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House finch

The House finch (Haemorhous mexicanus) is a North American bird in the finch family. It is native to Mexico and southwestern United States, but has since been introduced to the eastern part of North America and Hawaii; it is now found year-round in all parts of the United States and most of Mexico, with some residing near the border of Canada. There are estimated to be 40 million house finches across North America, making it the second-most populous finch, just behind the American goldfinch. The house finch and the other two American rosefinches are placed in the genus Haemorhous.

Description
The house finch is a moderate-sized finch, 12.5 to 15 cm long, with a wingspan of 20 to 25 cm. Body mass can vary from 16 to 27 g, with an average weight of 21 g. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 7 to 8.4 cm, the tail is 5.7 to 6.5 cm, the culmen is 0.9 to 1.1 cm and the tarsus is 1.6 to 1.8 cm.

Adults have a long, square-tipped brown tail and are a brown or dull-brown color across the back with some shading into deep gray on the wing feathers. Breast and belly feathers may be streaked; the flanks usually are. In most cases, adult males' heads, necks and shoulders are reddish. This color sometimes extends to the belly and down the back, between the wings. Male coloration varies in intensity with the seasons and is derived from the berries and fruits in its diet. As a result, the colors range from pale straw-yellow through bright orange (both rare) to deep, intense red. Adult females have brown upperparts and streaked underparts.

The house finch's songs typically consist of a series of high-pitched musical jumbles ending with a distinct high note, wheer. Calls from flight include a soft cheet or wheat, with perched birds giving a more drawn-out version.

Distribution and habitat
House finches are mainly permanent residents throughout their range, some birds migrate to the south, with adult females moving longer distances than males. Their breeding habitat is urban and suburban areas across North America, as well as various semi-open areas in the west from southern Canada to the Mexican state of Oaxaca; the population in central Chiapas may be descended from escaped cagebirds. Analyses of nest records from house finches in California spanning more than a century found that egg‐laying occurred significantly earlier in warmer springs.

Originally only a resident of Mexico and the southwestern United States, house finches were introduced to eastern North America in the 1940s. The birds were sold illegally in New York City as "Hollywood Finches", a marketing artifice. To avoid prosecution under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, vendors and owners released the birds. They have since become naturalized; in largely unforested land across the eastern U.S. they have displaced the native purple finch and even the non-native house sparrow. Sometime in the 19th century, they were introduced to Hawaii and are now abundant on all its major islands.

According to the Partners in Flight database, there are estimated to be 40 million house finches across North America.

Instances of naturalization originating in escapes or releases of cage birds have been recorded in Europe, such as in 2020 in Murcia, (Spain).

Feeding
House finches forage on the ground or in vegetation normally. They primarily eat grains, seeds and berries, being voracious consumers of weed seeds such as nettle and dandelion; included are incidental small insects such as aphids. They are frequent visitors to bird feeders throughout the year, particularly if stocked with sunflower or nyjer seed, and will congregate at hanging nyjer sock feeders. The house finch is known to damage orchard fruit and consume commercially grown grain, but is generally considered an annoyance rather than a significant pest.

Breeding
Nests are made in cavities, including openings in buildings, hanging plants, and other cup-shaped outdoor decorations. Sometimes nests abandoned by other birds are used. Nests may be re-used for subsequent broods or in following years. The nest is built by the female, sometimes in as little as two days. It is well made of twigs and debris, forming a cup shape, usually 1.8 to 2.7 m above the ground.

During courtship, the male will touch bills with the female. He may then present the female with choice bits of food, and if she mimics the behavior of a hungry chick, he may feed her. The male also feeds the female during breeding and incubation of the eggs, and raising of the young, and the male is the primary feeder of the fledglings (who can be differentiated from the females by the pin feathers remaining on their heads). Females are typically attracted to the males with the deepest pigment of red to their head, more so than the occasional orange or yellowish-headed males that sometimes occur.

The female lays clutches of eggs from February through August, two or more broods per year with 2 to 6 eggs per brood, most commonly 4 or 5. The egg laying usually takes place in the morning, at one egg per day. The eggs are pale bluish-green with few black spots and a smooth, somewhat glossy surface. In response to mite infestation, which has a more deleterious effect on male chicks than on females, the mother finch may lay eggs containing females first, to reduce the length of time male chicks are exposed to mites. This strategy increases the likelihood that representative numbers of both sexes will survive. The female incubates the eggs for 12 to 14 days. Shortly after hatching, she removes the empty eggshells from the nest. The hatchlings are pink with closed eyes and tufts of fluffy down. The female always feeds the young. The male usually joins in. The young are silent for the first seven or eight days, and subsequently start peeping during feedings. Initially, the mother carries fecal sacs out of the nest, but when the young become older, she no longer carries them all away, allowing droppings to accumulate around the edge of the nest. Before flying, the young often climb into adjacent plants and usually fledge at about 11 to 19 days after hatching. Dandelion seeds are among the preferred seeds for the young. Contrary to the way most birds, even ones with herbivorous leanings as adults, tend to feed their nestlings animal matter to give them the protein necessary to grow, house finches are one of the few birds who feed their young only plant matter.

House finches are aggressive enough to drive other birds away from places such as feeders.

Threats
The house finch may be infected by several parasites including Plasmodium relictum and Mycoplasma gallisepticum, which caused the population of house finches in eastern North America to crash during the 1990s.

The mite Pellonyssus reedi is often found on house finch nestlings, particularly for nests later in the season.

The brown-headed cowbird, a brood parasite, will lay its eggs in house finch nests, although the diet house finches feed their young is inadequate for the young cowbirds, which rarely survive.

In 2012, house finches positive for West Nile virus were found in northwestern Riverside County, CA.

Book

 * Hill, G. E. 1993. House Finch (Carpodacus mexicanus). In The Birds of North America, No. 46 (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.). Philadelphia: The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, D.C.: The American Ornithologists’ Union.

Thesis

 * Avery ML. (1983). DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSMISSION OF METHIOCARB-INDUCED FOOD AVERSIONS IN CAPTIVE HOUSE FINCHES (CARPODACUS MEXICANUS). University of California, Davis, United States, California.
 * Badyaev AV. (1998). Evolution of sexual dimorphism in birds: Ecological patterns, current selection, and ontogenetic variation. University of Montana, United States, Montana.
 * Belthoff JR. (1992). Ecological and hormonal correlates of social dominance in house finches. Clemson University, United States, South Carolina.
 * Farmer KL. (2006). Study of a novel host-parasite relationship: Mycoplasma gallisepticum in house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus). Auburn University, United States, Alabama.
 * Gaudette MT. (1998). Modeling wetland songbird community integrity in central Pennsylvania. The Pennsylvania State University, United States, Pennsylvania.
 * Hamilton TR. (1991). The expansion of the eastern house finch population and its impact on populations of house sparrows, purple finches and American goldfinches. Ball State University, United States, Indiana.
 * Hawley DM. (2005). Host heterogeneity and disease resistance in house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus): Integrating genetics, immunity, and social behavior. Cornell University, United States, New York.
 * Hess CM. (2005). The evolution of the major histocompatibility complex in house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus). University of Washington, United States, Washington.
 * Hill GE. (1991). The evolution of colorful plumage in the house finch. University of Michigan, United States, Michigan.
 * Kelly TD. (1991). Impact of agroforestry plantations grown with agricultural drain water on avian abundance and diversity in the San Joaquin Valley, California. California State University, Fresno, United States, California.
 * Kozlovic DR. (1997). Consequences of brood parasitism by cowbirds on house finches in a new area of sympatry. University of Toronto (Canada), Canada.
 * Navara KJ. (2005). Yolk androgen deposition in two passerine species: Do females play favorites?. Auburn University, United States, Alabama.
 * Randell SM. (1996). A study of avian populations and behavior at a proposed wind energy production facility near Fort Davis, Texas. Sul Ross State University, United States, Texas.
 * Thakur S. (1999). Effect of high temperatures and crowding on leukocyte and parasite counts of the house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus). California State University, Fullerton, United States, California.
 * Tobin ME. (1983). CONDITIONED AVERSIONS IN THREE SPECIES OF FRUIT-EATING BIRDS (FINCH, ROBIN, STARLING). University of California, Davis, United States, California.
 * Vanderpool KS. (1993). A model for predicting House Sparrow and House Finch ratios in urban southern California. California State University, Fullerton, United States, California.
 * Vazquez-Phillips MA. (1992). Population differentiation of the house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus) in North America and the Hawaiian Islands. University of Toronto (Canada), Canada.
 * Zahn SN. (1999). Fitness correlates of different color morphs of male house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis). University of California, Santa Barbara, United States, California.

Articles
AnimalBehaviour67:27

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title: House finch


text:
List of radio stations in Oregon

The following is a list of FCC-licensed radio stations in the U.S. state of Oregon, which can be sorted by their call signs, frequencies, cities of license, licensees, and programming formats.

