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Sarah Chang

Sarah Chang (장영주; born Young Joo Chang; December 10, 1980) is a Korean American classical violinist. Recognized as a child prodigy, she first played as a soloist with the New York Philharmonic and the Philadelphia Orchestra in 1989. She enrolled at Juilliard School to study music, graduated in 1999, and continued university studies. Especially during the 1990s and early to mid-2000s, Chang had major roles as a soloist with many of the world's major orchestras.

Early life and education
Chang was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and raised in Cherry Hill and Voorhees Township, New Jersey. Her mother Myoung-Jun Chang is a composer and her father Min-Soo Chang was a violinist and music teacher. Chang's parents moved to the United States from South Korea in 1979 for her father's advanced music degree at Temple University. Her mother took composition classes at the University of Pennsylvania. Chang has said that although she "never actually lived in Korea... I do still feel very strongly it's where my roots are." Her younger brother Michael (born 1987) has a degree from Princeton University. In 1986, when Chang was 5 years old, she auditioned for and was accepted to the Juilliard School by performing the Bruch Violin Concerto No. 1 in G minor. Chang spent her weekends attending music classes at Juilliard and shopping in New York City with her parents. When Chang was 6 years old, she started studying with Isaac Stern outside school. In 1989, she began working with Dorothy DeLay at her studio in New York where her father had received his musical lessons, and at the Aspen Music Festival and School. A former student and assistant to DeLay, Hyo Kang, also provided training to Chang.

Following her 1999 high school graduation in New Jersey, she returned to Juilliard for university and studied with DeLay.

Chang learned from a family environment to naturally speak Korean.

Due to her musical accomplishments, Chang is among a very small number of professional figures recognized as a child prodigy.

Early work
Her mother trained her to play one-finger melodies on the piano at age 3. For her fourth birthday, she was given a 1/16-sized violin. Upon hearing her play at a dinner party, Philadelphia Orchestra concertmaster Norman Carol asked music director Riccardo Muti to listen to her. At age 8, she auditioned alongside Muti and Zubin Mehta, who was the music director of the New York Philharmonic. Both granted her immediate engagements.

In 1991, when Chang was 10 years old, she recorded her first album, Debut; it was released by EMI Classics on August 18, 1992 and quickly reached the Billboard chart of classical best-sellers. Chang quickly rose to fame and became known on an international scale, performing up to 150 concerts a year. In 2006, Newsweek ranked her as one of the Top Eight Achieving Females in the United States. In the interview accompanying the feature, she said: "I think having a career at such an early age kept me focused. We schedule at least two to three years in advance in the classical industry. I felt so grounded and so grateful to already know what it was that I wanted to do with my life."

2002–2005
In 2002, Chang performed in Pyongyang, North Korea. She said: "The concert was full of government officials. Every single last seat. It was invitation only, but it was an unbelievable experience. Frightening and exhilarating at the same time. And I just thought about how lucky I am. I am so fortunate to be a musician, and at that moment, I genuinely felt that music is the one and only universal language."

Chang took part in watchmaker Movado's global advertising campaign "The Art of Time" with Pete Sampras and composer Wynton Marsalis. For the 2004 Olympics, she was selected to carry the Olympic torch in New York. In 2005, the Yale School of Music dedicated a chair in Sprague Hall in Chang's name. After that, Chang toured for a year with the Berlin Philharmonic and the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra in a Sextet program of summer festivals leading to a concert at the Berlin Philharmonie.

2007–present
Chang played a recital at Carnegie Hall on April 7, 2007, accompanied by the British pianist Ashley Wass. She continued to perform with the Los Angeles Philharmonic and Esa-Pekka Salonen and appear with the former at the Hollywood Bowl and Walt Disney Concert Hall throughout 2008. On March 27 and 28, 2008, she played for San Antonio, Texas audiences at the Majestic Theater, a performance preceded by an appearance (to meet and inspire young as well as seasoned musicians at no charge) at Antonio Strad Violin in the same city. From May 2009 to June 2010, she held recital tours across Europe, North America, and Asia with pianist Andrew von Oeyen; a July 2010 recording of the two was eventually released. On February 12, 2010, she gave a recital at the Barbican Hall in London. Chang made an appearance at the University of Southern California in March 2010, playing Max Bruch's Violin Concerto No. 1 in G minor, Op. 26. She performed at the Hollywood Bowl in August 2010.

Instruments
Sarah Chang owns several violins. Her main instrument is the 1717 Guarneri del Gesu by the Cremonese luthier, Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesù which she purchased from her mentor, Isaac Stern.

Chang uses a variety of bows: she has said that she prefers a Pajeot for Mozart and Bach; a Sartory for the Tchaikovsky and Sibelius concerti; and two Dominique Peccattes for other music.

Public image
Chang has performed with the New York Philharmonic, the Philadelphia Orchestra, the Chicago Symphony, the Boston Symphony, the Cleveland Orchestra, the Montréal Symphony Orchestra, the Berlin Philharmonic, the Vienna Philharmonic, orchestras in London, England, and the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Additionally, she has performed with the Los Angeles Philharmonic, the NHK Symphony Orchestra of Tokyo, the Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra, the Bayerische Rundfunk Orchestra, the Washington National Symphony Orchestra, the Oslo Philharmonic, the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra, the Melbourne Symphony, Orchestre de la Suisse Romande, Orchestre Philharmonique de Luxembourg, the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra, the Orchestre National de France, the Honolulu Symphony, the St. Olaf Orchestra, and the Netherlands Radio Philharmonic Orchestra amongst others.

Chang has also been a soloist under the baton of conductors Mariss Jansons, Daniel Barenboim, Sir Colin Davis, Charles Dutoit, Bernard Haitink, James Levine, Lorin Maazel, Kurt Masur, Zubin Mehta, Riccardo Muti, André Previn, Sir Simon Rattle, Wolfgang Sawallisch, Leonard Slatkin, Michael Tilson Thomas, Plácido Domingo, David Lockington, David Zinman, Gustavo Dudamel, Valery Gergiev, Esa-Pekka Salonen, Jaap van Zweden, John Williams, Steven Amundson, and others.

Notable recital engagements have included her Carnegie Hall debut and performances at the Kennedy Center, Orchestra Hall, Symphony Hall, Barbican Centre, Philharmonie, and Concertgebouw.

As a chamber musician, Chang has collaborated with Pinchas Zukerman, Wolfgang Sawallisch, Vladimir Ashkenazy, Yefim Bronfman, Martha Argerich, Leif Ove Andsnes, Stephen Kovacevich, Yo-Yo Ma, Lynn Harrell, Lars Vogt, and the late Isaac Stern. She has made several chamber recordings with current and former members of the Berlin Philharmonic, including the Sextet and Piano Quintet of Dvořák and the Souvenir de Florence of Tchaikovsky.

In January 2011, Chang disclosed in an interview with Evan Solomon of Power & Politics (CBC) that President Obama had appointed her to the Presidential Commission on Russian Relations and that she was taking on a new role as State Department Special Cultural Envoy. She had already been promoting and supporting childhood musical education for many years. She has also been a cultural ambassador for the U.S.; for instance, she was invited to play in Pyongyang, North Korea, with a South Korean orchestra in 2002.

Awards
Chang has received a number of awards, including:
 * 1992: Avery Fisher Career Grant
 * 1993: Gramophone Magazine Young Artist of the Year (1993)
 * 1993: Newcomer of the Year for "Echo" (Germany)
 * 1993: Nan Pa (South Korea)
 * 1994: Newcomer of the Year at the International Classical Music Awards
 * 1999: Avery Fisher Prize
 * 2004: Hollywood Bowl's Hall of Fame
 * 2005: Premio Internazionale Accademia Musicale Chigiana in Siena, Italy

CDs

 * 1992: Debut includes Pablo de Sarasate, Edward Elgar, Nicolo Paganini (EMI Classics)
 * 1992: Concert for Planet Earth, Live Recording/Placido Domingo/Sarah Chang/Wynton Marsalis (Sony Music)
 * 1993: Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky: Violin Concerto Op 35. Conductor: Sir Colin Davis / Johannes Brahms: Hungarian Dances 1, 2, 4, 7 (EMI Classics)
 * 1994: Nicolo Paganini: Concerto No. 1 in D for Violin and Orchestra, Op. 6 / Camille Saint-Saëns: Havanaise for Violin and Orchestra, Op.83, Introduction and Rondo Capriccioso for Violin and Orchestra, Op.28. Orchestra: The Philadelphia Orchestra. Conductor: Wolfgang Sawallisch (EMI Classics)
 * 1995: Ralph Vaughan Williams: The Lark Ascending. Conductor: Bernard Haitink (EMI Classics)
 * 1996: Édouard Lalo: Symphonie Espagnole/Henri Vieuxtemps: Violin Concerto No. 5. Orchestra: Concertgebouw Orchestra (Lalo) / Philharmonia Orchestra (Vieuxtemps), Conductor: Charles Dutoit (EMI Classics)
 * 1997: Simply Sarah/ Show Pieces/ Piano: Charles Abramovic (EMI Classics)
 * 1998: Felix Mendelssohn, Jean Sibelius: Violin Concertos. Orchestra: Berliner Philharmoniker, Conductor: Mariss Jansons (EMI Classics)
 * 1999: Sweet Sorrow/ Compilation Album includes Chaconne by Tomaso Antonio Vitali (EMI Classics)
 * 1999: Richard Strauss: Violin Concerto and Violin Sonata. Symphonieorchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks, Conductor and Piano: Wolfgang Sawallisch (EMI Classics)
 * 2000: Karl Goldmark: Violin Concerto op. 28. Orchestra: Gürzenich-Orchester, Conductor: James Conlon (EMI Classics)
 * 2002: Fire & Ice.  Pablo de Sarasate, Massenet, Maurice Ravel, Ludwig van Beethoven, Johann Sebastian Bach, Orchestra: Berliner Philharmoniker, Conductor: Plácido Domingo (EMI Classics)
 * 2002: Antonín Dvořák, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky: Sextets (with Berlin Philharmonic Members) (EMI Classics)
 * 2003: Antonín Dvořák: Violin Concerto Op. 53, Piano Quintet (with Leif Ove Andsnes), London Symphony Orchestra, Sir Colin Davis (EMI Classics)
 * 2004: French Violin Sonatas includes. César Franck, Camille Saint-Saëns, Maurice Ravel  Piano: Lars Vogt (EMI Classics)
 * 2005: Andrew Lloyd Webber: Phantasia (with cellist Julian Lloyd Webber) (EMI Classics)
 * 2006: Dmitri Shostakovich: Violin Concerto No.1 / Sergei Prokofiev: Violin Concert No.1. Orchestra: Berliner Philharmoniker, Conductor: Sir Simon Rattle (EMI Classics)
 * 2007: Antonio Vivaldi: The Four Seasons (Vivaldi), and Violin Concerto in g, op.12 no.1, RV.317. Orchestra: Orpheus Chamber Orchestra (EMI Classics)
 * 2009: Max Bruch Violin Concerto No.1, Johannes Brahms Violin Concerto Kurt Masur, Dresdner Philharmonie (EMI Classics)

DVDs

 * 1995: Niccolò Paganini Violin Concerto Berliner Philharmoniker, Zubin Mehta
 * 2003: Spanish Night: Sarasate Carmen Fantasie, Zigeunerweisen, Thais Meditation, Berliner Philharmoniker, Plácido Domingo (Conductor)

title: Sarah Chang


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Philadelphia City Council

The Philadelphia City Council, the legislative body of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, consists of ten members elected by district and seven members elected at-large. The council president is elected by the members from among their number. Each member's term is four years, and there are no limits on the number of terms a member may serve.

