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Kings River (California)

The Kings River (Río de los Santos Reyes), is a 132.9 mi river draining the Sierra Nevada mountain range in central California in the United States. Its headwaters originate along the Sierra Crest in and around Kings Canyon National Park and form the eponymous Kings Canyon, one of the deepest river gorges in North America. The river is impounded in Pine Flat Lake before flowing into the San Joaquin Valley (the southern half of the Central Valley) southeast of Fresno. With its upper and middle course in Fresno County, the Kings River diverges into multiple branches in Kings County, with some water flowing south to the old Tulare Lake bed and the rest flowing north to the San Joaquin River. However, most of the water is consumed for irrigation well upstream of either point.

Inhabited for thousands of years by the Yokuts and other native groups, the Kings River basin once fed a vast network of seasonal wetlands around Tulare Lake that supported millions of waterfowl, fish, and game animals, in turn providing sustenance for indigenous peoples. Tulare Lake was once the largest freshwater lake in the western U.S., at the middle of an endorheic basin also fed by the Kaweah, Tule and Kern Rivers. The river was named by Gabriel Moraga, the commander of a Spanish military expedition in 1806, but it was not until California became a U.S. state in 1850 that many Europeans arrived and settled along the Kings River, driving out the area's original inhabitants. Logging and livestock grazing inflicted significant environmental damage on the upper parts of the river system, before the federal government moved to establish national parks and preserves there.

The Kings has a long history of water development, going back to the mid-19th century when farmers made their first attempts to irrigate with Kings River water. In the early 1900s Tulare Lake and its surrounding wetlands were diked, drained and reclaimed for agriculture; the construction of Pine Flat Dam in the 1950s tamed the river's seasonal floods. The battle for control over Kings River water produced extended conflicts, including a set of dams proposed in what would become Kings Canyon National Park. Today, the river irrigates about 1.1 million acres (4,500 km2) of some of the most productive farmland in the country, and is also used extensively for hydropower generation, and water-based and backcountry recreation.

Course
All three forks of the Kings River originate as snowmelt in the high Sierra Nevada mountains. The Middle and South Forks begin in Kings Canyon National Park, and join in the Monarch Wilderness (Sierra and Sequoia National Forests) to form the Kings River. The North Fork, which begins in the John Muir Wilderness of the Sierra National Forest, joins the Kings River further downstream near Pine Flat Lake, the only major reservoir on the river. Much of the upper Kings River consists of remote backcountry and wilderness areas, accessible only by non-motorized trails. The entire upper course of the Kings River is in Fresno County; in the Central Valley, the Kings River also flows through parts of Tulare County and Kings County.

Headwaters
The 44 mi South Fork is the longest tributary of the Kings River, originating on the Sierra Crest at the far eastern edge of Kings Canyon National Park. It flows south, then flows west through the Cedar Grove section of Kings Canyon, a glacial valley with high granite cliffs and a meadow floor which has been compared in appearance to Yosemite Valley. The Middle Fork flows for 37 mi through some of the park's most difficult-to-access backcountry, including Simpson Meadow and Tehipite Valley. The South and Middle Forks converge in the Monarch Wilderness at an elevation of 2257 ft just outside the national park to form the Kings River in the deepest part of Kings Canyon. With 10051 ft Spanish Peak towering above the north side of the river, and summits as high as 8400 ft on the south side, Kings Canyon is both deeper and narrower than the Grand Canyon.

Below the confluence of the Middle and South Forks, the Kings River flows swiftly westward for about 30 mi, carving a canyon more than 5000 ft deep in places. Major tributaries of the Kings River in this section include Tenmile and Mill Flat Creeks, both from the south; a dam on Tenmile Creek creates Hume Lake. Another notable feature along this area of the Kings Canyon is Garlic Falls, a tiered waterfall on a tributary of the Kings more than 800 ft in height. The canyon is roadless as far as the Upper Kings Campground near Verplank Creek; below the campground the river is followed by Trimmer Springs Road.

The Kings River passes Rodgers Crossing and receives the North Fork from the right near Balch Camp. The North Fork is about 40 mi long and flows mainly through the Sierra National Forest. It is dammed at Wishon Reservoir, which serves as the lower reservoir for the Helms Pumped Storage Plant, one of the biggest pumped-storage hydroelectric plants in California. The North Fork passes through several other hydro plants before it joins with the Kings River. The main Kings then flows into Pine Flat Lake, the large reservoir created by Pine Flat Dam, which can store up to 1000000 acre feet of water. Constructed in 1954, Pine Flat Dam provides flood control, irrigation and hydroelectricity for the southern San Joaquin Valley.

Lower river
The Kings River emerges from the foothills of the Sierra Nevada near Piedra, about 10 mi downstream of Pine Flat Dam. From there it flows across the gently sloping alluvial plain of the San Joaquin Valley, which today is one of the most productive agricultural regions of the United States. Here the Kings River encounters a large number of diversions that serve both irrigation and flood control purposes. Two key irrigation structures along the lower river are the Fresno Weir and People's Weir; both divert a substantial part of the river's flow into canals. The Kings River flows south-southwest past Sanger and Reedley, crossing briefly into northwest Tulare County before entering Kings County. At Kingsburg Cole Slough splits off to the northwest, rejoining the main stem about 10 mi downstream at Laton.

About 6 mi north of Lemoore the Kings River splits into a pair of distributaries, the North Fork and the South Fork (not to be confused with the North and South Forks upstream in the Sierra Nevada). The Army Weir controls the amount of water flowing into either branch. Fresno Slough diverges from the North Fork and flows northwest, seasonally carrying floodwaters from the Kings River to the San Joaquin River at Mendota. This is the only branch of the Kings River to reach the San Joaquin, and consequently the Pacific Ocean. The remainder of the North Fork turns south below Fresno Slough, rejoining the South Fork west of Lemoore. There is also a smaller distributary called Clark's Fork which splits from the South Fork and enters the North Fork just above where all the forks re-join.

From there the Kings River flows due south through Kings County, past Stratford, and approaches the old Tulare Lake bed. The river terminates about 10 mi northeast of Kettleman City at a junction with a canal carrying water from the Tule River. Today, the 44000 acre old lake bed is used for agriculture and diked to prevent flooding; floodwaters are pumped into about 4700 acre of evaporation basins. In most years, the dams on the Kings and other rivers flowing into Tulare Lake, and the extensive canal diversion system surrounding the lake, are sufficient to prevent flooding. However, the lake occasionally reforms in very wet years.

Watershed and natural characteristics

The Kings River is the largest river draining the southern Sierra Nevada. Its average annual flow of 1791000 acre feet makes it larger than the Kern, Kaweah and Tule Rivers combined. Before the construction of Pine Flat Dam in 1954, the Kings River reached monthly averages as high as 12000 to 14000 cuft/s in May and June where it flows into the San Joaquin Valley, and averaged as low as 100 to 200 cuft/s in the driest months of September and October. After the dam was built, late spring-early summer high flows have been reduced, and late summer-autumn flows have greatly increased.

In the winter season of mid-November through April, rainstorms at lower elevations commonly flood the Kings River, although with less volume than the summer melt. Annual precipitation can be as high as 20 to 50 in in the Sierra; however, in the San Joaquin Valley the climate is semi-arid to arid with annual precipitation of 5 to 12 in, decreasing as one moves further west.

The majority of the runoff, about 71 percent, originates as snowmelt between April and July in the 1544 mi2 drainage basin above Pine Flat Dam. Three-quarters of this rugged watershed is a mile (1,600 m) or more above sea level; the watershed tops out at 14248 ft North Palisade, the highest point in Kings Canyon National Park. The canyons of the Kings River are relatively young in geological terms; mostly carved during the Pliocene and Pleistocene (5 million–12,000 years ago) during periods of rapid uplift in the Sierra Nevada.

During and before the Pleistocene, the upper portion of the watershed was heavily glaciated during successive ice ages, with valley glaciers flowing as much as 40 mi down the river's three forks, carving the V-shaped river canyons into the U-shaped gorges of Kings Canyon, Tehipite Valley and others. The Sierra is composed mainly of granitic igneous rock; however, in the foothill area the Kings River flows through roof pendant formations of older sedimentary and metamorphic rock which were accreted to the Sierra Nevada crustal block as it rose above the surrounding landscape.

