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George Romanes

George John Romanes FRS (20 May 1848 – 23 May 1894) was a Canadian-Scots evolutionary biologist and physiologist who laid the foundation of what he called comparative psychology, postulating a similarity of cognitive processes and mechanisms between humans and other animals.

He was the youngest of Charles Darwin's academic friends, and his views on evolution are historically important. He is considered to invent the term neo-Darwinism, which in the late 19th century was considered as a theory of evolution that focuses on natural selection as the main evolutionary force. However, Samuel Butler used this term with a similar meaning in 1880. Romanes' early death was a loss to the cause of evolutionary biology in Britain. Within six years Mendel's work was rediscovered, and a whole new agenda opened up for debate.

Early life
George Romanes was born in Kingston, Canada West (now Ontario), in 1848, the youngest of three children, all boys, in a well-to-do and intellectually cultivated family. His father was Rev George Romanes (1805–1871), a Scottish Presbyterian minister. Two years after his birth, his parents moved to Cornwall Terrace in London, United Kingdom, which would set Romanes on the path to a fruitful and lasting relationship with Charles Darwin. During his youth, Romanes resided temporarily in Germany and Italy, developing a fluency in both German and Italian. His early education was inconsistent, undertaken partly in public schools, and partly at home. He developed an early love for poetry and music, at which he excelled. However, his true passion resided elsewhere, and the young Romanes decided to study science, abandoning a prior ambition to become a clergyman like his father.

Adulthood
Although he came from an educated home, his school education was erratic. He entered university half-educated and with little knowledge of the ways of the world. He studied medicine and physiology, graduating from Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge with the degree of BA in 1871, and is commemorated there by a stained glass window in the chapel.

It was at Cambridge that he came first to the attention of Charles Darwin: "How glad I am that you are so young!" said Darwin. Forging a relationship with Darwin was not difficult for Romanes, who reputedly inherited a "sweetness of temper and calmness of manner" from his father. The two remained friends for life. Guided by Michael Foster, Romanes continued to work on the physiology of invertebrates at University College London under William Sharpey and Burdon-Sanderson. In 1879, at 31, Romanes was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on the basis of his work on the nervous systems of medusae. However, Romanes' tendency to support his claims by anecdotal evidence rather than empirical tests prompted Lloyd Morgan's warning known as Morgan's Canon:
 * "In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes, if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development".

As a young man, Romanes was a Christian, and some, including his religious wife, later said that he regained some of that belief during his final illness. In fact, he became an agnostic due to the influence of Darwin. In a manuscript left unfinished at the end of his life he said that the theory of evolution had caused him to abandon religion.

Romanes founded a series of free public lectures, the Romanes Lectures, which continue to this day. He was a friend of Thomas Henry Huxley, who gave the second Romanes lecture.

Towards the end of his life, he returned to Christianity.

He died in Oxford on 23 May 1894. A memorial to Romanes exists in the north west corner of Greyfriars Kirkyard in Edinburgh on the grave of his parents.

Professional life
Romanes's and Darwin's relationship developed quickly and they became close friends. This relationship began when Romanes became Darwin's research assistant during the last eight years of Darwin's life. The association Romanes had with Darwin was essential in Darwin's later works. Therefore, Darwin confided volumes of unpublished work which Romanes later used to publish papers. Like Darwin, Romanes's theories were met with scepticism and were not accepted initially. The majority of Romanes's work attempted to make a connection between animal consciousness and human consciousness. Some problems were encountered during his research that he addressed with the development of physiological selection. This was Romanes's answer to three objections to Darwin's isolation theory of speciation. These were: species characteristics that have no evolutionary purpose; the widespread fact of inter-specific sterility; and the need for varieties to escape the swamping effects of inter-crossing after permanent species are established. At the end of his career the majority of his work was directed towards the development of a relationship between intelligence and placement on an evolutionary tree. Romanes believed that the further along an organism was on an evolutionary standpoint, the more likely that organism would be to possess a higher level of functioning.

Family
Romanes was the last child born of three children from George Romanes and Isabella Cair Smith. The majority of his immediate and extended family were descendant from Scottish Highland tribes. His father, Reverend George Romanes, was a professor at Queens College in Kingston, Canada and taught Greek at the local university until the family moved back to England. Romanes and his wife Ethel Mary Duncan were married on 11 February 1879. They were happily married and studied together. Romanes was said to be an "ideal father" to their six children. Both Romanes' mother and father were involved in the Protestant and Anglican Church during his childhood. Romanes was baptised Anglican and was heavily involved with the Anglican teachings during his youth, despite the fact his parents were not heavily involved with any religion.

It is speculated that Darwin may have been viewed as a father figure to Romanes. Darwin did not agree with the teachings of the Catholic Church because the fundamental teachings were not supported by his scientific findings at the time. This could explain Romanes' conversion to agnosticism.

Philosophical and political views
When Romanes attended Gonville and Caius College Cambridge, he entered into an essay contest on the topic of "Christian Prayer considered in relation to the belief that Almighty governs the world by general laws". Romanes did not have much hope in winning, but much to his surprise he took first place in this contest and received the Burney prize. After winning the Burney prize, Romanes came to the conclusion that he could no longer be faithful to his Christian religion due to his love and commitment for science. This is interesting due to the fact that when Romanes was growing up, his father was a Reverend. Therefore, Romanes went into great detail about religion and how all aspects of the mind need to be involved to be faithfully committed to religion in his book Thoughts on Religion. He believed that you had to have an extremely high level of will to be dedicated to God or Christ. He had earlier published a book on the subject in general called A Candid Examination of Theism, where he concluded that God's existence was not supported by the evidence, but stated his unhappiness with the fact.

Romanes on evolution
Romanes tackled the subject of evolution frequently. For the most part he supported Darwinism and the role of natural selection. However, he perceived three problems with Darwinian evolution:
 * 1) The difference between natural species and domesticated varieties in respect to fertility. [this problem was especially pertinent to Darwin, who used the analogy of change in domesticated animals so frequently]
 * 2) Structures which serve to distinguish allied species are often without any known utilitarian significance. [taxonomists choose the most visible and least changeable features to identify a species, but there may be a host of other differences which though not useful to the taxonomist are significant in survival terms]
 * 3) The swamping influence upon an incipient species-split of free inter-crossing. [Here we strike the problem which most perplexed Darwin, with his ideas of blending inheritance. It was solved by the rediscovery of Mendelian genetics, and the modern synthesis which showed that particulate inheritance could underlie continuous variation. Romanes also made the acute point that Darwin had not actually shown how natural selection produced species, despite the title of his famous book (On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection). Natural selection could be the 'machine' for producing adaptation, but still in question was the mechanism for splitting species.

Romanes' own solution to this was called 'physiological selection'. His idea was that variation in reproductive ability, caused mainly by the prevention of inter-crossing with parental forms, was the primary driving force in the production of new species. The majority view then (and now) was that geographical separation is the primary force in species splitting (or allopatry) and secondarily was the increased sterility of crosses between incipient species.

Taking influence from Darwin, Romanes was a proponent of both natural selection and the inheritance of acquired characteristics. The latter was denied by Alfred Russel Wallace, a strict selectionist. Romanes came into a dispute with Wallace over the definition of Darwinism.

Published works
When Charles Darwin died, Romanes defended Darwin's theories by attempting to rebut criticisms and attacks levied by other psychologists against the Darwinian school of thought. Romanes expanded on Darwin's theories of evolution and natural selection by advancing a theory of behaviour based on comparative psychology. In Animal Intelligence, Romanes demonstrated similarities and dissimilarities between cognitive and physical functions of various animals. In Mental Evolution in Animals, Romanes illustrated the evolution of the cognitive and physical functions associated with animal life. Romanes believed that animal intelligence evolves through behavioural conditioning, or positive reinforcement. Romanes then published Mental Evolution in Man, which focused on the evolution of human cognitive and physical functions.

In 1890, Romanes published Darwin, and After Darwin, where he attempted to explain the relationship between science and religion. All of his notes on this subject were left to Charles Gore. Gore used the notes in preparing Thoughts on Religion, and published the work under Romanes' name. The Life and Letters of George Romanes offers a semi-autobiographical account of Romanes's life.

Accomplishments

 * 1879: Romanes was selected for the Fellow of the Royal Society.
 * 1886–1890: Romanes was a professor at University of Edinburgh.
 * 1892: When he was a professor at the University of Oxford, Romanes created a series of lectures known as Romanes Lectures.
 * These lectures are currently still held once a year in memory of Romanes.
 * Romanes is also known for creating the following words and meanings:
 * Anthropomorphism: attributing human-like qualities to other animals.
 * Anecdotal method: the use of  observational methods to collect data on animal behaviour.
 * He developed the stepping stairs for cognitive development.

