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Relativistic Doppler effect

The relativistic Doppler effect is the change in frequency, wavelength and amplitude of light, caused by the relative motion of the source and the observer (as in the classical Doppler effect), when taking into account effects described by the special theory of relativity.

The relativistic Doppler effect is different from the non-relativistic Doppler effect as the equations include the time dilation effect of special relativity and do not involve the medium of propagation as a reference point. They describe the total difference in observed frequencies and possess the required Lorentz symmetry.

Astronomers know of three sources of redshift/blueshift: Doppler shifts; gravitational redshifts (due to light exiting a gravitational field); and cosmological expansion (where space itself stretches). This article concerns itself only with Doppler shifts.

Summary of major results
In the following table, it is assumed that for $$\beta = v/c > 0$$ the receiver and the source are moving away from each other, $$v$$ being the relative velocity and $$c$$ the speed of light, and $\gamma = 1/\sqrt{1 - \beta^2}$.

Relativistic longitudinal Doppler effect
Relativistic Doppler shift for the longitudinal case, with source and receiver moving directly towards or away from each other, is often derived as if it were the classical phenomenon, but modified by the addition of a time dilation term. This is the approach employed in first-year physics or mechanics textbooks such as those by Feynman or Morin.

Following this approach towards deriving the relativistic longitudinal Doppler effect, assume the receiver and the source are moving away from each other with a relative speed $$v\,$$ as measured by an observer on the receiver or the source (The sign convention adopted here is that $$v\,$$ is negative if the receiver and the source are moving towards each other).

Consider the problem in the reference frame of the source.

Suppose one wavefront arrives at the receiver. The next wavefront is then at a distance $$\lambda_s = c/f_s\,$$ away from the receiver (where $$\lambda_s\,$$ is the wavelength, $$f_s\,$$ is the frequency of the waves that the source emits, and $$c\,$$ is the speed of light).

The wavefront moves with speed $$c\,$$, but at the same time the receiver moves away with speed $$v$$ during a time $$t_{r,s}$$, which is the period of light waves impinging on the receiver, as observed in the frame of the source. So, $$\lambda_s + vt_{r,s} = ct_{r,s} \Longleftrightarrow \lambda_s = ct_{r,s}(1-v/c) \Longleftrightarrow t_{r,s} = \frac{1}{f_s (1-\beta)},$$where $$\beta = v / c\,$$ is the speed of the receiver in terms of the speed of light. The corresponding $$f_{r,s}$$, the frequency of at which wavefronts impinge on the receiver in the source's frame, is: $$f_{r,s} = 1/t_{r,s} = f_s(1-\beta).$$

Thus far, the equations have been identical to those of the classical Doppler effect with a stationary source and a moving receiver.

However, due to relativistic effects, clocks on the receiver are time dilated relative to clocks at the source: $$t_r = t_{r,s}/ \gamma$$, where $\gamma = 1/\sqrt{1 - \beta^2}$ is the Lorentz factor. In order to know which time is dilated, we recall that $$t_{r,s}$$ is the time in the frame in which the source is at rest. The receiver will measure the received frequency to be

 * $$   $$f_r = f_{r,s} \gamma $$ $$= \frac{1 - \beta}{\sqrt{1-\beta^2}} f_s $$ $$= \sqrt{\frac{1 - \beta}{1 + \beta}}\,f_s.$$

The ratio
 * $$\frac{f_s}{f_r} = \sqrt{\frac{1 + \beta}{1 - \beta}}$$

is called the Doppler factor of the source relative to the receiver. (This terminology is particularly prevalent in the subject of astrophysics: see relativistic beaming.)

The corresponding wavelengths are related by
 * $$   $$\frac{\lambda_r}{\lambda_s} = \frac{f_s}{f_r} = \sqrt{\frac{1 + \beta}{1 - \beta}},$$

Identical expressions for relativistic Doppler shift are obtained when performing the analysis in the reference frame of the receiver with a moving source. This matches up with the expectations of the principle of relativity, which dictates that the result can not depend on which object is considered to be the one at rest. In contrast, the classic nonrelativistic Doppler effect is dependent on whether it is the source or the receiver that is stationary with respect to the medium.

Transverse Doppler effect
Suppose that a source and a receiver are both approaching each other in uniform inertial motion along paths that do not collide. The transverse Doppler effect (TDE) may refer to (a) the nominal blueshift predicted by special relativity that occurs when the emitter and receiver are at their points of closest approach; or (b) the nominal redshift predicted by special relativity when the receiver sees the emitter as being at its closest approach. The transverse Doppler effect is one of the main novel predictions of the special theory of relativity.

Whether a scientific report describes TDE as being a redshift or blueshift depends on the particulars of the experimental arrangement being related. For example, Einstein's original description of the TDE in 1907 described an experimenter looking at the center (nearest point) of a beam of "canal rays" (a beam of positive ions that is created by certain types of gas-discharge tubes). According to special relativity, the moving ions' emitted frequency would be reduced by the Lorentz factor, so that the received frequency would be reduced (redshifted) by the same factor.

On the other hand, Kündig (1963) described an experiment where a Mössbauer absorber was spun in a rapid circular path around a central Mössbauer emitter. As explained below, this experimental arrangement resulted in Kündig's measurement of a blueshift.

Source and receiver are at their points of closest approach
In this scenario, the point of closest approach is frame-independent and represents the moment where there is no change in distance versus time. Figure 2 demonstrates that the ease of analyzing this scenario depends on the frame in which it is analyzed.
 * Fig. 2a. If we analyze the scenario in the frame of the receiver, we find that the analysis is more complicated than it should be. The apparent position of a celestial object is displaced from its true position (or geometric position) because of the object's motion during the time it takes its light to reach an observer. The source would be time-dilated relative to the receiver, but the redshift implied by this time dilation would be offset by a blueshift due to the longitudinal component of the relative motion between the receiver and the apparent position of the source.
 * Fig. 2b. It is much easier if, instead, we analyze the scenario from the frame of the source. An observer situated at the source knows, from the problem statement, that the receiver is at its closest point to him. That means that the receiver has no longitudinal component of motion to complicate the analysis. (i.e. dr/dt = 0 where r is the distance between receiver and source) Since the receiver's clocks are time-dilated relative to the source, the light that the receiver receives is blue-shifted by a factor of gamma. In other words,

 * $$   $$f_r = \gamma f_s$$

Receiver sees the source as being at its closest point
This scenario is equivalent to the receiver looking at a direct right angle to the path of the source. The analysis of this scenario is best conducted from the frame of the receiver. Figure 3 shows the receiver being illuminated by light from when the source was closest to the receiver, even though the source has moved on. Because the source's clock is time dilated as measured in the frame of the receiver, and because there is no longitudinal component of its motion, the light from the source, emitted from this closest point, is redshifted with frequency

 * $$   $$f_r = \frac{f_s}{\gamma}$$

In the literature, most reports of transverse Doppler shift analyze the effect in terms of the receiver pointed at direct right angles to the path of the source, thus seeing the source as being at its closest point and observing a redshift.

Point of null frequency shift
Given that, in the case where the inertially moving source and receiver are geometrically at their nearest approach to each other, the receiver observes a blueshift, whereas in the case where the receiver sees the source as being at its closest point, the receiver observes a redshift, there obviously must exist a point where blueshift changes to a redshift. In Fig. 2, the signal travels perpendicularly to the receiver path and is blueshifted. In Fig. 3, the signal travels perpendicularly to the source path and is redshifted.

As seen in Fig. 4, null frequency shift occurs for a pulse that travels the shortest distance from source to receiver. When viewed in the frame where source and receiver have the same speed, this pulse is emitted perpendicularly to the source's path and is received perpendicularly to the receiver's path. The pulse is emitted slightly before the point of closest approach, and it is received slightly after.

One object in circular motion around the other

Fig. 5 illustrates two variants of this scenario. Both variants can be analyzed using simple time dilation arguments. Figure 5a is essentially equivalent to the scenario described in Figure 2b, and the receiver observes light from the source as being blueshifted by a factor of $$\gamma$$. Figure 5b is essentially equivalent to the scenario described in Figure 3, and the light is redshifted.

The only seeming complication is that the orbiting objects are in accelerated motion. An accelerated particle does not have an inertial frame in which it is always at rest. However, an inertial frame can always be found which is momentarily comoving with the particle. This frame, the momentarily comoving reference frame (MCRF), enables application of special relativity to the analysis of accelerated particles. If an inertial observer looks at an accelerating clock, only the clock's instantaneous speed is important when computing time dilation.

The converse, however, is not true. The analysis of scenarios where both objects are in accelerated motion requires a somewhat more sophisticated analysis. Not understanding this point has led to confusion and misunderstanding.

Source and receiver both in circular motion around a common center
Suppose source and receiver are located on opposite ends of a spinning rotor, as illustrated in Fig. 6. Kinematic arguments (special relativity) and arguments based on noting that there is no difference in potential between source and receiver in the pseudogravitational field of the rotor (general relativity) both lead to the conclusion that there should be no Doppler shift between source and receiver.

In 1961, Champeney and Moon conducted a Mössbauer rotor experiment testing exactly this scenario, and found that the Mössbauer absorption process was unaffected by rotation. They concluded that their findings supported special relativity.

This conclusion generated some controversy. A certain persistent critic of relativity maintained that, although the experiment was consistent with general relativity, it refuted special relativity, his point being that since the emitter and absorber were in uniform relative motion, special relativity demanded that a Doppler shift be observed. The fallacy with this critic's argument was, as demonstrated in section Point of null frequency shift, that it is simply not true that a Doppler shift must always be observed between two frames in uniform relative motion. Furthermore, as demonstrated in section Source and receiver are at their points of closest approach, the difficulty of analyzing a relativistic scenario often depends on the choice of reference frame. Attempting to analyze the scenario in the frame of the receiver involves much tedious algebra. It is much easier, almost trivial, to establish the lack of Doppler shift between emitter and absorber in the laboratory frame.

As a matter of fact, however, Champeney and Moon's experiment said nothing either pro or con about special relativity. Because of the symmetry of the setup, it turns out that virtually any conceivable theory of the Doppler shift between frames in uniform inertial motion must yield a null result in this experiment.

