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Wiluna, Western Australia

Wiluna is a small town in the Goldfields-Esperance region (since 2021) of Western Australia. It is situated on the edge of the Western Desert at the gateway to the Canning Stock Route and Gunbarrel Highway. It is the service centre of the local area for the local Martu people, the pastoral industry, the Wiluna Gold Mine, and many more people who work on other mines in the area on a "fly-in/fly-out" basis.

Wiluna's climate is hot and dry, with an annual rainfall of 258 mm. Mean maximum temperatures range from 19 C in July, to 38 C in January.

The closest service centre is in Meekatharra.

Overview
Wiluna has from 200 to 600 Aboriginal people living within its community, depending upon the nature, time and place of the traditional law ceremonies across the Central Desert region. The traditional Aboriginal owners (a grouping known as the Martu) were "settled" as a consequence of the British colonisation process that began in the 1800s. In the 1950s a church-based group were supported by the government of the day to establish a mission. The traditional people lost their lands through many different processes, including the issuing of pastoral leases, the discovery of gold and the influx of non-Aboriginal people onto their lands.

Before and after the atomic nuclear testing near Maralinga in South Australia in the 1950s, many Aboriginal people from at least three different tribal and language groups were forced to live within the mission site. This created many conflicts and the legacy continues today. Much traditional knowledge and skill exists today amongst the Aboriginal residents and visitors.

The existence of an historical Club Hotel, a dilapidated relic of the town's former heyday, created much conflict with many people opposed to its presence as an operating pub arising from the conflict and trauma associated with alcohol abuse.

In 2019, a major renovation converted the Club Hotel into the Shire of Wiluna administration buildings.

The town also has a general store, petrol, caravan park, sports oval, public swimming pool, school, and health clinic.

Local water holes are much damaged and overused after years of cattle use.

During the wet season, large lakes may form that attract an array of wildlife. The region has snakes, kangaroos, bungarras (large lizard/goanna), bush turkeys, donkeys, horses, camels and dingoes.

Willuna is home to VMW, a marine weather transmitter operated by the Bureau of Meteorology.

Parts of the unsealed and flood-prone road between Wiluna and Meekatharra are being sealed, as part of a pilot program in which the Government of Western Australia provided A$1 million for road work contractors in collaboration with the Martu-ku Yiwarra Training Centre.

Mines

The Wiluna area was explored by Lawrence Wells in 1892. Gold was discovered in the area in 1896, and within a few months over 300 prospectors were in the area. The town of Wiluna was gazetted in 1898, the name Wiluna being the Wati (Aboriginal language) name for the area. By the 1930s, the town had a population of over 9,000 people, but World War II severely affected the gold mining industry, and many mines were shut down. By 1963 the population had fallen to less than 100. Gold mining resumed in the area in 1981.

The closest mine site to town is the Wiluna Gold Mine, approximately 3 km south of Wiluna. The mine is operated by Wiluna Mining Corporation and currently produces gold from re-processing of legacy mine tailings.

Yeleeri site, located 100 km south has uranium ore, and the region boasts much mineral wealth.

The Paroo Station lead carbonate open pit mine is located 30 km west of Wiluna. As of January 2015 it was being placed into care and maintenance due to low global prices for lead.

Wiluna and the Mid-West region are the site of Western Australia's most advanced uranium mining projects. Three projects are in the approval process, with the Lake Maitland uranium project and the Lake Way uranium project both owned by Toro Energy Ltd, and the Yeelirrie uranium project which BHP Billiton sold to Cameco. All three are located within 100 km of Wiluna. All three projects were opposed by environmental groups and some local people. Yeelirrie is most fiercely opposed, with over 40 years of clear opposition from traditional owners.

Meteors
In October 1960, two station workers named Fred Vincenti and Frank Quadrio were opening a fence gate on the Millbillillie-Jundee track 11 km from Wiluna when they witnessed a bright fireball falling into spinifex (Triodia) grassland to the north. The debris from this meteor became known as the Millbillillie meteorite and is understood to be pieces of the asteroid Vesta that had at some point been knocked off by a collision in the asteroid belt. Although no official specimens were recovered until 1970 it is understood that members of the local Aboriginal community had collected pieces.

Another meteorite fall was recorded near Wiluna on 2 September 1967. This meteorite was a H5-class object; specimens were collected and housed in the Western Australian Museum.

Education
Wiluna Remote Community School is a school that provides education for students from year 1–12, currently having a student population of between 85 and 115 students.

The school provides a bus as transport to and from the school for the students. The indigenous language of the area is Martu Wangka dialect, however most students speak Aboriginal English.

Origin of name
An early mining settlement of Lake Way Gold, named after the dry Lake Way south of Wiluna, established around 1896, was called Weeloona, derived from an Aboriginal word meaning Place of wind or Windy place. However, the name is also sometimes claimed to come from the cry of the curlew, which is frequent in the area.

Climate
Wiluna experiences a desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh), though like most of inland Western Australia it has seen its rainfall increase by around 40 percent since 1967. The heaviest rainfall, however, was associated with the April 1900 floods when the town received 527.1 mm, two-and-half-times its normal annual rainfall.

Railways
Wiluna was the furthest away from Perth that the narrow gauge Western Australian Government Railways system reached. The Wiluna branch was connected to the main Northern Railway at Meekatharra. The branch opened to Wiluna on 2 November 1932. The line was closed on 5 August 1957.

People from Wiluna
The Indigenous people who have always lived in the region come from different tribal groups. Accomplished hunters, crafts people, pastoralists, bush mechanics and people with many other skills exist today within the community.

The former Governor-General of Australia, Major General Michael Jeffery was born in Wiluna on 12 December 1937. A new primary school was constructed in Wiluna after Jeffery visited the town in 2006 and criticised the condition of the existing school.

Warri and Yatungka were a famous Aboriginal couple who died in Wiluna in 1979. They were the last of the Mandildjara people to leave their country and the hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Their Romeo and Juliet-like story was recorded in the best-selling book The Last of the Nomads by Dr W J Peasley. This story is recounted as Peasley, organising the expedition, although it was Stan Gratte of Geraldton (OAM) who organised this party to recover them when urged by Warri's brother Moodjeren, who was concerned, due to old age and the lack of young people who would normally assist the elderly, they would not survive the extended drought which was now gripping Central Australia. Emaciated and likely close to death, the couple were brought to Wiluna where they were forgiven by their people for breaking the Mandildjara marriage laws decades before. They died in 1979 within four weeks of each other.

title: Wiluna, Western Australia


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Nian

A nian beast is a beast in Chinese mythology. According to Chinese mythology, the nian lives under the sea or in the mountains. The Chinese character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to the early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology, or a part of a local oral tradition that was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year. Scholars cite it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration, such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.

Modern legends
Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian would come out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on people and animals. During the winter, when food was scarce, it would raid villages, eating the crops and sometimes the villagers themselves - particularly their children. Several accounts describe its appearance, with some claiming that it resembles a flat-faced lion with the body of a dog and prominent incisors. Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth. The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.

Some local legends attribute the Chinese lion dance (舞獅) to the nian. The tradition has its origins in a story of a nian's attack on a village. After the attack, the villagers discussed how to make the nian leave them in peace. Since it was discovered that the beast was afraid of the color red, people put red lanterns and spring scrolls on their windows and doors. They would also leave food at their doorstep in a bid to divert it from eating humans. Other sources say that an old man who came to visit actually informed the villagers of the nian's weaknesses.

The traditions of firecrackers, red lanterns, and red robes found in many lion dance portrayals originate from the villagers' practice of hitting drums, plates, and empty bowls, wearing red robes, and throwing firecrackers, causing loud banging sounds to intimidate the nian. According to this same myth, it was captured by Hongjun Laozu, an ancient Taoist monk, and became his mount.

Ancient sources
Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are part of the nian legend. These cultural practices are recorded in ancient texts, though none of them refer to a creature called nian.

The Erya records that the character nian (年) was first used to mean "year" during the Zhou dynasty, replacing terms used in previous eras. The Shuowen Jiezi records that the character nian meant "ripeness of grains" and was composed of the character "he" (禾, rice plant) and "qian" (千, indicating the sound) and quotes the Chunqiu, which uses it in the sense of a great harvest.

The attributes of the nian creature in the modern legend, of fear of noise and fire, correlate with ancient legends relating to the use of firecrackers to drive off ape-like creatures in the mountains called shanxiao (山魈), first recorded in the Shanhaijing.

The practice of sweeping and cleaning at the start of the year is recorded in Zhou dynasty sources as intended to ward off plague spirits, and the practice of using music and drama to receive gods and ward off plague spirits is recorded from the same era. The creature's role in the celebration of the Chinese New Year is highlighted by the way the Chinese call this holiday Guo Nian, which means "pass over nian" or "overcome nian."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Nian


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Bird vocalization

Bird vocalization includes both bird calls and bird songs. In non-technical use, bird songs are the bird sounds that are melodious to the human ear. In ornithology and birding, songs (relatively complex vocalizations) are distinguished by function from calls (relatively simple vocalizations).

Definition

The distinction between songs and calls is based upon complexity, length, and context. Songs are longer and more complex and are associated with territory and courtship and mating, while calls tend to serve such functions as alarms or keeping members of a flock in contact. Other authorities such as Howell and Webb (1995) make the distinction based on function, so that short vocalizations, such as those of pigeons, and even non-vocal sounds, such as the drumming of woodpeckers and the "winnowing" of snipes' wings in display flight, are considered songs. Still others require song to have syllabic diversity and temporal regularity akin to the repetitive and transformative patterns that define music. It is generally agreed upon in birding and ornithology which sounds are songs and which are calls, and a good field guide will differentiate between the two.

