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Hudson Institute

Hudson Institute is an American conservative think tank based in Washington, D.C.  It was founded in 1961 in Croton-on-Hudson, New York, by futurist Herman Kahn and his colleagues at the RAND Corporation.

Kahn was a physicist and military consultant known for envisioning nuclear war scenarios. The institute's research branched out from the military into various areas including economics, health, education, and gambling. Kahn died in 1983 and the institute moved to Indianapolis the year after. The institute helped design Wisconsin's influential workfare program in the mid-1990s. Hudson relocated to Washington, D.C., in 2004. It has been noted for work with governments and industries including defense and agribusiness.

1961–1982
Hudson Institute was founded in 1961 by Herman Kahn, Max Singer, and Oscar M. Ruebhausen. Kahn was a Cold War icon, often interviewed in magazines, who was purported to have the highest IQ on record and partly inspired the 1964 movie Dr. Strangelove. In 1960, while employed at the RAND Corporation, Kahn had given a series of lectures at Princeton University on scenarios related to nuclear war. In 1960, Princeton University Press published On Thermonuclear War, a book-length expansion of Kahn's lecture notes. Major controversies ensued, and Kahn and RAND parted ways.

Kahn moved to Croton-on-Hudson, New York, intending to establish a new think tank that was less hierarchical and bureaucratic. Along with Max Singer, a young government lawyer who had been Kahn's RAND colleague, and New York attorney Oscar Ruebhausen, Kahn founded the Hudson Institute on July 20, 1961. Kahn has been described as Hudson's driving intellect while Singer developed the institute's organization. Ruebhausen was an advisor to New York governor Nelson Rockefeller.

Hudson's initial research projects largely represented Kahn's personal interests, which included the domestic and military use of nuclear power and scenario planning exercises about policy options and their possible outcomes. The use of the word scenario in such exercises had been adapted from Hollywood storytelling as a more dignified word than "screenplay", and Kahn was an enthusiastic practitioner. Kahn and his colleagues made pioneering contributions to nuclear deterrence theory and strategy during this period.

Hudson's detailed analyses of "ladders of escalation" and reports on the likely consequences of limited and unlimited nuclear exchanges, eventually published as Thinking About the Unthinkable in 1962 and On Escalation: Metaphors and Scenarios in 1965, were influential within the Kennedy administration. They helped the institute win its first major research contract from the Office of Civil Defense at the Pentagon.

Meanwhile, in popular culture, Dr. Strangelove in 1964 borrowed many lines from Kahn's On Thermonuclear War, and the methods of Kahn, Hudson and RAND also inspired the 1967 satirical book The Report From Iron Mountain, depicting a supposedly secret study on the dangers of peace.

Kahn did not want Hudson limited to defense-related research, and along with Singer, he recruited a staff from diverse academic backgrounds. Hudson also involved a wide range of consultants for analysis and policy, including French philosopher Raymond Aron, African-American novelist Ralph Ellison, political scientist Henry Kissinger, conceptual artist James Lee Byars, and social scientist Daniel Bell. Its focus expanded to include geopolitics, economics, demography, anthropology, science and technology, education, and urban planning.

Kahn in 1962 predicted the rise of Japan as the world's second-largest economy and developed close ties to politicians and corporate leaders there.

Hudson Institute used scenario-planning techniques to forecast long-term developments and was noted for its future studies. In 1967, Hudson published The Year 2000, a bestselling book commissioned by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Many of the predictions proved correct, including technological developments like portable telephones and network-linked home and office computers.

In 1970, The Emerging Japanese Superstate was published. After the Club of Rome's 1972 report The Limits to Growth produced alarm about the possibility that population growth and resource depletion might result in a 21st-century global "collapse", Hudson responded with its own analysis, The Next 200 Years, which concluded instead that scientific and practical innovations were likely to significantly improve worldwide living standards.

Hudson struggled with funding problems in the 1970s for reasons including increased competition from other think tanks for government grants. It turned to grants from corporations such as IBM and Mobil.

In his 1982 book The Coming Boom, Kahn argued that pro-growth tax and fiscal policies, information technology, and developments by the energy industry would make possible an unprecedented prosperity in the Western world by the early 21st century. Kahn also foresaw unconventional extraction techniques like hydraulic fracturing.

Within 20 years, Hudson had offices in Bonn, Paris, Brussels, Montreal and Tokyo. Other research projects were related to South Korea, Singapore, Australia and Latin America.

1983–2000
After Kahn's sudden death at age 61 on July 7, 1983, Hudson was restructured. Recruited by the City of Indianapolis and the Lilly Endowment, Hudson relocated its headquarters to Indiana in 1984. In 1987, Mitch Daniels, a former aide to Senator Richard Lugar (R-IN) and President Ronald Reagan, was appointed CEO.

