text:
Talk:KBR (company)

Untitled
129.252.142.30, can you provide some links to back up the KB - Lyndon Johnson link? Also, if Coke was so popular (Stevenson that is ;) you might wanna start writing an article about him. Oh, and for communication purposes it would be cool if you logged in... Guaka 13:49, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I'm not the poster of the original text, but this page http://houston.indymedia.org/news/2003/03/8129_comment.php mentions the Lyndon Johnson connection.

The links between LBJ and KBR (formerly BR) in this article are described in the opening pages of volume one of Robert A. Caro's biography of LBJ, The Years of Lyndon Johnson: The Path to Power. I'm pretty sure that the connections are further developed in the book, but I haven't read that far yet. Scimb235, 08:47 (PDT), 9/27/04

B+R LBJ connection
Read pp. 23-32 of Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism by Bruce J. Schulman - another acadmically-reputable biography - for further corroboration of this link.

"Burn & Loot"
"Brown & Root was derided as 'Burn & Loot'", that's pretty funny. But shouldn't you Loot & then Burn? Why would anyone loot something burned? Just my two cents. And who's Kellogg? I didn't hear a word about him. - Jerryseinfeld 20:47, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)

NPOV
Reputable sources have been cited, so I took off the NPOV tag. Andrewbadr 19:15, 12 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Iraq
"The firm was importing Kuwaiti oil for 23 eurocents a liter, which shouldn't have cost the U.S. government no more than 60 eurocents according to experts. The U.S. was selling this oil for 3,400 eurocents a liter."

I don't understand. Shouldn't the verb in the last sentence be "was buying" instad of "was selling" ??? yes indeed

Article title (proposed move)
If the company is now known as KBR, and is no longer Kellogg, Brown and Root, should the article be moved to KBR (company)? --Scott Davis Talk 15:12, 3 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Seconded. Maghnus 21:09, 9 April 2007 (UTC)

Infobox
I have put up an infobox but could people edit it accordingly please

Shanequinlan01

Regional slang?
Is "fired with effect" the UK version of what is called "fired for cause" (violation of contract/policy, or something along those lines) in the US? If so, let's find a compromise term which is meaningful on both sides of the ocean.

"fired with effect from 31st March 2005" simply means that the employees lost their jobs on that date 82.41.15.121 17:35, 28 February 2007 (UTC)

Controversy
I won't be back on here for a while so here's just a suggestion: With all the mentions of controversy, we could possibly take all of that out, (except for link and comment), and put it under a LOGCAP entry all it's own. It detracts from the operations around the world that the company does and focuses the attention on one location and its financial issues rather than what the company actually does. I could easily do it and come up with a lot of verifiable references but I'd rather toss that out here first for your review. Lightertack 22:17, 8 September 2006 (UTC)

Well, I just have to say that KBR nor Halliburton have anything to do with oil in Iraq or any other country. All these two companies do is build and help maintain the militaries infastructure. That is it NO OIL! GZUS96 21:14, 6 Nov. 2006 (side note: obviously this guy is 96 years old, but not senile)

"GZUS96, well..no..thats not true at all. Halliburton and KBR both are in the oil business. Halliburton is one of the largest providers of oil production infrastructure in the world. Dubai was built mostly by Halliburtons oil infrastructure. Offshore oil rigs, they make those. Refineries, those too. Halliburton has the single most extensive oil/drilling/refinment research campus of all petrochemical companies. KBR was on the RIO contract--thats oil..as mentioned in this Wiki article. KBR does oil and LNG work all over the world to this day.Lightertack 15:08, 24 January 2007 (UTC)"

The previous paragraph fails to recognize the vast difference between building something and owning something. Both Halliburton and KBR build oil infrastructure, but neither one is an oil company, nor do either own oil companies, nor to they own oil infrastructure; they build them. They are construction and engineering companies. Dubai's oil infrastructure was built, but is not owned by such companies. The Halliburtons, KBRs, Bechtels, etc., are not in business to buy or sell oil. They provide design and construction services for oil companies and oil country governments when those oilfield owners want to pump the oil out of the ground or through pipelines. Like any contractors, they naturally work for as much profit as their customers are willing to agree on, given the difficulty or urgency of the project, or dangers where they must work. They have grown large because of their successful completion of projects others are incapable of accomplishing. [Malcolm Walker - 11/30/2008]

Removed text
IP address 64.154.26.251 used the and tags to strike out a paragraph from the article. Text prior to my removing said paragraph was:
 * On October 9th 2006 it was reported "Kellogg Brown & Root, a Halliburton subsidiary, is constructing a huge facility at an undisclosed location to hold tens of thousands of Bush's "unlawful enemy combatants."" including US citizens since the Military Commissions Act of 2006 empowers Bush to declare not just aliens which means anyone who donates money to a charity that turns up on Bush's list of "terrorist" organizations, or who speaks out against the government's policies could be declared an "unlawful enemy combatant" and imprisoned indefinitely. It claims that Kellogg Brown & Root, a subsidiary of Cheney's Halliburton, is constructing a huge facility at an undisclosed location to hold tens of thousands of undesirables.

The above text and reference provided are unverifiable. Striking out text like that doesn't seem to be the correct way of doing things; the talk page should be used to discuss controversial sections from the article. Carre 15:26, 14 November 2006 (UTC)

Text Removal
The following text is wholly inaccurate and mixes several seperated concepts and contracts, it has been removed:

In the competition for the current LOGCAP contract, the Army Corps of Engineers asked competitors to develop a contingency plan for extinguishing oil well fires in Iraq. The Army chose KBR's plan in November 2001, though it remains classified.

On March 24, 2003, the Army announced publicly that KBR had been awarded five task orders in Iraq potentially worth $7 billion to implement the plan. One of the task orders, obtained by the Center for Public Integrity, required KBR to "procure, import and deliver" fuels to Iraq. In fact, the contract was awarded more than two weeks earlier, without submission for public bids or congressional notification. In their response to Congressional inquiries, Army officials said they determined that extinguishing oil fires fell under the range of services provided under LOGCAP, meaning that KBR could deploy quickly and without additional security clearances. They also said that the contract's classified status prevented open bidding.

Extinguishing the fires had nothing to do with LOGCAP, that was the RIO contract; Restore Iraqi Oil. Nothing to do with the same funding or staffing as LOGCAP, (which WAS put out for bid). The other big 'misinformation' is about the Task Orders being put out w/out bidding. Thats exactly what happens...task orders have nothing to do with contract awarding---they are nothing more than added operations and government authorized expendatures under a contract that's already awarded---hence it being illegal to put them out for bidding.

Like, if you were building a house, and you decided you wanted another window, you would not call another contractor to bid on adding a window while your house builder-contractor was building the rest of your house. You would issue a Task Order or Change Order to your builder to add the window. The contract you signed usually provides for this, and prevents your bidding out parts of the house to others while under construction. The terms of these Task Orders may be debatable, but depend on how badly you want the window, and how difficult or inconvenient it is for the builder to accommodate the change after the work has already been designed and started. [Malcolm Walker]

Libyan HIV case
I don't see it mentioned:

"An official investigation concluded that the infections had been concentrated in the wards where the Bulgarian nurses had been assigned. Dozens of Bulgarian medical workers were arrested, and a videotaped search of one nurse’s apartment turned up vials of H.I.V.-tainted blood.

According to a Libyan intelligence report submitted to the court, the nurse, Kristiyana Vulcheva, later confessed that the vials were given to her by a British friend who was working for the KBR subsidiary of Halliburton at the time. The nurse was quoted in the report as saying that she and her colleagues used the vials to infect the children." —Omegatron 18:59, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

Changes to conditions of employment imposed on UK staff
Please add citations to this passage, which reads as in-house gossip, and has been cite tagged for several months, or it needs to be removed. Alvis 10:09, 2 June 2007 (UTC)

This was an internal policy change that took place 3 years ago and is no longer relevant. The comments about personnel shortages have not proven out and overall company workload has increased significantly since 2004, most particularly since KBR has been on its own.

Given the lack of comment here and my agreement of the in-house gossip category it has been removed. It does not fulfil the overall goal of providing general useful information on the subject at hand. Fbody98 21:31, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

M W Kellogg History
Added M.W.Kellogg history to complete the background on KBR. Kellogg's heritage as a leader in the development of chemical engineering processes as well as the ability to successfully complete world class engineering and construction projects in the US and abroad are a major factor in making KBR the successful company it is today. --Cpuzer 16:30, 1 September 2007 (UTC)

Workplace Sexual Assault
I'm not logged in now, but we should add a section about the Time magazine article on multiple reports of sexual assault. This ongoing news story is developing into a significant noteworthy event for this article. http://time-blog.com/work_in_progress/2008/02/at_halliburtonkbr_sexual_assau.html

KBR Water Makes US Troops in Iraq Sick
—Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.44.218.212 (talk) 22:03, 10 March 2008 (UTC)

Political connections and controversy section
This entire section needs to be largely rewritten. It currently reads like a PR piece defending the company and is highly non-NPOV. Evouga (talk) —Preceding comment was added at 17:26, 15 March 2008 (UTC)

Is there any relationship at all to kellogs corn flakes? (UK breakfast cereal)
Just wondering. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.1.74.90 (talk) 06:46, 29 March 2008 (UTC)

No

Death of a soldier
I am not the right person to complete this, but I added the news snippet about the soldier's death today by electrocution due to KBR's lack of contracting standards. Their contract was to fix "only after it broke" which cost a soldier his life because the grounding DID break. KBR also inspected the area 11 months before hand and knew of the problem but nothing was done due to their specific contract. Front page CNN right now. -Moocats (talk) 21:23, 28 May 2008 (UTC)

 * I put all of information about soldier electrocution together into the Iraq section where I'd mentioned the New York Times piece earlier, taking the CNN stuff out of the employee safety section--The Iraq section seemed the appropriate place for all of it since it's soldiers in Iraq that are being electrocuted, not KBR employees. I still think the wording is a bit awkward for that piece--It certainly could be tweaked. Gilbertine goldmark (talk) 15:42, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

 * I added that the Army investigator is now calling the death a homocide rather than an accident.—Red XIV (talk) 05:59, 30 January 2009 (UTC)

Name change
The article says "KBR, Inc. (formerly Kellogg Brown & Root)" but gives no information on when the change occurred, and I can find none elsewhere. The date should be added to the article if it can be verified. Languagehat (talk) 21:06, 17 October 2008 (UTC)

As a 20 year KBR employee....
This really missed the heart and history of what KBR has achieved in its history. I know its politically fashionable to attack KBR because of the time Cheney was associated with us, but this article reads as almost hate mail.

