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Talk:Soul food

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General Southern food
Or even so-called "White Trash" cooking: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Matthew_Mickler — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2600:1700:6AE5:2510:0:0:0:24 (talk) 00:00, 13 January 2024 (UTC)

Older comments
Is this term in the article correct? "Southern American African Americans"

 * It's not wrong, but it's a bit stilted. I'll beat on it some. Salsa Shark 07:42, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

This food is basically just the common food of the South, black or white. Except for chitlins, my mother, from Oklahoma, or her mother-in-law, also from Oklahoma, used to cook all of these dishes. RickK 05:53, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Rlquall 16:39, 13 Sep 2004 (UTC)

I don't know exactly what to do with this article. More opinions? [[User:Aranel|Aranel ("Sarah")]] 21:36, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * There's plenty of soul food restaurants in the South, or at least there are in Georgia. There was one around the corner from my high school (and we got to go when we made straight-A's). There's even one in Orlando, Florida--the Motown Cafe at Universal Orlando. It's more of a "corporate" version of a soul food restaurant, but the more true-to-life ones are plentiful (nearly omnipresent) in Atlanta--b. Touch 07:04, 12 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I changed "eaten" to "prepared by" ("created by" may be even better, now that I think about it) in the first sentence, as it is more consistent with the m-w.com definition, along with some of the top google hits. The info seems pretty consistent that most of the dishes were first created by southern black americans, but I can easily believe that they escaped the racial boundaries several generations ago, at least in the South--I've lived in Seattle for almost 40 years, and the dishes in the article are definitely more preferred by black residents than other races. Looking at this list of 'soul food' restaurants in Seattle, other than the paid ads and a couple downtown, they are exclusively in very predominately black neighborhoods. Niteowlneils 01:44, 17 Oct 2004 (UTC)

I have to agree with the above statements. Soul food seems to be associated with blacks only outside the southin the south its just southern cooking---rich and poor blacks and whites have been eating it for generations. Also, the article needs to make a stronger point that sould food does not have the same negative associations it once hadmany people regardless of color or socioeconomic level love this hearty fare. Kemet 21:05, 26 June 2006 (UTC) Not really. In the South it's associated with blacks too — Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.104.210.47 (talk) 01:32, 16 April 2017 (UTC)

As a Black American who has extensively researched Soul Food and other aspects of Black culture. I can verify that Soul Food isn't clearly distinguished from White Southern cooking in the South. The only way that I have found that people make the distinction between Soul Food and Southern cooking is simply by the race of the person preparing the food. Other than this, the two cuisines are the same. All of the same dishes are eaten by White Southerners. Especially Poor White Southerners to some degree. Even dishes such as chitlins or fatback can be found in White Southern communities as well. Especially Poor White communities in the Lowland South. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:5C4:4300:4A00:C19B:1B8F:1805:3149 (talk) 23:12, 24 December 2022 (UTC)

Low Country Cooking
I think there definitely needs to be a nod to this style of cuisine as part of soul food -- and, perhaps, a separate section. deeceevoice 07:43, 20 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Enlighten me
This is a serious question, not a rhetorical one: Why are lima beans erroneously referred to as "butter beans"? Why is this necessarily incorrect? Rlquall 18:53, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * There's a difference. Same species, different size/maturation/flavor.  This from the Internet:

 * "Lima and Butter Beans - The difference between butter beans and lima beans is based on the size of the pods and seeds. The small-seeded, butter beans tolerate more heat, but it takes forever to shell a mess of butter beans!

 * "In cooler areas, some of the runner types of the large-seeded, lima beans have pods 5 inches long, with half a dozen big, flat seeds per pod. Some of the bush types have small, fat seeds in nearly round pods. These are called 'potato limas.' Lima and butter beans with speckled seeds have a stronger taste than the white- or green-seeded varieties."

 * I remember as a young child sitting in the kitchen in Bethany, Texas, with my grandmother, each of us with one of those large, enameled tinware bowls in our laps, shelling "a mess of (speckled) butter beans." It took forever. deeceevoice 09:28, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Changed "Country fried steak" to "Chicken fried steak". Country fried steak is a recent invention only used at restaurants (like Denny's) that cater to people who are easily confused by the lack of chicken in their chicken fried steak. Also, I'd like to add that I'm white, and from the south, and grew up with many of these dishes. Though, as someone else pointed out, it's usually a grandma doing this kind of cooking.

24.215.179.19 05:42, 14 January 2006 (UTC)Thank you! I thought I was imagining that we had always called that item chicken-fried steak. And I ate almost all of thse dishes--sould food is Southern food, with maybe the exception of chitlins and a few othet items. But by whatever name--soul/Southern food = YUM.

Problem with the list
Going on the common journalistic principle that you "assume the reader know nothing"--i.e., has no foreknowledge of any major point in the article, this list suffers from familiar to distinguish between "soul food," which I would define as those dishes especially associated with African-Americans, and "things that African-Americans traditionally like to eat" or "commonly ate in Southern households."

Certain things, such as chitterlings and collards have a strong association with black cuisine and culture, while others are not at all special. Mac 'n' cheese, meatloaf and mashed potatoes are stereotypical middle-American fare. Chicken livers are prepared in anything from chopped liver (associated with Jews) to roasting in piquant sauces. Hot sauce is more identifiable to Hispanic/Latino culture. Rice? Just about everywhere in the world. I think we should figure out some way of better informing the reader. -- Cecropia | explains it all ® 19:56, 22 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Classifying something as "soul food" doesn't mean it is exclusive to African American culture. And, no.  Hot sauce is definitely a soul food item.  It is different from Tabasco sauce and different from anything found in traditionally Indio-Latino food.  Peppers and spicy food are all about spices (peppers) commonly grown used in tropical climates and common in African/creole cooking, as opposed to the relative blandness of traditional European (white) food.  (Remember, white folks went to the Orient/Africa for their spices.)  And rice is most definitely soul food.  In fact, had it not been for the expertise of African slaves, who were familiar with the crop, rice cultivation likely would not have survived in the U.S. at all.  What?  Because rice is eaten all over tthe world, you would not mention it in an article devoted to the culinary traditions of China or Japan?  Ridiculous!  deeceevoice 23:34, 22 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Actually African foods in themselves is not soul food. Soul food is Southern black food. Louisiana is more African than Southern. So they are not included. RICE is not soul food. It's Spanish food, common in Spain and Spanish countries. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.104.210.47 (talk) 01:25, 16 April 2017 (UTC)

Also, Chicken Fried Steak is not what I would call Soul Food because it was created as a substitute for Weiner Schnitzel when veal was unavailable among German immigrants in Texas. Not so much Soul Food as simply American. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Special:Contributions/ (talk)

Chicken Fried Steak is what I would call Southern Food. But being from the South I don't call Southern food Soul Food so... —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.149.75.183 (talk) 19:36, 17 January 2009 (UTC)

Collard greens
I thought some of the people interested soul food might be interested in the question of what to name the article currently known as Collard greens.

There are really two questions. One is a complicated one about what is collard greens, what is kale, and what is spring greens, and whether they should have separate articles or be merged.

The second is, assuming there is a separate article, whether it should be called Collard, Collards, or Collard greens.

Your thoughts are welcome.

Pekinensis 19:11, 17 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Call it Collard greens, and state in the lead sentence "Collard greens, also known as simply collards...". I've heard a few people say "collards", but almost everyone I know says "collard greens". --b. Touch 01:51, 18 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Sweet Bread
A page on soul food with out including "Sweet Bread"? I hope my Mama don't see this page.

 * LOL! --FuriousFreddy 02:29, 23 October 2005 (UTC)

The word slaveowner
I can't find the word slaveowner in any of the dictionaries I have (Webster's 11th Collegiate, American Heritage, 4th ed., Chambers, 9th ed.). Is there a source for slaveowner? Thanks. —Wayward Talk 02:05, 11 November 2005 (UTC)

A slave owner is someone who owned and sold African people like they were property. They (Africans) were forced to be slaves.Email/User Talk 12:28, 22 August 2008 (UTC)

Non-native food
What foods were brought from Africa? Rich Farmbrough, 21:14 3 September 2006 (GMT).
 * Peanuts but they were brought from South America to Africa first. Perhaps watermelon and black-eyed peas.12.27.66.8 (talk) 20:32, 13 July 2017 (UTC)

Soul Food Online
Should that link to Soul Food Online really be under 'history and culture'? It's already listed under external links - Conner 10 September 2006.