History
While William Penn's original 1691 charter for the city of Philadelphia included a "common council," no records exist of this body ever having been convened. Its successor, the Proprietor's Charter of 1701, constituted the city as a municipal corporation with a non-elected council made up of major city officials who selected their own successors. The colonial city government was abolished during the American Revolution and replaced in 1789 with an elected council including fifteen aldermen and thirty common councillors; these then elected a mayor and recorder who also were members of the council. In 1796, a bicameral city council was created including a 20-member Common Council and 12-member Select Council; the sizes of both bodies increased with the population of the city, peaking at 149 members of Common Council and 41 in Select Council, the largest municipal legislature in the US. It was replaced with a single 21-member chamber in 1919, which remained in effect until the adoption of a Home Rule charter in 1951.

Composition and term
The 1951 Home Rule Charter established the council as the legislative arm of Philadelphia municipal government, consisting of seventeen members. Ten council members are elected by district and seven from the city at large. At-large council members are elected using limited voting with limited nomination in which voters may only select five candidates on the ballot, and which guarantees that two minority-party or independent candidates are elected. Each is elected for a term of four years with no limit on the number of terms that may be served.

The members of City Council elect from among themselves a president, who serves as the regular chairperson of council meetings. In consultation with the majority of council members, the President appoints members to the various standing committees of the council. The president is also responsible for selecting and overseeing most Council employees.

Legislative process
Every proposed ordinance is in the form of a bill introduced by a Council member. Before a bill can be enacted, it must be referred by the president of the council to an appropriate standing committee, considered at a public hearing and public meeting, reported out by the committee, printed as reported by the committee, distributed to the members of the council, and made available to the public. Passage of a bill requires the favorable vote of a majority of all members. A bill becomes law upon the approval of the mayor. If the mayor vetoes a bill, the council may override the veto by a two-thirds vote.

Under the rules of the council, regular public sessions are held weekly, usually on Thursday morning at 10:00am, in Room 400, City Hall. Council normally breaks for the summer months of July and August.

Gerrymandering
In a 2006 computer study of local and state legislative districts, two of the city's ten council districts, the 5th and the 7th, were found to be among the least compact districts in the nation, giving rise to suspicions of gerrymandering. The Committee of Seventy, a non-partisan watchdog group for local elections, asked candidates for council in 2007 to support a list of ethics statements, including a call for fair redistricting, which should take place after the 2010 United States Census. In 2011, the council approved a redistricting map with more compact boundaries, eliminating the gerrymandered borders of the 5th and 7th districts; it took effect for the 2015 elections.

Councilmanic prerogative
Councilmanic prerogative is the legislative practice where a Philadelphia city council member has final say over land use in their district. Chicago has a similar practice called aldermanic prerogative. This unwritten practice affords council people who represent a geographically defined district unchecked power over land use decisions as it’s custom for the 16 other council members to defer to them. A Pew study from 2015 uncovered that 726 of 730 Council votes on land use decisions were unanimous with only six total dissenting votes. This system can lead to conflicts of interest between council members and developers who want to change land use zoning or want to buy property below market rates in order to sell it at a higher price. Since 1981, of six council members convicted of misconduct all revolved around land-use.

Critics of councilmanic prerogative argue that it undermines government transparency and accountability, often operating in obscurity, thereby hindering development, fostering public mistrust, favoring political insiders, and allowing narrow interests to override broader city goals. District council members argue that prerogative appropriately empowers elected representatives to oversee land use projects, allowing them to safeguard their communities' interests, enhance development quality, and secure funding for local initiatives, based on their intimate knowledge of the neighborhoods they represent.

City council members

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Philadelphia City Council


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List of companies based in the Philadelphia area

This is a list of companies either based or with large operations in the Philadelphia and greater Delaware Valley region area of the United States.

Corporations that moved to a different region

 * Amkor Technology - moved from West Chester, Pennsylvania to Chandler, Arizona
 * Bell Atlantic - after merger with NYNEX, headquarters moved from Philadelphia to New York City; a significant workforce remains in the area
 * Breyers - acquired by Kraft Foods and then by Unilever
 * Jones Apparel Group - moved to New York City
 * Whitman's - now operated by Russell Stover; based in Colorado

Less notable Philadelphia corporations

 * Burnt Toast Vinyl
 * Campus Apartments
 * Day's Beverages
 * Yards Brewing Company
 * Zivtech - software and web development


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Meknes

Meknes (مكناس, ) is one of the four Imperial cities of Morocco, located in northern central Morocco and the sixth largest city by population in the kingdom. Founded in the 11th century by the Almoravids as a military settlement, Meknes became the capital of Morocco during the reign of Sultan Ismail Ibn Sharif (1672–1727), son of the founder of the Alaouite dynasty. Sultan Ismail created a massive imperial palace complex and endowed the city with extensive fortifications and monumental gates. The city recorded a population of 632,079 in the 2014 Moroccan census. It is the seat of Meknès Prefecture and an important economic hub in the region of Fès-Meknès.

Etymology
Meknes is named after an Amazigh (Berber) tribe historically known as the Miknasa (Imeknasen in Amazigh languages).

Early history (8th–16th centuries)
Volubilis, a major Roman-era settlement in Morocco and one of its early urban centres, is located near the site of the current city of Meknes. The current city and its name, however, originate with a Berber tribe called the Miknasa who settled this region around the 10th century. A group of small unfortified Miknasa villages known as miknāsat al-zaytūn were established here in the 10th century. The Almoravids founded a fortress or fortified settlement just south of these villages after conquering the area in the 11th century. Originally called Tagrart or Taqrart, this Almoravid settlement formed the beginnings of what is now the old medina of Meknes. The Nejjarine Mosque, often reputed to be the oldest mosque in the city, dates back to the Almoravid period and may have served as the central mosque of the Almoravid settlement. The mosque that became the present-day Grand Mosque of Meknes is believed to have been first built by the Almoravids in the 12th century.

The fortress resisted the military advance of the Almohads, who destroyed the city after a long siege in the 12th century. However, at the beginning of the 13th century the Almohad caliph Muhammad al-Nasir (ruled 1199–1213) rebuilt the city and its fortifications, as well as its Grand Mosque. The city enjoyed relative prosperity in this period, before being conquered again by the new Marinid dynasty in 1244. The first kasbah (citadel or governor's district) of Meknes was created afterwards by sultan Abu Yusuf Ya'qub in 1276 CE – the same year that the citadel of Fes el-Jdid was built in nearby Fes, the new capital. During this period, Meknes was frequently the residence of Marinid princes (often appointed there as governors) and especially of viziers. The Mosque of the Kasbah (the later Mosque of Lalla Aouda) was also founded and first built in 1276. The Marinids also carried out major restorations to the Grand Mosque in the 14th century and built the major madrasas of the city near it. The latter included the Bou Inania Madrasa (built in 1336) and two other madrasas, Madrasa al-Qadi and Madrasa Shuhud, all built by Sultan Abu el-Hassan.

After the end of the Marinid and Wattasid periods, however, Meknes suffered from neglect as the new Saadian dynasty (16th and early 17th century) focused their attention on their capital at Marrakesh and neglected the old northern cities of Morocco.

The reign of Moulay Isma'il (17th–18th centuries)
It wasn't until the Alaouite dynasty in the second half of the 17th century that Meknes received renewed attention. Under Moulay Rashid (ruled 1666–1672), the first Alaouite sultan to unite Morocco under his rule, Fes became the capital once more and his brother, Moulay Isma'il ibn Sharif, governed Meknes. Upon Rashid's death in 1672, Moulay Isma'il became sultan and chose Meknes as his new capital. In addition to his possible attachment to the city as a governor, a number of reasons may have favoured this choice. One may have been the fact that Ismail had to fight hard to reconquer both Fes and Marrakesh from his rival nephew (Ahmad al-Mahriz, son of Moulay Rashid) during the first years of his reign, which may have rendered him skeptical towards both cities as possible centers of power. Moreover, Moulay Rashid had garrisoned much of Fes with his own contingents from the Tafilalt and eastern Morocco while Moulay Isma'il was forming his own personal royal guard composed of Black slaves ( 'abid) from Sub-Saharan Africa, and there may have been concerns that not all these contingents could be garrisoned simultaneously in Fes. The ulema (religious scholars) of Fes were also particularly disapproving of his ways, including his use of slaves (many of whom were of Muslim background), and maintained tense relations with him throughout his reign. Choosing Meknes thus removed him from the influence of traditional elites and allowed him to build a fresh base from which he hoped to exercise absolute power. The threat of Ottoman attacks from the east (from Algeria) and the increasing insecurity in central Morocco due to tribal migrations from the Atlas and Sahara regions may have also persuaded Ismail that Meknes, situated further west, was more defensible than Fes.