Bird song is best developed in the order Passeriformes. Some groups are nearly voiceless, producing only percussive and rhythmic sounds, such as the storks, which clatter their bills. In some manakins (Pipridae), the males have evolved several mechanisms for mechanical sound production, including mechanisms for stridulation not unlike those found in some insects. The production of sounds by mechanical means as opposed to the use of the syrinx has been termed variously instrumental music by Charles Darwin, mechanical sounds and more recently sonation. The term sonate has been defined as the act of producing non-vocal sounds that are intentionally modulated communicative signals, produced using non-syringeal structures such as the bill, wings, tail, feet and body feathers.

Song is usually delivered from prominent perches, although some species may sing when flying.

In extratropical Eurasia and the Americas almost all song is produced by male birds; however, in the tropics and to a greater extent the desert belts of Australia and Africa it is more typical for females to sing as much as males. These differences have been known for a long time and are generally attributed to the much less regular and seasonal climate of Australian and African arid zones requiring that birds breed at any time when conditions are favourable, although they cannot breed in many years because food supply never increases above a minimal level. With aseasonal irregular breeding, both sexes must be brought into breeding condition and vocalisation, especially duetting, serves this purpose. The high frequency of female vocalisations in the tropics, Australia and Southern Africa may also relate to very low mortality rates producing much stronger pair-bonding and territoriality.

Anatomy and physiology
The avian vocal organ is called the syrinx; it is a bony structure at the bottom of the trachea (unlike the larynx at the top of the mammalian trachea). The syrinx and sometimes a surrounding air sac resonate to sound waves that are made by membranes past which the bird forces air. The bird controls the pitch by changing the tension on the membranes and controls both pitch and volume by changing the force of exhalation. It can control the two sides of the trachea independently, which is how some species can produce two notes at once.

In February 2023, scientists reported that the possible sounds that ankylosaur dinosaurs may have made were bird-like vocalizations based on a finding of a fossilized larynx from the ankylosaur Pinacosaurus grangeri.

Function

One of the two main functions of bird song is mate attraction. Scientists hypothesize that bird song evolved through sexual selection, and experiments suggest that the quality of bird song may be a good indicator of fitness. Experiments also suggest that parasites and diseases may directly affect song characteristics such as song rate, which thereby act as reliable indicators of health. The song repertoire also appears to indicate fitness in some species. The ability of male birds to hold and advertise territories using song also demonstrates their fitness. Therefore, a female bird may select males based on the quality of their songs and the size of their song repertoire.

The second principal function of bird song is territory defense. Territorial birds will interact with each other using song to negotiate territory boundaries. Since song may be a reliable indicator of quality, individuals may be able to discern the quality of rivals and prevent an energetically costly fight. In birds with song repertoires, individuals may share the same song type and use these song types for more complex communication. Some birds will respond to a shared song type with a song-type match (i.e. with the same song type). This may be an aggressive signal; however, results are mixed. Birds may also interact using repertoire-matches, wherein a bird responds with a song type that is in its rival's repertoire but is not the song that it is currently singing. This may be a less aggressive act than song-type matching. Song complexity is also linked to male territorial defense, with more complex songs being perceived as a greater territorial threat.

Birds communicate alarm through vocalizations and movements that are specific to the threat, and bird alarms can be understood by other animal species, including other birds, in order to identify and protect against the specific threat. Mobbing calls are used to recruit individuals in an area where an owl or other predator may be present. These calls are characterized by wide frequency spectra, sharp onset and termination, and repetitiveness that are common across species and are believed to be helpful to other potential "mobbers" by being easy to locate. The alarm calls of most species, on the other hand, are characteristically high-pitched, making the caller difficult to locate. Communication through bird calls can be between individuals of the same species or even across species. For example, the Japanese tit will respond to the recruitment call of the willow tit as long as it follows the Japanese tit alert call in the correct alert+recruitment order.

Individual birds may be sensitive enough to identify each other through their calls. Many birds that nest in colonies can locate their chicks using their calls. Calls are sometimes distinctive enough for individual identification even by human researchers in ecological studies.

Over 400 bird species engage in duet calls. In some cases, the duets are so perfectly timed as to appear almost as one call. This kind of calling is termed antiphonal duetting. Such duetting is noted in a wide range of families including quails, bushshrikes, babblers such as the scimitar babblers, and some owls and parrots. In territorial songbirds, birds are more likely to countersing when they have been aroused by simulated intrusion into their territory. This implies a role in intraspecies aggressive competition towards joint resource defense. Duets are well known in cranes, but the Sarus Crane seems unique in infrequently also having three bonded adults defending one territory who perform "triets". Triets had a lower frequency relative to duets, but the functional value of this difference is not yet known.

Sometimes, songs vocalized in the post-breeding season act as a cue to conspecific eavesdroppers. In black-throated blue warblers, males that have bred and reproduced successfully sing to their offspring to influence their vocal development, while males that have failed to reproduce usually abandon the nests and stay silent. The post-breeding song therefore inadvertently informs the unsuccessful males of particular habitats that have a higher likelihood of reproductive success. The social communication by vocalization provides a shortcut to locating high quality habitats and saves the trouble of directly assessing various vegetation structures.

Some birds are excellent vocal mimics. In some tropical species, mimics such as the drongos may have a role in the formation of mixed-species foraging flocks. Vocal mimicry can include conspecifics, other species or even man-made sounds. Many hypotheses have been made on the functions of vocal mimicry including suggestions that they may be involved in sexual selection by acting as an indicator of fitness, help brood parasites, or protect against predation, but strong support is lacking for any function. Many birds, especially those that nest in cavities, are known to produce a snakelike hissing sound that may help deter predators at close range.

Some cave-dwelling species, including the oilbird and swiftlets (Collocalia and Aerodramus species), use audible sound (with the majority of sonic location occurring between 2 and 5 kHz ) to echolocate in the darkness of caves. The only bird known to make use of infrasound (at about 20 Hz) is the western capercaillie.

The hearing range of birds is from below 50 Hz (infrasound) to around 12 kHz, with maximum sensitivity between 1 and 5 kHz. The black jacobin is exceptional in producing sounds at about 11.8 kHz. It is not known if they can hear these sounds.

The range of frequencies at which birds call in an environment varies with the quality of habitat and the ambient sounds. The acoustic adaptation hypothesis predicts that narrow bandwidths, low frequencies, and long elements and inter-element intervals should be found in habitats with complex vegetation structures (which would absorb and muffle sounds), while high frequencies, broad bandwidth, high-frequency modulations (trills), and short elements and inter-elements may be expected in open habitats, without obstructive vegetation.

Low frequency songs are optimal for obstructed, densely vegetated habitats because low frequency, slowly modulated song elements are less susceptible to signal degradation by means of reverberations off of sound-reflecting vegetation. High frequency calls with rapid modulations are optimal for open habitats because they degrade less across open space. The acoustic adaptation hypothesis also states that song characteristics may take advantage of beneficial acoustic properties of the environment. Narrow-frequency bandwidth notes are increased in volume and length by reverberations in densely vegetated habitats.

It has been hypothesized that the available frequency range is partitioned, and birds call so that overlap between different species in frequency and time is reduced. This idea has been termed the "acoustic niche". Birds sing louder and at a higher pitch in urban areas, where there is ambient low-frequency noise. Traffic noise was found to decrease reproductive success in the great tit (Parus major) due to the overlap in acoustic frequency. During the COVID-19 pandemic, reduced traffic noise led to birds in San Francisco singing 30% more softly. An increase in song volume restored fitness to birds in urban areas, as did higher frequency songs.

It has been proposed that birds show latitudinal variation in song complexity; however, there is no strong evidence that song complexity increases with latitude or migratory behaviour.

According to a study published in 2019, the white bellbird makes the loudest call ever recorded for birds, reaching 125 dB. The record was previously held by the screaming piha with 116 dB.

A 2023 study found a correlation between the dawn chorus of male birds and the absence of females. The research was conducted in southern Germany, with male blue tits being the birds of interest. Researchers "found that the males sang at high rates while their female partners were still roosting in the nest box at dawn, and stopped singing as soon as the females left the nest box to join them". The males were also more likely to sing when the females entered the nests in the evening or even during the daytime. While this information is eye-opening, it still does not answer the question of why male birds sing more when females are absent.

Neuroanatomy

The acquisition and learning of bird song involves a group of distinct brain areas that are aligned in two connecting pathways:

 * Anterior forebrain pathway (vocal learning): composed of Area X, which is a homologue to mammalian basal ganglia; the lateral part of the magnocellular nucleus of anterior nidopallium (LMAN), also considered a part of the avian basal ganglia; and the dorso-lateral division of the medial thalamus (DLM).
 * Posterior descending pathway (vocal production): composed of HVC (proper name, although sometimes referred to as the high vocal center); the robust nucleus of the arcopallium (RA); and the tracheosyringeal part of the hypoglossal nucleus (nXIIts).

The posterior descending pathway (PDP) is required throughout a bird's life for normal song production, while the anterior forebrain pathway (AFP) is necessary for song learning, plasticity, and maintenance, but not for adult song production.

Both neural pathways in the song system begin at the level of HVC, which projects information both to the RA (premotor nucleus) and to Area X of the anterior forebrain. Information in the posterior descending pathway (also referred to as the vocal production or motor pathway) descends from HVC to RA, and then from RA to the tracheosyringeal part of the hypoglossal nerve (nXIIts), which then controls muscular contractions of the syrinx.