Rituals
I'm thinking there should be a section dealing with food-related rituals in African American culture here. Like the pouring of libations "for those who are no longer here" -- very West African. Like the preparation and consumption of greens (or cabbage) and blackeyed peas for New Year's Day to ensure prosperity. Like church homecoming picnics and Sunday dinners and rent parties -- and, oh, those Saturday night fish fries! deeceevoice 05:07, 28 January 2007 (UTC)

Indigenous Influence
IM pretty sure that "native american" food had more of an influence on soul food than is suggested in the article. that is so true i believe there is more native american influence then was mentioned because most african americans and their culture is tri-racial native american and european and west and central african influence on african americans and their culture is extremaly high — Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.112.93.105 (talk) 20:10, 21 June 2011 (UTC)

Needs work
I read only one section and made a few changes. The piece needs a good editorial once-over. There were a lot of generalizations that needed qualifying, or text that required general clean-up for unencyclopedic language in the portion I read. Also, throughout "south" is often not capitalized -- which is incorrect. When used to refer to the region, it is always capitalized. deeceevoice 20:22, 11 August 2007 (UTC)

Inconsistency in "Soul food and health"
"Soul food was developed by enslaved Africans who lived under the difficult and impoverished conditions of grinding physical labor. The history of soul food does not begin with the roots of slavery, but with traditions stretching back to Africa." Either it began with slavery or not. Either this is inconsistent or confusingly stated. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 148.87.1.172 (talk) 19:42, 28 January 2008 (UTC)
 * Agreed. And its caused a race-centric heart disease pandemic that the article quietly tip-toes around. --98.232.182.66 (talk) 09:45, 21 September 2008 (UTC)

why is there a hea;th section?
The article on southern cuisine does not have despite southern cuisine being VERY unhealthy. YVNP (talk) 14:42, 29 November 2008 (UTC)

Chitterlings
The section

"African American slaves also developed recipes which used discarded meat from the plantation, such as pigs' feet, beef tongue or tail, ham hocks, chitterlings (pig small intestines), pig ears, hog jowls, tripe and skin."

is somewhat misleading as it suggests (perhaps unintentionally) that African American slaves developed the recipe of chitterlings. Chitterling is a Middle English word (1066-1460 AD) for a pig's small intestine, especially when fried as a food, and it was a common foodstuff for poor people in Europe in the medieval period. Likewise tripe is a Middle English word and refers amongst other things to those parts of the entrails (commonly the stomach) used as food. Poor people in medieval Europe used pretty much every part of the animal; I'm sure poor people across the world did the same, so it is not a specifically African American slave-related thing to exploit these parts. Is there some way of phrasing the sentence unambiguously so that it is clear they they used these parts but that there is no suggestion that they were the first to do so. 86.133.244.80 (talk) 12:38, 19 January 2009 (UTC)

Lots of valid info removed
Just wanted to note that a user just removed a ton of valid information; all of the following was removed:

Other items
- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	- 	-
 * Chow-chow (a spicy, homemade pickle relish sometimes made with okra, corn, cabbage, hot peppers, green tomatoes and other vegetables; commonly used to top black-eyed peas and otherwise as a condiment and side dish)
 * Grits (or "hominy grits", made from processed, dried, ground corn kernels and usually eaten as a breakfast food the consistency of porridge; also served with fish and meat at dinnertime, similar to polenta) Eaten by most Americans in the south
 * Hot sauce (a condiment of cayenne peppers, vinegar, salt, garlic and other spices often used on chitterlings, fried chicken and fish including homemade or Texas Pete, Frank's, Tabasco, or Louisiana brand) A contribution from the Cajun people of Louisiana
 * Macaroni and cheese (usually cooked from scratch with cheddar cheese, milk, flour, and seasonings mustard is option but a rarity.) It becomes a casserole when meats, such as bacon or ham, are added. Eaten all over America
 * Rice pudding, with rice and corn-based vanilla pudding Eaten in many cultures
 * Sorghum syrup (from sorghum, or "Guinea corn," a sweet grain indigenous to Africa introduced into the U.S. by African slaves in the early 17th century; see biscuits); frequently referred to as "sorghum molasses"
 * Sweet tea, inexpensive orange pekoe (black tea, often Lipton, Tetley, or Luzianne brands) boiled, sweetened with cane sugar, and chilled, served with lemon. The tea is sometimes steeped in the sun instead of boiled; this is referred to as "sun tea" General Southern cuisine
 * Salmon Patties (also known as Salmon Croquet/Croquettes), a mixture of skinned & de-boned salmon, mixed with cornmeal, eggs, milk and onions fried in a skillet to make small, round patties.
 * Red Velvet Cake - a popular cake within the African-American culture, in which some say the dark reddish color of the cake symbolizes the struggles of African-Americans during the decades. Eaten in many cultures
 * Waffles
 * Watermelons
 * Banana Pudding

--172.129.151.213 (talk) 05:36, 14 March 2009 (UTC)

 * I see why its having been removed is a problem. carl bunderson (talk) (contributions) 05:46, 14 March 2009 (UTC)

I added all the info that was there from the last time I made a edit here. Everything should be back in order but I may have missed something. Gune (talk) 17:28, 15 March 2009 (UTC)

I'm new to wiki editing, so I have not made any changes, but I thought that I would protest the historical lean of this article in hopes that someone else will fix it. There is very little mention of food, and lots of discussion around topic of how the cuisine came to be. While the historical implications and discussion are worthwhile and enriching, a food page should still be primarily about food. There aren't even a small selection of common dishes on this page, which seems off. Someone seems to have a hair up their butt about claiming soul food for black people is what it seems like to me. (Sorry, there's an elephant in the room here.) Can we get someone on making this food article about, you know, food? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.245.27.16 (talk) 09:01, 9 October 2010 (UTC)

Origins section - dates
This section is confusing:

 * Many culinary historians believe that in the beginning of the 14th century, around the time of early Euro-African exploration, European explorers brought their own food supplies and introduced them into local African diets. Foods such as corn and cassava from the Americas, turnips from Morocco, and cabbage from Portugal would play an important part in the history of African-American cooking.

 * When the Europeans began their African slave trade in the early 15th century, the diet of newly-enslaved Africans changed on the long journeys away from their homelands. It was during this time that some of the indigenous crops of Africa began showing up in the Americas.

How could corn and cassava be introduced to Africa by Europeans in the early 14th century (i.e. early 1300s) when these foods didn't appear in Europe until after 1492? Should "14th" read "16th"?

And the African slave trade to the Americas did not begin until the 16th (not 15th) century.

I don't have access to the cited reference so can't check these out properly. Newburyjohn (talk) 08:31, 26 August 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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Healthy Soul Food
I've proposed an article on the trend for healthy soul food at Proposed Articles. If you Google the phrase you will find there is a lot of interest in this.12.27.66.8 (talk) 19:38, 7 July 2017 (UTC)

Not black food
So I see people have been complaining since at least twelve years ago that this article is incorrect in suggesting that these are 'black foods', and saying that these are foods that were, and are, eaten by ALL poor Southerners, which included both the blacks and a majority of the whites. Yet no-one as bothered to actually fix it. Maybe they are waiting for a round 15 years? It's called 'soul food' and associated with blacks because it is found in black urban neighborhoods were they serve food associated with home. If you were to find large concentrations of poor Southern whites that had moved North and settled in the cities, you'd undoubtedly find the same food called 'Reb chow' or something of the sort. But the poor whites stayed home, or went West and integrated into the larger population...along with their cooking... instead of forming 'Confederate Towns' in major Northern cities. The blacks did migrate, and the term 'soul food' used to describe the home cooking found in black restaurants was adopted and came to be used even in the South. If it was already in use, then that was what popularized it. But it's not 'black food', and it wasn't invented by black people.

