text:
Talk:Judge

Seriously
You guys need to get this article cleaned up and make it as something that the world can relate and view, not just related to the United States Judicial system. Please hurry up in fixing this article! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.130.207.53 (talk) 00:26, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

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What does "A court trial is before a judge only." mean? I am a barrister in England and Wales and I have never heard the term "court trial" used in this fashion. Does "court trial" mean (in whatever jurisdiction, I suspect the US) a trial conducted without a jury, in which case this is a definition and should be flagged as such, or does it mean something quite different? Please explain. Francis Davey 13:38, 26 August 2005 (UTC)
 * In the US a trial where the judge is the finder of fact instead of a jury is commonly referred to as a "bench trial." I'm going to change it to say "bench trial" with a disclaimer that it is a US term.  The terminology comes from the "bar" which is the area between the general courtroom and the attorneys; then there is the "bench" where the judge/court sits.  Peyna 18:44, 1 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Ah, I am familiar with what a "bench trial" is, although the term is fairly rare here. Very few cases are heard with juries and most of those are trials on indictment, for which there is already a term. I am in court about 90% of the time and have never seen a jury while in practice or training. Francis Davey 19:08, 1 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm still not completely satisfied with how this is worded; since there can be bench trials in criminal and civil cases. Peyna 19:48, 1 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Just to clarify further: Americans use the term "bench trial" to distinguish situations where the judge is the finder of fact, because our default trial is the jury trial. We do jury trials all the time, as you've probably noticed from our movies and TV shows.

 * Our public policy is that judges and lawyers will become immune or insensitive over time to the pain and suffering of litigants. After all, they see such terrible things in gruesome detail every day, while most people hear only about the occasional shocking case on the TV news. So, our ideal is that a jury will hear the evidence and make findings of fact that reflect the sensibilities of society as a whole, rather than the hardened notions of the typical judge or lawyer.  That's why we force practically all able-bodied American citizens to participate in jury duty every now and then.  --Coolcaesar 00:23, 2 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Sort of right, except that the majority of cases in the United States never see a jury. We definitely have more bench trials than jury trials.  A jury is only Constitutionally guaranteed in criminal cases (which excludes things like traffic offenses and other "minor" offenses), and in Federal civil cases involving more than twenty dollars.  Aside from that it varies state by state, but for a variety reasons many civil cases result in either a directed verdict (judge makes the verdict without using the jury, upon request of either counsel) or summary judgment (there is no issue of fact).  So while juries are important; a lot of times they're not used.  I'm also unsure about your statements about "the hardened notions of the typical judge or lawyer."  For instance, lawyers used to be prohibitted from sitting on juries, but in most states there is no blanket exception anymore, because fears about what they might do to the jury turned out to be unfounded.  Anyway, we're getting off topic, the article is entitled "Judge".  Peyna 01:18, 2 September 2005 (UTC)

''Our public policy is that judges and lawyers will become immune or insensitive over time to the pain and suffering of litigants. After all, they see such terrible things in gruesome detail every day, while most people hear only about the occasional shocking case on the TV news. So, our ideal is that a jury will hear the evidence and make findings of fact that reflect the sensibilities of society as a whole, rather than the hardened notions of the typical judge or lawyer.''

Just a side note: there were several high profile cases of jury trials in France where the jury's findings of guilt were criticized. For instance, in the case of one infamous trial of people suspected of pedophilia, it is suspected that the jury fell for the general athmosphere of "not letting them get away with it", while they should have weighed whether there were proofs (knowing that doubt must benefit the defendant).

Thus, the claim that juries are more sympathetic to defendants than judges are highly dispurable. David.Monniaux 22:27, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

Fictional Judges
judge jules and judge dread exist, but they are not really judges! hence fictional :) Steeev 23:14, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Thats why I added "or not real" to the heading! Cheers :-) quercus robur 23:17, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * oops sorry, didnt read before i wrote or look before i leaped :) Steeev 23:19, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * then again fictional and not real, could be deemed to mean the same thing ;-) Steeev 23:20, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Lists
We have got Judge, which includes a list, and List of jurists, not to mention several separate lists by jurisdiction. Needs sorting out. Any proposals? Cutler 00:42, Dec 9, 2004 (UTC)

If one day I have time, I'll move the dress of French judges to Court dress, but... David.Monniaux 18:37, 17 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Can someone seperate a page for "Judge" the Anime, which links right here? - i've watched the anime and can start a page, but i'm not sure how to physically create a new page. 1:30 2nd June 2005 (GMT)

Appointment / Election
Would a section detailing more about judicial appointment / election processes be appropriate here or maybe somewhere else? I've done a little bit of looking and don't see this being covered anywhere on Wikipedia; anyone have any suggestions? I'd be more than willing to get things started. Peyna 18:52, 1 September 2005 (UTC)

Judicial selection has been largely covered in court system articles. Ohwilleke 22:11, 31 May 2007 (UTC)

Well, all I can say is that judges are definitely NOT elected. Eenyminy 15:40, 17 May 2007 (UTC)

I think it would be a decent addition. It seems to be a topic inherently related to judges - at least a link to the court system articles that detail this would be appropriate. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.222.221.24 (talk) 22:33, 15 January 2008 (UTC)

Lay Judges
Under the heading "Judges in the legal system" it says that Finland makes use of lay judges. This is also the case in Sweden (see http://www.dom.se/templates/DV_InfoPage____754.aspx). My guess is that there are additional countries making use of lay judges, besides Finland and Sweden. These lay judges are in Sweden known as "nämndeman" (pl. "nämndemän"), which usually translated into "lay assessor" (Norstedts English Dictionary).

Ohwilleke 05:56, 22 February 2007 (UTC) The term doesn't translate particularly well. Civil law "lay judges" are neither comparable to a U.S. Justice of the Peace, who has the full authority of a judge and acts alone, despite a lack of legal training, in less important cases, nor to a petite juror who is chosen at random to decide cases in a particular matter under the supervision of a legally trained judge (although the later is a little closer to the role involved). The most analogous position in the common law system to a lay judge is that of a grand juror, who hears many cases over a prolonged period with similar lay persons, with some authority to consider matters of both fact and law, but a European lay judge would generally hear the merits of cases like a U.S petite juror, while a U.S. grand juror would often handle only preliminary screening of criminal cases brought by prosecutors.

