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William Henry Bragg

Sir William Henry Bragg (2 July 1862 – 12 March 1942) was an English physicist, chemist, mathematician, and active sportsman who uniquely shared a Nobel Prize with his son Lawrence Bragg – the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics: "for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays". The mineral Braggite is named after him and his son. He was knighted in 1920.

Early years
Bragg was born at Westward, near Wigton, Cumberland, England, the son of Robert John Bragg, a merchant marine officer and farmer, and his wife Mary née Wood, a clergyman's daughter. When Bragg was seven years old, his mother died, and he was raised by his uncle, also named William Bragg, at Market Harborough, Leicestershire. He was educated at the Grammar School there, at King William's College on the Isle of Man and, having won an exhibition (scholarship), at Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated in 1884 as third wrangler, and in 1885 was awarded a first class honours in the mathematical tripos.

University of Adelaide
In 1885, at the age of 23, Bragg was appointed (Sir Thomas) Elder Professor of Mathematics and Experimental Physics in the University of Adelaide, Australia, and started work there early in 1886. Being a skilled mathematician, at that time he had limited knowledge of physics, most of which was in the form of applied mathematics he had learnt at Trinity. Also at that time, there were only about a hundred students doing full courses at Adelaide, of whom less than a handful belonged to the science school, whose deficient teaching facilities Bragg improved by apprenticing himself to a firm of instrument makers. Bragg was an able and popular lecturer; he encouraged the formation of the student union, and the attendance, free of charge, of science teachers at his lectures.

Bragg's interest in physics developed, particularly in the field of electromagnetism. In 1895, he was visited by Ernest Rutherford, en route from New Zealand to Cambridge; this was the commencement of a lifelong friendship. Bragg had a keen interest in the new discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen. On 29 May 1896 at Adelaide, Bragg demonstrated before a meeting of local doctors the application of "X-rays to reveal structures that were otherwise invisible". Samuel Barbour, senior chemist of F. H. Faulding & Co., an Adelaide pharmaceutical manufacturer, supplied the necessary apparatus in the form of a Crookes tube, a glass discharge tube. The tube had been obtained at Leeds, England, where Barbour visited the firm of Reynolds and Branson, a manufacturer of photographic and laboratory equipment. Barbour returned to Adelaide in April 1896. Barbour had conducted his own experiments shortly after return to Australia, but results were limited due to limited battery power. At the University, the tube was attached to an induction coil and a battery borrowed from Sir Charles Todd, Bragg's father-in-law. The induction coil was utilized to produce the electric spark necessary for Bragg and Barbour to "generate short bursts of X-rays". The audience was favorably impressed. Bragg availed himself as a test subject, in the manner of Röntgen and allowed an X-ray photograph to be taken of his hand. The image of the fingers in his hand revealed "an old injury to one of his fingers sustained when using the turnip chopping machine on his father's farm in Cumbria".

As early as 1895, Professor William H. (later Sir William) Bragg was working on wireless telegraphy, though public lectures and demonstrations focussed on his X-ray research which would later lead to his Nobel Prize. In a hurried visit by Rutherford, he was reported as working on a Hertzian oscillator. There were many common practical threads to the two technologies and he was ably assisted in the laboratory by Arthur Lionel Rogers who manufactured much of the equipment. On 21 September 1897 Bragg gave the first recorded public demonstration of the working of wireless telegraphy in Australia during a lecture meeting at the University of Adelaide as part of the Public Teachers' Union conference. Bragg departed Adelaide in December 1897, and spent all of 1898 on a 12-month leave of absence, touring Great Britain and Europe and during this time visited Marconi and inspected his wireless facilities. He returned to Adelaide in early March 1899, and already on 13 May 1899, Bragg and his father-in-law, Sir Charles Todd, were conducting preliminary tests of wireless telegraphy with a transmitter at the Observatory and a receiver on the South Road (about 200 metres). Experiments continued throughout the southern winter of 1899 and the range was progressively extended to Henley Beach. In September the work was extended to two way transmissions with the addition of a second induction coil loaned by Mr. Oddie of Ballarat. It was desired to extend the experiments cross a sea path and Todd was interested in connecting Cape Spencer and Althorpe Island, but local costs were considered prohibitive while the charges for patented equipment from the Marconi Company were exorbitant. At the same time Bragg's interests were leaning towards X-rays and practical work in wireless in South Australia was largely dormant for the next decade.

The turning-point in Bragg's career came in 1904 when he gave the presidential address to section A of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science at Dunedin, New Zealand, on "Some Recent Advances in the Theory of the Ionization of Gases". This idea was followed up "in a brilliant series of researches" which, within three years, earned him a fellowship of the Royal Society of London. This paper was also the origin of his first book Studies in Radioactivity (1912). Soon after the delivery of his 1904 address, some radium bromide was made available to Bragg for experimentation. In December 1904 his paper "On the Absorption of α Rays and on the Classification of the α Rays from Radium" appeared in the Philosophical Magazine, and in the same issue a paper "On the Ionization Curves of Radium", written in collaboration with his student Richard Kleeman, also appeared.

At the end of 1908, Bragg returned to England. During his 23 years in Australia "he had seen the number of students at the University of Adelaide almost quadruple, and had a full share in the development of its excellent science school." He had returned to England on the maiden voyage of the SS Waratah, a ship which vanished at sea on its second voyage the next year. He had been alarmed at the ship's tendency to list during his voyage, and had concluded that the ship's metacentre was just below her centre of gravity. In 1911, he testified his belief that the Waratah was unstable at the Inquiry into the ship's disappearance.

There is a bust of William Bragg in North Terrace Adelaide South Australia.

University of Leeds
Bragg occupied the Cavendish chair of physics at the University of Leeds from 1909 until 1915. He continued his work on X-rays with much success. He invented the X-ray spectrometer and with his son, Lawrence Bragg, then a research student at Cambridge, founded the new science of X-ray crystallography, the analysis of crystal structure using X-ray diffraction.

World War I
Both of his sons were called into the army after war broke out in 1914. The following year he was appointed Quain Professor of Physics at University College London. He had to wait for almost a year to contribute to the war effort: finally, in July 1915, he was appointed to the Board of Invention and Research set up by the Admiralty. In September, his younger son Robert died of wounds at Gallipoli. In November, he shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with elder son William Lawrence. The Navy was struggling to prevent sinkings by unseen, submerged U boats. The scientists recommended that the best tactic was to listen for the submarines. The Navy had a hydrophone research establishment at Aberdour Scotland, staffed with navy men. In November 1915, two young physicists were added to its staff. Bowing to outside pressure for using science, in July 1916, the Admiralty appointed Bragg as scientific director at Aberdour, assisted by three additional young physicists. They developed an improved directional hydrophone, which finally convinced the Admiralty of their usefulness. Late in 1916, Bragg with his small group moved to Harwich, where the staff was enlarged and they had access to a submarine for tests. In France, where scientists had been mobilized since the beginning of the war, the physicist Paul Langevin made a major stride with echolocation, generating intense sound pulses with quartz sheets oscillated at high frequency, which were then used as microphones to listen for echoes. Quartz was usable when vacuum tubes became available at the end of 1917 to amplify the faint signals. The British made sonar practicable by using mosaics of small quartz bits rather than slices from a large crystal. In January 1918, Bragg moved into the Admiralty as head of scientific research in the anti-submarine division. By war's end British vessels were being equipped with sonar manned by trained listeners.

Inspired by William Lawrence's methods for locating enemy guns by the sound of their firing, the output from six microphones miles apart along the coast were recorded on moving photographic film. Sound ranging is much more accurate in the sea than in the turbulent atmosphere. They were able to localize the sites of distant explosions, which were used to obtain the precise positions of British warships and of minefields.

University College London
After the war Bragg returned to University College London, where he continued to work on crystal analysis.

Royal Institution
From 1923, he was Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution and director of the Davy Faraday Research Laboratory. This institution was practically rebuilt in 1929–30 and, under Bragg's directorship many valuable papers were issued from the laboratory. In 1919, 1923, 1925 and 1931 he was invited to deliver the Royal Institution Christmas Lecture on The World of Sound; Concerning the Nature of Things, Old Trades and New Knowledge and The Universe of Life respectively.

The Royal Society and the coming war
Bragg was elected president of the Royal Society in 1935. The physiologist A. V. Hill was biological secretary and soon A. C. G. Egerton became physical secretary. During World War I all three had stood by for frustrating months before their skills were employed for the war effort. Now the cause of science was strengthened by the report of a high-level Army committee on lessons learned in the last war; their first recommendation was to "keep abreast of modern scientific developments". Anticipating another war, the Ministry of Labour was persuaded to accept Hill as a consultant on scientific manpower. The Royal Society compiled a register of qualified men. They proposed a small committee on science to advise the Committee on Imperial Defence, but this was rejected. Finally in 1940, as Bragg's term ended, a scientific advisory committee to the War Cabinet was appointed. Brag was among the 2,300 names of prominent persons listed on the Nazis' Special Search List, of those who were to be arrested on the invasion of Great Britain and turned over to the Gestapo. Bragg died in 1942.

Honours and awards
Bragg was joint winner with his son, Lawrence Bragg, of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1915: "For their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-ray".

Bragg was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1907, vice-president in 1920, and served as President of the Royal Society from 1935 to 1940. He was elected an International Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1939 and an International Member of the American Philosophical Society. He was elected as a member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium on 1 June 1946.

He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1917 and Knight Commander (KBE) in the 1920 civilian war honours. He was admitted to the Order of Merit in 1931.

 * Matteucci Medal (1915)
 * Rumford Medal (1916)
 * Copley Medal (1930)
 * Franklin Medal (1930)
 * John J. Carty Award of the National Academy of Sciences (1939)

The current Electoral district of Bragg, in the South Australian House of Assembly, was created in 1970, and was named after both William and Lawrence Bragg.

Private life
In 1889, in Adelaide, Bragg married Gwendoline Todd, a skilled water-colour painter, and daughter of astronomer, meteorologist and electrical engineer Sir Charles Todd. They had three children, a daughter, Gwendolen and two sons, William Lawrence, born in 1890 in North Adelaide, and Robert. Gwendolen married the English architect Alban Caroe, Bragg taught William at the University of Adelaide, and Robert was killed in the Battle of Gallipoli. Bragg's wife, Gwendoline, died in 1929.