64.222.158.24 (talk) 05:11, 21 September 2018 (UTC)
 * If you can provide sources for these assertions, you are more than welcome to improve the article. Jessicapierce (talk) 05:15, 21 September 2018 (UTC)

Pending Updates
Although some users are concerned about the origins of Soul Food, I have been doing research that supports the claim that soul food has strong African influences. Thus, I seek to add sections to this page regarding the following: African influence, and perhaps a cultural relevance section discussing the work that scholars did during the Civil Rights Movement and Black Power Movements to have soul food positioned as an aspect of the African American cultural identity. I will not be adding these until I have sufficient sources. I also plan on making minor changes to the language on the page and will be deleting phrases that seem less relevant or biased. Cheesesteaklover16 (talk) 06:00, 25 October 2018 (UTC)

I have removed a section under the section that mentioned a French chef being fired by Washington, after several research attempts the results came up false. During my research I did discover that Benjamin Harrison and his wife did in fact fire a french chef for a black chef. I added more information on other presidents who followed in Harrisons footsteps with the inclusion of black chefs in the White House. I then added extra background information on African tribes who were enslaved. Lastly, I added context to the day to day food intake of a slave. Vnessvsmars Vnessvsmars (talk) 02:33, 2 December 2019 (UTC)

Adrian Dare's book Soul Food: The Surprising Story of an American Cuisine, One Plate at a Time needs to be used
He give a nuanced and detailed overview that seems useful. He divides th history into

The Slave Food period (1619-1865) which is about what the slaves themselves ate.

The Southern Cooking period (1865-present) "African Americans foodways within the rural South after Emancipation and before, during, and after the Great Migrations."

The Down Home Cooking period (1890S-1970S) where he discussed urban foodways - what happened during the Great Migrations.

The Soul Food period (i950s-present) where southern food merges with racial politics

TNeo-Soul period (1990s-present.

He discusses the three regional systems of slavery quoting Isaiah Berlin:"a Northern non-plantation system and two Southern plantation systems, one around [the] Chesapeake Bay and the other in the Carolina and Georgia low-country.” To those he adds two other areas where he sees distinct systems, Louisiana and the surrounding area and the Black Belt (U.S. region) saying that "The interplay between diverse peoples (Native Americans, Europeans, and West Africans), soils, climates, larders, and culinary traditions led to the development of distinct cuisines within each slaving system.... those cuisines are still with us as subregional cuisines within southern cooking (see Map 2). The Chesapeake Bay area—where American chattel."

One interesting thing I didn't know is the importance of chickens in West Africa where when chickens arrived they were integrated into their religious systems. The book looks like an excellent read, I might buy it. Doug Weller talk 08:40, 12 January 2020 (UTC)

Health concerns / Dubious
The current HC section is not written in a coherent order and the content is not in the best state.
 * There is also often a foundational difference in how health is perceived; references a source that deals with perception of health in general, not for soul food. Applying it for soul food is with a may is, as far as I am concerned, OR.
 * Fueled by federal subsidies, the agricultural system in the United States became industrialized as the nutritional value of most processed foods, and not just those implicated in a traditional perception of soul food, have degraded. No page number, vague "processed" idea, plus how much worse can lard & salted pork get?
 * Look, we have a more obvious explanation of "high-calorie food evolved for hard slave labor not great for sedentary people". If we want to talk capitalism, we talk about food deserts, not how processed food is somehow getting worse.
 * P.S. fresh vegetables are not getting less nutritious, in case someone wants to bring that up.
 * P.P.S. I don't know whether the source directly relates to soul food.
 * Collard: having one good thing in a diet does not fix its structural issues. It's like how having whole grains in your breakfast cereal doesn't change the fact that it's sweetened with straight sugar.
 * Legumes: probably a valid point, but best to have a source linked to soul food specifically. This one is also a dead link.

What's to be done? Besides fixing the content issues, the ordering needs to be fixed. We should stick to three sub-sections:

Artoria2e5 🌉 11:33, 28 October 2023 (UTC)
 * Nutritional content: criticized for sodium & fat etc, plus the reuse of lard; but at the end, mention the pot liquor.
 * Nutritional modifications: use the vegetable replacement paragraph, AND write new stuff using
 * Reaction to modification, e.g. the authenticity debate

title: Talk:Soul food


text:
Talk:Church of Christ, Scientist

this sentence is grammatically nonsensical - please fix it
The middle clause, consisting of a single word, "Second", is grammatically nonsensical. Please fix it and rewrite this sentence. I would edit it myself but I have no idea what this sentence is trying to say.

"Branch churches of The Mother Church may take the title of First Church of Christ, Scientist; Second; but the article The must not be used, presumably to concede the primacy of the Boston Mother Church."

156.77.111.16 (talk) 18:16, 14 July 2014 (UTC)

Membership
I followed the link as to church membership, and in no way did it say that the church reports a membership of 85,000. In fact, the church specifically does not report membership totals. Estimates as to church membership seems to range between 450,000 to fewer than 100,000. I've made the changes. HandsomeSam57 (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 04:11, 12 February 2018 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Church of Christ, Scientist


text:
Spelman College

Spelman College is a private, historically Black, women's liberal arts college in Atlanta, Georgia. It is a founding member of the Atlanta University Center academic consortium. Founded in 1881 as the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary, Spelman awarded its first college degrees in 1901 and is the oldest private historically Black liberal arts institution for women.

Founding

The  Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary was established on 11 April, 1881 in the basement of Friendship Baptist Church in Atlanta, Georgia, by two teachers from the Oread Institute of Worcester, Massachusetts: Harriet E. Giles and Sophia B. Packard. Giles and Packard had met while Giles was a student, and Packard the preceptress, of the New Salem Academy in New Salem, Massachusetts, and fostered a lifelong friendship there. The two of them traveled to Atlanta specifically to found a school for Black freedwomen, and found support from Frank Quarles, the pastor of Friendship Baptist Church.

Giles and Packard began the school with 11 African-American women and $100 given to them by the First Baptist Church in Medford, Massachusetts, and a promise of further support from the Woman's American Baptist Home Mission Society (WABHMS), a group with which they were both affiliated in Boston. Although their first students were mostly illiterate, they envisioned their school to be a liberal arts institution – the first circular of the college stated that they planned to offer "algebra, physiology, essays, Latin, rhetoric, geometry, political economy, mental philosophy (psychology), chemistry, botany, Constitution of  the United  States, astronomy, zoology, geology, moral philosophy, and evidences  of Christianity". Over time, they attracted more students; by the time the first term ended, they had enrolled 80 students in the seminary. The WABHMS made a down payment on a nine-acre (36,000 m2) site in Atlanta relatively close to the church they began in, which originally had five buildings left from a Union Civil War encampment, to support classroom and residence hall needs.

In 1882 the two women returned to Massachusetts to bid for more money and were introduced to wealthy Northern Baptist businessman John D. Rockefeller at a church conference in Ohio. Rockefeller was impressed by Packard's vision. In April 1884, Rockefeller visited the school. By this time, the seminary had 600 students and 16 faculty members. It was surviving on generous donations by the Black community in Atlanta, the efforts of volunteer teachers, and gifts of supplies; many Atlanta Black churches, philanthropists, and Black community groups raised and donated money to settle the debt on the property that had been acquired. Rockefeller was so impressed that he settled the debt on the property. Rockefeller's wife, Laura Spelman Rockefeller; her sister, Lucy Spelman; and their parents, Harvey Buel and Lucy Henry Spelman, were also supportive of the school. The Spelmans were longtime activists in the abolitionist movement. In 1884 the name of the school was changed to the Spelman Seminary in honor of Laura Spelman and her parents. Rockefeller also donated the funds for what is currently the oldest building on campus, Rockefeller Hall, which was constructed in 1886.

Packard was appointed as Spelman's first president in 1888, after the charter for the seminary was granted. Packard died in 1891, and Giles assumed the presidency until her death in 1909. A diploma granting institution in its early years, in 1901, Spelman awarded its first college degrees.

Growth
The years 1910 to 1953 saw great growth and transition for the seminary. Upon Giles' death, Lucy Hale Tapley became president. Although the college was a stride in and of itself, at the time, neither the founders nor the current administration had interest in challenging the status quo of young women as primarily responsible for the family and the home. Tapley declared: "Any course of study which fails to cultivate a taste and fitness for practical and efficient work in some part of the field of the world's needs is unpopular at Spelman and finds no place in our curriculum." The nursing curriculum was strengthened; a teachers' dormitory and a home economics building were constructed, and Tapley Hall, the science building, was completed in 1925. The Granddaughters' Club, a club for students whose mothers and aunts had attended Spelman was also created, and this club is still in existence today.