Defunct

 * KCHC
 * KCMX
 * KEOL
 * KEX-FM
 * KEZX
 * KGMW-LP
 * KKPZ
 * KQCF
 * KSCR
 * KTOD-LP
 * KXET
 * KYAC-LP
 * KYTE
 * KZZF-LP

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of radio stations in Oregon


text:
Direct-controlled municipality

A direct-controlled municipality is the highest level classification for cities used by unitary states, with status equal to that of the provinces in the respective countries. A direct-controlled municipality is similar to, but not the same as, a federal district, a common designation in various countries for a municipality that is not part of any state, and which usually hosts some governmental functions. Usually direct-controlled municipality are under central government control with limited power. In some cases, a similar term in federal states is the federal city.

Many countries have adopted this system with some different variations. Geographically and culturally, many of the municipalities are enclaves in the middle of provinces. Some occur in strategic positions in between provinces.

title: Direct-controlled municipality


text: User:Spino~enwiki

title: User:Spino~enwiki


text:
Tyneside

Tyneside is a built-up area across the banks of the River Tyne in Northern England. Residents of the area are commonly referred to as Geordies. The whole area is surrounded by the North East Green Belt.

The population of Tyneside as published in the 2011 census was 774,891, making it the eighth most-populous urban area in the United Kingdom. In 2013, the estimated population was 832,469.

Politically, the area is mainly covered by the metropolitan boroughs of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Gateshead, North Tyneside and South Tyneside. The boroughs on the Tyne are joint with Wearside which is in both the ceremonial counties of Durham (Chester-le-Street) and Tyne and Wear.

Settlements
The ONS 2011 census had 774,891 census respondents inside the "Tyneside Built-up Area" or "Tyneside Urban Area". These figures are a decline from 879,996; this loss was mainly due to the ONS reclassifying Hetton-le-Hole, Houghton-le-Spring, Chester-le-Street and Washington in the Wearside Built-up Area instead of Tyneside. In both the 2001 and 2011 census the area was given the following subdivisions; Gateshead, Jarrow and Tynemouth had boundary changes:

Geordies
The people of Newcastle, called "Geordies", have a reputation for their distinctive dialect and accent. Newcastle may have been given this name, a local diminutive of the name "George", because their miners used George Stephenson's safety lamp (invented in 1815 and called a "Georgie lamp") to prevent firedamp explosions, rather than the Davy lamp used elsewhere. An alternative explanation relates that during the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745 the people of Newcastle declared their allegiance to the Hanoverian Kings of Great Britain, George I and George II; whereas the rest of the county of Northumberland, to the north, stood loyal to James Francis Edward Stuart.

Coal production
While Newcastle upon Tyne had been an important local centre since Roman times, and was a major local market town from the Middle Ages, the development of Newcastle and Tyneside is owed to coal mining. Coal was first known to be dug in Tyneside from superficial seams in around 1200, but there is some evidence from Bede's writings that it may have been dug as early as 800 AD. Coal was dug from local drift mines and bell pits, and although initially only used locally, it was exported from the port of Newcastle from the mid 14th century onwards. Tyneside had a strategic advantage as far as the coal trade was concerned, because collier brigs could be loaded with coal on the Tyne and could sail down the east coast to London. In fact, the burgesses of Newcastle formed a cartel, and were known as the Hostmen. The Hostmen were able gain a monopoly over all of the coal exported from Tyneside, a monopoly which lasted a considerable time. A well-known group of workers on the river were the keelmen who handled the keels, boats that carried the coal from the riverbanks to the waiting colliers.

Steel and shipbuilding
The Derwent (valley), a major tributary of the Tyne that rises in County Durham, saw the development of the steel industry from around 1600 onwards. This was led by German immigrant cutlers and sword-makers, probably from around Solingen, who fled from religious persecution at home and settled in the then village of Shotley Bridge, near Consett.

The combination of coal and steel industries in the area was the catalyst for further major industrial development in the 19th century, including the shipbuilding industry; at its peak, the Tyneside shipyards were one of the largest centres of shipbuilding in the world and built an entire navy for Japan in the first decade of the 20th century. There is still a working shipyard in Wallsend.

Professional competitive rowing on the Tyne
From early in the 19th century, it was a custom to hold boat races on the Tyne. The Tyne had a large number of keelmen and wherrymen, who handled boats as part of their jobs. As on the River Thames, there were competitions to show who was the best oarsman. As a wherryman did not earn very much, competitive rowing was seen as a quick way of earning extra money. Regattas were held, and provided modest prizes for professionals, but the big money was made in challenge races, in which scullers or boat crews would challenge each other to a race over a set distance for a side stake. The crews would usually have backers, who would put up the stake money, as they saw the chance of financial gain from the race. In the days before mass attendances at football matches, races on the river were enormously popular, with tens of thousands attending. Betting would go on both before and during a race, the odds changing as the fortunes of the contestants changed. Contestants who became champions of the Tyne would often challenge the corresponding champions of the River Thames, and the race would be arranged to take place on one of the two rivers.

Rivalry between the Tyne and the Thames was very keen, and rowers who upheld the honour of the Tyne became local heroes. Three such oarsmen, who came from humble backgrounds and became household names in the North East, were Harry Clasper, Robert Chambers and James Renforth. Clasper was a champion rower in fours, as well as an innovative boat designer and a successful rowing coach. Chambers and Renforth were oarsmen who excelled at sculling. Both held the World Sculling Championship at different times. The popularity of all three men was such that when they died, many thousands attended their funeral processions, and magnificent funeral monuments were provided by popular subscription in all three cases. At the end of the 19th century professional competitive rowing on the Tyne began a gradual decline and would die out entirely leaving the amateur version.

Rapper dancing
Despite its rapid growth in the Industrial Revolution, Tyneside developed one peculiar local custom, the rapper sword dance, which later spread to neighbouring areas of Northumberland and County Durham.

Industrial decline and regeneration
During the 1970s and 1980s, there was major industrial decline in the traditional British heavy industries, and Tyneside was hit hard. High unemployment rates and the national [Thatcher] government's resolve to push through with economic transformation led to great social unrest with strikes and occasional rioting in depressed areas.

From the late 1980s onward, an improving national economy and local regeneration helped the area to recover, and although unemployment is still a problem compared with some other areas of Britain, expansion of new industries such as tourism, science and high-technology, has fuelled local development, especially in Newcastle upon Tyne and Gateshead.

Economy
This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Tyneside at current basic prices published by the Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British pounds sterling.

title: Tyneside


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Prenzlau

Prenzlau (, formerly also Prenzlow) is a town in Brandenburg, Germany, the administrative seat of Uckermark District. It is also the centre of the historic Uckermark region.

Geography
The town is located on the Ucker river, about 100 km north of Berlin. Prenzlau station—which opened in 1863—is a stop on the Angermünde–Stralsund railway line.

History
Settled since Neolithic times, the Prenzlau area from the 7th century AD was the site of several gords erected by the Polabian Slavs called Ukrani. In the late 12th century, the Dukes of Pomerania had the region colonized by Low German settlers.

Prenzlau itself, named after Slavic Premyslaw, was first mentioned in 1187. It received town privileges by Duke Barnim I of Pomerania in 1234. When Duke Barnim signed the Treaty of Landin with the Ascanian margraves of Brandenburg in 1250, Prenzlau was already a fortified town with walls and moats, four parish churches and a monastery. Together with Berlin-Cölln, Frankfurt and Stendal, it ranked among the largest towns in the margraviate.

The Prenzlau and the Uckermark region were devastated during the Thirty Years' War. From the late 17th century onwards French Huguenot refugees settled here and an economic recovery started. Also a garrison town, Prenzlau was again ravaged by passing troops during the Seven Years' War and the Napoleonic Wars. In the mid 19th century, several citizens emigrated to Australia, where they founded the town of Prenzlau, Queensland west of Brisbane.

In World War II the Oflag II-A prisoner-of-war camp was located just south of Prenzlau on the main road to Berlin. The town centre was largely destroyed. The East German authorities had it rebuilt with large panel Plattenbau buildings.

