text:
CAN-SPAM Act of 2003

The Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography And Marketing (CAN-SPAM) Act of 2003 is a law passed in 2003 establishing the United States' first national standards for the sending of commercial e-mail. The law requires the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to enforce its provisions. Introduced by Republican Conrad Burns, the act passed both the House and Senate during the 108th United States Congress and was signed into law by President George W. Bush in December 2003 and was enacted on January 1, 2004.

History
The backronym CAN-SPAM derives from the bill's full name:  Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography And Marketing Act of 2003. It plays on the word "canning" (putting an end to) spam, as in the usual term for unsolicited email of this type. The bill was sponsored in Congress by Senators Conrad Burns and Ron Wyden.

The CAN-SPAM Act is occasionally referred to by critics as the "You-Can-Spam" Act because the bill fails to prohibit many types of e-mail spam and preempts some state laws that would otherwise have provided victims with practical means of redress. In particular, it does not require e-mailers to get permission before they send marketing messages. It also prevents states from enacting stronger anti-spam protections, and prohibits individuals who receive spam from suing spammers except under laws not specific to e-mail. The Act has been largely unenforced, despite a letter to the FTC from Senator Burns, who noted that "Enforcement is key regarding the CAN-SPAM legislation." In 2004, less than 1% of spam complied with the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003.

The law prescribed the FTC to report back to Congress within 24 months of the effectiveness of the act. Once this took place, no changes were recommended. It also requires the FTC to promulgate rules to shield consumers from unwanted mobile phone spam. On December 20, 2005 the FTC reported that the volume of spam has begun to level off, and due to enhanced anti-spam technologies, less was reaching consumer inboxes. A significant decrease in sexually explicit e-mail was also reported.

Later modifications changed the original CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 by (1) Adding a definition of the term "person"; (2) Modifying the term "sender"; (3) Clarifying that a sender may comply with the act by including a post office box or private mailbox; and (4) Clarifying that to submit a valid opt-out request, a recipient cannot be required to pay a fee, provide information other than his or her email address and opt-out preferences, or take any other steps other than sending a reply email message or visiting a single page on an Internet website.

Applicability
CAN-SPAM, a direct response of the growing number of complaints over spam e-mails, defines a "commercial electronic mail message" as "any electronic mail message the primary purpose of which is the commercial advertisement or promotion of a commercial product or service (including content on an Internet website operated for a commercial purpose)." It exempts "transactional or relationship messages." The FTC issued final rules clarifying the phrase "primary purpose" on December 16, 2004. Previous state laws had used bulk (a number threshold), content (commercial), or unsolicited to define spam. The explicit restriction of the law to commercial e-mails is widely considered by those in the industry to essentially exempt purely political and religious e-mail from its specific requirements. Such non-commercial messages also have stronger First Amendment protection, as shown in Jaynes v. Commonwealth.

Congress determined that the US government was showing an increased interest in the regulation of commercial electronic mail nationally, that those who send commercial e-mails should not mislead recipients over the source or content of them, and that all recipients of such emails have a right to decline them. However, CAN-SPAM does not ban spam emailing outright, but imposes laws on using deceptive marketing methods through headings that are "materially false or misleading". In addition there are conditions that email marketers must meet in terms of their format, their content, and labeling. The three basic types of compliance defined in the CAN-SPAM Act—unsubscribe, content, and sending behavior — are as follows:

Unsubscribe compliance

 * A visible and operable unsubscribe mechanism is present in all emails.
 * Consumer opt-out requests are honored within 10 business days.
 * Opt-out lists also known as suppression lists are used only for compliance purposes.

Content compliance

 * Accurate "From" lines
 * Relevant subject lines (relative to offer in body content and not deceptive)
 * A legitimate physical address of the publisher or advertiser is present. PO Box addresses are acceptable in compliance with  and if the email is sent by a third party, the legitimate physical address of the entity, whose products or services are promoted through the email should be visible.
 * A label is present if the content is adult.

Sending behavior compliance

 * A message cannot be sent without an unsubscribe option.
 * A message cannot contain a false header
 * A message should contain at least one sentence.
 * A message cannot be null.
 * Unsubscribe option should be below the message.

There are no restrictions against a company emailing its existing customers or anyone who has inquired about its products or services, even if these individuals have not given permission, as these messages are classified as "relationship" messages under CAN-SPAM. But when sending unsolicited commercial emails, it must be stated that the email is an advertisement or a marketing solicitation. Note that recipients who have signed up to receive commercial messages from you are exempt from this rule.

If a user opts out, a sender has ten days to cease sending and can use that email address only for compliance purposes. The legislation also prohibits the sale or other transfer of an e-mail address after an opt-out request. The law also requires that the unsubscribe mechanism must be able to process opt-out requests for at least 30 days after the transmission of the original message.

Use of automated means to register for multiple e-mail accounts from which to send spam compound other violations. It prohibits sending sexually oriented spam without the label later determined by the FTC of "SEXUALLY EXPLICIT." This label replaced the similar state labeling requirements of "ADV:ADLT" or "ADLT."

CAN-SPAM makes it a misdemeanor to send spam with falsified header information. A host of other common spamming practices can make a CAN-SPAM violation an "aggravated offense," including harvesting, dictionary attacks, IP address spoofing, hijacking computers through Trojan horses or worms, or using open mail relays for the purpose of sending spam.

Criminal offenses
Although according to the law, legitimate businesses and marketers should be conscientious regarding the aspects mentioned above, there are misinterpretations and fraudulent practices that are viewed as criminal offenses:
 * Sending multiple spam emails with the use of a hijacked computer
 * Sending multiple emails through Internet Protocol addresses that the sender represents falsely as being his/her property
 * Trying to disguise the source of the email and to deceive recipients regarding the origins of the emails, by routing them through other computers
 * Sending multiple spam emails via multiple mailings with falsified information in the header
 * Using various email accounts obtained by falsifying account registration information, in order to send multiple spam emails.

Private right of action
CAN-SPAM provides a limited private right of action to Internet Access Services that have been adversely affected by the receipt of emails that violate the Act; and does not allow natural persons to bring suit. A CAN-SPAM plaintiff must satisfy a higher standard of proof as compared with government agencies enforcing the Act; thus, a private plaintiff must demonstrate that the defendant either sent the email at issue or paid another person to send it knowing that the sender would violate the Act. Despite this heightened standard, private CAN-SPAM lawsuits have cropped up around the country, as plaintiffs seek to take advantage of the statutory damages available under the Act.

Overriding state anti-spam laws
CAN-SPAM preempts (supersedes) state anti-spam laws that do not deal with false or deceptive activity. The relevant portion of CAN-SPAM reads:

 * This chapter supersedes any statute, regulation, or rule of a State or political subdivision of a State that expressly regulates the use of electronic mail to send commercial messages, except to the extent that any such statute, regulation, or rule prohibits falsity or deception in any portion of a commercial electronic mail message or information attached thereto.

Though this move was criticized by some anti-spam activists, some legal commentators praised it, citing a heavily punitive California law seen as over broad and a wave of allegedly dubious suits filed in Utah.

CAN-SPAM and the FTC
CAN-SPAM allows the FTC to implement a national do-not-email list similar to the FTC's popular National Do Not Call Registry against telemarketing, or to report back to Congress why the creation of such a list is not currently feasible. The FTC soundly rejected this proposal, and such a list will not be implemented. The FTC concluded that the lack of authentication of email would undermine the list, and it could raise security concerns.

The legislation prohibits e-mail recipients from suing spammers or filing class-action lawsuits. It allows enforcement by the FTC, State Attorneys General, Internet service providers, and other federal agencies for special categories of spammers (such as banks). An individual might be able to sue as an ISP if (s)he ran a mail server, but this would likely be cost-prohibitive and would not necessarily hold up in court. Individuals can also sue using state laws about fraud, such as Virginia's that gives standing based on actual damages, in effect limiting enforcement to ISPs.

The McCain amendment made businesses promoted in spam subject to FTC penalties and enforcement remedies, if they knew or should have known that their business was being promoted by the use of spam. This amendment was designed to close a loophole that allowed those running affiliate programs to allow spammers to abuse their programs, and encouraged such businesses to assist the FTC in identifying such spammers.

Senator Corzine sponsored an amendment to allow bounties for some informants. The FTC has limited these bounties to individuals with inside information. The bounties are expected to be over $100,000 but none have been awarded yet.

Reaction
Those opposing spam greeted the new law with dismay and disappointment, almost immediately dubbing it the "You Can Spam" Act. Internet activists who work to stop spam stated that the Act would not prevent any spam — in fact, it appeared to give federal approval to the practice, and it was feared that spam would increase as a result of the law. CAUCE (Coalition Against Unsolicited Commercial Email) stated:

"This legislation fails the most fundamental test of any anti-spam law, in that it neglects to actually tell any marketers not to spam. Instead, it gives each marketer in the United States one free shot at each consumer's e-mail inbox, and will force companies to continue to deploy costly and disruptive anti-spam technologies to block advertising messages from reaching their employees on company time and using company resources. It also fails to learn from the experiences of the states and other countries that have tried 'opt-out' legal frameworks, where marketers must be asked to stop, to no avail."