Bragg played tennis and golf, and as a founding member of the North Adelaide and Adelaide University Lacrosse Clubs, contributed to the introduction of lacrosse to South Australia and was also the secretary of the Adelaide University Chess Association.

Bragg died in 1942 in England and was survived by his daughter Gwendolen and his son, Lawrence.

Legacy
The lecture theatre of King William's College (KWC) is named in memory of Bragg; the Sixth-Form invitational literary debating society at KWC, the Bragg Society, is also named in his memory. One of the school "Houses" at Robert Smyth School, Market Harborough, Leicester, is named "Bragg" in memory of him being a student there. Since 1992, the Australian Institute of Physics has awarded The Bragg Gold Medal for Excellence in Physics for the best PhD thesis by a student at an Australian university. The two sides of the medal contain the images of Sir William Henry and his son Sir Lawrence Bragg.

The Experimental Technique Centre at Brunel University is named the Bragg Building. The Sir William Henry Bragg Building at the University of Leeds opened in 2021.

In 1962, the Bragg Laboratories were constructed at the University of Adelaide to commemorate 100 years since the birth of Sir William H. Bragg.

The Australian Bragg Centre for Proton Therapy and Research also in Adelaide, Australia was completed in late 2023. It is named for both father and son and offers radiation therapy for cancer patients.

In August 2013, Bragg's relative, the broadcaster Melvyn Bragg, presented a BBC Radio 4 programme "Bragg on the Braggs" on the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics winners.

Publications

 * William Henry Bragg, William Lawrence Bragg, "X Rays and Crystal Structure", G. Bell & Son, London, 1915.
 * William Henry Bragg, The World of Sound (1920)
 * William Henry Bragg, The Crystalline State – The Romanes Lecture for 1925. Oxford, 1925.
 * William Henry Bragg, Concerning the Nature of Things (1925)
 * William Henry Bragg, Old Trades and New Knowledge (1926)
 * William Henry Bragg, An Introduction to Crystal Analysis (1928)
 * William Henry Bragg, The Universe of Light (1933)

title: William Henry Bragg


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Party of the Democratic Revolution

The Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD, Partido de la Revolución Democrática, ) is a state-level social democratic political party in Mexico (previously national, until 2024). The PRD originated from the Democratic Current, a political faction formed in 1986 from the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). The PRD was formed after the contested general election in 1988, which the PRD's immediate predecessor, the National Democratic Front, believed was rigged by the PRI. This sparked a movement away from the PRI's authoritarian rule.

As of 2023, the PRD was a member of the Fuerza y Corazón por México (Strength and Heart for Mexico) coalition. Internationally, the PRD was a member of the Progressive Alliance. The members of the party are known colloquially in Mexico as Perredistas. In 2024, the party failed to reach the necessary percentage of votes to keep its registration as a national political party.

Break from the PRI (1986–1988)
The PRD had its origins with the leftist members of the PRI, Institutional Revolutionary Party. The PRI had dominated Mexican politics since its founding in 1929. In 1986, a group of PRI members – including Ifigenia Martínez,, Porfirio Muñoz Ledo, and Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas – formed the Democratic Current, a political faction within the PRI.

The Democratic Current aimed to pressure the PRI to become a more democratic party and to address the issue of national debt including the social effects of the economic crisis that came from attempting to pay that debt. The Democratic Current was also against technocratization, in which the people in power had not held public office and were scholars that were often educated abroad. Under the Miguel de la Madrid presidency which lasted from 1982–1988, the PRI and Mexico were moving towards a technocracy especially since de la Madrid was a technocrat himself. The Democratic Current did not have many technocrats and was thus left out of the decision-making process. This political marginalization led the Democratic Current members to be more vocal about their concerns because they did not have a position of power to protect within the PRI. After public criticisms and debate between the Democratic Current and the PRI, ten Democratic Current members signed Working Document Number One which was the official beginning of the Democratic Current. However, the PRI refused to acknowledge the Democratic Current as an organization unless they joined a union, which was allowed in the PRI. The forming of a group that was not united because of work but because of difference in ideology within the PRI caused fear of division within the party.

Once de la Madrid's six-year term as president was coming to a close, the PRI chose six possible candidates for president and notably did not choose Cárdenas. The PRI had no process to apply as candidate so Cárdenas could not run as a candidate for president. On 4 October 1987, Carlos Salinas de Gortari was ultimately chosen as the PRI candidate. Gortari did not embody anything that the Democratic Current wanted and many of the Democratic Current members left the PRI including Cárdenas during November 1987. Some Democratic Current members went on to support Cárdenas in his 1988 quest for presidency and help in the founding of the PRD.

1988 presidential election
On 12 October 1987, Cárdenas became the Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution's presidential candidate. Cárdenas still remained an independent candidate due to electoral laws which meant that many parties could choose Cárdenas as their candidate. The groups of the independent left that supported Cárdenas were the Mexican Socialist Party which included the Unified Socialist Party of Mexico, the Mexican Workers' Party, the Patriotic Revolutionary Party, the Communist Left Unity, and the People's Revolutionary Movement. The parastatal groups, state-owned enterprises that are separate from government, that supported Cárdenas were the Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution, Popular Socialist Party, and the Party of the Cardenist Front of National Reconstruction, which made up the National Democratic Front. Other groups that supported Cárdenas were the Social Democratic Party, Ecologist Green Party of Mexico, Democratic Unity, Movement for Socialism (Mexico), Critical Point Revolutionary Organization, and Neighborhood Assembly In order to provide a mechanism to coordinate and communicate with one another about campaign activities, these groups formed a coordinating body named the National Democratic Front (Mexico). The Mexican Socialist Party did not join in an official capacity, rather the party signed a separate pact with the Democratic Current.

In the 1988 presidential election, Cárdenas had come closer than any other political candidate to winning against the PRI, which had been in power since 1929. The victory of the PRI's candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, was largely considered guilty of electoral fraud in 1988; this was after the computers tabulating votes had reportedly crashed. As a result, Cárdenas claimed that he had won the election, although he never declared himself president. The National Democratic Front continued to support Cárdenas by signing a Declaration for the Defense of Popular Sovereignty. Protests erupted in support of Cárdenas, the largest of which occurred on 16 July and had an attendance of at least 300,000 people. Nonetheless, the election was ratified. Years later, it was determined that there was indeed electoral fraud in the election.

Founding
The 1988 election sparked a movement against the authoritarian rule of the PRI. As an integral part of the movement towards democracy, the Party of the Democratic Revolution was formed as Mexico's only leftwing party. On 5 May 1989, Cárdenas declared the establishment of the PRD. Former PRI members who also helped found the PRD include: Cárdenas, Porfirio Muñoz Ledo, Ifigenia Martínez y Hernández and Andrés Manuel López Obrador.

The party was founded by smaller left-wing parties such as the Mexican Communist Party (PCM), Unified Socialist Party of Mexico (PSUM), Mexican Socialist Party (PMS) and Mexican Workers' Party (PMT). The PMS donated its registration with the Federal Electoral Commission (CFE) to enable the new party to be established.

First decade (1989–1999)
Small leftist group leaders joined the PRD which left small leftist organizations vulnerable. Additionally, some leftist organizations were wary that their individual concerns would be lost by joining a political group.

In the early years, the PRD was not successful in elections because of electoral fraud. The PRD often claimed that the PRI was participating in electoral fraud. This was in contrast to PAN, the conservative party, who chose to cooperate with the PRI. However, the PRD also cooperated with the PRI to make policy changes that moved towards democracy.

Salinas, PRI member and president of Mexico from 1988 to 1994, had made some improvements to the Mexican economy but Mexico still did not have a democratic system. During this time the PRD had become involved with many social justice movements against the neoliberal and antidemocratic policies of the PRI. The most famous of which was the party's involvement with the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN). Some members of the party wanted to strongly and publicly denounce the armed struggle, whereas others decided to emphatically approve the movement and its goals therefore, it was difficult to form a united front. Nonetheless, many PRD supporters also supported the EZLN and bolstered the movement through the use of posters and murals at PRD events. Although, these instances portrayed the party to appear to be more radical than they actually were, Cárdenas himself took advantage of this support. He met with Subcomandante Marcos and did not attempt to distance the party from the EZLN. This support did not pay off as the EZLN did not help the PRD win any votes and Marcos accused the PRD of being the same as the PRI and PAN. The PRI labeled Cárdenas and the PRD as sympathizers of the EZLN and supporters of armed struggle. Additionally, the PRD had a difficult time transitioning from a movement with a non-negotiable goal to a party that pushed gradual reforms.

1994 presidential election: Cárdenas
Cárdenas ran for national presidency under the PRD in 1994. Cárdenas ran against Diego Fernández, PAN candidate, and PRI party winner of the election, Ernesto Zedillo Ponce. Cárdenas made the Alianza Democrática Nacional campaign, where he mobilized 57 organizations. Cárdenas did not cooperate well with the PRD and was sometimes contradictory to the PRD.

The PRI used its media influence to promote the idea that changing the governing party would disrupt the nation as well as to portray Cárdenas and the PRD as confrontational and violent.

After his loss Cárdenas claimed fraud; however, the party did not support him and instead focused on winning seats in congress.

1994 presidential election aftermath
In 1997, the PRD won its first governorship with Cárdenas as governor of Mexico City. The PRD also gained the second largest majority in the Chamber of Deputies. These victories were due in part to changes in electoral rules. These changes included the creation of the new Federal Elections Institute in 1990 which established six independent councilors who required legislative approval.

This division between currents was seen during the internal election of 14 March 1999 when there were voting discrepancies.

By the end of 1999, 650 members of the PRD had been assassinated, mostly by the PRI, as a way to intimidate those working towards democracy, civic engagement, and social movements.

2000 presidential election: Cárdenas
After the election of Vicente Fox, PAN candidate, the PRD announced that it would not file any complaints about the elections. This was a shift in strategy from the usual protests of fraud. However, some local PRD activists groups filed complaints but these were turned down by the PRD and the electoral court.