In September 1924, Spelman Baptist Seminary officially became Spelman College. Florence Matilda Read assumed the presidency in 1927. Shortly thereafter, Spelman entered into an "agreement of affiliation" with nearby Morehouse College and Atlanta University by chartering the Atlanta University Center in 1929. Atlanta University was to provide graduate education for students, whereas Morehouse and Spelman were responsible for the undergraduate education. At a time during which Black students were often denied access to graduate studies at predominantly white southern research universities, access to Atlanta University allowed the undergraduate students at Morehouse and Spelman immediate access to graduate training.

In 1927, one of the most important buildings on campus, Sisters Chapel, was dedicated. The chapel was named for its primary benefactors, sisters Laura Spelman Rockefeller and Lucy Maria Spelman. The college had also begun to see an improvement in extracurricular investment in the arts, with the organization of the Spelman College Glee Club in 1925, inauguration of the much-loved Atlanta tradition of the annual Spelman-Morehouse Christmas Carol Concert and smaller events such as the spring orchestra and chorus concert, the Atlanta University Summer Theater, and the University Players, a drama organization for AUC students. The school also began to see more of a focus on collegiate education, as it discontinued its elementary and high school divisions. In 1930 the Spelman Nursery School was created as a training center for mothers and a practice arena for students who planned careers in education and child development. Spelman celebrated its 50th anniversary in April 1931. This milestone was accompanied by the construction of a university library that was shared amongst the Atlanta University Center institutions, and the center continues to share a library to this day.

The school continued to expand, building and acquiring more property to accommodate the growing student body. In 1947, Spelman joined the list of "approved institutions" of the Association of American Universities. In 1953, Florence Read retired, and Albert E. Manley became the first Black and first male president of the college. Under his presidency and the presidency of his successor, Donald Stewart, Spelman saw significant growth. The college established its study abroad program, the Merrill Foreign Travel-Study Program. Stewart's administration tripled the college's endowment and oversaw the establishment of the Comprehensive Writing Program, an across-the-curriculum writing program that requires students to submit portfolios of their written work; the Ethel Waddell Githii College Honors Program; and the Women's Research and Resource Center. In 1958, the college received accreditation from the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools.

Civil rights involvement
Going into the 1960s, the Spelman College students became involved in civil rights actions in Atlanta. In 1962, the first Spelman students were arrested for participating in sit-ins in the Atlanta community. Noted American historian Howard Zinn was a professor of history at Spelman during this era, and served as an adviser to the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee chapter at the college. Zinn mentored many of Spelman's students fighting for civil rights at the time, including Alice Walker and Marian Wright Edelman Zinn was dismissed from the college in 1963 for supporting Spelman students in their efforts to fight segregation; at the time, Spelman was focused on turning out "refined young ladies." Edelman herself writes that Spelman had a reputation as "a tea-pouring, very strict school designed to turn Black girls into refined ladies and teachers."

1980–present
Stewart retired in 1986, and the following year, Johnnetta Betsch Cole became the first Black female president of Spelman College. During this time, the college became noted for its commitment to community service and its ties to the local community. Cole also led the college's most successful capital campaign; between 1986 and 1996, the college raised $113.8 million, including a $20 million gift from Bill Cosby and his wife, Camille Hanks Cosby, whose daughter graduated from Spelman. In honor of this gift, the Cosby Academic Center was constructed. In July 2015, the remainder of the funds were returned and an endowed professorship named for the Cosby couple discontinued as allegations of sexual assault by Bill Cosby grew more prominent.

In 1997, Cole stepped down and Audrey Forbes Manley became Spelman's first alumna president. After her retirement, in 2002, Beverly Daniel Tatum, the college's president until 2015, took the post. The campus now comprises 26 buildings on 39 acre in Atlanta.

In 2011, First Lady Michelle Obama served as the keynote commencement speaker. The following year, Oprah Winfrey served as the keynote commencement speaker.

In 2015, Spelman opened the Wellness Center at Reed Hall, a state-of-the-art recreation center. It is host to a multitude of services from an indoor track and cycling room to a teaching kitchen and a multitude of fitness and wellness programs. Also in 2015, Mary Schmidt Campbell was named the tenth president of Spelman College.

In 2017, Spelman's leadership voted to allow transgender women to enroll in the institution.

In 2018, Spelman received $30 million from Spelman trustee Ronda Stryker for the construction of a new state-of-the-art building on campus. Two years later, the college received another significant donation: $40 million from philanthropists Reed Hastings and his wife Patty Quillin to be used as scholarship funds for students enrolled at Spelman. In July 2020, Spelman received a notably large undisclosed donation from philanthropist MacKenzie Scott.

In April 2022, Helene Gayle was named the 11th president of Spelman College.

In January 2024, Spelman received the largest single donation in its history and the largest ever to a HBCU with $100 million given by Spelman trustee Ronda Stryker and her husband, William Johnston. Spelman stated that $75 million of the $100 million donation will go towards endowed scholarships for future students, and the remaining $25 million will be used to "develop an academic focus on public policy and democracy, improve student housing and provide flexible funding to meet critical strategic needs."

Presidents
Since its inception Spelman has had 11 presidents:

 * Sophia B. Packard (1888) founded the women's seminary with Giles in a basement of the historic Friendship Baptist Church (Atlanta) and cultivated Rockefeller support for the school
 * Harriet E. Giles (1891) under whom the school granted its first college degrees
 * Lucy Hale Tapley (1910) under whom the school decided to focus on higher education, the school officially became Spelman College (1927), and Sisters Chapel, one of the main buildings on campus, was erected
 * Florence M. Read, (1927) under whom the school established an endowment fund of over $3 million, the school came into agreement with Atlanta University and Morehouse College to form the Atlanta University Center (later Clark-Atlanta University, Morris Brown College, Morehouse School of Medicine, and the Interdenominational Theological Center were added), the Arnett Library was built, and Spelman earned approval from the American Association of Universities
 * Albert E. Manley (1953) (the first Black and first male president of Spelman), under whom study abroad programs were established, the fine arts center was built, and three new residence halls and several classroom buildings were renovated. According to Howard Zinn, Manley tried to suppress the student civil rights movement that was taking place on campus during his tenure
 * Donald M. Stewart (1976) under whom the departments of women's studies and chemistry were founded, and three strategic programs were formed: the Comprehensive Writing Program, the Women's Research and Resource Center, and the Ethel Waddell Githii Honors Program, and a continuing education department and a computer literacy program were established
 * Johnnetta B. Cole (1987) (the first African-American woman president of Spelman), under whom the college received $20 million from Drs. William and Camille Cosby for the construction of the Cosby Academic Center and instituted the Cole Institute for Community Service
 * Audrey F. Manley (1997) (the first alumna president of Spelman), under whom Spelman gained a Phi Beta Kappa chapter, Spelman was accepted as a provisional member of NCAA Division III athletics, and the Science Center was finished
 * Beverly Daniel Tatum, (2002) under whom renovation of Sisters Chapel began and the state-of-the-art Wellness Center was finished
 * Mary Schmidt Campbell, (2015) under whom Spelman began its largest comprehensive campaign in the institution's history setting a fundraising goal of $250 million. Also, Spelman's 84,000-square-foot Center for Innovation & the Arts is named in honor of Campbell
 * Helene Gayle, (2022) is a leading epidemiologist with over 20 years of experience with the Center for Disease Control. She served as president and CEO of The Chicago Community Trust, one of the nation's oldest and largest community foundations. She also served as president and CEO of Atlanta-based CARE, one of the largest international humanitarian organizations

Museum of Fine Art
The Spelman College Museum of Fine Art is the only museum in the United States that emphasizes art by and about women of the African Diaspora. Some Black Women artists the museum has featured include Amy Sherald, Harmonia Rosales, Mickalene Thomas, Beverly Buchanan,  Zanele Muholi, and Reneé Stout. Each semester, the museum features a new exhibit.

In 2016, the museum collaborated with Spelman's Department of Art and Art History to start a two-year curatorial studies program to increase diversity in the museum industry.