 * In the United States, we have some odd differences from state to state. See state court and state supreme court.  In states operating under the Missouri Plan, judges are practically always lawyers or at least law-trained to some extent, because otherwise the governor would get bad publicity during his reelection campaign for appointing untrained judges.  In states that elect judges directly, there are a lot of lay judges, many of whom are not law-trained and are thus extremely incompetent.  The federal government has no explicit requirement that judges must be lawyers, but as a matter of tradition, the President always nominates well-qualified lawyers.  --Coolcaesar 20:18, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

 * In England judges may sit with lay assessors, though I have never heard of a court other than the Admirality court do so. It is relatively common in Admirality I believe, but that's not an area of my practice. Many tribunals now refer to their members as "judges" - for example in an Employment Tribunal - and 2/3 of their members will be lay members in the sense of not being lawyers, though they will have relevant experience. With the increasing uniformatisation of tribunals across England this process will continue to increase the number of lay people who sit professionally on tribunals. Francis Davey (talk) 09:43, 31 December 2010 (UTC)

also it should be noted that some states do not require that magistrates be trained in the law. The United States Supreme Court also does not require that the justices be law trained. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.200.115.87 (talk) 05:36, 29 December 2010 (UTC)

Last sentence
"In addition, judges although in their official capacity should and are free from bias, however a doctrine called as major premise, assumes that all judges are humans and therefore not infallible." This sentence needs re-writing, but I'm not sure what it means as it stands. Rhion 08:59, 23 February 2006 (UTC)
 * It means that even though judges officialy are (and should be) unbiased, that major premise doctrine says that they are still human and possibly slightly biased. --Snake712 16:46, 8 August 2006 (UTC)

 * You've got to be joking .  They're incredibly biased.  Not to mention self-righteous. 24.68.180.163 13:19, 17 November 2006 (UTC)

Authority of judges
Some statements about judges in civil law judges are partly misleading, at least as far as the German legal system is concerned. There, judges do have the power to impose injunctive relief, restraining orders, and limited fines for misconduct in the courtroom. Moreover, ordinary judges can hear some cases in which the government is a party, as the definition of "public law" is narrower than stated in the text. In addition, the part of the text which deals with precedence gives a wrong impression: Although not binding, the research on and the reference to precedence is an indispensable part of daily legal practice. Furthermore, I am not quite sure what is meant by the term "making the law" in the text, but the method of analogy is accepted and common, whereby a statutory rule can be extended even to a case which is not expressly dealt with in a statute, if the law is deemed to contain an unintended lacuna. Finally, the inquisitorial procedure is mainly applicable in criminal and public law cases. In contrast, in private law cases, the judge is limited to the facts (and up to a certain extent also to the evidence) as they are presented to him by the parties. I didn't want all these specific caveats to the text itself, but it clearly seems to need a review.

Ohwilleke 06:27, 22 February 2007 (UTC) A more general introductory caveat has been added, and the definition of public law in the text has been narrowed.

Judges do not have authority. They only have power. They delude themselves into believing their system represents the will of the people, and that this gives them authority. 205.250.242.207 (talk) 04:36, 23 February 2011 (UTC)

Canadian Judges - question
The reference given does not say that Canadian judges can only be removed for misconduct; it says that they can be, but is silent on whether there are other reasons (mental incompetence, incapacitating illness, etc.). Does anyone have a reference that states outright that judges can't be removed due to inability to handle the job? -- Charlene 10:09, 3 February 2007 (UTC)

Psychiatry
paragraph irrelevant to this article (also POV, unreferenced and probably jurisdiction specific

Psychiatry has the power to jail and forcably treat so this profession is relevant to the subject of judges.Political_abuses_of_psychiatry[]

Judicial Appointment
It seems an important factor that is largely missing from this heavily US-centric article.--77.99.12.23 (talk) 13:53, 28 November 2007 (UTC)

Training of judges internationally
I would like to see a section on the kind of training received by judges in different countries. In the United States, it is the law that judges must first have been lawyers, trained in the same law school, where they acquire their single-minded vertical notions of justice. I believe that the UK takes a different approach, and supplies legal training quite separate and isolated from what is required of a lawyer. Has to do with freeing up the mind to rise above polarizing argument, and to think laterally. Also helps to prevent old boy "ties", and loyal surviving friendships with fellow lawyers, causing future conflicts of interest. And creates a good judge's mistrust and even a healthy contempt towards lawyers, seldom seen in the U.S (ever been in court unrepresented?). No, judges should not ever have been one of "them". JohnClarknew (talk) 02:08, 6 March 2008 (UTC)

"Your Honor"
Why does one address a judge "your honor" instead of "my honor"? It makes no sense. -Rolypolyman (talk) 05:37, 30 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Because it is the judge's honour that one is addressing not one's own. Francis Davey (talk) 11:46, 4 September 2008 (UTC)

 * It's only rhetoric anyway, designed to condition people to believe in the hierarchy and to submit to the power of the civil servant they're addressing. 216.232.250.111 (talk) 02:59, 10 October 2011 (UTC)

 * I don't think it can be said to be "designed" that way. A lot of court conventions are historical accidents rather than planned outcomes. Judges aren't really "civil servants" since they aren't part of the executive (or, generally speaking "servants" - i.e. not employed). Francis Davey (talk) 11:08, 10 October 2011 (UTC)

 * I doubt this is a historical accident. And even if so, it has only been maintained due to the hubristic nature of judges. 205.250.243.241 (talk) 09:42, 13 December 2011 (UTC)

Update the picture
Just wanted to say, shouldn't we update the picture on the article with a more recent photograph of a court of law?--Archeopteryx (talk) 03:26, 20 October 2008 (UTC)

U.S. Supreme Court
There needs to be a citation supporting the use of "justice" for the U.S. Supreme Court members. The Court does call its members that, but the Constitution only uses the term "judge" to refer to them, both in Article II & III. Is calling them justices a mistake? If so, when did people start making that constitutional mistake? The error appears to go back to the Judiciary Act of 1789. Why did Congress do that, when just two years earlier in the Constitution they called them judges?--222.152.93.87 (talk) 10:29, 14 January 2010 (UTC)

Canadian Justices
As a lawyer, I usually refer to the presiding judge as "my lord", as far as I know most of my colleges do the same. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 96.52.129.78 (talk) 19:04, 16 May 2010 (UTC)

listing of DA as "judicial title"
District Attorney's are not judicial, they are executive. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.200.115.87 (talk) 05:33, 29 December 2010 (UTC)

Judicial Arrogance
I'd like a section on judges' comments at the end of court cases. Something like, "judges are renowned for making highly arrogant comments at the end of court cases, flaunting the supposed merits of their system while pretending they are the ones offering the 'different perspective' (the only, of course, different perspective to be had), and then retaliating when their victims object." It could be worded slightly differently, but the main point would be a recognition of the extreme arrogance displayed by judges when they need to feel powerful at the expense of others. You read it in the papers constantly. Judges give themselves the final words, frame what they're saying as if they're absolutely right, and flaunt their egos, then walk away satisfied, oh so satisfied while their victims are forced to sit silently and submit. 205.250.243.241 (talk) 17:49, 13 December 2011 (UTC)

Is this really a B class?
Seems more like a C or Start class to me. -- Anar  chyte   11:54, 3 June 2015 (UTC)

Concur with the C or Start class assessment, and placing tag
This article is a lede, and a long section about how judges are called. It lacks essential all substance, for instance, about the different roles that judges play in each listed legal system. This Emperor has no clothes. Calling for an expert. Le Prof Leprof 7272 (talk) 22:29, 21 August 2015 (UTC)
 * Removed tag. Not clear why an expert is necessary for this article. Agree it can be expanded but no need to put off non-experts from helping. FuriouslySerene (talk) 14:03, 27 April 2016 (UTC)

Oman dress
What does it mean "judges wear a long stripe." Does that mean they ONLY wear a long stripe, b/c the article continues to say lawyers wear black robes, but not judges. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.67.32.161 (talk) 02:04, 12 December 2015 (UTC)

Dreadfully useless article
No offense, but this is one of the most pointless articles I've seen on wikipedia. It only mentions styles and forms of address (not very interesting/useful information), and absolutely nothing else of value concerning judges. E.g. How is one appointed a judge? What are the principal duties of a judge? How does a judge conduct him/herself in court? What powers does a judge have? How did the role of judge develop through history? Some famous judges? Please can someone with some in-depth knowledge about the subject expand the article substantially. Ideally styles/forms of address, which takes up a hideous amount of space for such trivial information, ought to be on a separate page. Fmc47 (talk) 19:20, 12 November 2016 (UTC)

 * All those question depend critically on the jurisdiction in which the judge sits and enormously over time and often on the type of judge. Literally no-one has that expert knowledge. Francis Davey (talk) 09:51, 13 November 2016 (UTC)

 * That's not a particularly good excuse for such a stark lack of useful information. Let's say for the sake of argument, we limit ourselves to modern-day judges. I am not aware of different "types" of judges; only the one which presides over a court of law. We don't mean judges in a sporting competition or dance-off. If there are important distinctions with regard to types of legal judges, perhaps this is one aspect the article could address.

