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Vittorio Veneto

Vittorio Veneto is a city and comune situated in the Province of Treviso, in the region of Veneto, Italy, in the northeast of Italy, between the Piave and the Livenza rivers, borders with the following municipalities:

Alpago (BL), Belluno (BL), Cappella Maggiore, Colle Umberto, Conegliano, Fregona, Limana (BL), Revine Lago, San Pietro di Feletto, Tarzo.

Name
The city is an amalgamation of two former comuni, Cèneda and Serravalle, which were joined into one municipality in 1866 and named Vittorio after the King of Italy, Vittorio Emanuele II. The battle fought nearby in November 1918 became generally known as the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, and the city's name was officially changed to Vittorio Veneto in July 1923. Starting from the end of the nineteenth century, new neighborhoods were created around the road that connected the two towns, the current Viale della Vittoria, so that the union was also physical, and the town hall itself was placed halfway. However, the city still continues to demonstrate a certain bipolarity, and in fact Ceneda and Serravalle, despite their proximity, have very distinct historical identities.

Geography
The Meschio River, whose source is located in the Lapisina Valley, a few miles north of the city, passes down through the town from Serravalle through the district that bears its name. The north of Vittorio Veneto is straddled by mountains including the majestic Col Visentin. To the east is the state park and forest of Cansiglio which summits at Monte Pizzoc; to the west, a hill region including Valdobbiadene, where Prosecco wine is produced; and to the south is the commercial town of Conegliano.

Administrative subdivisions
According to the communal statute, the commune does not recognize any fraction within itself. There are numerous distinct areas and local autonomy is guaranteed to the following seven districts (Followed by the main settlements that are part of it).
 * 1 - Val Lapisina: Fadalto, Nove, San Floriano, Savassa, Forcal, Longhere, Maren, Fais.
 * 2 - Serravalle: Sant'Andrea, San Lorenzo, Serravalle
 * 3 - Center: Centro, Salsa
 * 4 - Costa-Meschio: Costa, Meschio
 * 5 - Ceneda: Alta and Ceneda Bassa (Saints Peter and Paul)
 * 6 - San Giacomo: San Giacomo di Veglia
 * 7 - Val dei Fiori: Carpesica, Cozzuolo, Formeniga

Ancient period
The area was occupied in ancient times by Veneti and perhaps Celts. A pagan sanctuary was in use on Monte Altare by Veneti, Celts, and Romans. During the 1st century BC Emperor Augustus established a Castrum Cenetense at the foot of an important pass northward towards Bellunum in what is now the heart of Serravalle to defend Opitergium and the Venetian plain to the south. To the immediate south of the castrum there developed a settlement called a vicus in what is now Ceneda and Meschio. While its precise course has not been determined, the Via Claudia Altinate running north from the Via Postumia seems to have passed the Roman castrum and vicus on its eastern side. Meanwhile, there remains evidence of typical Roman land surveying (centuratio) with cardines being associated with the present day Via Rizzera and Via Cal Alta (in the commune of Cappella Maggiore) and a decumanus identified with the Va Cal de Livera. This implies Ceneta became more than a mere vicus during the Roman period.

Late antiquity
The ancient Pieve di Sant'Andrea in Bigonzo in the northeast of the town, on the southern end of Serravalle, attests to the presence of Christianity in the area by the 4th century.

In the early 5th century, Emperor Honorius seems to have named a certain Marcellus count (comes) of Ceneta. Ceneta and Serravalle were among the places in Venetia devastated by Attila the Hun, but later refortified under the rule of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths.

Byzantine writer, Agathias Scholasticus, as well as the Latin poet, Venantius Fortunatus, from nearby Valdobbiadene, are witnesses to the existence of the town of Ceneta in the 6th century. Agathias recounts how during Justinian's Gothic War, Ceneda changed hands between the Ostrogoths, Franks, and Byzantines. In fact, after the Byzantines had seized Venetia from the Ostrogoths, they turned their attention to conquering central and southern Italy. In the spring of 553, while Narses was engaging the Ostrogoths, the Franks led by the brothers Leutari and Buccelin took a large part of Venetia and sought refuge in Ceneta, holding it sometime in the spring of 554.

In 568, the Lombards invaded Italy and Ceneda was irrevocably captured from the Byzantines. Lombard social and military colonies called fara seem to have been established at Farra d'Alpago to the north of Ceneda and at Farra di Soligo to the west. It was perhaps at this time or perhaps still later that Ceneda was made into the seat of one of 36 Lombard duchies. The Lombards constructed a castle, now called castello di San Martino near the heart of Ceneda on a strategic mountain which overlooks the town. By 667, the Duchy of Ceneda was certainly in existence and grew in size when, according to Paul the Deacon it acquired some of the territory of Oderzo after that city's destruction by the Lombards.

In 685, the Lombard King Grimoald I organized Ceneda into an ecclesiastical diocese, assigning to it a large part of the territory that had been under the care of the suppressed diocese of Oderzo. The diocese of Ceneda was within the metropolitan jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Aquileia. At the foot of the same height upon which the duke's castle had been built, a cathedral was constructed. St. Titian, Bishop of Oderzo, whose relics are contained in the present cathedral, was named as co-patron of the diocese along with St. Augusta, a virgin martyr from Serravalle.

Carolingian period
With the defeat of the Lombards in 774, Ceneda entered into the Frankish sphere. It seems the duke of Ceneda remained loyal to Charlemagne even when the Lombard dukes of Cividale, Treviso, and Vicenza rebelled the following year.

Middle Ages

In 994, the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III invested the bishop of Ceneda with the title and prerogatives of count and authority as temporal lord of the city. The 12th, 13th, and part of the 14th centuries were turbulent for Ceneda and Serravalle. During this time, the bishop of Ceneda was forced into the role of count, and thus, to take part in the politics of Northern Italy and even joining the Lombard League against the Holy Roman Empire. Ceneda also faced threats from its neighbors and in 1147 was attacked by the commune of Treviso. Only the mediation of the pope led to the restitution of what had been stolen, including the relics of St. Titian. In 1174, Serravalle became a fief of the Da Camino family. Ceneda and Serravalle would subsequently be contested by the da Romano family and the Patriarchs of Aquileia. In 1328, the area fell into the hands of the Scaligeri.

In 1307, Bishop Francesco Ramponi ceded the territory of Portobuffolé to Tolberto da Camino in exchange for county of Tarzo (also called Castelnuovo) which included Corbanese, Arfanta, Colmaor and Fratta. In Fratta, authority was invested in a vice-count of the bishop.

Venetian period
On December 19, 1389, Ceneda was peacefully incorporated into the Venetian Republic. Its bishops still retained authority as counts. However, in 1447 and in 1514 bishops Francesco and Oliviero, respectively, ceded to the Republic the right of civil investiture within the territory of Ceneda, reserving for themselves and their successors authority over the commune itself and a few villas. The privileges of Ceneda's bishops as counts were definitively revoked by the Republic in 1768.

Under Venetian rule, the urban development of Ceneda remained concentrated around the cathedral while the rest of the commune remained primarily agricultural with homes either scattered far and wide or sometimes organized in tiny clusters. Serravalle, however, which had come under Venetian rule in 1337 rose to its greatest splendor under the Serenissima, even eclipsing Ceneda in economic and urban development.

In 1411, a Hungarian army led by Pippo Spano attacked Ceneda and destroyed the episcopal archives. Both Ceneda and Serravalle suffered during the War of Cambrai.

A significant Jewish community grew in Ceneda throughout the Venetian period. Lorenzo Da Ponte, a librettist to Mozart, was a Jewish native of Ceneda, who took the bishop of Ceneda's name when he was baptized a Roman Catholic.

Napoleonic era
In March 1797, the French army of Massena entered the towns putting an end to Venetian rule. By the Treaty of Campoformio, the area passed to the rule of the Holy Roman Empire. From 1805 until 1814 Ceneda and Serravalle were incorporated into Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy.

Austrian period
After the Fall of Napoleon, the area was given with the rest of Venetia to the Austrian Empire.

Italian period
On November 22, 1866, soon after the Veneto was annexed by the Kingdom of Italy, Ceneda and Serravalle were joined into one municipality named after the King of Italy, Vittorio Emanuele.

During the First World War, Vittorio was occupied by Austro-Hungarian forces. In October 1918, Vittorio was the site of the last battle between Italy and Austria-Hungary during World War I. It led to the victory of Italy over the Austro-Hungarian Empire (Austrian-Italian Armistice of Villa Giusti) effective on 4 November 1918.

The word "Veneto", was attached to the city's name in 1923. Subsequently, many streets in other parts of Italy have been named Via Vittorio Veneto.

The Italian victory at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto led to the town lending its name as a military honor. Thus, in the 1930s, a battleship was named Vittorio Veneto. In the 1960s, a flight deck cruiser, the flagship of the Italian Navy, was given the same name. In 1968, a military medal called the Order of Vittorio Veneto (Ordine di Vittorio Veneto) was awarded to Italian veterans who had participated honorably for at least six months during the First World War.

Civil Administration (Mayors) during the Italian Republic

 * Giovanni Poldemengo (1946-1951) Italian Communist Party
 * Vittorio Della Porta (1951-1956) Christian Democrat Party
 * Ferruccio Faggin (1956-1960) Italian Socialist Party
 * Enrico Talin (1960-1961) Christian Democrat Party
 * Mario Ulliana (1961-1965) Christian Democrat Party
 * Aldo Toffoli (1965-1975) Christian Democrat Party
 * Giorgio Pizzol (1975-1982) Italian Communist Party
 * Franco Concas (1982-1988) Italian Socialist Party
 * Mario Botteon (1988-1995) Christian Democrat Party
 * Antonio Della Libera (1995-1999) Italian Popular Party
 * Giancarlo Scottà (1999-2009) Lega Nord Party
 * Gianantonio Da Re (2009-2014) Lega Nord Party
 * Roberto Tonon (2014-2019) Democratic Party
 * Antonio Miatto (2019-  ) Lega Nord Party

Economy
The ancient manufacturing, steel and textile factories, which have always characterized it and which for the most part followed the lively course of the Meschio river, have now been replaced by others and more numerous, linked to the different productions required by a global economy. The main activities are located in the industrial area of San Giacomo, one of the major regional industrial centers, not only for the multiplicity of productions, but also for the importance and consolidated quality of companies known nationally and internationally.

The presence of vineyards in the municipal area is remarkable, the Permasteelisa group manufacturing plant and also of the De Negri distillery should be noted.

Education
There are also numerous high schools in the city, most of which are located in the context of the school campus in the city center. Specifically, the high schools in Vittorio Veneto are:

 * *Liceo "Marcantonio Flaminio" high school, divided into various addresses: classical high school; scientific high school; scientific high school option applied sciences; high school of human sciences.

