text:
Sir Thomas Hardy, 1st Baronet

Vice-Admiral Sir Thomas Masterman Hardy, 1st Baronet, GCB (5 April 1769 – 20 September 1839) was a British Royal Navy officer. He took part in the Battle of Cape St. Vincent in February 1797, the Battle of the Nile in August 1798 and the Battle of Copenhagen in April 1801 during the French Revolutionary Wars. He served as flag captain to Admiral Lord Nelson, and commanded HMS Victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805 during the Napoleonic Wars. Nelson was shot as he paced the decks with Hardy, and as he lay dying, Nelson's famous remark of "Kiss me, Hardy" was directed at him. Hardy went on to become First Naval Lord in November 1830 and in that capacity refused to become a Member of Parliament and encouraged the introduction of steam warships.

Early life
Born the second son of Joseph Hardy and Nanny Hardy (née Masterman) at Kingston Russell House in Long Bredy (or according to some sources in Winterborne St Martin), Hardy joined the navy with his entry aboard the brig HMS Helena (1778) on 30 November 1781 as a captain's servant, but left her in April 1782 to attend Crewkerne Grammar School. During his time at school his name was carried on the books of the sixth-rate HMS Seaford (1754) and the third-rate HMS Carnatic (1783).

Mediterranean and Nelson
Hardy joined the fifth-rate HMS Hebe (1782) on 5 February 1790 as a midshipman; he later transferred to the sixth-rate HMS Tisiphone (1781) under Captain Anthony Hunt, and then followed Hunt to the sixth-rate HMS Amphitrite (1778) in May 1793, going out to the Mediterranean in her. Hardy served off Marseilles and Toulon and was commissioned second lieutenant of the fifth-rate HMS Meleager (1785) under Captain Charles Tyler on 10 November 1793.

Command of Meleager passed to Captain George Cockburn in June 1794; Cockburn took command of the fifth-rate HMS Minerve in August 1796 and Hardy went with him, subsequently becoming his first lieutenant. Horatio Nelson, then a commodore, moved his broad pennant to Minerve in December 1796. While en route to Gibraltar, in the action of 19 December 1796, Minerve and her consort, the fifth-rate HMS Blanche (1786), engaged two Spanish frigates and forced Santa Sabina to surrender. Lieutenants Hardy and Culverhouse were sent aboard Santa Sabina with a prize crew, and the three ships continued on towards Gibraltar. Before the night was out, Nelson ran into the Spanish fleet and only managed to get away when Hardy drew the Spanish away from Minerve and fought until being dismasted and captured. Hardy and Culverhouse were almost immediately exchanged for the captain of Santa Sabina, Don Jacobo Stuart, and were able to rejoin Minerve at Gibraltar on 9 February 1797.

Three days later Minerve left Gibraltar to join the main fleet off the south-east coast of Spain under Sir John Jervis. With two enemy ships pursuing him, Cockburn ordered more sail. During this operation, a topman fell overboard. The ship hove to and a boat with Hardy in it was lowered to search for the missing mariner. As the enemy ships were closing fast, Cockburn thought it prudent to withdraw, but Nelson overruled him crying "By God, I'll not lose Hardy, back that mizzen topsail!" This confused the Spaniards who checked their own progress, allowing Hardy to return to his ship and make good his escape.

Command and the Nile
Hardy remained with Minerve until May 1797 when, following a successful cutting out expedition of which he was in charge, he was promoted to master and commander of the newly captured corvette HMS Mutine (1797). Under Hardy's command, Mutine joined a squadron under Captain Thomas Troubridge which met up with Nelson off Toulon in June 1798, located Napoleon Bonaparte in Egypt and destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile in August 1798. Afterwards, Nelson's flag captain, Edward Berry was sent home with dispatches and Hardy was promoted to captain of Nelson's flagship, HMS Vanguard (1787), in his place on 2 October 1798.

HMS Vanguard carried King Ferdinand IV and the British ambassador Sir William Hamilton and his wife Emma from Naples to safety in Sicily in December 1798: Hardy did not altogether approve of Lady Hamilton who had once tried to intervene on behalf of a boat's crew – Hardy had the crew flogged twice, once for the original offence and again for petitioning the lady. Nelson transferred his flag to the third-rate HMS Foudroyant (1798) on 8 June 1799, taking Hardy with him. In June 1799, the main fleet, led by Foudroyant, landed marines at Naples to assist with the overthrow of the Parthenopean Republic so allowing Ferdinand's kingdom to be re-established. Hardy handed over command of Foudroyant to Sir Edward Berry on 13 October 1799, transferred to the fifth-rate HMS Princess Charlotte (1799) and returned to England.

Baltic and Copenhagen
After a year ashore, Hardy went to Plymouth Dock in December 1800 to take command of the first-rate HMS San Josef (1797), which had just been refitted. He transferred to the second-rate HMS St George (1785) and became Nelson's flag captain once more in February 1801. Nelson was appointed second in command of the Baltic fleet, which had been sent to force the Danes to withdraw from the League of Armed Neutrality. On the night of 1 April 1801, Hardy was sent in a boat to take soundings around the anchored Danish fleet. Hardy's ship drew too much water and so took no part in the Battle of Copenhagen the following day, though his work proved to be of great value. The only two ships that went aground, the third-rates HMS Agamemnon (1781) and HMS Bellona (1760), were taken in by local pilots and did not follow Hardy's recommended route. Hardy stayed on as flag captain to the new fleet commander, Vice-Admiral Charles Pole, until August 1801 when he took command of the fourth-rate HMS Isis.

Mediterranean and West Indies Campaign
In July 1802, Hardy was appointed to the fifth-rate HMS Amphion (1798) which after taking the new British ambassador to Lisbon, returned to Portsmouth. Nelson was in Portsmouth, as he was due to hoist his flag in the first-rate HMS Victory in May 1803, but on finding the ship not ready for him, transferred his flag to the Amphion and set sail for the Mediterranean. Nelson and Hardy finally transferred to Victory off Toulon on 31 July 1803. Nelson's fleet continued to blockade Toulon until April 1805, when the French escaped and were pursued to the West Indies and back. After a brief stop at Spithead between 20 August and 14 September 1805, they set sail for Cádiz arriving on 29 September 1805. George Murray, Nelson's captain of the fleet, was obliged to remain in England and Hardy unofficially replaced him in addition to serving as flag captain.

Trafalgar
As Victory approached the enemy line on the morning of 21 October 1805, Hardy urged Nelson to transfer to another ship to avoid the inevitable melee, but Nelson refused. Victory, leading the weather column, came under heavy fire in the opening stages of the Battle of Trafalgar. At one point, a splinter took the buckle from Hardy's shoe, to which Nelson remarked, "This is too warm work Hardy, to last for long". Hardy was with Nelson when he was shot and, towards the end of the battle, as Nelson lay below dying, the two had a number of conversations together. Hardy was able to tell Nelson that 14 or 15 enemy ships had struck their flags: Nelson replied that he had "bargained for 20". In their last conversation, Nelson reminded Hardy to anchor the fleet. Nelson went on to say "take care of my dear Lady Hamilton, Hardy, take care of poor Lady Hamilton" and then when the moment came for the two men to part for the last time, Nelson then very close to death, asked Hardy to kiss him. Hardy kissed him on the cheek; "Now I am satisfied," said Nelson, "Thank God I have done my duty". Hardy stood up and then having spent a few moments looking down silently at his friend, knelt and kissed him again on the forehead. "Who is that?" asked Nelson, now barely able to see. "It is Hardy" Hardy replied. "God bless you Hardy" was Nelson's last response. Victory was towed to Gibraltar, arriving on 28 October 1805, where she underwent major repairs, before setting set sail for England on 4 November 1805 and arriving at Portsmouth on 5 December 1805. There Nelson's body was transferred to the Sheerness Commissioner, Sir George Grey, 1st Baronet's yacht Chatham to proceed to Greenwich. Hardy carried one of the banners at Nelson's funeral procession on 9 January 1806.

Later commands
Hardy was created a baronet on 29 January 1806 and was given command of the third-rate HMS Triumph (1764) on the North American Station in May 1806. While in Nova Scotia, he married Anna Louisa Berkeley, the daughter of his commander-in-chief, Sir George Cranfield Berkeley. When Admiral Berkeley was sent to Lisbon, Hardy went with him as his flag captain in the second-rate HMS Barfleur (1768). Hardy was made a commodore in the Portuguese Navy in 1811.

