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Medusa (comics)

Medusa (Medusalith Amaquelin-Boltagon) is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in Fantastic Four #36 (1965).

Her name and aspects of the character are derived from Greek mythology, as her hair has prehensile attributes like that of the mythological Medusa's hair. The character has psychokinetic control over her hair, a power she obtained through Terrigenesis. With this power, she can extend her hair to double its normal length, using it to pick locks, lift objects, and contain objects and people. She is the queen of the Inhumans, is wife of the king Black Bolt and mother of Ahura.

Serinda Swan primarily portrayed Medusa in the 2017 Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) television series Inhumans.

Publication history
Medusa first appeared in Fantastic Four #36 (1965) and was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby. She appears first in a flashback, then in costume as part of the fledgling "Frightful Four". She appears in Fantastic Four #38, 41-48 and in various subplot glimpses from #49-62. The Inhumans also appear in Fantastic Four # 82–83, with Medusa. The Inhumans are granted their first new adventure in Fantastic Four Annual #5, and a solo series in the split-book Amazing Adventures #1-10. The first four installments are written and drawn by Jack Kirby. The second four installments are written by Roy Thomas and illustrated by Neal Adams. That storyline flows into the ongoing "Kree-Skrull War" in The Avengers title #94-97.

Medusa has also figured prominently in the twelve part maxi-series The Inhumans written by Paul Jenkins and illustrated by Jae Lee in the 1990s.

Medusa appears in the new series FF by Matt Fraction and Mike Allred, which debuted in November 2012.

Beginning in May 2015, Medusa appeared as one of the main characters in A-Force, an all-female Avengers spin-off being launched by G. Willow Wilson, Marguerite Bennett, and Jorge Molina during Marvel's Secret Wars crossover.

In 2017, Medusa appeared in an early adventure with the Frightful Four, published as The Avengers 1.1- 5.1. This five-issue mini-series is positioned between The Avengers #16 and #17 as a side story when the evil team thinks they have killed the Fantastic Four (in Fantastic Four #38), but no one knows it. The Frightful Four publicly attack Captain America and his new team of replacements after their press conference to earn some "street cred". They are defeated in a rematch in issue 4.1. Medusa presumably flees before the team's final cameo in 5.1, where they are preparing a grave for her as a "traitor".

Fictional character biography
Medusa canonically belongs to the race of Inhumans, a species of prehistoric earthlings mutated by the Terrigen Mists which originate from deep under the Inhuman city-state of Attilan (which is located in the oxygen-rich Blue Area of the Moon). Medusa has a younger sister named Crystal, who later became the wife of the Avenger Quicksilver. Considered a member of Attilan's Royal Family, Medusa's parents chose to expose her to the Terrigen Mists, a natural mutagen that changes the biological makeup of the Inhuman race and gives them powers, when she was a child.

During her adolescent years, Medusa would often visit her distant cousin Black Bolt in his isolation cell, and learned to communicate with him through body language due to his destructive powers. Over the course of these visits, the two fell in love and eventually became engaged. Medusa attended Black Bolt's release from his cell when she was eighteen, and witnessed the first confrontation between Black Bolt and his brother Maximus the Mad.

Maximus claimed to be in love with Medusa, and throughout the comics made frequent attempts to usurp both the throne of Attilan and steal Medusa from Black Bolt. In Maximus' first successful attempt to take the throne, Medusa was knocked off of a sky-sled by Triton and afflicted with amnesia. Under the effects of this illness, Medusa left Attilan and wandered across Europe as a thief.

While still suffering from the effects of her injury, Medusa joined the super-villain team the Frightful Four and battled the Fantastic Four on three separate occasions.

She was then pursued by Gorgon on behalf of Maximus. Eventually, Medusa regained her senses and rejoined forces with the Inhumans Royal Family on the run. She was reunited with Black Bolt, who had been searching for her, and returned to Attilan. However, she became trapped in Attilan by the "negative zone" barrier created by Maximus. She was freed from the barrier at great cost by Black Bolt, and left the Great Refuge to visit the outside world as an adventurer. It was some time before the disastrous effects of worldly pollution on the Inhumans were known. She fights Spider-Man in his title for an issue after being manipulated by the manufacturer/promoter of a line of shampoo products. She also has been re-abducted by the Frightful Four in an attempt to manipulate her. The Fantastic Four became friends and allies and aided the Inhumans on several occasions, such as during the frequent power struggles between Black Bolt and the deranged Maximus.

Medusa has joined the Fantastic Four as a full team member for brief periods. She became a temporary replacement for Susan Richards, known as the Invisible Girl at that time, when Richards went on family leave to care for her comatose son Franklin Richards. Through her relations with the Fantastic Four, Medusa and Black Bolt have sought to achieve an understanding and peace between the races of Earth and Attilan. Nevertheless, the Inhumans have been forced to relocate their home of Attilan several times due to continued human hostility.

Black Bolt would eventually become the king of the Inhumans upon the death of his parents. Medusa oversaw the moving of Attilan to the Blue Area of the Moon. Alongside the Inhuman Royal Family, she battled the Avengers under Maximus's mind control. Medusa and Black Bolt were then married and Medusa was made queen, becoming both royal consort and royal interpreter.

When Medusa became pregnant, Attilan's Genetics Council argued that the pregnancy should be terminated due to the possibility of the child inheriting Maximus' insanity coupled with Black Bolt's immense and destructive power. Medusa defied the council and fled to Earth to avoid the compulsory abortion and live anonymously in the desert until the child was born, a son named Ahura.

Black Bolt reconciled with Medusa and the pair returned to Attilan and turned their infant son over to the Genetics Council. Following these events, Ahura was not mentioned or seen in the Marvel Universe for several years.

Later, alongside the Inhumans and the original X-Factor, she battled Apocalypse. Alongside the Inhumans and Avengers, she also battled the Brethren.

Royalty
Medusa's primary role among the Inhumans is as interpreter for her liege and husband, the silent but commanding Black Bolt. As such she is an experienced state figure within the quasi-feudal system of the Inhumans' government, and is used to speaking with awareness of regal issues of protocol and comportment. This imperial attitude is usually tempered by her strong sense of morality and fairness.

Medusa is featured in the six issue series Beyond!. In the book she is kidnapped along with other famous and infamous superhumans to the artificial planet known as Battleworld. Medusa witnessed Venom's killing of the Space Phantom disguised as Spider-Man, leading her to believe the real Spider-Man had been murdered. Medusa passes royal judgement that Venom must undergo fifty lashes. She supersedes the authority of the Avenger's representative, Janet Van Dyne, and uses the control over her hair to create a whipping motion so fast that it produces miniature sonic booms, which Venom is especially vulnerable to. While Hank Pym tries to dissuade Medusa from continuing the punishment, Venom is able to stab Medusa through the thigh. Later on in the issue, Medusa saves the team during the sudden crash landing of their space vessel by absorbing the majority of the impact with her hair. As stated by Wasp, Medusa is the team's primary short-range offense. Eventually the team triumphs over the Beyonder and returns to Earth. At the end of the series, Medusa can be seen alongside Black Bolt attending the funeral of her Beyond! teammate Gravity. She gives Gravity's parents a precious statue, the highest honor amongst the Inhumans, in commemoration of Gravity's sacrifice.

In I Heart Marvel, Medusa stars and narrates in a one-shot vignette appearing in issue #3 of the Marvel Ai edition. Titled Silence of the Heart, the story explores the relationship between Medusa and Black Bolt. Medusa explains that her husband's silence is a burden that she also bears. Black Bolt makes an appearance at this point and the two are shown to make love as Medusa contemplates her longing to hear a moan, whisper, or laugh from him.

The title Son of M focuses on Pietro Maximoff following the events of House of M. After attempting to commit suicide, a dying Pietro is brought to Attilan by Crystal. While Gorgon protests, Medusa grants Pietro asylum in Attilan until he is fully recovered. Once healed, a depowered Pietro tries to convince Black Bolt and Medusa to allow him access to the Terrigen Mists, but Medusa firmly states that Terrigenesis is a process forbidden to outsiders and that such a process upon a human could result in drastic mutations. Pietro manages to expose himself to the Mists regardless, and receives new powers before collecting both the Terrigen Crystals and his daughter, Luna, and returning to Earth. The crystals eventually end up in the possession of a black-ops sector of the United States government. The sector's subsequent refusal to return the crystals sparks a declaration of war between the Inhumans and the United States.

During this title it is made reference that Black Bolt and Medusa are childless. Upon discovery that Luna has been taken to Earth by Pietro, Medusa advises Crystal that perhaps it is right that Pietro should spend time with his daughter. Crystal remarks that if Medusa had children of her own she might be able to understand how she felt over the matter. It is not apparent whether this is an example of Ahura's existence being retconned from the Marvel Universe, or if this is meant to be a sarcastic comment in reference to Ahura's supposed confinement.

The events of Silent War immediately follow the events of Son of M. The Silent War series reveals a growing rift between Medusa and Black Bolt as the two disagree on his decision to declare war against the United States for failing to relinquish the Terrigen Crystals. Medusa finds herself no longer able to interpret her husband's wishes as she used to. While Medusa is issuing Black Bolt's war declarations to the Inhumans council he becomes frustrated and snaps his fingers to silence her, indicating that she wasn't relating what he intended. Medusa later confides to Black Bolt that he had never treated her that way before, as if she were a dog, and Black Bolt responds apologetically.

Their son, Ahura, also reappears in this series as a mentally unstable adolescent. Medusa argues that Black Bolt seems not to care that their son is being kept in isolation, and advises him that despite his orders she has gone to visit Ahura in his cell on more than one occasion. Black Bolt is angered by this and becomes physically aggressive with Medusa, grabbing her face and mouth to silence her. In her growing confusion with her husband's actions, Medusa finds herself drawn to Maximus against her will and would visit him often in his prison cell. It is revealed by Luna, Crystal's daughter, that Maximus had somehow implanted a "darkness" into Medusa's mind that was affecting her actions. Later on, Medusa and Maximus share a kiss as a distraught Black Bolt watches from the shadows. Medusa's thoughts at the time, however, reveal that she is not in control of her actions and that she only loves Black Bolt. The end of Silent War is left a cliffhanger with Black Bolt confined in prison, Ahura released, and Medusa now at Maximus' side as he assumes the throne of the Inhumans.

