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Ognyena Maria

In Slavic mythology, Ognyena Maria (literally "Fiery Mary") is a fire goddess who is the sister and assistant of the thunder god, Perun. Ognyena Maria originates as a conflation of the figures of Margaret the Virgin and the Virgin Mary, both regarded as sisters of Saint Elias.

This divinity also appears with southern Slavs, and is usually considered to be the sister of the thunder god/saint. She was also associated with rain or the sea, or with Lazarus (Марина Лазоревая) and azure flashes of lightning.

Ognyena Maria’s feast in the folk calendar of the Slavs is on July 17, on the Julian calendar (around 30 July).

Belarus
In Belarus, she is prayed towards for healing from ailments: "Добры вечар, цёмна ноч! На табе, вада, маю бяду, а мне маё здароўе назад аддай" ("Good evening, dark night! I leave my troubles to you, water, and give me my health in return.")

Bulgaria
In Bulgaria, she is celebrated on July 22, as the day she prevents fires. A strict ban is observed on housework to prevent any disastrous fires on that day, as the summer at July was hot enough to start such outbreaks. They believe that anyone who breaks the ban will suffer destructive fires that will break out against them and their households. Her festival culminates a celebration on 15–22 July, related to the Goreshtnitsi Festival at the 28–30 July.

As the mistress of snakes, people were also forbidden from using ropes and threads on her feast days. During those days, snakes were said to hide in the underworld.

The first day of Goreshtnitsi was when all fires were extinguished, and no new fires will be lit until the third day, when the Bulgarians celebrate the fires of the Holy Spirit. Some do it to celebrate Ognyena Maria's power over fire.

Some Bulgarians believe that as she is the sister of Saint Elijah, she hides from him on St. Elias' Day, to ensure that he would not be so delighted, that his lightning and thunder would destroy everything.

Russia
In Russia, she is considered as the daughter of a king from the sea. As she felt bored of life in his palace, she fled to land. Her father got angry from this, and so he rained down darts of lightning on her birthday, that anyone who saw the lightning will be blind. Her birthday falls around Trinity Week (also known as Русальная неделя, or Rusalka Week), or St. Elias' Day.

People were advised not to swim or bathe on the days leading to Trinity Week, as it is believed that mermaids would drown anyone who does so on any water. If anyone has to, crosses, garlic, magic charms, and wormwood were used to stave the mermaids off.

Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina
In Serbia and parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Bosnian Serb population, including Republic of Srpska, Ognjena Marija is usually associated with Margaret the Virgin and along with Saint Elijah, is considered as one of the fiery saints (огњевити свеци).

According to the traditional views, the people are usually forbidden to do any kind of work on Ognjena Marija's day, as it won't bring them any good. This even includes simple tasks such as putting thread into needle or even washing ones clothes with washing machine. It is believed that the disobedient people will be punished with extensive fires, which will burn their crops, haystacks and homes. The similar beliefs exist for the Saint Elijahs day, where instead of fires, the disobedient people and their property will be stricken with thunder, ultimately resulting in either decimation of their food supplies and shelter or even in death.

In contrast to that, the families that celebrate Ognjena Marija as their Slava, are allowed to do some work which is required to hold celebrations on that day. It is said that whichever family has Ognjena Marija as their Slava is always certain that they'll always have the fullest crop yield.

Ukraine
In Ukraine, villagers would pay attention to the lightning in the sky, hoping that on Ognyena Maria's day, this will indicate that God will send rain for their crops.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ognyena Maria


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Percunatele

Perkunatete, Perkunatele or Perkūnėlė is in Baltic mythology the thunder goddess mother of Perkūnas, in Slavic mythology referred to as Percunatele mother of Perun, which is probably derived from the Balts. Like many such goddesses absorbed into Christianity, she is, today, difficult to distinguish from the Christian madonna, Mary, one of whose epithets was Panna Maria Percunatele. Professor Patricia Monaghan of DePaul University also believes that she was originally derived from the Baltic thunder goddess.

The character of Perkunatete seems to be present in the myths of Baltic sun goddess Saulė. This solar goddess, after her daily ride, bathes in a sauna to rest and recover her strength for another daily travel, with Perkunatete waiting on her. In the book of Georges Dumézil, it is described that Perkunatele was represented as an oak tree with a cleft, resembling the female genitals, where lightning hit. A fire could sometimes break out when the wood was not humid, bringing pain to her. This can be two things, passion that leads to the delivery of a child or a bad lover. If it was the first, laughter will come out of her uterus. If the former, Perkunatele would scream in agony. Its the classic myth of fertility that is present on many cultures, you have to satisfy your lover to bring harmony to the act of coitus. Unlike the Christian Madonna, Perkunatele was not immaculate. The name derivates from PIE *Perkwunos, cognate to *perkwus, a word for "oak", "fir" or "wooded mountain".

title: Percunatele


text:
Piorun

Piorun can refer to:
 * ORP Piorun, Polish Navy destroyer in World War II
 * Piorun (missile), Polish MANPADS
 * Krzysztof Mikołaj "Piorun" Radziwiłł, a 16th-century Polish nobleman
 * Polish name for the Slavic thunder god, Perun
 * Kacper Piorun, Polish chess player

title: Piorun


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Stribog

Stribog is a god in Slavic mythology found in three East Slavic sources, whose cult may also have existed in Poland. The sources do not inform about the functions of the god, but nowadays he is most often interpreted as a wind deity who distributes wealth.

Legacy
After Christianization, the name was preserved in toponymy: Стрибожь, Stribozh' in Novgorod Governorate, Стрибоже, Strybozhe leak, Стрибожская, Strybozhskaya river in Kiev Voivodeship, Стрибож, Strybozh village in Zhytomyr Oblast, in Poland Strzyboga village and the Striboc (= Stribog) stream near Tczew, attested in the 1282, and possibly Latin name for river from modern-day Germany Striboz (1122).

Wind interpretation
According to Roman Jakobson, Stribog contains the stem stri-, derived from the Proto-Slavic verb *sterti "to extend, spread, widen, scatter" attested only with suffixes, e.g. Polish rozpostrzeć, Russian простереть, prosteret', or Old Czech (nepokoj) strieti. The verb comes from the Proto-Indo-European root *ster-, which in Latin occurs in the verb sterno and in the Greek verb στόρνυμι, stórnymi "to spread". The theonym would thus consist of the stem stri- and the word bog "god". On this basis, he considers Stribog to be "disperser, apportioner of riches", a complementary god to Dazhbog, "giver of riches". Proof of Stribog's association with wind is to be found in his Hindu counterpart, the wind god Vayu, who says in the Avesta "I am called he who spreads". He links the pair of Dazhbog and Stribog with the Vedic pair of Bhaga and Amsha, or the Greek pair of Aisa and Poros. This etymology is one of the most popular.

According to Michał Łuczyński, Jakobson's etymology is linguistically correct, however, according to him, the division of the theonym into stri- and -bog is unlikely, since hydronyms and personal names indicate that the consonant ⟨b⟩ belonged to the root, not the suffix, e.g., the Ukrainian hydronym Стриб, Stryb, or Polish names beginning with Strzyb-: *Strzybala, Strzybalska, Strzybna, Strzybny.

Stanisław Urbańczyk, following Lubor Niederle and Alexander Afanasyev, linked the theonym with the Czech dialectal (Moravian) stři "strong wind, air", and explained the theonym as "god of creaking, swishing".

Jakobson's etymology was supported by Aleksander Gieysztor. In his search for manifestations of the cult of wind in the Slavs, he pointed to the Bulgarian wind тъмичарин, tŭmicharin, which brings darkness and blinds, and in Serbia the southern wind is called "one-eyed" (чоравац, čoravac), which may be an echo of some ancient mythological motif, to which perhaps is related the one-eyed Odin, who, like Stribog, is placed in the first group of Dumézil's tripartite, and who is sometimes interpreted as the god of wind, breath.

Water interpretation
Omelyan Ohonóvsʹkyy and Aleksander Brückner rejected the wind etymology as unwarranted. Instead, they related the theonym to the Ukrainian verb стриба́ти, strybaty "to jump" and explained it as "god-jumper, god who jumps". Brückner divided the word in terms of its structure into the segment strib-, and the suffix -og, in the likeness of Svarog (svar- + -og). He pointed to a whole family of words with the strib- segment connected with jumping: стриб, stryb "jump", стриба́ти, strybaty "to jump", стрибо́к, strybok "jump", стрибну́ти, strybnuty "to jump", etc. He further indicated that he could not say anything more about the theonym.