AOL Executive Vice President and General Counsel Randall Boe stated:

"[CAN-SPAM] not only empowered us to help can the spam, but also to can the spammers as well. ... Our actions today clearly demonstrate that CAN-SPAM is alive and kicking — and we're using it to give hardcore, outlaw spammers the boot."

Advertising organizations such as the Data & Marketing Association (DMA) have sought to weaken implementation of the law in various ways. These include lengthening the time for honoring opt-outs from 10 business days to 31 calendar days, limiting the validity of opt-out requests to no more than two to three years, and eliminating rewards to persons who assist the Federal Trade Commission in enforcement of the act. The DMA has also opposed provisions requiring the subject line of spam to indicate that the message is an advertisement.

Criminal enforcement
On February 16, 2005, Anthony Greco, 18, of Cheektowaga, New York, was the first person to be arrested under the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003. After pleading guilty, he was sentenced in a closed session.

Within a few months, hundreds of lawsuits had been filed by an alliance of ISPs. Many of these efforts resulted in settlements; most are still pending. Though most defendants were "John Does," many spam operations, such as Scott Richter's, were known.

On April 29, 2004, the United States government brought the first criminal and civil charges under the Act. Criminal charges were filed by the United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Michigan, and the FTC filed a civil enforcement action in the Northern District of Illinois. The defendants were a company, Phoenix Avatar, and four associated individuals: Daniel J. Lin, James J. Lin, Mark M. Sadek, and Christopher Chung of West Bloomfield, Michigan. Defendants were charged with sending hundreds of thousands of spam emails advertising a "diet patch" and "hormone products." The FTC stated that these products were effectively worthless. Authorities said they face up to five years in prison under the anti-spam law and up to 20 years in prison under U.S. mail fraud statutes.

On September 27, 2004, Nicholas Tombros pled guilty to charges and became the first spammer to be convicted under the Can-Spam Act of 2003. He was sentenced in July 2007 to three years probation, six months house arrest, and a fine of $10,000.

On April 1, 2006, Mounir Balarbi, of Tangier, Morocco, was the first person outside the United States to have an arrest warrant validated under the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003. Mounir's trial was held in absentia, and he was sentenced in a closed session.

On January 16, 2006, Jeffrey Goodin, 45, of Azusa, California, was convicted by a jury in United States district court in Los Angeles in United States v. Goodin, U.S. District Court, Central District of California, 06-110, under the CAN-SPAM Act (the first conviction under the Act), and on June 11, 2007, he was sentenced to 70 months in federal prison. Out of a potential sentence of 101 years, prosecutors asked for a sentence of 94 months. Goodin was already detained in custody, as he had missed a court hearing.

As of late 2006, CAN-SPAM has been all but ignored by spammers. A review of spam levels in October 2006 estimated that 75% of all email messages were spam, and the number of spam emails complying with the requirements of the law were estimated to be 0.27% of all spam emails. , about 90% of email was spam.

On August 25, 2005, three people were indicted on two counts of fraud and one count of criminal conspiracy. On March 6, 2006 Jennifer R. Clason, 33, of Raymond, New Hampshire, pled guilty and was to be sentenced on June 5, 2006. She faced a maximum sentence of 5 years on each of the three counts and agreed to forfeit money received in the commission of these crimes. On June 25, 2007, the remaining two were convicted of spamming out millions of e-mail messages that included hardcore pornographic images. Jeffrey A. Kilbride, 41, of Venice, California, and James R. Schaffer, 41, of Paradise Valley, Arizona, were convicted on eight counts in U.S. District Court in Phoenix, Arizona. Both were sentenced to five years in prison, and ordered to forfeit $1,300,000. The charges included conspiracy, fraud, money laundering, and transportation of obscene materials. The trial, which began on June 5, was the first to include charges under the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003, according to the Department of Justice. The specific law that prosecutors used under the CAN-Spam Act was designed to crack down on the transmission of pornography in spam. Two other men, Andrew D. Ellifson, 31, of Scottsdale, Arizona, and Kirk F. Rogers, 43, of Manhattan Beach, California, also pled guilty to charges under the CAN-SPAM Act related to this spamming operation. Both were scheduled to be sentenced on June 5, 2006 in Phoenix. After sentencing, Ellifson received a presidential pardon by President Obama.

Civil enforcement
In July 2005, the Federal Trade Commission lodged civil CAN-SPAM complaints against nine companies alleging that they were responsible for spam emails that had been sent by them or by their affiliates. Eight of the nine companies, Cyberheat of Tucson, Arizona, APC Entertainment, Inc., of Davie, Florida, MD Media, Inc., of Bingham Farms, Michigan, Pure Marketing Solutions, LLC, of Tampa, Florida, TJ Web Productions, LLC, of Tampa, Florida, and BangBros.com, Inc., RK Netmedia, Inc., and OX Ideas, Inc., LLC, of Miami, Florida entered into stipulated consent decrees. Impulse Media Group, Inc. of Seattle, Washington, represented by CarpeLaw PLLC, defended the case brought against it.

The Department of Justice asserted that the CAN-SPAM statute imposed strict-liability on producers such as Impulse Media for the actions of its non-agent, independent-contractor affiliates. However, the two courts to consider that argument rejected the DOJ's contention. In March 2008 the remaining defendant, Impulse Media Group, went to trial. At trial, it was determined that IMG's Affiliate Agreement specifically prohibited spam bulk-email and that if an affiliate violated that agreement, it would be terminated from the program. In fact, several affiliates had been terminated for that very reason. After a 2½ day trial, the jury retired to determine whether Impulse Media should be held liable for the bad acts of its affiliates. Three and one-half hours later, the jury returned with a verdict that IMG was not liable and that the emails were the fault of the affiliates.

In March 2006, the FTC obtained its largest settlement to date—a $900,000 consent decree against Jumpstart Technologies, LLC for numerous alleged violations of the CAN-SPAM act. However, the FTC has never prevailed at trial with their theory of strict liability.

title: CAN-SPAM Act of 2003


text:
Talk:The Strokes

edit explanation
I want to explain what I did...24.10.125.76's edits gave the wrong dates to things (not 64.169.92.35 as I originally said, sorry), so I wanted to fix that up. Other people had edited since then, so I couldn't just roll it back, and I hope I didn't miss anything. Adam Bishop 02:50, 9 Dec 2003 (UTC) new album the strokes 2009(exclusive video) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 219.211.226.124 (talk) 16:13, 22 March 2009 (UTC) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nC5JIdfjtSk

Covers and B-Sides Section
Is it possible that someone could add information for the following covers and B-Sides that were left out? I know there are more than these, as well (PLEASE ADD OTHERS!):

-Yellow Ledbetter (Pearl Jam) --Alex 18:46, 6 October 2006 (UTC)

non-album songs
I keep adding the titles to two songs that the Strokes used to play downtown, Clear Skies and Babies. I even have the recording for Clear Skies, so stop removing the information.

live album
just want oyu to know: the live album is cancelled. it is not going to be realesed.

but "clampdown" (clash cover) thta where goinfg to be on it is going to be on "the end has no end" single.

someone who is good at writing please edit. see here: http://www.nme.co.uk/news/109892.htm

bob marley
Influences - Bob Marley ?!? I mean I'm sute they may love his music to some extent, but I would not list it as an influence!

yeah, i think it is a bit extreeme. I think it should me removed. Some says some of the songs on the room on fire album has some reage influece, but it is not that much and reagge is not bob marley alone. User:Pyramide

 * I agree with you, and took it off myself while adding Television, who is a clear influence to the band. -Nathew

they don't sound like the velvet underground AT ALL, they're still an influence

 * The 'modern age' sounds alot like 'i'm waitin for my man'...two famous songs by each band so, yeah, the VU comparisons are apt. Mike850

 * Actually Nick Valensi said in an interview that Television were not an influence on him or The Strokes and that he was "sick of people think that they were". Gibsoninside

 * i'm waitin for my man sounds nothing like the modern age.......in anyway whatsoever........ever —Preceding unsigned comment added by 188.222.41.105 (talk) 21:28, 14 October 2010 (UTC)

Singles
The Modern Age never was a single. Just an EP. Hard to explain was first released in 2001 (before the lastnite single, just check thestrokes.com), but was re-released in Ireland as a special edition something in 2002.

Anyone?

Pyramide 21:33, 26 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * allmusicguide.com calls it a single.. but you're right, it was a 3 song EP. I don't know the difference between a 3 song EP and a single, but technically you're correct. Sorry. Rhobite 00:40, Dec 27, 2004 (UTC)

'Someday' links to Mariah Carey's album.

Influences
I don't know about some of the bands listed as influences... as the Bob Marley comment said, they may very well like The Doors, and Slash is in one of their videos, but I don't know how directly this translates into their musical influences. The sound doesn't really manifest itself in their songs... I'd be more inclined to list bands like The Stooges, or The Fall, or Wire than Pearl Jam, Slash, etc. If anyone agrees, I'd say take down those last few influences. And if no one cares, then I'll do it.