Publications

 * The Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution, Macmillan and Co., 1882 [1st Pub. 1877].
 * Candid Examination of Theism, Trübner & Co., 1878 [pseudonymously published as Physicus].
 * Animal Intelligence, D. Appleton and Company, 1892 [1st Pub. 1882].
 * Mental Evolution in Animals, with a Posthumous Essay on Instinct by Charles Darwin, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1883.
 * Jelly-Fish, Star-Fish and Sea Urchins, Being a Research on Primitive Nervous Systems, K. Paul, Trench & Co., 1885.
 * Physiological Selection: an Additional Suggestion on the Origin of Species, The Journal of the Linnean Society, Vol. 19, 1886.
 * Mental Evolution in Man, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1888.
 * Darwin, and after Darwin, (1892–97, a work of significance for historians of evolution theory):
 * The Darwinian Theory, The Open Court Publishing Company, 1910 [1st Pub. 1892].
 * Post-Darwinian Questions: Heredity and Utility, The Open Court Publishing Company, 1906 [1st Pub. 1895].
 * Post-Darwinian Questions: Isolation and Physiological Selection, The Open Court Publishing Company, 1914 [1st Pub. 1897].
 * Mind and Motion and Monism, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1895.
 * An Examination of Weismannism, The Open Court Publishing company, 1893 (August Weismann was the leading evolutionary theoretician at the turn of the 19th century).
 * Thoughts on Religion, Longmans, Green & Co., 1895.
 * Essays, Longmans, Green & Co., 1897.

Articles

 * "Christian Prayer and General Laws: Being the Burney Prize Essay for the Year 1873," Macmillan & Co., 1874.
 * "Fetichism in Animals," Nature, 27 December 1877.
 * "Recreation," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. VI, July/December 1879.
 * "Suicide," Nature, December 1881.
 * "American Ants," Nature, 2 March 1882.
 * "Nature and Thought," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XLIII, June 1883.
 * "Man and Brute," The North American Review, Vol. 139, No. 333, Aug. 1884.
 * "Mind in Men and Animals," The North American Review, March 1885.
 * "Physiological Selection," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. XXI, January/June 1887.
 * "Mental Differences Between Men and Women," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. XXI, January/June 1887.
 * "Concerning Women," The Forum, Vol. IV, 1887.
 * "Recent Critics of Darwinism," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LIII, January/June 1888.
 * "Mr. Wallace on Darwinism," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LVI, July/December 1889.
 * "Weismann's Theory of Heredity," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LVII, January/June 1890.
 * "Mr. A. R. Wallace on Physiological Selection," The Monist, Vol. I, N°. 1, October 1890.
 * "Origin of Human Faculty," Brain; a Journal of Neurology, Vol. XII, 1890.
 * "The Psychic Life of Micro-Organisms," The Open Court, Vol. IV, 1890–1891.
 * "Aristotle as a Naturalist," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LIX, January/June 1891.
 * "Thought and Language," Part II, The Monist, Vol. 2, No. 1, October 1891; No. 3, April 1892.
 * "Critical Remarks on Weismannism," The Open Court, Vol. VII, N°. 313, August 1893.
 * "Weismann and Galton," The Open Court, Vol. VII, N°. 315, September 1893.
 * "A Note on Panmixia," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LXIV, July/December 1893.
 * "Longevity and Death," The Monist, Vol. V, N°. 2, January 1895.
 * "The Darwinism of Darwin, and of the Post-Darwinian Schools," The Monist, Vol. VI, N°. 1, October 1895.
 * "Isolation in Organic Evolution," The Monist, Vol. VIII, 1898.

Miscellany

 * Observations on the Locomotor System of Echinodermata, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 172, Part III, 1882.
 * Darwinism Illustrated: Wood-engravings Explanatory of the Theory of Evolution, The Open Court Publishing Company, 1892.
 * A Selection from the Poems of George John Romanes, Longmans, Green & Co., 1896.

title: George Romanes


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Place names in Ireland

The vast majority of placenames in Ireland are anglicisations of Irish language names; that is, adaptations of the Irish names to English phonology and spelling. However, some names come directly from the English language, and a handful come from Old Norse and Scots. The study of placenames in Ireland unveils features of the country's history and geography and the development of the Irish language. The name of Ireland itself comes from the Irish name Éire, added to the Germanic word land. In mythology, Éire was an Irish goddess of the land and of sovereignty (see Ériu).

In some cases, the official English or anglicised name is wholly different from the official Irish language name. An example is Dublin: its name is derived from the Irish dubh linn (meaning "black pool"), but its Irish name is Baile Átha Cliath (meaning "town of the hurdled ford").

Names of Irish Gaelic origin
For most of the Gaelic period, there were very few towns or large settlements in Ireland. Hence, most places were named after noteworthy features of the landscape, such as hills, rocks, valleys, lakes, islands, and harbours. As time went on, more places were named after man-made features, such as churches, castles, and bridges. Some of the most common elements found in Irish placenames are shown in the table below. The differences in spelling are often due to differences in pronunciation.

Names of Norse origin
During the 800s and 900s, Vikings from Scandinavia raided monasteries along Ireland's coasts and waterways. The Vikings spoke the Old Norse language and are also called Norsemen. They set up small coastal camps called longphorts – these were used as bases for their raiding parties and as shelters during the winter. Eventually, some longphorts grew into Norse settlements and trading ports. The biggest of these were Dublin (which became a Norse-Gaelic kingdom), Wexford, Waterford, Cork and Limerick. Over time, the Norsemen embraced Gaelic language and culture, becoming known as the Norse-Gaels (Gall-Ghaeil in Modern Irish, Gall-Gaidhel in Old Irish). Placenames derived from Old Norse:

Names of English origin
After the Norman invasion of Ireland, which began in 1169, Anglo-Norman and English language placenames emerged in the areas under Anglo-Norman control. Most of these are within the bounds of "The Pale" – the area that stayed under direct English control for the longest, and where English language and culture held sway. It stretched along the east coast from Dundalk in the north to Dalkey in the south.

Between 1556 and 1641, during its "conquest of Ireland", the English colonised parts of the country with settlers from Great Britain. This is known as the "Plantations of Ireland". After the 1601 Battle of Kinsale defeat in which the Gaelic aristocracy fled to continental Europe the northern province of Ulster was the most heavily colonised. Those who settled as part of the "Plantation of Ulster" were required to be English speaking made up mostly of Lowland Scots and some northern English. The result is that northeast Ulster also has a great number of English-derived placenames.

Such placenames often refer to buildings and other manmade features. They often include forms such as -town, -ton, -ville, -borough, -bury, bridge, mill, castle, abbey, church, etc. However, forms such as hill, mount, mont, wood, bay, brook etc. are not uncommon.

Some placenames that seem to come from English are in fact anglicized Irish names modified by folk etymology. Examples include Longford, Upperland (from Áth an Phoirt Leathain meaning "ford of the broad (river) bank") and Forkhill (from Foirceal meaning "trough").

Names of Scots origin
The Lowland Scots who settled during the Plantation of Ulster also contributed to place-names in the north of Ireland, particularly in the Ulster Scots areas. The Scots influence can be seen in places such as Burnside (stream), Calheme from 'Cauldhame' (coldhome), Corby Knowe (raven knoll) Glarryford from 'glaurie' (muddy), Gowks Hill (cuckoo) and Loanends (where the lanes end) in County Antrim, Crawtree (crow), Whaup Island (curlew) and Whinny Hill from 'whin' (gorse) in County Down and the frequent elements burn (stream), brae (incline), dyke (a stone or turf wall), gate (a way or path), knowe (knoll), moss (moorland), sheuch or sheugh (a trench or ditch) and vennel (narrow alley). Other Scots elements may be obscured due to their being rendered in Standard English orthography.

Names of other origins
Some places in Ireland bear names from beyond Gaelic, Norse or English.

One reason for this is because foreign names can be perceived as more fashionable than native ones. Particularly in middle-class areas, names of Italian origin have been used because of this perception and many roads (e.g. Vico Road and Sorrento Road in Dalkey) and housing estates have obtained their names in this way. More rarely, this has led to the naming of whole suburbs (e.g. Montenotte and Tivoli in Cork). Portobello, Dublin was named in celebration of the British victory at the 1739 Battle of Porto Bello.

Another source of place names is from Anglo-Norman. Considering the number of surnames of Norman origin in Ireland, these are surprisingly rare. Nevertheless, some examples do exist, such as the town of Buttevant (from the motto of the Barry family – Boutez en Avant) and the village of Brittas (from the Norman-French Bretesche, "boarding, planking"). Others exist in portmanteau with words of Irish or English origin, such as Castletownroche, which combines the English Castletown and the French Roche, meaning rock. Most widespread is the term Pallas (from Norman paleis, "boundary fence") which appears in over 20 place names, including the towns Pallasgreen and Pallaskenry. Reeves Castle and the townland of Reeves near Celbridge take their name from Anglo-Norman rive, meaning "riverbank."

A further source of place names of other origin is places names after religious sites outside Ireland. Examples are Lourdes Road in Dublin and Pic du Jer Park in Cork.

The baronies of North Salt and South Salt are derived from Saltus Salmonis, a Latin calque of the town name of Leixlip (from Norse Lax Hlaup, "salmon leap").

Some linguists, including Theo Vennemann, have proposed that the ancient name for Ireland Ivernia or Hibernia is derived from proto-Semitic *'i: weriju ("island of copper").

Republic of Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, both Irish and English names have equal status and are displayed on road signs, though the Irish is in smaller, italicised font, while the English is in all upper case. However, in the Gaeltacht, the English/anglicized names have no official status and do not appear on road signs.

