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FUDOSI

FUDOSI or FUDOESI (French: Fédération Universelle des Ordres et Sociétés Initiatiques, latin: Federatio Universalis Dirigens Ordines Societatesque Initiationis) was a federation of autonomous esoteric or mystical orders and societies, founded on August 14, 1934, in Brussels, Belgium, and disbanded in 1951. It was opposed by the similarly named Fédération Universelle des Ordres, Fraternités et Sociétés Initiatiques (FUDOFSI).

Background
FUDOSI was an attempt to create a federation of mystical orders with the mission "to protect the sacred liturgies, rites and doctrines of the traditional initiatory Orders from being appropriated and profaned by clandestine organizations." One of its leading founders was AMORC (Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis). An AMORC document describes the nature of FUDOSI as follows:

"Some persons, whose minds have not as yet received sufficient light, have been wondering why it was necessary to gather in a Universal Federation the Initiatique Orders and Societies, which, in their own field of work, enjoy the most absolute and complete freedom and perfect autonomy and independence. To this query we may reply that, more than in anything else, it is the initiatique work that the greatest vigilance is indispensable and that a strict and active international discipline must be exercised. We must acknowledge and regret, that there exist many false prophets and a number of so-called initiates who use, for selfish and tyrannical purposes of domination, the pretext of initiation to thrust themselves on, and exploit, gullible and sincere persons. It was high time to warn the public against these false leaders and against noxious doctrines which they taught to trusting souls. In each country, each authentic and regular Order knows its imitators and such false prophets. It was necessary to watch these clandestine movements, to expose these impostors or instruments of hidden and unavowed forces, in all countries, wherever they be operating, and thus avoid any confusion between the regular and authentic Orders and false Organizations that are harmful or that give teachings that have nothing to do with the Universal Tradition and Esoterism. And also it was necessary that the authentic Orders be careful in selecting their members and their officers and in maintaining their adepts and students on the right path of the true doctrines, obliging them to follow a strict line of discipline, rational, sincere and conscientious work, so as to avoid radical teachings and heterodoxy. This immense work which was intended to protect the Orders against their inner and outer enemies has been successfully carried on by the F.U.D.O.S.I. and is now going on."

Leadership and organisation
SAR, a title which means Son of Ra or Son Altesse Royale (His Royal Highness), was attached to all dignitaries of FUDOSI. After the first organised convention in 1934, 12 members were chosen to form the Supreme Council, led by 3 imperators:

 * Sar Hieronymus (Emile Dantinne) Imperator of Europe
 * Sar Alden (Harvey Spencer Lewis) Imperator of the American continent
 * Sar Yesir (Victor Blanchard) Imperator of "The Orient".

H. S. Lewis (Sar Alden) created the symbol of FUDOSI. After Lewis' death in 1939, his son Ralph Maxwell Lewis became one of the three imperators of FUDOSI, under the name Sar Validivar. In 1946 Andre Cordonnier became one of its imperators.

Associated organisations
Here is a list of the orders and societies represented on the first FUDOSI convention of 1934:

Ordre maçonnique oriental de Memphis-Misraim (stricte observance) and the Mixed Order of Memphis-Mizraim, the only Masonic organizations associated with FUDOSI, were expelled according to a decision taken by the three Imperators (Lewis, Dantinne, Blanchard) on August 1, 1935.
 * Ordre de la Rose+Croix universelle (Sar Hieronymus)
 * Ordre de la Rose+Croix universitaire (Sar Hieronymus, Sar Elgrim)
 * Ordre kabbalistique de la Rose+Croix (Sar Yesir representing Lucien Mauchel)
 * Confrerie des Freres illumines de la Rose+Croix (Sar Amertis)
 * A.M.O.R.C. U.S.A. (Sar Alden, Sar Emmanuel, Sar Iohannes)
 * Militia crucifera evangelica (Sar Alden)
 * Ordre ancien et mystique de la Rose+Croix AMORC-Switzerland (Sar Amertis representing Sar Alkmaion)
 * Societe alchimique de France (Sar Amertis)
 * Ordre des Samaritains inconnus (Sar Amertis)
 * Ordre hermetiste tetramegiste et mystique or Ordre Pythagoricien (Sar Succus, Sar Helios)
 * Ordre martiniste et synarchique (Sar Yesir)
 * Fraternite des Polaires (Sar Yesir)
 * Ordre maçonnique oriental de Memphis-Mizraim stricte observance (Sar Iohannes, Sar Ludovicus)
 * Co-masonic Order of Memphis-Mizraim (Sar Laya, Sar Fulgur)
 * L'Eglise gnostique universelle (Tau Targelius = Victor Blanchard)

Position with respect to Masonry
A document by FUDOSI titled "Rapport sur les ordres et sociétés initiatiques. 12/10/1941", written by FUDOSI Imperator Emille Dantinne, states with regard to Freemasonry:

"In 1934, at the time of the foundation of the F.U.D.O.S.I., Freemasonry was condemned by the attending Orders as an atheistic organization and no Masonic Order would be admitted to the federation. One exception was made in favour of the Antient Rite of Memphis-Misraim, which was recognized as a spiritual Order not recognized by the other Masonic Obediences."

But the admission turned out to be an error. Later in the document we read:

"... no collaboration is possible between the F.U.D.O.S.I. and any masonic rite or order. In 1935, the leaders of the F.U.D.O.S.I. excluded the only masonic order within their ranks. They even forced their members to break all their ties to masonry, under penalty of exclusion (with the exception of Mr.Wittemans, who remained a member of a masonic organization)."

These declarations may be considered inconsistent with the fact that Freemasonry requires its members to believe in a Supreme Being. It is unknown whether these views were exclusive to Emille Dantinne or held by more FUDOSI members, however Sar Alden was a member of the Antient Rite of Memphis-Misraim.

Dissolution
After the end of the 8th convention (August 14, 1951) FUDOSI dissolved after strong disagreements between Emile Dantinne and Ralph M. Lewis. The 8th convention ended after Ralph M. Lewis criticized Jean Mallinger (Sar Elgrim), a FUDOSI dignitary, for having a "problem" with AMORC for its admission of Afro-American members. The three Imperators signed an official document that marked the end of FUDOSI.

authors: ಮಲ್ನಾಡಾಚ್ ಕೊಂಕ್ಣೊ

title: FUDOSI


text:
Talk:Abaris the Hyperborean

Comments
Is Greek all right?

 * The Greek looks fine; but I am wondering why what's new in this article isn't simply added to Abaris? Smerdis of Tlön 20:20, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Yes, it is. Merging however is not. There are more Abaris than the Hyperborean. There is more to culture than meets the eye. Reductionism, American style, does not a culture make. - irismeister 21:24, 2004 Apr 16 (UTC)

irismeister: Wikipedia articles are not proper venues for polemic. Particularly when the polemic is only vaguely related to the topic at hand. I understand that you have important criticisms of Western medicine, reductionism, occultism, the Greek approach to ethnography, and a number of other topics; but they really don't belong in the article about Abaris. Feel free to add more, but please do keep it neutral. Bacchiad 15:53, 8 Jul 2004 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Abaris the Hyperborean


text:
Cronbach's alpha

Cronbach's alpha (Cronbach's $$\alpha$$), also known as tau-equivalent reliability ($$\rho_T$$) or coefficient alpha (coefficient $$\alpha$$), is a reliability coefficient and a measure of the internal consistency of tests and measures.

Numerous studies warn against using Cronbach's alpha unconditionally. Statisticians regard reliability coefficients based on structural equation modeling (SEM) or generalizability theory as superior alternatives in many situations.

History
In his initial 1951 publication, Lee Cronbach described the coefficient as Coefficient alpha and included an additional derivation. Coefficient alpha had been used implicitly in previous studies,   but his interpretation was thought to be more intuitively attractive relative to previous studies and it became quite popular.

 * In 1967, Melvin Novick and Charles Lewis proved that it was equal to reliability if the true scores of the compared tests or measures vary by a constant, which is independent of the people measured. In this case, the tests or measurements were said to be "essentially tau-equivalent."
 * In 1978, Cronbach asserted that the reason the initial 1951 publication was widely cited was "mostly because [he] put a brand name on a common-place coefficient." He explained that he had originally planned to name other types of reliability coefficients, such as those used in inter-rater reliability and test-retest reliability, after consecutive Greek letters (i.e., $$\beta$$, $$\gamma$$, etc.), but later changed his mind.
 * Later, in 2004, Cronbach and Richard Shavelson encouraged readers to use generalizability theory rather than $$\rho_{T}$$. Cronbach opposed the use of the name "Cronbach's alpha" and explicitly denied the existence of studies that had published the general formula of KR-20 before Cronbach's 1951 publication of the same name.

Prerequisites for using Cronbach's alpha
To use Cronbach's alpha as a reliability coefficient, the following conditions must be met:
 * 1) The data is normally distributed and linear;
 * 2) The compared tests or measures are essentially tau-equivalent;
 * 3) Errors in the measurements are independent.

Formula and calculation
Cronbach's alpha is calculated by taking a score from each scale item and correlating it with the total score for each observation. The resulting correlations are then compared with the variance for all individual item scores. Cronbach's alpha is best understood as a function of the number of questions or items in a measure, the average covariance between pairs of items, and the overall variance of the total measured score. $$\alpha = {k \over k-1 } \left(1 - {\sum_{i=1}^k \sigma^2_{y_i} \over \sigma^2_y} \right)

$$$$k$$ represents the number of items in the measure

$$\sigma_{y_i}^2$$ the variance associated with each item i

$$\sigma_y^2$$ the variance associated with the total scores $$\Bigg(y = \sum_{i=1}^k y_i\Bigg)$$

Alternatively, it can be calculated through the following formula:
 * $$ \alpha = {k \bar c \over \bar v + (k - 1) \bar c} $$

where

$$\bar v$$ represents the average variance

$$\bar c$$ represents the average inter-item covariance.

