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Deneb

Deneb is a first-magnitude blue supergiant star in the constellation of Cygnus. Deneb is one of the vertices of the asterism known as the Summer Triangle and the "head" of the Northern Cross. It is the brightest star in Cygnus and the 19th brightest star in the night sky, with an average apparent magnitude of +1.25. A blue supergiant, Deneb rivals Rigel as the most luminous first-magnitude star. However, its distance, and hence luminosity, is poorly known; its luminosity is somewhere between 55,000 and 196,000 times that of the Sun. Its Bayer designation is α Cygni, which is Latinised to Alpha Cygni, abbreviated to Alpha Cyg or α Cyg.

Nomenclature
α Cygni (Latinised to Alpha Cygni) is the star's designation given by Johann Bayer in 1603. The traditional name Deneb is derived from the Arabic word for "tail", from the phrase ذنب الدجاجة Dhanab al-Dajājah, or "tail of the hen". The IAU Working Group on Star Names has recognised the name Deneb for this star, and it is entered in their Catalog of Star Names.

Denebadigege was used in the Alfonsine Tables, other variants include Deneb Adige, Denebedigege and Arided. This latter name was derived from Al Ridhādh, a name for the constellation. Johann Bayer called it Arrioph, derived from Aridf and Al Ridf, 'the hindmost' or Gallina. German poet and author Philippus Caesius termed it Os rosae, or Rosemund in German, or Uropygium – the parson's nose. The names Arided and Aridif have fallen out of use.

An older traditional name is Arided, from the Arabic ar-ridf 'the one sitting behind the rider' (or just 'the follower'), perhaps referring to the other major stars of Cygnus, which were called al-fawāris 'the riders'.

Observation
The 19th brightest star in the night sky, Deneb culminates each year on October 23 at 6 PM and September 7 at 9 PM, corresponding to summer evenings in the northern hemisphere. It never dips below the horizon at or above 45° north latitude, just grazing the northern horizon at its lowest point at such locations as Minneapolis, Montréal and Turin. In the southern hemisphere, Deneb is not visible south of 45° parallel south, so it just barely rises above the horizon in South Africa, southern Australia, and northern New Zealand during the southern winter.

Deneb is located at the tip of the Northern Cross asterism made up of the brightest stars in Cygnus, the others being Albireo (Beta Cygni), Gamma Cygni, Delta Cygni, and Epsilon Cygni. It also lies at one vertex of the prominent and widely spaced asterism called the Summer Triangle, shared with the first-magnitude stars Vega in the constellation Lyra and Altair in Aquila. This outline of stars is the approximate shape of a right triangle, with Deneb located at one of the acute angles.

The spectrum of Alpha Cygni has been observed by astronomers since at least 1888, and by 1910 the variable radial velocity had become apparent. This led to the early suggestion by E. B. Frost that this is a binary star system. In 1935, the work of G. F. Paddock and others had established that this star was variable in luminosity with a dominant period of 11.7 days and possibly with other, lower amplitude periods. By 1954, closer examination of the star's calcium H and K lines showed a stationary core, which indicated the variable velocity was instead being caused by motion of the star's atmosphere. This variation ranged from +6 to −9 km/s around the star's mean radial velocity. Other, similar supergiants were found to have variable velocities, with this star being a typical member.

Pole star
Due to the Earth's axial precession, Deneb will be an approximate pole star (7° off of the north celestial pole) at around 9800 AD. The north pole of Mars points to the midpoint of the line connecting Deneb and the star Alderamin.

Physical characteristics
Deneb's adopted distance from the Earth is around 802 pc. This is derived by a variety of different methods, including spectral luminosity classes, atmospheric modelling, stellar evolution models, assumed membership of the Cygnus OB7 association, and direct measurement of angular diameter. These methods give different distances, and all have significant margins of error. The original derivation of a parallax using measurements from the astrometric satellite Hipparcos gave an uncertain result of 1.01 ± 0.57 mas that was consistent with this distance. However, a more recent reanalysis gives the much larger parallax whose distance is barely half the current accepted value. One 2008 calculation using the Hipparcos data puts the most likely distance at 475 pc, with an uncertainty of around 15%. The controversy over whether the direct Hipparcos measurements can be ignored in favour of a wide range of indirect stellar models and interstellar distance scales is similar to the better known situation with the Pleiades.

Deneb's absolute magnitude is estimated as −8.4, placing it among the visually brightest stars known, with an estimated luminosity of nearly. This is towards the upper end of values published over the past few decades, which vary between and, while the distance based on the Hipparcos parallax corresponds to closer to.

Deneb is the most luminous first magnitude star, that is, stars with a brighter apparent magnitude than 1.5. Deneb is also the most distant of the 30 brightest stars by a factor of almost 2. Based on its temperature and luminosity, and also on direct measurements of its tiny angular diameter (a mere 0.002 seconds of arc), Deneb appears to have a diameter about 200 times that of the Sun; if placed at the center of the Solar System, Deneb would extend to the orbit of the Earth. It is one of the largest white 'A' spectral type stars known.

Deneb is a bluish-white star of spectral type A2Ia, with a surface temperature of 8,500 kelvin. Since 1943, its spectrum has served as one of the stable references by which other stars are classified. Its mass is estimated at 19. Stellar winds causes matter to be lost at an average rate of per year, 100,000 times the Sun's rate of mass loss or equivalent to about one Earth mass per 500 years.

Evolutionary state
Deneb spent much of its early life as an O-type main-sequence star of about, but it has now exhausted the hydrogen in its core and expanded to become a supergiant. Stars in the mass range of Deneb eventually expand to become the most luminous red supergiants, and within a few million years their cores will collapse producing a supernova explosion. It is now known that red supergiants up to a certain mass explode as the commonly seen type II-P supernovae, but more massive ones lose their outer layers to become hotter again. Depending on their initial masses and the rate of mass loss, they may explode as yellow hypergiants or luminous blue variables, or they may become Wolf-Rayet stars before exploding in a type Ib or Ic supernova. Identifying whether Deneb is currently evolving towards a red supergiant or is currently evolving bluewards again would place valuable constraints on the classes of stars that explode as red supergiants and those that explode as hotter stars.

Stars evolving red-wards for the first time are most likely fusing hydrogen in a shell around a helium core that has not yet grown hot enough to start fusion to carbon and oxygen. Convection has begun dredging up fusion products but these do not reach the surface. Post-red supergiant stars are expected to show those fusion products at the surface due to stronger convection during the red supergiant phase and due to loss of the obscuring outer layers of the star. Deneb is thought to be increasing its temperature after a period as a red supergiant, although current models do not exactly reproduce the surface elements showing in its spectrum.

Variable star
Deneb is the prototype of the Alpha Cygni (α Cygni) variable stars, whose small irregular amplitudes and rapid pulsations can cause its magnitude to vary anywhere between 1.21 and 1.29. Its variable velocity discovered by Lee in 1910, but it was not formally placed as a unique class of variable stars until the 1985 4th edition of the General Catalogue of Variable Stars. The cause of the pulsations of Alpha Cygni variable stars are not fully understood, but their irregular nature seems to be due to beating of multiple pulsation periods. Analysis of radial velocities determined 16 different harmonic pulsation modes with periods ranging between 6.9 and 100.8 days. A longer period of about 800 days probably also exists.

Possible spectroscopic companion
Deneb has been reported as a possible single line spectroscopic binary with a period of about 850 days, where the spectral lines from the star suggest cyclical radial velocity changes. Later investigations have found no evidence supporting the existence of a companion.

Etymology and cultural significance
Names similar to Deneb have been given to at least seven different stars, most notably Deneb Kaitos, the brightest star in the constellation of Cetus; Deneb Algedi, the brightest star in Capricornus; and Denebola, the second brightest star in Leo. All these stars are referring to the tail of the animals that their respective constellations represent.

In Chinese, 天津 (Tiān Jīn), meaning Celestial Ford, refers to an asterism consisting of Deneb, Gamma Cygni, Delta Cygni, 30 Cygni, Nu Cygni, Tau Cygni, Upsilon Cygni, Zeta Cygni and Epsilon Cygni. Consequently, the Chinese name for Deneb itself is 天津四 (Tiān Jīn sì, the Fourth Star of the Celestial Ford).

In the Chinese love story of Qi Xi, Deneb marks the magpie bridge across the Milky Way, which allows the separated lovers Niu Lang (Altair) and Zhi Nü (Vega) to be reunited on one special night of the year in late summer. In other versions of the story, Deneb is a fairy who acts as chaperone when the lovers meet.