Due to inconsistencies with other Marvel titles featuring Black Bolt during this time, it is unclear when, and if, Silent War takes place in relation to The Illuminati, World War Hulk, and Secret Invasion storylines.

Medusa appears alongside Black Bolt in issue #1 of the World War Hulk series. Medusa is seen with Black Bolt when Hulk attacks Attilan. She warns Hulk not to pursue a fight with her husband, as Black Bolt has defeated Hulk in past battles. The fight begins and Medusa is not shown to interfere or assist. Black Bolt is subsequently defeated by Hulk, though the battle is not shown beyond Black Bolt's opening attack, and it is made unclear as to how Hulk managed to win the fight.

It was revealed in "New Avengers: Illuminati" that Black Bolt had been replaced by a Skrull impostor for an unknown amount of time. The impostor revealed himself to the Illuminati and was killed. Both the sudden rift between Medusa and Black Bolt apparent in Silent War and Black Bolt's later defeat at the hands of Hulk in World War Hulk could be attributed to this development, for it is uncertain just when Black Bolt might have been replaced by his Skrull duplicate.

When the "Secret Invasion" begins, the Inhumans part of the story, by Heroes writer Joe Pokaski, digs into how the Inhuman Royal Family deals with the news that the Black Bolt they knew was a Skrull impostor. Medusa is shown fighting a Skrull that not only possesses her powers, but also possesses the powers of Mister Fantastic. Medusa heads into Kree space to get Ronan the Accuser to help look for the Skrull ship containing Black Bolt and her son. She succeeds in rescuing her family and returning to Attilan.

During the "War of Kings" storyline, Medusa was with the Inhumans when they went into space and forged an alliance with the Kree and was also there when Havok, Lilandra Neramani, and the rest of Havok's Starjammers requested asylum from Vulcan and his forces. When Maximus speaks out, Medusa pushes him aside. After Ronan is wounded in battle with Vulcan's forces, Medusa states to the Shi'ar that they had made a big mistake and vows that they will pay for this. Medusa sends a broadcast on Black Bolt's behalf and tells the citizens of the Kree Empire that they have suffered an unprovoked assault by the forces of the Shi'ar. The shield that once protected their star system has fallen. During a discussion with the other members of the Inhuman Royal Family, Medusa states that Shi'ar blood will spill in the next fight while trying to keep the Kree in line. Medusa and Black Bolt approve of Maximus' idea to create a mechanism to help them in their fight against the Shi'ar. Medusa ends up devastated when the T-Bomb goes off with Black Bolt and Vulcan still where the T-Bomb was. While weeping in Crystal's arms, Medusa declared that they have won.

During the "Dark Reign" storyline, Medusa was seen when Quicksilver appears in Attilan and present them with the Xerogen Crystals following the defeat of Unspoken. Medusa then absolves him of his crimes and restores his citizenship.

During the "Realm of Kings" storyline, Medusa ends up taking control of the Inhumans following Black Bolt's death. Devos the Devastator arrives and ends up inciting a riot in the Alpha Primitives. The Mighty Avengers arrive and help to quell the riots incited by Devos. Henry Pym learns from Medusa about what happened to Black Bolt and expresses his sorrow for her loss as he too had lost Wasp. Medusa and the rest of the Inhumans deal with Dr. Vere and Zarek when they plot to overthrow the Inhuman Royal Family.

She takes her husband's place in the Illuminati when Iron Man reassembles the team in response to the Hood's attempts to acquire the Infinity Gems, although in the end Steve Rogers takes 'custody' of Black Bolt's gem at the conclusion of the crisis.

As part of the Marvel NOW! event, Medusa becomes a member of the Future Foundation when the Fantastic Four take a time-traveling trip.

During the "Civil War II" storyline, Medusa and Crystal introduce the Inhuman Ulysses to Captain Marvel, War Machine, and Black Panther. Medusa later catches Iron Man infiltrating New Attilan to claim Ulysses and fails to reason with him. After Iron Man defeats Medusa, Crystal, and Karnak and makes off with Ulysses, Medusa leads some Inhumans to Stark Tower to confront Iron Man which led the Avengers, the Ultimates, S.H.I.E.L.D., and other superheroes to intervene. Medusa was present when Ulysses projected his latest vision of a rampaging Hulk standing over the corpses of the superheroes.

During the "Inhumans vs. X-Men" storyline, Beast overhears Medusa telling the rest of the Inhuman Royal Family that they to be prepared just in case the X-Men lose patience in their truce and attack them. As the X-Men take action against the Inhumans, Medusa sends Iso and Inferno to find out what happened to Black Bolt and Crystal as she prepares for battle. Medusa then fights the time-displaced Beast in the lab of the original Beast as she effectively calls off the truce. As she gets the upper hand, Nightcrawler teleports in and takes her away. Despite the subsequent escalation of the conflict, when Medusa learns that the X-Men only attacked now because the Terrigenesis cloud was about to reach the point where it would make the whole planet toxic to mutants, she resolves the situation by destroying the cloud, preventing any further Inhumans from manifesting their powers, feeling that the future of her species is not worth the present loss of mutant life that would result. She also abdicates her throne to Iso.

In the aftermath, she along with her sister, Crystal, Black Bolt, Flint, Gorgon and Swain, are guided by Noh-Varr to the former Kree throne-world of Hala where he has stated they may discover the origins of Terrigen and in so doing offer a future to their doomed people, however, things are not well for the former Queen as she runs her hand through her powerful hair only to pull a large clump out with it, forcing her to announce to her crew that she is dying. It is soon apparent that Medusa's decision to destroy the Terrigen Cloud is the reason that is afflicting Medusa. She did so to save the Mutant race, but in doing so she had doomed the future of her people. Because Medusa had pressed the button, that act had the consequence of gradually draining the life energies from her. Akin to dying of a broken heart, Medusa had acted to end a cultural heritage that had lasted millennia, and her body has essentially chosen to end with it. Her only hope now is to find the secrets of the Terrigen and bring a new source of it back to their people, so she too can be revitalized. When the Inhumans obtain the Primagen from the Progenitors' World Farm and Gorgon buys his fellow Inhumans time to get away, Maximus takes a sample of the Primagen and has a vision where the Progenitors attack Earth in retaliation for the theft of the Primagen. While on the Astral Plane with Black Bolt, Medusa and Black Bolt agreed to continue as partners and not lovers. When Medusa takes the Primagen, it restores her hair and health while also causing a backlash in the attacking Progenitor to destroy the approaching Progenitors causing the Ordinator-Class Progenitors that saw the attack from the World Farm to spare Earth from their invasion.

During the "Death of the Inhumans" storyline, Medusa is seen with the Inhuman Royal Family when they find the dead bodies of the Universal Inhumans. When an explosive trap starts to go off, Medusa managed to make it out alive. Medusa and the Inhuman Royal Family later mourn the fallen Inhumans following Vox's attack on New Arctilan. After Black Bolt was taken captive by the Kree, Medusa and the surviving Inhuman Royal Family members try to recruit Beta Ray Bill in their fight against Vox and the Kree. The Inhuman Royal Family are finally taking the battle to the Kree and arrive just in time to save Black Bolt from Vox. Medusa is present when it is discovered that Vox is not a Super-Inhuman and is just a Kree programming. When the Inhuman Royal Family and Beta Ray Bill take the battle to the Kree, Medusa and Karnak fight a Vox-controlled Crystal and Lockjaw. After Black Bolt's sonic scream is used on the Vox-controlled Inhumans enough to free Crystal and Lockjaw and cause the Kree to retreat, Medusa is pleased that Crystal and Lockjaw are freed from Vox's control. Black Bolt emerges from the room as Medusa orders Lockjaw to take them away from the Kree base. When Crystal asks where they should go, Black Bolt uses his sign language to say "home." Lockjaw then teleports them away.

Medusa and Black Bolt once again become lovers later on.

Powers and abilities
Medusa possesses a long, thick head of red hair; thanks to her exposure to the mutagenic Terrigen Mist, every strand of her hair has great tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and sheer resistance far surpassing human hair. She possesses the psychokinetic ability to animate her hair for a number of feats, including elongating it to almost twice its normal length (Medusa's hair is approximately 6 ft in length when relaxed), and using her hair to lift and move heavy weights (up to 1.6 tons); a portion of her hair must be used to anchor the rest at these greater weights, so that more than her scalp/skull is used as a brace.

Medusa can control the movement of her hair as if it were countless thin appendages growing from her head. A psionic field permeates her mutagenically altered hair-cells, causing mutual attraction across the gaps between strands. These relatively small forces operate in conjunction to develop larger forces. Through concentration, she can psionically move her hair in any manner imaginable. She can snap the length of it through the air like a whip (the tip of which moves faster than the speed of sound), or rotate it in a fan-like manner. She can bind persons or objects with it as if it were rope, or use it to lift objects which weigh more than she could lift with her arms. Her scalp, skull, and neck do not support the weight of an object that she lifts: It is held aloft by the psionic force coursing through the hair. Medusa can also perform delicate manipulations with her hair such as lock picking or threading a needle, and such complex acts of coordination as typing or shuffling a deck of cards. Although she has no nerve endings in her hair, she can "feel" sensations on all parts of her hair by a form of mental feedback from her psionic field.

Medusa is an accomplished thief, using her hair. Medusa is also able to retain some degree of control over her hair after it has been cut or otherwise severed from her scalp. She presumably has the typical enhanced physical abilities granted by the genetically superior Inhuman physiology. She is also highly skilled at interpreting the gestures and body language of Black Bolt, and is fluent in a special sign language she uses with Black Bolt.

Like all Inhumans, Medusa's immune system is weaker than that of an average human. However, due to her frequent ventures into the outside world, Medusa's immune system is stronger than that of her fellow Inhumans. As such, she has attained a resistance to the pollutants of the outside world, which enabled her to join the Fantastic Four (as well as be a former member of the Frightful Four) in the first place.