Politics
Seats in the town's assembly (Stadtverordnetenversammlung) as of 2014 local elections:
 * Christian Democratic Union (CDU): 7
 * Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD): 7
 * The Left: 6
 * Bürgerfraktion (Independent): 4
 * Wir Prenzlauer (Independent): 2
 * Free Democratic Party (FDP): 1
 * National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD): 1

Twin towns – sister cities
Prenzlau is twinned with:
 * 🇵🇱 Barlinek, Poland
 * 🇷🇺 Pokhvistnevo, Russia
 * Uster, Switzerland
 * 🇱🇹 Varėna, Lithuania

Notable people

 * René Bielke (born 1962), ice hockey player
 * Oscar Florianus Bluemner (1867–1938), American painter
 * Wilhelm Grabow (1802–1874), civil servant, judge, and politician
 * Jacob Philipp Hackert (1737–1807), landscape painter
 * Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt (1751–1805), queen consort of Prussia
 * Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse (1753–1830)
 * Princess Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt (1754–1832)
 * Princess Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt (1755–1776)
 * Paul Hirsch (1868–1940), politician
 * Hans Felix Husadel (1897–1964), composer and conductor
 * Otto Kaiser (1924 - 2017), scholar
 * Brigitte Rohde (born 1954), sprinter
 * Max von Schenckendorff (1875-1943), general in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany
 * Ernst Christian Friedrich Schering (1824–1889), apothecary and industrialist
 * Johannes Schmidt (1843–1901), linguist
 * Christian Friedrich Schwan (1733–1815), publisher and bookseller
 * Adolf Wilhelm Theodor Stahr (1805–1876), writer and literary historian
 * Christiane Wartenberg (born 1956), athlete
 * Carola Zirzow (born 1954), sprint canoer

title: Prenzlau


text:
Talk:Galactose

Glucose is sweet?
Not to my taste buds. Perhaps the opening sentence should be changed. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.8.177.83 (talk) 16:01, 9 November 2009 (UTC)

Image
Image is missing. -- Heron 12:09, 16 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Indeed, I replaced it with a version I copied from nl:Afbeelding:Galactose.png to the Commons. There's also an interesting image at de:Bild:Galaktose.jpg, though the labels are in German. Wmahan. 05:31, 2005 Apr 22 (UTC)

Lactose/lactase
"Galactose is hydrolysed by lactase."

Isn't it acutally the case that _lactose_ is hydrolysed by lactase?

Alkali Jack

So what happens to the Galactose created from Lactose, is it then converted to Glucose and used?

Compulsive blinking disorder
I searched on Google.com for 'Compulsive blinking disorder' and found only 6 pages. Those pages were all copies of the article. Because I found no other pages on google, I think 'Compulsive blinking disorder' doesn't exist. Luap 6-6-2006
 * Indeed, it was added by User:198.236.58.30, which vandalized other pages. I removed that part. Wmahan. 02:23, 6 June 2006 (UTC)

i have compulsive blinking disorder. it's very real and my condition is a heavy burden that i will have to bare for th rest of my life. do no laugh at me. it is no laughing matter

"Brain sugar"
Brain sugar? Can we get some sort of reference or link as to why it was called "Brain sugar". Lancepickens 23:33, 2 June 2007 (UTC)
 * I added a reference. 193.171.121.30 05:27, 5 October 2007 (UTC)

i have compulsive blinking disorder. it is not something to laugh about.

Clinical significance
This section needs revision. The first two articles cited are rather outdated and I believe that the body of research points in the direction of no correlation between galactose metabolism and ovarian cancer. Ibrmrn (talk) 12:36, 27 November 2007 (UTC)

If you Google search galactose health, you can see titles like:
 * 3 Servings of Milk a Day Linked to Higher Mortality in Women

- Perhaps I can buy some specific enzyme, mix that enzyme with milk and then, galactose is converted to a sugar that does not have health issues?? First lactose should be converted to galactose and glucose of course, but I do now know of any lactase capsules that claim to do that BEFORE I drink the milk. - Do you know dietary supplements that claim to fix problems caused by galactose? - What about Men? ee1518 (talk) 14:57, 23 December 2014 (UTC)

Part of Section 6 does not make sense
...or does not seem to, anyway. It says "Is the most problematic, as galactose-free diets do not have considerable long-term effects." - rephrase? It Is Me Here (talk) 07:13, 3 March 2008 (UTC)

WikiProject Food and drink Tagging
This article talk page was automatically added with WikiProject Food and drink banner as it falls under Category:Food or one of its subcategories. If you find this addition an error, Kindly undo the changes and update the inappropriate categories if needed. The bot was instructed to tagg these articles upon consenus from WikiProject Food and drink. You can find the related request for tagging here. Maximum and carefull attention was done to avoid any wrongly tagging any categories, but mistakes may happen... If you have concerns, please inform on the project talk page -- TinucherianBot (talk) 18:31, 3 July 2008 (UTC)

Difference in molecular mass compared to glucose
I was surprised to see a difference between the molecular mass of galactose (180,08gr/mol) and that of glucose (180,16gr/mol), while their molecular structure only differs in the placement of the -OH groups. I understand there is a difference in free energy, that could cause a difference in molecular mass, but can a source confirm this? 0,08 gram difference seems a lot, seeing as mannose only has a difference of 0,004 gram difference with glucose. Forgot to sign: Redtails (talk) 11:28, 15 June 2009 (UTC)

 * This is just an error in the calculations, probably from using different sig figs for the elements. Glucose, galactose, mannose (and the other hexoses) are all isomers with the formula C6H12O6, so there is no difference in their molecular weights. The correct mass to four decimal places would be 180.1559 g/mol. I've changed all of these to be consistent. --Glycoform (talk) 16:52, 12 January 2009 (UTC)

Natural form
Looking at the article, I could not work out which form D or L was the naturally occuring one - anyone able to add this (I think it is perhaps a weakness in other of the sugar pages)Skihatboatbike (talk) 20:10, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

 * D-galactose. Edited. DAVilla (talk) 09:27, 26 November 2015 (UTC)

This first part of this statement makes no sense to me, and the reference is broken. The presumably corrected reference does not mention isolation, so I have removed it. DAVilla (talk) 09:36, 26 November 2015 (UTC)
 * In the open-chain form D- and L- isomers cannot be separated, but the cyclic forms can be crystallized and isolated. Ophardt, C. Galactose

Galactose Metabolism
In the image, the molecule labelled UDP-glucose is actually UDP-allose. Also, process 4 (UDP-glucose isomerase) is wrong. It says that UDP-galactose is being isomerized to UDP-glucose, but the structures are identical. Both are UDP-gulose. In fact, all monosaccharides in this section labelled galactose are actually D-gulose. Perfect5th (talk) 17:17, 17 November 2011 (UTC)

Chemical Formula of Galactose??
I realize this is getting REALLY basic, but most chemistry/ bio chem articles include the chemical formula of the molecule/ compound being discussed. Unless I missed it, I do not see a chem. formula for galactose clearly stated in this article itself. I believe it is worthwhile info for this article to include, esp. considering beginning students of chemistry and biology like myself are probably reading this article as much or more than more advanced students. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Decaturstreet (talk • contribs) 19:23, 9 September 2012 (UTC)

Never mind, I found the molecular formula in the dialog box. Just used to seeing it in the actual article. Decaturstreet (talk)

In humans?
I edited the section "Relation to Lactose" a bit changing the opening from "In human bodies " to "In lactating humans" as most human bodies do not undergo this process. But do other mammals, or placental mammals not all have the same process for making milk?Kurtdriver (talk) 19:59, 8 July 2016 (UTC)

Supplementing with Uridine, would it make dietary Galactose less or more harmful?
Supplementing with Uridine, would it make dietary Galactose less or more harmful?

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uridine "Uridine plays a role in the glycolysis pathway of galactose".

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactose "Chronic systemic exposure of mice, rats, and Drosophila to D-galactose causes the acceleration of senescence (aging) and has been used as an aging model".

ee1518 (talk) 18:54, 14 October 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Galactose


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Tynemouth

Tynemouth is a coastal town in the metropolitan borough of North Tyneside, in Tyne and Wear, England. It is located on the north side of the mouth of the River Tyne, hence its name. It is 8 mi (13 km) east-northeast of Newcastle upon Tyne. The medieval Tynemouth Priory and Castle stand on a headland overlooking both the mouth of the river and the North Sea, with the town centre lying immediately west of the headland.

Historically part of Northumberland until 1974, the town was a county borough which included the nearby town of North Shields.

At the 2021 census the Tynemouth built-up area as defined by the Office for National Statistics (which also includes North Shields) had a population of 60,605.

History
The headland towering over the mouth of the River Tyne has been settled since the Iron Age. The Romans may have occupied it as a signal station, though it is just north of the Hadrian's Wall frontier (the Roman fort and supply depot of Arbeia stands almost opposite it on the southern headland of the Tyne). In the 7th century a monastery was built in Tynemouth and later fortified. The headland was known as Pen Bal Crag. "The place where now stands the Monastery of Tynemouth was anciently called by the Saxons Benebalcrag" The monastery was sacked by the Danes in 800, rebuilt, and destroyed again in 875, but by 1083 it was again operational.

Three kings are reported to have been buried within the monastery: Oswin, King of Deira (651); Osred II, King of Northumbria (792); and, for a time, Malcolm III, King of Scots (1093). Three crowns still adorn the North Tyneside coat of arms. (North Tyneside Council, 1990).

