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NumPy

NumPy (pronounced ) is a library for the Python programming language, adding support for large, multi-dimensional arrays and matrices, along with a large collection of high-level mathematical functions to operate on these arrays. The predecessor of NumPy, Numeric, was originally created by Jim Hugunin with contributions from several other developers. In 2005, Travis Oliphant created NumPy by incorporating features of the competing Numarray into Numeric, with extensive modifications. NumPy is open-source software and has many contributors. NumPy is a NumFOCUS fiscally sponsored project.

matrix-sig
The Python programming language was not originally designed for numerical computing, but attracted the attention of the scientific and engineering community early on. In 1995 the special interest group (SIG) matrix-sig was founded with the aim of defining an array computing package; among its members was Python designer and maintainer Guido van Rossum, who extended Python's syntax (in particular the indexing syntax ) to make array computing easier.

Numeric
An implementation of a matrix package was completed by Jim Fulton, then generalized by Jim Hugunin and called Numeric (also variously known as the "Numerical Python extensions" or "NumPy"), with influences from the APL family of languages, Basis, MATLAB, FORTRAN, S and S+, and others. Hugunin, a graduate student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), joined the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI) in 1997 to work on JPython, leaving Paul Dubois of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) to take over as maintainer. Other early contributors include David Ascher, Konrad Hinsen and Travis Oliphant.

Numarray
A new package called Numarray was written as a more flexible replacement for Numeric. Like Numeric, it too is now deprecated. Numarray had faster operations for large arrays, but was slower than Numeric on small ones, so for a time both packages were used in parallel for different use cases. The last version of Numeric (v24.2) was released on 11 November 2005, while the last version of numarray (v1.5.2) was released on 24 August 2006.

There was a desire to get Numeric into the Python standard library, but Guido van Rossum decided that the code was not maintainable in its state then.

NumPy
In early 2005, NumPy developer Travis Oliphant wanted to unify the community around a single array package and ported Numarray's features to Numeric, releasing the result as NumPy 1.0 in 2006. This new project was part of SciPy. To avoid installing the large SciPy package just to get an array object, this new package was separated and called NumPy. Support for Python 3 was added in 2011 with NumPy version 1.5.0.

In 2011, PyPy started development on an implementation of the NumPy API for PyPy. As of 2023, it is not yet fully compatible with NumPy.

Features
NumPy targets the CPython reference implementation of Python, which is a non-optimizing bytecode interpreter. Mathematical algorithms written for this version of Python often run much slower than compiled equivalents due to the absence of compiler optimization. NumPy addresses the slowness problem partly by providing multidimensional arrays and functions and operators that operate efficiently on arrays; using these requires rewriting some code, mostly inner loops, using NumPy.

Using NumPy in Python gives functionality comparable to MATLAB since they are both interpreted, and they both allow the user to write fast programs as long as most operations work on arrays or matrices instead of scalars. In comparison, MATLAB boasts a large number of additional toolboxes, notably Simulink, whereas NumPy is intrinsically integrated with Python, a more modern and complete programming language. Moreover, complementary Python packages are available; SciPy is a library that adds more MATLAB-like functionality and Matplotlib is a plotting package that provides MATLAB-like plotting functionality. Although matlab can perform sparse matrix operations, numpy alone cannot perform such operations and requires the use of the scipy.sparse library. Internally, both MATLAB and NumPy rely on BLAS and LAPACK for efficient linear algebra computations.

Python bindings of the widely used computer vision library OpenCV utilize NumPy arrays to store and operate on data. Since images with multiple channels are simply represented as three-dimensional arrays, indexing, slicing or masking with other arrays are very efficient ways to access specific pixels of an image. The NumPy array as universal data structure in OpenCV for images, extracted feature points, filter kernels and many more vastly simplifies the programming workflow and debugging.

Importantly, many NumPy operations release the global interpreter lock, which allows for multithreaded processing.

NumPy also provides a C API, which allows Python code to interoperate with external libraries written in low-level languages.

The ndarray data structure
The core functionality of NumPy is its "ndarray", for n-dimensional array, data structure. These arrays are strided views on memory. In contrast to Python's built-in list data structure, these arrays are homogeneously typed: all elements of a single array must be of the same type.

Such arrays can also be views into memory buffers allocated by C/C++, Python, and Fortran extensions to the CPython interpreter without the need to copy data around, giving a degree of compatibility with existing numerical libraries. This functionality is exploited by the SciPy package, which wraps a number of such libraries (notably BLAS and LAPACK). NumPy has built-in support for memory-mapped ndarrays.

Limitations
Inserting or appending entries to an array is not as trivially possible as it is with Python's lists. The np.pad(...) routine to extend arrays actually creates new arrays of the desired shape and padding values, copies the given array into the new one and returns it. NumPy's np.concatenate([a1,a2]) operation does not actually link the two arrays but returns a new one, filled with the entries from both given arrays in sequence. Reshaping the dimensionality of an array with np.reshape(...) is only possible as long as the number of elements in the array does not change. These circumstances originate from the fact that NumPy's arrays must be views on contiguous memory buffers.

Algorithms that are not expressible as a vectorized operation will typically run slowly because they must be implemented in "pure Python", while vectorization may increase memory complexity of some operations from constant to linear, because temporary arrays must be created that are as large as the inputs. Runtime compilation of numerical code has been implemented by several groups to avoid these problems; open source solutions that interoperate with NumPy include numexpr and Numba. Cython and Pythran are static-compiling alternatives to these.

Many modern large-scale scientific computing applications have requirements that exceed the capabilities of the NumPy arrays. For example, NumPy arrays are usually loaded into a computer's memory, which might have insufficient capacity for the analysis of large datasets. Further, NumPy operations are executed on a single CPU. However, many linear algebra operations can be accelerated by executing them on clusters of CPUs or of specialized hardware, such as GPUs and TPUs, which many deep learning applications rely on. As a result, several alternative array implementations have arisen in the scientific python ecosystem over the recent years, such as Dask for distributed arrays and TensorFlow or JAX for computations on GPUs. Because of its popularity, these often implement a subset of NumPy's API or mimic it, so that users can change their array implementation with minimal changes to their code required. A library named CuPy, accelerated by Nvidia's CUDA framework, has also shown potential for faster computing, being a 'drop-in replacement' of NumPy.

Nearest-neighbor search
Iterative Python algorithm and vectorized NumPy version.

F2PY
Quickly wrap native code for faster scripts.

title: NumPy


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Laryngeal cancer

Laryngeal cancer or throat cancer is a kind of cancer that can develop in any part of the larynx (voice box). It is typically a squamous-cell carcinoma, reflecting its origin from the epithelium of the larynx.

The prognosis is affected by the location of the tumour. For the purposes of staging, the larynx is divided into three anatomical regions: the glottis (true vocal cords, anterior and posterior commissures); the supraglottis (epiglottis, arytenoids and aryepiglottic folds, and false cords); and the subglottis. Most laryngeal cancers originate in the glottis, with supraglottic and subglottic tumours being less frequent.

Laryngeal cancer may spread by: direct extension to adjacent structures, metastasis to regional cervical lymph nodes, or via the blood stream. The most common site of distant metastases is the lung. Laryngeal cancer occurred in 177,000 people in 2018, and resulted in 94,800 deaths (an increase from 76,000 deaths in 1990). Five-year survival rates in the United States are 60.3%.

Signs and symptoms
The symptoms of laryngeal cancer depend on the size and location of the tumour. Symptoms may include the following:
 * Hoarseness or other voice changes
 * A lump in the neck
 * A sore throat or feeling that something is stuck in the throat
 * Persistent cough
 * Stridor - a high-pitched wheezing sound indicative of a narrowed or obstructed airway
 * Bad breath
 * Earache (due to referred pain)
 * Difficulty swallowing

Adverse effects of treatment can include changes in appearance, difficulty eating, dry mouth, or loss of voice that may require learning alternate methods of speaking.

Risk factors
The most important risk factor for laryngeal cancer is tobacco smoking. Death from laryngeal cancer is 20 times more likely for the heaviest smokers than for their non-smoking peers. Regular and heavy consumption of alcohol, particularly alcoholic spirits, is also a significant risk factor. Using alcohol and tobacco together is an especially high risk factor and causes 89% of laryngeal cancer cases.

Occupational exposure to environmental factors such as wood dust, paint fumes, and certain chemicals used in the metalworking, petroleum, plastics, and textile industries is also believed to be a risk factor for laryngeal cancers. Infections by some forms of HPV carry some risk of laryngeal carcinoma.