The value of Cronbach's alpha ranges between zero and one
By definition, reliability cannot be less than zero and cannot be greater than one. Many textbooks mistakenly equate $$\rho_{T}$$ with reliability and give an inaccurate explanation of its range. $$\rho_{T}$$ can be less than reliability when applied to data that are not essentially tau-equivalent. Suppose that $$X_2$$ copied the value of $$X_1$$ as it is, and $$X_3$$ copied by multiplying the value of $$X_1$$ by -1.

The covariance matrix between items is as follows, $$\rho_{T}=-3$$. Negative $$\rho_{T}$$ can occur for reasons such as negative discrimination or mistakes in processing reversely scored items.

Unlike $$\rho_{T}$$, SEM-based reliability coefficients (e.g., $$\rho_{C}$$) are always greater than or equal to zero.

This anomaly was first pointed out by Cronbach (1943) to criticize $$\rho_{T}$$, but Cronbach (1951) did not comment on this problem in his article that otherwise discussed potentially problematic issues related $$\rho_{T}$$.

If there is no measurement error, the value of Cronbach's alpha is one.
This anomaly also originates from the fact that $$\rho_{T}$$ underestimates reliability.

Suppose that $$X_2$$ copied the value of $$X_1$$ as it is, and $$X_3$$ copied by multiplying the value of $$X_1$$ by two.

The covariance matrix between items is as follows, $$\rho_{T}=0.9375$$. For the above data, both $$\rho_{P}$$ and $$\rho_{C}$$ have a value of one.

The above example is presented by Cho and Kim (2015).

A high value of Cronbach's alpha indicates homogeneity between the items
Many textbooks refer to $$\rho_{T}$$ as an indicator of homogeneity between items. This misconception stems from the inaccurate explanation of Cronbach (1951) that high $$\rho_{T}$$ values show homogeneity between the items. Homogeneity is a term that is rarely used in modern literature, and related studies interpret the term as referring to uni-dimensionality. Several studies have provided proofs or counterexamples that high $$\rho_{T}$$ values do not indicate uni-dimensionality. See counterexamples below. $$\rho_{T}=0.72$$ in the uni-dimensional data above. $$\rho_{T}=0.72$$ in the multidimensional data above.

The above data have $$\rho_{T}=0.9692$$, but are multidimensional. The above data have $$\rho_{T}=0.4$$, but are uni-dimensional.

Uni-dimensionality is a prerequisite for $$\rho_{T}$$. One should check uni-dimensionality before calculating $$\rho_{T}$$ rather than calculating $$\rho_{T}$$ to check uni-dimensionality.

A high value of Cronbach's alpha indicates internal consistency
The term "internal consistency" is commonly used in the reliability literature, but its meaning is not clearly defined. The term is sometimes used to refer to a certain kind of reliability (e.g., internal consistency reliability), but it is unclear exactly which reliability coefficients are included here, in addition to $$\rho_{T}$$. Cronbach (1951) used the term in several senses without an explicit definition. Cho and Kim (2015) showed that $$\rho_{T}$$ is not an indicator of any of these.

Removing items using "alpha if item deleted" always increases reliability
Removing an item using "alpha if item deleted" may result in 'alpha inflation,' where sample-level reliability is reported to be higher than population-level reliability. It may also reduce population-level reliability. The elimination of less-reliable items should be based not only on a statistical basis but also on a theoretical and logical basis. It is also recommended that the whole sample be divided into two and cross-validated.

Nunnally's recommendations for the level of reliability
Nunnally's book is often mentioned as the primary source for determining the appropriate level of dependability coefficients. However, his proposals contradict his aims as he suggests that different criteria should be used depending on the goal or stage of the investigation. Regardless of the type of study, whether it is exploratory research, applied research, or scale development research, a criterion of 0.7 is universally employed. He advocated 0.7 as a criterion for the early stages of a study, most studies published in the journal do not fall under that category. Rather than 0.7, Nunnally's applied research criterion of 0.8 is more suited for most empirical studies.

His recommendation level did not imply a cutoff point. If a criterion means a cutoff point, it is important whether or not it is met, but it is unimportant how much it is over or under. He did not mean that it should be strictly 0.8 when referring to the criteria of 0.8. If the reliability has a value near 0.8 (e.g., 0.78), it can be considered that his recommendation has been met.

Cost to obtain a high level of reliability
Nunnally's idea was that there is a cost to increasing reliability, so there is no need to try to obtain maximum reliability in every situation.

Trade-off with validity
Measurements with perfect reliability lack validity. For example, a person who takes the test with a reliability of one will either receive a perfect score or a zero score, because if they answer one item correctly or incorrectly, they will answer all other items in the same manner. The phenomenon where validity is sacrificed to increase reliability is known as the attenuation paradox.

A high value of reliability can conflict with content validity. To achieve high content validity, each item should comprehensively represent the content to be measured. However, a strategy of repeatedly measuring essentially the same question in different ways is often used solely to increase reliability.

Trade-off with efficiency
When the other conditions are equal, reliability increases as the number of items increases. However, the increase in the number of items hinders the efficiency of measurements.

Methods to increase reliability
Despite the costs associated with increasing reliability discussed above, a high level of reliability may be required. The following methods can be considered to increase reliability.

Before data collection:
 * Eliminate the ambiguity of the measurement item.
 * Do not measure what the respondents do not know.
 * Increase the number of items. However, care should be taken not to excessively inhibit the efficiency of the measurement.
 * Use a scale that is known to be highly reliable.
 * Conduct a pretest - discover in advance the problem of reliability.
 * Exclude or modify items that are different in content or form from other items (e.g., reverse-scored items).

After data collection:
 * Remove the problematic items using "alpha if item deleted". However, this deletion should be accompanied by a theoretical rationale.
 * Use a more accurate reliability coefficient than $$\rho_{T}$$. For example, $$\rho_{C}$$ is 0.02 larger than $$\rho_{T}$$ on average.

Which reliability coefficient to use
$$\rho_T$$ is used in an overwhelming proportion. A study estimates that approximately 97% of studies use $$\rho_T$$ as a reliability coefficient.

However, simulation studies comparing the accuracy of several reliability coefficients have led to the common result that $$\rho_T$$ is an inaccurate reliability coefficient.

Methodological studies are critical of the use of $$\rho_T$$. Simplifying and classifying the conclusions of existing studies are as follows.
 * 1) Conditional use: Use $$\rho_T$$ only when certain conditions are met.
 * 2) Opposition to use: $$\rho_T$$ is inferior and should not be used.

Alternatives to Cronbach's alpha
Existing studies are practically unanimous in that they oppose the widespread practice of using $$\rho_T$$ unconditionally for all data. However, different opinions are given on which reliability coefficient should be used instead of $$\rho_T$$.

Different reliability coefficients ranked first in each simulation study    comparing the accuracy of several reliability coefficients.

The majority opinion is to use structural equation modeling or SEM-based reliability coefficients as an alternative to $$\rho_T$$.

However, there is no consensus on which of the several SEM-based reliability coefficients (e.g., uni-dimensional or multidimensional models) is the best to use.

Some people suggest $$\omega_H$$ as an alternative, but $$\omega_H$$ shows information that is completely different from reliability. $$\omega_H$$ is a type of coefficient comparable to Reveille's $$\beta$$. They do not substitute, but complement reliability.

Among SEM-based reliability coefficients, multidimensional reliability coefficients are rarely used, and the most commonly used is $$\rho_C$$, also known as composite or congeneric reliability.

Software for SEM-based reliability coefficients
General-purpose statistical software such as SPSS and SAS include a function to calculate $$\rho_T$$. Users who don't know the formula $$\rho_T$$ have no problem in obtaining the estimates with just a few mouse clicks.

SEM software such as AMOS, LISREL, and MPLUS does not have a function to calculate SEM-based reliability coefficients. Users need to calculate the result by inputting it to the formula. To avoid this inconvenience and possible error, even studies reporting the use of SEM rely on $$\rho_T$$ instead of SEM-based reliability coefficients. There are a few alternatives to automatically calculate SEM-based reliability coefficients.

 * 1) R (free): The psych package calculates various reliability coefficients.
 * 2) EQS (paid): This SEM software has a function to calculate reliability coefficients.
 * 3) RelCalc (free): Available with Microsoft Excel. $$\rho_C$$ can be obtained without the need for SEM software. Various multidimensional SEM reliability coefficients and various types of $$\omega_H$$ can be calculated based on the results of SEM software.

title: Cronbach's alpha


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Talk:Abaris

Bladud, founder of Bath, also named Abaris by the Grecians.

Attempts to equate Abaris and magic, or shamanism are reductionist, for Abaris is more of a convenient name for a whole class of eurocentric medical school values and tradition. Recently, reputed commentators, including Mihai Olteanu and Dan Olteanu have argued conclusively that ́Αβαρις: Σκύθης and Σκύθου υιός in the Suda do not necessarily mean that Abaris was a Scythian. Indeed, Σκύθης was a known figure of a foundation myth (for instance in Herodotus), and both passages converge in showing that Abaris was perhaps only the son of a certain Scythes. -		 -	In conclusion, this enigmatic figure of the higher European antiquity was more of a legendary "wisdom-figure" than a single person or even a representative of some particular trade.

title: Talk:Abaris


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Talk:I Love the '70s

Is this the same series that showed on BBC TV a few years ago? If so then that should probably be mentioned!! GRAHAMUK 22:03, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)

They did. It was noted in the closing credits of every episode.