William Eldridge Odom, former director of the National Security Agency, became Hudson's director of national security studies; economist Alan Reynolds became director of economic research. Technologist George Gilder led a project on the implications of the digital era for American society.

In 1990, Daniels quit to become vice president of corporate affairs at Eli Lilly and Company. He was succeeded as CEO by Leslie Lenkowsky, a social scientist, and former consultant to Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan.

Under Lenkowsky, Hudson emphasized domestic and social policy. During the early 1990s, the institute did work concerning education reform and applied research on charter schools and school choice.

Also in 1990, Hudson Institute spun off a subsidiary non-profit organization that took the name the Discovery Institute.

At the initiative of Wisconsin governor Tommy Thompson, two members of Hudson were in the small planning group that designed the Wisconsin Works welfare-to-work program. Hudson also helped fund the planning and evaluated the results. A version was adopted nationwide in the 1996 federal welfare-reform legislation signed by President Bill Clinton. In 2001, President George W. Bush's initiative on charitable choice was based on Hudson's research into social-service programs administered by faith-based organizations.

Other Hudson research from this period included 1987's "Workforce 2000", the "Blue Ribbon Commission on Hungary" (1990) "International Baltic Economic Commission" (1991–93), on market-oriented reforms in the newly independent states of Eastern Europe, and the 1997 follow-up study "Workforce 2020".

In 1997, Lenkowsky was succeeded by Herbert London.

2001–2016
After the September 11 attacks, Hudson emphasized international issues such as the Middle East, Latin America, and Islam. On June 1, 2004, Hudson relocated its headquarters to Washington, D.C.

In 2012, Sarah May Stern became chairman of the board of trustees, and remains so to the present.

In 2016, Hudson relocated from its McPherson Square headquarters to a custom-built office space on Pennsylvania Avenue, near the U.S. Capitol and the White House. The new LEED-certified offices were designed by FOX Architects. The Prime Minister of Japan Shinzo Abe presided over the opening of the new offices.

2016–present
Vice President Mike Pence used the institute as his venue for a major policy speech concerning China on October 4, 2018.

In 2021, Pompeo and Elaine Chao, Secretary of Transportation in the Trump administration, joined the institute. In January 2021, John P. Walters was appointed president and CEO of the Hudson Institute. Walters succeeded Kenneth R. Weinstein, who became the first Walter P. Stern Distinguished Fellow. Former U.S. attorney general William P. Barr joined as a distinguished fellow in 2022.

On March 30, 2023, President Tsai Ing-wen of Taiwan attended an event held by the Hudson Institute, where she accepted the institute's Global Leadership Award. In response to the award event, the Foreign Ministry of China imposed sanctions on the institute, its Board of Trustees Chair Sarah May Stern, and its President and CEO John P. Walters.

European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen chose the Hudson Institute to host a major address in October 2023 where she defended Israel's right to defend itself following Palestinian terror attacks. In the speech, she voiced EU solidarity with Israel and drew parallels between acts of terror by Hamas and Russian dictator Vladimir Putin. The speech was coordinated with the White House as President Joe Biden urged Congress to approve additional aid to support Ukraine and Israel as key allies of the United States.

The Institute provides several briefing services, such as the Keystone Defense Initiative, where Rebecca Heinrichs is the Senior Fellow and Director.

Sponsored awards
Hudson offers two annual awards, the Herman Kahn Award and the Global Leadership Awards. Past Hudson Institute honorees include Nikki Haley, Paul Ryan, Mike Pence, Mike Pompeo, Ronald Reagan, Henry Kissinger, Rupert Murdoch, Dick Cheney, Joseph Lieberman, Benjamin Netanyahu, David Petraeus, and Shinzo Abe.

Funding
Hudson Institute is funded by donations from individuals, foundations, and corporations. Notable funders of the Institute include the Silicon Valley Community Foundation, the Sarah Scaife Foundation, and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.

As of 2021, the organization reported revenue of over $37m with under $20m in expenses and an endowment of $81m.

Hudson Institute has accepted $7.9m from Donors Trust. It has received $25,000 from Exxon Mobil since 1998 and less than $100,000 from Koch family foundations, both of which actively minimize climate change.

The New York Times commented on Dennis Avery's attacks on organic farming: "The attack on organic food by a well-financed research organization suggests that, though organic food accounts for only 1 percent of food sales in the United States, the conventional food industry is worried".

Another employee of the institute, Michael Fumento, was revealed to have received funding from Monsanto for his 1999 book Bio-Evolution. Monsanto's spokesman said: "It's our practice, that if we're dealing with an organization like this, that any funds we're giving should be unrestricted." Hudson's CEO and President Kenneth R. Weinstein told BusinessWeek that he was uncertain if the payment should have been disclosed. "That's a good question, period," he said.