Whatever the reasons, Ismail made Meknes the center of Morocco in his time and he embarked on the construction of a new monumental palace-city on the south side of the old city. Its construction continued throughout the 55 years of his reign, beginning immediately after his accession to the throne in 1672. Existing structures dating from the earlier medieval kasbah of the city were demolished to make way; the name of the large public square in front of the Kasbah today, el-Hedim (or Place el-Hedim), means "the rubble" and came from the masses of rubble and debris which were piled here during the demolition. Labour was carried out by paid workers as well as by contingents of slaves, particularly Christian prisoners of war. Estimates on the total number of workers involved range from 25,000 and 55,000. Nonetheless, frequently-told stories about the tens of thousands of Christian slaves used for labour and the large underground dungeons where they were kept are somewhat exaggerated and originate from the accounts of European ambassadors who visited Isma'il's court (often to negotiate the release of prisoners from their countries). In reality, the number of Christian slaves was likely closer to a few thousand at most and the chambers popularly called "prisons" were actually storage rooms for grain and supplies.

It was also in Moulay Ismail's reign that the Jewish inhabitants of the city were moved to a new Mellah or Jewish district to the west, near the Kasbah, not unlike the Mellah of Fes or that of Marrakesh. The Mellah was located between the old medina, west of Place el-Hedim, and the more outlying quarter of Madinat al-Riyad al-Anbari. Both the Mellah and Madinat ar-Riyad were part of an urban extension ordered by Isma'il in the western angle between the old city and the Kasbah. Moulay Isma'il also undertook works throughout the old city too. He refortified the walls and built new monumental city gates such as Bab Berda'in and Bab Khemis. He also built several other kasbahs or garrison forts throughout the city to house his  'abid troops and help protect (and control) the rest of the town, such as the Kasbah Hadrash and the Kasbah Tizimi. He carried out renovations to the Grand Mosque and the nearby Madrasa al-Qadi (which he devotes to students from the Tafilalt), and founded the Zitouna Mosque. Khnata bent Bakkar, one of his wives who was vizier (minister) under him (and briefly became de facto ruler of Morocco in 1728 after his death), was responsible for founding the Bab Berda'in Mosque, completed in 1709. One of the last constructions before his death, carried out between 1721 and 1725, was the Heri al-Mansur, a palace on the far southern edge of the kasbah which included vast stables. The monumental gate known as Bab al-Mansur al-'Alj, overlooking Place al-Hedim, was only finished in 1732 by his son Moulay Abdallah. His son and brief successor, Moulay Ahmad ad-Dhahabi, carried out modifications to his father's mausoleum during his two brief reigns (in 1727–28 and 1728–29) and was himself buried here in 1729.

Later Alaouite period (18th–20th centuries)
Following Moulay Isma'il's death, however, the political situation in Morocco degenerated into relative anarchy as his sons competed for power. Meknes lost its status as capital and suffered damage in the 1755 earthquake. The city was neglected and many parts of the enormous imperial kasbah fell into disrepair. The site received only occasional royal attention in the following centuries. Sultan Muhammad ibn Abdallah, who ruled between 1757 and 1790, built a number of projects in the city. He added the Dar al-Bayda Palace in the Agdal garden to the southeast of the main palace complex, which was later turned into a royal military academy. He constructed the Er-Roua Mosque in the southern part of Moulay Isma'il's Kasbah, which became the largest mosque in Meknes. He also renovated and added a qubba over the tomb of Sidi Mohammed ben Aissa (just outside the city walls) and built the current minarets of the Grand Mosque and the Nejjarine Mosque in the old city. The Dar al-Kebira, however, was abandoned and progressively transformed into a residential neighbourhood where the inhabitants constructed their houses within and between the former palace structures of Isma'il's time. In the early 19th century, Sultan Moulay Abd ar-Rahman added a loggia structure in front of Bab al-Mansur which served as a meeting place for ceremonies and the governor's tribunal, though this structure was later removed.

Recent history (20th–21st centuries)
After the installation of French colonial rule in Morocco in 1912, the French administration created a new city (Ville Nouvelle) on a nearby plateau across the valley on the northeast side of the old city. The capital of Morocco was moved from Fes to Rabat, further marginalizing cities like Meknes (which is near Fes). Some traditional Muslim authorities and officials were retained, but Meknes was reorganized under a new French municipal and military regime. This also led to a greater influence of the cities over their surrounding countryside and growing urbanization. The city became a transportation hub for people and goods traveling from east to west or from north to south across the country, in addition to hosting extensive military barracks. The population of Meknes grew from 25,000 at the beginning of the century to over 140,000 by the mid-20th century. Some roads in the old city were widened to accommodate greater circulation, but most of the new development took place in the Ville Nouvelle. The new French authorities took interest in the conservation of historic monuments in the old city; the madrasas, for example, were restored in 1922. During this period Meknes also became a center of agriculture and viniculture, led mainly by French colonists who appropriated large amounts of land nearby.

Nonetheless, Meknes, like other cities, also hosted resistance to French authority. In 1937, a particularly serious and violent revolt erupted following attempts to divert the local river to benefit the French settler population during a time of food shortages for the native Moroccan population. A violent suppression of protests took place in the city which results in 13 dead and more injured. Following Morocco's independence in 1956, the changes which began or accelerated under French rule continued to run their course. Large scale rural migration increased the population of the city and intensified the urbanization process (as elsewhere in the country). Industries developed around the city's perimeter, but at the same time the old elites and bourgeois families moved away to the coastal cities like Casablanca and Rabat.

These changes also contributed to the relative neglect of the old city. According to the ICOMOS Heritage at Risk report of 2000, the historic city of Meknes contains insufficient drainage systems, and as a result, suffers from inundation and leakage in certain areas. Still, some conservation and restoration efforts have taken place in recent years, motivated in part by the revenues of tourism. As of 2023, a number of major restoration projects were planned or underway, led by ADER-Fès (Agence pour la Dédensification et la Réhabilitation de la Médina de Fès), a quasi-governmental agency based in Fez. The projects include proposed restorations to the historic city walls, to the Heri es-Swani, and to the Bou Inania Madrasa, along with other improvements to parking and tourism infrastructure.

Geography
Meknes is located in a strategic position in the heart of Morocco. To its south and south-east are the rich cedar forests and mountains of the Middle Atlas mountains with the cities Ifrane and Azrou; and more to the south are the rich oases of Tafilalt. To the west are the two largest metropolitan areas of Morocco: Casablanca and Rabat. To the north is the mountainous north of Morocco with the cities of Tangier and Tétouan. Oujda and Fes lie east of Meknes.

Climate
Meknes has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa) with continental influences. Its climate is similar to some inland cities in southern Portugal (such as Beja or Évora) and some areas of southern Spain. The temperatures shifts from cool in winter to hot days in the summer months of June–September. Afternoon temperatures generally rise 10–14 °C above the low on most days. The winter highs typically reach only 15.5 °C in December–January, whereas night temperatures average 5 °C. Snow is rare.

Prefecture
Meknes is the seat of the prefecture of Meknès, which consists of 6 municipalities (including the city Meknes) and 15 rural communes.

Historic monuments and landmarks
The main historic monuments of the city are concentrated in the medina (old city) and the vast former Kasbah of Moulay Ismail to the south. The most notable monuments are listed below.

Place el-Hedim
Often compared to the Jemaa el-Fnaa square in Marrakesh, el-Hedim Square (Place el-Hedim) is a vast plaza at the southern end of the old city, before the main gates of Moulay Isma'il's former royal palace complex. The square's name, el-Hedim, means "the rubble/debris" and refers to the demolitions which Moulay Isma'il carried out here during the construction of his palaces. He left this open space as a public square to separate his palace from the rest of the city. Since then, the square has become the focus of various activities including evening entertainers such as storytellers, acrobats, and musicians.

Mosques and madrasas

 * Grand mosque of Meknes: The old city's most important mosque and one of its oldest, covering about 3,500 square meters and was founded in the 12th century by the Almoravids, although renovated multiple times since.
 * Madrasa Bou Inania: The city's most famous madrasa (school for higher learning in Islamic sciences) was established by the Marinid sultan Abu al-Hasan in 1335-36 but is now named after his son Abu Inan (who may have later restored it). Open to tourists today, it is one of the most richly decorated buildings in the city.
 * Nejjarine Mosque: Often reputed to be the oldest in the city, this mosque also dates back to the Almoravid period, though it has been modified multiple times.
 * Lalla Aouda Mosque: The main mosque of the city's former kasbah and of Moulay Isma'il's palaces, it was first founded in the Marinid era but completely rebuilt by Moulay Isma'il between 1672 and 1678. Its prominent minaret is visible from the adjoining Place Lalla Aouda (Lalla Awda Square).
 * Bab Berda'in Mosque: The mosque, located near the northern gate of the medina (Bab Berda'in) was completed in 1709 on the orders of Morocco's first female minister, Khnata bent Bakkar.  The mosque was the site of a tragedy in 2010 when its historic minaret collapsed, killing 41 people. The mosque has since been repaired and its minaret rebuilt.
 * Ar-Roua Mosque: The largest mosque in Meknes, it was built by Sultan Muhammad ibn Abdallah between 1757 and 1790. It is located near the Heri al-Mansur palace in the southern part of the Kasbah of Moulay Isma'il.
 * Zitouna Mosque: A large mosque founded by Sultan Moulay Isma'il around 1687.
 * Zawiya of Sidi Mohammed Ben Aissa: Also known as the Mausoleum of Sheikh al-Kamel. An important mausoleum and religious complex (zawiya) just outside the city walls to the northwest, originally dating from the late 18th century but restored later.  Mohamed ben 'Aissa, founder of the Aissawiya, a major Sufi brotherhood in Morocco, is buried here. He is considered the patron saint of Meknes, and his annual moussem (festival) is one of the most intense and was historically known for its displays of self-mutilation.
 * Zawiya of Sidi Kaddour el-Alami: A richly-decorated mosque and religious complex honoring the tomb of Sidi Kaddour el-Alami, a famous Moroccan poet who died in 1850.

