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Plate

Plate may refer to:

Cooking

 * Plate (dishware), a broad, mainly flat vessel commonly used to serve food
 * Plates, tableware, dishes or dishware used for setting a table, serving food and dining
 * Plate, the content of such a plate (for example: rice plate)
 * Plate, to present food, on a plate
 * Plate, a forequarter cut of beef

Places

 * Plate, Germany, a municipality in Parchim, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany
 * River Plate (disambiguation)
 * Tourelle de la Plate, a lighthouse in France

Biology and medicine

 * Plate (anatomy), several meanings
 * Dental plate, also known as dentures
 * Dynamic compression plate, a metallic plate used in orthopedics to fix bone
 * Microtiter plate (or microplate or microwell plate), a flat plate with multiple "wells" used as small test tubes
 * Petri dish or Petri plate, a shallow dish on which biological cultures may be grown and/or viewed

Geology

 * Tectonic plate, are pieces of Earth's crust and uppermost mantle, together referred to as the lithosphere
 * Plate tectonics, the study of the movement of such plates

Physics

 * Plate, a physical approximation of a theoretical plate in separation processes
 * Plate electrode, a type of electrode used in vacuum tubes
 * Plate (structure), a concept used in continuum mechanics as part of the plate theory
 * Plate trick, a mathematical demonstration of quaternions and particle spins
 * Wilhelmy plate, used to measure tension at an interface between air and a liquid or between two liquids

Construction

 * Anchor plate, a large plate connected to a tie rod or bolt for structural reinforcement
 * Sill plate, the bottom horizontal member of a wall or building to which vertical members are attached
 * Wall plate, a vertical component used in building construction

Electronics

 * Anodes, electrodes used in vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) and similar devices

Printing and photography

 * Photographic plate, a medium from which a photograph may be developed
 * Plate camera, an early type of camera that used photographic plates
 * Printing plate, a printing medium:
 * Plate, in Intaglio (printmaking), the direct opposite of a relief print
 * Plate, in lithography, a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water
 * Plate, a (part of a) "tipped-in page", a separately-printed page in a book used to carry one or more images

Transportation

 * Approach plate, a chart used by a pilot to perform an instrument approach and landing on a runway
 * Plate B, Plate C, ..., Plate H, different loading gauges used on North American railroads

Metal plates

 * Plate (metal), a rectangular flat metal stock that is more than 6 mm or 0.25 in thick, not as thin as sheet metal
 * Plate, an element of a folding machine
 * Plate armour, a body armor made from metal plates
 * Vehicle registration plate (license plate), a sign attached to a vehicle in order to identify it
 * L-plate (learner plate), a sign attached to a vehicle to indicate that the driver has a provisional driving license
 * Plated, item with a deposition of metallic layers

Sport

 * Home plate, a location on a baseball field
 * Several trophies, e.g.,
 * Annapolis Subscription Plate, in horse racing
 * County Championship Plate, in rugby union
 * Mandela Challenge Plate, in rugby union
 * Weight plate, a flat, heavy object, usually made of iron, used in strength training or weightlifting

Other uses

 * Plate (surname)
 * Plate, in heraldry, a Roundel argent (white/silver)

title: Plate


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User talk:Schusch

Questions are welcome, please use my discussion page on de-WP (in german or english)

Hey there! Welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like this place--I sure do--and want to stay. If you need help on how to title new articles check out Naming conventions, and for help on formatting the pages visit the manual of style. If you need help look at Help and The FAQ, plus if you can't find your answer there, check The Village pump or The Reference Desk! Happy Thanksgiving, Alexandros

Thanks
I don't even know how someone found it -- let alone why they would bother... Thanks, BCorr | Брайен 21:04, 25 Mar 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Schusch


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Duchy of Normandy

The Duchy of Normandy grew out of the 911 Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between King Charles III of West Francia and the Viking leader Rollo. The duchy was named for its inhabitants, the Normans.

From 1066 until 1204, as a result of the Norman Conquest of England, the dukes of Normandy were usually also kings of England, the only exceptions being Dukes Robert Curthose (1087–1106), Geoffrey Plantagenet (1144–1150), and Henry II (1150–1152), who became king of England in 1154.

In 1202, Philip II of France declared Normandy forfeit to him and seized it by force of arms in 1204. It remained disputed territory until the Treaty of Paris of 1259, when the English sovereign ceded his claim except for the Channel Islands; i.e., the Bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey, and their dependencies (including Sark).

In the Kingdom of France, the duchy was occasionally set apart as an appanage to be ruled by a member of the royal family. After 1469, however, it was permanently united to the royal domain, although the title was occasionally conferred as an honorific upon junior members of the royal family. The last French duke of Normandy in this sense was Louis-Charles, duke from 1785 to 1792.

The title "Duke of Normandy" continues to be used in an informal manner in the Channel Islands, to refer to the monarch of the United Kingdom. There is no definite end as to when the Duchy of Normandy (with its remnants in the Channel Islands) as a vassal of the English monarch became 'part' of the United Kingdom, with history blending the link between the two gradually. In official documents in Guernsey, the British monarch is entitled "Duke of Normandy", while in official documents in Jersey, the British monarch is ambiguously titled Sovereign.

In 1204, Normandy was transferred from England to France, with the exception of the Channel Islands, which were never incorporated into England. As such, although no form of the Duchy or its structure exists, there has never been a formal end to Norman state rule over the islands.

Origins
The first Viking attack up the Seine river took place in 820. By 911, the area had been raided many times and there were even small Viking settlements on the lower Seine. The text of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte has not survived. It is only known through the historian Dudo of Saint-Quentin, who was writing a century after the event. The exact date of the treaty is unknown, but it was likely in the autumn of 911. By the agreement, Charles III, king of the West Franks, granted to the Viking leader Rollo some lands along the lower Seine that were apparently already under Danish control. Whether Rollo himself was a Dane or a Norwegian is not known. For his part, Rollo agreed to defend the territory from other Vikings and that he and his men would convert to Christianity. Rollo's decision to convert and come to terms with the Franks came in the aftermath of his defeat at the battle of Chartres by Richard of Burgundy and Robert of Neustria (the future Robert I of France) earlier in 911.