Information in the anterior forebrain pathway is projected from HVC to Area X (basal ganglia), then from Area X to the DLM (thalamus), and from DLM to LMAN, which then links the vocal learning and vocal production pathways through connections back to the RA. Some investigators have posited a model in which the connection between LMAN and RA carries an instructive signal based on evaluation of auditory feedback (comparing the bird's own song to the memorized song template), which adaptively alters the motor program for song output. The generation of this instructive signal could be facilitated by auditory neurons in Area X and LMAN that show selectivity for the temporal qualities of the bird's own song (BOS) and its tutor song, providing a platform for comparing the BOS and the memorized tutor song.

Models regarding the real-time error-correction interactions between the AFP and PDP will be considered in the future. Other current research has begun to explore the cellular mechanisms underlying HVC control of temporal patterns of song structure and RA control of syllable production. Brain structures involved in both pathways show sexual dimorphism in many bird species, usually causing males and females to sing differently. Some of the known types of dimorphisms in the brain include the size of nuclei, the number of neurons present, and the number of neurons connecting one nucleus to another.

In the extremely dimorphic zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata), a species in which only males typically sing, the size of the HVC and RA are approximately three to six times larger in males than in females, and Area X does not appear to be recognizable in females. Research suggests that exposure to sex steroids during early development is partially responsible for these differences in the brain. Female zebra finches treated with estradiol after hatching followed by testosterone or dihydrotestosterone (DHT) treatment in adulthood will develop an RA and HVC similar in size to males and will also display male-like singing behavior.

Hormone treatment alone does not seem to produce female finches with brain structures or behavior exactly like males. Furthermore, other research has shown results that contradict what would be expected based on our current knowledge of mammalian sexual differentiation. For example, male zebra finches castrated or given sex steroid inhibitors as hatchlings still develop normal masculine singing behavior. This suggests that other factors, such as the activation of genes on the z chromosome, might also play a role in normal male song development.

Hormones also have activational effects on singing and the song nuclei in adult birds. In canaries (Serinus canaria), females normally sing less often and with less complexity than males. However, when adult females are given androgen injections, their singing will increase to an almost male-like frequency. Furthermore, adult females injected with androgens also show an increased size in the HVC and RA regions. Melatonin is another hormone that is also believed to influence song behavior in adults, as many songbirds show melatonin receptors in neurons of the song nuclei.

Both the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) and house sparrow (Passer domesticus) have demonstrated changes in song nuclei correlated with differing exposures to darkness and secretions of melatonin. This suggests that melatonin might play a role in the seasonal changes of singing behavior in songbirds that live in areas where the amount of daylight varies significantly throughout the year. Several other studies have looked at seasonal changes in the morphology of brain structures within the song system and have found that these changes (adult neurogenesis, gene expression) are dictated by photoperiod, hormonal changes and behavior.

The gene FOXP2, defects of which affect both speech production and comprehension of language in humans, becomes highly expressed in Area X during periods of vocal plasticity in both juvenile zebra finches and adult canaries.

Learning
The songs of different species of birds vary and are generally typical of the species. Species vary greatly in the complexity of their songs and in the number of distinct kinds of song they sing (up to 3000 in the brown thrasher); individuals within some species vary in the same way. In a few species, such as lyrebirds and mockingbirds, songs imbed arbitrary elements learned in the individual's lifetime, a form of mimicry (though maybe better called "appropriation" (Ehrlich et al.), as the bird does not pass for another species). As early as 1773, it was established that birds learned calls, and cross-fostering experiments succeeded in making linnet Acanthis cannabina learn the song of a skylark, Alauda arvensis. In many species, it appears that although the basic song is the same for all members of the species, young birds learn some details of their songs from their fathers, and these variations build up over generations to form dialects.

Song learning in juvenile birds occurs in two stages: sensory learning, which involves the juvenile listening to the father or other conspecific bird and memorizing the spectral and temporal qualities of the song (song template), and sensorimotor learning, which involves the juvenile bird producing its own vocalizations and practicing its song until it accurately matches the memorized song template.

During the sensorimotor learning phase, song production begins with highly variable sub-vocalizations called "sub-song", which is akin to babbling in human infants. Soon after, the juvenile song shows certain recognizable characteristics of the imitated adult song, but still lacks the stereotypy of the crystallized song – this is called "plastic song".

After two or three months of song learning and rehearsal (depending on species), the juvenile produces a crystallized song, characterized by spectral and temporal stereotypy (very low variability in syllable production and syllable order). Some birds, such as zebra finches, which are the most popular species for birdsong research, have overlapping sensory and sensorimotor learning stages.

Research has indicated that birds' acquisition of song is a form of motor learning that involves regions of the basal ganglia. Further, the PDP (see Neuroanatomy below) has been considered homologous to a mammalian motor pathway originating in the cerebral cortex and descending through the brain stem, while the AFP has been considered homologous to the mammalian cortical pathway through the basal ganglia and thalamus. Models of bird-song motor learning can be useful in developing models for how humans learn speech.

In some species such as zebra finches, learning of song is limited to the first year; they are termed "age-limited" or "close-ended" learners. Other species such as the canaries can develop new songs even as sexually mature adults; these are termed "open-ended" learners.

Researchers have hypothesized that learned songs allow the development of more complex songs through cultural interaction, thus allowing intraspecies dialects that help birds to identify kin and to adapt their songs to different acoustic environments.

Auditory feedback in birdsong learning
Early experiments by Thorpe in 1954 showed the importance of a bird being able to hear a tutor's song. When birds are raised in isolation, away from the influence of conspecific males, they still sing. While the song they produce, called "isolate song", resembles the song of a wild bird, it shows distinctly different characteristics from the wild song and lacks its complexity. The importance of the bird being able to hear itself sing in the sensorimotor period was later discovered by Konishi. Birds deafened before the song-crystallization period went on to produce songs that were distinctly different from the wild type and isolate song. Since the emergence of these findings, investigators have been searching for the neural pathways that facilitate sensory/sensorimotor learning and mediating the matching of the bird's own song with the memorized song template.

Several studies in the 1990s have looked at the neural mechanisms underlying birdsong learning by performing lesions to relevant brain structures involved in the production or maintenance of song or by deafening birds before and/or after song crystallization. Another experimental approach was recording the bird's song and then playing it back while the bird is singing, causing perturbed auditory feedback (the bird hears the superposition of its own song and a fragmented portion of a previous song syllable). After Nordeen & Nordeen made a landmark discovery as they demonstrated that auditory feedback was necessary for the maintenance of song in adult birds with crystallized song, Leonardo & Konishi (1999) designed an auditory feedback perturbation protocol in order to explore the role of auditory feedback in adult song maintenance further, to investigate how adult songs deteriorate after extended exposure to perturbed auditory feedback, and to examine the degree to which adult birds could recover crystallized song over time after being removed from perturbed feedback exposure. This study offered further support for role of auditory feedback in maintaining adult song stability and demonstrated how adult maintenance of crystallized birdsong is dynamic rather than static.

Brainard & Doupe (2000) posit a model in which LMAN (of the anterior forebrain) plays a primary role in error correction, as it detects differences between the song produced by the bird and its memorized song template and then sends an instructive error signal to structures in the vocal production pathway in order to correct or modify the motor program for song production. In their study, Brainard & Doupe (2000) showed that while deafening adult birds led to the loss of song stereotypy due to altered auditory feedback and non-adaptive modification of the motor program, lesioning LMAN in the anterior forebrain pathway of adult birds that had been deafened led to the stabilization of song (LMAN lesions in deafened birds prevented any further deterioration in syllable production and song structure).

Currently, there are two competing models that elucidate the role of LMAN in generating an instructive error signal and projecting it to the motor production pathway:

Bird's own song (BOS)-tuned error correction model

 * During singing, the activation of LMAN neurons will depend on the match between auditory feedback from the song produced by the bird and the stored song template. If this is true, then the firing rates of LMAN neurons will be sensitive to changes in auditory feedback.

Efference copy model of error correction

 * An efference copy of the motor command for song production is the basis of the real-time error-correction signal. During singing, activation of LMAN neurons will depend on the motor signal used to generate the song, and the learned prediction of expected auditory feedback based on that motor command. Error correction would occur more rapidly in this model.

Leonardo tested these models directly by recording spike rates in single LMAN neurons of adult zebra finches during singing in conditions with normal and perturbed auditory feedback. His results did not support the BOS-tuned error correction model, as the firing rates of LMAN neurons were unaffected by changes in auditory feedback and therefore, the error signal generated by LMAN appeared unrelated to auditory feedback. Moreover, the results from this study supported the predictions of the efference copy model, in which LMAN neurons are activated during singing by the efference copy of the motor signal (and its predictions of expected auditory feedback), allowing the neurons to be more precisely time-locked to changes in auditory feedback.

Mirror neurons and vocal learning
A mirror neuron is a neuron that discharges both when an individual performs an action and when he/she perceives that same action being performed by another. These neurons were first discovered in macaque monkeys, but recent research suggests that mirror neuron systems may be present in other animals including humans.

Mirror neurons have the following characteristics:
 * They are located in the premotor cortex.
 * They exhibit both sensory and motor properties.
 * They are action-specific – mirror neurons are only active when an individual is performing or observing a certain type of action (e.g., grasping an object).

Because mirror neurons exhibit both sensory and motor activity, some researchers have suggested that mirror neurons may serve to map sensory experience onto motor structures. This has implications for birdsong learning– many birds rely on auditory feedback to acquire and maintain their songs. Mirror neurons may be mediating this comparison of what the bird hears, how it compares to a memorized song template, and what he produces.

