentence of the section "as the very noun pesto is a generic term for anything that is made by pounding" already states the same idea. Pesto variants named in the section don't even contain leaves, nuts or cheese. And lemon juice is not even an ingredient for the standard pesto. So pesto is definitely not 'essentially a combination' of these ingredients. So it adds nothing and is not really correct too. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Sawtoothcoriander (talk • contribs) 18:56, 22 April 2020 (UTC)

This is your opinion, not what the sources say. ɱ (talk) 19:27, 22 April 2020 (UTC)

Now that I read my comment back, it looks a bit harsh, that was not my intention. But what exactly of this is my opinion, and what exactly do the sources say? Sawtoothcoriander (talk) 22:34, 24 April 2020 (UTC)

I just looked up what the source says and I think it has been paraphrased incorrectly. It says "with these ingredients you can make something like a pesto" not "these ingredients are essential for pesto". I still don't see how this sentence adds anything to the article. Sawtoothcoriander (talk) 22:51, 24 April 2020 (UTC)
 * That's the definition of VARIATION. Vaselineeeeeeee★★★ 23:00, 24 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Excuse me? What is your point?Sawtoothcoriander (talk) 00:46, 25 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Sawtooth is correct. Lemon juice has no place in actual pesto, so the idea that it would be welcome in a "pesto-like condiment" -- let alone sine non qua -- is bunk. The idea that every citation must be more correct than human editors? More bunk. 2607:FEA8:BFA0:BD0:78C7:4CEB:CD62:A22 (talk) 06:44, 11 September 2020 (UTC)

Lemon Juice is an acidulant and a common substitute for vinegar (or vice versa). The original recipe contained vinegar, so mentioning lemon juice here is appropriate. (Indeed, it is even possible that lemon juice was preferred originally.) I observe that (some) commercial preparations do contain a small amount of lemon juice. Drsruli (talk) 19:53, 18 January 2024 (UTC)

Pesto genovese vs Pesto alla genovese
The first name is only reserved for the original and the second one refers to a naming-law for non original pestos not containing the original ingredients. This has been corrected by me and for no appearent reason reverted by "Vaselineeeeeeee". I would like to know why? Quaderratistteuer (talk) 07:06, 12 September 2020 (UTC)
 * you're wrong, here the page dedicated to this food in the authoritative Il Cucchiaio d'Argento: https://www.cucchiaio.it/ricetta/pesto-alla-genovese/. JacktheBrown (talk) 22:05, 24 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pesto


text:
Vladimir Ivashko

Vladimir Antonovich Ivashko (Влади́мир Анто́нович Ива́шко; Володимир Антонович Івашко, Volodymyr Antonovych Ivashko; 28 October 1932 – 13 November 1994) was a Soviet Ukrainian politician, briefly acting as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) during the period from 24 to 29 August 1991. On 24 August Mikhail Gorbachev resigned from the post, and on 29 August the CPSU was suspended by the Supreme Soviet. Before becoming General Secretary he had been voted Gorbachev's Deputy General Secretary within the Party on 12 July 1990, a newly created position as a result of the 28th Congress of the Communist Party.

Biography
The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) during the time between Mikhail Gorbachev's resignation and its suspension was politically impotent. By the time of the 28th Congress in July 1990, the party was largely regarded as being unable to lead the country and had, across the fifteen republics of the Soviet Union, split into opposing factions favouring either independent republics or the continuation of the Soviet state. Stripped of its leading role in society, the party lost its authority to lead the nation or the cohesion that kept the party united. Actual political power lay in the positions of President of the Soviet Union (held by Gorbachev) and President of the Russian SFSR (held by Boris Yeltsin). During the August Coup he did not make public statements but on behalf of the Secretariat distributed letters to local party organizations calling on them to uphold the CPSU.

Gorbachev brought in his ally Ivashko in to replace the long-serving Volodymyr Shcherbytsky as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine on 28 September 1989. Ivashko led the Communists to victory in the first relatively free parliamentary election held in the Ukrainian SSR, which took place from 4 March to 18 March 1990, the Communists winning 331 seats to the Democratic Bloc's 111 seats. Ivashko was elected by the communist majority to the post of the Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian SSR on 4 June 1990. Since the abandonment by the Communists of their "leading role" in early 1990 this position now superseded that of First Secretary of the Communist Party as the most powerful position in Ukraine.