People with a history of head and neck cancer are known to be at higher risk (about 25%) of developing a second, separate cancer of the head, neck, or lung. This is likely due to chronic exposure to the carcinogenic effects of alcohol and tobacco. In this situation, a field change effect may occur, where the epithelial tissues start to become diffusely dysplastic with a reduced threshold for malignant change. This risk may be reduced by quitting alcohol and tobacco.

Other reported risk factors include being of low socioeconomic status, male sex, or age greater than 55 years.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis is made by the doctor on the basis of a medical history, physical examination, and special investigations which may include a chest x-ray, CT or MRI scans, and tissue biopsy. The examination of the larynx requires some expertise, which may require specialist referral.

The physical exam includes a systematic examination of the whole patient to assess general health and to look for signs of associated conditions and metastatic disease. The neck and supraclavicular fossa are palpated to feel for cervical adenopathy, other masses, and laryngeal crepitus. The oral cavity and oropharynx are examined under direct vision. The larynx may be examined by indirect laryngoscopy using a small angled mirror with a long handle (akin to a dentist's mirror) and a strong light. Indirect laryngoscopy can be highly effective, but requires skill and practice for consistent results. For this reason, many specialist clinics now use fibre-optic nasal endoscopy where a thin and flexible endoscope, inserted through the nostril, is used to clearly visualise the entire pharynx and larynx. Nasal endoscopy is a quick and easy procedure performed in clinic. Local anaesthetic spray may be used.

If there is a suspicion of cancer, biopsy is performed, usually under general anaesthetic. This provides histological proof of cancer type and grade. If the lesion appears to be small and well localised, the surgeon may undertake excision biopsy, where an attempt is made to completely remove the tumour at the time of first biopsy. In this situation, the pathologist will not only be able to confirm the diagnosis, but can also comment on the completeness of excision, i.e., whether the tumour has been completely removed. A full endoscopic examination of the larynx, trachea, and esophagus is often performed at the time of biopsy.

For small glottic tumours further imaging may be unnecessary. In most cases, tumour staging is completed by scanning the head and neck region to assess the local extent of the tumour and any pathologically enlarged cervical lymph nodes.

The final management plan will depend on the site, stage (tumour size, nodal spread, distant metastasis), and histological type. The overall health and wishes of the patient must also be taken into account. A prognostic multigene classifier has been shown to be potentially useful for the distinction of laryngeal cancer of low or high risk of recurrence and might influence the treatment choice in future.

Staging
Laryngeal tumours are classified according to the guidelines set by academic organisations such as the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN). Overall classification, also known as "staging", can help predict treatment options for patients. Staging consists of three separate evaluations. The first is of the tumour/cancer itself ("T"). The second is the extent to which adjacent lymph nodes are involved in the tumour/cancer's spread ("N"). The third is the presence or absence of any distant metastases ("M). The specific “staging” criteria for laryngeal cancer, as utilised in the NCCN’s 2019 Guidelines for Head and Neck Cancers, are:

T
TX: Unable to assess

Tis: Carcinoma in situ

Supraglottis
T1: Tumour present in only one subsite of the supraglottis. Vocal cords have normal mobility.

T2: Tumour invades mucosa. There is no fixation of the larynx.

T3: Tumour causes fixation of the vocal cords, with or without invasion of neighbouring areas.

T4:

 * T4A – Tumour invades at least one of the following: the outer cortex of the thyroid cartilage, extra-laryngeal tissue
 * T4B – Tumour invades at least one of the following: the pre-vertebral space, any structures of the mediastinum, the carotid sheath, or the structures within the carotid sheath.

Glottis
T1: Tumour only involves the vocal cords. Vocal cords have normal mobility.

 * T1A – One vocal cord
 * T1B – Both vocal cords

T2: Tumour meets at least one of the following criteria:

 * extends to supra- or sub-glottis
 * impairs vocal cord mobility

T3: Tumour meets at least one of the following criteria:

 * causes fixation of the vocal cords
 * invades the paraglottic space
 * involves the thyroid cartilage’s inner cortex

T4: Same as “Supraglottis”

Subglottis
T1: Tumour is only in the subglottis

T2: Tumour involves both subglottis and vocal cords (regardless of cord mobility)

T3: Same as “Glottis”

T4: Same as “Supraglottis”

N
If Using Clinical (Non-Pathological) Diagnosis

NX: Unable to assess

N0: No involvement of neighbouring lymph nodes

N1: Tumour meets ALL of the following criteria:

 * involves single lymph node
 * involved lymph node on the same side of the body as tumour
 * involved lymph node less than 3 cm in “greatest dimension”
 * lacks extension beyond the lymph node

N2: Tumour meets ANY of the following criteria

 * N2A – Same as N1, except size can be between 3–6 cm
 * N2B – Same as N2A, except lymph nodes can be multiple, and there is no minimum size
 * N2C – Same as N2B, except lymph nodes can be on any side of the body

N3: Tumour meets ANY of the following criteria:

 * N3A – Same as N1, except size is greater than 6 cm
 * N3B – Tumour obviously extends beyond the lymph node border (regardless of number, size, or location of lymph nodes)

If Using Pathological Diagnosis

NX: Same as “Clinical Diagnosis – NX”

N0: Same as “Clinical Diagnosis – N0”

N1: Same as “Clinical Diagnosis – N1”

N2: Tumour meets ANY of the following criteria

 * N2A – Same as “Clinical Diagnosis – N2A”, except tumour can extend beyond the involved lymph node
 * N2B – Same as “Clinical Diagnosis – N2B”
 * N2C – Same as “Clinical Diagnosis – N2C”

N3: Tumour meets ANY of the following criteria:

 * N3A – Same as “Clinical Diagnosis – N3A”
 * N3B – Any provable presence of tumour extension beyond the lymph node

M
M0: No evidence of distant metastasis

M1: Evidence of distant metastasis

Treatment
Specific treatment depends on the location, type, and stage of the tumour. Treatment may involve surgery, radiotherapy, or chemotherapy, alone or in combination.

Surgical Treatment

Surgical treatment may involve partial or full removal of the tumour. Neighbouring tissues and structures may or may not be removed, depending on their involvement in the tumour’s structure and spread. Full removal of the larynx may be necessary in some cases.

Adjunct Treatment

Adjunct treatment, most commonly the administration of chemotherapy or radiotherapy, may be necessary. Chemotherapy or radiotherapy may be necessary singly, in combination with each other, or in combination with surgery. Adjunct treatment may be necessary prior to surgical treatment, alongside surgical treatment, or after surgical treatment. Clinical decision-making can be difficult in circumstances where the patient is unable to access necessary adjunct treatment.

Multi-Disciplinary Treatment

Often, successful treatment of and recovery from laryngeal cancer will involve expertise outside of the realms of surgery or oncology. Physical therapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, psychiatrists, psychologists, oral/maxillofacial surgeons, dentists, neurologists, neurosurgeons, and endocrinologists may all become involved in the care of patients with laryngeal cancer.

Epidemiology
Incidence is five in 100,000 (12,500 new cases per year) in the US. The American Cancer Society estimated that 9,510 men and women (7,700 men and 1,810 women) would be diagnosed with and 3,740 men and women would die of laryngeal cancer in 2006.

According to the GLOBOCAN 2018 estimates of cancer incidence and mortality produced by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, there were 177,422 new cases of laryngeal cancer worldwide in 2018 (1.0% of the global total.) Among worldwide cancer deaths, 94,771 (1.0%) were due to laryngeal cancer.

In 2019, it is estimated that there will be 12,410 new laryngeal cancer cases in the United States, (3.0 per 100,000). The number of new cases decreases every year at a rate of 2.4%, and this is believed to be related to decreased cigarette smoking in the general population.

Laryngeal cancer is listed as a "rare disease" by the Office of Rare Diseases (ORD) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). This means that laryngeal cancer affects fewer than 200,000 people in the US.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Laryngeal cancer


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Talk:Laryngeal cancer

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 3 November 2020 and 27 November 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Krsabhinav.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 02:14, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

NIH
An earlier version of this article was adapted from the public domain document Information about detection, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of laryngeal cancer. NIH Publication No. 02-1568 Posted: 05/05/2003, which can be found at http://www.nci.nih.gov/cancerinfo/wyntk/larynx

If
"If cancer of the larynx spreads (metastasizes), the cancer cells often spread to nearby lymph nodes in the neck. The cancer cells can also spread to the back of the tongue, other parts of the throat and neck, the lungs, and other parts of the body. When this happens, the new tumor has the same kind of abnormal cells as the primary tumor in the larynx. For example, if cancer of the larynx spreads to the lungs, the cancer cells in the lungs are actually laryngeal cancer cells. The disease is called metastatic cancer of the larynx, not lung cancer. It is treated as cancer of the larynx, not lung cancer. Doctors sometimes call the new tumor "distant" disease."