In August 1812, Hardy was given command of the third-rate HMS Ramillies (1785) and was sent back to North America at the outbreak of the War of 1812. On 11 July 1814, Hardy in his flagship, assisted by Lieutenant Colonel Andrew Pilkington, led four other warships and several transports carrying 2,000 men of the 102nd Regiment of Foot and a company of Royal Artillery against Fort Sullivan in Eastport, Maine. The American defending force of 70 regulars and 250 militiamen gave up without a fight. Hardy and Pilkington issued a proclamation making it clear Great Britain considered Eastport and the several nearby islands to be British territory. Townspeople were required to take an oath of allegiance to the crown or leave. Two-thirds of the inhabitants took the oath, while 500 departed. For the few weeks he remained at the place, Hardy became a favourite of the locals, gaining great respect and popularity. However, Hardy's next venture, the 9–11 August bombardment of Stonington, Connecticut was a defeat; Royal Navy cannonading set 20 buildings on fire while killing a horse and a goose, while reports indicate the sizeable American defending force killed 21 and wounded 50 British attackers. Hardy was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 2 January 1815.

Hardy was given command of the royal yacht HMS Princess Augusta in July 1816 and, then having been promoted to commodore, became Commander-in-Chief on the South America Station, hoisting his broad pennant in third-rate HMS Superb (1798) in August 1819, with a mission to prevent the Spanish from interfering in the newly emerging republics of Mexico, Colombia and Argentina.

Flag rank
Promoted to rear admiral on 27 May 1825, Hardy hoisted his flag aboard the third-rate HMS Wellesley (1815) and escorted 4,000 British troops to Lisbon, where they helped to quell a revolution by the eight-year-old queen's uncle in December 1826. He was subsequently given command of an experimental squadron in the Channel, moving his flag from the fifth-rate HMS Sybille to the sixth-rate HMS Pyramus (1801) before going ashore for the last time on 21 October 1827.

Hardy became First Naval Lord in the Grey ministry in November 1830 and was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 13 September 1831. As first Naval Lord he refused to become a Member of Parliament and encouraged the introduction of steam warships. He resigned in August 1834 to become Governor of Greenwich Hospital. Hardy was promoted to vice admiral on 10 January 1837.

He died at Greenwich on 20 September 1839. He is buried in the officers vault in Greenwich Hospital Cemetery, just west of National Maritime Museum. The grave lies in the enclosed railed area of the now mainly cleared graveyard, which now serves as a pocket park. The baronetcy became extinct on his death.

Family
On 17 November 1807 Hardy married Louisa Emily Anna Berkeley, daughter of Admiral Sir George Cranfield Berkeley; they had three daughters:

 * Louisa Georgina Hardy (7 December 1808 – 1875).
 * Emily Georgina Hardy (30 December 1809 – 8 April 1887); married in 1850 William Pollett Brown Chatteris (1810–1889), of Sandleford Priory, Berkshire.
 * Mary Charlotte Hardy (20 March 1813 – 1896); married in 1833 Sir John Murray-Macgregor, 3rd Baronet.

Lady Hardy had "a kind of love affair on paper" with the poet Lord Byron, a distant relative of hers, in around 1822.

Hardy Monument
The Hardy Monument is a 72 ft high monument erected on Dorset's Black Down hill in 1844 by public subscription in memory of Hardy. Admiral Hardy had lived in nearby Portesham, and his family owned the Portesham estate which stretched from the middle of Portesham to Black Down. The monument's site was chosen because the Hardy family wanted a monument which could be used as a landmark for shipping. The monument has been shown on navigational charts since 1846 and is visible from a distance of 60 mi.

Literary tribute
Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poetical illustration to Richard Evans' portrait, describes aspects of Hardy's career. This was published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1836

Honours
His honours included:
 * Knight Grand Cross of the Bath (GCB) – 13 September 1831
 * Knight Commander of the Bath (KCB) – 2 January 1815
 * Baronet – 29 January 1806

title: Sir Thomas Hardy, 1st Baronet


text:
Talk:Cambridgeshire

This page is a mess
The map shows what seems to be the post-1888, pre-1974 administrative county of cambridgeshire along with the post 1965 administrative county of Peterborough and Huntingdongshire. The article gives the impression that peterborough is part of the current administrative county of cambridgeshire, and that Huntingdonshire is a part of the traditional County of Cambridgeshire. In short, it is a mess; the map says one thing, the text says another, and reality is something else! Unless anyone can suggest any better ideas, I shall split this article into Cambridgeshire (traditional) and Cambridgeshire (administrative), remove references to peterborough being either wholly within either (it is not), and try to find two maps which actually show the correct area for each article. This has been done sucessfully for Gloucestershire. 80.255 01:33, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I suggest that a much better idea would be to discuss all the issues around Wikipedia's use of the word 'county' before making any further changes. I suggest we move this discussion to the Counties of England Talk page.

 * Please make no further changes to this article, other county articles, or articles referrring to counties until this debate is complete. Thank you. Chris Jefferies 11th December 2003

famous people
The latest edit to this page has removed the names of several famous people from the area, referring to them as 'misappropriated'. In what sense were they 'misappropriated' and why, exactly, have they been removed? Maybe we should discuss this briefly and consider whether or not to reinstate them. - Chris Jefferies 23:24, 26 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Is this a list of pople born in the county or those living in it. The Archers live in Grnachester but were not born her - while David Gilmour was born here but lives elsewhere.

Also Oliver Cromwell is associated with Huntingdon at the point it was a seperate county, although I believe he also represented Cambridge for a time.

If somone points to a standard policy we can ensure the lsit matches it.

Arachrah (talk) 23:39, 6 December 2008 (UTC)

 * I would suggest that from strictly means born there and resident of means - err - resident there. Seems clear to me. As, for example, Rory McGrath is from Redruth in Cornwall, his mention here should thus be removed.JohnB57 (talk) 16:42, 17 June 2009 (UTC)

The infobox
The pronunciation of 'Cambridgeshire' in IPA is incorrect. No native speaker of Cambridgeshire English would pronounce the  at the end of this county name. Dbritain (talk) 20:11, 8 June 2009 (UTC)

Why has the counties infobox been split into separate traditional and administrative infoboxes? This seems to me to make the article less readable, more confusing, and unecessarily long. Surely the relevant policy should be followed - ie one article for each county covering all aspects, administrative and historical in one place. I suggest we return to a single infobox covering all counties in one place. Chris Jefferies 10:22, 1 August 2005 (UTC)

 * The policy is being followed - there is one article that covers all aspects of Cambridgeshire - as an administrative, ceremonial and traditional county. These are all separate entities with different areas and relationships, which is why multiple infoboxes are needed. MonMan 20:33, 1 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Suspected sockpuppet is a suspected sockpuppet of . --Mais oui! 22:49, 6 April 2006 (UTC)

Well yes, in that sense the policy is being applied. But I still don't understand the need for doubling up the infoboxes. Wouldn't it be much clearer to have just one and to include links to all the county articles in it? Since there's only one article for each county, surely we need only one infobox? Chris Jefferies 21:27, 1 August 2005 (UTC)

 * You're always going to have different infoboxes for things with different relationships. E.g. the Rutland article has three infoboxes at the bottom, because Rutland exists in three 'namespaces'. All three are consolidated into one article (which is good) and the various relationships with other entities are listed separately and clearly (which is also good). It would be impossible to explain it all in one infobox anyway. Owain 13:52, 2 August 2005 (UTC)

I understand the value of separate infoboxes for districts and counties, but I really do not believe there's any need for two boxes for the counties - either for Cambridgeshire or for Rutland. It seems untidy, needlessly repetitive, and as there should be only a single article for each county, why not link to them all from one infobox? Chris Jefferies 18:17, 2 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Combining them into one infobox would be horribly messy. Being as there is a separate infobox for Rutland as a 'district', listing its relationships when taken in that context, it naturally follows that there should be separate infoboxes for the other contexts. Owain 12:15, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

But that is exactly what I don't understand - why would it be 'horribly messy'? Many of the county names appear in both boxes anyway, combining them would be so easy! Chris Jefferies 13:30, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * It would make for a smaller page, yes; but you'd lose the associative information that separate infoboxes gives. To use the Rutland example again, do you intend to combine the "Districts of England - East Midlands" infobox into it as well? After all it is referring to the same place. To use a general example look at France — it has four infoboxes that all refer to the same place, but in different contexts. You could combine them all into one, but it would be horrendous, and you'd probably need different infoboxes for every country, because they aren't all members of the same organisations — in which case you'd lose the unifying effect of having the same infobox in different articles. Owain 19:36, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * I don't understand what the problem is here. We are describing an entity that can be classified in many different ways. For each classification scheme we have an infobox. The examples that Owain have given clearly show the merits of this approach. Why lose information, or squish it down into one box, and lose the different classifications? MonMan 19:47, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Suspected sockpuppet is a suspected sockpuppet of . --Mais oui! 22:49, 6 April 2006 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:EH icon.png
Image:EH icon.png is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. BetacommandBot (talk) 05:14, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 2 one external links on Cambridgeshire. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060525140007/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_economy/RegionalGVA.pdf to http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_economy/RegionalGVA.pdf
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20151231223138/http://www.internationalbandy.com/viewNavMenu.do?menuID=124 to http://www.internationalbandy.com/viewNavMenu.do?menuID=124