 * Not exactly the same...the only thing in common between the two shows was the name and the format. In other words, the actual content of the UK and U.S. shows differed, which makes sense, really. BillyH 16:22, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Maybe the British show needs to be put under titles such as I♥1971 or I♥... (BBC television & compilation album brand)? (Heaven)

THEY BACK! in I Love the 70s Volume II_ Takua X

UK Inaccuracies?
The entry states that parts were inaccurate. Would be nice to explain what they were. --Navstar 04:02, 25 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree, in fact the article has many uncited POV statements and weasel words, I've removed the following text; The BBC series was soon proven to be riddled with inaccuracies - many trends of the 1960s and 1980s were included as "fads" of the 70s. The BBC received many complaints and were accused of "hyping the 70s" and "rewriting history" at the expense of the 60s and 80s.

 * Who "proved it was riddled with inaccuracies"?

 * MINOR inaccuracies I've heard of were Space Hoppers and Stylophones, which were both released in the late 60s, but they were definitely 1970s crazes, so it made perfect sense to include them in a series about 1970s culture.

 * Criticizing the series for those reasons is like complaining that a documentary about the 1960s shoudln't mention the popularity of Volkswagen Beetles because they were invented in the 1930s. 172.189.8.96 20:07, 1 February 2007 (UTC)

Individual episode articles
If anyone here has copies of the UK episodes of I Love the 70s (and/or 80s and 90s), it'd be great if they could help with the episode pages, as at the moment they're incredibly US-centric, not even mentioning the UK versions. I did I Love 1970 after finding what I believe to be a complete list of the topics covered in the UK version, but that was the only list I could find. I'm hoping the general style of that article will carry through to the others, should they decide to add UK information into them. BillyH 02:04, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

Merge
All the individual episodes should be merged into this page since they're all stubs, have little potential of being expanded, and this page is also a stub. I'll be marking the various other decades as well. Æµ§œš¹ [aɪm ˈfɻɛ̃ⁿdˡi] 20:03, 31 July 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:I Love the '70s


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Talk:Inverted pyramid (journalism)

Suitability of the metaphor
IMO the described usage is misleading because in this case the metaphor is supposed to depict quality (importance) by means of quantity (size). IMO when visualizing a pyramid a more readily impression is quantity into quantity: on the top of the pyramid a *few* but *important* things; at the bottom of the pyramid is *multitude* of less important things.

The pyramid metaphor is a popular depiction of society, e.g.,  king&queen (important few)  on top and plain folks (or slaves or whoever) on the bottom. On the other hand, inverted pyramid is tip *down*, hence the clash of the two metaphors.

Well, journalists, who probably coined the term, are hardly known to be experts in science :-)

mikkalai 25 Nov 2003
 * I agree completely, but that's the way it is, as Walter Cronkite would say. It would be interesting to see if anyone has found a more descriptive metaphor.  Actually I came here looking to add a "Spiral approach" article, which is a similar concept in teaching, where you first learn broadly about a subject with generalities, then go into the details.  I like that because too often the details get you so bogged down that you miss the really important things, so it's also like the phrase, "the critical few", or "the tyranny of the urgent", or "can't see the forest for the trees".  I knew it would relate to journalism and fit in here.  Also, the more I think about that one, it's also not the best metaphor.  Something like 20 questions describes it the best, where you communicate as if you could be cut off at any time, which relates very well to the telegraph origin.  So it seems like an upright pyramid makes more sense.  Anyway, if anyone has any ideas on what should go into a "Spiral approach article, please add something here or let me know (or however it should be done - I'm still new here. Can you create a talk page before the article page for brainstorming?. Spalding 12:08, Sep 12, 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm a journalist and I've never heard of spiral articles. But the hourglass format might be similar: a summary, then a narrative.Maurreen 14:45, 13 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I just compared a spiral approach to learning to the inverted pyramid. It's not a journalism term at all, more of a teaching one that I remember from school textbooks.  I'm an engineer, not a teacher.

 * I agree, in fact—not knowing the phrase before—my first impression was that article describes the wrong order of transferring information (an anti-pattern) :)) --Kubanczyk 22:31, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Back to the suitability of the inverted pyramid metaphor: As Spalding says above, "that's the way it is", the article explains how the expression is used and understood by writers. But it still needs proper citations please. A verified WP article is about what is, not the way anyone would like it to be. When I worked as a daily newspaper reporter the inverted pyramid was regularly referred to and well-understood, and very helpful as shorthand (pardon the pun) to focus on what was important first, so a) I can vouch for its use this way in practice, and b) I agree the earlier explanation was unclear - it needs to emphasise importance. The inverted pyramid image works on two levels: the top of the triangle=the top of the story, and importance=weight=size, so importance=weight=size at the top. The issue of "quantity" is not of concern here (but interestingly, importance is the criterion for distinguishing the "few" from the "multitude" anyway.) As these issues appear to have been outstanding for a long time, I've tried to address the concerns above, and below, in clarifying the concept and its usage in my bold rewrite.

 * As for finding "a more descriptive metaphor", that would be like saying let's find a more descriptive metaphor for the computer "desktop" - despite all the valid, logical objections (there's no desk, etc.), it has become part of our shared culture. Language rarely evolves from deliberate attempts to change it. -- Bricaniwi (talk) 01:05, 2 December 2009 (UTC)

quote
"General Grant and his wife were advertised to be at the theatre this" may be a mistake, or an unexplained demonstration of a telegraph interruption. Badanedwa 08:17, Jun 21, 2004 (UTC)

 * If you are suggesting the word "advertised" may be a mistake, in those days advance notices of the itineraries of public figures were printed ("advertised") in newspapers. Or if you mean the sentence is a fragment, I think the ... elipsis at the end is meant to show that in the original source the story continues, but only this much has been printed here. I think the final sentence in (the current brief version of) the article implies this: "The transitional sentence about the Grants suggests that less-important facts are being added to the rest of the story." -- Bricaniwi (talk) 01:05, 2 December 2009 (UTC)

Deletions
I deleted the sentence with Grant (see above) and the hourglass link, because the link did not refer to writing. Maurreen 14:45, 13 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Looks like the Grant sentence was added back, probably because it is referred to later: "The transitional sentence about the Grants suggests that less-important facts are being added to the rest of the story." -- Bricaniwi (talk) 01:05, 2 December 2009 (UTC)

Suitability of the Lincoln story as an example
The Lincoln story is hardly an inverted pyramid (as described in the rest of the article) but a chronological narrative. Indeed, the most important point (that the president is at death's door) is at the end.

On the matter of the metaphor, maybe news-style is better seen as a pyramid that's actually the right way up. The key facts (the point) are summarised briefly at the start. The detail, which gets less and less crucial and possibly more and more verbose, follows in declining order of importance.

www.danon.co.uk

 * Please sign posts with four tildes so they are timestamped.

 * I agree the Lincoln story is not as lean or tight a summary as modern hard news stories often are now, but compare it to rambling, descriptive, narrative and POV pre-telegraph styles! The point about the seriousness of the wound is actually in the third par: "The wound is mortal", and repeated in the fourth: "The President ... is now dying." Remember this was written before Lincoln died, so his death was not a fact then, and the writer/editor may have been sensitive about alarming people unnecessarily. Also the (current) sentence in the article immediately following the example story comments on improvements that could be made. -- Bricaniwi (talk) 01:05, 2 December 2009 (UTC)

 * I was struck by the same thing reading this. Also note that the why is never mentioned at all - indeed, there is no mention of "sic semper tyrannis" or whateverinhell Booth shouted (and the reporters ought to have heard some story).  Maybe it's too obvious, or maybe the 7th W there is "whiteout", not sure which. Wnt (talk) 18:15, 21 October 2015 (UTC)

Uncited statement
"Despite the name, the figure is almost always drawn simply as an equilateral triangle with an apex pointing downward, rather than a three-dimensional pyramid. "

 * You raise two issues:
 * 1. Yes, this article (still) badly needs citations. Please. The sentence seems to have been modified anyway since you quoted it. (I haven't checked the history.) I suspect it was the editor's own observation and/or helpful guidance to readers, rather than from sources.
 * 2. I've tried to address the issue of how to represent the "pyramid" in my rewrite. My personal view is that the "name" pyramid was never meant literally, so never needed to be 3-D. For the analogy with writing, i.e. a surface with text on it, a simple 2-D shape works best anyway. (But if some artist wanted to work up a full-colour hi-res 3-D image of a physically-precarious upside-down Egyptian pyramid, I could work with that too.) -- Bricaniwi (talk) 01:05, 2 December 2009 (UTC)

 * Calling for a reference to inverted pyramid being the preferred method of news writers is like calling for a reference to say that people breathe air. The notability of the subject is that the method is just about the only one used by the news, often to great detriment. If someone says (as I am) that IP is a distortion of reality but is used widely, that needs a cite.

 * Any journalism textbook will tell you that this is what's done. We can find one, but we would not need to be having this conversation, were it not an issue at all.