He resigned his position as First Secretary on 22 June 1990 following opposition demonstrations against his simultaneous occupation of both the posts of First Secretary of the ruling party and Chairman of the legislature. However, on 9 July 1990 he too resigned as Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada of the Ukrainian SSR after declining to be recalled to Kyiv during the 28th Congress of the Communist Party in Moscow, and a few days later successfully secured the position of Deputy General Secretary of the CPSU.

On August 23, 1990, a secret memorandum from Ivashko outlined strategies to hide the Communist Party's assets through Russian and international joint ventures because Boris Yeltsin, who was the new president of the Russian Republic in the Soviet Union, wanted to levy taxes on the Communist Party's vast administrative property holdings and on the party itself. The memorandum was to organize the transfer of CPSU funds, CPSU financing and support of its operations through associations, ventures, foundations, etc. which are to act as invisible economics. In November 1990, the offshore structure Fimaco was formed by the Gosbank to hide these funds. According to Sergei Tretyakov, KGB chief Vladimir Kryuchkov sent US$50 billion worth of funds of the Communist Party to an unknown location in the lead-up to the collapse of the USSR.

Following the failed August 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, Gorbachev resigned from his post of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and Ivashko became acting General Secretary. On 29 August 1991 the activity of the CPSU was suspended throughout the country, on 6 November Yeltsin banned the activities of the party in Russia and Gorbachev resigned from the presidency on 25 December; the following day the Soviet of Republics dissolved the Soviet Union.

Ivashko retired in 1992 and died on 13 November 1994, at the age of 62, after an undetermined long illness.

title: Vladimir Ivashko


text:
User talk:Centic

Hello Centic, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

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If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Angela 23:09, Nov 6, 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Centic


text:
User:Echoray

Echoray is a Wikipedian from Germany. I'm frequently grabbing texts from the english Wikipedia, translating them to german and doing language-linking afterwards.

My special interests are technical and computer- (Linux) related subjects.

de:Benutzer:Echoray fr:Utilisateur:Echoray sv:Användare:Echoray

title: User:Echoray


text:
User talk:Blugu64

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

 * How to edit a page
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If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Angela 23:11, Nov 6, 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Blugu64


text:
User talk:Klang

Hello Klang, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

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If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Angela 23:13, Nov 6, 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Klang


text:
Caravan (trailer)

A caravan, travel trailer, camper, tourer or camper trailer is a trailer towed behind a road vehicle to provide a place to sleep which is more comfortable and protected than a tent (although there are fold-down trailer tents). It provides the means for people to have their own home on a journey or a vacation, without relying on a motel or hotel, and enables them to stay in places where none is available. However, in some countries campers are restricted to designated sites for which fees are payable.

Caravans vary from basic models which may be little more than a tent on wheels to those containing several rooms with all the furniture and furnishings and equipment of a home. Construction of the solid-wall trailers can be made of metal or fiberglass. Travel trailers are used principally in North America, Europe, Australia and New Zealand.

History
In Europe, the origins of travel trailers and caravanning can be traced back to the travelling Romani people, and showmen who spent most of their lives in horse-drawn caravans. Samuel White Baker purchased an actual Gypsy caravan in Britain and shipped it to Cyprus for his tour in 1879. The world's first leisure trailer was built by the Bristol Wagon & Carriage Works in 1880 for William Gordon Stables, a popular author of teenage adventure fiction, who ordered a "gentleman's caravan". It was an 18 ft design, based upon their Bible Wagons, used by travelling preachers in America's Wild West. Stables named it Wanderer. He travelled around the British countryside in it and later wrote a book documenting his travels in 1885 called The Gentleman Gypsy. This moved the Duke of Newcastle to commission his own caravan, The Bohemian.

By the turn of the century, caravanning for leisure had become an increasingly popular activity. In 1901, the first dedicated caravanning club was established. The Camping and Caravanning Club (originally the Association of Cycle Campers) was founded by Thomas Hiram Holding, the father of modern camping. The Caravan Club was founded in 1907 with Stables as its vice president. Its stated aim was to "... bring together those interested in van life as a pastime... to improve and supply suitable vans and other appliances... and to arrange camping grounds". Caravanning gained popularity in North America in the 1920s.

Modern travel trailers come in a range of sizes, from very small two-berth trailers with no toilet and only basic kitchen facilities, to large, triple-axle, six-berth types.