I erased TELEVISION as an influence, since Nick Valensi once said that he didn't know tom verlaine's band untill the media started to compare them. On another note, I added Bob Marley, since the band stated that it influenced Room On Fire, specially the song Automatic Stop, called "Ragga" during the recording. CHINO.

 * Just because Nick didn't know them doesn't mean other members didn't either. I added it back before I saw your comment, but I think it is a good idea to keep it on there. I think Nardwuar brought up some similarities in his interview with the band, but I don't remember whether they admitted a Television influence or not, and I don't have sound on my computer right now, so go here and check out the interview for yourself. -Nathew

 * Television is definatly not and influence, it is a coinsidence that they sound similar and system of a down is an influence on nick valensi in first impressions its quoted is several print and broadcast interviews. Squashedpanda

Quotes
I removed the quotes/lyrics section. Quotes belong on Wikiquote - their selection in encyclopedia articles is inherently pov. Rhobite 00:50, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

The Leak
Before I joined, I decided to add the little ditty about Juicebox. Yeah, that was me.

What I've learnt about First Impressions Of Earth is that, indeed, the album will put more production into the mix, and the guitar will be more harder. Remember Pinkerton? FIOE will get the same treatment-harder rock. User:zel_rogero

 * Don't advertise the entire album leak, people are gonna start downloading and all sorts or drama will erupt. --Ultrasound 23:59, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

Comments
Man, they rock. Juicebox is GREAT, You Only Live Once is also GREAT. Two Thumbs Up! BTW, Julian Casablancas' voice is damn cute. - by the no.1 fan of The Strokes

Their new cd is shit compared to their last two.

 * agreed, and ROF was shit compared to ITI. They should quit while they're ahead. Mike850

"The Magical Time Foreseeing Powers of Wikipedia"
"On February 27th, 2006, The Strokes performed on Letterman"

This appeared at some point before 23:23 (GMT) 25th of February. Work it out

 * According to this, "The Strokes (CD, "First Impressions of Earth")" will be appearing on the Monday, February 27 show of Letterman. That page also lists the next five guests. It's possible that the person who added the statement was trying to avoid statements that date quickly. If they'd written it in the future tense, it would be correct for the day or so between when it was added and the actual event, when they'd have to go back and edit it to the past tense. Jude (talk,contribs) 00:16, 26 February 2006 (UTC)

Juliet Joslin
I removed the link to Juliet Joslin (under the heading "room on fire") because it just links back to the original article, even though the URL appears in my browser as ../wiki/Juliet_Joslin.

See for yourself: Juliet Joslin

64.110.246.116 07:28, 13 March 2006 (UTC)

Eerily?
'Eerie', the root for the adverb eerily, means "strange, weird, or fear-inspiring," as in, "The eerie sounds seemed to come from the graveyard after midnight" (From Wiktionary). I hope no one feels Casablancas's vocals are fear-inspiring. I suggest that this should be changed to a word without the negative connotation, but what word should be used instead? Some suggestions: surprisingly, peculiarly, very

Possibly changing the wording to something like "the similarity between Lou Reed's and Julian's vocals seems uncanny"?

Muéro 08:07, 16 March 2006 (UTC)

Plural vs. Singular verb
Proper nouns which are plural in form take a plural verb in both American and British English. Examples:

British English: "The Clash are a well-known band." American English: "The Clash is a well-known band." Both: "The Beatles are a well-known band."

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differences_between_American_and_British_English#Singular_and_plural_for_nouns

Tidy up
I've tidied up the paragraph which starts "During November and December 2005...". It was a bit of a mess, with no capitals for city names etc. I wonder though, if this paragraph should be in here at all? Your thoughts? Willnz0 01:48, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

contemporaries and influences

 * The White Stripes
 * Weezer
 * The Walkmen
 * The Hives
 * The Libertines
 * The Vines
 * Yeah Yeah Yeahs
 * Interpol
 * Longwave
 * Kings of Leon
 * The French Kicks
 * Franz Ferdinand
 * Muse
 * The Walkmen
 * Arctic Monkeys
 * Wolfmother
 * Radiohead

I think both of these sections are not necessary and are debatable. Moreso the contempories, so I have removed that for now. If anyone would like to put in their two cents as to why it should or shouldn't be in the article feel free to do so.

PrettyMuchBryce 23:02, 21 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Weezer, lol. No VU on the list, lol. Mike850 14:48, January 07 EST

--

I added a short paragraph about their recent Rolling Stone show which was worth mentioning. I also created a page for the song "You Only Live Once" since they've performed it on Radio1 BBC, Top of the Pops, Saturday Night Live, The Tonight Show, and Late Night with Conan O' Brien. Also the B-Side for Heart in a Cage is a demo of it. It seems like it will be the next single, if not, it's still worht mentioning.

Americentric
This article seems to take for granted that Is This It and The Modern Age were first released in the UK and makes no mention of the band's earlier success there. Jonathan F 01:23, 11 May 2006 (UTC)

If you can provide any links to information about The Strokes very early on in the UK, or can even provide anecdotal evidence so that others can investigate, please add that information here. You're right that more clarity is needed in the first paragraph about Is This It regarding the different release dates and different covers between the UK and North America. Most of the information is there, but it needs to be re-ordered. The article only needs to mention the band's (slightly) earlier success in the UK (assuming this is true; evidence is needed) if it was significant. For example, if the hype in the UK led to more hype in the US, or if the bidding war was mostly as a result of the success in the UK, then this is indeed relevant and significant. But unless evidence is provided, I see no reason to believe that the earlier "success" in the UK was a result of anything more than earlier release dates. I'm not saying you're wrong; I'm just saying some citations are needed. Muéro 04:02, 7 June 2006 (UTC)

Murderdolls? someone fix this please

Early years
I was checking some recent changes to the Early years section, and I noticed that it doesn't seem to be in any order. It has Nikolai joining the band at age 19 before Julian is sent to boarding school at age 13. I would try to fix it, but I don't really have any knowledge on how the band met and got started. Also, this section does not have any sources, and it would be nice to have verifiable information. --Muéro 18:13, 21 August 2006 (UTC)

Genre
The Strokes are most definently not indie rock because they are a part of a major record label. I believe we should just take indie rock off of there. MLSmateo 11:19, 31 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes, and indie rock is most definetly not defined by whether a band's record label is independent or not any more. As you'll discover by reading the indie rock article. They're indie rock as most people would understand it. Ezenden 17:23, 31 August 2006 (BST)

 * Fuck that, defining a music genre by whether a band are or are not signed to a major label is absurd, same with defining it by being "alternative", without saying what exactly they are alternative to, and that they are in fact part of the mainstream. Only British and Americans can came up with this stupid market oriented genre definitions. Maybe this is a discussion that would be more appropriate for another articule... but i just want to say that the only genre definitions that i consider correct for this band are Post-punk revival and/or Garage rock/Garage rock revival. To hell with poverty! 10:40, 6 September 2006

Ya, I think that defining indie rock band as one that is not signed to a major record label is a very simple and correct. The definition of independent is at the core of this. The Strokes are owned by RCA. RCA controls everything they distribute. RCA tells Julian what to wear. THIS IS NOT INDEPENDENT. --MLSmateo 00:48, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Music should not be about who owns who, it should be about what or how you are playing. Pixies played folk and surf influenced punk rock... i think that's a more precise definition of what the (THWP and thedid/do... if you say they were/are an "indie" band my answer would be "yes, but i asked about there music not their contractual situation with a major label". Same with The Strokes, it's not about Julian being told by RCA, or his wife or his mother what to wear (though i really doubt that anyone tells the band how to dress or what to play... you've got to give them more credit than that); its about the music they play, that's what should matter in the genre section... if you want to pursue the argument of whether the band is or isn't an "indie" band, please create a "Contractual Situation" section to do so. To hell with poverty! 12:18, 7 September 2006

You are a lost cause. --MLSmateo 06:40, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Nah... i just don't have anything better to do... To hell with poverty! 19:42, 7 September 2006

 * I totally agree with you all. Good choice of not naming The Strokes "indie rock" JoeyGWilliams 05:23, 1 March 2007 (UTC)

 * So a rapper who is signed on an independent label should be considered indie rock? If I follow your logic I have to apply that label to him. Indie rock is a movement that has very little to do with the record labels. I'm sure you would consider Sub Pop an "indie" label, yet it is owned by Sony BMG, making any band who is signed on Sub Pop hardly independent record label band. Eternalmonkey (talk) 05:06, 17 November 2008 (UTC)

 * "American rock band": nice and simple, to the point. Not to mention what this article has said for years... I was surprised to read the new description of The Strokes as an indie rock band. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.150.88.100 (talk) 05:04, 14 March 2011 (UTC)

12:51 Roland-esque Guitar Tone
Acording to, Valensi found his 12:51 guitar tone by experimenting with the his tone knob and playing jazz riffs, not by accident. so I changed it.--Furste 23:40, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

Myspace page isn't official!
The Strokes myspace is not official, it is not run by the band's management or anyone connected to the band, its misleading to call it offical. Please stop changing it.