The lower Kings River forms a large and gently sloping inland delta, or alluvial fan, extending laterally across the Central Valley – the resulting material from millions of years of erosion that carved Kings Canyon. The alluvial fan raised the elevation of the valley floor and blocked water flowing northward into the San Joaquin River, essentially creating a large bowl in the southern part of the valley, forming the Tulare Lake basin. Soils on the alluvial slope are generally sandy, permeable and fertile, creating ideal conditions for farming; in lower elevations and old lake beds the soil is more alkaline and less fertile.

Before people began building levees and dikes in the 19th century to contain flooding, the Kings River experienced frequent channel avulsion during high flow events, sometimes flowing north into the San Joaquin River via various sloughs, at other times south into Tulare Lake, and often into both. Historically, the river had a wide floodplain characterized by a system of vernal pools, oxbow lakes, and seasonal channels and marshes that supported a dense riparian habitat. The overflow area began near present-day Kingsburg and continued from there south to Tulare Lake.

In extremely wet years, Tulare Lake could fill to such an extent that it backed up the lower Kings River and overflowed through Fresno Slough into the San Joaquin River. All this intermittent flooding over thousands of years built up the valley's huge groundwater reserves, which today are a vital water source for agriculture. The Kings Subbasin aquifer, as defined by the California Department of Water Resources, contained in 1961 a total of 93 million acre feet (115 km3), a level that has since been gradually declining due to intensive pumping for irrigation.

Since the beginning of the 21st century, the Kings River basin has experienced an increased number of dry years and particularly high temperatures in Kings Canyon National Park. The 2014–2015 water year was the driest for the Kings basin since official records began in 1895. Climate change is projected to significantly decrease the flow of the river by 2100. According to a 2014 study by UC Merced and UC Irvine researchers, average river flow could drop as much as 26 percent, due to warming temperatures causing increased plant growth in high elevations of the Sierra with a corresponding increase in evapotranspiration. The amount of available water in summer could also decrease due to more precipitation falling as rain in winter, rather than being stored in snowpack.

Ecology
Although most of the original wetlands and riparian zones in the valley have been lost to development, narrow riparian corridors still exist along 40 mi of the Kings River between Pine Flat Dam and People's Weir (below Highway 99), and in other places such as lower Fresno Slough. The largest riparian habitats are concentrated in the Centerville Bottoms, east of Sanger, where the river divides into multiple channels over a roughly 5 mi wide area. Below Highway 99 the river channels, with few exceptions, are almost completely channelized and modified from their native state. A minimum Kings River flow of 100 cuft/s is maintained at all times via releases from Pine Flat Dam, in order to support fish populations and riparian habitats.

In the foothills, California oak woodlands consisting mainly of blue and black oak occur along the Kings River, Mill Creek and other perennial tributaries. Other foothill areas are dominated by thick chaparral and brush. At lower to middle elevations in the Sierra Nevada portion of the watershed, mixed conifer forests are the primary habitat, with ponderosa pine and yellow pine being dominant. Some areas, such as the steeper and more exposed north wall of Kings Canyon, remain primarily chaparral and brush. Giant sequoias are found in this area of the watershed. The General Grant Grove is located about 10 mi southwest of the Middle and South Fork confluence; the Kings River groves, a set of four smaller groves, are situated lower in elevation and close to the South Fork.

Higher up in the Sierra, subalpine forests below the treeless alpine zone are characterized by red fir, lodgepole pine, whitebark pine, mountain hemlock and foxtail pine. Above 10000 ft in elevation, glacial features such as cirques and tarns characterize the landscape, with various wildflower and shrub species occurring in between areas of bare rock. Although the high country is usually covered in snow from November to May, as many as 600 plant species occur in the alpine zone of Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks, and twice that many are present in other parts of the parks. Starting in 2002, the U.S. Forest Service managed certain areas of the Kings basin under the Kings River Experimental Watersheds program, whose various activities include vegetation thinning and prescribed burns to address overgrowth, erosion and wildfire risk with the overall goal of improving water quality. These sites are concentrated mostly around the North Fork and Pine Flat Lake.

Above Pine Flat Dam, the Kings River holds native rainbow trout as well as introduced brown trout and smallmouth bass; the Upper Kings is designated a "Wild Trout Water" by the California Department of Fish and Game. Rainbow trout are also present in the river below the dam; however, the installation of a hydroelectric plant at Pine Flat Dam in 1984 diminished the cold water supply in the reservoir and deteriorated rainbow trout habitat as a result. In 1999, the state of California implemented the Kings River Fisheries Management Program, which has helped recover the fishery by mandating a minimum cold water pool of 100000 acre feet in Pine Flat Reservoir, and enforcing angling restrictions. Other fish species in the lower Kings include native Sacramento pikeminnow and Sacramento sucker (also present in smaller numbers upstream), and introduced species such as common carp, channel catfish and striped bass.

Another notable animal species is Kings River pyrg, a spring snail half the size of a pea that can only be found in 13 isolated desert springs around Thacker pass. However, the disruption of groundwater flows, road construction, and livestock grazing drove this interesting snail to near extinction.

Early history
At the time of first European contact, at least 5,000, but possibly as many as 15,000–20,000 Native Americans lived along the lower Kings River and its many branches in the Central Valley. The Kings River watershed is traditional Yokuts territory; the Kings River dialects of the Yokutsan language were divided among the Choynimni, who lived along about 10 mi of the Kings River between present-day Piedra and Sanger; the Chukaymina along the Mill Creek tributary, and the Michahay further south. At least two other dialects, the Aiticha and the Toyhicha, were spoken further downstream on the Kings, but these groups have not been well documented.

The Yokuts mainly lived along the Kings River below the foothills and along the marshy fringes of Tulare Lake. The extensive oak forests in the Kings River riparian zone provided acorns, their main source of food. Wetlands provided them with abundant fish, waterfowl, fur-bearing animals including beaver and river otter, and edible roots. Tule rushes provided material for roofing their pit houses and building rafts and canoes, the main form of transport in the often flooded low country. The Yokuts traded with Paiute peoples (the Mono) in the Great Basin to the east, via various trails across the Sierra Nevada, one of which may have been via Kearsarge Pass at the eastern end of Kings Canyon. About 500 years ago, some of the Mono migrated west, settling in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada above Yokuts territory, where they eventually formed a distinct subgroup known as the Western Mono.

The first recorded Spanish explorers to see the Kings River were the members of Gabriel Moraga's expedition, which camped along the river on January 6, 1806, the day of the Epiphany. Thus, they named the river El Rio de los Santos Reyes ("River of the Holy Kings"), later shortened to Rio Reyes, Rio de los Reyes or other variations thereof. Father Pedro Muñoz, a member of the 1806 expedition, wrote: "All the meadows are well covered with oak, alder, cottonwood and willow. The river abounds with beaver and fish. It is a location suitable for a mission, although there would also have to be a presidio." Extending the California mission system inland was a major goal of the Spanish Empire in the 1800s. However, no missions were ever established along the Kings River or elsewhere in the Central Valley.

Jedediah Smith was the first American explorer to see the Kings River, encountering it during a fur trapping expedition in 1827. John C. Fremont's expedition in 1844 attempted to find a route over the Sierra Nevada via the Kings River, but were forced to turn back by deep snows and difficult terrain. Fourteen years later a party led by J.H. Johnson successfully crossed Kearsarge Pass – the route Fremont had failed to find – becoming the first known non-Native Americans to do so. Early maps from this era label the Kings River under a variety of names. Smith recorded the river as the Kimmel-che or Wimmel-che after "Indians of that name who reside on it", likely a Yokuts clan or village along the lower part of the river. Fremont called it River of the Lake or Lake Fork, as it was the largest stream flowing into Tulare Lake. Some older maps label it King's River, translated from the original Spanish name. By 1852, the name Kings River was in common use. After California became a U.S. state in 1850, the upper Kings River watershed was used intermittently by stockmen, prospectors and loggers, and the lower watershed was used mainly for cattle and sheep ranching. Scottsburg, one of the first American towns on the Kings River, was founded in 1854. Destroyed twice by flooding, it was reestablished as today's Centerville in 1867. Smith's Ferry, established by James Smith in 1855, was one of several ferries established on the Kings River for travelers on the Stockton-Los Angeles Road and since it was the only one accessible during high water, remained the most important crossing of the Kings River for almost twenty years. After the Kern River gold rush of 1853, settlers arrived in large numbers to Tulare County and conflict broke out with Native Americans; a proposal to remove the natives to the Tejon Reservation was not acted upon. Skirmishes continued over the next few years, culminating in the Tule River War in spring 1856. Most of the natives not killed in the fighting or by foreign diseases were forcibly relocated from their lands along the Kings River to the Tule River Indian Reservation, where their descendants live today.