 * Liceo Artistico  Bruno Munari , divided into various addresses: figurative arts; architecture and environment; fashion design; jewelry design; industrial design; graphics; multimedia audiovisual.
 * State Professional Institute for Hotel Services and Catering  Alfredo Beltrame , divided into various addresses: tourist reception; hall and sales services; kitchen sector; option of artisanal and industrial confectionery products.
 * Higher Education Institute  City of Victory , established in 2007 by incorporating within it the Professional Institute for Industry and Crafts, the Economic Technical Institute and the Technical Technical Institute. The Province of Treviso plans the new IIS "City of Victory" in Vittorio Veneto which should see the construction site open by the end of 2022 after the demolition of the Institute's current headquarters.

In the city, in the historic center of Serravalle, there is also the Dante International College, with the addresses of scientific high school sports and high school scientific digital business creativity.

Cultural institutions
Every year, the Concorso Nazionale Corale "Trofei Città di Vittorio Veneto" takes place at Vittorio Veneto. The best choirs from all over Italy compete. The city is also host to a violin competition.
 * Pieve di Sant'Andrea
 * Duomo di Serravalle
 * Teatro Lorenzo da Ponte

 * Palace Todesco: the building owned by Giuseppe Todesco was bequeathed in 1961 to the Municipality of Vittorio Veneto and is intended for prestigious exhibitions and art exhibitions, as well as any other initiative of cultural, social, touristic value.

Media
Radio Palazzo Carli is a community radio managed by a non-profit organization. The RPC Association is not for profit and is proposed as a religious, social and educational sound broadcasting service through the transmission of various self-produced or acquired programs from third parties. There are two detached studios: in Vittorio Veneto and in Conegliano. The connection with the Vittorio Veneto Cathedral and the one with the inBlu circuit from Rome is also functioning. The reception frequency for the Vittoriese is FM 103.90 MHz.

Railways
The city of Vittorio Veneto has two railway stations served by the Ponte nelle Alpi-Conegliano line, fully electrified since February 2021: the Vittorio Veneto station, located in the city center and the Soffratta stop, located in the Ceneda district, serving the center historical district and the southern area of the city.

Language
The local Venetian dialect, called "Cenedese," or since the fusion of Ceneda and Serravalle, "Vittoriese," pertains more to the northern variant of Venetian, such as the dialect of Belluno, but it also shares features with the central variant of Treviso due to the influence of Venice.

Characteristics of Cenedese distinguishing it from Venetian include the frequent dropping of final "-o", for example, Venetian "gòto" ("cup") is gòt in Cenedese. When this occurs leaving a final "-m", the "-m" is further nasalized to an "-n". Thus, for example, Venetian "sémo" ("we are") is "sén" in Cenedese.

Another rustic feature of Cenedese is that the first person singular of indicative verbs usually ends in "-e" rather than in "-o." Thus, Cenedese "mi magne" is equivalent to Venetian "mi magno" ("I eat"), "mi vede" ("I see") is "mi vedo," and "mi dorme" ("I sleep") is "mi dormo.

A northern feature of Cenedese, shared with Bellunese, is its refusal to attach "ghe" onto the verb "avér" ("to have") as is done in the dialects of Venice, Padua, and Treviso. Thus, where Venetian says "mi gò" ("I have") or "ti ti gà" ("you (sing.) have"), Cenedese says "mi ò" and "ti te à," respectively.

One can often find the past participle of second conjugation verbs ending in "-ést" in Cenedese, rather than "-u" as in modern Venetian, for example, "vegnést" ("came"), "bevést" ("drunken"), "vedést" ("seen"), etc.

Native poet Aldo Toffoli describes a sibilant unique to Ceneda as "un suono derivante dallo schiacciamento di una sibilante dentale (alveolare) sorda (s = italiano "sera") su una affricata dentale sorda (ts = italiano "zucchero"), con un fortissimo assottigliamento del suono finale." He uses a simple z to indicate the sound, although suggests it is better represented by sts. Examples are "mezo" ("half"), "pianze" ("weeps"), "ruzene" ("rust"), "zimitero" ("cemetery"), etc. Notably, in some more northern and rural areas of the Veneto, this sound is voiced as a theta.

Overall, Cenedese remains intelligible to speakers of other dialects of the Venetian language.

People

 * Albino Luciani (Pope John Paul I) – bishop of Vittorio Veneto from 1958 to 1969.
 * Lorenzo Da Ponte – opera librettist for Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
 * Ferdinando Botteon (Born 1904); Italian violinist.
 * Marcantonio Flaminio (born 1498) – Renaissance humanist.
 * Efrem Casagrande (born 1924) – pianist, composer and choir conductor.
 * Emanuela Da Ros (born 1959) – children's books writer.
 * Francesca Segat (born 1983) – Italian butterfly swimmer.
 * Giampietro Bontempi – pianist.
 * Ilario Castagner – football player.
 * Gabriele Pin (born 1962) – football player and coach.
 * Andrea Poli (born 1989) – football player.
 * Tommaso Benvenuti (rugby union) (born 1990) – rugby union player.
 * Amia Venera Landscape – Post-Metal band.
 * Renato Talamini – Italian epidemiologist.
 * Bartolomeo Costantini – racing driver.

Twin towns

 * 🇧🇷 São Caetano do Sul, Brazil, since 1984
 * 🇮🇹 Finale Ligure, Italy, since 1998
 * 🇧🇷 Criciúma, Brazil, since 2000

title: Vittorio Veneto


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Wetherspoons

J D Wetherspoon plc (branded variously as Wetherspoon or Wetherspoons, and colloquially known as Spoons) is a pub company operating in the United Kingdom and Ireland. The company was founded in 1979 by Tim Martin and is based in Watford. It operates the sub-brand of Lloyds No.1 bars, and 56 Wetherspoon hotels. Wetherspoon is known for converting unconventional premises, such as former cinemas and banks, into pubs. The company is publicly listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index.

Foundation and early years
Tim Martin opened his first pub in 1979 in Colney Hatch Lane in Muswell Hill, London. Many of the other early Wetherspoon pubs were also in the western part of Haringey. The name of the business originates from JD, a character in The Dukes of Hazzard, and Wetherspoon, the surname of one of Martin's teachers in New Zealand, who had told him that he thought he would never amount to much.

During the 1990s, Wetherspoons began a policy of routinely closing its smaller or less profitable outlets, often replacing them with larger premises close by. In 1998, Wetherspoons introduced the oversized pint glass to promote the "full pint". This initiative was withdrawn, supposedly because customers were still asking for top-ups, but arguably because other pub chains did not follow its lead.

Wetherspoons pioneered non-smoking areas in pubs before the Smoking, Health and Social Care (Scotland) Act 2005, The Smoking (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 and the Health Act 2006 in England and Wales became law in 2006.

In 2015, Wetherspoons was ordered to pay a total of £24,000 in damages for "direct racial discrimination" to eight individuals who were refused admittance to one of its pubs in north London (The Coronet on Holloway Road, Islington) based on what a judge described as "the stereotypical assumption that Irish travellers and English gypsies cause disorder wherever they go".

On 16 April 2018, Wetherspoons deleted all of its social media profiles. Chairman Tim Martin cited the "current bad publicity surrounding social media, including the trolling of MPs and others" as a reason for the decision.

The chain, whose founder is a strong supporter of Brexit, replaced champagne with British and Australian sparkling wines on 9 July 2018. The firm stated that the goal was to reduce prices for its two million weekly customers.

Development since 2020
In mid-March 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom, the government advised the public to avoid areas like pubs, clubs, restaurants, and gyms. As a result, many pub chains closed. However, Wetherspoon chairman Tim Martin rejected the government's advice and initially did not close any pubs, saying that his instinct was that "closure won't save lives but will cost thousands of jobs". The government ordered the closure of all pubs from 21 March.

Martin suggested that if some staff were offered jobs in supermarkets they should consider taking them and promised that he would give first preference to those who wanted to come back to Wetherspoons. The majority of staff were placed on the Government furlough scheme after its announcement.

Wetherspoons told its suppliers in March it would not pay them until its 874 pubs were allowed to reopen after the coronavirus lockdown. In October 2020, Wetherspoons reported its first loss in 36 years. For the year ending in July 2020, the company published a pre-tax loss of £34.1 million; the previous year, it reported a pre-tax profit of £102.5 million.

In March 2021, Wetherspoons reaffirmed its expansion plans including 75 projects, comprising 18 new pubs and 57 significant extensions to existing venues. Martin said that the ten-year project would create 2,000 jobs for staff, but that it would be "conditional on the UK opening back up again on a long-term basis, with no further lockdowns or the constant changing of rules".

Food and drink
Wetherspoon's low-price food and drink offering is aimed at the mass market. A large standardised menu is available all day in every pub, cultivating a perception of "unpretentious good value". Wetherspoons claims to be "the only large pub firm which opens all its pubs early in the morning", serving breakfast and coffee. The food menu has regularly incorporated additional healthier and allergen-friendly options, and displays a calorie rating next to every item.

Wetherspoons hosts ale Festivals every March/April and October during which a larger than usual range of guest ales is available as well as a cider Festival in the summer. The company claims to be the biggest investor in craft beer in the country.

Wetherspoons objected to the value-added tax (VAT) rates on food sales in pubs and restaurants in the United Kingdom, and the fact they are higher than those paid by supermarkets. VAT rates on alcoholic drinks were the same in both pubs and supermarkets. When VAT was temporarily reduced from 20% to 5% during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, Wetherspoons was one of several chains to pass some of that saving to customers.

Properties and operations
Though some are new-build or late twentieth century properties, many Wetherspoon pubs are conversions of existing historic buildings which have become redundant, including banks, churches, post offices, theatres and a former public swimming pool, with many properties being listed buildings. Pubs are furnished thematically according to the heritage of the building or location, and have routinely won design awards.

Wetherspoons has opened outlets in the passenger terminals of some UK airports, including Doncaster Sheffield Airport, Edinburgh Airport, Gatwick Airport, Heathrow Airport, and Stansted Airport, as well as at several major railway stations, including Leeds, Liverpool Lime Street, London Cannon Street, London Liverpool Street, and London Victoria. The main station buildings at Aberystwyth railway station were converted to a Wetherspoons pub Yr Hen Orsaf The Old Station and received a National Railway Heritage Award in 2003.

The first Wetherspoon pub in Northern Ireland was The Spinning Mill in Ballymena, County Antrim, which opened in 2000. The first Wetherspoons pub in the Republic of Ireland, The Three Tun Tavern, opened in Blackrock, County Dublin, in 2014. Another opened in Cork in 2015. The Three Tun Tavern closed in January 2022 after it was bought by a consortium of former and current Irish rugby players, including Rob Kearney and Jamie Heaslip.

In 2014, Wetherspoons opened a pub at the Beaconsfield motorway service area on the M40. The move was criticised by road safety charities for potentially encouraging drink-driving.