The territory ceded to Rollo comprised the pagi of the Caux, Évrecin, Roumois and Talou. This was territory formerly known as the county of Rouen, and which would become Upper Normandy. A royal diploma of 918 confirms the donation of 911, using the verb adnuo ("I grant"). There is no evidence that Rollo owed any service or oath to the king for his lands, nor that there were any legal means for the king to take them back: they were granted outright. Likewise, Rollo does not seem to have been created a count or given comital authority, but later sagas refer to him as Rúðujarl (earl of Rouen).

In 924, King Radulf extended Rollo's county westward up to the river Vire, including the Bessin, where some Danes from England had settled not long before. In 933, King Radulf granted the Avranchin and Cotentin to Rollo's son and successor, William Longsword. These areas had been previously under Breton rule. The northern Cotentin had been settled by Norwegians coming from the region of the Irish Sea. There was initially much hostility between these Norwegian settlers and their new Danish overlords. These expansions brought the boundaries of Normandy roughly in line with those of the ecclesiastical province of Rouen.

The Norman polity had to contend with the Frankish and Breton systems of power that already existed in Normandy. In the early 10th century, Normandy was not a political or monetary unit. According to many academics, "the formation of a new aristocracy, monastic reform, episcopal revival, written bureaucracy, saints’ cults – with necessarily different timelines" were as important if not more than the ducal narrative espoused by Dudo. The formation of the Norman state also coincided with the creation of an origin myth for the Norman ducal family through Dudo, such as Rollo being compared to a "good pagan" like the Trojan hero Aeneas. Through this narrative, the Normans were assimilated closer to the Frankish core as they moved away from their pagan Scandinavian origins.

Norse settlement
There were two distinct patterns of Norse settlement in the duchy. In the Danish area in the Roumois and the Caux, settlers intermingled with the indigenous Gallo-Romance-speaking population. Rollo shared out the large estates with his companions and gave agricultural land to his other followers. Danish settlers cleared their own land to farm it, and there was no segregation of populations.

In the northern Cotentin on the other hand, the population was purely Norwegian. Coastal features bore Norse names as did the three pagi of Haga, Sarnes and Helganes (as late as 1027). The Norwegians may even have set up a þing, an assembly of all free men, whose meeting place may be preserved in the name of Le Tingland.

Within a few generations of the founding of Normandy in 911, however, the Scandinavian settlers had intermarried with the natives and adopted much of their culture. But in 911, Normandy was not a political nor monetary unit. Frankish culture remained dominant and according to some scholars, 10th century Normandy was characterized by a diverse Scandinavian population interacting with the "local Frankish matrix" that existed in the region. In the end, the Normans stressed assimilation with the local population. In the 11th century, the anonymous author of the Miracles of Saint Wulfram referred to the formation of a Norman identity as "shaping [of] all races into one single people".

According to some historians, the idea of "Norman" as a political identity was a deliberate creation of the court of Richard I in the 960s as a way to "create a powerful if rather incoherent sense of group solidarity to galvanize the duchy's disparate elites around the duke".

Norman rule

Starting with Rollo, Normandy was ruled by an enduring and long-lived Viking dynasty. Illegitimacy was not a bar to succession and three of the first six rulers of Normandy were illegitimate sons of concubines. Rollo's successor, William Longsword, managed in expanding his domain and came into conflict with Arnulf of Flanders, who had him assassinated in 942. This led to a crisis in Normandy, with a minor succeeding as Richard I, and also led to a temporary revival of Norse paganism in Normandy. Richard I's son, Richard II, was the first to be styled duke of Normandy, the ducal title becoming established between 987 and 1006.

The Norman dukes created the most powerful, consolidated duchy in Western Europe between the years 980, when the dukes helped place Hugh Capet on the French throne, and 1050. Scholarly churchmen were brought into Normandy from the Rhineland, and they built and endowed monasteries and supported monastic schools, thus helping to integrate distant territories into a wider framework. The dukes imposed heavy feudal burdens on the ecclesiastical fiefs, which supplied the armed knights that enabled the dukes to control the restive lay lords but whose bastards could not inherit. By the mid-11th century the Duke of Normandy could count on more than 300 armed and mounted knights from his ecclesiastical vassals alone. By the 1020s the dukes were able to impose vassalage on the lay nobility as well. Until Richard II, the Norman rulers did not hesitate to call Viking mercenaries for help to get rid of their enemies around Normandy, such as the king of the Franks himself. Olaf Haraldsson crossed the Channel in such circumstances to support Richard II in the conflict against the count of Chartres and was baptized in Rouen in 1014.

In 1066, Duke William defeated Harold II of England at the Battle of Hastings and was subsequently crowned King of England, through the Norman conquest of England. Anglo-Norman and French relations became complicated after the Norman Conquest. The Norman dukes retained control of their holdings in Normandy as vassals owing fealty to the King of France, but they were his equals as kings of England. Serfdom was outlawed around 1100.

From 1154 until 1214, with the creation of the Angevin Empire, the Angevin kings of England controlled half of France and all of England, dwarfing the power of the French king, yet the Angevins were still de jure French vassals.

The Duchy remained part of the Angevin Empire until 1204, when Philip II of France conquered the continental lands of the Duchy, which became part of the royal domain. The English sovereigns continued to claim them until the Treaty of Paris (1259) but in fact kept only the Channel Islands. Having little confidence in the loyalty of the Normans, Philip installed French administrators and built a powerful fortress, the Château de Rouen, as a symbol of royal power.