Namesakes
USS Arided was a United States Navy Crater-class cargo ship named after the star. SS Deneb was an Italian merchant vessel that bore this name from 1951 until she was scrapped in 1966.

title: Deneb


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User talk:GerardM

I moved old talk in order to unclutter. Thanks, GerardM (talk) 06:25, 3 October 2020 (UTC)

Picture of Laurent-Désiré Kabila on your presidents of the DRC page
Hello, Gerard. I would like to point out that the picture of Laurent-Désiré Kabila on your DRC presidents page has been tagged as a copyvio. I do hope that you would know; however, I am simply bringing this to your attention. As such, I would like to request that the picture be changed, if possible. Thank you. Caehlla2357 (talk) 17:13, 20 July 2021 (UTC)

Political party instead of country column
This refers to User:GerardM/Members of the Assembly of the Representatives of the People of Tunisia

I think having the country column is pointless because they are obviously all Tunisian. Could it be changed to political party? Would be useful info to have on this table. Lankyant (talk) 14:48, 31 August 2021 (UTC)

 * Hoi, the queries that I use have two functions.
 * it shows what the page is about
 * it shows the completeness of the information

 * for the last reason, the country is added. Political parties change and complicate things. For me the fact that we have a country makes a difference when we do an automated description. Thanks, GerardM (talk) 16:26, 31 August 2021 (UTC)

Award coverage here and Wikidata
Hi. I see that you are not so active at EN.wiki as 7-9 years ago, while I have contributed almost nothing here, until this month. One of the last conversations (as my User talk page suggests) when I was still active is this one you initiated December 2015.
 * User talk:P64

Concerning your registration of award winning writers or works at Wikidata, I should have directed you then to three different locations where I sometimes maintained quantitative account of award history at least, and our EN.wiki coverage of that history in some cases (perhaps limited to US and UK literary and book awards): (Those major awards actually have two or all three locations.)
 * award winners Table; eg, Carnegie Medal (literary award), preface
 * Category page; eg,, last sentence
 * Category talk page; eg, Category talk:Margaret A. Edwards Award winners, entire page

I see now that award coverage by a navigation Template, rather than a Category or two, may be useful in the same way. Its talk page is a good place to summarize all Wikipedia (and perhaps Wikidata) coverage of the award. --P64 (talk) 19:34, 23 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Template talk page; eg Template talk:Michael L. Printz Award Winners --done today

 * I do not really work on English Wikipedia because it is only English Wikipedia. At this time I am working on awards, they are awards for scientists, particularly in the field of hydrology and ecology. Over time I learned many good reasons why the insular approach of English Wikipedia is sub optimal.
 * all the research is not reused to the benefit of all other Wikipedias and all other Wikimedia projects.
 * Disambiguation at Wikidata is better. Particularly "automated description" is awesome.
 * In awards you link to items, so there are no red or black links.
 * Scientists produce papers with findings, they are linked to papers and by inference to awards.
 * In a Scholia, you can visualise information about scholars, papers, awards and subjects. Using the Scholia template you can bring such a visualisation to a Wikipedia article.
 * The information that is in Wikidata can be used to compare with Wikipedia lists and categories. It is particularly easy to populate categories from Wikidata (in any Wikipedia).

 * I love to work together. However, it should benefit all of us. Contributing to Wikidata has imho the potential of bringing the most benefit in quality for all Wikimedia users. Thanks, GerardM (talk) 19:16, 24 April 2022 (UTC)

Work at Wikidata
Last hour at Wikidata, I merged Jake Day and Maurice Day (of Wikisource and fr:Maurice Day, with the raw Merge Wizard result Q3300637 now as I depart. Do you advise/prefer/request at this stage I would --rather than depart-- remove the DoB 1892, having 1892-07-02 with reference English Wikipedia; remove the DoD 1983, having 1983-05-17 w/ref EN-Wiki?

I am working at ISFDB. You may note there is a warning: ISFDB author ID 331244 used twice, on the two records that I have merged. --P64 (talk) 17:26, 25 May 2022 (UTC)

 * Hoi, there are different schools of thought... Mine is: I want the best date only.. Thanks, GerardM (talk) 17:33, 25 May 2022 (UTC)

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User talk:Radgeek

Welcome to my talk page. Feel free to leave me a note -- preferably beneath the line below and with both a descriptive title and a signature. I read this page sometimes, and clear it after a while. Etc.

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Coolidge effect

The Coolidge effect is a biological phenomenon seen in animals, whereby males exhibit renewed sexual interest whenever a new female is introduced, even after sex with prior but still available sexual partners. To a lesser extent, the effect is also seen among females with regard to their mates.

The Coolidge effect can be attributed to an increase in sexual responsiveness, and a shortening of the sexual refractory period. The evolutionary benefit to this phenomenon is that a male can fertilize multiple females. The male may be reinvigorated repeatedly for successful insemination of multiple females. This type of mating system can be referred to as polygyny, where one male has multiple female mates, but each female mates with only one or a few males. The Coolidge effect has been demonstrated to occur in humans across cultures and in both sexes.

Origin of the term
Behavioral endocrinologist Frank A. Beach claims in a 1974 letter to have introduced the term "Coolidge effect" in either 1958 or 1959. He attributed the neologism to

"an old joke about Calvin Coolidge when he was President ... The President and Mrs. Coolidge were being shown [separately] around an experimental government farm. When [Mrs. Coolidge] came to the chicken yard she noticed that a rooster was mating very frequently. She asked the attendant how often that happened and was told, "Dozens of times each day." Mrs. Coolidge said, "Tell that to the President when he comes by." Upon being told, the President asked, "Same hen every time?" The reply was, "Oh, no, Mr. President, a different hen every time." President: "Tell that to Mrs. Coolidge.""

The joke appears in a 1972 book (Aggression in Man and Animals, by Roger N. Johnson, p. 94).

Empirical evidence
The original experiments with rats applied the following protocol: A male rat was placed into an enclosed large box with four or five female rats in heat. He immediately began to mate with all the female rats repeatedly until he eventually became exhausted. The females continued nudging and licking him, yet he did not respond. When a novel female was introduced into the box, he became alert and began to mate once again with the new female. This phenomenon is not limited to common rats.

The Coolidge effect is attributed to an increase in dopamine levels and the subsequent effect upon an animal's limbic system. In a study conducted by Fiorino et al., male rats were used to study the role of the mesolimbic dopamine system on their sexual behaviour. In their experiment, microdialysis was used to monitor dopamine efflux from the nucleus accumbens during three stages of sexual behaviour, these included: copulation, sexual satiety, and the reinitiation of sexual behaviour. Behavioural testing for the Coolidge effect consisted of several phases including, copulation with a female, reintroduction to the same female, access to the same female, introduction to a novel female, and copulation with the novel female. During these phases, dopamine and its metabolites were monitored. Results from this study found that overall there was a significant increase in dopamine efflux in response to both the first female and the second female. During copulation with the first female, concentrations of dopamine in these male rats showed a significant increase, however, when the same female was presented again, a significant increase in dopamine was not observed. When a novel female was presented, initially, there was a small increase in the levels of dopamine, however, after continued copulation with the novel female, a significant increase in dopamine levels was observed. From these results, they concluded that an increase in mesolimbic dopamine efflux is associated with the appetitive and consummatory stages of sexual behaviour in male rats. Their data also suggest that stimuli associated with a novel female may increase dopamine transmission in a rat that is sexually satiated, and hence have a role in the reinitiation of sexual behaviour.

Additional studies have also provided further evidence for the role of the nucleus accumbens on sexual behaviour in rats. In a study conducted by Wood et al., male rats were divided into three conditions, and were presented with a cotton ball laden in either saline (control group), estrous vaginal smear of a familiar female (experimental group), and estrous vaginal smear of a novel female (experimental group). In this experiment, the role of the nucleus accumbens was characterized through recording neuronal activity of single cells in this area of the brain. Results from this study showed a greater proportion of neuronal activation when initially presented with a novel estrus stimulus in comparison to familiar estrus stimulus. Subsequent presentations of the novel estrus stimulus did not show an increase in neuronal activity.

Allocating sperm
It has been observed that in certain species, males allocate sperm differently due to the Coolidge effect. The allocation is usually according to level of sperm competition, female novelty, and female reproductive quality. An experiment performed on an external fertilizing fish called Rhodeus amarus, also known as the European bitterling, was used to show that sperm can be allocated differently if a novel partner is around, but that it also happens if there is male-male competition. It is important to know that the European bitterling mating system works by females depositing their eggs into the gill filaments of freshwater mussels by her long ovipositor and then males proceed by ejecting their sperm into the gills of the mussel hosting the eggs. This means fertilization and development of the offspring relies on the quality and survival of the mussel. When the Coolidge effect was applied to this system, the experiment showed that it is the mussels, or the site of fertilization, that the males prefer to be novel. However, the takeaway from the experiment performed was that in male-male competition of the Rhodeus amarus, the dominant male will allocate more sperm when a novel mussel is present, while the subordinate male conserved its sperm until a proper opportunity came where it had a better chance of fertilization. A similar result was found in fowls, Gallus gallus, where the male showed a sperm allocation due to the Coolidge effect. The experiment found that male fowls reduce sperm investment in particular females they've encountered already, but increase sperm investment instantaneously if they encountered a new female.