The queens of Edward I and Edward II stayed in the Castle and Priory while their husbands were campaigning in Scotland. King Edward III considered it to be one of the strongest castles in the Northern Marches. After the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, Edward II fled from Tynemouth by ship.

A village had long been established in the shelter of the fortified Priory, and around 1325 the prior built a port for fishing and trading. This led to a dispute between Tynemouth and the more powerful Newcastle over shipping rights on the Tyne, which continued for centuries. For more history see North Shields.

Prince Rupert of the Rhine landed at Tynemouth in August 1642 on his way to fight in the English Civil War.

Tynemouth was an ancient parish. It was divided into eight townships, being Chirton, Cullercoats, Monkseaton, Murton, North Shields, Preston, Whitley and a Tynemouth township covering the area around the original settlement. Such townships were also made civil parishes in 1866. In the 19th century North Shields rapidly expanded from a small fishing village into a town, overtaking Tynemouth itself to become the largest settlement in the parish. North Shields was given improvement commissioners in 1828 to administer the growing town; the commissioners' district covered the whole of the North Shields township and parts of the Chirton, Preston and Tynemouth townships.

In 1832 a parliamentary borough (constituency) called Tynemouth and North Shields was created, covering the whole of the townships of Tynemouth, North Shields, Chirton, Cullercoats and Preston. The same area was made a municipal borough in 1849, which was just called Tynemouth despite North Shields being the larger settlement within the borough. The first town clerk was Thomas Carr Leitch.

The borough council based itself at Tynemouth Town Hall at the junction of Howard Street and Saville Street in North Shields, which had been built for the old North Shields improvement commissioners in 1844/5. In 1904 the borough was elevated to become a county borough, making it independent from Northumberland County Council for local government purposes, whilst remaining part of Northumberland for judicial and lieutenancy purposes. The county borough was abolished in 1974, when the area became part of North Tyneside in the new metropolitan county of Tyne and Wear.

Tynemouth was listed in the 2018 Sunday Times report on best places to live in Northern England.

Climate
Tynemouth has a very moderated oceanic climate heavily influenced by its position adjacent to the North Sea. As a result of this, summer highs are subdued and, according to the Met Office 1981–2010 data, average around 18 C. Due to its marine influence, winter lows especially are very mild for a Northern English location. Sunshine levels of 1515 hours per annum are in the normal range for the coastal North East, which is also true for the relatively low amount of precipitation at 597.2 mm.

Beaches
In the late 18th century, sea-bathing from Tynemouth's east-facing beaches became fashionable. King Edward's Bay and Tynemouth Longsands are very popular with locals and tourists alike.

King Edward's Bay (possibly a reference to Edward II) is a small beach on the north side of the Priory, sheltered on three sides by cliffs and reached by stairways or, by the fit and adventurous who understand the weather and tides, over the rocks round the promontories on the north or south sides. Longsands is the next beach to the north, an expanse of fine sand 1200 yds long, lying between the former Tynemouth outdoor swimming pool and Cullercoats to the north. The outdoor pool opened in 1925 and was considered a major tourist attraction in its heyday.

In 2013, Longsands was voted one of the best beaches in the country by users of the world's largest travel site TripAdvisor. TripAdvisor users voted the beach the UK's fourth favourite beach in its 2013 Travellers' Choice Beaches Awards. The beach was also voted the 12th best in Europe.

Prior's Haven is a small beach within the mouth of the Tyne, sheltered between the Priory and the Spanish Battery, with the pier access on its north side. It was popular with Victorian bathers and is now home to Tynemouth Rowing Club and the local sailing club.

Front Street
A statue of Queen Victoria by Alfred Turner, unveiled on 25 October 1902, is situated at the edge of the Village Green which is home to the War Memorials for the residents of Tynemouth lost during the Second Boer War of 1899–1902. Designed by A.B. Plummer, it was unveiled on 13 October 1903 by William Brodrick, 8th Viscount Midleton.

The larger central memorial is made of white granite with a cruciform column rising from between four struts in a contemporary design for its time. The front face has a relief sword and wreath carved onto it with the inscription below. The other three faces hold the honour roll for those lost during both World Wars. It was unveiled in 1923. DM O'Herlihy was named as the original designer but a press report stated that a Mr Steele designed the monument and credited O'Herlihy with preparatory works on the village green. The 82 names from World War II were added in 1999.

Tynemouth Clock Tower on Front Street was erected in 1861 by William Scott, esq., a native of the town. Designed by Oliver and Lamb with carvings by Robert Beall, the tower housed a clock by Joyce of Whitchurch. At ground level there were drinking fountains (and drinking troughs for dogs) on the north and south sides, a marine barometer (by Negretti and Zambra) to the west and an access door to the east. Made of polychrome bricks and ashlar, the tower (which has been Grade II listed since 1986) is described as being in the Venetian Gothic style.

Kings Priory School
Located on Huntingdon Place, Kings Priory School (formerly The King's School and Priory Primary School) is a co-educational academy with over 800 pupils aged between 4 and 18. Though founded in Jarrow in 1860, the school moved to its present site in Tynemouth in 1865 originally providing a private education for local boys. The school has an Anglican tradition, but admits students of all faiths. Formerly a fee-paying independent school, in 2013 the school merged with the local state Priory Primary School to become a state academy.

Former King's School was named in reference to the three ancient kings buried at Tynemouth Priory: Oswin, Osred and Malcolm III. Its most famous old boy is Stan Laurel, one half of the comedy duo Laurel and Hardy. Hollywood film director Sir Ridley Scott, and racing driver Jason Plato also attended the school.

Tynemouth Pier and lighthouse

This massive stone breakwater extends from the foot of the Priory some 900 yards (810 metres) out to sea, protecting the northern flank of the mouth of the Tyne. It has a broad walkway on top, popular with Sunday strollers. On the lee side is a lower level rail track, formerly used by trains and cranes during the construction and maintenance of the pier. At the seaward end is a lighthouse.

The pier's construction took over 40 years (1854–1895). In 1898 the original curved design proved inadequate against a great storm and the centre section was destroyed. The pier was then rebuilt in a straighter line and completed in 1909. A companion pier at South Shields protects the southern flank of the river mouth.

A lighthouse had built on the old North Pier (first lit in 1895, it displayed three lights mounted vertically: green over white over red, with a range of 7 nmi); however, when the pier had to be rebuilt to a new design, an entirely new lighthouse was required. The work was undertaken by Trinity House, beginning in 1903; the lighthouse was finished before the pier itself, and was first lit on 15 January 1908. The revolving optic, manufactured by Barbier, Bénard, et Turenne, displayed a flash three times every ten seconds; it remains in use today. The light source was an incandescent oil vapour lamp, which (together with the optic) produced a 70,000 candle-power light with a range of 15 nmi. The lighthouse was also equipped with a reed fog signal, powered by compressed air, which was mounted 'on the cupola'; it sounded one long blast every ten seconds. It was manned by four keepers, with two on duty at any one time. In September 1961 a new, more powerful electric light was installed by the Tyne Improvement Commissioners (powered from the mains). Then in 1967 the lighthouse (by then staffed by six keepers on rotation) was automated; a diesel generator was installed along with an electric foghorn.

Before the pier was built, a lighthouse stood within the grounds of Tynemouth Priory and Castle. It was demolished in 1898. It stood on the site of the now-disused Coastguard Station.

On 20 October 2023, the dome of the lighthouse was "forcibly removed by the relentless combination of sea and wind" caused by Storm Babet.

The Spanish Battery
The headland dominates the river mouth and is less well known as Freestone Point. Settlements dating from the Iron Age and later have been discovered here. The promontory supposedly takes its name from Spanish mercenaries who manned guns there in the 16th century to defend Henry VIII's fleet. Most of the guns had been removed by 1905. It is now a popular vantage point for watching shipping traffic on the Tyne.

The Collingwood Monument
Beyond the Battery, and commanding the attention of all shipping on the Tyne, is the giant memorial to Lord Collingwood, the Collingwood Monument. Collingwood was Nelson's second-in-command at the Battle of Trafalgar, who completed the victory after Nelson was killed in action. Erected in 1845, the monument was designed by John Dobson and the statue was sculpted by John Graham Lough. The figure is some 23 ft tall and stands on a massive base incorporating a flight of steps flanked by four cannons from HMS Royal Sovereign – Collingwood's ship at Trafalgar.

The Black Middens
These rocks in the Tyne near the Monument are covered at high water, and the one rock that can sometimes be seen then is called Priors Stone. Over the centuries they have claimed many ships whose crew "switched off" after safely negotiating the river entrance. In 1864, the Middens claimed five ships in three days with many deaths, even though the wrecks were only a few yards from the shore. In response a meeting was held in North Shields Town Hall in December 1864 at which it was agreed that a body of men should be formed to assist the Coastguard in the event of such disasters. This led to the foundation of the Tynemouth Volunteer Life Brigade.