Rather than being equidistant from the center, suppose the emitter and absorber were at differing distances from the rotor's center. For an emitter at radius $$R'$$ and the absorber at radius $$R$$ anywhere on the rotor, the ratio of the emitter frequency, $$f',$$ and the absorber frequency, $$f,$$ is given by

 * $$   $$ \frac{f'}{f} = \left( \frac{c^2 - R^2 \omega ^2 }{ c^2 - R' ^2 \omega ^2 } \right) ^{1/2} $$

where $$\omega$$ is the angular velocity of the rotor. The source and emitter do not have to be 180° apart, but can be at any angle with respect to the center.

Motion in an arbitrary direction

The analysis used in section Relativistic longitudinal Doppler effect can be extended in a straightforward fashion to calculate the Doppler shift for the case where the inertial motions of the source and receiver are at any specified angle. Fig. 7 presents the scenario from the frame of the receiver, with the source moving at speed $$v$$ at an angle $$\theta_r$$ measured in the frame of the receiver. The radial component of the source's motion along the line of sight is equal to $$v \cos{\theta_r}.$$

The equation below can be interpreted as the classical Doppler shift for a stationary and moving source modified by the Lorentz factor $$\gamma :$$

 * $$   $$ f_r = \frac{f_s}{\gamma\left(1 + \beta \cos\theta_r\right)}.$$

In the case when $$\theta_r = 90^{\circ}$$, one obtains the transverse Doppler effect:
 * $$f_r = \frac {f_s} {\gamma}. \,$$

In his 1905 paper on special relativity, Einstein obtained a somewhat different looking equation for the Doppler shift equation. After changing the variable names in Einstein's equation to be consistent with those used here, his equation reads
 * $$   $$ f_r = \gamma \left(  1 - \beta \cos \theta_s \right)  f_s.$$

The differences stem from the fact that Einstein evaluated the angle $$\theta_s$$ with respect to the source rest frame rather than the receiver rest frame. $$ \theta_s$$ is not equal to $$ \theta_r $$ because of the effect of relativistic aberration. The relativistic aberration equation is:

 * $$   $$\cos \theta_r=\frac{\cos \theta_s-\beta }{1-\beta \cos \theta_s} \,$$

Substituting the relativistic aberration equation $$ into $$ yields  $$, demonstrating the consistency of these alternate equations for the Doppler shift.

Setting $$\theta_r = 0$$ in $$ or $$\theta_s = 0$$ in $$ yields $$, the expression for relativistic longitudinal Doppler shift.

A four-vector approach to deriving these results may be found in Landau and Lifshitz (2005).

In electromagetic waves both the electric and the magnetic field amplitudes E and B transform in a similar manner as the frequency:
 * $$ E_r = \gamma \left( 1 - \beta \cos \theta_s \right) E_s $$
 * $$ B_r = \gamma \left( 1 - \beta \cos \theta_s \right) B_s. $$

Visualization
Fig. 8 helps us understand, in a rough qualitative sense, how the relativistic Doppler effect and relativistic aberration differ from the non-relativistic Doppler effect and non-relativistic aberration of light. Assume that the observer is uniformly surrounded in all directions by yellow stars emitting monochromatic light of 570 nm. The arrows in each diagram represent the observer's velocity vector relative to its surroundings, with a magnitude of 0.89 c.
 * In the relativistic case, the light ahead of the observer is blueshifted to a wavelength of 137 nm in the far ultraviolet, while light behind the observer is redshifted to 2400 nm in the short wavelength infrared. Because of the relativistic aberration of light, objects formerly at right angles to the observer appear shifted forwards by 63°.
 * In the non-relativistic case, the light ahead of the observer is blueshifted to a wavelength of 300 nm in the medium ultraviolet, while light behind the observer is redshifted to 5200 nm in the intermediate infrared. Because of the aberration of light, objects formerly at right angles to the observer appear shifted forwards by 42°.
 * In both cases, the monochromatic stars ahead of and behind the observer are Doppler-shifted towards invisible wavelengths. If, however, the observer had eyes that could see into the ultraviolet and infrared, he would see the stars ahead of him as brighter and more closely clustered together than the stars behind, but the stars would be far brighter and far more concentrated in the relativistic case.

Real stars are not monochromatic, but emit a range of wavelengths approximating a black body distribution. It is not necessarily true that stars ahead of the observer would show a bluer color. This is because the whole spectral energy distribution is shifted. At the same time that visible light is blueshifted into invisible ultraviolet wavelengths, infrared light is blueshifted into the visible range. Precisely what changes in the colors one sees depends on the physiology of the human eye and on the spectral characteristics of the light sources being observed.

Doppler effect on intensity
The Doppler effect (with arbitrary direction) also modifies the perceived source intensity: this can be expressed concisely by the fact that source strength divided by the cube of the frequency is a Lorentz invariant  This implies that the total radiant intensity (summing over all frequencies) is multiplied by the fourth power of the Doppler factor for frequency.

As a consequence, since Planck's law describes the black-body radiation as having a spectral intensity in frequency proportional to $$\frac{f^3}{e^\frac{hf}{kT} - 1}$$ (where $$T$$ is the source temperature and $$f$$ the frequency), we can draw the conclusion that a black body spectrum seen through a Doppler shift (with arbitrary direction) is still a black body spectrum with a temperature multiplied by the same Doppler factor as frequency.

This result provides one of the pieces of evidence that serves to distinguish the Big Bang theory from alternative theories proposed to explain the cosmological redshift.

Experimental verification
Since the transverse Doppler effect is one of the main novel predictions of the special theory of relativity, the detection and precise quantification of this effect has been an important goal of experiments attempting to validate special relativity.

Ives and Stilwell-type measurements
Einstein (1907) had initially suggested that the TDE might be measured by observing a beam of "canal rays" at right angles to the beam. Attempts to measure TDE following this scheme proved it to be impractical, since the maximum speed of particle beam available at the time was only a few thousandths of the speed of light.

Fig. 9 shows the results of attempting to measure the 4861 Angstrom line emitted by a beam of canal rays (a mixture of H1+, H2+, and H3+ ions) as they recombine with electrons stripped from the dilute hydrogen gas used to fill the Canal ray tube. Here, the predicted result of the TDE is a 4861.06 Angstrom line. On the left, longitudinal Doppler shift results in broadening the emission line to such an extent that the TDE cannot be observed. The middle figures illustrate that even if one narrows one's view to the exact center of the beam, very small deviations of the beam from an exact right angle introduce shifts comparable to the predicted effect.

Rather than attempt direct measurement of the TDE, Ives and Stilwell (1938) used a concave mirror that allowed them to simultaneously observe a nearly longitudinal direct beam (blue) and its reflected image (red). Spectroscopically, three lines would be observed: An undisplaced emission line, and blueshifted and redshifted lines. The average of the redshifted and blueshifted lines would be compared with the wavelength of the undisplaced emission line. The difference that Ives and Stilwell measured corresponded, within experimental limits, to the effect predicted by special relativity.

Various of the subsequent repetitions of the Ives and Stilwell experiment have adopted other strategies for measuring the mean of blueshifted and redshifted particle beam emissions. In some recent repetitions of the experiment, modern accelerator technology has been used to arrange for the observation of two counter-rotating particle beams. In other repetitions, the energies of gamma rays emitted by a rapidly moving particle beam have been measured at opposite angles relative to the direction of the particle beam. Since these experiments do not actually measure the wavelength of the particle beam at right angles to the beam, some authors have preferred to refer to the effect they are measuring as the "quadratic Doppler shift" rather than TDE.

Direct measurement of transverse Doppler effect
The advent of particle accelerator technology has made possible the production of particle beams of considerably higher energy than was available to Ives and Stilwell. This has enabled the design of tests of the transverse Doppler effect directly along the lines of how Einstein originally envisioned them, i.e. by directly viewing a particle beam at a 90° angle. For example, Hasselkamp et al. (1979) observed the Hα line emitted by hydrogen atoms moving at speeds ranging from 2.53×108 cm/s to 9.28×108 cm/s, finding the coefficient of the second order term in the relativistic approximation to be 0.52±0.03, in excellent agreement with the theoretical value of 1/2.

Other direct tests of the TDE on rotating platforms were made possible by the discovery of the Mössbauer effect, which enables the production of exceedingly narrow resonance lines for nuclear gamma ray emission and absorption. Mössbauer effect experiments have proven themselves easily capable of detecting TDE using emitter-absorber relative velocities on the order of 2×104 cm/s. These experiments include ones performed by Hay et al. (1960), Champeney et al. (1965), and Kündig (1963).

Time dilation measurements
The transverse Doppler effect and the kinematic time dilation of special relativity are closely related. All validations of TDE represent validations of kinematic time dilation, and most validations of kinematic time dilation have also represented validations of TDE. An online resource, "What is the experimental basis of Special Relativity?" has documented, with brief commentary, many of the tests that, over the years, have been used to validate various aspects of special relativity. Kaivola et al. (1985) and McGowan et al. (1993) are examples of experiments classified in this resource as time dilation experiments. These two also represent tests of TDE. These experiments compared the frequency of two lasers, one locked to the frequency of a neon atom transition in a fast beam, the other locked to the same transition in thermal neon. The 1993 version of the experiment verified time dilation, and hence TDE, to an accuracy of 2.3×10−6.

Relativistic Doppler effect for sound and light
First-year physics textbooks almost invariably analyze Doppler shift for sound in terms of Newtonian kinematics, while analyzing Doppler shift for light and electromagnetic phenomena in terms of relativistic kinematics. This gives the false impression that acoustic phenomena require a different analysis than light and radio waves.

The traditional analysis of the Doppler effect for sound represents a low speed approximation to the exact, relativistic analysis. The fully relativistic analysis for sound is, in fact, equally applicable to both sound and electromagnetic phenomena.