 * With regards to the issue of jurisdiction, many of the functions of a judge overlap across jurisdictions, and systems in many jurisdictions are based on a particular model. In any case, the article could be split into sections for key jurisdictions or groups of similar jurisdictions, e.g. US, UK, Europe, Commonwealth countries, etc. This way multiple authors can each write the particular section that pertains to their own knowledge and expertise. Alternatively you could have the style of article which reads as follows: "In the US, judges are appointed by blah blah blah. However, in the UK, this-that-and-the-other. Australia and other Commonwealth countries use a similar system to the UK, with some key differences, listed below." I don't think either of these are particularly farfetched ideas. Fmc47 (talk) 17:20, 18 February 2017 (UTC)

 * Unfortunately, I can tell you from personal experience that a lot of other editors will either (1) challenge such edits as in conflict with WikiProject Countering systemic bias or (2) insist on immediately branching off such country-specific content into separate articles and take the position that only defensible broad assertions about judges generally (or at least regionally and/or by legal system) should be in this article. We have had idiotic stalemates like that on Law of the United States and many other articles for many years. So nothing gets done. Which is why Wikipedia is hemorrhaging editors like crazy. --Coolcaesar (talk) 05:52, 19 February 2017 (UTC)

Scotland
I'm not seeing this as a completed edit or, to be honest, an improvement.

"Judges" in Scotland are called sheriffs. There are also (as this change points out) Senators of the College of Justice. However, as was already sourced, I understand that the majority of those judicial roles who might be encountered presiding in a court in Scotland are indeed sheriffs. This article should state that. Maybe neither version is fully correct, but there needs to be some mention of the sheriffs in there.

? Andy Dingley (talk) 17:37, 27 December 2016 (UTC)

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Titles section
I think the Titles and Forms of Address section is taking up way too much space in this article to the point this is what this article is about. Maybe this section should be moved to a different page or compressed to a table. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2A0D:6FC0:B84:8300:9DA:8DA4:C5C3:8A85 (talk) 11:56, 1 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Judge


text:
Talk:De Broglie–Bohm theory

Double slit experiment?
I think it would immensely improve the article to give a brief explanation of how the theory explains the double slit experiment. 192.38.90.165 (talk) 08:28, 23 November 2023 (UTC)

Recent changes I made.
I started to make one small change, but as I read more I realized the article has numerous problems. Thus I have by now made a number of changes. The most visible ones concern tightening the intro. It should be a succinct summary but it had grown with some long blocks of quotes etc. I moved the quotes to the History section.

The other changes are mostly around incorrect or misleading content. I tried to squeeze my justification in to the edit summary but I will reply to any complaint about my changes made here in the Talk pages. I want to be clear I'm not a Bohm-hater (or supporter), I just want the article to be clear and correct. Johnjbarton (talk) 17:02, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

ESSW, surreal trajectories, many hydrodynamic results.
The (tiny) experimental section has a cryptic comment about ESSW. There is actually quite a lot of work related to this paper. In particular some of the work out of JWM Bush's group shows that the surreal trajectories of ESSW are real trajectories in classical hydrodynamics. Johnjbarton (talk) 19:09, 18 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Frumkin, Valeri, and John WM Bush. "Misinference of interaction-free measurement from a classical system." Physical Review A 108.6 (2023): L060201.
 * Frumkin, Valeri, et al. "Real surreal trajectories in pilot-wave hydrodynamics." Physical Review A 106.1 (2022): L010203.
 * https://thales.mit.edu/bush/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Bush-AnnRev2015.pdf

Hydrodynamic quantum analogs: "Experiments cannot be reproduced"
In the section on hydrodynamic quantum anologs, it says "Hydrodynamic pilot-wave analogs have been claimed to duplicate the double slit experiment, tunneling, quantized orbits, and numerous other quantum phenomena which have led to a resurgence in interest in pilot wave theories."

Shortly afterwards the article says "These results have been disputed: the experiments cannot be reproduced."

Attached to this second quote are the following two references:
 * https://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevE.92.013006
 * https://www.quantamagazine.org/famous-experiment-dooms-pilot-wave-alternative-to-quantum-weirdness-20181011/

These references do not say the experiments cannot be reproduced, they are only concerned with the double slit experiment in particular. The Elysian Vector Fields (talk) 02:45, 12 July 2024 (UTC)

 * I changed the text. I made a quick pass sometime ago to remove some of the egregious claims in the article. The hydrodynamics analog work is rather convoluted and the fluid dynamics of it has taken on life of its own. That makes simple statements on the relationship to QM difficult either way. Johnjbarton (talk) 03:36, 12 July 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:De Broglie–Bohm theory


text:
Tender (rail)

A tender or coal-car (US only) is a special rail vehicle hauled by a steam locomotive containing its fuel (wood, coal, oil or torrefied biomass) and water. Steam locomotives consume large quantities of water compared to the quantity of fuel, so their tenders are necessary to keep them running over long distances. A locomotive that pulls a tender is called a tender locomotive. Locomotives that do not have tenders and carry all their fuel and water on board the locomotive itself are called tank locomotives or tank engines.

A corridor tender is a locomotive tender with a passageway to one side, allowing crew changes on the fly.

A brake tender is a tender that is heavy and used (primarily) to provide greater braking efficiency.

General functions
The largest steam locomotives are semi-permanently coupled by a drawbar to a tender that carries the water and fuel. The fuel source used depends on what is economically available locally. In the UK and parts of Europe, a plentiful supply of coal made this the obvious choice from the earliest days of the steam engine. Until around 1850 in the United States, the vast majority of locomotives burned wood until most of the eastern forests were cleared. Subsequently, coal burning became more widespread, and wood burners were restricted to rural and logging districts.

Water supply

By the mid-1800s, most steam locomotive tenders consisted of a fuel bunker (that held coal or wood) surrounded by a U-shaped (when viewed from the top) water jacket. The overall shape of the tender was usually rectangular. The bunker which held the coal was sloped downwards toward the locomotive providing easier access to the coal. The ratio of water to fuel capacities of tenders was normally based on two water-stops to each fuel stop because water was more readily available than fuel. One pound [1 lb] of coal could turn six pounds of water (0.7 gallons) [6 lb] to steam. Therefore, tender capacity ratios were normally close to 7 tons (14,000 lb) [14,000 lb] of coal per 10,000 gallons [10,000 usgal] of water.