Wedell et al. suggest a theory that when a male allocates sperm so that he can save sperm for novel partners, he limits himself and the mate by possibly investing too little sperm to their partners which in return can inseminate only a few eggs therefore making reproduction less successful. This could even possibly force females to seek more copulation to ensure successful reproduction. These types of evidence of sperm allocation would suggest that Coolidge effect will determine how much sperm is invested into females, and if possible, sperm will be allocated so that sperm can be evenly distributed for multiple mates. Overall, it is typically seen that allocation changes due to male-male competition and whether a novel partner is encountered or not.

Absence
The Coolidge effect is typically found in most animals; however, there are instances where the Coolidge effect is absent. A study in decorated crickets, Gryllodes sigillatus, showed that even though females do display the Coolidge effect, the males in this species have no preference for novel mates. Because the females in this species control copulation, to test the Coolidge effect in males, two dead females were used. One female was already previously mated and the other was a novel female. To measure the Coolidge effect, the variables examined were the amount of courtship for the preferred mate and the size of the spermatophore transferred to the female. The size of the spermatophore was measured by weighing the mass after it was transferred to the female. The outcome of the experiment showed that there was no difference in the latency to re-mating of males confined with novel females and those paired with previous mates. There also was no difference in mass of the spermatophore. This experiment would suggest that the Coolidge effect is not applicable since the males of the Gryllodes sigillatus do not prefer novel females. Further research done on spiders also supports the possibility of absence of the Coolidge effect in certain species. Another study that focused on the Coolidge effect in simultaneously hermaphroditic species confirmed the validity of the Coolidge effect in freshwater snail Lymnaea stagnalis. Biomphalaria glabrata, another simultaneous hermaphrodite freshwater snail, does not exhibit sex-specific effects of partner novelty, and thus there is either no Coolidge effect in the species or no difference between the degrees to which the effect is expressed in the respective sexes.

Means of sexual recognition for mates
Though there is not just a single reason why males will choose a novel partner, there have been experiments that show that the major determining factor for detecting a novel partner is olfactory preference. An experiment using Long-Evans rats, showed that odor played a major role in distinguishing the difference between a novel partner and familiar partner. In their experiment, Carr et al. paired each male rat with a female rat and allowed them to mate. Male rats were then tested for preference through the use of an apparatus that had two cylinders that were attached to their home cage and contained the familiar female and the novel female in each cylinder. Caps at the end of these cylinders prevented access to the females but had a hole in them to allow their odors to pass through to the male's cage. Before the testing phase, the females were removed, and then the caps were removed to allow the male to explore both cylinders. From this experiment, they found that males preferred the scent of the novel female. While these males did not have access to these females to demonstrate mating preferences, this odor preference is believed to reflect promiscuous behavior, and therefore be important to the male mating strategy.

In an earlier experiment, also conducted by Carr et al., they found that, unlike male rats, female rats preferred the odor of a familiar partner rather than the odor of a novel partner.

Another study also examined not only olfactory preference but also what part of the brain targeted the olfactory preference. In this study, male hamsters were given lesions to either the hippocampus or the perirhinal-entorhinal cortex or received a sham treatment. Then the hamsters were allowed to mate with a female hamster until they became satiated. All subjects were then presented with two anesthetized females, one of whom was the female they had previously copulated with, while the other was a novel female. Hamsters with sham and hippocampal lesions investigated the anogenital region of the novel females for a significantly longer period in comparison to the familiar females. Males with lesions to the perirhinal-entorhinal cortex did not show a preference for either a familiar or novel female and spent a similar amount of time investigating the anogenital region of both females. The results from this study revealed that the perirhinal-entorhinal cortex region of the brain in golden hamsters is crucial for the recognition of familiar conspecifics and certain social behaviors. The conclusion from this experiment was also consistent in rats and monkeys, since damage to this region of the brain impaired standard recognition memory, which would suggest that the hippocampal region of the brain is not crucial in social behavior memory, but rather, the perirhinal-entorhinal cortex.

This effect of olfaction has also been observed in invertebrates such as flies. In a study conducted by Tan and colleagues, the role of olfaction in species recognition was examined using flies, Drosophila melanogaster, which processed a mutated Orco gene, which codes for a co-receptor that is important for olfaction. The result of this type of mutation renders these flies unable to discriminate between phenotypically familiar (i.e., from the same family and/or environment) and phenotypically novel (i.e., unrelated and from a different environment) females. When presented with a phenotypically familiar and phenotypically novel female, mutant flies did not show a preference towards either female, while wild-type flies (i.e., flies without the mutated Orco gene) did. The results from this experiment suggest that the Orco gene is important in discriminating between mates, and suggests an important role of olfactory cues in phenotypic familiarity.

Sexual satiety
Although males typically will prefer novel mates every time the opportunity is present, there is a physical limit to the sex drive. An experiment performed on rats showed that when left to reproduce to sexual satiety, the motor ejaculatory behavior, intromission, and dislodging seminal plugs were all possible after multiple mates, but little to no sperm would be produced during ejaculation. The experiment also concluded that males that reached satiety and non-satiety males both had the similar amounts of intromissions and time spent dislodging the seminal plug. Another study performed on rats showed the same results, but found data that concluded that reaching optimal chances of impregnating their mates happened after resting for 15 days. These experiments would suggest that one of the major limitations on the Coolidge effect is the physical boundaries of gamete production.

Potentiality in female animals
While the Coolidge effect is usually demonstrated by males—that is, males displaying renewed excitement with a novel female—the body of research into the phenomenon continues to explore the potentiality of the effect in females, specifically rodents. Research examining female rats has lent its support, wherein female rats showed a higher incentive motivation for unknown males over ones they had just copulated with.

In a study conducted in 2013, researchers conducted an experiment to test if the Coolidge effect could be observed in female rats. In their experiment, they assigned female rats to one of two conditions: paced or non-paced. In the paced condition, females were able to control the timing of copulation, while in the non-paced condition males regulated the timing of mating. Females in the paced condition were placed into an arena that was divided into two compartments which contained holes that only the female could pass through. The female was placed on one side of the divided arena, and the male was placed in the opposite side; this allowed the female to enter and exit the male's side depending on the circumstances, therefore regulating the timing of copulation. In the non-paced condition, both the female and male rats were placed in an undivided arena and were allowed to mate. In both conditions, females were exposed to a constant, familiar male followed by a novel male. Their results found that females showed a significant increase in proceptive behaviours when a novel mate was present, but only if the female could regulate mating. Repeated mating with the same male also resulted in a decrease in proceptivity, which is thought to suggest sexual satiety. These results suggest that the Coolidge effect may also be present in female rats.

Lester and Gorzalka developed a model to determine whether or not the Coolidge effect also occurs in females. Their experiment, which used hamsters instead of rats, concluded that it does occur to a lesser degree in females, where the evolutionary advantage of mating with multiple partners is less straightforward. It is possible that the presence of the Coolidge effect in females could serve to optimize the female's reproductive success, and prevent mating with a sterile male. Mating with multiple males may reduce the probability that the female's gametes will not be successfully fertilized.

title: Coolidge effect


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Marc Ravalomanana

Marc Ravalomanana (born 12 December 1949) is a Malagasy politician who served as the sixth President of Madagascar from 2002 to 2009. Born into a farming Merina family in Imerinkasinina, near the capital city of Antananarivo, Ravalomanana first rose to prominence as the founder and CEO of the vast dairy conglomerate TIKO, later launching successful wholesaler MAGRO and several additional companies.

He entered politics upon founding the Tiako Iarivo political party in 1999 and successfully ran for the position of mayor of Antananarivo, holding the position from 1999 to 2001. As mayor he improved sanitary and security conditions in the city. In August 2001 he announced his candidacy as an independent candidate in the December 2001 presidential election. He then took office as president in 2002 amidst a dispute over election results in which he successfully pressed his claim to have won a majority in the first round. Under the leadership of Jacques Sylla, Ravalomanana's Prime Minister from 2002 to 2007, the political party Tiako I Madagasikara (TIM) was founded in 2002 to support Ravalomanana's presidency and came to dominate legislative and local elections. He was re-elected in December 2006, again with a majority in the first round.

During Ravalomanana's presidency, Madagascar made significant advances toward development targets and experienced an average of seven per cent growth per year. His administration oversaw the construction of thousands of new schools and health clinics. Road rehabilitation aided in improving rural farmers' access to markets. The establishment of the independent anti-corruption agency BIANCO, and the adoption of diverse supporting policies resulted in a decline in governmental corruption. Opposition members criticized Ravalomanana in the later period of his presidency, accusing him of increasing authoritarianism and the mixing of public and private interests. In addition, the benefits of the country's growth were not evenly spread, leading to increased wealth inequality, inflation and a decline in purchasing power for the lower and middle classes. In 2008 a controversial land lease agreement with Korean agricultural firm Daewoo, the purchase of a costly presidential jet and the closure of media channels owned by opposition leader and mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, strengthened popular disapproval of his policies. Rajoelina rallied popular support for the opposition, leading to a popular uprising that began in January 2009 and ended two months later with Ravalomanana's resignation under pressure and Rajoelina taking control with military support in a power transfer viewed by the international community as a coup d'état.