Consider the spacetime diagram in Fig. 10. Worldlines for a tuning fork (the source) and a receiver are both illustrated on this diagram. The tuning fork and receiver start at O, at which point the tuning fork starts to vibrate, emitting waves and moving along the negative x-axis while the receiver starts to move along the positive x-axis. The tuning fork continues until it reaches A, at which point it stops emitting waves: a wavepacket has therefore been generated, and all the waves in the wavepacket are received by the receiver with the last wave reaching it at B. The proper time for the duration of the packet in the tuning fork's frame of reference is the length of OA while the proper time for the duration of the wavepacket in the receiver's frame of reference is the length of OB. If $$n$$ waves were emitted, then $$f_s = \frac{n}{|OA|}$$, while $$f_r = \frac{n}{|OB|}$$; the inverse slope of AB represents the speed of signal propagation (i.e. the speed of sound) to event B. We can therefore write:

 * $$c_s = \frac{x_B - x_A}{t_B - t_A}$$ (speed of sound)
 * $$v_s = -\frac{x_A}{t_A} $$       $$ v_r = \frac{x_B}{t_B} $$      (speeds of source and receiver)
 * $$ |OA| = \sqrt{ t_A^2 - (x_A/c)^2 }$$
 * $$ |OB| = \sqrt{ t_B^2 - (x_B/c)^2 }$$

$$v_s$$ and $$v_r$$ are assumed to be less than $$c_s,$$ since otherwise their passage through the medium will set up shock waves, invalidating the calculation. Some routine algebra gives the ratio of frequencies:

 * $$   $$ \frac{f_r}{f_s} = \frac{|OA|}{|OB|} $$ $$ = \frac{1 - v_r/c_s}{1+v_s/c_s} \sqrt{ \frac{1 - (v_s/c)^2 }{ 1-(v_r/c)^2 }} $$

If $$v_r$$ and $$v_s$$ are small compared with $$c$$, the above equation reduces to the classical Doppler formula for sound.

If the speed of signal propagation $$c_s$$ approaches $$c$$, it can be shown that the absolute speeds $$v_s$$ and $$v_r$$ of the source and receiver merge into a single relative speed independent of any reference to a fixed medium. Indeed, we obtain $$, the formula for relativistic longitudinal Doppler shift.

Analysis of the spacetime diagram in Fig. 10 gave a general formula for source and receiver moving directly along their line of sight, i.e. in collinear motion.

Fig. 11 illustrates a scenario in two dimensions. The source moves with velocity $$ \mathbf{v_{s}}$$ (at the time of emission). It emits a signal which travels at velocity $$\mathbf{C}$$ towards the receiver, which is traveling at velocity $$\mathbf{v_r}$$ at the time of reception. The analysis is performed in a coordinate system in which the signal's speed $$|\mathbf{C}|$$ is independent of direction.

The ratio between the proper frequencies for the source and receiver is

 * $$   $$ \frac{f_r}{f_s}

= \frac{1 - \frac{|\mathbf{v_r}|}{\mathbf{|C|}} \cos ( \theta_\mathbf{C,v_r}) } {1 - \frac{|\mathbf{v_s}|}{\mathbf{|C|}} \cos ( \theta_\mathbf{C,v_s}) } \sqrt{ \frac{1-(v_s/c)^2}{ 1-(v_r/c)^2 } } $$

The leading ratio has the form of the classical Doppler effect, while the square root term represents the relativistic correction. If we consider the angles relative to the frame of the source, then $$v_s = 0$$ and the equation reduces to $$, Einstein's 1905 formula for the Doppler effect. If we consider the angles relative to the frame of the receiver, then $$v_r = 0$$ and the equation reduces to $$, the alternative form of the Doppler shift equation discussed previously.

title: Relativistic Doppler effect


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Strayer University

Strayer University is a private for-profit university headquartered in Washington, D.C. It was founded in 1892 as Strayer's Business College and later became Strayer College, before being granted university status in 1998.

Strayer University operates under the holding company Strategic Education, Inc. (nasdaq: STRA), which was established in 1996 and rebranded in 2018 following its merger with Capella University.

Strayer enrolls more than 50,000 students through both its online learning programs and 64 campuses located throughout 15 U.S. states and Washington, D.C. It offers in degree programs for working adults and offers undergraduate and graduate degrees in accounting, business administration, criminal justice, education, health services administration, information technology and public administration.

19th century
Siebert Irving Strayer founded Strayer's Business College in Baltimore in 1892. Strayer established the college to teach business skills to former farm workers, including shorthand, typing and accounting. Thomas W. Donoho joined the school in 1902.

In its first decade of operations, enrollment at the school gradually increased, attracting students from other states.

20th century
In 1904, Strayer opened a branch of the school in Washington, D.C.

Enrollment further expanded as demand for trained accountants grew after the passage of the Revenue Act of 1913 and World War I increased the need for federal government clerks with office skills. During the 1930s, the college was authorized to grant collegiate degrees in accountancy by the Washington, D.C., board of education. The school founded Strayer Junior College in 1959, when it was given the right to confer two-year degrees. In 1969, the college received the accreditation needed to grant four-year Bachelor of Arts degrees and was renamed Strayer College.

From the 1980s to the late 1990s, Strayer College grew rapidly; enrollment increased from approximately 1,800 in 1981 and 2,000 in 1983, to around 9,000 by 1997. The college expanded the range of degree programs and courses it offered to include subjects such as data processing management and health care management. In 1987, the college was given authorization to grant Master of Science degrees.

During the 1990s, the college began to focus on offering information technology courses. According to The Washington Times, high demand for computer training due to the increased use of computers in offices and movement toward "knowledge-based" employment led to higher enrollment at Strayer. In addition, Strayer began providing training programs in computer information systems for companies including AT&T Corporation and government agencies such as the Internal Revenue Service. In 1996, the college launched Strayer Online to offer classes via the Internet.

In 1998, Strayer College was granted university status by the District of Columbia Education Licensure Commission and became Strayer University.

21st century
At the beginning of the 21st century, Strayer established its first campus locations outside of the Washington metropolitan area, adding campuses in Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Tennessee. Since the early 21st century, Strayer has added additional campuses in Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Mississippi, New Jersey, Texas, and West Virginia, according to the university's website.

Sondra Stallard was named the thirteenth president of Strayer University in May 2007. Stallard had been dean since 1996. Stallard previously served as dean of the school of continuing and professional studies at the University of Virginia.

Strayer enrollment grew in the decade 2001–2010, from 14,009 in the fall of 2001 to 60,711 in the fall of 2010. Enrollment dropped to 42,975 by 2015. In 2010 the U.S. Department of Education, reported that the repayment rate of federal student loans at Strayer University was 25 percent. Strayer claimed its loan repayment rate to be 55 percent.

In 2011, the Washington Post claimed that Strayer had a 15 percent graduation rate, listing it among the lowest college graduation rates in the Washington, D.C., area. Strayer claimed the graduation rate for its full cohort of bachelor's students was 33 percent. In December 2011, it acquired the Jack Welch Management Institute from Chancellor University for about $7 million. The institute offers a fully online Executive MBA program, as well as certificate programs. In 2012, Michael Plater was named fourteenth president of Strayer University. Previously, he served as provost and chief academic officer.

On August 9, 2012, the syndicated comic strip Doonesbury described Strayer's unusually high executive compensation as part of a series of satirical strips on for-profit education. In addition to reporting Silberman's 2009 compensation (which it described as fifty times more than Harvard's president), the strip said that in the same year that Strayer spent $1,300 per student on instruction, it spent $2,500 per student on marketing and returned $4,500 per student in profit.

In 2013, USA Today listed Strayer University of Washington D.C. as a "red flag" institution for posting a student loan default rate that surpassed its graduation rate. In July 2013, Strayer University contacted HSI Sterling to report suspicious activity surrounding academic transcripts and coursework. It was later found that from November 2012 to October 2013, a Strayer University admissions official with two co-conspirators fraudulently created at least 58 official Strayer University transcripts. The conspirators were ordered to forfeit nearly $300,000 of proceeds from the fraud to the United States government. In October 2013, Strayer initiated a major change in its physical operations by announcing the closure of its 20 Midwest campus locations. Strayer reported total enrollments dropped 17 percent, while new enrollments dropped 23 percent. It was announced that all students currently enrolled in programs in the Midwest at the time would be able to continue their education through Strayer's online only program offerings.

In 2015, Brian Jones, who had previously been Strayer University's general counsel, was named its 15th president. Prior to joining Strayer University, Jones was a lawyer and higher education entrepreneur. He served as General Counsel of the U.S. Department of Education from 2001 until 2005.

In January 2016, Strayer Education announced that acquired the New York Code + Design Academy (NYCDA), making it a wholly owned subsidiary of Strayer Education offering web and mobile development courses. Strayer resumed expansion again in 2018 after opening a campus in Montgomery, Alabama.

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Strayer temporarily closed all its campuses, and began advertising heavily for people to enroll as remote students. At least 18 Strayer campuses closed permanently in 2020 as a result. Strayer University has reopened 50 campuses that had been closed during the COVID-19 pandemic, and stated that it would evaluate reopening additional campuses in 2022.

Partnerships
Comedian and game show host Steve Harvey was a spokesperson for Strayer and has appeared in several advertisements and spoke at Strayer's commencement ceremony in May 2015. Strayer partnered with Daily Mail in February 2015 to produce a new section of the Daily Mail site named Strayer Business News. As part of the deal, Daily Mail would co-produce education and business content for its new business section.

Strayer announced the launch of Strayer@Work, a new performance improvement solution for businesses in May 2015. As part of the launch, Strayer also announced a partnership with Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (FCA) to offer free college education to all participating FCA dealership employees. FCA dealers pay a monthly fee to send employees to Strayer. Strayer has educational partnerships with approximately 300 Fortune 1000 companies.

In March 2017, Strayer announced a collaboration with financial news network Cheddar to produce digital entrepreneurship specialization as a part of Strayer's MBA program.

In 2018, Queen Latifah became a spokesperson for Strayer.

DevMountain partners with Strayer University to provide web development programs. In May 2023, DevMountain announced an expansion of its in-person coding bootcamps at Strayer University facilities.

Locations
More than half of the students enrolled at Strayer University take all of their courses online, and the entire bachelor's and master's degree programs can be completed via the Internet. , Strayer had a total enrollment of 52,253 students.

Strayer University is headquartered in Washington, D.C., with campus locations mainly in the eastern and southern regions of the U.S., it has 64 campuses located in 15 U.S. states and Washington D.C.

Admissions
The admissions requirement for undergraduate degree programs at Strayer University is a high school diploma or its equivalent. For graduate degrees (not including the Executive MBA) students must have proof of completion of a baccalaureate degree from an accredited college or university, a cumulative GPA of at least 2.50, and official transcripts from all other colleges or universities attended. Admissions requirements for the Jack Welch Executive MBA program include a minimum 3.0 undergraduate GPA, a baccalaureate degree from an accredited institution in the United States, and 5 years professional experience. An associate degree earned from a partner school can be transferred in its entirety toward a bachelor's degree.