 * Re the suitability of the metaphor, the base of the pyramid is not merely big, it's what holds up the rest. That one fact that seemingly holds up the rest of the information, or provides a rationale for doing the story at all, is what goes in the lead. Yet that is subjective and that subjectivity is the concept that needs to be subjected to scrutiny and critique. Dioxinfreak (talk) 19:40, 11 December 2009 (UTC)

Invention of the Telegraph
This claim is particularly dubious, as what we today call simply the "telegraph" was originally termed the electric telegraph. Semaphore-based telegraphs were in use earlier, starting with the late 1700s. Fell Gleaming ( talk ) 10:35, 9 May 2010 (UTC)

Much older than you think
As a rare books librarian, I know this image pre-dates its use by the news media by centuries. In that light, it would seem appropriate to "make room" in the article for its use in colophons - and was only later adapted for news media. The way the article appears now (4 Sept. 2015), it reads as if the design is totally and nearly exclusively part of the news media which it isn't. - kosboot (talk) 16:28, 4 September 2015 (UTC)
 * When you say "this image" do you mean specifically the upside-down pyramid as a pictoral design and metaphor, or just the idea of organizing information this way? If it's the former, could you point to a source that could be cited in this article? - DavidWBrooks (talk) 00:29, 5 September 2015 (UTC)

Requested move 15 March 2017

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: Moved. Enough of a consensus that there is no primary topic between the four mentioned topics. A dab page should be created. — Amakuru (talk) 10:31, 23 March 2017 (UTC)

Inverted pyramid → Inverted pyramid (journalism) – This article is one of three meanings. The hatnote suggests La Pyramide Inversée, whose English name and redirect is Inverted Pyramid. But that is a specific example of the general Inverted pyramid (architecture). And we also have The Inverted Pyramid (novel). So the non-proper exact name has two meanings, and the other two meanings differ only by capitalization or leading article. I was about to create Inverted pyramid (disambiguation), but I can't find that the journalism term is overwhelming WP:PRIMARYTOPIC, and the multitude of other unrelated topics further leads WP:MULTIDABS to recommend having a disambiguation page at the base-name. So instead I propose renaming Inverted pyramid itself to free up this base name for the DAB page. DMacks (talk) 06:27, 15 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Oppose - The use of the term in architecture is rather obscure, as evidenced by the short article. The formal title of the artwork is French, and not English. The other uses are also not common. Therefore, the best solution is to make Inverted pyramid (disambiguation) alongside this page which describes the most common usage. The lede of this article says, "It is widely taught to mass communication and journalism students, and is systematically used in Anglophone media." For an example of this type of arrangement, see Science and the hatnote which says, "This article is about the general term. For other uses, see Science (disambiguation)". -- Fuzheado | Talk 11:28, 16 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Support. I confess ignorance about the journalism concept (which is admittedly not a good start for a RM discussion), but I did hear about the management term reverse hierarchy, of which "Inverted pyramid" is a synonym. Inverted pyramid management to see what I mean, and it is very well covered in books as well. At the very minimum, we need Inverted pyramid (disambiguation), but I don't think that the journalism term rises to the level of WP:PRIMARYTOPIC taken all other topics together. No such user (talk) 15:29, 21 March 2017 (UTC)
 * I created inverted pyramid (management) as a redirect to that. DMacks (talk) 15:55, 21 March 2017 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

title: Talk:Inverted pyramid (journalism)


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Rescue on Fractalus!

Rescue On Fractalus! is a space combat simulator video game created by Lucasfilm Games. It was originally released in 1985 for the Atari 8-bit computers and Atari 5200 console, then ported to the Apple II, ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, Tandy Color Computer 3, and Commodore 64. The player flies a space fighter near the surface of a planet, with the goal of rescuing downed pilots. The terrain is generated via fractals, from which the eponymous planet and game title are taken.

The game was one of the first two products from the fledgling Lucasfilm Computer Division Games Group led by Peter Langston. David Fox was the project leader and designer. Music was mainly composed by Charlie Kellner.

Flying

The game uses fractal technology to create the craggy mountains of an alien planet, where the visilibility was drastically reduced by the dense atmosphere. The player controls a fictional "Valkyrie" space fighter (converted for search and rescue duty) from a first-person view, attempting to land and pick up downed Ethercorps pilots. Some of these mountains hold anti-aircraft guns, which have to be avoided or destroyed. Due to the varied terrain, the direction finder has to be used to locate the pilots, whose visual beacons are often masked by mountain ridges.

At higher levels, the enemy Jaggis begin flying kamikaze saucers. The mission area also moves into day/night boundaries. Night missions are particularly difficult, requiring diligent use of the altimeter to avoid crashing.

Flying consumes fuel. The way to replenish this supply is to rescue downed pilots who bring their remaining fuel supplies on board.

The thick atmosphere is sufficiently acidic that downed pilots' craft are being slowly disintegrated. An exposed pilot's survival time outside his craft is less than a minute, due to his flight suit and helmet literally dissolving. This makes it imperative that the player rescue pilots as quickly and efficiently as possible.

Rescue
After landing within sufficient "walking" proximity to the pilot, the player shuts down the engine, also turning off the ship's shields. Turning on the engines prematurely would incinerate the exposed pilot and the shields would prevent him from entering the ship. The downed pilot then disembarks his crashed ship, runs down to the Valkyrie's cockpit, and knocks on the crew entry door; the player can then open up and let the pilot in to complete the rescue. Failing to open the door kills the pilot; his knocking on the hatch becomes at first frantic, then slower and more feeble as he perishes in the corrosive environment. Sometimes the pilot found is an Ace Pilot, indicated visually by their purple helmet. These are worth ten times the score awarded for a normal pilot to the player.

As a twist on this relatively straightforward premise, added at the suggestion of George Lucas, some of the "pilots in distress" are actually hostile aliens in disguise; this twist was kept out of the game's manual and marketing. After landing near a downed pilot, the player watches him run off-screen, and then has to wait for several tense seconds—if it were human, the familiar, frantic "tap-tap" noise would be heard from the ship's hatch; otherwise, the alien Jaggi would suddenly jump back into view, sans helmet, roaring and trying to smash into the cockpit. Unless the player restores the ship's shields, the windscreen cracks open and the pilot is killed. Likewise, inadvertently letting a Jaggi pilot into the player's ship has disastrous results — it begins to dismantle the ship. In early levels, the Jaggi can be distinguished by their green heads versus the white human helmets, but in later levels the aliens evidently learn to don the human helmet and become identical in appearance. This, along with an unpredictable pause between the human/alien approach and the tap-tap/alien jump makes for a tense experience. According to head developer David Fox, this shock moment made Rescue on Fractalus! "the first computer game to really scare people".

Development
Rescue on Fractalus!, together with Ballblazer, were the first two games developed by the fledgling Lucasfilm Computer Division Games Group. The Games Group had been established in 1982 on a $1 million funding from Atari, Inc. in exchange for the "right of first refusal" for Atari as publisher. Both games were developed with the Atari 8-bit computers and Atari 5200 console in mind.

During development, Rescue on Fractalus! was named Behind Jaggi Lines!. This name refers both to the Jaggis, the fictional race of hostile aliens in the game, as well as the lack of spatial anti-aliasing in the game's graphics, resulting in jagged diagonal (or curved) lines, colloquially known as "jaggies". The squiggles visible on the Jaggi's suit when it attacks are actually the initials of the development team rotated by 90 degrees; Atari at the time famously barred developers from having their name displayed in games.

The developers of Rescue on Fractalus wanted the game to be set in Star Wars universe but were not allowed to do so by George Lucas.

The games were ready by March 1984 and were first publicly revealed on a Lucasfilm press conference on May 8. Cartridge versions for the Atari computers and the 5200 were planned to be the released first in the third quarter of 1984, with disk versions for the Commodore 64, IBM PC and Apple IIc and IIe coming under the Atarisoft label in the fourth quarter of that year. Rescue on Fractalus! and Ballblazer were also scheduled to be released for the then-upcoming Atari 7800 console.

On July 3, Warner Communications sold all assets of the Consumer Division of Atari, Inc. to Jack Tramiel, and the agreement with Lucasfilm fell through. On the Winter Consumer Electronics Show on January 5–8, 1985, with both Rescue on Fractalus! and Ballblazer not yet being released on any platform, Epyx became a distributor for both games, which would be released in disk format for the Atari 8-bit and Commodore 64 computers. The Atari 5200 versions were not part of the distribution deal. Epyx finally published the Atari 8-bit versions of both games by May 1985, and the Commodore 64 version of Rescue by August of that year.

Besides the Atari 8-bit and Commodore 64 computers, Rescue on Fractalus was ported to the Apple II and TRS-80 Color Computer; and to Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum computers by Activision, who published the game in Europe. While the IBM PC port announced in 1984 never materialized, Tramiel's Atari Corporation eventually released the Atari 5200 cartridge version in limited quantities in late 1986, manufactured from the stock inherited from the July 1984 buyout of Atari, Inc.; and the cartridge version for the Atari 8-bit computers in December 1987, packaged for their new XE Game System.

The Atari 7800 version was cancelled before the game was completed. In 2004, an unfinished prototype was found in the possession of its original programmers, with a significant amount of gameplay elements not implemented.

Reception
Computer Gaming World stated that Fractalus and Ballblazer "are slightly weak in the finer points of game design, but ... set a new standard for arcade-style games that will set out future expectations". In 1996, the magazine named Rescue on Fractalus! the 82nd best game ever, with the editors remarking that "many keep old computers around just to play it". Commodore User thought the game was "nothing special" and said it "provides reasonable, if unchanging, gameplay with a good flight simulator, but it lacks something, probably a proper identity". Zzap!64 were impressed by the game, awarding it a score of 91%. They said that it was an excellent shoot-em-up.

Legacy
LucasArts and Factor 5 began work on a sequel titled Return to Fractalus for the Amiga in the late 1980s, but it was decided that the hardware couldn't handle the concept being worked on. An Amiga port of Rescue On Fractalus to be published by Rainbow Arts was announced in a February 1991 issue of The One, but was never released. By 1994, Factor 5 believed that the current generation of 3D consoles had the technology the Fractalus sequel required and again began work on the game. Eventually, the work on game was converted to Star Wars: Rogue Squadron for the Nintendo 64 instead.

title: Rescue on Fractalus!


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Master–slave (technology)

Master–slave is a model of asymmetric communication or control where one device or process (the master) controls one or more other devices or processes (the slaves) and serves as their communication hub. In some systems, a master is selected from a group of eligible devices, with the other devices acting in the role of slaves.

Master–slave terminology was first used in 1904. Since the early 21st century, the terms have become a subject of controversy from their association with slavery and some organizations have opted to replace them with alternative terms, such as controller/peripheral or main/helper.