Tynemouth Aquarium
Undersea aquatic park, containing seahorses, sharks, giant octopus, frogs, otters and many other creatures. Its Seal Cove  is a purpose-built outdoor facility providing an environment for a captive-bred colony of harbour seals. The 500000 l pool includes rocky haul-out areas and underwater caves, specially created to ensure marine mammals are kept in near natural conditions. It was previously known as the Blue Reef Aquarium Tynemouth.

Transport
Maintaining transport links between Tynemouth and Newcastle is Tynemouth Metro station, originally opened in 1882 as a mainline station catering for the thousands of holiday-makers who flocked to the Tynemouth beaches. Its ornate Victorian ironwork canopies have earned it Grade II listed status. They were restored in 2012, and the station now provides a venue for a weekend "flea market", book fairs, craft displays, coffee shops, restaurants, exhibitions and other events.

Tynemouth is the end point for the 140 mi long Coast to Coast Cycle Route from Whitehaven or Workington in Cumbria.

Demographics
In 2011, Tynemouth had a population of 67,519, compared to 17,056 a decade earlier. This is mainly because of boundary changes rather than an actual population increase: for example, North Shields was a separate urban subdivision in 2001 and had a population of over 36,000. Shiremoor was also a different urban subdivision, with a population of almost 5000 in 2001. The 2011 definition of the town of Tynemouth includes North Shields along with some areas in the north west of the town such as Shiremoor or West Allotment. However using 2011 methodology boundaries Tynemouth had a population of 60,881 in 2001 based on the 2011 boundaries. Thus Tynemouth has become larger in both area and population.

Religion
Tynemouth's Parish Church is the Church of the Holy Saviour in the Parish of Tynemouth Priory. It was built in 1841 as a chapel of ease to the main Anglican church in the area, Christ Church, North Shields. In Front Street there were two other churches, the Catholic Parish of Our Lady & St Oswins, opened in 1899, and also Tynemouth Congregational Church, which closed in 1973 and is now a shopping arcade.

Notable residents

 * Susan Mary Auld – naval architect
 * Thomas Bewick – engraver, spent many holidays at Bank Top and wrote most of his memoirs there in 1822
 * Septimus Brutton – played a single first-class cricket match for Hampshire in 1904
 * Toby Flood – England rugby player, was a pupil at The King's School
 * Ralph Pake – professional footballer
 * Ray Slater - (1931–2005), professional footballer
 * Andy Taylor – former lead guitarist for the new wave group Duran Duran was born in Tynemouth in 1961 at the Tynemouth Jubilee Infirmary.
 * John of Tynemouth (canon lawyer) – (died 1221), Canon lawyer, author, teacher at Oxford University later canon and judge.
 * John of Tynemouth (chronicler) – (fl. c. 1350), vicar of Tynemouth, author of world history and of British hagiography.
 * John of Tynemouth (geometer) – (fl. early 13th century), author of a book on geometry later relied on by Adelard of Bath and Roger Bacon. Possibly the same man as the canon lawyer.

Notable visitors
Charles Dickens visited Tynemouth and wrote in a letter from Newcastle, dated 4 March 1867:

'We escaped to Tynemouth for a two hours' sea walk. There was a high wind blowing, and a magnificent sea running. Large vessels were being towed in and out over the stormy bar with prodigious waves breaking on it; and, spanning the restless uproar of the waters, was a quiet rainbow of transcendent beauty. the scene was quite wonderful. We were in the full enjoyment of it when a heavy sea caught us, knocked us over, and in a moment drenched us and filled even our pockets.'

Giuseppe Garibaldi sailed into the mouth of the River Tyne in 1854 and briefly stayed in Huntingdon Place. The house is marked by a commemorative plaque.

Lewis Carroll states in the first surviving diary of his early manhood, that he met 'three nice little children' belonging to a Mrs Crawshay in Tynemouth on 21 August 1855. He remarks: 'I took a great fancy to Florence, the eldest, a child of very sweet manners'.

Algernon Charles Swinburne arrived hot foot from Wallington Hall in December 1862 and proceeded to accompany William Bell Scott and his guests, probably including Dante Gabriel Rossetti on a trip to Tynemouth. Scott writes that as they walked by the sea, Swinburne declaimed his Hymn to Proserpine and Laus Veneris in his strange intonation, while the waves 'were running the whole length of the long level sands towards Cullercoats and sounding like far-off acclamations'.

Peter the Great of Russia is reputed to have stayed briefly in Tynemouth while on an incognito visit to learn about shipbuilding on the Tyne. He was fascinated by shipbuilding and Western life. Standing 6 ft and with body-guards, he would not have been troubled by the locals.

Mouth of Tyne festival
The Mouth of the Tyne Festival currently continues the local festival tradition. This annual free festival is held jointly between Tynemouth and South Shields and includes a world-class open-air concert at Tynemouth Priory.

Tynemouth pageant
Tynemouth Pageant is a community organisation in North Tyneside, Tyne and Wear, England, devoted to staging an open-air dramatic pageant every three years in the grounds of Tynemouth Castle and Priory, by kind permission of English Heritage who run the historic monastic and defensive site at the mouth of the River Tyne.

In popular culture

 * Many of the books of prize-winning children's author Robert Westall are set in Tynemouth.
 * The Fire Worm. London: Gollancz, 1988. ISBN 0-575-04300-8, a book by prize-winning science fiction author Ian Watson is set in Tynemouth, and is based on the Lambton Worm legend.
 * The 1980s television series Supergran was predominantly filmed in Tynemouth and the flying bicycle and other artefacts used in filming were until 2006 on display in the Land of Green Ginger (converted Congregational Church) on Front Street.
 * Many scenes from the 1961 film Payroll are set in Tynemouth.
 * Several scenes from the TV series Vera have been shot in and around Tynemouth.
 * A short Manga comic, written by Japanese animator Hayao Miyazaki, entitled A Trip To Tynemouth was released in 2006.
 * The BBC Radio 4 drama series Home Front, comprised 561 episodes broadcast between the centenary of the outbreak of the First World War on 4 August 2014, and the centenary of the 1918 Armistice on 11 November 2018. The series was mostly set in Tynemouth and Folkestone, with links between characters related to each other in the two towns. It focused on the people involved in the war, those who stayed at home, and the industries that they worked in.

title: Tynemouth


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Probabilist

probabilist may refer to:
 * A follower of probabilism (in theology or philosophy)
 * A mathematician who studies and applies probability theory
 * List of mathematical probabilists

title: Probabilist


text:
Warsaw radio mast

The Warsaw Radio Mast (Maszt radiowy w Konstantynowie) was a radio mast located near Gąbin, Poland, and was the world's tallest structure at 2,120 ft (646.38 m) from 1974 until its collapse on 8 August 1991. The mast was designed for extreme height in order to broadcast Soviet propaganda around the world, including to the remotest areas such as Antarctica. As of 2023, it was the third-tallest manmade structure ever built, after the Burj Khalifa tower in the United Arab Emirates in 2009, and Merdeka 118 tower in Malaysia in 2022.

Designed by Jan Polak, its construction started with earthworks for the foundations on 5 July 1969, while construction of the tower itself entered began on 18 October 1972 with a ceremony, and was completed on 18 May 1974. Its transmitter, whose installation started in October 1973, entered regular service on 22 July 1974. The opening of the mast was met with extensive celebration and was covered by the Polish Film Chronicle. The tower was used by Warsaw Radio-Television (Centrum Radiowo-Telewizyjne) for radio broadcasting on a frequency of AM-LW (longwave) 227 kHz before 1 February 1988 and 225 kHz (1332m) afterwards. Its base was 115.2 m above sea level. Because there was a potential difference of 120 kV between the mast and ground, it stood on a 2 m-high insulator. It operated as a mast radiator (half-wave radiator), so its height was half of its 1332m broadcasting wavelength. The signals from its 2 MW transmitters could be received across essentially the entire globe. The structure's weight was debated, with some Polish sources claiming it weighed 420 t.

The mast was designed for national pride, mainly because of the height of the mast, which made it the tallest structure in the world at the time, surpassing the KVLY-TV mast in Blanchard, North Dakota, US. It was also designed to broadcast the "propaganda of the successes." Due to the mast's height, listeners from all over the world could tune in to Polish radio broadcasts, including those in remote places such as Antarctica.

The official name of the facility was Radiofoniczny Ośrodek Nadawczy w Konstantynowie (Radiophonic Transmission Centre Konstantynów), Radiowe Centrum Nadawcze w Konstantynowie (Radio Transmission Centre Konstantynów; RCN Konstantynów) or Warszawska Radiostacja Centralna (WRC) w Gąbinie (Warsaw Central Radio Station Gąbin). It broadcast Polskie Radio's Program I (unofficially referred to as "Jedynka"). The transmitter was so powerful that Program I could be received in parts of Canada and the United States.