Matteo Romano
There was an episode of Rage where the Strokes guest programmed, and one of the programmers was some guy named Matteo Romano. Also, Fab wasn't programming then. Was Romano the original drummer or something? - Ndrly 10:51, 12 January 2007 (UTC)

Ramano played beacause fab had a broken arm which he got while on tour in europe.

New album?
There is an album listed in the discography article, stating that apparently they'll release a new album entitled 'Ideas On the Sky' in Dec 2007 (and Jan 07 in the US, which obviously isnt true). Cant seem to find this anywhere on the net and there are no links to cite this. Remove? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 88.108.40.189 (talk) 02:38, 22 February 2007 (UTC).

Commercial
This is the first time I've ever posted on Wikipedia so if this is not the place to ask, my apologies. I have been looking everywhere for a commercial that I know I've seen the Strokes in around 2002 or 2003. It was just after I had heard Last Nite in school (which was definitely 2002)... I'm pretty sure it was a credit card commercial, but since I can't find any documentation on this I am probably a little off. Any help finding this or an article about it? Thanks. RoxyMoron

Fair use rationale for Image:Razorblade.ogg
Image:Razorblade.ogg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 23:28, 5 June 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:The End Has No End.ogg
Image:The End Has No End.ogg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 07:17, 6 June 2007 (UTC)

demos
is it true that one of the strokes songs include a song titled "babies"? is so please inform me and tell me where i can get it thanks. Greanmtn 08:08, 6 August 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:NMEOctober1st2005.jpg
Image:NMEOctober1st2005.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 23:27, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

Albert Hammond, Jr.
I think that the Albert Hammond, Jr. section needs to be whittled down or removed completely. It is copied and pasted directly from Hammond's WP page and isn't relevant enough to The Strokes as a band to be given such detailed coverage. What do you guys think? Editortothemasses (talk) 04:16, 14 January 2008 (UTC)
 * Done. indopug (talk) 05:14, 23 February 2008 (UTC)

Format
Indopug, I don't know where you get your information, but The Strokes don't have seventeen music videos when they only have nine singles. Secondly, I don't think any of their charting is relevant for places like Ireland and Australia. No other band has that stuff. It's not relevant because only the U.S. and U.K. are major charts. You also need to learn how to use the sandbox so I don't have to undo every one of your edits. And you should've discussed it on here before you decided to reformat the entire page because it looked fine the way it was. Having eight footnotes for a chart just gets confusing. And why does it start at the number two? Just leave it as it is. EGorodetsky (talk) 08:58, 6 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Check Nirvana discography, Red Hot Chili Peppers discography, Slayer discography etc.. all of which are Featured lists which contain very detailed charting information. I got the information about the music videos here; can you confirm that The Strokes did not release multiple videos for the same single? If you revert the page back, I will have to report you. indopug (talk) 09:28, 6 April 2008 (UTC)
 * I can confirm that those aren't music videos. The Modern Age and Last Nite Version 2 were part of the $2 bill performance, which was just that, a performance.  Yes it was directed by Roman Coppola in that he pieced the performance together for airing on television but it is in no way a music video.  I am a huge, huge Strokes fan.  Unfortunately I can't confirm that these are not videos, but it seems as if this site is just listing any video they appear in, further shown by what is written at the top, "The Strokes have appeared in seventeen videos."  It says appeared in and does not specify that they are music videos.  What authenticity does this site have?  I can tell you what videos are legit: Go to the strokes official site and you'll see there are only ten.  If you want to be specific, there are some alternative versions, as in cut/edited versions.  For example, in the 'Hard to Explain' video, most versions show a sequence of descending floors but others have a couple making out in an elevator in short clips in between each of the floors.  As for the stuff about charts, my apologies I didn't realize things were changed. EGorodetsky (talk) 11:29, 6 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Thanks, now we're getting somewhere. You're knowledge is very useful, I'll check up change it soon. Thanks again for pointing out the errors; and you're right, mvdbase is unreliable, but is used for discographies on Wikipedia as a quick and handy reference tool. indopug (talk) 03:56, 8 April 2008 (UTC)

Saviors of Rock
I removed the mention of The Strokes being the saviors of rock. The citation that accompanied this statement merely linked back to wikipedia as it's source. Without a proper citation this statement is heavy POV and should not be included in an encyclopedia article. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.24.239.19 (talk) 06:25, 24 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Added it back in but put in a better source. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.34.217.222 (talk) 20:49, 28 May 2008 (UTC)

I removed the phrase "saviors of rock" and changed it to met with much critical acclaim because the citation does not use that phrase when describing them and is POV 76.24.239.19 (talk) 03:45, 1 June 2008 (UTC)

Nikolai Fraiture page merge?
Whoever decided to merge Nikolai Fraiture into this page needs to switch it back, he is much more prominent than many other people who have pages on Wikipedia and since he is releasing an album in two months, he should have his own page. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.248.172.238 (talk) 00:32, 23 November 2008 (UTC)

new album the strokes 2009 (exclusive video)
exclusive new album the strokes 2009 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nC5JIdfjtSk —Preceding unsigned comment added by 219.211.226.124 (talk) 16:12, 22 March 2009 (UTC)

Pharrell Williams rumor
Is this true? If not it should be removed: Recent musicmill rumor has Pharrell Williams as the producer of The Strokes' next album. Williams discussed his interest in producing the album to NME Magazine. Casablancas and Pharrell teamed up with singer Santogold for a song commemorating the 100 year anniversary of Converse All Star shoes. The song was titled "My Drive Thru." The single can be downloaded for free from the Converse website and is also available on iTunes.[citation needed] ObiWan353 (talk) 03:56, 23 March 2009 (UTC)

Lead vs. Rhythm Guitarist
the wiki article says albert is the lead guitarist and nick is the rhythm guitarist. if anything, it is the other way around; nick plays many more lead parts. but i think generally they share those duties.

should it just say (guitarist) after each? i think the way it is is misleading/wrong. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Batemapa (talk • contribs) 05:31, 28 January 2010 (UTC)

i changed it on the article because i think it is much more accurate. Batemapa (talk) 21:33, 28 January 2010 (UTC)

Is This It: (2001-2003)
This section begins: "The Strokes released their debut album Is This It in the US in October 2001 on RCA after some delay due to changes made from the UK-released version (released 27 August 2001)."

To me it seems a strange way to start. It gives more prominence to the US release, even though it occured after the UK one. Can this be altered? 82.139.117.151 (talk) 20:18, 23 August 2010 (UTC)

Rock and Roll
i removed rock and roll from the genre list because the strokes dont sound like rock and roll and the only people who call them rock and roll are strokes fanboys who have never listened to Chuck Berry or little Richard or the comets or any other real rock and roll band or solo musician. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 188.222.41.105 (talk) 17:57, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

Connections from the Left Side
I would like to see a source for this information. Nothing comes up with a google search, so where was this confirmed? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.103.131.55 (talk) 01:26, 23 December 2010 (UTC)

>THE STROKES >INDIE
The Strokes are not Indie or Indie Rock. Stop putting it to that. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 109.156.31.230 (talk) 21:45, 13 March 2011 (UTC)
 * The Strokes are Indie Rock band. Read NME, Clash, Q Magazine and many other musical magazines.109.201.226.12(talk) 15:35, 16 March 2011 (UTC)

No, they're not. They're Alternative Rock, they're signed to a major record label and their sound doesn't factor into Indie Rock at all. Lrn2IndieRock. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 109.156.31.230 (talk) 18:03, 16 March 2011 (UTC)
 * The Strokes write songs on Rough Trade Records. Rough Trade Records is an independent (indie) record label, based in London, United Kingdom. The Strokes sound is indie rock - post-punk revival and garage rock revival. Read musical magazines.109.201.226.12(talk) 20:30, 16 March 2011 (UTC)

The Strokes are not indie rock. They are on a major label. 130.115.140.86 (talk) 07:35, 25 April 2012 (UTC)
 * Term 'indie' when used in the UK, tends to refer to a specific genre of music, rather than the status of their record label; in line with this popular trend, record producers will often coerce their artists into imitating the style of so-called indie. P.S:I did not write the previous responses. It's not me. It's my first response in this dispute.109.201.230.163 18:20, 25 April 2012 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 109.201.230.163 (talk)
 * And why would the definition of the term "indie" in the UK be relevant to this discussion. The Strokes are an American band. "Indie" refers to label. Indie, independent. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.115.140.86 (talk) 08:50, 2 May 2012 (UTC)
 * The Strokes are indie band. Information from authoritative American source — Pitchfork. Please, read reference: The Decade in Indie (pitchfork.com) Neptune777 (talk) 15:24, 2 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Indie should not be in the lede. It gives preference to one genre over others that are listed in the infobox. Lede should remain neutral and readers can see all genres in the infobox anyways and can read more about the strokes indie-cred later in the article. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.115.140.86 (talk) 13:14, 25 May 2012 (UTC)
 * I write already the second time. The Strokes are indie band. Information from authoritative American source — Pitchfork. Please, read reference: The Decade in Indie (pitchfork.com) Neptune777 (talk) 14:54, 27 May 2012 (UTC)
 * But they are also "garage rock" according to article so why does "indie" get preference? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.81.64.160 (talk) 08:23, 2 June 2012 (UTC)