The water supply in a tender was replenished at water stops and locomotive depots from a dedicated water tower connected to water cranes or gantries. Refilling the tender is the job of the fireman, who is responsible for maintaining the locomotive's fire, steam pressure, and supply of fuel and water.

Water carried in the tender must be forced into the boiler, to replace that which is consumed during operation. Early engines used pumps driven by the motion of the pistons. Later, steam injectors replaced the pump while some engines used turbopumps.

With track pans or water troughs
In the UK, the US and France, water troughs (in the US, track pans) were provided on some main lines to allow locomotives to replenish their water supply while moving. A "water scoop" was fitted under the tender or the rear water tank in the case of a large tank engine; the fireman remotely lowered the scoop into the trough, the speed of the engine forced the water up into the tank, and the scoop was raised once it was full.

The fuel and water capacities of a tender are usually proportional to the rate at which they are consumed, though there were exceptions. The Pennsylvania Railroad and the New York Central Railroad used track pans on many of their routes, allowing locomotives to pick up water at speed. The result was that the water tanks on these tenders were proportionally much smaller.

In the UK water troughs were used by three of the Big Four railways. The exception was the Southern Railway – mainly because the majority of the Southern's operations were based around short-distance commuter, suburban and rural services with frequent station stops where water could be taken on from water columns. The Southern's decision to electrify its routes into London with a third rail system also made the installation of water troughs impractical. Only on the former London and South Western Railway routes west of Salisbury, where long-distance express trains operated, was the lack of troughs a problem. Rather than install troughs the L&SWR (and the Southern) equipped its express locomotives with special high-capacity tenders with a water capacity of 4,000 gallons (18,200 L) running on a pair of twin-axle bogies. These were known to railwaymen as "water cart" tenders.

Condensing tenders
Condensing steam locomotives were designed to recycle exhaust steam by condensing it into feed water. The principal benefit is conservation of water, but the thermal efficiency of the engine is also increased, since much of the heat otherwise lost in the exhaust is used to preheat water injected into the boiler. In some cases condensing was employed simply to improve visibility by eliminating clouds of exhaust.

A primitive approach to condensation simply injected the spent steam into the tender tank, relying on the mass of water for cooling. More sophisticated tenders, such as those used in the South African Railways Class 25 locomotives designed for service in the Karoo, replaced most of the water tank with a huge radiator, in which the steam was cooled and condensed. Exhaust steam, after passing through an oil-water separator, was conveyed to the tender, where it powered a low-pressure turbine used to drive the radiator fans. The steam then passed into the radiator. The condensate was injected into the boiler with another turbine-driven pump. This was a quite complex bit of machinery, also requiring another turbine in the smokebox to provide the exhaust draft normally obtained by blowing the exhaust steam up the stack. Eventually the SAR examples were converted to conventional locomotives by replacing the radiator with a long water tank.

Fuel supply
A factor that limits locomotive performance is the rate at which fuel is fed into the fire. Much of the fireman's time is spent throwing wood or shoveling coal into the firebox of the locomotive to maintain constant steam pressure. In the early 20th century some locomotives became so large that the fireman could not shovel coal fast enough. Consequently, in the United States, various steam-powered mechanical stokers (typically using an auger feed between the fuel bunker and the firebox) became standard equipment and were adopted elsewhere, including Australia and South Africa.

Tender design variants
In the early days of railroading, tenders were rectangular boxes, with a bunker for coal or wood surrounded by a U-shaped water jacket. This form was retained up to the end of steam on many coal-burning engines. Oil-burning engines substituted a fuel tank for the bunker. Variations on this plan were made for operational reasons, in attempts to economize on structure.

Vanderbilt
In early 1901, Cornelius Vanderbilt III filed a patent application covering a new type of tender. Vanderbilt was the great-grandson of the founder of the New York Central Railroad; his tender featured a cylindrical body like a tank car with a fuel bunker set into the front end. This design was soon adopted by a number of American railroads with oil-burning and coal-burning locomotives.

Compared to rectangular tenders, cylindrical Vanderbilt tenders were stronger, lighter, and held more fuel in relation to surface area. Railroads who were noted for using Vanderbilt tenders include:
 * Baltimore & Ohio
 * Canadian National
 * Grand Trunk Western
 * Great Northern Railway
 * Southern Pacific
 * Union Pacific
 * New Zealand Railways Department (NZR AB class, NZR J class, NZR G class (1928)).
 * Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railway
 * Seaboard Air Line Railroad
 * South African Railways

Whaleback
A form peculiar to oil-burning engines was the "whaleback" tender (also sometimes called a "turtle-back" or "loaf" tender). This was a roughly half-cylindrical form with the rounded side up; the forward portion of the tank held the oil, while the remainder held the water. This form was particularly associated with the Southern Pacific.

Slopeback
In the United States, tenders with sloped backs were often used for locomotives in yard switching service, because they greatly improved the engineer's ability to see behind the locomotive when switching cars. The reduced water capacity was not a problem, as the tender's water tank could be frequently refilled in the rail yard. In the 1880s, numerous locomotive manufacturers were offering tenders with this design on small switcher locomotives.

Corridor
For the introduction of the London and North Eastern Railway's non-stop Flying Scotsman service on 1 May 1928, ten special tenders were built with means to reach the locomotive from the train through a narrow passageway inside the tender tank plus a flexible bellows connection linking it with the leading coach. The passageway, which ran along the right-hand side of the tender, was 5 ft high and 18 in wide. Further corridor tenders were built at intervals until 1938, and eventually there were 22; at various times, they were coupled to engines of classes A1, A3, A4 and W1, but by the end of 1948, all were running with class A4 locomotives. Use of the corridor tender for changing crews on the move in an A4 loco is shown in the 1953 British Transport film Elizabethan Express, the name of another London-Edinburgh non-stop train.

Water cart
The water cart was a type of high-capacity tender used by the London and South Western Railway in England. Unlike the usual British six-wheel tender, it was a double-bogie design with inside bearings. This gave it a distinctive appearance because the wheels were very obvious.

Canteen
An additional tender which holds only water is called a "canteen" or "auxiliary tender". During the steam era, these were not frequently used. Water tanks were placed at regular intervals along the track, making a canteen unnecessary in most cases. However, there were times that canteens proved economical. The Norfolk and Western Railway used canteens with its giant 2-8-8-2 Y Class and 2-6-6-4 A Class locomotives on coal trains, timed freights, fast freights, and merchandise freights. Use of the canteen allowed one of the water stops to be skipped, allowing the train to avoid climbing a hill from a dead stop. Currently, the Union Pacific Railroad uses two canteens with its steam locomotives 844 and 4014 on excursion trains. Virtually all the trackside tanks were removed when steam locomotives were retired. Nowadays, fire hydrant hookups are used, which fills the tanks much more slowly. The canteens allow for greater range between stops.