Construction
The mast's location, which was finalised to be in Gąbin, was chosen because of its high soil conductivity and the need for a position in the centre of Poland. A large amount of research was utilised to decide where to build the mast, which included factors such as soil resistance, ownership of property, and the quality of infrastructure (especially roads).

The mast was initially constructed to replace the Raszyn radio transmitter, which had been constructed in 1931 and rebuilt in 1949. The Raszyn transmitter was designed to cover the Eastern Borderlands, and so Polish authorities did not consider reception in the Recovered Territories. When it became evident that Raszyn could not provide coverage to the entire country, the station received an increase of power to 500 kW, but this too failed. In the late 1960s it was decided to construct a new central transmitter at the geographical centre of Poland (post-WWII borders). Gąbin was chosen not only due to its central position, but also its high soil conductivity. During storms, when the mast could not operate, the signal would be temporarily switched to Raszyn, a process that was eased thanks to direct phone lines from RCN Konstantynów to both Raszyn and the energy sector.

The Warsaw radio mast was a guyed steel lattice mast of equilateral triangular cross section, with a face width of 4.8 m. The vertical steel tubes forming the structures of the mast had a diameter of 245 millimetres (10 in); the thickness of the walls of these tubes varied between 8–34 mm (0.31–1.33 in) depending on height. The mast consisted of 86 sections, each of which had a length of 7.5 m. The mast had 3 arrays of guy wires, each array attached to the mast at 5 levels: 121.78 m, 256.78 m, 369.28 m, 481.78 m, and 594.28 m above ground. Each guy was fixed on a separate anchor block at the ground and was 50 mm in diameter. To prevent the guy wires from interfering with the radio transmissions, the guys were insulated at regular intervals. The weight of guys and insulators used to anchor the mast was 80 t. An elevator and separate protected ladders were installed in the interior of the mast to facilitate access to the various mast components, including the aircraft warning lamps. The elevator was designed by Alimak Hek, a Swedish company, and took 45 minutes to reach the top. The lift was nicknamed "Alimak", as a nod to the company that designed it. Safety was a priority, so "Alimak" had a safety procedure, where it could be stopped, but this precaution never had to be used. A maximum of 3 people could ride up the elevator, although sources claim it would be crowded. The elevator was powered by an internal combustion engine. An area for maintenance supplies was present, in order to transport materials such as lightbulbs for the aircraft warning lights. Inspection crews travelled up it once per month to replace light bulbs, and watch for cracks in the steel. If a crack was found, the transmitters were turned off and the Raszyn radio mast took over the broadcast. Any cracks were then fixed by welders from Mostostal Zabrze by making patches out of sheet metal.

In the lower half of the mast, there was a vertical steel tube, attached to the mast's outer structure with large insulators. This tube was grounded at the bottom, and connected electrically to the mast structure by an adjustable metal bar at a height of 328.68 m when the tower transmitted on 227 kHz longwave and at a height of 334.18 m when it switched to 225 kHz on 1 February 1988. This technique allowed adjusting the impedance of the mast for the transmitter and worked by applying a direct current ground at a point of low radio frequency voltage, to conduct static charge to ground without diminishing the radio energy. Static electrical charge can build up to high values, even at times of no thunderstorm activity, when such tall structures are insulated from ground. Use of this technique provides better lightning protection than using just a spark gap at the mast base, as it is standard at most mast radiators insulated against ground. Poland owned the third tallest tower in the world to date and tallest back then.

The mast was equipped in 16 levels with arrays of six air traffic warning lights with 200 W power. At the top there was a flashing beacon consisting of two lamps of 1,000 W.

A 600 m long special overhead radio frequency transmission line of 120 ohms was used to transfer the signal from the transmitter building to the mast. Featuring an asymmetrical coaxial power supply, it consisted of the inner "hot" core of 24 copper wires connected to a small ring at each post, and each was connected by three insulated cables to the outer ring. The outer ring served as the support of another set of 24 wires, known as the "outer braid." The transmission line was monitored whenever the mast was in operation; at night the line was illuminated with street lights, to prevent trespassers from electrocuting themselves. The transmitter building had a volume of 17000 m3 and was approximately 600 m from the mast. The transmitter consisted of two 1,000 kW units built by Brown, Boveri & Cie. An atomic clock was used to generate the transmission frequency in order to provide a very accurate, stable signal source which could be used as a frequency standard by anyone within signal range. The transmitters had the ability for each component to be turned on manually or all be started with one button. The transmitters were capable of receiving remote input, but the devices needed to utilize this were not implemented in Konstanynów. When high-voltage power was switched on, the transmitter was protected by two locked doors and crews were informed by way of illuminating a red lightbulb. This lightbulb was controlled by a photodiode that would additionally flash the lightbulb if a short-circuit in the transmitter was detected. The station, which had an area of 65 hectares (161 acres), also had a 76 m lattice tower of rectangular cross-section close to the transmitter building. This tower was used to provide a radio link for programme feeds from the studio, which ran from the Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw via a radio relay tower at Wiejca. At Konstantynów, the signal was focused on a parabolic dish at 30 dB and was captured in a horn antenna at the focal point of the dish. Upon reaching the transmitters, a dehydrator ensured that no condensation occurred. The transmission building used a NEC radio set and the TN60 multiple telephony system. This allowed for 60 telephone lines connected to the Polska Poczta, Telegraf i Telefon (Polish PTT agency) fixed-line telephone network to be run off the station but the full possibilities of this system were never used.

To supply power to the station, a 110 kV substation was built. The substation was over-engineered due to the strategic importance of the station as Poland's central transmitter: although the power consumption of the transmitting station was large at an estimated 6,000 kW, the substation was capable of supplying much more. Six small towers were erected around the periphery of the station's grounds in order to support aircraft warning lamps where the guy ropes were located.

Problems
Approximately ten years after completion of the mast, inspections revealed structural damage caused by wind-induced oscillations at the mast, the backstay insulators and the guys. Repair work was considered to be expensive and difficult, so replacement of the mast by a stronger construction of the same height was considered; but this was not carried out due to Poland's worsening economic situation. Repainting was started in 1988, but could not be completed due to not enough paint being available. A lack of equipment and training of maintenance teams led to a severe degradation of the mast's condition by the late 1980s. An inspection in May 1989 found that 13 strands of the upper guys had been fractured and, by the time of the collapse of the mast in 1991, seven guy wire insulators had been damaged. Another cause of the structure's deterioration was insufficient knowledge of the strains exerted on structures of such a great height. Additionally, on 23 March 1992, Adam Brzeziński, managing director of Mostostal Zabrze at the time, stated to Dziennik Zachodni that Mostostal should have prepared a technical report before starting construction on the risks faced during repair of a strained mast.

General characteristics

 * Weight: 420 tonnes (930,000 lb)
 * Height: 646.38 metres (2,120.67 ft)
 * Coordinates: 52 22 3.74 N 19 48 8.73 E
 * Frequency: 227 kHz (before February 1988), 225 kHz (after February 1988)
 * Type: Guyed steel lattice mast
 * Designer: Jan Polak

Transmitter

 * Model and Manufacturer: Brown, Boveri & Cie, Brown Boveri SL 61 B3
 * Power: 1,000 kW (1 MW)
 * Total Power: 2,000 kW (2 MW)

Transmitter building

 * Volume: 17,000 m3
 * Distance from mast: 600 m
 * Method of signal transportation: Overhead Radio Frequency Transmission Line

Elevator

 * Model and Manufacturer: Alimak
 * Maximum Capacity: 3 people
 * Type: Climbing elevator
 * Power supply: Internal combustion engine

Staff
The manager of the radio station from 1974 to 1980 was Zygmunt Duczmalewski (died 2016). His successor, Witold Czowgan (1947–2017), served as the manager from 1983 to 1986.

The mast had a total of 30 engineers and technicians. It also had 15 administrative staff. Because a large portion of the staff was recruited from around Poland, a new block of flats was built 30 km away in Sochaczew to accommodate the staff. More specialised staff were accommodated in the guest rooms of the transmission building. The facility also had a complement of guards, hired directly by the Ministry of Interior, mainly from the local population of Konstantynów.

Collapse
At 16:00 UTC on 8 August 1991 a catastrophic failure led to the collapse of the mast. During replacement of frayed guy wires, one of the main cables had to be replaced by two temporary ones. After the main cable had been disconnected and before the temporary ones could be connected, a gust of wind twisted the temporarily unmoored tower, pulling loose the other guys. The unsupported mast first bent, and then snapped at roughly half its height. The helix building and the transmitter building and transmitter were not damaged. The transmission line was also unaffected, but it was dismantled shortly after the collapse of the tower, leaving only the sustaining poles in place. A mobile crane belonging to Mostostal Zabrze was destroyed when the tower collapsed. As the foreman did not keep a construction log it was hard to determine the exact events that led to the catastrophe. The construction coordinator and the division chief of the company responsible for maintaining the mast were found liable for the collapse, and both were sentenced to 2.5 years in prison. The construction manager's sentence was eventually shortened to six months.

