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John Stagliano

John Stagliano (born November 29, 1951), also known as Buttman, is an American entrepreneur, former pornographic film actor, producer and director who founded and owns the Evil Angel pornographic film studio.

Early life and career
Stagliano grew up in the Chicago suburbs, and attended high school from 1965 to 1969. He enrolled in college, but dropped out in 1969 for several semesters. He then went back to college and studied subjects including English, journalism, and engineering, before transferring to UCLA to major in economics. He originally planned to get an economics PhD and become a professor. He then switched to studying theater, playwriting, modern dance and jazz dance, partly because there were more women in those classes. He is of Italian ancestry with some of his grandparents from Florence.

In the 1970s, he wrote erotic fiction for a small newspaper, and did some softcore modeling. He made his debut in a hardcore pornographic film in an 8 mm loop in 1974. In 1979, he was looking for dancing jobs in Hollywood. He replied to an advertisement in the Daily Variety looking for male strippers for the new Chippendales show. He performed with the group four or five nights a week for the next four years. In 1982, when he was 30, he began publishing a small pornographic magazine on newsprint, which he called Evil Angel.

Adult film producer
Initially he had little knowledge of film making, but he made his first movie for $8,000 in 1983, titled Bouncing Buns, starring Stacy Donovan. For the next six years he made films for other companies to manufacture and distribute. In 1989, he started Evil Angel to sell his own films. The origin of the company's name dates back to when Stagliano was working as a stripper. "There was another guy in one of my shows named John. So this MC started calling me Evil John to differentiate us. This was when I was doing Dracula and chains. At the same time I had a girlfriend who called herself Angel when she did strip shows. She was a very nasty girl and I suggested that she call herself Evil Angel. She didn't, but I loved the name and wound up using it for my company."

The first Evil Angel film was Dance Fire, filmed in 1988 by Stagliano, starring himself, Trinity Loren, and Brandy Alexandre.

The Adventures of Buttman
In 1989, he produced The Adventures of Buttman, the first in a popular series which is credited with sparking the "gonzo" adult film genre. These films involved highlighting the female buttocks, with actors often licking, kissing and playfully biting the female behind. Stagliano has stated that a scene showing Tracey Adams' buttocks inspired him to make the Buttman series of films. The clip shows Adams on her hands and knees with her rear end stuck high in the air. "The shot only lasted a couple of seconds," says Stagliano, "but I knew then what I wanted to do." Early Stagliano productions had little to no anal sex in them and were critically acclaimed for the showcasing of his buttocks fetish. Later Buttman films included numerous anal sex scenes, often featuring Stagliano himself. In the 1990s, Stagliano became one of the most successful figures in American pornographic films.

He has directed series including Buttman at Nudes a Poppin', Buttman Goes to Rio, Buttman's Anal Divas, Buttman's Anal Show, Buttman's Bend Over Babes, Buttman's Bend Over Brazilian Babes, Buttman's Big Butt Backdoor Babes, Buttman's Big Tit Adventure, Buttman's Butt Freak, Buttman's European Vacation, Buttman's Favorite Big Butt Babes, Face Dance and Fashionistas, as well as numerous one-off films. Stagliano also served as mentor, producer, and co-director to Tristan Taormino in her video version of The Ultimate Guide to Anal Sex for Women.

From October 2004 through February 2008, Stagliano produced and directed a Las Vegas show called Fashionistas based on his porn film of the same name. In 2008, he won the 'Best Director – Video' award for Fashionistas Safado: Berlin. ("Safado" is a Portuguese word meaning lewd or salacious.)

Stagliano was described by U.S. News & World Report magazine in 1998 as "the nation's leading director of hard-core videos".

Obscenity trial
On April 8, 2008, Evil Angel and Stagliano were indicted on federal obscenity charges by a federal grand jury in Washington, D.C. The scenes selected by the government to support the prosecution involved urination, use of enemas, and bondage. On July 16, 2010, a federal trial began in Washington, D.C., with Stagliano as defendant and after three days all charges were dismissed. Judge Richard J. Leon stated, "I hope the government will learn a lesson from its experience," and called the evidence linking Stagliano to the production and distribution of the DVD videos "woefully insufficient". Although he dismissed the charges on the grounds of insufficient evidence, the judge cited the "difficult, challenging and novel questions" raised in the case against Stagliano, questions concerning extant federal obscenity-statutes, the Internet, free speech, and the rights of criminal defendants. He stated that he hoped "[higher] courts and Congress will give greater guidance to judges in whose courtrooms these cases will be tried."

HIV lawsuit
Stagliano was diagnosed with HIV in January 1997.

In a June 2013 lawsuit filed in Los Angeles Superior Court against Stagliano and his company Evil Angel, adult performer Katie Summers alleged "negligence, intentional infliction of emotional distress, sexual battery and violations of professions code section 17200" because Stagliano didn't inform her of his HIV positive status prior to her performing in the 2010 movie Buttman's Stretch Class 4. According to the lawsuit, Summers consented to Stagliano engaging in sexual contact within the context of her acting in an adult film. In the scene, Stagliano can be seen handing Summers sex toys and touching her buttocks, but he does not perform hardcore sex with her. Summers claims that had she known of Stagliano's status prior to the scene, she would not have done it.

In a press interview, Stagliano's wife Karen disputes the allegations: "John and the company feel that he did not do anything with Katie Summers that would warrant having to inform her of his HIV status," Karen said "He had no genital contact with her, no sexual touching of her genitals at all that would have put her at any sort of a medical risk whatsoever."

The suit against Stagliano went into forced arbitration and the plaintiff had her deposition taken, but on September 29, 2014 Summers dropped her lawsuit. According to Stagliano's attorney, Paul Cambria, "[Summers] had no case. I took her testimony and when I was done I could not see any possible way for her to succeed."

Scene with Ginger Banks and Jenny Blighe
In 2018, Stagliano directed an Evil Angel scene between Ginger Banks and Jenny Blighe. It was both performers' first scene, after working as webcam models, and they were told the scene was girl-girl. According to Banks and Blighe, Stagliano touched their buttocks without their consent during the filming, in character as Buttman. Stagliano said the pair had been asked to watch a previous scene in which he did a similar thing; Banks and Blighe said that they had concerns after watching the scene, but the production told Banks that Stagliano would not perform as Buttman.

After Blighe made her experience public, Banks began experiencing online harassment due to her initial response. She voluntarily stood down as chair of the Adult Performer Advocacy Committee in the aftermath. Banks later filed a report of sexual battery against Stagliano and apologized to Blighe both privately and publicly, saying in 2020, "I should be held accountable for my part in the gaslighting and denying her reality". She said that Stagliano mocked her over the incident afterwards, and that she was told by others of similar incidents to her and Blighe's account.

Critical appraisal
In her essay Crackers and Whackers: The White Trash of Porn, Constance Penley asserts that John Stagliano did for anal fetishism what Woody Allen did for neurosis, pointing out that, "as in so many stag films," Buttman is the "butt of the joke" since, "seeking the perfect shot of a woman's perfect ass," the character "gets mugged, evicted, bankrupted, rejected, and ridiculed – all in his single-minded quest for perfection."

Awards and nominations

 * 1998 Hot d'Or d'Honneur winner
 * 2003 Barcelona International Erotic Film Festival's Lifetime Career Award
 * 2009 Hot d'Or Award winner of Best American Director award for Fashionistas Safado Berlin (for Evil Angel/Marc Dorcel productions)
 * 2010 XBIZ winner of Industry Pioneer award
 * 2011 XBIZ winner of Man of the Year award
 * 2013 XBIZ nominated for the Director of the Year award for Voracious

Personal life
Stagliano was in a relationship with pornographic actress Krysti Lynn (A.K.A Shawna Yager) during 1993. She was driving Stagliano's Acura Legend when she died on December 7, 1995, in an accident in Calabasas.

In 1997, Stagliano tested positive for HIV. As of 2002, medication has kept the virus in check.

He married former porn star Tricia Devereaux (Karen Stagliano) in 2008.

Stagliano espouses a libertarian political philosophy, and has been a significant financial contributor to the Cato Institute and the Reason Foundation, both libertarian think tanks.

Other uses of ""Buttman""

 * German deathgrind band Cock and Ball Torture made a tribute song titled "Buttman Goes To Rio"
 * The nickname Buttman has been used in parodies of Batman, Notably the segment of the same name by the Annoying Orange.
 * Argentinian Sex shop used Buttman as its business name.

title: John Stagliano


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Wilhelm Georg Friedrich Roscher

Wilhelm Georg Friedrich Roscher (21 October 1817 – 4 June 1894) was a German economist from Hanover.

Biography
Roscher studied at Göttingen, where he became a member of Corps Hannovera, and Berlin, and obtained a professorship at Göttingen in 1844 and subsequently at Leipzig in 1848.

The main origins of the historical school of political economy may be traced to Roscher. Its fundamental principles are dated to his Grundriss zu Vorlesungen über die Staatswirtschaft nach geschichtlicher Methode (1843). Politically, Roscher remained faithful to the liberalism of Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann, which abjured revolution and anarchy but favored reform within the context of a constitutional monarchy. Historical economics began as a means of adjusting liberal thought and practice to the realities of the social question, namely: what should be done about the consequences of economic modernization and the classes displaced or exploited by the new industries.

Roscher tried to establish the laws of economic development by using the historical method from the investigation of histories legal, political, cultural and other aspects.

Roscher developed a cyclical theory where nations and their economies pass through youth, manhood and senile decay: "The method of a science is of greater significance by far than any single discovery, however amazing the later may be." This was in direct contrast to the English traditional economist who believed that the principles of a science were only exposed long after they had performed their duties.

This short study was afterwards expanded into his great System der Volkswirthschaft, published in five volumes between 1854 and 1894, and arranged as follows:
 * vol. i., Die Grundlagen der National Ökonomie, 1854 (trans. by JJ Lalor, Principles of Political Economy, Chicago, 1878) (Volume One, Volume Two)
 * vol. ii., Die Nationalökonomik des Ackerbaues und der verwandten Urproduktionen, 1859
 * vol. iii., Die Nationalökonomik des Handels und Gewerbfleisses, 1881
 * vol. iv., System der Finanzwissenschaft, 1886
 * vol. v., System der Armenpflege und Armenpolitik, 1894

His Geschichte der Nationalökonomie in Deutschland (1874) is a monumental work.