 * Do you seriously mean to claim that taking a criminal organization to task for its crimes is merely a matter of being "politically fashionable"? KBR has litigated for years to try to thwart employees' demands for criminal proceedings against their attackers. Shame on you for trying to trivialize those efforts.

The company has engineered and constructed so many of the modern world's marvels. To limit this to a hack piece about LOGCAP makes your otherwise friendly service seem very "small". There are published histories that could provide a better and balanced background.
 * ...and Hitler built the autobahn. What's your point?

161.51.3.235 (talk) 19:28, 17 April 2009 (UTC)

Well as long as they make cool toys i guess negligent homicide, gang rape, sexual assault, sexual harassment, human trafficking, tax evasion, violations of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, illegal contracts, and incredible billing procedures should just be ignored? Is that what your alluding to as being "balanced"? I'm sure if there are so "many marvels" created by this company they will be mentioned. Are the histories you refer to published by KBR? As a general rule, You could be an angel to humanity for 20yrs and if on the 21st year you rape someone, you have negated any positive reputation you had. Oh, unless you make cool toys though, right? Then negligent homicide, gang rape, sexual assault, sexual harassment, human trafficking, tax evasion, violations of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, illegal contracts, and incredible billing procedures should be forgotten so we can bask in the "marvels" your company produced.

This article is good at maintaining NPOV (which I know, I am not) Stating the facts is not hate mail. If the facts read poorly by personal moral standards then the fault is with the company not the encyclopedia presenting them.

In addition, If it reads like hate mail by your personal opinion maybe double checking your priorities for employment should be considered. 68.38.13.24 (talk) 05:18, 16 October 2009 (UTC)Marek

Actually you (the 20 year employee) make an excellent point. 99% of the work done by KBR has been well executed and conducted by honest hardworking engineering and construction personnel doing work they can and should be proud of. This site has become a highly focused on the Logcap contracts and the politically motivated charges against the company.

The accusations that all associations with KBR are tainted by the charges against a relative few are ridiculous and small minded and irrational. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Cpuzer (talk • contribs) 21:24, 30 January 2010 (UTC)

I am currently a contractor for KBR in Iraq and as the 20 year employee said before me, the actions of a few should not warrant the the generalizations you make about about KBR as a whole. KBR goes through an extensive process researching the last 10 years of your life before you come over here. The do backround checks, financial checks, medical checks, as well as the U.S Department of Defense doing the same checks in order to provide you with security clearance to be allowed onto the base and into certain areas of it. It's for sure the most most extensive employment process I or anybody I know has ever been through in their whole lives. They train you and breif you from day one on sexual harrasment and how to report it, human traficking and how to report it, and currupt actions and how to report it. They do everything they can to get the best people out here they can but it's just impossiblr to really know for sure what happens when a person gets out secluded for so long. Did you know that contractors in Iraq only represent 10-15% of the sexual assualt/harrasment cases in the theater? How about the KBR employee who was shot by ARMY man who was going to shoot everyone in the dining facility, but was prevented by the KBR employees actions. What you are doing in this acticle is providing information on KBR employees actions reported by media. None of the good stuff and all of the bad. 95% percent of it is unavoidable by Corporate Headquarters because they have no knowledge of it until it blows up in their face despite all the actions the have taken to make themselves available for reporting such issues. And on the issue of tax ivasion, it's not tax ivasion or they would have had to stop it, and since I am currently technically employed by SEII, they didn't stop it. And while it may be a bad thing to do in your eyes, it's not against the law, and it's been going on for years upon years by everyone. This country was founded by wealthy bussiness owners, you think it wasn't formed in their best interests? Wake up and smell the coffee. Money makes the world go round and the onces who have the most choose the speed at which it turns. Welcome to life.... -me —Preceding unsigned comment added by Rezikc (talk • contribs) 13:55, 20 April 2010 (UTC)

Moved from the Halliburton article
This information pertains firstly to KBR, so I have moved it here from Halliburton. Use as you see fit, responsibly:

Skomorokh 21:24, 5 September 2009 (UTC)

Duplication of Jamie Lee Jones alleged gang rape controversy info
There info on the alleged gang rape of MS. Jones appears both in the section on "Activities in Iraq" and the controversies sections. It should go one place or the other but not both. I not sure which section it should be removed from though. --Cab88 (talk) 10:30, 22 October 2009 (UTC)

More sexual harassment
This time at the UK embassy. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/iraq/article6917842.ece —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.96.226.6 (talk) 14:49, 16 November 2009 (UTC)

Quick changes
To help the article a fraction less gentle on poor little Haliburton i've changed a few words, so please resist your automatic response to revert them. Acknowledging that something is illegal is not quite the same as admitting it. Likewise, you don't "agree" to go to prison for 7 years, you are just sent there. I'm sure I could go through the entire article and find many more but i really can't be bothered. But maybe you editors could be a little less sensitive to the poor little dears. --Genesis (talk) 14:19, 6 May 2010 (UTC)

British contracts
The article has no mention of the recent surge in KBR's contracts in Britain. Apparently they are coordinating building aircraft carriers (http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/2374afee-7925-11d9-89c5-00000e2511c8.html), OSC contract from the MoD (http://uk.news.yahoo.com/kbr-wins-uk-government-operational-202700594.html), and privatizing part of British police force (http://www.myfoxdfw.com/story/18067143/us-military-industrial-giant-kbr-in-bidding-to-privatize-british-police-forces).

That's all from the two minute google search I had time to do.

Interesting.

Would edit the article, but I cannot into wiki-writing (barely know how to post this). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.234.52.49 (talk) 15:18, 3 May 2012 (UTC)

Nuclear plant construction
Brown & Root attempted to build a nuclear power plant in Texas and were relieved of this contract. (The article on the South Texas Nuclear Generating Station does not say much about the details, either. It should.)

Some details of this are at http://texasvox.org/2009/07/10/south-texas-nuclear-project-the-early-years/

Inferior concrete and problems with rebar and also welding inspection seem to plague the industry and such allegations (and some proven allegations) surfaced during the time the events occurred there as well. If I am not mistaken, certain alleged events in reality involving B&R formed part of the script of the fictional film "The China Syndrome." — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mydogtrouble (talk • contribs) 21:54, 27 May 2012 (UTC)

Rewite needed
Full disclosure, I have a conflict of interest as an employee (Engineer, non-management) and therefore shall not be editing this article myself.

This article does not seem to be heading in the correct direction to becoming a better class of article. I suggest other low importance pages company pages are used as a template of how to divide the sections of this page. Low-Class quality=B Whilst I would not remove any well sourced material, the format in which the controversy is displayed overwhelms the content of the article (approx. 1800 words out of 3400).

I believe this article would read far better if other sections were bulked out, or the controversy consolidated to be of the same scale. I do not wish to imply that any facts about past wrong doing should be hidden or removed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.96.6.213 (talk) 09:14, 8 September 2012 (UTC)

Proposed split of Brown & Root section into its own article
has proposed that the Brown & Root section should be moved into its own article and has created a draft at Draft:Brown & Root Industrial Services which I have declined for inclusion for the moment until there is some consensus here. This discussion follows on from what was started on Stafford Kendall's talk page. Curb Safe Charmer (talk) 12:28, 27 May 2017 (UTC)
 * Oppose. KBR, created from a merger of M. W. Kellogg and Brown & Root in 1997, has a very long history. So to split off Brown & Root without splitting off M. W. Kellogg makes no sense and it would leave the article on KBR much reduced as a result. Incidentally Brown & Root Industrial Services seems to be a modest recently-formed joint venture so an article on that entity is not the right place to which to relocate the long history of Brown & Root. Dormskirk (talk) 13:03, 27 May 2017 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Topic already sufficiently covered in this article. Sondra.kinsey (talk) 13:25, 29 May 2017 (UTC)

Update Content with Current Company Information
A number of updates are needed to this page to reflect the current information about the company.

Updates are needed in the following areas: At the end of the first paragraph, add, "Recently, KBR acquired several technical services firms,-- including Wyle Laboratories, Honeywell Technology Solutions Inc. (HTSI) , and  Stinger Ghaffarian Technologies (SGT) -- which expanded the company’s professional services support to public sector clients."