French appanage
Although within the royal demesne, Normandy retained some specificity. Norman law continued to serve as the basis for court decisions. In 1315, faced with the constant encroachments of royal power on the liberties of Normandy, the barons and towns pressed the Norman Charter on the king. This document did not provide autonomy to the province but protected it against arbitrary royal acts. The judgments of the Exchequer, the main court of Normandy, were declared final. This meant that Paris could not reverse a judgment of Rouen. Another important concession was that the King of France could not raise a new tax without the consent of the Normans. However the charter, granted at a time when royal authority was faltering, was violated several times thereafter when the monarchy had regained its power.

The Duchy of Normandy survived mainly by the intermittent installation of a duke. In practice, the King of France sometimes gave that portion of his kingdom to a close member of his family, who then did homage to the king. Philippe VI made Jean, his eldest son and heir to his throne, the Duke of Normandy. In turn, Jean II appointed his heir, Charles.

In 1465, Louis XI was forced by the League of the Public Weal to cede the duchy to his eighteen-year-old brother, Charles de Valois. This concession was a problem for the king since Charles was the puppet of the king's enemies. Normandy could thus serve as a basis for rebellion against the royal power. In 1469, therefore, Louis XI convinced his brother under duress to exchange Normandy for the Duchy of Guyenne (Aquitaine). Finally, at the request of the cowed Estates of Normandy and to signify that the duchy would not be ceded again, at a session of the Norman Exchequer on 9 November 1469 the ducal ring was placed on an anvil and smashed. Philippe de Commynes expressed what was probably a common Norman thought of the time: "It has always seemed good to the Normans and still does that their great duchy really should require a duke" (A tousjours bien semblé aux Normands et faict encores que si grand duchié comme la leur requiert bien un duc).

Dauphin Louis Charles, the second son of Louis XVI, was again given the nominal title of 'Duke of Normandy' before the death of his elder brother in 1789.

Modern usage

In the Channel Islands, the British monarch is known informally as the "Duke of Normandy", irrespective of whether or not the holder is male (as in the case of Queen Elizabeth II who was known by this title). The Channel Islands are the last remaining part of the former Duchy of Normandy to remain under the rule of the British monarch. Although the English monarchy relinquished claims to continental Normandy and other French claims in 1259 (in the Treaty of Paris), the Channel Islands (except for Chausey under French sovereignty) remain Crown dependencies of the British throne.

In the islanders' loyal toast, they say, "The Duke of Normandy, our King", or "The King, our Duke", "L'Rouai, nouotre Duc" or "L'Roué, note Du" in Norman (Jèrriais and Guernésiais respectively), or "Le Roi, notre Duc" in Standard French, rather than simply "The King", as is the practice in the United Kingdom.

"Queen Elizabeth II is often referred to by her traditional and conventional title of Duke of Normandy. However ... she is not the Duke in a constitutional capacity and instead governs in her right as Queen ... This notwithstanding, it is a matter of local pride for monarchists to treat the situation otherwise: the Loyal Toast at formal dinners is to "The Queen, our Duke" rather than "Her Majesty, the Queen" as in the UK."

The title 'Duke of Normandy' is not used in formal government publications, and, as a matter of Channel Islands law, does not exist.

The British historian Ben Pimlott noted that while Queen Elizabeth II was on a visit to mainland Normandy in May 1967, French locals began to doff their hats and shout "Vive la Duchesse!", to which the Queen supposedly replied "Well, I am the Duke of Normandy!"

Governors
Below is a list of the seneschals (sénéchal de Normandie) and governors of Normandy (gouverneur de Normandie) during its time as a French province.

 * Guillaume Crespin or du Bec-Crespin, lord of Bec and Mauny
 * 1451–1460: Pierre de Brézé, lord of the Varenne and Brissac, count of Maulévrier
 * 1460–1464: Louis d'Estouteville
 * 1475–1494: Jacques de Brézé, lord of Bec-Crespin and Mauny, count of Maulévier
 * 1494–1499: Louis de Brézé, lord of Bec-Crespin, Mauny, and Anet, count of Maulévrier

 * 9 May 1661 – 1726: Charles François Frédéric de Montmorency, Duke of Piney
 * 1726 – 18 May 1764: Marshal of France Charles François Frédéric de Montmorency II, Duke of Piney
 * 15 June 1764 – 1775: Marshal of France Anne-Pierre, Duke of Harcourt
 * 17 September 1775 – 1 January 1791: François Henri, Duke of Harcourt

Law
There are traces of Scandinavian law in the customary laws of Normandy, which were first written down in the 13th century. A charter of 1050, listing several pleas before Duke William II, refers to the penalty of banishment as ullac (from Old Norse útlagr). The word was still current in the 12th century, when it was used in the Roman de Rou. Marriage more danico ("in the Danish manner"), that is, without any ecclesiastical ceremony in accordance with old Norse custom, was recognised as legal in Normandy and in the Norman church. The first three dukes of Normandy all practised it.

Scandinavian influence is especially apparent in laws relating to waters. The duke possessed the droit de varech (from Old Danish vrek), the right to all shipwrecks. He also had a monopoly on whale and sturgeon. A similar monopoly belonged to the Danish king in the Jutlandic law of 1241. Remarkably, whale (including dolphins) and sturgeon still belong to the monarch in the United Kingdom in the twenty-first century, as royal fish. The Norman Latin terms for whalers (valmanni, from hvalmenn) and whaling station (valseta, from hvalmannasetr) both derive from Old Norse. Likewise, fishing in Normandy seems to have come under Scandinavian rules. A charter of 1030 uses the term fisigardum (from Old Norse fiskigarðr) for "fisheries", a term also found in the Scanian law of c. 1210.