2006 presidential election
The former mayor of Mexico City, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, was the presidential candidate for the "Coalición por el Bien de Todos" (Coalition for the Good of All) in the 2006 presidential elections. López Obrador ran against Felipe Calderón, PAN candidate, and Roberto Madrazo, PRI candidate.

López Obrador's campaign relied on citizen's networks (redes ciudadanas) that focused on mobilizing the public to campaign. This strategy focused on López Obrador as an individual and not the PRD. This was worrisome to PRD leaders because they thought that the PRD's concerns would not be addressed. However, many party members thought that López Obrador would win so these concerns were not addressed.

After the general election of 2 July 2006, and a recount of the 9.09% of the ballot tally sheets which supposedly presented irregularities, the Federal Electoral Institute recorded the vote results in favor of Felipe Calderón by a margin of 0.58 percent, about 243,000 votes. These results were later validated by the Federal Electoral Tribunal. However, the PRD claimed that there was election fraud. The claims of election fraud have been rejected by the Federal Electoral Tribunal (TEPJF), which considered these "notoriously out of order" ("notoriamente improcedente") and certified PAN's candidate Felipe Calderón as the winner.

López Obrador then rallied his supporters to hold demonstrations in the capital, Mexico City. These demonstrations were organized by the PRD, whose stronghold is in Mexico City. The PRD had called for demonstrations and set up camps in the capital's main square, blocking one of its main avenues (Paseo de la Reforma) for six weeks to demand a recount of all votes, which was not granted. The camps were later dismantled after confrontation with the Mexican Army became likely.

On 5 September, the Federal Electoral Tribunal announced that there was not enough evidence of electoral fraud which legitimized Calderon as president. This caused López Obrador to maintain his campaign of civil disobedience and declared himself as "Legitimate President" in a "public open vote" (people in the main square raising their hands). López Obrador did not recognize the legitimacy of Calderón as president. The PRD was criticized for not complying with the democratic system that it had lauded and helped create. However, the PRD could not agree on whether they should move forward and cooperate with the current system and contribute to policy or take on an uncompromising stance in an attempt to overturn the current system. This split later trickled on to other things such as electoral and petroleum reforms where one part of the party wanted to cooperate while the other refused to out of allegiance to López Obrador.

In 2008 after bitter infighting within the party Jesús Ortega, an opponent of Andrés Manuel López Obrador, was elected party president. In the 2009 legislative elections, López Obrador supported two smaller parties while maintaining his ties to the PRD.

Videoscandals
The party had enjoyed a reputation of honesty unmatched by its competitors, until the "Video Scandals" a series of videos where notable party members were taped receiving cash funds or betting large sums of money in a Las Vegas casino.

Later, another video was recorded by Cuba's government where Carlos Ahumada, the man providing the money, states that members of the PRI and PAN, PRD's rivals, were planning the situation presented in the first video as part of a plot against Andrés Manuel López Obrador to discredit him as a possible presidential candidate.

Party members who were seen on the video tapes were expelled from the party, but those who were supposedly associated, but never legally charged, are still active members.

2012 presidential election
López Obrador ran for president again in 2012, but lost to Enrique Peña Nieto.

After the loss, López Obrador told a rally in Mexico City's main plaza Zocalo on 9 September 2012 that he would withdraw from the Democratic Revolution Party "on the best of terms," as well as the Labor Party and Citizens' Movement (MC). He added that he was working on founding a new party from the Movement for National Regeneration, which he would later name MORENA.

2018 presidential election: Ricardo Anaya
The defeat of the PAN and the PRD in the Mexico general elections in 2012, as well as the departure of Andrés Manuel López Obrador from the PRD, caused these two parties to approach each other despite the friction obtained in the 2006 general elections.

During 2017, Ricardo Anaya, then President of PAN, announced his party's proposal to create an alliance of politicians called "Opposition Wide Front" in order to "form a coalition government that will result in a stable majority that can be governed the country and make the change of regime a reality."

On 5 September the PAN formalized an alliance with PRD and MC under the name of "Citizen Front for Mexico," registering the coalition before the National Electoral Institute, an alliance to last for 6 years.

On 17 December, the three parties ratified the alliance with the creation of an electoral coalition to participate in the federal elections of 2018 and multiple state elections with the name of "Por México al Frente."

2018 presidential election aftermath
In August 2018 PRD abandoned Por México al Frente. In early 2019, the PRD split, with nine deputies leaving the PRD and joining Morena and the government coalition of López Obrador. This gave the government a two-thirds majority, allowing for the passage of constitutional reform.

On 22 December 2020, the PRD formed the new alliance Va por México, together with the National Action Party and the Institutional Revolutionary Party.

2024 presidential election
In 2023, the PRD, along with the National Action Party and the Institutional Revolutionary Party formed the Fuerza y Corazón por México, an electoral alliance that is to compete in the 2024 Mexican general election with Xóchitl Gálvez as the coalitions’ presidential candidate against the Sigamos Haciendo Historia coalition’s candidate Claudia Sheinbaum of the Morena party.

Dissolution at national level
Having lost the election and failing to have achieved 3% of the national vote in the 2024 general election (in the election for president, Senate, nor Chamber of Deputies), the party lost its registration as a national party. It will remain registered as a state-level party and it can participate in the local elections of Aguascalientes, Baja California Sur, Guerrero, Mexico City, Michoacán, Morelos, Oaxaca, San Luis Potosí, Sonora, the State of Mexico, Tabasco, Tlaxcala and Zacatecas.

Governorships
Source:

Principles
The PRD believes that Mexico currently has major problems of economic and social inequality that halt social development and affect liberty and democratic coexistence. Which is why the PRD has developed the following principles for their political party.

Democracy

 * The PRD considers democracy to be the most fundamental principle that it hopes to establish in Mexico.
 * The PRD believes that democracy is the political regime that should be established in society because the ruling power goes to the people through voting.
 * The internal organization of the party should be democratic.
 * The PRD believes that democracy in Mexico is strengthened by an open, democratic, and transparent system of parties.
 * The PRD acknowledges the diversity of Mexico and is committed to preserve and develop it.
 * The PRD is also committed to a secular state in which there can be liberty, tolerance, and coexistence between all people.

Human rights

 * The PRD is against any form of segregation or discrimination.
 * The PRD fights to promote, expand, respect, protect, and guarantee the exercise of human rights understood in its most broad meaning which includes:
 * civil rights
 * political rights
 * economic rights
 * social rights
 * cultural rights
 * environmental rights
 * right to access to information
 * right to solidarity for the collective benefit for all citizens
 * and rights of ethnic groups
 * The PRD also emphasizes these rights in regard to the following groups:
 * young people
 * children
 * women
 * senior citizens
 * the lesbian, gay, transsexual, transgender, bisexual and intersexual community
 * migrant workers in the nation and abroad.
 * The PRD recognizes indigenous communities as equal in regard to the human rights that they are entitled to, with differences that must be respected.
 * These differences include their:
 * traditions
 * culture
 * forms of social expression
 * and language.
 * The human rights that they are entitled to include:
 * right to self-autonomy
 * right to their land
 * right to the use of their land
 * right to conservation
 * right to collectively use their natural resources
 * right to access to economic development.
 * The PRD believes it is an obligation of the state to support with public policy and methods necessary to guarantee the development of all indigenous communities and towns.
 * The PRD sustains the fundamental principle of the San Andrés Accords.
 * The PRD is also against the death penalty, militarization of police, and military jurisdiction to crimes and misdemeanors of civic order.

Substantive equality and diversity in regard to sexual orientation

 * The PRD believes in the equality between women and men as well as gender mainstreaming.
 * The PRD champions the access to the same treatment and opportunities between men and women.
 * The PRD strives for women to have access to exercise their human, sexual, and reproductive rights and to make choices about their body in a free and informed manner.
 * The PRD promotes gender equality in all social spheres which are manifested in patriarchal and machismo-based power relations that threaten the dignity of women.

Education, science, and culture
The PRD defends the educational principles that inspired the third article of the constitution and alights itself with an education -from beginning education to university- that is secular, public, free, scientific, and of quality, as well as an education that strengthens national identity.

Economy
The PRD, since its founding, believes that the state should have jurisdiction and should intervene in the fundamental and prioritized areas of the productive sector, as are nutrition, production of clean energy, telecommunications, the process of technology, infrastructure, communication mediums, financial systems, and technology trade for the national and regional development, restraining ownership and dominion of hydrocarbons and radio-electric spectrum for the nation and the recovery of basic goods that guarantee sovereignty.

Social justice
The PRD defends the rights of every Mexican worker, the preservation and expansion of social security and the permanent improvements of contractual conditions.

Environment
The PRD adopts the principle of sustainable development as well as preserving the cultural environment. The PRD does this to satisfy the necessities of current and future generations, based on the responsible use of natural resources, including new tools for development, that would allow for the protection and recovery of the environment with comprehensive public policy.

International scope
The PRD supports the self-determination of communities, non-intervention, legal equality of states, the cooperation for national development and sovereignty and the respect and incorporation of international treaties to legislation.

Internal organization
The PRD consists of: congresses, councils, and executive committees, an assembly, and a committee. The nation, states, and municipalities have the same organization. They each have a congress, a council, and an executive committee. Congress has the most authority, the council coordinates communication between congresses, and the executive committee applies the guidelines set in place by the council. The maximum rule for any elected position is three years. The national, state, and municipal president cannot be reelected for the same position. The PRD has an anti-discriminatory policy for its internal elections. The PRD has policies put in place that guarantee the inclusion of women, young people, and indigenous people.

The National Congress is the maximum authority of the PRD. The National Congress approves the statue, the declaration of principles, the program, and the political organization of the party. 90% of the National Congress is made up from delegates elected in municipal assemblies. The rest of the National Congress is made up by two delegates for each State Council, the presidents of the State Councils, the members of the National Executive Committee, and by the elected delegates of the National Council that shall not exceed 4% of the total delegates in the Party's Congress. The National Council chooses the majority of its 21-member executive committee except for the president of the party, the secretary of the party, and the parliamentary group coordinators.

In 2014, the PRD became the first political party to have internal elections organized by the Federal Electoral Institute where those affiliated with the party could vote for the members of the National Congress and Council as well as State and Municipal Councils. 2 million people participated in the internal elections which is about 45% of those affiliated with the party.