 * Per WP:LEAD the lead should be a summary of the article so this is not the place to put such a sentence. Also we do not use "recently" as when a reader comes to read the article in a few years time "recently"will be inaccurate. Dormskirk (talk) 12:21, 12 January 2019 (UTC)

Replace "The company also has large offices in Arlington, Virginia, Birmingham, Alabama, and Newark, Delaware, in the United States and Leatherhead in the UK.' with the following: "The company has offices across the U.S. including Huntsville, AL; Birmingham, AL; Wilmington, DE; Clearlake, TX; Greenbelt, MD; Lexington Park, MD; and the Washington, D.C. metro area. Globally, KBR has offices in Canada, Mexico, the U.K., China, India, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Singapore and Australia."

 * I have removed the unsourced and out of date list of offices. I have not introduced a new list as (i) per WP:LEAD the lead should be a summary of the article and (ii) such a list should be independent sourced per WP:CITE. Dormskirk (talk) 12:21, 12 January 2019 (UTC)

Delete photo #3 and related caption: Delete: KBR offices on Clinton Drive,[2][3]within the boundaries of the East Endand the Fifth Ward.[4][5] It is the former headquarters of Brown & Root.[6] As of December 2010 KBR no longer operates this office."

 * Deleted. Dormskirk (talk) 12:23, 12 January 2019 (UTC)

Add Section: "Recent Acquisitions Expanding further into professional and technical government services sector, KBR recently completed the acquisition of Stinger Ghaffarian Technologies, Inc. (SGT). SGT provides technological and IT software solutions as well as mission operations for clients in government services, including NASA. SGT joined KBRwyle, the U.S. government services business within KBR, which was formed after KBR’s acquisition of the former Wyle Laboratories. KBRwyle recent contract awards have included support services for the PATRIOT missile systems, assistance with the commercialization of low-Earth orbit enterprises and expertise to help the US Department of Defense Information Analysis Center ."

 * Sentence on Stinger Ghaffarian Technologies added. Dormskirk (talk) 12:35, 12 January 2019 (UTC)

Add Section: "Current Business Operations Today, KBR provides a variety of professional services to public and private sector customers, primarily in the energy industry . KBR employs more than 30,000 people across the world, and they handle notable projects such helping with the Sadara Chemical Facility, the largest chemical complex ever built from the ground up. Also, through its government service provider KBRwyle, the company is heavily involved in mission support for several space agencies, including its support of NASA through training and care of American astronauts ."

 * The lead already says which industry it operates in. The infobox already says the number of employees (which is 20,000 according to page 11 of the SEC filing). Sentence on the Sadara Chemical Facility added. Sentence on KBRwyle's activities also added. Dormskirk (talk) 12:56, 12 January 2019 (UTC)

12.133.175.226 (talk) 00:39, 12 January 2019 (UTC)

Undue weight in controversy section
, please elaborate on your concerns regarding the controversy section to explain why you tagged it for undue weight. Schazjmd  (talk)  16:45, 1 June 2021 (UTC)
 * This appears to be a case of WP:Drive by. If DonaldMSpencer believes that the section can be improved he should do so. In the absence of any attempt to improve the article or any discussion on the talk page, I would support removing the tag per WP:DETAG. Dormskirk (talk) 16:53, 1 June 2021 (UTC)
 * In short, it's a lot of "six degress of Kevin Bacon" by the nature of the business but "Late payment", "Shell companies..", "Political connections...", name a contractor that works with the goverment that doesn't have political connections. The other 2 are common place. Most seem to be 2009 range so perhaps the anti-Bush/Cheney era, I get it, but is that what this is for?--DonaldMSpencer (talk) 16:57, 1 June 2021 (UTC)
 * That's a lot of generic hand-waving. Please state specific edits that you think need to be made. Is there information that is unsourced or poorly sourced? If there's specific information that you don't think meets Wikipedia policies for inclusion in the article, what is it? Schazjmd   (talk)  17:01, 1 June 2021 (UTC)
 * That is fair, let me research the guidelines to get more specific.--DonaldMSpencer (talk) 17:03, 1 June 2021 (UTC)
 * I have removed the tag for now pending detailed proposals for improvement. Dormskirk (talk) 14:24, 3 June 2021 (UTC)
 * Not a problem. With the Political connections section it has multiple primary sources which means original research was performed. This violates the WP:ORIGINAL policy. Which lends to whole section having the righting great wrongs prose. The Criticism policy even states avoid sections and articles focusing on criticisms or controversies. To fall back on reliable sources doesn't address material that way over-emphasizes it per the neutrality and verifiability policy. Interested in your thoughts.--DonaldMSpencer (talk) 15:40, 5 June 2021 (UTC)

Thank you,, that's a bit more actionable. I went through the Political connections section:
 * Para 1: Mother Jones is merely stating a fact, so there is nothing supporting it being in a Controversy section. Nothing in the Mother Jones article is critical of the practice.
 * Para 2: Begins "Some controversy arose" but no source supporting that the contract was controversial.
 * Para 3: No source that RIO award is controversial.
 * Para 4: Primary source only and doesn't support "controversy about the DCAA report"
 * Para 5: Supported by NYT article
 * Para 6: Source is a dead URL with no archived copy and, again, is merely a statement of fact.

I would recommend removing all except para 5 from Political connections and corruption, and change the section heading to Questionable charges to better reflect the remaining content. , what do you think? Schazjmd  (talk)  16:08, 5 June 2021 (UTC)
 * Thank you too.--DonaldMSpencer (talk) 16:10, 5 June 2021 (UTC)
 * Ok with me. Thanks, Dormskirk (talk) 16:13, 5 June 2021 (UTC)
 * ✅ Schazjmd   (talk)  16:18, 5 June 2021 (UTC)

Waxman allegations
This another section that section that should not be there. It is allegations and the source is a press release. Both of which are not in line with the guidelines. DonaldMSpencer (talk) 18:18, 19 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Nearly every newspaper in the country covered Waxman's concerns about the contracts for Iraq. I've added another source to the section. Schazjmd   (talk)  18:34, 19 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:KBR (company)


text:
Samuel Foote

Samuel Foote (January 1720 – 21 October 1777) was a Cornish   dramatist, actor and theatre manager. He was known for his comedic acting and writing, and for turning the loss of a leg in a riding accident in 1766 to comedic opportunity.

Early life
Born into a well-to-do family, Foote was baptized in Truro, Cornwall on 27 January 1720. His father, Samuel Foote, held several public positions, including mayor of Truro, Member of Parliament representing Tiverton and a commissioner in the Prize Office. His mother, née Eleanor Goodere, was the daughter of Sir Edward Goodere Baronet of Hereford. Foote may have inherited his wit and sharp humour from her and her family which was described as "eccentric. ..whose peculiarities ranged from the harmless to the malevolent." About the time Foote came of age, he inherited his first fortune when one of his uncles, Sir John Dineley Goodere, 2nd Baronet was murdered by another uncle, Captain Samuel Goodere. This murder was the subject of his first pamphlet, which he published around 1741.

Foote was educated at Truro Grammar School, the collegiate school at Worcester, and at Worcester College, Oxford, distinguishing himself in these places by mimicry and audacious pleasantries of all kinds. An undisciplined student, he frequently was absent from his Latin and Greek classes and subsequently, Oxford expelled him on 28 January 1740. Although he left Oxford without receiving his degree, he acquired a classical training which afterwards enabled him to easily turn a classical quotation or allusion, and helped to give to his prose style a certain fluency and elegance.

Foote was destined for the law, but certainly not by nature. In his chambers at the Inner Temple, and in the Grecian Coffee House nearby, he came to know something of lawyers if not of law, and was afterwards able to jest at the jargon and to mimic the mannerisms of the bar, and to satirize the Latitats of the other branch of the profession with particular success. Though he never applied himself to his studies at the Inner Temple, he well applied himself to spending money and living as a bon vivant, which led to him quickly running out of funds.

After finding himself in debt, Foote married a certain Mary Hickes (or Hicks) on 10 January 1741. With his wife also came a sizable dowry. Contemporaries note that Foote mistreated his wife, deserting her when his financial situation improved and Hickes may have died an early death. But a stronger attraction drew him to the Bedford Coffee-house in Covent Garden, and to the theatrical world of which it was the social centre. His extravagant living soon forced him into debtor's prison in 1742, and friends encouraged Foote's going onto the stage to make a living.

Initial theatrical ventures
Foote's first training for the stage came under the tutelage of Charles Macklin. By 1744, when they appeared onstage together, Macklin had made a name for himself as one of the most notable actors on the British stage, after David Garrick. His appearance as Shylock in Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice at the Drury Lane Theatre in 1741, mesmerized London audiences. Dismissing the conventional comedic approach to the character, Macklin played the character as consummately evil. Following his debut, George II reportedly could not sleep, while Georg Lichtenberg described Macklin's interpretation of Shylock's first line—"Three thousand ducats"—as being uttered "as lickerously as if he were savouring the ducats and all they would buy." Following less than a year of training, Foote appeared opposite Macklin's Iago as the titular role in Shakespeare's Othello at the Haymarket Theatre, 6 February 1744. While his first appearance was unsuccessful, it is noted that this production was produced illegally under the Licensing Act 1737 which forbade the production of plays by theatres not holding letters patent or the production of plays not approved by the Lord Chamberlain. In order to skirt this law, the Haymarket Theatre held musical concerts with plays included gratis.