Canteens were also used on the Trans-Australian Railway which crosses the waterless Nullarbor Plain. In New South Wales these vehicles were called "gins", and were used in the predominantly dry western region and on some branch lines. Now prominently use on heritage excursions due to the lack of places with accessible water points. During the catastrophic 2019-2020 bushfire season, as fires devastated towns near the Rail Transport Museum at Thirlmere, south of Sydney, a diesel locomotive from the museum hauled two gins to help replenish firefighting tanker trucks.

In the United Kingdom, a canteen was used on the preserved Flying Scotsman during enthusiast excursions in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The water troughs that had previously supplied long-distance expresses had been removed during dieselisation of the railway network. On 25 July 2009, Bittern made a 188-mile run from King's Cross to York non-stop using a second tender. As railways in Britain tend to be much shorter than those in the US, the canteen was not an economical proposition.

Fuel tender

Sometimes a tender will be used for a diesel locomotive. This is typically a tank car with a fuel line that connects to the locomotive and MU connections to allow locomotives behind the tender to be controlled remotely. The Burlington Northern Railroad used fuel tenders in remote territory where fuel was expensive. Diesel fuel could be bought cheaply and loaded into the tender. A common consist was two EMD SD40-2s with a tender between them. Some of the tenders survived the Burlington Northern Santa Fe merger but retain the black and green BN colors. The Southern Pacific Railroad also briefly experimented with fuel tenders for diesels. Some slugs have fuel tanks and serve as fuel tenders for the attached locomotives, especially those that are converted from locomotives that are retired due to worn-out diesels.

The Union Pacific Railroad used fuel tenders on its turbines. These tenders were originally used with steam locomotives, then reworked to hold heavy "Bunker C" fuel oil. Fuel capacity was about 23,000 gallons (87,000 liters). When the turbines were retired, some of the tenders were reworked to hold water, and employed as canteens for steam locomotives.

Fuel tenders have also been the cause of controversy for railroads, in particular the Soo Line. In the late 1970s, the management of the railroad discovered that it was cheaper for them to fill their fuel tenders at Chicago, and then transport the fuel to Shoreham Wisconsin. Doing this avoided the railroad needing to pay extra taxes on the fuel, and the system was continued until the mid 1980s. When the states of Illinois and Wisconsin caught onto the railroad's actions, legislation was passed which charged the same over the road tax on the fuel movement over rail which was charged for truck drivers. Doing this completely negated the benefit of moving the fuel by way of the tenders, and Soo quietly withdrew the practice.

Tenders have also been developed to carry liquefied natural gas for diesel locomotives converted to run on that fuel.

Brake tender
On British railways, brake tenders were low, heavy wagons used with early main line diesel locomotives. One or two were coupled in front or behind the locomotive to provide extra braking power when hauling unfitted or partially fitted freight trains (trains formed from wagons not fitted with automatic brakes). They were required as the lighter weight of the new diesel locomotives, compared to steam, meant that they had comparable tractive effort (and thus train hauling capacity) but less braking ability. Originally intended to be used in North East England, where they were usually propelled (pushed) by the locomotive, and later used in other regions. On the Southern Region they were normally hauled behind the locomotive.

The tender took the form of a hollow box, low enough to avoid obscuring the driver's view when pushed. The body was carried on a pair of former carriage bogies, which provided the automatic brakes. The body was filled with scrap steel to raise the weight of the vehicle to $35 1/2$–$37 1/2$ tons; consequently increasing the available brake force. Four lamp brackets were provided at each end to display locomotive headcode discs describing the class of train – when propelled, the tender obscured the front of the locomotive, and hence the headcode.

Introduced around 1964–65, they were taken out of use in the 1980s when the practice of using unfitted trains was discontinued. None survived in preservation but an operational replica has been constructed on the Great Central Railway from the remnants of a Mk1 corridor coach and has been given the next number in the brake tender sequence; B964122.

Powered tender
Certain early British steam locomotives were fitted with powered tenders. As well as holding coal and water, these had wheels powered from the locomotive to provide greater tractive effort. These were abandoned for economic reasons; railwaymen working on locomotives so equipped demanded extra pay as they were effectively running two locomotives. However, the concept was tried again on the Ravenglass and Eskdale Railway's River Mite, and the Garratt locomotive may be seen as an extension of this principle. Powered tenders were also seen on the triplex locomotives in the United States, but these experiments were not considered successful due to the varying mass of the tender. Powered tenders were used extensively on geared logging steam locomotives like the Shay, Climax, and Heisler types where the steep grades and heavy trains necessitated the extra tractive effort.

Nowadays, slugs are used with diesel-electric locomotives. The slug has traction motors that draw electricity from the locomotive's prime mover to provide extra traction.

German practice
In Germany, attention was given to ensuring that tender locomotives were capable of moderately high speeds in reverse, pushing their tenders. The numerous DRB Class 50 (2-10-0) locomotives, for example, were capable of 80 km/h in either direction, and were commonly used on branch lines without turning facilities.

A source of possible confusion with regards to German locomotives is that in German, Tenderlokomotive means a tank locomotive. A locomotive with a separate, hauled tender is a Schlepptenderlokomotive.

Tender-first operations

In some instances, particularly on branch lines having no turnaround such as a turntable or wye at the terminus point, locomotives ran in reverse with the tender leading the train. In such instances, a headlamp (US) or headcode lamps/discs were placed on the leading end of the tender. Locomotive crews often rigged a tarpaulin (or the locomotive's storm sheet, if available) from the rear of the cab roof to the front of the tender to provide protection from the wind and to prevent coal dust being blown into the cab. Tenders designed for more frequent tender-first workings were often fitted with a fixed cab panel and windows, providing an almost fully enclosed cab.

title: Tender (rail)


text:
Stalybridge Celtic F.C.

Stalybridge Celtic Football Club is an English football club based in Stalybridge, Greater Manchester. They are currently members of the and play at Bower Fold. The team traditionally plays in a blue and white strip.

In 1921, Stalybridge Celtic became a founder member of the Football League's Third Division North. After only two seasons in the new league, they became the first club to leave the new division.

History
The club's formation is usually given as 1909. However, it may have been as early as 1905 when an amateur club with the same name was formed. There were players called Storrs and Manwood who played in the 1906 and 1909 teams, and a player called Rhodes who played in the amateurs' first game; a Herbert Rhodes was a significant benefactor of the 'later' Celtic.

The club played for two seasons in the Lancashire and Cheshire Amateur League, before turning professional and joining the Lancashire Combination becoming second division champions at the first attempt. They followed it up with a fourth place and runners up spot in the Central League. In an attempt to progress the club joined the Southern League. The club rejoined the Central League for the 1919–20 season and in 1921 became one of the founder members of the Football League's Third Division North. However the club resigned after two seasons, as it was felt that it could not attract enough support to justify a League side – in spite of the fact that average attendance of 5,480 in 1922 was almost 2,000 more than neighbouring Rochdale, who played in the same Division. The full Celtic story in the League is detailed in Manchester A Football History where Celtic are given the same level of analysis and research as the Manchester region's other sides.

They joined the Cheshire County League remaining members for 60 years and winning the title only once in 1980. With the league's merger with the Lancashire Combination in 1982, they became founder members of the North West Counties League, winning the title in 1984 and 1987, with the latter triumph resulting in them being promoted to the Northern Premier League (NPL). In 1992 the club won the league title and was promoted to the Football Conference, playing at that level for six seasons to 1998 before being relegated to the NPL again, after finishing bottom.