In search of these auditory-motor neurons, Jonathan Prather and other researchers at Duke University recorded the activity of single neurons in the HVCs of swamp sparrows. They discovered that the neurons that project from the HVC to Area X (HVCX neurons) are highly responsive when the bird is hearing a playback of his own song. These neurons also fire in similar patterns when the bird is singing that same song. Swamp sparrows employ 3–5 different song types, and the neural activity differs depending on which song is heard or sung. The HVCX neurons only fire in response to the presentation (or singing) of one of the songs, the primary song type. They are also temporally selective, firing at a precise phase in the song syllable.

Prather, et al. found that during the short period of time before and after the bird sings, his HVCX neurons become insensitive to auditory input. In other words, the bird becomes "deaf" to his own song. This suggests that these neurons are producing a corollary discharge, which would allow for direct comparison of motor output and auditory input. This may be the mechanism underlying learning via auditory feedback. These findings are also in line with Leonardo's (2004) efference copy model of error correction in birdsong learning and production.

Overall, the HVCX auditory motor neurons in swamp sparrows are very similar to the visual motor mirror neurons discovered in primates. Like mirror neurons, the HVCX neurons:

 * Are located in a premotor brain area
 * Exhibit both sensory and motor properties
 * Are action-specific – a response is only triggered by the "primary song type"

The function of the mirror neuron system is still unclear. Some scientists speculate that mirror neurons may play a role in understanding the actions of others, imitation, theory of mind and language acquisition, though there is currently insufficient neurophysiological evidence in support of these theories. Specifically regarding birds, it is possible that the mirror neuron system serves as a general mechanism underlying vocal learning, but further research is needed. In addition to the implications for song learning, the mirror neuron system could also play a role in territorial behaviors such as song-type matching and countersinging.

Learning through cultural transmission
Culture in animals is usually defined to consist of socially transmitted behavior patterns ("traditions") that are characteristic of certain populations. The learned nature of bird song as well as evidence of "dialect"-like local variations have support theories about the existence of avian culture.

As mentioned above, bird song's dependence on learning was studied by Thorpe, who found that chaffinches raised in isolation from their first week of life produce highly abnormal and less complex songs compared to other chaffinches. This suggested that many aspects of song development in songbirds depends on tutoring by older members of the same species. Later studies observed canary-like elements in the song of a chaffinch raised by canaries, evidencing the strong role of tutors in the learning of song by juvenile birds.

Similar chaffinch song types (categorized based on their distinct elements and their order) were observed to cluster in similar geographic areas, and this discovery led to hypotheses about "dialects" in birdsong. It has since been postulated that these song type variations are not dialects like those we found in human language. This is because not all members of a given geographic area will conform to the same song type, and also because there is no singular characteristic of a song type that differentiates it from all other types (unlike human dialects where certain words are unique to certain dialects).

Based on this evidence of learning and localized song types, researchers began to investigate the social learning of birdsong as a form of cultural transmission. The behavior patterns constituting this culture are the songs themselves, and the song types can be considered as traditions.

Dopamine circuits and cultural transmission
A recent study has shown that a dopamine circuit in zebra finches may promote social learning of bird song from tutors. Their data shows that certain brain areas in juvenile zebra finches are excited by the singing of conspecific (i.e. same-species) tutors and not by loudspeakers playing zebra finch song. Additionally, they show that dopamine released into the HVC aids in the encoding of song.

The cultural trap hypothesis
Although a significant amount of research was done on bird song during the 20th century, none was able to elucidate the evolutionary "use" behind birdsong, especially with regards to large vocal repertoires. In response, Lachlan and Slater proposed a "cultural trap" model to explain persistence of wide varieties of song. This model is based on a concept of "filters", in which:

 * a male songbird's (i.e. singer's) filter contains the range of songs that it can develop
 * a female songbird's (i.e. receiver's) filter contains the range of songs that it finds acceptable for mate choice

In one possible situation, the population consists mainly of birds with wide filters. In this population, a male songbird with a wide filter will rarely be chosen by the few females with narrow filters (as the male's song is unlikely to fall within a narrower filter). Such females will have a relatively small choice of males to mate with, so the genetic basis of the females' narrow filter does not persist. Another possible situation deals with a population with mostly narrow filters. In the latter population, wide-filter males can feasibly avoid mate choice rejection by learning from older, narrow-filter males. Therefore, the average reproductive success of wide-filter birds is enhanced by the possibility of learning, and vocal learning and large song repertoires (i.e. wide filters) go hand-in-hand.

The cultural trap hypothesis is one example of gene-culture coevolution, in which selective pressures emerge from the interaction between genotypes and their cultural consequences.

Possible correlation with cognitive ability
Various studies have shown that adult birds that underwent stress during critical developmental periods produce less complex songs and have smaller HVC brain regions. This has led some researchers to hypothesize that sexual selection for more complex songs indirectly selects for stronger cognitive ability in males. Further investigation showed that male song sparrows with larger vocal repertoires required less time to solve detour-reaching cognitive tasks. Some have proposed that bird song (among other sexually selected traits such as flashy coloring, body symmetry, and elaborate courtship) allow female songbirds to quickly assess the cognitive skills and development of multiple males.

Identification and systematics

The specificity of bird calls has been used extensively for species identification. The calls of birds have been described using words or nonsense syllables or line diagrams. Common terms in English include words such as quack, chirp and chirrup. These are subject to imagination and vary greatly; a well-known example is the white-throated sparrow's song, given in Canada as O sweet Canada Canada Canada and in New England as Old Sam Peabody Peabody Peabody (also Where are you Frederick Frederick Frederick?). In addition to nonsense words, grammatically correct phrases have been constructed as likenesses of the vocalizations of birds. For example, the barred owl produces a motif which some bird guides describe as ''Who cooks for you? Who cooks for you all? with the emphasis placed on you''. The term "warblish" has been coined to explain this approach to bird call description. Musical notation to depict bird sound began with Athanasius Kircher in his Musurgia universalis (1650) but more careful use was attempted with enhancements in the twentieth century by the Germans Alwin Voigt, Cornel Schmitt, and Hans Stadler.

Kay Electric Company, started by former Bell Labs engineers Harry Foster and Elmo Crump, made a device that was marketed as the "Sona-Graph" in 1948. This was adopted by early researchers including C.E.G. Bailey who demonstrated its use for studying bird song in 1950. The use of spectrograms to visualize bird song was then adopted by Donald J. Borror and developed further by others including W. H. Thorpe. These visual representations are also called sonograms or sonagrams. Beginning in 1983, some field guides for birds use sonograms to document the calls and songs of birds. The sonogram is objective, unlike descriptive phrases, but proper interpretation requires experience. Sonograms can also be roughly converted back into sound.

Bird song is an integral part of bird courtship and is a pre-zygotic isolation mechanism involved in the process of speciation. Many allopatric subspecies show differences in calls. These differences are sometimes minute, often detectable only in the sonograms. Song differences in addition to other taxonomic attributes have been used in the identification of new species. The use of calls has led to proposals for splitting of species complexes such as those of the Mirafra bushlarks.

Smartphone apps can identify birds using sounds. These apps work by comparing against spectrographic databases for matches.

Bird language
The language of the birds has long been a topic for anecdote and speculation. That calls have meanings that are interpreted by their listeners has been well demonstrated. Domestic chickens have distinctive alarm calls for aerial and ground predators, and they respond to these alarm calls appropriately.

However, a language has, in addition to words, grammar (that is, structures and rules). Studies to demonstrate the existence of language have been difficult because of the range of possible interpretations. For instance, some have argued that in order for a communication system to count as a language it must be "combinatorial", having an open-ended set of grammar-compliant sentences made from a finite vocabulary.

Research on parrots by Irene Pepperberg is claimed to demonstrate the innate ability for grammatical structures, including the existence of concepts such as nouns, adjectives and verbs. In the wild, the innate vocalizations of black-capped chickadees have been rigorously shown to exhibit combinatorial language. Studies on starling vocalizations have also suggested that they may have recursive structures.

The term bird language may also more informally refer to patterns in bird vocalizations that communicate information to other birds or other animals in general.

Some birds have two distinct "languages" — one for internal communications and one for use in flocks. All birds have a separate type of communication for "songs" vs. communicating danger and other information. Konrad Lorenz demonstrated that jackdaws have "names" identifying each individual in the flock and when beginning flight preparations each of them says one other bird's name creating a "chain". In his book King Solomon's Ring, Lorenz describes the name he was given by the birds and how he was recognized several years later in a far away location following WWII.

Studies in parakeets have shown a striking similarity between a talking bird's verbal areas in the brain and the equivalent human brain areas, suggesting that mimicry has much to do with the construction of language and its structures and order. Research in 2016 showed that birds construct sentence-like communications with a syntax and grammar.

Recording
The first known recording of birdsong was made in 1889 by Ludwig Koch, who went on to become an eminent wildlife recordist and BBC natural history presenter.

Other notable birdsong recordists include Eric Simms, Chris Watson, Boris Veprintsev (Soviet Union), and, in France, Claude Chappuis, Jean-Claude Roché, François Charron and Fernand Deroussen.

In music
In music, birdsong has influenced composers and musicians in several ways: they can be inspired by birdsong; they can intentionally imitate bird song in a composition, as Vivaldi and Beethoven did, along with many later composers, such as Messiaen; they can incorporate recordings of birds into their works, as Ottorino Respighi first did; or like Beatrice Harrison and David Rothenberg, they can duet with birds. Authors including Rothenberg have claimed that birds sing on traditional scales as used in human music,  but at least one songbird does not choose notes in this way.