Michał Łuczyński returns to such an etymology. He points out that the Ukrainian word about such a meaning is also found in some south-western dialects of Russian. In addition, he points out that while researching the etymology of this theonym, certain words were overlooked: Russian стрыбый, strybyy "rapid, swift ("fast-dripping")", Russian dial. стрива́ть, stribat'  "to flash (of lightning)", and Ukrainian стрибати, strybaty in the meaning "to escape, fly", "to jump high and far". He reconstructs the Proto-Slavic form of these words as *strybati from the Proto-Slavic stem *strū-. According to him, "to jump", "to leap" as the meaning of this word family in Ukrainian and some Russian dialects developed late, and the original meaning of these words would be "to move at high speed", and "to flow". He points to the Baltic equivalent of the meaning of Russian strybyy "rapid, swift", Lithuanian sraujùs "rapid", Latvian stràujš "fast, quick, rapid", which may indicate the probable existence of Russian stryb- "current (water)", cf. Lithuanian sraujà, Latvian strauja "current (water)". Additionally, Russian dial. stribat' "to flash (of lightning)" bears a close semantic resemblance to Serbo-Croatian strujiti "to flow (of electricity)", and quotes other linguists, according to whom Serbo-Croatian strujiti can refer to water as well as air, and figuratively also to electricity.

He reconstructs the Proto-Slavic form of the theonym as *Strybogъ, which would consist of the segment *strybъ (a verb noun from *strybati "to move quickly" from "to flow, run"), and the suffix -ogъ, which had no function. The segment itself would continue the Proto-Slavic stem *stry- "to flow, run", from the Proto-Balto-Slavic *srū-, from the Proto-Indo-European *srew- "to flow". This etymology is supported by the fact that after Christianization this theonym was preserved mainly in hydronyms, which proves that the meaning of the theonym was known to the Slavs.

The Old East Slavic notation of the theonym (Стрибогъ, Stribogǔ) with the vowel ⟨i⟩ instead of the expected ⟨y⟩ is explained as a mixing of these vowels, which is attested in the texts of southern East Slavic since the end of the 11th century, which is connected with the influence of the grammar of the Old Church Slavonic/Bulgarian language on the Old East Slavic language. The mixing of these vowels also occurs in hydronyms (*Stir-/*Styr) and in Ukrainian, cf. Стрый/Стрий, Stryj/Strij, Стрына/Стрина, Stryna/Strina.

Dated and other etymologies
According to Mark Vey, Stribog could in fact be originally an epithet meaning literally "father god", which was used in the religions of Indo-Europeans to describe the god of the bright sky. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European term for "god father" is *Dyḗus ph₂tḗr (cp. Roman Jupiter (Iūpiter, Diespiter), Greek Zeus (Zeus Pater) and Vedic Dyaus (Dyáuṣ-pitṛ́); sometimes in reverse order) and its local variety *ph₂tḗr bhagos. After the so-called Iranian inversion, Slavic peoples abandoned the word *dyḗus and replaced it with the word bog, which is borrowed from Iranian languages (from the PIE. *bhagos) and which appears as a second part of the name. Proto-Indo-European *ph₂tḗr ("father") is generally also considered to be absent in the Slavic languages (replaced by the synonym *átta → otec) or even in the Balto-Slavic languages, but according to Vey, *ph₂tḗr turned into the Slavic word *stryjь, which now means "uncle, father's brother" as follows: *ph₂tḗr → *ptri- → stri- and is the first part of the name. Stribog could therefore be the Slavic god of sky. This etymology has been advocated by a number of scholars, including Vyacheslav Ivanov and Vladimir Toporov who placed Stribog in the first group of the so-called the trifunctional hypothesis of Dumézil, which groups the main deities who look after the community and watch over the distribution of goods.

Such etymology is criticized by most linguists. The word *stryjь is derived from PIE *stru-io- and is cognate to Lithuanian strùjus "uncle, old man", Old Irish sruith "old, venerable" and Old Welsh strutiu "old man", and the process described by Vey did not occur in Slavic language. Brückner in his Dictionary noted that the word stryj was sometimes referred to as "good wind" and connected it to the core stru- "to flow" (cf. Stryj in Ukraine).

There are also other interpretations of the name: Zelenin connected the stri- root with the word стрити, stryty (Proto-Slavic *sъtьri) "to annihilate, destroy," and considered Stribog to be "annihilating, destroying god," the god of war. This view was supported by Orlov and Borovsky, this may also be indicated by the fact that Vayu is also worshipped as the god of war, of the dead, of the harvest, but also of the good and bad fate, as he connects sky and earth. The name was also associated with the nickname of Ahura Mazda Śribaya/Stribaya ("god of beauty", "god worthy of honor", cf. Sanskrit श्री, śri "beauty"), which is supposed to be an Iranian influence and ultimately come from *ph₂tḗr bhagos, but this etymology is problematic. Pisani reconstructed the name as *strigo-bogъ, in which *strigo- would correspond to the Latin frigus ("frost, cold") and in that case Stribog would be the god of cold.

Influences

 * HD 75898 − star named after Stribog
 * Stribog Mountains on the Brabant Island, Antarctica
 * Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić: Šuma Striborova ("Stribor's forest") – a tale, part of her collection of tales titled Croatian Tales of Long Ago.
 * Grand Power Stribog − firearm by the Slovak firm Grand Power s.r.o named for the deity Stribog
 * Striborg - Australian black metal musician named after the deity.

title: Stribog


text:
Talk:Northeast blackout of 2003/Archive 2

Stupid warring
Stop moving the articles, they are starting to perform endless looped talk pages.

You want an appropriate name, how about 2003_Blackout. It's just a redirect, and it best describes the document, and makes it easier to find. Going to it now will redirect you about 3 times becuse of you self conscious people who must have created the page themselves.

 * ''The following pages link to here:

 * Talk:2003 US-Canada blackout (redirect page)
 * Wikipedia:Most-edited talk pages
 * Talk:2003 North America blackout (redirect page)
 * Talk:2003 US-Canada Blackout (redirect page)
 * Talk:2003 electricity blackout in New York (redirect page)
 * Talk:Blackout in New York (redirect page)
 * Wikipedia:Redirects for deletion
 * Wikipedia:Redirects for deletion''

Look at that. I will move the page myself, and fix every redirect for it if you continue to move the page.

-Fizscy46 14:31, 2 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * The debate isn't about US-Canada or Canada-US, or even North America or New York; its about B or b. Lirath Q. Pynnor

 * As it is a title, it should be capitalized, and the other redirect to it. However, due to the fact that it really doesn't make a f***ing difference, they should both be blocked from editting it if possible.

-Fizscy46 17:55, 2 Dec 2003 (UTC)

If this is going to be the form of the title -it needs to be North American not North America. Rmhermen 14:14, Dec 6, 2003 (UTC)

 * It should be 2003 Blackout. There isn't likely going to be another one large enough to warrant one this year, and its easiest to find when searching -Fizscy46 04:45, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Well, except for the one in Italy just after this one...:) I wonder if anyone has any issues with clling it the 2003 North-East blackout and dodging the question about US or U.S. or canada or whatever? Jamesday 14:00, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * But was it large enough to warrant an article. It should be named to what someone would likely search for to find information on it, not something else. I'll go ask people what they would search for to get info on it, and post the results.-Fizscy46 14:39, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)


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Svarog

Svarog is a Slavic god of fire and blacksmithing, who was once interpreted as a sky god on the basis of an etymology rejected by modern scholarship. He is mentioned in only one source, the Primary Chronicle, which is problematic in interpretation. He is presented there as the Slavic equivalent of the Greek god Hephaestus. The meaning of his name is associated with fire. He is the father of Dazhbog and Svarozhits.

Etymology
The theonym Svarog presents in several forms. The Primary Chronicle has Соварога (Sovaroga), Сварогъ (Svarogǔ), Сварогом (Svarogom), and Сварога (Svaroga). The Sofia Chronograph has Сварог (Svarog) and Сварож (Svarož).

The fire etymology was one of the first to be proposed by the Slovene linguist Franc Miklošič (1875), who explained the theonym Svarog as consisting of the stem svar ('heat', 'light') and the suffix -og. The stem svar itself was derived from an earlier *sur "shining".

That etymology is also supported by contemporary linguists and etymologists, but the etymology of the stem svar can also be explained differently. The root svar derives from the Proto-Slavic *sъvarъ, which consists of the prefix *sъ- meaning "good, (ones') own" and the stem *varъ "fire, heat", which is continued, for example, by Old Church Slavonic варъ, varǔ ("heat"), or Old East Slavic варъ, varǔ "sunny heatwave, scorching heat, heat" (from Proto-Indo-European *wār- "warmth"). This root was then extended by the suffix *-ogъ, which has no specific function. The common noun *sъvarogъ "good, own fire, heat" was then transferred to the name of the god because of his function as a divine blacksmith, a god wielding fire, working with fire.