He also published in 1842 an excellent commentary on the life and works of Thucydides. In 1847 he was the first to use the term "enlightened absolutism" about the type of absolute monarchy influenced by contemporary philosophy that evolved in the 18th century.

In 1857 his Zur Geschichte der Englischen Volkswirthschaftslehre im sechzehnten und siebzehnten Jahrhundert (On the History of English Political Economy in the 16th and 17th Century) was published.

In 1870, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Roscher died in 1894 in Leipzig. The classical scholar Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher (1845–1923) was his son.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wilhelm Georg Friedrich Roscher


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Talk:Sci-fi

Usage avoidance
Science fiction fans of the "serious" as well as the frivolous kind often actively avoid the use of the term "sci-fi" in order not to hurt the feelings of those who feel embarassed or otherwise hurt by the jokey pun.

Thus, the appearance of the term "sci-fi", in text or in conversation, is sometimes an indication of a certain lack of politeness or of a certain degree of ignorance or both.

In other words, these people would not recognize Isaac Asimov's three laws of robotics if it hit them in the face. It is logical to very discretely help them or to quietly ignore them, depending on the circumstances.

The article does not currently spell out the terribly "loaded" nature of the term or its use as a practical way of distinguishing the literate from those who are repeating things without understanding what they are saying.

Even though I started helping to flesh out the list of authors, etc., I think the lists should be removed and replaced by text directing the user to science fiction where there are already extensive lists. UtherSRG 18:06, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Agreed. Done.  Revert if you disagree.  Samw 18:15, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Agreed! And even more so. Putting more emphasis on a less troublesome term (science fiction) is certainly an excellent way of lessening the impact of this sometimes difficult one, without trying to deny its existence. AlainV. 2003-12-06

A Clockwork Orange
I am puzzled by the statement that A Clockwork Orange is described as sci-fi though it is "nothing in the movie to blatantly suggest sci-fi, except ...it takes place ... in the not too distant future."

Surely A Clockwork Orange meets many definition of science fiction. Is this an example of the "it's by a serious author, it can't be sci fi" philosophy (applied e.g. to On The Beach, works of Doris Lessing etc.) It is about the extrapolation of social trends, questions the abuse of science, and imagines future linguistic development. Yes, there are no rocket ships. Notinasnaid 10:57, 14 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Belated reply: It takes place in the future and examines sociological changes. That puts it solidly into the category of science fiction. Lee M 17:04, 2 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Oh, it's definitely science fiction, but it's far too serious and well-conceived to be "sci-fi". Grutness|hello? [[Image:Grutness.jpg|25px|]] 23:53, 4 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * The problem is that fantasy is often mis categorized as sci-fi, just because the fewer doesn't understand the difference.

Scientifiction
I recall seeing the term scientifiction (scientific__fiction) before, especially in old material discussion SF stemming from the UK. (At least until the early 1960s). I am not sure if it should be mentioned in this article, however. Jordi·✆ 00:11, 3 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * The term was the original word for science fiction, once it started being a separate genre - and was coined by Hugo Gernsback, if I remember correctly (after whom the Hugo awards were named) in the 1920s. It is a very rare term today. Grutness|hello? [[Image:Grutness.jpg|25px|]] 06:44, 4 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Awesome reference. Now I realize what the title The Gernsback Continuum refers to. Jordi·✆ 07:26, 4 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Merge to Science fiction
It has been suggested that this article be moved to science fiction. I cannot find any discussion of this, but someone went ahead and did it. This seems to have been jumping the gun a bit, so I will revert.

I oppose such a move. It is to assume that "sci fi" is a simple synonym of science fiction. It is not, for the reasons described in this article. Notinasnaid 20:23, 11 January 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sci-fi


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Thomas Southwood Smith

Thomas Southwood Smith (1788 – 1861) was an English physician and sanitary reformer.

Early life
Smith was born at Martock, Somerset, into a strict Baptist family, his parents being William Smith and Caroline Southwood. In 1802 he won a scholarship to the Bristol Baptist College to train as a minister, but in 1807 funds were abruptly withdrawn, on the grounds that he was 'entertaining opinions widely different from us on most of the doctrines we consider to be essential to Evangelical Religion'. At 19 years old he was already showing the courage and independence of mind that were to characterise his life, however it led to a break with his parents who never spoke to him again. Over the following four years Smith turned to Unitarianism, influenced by William Blake, a minister at Crewkerne, Somerset: Blake put him in touch with John Prior Estlin at Lewin's Mead, Bristol. Another friend, and Unitarian convert from Baptism who became a physician, was Benjamin Spencer. These associations and friendships drew him into the centre of 19th Century reform.

Medical man
Smith entered the University of Edinburgh in October 1812, and in November took over the Unitarian congregation meeting in Skinners' Hall, Canongate, which had stayed together without a minister since the death in 1795 of James Purves; he became known as a powerful preacher and raised the attendance sharply. In June 1813 he began a course of fortnightly evening lectures on universal restoration; these were published in 1816 and made him a literary reputation. Also in 1813 he founded the Scottish Unitarian Association, with James Yates, which brought Smith into contact with the Unitarian Lady Gillies and her nieces Mary and Margaret Gillies who would play a large part in his later life.

In 1816 he took his M.D. degree, and began to practice at Yeovil, Somerset, also becoming minister at a chapel in that town, but moved in 1820 to London, devoting himself mainly to medicine.

Public health
In 1824 Smith was appointed physician to the London Fever Hospital.8 The following year he began to write papers on public health. His post gave him the opportunity to study diseases of poverty. In the late 1830s, with Neil Arnott and James Phillips Kay, he was one of the first doctors brought in to report to the Poor Law Commission. In 1842 he was one of the founders of an early housing association, the Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes.

Smith was a close ally on public health matters with Edwin Chadwick, and like him supported the miasma theory. From 1848 to 1854 they worked closely together at the General Board of Health. But the appointment of Lord Seymour made their work very difficult, despite the support of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury.

Smith was frequently consulted in fever epidemics and on sanitary matters by public authorities. His reports on quarantine (1845), cholera (1850), yellow fever (1852), and on the results of sanitary improvement (1854) were of international importance.

Bentham dissection
Southwood Smith was a close friend of Jeremy Bentham and his secretary Edwin Chadwick. He had a particular interest in applying his philosophical beliefs to the field of medical research. In 1827 he published The Use of the Dead to the Living, a pamphlet which argued that the current system of burial was a wasteful use of bodies that could otherwise be used for dissection by the medical profession. Bentham attached a paper, written in 1830 to his will instructing Southwood Smith to create the auto-icon. It stated: "'My body I give to my dear friend Dr Southwood Smith to be disposed of in a manner hereinafter mentioned, and I direct ... he will take my body under his charge and take the requisite and appropriate measures for the disposal and preservation of the several parts of my bodily frame in the manner in the paper annexed to this my will and at the top of which I have written Auto Icon.The skeleton he will cause to be put together in such a manner that the whole figure may be seated in a chair usually occupied by me when living, in the attitude in which I am sitting while engaged in thought in the course of time occupied in writing.I direct that the body thus prepared shall be transferred to my executor. He will cause the skeleton to be clad in one of the suits of black occasionally worn by me. The body so clothed, together with the chair and the staff in my later years borne by me, he will take charge of, and for containing the whole apparatus he will cause to be prepared an appropriate box or case, and will cause to be engraved in conspicuous characters on a plate to be affixed thereon and also on the labels on the glass case in which the preparations of the soft parts of my body shall be contained, ... my name at length with the letters ob: followed by the day of my decease.If it should so happen that my personal friends and other disciples should be disposed to meet together on some day or days of the year for the purpose of commemorating the founder of the greatest happiness system of morals and legislation, my executor will from time to time cause to be conveyed in the room in which they meet the said box or case with the contents therein, to be stationed in such part of the room as to the assembled company shall seem meet.' – Queen's Square Place, Westminster, Wednesday 30 May 1832."

Bentham's wish to preserve his dead body was consistent with his philosophy of utilitarianism. In his essay Auto-Icon, or the Uses of the Dead to the Living, Bentham wrote, "If a country gentleman has rows of trees leading to his dwelling, the auto-icons of his family might alternate with the trees; copal varnish would protect the face from the effects of rain." On 8 June 1832, two days after his death, invitations were distributed to a select group of friends, and on the following day at 3 p.m., before the dissection, Southwood Smith delivered a lengthy oration over Bentham's remains in the Webb Street School of Anatomy & Medicine in Southwark, London. In the oration Smith argued that:"If, by any appropriation of the dead, I can promote the happiness of the living, then it is my duty to conquer the reluctance I may feel to such a disposition of the dead, however well-founded or strong that reluctance may be".

Afterward, the skeleton and head were preserved and stored in a wooden cabinet called the "Auto-icon", with the skeleton padded out with hay and dressed in Bentham's clothes. From 1833 it stood in Southwood Smith's Finsbury Square consulting rooms until he abandoned private practice in the winter of 1849-50 when it was moved to 36 Percy Street, Margaret Gillies' studio, who made studies of it. In March 1850 Southwood Smith offered the auto-icon to Henry Brougham who readily accepted it for UCL.

Smith's lobbying helped lead to the 1832 Anatomy Act, the legislation which allowed the state to seize unclaimed corpses from workhouses and sell them to surgical schools. While this act is credited with ending the practice of grave robbery, it has also been condemned as discriminatory against the poor.

Works
In 1830 Smith published A Treatise on Fever, which became a standard authority on the subject. In this book he established a direct connection between the impoverishment of the poor and epidemic fever. The underlying theory opposed contagion as a mechanism of spread of disease, and postulated no pathogen that was airborne; it argued that the exclusion of "pure air" could suffice to create mortal disease.