There is no surviving reference to the hirð or the leiðangr in Normandy, but the latter probably existed. The surname Huscaille, first attested in 1263, probably derives from húskarl, but is late evidence for the existence of a hirð in the 10th century.

title: Duchy of Normandy


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Spinifex

Spinifex may refer to:
 * Spinifex (coastal grass), a genus of grasses growing on coastal dunes in Asia and Australasia
 * Triodia (plant), a genus of grasses of inland Australia, commonly known as spinifexes
 * Spinifex, a texture in certain ultramafic lavas such as komatiite

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User talk:SWAMINARAYAN

Hey there! Welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like this place--I sure do--and want to stay. If you need help on how to title new articles check out Naming conventions, and for help on formatting the pages visit the manual of style. If you need help look at Help and The FAQ, plus if you can't find your answer there, check The Village pump or The Reference Desk! Happy Thanksgiving! Alexandros

title: User talk:SWAMINARAYAN


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Talk:Primipilus

This should be integrated into an article on Roman armies, and the article redirected to there IMO.

title: Talk:Primipilus


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Young Offenders Act

The Young Offenders Act (YOA; Loi sur les jeunes contrevenants) was an act of the Parliament of Canada, granted Royal Assent in 1982 and proclaimed in force on April 2, 1984, that regulated the criminal prosecution of Canadian youths. The act was repealed in 2003 with the passing of the Youth Criminal Justice Act.

The Act established the national age of criminal responsibility at 12 years old, and said that youths can be prosecuted only if they break a law of the Criminal Code (previously, youths could be prosecuted or punished solely on the grounds that it was in the youth's best interests).

The Act also indicated that the rights established in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms apply to youths as well.

Controversy dogged the act for many years. Many felt that the Act's limit on a three-year detention sentence for youths was overly lax, and allowed youths to get unreasonably light sentences for murder or sexual assault. This maximum was repeatedly increased until in 1996 it was extended to a maximum of ten years. That same year, a provision was also made to allow 16-year-olds to be tried as adults in certain cases. Critics contended that this was too harsh, as it made youths possible victims of life sentences.

The Act also drew much criticism from the public for not charging young offenders under the age of 12 years, and for banning publication of the identities of youths who commit criminal acts, contending that the number of violent crimes committed by youths has dramatically increased, as has the number of repeat young offenders, since the act was passed. The demands by the Canadian public for changes for the better in dealing with youth crime, particularly in the wake of the beating and attempted murder in 1999 of then-15-year-old Jonathan Wambach in Newmarket, Ontario by a gang of teenagers, led to the introduction of the Youth Criminal Justice Act to replace the Young Offenders Act.

The Act replaced the earlier Juvenile Delinquents Act enacted in 1908.

title: Young Offenders Act


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Columbine High School

Columbine High School (CHS) is a public high school in Columbine, Colorado, United States, in the Denver metropolitan area. It is part of the Jefferson County Public Schools district.

In 1999, it became the scene of an infamous mass shooting, where 12 students and one teacher were murdered by senior students Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold before the pair committed suicide.

History
Columbine High School opened in 1973 with a capacity for 1,652 students. It was named after the surrounding community of Columbine, which in turn was named after the state flower of Colorado: the columbine. The school's first principal was Gerald Difford. There was no senior class during the school's first year; its first graduating class was in 1975. The school colors were selected through a vote by students at Ken Caryl Junior High School and Bear Creek High School, who were the first to attend Columbine High School when it opened in 1973.

The school has undergone significant renovations since it first opened: in 1995, with the addition of a new cafeteria and library; in 1999–2000, with interior renovations to the corridors, cafeteria, and former library; and in the early 2000s, with the addition of the new HOPE Columbine Memorial Library and a memorial on the site.

Massacre
Columbine High School was the site of one of the deadliest mass shootings in modern United States history. The shootings occurred on April 20, 1999, when senior students Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold opened fire and killed 12 students and a teacher, and wounded 24 others, 21 of them by gunfire, before they both committed suicide in the library. The massacre made headlines both nationally and internationally, making Columbine a household name, and causing a moral panic in U.S. high schools. It was the deadliest high school shooting in U.S. history until it was surpassed by the Parkland high school shooting on February 14, 2018, in which 17 people were killed.

After the shooting, classes at Columbine were held at nearby Chatfield Senior High for the remaining three weeks of that school year.

The school went through a major renovation in 1995, just four years before the massacre, adding a new library and cafeteria. After the shootings, Columbine completely demolished its library, located above the cafeteria, since it was the site where the majority of the deaths occurred. The site was then turned into a memorial ceiling and atrium; a new, larger library was built on the hill where the shooting began and dedicated to the memory of the victims.

By 2019, the school remained a "macabre tourist attraction" for those fascinated by the massacre, with hundreds stopped annually caught trespassing on the grounds or trying to enter the buildings. In June 2019, the superintendent of Jefferson County Public Schools proposed tearing down the school and rebuilding it more securely to lessen its "morbid fascination".

2019 Shooting threat
On April 15, 2019, 18-year old Sol Pais bought three one-way tickets from Miami International Airport to Denver, Colorado. After arriving in Colorado, Pais bought a Pump-action shotgun and ammunition from a dealer she had previously been in contact with.

On April 16, the captain of the Miami Beach Police Department alerted agents with the FBI field office in Miami about a "potential school shooter who is infatuated with Columbine shooter Eric Harris". Shortly after Pais was reported missing, investigators gained access to Pais' email, which revealed information for the gun sellers Pais had contacted in Florida. The FBI contacted Pais' Uber driver, who described Pais as cheerful and fluent in Spanish, and had "travelled to Colorado for recreation and was excited to see snow".

At this point, the FBI decided to alert the public due to the danger of a copycat 20th anniversary shooting around April 20 at or near Columbine High School, although April 20 that year was a Saturday. After the manhunt became public, it quickly made national headlines, and hundreds of people called the FBI claiming they had seen Pais panhandling, buying a gun or actually outside of Columbine High School. Columbine High School went on lockdown on the afternoon of April 16, and was dismissed normally at the end of the day. With the FBI finding no trace of Pais by the end of the day, Columbine and several dozen schools closed for the day, keeping more than 500,000 students across the state home.