Following his unsuccessful London appearance, Foote spent the summer season in Dublin at the Theatre Royal, Smock Alley where he found his first success. Returning to England, he joined the company at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane which at that time included such noted actors as Peg Woffington, David Garrick and Spranger Barry. There he played comic roles including Harry Wildair in Farquhar's The Constant Couple, Lord Foppington in Vanbrugh's The Relapse and most notably, the playwright, Bayes in Villiers' The Rehearsal. It was in this role that Foote publicly showed his gift of mimicry. Borrowing from David Garrick's interpretation of the role, Foote used this role to mock many leading contemporaries.

The Haymarket Theatre
Even with his success onstage, Foote remained impoverished. Attempting life as a theatre manager, he secured a lease on the Haymarket Theatre in 1746. Foote began writing in earnest, producing two pamphlets, A Treatise on the Passions and The Roman and English Comedy Considered. After illegally producing Othello, Foote opened one of his own plays, The Diversions of the Morning or, A Dish of Chocolate, a satire on contemporary actors and public figures performed by himself, on 22 April 1747. The Dish of Chocolate of the title referred to a dish or tea offered by Foote to accompany the musical entertainment while the performance was offered gratis, all done to avoid the Licensing Act. On the morning following the performance, the theatre was locked and audiences gathering for the noon performance (another gimmick to evade the law was to stage the show as a matinée) were turned away by authorities. Foote's jabs at other actors brought the ire of many at Drury Lane and the managers took steps to protect their patent.

Fortunately for Foote, some highly placed friends at court helped the theatre reopen and the play continued. In June, Foote offered A Cup of Tea, a revision of his revue, Diversions, again in the guise of a culinary offering. After a brief trip to Paris, Foote opened The Auction of Pictures which satirized satirist Henry Fielding. A war of wit was launched with each lambasting the other in ink and onstage. Among the verbal missiles hurled, Fielding denounced Foote in The Jacobite's Journal saying "you Samuel Fut [sic] be pissed upon, with Scorn and Contempt, as a low Buffoon; and I do, with the utmost Scorn and Contempt, piss on you accordingly."

The Author himself
The Fielding quarrel was followed by a more serious quarrel with actor Henry Woodward. This resulted in a small riot that was damaging not only to the Haymarket Theatre but to Foote's reputation. He began to deflect criticism only with the opening of his play, The Knights. This play, unlike his earlier satirical revues, was a romantic comedy set in the country, though he did use this play as a vehicle to satirize such things as Italian opera and the gentry of Cornwall.

At the close of the Haymarket season in 1749, Foote left London for Paris in order to spend money he had recently inherited. Upon his return to London in 1752, Foote's new comedy, Taste, was produced at Drury Lane. Foote took aim at the burgeoning art and antiquities market and particularly aristocratic collectors. In his preface to the play, Foote specifies his targets as the "barbarians who have prostituted the study of antiquity to trifling superficiality, who have blasted the progress of the elegant arts by unpardonable frauds and absurd prejudices, and who have vitiated the minds and morals of youth by persuading them that what serves only to illustrate literature is true knowledge and that active idelness is real business."

Taste opens with Lady Pentweazel who believes that the works of art, the Venus de' Medici and the Mary de Medici, are sisters in the Medici family. Two other collectors, Novice and Lord Dupe, claim to be able to determine the age and value of coins and medals by tasting them while Puff, an auctioneer, convinces them and Sir Positive Bubble that broken china and statuary are worth far more than perfect pieces. Lord Dupe follows this advice by purchasing a canvas with the paint scraped off. The foibles of ignorant art collectors and predatory dealers were presented by Foote in this high burlesque comedy. In order for an audience to appreciate high burlesque, they must understand the standards of true taste before they can recognize the conflict between those standards and the characters' standards. The audience that saw the premier of Taste evidently did not understand this conflict as the play was not successful and played only five performances.

Following the unsuccessful reception of Taste, Foote staged a new production, An Englishman in Paris, inspired by both his trip there and possibly, as Davison suggests, a French play, Frenchman in London which he may have seen. Here, Foote satirized the boorish behaviour of English gentlemen abroad. The play garnered wide acclaim and became a part of the repertoires of the Drury Lane and Covent Garden theatres where it remained for a few decades. While his success was becoming more solidified as a writer, Foote was also in demand as an actor, working at Drury Lane and Covent Garden during the 1753–4 season.

When he found himself out of work in November 1754, Foote rented the Haymarket theatre and began to stage mock lectures. Satirizing Charles Macklin's newly opened school of oratory, these lectures created a sort of theatrical war, especially when Macklin began to appear at the lectures himself. At one particular lecture, Foote extemporized a piece of nonsense prose to test Macklin's assertion that he could memorise any text at a single reading.

"So she went into the garden to cut a cabbage-leaf to make an apple-pie; and at the same time a great she-bear, coming up the street, pops its head into the shop. 'What! No soap?' So he died, and she very imprudently married the barber; and there were present the Picninnies, and the Joblillies, and the Garyulies, and the grand Panjandrum himself, with the little round button at top, and they all fell to playing the game of catch-as-catch-can till the gunpowder ran out at the heels of their boots."

This introduced the nonsense term "The Grand Panjandrum" into the English language and the name was adopted for the Panjandrum or Great Panjandrum, an experimental World War II-era explosive device.

With Foote's success in writing An Englishman in Paris, Irish playwright Arthur Murphy was moved to create a sequel, The Englishman returned from Paris. While Foote readily encouraged Murphy's plan, Foote secretly wrote his own version which opened at Covent Garden on 3 February 1756. While early biographers scorned Foote's plagiarism of Murphy's play, the 1969 discovery of that manuscript laid it to rest when it was proven that Foote's play was far superior. The play was successful at Covent Garden and played regularly until 1760.

Two rival actresses captured the attention of London audiences and Foote's satire. Peg Woffington and George Anne Bellamy apparently took their roles rather seriously in a production of Nathaniel Lee's The Rival Queens. When Bellamy's Parisian fashions began to upstage Woffington, Bellamy was driven offstage by a dagger-wielding Woffington thus providing a source for Foote's The Green-Room Squabble or a Battle Royal between the Queen of Babylon and the Daughter of Darius. The text of this farce is now lost.

Having turned his satire on Englishmen abroad and actresses at home, Foote pointed his daggered pen towards himself, other writers and the condition of the "starving writer" in his play The Author which premiered at Drury Lane on 5 February 1757. The plot concerned a poor author's father who disguises himself in order to spy on his son. Again, Foote created the role of Cadwallader for himself and used it to satirize John Apreece, a patron of authors. While critics derided Foote's attack on Apreece, audiences flocked to the theatre. Apreece even appeared and sat "open-mouthed and silly, in the boxes, to the delight of the audience, and mystified by the reflection of himself, which he beheld on the stage." Foote noted later that Apreece finding "the resemblance [...] too strong, and the ridicule too pungent [...] occasioned an application for the suppression of the piece, which was therefore forbidden to be anymore performed." The play was forbidden further productions by the Lord Chamberlain. While success may have been limited, Richard Brinsley Sheridan adapted the plot in his School for Scandal. Modern critics would point out that The Author shows great development in Foote's ability in creating characters and sustaining plot.

Of mimicry and Methodists
Late in 1757, Foote faced himself in the guise of young actor and mimic, Tate Wilkinson. Wilkinson, like Foote, had failed somewhat as an actor, but was renowned for his satiric mimicry of others. Foote traveled with him to Dublin for part of the 1757–58 season and he also revived Diversions of the Morning as a vehicle to display Wilkinson's talents. The popularity of these talents crowded out all other performances at Drury Lane in the first half of the season, much to the chagrin of Garrick and the other actors. Soon, however, the luck ran out and by March, Foote was seeking employment elsewhere. With little luck in London, Foote traveled to perform a season in Edinburgh and found success with many of his works, including The Author which could not be staged in London. The following season found Foote in Dublin where Wilkinson was drawing crowds with his imitations and on 28 January 1760, Foote opened a new play, The Minor. The production was a failure.

Returning to London, Foote's financial situation was still quite poor. After renting the Haymarket theatre and revising The Minor into a three-act version (up from the two-act version presented in Dublin), the play opened in London. Doran remarks that while "The Minor failed in Dublin, very much to the credit of an Irish audience, [...] they condemned it on the ground of its grossness and immorality[,]" English society, nevertheless, while hearing condemnations of the play, filled the theatres. The play played for full houses for 38 nights.

The Minor utilizes a fairly pedestrian plot to satirize the Methodist movement. Before its premiere, Foote showed the text of The Minor to the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Secker. Secker objected to several passages, but particularly to Mrs Cole referring to herself as a "lost sheep". This expression, he said, was sacred to the pulpit. Foote besought the archbishop to take the manuscript and strike the exceptionable passages; he agreed on the condition that it should be published "Revised and Corrected by the Archbishop of Canterbury."

The Devil on Two Sticks
While riding with Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany in 1766, he was thrown from his horse and the injury cost him his leg. Even in this state, he continued to act and as possible compensation for his injury was granted a license to legally operate the Haymarket Theatre. He produced a summer season of "legitimate plays" in 1767, engaging Spranger Barry and his wife to perform. He bought the theatre outright and remodelled the interior the same year and continued to operate the theatre until he was forced to give up his patent to George Colman the Elder the following year. Near London, Foote lived and wrote in his much loved villa, 'The Hermitage', in North End village in the Parish of Fulham. He died on 21 October 1777 in Dover, while en route to France.