Contains a number of errors (does not spread to the base of tongue generally), simplifications (early glottic cancer, the commonest type of laryngeal cancer, generally does not metastasise to local nodes) and is stylistically inadequate. The whole article sounds like a clinic pamphlet for patients. Further on, the statement that "no one knows what causes laryngeal cancer" is rubbish. The aetiology is very clear for this and most other squamous cancers of the aerodigestive tract. I will edit if there are no objections.Jellytussle 01:18, 13 December 2005 (UTC)

 * It looks like most of the language has been in there for two years unchanged, so the page is probably overdue for an overhaul. Considering its source, I'm not surprised it sounds like a clinic pamphlet for patients. Not terrible for Wikipedia in 2003, but woefully inadequate as we approach 2006. Contributions from someone with your background would be greatly appreciated, and we thank you for your assistance. --Arcadian 04:02, 13 December 2005 (UTC)

Made a start on this. Will flesh it out later. I think risk factors should probably be moved to a general heading on the Head and Neck Cancer page. Squamous H&N cancers have fairly common aetiology, and there is a risk of repetition if this is discussed independently for each subsite.Jellytussle 00:16, 14 December 2005 (UTC)

I have cut the following: "An earlier version of this article was adapted from the public domain document Information about detection, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of laryngeal cancer. NIH Publication No. 02-1568 Posted: 5 May 2003, which can be found at http://www.nci.nih.gov/cancerinfo/wyntk/larynx" as the article is now more or less completely rewritten. Needs discussion of specific treatments, trial evidence etc. When I have time or if anyone else cares to do so.Jellytussle 06:07, 14 December 2005 (UTC)

Name
Would a better name for this article be laryngeal cancer, rahter than the more clumsy current title?--Peta 05:05, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

Causes of laryngeal cancer
This para is very poor and I have deleted it as the relevant detail is already covered in the Risk Factors section. I would be grateful if the author could provide some references for cocaine or methamphetamine causing this disease. These are not commonly quoted aetiological factors.Jellytussle (talk) 13:24, 23 March 2009 (UTC)

Images
I (someone with no medical training) find the images to be meaningless and unhelpful because neither images point out where the tumor is. The first image seems to be just an extracted laryngeal. Angry bee (talk) 04:41, 11 April 2011 (UTC)

 * I think the image at the top of the article is much too graphic - a patient with laryngeal cancer could be quite shocked and upset by this and I agree with Angry bee that it doesn't add any useful information to the article. Could it be replaced with an image of a scan or a diagram showing the location of the larynx? For example something similar to this image on CancerHelp UK PeachNellba (talk) 13:03, 15 June 2011 (UTC)

Staging and Treatment
Hello all!

I made some minor modifications to bring staging descriptions and discussions of treatment options (surgical, adjunct, multi-disciplinary) more in line with the latest publications by the U.S. NCCN, the U.S. AJCC, the Japanese, and the European clinical practice guidelines. I added these five publications as new sources as well.

Please review and modify as you see fit! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Krsabhinav (talk • contribs) 02:01, 24 November 2020 (UTC)

External links modified
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I have just modified 2 external links on Laryngeal cancer. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060509065715/http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/types/larynx/ to http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/types/larynx/

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title: Talk:Laryngeal cancer


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List of Canadian provincial and territorial name etymologies

This article lists the etymologies of the names of the provinces and territories of Canada.

Historical regions

 * Acadia (Acadie): origin disputed:
 * Credited to Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano, who first named a region around Chesapeake Bay Archadia (Arcadia) in 1524 because of "the beauty of its trees", according to his diary. Cartographers began using the name Arcadia to refer to areas progressively farther north until it referred to the French holdings in maritime Canada (particularly Nova Scotia). The -r- also began to disappear from the name on early maps, resulting in the current Acadia.
 * Possibly derived from the Míkmaq word akatik, pronounced roughly "agadik", meaning "place", which French-speakers spelled as -cadie in place names such as Shubenacadie and Tracadie, possibly coincidentally.

 * Nunatsiavut: Inuktitut, meaning "our beautiful land".


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Adam's apple

The Adam's apple is the protrusion in the neck formed by the angle of the thyroid cartilage surrounding the larynx, typically visible in men, less frequently in women. The prominence of the Adam's apple increases in some men as a secondary male sex characteristic during puberty.

Structure
The topographic structure which is externally visible and colloquially called the "Adam's apple" is caused by an anatomical structure of the thyroid cartilage called the laryngeal prominence or laryngeal protuberance protruding and forming a "bump" under the skin at the front of the throat. All human beings with a normal anatomy have a laryngeal protuberance of the thyroid cartilage. This prominence is typically larger and more externally noticeable in adult males. There are two reasons for this phenomenon. Firstly, the structural size of the thyroid cartilage in males tends to increase during puberty, and the laryngeal protuberance becomes more anteriorly focused. Secondly, the larynx, which the thyroid cartilage partially envelops, increases in size in male subjects during adolescence, moving the thyroid cartilage and its laryngeal protuberance towards the front of the neck. The adolescent development of both the larynx and the thyroid cartilage in males occurs as a result of hormonal changes, especially the normal increase in testosterone production in adolescent males. In females, the laryngeal protuberance sits on the upper edge of the thyroid cartilage, and the larynx tends to be smaller in size, and so the "bump" caused by protrusion of the laryngeal protuberance is much less visible or not discernible. Even so, many women display an externally visible protrusion of the thyroid cartilage, an "Adam's apple", to varying degrees which are usually minor, and this should not normally be viewed as a medical disorder.

Function
The Adam's apple, in relation with the thyroid cartilage which forms it, helps protect the walls and the frontal part of the larynx, including the vocal cords (which are located directly behind it).

Another function of the Adam's apple is related to the deepening of the voice. During adolescence, the thyroid cartilage grows together with the larynx. Consequently, the laryngeal prominence grows in size mainly in men. Together, a larger soundboard is made up in phonation apparatus and, as a result, men get a deeper voice note.

Society and culture

While both men and women can possess an Adam's apple, the larger frequency of its appearance in men has led to the perception of the Adam's apple as an indicator of masculinity. As such, transgender women may choose to undergo cosmetic surgery to remove it from their necks, a process known as chondrolaryngoplasty, or colloquially as a "tracheal shave". Transgender men may choose to augment and thereby enlarge the Adam's apple, a process known as masculinization.

Chondrolaryngoplasty surgery is effective, and studies done by surgeons in Tel Aviv and Los Angeles have demonstrated complications to be few and, if present, transient.

There is also an additional surgery available, feminization laryngoplasty, also known as "FemLar", which can safely reduce the Adam’s Apple to an extent greater than that which can be accomplished by a tracheal shave, given it explicitly operates on the vocal cords within the Adam’s Apple as opposed to avoiding them. However, feminization laryngoplasty is a reconstructive surgery that carries additional risks and has a very strong feminizing effect on the voice that may or may not be desirable to the patient. There are also far fewer practitioners who are known to be currently performing FemLar as it is far newer than the tracheal shave procedure.

Etymology

The English term "Adam's apple" is a calque of Latin pomum Adami, which is found in European medical texts from as early as 1600. "Adam's Apple" is found in a 1662 English translation of Thomas Bartholin's 1651 work Anatomia.

The 1662 citation includes an explanation for the origin of the phrase: a piece of forbidden fruit was supposedly embedded in the throat of Adam, who according to the Abrahamic religions was the first man: "the common people have a belief, that by the judgment of God, a part of that fatal Apple, abode sticking in Adams Throat, and is so communicated to his posterity" This etymology is also proposed by Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable and the 1913 edition of Webster's Dictionary. The story is not found in the Bible or other Judeo-Christian or Islamic writings.

Linguist Alexander Gode proposed in 1968 that the Latin phrase pomum Adami (literally: 'Adam's apple') was a mistranslation of the Hebrew "tappuach ha adam meaning 'male bump. The confusion was supposedly due to the fact that in the Hebrew language the proper name "Adam" (אדם) literally means "man", and the word for "apple", "tapuach", is similar to the word "tafuach" which means "swollen", thus in combination: the swelling of a man.

The medical term "prominentia laryngea" (laryngeal prominence) was introduced by the Basle Nomina Anatomica in 1895.

In the American South, "goozle" is used colloquially to describe the laryngeal prominence, likely derived from guzzle.

title: Adam's apple


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Yellow-headed blackbird

The yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus) is a medium-sized blackbird with a yellow head.

It is the only member of the genus Xanthocephalus. Their scientific name derives from the Greek word for yellow, xanthous, and the word for head, cephalus.