From the 1860s to the early 1900s, logging was one of the biggest industries in the upper Kings River. In 1890 two San Francisco businessmen purchased 30000 acre in the upper Kings watershed and founded the Kings River Lumber Company, intending to log the area's abundant giant sequoias. Between 1890 and 1926 a huge logging operation was extended across the mountains, an area including Converse Basin Grove – then the world's largest grove of sequoias – which was almost completely clear-cut. A dam was built to form Hume Lake, feeding a flume running more than 40 miles (64 km) down Kings Canyon to carry logs to the mill in Sanger. Despite the scale of the venture it was ultimately unprofitable. Sequoia wood is soft and unsuitable for most construction; in addition, the trees were so tall that they often shattered into unusable pieces when they hit the ground.

When John Muir visited and wrote about the Kings River and its canyon in the late 19th century, he brought attention to the area's potential as a tourist attraction and its merit as a nature preserve. Muir lobbied for the preservation of the sequoia groves above the Kings River, which include General Grant Grove, home to the world's second largest tree. Due to his efforts and those of local politicians and civic activists, President Benjamin Harrison signed a bill establishing General Grant National Park in October 1890. However, it would not be until 1940 when the park was extended to the middle and south forks of the Kings River and renamed Kings Canyon National Park.

Settlement of the Kings delta
The Kings River country was not an attractive site for early settlers, because for most of its lower course the river flows in an incised channel between low bluffs (an area known as the Centerville Bottoms), leaving the surrounding plains high and dry, suitable only for livestock grazing. Further downstream, approaching Tulare Lake, the land was too swampy for farming in addition to being seasonally flooded. For this reason, farmers initially favored the more well-watered Kaweah Delta, the present-day location of Visalia, to the south. Agriculture along the Kings River was limited to the Centerville Bottoms until ditches were extended from further upstream to supply the surrounding lands, the first being the short Byrd Ditch in 1858. The Great Flood of 1862 and another in 1868 destroyed most of the early settlements along the Kings River, and also wiped out the cattle ranching economy of the San Joaquin Valley, precipitating an economic shift to farming.

Starting in 1870 the settlement of the region began in earnest, and larger and more permanent water supply systems were built. Long canals brought water to the large, semi-arid prairie between the Kings and San Joaquin rivers, enabling the growth of Fresno and attracting many more settlers to the area. Farming cooperatives or "colonies", where large landowners subdivided many small plots for individual farmers, were a popular early pattern of settlement and attracted immigrants from the eastern United States, Europe, and Asia. A few individuals were able to amass huge land holdings by exploiting loopholes in the Homestead Act and Swamp Land Act, the most successful being J.G. Boswell and his nephew James G. Boswell II, who acquired as much as 200000 acre in the lower Kings and the Tulare Lake bed. Despite portions being sold off since the 1980s, the Boswell family farm remains the largest privately owned farm in the world, at 150000 acre.

The Wright Act of 1887 allowed farmers to organize into irrigation districts, enabling them to pool their resources and greatly extend the reach of canal systems. The Alta Irrigation District, established in 1888, was the first of the newly formed irrigation districts to deliver water; it would be followed by at least eighteen others (some of which have since been consolidated). However, drought spawned conflict between earlier landowners with riparian rights and their newly arrived counterparts. In the days before Pine Flat Dam, the river often dropped too low by August or September to satisfy all the demands on it, and often disputes escalated to armed conflict over the control of canal gates. In 1897 the first Kings River water agreement was made, establishing irrigation districts' legal priority to water, resolving many lawsuits. However, by 1913 practically all the Kings River's water was being used and farmers demanded a solution. In 1919 state engineer Charles L. Kaupke was assigned as the first Kings River "watermaster" – a role he served until 1956 – to settle issues of rationing and establish a "diversion schedule" to reduce water waste.

All these actions were still not enough to solve the basic issue of seasonal drought, and in 1925 a local board was convened to discuss the possibility of building a dam at Pine Flat. The Kings River Water Association (KRWA), representing most of the local water districts, was established two years later with Kaupke as its head. However, when the Great Depression hit, the districts could not sell the bonds necessary to build a dam, and the federal government was asked to step in. The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation wanted to build the dam as part of its Central Valley Project and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers wanted to build it as a separate flood control project. The KRWA favored the Corps' proposal because the reclamation project would be subject to a 160 acre limitation per farm – a product of the Newlands Reclamation Act – and many farms in the area were larger than that (though none owned nearly as much land as the Boswells, who lobbied heavily for the Corps' project).

Political conflict raged on for more than ten years, with the Corps ultimately being authorized to build the dam, and the Bureau authorized to manage water storage. The dam was constructed between 1949 and 1954; only 19 months after its dedication, it stopped the monstrous flood of December 1955, the largest recorded flood on the Kings since at least 1862, sparing downstream towns from heavy damage. In 1963 all Kings River water users signed an agreement with the Bureau of Reclamation establishing their shares of storage in Pine Flat Lake, granting them "perpetual rights to use of storage subordinate only to flood control purposes," and in 1969 the California Department of Water Resources declared the Kings River fully appropriated, meaning that no new water rights can be claimed, unless bought from existing rights-holders.

Irrigation
Almost all of the Kings River's water is consumed for agriculture. The river irrigates about 1.1 million acres (4,500 km2) of some of the most productive farmland in the United States; in 2009 the Kings delta produced crops valued at more than $3 billion. Fresno County, which is mostly supplied by Kings River water, ranked first among U.S. counties for agriculture sales in 2012. Tulare and Kings Counties ranked second and tenth, respectively.

The main crops grown in the Kings River service area are grapes, citrus, grain, and various fruits and nuts. Other crops include alfalfa, berries, rice, and miscellaneous nursery and field crops. More than 1000 mi of man-made canals deliver water to fourteen irrigation districts in the San Joaquin Valley. The Fresno, Kings River, Consolidated, Raisin City, Liberty and Laguna districts are located to the west of the river; the Tri-Valley, Hills Valley, Orange Cove, Alta and Kings County districts are located to the south. Kings River water also supplies the Riverdale, Stilson, James, Tranquility and Mid-Valley districts via Fresno Slough.

Surface water deliveries have been managed by the Kings River Water Association (KRWA), headed by the Kings River watermaster, since 1927. The KRWA oversees the water supply to 28 member agencies and about 20,000 farms in the Kings River service area, and is responsible for adjudicating water rights as well as regulating water quality. A monthly "water entitlement schedule" determines how much water each agency receives, contingent on the flow of the Kings River.

The Friant-Kern Canal, a part of the Central Valley Project (CVP), is the only source of surface water from outside the Kings River basin. Only the Fresno Irrigation District is contracted for CVP water, but other Kings River users can also purchase CVP water in times of need, such as droughts. Summer water demand for irrigation is typically in the range of 6000 to 7000 cuft/s.

Groundwater is the other major source of water supply for the basin, providing a large part of the agricultural supply and all of the water used by area cities. The Kings River Conservation District (KRCD), among its other functions, is the primary agency managing groundwater use. The Kings Basin Water Authority also monitors groundwater use, as well as certain water conservation, water quality and environmental functions. The Kings River provides more than 100000 acre feet of groundwater recharge to the local aquifer each year. However, depths to groundwater have been increasing for many years, indicating concern for the safe yield of the aquifer. The annual overdraft is estimated at 100000 to 150000 acre feet.

Hydropower

The Kings River system has several major hydroelectric plants; the only one on the main stem is the 165 MW Jeff L. Taylor Pine Flat Power Plant, located at the base of Pine Flat Dam. KRCD has operated the power plant since its completion in 1984. Power generation at Pine Flat Dam is incidental, meaning it is governed by demand for irrigation water or flood control requirements rather than demand for power. There was a proposal to add one more dam on the Kings River near Piedra, which would create a small regulating reservoir below Pine Flat Dam, allowing the power station to be used for peaking purposes while releasing a stable flow for irrigation. Due to environmental concerns and a poor cost-benefit ratio this project was never built.