ANGLES leaked
Can anyone post the fact that the new album got leaked and The Strokes couldn't do anything but uploading to their website? Thank you. -Fangirl —Preceding unsigned comment added by 190.147.0.6 (talk) 16:19, 16 March 2011 (UTC)

Photos
There really need to be some more photos here ! -- Beardo (talk) 21:14, 28 April 2014 (UTC)

Nikolai Fraiture needs BLP sources
Hey Strokes fans and scholars: just FYI Nikolai Fraiture's article is lacking any reliable sources. Cheers. --Animalparty-- (talk) 08:44, 14 November 2014 (UTC)

Timline
The timeline here seems gratuitous and unnecessary. The line up hasn't changed nor has there been any changes in the instruments they played. A simple list would suffice. -Xcuref1endx (talk) 02:09, 7 January 2015 (UTC)

Timeline?
why is there a timeline? timelines should be for bands who have had a lot of member replacements over a long stretch of time. None of the members have left. — Preceding unsigned comment added by ICommandeth (talk • contribs) 04:51, 29 August 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 4 one external links on The Strokes. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit User:Cyberpower678/FaQs for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20150303204717/http://www.thestrokes.com:80/us/news/big-guava-music-festival to http://www.thestrokes.com/us/news/big-guava-music-festival
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20150217031553/http://www.thestrokes.com:80/us/news/shaky-knees-festival to http://www.thestrokes.com/us/news/shaky-knees-festival
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20150715115725/http://www.thestrokes.com/us/event/2015/09/26/landmark-music-festival to http://www.thestrokes.com/us/event/2015/09/26/landmark-music-festival
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20150715111805/http://www.thestrokes.com/us/event/2015/10/02/acl-2015 to http://www.thestrokes.com/us/event/2015/10/02/acl-2015

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 10:56, 4 June 2016 (UTC)

EPs in Discography section
The new EP is more than relevant enough to justify an EP section within the discography section. Thanks – Nbdelboy (talk) 17:58, 5 June 2016 (UTC)
 * EPs don't go in that section. An EP isn't considered a studio album. TheOnlyOne12 (talk) 23:17, 5 June 2016 (UTC)
 * Discography is a catalogue of an artist's body of work, not a list of studio albums. Re WPMAG guidelines, "generally not included" does not mean "Do NOT include". This new EP is more than relevant enough to be included – Nbdelboy (talk) 01:49, 6 June 2016 (UTC)

Associated acts section kinda cluttered
The associated acts section is filled with artists that dont really relate to the band. Many have only collaborated with one of the band's members, and therefore should only be included in their own page's associated artists section. Anybody else have any thoughts on this? Cheers – Nbdelboy (talk) 01:52, 6 June 2016 (UTC)

References in popular culture
Maybe this page must have a section with references in popular culture, like shirts in Transformers, Two broke girls etc. — Preceding unsigned comment added by PolloLite (talk • contribs) 14:28, 1 December 2021 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:The Strokes


text:
Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne

The Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM), or International Congresses of Modern Architecture, was an organization founded in 1928 and disbanded in 1959, responsible for a series of events and congresses arranged across Europe by the most prominent architects of the time, with the objective of spreading the principles of the Modern Movement focusing in all the main domains of architecture (such as landscape, urbanism, industrial design, and many others).

Formation and membership
The International Congresses of Modern Architecture (CIAM) was founded in June 1928, at the Chateau de la Sarraz in Switzerland, by a group of 28 European architects organized by Le Corbusier, Hélène de Mandrot (owner of the castle), and Sigfried Giedion, (the first secretary-general). CIAM was one of many 20th-century manifestos meant to advance the cause of architecture as a social art.

Members
Other founder members included Karl Moser (first president), Hendrik Berlage, Victor Bourgeois, Pierre Chareau, Sven Markelius, Josef Frank, Gabriel Guevrekian, Max Ernst Haefeli, Hugo Häring, Arnold Höchel, Huib Hoste, Pierre Jeanneret (cousin of Le Corbusier), André Lurçat, Ernst May, Max Cetto, Fernando García Mercadal, Hannes Meyer, Werner M. Moser, Carlo Enrico Rava, Gerrit Rietveld, Alberto Sartoris, Hans Schmidt, Mart Stam, Rudolf Steiger, Szymon Syrkus, Henri-Robert Von der Mühll, and Juan de Zavala. The Soviet delegates were El Lissitzky, Nikolai Kolli and Moisei Ginzburg, although at the Sarraz conference they were unable to obtain visas.

Later members included Minnette de Silva, Walter Gropius, Alvar Aalto, Uno Åhrén, Louis Herman De Koninck (1929) and Fred Forbát. In 1941, Harwell Hamilton Harris was chosen as secretary of the American branch of CIAM, which was the Chapter for Relief and Post War Planning, founded in New York City. Josep Lluís Sert participated in the congresses as of 1929, and served as CIAM president from 1947 to 1956. He was co-founder of GATEPAC and GATCPAC (in Zaragoza and Barcelona, respectively) in 1930, as well as ADLAN (Friends of New Art) in Barcelona in 1932.

CIRPAC
The elected executive body of CIAM was CIRPAC, the Comité international pour la résolution des problèmes de l’architecture contemporaine (International Committee for the Resolution of Problems in Contemporary Architecture).

Influence
The organization was hugely influential. It was not only engaged in formalizing the architectural principles of the Modern Movement, but also saw architecture as an economic and political tool that could be used to improve the world through the design of buildings and through urban planning.

The fourth CIAM meeting in 1933 was to have been held in Moscow. The rejection of Le Corbusier's competition entry for the Palace of the Soviets, a watershed moment and an indication that the Soviets had abandoned CIAM's principles, changed those plans. Instead it was held on board ship, the SS Patris II. which sailed from Marseille to Athens. Here the group discussed the principles of "The Functional City", which broadened CIAM's scope from architecture into urban planning. Based on an analysis of thirty-three cities, CIAM proposed that the social problems faced by cities could be resolved by strict functional segregation, and the distribution of the population into tall apartment blocks at widely spaced intervals. These proceedings went unpublished from 1933 until 1943, when Le Corbusier, acting alone, published them in heavily edited form as the Athens Charter.

Separation
As CIAM members travelled worldwide after the war, many of its ideas spread outside Europe, notably to the USA. The city planning ideas were adopted in the rebuilding of Europe following World War II, although by then some CIAM members had their doubts. Alison and Peter Smithson were chief among the dissenters. When implemented in the postwar period, many of these ideas were compromised by tight financial constraints, poor understanding of the concepts, or popular resistance. Mart Stam's replanning of postwar Dresden in the CIAM formula was rejected by its citizens as an "all-out attack on the city".

The CIAM organization disbanded in 1959 as the views of the members diverged. Le Corbusier had left in 1955, objecting to the increasing use of English during meetings.

For a reform of CIAM, the group Team 10 was active from 1953 onwards, and two different movements emerged from it: the Brutalism of the English members (Alison and Peter Smithson) and the Structuralism of the Dutch members (Aldo van Eyck and Jacob B. Bakema).

Conferences
CIAM's conferences consisted of:
 * 1928, CIAM I, La Sarraz, Switzerland, Foundation of CIAM
 * 1929, CIAM II, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, on The Minimum Dwelling
 * 1930, CIAM III, Brussels, Belgium, on Rational Land Development (Rationelle Bebauungsweisen)
 * 1933, CIAM IV, Athens, Greece, on The Functional City (Die funktionelle Stadt)
 * 1937, CIAM V, Paris, France, on Dwelling and Recovery
 * 1947, CIAM VI, Bridgwater, England, Reaffirmation of the aims of CIAM
 * 1949, CIAM VII, Bergamo, Italy, on The Athens Charter in Practice
 * 1951, CIAM VIII, Hoddesdon, England, on The Heart of the City
 * 1953, CIAM IX, Aix-en-Provence, France, on Habitat
 * 1956, CIAM X, Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia (now Croatia), on Habitat
 * 1959, CIAM XI, Otterlo, the Netherlands, organized dissolution of CIAM by Team 10


text:
Charlotte, Queen of Cyprus

Charlotte (28 June 1444 – 16 July 1487) was the Queen of Cyprus from 1458 until 1464. She was the eldest and only surviving daughter of King John II of Cyprus and Helena Palaiologina. At the age of 14, she succeeded to the Cypriot throne upon the death of her father. Her illegitimate half-brother, James, challenged her right to the crown. With the support of the Egyptians, he forced her to flee the island in 1463, and he was later crowned king. She made a military attempt to regain her throne, but was unsuccessful, and died childless in Rome.