Academic programs and accreditation
Strayer's principal aim is to provide higher education to working adult students. Strayer University's academic programs include undergraduate and graduate degree programs. The courses are business-focused, including courses in business administration and information technology. Degrees can be earned in subjects such as accounting, business administration, criminal justice, education, health services administration, human resource management, information technology and public administration.

Strayer University is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education, one of the six regional accrediting bodies recognized by the Department of Education.

The Jack Welch Management Institute, named after Jack Welch, former chief executive officer of General Electric, was acquired by Strayer University in 2011 following Welch's retirement from GE. The institute offers executive MBA degrees and executive certificates covering business-related topics. In September 2016, it was announced that the Jack Welch Management Institute was ranked on Princeton Review's list of Top 25 Online MBA Programs of 2017.

In May 2017, Strayer announced that its Registered Nurse (RN) to Bachelors of Science in Nursing (BSN) program had earned accreditation by the Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education (CCNE).

In 2020, Strayer began offering its Fellows for Justice Program Scholarship, an initiative designed to build leadership skills within students' respective communities.

Faculty and students
Strayer University's total enrollment is greater than 52,000 students. The student body is predominantly women of color. Seventy-four percent of the student body is female and 76 percent are people of color. The average age is 34.

Since the early 2000s, Strayer University has had a high proportion of minority students or people of color. The college has had more women students than men since the late 1990s. According to its then-president, two thirds of its students in 2010 were women, and over half were African American or Hispanic. , the National Center for Education Statistics reports that Strayer's student body is 56 percent black, 21 percent white, and 13 percent Hispanic. The majority work full-time.

Many students receive financial assistance from federal government financial aid programs or education assistance programs operated by the U.S. Department of Defense and U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. As of 2010, the U.S. federal government accounted for 84.9 percent of Strayer's revenue. Approximately one-quarter of Strayer students receive tuition assistance from their employers.

Faculty
In 2012, a United States Senate committee reported that, as of 2010, 83 percent of Strayer's 2,471 faculty members were employed part-time, and not required to do research. Strayer's online segment consists of 90 full-time instructors and 847 part-time instructors.

Student outcomes
According to research from the Brookings Institution, Strayer University students hold approximately $8 billion in student loan debt, the fifth-largest among all U.S. colleges and universities. The 5-year default rate of Strayer students is 31%, and the average repayment of debt after five years is -7%. According to the College Scorecard, Strayer University's 8-year graduation rate varies from 3% (Arkansas) to 26% (Virginia), depending on the campus. Strayer is one of several for-profit schools which have been criticized for identifying as a university, since it does not offer Ph.D. programs. Most people who start their college studies at Strayer do not graduate.

Alumni
Notable alumni of Strayer University include:
 * Gen. Robert Magnus, retired assistant commandant of the Marine Corps
 * Charles Mann, businessman and former NFL football player
 * M. Virginia Rosenbaum, American surveyor and newspaper editor
 * Don Watkins, author, columnist, and fellow at the Ayn Rand Institute
 * Carolyn Wright, American lawyer, jurist and the Chief justice of the Fifth Court of Appeals of Texas

Strategic Education Inc.
Strategic Education Inc. is a publicly traded corporation, established as a holding company for the college and other assets in 1996. The company was created to take what was then Strayer College public and raise capital for expansion.

In August 2018, Strayer Education Inc. merged with Capella Education Company to form Strategic Education, Inc.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Strayer University


text:
Talk:Samuel Brannan

Untitled
This just didn't sound correct:

"Brannan went to the mill and he recieved the tithes of the LDS workers there from the gold they had found in their spare time."

So I added the "as a representative of the LDS Church". I don't know if this is correct, but it is not likely that LDS would have been giving Brannan "tithes" (if that is indeed what he was recieving instead of perhaps payment for goods and services) unless he was acting as an agent for the LDS Church. B 15:38, Dec 19, 2003 (UTC)

 * As I understand it, Brannan was the bishop in San Francisco, and the highest member of the church in California at the time. Not too sure, as I'm a Catholic myself, so I don't know all about the internal workings of the LDS church. Gentgeen

I'm double checking, but I believe he was the presiding church authority, not a Bishop. -Visorstuff 17:02, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

A bishop, especially in that time was the presiding church authority and also the one who would receive tithes from members- sgthone12b 11:14 MST 18 Nov 2006

Merge suggestion
I would concur. WBardwin 18:02, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

Agreement. VikÞor |  Talk 13:09, 5 October 2006 (UTC)

Same person, so merge would be correct. sgthone12b 11:14 MST 18 Nov 2006

 * With three as concensus, completed merge -- seems rough yet to me, so feel free to edit. WBardwin 04:41, 19 November 2006 (UTC)

Magnate discussion
Reading this article, Brannan operated and owned more than one store. In addition to acquiring and selling real estate, he became wealthy only to become penniless after settling his debts. Ronbo76 05:39, 16 March 2007 (UTC)

 * A dozen would still be too few. He was no magnate. Sam Walton, J.C. Penney, Frank Woolworth and such were magnates. As a retailer, Brannan was insignificant. On the other hand, padding his resume is exctly the sort of thing he'd have done, so I won't revert your reversion. Whyaduck 06:00, 16 March 2007 (UTC)
 * He was a maganate in his time and this article has sources and external links that back it. Ronbo76 06:03, 16 March 2007 (UTC)

I wonder
How come that the Brannon River was named after Samuel Brannan? Avihu (talk) 07:57, 22 July 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Samuel Brannan


text:
Children of Bill 101

The children of Bill 101 (les enfants de la loi 101) is the name given to the generation of children whose parents immigrated to Quebec, Canada after the adoption of the 1977 Charter of the French Language (Bill 101).

One of the Charter's articles stipulates that all children under 16 must receive their primary and secondary education in French schools, unless one of the child's parents has received most of their education in English, in Canada, or the child or the child's sibling has already received a substantial part of their education in English, in Canada. If a child qualifies for a certificate of eligibility for instruction in English under one of those criteria, then the certificate is permanent and can be passed on to future generations even if the child ends up attending French instead of English school. The permanent certificate can only be granted if one of the child's parents is a Canadian citizen. In addition, children of foreign temporary residents living in Quebec on study or work permits, as well as children of diplomats, can also obtain a temporary certificate of eligibility that is only valid for the duration of their permit.

Mostly because of this, many of the children of Bill 101, already adults as of 2001, numbering between 93,800 and 100,600 individuals, have adopted French as their primary language of communication, and in a much greater proportion than the previous generations of immigrants, who had adopted English.

From the time Bill 101 was adopted until 2010, there existed a legal loophole for the children of francophones and allophones to attend public and subsidized private English schools if they went to an unsubsidized private English elementary school for at least one year. An estimated 11,000 children used this loophole between 1992 and 2002 to receive an English education in Quebec. In 2010, the provincial government introduced a more complicated point system under Bill 115 to replace the previous loophole, making it more difficult for the children of non-anglophones to attend any English school that received government funding. The bill required a student without anglophone parents to attend a minimum of three years in an unsubsidized private English elementary school before a certificate of eligibility required to attend government-funded English schools can be granted. The Quebec government does not provide any subsidies to private schools for elementary, so private English schools that took subsidies starting in grade 7 have always been able to accept students without certificates in kindergarten to grade 6 while requiring them in high school. However, since Bill 115 was passed, making it more difficult for children of non-anglophones to obtain a certificate in time for grade 7, some private English schools have decided to forego those subsidies so that they can admit students without certificates even in their high school section.

Background

 * Constitution Act 1867, Section 133
 * 1867 marks the beginning of legislation regarding language inequality in Canada. This predecessor to Bill 101 was largely important for lawmakers and the provinces they represented.  In this constitutional amendment, the Canadian legislature recognized the prevalence of francophones in the government.  In response, Section 133 gave legislators the right to use French or English in Parliament and the courts at the federal level and in Quebec.

 * 1960s
 * The 1960s brought an increased awareness in Canada of the problems that francophones in an English speaking country faced. Both culturally and linguistically, francophone Canadians experienced opposition and difficulty in all public arenas.  In addition, French speakers at the time were economically underprivileged in Canada specifically when compared to English speakers.   This held true even in Quebec, which held a majority of francophones.  In an effort to improve the situation of French speakers, the Royal Commission of Bilingualism and Biculturalism (B & B Commission) was established in 1963 under the Lester B. Pearson Government.  The establishment of this commission represented and promoted the cultural and linguistic composition of Canada for the first time.  This commission confirmed inferior economic position of francophones in Canada.  Owing in large part to the results of research and activism by this group, the Official Languages Act was passed in 1969.  This act was passed under the government of Pierre Elliot Trudeau.  With it, a Commissioner of Official Languages was deemed necessary in order to preserve and promote the rights of French speakers.

 * Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
 * After a decade of changes in language policy during the 1960s in Canada, francophones received even greater assistance in language rights in 1982. Part of the Constitution Act of 1982 gave constitutional status to language rights and guaranteed education rights to provincial minorities.   The concept of education rights for minorities had been considered controversial in the past.  With the introduction of this new Bill, however, the rights of provincial linguistic minorities were strengthened.  This legislation applied to francophone communities in all but one case.

 * Recent Legislation
 * The effects of multiple languages in one country still require legislation in Canada. The provincial and national governments must constantly work to accommodate changes in language and culture in Montreal and throughout Canada.  In 2003, the Five Year Action Plan for Official Languages was established.  This plan aimed to promote official languages from 2003 to 2008.  The importance of language duality was recognized by officials as not only a part of the Canadian heritage but also as an asset for the future.  Furthermore, this plan specified three specific areas of development.  These three areas accommodated areas of specific concern for the francophone community:  education, community development and public service.

Effects of Bill 101

 * The overall effects of Bill 101 are difficult to measure because of the nature of language learning. However, overall there has been a small increase in the percentage of francophones.  Overall a fifty percent increase over 1970 of bilingual allophones has been noted.  However, despite concerns that were present before the bill was enacted, there has been no discernable loss of English after the bill.  Additionally, there has been no increase in job demand for allophones since the bill's enactment.

title: Children of Bill 101


text:
Talk:Crime film

This article
This article originated in material from a long article on crime fiction, and as such it shows a bias in talking about crime films and literature, rather than the crime film itself. It obviously needs some more material to provide a balanced article on the crime film. : ChrisG 15:42, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * The mere fact that it originated from a seperate article doesn't make it NPOV, but it certainly seems to contain a lot of rants about remakes and adaptations from books.