Further upstream, the three forks of the Kings have considerable hydropower potential due to their large drop in elevation from the Sierra crest. However, because the Middle and South Forks are located in Kings Canyon National Park, only the North Fork is utilized for hydroelectric generation. The Haas, Balch No.1 and No.2, and Kings River powerhouses on the North Fork were built between 1927 and 1959 by Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) and can collectively produce 335 MW. In 2010, the four North Fork powerhouses plus Pine Flat generated more than 2 billion kilowatt hours (7200 TJ) of energy. Between 1977 and 1984, PG&E constructed the 1212 MW Helms Pumped Storage Plant located between the Wishon and Courtright Reservoirs. The Helms plant, which pumps water up into Courtright during periods of low demand and releases it during high demand periods, is crucial to stabilizing the California electric grid by providing peaking power.

During the first half of the 20th century, the Kings River was the focus of a political fight over Los Angeles' proposal to dam the Middle and South Forks for power generation. Local farmers feared the city's real intention was to divert Kings water south, as it had gained notoriety for doing in the Owens Valley water wars. The KRCD, however, also wanted to dam these rivers for irrigation, and thus the proposed dam sites were excluded from Kings Canyon National Park as designated in 1940. It was not until 1965 when these areas were finally added to the park, ending a debate which had lasted more than sixty years. Today, the 11449 ft fall from the head of the South Fork to Pine Flat Reservoir remains the longest undammed drop of any U.S. river.

Flood control
Pine Flat Dam, holding up to 1000000 acre feet of water, is the primary flood control facility in the Kings River Basin. The winter and spring flood control reservation is 475000 acre feet, although the reservoir can be drawn down further depending on the size of the Sierra snowpack.

During the winter and spring, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is responsible for determining the water release from Pine Flat Dam. The dam provides flood protection for 80000 acre of farmland along the Kings River and another 260000 acre in the old Tulare Lake bed. Pine Flat Dam is operated so that the flow at Crescent Weir (about 50 mi downstream of Pine Flat, near Riverdale) does not exceed 4750 cuft/s, although this amount is frequently exceeded due to the large size and heavy runoff from the Kings watershed.

The floodwater capacity of the Kings River falls dramatically in downstream areas, from 50000 cuft/s between Pine Flat Dam and Highway 180 to 13000 cuft/s at Kingsburg. The key flood control facility on the lower river is the Island Weir and Army Weir complex, which control the water flow into the north and south forks of the Kings River, respectively. Flood flows up to 4750 cuft/s are sent north; flows of up to 1200 cuft/s above that level are diverted south into the Tulare Lake bed, and flows above that combined level are sent north.

On the north fork floodwaters are again divided at the Crescent Weir with the first 4750 cuft/s sent north via Fresno Slough and James Bypass into the San Joaquin River, and the next 2000 cuft/s south into the Tulare Lake bed. Any flows exceeding the total 7950 cuft/s channel capacity of the north and south Forks are divided in whichever direction is currently safer.

The Kings River Conservation District (KRCD) is in charge of maintaining the system of flood control channels and levees. On the lower river west of Highway 99, the KRCD has worked since the 1950s to maintain the floodwater capacity of the Kings River and its various distributaries in the San Joaquin Valley. The KRCD service area consists of 140 mi of levees starting from below Kingsburg, to SR 145 on the North Fork of the river, and to near Stratford on the South Fork. During flood conditions, KRCD patrols the levees 24 hours a day to monitor and repair any damages.

Since its construction in 1954, Pine Flat Dam has not provided the high degree of flood protection originally intended by the project. An average of 200000 acre feet of water are spilled each year because the reservoir is not big enough to hold it. In 1969 a total of 1017000 acre feet, more than the entire capacity of the lake, flowed over the spillway, causing heavy damage downstream. The Bureau of Reclamation has studied the possibility of raising Pine Flat Dam to store more water.

In addition, local irrigation districts are engaged in efforts to use floodwater for groundwater recharge rather than allowing it to drain away, including the use of certain farm fields as temporary flood basins in winter. This will both reduce flood damage and provide more water for farmers' use.

Recreation
The upper reaches of the Kings River, including the entirety of the Middle Fork and most of the South Fork, flow through rugged backcountry that can be reached only by foot or on horseback. The Middle and South Forks are part of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, as is about 15 mi of the main Kings below their confluence. About 65.5 mi are classified as Wild and 15.5 mi as Recreational. The North Fork is more accessible, with boating, camping and visitor facilities at Wishon Reservoir and a boat launch at Courtright Reservoir.

Whitewater rafting and kayaking on the Middle and South Forks is "extremely dangerous" and is usually only done by experts. However, the main Kings between the Garnet Dike put-in and Pine Flat Lake is a popular run for both commercial rafting companies and private boaters. According to the Forest Service, "the Kings River has the highest volume of water which can safely be rafted in the Sierra Nevada", and due to the large size and high elevation of its drainage basin it has a longer boating season than most other Sierra rivers.

The Kings River and its forks above Pine Flat Lake has naturally reproducing populations of rainbow trout, brown trout and brook trout. Fishing access above Pine Flat Lake extends as far upstream as Garlic Falls; beyond there, the canyon is too narrow to enter safely by foot except during periods of extremely low water. In lower elevation reaches and in the reservoir, smallmouth bass and spotted bass are common.

Below Pine Flat Dam the Kings River is wide and slow-flowing, with tailwater fishing for trout roughly between the dam and Highway 180; further downstream, carp, bass and catfish are more common. The lower river is suitable for swimming, floating and canoeing with many public access points between the dam and Avocado Lake. Below there, most of the banks are private property, with exceptions such as Pierce's Park at Highway 180. Although there are few natural obstructions along the lower Kings, there are a number of diversion weirs that pose a hazard to boaters and must be portaged.

List of tributaries
Tributaries of the Kings River are listed going upstream from the North Fork/South Fork split near Lemoore. Major lakes/reservoirs and dams are also listed. Distributaries of the Kings River below Lemoore are detailed in the Course section.

 * Fish Creek
 * Hughes Creek
 * Mill Creek
 * Pine Flat Dam, Pine Flat Lake
 * Deer Creek
 * Zebe Creek
 * Russian Charlie Creek
 * Lefever Creek
 * Billy Creek
 * Sycamore Creek
 * Big Creek
 * Sacata Creek
 * Redoak Creek
 * Lower Rancheria Creek
 * Sycamore Springs Creek
 * North Fork Kings River
 * Dinkey Creek
 * Basin Creek
 * Patterson Creek
 * Weir Creek
 * Black Rock Creek
 * Williams Creek
 * Mule Creek
 * Rancheria Creek
 * Teakettle Creek
 * Long Meadow Creek
 * Wishon Dam, Wishon Reservoir
 * Woodchuck Creek
 * Short Hair Creek
 * Sharp Creek
 * Helms Creek
 * Courtright Dam, Courtright Reservoir
 * Dusy Creek
 * Post Corral Creek
 * Burnt Corral Creek
 * Flemming Creek
 * Nichols Canyon
 * Meadow Brook
 * Fall Creek
 * Division Lake
 * Regiment Lake

 * Davis Creek
 * Mill Flat Creek
 * Verplank Creek
 * Fox Canyon Creek
 * Converse Creek
 * Spring Creek
 * Cabin Creek
 * Garlic Meadow Creek
 * Rough Creek
 * Ten Mile Creek
 * Hume Lake
 * Middle Fork Kings River
 * Deer Canyon Creek
 * Brush Canyon Creek
 * Tombstone Creek
 * Wren Creek
 * Silver Creek
 * Crown Creek
 * Rogers Creek
 * Gorge of Despair
 * Crystal Creek
 * Blue Canyon Creek
 * Lost Canyon Creek
 * Rattlesnake Creek
 * Alpine Creek
 * Dog Creek
 * Kennedy Creek
 * Dougherty Creek
 * [Horseshoe Creek
 * Goddard Creek
 * Disappearing Creek
 * Windy Canyon Creek
 * Cartridge Creek
 * Rimbaud Creek
 * Palisade Creek
 * Cataract Creek
 * Glacier Creek
 * Dusy Branch
 * Helen Lake

 * South Fork Kings River
 * Lockwood Creek
 * Redwood Creek
 * Windy Gulch
 * Boulder Creek
 * Grizzly Creek
 * Lightning Creek
 * Deer Cove Creek
 * Lewis Creek
 * Comb Creek
 * Sheep Creek
 * Hotel Creek
 * Roaring River
 * Sugarloaf Creek
 * Ferguson Creek
 * Granite Creek
 * Copper Creek
 * Avalanche Creek
 * Bubbs Creek
 * Sphinx Creek
 * Charlotte Creek
 * Cross Creek
 * North Guard Creek
 * East Creek
 * Glacier Creek
 * Gardiner Creek
 * Woods Creek
 * Woods Creek
 * Arrow Creek
 * Kid Creek

title: Kings River (California)


text:
Buzz cut

A buzz cut, or wiffle cut, is a variety of short hairstyles, especially where the length of hair is the same on all parts of the head. Rising to prominence initially with the advent of manual hair clippers, buzz cuts became increasingly popular in places where strict grooming conventions applied. In several nations, buzz cuts are often given to new recruits in the armed forces or newly incarcerated inmates. However, buzz cuts are also used for stylistic reasons.