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External links modified
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I have just modified one external link on Cambridgeshire. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120119112911/http://www.worldbandy.com/template1.asp?pageID=18 to http://www.worldbandy.com/template1.asp?pageID=18
 * Added tag to http://viewfinder.english-heritage.org.uk/search/results.aspx?index=0&mainQuery=&searchType=all&form=basic&theme=&county=CAMBRIDGESHIRE&district=&placeName=

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Proposed changes to the way UK counties are treated on WP
If anyone is in, please see here. Roger 8 Roger (talk) 05:50, 11 October 2018 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 08:12, 21 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Country parks.svg

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 04:27, 19 July 2021 (UTC)
 * Country parks.svg

Parishes project
I have started a project for missing civil parishes at User:Crouch, Swale/Missing parishes. The missing parishes in Cambridgeshire are:

 * Brington and Molesworth, draft exists at User:Crouch, Swale/Brington and Molesworth
 * Holywell-cum-Needingworth
 * South Trumpington
 * Thriplow and Heathfield
 * Upton and Coppingford
 * Upwood and the Raveleys
 * Waresley-cum-Tetworth

And these exists as a redirect only but should have separate articles: A total of 19, see User:Crouch, Swale/Missing parishes (1).  Crouch, Swale  ( talk ) 19:08, 24 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Great Abington
 * Great and Little Chishill
 * Hamerton and Steeple Gidding
 * Hampton Hargate and Vale
 * Histon, move Histon and Impington here after creating Impington
 * Houghton and Wyton
 * Impington
 * Little Abington
 * Oakington and Westwick
 * Orton Longueville
 * Orton Waterville
 * Pidley cum Fenton

Politics - Peterborough
Peterborough city council is no longer controlled by the Conservatives but by a coalition led by Peterborough First. Jabo4523 (talk) 09:11, 17 December 2023 (UTC)

County of Cambridge
This has since been added as a current MOS:BOLDALTNAME, it is still used enough for the first sentence? The editor has been adding "County of" to multiple leads, so wondering.  Dank Jae  22:25, 3 May 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Cambridgeshire


text:
Thomas Hardy (disambiguation)

Thomas Hardy (1840–1928) was an English novelist, short-story writer and poet.

Tom Hardy (born 1977) is an English stage, film and television actor.

Thomas or Tom Hardy may also refer to:

Academia and science

 * Thomas Hardy (minister) (1747–1798), Scottish minister and professor of ecclesiastical history
 * Thomas Duffus Hardy (1804–1878), English antiquary and archivist
 * Thomas Lionel Hardy (1887–1969), British physician and gastroenterologist

Arts and entertainment

 * Thomas Hardy (English painter) (1757–1804), English painter whose works include a portrait of Joseph Haydn
 * Thomas Bush Hardy (1842–1897), British marine painter and watercolourist
 * Tom Hardy (designer) (born 1946), American design strategist
 * Thee Tom Hardy, American rapper formerly signed to It's a Wonderful World Music Group

Fictional characters

 * Thomas Hardy, a fictional character played by Bruce Willis in the 1993 film Striking Distance
 * Tom Hardy, a fictional character played by John Travolta in the 2003 film Basic
 * Tom Hardy, a fictional character on the soap opera General Hospital
 * Tommy Hardy, a fictional character on the soap opera General Hospital

Government, military, and politics

 * Thomas Hardy (political reformer) (1752–1832), British political reformer and an object of the 1794 Treason Trials
 * Thomas Hardy (Royal Navy officer, died 1732) (1666–1732), admiral and member of parliament for Weymouth and Melcombe Regis
 * Sir Thomas Hardy, 1st Baronet (1769–1839), British naval officer

Sports

 * Tom Hardy (soccer), American soccer defender
 * Thomas Hardy (rugby league) (fl. 1930s–1940s), English rugby league footballer

Other uses

 * Thomas Hardy (winemaker) (1830–1912), Australian founder of the Hardy Wine Company

title: Thomas Hardy (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:Boston Marathon

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Allis17, Megancrowder.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 16:08, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Merger proposal
Formal request has been received to merge: 2020 Boston Marathon into Boston Marathon; dated: June 2020. Proposer's Rationale: The 2020 marathon will not happen and there is already a section in the merge target talking about the cancellation, similar to how 2012 New York City Marathon redirects to New York City Marathon. ~108.21.244.229.
 * § Discuss here. GenQuest  "Talk to Me" 10:58, 22 June 2020 (UTC)

 * Support it's an event that isn't happening, and so does not require its own article. It can be adequately covered in a few lines in the parent article. Joseph2302 (talk) 14:15, 25 June 2020 (UTC)
 * support not so detailed article that it couldnt be covered here. Pelmeen10 (talk) 11:44, 27 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose merge arguably the cancellation adds to the notability of this years event, making it another notable piece of history and has increased early media coverage of it drastically. EoRdE6(Come Talk to Me!) 04:25, 3 July 2020 (UTC)
 * Do you have sources to support that the coverage is more notable this year? Joseph2302 (talk) 19:05, 4 July 2020 (UTC)

 * Support the very definition of a "non-event". Johnbod (talk) 18:02, 4 July 2020 (UTC)

Wrong flag and winner nationality
Franjo Mihalic was croatian, not serbian 141.136.164.111 (talk) 19:02, 26 April 2023 (UTC)

Qualifying items
Can someone please check the Qualifying Times section? It currently says the requirements were tightened twice, for the 2013 and 2020 races, to the same times. There is also repeated information that needs tidying up. Thanks. Timothy Cooper (talk) 10:14, 24 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Boston Marathon


text:
John McLaughlin (host)

John Joseph McLaughlin (March 29, 1927 – August 16, 2016) was an American television personality and political commentator. He created, produced, and hosted the political commentary series The McLaughlin Group. He also hosted and produced John McLaughlin's One on One, which ran from 1984 to 2013.

Education and early career
John Joseph McLaughlin was born in Providence, Rhode Island, the son of Augustus Hugh McLaughlin and his wife Eva Philomena, née Turcotte. He grew up in a Catholic family who were second-generation Irish Americans and attended La Salle Academy (Rhode Island), Providence. At age 18, he entered Weston College in Weston, Massachusetts, which later became the theological seminary of Boston College, to become a Catholic priest.

He entered the Jesuit order in 1947, aged 20, and was ordained as a priest in 1959, and went on to earn two master's degrees (philosophy and English literature) from Boston College. After his ordination, McLaughlin spent some years as a high school teacher at Fairfield College Preparatory School, a Jesuit prep school in Connecticut. He took time off from teaching to earn a Ph.D. (philosophy) from Columbia University. He wrote his thesis on the Catholic poet Gerard Manley Hopkins. He then became a writer and later assistant editor for the Jesuit current affairs publication, America, in New York City. Disagreements with the editor of the magazine led to his departure in 1970 after which he moved back to Providence.

Political career
McLaughlin was originally a supporter of the Democratic Party and opposed the Vietnam War, but then became a war supporter and changed his party affiliation to Republican. In 1970, he sought permission from the Jesuit order to run for a seat in the United States Senate, representing Rhode Island. They had given permission to fellow Jesuit Father Robert Drinan who ran successfully for the United States House of Representatives in Massachusetts. When they refused, McLaughlin ran anyway but lost to the incumbent four-term Senator John O. Pastore. Through a friendship with Pat Buchanan, McLaughlin then became a speechwriter for U.S. President Richard Nixon. In 1974, after the resignation of President Nixon, he spent two months under President Gerald Ford's administration. In 1975, he left the priesthood.

Media career
After leaving the White House, McLaughlin worked with his wife Ann in public relations and in 1980 became a weekend radio host on WRC-AM in Washington, D.C. Eventually he was fired from that job.

He then went on to write for National Review and to host The McLaughlin Group, which premiered in 1982. The television show brought together four political commentators, usually two conservatives and two liberals, with McLaughlin seated in the middle. McLaughlin was known for his loud and forceful style of presentation, usually stating his opinion in an apodictic manner and often cutting off other panelists by declaring their opinion "Wrong!" or putting a question to the panel, listening to other opinions, before finally giving his opinion as "the correct answer". Discussions in the McLaughlin Group tended to run until the very last few seconds of airtime, when McLaughlin would rather abruptly end each episode by saying "Bye-bye!". McLaughlin's style and mannerisms were parodied by comedians and other commentators, most notably Dana Carvey of Saturday Night Live. McLaughlin enjoyed SNL's recurring McLaughlin Group sketches, even making a 1991 cameo appearance as the Grim Reaper in one of them.