Academics
Spelman is ranked tied for 39th of 185 of among national liberal arts colleges and 1st among 79 historically Black colleges in the United States by U.S. News & World Report for 2023-24; additionally, it tied for 2nd of 196 in "Social Mobility", tied for 15th of 19 for "Most Innovative", 19th of 36 for "Best Undergraduate Teaching", and 60th of 93 for "Best Value" among liberal arts colleges. Spelman leads the nation in enrolling the highest percentage of Gates Millennium Scholars. Spelman ranked first among baccalaureate origin institutions of African-American women who earned science, engineering, and mathematics doctoral degrees. Spelman ranked among the top 50 four-year colleges and universities for producing Fulbright and Gilman Scholars, and ranked the second-largest producer of African-American college graduates who attend medical school.

Spelman is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS). Spelman is a member of the Coalition of Women's Colleges, National Association of Schools of Music (NASM), National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, The College Fund/UNCF, National Association for College Admissions Counseling, and State of Georgia Professional Standards Commission (PSC).

Spelman offers bachelor's degrees in over 30 academic majors. In addition, Spelman has strategic partnerships with over 30 accredited universities to help students complete degree programs not offered on campus in healthcare, law, and engineering. Its most popular majors, by number out of 483 graduates in 2022, were:
 * Psychology (70)
 * Biology/Biological Sciences (69)
 * Political Science and Government (50)
 * Health Services/Allied Health/Health Sciences (44)
 * Economics (42)
 * English Language and Literature (35)

The Ethel Waddell Githii Honors Program is a selective academic community available to students who meet the requirements.

Spelman houses several pre-professional and research programs designed to make students more competitive for admissions into graduate school programs. Approximately two-thirds of Spelman graduates have earned postgraduate degrees.

Spelman has domestic exchange and study abroad programs. Approximately 70% of Spelman students have studied abroad before graduation.

Spelman has the highest graduation rate among HBCUs, with a graduation rate of 76% after six years. It also has a student:faculty ratio of 9:1.

Honor societies
Registered academic honor societies include Phi Beta Kappa, Alpha Epsilon Delta, Alpha Lambda Delta, Alpha Sigma Lambda, Beta Kappa Chi, Golden Key International Honour Society, Kappa Delta Epsilon, Mortar Board Senior Honor Society, National Society of Collegiate Scholars, Pi Sigma Alpha, Psi Chi, Sigma Tau Delta, and the Upsilon Pi Epsilon.

Admissions
Spelman is a selective institution with an acceptance rate of 28% for the fall 2022 first-time, first-year class.

Student body
Students are all women and predominantly African-American. Approximately 30% come from Georgia, 69% from the rest of the United States, and 1% are international. 85% of Spelman students receive financial aid, the average financial package for a first year student adds up to $22,000.

Student life
Spelman offers organized and informal activities. Spelman's over 80 student organizations include community service organizations, special interest groups, honors societies, Morehouse cheerleaders, choral groups, music ensembles, dance groups, drama/theater groups, marching band, intramural sports, and student government.

Spelman's gated campus near Downtown Atlanta consists of over 25 buildings on 39 acres.

New student orientation
All new Spelman students are required to attend a six-day new student orientation (NSO) in August immediately before the fall semester begins. NSO includes events, workshops, and sessions designed to teach new Spelmanites about the mission, history, culture, traditions, and sisterhood of Spelman College; students are also given information on how to successfully matriculate to Spelman Women (graduates), such as registration, advisement, placement, and planning class schedules. NSO is led by student orientation leaders known as PALs (Peer Assistant Leaders) and Spelman alumnae. During NSO, new students are required to remain on campus at all times; any leave must be approved by PALs.

White attire tradition
One of Spelman's oldest traditions are Spelmanites wearing "respectable and conservative" white attire to designated formal events on campus. The tradition began in the early 1900s when it was customary for women to wear white dresses when attending formal events. White attire is worn to the annual NSO induction ceremony, Founders Day Convocation, Alumnae March, and graduating seniors wear white attire underneath their graduation gowns for Class Day and Commencement. In 2009, My Sister's Closet was established on campus by the Student Government Association for alumnae and current students to donate gently worn or brand new white attire for Spelman students in need at no cost.

Student publications and media
Spelman offers a literary magazine (Aunt Chloe: A Journal of Candor), a student newspaper, The BluePrint, and student government association newsletter (Jaguar Print). The yearbook is called Reflections.

Religious organizations
Religious organizations currently registered on campus include: Baha'i Club, Al-Nissa, Alabaster Box, Atlanta Adventist Collegiate Society, Campus Crusade for Christ, Crossfire International Campus Ministry, Happiness In Praise for His Overflowing Presence, InterVarsity Christian Fellowship, Movements of Praise Dance Team, The Newman Organization, The Outlet and The Pre-Theology Society Minority.

International student and social organizations
NAACP and Sister Steps are registered campus organizations. Spelman also has chapters of Colleges Against Cancer, Circle K, Feminist Majority Leadership Alliance, Habitat for Humanity, National Council of Negro Women, National Society of Black Engineers, Operation Smile, United Way, and Young Democrats of America. Spelman is also the first HBCU to charter a chapter of Amnesty International on its campus.

Spelman's 2005 robotics team, the SpelBots, became the first all women, all black robotics team to compete in the RoboCup Four-Legged League Soccer competition. The team tied for first place in the 2009 RoboCup humanoid soccer championship in Osaka, Japan.

Spelman has several sororities on campus including all four of the National Pan-Hellenic Council. About three percent of students are active in Spelman's Greek system.

Residential life
Spelman College has 11 residence halls on campus with approximately 1,500 students occupying them. Each one has unique features and identities. There are three first-year students only residence halls, an honors residence hall (mixed with first-year students and upperclasswomen), and seven upperclasswomen-only residence halls. All first-year students and sophomores are required to live on campus and it is traditional for first-year students to engage in friendly residence hall competitions (i.e. stroll-offs, chant-offs, pranks, fundraising, etc.) throughout the school year.

Athletics
Spelman athletic teams were the Jaguars. The college was a member of the Division III level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), primarily competing in the Great South Athletic Conference (GSAC) from 2003–04 to 2012–13.

Spelmen competed in seven intercollegiate varsity sports: Women's sports included basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, softball, tennis and volleyball.

In 2013, Spelman College decided to drop varsity athletics and leave the NCAA. Using money originally budgeted to the sports programs, they created wellness programs available for all students.

Notable alumnae and faculty
Spelman's notable alumnae include the first African-American CEO of Sam's Club and Walgreens Rosalind Brewer, Pulitzer Prize winner Alice Walker, former Dean of Harvard College Evelynn M. Hammonds, activist and Children's Defense Fund founder Marian Wright Edelman, civil rights and criminal defense lawyer Dovey Johnson Roundtree, college organist Joyce Johnson, musician, activist and historian Bernice Johnson Reagon, politician Stacey Abrams, writer Pearl Cleage, TV personality Rolonda Watts, opera singer Mattiwilda Dobbs, and actresses Cassi Davis, LaTanya Richardson, Adrienne-Joi Johnson, Keshia Knight Pulliam, Tati Gabrielle, Assemblywoman of the 18th district of New York State Taylor Darling, designor and curator Sara Penn, Lisa D. Cook, member of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors, and Pamela Gunter-Smith, the first African-American president of York College of Pennsylvania.

title: Spelman College


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Psychology of self

The psychology of self is the study of either the cognitive, conative or affective representation of one's identity, or the subject of experience. The earliest form of the Self in modern psychology saw the emergence of two elements, I and me, with I referring to the Self as the subjective knower and me referring to the Self as a subject that is known.

The Self has long been considered as the central element and support of any experience. The Self is not 'permanently stuck into the heart of consciousness'. "I am not always as intensively aware of me as an agent, as I am of my actions. That results from the fact that I perform only part of my actions, the other part being conducted by my thought, expression, practical operations, and so on."

Current views of the Self in psychology position it as playing an integral part in human motivation, cognition, affect, and social identity. It may be the case that we can now successfully attempt to create experiences of the Self in a neural process with cognitive consequences, which will give us insight into the elements that compose the complex selves of modern identity.

Overtime, different theorists from multiple schools of thought have created ideas of what makes up the Self. Out of these schools, major theorists in the Clinical and Sociological branches of Psychology have emerged.