Fortifications and gates

 * Bab Mansur al-'Alj: The most famous gateway of the city (also known as Bab Mansour or Bab el-Mansur), this gate overlooks the southern end of Place el-Hedim and acted as the ceremonial grand entrance to the Kasbah of Moulay Isma'il. It was begun in the later years of Moulay Isma'il's reign and finished in 1732 by his son Moulay Abdallah. Its name comes from the architect and designer of the gate, Mansour al-'Alj (the "Victorious Apostate"), a former Christian slave who converted to Islam.  It is notable for its size and its rich decoration consisting of darj-wa-ktaf motifs carved into brick, filled with colourful zellij (mosaic tilework), and topped by a long and elaborate Arabic inscription painted on tile.
 * Bab Jama' an-Nouar: Another ornate gate located next to Bab Mansur; also called Bab al-Nuwwar in some sources.
 * Bab ad-Dar al-Kebira: The monumental gate entrance to the Dar al-Kebira palace, dating to 1679–80.
 * Bab el-Khemis: A monumental western gate of the city, near the former Mellah, dating from 1687 under the reign of Moulay Ismail and richly decorated with motifs and zellij similar to Bab al-Mansur.
 * Bab al-Barda'in: The monumental northern gate of the city, also built by Moulay Isma'il and richly decorated.
 * Borj Belkari: A bastion tower built in the 17th century as a part of the defensive walls of the Kasbah of Sultan Moulay Ismail in Meknes, Morocco. Since 2003 it holds a pottery museum.
 * Borj Belkari: A bastion tower built in the 17th century as a part of the defensive walls of the Kasbah of Sultan Moulay Ismail in Meknes, Morocco. Since 2003 it holds a pottery museum.

Imperial Palaces of Moulay Isma'il

The palace complex or "imperial city" of Sultan Moulay Isma'il was constructed over his entire 55-year reign from 1672 to 1727 (with some elements finished or remodeled shortly after). It occupies the site of the city's former medieval kasbah (citadel) and stretches over an area approximately four times larger than the old city itself. It was composed of several autonomous palaces along with vast gardens, religious buildings, and other amenities. The complex was also notable for its impressive infrastructure, which included a water supply system with a hydraulic system of wells, norias (water extraction mechanism powered by wheel), canals, and underground pipes which distributed water to the royal city's many buildings. It also contained numerous monumental granaries and underground warehouses which stockpiled supplies that could allegedly sustain the city for a siege of ten years. Below is a list of some of its main areas and monuments.

 * Place Lalla Aouda: A vast open square which stands behind (southeast of) Bab al-Mansur, which served as the former mechouar of the palace. It precedes the former Dar al-Kebira palace and gives access to the Lalla Aouda Mosque.
 * Dar el-Kebira: The oldest palace in the kasbah, finished in 1679 and itself composed of multiple palaces. Its name means "the Great House". It was the private residence of the sultan and his family, connected directly to the Lalla Aouda Mosque and the later royal mausoleum. The palace fell into ruin after Moulay Isma'il's death (and after the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake), and has since become a residential neighbourhood where common people built their houses amidst the remains of Isma'il's massive palace walls, still visible in various places.
 * Mausoleum of Moulay Isma'il: The royal mausoleum and funerary complex of Moulay Isma'il and some of his family members and successors. It was built under his reign but significantly modified by Ahmad ad-Dhahabi between 1727 and 1729. The funerary complex was originally entered from the dar al-Kebira to the north but is nowadays entered by a 20th-century gate to the south. Still considered a religious site today, it is also open to tourists. It is composed of relatively austere courtyards leading to a richly-decorated indoor patio chamber, which in turn grants access to the tomb chamber of the sultan.
 * Qubbat al-Khayyatin and the Qara Prison: The Qubbat al-Khayyatin is a standalone audience chamber or throne room where Moulay Isma'il once received foreign ambassadors. Underground, right next to it, is a large subterranean vaulted space known as the Qara Prison or Habs Qara. Although frequently described as a prison for Christian slaves, scholars agree that it was in fact a storage area and granary, one of many such structures throughout the royal city.
 * Dar al-Makhzen: This vast walled enclosure, much larger and more rationally organized than the Dar el-Kebira, contained extensive gardens and two more main palaces in Moulay Isma'il's time, some of which have been restored or adapted for current use as one of the royal residences of the King of Morocco. The enclosure, generally known as the Dar al-Makhzen (not to be confused with the royal palaces of the same name in Fez and elsewhere), was divided into two sections. The western section was mostly occupied by the Bahrawiya Gardens but also contained a long narrow palace on its northern edge known as the Dar al-Madrasa ("House of the School"), most likely another private palace of the sultan. The eastern section, which is still entered via an ornate royal gate on its eastern perimeter (north of Heri es-Swani), was mostly occupied by the Qasr al-Muhannasha ("Palace of the Labyrinth"). This palace consisted of roughly eight large courtyards or garden enclosures and acted as both a reception palace and an administrative palace.
 * Heri as-Swani and the Sahrij (Agdal Basin): The Sahrij or Agdal Basin is an enormous water basin or artificial lake south of the Dar al-Makhzen, which was originally a part of the royal city's water supply system. It measures 148.75 by 319 meters and is, on average, 1.2 meters deep. Next to it, on its eastern side, is an enormous structure composed of two parts: the "House of the Ten Norias" or Dar al-Ma ("House of Water") and the Heri as-Swani (also spelled as Heri es-Souani). The first of these is a monumental building of vaulted passages and domed chambers which contained a number of wheel-powered hydraulic mechanisms (norias) which drew water from the phreatic table underground to the surface, after which it was delivered into the Sahrij or redistributed to the city. The second part, the Heri as-Swani, is attached to the south side of this building and is made up of 22 rows of monumental arches which once held up a vaulted roof (which has since collapsed). Although frequently misidentified as the "royal stables" of the palace, this structure was, once again, a massive granary and storehouse. Grain was originally delivered to the building by mules who climbed onto a roof terrace and dropped the grain directly into holes pierced above each vaulted chamber.
 * Heri al-Mansur: One of the last constructions of Moulay Isma'il's reign, built between 1721 and 1725, its name means "Granary/silo of Victory", but it was also known as Dar al-Mansur or Qasr al-Mansur ("Palace of Victory"). It is located on the far southern perimeter of the Kasbah and consists of a massive building which seems to have served as a palace, fortress, and storehouse. The basement was taken up by storage rooms while the upper floor held reception rooms for the palace with views over the surrounding area. Located next to it were the Royal Stables of Moulay Isma'il (often misidentified today with the Heri as-Swani), which were reputed to be one of the palace city's most impressive features. It consisted of horse stalls sheltered under two parallel arcades (rows of arches) which stretched for 1200 meters on either side of a water canal which provided water for the horses. Unfortunately, the stables have not been preserved and very little remains of them today.

Synagogues

 * The Rabbi Meir Toledano Synagogue still stands in Meknes today. According to tradition, it was first built in the 13th century and rebuilt by the Toledano family in 1646.
 * The Etz Hayeem synagogue in Meknes is also a historical synagogue.

Museums

 * Dar Jamaï Museum: The best-known museum in Meknes, housing a number of artifacts and art objects from the city and other regions in Morocco. It is housed in a late 19th-century palace with gardens and ornate rooms built in 1882 by Mokhtar ben Larbi Jamai, who served as Grand Vizier under Sultan Moulay Hassan (ruled 1873–1894). His family also built the Jamai Palace in Fes.
 * Musée de Meknès (Meknes Museum): A small museum housed in a structure just northeast of Bab al-Mansur, exhibiting artifacts from all over Morocco.

Outlying sites
The ruins of the Roman town of Volubilis (Oualili), another UNESCO World Heritage Site, are about half an hour to the north, as is the village and important pilgrimage site of Moulay Idriss Zerhoun.

Economy

Meknes is an economic centre in Morocco with various products from three sectors (agriculture, industry and services), which makes the city economically competitive and attractive for investment.

Competitiveness
A December 2015 World Bank report classified Meknes as one of the three most competitive cities in Africa. Two of those three competitive African cities are Moroccan: Meknes and Tangier.

Agriculture
Meknes is considered to be the capital of agriculture in Morocco. And the Saïss plain is one of the most fertile and rich plains in Morocco and Meknes is the centre of this plain.

Each year Meknes holds the International Agriculture Show in Morocco (French: Salon International de l'Agriculture au Maroc) since April 2006. This agriculture show has an area of more than 250000 square meters, with more than 60 countries participating, and more than 1200 exhibitors. The lands around Meknes area are known to be fertile and productive. The high elevation, fertility and the fresh water of those lands favor the cultivation of fruits and vegetables, most notably: peaches, nectarines, prunes, apples, potatoes, onions and garlic. Meknes is also known for its olives and olive oil. Livestock raising, particularly sheep and cattle, is widespread. Meknes has large industrial units for milk and dairy production that fulfill most of the needs of the region.

Industry
Industry in Meknes is of light type, most of it is related to food processing especially in the Commune of Mejjat, and chemical and para-chemical industry in other industrial zones like the Agropolis industrial and agribusiness zone. Add to those the textile and metallic manufacturing which are old industries in the city. The year 2016 marks a new era of industry in the city of Meknes; it includes electrical wire, embedded systems, and automotive parts production companies.

Services
Many of the services products in Meknes are related to tourism due to the attractions of the old city district (the medina).

Road
The geographical location of the city of Meknes makes it one of the important transport hubs in Morocco. The city is accessed via the A2 expressway with two exits, one to the east of the city and another to the west.

The city's Gare Routière (intercity bus station) is located west of the medina, along with the main station for grand taxis (intercity taxis). A newer station for buses operated by CTM is located near the main train station.

Rail
Two train stations are located in the new city district (French: Ville Nouvelle) of Meknes, with trains each hour to the east, west, and north of Morocco. One is larger than the other and serve a different purpose. Operated by ONCF, the following table lists destinations reachable via Meknes railway stations (round-trips): As mentioned above, Meknes city has two train stations, and their names are: Meknes Railway Station (French: Gare de Meknès) and Meknes Amir Abdul Qadir Railway Station (French: Gare de Meknès Amir Abdelkader). All the mentioned trains cited in the previous table stop by the former station; and except the first row of the table, all the remaining trains stop by the latter station.

Air
The nearest airport is Fes-Saïss Airport accessible only by road transport.

Otherwise, Mohammed V Airport in Casablanca, with more international flights and destinations, is conveniently accessible by train.

There is also a military airport in Meknes.

Public Transport
Public transport in Meknes is managed by the urban commune and it consists of:
 * A large network of buses that cover all the area of the prefecture, and even outside of the prefecture like the line 16 to El Hajeb.
 * Taxis in the city exist in two types: small taxis with 3 places Max that work with fares system; and bigger taxis with 6 places Max that have a predetermined trajectory and fixed prices.