The *sъvarъ stem is also the origin of words related to blacksmithing. Some examples are Old East Slavic сварити, svariti "to forge something at high temperature", Old Polish zwarzyć "to weld, chain two pieces of iron", and modern Russian and Slovenian words (e.g. сварить, svarit', variti, "to melt", "to weld").

Some researchers, including Aleksander Brückner and Vatroslav Jagić, have suggested that the name stemmed from the word svar meaning "argument, disagreement", or the verb svariti "to quarrel". Brückner translated this theonym literally as "wrangler, brawler", which would also be associated with fire. However, this etymology has been criticized.

In earlier scholarship, the dominant view was that the root svar was borrowed from an Indo-Iranian language (e.g., from Sanskrit स्वर्, svar "radiance", "sky", "sun"), but this etymology is nowadays rejected due to phonetic difficulties.

Legacy
After Christianization, Svarog was preserved in toponymy and vocabulary. In Bulgaria these are the towns of Сва́рог, Svarog, Сва́рошка бара, Svaroshka bara, in the Czech Republic it is the Svaroh mountain, and the Sorbian name Zwarogk. Brückner also added the Polish town of Swarożyn here, based on a notation in the German Latin Swarozino from 1205, but the original notation was Swarozina and is dated 1305, so it should be read as Swarocino, from the personal name Swarota, or, as other records indicate, the town was called Swaryszewo, from the personal name Swarysz. Modern notation Swarożyn should be regarded as false transcription.

In the Russian dialect (Novgorod) the obsolete word сва́рог, svarog meaning "fire" and "blacksmith", is preserved. The Romanian word sfarog, meaning "something burnt, charred, dried", was probably borrowed from an unspecified South Slavic language, probably Bulgarian, and the source word is reconstructed as *svarogъ.

Svarog-Svarozhits
A god named Svarozhits appears in the sources as well. Some scholars have suggested that Svarozhits means 'young Svarog' or is a diminutive of Svarog. The argument for the existence of only one god is based on the fact that in Serbo-Croatian the suffix -ić means 'young' or 'small' (e.g., Djurdjić is not the 'son of Djurdjo', but 'little Djurdjo'). Brückner also believed that the Lithuanians called their gods fondly, e.g. Perkune dievaite meaning 'little god Perkun' and not 'god Perkun'. However, most scholars disagree with this interpretation. The suffix -its, -ich (from Proto-Slavic *-iťь) is most often a patronymic suffix (e.g. Polish pan 'master' → panicz 'son of a master'). The family relationship between Svarog and Svarozhits is also indicated by accounts of these gods.

Interpretations
Because it is unclear to what extent the fragmentary translation of the Chronography can be used, and because of only a single source about Svarog, as well as uncertain clues in folklore, the interpretation of this god is problematic. Some scholars have even suggested that Svarog was created from the figure of Svarozhits and never existed in the beliefs of the Slavs.

God of fire, blacksmithing, sun
Czech historians Martin Pitro and Petr Vokáč believe that Svarog is a god who receded into the background after the creation of the world, but at the same time is a celestial smith and sun god.

It is possible that Svarog echoes the mythology of northern Europe: the smith in Norse and Baltic mythology forges weapons for the Thunderer, and as in Finnish mythology, the smith god Ilmarinen is the creator of the Sun, the sky, and many wondrous objects. The smith god also fights the powers of chaos in defense of his creation.

Aleksander Gieysztor interpreted Svarog as celestial fire (the sun), Perun as atmospheric fire (the thunderbolt), and Svarozhits-Dazhbog as earthly fire (fire).

Jiří Dynda rejects the understanding of Svarog as a sovereign deity of heaven or a deus otiousus type deity, and points out that in the source Svarog, or rather his prefiguration, does not bear the characteristics of such a deity, except for the paternity of the solar deity, which he considers a secondary feature. Instead, he compares him to the figure of the magician and hero Volkh Vseslavyevich from Russian bylines, and to the ancient blacksmiths who, in Russian folklore, make weapons for heroes and weld the hair of men and women symbolically uniting them into marriage, which include, for example, the blind father of the hero Svyatogor.

It is possible that Svarog is related in some way to mythological bird Rarog (saker falcon), perhaps on the taboo basis pointed out by Roman Jakobson. In Vedism Indra is sometimes called Indra Vritrahan, "Indra the victor of Vritra". In the Iranian version of this motif, Veretragna is transformed into the falcon Varhagan during his duel with Vritra. Czech Raroh, Rarach is a generous yet vengeful demonic being associated with the campfire, taking the form of a bird or dragon, with a body and hair of flame, who flies out through the chimney as a ball of fire or whirlwind. He indicates a Balto-Slavic motif: the names raróg, rarok in Polish, jarog in Czech, and raragas or vanagas in Lithuanian refer to a bird with glowing eyes.

Sky god
On the basis of solar and celestial etymology, Svarog is often interpreted as a celestial creator deity whose role in cult mythology has been overlooked. Svarog would have been the heir of a hypothetical Proto-Indo-European *Dyḗus. In this case, he would correspond to deities such as the Vedic Dyaus or the Baltic Dievs, but also to the Greek Zeus or the Roman Jupiter – the latter two deities, however, took on thunderer characteristics and occupied an important place in their respective pantheons.

Michal Téra interprets Svarog as the counterpart of the Vedic sky-god Dyaus, who according to some accounts is the father of the fire-god Agni-Svarozhits and of the sun-god Surya-Dazhbog. He also links him to the mystical figure Svyatogor, whose place in the bylinas is taken by Ilya Muromets, Perun's heir – according to Téra described as tired, whose weight the earth cannot bear, and he compares this last motif to the mythical separation of Heaven and Earth which is necessary to put the world in order. He also believes that Svarog appears in the myths of the creation of the world.

Łowmiański developed a theory that the cult of the Proto-Indo-European god *Dyḗus developed among the Slavs in two forms: in the form of Svarog among the West Slavs, and in the form of Perun among the East Slavs. Subsequently, the cult of Svarog was to be transported in the 6th century by Serbs and Croats from West Slavs to the Balkans.

title: Svarog


text:
Trishna

Trishna may refer to
 * TRISHNA, a planned Indo-French satellite
 * Taṇhā, the Buddhist concept of thirst or desire
 * Trishna (Vedic thought), the Vedic concept of thirst or desire
 * Trishna (1978 film), a drama directed and produced by Sippy Films in India
 * Thrishna, a 1981 Indian Malayalam-language film by I. V. Sasi
 * Trishna (2009 film), an Indian romance film directed by Pritam Jalan
 * Trishna (2011 film), a film adaptation of Tess of the d'Urbervilles and directed by Michael Winterbottom
 * Trishna (TV show), a romantic Indian TV show on Doordarshan
 * Trishna (yacht), a yacht belonging to the Corps of Engineers of the Indian Army
 * Krishna and Trishna, Bangladeshi conjoined twins

title: Trishna


text:
Zaria (disambiguation)

Zaria is a city in Kaduna State, Nigeria.

Zaria may also refer to:

 * Zaria (goddess), or Zoria, the Slavic goddess of beauty
 * Zaria (gastropod), a genus of gastropods in the family Turritellidae

People

 * Countess Zaria of Orange-Nassau, Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg (born 2006), member of the Dutch royal family

title: Zaria (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:Triglav (Triglav1)

What does the title of this article mean? RickK 05:02, 27 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * It's an attempt at a disambig. It's not needed, Triglav is too small and will merge there. Dysprosia 05:06, 27 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Triglav (Triglav1)


text:
Talk:Syrena (Syrena1)

Please don't create articles with parentheses in the title like this. This name is very uninformative. RickK 05:05, 27 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Syrena (Syrena1)


text:
Zorya

Zorya (lit. "Dawn"; also many variants: Zarya, Zaria, Zorza, Zirnytsia, Zaranitsa, Zoryushka, etc.) is a figure in Slavic folklore, a feminine personification of dawn, possibly goddess. Depending on tradition, she may appear as a singular entity, or two or three sisters at once. Although Zorya is etymologically unrelated to the Proto-Indo-European goddess of the dawn *H₂éwsōs, she shares most of her characteristics. She is often depicted as the sister of the Sun, the Moon, and Danica, the Morning Star with which she is sometimes identified. She lives in the Palace of the Sun, opens the gate for him in the morning so that he can set off on a journey through the sky, guards his white horses, she is also described as a virgin. In the Eastern Slavic tradition of zagovory she represents the supreme power that a practitioner appeals to.