Critical reception
Jesse Schedeen of IGN stated, "If any Inhuman rivals Black Bolt in terms of importance, it's his queen, Medusa. Unlike her namesake, Medusa isn't known for having snakelike qualities or turning people to stone. Instead, her hair is her primary weapon. She can control every strand, using it to choke or restrain enemies, or even cut through objects like razor wire. Like Black Bolt, Medusa seems too important a character to not introduce in some form before the Inhumans movie. Unlike her husband, Medusa has a habit of venturing out into the wider world and mingling with humanity. She's even served as a member of the Fantastic Four several times in the comics. Much like Karnak, we could see Medusa appearing in the role of an emissary from Attilan, tasked with exploring the outside world and meeting the growing population of Inhumans. With the growing outcry for more female heroes in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Marvel could do a lot worse than introducing Medusa well ahead of the Inhumans movie. In many ways, she's become the face of the franchise in the comics now, and the same could happen for the MCU as well." CA Staff of ComicsAlliance asserted, "Like many great characters, Medusa casts an evocative image, with her massive red mane of prehensile hair. Moreso than its king, Attilan's queen is immediately noticeable as a figure of power, and as the voice of the royal family and its matriarch, Medusa at her best is allowed to be a complex figure balancing the responsibilities of power and family. Her time with the Future Foundation deepened her character, showcasing her empathy, balanced with her otherworldly authority and that hair that radiates around her like an aura. A striking figure both in design and character, Medusa is not to be trifled with." Matthew Aguilar of ComicBook.com wrote, "Medusa has become a bigger fixture of the Marvel universe in recent years, thanks to the push the Inhumans have received in the comics. That push is now starting to expand past the comics and into television, as a new series will be debuting on ABC later this year, and Medusa will be front and center. The character has seen the share of unique and eye catching looks over the years. She's gone from the Fantastic Fouresque costume (she was in the Frightful Four after all) to something much more fantasy oriented and a bit of everything in between. Some have worked, some have woefully underdelivered, but she's remained one of the most popular Inhumans despite the changes in appearance." Jackson Brueheim of CBR.com said, "Medusa is without a doubt the most recognizable Marvel character to have prehensile hair. She is well-known as the Queen of the Inhumans and a fierce fighter with equally fierce follicles. She rules her people alongside her husband Black Bolt while sharing a telepathic connection to him. As for her hair, it can double its length when needed and lift objects over 1,000 pounds. Adding in the fact that her immune system is stronger than the average Inhumans', she sets a high standard for other characters with controllable hair."

Trevor Norkey of Screen Rant wrote, "Among the different characters in the Inhumans comics, Medusa is certainly one of the most well known. This Queen of Attilan had a profound effect on all of her people, being one of the most powerful members of the civilization's political spectrum. Much of Medusa's work was done in outreach programs to Earth. After Earth's discovery of Attilan, Medusa dealt with most of the relations between the two civilizations to make sure that there was a mutual respect between the different governments. Medusa's work on Earth combined with her respect in Attilan itself makes her into a truly great Queen. Additionally, her personal power adds to her overall strength. After all, a Queen with magic, crazy powerful hair is certainly not a Queen you would want to mess with. Unfortunately, Medusa is not the most fond of her leadership position. She is only part of the Attilan Royal Family through marriage, and originally had much different plans for her career during her early years. All in all, while Medusa may not be as powerful as Blackbolt, she is still one of the greatest leaders in Attilan, and overall one of the greatest members of royalty in all of Marvel comics." Blair Marnell of Nerdist asserted, "Medusa is best known for her striking red hair, which has incredible tensile strength and the ability to elongate at will, while also giving Medusa the ability to carry herself or heavy objects. Think of the way that Disney used Rapunzel in Tangled, except on a much grander scale. [...] For decades, Medusa and the rest of the Inhumans were better known as supporting characters. But in recent years, Marvel has aggressively pushed the Inhumans in their comic book universe. Consequently, Medusa has emerged as one of Marvel's top heroines and headlined many of the Inhumans comic book titles as the sole ruler of her people. Medusa has even joined A-Force, the team of all-female Avengers that emerged during the Secret Wars crossover. More recently, Medusa led her followers into war against the mutants during the Inhumans vs. X-Men event series. Now that the Inhuman royal family are finally joining the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Medusa's profile will inevitably be raised again. "It should be interesting to see how Medusa's signature hair will be rendered on screen." Mark Peters of Salon.com said, "The comic-book grapevine is continually buzzing that Marvel is determined to push the Inhumans as a substitute for the mutants whose movie rights are owned by rival studio Fox. So why not bring in the queen of the Inhumans to build interest? Bonus: "Medusa has the most visually exciting hair in comics: her red locks, which can be used as tentacle-like weapons, have enlivened more classic comic-book covers than any other character's coiffure." Peyton Hinckle of ComicsVerse stated, "Recent comics have tried to separate Medusa and Black Bolt in the hopes of showing each character as an individual instead of as part of a unit. Black Bolt's solo series, Black Bolt, has fleshed out his character and made him more than just a scary guy who sits on a throne all day. Similarly, the series Royals made Medusa into a character who was more than just the Queen of the Inhumans. The loss of her Inhuman power showed a vulnerable side of Medusa's character that's never been seen before. Although modern Inhumans comics have done interesting things with Medusa and Black Bolt as separate characters, the two haven't had a lot of panel time together."

Accolades

 * In 2015, IGN included Medusa in their "7 Inhumans We Want on Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." list.
 * In 2016, ComicBook.com included Medusa in their "10 Marvel Women Who Should Come to Disney Infinity 3.0" list.
 * In 2016, ComicsAlliance ranked Medusa 3rd in their "Marvel's Royal Inhumans, Ranked From Worst To Best" list.
 * In 2017, Screen Rant ranked Medusa 17th in their "Every Member Of The Fantastic Four, Ranked Worst To Best" list.
 * In 2018, CBR.com ranked Medusa 6th in their "20 Most Powerful Inhumans" list.
 * In 2018, Paste ranked Medusa 9th in their "20 Members of the Fantastic Four" list.
 * In 2018, Screen Rant ranked Medusa 8th in their "15 Most Powerful Kings And Queens In The Marvel Universe" list.
 * In 2019, CBR.com ranked Medusa 7th in their "10 Most Powerful Members Of Royalty In Marvel Comics" list and 9th in their "10 Most Powerful Queens In the Marvel Universe" list.
 * In 2020, CBR.com ranked Medusa 9th in their "5 Marvel Women Who Should Have Their Own Solo Comic (& 5 Who Already Do)" list.
 * In 2021, Screen Rant ranked Medusa 5th in their "Fantastic Four: 10 Best Female Villains" list. and 6th in their "Marvel Comics: 10 Best Alternate Members Of The Fantastic Four" list.
 * In 2022, CBR.com ranked Medusa 2nd in their "10 Inhumans Who Should Join The Avengers" list, 7th in their "10 Best Fantastic Four Substitute Members" list, and 12th in their "Every Member Of The Illuminati" list.

Earth X
In the alternate future of Earth X, Medusa's hair volume has drastically increased. She has lost Black Bolt and fears the emotional loss of her son, Ahura. She is the acting ruler and Queen of the Inhumans. Many of her remaining friends and allies have mutated due to the incidents on Earth. As a way to tie together some of the powerful factions remaining on Earth, Captain Britain proposes to her. Their story continues into the mini-series Paradise X, where convenience has turned into love. However, the status of their relationship and their political positions is thrown into turmoil when Captain Britain's presumed lost wife Meggan is brought back to life.

Heroes Reborn
In Heroes Reborn, Medusa's home city of Attilan plays host to the Fantastic Four. As in other realities, she speaks for her husband, Black Bolt. The Four are asked to help the Inhumans stop the plans of Maximus the Mad, who seeks out and plans to control the Terrigen Mists. The group at first does not understand the request, which leads to a battle. Medusa proves herself a capable fighter, helping to keep the battle at a stalemate.

In this universe, Galactus is worshipped, and the Royal Council pay reverence to him and his team of heralds in the form of finely crafted statues throughout Attilan.

Marvel 1602
Medusa appears in the Marvel 1602 miniseries: 1602: Fantastick Four as a member of the "Four Who Are Frightful", and the Wizard's lover. She has snakes for hair and must also wear a veil to prevent her gaze from turning men to stone. While her introduction describes her as "Inhuman", Medusa's origins are not mentioned. She appears to be a native French speaker and goes by "Madame" Medusa.

Mutant X
In Mutant X, after the Beyonder/Goblin Queen and the vampire Dracula lay waste to the Earth's heroes in an attempt to conquer the Multiverse, a team of Inhumans, Medusa included, and Eternals attack from above. They battle in the heart of Washington D.C. Dracula easily slays the entire group.

Marvel Zombies 3
In Marvel Zombies 3 #2, Medusa and the Inhuman Royal Family are shown to be zombies. Together, they visit zombie Kingpin to ask for food, which they get. In the next issue, Machine Man blows up and obliterates Medusa's rotting head.

Ultimate Marvel

A version of Medusa appears in the Ultimate Marvel series, first appearing in the Ultimate Fantastic Four issue Annual 1: Inhuman. She is still the queen of the Inhumans and wife to their leader, Black Bolt. As with her namesake, in this universe her skin is green in color, and she has actual snakes for hair. It is not stated whether her newly serpentine hair restricts or enhances her abilities in any way. Along with Crystal, the Inhuman Gorgon is female and also Medusa's sister. Black Bolt's brother, Maximus, does not display any romantic feelings for Medusa in this universe.

Unlike other versions, Ultimate Medusa is against all associations with the Fantastic Four and believes that the Inhumans and humans can never co-mingle in peace. She also exhibits an extreme degree of loyalty towards her people, stating that there can be no greater honor than to put aside one's individual happiness for the welfare of Attilan. Despite these sentiments, she expresses regret over her husband's inability to vocalize his feelings. When Black Bolt does feel the need to safely speak, he vocalizes regret over Crystal's actions.