Education
Meknes is home to the public Moulay Ismail University, with actually the following faculties, schools and institutions divided among three campuses in the cities: Meknes, Errachidia and Khenifra.

In Meknes: In Errachidia: In Khenifra:
 * Faculty of Sciences - FS, created in 1982
 * Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences - FLSH, created in 1982
 * Normal Superior School - ENS, created in 1983
 * Faculty of Juridical, Economical and Social Sciences - FSJES, created in 1993
 * Superior School of Technology - EST, created in 1993
 * National Superior School of the Arts and Professions - ENSAM, created in 1997
 * Faculty of Science and Technology - FST, created in 1994
 * Poly disciplinary Faculty - FP, created in 2006
 * Superior School of Technology - EST, created in 2014

In addition to Moulay Ismail University, numerous private institutes for higher education exist in Meknes.

International relations

 * See also List of twin towns and sister cities in Morocco

Twin towns – Sister cities
Meknes is twinned with:

 * 🇫🇷 Cenon, France, since 2017
 * 🇫🇷 Nîmes, France, since 2005
 * 🇵🇹 Santarém, Portugal, since 1989
 * Tulkarm, Palestine, since 2017

Notable people

 * Abdeljalil Hadda, former international Moroccan footballer
 * Aryeh Deri, Israeli politician
 * Aziza Jalal, Arabic Pop singer
 * Driss Roukhe, Moroccan actor
 * Faouzi Bensaïdi, Moroccan actor and film director
 * H-Kayne, rap group based in Meknes
 * Houcine Toulali - Moroccan Malhun singer and writer
 * Karima Abd-Daif, Norwegian politician
 * Laïla Abid, Dutch journalist
 * Latefa Ahrar, Moroccan actress
 * Malika Akkaoui, Moroccan athlete
 * Kaddour El Alamy, Moroccan poet
 * Chuck Martini (born Choukri Moussaddik), former Moroccan footballer

title: Meknes


text:
List of colleges and universities in Philadelphia

The following is an incomplete list of colleges and universities in Philadelphia and the surrounding area.

Two-year colleges and technical schools

 * ASPIRA City College
 * Berean Institute (closed)
 * Community College of Philadelphia
 * Delaware Valley Academy of Medical and Dental Assistants
 * Esperanza College of Eastern University
 * Hussian School of Art (closed)
 * Lincoln Technical Institute, Center City and Northeast Philadelphia
 * Orleans Technical College
 * Pennsylvania Institute of Technology, Center City and Media
 * Star Technical Institute
 * Talmudical Yeshiva of Philadelphia
 * Thompson Institute

State institutions

 * West Chester University, Center City Philadelphia campus

State-related institutions

 * Temple University
 * Lincoln University, University City campus

Private institutions

 * Chestnut Hill College
 * The Curtis Institute of Music
 * Devry University, Center City
 * Drexel University
 * Holy Family University
 * La Salle University
 * Moore College of Art and Design
 * Peirce College
 * Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts
 * The Restaurant School at Walnut Hill College
 * Saint Joseph's University
 * Strayer University, Center City Campus
 * Thomas Jefferson University
 * University of Pennsylvania

Public institutions

 * Temple University School of Podiatric Medicine

Private institutions

 * The Lutheran Theological Seminary at Philadelphia
 * Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine
 * The Reconstructionist Rabbinical College
 * Westminster Theological Seminary

Two-year colleges and technical schools

 * Antonelli Institute, Erdenheim
 * Atlantic Cape Community College, Mays Landing, Atlantic City, and Cape May Court House, New Jersey
 * Bucks County Community College, Newtown, Bristol and Perkasie
 * Community College of Philadelphia
 * Camden County College, Blackwood, Camden and Cherry Hill, New Jersey
 * Cumberland County College, Vineland, New Jersey
 * Delaware County Community College, Marple Township, Downingtown, Exton, Phoenixville, Sharon Hill, Upper Darby and West Grove
 * Delaware Technical Community College, Wilmington, Delaware
 * Goldey-Beacom College, Wilmington, Delaware
 * Harcum College, Bryn Mawr
 * Montgomery County Community College, Blue Bell and Pottstown
 * Rowan College at Burlington County (formerly Burlington County College), Mt. Laurel, New Jersey, and Pemberton, New Jersey
 * Rowan College of South Jersey, Sewell, New Jersey
 * Salem Community College, Carneys Point, New Jersey
 * Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, Media

Public institutions

 * Cheyney University, Cheyney
 * Lincoln University, near Oxford
 * Penn State Abington, Abington
 * Penn State Brandywine, Media
 * Rowan University, Glassboro, New Jersey
 * Rutgers University–Camden, Camden, New Jersey
 * Stockton University, Pomona, New Jersey
 * Temple University Ambler, Ambler
 * Thomas Edison State University, Trenton, New Jersey
 * West Chester University, West Chester

Private institutions

 * Arcadia University, Glenside
 * Bryn Athyn College, Bryn Athyn
 * Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr
 * Cabrini University, Wayne
 * Cairn University, Langhorne
 * Delaware Valley University, Doylestown
 * Eastern University,  St. Davids
 * Goldey-Beacom College, Wilmington, Delaware
 * Gwynedd Mercy University, Lower Gwynedd Township
 * Gratz College, Elkins Park
 * Haverford College, Haverford
 * Immaculata University, Malvern
 * Manor College, Jenkintown
 * Neumann University, Aston
 * Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
 * Rosemont College, Rosemont
 * St. Charles Borromeo Seminary, Wynnewood
 * Strayer University, Bensalem
 * Swarthmore College, Swarthmore
 * Ursinus College, Collegeville
 * University of Valley Forge, Phoenixville
 * Villanova University, Villanova
 * Widener University, Chester
 * Wilmington University, New Castle, Delaware

Hybrid institutions

 * University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware

Public institutions

 * Cooper Medical School of Rowan University, Camden, New Jersey
 * Penn State Great Valley School of Graduate Professional Studies, Malvern
 * Rowan-Virtua School of Osteopathic Medicine, Stratford, New Jersey
 * Rutgers Law School, Camden, New Jersey

Private institutions

 * Delaware Valley University, Doylestown
 * Palmer Theological Seminary, King of Prussia
 * St. Charles Borromeo Seminary Graduate School of Theology, Wynnewood
 * Salus University, Elkins Park
 * Villanova University Charles Widger School of Law, Villanova
 * Won Institute of Graduate Studies, Glenside

Former institutions

 * Philadelphia University
 * Spring Garden College
 * University of the Arts
 * University of the Sciences


text:
Battle of Azaz (1125)

The Battle of Azaz was a major battle fought between king Baldwin II's crusader forces and the Muslims, led by Aq-Sunqur al-Bursuqi, the Seljuq atabeg of Mosul on 11 June 1125. Being one of the bloodiest confrontations before the Second Crusade, the battle resulted in a decisive victory for the Crusaders, causing disturbances of power in the Levant and weakened Seljuk domination in the area. Contemporary chronicler Matthew of Edessa even states that the remnants of al-Bursuqi's army were chased all the way to Aleppo. The battle effectively lifted the siege of the town of Azaz and prevented it from falling to Turkoman hands. (One authority says the battle was fought on June 13. )

Background
Joscelin I of Edessa had captured Azaz in northern Syria from the atabeg of Aleppo in 1118. The next year the Crusaders under Roger of Salerno were severely defeated at the Battle of Ager Sanguinis, and King Baldwin II of Jerusalem was captured while patrolling in Edessa in 1123.

Prelude
In 1124 Baldwin II was released, and almost immediately he laid siege to Aleppo on October 8, 1124. This caught the attention of al-Bursuqi, the Seljuk atabeg of Mosul. Al-Bursuqi marched south to relieve the siege of Aleppo, which was nearing the point of surrender in January 1125 after a three-month siege. In spite of the city being "the greatest prize the war could offer", Baldwin cautiously withdrew without a fight.

Battle
Later, al-Bursuqi (who had received troops also by Toghtekin of Damascus) besieged the town of Azaz, to the north of Aleppo, in territory belonging to the County of Edessa. Baldwin II, Leo I of Armenia, Joscelin I, and Pons of Tripoli, with a force of 1,100 knights from their respective territories (including knights from Antioch, where Baldwin was regent), as well as 2,000 infantry, met al-Bursuqi outside Azaz, where the Seljuk atabeg had gathered his much larger force. Baldwin pretended to retreat, thereby drawing the Seljuks away from Azaz into the open where they were surrounded. After a long and bloody battle, the Seljuks were defeated and their camp captured by Baldwin, who took enough loot to ransom the prisoners taken by the Seljuks (including the future Joscelin II of Edessa).

Casualties
The number of Muslim troops killed was more than 1,000, according to Ibn al-Athir. William of Tyre gave 24 dead for the Crusaders and 2,000 for the Muslims. Fulcher of Chartres suggested 5 emirs and 2,000 soldiers dead, while Matthew of Edessa estimated 15 emirs and 5,000 troops killed.