Currents
Inside the PRD, there are "currents" that are dedicated to specific approaches and stances or about specific themes or movements. These include:
 * National Democratic Alternative (Alternativa Democrática Nacional)
 * New Left (Nueva Izquierda)
 * New Sun Forum (Foro Nuevo Sol)
 * National Democratic Left (Izquierda Democrática Nacional)
 * Political Action Group (Grupo Acción Política)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Party of the Democratic Revolution


text:
CUNY Graduate Center

The Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York (CUNY Graduate Center) is a public research institution and postgraduate university in New York City. Serving as the principal doctorate-granting institution of the City University of New York (CUNY) system, The CUNY Graduate Center is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity". The school is located at the B. Altman and Company Building at 365 Fifth Avenue in Midtown Manhattan. The CUNY Graduate Center offers 31 doctoral programs, 14 master's programs, and 30 research centers and institutes. It employs a core faculty of approximately 140, who are supplemented by 1,800 faculty members from CUNY's eleven senior colleges and New York City's cultural and scientific institutions. As of June 2024, the Graduate Center enrolls 3,228 students, of which 2,621 or 81% are doctoral students.

Several doctoral programs at the CUNY Graduate Center, including Criminal Justice, English, History, Philosophy, and Sociology, have been ranked among the top 30 in the United States. For the Fall 2022 semester, 16% of applicants across all doctoral programs at the CUNY Graduate Center were offered admission.

CUNY Graduate Center faculty include recipients of the Nobel Prize, the Abel Prize, Pulitzer Prize, the National Humanities Medal, the National Medal of Science, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Rockefeller Fellowship, the Schock Prize, the Bancroft Prize, the Wolf Prize, Grammy Awards, the George Jean Nathan Award for Dramatic Criticism, Guggenheim Fellowships, the New York City Mayor's Award for Excellence in Science and Technology, the Presidential Early Career Awards for Scientists and Engineers, and memberships in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences.

History

CUNY began offering doctoral education through its Division of Graduate Studies in 1961, and awarded its first two PhD to Daniel Robinson and Barbara Stern in 1965. Robinson, formerly a professor of philosophy at the University of Oxford, received his PhD in psychology, while Stern, late of Rutgers University, received her PhD in English literature.

In 1969, the Division of Graduate Studies formally became the Graduate School and University Center. Mathematician Mina S. Rees served as the institution's first president from 1969 until her retirement in 1972. Rees was succeeded as president of the Graduate Center by environmental psychologist Harold M. Proshansky, who served until his death in 1990. Provost Steven M. Cahn was named acting president in Spring 1991. Psychologist Frances Degen Horowitz was appointed president in September 1991. In 2005, Horowitz was succeeded by the school's provost, Professor of English Literature William P. Kelly.

During Kelly's tenure at the Graduate Center, the university saw significant growth in revenue, funding opportunities for students, increased Distinguished Faculty, and a general resurgence. This is in accordance with three primary goals articulated in the Graduate Center's strategic plan. The first of these involves enhancing student support. In 2013, 83 dissertation-year fellowships were awarded at a total cost of $1.65 million. The Graduate Center is also developing new programs to advance research prior to the dissertation phase, including archival work. The fiscal stability of the university has enabled the chancellery to increase, on an incremental basis, the value of these fellowships. The packages extended for the 2013–14 years increase stipends and reduce teaching requirements. In 2001, the Graduate Center provided 14 million dollars in student support, and, in Fall 2013, 51 million in student support.

On April 23, 2013, the CUNY Board of Trustees announced that President Kelly would serve as interim chancellor for the City University of New York beginning July 1 with the retirement of Chancellor Matthew Goldstein. GC Provost Chase F. Robinson, a historian, was appointed to serve as interim president of the Graduate Center in 2013, and then served as president from July 2014 to December 2018.

Joy Connolly became provost in August 2016 and interim president in December 2018. Julia Wrigley was appointed as interim provost in December 2018. In July 2019, James Muyskens became interim president, as Connolly had been appointed president of the American Council of Learned Societies. On March 30, 2020, Robin L. Garrell, Vice Provost for Graduate Education and Dean of Graduate Division at University of California, Los Angeles, was announced as the next president of The Graduate Center. She assumed office on August 1, 2020 and served until September 28, 2023.

Steve Everett assumed the position of Provost and Senior Vice President in August 2021. Joshua Brumberg assumed the position of Interim President on October 2, 2023.

Campus
The CUNY Graduate Center's main campus is located in the B. Altman and Company Building at 34th Street and Fifth Avenue in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. CUNY shares the B. Altman Building with the Oxford University Press. Before 2000, the Graduate Center was housed in Aeolian Hall on West 42nd Street across from the New York Public Library Main Branch. In 2017, the CUNY Advanced Science Research Center at 85 St. Nicholas Terrace in Manhattan's Harlem neighborhood became part of the CUNY Graduate Center.

Advanced Science Research Center
The Advanced Science Research Center at the Graduate Center (CUNY ASRC) is an interdisciplinary STEM center for research and education. It covers five related fields: nanoscience, photonics, structural biology, neuroscience, and environmental science. The CUNY ASRC is located in a 200,000 ft2 building on the southern edge of City College's campus in Upper Manhattan. The CUNY ASRC, which opened in September 2014, is an outgrowth of CUNY's "Decade of Science" initiative, a multibillion-dollar project to elevating science research and education.

The CUNY ASRC formally joined the CUNY Graduate Center in spring 2017. Today, the CUNY ASRC is one of the major pieces of CUNY's citywide research network. Five years after the center opened, over 200 graduate, undergraduate, and high school students had been mentored by CUNY ASRC scientists. In that time, the center also hosted over 400 conferences, seminars, and workshops and awarded over $600,000 in seed grants to CUNY faculty.

Research initiatives
The CUNY ASRC was founded on the principle that researchers across different disciplines would collaborate to make scientific advancements. Thus, it consists of five related fields:

 * Nanoscience: Exploring on the tiniest scale, using the living world for inspiration to create new materials and devices that advance fields ranging from biomedicine to energy production
 * Photonics: Discovering new ways to control light, heat, radio waves, and sound for future optical computers, ultrasensitive cameras, and cell phone technology
 * Structural biology: Combining physics and chemistry to explore biology at the molecular and cellular levels, with the intention of identifying new ways to treat diseases
 * Neuroscience: Investigating how the brain senses and responds to environmental and social experiences, with a focus on neural networks, metabolic changes, and molecular signals occurring in brain cells, with the goal of developing biosensors and innovative solutions to promote mental health
 * Environmental sciences: Developing high-tech, interdisciplinary solutions to urgent environmental challenges, including air and water issues, climate change, and disease transmission

Each research initiative occupies one floor of the CUNY ASRC building that hosts four faculty laboratories and between two and four core facilities.

Core facilities
The CUNY ASRC has 15 core facilities with a variety of equipment. These facilities are open to researchers from CUNY, other academic institutions, nonprofit organizations, and for-profit companies from around the world.

The facilities include:

 * Advanced Laboratory for Chemical and Isotopic Signatures (ALCIS) Facility
 * Biomolecular Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Facility
 * Comparative Medicine Unit (CMU)
 * Epigenetics Facilities
 * Imaging Facility
 * Live Imaging & Bioenergetics Facility
 * MALDI Imaging Joint Facility
 * Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Facility
 * Macromolecular Crystallization Facility
 * Mass Spectrometry Core Facility
 * Nanofabrication Facility
 * Next Generation Environmental Sensor (NGENS) Lab
 * Photonics Core Facility
 * Radio Frequency and mm-Wave Facility
 * Surface Science Facility

Education and outreach
The CUNY ASRC has various scientific education programs. Students from CUNY's community and senior colleges participate in research during the academic year and over the summer through programs such as the CUNY Summer Undergraduate Research Program. Graduate students from master's and doctoral programs at the Graduate Center and from the Grove School of Engineering are members of CUNY ASRC research teams.

IlluminationSpace
The CUNY ASRC's IlluminationSpace is an interactive education center, which accommodates high school field trips and provides free community hours. It has numerous virtual programs and resources.

The CUNY ASRC received a Public Interest Technology University Network 2021 Challenge Grant to establish the IlluminationSpace, STEM pathways, and science communications and outreach at CUNY. The funding is being used to increase participation of underrepresented demographic groups in STEM fields.

Community Sensor Lab
The CUNY ASRC Community Sensor Lab teaches high school students and community members how to build inexpensive, homemade sensors that can monitor aspects of the environment from the level of carbon dioxide and pollutants in the air to acidity in the soil and water.

Faculty opportunities
The CUNY ASRC offers a seed grant program to fund collaborative research that supports tenured and tenure-track faculty at CUNY colleges. The program started in 2015 and currently awards six one-year, $20,000 grants annually.

In addition, the center's National Science Foundation CAREER Bootcamp Program, which guides tenure-track faculty through the proposal writing process, have helped CUNY researchers secure substantial NSF CAREER grants.

Grants and research
Between 2014 and 2019, CUNY ASRC researchers secured 126 grants totaling $61 million. Several recent grants have set records for CUNY and the CUNY Graduate Center. Faculty, postdoctoral fellows, and graduate students at the CUNY ASRC also hold several patents. Professor Kevin Gardner, director of the CUNY ASRC Structural Biology Initiative, was instrumental in the identification of hypoxia-inducible factor 2-alpha (HIF-2α) as a druggable target and the drug development efforts that led to the FDA-approved first-in-kind kidney cancer drug from Merck, belzutifan.

The CUNY ASRC is home to one of 15 Centers for Advanced Technology (CATs) designated by Empire State Development NYSTAR. Funded by a nearly $8.8 million grant, the CUNY ASRC Sensor CAT spurs academic-industry partnerships to develop sensor-based technology. Developing biomedical and environmental sensors is a particular focus, as is finding new approaches to sensing through photonics, materials, and nanoscience research.

Supported by a 2020 grant of up to $16 million from the Simons Foundation, a team of scientists led by Professor Andrea Alù, director of the CUNY ASRC Photonics Initiative, is studying wave transport in metamaterials. The team's work could lead to greater sensing capabilities for the Internet of Things, improvements in biomedical applications, and extreme control of sound waves for medical imaging and wireless technology.