McLaughlin also hosted the interview show John McLaughlin's One on One, first telecast in 1984, and ended in 2013. Also from 1989 through 1994, he produced and hosted McLaughlin, a one-hour nightly talk show on CNBC. For a short while in 1999, he hosted an MSNBC show, McLaughlin Special Report. The show was announced on January 22, and its cancellation was announced on February 25. A revival of The McLaughlin Group ran briefly in 2018, and retained McLaughlin's name in the show's title despite his death.

Personal life and death
On August 23, 1975, McLaughlin married Ann Dore (née Lauenstein), his former campaign manager. She served as Secretary of Labor under President Ronald Reagan from 1987 until 1989. During this period, McLaughlin was sued for sexual harassment and discrimination by a former employee. He settled the suit in December 1989.

McLaughlin and Dore divorced in 1992. McLaughlin married his second wife Cristina Clara Vidal on June 22, 1997. The marriage ended in divorce in 2010.

During the December 26, 2014, year-end awards episode, McLaughlin ended the show saying: "Person of the year: Pope Francis, especially now that he's told that animals can go to heaven. And Oliver is up there waiting for me." Oliver Productions, Inc., is named after McLaughlin's pet dog — a Basset Hound — and is seen in an animation as part of the brand logo shown at the close of each show. Oliver shared their Watergate apartment during McLaughlin's tenure as speechwriter for President Nixon.

After missing his first broadcast in 34 years, McLaughlin died on August 16, 2016, at his home in Washington, D.C. of prostate cancer at the age of 89. McLaughlin's last message to fans was August 13, when he explained he had missed recent tapings due to his poor health.

In popular culture
The McLaughlin Group was parodied a number of times on Saturday Night Live in the early 1990s, where McLaughlin was played by Dana Carvey. McLaughlin also appeared in several films, including Dave, Mission: Impossible, Independence Day, and War, Inc., generally portraying himself discussing a political character in the movie. In the 2009 movie Watchmen, he is portrayed by Gary Houston in an early scene interviewing Pat Buchanan (played by James M. Connor) and Eleanor Clift (played by Mary Ann Burger) about the possibility of nuclear war with the Soviet Union. McLaughlin also hosted a special celebration for the 200th episode of the NBC sitcom Cheers.

title: John McLaughlin (host)


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Justifiable homicide

The concept of justifiable homicide in criminal law is a defense to culpable homicide (criminal or negligent homicide). Generally, there is a burden to produce exculpatory evidence in the legal defense of justification.

In most countries, a homicide is justified when there is sufficient evidence to disprove the alleged criminal act or wrongdoing (under the beyond a reasonable doubt standard for criminal charges, and preponderance of evidence standard for claims of wrongdoing, i.e. civil liability). The key to this legal defense is that it was reasonable for the subject to believe that there was an imminent and otherwise unavoidable danger of death or grave bodily harm to the innocent by the deceased, when they committed the homicide.

Definition
According to Black's Law Dictionary justifiable homicide applies to the blameless killing of a person, such as in self-defense.

The term "legal intervention" is a classification incorporated into the International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision, and does not denote the lawfulness or legality of the circumstances surrounding a death caused by law enforcement. For example, in 2020, legal intervention deaths i.e., deaths caused by law enforcement and other persons with legal authority to use deadly force acting in the line of duty, excluding legal executions, amounted to 1.3% of all 71,000 violence-related deaths in the United States.

Common excusing conditions
Potentially excusing conditions common to multiple jurisdictions include the following.
 * 1) Capital punishment in places that it is legal.
 * 2) Where a state is engaged in a war with a legitimate casus belli, a combatant may lawfully kill an enemy combatant so long as that combatant is not hors de combat. This principle is embedded in public international law and has been respected by most states around the world.
 * 3) In most countries, it is lawful for a citizen to repel violence with violence to protect someone's life or destruction of property.
 * 4) * The scope of self-defense varies; some jurisdictions have a duty to retreat rule that disallows this defense if it was safe to flee from potential violence. In some jurisdictions, the castle doctrine allows the use of deadly force in self-defense against an intruder in one's home. Other jurisdictions have stand-your-ground laws that allow use of deadly force in self-defense in a vehicle or in public, without a duty to retreat.
 * 5) Where the person's death as inflicted by the effecting of lawful arrest or prevention of lawfully detained person's escape, quelling riot or insurrection when the use of force is "no more than absolutely necessary".
 * 6) The doctrine of necessity allows, for example, a surgeon to separate conjoined twins, killing the weaker twin to allow the stronger twin to survive. This is not recognized, for example, in England and Wales.
 * 7) Several countries, such as the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Japan, Canada, and the U.S. states of Oregon and Washington allow both active and passive euthanasia by law, if justified.
 * 8) The "heat of the moment" defense for crimes of passion: death results from a situation where the defendant is deemed to have lost control. This may be considered a part of the defense of provocation against charges of murder. Based on the idea that all individuals may suddenly and unexpectedly lose control when words are spoken or events occur, jurisdictions differ on whether this should be allowed to excuse liability or merely mitigate to a lesser offense such as manslaughter, and under which circumstances this defense can be used. In many common law jurisdictions, provocation is a partial defense that converts what would have been murder into manslaughter.
 * 9) A few jurisdictions do not prosecute (Iran, Iraq) or have a lesser penalty (Kuwait, Egypt) for honor killings.

European Convention on Human Rights
Article 2 Paragraph 2 of the European Convention On Human Rights provides that death resulted from defending oneself or others, arresting a suspect or fugitive, or suppressing riots or insurrections, will not contravene the Article when the use of force involved is "no more than absolutely necessary":
 * 2. Deprivation of life shall not be regarded as inflicted in contravention of this Article when it results from the use of force which is no more than absolutely necessary:
 * (a) in defence of any person from unlawful violence;
 * (b) in order to effect a lawful arrest or to prevent the escape of a person lawfully detained;
 * (c) in action lawfully taken for the purpose of quelling a riot or insurrection.

Criminal Procedure Act in South Africa
In South Africa, §49 Criminal Procedure Act of 1977 provided the following before its amendment in 1998:
 * (2) Where the person concerned is to be arrested for an offense referred to in Schedule 1 or is to be arrested on the ground of having committed such an offense, and the person authorized under this Act to arrest or to assist in arresting him cannot arrest him or prevent him from fleeing by other means than killing him, the killing shall be deemed to be justifiable homicide.
 * This has now been amended by §7 Judicial Matters Second Amendment Act 122 of 1998:
 * (2) If any arrestor attempts to arrest a suspect and the suspect resists the attempt, or flees, or resists the attempt and flees, when it is clear that an attempt to arrest him or her is being made, and the suspect cannot be arrested without the use of force, the arrestor may, in order to effect the arrest, use such force as may be reasonably necessary and proportional in the circumstances to overcome resistance or to prevent the suspect from fleeing: Provided that the arrester is justified in terms of this section in using deadly force that is intended or is likely to cause death or grievous bodily harm to a suspect, only if he believes on reasonable grounds-
 * (a) that the force is immediately necessary for the purpose of protecting the arrestor, any person lawfully assisting the arrestor or any other person from imminent or future death or grievous bodily harm;
 * (b) that there is a substantial risk that the suspect will cause imminent or future death or grievous bodily harm if the arrest is delayed; or
 * (c) that the offence for which the arrest is sought is in progress and is of a forcible and serious nature and involves the use of life threatening violence or a strong likelihood that it will cause grievous bodily harm.

In the United States
A non-criminal homicide ruling, usually committed in self-defense or in defense of another, exists under United States law. A homicide may be considered justified if it is done to prevent a very serious crime, such as rape, armed robbery, manslaughter or murder. The victim must reasonably believe, under the totality of the circumstances, that the assailant intended to commit a criminal act that would likely result in the death or life-threatening injury of an innocent person. A homicide performed out of vengeance, or retribution for action in the past, or in pursuit of a "fleeing felon" (except under specific circumstances) would not be considered justifiable.

In many states, given a case of self-defense, the defendant is expected to obey a duty to retreat if it is possible to do so. In the states of Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, West Virginia, Washington, Wyoming and other Castle Doctrine states, there is no duty to retreat in certain situations (depending on the state, this may apply to one's home, business, or vehicle, or to any public place where a person is lawfully present). Preemptive self-defense, in which one kills another on suspicion that the victim might eventually become dangerous, is not justifiable.

In the U.S. Supreme Court ruling of District of Columbia v. Heller, the majority held that the Constitution protected the right to the possession of firearms for the purpose of self-defense "and to use that arm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home".