Overview
The buzz cut rose to popularity with the advent of manual hair clippers by the Serbian inventor Nikola Bizumić in the late 19th century. These clippers were widely used by barbers to chop hair close and fast. The clipper accumulates hair in locks to rapidly remove the hair from the head. This type of haircut was normal where strict grooming conventions were in effect. Buzz cut styles today include the brush cut, crew cut, and flattop.

The top of a buzz cut style may be clipped a uniform short length, producing a butch cut, or into one of several geometric shapes that include the crew cut, flattop, and other short styles. Also known as a fade haircut, the back and sides are tapered short, semi-short, or medium, corresponding with different clipper guard sizes. Buzz cuts can make the face look more defined and are popular with men and boys who want a short, low-maintenance hairstyle, as well as those with thinning or receding hairlines. However, thanks to the popularization by public figures like Sinead O'Connor, Natalie Portman, Amber Rose, and Willow Smith, the buzz cut has also become a popular haircut amongst women. It has also become a symbol of protest - going against society's standards of feminine beauty.

In countries such as Australia, China, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, military recruits are given buzz cuts when they enter training; this was originally done to prevent the spread of head lice, but is now done for ease of maintenance, cooling, and uniformity.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Buzz cut


text:
User talk:Barabajagal~enwiki

Hey all, I'm new and just trying things out. Don't pay no mind...

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Barabajagal. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Barabajagal~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

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Renamed
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title: User talk:Barabajagal~enwiki


text:
Talk:Abalone (board game)

Mathematical analysis
is there mathematical analysis of this game?

Xah P0lyglut 07:55, 2003 Nov 29 (UTC)

Defensive Play
I am skeptical of the recent edits regarding the potential for defensive play. Given that this may be a controverial topic, I would like to open a discussion here rather than expressing my opinion by directly editing the article.

My main objection is that it seems both POV and beside the point to say that good players are more aggressive and that defensive play is a sign of a weaker player. It is my understanding that among Abalone-lovers it is a social convention not to play defensively, because defensive play makes the game boring. In particular I understand that playing defensively is not shunned because it is unsound strategy that can be beaten by a competent offense.

Perhaps it is true that people who flout this social convetion tend to be newer to the game and therefore weaker players. Perhaps no one who is interested in playing Abalone seriously would be happy with an infinitely drawn out game with no chance of winning. But these facts even if true reflect on the psychology of the players of Abalone, not on the game itself.

There is a critical point of information that needs to be clarified, apart from psychology and apart from social convention: In the diagrammed position, can Black defend indefinitely against all White attacks? If Black does not make any mistakes, is the fortress of marbles secure against even a perfect attack by White? I believe the answer is yes, and if it is yes then this fact about the game dynamics per se needs a prominent mention.

I propose splitting the current paragraph about defensive play into two paragraphs. Let one paragraph make it clear that a defensively-minded player who makes no mistakes not only can't be beaten, but also can't even be forced out of the defensive wedge, and therefore not losing at Abalone takes only moderate skill and no imagination. Let a separate paragraph make it clear that serious players find ways to attack and counterattack and to enjoy Abalone despite the theoretical possibility of draws. Does this sound fair enough? --Fritzlein 22:27, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Re: Defensive Play
I also think there's nothing to do against a defensive player who doesn't make any mistake. Though, in variants such as the daisies ("Marguerite"), where both groups of marbles are split in two at the beginning, nobody knows (for the moment, at least) if a "perfect" play would lead to a draw (like in Standard opening), or to the win of one of the players (maybe Black). Moreover, the complex configuration at the beginning isn't easy to handle, and it's not easy to reach a stable position, if your opponent doesn't want to : if you try to reach such a position, rather than to get an advantage, the repartition of the marbles generally allows your opponent to eject some of your marbles in the meantime, and you may find yourself stable but with less marbles, and thus quite weak. From my own experience, I'll say that you cannot be safe by playing in a defensive way in these variants; in fact, being "defensive" or "aggressive" makes much less sense than it does in Standard games. Defensive would qualify the one who tends to stop the attack when he gets an advantage (to avoid intricate fights), and then to solidify his group of marbles.

This is the reason why the upcoming On Line World Championship of Abalone will be played in Belgian daisy.

AB, October 1st 2005

"Belgian"
Is the Belgian tournament starting position that in image Image:Abalone_belgian.svg? If so, include the image in the article. Also, the "In this player's experience..." is inappropriate phrasing. AnonMoos 14:48, 22 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Yes, this is a picture of the Belgian daisy starting configuration.
 * Lmkhjsfdg (talk) 15:22, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Abalone board.jpg
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Terminology
The instruction booklet for the game has a list of vocabulary. Has anyone considered posting it in the article? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.181.160.60 (talk) 19:37, 13 November 2011 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Abalone (board game)


text:
Harry Warren

Harry Warren (born Salvatore Antonio Guaragna; December 24, 1893 – September 22, 1981) was an American composer and the first major American songwriter to write primarily for film. He was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song eleven times and won three Oscars for composing "Lullaby of Broadway", "You'll Never Know" and "On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe". He wrote the music for the first blockbuster film musical, 42nd Street, choreographed by Busby Berkeley, with whom he would collaborate on many musical films.

Over a career spanning six decades, Warren wrote more than 800 songs. Other well known Warren hits included "I Only Have Eyes for You", "You Must Have Been a Beautiful Baby", "Jeepers Creepers", "The Gold Diggers' Song (We're in the Money)", "That's Amore", "There Will Never Be Another You", "The More I See You", "At Last" and "Chattanooga Choo Choo" (the last of which was the first gold record in history). Warren was one of America's most prolific film composers, and his songs have been featured in over 300 films.

Early life
Warren was born Salvatore Antonio Guaragna, one of eleven children of Italian immigrants Antonio (a bootmaker) and Rachel De Luca Guaragna, and grew up in Brooklyn, New York. His father changed the family name to Warren when Harry was a child. Although his parents could not afford music lessons, Warren had an early interest in music and taught himself to play his father's accordion. He also sang in the church choir and learned to play the drums. He began to play the drums professionally by age 14 and dropped out of high school at 16 to play with his godfather's band in a traveling carnival. Soon he taught himself to play the piano and by 1915, he was working at the Vitagraph Motion Picture Studios, where he did a variety of administrative jobs, such as props man, and also played mood music on the piano for the actors, acted in bit parts and eventually was an assistant director. He also played the piano in cafés and silent-movie houses. In 1918 he joined the U.S. Navy, where he began writing songs.

Career
Warren wrote over 800 songs between 1918 and 1981, publishing over 500 of them. They were written mainly for 56 feature films or were used in other films that used Warren's newly written or existing songs. His songs eventually appeared in over 300 films and 112 of Warner Bros. Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies cartoons. 42 of his songs were on the top ten list of the radio program "Your Hit Parade", a measure of a song's popularity. 21 of these reached number 1 on Your Hit Parade. "You'll Never Know" appeared 24 times. His song "I Only Have Eyes for You" is listed in the list of the 25 most-performed songs of the 20th Century, as compiled by the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP). Warren was the director of ASCAP from 1929 to 1932.

He collaborated on some of his most famous songs with lyricists Al Dubin, Billy Rose, Mack Gordon, Leo Robin, Ira Gershwin and Johnny Mercer. In 1942 the Gordon-Warren song "Chattanooga Choo-Choo", as performed by the Glenn Miller Orchestra, became the first gold record in history. It was No.1 for nine weeks on the Billboard pop singles chart in 1941–1942, selling 1.2 million copies. Among his biggest hits were "There Will Never Be Another You", "I Only Have Eyes for You", "Forty-Second Street", "The Gold Diggers' Song (We're in the Money)", "Lullaby of Broadway", "Serenade In Blue", "At Last", "Jeepers Creepers", "You're Getting to Be a Habit with Me", "That's Amore", and "Young and Healthy".