Examples

 * In electronics, master–slave relationships are used to describe some of the following scenarios:
 * Parallel ATA (aka IDE) hard drive electronics support two hard drives on a cable, which were designated master and slave. Neither drive has control or priority over the other, although only one drive can transfer data at a time. On earlier systems, master/slave must be configured on each drive; later drives supported "cable select", selecting a role based on the drive's position on the PATA bus cable.
 * A master clock that provides time signals used to synchronize one or more slave clocks as part of a clock network; a slave clock receives and displays the time from a master; though it may be able to keep time itself if the master is not working.
 * In AXI, master and slave have differing roles, with the master initiating transactions and the slave responding to those transactions.
 * A Serial Peripheral Interface bus typically has a single master controlling multiple slaves. Many people recommend using more modern terms (main/sub, controller/peripheral, etc.) and discontinuing the use of master/slave terms.
 * An edge-triggered flip-flop can be created by arranging two gated latches in a master–slave configuration. It is so named because the master latch controls the slave latch's value and forces the slave latch to hold its value, as the slave latch always copies its new value from the master latch.
 * In database replication, the master database is regarded as the authoritative source, and the slave (also called replica) databases are synchronized to it.
 * In photography, secondary, or slave, flash units may be synchronized to the master unit to provide light from additional directions.
 * Duplication is often done with several cassette tapes or compact disc recorders linked together. Operating the controls on the master triggers the same commands on the slaves so that recording is done in parallel.
 * Railway locomotives operating in multiple (for example: to pull loads too heavy for a single locomotive) can be referred to as a master–slave configuration with the operation of all but one of the locomotives in a train controlled from the first locomotive. See Multiple-unit train control.
 * In automotive engineering, the master cylinder is a control device that converts force into hydraulic pressure in the brake system. This device controls slave cylinders located at the other end of the hydraulic system.
 * In the creation of audio recordings, a master copy is created as a finalization of the audio mix, to save it to be used as a source for future copies.
 * A primary standard in metrology have been referred to as a master (e.g. master kilogram).

Early usages
The master/slave terminology was used in 1988 for RFC 1059 and in 1997 for RFC 2136, related to the domain name system. In 2020, Paul Vixie commented on his choice of words:

"I introduced the master/slave terminology in RFC 2136, because I needed names for the roles in an AXFR/IXFR transaction, and the zone transfer hierarchy could be more than one layer deep, such that a server might initiate some AXFR/IXFR's to the 'primary master' but then respond to AXFR/IXFR's from other servers. In retrospect I should have chosen the terms, 'transfer initiator' and 'transfer responder'. However, the hydraulic brake and clutch systems in my car had 'master cylinders' and 'slave cylinders', and so I did not think I was either inventing a new use for the words 'master' and 'slave', or that my use of them for this purpose would be controversial."

Said hydraulic brakes for the automotive industry were patented in 1917 by Malcolm Loughead. The term slave cylinder was used in other patent applications, including one by Robert Esnault-Pelterie, published in 1919.

Terminology concerns
In 2003, after receiving a discrimination complaint from a county employee, the County of Los Angeles in California asked that manufacturers, suppliers and contractors stop using master and slave terminology on products. Following complaints, the County of Los Angeles issued a statement saying that the decision was "nothing more than a request". Media analytics company Global Language Monitor placed the terms first in their annual list of politically charged language for 2004.

In 2018, after a heated debate, developers of the Python programming language replaced the term. The Black Lives Matter movement in the United States sparked renewed discussion and terminology changes in 2020. Some have argued that the change is superficial and that companies should make real change to support the Black community; some experienced programmers and conservative software engineers criticized the move as political correctness that added unnecessary complications. Google's developer documentation style guide recommends avoiding the term master in software documentation, especially in combination with slave. In 2020, GitHub replaced the default master git branch with main.

Other terminology
Various replacement terms for master or slave have been proposed and implemented. For master, replacement names include controller, default, director, host, initiator, leader, manager, primary, principal, and root. For slave, replacement names include agent, client, device, performer, peripheral, replica, responder, satellite, secondary, subordinate, worker, and follower.

Python switched to main, parent, and server; and worker, child, and helper, depending on context. The Linux kernel has adopted a similar policy to use more specific terms in new code or documentation. Other projects and standards have used alternative terms since their inception.

title: Master–slave (technology)


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User talk:Whiteniko

Hey there! Welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like this place--I sure do--and want to stay. If you need help on how to title new articles check out Naming conventions, and for help on formatting the pages visit the manual of style. If you need help look at Help and The FAQ, plus if you can't find your answer there, check The Village pump or The Reference Desk! Happy wiki-ing! Alexandros

title: User talk:Whiteniko


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Edmund Peck

Edmund James Peck (April 15, 1850 – September 10, 1924), known in Inuktitut as Uqammaq (one who talks well), was an Anglican missionary in the Canadian North on the Quebec coast of Hudson Bay and on Baffin Island. He founded the first permanent mission on Baffin Island, Nunavut. He developed Inuktitut syllabics, derived from the Cree syllabary and the first substantial English-Inuktitut dictionary.

His diaries provide an account of the daily life and work of the early missionaries in Baffin Island. Peck conducted extensive research on Inuit oral traditions and presents several detailed verbatim accounts of shamanic traditions and practices. His work contributes to the understanding of Inuit culture and history. His ethnographic data was collected at the request of famed anthropologist Franz Boas in 1897.

Early life (1850–1876)
Edmund James Peck was born April 15, 1850, in Rusholme, England. His mother and father died before his teen years. At fifteen, he joined the Royal Navy. By the age of 25 he had served on the Ajax, Impregnable, Caledonia, Excellent and the Hector. On the Hector, he organized prayer groups for the crew.

In 1875, he studied Greek and theology at the Reading Institute of the Church Missionary Society in Islington, England. In the Spring of the next year, John Horden, the Bishop of Moose Factory, recruited him for mission work in Hudson Bay.

Little Whale River (1876–1886)
Edmund Peck left England for Canada in June 1876. During the three-month trip he studied the Inuit language of Inuktitut. He used a Moravian Inuktitut New Testament and compared it to the English Bible. In this way he learned the meaning of Inuktitut words. He arrived at Moose Factory, James Bay, September 1, 1876. From there he traveled to the Hudson Bay Company post at the mouth of the Little Whale River in what is now Northern Quebec. He arrived there on October 24, 1876.

Syllabics
In the 1840s, Methodist missionary James Evans, located at Norway House, Manitoba, created a syllabic writing system for the Ojibwe and Cree. A few years later, in the 1850s, Anglican Bishop John Horden and Missionary E.A. Watkins, adapted Evans' Cree syllabic orthography to Inuktitut. Watkins' introduced the syllabic writing system to Inuit at Fort George and Little Whale River in 1855, and that same year Horden printed a small book of scripture verses in syllables on his press at Moose Factory. In 1865, Harden and Watkins met in conference in England and modified the syllabic system to allow a more precise rendering of both Inuktitut and Moose Cree.

Edmund Peck devoted his attention to the translation of scripture into Inuktitut using Horden and Watkins' orthography. He transcribed extracts of New Testament and published them in 1878. In 1897, he published the four gospels. This was almost identical to an 1878 Labrador translation, the main difference being in the orthography. Peck translated the 1662 Book of Common Prayer in 1881. The New Testament was published in 1912 by the British and Foreign Bible Society. Psalms was published in 1917.

Peck's system was simple and easy for Inuit to learn. By the 1920s, it had spread widely among them. Mothers taught it to their children. The children, in turn, would teach each other. Most of the population could read and write it. They often wrote letters to each other and consequently pencil and pocket-books were in great demand.

The orthography of Horden, Watkins and Peck remained the Inuktitut standard for close to 100 years. In the 1970s, the Inuit Cultural Institute led in a major revision of the system.

Blacklead Island Mission (1894–1905)
In 1894 the whaling station on Blacklead Island, in Cumberland Sound, was purchased by Mr. C. Noble and offered to Peck as an Anglican mission. His only communication with the outside world was a ship which, specially chartered, visited him once a year, brought him letters and supplies. With his colleague, Mr. Bilby, he built his own house and cooked his own meals. The settlement consisted of a church, a hospital and two dwelling-houses. The earliest church was made of seal-skin; it had to be replaced by a wooden structure, as it was devoured by the dogs.

Peck as ethnographer

While at Baffin Island's Blacklead Island mission, Peck carefully documented the lives of the Inuit.

Kenn Harper observes, "Missionaries are not usually ethnographers. Most view their task as to eradicate, rather than document, the "heathen" beliefs of pre-Christian times. Peck might very well have fallen into this camp too, had it not been for the invitation of the pioneer anthropologist, Franz Boas, to document for him the belief system of the Inuit, collect legends and write up shamanic rituals." Edmund Peck did this for Boas, but his ethnographic notes of Inuit life have sat largely untouched and unrecognized for over a century in the General Synod Archives of the Anglican Church of Canada. They were finally published in 2006.

Ottawa (1905–1924)
In 1905, Peck and his family moved to Ottawa where he served as Superintendent of Arctic Missions. He traveled North occasionally on supply vessels in the summer.

title: Edmund Peck


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Inuktitut syllabics

Inuktitut syllabics (ᖃᓂᐅᔮᖅᐸᐃᑦ, or ᑎᑎᕋᐅᓯᖅ ᓄᑖᖅ, titirausiq nutaaq) is an abugida-type writing system used in Canada by the Inuktitut-speaking Inuit of the territory of Nunavut and the Nunavik and Nunatsiavut regions of Quebec and Labrador, respectively. In 1976, the Language Commission of the Inuit Cultural Institute made it the co-official script for the Inuit languages, along with the Latin script.