Etymology
The Slavic word zora "dawn, aurora" (from Proto-Slavic *zoŗà), and its variants, comes from the same root as the Slavic word zrěti ("to see, observe", from PS *zьrěti), which originally may have meant "shine". The word zara may have originated under the influence of the word žar "heat" (PS *žarь). PS *zoŗà comes from the Proto-Balto-Slavic *źoriˀ (cf. Lithuanian žarà, žarijà), the etymology of the root is unclear.

Comparative mythology
The Proto-Indo-European reconstructed goddess of the dawn is *H₂éwsōs. Her name was reconstructed using a comparative method on the basis of the names of Indo-European goddesses of the dawn, e.g. Greek Eos, Roman Aurora, or Vedic Ushas; similarly, on the basis of the common features of the goddesses of the dawn, the features of the Proto-Indo-European goddess were also reconstructed.

Although the Zorya cult is only attested in folklore, its roots go back to Indo-European antiquity, and the Zorya herself manifests most of *H₂éwsōs characteristics. Zorya shares the following characteristics with most goddesses of the dawn:

 * 1) She appears in the company of St. George and St. Nicholas (interpreted as divine twins)
 * 2) Red, gold, yellow, rose colors
 * 3) She lives overseas, on the island of Buyan
 * 4) Opens the door to the Sun
 * 5) She owned a golden boat and a silver oar

L.A. Zarubin, who was a Slavonic scholar of the 20th century, undertook a comparison between Slavic folklore and the Indo-Aryan Rigveda and Atharvaveda, where images of the Sun and its companions, the Dawns, have been preserved. These images date back to ancient concepts from the initially fetishistic (the Sun in the form of a ring or circle) to the later anthropomorphic. Chludov's Novgorod Psalter of the late 13th century contains a miniature depicting two women. One of them, fiery red, signed as "morning zorya", holds a red sun in her right hand in the form of a ring, and in her left hand she holds a torch resting on her shoulder, ending in a box from which emerges a light green stripe passing into dark green. This stripe ends in another woman's right hand, in green, signed as "evening zorya", with a bird emerging from her left sleeve. This should be interpreted as the Morning Zorya releasing the Sun on its daily journey, and at sunset the Evening Zorya awaits to meet the Sun. A very similar motif was found in a cave temple from the 2nd or 3rd century AD in Nashik, India. The bas-relief depicts two women: one using a torch to light the circle of the Sun, and the other expecting it at sunset. Some other bas-reliefs depict two goddesses of the dawn, Ushas and Pratyusha, and the Sun, accompanied by Dawns, appears in several hymns. The Sun in the form of a wheel appears in the Indo-Aryan Rigveda, or the Norse Edda, as well as in folklore: during the annual festivals of the Germanic peoples and Slavs, they lit a wheel which, according to medieval authors, was supposed to symbolize the sun.

Similar images to the one from the Psalter and the Nashik appear in various parts of Slavic lands, e.g. On a carved and painted gate of a Slovak peasant estate (village of Očová): on one of the pillars is carved the Morning Zorya, with a golden head, above her is a glow, and even higher is the Sun, which rolls along an arched road, and on the other pillar is carved the Evening Zorya, above it is a setting sun. There are also darkened suns on this relief, possibly dead suns appearing in Slavic folklore. These motifs are also confirmed by the Russian saying "The sun will not rise without the Morning Zoryushka". Such a motif was also found on the back of a 19th-century sled where the Sun, in the form of a circle, is in the palace and two Zoryas stand in the exit, and on a peasant rushnyk from the Tver region where Zoryas on horseback rides up to the Sun, one is red and the other is green.

Baltic mythology
According to scholarship, Lithuanian folklore attests a similar dual role for luminous deities Vakarine and Ausrine: Vakarine, the Evening Star, made the bed for solar goddess Saulė, and Aušrinė, the Morning Star, lit the fire for her as she prepared for another day's journey. In other accounts, Ausrine and Vakarine are said to be daughters of the female Sun (Saule) and male Moon (Meness), and they tend their mother's palace and horses.

Russian tradition
In Russian tradition, they often appear as two virgin sisters: Zorya Utrennyaya (Morning Zorya, from útro "morning") as the goddess of dawn, and Zorya Vechernyaya (Evening Aurora, from véčer "evening") as the goddess of dusk. Each was to stand on a different side of the golden throne of the Sun. The Morning Zorya opened the gate of the heavenly palace when the Sun set out in the morning, and the Evening Zorya closed the gate when the Sun returned to his abode for the night. The headquarters of Zorya was to be located on Buyan Island.

A myth from a later period speaks of three Zoryas and their special task: "There are in the sky three little sisters, three little Zorya: she of the Evening, she of Midnight, and she of Morning. Their duty is to guard a dog which is tied by an iron chain to the constellation of the Little Bear. When the chain breaks it will be the end of the world."

In folk incantations and popular medicine
Zara-Zaranitsa Krasnaya Devitsa (aka "Dawn the Red Maiden") appears interchangeably with Maria (Mother of God) in different versions of the same zagovory plots as the supreme power that a practitioner applies to.

She was also prayed to as Zarya for good harvests and health: "Ho, thou morning zarya, and thou evening zarya! fall upon my rye, that it may grow up tall as a forest, stout as an oak!" "Mother zarya [apparently twilight here] of morning and evening and midnight! as ye quietly fade away and disappear, so may both sicknesses and sorrows in me, the servant of God, quietly fade and disappear—those of the morning, and of the evening, and of the midnight!"

Professor Bronislava Kerbelytė cited that in Russian tradition, the Zoryas were also invoked to help in childbirth (with the appellation "зорки заряночки") and to treat the baby (calling upon "заря-девица", or "утренняя заря Параскавея" and "вечерняя заря Соломонея").

Zarya was also invoked as protectress and to dispel nightmares and sleeplessness:

 * Заря, зарница, васъ три сестрицы, утренняя, полуденная, вечерняя, полуночная, сыми съ раба Божія (имя) тоску, печаль, крикъ, безсонницу, подай ему сонъ со всѣхъ сторонъ, со всѣхъ святыхъ, со всѣхъ небесныхъ.

In another incantation, Zarya-Zarnitsa is invoked along with a "morning Irina" and a "Midday Daria" to dispel a child's sadness and take it away "beyond the blue ocean".

Further attestation
Croatian historian Natko Nodilo noted in his study The Ancient Faith of the Serbs and the Croats that the ancient Slavs saw Zora as a "shining maiden" ("svijetla" i "vidna" djevojka), and Russian riddles described her as a maiden that lived in the sky ("Zoru nebesnom djevojkom").

As for the parentage of the Dawn, she is referred "in a Russian song" as "dear little Dawn" and as the "Sister of the Sun".

Belarusian tradition
In Belarusian folklore she appears as Zaranitsa (Зараніца) or as Zara-zaranitsa (Зара-Зараніца). In one of the passages, Zaranica is met by St. George and St. Nicholas, who, according to comparative mythology, function as divine twins, who in Indo-European mythologies are usually brothers of the goddess of the dawn: "Saint George was walking with Saint Nicholas and met Aurora".

In folklore she also appears in the form of a riddle:

"Zara-zaranitsa, a beautiful virgin, was walking in the sky, and dropped her keys. The moon saw them, but said nothing. The sun saw them, and lifted them up."

This is about the dew, which the moon does not react to and which disappears under the influence of the sun. Zara is probably simply the goddess of the dawn, and can be translated literally as "Dawn", and Zaranica is a diminutive and may indicate respect towards her.

In Belarusian tradition, the stars are sometimes referred to as zorki and zory, such as the star Polaris, known as Zorny Kol ('star pole') and polunochna zora ('star of midnight').

Polish tradition
In Polish folklore, there are three sister Zoras (Trzy Zorze): Morning Zorza (Polish: Zorza porankowa or Utrenica), Midday Zora (Zorza południowa or Południca) and Evening Zora (Zorza wieczorowa or Wieczornica), which appear in Polish folk charms and, according to Andrzej Szyjewski, represent a threefold division of the day. They also function as Rozhanitsy:

Another folk saying from Poland is thus: Żarze, zarzyczki, jest was trzy, zabierzcie od mojego dziecka płakanie, przywróćcie mu spanie.

In a magical love charm from Poland, the girl asks for the dawn (or morning-star) to go to the girl's beloved and force him to love no other but her:

 * Witajze zorze
 * Welcome, morning star

Ukrainian tradition
Ukrainian also has words deriving from *zoŗà: зі́рка (dialectal зі́ра zira and зі́ри ziry) zírka, a diminutive meaning 'little star', 'starlet', 'asterisk'; зі́рнйця zirnitsa (or зі́рнйці zirnytsi, a poetic term meaning 'little star', 'aurora, dawn'.