Professors Rein Ulijn and Andrea Al], the directors of the CUNY ASRC Nanoscience Initiative and the CUNY ASRC Photonics Initiative, each won a prestigious Vannevar Bush Faculty Fellowship from the U.S. Department of Defense, the agency's highest-ranking single-investigator award. Alù's $3 million fellowship, awarded in 2019, allowed him to develop new materials that enable extreme wave manipulation in the context of thermal radiation and heat management. Alù was also named the 2021 Blavatnik National Awards Laureate in Physical Sciences and Engineering. Ulijn's $3 million fellowship, awarded in 2021, allowed him to research how complex mixtures of molecules acquire functionality and to repurpose this understanding to create new nanotechnology that is inspired by living systems.

Mina Rees Library
The Mina Rees Library, named after former president Mina Rees, supports the research, teaching, and learning activities of the CUNY Graduate Center by connecting its community with print materials, electronic resources, research assistance and instruction, and expertise about the complexities of scholarly communication. Situated on three floors of the CUNY Graduate Center, the library is a hub for discovery, delivery, digitization, and a place for solitary study. The library offers many services, including research consultations, a 24/7 online chat service with reference librarians, and workshops and webinars on using research tools.

The library also serves as a gateway to the collections of other CUNY libraries, the New York Public Library (NYPL), and libraries worldwide. It participates in a CUNY-wide book delivery system and offers an interlibrary loan service to bring materials from outside CUNY to Graduate Center scholars. The main branch of NYPL is just a few blocks up Fifth Avenue, and NYPL's Science, Industry and Business Library is just around the corner inside the B. Altman Building. CUNY Graduate Center students and faculty are NYPL's primary academic constituents, with borrowing privileges from NYPL research collections. NYPL's participation in the Manhattan Research Library Initiative (MaRLI) extends borrowing privileges for CUNY Graduate Center students to NYU and Columbia libraries as well. The Mina Rees Library is a key participant in the CUNY Graduate Center's digital initiatives. It supports the digital scholarship of students and faculty and promotes the understanding, creation, and use of open-access literature. Among its special collections is the Activist Women's Voices collection, an oral history project focused on unheralded New York City community-based women activists.

Cultural venues
The CUNY Graduate Center houses three performance spaces and two art galleries. The Harold M. Proshansky Auditorium, named for the institution's second president, is located on the concourse level and contains 389 seats. The Baisley Powell Elebash Recital Hall, located on the first floor, seats 180. The Martin E. Segal Theatre, also located on the first floor, seats 70.

James Gallery
The ground floor of the CUNY Graduate Center houses the Amie and Tony James Gallery, also known as the James Gallery, which the Center for the Humanities oversees. The James Gallery intends to bring scholars and artists into dialog with one another and serve as a site for interdisciplinary research. The James Gallery hosts numerous exhibitions annually, and has hosted solo exhibitions by notable American and international artists such as Alison Knowles and Dor Guez.

CUNY TV
The University's citywide cable channel, CUNY TV, broadcasts on cable and WNYE's digital terrestrial television subchannel 25.3. Its production studios and offices are located on the first floor, while the broadcast satellite dishes reside on the building's ninth floor (rooftop).

NYC Media
Sharing CUNY TV's main facilities is NYC Media, which is the official broadcast network and media production group of the NYC Mayor's Office of Media and Entertainment. The group includes WNYE-FM (91.5) radio station and WNYE-TV television channel (Channel 25), which also puts out "NYCLife" programming on 25.1 and "NYCGov" on 25.2, all broadcast 24/7 from within the building.

Rankings
The latest edition of U.S. News & World Report Best Graduate School Ranking ranked CUNY Graduate Center's PhD program in Criminal Justice 15th, its English program 17th, its Sociology PhD program 26th, its History PhD program 26th, and its Mathematics PhD program 47th best in the nation. In the 2016 edition of QS World University Rankings, CUNY Graduate Center's PhD program in Philosophy was ranked 44th globally. In the 2022 edition of the Philosophical Gourmet Report ranked CUNY Graduate Center's philosophy program 14th best in the United States and 16th best in English-speaking countries.

Faculty
Faculty members include the recipients of the Nobel Prize, Pulitzer Prize, the National Humanities Medal, the National Medal of Science, the Schock Prize, the Bancroft Prize, Grammy Awards, the George Jean Nathan Award for Dramatic Criticism, Guggenheim Fellowships, the New York City Mayor's Award for Excellence in Science and Technology, the Presidential Early Career Awards for Scientists and Engineers, and memberships in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences. Many departments are recognized internationally for their level of scholarship.

Courses in the social sciences, humanities, and mathematics, and courses in the sciences requiring no laboratory work convene at the Graduate Center. Due to the consortial nature of doctoral study at the CUNY Graduate Center, courses requiring laboratory work, courses for the clinical doctorates, and courses in business, criminal justice, engineering, and social welfare convene on CUNY college campuses.

Community
The CUNY Graduate Center pioneered the CUNY Academic Commons in 2009 to much praise. The CUNY Academic Commons is an online, academic social network for faculty, staff, and graduate students of the City University of New York (CUNY) system. Designed to foster conversation, collaboration, and connections among the 24 individual colleges that make up the university system, the site, founded in 2009, has quickly grown as a hub for the CUNY community, serving in the process to strengthen a growing group of digital scholars, teachers, and open-source projects at the university. The project has received awards and grants from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Sloan Consortium and was the winner of the 2013 Digital Humanities Award.

Also affiliated with the institution are four University Center programs: CUNY Baccalaureate for Unique and Interdisciplinary Studies through which undergraduates can earn individualized bachelor's degrees by completing courses at any of the CUNY colleges; the CUNY School of Professional Studies and the associated Joseph S. Murphy Institute for Worker Education and Labor Studies; the CUNY Graduate School of Journalism, which offers a master's degree in journalism; and Macaulay Honors College.

Research
CUNY Graduate Center describes itself as "research-intensive" and is classified by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education to be an R1 or have "highest research activity". The CUNY Graduate Center's primary library, named after Mina Rees, is located on campus; however, its students also have borrowing privileges at the remaining 31 City University of New York libraries, which collectively house 6.2 million printed works and over 300,000 e-books. Beginning in 1968, the CUNY Graduate Center maintains a formal collaboration with the New York Public Library that allows faculty and students access to NYPL's extensive research collections, regular library resources, as well as three research study rooms located in the Stephen A. Schwarzman Building. Further,, students have access to the libraries of Columbia University and New York University through the NYPL's Manhattan Research Library Initiative. The CUNY Graduate Center library also maintains an online repository called CUNY Academic Works, which hosts open-access faculty and student research.

Advanced Research Collaborative (ARC)
The CUNY Graduate Center's Advanced Research Collaborative (ARC) program conducts research in seven core areas of study:
 * 1) Inequality - Research on the structural foundations of increasing inequality across our society and ways to mobilize communities around various alternatives.
 * 2) Immigration - Interdisciplinary research on the social, cultural, and political impacts of international migration, with special attention on the role of immigration in New York City and comparative studies on how immigration and ethnic diversity are experienced in different nations.
 * 3) Multilingualism - Interdisciplinary research on complex social, cultural, and policy issues raised by multilingualism.
 * 4) Digital Initiatives: Research in a broad range of digital projects and digital resources, including data mining and the digital humanities.
 * 5) Urban Studies: Critical issues facing large cities around the world and the role played therein by public, nonprofit, and business organizations.

Initiatives and committees
The CUNY Graduate Center does additional work through its initiatives and committees:
 * Futures Initiative
 * Graduate Center Digital Initiatives
 * Initiative for the Theoretical Sciences (ITS)
 * Revolutionizing American Studies Initiative
 * The Committee for the Study of Religion
 * The Committee on Globalization and Social Change
 * The Committee for Interdisciplinary Science Studies
 * Endangered Language Initiative
 * Intellectual Publics

Centers and institutes
With over 30 research institutes and centers the CUNY Graduate Center produces work on a range of social, cultural, scientific and civic issues.

 * Advanced Science Research Center
 * American Social History Project/Center for Media and Learning
 * Barry S. Brook Center for Music Research and Documentation (founded in 1989)
 * Bildner Center for Western Hemisphere Studies
 * Center for Jewish Studies
 * Center for Advanced Study in Education (CASE)
 * Center for Human Environments
 * Center for Latin American, Iberian, and Latino Cultures
 * Center for Place, Culture and Politics
 * Center for the Humanities
 * Center for the Study of Culture, Technology and Work
 * Center for the Study of Women and Society
 * Center for Urban Education Policy
 * Center for Urban Research
 * Center on Philanthropy and Civil Society
 * CIDR: CUNY Institute for Demographic Research
 * CLAGS: The Center for LGBTQ Studies
 * Committee on Globalization and Social Change
 * CUNY Institute for Software Design and Development (CISDD)
 * European Union Studies Center
 * Foundation for Iberian Music
 * Gotham Center for New York City History
 * Henri Peyre French Institute
 * Howard Samuels Center
 * Human Ecodynamics Research Center
 * Institute for Language Education in Transcultural Context
 * Institute for Research on the African Diaspora in the Americas & the Caribbean (IRADAC)
 * Latin/Greek Institute
 * Leon Levy Center for Biography
 * Middle East and Middle Eastern American Center (MEMEAC)
 * Martin E. Segal Theatre Center
 * Ralph Bunche Institute for International Studies
 * Research Center for Music Iconography (founded in 1972)
 * Research Institute for the Study of Language in Urban Society (RISLUS)
 * Saul Kripke Center
 * Stone Center on Socio-Economic Inequality
 * Teaching and Learning Center
 * The Writers' Institute at The Graduate Center

American Social History Project
The American Social History Project/Center for Media and Learning (ASHP/CML) was established in 1981 to create and disseminate materials that help with understanding the diverse cultural and social history of the United States. Founded by Stephen Brier and Herbert Gutman, who sought to teach the history of everyday Americans, early projects included the film 1877: The Grand Army of Starvation, about the 1877 railway strike.