 * Needs Major Rewrite::

Wow. This article needs a serious, serious rewrite. I gave a few little swipes here and there, and will return later, but if someone from the film project wants to take a shot, have at it.

As noted above, this is taken from a larger article on crime fiction, and it shows. The article doesn't even mention film noir (except my l'il mention at the top. I took out some, but honestly I think the best take would be to start it over as a stub and rebuild. Jordoh 04:04, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

 * As the original author of this, I can only agree. I told ChrisG and others who were intent on separating this short text from the (then much longer) Crime fiction article more than two years ago that this would never do as an article in its own right, but they tended not to believe me. At the same time this text was removed from the main article so that Crime fiction now altogether lacks a discussion of how crime fiction is turned into film.

 * They also expressed the hope that someone would have a go at it in no time. Well, it is taking a bit longer, and with the growth of Wikipedia Crime film (or any other suitable title) should really be a comprehensive article on all aspects of the genre rather than just two or three random examples (which I think is fine if you just want to illustrate a point). I just realized that now we even have an article on Edgar Wallace movies, so a lot of work is waiting here. Good luck to all potential contributors! < K  F >  10:54, 26 February 2006 (UTC)

Since no one apparently thought this was PoV, I removed the tag and replaced it with a clean-up tag. Ace of Sevens 11:51, 7 June 2006 (UTC)

Merged in Gangster film. Cwolfsheep 14:00, 9 July 2006 (UTC)

Redirects
There were a handful of mob related articles that were either merged into here or simply redirected. The ones I caught have been redirected to Organized crime in popular culture. If anyone wants to help flesh out the aforelinked article, please do so. It's in desperate need of some real analysis/prose subsection leads. MrZaius talk  16:27, 19 June 2007 (UTC)

Subgenres
The information in the Subgenres section of this Article - is mostly wrong. קולנואני (talk) 22:16, 4 May 2011 (UTC)

Crime films vs Detective films
I'd like to see citations of film historians who categorize mysteries and police procedurals as sub-genres of crime films. I don't buy it. Mysteries and police procedurals are about solving crimes; they are detective films. Crime films, in movie parlance, are about committing crimes. If a Hollywood producer hired you to write a "crime film", and you turned in a screenplay about a detective solving a crime, he would be unhappy. --Tysto (talk) 01:46, 6 January 2013 (UTC)

Film Noir
Film Noir is not a genre or a sub-genre, but rather a style of film. A heist film or a science fiction film, as examples, can be filmed in the film noir style. L. Thomas W. (talk) 23:25, 7 March 2017 (UTC)

Detective film as sub genre to crime film just as detective fiction is sub genre of crime film?
The entry for these film sub genres has both mystery film & police procedural... redundant? coterminous? analogous to to detective sub genre in crime literature? Film Noir are often a mix of these also... film genre reader anyone? Sources? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 52.119.116.170 (talk) 07:09, 23 January 2020 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Information Literacy and Scholarly Discourse
— Assignment last updated by Mlclark1 (talk) 13:23, 10 June 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Crime and Media
— Assignment last updated by Oriona718 (talk) 17:16, 7 November 2023 (UTC)

Crime action sub-genre removal
The source in question discussing the Crime action subgenre was a misinterpretation. "Screenwriter and academic Jule Selbo wrote that describing a film as a "crime/action" or an "action/crime" or other hybrids was "only a semantic exercise" as both genres are important in the construction phase of the narrative." While they do say that they were a hybrid, but thinking that as it's own entity isn't useful, they exist on their own. I'm going to expand on this as a sub-genre within Action film, but for now, i've removed it in this case. Andrzejbanas (talk) 13:48, 5 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Crime film


text:
Fruitland

Fruitland may refer to:

 * Fruitland, California
 * Fruitland, Georgia
 * Fruitland, Idaho
 * Fruitland, Iowa
 * Fruitland, Maryland
 * Fruitland, Missouri
 * Fruitland, New Mexico
 * Fruitland Township, Michigan
 * Fruitland, Utah
 * Fruitland, Washington

"Fruitland" is also a part of the name of:

 * Fruitland Park, Florida
 * Upper Fruitland, New Mexico
 * Fruitland formation, geological deposit in New Mexico and Colorado

title: Fruitland


text:
Van Buren (disambiguation)

Martin Van Buren (1782–1862) was the president of the United States from 1837 to 1841.

Van Buren may also refer to:

People

 * Van Buren (surname)

United States

 * Van Buren, Arkansas
 * Van Buren, Louisiana
 * Van Buren, Indiana
 * Van Buren, Maine, a New England town
 * Van Buren (CDP), Maine, the main village in the town
 * Van Buren, Missouri
 * Van Buren, New York
 * Van Buren, Ohio
 * Van Buren, Tennessee
 * Van Buren, Wisconsin
 * Van Buren Lake, a lake in Ohio
 * Van Buren County (disambiguation)
 * Van Buren Township (disambiguation)

Buildings

 * Van Buren, Martin, National Historic Site, United States

Law

 * Van Buren v. United States, a United States Supreme Court case

Ships

 * USS Van Buren, United States Navy ships of the name
 * USS Van Buren (1839), a schooner that served in the U.S. Revenue Cutter Service and U.S. Navy
 * USS Van Buren (PF-42), U.S. Navy frigate
 * USS John J. Van Buren (DE-753), a United States Navy destroyer escort cancelled in 1944

Video games

 * Van Buren (video game), the codename given to Interplay's canceled third Fallout video game

title: Van Buren (disambiguation)


text:
Academic department

An academic department is a division of a university or school faculty devoted to a particular academic discipline. In the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries, universities tend to use the term faculty; faculties are typically further divided into schools or departments, but not always.

Disciplines
The organization of faculties into departments is not standardized, but most U.S. universities will at least have departments of History, Physics, English (language and literature), Psychology, and so on. Sometimes divisions are coarser: a liberal arts college which de-emphasizes the sciences may have a single Science department; an engineering university may have one department for Language and Literature (in all languages). Sometimes divisions may be finer: for example, Harvard University has separate departments of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Molecular and Cellular Biology, and Chemistry and Chemical Biology. Some disciplines are found in different departments at different institutions: biochemistry may be in biology, in chemistry or in its own department; computer science may be in mathematics, applied mathematics, electrical engineering, or its own department (the usual case nowadays). Typically, "Departments reflect disciplines with the disciplines representing coherent areas of research and scholarship."

Departments in professional schools, or more so, professional schools at the postgraduate level will be specialized like the school itself, so a medical school will probably have departments of Anatomy, Pathology, Dermatology, and so on.

Chairs and faculty
"Departments serve as administrative structures." Departments are generally chaired by a member of the department, who may be elected by the faculty of the department, appointed by the dean of the faculty, or assigned by simple rotation among the tenured faculty. The duties, importance, and power of the department chair vary widely among institutions and even among departments within an institution.

Responsibilities and themes of a department leader or head may include:

 * Recruitment and retention
 * Ensuring good internal relations and coordination between staff
 * Research
 * Educational reform
 * Trust and collaboration

Curricula
"Programs [in Departments or outwith] reflect how disciplines (or combinations of disciplines) form curriculum to teach their disciplines or combinations/intersections of disciplines."

Courses belong to programs and are generally given within a department, and often named for the department, e.g. Physics 230: Quantum mechanics.

Undergraduate students
Undergraduate academic majors or degree programs are generally administered by departments, although there may also be interdisciplinary committees for subjects which touch more than one department.

Per Umbrach and Porter (2002), several aspects of academic departments can affect the performance of students within them. Higher proportions of female undergrads, as well as deeper focuses on research (as measured by grant money per full-time employee) tend to increase student satisfaction with their majors. The two variables also tend to increase students' perception of how much their skills developed overall. (Decomposing this into intellectual and personal development, more patterns appear. Intellectually, only grant money appears to substantially increase skill development. Personally, gender diversity and student contact with faculty are also positive factors; average SAT score, however, can be a negative factor. )

Graduate students
Graduate students in academic (as opposed to professional) programs are much more closely tied to their departments than undergraduates, and the department, rather than the university, is almost completely responsible for their selection (cf. college admissions) and course of study.

Alternatives
Some institutions without conventional academic departments include the University of Wisconsin at Green Bay, the University of California, Santa Cruz, and the Evergreen State College.

title: Academic department


text:
Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels

Adolf Josef Lanz (19 July 1874 – 22 April 1954), also known under his pseudonym as Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels, was an Austrian political and racial theorist and occultist, who was a pioneer of Ariosophy. He was a former monk and the founder of the magazine Ostara, in which he published anti-semitic and völkisch theories.

Early life
He was born on 19 July 1874 in the Penzing district of Vienna in what was then Austria-Hungary, as the son of schoolmaster Johann Lanz and his wife Katharina, née Hoffenreich. His parents were middle class, and his father's ancestors had been burghers in Vienna since the early 18th century. His mother was believed to have been of Jewish ancestry, making him fail his own racial criteria. Consequently, he claimed to be the son of Baron Johannes Lancz de Liebenfels and began to call himself "Baron Adolf Georg (Jörg) Lanz Von Liebenfels Ph.D."

As a young boy, he was fascinated by the myth of the Holy Grail.

Liebenfels became a monk in the Cistercian order in 1893, assuming the name Georg and living in the Heiligenkreuz monastery. In 1894, he claimed to have become "enlightened" after finding the tombstone of a Knight Templar, and began developing his theories of "blue-blond Aryanism" and "lower races". In 1899, he left the Cistercian order.

Work with Theozoology
In 1905, he published his book Theozoölogie oder die Kunde von den Sodoms-Äfflingen und dem Götter-Elektron (Theozoology, or the Science of the Sodomite-Apelings and the Divine Electron) in which he advocated sterilization of the sick and the "lower races" as well as forced labour for "castrated chandals", and glorified the "Aryan race" as "Gottmenschen" ("god-men"). Liebenfels justified his esoteric racial ideology by attempting to give it a Biblical foundation; according to him, Eve, whom he described as initially being divine, involved herself with a demon and gave birth to the "lower races" in the process. Furthermore, he claimed that this led to blonde women being attracted primarily to "dark men", something that only could be stopped by "racial demixing" so that the "Aryan-Christian master humans" could "once again rule the dark-skinned beastmen" and ultimately achieve divinity. A copy of this book was sent to Swedish poet August Strindberg, from whom Liebenfels received an enthusiastic reply in which he was described as a "prophetic voice".