In a saying collected in "Харківщині" (Kharkiv Oblast), it is said that "there are many stars (Зірок) in the sky, but there are only two Zori: the morning one (світова) and the evening one (вечірня)".

In an orphan's lament, the mourner says she will take the "keys of the dawn" ("То я б в зорі ключі взяла").

In a magical love charm, the girl invokes "three star-sisters" (or the "dawn-sisters"):

 * Vy zori-zirnytsi, vas na nebi tri sestrytsi: odna nudna, druga pryvitna, a tretia pechal'na
 * You dawn-stars, you three sisters in the sky: one dull, the second welcoming, and the third sorrowful

Zorya also patronized marriages, as manifested by her frequent appearance in wedding songs, and arranged marriages between the gods. In one of the folk songs, where the Moon meets Aurora while wandering in the sky, she is directly attributed this function:"O Dawn, Dawn! Wherever hast thou been? Wherever hast thou been? Where dost thou intend to live?

Where do I intend to live? Why at Pan Ivan's, At Pan Ivan's in his Court, In his Court, and in his dwelling, And in his dwelling are two pleasures: The first pleasure—to get his son married; And second pleasure—to give his daughter in marriage"

Slovene tradition
In a Slovene folksong titled "Zorja prstan pogubila" (Zorja lost her ring), the singer asks for mother (majka), brother (bratec), sister (sestra) and darling (dragi) to look for it.

According to Monika Kropej, in Slovene mythopoetic tradition, the sun rises in the morning, accompanied by the morning dawn, named Sončica (from sonce 'sun'), and sets in the evening joined by an evening dawn named Zarika (from zarja 'dawn'). These female characters also appear in a Slovenian narrative folk song about their rivalry. Fanny Copeland also interpreted both characters as mythological Sun and Dawn, as well as mentioned another ballad, titled Ballad of Beautiful Zora. Slovene folklorist Jakob Kelemina (sl), in his book about Slovene myths and folk-tales, stated that a Zora appears as the daughter of the Snake Queen (possibly an incarnation of the night) in the so-called Kresnik Cycle.

East Slavic tradition
According to professor Daiva Vaitkevičienė, the Virgin Mary most likely replaced deity Zaria in East Slavic charms. The Virgin Mary is also addressed as "Zaria" in Russian charms.

In a charm collected in Arkhangelsky and published in 1878 by historian Alexandra Efimenko, the announcer invokes зоря Мария and заря Маремъяния, translated as "Maria-the-Dawn" and "Maremiyaniya-the-Dawn".

In another charm, the "Evening Star Mariya" and "Morning Star Maremiyana" are invoked to take away sleeplessness.

Slavic tradition
Goddess Zaria (alternatively, a trio of deities named Zori) is also invoked in charms against illness. According to professor Daiva Vaitkevičienė, this "is a very popular motif of the Slavic charms".

Legacy
The word "Zorya" has become a loanword in Romanian as its word for "dawn" (zori) and as the name of a piece of music sung by colindători (zorile).

The Morning Star is also known as dennica, zornica or zarnica.

In Serbo-Croatian, the planet Venus is known as Zornjača, when it appears in the morning, and Večernjača when it appears at night.

In a folksong, the Dawn/Morning Star is depicted as the bride of a male Moon.

In some Croatian folk songs, collected and published in 1876 by Rikardo Ferdinand Plohl-Herdvigov, a "zorja" is used along with "Marja" in "Zorja Marja prsten toči"; and referred to as "Zorja, zorija" in "Marija sinku načinila košulju";

Zorya in culture

 * Popular folk song Zoryushka (Зорюшка) sung on a wedding day.
 * In the 2001 novel American Gods, and its 2017 television adaptation, author Neil Gaiman depicts Zorya as a triple goddess: Zorya Utrennyaya (morning star), Zorya Polunochnaya (midnight star), and Zorya Vechernyaya (evening star).
 * Zorya appears in The Iron Druid Chronicles by Kevin Hearne.
 * One of the works by Australian composer Julian Cochran is named Zorya Vechernyaya.
 * One of the albums by Czech composer Floex is called Zorya, and the last number on the album is called Zorya Polunochnaya.
 * Zorya figures prominently in the game Eve Online as the leader of the invading precursor entity, the Triglavian Collective.

title: Zorya


text:
William Bridges (general)

Major General Sir William Throsby Bridges, (18 February 1861 – 18 May 1915) was a senior Australian Army officer who was instrumental in establishing the Royal Military College, Duntroon and who served as the first Australian Chief of the General Staff. During the First World War he commanded the 1st Australian Division at Gallipoli, where he died of wounds on 18 May 1915, becoming the first Australian general officer to be killed during the war. He was the first Australian officer—and the first graduate of Kingston—to reach the rank of major general, the first to command a division, and the first to receive a knighthood. He is one of only two Australians killed in action in the Great War to be interred in Australia.

Early life
Born 18 February 1861 in Greenock, Scotland, the son of William Wilson Somerset Bridges, a Royal Navy captain, and his Australian wife, Mary Hill Throsby. He was educated at Ryde on the Isle of Wight, before attending the Royal Naval School at New Cross, London, in 1871. He remained there until mid-1872 when his family moved to Canada, after his father was badly injured in an accident and forced to retire from the navy. For the next three years, Bridges was a boarder at the Trinity College School, at Port Hope, Ontario. On 10 April 1877, at the age of 16, he entered the newly established Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, as part of the college's second intake, and was assigned the student number of 25.

Although tall, Bridges was of slight build and was not noted for his involvement in sport while at the college, spending most of his spare time reading; nevertheless, he became a keen canoeist as a cadet. Although he was a good student, he became unsettled and began failing his courses when his family migrated to Australia leaving him in Kingston. In June 1879, having received his Certificate of Military Qualifications, Bridges was permitted to leave the college, becoming its first drop out after his father paid a $100 fine to withdraw him. Travelling on the transport Zealandia, Bridges arrived in Sydney in August and joined his family who had settled in his mother's home town of Moss Vale, New South Wales. Shortly after his arrival, he began working for the Department of Roads and Bridges at Braidwood, and by 1884 he had become an inspector in the Narrabri district.

Early career and Boer War
In early 1885, in response to the fall of Khartoum and the death of General Charles Gordon during the British campaign against the Dervish revolt in Sudan, the colony of New South Wales raised a military contingent consisting of an infantry battalion, with artillery and supporting units, for service with the British. In an effort to enlist, Bridges travelled to Sydney from Narrabri, but by the time he had arrived, the force had already been raised. Nevertheless, due to concerns about Russian intentions in Afghanistan, the Australian colonies began expanding their military forces, and on 19 May that year he was commissioned as a lieutenant into the New South Wales Artillery. Initially his appointment was only temporary, but he was later offered a permanent position.

The following year Bridges undertook an artillery officers' course at the School of Gunnery at Middle Head, after which he was posted there as a staff officer. In 1889 he qualified as a gunnery instructor and in October 1890, having been promoted to captain the month before, he was sent to the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich and to the Royal School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness for training. Upon returning to Australia in 1893 he became Chief Instructor at the Middle Head School of Gunnery. He was promoted to major in September 1895, and he held positions on several military committees and conferences. In late 1899 Bridges became one of four New South Wales officers seconded to serve with British Army units during the Second Boer War. During his time in South Africa he took part in actions around Kimberley, Paardeberg and Driefontein before contracting typhoid. After being evacuated to England, he returned to Australia in September 1900.

Upon his return, Bridges took command of the Brigade Division of Field Artillery as well as holding various staff appointments. In 1901 the Australian colonies federated, and the various colonial military forces coalesced into the Australian Army. Bridges undertook a quick succession of appointments: Assistant Quartermaster General of the Army HQ in Melbourne; Chief of Military Intelligence; Chief of the Australian General Staff, achieving the rank of lieutenant colonel in July 1902 and then colonel in October 1906. In 1909, he went to London as Australia's representative on the Imperial General Staff.

In 1910 Bridges was promoted to brigadier general and, on the recommendation of Lord Kitchener, was recalled to Australia to become the first commandant of the Royal Military College at Duntroon. On his way back to Australia, Bridges inspected various military academies, including Sandhurst, Woolwich, and West Point. He chose the site of the old Campbell homestead and in line with Kitchener's recommendations, Bridges largely modelled Duntroon on the United States Military Academy at West Point. He remained commandant of the college until May 1914, when he was appointed Inspector General of the Army.