Description
Yellow-headed blackbirds are considered to be relatively large blackbirds with large, yellow heads. They measure 8.3–10.2 in (21–26 cm) in length, with a wingspan of 16.5–17.3 in (42–44 cm) and a weight of 1.6–3.5 oz (44–100 g).

Adults have a pointed bill. The adult male is mainly black with a yellow head and breast; they have a white wing patch sometimes only visible in flight. The adult female is mainly brown with a dull yellow throat and breast. Immature members of both sexes are brown with duller yellow plumage compared to adult males. Immature males also have some white patches on the wing. Both sexes resemble the respective sexes of the smaller yellow-hooded blackbird of South America.

Migration, habitat, and breeding
These birds migrate in the winter to the southwestern United States and Mexico. They often migrate in huge flocks with other species of birds. The only regions of the United States where these blackbirds are permanent residents are the San Joaquin Valley and the Lower Colorado River Valley of Arizona and California. It is an extremely rare vagrant to western Europe, with some records suspected to refer to escapes from captivity. When migrating, males and females travel separately. Males typically arrive at the breeding marshes 2-3 weeks before females during spring migration. Research suggests that females choose breeding sites based on the reproductive success (number of young per breeding female) of the site in previous years.

The breeding habitat of the yellow-headed blackbird are marshes in North America (mainly west of the Great Lakes), particularly in plants such as cattails (genus Typha), bulrush (genus Scirpus), and common reeds (genus Phragmites). The nest is built with and attached to marsh vegetation and is constructed over open water. They nest in colonies, often sharing their habitat closely with the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). During the breeding and nesting season the males are very territorial and spend much of their time perched on reed stalks and displaying or chasing off intruders.

Food
These birds eat seeds during majority of the year and insects throughout the summer months. They forage in marshes, fields, or on the ground; they sometimes catch insects in flight. Sunflowers are fairly popular amongst yellow-headed blackbirds in the Northern Great Plains, with a study indicating that males eat more sunflower than grains and females more grains than sunflower. Some methods of gathering food involve flipping over stones, catching insects from the top of water, and foraging. Foraging methods take place in uplands, with the flock taking a "rolling" formation in which birds fly from the back to the front of the flock to feed. Female yellow-headed blackbirds primarily feed their newly-hatched young insects from the order Odonata, which includes dragonflies and damselflies. Outside the nesting period, they often feed in flocks, often with related species.

Songs and calls
This bird's song resembles the grating of a rusty hinge. Male yellow-headed blackbirds have been observed to have two types of songs, an "accent song" and a "buzz song". The “buzz songs '' have much higher pitch than the accent song, and thus do not echo as well in the dense marshes they live in. For that reason, buzzing songs are typically done when communicating closer whereas accent songs are done to communicate with birds further in the marshes. Female birds have a song that is described to be similar to the male "buzz song", consisting of harsh grating or buzz sounds. Both sexes are also found to elicit harsh calling notes.

Natural threats
Yellow‐headed blackbirds have been found to be sensitive to nest predation risk, for example by marsh wrens (Cistothorus palustris), and alter their nest attendance behavior accordingly.

Raptors occasionally prey on yellow-headed blackbird flocks. For example, media outlets reported that on February 7, 2022, a flock of yellow-headed blackbirds migrating to Chihuahua, Mexico, were seen dropping dead in the early morning. According to experts, it is most likely that the birds were killed due to being flushed from above as a result of a predatory bird (presumably a raptor) chasing them, which caused some of them to fly into each other and crash into the ground and nearby buildings.

Conservation
Because yellow-headed blackbirds typically reside in wetlands, their population numbers depend on the conditions of the wetlands in which they reside. For instance, drainage projects, herbicides/pesticides, and other crop protection methods have impacts on the health of wetlands, and consequently, cause the bird population to fluctuate in number. Currently, yellow-headed blackbird numbers are stable and will likely remain that way in the long term.

title: Yellow-headed blackbird


text:
James Franck

James Franck (26 August 1882 – 21 May 1964) was a German physicist who won the 1925 Nobel Prize for Physics with Gustav Hertz "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom". He completed his doctorate in 1906 and his habilitation in 1911 at the Frederick William University in Berlin, where he lectured and taught until 1918, having reached the position of professor extraordinarius. He served as a volunteer in the German Army during World War I. He was seriously injured in 1917 in a gas attack and was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class.

Franck became the Head of the Physics Division of the Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft for Physical Chemistry. In 1920, Franck became professor ordinarius of experimental physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics at the University of Göttingen. While there he worked on quantum physics with Max Born, who was Director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics. His work included the Franck–Hertz experiment, an important confirmation of the Bohr model of the atom. He promoted the careers of women in physics, notably Lise Meitner, Hertha Sponer and Hilde Levi.

After the Nazi Party came to power in Germany in 1933, Franck resigned his post in protest against the dismissal of fellow academics. He assisted Frederick Lindemann in helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933. After a year at the Niels Bohr Institute in Denmark, he moved to the United States, where he worked at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore and then the University of Chicago. During this period he became interested in photosynthesis.

Franck participated in the Manhattan Project during World War II as Director of the Chemistry Division of the Metallurgical Laboratory. He was also the chairman of the Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which is best known for the compilation of the Franck Report, which recommended that the atomic bombs not be used on the Japanese cities without warning.

Early life
James Franck was born in Hamburg, Germany, on 26 August 1882, into a Jewish family, the second child and first son of Jacob Franck, a banker, and his wife Rebecca née Nachum Drucker. He had an older sister, Paula, and a younger brother, Robert Bernard. His father was a devout and religious man, while his mother came from a family of rabbis. Franck attended primary school in Hamburg. Starting in 1891 he attended the Wilhelm-Gymnasium, which was then a boys-only school.

Hamburg had no university then, so prospective students had to attend one of the 22 universities elsewhere in Germany. Intending to study law and economics, Franck entered the University of Heidelberg in 1901, as it had a renowned law school. He attended lectures on law, but was far more interested in those on science. While there, he met Max Born, who would become a lifelong friend. With Born's help, he was able to persuade his parents to allow him to switch to studying physics and chemistry. Franck attended mathematics lectures by Leo Königsberger and Georg Cantor, but Heidelberg was not strong on the physical sciences, so he decided to go to the Frederick William University in Berlin.

At Berlin, Franck attended lectures by Max Planck and Emil Warburg. On 28 July 1904 he saved a pair of children from drowning in the Spree River. For his Doctor of Philosophy (Dir. Phil.) under Warburg's supervision, Warburg suggested that he study corona discharges. Franck found this topic too complex, so he changed the focus of his thesis. Entitled Über die Beweglichkeit der Ladungsträger der Spitzenentladung ("On the Mobility of Ions"), it would subsequently be published in the Annalen der Physik.

With his thesis completed, Franck had to perform his deferred military service. He was called up on 1 October 1906 and joined the 1st Telegraph Battalion. He suffered a minor horse riding accident in December and was discharged as unfit for duty. He took up an assistantship at the Physikalische Verein in Frankfurt in 1907, but did not enjoy it, and soon returned to Frederick William University. At a concert Franck met Ingrid Josephson, a Swedish pianist. They were married in a Swedish ceremony in Gothenburg on 23 December 1907. They had two daughters, Dagmar (Daggie), who was born in 1909, and Elisabeth (Lisa), who was born in 1912.

To pursue an academic career in Germany, having a doctorate was not enough; one needed a venia legendi, or habilitation. This could be achieved with either another major thesis or by producing a substantial body of published work. Franck chose the latter route. There were many unsolved problems in physics at the time, and by 1914 he had published 34 articles. He was the sole author of some, but generally preferred working in collaboration with Eva von Bahr, Lise Meitner, Robert Pohl,, Robert W. Wood, Arthur Wehnelt or Wilhelm Westphal. His most fruitful collaboration was with Gustav Hertz, with whom he wrote 19 articles. He received his habilitation on 20 May 1911.

Franck–Hertz experiment
In 1914, Franck teamed up with Hertz to perform an experiment to investigate fluorescence. They designed a vacuum tube for studying energetic electrons that flew through a thin vapour of mercury atoms. They discovered that when an electron collided with a mercury atom it could lose only a specific quantity (4.9 electronvolts) of its kinetic energy before flying away. A faster electron does not decelerate completely after a collision, but loses precisely the same amount of its kinetic energy. Slower electrons just bounce off mercury atoms without losing any significant speed or kinetic energy.