One play, The Cozeners, is clearly based on the politician Charles James Fox who was a spendthrift and gambler. He had been duped by Elizabeth Harriett Grieve who had promised that she could arrange for him to marry a West Indian heiress. Grieve was tried and transported in 1773 and in the following year The Cozeners opened with Mrs Gardner in the part of Mrs Fleece'em. Foote's satires are based on caricatures of characters and situations from his era. His facility and wit in writing these earned him the title "the English Aristophanes." While, often, his subjects found his literary jabs just as humorous as his audiences, they often both feared and admired him.

Legal troubles
In 1774, the Duke of Kingston's sister was able to invalidate the Duke's will, on the grounds that his widow, Elizabeth Chudleigh, was guilty of bigamy. Foote picked up this news and began work on a new play in which the character "Lady Kitty Crockodile" was clearly based on Chudleigh. In response a supporter of Chudleigh's, William Jackson, in 1775 began publishing in The Public Ledger veiled accusations of homosexuality. Not long after Chudleigh was convicted of bigamy in spring 1776, Foote's coachman accused Foote of sexual assault, leading to a trial at which Foote was eventually acquitted. In the interim, the Ledger filled its pages with the story, and an anonymous pamphlet (likely written by Jackson) aimed at Foote, "Sodom and Onan", appeared. The work was subtitled "A Satire Inscrib'd to [ – – ] Esqr, alias the Devil upon Two Sticks", with the blank filled by an engraving of a foot. Inevitably, these events provided more fodder for Foote's pen, with Jackson making a disguised appearance in The Capuchin.

Mentions of Foote
In William Makepeace Thackeray's 1844 novel The Luck of Barry Lyndon, which was later published as Barry Lyndon; The Memoirs of Barry Lyndon, Esq. the protagonist claims Foote as a friend. Foote is also referred to in The Boswell Brothers by Philip Baruth.

Books

 * Cooke, William. Memoirs of Samuel Foote, Esq: With a Collection of His Genuine Bon-mots, Anecdotes, Opinions, &c 1805. (Online.)
 * Foote, Samuel. The Dramatic Works of Samuel Foote, Esq.; to which is prefaced A Life of the Author. London, 1809. Reprinted by Benjamin Bloom, Bronx, New York.
 * Kelly, Ian. Mr Foote's Other Leg: Comedy, tragedy and murder in Georgian London, 2012. Picador; later adapted as a play under the same title

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Samuel Foote


text:
Latitat

A latitat is a legal device, namely a writ, that is "based upon the presumption that the person summoned was hiding" (see Blackstone.) The word "latitat" is Latin for "he lurks".

In England, the writ is essentially a summons out of the civil, and in those days, common law-only court, King's Bench. It is now defunct, but examples still exist from 1579 and 1791. One example from the 16th century was a writ presented to the Star Chamber, a powerful court operating outside the normal system of law. In that example, the Court of King's Bench had issued a writ of latitat directing the King's Sheriff to arrest the named person and present them before the court at a specified time and place. The matter had come before the Star Chamber because the arrest had been resisted and the Under-Sheriff (a Crown official) assaulted and a writ of subpoena was now requested. The writ may have arisen in 1566 because at that time there was a "Bill for Latitat for Vexation out of the King's Bench" before Parliament and there was another in 1802.

The current practice would be for the issue of a subpoena. If the person concerned failed to appear, the High Court of England and Wales has the power to issue a bench warrant, i.e. a warrant for the arrest of the person concerned, who may then be subject to arrest under that aegis of the Tipstaff and presentation before the court for contempt of court.

title: Latitat


text:
Arques, Pas-de-Calais

Arques is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France, bordering Saint-Omer.

Geography
Arques is situated in the middle of the Hauts-de-France region, 40 km from Calais and Dunkerque, and 45 km from Boulogne-sur-Mer. It lies on the border of the departments of Pas-de-Calais and Nord.

The town is crossed by the Neufossé Canal, which connects the rivers Aa and Lys. The commune also includes several lakes—Beauséjour, Arc-en-ciel, Malhôve, Batavia—and part of the forest of Rihout-Clairmarais.

History
Arques is in the region of French Flanders. As this area has been under Belgian, English, French and Spanish rule, many of the names are French versions of names in other languages.

In the wake of the Battle of the Golden Spurs a battle was fought here in April 1303 between French and Flemish. The Flemish were victorious in the Battle of Arques (1303). Arques is not to be confused with Arques-la-Bataille, where the Battle of Arques (1589) took place. It is also close to Agincourt.

It was one of the first towns in the region which subscribed to Agenda 21.

Possible Roman influence

There is a possibility of Arques being the Roman Port of 'Marcae' mentioned in the Litus Saxonicum as there appears to be research in the UK that the high sea levels were about 4.5 metres higher in late Roman times than that of today.

Arques is between Oudenberg and Boulogne (both Saxon Shore forts) and appears to be land if the sea level is raised 4.5 metres in which case would mean Arques would have been a well protected harbour inland from the town.

Economy
Arques is famous for its crystal manufacture. It has been the headquarters of Arc International, the largest manufacturer of glassware in the world, since its inception in the 19th century.

Places of interest

 * The Fontinettes Boat Lift and the Arques lock (l'écluse des Fontinettes, not to be confused with l'ecluse de Flandres, a smaller lock, also in Arques)
 * Arc International
 * The Aa Valley Tourist Railroad (CFTVA: Chemin de Fer Touristique de la vallée de l'Aa) which runs between Arques and Lumbres
 * The Audomarais marshes and the Parc naturel régional des caps et marais d'Opale (a park that runs from the Opal Coast landinwards)
 * It is near the Forest of Éperlecques, which houses the Blockhaus d'Éperlecques
 * The local church, château and town hall

There is a town walk which takes in most of these sites and can be downloaded from the town website.

The town is a ville fleurie and is rated with three flowers.

La Goudale have relocated to Arques from Douai, to a state of the art brewery which can be visited.

title: Arques, Pas-de-Calais


text:
Advent wreath

The Advent wreath, or Advent crown, is a Christian tradition that symbolizes the passage of the four weeks of Advent in the liturgical calendar of the Western church. It is traditionally a Lutheran practice, although it has spread to many other Christian denominations.

It is an evergreen wreath with four candles, sometimes with a fifth, white candle in the center. Beginning with the First Sunday of Advent, the lighting of a candle can be accompanied by a Bible reading, devotional time and prayers. An additional candle is lit on each subsequent Sunday until, by the last Sunday of Advent, all four candles are lit. Some Advent wreaths include a fifth, Christ candle which is lit on Christmas Eve or Christmas Day. The custom originated in family settings but has also become widespread in public worship.

History
The concept of the Advent wreath originated among German Lutherans in the 16th century. However, it was not until three centuries later that the modern Advent wreath took shape.

Research by Mary Jane Haemig of Luther Seminary, St. Paul, Minnesota, points to Johann Hinrich Wichern (1808–1881), a Lutheran pastor in Germany and a pioneer in urban mission work among the poor, as the inventor of the modern Advent wreath. During Advent, children at the mission school Rauhes Haus, founded by Wichern in Hamburg, would ask daily if Christmas had arrived. In 1839, he took a large wooden ring from an old cartwheel and decorated it with 24 small red candles and four large white candles. One small candle was lit successively every weekday and Saturday during Advent, and a large white candle was lit each Sunday. The custom gained ground among Protestant churches in Germany and evolved into the smaller wreath with four or five candles known today. Roman Catholics in Germany began to adopt the custom in the 1920s, and in the 1930s it spread to North America. Haemig's research also indicates that the custom did not reach the United States until the 1930s, even among German Lutheran immigrants.

In medieval times, Advent was a period of fasting during which people's thoughts were directed to the expected second coming of Christ; but in modern times many have forgotten this meaning and it has instead been primarily seen as the lead up to Christmas, and in that context the Advent wreath serves as a reminder of the approach of the feast.

In 1964, an Advent crown, made at home from wire coathangers and tinsel, appeared on the BBC's bi-weekly children's TV program Blue Peter. This "make" became one of the program's most iconic features, repeated each year, and was the introduction of this tradition to most of the broadly Anglican audience. In later years, the candles were replaced by baubles, out of concern for fire safety.

More recently, some Eastern Orthodox families have adopted an Advent wreath with six candles, symbolizing the longer Christmas fast in Orthodox tradition, which corresponds to Advent in Western Christianity.

Christian symbolism in the Advent wreath
Advent wreaths are circular, representing God's infinite love, and are usually made of evergreen leaves, which "represent the hope of eternal life brought by Jesus Christ". Within the Advent wreath are candles that generally represent the four weeks of the Advent season as well as "the light of God coming into the world through the birth of Jesus Christ" although each of the candles can be attributed its own significance as well. The four candles of the Advent wreath specifically symbolize the Christian concepts of hope, peace, joy and love, with these candles being lit subsequently throughout each week of the Advent season. Many Advent wreaths also have a white candle in the center, known as the 'Christ candle', to symbolize the arrival of Christmastide. It is first lit on Christmas Eve, the beginning of Christmastide, and may be lit throughout the rest of the Christmas season, as well as during Epiphanytide. The Christ candle is white because this is the traditional festal color in the Western Church. An additional layer of meaning names the first candle as the Messiah or Prophecy candle (representing the Jewish prophets who predicted the coming of Jesus), the second is the Bethlehem candle (representing the journey of Joseph and Mary), the third represents the shepherds and their joy, and the fourth is the Angel's candle, representing peace.