First World War

When war broke out, Bridges was in Queensland on an inspection tour, and he returned to Melbourne on 5 August 1914. He met the Australian cabinet, was promoted to the rank of major general, and was charged with the creation of an expeditionary force of 20,000 men for overseas service, known as the Australian Imperial Force (AIF). As this force was raised, Bridges convinced the government to graduate the first class of Duntroon cadets early. Once the force was raised, Bridges and his command sailed from Albany, Western Australia and Fremantle, Western Australia in late October, bound for England, where they were to undertake a period of training before being committed to the fighting on the Western Front. En route, the destination was changed from England to Egypt, where they landed on 1 December. In Egypt, Bridges set to work training his troops, which were organised as the 1st Australian Division. On 25 April, as part the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, Bridges' command was among the first ashore at Anzac Cove, at the start of the Gallipoli campaign.

After the initial landing, the Australian and New Zealand troops established a beachhead around Anzac Cove, but during early May a period of stalemate followed as the Turkish defenders prevented them from advancing inland. Bridges suggested withdrawing the force, but he was over-ruled. During this time, Bridges inspected the front lines on a daily basis, despite the risks. On 15 May 1915, he was shot through the femoral artery in his right leg by a Turkish sniper. Dragged to safety, he was evacuated to the hospital ship Gascon. Infection set in but amputation was deemed impossible since he had lost so much blood. On 17 May 1915, Bridges was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath, although the award was not formally gazetted until 22 May. He was also posthumously Mentioned in Despatches, having died on board the hospital ship on 18 May.

Bridges was buried in Alexandria but in June his body was returned to Melbourne where he received a state funeral. Bridges is the only identified Australian killed in the First World War to have had his body repatriated and buried on Australian soil. His funeral service was conducted at St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne. He was buried on 3 September 1915 at Duntroon on the slopes of Mount Pleasant.

Personal life
On 10 October 1885, Bridges married Edith Lilian Francis (1862–1926), daughter of Alfred John Dawson Francis and Margaret Agnes Anne Francis (formerly Wilson, born Green) at St John's Church, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, which was the same church in which his parents had married in 1858. They had seven children, three of whom died young. Bridges was survived by Edith and their four living children; one of his sons, William Francis, later followed in his footsteps, serving on the Western Front, achieving the rank of major in the AIF and receiving the Distinguished Service Order.

He was also survived by his horse "Sandy", the only Australian Waler horse to return from the First World War, due to quarantine restrictions. It is not clear when Bridges met Sandy but after his death Sandy was cared for by a number of Army vets until, by order of the Minister of Defence, the horse was returned to Australia where he lived at the Remount Depot at Maribyrnong, before being put down in 1923 due to ill health.

Legacy
Sir William Throsby Bridges is memorialised by a memorial tablet in the Anglican Church of St John the Baptist, in Canberra, where his wife is buried. The tablet was unveiled on 9 December 1930, on the final Duntroon graduation day before the college temporarily moved to Victoria Barracks, in Sydney, having been paid for by subscriptions from former AIF officers. His epitaph reads: "Major General Sir William Throsby Bridges KCB CMG died on 18 May 1915 from wounds received at Gallipoli peninsula whilst in command of the Australian Imperial Force. A gallant and erudite soldier, he was the first commandant of this College, where in recognition of faithful service his remains were publicly interred on Third September 1915". As an ex- Kingston cadet, Bridges' name is also listed on the Memorial Arch at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, Ontario, and he is commemorated on the Canadian Virtual War Memorial and on page 566 of the Canadian First World War Book of Remembrance.

title: William Bridges (general)


text:
Talk:Farm Credit Canada

[Untitled]
Since FCC's official full name was changed in 2001 to Farm Credit Canada, I added a redirect from this page. However, what is the policy of renaming a page on Wikipedia when a legal entity changes name? Still keep the old name and redirect from the new or vice versa? RedWolf 05:11, Nov 27, 2003 (UTC)

I have copied the content from this page to Farm Credit Canada and changed this page to a redirect. RedWolf 05:40, May 19, 2004 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Farm Credit Canada


text:
Kendall Square

Kendall Square is a neighborhood in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. The square itself is at the intersection of Main Street and Broadway. It also refers to the broad business district east of Portland Street, northwest of the Charles River, north of MIT and south of Binney Street. Kendall Square has been called "the most innovative square mile on the planet", in reference to the high concentration of entrepreneurial start-ups and quality of innovation which have emerged in the vicinity of the square since 2010.

The neighborhood has approximately 50,000 people who work in the area on a daily basis and a growing residential population.

Industrial district (c.1800–1990)
Originally a salt marsh on the Charles River between Boston and Cambridge, Kendall Square has been an important transportation hub since the construction of the West Boston Bridge in 1793, which provided the first direct wagon route between the two settlements. By 1810, the Broad Canal had been dug, which would connect with a system of smaller canals in this East Cambridge seaport area.

From 1880 to 1910, the eastern part of Cambridge hosted a variety of industries, including "printing and publishing, musical instruments (especially organs and pianos), furniture, clothing, carpenters work, soap and candles, and biscuit making." Heavy machinery was also produced here. Cambridge was once the third-largest pork packer in the US.

One of these factories was the Kendall Boiler and Tank Company. The square was named after the company, which in turn was named after one of its owners, Edward Kendall. The square itself consisted of the triangle defined by Main Street, Broadway, and the short stretch of Third Street between them, now the site of the Galaxy: Earth Sphere fountain and the surrounding plaza.

When the Longfellow Bridge replaced the West Boston Bridge in 1907, it included provisions for a future rapid-transit subway link to Harvard Square and Boston (now the Red Line); the original Kendall subway station was opened in 1912. In 1916, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology moved from its original campus in Back Bay, Boston to its new Cambridge campus, located south of Kendall Square between Main Street and Massachusetts Avenue. Since then, the proximity of MIT, whose campus eventually expanded into Kendall Square, has influenced much of the development of the area, and contributed to its development as a technology hub.

World War I consumed a great deal of Cambridge's production. After the war, other products were also produced: "soap, rubber goods, books, metal products, electrical equipment, furniture, ink, pianos, candy and ice cream". The Boston Woven Hose company and Lever Brothers were major employers, and Cambridge became the second-largest industrial city in Massachusetts.

After World War II, manufacturing stagnated, and from 1945 to 1965, the heaviest industries—"food, chemicals, rubber, plastics, machinery"—declined by 30-50%. At the same time, technical work grew by 35%.

In 1961, after announcing the American effort to land a man on the moon, President John F. Kennedy (a Massachusetts native) wanted to make Cambridge the site of NASA's newly expanded mission control center. Kennedy allowed his vice president Lyndon B. Johnson (a native Texan) to choose Houston, Texas for the complex, now the Johnson Spaceflight Center. To mark the beginning of construction, Kennedy would give his "We choose to go to the Moon" speech in Houston, not Cambridge. (A Cambridge urban legend is that the Kennedy assassination is what moved Mission Control from Cambridge to Houston, but this is untrue. )

In 1964, Kendall Square got a much smaller NASA Electronic Research Center instead. President Richard M. Nixon would shut it down only five years later.

Former Massachusetts Governor John A. Volpe, who served as US Secretary of Transportation (DOT) from 1969 to 1973, succeeded in getting the former NASA buildings rededicated to a new DOT research center, which was later named the John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center in his memory. For the next twenty years, other large parcels of Kendall Square, which had also been cleared in anticipation of a much larger NASA complex, were an unoccupied post-industrial wasteland.

Another contribution came when Harvard University announced plans to construct a high-containment lab in which it would experiment with recombinant DNA. Opposition from Cambridge mayor Alfred Vellucci resulted in the city council passing a three-month moratorium and convening a citizen's committee to study the issue. The resulting regulations passed in 1977 by the council provided certainty for research and development organizations, and led to the creation of the Kendall biotechnology cluster. The first companies taking advantage of this were Harvard spin-off Genetics Institute (which ended up in Cambridge after opposition in Boston and Somerville, and which would eventually become part of Pfizer), and Biogen, which located in the city in 1982.

Office, research, retail, and housing developments (1990–present)
In the 1990s and 2000s, the area northeast of Kendall, in the direction of the then-new CambridgeSide Galleria shopping mall was transformed from an industrial area into a collection of office and research buildings, housing over 150 biotechnology and information technology firms. In 1997, the surviving industrial buildings between Third, Binney, Fifth, and Rogers Streets were declared the Blake and Knowles Steam Pump Company National Register District.