These experimental results provided confirmation of Albert Einstein's photoelectric effect and Planck's relation (E = fh) linking energy (E) and frequency (f) arising from quantisation of energy with the Planck constant (h). But they also provided evidence supporting the model of the atom that had been proposed the previous year by Niels Bohr. Its key feature was that an electron inside an atom occupies one of the atom's "quantum energy levels". Before a collision, an electron inside the mercury atom occupies its lowest available energy level. After the collision, the electron inside occupies a higher energy level with 4.9 eV more energy. This means that the electron is more loosely bound to the mercury atom. There were no intermediate levels or possibilities.

In a second paper presented in May 1914, Franck and Hertz reported on the light emission by the mercury atoms that had absorbed energy from collisions. They showed that the wavelength of this ultraviolet light corresponded exactly to the 4.9 eV of energy that the flying electron had lost. The relationship of energy and wavelength had also been predicted by Bohr. Franck and Hertz completed their last paper together in December 1918. In it, they reconciled the discrepancies between their results and Bohr's theory, which they now acknowledged. In his Nobel lecture, Franck admitted that it was "completely incomprehensible that we had failed to recognise the fundamental significance of Bohr's theory, so much so, that we never even mentioned it once". On 10 December 1926, Franck and Hertz were awarded the 1925 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom.".

World War I
Franck enlisted in the German Army soon after the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914. In December he was sent to the Picardy sector of the Western Front. He became a deputy officer (offizierstellvertreter), and then a lieutenant (leutnant) in 1915. In early 1915 he was transferred to Fritz Haber's new unit that would introduce clouds of chlorine gas as a weapon. With Otto Hahn he was responsible for locating sites for the attacks. He was awarded the Iron Cross, Second Class, on 30 March 1915, and the city of Hamburg awarded him the Hanseatic Cross on 11 January 1916. While in hospital with pleurisy, he co-wrote yet another scientific paper with Hertz, and he was appointed an assistant professor in his absence by Frederick William University on 19 September 1916. Sent to the Russian front, he came down with dysentery. He returned to Berlin, where he joined Hertz, Westphal, Hans Geiger, Otto Hahn and others at Haber's Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, working on the development of gas masks. He was awarded the Iron Cross, First Class, on 23 February 1918. He was discharged from the Army on 25 November 1918, soon after the war ended.

With the war over, Haber's Kaiser Wilhelm Institute now returned to research, and Haber offered Franck a job. His new post came with more pay, but was not a tenured position. It did however allow Franck to pursue his research as he wished. Working with new, younger collaborators such as Walter Grotrian, Paul Knipping, Thea Krüger, Fritz Reiche and Hertha Sponer, his first papers at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute examined atomic electrons in their excited state, results that would later prove important in the development of the laser. They coined the term "metastable" for atoms spending an extended time in a state other than that of least energy. When Niels Bohr visited Berlin in 1920, Meitner and Franck arranged for him to come to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute to talk with the younger staff without the presence of the bonzen ("bigwigs").

Göttingen
In 1920, the University of Göttingen offered Max Born its chair of theoretical physics, which had recently been vacated by Peter Debye. Göttingen was an important centre for mathematics, thanks to David Hilbert, Felix Klein, Hermann Minkowski and Carl Runge, but not so much for physics. This would change. As part of his price for coming to Göttingen, Born wanted Franck to head experimental physics there. On 15 November 1920, Franck became Professor of Experimental Physics and Director of the Second Institute for Experimental Physics, a fully tenured professor ordinarius. He was allowed two assistants, so he brought Hertha Sponer with him from Berlin to fill one of the positions. Pohl, a gifted teacher, headed the First Institute, and handled the lectures. Franck refurbished the laboratory with the latest equipment using funds from his own pocket.

Under Born and Franck, Göttingen was one of the world's great centres for physics between 1920 and 1933. Although they published only three papers together, Born and Franck discussed every one of their papers with each other. Gaining admittance to Franck's laboratory became highly competitive. His doctoral students included Hans Kopfermann, Arthur R. von Hippel, Wilhelm Hanle, Fritz Houtermans, Heinrich Kuhn,, Walter Lochte-Holtgreven and Heinz Maier-Leibnitz. In supervising doctoral candidates, Franck had to ensure that thesis topics were well-defined, and would teach the candidate how to conduct original research, while still staying within the limits of the candidate's ability, the laboratory's equipment and the institute's budget. Under his direction, research was carried out into the structure of atoms and molecules.

In his own research, Franck developed what became known as the Franck–Condon principle, a rule in spectroscopy and quantum chemistry that explains the intensity of vibronic transitions, simultaneous changes in electronic and vibrational energy levels of a molecule due to the absorption or emission of a photon of the appropriate energy. The principle states that during an electronic transition, a change from one vibrational energy level to another will be more likely to happen if the two vibrational wave functions overlap more significantly. The principle has since been applied to a wide variety of related phenomena.

For his work during this time period, Franck was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1929.

Exile
This period came to an end when the Nazi Party won power in Germany in an election on 2 March 1933. The following month it enacted the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which provided for the retirement or dismissal of all Jewish civil servants, along with political opponents of the government. As a veteran of the First World War, Franck was exempt, but he submitted his resignation anyway on 17 April 1933. He once commented that science was his God and nature was his religion. He did not require his daughters to attend religious instruction classes at school, and even let them have a decorated tree at Christmas; but he was proud of his Jewish heritage all the same. He was the first academic to resign in protest over the law. Newspapers around the world reported it, but no government or university protested.

Franck assisted Frederick Lindemann in helping dismissed Jewish scientists find work overseas, before he left Germany in November 1933. After a brief visit to the United States, where he measured the absorption of light in heavy water with Wood at Johns Hopkins University, he took up a position at the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen. He needed a new collaborator, so he took on Hilde Levi, whose recent thesis had impressed him. His original intention was to continue his research into the fluorescence of vapours and liquids, but under Bohr's influence they began to take an interest in biological aspects of these reactions, particularly photosynthesis, the process by which plants use light to convert carbon dioxide and water into more organic compounds. Biological processes turned out to be far more complicated than simple reactions in atoms and molecules. He co-authored two papers with Levi on the subject, which he would return to over the following years.

Franck found a position at the Polytekniske Læreanstalt in Copenhagen for Arthur von Hippel, who was now his son in law, having married his daughter Dagmar. He decided to provide financial security for his children by dividing his Nobel Prize money between them. The gold medal itself was entrusted to Niels Bohr for safekeeping. When Germany invaded Denmark on 9 April 1940, the Hungarian chemist George de Hevesy dissolved the gold medal, along with that of Max von Laue in aqua regia to prevent the Germans from taking them. He placed the resulting solution on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. After the war, he returned to find the solution undisturbed and precipitated the gold out of the acid. The Nobel Society then recast the Nobel Prize medals.

In 1935, Franck moved to the United States, where he had accepted a professorship at Johns Hopkins University. The laboratory there was poorly equipped compared to the one in Göttingen, but he received $10,000 for equipment from the Rockefeller Foundation. A more intractable problem was that the university had no money to hire skilled staff. Franck was concerned about his family members remaining in Germany, and needed money to help them emigrate. He therefore accepted an offer from the University of Chicago, where his work on photosynthesis had attracted interest, in 1938.

Franck's first paper there, co-authored with Edward Teller, was on photochemical processes in crystals. Hans Gaffron became his collaborator. They were joined by Pringsheim, who escaped from Belgium after the German invasion. Franck arranged a position for Pringsheim at his laboratory. Both his daughters and their families moved to the United States, and he was also able to bring out his elderly mother and aunt. He became a naturalised United States citizen on 21 July 1941, so he was not an enemy alien when the United States declared war on Germany on 11 December 1941. His daughters still were, though, so they were restricted from travelling, and could not take care of their mother when she fell ill and died on 10 January 1942, although they were permitted to attend her funeral.

In February 1942, Arthur H. Compton established its Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago. As part of the Manhattan Project, its mission was to build nuclear reactors to create plutonium that would be used in atomic bombs. The Metallurgical Laboratory's Chemistry Division was initially headed by Frank Spedding, but he preferred hands on work to administration. Compton then turned to Franck, with some trepidation owing to his German background. Compton later wrote:

"How Franck welcomed an invitation to join our project! It was a vote of confidence that far exceeded his hopes, and it gave him a chance to do his part for the cause of freedom. 'It's not the German people I'm fighting', he explained. 'It's the Nazis. They have a stranglehold over Germany. The German people are helpless until we can break the strength of their Nazi masters.' The chemists welcomed Franck as an elder scientific statesman whose guidance they were glad to follow."