From 2009 to 2012 Ravalomanana lived in exile in South Africa, where he was engaged in active negotiations with Rajoelina and former heads of state Albert Zafy and Didier Ratsiraka to organize national elections. In December 2012 he declared he would not present himself as a candidate, then a precondition to the elections being viewed as legitimate by the international community. TGV candidate Hery Rajaonarimampianina was elected president in January 2014, defeating Jean-Louis Robinson, the candidate of Marc Ravalomanana's camp. Upon attempting to return to Madagascar in October 2014 he was arrested, having been sentenced in absentia to lifelong hard labour for abuses of power by the Rajoelina administration. After his sentence was lifted and he was freed from house arrest in May 2015, Ravalomanana announced the re-opening of the Tiko business group and was re-elected the president of TIM.

Early years
Marc Ravalomanana was born on 12 December 1949 in the village of Imerinkasinina, 40 km east of Antananarivo in Manjakandriana District. Ravalomanana's parents worked as peddlers before opening a small shop in a rural village in Tamatave Province.

Ravalomanana's family origins are Merina, the island's largest and most politically prominent ethnic group.

From age five he began attending Anjeva Gara public primary school, located 4 km from Imerinkasinina. He walked this distance daily, often departing early with baskets of watercress to sell to train passengers at the nearby station. He completed his upper primary private school in Ambohimalaza. After completing his primary studies he attended the Swedish missionary-run technical secondary school in Ambatomanga.

Entrepreneur
Upon completing his studies, Ravalomanana returned to Manjakandriana District, where he and his family began making and selling homemade yogurts, a common artisanal product in the highlands region. On his bicycle, he collected milk from farmers in neighboring towns, gradually increasing his production and clientele. He opened his first yogurt and cheese production center in 1977 in Sambaina on land he named Rova-Tiko ("Tiko Palace"), where he would build the first Tiko factory several years later.

Ravalomanana solicited a loan from the Agence Française de Développement to further expand his business, but this request was denied, souring his view of France. His subsequent request to the World Bank for 1.5 million US dollars was approved, and in 1982 he founded the Tiko company. The representative of the World Bank to Madagascar at the time, Jose Bronfman, secured the loan with exceptionally favorable reimbursement conditions that enabled Ravalomanana to sell his products at a lower cost than other small dairy producers, which gradually put his most significant competitors out of business. Bronfman later left his post at the World Bank to become a principal investor in the company, joined by private investors from South Africa, Germany and the United States. As Tiko continued to grow, the entrepreneur began incorporating imported ingredients such as powdered milk from South Africa (constituting 80 per cent of the composition of Tiko dairy products) and surplus butter from Europe, further improving the profitability of his business and enabling additional diversification. Tiko Group first concentrated exclusively on the production of dairy products before expanding into fruit juices, ice cream, cooking oil and carbonated beverages. The Tiko slogan printed on many of the group's products, Vita Malagasy ("Made in Madagascar").

Ravalomanana cultivated political relationships to facilitate the continued growth of Tiko in spite of an economic climate non-conducive to free enterprise under the Socialist administration of Ratsiraka. Early support in the 1980s came from the Supreme Counselor of the Revolution Manandafy Rakotonirina, then-Minister of Finance Rakotovao Razakaboana, and another minister, Justin Rarivoson. By the mid-1980s, the profitability of his Tiko enterprise enabled Ravalomanana to purchase a costly villa formerly owned by French colonial governor Leon Reallon in the central Faravohitra neighborhood of Antananarivo.

In 1997, under the pretext of concern about mad cow disease, Ratsiraka obstructed Ravalomanana's plans to build a farm stocked with imported high-yield milk cows. Ravalomanana overcame the objection by breeding high-yield cows locally, thereby further boosting Tiko production. Later that same year, Ratsiraka's daughters began competing with Tiko by importing and reselling vegetable oil under the brand name "Eden". When Norbert Ratsirahonana declared himself a candidate in the 1997 presidential elections against Ratsiraka and Albert Zafy, Ravalomanana provided significant financial contributions to the Ratsirahonana campaign in return for tax exemptions on his edible oil products for a period of five years. The profits he consequently earned were reinvested to create the Magro wholesale company in 1998. By 2001, over a dozen principal warehouses throughout the country enabled widespread distribution of Tiko products to urban and rural areas, with a flagship warehouse in the Akorandrano neighborhood of Antananarivo.

The Ratsiraka administration launched an inquiry into Tiko business practices in September 2000 and issued an executive decision in June 2001 that the company should be shut down for failure to adhere to a 1996 agreement requiring Tiko to create jobs and produce low-cost vegetable oil; this ruling was overturned by the Supreme Court on 16 October 2002. A number of lawsuits have been filed over Ravalomanana's business practices, including a court judgment on the eve of the 2001 presidential election requiring the payment of between 200 and 363 billion Malagasy francs in Tiko back taxes, but all were either dismissed or ended in an out-of-court settlement; none resulted in a criminal conviction. At its height during the period of Ravalomanana's presidency, Tiko provided direct salaried employment to between 1,000 and 3,000 staff and indirect employment to over 10,000. The group was the largest dairy producer in the country and a leader in the national agribusiness sector. The success of his enterprises made Ravalomanana a wealthy man. In the mandatory self-disclosure of wealth submitted to the High Constitutional Court in 2000 by all presidential candidates, Ravalomanana declared ownership of 27 properties valued at over two billion Malagasy francs. He owned 90 per cent of Tiko Inc., 80 per cent of Tiko Agri and 50 per cent of Tiko Oil Products, a portfolio worth 13.1 billion Malagasy francs, and declared 77 million Malagasy francs in annual revenues. Vivier (2007) demonstrates that the valuation of Ravalomanana's holdings and his annual revenue in particular were significantly underestimated.

Mayor of Antananarivo
In 1999, Ravalomanana ran as an independent candidate in the local elections, spending over $110,000 on his campaign—a level of expense then unheard of in a Malagasy mayoral race. He was elected with 45 per cent of the votes. His tenure stretched from December 1999 to his ascent to the Presidential office in May 2002. During his time as mayor, he balanced the city's budget and improved its water quality and waste management, and drew criticism for an urban-restoration project that demolished houses that were still being lived in. He has been described as one of the most popular mayors in Antananarivo's history.

Presidential election of 2001
Ravalomanana ran for president in the election to be held on 16 December. His campaign promoted his image as a self-made man who would draw upon his business to develop the country and played upon his youth (aged 52) and his non-alliance with the elderly "political dinosaurs" who had dominated politics over the previous three decades. His origins as a village farmer inspired support among rural voters, who made up over four-fifths of the population. Many voters wished to see established in Madagascar in place of corrupt power networks dominated by nepotism. The Council of Christian Churches of Madagascar (FFKM) rallied behind Ravalomanana.

Ravalomanana's announcement sparked retaliatory actions by the Ratsiraka administration, resulting in frequent defamatory attacks in the press and a court judgment fining him 300 billion Malagasy francs (55.6 million Euros) in relation to his management of Tiko, which were later settled out of court. These attacks were denounced by spokesmen for Ravalomanana's campaign, Tiako iMadagasikara (TIM), and in speeches the candidate delivered in urban and rural areas across the island, by his considerable personal wealth and the airplane and seven helicopters registered to Tiko.

October 2001 polls showed Ravalomanana ahead of Ratsiraka. Following the December election, official results put Ravalomanana in first place, with 46 per cent, against Ratsiraka's 40 per cent; without a majority. Ravalomanana, claiming to have won a majority in the first round, refused to participate in a run-off and after a recount, on 29 April 2002 the High Constitutional Court declared that Ravalomanana had won 51.3 percent of the vote, enough for a narrow first-round victory. The court's decision was contested by Ratsiraka and his supporters. Some Ratsiraka supporters, mostly of the Betsimisaraka people, cut off routes from the port city of Tamative to the mostly Merina Antananarivo, initiating a months-long period of sporadic ethnic and political violence until Ratsiraka's July 2002 concession of the race and exile to France.

First term
Upon election to the presidency, Ravalomanana sought to mitigate the negative economic impact of the eight-month political standoff with Ratsiraka, which had cost Madagascar millions of dollars He enacted a series of new laws, policies and reforms that sought to efface remaining traces of Ratsiraka's socialist ideology and replace it with a firmly capitalist, market-driven economic environment. The new head of state moved away from reliance on its principal trading partner, France, and cultivated relationships with partners such as Germany, the United States and South Korea as part of his strategy for Madagascar's economic development. In 2004 the World Bank approved his administration's Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, entitled Madagascar Naturellement (Madagascar Naturally).