Two other forms of justifiable homicide are unique to the prison system: the death penalty and preventing prisoners from escaping. To quote the California Penal Code (state law) that covers justifiable homicide:

 * 196. Homicide is justifiable when committed by public officers and those acting by their command in their aid and assistance, either--

 * 1. In obedience to any judgment of a competent Court; or,

 * 2. When necessarily committed in overcoming actual resistance to the execution of some legal process, or in the discharge of any other legal duty; or

 * 3. When necessarily committed in retaking felons who have been rescued or have escaped, or when necessarily committed in arresting persons charged with felony, and who are fleeing from justice or resisting such arrest.

Although the above text is from California law, many other jurisdictions, like Florida, have similar laws to prevent escapes from custody. Examples include self defense, prevention of criminal act, trespassers, and defense of another person.

Notable cases

 * Killing of Ma'Khia Bryant. Her shooting, which prevented her from stabbing another girl, was later deemed a justifiable homicide with prosecutors noting, "Under Ohio law the use of deadly force by a police officer is justified when there exists an immediate or imminent threat of death or serious bodily injury to the officer or another."
 * Sam Cooke. After an inquest and investigation, the courts ruled Cooke's death to be a justifiable homicide.
 * John Dillinger. When BOI agents moved to arrest Dillinger as he exited the theater, he tried to flee. He was shot in the back; the deadly shot was ruled justifiable homicide.
 * Fred Hampton. In January 1970, the Cook County Coroner held an inquest; the jury concluded that Hampton's and Clark's deaths were justifiable homicides.
 * George Jackson (activist). Miller had not been charged with any crime, as a grand jury ruled his actions during the prison fight justifiable homicide.
 * Don King. In 1954, King shot a man in the back after spotting him trying to rob one of his gambling houses; this incident was ruled a justifiable homicide.
 * Killing of Sara-Nicole Morales. In 2021 Morales confronted several motorists who had followed her to her Florida home following a road rage incident. After she brandished a pistol at them from her front lawn, a motorcyclist she had deliberately struck with her vehicle during the road-rage incident drew his own legally carried weapon and shot her several times; she died shortly after arrival at a local hospital. Police declined to file charges several months later.
 * Eadweard Muybridge. In 1874, Muybridge shot and killed Major Harry Larkyns, his wife's lover, but was acquitted in a controversial jury trial, on the grounds of justifiable homicide.
 * Johnny Stompanato homicide. After four hours of testimony and approximately 25 minutes of deliberation, the jury deemed Stompanato's killing a justifiable homicide.

title: Justifiable homicide


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Alfred Terry

Alfred Howe Terry (November 10, 1827 – December 16, 1890) was a Union general in the American Civil War and the military commander of the Dakota Territory from 1866 to 1869, and again from 1872 to 1886. In 1865, Terry led Union troops to victory at the Second Battle of Fort Fisher in North Carolina.

Early life and career
Although born in Hartford, Connecticut, Alfred Terry's family quickly moved to New Haven, where he spent most of his childhood. Terry graduated from the Hopkins School in New Haven in 1838. After attending Yale Law School in 1848, Terry became a lawyer and was appointed clerk of the Superior Court of New Haven County.

South Carolina
When the Civil War started, Terry raised the 2nd Connecticut Infantry Regiment, and was appointed colonel. The regiment fought at First Bull Run, after which Terry and his regiment were transferred to South Carolina. On September 13, 1861, at New Haven, Connecticut, Col. Terry organized an elite and special regiment, 7th Regiment Connecticut Volunteer Infantry, a three-year regiment, naming Joseph Roswell Hawley, who assisted in raising the regiment, as lieutenant colonel. He was appointed brigadier general of volunteers in April 1862 and placed in command of the Morris Island Division of the X Corps. Terry was heavily involved in the siege operations against Charleston during 1863 and Morris Island, South Carolina. Troops under Terry's direct command were engaged at a skirmish at Grimball's Landing and later succeeded in capturing Fort Wagner in September 1863, but the following year the entire X Corps was sent north to Benjamin Butler's Army of the James in Virginia.

Virginia
Terry's Morris Island Division was redesignated the 1st Division, X Corps, and fought at the Battle of Proctor's Creek and in the Bermuda Hundred Campaign around Richmond. Once the Siege of Petersburg began, Terry continued to fight in the battles north of the James River, notably at the Battle of New Market Heights. Upon the death of X Corps commander David B. Birney in October, Terry briefly assumed command of the corps before it was dissolved. His leadership was never in question, but he had not achieved the same battlefield glory that many of his counterparts had won by this time in the war.

Fort Fisher and North Carolina

Terry's greatest achievement of the war came when he was placed in command of the Fort Fisher Expeditionary Corps. Benjamin Butler had previously failed in an expedition against Fort Fisher at the end of 1864. Terry had gained the confidence of General Ulysses S. Grant and was now in command of the ground forces in a second expedition against the fort. Unlike Butler, Terry worked well with the Navy under the command of David D. Porter. On January 13, 1865, Terry sent a division of United States Colored Troops to hold off Confederate forces under Braxton Bragg to the north of Fort Fisher. He sent his other division under Adelbert Ames against the northern part of the fort. After hand-to-hand fighting, the Union troops took control of the fort. For his part in the Battle of Fort Fisher, Terry was promoted to major general of volunteers and brigadier general in the regular army. Reinforcements arrived in February and John M. Schofield arrived to take overall command of the campaign against Wilmington, North Carolina. After the fall of Wilmington, the Fort Fisher Expeditionary Corps was renamed the X Corps, with Terry remaining in command, and participated in the final stages of the Carolinas Campaign. He is generally considered one of the most capable generals with no previous military training to emerge from the war.

Postbellum activities
After the war, Terry remained in the military. He helped to negotiate the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), which ended Red Cloud's campaign against American troops in the region. Terry became a strong opponent of the Ku Klux Klan after being assigned as the last military governor of the Third Military District, based in Atlanta, where he served beginning on December 22, 1869.

Terry was the commander of the U.S. Army column marching westward into the Montana Territory during what is now popularly known as the Centennial Campaign of 1876–77. Two other columns marched toward the same objective area (George Crook's from the south and John Gibbon's from the west). A column of troops under his command arrived shortly after the Battle of Little Bighorn and discovered the bodies of Custer's men. His aide-de-camp, Robert Patterson Hughes, who was also his brother-in-law, investigated Custer's activities before and during the battle and authored a critical report. In October 1877, he went to Canada to negotiate with Sitting Bull. He was still in command in Montana during the Nez Perce War and sent reinforcements to intercept Chief Joseph.

In 1878, Terry joined Maj. Gen. John Schofield on a presidential board asked to reexamine the conviction by court-martial of Fitz John Porter. The board found that Porter had been unfairly convicted of cowardice and disobedience.

In 1881, as the Northern Pacific Railway's transcontinental rail line was building across Montana, the new town of Terry, Montana was named in his honor.

In 1886, Terry was promoted to major general and was given command of the Military Division of the Missouri, headquartered in Chicago. He retired from the Army on 5 April 1888. He died two years later in New Haven, Connecticut, where he is buried in Grove Street Cemetery.

General Terry was a First Class Companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, a military society for officers of the Union Armed Forces and their descendants.

In 1897, construction commenced on Fort Terry, part of the Harbor Defenses of Long Island Sound.

Media portrayals
In 1967, Terry was portrayed by Robert F. Simon (1908–1992) on the ABC television series Custer.

Terry is interpreted by Philippe Noiret in the 1974 Franco-Italian satirical Marco Ferreri movie Don't Touch the White Woman!, a farcical, counter-cultural, highly politicized and surreal re-enactment of the run up to the 1876 Battle of the Little Bighorn.

In 1991, Terry was portrayed by Terry O'Quinn in the television film Son of the Morning Star.

title: Alfred Terry


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Żary County

Żary County (powiat żarski) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lubusz Voivodeship, western Poland, on the German border. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. Its administrative seat and largest town is Żary, which lies 43 km south-west of Zielona Góra and 123 km south of Gorzów Wielkopolski. The county contains three other towns: Lubsko, lying 21 km north-west of Żary, Jasień, lying 16 km north-west of Żary, and Łęknica, 30 km west of Żary.

The county covers an area of 1393.49 km2. As of 2019 its total population is 96,496, out of which the population of Żary is 37,502, that of Lubsko is 13,921, that of Jasień is 4,309, that of Łęknica is 2,478, and the rural population is 38,286.