According to Pais' autopsy, however, Pais was already deceased before the manhunt even started on April 15. She had taken about a 40-minute Uber drive from DIA to a mall, and then purchased a shotgun and ammunition from the dealer she had been in contact with previously, before taking another Uber ride from the gun shop "into the mountains" near Mount Evans. According to this Uber driver, Pais "had no food or water and only minimal clothing," and had a "green rifle case" with a "bird hunting gun". Pais apparently committed suicide by gunshot to the head later that night.

Attendance zone
Its attendance zone includes the Columbine CDP.

Notable students

 * Darrel Akerfelds – Major League Baseball pitcher playing with the Oakland Athletics, Cleveland Indians, Texas Rangers and Philadelphia Phillies from 1986 through 1991
 * Sera Cahoone – singer-songwriter
 * Skip Ewing – country songwriter and artist
 * Wes Hart – MLS player who last played for the San Jose Earthquakes
 * Allan Kayser – actor who played "Bubba" in the sitcom Mama's Family
 * Sue Manteris – newscaster on Las Vegas TV media and channel 3; played CNN reporter Sue Tripathi in Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous
 * Todd Park Mohr – guitarist and vocalist of Big Head Todd and the Monsters
 * Patrick Neville – politician
 * Carlos Samour - Associate Justice of the Colorado Supreme Court
 * Jeanie Schroder – member of DeVotchKa
 * Longmont Potion Castle – comedian and musician known for albums of recorded absurdist prank calls
 * Woody Kincaid – American long-distance runner for Bowerman Track Club

Perpetrators

 * Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold

Victims

 * Rachel Scott – the first of the 13 victims killed in the massacre; the youth program Rachel's Challenge was created in her memory
 * Cassie Bernall – one of the 13 victims killed in the massacre
 * Austin Eubanks – motivational speaker on drug addiction and recovery, and injured survivor of the Columbine High School massacre

title: Columbine High School


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User:Mngojery

Mngojery is interested in the Astor family and is hoping to write the biography of Vincent Astor's life, since there is not one!

title: User:Mngojery


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Piano Quintet (Brahms)

The Piano Quintet in F minor, Op. 34, by Johannes Brahms was completed during the summer of 1864 and published in 1865. It was dedicated to Her Royal Highness Princess Anna of Hesse. As with most piano quintets composed after Robert Schumann's Piano Quintet (1842), it is written for piano and string quartet (two violins, viola and cello).

The work, "often called the crown of his chamber music," began life as a string quintet (completed in 1862 and scored for two violins, viola, and two cellos). Brahms transcribed the quintet into a sonata for two pianos (in which form Brahms and Carl Tausig performed it) before giving it its final form. Brahms destroyed the original version for string quintet, but published the Sonata as Op. 34b. As a piano quintet, it was given its premiere on 22 June 1866, at the Leipzig Conservatory.

The outer movements are more adventurous than usual in terms of harmony and are unsettling in effect. The introduction to the finale, with its rising figure in semitones, is especially remarkable. Piano and strings play an equally important role throughout this work, which Swafford notes for its "unity of expression" and a consistently dark mood: "at times anguished, at times (in the scherzo) demonic, at times tragic."

Structure
The piece is in four movements: 1. Allegro non troppo (F minor)

2. Andante, un poco adagio (A♭ major)

3. Scherzo: Allegro (C minor → C major, trio in C major)

4. Finale: Poco sostenuto – Allegro non troppo – Presto, non troppo (F minor)

First movement
This movement begins with a unison theme in all instruments. It is in sonata form with the exposition concluding in the major-mode submediant (D♭), which is approached through a second subject in its enharmonic parallel minor (C♯). The first theme's heavy emphasis on D♭ prepares and smooths out this modulation, as well as its reversal with the approach to the expositional repeat. It is notable that Brahms' other F minor sonata-form first movements – from the Sonata Op. 5 and the Clarinet Sonata Op. 120/1 – also have an expositional goal of D♭ major, and both also are followed by a slow movement in A♭ major.

In the recapitulation, the bridge and first half of the second theme are transposed by a fifth, with the latter beginning in F♯ minor, before the tonic key is restored halfway through. A peaceful post-recapitulory coda in F major is cut short by a return to the stormy first theme.

Second movement
This calm movement is in A♭ major, with a second theme in E major – enharmonically a major third lower, as in the first movement.

Third movement
This movement is in ternary form (ABA) with A being a scherzo in C minor (with a secondary theme in C major and E♭ major) and B being a trio in C major.

This movement shows the influence of Franz Schubert's String Quintet. Like Schubert's masterpiece, this movement is also in C minor/major, and ends in the same manner as Schubert's finale, with strong emphasis on the flat supertonic D♭, before the final tonic C.

Fourth movement
The last movement "begins slowly and gropingly," with "the most melancholy moments in the entire work." An introduction begins this movement, which is harmonically reminiscent of Beethoven's late string quartets. After a cadence on the dominant C, the cello introduces the first theme of the sonata-allegro, which owes its simplicity to Brahms's interest in Hungarian folk music and also resembles the opening of the finale of Schubert's "Grand Duo" for piano four-hands. A vociferous, stormy bridge connects the first theme to the second theme, which is in the minor-mode dominant key (C). The expositional closing theme, a jerky version of the first theme, leads into the recapitulation, which involves a developmental episode that emphasises the parallel major. The end of the recapitulation leads into a grave, quiet section in the initial tempo of the introduction, but it is arguably a simple reworking of the expositional closing theme (albeit in F minor). This short section modulates to C♯ minor, which, if it pertains to D♭ major of the first movement (as it is the parallel minor), may symbolize the musical odyssey of the entire piece. The tempo is presto for this greatly extended coda in F minor, which develops a new theme as well as the second theme of the sonata allegro section, and ultimately culminates in an unrelenting outburst of fiery passion, providing an intense conclusion for the entire piece.

Arrangements
Composer Robin Holloway arranged the Brahms Piano Quintet for full orchestra in 2008. A live 2014 performance can be heard on the NPK Radio website. A cd recording was made in 2023 by Paul Mann conducting the BBC Symphony Orchestra on the Toccata Classics label. The arrangement was called Symphony in F, Op. 34.