Family and childhood
Charlotte was born in Nicosia on 28 June 1444, the eldest and only surviving daughter of King John II of Cyprus and Helena Palaiologina. Her younger sister Cleopha died in June 1448, shortly before Charlotte's fourth birthday, leaving her the sole legitimate heir to the Cypriot throne and her father's titles. She had an illegitimate half-brother, James, born to her father's Greek mistress Marietta de Patras.

She was raised in the Byzantine tradition and spoke fluent Greek, which she learned from her mother. She could write French, Italian, and possibly Latin, but throughout her life spoke mainly Greek. Due to her outspoken manner, Pope Pius II called her the "Greek torrent".

Queen of Cyprus
Charlotte was named Princess of Antioch in 1456. The same year she married her first husband, John of Portugal. She was widowed in 1457, and on 28 July 1458 her father died. At the age of fourteen Charlotte became Queen of Cyprus and was crowned at St. Sophia Cathedral on 7 October 1458.

Charlotte's reign was not successful. She had a tenuous hold on the kingdom as her right to the throne was constantly being challenged by her illegitimate half-brother James. On 7 October 1459, she married her second husband, Louis of Savoy, Count of Geneva. This marriage had been arranged by the Genoese who promised their assistance in retaining her crown against the claims by James.

In 1460 he managed to capture Famagusta and Nicosia with aid from the Egyptian sultanate of Sayf ad-Din Inal. After being blockaded in the castle of Kyrenia for three years, she and Louis fled to Rome in 1463.

With the fall of Kyrenia before the autumn of 1464, de facto Charlotte and Louis lost their throne. Her half-brother was crowned King James II. She took up residence at the Convertendi Palace in Trastevere. Pope Pius II, who was acquainted with her described Charlotte as "a woman of about twenty-four, of middle height: bright eyes, complexion betwixt dark and pale; speech smooth and flowing torrent like after the manner of the Greeks; French costume; manners becoming her royal blood".

She later formed a small court on the Greek island of Rhodes. She made an unsuccessful military attempt to regain her throne with papal support. She also intrigued against James's widow, Catherine Cornaro, but failed to oust her from power. In November 1483 she was received by Pope Sixtus IV in the Vatican Palace and was seated in a chair of the same "height and dignity" as the pope. In Rome, she lived in a house in Piazza Scossacavalli in Borgo which had already hosted queen Catherine of Bosnia.

Succession and death
She had adopted as her son, Alonso d'Aragona (1460–1510), the illegitimate child of King Ferdinand I of Naples, who was either married or engaged to her half-brother's illegitimate daughter, Charla de Lusignan, b. 24 July 1468. Charlotte had intended to maintain the continuity of the dynasty through her niece, and circa 1473, accompanied by Alonso, she visited Sultan Al-Asraf Khalil in Cairo to discuss a possible restoration to the throne. Al-Asraf supported Charlotte's cause, still the plan could not be carried out until she had custody of young Charlotte. The former queen's opponents ensured this would never happen by imprisoning the little girl in Padua, she died there before her twelfth birthday in 1480. Afterwards, a marriage was suggested between Alonso and Catherine Conaro, but this also failed due to the interference of the Republic of Venice. Instead, around February 1485, in exchange for an annual pension of 4,300 florins, Charlotte ceded her claims to her cousin's son, Charles I of Savoy, the next in the legitimate line of succession.

Charlotte died childless on 16 July 1487, shortly after her forty-third birthday. Her body is buried in the chapel of Saint Andrew and Saint Gregory, St. Peter's Basilica; the funeral was paid for by Pope Innocent VIII. She was the last member of the House of Poitiers-Lusignan.

Marriages
Charlotte married twice:
 * 1)  Infante John of Portugal, also known as John of Coimbra, (1431 or 1433 – between July and 11 September 1457) (son of Infante Pedro, Duke of Coimbra and grandson of King John I of Portugal), in May 1456 in Nicosia. He was made a titular Prince of Antioch. It is rumoured that his death was a murder due to poisoning, arranged by Queen Helena, leaving Charlotte free to make a second marriage.
 * 2)  Louis of Savoy, Count of Geneva (Geneva, 5 June 1436 or 1 April 1437 – Château-Monastery de Ripaille, August 1482). The couple were married on 7 October 1459, almost a year after Charlotte's coronation. Louis was her cousin: he was the second son and namesake of Louis, Count of Savoy by Anne de Lusignan, daughter of King Janus of Cyprus, and became a King of Cyprus from 1459 to 1462 and also a titular King of Jerusalem.

By her second husband Louis, Charlotte had;
 * Hugh or Henry, who was born on 4 July 1464 in Rhodes. The boy died within a month of his birth.

title: Charlotte, Queen of Cyprus


text:
Meiringen

Meiringen is a municipality in the Interlaken-Oberhasli administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. Besides the village of Meiringen, the municipality includes the settlements of Balm, Brünigen, Eisenbolgen, Hausen, Prasti, Sand, Stein, Unterbach, Unterheidon, Wylerli and Zaun. The municipal coat of arms shows a black eagle in a yellow field. ("Or an Eagle displayed Sable crowned, beaked, langued and membered of the first." ) Formerly the coat of arms of the entire Oberhasli Talschaft, this design continues the imperial coat of arms.

Meiringen is famous for the nearby Reichenbach Falls, a waterfall that was the setting for the final showdown between Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's fictional detective Sherlock Holmes and his nemesis Professor Moriarty. The village is also known for its claim to have been the place where meringue was first created.

Geography
Meiringen is located in the eastern Bernese Oberland region, in a valley of the upper reaches of the river Aare, called Haslital, upstream of Lake Brienz. It lies at the foot of several mountain passes, including the Brünig Pass to the valley of the Sarner Aa and hence central Switzerland, the Joch Pass to Engelberg, the Susten Pass to the upper valley of the Reuss, the Grimsel Pass to the valley of the Rhone and hence southern Switzerland, and the Grosse Scheidegg Pass to Grindelwald.

On the right bank of the Aare, the municipality of Meiringen rises from an elevation of 600 m on the valley floor to the Brünig Pass at 1008 m and beyond that to a point at 1375 m on the slopes of the Wilerhorn. On the left bank it stretches up into the Alps and reaches an elevation of 3191 m at the summit of the Wellhorn. It includes the village of Meiringen and the settlements of Sand, Stein, Eisenbolgen, Hausen, Balm, Unterbach and Unterheidon in the valley, the village of Brünigen in the Brünig Pass and the hamlets of Prasti, Zaun and Wylerli on the slopes above the valley.

The municipality has an area,, of 40.59 km2. Of this area, 17.75 km2 or 43.7% is used for agricultural purposes, while 13.27 km2 or 32.7% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 3.04 km2 or 7.5% is settled (buildings or roads), 0.53 km2 or 1.3% is either rivers or lakes and 6.09 km2 or 15.0% is unproductive land.

Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 3.1% and transportation infrastructure made up 3.3%. Out of the forested land, 29.7% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1.4% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 3.3% is used for growing crops and 17.8% is pastures and 22.5% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is in rivers and streams. Of the unproductive areas, 5.6% is unproductive vegetation and 9.4% is too rocky for vegetation.

History
Meiringen is first mentioned in 1234 as Magiringin. Due to its strategic location at the foot of several alpine passes, the area around Meiringen was settled at least in the Early Middle Ages. The first village church was built in the 9th or 10th century. When it was destroyed in a flood the new church of St. Michael (first mentioned in 1234) was built about 5 m above the old church. The current church of St. Michael dates from the 15th century and was renovated in 1683–84. The Restiturm castle was constructed in the 13th century, whilst the Wyghus fortress in the Brünig Pass was first mentioned in 1333, though it was destroyed later.

Meiringen was always the political capital of the surrounding valley (Talschaft). It was the capital of the Imperial reichsfrei bailiwick of Hasli. In 1275 it formed an alliance with the city of Bern. In 1311, Hasli was given to the house of Weissenburg by Henry VII. After an unsuccessful revolt in 1334, Hasli passed to the city of Bern as a subject territory in name but regained most of its earlier privileges. Under Bernese control it was the capital of the District of Oberhasli until 1798. Following the 1798 French invasion and the creation of the Helvetic Republic it was the capital of the district of Oberhasli in the Canton of Oberland (1798–1803) and then the capital of the District of Oberhasli in the canton of Bern. The village was the home of the Talschaft council and the regional court met at the cross street in front of the churchyard. Today it is still home to the Bernese District authorities, though many of the administrative offices and the district court are now in Interlaken.

Meiringen was the only market town in the valley with a yearly fair starting in 1417. In 1490 this became a weekly market. Traders from the lowlands of Lombardy came here to purchase cattle, horses, and cheese. Located at the foot of Brunig, Grimsel, Susten and Joch passes, Meiringen was a hub in the trade from the lowlands through the passes. Outside of Meiringen village the main occupation was agriculture or cattle farming until the 19th century. Originally there were six Bäuert (farming collectives) among the villages and hamlets in the valley.

In the 1550s, a series of floods of the Aare destroyed the valley floor villages of Balm and Bürglen, both of which were abandoned. The old village of Unterheid was destroyed in 1762 when the Aare changed its course, though the village was rebuilt in a new location. In 1734 the Alpbach wall was built to protect against the river, though this problem was not solved until the 1866–80 Aare water correction project.