The New York Times suggested Huntington Ingalls Industries had used the Hudson Institute to enhance the company's argument for more nuclear-powered aircraft carriers, at a cost of US$11 billion each. The Times alleged that a former naval officer was paid by Hudson to publish an analysis endorsing more funding. The report was delivered to the House Armed Services subcommittee without disclosing that Huntington Ingalls had paid for part of the report. Hudson acknowledged the misconduct, describing it as a "mistake".

The institute, which publishes frequent reports concerning China, has received funding from the Taiwanese government as have other prominent think tanks.

Politics
Employees of Hudson Institute have made substantial political donations. During the 2022 election cycle, they donated $128,893 to federal campaigns the vast majority of which went to Republican candidates and PACs. A major recipient was Rep. Liz Cheney (R-WY).

The institute is generally described as conservative    and sometimes neoconservative. Hudson says it hosts policymakers, foreign policy experts, and elected officials from across the political spectrum. According to its website, Hudson “challenges conventional thinking and helps manage strategic transitions through interdisciplinary studies in defense, international relations, economics, energy, technology, culture, and law.”

Center for Peace and Security in the Middle East
Led by Michael Doran, the center studies challenges for America and its allies in the middle east in responding to the threats posed by inimical forces such as the Islamic Republic of Iran, Russia, and China to promote peace.

China Center
The China Center at the Hudson Institute studies China with the "central goal of engendering America’s value-based, non-partisan, sound and effective responses to the China challenge." The center was launched in May 2022. It is directed by Miles Yu while Michael Pompeo serves as chair of the advisory board, which consists of Scott Morrison, Paula J. Dobriansky, Morgan Ortagus, and Kyle Bass as of August 2023.

Center on Europe and Eurasia
The Center on Europe and Eurasia, led by Peter Rough, is focused on "checking Russia’s military aggression in Ukraine, countering China’s subversion of the continent, extricating Europe from strategic vulnerabilities, forging key links in Central Asia, and modernizing our transatlantic military posture and economic ties". The center was launched in 2022.

Japan Chair
The Japan Chair at the Hudson Institute is led by Kenneth R. Weinstein, a fellow at the Institute and its former CEO. It is focused on strengthening the U.S.-Japan alliance. The Chair was founded in Spring 2009 under the leadership of General H.R. McMaster who now serves as chair of its advisory board.

Hamilton Commission on Securing America’s National Security Innovation Base
The Hudson Institute houses this bipartisan commission which explores economic sectors critical to national security with the purpose of proposing policy recommendations to reduce dependence and advance U.S. leadership in these industries.

The commission is chaired by Nadia Schadlow and Arthur L. Herman. The other members are:
 * Bryan Clark, Senior Fellow, Hudson Institute
 * Thomas Duesterberg, Senior Fellow, Hudson Institute
 * Mike Gallagher, Member, U.S. House of Representatives (R-WI)
 * Sridhar Kota, Herrick Professor of Engineering, Professor of Mechanical Engineering at University of Michigan
 * Zara F. Larsen, President, The Larsen Group: Architects of Change
 * Ellen Lord, former Undersecretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment
 * Dale Lumme, National Executive Director, American Society of Naval Engineers
 * Stephanie Murphy, Former Member, House of Representatives (D-FL)
 * Scott Paul, President, Alliance for American Manufacturing (AAM)
 * Heather Penney, Senior Resident Fellow, Mitchell Institute for Aerospace Studies
 * Kimberly Reed, former President and Chairman of the Board of Directors, Export-Import Bank of the United States (EXIM)
 * Pavneet Singh, Nonresident Fellow, the John L. Thornton China Center at Brookings Institution
 * Willy Shih, Robert and Jane Cizik Professor of Management Practice in Business Administration, Harvard Business School
 * Anthony Vinci, Adjunct Senior Fellow, Center for a New American Security (CNAS)
 * Lt. Gen. Eric J. Wesley, Executive Vice President, Flyer Defense, LLC.
 * Michael R. Wessel, President, The Wessel Group

Kleptocracy Initiative
Hudson launched the Kleptocracy Initiative in response to Russia's first invasion and occupation of Ukrainian Crimea in 2014.

In 2016, Hudson's Kleptocracy Initiative issued a report, authored by Ben Judah, sounding the alarm about offshore financial flows, and calling for the end of anonymous shell companies as a US national security priority. The Hudson Institute received criticism by a member of its Kleptocracy Initiative advisory board when its 2018 awards gala was funded in part by Len Blavatnik, a magnate who had business dealings with Russian oligarchs who were on the United States sanctions list.