Family
Smith married twice, firstly in 1808, to Anne Read, the daughter of a prominent Bristol tradesman. Anne died of fever four years later, at age 24, leaving Smith a widower with two young daughters, Caroline and Emily. His second marriage was to Mary, daughter of John Christie of Hackney, and they had three children, including his only son, Herman (died 23 July 1897, aged 77). The second marriage was not successful and soon Mary and her three children moved abroad. Miranda and Octavia Hill were his granddaughters, among the five daughters of his eldest, Caroline (c. 1809–1902), who married James Hill, merchant in 1835, and as Caroline Southwood Hill was known as a writer and educationalist. His other daughter, Emily (c. 1810-1872), moved to Florence, Italy.

Smith had separated from his second wife by the end of the 1830s, and for the rest of his life he lived quietly with the artist Margaret Gillies. Along with his son Herman and daughter Emily they visited Wisbech in June 1836 and dined with Caroline and the actor William Macready, who was appearing as Hamlet in the Georgian Angles Theatre owned by James and Caroline. They also owned a school they built in front of the theatre. Following his son-in-law James Hill's second bankruptcy in 1840, his three-year-old granddaughter Gertrude Hill (1837–1923) came to live with him. In the 1861 census the household lived at Heath House, Weybridge and consisted of Thomas Smith 72, Mary Gillies 62, Margaret Gillies 56, his son Herman Smith 40, wine merchant, his granddaughter Gertrude Hill, 23 lady, and a cook and a housemaid.

Later life
In his 70th year Smith travelled abroad for the first time to Milan, Italy to examine the irrigation works. Two years later, on a visit to his daughter Emily in Florence, he caught a chill and died there on 10 December 1861. He is interred there in the English Cemetery of Florence; his tombstone, an obelisk with a cameo portrait, was sculpted by Joel Tanner Hart. His daughter Emily, who died in 1872, is buried beside him.

title: Thomas Southwood Smith


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Electronic Recording Machine, Accounting

ERMA (Electronic Recording Machine, Accounting) was a computer technology that automated bank bookkeeping and check processing. Developed at the nonprofit research institution SRI International under contract from Bank of America, the project began in 1950 and was publicly revealed in September 1955.

Payments experts contend that ERMA "established the foundation for computerized banking, magnetic ink character recognition (MICR), and credit-card processing". General Electric (GE) won the production contract, deciding to transistorize the design in the process. Calling the machine the GE-100, a total of 32 ERMA machines were built. GE would use this experience to develop several mainframe computer lines before selling the division to Honeywell in 1970.

Background

In 1950, Bank of America (BoA) was the largest bank in California, and led the world in the use of cheques. This presented a serious problem due to the workload processing time. An experienced bookkeeper could post 245 accounts in an hour, about 2,000 in an eight-hour workday and approximately 10,000 per week. Bank of America's checking accounts were growing at a rate of 23,000 per month and banks were being forced to close their doors by 2 p.m. to finish daily postings.

S. Clark Beise was a senior vice president at BoA who was introduced to Thomas H. Morrin, SRI's Director of Engineering. They formed an alliance under which SRI would essentially act as BoA's research and development arm. In July 1950 they contracted SRI for an initial feasibility study for automating their bookkeeping and check handling. ERMA was under the technical leadership of computer scientist Jerre Noe.

First study

SRI immediately found a problem. Because accounts were kept alphabetically, adding a new account required a reshuffling of the account listings. SRI instead suggested using account numbers, simply adding new ones to the end of the list. In addition these numbers would be pre-printed on checks, thereby dramatically reducing the time to match the checks with account information (known as "proofing"). Numbered accounts are now a feature of almost all banks.

With that problem out of the way, SRI returned a report in September 1950 that stated a computer-based system was certainly feasible, which they called the Electronic Recording Machine (ERM).

Second study

Bank of America then offered a second six-month contract in November to fully study the changes needed to banking procedures, and design the logical layout of production ERM machines. While this was underway, Bank of America went to a number of industrial companies to set up production of the machines, but none were interested. So SRI was given another contract in January 1952 to build a prototype machine.

One of the biggest problems found in the second phase was how to input the check information, especially the account numbers, with any sort of speed. Beise demanded a system that would not require the information to be changed from one medium to another, from check to punched card for instance, while simultaneously lowering error rates.

SRI investigated several solutions to the problem, including the first OCR system from a company in Arlington, Virginia. However, they found that it was all too easy for banks, and customers, to write over the account numbers and spoil the system. They also experimented with barcode information, and while this worked well even when printed over, if there was enough "damage" to the code a human operator could not read them in order to input them manually.

Instead, they decided to combine the two technologies, and used MICR-printed account numbers which could be read by a magnetic reader similar to those in a cassette tape recorder. The resulting reader was a mechanical tour-de-force, combining five MICR readers with a large rotating drum that forced checks dumped in the top to come out the bottom single-file. The system was eventually able to read ten checks a second, with errors on the order of 1 per 100,000 checks.

Final prototype
The final ERM computer contained more than a million feet (304,800 metres) of wiring, 8,000 vacuum tubes, 34,000 diodes, 5 input consoles with MICR readers, 2 magnetic memory drums, the check sorter, a high-speed printer, a power control panel, a maintenance board, 24 racks holding 1,500 electrical packages and 500 relay packages, and 12 magnetic tape drives for 2,400-foot (731-metre) tape reels.

ERM weighed about 25 tons (22.7 tonnes), used more than 80 kW of power and required cooling by an air conditioning system. By 1955, the system was still in development, but BoA was anxious to announce the project. At the time, computers (still known as "electronic brains") were all the rage; if BoA could announce that they were using them, it would convey a sense of futuristic infallibility. In September 1955, BoA froze the design.

By this point, no fewer than 24 companies had expressed interest in building the production machines, and General Electric won the competition. Among GE's team members was AI pioneer Joseph Weizenbaum. The company took the basic design, but decided it was time to move the tube-based system to a transistor-based one using core memory. This won SRI yet another contract, this time by GE, to study the commercial computer market and suggest how ERM machines could be sold into other markets. After the construction run, they also contracted them to dispose of the original machine.

Legacy
The first production ERMA system, known as the GE-100, was installed in 1959. Over the next two years 32 systems were installed and by 1966 twelve regional ERMA centers served all but 21 of Bank of America's 900 branches. The centers handled more than 750 million checks a year, about the number they had predicted to occur by 1970. The automation was so effective that it allowed Bank of America to be the first bank to offer credit cards attached to a user's bank account. They were so successful in operation that Bank of America was propelled ahead of other banks in profitability, and became the world's largest bank by 1970.

ERMA machines were replaced with newer equipment in the early 1970s. There is a special room commemorating ERMA machines inside the Bank of America facilities in Concord, California.

Payments experts contend that ERMA "established the foundation for computerized banking, magnetic ink character recognition (MICR), and credit-card processing".


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Johannes Peter Müller

Johannes Peter Müller (14 July 1801 – 28 April 1858) was a German physiologist, comparative anatomist, ichthyologist, and herpetologist, known not only for his discoveries but also for his ability to synthesize knowledge. The paramesonephric duct (Müllerian duct) was named in his honor.

Early years and education
Müller was born in Coblenz. He was the son of a poor shoemaker, and was about to be apprenticed to a saddler when his talents attracted the attention of his teacher, and he prepared himself to become a Roman Catholic Priest. During his college course in Koblenz, he devoted himself to the classics and made his own translations of Aristotle. At first, his intention was to become a priest.

When he was eighteen, his love for natural science became dominant, and he turned to medicine, entering the University of Bonn in 1819. There he received his M.D. in 1822. He then studied at the University of Berlin. There, under the influence of G. W. F. Hegel and Karl Rudolphi, he was induced to reject all systems of physiology which were not founded upon a strict observation of nature. He habilited there in 1824.

Career summary
He became Privatdozent of physiology and comparative anatomy at the University of Bonn in 1824, extraordinary professor of physiology in 1826, and ordinary professor in 1830. In 1833 he went to the University of Berlin, where he filled the chair of anatomy and physiology until his death.

Early research
Müller made contributions in numerous domains of physiology, in particular increasing understanding of the voice, speech and hearing, as well as the chemical and physical properties of lymph, chyle and blood. His first important works, Zur vergleichenden Physiologie des Gesichtssinns (On the comparative physiology of sight, Leipzig, 1826) and Über die phantastischen Gesichtserscheinungen (On visual hallucination, Coblenz, 1826), are of a subjective philosophical tendency. The first work concerns the most important facts as to human and animal sight, the second sounds depths of difficult psychological problems. He soon became the leader in the science of the morphological treatment of zoology as well as of experimental physiology. To his research (1830) is due the settlement of the theory of reflex action.

Elements of Physiology
In the century preceding Müller's work, many contributions to physiological science had been made. Müller gave order to these facts, developed general principles and showed physiologists how recent discoveries in physics and chemistry could be applied to their work.

The appearance of his magnum opus, Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen, between 1833 and 1840 (translated into English as Elements of Physiology by William Baly, and published in London 1837–1843) marked the beginning of a new period in the study of physiology. In it, for the first time, the results of human and comparative anatomy, as well as of chemistry and other departments of physical science, and tools like the microscope, were brought to bear on the investigation of physiological problems.

The most important portion of the work was that dealing with nervous action and the mechanism of the senses. Here he stated the principle, previously recognized but not stated as clearly, that the kind of sensation following stimulation of a sensory nerve does not depend on the mode of stimulation but upon the nature of the sense organ. Thus light, pressure, or mechanical stimulation acting on the retina and optic nerve invariably produces luminous impressions. This he termed the law of specific energies of the sense.

The book became the leading textbook in physiology for much of the nineteenth century. It manifests Müller's interests in vitalism, philosophy and scientific rigor. He discusses the difference between inorganic and organic matter. He considers in detail various physiological systems of a wide variety of animals, but attributes the indivisible whole of an organism to the presence of a soul. He also proposes that living organisms possess a life-energy for which physical laws can never fully account.

Edward Forbes F.R.S. in his  A History of British Starfishes, and Other Animals of the Class Echinodermata  (1841) in his preface refers to Muller as "one of the greatest living physiologists, Muller of Berlin".

Later years
In the later part of his life he chiefly devoted himself to comparative anatomy. Fishes and marine invertebrates were his favorite subjects. He took 19 trips to the Baltic and North Sea, the Adriatic and the Mediterranean to investigate salt-water life.