The population growth after 1800 led to impoverishment and forced many to emigrate, mainly to America. Beginning in 1880, the growth of tourism brought new wealth into the valley. Increasing tourist traffic came over the roads that were opened over the Brünig (1859–61), the Grimsel (1847–94) and the Susten (1939–46) passes. The Brünigbahn (Brünig railway) opened in 1888, making it easier for tourists to come into the valley. Following fires in 1879 and 1891, much of the village was rebuilt with tourists in mind. In 1913 Meiringen had 18 hotels with 500 beds. In 1912, the Meiringen–Reichenbach–Aareschlucht tramway was constructed to link the village to the Reichenbach Falls and Aare Gorge, two of the principle local tourist attractions; the line survived until closure in 1956.

In 1892 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle visited the Reichenbach Falls outside Meiringen and subsequently used them as the setting for the struggle between Sherlock Holmes and Professor Moriarty in his story The Final Problem.

During World War II, the tourism industry collapsed, so the Federal Government created jobs by opening the Unterbach military airfield; the federal armory; the SBB depot; the power plants at Oberhasli AG and in hospitals. The municipal museum was founded in 1968 and the Sherlock Holmes Museum opened in 1991.

Demographics
Meiringen has a population of. , 14.2% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of −2.1%. Migration accounted for −0.2%, while births and deaths accounted for −0.9%.

Most of the population speaks German (4,190 or 88.7%) as their first language, Serbo-Croatian is the second most common (120 or 2.5%) and Portuguese is the third (77 or 1.6%). There are 43 people who speak French, 62 people who speak Italian and 2 people who speak Romansh.

, the population was 48.7% male and 51.3% female. The population was made up of 1,888 Swiss men (41.2% of the population) and 342 (7.5%) non-Swiss men. There were 2,044 Swiss women (44.6%) and 309 (6.7%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 1,761 or about 37.3% were born in Meiringen and lived there in 2000. There were 1,326 or 28.1% who were born in the same canton, while 720 or 15.2% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 751 or 15.9% were born outside of Switzerland.

, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 23.9% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 58.9% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 17.2%.

, there were 1,940 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 2,222 married individuals, 356 widows or widowers and 205 individuals who are divorced.

, there were 1,968 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.2 persons per household. There were 695 households that consist of only one person and 114 households with five or more people. , a total of 1,893 apartments (81.6% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 337 apartments (14.5%) were seasonally occupied and 90 apartments (3.9%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 2.2 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 0.28%.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

Sights
The Hotel Sauvage, the Swiss Reformed church with outbuildings, and the Reichenbachfall-Bahn are listed on the Swiss inventory of cultural property of national and regional significance. The urbanized village of Meiringen and the hamlet of Brünigen are both on the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.

The ruined castle of Restiturm lies just to the east of the centre of Meiringen, and once commanded the various trade routes that passed through the village.

A museum dedicated to Holmes is located in the basement of the deconsecrated English Church, located in what has now been named Conan Doyle Place. Its highlight is a detailed and authentic recreation of the sitting room at 221B Baker Street, London. The museum was officially opened by Air Cdt Dame Jean Conan Doyle, Lady Bromet, the younger daughter of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, in May 1991.

Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 41.85% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SPS (25.15%), the FDP (12.54%) and the Green Party (11.29%). In the federal election, a total of 1,432 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 44.4%.

Economy
, Meiringen had an unemployment rate of 1.9%. , there were 186 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 72 businesses involved in this sector. 528 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 55 businesses in this sector. 1,762 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 202 businesses in this sector.

the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 2,021. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 110, all of which were in agriculture. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 490 of which 84 or (17.1%) were in manufacturing, 6 or (1.2%) were in mining and 369 (75.3%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 1,421. In the tertiary sector; 263 or 18.5% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 174 or 12.2% were in the movement and storage of goods, 190 or 13.4% were in a hotel or restaurant, 36 or 2.5% were the insurance or financial industry, 93 or 6.5% were technical professionals or scientists, 56 or 3.9% were in education and 339 or 23.9% were in health care.

, there were 1,029 workers who commuted into the municipality and 560 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.8 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. Of the working population, 10.6% used public transportation to get to work, and 36.8% used a private car.

Religion
From the, 815 or 17.3% were Roman Catholic, while 3,134 or 66.4% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 49 members of an Orthodox church (or about 1.04% of the population), and there were 153 individuals (or about 3.24% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There was 1 individual who was Jewish, and 153 (or about 3.24% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 7 individuals who were Buddhist, 16 individuals who were Hindu and 2 individuals who belonged to another church. 270 (or about 5.72% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and another 194 individuals (or about 4.11% of the population) did not answer the question.

Transport
Meiringen is served by Meiringen station on the Brünig line, a narrow-gauge railway from Interlaken to Lucerne. The same line's Brünig-Hasliberg station, on the Brünig Pass, is also within the municipal boundaries. Both stations are served by an hourly InterRegio service between Interlaken and Lucerne, whilst Meiringen is also the terminus of an hourly Regio service from Interlaken.

Meiringen station is also the terminus of the local Meiringen–Innertkirchen railway, which links the village with the nearby village of Innertkirchen. The first two intermediate stations on this line, at Alpbach and Aareschlucht West, are also within the municipal boundaries.

The lower terminus of the Reichenbachfall Funicular, which links the village to the Reichenbach Falls, is located at Willigen, some 20 minutes walk, or a 6-minute bus ride, from Meiringen station. On the opposite side of the valley, a cable car runs to Reuti, from where a system of Gondola lifts runs to Planplatten, at over 2200 m, via Mägisalp.

The village is located on one of the two south-western road approaches to the Brünig Pass, which provides a connection from the Brünig Pass to the Grimsel Pass, and hence a route between Central Switzerland and the Rhone Valley. The other south-western approach to the Brünig Pass, from Interlaken, passes west of the village but through part of the municipality. A third road joins the previous two along the valley of the Aare, providing a route from Interlaken to the Grimsel Pass and Susten Pass.

The Meiringen air base is one of three main air bases of the Swiss Air Force. It is the only Swiss Air Force Base to still use its aircraft cavern regularly. It is located in Unterbach. Among other aircraft, it operates mainly F/A-18 Hornet fighter jets.

Education
In Meiringen about 1,846 or (39.1%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 451 or (9.5%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 451 who completed tertiary schooling, 63.4% were Swiss men, 22.4% were Swiss women, 6.7% were non-Swiss men and 7.5% were non-Swiss women.

The Canton of Bern school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend additional schooling or they may enter an apprenticeship.

During the 2009–10 school year, there were a total of 635 students attending classes in Meiringen. There were 5 kindergarten classes with a total of 91 students in the municipality. Of the kindergarten students, 6.6% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 8.8% have a different mother language than the classroom language. The municipality had 15 primary classes and 289 students. Of the primary students, 12.8% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 12.4% have a different mother language than the classroom language. During the same year, there were 12 lower secondary classes with a total of 228 students. There were 6.6% who were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 5.7% have a different mother language than the classroom language.

, there were 105 students in Meiringen who came from another municipality, while 59 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Meiringen is home to the Bibliothek Kapellen library. The library has 9,916 books or other media, and loaned out 20,617 items in the same year. It was open a total of 169 days with average of 8 hours per week during that year.

Notable people

 * Christian Menn (1927–2018), a bridge designer from Switzerland.
 * Pierre Haubensak (born 1935) a painter

Climate
This area has a long winter season with 5 months average temperature more than 10 °C, with little precipitation mostly in the form of snow, and low humidity. The Köppen Climate System classifies the climate in Meiringen as temperate oceanic climate, and abbreviates this as Cfb.

title: Meiringen


text:
Talk:Little Rock Central High School

Line removed
"It is indeed ironic that there are very, very few black students in any of the AP courses or other "advanced" courses."

Bias
the article has bias at one point about blacks in ap classes, referring to it as "ironic" that very few blacks take AP classes.

A new racial bias statement "Central has a supposed "magnet" program that allows them to siphon off the best and brightest from the other four high schools in Little Rock" is now been added by another.

Despite the feelings the editor has, may I recommend wording that does not present the views mentioned above as fact (ala, Central has a supposed "magnet" program ..." but rather re-word these statements to take into account that its programs are drawing 'fire'. Preferably, if a local newspaper article can be placed in the External links area, that should suffice.

 * Maybe new wording such as: "Recently, Central's international studies magnet program and its ability to attract students outside its traditional school zone has drawn criticism from members of the community and parents of nearby high schools." or like wording.

There is a definate bias in the article. Central's magnet program isn't some sort of "exclusive" program that "siphons" students away. Four of the five high schools in the Little Rock School District are magnet schools - Central is International Studies, Hall is University Studies, McClellan is Technology Studies, and Parkview is an Arts & Sciences Magnet School. Futhermore, the reason students have been attracted to Central isn't neccessarily because of how good it is, but because of how lackluster the other high schools in Little Rock are (with the exception of Parkview, which is on par with Central in most respects, in terms of academics.) Hall High, McClellan, and J.A. Fair are notorious for their problems concerning academics, security, etc. It should also be noted that Central itself was much like those schools just years ago but has been rebuilt by principal Nancy Rousseau. Hall High is also undergoing a "transformation" currently thanks it part to new principal John Bacon, whom is well known throughout the district for his abilities to improve lackluster schools; Bacon has previously brought Dunbar Middle School back from desolation into one of the top middle schools in the city.