Wetherspoons also operates a chain of hotels. In 2015, there were 34 hotels in England, Wales and Scotland, and also a pub and hotel in Camden Street, Dublin, Ireland.

Every Wetherspoons in Great Britain was visited by Mags Thomson from 1994 to October 2015. She visited 972, which included 80 that had subsequently closed.

In 2018, the company announced plans to open a National JD Wetherspoon Museum in Wolverhampton in the West Midlands. The existing pub, The Moon Under Water on Lichfield Street, would be expanded to take in the whole former Co-Op Department Store, to include a hotel and gift shop. Plans were approved in April 2020.

In 2022, the company announced it was selling 32 of its sites, including that at the Beaconsfield motorway service area.

Carpets
Every Wetherspoons pub has one or more unique carpets, inspired by the pub's name, location and building. They are made by Axminster Carpets and, sometimes having more than the usual six colours, have to be partially handmade on old fashioned looms, costing up to £30,000 – twice as much as stock designs. These have been the subject of a book, Spoons Carpets, by Kit Caliss and a colouring book, Colour Your Own Spoons Carpet.

Publications
The company produces a quarterly in-house magazine, Wetherspoon News, which contains information on the company's activities, its employees, pubs, political views and comments on recent media mentions. The chain also offers a mobile app from which customers can order food and drink to their table to avoid using the bar, even from outside the pub.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wetherspoons


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Direction

Direction may refer to:

 * Relative direction, for instance left, right, forward, backwards, up, and down
 * Anatomical terms of location for those used in anatomy
 * List of ship directions
 * Cardinal direction
 * Bearing (navigation)

Mathematics and science

 * Direction vector, a unit vector that defines a direction in multidimensional space
 * Direction of a subspace of a Euclidean or affine space
 * Directed set, in order theory
 * Directed graph, in graph theory
 * Directionality (molecular biology), the orientation of a nucleic acid

Music

 * For the guidance and cueing of a group of musicians during performance, see conducting
 * Direction (album) a 2007 album by The Starting Line
 * Direction Records, a label began by Bobby Darin.
 * Direction (record label), a record label in the UK in the late 1960s, a subsidiary of CBS Records, specialising in soul music
 * Directions: The Plans Video Album, a DVD video album made of videos inspired by songs from indie rock/pop band Death Cab for Cutie's album Plans
 * Directions (Miles Davis album), 1981
 * Directions (PC Quest album), 1992
 * Directions (Norman Blake album), 1978
 * "Direction", a song by the band Interpol, released as a B-side off the Six Feet Under soundtrack

Other uses

 * Directions (film), a 2017 Bulgarian film
 * Film direction, the creative aspect of filmmaking
 * Stage direction, in theater
 * Writing direction, of writing systems
 * See Alexander technique for Direction, a concept in the Alexander Technique
 * Directions (delegated legislation), a form of delegated legislation
 * Direction – Social Democracy, a major political party in Slovakia
 * Directionality (Cetanā), a mental factor in Buddhism

title: Direction


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Talk:Timeline of audio formats

Actually, the subsection Magnetic tape is about reel-to-reel tape recording. I saw the Magnetic tape page, that heading was there, I didn't think it was a very good heading, but that's where I did my brain dump.

Maybe it should be moved to and/or creatively combined with Reel-to-reel audio tape recording.

Dpbsmith 03:05, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)

What about optical sound recording on film?
Does it belong here? It was never used as a consumer format for musical recordings, but it was certainly an important audio format from, I dunno, the late 1920s to--well, I believe it's still in use.

Dpbsmith 03:10, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * The stuff you wrote at Magnetic tape is great - definitely should be put somewhere - I think the reel to reel page may be appropriate, as it's more about the complete technology rather than just about the tape medium itself, which is what I would have thought Magnetic tape should discuss. There's also Tape recorder. Seems some merging/consolidation is definitely in order. As for audio on film, I agree it's important, this isn't just about consumer formats IMO, it should include any form of audio reproduction. GRAHAMUK 05:02, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Differ between media storage formats and media content formats
There is no attention to the fact that there is a difference between media content formats and media storage formats. The content formats can be transmitted through a number of media storage formats, this means that a WMA or MP3 file can be stored and transmitted through a CD-R, DVD-R, the Internet and so on. There can be several different audio formats in a single DVD, and there are competing audio formats in the cinema market as well.

I suggest that this is clearly depicted in this article and in other related articles. Either by separating them in different articles or at least pointed out in one article.

Mechanical Digital formats
The list only has music roll on it, which is pointed a piano roll. The two are aparently separate subjects. Additional mechanical digital formats include: book music (probably the first of the punched paper style formats), barrel organs, music boxes, and maybe even Cuckoo clocks. The dates on all of these formats are fuzzy. I think these inventions bring up the question of what qualifies for inclusion on this list. Maybe it would be more appropriate to only list items that record at a high enough precision to reproduce human speech intelligibly. -- Austin Murphy 16:59, 15 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I agree that inclusion of music roll is problematic - by that logic not only should the above mechanical digital music formats be included, but also non-audio electronic digital music formats such as MIDI, be included. However the idea to only list items which "record at high enough precision to reproduce human speech intelligibly is also problematic - such an item is the pen, paper ands written notation - written speech which is then reproduced by being read out aloud - which is essentially the human vocal equivalent of the music roll. Whatever the logic, intuitively I think that a list starting at phongraph cylinder shouldn't include music roll.SeventhHell (talk) 04:03, 15 June 2010 (UTC)

Sheet Music?
Anybody thought about this one? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 74.108.76.187 (talk • contribs).
 * Sheet music is not recorded sound (e.i. sine waves). Sheet music is recorded notation (i.e. instructions). The difference is, audio doesn't require interpretation. Audio is the result of instruments played when someone follows instructions based on interpretation. Music sequencing and music rolls are also forms of notation, but are not audio until a machine follows those instructions. Oicumayberight 19:13, 26 March 2007 (UTC)

 * It all depends upon your interpretation of "audio", which probably also depends upon your definition of "record" and "sound". Each of the audio formats listed is dependent upon very a specific machine to interpret it - ever tried playing a CD on a record player? If music roll is included then sheet music also should be.SeventhHell (talk) 04:06, 15 June 2010 (UTC)

Optical Sounds Disc?
I once saw this system for sale in an antique store that consisted of flat clear discs with optical (film like) stripes running inward on them. So, in other words, it was a flat round record, with optical sound stripes spiraling inward. The store had the player and a number of albums for sale with it. It was over priced, so I didn't buy it. This was probably 19 or so years ago, but I've wondered ever since what the format was, and what it was called. Any ideas?

AtlantaMusic 10:45, 16 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Optigan Discs. Tadfafty (talk) 23:21, 15 February 2021 (UTC)

WAV Format?
Wasn't .wav format introduced in 1991 with the release of MS Windows 3.1 betas and not 1992?

Missing Formats.
Deutsche Cassette (Introduced at similar time to Compact Cassette by Grundig(?). Largely similar but not interchangeable with Compact Cassete due to differeing geometry.  Also ran at 2 inches per second.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 20.133.0.13 (talk) 13:20, 30 November 2009 (UTC)

Musical Boxes
As they don't depend on interpretation to produce sound and generally are stored in the form of cylinders or disks, should music box disks be included as an audio format? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jag140 (talk • contribs) 16:01, 13 August 2014 (UTC)

Proposed merge with Technology Changes in Music Media
Tech changes in music media is a WP:CFORK of this article. There's probably room for a broad (and encompassing both articles) history of audio formats. Or perhaps both should be merged to audio format, which is a short little article that could surely use the added historical context (and that article itself expanded). Izno (talk) 13:51, 30 November 2016 (UTC)
 * Merge - Agree. It can be incorporated here or any number of already existent WP:CFORK for Music technology.--CNMall41 (talk) 18:59, 2 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Merge - I also agree. Multiple Video formats use audio which would technically make them audio related. I think there is a need to have an article including both media types as there is currently no "Timeline of video formats" in Wikipedia. DiscoA340 (talk) 23:52, 11 May 2022 (UTC)

Other formats
At HD Tracks, I can buy DSD, MP3, AIFF, ALAC, FLAC, and WAV files. I can buy files in 88/24, 96/24, 176/24, and 192/24.

At Elusive Disc, I can buy other disc formats, such as Gold CD, XRCD, HDCD, DTS 5.1 CD, DVD-A, 24/96 Music DVD, and SACD. On Elusive Disc, SACDS can be further divided into Single Layer Stereo SACD, Hybrid (Dual Layer) Stereo SACD, Single Layer Multi-Channel SACD, and Hybrid (Dual Layer) Multi-Channel SACD. –Vmavanti (talk) 20:15, 7 March 2017 (UTC)

music box cylinders
Many music boxes use cylinders: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_box Kdammers (talk) 09:56, 21 August 2020 (UTC)

Invention of disc records.
disc records were created in 1897 were they not? Tadfafty (talk) 23:11, 9 September 2020 (UTC)

Splitting video formats into a new Article
The article seems to have a blend of audio and video formats in it like Laserdisc and Betamax. I understand that they are on the list due to them having audio components in them but it could be confusing for people reading the article and there is merit to having a list like this for video formats. DiscoA340 (talk) 22:19, 18 August 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Timeline of audio formats


text:
Villingen-Schwenningen

Villingen-Schwenningen (Low Alemannic: Villinge-Schwenninge) is a city in the Schwarzwald-Baar district in southern Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It has 89,487 inhabitants (as of June 2024).

History
In the Middle Ages, Villingen was a town under Austrian lordship. During the Protestant Reformation it remained Catholic. Villingen came to international attention when it was besieged by Marshal of France Camille d'Hostun, duc de Tallard on 17 July 1704. Colonel Von Wilstorff put up a stout defence of the outdated fortifications, and after six days the siege failed.

Schwenningen remained a village until the 19th century. In 1858, the first watch factory was established, and watchmaking and precision mechanics have been important industries ever since. The town styled itself "the greatest watch city in the world" at one time, and the Kienzle Uhren watchmaking company was founded there in 1822 and remained until moving to Hamburg in 2002. The Museum of Clockmaking celebrates the town's clock and watchmaking history.

As part of the Baden-Württemberg territorial reform of 1972, Villingen and Schwenningen were merged with a number of surrounding villages to form the city of Villingen-Schwenningen. Nevertheless, the two halves of the city are separated by a plateau and remain distinct. Villingen is a former part of Baden, while Schwenningen is a former part of Württemberg.

Villingen is a major center of German carnival celebrations. The traditional Narros represent the old citizens of Villingen: Alt Villingere, Morbili, Narro, Suribbel.

Geography
Villingen-Schwenningen lies on the eastern edge of the Black Forest about 700 m above sea level. The source of the River Neckar is in Schwenningen (Schwenninger Moos) whereas Villingen is traversed by the river Brigach which is the shorter one of the two headstreams of the Danube.