During and after the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922, some English names were returned to their Irish form. In most cases, the Irish Gaelic name became the only official one (for example Kingstown became Dún Laoghaire in both languages). In other cases, the English name was changed for another (for example King's County became County Offaly, which comes from the Irish Uíbh Fhailí). Although most of the changes were accepted by the wider public, some did not catch on and were eventually undone. The Local Government Act 1946 allowed locals to petition for a name change.

The following places were officially renamed:
 * Bagenalstown → Muine Bheag (1932)
 * Charleville → Ráth Luirc (1920s) → Charleville (1989)
 * County Donegal → County Tirconaill (1922) → County Donegal (1927)
 * Edgeworthstown → Mostrim (1935) → Edgeworthstown (1974)
 * Kells → Ceannanus Mór (1929) → Kells (1993)
 * King's County → County Offaly (1922)
 * Kingstown → Dún Laoghaire (1922)
 * Kingwilliamstown → Ballydesmond (1951)
 * Maryborough → Portlaoise (1929)
 * Navan → An Uaimh (1922) → Navan (1971)
 * Newbridge → Droichead Nua (1930s)
 * Newtownbarry → Bunclody (1950)
 * Newtownsandes → Moyvane (1939)
 * Parsonstown → Birr (1890s)
 * Philipstown → Daingean (1922)
 * Queen's County → County Laois (1922)
 * Queenstown → Cobh (1922)

Pursuant to the Official Languages Act 2003 and the advice of the Coimisiún Logainmneacha (Place-Names Commission), the Placenames (Centres of Population and Districts) Order 2005 was issued, listing the equivalent in the Irish language of place-names specified in the Order with its English form. The Irish words then had the same meaning and same force and effect as the place-name. This order lists a little fewer than 2,000 place-names, many of which were changed from the Irish form used since independence, e.g. Bray went from Brí Chualann to Bré and Naas changed from Nás na Rí to An Nás.

Beyond the Gaeltacht, only English placenames were officially recognised (pre-2004). But further placenames orders have been passed to enable both the English and Irish placenames to be used. An example of present inconsistency is the village of Straffan, designated variously as An Srafáin, An Cluainíní and Teach Strafáin. In the 1830s John O'Donovan listed it as "Srufáin". The nearby village of Kilteel was "Cill tSíle" for centuries, meaning "The church of Saint Síle", but since 2000 it has been shown as "Cill Chéile", which does not carry the same meaning.

Vehicle registration plates of the Republic of Ireland are bilingual: the county of registration is shown in Irish above the plate number as a kind of surtitle, and is encoded from English within the plate number. For example, a Dublin plate is subtitled Baile Átha Cliath and the plate number includes D.

Northern Ireland
In Northern Ireland, the new recognition of the status of the Irish language does not extend to bilingual roadsigns – it is down to individual district councils to decide to place them. Some towns in Fermanagh and Omagh, Derry City and Strabane, Armagh City, Banbridge and Craigavon, Moyle, Magherafelt, Newry, Mourne and Down and Cookstown council areas display bilingual names on some welcome signs (e.g. "OMAGH" An Ómaigh).

Irish-language street signs may be erected at the request of locals, provided there is enough support.

Names of provinces
There are four provinces in Ireland, three of which derive their English name from a mixture of their ancient Irish provincial name with the Old Norse term for land/territory/place; staðr.

 * Connacht, sometimes anglicised as Connaught, is derived from the Connachta dynasty, which means "the descendants of Conn". In modern Irish it is called Connachta or Cúige Chonnacht.
 * Munster, derived from Mumhan + Old Norse staðr, meaning "land of Mumha". In modern Irish it is called an Mhumhain or Cúige Mumhan.
 * Leinster, derived from Laighin + Old Norse staðr, meaning "land of the Laighin". In modern Irish it is called Laighin or Cúige Laighean.
 * Ulster, derived from Ulaidh + Old Norse staðr, meaning "land of the Ulaidh". In modern Irish it is called Ulaidh or Cúige Uladh.

In Irish the provinces are known as cúigí, the singular of which is cúige. The word cúige originally meant "a fifth", as in one-fifth part of Ireland. This is because Meath, as seat of the High King of Ireland, was once a province in its own right, incorporating modern counties Meath, Westmeath and parts of surrounding counties. Meath was later absorbed into Leinster.

Names of counties
In Irish, the counties are known as contaetha, the singular of which is contae. Irish versions of county names only have official status in the Republic of Ireland.

Most of the counties were named after a town in that county (commonly referred to as a county town); usually an administrative centre. Some of these towns, such as Louth, have declined into small villages or have lost their county town status to other towns.

Counties named after their present or former county towns: Antrim, Armagh, Carlow, Cavan, Clare, Cork, Donegal, Down, Dublin, Galway, Kildare, Kilkenny, Leitrim, Limerick, Longford, Louth, Mayo, Monaghan, Roscommon, Sligo, Tipperary, Waterford, Wexford, and Wicklow. The county of Londonderry is named after the city of the same name, though its county town was Coleraine until 1972 when counties were abolished as administrative units in Northern Ireland and replaced with unitary councils.

Some counties derive their names from ancient Irish túatha, kingdoms or people:
 * Fermanagh, which is derived from Fear Manach meaning "men of Manach".
 * Kerry, which is derived from Ciarraí, which is itself derived from Ciarraighe, meaning "people of Ciar".
 * Laois, which is derived from Loígis, the name of a túath.
 * Meath, which is derived from Mide, the name of a former province.
 * Offaly, which is derived from Uí Failghe, the name of a túath.
 * Tyrone, which is derived from Tír Eógain meaning "Eógan's land".
 * Westmeath, which was formerly part of Meath until 1542, is likewise derived from Mide.

Some counties derive their names from geographic descriptions

In 1994, County Dublin was abolished as an administrative unit and replaced with three new administrative counties:
 * Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, which is named after the town of Dún Laoghaire (meaning "Laoghaire's stronghold"); and the former barony of Rathdown (Ráth an Dúin in Irish, meaning "ringfort of the stronghold").
 * Fingal, which is derived from the Irish Fine Gall, meaning "foreign tribe", referring to the Norse who invaded and settled the area.
 * South Dublin, which is named after Dublin.

Names of streets and roads
Many streets and roads in Ireland derive their name from that of the townland, settlement or parish it goes through or heads towards, many of which are of Irish origin. Other streets and roads derive their names from local buildings, manufacturies or people etc.

In Irish, a street is sráid, a road is bóthar (meaning "cow path"), a lane is lána, and an avenue is ascaill. A linear village is called a sráidbhaile ("[one]-street settlement")—this has been anglicised as Stradbally, which is the name of a number of villages on the island. Whilst Irish forms only have official status in the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland district councils are allowed to erect bilingual roadsigns.

Origins of some streets and roads in Belfast, Northern Ireland
 * Antrim Road, takes its name from the settlement it leads to, Antrim town.
 * Ballymurphy Road, derives its name from the townland of Ballymurphy, which itself is derived from the Baile O Muircháin, meaning "homestead of O'Murphy".
 * Crumlin Road takes its name from the settlement the road leads to, Crumlin.
 * Donegall Square and Donegall Pass, both named after Lord Donegall, who opened six wide avenues also known as passes.
 * Falls Road was originally called the Pound, however, it derives its present name from an older Irish name Tuath-na-bhfal, meaning "district of the falls" or "hedges".
 * Hercules Street is named after Sir Hercules Langford.
 * Mountpottinger and Pottinger's Lane both derive from the famous Pottinger family.
 * Mustard Street is named after a mustard works.
 * Old Forge and New Forge both derive their names from forges for smelting iron.
 * Shankill Road derives its name from Seanchill meaning "old church", which is also the name of the local parish.

Origins of some streets and roads in Dublin, Republic of Ireland
 * O'Connell Street, formerly known as Sackville Street, it was renamed after Daniel O'Connell. Its Irish name is Sráid Uí Chonaill.
 * Grafton Street, developed by the Dawson family, it is named after the Earls of Grafton who owned land in the area. Its Irish name is Sráid Grafton.
 * Pearse Street, originally called Moss Lane, then Great Brunswick Street, it was renamed after Pádraig Pearse. Its Irish name is Sráid an Phiarsaigh
 * St. James's Street takes its name from a Holy Well in the vicinity, dedicated to St James.

Geographical toponymy

 * Place names in Ireland
 * Éire
 * Ireland
 * List of islands of Ireland
 * List of loughs of Ireland
 * List of rivers of Ireland
 * Lists of mountains in Ireland

Political toponymy
}}
 * Names of the Irish state
 * Republic of Ireland
 * Northern Ireland
 * Provinces of Ireland
 * Ulster
 * Counties of Ireland

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Place names in Ireland


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Budget

A budget is a calculation plan, usually but not always financial, for a defined period, often one year or a month. A budget may include anticipated sales volumes and revenues, resource quantities including time, costs and expenses, environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions, other impacts, assets, liabilities and cash flows. Companies, governments, families, and other organizations use budgets to express strategic plans of activities in measurable terms.

Preparing a budget allows companies, authorities, private entities or families to establish priorities and evaluate the achievement of their objectives. To achieve these goals it may be necessary to incur a deficit (expenses exceed income) or, on the contrary, it may be possible to save, in which case the budget will present a surplus (income exceed expenses).