Stray picture link
I removed this stray picture link from the article. It seems to go to an archive of a picture, removed due to copyright reasons.

Assessment comment
Substituted at 22:18, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on Little Rock Central High School. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130531080716/http://members.ahsaa.org/public/userfiles/Media/recordbook12.pdf to http://members.ahsaa.org/public/userfiles/Media/recordbook12.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20160417195305/http://www.arksportshalloffame.com/inductees/ to http://www.arksportshalloffame.com/inductees/

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 10:37, 24 May 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 3 external links on Little Rock Central High School. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080529130013/http://dwe.arkansas.gov/CareerandTechEducation/2006-07StatusReports/2006-07%20Districts%20(I-Y)/Little%20Rock%20School%20District.doc to http://dwe.arkansas.gov/CareerandTechEducation/2006-07StatusReports/2006-07%20Districts%20(I-Y)/Little%20Rock%20School%20District.doc
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080503090808/http://www.lrsd.org/schoolindex.cfm?sccode=1 to http://www.lrsd.org/schoolindex.cfm?sccode=1
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080503090808/http://www.lrsd.org/schoolindex.cfm?sccode=1 to http://www.lrsd.org/schoolindex.cfm?sccode=1

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 22:59, 3 January 2018 (UTC)

Old magnet program page
I found from 1998 the page on the magnet program from the Little Rock area magnet school consortium https://web.archive.org/web/19981206174432/http://www.magnetschool.com/central.htm WhisperToMe (talk) 02:20, 3 March 2021 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Historian's Craft
— Assignment last updated by Dutchermann (talk) 23:41, 14 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Little Rock Central High School


text:
Association list

In computer programming and particularly in Lisp, an association list, often referred to as an alist, is a linked list in which each list element (or node) comprises a key and a value. The association list is said to associate the value with the key. In order to find the value associated with a given key, a sequential search is used: each element of the list is searched in turn, starting at the head, until the key is found. Associative lists provide a simple way of implementing an associative array, but are efficient only when the number of keys is very small.

Operation
An associative array is an abstract data type that can be used to maintain a collection of key–value pairs and look up the value associated with a given key. The association list provides a simple way of implementing this data type.

To test whether a key is associated with a value in a given association list, search the list starting at its first node and continuing either until a node containing the key has been found or until the search reaches the end of the list (in which case the key is not present). To add a new key–value pair to an association list, create a new node for that key-value pair, set the node's link to be the previous first element of the association list, and replace the first element of the association list with the new node. Although some implementations of association lists disallow having multiple nodes with the same keys as each other, such duplications are not problematic for this search algorithm: duplicate keys that appear later in the list are ignored.

It is also possible to delete a key from an association list, by scanning the list to find each occurrence of the key and splicing the nodes containing the key out of the list. The scan should continue to the end of the list, even when the key is found, in case the same key may have been inserted multiple times.

Performance
The disadvantage of association lists is that the time to search is $O(n)$, where $n$ is the length of the list. For large lists, this may be much slower than the times that can be obtained by representing an associative array as a binary search tree or as a hash table. Additionally, unless the list is regularly pruned to remove elements with duplicate keys, multiple values associated with the same key will increase the size of the list, and thus the time to search, without providing any compensatory advantage.

One advantage of association lists is that a new element can be added in constant time. Additionally, when the number of keys is very small, searching an association list may be more efficient than searching a binary search tree or hash table, because of the greater simplicity of their implementation.

Applications and software libraries
In the early development of Lisp, association lists were used to resolve references to free variables in procedures. In this application, it is convenient to augment association lists with an additional operation, that reverses the addition of a key–value pair without scanning the list for other copies of the same key. In this way, the association list can function as a stack, allowing local variables to temporarily shadow other variables with the same names, without destroying the values of those other variables.

Many programming languages, including Lisp, Scheme, OCaml, and Haskell have functions for handling association lists in their standard libraries.

title: Association list


text:
Blanche Bruce

Blanche Kelso Bruce (March 1, 1841 – March 17, 1898) was an American politician who represented Mississippi as a Republican in the United States Senate from 1875 to 1881. Born into slavery in Prince Edward County, Virginia, he went on to become the first elected African-American senator to serve a full term (Hiram R. Revels, also of Mississippi, was the first African American to serve in the U.S. Senate but did not complete a full term).

He was appointed as Recorder of Deeds in Washington D.C. during Benjamin Harrison's presidency. His home, the Blanche K. Bruce House, is a National Historic Landmark.

Early life and education

Bruce was born into slavery in 1841 in Prince Edward County, Virginia, near Farmville to Polly Bruce, an African-American woman who served as a domestic slave. His father was his master, Pettis Perkinson, a white Virginia planter. Bruce was treated comparatively well by his father, who educated him together with a legitimate half-brother. When Bruce was young, he played with his half-brother. One source claims that his father legally freed Blanche and arranged for an apprenticeship so he could learn a trade. In an 1886 newspaper interview, however, Bruce says that he gained his freedom by moving to Kansas as soon as hostilities broke out in the Civil War.

Career
Bruce attended Oberlin College for two years in Oberlin, Ohio. He next worked as a steamboat porter on the Mississippi River. In 1864, he moved to Hannibal, Missouri, where he established a school for black children.

In 1868, during Reconstruction, Bruce relocated to Bolivar near Cleveland in northwestern Mississippi, at which he purchased a Mississippi Delta plantation. He became a wealthy landowner of several thousand acres in the Mississippi Delta. He was appointed to the positions of Tallahatchie County registrar of voters and tax assessor before he won an election for sheriff in Bolivar County. He later was elected to other county positions, including tax collector and supervisor of education, while he also edited a local newspaper. He became sergeant-at-arms for the Mississippi State Senate in 1870.

In February 1874, Bruce was elected to the U.S. Senate, the second African American to serve in the upper house of Congress. On February 14, 1879, Bruce presided over the U.S. Senate, becoming the first African American (and the only former slave) to have done so. In 1880, James Z. George, a Confederate Army veteran and member of the Democratic Party, was elected to succeed Bruce. After his Senate term expired, Bruce remained in Washington, D.C., secured a succession of Republican patronage jobs and stumped for Republican candidates across the country. He acquired a large townhouse and summer home, and presided over black high society.

At the 1880 Republican National Convention in Chicago, Bruce became the first African American to win any votes for national office at a major party's nominating convention, with eight votes for vice president. The presidential nominee that year was Ohio's James A. Garfield, who narrowly won election over the Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock.

In early 1889, politically-connected blacks lobbied for Bruce to receive a Cabinet appointment in the Harrison Administration. Said one newspaper: "Bruce is a man of respectable ability, and has, perhaps, more than any other man of his race who has sat in Congress, the respect of those with whom he served.

Bruce served by appointment as the District of Columbia recorder of deeds from 1890 to 1893. A Philadelphia newspaper reported his appointment in 1890, but persistent claims that his salary was $30,000 a year are not substantiated by any primary records. He also served on the District of Columbia Board of Trustees of Public Schools from 1892 to 1895. He was a participant in the March 5, 1897 meeting to celebrate the memory of Frederick Douglass and the American Negro Academy led by Alexander Crummell. He was appointed as Register of the Treasury a second time in 1897 by President William McKinley and served until his death from diabetes complications in 1898.

Personal life
On June 24, 1878, Bruce married Josephine Beall Willson (1853–1923), a fair-skinned socialite of Cleveland, Ohio, amid great publicity; the couple traveled to Europe for a four-month honeymoon. Their only child, Roscoe Conkling Bruce, was born in 1879. He was named for U.S. Senator Roscoe Conkling of New York, Bruce's mentor in the Senate.

One newspaper wrote that Bruce did not approve of the designation "colored men." He often said, "I am a Negro and proud of it."

Honors and legacy

In July 1898, the District of Columbia public school trustees ordered that a then-new public school building on Marshall Street in Park View be named the Bruce School in his honor.

In 1975, the Washington, D.C. residence of Bruce, was declared a National Historic Landmark and formally named The Blanche K. Bruce House.

In October of 1999, the U.S. Senate commissioned a portrait of Bruce. African-American Washington D.C. artist Simmie Knox was selected in 2000 to paint the portrait, which was unveiled in the Capitol in 2001.

In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Blanche Bruce on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.

A historical highway marker marking Bruce's birthplace at the intersection of highway 360 and 623 near Green Bay, Prince Edward County, Virginia, was unveiled by the African American Heritage Preservation Foundation on March 1, 2006.

In June 2006, a historical book about Bruce was authored by Lawrence Otis Graham, titled The True Story of America's First Black Dynasty: The Senator and the Socialite.

title: Blanche Bruce