He authored a comprehensive work on the anatomy of amphibians, which in his era including reptiles. Also, he described several new species of snakes.

Müller coined the term desmoid, from the Greek desmos 'tendon-like', in 1838. The same year, he also described phyllodes tumors, which he called cystosarcoma phyllodes.

Müller mentored such distinguished scientists and physiologists as Hermann von Helmholtz, Emil du Bois-Reymond, Fritz Müller, Theodor Schwann, Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle, Ernst Wilhelm Brücke, Carl Ludwig and Ernst Haeckel. In 1834, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1846, the American Philosophical Society elected him an international Member.

Müller died in Berlin in 1858. In 1899, a bronze statue by Joseph Uphues was erected in his memory in Koblenz.

Works
In addition to his Handbuch der Physiologie (translated by Baly in 1843: of Physiology''), his publications include: After the death of J. F. Meckel (1781–1833) he edited the Archiv für Anatomie und Physiologie.
 * De Respiratione Fœtus (Leipzig, 1823), a prize dissertation
 * Zur vergleichenden Physiologie des Gesichtssinns (1826)
 * Über die phantastischen Gesichtserscheinungen (1826)
 * Bildungsgeschichte der Genitalien (1830), in which he traced the development of the Müllerian duct
 * De glandularum secernentium structura penitiori (1830)
 * Beiträge zur Anatomie und Naturgeschichte der Amphibien (1832)
 * Der Tabak in geschichtlicher, botanischer, chemischer und medizinischer Hinsicht (Berlin, 1832)
 * Vergleichende Anatomie der Myxinoiden (1834–1843)
 * Ueber die organischen Nerven der erectilen männlichen Geschlechtsorgane… (Berlin, 1835)
 * Ueber den feineren Bau der krankhaften Geschwülste (On the structural details of malignant tumors, Coblenz, 1838), unfinished — a pioneering use of microscopical research in the investigation of pathological anatomy
 * Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen (1841) with F. G. J. Henle
 * (1842) with F. H. Troschel
 * Horae ichthyologicae (1845–1849) with Troschel
 * Über die fossilen Reste der Zeuglodonten… (1848)
 * Über Synopta digitata und über die Erzeugung von Schnecken in Holothurien (1852)

Taxon described by him

 * See Category:Taxa named by Johannes Peter Müller

title: Johannes Peter Müller


text:
Talk:Trivial topology

Recent changes
To AxelBoldt: most of your changes were good, but you changed this line:

 * Given a subset S of X, an element of S is a limit point of S if and only if S is not a singleton. In particular, every infinite subset of X has a limit point.

to this:

 * If X has more than one element and S is some non-empty subset of X, then each element of X is a limit point of S.

The second is not correct. Given a singleton S={s}, s is not a limit point of S, because it does not lie in the closure of S-{s}, which is empty. It can still be generalized somewhat, however. I changed it to this, maybe the language could be cleaned up some:

Given a subset S of X which is not a singleton, all elements of X are limit points of S. If S is a singleton, every point of X \ S is still a limit point of S. In particular, every infinite subset of X has a limit point.

Derrick Coetzee 15:52, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Yup you're right, except that your version doesn't work when S is empty. I also don't see the point of the last statement about infinite sets: you don't need infinitely many elements, you only need two. AxelBoldt 16:18, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Oops, you're right. In the original statement I spoke of limit points of S in S, which worked when it was empty, but not currently. I added the statement about infinite subsets having limit points because this is the definition of limit point compactness (in some texts), and is an important property of metric compact spaces. If there were a page on limit point compactness I'd link to that instead.

Derrick Coetzee 00:28, 30 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Trivial topology


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John Hawkins (naval commander)

Admiral Sir John Hawkins (also spelled Hawkyns) (1532 – 12 November 1595) was an English naval commander, naval administrator, privateer and slave trader.

Hawkins pioneered, and was an early promoter of, English involvement in the Atlantic slave trade. He is considered to be the first English merchant to profit from the Triangle Trade, selling enslaved people from Africa to the Spanish colonies in the West Indies in the late 16th century.

In 1588, Hawkins served as a Vice-Admiral and fought in the victory over the Spanish Armada, for which he was knighted for gallantry. As Treasurer of the Navy, Hawkins became the chief architect of the Elizabethan Navy. He redesigned the navy so the ships were faster, more manoeuvrable and had more firepower.

Hawkins' son, Richard Hawkins, was captured by the Spanish. In response, along with his cousin Sir Francis Drake, he raised a fleet of ships to attack the Spanish in the West Indies. However, he died at sea during the expedition.

Early years
John Hawkins was born to a prominent family of ship builders and captains in the naval port of Plymouth in Devon. His exact date of birth is unknown, but was likely between November 1532 and March 1533. He was the second son of William Hawkins, who was the first Englishman to sail to Brazil, and Joan Trelawny, daughter and sole heiress of Roger Trelawny of Brighton, Cornwall. Sir Francis Drake, his second cousin, was brought up and lived in the same Protestant household as Hawkins.

Hawkins killed a man, a barber from Plymouth called White, before the age of 20. The coroner decided White was the antagonist, and Hawkins's father secured a royal pardon. He worked with his older brother William Hawkins in the shipping industry and in privateering. He is thought to have done some service for the ambassadors from Spain, who negotiated the marriage of Mary I of England and Philip II of Spain. Hawkins was known to have frequently referred to King Philip II as "my old master". The Spanish Castilianised his name where he was known as Juan Aquines.

Circa 1559, he dissolved his partnership with this brother, taking £10,000 from the business and moving to London. He married Katherine Gonson, daughter of Benjamin Gonson, a prominent Royal Navy administrator. He had one son, Richard Hawkins (born 1562). It is not known whether Katherine was Richard's mother or step-mother, because the marriage happened after his birth. Richard spoke fondly of Katherine in later life, consequently it is more likely she was his birth mother.

First slave voyage (1562–1563)

Hawkins made voyages to the Canary Islands in the years leading up to 1561, and there he had learnt about the Atlantic slave trade – taking people from Guinea off the African coast and selling them in the Spanish Caribbean colonies. For his first slave voyage he formed a syndicate with Sir William Winter, Sir Lionel Duckett, Sir Thomas Lodge, his father-in-law Benjamin Gonson, and others to share the risk and cost of the voyage.

In 1562, he set sail with three ships (Saloman, Jonas, and Swallow) travelling down the African coast as far as Sierra Leone, he captured people and enslaved them as he went, taking around 300 people in total. From there he sailed to the Caribbean, he did not have permission from either Spain or Portugal to trade with their colonies so he sold his enslaved people in Isabella, Puerto de Plata and Monte Christi – places where the local authorities did not enforce government trade embargoes. The enslaved people were traded for pearls, hides and sugar.

The trade was so prosperous that, on his return to England, the College of Arms granted Hawkins a coat of arms which displays an enslaved male. Hawkins is widely considered to be the first English merchant to profit from the Triangle Trade; trading English goods for enslaved people in Africa, then selling those people in the Americas and buying foreign goods to be sold in England after the return journey.

Second slave voyage (1564–1565)
Hawkins persuaded Queen Elizabeth I to back his second slave voyage and secured investors from her court, these included Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester and Edward Clinton, 1st Earl of Lincoln, with William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley involved as a supervisor. The queen allowed Hawkins to charter one of her ships for the trip, the 700 Ton Jesus of Lübeck and for it to fly her flag, the Royal Standard. He set sail from Plymouth on 18 October 1564 with four vessels, Jesus of Lübeck, and 3 ships of his own. He took over 400 enslaved people from Africa, some he bought from the Portuguese, others he kidnapped directly by raiding the coast, he left Africa on 29 January 1565.

On 3 April 1565, Hawkins arrived at Borburata in Venezuela, as trade was prohibited, he carried out a fake threat of force with the local governor's collusion. He then travelled to Rio de la Hacha where he used force to ensure he secured the deals he thought fair. He sold 300 enslaved people, clothing, linen and wine. He was paid in gold, silver and other precious items and took further orders to sell enslaved people on a future voyage.

After completing his business, Hawkins prepared to return to England. Needing water, he sailed to the French colony of Fort Caroline in Florida. Finding them in need, he traded his smallest ship and a quantity of provisions to them for cannon, powder, and shot, that they no longer needed, as they were preparing to return to France. The provisions gained from Hawkins enabled the French to survive and prepare to move back home as soon as possible.

The voyage returned a profit reported at 60%. Hawkins brought back to England the sweet potato and tobacco, which was initially used as a narcotic; smoking did not gain in popularity until years later.

Slave voyage of John Lovell (1566–1567)
Hawkins first two slave voyages had angered the Spanish and in response the queen had prohibited Hawkins from going to sea. Instead he arranged his next slave voyage and gave the captaincy to a relative of his called John Lovell. Sir Francis Drake, who is also likely to be a relative of Lovell, was on the voyage.

Lovell sailed to the West African coast in 1566 and through piracy captured five ships, three of which were slave ships. He took the cargo of enslaved people and other goods to the Spanish West Indies to be sold. The sale of the cargo did not go well and Lovell deposited 92 enslaved people ashore without any payment. Drake later recalled the trip with embarrassment and Hawkins ascribed the failure to the "simpleness" of his deputies.

Third slave voyage (1567–1569)

The queen had forbidden Hawkins from going to sea but she relented, and he arranged a third slave voyage, departing Plymouth on 2 October 1567. Arriving at the African coast, he could not secure enslaved people with ease because the local Portuguese agents were unwilling to trade with him. He attempted to capture and kidnap the inhabitants of a village near Cape Verde, but he was wounded and had to retreat. Hawkins recruited a local king in Sierra Leone to help him forcibly kidnap people, capturing over 500 people. On 7 February 1568, he set sail across the Atlantic Ocean to sell these people. He sold some of his captives in Margarita Province and others in Borburata. At Rio de la Hacha, the governor refused him permission to trade, so Sir Francis Drake shot at his house and Hawkins took over the town in a battle, before selling the enslaved people.