Funding
2019 finances:

Notable personnel

 * John P. Walters, President and CEO
 * Thomas J. Donohue
 * Marshall Billingslea, Senior Fellow
 * Ezra Cohen, Adjunct Fellow
 * Michael Doran, Senior Fellow
 * Arthur L. Herman, Senior Fellow

Other notable persons

 * Raymond Aron
 * Daniel Bell
 * Robert Bork
 * Rudy Boschwitz
 * Paul Bracken
 * Mitch Daniels
 * Pierre S. du Pont, IV
 * Ralph Ellison
 * Saagar Enjeti
 * Michael Fumento
 * Nikki Haley
 * Alexander Haig
 * Michael Hudson (born 1939), economics professor
 * Donald Kagan
 * Amy A. Kass
 * Henry Kissinger
 * Andrew Natsios
 * William Odom
 * John O'Sullivan
 * Marcello Pera
 * Michael Pillsbury
 * Andrey Piontkovsky
 * Joel Pollak
 * Ron Prosor
 * Dan Quayle
 * Ronald Radosh
 * David Satter
 * Abram Shulsky
 * Irwin Stelzer
 * Curtin Winsor Jr.

title: Hudson Institute


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JetBlue

JetBlue Airways Corporation (stylized as jetBlue) is a major airline in the United States. Its headquarters is in Long Island City, in Queens, New York City. It also maintains corporate offices in Utah and Florida.

JetBlue operates over 1,000 flights daily and serves 100 domestic and international network destinations in the Americas and Europe. The airline operates out of six hubs, with its primary being New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport. JetBlue has codeshare agreements with member airlines of Oneworld, SkyTeam, and Star Alliance, however having no affiliation to the alliances.

1998–2000 founding
JetBlue was incorporated in Delaware in August 1998 with its headquarters in Forest Hills, Queens. David Neeleman founded the company in August 1999, under the name "NewAir". JetBlue started by following Southwest's approach of offering low-cost travel, but sought to distinguish itself by its amenities, such as in-flight entertainment, TV at every seat, and Sirius XM satellite radio. JetBlue sought to primarily use the Airbus A320 family to ease maintenance, taking a similar approach to Southwest, which primarily uses the Boeing 737.

In September 1999, the airline was awarded 75 initial take-off/landing slots at John F. Kennedy International Airport and received its USDOT CPCN authorization in February 2000. It commenced operations on February 11, 2000, with services to Buffalo and Fort Lauderdale.

JetBlue's founders had set out to call the airline "Taxi" and therefore have a yellow livery to associate the airline with New York. The idea was dropped after threats from investor JP Morgan to pull its share ($40 million of the total $128 million) of the airline's initial funding unless the name was changed.

2000s
JetBlue was one of only a few U.S. airlines that made a profit during the sharp downturn in airline travel following the September 11 attacks. The company's planned initial public offering was put on hold due to the attacks and subsequent downturn. The IPO took place in April 2002.

The airline sector responded to JetBlue and Southwest's market presence by starting mini-rival carriers: Delta Air Lines started Song, and United Airlines launched another rival called Ted. Song has since been disbanded and was reabsorbed by Delta and Ted reabsorbed by United.

In October 2005, JetBlue's quarterly profit had plunged from US$8.1 million to $2.7 million largely due to rising fuel costs. Operational issues, fuel prices, and low fares, JetBlue's hallmark, were bringing its financial performance down. In addition, with higher costs related to the airline's numerous amenities, JetBlue was becoming less competitive.

For many years, analysts had predicted that JetBlue's growth rate would become unsustainable. Despite this, the airline continued to add planes and routes to the fleet at a brisk pace. In addition in 2006, the IAM (International Association of Machinists) attempted to unionize JetBlue's ramp service workers, in a move that was described by JetBlue's COO Dave Barger as "pretty hypocritical", as the IAM opposed JetBlue's creation when it was founded as New Air in 1998. The union organizing petition was dismissed by the National Mediation Board because fewer than 35 percent of eligible employees supported an election.

JetBlue experienced its first-ever quarterly loss during the fourth quarter of 2005 when the airline lost $42.4 million, enough to make them unprofitable for the entire year of 2005. The loss was the airline's first since going public in 2002. In addition to that, JetBlue forecasted a loss for 2006, citing high fuel prices, operating inefficiency, and fleet costs. During the first quarter report, CEO David Neeleman, President Dave Barger, and then-CFO John Owen released JetBlue's "Return to Profitability" ("RTP") plan, stating in detail how they would curtail costs and improve revenue to regain profitability. The plan called for $50 million in annual cost cuts and a push to boost revenue by $30 million. In October 2006, JetBlue announced a net loss of $500,000 for the third quarter, and a plan to regain that loss by deferring some of their E190 deliveries and by selling five of their A320s.