High technology firms are lured in part by the proximity of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) campus on the south side of Main Street. MIT owns a significant amount of the commercial real estate in the square, and has been actively constructing space for new high-tech tenants as well as rebuilding its own facilities fronting Main Street. Nearby MIT facilities include the Stata Center and the MIT Sloan School of Management, as well as many other buildings of the eastern end of the MIT campus.

The Cambridge Center office development is closest to the junction of Main Street and Broadway and the MBTA subway station at the traditional core of Kendall Square. On December 2, 1982, the Kendall/MIT subway station was renamed "Cambridge Center/MIT", although few signs were changed to reflect this. There were many complaints that the MBTA had suddenly changed the name without public input, and that the new name would be confused with the next Red Line station at Central Square. On June 26, 1985, the name was reverted to Kendall/MIT.

The Cambridge Innovation Center, a shared office space for startups and venture capital firms founded by Tim Rowe and currently occupied by almost 400 small startup businesses, is also close by at One Broadway. Google, Facebook, and IBM have research labs located in or immediately adjacent to Kendall Square.

Many other high technology firms are in two nearby multi-building office complex parks, both located about a 1/2 mi from the traditional hub of Kendall Square. To the west, Technology Square is directly behind the main campus of MIT, and once housed its computer research labs. The confusingly-named One Kendall Square complex is located between Broadway and Binney Street (across from Landmark's Kendall Square Cinema, a small cineplex), northwest of the traditional Kendall Square hub.

The "@Kendall Square" development is located one block north of Kendall Square, and includes a mixed-use "live, work, play" community that weaves parks, an ice rink, a farmers market, and a recreational boating basin through a series of office, lab, residential and retail buildings. Buildings within the @Kendall Square development have won numerous design awards including the AIA California Council's 2004 Architectural Design Merit Award, the Boston Society of Architects' 2004 Interior Architecture/Interior Design Honor Award, the Chicago Athenaeum 2004 American Architecture Award, the AIA 2004 Excellence in Sustainable Design Award, and the AIA COTE 2004 Top Ten Green Projects Award.

In 2016, the City of Cambridge approved MIT's plans for six major buildings with floorspace totaling 1,800,000 sqft as part of its "Kendall Square Initiative" development. One building, at 314 Main Street, will have as a principal tenant, the Boeing Company, which will lease 100,000 sqft of lab and office space.

By 2014, a U.S. Department of Transportation building complex and its surrounding parking lots and open land at the western end of Kendall Square constituted one of the largest remaining areas not already subject to 21st century development. The Boston Globe published an article describing possible plans to repurpose the DOT property for future redevelopment, which would require federal approval for relocation of the DOT center, probably to a more-compact building with underground parking. A related article described some ideas on how to use the DOT land more effectively.

In January 2017, MIT signed an agreement with the federal government to purchase the 14 acre site of the John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center in Kendall Square, for $750 million. As a part of the agreement, MIT will build a new replacement research facility for the Department of Transportation, before demolishing the existing building for redevelopment of the entire parcel. Long-term planning has begun for the site, which is not expected to accelerate development until the Kendall Square Initiative construction has largely been completed.

Businesses and organizations
The Kendall Square Association is the official business and civic development organization for Kendall Square, and was formed by approximately 80 organizations in February 2009. Its motto is "We share more than a future, we share a sidewalk". It has developed and distributed a free "Kendall Square Walking Map" showing destinations and attractions within a 10-minute walking radius from Kendall/MIT station.

Several hotels are located in Kendall Square, including the Boston Marriott Cambridge, the Cambridge Residence Inn, and the Kendall Hotel, and several more hotels are located within walking distance. There have also been several large condominium and rental developments, greatly expanding the residential population of the area. , MIT is building residences for 450 graduate students, plus 290 affordable or market-rate units.

The MIT branch of the Harvard/MIT Cooperative Society ("The Coop") has for decades operated a modest department store and general bookstore at 325 Main Street, as Kendall Square's largest retailer. In February 2019, the store moved to smaller temporary quarters at 80 Broadway, to allow for demolition of the building housing its former location. A new, taller 16-story building will be constructed on the site, and the Coop is expected to move into a space larger than its temporary quarters, but possibly smaller than its previous space at that location.

In December 2017, Roche Bros and MIT agreed to put a supermarket in the center of the Kendall business and residential district. The store, opened in November 2019 at One Broadway, is a 12,000 sqft small-format "Brothers Marketplace" which offers fresh, to-go, and prepared foods.

For decades, the MIT Press Bookstore was a regional attraction in the heart of Kendall Square, offering a complete selection of Press titles for browsing and retail purchase, plus a large selection of complementary works from other academic and trade publishers, including magazines and academic journals. Starting in October 2016, the Bookstore was temporarily relocated to Central Square, just north of the previous location of the MIT Museum, because of extensive construction on its former site. In 2022, the Bookstore moved into a new building at 314 Main Street, adjacent to an existing subway entrance to Kendall/MIT station. Sharing the same building, in 2022 the MIT Museum moved to Kendall Square for the first time, including a newly expanded museum store.

Resident diplomatic missions

 * 🇬🇧 British Consulate-General – One Broadway

Transportation access
Kendall/MIT station on the MBTA Red Line is located along Main Street directly beneath Kendall Square. MBTA bus routes 64, 68, 85 and CT2 also stop here, as well as the EZRide shuttle between Cambridgeport and North Station, and a free shuttle to the CambridgeSide Galleria Mall.

Public art

A popular public artwork is the Kendall Band, an interactive sound sculpture by Paul Matisse, located in the Kendall/MIT subway station underground in the heart of the Square.

A bronze fountain sculpture, Galaxy: Earth Sphere by MIT professor Joe Davis, is installed at the junction of Main Street and Broadway in the Square. The fountain was designed to have flowing water and to emit low-temperature steam, but has been partially or completely non-operational for years at a time.

Small stainless-steel bicycle parking racks have been installed on sidewalks in the area, with various science-themed shapes, such as a sine wave or a caffeine molecule. They were commissioned in 2012 from five local artists after a public competition run by the City of Cambridge.

title: Kendall Square


text: Talk:Music of Jamaica

title: Talk:Music of Jamaica


text:
Stars on 45

Stars on 45 was a Dutch novelty pop act that was successful in Europe, the United States, and Australia in the early 1980s. The group later shortened its name to Stars On in the U.S., while in the United Kingdom and Ireland it was known as Starsound (or Star Sound). The band, which consisted solely of studio session musicians under the direction of Jaap Eggermont, formerly of Golden Earring, recorded medley recordings made by recreating hit songs as faithfully as possible and joining them together with a common tempo and underlying drum track.

History
Mark Haley & Lawrence Haley originated the "Stars on 45" concept after Willem van Kooten, managing director of the Dutch publishing company Red Bullet Productions, visited a record store in the summer of 1979 and happened to hear a disco medley being played there. The medley combined original recordings of songs by the Beatles, the Buggles, the Archies and Madness with a number of recent American and British disco hits like Lipps Inc.'s "Funkytown," Heatwave's "Boogie Nights," and The S.O.S. Band's "Take Your Time (Do It Right)," as the rhythms of the various songs tended to complement and "dovetail" into each other. When van Kooten heard that the medley also used a segment of "Venus," a 1970 US #1 hit by Dutch band Shocking Blue — a song for which he himself held the worldwide copyright — and knowing that neither he nor Red Bullet Productions had given the permission for the use of the recording, he realised that the medley in fact was a bootleg release. The record turned out to be a 12-inch single called "Let's Do It In The 80's Great Hits," credited to a nonexistent band called Passion and issued on a nonexistent record label called Alto. The medley had its origin in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, and it was later revealed that it was the work of one Michel Ali, together with two professional DJs, Michel Gendreau and Paul Richer. Gendreau and Richer both specialised in the art of "splicing," stringing together snippets of music from different genres, in varying keys and BPMs and from different sound sources, at this time still predominantly from vinyl records. The first version of the medley was eight minutes long, and it included parts from some twenty tracks of which only three were by the Beatles: "No Reply," "I'll Be Back," and "Drive My Car." A later extended, 16-minute, 30-track mix of the same medley labeled "Bits and Pieces III" added another five Beatles titles: "*Do You Want to Know a Secret," "We Can Work It Out," "I Should Have Known Better," "Nowhere Man," and "You're Gonna Lose That Girl." With the bootleg recording obviously already circulating in dance clubs on both sides of the Atlantic, van Kooten decided to "bootleg the bootleg" and create a licensed version of the medley by using soundalike artists to replicate the original hits and therefore contacted his friend and colleague Jaap Eggermont.