Aftermath
Al-Bursuqi retired to Aleppo, leaving his son Masud as governor and crossed the Euphrates to Mosul, where he gathered troops to renew the fight. Apart from relieving Azaz, this victory allowed the Crusaders to regain much of the influence they had lost after their defeat at Ager Sanguinis in 1119. Baldwin planned to attack Aleppo as well, but Antioch, which passed to Bohemund II when he came of age in 1126, ceased cooperating with Edessa and the plan fell through. Aleppo and Mosul were united under the much stronger ruler Zengi in 1128, and Crusader control of northern Syria began to weaken.

title: Battle of Azaz (1125)


text:
List of tourist attractions in Philadelphia

The following comprises a list of sites of interest (attractions) in Philadelphia and its immediate environs:

Historic sites and national parks

 * American Philosophical Society Hall
 * Belmont Mansion
 * Benjamin Franklin National Memorial
 * Betsy Ross House
 * Carpenters' Hall
 * Colonial Germantown Historic District
 * Congress Hall
 * Ebenezer Maxwell House
 * Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site
 * Elfreth's Alley
 * Fairmount Water Works
 * First Bank of the United States
 * Fort Mifflin
 * Franklin Court
 * Friends Hospital
 * Founder's Hall, Girard College
 * Gloria Dei (Old Swedes') Church
 * Independence Hall
 * Independence National Historical Park
 * Laurel Hill Cemetery
 * Liberty Bell
 * Memorial Hall
 * Merchants' Exchange
 * National Mechanics
 * New Market, and the surrounding Head House Square Historic District
 * Pennsylvania Hospital
 * Philadelphia City Hall
 * Philadelphia Naval Asylum
 * Second Bank of the United States
 * Thaddeus Kosciuszko National Memorial
 * University of Pennsylvania central campus

Art

 * Barnes Foundation
 * Institute of Contemporary Art, Philadelphia
 * La Salle University Art Museum
 * Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts
 * Philadelphia Museum of Art
 * Perelman Building
 * Rodin Museum
 * University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology
 * Woodmere Art Museum

Science

 * Academy of Natural Sciences
 * Franklin Institute
 * Insectarium
 * Mütter Museum
 * Science History Institute
 * Wagner Free Institute of Science

History

 * African American Museum in Philadelphia
 * American Swedish Historical Museum
 * Civil War Museum of Philadelphia
 * Elfreth's Alley
 * Grand Army of the Republic Civil War Museum and Library
 * Historical Society of Frankford
 * Historical Society of Pennsylvania
 * Museum of the American Revolution
 * National Constitution Center
 * National Liberty Museum
 * National Museum of American Jewish History
 * Philadelphia History Museum

Historic houses

 * Belmont Mansion
 * Betsy Ross House
 * Bishop White House
 * Cliveden
 * Dolley Todd House
 * Ebenezer Maxwell Mansion
 * Elfreth's Alley Museum
 * Germantown White House
 * Glen Foerd on the Delaware
 * Grumblethorpe
 * Hill-Keith-Physick House
 * Historic RittenhouseTown
 * Historic Strawberry Mansion
 * John Johnson House
 * Lemon Hill
 * Marian Anderson Museum and Birthplace
 * Mount Pleasant
 * Powel House
 * Ryerss Museum and Library
 * Stenton
 * Sweetbriar
 * Upsala
 * Woodford
 * Wyck House

Other

 * Athenaeum of Philadelphia
 * Concord School House
 * Eastern State Penitentiary
 * The Fabric Workshop and Museum
 * Free Library of Philadelphia
 * Library Company of Philadelphia
 * Living Loft Puppet Museum
 * Mario Lanza Museum
 * Masonic Library and Museum of Pennsylvania
 * Mummers Museum
 * National Shrine of Saint John Neumann
 * Philadelphia Doll Museum
 * Please Touch Museum
 * Polish American Cultural Center Museum
 * Romanian Folk Art Museum
 * Rosenbach Museum & Library
 * SEPTA Museum
 * Shofuso Japanese House and Garden
 * Simeone Foundation Automotive Museum
 * The Saint James, high rise apartment incorporating the 1869 PFSF Building and York Row
 * USS Becuna (SS-319)
 * USS Olympia (C-6)

Galleries

 * Arthur Ross Gallery at the University of Pennsylvania
 * Center for Art in Wood
 * The Design Center of Philadelphia University
 * Drexel University Collection
 * Fleisher Art Memorial
 * The Galleries at Moore College
 * Painted Bride Art Center
 * Paradigm Gallery and Studio
 * Philadelphia Art Alliance
 * Philadelphia's Magic Gardens
 * The Print Center
 * Tyler School of Art

Animal life institutions

 * Adventure Aquarium (in Camden, New Jersey)
 * John Heinz National Wildlife Refuge at Tinicum
 * Philadelphia Zoo
 * The Schuylkill Center

Horticultural institutions

 * Awbury Arboretum
 * Bartram's Garden
 * Centennial Arboretum
 * The Horticulture Center
 * Marconi Plaza
 * Morris Arboretum

Parks and squares

 * Clark Park
 * Fairmount Park
 * Franklin Square
 * Logan Circle
 * LOVE Park
 * Penn's Landing
 * Rittenhouse Square
 * Washington Square and Tomb of the Unknown Soldier

Professional

 * Academy of Music - opera, ballet
 * Forrest Theatre - plays, musicals
 * Franklin Music Hall - popular music
 * Kimmel Center for the Performing Arts - classical music
 * Mann Center for the Performing Arts - summer venue, classical and popular music
 * Miller Theater - Broadway and a variety of performance arts theater
 * Plays and Players Theatre - plays, musicals
 * Prince Music Theater - various
 * Susquehanna Bank Center in Camden, New Jersey - popular music
 * Suzanne Roberts Theatre - plays, musicals
 * The TLA (formerly the Theater of the Living Arts) - popular music
 * Tower Theater in Upper Darby Township - popular music
 * Trocadero Theatre - popular musical acts
 * Walnut Street Theatre - plays, musicals
 * Wilma Theater - plays, musicals

Educational

 * Annenberg Center for the Performing Arts, University of Pennsylvania - various
 * Arts Bank, University of the Arts - dance, student performances
 * Curtis Opera Studio, Curtis Institute of Music - opera
 * Field Concert Hall, Curtis Institute of Music - classical music
 * Helen Corning Warden Theater, Academy of Vocal Arts - opera
 * Irvine Auditorium, University of Pennsylvania - features a pipe organ
 * Main Auditorium, Drexel University - site of the 2007 Democratic debate; features a pipe organ
 * Mandell Theater, Drexel University
 * Miller Theater, University of the Arts - various

Religious buildings

 * Arch Street Friends Meeting House
 * Beth Sholom Synagogue in Elkins Park
 * Cathedral Basilica of Saints Peter and Paul
 * Christ Church
 * Church of the Advocate
 * Church of St. James the Less
 * Congregation Mikveh Israel
 * Gloria Dei (Old Swedes') Church
 * Mikveh Israel Synagogue
 * Mother Bethel A.M.E. Church
 * National Shrine of Saint John Neumann
 * Race Street Friends Meetinghouse
 * Saint Clement's Church
 * St. Mark's Episcopal Church
 * St. Peter's Church

Shopping areas

 * Chinatown
 * Fashion District Philadelphia - shopping mall in Center City
 * Italian Market - open produce and meat market with many specialty shops
 * Jewelers' Row - two densely packed blocks of jewelers and related shops
 * Philadelphia Mills - a large outlet and discount shopping mall in the Far Northeast section
 * Reading Terminal Market - large enclosed produce, meat and prepared food market featuring some Pennsylvania Dutch merchants and others
 * The Shops at Liberty Place - upscale shopping mall inside the skyscraper complex known as Liberty Place
 * South Street - many trendy and counterculture shops between Front and 10th Streets
 * Walnut Street - many expensive shops between Broad and 20th Streets and the surrounding area
 * Wanamaker's (now Macy's) - defined the department store and remains a landmark; features the Wanamaker Organ

Sports venues
at 235 South 33rd Street]]

Professional

 * 2300 Arena - boxing, wrestling, MMA
 * Citizens Bank Park - Philadelphia Phillies
 * Lincoln Financial Field - Philadelphia Eagles, Temple Owls football
 * Wells Fargo Center - Philadelphia Flyers, Philadelphia 76ers, and Philadelphia Wings

Collegiate

 * Boathouse Row - collegiate and amateur rowing
 * Daskalakis Athletic Center - Drexel University
 * Franklin Field - University of Pennsylvania
 * Hagan Arena - Saint Joseph's University
 * Hayman Center - LaSalle University
 * Liacouras Center - Temple University
 * McCarthy Stadium - LaSalle University
 * The Palestra - University of Pennsylvania
 * Villanova Stadium in Villanova - Villanova University

Eateries

 * Amada Restaurant - owned by Jose Garces, Philadelphia's newest Iron Chef
 * The Fountain Restaurant - the Four Season Hotel, rated #1 in the city by Zagat Survey
 * Geno's Steaks - of the "Geno's vs. Pat's" debate
 * McGillin's Olde Ale House - the oldest continuously operational tavern in Philadelphia
 * Morimoto - the original Iron Chef's restaurant
 * Moshulu - a converted 1904 sailing ship.
 * Pat's King of Steaks - created the cheesesteak

Railroad

 * 30th Street Station
 * Reading Terminal
 * Suburban Station

Maritime

 * Gazela Primeiro
 * Independence Seaport Museum
 * Philadelphia Naval Shipyard
 * USS New Jersey (BB-62) (in Camden, New Jersey)
 * SS United States

Miscellaneous

 * Toynbee tiles


text:
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title: User talk:Ke4roh


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User talk:Tda

Welcome to Wikipedia!
Hello Tda, welcome to Wikipedia! Thanks for all your contributions. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them: If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!
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title: User talk:Tda


text:
Battle of Dorylaeum (1097)

The Battle of Dorylaeum took place during the First Crusade on 1 July 1097 between the crusader forces and the Seljuk Turks, near the city of Dorylaeum in Anatolia. Though the Turkish forces of Kilij Arslan nearly destroyed the Crusader contingent of Bohemond, other Crusaders arrived just in time to reverse the course of the battle.

Background
The crusaders had left Nicaea on 26 June 1097, with a deep distrust of the Byzantines, who had taken the city without their knowledge after the lengthy siege of Nicaea. In order to simplify the problem of supplies, the Crusader army had split into two groups; the weaker led by Bohemond of Taranto, his nephew Tancred, Robert Curthose, Robert of Flanders, and the Byzantine general Tatikios in the vanguard, and Godfrey of Bouillon, his brother Baldwin of Boulogne, Raymond IV of Toulouse, Stephen II of Blois, and Hugh of Vermandois in the rear.

On 29 June, they learnt that the Turks were planning an ambush near Dorylaeum (Bohemond noticed that his army was being shadowed by Turkish scouts). The Turkish force consisted of Kilij Arslan and his ally Hasan of Cappadocia, along with help from the Danishmends, led by the Turkish prince Gazi Gümüshtigin. Contemporary figures place the number of Turks as between 25,000 and 30,000, with more recent estimates between 6,000 and 8,000 men. However, several sources give much higher Turkish numbers: 150,000 men according to Raymond of Aguilers and 360,000 men reported by Fulcher of Chartres, neither of which are considered possible by modern historians due to the lack of supplies for so many men and horses, and the Turkish use of hit-and-run horse archer tactics, indicating a smaller army.

Bohemond's force probably numbered about 10,000 (not counting a large number of noncombatants), the majority on foot. Military figures of the time often imply perhaps several men-at-arms, spearmen, archers or crossbowmen per knight (i.e., a stated force of 500 knights is assumed to contain an additional 1,500 soldiers), so it seems reasonable that Bohemond had with him approximately 2,000 cavalry and 8,000 foot soldiers.