In the field of commerce, a budget is also a document or report that details the cost that a service will have if performed. Whoever makes the budget must adhere to it and cannot change it if the client accepts the service.

A budget expresses intended expenditures along with proposals for how to meet them with resources. A budget may express a surplus, providing resources for use at a future time, or a deficit in which expenditures exceed income or other resources.

Government
The budget of a government is a summary or plan of the anticipated resources (often but not always from taxes) and expenditures of that government. There are three types of government budgets: the operating or current budget, the capital or investment budget, and the cash or cash flow budget.

United States
The federal budget is prepared by the Office of Management and Budget, and submitted to Congress for consideration. Invariably, Congress makes many and substantial changes. Nearly all American states are required to have balanced budgets, but the federal government is allowed to run deficits.

India
The budget is prepared by the Budget Division Department of Economic Affairs of the Ministry of Finance annually. The Finance Minister is the head of the budget making committee. The present Indian Finance minister is Nirmala Sitharaman. The Budget includes supplementary excess grants and when a proclamation by the President as to failure of Constitutional machinery is in operation in relation to a State or a Union Territory, preparation of the Budget of such State. The first budget of India was submitted on 18 February 1860 by James Wilson. P C Mahalanobis is known as the father of Indian budget.

Iran
The 2022–23 Iranian national budget is the latest one. Documents related to budget program are not released.

Philippines
The Philippine budget is considered the most complicated in the world, incorporating multiple approaches in one single budget system: line-item (budget execution), performance (budget accountability), and zero-based budgeting. The Department of Budget and Management (DBM) prepares the National Expenditure Program and forwards it to the Committee on Appropriations of the House of Representatives to come up with a General Appropriations Bill (GAB). The GAB will go through budget deliberations and voting; the same process occurs when the GAB is transmitted to the Philippine Senate.

After both houses of Congress approves the GAB, the President signs the bill into a General Appropriations Act (GAA); also, the President may opt to veto the GAB and have it returned to the legislative branch or leave the bill unsigned for 30 days and lapse into law. There are two types of budget bill veto: the line-item veto and the veto of the whole budget.

Personal
A personal budget or home budget is a finance plan that allocates future personal income towards expenses, savings and debt repayment. Past spending and personal debt are considered when creating a personal budget. There are several methods and tools available for creating, using, and adjusting a personal budget. For example, jobs are an income source, while bills and rent payments are expenses. A third category (other than income and expenses) may be assets (such as property, investments, or other savings or value) representing a potential reserve for funds in case of budget shortfalls.

Corporate budget
The budget of a business, division, or corporation is a financial forecast for the near-term future, usually the next accounting period, aggregating the expected revenues and expenses of the various departments – operations, human resources, IT, etc. It is thus a key element in integrated business planning, with measurable targets correspondingly devolved to departmental managers (and becoming KPIs ); budgets may then also specify non-cash resources, such as staff or time.

The budgeting process requires considerable effort, often involving dozens of staff; final sign-off resides with both the financial director and operations director. The responsibility usually sits within the company's financial management area in general, sometimes, specifically in "FP&A". Professionals employed in this role are often designated "Budget Analyst", a specialized financial analyst function.

Organisations may produce functional budgets, relating to activities, and / or cash budgets, focused on receipts and payments. Incremental budgeting starts with the budget from the previous period, while under zero-based budgeting activities/costs are included only if justified. Under all approaches expected sales or revenue, is typically the starting point; this will be based on the business' planning for the period in question. Directly related elements and costs are typically linked to these (activity based costing may be employed). Support and management functions may be revisited, and the resultant "fixed" costs, such as rent and payroll, will be adjusted, at a minimum, for inflation. Capital expenditure, both new investments and maintenance, may be budgeted separately; debt servicing and repayments likewise. The master budget aggregates these all. See Financial forecast, Cash flow forecast,.

Whereas the budget is typically compiled on an annual basis - although, e.g. in mining, this may be quarterly - the monitoring is ongoing, with financial and operational adjustments (or interventions) made as warranted; see for further discussion. Here, if the actual figures delivered come close to those budgeted, this suggests that managers understand their business and have been successful in delivering. On the other hand, if the figures diverge this sends an "out of control" signal; additionally, the share price could suffer where these figures have been communicated to analysts.

Criticism is sometimes directed at the nature of budgeting, and its impact on the organization. Additional to the cost in time and resources, two phenomena are identified as problematic: First, it is suggested that managers will often "game the system" in specifying targets that are easily attainable, and / or in asking for more resources than required, such that the required resources will be budgeted as a compromise. A second observation is that managers' thinking may emphasize short term, operational thinking at the expense of a long term and strategic perspective, particularly when bonus payments are linked to budget. See.

Types of budgets

 * Sale budget – an estimate of future sales, often broken down into both units. It is used to create company and sales goals.
 * Production budget – an estimate of the number of units that must be manufactured to meet the sales goals. The production budget also estimates the various costs involved with manufacturing those units, including labor and material. Created by product oriented companies.
 * Capital budget – used to determine whether an organization's long-term investments such as new machinery, replacement machinery, new plants, new products, and research development projects are worth pursuing.
 * Cash flow/cash budget – a prediction of future cash receipts and expenditures for a particular time period. It usually covers a period in the short-term future. The cash flow budget helps the business to determine when income will be sufficient to cover expenses and when the company will need to seek outside financing.
 * Conditional budgeting is a budgeting approach designed for companies with fluctuating income, high fixed costs, or income depending on sunk costs, as well as NPOs and NGOs.
 * Marketing budget – an estimate of the funds needed for promotion, advertising, and public relations in order to market the product or service.
 * Project budget – a prediction of the costs associated with a particular company project. These costs include labour, materials, and other related expenses. The project budget is often broken down into specific tasks, with task budgets assigned to each. A cost estimate is used to establish a project budget.
 * Revenue budget – consists of revenue receipts of government and the expenditure met from these revenues. Revenues are made up of taxes and other duties that the government levies. Various countries and unions have created four types of tax jurisdictions: interstate, state, local and tax jurisdictions with a special status (Free-trade zones). Each of them provides a money flow to the corresponding revenue budget levels.
 * Expenditure budget – includes spending data items.
 * Flexibility budget – it is established for fixed cost and variable rate is determined per activity measure for variable cost.
 * Appropriation budget – a maximum amount is established for certain expenditure based on management judgement.
 * Performance budget – it is mostly used by organization and ministries involved in the development activities. This process of budget takes into account the end results.
 * Zero based budget – A budget type where every item added to the budget needs approval and no items are carried forward from the prior years budget. This type of budget has a clear advantage when the limited resources are to be allocated carefully and objectively. Zero based budgeting takes more time to create as all pieces of the budget need to be reviewed by management.
 * Personal budget – A budget type focusing on expenses for self or for home, usually involves an income to budget.

title: Budget


text:
Beveled glass

Beveled glass is usually made by taking thick glass and creating an angled surface cut (bevel) around the entire periphery. Bevels act as prisms in sunlight creating an interesting color refraction which both highlights the glass work and provides a spectrum of colors which would ordinarily be absent in clear float glass.

Beveled glass can be obtained as clusters which are arranged to create a specific design. These can vary from simple three or four piece designs, often used in top lights (commonly known as transoms) of windows and conservatories, to more complex combinations of many pieces, suitable for larger panels such as doors and side screens (known in the door industry as sidelites).

Beveled glass has also been used with clear and colored textured glass to create designs. Textured glass is typically 1/8 in thick and has a distinct visible texture. Beveled glass is typical made from 1/4 in float plate glass but thicknesses up to 1/2 in have been used for larger windows. The width of the bevel also can vary depending on the desired effect. The combination of beveled glass is juxtaposed to the textured glass creating dramatic visual effects.

Beveling was traditionally done manually by grinding and polishing operations:

Modern beveled glass is machine made. The automation of this traditionally hand made craft was facilitated by the development of plastic based metal deburring wheels which provided adequate smoothing of the ground glass face without the difficulties involved with traditional aluminum oxide and natural sandstone smoothing stones. The best natural smoothing stones came from a quarry in Newcastle, England and would be round wheels with a central hole several feet in diameter and 8 in thick. The stone's quality was dictated by the consistency of the sandstone, as any imperfection would scratch the glass being smoothed. These large stones would smooth the rough scratches created by the grinding process. The type of grinding and smoothing equipment depended upon whether one was creating straight line, outside or inside curved bevels. Outside curves and straight lines are ground on a flat rotating platter covered in a thin slurry of silicon carbide and water. Inside curves were ground on a silicon carbide grinding wheel of appropriate grit with water running on the wheel. Smoothing the ground face was done using the Newcastle stone for outside curves and straight line bevels and a cone shaped polishing wheel of relatively fine grit aluminum oxide.

Despite the advantages of the plastic smoothing wheels, the crispness of the bevel edge is superior on the stone smoothed traditionally beveled pieces and can distinguish hand made beveled glass. The final step was polishing the beveled face using a felt covered wheel with a slurry of water and optical polishing powder. It was not uncommon to have pieces with a combination of outside and inside curve as well as straight line bevels. The objective was to have an even bevel width, even edge thickness with no facets in the bevel face and a crisp bevel edge.