Romani caravan
Caravans, particularly the vardo, have served both as a significant cultural icon and symbol of the nomadic Romani people. Until the early 19th century, Romani caravans served primarily as a means of transport and not as a domicile. At the beginning of the 19th century, more Romani people began to live in their caravans instead of sleeping in tents. The caravan offered greater protection from weather conditions and could be outfitted with modern amenities such as wood-burning stoves. Often, caravans were commissioned to be built at the request of newlywed couples and their families. The small-scale, pre-industrial methods of the builders and the labour-intensive nature of the building process meant that a family's caravan could take up to a year to build.

Standards
Trailer caravan is defined in ISO Standard 3833:1977, Road vehicles – Types – Terms and definitions, term No 3.2.1.3.

Travel trailer
In the United States and Canada, the history of travel trailers can be traced back to the early 1920s, when those who enjoyed their use were often referred to as 'tin can tourists'. As time progressed, trailers became more liveable and earned a new name in the 1930s and 1940s, which was the house trailer. In the 1950s and 1960s, the industry seemed to split, creating the two types that are seen today, that of the recreational vehicle (RV) industry and mobile home industry. Travel trailers are classified as a type of RV along with motorhomes, fifth-wheel trailers, pop-up trailers, and truck campers.

Smaller travel trailers and pop-ups are still made with touring in mind. These generally are less than 18 ft long and contain simple amenities. By design, they are lightweight and quick to set up or prepare for travel. Most weigh less than 3000 lb and can be towed with a large car or small truck depending upon its towing capacity. Lightweight pop-up trailers weighing less than 700 lb, such as the Combi-camper and Kamparoo can be towed even by small economy cars. Some exceptionally-light travel trailers can be pulled by a motorcycle or even bicycle. Fiberglass body construction entered the U.S. scene in 1971 with the introduction of the first U.S.-produced mini travel trailer, called the Playpac. Since then, moulded fiberglass trailers have gained more popularity due to many factors including durability, lightweight design, modern features and a modern nod to retro chic design.

The Playpac, invented by Steven Whysel, was the answer to the needs of the growing horde of VW "Bug" and other small-car owners who wanted a hard-shelled camper, light enough to be pulled by a small car. It came with a private water closet, shower, and the ability to sleep six. Its ultramodern aerodynamic styling and domed skylight by the modernist industrial designer Toshihiko Sakow made it an instant hit. It was short-lived, however (1971–1973), as the first Arab Oil Embargo and the ensuing major slow-down of RV sales caused it to cease operations. The Boler travel trailer was developed in Canada in 1968, soon joining the Playpac in the U.S. fiberglass light-weight class. The Hunter and Amerigo travel trailers were also available at that time. As moulded fiberglass technology advanced, more companies entered into the market. Key moulded fiberglass innovations made the travel trailers more durable but also lighter which allowed for more luxury amenities.

Mid-range travel trailers are 18 to 25 ft long, can weigh 5000 lb or more, and are generally towed with compact pickup trucks and SUVs. They have most of the amenities of the larger travel trailers, but sleep fewer people.

Larger travel trailers are made with seasonal or full-time users in mind. These generally range from 25 to 40 ft long and contain all the comforts of a luxury condominium. These amenity-laden models can reach 12000 lb or more, requiring a purpose-built tow vehicle, highway tractor or large truck or SUV. While trailers may weigh in even above that, most long-bed pickups have a maximum tow-weight of 15500 lb. Multiple televisions and air conditioners are common in units of this size. Slide-out rooms and screen porches add to livability. By law, travel trailers are limited to 400 ft2 of living area, and many models offer exactly that plus any optional slide-outs.

With all of the disincentives inherent in local government zoning regulations and building codes to affordable, ecological (off-grid) and compact housing solutions, travel-trailers offer a possibility for those considering an ecological full-time home or seasonal cottage. Travel-trailers are often acceptable on flood-plains, areas outside of urban growth limits, et cetera, where regular buildings are not allowed. Among the virtues of a trailer park are its light infrastructure, low ecological footprint, minimal land disturbance, abundant permeable surfaces (for stormwater drainage), and ease of site restoration.

Some specialized brands of the trailer, such as the hi-lo trailer, have an upper half (slightly larger than the lower half) that can be folded down over the lower half to a total height of about five feet for reduced wind resistance during travel; these otherwise contain everything other travel trailers have (except for a full-height closet).