Boroughs

 * Villingen
 * Villingen
 * Pfaffenweiler
 * Marbach
 * Tannheim
 * Rietheim
 * Herzogenweiler

 * Schwenningen
 * Schwenningen
 * Obereschach
 * Weigheim
 * Weilersbach
 * Mühlhausen

Schwenningen

 * 1797–1816: Erhard Bürk
 * 1816–1819: (Vogt)
 * 1819–1821: Thomas Wegler
 * 1821–1825: ?
 * 1825–1835: Matthias Rapp
 * 1835–1841: Johann Georg Koch
 * 1841–1852: Andreas Bürk
 * 1852–1857: Christian Strohm
 * 1857–1887: Erhard Müller
 * 1887–1912: David Würth
 * 1912–1925: Emil Braunagel
 * 1925–1930: Ingo Lang von Langen
 * 1930–1948: Otto Gönnenwein
 * 1949–1962: Hans Kohler
 * 1962–1972: Gerhard Gebauer

Villingen

 * 1912–1930: Guido Lehmann
 * 1931–1933: Adolf Gremmelspacher
 * 1933: Gutmann, temporary
 * 1933–1937: Hermann Schneider
 * 1937–1940: Karl Berckmüller
 * 1940–1945: Hermann Riedel
 * 1945–1946: Walter Bräunlich
 * 1946: Edwin Hartmann
 * 1946–1950: Edwin Nägele
 * 1950–1972: Severin Kern

Villingen-Schwenningen

 * 1972–1994: Gerhard Gebauer (SPD)
 * 1994–2002: Manfred Matusza (CDU)
 * 2002–2019: Rupert Kubon (SPD)
 * since 2019: Jürgen Roth (CDU)

Number of inhabitants
Source: State Statistical Office of Baden-Württemberg

Business and education
Precision Motors Deutsche Minebea GmbH is a subsidiary of Minebea corporation and developing electric DC motors in Villingen-Schwenningen. Villingen-Schwenningen is the European HQ for the Japanese corporation.

Villingen-Schwenningen is the home of State University for Applied Science for policing (Hochschule für Polizei Baden-Württemberg) of Baden-Württemberg Police. The University was established in 1979 and has a capacity of 1.300 students.

Sights

 * Town wall
 * Municipal Art Gallery
 * Franciscan Monastery Museum
 * Schwenningen Clock Museum
 * Minster of Our Lady
 * Theater am Ring
 * Wanne Observation Tower, one of the oldest towers built of iron
 * Internationales Luftfahrt-Museum, aviation museum

Sports
Since 1904, Villingen-Schwenningen has also been home to the ice hockey team the Schwenninger Wild Wings, which competes in the Deutsche Eishockey Liga.

The town's football club is FC 08 Villingen, who in the 2021/22 season are competing in the Oberliga Baden-Württemberg at the fifth tier of the German league system.

Twin towns – sister cities
Villingen-Schwenningen is twinned with:

 * 🇫🇷 Pontarlier, France
 * 🇫🇷 La Valette du Var, France
 * 🇷🇺 Tula, Russia
 * 🇮🇹 Savona, Italy
 * 🇩🇪 Zittau, Germany
 * 🇩🇪 Friedrichsthal, Germany

Notable people

 * Georg Pictorius (c. 1500–1569), physician and mystic-magical author of the Renaissance
 * Trudpert Neugart (1742–1825), professor of oriental languages.
 * Johannes Benzing (1913–2001), Turkologist and diplomat
 * Martin Barner (1921–2020), mathematician, worked on differential geometry and analysis.
 * Kurt Leichtweiss (1927–2013), mathematician, worked on convex and differential geometry
 * Hartmann von der Tann (born 1943), a German radio and television journalist.
 * Horst Ludwig Meyer (1956–1999), presumed member of the Red Army Faction (RAF)
 * Veit Heinichen (born 1957), author, he writes noir novels
 * Gundolf Köhler (1959–1980), right-wing extremist at the Oktoberfest bombing
 * Andreas K. Engel (born 1961), brain researcher
 * Markus Kemmelmeier (born 1967), social psychologist and sociologist
 * Daniela Alfinito (born 1971), a German schlager singer and a geriatric nurse
 * Michelle (born 1972), singer, real name Tanja Gisela Hewer

Sport
In 2004 the former Bosnian boxer Armin „Boki“ Ćulum founded the motorcycle-like gang United Tribuns in Villingen-Schwenningen. The gang owned two bordellos and had a great influence on the prostitution scene in Villingen-Schwenningen. The gang called itself a group of bodybuilders, martial art athletes and bouncers. The United Tribuns grew fast and led to rivalry with the Hells Angels and Bandidos. United Tribuns had chapters in München, Augsburg, Nürnberg and Ingolstadt, and from 2014 also in the north in Hannover and later in Osnabrück. In Austria there was a chapter in Linz, Klagenfurt and Vienna. In September 2022 the Federal Minister for the Interior (BMI) prohibited the gang; and their money was confiscated.
 * Beate Bischler (born 1968), a retired Paralympic judoka who won a bronze medal at the 2004 Summer Paralympics
 * Robert Prosinečki (born 1969), Croatian footballer and coach, played 404 games and 49 for Croatia
 * Thorsten Schmitt (born 1975), Nordic combined skier
 * Oliver Roggisch (born 1978), handball player
 * Martin Schmitt (born 1978), ski jumper, won one gold and two silver Olympic medals
 * Andreas Lang (born 1979), curler
 * Dennis Seidenberg (born 1981), ice hockey player
 * Ivana Brkljačić (born 1983), Croatian hammer thrower
 * Jochen Schöps (born 1983), volleyball player
 * Marco Caligiuri (born 1984), German-Italian footballer, played 404 games
 * Yannic Seidenberg (born 1984), ice hockey player
 * Daniel Caligiuri (born 1988), German-Italian footballer, played over 450 games
 * Daniel Keilwitz (born 1989), racing driver
 * Sebastian Rudy (born 1990), footballer, has played 395 games and 29 for Germany
 * Christian Günter (born 1993), footballer who has played 345 games for SC Freiburg and 8 for Germany
 * Domenic Weinstein (born 1994), cyclist
 * Kai Brünker (born 1994), footballer who has played over 260 games
 * Kai Wissmann, (DE Wiki) (born 1996), ice hockey player
 * and

title: Villingen-Schwenningen


text:
Last surviving United States war veterans

This is an incomplete list of the last surviving veterans of American wars. Exactly who is the last surviving veteran is often an issue of contention, especially with records from long-ago wars. The "last man standing" was often very young at the time of enlistment and in many cases had lied about his age to gain entry into the service, which confuses matters further.

American Indian Wars (1622–1774)

 * Samuel Murphy (1758–1851) – Virginia colonists. Last participant of Lord Dunmore's War
 * Noah Johnson (1698–1798) – New England colonists. Last participant of Lovewell's War

French and Indian War (1754–1763)

 * John Owen (1741–1843) – British Army. Enlisted in 1758. Also fought in the Revolutionary War.
 * Jonathan Benjamin (1738–1841) – British Army. Also fought in the Revolutionary War.

American Revolutionary War (1775–1783)

 * Daniel Frederick Bakeman (1759–1869) – Continental Army. Last veteran drawing a pension awarded by Congress; granted a pension in 1867 even though he could not prove his service.
 * John Gray (1764–1868) – Continental Army. Last verifiable veteran. Served at Yorktown. Six month service period was too short to qualify for pension. Granted a pension in 1867.
 * James Robinson (1753–1868) – Continental Army. Last African American veteran. Served at Yorktown and Brandywine. Awarded Gold Medal of Valor.
 * Lemuel Cook (1759–1866) – Continental Army. Last cavalryman. Served with the 2nd Light Dragoons.
 * Elijah Churchill (1755–1841) – Continental Army. Last Badge of Military Merit recipient.
 * William Richardson (1765–1873) – Claimed to have served in an Ohio militia and in a Continental Line.

American Indian Wars (1775–1924)

 * Frederick Fraske (1872–1973) – U.S. Army. Last Army veteran.
 * John Daw (1870–1965) – U.S. Army. Last Indian Scout.
 * Dewey Beard (1857–1955) – Lakota Tribe. Last Native American participant of the Battle of the Little Big Horn. Also survived Wounded Knee.
 * John Winchell Cullen (1838–1939) – U.S. Army. Fought in the Yakima War.
 * Henry L. Riggs (1812–1911) – U.S. Army. Served in the Black Hawk War.

Shays' Rebellion (1786–1787)

 * David Whitney (1767–1867) – Massachusetts State Militia.

Whiskey Rebellion (1791–1794)

 * Michael Edwards (1767?–1876) – Pennsylvania State Militia.

War of 1812 (1812–1815)

 * Hiram Cronk (1800–1905) – New York Militia.
 * James Hooper Jr. (1804–1898) – U.S. Navy. Served on the schooner Comet during the Battle of Baltimore.
 * Aaron Stafford (1787–1885) - Major, New York Militia. Last surviving veteran of the War of 1812 known to have held an officer's commission. Wounded at Battle of Queenston Heights.

Toledo War (1835–1836)

 * Lewis W. Pearl (1815–1914) – Michigan State Militia. Later served in the Mexican-American War and the Civil War.

Texas Revolution (1835–1836)

 * William Physick Zuber (1820–1913) – Texian Army.

Dorr Rebellion (1841–1842)

 * Wanton Briggs (1821–1923) – Rhode Island State Militia. Last "Charterite".

Bear Flag Revolt (1846)

 * John Grider (1826–1924) – California Republic Militia.

Mexican–American War (1846–1848)

 * Owen Thomas Edgar (1831–1929) – U.S. Navy. Served on USS Potomac (1822) and USS Allegheny (1847).
 * William Fitzhugh Buckner (1828–1929) – U.S. Army. Fought at Taos.

Bleeding Kansas (1854–1861)

 * Israel Adam Broadsword (1846–1952) – Free-Stater. Joined a Kansas Home Guard unit in 1859 to protect against raids. Later served in the Civil War.
 * John Brown (1844–1940) – Border Ruffian. Participated in the Lawrence Massacre with Quantrill's Raiders.