ASHP has created curriculum grounded in the work of Howard Zinn, Herbert Gutman, and Stephen Brier which aims to teach social studies at the high school level with the inclusion of diverse viewpoints, including indigenous groups, enslaved Americans, immigrants, and the working class. Notable curricula and teaching tools have included Freedom's Unfinished Revolution: An Inquiry into the Civil War and Reconstruction, and Who Built America?. Other curriculum, such as Golden Lands, Working Hands, has focused on labor history; these types of ASHP materials emphasize collaborative teaching and learning strategies and have been popular in teaching districts that prioritize union labor.

Digital teaching resources created by ASHP have included the History Matters website; and the online resource Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité: Exploring the French Revolution. As teaching tools, these websites place an emphasis on inclusion of primary source material for use in the classroom, alongside teaching strategies for seamless use of these documents in classroom curriculum. The online resource, September 11 Digital Archive, has received acclaim for its comprehensive representation of historic perspectives. ASHP is also a partner of the Mission US project and co-produced Mission US: Cheyenne Odyssey, an award-winning video game about a Cheyenne tribesman whose way of life is challenged by western expansion.

ASHP was established out of the success of a series of National Endowment for the Humanities summer seminars; seminar topics have included Learning to Look: Teaching Humanitites with Visual Images and New Media, Visual Culture of the American Civil War and its Aftermath, and LGBTQ+ Histories of the United States. This focus on professional development opportunities for educators has included other workshops such as the Bridging Historias: Latino/a History and Culture in the Community College Classroom program.

Stone Center on Socio-Economic Inequality
The James M. and Cathleen D. Stone Center on Socio-Economic Inequality was launched on September 1, 2016. The Stone Center expanded and replaced the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Center, which opened its doors at the Graduate Center in 2009. It began a post-doctoral program in 2019.

The Stone Center has hosted several scholarly convenings. One year after its launch, it hosted the 2017 Meeting Of The Society For The Study Of Economic Inequality (ECINEQ). In 2021, it convened wealth inequality scholars for the two-day conference, From Understanding Inequality to Reducing Inequality.

Notable people
The CUNY Graduate Center has graduated 15,000 alumni worldwide, including numerous academics, politicians, artists, and entrepreneurs. As of 2016, the CUNY Graduate Center counted five MacArthur Foundation Fellows among its alumni, including writer Maggie Nelson as the most recent recipient. Among alumni graduated between 2003 and 2018, more than two-thirds are employed at educational institutions and over half have remained within New York City or its metro area.

Among the CUNY Graduate Center's alumni are leading scholars across numerous disciplines, including art historian and ACT-UP activist Douglas Crimp, political scientist Douglas Hale, anthropologist Faye Ginsburg, sociologist Michael P. Jacobson, historian Maurice Berger, and philosopher Nancy Fraser. The City University of New York has been acknowledged for its exceptional number of faculty and students who have been awarded nationally recognized prizes in poetry. Among this group include student Gregory Pardlo, winner of the 2015 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry

The CUNY Graduate Center holds a reputation for attracting established scholars to its faculty. In 2001, the CUNY Graduate Center initiated a five-year faculty recruitment campaign to hire additional renowned academics and public intellectuals in order to bolster the institution's faculty roster. Those recruited during the drive include André Aciman, Jean Anyon, Mitchell Duneier, Victor Kolyvagin, Robert Reid-Pharr and Saul Kripke.

The CUNY Graduate Center utilizes a unique consortium model, which hosts 140 faculty with sole appointments at the CUNY Graduate Center, most of whom are senior scholars in their respective disciplines, as well as draws upon 1,800 faculty from across the other CUNY schools to both teach classes and advise graduate students.

Notable faculty members include:

 * Ervand Abrahamian – Historian
 * André Aciman – Writer
 * Ammiel Alcalay – Poet
 * Andrea Alù – Material scientist
 * Stanley Aronowitz – Sociologist
 * Talal Asad – Anthropologist
 * William Bialek – Biophysicist
 * Claire Bishop – Art historian
 * Barry S. Brook – Musicologist
 * Mary Ann Caws – Literary historian
 * John Corigliano – Composer
 * Cathy Davidson – English professor
 * Philip Ewell – Music theorist
 * Michelle Fine – Critical psychologist
 * Ofelia García – Sociolinguist
 * Ruth Wilson Gilmore – Geographer
 * Michael Grossman (economist) – Economist
 * Robert Haralick – Computer Scientist
 * David Harvey – Geographer
 * Dagmar Herzog – Historian
 * James Oakes – Historian
 * David Nasaw – Historian
 * David Joselit – Art historian
 * Michio Kaku – Physicist
 * Wayne Koestenbaum – Poet
 * Victor Kolyvagin – Mathematician
 * Paul Krugman – Economist
 * Eric Lott – Literary critic
 * Branko Milanović – Economist
 * Stanley Milgram – Social psychologist
 * Nancy K. Miller – Feminist theorist and memoirist
 * Katherine Nelson – Developmental psychologist
 * Frances Fox Piven – Political scientist
 * Robert Reid-Pharr – Literary critic
 * David S. Reynolds – Literary historian and biographer
 * Paul Julian Smith – Spanish professor
 * Dennis Sullivan – Mathematician

Student life
Some CUNY Graduate Center students live in Graduate housing in East Harlem. The eight-story building includes a gym, laundry facilities, lounge and rooftop terrace. The Graduate housing opened in fall 2011 in conjunction with the construction of the Hunter College School of Social Work.

The Doctoral and Graduate Students' Council (DGSC) is the sole policy-making body representing students in doctoral and master's programs at the CUNY Graduate Center.

There are over forty doctoral student organizations ranging from the Middle Eastern Studies Organization and Africana Studies Group to the Prison Studies Group and the Immigration Working Group. These chartered organizations host conferences, publish online magazines, and create social events aimed at fostering a community for CUNY Graduate Center students.

Doctoral students at the CUNY Graduate Center also produce a newspaper funded by the DGSC and run by a committee of editors from the various doctoral programs. The paper, entitled The GC Advocate, comes out six times per academic year and is free for students, faculty, staff, and visitors.

title: CUNY Graduate Center


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Hamlet (place)

A hamlet is a human settlement that is smaller than a town or village. This is often simply an informal description of a smaller settlement or possibly a subdivision or satellite entity to a larger settlement.

Sometimes a hamlet is defined for official or administrative purposes. In that case, its size relative to a parish or other administrative unit will depend on the administration and region.

The word and concept of a hamlet can be traced back to Norman England, where the Old French hamelet came to apply to small human settlements.

Etymology
The word comes from Anglo-Norman hamelet, corresponding to Old French hamelet, the diminutive of Old French hamel meaning a little village. This, in turn, is a diminutive of Old French ham, possibly borrowed from (West Germanic) Franconian languages. It is the equivalent of the modern French hameau, Dutch heem, Frisian hiem, German Heim, Old English hām, and Modern English home.

Afghanistan
In Afghanistan, the counterpart of the hamlet is the qala (Dari: قلعه, Pashto: کلي) meaning "fort" or "hamlet". The Afghan qala is a fortified group of houses, generally with its own community building such as a mosque, but without its own marketplace. The qala is the smallest type of settlement in Afghan society, outsized by the village (Dari/Pashto: ده), which is larger and includes a commercial area.

Canada
In Canada's three territories, hamlets are officially designated municipalities. As of January 1, 2010:

 * Northwest Territories had 11 hamlets, each of which had a population of less than 900 people as of the 2016 census;
 * Nunavut had 24 hamlets, with populations ranging from 129 to 2,842 as of the 2016 census; and
 * Yukon had two hamlets, both of which had a population of less than 450 people as of the 2016 census.

In Canada's provinces, hamlets are usually small unincorporated communities within a larger municipality (similar to civil townships in the United States), such as many communities within the single-tier municipalities of Ontario or within Alberta's specialized and rural municipalities.

Canada's two largest hamlets—Fort McMurray (formerly incorporated as a city) and Sherwood Park—are located in Alberta. They each have populations, within their main urban area, in excess of 60,000—well in excess of the 10,000-person threshold that can choose to incorporate as a city in Alberta. The designation of these urban areas as a "hamlet" is simply to enable their residents to participate in the politics of their surrounding counties. As such, these two hamlets have been further designated by the Province of Alberta as urban service areas. An urban service area is recognized as equivalent to a city for the purposes of provincial and federal program delivery and grant eligibility.

France
A hamlet, hameau, is a group of rural dwellings, usually too small to be considered a village. The term Lieu-dit is also applied to hamlets, but this can also refer to uninhabited localities.

During the 18th century, it was fashionable for rich or noble people to create their own hameau in their gardens. This was a group of houses or farms with rustic appearance, but in fact very comfortable. The best known is the Hameau de la Reine built by the queen Marie-Antoinette in the park of the Château de Versailles; also the Hameau de Chantilly built by Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé in Chantilly, Oise.

Germany
The German word for hamlet is Weiler. A Weiler has, compared to a Dorf (village), no infrastructure (i.e. no inn, no school, no store, no church). The houses and farms of a Weiler can be grouped (in the hills and the mountains) or scattered (more often in the plains). In North West Germany, a group of scattered farms is called Bauerschaft. In a Weiler, there are no street names, the houses are just numbered.

There is no legal definition of a hamlet in Germany. In Bavaria, like in Austria, a Weiler is defined as a settlement with 3 to 9 dwellings, from 10 houses it is called a village. A hamlet does not usually form its own administrative unit, but is part of a larger municipality.

India
In different states of India, there are different words for hamlet. In Haryana and Rajasthan, it is called "dhani" (ढाणी ḍhāṇī) or "Thok". In Gujarat, a hamlet is called a "nesada", which are more prevalent in the Gir forest. In Maharashtra, it is called a "pada". In southern Bihar, especially in the Magadh division, a hamlet is called a "bigha". In state of Karnataka, a hamlet is known by different names like Palya, Hadi (Haadi), Keri, and Padi (Paadi). In olden days, the human population of hamlet was less than Halli (Village) or Ooru (Uru). But in the 20th century with tremendous increase in population, some of these hamlets have become villages, towns, cities or merged with them.

Indonesia
All over Indonesia, hamlets are translated as "small village", desa or kampung. They are known as dusun in Central Java and East Java, banjar in Bali, jorong or kampuang in West Sumatra.