Innovation in travel trailers is the hybrid travel trailer, combining the features of a pop-up and a hard-sided trailer. In its camping configuration, one or more bunks fold down from the side with canvas tent covers. When travelling, the bunks fold up, leaving four hard sides. Larger models allow the hybrid travel trailer to be used while "turtled" – meaning with the sides up. The primary advantage of a hybrid travel trailer is it offers a greater space-to-weight ratio. A disadvantage is the tent ends are not insulated and are subject to heat loss and condensation.

In the United States, it is generally illegal for passengers to ride in a travel trailer, while in motion,    unlike horse-drawn trailers and coaches. Triple towing (towing two trailers) is not allowed in some U.S. states, such as California, Alabama, Florida, or New York; however, triple towing is permitted in Texas if the combined length does not exceed 65 ft.

Fifth-wheel trailer
A fifth-wheel is a travel trailer supported by a hitch in the centre of the bed of a pickup truck instead of a hitch at the back of a vehicle. The special hitch used for fifth-wheels is a smaller version of the one used on 18-wheeler trucks and can be connected by simply driving (backing) the tow vehicle under the trailer. Fifth-wheel trailers are popular with full-time recreational vehicle enthusiasts, who often live in them for several months in one place, using their pickup truck tow vehicle for local errands. A fifth-wheel trailer tows more securely than a traditional travel trailer because the hitch weight sits directly over the pickup truck's rear axle or tires. Since part of a fifth wheel sits in the bed of the pickup, it reduces the overall length of the vehicle-and-trailer combination while allowing the same room as a comparable-length travel trailer. Additionally, the hitch's location in the pickup's bed reduces the risk of jackknifing and allows for more maneuverability when backing. Because of the greater room available on the roads in North America, these vehicles are more popular in the United States and Canada than in Europe or other parts of the world. For uneven terrain, a gooseneck hitch is an option for fifth-wheel trailers.

The downside is that the hitch takes up room in the pickup truck's cargo bed regardless of whether the trailer is hitched or not. The hitch can be unbolted from the bed but this takes a lot more time and effort than the unhitch operation.

Off-road trailer
Off-road travel trailers, also called 4x4 trailers, tentrax, and jeep trailers, are built specifically for exploring the extreme backcountry without having the restriction of paved highways or gravel roads. These travel trailers are designed to handle rough terrain. Many off-road travel trailers are equipped with tents, beds, skid plates, large tires and long stroke independent suspensions, lift kits, and articulation systems.

Toy hauler
Innovation in the travel trailer types is the "toy hauler" or "toy box". Half living area and a half garage, these trailers allow other, smaller vehicles to be brought to the countryside. A folding rear ramp gives access for motorcycles, all-terrain vehicles, personal watercraft or racecars. A generator provides power for the equipment.

Double-decker trailer
A double-decker trailer is a two-level travel trailer. When travelling the trailer is only as high as a regular trailer, but when set up it increases in height to two full levels. They are often used in motion picture production as portable dressing rooms.

United Kingdom

The National Caravan Council estimates that the caravan industry, which includes motorhomes, touring caravans (caravans designed to be hitched to a car and towed to a site), and static caravans and mobile homes (caravans designed to be transported to a permanent site, where they are anchored to the ground), is now worth over £1bn (€1.5bn/US$1.7bn) to the British economy alone, with the manufacture of caravans worth in excess of £650m (€975m/US$1.1bn). The growth in popularity of caravanning has been enhanced by improvements in caravan quality and caravan site facilities, making caravan holidays possible at any time of the year.

There are two main organisations that many caravanners join in the United Kingdom: the Caravan and Motorhome Club, established in 1907, and the Camping and Caravanning Club, established in 1901. Both clubs offer a range of services, including exclusive club sites, preferential rates, advice, insurance, and community activities including regional and national rallies.

In the UK, caravan insurance is not a compulsory requirement, but is recommended due to the high value of touring caravans.

Under tax regulations, caravans are considered wasting chattel and are exempt from capital gains tax.

Australia
In Australia, camper trailers are common alongside the traditional caravan. Camper trailers differentiate themselves from similar products due to their ability to go off-road. They feature large water holding tanks, batteries for electricity and off-road suspension.