American Civil War (1861–1865)

 * Albert Henry Woolson (1850–1956) – Union Army. Last verified Union veteran.
 * James Albert Hard (1843–1953) – Union Army. Last combat veteran. Served at First Bull Run, Antietam, and Chancellorsville.
 * Pleasant Riggs Crump (1847–1951) – Confederate Army. Last verified Confederate veteran. See Last surviving Confederate veterans.
 * Alden G. Howell (1841–1947) – Confederate Army. Last commissioned Confederate officer.
 * Henry Doll (1847–1947) – Union Navy. Last surviving Union sailor. Served on the USS Portsmouth and USS Brooklyn.
 * James Frederick Lyon (1843–1946) – Union Army. Last commissioned Union officer.
 * James Burns (1845–1944) – Union Marine Corps.  Last surviving Union Marine veteran. Enlisted 9 Sept 1862.
 * Samuel B. Grant (1845–1944) – Confederate Marine Corps. Last surviving Confederate Marine veteran. Served with the Marine Guard attached to the CSS Fredericksburg.
 * William Sickles (1844–1938) – Union Army. Last Medal of Honor recipient.
 * Aaron Daggett (1837–1938) - Union Army. Last surviving General of the Civil War.
 * Billy Rufus Stanford (1850–1937) – Confederate Navy. Last surviving Confederate sailor. Defended Columbus, Georgia during Sherman's March to the Sea with Company C of the Naval Battalion.
 * Adelbert Ames (1835–1933) - Union Army. Last surviving General of the Regular U.S. Army.
 * Oliver Otis Howard (1830–1909) - Union Army. Last surviving General to have held the permanent rank of a general in the regular U.S. Army.

Korean Expedition (1871)

 * William F. Lukes (1847–1923) – U.S. Navy. Served on USS Colorado (1856). Last Medal of honor recipient.

Spanish–American War (1898)

 * Jones Morgan (1882–1993) – U.S. Army. Claimed to have served in the 9th Cavalry.
 * Jasper Garrison (1880–1987) – U.S. Army. Last verified veteran.
 * Jesse D. Langdon (1881–1975) – U.S. Army. Last member of the Rough Riders.
 * John Davis (1877–1970) – U.S. Navy. Served on USS Marblehead (C-11). Last Medal of Honor recipient.

Second Samoan Civil War (1898–99)

 * Bruno Albert Forsterer (1869–1957) – U.S. Marine Corps. Last Medal of Honor recipient.

Banana Wars (1898–1934)

 * Donald Leroy Truesdell (1906–1993) – U.S. Marine Corps. Served in Nicaragua. Last Medal of Honor recipient.
 * Herman H. Hanneken (1893–1986) – U.S. Marine Corps. Served in Haiti. Last Medal of Honor recipient.
 * George M. Lowry (1889–1981) – U.S. Navy. Served on USS Florida (BB-30) at Veracruz. Last Medal of Honor recipient.
 * Roswell Winans (1887–1968) – U.S. Marine Corps. Served in Dominican Republic. Last Medal of Honor recipient.

Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901)

 * Nathan E. Cook (1885–1992) – U.S. Navy.
 * Walter Pleate (1876–1985) – U.S. Army. Also served in the Philippine–American War.
 * William Seach (1877–1978) – U.S. Navy. Served on USS Newark (C-1). Last Medal of Honor recipient.

Philippine–American War (1899–1902)

 * Nathan E. Cook (1885–1992) – U.S. Navy. Served on USS Pensacola (1859).
 * Walter Pleate (1876–1985) – U.S. Army.
 * John Thomas Kennedy (1885–1969) – U.S. Army. Last Medal of Honor recipient.

Border War (1910–1919)

 * Samuel Goldberg (1900–2006) – U.S. Cavalry.

World War I (1914–1918)

 * Frank Woodruff Buckles (1901–2011) – U.S. Army. Last U.S. veteran, served with the 1st Fort Riley Casual Detachment.
 * Lloyd Brown (1901–2007) – U.S. Navy. Served on USS New Hampshire (BB-25).
 * Howard Ramsey (1898–2007) – U.S. Army. Last combat veteran.
 * Albert Wagner (1899–2007) – U.S. Marine Corps. Served in the 6th Marine Regiment.
 * Moses Hardy (1894–2006) – U.S. Army. Last African-American veteran.
 * James William Pearson (1895–1993) – Royal Air Force. Last American flying ace. Served in No. 23 Squadron RAF
 * Arthur Raymond Brooks (1895–1991) – Air Service, United States Army. Last American flying ace to serve in a U.S. unit.  Served in the 22d Aero Squadron.
 * Edouard Izac (1891–1990) – U.S. Navy. Served on USS Florida (BB-30) and USS President Lincoln (1907). Last Medal of Honor recipient.
 * Henry Forster (1889–1989) – Aéronautique Militaire. Last American member of the La Fayette Escadrille.

Pancho Villa Expedition (1916–1917)

 * Mark Matthews (1894–2005) – U.S. Army.

Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War (1918–1925)
American and other Allied forces were involved in the Polar Bear Expedition which began during World War I and continued into the Russian Civil War

 * Warren V. Hileman (1901–2005) – U.S. Army. Served in the 27th Infantry Regiment as part of the American Expeditionary Force Siberia.
 * Harold Gunnes (1899–2003) – U.S. Navy. Served on USS Olympia (C-6). Also attached to the 339th Infantry Regiment as part of the Polar Bear Expedition.

Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)

 * Delmer Berg (1915–2016) – International Brigades. Volunteered in 1938. Served in anti-aircraft in the Abraham Lincoln Brigade.

World War II (1939–1945)

 * Lou Conter (1921–2024) – U.S. Navy. Last surviving crew member of the USS Arizona (BB-39).
 * Hershel Woodrow "Woody" Williams (1923–2022) – U.S. Marine Corps. Last Medal of Honor recipient.
 * Bradford Freeman (1924–2022) – U.S. Army. Last surviving member of Easy Company.
 * Frank S. Losonsky (1920–2020) – American Volunteer Group. Last member of the Flying Tigers. Enlisted in the USAAC in 1939. Joined the AVG in 1941.
 * Richard E. Cole (1915–2019) – U.S. Army Air Forces. Last participant of the Doolittle Raid (Jimmy Doolittle's co-pilot).
 * Carl Kice Brown (1917–2017) – American Volunteer Group. Last pilot of the Flying Tigers. Joined in 1941.
 * Steve Pisanos (1919–2016) – RAF. Last pilot of the Eagle Squadrons. Joined in 1941.
 * Bill Bower (1917–2011) – U.S. Army Air Forces. Last pilot of Doolittle Raid.
 * Lemuel R. Custis (1915–2005) – U.S. Army Air Forces – Tuskegee Airmen. Last surviving graduating member of original aviation cadet class, Class 42-C.

Korean War (1950–1953)

 * Charles G. Cleveland (1927–2021) – U.S. Air Force. Last flying ace.
 * Ralph Puckett (1926–2024) – U.S. Army. Last Medal of Honor recipient.


text:
Italian Peninsula

The Italian Peninsula (Italian: penisola italica or penisola italiana), also known as the Italic Peninsula, Apennine Peninsula or Italian Boot, is a peninsula extending from the southern Alps in the north to the central Mediterranean Sea in the south.

Overview
It is nicknamed lo Stivale (the Boot). Three smaller peninsulas contribute to this characteristic shape, namely Calabria (the "toe"), Salento (the "heel") and Gargano (the "spur"). The backbone of the Italian Peninsula consists of the Apennine Mountains, from which it takes one of its names. The peninsula comprises much of Italy and also includes the enclaved microstates of San Marino and Vatican City.

Physical geography

Geographically, the minimum extent of the Italian Peninsula consists of the land south of a line extending from the Magra to the Rubicon rivers, north of the Tuscan–Emilian Apennines. It excludes the Po Valley and the southern slopes of the Alps. The Italian Peninsula has the only active volcano on continental Europe, Mount Vesuvius.

Political geography
In general discourse, "Italy" and the "Italian Peninsula" are often used as synonymous terms. However, Northern Italy may be excluded from the Italian Peninsula. From a political point of view, the Italian Peninsula in the strict sense (therefore excluding Insular Italy and Northern Italy ) is divided into various states listed in the following table:

title: Italian Peninsula


text:
Roaring Forties

The Roaring Forties are strong westerly winds that occur in the Southern Hemisphere, generally between the latitudes of 40° and 50° south. The strong eastward air currents are caused by the combination of air being displaced from the Equator towards the South Pole, Earth's rotation, and the scarcity of landmasses to serve as windbreaks at those latitudes.

The Roaring Forties were a major aid to ships sailing the Brouwer Route from Europe to the East Indies or Australasia during the Age of Sail, and in modern times are favoured by yachtsmen on round-the-world voyages and competitions. The boundaries of the Roaring Forties are not consistent: The wind-stream shifts north or south depending on the season. The strong and continuous winds in the Roaring Forties make this zone advantageous for wind power in places such as New Zealand and Tasmania.

Similar but even stronger conditions that occur at more southerly latitudes are called the Furious Fifties and the Shrieking or Screaming Sixties.

Dynamics

Hot air rises at the Equator and is pushed towards the poles by cooler air travelling towards the Equator (an atmospheric circulation feature known as the Hadley Cell). At about 30°S, the outward-travelling air sinks to lower altitudes, and continues toward the poles closer to the ground (the Ferrel Cell), then rises up again from about 60°S as the air joins the Polar vortex. This travel in the 30°–60°S zone combines with the rotation of the earth to move the air currents from west to east, creating westerly winds.

The large tracts of open ocean south of 40°S are interrupted only by Tasmania, New Zealand, and the southern part of South America. These relatively small obstructions, which are themselves bordered by large tracts of open water along their southern shores, allow high wind speeds to develop – much higher than near 40°N, where the large continents of Eurasia and North America impede the flow of circum-planetary westerly winds. Similar but stronger wind conditions prevalent closer to the South Pole are referred to as the "Furious Fifties" (50°S to 60°S), and the "Shrieking" or "Screaming Sixties" (below 60°S).

The latitude ranges for the Roaring Forties and similar winds are not consistent: All shift towards the South Pole in the southern summer, and towards the Equator in the southern winter. Wellington, the capital of New Zealand, is known as "Windy Welly" because it is one of the few cities situated in these gusty latitudes.

Use for sailing

During the Age of Sail, ships travelling from Europe to the East Indies or Australasia would sail down the west coast of Africa and round the Cape of Good Hope to use the Roaring Forties to speed their passage across the Indian Ocean, then on the return leg, continue eastwards across the Pacific Ocean and south of Cape Horn before sailing up the east coast of the Americas to home.

It was first used by Dutch explorer Hendrik Brouwer in his Brouwer Route, discovered in 1611, which effectively halved the duration of the trip from Europe to Java. "To run the easting down" was the phrase used to describe the fast passages achieved in the Roaring Forties. The story Easting Down by Shalimar describes the events that befall a steamship unwisely venturing into these latitudes to achieve a faster passage.

Modern round-the-world sailors also take advantage of the Roaring Forties to speed travel times, in particular those involved in record attempts or races. An old sailor's expression goes, "below 40 degrees south, there is no law; below 50 degrees, there is no God."