One year later, in 1905, Liebenfels founded the magazine Ostara, Briefbücherei der Blonden und Mannesrechtler, of which he became the sole author and editor in 1908. Liebenfels himself claimed to have up to 100,000 subscribers, but it is generally agreed that this figure is grossly exaggerated. Readers of this publication included Adolf Hitler, Dietrich Eckart and the British Field Marshal Herbert Kitchener among others. Liebenfels claimed he was visited by the young Hitler in 1909, whom he supplied with two missing issues of the magazine.

As a student of Guido von List, Liebenfels further expanded his theories; other influences included Otto Weininger, of whom Liebenfels was a fervent follower, and Helena Blavatsky.

Secret Society Order of the New Templars
The Order of the New Templars – Ordo Novi Templi (ONT) was a proto-fascist secret society in Germany founded by Lanz in 1900. It was modelled after the catholic military order the Knights Templar and similar in its hierarchical structure to the Order of Cistercians, of which Lanz had been a member.

Members used code names so that betrayal was difficult.

Lanz functioned as ideologue and agitator of the group, justifying violence and punishments such as castration in order to establish a fascist state in Germany and defend it against communism.

Interactions with Aryan societies
In 1905 Liebenfels and some 50 other supporters of List signed a declaration endorsing the proposed Guido-von-List-Gesellschaft (Guido von List Society), which was officially founded in 1908. He also founded his own esoteric organisation, the Ordo Novi Templi (Order of the New Templars) in 1907. These movements were supposed to "further the racial self-confidence by doing pedigree and racial research, beauty contests and the founding of racist "future sites" in underdeveloped parts of the Earth" (das Rasse Bewusstsein durch Stammbaum- und Rassekunde Forschung, Schönheitswettbewerbe und die Gründung rassistischer Zukunftsstätten in unterentwickelten Teilen der Erde zu fördern). To further this agenda, he purchased the Werfenstein castle ruins in Austria. Neither organization managed to attract a large member base; though, it is estimated that the order had around 300 members, most prominent of which was the poet Fritz von Herzmanovsky-Orlando. Liebenfels‘s claim that the organization was already founded prior to 1900, and that he met with August Strindberg in 1896 and managed to convince him to join the order, have been shown to be fabricated.

After Hitler's rise to prominence in the 1920s, Liebenfels tried to be recognized as one of his ideological precursors. In the preface of issue one in the 3rd series of Ostara, c. 1927, he wrote:

One shall remember that the swastika- and fascist movements are basically offspring of Ostara.

Publications
In his publications, Liebenfels mixed völkisch and anti-semitic ideas with Aryanism, racism and esotericism. The following is a partial list of Liebenfels‘s publications:

 * Katholizismus wider Jesuitismus ("Catholicism versus Jesuitism"), Frankfurt, 1903
 * Anthropozoon biblicum, in Vjschr. für Bibelkunde 1, 1903/1904
 * Zur Theologie der gotischen Bibel ("Regarding the Theology of the Gothic Bible") in Vjschr. für Bibelkunde 1, 1903/1904
 * Theozoologie oder die Kunde von den Sodoms-Äfflingen und dem Götter-Elektron ("Theozoology, or the Account of the Sodomite Apelings and the Divine Electron"), Vienna, (1905)
 * Das Breve "Dominus ac redemptor noster", Frankfurt, 1905
 * Der Taxilschwindel. Ein welthistorischer Ulk, Frankfurt, 1905
 * Ostara (magazine), 89 or 100 issues, Rodaun and Mödling, 1905–17 (38 issues were republished in Vienna between 1926 and 1931)
 * Kraus und das Rassenproblem ("Kraus and the Race Problem"), in Der Brenner 4, 1913/1914
 * Weltende und Weltwende, ("World's End and World's Turn"), Lorch, 1923
 * Grundriss der ariosophischen Geheimlehre ("Outline of the Ariosophic Secret Teachings"), Oestrich, 1925
 * Der Weltkrieg als Rassenkampf der Dunklen gegen die Blonden ("The World War as a Race Fight Between the Dark and the Blondes"), Vienna, 1927
 * Bibliomystikon oder die Geheimbibel der Eingeweihten ("Bibliomystikon, or the Secret Bible of the Initiated"), 10 volumes, Pforzheim and elsewhere, 1929–1934
 * Praktisch-empirisches Handbuch der ariosophischen Astrologie ("Practical-empirical Handbook of Ariosophic Astrology"), Düsseldorf, 1926–34
 * Jakob Lorber. Das grösste ariosophische Medium der Neuzeit, Düsseldorf, 1926, 4 Bänden.
 * Praktisch-empirisches Handbuch der ariosophischen Astrologie ("Practical-empirical Handbook of Ariosophic Astrology"), Düsseldorf, 1926–34
 * Jakob Lorber. Das grösste ariosophische Medium der Neuzeit, Düsseldorf, 1926, 4 Bänden.

title: Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels


text:
Hopkins

Hopkins is an English, Welsh and Irish patronymic surname. The English name means "son of Hob". Hob was a diminutive of Robert, itself deriving from the Germanic warrior name Hrod-berht, translated as "renowned-fame". The Robert spelling was introduced to England after the Norman conquest of England.

The surname Hopkins or Hopcyn is associated with, and most common in, Wales. A typical Welsh patronym, it is first recorded as ab Popkyn (son of Hopkin) in Monmouth, in the early 17th century, and became a standardized surname under English law.

The name in Ireland is an Anglicisation of the Irish Gaelic surname Mac Oibicin.

People surnamed Hopkins

 * Anna Hopkins (born 1987), Canadian actress
 * Andrew Delmar Hopkins (1857–1948), American entomologist
 * Sir Anthony Hopkins (born 1937), actor
 * Antony Hopkins, composer
 * A. G. Hopkins Antony Gerald Hopkins, British historian
 * Arthur F. Hopkins (1794–1865), husband of Juliet Opie Hopkins
 * Bernard Hopkins, professional boxer
 * Bert Hopkins, Australian cricketer
 * Bobb Hopkins, actor, director and founder of the National Hobo Association
 * Brad Hopkins, NFL offensive lineman
 * Brycen Hopkins (born 1997), American football player & son of Brad
 * Budd Hopkins, artist and UFO researcher
 * Cathy Hopkins, novelist
 * Charles Hopkins (disambiguation), several people
 * Christian Hopkins, American football player
 * Claude Hopkins, musician
 * Claude C. Hopkins, advertising man
 * Constance Hopkins, Mayflower passenger
 * CJ Hopkins, American playwright and author
 * DeAndre Hopkins (born 1992), American football player
 * Dustin Hopkins, American football player
 * Edward Hopkins, settler, governor Connecticut Colony
 * Edward John Hopkins, English organist and composer
 * Elizabeth Hopkins (1731–1801), English actress
 * Esek Hopkins (1718–1802), Continental Navy officer
 * Esther A. Hopkins, American chemist and environmental attorney
 * Ezekiel Hopkins, Bishop of Derry and Raphoe
 * Frank Hopkins, U.S. cowboy
 * Frank Hopkins (Royal Navy officer), Captain of HMS Ark Royal
 * Frederick Gowland Hopkins, biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate
 * Gail Hopkins (born 1943), American baseball player and coach
 * Gareth Hopkins, New Zealand cricketer
 * Gareth Hopkins (footballer)
 * Gaynor Hopkins, stage name Bonnie Tyler (born 1951), singer
 * George Hopkins (disambiguation), several people
 * Gerard Manley Hopkins, poet, Jesuit
 * Graham Hopkins, drummer/musician
 * Harold Hopkins (physicist), physicist
 * Harry Hopkins, economics advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt
 * Herbert Hopkins, Australian/English crickete
 * Howard Hopkins E7 Chief Navy Retired (passed)
 * Ian Hopkins, British police chief
 * Isaac S. Hopkins, professor/founder Georgia Institute of Technology
 * J. Fletcher Hopkins (died 1953), American politician
 * James Hopkins (disambiguation), several people
 * Jeff Hopkins, footballer
 * Jeffrey Hopkins, Tibetologist
 * John Hopkins (disambiguation), several people
 * Johns Hopkins, philanthropist
 * Jon Hopkins, electronica musician
 * Joseph Gardner Hopkins MD (1882–1951), dermatologist, bacteriologist, pathologist, professor at Columbia 1925 to 1947
 * Juliet Opie Hopkins (1818–1890), The Florence Nightingale of the south.
 * Katie Hopkins, British TV personality and newspaper columnist
 * Keith Hopkins, historian and sociologist
 * Larry J. Hopkins (1933–2021), American politician
 * Lea Hopkins (born 1944), American LGBT rights activist from Missouri
 * Lemuel Hopkins (1750–1801), American poet
 * Lightnin' Hopkins, blues guitarist and singer
 * Linda Ann Hopkins (born 1976) known as Tera Patrick, pornographic actress
 * Lisa Hopkins (born 1978), American opera singer
 * Livingston Hopkins "Hop" (1846–1927), American-born cartoonist in Australia
 * Mark Hopkins (disambiguation), several people
 * Mary Hopkins (disambiguation), several people
 * Matthew Hopkins, 17th century witch-hunter
 * Maudie Hopkins, last surviving American Civil War widow
 * Mel Hopkins (1934–2010), international footballer
 * Michael Hopkins (disambiguation), several people
 * Milton Hopkins (biologist) (1906–1983), American botanist and textbook editor
 * Milton N. Hopkins (1926–2007), farmer and ornithologist
 * Milton W. Hopkins (1789–1844), American portrait painter
 * Miriam Hopkins (1902–1972), American actress
 * Nathan T. Hopkins, U.S. Representative from Kentucky
 * Neil Hopkins, (born 1977) American actor
 * Nelson K. Hopkins, New York State Comptroller, 1872–1875
 * Nicky Hopkins (1944–1994), English rock pianist
 * Patty Hopkins (born 1942), British architect
 * Paul Hopkins (baseball) (1904–2004), baseball pitcher
 * Paul Hopkins (actor) (born 1968), Canadian television, film and theatre actor
 * Paul Hopkins (footballer) (born 1986), English (soccer) footballer
 * Peter W. Hopkins (1826–1879), New York politician
 * Rachel Hopkins, British Member of Parliament elected 2019
 * Raymond Hopkins (born 1975), Dutch/English Canadian Health & Safety Consultant, resident of Lethbridge, Alberta and a good friend
 * Richard Hopkins (disambiguation), several people
 * Rob Hopkins (born 1968), English activist founder of Transition Towns movement
 * Ron Hopkins (born 1960), American football player
 * Roy M. Hopkins (1943–2006), member of the Louisiana House of Representatives
 * Stephen Hopkins (disambiguation), several people
 * Stephen Hopkins (politician) (1707–1785) United States politician and statesman; signer of the Declaration of Independence

 * Telma Hopkins, American singer and actress
 * Tom Hopkins, English footballer
 * Tim Hopkins, jazz musician
 * Wes Hopkins, NFL defensive back
 * William Hopkins (disambiguation), several people
 * William Hersey Hopkins (1841–1919), American academic and college administrator

Fictional characters

 * Jimmy Hopkins, main character of the controversial video game Bully
 * Kailey Hopkins, American Girl character, "Girl of the Year" for 2003
 * Gilly Hopkins, main character of The Great Gilly Hopkins.
 * Martin Hopkins, main character of the Pentagram series by Anthony Horowitz.

title: Hopkins


text:
Rijssen

Rijssen (Riesn, ) is a city in the Dutch province of Overijssel. It is part of Rijssen-Holten, one of thirteen municipalities in Twente. It has almost 28,000 inhabitants. The economy of Rijssen relies mostly on commerce and construction and transport companies.