In December 2006, JetBlue, as part of their RTP plan, removed a row of seats from their A320s to lighten the aircraft by 904 lb (410 kg) and reduce the cabin crew size from four to three (per FAA regulation requiring one flight attendant per 50 seats), thus offsetting the lost revenue from the removal of seats, and further lightening the aircraft, resulting in less fuel burned. In January 2007, JetBlue returned to profitability with a fourth quarter profit in 2006, reversing a quarterly loss in the year-earlier period. As part of the RTP plan, 2006's full-year loss was $1 million compared to 2005's full-year loss of $20 million. JetBlue was one of the few major airlines to post a profit in that quarter.

While its financial performance started showing signs of improvement, in February 2007, JetBlue faced a crisis, when the blizzard of 2007 hit the Northeast and Midwest, throwing the airline's operations into chaos. Because JetBlue followed the practice of never cancelling flights, it desisted from calling flights off, even when the ice storm hit and the airline was forced to keep several planes on the ground. Because of this, passengers were kept waiting at the airports for their flights to take off. In some cases, passengers who had already boarded their planes were kept waiting on the apron for several hours and were not allowed to disembark. However, after all this, the airline was eventually forced to cancel most of its flights because of prevailing weather conditions. This reportedly cost JetBlue $30 million.

Following the February 2007 incident in which the airline was forced to cancel nearly 1,700 flights due to winter storms, JetBlue's board of directors replaced founder and chief executive officer David Neeleman with Dave Barger. He had politicked the board, while Neeleman was busy publicly apologizing. Barger's ascendancy caused widespread demoralization in the ranks. He became JetBlue's new chief executive officer on May 10, 2007. Neeleman, the company's founder and largest individual investor, became a nonexecutive chairman as a result of the change.

In 2007, JetBlue was also facing reliability problems with its Embraer 190 fleet. For a couple of months, JetBlue contracted ExpressJet to operate four Embraer ERJ 145 regional jets on behalf of JetBlue. While this was going on, two E190 aircraft at a time were sent to an Embraer maintenance facility in Nashville, Tennessee. ExpressJet operated routes between Boston Logan and Buffalo, New York, and Washington Dulles, and between New York–JFK and Columbus, Ohio (since terminated), and Richmond, Virginia.

In July 2007, the airline partnered with 20th Century Fox's film The Simpsons Movie to become the "Official Airline of Springfield". In addition a contest was held in which the grand prize would be a trip on JetBlue to Los Angeles to attend the premiere of the film. The airline's website was also redecorated with characters and their favorite JetBlue destinations and the company was taken over by the show/film's businessman villain Montgomery Burns.

In August 2007, the airline added exclusive content from The New York Times in the form of an in-flight video magazine, conducted by Times journalists and content from NYTimes.com.

On November 8, 2007, JetBlue appointed Ed Barnes as interim CFO, following the resignation of former CFO John Harvey.

On December 13, 2007, JetBlue and Germany-based Lufthansa announced JetBlue's intent to sell 19% of JetBlue to Lufthansa, pending approval from US regulators. Following the acquisition, Lufthansa stated they planned to seek operational cooperation with JetBlue. Lufthansa planned to offer connections to JetBlue flights in Boston, New York (JFK), and Orlando International Airport (no longer a connection). After making a codeshare agreement with Lufthansa that went into effect in 2010, JetBlue transitioned to the Sabre reservation system used by Lufthansa, enabling the airlines to sell tickets on each other's flights, transfer luggage and passengers between the two carriers, and combine frequent flyer programs. By making use of JetBlue's North America routes as a feeder network, the agreement put Lufthansa in a position to operate quasi-hubs in New York–JFK and Boston Logan.

In the March edition of Airways Magazine, it was announced that once JetBlue partnered with Yahoo! and with BlackBerry producer Research in Motion, that the airline would offer free, limited Wi-Fi capabilities on a single aircraft, N651JB, an Airbus A320-232 dubbed "BetaBlue". People could access e-mail with a Wi-Fi capable Blackberry, or use Yahoo!'s e-mail and instant messaging with a Wi-Fi capable laptop, while in flight over the US. LiveTV in Melbourne, Florida, created and operated the "BetaBlue" prototype. The "BetaBlue" system utilized the bandwidth and infrastructure of defunct Airfone.

In 2008, JetBlue partnered with Irish flag carrier Aer Lingus to allow passengers to switch between airlines on a single ticket for flights with connections in either New York JFK or Boston. Unlike traditional codeshare agreements, the partnership did not allow the airlines to directly sell seats on each other's flights. Therefore, customers initiated the purchase on one airline's website, and then were transferred to the other airline's website to complete the transaction.