Television

 * Medusa appears in The New Fantastic Four. This version is the leader of the Inhumans and a member of the Frightful Four who is genuinely evil as opposed to being forced into villainy.
 * Medusa appears in Spider-Man (1981), voiced by B.J. Ward. The episode "Under the Wizard's Spell" has her serving the Wizard again due to a collar put on her.
 * Medusa appears in the Fantastic Four animated series three-part episode "Inhumans Saga", voiced by Iona Morris. She wandered away from Attilan, lost her memory and joined the Frightful Four with Wizard, Trapster, and Hydro-Man. After being defeated by the Fantastic Four, she escaped and was found by the other Inhumans and given back her memories, until being locked up with her family in Atillan by Maximus. In "The Sentry Sinister", Medusa and her family are scared because there was a shortage of air and food within the city after being locked in the negative barrier, until both the city and the barrier are destroyed by Black Bolt, leaving them free and allowing her sister Crystal to go to see the Human Torch.
 * Medusa appears in the Inhuman motion comics, voiced by Lisa Ann Beley.
 * Medusa appears in the Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. episode "Inhuman Nature", voiced by Mary Faber. After seeing her sister Crystal, who brought A-Bomb to Attilan, Medusa and her royal family are confronted by Hulk, Skaar, She-Hulk, and Red Hulk until they are captured, but they discover that Maximus wants to take control of Attilan and created a weapon to destroy humanity. She and her family join the Hulks to stop Maximus, until he is defeated, but he activates the shield field on Attilan, locking them in, but Black Bolt destroys it.
 * Medusa appears in Ultimate Spider-Man, voiced again by Mary Faber and later by Rose McGowan. In the episode "Inhumanity", she and the rest of the Inhuman Royal Family are mind-controlled by Maximus where she is used to declare war on S.H.I.E.L.D. Once Maximus' crown is removed by Spider-Man, Medusa and the rest of the Inhuman Royal Family are freed from his control. In the episode "Agent Web", Medusa accompanied the rest of the Inhuman Royal Family when they confront Spider-Man and Triton outside the abandoned city of Atarog. When Spider-Man begged forgiveness for trespassing while explaining why they did that, Medusa interpreted for Black Bolt stating that they are here to give them a ride back to the Triskelion while thanking them for protecting Atarog.
 * Medusa appears in Guardians of the Galaxy, voiced by Catherine Taber. In the episode "Blue Crystal Persuasion", she is among the Inhumans affected by a plague that caused crystals to grow on their body, and assists the Guardians of the Galaxy in fighting Ronan the Accuser, Maximus, and a mind-controlled Black Bolt. In the episode "Inhuman Touch", Medusa helps the Guardians of the Galaxy when Maximus escapes prison.
 * Medusa appears in Avengers Assemble, voiced again by Catherine Taber in the third season, and by Vanessa Marshall in the fifth. In the episode "Inhumans Among Us", she appears with Black Bolt, Gorgon, Karnak, and Lockjaw when an Inhuman ship carrying Seeker and the Alpha Primitives crashes near Maple Falls. After Dante Pertuz is affected by the Terrigen Mist from the ship and transformed into an Inhuman, losing his mind in the process, the Avengers and the Inhumans work together to subdue and restore him. In the episode "The Inhuman Condition", Medusa is among the Inhumans who are captured by Ultron before being freed by the Avengers. In the episode "Mists of Attilan", Black Panther and Ms. Marvel visit Attilan to retrieve the key fragment that T'Challa's grandfather entrusted to the Inhumans. After some persuasion from Crystal, Medusa and Black Bolt give the piece to Black Panther as he warns them that the Shadow Council will come after Attilan as well.

 * Medusa appears in the 2017 live-action Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) series Inhumans, portrayed by Serinda Swan. When Maximus usurps the throne, he has Pulsus stun her and Maximus shave off her hair to prevent her from fighting back. However, she is rescued by Lockjaw who takes her to Hawaii. After an encounter with Auran, Medusa meets Louise Fisher, a scientist who has been curious about the moon and its possible extraterrestrial inhabitants. While with Louise, Medusa displayed a very anti-social personality which appeared to be attributed to her conflicted upbringing. Her parents wanted to destroy the caste system, leaving a cloud of shame above her and Crystal. Together, they manage to locate Black Bolt and make off with Locus, an Inhuman who can locate others of her kind. Later, the group reunites with Karnak and Gorgon, but Locus dies from a previous wound. Before passing, she tells Black Bolt that he is capable of becoming a better king. Medusa, Black Bolt and Louise leave to look for Crystal and Lockjaw. When Black Bolt expresses a desire to kill his brother, Medusa calms him. They find Crystal and Lockjaw and return to Karnak. After Black Bolt reveals that Triton is alive and that they were both aware of Maximus' treachery in advance, Medusa voices her disapproval at being left in the dark. She further reveals that after, Black Bolt accidentally killed his parents, she was going to gloat as revenge for what they did to her mother and father, but fell in love with him instead; expressing that she is more than just Black Bolt's "mouth piece". Medusa tries to appeal to Maximus, but when he refuses to stop the destruction of the dome, she destroys the one Terrigen Crystal. After the city is completely evacuated, Medusa leaves with her family through Lockjaw. Black Bolt joins afterwards as he allows her to speak to the people on her own accord, instead of just translate for him.
 * Medusa appears in Marvel Future Avengers, voiced by Hiroko Ushida in Japanese and Erica Lindbeck in English.

Video games

 * Medusa appears as a non-playable character in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, voiced by Nancy Linari.
 * Medusa appears as an unlockable character in Marvel: Avengers Alliance.
 * Medusa appears as an unlockable character in Marvel Future Fight.
 * Medusa appears as an unlockable character in Marvel Avengers Academy, voiced by Amber Lee Connors.
 * Medusa appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2.
 * Medusa appears as an unlockable character in Marvel: Contest of Champions.
 * Medusa appears as a playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest.
 * Medusa appears as a non-playable character in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, voiced again by Mary Faber.
 * Medusa appears in Marvel Snap.

title: Medusa (comics)


text:
Royal Festival Hall

The Royal Festival Hall is a 2,700-seat concert, dance and talks venue within Southbank Centre in London, England. It is situated on the South Bank of the River Thames, not far from Hungerford Bridge, in the London Borough of Lambeth. It is a Grade I listed building, the first post-war building to become so protected (in 1981). The London Philharmonic Orchestra, the Philharmonia Orchestra, the Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment, the London Sinfonietta, Chineke! and Aurora are resident orchestras at Southbank Centre.

The hall was built as part of the Festival of Britain for London County Council, and was officially opened on 3 May 1951. When the LCC's successor, the Greater London Council, was abolished in 1986, the Festival Hall was taken over by the Arts Council, and managed together with the Queen Elizabeth Hall and Purcell Room (opened 1967) and the Hayward Gallery (1968), eventually becoming an independent arts organisation, now known as the Southbank Centre, in April 1998.

The complex includes several reception rooms, bars and restaurants, and the Clore Ballroom, accommodating up to 440 for a seated dinner. A large head and shoulders bust of Nelson Mandela (by Ian Walters, created in 1985) stands on the walkway between the hall and Hungerford Bridge approach viaduct. Originally made in glass-fibre it was repeatedly vandalised until re-cast in bronze.

The complex's variety of open spaces and foyers are popular for social or work-related meetings.

The closest tube stations are and, across the river via the Jubilee Bridges,  and.

The original building

The Festival Hall project was led by London County Council's then chief architect, Robert Matthew, who gathered around him a young team of talented designers including Leslie Martin, who was eventually to lead the project with Edwin Williams and Peter Moro, along with the furniture designer Robin Day and his wife, the textile designer Lucienne Day. The acoustical consultant was Hope Bagenal, working with members of the Building Research Station; Henry Humphreys, Peter Parkin and William Allen. Martin was 39 at the time, and very taken with the Nordic activities of Alvar Aalto and Gunnar Asplund.

The figure who really drove the project forward was Herbert Morrison, a Labour Party politician. It was he who had insisted that Matthew had Martin as his deputy architect, treating the Festival Hall as a special project.

Architecture
A 1948 sketch by Martin shows the design of the concert hall as the egg in a box. But the strength of the design was the arrangement of interior space: the central staircase has a ceremonial feel and moves elegantly through the different levels of light and air.

They were concerned that whilst the scale of the project demanded a monumental building, it should not ape the triumphal classicism of many earlier public buildings. The wide open foyers, with bars and restaurants, were intended to be meeting places for all: there were to be no separate bars for different classes of patron. Because these public spaces were built around the auditorium, they also had the effect of insulating the Hall from the noise of the adjacent railway bridge.

To quote Leslie Martin, "The suspended auditorium provides the building with its major attributes: the great sense of space that is opened out within the building, the flowing circulation from the symmetrically placed staircases and galleries that became known as the 'egg in the box'."

The hall they built used modernism's favourite material, reinforced concrete, alongside more luxurious elements including beautiful woods and Derbyshire fossilised limestone. The exterior of the building was bright white, intended to contrast with the blackened city surrounding it. Large areas of glass on its façade meant that light coursed freely throughout the interior, and at night, the glass let the light from inside flood out onto the river, in contrast to the darkness which befell the rest of London after dusk.

The hall originally seated 2,901. The cantilevered boxes are often described as looking like drawers pulled out in a hurried burglary, but none has a compromised sightline. The ceiling was wilfully sculptural, a conceit at the very edge of building technology and, as it turns out, way beyond the contemporary understanding of acoustics. Robin Day, who designed the furniture for the auditorium, used a clearly articulated structure in his designs of bent plywood and steel.

The original building had lushly planted roof terraces; the Level Two foyer café had been able to spill out onto the terraces looking out on the river, and original entrances were positioned on the sides of the building, enabling visitors to arrive directly at the stairs leading to the auditorium.

The foundation stone was laid in 1949 by Prime Minister Clement Attlee on the site of the former Lion Brewery, built in 1837. The building was constructed by Holland, Hannen & Cubitts at a cost of £2 million and officially opened on 3 May 1951 with a gala concert attended by King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, conducted by Sir Malcolm Sargent and Sir Adrian Boult. The first general manager was T. E. Bean, who had previously managed the Hallé Orchestra.