The Beatles soundalikes were established Dutch singers. John Lennon's parts were sung by Bas Muys of the 1970s Dutch pop group Smyle. Paul McCartney's and George Harrison's parts were sung by Sandy Coast frontman Hans Vermeulen and Okkie Huijsdens, who had worked with Vermeulen in the band Rainbow Train. Apart from the recreated songs, an original chorus and hook written and composed by Eggermont and musical arranger Martin Duiser called "Stars on 45" was added at intervals to help string differing sections together. The '45' in the title refers to the playback speed of a vinyl record single — 45 rpm; such singles were often simply called "45s." The female vocalist in the chorus was session singer Jody Pijper; later recordings also featured uncredited vocals by Dutch 1970s star Albert West and Arnie Treffers of the rock revival band Long Tall Ernie and the Shakers. The Stars on 45 recordings were made before the birth of digital recording technology, which meant that each song was recorded separately and the different parts were subsequently manually pieced together with a pre-recorded drumloop, using analog master tapes, in order to create the segued medleys. The specific drumloop heard on most Stars on 45 recordings is often referred to as the "clap track," due to its prominent and steady handclaps.

The first such release was an 11:30 12" single, issued in the aftermath of the so-called anti-disco backlash, and was released on the (at the time) minor label CNR Records in the Netherlands in December 1980. The single was simply entitled "Stars on 45" by Stars on 45, with no credits on the label or the cover as to who actually sang on the recording. When Dutch radio stations began playing the four-minute, eight-track Beatles segment of the medley, placed in the middle of the original, 12" mix, an edited 7" single with the Beatles part preceded by "Venus" and The Archies's "Sugar Sugar" was released and hit the #1 spot of the Dutch singles charts in February 1981. A few months later it also reached #2 in the UK, where it was released by the British subsidiary of CBS Records and credited to 'Starsound.' Shortly thereafter Eggermont created the first Stars on 45 album, Long Play Album, issued with an equally anonymous album cover and featuring a 16-minute side-long medley of Beatles titles. In June 1981 the "Stars on 45 Medley" single also went to #1 in the US where it was released by Radio Records, a sublabel of Atlantic Records. The track list for the 7" edit of the "Stars on 45 Medley" in the US was the names of all the songs that make up the medley as it appears on the actual record label (see image at left):

"Medley: Intro 'Venus'

Sugar, Sugar

No Reply

I'll Be Back

Drive My Car

Do You Want to Know a Secret

We Can Work It Out

I Should Have Known Better

Nowhere Man

You're Going to Lose That Girl

Stars on 45"

This single with its 41-word title continues to hold the record for a #1 single with the longest name on the Billboard charts, due to the legalities requiring each song title be listed. The Stars on 45 Long Play Album (US title: Stars on Long Play, UK, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand: Stars on 45 — The Album) also became a massive seller worldwide, topping both the UK and Australian album charts, it was a Top 10 hit in most parts of Europe and also reached #9 on Billboard's album chart in the US. The popularity of the album even resulted in it being given an official release in the Soviet Union, where it was issued by state-owned record label Melodiya under the title Discothèque Stars. The "Stars on 45 Medley" single was later awarded a platinum disc for one million copies sold in the US alone.

A second Beatles medley went to #67 on the US charts. Another album followed later that same year, Longplay Album – Volume II (US title: Stars on Long Play II; UK, Ireland, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand: Stars on 45 — The Album - Volume 2) featuring medleys using the songs of ABBA, a #2 hit in the UK and Motown, US #55. The recordings of the "Stars on 45" medleys were also made before the advent of modern synthesizers with the possibility of sampling sounds. Consequently, for the recreation of tracks like the themes from "Star Wars" and "The War of the Worlds", included in the "Star Wars and Other Hits" medley on Longplay — Album II and released as the third European single under the title "Volume III," a full symphony orchestra was used, including strings, brass, woodwind, harpsichord, orchestral percussion like timpani etc. — even if those particular parts were only ten or fifteen seconds long on the actual record released.

In late 1981 Eggermont and Martin Duiser were awarded the Conamus Export Prize in the Netherlands in recognition of their contributions to Dutch culture and economy.

A third album, The Superstars (US title: Stars on Long Play III, UK, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand: Stars Medley), featured medleys of The Rolling Stones and Stevie Wonder. The single "Stars on 45 III: A Tribute to Stevie Wonder" peaked at #28 in the US in 1982, where the act was now simply listed as Stars On. It also reached #14 in the UK where it was called "Stars Medley" — confusingly, exactly the same title as the third album in the British Isles and Australasia. In Continental Europe and most other parts of the world the Stevie Wonder medley was entitled "Stars on Stevie." In late 1982, Eggermont and Duiser again won the Conamus Export Prize, this time together with Tony Sherman, who sang lead vocals on "Stars on Stevie."

In 1982, there was a staged musical show at the Huntington Hartford Theater in Hollywood, California and a video of that show was released in 1983 by MCA Home Video.

A spinoff group called The Star Sisters had a hit in Europe in 1983 with an Andrews Sisters medley. The albums were released under the moniker of Stars on 45 Presents the Star Sisters.

1985 saw the release of an album titled Stars on 45 — Soul Revue and a single called "The Sam & Dave Medley" credited to 'Stars on 45 featuring Sam & Dave,' and including the Stars on 45 logo on the album cover, but not produced by Jaap Eggermont. It featured David Prater and his new singing partner Sam Daniels. Original Sam & Dave member Sam Moore demanded that the album and single be recalled; they were later re-labelled and re-issued, but now credited to 'The New Sam & Dave Revue.'

Later European-only releases included Stars on Frankie released in 1987 and some ten years later Stars on 45: The Club Hits; the latter, however, was not produced by Eggermont. While none of the three original Stars on 45 albums have been reissued on CD in their entirety or in their original form, several CD compilations on European budget labels such as EMI's subsidiary Music Club, Arcade, Edel Records, Falcon Neuen Media, Bunny Music, and ZYX Music have been released under the non-copyrighted 'Stars on 45' moniker all through the 1990s and 2000s (decade). These include The Best of Stars on 45, The Very Best of Stars of 45, The Magic of Stars on 45, Stars on 45 Presents the Mighty Megamix Album, The Greatest Stars on 45, The Non-Stop Party Album, Greatest Stars on 45 Vol. 1, and Greatest Stars on 45 Vol. 2. It should, however, be noted that some of these compilations also feature titles such as "The Carpenters Medley," "Beach Boys Gold," "The Spencer Davis Group Medley," "Love Songs Are Forever," and the like—again, recordings that were neither produced by Jaap Eggermont nor originally released as by Stars on 45 in the 1980s. (See below.)

Before Stars on 45
In 1976, the Ritchie Family had scored their biggest U.S. hit with a similar medley named "The Best Disco in Town". This had incorporated various pop hits of the day, such as Silver Convention's "Fly, Robin, Fly" and Donna Summer's "Love to Love You Baby", recreated in an order, and segued by the title theme.

Four years before the release of the "Stars on 45", a similar medley named Rockollection was produced by the Frenchman Laurent Voulzy. Around the same time, Shalamar debuted with their single Uptown Festival, featuring a medley of Motown hits from the 60's. Dutch band Veronica Unlimited scored a big hit in 1977 in the Benelux countries and at home with the disco medley What Kind of Dance Is This. The band Café Crème played its Unlimited Citations (1977) by taking the original Beatles recordings, editing them into a sequence, overdubbing identical drum and bass parts, singing hit songs as faithfully as possible, and stringing them together, with a common tempo and relentless underlying drum track. The single, with its 45-word title, was a hit throughout Europe (including Netherlands) and North Africa. The band acted playback on TV but played the medley live in a different place every night over more than 500 nights (almost two years) in multiple countries.

After Stars on 45 (Volume 1)
The Top of the Pops chart of Thursday 13 August 1981 had seven medleys in the Top 40 (by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, Tight Fit, Gidea Park, Lobo, Starsound, Startrax and Enigma) with "Stars on 45 (Volume 2)" and "Startrax Club Disco", a Bee Gees medley, jointly holding the number 27 slot in the chart.

Beginning in the late 1980s, a British novelty group, Jive Bunny and the Mastermixers, had several hit singles using the same format as Stars on 45, only using primarily big band and 1950s-60s rock and roll songs. Initially, the group utilized remixes of original recordings by artists such as Bill Haley and His Comets, Little Richard and the Everly Brothers, but later used singer-impersonators in similar form to Stars on 45. Among their best known releases were "Swing the Mood" and "That's What I Like".

Discography

 * Long Play Album (1981)
 * Longplay Album – Volume II (1981)
 * The Superstars (1982)
 * Stars on Frankie (1987)
 * The ClubHits new '98 recordings (1998)

title: Stars on 45