History
Archeological evidence shows that the monk Lebuinus founded a church in Rijssen, as early as the seventh century, as part of a coordinated attempt to convert the local pagan Saxons to Christianity, though other archaeological finds, such as urns and grave mounds suggest habitation dating back as far as 5,000 years.

Rijssen was first mentioned as Parrochia Risnen on a freight letter dating from 1188 by the Count of Dalen.

After having a disagreement with the Viscount of Goor, Bishop Otto III van Holland granted city rights to Rijssen on 5 May 1243. The original city rights bill was lost in a large fire that swept through the town, reducing the town hall and the keep to rubble. In 2006, however, a copy was given to the newly instated town council.

In the 14th century, Rijssen entered the Hanseatic league. Of the old town, only a church and a few houses dating from the eighteenth century remain.

From 1580 to 1584, Rijssen suffered greatly from the Eighty Years' War. The city of Deventer was under the state's command, while the town of Oldenzaal was under Spanish command. The two opposing parties would often meet halfway for battle, around Rijssen.

The 18th century saw the rise of the Industrial Revolution in Rijssen. Many farmers participated in textile manufacturing; whole families, women and children, were involved in this trade, often under poor conditions. In the 19th and early 20th century, Rijssen, like many other towns in the Netherlands, saw the introduction of power looms. This spearheaded the local Ter Horst factory among the regional top jute producers. These however went bankrupt in the 1970s due to overpowering Asian competition. Factory workers were forced to find other means of income and many started their own businesses, either in transport or in construction engineering.

Rijssen was a separate municipality until it merged with Holten in 2001. The working title of the municipality was "Rijssen", and it got the final name "Rijssen-Holten" in 2003.

Transport

 * Railway station: Rijssen

Rijssen is easily accessible through a number of provincial roads, such as the N347 and the N350, the latter connects Rijssen to the village of Holten and lends its name to the local radio station. Through these provincial roads, Rijssen has access to the motorway A1 from Amsterdam to the German border.

All neighbourhoods in Rijssen are easily accessible by bus.

Facilities/tourism
Rijssen has multiple shopping facilities in its centre, which also accommodates a number of bars, pubs and lunchrooms. It has a large discothèque that attracts visitors from all neighbouring towns and villages. The small town has a fire brigade museum and a monumental church, the Schildkerk. The restored and fully functional mill de Pelmolen is one of the major attractions of the town.

Rijssen is surrounded by a versatile landscape, accommodating a number of renowned camp sites.

Being close to Germany, it is an ideal location for European companies, such as Zwaartransport Twente or ZTT, member of the Van der Vlist group, who are heavy transport specialists, with a focus on moving agricultural equipment.

Population and politics
The inhabitants of Rijssen are known for their pride for their town, their self-sufficiency and working ethos. This pride shows in the fact that Rijssen has its own anthem.

Rijssen has a large community of several Protestant groups, with several churches, as well as a small Roman Catholic parish. The conservative Calvinist Reformed Political Party (SGP) long held the strongest position in the municipality's council. A large percentage of Rijssen's population are members of one of these conservative groups. Rijssen also has communities of Moluccan, Turkish, Syrian and Moroccan people.

Language
As Rijssen lies in the Dutch Low Saxon language area of Western Europe, and has a rich trading history going back to Heanseatic times, the town has developed a distinct variety of Low Saxon, known as Riessens. It shares many characteristics with Low Saxon dialects of surrounding communities, which are categorised as Tweants, although it has some very distinct characteristics, most notably in pronunciation. Riessens is by some considered one of the more conservative varieties of Tweants, although there are no scientific grounds for this idea.

Development
A large peat bog to the west of the Tweante region long formed a natural border, separating it from the rest of the Netherlands. Twente was, therefore, more geographically, economically and culturally inclined towards the east, modelling their clothing and speech to Munsterlandic fashion.

As the town of Enschede in the east of Twente became a textile powerhouse during the industrial revolution and the model for fashion and language, Twente gradually severed the old ties with Münster. Enschede attracted people from the entire country, while settlers from the nearby Drenthe and Groningen regions were invited to come and till the eastern parts of Twente. Their dialect features gradually influenced the Munsterlandic traits. Rijssen had its own (smaller-scale) textile industry, which obsoleted their need to look beyond. Additionally, in the 19th century, Rijssen and surrounding villages became largely protestant in an otherwise mainly Roman Catholic region. This caused a cultural rift between the eastern and western parts of Twente. Rijssen, by then becoming more and more conservative and therefore seclusive, developed a few language traits, while retaining some of the old Munsterlandic features that were lost in others.

For instance, the pronunciation of the Riessens word 'weten', which is pronounced (to know) is, despite their different written forms, equal to the Munsterlandic wiäten. In more eastern parts of Tweante, this word has evolved into 'wetten' (pronounced ).

Features
Characteristic features include diphthongisation of a number of vowels that are monophthongs in other varieties of Tweants. For instance, in other varieties, the words breef (letter), groot (large), and neuze (nose) are pronounced, whereas in Riessens they are pronounced. Older speakers may even be heard pronouncing them. This phenomenon is known as vowel breaking. This indicates that Riessens is part of the larger Westphalian branch of Low Saxon.

Other features are vowel elongation, and some additional vowels that are absent in other varieties, such as the ASH vowel. Below are few examples:
 * stemme (voice) - stämme (stems).
 * IPA: and
 * veste (vests) - vuste (already) - vuuste (fists) - völs te (much too)
 * IPA: -  -  -

One notable feature that sets Riessens apart from other varieties of Tweants is its sing-song, nasal quality. Due to vowel elongation, combined with syllabic consonants, Riessens has (to some extent) a different rhythm than other varieties, perhaps comparable with North Germanic languages.

title: Rijssen


text:
Watford Junction railway station

Watford Junction is a railway station that serves Watford, Hertfordshire. The station is on the West Coast Main Line (WCML), 17 mi from London Euston and the Abbey Line, a branch line to St Albans. Journeys to London take between 16 and 52 minutes, depending on the service. Trains also run to Clapham Junction and East Croydon, via the West London line. The station is a major hub for local bus services and the connecting station for buses to Warner Bros. Studio Tour London – The Making of Harry Potter. The station is located north of a viaduct over the Colne valley and immediately south of Watford Tunnel.

History

The first railway station to open in Watford was situated on the north side of St Albans Road, approximately 200 m further up the line from the present-day station. This small, single-storey red-brick building was built in 1836–7, when the first section of the London and Birmingham Railway (L&BR) was opened between London and Boxmoor. The station provided first and second-class waiting rooms, a departure yard, a carriage shed and engine house. The platforms were situated in a deep cutting which was accessed via a staircase.

In its 21 years of operation, it also served as a station for royalty; in the short period when the Dowager Queen Adelaide was resident at Cassiobury House (c.1846-49), this station was remodelled to provide her with a royal waiting room, and it was also reportedly used by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert on a trip to visit Sir Robert Peel in November 1843, when they travelled by road from Windsor Castle to take a train from Watford to Tamworth.

The old station closed when it was replaced by a new, larger station, which opened on 5 May 1858. The new Watford Junction station was located south of St Albans Road in order to accommodate the newly constructed branch line to St Albans. The junction station was rebuilt in 1909, and was extensively redeveloped in the 1980s. The Grade-II-listed Old Station House still stands at 147A St Albans Road, a rare surviving example of architecture from the beginning of the railway age; today, the building is occupied by a second-hand car dealership.

In 1862, the Watford and Rickmansworth Railway opened a route from Watford to Rickmansworth (Church Street). Now mostly closed, this route began by running south and west to a more central station on Watford's High Street, which remains in use.

From 1846, the L&BR was absorbed into the London and North Western Railway (LNWR) and Watford Junction was now run by this large, ambitious company. Seeking to compete with local buses and trams, the LNWR built an additional suburban line from Euston to Watford in the early years of the 20th century, now known as the Watford DC line. This veered away from the main line at Bushey to loop around Watford to pass through the High Street station. A second suburban branch line was also built from High Street west towards Croxley Green to serve new housing developments in that area. Both branches were later electrified as part of this improvement plan, on the same DC three-rail system. The Rickmansworth branch was connected to the Main Line, via two through platforms, with a junction to the north; these platforms have since been partly built over and their remaining southern sections form part of the present DC lines terminus. At one time, tube-style trains were used on the branches to counter the low voltage caused by the lack of a sub-station near Rickmansworth.

The Bakerloo line was extended to Watford Junction in 1917, giving a shared service north of Willesden Junction with the main line electric trains which served Euston and Broad Street stations. However, since 1982 the line north of has only been served by what is now the London Overground service from Euston station; this service uses these DC lines for its all-stations local service.

Oyster card capability was extended to this station on 11 November 2007 on both the London Overground and Southern; it was extended to London Midland services on 18 November 2007. However, the station is outside London fare zones 1–9 and special fares apply.