Composer Nick Norton has also arranged the piece for piano and orchestra.

title: Piano Quintet (Brahms)


text:
Talk:Vincent Astor

Neutrality
Anyone have a problem with the way that the original author inserts their own commentary (ungangly?, vain?)? It sound rather "tabloidy." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 151.196.98.125 (talk) 10:14, 26 July 2006

I do --142.255.42.143 (talk) 03:59, 25 February 2015 (UTC)

Photo
There's the photo of the townhouse on East 80th St. with no mention in the article. Whose townhouse is it, who lived there and when? 108.244.74.98 (talk) 09:02, 1 February 2017 (UTC)
 * Looking at the description in File:Jr League 130 E80 jeh.JPG, it appears that Astor himself once lived there, but it doesn't say when. I've removed it regardless as it didn't really benefit the article. Snuggums (talk / edits) 13:47, 1 February 2017 (UTC)

His fathers death on the Titanic
The death of Vincent Astor's death on the Titanic is also described on the Wiki page of his father confirming the claims of Celebrity Worth.
 * You'd be better off using citations from his dad's article. Celebrity Net Worth isn't something we can rely on when they often give dubious figures. SNUGGUMS (talk / edits) 00:37, 11 May 2022 (UTC)

 * Thank you, that's what I did. Zacherystaylor (talk) 00:47, 11 May 2022 (UTC)
 * These are much better, and I have no objections to implementing them. SNUGGUMS (talk / <b style="color:#009900">edits</b>)

title: Talk:Vincent Astor


text:
User talk:Mngojery

Hey there! Welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like this place--I sure do--and want to stay. If you need help on how to title new articles check out Naming conventions, and for help on formatting the pages visit the manual of style. If you need help look at Help and The FAQ, plus if you can't find your answer there, check The Village pump or The Reference Desk! Happy Thanksgiving! I am sure lots of people are interested in Vincent Astor Alexandros

title: User talk:Mngojery


text:
List of municipalities of Cameroon

This is the list of cities, towns, and villages in the country of Cameroon:

Villages

 * Bodo
 * Goura, Centre Region
 * Goura, Far North Region
 * Ngoila
 * Nkuv
 * Mmuock Leteh
 * Babungo
 * Baba
 * Babessi
 * Bangolan
 * Bamunka

title: List of municipalities of Cameroon


text:
Synchrotron light source

A synchrotron light source is a source of electromagnetic radiation (EM) usually produced by a storage ring, for scientific and technical purposes. First observed in synchrotrons, synchrotron light is now produced by storage rings and other specialized particle accelerators, typically accelerating electrons. Once the high-energy electron beam has been generated, it is directed into auxiliary components such as bending magnets and insertion devices (undulators or wigglers) in storage rings and free electron lasers. These supply the strong magnetic fields perpendicular to the beam that are needed to stimulate the high energy electrons to emit photons.

The major applications of synchrotron light are in condensed matter physics, materials science, biology and medicine. A large fraction of experiments using synchrotron light involve probing the structure of matter from the sub-nanometer level of electronic structure to the micrometer and millimeter levels important in medical imaging. An example of a practical industrial application is the manufacturing of microstructures by the LIGA process.

Synchrotron is one of the most expensive kinds of light source known, but it is practically the only viable luminous source of wide-band radiation in far infrared wavelength range for some applications, such as far-infrared absorption spectrometry.

Spectral brightness
The primary figure of merit used to compare different sources of synchrotron radiation has been referred to as the "brightness", the "brilliance", and the "spectral brightness", with the latter term being recommended as the best choice by the Working Group on Synchrotron Nomenclature. Regardless of the name chosen, the term is a measure of the total flux of photons in a given six-dimensional phase space per unit bandwidth (BW).

The spectral brightness is given by

 * $$B = \frac{\dot N_\text{ph}}{4 \pi^2 \sigma_x \sigma_y \sigma_{x'} \sigma_{y'} \frac{d\omega}{\omega}},$$

where $$\dot N_\text{ph}$$ is the number of photons per second in the beam, $$\sigma_x$$ and $$\sigma_y$$ are the root mean square values for the size of the beam in the axes perpendicular to the beam direction, $$\sigma_{x'}$$ and $$\sigma_{y'}$$ are the RMS values for the beam solid angle in the x and y dimensions, and $\frac{d\omega}{\omega}$ is the relative bandwidth, or spread in beam frequency around the central frequency. The customary value for bandwidth is 0.1%.

Spectral brightness has units of time−1⋅distance−2⋅angle−2⋅(% bandwidth)−1.

Properties of sources
Especially when artificially produced, synchrotron radiation is notable for its:
 * High brilliance, many orders of magnitude more than with X-rays produced in conventional X-ray tubes: 3rd-generation sources typically have a brilliance larger than 1018 photons·s−1·mm−2·mrad−2/(0.1%BW), where 0.1%BW denotes a bandwidth 10−3ω centered around the frequency ω.
 * High level of polarization (linear, elliptical or circular).
 * High collimation, i.e. small angular divergence of the beam.
 * Low emittance, i.e. the product of source cross-section and solid angle of emission is small.
 * Wide tunability in energy/wavelength by monochromatization (sub-electronvolt up to the megaelectronvolt range).
 * Pulsed light emission (pulse durations at or below one nanosecond, or a billionth of a second)..

Synchrotron radiation from accelerators
Synchrotron radiation may occur in accelerators either as a nuisance, causing undesired energy loss in particle physics contexts, or as a deliberately produced radiation source for numerous laboratory applications. Electrons are accelerated to high speeds in several stages to achieve a final energy that is typically in the gigaelectronvolt range. The electrons are forced to travel in a closed path by strong magnetic fields. This is similar to a radio antenna, but with the difference that the relativistic speed changes the observed frequency due to the Doppler effect by a factor $$\gamma$$. Relativistic Lorentz contraction bumps the frequency by another factor of $$\gamma$$, thus multiplying the gigahertz frequency of the resonant cavity that accelerates the electrons into the X-ray range. Another dramatic effect of relativity is that the radiation pattern is distorted from the isotropic dipole pattern expected from non-relativistic theory into an extremely forward-pointing cone of radiation. This makes synchrotron radiation sources the most brilliant known sources of X-rays. The planar acceleration geometry makes the radiation linearly polarized when observed in the orbital plane, and circularly polarized when observed at a small angle to that plane.