In 2000–01, the club had one of the best seasons in its history, achieving a treble of the Cheshire Senior Cup, the President's Cup and the Northern Premier League Premier Division, thus being promoted back to the Football Conference (though they were relegated after only one season). When the conference added a second level for the 2004–05 season, the club became one of the founders of the new Conference North. Until the end of 2006–07 season the manager was John Reed, who had extensive experience as a manager in English non-league football, including three successful seasons as manager of Harrogate Town. On 30 May 2007 Steve Burr was appointed as a manager.

The 2007–08 season was one of the best in recent times; after finishing 18th the previous year, a third-place finish in the league meant a promotion opportunity to the Conference National was presented via the play-offs. After reaching the final, Stalybridge were denied after a 1–0 defeat to Barrow.

The club continued in the Conference North for the three seasons; placing 6th in the 2008–09 season in which manager Steve Burr left for Kidderminster, 10th in the 2009–10 season and 10th again in the 2010–11 season.

In the 2011–12 season, they were a huge contender for a promotion place as late as February before a poor set of results saw their hopes slip away towards the end of the season, finishing sixth, just below the last playoff place.

In the 2012–13 season, after languishing near the relegation zone for most of the year, they finished 11th following a 9-game unbeaten run. Stalybridge also reached the final of the Cheshire Senior Cup, losing 2–1 to Chester F.C.

The 2013–14 season wasn't a good one either, as Stalybridge finished 19th, narrowly avoiding relegation by 2 points. Jim Harvey was sacked in October 2013, being replaced by former player Keith Briggs. They secured Conference North football for another season with a 1–1 draw against Bradford Park Avenue in the penultimate game of the season.

The 2014–15 season was arguably the worst for a long time. Stalybridge struggled to keep their heads above water, which led to the resignation of Keith Briggs in March 2015. He was replaced by 3-time Conference North winning manager, Liam Watson. This brought a turn around in results, with Watson only losing 1 of his 7 games in charge, winning 4. Survival came down to the final game against Gainsborough, with Stalybridge needing to better Colwyn Bay's and Brackley's results. A pulsating match finished 4–4, and they survived on goal difference. The club were relegated from the NPL Premier Division in the 2022–23 season.

Stadium
There has been a ground at Bower Fold since 1906. The current main stand was built in 1996, with the covered stand at the Town End (Joe Jackson Stand) dating from 1994. The main stand, replaced a wooden one dating from 1909, which held 500 fans, before being converted to tip-up seating with a reduced capacity of around 400 persons. The Lord Pendry Stand opened in 2004, replacing a covered terrace dating from the 1950s. The Mottram End cover stems from construction starting in the 1970s and finishing in the mid '80s. The main stand, holding about 700 people, is all seated. Its opposite stand, the Lord Pendry stand has 652 seats.

It is possible for the ground to be segregated with self-contained areas which include separate turnstiles, refreshment facilities and toilets (though this is rarely necessary). The away fans' area in this case is uncovered. The next area (clockwise from the away fans' area) around the ground is the Lockwood and Greenwood stand which is a covered standing area. This area is popular with home fans when Stalybridge are kicking towards this goal. Next is an uncovered standing area, followed by the Lord Tom Pendry Stand (a seated area) with a capacity of approximately three hundred. Next is a small uncovered area followed by the covered Joe Jackson stand. The club shop and bar are behind this stand. Away fans are allowed to use the bar and there is no admission charge. Next are the main turnstiles, refreshment facilities and disabled spectators' area.

The ground's capacity of 6,500 has not been reached recently. The attendance was nearly 4,000 when Chester visited for an FA Cup 1st round match in 1999.

Honours

 * Challenge shield – 1955, 1978
 * Cheshire county league – 1980
 * Cheshire county league cup – 1922
 * Cheshire Senior Cup – 1953, 2001
 * Edward case cup – 1978
 * Intermediate cup – 1958, 1969
 * Lancashire & Cheshire League Division 1 - 1910–11
 * Lancashire Combination Division Two – 1912
 * Lancashire floodlit cup – 1989
 * Manchester Senior Cup – 1923
 * North West Counties League – 1984, 1987
 * North west counties super cup – 1984
 * Northern Premier League – 1991–92, 2000–01
 * Northern Premier League Challenge Cup – 1999
 * Northern Premier League President's Cup – 2001, 2003
 * Peter Swales Shield – 1992

title: Stalybridge Celtic F.C.


text:
John Edward Gray

John Edward Gray (12 February 1800 – 7 March 1875) was a British zoologist. He was the elder brother of zoologist George Robert Gray and son of the pharmacologist and botanist Samuel Frederick Gray (1766–1828). The same is used for a zoological name.

Gray was keeper of zoology at the British Museum in London from 1840 until Christmas 1874, before the natural history holdings were split off to the Natural History Museum. He published several catalogues of the museum collections that included comprehensive discussions of animal groups and descriptions of new species. He improved the zoological collections to make them amongst the best in the world.

Biography
Gray was born in Walsall, but his family soon moved to London, where Gray studied medicine. He assisted his father in writing The Natural Arrangement of British Plants (1821). After being blackballed by the Linnean Society of London, Gray shifted his interest from botany to zoology. He began his zoological career by volunteering to collect insects for the British Museum at age 15. He officially joined the Zoological Department in 1824 to help John George Children catalog the reptile collection. In some of his early articles, Gray adopted William Sharp Macleay's quinarian system for classifications of molluscs (1824), butterflies (1824), echinoderms (1825), reptiles (1825), and mammals (1825). In 1840, he took over Children's position as keeper of zoology, which he held for 35 years, publishing well over 1,000 papers. He named many cetacean species, genera, subfamilies, and families.

During this period, he collaborated with Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins, the noted natural history artist, in producing Gleanings from the Menagerie at Knowsley. The menagerie at Knowsley Hall, near Liverpool, founded by Edward Smith-Stanley, 13th Earl of Derby, at the Stanley ancestral seat, was one of the largest private menageries in Victorian England.

Gray married Maria Emma Smith in 1826. She helped him with his scientific work, especially with her drawings.

In 1833, Gray was a founder of what became the Royal Entomological Society.

Gray was a friend of coleopterist Hamlet Clark, and in 1856–57 they sailed on Gray's yacht Miranda to Spain, Algeria, and Brazil. Gray was an accomplished watercolourist, and his landscape paintings illustrate Clark's account of their journeys.

Gray was also interested in postage stamps. On 1 May 1840, the day the Penny Black first went on sale, he purchased several with the intent to save them.

During his 50 years employed at the British Museum, Gray wrote nearly 500 papers, including many descriptions of species new to science. These had been presented to the museum by collectors from around the world, and included all branches of zoology, although Gray usually left the descriptions of new birds to his younger brother and colleague George. Gray was also active in malacology, the study of molluscs. He was an associate of entomologist Eliza Fanny Staveley, supporting her research and reading papers she had prepared to the Linnean and Zoological Societies of London.

John Edward Gray was buried at St Mary's Church, Lewisham.

Taxa named by him and in his honour
Gray was one of the most prolific taxonomists in the history of zoology. He described more than 300 species and subspecies of reptiles, only surpassed by his successors at the British Museum, George A. Boulenger and Albert Günther and American zoologist Edward D. Cope.