Impact of pollution
The peak band of winds has moved approximately 2.5 degrees south in the late 20th century, from a combination of human-induced ozone depletion and greenhouse gas emissions. This has caused faster warming in Antarctica and less rainfall in Australia, especially Western Australia.

Popular culture
In 1982, French filmmaker Christian de Chalonge directed The Roaring Forties, a drama movie inspired by the death of Donald Crowhurst, a British sailor who perished in the 1969 Sunday Times Golden Globe Race.

title: Roaring Forties


text:
Talk:The Limelight

Older comment
This is why Wikipedia is cool: at 16:37 we had a 3 sentence stub, at 19:08 we have a pretty detailed article shaping up. Thanks to everybody contributing! --Lexor 03:13, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)

I was there often in its early days. At the time, the scene was more about the music than the drugs. We went to hear music and to dance. By the early nineties it seemed like more of a pick up joint and the music didn't seem fresh and new. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.90.184.215 (talk • contribs) 17:32, 4 October 2006 (UTC)

Another Limelight
The Vision nightclub (Chicago) website states that it was originally a Limelight nightclub in the 1980s. This could stand some research and verification, with possible addition to this article. The context seems to fit, since Vision is also an old church building in Chicago's River North neighborhood. T4kinase 16:33, 18 December 2006 (UTC)

The same NY Limelight vis-a-vis Shep?
Wasn't the Limelight in NYC the same one that Jean Shepherd performed in during the mid-60s? JB82c 00:23, 7 April 2007 (UTC)

Limelight was much more than this
I worked there for about 7 years. While I was there the club over went many changes, some good some bad. My job was on the technical crew. I operated the lights and kept an eye on the sound system and dealt with the stage setup etc. Aside from all the fairly well deserved attention (good and bad) that Michael Alig continues to receive for his contributions, there were so many other people that made the place stand out. The balance of old guard versus new guard was particularly painful to work under, I mean how many times does anybody need to see Adam Bomb live, thanks Claire. Or Steve Lewis??? What the??? Jeez!!! Steve Adelman??? Go look at the ceiling somewhere else!! Those fashion shows blew.

So many people I knew that worked there actually killed themselves while employed there or after they were employed there. I feel lucky to be alive, knock on wood. Angel was tragic, but he was a heroin dealer who traded his life for a little fame in a closed circuit private party. By the time the angel of death showed up, the party was pretty much over. The good djs were bailing, the club was under surveillance, the security would search you for drugs. What was left was a bunch of coke-heads, K-heads, Narcs and Feds. Not a good party environment.

The good stuff happened in the main room between 90 and 94. The sound and light experience (which Scotto only had a hand in, he was not all that), was incredible. The music at the time was changing rapidly, and the club had a different vibe on every night and was open 6 nights a week! For a while the club was really lifted off the ground, floating high above the city when the city was worth floating over. There were some Djs that really pushed the limits just right and created something new and forward that the dance floor really enjoyed. Then somebody let Gabba in and it got tiresome to hear the Euromasters 5 times in a night or when they started letting anyone on the decks and they all wanted to play Spastik.

That range of variance in electronic dance music has been drawn and quartered, splintered into genres that used to be unimportant.

Anyway, thats all I have time for today. prozac

Bumpyeye 16:10, 5 October 2007 (UTC)

I used to work there to. I think I know who you are. scotto was cools the lights that he had invented are still in use and he redesign them, allan sanctuary, what was the name of that guy that commited suicide that used to work the door? Has i remembered the Limelight Night club History was said that There was an altar under the clubs dance floor, wich was confirmed and that they cannot remove the seats or the altar from the Church, also that in the 1800 or early 1900's the priest of that church had done something to some kids there and that's why the church was ...whats that word... but they could not take that church down but they where considering demolition. Richie Rich could never sing Due to the harmones he was injecting he sounded like if he was on helium, Angel was a drug dealer but he had no other way of making money to support his living. he was struggling. he wanted out but couldnt do it. over all a great person. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 208.105.2.30 (talk) 15:21, 11 January 2010 (UTC)

Shameless Plugs
The article is about the Limelight and not individuals who helped design the new marketplace. The inclusion of these names is clearly a shameless plug in an article that is about a nightclub. Unless there is a person who held a lasting influence on the club (such as Peter Gatien), then the inclusion of non-notable names clearly is a conflict of interest as it appears that there is an editorial connection. Projects should be on the individual's resume, not on Wikipedia. The article will reverted. Should you have any questions, please discuss on article's talk page before I open a dispute resolution ticket. Once again, this is an article about the Limelight, and not about the two creative designers who designed the Limelight Marketplace. --XLR8TION (talk) 00:50, 6 December 2010 (UTC)
 * It's not a shameless plug. As far as I remember, I put the names into the article, and I have no connection with the marketplace or the design firm.  I'm going to restore the information, as being both relevant and accurate.  I suggest that you do not remove it again until you have a consensus on this page to do so. Beyond My Ken (talk) 01:22, 6 December 2010 (UTC)
 * It's clearly a shameless plug. Press releases are not valid source of information for all subjects. A dispute resolution has been filed. Do not reverty article untiil a mediator(s) has assessed conflict in article and offers a solution.--XLR8TION (talk) 01:29, 6 December 2010 (UTC)
 * You have reverted article three times. This is a violation of site rules. Please be civil and wait for a response from a mediator. --XLR8TION (talk) 01:31, 6 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Ah, 3RR is a limit, the fourth reversion is against policy -- but I'm afraid you misunderstand the system. Please see WP:BRD. You were Bold and made an edit, I disagreed and I Reverted, now we Discuss.  You do not get to restore your bold edit while the discussion goes on, the article is returned to the original status quo. As for mediation, that's not going to happen, because it's totally unnecessary.  Please get your consensus here, onthis talk page. Beyond My Ken (talk) 01:35, 6 December 2010 (UTC)
 * You claim to have asked for mediation, but I do not see an edit in your contributions where you asked for a mediator. Why is that? Beyond My Ken (talk) 01:38, 6 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Please be civil and stop adding the name sof people you clealry have close connection with in the article. A shameless plug is a shameless plug. The article is about a NYC nightclub, not two non-notable people who want to have some notoriety in their empty lives. Please stop reverting article and wait for mediator.--XLR8TION (talk) 01:40, 6 December 2010 (UTC)
 * I have already said this, but perhaps you missed it: I am not connected with the people whose names you are trying to remove. I'm a long-time Wikipedian (almost 5 1/2 years) with about 70,000 edits to my credit and I'm not here to spam names into articles.  A quick look at my contributions will show that I've recently been editing (and creating) articles on New York history and historic New York buildings, and this is just another article that I keep my eye on.  I have no ulterior motive for the names being in the article, I simply think it's relevant, pertinent and accurate information which improves the article.  That we disagree on that is fine, but it is not fine to try to enforce your own opinion by reverting.  The proper think to do is have a discussion here on this talk page, and get a consensus from the editors here that the names should come out or stay in, and then we would both abide by that consensus.  It's not too late for that to happen, simply self-revert your last edit, and let the discussion take its course. As I remarked on your talk page (continued here), we routinely include the name of the architects who designed buildings in our articles, and if the interior design is notable, and we have that information, we include the names of the people who did the interior design as well. In this case, the inside of a church, which had been coverted into a nightclub, was converted again into a small upscale marketplace. If you've been inside of it, the design is quite distinctive and notable. making novel use of the three-dimensional space  (although I do not think it's very sucessful - it felt very claustrophic to me), which is why the names of the interior designers are legitimate information for the article. Beyond My Ken (talk) 02:00, 6 December 2010 (UTC)

 * These individuals are nobodies. They have nothing to do with the Limelight's extensive history. Shameless plugs are shameless plugs. This is Wikipedia, not Linked In.  Stop adding promotional garbage form a press release that simply is biased advertising to promote the agendas of companies and non-notable individuals.  I have worked on this article for several years and have removed vandalism and other shameless plug attempts. This is nothing new and the inclusion of two highly non-notable names raises flags on why you are doing so when the article's focus is on the club and it's history.  --XLR8TION (talk) 02:05, 6 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Once again, this article is about the Limelight NOT about James Mansour of Mansour Design and Melisca Klisanin, Creative Director. Are you aware of that? This is clearly a shameless advertising plug. Keep the article clean of all promotional reference. This is about the Limelight and the notable personalities that brought it's fame during it's heydey as a nightclub. Mr. Mansour and Ms. Kilsanin are only involved with the Limelight due to profitand puclicity. --XLR8TION (talk) 02:10, 6 December 2010 (UTC)
 * (edit conflict) So, I take it that you are not going to assume good faith and accept my clear statement of non-conflict, nor are you going to look at my contriubution history to confirm what I've said. I see. I note that you have made 31 edits to the Limelight article over the years, which certainly is more than my more recent 20, but neither of us owns the article, we have to abide by consensus, which is why I suggest you self-revert and let a discussion here evolve to find what that consensus is: are the people named "nobodies" as you claim, and their inclusion here a shameless plug (if it is, I wish someone would have paid me for it), or is the inclusion of the namea of the interior designera when a building is totally repurposed a legitimate one. I'm willing to let discussion between editors decide that, as should you. Beyond My Ken (talk) 02:14, 6 December 2010 (UTC)
 * A single mention of a person's name, in a very short section of an article which details what happened to the building after the nightclub closed, does not qualify as "advertising." I think you're being very unreasonable, and I believe you need to review WP:OWN. Beyond My Ken (talk) 02:14, 6 December 2010 (UTC)

 I have placed neutral pointers to this discussion on the talk pages of WikiProject Architecture and WikiProject New York City Beyond My Ken (talk) 02:20, 6 December 2010 (UTC)  One correction before I abandon this article to the ownership of XLR8TION: Above, I said that I was the editor who added the names of the designers of the Limelight Marketplace to the article, but I was mistaken. In fact, they were added on July, 8 2009 by editor User:Jackmsw, who has only two edits listed in their contribs, meaning that it's very possible they were originally added by someone connected with the design firm. This, of course, doesn't negate the arguments I made above for the legitimacy of the names being included in the article. Beyond My Ken (talk) 03:53, 7 December 2010 (UTC)

Greg Gumo
Does anyone remember much about the Greg Gumo connection here, both as Limelight and the avalon? msg me please or lets add to this article here. I cant find much info on either Avalon or Gumo...is it anywhere else? Avatera (talk) 18:09, 20 May 2011 (UTC)

Bobbie Lombardi and Hallandale Limelight
Bobbie Lombardi is pertinant to this wiki as he was the prime DJ at the first Limelight Disco opened by Peter Gatien. He then went and worked at the Atlanta location. I personally know of these facts as I was the lightman at the Hallandale location for Bobbie until December 1978 and the true disco DJ community recognizes Bobboe as the inventor of BPM mixing. He used radio cart machines first to do it when he was in New york clubs before the Limelight incarnations. These facts are verified by the following e-mail to me:

This is a copy of an e-mail forwarded to me. It is from Jackie of the Long Island Record Pool

Bobby was a good friend of mine. He originally worked at two important clubs on Long Island during the very early days of the club scene. One was called Rum Bottoms and it hosted packed crowds of dancers that would normally come to see popular bands and Bobby worked the break sessions, keeping them dancing. He also worked one of the earliest Gay Clubs on Long Island called The Corral. He worked alone at that venue. Bobby was the first DJ to use the Beats-Per-Minute method of mixing. He devised this method because he never used turntables, he used radio station type "carts". These "carts" had no rewind on them, if you missed your mix point, you would have to "fast forward" through the entire song to the original start point and begin your mix all over again. By that time the song playing would have run out, so it was a one-shot-only attempt to get the mix "right" on your first try. Bobby would choose a song that was just a bit faster than the one playing, so he could start it, wait until the newer song caught up to the song playing, then make his mix. Although it sounds crude by today's standards, at the time it was futuristic and very progressive. Back then, there were no Technics turntables, no slip-pads, nobody else synchronizing an incoming song with the song that was playing, Bobby was the innovator. I asked Bobby what all the little numbers were on his "carts" and he explained the method to me. I asked him if I could adopt his unique method and he said that it was fine, but not to expect him to give me the numbers, I would have to "time" my music by myself, which I did (and became the first DJ to use the BPM system with records). Bobby was a mentor to two DJs that could be considered his prot�g�es, me and Wayne Scott. In 1972, Wayne took one of the nights at Rumbottoms as I got the job at The Bijou, a very big Long Island club. Wayne also adopted the BPM method and eventually became the DJ at the famous New York nightspot The Flamingo. Bobby moved to Florida, where he worked at The Limelight which was located between Miami and Ft. Lauderdale. I visited him at the club. It was quite impressive. He eventually moved to Atlanta, Georgia, where he continued to spin for a while, until he passed away (I think it was in the late 80's). He had an adopted son, who I saw once in the early 90's, but not afterward. His son was still living in Atlanta at the time. If the person asking you about Bobby wants to know more about him, have them contact me directly. I have a photo of him and a story that ran in a music publication back in the '70's that verifies him as being the creator of the BPM method of categorizing music. I keep in touch with Wayne, who is retired from the music business, but he would verify that Bobby in fact was the first DJ to use the BPM system.

Regards, Jackie — Preceding unsigned comment added by Frdrsjr (talk • contribs) 23:23, 5 September 2015 (UTC)
 * First, read WP:Reliable sources, and then get a citation from areliable source to support the information you want to add. Your memoriies are not sufficent.  Without a citation from a reliable source, the information wuill contuinue top be removed. BMK (talk) 01:26, 6 September 2015 (UTC)

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Wiki Education assignment: Performance and Social Change
— Assignment last updated by Strawberry2302 (talk) 16:23, 15 November 2022 (UTC)

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title: Talk:The Limelight


text:
Investigator

Investigator may refer to:

Government and law

 * Detective, a person who investigates crimes, can be a rank and job in a police department, state or federal employee, or a civilian called a private detective
 * Inspector, a police rank in many countries

Science and academia

 * Clinical investigator, an investigator involved in a clinical trial
 * New investigator, a designation for less experienced researchers
 * Principal investigator, a researcher in a research project

Other fields

 * Private investigator, a person who does not work for the police or government, but who undertakes investigations as a subcontractor
 * Ghost hunter or other paranormal investigator
 * Psychic detective, a person who investigates crimes by using purported psychic abilities
 * In Mormon missionary terminology, an investigator refers to someone who is investigating the LDS Church. Generally, a non-member who is taking the missionary discussions.

Media

 * Investigator (magazine), journal of the Geelong Historical Society
 * The Investigator, a 1954 Canadian radio play
 * The Investigator (TV pilot), a 1973 British TV pilot
 * The Investigator: A British Crime Story, a British television documentary

Ships

 * HMS Investigator, name of ships in the Royal Navy
 * RV Investigator, Australian research vessel built in 2013

Australia

 * Investigator Group, archipelago in South Australia
 * Investigator Marine Park, a marine protected area in South Australia
 * Investigator Strait, a strait in South Australia

title: Investigator


text:
Head of state (disambiguation)

Head of state is a term used in politics, law, and diplomacy.

Head of State may also refer to:
 * Head of State (2003 film), an American comedy film
 * Head of State (2016 film), an Armenian comedy film

title: Head of state (disambiguation)


text:
User:Packrat

= Packrat =

This page is mostly a placeholder for people who follow up on my Wikipedia edits to be able to find out some more information about me, and find references to a few more external sources.

Background
I'm an Engineer working in the field of information systems. I have a background in Electronic Engineering, Optics, and Computer Science.

Other information
More information about me can probably be found at my homepage over at http://www.rattus.net/~packrat

title: User:Packrat


text:
Photographic developer

In the processing of photographic films, plates or papers, the photographic developer (or just developer) is one or more chemicals that convert the latent image to a visible image. Developing agents achieve this conversion by reducing the silver halides, which are pale-colored, into silver metal, which is black when in the form of fine particles. The conversion occurs within the gelatine matrix. The special feature of photography is that the developer acts more quickly on those particles of silver halide that have been exposed to light. When left in developer, all the silver halides will eventually be reduced and turn black. Generally, the longer a developer is allowed to work, the darker the image.

Chemical composition of developers
The developer typically consists of a mixture of chemical compounds prepared as an aqueous solution. For black-and-white photography, three main components of this mixture are: :115

 * Developing agents. Popular developing agents are metol (monomethyl-p-aminophenol hemisulfate), phenidone (1-phenyl-3-pyrazolidinone), dimezone (4,4-dimethyl-1-phenylpyrazolidin-3-one) and hydroquinone (benzene-1,4-diol). Dimezone is thought to resist oxidation in solution better than Phenidone A, but it is not as available as Phenidone A. Dimezone is also known as Phenidone B.
 * Alkaline agent such as sodium carbonate, borax, or sodium hydroxide to create the appropriately high pH.
 * Sodium sulfite to delay oxidation of the developing agents by atmospheric oxygen.

Notable standard formulas include Eastman Kodak D-76 film developer, D-72 print developer, and D-96 motion picture negative developer.

Hydroquinone is superadditive with metol, meaning that it acts to "recharge" the metol after it has been oxidised in the process of reducing silver in the emulsion. Sulfite in a developer not only acts to prevent aerial oxidation of the developing agents in solution, it also facilitates the regeneration of metol by hydroquinone (reducing compensation and adjacency effects) and in high enough concentrations acts as a silver halide solvent. The original lithographic developer contained formaldehyde (often added as paraformaldehyde powder) in a low sulfite/bisulfite solution.

Most developers also contain small amounts of potassium bromide to modify and restrain the action of the developer :218-219 to suppress chemical fogging. Developers for high contrast work have higher concentrations of hydroquinone and lower concentrations of metol and tend to use strong alkalis such as sodium hydroxide to push the pH up to around pH 11 to 12.

Metol is difficult to dissolve in solutions of high salt content and instructions for mixing developer formulae therefore almost always list metol first. It is important to dissolve chemicals in the order in which they are listed. Some photographers add a pinch of sodium sulfite before dissolving the metol to prevent oxidation, but large amounts of sulfite in solution will make the metol very slow to dissolve.

Because metol is relatively toxic and can cause skin sensitisation, modern commercial developers often use phenidone or dimezone S (4-hydroxymethyl-4-methyl-1-phenyl-3-pyrazolidone) instead. Dimezone, Dimezone S, is a white crystalline powder that is soluble in water and polar solvents. DD-X, HC-110, TMax developer, and PQ Universal developer are a few common film developers that use Dimezone as a developing agent. Dimezone is acutely toxic and an irritant. Hydroquinone can also be toxic to the human operator as well as environment; some modern developers replace it with ascorbic acid, or vitamin C. This, however, suffers from poor stability. Ascorbate developers may have the advantage of being compensating and sharpness-enhancing, as oxidation by-products formed during development are acidic, meaning they retard development in and adjacent to areas of high activity. This also explains why ascorbate developers have poor keeping properties, as oxidised ascorbate is both ineffective as a developing agent and lowers the pH of the solution, making the remaining developing agents less active. Recently, claims for practical methods to improve the stability of ascorbate developers have been made by several experimenters.

Other developing agents in use are p-aminophenol, glycin (N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)glycine), pyrogallol, and catechol. When used in low sulfite developer composition, the latter two compounds cause gelatin to harden and stain in the vicinity of developing grains. Generally, the optical density of the stain increases in the heavily exposed (and heavily developed) area. This is a property that is highly sought after by some photographers because it increases negative contrast in relation to density, meaning that highlight detail can be captured without "blocking" (reaching high enough density that detail and tonality are severely compromised). Hydroquinone shares this property. However, the staining effect only appears in solutions with very little sulfite, and most hydroquinone developers contain substantial quantities of sulfite.

In the early days of photography, a wide range of developing agents were used, including chlorohydroquinone, ferrous oxalate, :131 hydroxylamine, ferrous lactate, ferrous citrate, Eikonogen, atchecin, antipyrin, acetanilid and Amidol (which unusually required mildly acidic conditions).

Developers also contain water softening agent to prevent calcium scum formation (e.g., EDTA salts, sodium tripolyphosphate, NTA salts, etc.).

The original lithographic developer was based upon a low sulfite/bisulfite developer with formaldehyde (added as the powder paraformaldehyde). The very low sulfite, high hydroquinone and high alkalinity encouraged "infectious development" (exposed developing silver halide crystals collided with unexposed silver halide crystals, causing them to also reduce) which enhanced the edge effect in line images. These high energy developers had a short tray life, but when used within their tray life provided consistent usable results.

Modern lithographic developers contain hydrazine compounds, tetrazolium compounds and other amine contrast boosters to increase contrast without relying on the classic hydroquinone-only lithographic developer formulation. The modern formulae are very similar to rapid access developers (except for those additives) and therefore they enjoy long tray life. However, classic lithographic developers using hydroquinone alone suffers very poor tray life and inconsistent results.

Development
The developer selectively reduces silver halide crystals in the emulsion to metallic silver, but only those having latent image centres created by action of light. The light sensitive layer or emulsion consists of silver halide crystals in a gelatin base. Two photons of light must be absorbed by one silver halide crystal to form a stable two atom silver metal crystal. The developer used generally will only reduce silver halide crystals that have an existing silver crystal. Faster exposure or lower light level films usually have larger grains because those images capture less light. Fine grain films, like Kodachrome, require more light to increase the chance that the halide crystal will absorb at least two quanta of light as they have a smaller cross sectional size. Therefore, silver halide crystal size is proportional to film speed. The metallic silver image has dark (black) appearance. Once the desired level of reduction is achieved the development process is halted by washing in a dilute acid and then the undeveloped silver halide is removed by dissolving it in a thiosulfate solution, a process called fixing. Most commercial film developers use a dual solution or "push" (pushes the films speed) development (compensating developer, like Diafine) procedure where the reducing agent e.g. hydroquinone solution soaks into and swells the gelatin then the film is introduced into the alkaline solution which activates (lowers reduction potential) of the developer. The areas with the most light exposure use up the tiny amount of developer in the gelatin and stop making silver crystal before the film at that point is totally opaque. The areas that received the least light continue to develop because they haven't used up their developer. There is less contrast, but time is not critical and films from several customers and different exposures will develop satisfactorily.