The name qaniujaaqpait derives from the root qaniq, meaning "mouth". The alternative, Latin-based writing system is named qaliujaaqpait (ᖃᓕᐅᔮᖅᐸᐃᑦ), and it derives from qaliit, a word describing the markings or the grain in rocks. Titirausiq nutaaq meaning "new writing system" is to be seen in contrast to titirausiit nutaunngittut (ᑎᑎᕋᐅᓰᑦ ᓄᑕᐅᓐᖏᑦᑐᑦ), the "old syllabics" used before the reforms of 1976.

History
The first efforts to write Inuktitut came from Moravian missionaries in Greenland and Labrador in the mid-19th century using Latin script. The first book printed in Inuktitut using Cree script was an 8-page pamphlet known as Selections from the Gospels in the dialect of the Inuit of Little Whale River (ᒋᓴᓯᑊ ᐅᑲᐤᓯᐣᑭᐟ, "Jesus' words"), printed by John Horden in 1855–56 at Moose Factory for Edwin Arthur Watkins to use among the Inuit at Fort George. In November 1865, Horden and Watkins met in London under Henry Venn's direction to adapt Cree syllabics to the Inuktitut language. In the 1870s, Edmund Peck, another Anglican missionary, started printing according to that standard. Other missionaries, and later linguists in the employ of the Canadian and American governments, adapted the Latin alphabet to the dialects of the Mackenzie River delta, the western Arctic islands and Alaska.

Inuktitut is one variation on Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, and can be digitally encoded using the Unicode standard. The Unicode block for Inuktitut characters is called Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics.

The consonant in the syllable can be g, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, ng, ł, or absent, and the vowel can be a, i, u, ai (now only in Nunavik), or absent.

Table
The Inuktitut script (titirausiq nutaaq) is commonly presented as a syllabary. The dots on the letters in the table mark long vowels; in the Latin transcription, the vowel is doubled. For geminate consonants, the final consonant symbol is placed before the CV syllabic, for instance -kku-, -nnu- are rendered ᒃᑯ and ᓐᓄ respectively.

 * Note: An image of the chart is also available.

Modifications
The Makivik Corporation expanded the official version of the script to restore the ai-pai-tai column. The common diphthong ai has generally been represented by combining the a form with a stand-alone letter ᐃ i. This fourth-vowel variant had been removed so that Inuktitut could be typed and printed using IBM Selectric balls in the 1970s. The reinstatement was justified on the grounds that modern printing and typesetting equipment no longer suffers the restrictions of earlier typewriting machinery. The ai-pai-tai column is used only in Nunavik.

title: Inuktitut syllabics


text:
Talk:Maundy (foot washing)

Applicability and Inclusivity of Various Groups
I would certainly welcome someone from a Catholic tradition reviewing the accuracy of the comments in that section of the feet washing article. Rlvaughn 22:14, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Can this be linked to a section on foot washing in Islam and other religions? It seems strange that it's listed as only a Christian practice, especially given the number of religion projects to which it's linked. Kvcad (talk) 05:23, 27 June 2009 (UTC)

Foot washing vs. feetwashing
Sounds a bit strange to me. A Google search revealed three times as many hits for "foot washing" as for "feet washing." I suggest a name change. Haiduc 03:51, 17 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Nah, feet makes more sense. 24.83.115.195 02:50, 21 April 2007 (UTC)
 * It doesn't matter what makes more sense. Its name is "foot washing" Google the Church of the Brethren (or any other pietist based denomination).  "Feet washing" is an attempt to change the word to make it more correct in their mind.  Same idea as saying "teethbrush" instead of "toothbrush" user:mbset
 * I have to agree. I think the most common usage by far is "foot washing". Since I think this is well-established as the most common usage, and therefore actionable under WP:NAMING, I'm making the change without waiting for a specific consensus. If there are good reasons someone can think of to make an exception to the general rule, we can always change it back.  CO GD EN  04:30, 30 April 2007 (UTC)
 * The form I've heard most often is "Washing of Feet" MishaPan 08:53, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

I ran across this change and discussion of it. As the originator of this article, I do not object to the change of title. But I do find it somewhat objectionable that mbset finds it necessary analyze why the term was chosen, as if it is some kind of affectation. Some groups use one term, some use another. I expect that "foot washing" is more common, though wider research than googling might be useful instruction on the topic. I have one suggestion. Since the name is changed to "foot washing", shouldn't the article be changed to reflect that consistently (with the exception of quotes)? The article starts out with "foot washing", then soon we run into "foot-washing", and later "feet washing". Just a thought on something that might be an improvement. - Rlvaughn (talk) 15:50, 17 March 2008 (UTC) (forgot to sign the other day)

 * Just to add my two cents: The most common usage (from way back in the days when writers cared about grammar) is either "foot washing" or, more formally, "washing of feet", but never "feet washing". With regard to the hyphen: as I understand, it should only be used when needed for clarity's sake; for instance, if "foot-washing" is a compound modifier. Thanks. MishaPan (talk) 19:53, 14 March 2008 (UTC)

 * MishaPan, are you saying that "foot washing" is grammatically correct and "feet washing" is not? Or just most common from some period? If so, what authorities would you recommend we look to for guidance on this? - Rlvaughn (talk) 15:50, 17 March 2008 (UTC)

 * I believe it to be more grammatically correct, and I know it is the form I have seen in print from academic sources. With regard to grammar: an English teacher of mine once recommended that when one is unsure of the proper form to use, try substiting parallel terms. So, if we substitute "washing of hands" for "washing of feet", I think you would agree that "hand washing" sounds better than "hands washing", but we would need someone who is more of an expert in grammar than me to explain why. As for sources in print, over the years I've come across a number of liturgical sources in English, the earliest of which dates from the 1800s, and while most use the form "Washing of Feet", some have said "Foot Washing". But I've never come across any English translation (from Latin or Greek) or liturgy composed in English by liturgical experts which uses the term "feet washing" prior to reading this article and doing specific Internet searches for the term. My experiences are Anglican, Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox. I know a lot of material on the Internet is self-published, and I don't really expect grammatical precision from it--more's the pitty. But encyclopedic material should strive for a higher standard. As for authorities, in my present situation I don't have access to many. I would recommend searching libraries for official texts from liturgical churches (Liturgical Press, Oxford University Press, etc.). Then again, the whole argument might simply be avoided by substituting "Washing of Feet" throughout the article. MishaPan (talk) 01:29, 22 March 2008 (UTC)

Feetwashing is the primary, although not exclusive, term used in the Church of the Brethren and Grace Brethren, including print sources. Frank Ramirez is also a notable author on Brethren history and identity. I have added the notice of this usage preference in the article and included extensive sources. When I travel in Mennonite circles, I notice the difference in vocabulary; I have always understood this as a difference in preference between the denominations. Notice especially the Anabaptist Network article which makes a point of using "footwashing" for Mennonite articles and "feetwashing" for Brethren ones .Sondra.kinsey (talk) 20:49, 29 March 2016 (UTC)

Maundy
Good Lord! (no pun intended) Can't we call it "Maundy"?? In several articles where the concept appears it has to be piped as that from "Foot washing". Also, "foot washing" outside of the specific Christian religious context simply means "washing of the feet" where as "Maundy" refers to the historical event which is the subject of this article. Why was it not named "Maundy" to begin with?? Is that not a specific and common name for it? And is it not much more specific (and therefore much more helpful) than the simple and vague (and therefore less helpful) "foot washing"?? Was there a discussion somewhere where this was considered and the decision to go with "foot washing" won the debate? KDS4444 (talk) 20:56, 16 February 2017 (UTC)

 * I'm not saying we can't call the article "Maundy", but only high-brow Anabaptists are familiar with the term "Maundy Thursday", and virtually none would recognize "Maundy" as meaning the act of feetwashing. Sondra.kinsey (talk) 22:39, 16 February 2017 (UTC)
 * Interesting. I myself am of low-brow Presbyterian background and yet have heard the term "Maundy Thursday" many times...  but never knew exactly what it meant.  I am not sure that "few would recognize it" is a valid reason for not naming it "Maundy" in light of the much greater WP:PRECISION that Maundy has.  We already have a disambig page titled Maundy, and would need to move this article over it and create a couple of hat notes, but that is no real barrier.  Given that we are talking about a specific foot washing, "Maundy" comes as an equally specific title (i.e., as precise as necessary) whereas the act of foot washing has taken place all over the world and throughout time for lots of reasons).  If I have convinced you of this (?) I can attempt to perform the page move myself— but let me know, as I do not wish to, er, step on anyone's... toes!  KDS4444 (talk) 23:50, 16 February 2017 (UTC)

 * After some consideration, I've decided I'm opposed to renaming to "Maundy". I appreciation precision in naming, but am hesitant to name a major religious practice something unfamiliar to most of the practitioners. It's as if scholars had a name for "cross" that wouldn't be confused with crosshairs or crossing a bridge, but Christians had never heard this term. Other opinions? Sondra.kinsey (talk) 13:21, 17 February 2017 (UTC)

 * Ok, hm... Let me think. I am not 100% sure I understand your comparison, but let me know if this responds to it correctly: scholars (and lots of other people) have a specific term for the cross displaying the body of Christ when used as a symbol— the Crucifix— but we also have an article on cross which is the more generalized term for objects shaped like that (but without the Christ).  Crucifix also happens to be a fairly widely known term, though I would argue not as well known as "cross".  As another example, Holy Communion redirects to Eucharist, as does Bread and Wine and Lord's supper: "eucharist" is a more recondite term for the specific sacrament, compared to "bread and wine" (which are basically a pair of comestibles) and "lord's supper" (many an English lord had many a supper, but we are not talking about them, we are talking about the eucharist, which is more specific).  I am not saying that we should use the title which is "most obscure", but rather "most precise" for this specific foot washing moment.  I know, for example, that the washing of feet was done as a routine act of hospitality for thousands of years in the Middle East prior to the arrival of Jesus, and this Internet article discusses how foot washing was used throughout Palestine around the time of Christ for the same purpose (hospitality).  If this article was about the hospitable act of foot washing, then I would have no problem with it...  But it is about the specific lesson taught by Jesus to the apostles about providing service to others, and that is more than just foot washing!  Let me know if that makes any sense to you.  KDS4444 (talk) 09:04, 18 February 2017 (UTC)