Gray described and named numerous marine snails including:
 * The genus Lithopoma Gray, 1850
 * The genus Euthria Gray, 1850

Genera named in his honour include: Species and subspecies named in his honour include:
 * The snake genus Grayia Günther, 1858

 * Ardeola grayii (Sykes, 1832) – Indian pond heron
 * Mesoplodon grayi von Haast, 1876 – Gray's beaked whale
 * Crocidura grayi Dobson, 1890 – Luzon shrew
 * Ablepharus grayanus (Stoliczka, 1872)
 * Delma grayii A. Smith, 1849
 * Microlophus grayii (Bell, 1843)
 * Naultinus grayii Bell, 1843
 * Salvelinus grayi Günther, 1862
 * Tropidophorus grayi Günther, 1861
 * Trachemys venusta grayi (Bocourt, 1868)
 * Gray's pipefish, also known as the Mud Pipefish or Spiny Pipefish Halicampus grayi is named after him.

Gray's publications (representative list)

 * 1821 : "A natural arrangement of Mollusca, according to their internal structure." London Medical Repository 15 : 229–239.
 * 1821 : "On the natural arrangement of Vertebrose Animals." London Medical Repository 15 : 296–310.
 * 1824 : "A revision of the family Equidae." Zool. J. Lond. 1 : 241–248 pl. 9.
 * 1824 : "On the natural arrangement of the pulmonobranchous Mollusca." Annals of Philosophy, (n.s.) 8 : 107–109.
 * 1824 : "On the arrangement of the Papilionidae." Annals of Philosophy (n.s.) 8: 119–120.
 * 1825 : "A list and description of some species of shells not taken notice of by Lamarck." Annals of Philosophy (n.s.) 9: 407–415.
 * 1825 : "A synopsis of the genera of reptiles and Amphibia, with a description of some new species." Annals of Philosophy (n.s.) 10 : 193–217.
 * 1825 : "An outline of an attempt at the disposition of the Mammalia into tribes and families with a list of the genera apparently appertaining to each tribe." Annals of Philosophy (n.s.) 10 : 337–344.
 * 1825 : "An attempt to divide the Echinida, or sea eggs, into natural families." Annals of Philosophy (n.s.) 10 : 423–431.
 * 1826 : "Vertebrata. Mammalia." (Appendix B in part). pp. 412–415 in King, P. P. (ed.) Narrative of a Survey of the Intertropical and Western Coasts of Australia. Performed between the years 1818 and 1822. With an Appendix, containing various subjects relating to hydrography and natural history. London: J. Murray Vol. 2.
 * 1827 : "Synopsis of the species of the class Mammalia." pp. 1–391 in Baron Cuvier The Animal Kingdom Arranged in Conformity with its Organization, by the Baron (G) Cuvier, with additional descriptions by Edward Griffith and others. (16 vols: 1827–1835). London: George B. Whittaker Vol. 5.
 * 1828 : "Spicilegia Zoologica, or original figures and short systematic descriptions of new and unfigured animals." Pt 1. London: Treuttel, Würtz & Co.
 * 1829 : "An attempt to improve the natural arrangement of the genera of bat, from actual examination; with some observations on the development of their wings." Phil. Mag. (ns) 6 : 28–36.
 * 1830 : "A synopsis of the species of the class Reptilia." pp 1–110 in Griffith, E. The animal kingdom arranged in conformity with its organisation by the Baron Cuvier. London: Whitaker and Treacher and Co. 9 : 481 + 110 p.
 * 1830–1835 : "Illustrations of Indian zoology; chiefly selected from the collection of Major-General Hardwicke, F.R.S..." 20 parts in 2 volumes. Illus. Indian Zool.
 * 1831 : "Description of twelve new genera of fish, discovered by Gen. Hardwicke, in India, the greater part in the British Museum." Zool. Misc.
 * 1831 : "Descriptions of some new genera and species of bats." pp. 37–38 in Gray, J. E. (ed.) The Zoological Miscellany. To Be Continued Occasionally. Pt 1. London: Treuttel, Würtz & Co.
 * 1832 : "Characters of a new genus of Mammalia, and of a new genus and two new species of lizards, from New Holland." Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1832 : 39–40.
 * 1832 : Illustrations of Indian zoology; chiefly selected from the collection of Major-General Hardwicke, vol. 1. Treuttel, Wurtz, Treuttel Jun. & Richter, London.
 * 1834 : "Characters of a new species of bat (Rhinolophus, Geoffr.) from New Holland." Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1834 : 52–53.
 * 1837 : "Description of some new or little known Mammalia, principally in the British Museum Collection." Mag. Nat. Hist. (ns) 1 : 577–587.
 * 1838 : "A revision of the genera of bats (Vespertilionidae), and the description of some new genera and species." Mag. Zool. Bot. 2 : 483–505.
 * 1839 : "Descriptions of some Mammalia discovered in Cuba by W. S. MacLeay, Esq. With some account of their habits, extracted from Mr. MacLeay's notes." Ann. Nat. Hist. 4 : 1–7 pl. 1.
 * 1840 : "A Synopsis of the Genera and Species of the Class Hypostoma (Asterias, Linnaeus)." Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 6: 275.
 * 1840-10-16 : "Shells of molluscous animals." In: Synopsis of the contents of the British Museum, ed. 42: 105–152.
 * 1840-11-04 : "Shells of molluscous animals." In: Synopsis of the contents of the British Museum, ed. 42, 2nd printing: 106–156.
 * 1844: Catalogue of the Tortoises, Crocodiles, and Amphisbænians, in the Collection of the British Museum.
 * 1845: Catalogue of the Specimens of Lizards in the Collection of the British Museum. London: Trustees of the British Museum. (Edward Newman, printer). xxviii + 289 pp.
 * 1847–11 : "A list of genera of Recent Mollusca, their synonyma and types." Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 15: 129–182.
 * 1849 : Catalogue of the Specimens of Snakes in the Collection of the British Museum. Trustees of the British Museum. London. xv + 125 pp.
 * 1850 : Figures of molluscous animals selected from various authors. Etched for the use of students by M. E. Gray. Volume 4. Longman, Brown, Green & Longmans, London. iv + 219 pp.
 * 1850 : Catalogue of the Cetaceans in the Collection of the British Museum (referenced in many works as Cat. B. M. Cetacea)
 * 1855 : Catalogue of Shield Reptiles in the Collection of the British Museum – Part 1, Testudinata (Tortoises).
 * 1860-10 : "On the arrangement of the land pulmoniferous Mollusca into families." Annals and Magazine of Natural History, series 3, 6: 267–269.
 * 1862 :
 * 1864 : "On the Cetacea which have been observed in the seas surrounding the British Islands" Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1864 pages 195–248
 * 1864 : "Revision of the species of Trionychidae found in Asia and Africa, with descriptions of some new species." Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1864: 76–98.
 * 1864 : "Presidential Address", to the Botany and Zoology, including Physiology Section, pp.75–86 in Report of the Thirty-Fourth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science; Held at Bath in September 1864, London, John Murray, 1865.
 * 1866 : The Genera of Plants. Unpublished fragment with R. A. Salisbury
 * 1870 : Supplement to the Catalogue of Shield Reptiles in the Collection of the British Museum – Part 1, Testudinata (Tortoises).
 * 1872 : Catalogue of Shield Reptiles in the Collection of the British Museum – Part 2, Emydosaureans, Rhynchocephalia, and Amphisbaenians.
 * 1873 : "Notes on Chinese Mud-Tortoises (Trionychidae), with the Description of a new Species sent to the British Museum by Mr Swinhoe, and Observations on the Male Organ of this Family." Annals and Magazine of Natural History, series 4, vol. XII, 1873. pp. 156–161 and Plate V.