The protected natural areas  were tripled on the island from 1.6 e6ha to 6 e6ha – ten per cent of the country's land surface – over five years. In 2004 he established the Bureau Indépendant Anti-Corruption (BIANCO), leading to a decline in government corruption. That same year, the International Monetary Fund agreed to write off half Madagascar's debt. In 2005 Madagascar became the first country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account, a new development fund managed by the United States.

Consequently, the economy grew at an average annual rate of seven per cent throughout his presidency. Under his administration, hundreds of kilometers of roads were paved in formerly isolated rural areas. Dramatic improvements in education and health were also achieved under his administration., thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed, older buildings were renovated and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained. Primary school fees were eliminated and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to primary students. Logging in protected areas was outlawed until January 2009.

Also after being elected in 2002, Ravalomanana remained a prominent player in the private sector. The 2003 privatisation of SINPA (Societe d'lnteret National Malgache des Produits Agricoles), the state agricultural corporation, and SOMACODIS (Société Malgache de Collecte et de Distribution), the national trading corporation, provided Ravalomanana the opportunity to purchase both entities, which he incorporated under Tiko. He also created a public roads construction company, Asa Lalana Malagasy.

The benefits of economic growth during the Ravalomanana administration were not evenly distributed, leading to higher costs of living for all Malagasy and a deepening poverty among much of the population with fewer able to increase their wealth. Detractors indicate a decline in purchasing power and dramatic inflation early in Ravalomanana's presidency as evidence of a failure to reduce poverty. Ravalomanana's critics remarked that the greatest beneficiary of his reforms and policies was the president himself, giving the example of road construction projects that enabled Tiko to distribute more efficiently as well as the farmers and other small businesspeople targeted by the initiative. Furthermore, his own companies tended to be awarded most of the government contracts for which they bid, although this occurred transparently and legally, due to a weak legal framework around conflict of interest. Critics condemned his tendency to make unilateral decisions and disregard the views of his entourage, a number of whom resigned or were dismissed. Many joined an opposition movement that had gained considerable strength by late 2007.

On 18 November 2006, Ravalomanana's jet was forced to divert from Madagascar's capital during a return trip from Europe following reports of a coup underway in Antananarivo and shooting near the airport. The attempted coup by General Andrianafidisoa was ultimately unsuccessful.

Presidential election of 2006
Ravalomanana ran for a second term in the presidential election held on 3 December 2006. According to official results, he won the election with 54.79 per cent of the vote in the first round. In Antananarivo Province he won 75.39 per cent of voters.

Second term
During his second term, Ravalomanana oversaw revisions to the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Renamed the Madagascar Action Plan (MAP), this new strategy was intended to build on the successes of his first term to accelerate and expand national development. The plan focused on "the eight commitments": accountable governance, more extensive and interconnected infrastructure, agriculture based rural development, family planning and health (particularly fighting HIV/AIDS), strong economic growth, environmental protection, and the traditional principle of fihavanana (solidarity). The plan's targets were aligned with the United Nations' Millennium Development Goals.

As construction of schools and hiring of teachers continued in Ravalomanana's second term, additional measures were adopted to improve education quality, including a shift to Malagasy as the language of instruction in grades one to five, expansion of primary schools to house grades six and seven for greater access to lower secondary schooling In the Constitution of 2007, English was added to Malagasy and French as an official language.

In the later half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticized by domestic and international observers, who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption.

Confrontation with Rajoelina
On 13 December 2008, the government closed Viva TV, owned by mayor of Antananarivo Andry Rajoelina, stating that a Viva interview with exiled former head of state Didier Ratsiraka was "likely to disturb peace and security". This move catalyzed the political opposition and a public already dissatisfied with other recent actions undertaken by Ravalomanana, including a July 2008 deal with Daewoo Logistics to lease half the island's arable land for South Korean cultivation of corn and palm oil, and the November 2008 purchase of a second presidential jet at a cost of 60 million U.S. dollars. Within a week, Rajoelina met with twenty of Madagascar's most prominent opposition leaders (referred in the press as the "Club of 20"), to develop a joint statement demanding that the Ravalomanana administration improves its adherence to democratic principles. The demand was broadcast at a press conference, where Rajoelina promised to dedicate a politically open public space in the capital, which he would call Place de la democratie ("Democracy Square").

Beginning in January 2009, Rajoelina led a series of political rallies in downtown Antananarivo where he gave voice to the frustration that Ravalomanana's policies had triggered, particularly among the economically marginalized and members of the political opposition. On 3 February, Ravalomanana dismissed Rajoelina as mayor of Antananarivo and appointed a special delegation. Rajoelina incited demonstrators on 7 February to occupy the president's office. The presidential guard opened fire on the advancing crowd, killing 31 and wounding more than 200.

Popular disapproval of Ravalomanana intensified, conflicts between pro-Rajoelina demonstrators and security forces continued over the following weeks, resulting in several additional deaths. On 11 March, following a declaration of neutrality by army leadership, pro-opposition soldiers from the Army stormed the army headquarters and forced the army chief of staff to resign. Over the next several days the army deployed forces to enable the opposition to occupy key ministries, the chief of military police transferred his loyalty to Rajoelina and the army sent tanks against the presidential Iavoloha Palace. Rajoelina rejected Ravalomanana's offer on 15 March to hold a national referendum. The following day, the army stormed the Ambohitsorohitra Palace and captured the Central Bank. Hours later, Ravalomanana transferred his power to a group of senior army personnel. Ravalomanana later declared he had been forced at gunpoint to relinquish power. A military council would have been charged with organizing elections within 24 months and re-writing the constitution for the "Fourth Republic". However, Vice Admiral Hyppolite Ramaroson announced on 18 March that the council would transfer power directly to Rajoelina, making him president of the opposition-dominated High Transitional Authority (HAT) that he had appointed weeks earlier.

With the military's backing Rajoelina was sworn in as president on 21 March at Mahamasina Municipal Stadium before a crowd of 40,000 supporters, a transfer of power that was considered illegitimate and unconstitutional by the international community and described as a coup d'état.

Post-presidency
After coming to power, Rajoelina's HAT pursued legal action against Ravalomanana. On 2 June 2009, Ravalomanana was fined 70 million US dollars (42 million British pounds) and sentenced to four years in prison for alleged abuse of office which, according to HAT Justice Minister Christine Razanamahasoa, included the December 2008 purchase of a presidential jet worth $60 million. Razanamahasoa claimed Ravalomanana "mixed public interests with his personal interests".

Exile
The former head of state was in exile in Swaziland at the time, having been prevented from returning to Madagascar the previous month. Additionally, on 28 August, Ravalomanana was sentenced in absentia to hard labour for life for his role in the protests and ensuing deaths. Ravalomanana's Tiko Group faced heavy pressure from the transitional government, which in April 2009 demanded that the company pay 35 million US dollars in back taxes or risk being shut down.

Both Ravalomanana and Rajoelina were requested by the Southern African Development Community (SADC) to renounce participation in the 2013 Malagasy presidential elections in order to end the ongoing political crisis. On 10 December 2012, Ravalomanana announced that he would not participate in the elections, and encouraged Rajoelina to follow.

Presidential elections 2018
Marc Ravalomanana was candidate at the Malagasy presidential elections 2018. He qualified for the 2nd round, with 35,35 % of the votes. The 2nd round he lost with 44.34% of votes against Andry Rajoelina with 55,66 % of the votes.

Presidential elections 2023
Marc Ravalomanana ran as a candidate at the 2023 Malagasy presidential elections.

Other activities
Ravalomanana is a fervent Christian. As a young adult he gradually took on increasingly responsible leadership roles within his church community. In 2000 he was elected Vice-President of the FJKM.

Ravalomanana owns media group Malagasy Broadcasting System (MBS), which operates radio and television stations.

National honours

 * 🇲🇬 Madagascar:
 * MDG National Order - Grand Cross 1st Class BAR.png Grand Cross, First Class of the National Order of Madagascar

Foreign honours

 * 🇩🇪 Germany:
 * GER Bundesverdienstkreuz 9 Sond des Grosskreuzes.svg Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (2006)
 * 🇲🇺 Mauritius:
 * [[File:Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean - GCSK, GOSK, CSK (Mauritius) - ribbon bar.png|70px]] Grand Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean (2008)

Honorary degrees

 * Honorary Doctorate from University of Antananarivo (2007)
 * Honorary Doctorate of Law from Abilene Christian University, Texas (2008)

title: Marc Ravalomanana


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Zeta Puppis

Zeta Puppis (ζ Puppis, abbreviated Zeta Pup, ζ Pup), formally named Naos, is the brightest star in the constellation of Puppis.

The spectral class of O4 means this is one of the hottest, and most luminous, stars visible to the naked eye. It is one of the sky's few naked-eye class O-type stars as well as one of the closest to Earth. It is a blue supergiant, one of the most luminous stars in the Milky Way. Visually it is over 10,000 times brighter than the Sun, but its high temperature means that most of its radiation is in the ultraviolet and its bolometric luminosity is over 500,000 times that of the Sun. It is also the 72nd brightest star in terms of apparent magnitude from Earth. It is a runaway star, meaning it has an unusually large space velocity, probably caused by being ejected from a close binary system when its companion exploded as a supernova.