On March 19, 2008, JetBlue added Orlando, Florida, as a gateway focus city to international destinations in the Caribbean, Mexico, and South America. New international routes from Orlando International Airport include Cancún, Mexico; Bridgetown, Barbados; Bogotá, Colombia; Nassau, Bahamas; San José, Costa Rica; and Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. In conjunction with the addition of new routes the airline continued significant expansion of operations at Orlando International Airport including a 292-room lodge that houses trainees attending the existing "JetBlue University" training facility, which opened in 2015.

On May 21, 2008, JetBlue named Joel Peterson chairman and Frank Sica vice chairman of its board of directors, replacing David Neeleman, who had stepped down as CEO in 2007.

On August 4, 2008, the Associated Press reported that JetBlue would replace their recycled pillows and blankets with an "eco-friendly" pillow and blanket package that passengers would have to purchase for use. This decision was in a series of moves designed to increase revenue. JetBlue told the Associated Press that it expected to collect $40 million from passengers selecting seats with extra legroom and $20 million from passengers paying $15 to check a second bag. In September 2008, JetBlue began charging passengers $10–30 for an extended-leg-room seat depending on the length of the flight.

In September 2008, JetBlue began operating Republican vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin's campaign aircraft, an E190.

On October 22, 2008, JetBlue opened its new primary hub at John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK), Terminal 5, or simply T5, costing approximately $800 million to build. The first flight arrived from Bob Hope Airport (B6 #358) at 5:06am followed by arrivals from Oakland International Airport and Long Beach Airport, respectively. The new T5 replaced JetBlue's old hub at JFK Terminal 6. The last flight to operate out of T6 was a departure to Rafael Hernández Airport in Aguadilla, Puerto Rico, departing at 11:59pm.

In 2009, JetBlue announced that it was looking for a new headquarters location, and was considering moving either within the New York City metropolitan area or to the Orlando, Florida, area. In April 2009, Helen Marshall, the president of the Borough of Queens, said that the City of New York was trying to keep JetBlue in the city.

On October 13, 2009, the airline unveiled a modification to its livery in commemoration of the upcoming tenth anniversary of the airline in February 2010. Besides a new tail design, the revised livery includes larger "billboard" titles extending down over the passenger windows at the front of the aircraft. The logo word 'jetBlue' was no longer silver and blue but a dark, navy blue.

2010s
In 2010, JetBlue entered into interline booking agreements with South African Airways and American Airlines to facilitate luggage transfers between airlines for passengers with connecting flights on a different carrier. The agreement with American included JetBlue's 18 destinations not served by American and American's 12 international flights out of New York–JFK and Boston Logan. In addition, American gave JetBlue eight round trips slots out of Washington National in D.C. and two out of Westchester, New York. In return, JetBlue gave American six round trips out of New York–JFK. The agreement with American Airlines has since ended according to JetBlue's website.

In January 2010, the CEO of JetBlue, Dave Barger, and Governor of Florida Charlie Crist met in Tallahassee, Florida, to discuss a possible move of the airline's headquarters to Orlando. On March 22, 2010, JetBlue announced it headquarters would remain in the New York City area, in Long Island City, because of the airline's historical links to the city, the cost of staff relocations, the airline's desire to retain access to financial markets, and because Aer Lingus and Lufthansa, JetBlue's marketing partners, fly into JFK Airport. JetBlue planned to combine its Forest Hills and Darien, Connecticut, offices, together about 1,000 employees, into about 200000 sqft in the Brewster Building by mid-2012. On March 22, 2010, JetBlue turned down incentives from the City of Orlando and announced its headquarters would keep its Forest Hills office,  start leasing and using a new office in the Brewster Building in Long Island City, New York. in Queens Plaza in Long Island City, move its headquarters there in mid-2012, and start a joint branding deal with New York State using the iconic I Love NY logo.

On October 18, 2011, CFO Ed Barnes resigned, effective immediately. The company's treasurer, Mark Powers, was appointed interim CFO until a replacement for Barnes could be found.

In 2011, JetBlue made interline agreements with Virgin Atlantic and Jet Airways, both of which have since been terminated.

On June 13, 2012, JetBlue ranked "Highest in Customer Satisfaction Among Low Cost Carriers in North America" by J.D. Power and Associates for the eighth year in a row. In October 2013, JetBlue introduced Mint, a premium cabin service on transcontinental and select Caribbean flights. The service began in 2014, using the Airbus A321-231 aircraft ordered by JetBlue. These planes are outfitted with winglets, as well as with "lie flat" seats, and moveable partitions that can create small suites on the airplane. Called "Mint" by JetBlue, these planes are configured with 16 business-class seats and 143 economy seats, instead of an all-economy configuration of 190 seats.