Early hits and film years
Warren's first hit song was "Rose of the Rio Grande" (1922), with lyrics by Edgar Leslie. He wrote a succession of hit songs in the 1920s, including "I Love My Baby (My Baby Loves Me)" and "Seminola" in 1925, "Where Do You Work-a John?" and "In My Gondola" in 1926 and "Nagasaki" in 1928. In 1930, he composed the music for the song "Cheerful Little Earful" for the Billy Rose Broadway revue, Sweet and Low, and composed the music, with lyrics by Mort Dixon and Joe Young, for the Ed Wynn Broadway revue The Laugh Parade in 1931.

He started working for Warner Brothers in 1932, paired with Dubin to write the score for the first blockbuster film musical, 42nd Street, and continued to work there for six years, writing the scores for 32 more musicals. He worked for 20th Century Fox starting in 1940, writing with Mack Gordon. He moved to MGM starting in 1944, writing for musical films such as The Harvey Girls and The Barkleys of Broadway, many starring Fred Astaire. He later worked for Paramount, starting in the early 1950s, writing for the Bing Crosby and Jane Wyman movie Just for You and the Martin and Lewis movie The Caddy, the latter containing the hit song "That's Amore". He continued to write songs for several more Jerry Lewis comedies.

Warren is particularly remembered for writing scores for the films of Busby Berkeley; they worked together on 18 films. His "uptempo songs are as memorable as Berkeley's choreography, as [sic] for the same reason: they capture, in a few snazzy notes, the vigorous frivolity of the Jazz Age."

Warren won the Academy Award for Best Song three times, collaborating with three different lyricists: "Lullaby of Broadway" with Al Dubin in 1935, "You'll Never Know" with Mack Gordon in 1943, and "On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe" with Johnny Mercer in 1946. He was nominated for eleven Oscars.

Last years
In 1955, Warren wrote "The Legend of Wyatt Earp", which was used in the ABC/Desilu Studios television series, The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp. He also wrote the opening theme, "Hey, Marty" (lyrics by Paddy Chayefsky), for the film Marty, which won the Academy Award for Best Picture in 1955. The last musical score that Warren composed specifically for Broadway was Shangri-La, a disastrous 1956 adaptation of James Hilton's Lost Horizon, which ran for only 21 performances. In 1957, he received his last Academy Award nomination for the song "An Affair to Remember". He continued to write songs for movies throughout the 1960s and 1970s but never again achieved the fame that he had enjoyed earlier. His last movie score was for Manhattan Melody, in 1980, but the film was never produced.

Warren composed a Mass, with Latin text, in 1962. This was performed a decade later at Loyola Marymount University, but it has yet to be recorded commercially. He also wrote nearly three dozen short piano vignettes. The sheet music was first published by Warren's Four Jays Music Co. A dozen of these were released on a 1975 album titled Harry Warren's Piano Vignettes, played by Hugh Delain. Several pianists have recorded the vignettes, including Warren himself.

Personal life
Warren married Josephine Wensler in 1917. They had a son, Harry Jr. (1919–1938), and a daughter, Joan (b. 1925). His wife died in 1993.

Warren died on September 22, 1981, in Los Angeles. He is interred in the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles. The plaque bearing Warren's epitaph displays the first few notes of "You'll Never Know".

Reputation and legacy
According to Wilfrid Sheed, quoted in Time magazine: "By silent consensus, the king of this army of unknown soldiers, the Hollywood incognitos, was Harry Warren, who had more songs on the Hit Parade than Berlin himself and who would win the contest hands down if enough people have heard of him." William Zinsser noted: "The familiarity of Harry Warren's songs is matched by the anonymity of the man ... he is the invisible man, his career a prime example of the oblivion that cloaked so many writers who cranked out good songs for bad movies." At least three episodes of the Lawrence Welk Show were devoted entirely to Warren's music: Season 18, Episode 5, October 7, 1972; Season 25, Episode 10, November 24, 1979; and Season 27, Episode 17, January 2, 1982 Susannah McCorkle's debut album was The Music of Harry Warren (1976).

In 1980, producer David Merrick and director Gower Champion adapted the 1933 film 42nd Street into a Broadway musical that won the Tony Award for Best Musical in 1981, ran for 3,486 performances and has had several major revivals. The score incorporated songs by Warren and Dubin from various movie musicals, including 42nd Street, Dames, Go Into Your Dance, Gold Diggers of 1933, and Gold Diggers of 1935.

A theatre in Gravesend, Brooklyn, New York, the Harry Warren Theatre, was named for Warren in 1982.

Songs
Music by Warren, unless noted:

Academy Award nominations and winners

 * Winners
 * "Lullaby of Broadway" (1935) w. Al Dubin for Gold Diggers of 1935
 * "You'll Never Know" (1943) w. Mack Gordon for Hello, Frisco, Hello
 * "On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe" (1945) w. Johnny Mercer for The Harvey Girls

 * Nominations
 * "Remember Me?" (1937) w. Al Dubin for Mr. Dodd Takes the Air
 * "Jeepers Creepers" (1938) w. Johnny Mercer for Going Places
 * "Down Argentina Way" (1940) w. Mack Gordon for Down Argentine Way
 * "Chattanooga Choo Choo" (1941) w. Mack Gordon for Sun Valley Serenade
 * "I've Got a Gal in Kalamazoo" (1942) w. Mack Gordon for Orchestra Wives
 * "Zing a Little Zong" (1952) w. Leo Robin for Just for You
 * "That's Amore" (1953) w. Jack Brooks for The Caddy
 * "An Affair to Remember (Our Love Affair)" (1956) w. Harold Adamson and Leo McCarey for An Affair to Remember

No. 1 hits

 * "By the River Sainte Marie" (1931) w. Edgar Leslie
 * "Too Many Tears" (1932) w. Al Dubin
 * "I Found a Million Dollar Baby (in a Five and Ten Cent Store)" (1932) w. Mort Dixon
 * "You're Getting to Be a Habit With Me" (1933) w. Al Dubin
 * "Forty-Second Street" (1933) w. Al Dubin
 * "Shadow Waltz" (1933) w. Al Dubin
 * "(You May Not Be an Angel, But) I'll String Along With You" (1934) w. Al Dubin
 * "Lullaby of Broadway" (1935) w. Al Dubin
 * "She's a Latin from Manhattan" (1935) w. Al Dubin
 * "I'll Sing You a Thousand Love Songs" (1936) w. Al Dubin
 * "September in the Rain" (1937) w. Al Dubin
 * "With Plenty of Money and You" (1937) w. Al Dubin
 * "Remember Me?" (1937) w. Al Dubin
 * "Jeepers Creepers" (1938) w. Johnny Mercer
 * "You Must Have Been a Beautiful Baby" (1938) w. Johnny Mercer
 * "Chattanooga Choo Choo" (1941) w. Mack Gordon
 * "My Heart Tells Me (Should I Believe My Heart?)" (1943) w. Mack Gordon
 * "I Had the Craziest Dream" (1943) w. Mack Gordon
 * "You'll Never Know" (1943) w. Mack Gordon
 * "The More I See You" (1945) w. Mack Gordon
 * "On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe" (1945) w. Johnny Mercer

Other selected songs from films

 * "You're Getting to Be a Habit with Me" (1932) w. Al Dubin for 42nd Street
 * "Forty-Second Street" (1933) w. Al Dubin for 42nd Street
 * "Shuffle Off to Buffalo" (1933) w. Al Dubin for 42nd Street
 * "The Boulevard of Broken Dreams" (1933) w. Al Dubin for Moulin Rouge
 * "Keep Young and Beautiful" (1933) w. Al Dubin for Roman Scandals
 * "Pettin' in the Park" (1933) w. Al Dubin for Gold Diggers of 1933
 * "We're in the Money" (1933) w. Al Dubin for Gold Diggers of 1933
 * "I Only Have Eyes for You" (1934) w. Al Dubin for Dames
 * "I'll String Along with You" (1934) w. Al Dubin for Twenty Million Sweethearts
 * "About a Quarter to Nine" (1935) w. Al Dubin for "Go into Your Dance"
 * "Lullaby of Broadway" (1935) w. Al Dubin for Gold Diggers of 1935
 * "September in the Rain" (1935) w. Al Dubin for Stars Over Broadway
 * "You Must Have Been a Beautiful Baby" (1938) w. Johnny Mercer for Hard to Get
 * "Chica Chica Boom Chic" (1941) w. Mack Gordon for That Night in Rio
 * "I, Yi, Yi, Yi, Yi (I Like You Very Much)" (1941) w. Mack Gordon for That Night in Rio
 * "Chattanooga Choo Choo" (1941) w. Mack Gordon for Sun Valley Serenade
 * "I Know Why (And So Do You)" (1941) w. Mack Gordon for Sun Valley Serenade
 * "It Happened in Sun Valley" (1941) w. Mack Gordon for Sun Valley Serenade
 * "At Last" (1941) w. Mack Gordon for Sun Valley Serenade
 * "I Had the Craziest Dream" (1942) w. Mack Gordon for Springtime in the Rockies
 * "Serenade In Blue" (1942) w. Mack Gordon for Orchestra Wives
 * "There Will Never Be Another You" (1942) w. Mack Gordon for Iceland
 * "You'll Never Know" (1943) w. Mack Gordon for Hello, Frisco, Hello
 * "On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe" (1945) w. Johnny Mercer for The Harvey Girls
 * "The More I See You" (1945) w. Mack Gordon for Diamond Horseshoe
 * "This Heart of Mine" (1946) w. Arthur Freed for Ziegfeld Follies
 * "Cryin' For the Carolines" (1930) w. Sam Lewis and Joe Young for Spring Is Here
 * "Have A Little Faith In Me" (1930) w. Sam Lewis and Joe Young for Spring Is Here
 * "(The Same Thing Happens with) The Birds and the Bees" (1956) Mack David for The Birds and the Bees