Jungian's Self Archetype
In classical Jungian analysis, the Self is the culmination of several archetypes, which are predispositions of how a person responds to the world. The Self signifies the coherent whole, unifying both the conscious and unconscious mind of a person. The Self, according to Jung, is the most important and difficult archetype to understand. It is fully realized as the product of individuation, which is defined by Jung as the rebirth of the Ego back to the original self.

The Self, besides being the center of the psyche, is also autonomous, meaning that it exists outside of time and space. Jung also called the Self an imago Dei. The Self is the source of dreams and often appears as an authority figure in dreams with the ability to perceive events not yet occurred or guide one in the present.

(See also: Sigmund Freud & Personality)

Kohut's Formulation
Kohut followed Freud's line of thinking regard the Self. However, he deviates from Freud by theorizing that the Self puts energy into the idea of narcissism (See Cathexis). The system is then broken over time into initially two systems of narcissistic perfection: 1) a system of ambitions (the grandiose self) and, 2) a system of ideals (the idealized parent imago). According to Kohut, these two systems represent the poles within Kohut's bipolar self. These poles work with each other to maintain a balance that is referred to as the Self

Winnicott's Selves
Donald Winnicott distinguished what he called the "true self" from the "false self" in the human personality, considering the true self as one based on the individual's sense of being, not doing, something which was rooted in the experiencing body.

Nevertheless, Winnicott did not undervalue the role of the false self in the human personality, regarding it as a necessary form of defensive organization similar to that of a caretaker that protects the true self hides behind so that it may continue to exist.

Five levels of false self-organization were identified by Winnicott, running along a kind of continuum.
 * 1) In the most severe instance, the false self completely replaces and ousts the true self, leaving the latter a mere possibility.
 * 2) Less severely, the false self protects the true self, which remains unactualized.
 * 3) Closer to health, the false self supports the individual's search for conditions that will allow the true self to recover its own identity.
 * 4) Even closer to health, we find the false self "... established on the basis of identifications".
 * 5) Finally, in a healthy person, the false self is composed of that which facilitates social behavior, the manners and courtesy that allows for a smooth social life, with emotions expressed in socially acceptable forms.

As for the true self, Winnicott linked it to playing "hide and seek"' designed to protect one's real self against exploitation, without entirely forfeiting the ability to relate to others.

Berne's Transactional Analysis
In his transactional analysis theory Eric Berne distinguished the personality's ego states - Parent, Adult and Child - from what he called 'the real self, the one that can move from one ego state to another'. Berne considered that 'the feeling of "Self" is a mobile one. It can reside in any of the three ego states at any given moment, and can jump from one to the other as occasion arises'.
 * The Parent ego consists of borrowed behaviors and feelings from previous caregivers. The parent ego can consist of either the Nurturing or Critical Parent. Both types of parents offer information to the child that can be either beneficial or detrimental to their development.
 * The Adult ego is otherwise known as our data-processing center. This ego state is able to judge information based on facts, rather than emotions or preconceived beliefs.
 * The Child ego is identified as the state that holds all of a person's memories, emotions, and feelings. People carry this ego state with them all the time and can reflect on it at any time. This state can also be divided into two segments: the Free (or Natural) child and the Adapted (and/or Rebellious) child.

A person's tone, gestures, choice of words, posture, and emotional state can portray which ego state they are currently in. By knowing about their own ego states, a person can use each one in particular situations in order to enhance their experience or make new social connections.

Berne saw the Self as the most valuable part of the personality: 'when people get to know each other well, they penetrate into the depths where this real Self resides, and that is the part of the other person they respect and love'.

In Social Psychology
Social psychology acknowledges that "one of the most important life tasks each a person faces is understanding who they are and how they feel about themselves". This allows us to better understand ourselves, abilities, and preferences so that a person can make choices and decisions that suit them the best. However, rather than absolute knowledge, it would seem that 'a healthy sense of Self calls for both accurate self-knowledge and protective self-enhancement, in just the right amounts at just the right times.'

Other schools of thought look at the Self from a Social Psychology perspective. Some are listed below.

The Self is an automatic part of every human being that enables them to relate to others. The self is made up of three main parts that allow for the Self to maintain its function: Self-knowledge, the interpersonal self, and the agent self.

Self-knowledge
Self-knowledge is something many seek to understand. In knowing about their selves, a person is more capable of knowing how to be socially acceptable and desirable. They seek out self-knowledge due to the appraisal motive, self-enhancement motive, and consistency motive.

Self-knowledge is sometimes referred to as self-concept. This feature allows for people to gather information and beliefs about themselves. A person's self-awareness, self-esteem, and self-deception all fall under the self-knowledge part of self. People learn about themselves through our looking-glass selves, introspection, social comparisons, and self-perception.

 * The looking glass self is a term used to describe a theory that people learn about themselves through other people. In the looking-glass self-proposal, a person visualizes how they appear to others, how they are judged by others, and how they respond to said judgements. the person imagines how other people will judge them, and they then develop a response to the judgment they receive from other people.
 * Introspection refers to the way a person gathers information about oneself through mental functions and emotions. While a person might not know why they are thinking or feeling a certain way, they consciously know what they are feeling.
 * Social comparison refers to the way in which people compare themselves to others. By observing others, a person can gauge their work and behaviors as good, bad, or neutral. This can be either motivational or discouraging to the person depending on who they are comparing themselves to
 * The self-perception theory is another theory in which a person makes inferences about themselves through their own actions and attitudes.
 * Self-awareness occurs when someone acknowledges their own personality and behaviors. This can occur in both the private and public parts of a person's life.
 * Self-esteem describes how a person evaluates their self. Four factors that contribute to self-esteem are; reactions from others, comparing a person to others, a person's social roles, and a person's identification.

Interpersonal Self
The Interpersonal self, also known as the public self, refers to the part of the self that can be seen by other members of society. Because society has "unwritten rules", a person may find themselves in a specific role that adheres to these rules and expected behaviors…

Agent Self (non self)
The agent self is known as the executive function that allows for actions. This is how a person make choices and maintains control in situations and actions. The agent self resides over everything that involves decision making, self-control, taking charge in situations, and actively responding.

George-Mead & Charles Clooney
Symbolic interactionism stresses the 'social construction of an individual's sense of self' through two main methods: 'In part the self emerges through interaction with others....But the self is a product of social structure as well as of face-to-face interaction'. This aspect of social psychology emphasizes the theme of mutual constitution of the person and situation. Instead of focusing on the levels of class, race, and gender structure, this perspective seeks to understand the self in the way an individual lives their life on a moment-by-moment basis.

Self as an Emergent Phenomena
In dynamical social psychology as proposed by Nowak et al., the self is rather an emergent property that emerges as an experiential phenomena from the interaction of psychological perceptions and experiences. This is also hinted in dynamical evolutionary social psychology where a set of decision rules generates complex behavior.

Martin A. Conway
Memory and the self are interconnected to the point that they can be defined as the Self-Memory System (SMS). The self is viewed as a combination of memories and self-images (working self). Conway proposes that a person's long-term memory and working self are dependent on each other. Our prior knowledge of our self puts constraints on what our working self is and the working self modifies the access to our long-term memory and what it consists of.

John Locke
One view of the Self that follows the thinking of John Locke, sees it as a product of episodic memory. It has been suggested that transitory mental constructions within episodic memory form a self-memory system that grounds the goals of the working self, but research upon those with amnesia find they have a coherent sense of self based upon preserved conceptual autobiographical knowledge, and semantic facts, and so conceptual knowledge rather than episodic memory.

Both episodic and semantic memory systems have been proposed to generate a sense of self-identity: personal episodic memory enables the phenomenological continuity of identity, while personal semantic memory generates the narrative continuity of identity. "The nature of personal narratives depends on highly conceptual and ‘story-like' information about one's life, which resides at the general event level of autobiographical memory and is thus unlikely to rely on more event-specific episodic systems."

title: Psychology of self


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1920s in film

The decade of the 1920s in film involved many significant films.