With the electrification of the entire West London line in the 1990s, it became practical to run services from Watford Junction to Clapham Junction, allowing passengers to cross London without changing trains. Southern operated an hourly service from Milton Keynes, now starting from Watford Junction, to East Croydon with connections to Brighton and Gatwick.

There is a well-known expression, North of Watford, which is used to mean the north of England, especially a place remote from London. An alternative variant phrase, North of Watford Junction, was used with similar meaning in the past, referring to Watford Junction railway station. The expression reflects the station's position as the last urban stop on the main railway line out of London to the north of England. In more recent years, it has been suggested that the phrase references Watford Gap services on the M1, however the original saying was in existence well before its opening in 1959.

Motive power depot

The LNWR built a locomotive depot at the station in 1856, which was replaced by a larger building in 1872 and was further enlarged in 1890. It was closed by British Railways in March 1965.

Redevelopment
In 1984, the Victorian station buildings were demolished and the station was rebuilt in a modern architectural style; there is a travel centre and a large office block above the station which is occupied by the lorry and bus manufacturing company Iveco. Some 19th-century waiting rooms survived, but were finally demolished in 1987. To enlarge the car park and provide more space, the St. Albans branch line was realigned northwards, with the original St. Albans platforms becoming a single terminating bay now mostly used by Southern services.

The station forecourt was extensively remodelled in 2013; the horseshoe-shaped taxi rank was moved to the side of the building, creating a larger pedestrian area in front of the station entrance, and the bus station enlarged. Due to problems with the road layout, buses were unable to gain access to the bus station, and there were problems with access to the relocated car park. London Northwestern Railway are considering revising the design.

Further redevelopment of the station and its surroundings is planned for the next 10 years. They may be delayed because the redevelopment of Watford Junction has been placed within the pre-qualification pool of proposed schemes by the Department for Transport.

1954 accident
On 3 February 1954, an express passenger train became derailed in Watford Tunnel due to a broken rail. The last three carriages became divided from the train as it entered the station. One of them ended up on the platform. A passing express passenger train grazed the wreckage but only received minor damage. Fifteen people were injured.

1975 accident
On 23 January 1975, an express train from Manchester to Euston derailed just south of Watford Junction after striking some stillages that had fallen on to the track. It then collided with a sleeper service from Euston to Glasgow. The driver of the Manchester train was killed, and eight passengers and three railway staff injured. The stillages had fallen from a Ford company goods train that had passed the station a few minutes earlier, conveying car parts from Dagenham to Halewood. Although the wagons of the goods train were sealed on departure from Dagenham, three were found to have open doors when the train was inspected after the accident. The official enquiry ruled that the doors had been forced by thieves or vandals, probably when the train was standing at Gospel Oak.

1996 accident
In August 1996, a Class 321 passenger train, operated by Network SouthEast, passed a signal at danger. An empty Class 321 coaching stock train collided with the stationary passenger train approximately 700 m south of Watford Junction.

2014 incident
On 26 October 2014, a Class 350 electric multiple unit on the 06:42 service from Milton Keynes Central to London Euston, operated by London Midland struck the door of a lineside equipment cabinet and suffered damage to a set of doors; however, no one was killed or injured. The RAIB investigated the incident, and concluded that the lineside cabinet door had not been properly secured during maintenance work the previous night. The investigation also noted that the maintenance crew were likely suffering from fatigue due to a pattern of consistent night-shift work, regular overtime, and short-term sleep deprivation.

2016 accident
On 16 September 2016, Class 350 electric multiple unit 350 264 collided with a landslide, caused by heavy rain the previous night, at the entrance of the Watford Tunnel and derailed. Class 350 unit 350 233 then collided with the derailed train. Two injuries were reported, and trains were disrupted for three days.

London Overground
London Overground services at Watford Junction are operated using EMUs.

The station is served by four trains per hour to and from London Euston, calling at all stations via the Watford DC line.

London Northwestern Railway
London Northwestern Railway services at Watford Junction are operated using and  EMUs.

The station is served by two stopping trains per hour in each direction between London Euston and Tring, as well as two stopping trains per hour in each direction between London Euston and Milton Keynes Central. It is also served by an hourly semi-fast service between London Euston and Birmingham New Street via Northampton which runs non-stop to and from London Euston. Additional services call during the peak hours.

Southern
Southern services at Watford Junction are operated using EMUs.

The station is served by one train per hour to and from East Croydon via Kensington (Olympia).

Avanti West Coast
Avanti West Coast services at Watford Junction are operated using DEMUs and  EMUs.

Southbound services call to set down passengers only and northbound services call to pick up passengers only. This means that Avanti West Coast services cannot be used for travel to and from London Euston.

The station is served by one train per hour in each direction to and from London Euston with northbound services generally alternating between running to Edinburgh Waverley or Glasgow Central every two hours. The station is served by two trains per day that run to and from Blackpool North instead of Glasgow Central. Additional services call during the peak hours.

Caledonian Sleeper
Watford Junction is also served in both directions by the Lowland Caledonian Sleeper service between London Euston, Edinburgh Waverley and Glasgow Central which runs on Sunday-Friday nights.

The Caledonian Sleeper service also cannot be used for travel to and from London Euston. The Highland Caledonian Sleeper service does not call at Watford Junction.

Platforms
Platform Usage:

(Platform 5 was used by the Bakerloo line services of the London Underground until 1982, and removed as part of the subsequent major rebuild)
 * Platforms 1-4: Bay platforms for the three trains per hour London Overground Service (Watford DC Line) to London Euston calling at all stations.
 * Platform 6 (Down Fast): For the hourly Avanti West Coast service to Birmingham New Street, hourly Avanti West Coast service to Glasgow Central or Edinburgh (alternating), and fast London Northwestern Railway services northbound.
 * Platform 7 (Up Fast): For fast London Northwestern Railway services to London Euston and Avanti services only to set down.
 * Platform 8 (Down Slow): For slow and semi-fast London Northwestern Railway services northbound and limited Southern services to Hemel Hempstead.
 * Platform 9 (Up Slow): For slow, semi-fast and fast London Northwestern Railway services to London Euston, and Southern services to East Croydon via Kensington Olympia, Selhurst, Balham and Clapham Junction.
 * Platform 10: For terminating Southern services to and from Kensington Olympia and Clapham Junction. There are additional terminating services to and from East Croydon, Balham, Selhurst and South Croydon on weekdays and Saturdays. London Northwestern Railway operate 2 trains on weekdays at 07:55 and 08:15 to London Euston in the morning, whilst one train terminates from London Euston at 17:55.
 * Platform 11: Used for the service every 45 minutes to St Albans Abbey.

Connections
Local buses run to destinations including Heathrow Airport, Stanmore, Uxbridge and Brent Cross in London, Amersham, Chesham and High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire, Hatfield, Harpenden and Hertford in Hertfordshire, Luton Airport in Bedfordshire and Harlow in Essex.

Specific routes include London bus routes 142, 258 and non-London Arriva Shires & Essex routes 20, 320, 321, 322, 328 and 725 as well as other Intalink routes 306 (school journeys), 336, 352, 501, 635, W1, W2, W3, W4, W20 and W30.

The Warner Bros. Studio Tour London – The Making of Harry Potter shuttle bus route 311 also leaves from the station forecourt.

Green Line route 724 stops in the station forecourt. It runs directly to St Albans and Harlow from stop 5 and to Heathrow Terminal 5 via Heathrow Central and Rickmansworth station from stop 2.

Watford Junction station area improvements
There are plans to upgrade the station and its access points. The scheme includes a new multi-storey car park and a new access road to the station, connecting the A412 to Colonial Way and thus to the A4008 M1 link road.

This scheme is currently in the Pre-Qualification pool, where to achieve funding a case for selection must be submitted and if successful the Watford Station redevelopments will be moved into the Development Pool where more than 24 transport projects will compete for about £600 million.

Croxley Rail Link
A proposal called the Croxley Rail Link - later the Metropolitan Line Extension - would have diverted the Metropolitan line's branch via the disused Croxley Green branch to terminate at Watford Junction. It was expected to open to passenger service in 2020, but due to funding issues, the project has been halted.

West London Line improvement
The London and South East Route Utilisation Strategy document published by Network Rail in July 2011 makes several suggestions for improving services to and from Watford Junction, to link the West London line more effectively with the WCML and to 'free up' platform space at London Euston with the anticipation of High Speed 2.

Assuming the ongoing increase in demand on the orbital route between Watford Junction and the West London Line, a significant increase of peak capacity services is needed, as the current service forms the only link between the Watford Junction and Kensington Olympia corridors. This proposal suggests increasing West London Line – Watford Junction/Milton Keynes Central peak service to three tph and increasing present off peak services from an hour to every 30 minutes as well as suggesting extending Southern trains from 4 car to 8 car to help ease overcrowding further.

Crossrail
The 2011 London & South East Rail Utilisation Strategy also made recommendations for the Crossrail lines then under construction in central London to be extended northwards into Hertfordshire via Watford Junction, with Tring and Milton Keynes identified as potential termini. The report recommends the addition of a tunnel in the vicinity of a proposed station at Old Oak Common connecting the Crossrail route to the West Coast Main line. The diversion of rail services through central London would enable a direct link from stations such as Watford Junction to West End stations such as and would alleviate congestion at Euston station; Crossrail services currently planned to terminate at Paddington due to capacity constraints would also be able to continue further east, allowing for a more efficient use of the line. This proposal has not been officially confirmed or funded, although an announcement made in August 2014 by the transport secretary Patrick McLoughlin indicated that the government was actively evaluating the possibility of extending Crossrail as far as Tring and Milton Keynes Central.

London Euston/Watford-Aylesbury services
The rail operator Chiltern Railways proposed in 2008 that a new east–west direct rail route from Watford Junction to Aylesbury could be operated via the new Croxley Rail Link and the northern section of the London to Aylesbury Line. The proposal, or a connection from Aylesbury to London Euston, has been supported by the transport advocacy group Greengauge 21. A 2006 report by Hertfordshire County Council mentioned the possibility of a link running as far as.

Watford to St Albans Busway (Abbey Busway)
A Draft Rail Strategy consultation published by Hertfordshire County Council in June 2015 again considered light rail proposals for the Abbey Line but also recommended that the railway track be removed and replaced with a guided busway.

title: Watford Junction railway station


text: User talk:208.18.143.39

title: User talk:208.18.143.39