Amenities
A mid-range, modern travel trailer may contain the following features:

 * Beds, some of which convert to daytime seating
 * Electricity supplied by battery or external hookup
 * Gas- or electric-powered refrigerator
 * Gas- or electric-powered stove, oven and grill
 * Gas- or electric-powered water heater
 * Microwave
 * Powered wheel mover system (integrated or clip-on) to enable parking once unhitched
 * Audio player or video player (such as a radio, CD player, DVD player, digital audio player)
 * Shower
 * Television (with an aerial, satellite dish, or both)
 * Toilet with removable blackwater (sewage) disposal tank and flush-water tank
 * Heater
 * Slide-outs, which extend the width of a room or space, such as a 4 x 7 ft dinette or bedroom extension

Travel trailers (especially North American ones) may also contain the following:

 * Air conditioning
 * Awning or screen room
 * Washing machine and clothes dryer
 * External barbecue points
 * Tow hitch stabilizers
 * Separate wastewater tanks for greywater (wash water) and blackwater (sewage)

Reception
Due to the 50 mph maximum speed limit on single carriageways for caravans on the United Kingdom's crowded and often narrow roads, caravans are seen as a nuisance by some motorists. The motoring journalist and presenter Jeremy Clarkson is well known for his gleeful hatred of caravans, and has physically destroyed several of them on the BBC television programme Top Gear since the show's relaunch in 2002, leading to complaints from the caravan community.

title: Caravan (trailer)


text:
User talk:Mazin07

Regards
Mazin,

Thanks for moving RaveGrid in the List of raster to vector conversion software page to the proprietary software list. I interpreted 'free' in the monetary sense, not in the FSF sense.

Regards, Sriram (Marirs 02:22, 7 November 2006 (UTC))

Template:Nokia phones
Hi, I'm trying to get some consensus on where the N800 should go in this template. I disagree with your move, but rather than just revert your move I've opened discussion on the talk page of the template. It'd be great if you could contribute your reasoning so we can reach agreement on this. Thanks! Hypnotist uk 11:48, 7 March 2007 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Mazin07


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Talk:List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents

Main engine shutdown on pad
I suggest you add STS 41D. 73.32.71.188 (talk) 14:13, 29 January 2022 (UTC)

The tables make the article hard to read.
The very squashed descriptions and height of each entry makes it harder to read than normal paragraphs. Lengthy descriptions seem inappropriate in a table. Netanyahuserious (talk) 07:55, 13 April 2022 (UTC)

Boundary of space & Number of people in Space
Currently In Astronaut Fatalities During Spaceflight, the number of people that have been to space (and thus the fatality rate) is using the USAF's definition of space instead of the Kármán Line, which is what most countries use to define the boundary of space. I suggest we change the number to fit what most countries would recognize as the definition of space. However, if we do this we would need to reconsider if the X-15's and Virgin Galactic's failures were still "spaceflight", as they never intended to cross the Kármán Line. Horizon206 (talk) 17:05, 9 June 2023 (UTC)

Jim Hawke & Jerry Grimes
May 5, 2010, these two men were killed when working on a process to extract ammonium perchlorate from decommissioned military ordnance, for recycling into other military ordnance. Aside from the fact that ammonium perchlorate has a function in the performance of a rocket engine, and a similar tragedy had taken place some twenty-two years previously which DID connect to the space program, their tragic deaths had nothing to do with spaceflight, and I'm not sure they should be listed here. 2001:1970:49A7:3000:41:B1D8:7439:C40A (talk) 03:35, 6 May 2024 (UTC)


text:
User:MattSal/Guestbook

Welcome to MattSal's guestbook. I don't know if I'm the first to have one of these on Wikipedia, but I'd like to know who visits my site. Just sign your name (use the four tilde's) and write a short comment if you wish.

 * 1) Ok Matt, I'll sign since no one else will...  --Rj 06:55, Apr 6, 2004 (UTC)
 * 2) LOL... Uris was here, too.  Uris 11:58, 24 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Hey, that was a gorgeous photo of downtown Chicago. Meelar (talk) 15:05, Apr 21, 2005 (UTC)
 * 1) Mik e  Collie (talk) (Guestbook), 13:59, 25 November 2006 (GMT)

title: User:MattSal/Guestbook


text:
Talk:Gator

The Florida Gators aren't just the football team, apparently. One imagines even the university Mahjong team are the Florida Gators too. -- Finlay McWalter 23:18, 6 Nov 2003 (UTC)

John Deere's gator is not a tractor like Golf Cart. its more like a Golf cart like ATV

title: Talk:Gator