The Battle of San Juan de Ulúa was fought between English privateers and Spanish forces at San Juan de Ulúa. The English fleet consisting of six armed merchant ships under Hawkins had been trading alongside the Spanish with the cooperation of local Spanish officials. The central Spanish authorities considered this to be illegal smuggling. Hawkins' ships were attacked unexpectedly, Drake fled on Judith and Hawkins was defeated. His remaining ship Minion limped home with only around 15 crew. The expedition, however, was financially rewarding as he had managed to transfer most of his trading income onto Minion.

1570–1587
In 1578 Hawkins was appointed Treasurer of the Navy, briefly he worked alongside his father-in-law, Benjamin Gonson, before taking full control of the position. He embarked on a comprehensive reform of naval administration and managed to achieve an annual saving of nearly £4,000 per annum, while at the same time raising naval pay. He reformed the design of galleons so that they were longer, able to carry a larger number of guns, more manoeuvrable and faster moving. As a result of Hawkins' reforms, according to Garrett Mattingly, the Navy was a "fighting-fleet faster and more weatherly than any that had ever been seen on the ocean before". He also increased the size of the Navy, so that by 1587 it consisted of 23 ships and 18 pinnaces.

Hawkins's financial reforms of the Navy upset many who had vested interests. In 1582, his rival, Sir William Wynter, accused him of administrative malfeasance, instigating a Royal Commission on fraud against him. The commission, under William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, Francis Walsingham, and Drake, concluded that there was no corruption, and that the Queen's Navy was in first-rate condition.

Spanish Armada
Hawkins served as a Vice-Admiral during victory against the Spanish Armada, he was part of the war council and third in command overall. Hawkins had an extensive influence on the outcome of the engagement not only through his command, but because his improved ship designs, while acting as Treasurer of the Navy, had given the fleet more firepower and speed.

After that victory, Hawkins urged the seizure of Philip II's colonial treasure, in order to stop Spain re-arming. In 1589, Hawkins sailed with Francis Drake in the English Armada. One of its goals was to try to intercept the Spanish treasure ships departing from Mexico. One decisive action might have forced Philip II to the negotiating table and avoided fourteen years of continuing warfare. Instead, the voyage failed and the King was able to use the brief respite to rebuild his naval forces and, by the end of 1589, Spain once again had an Atlantic fleet strong enough to escort the American treasure ships home.

Final years and death
Katherine Hawkins, his wife, died in 1591; he then married Margaret Vaughan (d. 1619), daughter of Charles Vaughan, a Lady of the Bedchamber of Queen Elizabeth I.

In 1593, Richard Hawkins, his son, was defeated and captured by the Spanish at a naval battle called the action of San Mateo Bay. With his cousin, Sir Francis Drake, John Hawkins raised a fleet of 27 ships to attack the Spanish in the West Indies. They set sail from Plymouth on 29 August 1595. Bad weather and skirmishes with the Spanish fleet hampered their efforts to get his son back. On 12 November 1595, it was reported that Hawkins had died at sea close to Puerto Rico.

Legacy
Hawkins’ legacy divides opinion. The historian Geoffrey Elton appraised Hawkins as "one of the founding-fathers of England's naval tradition ... he was a man of commanding presence and intellect, of outstanding abilities as a seaman, administrator, fighter and diplomat." More recently he has been described as a pirate and slave trader.

The Royal Navy named a heavy cruiser, HMS Hawkins (D86) after him, the ship was in commission between 1919 and 1947. The Hospital of Sir John Hawkins, Knight, in Chatham, Kent, was originally built by him and takes his name.

In the 16th century slavery was often accepted without a judgment of moral values. The Victorian era saw Hawkins described as the unscrupulous father of the English slave trade. In June 2006, Andrew Hawkins, a descendant, publicly apologised for John Hawkins's actions in the slave trade. In 2023, Plymouth City Council announced that due to Hawkins's links with the slave trade, it planned to rename Sir John Hawkins Square to Justice Square.

title: John Hawkins (naval commander)


text:
Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle

Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle (9 July 1809 – 13 May 1885) was a German physician, pathologist, and anatomist. He is credited with the discovery of the loop of Henle in the kidney. His essay, "On Miasma and Contagia," was an early argument for the germ theory of disease. He was an important figure in the development of modern medicine.

Biography
Henle was born in Fürth, Bavaria, to Simon and Rachel Diesbach Henle (Hähnlein). He was Jewish. After studying medicine at Heidelberg and at Bonn, where he took his doctor's degree in 1832, he became prosector in anatomy to Johannes Müller at Berlin. During the six years he spent in that position he published a large amount of work, including three anatomical monographs on new species of animals and papers on the structure of the lymphatic system, the distribution of epithelium in the human body, the structure and development of the hair, and the formation of mucus and pus. He also developed a friendship with another assistant of Müller, Theodor Schwann, which later became famous for his cell theory.

In 1840, he accepted the chair of anatomy at Zürich and in 1844 he was called to Heidelberg, where he taught anatomy, physiology, and pathology. About this period he was engaged on delineating his complete system of general anatomy, which formed the sixth volume of the new edition of Samuel Thomas von Sömmering's treatise, published at Leipzig between 1841 and 1844. While at Heidelberg he published a zoological monograph on the sharks and rays, in conjunction with his master Müller, and in 1846 his famous Manual of Rational Pathology began to appear; this marked the beginning of a new era in pathological study, since in it physiology and pathology were treated, in Henle's own words, as branches of one science, and the facts of disease were systematically considered with reference to their physiological relations.

In 1852, he moved to Göttingen, whence he issued three years later the first instalment of his great Handbook of Systematic Human Anatomy, the last volume of which was not published until 1873. This work was perhaps the most complete and comprehensive of its kind at that time, and it was remarkable not only for the fullness and minuteness of its anatomical descriptions but also for the number and excellence of the illustrations with which they elucidated minute anatomy of the blood vessels, serous membranes, kidney, eye, nails, central nervous system, etc. He discovered the loop of Henle and Henle's tubules, two anatomical structures in the kidney.

Other anatomical and pathological findings associated with his name are:
 * Crypts of Henle: microscopic pockets located in the conjunctiva of the eye.
 * Hassall–Henle bodies: transparent growths in the periphery of the Descemet's membrane of the eye.
 * Henle's fissure: fibrous tissue between the cardiac muscle fibers.
 * Henle's ampulla: ampulla of the uterine tube.
 * Henle's layer: outer layer of cells of root sheath of a hair follicle.
 * Henle's ligament: tendon of the transversus abdominis muscle.
 * Henle's membrane: Bruch's layer forming inner boundary of the choroid of the eye.
 * Henle's sheath: connective tissue which supports outer layer of nerve fibres in a funiculus.
 * Henle's spine: the supra-meateal spine that serves as a landmark in the mastoid area.
 * Glands of Henle: depressions in the eye in which epithelial cells accumulate in cases of cicatrial trachoma.
 * Tubes of Henle: numerous tiny tubes connecting the choroid to retina, carrying vessels and nerves.

Henle developed the concepts of contagium vivum and contagium animatum, respectively (Von den Miasmen und Kontagien, 1840) – thereby following ideas of Girolamo Fracastoro and the work of Agostino Bassi; thus co-founding the theory of  microorganisms as the cause of infective diseases. He did not find a special species of bacteria himself – this was achieved by his student Robert Koch. Those two put up the fundamental rules of cleanly defining disease-causing microbes: the Henle Koch postulates.

In 1870, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He died in Göttingen, 13 May 1885.

title: Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle


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Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (G6PDD), also known as favism, is the most common enzyme deficiency anemia worldwide. It is an inborn error of metabolism that predisposes to red blood cell breakdown. Most of the time, those who are affected have no symptoms. Following a specific trigger, symptoms such as yellowish skin, dark urine, shortness of breath, and feeling tired may develop. Complications can include anemia and newborn jaundice. Some people never have symptoms.

It is an X-linked recessive disorder that results in defective glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase is an enzyme which protects red blood cells, which carry oxygen from the lungs to tissues throughout the body. A defect of the enzyme results in the premature breakdown of red blood cells. This destruction of red blood cells is called hemolysis. Red blood cell breakdown may be triggered by infections, certain medication, stress, or foods such as fava beans. Depending on the specific mutation the severity of the condition may vary. Diagnosis is based on symptoms and supported by blood tests and genetic testing.

Affected persons must avoid dietary triggers, notably fava beans. This can be difficult, as fava beans may be called "broad beans" and are used in many foods, whole or as flour. Falafel is probably the best known, but fava beans are also often used as filler in meatballs and other foods. Since G6PD deficiency is not an allergy, food regulations in most countries do not require that fava beans be highlighted as an allergen on the label.

Treatment of acute episodes may include medications for infection, stopping the offending medication, or blood transfusions. Jaundice in newborns may be treated with bili lights. It is recommended that people be tested for G6PDD before certain medications, such as primaquine, are taken.

About 400 million people have the condition globally. It is particularly common in certain parts of Africa, Asia, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East. Males are affected more often than females. In 2015 it is believed to have resulted in 33,000 deaths.

Signs and symptoms
Most individuals with G6PD deficiency are asymptomatic.

Most people who develop symptoms are male, due to the X-linked pattern of inheritance, but female carriers can be affected due to unfavorable lyonization or skewed X-inactivation, where random inactivation of an X-chromosome in certain cells creates a population of G6PD-deficient red blood cells coexisting with unaffected red blood cells. A female with one affected X chromosome will show the deficiency in approximately half of her red blood cells. However, in some cases, including double X-deficiency, the ratio can be much more than half, making the individual almost as sensitive as males.

Red blood cell breakdown (also known as hemolysis) in G6PD deficiency can manifest in a number of ways, including the following:
 * Prolonged neonatal jaundice, possibly leading to kernicterus (arguably the most serious complication of G6PD deficiency)
 * Hemolytic crises in response to:
 * Illness (especially infections)
 * Certain drugs (see below)
 * Certain foods, most notably broad beans, from which the word favism derives
 * Certain chemicals
 * Diabetic ketoacidosis
 * Hemoglobinuria (red or brown urine)
 * Very severe crisis can cause acute kidney injury

Favism is a hemolytic response to the consumption of fava beans, also known as broad beans. Though all individuals with favism show G6PD deficiency, not all individuals with G6PD deficiency show favism. The condition is known to be more prevalent in infants and children, and G6PD genetic variant can influence chemical sensitivity. Other than this, the specifics of the chemical relationship between favism and G6PD are not well understood.