Zeta Puppis is typical of O-type stars in having an extremely strong stellar wind, measured at 2,500 km/s, which sees the star shed more than a millionth of its mass each year, or about 10 million times that shed by the Sun over a comparable time period.

Nomenclature
ζ Puppis (Latinised to Zeta Puppis) is the star's Bayer designation.

It bears the name Naos, from the Greek ναύς "ship", and in Arabic Suhail Hadar (سُهَيْل حَضَار). In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalogue and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN approved the name Naos for this star on 21 August 2016 and it is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.

Namesake
USS Naos (AK-105) was a United States Navy Crater class cargo ship named after the star.

Physical characteristics
Zeta Puppis has been extensively studied because of the rarity of such hot massive stars and its relative closeness to Earth, but its physical parameters and distance are still poorly known. It would be a valuable step on the cosmic distance ladder, clarifying the distance of other high luminosity stars in the Milky Way galaxy and external galaxies.

The spectral type is O4If(n)p. O4 indicates a hot massive hydrogen-burning star, typically 40,000–44,000K. The "f" indicates that the spectrum has emission lines of ionised Helium and Nitrogen, not uncommon in somewhat evolved hot O stars and typically identified by the composite emission and absorption profile of the 468.6nm HeII spectral line. The "n" (for nebulous) indicates broadened absorption lines, caused by rapid rotation of the star, in this case over 220 km/s at the equator. The "p" is a general spectral indicator of peculiarity. This combination of spectral characters is unusual because evolved hot stars are expected to rotate relatively slowly after braking by a strong stellar wind, and only 8 stars of this type are known in the Milky Way. The spectral type complicates determination of physical parameters as the standard spectral luminosity indicator lines are peculiar and this type of star cannot be fully modelled. The enhanced Helium and Nitrogen and the lower surface gravity indicates some degree of evolution away from the zero age main sequence and Zeta Puppis is ranked as a supergiant.

Variability
The brightness of Zeta Puppis varies slightly but regularly. Its apparent magnitude varies between a peak of 2.24 and a minimum of 2.26 over 1.78 days. The variations had been thought to be the due to the pulsations of an α Cygni variable, but are too predictable and regular. The eclipse-like light curve is now thought to be due to rotation of the star which has large irregular features at the base of its dense stellar wind.

It also shows variations in Hα spectral line profiles and x-ray luminosity on timescales less than a day.

Distance
The distance of Zeta Puppis is disputed, most commonly being considered to be $332 pc$ based on its Hipparcos parallax, or $460 pc$ based on its expected physical properties. Its association with objects such as the Gum nebula and γ2 Velorum is also used as a method to establish its distance.

The physical properties of the star depend strongly on its distance, with its bolometric luminosity being at $460 pc$ and only about  at $332 pc$. Its rotational velocity and period constrain the possible distances and inclination of the star. The rotational period was long considered to be just over five days, being the period of certain variations observed in its spectrum. However, it is now thought that less obvious brightness variations with a period of 1.78 days are caused by bright areas on the surface of the star as it rotates. With the projected equatorial rotational velocity of $219 km/s$, this means that the star is rotating at close to its break-up velocity and that the equator must be inclined less than about 33° to us.

The angular size of Zeta Puppis has been measured interferometrically to be 0.41 mas, and photometrically to be 0.38 mas.

Helium
In 1896, Williamina Fleming observed mysterious spectral lines from Zeta Puppis, which fit the Rydberg formula if half-integers were used instead of whole integers. It was later found that these were due to ionized helium.

Origin
Early suggestions for the birthplace of Zeta Puppis were the very young Vela R2 stellar association at around 800pc and the Vela OB2 association at 450pc. Neither origin is satisfactory. A distance of 800pc requires an abnormally high luminosity, while the Vela OB2 association is much older than Zeta Puppis and the space velocity does not lead back to that cluster.

Many physical models and the original Hipparcos parallax measurements did lead to a distance value of around 450pc, but the revised Hipparcos reduction gave a much lower distance near 333pc. A recent dynamical study points to Zeta Puppis originating in the Trumpler 10 OB association at around 300pc, but this is also a much older cluster and physical models still lead to a distance of 450-600pc.

Zeta Puppis shows a high space velocity and very high rotation rate, and it has been speculated that it is a runaway star resulting from a supernova in a binary system, possibly the progenitor of the Gum Nebula. Models of binary systems are able to reproduce the properties of Zeta Puppis following mass transfer from a companion which then exploded as a supernova. This can explain the observed properties which are inconsistent with single star evolution.

title: Zeta Puppis


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Buff-breasted sandpiper

The buff-breasted sandpiper (Calidris subruficollis) is a small shorebird. The species name subruficollis is from Latin subrufus, "reddish" (from sub, "somewhat", and rufus, "rufous") and collis, "-necked/-throated" (from collum, "neck"). It is a calidrid sandpiper.

Description
This species is brown above and has a buff face and underparts in all plumages. It has a short bill and yellow legs. Males are larger than females. Juveniles resemble the adults but may be paler on the rear underparts.

Distribution and habitat
C. subruficollis breeds in the open arctic tundra of North America and is a very long-distance migrant, spending the non-breeding season mainly in South America, especially Argentina.

It migrates mainly through central North America and is uncommon on the coasts. It occurs as a regular wanderer in Western Europe and is not classed as rare in Great Britain or Ireland, where small flocks have occurred. Only the pectoral sandpiper is a more common American shorebird visitor to Europe.

This species nests as far north as Canada including Alaska on the ground, laying four eggs. The male has a display which includes raising the wings to display the white undersides, which is also given on migration, sometimes when no other buff-breasted sandpipers are present. Outside the breeding season, this bird is normally found in short-grass habitats such as airfields or golf courses, rather than near water.

These birds pick up food by sight, mainly eating insects and other invertebrates. The buff-breasted sandpipers are known to prey on Bombus polaris, a species of bumblebee found within the Arctic Circle. They will either eat the bees or feed them to their young. They are often very tame.

Buff-breasted sandpipers are suspected to have hybridized with the white-rumped or Baird's sandpiper.

In South Asia and Australia
This species has been sighted in South Asia on at least three occasions. It is believed that instead of going to Argentina, this bird might have been wind-blown from the Great Plains Flyway of North America and landed up in South Asia. In November 2011, this species was sighted near Kannur, Kerala in South India. The buff-breasted sandpiper has also been recorded in Australia on at least eight occasions. It was recorded again from Madayipara, Kannur in 2023.

In 1978, Phillips recorded the species from Sri Lanka, and after that, very few sightings were recorded. In 2001 a single bird was also recorded in Marievale, South Africa.

title: Buff-breasted sandpiper


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Stephen Hales

Stephen Hales (17 September 1677 – 4 January 1761 ) was an English clergyman who made major contributions to a range of scientific fields including botany, pneumatic chemistry and physiology. He was the first person to measure blood pressure. He also invented several devices, including a ventilator, a pneumatic trough and a surgical forceps for the removal of bladder stones. In addition to these achievements, he was a philanthropist and wrote a popular tract on alcoholic intemperance.

Life
Stephen Hales was born in Bekesbourne, Kent, England. He was the sixth son of Thomas Hales, heir to Baronetcy of Beakesbourne and Brymore, and his wife, Mary (née Wood), and was one of twelve or possibly thirteen children. Thomas Hales (died 1692) predeceased his father, Sir Robert Hales; therefore Sir Robert's grandson, Sir Thomas Hales, 2nd Baronet (Stephen Hales' brother) succeeded to the baronetcy in December 1693.

Hales was educated in Kensington and then at Orpington before attending Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (or St Benedict's as it was then known) in 1696. Although he was an ordinand studying divinity, Hales would have received his degree in the Classics, mathematics, natural sciences and philosophy while in Cambridge. Hales was admitted as a Fellow of Corpus Christi in 1703, the same year as he obtained the degree of Master of Arts, and was ordained as Deacon at Bugden, Cambridgeshire. He continued his theological and other studies in Cambridge, where he became friends with William Stukeley who was studying medicine. He attended chemistry lectures by Giovanni Francisco Vigani while at Cambridge. His interest in biology, botany and physiology is presumed to date from that time.

In 1709 he was ordained Priest at Fulham and on 10 August 1709 he was appointed Perpetual curate of the parish of Teddington, Middlesex and left Cambridge, although he retained his Fellowship until 1718. He became a Bachelor of Divinity in 1711. Hales remained in Teddington for the rest of his life, except for occasional visits to his other parishes. He was an assiduous minister – in addition to parish duties he enlarged and repaired the church and commissioned a new water supply for the village – and well regarded although there is some evidence that his experimental work on animal physiology was viewed with misgivings. Thomas Twining included a verse in his poem The Boat on Hales:
 * Green Teddington's serene retreat
 * For Philosophic studies meet,
 * Where the good Pastor Stephen Hales
 * Weighed moisture in a pair of scales,
 * To lingering death put Mares and Dogs,
 * And stripped the Skins from living Frogs,
 * Nature, he loved, her Works intent
 * To search or sometimes to torment.