In the early 1900s in USA it was not uncommon to see beveled oval door glass 5 ft in length with 2 in wide bevels on 3/8 in thick plate glass. Creating such bevels required two craftsmen working as a team.

title: Beveled glass


text: Talk:Zhuge Liang

title: Talk:Zhuge Liang


text:
Talk:Korean mythology

Embarrassment?
"Korean mythology is disintegrating rapidly to the level of folklore because of lack of interest or perhaps rather embarrassment."

"It is contended by some that after the Korean War Koreans became embarrassed about their own mythology and though many figures are still alive in the consciousness of the general population, much of the oral tradition about the relationship between the mythological figures has been lost."

As a Korean who grew up in Korea, I must note that I am unaware of any collective embarrassment regarding Korean mythology. Retellings, in books or cartoons, are popular, and myths remain a familiar part of the Korean storytelling tradition. I would also like to see the sources for this article, if any, as it does not strike me as being very accurate. Any article stating "It is contended by some" does not inspire much faith. --Noctua 22:12, 21 Jun 2005 (UTC)

"Deities" section is also unusable
The "deities" section, which I just noticed, is nigh-unusuable:

 * Mixes literary deities with shamanic deities. Hwanung is not worshipped in Korean shamanism, and Dangun only barely.
 * Mixes NRM deities with traditional deities. Haneullim is not worshipped in Korean shamanism either, and a quick look through Google Books at the source in the Haneullim article shows that not only is the source of questionable academic reliability WRT the history of Korean shamanism (describing the religion as a "deteriorated form... in need of radical renovation" and making nationalist claims not current in South Korean scholarship), the author himself concedes that Haneullim is "neglected" in the modern religion.
 * Mixes Jeju deities with mainland deities. Seonang and Danggeum-agi worship is mainland only, Hallakgung'i or Sobyeol-wang are Jeju only. They were never worshipped together.
 * Unreliable sources: Bugeun is not a god of sexual relationships and Doosan Encyclopedia is not a very reliable source; EKFC, the actual reliable source, describes Bugeun as a title for gods used in the Seoul region, often deified historical individuals.
 * OR: Nowhere in the Woncheon'gang bon-puri (all of which you can read in English here) is it mentioned what sort of goddess the main character Today becomes. Gamang (called Gamheung in the article) is not the "father of the gods" and is not described as such in the source. Gamang is actually a mainland deity invoked only to begin a religious ceremony, whose exact nature is not clearly described by shamans.

In fact, I think it might be better to remove the deities section entirely.--Karaeng Matoaya (talk) 15:55, 16 June 2020 (UTC)

meaning of "also, the story plays no religious function and is therefore not mythology (한국신화) as defined in the article"
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Korean_mythology&action=history Just curious about this definition about mythology. And also https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Korean_creation_narratives&action=historyon this link's edit summary, it says "addition is inappropriate because it is not a shamanic narrative"

According to this point of view, dozens of greek mythology was not shamanic narrative and it's ceased religious function so it's "inappropriate" article. What does this mean? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 112.161.42.88 (talk) 06:46, 6 January 2022 (UTC)

Request for feedback: Posterity of Heaven proposed for deletion
Please see the discussion at Articles_for_deletion/Posterity_of_Heaven_(2nd_nomination). Yannn11 15:30, 27 February 2023 (UTC)

How many births?
How births do the korean people have? It is the main thing people would like to know. I may say, you needa write this whole again... 2402:E280:3D6B:672:C899:F100:9513:D1B7 (talk) 16:12, 7 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Korean mythology


text:
Talk:City of Milton Keynes

Untitled
Milton Keynes is a Unitary Authority, not a county. Unless anyone can provide a citation for where Milton Keynes has been officially declared as a county I'll vote for this page to be moved, or deleted. Graham 01:24 (UTC) 24 Nov 2003

 * Your citation is right there in the article. SI 1995/1769. It is also known as the Buckinghamshire (Borough of Milton Keynes) (Structural Change) Order 1995, and is at http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951769_en_1.htm
 * You will note section 8, which I quote here for your convenience
 * Constitution of new county of Milton Keynes
 * 8.—(1) Milton Keynes shall cease to form part of Buckinghamshire.
 * (2) A new county shall be constituted comprising the area of Milton Keynes and shall be named the county of Milton Keynes.
 * (3) Section 2(1) of the 1972 Act (which provides that every county shall have a council) shall not apply in relation to the county of Milton Keynes.
 * Thanks, Morwen 07:37, 24 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * (3) Section 2(1) of the 1972 Act (which provides that every county shall have a council) shall not apply in relation to the county of Milton Keynes.
 * Thanks, Morwen 07:37, 24 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Thanks, Morwen 07:37, 24 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Many thanks. You learn something new every day.  Graham 23:14 (UTC) 24 Nov 2003

 * I was also surprised that unitary authorities are now officialy counties. I personally think the new designation is very silly and very at odds with ordinary usage of the term 'county', but I suppose it's difficult to express any dissent from the legal position in the body of the article. - dan

Clean up
I've cleaned up this page so it conforms to other similar pages. David 13:18, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Good work. Excised material was a load of axe-grinding guff. --Concrete Cowboy 17:07, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

Quick question
Where's the name come from? MrZaius talk  20:44, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
 * From the Norman Conquest. See Middleton, Milton Keynes.

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the . Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

no move yet pending total consensus at Wikipedia talk:List of English districts to disambiguate — Mets501 (talk) 16:38, 4 November 2006 (UTC)

Requested move
Milton Keynes (borough) → Borough of Milton Keynes — The current article name is seriously obscure. Every instance of it is a pipe ( Borough of Milton Keynes ) to the proposed target name. Doing so would follow the RtM already taken for Borough of Swindon. There is some prior discussion at Naming conventions (places). The form proposed is as used in all public documents: the current name is used nowhere outside Wikipedia. This RtM seems uncontroversial to me, but I realise that some people get very exercised about names! Borough of Milton Keynes currently redirects to Milton Keynes (borough). The request is for this to be reversed. Concrete Cowboy 20:32, 28 October 2006 (UTC)

Survey
Add  * Support   or   * Oppose   on a new line followed by a brief explanation, then sign your opinion using ~.
 * Support for the reasons given in the Request to Move. --Concrete Cowboy 20:33, 28 October 2006 (UTC)

Discussion
Add any additional comments: Hold on. Check out the list at List_of_English_districts_to_disambiguate. As I can see, all the stuff needing disambiguation follows "brace convention", i.e. has (borough) or (district) at the end. If the consensus to change format and rename them all has been reached, please point to it and get them all for moving; if not, please seek for it... somewhere. Don't do this one by one. Duja► 20:12, 3 November 2006 (UTC)
 * This discussion continues at Wikipedia talk:List of English districts to disambiguate. The plan is to get them all moved.  Hopefully, someone can write a bot. --Concrete Cowboy 12:48, 4 November 2006 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Fair use rationale for Image:Arms-milton-k.jpg
Image:Arms-milton-k.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 07:16, 2 January 2008 (UTC)
 * I have provided the requested rationale template and deleted the tag. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 14:04, 3 January 2008 (UTC)

Population Data
"The 30-44 year olds in Milton Keynes Borough can be seen as the largest 10-year age group of the population with 35-39 year olds being the largest 5-year age group."

Erm, I maybe be wrong, but I don't think 30-44 represents ten years? I've tried opening the data source referenced but can't get it to open - can someone else try? Alternatively could the original editor clarify?ColourSarge (talk) 17:21, 22 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Looks like someone messed with the page. Also, the 2007/08 figs are out so I've updated the URL.  Please review. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 12:27, 23 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Yep this looks good now, have also checked the source and agree with your conclusions. ColourSarge (talk) 18:39, 23 April 2008 (UTC)

Names of articles describing villages in the Borough
Please contribute to the discussion at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject UK geography. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 20:39, 26 August 2008 (UTC)

''Discussion has been settled. Result: use ceremonial counties for disambiguation of places, and in a geographic frame of reference, see Wikipedia talk:WikiProject UK geography''. Mpvide65 (talk) 22:10, 26 August 2008 (UTC)

Economy
What on earth does this garbage mean? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 109.154.192.91 (talk) 18:31, 27 March 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified
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template:Infobox English county about to run into the sand at Buckinghamshire
As of 1 April, Buckinghamshire County Council ceases to exist, being replaced by Buckinghamshire Council, a Unitary Authority. The ceremonial county of Buckinghamshire will thus have two UAs and no CC. The infobox for the ceremonial county (at present combined with the BCC information and minimal BoMK information) will cease to be valid. I tried to fix it but the effect was for a load of valid information about the BC area to disappear. So would editors contribute to Template talk:Infobox English county, please? (The "Only one admin_hq allowed?" issue turns out to be just the tip of the iceberg). --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 15:47, 31 March 2020 (UTC)

County?
Per WP:BRD, I reverted an edit by which removed cited content. The citation says clearly " A new county shall be constituted comprising the area of Milton Keynes and shall be named the county of Milton Keynes." If that did not actually happen, then a strong citation saying so (and why) is essential in support. Editor analysis is not a substitute. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 08:40, 25 February 2022 (UTC)