Cause
G6PD deficiency results from mutations in the G6PD gene. G6PD gene contributes to the production of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Chemical reactions involving glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase produce compounds that prevent reactive oxygen species from building up to toxic levels within red blood cells. If reduction in the amount of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase or alteration of structure occurs due to the mutations of G6PD gene, the enzyme loses its protective role and leads to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and thus damage of red blood cells.

Triggers
Carriers of the underlying mutation do not show any symptoms unless their red blood cells are exposed to certain triggers, which can be of four main types:
 * Foods (fava beans is the hallmark trigger for G6PD mutation carriers),
 * Certain medicines including aspirin, quinine and other antimalarials derived from quinine.
 * Moth balls (naphthalene)
 * Stress from a bacterial or viral infection.

Drugs
Many substances are potentially harmful to people with G6PD deficiency. Variation in response to these substances makes individual predictions difficult. Antimalarial drugs that can cause acute hemolysis in people with G6PD deficiency include primaquine, pamaquine, chloroquine, and hydroxychloroquine. There is evidence that other antimalarials may also exacerbate G6PD deficiency, but only at higher doses. Sulfonamides (such as sulfanilamide, sulfamethoxazole, and mafenide), thiazolesulfone, methylene blue, and naphthalene should also be avoided by people with G6PD deficiency as they antagonize folate synthesis, as should certain analgesics (such as phenazopyridine and acetanilide) and a few non-sulfa antibiotics (nalidixic acid, nitrofurantoin, isoniazid, dapsone, and furazolidone). Henna has been known to cause hemolytic crisis in G6PD-deficient infants. Rasburicase is also contraindicated in G6PD deficiency. High dose intravenous vitamin C has also been known to cause haemolysis in G6PD deficiency carriers; therefore, G6PD deficiency testing is routine before infusion of doses of 25 g or more.

Genetics
Two variants (G6PD A− and G6PD Mediterranean) are the most common in human populations. G6PD A− has an occurrence of 10% of Africans and African-Americans while G6PD Mediterranean is prevalent in the Middle East. The known distribution of the mutated allele is largely limited to people of Mediterranean origins (Spaniards, Italians, Greeks, Armenians, Sephardi Jews and other Semitic peoples). Both variants are believed to stem from a strongly protective effect against Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax malaria. It is particularly frequent in the Kurdish Jewish population, wherein approximately 1 in 2 males have the condition and the same rate of females are carriers. It is also common in African American, Saudi Arabian, Sardinian males, some African populations, and Asian groups.

All mutations that cause G6PD deficiency are found on the long arm of the X chromosome, on band Xq28. The G6PD gene spans some 18.5 kilobases. The following variants and mutations are well-known and described:

Pathophysiology
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) is an enzyme in the pentose phosphate pathway (see image, also known as the HMP shunt pathway). G6PD converts glucose-6-phosphate into 6-phosphoglucono-δ-lactone and is the rate-limiting enzyme of this metabolic pathway that supplies reducing energy to cells by maintaining the level of the reduced form of the co-enzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). The NADPH maintains the supply of reduced glutathione in the cells that is used to mop up free radicals that cause oxidative damage. The pathway also stimulates catalase, an antioxidant enzyme.

The G6PD / NADPH pathway is the only source of reduced glutathione in red blood cells (erythrocytes). The role of red cells as oxygen carriers puts them at substantial risk of damage from oxidizing free radicals except for the protective effect of G6PD/NADPH/glutathione.

People with G6PD deficiency are therefore at risk of hemolytic anemia in states of oxidative stress. Oxidative stress can result from infection and from chemical exposure to medication and certain foods. Broad beans, e.g., fava beans, contain high levels of vicine, divicine, convicine and isouramil, all of which create oxidants.

When all remaining reduced glutathione is consumed, enzymes and other proteins (including hemoglobin) are subsequently damaged by the oxidants, leading to cross-bonding and protein deposition in the red cell membranes. Damaged red cells are phagocytosed and sequestered (taken out of circulation) in the spleen. The hemoglobin is metabolized to bilirubin (causing jaundice at high concentrations). The red cells rarely disintegrate in the circulation, so hemoglobin is rarely excreted directly by the kidney, but this can occur in severe cases, causing acute kidney injury.

Deficiency of G6PD in the alternative pathway causes the buildup of glucose and thus there is an increase of advanced glycation endproducts (AGE). The deficiency also reduces the amount of NADPH, which is required for the formation of nitric oxide (NO). The high prevalence of diabetes mellitus type 2 and hypertension in Afro-Caribbeans in the West could be directly related to the incidence of G6PD deficiency in those populations.

Although female carriers can have a mild form of G6PD deficiency (dependent on the degree of inactivation of the unaffected X chromosome – see Skewed X-inactivation), homozygous females have been described; in these females there is co-incidence of a rare immune disorder termed chronic granulomatous disease (CGD).

Diagnosis
The diagnosis is generally suspected when patients from certain ethnic groups (see epidemiology) develop anemia, jaundice and symptoms of hemolysis after challenges from any of the above causes, especially when there is a positive family history.

Generally, tests will include:
 * Complete blood count and reticulocyte count; in active G6PD deficiency, Heinz bodies can be seen in red blood cells on a blood film;
 * Liver enzymes (to exclude other causes of jaundice);
 * Lactate dehydrogenase (elevated in hemolysis and a marker of hemolytic severity)
 * Haptoglobin (decreased in hemolysis);
 * A "direct antiglobulin test" (Coombs' test) – this should be negative, as hemolysis in G6PD is not immune-mediated;

When there are sufficient grounds to suspect G6PD, a direct test for G6PD is the "Beutler fluorescent spot test", which has largely replaced an older test (the Motulsky dye-decolouration test). Other possibilities are direct DNA testing and/or sequencing of the G6PD gene.

The Beutler fluorescent spot test is a rapid and inexpensive test that visually identifies NADPH produced by G6PD under ultraviolet light. When the blood spot does not fluoresce, the test is positive; it can be falsely negative in patients who are actively hemolysing. It can therefore only be done 2–3 weeks after a hemolytic episode.

When a macrophage in the spleen identifies a RBC with a Heinz body, it removes the precipitate and a small piece of the membrane, leading to characteristic "bite cells". However, if a large number of Heinz bodies are produced, as in the case of G6PD deficiency, some Heinz bodies will nonetheless be visible when viewing RBCs that have been stained with crystal violet. This easy and inexpensive test can lead to an initial presumption of G6PD deficiency, which can be confirmed with the other tests.

Testing during and for many weeks after a haemolytic episode will lead to false negative results as the G6PD deficient RBC will have been excreted and the young RBC (reticulocytes) will not yet be G6PD deficient. False negative results will also be likely following any blood transfusions. For this reason, many hospitals wait for 3 months after a haemolytic episode before testing for G6PD deficiency. Females should have their G6PD activity measured by quantitative assay to avoid being misclassified by screening tests.

Classification
The World Health Organization classifies G6PD genetic variants into five classes, the first three of which are deficiency states.
 * Class I: Severe deficiency (<10% activity) with chronic (nonspherocytic) hemolytic anemia
 * Class II: Severe deficiency (<10% activity), with intermittent hemolysis
 * Class III: Moderate deficiency (10–60% activity), hemolysis with stressors only
 * Class IV: Non-deficient variant, no clinical sequelae
 * Class V: Increased enzyme activity, no clinical sequelae

Differential diagnosis
6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD) deficiency has similar symptoms and is often mistaken for G6PD deficiency, as the affected enzyme is within the same pathway, however these diseases are not linked and can be found within the same person.

Treatment
The most important measure is prevention – avoidance of the drugs and foods that cause hemolysis. Vaccination against some common pathogens (e.g. hepatitis A and hepatitis B) may prevent infection-induced attacks.

In the acute phase of hemolysis, blood transfusions might be necessary, or even dialysis in acute kidney failure. Blood transfusion is an important symptomatic measure, as the transfused red cells are generally not G6PD deficient and will live a normal lifespan in the recipient's circulation. Those affected should avoid drugs such as aspirin.

Some patients may benefit from removal of the spleen (splenectomy), as this is an important site of red cell destruction. Folic acid should be used in any disorder featuring a high red cell turnover. Although vitamin E and selenium have antioxidant properties, their use does not decrease the severity of G6PD deficiency.

AG1, a recently discovered small molecule, has been shown to increase the activity of the G6PD enzyme in the three common variants of the deficiency. Due to the absence of medications to treat G6PD, AG1 is a promising precursor in developing a pharmacological treatment effective for multiple G6PD enzymopathies.

Prognosis
G6PD-deficient individuals do not appear to acquire any illnesses more frequently than other people, and may have less risk than other people for acquiring ischemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease. However, a recent study revealed that G6PD deficiency increases the cardiovascular risk up to 70%. The risk conferred by G6PD deficiency is moderate compared with the impact of primary cardiovascular risk factors. Besides, a published review hypothesized that G6PD deficiency could reduce the antiplatelet efficacy of clopidogrel (clopidogrel resistance).

Epidemiology
G6PD deficiency is the second most common human enzyme defect after ALDH2 deficiency, being present in more than 400 million people worldwide. G6PD deficiency resulted in 4,100 deaths in 2013 and 3,400 deaths in 1990. The Mediterranean Basin is where favism is most common, especially among Kurds, Sardinians, Cypriots, Greeks, Egyptians and some African populations, including those who have these ancestries. Favism has also been documented outside of the Mediterranean basin, in other Middle Eastern and East Asian nations like Iraq, Iran, Bulgaria and China. Sardinia has the highest reported frequency of favism, with five instances per every 1,000 people.

A side effect of this disease is that it confers protection against malaria, in particular the form of malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum, the most deadly form of malaria. A similar relationship exists between malaria and sickle-cell disease. One theory to explain this is that cells infected with the Plasmodium parasite are cleared more rapidly by the spleen. This phenomenon might give G6PD deficiency carriers an evolutionary advantage by increasing their fitness in malarial endemic environments. In vitro studies have shown that the Plasmodium falciparum is very sensitive to oxidative damage. This is the basis for another theory, that is that the genetic defect confers resistance due to the fact that the G6PD-deficient host has a higher level of oxidative agents that, while generally tolerable by the host, are deadly to the parasite.