The advantages of using synchrotron radiation for spectroscopy and diffraction have been realized by an ever-growing scientific community, beginning in the 1960s and 1970s. In the beginning, accelerators were built for particle physics, and synchrotron radiation was used in "parasitic mode" when bending magnet radiation had to be extracted by drilling extra holes in the beam pipes. The first storage ring commissioned as a synchrotron light source was Tantalus, at the Synchrotron Radiation Center, first operational in 1968. As accelerator synchrotron radiation became more intense and its applications more promising, devices that enhanced the intensity of synchrotron radiation were built into existing rings. Third-generation synchrotron radiation sources were conceived and optimized from the outset to produce brilliant X-rays. Fourth-generation sources that will include different concepts for producing ultrabrilliant, pulsed time-structured X-rays for extremely demanding and also probably yet-to-be-conceived experiments are under consideration.

Bending electromagnets in accelerators were first used to generate this radiation, but to generate stronger radiation, other specialized devices – insertion devices – are sometimes employed. Current (third-generation) synchrotron radiation sources are typically reliant upon these insertion devices, where straight sections of the storage ring incorporate periodic magnetic structures (comprising many magnets in a pattern of alternating N and S poles – see diagram above) which force the electrons into a sinusoidal or helical path. Thus, instead of a single bend, many tens or hundreds of "wiggles" at precisely calculated positions add up or multiply the total intensity of the beam.

These devices are called wigglers or undulators. The main difference between an undulator and a wiggler is the intensity of their magnetic field and the amplitude of the deviation from the straight line path of the electrons.

There are openings in the storage ring to let the radiation exit and follow a beam line into the experimenters' vacuum chamber. A great number of such beamlines can emerge from modern third-generation synchrotron radiation sources.

Storage rings
The electrons may be extracted from the accelerator proper and stored in an ultrahigh vacuum auxiliary magnetic storage ring where they may circle a large number of times. The magnets in the ring also need to repeatedly recompress the beam against Coulomb (space charge) forces tending to disrupt the electron bunches. The change of direction is a form of acceleration and thus the electrons emit radiation at GeV energies.

Applications of synchrotron radiation

 * Synchrotron radiation of an electron beam circulating at high energy in a magnetic field leads to radiative self-polarization of electrons in the beam (Sokolov–Ternov effect). This effect is used for producing highly polarised electron beams for use in various experiments.
 * Synchrotron radiation sets the beam sizes (determined by the beam emittance) in electron storage rings via the effects of radiation damping and quantum excitation.

Beamlines
At a synchrotron facility, electrons are usually accelerated by a synchrotron, and then injected into a storage ring, in which they circulate, producing synchrotron radiation, but without gaining further energy. The radiation is projected at a tangent to the electron storage ring and captured by beamlines. These beamlines may originate at bending magnets, which mark the corners of the storage ring; or insertion devices, which are located in the straight sections of the storage ring. The spectrum and energy of X-rays differ between the two types. The beamline includes X-ray optical devices which control the bandwidth, photon flux, beam dimensions, focus, and collimation of the rays. The optical devices include slits, attenuators, crystal monochromators, and mirrors. The mirrors may be bent into curves or toroidal shapes to focus the beam. A high photon flux in a small area is the most common requirement of a beamline. The design of the beamline will vary with the application. At the end of the beamline is the experimental end station, where samples are placed in the line of the radiation, and detectors are positioned to measure the resulting diffraction, scattering or secondary radiation.

Experimental techniques and usage
Synchrotron light is an ideal tool for many types of research in materials science, physics, and chemistry and is used by researchers from academic, industrial, and government laboratories. Several methods take advantage of the high intensity, tunable wavelength, collimation, and polarization of synchrotron radiation at beamlines which are designed for specific kinds of experiments. The high intensity and penetrating power of synchrotron X-rays enables experiments to be performed inside sample cells designed for specific environments. Samples may be heated, cooled, or exposed to gas, liquid, or high pressure environments. Experiments which use these environments are called in situ and allow the characterization of atomic- to nano-scale phenomena which are inaccessible to most other characterization tools. In operando measurements are designed to mimic the real working conditions of a material as closely as possible.

Diffraction and scattering
X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scattering experiments are performed at synchrotrons for the structural analysis of crystalline and amorphous materials. These measurements may be performed on powders, single crystals, or thin films. The high resolution and intensity of the synchrotron beam enables the measurement of scattering from dilute phases or the analysis of residual stress. Materials can be studied at high pressure using diamond anvil cells to simulate extreme geologic environments or to create exotic forms of matter.

X-ray crystallography of proteins and other macromolecules (PX or MX) are routinely performed. Synchrotron-based crystallography experiments were integral to solving the structure of the ribosome; this work earned the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2009.

The size and shape of nanoparticles are characterized using small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). Nano-sized features on surfaces are measured with a similar technique, grazing-incidence small angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS). In this and other methods, surface sensitivity is achieved by placing the crystal surface at a small angle relative to the incident beam, which achieves total external reflection and minimizes the X-ray penetration into the material.

The atomic- to nano-scale details of surfaces, interfaces, and thin films can be characterized using techniques such as X-ray reflectivity (XRR) and crystal truncation rod (CTR) analysis. X-ray standing wave (XSW) measurements can also be used to measure the position of atoms at or near surfaces; these measurements require high-resolution optics capable of resolving dynamical diffraction phenomena.