"I was overwhelmed by a shock of breathless delight at the originality and beauty of the interior. It felt as if I had been instantly transported far into the future and that I was on another planet," said journalist Bernard Levin of his first impressions of the building.

Organ
The 7,866 pipe organ was built during 1950–1954 by Harrison & Harrison in Durham, to the specification of the London County Council's consultant, Ralph Downes, who also supervised the tonal finishing. It was designed as a well-balanced classical instrument embracing a number of rich and varied ensembles which alone or in combination could equal the dynamic scale of any orchestra or choral grouping, in addition to coping with the entire solo repertoire.

The design principles enshrined in its construction gave rise to a whole new school of organ building, known as the English Organ Reform Movement, influencing in the UK alone the cathedral organs of Coventry and Blackburn and the concert hall organs of the Fairfield Halls, Croydon, and the Bridgewater Hall, Manchester: there are also innumerable organs in other countries which have been influenced by it.

However, the design of the organ in its housing made maintenance difficult, and by 2000 it had become unusable. It was consequently completely removed before restoration of the Hall itself began in 2005, and after restoration and updating by Harrison & Harrison, a third of the organ was reinstalled. The remainder was reinstalled between 2012 and 2013, and voicing completed in 2014.

Acoustics
The Festival Hall was one of the first concert halls in the world to be built using the application of scientific principles, both theoretical and experimental. Hope Bagenal and his colleagues from the Building Research Station formed an integral part of the design team. The acoustic behaviour of the seats was measured and tested in a laboratory to enable more exacting design. Careful consideration of external noise problems was undertaken.

Following the opening of the hall, there was some criticism of certain aspects of the acoustics. This was partially attributable to the fact that some of the original specifications for room surfaces determined by the acoustic consultants were ignored in the building process. A specific problem for performers was the difficulty of hearing each other on the platform. Both the angled 'blast' side walls and the plywood reflectors projected sound away from the stage.

The general consensus was that the hall was 'too dry', not reverberant enough, particularly at low frequencies, and that the bass tone was weak. The definition was 'excellent' for chamber and modern music, but the hall was not as effective for music of the late Classical or Romantic period. Sir John Barbirolli commented, "Everything is sharp and clear and there is no impact, no fullness on the climaxes."

Heating systems
A water source heat pump was used to heat the building in the winter and cool the building in the summer. Water was extracted from the River Thames below Hungerford Bridge using a centrifugal pump. Heat was extracted from the river water using a heat pump. The compressors were driven by two Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, adapted to run on town gas. It was highly successful, providing both heating and cooling for the Hall, but over-sized, and was sold off after the Festival of Britain.

The 1964 alterations
As a structure, the new Festival Hall was technically stretched, and maintenance was soon required. The building was substantially altered in 1964 by adding the foyers and terraces to the river side of the building, extending the footprint by 30 ft, and more dressing rooms to the rear. Alterations to the façades overlooking the river removed the decorative tiles, altering the Scandinavian Modernism of the building's primary public face in favour of a plainer and hard-edged style. The building's original entrance sequence was much compromised by these changes and the later additions of raised concrete walkways around the building to serve the neighbouring Queen Elizabeth Hall, Purcell Room and The Hayward, built in 1967/8.

Assisted resonance
Leo Beranek, an American acoustics engineer who had undertaken measurements of all of the world's leading concert halls, had identified that the interior treatment of the auditorium was absorbing too much sound. By 1962 the authorities, after prolonged experiment, had become convinced that no improvement in the hall's reverberation could be achieved by any further treatment of its surfaces. Longer reverberation would require modification to the main structure, reducing the seating capacity and the provision of a new ceiling. This was considered too costly, particularly as any hypothetical gain in 'warmth' or 'resonance' might well be by the sacrifice of other positive qualities for which the Hall was generally esteemed, for example, its clarity, its comparative uniformity of acoustic response and its freedom from echo.

It was known that the ancient Greeks had developed the technique of using vases built into their auditoria which added resonance to strengthen tone or improve its quality, though the effect was very weak. The Building Research Station developed an electronic method of lengthening the reverberation time by a system called 'assisted resonance' in which some of the acoustical energy lost to the surfaces of the hall was replaced by acoustical energy supplied by a loudspeaker. Each microphone and its associated loudspeaker was limited to the one frequency by placing the microphone inside a Helmholtz resonator fitted into the ceiling in a range of sizes which resonated over a wide range of the low frequencies which critics and musicians thought did not adequately reverberate in the hall. 172 channels were used to cover a frequency range of 58 Hz to 700 Hz, increasing reverberation time from 1.4 to 2.5 s in the 125 Hz octave band. However, the system never fully solved the problem, and as it aged it became unreliable, occasionally emitting odd sounds during performances. It was switched off in 1998, which returned the acoustics to their poor state, so bad that they make performers who play in it "lose the will to live", according to Sir Simon Rattle.

The 2007 renovation
The building underwent a substantial renovation between 2005 and 2007 aimed at improving the poor acoustics and building layout, led by architect Diane Haigh of Allies and Morrison with consulting engineer firms Max Fordham LLP (M&E) and Price & Myers (structural). The interior of the concert hall space was almost entirely intact until this re-modelling, which saw its stage canopy and walls rebuilt in plainer more rectangular forms. Seating was reduced slightly to 2,788, including the choir seating. This was carried out in the face of opposition from conservationists, led by the Twentieth Century Society.

On the advice of acoustics firm, Kirkegaard Associates, the lack of reverberation and the difficult performance conditions for musicians were corrected by changes in the fabric of the auditorium. Surfaces that had previously absorbed sound were transformed to support and sustain that sound. The tapestries on the back walls of the boxes were gathered up to increase reverberation, but can be redeployed, together with additional absorbent blinds above the stage and around the Hall whenever needed. The wooden wall panels of the Hall were relined to change their acoustic qualities and the undulating plaster ceiling panels were completely reconstructed using more robust materials to provide greater warmth of sound and support for bass frequencies.

New adjustable acoustic canopies were placed over the stage's width to allow bass frequencies to resonate in the space above the stage, and for treble frequencies to be reflected back to improve feedback to performers. The stage was reconfigured to provide more space for performers, and the arrangement of walls around the stage was altered significantly. The original Robin Day designed seats were restored and reupholstered to make them more comfortable, and more acoustically appropriate.

The major refurbishment presented an opportunity to add to the infrastructure of the venue to make the process of 'get-in' and 'get-out' in a single day easier, and to add to the flexibility of the venue. Theatre consultants Carr & Angier worked with ISG Interior Exterior and Stage Technologies to create a new working space over the stage area with four large movable lighting bridges, capable of load sharing to lift large touring productions without the need for custom rigging. Delstar Engineering supplied eleven lifts to form the stage platform. These allow the stage layout to be reconfigured in many ways to suit the nature of the performance taking place. The choir benches can now be wheeled out to provide a level floor for staged and dance performances. The space between seat rows has been extended by 75mm by rebuilding the concrete floor of the stalls, with a loss of only 118 seats. Cooling has been introduced by reversing the airflow in the auditorium.

During the 2000s a building comprising seven commercial units was erected opposite the western side of the hall, with many of the Southbank administrative offices above. Shops and restaurants were added along the river frontage.

The venue officially reopened to the public in June 2007. The refurbishment was estimated to have cost in the region of £91 million. A film documenting the refurbishment, entitled This Is Tomorrow, was directed by Paul Kelly and produced by Andrew Hinton.

Organ refurbishment
The organ has been reconfigured to suit the new architectural and acoustic requirements: its depth has been reduced by 110 cm, but the basic principles of the layout have been respected.

Following a successful campaign to raise £2.3 million for a full restoration and reinstallation of the organ, the original organ builders, Harrison & Harrison, finally completed the reinstallation on 29 August 2013. Further work including re-balancing the pipework followed and was completed in time for the re-inauguration of the organ on 18 March 2014, exactly 60 years since it was first inaugurated. The first orchestral and organ concert was on 26 March 2014 and was recorded for the London Philharmonic Orchestra's own live label. The organ remains the third largest organ in Great Britain by number of pipes, with 7,866 pipes and 103 speaking stops.. The organ sounds uncomfortably constrained in the hall acoustic and is seldom played, either for recitals or to accompany orchestral concerts.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Royal Festival Hall


text:
2MASS

The Two Micron All-Sky Survey, or 2MASS, was an astronomical survey of the whole sky in infrared light. It took place between 1997 and 2001, in two different locations: at the U.S. Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory on Mount Hopkins, Arizona, and at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile, each using a 1.3-meter telescope for the Northern and Southern Hemisphere, respectively. It was conducted in the short-wavelength infrared at three distinct frequency bands (J, H, and K) near 2 micrometres, from which the photometric survey with its HgCdTe detectors derives its name.

2MASS produced an astronomical catalog with over 300 million observed objects, including minor planets of the Solar System, brown dwarfs, low-mass stars, nebulae, star clusters and galaxies. In addition, 1 million objects were cataloged in the 2MASS Extended Source Catalog (2MASX). The cataloged objects are designated with a "2MASS" and "2MASX"-prefix respectively.

Catalog
The final data release for 2MASS occurred in 2003, and is served by the Infrared Science Archive. The goals of this survey included:
 * Detection of galaxies in the "Zone of Avoidance", a strip of sky obscured in visible light by our own galaxy, the Milky Way.
 * Detection of brown dwarfs. 2MASS discovered a total of 173, including 2MASS 0939-2448, 2MASS 0415-0935, 2M1207, and 2MASS J04414489+2301513.
 * An extensive survey of low mass stars, the most common type of star both in our own galaxy and others.
 * Cataloging of all detected stars and galaxies.
 * Infrared measurements from the 2MASS survey have been particularly effective at unveiling previously undiscovered star clusters.

Numerical descriptions of point sources (stars, planets, asteroids) and extended sources (galaxies, nebulae) were cataloged by automated computer programs to an average limiting magnitude of about 14. More than 300 million point sources and 1 million extended sources were cataloged. In November 2003, a team of scientists announced the discovery of the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, at that time the closest known satellite galaxy to the Milky Way, based on analysis of 2MASS stellar data.