American songbook songs
In his book American Popular Song, Alec Wilder notes that Warren "wasn't in the category as the best theater writers, but he certainly was among the foremost pop song writers." He discusses songs he likes: "Would You Like to Take a Walk?" (1930, with Mort Dixon and Billy Rose for Sweet & Low), "I Found a Million Dollar Baby (in a Five and Ten Cent Store)" (1931, with Dixon and Rose for Crazy Quilt), "You're Getting to Be a Habit with Me" (1932), "Summer Night" (1936), "There Will Never Be Another You" (1942), "Serenade in Blue" (1942), "At Last" (1942), "Jeepers Creepers" (1938), and "The More I See You" (1945).

 * Other popular songs
 * "Cheerful Little Earful" (1930) w. Ira Gershwin and Billy Rose for Sweet & Low
 * "Nagasaki" (1928) w. Mort Dixon

title: Harry Warren


text:
Colonial goose

Colonial goose is a preparation of roast leg of lamb or mutton popular as a dish in New Zealand until the last quarter of the 20th century.

Early colonial pioneers in New Zealand had sheep aplenty, but goose was relatively scarce. To prepare dishes similar to those they had back home in the old country the pioneers were very inventive. Colonial goose is now a recognised classic, with some restaurants featuring it as a main attraction at midwinter festivities (21 June in New Zealand).

It involves the careful boning out of a leg of lamb, stuffing it with honey and dried apricots, in addition to traditional stuffing based on breadcrumbs, onion, parsley and thyme or sage, and then marinating it in a red wine-based marinade which gives it the appearance of goose when cooked.

The 1919 cookbook First Catch Your Weka: A Story of New Zealand Food by David Veart, contains a recipe for colonial goose.

title: Colonial goose


text:
Inter-American Development Bank

The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB or IADB) is an international development finance institution headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States of America, and serving as the largest source of development financing for Latin America and the Caribbean. Established in 1959, the IDB supports Latin American and Caribbean economic development, social development and regional integration by lending to governments and government agencies, including State corporations.

The IDB has four official languages: English, Spanish, Portuguese and French. Its official names in the other three languages are as follows:

History
At the First Pan-American Conference in 1890, the idea of a development institution for Latin America was first suggested during the earliest efforts to create an inter-American system. The IDB became a reality under an initiative proposed by President Juscelino Kubitschek of Brazil. The Bank was formally created on April 8, 1959, when the Organization of American States drafted the Articles of Agreement establishing the Inter-American Development Bank.

Member states
The Bank is owned by 48 sovereign states, which are its shareholders and members. Only the 26 borrowing countries are able to receive loans.

Presidents
Mauricio Claver-Carone was removed by the governors of IDB after an ethics investigation found that he had an affair with a subordinate and gave her a pay raise. The affair allegedly occurred during Claver-Carone's tenure on the National Security Council during the Trump administration. Executive Vice President Reina Irene Mejía of Honduras took over as acting president.

Ilan Goldfajn of Brazil was elected on November 20, 2022, and assumed his responsibilities as president on December 19, 2022.

Operations

The IDB is the largest multilateral source of financing for the Latin America and the Caribbean region. The IDB makes loans to the governments of its borrowing member countries at standard commercial rates of interest, and has preferred creditor status, meaning that borrowers will repay loans to the IDB before repaying other obligations to other lenders such as commercial banks.

Governance
The IDB is governed by its Board of Governors, a 48-member body who regularly meets once a year. In March 2010, reunited in Cancun, Mexico, the Board of Governors of the Bank agreed on a $70 billion capital increase, along with full debt forgiveness for Haiti, its poorest member country, devastated by an earthquake that had destroyed its capital, Port-au-Prince, two months before.

The developing countries that borrow from the IDB are the majority shareholders, and therefore control the majority of the decision-making bodies of the Bank. Each member's voting power is determined by its shareholding: its subscription to the Bank's ordinary capital. The United States holds 30 percent of the Bank's shares, while the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean combined hold 50.02 percent but with another 20% from Europe the US can veto decisions. This arrangement is unique in that the developing member countries, as a group, are the majority shareholders. Though this arrangement was first viewed as risky, it is believed by some that strict peer pressure prevents the borrowers from defaulting, even when under severe economic pressure.

Priority areas
In March 2015, the Bank updated its Institutional Strategy for 2010–2020. The document says that to ultimately transform Latin American and the Caribbean 'into a more inclusive and prosperous society, three main development challenges must be addressed: social exclusion and inequality, low productivity and innovation, and limited economic integration." Moreover, the document also says that "these three challenges are inter-related and certain overarching issues cut across them that public policies need to address: gender equality and diversity; climate change and environmental sustainability; and institutions and the rule of law."

Vision
The IDB's Education Division works in partnership with 26 borrowing countries in Latin America and the Caribbean to ensure that children and adolescents exercise their right to a quality education, achieve their potential, and reverse the cycle of poverty.

Mission
Given that education is a key to development and a prerequisite for a genuine equality of opportunity, and given its strategic importance to the region, the IDB has an Education Initiative that focuses its research and projects in three main areas: Early Childhood Development, School to Work Transition and Teacher Quality.

Early childhood development
The IDB supports readiness to learn interventions so that children can have access to quality programs within the region. Among the projects in this area are the Regional Project on Child Development Indicators (PRIDI), which provides high quality, policy-relevant, and regionally comparative data on the situation of young children and their families. These data will allow countries to benchmark progress on childhood development both within their borders and in the region, thus facilitating policy dialogue between governments on how to best address the needs of young children and their families. Participating countries include Argentina, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Peru and Paraguay. The IDB also participates in the Support for a Seamless Education System Program in Trinidad and Tobago, which aims to improve the quality of early childhood care and primary education, and the Alliance for Children Initiative (Alianza por la Iniciativa Infantil), an initiative that seeks to foster collaboration between governments, families, civil society and the private sector to support innovative interventions in the field.

Teacher quality
The IDB supports interventions to improve teacher quality in Latin America and the Caribbean and conducts research in the field. It supports the Aligning of Learning Incentives (ALI) in Mexico, a pilot program that provides monetary incentives to students, faculty and staff to improve student achievement in mathematics. Brazil also supports the tutoring program, Multiplying Knowledge, where academically successful students help children in the last years of primary school with mathematics. and the implementation and evaluation of Enseña Chile, a program that attracts outstanding college graduates to teach for two years in vulnerable schools. The Inter-American Development bank focuses on three main areas: incentives (with particular emphasis on teachers), supplies (with emphasis on teacher training and capacity building), and administration (targeting school management).

School to work transition
The IDB supports the development of knowledge, interventions, programs, and policies to improve the competencies and skills acquired by adolescents in the education system so they will contribute to a student's successful transition between school and work. The projects for this field include supporting the government of Costa Rica to improve the English as a foreign language project in order to close the skills gap between the demand in the labor market and the supply of the education systems in the field. As part of its research agenda, the IDB conducted a survey of young students from Chile analyzing their educational labor trajectory while measuring certain cognitive and non-cognitive skills, relating them to the education and labor performance of adolescents. The IDB also implemented The Employers’ Survey of Mandatory Skills (ENEHD, Spanish Acronym), that investigated the twenty-first century skills demanded by entrepreneurs for people under 25.