In addition to heading the Chemistry Division, Franck was also the chairman of the Metallurgical Laboratory's Committee on Political and Social Problems regarding the atomic bomb, which consisted of himself and Donald J. Hughes, J. J. Nickson, Eugene Rabinowitch, Glenn T. Seaborg, J. C. Stearns and Leó Szilárd. In 1945, Franck warned Henry A. Wallace of their fears that "mankind has learned to unleash atomic power without being ethically and politically prepared to use it wisely." The committee compiled what became known as the Franck Report. Finished on 11 June 1945, it recommended that the atomic bombs not be used on the Japanese cities without warning. In any event, the Interim Committee decided otherwise.

Later life
Franck married Hertha Sponer in a civil ceremony on 29 June 1946, his first wife, Ingrid, having died in 1942. In his post-war research, he continued to tackle the problem of explaining the mechanism of photosynthesis. Meitner saw no break between his early and later work. She recalled that

"Franck enjoyed talking about his problems, not so much to explain them to others as to satisfy his own mind. Once a problem had aroused his interest he was completely captivated, indeed obsessed by it. Common sense and straight logic were his main tools, together with simple apparatus. His research followed an almost straight line, from his early studies of ion mobilities to his last work on photosynthesis; it was always the energy exchange between atoms or molecules that fascinated him."

In addition to the Nobel Prize. Franck was awarded the Max Planck medal of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft in 1951 and the Rumford Medal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for his work on photosynthesis in 1955. He became an honorary citizen of Göttingen in 1953, was elected a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1944, and elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1964. He was also an International Member of the American Philosophical Society.

He died suddenly from a heart attack while visiting Göttingen on 21 May 1964, and was buried in Chicago with his first wife.

In 1967, the University of Chicago named the James Franck Institute after him. A lunar crater has also been named in his honour. His papers are in the University of Chicago Library.

title: James Franck


text:
Singleton (mathematics)

In mathematics, a singleton (also known as a unit set or one-point set) is a set with exactly one element. For example, the set $$\{0\}$$ is a singleton whose single element is $$0$$.

Properties
Within the framework of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, the axiom of regularity guarantees that no set is an element of itself. This implies that a singleton is necessarily distinct from the element it contains, thus 1 and $$\{1\}$$ are not the same thing, and the empty set is distinct from the set containing only the empty set. A set such as $$\{\{1, 2, 3\}\}$$ is a singleton as it contains a single element (which itself is a set, but not a singleton).

A set is a singleton if and only if its cardinality is. In von Neumann's set-theoretic construction of the natural numbers, the number 1 is defined as the singleton $$\{0\}.$$

In axiomatic set theory, the existence of singletons is a consequence of the axiom of pairing: for any set A, the axiom applied to A and A asserts the existence of $$\{A, A\},$$ which is the same as the singleton $$\{A\}$$ (since it contains A, and no other set, as an element).

If A is any set and S is any singleton, then there exists precisely one function from A to S, the function sending every element of A to the single element of S. Thus every singleton is a terminal object in the category of sets.

A singleton has the property that every function from it to any arbitrary set is injective. The only non-singleton set with this property is the empty set.

Every singleton set is an ultra prefilter. If $$X$$ is a set and $$x \in X$$ then the upward of $$\{x\}$$ in $$X,$$ which is the set $$\{S \subseteq X : x \in S\},$$ is a principal ultrafilter on $$X.$$ Moreover, every principal ultrafilter on $$X$$ is necessarily of this form. The ultrafilter lemma implies that non-principal ultrafilters exist on every infinite set (these are called ). Every net valued in a singleton subset $$X$$ of is an ultranet in $$X.$$

The Bell number integer sequence counts the number of partitions of a set, if singletons are excluded then the numbers are smaller.

In category theory
Structures built on singletons often serve as terminal objects or zero objects of various categories:
 * The statement above shows that the singleton sets are precisely the terminal objects in the category Set of sets. No other sets are terminal.
 * Any singleton admits a unique topological space structure (both subsets are open). These singleton topological spaces are terminal objects in the category of topological spaces and continuous functions. No other spaces are terminal in that category.
 * Any singleton admits a unique group structure (the unique element serving as identity element). These singleton groups are zero objects in the category of groups and group homomorphisms. No other groups are terminal in that category.

Definition by indicator functions
Let $S$ be a class defined by an indicator function $$b : X \to \{0, 1\}.$$ Then $S$ is called a singleton if and only if there is some $$y \in X$$ such that for all $$x \in X,$$ $$b(x) = (x = y).$$

Definition in Principia Mathematica
The following definition was introduced by Whitehead and Russell
 * $$\iota$$‘$$x = \hat{y}(y = x)$$ Df.

The symbol $$\iota$$‘$$x$$ denotes the singleton $$\{x\}$$ and $$\hat{y}(y = x)$$ denotes the class of objects identical with $$x$$ aka $$\{y : y=x\}$$. This occurs as a definition in the introduction, which, in places, simplifies the argument in the main text, where it occurs as proposition 51.01 (p.357 ibid.). The proposition is subsequently used to define the cardinal number 1 as
 * $$1=\hat{\alpha}((\exists x)\alpha=\iota$$‘$$x)$$ Df.

That is, 1 is the class of singletons. This is definition 52.01 (p.363 ibid.)

title: Singleton (mathematics)


text:
Lew Welch

Lewis Barrett Welch Jr. (August 16, 1926 – May 1971?) was an American poet associated with the Beat generation literary movement.

Welch published and performed widely during the 1960s. He taught a poetry workshop as part of the University of California Extension in San Francisco, from 1965 to 1970.

He is believed to have committed suicide, after leaving a note on May 23, 1971. His body was never found.

Early life
Welch was born in Phoenix, Arizona, and moved with his mother and sister to California in 1929. The family often moved, and he graduated from Palo Alto High School. He enlisted in the Army Air Forces in 1944 but never saw active service. He worked for a period before attending Stockton Junior College, where he developed an interest in the works of Gertrude Stein.

In 1948, Welch moved to Portland, Oregon, to attend Reed College. There he roomed with fellow poet Gary Snyder and also befriended Philip Whalen. Welch decided to become a writer after reading Gertrude Stein's long story "Melanctha." Welch wrote his thesis on Stein and published poems in student magazines. William Carlos Williams visited the college and met the three poets. He admired Welch's early poems and tried to get his Stein thesis published.

New York and Chicago
After college, Welch moved to New York City, where he worked writing copy in the advertising industry. Welch was said to have come up with the advertising slogan,"Raid Kills Bugs Dead," but some have questioned this claim. During this time, Welch started to display emotional and mental problems and went to Florida to take a course of therapy.

He then went to the University of Chicago, where he studied philosophy and English. In Chicago, he joined the advertising department of Montgomery Ward.

Later life and work
Wanting to get back to poetry, Welch applied for a transfer to Montgomery Ward's Oakland headquarters. After the return to California, he started to get involved in the San Francisco literary scene. He soon gave up advertising and earned a living driving a cab while devoting more time to writing. He became an active participant in Beat culture, living at various times with Snyder and Lawrence Ferlinghetti. In 1960, poet Lenore Kandel met Welch and Snyder, who introduced her to many people in the Beat movement.

Jack Kerouac based his character Dave Wain in his novel Big Sur (1962) on Welch. In 1968, Welch signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War.

Personal life
Welch had a common-law relationship with Polish refugee Maria Magdalena Cregg. He acted as the stepfather to her son Hugh Anthony Cregg III, better known by his stage-name Huey Lewis.

Death
On May 23, 1971, Welch walked out of poet Gary Snyder's house in the mountains of California, leaving behind a suicide note. He had with him a stainless steel Smith & Wesson .22 caliber revolver. His body was never found.

title: Lew Welch


text:
Hollywood North

Hollywood North is a colloquialism used to describe film production industries and/or film locations north of its namesake, Hollywood, California. The term has been applied principally to the film industry in Canada, specifically to the cities Toronto and Vancouver.

Use of the term
The title has been claimed for both Toronto, Ontario and Vancouver, British Columbia.

Toronto
One of the earliest Hollywood television series to shoot in Toronto was the 1957 production Hawkeye and the Last of the Mohicans. The city has been associated with the nickname 'Hollywood North' since the late 1970s, due to its role as a production centre for both domestic and international film projects. In 1979 Toronto mayor John Sewell announced that Canada had become the third largest movie production centre after Los Angeles and New York.

In 2002 the year Toronto's Film and Television industry accounted for $1.16 billion towards the city's economy, former Toronto Mayor Mel Lastman proclaimed "Toronto is Hollywood North". In 2003 the Toronto Ontario Film Office was established in Los Angeles to promote the benefits of filming in the city of Toronto and the province of Ontario. With the TOFO Ontario is the only Canadian province to have an office in Hollywood. The province of Ontario had 230 film projects with $946 million in production spending in 2010.