In 1718, the poet Alexander Pope, a renowned dog lover, also criticized Hales's work. In conversation with his friend, Joseph Spence, Pope reportedly said of Hales: "He commits most of these barbarities with the thought of its being of use to man. But how do we know that we have a right to kill creatures that we are so little above as dogs, for our curiosity, or even for some use to us?". Pope, however was also a close friend of Hales and considered him the model of the man who loves his God.

In 1718 Hales was elected a fellow of the Royal Society and in the same year became rector of Porlock, Somerset, a post he held alongside the curacy of Teddington.

In 1720 he married Mary Newce, but she died the following year, probably in childbirth; there were no children and he never remarried. In 1723 he was installed as rector of Farringdon, Hampshire (which he held alongside Teddington by employing a curate in Farringdon). Hales spent his summers there and became a friend of Gilbert White, the naturalist, whose family lived nearby.

Hales's fame as a scientist grew from 1718 onwards, and by the mid part of the 18th century he had achieved an international reputation. He was one of the eight Foreign Members of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris and was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of Bologna. He received the Copley Medal in 1739 and also became a public figure as a result of his campaigns against the gin trade and his involvement in the Georgia Trust. He was made a Doctor of Divinity by Oxford University in 1733.

In his later years he received frequent visits from Frederick, Prince of Wales and his wife, Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, both of whom were interested in gardening and botany. He gave Princess Augusta advice on the development of Kew Gardens, and in 1751 he was appointed Clerk of the Closet to the Princess Dowager, following the death of Prince Frederick, a post he held until his death. At the age of seventy Hales was chosen by the president and fellows of the Royal College of Physicians to preach the annual Crounian Sermon in the church of St Mary-le-Bow. He selected his favorite topic – "The Wisdom and Goodness of God in the formation of Man". Hales died in his 84th year at Teddington on 4 January 1761 after a short illness. At his own request he was buried under the tower of the church where he had worked for so many years. A monument to Hales was raised by Princess Augusta in the south transept of Westminster Abbey after his death.

Work
Hales is best known for his Statical Essays. The first volume, Vegetable Staticks (1727), contains an account of experiments in plant physiology and chemistry; it was translated into French by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in 1735 and into Italian by Maria Angela Ardinghelli in Naples in 1750-1752. The second volume, Haemastaticks (1733), describes experiments on animal physiology including the measurement of the "force of the blood", i.e. blood pressure. Translated and annotated by Ardinghelli in 1756.

Plant physiology and the chemistry of air
In Vegetable Staticks, Hales studied transpiration – the loss of water from the leaves of plants. He estimated the surface area of the leaves of the plant and the length and surface area of the roots. This allowed Hales to compare the calculated influx of water into the plant with the amount of water leaving the plant by transpiration through the leaves. He also measured 'the force of the sap' or root pressure. Hales commented that "plants very probably draw through their leaves some part of their nourishment from the air". In Vegetable Staticks Hales prefigured the cohesion theory of water movement in plants, although his ideas were not understood at the time, so he did not influence the debate on water transport in plants in the 19th century. He also speculated that plants might use light as a source of energy for growth (i.e. photosynthesis), based on Isaac Newton's suggestion that "gross bodies and light" might be interconvertible.

In Vegetable Staticks Hales also described experiments that showed that "... air freely enters plants, not only with the principal fund of nourishment by the roots, but also thro' the surface of their trunks and leaves". While Hales' work on the chemistry of air appears primitive by modern standards, its importance was acknowledged by Antoine Lavoisier, the discoverer of oxygen. Hales' invention of the pneumatic trough to collect gases over water is also considered a major technical advance. Modified forms of the pneumatic trough were later used by William Brownrigg, Henry Cavendish and Joseph Priestley in their research.

Animal physiology
Hales began his work on animal physiology with William Stuckeley while in Cambridge, although much of it was published only after Vegetable Staticks appeared. Hales and Stuckeley performed a wide range of studies including making casts of the trachea and bronchial trees of dogs using molten lead and measuring the water lost due to breathing. Most famously, Hales made measurements of blood pressure in several animal species by inserting fine tubes into arteries and measuring the height to which the column of blood rose. Hales also described the effects of hemorrhage and hemorrhagic shock by progressive exsanguination of animals and accompanying measurement of blood pressure. In a horse he observed that as death approached  "the Mare fell into cold and clammy sweats". In addition, Hales took wax casts of the ventricle of the heart and estimated how much blood was pumped by the heart; correctly described the roles of the mitral valve and aortic valve during systole and diastole; explained the pulsations of arteries in terms of their elasticity and attributed the resistance to blood flow to friction due to the passage of blood through small blood vessels.

Hales also described a diverse range of work in Haemastaticks including his attempts to find substances that could be used to dissolve bladder stones or calculi. This aim was unsuccessful but as part of this work he developed a double lumen bladder catheter and devised special forceps to enable the removal of urinary stones.

Hales's work on the growth pattern of long bones, demonstrating epiphyseal growth; his demonstration of spinal reflexes in the frog and his suggestion that electricity played a role in allowing nerves to control muscle function are also noteworthy.

Inventions and other work

Bad air was thought to be a cause of ill-health and death in the 18th century. Death and disease were common in overcrowded ships and prisons. Hales was one of several people in the early 18th century (other notable inventors being John Theophilus Desaguliers, Mårten Triewald and Samuel Sutton) who developed forms of ventilators to improve air quality. Hales' ventilators were large bellows, usually worked by hand, although larger versions were powered by windmills. They were widely installed in ships, prisons and mines and were successful in reducing disease, and aerating the lower decks of Royal Navy vessels to combat dry rot in the hulls. Hales' ventilators were also used in preserving foods and drying grain.

Hales also experimented with ways of distilling fresh water from sea water; preserving water and meat on sea-voyages; measuring depths at sea; measuring high temperatures; and wrote on a range of subjects including earthquakes; methods of preventing the spread of fires; and comparative mortality rates in relationship to rural and urban parishes.

Philanthropy
After the death of his wife, Hales became increasingly involved in philanthropic causes. In 1722 he became a corresponding member of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, founded by Thomas Bray. In 1723 Bray became ill and appointed trustees, including Hales, to administer a bequest from Abel Tassin, Sieur d’Allone for 'The Conversion of Negroes Slaves in the West Indies'. Subsequently, Hales was also appointed a trustee for Bray's legacy for establishing parochial libraries in the American colonies. These charities became incorporated into a scheme led by James Oglethorpe to establish a charitable colony for the poor, 'honest industrious debtors' and persecuted (Protestant) foreigners. Hales may well have felt a personal commitment to this scheme since his brothers had been imprisoned for debt following the failure of the South Sea Company and one, William, died of Gaol Fever in Newgate Prison.

In 1732 King George II granted a Charter for the foundation of the colony of Georgia and Hales was one of the twenty one members of the Board of Trustees. The colony of Georgia was notable for its prohibition of slavery and rum.

As a result of his involvement with the Board of Trustees of Georgia, Hales learnt of the problems resulting from overcrowding of ships and this spurred him to invent a ship ventilator and undertake experiments to distil fresh water from sea water and to use salt to preserve meat on board ship.

Hales was one of the co-founders of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce (later the Royal Society of Arts) conceived by William Shipley. Hales was also active in the movement to promote the Gin Act 1736. He wrote a number of anonymous tracts against the consumption of gin and distilled spirits, most notably 'A Friendly Admonition to the Drinker of Brandy and other Distilled Spirituous Liquors'. and also lobbied Parliament. Hales was not opposed to all alcoholic beverages but felt strongly that spirits, and gin in particular, were as he termed it 'The Bane of the Nation'.

Testimony
From the Nobel Prize in Medicine acceptance speech given by Werner Forssmann in 1956: ""The credit for carrying out the first catheterization of the heart of a living animal for a definite experimental purpose is due to an English parson, the Reverend Stephen Hales. This scientifically interested layman undertook in Tordington (sic) in 1710, 53 years after the death of William Harvey (1578–1657), the first precise definition of the capacity of a heart. He bled a sheep to death and then led a gun-barrel from the neck vessels into the still-beating heart. Through this, he filled the hollow chambers with molten wax and then measured from the resultant cast the volume of the heartbeat and the minute-volume of the heart, which he calculated from the pulse-beat. Besides this, Stephen Hales was also the first, in 1727, to determine arterial blood pressure, when he measured the rise in a column of blood in a glass tube bound into an artery.""