2021 census: preliminary data release from ONS
The ONS has released preliminary "rounded" figures for the Borough (only): see Population and household estimates, England and Wales: Census 2021. The 'estimated population" section of the infobox will soon be updated automatically. In the meantime, the figures are these: all: 287,000; females: 145,500; males: 141,600, which means an overall increase of about 38,000 in ten years. John Maynard Friedman (talk) 17:04, 29 June 2022 (UTC)

"City of Milton Keynes"
I assume that the Council will formally change its name from Borough of Milton Keynes to City of Milton Keynes "in due course". So we had best wait for that to happen and not pre-empt it. In the meantime, would everyone resist the temptation to make make City of Milton Keynes a redirect because doing so will make a simple article move into a complicated one. John Maynard Friedman (talk) 15:04, 19 August 2022 (UTC)

 * A recent tweet from MK Council states that Today we collected HM The Queen's Letters Patent that officially makes us the City of Milton Keynes. We'll be formally marking our city status later this year. A little confusing because the first part of the statement makes it sound like that the name change has officially happened, but on the other hand, it says that they'll be "marking" the city status later this year. Any thoughts on how this should be interpreted? Anonymous MK2006 (talk) 20:46, 19 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Well the Crown Office statement says merely THE QUEEN has been pleased by Letters Patent under the Great Seal of the Realm dated 15 August 2022 to ordain that the Borough of Milton Keynes shall have the status of a City. so it is for the Council (councillors, not officers) to resolve how the UA should be named (within the law: a district can't just declare itself a borough, a borough can't just declare itself a city). So I assume we have to wait until the full Council reconvenes. Of course I don't actually know this, just that "it stands to reason" [famous last words number three]. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 22:27, 19 August 2022 (UTC)

 * Update: it looks as though the Council has finally renamed itself, so shall we should proceed to the next steps? Anonymous MK2006 (talk) 14:49, 1 September 2022 (UTC)
 * I'd have preferred to see an explicit resolution of the Council but I don't see it as essential. So, as you spotted it first, you get the honours of moving this article to City of Milton Keynes and the Council article to Milton Keynes City Council. With acclamation. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 15:07, 1 September 2022 (UTC)

I have put in a request that Milton Keynes Council be moved to Milton Keynes City Council. It needs an administrator because the name is already in use (as a redirect to the Borough article, so doubly wrong). --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 22:23, 1 September 2022 (UTC)

Still a borough too?
I see the infobox has City and Borough. Is this accurate? I have no idea what the law is but it seems strange? --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 19:32, 2 September 2022 (UTC)

 * JMF, I'm as befuddled as you are. The articles for Southend-on-Sea and City of Canterbury state that, as well as cities, they are also boroughs. On the contrary, the City of Carlisle article simply states that it is a city and non-metropolitan district. I guess more research is needed, but regardless, the govt have put is an awkward situation in that we're dealing with a city called "Milton Keynes" which administratively includes a rural area significantly larger that the core urban area. So whether we should call the UA a city or a borough, depends on conclusions we can make from research. Anonymous MK2006 (talk) 11:26, 3 September 2022 (UTC)
 * , any advice? --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 11:52, 3 September 2022 (UTC)
 * All districts with city status hold borough status but not all cities are districts with borough status such as with Wells and Chichester the civil parish holding the status and with Bath its the charter trustees for the former borough with city status.  Crouch, Swale  ( talk ) 16:02, 3 September 2022 (UTC)
 * So in the case of MK (the U), it was and still is a Borough so we can continue use "Borough" rather than the awkward "Unitary Authority area". Phew! --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 16:28, 3 September 2022 (UTC)
 * It should state that the district has unitary status still though.  Crouch, Swale  ( talk ) 17:05, 3 September 2022 (UTC)

Photography project for the year, everyone
I notice that Grade II* listed buildings in the Borough of Milton Keynes has quite a few entries with no illustrations. So let's get out there and get snapping, to see if we can fill in some of the gaps. 𝕁𝕄𝔽 (talk) 19:12, 13 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:City of Milton Keynes


text:
Iwase

Iwase may refer to:

Places

 * Iwase Province
 * Iwase, Fukushima
 * Iwase, Ibaraki
 * Iwase District, Fukushima
 * Iwase Dam
 * Iwase Station

Other uses

 * Iwase (surname)

title: Iwase


text:
User:Dbabbitt/Sandbox

I feel like it is time for us to collect up all of the issues and decisions on Ethereum Economics that need to be made, catalog all possible solutions and start narrowing down and fixing design choices. This is an attempt to put together a skeleton of what needs to be done and decided.

I will introduce various issues one-at-a-time for comment. Even if you have no detailed comment, it would be valuable to see a yea or nay on each issue.

Please feel free to add issues.

I will collect and summarize discussion.

The first issue I would like to address is the general approach to design and development.

Approach and Design Principles

Agility: Start Simple and Build Layers of Complexity as Needed

Designing the mechanisms and operating rules of an economy (a chaotic, complex, dynamical system) to guarantee predictability and stability, from a top down perspective, is an intractable problem. A bottom up, constructive, iterative approach is the only feasible method of development.

Ethereum Economics should begin with simplest possible mechanisms and settings and evolve more sophisticated, layered mechanism over time as warranted. For example:

Transaction fees can be initially be fixed and determined by estimates of costs of network transmission, data storage, and data processing (facilities costs, hardware and electricity). During the initial period in which transaction fees are fixed, they will initially be very small to encourage use of the Ethereum network. As soon as possible, transaction fees will be made variable with price levels being set by market mechanisms.

Experimental Approach

While we are building a set of protocols and services and businesses, Ethereum will remain, in part, a research project for quite some time.

Experiments should be performed, both in simulation as well as well as within the actual system. A sort of A-B testing protocol can be developed for the latter approach.

Every Activity on the Network Should Have an Economic Consequence

One possible design principle would be that every operation on the network that has a cost, should be paid for. Sending a block to another node should have an economic consequence: perhaps the receiving node which requests the block should pay the sending node. Perhaps when a block is verified, the miner that solved the block should have to pay out a fee of decaying size to miners that provide confirmations of block solutions and, separately, confirmations of computation.

Modular Design with Loose Coupling

The different aspects of Ethereum Economics (Issuance Model, Security Model, Transaction Fee Model, Computation Fee Model, …) should be, as completely as possible, loosely-coupled, individual modules. Modularity will enable us to more easily fix bugs with fewer side-effects on other modules, and it may enable us to upgrade each module on its own schedule. So, for instance we could upgrade the Security Model with an improved hybrid proof-of-work/stake algorithm when warranted, with no direct effect on the Computation Fee model.

Loose coupling can be achieved in different ways. It could imply the operations in one module are orthogonal to operations in others. It could imply queued message passing between modules instead of direct calls.

Terminology

Ether - Ether (ETH) is the token used on the Ethereum network as a unit of account. It can be considered the cryptofuel that powers the Ethereum Application Engine.

Ether Address - An ETH or Ethereum Address is a string of characters that ETH can be sent from and to in the Ethereum Network. It represents the public key of a cryptographic private/public key pair.
 * We may choose to call this an account rather than an address.***

Ether Address Balance - Unlike the Bitcoin network, balances are stored for each address, reducing the processing required to determine a balance.

Contract. A contract represents the executable program (sequence of computational instructions) that is associated with each Ether address.

Eth-ASM. A low-level language consisting of a set of op codes with RPN-based syntax for programming Ethereum contracts. Contracts are carried as a payload by transactions and specified in this language. Ethereum Nodes compile and execute the contracts. (This used to be called EtherScript.)

Eth-LLL. A higher-level LISP-Like Language (LLL) for programming Ethereum contracts. Ethereum Nodes compile and execute the contracts. This language will likely evolve greater and greater functionality over time.

Eth-HLL. A high-level Python-like language for programming Ethereum contracts. Ethereum Nodes compile and execute the contracts. This language will likely evolve greater and greater functionality over time.

Ethereum Virtual Machine -

Economic Actor. An economic actor is a person, company, organization, bot, or contract (autonomous or controlled) that possesses an Ether address and corresponding private key.

Transaction - A Transaction represents the transmission of ETH from one address to another address. Transactions may carry additional payload in the form of messages or contract code. Transactions update address balances.
 * Should we allow an address to send to itself??? ***
 * Should we rename transaction to “message?”

Block - A Block is a structure that binds together a set of zero or more transactions.

Node - A Node is a client on the Ethereum network that minimally receives and forwards transactions. Nodes may have various degrees of complexity from bare bones wallet-only functionality to a full processing and archiving node. A single code base is maintained in each implementation language that may be configured to implement a sliding scale of Node features.

Wallet Node - A Wallet Node is a client on the Ethereum network that receives and forwards transactions. It shows balances related to a set of relevant addresses. It does not represent contract state.

Lightweight Node - A Lightweight Node is a client on the Ethereum network that receives and forwards transactions. It shows balances related to a set of relevant addresses and though it does not perform and contract computation in can receive and present contract state from other nodes that have done the computation.

Non-Mining Full Node - In addition to receiving and forwarding transactions, a Non-Mining Full Node processes all contracts and stores data for solved blocks from the genesis block in perpetuity. Some block data that is no longer necessary for processing future transactions may be pruned. This type of node does not perform any mining work, but it may perform validation of block solutions.