Among birds which habitually borrow phrases or sounds from other species, the way they use variations of rhythm, relationships of musical pitch, and combinations of notes can resemble music. Hollis Taylor's in-depth analysis of pied butcherbird vocalizations provides a detailed rebuttal to objections of birdsong being judged as music. The similar motor constraints on human and avian song may have driven these to have similar song structures, including "arch-shaped and descending melodic contours in musical phrases", long notes at the ends of phrases, and typically small differences in pitch between adjacent notes, at least in birds with a strong song structure like the Eurasian treecreeper Certhia familiaris.

In poetry
Bird song is a popular subject in poetry. Famous examples inspired by bird song include the 1177 Persian poem "The Conference of the Birds", in which the birds of the world assemble under the wisest bird, the hoopoe, to decide who is to be their king. In English poetry, John Keats's 1819 "Ode to a Nightingale" and Percy Bysshe Shelley's 1820 "To a Skylark" are popular classics. Ted Hughes's 1970 collection of poems about a bird character, "Crow", is considered one of his most important works. Bird poems by Gerard Manley Hopkins include "Sea and Skylark" and "The Windhover".

title: Bird vocalization


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Division of the field

In heraldry, the field (background) of a shield can be divided into more than one area, or subdivision, of different tinctures, usually following the lines of one of the ordinaries and carrying its name (e.g. a shield divided in the shape of a chevron is said to be parted "per chevron"). Shields may be divided this way for differencing (to avoid conflict with otherwise similar coats of arms) or for purposes of marshalling (combining two or more coats of arms into one), or simply for style. The lines that divide a shield may not always be straight, and there is a system of terminology for describing patterned lines, which is also shared with the heraldic ordinaries.

French heraldry takes a different approach in many cases from the one described in this article.

Common divisions of the field

Common partitions of the field are:
 * parted (or party) per fess (halved horizontally)
 * party per pale (halved vertically)
 * party per bend (diagonally from viewer’s upper left to lower right)
 * party per bend sinister (diagonally from viewer’s upper right to lower left)
 * party per saltire (diagonally both ways)
 * party per cross or quarterly (divided into four quarters)
 * party per chevron (after the manner of a chevron)
 * party per pall (divided into three parts in a Y shape)

(In the above "left" and "right" are from the viewer's perspective, whereas the heraldic terms "sinister" and "dexter" are from the perspective of the person carrying the shield.) Nowadays, however, the 'party' is often omitted, even in 'official' blazons, e.g. in letters patent and extracts of matriculation.

A field cannot be divided per bordure (as, if this did exist, it would be indistinguishable from the bordure), but a bordure can be divided or counter-changed.

Neither can a field (nor any charge) be divided per chief, for similar reasons; though both Canadian and Scottish Public Registers have official records of fields or bordures divided 'per chief'. The earliest such record in the Scottish Public Register is before 1677, "parted per chief azure and gules three skenes argent hefted and pomelled Or Surmounted of as many Woolf-heads couped of the third." and a bordure per chief is shown in the arms of Roy, Canada. A chief is considered a charge in English heraldry and is considered layered atop the field.

Shields may also be divided into three parts: this is called tierced, as in tierced per pale, azure, argent and gules (though perhaps in English heraldry this is rarely if ever done, and the foregoing shield would be blazoned — as the pale is supposed to be one-third of the width of the field and is always so depicted under these circumstances — per pale azure and gules, a pale argent. but Scottish heraldry does use 'tierced in pale' (e.g. Clackmannan county (now Clackmannanshire) has Or; a saltire gules; a chief tierced in pale vert, argent, vert ...) A particular type of tiercing, resembling a Y in shape (division lines per bend and bend sinister coming down from the chief, meeting at the fess point, and continuing down per pale), is called per pall (also per pairle). The arms of Pope Benedict XVI is "tierced in mantle" – as described in Vatican information pages, but the usual term in, for example South African heraldry, is chapé ployé (with arched lines, with straight lines: chapé (mantled)), which may be blazoned with three tinctures or just two – e.g. Okakarara Technical Institute: Gules, chapé Azure, on the partition lines respectively a bend and a bend sinister enhanced, in base a demi-cogwheel, Or, with a fountain issuant. Shields may also be divided into three parts by a combination of two methods of division, such as party per fess, in chief per pale. Another example is in the arms of Clive Cheesman: per pale and per pall. This is to be distinguished from the essentially unique partition in the arms of the 2nd Weather Group of the United States Air Force, which is Dexter per chevron ployé and sinister per fess enhanced.

Chaussé
A shield may also be party per chevron reversed (inverted), which is like party per chevron except upside down. A section formed by two (straight) lines drawn from the corners of the chief to the point in base is called chaussé (shod), which must be distinguished from the pile, the point of which does not reach the bottom of the shield. With arched or bent (French: ployé) lines it is called chaussé ployé.

Marshalling
One common reason for dividing the field in heraldry is for purposes of combining two or more coats of arms to express alliance, inheritance, occupation of an office, etc. This practice, called marshalling, initially took the form of dimidiation, or splicing together two coats of arms split down the middle (or sometimes, though rarely, split across the centre per fess or quarterly) so that half one coat was matched up with the opposite half of the other. As this would sometimes yield confusing or misleading results, the practice was supplanted by impalement, which kept both coats intact and simply squished them into half the space. According to Fox-Davies (1909), the practice of dimidiation was short-lived and had already reached its peak in the early 14th century, while impalement remains in practice to modern times. One important remainder of the practice, however, is that when a coat of arms with a bordure is impaled with another coat, the bordure does not continue down the centre, but stops short where it meets the line of impalement. Eventually quartering gained usage, and in the height of its popularity during the Victorian era, some coats of arms featured hundreds of "quarterings" (see the Grenville arms at right). More usually, however, a quartered coat of arms consisted of four parts, as the name suggests. The origin and underlying purpose of quartering is to express inheritance by female succession: when a female heir (who has no brothers, or whose brothers have all preceded her in death) dies, her son (only after her death) quarters her arms with those of his father, placing the father's arms in the first (upper left) and fourth (lower right) quarters and his mother's arms in the second (upper right) and third (lower left).

In the UK heraldries, complex systems of marshalling have developed, and continue to thrive, around heraldic expressions of inheritance. In many cases of marriage, the shield is impaled with the husband's entire coat of arms placed on the dexter side and the wife's entire coat placed on the sinister side; if the wife is an heiress, however, her arms are placed in escutcheon over her husband's (such usage is almost entirely English, Scots marshalling being impaling like any other marriage arms). If the husband is a knight of any order, however, the ensigns of that order belong only to him and are not shared with his wife. Two separate shields are then employed, the dexter shield bearing the husband's arms within the circle of his knighthood, and the sinister shield bearing the husband's arms impaled with the wife's usually encircled with a meaningless wreath of oak leaves for artistic balance. A male peer impales the arms of his wife as described above, but including the supporters, coronet and helmet of the peer; if he is also a knight of any order, the two-shield method is used. If a female peer marries a commoner, however, the husband places her arms inescutcheon, surmounted by a coronet of her rank, over his own, but the supporters of her rank cannot be conferred to him; the wife bears her arms singly on a lozenge with the supporters and coronet of her rank. Volumes may be written on all the endless heraldic possibilities of this convoluted system of marshalling, but it may suffice here to say that for various purposes, arms may be marshalled by four basic methods: dimidiation by clipping and splicing two coats (usually per pale), impalement by dividing per pale and crowding an entire coat of arms into each half, quartering by dividing the shield into usually four (but potentially innumerable) "quarters", and superimposition by placing one coat of arms inescutcheon over another. It is also worth noting that one common form in German-Nordic heraldry is "quarterly with a heart" (a shield quartered with an inescutcheon overall). This may have stemmed from the continental practice of sovereigns placing their own hereditary arms inescutcheon over the arms of their dominions.

The arms of Zviahel, Ukraine, show an unusual form of marshalling quarterly with a heart, where one quarter is dimidiated while the others are not.

Lines of division

Divisions of the field, like the ordinaries, may follow complex line shapes. Most of these "sections" have developed conventional names in English, but modern artists, particularly in Finland, have developed new sections influenced by shapes found in the local flora. Among the most common of these are engrailed, invected, indented, dancetty, wavy (also called undy), nebuly, embattled, raguly, dovetailed and potenty (pictured below). Notable modern forms include the "fir twig section" (havukoro) and "fir tree top section" (kuusikoro). These can be found in the arms of a number of municipalities in Finland, and the latter can also be found in the arms of Mullsjö Municipality in Sweden.

Other modifications
Besides the complex lines discussed above, divisions of the field may also be modified in other ways. Sometimes the division of the field may be fimbriated (lined) or, perhaps less properly, "edged" of another tincture, or divided by some ordinary or its diminutive. The latter differs from a parted field that then bears the ordinary, in that if the ordinary thus dividing the field is between charges, the charges are not overlapped by the ordinary but the ordinary is between them. A famous example of this is the greater arms of Sweden, which is "quartered by a cross Or..."

One division of the field (though it is sometimes described as a charge) is restricted to the chief: when the chief is divided by a bow-shaped line, this is called a chapournet or chaperonnet ("little hood"). Rompu, meaning "broken", is often applied to a chevron, where the center is usually broken and enhanced (brought to a sharper point than normal).