In many Catholic and Protestant churches, the most popular colors for the four surrounding Advent candles are violet (or blue) and rose, corresponding with the colors of the liturgical vestments for the Sundays of Advent. For denominations of the Western Christian Church, violet is the historic liturgical color for three of the four Sundays of Advent as it is the traditional color of penitential seasons; blue has been historically used too, as it represents hopefulness, reflective of the theme of Advent surrounding the First Coming of Jesus and Second Coming of Jesus. Rose is the liturgical color for the Third Sunday of Advent, known as Gaudete Sunday (from the Latin word meaning "rejoice ye", the first word of the introit of this Sunday); it is a pause in the penitential spirit of Advent. As such, the third candle, representing joy, is often a different color from the other three.

In other Protestant churches, especially in the United Kingdom, it is more common for Advent wreaths to have four red candles (reflecting their traditional use in Christmas decorations). An Advent wreath given to Pope Benedict XVI of the Catholic Church also had four red candles. In the UK, the four red Advent candles are often linked to the Sunday Revised Common Lectionary readings for Advent, each candle representing those looking forward to the coming of Christ: the hope of all God's people (week one), the Old Testament prophets (week two), John the Baptist (week three) and Mary the mother of Jesus (week four).

In Making God Real in the Orthodox Christian Home, Anthony Coniaris states that an Eastern Christian wreath consists of six different colored candles on a round base to celebrate the six weeks of the 40-day Advent and Christmas period. A green candle, symbolizing faith, is lit on the first Sunday that begins on November 15; on the second Sunday, a blue candle, symbolizing hope, is lit; on the third Sunday, a gold candle, symbolizing love; on the fourth Sunday, a white candle, symbolizing peace; on the fifth Sunday, a purple candle, symbolizing repentance; on the sixth Sunday, a red candle, symbolizing communion.

title: Advent wreath


text:
Talk:Diplomatic mission

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title: Talk:Diplomatic mission


text:
White flight

White flight or white exodus  is the sudden or gradual large-scale migration of white people from areas becoming more racially or ethnoculturally diverse. Starting in the 1950s and 1960s, the terms became popular in the United States. They referred to the large-scale migration of people of various European ancestries from racially mixed urban regions to more racially homogeneous suburban or exurban regions. The term has more recently been applied to other migrations by whites, from older, inner suburbs to rural areas, as well as from the American Northeast and Midwest to the milder climate in the Southeast and Southwest. The term 'white flight' has also been used for large-scale post-colonial emigration of whites from Africa, or parts of that continent,   driven by levels of violent crime and anti-colonial or anti-white state policies.

Migration of middle-class white populations was observed during the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s out of cities such as Cleveland, Detroit, Kansas City and Oakland, although racial segregation of public schools had ended there long before the Supreme Court of the United States' decision Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. In the 1970s, attempts to achieve effective desegregation (or "integration") by means of busing in some areas led to more families' moving out of former areas. More generally, some historians suggest that white flight occurred in response to population pressures, both from the large migration of blacks from the rural Southern United States to urban cities of the Northern United States and the Western United States in the Great Migration and the waves of new immigrants from around the world. However, some historians have challenged the phrase "white flight" as a misnomer whose use should be reconsidered. In her study of West Side in Chicago during the post-war era, historian Amanda Seligman argues that the phrase misleadingly suggests that whites immediately departed when blacks moved into the neighborhood, when in fact, many whites defended their space with violence, intimidation, or legal tactics. Leah Boustan, Professor of Economics at Princeton, attributes white flight both to racism and economic reasons.

The business practices of redlining, mortgage discrimination, and racially restrictive covenants contributed to the overcrowding and physical deterioration of areas with large minority populations. Such conditions are considered to have contributed to the emigration of other populations. The limited facilities for banking and insurance, due to a perceived lack of profitability, and other social services, and extra fees meant to hedge against perceived profit issues, increased their cost to residents in predominantly non-white suburbs and city neighborhoods. According to the environmental geographer Laura Pulido, the historical processes of suburbanization and urban decentralization contribute to contemporary environmental racism.

History
In 1870, The Nation covered the large-scale migrations of white Americans; "The report of the Emigration Commissioners of Louisiana, for the past year, estimates the white exodus from the Southern Atlantic States, Alabama, and Mississippi, to the trans-Mississippi regions, at scores of thousands". By 1888, with rhetoric typical of the time, Walter Thomas Mills's The Statesman publication predicted: "Social and political equality and the political supremacy of the negro element in any southern state must lead to one of three things: A white exodus, a war of races, or the destruction of representative institutions, as in the District of Columbia."

An 1894 biography of William Lloyd Garrison reveals the abolitionist's perception of the pre-Civil War tension and how "the shadows of the impending civil disruption, had brought about a white exodus" of Northerners to Southern states such as Georgia.

In the years leading up to World War I, the newspapers in the Union of South Africa were reporting on the "spectre of white flight", in particular due to Afrikaners travelling to the Port of Durban in search of ships for Britain and Australia.

Academic research
In 1958, political scientist Morton Grodzins identified that "once the proportion of non-whites exceeds the limits of the neighborhood's tolerance for interracial living, whites move out." Grodzins termed this phenomenon the tipping point in the study of white flight.

In 2004, a study of UK census figures at the London School of Economics demonstrated evidence of white flight, resulting in ethnic minorities in inner-city areas becoming increasingly isolated from the ethnic White British population. The study, which examined the white population in London, the West Midlands, West Yorkshire, and Greater Manchester between 1991 and 2001, also concluded that white population losses were largest in areas with the highest ethnic minority populations.

In 2018, research at Indiana University showed that between 2000 and 2010 in the US, of a sample size of 27,891 Census tracts, 3,252 experienced "white flight". The examined areas had "an average magnitude loss of 40 percent of the original white population." Published in Social Science Research, the study found "relative to poorer neighborhoods, white flight becomes systematically more likely in middle-class neighborhoods at higher thresholds of black, Hispanic, and Asian population presence."

Checkerboard and tipping models
In studies in the 1980s and 1990s, blacks said they were willing to live in neighborhoods with 50/50 ethnic composition. Whites were also willing to live in integrated neighborhoods, but preferred proportions of more whites. Despite this willingness to live in integrated neighborhoods, the majority still live in largely segregated neighborhoods, which have continued to form.

In 1969, Nobel Prize-winning economist Thomas Schelling published "Models of Segregation", a paper in which he demonstrated through a "checkerboard model" and mathematical analysis, that even when every agent prefers to live in a mixed-race neighborhood, almost complete segregation of neighborhoods emerges as individual decisions accumulate. In his "tipping model", he showed that members of an ethnic group do not move out of a neighborhood as long as the proportion of other ethnic groups is relatively low, but if a critical level of other ethnicities is exceeded, the original residents may make rapid decisions and take action to leave. This tipping point is viewed as simply the end-result of a domino effect originating when the threshold of the majority ethnicity members with the highest sensitivity to sameness is exceeded. If these people leave and are either not replaced or replaced by other ethnicities, then this in turn raises the level of mixing of neighbors, exceeding the departure threshold for additional people.

South Africa
About 800,000 out of an earlier total population of 5.2 million whites left post-apartheid South Africa after 1995, according to a 2009 report in Newsweek. The country has suffered a high rate of violent crime, a primary stated reason for emigration. Other causes cited in the Newsweek report include attacks against white farmers, concern about being excluded by affirmative action programmes, political instability and worries about corruption. Many of those who leave are highly educated, resulting in skills shortages. Some observers fear the long-term consequences, as South Africa's labor policies make it difficult to attract skilled immigrants. In the global economy, some professionals and skilled people have been attracted to work in the U.S. and European nations.

Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia)
Until 1980, the unrecognised Republic of Rhodesia held a well-publicised image as being one of two nations in sub-Saharan Africa where a white minority of European descent and culture held political, economic, and social control over a preponderantly black African majority. Nevertheless, unlike white South Africans, a significant percentage of white Rhodesians represented recent immigrants from Europe. After World War II, there was a substantial influx of Europeans migrating into the region (formerly known as Southern Rhodesia), including former residents of India, Pakistan, and other parts of Africa. Also represented were working-class emigrants responding to economic opportunities. In 1969, only 41% of Rhodesia's white community were natural-born citizens, or 93,600 people. The remainder were naturalised European and South African citizens or expatriates, with many holding dual citizenship.

During the Rhodesian Bush War, almost the entire white male population between eighteen and fifty-eight was affected by various military commitments, and individuals spent up to five or six months of the year on combat duty away from their normal occupations in the civil service, commerce, industry, or agriculture. These long periods of service in the field led to an increased emigration of men of military age. In November 1963, state media cited the chief reasons for emigration as uncertainty about the future, economic decline due to embargo and war, and the heavy commitments of national service, which was described as "the overriding factor causing people to leave". Of the male emigrants in 1976 about half fell into the 15 to 39 age bracket. Between 1960 and 1976 160,182 whites immigrated, while 157,724 departed. This dynamic turnover rate led to depressions in the property market, a slump in the construction industry, and a decline in retail sales. The number of white Rhodesians peaked in 1975 at 278,000, and rapidly declined as the bush war intensified. In 1976, around 14,000 whites left the country, marking the first year since Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965 that more whites had left the country than arrived, with most leaving for South Africa. This became known as the 'chicken run', the earliest use of which was recorded the following year, often by Rhodesians who remained to contemptuously describe those who had left. Other phrases such as 'taking the gap' or 'gapping it' were also used. As the outward flow increased, the phrase 'owl run' also came into use, as leaving the country was deemed by many to be a wise choice. Disfavour with the biracial Zimbabwe Rhodesia administration in 1979 also contributed to a mass exodus.