History
The modern understanding of the condition began with the analysis of patients who exhibited sensitivity to primaquine. The discovery of G6PD deficiency relied heavily upon the testing of prisoner volunteers at Illinois State Penitentiary, a type of study which today is considered unethical and cannot be performed. When some prisoners were given the drug primaquine, some developed hemolytic anemia but others did not. In spite of these results, the US military administered the drug widely during the Korean War to prevent the relapsing infection caused by Plasmodium vivax hypnozoites. Numerous cases of hemolytic anemia were observed in US soldiers of North African and Mediterranean descent.

After studying the mechanism through Cr51 testing, it was conclusively shown that the hemolytic effect of primaquine was due to an intrinsic defect of erythrocytes.

Society and culture
In both legend and mythology, favism has been known since antiquity. The priests of various Greco-Roman era cults were forbidden to eat or even mention beans, and Pythagoras had a strict rule that to join the society of the Pythagoreans one had to swear off beans. This ban was supposedly because beans resembled male genitalia, but it is possible that this was because of a belief that beans and humans were created from the same material.


text:
Relaxed stability

In aviation, an aircraft is said to have relaxed stability if it has low or negative stability.

An aircraft with negative stability will have a tendency to change its pitch and bank angles spontaneously. An aircraft with negative stability cannot be trimmed to maintain a certain attitude, and will, when disturbed in pitch or roll, continue to pitch or roll in the direction of the disturbance at an ever-increasing rate.

This can be contrasted with the behaviour of an aircraft with positive stability, which can be trimmed to fly at a certain attitude, which it will continue to maintain in the absence of control input, and, if perturbed, will oscillate in simple harmonic motion on a decreasing scale around, and eventually return to, the trimmed attitude. A positively stable aircraft will also resist any bank movement. A Cessna 152 is an example of a stable aircraft. Similarly, an aircraft with neutral stability will not return to its original attitude without control input, but will continue to roll or pitch at a steady (neither increasing nor decreasing) rate.

Early aircraft
Early attempts at heavier-than-air flight were marked by a differing concept of stability from that used today. Most aeronautical investigators regarded flight as if it were not so different from surface locomotion, except the surface was elevated. They thought of changing direction in terms of a ship's rudder, so the flying machine would remain essentially level in the air, as did an automobile or a ship at the surface. The idea of deliberately leaning, or rolling, to one side either seemed undesirable or did not enter their thinking.

Some of these early investigators, including Langley,  Chanute, and later Santos-Dumont and the Voisin brothers, sought the ideal of "inherent stability" in a very strong sense, believing a flying machine should be built to automatically roll to a horizontal (lateral) position after any disturbance. They achieved this with the help of Hargrave cellular wings (wings with a box kite structure, including the vertical panels) and strongly dihedral wings. In most cases they did not include any means for a pilot to control the aircraft roll —they could control only the elevator and rudder. The unpredicted effect of this was that it was very hard to turn the aircraft without rolling. They were also strongly affected by side gusts and side winds upon landing.

The Wright brothers designed their 1903 first powered Flyer with anhedral (drooping) wings, which are inherently unstable. They showed that a pilot can maintain control of lateral roll and it was a good way for a flying machine to turn—to "bank" or "lean" into the turn just like a bird or just like a person riding a bicycle. Equally important, this method would enable recovery when the wind tilted the machine to one side. Although used in 1903, it would not become widely known in Europe until August 1908, when Wilbur Wright demonstrated to European aviators the importance of the coordinated use of elevator, rudder and roll control for making effective turns.

Vertical wing position
The vertical positioning of the wing changes the roll stability of an aircraft.

 * An aircraft with a "high" wing position (i.e., set on top of the fuselage) has a higher roll stability. For example, the Cessna 152.
 * An aircraft with a "low" wing (i.e., underneath the fuselage) has less roll stability. The Piper Pawnee uses a "low" wing.

Unstable aircraft

Modern military aircraft, particularly low observable ("stealth") designs, often exhibit instability as a result of their shape. The Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk, for instance, employs a highly non-traditional fuselage and wing shape in order to reduce its radar cross section and enable it to penetrate air defenses with relative impunity. However, the flat facets of the design reduce its stability to the point where a computerized fly-by-wire system is required for it to fly.

Relaxed stability designs are not limited to military jets. The McDonnell Douglas MD-11 has a neutral stability design which was implemented to save fuel. To ensure stability for safe flight, an LSAS (Longitudinal Stability Augmentation System) was introduced to compensate for the MD-11's rather short horizontal stabilizer and ensure that the aircraft would remain stable. However, there have been incidents in which the MD-11's relaxed stability caused an "inflight upset".

Intentional instability

Many modern fighter aircraft often employ design elements that reduce stability to increase maneuverability. Greater stability leads to lesser control surface authority; therefore, a less stable design will have a faster response to control inputs. This is highly sought after in fighter aircraft design.

A less stable aircraft requires smaller control deflections to initiate maneuvering; consequently, drag and control surface imposed stresses will be reduced and aircraft responsiveness will be enhanced. Since these characteristics will typically make control by the pilot difficult or impossible, artificial stability will typically be imposed using computers, servos, and sensors as parts of a fly-by-wire control system.

title: Relaxed stability


text:
User talk:Potatoscone

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Tip: you can sign your name with ~

snoyes 16:16, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Vasco da Gama
An article that you've edited before (Vasco da Gama) is nominated for Article Improvement Drive. If you want go there and vote. Thanks. Gameiro 02:58, 31 August 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Potatoscone


text:
Cantor–Bernstein theorem

In set theory and order theory, the Cantor–Bernstein theorem states that the cardinality of the second type class, the class of countable order types, equals the cardinality of the continuum. It was used by Felix Hausdorff and named by him after Georg Cantor and Felix Bernstein. Cantor constructed a family of countable order types with the cardinality of the continuum, and in his 1901 inaugural dissertation Bernstein proved that such a family can have no higher cardinality.

title: Cantor–Bernstein theorem


text:
Dyne:bolic

dyne:bolic GNU/Linux is a Live CD/DVD distribution based on the Linux kernel. It is shaped by the needs of media activists, artists and creators to be a practical tool with a focus on multimedia production, that delivers a large assortment of applications. It allows manipulation and broadcast of both sound and video with tools to record, edit, encode, and stream. In addition to multimedia specific programs, dyne:bolic also provides word processors and common desktop computing tools.

Termed "Rastasoft" by its author, it is based entirely on free software, and as such is recommended and endorsed by the GNU Project. dyne:bolic is created by volunteers and the author and maintainer Jaromil, who also included multimedia tools such as MusE, HasciiCam, and FreeJ in the distribution.

A decade after version 3 was released, dyne:bolic re-entered development with version 4 beta in 2021.

Live CD/DVD
dyne:bolic is intended to be used as Live CD/DVD. It does not require installation to a hard drive. It automatically attempts to recognize most devices and peripherals, including sound and video components. It is designed to be able to run on older and slower computers, its kernel is optimized for low latency and performance. This optimization makes the distribution ideal for audio and video production, potentially transforming PCs into full media stations. Consequently, the software included may not always be the newest version available.

Modules
dyne:bolic can be extended by downloading additional modules, such as development tools or common software like LibreOffice. These modules are SquashFS files placed in the  directory of a dock or a burnt CD and are automatically integrated upon boot.

System requirements
The basic system requirements for version 1.x and 2.x were relatively low. Only requiring a PC with a Pentium MMX or AMD K5 (i586) class CPU, 64 MB of RAM, and an IDE CD-ROM drive is sufficient. Some versions of dyne:bolic 1.x were ported by co-developer Smilzo to be used on the Xbox game console; multiple Xbox installations could be clustered. However, console installation and clustering are currently not supported by version 2.x and up.

Version 3.0, codenamed MUNIR and released on September 8, 2011, features higher system requirements compared to its predecessors. It is the first version to be distributed as a DVD image. Recommended specifications include a Pentium II or AMD K6-2 class processor, 256 MB of RAM, and an IDE/SATA DVD-ROM drive. This version, just like its predecessors, also does not require a hard disk.

Installation
The user copies the  directory from a CD or DVD to a suitably formatted partition or drive, a process referred to as Docking. This filesystem will be recognized and booted by the CD or DVD. There is an option to install a GNU GRUB bootloader or edit an existing one. Booting from a floppy disk is also supported.

User settings can be saved on a disc or USB flash drive in a writable image file containing the  and   filesystems, described as Nesting, which can also be encrypted for better privacy.

dyne:bolic 4.x
This version, currently 4.0 Beta, is based on Devuan 5 with Linux kernel 6.8. It features KDE Plasma 5 as the default desktop environment.

dyne:bolic 3.x
This version, currently 3.0 Beta 4, uses the Linux kernel 3.0.1 and is distributed as a DVD-ROM image. GNOME 2 is used as the default desktop environment and Grub2 as the boot loader.

dyne:bolic 2.x
This version, currently 2.5.2, uses the Linux kernel 2.6 and is distributed as a CD-ROM image. The default desktop environment is Xfce.

dyne:bolic 1.x
In this version, dyne:bolic uses the Linux kernel 2.4 stored on a CD-ROM image and brought the ability to create nests and docks on either a hard disk or USB drive.

Some features that were initially present in dyne:bolic 1.x, but later dropped included:
 * openMosix - a clustering software
 * Ability to boot on an Xbox game console
 * Window Maker - as the X window manager
 * CIA World Factbook - as a local copy

title: Dyne:bolic


text:
Talk:Intel 8088

NEC V20 compatible with the 8088?
Does anyone know if the V-20 was a pin compatible version of the 8088? AQBachler 16:29, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Yes, it was. It was also about 5% or so faster than a stock Intel chip, so it was a popular upgrade back in the day. -lee 05:04, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

The V20's instruction set was based on the 80186/80188.--Jost Riedel (talk) 11:19, 16 March 2019 (UTC)

history
could s.o. tell when this chip was launched (and maybe when it was replaved by its successor)? thanks. — MFH: Talk 20:07, 23 Jun 2005 (UTC)

There is no date for the release this chip. Could somebody who knows please add it?