Unusual forms

 * When the partition lines form four L-shapes, the field is blazoned quarterly en equerre (viz. "framing square", Winkelmaßschnitt).
 * A number of divisions are unique to German heraldry, including per bend... broken in the form of a linden leaf.
 * The arms of the former Republic of Bophuthatswana were "per fess (at nombril point)" (lower than the regular per fess division; the "nombril point" is halfway between the fess point — the exact middle of the field — and the base point, at the bottom centre of the field).
 * The arms of the French department of Côtes-d'Armor show émanché, which is shown in this case as equivalent to the English per fess dancetty of two full points upwards.
 * The arms of Mpumalanga Province in South Africa show per bend sinister, inclined in the flanks per fess.

title: Division of the field


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Talk:Jean Foucault

Perhaps a description as to how his pendulum experiment demonstrates the Earth's rotation would be appropriate? Lisiate 09:09, 17 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jean Foucault


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Glossary of tensor theory

This is a glossary of tensor theory. For expositions of tensor theory from different points of view, see:

 * Tensor
 * Tensor (intrinsic definition)
 * Application of tensor theory in engineering science

For some history of the abstract theory see also multilinear algebra.

Classical notation

 * Ricci calculus
 * The earliest foundation of tensor theory – tensor index notation.

 * Order of a tensor
 * The components of a tensor with respect to a basis is an indexed array. The order of a tensor is the number of indices needed. Some texts may refer to the tensor order using the term degree or rank.

 * Rank of a tensor
 * The rank of a tensor is the minimum number of rank-one tensor that must be summed to obtain the tensor. A rank-one tensor may be defined as expressible as the outer product of the number of nonzero vectors needed to obtain the correct order.

 * Dyadic tensor
 * A dyadic tensor is a tensor of order two, and may be represented as a square matrix. In contrast, a dyad is specifically a dyadic tensor of rank one.

 * Einstein notation
 * This notation is based on the understanding that whenever a multidimensional array contains a repeated index letter, the default interpretation is that the product is summed over all permitted values of the index. For example, if aij is a matrix, then under this convention aii is its trace. The Einstein convention is widely used in physics and engineering texts, to the extent that if summation is not to be applied, it is normal to note that explicitly.

 * Kronecker delta

 * Levi-Civita symbol

 * Covariant tensor

 * Contravariant tensor
 * The classical interpretation is by components. For example, in the differential form aidxi the components ai are a covariant vector. That means all indices are lower; contravariant means all indices are upper.

 * Mixed tensor
 * This refers to any tensor that has both lower and upper indices.

 * Cartesian tensor
 * Cartesian tensors are widely used in various branches of continuum mechanics, such as fluid mechanics and elasticity. In classical continuum mechanics, the space of interest is usually 3-dimensional Euclidean space, as is the tangent space at each point. If we restrict the local coordinates to be Cartesian coordinates with the same scale centered at the point of interest, the metric tensor is the Kronecker delta.  This means that there is no need to distinguish covariant and contravariant components, and furthermore there is no need to distinguish tensors and tensor densities.  All Cartesian-tensor indices are written as subscripts. Cartesian tensors achieve considerable computational simplification at the cost of generality and of some theoretical insight.

 * Contraction of a tensor

 * Raising and lowering indices

 * Symmetric tensor

 * Antisymmetric tensor

 * Multiple cross products

Algebraic notation
This avoids the initial use of components, and is distinguished by the explicit use of the tensor product symbol.

 * Tensor product
 * If v and w are vectors in vector spaces V and W respectively, then
 * $$v \otimes w $$
 * is a tensor in
 * $$V \otimes W. $$
 * That is, the ⊗ operation is a binary operation, but it takes values into a fresh space (it is in a strong sense external). The ⊗ operation is a bilinear map; but no other conditions are applied to it.

 * Pure tensor
 * A pure tensor of V ⊗ W is one that is of the form v ⊗ w.
 * It could be written dyadically aibj, or more accurately aibj ei ⊗ fj, where the ei are a basis for V and the fj a basis for W. Therefore, unless V and W have the same dimension, the array of components need not be square. Such pure tensors are not generic: if both V and W have dimension greater than 1, there will be tensors that are not pure, and there will be non-linear conditions for a tensor to satisfy, to be pure. For more see Segre embedding.

 * Tensor algebra
 * In the tensor algebra T(V) of a vector space V, the operation $$ \otimes $$ becomes a normal (internal) binary operation. A consequence is that T(V) has infinite dimension unless V has dimension 0. The free algebra on a set X is for practical purposes the same as the tensor algebra on the vector space with X as basis.

 * Hodge star operator

 * Exterior power

 * The wedge product is the anti-symmetric form of the ⊗ operation. The quotient space of T(V) on which it becomes an internal operation is the exterior algebra of V; it is a graded algebra, with the graded piece of weight k being called the k-th exterior power of V.

 * Symmetric power, symmetric algebra
 * This is the invariant way of constructing polynomial algebras.

Applications

 * Metric tensor

 * Strain tensor

 * Stress–energy tensor

Tensor field theory

 * Jacobian matrix

 * Tensor field

 * Tensor density

 * Lie derivative

 * Tensor derivative

 * Differential geometry

Abstract algebra

 * Tensor product of fields
 * This is an operation on fields, that does not always produce a field.

 * Tensor product of R-algebras

 * Clifford module
 * A representation of a Clifford algebra which gives a realisation of a Clifford algebra as a matrix algebra.

 * Tor functors'''
 * These are the derived functors of the tensor product, and feature strongly in homological algebra. The name comes from the torsion subgroup in abelian group theory.

 * Symbolic method of invariant theory

 * Derived category

 * Grothendieck's six operations
 * These are highly abstract approaches used in some parts of geometry.

Spinors
See:
 * Spin group

 * Spin-c group

 * Spinor

 * Pin group

 * Pinors

 * Spinor field

 * Killing spinor

 * Spin manifold

title: Glossary of tensor theory


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Umm el-Marra

Umm el-Marra, (أم المرى), east of modern Aleppo in the Jabbul Plain of northern Syria, was one of the ancient Near East's oldest cities, located on a crossroads of two trade routes northwest of Ebla, in a landscape that was much more fertile than it is today. Possibly this is the city of Tuba mentioned in Egyptian inscriptions listing cities that were defeated or destroyed in the Pharaoh Thutmose III's north Syrian campaign. The city of Tuba is also mentioned in epigraphic remains from Ebla, Mari, and Alalakh.

Early Bronze
Umm el-Marra VI: In the Early Bronze III (c. 2750/2700-2350 BC), Umm el-Marra was an important hub with about 3000-5000 inhabitants. At the beginning of this period, the region was wetter than today, but by 2500 BC climate became gradually drier.

Ebla Period
Umm el-Marra V-IV: In the Early Bronze IV (c. 2350-2000 BC), the dry climate accelerated and led to the cities on the Jabbul Plain experience a collapse of central authority between 2200-2000 BC (4.2 ka event). Partial answers to the question, why these early centers were so brittle, may lie in the effects of sustained drought on overstressed primitive agriculture. Dr. Glenn Schwartz of Johns Hopkins, who has been doing field archaeology at Umm el-Marra, suggested in 1994 that "they placed extensive demands on their environments, continually intensifying their agriculture to feed more people. The added stress from a few dry years may have been the straw that broke the camel's back." Level V contains Tomb 1 with pottery similar to Mardikh IIB1 Ebla Palace G.

Middle Bronze
Umm el-Marra Level IIId: In the Transitional EB IV-MB I, the site was never completely abandoned. Thus, this region saw some continuation as opposed to a collapse following the severe drought conditions that had prevailed. In the MB I (c. 2000-1820 BC) it gradually recovered.

Yamhad Period
Umm el-Marra Levels IIIa-c: In the MB IIA (c. 1820 BC), the city saw a renaissance and controlled by the Amorites. At this time, it became a regional capital subject to the Great Kingdom of Yamkhad centered on Aleppo. A series of public works saw the construction of ramparts with a mudbrick city-wall.

Mitanni Period
During the Late Bronze, the site was under the control of various powers. It would at one point have been under the Mitanni Empire, and Thutmose III of Egypt might have campaigned in the area.

Hittite Period
Following the military campaigns of Suppiluliuma I, it became part of the Hittite Empire following the Fall of Carchemish and death of Tushratta of Mitanni around 1345 BC. The site was destroyed in the 14th century BC.

The Late Bronze Age collapse saw the city completely abandoned by 1200/1190 BC.

Classical Period
After a long period of abandonment, the site was re-occupied in the Hellenistic and Roman periods.

Archaeology
The site covers around 25 hectares. It was surrounded with a city wall with 3 gates and a defensive ditch. Excavation of Umm el-Marra began in the late 1970s and early 1980s with soundings by a Belgian team led by Roland Tefnin. From 1994 until 2010, a joint archaeological team from the Johns Hopkins University and the University of Amsterdam worked at Umm el-Marra.

A rare intact, unlooted tomb, ca. 2300 BCE, uncovered by Dr. Schwartz's team in 2000 at the site, made science press headlines, for it contained five richly-adorned adults and three babies, some of whom were ornamented head-to-toe in gold and silver.

It may be the oldest intact possibly royal tomb yet to be found in Syria. Dr. Schwartz noted of peculiar aspects in the burial that they 'may hint at ritual characteristics, rather than a tomb simply reserved for royalty or elite individuals.' The interment, which was above ground in ancient times, included three layers of skeletons in wooden coffins lined with textiles. The top layer includes traces of two coffins, each containing a young woman in her twenties and a baby. The women were the most richly ornamented of all the occupants of the tomb, with jewelry of silver, gold and lapis lazuli. Also of interest on this level was an accompanying lump of iron, possibly from a meteorite. Geochemical analysis of the iron, based on the ratio of iron to nickel and cobalt, confirms that the iron was meteoritic in origin. One of the babies appeared to be wearing a bronze torque, or collar.