Since the collapse of the 640 m Warsaw radio mast, the tallest structure in Poland has been the FM radio and TV transmission mast at Olsztyn-Pieczewo, 385 m tall.

Replacement
After the collapse, Polskie Radio used the old Raszyn transmitter with its 335 m mast near Warsaw, which had been used since 1978 for daytime transmissions of a second Polish broadcasting service programme in the longwave range on the frequency AM-LW 198 kHz, for transmissions on AM-LW 225 kHz with a power of 500 kW. It is not possible to transmit from Raszyn on AM-LW (long wave) 198 kHz/1515 metres and 225 kHz/1333 metres simultaneously due to risk of interference, so the transmissions on the second longwave frequency AM-LW (long wave) 198 kHz had to be discontinued until either a second longwave broadcasting transmitting facility was built in Poland or a special frequency switch, which would allow transmissions on both frequencies, was installed at the Raszyn transmitter. The latter, simpler solution would have decreased the effectiveness and reliability of both transmitters and was therefore rejected.

Because of the importance of Polish longwave transmitters to Polish people abroad, as early as April 1992 the Polish government planned to rebuild the mast at Konstantynów. In September 1995 the Polish government was set to rebuild the mast. Although refurbishment of the old foundations, which could be reused, had already started, the rebuilding of the mast was cancelled due to protests by local residents, who claimed that radiation from the mast was a health hazard. While the accuracy of these claims has not been verified, a new site for the transmitter was sought. Several other locations were considered, but due to the continuing resistance of nearby inhabitants (backed by the Solidarity trade union), planned mast height and transmitter range were both greatly reduced, and an old military site just southeast of Solec Kujawski was chosen. There were once again protests in this location, but tensions were eased when Polish Radio donated PLN 3.5 million towards the development of the local community. There, a new longwave transmission facility was built in 1998–1999, with a transmitter of 1200 kW output power for the frequency AM-LW (long wave) 225 kHz. This facility, which was inaugurated on 4 September 1999, uses one 330 metre (1083 ft) and one 289 metre (948 ft) grounded top-fed masts as aerials.

After the inauguration of the transmitter at Solec Kujawski, the transmitter at Raszyn was again used for transmitting on the frequency AM-LW (long wave) 198 kHz for Polskie Radio Parlament until it ended LW transmissions in 2009.

At Gąbin, there was also a radio link relay tower, commissioned in 1974, last used in 1998 and demolished in 2021. It was used as a radio relay link to receive Polskie Radio Program I programming from the microwave link at the RTCN Warszawa (PKiN) transmitter to Konstantynów. In front of the entrance to the mast, a cross was erected by local residents associated with the now defunct Association for the Protection of Human Life at the Highest Mast of Europe.

From 2001 to 2012, the facility was managed by the Real Estate department of Telekomunikacja Polska S.A. (TP SA). Due to the 2012 merger of TP and Orange Polska, the facility is now managed by the Orange Polska SA Real Estate Sales Office. The facility is protected against unauthorised access, as it is worth approximately PLN 3,650,000 (approx. $1 million USD).

State since 1991
Except for the mast and the radio-frequency transmission line that led to it, nearly all components of the facility remained in place, unused and slowly deteriorating. Some local people have visited the remains of the mast on anniversaries, such as the 20th anniversary in 2011.

In 2018, the Swiss Brown, Boveri & Cie 2 piece radio transmitter (Brown Boveri SL 61 B3) was donated by Orange Polska, a Polish telecommunications provider, to the Babice Transatlantic Radio Station Culture Park Association. It was then transferred to Warsaw for renovation. There are plans to restore the transmitter for active usage in a museum.

At the end of September 2021, the Konstantynów relay tower was decommissioned and demolished.

In popular culture
The Warsaw radio mast was added to The Guinness Book of World Records; the record was given for the mast's height, which was later surpassed by the Burj Khalifa.

The Warsaw Radio mast's successor and predecessor, the Raszyn Mast, was depicted on several stamps issued by the Polish government.

The Polish Film Chronicle, a Polish newsreel typically shown in cinemas before a movie, showed the Warsaw Radio Mast.

title: Warsaw radio mast


text:
Aquatics

Aquatics may refer to:
 * Aquatic sports in the Olympics and other international competitions, including the disciplines of swimming, diving, synchronized swimming, water polo, and open water swimming
 * Water-related sports more broadly (including boat racing, water skiing, swimming, etc.); see List of water sports
 * Water-based techniques or modalities used for aquatic therapy
 * Golfing term occasionally used to describe a water hazard
 * Aquatic plants

title: Aquatics


text:
Dublin Area Rapid Transit

The Dublin Area Rapid Transit system (stylised as DART) is an electrified commuter rail railway network serving the coastline and city of Dublin, Ireland. The service makes up the core of Dublin's suburban railway network, stretching from Greystones, County Wicklow, in the south to Howth and Malahide in north County Dublin. The DART serves 31 stations and consists of 53 route kilometres of electrified railway (46 km double track, 7 km single), and carries in the region of 20 million passengers per year. In a similar manner to the Berlin S-Bahn, the DART blends elements of a commuter rail service and a rapid transit system.

The DART system was established by Córas Iompair Éireann in 1984 to replace an ageing fleet of diesel-powered locomotives. It was, and still is, the only electric mainline railway in Ireland, and one of two currently operating electric railways, the other being the Luas tram which opened in 2004. Since 1987, the service is operated by Iarnród Éireann, Ireland's national rail operator. Contemporary rolling stock on the DART network is powered by overhead lines and uses the.

Initial development
The section of trackbed between Dún Laoghaire and Dublin City was originally laid out as part of the Dublin and Kingstown Railway, Ireland's first railway. This line was later connected with the Belfast mainline to the north and Wexford mainline to the south and joined the Harcourt Street line at Shanganagh Junction. The scenic views from the railway over Dublin Bay at this point have been compared to those on the Gulf of Naples and have resulted in trips to Killiney Hill and Greystones along the line becoming tourist attractions.

Prior to electrification in 1984, the line was operated using 1950s-era CIÉ 2600 Class rail cars which had been converted in the early 1970s to push-pull operation. These diesel-powered trains were powered by a CIE 201 Class locomotive, with a driving trailer carriage on the other end. This service was notoriously uncomfortable, unreliable, and overcrowded. By the late 1970s, the need for an urgent upgrade to the system had become apparent, as the 2600 Class railcars were in poor condition. Replacement parts had become difficult to obtain due to the age of the rolling stock and its conversion to push-pull operation, which had been intended as a temporary measure until a more permanent solution could be established, had come to the end of its serviceable life.

In conjunction with electrification, three disused stations at Sandymount, Booterstown and Salthill and Monkstown were reopened for the DART in 1984. Sandymount and Booterstown were each built at the sites of a previous station while Salthill and Monkstown was built near the site of the original Kingstown railway terminus, between Seapoint and Dún Laoghaire. As electrification work was undertaken from 1981–1982, a spur which had served the ferry port at Dún Laoghaire was disconnected from the mainline as the installation of overhead power lines to service the harbour would have necessitated the lowering of the track which travelled through a portal south of Dún Laoghaire station.

Early DART services ran from the north-eastern suburb of Howth, through Connolly, Tara Street, and Pearse stations in the city centre and on to Bray, which lies on the border between Dublin and Wicklow. This route remained unchanged for almost sixteen years until the line between Bray and Greystones was electrified. Further electrification of the line took place between Howth Junction & Donaghmede and Malahide, the northernmost DART station, on the Belfast mainline. The service to Portmarnock and Malahide began in October 2000.

Operation
The DART service is operated by a mixed fleet of electric multiple unit trains. As of 2019, the trains run every ten minutes on weekdays with a reduced service on weekends. Trains north of Howth Junction are split between Howth and Malahide while the Malahide service is supplemented by Northern Commuter trains.

Trains are typically run as four-car, six-car or eight-car sets during the 07.00–09.30 and 17.00–19.00 weekday peak periods. Capacity is reduced during off-peak periods and at weekends, with up to four eight-car sets running. Four-car sets typically consist of a single 8500 Class unit while six-car sets are made up of three 8100 Class units. Eight-car sets can be made up of either two 8500 Class or four 8100 Class units. Both classes had worked in tandem prior to the refurbishment of the ageing 8100 Class in 2007, after which both have been run separately.