Netherlands
The Dutch words for hamlet are gehucht or buurtschap. A gehucht or buurtschap has, compared to a dorp (village), no infrastructure (i.e. no inn, no school, no store) and contains often only one street, bearing the same name. The houses and farms of a gehucht or a buurtschap can be scattered. Though there are strong similarities between a gehucht and buurtschap, the words are not interchangeable. A gehucht officially counts as an independent place of residence (e.g. Wateren), while a buurtschap officially is a part of an other place (e.g. Bartlehiem, part of Wyns).

Pakistan
In Pakistan, a hamlet is called a gaaon گاؤں or mauza موضع in Urdu, giraaan گراں or pind پنڈ in Punjabi, and kalay کلې in Pashto. It is almost synonymous to 'village'.

Poland
In Poland, the law recognises a number of different kinds of rural settlement. Przysiółek (which can be translated as "hamlet") refers to a cluster of farms. Osada (which is typically translated as "settlement" but also can be translated as "hamlet") includes smaller settlements especially differing by type of buildings or inhabited by population connected with some place or workplace (like mill settlements, forest settlements, fishing settlements, railway settlements, former State Agricultural Farm settlements). They can be an independent settlement, or a part of another settlement, like a village.

Romania
In Romania, hamlets are called cătune (singular: cătun), and they represent villages that contain several houses at most. They are legally considered villages, and statistically, they are placed in the same category. Like villages, they do not have a separate administration, and thus are not an administrative division, but are part of a parent commune.

Russia
In the Russian language, there are several words which mean "a hamlet", but all of them are approximately equivalent. The most common word is деревня (derevnia, the word meant "an arable" in the past); the words село (selo, from the Russian word селиться (selit'tsa), meaning "to settle") and посёлок (posiolok) are quite frequently used, too. Parallel to many other cultures, a distinction was often that selo has a church and derevnia has not.

The once common Russian word хутор (khutor) for the smallest type of rural settlement (arguably closest in nature to the English hamlet) is now mostly obsolete. The state of USSR wanted to have some form of basic infrastructure and central authority at each and every settlement. Obviously, this is the opposite of hamlet - a place without either for being too small to meaningfully support those. Even without state pressure, once one of the neighboring khutors got a permanent shop, school, community center (known in Russia as дом культуры, "house of culture"), maybe a medical post, others would naturally relocate closer, drawing together into one village.

Thus, the diminutive form деревенька (derevenka, tiny derevnia) is in widespread, albeit unofficial, use to denote such settlements, which mostly possess the amenities of a village yet the size of hamlet.

Spain
In Spain, a hamlet is called lugar, aldea or cortijada. The word comes from the Spanish term cortijo («estate»). In the South of Spain, the term caserío is also used for designating small groups of rural dwellings or farmhouses.

A hamlet in Spain is a human settlement, usually located in rural areas, and typically smaller in size and population than a village (called in Spain, pueblo ). The hamlet is a common territorial organisation in the North West of Spain (Asturias, Cantabria and Galicia) dependent on a larger entity (e.g. parish or municipality).

In Spain, the hamlet is one of the categories in the official gazetteer of population entities. In the Royal Order and Instruction of the 8 of March 1930, issued for the elaboration of the Annual gazetteer, the hamlet (aldea) is defined as the population entity with the smallest population and neighbourhood, usually more disseminated than the lugar, though its buildings can be also organised in streets and plazas.

Switzerland
In the four national languages, hamlets are known as Weiler (German), hameaux (French), frazioni (Italian) and fracziun (Romansh). A hamlet is always part of a larger municipality or may be shared between two municipalities. The difference between a hamlet and a village is that typically a hamlet lacks a compact core settlement and lacks a central building such as a church or inn. However, some hamlets (Kirchwiler) may have grown up as an unplanned settlement around a church. There is no population limit that defines a hamlet and some hamlets have a larger population than some of the smallest municipalities. Generally there are no street names in a hamlet; rather, addresses are given by hamlet name and a number. House numbers might start at one side of the hamlet and continue to the other side or may have no clear organization.

A hamlet may form or have formed a Bürgergemeinde (legal place of citizenship regardless of where a person was born or currently lives) and may own common property for the Bürgergemeinde.

Turkey
In Turkey, a hamlet is known as a mezra and denotes a small satellite settlement usually consisting of a few houses in the rural outskirts of a village.

Ukraine
In Ukraine, a very small village such as a hamlet usually is called a selyshche or khutir. There also existed such places like volia, sloboda, huta, buda, and others.

England
In England, the word hamlet (having the French origin given at the top of this article) means (in current usage) simply a small settlement, maybe of a few houses or farms, smaller than a village. However, traditionally and legally, it means a village or a town without a church, although hamlets are recognised as part of land use planning policies and administration. Historically, it may refer to a secondary settlement in a civil parish, after the main settlement (if any); such an example is the hamlet of Chipping being the secondary settlement within the civil parish of Buckland. Hamlets may have been formed around a single source of economic activity such as a farm, mill, mine or harbour that employed its working population. Some hamlets may be the result of the depopulation of a village; examples of such a hamlet are Graby and Shapwick. Because of the hilly topography of the parish, the village of Clent, situated on the Clent Hills, consists of five distinct hamlets.

Northern Ireland
In Northern Ireland, the common Irish place name element baile is sometimes considered equivalent to the term hamlet in English, although baile would actually have referred to what is known in English today as a townland: that is to say, a geographical locality rather than a small village.

Scotland
In the Scottish Highlands, the term clachan, of Gaelic derivation, may be preferred to the term hamlet. Also found in Scotland more generally is ferm toun, used in the specific case of a farm settlement, including outbuildings and agricultural workers' homes.

Wales
The term hamlet was used in Wales to denote a geographical subdivision of a parish (which might or might not contain a settlement). Elsewhere, mostly in England, these subdivisions were called "townships" or "tithings". The Welsh word for "hamlet" is pentrefan (also pentrefyn). Both these words are diminutives of pentref ("village") with the loose meaning of "small village".

Mississippi
In Mississippi, a 2009 state law (§ 17-27-5) set aside the term "municipal historical hamlet" to designate any former city, town, or village with a current population of less than 600 inhabitants that lost its charter before 1945. The first such designation was applied to Bogue Chitto, Lincoln County.

New York
In New York, hamlets are unincorporated settlements within towns. Hamlets are not legal entities and have no local government or official boundaries. Their approximate locations will often be noted on road signs, however, a specific service, such as water, sewer, or lighting to provide only that hamlet with services. A hamlet could be described as the rural or suburban equivalent of a neighborhood in a city or village. The area of a hamlet may not be exactly defined; it may be designated by the Census Bureau, or it may rely on some other form of border (such as a ZIP Code, school district or fire district for more urbanized areas; rural hamlets are typically only demarcated by speed zones on the roads serving them). Others, such as Forestville, New York, will be the remnants of former villages, with borders coextant with the previously defined borders of the defunct or dissolved village. Some hamlets proximate to urban areas are sometimes continuous with their cities and appear to be neighborhoods, but they still are under the jurisdiction of the town. Some localities designated as hamlets, such as Levittown in the Town of Hempstead, with a population of over 50,000, are more populous than some incorporated cities in the state.

Oregon
In Oregon, specifically in Clackamas County, a hamlet is a form of local government for small communities that allows the citizens therein to organize and co-ordinate community activities. Hamlets do not provide services, such as utilities or fire protection, and do not have the authority to levy taxes or fees. There are four hamlets in Oregon: Beavercreek, Mulino, Molalla Prairie, and Stafford.

Vietnam
In Vietnam, a hamlet (xóm, ấp) is the smallest unofficial administrative unit. It is a subdivision of a commune or township (xã).

title: Hamlet (place)


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Talk:Linear algebraic group

Thanks for the clarification wrt the Lie groups...I wasn't clear on that. Revolver

What I'm not quite clear on, myself, is the status of the unitary group. The 'unitarian trick' of Weyl is to say that it is Zariski-dense in GL(n,C) - I guess. But in what sense is the unitary group _not_ a real algebraic group?

Charles Matthews 20:32, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * The unitary group U(n) of matrices in GL(n,C) such that $$UU^*=I$$ is an algebraic group over the real numbers, as opposed to over the complex numbers. Its complex points are all of GL(n,C). Weyl's unitarian trick uses this fact in that the complexification of the real Lie algebra of U(n) is the complex Lie algebra gl(n), thus showing that GL(n,C) is semisimple (since U(n) is compact). It seems you asked this question a while ago... RobHar 02:06, 21 April 2007 (UTC)

Yes, there is a page on unitarian trick now. Charles Matthews 07:11, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

Problem with the Examples section
The Examples section contains this passage:

"For a positive integer n, the general linear group GL(n) over a field k, consisting of all invertible n-by-n matrices, is a linear algebraic group over k. It contains the subgroups
 * $$U \subset B \subset GL(n)$$

consisting of matrices of the form
 * $$\left ( \begin{array}{cccc} 1 & * & \dots & * \\ 0 & 1 & \ddots & \vdots \\ \vdots & \ddots & \ddots & * \\ 0 & \dots & 0 & 1\end{array} \right )$$ and $$\left ( \begin{array}{cccc} * & * & \dots & * \\ 0 & * & \ddots & \vdots \\ \vdots & \ddots & \ddots & * \\ 0 & \dots & 0 & *\end{array} \right )$$."

But thee section makes no statements whatsoever about the subgroups B and U of GL(n). So: What is their purpose here???216.161.117.162 (talk) 03:20, 10 September 2020 (UTC)

 * Maybe you should try reading the article before whining about it. --JBL (talk) 18:50, 27 September 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Linear algebraic group


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Charles Glover Barkla

Charles Glover Barkla FRS FRSE (7 June 1877 – 23 October 1944) was a British physicist, and the winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1917 for his work in X-ray spectroscopy and related areas in the study of X-rays (Roentgen rays).

Life
Barkla was born in Widnes, England, to John Martin Barkla, a secretary for the Atlas Chemical Company, and Sarah Glover, daughter of a watchmaker.

Barkla studied at the Liverpool Institute and proceeded to Liverpool University with a County Council Scholarship and a Bibby Scholarship. Barkla initially studied Mathematics but later specialised in Physics under Sir Oliver Lodge. During the absence of Oliver Lodge due to ill health, Barkla replaced him in lectures.