In the layer below were coffins of two adult males and the remains of a baby at some distance from both men, close to the entrance of the tomb. This differs from the placement of the babies in the upper layer, where they were placed next to the women's bodies. Crowning the older man was a silver diadem decorated with a disk bearing a rosette motif, while the man opposite had a bronze dagger. The third and lowest layer held an adult male with a silver cup and silver pins.

All the individuals were accompanied by scores of ceramic vessels, some of which contained animal bones that may have been part of funerary animal offerings. Outside the tomb to the south, against the tomb wall, was a jar containing the remains of a baby, a spouted jar, and two skulls, horselike but apparently belonging neither to horses or donkeys. These equids were subsequently identified as kunga, a hybrid of domestic donkey and wild ass.

Incisions on four clay cylinders have been hypothesized to be Early Alphabetic Semitic writing, which would make them the oldest such examples.

The ceramics in the tomb date to around 2300 B.C., the latter part of Egypt's pyramid age.

Modern village
In 2004, Umm el-Marra had a population of 1,878.

title: Umm el-Marra


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Semisonic

Semisonic is an American rock band formed in Minneapolis in 1995, consisting of Dan Wilson (lead vocals, guitar, keyboards), John Munson (bass, keyboards, backing vocals, guitar), and Jacob Slichter (drums, percussion, keyboards, backing vocals). They are best known in the U.S. for their 1998 top-20 single "Closing Time". They also had international success with the singles "Singing in My Sleep", "Secret Smile" and "Chemistry".

Formation and debut album
After the breakup of Trip Shakespeare, Wilson and Munson joined up with drummer Slichter to form the band Pleasure in 1993. By 1995, they had changed their name to Semisonic. An EP, Pleasure, was released that year on Boston indie label CherryDisc, and the studio full-length Great Divide in 1996 on MCA.

Breakthrough and international success
Semisonic's breakthrough came two years later in 1998 when their second album, Feeling Strangely Fine, reached the Top 50 chart on the strength of the hit single "Closing Time", their biggest hit in the United States. During a 2008 performance at Harvard's Sanders Theatre, Wilson said that it was originally written about the birth of his first child.

Their international career also blossomed when another song from the album, "Secret Smile", quickly became a UK radio favorite in the summer of 1999, eventually peaking at No. 12 on the UK Singles Chart.

Third album and hiatus
In early 2001, the band released its third album, All About Chemistry, The single "Chemistry" was a mainstay overseas; however the album did not fare as well in the United States. Another song, "Over My Head", was used in the 2001 teen flick Summer Catch, and Semisonic rode the wave touring various cities in and around the UK.

Wilson had spoken about doing more Semisonic music in the future but said, "The busy day-to-day life keeps pushing it further into the future." All About Chemistry would be their last studio release until reconvening for the You're Not Alone EP which they put out in 2020.

2017–2019
To commemorate the twentieth anniversary of their first album, Great Divide, the band reunited for a series of three shows in June 2017 – June 14 at a small club in St. Paul, and June 16–17 at First Avenue in Minneapolis. The band played Great Divide in its entirety.

In December 2017, the band played three more shows in the Twin Cities to commemorate the approaching 20th anniversary of their second album, Feeling Strangely Fine, performing the album in its entirety. In 2018, Feeling Strangely Fine was given a rerelease for the album's twentieth anniversary, including its first vinyl pressing. The anniversary edition included four songs not on the original album: "Long Way from Home", "I'm a Liar", "Beautiful Regret", and "Makin' a Plan".

In July 2019, Semisonic performed at Summerfest in Milwaukee and then at the Basilica Block Party in Minneapolis. During their 2017–2019 shows, the band performed some new, previously unreleased songs, including "Basement Tapes", "All It Would Take", and "You're Not Alone"

First Avenue
The band has been honored with a star on the outside mural of the Minneapolis nightclub First Avenue, recognizing performers that have played sold-out shows or have otherwise demonstrated a major contribution to the culture at the iconic venue. Receiving a star "might be the most prestigious public honor an artist can receive in Minneapolis", according to journalist Steve Marsh. Wilson and Munson's previous group, Trip Shakespeare, also has a star making them among the few musicians with multiple stars on the mural.

2020–present
On June 26, 2020, Semisonic released the single "You're Not Alone", their first new material in 19 years, and later released the full You're Not Alone EP on September 18, 2020.

On January 27 and 28, 2023, the band played two shows at First Avenue to celebrate the 18th anniversary of the shows’ sponsor, Twin Cities public radio station The Current.

Semisonic supported Barenaked Ladies from June 2, 2023 through June 26, 2023 on the Last Summer on Earth 2023 tour.

In the summer of 2023, the band also began releasing singles from its upcoming album, Little Bit of Sun. On June 5, Semisonic released the singles “Little Bit of Sun” and “Grow Your Own.”  On August 1, another single, “The Rope,” was released, along with a video for the song made by Phil Harder. On September 12, the band released “Out of the Dirt,” co-written by Lori McKenna and featuring Jason Isbell on guitar.

The full album of twelve songs, Little Bit of Sun, was released on November 3, 2023.

Live albums

 * One Night at First Avenue (2003)

EPs

 * Pleasure EP (1995)
 * You're Not Alone (2020)

Soundtracks and compilations

 * Semisonic performed "Sugar, Sugar" with Mary Lou Lord on the 1995 tribute album Saturday Morning: Cartoons' Greatest Hits, produced by Ralph Sall for MCA Records.
 * Semisonic contributed the title song for the 1999 Kevin Costner movie For Love of the Game.
 * Multiple Semisonic songs were featured in episodes of the television sitcom Friends, with "Delicious" and "Closing Time" later being featured in the soundtrack albums Friends Again and Friends: The Ultimate Soundtrack respectively.
 * "Over My Head", a bonus track on some editions of All About Chemistry, was used in the 2001 teen flick Summer Catch.
 * "Closing Time" appeared in the 2011 movie Friends with Benefits.
 * In the fall of 2001, Semisonic contributed their cover of the Wings song, "Jet", for the Paul McCartney tribute CD Listen to What the Man Said.
 * Wilson with Bic Runga contributed "Good Morning Baby" to the American Pie soundtrack in 1999.
 * "F.N.T." was featured in the 1996 movie The Long Kiss Goodnight and the 1999 movie 10 Things I Hate About You.
 * "Closing Time" was included in an episode of The Office. It was also featured in the season finale of The Real World: Seattle.
 * "Closing Time" is referenced in the Weird Al Yankovic montage "Polka Party!" in his 1999 groundbreaking album Running With Scissors.

Other projects by members
Wilson took time out to do some solo projects and play tour dates around the Midwest in December. Munson joined Wilson's brother and former Trip Shakespeare frontman Matt Wilson to form a side project, The Flops, in 2001, though they were expected to make a final performance in early 2005. In 2009, John Munson and Matt Wilson reunited to form a new band The Twilight Hours. They have released two albums, Stereo Night (2009) and Black Beauty (2016), and have been touring.

In 2004, Slichter's book So You Wanna Be a Rock & Roll Star was published, detailing some of the experiences the group had while touring and attempting to get airplay on radio stations across the US.

In late spring of 2005, John Munson began playing in a new jazz trio, The New Standards, featuring Chan Poling of The Suburbs and Steve Roehm. This band plays new jazz renditions of "classic" songs.

In October 2007, Rick Rubin's label American Recordings released Wilson's solo album, Free Life, featuring collaborations with numerous artists including Munson and Slichter. The song "Cry" was the album's single.

title: Semisonic


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Eurasian dotterel

The Eurasian dotterel (Eudromias morinellus), also known in Europe as just dotterel, is a small wader in the plover family of birds. It is the only species placed in the genus Eudromias.

The dotterel is a brown-and-black-streaked bird with a broad, white eye stripe and an orange-red chest band when in breeding plumage. The female is more colourful than the male. The bird is tame and unsuspecting, and the term "dotterel" has been applied contemptuously to mean an old fool.

The Eurasian dotterel is a migratory species, breeding in Northern Europe and Eurosiberia and migrating south to North Africa and the Middle East in the winter. It nests in a bare scrape on the ground and lays two to four eggs. The male does the incubation and rears the chicks, with the female having gone off to find another male and lay another clutch of eggs. It is a common bird with a wide range and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated it as being of "least concern".

Taxonomy and etymology
The Eurasian dotterel was formerly described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Charadrius morinellus. The species was moved from Charadrius to the resurrected genus Eudromias when phylogenetic studies found that Charadrius was paraphyletic. The genus Eudromias had been originally introduced in 1830 by the German ornithologist Christian Ludwig Brehm. The genus name Eudromias is Ancient Greek meaning "good runner". The specific  morinellus is derived from Ancient Greek moros meaning "foolish", due to the bird's trusting nature.

The English name dates from 1440 when it was used to refer to the bird and also as an insult for someone considered simple or a dotard. Which use is the oldest is unclear, but the link is its tame and unsuspecting nature, which made it easy to catch; its Scottish Gaelic name is amadan-mòintich, "fool of the moors." King James VI and I went every year to Royston, Hertfordshire, to shoot dotterels. It was also easy prey for illegal poaching, which depleted its stocks. It was also prized as a delicacy; in 1534, Queen Anne Boleyn was presented with "a brace of dotterels".

Description
This plover is smaller and more compact than European golden plover (Pluvialis apricaria). It has a striking whitish supercilium in all plumages and has plain wings in flight. Adults in summer are unmistakable, with a chestnut breast bordered above with white, black belly, and warm-brown back. The legs are yellow, and the short bill is black. As with the phalaropes, the female is brighter than the male. Winter birds lack the rich underpart colouration, apart from the white breast line, and are greyer above. Young birds are similar, but have a scaly appearance to their backs. The flight call is a soft pyurr. The female's song is a simple, repetitive whistle.