Other projects
The Bank also has interventions in other areas that affect children and adolescents in the region, such as education inputs, equity, and compensatory programs. The initiatives in these fields are support projects for the reconstruction of educational infrastructure in Haiti; a support project for the consolidation and expansion of the Plan Ceibal in Uruguay; a community education program in Mexico, which aims to raise quality of educational services for marginalized communities; a project to support the education plan in the Dominican Republic; the National Infrastructure Program for the universalization of education quality and equality in Ecuador; a program to support policies for the improvement of education equity in Argentina (PROMEDU); a project to improve education activities and learning quality in Mexico; and a comprehensive care program for children in Nicaragua, which contributes to the development of children living in extreme poverty within rural areas under 6 years old.

Poverty reduction
Government of developing countries is not equipped to reduce poverty due to heavy responsibility to build and maintain infrastructure, as well as meet payroll and debt obligations. Tax revenue is often weak or non-existent. Poverty reduction depends largely on business investment in global markets to create sustainable jobs for economic empowerment of individuals. International companies need funding, and difficulty lies on the inability of the investment banks to overcome regulatory obstacles.

Small business entities are largely responsible for improving lives, as they play an inherent role in raising the socio-economic status of families, making it possible to combat poverty in the long range, as employed heads of household are in better positions to finance the education of children for a better future. Hence, empowering institutions, such as, The World Bank, IFC, the IADB, and others can exercise their due diligence to fit those promising entities in their projects with eased regulatory restraints, as certain regulations that work in developed nations are obstacles to progress in developing nations.

Climate Change and Sustainability Division
Climate change threatens both to undermine the long-term efforts of the region to achieve sustainable development and to affect the most vulnerable members of society disproportionately.

To respond to increasing demand for clients for assistance in addressing climate change, the General Capital Increase (GCI-9) commits the Bank to support mitigation and adaptation efforts of borrowing members while meeting their developmental and energy requirements. GCI-9 sets a target of 25 percent of total lending going to a growing portfolio on climate change, environmental sustainability, and renewable energy.

Climate Change Strategy
The objective of the Climate Change Strategy (CCS) is to serve as a guiding instrument for scaling up IDB support for actions to mitigate and adapt to climate change within Latin America and the Caribbean Leveraging the IDB's institutional strengths and its unique advantages, the CCS will promote the development and use of a range of public and private sector financial and nonfinancial instruments for strengthening the institutional, technical, and financial capacity to address climate change challenges.

Water and sanitation
There are four programs in the Water and Sanitation Division: 100 Cities Program, Water for 3,000 Rural Communities, Water Defenders and Efficient and Transparent Utilities.

The Bank has also a number of focused special programs: AquaFund, Energy Efficient, Hydro-BID, and AquaRating.

Hydro-BID
In order to support the Latin American and Caribbean region to address water resources challenges, the IDB has created Hydro-BID, a tool that allows the efficient management and planning of water resources by predicting water availability taking into consideration the impacts of climate change.

Hydro-BID was developed to respond to the challenges related to lack of information, reliable data and the lack of tools to support governments, water utilities, the private sector and other institutions to plan and make better decisions for a sustainable management on behalf of the consumers of water, the people.

AquaRating
AquaRating is the first rating agency for the water sector. It is an Inter-American Development Bank venture, hosted by the International Water Association. The rating system has already been piloted in thirteen utilities in nine countries in Europe and Latin America and the Caribbean. A worldwide market introduction is planned during 2015.

Infrastructure
The satisfactory provision and administration of infrastructure stimulates economic growth and competitiveness. It is also essential for improving the quality of life and inclusion in modern society. The infrastructure strategy identifies priority areas of action: a)Promote access to infrastructure services b)Support infrastructure for regional and global integration c)Foster financing mechanisms and leverage private sector participation in infrastructure d) Adopt and promote a multisector agenda e) Support the construction and maintenance of an environmentally and socially sustainable infrastructure f) Promote ongoing improvements in infrastructure governance

Of the 44 new projects, 32% are in the infrastructure and environment sector.

Capital increase
On July 21, 2010, the Board of Governors agreed to increase the Bank's ordinary capital by $70 billion, the largest expansion of resources in the Bank's history, and to provide an unprecedented package of financial support to Haiti. The agreement also includes a replenishment of the Fund for Special Operations, which finances operations in the region's poorest nations.

The Bank's capital increase will be implemented through 2015 as parliaments in each of its member countries appropriate the necessary funds.

Haiti
After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the IDB pledged to provide Haiti more than $2.2 billion in grants over the next decade to fund its recovery efforts and long-term development plans, working closely with the Haitian government and the international community. The Bank's Board of Governors also agreed to cancel all of Haiti's outstanding debt.

President Préval also gave the Inter-American Development Bank the mandate to work with the Education Ministry and the National Commission preparing a major reform of the Education System in a 5-year plan.

Financial resources
The callable capital pledged by the 22 non-borrowing members, which include the world's wealthiest developed countries, therefore functions as a guarantee for the bonds that the IDB sells. This arrangement ensures that the IDB maintains a triple-A credit rating, and as a result can make loans to its borrowing member countries at rates of interest similar to those that commercial banks charge their largest corporate borrowers. At the same time, the 22 non-borrowing countries are only putting up guarantees – not actual funds – so their support of the IDB's lending operations has a minimal impact on their national budgets.

The funds that the IDB lends are raised by selling bonds to institutional investors at standard commercial rates of interest. The bonds are backed by (a) the sum of the capital subscriptions actually paid in by the Bank's 47 member countries, plus (b) the sum of the callable capital subscriptions pledged by the Bank's 22 non-borrowing member countries. Together these constitute the Bank's ordinary capital, some US$101 billion. Of this amount, 4.3 percent is paid in, while the remaining 95.7 percent is callable.

Aside from its lending activities for its member countries, the IDB also has lending operations with private sector companies, both directly through its Structured Corporate Finance Department and Opportunities for the Majority Initiative, and by means of the IDB Invest, a multilateral lender created by the IDB member countries, and part of the IDB Group, to help develop small and medium-sized companies in Latin America and the Caribbean. An affiliate of the IDB, IDB Lab (formerly the Multilateral Investment Fund - FOMIN), uses loans, grants and equity investments to support private projects seeking to bring innovation, boost entrepreneurship, or expand access to financing throughout the region. The Bank, IDB Invest and IDB Lab constitute the IDB Group.

Criticism
There are claims that operations funded by the IDB may have adverse impacts on local environments and indigenous peoples. According to the Bank Information Center (BIC), "civil society groups have long been concerned about the negative impacts the IDB's operations have on the environment and on indigenous and traditional peoples, as well as on the prospects for genuine economic and democratic reform in the region". The BIC cites environmental and social damage funded by the IDB as adversely impacting local economies, contrary to IDB's stated goal of fostering social and economic prosperity.

Member state comparison table
The following table are amounts for 20 largest countries by subscribed capital stock, voting power, and FSO contribution quotas at the Inter-American Development Bank as of December 2020.

title: Inter-American Development Bank


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Michel Courtemanche

Michel Courtemanche (born December 11, 1964) is a Canadian comedian and actor from Quebec, performing in Quebec, France, Belgium and Switzerland.

Career
His debut one-man show, A New Comic is Born, ran for more than five hundred performances and earned him two Felix nominations. It was first performed in Montreal in 1989. His second, The New Adventures of Michel Courtemanche, first performed in 1992, filled theatres in both North America and Europe and spawned his second international hit video (1993).

Courtemanche has internationally sold out large theatres, and has inspired a hardcover comic book. Courtemanche appeared in Québécois films Nuit de Noces and Karmina 2, and on the Secret Adventures of Jules Verne television series, on American pay television channel Syfy.

His style of comedy can be described as mime combined with sound effects, as he is most often seen interacting with invisible objects or even people and using his voice to complete the scene. He is also known for making remarkable grimaces.

In 2002, he moved from acting to working behind the camera. His production company, Encore Télévision, produces the French-Canadian edition of the sitcom Caméra café, which was adapted from French television.

Awards and honors

 * Asteroid 63129 Courtemanche, discovered by Swiss astronomer Stefano Sposetti in 2000, was named in his honor. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on June 13, 2006 (M.P.C. 56962).

Filmography

 * 1997 - La ballade de Titus
 * 2000 - Secret Adventures of Jules Verne
 * 2001 - Karmina 2
 * 2021 - Livrés chez vous sans contact

title: Michel Courtemanche