Neighbouring counties
Żary County is bordered by Krosno Odrzańskie County to the north, Zielona Góra County to the north-east, Żagań County to the east and Zgorzelec County to the south. It also borders the German states of Saxony and Brandenburg to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into 10 gminas (two urban, two urban-rural and six rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Żary County


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Stephen Mallory

Stephen Russell Mallory (1812 – November 9, 1873) was a Democratic senator from Florida from 1851 to the secession of his home state and the outbreak of the American Civil War. For much of that period, he was chairman of the Committee on Naval Affairs. It was a time of rapid naval reform, and he insisted that the ships of the U.S. Navy should be as capable as those of Britain and France, the foremost navies in the world at that time. He also wrote a bill and guided it through Congress to provide for compulsory retirement of officers who did not meet the standards of the profession.

Although he was not a leader in the secession movement, Mallory followed his state out of the Union. When the Confederate States of America was formed, he was named Secretary of the Navy in the administration of President Jefferson Davis. He held the position throughout the existence of the Confederacy. Because of indifference to naval matters by most others in the Confederacy, Mallory was able to shape the Confederate Navy according to the principles he had learned while serving in the U.S. Senate. Some of his ideas, such as the incorporation of armor into warship construction, were quite successful and became standard in navies around the world. On the other hand, the navy was often handicapped by administrative ineptitude in the Navy Department. During the war, he was weakened politically by a Congressional investigation into the Navy Department for its failure in defense of New Orleans. After months of taking testimony, the investigating committee concluded that it had no evidence of wrongdoing on his part.

Mallory resigned after the Confederate government had fled from Richmond at the end of the war, and he and several of his colleagues in the cabinet were imprisoned and charged with treason. After more than a year in prison, the public mood had softened, and he was granted parole by President Andrew Johnson. He returned to Florida, where he supported his family in his final years by again practicing law. Unable to hold elective office by the terms of his parole, he continued to make his opinions known by writing letters to newspapers. His health began to deteriorate although he was not incapacitated until the very end.

He was the father of Stephen Russell Mallory, a U.S. Representative and Senator from Florida.

Early life
Mallory was born in Trinidad, British West Indies, in 1812. His parents were Charles and Ellen Mallory. His father was a construction engineer originally from Redding, Connecticut. He met and married the Irish-born Ellen Russell in Trinidad, and there the couple had two sons.

The family moved to the United States and settled in Key West, Florida, in 1820. Young Stephen was sent to school near Mobile, Alabama, but his education was interrupted by his father's death. His elder brother John also died about this time. To support herself and her surviving son, Ellen opened a boarding house for seamen. Then she sent her son away for further schooling at a Moravian academy in Nazareth, Pennsylvania. Although he was for all of his life a practicing Catholic, he had only praise for the education he received at the academy. After about three years, his mother could no longer afford to pay his tuition, so in 1829 his schooling ended and he returned home.

Adulthood in Florida
Young Mallory prepared for a profession by reading law in the office of Judge William Marvin. Because of its geographical position, Key West was often sought as a port of refuge for ships caught in storms and was for the same reason near frequent shipwrecks. Marvin was recognized as an authority on maritime law, particularly applied to laws of wreck and salvage, and Mallory argued many admiralty cases before him. He was reputed to be one of the best young trial lawyers in the state.

His career prospering, in 1838 Mallory courted and wed Angela Moreno, a member of a wealthy Spanish-speaking family living in Pensacola. Their marriage produced nine children, five of whom died young; surviving into adulthood were daughters Margaret ("Maggie") and Ruby, and sons Stephen R. Jr. ("Buddy"), and Attila ("Attie"). Buddy followed his father into politics, and he would eventually also serve as U.S. Senator from Florida. Angela Moreno was the cousin of Felix Senac, future Confederate Paymaster and agent in Europe, born like her in 1815 in Pensacola.

Mallory held a few minor public offices, beginning in 1832 with his selection as town marshal. One of his first paid positions was as Inspector of Customs, for which he earned three dollars per day. Later, President Polk appointed him Collector of Customs. Before his marriage, he joined the Army and took part in the Seminole War, 1835–1837. He also was elected judge for Monroe County for the years 1837–1845.

In 1850, the sectional differences that eventually culminated in the Civil War led to a convention to be held in Nashville, Tennessee, for the purpose of defining a common course of action for all Southern (slave-holding) states. Although Mallory had held no statewide offices, he was regarded as sufficiently powerful in the state Democratic Party to be chosen as an alternate delegate to the convention. Personal considerations kept him from attending, but he expressed his agreement with the purposes of the convention in a letter that was widely reprinted in the Florida newspapers.

In the Senate, 1851–1861
The term in office of senator from Florida David Levy Yulee expired in 1850. He sought reappointment, but he had aligned himself too strongly with the Fire-eaters, and also had antagonized some commercial interests in the state. The moderates who favored working within the Union still dominated Florida politics, and they successfully sought to put Mallory in place of the radical Yulee. The selection process in the Florida state legislature was somewhat irregular, and Yulee protested, carrying his protest all the way to the Senate itself. That body determined that the Florida legislature had acted within its authority in certifying Mallory, and so he was seated.

Senator from Florida
Much of what he did in the Senate can be described as the typical sponsorship of legislation that would benefit his state. With his sponsorship, the Senate passed a bill that would aid railroads in Florida, and another that would sell off some of the live oak reservations maintained by the Federal government for the Navy; both bills failed in the House of Representatives. He was more successful with bills aimed at prosecuting the ongoing campaign against the Seminole Indians, although the problem seems to have been overstated. His bills would provide compensation for persons who had suffered from the depredations of Indian raids and would further the process of removing the aborigines from the state. He also introduced bills that provided for marine hospitals in port cities in Florida. None of this would have been considered exceptional for the era.

Committee on Naval Affairs
Mallory was placed on the Senate Committee on Naval Affairs. His assignment became significant when President Millard Fillmore, in his Message to Congress of December 13, 1851, recommended Congressional action on two issues. First was the problem of what to do with ineffective officers in the Navy. At the time, promotion was based solely on seniority, and no policy existed for removing officers who could not or would not fulfill their duties. Second was the issue of discipline in the enlisted rates. The practice of flogging had been outlawed in the previous Congress, and many of the old captains believed discipline on their warships was deteriorating; they wanted a return to the old ways or at least a reasonable substitute that would enable them to exert their authority.

Mallory's first major speech in Congress was in favor of a return to flogging, which he argued was needed in order that a captain would be able to control his seamen in battle. His position was unpopular throughout the nation, and Congress refused to lift the ban. His views on flogging, for good or ill, were forgotten when he turned his energies to the second of President Fillmore's proposals, that of reforming the officer corps of the Navy. He was by this time chairman of the Senate Committee on Naval Affairs, and the law that Congress passed was recognized as coming from his hand. It established a Retirement Board of senior naval officers, who examined the qualifications of all other commissioned officers. Those who were deemed incapable or unworthy of their rank were placed on a retired list, the first compulsory retirement in the history of the U.S. Navy. By most accounts, the board did its work creditably, but many of the officers who were adversely affected did not agree. Among those who were forced into early retirement was Matthew Fontaine Maury, too crippled to go to sea, but whose study of ocean currents formed the basis for the new science of oceanography. Maury and some of the other retirees enlisted other senators to support their cases, and the debate was renewed. In the end, however, Mallory's views prevailed, a testimonial to his parliamentary skills. The enmity between Maury and Mallory lasted the remainder of their lives and distorted their performance in the Civil War when both men sided with the South.

Mallory's tenure on the Committee on Naval Affairs came during a time of great innovation in naval warfare. He kept abreast of developments in other navies, and he made sure that the U.S. Navy would incorporate the latest thinking into its new ships. Britain and France, then the two foremost navies in the world, were in the process of converting their fleets from sail to steam, and from paddles to screws. In 1853, the committee recommended passage of a bill providing for the addition of six new screw frigates to the fleet; when delivered, some considered them to be the best frigates in the world. In 1857, his committee persuaded the Senate to authorize twelve sloops-of-war. These entered the Navy beginning in 1858, on the verge of the Civil War.

Another innovation that was being considered was that of armor. Mallory was here somewhat ahead of his time, enthusiastically supporting iron cladding for ships before the fledgling metals industry in the country could supply it in the requisite quantities. No armored vessels were commissioned while he was in the Senate, but whatever fault there was lay elsewhere. He spoke up for extending appropriations for an armored vessel that was intended for the defense of New York Harbor; named the Stevens Battery after its designer and builder Robert L. Stevens, it had been laid down in 1842 but was still incomplete in 1853, when Mallory gave his argument. His pleading was unsuccessful in that the Senate did not agree to continue funding the project, but in his supporting speech he expressed some of the principles that guided his thinking when he later became the Confederate Secretary of the Navy.