In 1899 Barkla was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge, with an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851, to work in the Cavendish Laboratory under the physicist J. J. Thomson (discoverer of the electron). During his first two years at Cambridge, under the directions of Thomson, Barkla studied the velocity of electromagnetic waves along wires of different widths and materials.

After a year and a half at Trinity College, Cambridge, his love of music led him to transfer to King's College, Cambridge, in order to sing in their chapel choir. Barkla's voice was of remarkable beauty and his solo performances were always fully attended. He completed his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1903, and then his Master of Arts degree in 1907. He married Mary Esther Cowell in the same year, with whom he had two sons and one daughter.

In 1913, after having worked at the Universities of Cambridge, Liverpool, and King's College London, Barkla was appointed as a Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh in 1913, a position that he held until his death.

Barkla made significant progress in developing and refining the laws of X-ray scattering, X-ray spectroscopy, the principles governing the transmission of X-rays through matter, and especially the principles of the excitation of secondary X-rays. For his discovery of the characteristic X-rays of elements, Barkla was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1917. He was also awarded the Hughes Medal of the British Royal Society that same year.

Barkla proposed the J-phenomenon as a hypothetical form of X-ray behaviour similar to X-ray fluorescence but other scientists were not persuaded that this was a different mechanism from other known effects such as Compton scattering and so the theory was not successful.

From 1922 to 1938 he lived at Hermitage of Braid in south-west Edinburgh.

He died in Edinburgh on 23 October 1944.

Personal life
A religious man, Barkla was a Methodist and considered his work to be "part of the quest for God, the Creator".

Public recognition
The lunar crater Barkla was named in the honour of Charles Barkla.

A plaque exists on Barkla's house at Hermitage of Braid in Edinburgh. A commemorative plaque has been installed in the vicinity of the Canongate, near the Faculty of Education Buildings, at the University of Edinburgh. Additionally, a lecture theatre at the University of Liverpool's Physics department, as well as a Biophysics laboratory in the Biological science department, are named after him. In 2012 a gritter in Barkla's home town of Widnes was named in his honour, following a competition run by the local newspaper. In Widnes they have a Retirement housing Complex named Barkla Fields after Charles.

title: Charles Glover Barkla


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The Banger Sisters

The Banger Sisters is a 2002 American comedy film written and directed by Bob Dolman, and produced by Fox Searchlight Pictures. The film stars Goldie Hawn as Suzette and Susan Sarandon as Vinnie; two middle-aged women who were once best friends and groupies, reveling in 1960s/70s hedonism, before they lost touch and went their very separate ways. Suzette's decision to crash back into her former friend's current, and radically different, conventionally respectable life, is the basis for humor, with the clash of who they were and now are. The plot considers ageing and how people alter with time, whether incidentally - Suzette realizing she's now older than the current musicians - or deliberately, to try to find a place in the world, as Vinnie has, but sometimes losing part of themselves along the way.

Released on September 20, 2002, the film was Dolman's directorial debut, and Hawn's last acting role until the release of Snatched in 2017, fourteen and a half years after the film's release.

Plot
When Suzette is fired from her job as bartender at the Whisky a Go Go in Los Angeles by a younger corporate manager with no time for nostalgia, she feels alone, aware of getting older, and in need of money, so on a whim sets out for Phoenix, Arizona to see former best friend, Vinnie. Stranded at a service station without money to buy gasoline, Suzette picks up neurotic, agoraphobic, middle-aged writer Harry Plummer, heading to Phoenix to permanently deal with his father's negative influence over his life, and willing to pay for gas along the way.

On arrival in Phoenix, Suzette has a chance encounter with Vinnie's 17-year-old daughter Hannah, who she finds collapsed and abandoned by her friends after a bad experience with LSD. Suzette brings her to Harry's hotel room and cares for her, as Hannah starts throwing up. In the morning Suzette drives Hannah back to her parents' elegant suburban home, with a cover-story about the teenager having become ill after mixing red and white wine the previous night. But Suzette is shocked by what she sees, Vinnie - now Lavinia Kingsley - appears to be a radically different character to the one she knew 20 years ago; now with a conservative respectable lifestyle, portraying the conventionally "perfect" wife and mother—a role which prompts one daughter to ask Suzette, "Did she ever do anything wrong?" Raymond, Vinnie's lawyer husband and aspiring politician, is also unaware about his wife's wilder past.

Initially horrified by Suzette's sudden appearance, even attempting to bribe her to leave quietly, Lavinia starts to reminisce with Suzette, and warm to her presence. Lavinia cuts her hair and casts off her expensive but boring clothes and, just for one night, relives the 'old days' by going dancing with Suzette. They return to Vinnie's home, and down in the basement she retrieves some memorabilia of their previous life, including a collection of Polaroids of the penises of numerous "musicians and a few roadies". They share a marijuana joint, which inadvertently sets off the smoke detector, waking up the household.

Ginger has a minor car accident, with everyone gathering at the hospital. Vinnie has an identity crisis during a family argument, where Hannah blames Suzette for disrupting their lives. Suzette leaves and calls Harry telling him she's going back to Los Angeles. Vinnie follows Suzette and they have a heart to heart that ends up with them sitting atop a "Got Milk?" billboard sign to watch the sunrise.

The pair go to the hotel room to find Harry has left. Suzette fears the worst as Harry has taken a gun with him. They find Harry going to see his father - deceased in a cemetery. While Suzette tries to talk sense into Harry, Vinnie loses her patience and bumps into him with the car. Suzette takes the gun and shoots the single bullet into the air. Harry finally comes to grips with his dead, absentee father.

In the end, both Lavinia's husband and her two daughters have understood that she is only human after all. In her graduation speech, Hannah speaks out against anything that is "fake" and urges her schoolmates, teachers and the parents present to "do it true".

The following day, Suzette returns to Los Angeles together with Harry, who has come to consider her as his muse.

Reception
The film was released on September 20, 2002. It opened at #2, in 2,738 theaters (setting a record as Fox Searchlight's largest-ever theatrical release, which it would hold until their release of Ready or Not in 2019 at 2,820 theaters), grossing $10,037,846 during its opening weekend. It went on to gross $30,307,416 domestically and $7,760,937 from international markets, for a worldwide total of $38,068,353.

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 48% based on reviews from 143 critics. The site's consensus states: "Hawn and Sarandon are terrific together, but the hoary plot is predictable and contrived." On Metacritic the film has a score of 48% based on reviews from 33 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "B+" on scale of A to F.

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it 3 out of 4, calling it "Pretty thin, but you grin while you're watching it."

title: The Banger Sisters


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Azie Taylor Morton

Azie Taylor Morton (February 1, 1936 – December 7, 2003) was the Treasurer of the United States during the Carter administration from September 12, 1977, to January 20, 1981. She remains the only African American to hold that office. Her signature was printed on US currency during her tenure.

Early life
Morton was born to Fleta Hazel Taylor in a rural African-American enclave called the St. John Colony in the farming community of Dale, Texas. Taylor worked as a teacher at the Crocker School for Girls, a state-sponsored school for delinquents. Taylor was not deterred by these setbacks and began to work for change.

Career
Before becoming treasurer, Taylor served on President John F. Kennedy's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity. From 1972 to 1976, she was a special assistant to Robert Schwarz Strauss, the chair of the Democratic National Committee. Taylor was a member of Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority.

Personal life
Azie Taylor married James Homer Morton on May 29, 1965. The couple had two daughters, Virgie Floyd and Stacey Terry, who later brought them two granddaughters and four great-grandchildren. James Homer Morton died in January 2003.

Death and legacy
On December 6, 2003, Morton suffered a stroke at her home in Bastrop County, Texas, and she died of complications the next day.

In April 2018, Robert E. Lee Road in Austin was renamed Azie Morton Road in her honor.

title: Azie Taylor Morton


text:
MRO

MRO or Mro may refer to:

People

 * Mru (disambiguation), peoples and languages also known as Mro
 * Mary Rambaran-Olm, Canadian literary historian

Locations

 * Hood Aerodrome (IATA code MRO), near Masterton, New Zealand
 * Marlborough (disambiguation), some cities named Marlborough use MRO as an abbreviation
 * Magdalena Ridge Observatory, a multi-use astronomical observatory near Socorro, New Mexico, United States
 * Morradoo railway station, Melbourne
 * Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory in outback Western Australia, one of the Square Kilometre Array core sites

Companies

 * Hokuriku Broadcasting Company, also known as MRO, a broadcasting station in Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan
 * Marathon Oil Corporation, listed on the New York Stock Exchange as MRO
 * Melrose Industries, listed on the London Stock Exchange as MRO
 * MRO Software, a software company best known for its Maximo maintenance management system

Organisations

 * Middlesex Record Office, former historical organisation, merged into the current-day London Metropolitan Archives in 1965
 * Midwest Reliability Organization, an electrical grid reliability organization
 * Oriental Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Revolucionario Oriental), a Marxist–Leninist communist party in Uruguay
 * Mountains and Rivers Order, headquartered at the Zen Mountain Monastery in Mount Tremper, New York
 * Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, a revolutionary national liberation organization
 * Metsähovi Radio Observatory, an astronomical radio observatory in Kirkkonummi, Finland

Operations and techniques

 * Maintenance, repair and operations (or overhaul), fixing or maintaining any sort of mechanical, plumbing or electrical equipment
 * Main refinancing operations, a technique used by the European Central Bank to control the money supply
 * C3 linearization or Method Resolution Order, an algorithm used primarily to obtain the order in which methods should be inherited in the presence of multiple inheritance

Linguistics

 * Mro language (ISO 639 code: cmr), a Kukish language of Burma
 * Mru language (ISO 639 code: mro), a Sino-Tibetan language of Bangladesh
 * Mro (Unicode block), the Unicode block containing characters for writing the Bangladesh Mru language

Other uses

 * Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, a NASA Mars probe
 * Mini Racing Online, an arcade-style, freeware online multiplayer racing game
 * The ISO 4217 code for the Mauritanian ouguiya, the currency of Mauritania
 * MRO-A, MRO-D, MRO-Z; the MRO-series of RPG weapons
 * Mitochondrion-related organelle

title: MRO


text: File:Danyang.jpg

title: File:Danyang.jpg