On the evening of 30 June, after a three-day march, Bohemond's army made camp in a meadow on the north bank of the river Thymbres, near the ruined town of Dorylaeum, believed to be the site of the modern city of Eskişehir.

Battle

On 1 July, Bohemond's force was surrounded outside Dorylaeum by Kilij Arslan. Godfrey and Raymond had separated from the vanguard, and the Turkish army attacked at dawn, taking Bohemond's army (not expecting such a swift attack) entirely by surprise, shooting arrows into the camp. Bohemond's knights had quickly mounted but their sporadic counterattacks were unable to deter the Turks. The Turks were riding into camp, cutting down noncombatants and unarmoured foot soldiers, who were unable to outrun the Turkish horses and were too disoriented and panic-stricken to form lines of battle. To protect the unarmoured foot and noncombatants, Bohemond ordered his knights to dismount and form a defensive line, and with some trouble gathered the foot soldiers and the noncombatants into the centre of the camp; the women acted as water-carriers throughout the battle. While this formed a battle line and sheltered the more vulnerable men-at-arms and noncombatants, it also gave the Turks free rein to maneuver on the battlefield.

The Turkish mounted archers attacked in their usual style – charging in, shooting their arrows, and quickly retreating before the crusaders could counterattack. The archers did little damage to the heavily armoured knights, but inflicted heavy casualties on their horses and on the unarmoured foot soldiers. Bohemond had sent messengers to the other Crusader army and now struggled to hold on until help arrived, and his army was being forced back to the bank of the Thymbris river. The marshy riverbanks protected the crusaders from mounted charge, as the ground was too soft for horses, and the armoured knights formed a circle protecting the foot soldiers and noncombatants from arrows, but the Turks kept their archers constantly supplied and the sheer number of arrows was taking its toll, reportedly more than 2,000 falling to horse-archers. Bohemond's knights were impetuous – although ordered to stand ground, small groups of knights would periodically break ranks and charge, only to be slaughtered or forced back as the Turkish horses fell back beyond range of their swords and arrows, while still shooting at them with arrows, killing many of the knights' horses out from under them. And although the knights' armour protected them well (the Turks called them 'men of iron') the sheer number of arrows meant that some would find unprotected spots and eventually, after so many hits, a knight would collapse from his wounds.

Just after midday, Godfrey arrived with a force of 50 knights, fighting through the Turkish lines to reinforce Bohemond. Through the day small groups of reinforcements (also from Raymond, and Hugh, as well as Godfrey) arrived, some killed by the Turks, others fighting to reach Bohemond's camp. As the Crusader losses mounted, the Turks became more aggressive and the Crusader army found itself forced from the marshy banks of the river into the shallows. But the Crusaders held on, and after approximately 7 hours of battle, Raymond's knights arrived (it is unclear if Raymond was with them, or if they arrived ahead of Raymond), launching a vicious surprise attack across the Turkish flank that turned them back in disarray and allowed the Crusaders to rally.

The Crusaders had formed a line of battle with Bohemond, Tancred, Robert Curthose, and Stephen on the left wing, Raymond, Robert II of Flanders in the center and Godfrey and Hugh on the right, and they rallied against the Turks, proclaiming "hodie omnes divites si Deo placet effecti eritis" ("today if it pleases God you will all become rich"). Although the ferocity of the Crusader attack took the Turks by surprise, they were unable to dislodge the Turks until a force led by bishop Adhemar of Le Puy, the papal legate, arrived in mid-afternoon, perhaps with Raymond in the van, moving around the battle through concealing hills and across the river, outflanking the archers on the left and surprising the Turks from the rear. Adhemar's force fell on the Turkish camp, and attacked the Turks from the rear. The Turks were terrified by the sight of their camp in flames, and by the ferocity and endurance of the knights, since the knights' armour protected them from arrows and even many sword cuts, and they promptly fled, abandoning their camp and forcing Kilij Arslan to withdraw from the battlefield.

Aftermath
The crusaders did indeed become rich, at least for a short time, after capturing Kilij Arslan's treasury. The Turks fled and Arslan turned to other concerns in his eastern territory. Arslan punitively took the male Greek children from the region extending from Dorylaeum to Iconium, sending many as slaves to Persia. On the other hand, the crusaders were allowed to march virtually unopposed through Anatolia on their way to Antioch. It took almost three months to cross Anatolia in the heat of the summer, and in October they began the Siege of Antioch.

With the Crusader army moved onwards towards Antioch, emperor Alexios I Komnenos achieved part of his original intent in inviting the Crusaders in the first place: the recovery of Seljuk-held imperial territories in Asia Minor. John Doukas re-established Byzantine rule in Chios, Rhodes, Smyrna, Ephesus, Sardis, and Philadelphia in 1097–1099. This success is ascribed by Alexios' daughter Anna to his policy and diplomacy, but by the Latin historians of the crusade to his treachery and falseness.

The Gesta Francorum did praise the Turkish army's bravery and superhuman efforts at Dorylaeum. It stated "Had the Turks been Christian, they would have been the finest of races."

title: Battle of Dorylaeum (1097)


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Invasions of Afghanistan

Afghanistan is a mountainous landlocked country at the crossroads of Central and South (Southern) Asia. Some of the invaders in the history of Afghanistan include the Maurya Empire, the ancient Macedonian Empire of Alexander the Great, the Rashidun Caliphate, the Mongol Empire led by Genghis Khan, the Timurid Empire of Timur, the Mughal Empire, various Persian Empires,the Sikh empire Hari singh nalwa, Maharaja Ranjit singh 40 years of Kingdom, the British Empire, the Soviet Union, and most recently the United States with a number of allies in response to the September 11 attacks. A reduced number of NATO troops remained in the country in support of the government under the U.S.–Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement. Just prior to American withdrawal in 2021, the Taliban regained control of the capital Kabul and most of the country. They changed Afghanistan's official name to the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.

Purpose
From a geopolitical perspective, controlling Afghanistan is vital in controlling the rest of Southern Asia, or getting a passage through Central Asia, reflecting its geographic position in the region. Afghanistan played an important part in the Great Game power struggles. Historically, the conquest of Afghanistan has also played an important role in the invasion of India from the west through the Khyber Pass.

Persian conquests
While relatively little detail is known, parts of the region of modern day Afghanistan came under rule of the Median kingdom for a short time.

Afghanistan fell to the Achaemenid Empire after it was conquered by Darius I of Persia. The area was divided into several provinces called satrapies, which were each ruled by a governor, or satrap. These ancient satrapies included: Aria (Herat); Arachosia (Kandahar, Lashkar Gah, Bamiyan and Quetta); Bactriana (Balkh); and Gandhara (Kabul and Peshawar).

Greek, Indian and Kushan Conquests
Alexander the Great invaded what is today Afghanistan in 330 BC as part of war against Persia. Comprising the easternmost satrapies of Persia, Afghanistan provided some challenging battles in his conquest of the remaining lands of Persia. Renamed Bactria, and settled with his Ionian veterans, Alexander began his invasion of India from what is now Jalalabad, attacking the Indus River basin through the Khyber Pass. Several cities in Afghanistan are named for Alexander, including Alexandria Arachosia, now called Kandahar (a contraction of Iskandahar).Following the death of Alexander and the partition of his kingdom, the Province of Bactria was under the rule of Alexander's former general, Seleucus, who now formed the Seleucid Dynasty, with its capital in Babylon. Seleucus was defeated by Mauryan king Chandragupta Maurya who annexed modern-day Kandhara and other parts of lower Afghanistan into his empire. Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta would patronize Buddhism all over the empire which would lead be the dominant religion in the region until the Islamic conquest of the region. The Greek Soldiers in Bactria, based on the remoteness of their territory, declared independence, defeated Seleucid armies sent to reconquer them, and founded the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, which lasted for more than three centuries in Afghanistan. This Greek kingdom called Bactria carried on Greek culture while completely cut off from Europe for three centuries. One of the cities, Ai-Khanoum was excavated in 1970s, showing a complete Greek city with an acropolis, amphitheater, temples, and numerous statues. Greek art has been found in Bactria showing influence from Indian Buddhist art creating something of an hybrid artistic style. Bactrian King Menander I converted to Buddhism after staging multiple theological and philosophical debates between his Greek priests and Indian Buddhist monks. Menander I is remembered in Buddhist Sutras as "King Milinda of the Yunani." The Ionian origin of the Greek veterans who settled Bactria is remembered to this day by the Afghan word for Greeks, which is "Ionani." Bactrian Greeks left a legacy of coinage, architecture, and Buddhist art, which comprised the Gandhara culture, especially the Greco-Buddhist art affecting all of East Asia to this day. The last Greek Kingdom in Afghanistan was conquered by the Kushan invaders in the first century AD, a full three centuries after Alexander. But Greek language continued to be used by the Kushans in their coinage for the next several centuries.

Conquest by Arab Caliphate
In the seventh to ninth centuries, following the disintegration of the Sassanid Persian Empire and Roman Empire, leaders in the world theater for the last four centuries and archrivals, the area was again invaded from the west, this time by Umar, second Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, in the Islamic conquest of Afghanistan, eventually resulting in the willing conversion of most of its inhabitants to Islam. This occurred over many centuries by Afghans willingly converting or by Afghan leaders who pressured certain populations in the land to convert such as Abdul Rahman Khan forcing the Nuristani people to conver to Islam. This was one of many Muslim conquests following the establishment of a unified state in the Arabian Peninsula by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. At its height, Muslim control - during the period of the Umayyad Caliphate - extended from the borders of China to the Iberian Peninsula (modern day Spain and Portugal), the Middle East, North Africa, parts of southern Europe, parts of south East Europe, parts of central Asia, and parts of South Asia.

Mongol Conquests
In the Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire (1219–1221), Genghis Khan invaded the region from the northeast in one of his many conquests to create the huge Mongol Empire. His armies slaughtered thousands in the cities of Kabul, Kandahar, Jalalabad etc. After Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia, there was a rebellion in the region of Helmand which was brutally put down by his son and successor, Ogedei Khan, who killed all male residents of Ghazni and Helmand in 1222; the women were enslaved and sold. Thereafter most parts of Afghanistan other than the extreme south-eastern remained under Mongol rule as part of the Ilkhanate and the Turko-Mongol Chagatai Khanate.