On April 22, 2014, JetBlue's pilots voted to unionize for the first time since the airline was founded, with 71% casting ballots in favor of joining the ALPA.

On September 18, 2014, Dave Barger announced his resignation from the company effective February 16, 2015, following several reports that investors and the board were unhappy with his performance. He was replaced on the board and as CEO by Robin Hayes.

During the last few days of June and the first few days of July 2015, JetBlue began charging for bags in certain booking classes, leaving Southwest Airlines the only major U.S. carrier to not charge for bags. For the classes in which bag check fees were charged (generally the lowest class of fares offered; JetBlue offered three classes of fares), the cost was $20 for the first bag and $35 for the second, which was the lowest in the United States besides Frontier Airlines with similar prices.

On May 6, 2015, JetBlue was one of the first airlines to be granted a license to commence charter flights to Cuba, with flights departing from New York City. The weekly charter service began on July 3, 2015, with 150-seat Airbus A320s.

In July 2016, JetBlue announced commercial flights from the United States to Cuba would commence in late August. On August 31, 2016, JetBlue Flight 387 from Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport to Abel Santamaría Airport, in Santa Clara, became the first scheduled commercial flight between the United States and Cuba in 55 years. Only charter flights were allowed under previous rules, which required that passengers had to arrive more than four hours before the scheduled departure and often endure long lines for documentation checks, late flight arrivals, and pay high baggage fees.

In 2016, JetBlue had bid for but was unsuccessful in acquiring Virgin America, which was instead acquired by Alaska Air Group.

In November 2016, JetBlue painted one of their Airbus A320 aircraft, N763JB, in a 1960s retrojet livery, dubbed "What's Old is Blue Again". The livery's maiden flight was on Friday, from New York JFK to Palm Springs.

In July 2017, JetBlue announced it was taking qualifications to develop a terminal at JFK that would not only occupy terminal 5 but also the space of terminals 6 and 7.

In April 2018, JetBlue announced their return to Ontario International Airport in southern California after ten years, as well as new service to Steamboat Springs in Colorado, and Bozeman in Montana.

In April 2019, JetBlue announced that it would launch transatlantic flights to London from Boston and New York. The airline added that it would be converting 13 orders for the A321neo into the longer range Airbus A321LR to serve the new routes.

On May 1, 2019, JetBlue named Michael Stromer as Chief Product Officer, Technology. Stromer was selected to lead the design and execution of the digital commerce web and mobile applications that support revenue initiatives; technology for airport, customer support (reservations), system operations, technical operations, flight, and inflight teams, as well as back office products.

On May 29, 2019, JetBlue and Southwest Airlines ranked "Highest in Customer Satisfaction Among Low Cost Carriers" in a tie by J.D. Power in the North America Airline Satisfaction Study.

On October 18, 2019, JetBlue and Norwegian Air Shuttle announced plans for an interline agreement that would permit sales of jointly-issued tickets, which if approved between the two airlines, would come into effect during 2020. The partnership was to take advantage of each airline having substantial pre-existing presence at New York–JFK, Boston, and Fort Lauderdale airports.

2020s
In January 2020, JetBlue announced its intentions to start becoming carbon neutral on all domestic flights. In February 2020, Joel Peterson announced his intention to retire from the airline's board of directors at the end of his current term, and was succeeded by Peter Boneparth in May 2020. Peterson had been part of the airline's board of directors since 1999 and served as chairman since 2008.

JetBlue made changes to its operations due to the COVID-19 pandemic and its associated impacts on aviation. This included the reduction of passenger capacity by blocking middle seats on its Airbus A320 and A321 aircraft, and aisle seats on the Embraer 190. As a result of the economic effects caused by the pandemic, the company launched voluntary separation and extended time off programs. By August 2020, JetBlue, along with Southwest Airlines, implemented strict policies for the wearing of face masks, which did not allow for medical exemptions, as part of its procedures during the COVID-19 pandemic. The airline also announced that it would also continue to block middle seats through at least mid-October.

In June 2020, the airline announced several new routes across its network, including point-to-point routes between the northeastern United States and Florida, and new transcontinental routes from Newark Liberty International Airport. Along with the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation, the airline announced that over 60% of its employees were interested in taking early retirement or long-term leave from the firm.

On July 9, 2020, JetBlue announced the imminent closure of its base at Long Beach Airport and transfer of the base's operations to Los Angeles International Airport from October 6, 2020. JetBlue had spent years negotiating to create a U.S. Customs and Border Protection station at the airport, and in 2017, despite a favorable recommendation from the city administration, the city council voted against the plan. The city and the airline also had disputes over late landings and slot usage.