The resulting data and images from the survey are currently in the public domain, and may be accessed online for free by anyone. There is also a list of 2MASS science publications with links to free pre-publication copies of the papers.

2MASS is sponsored by the University of Massachusetts Amherst, the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC, run by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and Caltech), NASA, and the National Science Foundation (NSF).

title: 2MASS


text:
Duke of Buccleuch

Duke of Buccleuch, formerly also spelt Duke of Buccleugh, is a title in the Peerage of Scotland created twice on 20 April 1663, first for James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, and second suo jure for his wife Anne Scott, 4th Countess of Buccleuch. Monmouth, the eldest illegitimate son of King Charles II, was attainted after rebelling against his uncle King James II and VII, but his wife's title was unaffected and passed on to their descendants, who have successively borne the surnames Scott, Montagu-Scott, Montagu Douglas Scott and Scott again. In 1810, the 3rd Duke of Buccleuch inherited the Dukedom of Queensberry, also in the Peerage of Scotland, thus separating that title from the Marquessate of Queensberry.

The substantial origin of the ducal house of the Scotts of Buccleuch dates back to the large grants of lands in Scotland to Sir Walter Scott of Kirkurd and Buccleuch, a border chief, by King James II, in consequence of the fall of the 8th Earl of Douglas (1452), but the family traced their descent back to a Sir Richard le Scott (1240–1285). Sir Walter Scott of Branxholme and Buccleuch (died 1552) distinguished himself at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh (1547). His great-grandson Sir Walter was created Lord Scott of Buccleuch in 1606.

Other subsidiary titles associated with the Dukedom of Buccleuch are: Earl of Buccleuch (1619), Earl of Dalkeith (1663) and Lord Scott of Whitchester and Eskdaill (1619) (all in the Peerage of Scotland). The Duke also holds the two subsidiary titles of the attainted Dukedom of Monmouth, namely Earl of Doncaster (1663) and Baron Scott of Tindale (1663) (both in the Peerage of England), and several subsidiary titles associated with the Dukedom of Queensberry, namely Marquess of Dumfriesshire (1683), Earl of Drumlanrig and Sanquhar (1682), Viscount of Nith, Tortholwald and Ross (1682) and Lord Douglas of Kilmount, Middlebie and Dornock (1682) (all in the Peerage of Scotland). The Earldom of Doncaster and Barony of Scott of Tindale had been forfeit at the time of the first Duke's attainder, but the titles were restored to the 2nd Duke of Buccleuch in 1742. Until 1835, the Dukes also held lands in the West Riding of Yorkshire and the ancient title of Lord of Bowland. The Duke of Buccleuch is the hereditary chief of Clan Scott. The holder is one of only five people in the UK to hold two or more different dukedoms, the others being the Duke of Cornwall, Rothesay, and Cambridge (all currently held by the Prince of Wales), the Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, the Duke of Argyll (who holds two dukedoms named Argyll), and the Duke of Richmond, Lennox and Gordon.

The courtesy title used by the Duke's eldest son and heir is Earl of Dalkeith; and that of Lord Dalkeith's eldest son and heir is Lord Eskdaill.

The novelist Sir Walter Scott, Bart., was directly descended of the Lords of Buccleuch. His family history, fancifully interpreted, is the main subject of much of The Lay of the Last Minstrel.

The current Duke of Buccleuch, Richard Scott, the 10th Duke, is one of the largest private landowners in Scotland with some 200,000 acres (over 80,000 hectares) and chairman of the Buccleuch Group, a holding company with interests in commercial property, rural affairs, food, and beverages. The title originally comes from a holding in the Scottish Borders, near Selkirk.

The family seats are Bowhill House, three miles from Selkirk, representing the Scott line; Drumlanrig Castle in Dumfries and Galloway, representing the Douglas line; and Boughton House in Northamptonshire, England, representing the Montagu line. These three houses are still lived in by the family and are also open to the public. The family also owns Dalkeith Palace in Midlothian, which is let, and has owned several other country houses and castles in the past. Its historic London residence was Montagu House, Whitehall, now demolished and replaced by the Ministry of Defence.

William Montagu Douglas Scott, The Earl of Dalkeith, who became the 7th Duke of Buccleuch was elected President of St. Andrew's Ambulance Association in 1908. The Presidency of the Association (now St Andrew's First Aid) has been held by the Buccleuch family from that date.

Sarah, Duchess of York, former wife of Prince Andrew, Duke of York, is a great-great-granddaughter of the 6th Duke of Buccleuch.

The 7th Duke of Buccleuch had a daughter, Alice, who married Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester (third son of King George V and uncle of Queen Elizabeth II) in 1935, becoming a member of the British Royal Family. Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester and Prince William of Gloucester are grandsons of the 7th Duke of Buccleuch.

Most of the Dukes of Buccleuch (the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th) are buried in the Buccleuch Memorial Chapel in St. Mary's Episcopal Church, Dalkeith, Midlothian. The 2nd Duke (died 1751) is buried in Eton College Chapel. The most recent Dukes (the 8th and 9th) are buried among the ruins of Melrose Abbey in Melrose.

Dukes of Buccleuch are invariably granted the honour of Knight of the Order of the Thistle.

Feudal barons of Buccleuch (1488)

 * David Scott, 1st of Buccleuch (died c. 1491/2)
 * Walter Scott, 2nd of Buccleuch (died c. 1504)
 * Walter Scott of Branxholme and Buccleuch, 3rd of Buccleuch (died 1552)
 * Walter Scott, 4th of Buccleuch (c. 1549–1574)
 * Walter Scott, 5th of Buccleuch (1565–1611) (created Lord Scott of Buccleuch in 1606)

Lords Scott of Buccleuch (1606)

 * Walter Scott, 1st Lord Scott of Buccleuch (1565–1611), son of the 4th Baron
 * Walter Scott, 2nd Lord Scott of Buccleuch (died 1633) (created Earl of Buccleuch in 1619)

Earls of Buccleuch (1619)

 * Walter Scott, 1st Earl of Buccleuch (died 1633)
 * Francis Scott, 2nd Earl of Buccleuch (1626–1651)
 * Mary Scott, 3rd Countess of Buccleuch (1647–1661)
 * Anne Scott, 4th Countess of Buccleuch (1651–1732) was created Duchess of Buccleuch in 1663

Dukes of Buccleuch, first creation (1663)

 * James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, 1st Duke of Buccleuch (1649–1685) was executed for the Monmouth Rebellion and his honours forfeit

Dukes of Buccleuch, second creation (1663)

 * Anne Scott, 1st Duchess of Buccleuch (1651–1732)
 * Francis Scott, 2nd Duke of Buccleuch (1695–1751)
 * Henry Scott, 3rd Duke of Buccleuch, 5th Duke of Queensberry (1746–1812) (succeeded as Duke of Queensberry)
 * Charles William Henry Montagu Scott, 4th Duke of Buccleuch, 6th Duke of Queensberry (1772–1819), second son of the 3rd Duke
 * Walter Francis Montagu Douglas Scott, 5th Duke of Buccleuch, 7th Duke of Queensberry (1806–1884)
 * William Henry Walter Montagu Douglas Scott, 6th Duke of Buccleuch, 8th Duke of Queensberry (1831–1914)
 * John Charles Montagu Douglas Scott, 7th Duke of Buccleuch, 9th Duke of Queensberry (1864–1935)
 * Walter John Montagu Douglas Scott, 8th Duke of Buccleuch, 10th Duke of Queensberry (1894–1973)
 * Walter Francis John Montagu Douglas Scott, 9th Duke of Buccleuch, 11th Duke of Queensberry (1923–2007)
 * Richard Walter John Montagu Douglas Scott, 10th Duke of Buccleuch, 12th Duke of Queensberry (b. 1954)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son Walter John Francis Montagu Douglas Scott, Earl of Dalkeith (b. 1984) The heir apparent's heir apparent is his son, Willoughby Ralph Montagu Douglas Scott, Lord Eskdaill (b. 2016)

 * Coronet of a British Duke.svg Walter Montagu Douglas Scott, 5th Duke of Buccleuch, 7th Duke of Queensberry (1806–1884)
 * Coronet of a British Duke.svg William Montagu Douglas Scott, 6th Duke of Buccleuch, 8th Duke of Queensberry (1831–1914)
 * Coronet of a British Duke.svg John Montagu Douglas Scott, 7th Duke of Buccleuch, 9th Duke of Queensberry (1864–1935)
 * Coronet of a British Duke.svg Walter Montagu Douglas Scott, 8th Duke of Buccleuch, 10th Duke of Queensberry (1894–1973)
 * Coronet of a British Duke.svg John Montagu Douglas Scott, 9th Duke of Buccleuch, 11th Duke of Queensberry (1923–2007)
 * Coronet of a British Duke.svg Richard Montagu Douglas Scott, 10th Duke of Buccleuch, 12th Duke of Queensberry (b. 1954)
 * (1). Walter Montagu Douglas Scott, Earl of Dalkeith (b. 1984)
 * (2). Willoughby Montagu Douglas Scott, Lord Eskdaill (b. 2016)
 * (3). Lord Charles David Peter Montagu Douglas Scott (b. 1987)
 * (4). Rufus Peter Francis Montagu Douglas Scott (b. 2017)
 * (5). Wilfred Richard Montagu Douglas Scott (b. 2019)
 * (6). Lord William Henry John Montagu Douglas Scott (b. 1957)
 * (7). Lord Damian Torquil Francis Charles Montagu Douglas Scott (b. 1970)
 * (8). Alexander Edward James Montagu Douglas Scott (b. 2002)
 * (9). Orlando John Sebastian Montagu Douglas Scott (b. 2009)
 * Lord William Montagu-Douglas-Scott (1896–1958)
 * male issue in line
 * Lord George William Montagu Douglas Scott (1866–1947)
 * John Henry Montagu Douglas Scott (1911–1991)
 * male issue in line
 * Claud Everard Walter Montagu Douglas Scott (1915–1994)
 * male issue in line
 * Lord Herbert Andrew Montagu Douglas Scott (1872–1943)
 * Andrew Montagu Douglas Scott (1906–1971)
 * male issue in line
 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg Henry Douglas-Scott-Montagu, 1st Baron Montagu of Beaulieu (1832–1905)
 * Barons Montagu of Beaulieu

In media

 * Nick Carraway, the narrator of F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby, says his family has "a tradition that we're descended from the Dukes of Buccleuch", but then points out that this is not true.

title: Duke of Buccleuch


text:
Right-to-work law

In the context of labor law in the United States, the term right-to-work laws refers to state laws that prohibit union security agreements between employers and labor unions. Such agreements can be incorporated into union contracts to require employees who are not union members to contribute to the costs of union representation. Unlike the right to work definition as a human right in international law, U.S. right-to-work laws do not aim to provide a general guarantee of employment to people seeking work but rather guarantee an employee's right to refrain from being a member of a labor union.