The establishment of the Republic of Zimbabwe in 1980 sounded the death knell for white political power, and ushered in a new era of black majority rule. White emigration peaked between 1980 and 1982 at 53,000 persons, with the breakdown of law and order, an increase in crime in the rural areas, and the provocative attitude of Zimbabwean officials being cited as the main causes. Political conditions typically had a greater impact on the decision to migrate among white than black professionals. Between 1982 and 2000 Zimbabwe registered a net loss of 100,000 whites, or an average of 5,000 departures per year. A second wave of white emigration was sparked by President Robert Mugabe's violent land reform programme after 2000. Popular destinations included South Africa and Australia, which emigrants perceived to be geographically, culturally, or sociopolitically similar to their home country.

From a strictly economic point of view, the departure figures were not as significant as the loss of the skills of those leaving. A disproportionate number of white Zimbabwean emigrants were well educated and highly skilled. Among those living in the United States, for example, 53.7% had a bachelor's degree, while only 2% had not completed secondary school. Most (52.4%) had occupied technical or supervisory positions of critical importance to the modern sector of the economy. Inasmuch as black workers did not begin making large inroads into apprenticeships and other training programs until the 1970s, few were in a position to replace their white colleagues in the 1980s.

Denmark
A study of school choice in Copenhagen found that an immigrant proportion of below 35% in the local schools did not affect parental choice of schools. If the percentage of immigrant children rose above this level, white Danes are far more likely to choose other schools. Immigrants who speak Danish at home also opt out. Other immigrants, often more recent ones, stay with local schools.

Finland
In Finland, white flight has been observed in districts where the share of non-Finnish population is 20% or above. In Greater Helsinki region, there are more than 30 such districts. Those include e.g. Kallahti in Helsinki, Suvela in Espoo, and Länsimäki in Vantaa. Outside the Greater Helsinki region, the phenomenon has been witnessed at least in Varissuo district of Turku.

Ireland
A 2007 government report stated that immigration in Dublin has caused "dramatic" white flight from elementary schools in a studied area (Dublin 15). 27% of residents were foreign-born immigrants. The report stated that Dublin was risking creating immigrant-dominated banlieues, on the outskirts of a city, similar to such areas in France. The immigrants in the area included Eastern Europeans (such as those from Poland), Asians, and Africans (mainly from Nigeria).

Norway
White flight in Norway has increased since the 1970s, with the immigration of non-Scandinavians from (in numerical order, starting with the largest): Poland, Pakistan, Iraq, Somalia, Vietnam, Iran, Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Russia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, the former Yugoslavia, Thailand, Afghanistan, and Lithuania. By June 2009, more than 40% of Oslo schools had an immigrant majority, with some schools having a 97% immigrant share. Schools in Oslo are increasingly divided by ethnicity. For instance, in the Groruddalen (Grorud valley), four boroughs which currently have a population of around 165,000 saw the ethnic Norwegian population decrease by 1,500 in 2008, while the immigrant population increased by 1,600. In thirteen years, a total of 18,000 ethnic Norwegians have moved from the borough.

In January 2010, a news feature from Dagsrevyen on the public Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation said, "Oslo has become a racially divided city. In some city districts the racial segregation starts already in kindergarten." Reporters said, "In the last years the brown schools have become browner, and the white schools whiter," a statement which caused a minor controversy.

Sweden
After the Second World War, immigration into Sweden occurred in three phases. The first was a direct result of the war, with refugees from concentration camps and surrounding countries in Scandinavia and Northern Europe. The second, prior to 1970, involved immigrant workers, mainly from Finland, Italy, Greece, and Yugoslavia. In the most recent phase, from the 1970s onwards, refugees immigrated from the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America, joined later by their relatives.

A study which mapped patterns of segregation and congregation of incoming population groups found that, if a majority group is reluctant to accept a minority influx, they may leave the district, avoid the district, or use tactics to keep the minority out. The minority group in turn react by either dispersing or congregating, avoiding certain districts in turn. Detailed analysis of data from the 1990s onwards indicates that the concentration of immigrants in certain city districts, such as Husby in Stockholm and Rosengård in Malmö, is in part due to an immigration influx, but primarily caused by white flight.

According to researcher Emma Neuman at Linnaeus University, the white flight phenomenon commences when the fraction of non-European immigrants reaches 3-4%, but European immigration shows no such effect. High income earners and the highly educated move out first, so the ethnic segregation also leads to class segregation.

In a study performed at Örebro University, mothers of young children were interviewed to study attitudes on Swedishness, multiculturalism and segregation. It concluded that while many expressed values such as ethnic diversity being an enriching factor, when, in practice, it came to choosing schools or choosing which district to move to, ensuring the children had access to a school with a robust Swedish majority was also a consideration. This was because they did not want their children to grow up in a school where they were a minority, and wanted them to be in a good environment for learning the Swedish language.

United Kingdom
For centuries, London was the destination for refugees and immigrants from continental Europe. Although all the immigrants were European, neighborhoods showed ethnic succession over time, as older residents moved out and new immigrants moved in, an early case of white flight (though the majority of London's population was still ethnic British).

In the 2001 census, the London boroughs of Newham and Brent were found to be the first areas to have non-white majorities. The 2011 census found that, for the first time, less than 50% of London's population were white British, and that in some areas of London white British people make up less than 20% of the population. A 2005 report stated that white migration within the UK is mainly from areas with a high ethnic minority population to those with predominantly white populations; white British families have moved out of London, as many immigrants have settled in the capital. The report's writers expressed concern about British social cohesion, and stated that different ethnic groups were living "parallel lives"; they were concerned that lack of contact between the groups could result in fear more readily exploited by extremists. In a study, the London School of Economics found similar results. A 2016 BBC documentary, Last Whites of the East End, covered the migration of whites from Newham to Essex. A 2019 Guardian article stated that "came to represent 'white flight' in the UK", and a 2013 Prospect magazine article gave Essex as an example of white flight.

Researcher Ludi Simpson has stated that the growth of ethnic minorities in Britain is due mostly to natural population growth (births outnumbering deaths), rather than immigration. Both white and non-white Britons who can do so economically are equally likely to leave mixed-race inner-city areas. In his opinion, these trends indicate counter urbanisation, rather than white flight.

Toronto
In 2013, the Toronto Star examined the "identity crisis" of Brampton (a suburban city in the Greater Toronto Area), and referring to white Canadians, the "loss of more than 23,000 people, or 12 per cent, in a decade when the city's population rose by 60 per cent". The paper reported University of Manitoba sociologist Jason Edgerton's analysis that "After you control for retirement, low birth rate, etc. some of the other (shrinkage) could be white flight — former mainstream communities not comfortable being the minority."

A 2016 article from The Globe and Mail, addressing the diversity of Brampton, acknowledged that while academics in Canada are sometimes reluctant to use the term of white flight, it reported that: "[...] the Brampton story reveals that we have our own version of white flight, and before we figure out how to manage hyper-diverse and increasingly polarized cities like Greater Toronto, we need to reflect on our own attitudes about race and ethnic diversity."

In 2018, The Guardian covered the white flight that had occurred in Brampton, and how the suburban city had been nicknamed "Bramladesh" and "Browntown", due to its "73% visible minority, with its largest ethnic group Indian". It was also reported how "the white population fell from 192,400 in 2001 to 169,230 in 2011, and now hovers around 151,000."

Vancouver
In 2014, the Vancouver Sun addressed the issue of white flight across Metropolitan Vancouver. Detailing the phenomenon of "unconscious segregation", the article points to large East Asian and South Asian enclaves within Greater Vancouver such as Burnaby, East Vancouver, Richmond, South Vancouver and Surrey. In contrast, other cities and neighbourhoods within the metropolitan region such as Tsawwassen, South Surrey, White Rock and Langley host equally large white enclaves.

United States
In the United States during the 1940s, the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, low-cost mortgages through the G.I. Bill, and residential redlining enabled white families to abandon inner cities in favor of suburban living and prevent ethnic minorities from doing the same. The result was severe urban decay that, by the 1960s, resulted in crumbling "ghettos". Prior to national data available in the 1950 US census, a migration pattern of disproportionate numbers of whites moving from cities to suburban communities was easily dismissed as merely anecdotal. Because American urban populations were still substantially growing, a relative decrease in one racial or ethnic component eluded scientific proof to the satisfaction of policy makers. In essence, data on urban population change had not been separated into what are now familiarly identified its "components." The first data set potentially capable of proving "white flight" was the 1950 census. But original processing of this data, on older-style tabulation machines by the US Census Bureau, failed to attain any approved level of statistical proof. It was rigorous reprocessing of the same raw data on a UNIVAC I, led by Donald J. Bogue of the Scripps Foundation and Emerson Seim of the University of Chicago, that scientifically established the reality of white flight.