Secession crisis
Representing as he did a state in the Deep South, Mallory could hardly have avoided taking a public stance on the issues that were tearing the nation apart. The occasion arose when the Senate considered the admission of Kansas to the Union. Its Lecompton Constitution would allow slavery in Kansas, and citizens who were against extending the practice into new territories seized upon the widespread irregularities in the adoption procedure to oppose it. Senator Preston King of New York mounted a two-hour attack on the constitution and Southern policy in general, following which Mallory replied in what his biographers describe as "probably his most effective speech in the Senate." One segment of his talk presented the rationale of the slave-holders in their unwillingness to accept majority rule. Addressing the question whether the constitution had been ratified by "the people," he said: "States have conferred, and may at any time confer, their whole political power on a minority. They may make disqualifications dependent upon the tenure of freehold estate, upon the payment of tax, upon militia duty, or upon the color of skin; but whoever the State chooses to confer her political authority upon, are the people." He foresaw the decline in relative power of the slave-holding states, although at this time he did not believe it would necessarily lead to secession. He concluded his remarks by a pledge to follow the South whatever happened: "It is not for me to indicate the path she [the South] may, in her wisdom, pursue; but, sir, ... my whole heart is with her, and she will find me treading it with undivided affections."

Despite his willing adherence to the Southern position on the issues that were dividing the country, Mallory was not prominent in the secession movement. He advocated reconciliation almost up to the moment that Florida passed its ordinance of secession. That occurred on January 10, 1861, making Florida the third state (behind South Carolina and Mississippi) to leave the Union. On January 21, Mallory delivered his farewell speech in the United States Senate.

In the days before Abraham Lincoln took office, parties in the seceding states disagreed over the proper course of action concerning the forts within their domains. In Florida, three forts remained in the possession of the United States Army: Fort Zachary Taylor at Key West, Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas, and Fort Pickens near Pensacola. Some of the most strident secessionists proposed that they be taken over immediately, by force if needed, beginning with Fort Pickens. Cooler heads hoped to avoid bloodshed and gain possession by negotiation; they made much of the conciliatory words of William H. Seward, already selected to be Secretary of State in the incoming administration. Mallory and Florida's other senator, David L. Yulee, and the two senators from Alabama sent telegrams to their respective governors urging caution. Other Southern senators lent their support, and President-elect Jefferson Davis seemed to agree. In the end, the moderates won out, and no attack was made on Fort Pickens. Although Mallory was hardly alone, his political opponents later used his perceived pro-Union stance as an excuse to attack him.

Confederate Secretary of the Navy: nomination and confirmation
The governmental structure of the newly formed Confederate States of America was very much like that of the parent United States. The executive branch was partitioned into several departments, each headed by a secretary or equivalent who would advise the president. The constitution provided for a navy that would be directed by its own department, and President Jefferson Davis nominated Mallory to be Confederate States Secretary of the Navy. He was chosen for two principal reasons: first, he had extensive experience with nautical affairs, both in his boyhood home of Key West and later in Washington; and second, he was from Florida. In a bow to the principle of states' rights, Davis had to spread representation in his cabinet around among the seceding states. Although the requirement of geographical representation sometimes meant that the occupant would not be the best person available, the selection process worked well in Mallory's case.

Mallory's nomination as Secretary of the Navy was submitted to the Provisional Congress as soon as the act establishing a navy was passed. Despite his evident qualifications, it drew significant opposition; his detractors cited the Fort Pickens incident as evidence that he was not strongly pro-secession. Ultimately, however, he was confirmed.

Naval organization and operations
As few other persons in the Confederate government were interested in naval matters, Mallory had almost free rein to shape the department, as well as the navy it controlled, according to his own views. The result was very much the product of his prior experience. The Department of the Navy was organized into separate offices, equivalent to the bureau system of the United States Navy; whereas the U.S. Navy had five bureaus, the Confederate Navy had only four: Orders and Detail (dealing with personnel), Provisions and Clothing, Medicine and Surgery, and Ordnance and Hydrography. Although there was no Office of Construction and Repair, its function was met by John L. Porter. Porter served as Chief Naval Constructor, without title from the start until the position was officially established in 1863, and thereafter with title until the end of the war. A few other functions lay outside the bureau system: a small Marine Corps, a few men who were sent to Europe to acquire vessels there and who reported directly to Mallory, and a Torpedo Bureau.

At the start, the Confederate Navy faced one of the problems that Mallory had encountered when he was chairman of the United States Senate Committee on Naval Affairs: an overabundance of high-ranking officers who were too old to go to sea. This came about because the Confederacy had created its navy by promising that men resigning from the U.S. Navy would enter the CS Navy at their old rank. Hoping to avoid the stagnation that was the result of the former promotion process, Mallory proposed that promotion should depend solely on "gallant or meritorious conduct during the war." His proposal was quickly made into law by the Confederate Congress. Still not completely satisfied, in 1863 Mallory initiated the creation of a Provisional Navy, which in effect established two officer corps. The officers whom Mallory or his advisers deemed incapable of combat were retained in the Regular Navy, while young and presumably more aggressive officers would transfer to the Provisional Navy. Officers for fighting ships would be drawn from the Provisional Navy, and they could be promoted without regard for seniority if they served with distinction.

Mallory also was able to shape naval policy and doctrine. After viewing the disparity between the shipbuilding and other manufacturing facilities of the Confederacy and those of the Union, he set forth a fourfold plan for the navy:
 * 1. Send out commerce raiders to destroy the enemy's mercantile marine.
 * 2. Build ironclad vessels in Southern shipyards for defensive purposes.
 * 3. Obtain by purchase or construction abroad armored ships capable of fighting on the open seas.
 * 4. Employ new weapons and techniques of warfare.

Attacks on Union commerce
From the start, one of the main efforts of the Confederate Navy was to counter the blockade of its ports by the Union Navy. Mallory believed that by attacking the merchant shipping that carried trade to Northern ports he could force his Union counterpart, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, to divert his own small fleet to defend against the raiders. In the early days of the war, the Confederacy tried to enlist the services of private shipowners in the service by offering letters of marque and reprisal. Issuance of the letters was not in the purview of the Navy Department, but Mallory was aware of them and saw them as part of his plan. For several reasons, the privateers did not have the success that was hoped for. Although they ventured out throughout the war, they had only fleeting success, and that had ceased by the end of the first year.

He was more directly involved in the activities of the commissioned raiders, ships of the Confederate States Navy that were sent out to destroy rather than capture enemy commerce. He first proposed their use as early as April 18, 1861. The first raider, CSS Sumter, avoided the Union blockade at New Orleans on June 30, 1861. From then until after the war was over, the small group of raiders plundered Union shipping, inflicting damage on the American Merchant Marine that persists to the present day. They failed of their primary purpose, however, because Welles maintained the Union blockade, and international trade continued as before, carried in ships flying foreign flags.

Naval reform: ironclads
No other aspect of Mallory's tenure as Secretary of the Navy is better known than his advocacy of armored vessels. He argued that the Confederacy could never produce enough ships to compete with the industrial Union on a ship-by-ship basis. As he saw it, the South should build a few ships that were individually so far superior to their opponents as to dominate. In his words, "The perfection of a warship would doubtless be a combination of the greatest known ocean speed with the greatest known floating battery and power of resistance." He hoped that armored warships would prove to be the "ultimate weapon." He did not anticipate that his opponents would also produce armored vessels, which rapidly became important parts of both navies. Furthermore, other navies, notably Great Britain and France, stepped up the conversions of their own fleets from wood to iron. Certainly, the change was under way even before the Civil War broke out; his legacy consists in forcing the change to be made sooner than would otherwise have been done.

The first ironclad to be created at Mallory's urging was CSS Virginia. The burned and scuttled USS Merrimack had been raised at Gosport (Norfolk) Navy Yard, and an armored casemate built on her hull. For armament, she carried 12 guns. She was also fitted with an iron ram. On March 8, 1862, she attacked the Union fleet enforcing the blockade at Hampton Roads, on the James River near Norfolk. She sank two major Union warships (USS Cumberland (1842) and USS Congress (1841)), and menaced a third (USS Minnesota (1855)), which had grounded in the attempt to get into action. The damages she suffered were negligible. In that first day of the battle, she had demonstrated the basic validity of Mallory's belief that armored warships could destroy the best wooden ships and were almost impervious to damage in return. As is well known, when Virginia returned to battle the next day intending to finish off Minnesota, she encountered the Union's USS Monitor. The two armored vessels fought inconclusively, demonstrating the flaw in Mallory's argument: an ultimate weapon is truly decisive only if one side does not have it.