Events
The 1920s saw a vast expansion of Hollywood film making and worldwide film attendance. Throughout the decade, film production increasingly focused on the feature film rather than the "short" or "two-reeler." This is a change that had begun with works like the long D. W. Griffith epics of the mid-1910s and became the primary style by the 1920s. In Hollywood, numerous small studios were taken over and made a part of larger studios, creating the studio system that would run the American, Spanish, and Polish pool, open to the public film making until the 1960s. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (founded in the middle of the decade) and Paramount Pictures were the highest-grossing studios during the period, with 20th Century Fox, Universal Pictures, United Artists, and Warner Brothers making up a large part of the remaining market.

The 1920s was also the decade of the "Picture Palaces": large urban theaters that could seat 1–2,000 guests at a time, with full orchestral accompaniment and very decorative design (often a mix of Italian, Spanish, and Baroque styles). These picture palaces were often owned by the film studios and used to premier and first-run their major films.

Key genres such as the swashbuckler, horror, and modern romantic comedy flourished during the decade. Stars such as Douglas Fairbanks, Ramon Novarro, Pola Negri, Nazimova, Greta Garbo, Mary Pickford, Lillian Gish, Francis X. Bushman, Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton, Harold Lloyd, Lon Chaney, Rudolph Valentino, John Gilbert, Clara Bow, Gloria Swanson, Joan Crawford, George O'Brien, and John Barrymore created some of their most memorable roles and films during the period.

Stylistically, the influence of German Expressionism, Soviet Montage Editing, and realism made profound aesthetic changes to film over the course of the decade. A more artistic approach to composition on the screen shifted filmmaking away from its earlier obsession with showing the world "as it is." By the mid-to-late-1920s, the silent "art film" was on the rise with some of the greatest silent film achievements, such as Josef von Sternberg's Underworld and The Last Command, King Vidor's The Crowd, and F. W. Murnau's Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans. Erich von Stroheim's ultra-realist films such as Greed also had a big influence.

The transition to sound-on-film technology occurred mid-decade with the talkies developed in 1926–1927, following experimental techniques begun in the late 1910s. Fox Studios and the Warner Brothers were crucial in the development and acceptance of the technology of sound in motion pictures.

With sound, the concept of the musical appeared immediately, as in The Jazz Singer of 1927, because silent films had been accompanied by music for years when projected in theaters. Sound also greatly changed the Hollywood approach to storytelling, with more dependence on dialogue and less creative use of the visual element.

Also, in 1927, the International Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences was formed. Later, "International" was removed from the name. Today, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, is most famous for its annual presentation of the Academy Awards, also known as the "Oscars".

Lists of films
• 1920 in film

• 1921 in film

• 1922 in film

• 1923 in film

• 1924 in film

• 1925 in film

• 1926 in film

• 1927 in film

• 1928 in film

• 1929 in film

title: 1920s in film


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RobotWar

RobotWar is a programming game written by Silas Warner. This game, along with the companion program RobotWrite, was originally developed in the TUTOR programming language on the PLATO system in the 1970s. Later the game was commercialized and adapted for the Apple II and published by Muse Software in 1981. The premise is that in the distant future of 2002, war was declared hazardous to human health, and now countries settled their differences in a battle arena full of combat robots. As the manual states, "The task set before you is: to program a robot, that no other robot can destroy!"

The main activity of the game is to write a computer program that operates a (simulated) robot. The player selects multiple robots which do battle in an arena until only one is left standing. The robots do not have direct knowledge of the location or velocity of any of the other robots; they only use radar pulses to deduce distance, and perhaps use clever programming techniques to deduce velocity. There is no way for the player to actually take part in the battle.

Robot programming
The robots' language is similar to BASIC. There are 34 registers that can be used as variables or for the robots' I/O functions. An example program from the game manual is:

SCAN AIM + 5 TO AIM                   ; MOVE GUN AIM TO RADAR                     ; SEND RADAR PULSE LOOP IF RADAR < 0 GOSUB FIRE          ; TEST RADAR GOTO SCAN FIRE 0 - RADAR TO SHOT                ; FIRE THE GUN ENDSUB

The robot with this program sweeps its radar in a circle, firing off radar pulses, and when it detects another robot, fires a projectile set to explode at the correct distance as estimated by the radar pulse. This particular robot stands still throughout the entire battle, as it never assigns any number to its movement registers.

Reception
Harry White reviewed RobotWar in The Space Gamer No. 45. White commented that "RobotWar is worth [...] the price. And if you don't have an Apple, but do own some other brand of personal computer, just wait - there'll be a similar game for you soon. It has to happen."

In its first issue Computer Gaming World praised RobotWar's language as easy to learn, and for several years hosted contests for robot programs. In 1996, the magazine named it the 85th best game ever. BYTE also praised Battle Language and its potential for teaching programming, as well as the sophisticated editor and debugger, but noted that the language's slow performance caused robots to sometimes behave in unexpected ways.

In a 2020 interview, Stewart Cheifet, the host and producer of Computer Chronicles told ZDNET that RobotWar was one of his favorite games, telling them "you didn't fight and shoot, you programmed your robot, it was a battle between the software, the robot you designed, and the robot the other guy designed,...it was brilliant."

title: RobotWar


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Talk:1930s in film

Untitled
According to IMDb, there were over 20,800 movies released between 1930 and 1939. Unless we plan on listing all of them, isn't there some sort of POV involved in the selective listings that would go here? RickK 00:15, 12 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * That would be the danger of a listing "significant" movies, certainly. Martin 19:07, 12 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * List of 1930s movies. We already have 1930 in movies through 1939 in movies, and unless we list all 20,000 + movies released in the 30s, any inclusions here are POV.  RickK 03:43, 12 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Keep, add list of links to the by year pages for more comprehensive lists. We are in the business of organizing and explaining he significance of things. JamesDay 08:13, 12 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Integrate into existing 1930's movie pages - having articles this similar is just confusing. If someone wants to list every movie released in 1930,31 etc, it can go on that page.2toise 17:41, 12 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Keep. These pages just need editing and moving. I've made a start. Martin 19:42, 12 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Keep. I mean we are not going to list the same movies already listed in 193x in movies. Right? This sort of index pages has no harm. -- Taku

what kind/genre of films?
I find it odd that all these articles, without saying so, assume the films in question are industry films, made and released by Hollywood. Am I wrong? All the other films, such as independent or government-sponsored documentaries are scattered about (though there is a good survey article called Documentary Film)- these films are relatively few in number perhaps, but still, they existed and like Pare Lorentz' The River and the Plow that Broke the Plains (each has a Wikipedia page, I believe), they were widely seen and influential. And then there were the documentaries made by Hollywood directors called upon to do so by the Army during the Second World War in the 1940s, such as John Huston and of course Frank Capra (his Why We Fight series of "propaganda films" saw wide release in theaters); thus this comment applies all the more to "the 1940s in Film" page.

At the least these highly useful Wikipedia pages should include the word "Hollywood" (I doubt we are including the films of any other country's film-production industries in these lists.) Thank you for your time. I hope a change can be made. Sig: Actio (tilde suddenly a dead key and not working!)

title: Talk:1930s in film


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Incumbent

The incumbent is the current holder of an office or position. In an election, the incumbent is the person holding or acting in the position that is up for election, regardless of whether they are seeking re-election.

There may or may not be an incumbent on the ballot: the previous holder may have died, retired, resigned; they may not seek re-election, be barred from re-election due to term limits, or a new electoral division or position may have been created, at which point the office or position is regarded as vacant or open. In the United States, an election without an incumbent on the ballot is an open seat or open contest.

Etymology
The word "incumbent" is derived from the Latin verb incumbere, literally meaning "to lean or lay upon" with the present participle stem incumbent-, "leaning a variant of encumber, while encumber is derived from the root cumber, most appropriately defined: "To occupy obstructively or inconveniently; to block fill up with what hinders freedom of motion or action; to burden, load."

Incumbency advantage
In general, an incumbent has a political advantage over challengers at elections. Except when the timing of elections is determined by a constitution or by legislation, the incumbent in some countries may have the right to determine the date of an election.

For most political offices, the incumbent often has more name recognition due to their previous work in the office. Incumbents also have easier access to campaign finance, as well as government resources (such as the franking privilege) that can be indirectly used to boost the incumbent's re-election campaign.