The time over which development takes place, and the type of developer, affect the relationship between the density of silver in the developed image and the quantity of light. This study is called sensitometry and was pioneered by F Hurter & V C Driffield in the late 19th century.

Colour development
In colour and chromogenic black-and-white photography, a similar development process is used except that the reduction of silver simultaneously oxidizes the paraphenylene colour developing agent which then takes part in the production of dye-stuffs in the emulsion by reacting with the appropriate couplers. There are three distinct processes used here. The C-41 process is used for almost all colour negative films and in this process dye couplers in the emulsion react with the oxidized colour developing agent in the developer solution to generate the visible dyes. An almost identical process is then used to produce colour prints from films. The developing agents used are derivates of paraphenylene diamine.

In colour negative films, there are 3 types of dye couplers. There are the normal cyan, magenta and yellow dye forming couplers, but also there is a magenta coloured cyan masking coupler and a yellow coloured magenta masking coupler. These form respectively normal cyan dye, and magenta dye, but form an orange positive mask to correct colour. In addition, there is a third type of coupler called a DIR (Developer Inhibitor Release) coupler. This coupler releases a powerful inhibitor during dye formation, which affects edge effects and causes effects between layers to enhance overall image quality.

Reversal film development
In Ektachrome-type (E-6 process) transparencies, the film is first processed in an unusual developer containing phenidone and Hydroquinone-monosulfonate. This black and white developer is used for 6:00 at 100.4°F (38°C), with more time yielding "push" processing to increase the apparent film speed by reducing the Dmax, or maximum density. The first developer is the most critical step in Process E-6. The solution is essentially a black-and-white film developer, because it forms only a negative silver image in each layer of the film; no dye images are yet formed. Then, the film goes directly into the first wash for 2:00 at 100 °F, which acts as a controlled stop bath. Next, the film goes into the reversal bath. This step prepares the film for the colour developer step. In this reversal bath, a chemical reversal agent is absorbed into the emulsion, with no chemical reaction taking place until the film enters the colour developer. The reversal process can also be carried out using 800 footcandle-seconds of light, which is used by process engineers to troubleshoot reversal bath chemistry problems.

Next, the film is developed to completion in the colour developer bath, which contains CD-3 as the colour developing agent. When film enters the colour developer, the reversal agent absorbed by the emulsion in the reversal bath chemically fogs (or "exposes") the unexposed silver halide (if it has not already been fogged by light in the previous step). The colour developer acts on the chemically exposed silver halide to form a positive silver image. However, the metallic silver image formed in the first developer, which is a negative image, is not a part of the reaction that takes place in this step. What is being reacted in this stage is the "leftover" of the negative image, that is, a positive image. As the colour development progresses, metallic silver image is formed, but more importantly, the colour developing agent is oxidised. Oxidised colour developer molecules react with the couplers to form colour dyes in situ. Thus colour dye is formed at the site of development in each of the three layers of the film. Each layer of the film contains different couplers, which react with the same oxidised developer molecules but form different colour dyes. Next, the film goes into the pre-bleach (formerly conditioner) bath, which has a precursor of formaldehyde (as a dye preservative) and EDTA to "kick off" the bleach. Next, the film goes into a bleach solution. The bleach converts metallic silver into silver bromide, which is converted to soluble silver compounds in the fixer. The C-41 color negative process introduced in 1972 uses ferric EDTA. Reversal processes have used ferric EDTA at least since the introduction of the E-6 process in 1976. For Kodachrome ferric EDTA is used at least in the current K-14 process. During bleaching, ferric EDTA is changed to ferrous EDTA before fixing, and final wash.
 * Fe^{3+}EDTA + Ag + Br- -> Fe^{2+}EDTA + AgBr

Previously potassium ferricyanide was often used as bleach. The most common processing chemistry for such films is E6, derived from a long line of developers produced for the Ektachrome range of films.

Ektachrome papers are also available.

Standard black and white stock can also be reversal processed to give black and white slides. After 'first development,' the initial silver image is then removed (e.g. using a potassium bichromate/sulfuric acid bleach, which requires a subsequent "clearing bath" to remove the chromate stain from the film). The unfixed film is then fogged (physically or chemically) and 'second-developed'. However, the process works best with slow films such as Ilford Pan-F processed to give a high gamma. Kodak's chemistry kit for reversing Panatomic-X ("Direct Positive Film Developing Outfit") used sodium bisulfate in place of sulfuric acid in the bleach, and used a fogging developer that was inherently unstable, and had to be mixed and used within a two-hour period. (If two rolls, the maximum capacity of a single pint of redeveloper, were to be processed in succession, the redeveloper had to be mixed while the first roll was in the first developer.)

Proprietary methods
The K-14 process for Kodachrome films involves adding all the dyes to the emulsion during development. Special equipment was needed to process Kodachrome. Since 2010, there has been no commercial entity that processes Kodachrome anywhere in the world.

In colour print development the Ilfochrome, or Cibachrome, process uses a print material with the dye-stuffs present and which are bleached out in appropriate places during developing. The chemistry involved here is wholly different from C41 chemistry; (it uses azo-dyes which are much more resistant to fading in sunlight).

title: Photographic developer


text:
Talk:Hawaiian Ocean View, Hawaii

Merge with Hawaiian Ocean View Estates, Hawaii and/or rename
Someone tried to indicate that these are really all the same place, but was reverted. Right now it looks like the CDP was called "Hawaiian Ocean View" in 2000 Geographic Names Information System (GNIS) id 2414037, with the populated places of "Hawaiian Ocean View" and "Hawaiian Ocean View Estates" (the first subdivision in the area) also in the GNIS as ids 1867253 and 1905339 respectively, all with coordinates very close but not exactly the same. HOVE is notable for being one of the largest subdivisions in the world at the time. As discussed before, "Hawaii Ocean View" should probably also redirect as "Hawaii Ocean View Estates" does for completeness.

The US Post Office calls the whole area just "Ocean View" (since the county and state are already named "Hawaii"), and that is the name now used by local residents.

In my opinion, there should be one article called "Ocean View, Hawaii" that talks about both the history of HOVE and the CDP info, with the others all redirecting to it. But suspect if I did that it would be reverted again. So do we leave the misleading info until the 2010 census data comes out? W Nowicki (talk) 17:22, 28 October 2009 (UTC)
 * Hmm, you see I created Hawaiian Ocean View Estates, but I never noticed that it happened to be very near Hawaiian Ocean View. I reverted because there were no sources provided, and "largest neighborhood" in the United States is impossible to state exactly; and even then, I didn't observe that there was a separate HOVE article.  Best idea, in my mind, would be to merge HOVE here.  Any objection if I do that?  Nyttend (talk) 20:53, 28 October 2009 (UTC)

Yes, that was essentially what I was proposing. The actual claim is that HOVE was the largest single real-estate development, with 10,697 acres. Of course "neighborhood" is not accurate. I could not verify that, so just quoted the size in the HOVE article. Just taking the second and third paragraphs from the HOVE article into this one, and then redirecting all variants of the name to this might be a good start. Since the USPS now uses the "Ocean View" name exclusively, my guess would be the 2010 census would also. W Nowicki (talk) 02:57, 29 October 2009 (UTC)
 * I've merged. Nyttend (talk) 03:43, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

I rearranged things, hopefully it's a little clearer. I think part of the problem was that the CDP is named for HOVE, and it wasn't mentioned until the bottom of the article that it also includes several other subdivisions. Also, even though I said "usually called Ocean View" in the intro as a nod to the article title, it's never called "Hawaiian Ocean View" except by the census. KarlM (talk) 07:21, 30 October 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hawaiian Ocean View, Hawaii


text:
Hendrik Brouwer

Hendrik Brouwer (1581 – 7 August 1643) was a Dutch explorer and governor of the Dutch East Indies.

East Indies
Brouwer is thought to first have sailed to the Dutch East Indies for the Dutch East India Company in 1606. In 1610, he left again to the Indies, now as commander of three ships. On this trip he devised the Brouwer Route, a route from South Africa to Java that reduced voyage duration from a year to about six months by taking advantage of the strong westerly winds in the Roaring Forties – latitudes between 40° and 50° south.

Up to that point, the Dutch had followed a route copied from the Portuguese via the coast of Africa, Mauritius and Ceylon. By 1617, the VOC required all their ships to take the Brouwer route.

After his arrival in 1611 in the East Indies, he was sent to Japan to replace Jacques Specx temporarily as opperhoofd at Dejima from 28 August 1612 to 6 August 1614. During that time he made a visit to the Japanese court at Edo. In 1613, he made a trip to Siam that laid the foundation for the Dutch trade with Siam.

Early in 1632, he was part of a delegation sent to London to solve trade disagreements between the Honourable East India Company and Dutch East India companies. Afterwards he left for the Indies, and on 18 April of that same year he was appointed Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies, again following Jacques Specx, a position which he held until 1 January 1636. Anthony van Diemen was his assistant during this entire period, and many of the Dutch explorations into the Pacific carried out under Van Diemen's command were suggested in writing by Brouwer before he left.

Chile
In 1642, the VOC joined the Dutch West India Company in organizing an expedition to Chile to establish a base for trading gold at the abandoned ruins of Valdivia. The fleet sailed from Dutch Brazil where John Maurice of Nassau provided them with supplies. While rounding Cape Horn, the expedition established that Isla de los Estados was not part of the unknown southern land.

After making landfall on Chiloé Island, Brouwer made a pact with native Huilliches to aid in establishing a resettlement at Valdivia. However, on 7 August 1643, at the age of 62, Hendrik died in Puerto Inglés before his arrival at Valdivia, and was succeeded by his vice-admiral, Elias Herckmans, who landed at the ruins on 24 August. The embalmed body of Brouwer was buried in Valdivia, by then renamed Brouwershaven, on September 16. Brouwershaven remained occupied by Herckmans and his men until 28 October.

Having been told that the Dutch had plans to return to the location, the Spanish viceroy in Peru sent 1,000 men in 20 ships in 1644, to resettle Valdivia and fortify it. The viceroy also sent 2,000 men by land, who never made it. The Spanish soldiers in the new garrison disinterred and burned Brouwer's body.

title: Hendrik Brouwer