 * Again, I value precision in naming. I wish each religious practice had a universally agreed upon and unambiguous name. Unfortunate, that is not the case. It seems there's two issues here: 1) The term feet washing can refer to other practices beyond the Christian ritual. 2) What shall we call the Christian ritual?. To resolve the first issue, if I thought it were notable enough, I would support creating a new article of "feet washing", and move this to "feet washing (Christian ritual)". However, I think the greater issue is the second one. I don't think it's appropriate for us as encyclopedia editors to change the name of practice in order to avoid ambiguity. I have grown more convinced the more I've thought about it. Sondra.kinsey (talk) 17:05, 18 February 2017 (UTC)

 * Fair enough, I am dropping the idea. Nice to have interacted with you over it, however!  Thanks for being willing to consider and discuss.  KDS4444 (talk) 11:00, 21 February 2017 (UTC)

Classification
I think this article is better than "start" class. If others agree, let's get it changed. --Cromwellt|talk|contribs 01:01, 1 April 2010 (UTC)

Ablution
the article should link to the word "ablution", and should say more clearly "in the Christian context" or reference that foot washing has ritual meaning outside of Christianity, rather than seeming to say that foot washing is exclusively Christian. Also, I would think the distinction should be drawn early and often between foot washing as ritual hygiene and foot washing as ritual symbolism or obeisance. 96.224.34.168 (talk) 20:14, 2 January 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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Nipter
I added: "Another word for the ceremony, nipter, derives from the Greek word for a basin." Someone removed it as uncited. See e.g. Chambers Dictionary 1908. Equinox ◑ 22:20, 29 December 2017 (UTC)

Sources, original research
Article lacks required sources; much of it reads like original research. Bluepenciltime (talk) 20:52, 10 April 2019 (UTC)
 * It is moderately well-sourced; none of it reads like OR to me - more like EB 1911. Johnbod (talk) 21:59, 10 April 2019 (UTC)

NPOV
It lacks also NPOV, without including theological reasons why other Christians don’t practice foot-washing. Bluepenciltime (talk) 20:52, 10 April 2019 (UTC)
 * Phooey! They don't, and one can easily see that the reasons many/most Protestants don't is not likely to be exactly theological. It's hardly a failure of NPOV to cover what doesn't happen. Johnbod (talk) 21:58, 10 April 2019 (UTC)

Footwashing is the common name, not maundy
I'm not sure why the article was moved as foot washing is the WP:COMMONNAME. Maundy is an archaic name and used only in the term Maundy Thursday, more commonly referred to as Holy Thursday today. There should have been a move discussion and the Wikipedia:WikiProject Christianity should have been advised of the discussion. Walter Görlitz (talk) 07:42, 1 July 2020 (UTC)
 * I personally agree with the move performed by User:Valoem as this article refers to the Christian rite of footwashing, not washing one's feet in general. I hope this helps. With regards, AnupamTalk 07:45, 1 July 2020 (UTC)
 * I'm not sure which name I'd favour, but the undiscussed move was wrong & should be reverted. A proper WP:RM discussion should be done. See discussions higher up the page. Johnbod (talk) 12:49, 1 July 2020 (UTC)

Irrelevant information
Hello fellow Wikipedians! The second half of the section "Background", beginning with the sentence "The foot washing, described in the thirteenth chapter of the Gospel of John, is concerned with the Latin title of Servus servorum dei", cites no sources (other than the Bible itself) and thus reads a lot like OR. Also, most of it does not seem to have any relevance at all to the specific topic of the article. I therefore move that these paragraphs be deleted. Nikolaj1905 (talk) 09:07, 16 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Maundy (foot washing)


text:
User talk:COGDEN

Ichthus: January 2012
 In this issue...

- Ichthus is published by WikiProject Christianity For submissions and subscriptions contact the Newsroom
 * From the Editor
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Missing cite in Life of Joseph Smith from 1827 to 1830
The article cites "Blair 1879" but no such source is listed in the bibliography. It was added by you back in 2005. Can you please add the full cite? Thanks, Renata•3 01:52, 21 October 2022 (UTC)

This was a good question. I must have forgot to give the full citation, which would be W.W. Blair, Saints' Herald 26 (June 15, 1879): 190-91 CO GDEN  07:42, 6 November 2022 (UTC)

Imminent suspension of administrative permissions due to inactivity
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 * Do you want to help get the Joseph Smith article to Featured Article status? ~Awilley (talk) 03:44, 1 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes, maybe. I'll take a look. Thanks. CO GDEN  05:35, 1 December 2022 (UTC)

Oldsmobile
As an administrator, could you please look at this temp page (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Oldsmobile/Temp) for the Oldsmobile article, to see if it still contains copyright infringement. I'm pretty sure it's in a good target zone now. I realize this is out of the blue, but I'd prefer to get a third opinion. Thanks. 842U (talk) 22:15, 3 December 2022 (UTC)

 * It looks like this temp page was deleted. CO GDEN  00:25, 4 December 2022 (UTC)

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text:
Gobiidae

Gobiidae or gobies is a family of bony fish in the order Gobiiformes, one of the largest fish families comprising more than 2,000 species in more than 200 genera. Most of gobiid fish are relatively small, typically less than 10 cm in length, and the family includes some of the smallest vertebrates in the world, such as Trimmatom nanus and Pandaka pygmaea, Trimmatom nanus are under 1 cm long when fully grown, then Pandaka pygmaea standard length are 9 mm, maximum known standard length are 11 mm. Some large gobies can reach over 30 cm in length, but that is exceptional. Generally, they are benthic or bottom-dwellers. Although few are important as food fish for humans, they are of great significance as prey species for other commercially important fish such as cod, haddock, sea bass and flatfish. Several gobiids are also of interest as aquarium fish, such as the dartfish of the genus Ptereleotris. Phylogenetic relationships of gobiids have been studied using molecular data.

Description
The most distinctive aspects of gobiid morphology are the fused pelvic fins that form a disc-shaped sucker. This sucker is functionally analogous to the dorsal fin sucker possessed by the remoras or the pelvic fin sucker of the lumpsuckers, but is anatomically distinct; these similarities are the product of convergent evolution. The species in this family can often be seen using the sucker to adhere to rocks and corals, and in aquariums they will stick to glass walls of the tank, as well.

Distribution and habitat
Gobiidae are spread all over the world in tropical and temperate near shore-marine, brackish, and freshwater environments. Their range extends from the Old World coral reefs to the seas of the New World, and includes the rivers and near-shore habitats of Europe and Asia. Gobies are generally bottom-dwellers. Although many live in burrows, a few species (e.g. in the genus Glossogobius) are true cavefish. On coral reefs, species of gobiids constitute 35% of the total number of fishes and 20% of the species diversity.

Subfamilies
The family Gobiidae underwent a major revision in the 5th edition of Fishes of the World. Before the revision the Gobiidae contained six subfamilies: Gobiinae, Benthophilinae, Amblyopinae, Gobionellinae, Oxudercinae, and Sicydiinae. The revision retained the first two subfamilies and removed the other four to a separate family, the Oxudercidae. In addition, species formerly placed in the families Kraemeriidae, Microdesmidae, Ptereleotridae and Schindleriidae were added to the revised Gobiidae, although no subfamilies were described.

The two formerly recognised subfamilies where the species have been retained in Gobiidae in the 5th Edition of Fishes of the World:

Benthophilinae
Members of Benthophilinae are endemic to the Ponto-Caspian region (including the Marmara, Black, Azov, Caspian, and Aral Seas). The representatives of the subfamily have fused pelvic fins and elongated dorsal and anal fins. They are distinguished from the closely related subfamily Gobiinae by the absence of a swimbladder in adults and location of the uppermost rays of the pectoral fins within the fin membrane. Its members include tadpole gobies, monkey gobies, and bighead gobies.

Gobiinae
Members of the Gobiinae are known as true gobies. It is the most widespread and most diverse of the subfamilies formerly recognised under the Gobiidae, containing around 2000 species and 150 genera.

Ecology and biology
Gobiids are primarily fish of shallow marine habitats, including tide pools, coral reefs, and seagrass meadows; they are also very numerous in brackish water and estuarine habitats, including the lower reaches of rivers, mangrove swamps, and salt marshes. A few gobiid species (unknown exactly, but in the low hundreds) are also fully adapted to freshwater environments. These include the round goby (Neogobius melanostomus), Australian desert goby (Chlamydogobius eremius), and the European freshwater goby Padogobius bonelli. Most gobies feed on small invertebrates, although some of the larger species eat other fish, and a few eat planktonic algae.

Reproduction
Most species in the Gobiidae attach their eggs to a substrate, such as vegetation, coral, or a rock surface. They lay from five to a few thousand eggs, depending on the species. After fertilizing the eggs, the male guards the eggs from predators and keep them free from detritus. The male fans the eggs, thereby providing them with oxygen. The female maintains the burrow. The eggs hatch after a few days. The larvae are born transparent, and they develop coloration after spreading to find a suitable habitat. The larvae of many freshwater gobiid species are carried downstream to the brackish waters, or even to the sea. They return to fresh water weeks or months later.

Gobiids in warmer waters reach adulthood in a few months, while gobies in cooler environments reach adulthood in two years. The total lifespan of gobiid varies from one to ten years, again with the species in warmer waters generally living longer.