Full Node - In addition to receiving and forwarding transactions, a Full Node processes all contracts and stores data for solved blocks from the genesis block in perpetuity. Some block data that is no longer necessary for processing future transactions may be pruned. This type of node performs mining work to find block solutions and to verify block solutions found by other nodes.

Archiving Node - In addition to receiving and forwarding transactions, an Archiving Node processes all contracts and stores all data for all solved blocks from the genesis block in perpetuity.

Blockchain - The blockchain is a mostly sequential, time-organized, graph of blocks. It has a single, sequential chain structure as its backbone in which blocks are linked serially to their single parent block all the way back in time to the first block, called the Genesis Block. There may be one or more child blocks linked to a parent, but there will only be one child for each parent that ends up as part of the “Main-Chain.” Other branch chains may grow but will ultimately be abandoned. These other chains constitute subtrees of the parent block and perform the valuable function of further securing the ancestry of the block that extends the Main-Chain beyond the parent block.

Blockchain Tree - The Blockchain Tree is a tree graph of blocks routed at the Genesis Block.

Blockchain Heads - A Blockchain Head is the set of all leaves of the Blockchain Tree.

Main-Chain

Difficulty

Miner/Refiner - refine electricity into ether

Mining/Refining Pool

Sub-Tree

Uncle Block

Cousin Block

Patricia-Merkle Trie

Distributed Application (DApp)

Tx Pool

State (utxo set)

Main-Chain Block Creation Rate

To be written.

Calculation of Difficulty

To be written.

Transactions and Computation Fee Model

Transaction fees and computation fees are different notions and both are present in the system. Transaction fees should be separate from computation fees since there may be many transactions that have no associated contract triggered.

Fees in the system are not burned (destroyed) but redistributed to miners, since miners are the ones who are paying the expenses for processing transactions and contracts.

Transaction fees will initially be fixed and determined by estimates of costs of network transmission, data storage, and data processing (facilities costs, hardware and electricity).

During the initial period in which transaction fees are fixed, they will initially be very small to encourage use of the Ethereum network. Even below cost transaction fees will likely be acceptable to miners since they will be making the bulk of their revenue on block rewards and they will likely be supportive of initiatives that support growth of the Ecosystem.

As soon as possible, transaction fees will be made variable with price levels being set by market mechanisms. Miners will choose what fees they are willing to accept for processing a given transaction based on the nature of the transaction and economic actors will decide what size fees they are willing to pay for processing a given transaction. These two forces will converge on a dynamic, market clearing price.

It may be prudent to divide transaction fees into transaction relay fees (transaction forwarding or broadcasting fees) and mining fees (incentive fees for miners to include transactions in a block).

Computation fees will initially be fixed and determined by estimates of costs of data storage, and data processing (facilities costs, hardware and electricity).

During the initial period in which computation fees are fixed, they will initially be very small to development of DApps on of the Ethereum application platform. This will enable DApps to have artificially low costs of doing business in the early stage of their endeavor, and may enable them to develop in a less expensive environment so that if/when computation costs grow, they will be more mature businesses with greater chance of maintaining viability. Even below cost computation fees will likely be acceptable to miners since they will be making the bulk of their revenue on block rewards and they will likely be supportive of initiatives that support growth of the Ecosystem.

Eventually computation fees will be variable with price levels being set by the market.

Block Creation Model

Miners will be free to choose which transactions to include in their block solutions based on a combination of transaction fees and computation fees. Ideally policies will be loose during the early stages system operation and will grow tighter and more competitive over time. During the “easy acceptance” period, the Ethereum Core and/or the Ethereum Accelerator Group can maintain a set of miners with very inclusive policies.

New main-chain blocks will be created at a target rate of one per minute.

Ether Issuance Model

Ether will be continually issued at a target rate of YYY per main-chain block.

Issued ether, transaction fees and computation fees will be distributed to the miner that solves the main-chain-extending block, as well as to uncles and cousins in that block's parents sub-tree. 2/3 of the block reward will go to the solving miner and 1/3 will be distributed evenly among the uncles and cousins that were in existence at the time the solution was broadcast.

Issued ether, transaction fees and computation fees will not be mature and spendable for 120 blocks after the creation of the block in which the are found.

Security Model

The Security Model will be modular. For each block miners will execute one or more hybrid Proof-of-Work/Proof-of-X algorithms from a predefined selection of algorithms. The algorithm(s) to be used for each block will be determined far (120 blocks) in advance of when block processing begins so all miners are using the same criteria. Ethereum can begin with a single proof-of-work algorithm and upgrade the Security Model to add selections over time.

Verifying Proof of Work

Should all nodes be paid for verifying proof of work done for a solved block?

Blockchain Extension Algorithm and Blockchain Network Topology

It has been shown (Accelerating Bitcoin’s Transaction Processing -- Fast Money Grows on Trees, Not Chains, Yonatan Sompolinsky, Aviv Zohar) for Bitcoin, that greater transaction processing rate can be achieved with increased security if shallow subtrees are built as branches off the main-chain and allowed to contribute confirmations. This is the Greedy Heaviest-Observed Sub-Tree (GHOST) Protocol. A modified version of this protocol will be used for the Ethereum blockchain. As described by Sompolinsky and Zohar, uncles and cousins are not rewarded for contributing to the security of the ancestry of the main-chain block to which they are related. It may prove useful to reward uncles and cousins in Ethereum’s version of GHOST.

Computation Model

Should all miners have to run all computations in a solved block? There should be a way to limit the percentage of miners that have to do the full computations. Or should we treat the computations themselves as part of the proof of work?

Could verifying the computations of the most recently solved block be included as part of the proof of work for the current block. In this case, all miners, even the miner that solved the block, should have to redo the computations, checkpointing the state several times along the way based on a random number derived from the block solution. This latter requirement would ensure that the miner that solved the block would have to redo the computations along with every other miner, for fairness.

Should miners focus first on proof of work and once a block solution is found, then the winning miner must execute all triggered computation and broadcast this as well, in order to get the block reward. Some mechanism would have to be crafted to verify the computation and could involve the uncles and cousins if they have a stake in verifying the current block. There should be punishment for computations done by the winning miner that cannot be validated by the uncles and cousins (and others should no uncles or cousins exist). One side effect of having the miner do computational work after the block is solved is to make it less likely that that miner will solved the next block. And forcing the uncles and cousins to verify the block computations, even while all other nodes are busy working on solving the next block, will make it unlikely that an uncle or cousin will be involved in the solution of the next block.

Mining Algorithm

Create a mining algorithm that makes the development of pooled mining inefficient, except for p2pool-type mining.

Mining Difficulty Adjustment

TBW

Relation of Computational Work to Mining Work

[2/28/14 8:50:09 PM] Vitalik Buterin: > what are the other reasons for keeping computation such a low % of hashing? [2/28/14 8:50:15 PM] Vitalik Buterin: blocks must be easy to verify

[2/28/14 9:04:24 PM] Robert Sams: Right. So I'm coming round to the view that fees aren't a public good problem after all, but an economy of scale problem (a node with higher hashing then average has a lower equilibrium marginal fee, so he forces the average node to compute unprofitably). Problem made negligible by making comp small. So we need to set minimum fee high enough to achieve that. So that's our goal? Target comp as a% of pow?

To ASIC or not to ASIC?

Should we try to develop an ASIC-hard security model, or should we assume that ASICs are good (and maybe inevitable) in that they reduce power consumption and increase computational efficiency. It may become important to have very fast nodes to accomplish all of the computation required on Ethereum without introducing transaction processing delays.

Under the pro-ASIC scenario the Ethereum Core (EthCore) can pay to design an optimized, open source ASIC and the Ethereum Accelerator Group (EAG) can possibly manufacture and sell these without a large markup. The issue then becomes: How does the EAG distribute them fairly? Open sourcing the designs enables multiple fabs to build and sell them, turning them into a commodity (especially if Ethereum is manufacturing them and selling them without attention to maximizing profits).

title: User:Dbabbitt/Sandbox


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User:Catalin~enwiki

I am a student from Romania, aged 21. I attend the Faculty of Business Administration (in English) at the Academy of Economic Studies in Bucharest. I am somewhat knowledgeable in the computer science, mathematics, the Java programming language etc. I guess this is enough for my first version of personal wikipedia page.

title: User:Catalin~enwiki


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Corinna

Corinna or Korinna (Κόριννα) was an ancient Greek lyric poet from Tanagra in Boeotia. Although ancient sources portray her as a contemporary of Pindar (born c. 518 BC), not all modern scholars accept the accuracy of this tradition. When she lived has been the subject of much debate since the early twentieth century, proposed dates ranging from the beginning of the fifth century to the late third century BC.

Corinna's works survive only in fragments: three substantial sections of poems are preserved on second-century AD papyri from Egypt; several shorter pieces survive in quotations by ancient grammarians. They focus on local Boeotian legends, and are distinctive for their mythological innovations. Corinna's poetry often reworks well-known myths to include details not known from any other sources. Though respected in her hometown, Tanagra, and popular in ancient Rome, modern critics have often regarded her as parochial and dull; her poetry is nonetheless of interest as she is one of the few female poets from ancient Greece whose work survives.