Forty two-car 8100 Class units were purchased to run the initial network. Two of these were damaged beyond repair in a depot fire in 2001. Expanding passenger numbers and the need to refurbish the ageing 8100 Class units saw the purchase of four 8500 Class train sets in 2000. These were complemented with three 8510 Class sets in 2001 and ten 8520 Class sets in 2003 and 2004. The now-withdrawn 8200 Class sets which were first run in 2000 operated until 2008 at which point they were retired from revenue service and decommissioned due to longstanding technical issues. A redevelopment of the network's stations was undertaken between 2003 and 2005 to lengthen platforms to accommodate eight-car sets, upgrade the power grid, and improve accessibility for disabled passengers.

Service
All trains in the Dublin suburban area, including DART services, are monitored and regulated by a Central Traffic Control (CTC) facility located in Connolly Station, known as Suburban CTC. This facility has been extensively automated and requires a staff of five; two signallers, one with responsibility for level crossings, an electrical control officer, who supervises the electrical power supply equipment and an overall supervisor. The main CTC is staffed at all times however, there are also backup local control rooms which allow services to continue in the event of serious technical problems.

A single driver is responsible for the management of each train from the cab in the leading carriage. Automatic doors are controlled by the driver and are armed upon arrival at stations. Real-time passenger information displays on station platforms offer passengers updates on the next train arrival times, service updates and outages. Automatic PA announcements are made in case of service disruptions and are tailored to each station.

The majority of stations on the network have been renovated to include automatic barriers which require passengers to submit their tickets for verification before they can set foot on the platform. A ticket is required in advance of boarding DART services and can be purchased at stations from staffed kiosks and automated machines. Passengers can also avail of the option of using a Leap Card, Dublin's integrated ticketing scheme. Leap cards are offered as contactless cards onto which passengers can load set ticket options or a cash balance. Leap fares are typically cheaper than paying in cash for a journey. On the DART network, users tag on at their point of entry and tag off at their exit point. Irish Rail, along with Dublin's other public transport operators operated its own smart card system which was phased out to coincide with the Leap Card's introduction. Revenue protection officers check passengers' tickets to ensure validity both onboard trains and on station platforms at random intervals.

DART stations
South of Howth Junction South of the River Liffey South of Dún Laoghaire
 * Howth Junction & Donaghmede
 * Kilbarrack
 * Raheny
 * Harmonstown
 * Killester
 * Clontarf Road
 * Connolly
 * Tara Street
 * Pearse
 * Grand Canal Dock
 * Lansdowne Road
 * Sandymount
 * Sydney Parade
 * Booterstown
 * Blackrock
 * Seapoint
 * Salthill and Monkstown
 * Dún Laoghaire
 * Sandycove and Glasthule
 * Glenageary
 * Dalkey
 * Killiney
 * Shankill
 * Bray
 * Greystones

DART+
In February 2018, the Irish government and National Transport Authority announced a 10-year plan to electrify the lines to Drogheda, Maynooth, Hazelhatch, M3 Parkway and Docklands. The proposed project, which had previously been referred to as "DART Expansion", was renamed "DART+" in 2020. The project was split into five sub-projects:

 * DART+ Coastal North: Drogheda to Connolly Station.
 * DART+ Coastal South: Greystones to Connolly Station.
 * DART+ West: Maynooth and the M3 Parkway (merging together at Clonsilla Station) to Connolly Station and Spencer Dock Station.
 * DART+ South West: Hazelhatch & Celbridge to Heuston Station and the proposed station at Glasnevin.
 * DART+ Fleet : The purchasing of a new fleet to serve these routes.

In 2019, a tender for up to 600 hybrid battery/electric units was issued (to provide fleet capacity for the proposed expansion), and a tender was also issued for initial design work on the additional electrification requirements. A new DART station, Woodbrook, was also proposed to be built between Shankill and Bray on the southern section of the DART line, near a former halt of the same name.

The initial phase of the DART+ plan, the "DART+ West" project, proposes to provide 40 km of electrification to Maynooth, M3 Parkway and Docklands; with a new EMU maintenance depot at Maynooth and additional works in relation to signalling and level crossing closures. The DART+ West project progressed to the design stage as of April 2019, and the planning stage in December 2021. The public consultation phase for DART+ West closed in October 2022, and, as of November 2022, an oral hearing with An Bord Pleanála was due to be scheduled.

Former/suspended proposals
Several proposals have been made to expand the DART network beyond the coastal mainline and provide service to the north and west of the city. These expansion plans included a proposed tunnel linking the Docklands Station at Spencer Dock in the city's quays and Heuston Station. This proposed DART Underground project, first posited in 1972, included plans for services from Celbridge/Hazelhatch to the Docklands via St. Stephen's Green. The DART Underground project was put on hold in September 2015. While included in the Greater Dublin Transport Strategy 2016-2035 (published in 2016), the DART Underground proposal was not included in the Greater Dublin Area Strategy 2022-2042 (published in 2021).

DART Line 1
The "DART Line 1" project proposed that the southern portion of the existing DART line would branch west after Connolly Station to run onto the Western Commuter line. This proposal included electrification as far as Maynooth. The branch to Navan (currently constructed and operational to M3 Parkway) was also due to be electrified as far as Dunboyne.

DART Line 2
The northern portion of the DART line (north of Connolly Station) was proposed to be linked using the DART Underground to the Heuston main line via Docklands station at Spencer Dock and Heuston Station. This tunnel would link the DART directly with existing Luas light rail lines, bus routes, and proposed Metro lines and extend the high-frequency DART service to the Kildare commuter line. In April 2009, it was proposed that an electrification project would extend the DART as far as Drogheda.

Dart+ Fleet
In 2017, IÉ announced plans to procure a new fleet of trains with the intention of extending DART services from 2023 onwards. An initial purchase of 100 vehicles was proposed to allow replacement of the existing fleet; this proposed purchase would include bi-mode units to allow services to run beyond the existing electrified network.

In December 2021, IÉ announced that Alstom had been selected as the provider of up to 750 new vehicles, with 325 planned as part of the DART+ plan. Part of Alstom's X'Trapolis family, an initial purchase of 95 vehicles is to be undertaken, formed into 19 5-car units. A total of 13 of these are due to be fitted both with pantographs to operate using the OHLE on the main DART network, and batteries to allow operation on non-electrified routes. The battery operation is planned to allow the extension of DART services as far as Drogheda. The remaining units in the initial batch are expected to also be 5-car, fitted with pantograph only.

In 2023, Alstom revealed prototypes of the new DART trains. The prototype plans include 4 bike spaces per car, space to charge e-bikes and scooters, dedicated wheelchair areas, and automatic ramps for passenger accessibility. In April 2023, TD Fergus O'Dowd suggested that the first set of trains were due to be delivered by 2025, enabling expansion of DART services to Drogheda along the DART+ Coastal North route.

DART's competitors
Iarnród Éireann, the operator of DART services, operates a rail monopoly. They also operate faster Commuter and InterCity services, which compete with journeys from Greystones, Bray, Dún Laoghaire, Blackrock, Sydney Parade, Lansdowne Road, Grand Canal Dock, Dublin Pearse, Tara Street, Dublin Connolly, Howth Junction & Donaghmede, Clongriffin, Portmarnock and Malahide. The only other company to operate on lines in the Republic of Ireland is Northern Ireland Railways, which jointly operates the cross-border Enterprise service between Dublin and Belfast.

A number of other public transport modes are available in Dublin. The CIÉ-owned Dublin Bus and the private Go-Ahead Ireland (owned by Go-Ahead Group) operate throughout the city and have many routes that run parallel to DART for stretches. However, they do not have any scheduled routes that traverse the entire length of the DART line. As in the rest of Ireland, integration of bus and rail services is limited, though there are some "feeder bus" routes for which it is possible to buy a through ticket valid for both the rail and bus section of the journey. Travel passes and integrated ticketing (Leap Cards) for DART, Luas and Dublin Bus services were introduced in 2011.

title: Dublin Area Rapid Transit


text:
Anthrax (disambiguation)

Anthrax is an acute disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis.

Anthrax may also refer to:

 * Bacillus anthracis, the bacterium responsible for anthrax, the disease
 * Anthrax toxin, the virulent proteins secreted by Bacillus anthracis
 * 2001 anthrax attacks in the US
 * Anthrax (fly), a genus of bombyliid flies
 * Anthrax (American band), an American thrash metal band formed in 1981
 * "Anthrax", a song by the band of the same name from their album Fistful of Metal
 * Anthrax (British band), a British anarcho-punk band formed in 1980
 * Anthrax, a fictional character seen in the video game Shrek SuperSlam
 * Anthrax (2001 film), starring David Keith
 * Castle Anthrax, a fictional fortress in the movie Monty Python and the Holy Grail
 * Los Ántrax, a Mexican gang

title: Anthrax (disambiguation)


text:
Geneve

Geneve may refer to:

 * Genève, French for Geneva, Switzerland
 * Generic Network Virtualization Encapsulation

title: Geneve