Ontario ranks as the second largest film and television production centre in Canada, and fourth overall in North America behind California, New York, and British Columbia. Although a decline in BC's domestic production and an increase of $300 million or 31% over the previous year, allowed Ontario to surpass British Columbia for the largest production centre in Canada in 2011, British Columbia has once again surpassed Ontario in recent years, as it had historically. The province recorded $1.26 billion in production activity in 2011, its largest year ever. By 2017, Toronto itself grew to $2 billion.

Toronto ranks fourth as an exporter of television programming in North America and behind only Los Angeles, New York City, and Vancouver among North American cities in total industry production, $903.5 million were spent by production companies on 209 major production film and television projects in 2010 in Toronto. In 2011, the film industry contributed $1.13 billion from 244 on location film and television projects to Toronto the largest figure since the year 2002, this increase in revenue over the past years was attributed to a film tax credit offered by the provincial government in 2009. A 47% increase in Hollywood productions in 2011 over 2010 was mostly attributed to this tax credit among others. In 2012 on location film and television production increased again to $1.2 billion generated.

Toronto is the headquarters of Nelvana, the largest animation company in Canada and one of the largest animation/children's entertainment studios in the world. Toronto was also the headquarters of Alliance Atlantis, the largest film distribution company in Canada, and the 12th largest film and TV distribution company in the world, which distributes films and television across all of North America and parts of Europe.

Pinewood Toronto Studios located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada is Canada's largest film and television production complex, with more than 250,000 sqft of production space. It contains the largest purpose-built sound stage in North America, capable of accommodating large blockbuster movies. Some have credited the completion of Pinewood Studios along with provincial tax credits as being responsible for the late 2000s/early 2010s surge in in-province Hollywood productions. Due to its ability to handle film productions on a scale not previously possible.

The Toronto Film and Television Office reported that in 2005 some 200 productions were completed in Toronto: 39 features, and 44 movies made for television, 84 television series, 11 television specials, and 22 MOW's (movies of the week). The Toronto Film and Television Office issued 4,154 location filming permits for 1,258 projects totalling 7,319 days of shooting. Toronto's domestic production industry benefits greatly financially from large treaty coproductions with international partners.

As with Vancouver, government tax incentives at both the provincial and federal level promote Toronto as a destination for many US film productions. The city is often used as a stand in for New York City and Chicago in film.

In addition to being a productions centre, Toronto is the home to the Toronto International Film Festival, which is considered by many in the film industry to be second only to Cannes in terms of influence or in instances actually rivaling it. It attracts numerous high-profile actors and film makers from around the globe to premiere their Films in Toronto and is generally considered the tip-off point to which the Oscar races begin.

Toronto is home to Canada's Walk of Fame, similar in appearance to the Hollywood Walk of Fame, honouring notable Canadians.

Toronto is the headquarters to the majority of Canada's national media outlets including: CBC Television, CTV, Global Television Network, MuchMusic, YTV, and entertainment programs ETalk and Entertainment Tonight. The city is the traditional host for the Gemini Awards, honouring the Canadian television industry.

Vancouver
Vancouver has been used as a filmmaking location for over a century, beginning with The Cowpuncher's Glove and The Ship's Husband, both shot in 1910 by the Edison Manufacturing Company. Isolated by distance from the domestic film production communities in Toronto and Montreal, it became known as "Hollywood North" for its role as a production centre for US feature films shot in British Columbia. The provincial government first established a film development office in 1977 to market the province to the Hollywood community. In 2000, BC crossed the billion-dollar mark in production for the first time, and in 2002, 75% of all Canadian foreign productions were based in British Columbia and Ontario. That same year British Columbia led the country in foreign film production receiving 44% of the Canadian total. This would grow to nearly 64% of the Canadian total by 2017/18.

British Columbia is currently the third largest production centre for film and television in North America, after Los Angeles and New York City, and has held this title for years with over 246 motion picture projects and $1.02 billion on production spending in 2010. Although declining domestic production in the province through 2011 and less competitive tax rates left BC ranking fourth in overall production after Ontario for a few years, British Columbia has regained its position as the third largest production centre in North America with American studios returning in droves thanks largely to existing infrastructure and talent.

North Shore Studios — formerly Lionsgate Studios — and Vancouver Film Studios are among the two largest special effects stages in Canada. VFS being one of the largest production facility outside of Los Angeles; Bridge Studios, in Burnaby, British Columbia, has one of the largest special effects stages in North America. Mammoth Studios, a subsidiary of North Shore studios holds the largest film stages in the world, their largest at 123,883 sqft. As of 2020, over 1 million sq ft of studio and production space is being added. Vancouver is also home to the world’s largest VFX/animation cluster with over 60 domestic and foreign-owned studios, and 17 educational institutions with motion picture production as a discipline.

The BC Film Commission reported that in 2005, more than 200 productions were completed in B.C.: 63 feature films, 31 television series, 37 movies-of-the-week, 15 television pilots, 5 miniseries, 20 documentaries, 16 short films and 24 animation projects. In 2006, spending on film and TV production in B.C. was $1.228 billion. The Great Recession of the late 2000s hit the film industry financially on all levels. By March 2008, the British Columbia film industry dramatically recovered with film spending at $1.2 billion, with foreign-film production increasing 146 percent and domestic animation by 79 percent. In total, 86 foreign productions including 40 feature-length films, were completed in 2008. The city is also host to the Vancouver International Film Festival and the Vancouver Film and Television Forum.

Vancouver is 1,725 km from Hollywood, a three-hour airplane flight or a 20-hour drive. It is also in the same time zone as Los Angeles. This relative proximity, diverse geography, educational capacity, and local talent, coupled with government subsidies, is a major factor in the growth of Vancouver's production industry. Proximity reduces issues over operating hours, accessibility, travel time for principals, access to filmmaking infrastructure, and experience of crews.

title: Hollywood North


text:
Alphen

Alphen may refer to:

Netherlands

 * Alphen, Gelderland, a village in the municipality West Maas en Waal (province of Gelderland)
 * Alphen, North Brabant, a village in the municipality Alphen-Chaam (province of North Brabant)
 * Alphen, South Holland, a former municipality, including Alphen aan den Rijn
 * Alphen aan den Rijn, a town in the province of South Holland

South Africa

 * Alphen, a neighborhood in Cape Town

Other uses

 * Corinne Alphen (born 1954), American model, Penthouse Pet of the Month and actress
 * Alphen Class, a class of dry cargo ships built in the 1960s for Safmarine

title: Alphen


text:
Franck–Hertz experiment

The Franck–Hertz experiment was the first electrical measurement to clearly show the quantum nature of atoms, and thus "transformed our understanding of the world". It was presented on April 24, 1914, to the German Physical Society in a paper by James Franck and Gustav Hertz. Franck and Hertz had designed a vacuum tube for studying energetic electrons that flew through a thin vapor of mercury atoms. They discovered that, when an electron collided with a mercury atom, it could lose only a specific quantity (4.9 electron volts) of its kinetic energy before flying away. This energy loss corresponds to decelerating the electron from a speed of about 1.3 million metres per second to zero. A faster electron does not decelerate completely after a collision, but loses precisely the same amount of its kinetic energy. Slower electrons merely bounce off mercury atoms without losing any significant speed or kinetic energy.

These experimental results proved to be consistent with the Bohr model for atoms that had been proposed the previous year by Niels Bohr. The Bohr model was a precursor of quantum mechanics and of the electron shell model of atoms. Its key feature was that an electron inside an atom occupies one of the atom's "quantum energy levels". Before the collision, an electron inside the mercury atom occupies its lowest available energy level. After the collision, the electron inside occupies a higher energy level with 4.9 electronvolts (eV) more energy. This means that the electron is more loosely bound to the mercury atom. There were no intermediate levels or possibilities in Bohr's quantum model. This feature was "revolutionary" because it was inconsistent with the expectation that an electron could be bound to an atom's nucleus by any amount of energy.

In a second paper presented in May 1914, Franck and Hertz reported on the light emission by the mercury atoms that had absorbed energy from collisions. They showed that the wavelength of this ultraviolet light corresponded exactly to the 4.9 eV of energy that the flying electron had lost. The relationship of energy and wavelength had also been predicted by Bohr because he had followed the structure laid out by Hendrik Lorentz at the 1911 Solvay Congress. At Solvay, Hendrik Lorentz suggested after Einstein’s talk on quantum structure that the energy of a rotator be set equal to nhv. Therefore, Bohr had followed the instructions given in 1911 and copied the formula proposed by Lorentz and others into his 1913 atomic model. Lorentz had been correct. The quantization of the atoms matched his formula incorporated into the Bohr model. After a presentation of these results by Franck a few years later, Albert Einstein is said to have remarked, "It's so lovely it makes you cry."