Amorphous materials, including liquids and melts, as well as crystalline materials with local disorder, can be examined using X-ray pair distribution function analysis, which requires high energy X-ray scattering data.

By tuning the beam energy through the absorption edge of a particular element of interest, the scattering from atoms of that element will be modified. These so-called resonant anomalous X-ray scattering methods can help to resolve scattering contributions from specific elements in the sample.

Other scattering techniques include energy dispersive X-ray diffraction, resonant inelastic X-ray scattering, and magnetic scattering.

Spectroscopy
X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) is used to study the coordination structure of atoms in materials and molecules. The synchrotron beam energy is tuned through the absorption edge of an element of interest, and modulations in the absorption are measured. Photoelectron transitions cause modulations near the absorption edge, and analysis of these modulations (called the X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) or near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS)) reveals information about the chemical state and local symmetry of that element. At incident beam energies which are much higher than the absorption edge, photoelectron scattering causes "ringing" modulations called the extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS). Fourier transformation of the EXAFS regime yields the bond lengths and number of the surrounding the absorbing atom; it is therefore useful for studying liquids and amorphous materials as well as sparse species such as impurities. A related technique, X-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD), uses circularly polarized X-rays to measure the magnetic properties of an element.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) can be performed at beamlines equipped with a photoelectron analyzer. Traditional XPS is typically limited to probing the top few nanometers of a material under vacuum. However, the high intensity of synchrotron light enables XPS measurements of surfaces at near-ambient pressures of gas. Ambient pressure XPS (AP-XPS) can be used to measure chemical phenomena under simulated catalytic or liquid conditions. Using high-energy photons yields high kinetic energy photoelectrons which have a much longer inelastic mean free path than those generated on a laboratory XPS instrument. The probing depth of synchrotron XPS can therefore be lengthened to several nanometers, allowing the study of buried interfaces. This method is referred to as high-energy X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (HAXPES). Furthermore, the tunable nature of the synchrotron X-ray photon energies presents a wide range of depth sensitivity in the order of 2-50 nm. This allows for probing of samples at greater depths and for non destructive depth-profiling experiments.

Material composition can be quantitatively analyzed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF). XRF detection is also used in several other techniques, such as XAS and XSW, in which it is necessary to measure the change in absorption of a particular element.

Other spectroscopy techniques include angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES), soft X-ray emission spectroscopy, and nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy, which is related to Mössbauer spectroscopy.

Imaging
Synchrotron X-rays can be used for traditional X-ray imaging, phase-contrast X-ray imaging, and tomography. The Ångström-scale wavelength of X-rays enables imaging well below the diffraction limit of visible light, but practically the smallest resolution so far achieved is about 30 nm. Such nanoprobe sources are used for scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM). Imaging can be combined with spectroscopy such as X-ray fluorescence or X-ray absorption spectroscopy in order to map a sample's chemical composition or oxidation state with sub-micron resolution.

Other imaging techniques include coherent diffraction imaging.

Similar optics can be employed for photolithography for MEMS structures can use a synchrotron beam as part of the LIGA process.

Compact synchrotron light sources
Because of the usefulness of tuneable collimated coherent X-ray radiation, efforts have been made to make smaller more economical sources of the light produced by synchrotrons. The aim is to make such sources available within a research laboratory for cost and convenience reasons; at present, researchers have to travel to a facility to perform experiments. One method of making a compact light source is to use the energy shift from Compton scattering near-visible laser photons from electrons stored at relatively low energies of tens of megaelectronvolts (see for example the Compact Light Source (CLS) ). However, a relatively low cross-section of collision can be obtained in this manner, and the repetition rate of the lasers is limited to a few hertz rather than the megahertz repetition rates naturally arising in normal storage ring emission. Another method is to use plasma acceleration to reduce the distance required to accelerate electrons from rest to the energies required for UV or X-ray emission within magnetic devices.

title: Synchrotron light source


text:
Talk:Bharatiya Jana Sangh

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What is the RSS? Lord Emsworth 01:13, Nov 26, 2003 (UTC)

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A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 08:00, 15 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Bharatiya Janata Party (icon).svg

Module Colour JS
@Dhruv edits as you can see in the first line, JS is an acceptable abb. and name. Please dont remvove the same. Venkat TL (talk) 17:30, 24 June 2022 (UTC)

 * @Venkat TL I have removed it from Alphabet J and added it as an alternate name to "Akhil Bharatiya Jana Sangh" under Alphabet A, to avoid duplication and confusion. Dhruv edits (talk) 17:34, 24 June 2022 (UTC)
 * @Dhruv edits I see. I did not know fully how this works. so if someone uses Jana Sangh will the colour and ABJS appear? Venkat TL (talk) 17:35, 24 June 2022 (UTC)

 * @Venkat TL Yes, though the alternate name "Jana Sangh" has to be defined as an alternate to ABJS in Alphabet J module for it to work, not Alphabet A. See my last changes in Alphabet A and J for clarity. Dhruv edits (talk) 17:51, 24 June 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bharatiya Jana Sangh


text:
Talk:A very elementary proof that 22/7 exceeds π

I don't much care for the title of this page. Elementary is relative. Very elementary is a little strong: Pi was around long before the late 17th century, when calculus was developed. Perhaps A short proof that... or A calculus proof that ...

Also, it seems that there could be more exposition. Why does this work? Is the polynomial the best 6th order upper approximation of the rational function over that interval? Is there some way to explain how pi works its way in? ~ Jeff 01:16, 26 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Somehow the title should convey that this is not just a numerical computation of the value of π. Some adjective where "very elementary" appears should convey that.  I suppose the reason why I wrote "very elementary" is precisely that everyone who knows first-year calculus will understand it, whereas much of what is done in the study of the nature of π requires much more advanced work than that.  What would you think of An elementary-calculus proof that 22/7 exceeds π ?  (BTW, neither ">" nor ">" can be used in an article title.)  Michael Hardy 20:01, 26 Nov 2003 (UTC)