The 1947 federal Taft–Hartley Act governing private sector employment prohibits the "closed shop" in which employees are required to be members of a union as a condition of employment, but allows the union shop or "agency shop" in which employees pay a fee for the cost of representation without joining the union. Individual U.S. states set their own policies for state and local government employees (i.e. public sector employees). Twenty-eight states have right-to-work policies (either by statutes or by constitutional provision). In 2018, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that agency shop arrangements for public sector employees were unconstitutional in the case Janus v. AFSCME.

Origins
The original use of the term right to work was coined by French socialist leader Louis Blanc before 1848. According to the American Enterprise Institute, the modern usage of the term right to work was coined by Dallas Morning News editorial writer William Ruggles in 1941.

According to PandoDaily, the modern term was coined by Vance Muse, a Republican Party operative who headed the Christian American Association, an early right-to-work advocacy group, to replace the term "American Plan" after it became associated with the anti-union violence of the First Red Scare. Muse used racial segregationist arguments in advocating for anti-union laws.

According to Slate, right-to-work laws are derived from legislation forbidding unions from forcing strikes on workers, as well as from legal principles such as freedom of contract, which sought to prevent passage of laws regulating workplace conditions.

Wagner Act (1935)
The National Labor Relations Act, generally known as the Wagner Act, was passed in 1935 as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's "Second New Deal". Among other things, the act provided that a company could lawfully agree to be any of the following:
 * A closed shop, in which employees must be members of the union as a condition of employment. Under a closed shop, an employee who ceased being a member of the union for whatever reason, from failure to pay dues to expulsion from the union as an internal disciplinary punishment, was required to be fired even if the employee did not violate any of the employer's rules.
 * A union shop, which allows for hiring non-union employees, provided that the employees then join the union within a certain period.
 * An agency shop, in which employees must pay the equivalent of the cost of union representation, but need not formally join the union.
 * An open shop, in which an employee cannot be compelled to join or pay the equivalent of dues to a union or be fired for joining the union.

The act tasked the National Labor Relations Board, which had existed since 1933, with overseeing the rules.

Taft–Hartley Act (1947)
In 1947, the U.S. Congress passed the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947, generally known as the Taft–Hartley Act, over President Harry S. Truman's veto. The act repealed some parts of the Wagner Act, including outlawing the closed shop. Section 14(b) of the Taft–Hartley Act also authorizes individual states (but not local governments, such as cities or counties) to outlaw the union shop and agency shop for employees working in their jurisdictions. Any state law that outlaws such arrangements is known as a right-to-work state.

Current status
The federal government operates under open shop rules nationwide, but many of its employees are represented by unions. Unions that represent professional athletes have written contracts that include particular representation provisions (such as in the National Football League), but their application is limited to "wherever and whenever legal," as the Supreme Court has clearly held that the application of a right-to-work law is determined by the employee's "predominant job situs". Players on professional sports teams in states with right-to-work laws are thus subject to those laws and cannot be required to pay any portion of union dues as a condition of continued employment.

Rights of dissenting minority and due process
The first arguments concerning the right to work centered on the rights of a dissenting minority with respect to an opposing majoritarian collective bargain. President Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal had prompted many U.S. Supreme Court challenges, including those regarding the constitutionality of the National Industry Recovery Act (NIRA) of 1933. In 1936, as a part of its ruling in Carter v. Carter Coal Co. the Court ruled against mandatory collective bargaining, stating:

"The effect, in respect to wages and hours, is to subject the dissentient minority ... to the will of the stated majority . ... To 'accept' in these circumstances, is not to exercise a choice, but to surrender to force. The power conferred upon the majority is, in effect, the power to regulate the affairs of an unwilling minority. This is legislative delegation in its most obnoxious form; for it is not even delegation to an official or an official body ... but to private persons . ... [A] statute which attempts to confer such power undertakes an intolerable and unconstitutional interference with personal liberty and private property. The delegation is so clearly arbitrary, and so clearly a denial of rights safeguarded by the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment, that it is unnecessary to do more than refer to decisions of this Court which foreclose the question."

Freedom of association
Besides the Supreme Court, other proponents of right-to-work laws also point to the U.S. Constitution and the right to freedom of association. They argue that workers should both be free to join unions or to refrain, and thus, sometimes refer to states without right-to-work laws as forced unionism states. These proponents argue that by being forced into a collective bargain, what the majoritarian unions call a fair share of collective bargaining costs, is actually financial coercion and a violation of freedom of choice. An opponent to the union bargain is forced to financially support an organization for which they did not vote in order to receive monopoly representation for which they have no choice.

The Seventh-day Adventist Church discourages the joining of unions, citing the writings of Ellen White, one of the church's founders, and what writer Diana Justice calls the "loss of free will" that occurs when a person joins a labor union.

Unfairness
Proponents such as the Mackinac Center for Public Policy contend that it is unfair that unions can require new and existing employees to either join the union or pay fees for collective bargaining expenses as a condition of employment under union security agreement contracts. Other proponents contend that unions may still be needed in new and growing sectors of the economy, for example the voluntary and third party sectors, to assure adequate benefits for new immigrant, part-time aides such as the direct support professional workforce.

Political contributions
Right-to-work proponents, including the Center for Union Facts, contend that political contributions made by unions are not representative of the union workers. The agency shop portion of this had previously been contested with support of National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation in Communications Workers of America v. Beck, resulting in "Beck rights" preventing agency fees from being used for expenses outside of collective bargaining if the non-union worker notifies the union of their objection. The right to challenge the fees must include the right to have it heard by an impartial fact finder. Beck applies only to unions in the private sector, given agency fees were struck down for public-sector unions in Janus v. AFSCME in 2018.

Free riders
Opponents, such as Richard Kahlenberg, have argued that right-to-work laws simply "gives employees the right to be free riders—to benefit from collective bargaining without paying for it." Benefits the dissenting union members would receive despite not paying dues also include representation during arbitration proceedings. In Abood v. Detroit BoE, the Supreme Court of the United States permitted public-sector unions to charge non-members agency fees so that employees in the public sector could be required to pay for the costs of representation, even as they opted not to be a member, as long as these fees are not spent on the union's political or ideological agenda. This decision was reversed, however, in Janus v. AFSCME, with the Supreme Court ruling that such fees violate the First Amendment in the case of public-sector unions, arguing that all bargaining by a public-sector union can be considered political activity.

Freedom of contract and association
Opponents argue that right-to-work laws restrict freedom of association, and limit the sorts of agreements that individuals acting collectively can make with their employer by prohibiting workers and employers from agreeing to contracts that include fair share fees. They also argue that American law imposes a duty of fair representation on unions, so non-members in right-to-work states can force unions to provide grievance services without compensation that are paid by union members. Kahlenberg and Marvit also argue that, at least in efforts to pass a right-to-work law in Michigan, excluding police and firefighter unions—traditionally less hostile to Republicans—from the law caused some to question claims that the law was simply an effort to improve Michigan's businesses climate, not to seek partisan advantage.

In December 2012, libertarian writer J. D. Tuccille wrote in Reason: "I consider the restrictions right-to-work laws impose on bargaining between unions and businesses to violate freedom of contract and association. ... I'm disappointed that the state has, once again, inserted itself into the marketplace to place its thumb on the scale in the never-ending game of playing business and labor off against one another. ... This is not to say that unions are always good. It means that, when the state isn't involved, they're private organizations that can offer value to their members."

Studies of economic effect
Many studies of the effect of right-to-work laws exist but they find substantially different results. Studies have found both "some positive effect on job growth" and no effect. A 2019 paper in the American Economic Review by economists from MIT, Stanford, and the U.S. Census Bureau, which surveyed 35,000 U.S. manufacturing plants, found that "the business environment, as measured by right-to-work laws, boosts incentive management practices." According to a 2020 study published in the American Journal of Sociology, right-to-work laws lead to greater economic inequality by indirectly reducing the power of labor unions. Looking at the growth of states in the Southeast following World War II, economist Tim Bartik says that while these states have right-to-work laws, they have also benefited from "factors like the widespread use of air conditioning and different modes of transportation that helped decentralize manufacturing."

Economist Thomas Holmes argues that it is difficult to analyze right-to-work laws by comparing states because of other similarities between states that have passed these laws. For instance, right-to-work states often have some strong pro-business policies, making it difficult to isolate the effect of right-to-work laws. Holmes compared counties close to the border between states with and without right-to-work laws, thereby holding constant an array of factors related to geography and climate. He found that the cumulative growth of employment in manufacturing in the right-to-work states was 26% greater than that in the non-right-to-work states. Given the study design, Holmes writes that "my results do not say that it is right-to-work laws that matter, but rather that the 'pro-business package' offered by right-to-work states seems to matter." Moreover, as noted by Kevin Drum and others, this result may reflect business relocation rather than an overall enhancement of economic growth since, as Drum writes, "businesses prefer locating in states where costs are low and rules are lax".

Polling
In January 2012, in the immediate aftermath of passage of Indiana's right-to-work law, a Rasmussen Reports telephone survey found that 74% of likely voters disagreed with the question "Should workers who do not belong to a union be required by law to pay union dues if the company they work for is unionized?" but found that "most also don't think a non-union worker should enjoy benefits negotiated by the union."