According to http://www.computerhope.com/cgi-bin/history.pl?6-1 the chip was released on 1st June 1979 not 1st July Chrisleach78 (talk) 08:54, 1 June 2011 (UTC)

So how could it be first manufactured June 1, 1979 when the chip has 1978 stamped on it 5ft24dave (talk) 18:59, 24 January 2022 (UTC)

8088 processor
Could any one tell me as to what is the reason / meaning of using 8088, 8086 etc naming ssytem by intel ? 220.226.46.7 10:49, 4 June 2006 (UTC)

8088
how to connect 8088 to the memory?

Jargon File Citation
The source for the claim that the IBM engineers wanted to use the 68000 for the IBM PC instead of the 8088 is Eric Raymond's jargon file. I don't consider that a reliable source. Indeed, I've read sources that state that in fact early in the development cycle IBM wanted to use an 8-bit CPU similar to the other microcomputers of the era, and was talked into using the sixteen bit 8088 by Microsoft.

Valency (talk) 18:11, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

operate on DC
A recent well-meaning edit changed to with the comment "All CPUs operate on DC. Perhaps there was supposed to be a number here?"
 * the 80C88, ... could operate from DC to 8 MHz.
 * the 80C88, ... could operate up to 8 MHz.

Yes, all the CPUs I know about have DC power applied to their power pins. However, that sentence in the article alludes to the clock pin, not the power pins. Many CPUs have a "minimum frequency" on the clock pin for normal operation. For example, the HCMOS 8086 has a minimum clock frequency of 2 MHz. ("TCLCL CLK Cycle Period: Max 500 ns" -- ).

A fully static core CPU, such as the 80C88, has a minimum clock frequency of 0 Hz (often called "DC", which can be confusing). The dynamic logic (digital electronics) article has more information about the advantages of such fully static cores, but I find it confusing to say "dynamic logic (digital electronics)" to refer to the advantages of static logic.

Is there a way to make this article (and other articles with static cores) less confusing without launching into exactly the same long explanation on each of them? --DavidCary (talk) 06:40, 19 January 2013 (UTC)

 * Simple: just don't use the term "DC" in this sense, since people without the necessary specialist knowledge won't understand what is meant. I myself know a little about electronics, but this interpretation didn't occur to me, though in retrospect I see it makes sense. – Smyth\talk 16:45, 19 January 2013 (UTC)
 * You know, in 16.66 ms, a modern CPU can do millions of operations. I wonder why they don't work on AC? It would save all that hassle with switch mode power supplies. --Wtshymanski (talk) 22:13, 19 January 2013 (UTC)

 * Perhaps it is because you have completely failed to understand what is being discussed. Either that or you are resorting to your trademark sarcasm.  86.157.171.34 (talk) 20:48, 20 January 2013 (UTC)
 * ..but you can't tell the difference? Sorry about that...writing on the Wikipedia is supposed to be clear enough to be accessible to all. Did you notice by the way? --Wtshymanski (talk) 15:23, 21 January 2013 (UTC)

 * Thank you for that edit to the article, Wtshymanski. I hope that makes it clear to everyone -- rather than, as is all too often the case, only understandable to people who already understand. --DavidCary (talk) 20:52, 23 January 2013 (UTC)
 * "Good writing is hard." If you don't know the subject, you can't write about it clearly ( you'll have no idea what's important and wnat's not). If you do know the subject,you'll skip over the easy bits and get to the fascinating technicalities, thereby baffling the reader. Any time someone can actually understand a new subject from a Wikipedia article, an angel gets its wings. --Wtshymanski (talk) 21:43, 23 January 2013 (UTC)

instruction set
I guess, it also had the same instruction-set as the 8086 or are there some differences/bugs? Sivicia (talk) 07:04, 28 August 2017 (UTC)
 * Yes, the same. Ruslik_ Zero 20:43, 28 August 2017 (UTC)

Performance information
This article says the 8088 makes 3–5 MIPS at 10 MHz. Actually the IPC of this processor is 0.070 MIPS/MHz what means it can reach 700k instructions per second at 10 MHz. Source: Table in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructions_per_second Most citated sources confirm that. 94.31.103.158 (talk) 08:21, 28 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Intel 8088


text:
IGS

IGS may stand for:

Computers/Video Games

 * Information Global Service, Japanese video game company
 * Initial Graphics Exchange Specification, file extension .igs
 * InteGraphics Systems a former chip manufacturer
 * Interactive geometry software
 * Internet Go server, for the game of Go
 * IGS Go server, Japanese Go server

Technology

 * Image guided surgery
 * Information Gathering Satellites, Japan
 * Instrument guidance system

Science

 * Institute of General Semantics
 * Intergenic spacer
 * International Glaciological Society
 * International Graphonomics Society
 * International GNSS Service

Schools

 * Ilkley Grammar School
 * International Grammar School, Sydney
 * Ipswich Grammar School
 * Islington Green School

Other

 * Imerslund-Gräsbeck syndrome
 * International Graduates Scheme, a UK immigration scheme
 * Irish Georgian Society
 * Ingolstadt Manching Airport, is a military airbase with civil usage located in Manching near Ingolstadt, Germany

title: IGS


text:
Talk:Simon Crean

Crean's resignation statement
Source material removed from main page:

"It's been a pretty sleepless night, but when I got up this morning I decided to call a ballot for the leadership of the Parliamentary Labor Party at next Tuesday's Caucus meeting and I won't be a candidate for the leadership. It has become obvious to me that I no longer have the confidence of the leadership group and a majority of my Shadow Ministry, and in those circumstances I propose to relinquish my position in the best interests of the great party that we all serve.

"The events of today come at a time when the Australian people are reaping the consequences of John Howard's Prime Ministership:

 * Rising interest rates and the beginnings of trouble in the property market.
 * Plunging rates of bulk billing and a sham policy to fix it.
 * The pricing of education out of the reach of ordinary Australians.

"Labor can win the next election. Australia needs us to. And my strategy of building a case based on solid, fully-costed, early-released policies is working. I hope that my successor will continue to let the Australian people know what we in the Labor Party stand for and that we're in there fighting for their interests every day.

"The Australian people are not clamouring for a change in the leadership of the Labor Party; they are clamouring for a change of government and policies that serve the many not the few. I believe the events of today point to a fundamental difference of priorities between political and media decision makers in Canberra and the majority of the Australian people. Nevertheless I accept the result of these events and wish my successor, whoever that may be, well.

"Right throughout my life in politics and in the trade union movement I have never been afraid to take on the hard jobs. I tackled party reform – which everyone knew we needed but no one else would touch. I confronted the ugly politics of immigration and gave Labor a strong and compassionate policy alternative. I rejected ‘small target' politics and released alternative policies – which I believe will play, and still play, a decisive role in defeating John Howard. I also faced young men and women being sent off to a dishonest war and told them the truth – that whilst I admired them, they should not be going.

"This is the level of honesty with the Australian people and the toughness from the Labor Party that must continue if we are to win the next election.

"I also leave my successor with one point of advice. It comes from the millions of Labor voters, supporters and members in the suburbs and country towns of Australia. Time is running out if we are going to save egalitarianism, compassion and the fair go in this country. Our opponents have set themselves on a course to change this nation for the worse and we mustn't make it easier for them. Don't let your personal ambition cripple the Labor Party as it puts its case for a fairer and better Australia.

"Select a new leader on Tuesday and stick with him or her. Don't put a revolving door on the entrance of the Opposition Leader's office. That door only leads to permanent opposition. This ballot next Tuesday, is not only about leadership, it's about Labor standards, Labor values and how we conduct ourselves as a party.

"During the two years I have had the privilege of serving this great as party as Leader I have enjoyed the support of colleagues and members from all sections of the Labor Party as we have sought to provide an alternative vision to the Howard Government, and I want to thank everyone of them for their loyalty and their dedication.

"I especially want to thank my senior front bench colleagues who have served the Parliamentary Party well and have remained loyal to me and the ideals and goals that we have pursued. I want to thank all those people – party members and members of the public – who have expressed their support for my leadership, and for the policies that we have advanced. I want to thank especially my loyal staff for the dedication, for the hard work that they have put in over these past two years. It's not been easy for them. Most of all I want to thank my wife Carole and my two daughters.

"Time will heal, in my view any personal hurt, thus hurt that comes from events like today. I accept that people have behaved according to what they think are the best interests of our Party and our movement. No one, no one, will be happier than me when my successor as Leader becomes Prime Minister next year. It's what Australia needs and it's what I'm going to back."

Andy Mabbett 16:38, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Ironic
I was just looking at the speech here, where Crean mentions "Rising interest rates and the beginnings of trouble in the property market." as a result of Howard's leadership.

At the recent election, John Howard's main campaign theme was "Keeping interest rates low".

What was the basis of Crean's assessment? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 220.240.179.143 (talk) 19:27, 23 October 2004 (UTC)

Rating comment
(rating comment - only reason it didn't get B was lack of citations to verify points. if these are provided at some future time I think it can be fairly safely re-rated as B class) Orderinchaos78 12:50, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one article was rated and this bot brought all the other ratings up to at least that level. BetacommandBot 04:28, 28 August 2007 (UTC)

Reference probably replaced or otherwise corrupted
Along with the info box being out of date, I feel a previous editor change the APH reference to the current ABC link, which is a valid reference, but not necessarily for all the places it is referred to. I don't have time to check/fix now. Mark Hurd (talk) 04:34, 28 June 2010 (UTC)

The photo is not particularly good
If possible, the photograph for the article should be replaced. Since he's laughing, his face is red and his eyes are almost completely closed, so it's harder to recognise him than it would otherwise be. A lot of people would read this article having never seen Simon Crean before, so it's important to show him looking like he normally does. (Huey45 (talk) 09:54, 28 June 2010 (UTC))

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title: Talk:Simon Crean


text:
East African

East African may refer to:
 * Any person or object of, or pertaining to, East Africa
 * East African Safari Air, an airline based in Kenya, now trading as Fly-SAX
 * The EastAfrican, a weekly newspaper in East Africa

title: East African