It was not simply a more powerful calculating instrument that placed the reality of white flight beyond a high hurdle of proof seemingly required for policy makers to consider taking action. Also instrumental were new statistical methods developed by Emerson Seim for disentangling deceptive counter-effects that had resulted when numerous cities reacted to departures of a wealthier tax base by annexation. In other words, central cities had been bringing back their new suburbs, such that families that had departed from inner cities were not even being counted as having moved from the cities.

During the later 20th century, industrial restructuring led to major losses of jobs, leaving formerly middle-class working populations suffering poverty, with some unable to move away and seek employment elsewhere. Real estate prices often fall in areas of economic erosion, allowing persons with lower income to establish homes in such areas. Since the 1960s and changed immigration laws, the United States has received immigrants from Mexico, Central and South America, Asia, and Africa. Immigration has changed the demographics of both cities and suburbs, and the US has become a largely suburban nation, with the suburbs becoming more diverse. In addition, Latinos, the fastest growing minority group in the US, began to migrate away from traditional entry cities and to cities in the Southwest, such as Albuquerque, Phoenix and Tucson. In 2006, the increased number of Latinos had made whites a minority group in some western cities.

Legal exclusion
In the 1930s, states outside the South (where racial segregation was legal) practiced unofficial segregation via exclusionary covenants in title deeds and real estate neighborhood redlining – explicit, legally sanctioned racial discrimination in real property ownership and lending practices. Blacks were effectively barred from pursuing homeownership, even when they were able to afford it. Suburban expansion was reserved for middle-class and working-class white people, facilitated by their increased wages incurred by the war effort and by subsequent federally guaranteed mortgages (VA, FHA, HOLC) available only to whites to buy new houses, such as those created by the Federal Housing Administration.

Roads
After World War II, aided by the construction of the Interstate Highway System, many white Americans began leaving industrial cities for new housing in suburbs. The roads served to transport suburbanites to their city jobs, facilitating the development of suburbs, and shifting the tax base away from the city. This may have exacerbated urban decay. In some cases, such as in the Southern United States, local governments used highway road constructions to deliberately divide and isolate black neighborhoods from goods and services, often within industrial corridors. In Birmingham, Alabama, the local government used the highway system to perpetuate the racial residence-boundaries the city established with a 1926 racial zoning law. Constructing interstate highways through majority-black neighborhoods eventually reduced the populations to the poorest proportion of people financially unable to leave their destroyed community.

Blockbusting
The real estate business practice of "blockbusting" was a for-profit catalyst for white flight, and a means to control non-white migration. By subterfuge, real estate agents would facilitate black people buying a house in a white neighborhood, either by buying the house themselves, or via a white proxy buyer, and then re-selling it to the black family. The remaining white inhabitants (alarmed by real estate agents and the local news media), fearing devalued residential property, would quickly sell, usually at a loss. The realtors profited from these en masse sales and the ability to resell to the incoming black families, through arbitrage and the sales commissions from both groups. By such tactics, the racial composition of a neighborhood population was often changed completely in a few years.

Association with urban decay

Urban decay is the sociological process whereby a city, or part of a city, falls into disrepair and decrepitude. Its characteristics are depopulation, economic restructuring, abandoned buildings, high local unemployment (and thus poverty), fragmented families, political disenfranchisement, crime, and a desolate, inhospitable city landscape. White flight contributed to the draining of cities' tax bases when middle-class people left. Abandoned properties attracted criminals and street gangs, contributing to crime.

In the 1970s and 1980s, urban decay was associated with Western cities, especially in North America and parts of Europe. In that time, major structural changes in global economies, transportation, and government policy created the economic, then social, conditions resulting in urban decay.

White flight in North America started to reverse in the 1990s, when the rich suburbanites returned to cities, gentrifying the decayed urban neighborhoods.

Government-aided white flight

New municipalities were established beyond the abandoned city's jurisdiction to avoid the legacy costs of maintaining city infrastructures; instead new governments spent taxes to establish suburban infrastructures. The federal government contributed to white flight and the early decay of non-white city neighborhoods by withholding maintenance capital mortgages, thus making it difficult for the communities to either retain or attract middle-class residents.

The new suburban communities limited the emigration of poor and non-white residents from the city by restrictive zoning; thus, few lower-middle-class people could afford a house in the suburbs. Many all-white suburbs were eventually annexed to the cities their residents had left. For instance, Milwaukee, Wisconsin partially annexed towns such as Granville; the (then) mayor, Frank P. Zeidler, complained about the socially destructive "Iron Ring" of new municipalities incorporated in the post–World War II decade. Analogously, semi-rural communities, such as Oak Creek, South Milwaukee, and Franklin, formally incorporated as discrete entities to escape urban annexation. Wisconsin state law had allowed Milwaukee's annexation of such rural and suburban regions that did not qualify for discrete incorporation per the legal incorporation standards.

Desegregation of schools
In some areas, the post–World War II racial desegregation of the public schools catalyzed white flight. In 1954, the US Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ordered the de jure termination of the "separate, but equal" legal racism established with the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) case in the 19th century. It declared that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. Many southern jurisdictions mounted massive resistance to the policy. In some cases, white parents withdrew their children from public schools and established private religious schools instead. These schools, termed segregation academies, sprung up in the American South between the late 1950s and mid-1970s and allowed parents to prevent their children from being enrolled in racially mixed schools.

Upon desegregation in 1957 in Baltimore, Maryland, the Clifton Park Junior High School had 2,023 white students and 34 black students; ten years later, it had twelve white students and 2,037 black students. In northwest Baltimore, Garrison Junior High School's student body declined from 2,504 whites and twelve blacks to 297 whites and 1,263 blacks in that period. At the same time, the city's working class population declined because of the loss of industrial jobs as heavy industry restructured.

In Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971), the Supreme Court ordered the desegregation busing of poor black students to suburban white schools, and suburban white students to the city to try to integrate student populations. In Milliken v. Bradley (1974), the dissenting Justice William Douglas observed, "The inner core of Detroit is now rather solidly black; and the blacks, we know, in many instances are likely to be poorer." Likewise, in 1977, the Federal decision in Penick v. The Columbus Board of Education (1977) accelerated white flight from Columbus, Ohio. Although the racial desegregation of schools affected only public school districts, the most vehement opponents of racial desegregation have sometimes been whites whose children attended private schools.

A secondary, non-geographic consequence of school desegregation and busing was "cultural" white flight: withdrawing white children from the mixed-race public school system and sending them to private schools unaffected by US federal integration laws. In 1970, when the United States District Court for the Central District of California ordered the Pasadena Unified School District desegregated, the proportion of white students (54%) reflected the school district's proportion of whites (53%). Once the federally ordered school desegregation began, whites who could afford private schools withdrew their children from the racially diverse Pasadena public school system. By 2004, Pasadena had 63 private schools educating some 33% of schoolchildren, while white students made up only 16% of the public school populace. The Pasadena Unified School District superintendent characterized public schools as "like the bogey-man" to whites. He implemented policies to attract white parents to the racially diverse Pasadena public school district.

Crime
Studies suggest that rising crime rates were one of the reasons that white households left cities for suburbs in the 1960s and 1970s. Samuel Kye (2018) cites several studies that identified "factors such as crime and neighborhood deterioration, rather than racial prejudice, as more robust determinants of white flight". Ellen and O'Regan (2010) found that lower crime rates in city centers are associated with less out-migration to suburbs, but they did not find an effect on lower levels of crime attracting new households to the city.

Australia
In Sydney, Australian-born minority (white and non-white) people in Fairfield and Canterbury fell by three percentage points, six percentage points in Auburn, and three percentage points in Strathfield between 1991 and 1996. Only in Liverpool, one of the more fast growth areas of Sydney, did both the Australia-born and overseas-born male population increase over the 1991-1996 period. However, the rate of growth of the overseas-born was far greater than that of the Australia-born, thus the sharp increase in Liverpool's population share from 43.5 per cent to 49 per cent by 1996. The Australia-born movers from the south-western suburbs relocated to Penrith in the northwest and Gosford and Wyong in the northeast.

According to the New South Wales Secondary Principals Council and the University of Western Sydney, public schools in that state have experienced white flight to private and Catholic schools wherever there is a large presence of Aboriginal and Middle Eastern students.

In 2018, NSW Labor Opposition leader Luke Foley talked about White flight in Fairfield, where he stated that Iraqi and Syrian refugees are replacing the Anglo-Australians in the suburb, although he later apologised for the comments.

New Zealand
White flight has been observed in low socioeconomic decile schools in New Zealand. Data from the Ministry of Education found that 60,000 New Zealand European students attended low-decile schools (situated in the poorest areas) in 2000, and had fallen to half that number in 2010. The same data also found that high-decile schools (which are in the wealthiest areas) had a corresponding increase in New Zealand European students. The Ministry claimed demographic changes were behind the shifts, but teacher and principal associations have attributed white flight to racial and class stigmas of low-decile schools, which commonly have majority Maori and Pacific Islander rolls.

In one specific case, white flight has significantly affected Sunset Junior High School in a suburb of the city of Rotorua, with the total number of students reduced from 700 to 70 in the early 1980s. All but one of the 70 students are Maori. The area has a concentration of poor, low-skilled people, with struggling families, and many single mothers. Related to the social problems of the families, student educational achievement is low on the standard reading test.

title: White flight