In January through March 2013, 43% of those polled believed that the law would help Michigan's economy, while 41% believed that it would hurt.

Political support
In 2012, President Barack Obama opposed right-to-work legislation in Michigan. In 2017, Republican members of Congress introduced legislation for a national right-to-work law.

U.S. states with right-to-work laws
As of May 2024, following 26 states have right-to-work laws: • Alabama (adopted 1953, Constitution 2016)

• Arizona (Constitution, adopted 1946)

• Arkansas (Constitution, adopted 1947)

• Florida (Constitution, adopted 1944, revised 1968)

• Georgia (adopted 1947)

• Idaho (adopted 1985)

• Indiana (adopted 2012)

• Iowa (adopted 1947)

• Kansas (Constitution, adopted 1958)

• Kentucky (adopted 2017)

• Louisiana (adopted 1976)

• Mississippi (Constitution, adopted 1954)

• Nebraska (Constitution and statute, adopted 1946)

• Nevada (adopted 1951)

• North Carolina (adopted 1947)

• North Dakota (adopted 1947)

• Oklahoma (Constitution, adopted 2001)

• South Carolina (adopted 1954)

• South Dakota (adopted 1946)

• Tennessee (adopted 1947, Constitution 2022)

• Texas (adopted 1947, revised 1993)

• Utah (adopted 1955)

• Virginia (adopted 1947)

• West Virginia (adopted 2016)

• Wisconsin (adopted 2015)

• Wyoming (adopted 1963) The territory of Guam also has right-to-work laws.

Ohio allows employees to opt out from joining a union, but unions are allowed to charge a typically smaller fee for employees that opted out.

Local or repealed laws
Some states had right-to-work laws in the past, but repealed them or had them declared invalid. There are also some counties and municipalities located in states without right-to-work laws that have passed local laws to ban union security agreements.

Delaware
Seaford passed a right-to-work ordinance in 2018, despite the State Solicitor disputing the authority of local governments to do so under Delaware law. Later that year, the Delaware General Assembly blocked the municipal ordinance.

Illinois
Lincolnshire passed a local right-to-work ordinance, but it was struck down by the U.S. Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals. An appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court resulted in the case being vacated as being moot because in the intervening period Illinois had passed the Illinois Collective Bargaining Freedom Act to invalidate such local ordinances.

In a 2022 referendum, voters in Illinois approved a state constitutional amendment establishing a right to collective bargaining. The amendment also prevents any future state legislature or local government from passing a right-to-work law.

Indiana
Before its passage in 2012, the Republican-controlled Indiana General Assembly passed a right-to-work bill in 1957, which led to the Democratic takeover of Indiana's Governor's Mansion and General Assembly in the coming elections, and eventually, the new Democratic-controlled legislature repealing the right-to-work law in 1965. Right-to-work was subsequently reenacted in 2012.

Kentucky
On November 18, 2016, the U.S. Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the right of local governments to enact local right-to-work laws in Kentucky. Kentucky had 12 local ordinances. A statewide law was subsequently enacted in 2017.

Michigan
Michigan adopted a right-to-work bill in 2012. After Democrats gained a trifecta in 2023, the legislature passed a bill repealing the right-to-work law, which was subsequently signed into law by Governor Whitmer and took effect in 2024.

Missouri
The legislature passed a right-to-work bill in 2017, but the law was defeated in a 2018 referendum before it could take effect.

New Hampshire
New Hampshire adopted a right-to-work bill in 1947, but it was repealed in 1949 by the state legislature and governor.

In 2017, a proposed right to work bill was defeated in the New Hampshire House of Representatives 200–177. In 2021, the same bill was reintroduced but again defeated in the House of Representatives 199–175.

New Mexico
New Mexico law previously did not explicitly prohibit nor allow mandatory union membership as a condition of employment at the statewide level, thereby leaving it up to local jurisdictions to establish their own right-to-work policies. Several counties, notably Chaves, Eddy, Lea, Lincoln, McKinley, Otero, Roosevelt, Sandoval, San Juan, and Sierra counties, in addition to Ruidoso village adopted such laws. In 2019, the New Mexico Legislature approved legislation that prohibits local right-to-work laws and further states that union membership and the payment of union dues may be required as a condition of employment in workplaces subject to a collective bargaining agreement; it was signed by governor Michelle Lujan Grisham. In 2020, New Mexico's legislature passed House Bill 364 that authorizes and promotes the use of card check protocols for workers considering organizing into a labor union. New Mexico does not currently require Project Labor Agreements for state-sponsored projects, but some local jurisdictions (notably Bernalillo County and the City of Albuquerque) have ordinances in place requiring Project Labor Agreements for locally-sponsored projects that exceed specified dollar-value thresholds.

title: Right-to-work law


text:
Talk:Winter

untitled
I have removed a "see also" link to axial tilt and supplanted it with one to the more comprehensive article on seasons. -Smack 19:05, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

wado kai karate do
wado kai karate do

Apparently the Met Office was asked by another government department for an official definition of winter, expecting actual dates.

The answer "Winter begins when all the leaves have fallen off the trees and ends when the bulbs start growing again.

 * Transfer to Wikijokes if desired.

Mythological explanations changes
The paragraph that details a "Zion myth" is of dubious quality. "Zion" here refers to the Zion Natural History Organization, which has allowed, as is obvious from the link provided, for a myth to be copied from "Why the North Star Stands Still and other Stories" by William R. Palmer. I wished to remove the misleading paragraph entirely, which did not seem to fit in the article very well. However, this was reverted by Banana04131. As I am willing to compromise, and think edit wars are ridiculous, I have only changed the short paragraph by clarifying the initial words, as well as the link provided at the bottom of the article. "Zion myth" makes it sound like "Zion" is a religion or something equally substantial, which it apparently is not. (Zionism is something completely different, and about the Zion tribe, you do not seem sure either, Banana.) To state that the paragraph is from an uncertain Native American tribe seems to me to be the least confusing way to cite the myth, and its unencyclopedic reference... Eduardo_Cuellar

P.S. Stating "Native American myth" is not racist... It is as accurate as you can be when you DO NOT KNOW what tribe it came from! To have been racist would have been to be derogatory, by writing something like "According to some Indians...", etc. I myself am part Native American, so I hope you understand, Banana.

How was the four seasons named ?
Does anyone know how the four seasons were named ? -- Wintersweet98

Suggested reference
A reference is needed between 21 and 22 (Celtic calendar). This seems like a candidate. I'm not able to make this edit directly.

https://www.irishpost.com/news/today-marks-the-first-day-of-spring-on-the-gaelic-calendar-202700

Djorenstein (talk) 16:07, 5 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Done. A reference for the beginning of Winter would also be useful, so I added  for that. Guy Harris (talk) 21:35, 26 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Winter


text:
User:Hemanshu/myscript

my mirc script for cricket. on ^*:HOTLINK:*:*:{ if (| (* iswm $1) || ($+(*,[,[,*,$1,*,],],*) iswm $hotline) { return }  else { halt } } on *:HOTLINK:*:*:{ if (* iswm $1) { var %page = $mid($1,3,-2) } elseif (* iswm $1) && ($regex($hotline,$+(\[\[,$chr(40),$right($1,-2),[^\[]*,$chr(41),\]\]))) {    var %page = $regml(1)  }  elseif (* iswm $1) && ($regex($hotline,$+(\[\[,$chr(40),[^\[]*,$left($1,-2),$chr(41),\]\]))) { var %page = $regml(1) } elseif ($regex($hotline,$+(\[\[,$chr(40),[^\[]*,$1,[^\[]*,$chr(41),\]\]))) { var %page = $regml(1) } else { return } ;run http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&btnI=I'm+feeling+lucky&q=site:www.cricket.org+ $+ $replace(%page,$chr(32),+) run http://news.google.com/news?hl=en&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&q= $+ $replace(%page,$chr(32),+) }

title: User:Hemanshu/myscript


text:
Eighth Route Army

The Eighth Route Army, officially known as the 18th Group Army  of the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China, was a group army under the command of the Chinese Communist Party, nominally within the structure of the Chinese military headed by the Chinese Nationalist Party during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

The Eighth Route Army was created from the Chinese Red Army on September 22, 1937, when the Chinese Communists and Chinese Nationalists formed the Second United Front against Japan at the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, as the Chinese theater was known in World War II. Together with the New Fourth Army, the Eighth Route Army formed the main Communist fighting force during the war and was commanded by Communist party leader Mao Zedong and general Zhu De. Though officially designated the 18th Group Army by the Nationalists, the unit was referred to by the Chinese Communists and Japanese military as the Eighth Route Army. The Eighth Route Army wore Nationalist uniforms and flew the flag of the Republic of China and waged mostly guerrilla war against the Japanese, collaborationist forces and, later in the war, other Nationalist forces. The unit was renamed the People's Liberation Army in 1947, after the end of World War II, as the Chinese Communists and Nationalists resumed the Chinese Civil War.

History
The Eighth Route Army consisted of three divisions (the 115th, which was commanded by Lin Biao, the 120th under He Long, and the 129th under Liu Bocheng). During World War II, the Eighth Route Army operated mostly in North China, infiltrating behind Japanese lines, to establish guerrilla bases in rural and remote areas. The main units of the Eighth Route Army were aided by local militias organized from the peasantry.

After its fall 1938 victory in the Battle of Wuhan, Japan advanced deep into Communist territory and redeployed 50,000 troops to the Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei Border Region. Elements of the Eighth Route Army soon attacked the advancing Japanese, inflicting between 3,000 and 5,000 casualties and resulting in a Japanese retreat.

The Communist Party's liaison offices in cities under Nationalist control such as Chongqing, Guilin and Dihua (Ürümqi) were called Eighth Route Army Offices.

Ethnic Koreans who fought in the Eighth Route Army later joined the Korean People's Army.

In the Yan'an base area in September 1938, the Eighth Route Army established its first film group.

1937
In August 1937, the Eighth Route Army had three divisions.

1940
In Winter 1940 the Eighth Route Army had increased to 400,000 soldiers.

title: Eighth Route Army