On December 10, 1926, Franck and Hertz were awarded the 1925 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom".

Experiment
Franck and Hertz's original experiment used a heated vacuum tube containing a drop of mercury; they reported a tube temperature of 115 °C, at which the vapor pressure of mercury is about 100 pascals (about a thousandth of the atmospheric pressure). A contemporary Franck–Hertz tube is shown in the photograph. It is fitted with three electrodes: an electron-emitting, hot cathode; a metal mesh grid; and an anode. The grid's voltage is positive relative to the cathode, so that electrons emitted from the hot cathode are drawn to it. The electric current measured in the experiment is due to electrons that pass through the grid and reach the anode. The anode's electric potential is slightly negative relative to the grid, so that electrons that reach the anode have at least a corresponding amount of kinetic energy after passing the grid.

The graphs published by Franck and Hertz (see figure) show the dependence of the electric current flowing out of the anode upon the electric potential between the grid and the cathode.
 * At low potential differences—up to 4.9 volts—the current through the tube increased steadily with increasing potential difference. This behavior is typical of true vacuum tubes that don't contain mercury vapor; larger voltages lead to larger "space-charge limited current".
 * At 4.9 volts the current drops sharply, almost back to zero.
 * The current then increases steadily once again as the voltage is increased further, until 9.8 volts is reached (exactly 4.9+4.9 volts).
 * At 9.8 volts a similar sharp drop is observed.
 * While it isn't evident in the original measurements of the figure, this series of dips in current at approximately 4.9 volt increments continues to potentials of at least 70 volts.

Franck and Hertz noted in their first paper that the 4.9 eV characteristic energy of their experiment corresponded well to one of the wavelengths of light emitted by mercury atoms in gas discharges. They were using a quantum relationship between the energy of excitation and the corresponding wavelength of light, which they broadly attributed to Johannes Stark and to Arnold Sommerfeld; it predicts that 4.9 eV corresponds to light with a 254 nm wavelength. The same relationship was also incorporated in Einstein's 1905 photon theory of the photoelectric effect. In a second paper, Franck and Hertz reported the optical emission from their tubes, which emitted light with a single prominent wavelength 254 nm. The figure at the right shows the spectrum of a Franck–Hertz tube; nearly all of the light emitted has a single wavelength. For reference, the figure also shows the spectrum for a mercury gas discharge light, which emits light at several wavelengths besides 254 nm. The figure is based on the original spectra published by Franck and Hertz in 1914. The fact that the Franck–Hertz tube emitted just the single wavelength, corresponding nearly exactly to the voltage period they had measured, was very important.

Modeling of electron collisions with atoms
Franck and Hertz explained their experiment in terms of elastic and inelastic collisions between the electrons and the mercury atoms. Slowly moving electrons collide elastically with the mercury atoms. This means that the direction in which the electron is moving is altered by the collision, but its speed is unchanged. An elastic collision is illustrated in the figure, where the length of the arrow indicates the electron's speed. The mercury atom is unaffected by the collision, mostly because it is about four hundred thousand times more massive than an electron.

When the speed of the electron exceeds about 1.3 million metres per second, collisions with a mercury atom become inelastic. This speed corresponds to a kinetic energy of 4.9 eV, which is deposited into the mercury atom. As shown in the figure, the electron's speed is reduced, and the mercury atom becomes "excited". A short time later, the 4.9 eV of energy that was deposited into the mercury atom is released as ultraviolet light that has a wavelength of precisely 254 nm. Following light emission, the mercury atom returns to its original, unexcited state.

If electrons emitted from the cathode flew freely until they arrived at the grid, they would acquire a kinetic energy that's proportional to the voltage applied to the grid. 1 eV of kinetic energy corresponds to a potential difference of 1 volt between the grid and the cathode. Elastic collisions with the mercury atoms increase the time it takes for an electron to arrive at the grid, but the average kinetic energy of electrons arriving there isn't much affected.

When the grid voltage reaches 4.9 V, electron collisions near the grid become inelastic, and the electrons are greatly slowed. The kinetic energy of a typical electron arriving at the grid is reduced so much that it cannot travel further to reach the anode, whose voltage is set to slightly repel electrons. The current of electrons reaching the anode falls, as seen in the graph. Further increases in the grid voltage restore enough energy to the electrons that suffered inelastic collisions that they can again reach the anode. The current rises again as the grid potential rises beyond 4.9 V. At 9.8 V, the situation changes again. Electrons that have traveled roughly halfway from the cathode to the grid have already acquired enough energy to suffer a first inelastic collision. As they continue slowly towards the grid from the midway point, their kinetic energy builds up again, but as they reach the grid they can suffer a second inelastic collision. Once again, the current to the anode drops. At intervals of 4.9 volts this process will repeat; each time the electrons will undergo one additional inelastic collision.

Early quantum theory
While Franck and Hertz were unaware of it when they published their experiments in 1914, in 1913 Niels Bohr had published a model for atoms that was very successful in accounting for the optical properties of atomic hydrogen. These were usually observed in gas discharges, which emitted light at a series of wavelengths. Ordinary light sources like incandescent light bulbs emit light at all wavelengths. Bohr had calculated the wavelengths emitted by hydrogen very accurately.

The fundamental assumption of the Bohr model concerns the possible binding energies of an electron to the nucleus of an atom. The atom can be ionized if a collision with another particle supplies at least this binding energy. This frees the electron from the atom, and leaves a positively charged ion behind. There is an analogy with satellites orbiting the Earth. Every satellite has its own orbit, and practically any orbital distance, and any satellite binding energy, is possible. Since an electron is attracted to the positive charge of the atomic nucleus by a similar force, so-called "classical" calculations suggest that any binding energy should also be possible for electrons. However, Bohr assumed that only a specific series of binding energies occur, which correspond to the "quantum energy levels" for the electron. An electron is normally found in the lowest energy level, with the largest binding energy. Additional levels lie higher, with smaller binding energies. Intermediate binding energies lying between these levels are not permitted. This was a revolutionary assumption.

Franck and Hertz had proposed that the 4.9 V characteristic of their experiments was due to ionization of mercury atoms by collisions with the flying electrons emitted at the cathode. In 1915 Bohr published a paper noting that the measurements of Franck and Hertz were more consistent with the assumption of quantum levels in his own model for atoms. In the Bohr model, the collision excited an internal electron within the atom from its lowest level to the first quantum level above it. The Bohr model also predicted that light would be emitted as the internal electron returned from its excited quantum level to the lowest one; its wavelength corresponded to the energy difference of the atom's internal levels, which has been called the Bohr relation. Franck and Hertz's observation of emission from their tube at 254 nm was also consistent with Bohr's perspective. Writing following the end of World War I in 1918, Franck and Hertz had largely adopted the Bohr perspective for interpreting their experiment, which has become one of the experimental pillars of quantum mechanics. As Abraham Pais described it, "Now the beauty of Franck and Hertz's work lies not only in the measurement of the energy loss E2-E1 of the impinging electron, but they also observed that, when the energy of that electron exceeds 4.9 eV, mercury begins to emit ultraviolet light of a definite frequency ν as defined in the above formula. Thereby they gave (unwittingly at first) the first direct experimental proof of the Bohr relation!" Franck himself emphasized the importance of the ultraviolet emission experiment in an epilogue to the 1960 Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC) film about the Franck–Hertz experiment.

Experiment with neon
In instructional laboratories, the Franck–Hertz experiment is often done using neon gas, which shows the onset of inelastic collisions with a visible orange glow in the vacuum tube, and which also is non-toxic, should the tube be broken. With mercury tubes, the model for elastic and inelastic collisions predicts that there should be narrow bands between the anode and the grid where the mercury emits light, but the light is ultraviolet and invisible. With neon, the Franck–Hertz voltage interval is 18.7 volts, and an orange glow appears near the grid when 18.7 volts is applied. This glow will move closer to the cathode with increasing accelerating potential, and indicates the locations where electrons have acquired the 18.7 eV required to excite a neon atom. At 37.4 volts two distinct glows will be visible: one midway between the cathode and grid, and one right at the accelerating grid. Higher potentials, spaced at 18.7 volt intervals, will result in additional glowing regions in the tube.

An additional advantage of neon for instructional laboratories is that the tube can be used at room temperature. However, the wavelength of the visible emission is much longer than predicted by the Bohr relation and the 18.7 V interval. A partial explanation for the orange light involves two atomic levels lying 16.6 eV and 18.7 eV above the lowest level. Electrons excited to the 18.7 eV level fall to the 16.6 eV level, with concomitant orange light emission.

title: Franck–Hertz experiment