Life

Corinna was from Tanagra in Boeotia. The Suda, a tenth-century encyclopedia, records that she was the daughter of Acheloodorus and Procratia, and was nicknamed Myia (Μυῖα, "the fly"). According to ancient tradition, she lived during the fifth century BC. She was supposed to have been a contemporary of Pindar, either having taught him, or been a fellow-pupil of Myrtis of Anthedon with him. Corinna was said to have competed with Pindar, defeating him in at least one poetry competition, though some sources claim five.

Since the early twentieth century, scholars have been divided over the accuracy of the traditional chronology of Corinna's life. One of the first scholars to question this was Edgar Lobel, who in 1930 concluded that there is no reason to believe she predated the orthography used on the Berlin papyrus, on which fragments of two of her poems are preserved. The debate over Corinna's date has dominated scholarship since, and the evidence remains inconclusive. Sceptics of the traditional chronology argue that there is no ancient mention of Corinna before the first century BC, and that the orthography of her surviving poetry was not established until after the mid-fourth century. This is the most common view, with Martin Litchfield West and David A. Campbell among those who believe a late date for Corinna. Campbell concludes that a third-century date is "almost certain".

The alternative view, accepting the traditional fifth-century date, is set forth by scholars such as Archibald Allen and Jiří Frel. If the traditional date is correct, the lack of ancient reference to Corinna before the first century, and the later orthography, could both be explained by her being of only local interest before the Hellenistic period. According to this theory, when she was rediscovered and popularised in the Hellenistic period her poetry would have been re-spelled into contemporary Boeotian orthography, as her original fifth-century orthography was too unfamiliar to a third-century audience. An apparent terminus ante quem is established by the second-century AD theologian Tatian, who says in his Address to the Greeks that the fourth-century sculptor Silanion made a portrait-statue of Corinna. A Roman-era copy of a fourth-century statue in the Musée Vivenel in Compiègne, France, is identified by an inscription on the base as depicting Corinna, and is widely accepted by archeologists as a copy of Silanion's sculpture. Philologists continue to regard this attribution with what Thea S. Thorsen describes as "unwarranted scepticism". West, for instance, accepts that the Compiègne statuette is a copy of a fourth-century work, but suggests that it was not originally intended to depict Corinna, only gaining that association in the Roman period. Thorsen argues that the sculpture was always intended as an image of Corinna, noting that the figure is shown with five scrolls that match the five books of poetry attributed to Corinna in antiquity.

Poetry

Corinna, like Pindar, wrote choral lyric poetry – as demonstrated by her invocation of Terpsichore, the Muse of dance and chorus, in one of her fragments. According to the Suda, she wrote five books of poetry. Her works were collected in a Boeotian edition in the late third or early second century BC, and later Hellenistic and Roman texts of Corinna derived from this. This Boeotian edition was produced in a scholarly format, with titles for the poems; it may have also included accent marks and hypotheses, but is unlikely to have included line numbers.

Corinna wrote in a literary dialect, which had features of her Boeotian vernacular, along with similarities to the language of epic both in morphology and in her choice of words; Daniel Berman describes it as "epic written as Boeotian". If Corinna was a contemporary of Pindar, this use of the local vernacular as a literary language is archaic – though the earlier poets Alcman and Stesichorus wrote in literary dialects based on their own vernaculars, the fifth-century choral poets Pindar and Bacchylides both wrote in Doric despite it not being their local dialect. On the other hand, if she is to be located closer to the Hellenistic period, parallels can be found in the poetry of Theocritus, who also used features of his native dialect in the Idylls.

Poems
About forty fragments of Corinna's poetry survive, more than any ancient woman poet except for Sappho, though no complete poems of hers are known. The three most substantial fragments are preserved on pieces of papyrus discovered in Hermopolis and Oxyrhynchus in Egypt, dating to the second century AD; many of the shorter fragments survive in citations by grammarians interested in Corinna's Boeotian dialect.

Two fragments of Corinna's poetry are preserved on the same papyrus (P.Berol. 13284), now in the collection of the Berlin State Museums. The first of these tells the story of a singing contest between the mountains Cithaeron and Helicon. The surviving portion includes the ending of one of the mountain's songs, the gods voting on the winner of the contest, and the losing mountain, Helicon, throwing down a boulder in anger. The second poem preserved on this papyrus tells of the daughters of the river-god Asopus. It mostly consists of a prophet, Acraephen, telling Asopus how his daughters were abducted by the gods, and that they will go on to give birth to many heroes; the papyrus ends with a highly fragmentary portion in which Asopus appears to be reconciled to his daughters' fate, and he responds "happily". The third substantial fragment of Corinna's poetry, preserved on a papyrus in the Sackler Library of the University of Oxford (P.Oxy. 2370), invokes the muse of dance and choral poetry, Terpsichore. It is usually thought to be from a partheneion, a kind of poem performed by a chorus of young women for a public occasion. West suggests that it was written as an introductory poem for Corinna's collection.

Style

Corinna's language is clear, simple, and generally undecorated, and she tends to use simple metrical schemes. Her poetry focuses more on the narrative than on intricate use of language. Her use of lyric poetry to tell mythic narratives is similar to that of Stesichorus. Corinna's poetry is often ironic or humorous in tone, in contrast with the serious tone of her Boeotian compatriot Pindar.

Corinna's poetry is almost entirely concerned with myth. According to a story recounted by Plutarch in On the Glory of the Athenians, she considered myth the proper subject for poetry, rebuking Pindar for not paying sufficient attention to it. Pindar was said to have responded to this criticism by filling his next ode with mythical allusions, leading Corinna to advise him, "Sow with the hand, not with the sack." Corinna's poetry concentrates on local legends, with poems about Orion, Oedipus, and the Seven against Thebes. Her "Orestes" is possibly an exception to her focus on Boeotian legends. Her poetry often reworks mythological tradition – according to Derek Collins, "the most distinctive feature of Corinna's poetry is her mythological innovation" – frequently including details which are otherwise unknown. These reworkings often present gods and heroes in a more positive light than in more common versions of the myths.

Two of Corinna's most substantial fragments, the "Daughters of Asopus" and "Terpsichore" poems, demonstrate a strong interest in genealogy. This genealogical focus is reminiscent of the works of Hesiod, especially the Catalogue of Women, though other lost genealogical poetry is known from the archaic period – for instance by Asius of Samos and Eumelus of Corinth. The third major surviving fragment of Corinna's poetry, on the contest between Mount Cithaeron and Mount Helicon, seems also to have been influenced by Hesiod, who also wrote an account of this myth.

Marilyn B. Skinner argues that Corinna's poetry is part of the tradition of "women's poetry" in ancient Greece, though it differs significantly from Sappho's conception of that genre. She considers that although it was written by a woman, Corinna's poetry tells stories from a patriarchal point of view, describing women's lives from a masculine perspective. Anne Klinck suggests that "a certain feminine irony is detectable" in Corinna's works, and John Heath argues that in the "Terpsichore" poem Corinna deliberately emphasises her position as a woman poet. Diane Rayor argues that although Corinna's poetry does not directly challenge patriarchal traditions, it is still "woman-identified", focusing on women's experiences and being written for a female audience.

Performance context
The circumstances in which Corinna's poetry was performed are uncertain, and have been the subject of much scholarly debate. At least some of her poetry was probably performed for a mixed-gender audience, though some may have been intended for a specifically female audience. Skinner suggests that Corinna's songs were composed for performance by a chorus of young girls in religious festivals, and were related to the ancient genre of partheneia. The poems may have been performed at cult celebrations in the places which appear in her poetry. Possible settings include the Mouseia at Thespiae, proposed by West, and at the festival of the Daedala at Plataea, suggested by Gabriele Burzacchini.

Reception

Corinna was well-regarded by the people of ancient Tanagra, her hometown. Pausanias reports that there was a monument to her in the streets of the town – probably a statue – and a painting of her in the gymnasium. Tatian writes in his Address to the Greeks that Silanion had sculpted her. In the early Roman Empire, Corinna's poetry was popular. The earliest mention of Corinna is by the first-century BC poet Antipater of Thessalonica, who includes her in his selection of nine "mortal muses". Ovid gives his lover the pseudonym Corinna in his Amores, often believed to be a reference to the Tanagran poet. She is also named by Propertius as a model for Cynthia, and by Statius along with Callimachus, Lycophron, and Sophron. Alexander Polyhistor wrote a commentary on her work.

From the early modern period, the example of ancient Greek women writers has been used to legitimise the writing of modern women; Corinna has been invoked in this way by Gaspara Stampa and Madeleine de Scudéry. In the nineteenth century, Corinna was still remembered as a poetic authority, Karl Otfried Müller presenting her as a preeminent ancient poet and citing the stories of her competition against Pindar. Modern critics have tended to dismiss Corinna's work, considering it dull. For instance, West describes Corinna as more gifted than most local poets, but lacking the originality that would put her on the same level as Bacchylides or Pindar. Athanassios Vergados argues that Corinna's poor reception among modern critics is due to her focus on local Boeotian traditions rather than broader subject matter, giving her a reputation of parochialism and thus limited quality. More recently, critics have begun to see Corinna's poetry as engaging with Panhellenic mythical and literary traditions, rewriting them to give Boeotian characters a more prominent role. Corinna's work has also been of interest to feminist literary historians as one of the few extant examples of ancient Greek women's poetry.

title: Corinna