The Hazara people claim to be descendants of the Mongol (Turko-Mongol) and Turkic invaders mixed with the local indigenous Turkic and Iranic populations, though this is disputed because the first mention of Hazara people is made by Babur in the 16th century. Additionally, many areas of Afghanistan are named after Mongol and Turkic leaders, including Band-e-Timur (meaning "Timur's block") in Maywand District in Kandahar Province, the only district never taken from the Taliban throughout the western invasion of the 21st century, Jaghatu District in Ghazni province, and Jaghatu District in Maidan Wardak province (named in honor of the Turko-Mongol Chagatai Khanate) and the village of Wech Baghtu in Shah Wali Kot District in Kandahar province, named after Batu.

Conquest by Tamerlane and Mughal Empire
From 1383 to 1385, the Afghanistan area was conquered from the north by Timur, leader of neighboring Transoxiana (roughly modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and adjacent areas), and became a part of the Timurid Empire. Timur was from a Turko-Mongol tribe and although a Muslim, saw himself more as an heir of Genghis Khan. Timur's armies caused great devastation and are estimated to have caused the deaths of 17 million people. He brought great destruction on Afghanistan's south, slaughtering thousands and enslaving an equal number of women. Allied with the Uzbeks, Hazaras and other Turkic communities in the north his dominance over Afghanistan was long-lasting, allowing him for his future successful conquests in Central Anatolia against the Ottomans.

In the next period, no part of Afghanistan ever came under rule of various Delhi Sultanate. After the slow disintegration of the Timurid Empire in 1506, the Mughal Empire was later established in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India by Babur in 1526, who was a descendant of Timur through his father and possibly a descendant of Genghis Khan through his mother. By the 17th century, the Mughal Empire ruled most of India, but later declined during the 18th century.

The Sikh Empire invasion, 1837–1838
In the beginning of 1837, the Battle of Jamrud was fought between the Sikhs under Maharajah Ranjit Singh and the Afghans under Emir Dost Muhammad Khan. Since the consolidation of the Sikh Empire in Punjab, Maharajah Ranjit Singh had tried a wave of invasions on Afghanistan. The Afghans had been losing their long held territories to Sikhs over the preceding years due to internal conflicts, and had seen their once mighty empire disintegrating.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh availed himself of anarchy in Kabul and attempted to invade Peshawar, the South-West-Eastern frontiers of Peshawar with Punjab which were governed by Sultan Mohammad Khan. The Sikhs under General Hari Singh Nalwa annexed the region after successfully routing the Afghans during the Battle of Peshawar (1834). The Maharajah appointed Jahan Dad Khan, ex-governor of Attock as the new governor of Peshawar in November 1838. Nalwa was killed at the Battle of Jamrud,From there the Sikhs in alliance with the British in 1839 invaded the Khyber and ruling it till 1849, and left a small garrison of 5,000 Sikhs in the city of Jalalabad, as well as this in 1842 a force of Sikhs sacked Kabul and looted the treasury of Dost Mohamad Khan.

British invasions: 1838–1842, 1878–1880 and 1919
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Afghanistan was invaded three times from British India.

The First Anglo-Afghan War of 1838–1842 was conducted with the intention of limiting Russian influence in the country and quelling raiding from across the border. Within four years the British were expelled. After the Indian Mutiny, the British launched a second invasion, the Second Anglo-Afghan War of 1878–1880, for much the same reasons but did not attempt to maintain a permanent presence. A third conflict broke out in 1919. It lasted for three months, from May to August, and ended in a compromise that saw Afghanistan reassert its independence and control over its relations with other countries while agreeing to a border with British India known as the Durand Line. This line is still the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan today.

Soviet invasions: 1929, 1930 and 1979
The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1929 against the Saqqawists and again in 1930 to fight the Basmachi movement.

The Soviet Union, along with other countries, was a direct supporter of the new Afghan government after the Saur Revolution in April 1978. However, Soviet-style reforms introduced by the government such as changes in marriage customs and land reform were not received well by a population deeply immersed in tradition and Islam. The oppressive nature of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, which executed political prisoners and purged the government of any opposition, was also seen unfavorably by the Afghan population. By 1979, fighting between the Afghan government and various other factions within the country, some of which were supported by the United States and other countries, led to a virtual civil war and in a phone call to the Kremlin in March 1979 Afghan prime minister Nur Muhammad Taraki requested military assistance. This was refused by Soviet prime minister Alexei Kosygin on behalf of the Politburo.

After Taraki was murdered the new Afghan Prime Minister Hafizullah Amin repeated requests for Soviet military support, at least to protect his residence. Finally, in December the Politburo decided to deal with the situation in Afghanistan, and in early December sent special forces which attacked Amin's palace and killed him, putting the exiled Babrak Kamal in his place. These forces were subsequently reinforced by the 40th Army which entered Afghanistan on 24 December 1979. As the Kremlin foresaw, this intervention would cause problems around the world for the USSR, with the policy of détente and, not least, at the forthcoming Olympic Games due to take place in summer 1980 in Moscow. The result was a far-reaching boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, supported not only by the United States but by many of the 65 other invited countries that did not take part.

At its greatest extent the Soviet military contingent in Afghanistan numbered 100,000 personnel. This presence remained for a decade and kickstarted U.S. and Saudi funding for Islamic Mujahideen groups opposed to both the Afghan government and the Soviet military presence. The local Mujahideen, along with fighters from several different Arab nations (Pathan tribes from across the border also participated in the war; they were supported by the Pakistani ISI), fought the Soviet forces to a standstill. On 24 January 1989 Gorbachev's Politburo took the decision to withdraw most of the Soviet forces, while continuing to provide military assistance to the Afghan government. Eventually, in-fighting within the Mujahideen led to the rise of warlords in Afghanistan, and from them emerged the Taliban. The Soviets left behind the only highway in the country as well as many concrete structures built in the major cities, and airfields that are still in use (e.g. at Bagram).

American invasion and counterinsurgency: October 2001 – August 2021
On October 7, 2001 the United States began an invasion of Afghanistan under Operation Enduring Freedom. The invasion was launched to capture Osama bin Laden, who was the mastermind of the September 11 attacks, and was being sheltered by the Taliban. The US military forces did not capture him, though they toppled the Taliban government and disrupted bin Laden's Al-Qaeda network. On May 2, 2011, bin Laden was shot and killed by United States Armed Forces in Pakistan. The Taliban leadership persisted by hiding throughout Afghanistan, largely in the southeast, and launched guerrilla attacks against forces of the United States, its allies, and the government of President Ashraf Ghani.

In 2006, the US forces turned over security of the country to NATO-deployed forces in the region, integrating 12,000 of their 20,000 soldiers with NATO's 20,000. The remainder of the US forces continued to search for Al-Qaeda militants. The Canadian military assumed leadership and almost immediately began an offensive against areas where the Taliban guerrillas had encroached. At the cost of a few dozen of their own soldiers, the British, American, and Canadian Forces managed to kill over 1,000 alleged Taliban insurgents and sent thousands more into retreat. Many of the surviving insurgents, however, began to regroup and soon after began to engage both NATO and Afghan National Army forces, starting a protracted war that lasted until 2021, with the withdrawal of Western forces and the Taliban takeover of Kabul.

title: Invasions of Afghanistan


text:
User talk:William S.

Welcome to Wikipedia!
Hello William S., welcome to Wikipedia! Thanks for all your contributions. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them: If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!
 * MediaWiki User's Guide
 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

—Noldoaran (Talk) 00:16, Dec 12, 2003 (UTC)

Category:Wikipedians who like NationStates
Hey! If you're interested, I started a series of userboxes for the game NationStates. Feel free to add any or add your own!- 🐦Do☭torWho42 ( ⭐ ) 05:02, 16 December 2017 (UTC)

title: User talk:William S.


text:
Yehoshua Porath

Yehoshua Porath (יהושע פורת; January 13, 1938 – November 24, 2019) was an Israeli historian and professor of Middle East history.

Academic career
Yehoshua Porath was a lecturer in the History of Muslim Countries at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He specialized in the history of Palestinian nationalism. Porat won the Landau Prize and the Ben-Zvi Prize for his book on Yonatan Ratosh. His other research included:

 * Communism in Arab Israeli communities
 * Maronite Peasants' Revolt in Lebanon 1858-1860
 * Palestine, Arab unity and British policy 1930–1945

Political views
Porath was on the Meretz list in the 1992 Israeli elections for the Knesset. He later readjusted his political views. He opposed the Oslo accords between PLO and Israel. In the 1996 elections he participated in the campaign of the Likud party and supported Benjamin Netanyahu for prime minister. The change in his political affiliations came due to the issue of whether or not the PLO would change the anti-Israel articles in its covenant. Porath was asked to translate recordings of the meeting of the Palestine National Council which had pledged to make the changes. Porath argued they had not, despite the Meretz and Labor parties insisting that they had.

Since 1967 he argued that peace must be reached with Jordan and that this could not be done with representatives of Palestinian Arabs.

Porath defined himself as a "moderate, liberal and secular center man." He opposed the reestablishment of Jewish community in Gaza after the Six Day War, but opposed their forced removal in the Disengagement of 2005.

He was active in the Secular Movement and the Free People's Movement and had been an active member of the Shinui party. Haaretz reported that his wife said he "loved the Bible as a text."

Personal life
He lived in Jerusalem, and was married to Penina. They had two children. He died on November 24, 2019, in Jerusalem and was buried the next day in Kibbutz Nahshon cemetery.

Published works in English

 * The Emergence of the Palestinian-Arab National Movement, 1918–1929, Cass (1974) ISBN 0-7146-2939-1
 * In Search of Arab Unity, 1930–1945, Cass (1986) ISBN 0-7146-3264-3

Published works in Hebrew

 * Social Aspects in the Growth of the Palestinian Arab Movement Jerusalem: Homol, 1971.
 * Growth of the Palestinian Arab National Movement: 1929-1918, Tel Aviv: Am Oved Publishing, 1976.
 * From riots to rebellion: Palestinian National Arab Movement 1939-1929, Tel Aviv: Am Oved, 1969.
 * In the test of political action: Israel, Arab unity and British policy 1930–1945. Jerusalem: Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, 1985.
 * Shelach and pen in hand: The story of Uriel Shelach's life ( Yonatan Ratosh ). Tel Aviv: Literary Notebooks, 1989.

title: Yehoshua Porath