Burrow construction
Many species in the Gobiidae live in male-female pairs that construct and share burrows, similar to many other fish such as Mozambique tilapia. The burrows are used for shelters and spawning places. Gobiids use their mouths to dig into the sea bottom, removing dead coral-fragments, rubble, and benthic algae in order to build their burrows. Gobiids maintain their burrows by fanning away sand inside the burrows. Furthermore, gobies use coral rubble to block burrow entrance. A single goby carry as many as nine pieces of coral rubble per minute. Gobiids also build a 6–13 cm high mound over the entrance of their spawning burrow. The mound lets the water flow fast over the mound. The water flow created by the mound helps to provide oxygen to the eggs. While burrow building is a cooperative behavior done by both sexes, males usually put more effort in burrow maintenance than females. Females feed more instead, because the reproductive success is optimal when females put more energy in preparing for the reproduction. After spawning eggs, the roles of male and female changes. Females primarily maintain the burrow, and males mainly care for the eggs by fanning them, thereby providing oxygen. When females leave the burrow, however, the mounds lose their heights. The males then give up on the eggs and eat them, preparing for future mating opportunities. Gobiid burrows vary in size depending on the size of the species.

Kleptogamy
Kleptogamy refers to a "sneaking behavior" during reproduction where an unpaired male fertilises the eggs of a paired female and the paired male cares for the eggs. Females prefer male gobies with large bodies. Since not all males have large bodies, the smaller ones may cheat instead of expending energy to find mates. The sneakers wait near the spawning ground of paired fish. The sneakers then release their sperm on the spawning ground as soon as the paired female releases her eggs. Though sneakers’ sperm fertilizes some eggs, the paired male cannot distinguish the eggs fertilized by the sneakers from those fertilized by his own sperm. Therefore, the paired male gives parental care equally to all the eggs.

Kleptogamy is a good strategy in many ways. First, the sneakers do not need their own territories, indicating that they do not need to spend energy in protecting territories, as most other males do. Most male gobies need their own territories, since females do not choose to mate with a male that does not own his own territory. Secondly, the sneakers do not provide parental care to their eggs. The paired males provide parental care instead of the sneakers. Therefore, the sneakers can save energy, and they can put more effort into finding new targets for cheating.

The cost of kleptogamy is that the sneakers can receive aggressive attacks from the paired males that are usually much larger and stronger than the sneakers. For small sneakers, the attacks by the paired males can be detrimental and often lead to death.

The sneakers are also referred to as pseudo-females, since they are small and hardly distinguishable from females. This small body size makes cheating easier. Most of the time the paired males mistake the sneakers for females and thus do not chase the sneakers away. The paired males are called "bourgeois" males, because they are larger, stronger, and most importantly, paired.

Sex change
A few species of gobiid, such as blackeye goby and Lythrypnus dalli, can change their sexes. Sex change is possible in these gobies, since the external genitalia for males and females do not differ much. Sex changes can take from days to weeks. Most sex changes in gobies are from female to male (protogyny) rather than male to female (protandry). Female-to-male changes are observed not only in gobiids but also in wrasses, damselfishes, and sea basses. Female-to-male change usually occurs because the resident male of the group is dead. If no male is in the group, reproduction will be impossible. Therefore, the dominant female turns into male, allowing mating to happen. Male-to-female change occurs when the females have preference for specific features in males. For example, females prefer large males, and a few large males mate with multiple females, whereas small males lose their chance to mate. Small males either choose to become sneakers (kleptogamy) or choose to transform into females because all females technically have high mating opportunities. By turning into females, males can ensure that they produce many offspring.

Some gobies have extraordinarily developed sex change ability. Gobiodon histrio from the Great Barrier Reef exhibits bidirectional sex changes. G. histrio is one of the very few species that can change sex in both ways. When two G. historio females, which used to be males, are on the same coral reef, one of them transforms back into a male goby.

Sex determination
Sex determination in coral goby Gobiodon erythrospilus does not occur until the juveniles meet potential mates. Confronting a potential mate can be difficult for Gobiodon erythrospilus juveniles, since most coral resources, crucial for attracting mates, are occupied by pre-existing paired gobies. Juveniles can only meet potential mates when one member of the pre-existing pairs dies. Juveniles’ sexes are determined according to the sexes of their potential mates. When a juvenile meets a female, it becomes a male, and vice versa. This type of sex determination is referred to as socially influenced sex determination.

Navigation
Some gobiids remember landmarks that are within short distances, and use them to find their ways. Small frillfin gobies (Bathygobius soporator) live in intertidal zones. They swim through the pools during high tides and memorize how each pool connects to the others. Then, during low tides, they can exhibit accurate jumping behaviors, as they have memorized the paths. In a new environment, these fish do not show jumping behaviors or jump into wrong pools. Nevertheless, after one night, they show the same accurate jumping behaviors.

Habitat choice
A study was done to understand how gobiids react to changing habitat. The fish were given two choices: a safe habitat with less food and a dangerous habitat with more food. Results from both the full and hungry fish revealed that gobiids, when confronted with the trade-off between foraging and avoiding predation, made choices that would better their foraging.

Symbiosis
Species in the Gobiidae sometimes form symbiotic relationships with other species, such as with burrowing shrimps. The shrimp maintains a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the fish live. The shrimp has poor eyesight compared to the gobiid, but if it sees or feels the fish suddenly swim into the burrow, it will follow. The fish and shrimp keep in contact with each other, the shrimp using its antennae, and the fish flicking the shrimp with its tail when alarmed. These gobiids are thus sometimes known as "watchmen gobies" or "prawn gobies". Each party gains from this relationship: the shrimp gets a warning of approaching danger, and the fish gets a safe home and a place to lay its eggs. Only the alpha male and female reproduce, other fish in the colony eat sparingly to resist being eaten by the alpha male or female. This way, only the largest and fittest are able to reproduce.

Another example of symbiosis is demonstrated by the neon gobies (Elacatinus spp.). These gobiids, known as "cleaner gobies", remove parasites from the skin, fins, mouth, and gills of a wide variety of large fish. The most remarkable aspect of this symbiosis is many of the fish that visit the cleaner gobies' cleaning stations would otherwise treat such small fish as food (for example, groupers and snapper). Again, this is a relationship where both parties gain: the gobies get a continual supply of food as bigger fish visit their cleaning stations, and the bigger fish leave the cleaning stations healthier than they were when they arrived.

Another form of symbiosis exists between gobiids and the mushroom coral Heliofungia actiniformis (Fungiidae), in which representatives of the genus Eviota roam among the tentacles possibly hiding from predators.

Commercial importance
Gobiids have commercial importance in Russia and Ukraine. They are fished in the Sea of Azov, northwestern Black Sea and Caspian Sea. Most important species are round goby, monkey goby, toad goby, and grass goby. The grass goby is also a commercial fish in Italy.

In the aquarium
Several species of gobiids are kept in aquaria. Most captive gobies are marine. Perhaps the most popular is the small but colorful neon goby. Most gobies stay toward the lower portion of the aquarium, hiding in the rockwork, but some species (most notably the shrimp gobies) prefer to dig themselves little burrows. Aquarists typically provide them with a fine-grained substrate to prevent damage to their delicate undersides. Commonly kept saltwater species include Randall's shrimp goby and the watchman goby.

title: Gobiidae


text:
List of cities in Cuba

This is a list of cities in Cuba with at least 20,000 inhabitants, listed in descending order. Population data refers to city proper and not to the whole municipality, because they include large rural areas with several villages. All figures are accurate and provincial capitals are shown in bold.

title: List of cities in Cuba


text:
User talk:JessicaS

Hey there! Welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like this place--I sure do--and want to stay. If you need help on how to title new articles check out Naming conventions, and for help on formatting the pages visit the manual of style. If you need help look at Help and The FAQ, plus if you can't find your answer there, check The Village pump or The Reference Desk! Happy wiki-ing! Alexandros

title: User talk:JessicaS


text:
Washington State History Museum

The Washington State History Museum is a history museum located in downtown Tacoma, Washington, United States. It is operated by the Washington State Historical Society under the official approval of the Washington State Legislature. The museum opened on August 10, 1996, at a building adjacent to historic Union Station that cost $42 million to construct.

History
Designed by the postmodern architect Charles Moore who "insisted that buildings reflect their setting and their purpose". Opened in August 1996, the state spent five years in construction and preparing for the grand opening.

The grounds of the museum are set in a garden that reflects "the character of the entire state" with "dramatic circles and slopes ... sweeping circular ramp [which] suggests a Cascade mountain switchback, while a dished-out amphitheater seating over 200 people represents the Puget Sound".

Permanent exhibits
Permanent exhibits feature Boeing history, a Southern Coast Salish plank house, maritime history and information about George Vancouver. Artifacts from the Clovis culture are the oldest objects to be found in the museum.

The top floor is also home to the state's largest permanent model train layout, which covers 1,700 sqft and recreates scenes from Tacoma's Union Station (which is located next to the museum) and other regional railroads. The museum hosts an annual Model Train Festival in December. Model train clubs set up "elaborate displays" in the museum, the festival runs until the first week of January.

Temporary exhibits
In 2000 the museum celebrated the 100th anniversary of Mount Rainier National Park with the exhibit "Sunrise to Paradise: The Story of Mount Rainier National Park". The 5,500 square foot exhibit showed the park as an active icon in the natural world, as well as its cultural significance in the region.

The traveling exhibit of Native American quilts from 1920 to 1996 was a temporary exhibit at the museum in July 2000. The quilts were displayed in settings such as on beds to showcase the stories depicted on each quilt. The exhibit was called "To Honor and Comfort: Native Quilting Traditions" and featured 45 North American and Hawaiian quilts.

title: Washington State History Museum