Distribution and habitat
It breeds in the Arctic tundra of northern Eurosiberia, from Norway to eastern Siberia, and on suitable mountain plateaus such as the Scottish highlands and the Alps. This species is migratory, wintering in a narrow belt across north Africa from Morocco eastwards to Iran. Migration stopovers are traditional, and small parties (trips) of dotterels pass through each year at these usually inland arable or grassy sites. The winter habitat is semi-desert.

Behaviour and ecology
The dotterel's diet is made up of insects and other small invertebrates such as snails, worms, and shellfish. These are obtained by a run-and-pause technique, rather than the steady probing used by other waders.

The male dotterel generally is responsible for incubation and looks after the chicks. In most cases, the cock dotterel successfully prevents other males from getting his mate and fertilizing her eggs. He usually rears chicks that he has fathered and only 4.6% (2/44) of chicks were not the genetic offspring of the caring male, corresponding to 9.1% (2/22) broods affected.

Status
It is a relatively common species with a wide range. Populations seem to be declining slowly, but not alarmingly so, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated it as a "least-concern species". A survey published in 2015 showed a fall in dotterel numbers in Scotland between 1987 and 2011, from 980 to 423 breeding males - representing a decline of 57%. The Eurasian dotterel is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds applies.

title: Eurasian dotterel


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Cardigan Bay (disambiguation)

Cardigan Bay is a bay in Wales.

Cardigan Bay may also refer to:
 * Cardigan Bay (horse), a New Zealand pacer
 * HMS Cardigan Bay (K630), a Bay-class anti-aircraft frigate of the Royal Navy 1945–1961
 * RFA Cardigan Bay (L3009), a logistics ship of the United Kingdom's Royal Fleet Auxiliary
 * Cardigan Bay, Prince Edward Island, a bay in Prince Edward Island, Canada

title: Cardigan Bay (disambiguation)


text:
List of places in Hong Kong

The following is a list of areas of Hong Kong.

Hong Kong Island

 * Central and Western District
 * Central District
 * Admiralty
 * Mid-Levels
 * Soho
 * Sai Wan
 * Kennedy Town
 * Sai Ying Pun
 * Shek Tong Tsui
 * Sheung Wan
 * Eastern District
 * Chai Wan
 * North Point
 * Braemar Hill
 * Fortress Hill
 * North Point Mid-Levels
 * Quarry Bay
 * Kornhill
 * Taikoo Shing
 * Sai Wan Ho
 * Shau Kei Wan
 * Heng Fa Chuen
 * Aldrich Bay
 * A Kung Ngam
 * Southern District
 * Aberdeen
 * Ap Lei Chau
 * Chung Hom Kok
 * Siu Sai Wan
 * Cyberport
 * Telegraph Bay
 * Deep Water Bay
 * Pok Fu Lam
 * Sandy Bay
 * Shan Ting
 * Wah Fu
 * Tin Wan
 * Repulse Bay
 * Stanley
 * Shek O
 * Big Wave Bay
 * Tai Tam
 * Wong Chuk Hang
 * Nam Long Shan
 * Ocean Park
 * Wan Chai District
 * Causeway Bay
 * Tin Hau
 * Caroline Hill
 * Happy Valley
 * Jardine's Lookout
 * Tai Hang
 * Wan Chai

Kowloon

 * Kowloon City District
 * Ho Man Tin
 * Hung Hom
 * Whampoa Garden
 * Kowloon City
 * Kowloon Tong
 * Kowloon Tsai
 * Ma Tau Kok
 * Ma Tau Wai
 * To Kwa Wan
 * Kwun Tong District
 * Cha Kwo Ling
 * Kwun Tong
 * Yuet Wah
 * Lam Tin
 * Lei Yue Mun
 * Ngau Tau Kok
 * Ngau Chi Wan
 * Ping Shek Estate
 * Shun Chi Court
 * Shun Lee Estate
 * Shun On Estate
 * Shun Tin Estate
 * Jordan Valley
 * Kowloon Bay
 * Amoy Gardens
 * Sau Mau Ping
 * Yau Tong
 * Sham Shui Po District
 * Cheung Sha Wan
 * Lai Chi Kok
 * Lai Chi Kok MTR Station
 * Mei Foo Sun Chuen
 * Sham Shui Po
 * Nam Cheong Estate
 * Shek Kip Mei
 * Stonecutters Island
 * Yau Yat Chuen
 * Wong Tai Sin District
 * Diamond Hill
 * Kowloon Peak (Fei Ngo Shan)
 * Choi Hung
 * Choi Hung Estate
 * Choi Wan Estate
 * Fu Shan Estate
 * San Po Kong
 * Tsz Wan Shan
 * Wang Tau Hom
 * Lok Fu Estate
 * Wong Tai Sin (Chuk Un)
 * Tung Tau Estate
 * Yau Tsim Mong District
 * Hung Hom
 * King's Park
 * Kwun Chung
 * Mong Kok
 * Prince Edward
 * Tai Kok Tsui
 * Tsim Sha Tsui
 * Tsim Sha Tsui East
 * Yau Ma Tei
 * Jordan

New Territories

 * Islands District
 * Chek Lap Kok
 * Cheung Chau
 * Lamma Island
 * Hung Shing Yeh
 * Lo So Shing
 * Mo Tat
 * Pak Kok
 * Sham Wan
 * Sok Kwu Wan
 * Tung O
 * Yung Shue Ha
 * Yung Shue Wan
 * Lantau Island (Excluding Northeastern Part)
 * Discovery Bay
 * Chi Ma Wan
 * Mui Wo
 * Ngong Ping
 * Pui O
 * Siu Ho Wan
 * Tai O
 * Tung Chung
 * Yam O
 * Peng Chau
 * Kwai Tsing District
 * Kwai Chung
 * Kwai Fong Estate
 * Kwai Hing Estate
 * Lai King
 * Tai Wo Hau Estate
 * Tsing Yi
 * North District
 * Closed Area
 * Fanling
 * Kwan Tei
 * Kwu Tung
 * Lin Ma Hang
 * Shenzhen East
 * Lo Wu
 * Man Kam To
 * Ping Che
 * Sha Tau Kok
 * Sheung Shui
 * Ta Kwu Ling
 * Sai Kung District
 * Clear Water Bay
 * Hang Hau Village
 * Mang Kung Uk
 * Pik Uk
 * Po Toi O
 * Shui Bin Tsuen
 * Ta Ku Ling
 * Tai Au Mun
 * Tai Po Tsai
 * Tseng Lan Shue
 * Kau Sai Chau
 * Kiu Tsui Chau
 * Pak Sha Chau
 * Sai Kung Town
 * Ho Chung
 * Leung Shuen Wan
 * Marina Cove
 * Tui Min Hoi
 * Yim Tin Tsai
 * Tseung Kwan O New Town
 * Tseung Kwan O
 * Hang Hau
 * LOHAS Park
 * Metro City Plaza
 * Po Lam
 * Tiu Keng Leng / Rennie's Mill
 * Tseung Kwan O Industrial Estate
 * Junk Island
 * Tung Lung Chau
 * Yeung Chau
 * Sha Tin District
 * Fo Tan
 * Kau To Shan
 * Cheung Sha Wan Rural
 * Ma Liu Shui
 * Chinese University of Hong Kong
 * Ma On Shan
 * Heng On Estate
 * Tai Shui Hang
 * Wu Kai Sha
 * Pak Shek Kok (Reclaimed Part)
 * Science Park
 * Sha Tin
 * Che Kung Miu
 * City One Shatin
 * Hin Keng Estate
 * Sha Tin Wai
 * Shek Mun Industrial Estate
 * Siu Lek Yuen
 * Tai Wai
 * Yuen Chau Kok
 * Tai Po District
 * Hoi Ha Wan
 * Hong Lok Yuen
 * Kei Ling Ha Lo Wai
 * Lam Tsuen
 * Nai Chung
 * Pak Shek Kok
 * Science Park
 * Pat Sin Leng
 * Ping Chau
 * Plover Cove
 * Science Park
 * Pak Shek Kok
 * Shap Sze Heung
 * Tai Po
 * Tai Wo Estate
 * Tai Po Industrial Estate
 * Tai Po Kau
 * Ting Kok
 * Tung Tsz
 * Tsuen Wan District
 * Lantau Island, Tsuen Wan
 * Disney
 * Hong Kong Disneyland
 * Lo Wai
 * Ma Wan
 * Sham Tseng
 * Tsing Lung Tau
 * Ting Kau
 * Tsuen Wan
 * Chung On Street
 * Tuen Mun District
 * Tuen Mun (Tuen Mun New Town)
 * Fu Tei
 * Lung Kwu Tan
 * San Hui
 * Siu Lam
 * So Kwun Wat
 * Gold Coast
 * Tai Lam Chung
 * Yuen Long District
 * Kam Tin
 * Pat Heung
 * Shek Kong
 * San Tin
 * Shenzhen West
 * Lok Ma Chau
 * Huanggang
 * Mai Po
 * Tin Shui Wai
 * Yuen Long
 * Au Tau
 * Ha Tsuen
 * Lau Fau Shan
 * Ping Shan
 * Shap Pat Heung
 * Tai Tong
 * Yuen Long Town
 * Long Ping Estate
 * Yuen Long San Hui
 * King's Road, Tsat Tsz Mui

title: List of places in Hong Kong