Other sources

 * Biographies for Birdwatchers – Barbara and Richard Mearns ISBN 0-12-487422-3

title: John Edward Gray


text:
The Parable of the Old Man and the Young

"The Parable of the Old Man and the Young" is a poem by Wilfred Owen that compares the ascent of Abraham to Mount Moriah and his near-sacrifice of Isaac there with the start of World War I. It had first been published by Siegfried Sassoon in 1920 with the title "The Parable of the Old Man and the Young", without the last line: "And half the seed of Europe, one by one". The poem is an allusion to a story in the Bible, Genesis 22:1-18.

Overview
In the poem, the biblical patriarch Abraham (significantly called by his former name, Abram, in the poem) takes Isaac—his only begotten son by his wife Sarah—with him to make a sacrificial offering to God. The offering, though Isaac does not know this, is to be Isaac himself. "Then Abram bound the youth with belts and straps", which suggests imagery relating to a young soldier being sent, possibly against his will, in a uniform to fight. When he makes to sacrifice his son, an angel calls from heaven, and tells Abram not to harm Isaac. Instead, he must offer the "Ram of Pride". Then follow the last two lines of the poem diverges from the Biblical account, set apart for greater effect: "But the old man would not so, but slew his son, / and half the seed of Europe, one by one."

"The Parable of the Old Man and the Young" is written loosely in iambic pentameter. It does not use traditional rhyme; instead, the lines are bound together by assonance, consonance, and alliteration.

As the title mentions, the poem is a parable. It is generally accepted that the old man, Abram, represents the European nations or more probably their governments. Another less common opinion is that he represents Germany or Kaiser Wilhelm II, whom some would claim started the war. However, Owen does not blame any individual nation or person in any of his other poems, so there is no reason to believe that he does so in this one. Rather, he condemns all those in power who took their countries to war.

According to the poem, the rulers of Europe believed that sacrificing their nations' (Ram of) Pride was too high a price, yet the irony is that the real cost of this Pride was millions of dead—the seed of Europe.

The last two lines are the only ones that rhyme, and the image they paint is chilling: an old man methodically killing the seed of Europe. It is mainly the power of this image, set out in the poem and culminating in the last two lines, that makes it haunting.

The poem is among those set in the War Requiem of Benjamin Britten.


text:
User:Bc expert

My nickname is BC_Expert.

I do not work in the medical branche. Contraception is my hobby for 15 years now. Use my advice at your own risk.

title: User:Bc expert


text:
Cachaça

Cachaça is a distilled spirit made from fermented sugarcane juice. Also known as pinga, caninha, and other names, it is the most popular spirit among distilled alcoholic beverages in Brazil. Outside Brazil, cachaça is used almost exclusively as an ingredient in tropical drinks, with the caipirinha being the most famous cocktail. In Brazil, caipirinha is often paired with the dish feijoada.

History

Sugar production was mostly switched from the Madeira islands to Brazil by the Portuguese in the 16th century. In Madeira, aguardente de cana is made by distilling sugar cane juice into liquor, and the pot stills from Madeira were brought to Brazil to make what today is also called cachaça. The process dates from 1532 when one of the Portuguese colonists brought the first cuttings of sugar cane to Brazil from Madeira.

Cachaça can only be produced in Brazil, where, according to 2007 figures, 1500000000 L are consumed annually, compared with 15000000 L outside the country. It is typically between 38% and 48% alcohol by volume. When homemade, it can be as strong as the distiller wants. Up to six grams per litre of sugar may be added.

Figures from 2003 indicate 1.3 billion litres of cachaça are produced each year; only 1% of this is exported (mainly to Germany).

Production

Cachaça, like rum, has two varieties: unaged (branca, "white" or prata, "silver") and aged (amarela, "yellow" or ouro, "gold"). White cachaça is usually bottled immediately after distillation and tends to be cheaper. Some producers age it for up to 12 months in wooden barrels to achieve a smoother blend. It is often used as an ingredient in caipirinha and other mixed beverages. Dark cachaça, usually seen as the "premium" variety, is aged in wood barrels and is meant to be drunk neat. It is usually aged for up to 3 years, though some ultra-premium cachaças have been aged for up to 15 years. Its flavour is influenced by the type of wood the barrel is made from.

There are very important regions in Brazil where fine pot still cachaça is produced, such as Salinas in Minas Gerais state, Chã Grande in Pernambuco state, Paraty in Rio de Janeiro state, Monte Alegre do Sul in São Paulo, Luiz Alves in Santa Catarina state and Abaíra in Bahia state. Nowadays, producers of cachaça can be found in most Brazilian regions and in 2011 there were over 40,000 of them.

Heavy metals
Cachaça is produced in copper stills. Levels of copper in homemade cachaças can exceed the legal limits established by Brazilian law. Some copper is considered desirable in the distillation process as a catalyst for the oxidation of sulfur compounds produced by fermentation, but the levels must be controlled by adequate maintenance and cleaning of the still to remove accumulated verdigris. Adsorbents are used, but the most commonly used adsorbents, activated carbon and ion-exchange resin, have been shown to alter the chemical composition of cachaça. Sugarcane bagasse has been proposed as a selective adsorbent.

Synonyms
For more than four centuries of history, cachaça has accumulated synonyms and creative nicknames coined by the Brazilian people. Some of these words were created for the purpose of deceiving the supervision of the metropolis in the days when cachaça was banned in Brazil; the beverage was competing with the European distillate grappa. There are more than two thousand words to refer to the Brazilian national distillate. Some of these nicknames are: abre-coração (heart-opener), água-benta (holy water), bafo-de-tigre (tiger breath), and limpa-olho (eye-wash).

Difference from rum
In the beginning of the 17th century, the producers of sugar from various European colonies in the Americas used the by-products of sugar, molasses, and scummings as the raw material for the production of alcoholic spirits. The resulting beverage was known by several names: in British colonies, it was named rum; in France, tafia; in Spain, aguardiente de caña; and in Portugal (Brazil), aguardente da terra, aguardente de cana and later cachaça (locals also call it "Pinga", which translates to drip).

The major difference between cachaça and rum is that rum is usually made from molasses, a by-product after a refinery boils the cane juice to extract as much sugar crystal as possible, while cachaça is made from fresh sugarcane juice, fermented and distilled. Some rums, in particular the rhum agricole of the French Caribbean, are also made by the latter process. Cachaça is also known as Brazilian rum.

In the United States, cachaça is recognized as a type of rum and distinctive Brazilian product, after an agreement was signed in 2013 with Brazil in which it will drop the usage of the term "Brazilian rum".

title: Cachaça