After Virginia, most other Confederate ironclads had at best-limited success, and many were complete failures. Particularly embarrassing were four that were contracted to be built for service on the Mississippi River. Of the four, only one, CSS Arkansas, entered into combat in the way that was intended, with full crew and under steam. Of the others, CSS Tennessee was destroyed on the stocks; CSS Mississippi was hastily launched and then burned to avoid capture; and CSS Louisiana was used merely as an ineffectual floating battery at the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, when the fate of New Orleans was decided, and she was then blown up rather than be surrendered. No parties in the Confederacy acquitted themselves well in the three losses, but Mallory must bear a large part of the blame. Poor administration is among the foremost reasons for the delays that hindered completion of the vessels. By failing to prioritize their construction, he allowed Louisiana and Mississippi to compete for scarce resources. Because he did not delegate responsibility, he was swamped with details of the construction of Virginia while letting problems concerning the other ships go unresolved. And because he accepted the role implicitly assigned to his service as secondary to the Army, the Navy had to work with only the materials and funds that were left over after the Army had satisfied its needs.

Mission to Europe
The backward condition of shipyards in the seceding states convinced Mallory that he would have to look abroad to obtain the vessels that he thought would be able to challenge the U.S. Navy. He selected two men as his primary representatives: James D. Bulloch and Lieutenant James H. North of the Confederate States Navy. North was a disappointment, but Bulloch proved to be one of the most effective agents for the Confederacy in Europe. He sought diligently and discreetly in England to acquire ships for the purposes of his government while working within or around the framework of the neutrality laws of the host nation.

Four of the Confederate Navy raiders were purchased in Britain: CSS Florida, CSS Georgia, CSS Shenandoah, and above all, CSS Alabama. Probably Mallory would have liked to have more, but the record shows that the few that were commissioned were more than adequate.

Efforts to purchase or have built ironclad warships were unsuccessful despite Bulloch's best efforts. Buying them was never seriously considered, as the Royal Navy would not care to give any of its best ships to a foreign power, no matter how favorably disposed. Contracts were made with private shipyards in both Britain and France to build rams to Confederate naval specifications, but their ultimate purpose could not be disguised. They therefore directly violated the neutrality laws, and American (that is, Union) officials immediately informed the governments of their existence. For a while, Her Majesty's Government chose to turn a blind eye on developments, but the Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg caused them to reconsider. On September 5, 1863, Ambassador Charles Francis Adams sent a message to Foreign Minister Lord John Russell informing him that the first of the ironclads was about to leave, and that "it would be superfluous in me to point out to your Lordship that this means war." The ship was not permitted to leave and was later seized for the Royal Navy. As the French government had implicitly agreed to follow Britain's lead concerning North America, all the contracts were voided.

New weapons
The Civil War provided a testing ground for numerous innovations in warfare, and Mallory was in position to provide support for many of them. His advocacy of armored vessels has been described and is the development most closely associated with his name, but he encouraged the development of several other weapons. For example, he favored the use of rifled guns, as opposed to the smoothbore muzzle loaders used in the Union Navy. The favored gun was a rifle designed by the head of his Office of Ordnance and Hydrography, Lieutenant John Mercer Brooke. The Brooke rifle gave Rebel gunners a qualitative advantage over their Yankee counterparts that persisted to the end of the war.

The torpedo office, officially named the Submarine Battery Service, developed underwater explosive devices, known as "torpedoes" at that time but as "mines" today. The office was initially led by Mallory's enemy Matthew Fontaine Maury, and later by Lieutenant Hunter Davidson. The first ship to be lost to mines was USS Cairo (1861), on December 12, 1862. Subsequently, more vessels of all types were lost in combat to mines and torpedoes than from all other causes combined.

In Charleston Harbor, Army Captain Francis D. Lee, supported by General P. G. T. Beauregard, developed a small boat that would carry a spar torpedo. His craft, known as CSS David, successfully exploded a torpedo against the side of USS New Ironsides, severely damaging her. Later, the more famous CSS H. L. Hunley used one of Lee's spar torpedoes to sink USS Housatonic (1861), the first ship to be sunk by a submarine. The Navy Department had not provided active support for Lee's experiments, but their successful result led to the use of spar torpedoes on ships throughout the fleet. (Less favorably for the Rebel cause, spar torpedoes were also immediately adopted by the Union Navy, and one was used in October 1864 to sink the ironclad CSS Albemarle.)

Investigation of the Navy Department
The loss of New Orleans came as a tremendous shock to the Confederacy, and a spate of recriminations followed. Members of Congress, noting the failure of the ironclads, blamed the navy in particular, and suggested that there was no need for a separate Navy Department. Hoping to forestall such a proposal, Mallory was able to persuade the Congress instead to investigate the conduct of the department. Each house put five of its members on the investigating committee. The chairman, Senator Clement C. Clay, was known as one of Mallory's friends, as was Representative Ethelbert Barksdale. They were at least partially balanced by Representative Henry S. Foote, a persistent critic of secession and everything that the entire Davis administration had done. Also weighing in against Mallory was Senator Charles M. Conrad, chairman of the Naval Affairs Committee, who was not a member of the investigating committee but who did appear as a prosecution witness. The committee continued to meet for more than six months, and ended with no finding of neglect or malfeasance.

The investigation may have weakened Mallory politically and certainly diverted him from other duties, but it was not enough to drive him from office. Perhaps because there was no one to replace him and perhaps because he absorbed shafts that were aimed at the president, Davis retained him in the cabinet until the end of the war. After the surrender of Lee's army at Appomattox, Mallory remained with Davis and the other cabinet members as they fled deeper into the South, first to Danville, Virginia, then to Greensboro, North Carolina, Charlotte, Abbeville, South Carolina, and finally Washington, Georgia. There, Mallory submitted his resignation and went to La Grange, Georgia, where he was temporarily reunited with his wife and children.

Capture and imprisonment
A large part of the population of the Northern states believed that the Davis government was somehow involved in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, and although there was no evidence of their complicity, it was a political reality that had to be dealt with. One result was that the political radicals were able to force the government to prosecute those who had led the war against the Union. Mallory was one of the Confederate leaders who were charged with treason, among other things; on May 20, 1865, while he was still at La Grange, he was roused from his sleep at about midnight and taken into custody. From there he was taken to Fort Lafayette in New York Harbor, where he was confined as a political prisoner.

For several months, the demand of the public for vengeance increased, so that Mallory feared that he would face the death penalty if convicted. However, no bill of particulars to specify precisely which of his acts constituted treason was ever presented, and it became increasingly clear that no one in the Confederate government was guilty of assassinating the former president. The period for extracting vengeance passed with no one put on trial, and hope was revived. From his prison cell, Mallory began to write letters in a personal campaign to gain release. He petitioned President Andrew Johnson directly, and enlisted the support of some of his former colleagues in the Senate. His wife Angela visited Washington and importuned President Johnson and other persons who had influence. Johnson was already quite lenient in granting pardons, and the popular clamor for harsh punishment began to recede by the end of the year. On March 10, 1866, Johnson granted Mallory a "partial parole." Although he was no longer in jail, he was required to stay with his daughter in Bridgeport, Connecticut until he could take the oath of allegiance.

Release and return to Florida
In June 1866, Mallory visited Washington, where he called on many of his old friends and political adversaries, including President Johnson and Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, who received him cordially. He got permission to return to Florida; his return was somewhat delayed by problems with his health, but on July 19 he arrived at his home in Pensacola.

By the terms of his parole, Mallory was not permitted to hold public office, so he made a living by reopening his old law practice. Nominally excluded from politics, he managed to make his views known by writing letters and editorials for Florida newspapers. At first he urged acceptance of the reconstituted Union and acquiescence in the policies of Reconstruction, but he soon came out in opposition, particularly against black suffrage.

He had long suffered occasional attacks of gout, and these continued to plague him in the postwar years. In the winter of 1871–1872 he began to complain of his heart, and his health began to deteriorate. Still, he remained active, and the end came rather quickly. He is said to have been "listless" on November 8, 1873, and that night he began to fail. On the morning of November 9 he died. He was buried in St. Michael's Cemetery, Pensacola, Florida.

title: Stephen Mallory


text:
Strzelce-Drezdenko County

Strzelce-Drezdenko County (powiat strzelecko-drezdenecki) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lubusz Voivodeship, western Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. Its administrative seat is the town of Strzelce Krajeńskie, which lies 25 km north-east of Gorzów Wielkopolski and 104 km north of Zielona Góra. The county also contains the towns of Drezdenko, lying 21 km east of Strzelce Krajeńskie, and Dobiegniew, 18 km north-east of Strzelce Krajeńskie.

The county covers an area of 1248.32 km2. As of 2019 its total population is 49,156, out of which the population of Drezdenko is 10,122, that of Strzelce Krajeńskie is 9,950, that of Dobiegniew is 3,061, and the rural population is 26,023.

Neighbouring counties
Strzelce-Drezdenko County is bordered by Choszczno County to the north, Wałcz County to the north-east, Czarnków-Trzcianka County to the east, Międzychód County to the south-east, Międzyrzecz County to the south, Gorzów County to the south-west and Myślibórz County to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into five gminas (three urban-rural and two rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Strzelce-Drezdenko County