- Werner Forssmann

The genus of trees Halesia was named after him by John Ellis in 1759. The American Society of Plant Biologists awards the Stephen Hales Prize annually to a scientist for work in plant biology.

title: Stephen Hales


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Bakili Muluzi

Elson Bakili Muluzi (born 17 March 1943 ) is a Malawian politician who was President of Malawi from 1994 to 2004. He was also chairman of the United Democratic Front (UDF) until 2009. He succeeded Hastings Kamuzu Banda as Malawi's president. He also served in Banda's cabinet as minister without portfolio, before retiring in 1980.

Muluzi served as minister and secretary general of the Malawi Congress Party for years until he was dismissed for abusing MCP party funds.

Presidency
Muluzi was the candidate of the opposition UDF in the May 1994 presidential election, the country's first multiparty election. He won the election with 47% of the vote, defeating Malawi's leader since independence, Hastings Kamuzu Banda. There was no provision for a runoff election in Malawi, so this was enough for him to end Banda's 33-year rule (dating back to when Malawi was still a British colony).

He was re-elected in June 1999, taking 52.4% of the vote and defeating challenger Gwanda Chakuamba who was the leader of the opposition movement. In 2002 he proposed an amendment to Malawi's constitution that would have allowed him to run for a third term, but this was abandoned in the face of demonstrations against him, as well as vigorous opposition from the legislature and courts. After serving two terms, he therefore handed over power to his successor after the May 2004 election, in which UDF candidate Bingu wa Mutharika (who was handpicked and groomed by Muluzi) was elected to succeed Muluzi as president.

Muluzi came to lead the UDF after leaving the Banda government, and he became an advocate for democracy. Muluzi's time as president was marred by controversy and scandal, particularly due to the sale of Malawi's reserves of maize to other countries shortly before the onset of a drought, which resulted in famine throughout the country. Despite international pressure, the millions of dollars realized from the sale of Malawi's food reserves have never been turned over, and it is widely suspected that it wound up in foreign accounts belonging to Muluzi and his supporters.

Post-presidency
Even with the controversy and questionable dealings, Muluzi was a popular leader, particularly in the southern part of the country. He remained the chairman of the UDF. After a dispute with his successor as president, Mutharika, the latter left the UDF and formed his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), in February 2005. In April 2005, Muluzi apologized to Malawians for choosing Mutharika as his successor "and imposing him on the country".

On July 27, 2006, Muluzi was arrested on fraud and corruption charges; he was released on bail later that day. Hours after his arrest, the chief investigator Gustav Kaliwo was suspended by President Mutharika; Director of Public Prosecutions Ishmael Wadi said he had no choice but to drop the charges. Muluzi was once more arrested on 26 February 2009 and initially charged with 86 counts of corruption and abuse of office. The charges claimed that he had allegedly diverted 1.7 billion Malawi Kwacha (US$11m) of donor money into his personal account, funds that came from, among others, the Republic of China, the Kingdom of Morocco and Libya.

As a former Commonwealth leader, Muluzi was invited by the Commonwealth Secretary-General to chair the Commonwealth Observer Group which observed the 2012 general election in Lesotho.

2009 presidential candidacy
In early March 2007, with many prominent members of the UDF calling for Muluzi to run for president in 2009, the party said that he would have until March 11 to declare whether he intended to run. Accordingly, on that date Muluzi announced that he would seek the party's nomination as its presidential candidate. The question of whether Muluzi is eligible to run again has raised some controversy. Because the constitution refers to a limit of two consecutive terms, this could be regarded as enabling Muluzi to run again after being out of office for a term.

The Chairman of the Anti-Corruption Bureau (ACB), Alex Nampota, announced on March 17, 2008, that the ACB intended to prosecute Muluzi for allegedly diverting about 11 million dollars of donor money into his personal account; Nampota said that the ACB had asked the courts to lift an injunction that prevented it from questioning Muluzi. Kennedy Makwangwala, the Secretary-General of the UDF, denounced this as "political persecution".

On April 24, 2008, a UDF convention chose Muluzi as the party's 2009 presidential candidate. He received 1,950 votes against 38 for Vice-president Cassim Chilumpha.

On March 20, 2009, the Malawi Electoral Commission passed a judgement to bar Bakili Muluzi from running for the presidency for the third time. Muluzi challenged this, but on May 16, only three days before the election, the Constitutional Court ruled that Muluzi could not run again. By that point, Muluzi and the UDF had thrown their support behind the candidacy of John Tembo, the president of the Malawi Congress Party (MCP).

Muluzi announced on December 23, 2009, that he was retiring from active politics and that Friday Jumbe was replacing him as UDF leader.

2008 arrest
After Mutharika formed the DPP in 2005, over 70 Members of Parliament joined the DPP; the opposition, including the UDF, has sought to have these MPs expelled from their seats for switching parties. In May 2008, Mutharika said that Muluzi was trying to remove him from office by depriving the DPP MPs of their seats; to press its demand for the removal of the DPP MPs, the opposition had refused to debate any government bills. Mutharika called Muluzi a "coward" and accused him of treason. Speaking on Joy Radio, a station he owns, on May 12, 2008, Muluzi denied any plot against Mutharika and expressed exasperation with threats made by Mutharika.

Eight prominent associates of Muluzi were arrested shortly afterward in connection with the alleged plot to overthrow Mutharika; an arrest warrant was also issued for Muluzi, who was in the United Kingdom at the time on holiday. In connection with the investigation into this alleged plot, police attempted to search Muluzi's home on May 14, but his guards barred them from entry. According to an aide to Muluzi, Humphrey Mvula, the police said that they wanted to remove guns from the home, but Mvula said that these guns had been issued by the police themselves for Muluzi's protection. On the same day, Muluzi said on Joy Radio that he would return to Malawi from the United Kingdom regardless of the alleged plot. By May 25, all but one of the eight arrested associates of Muluzi had been released on bail.

When Muluzi returned on May 25, 2008, he was arrested at the airport in Lilongwe. Muluzi had planned to address a UDF rally upon his arrival, and police surrounded the stadium where the rally was to be held. Thousands of infuriated supporters of Muluzi clashed with the police and blocked roads following his arrest. Muluzi was promptly flown to Blantyre, placed under house arrest at his home in Limbe, near Blantyre, and interrogated. His home was also searched by the police. Muluzi was questioned for about two hours and was shown documents which purportedly linked him to the alleged plot. Speaking on Joy Radio on May 27, Muluzi said that the documents were "laughable and fake" and accused the government of attempting to "intimidate and silence the opposition". His lawyers said on the same day that they would seek bail for Muluzi. According to one lawyer, the only people allowed into Muluzi's home by the police were four lawyers and a bodyguard, and he had been asked to name family members and lawyers who would be given permission to visit.

On May 29, Muluzi, who had still not been charged, appeared at the High Court in Blantyre for his bail application. On his arrival, he declared that the government was "useless". Fahad Assani, the head of Muluzi's legal team, described the arrest as "illegal and unconstitutional" and demanded his release from house arrest. According to Assani, because more than 48 hours had passed and Muluzi had not been charged, it was necessary for him to be released "without any conditions". Wezi Kayira, the director of public prosecutions, urged the court to reject the bail application, stressing that treason was "a very serious offence which carries a heavy penalty"; he said that investigations were continuing and expressed concern that they "would be jeopardised and evidence tampered with". Kayira also requested that the court impose "very strict conditions" if it chose to grant bail.

Judge Joseph Manyumgwa granted Muluzi bail on May 30, saying that in the absence of any charges against Muluzi he had to be released. According to Manyumgwa, Muluzi had the right to bail regardless of "the gravity of the alleged offence". Kayira said the investigation was ongoing and that charges would follow.

Allegations of intimidation and 2009 legal charges
Speaking to Capital Radio on 22 February 2009, Muluzi accused the government of using intimidation against his presidential candidacy and warned that such conduct could lead to "problems". A few days later, he was charged by the Anti-Corruption Bureau with stealing 12 million dollars of aid money; he appeared before a court in Blantyre and was released on bail. He appeared in court again on 12 March 2009 but failed to enter a plea on the 86 graft charges against him. Kalekeni Kaphale, a lawyer for Muluzi, asked for a delay, arguing that "this is the first time someone has been charged with such a volume of cases" in Malawi and that, since the defense had not seen the charges until early March, it needed "at least 14 days to study them to make proper responses".

On 10 July 2014, Muluzi was appointed Special Commonwealth Envoy to Swaziland, an appointment endorsed by the president of Malawi, Peter Mutharika.

Personal life
Muluzi was Malawi's first Muslim president. He was married to Annie Chidzira Muluzi and then Patricia Shanil Muluzi while in office. After divorcing Annie Muluzi, he remarried Shanil Muluzi. His children include Austin Atupele Muluzi. He is father-in-law to Angela Zachepa.

Muluzi's first born daughter, Esme Atweni Muluzi, died after being struck by lightning on 12 December 2016.

Muluzi outlived his wives; Patricia Shanil Muluzi (known by then as Shanil Dzimbiri) died on 10 June 2024 in a plane crash, while Annie Chidzira Muluzi died in 2021 due to lung cancer.

title: Bakili Muluzi