In the United States, an election (especially for a single-member constituency in a legislature) in which an incumbent is not seeking re-election is often called an open seat; because of the lack of incumbency advantage, these are often amongst the most hotly contested races in any election. Also, an open contest is created when the term of office is limited, as in the case of terms of the U.S. president being restricted to two four-year terms, and the incumbent is prohibited from recontesting. Although the expected advantage of incumbency has gone from about two percentage points in the 1950s, to ten percentage points in the 1980s and 1990s, and then back to about two percentage points in the 2010s and 2020s, the probability that an incumbent will lose his or her seat has remained approximately the same over the entire period.

When newcomers look to fill an open office, voters tend to compare and contrast the candidates' qualifications, positions on political issues, and personal characteristics in a relatively straightforward way. Elections featuring an incumbent, on the other hand, are, as Guy Molyneux puts it, "fundamentally a referendum on the incumbent." Voters will first grapple with the record of the incumbent. Only if they decide to "fire" the incumbent do they begin to evaluate whether each of the challengers is an acceptable alternative.

A 2017 study in the British Journal of Political Science argues that the incumbency advantage stems from the fact that voters evaluate the incumbent's ideology individually whereas they assume that any challenger shares his party's ideology. This means that the incumbency advantage gets more significant as political polarization increases. A 2017 study in the Journal of Politics found that incumbents have "a far larger advantage" in on-cycle elections than in off-cycle elections.

Business usage
In relation to business operations and competition, an incumbent supplier is usually the supplier who currently supplies the needs of a customer and therefore has an advantageous position in relation to maintaining this role or agreeing a new contract in comparison with competing businesses.

Sophomore surge
Political analysts in the United States and United Kingdom have noted the existence of a sophomore surge (not known as such in the United Kingdom) in which first term representatives see an increase in votes in their first election. This phenomenon is said to bring an advantage of up to 10% for first term representatives, which increases the incumbency advantage. However, the extent of the surge is a biased estimate of the electoral advantage of incumbency.

Anti-incumbency
However, there exist scenarios in which the incumbency factor itself leads to the downfall of the incumbent. Popularly known as the anti-incumbency factor, situations of this kind occur when the incumbent has proven themself not worthy of office during their tenure and the challengers demonstrate this to the voters. An anti-incumbency factor can also be responsible for bringing down incumbents who have been in office for many successive terms despite performance indicators, simply because the voters are convinced by the challengers of a need for change. It is also argued that the holders of extensively powerful offices are subject to immense pressure which leaves them politically impotent and unable to command enough public confidence for re-election; such is the case, for example, with the Presidency of France. Voters who experience the negative economic shock of a loss of income are less likely to vote for an incumbent candidate than those who have not experienced such a shock.

Nick Panagakis, a pollster, coined what he dubbed the incumbent rule in 1989—that any voter who claims to be undecided towards the end of the election will probably end up voting for a challenger.

In France, the phenomenon is known by the catchphrase Sortez les sortants ("Get out the outgoing [representatives]!"), which was the slogan of the Poujadist movement in the 1956 French legislative election.

title: Incumbent


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Master of Public Administration

A Master of Public Administration (MPA) is a specialized professional graduate degree in public administration that prepares students for leadership roles, similar or equivalent to a Master of Business Administration but with an emphasis on the issues of public services.

This program covers principles of public administration, policy development, and management. Graduates can work in government, nonprofits, and private companies. The specifics of the program can vary by university or country. It typically requires two years for completion.

Overview
The MPA program is a higher professional degree and a post graduate degree for the public sector and it prepares individuals to serve as managers, executives and policy analysts in the executive arm of local, state/provincial, and federal/national government, and increasingly in  non-governmental organization (NGO) and nonprofit sectors; it places a focus on the practices of executive organization and management. Instruction includes the roles, development, and principles of public administration; public policy management and implementation.

Through its history, the MPA degree has become more interdisciplinary by drawing from fields such as economics, sociology, law, anthropology, organizational development, political science, and regional planning in order to equip MPA graduates with skills and knowledge covering a broad range of topics and disciplines relevant to the public sector. A core curriculum of a typical MPA program usually includes courses on microeconomics, public finance, research methods, statistics, policy analysis, managerial accounting, ethics, public management, geographic information systems (GIS), and program evaluation. MPA students may focus their studies on public sector fields such as urban planning, emergency management, transportation, health care (especially public health), economic development, community development, non-profit management, environmental policy, cultural policy, international affairs, and criminal justice.

MPA graduates currently serve in some important positions within the public sector including the former Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Hsien Loong, the Nobel Peace Prize laureate and former President of Colombia Juan Manuel Santos, former UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, three former presidents of Mexico (Felipe Calderón, Carlos Salinas de Gortari and Miguel de la Madrid), former Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau, former President of Bolivia Eduardo Rodríguez Veltzé, former President of Ecuador Jamil Mahuad Witt (MPA '89), former President of Costa Rica José María Figueres Olsen, former CIA Director David Petraeus, former president of Liberia Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Foreign Minister of Serbia Vuk Jeremić, former New York City Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly, former Secretary of Health and Human Services Kathleen Sebelius, and former Treasurer of Australia Josh Frydenberg. Other notable MPA graduates include U.S. Representative Dan Crenshaw, New York City Mayor Eric Adams, Bill O'Reilly and pilot Chesley Sullenberger.

A Master of Public Administration can be acquired at various institutions. See List of schools offering MPA degrees.

title: Master of Public Administration


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Master of Public Policy

The Master of Public Policy (MPP), is one of several public policy degrees. An MPP is a master's-level professional degree that provides training in policy analysis and program evaluation at public policy schools. The MPP program places a focus on the systematic analysis of issues related to public policy and the decision processes associated with them. This includes training in the role of economic and political factors in public decision-making and policy formulation; microeconomic analysis of policy options and issues; resource allocation and decision modeling; cost/benefit analysis; statistical methods; and various applications to specific public policy topics. MPP recipients serve or have served in the public sector, at the international, national, subnational, and local levels and the private sector.

MPP and MPA: differences and similarities
Over time, the curriculum of Master of Public Policy and the Master of Public Administration (MPA) degrees have tended to overlap in many areas, due to the realization that policy analysis and program evaluation could benefit from an understanding of public administration, and vice versa.

Today, the core course offerings of many MPA and MPP programs are similar, with MPA programs also providing training in policy analysis, and MPP programs also providing coursework in program implementation. However, MPP programs still place more emphasis on policy analysis, research, and evaluation, while MPA programs place more emphasis on the implementation of public policies and the design of effective programs and projects to achieve public policy goals. In recognition of the overlapping coursework and subject matter, some universities have begun offering a combined MPAP or MPPA degree, Master of Public Administration and Policy or Master of Public Policy and Administration. Several institutions use "public policy" as an umbrella term, which may house several programs such as an MPA and degrees related to highly specific areas focusing on fields such as survey research or nonprofit studies.

Significant differences between the two degrees:

 * The scope of each degree: An MPA has a broader focus, emphasizing the management and administration of public service organizations, while an MPP has a narrower focus, centering on the analysis of policy issues and the design of solutions for them.
 * Coursework: An MPA typically entails a greater emphasis on management and administrative areas, including budgeting, personnel management, and public law. On the other hand, an MPP requires courses that place more emphasis on policy analysis, political theory, and research methods.
 * Professional Opportunities: With an MPA degree, you can explore diverse roles within the government or nonprofit sector, while an MPP degree is more likely to lead to policy-focused positions.
 * Post-Graduate Programs: An MPA degree often serves as a stepping stone to various postgraduate programs, such as law school or public health administration. In contrast, an MPP degree does not usually offer as many opportunities for further study.
 * Cost: Compared to the MPP program, an MPA program tends to be more expensive due to its additional coursework and longer duration.

Interdisciplinary approach
Over the years MPP programs have become more interdisciplinary drawing from economics, sociology, anthropology, politics, and regional planning. In general, a core curriculum of an MPP program includes courses on microeconomics, public finance, research methods, statistics and advanced data analysis, qualitative research, population methods, politics of policy process, policy analysis, ethics, public management, urban policy and GIS, program evaluation, and more.

All these courses are designed to equip MPP graduates with skills and knowledge in advanced economic analysis, political analysis, ethical analysis, data analysis, management and leadership. Depending on the interest, MPP students can concentrate in many policy areas including urban policy, global policy, social policy, health policy, energy and environmental policy, non-profit management, transportation, economic development, education, information technology, and population research.

title: Master of Public Policy