On July 16, 2020, American Airlines joined JetBlue in a strategic partnership called the "Northeast Alliance," which allowed the two carriers to share passengers and revenue and coordinate schedules for flights to and from New York's three major airports and Boston. While the deal with American had the blessing of the Trump administration, the Department of Justice under President Biden, along with six states and the District of Columbia, initiated an antitrust lawsuit in 2022. On May 19, 2023, the court ruled against the airlines, holding that the JetBlue–American partnership was anticompetitive and ordering it to be unwound. Despite American announcing it would appeal, JetBlue said it would follow the judge's order and terminate their three-year alliance. JetBlue said ending the alliance would render "entirely moot" the Justice Department's objections that led to its separate lawsuit to block JetBlue's proposed merger with Spirit Airlines, which would be the largest in the US airline industry since 2013. American said it "respected JetBlue's decision to focus on its other antitrust and regulatory challenges" but still planned to proceed with its appeal. Experts said abandoning the partnership with American may only marginally help JetBlue when the Spirit case goes to trial in October 2023.

On February 1, 2021, JetBlue introduced its new Mint product called Mint Suite, which was to be configured on its entire Airbus A321LR fleet for its future transatlantic flights to London, and on some of its A321neo aircraft for select flights initially to Los Angeles. On April 21, 2021, JetBlue announced that the airline would be expanding into Canada, announcing new routes between Vancouver and both New York City and Boston. On April 26, 2021, JetBlue held its inaugural Airbus A220-300 flight which flew from Boston Logan International Airport to Tampa International Airport. On May 19, 2021, JetBlue confirmed the start dates and destination airports for its planned flights to London, and by extension its first flights to Europe. The airline announced that it would operate services from New York (JFK) to both London Heathrow and Gatwick airports, and that the services would launch on August 11 and September 29, 2021, respectively. In turn, the airline's planned flights between London and Boston were postponed to 2022.

In May 2022, JetBlue's offer for Spirit Airlines, made in response to an offer from Frontier Airlines, was rejected, citing "an unacceptable level of closing risk" even with an enhanced offer. Later that month, JetBlue announced its intentions to execute a hostile takeover of Spirit. On July 28, JetBlue announced it had reached an agreement to purchase Spirit Airlines for $3.8 billion. The U.S. Department of Justice's Antitrust Division has sought to block the deal, taking JetBlue to court over the sale. In legal filings, the Justice Department claims that the merger will result in "higher fares, fewer seats, and harm millions of consumers".

In September 2022, JetBlue's venture subsidiary relaunched with a new name: JetBlue Ventures.

In November 2022, JetBlue confirmed plans to fly from New York (JFK) to Paris (CDG) starting in summer 2023. It said it then plans to add service from Boston Logan after.

In April 2023, JetBlue continued its international expansion, announcing that it would add Amsterdam to its list of international destinations with a new route from John F. Kennedy International Airport to Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in late summer 2023. Robin Hayes, JetBlue CEO, said that the New York to Amsterdam route is "long overdue for some competition."

In October 2023, JetBlue announced it would add flights from both Boston and New York (JFK) to Dublin, Ireland, and New York (JFK) to Edinburgh, Scotland, in 2024. Service from Boston to Amsterdam would also begin that year. The announcement will bring JetBlue's list of transatlantic destinations to six.

The Spirit case went to trial on October 31, 2023. JetBlue argued that if it acquired Spirit and thus grew its fleet by 70%, it would be more able to compete with the Big Four airlines. The Justice Department argued that an independent Spirit fills a role for price-conscious consumers that needs to be protected. JetBlue said the vacuum Spirit would leave in the market would be filled by growth from other budget carriers. The Justice Department said that was unlikely because the limits to growth that airlines face, such as shortages of planes and pilots, affect all airlines, including the discount carriers. In a ruling on January 16, 2024, a federal judge blocked JetBlue's acquisition of Spirit Airlines. The two airlines initially said they would appeal, but on March 4, 2024, they announced they were calling off the merger, with JetBlue paying Spirit a breakup fee of $69 million and Spirit's shareholders $400 million.

In January 2024, JetBlue announced that CEO Robin Hayes will step down effective February 12 and would be replaced by president Joanna Geraghty. She will become the first woman to lead a major US airline. On February 7, 2024, the airline announced that Marty St. George, would return to the airline as president starting on February 26, 2024, after leaving the airline back in 2020 to be the COO of LATAM Airlines Group.

Business trends
The key trends for JetBlue over recent years are (as of the financial year ending December 31):

Headquarters and offices
JetBlue's headquarters are in the Brewster Building in Long Island City, New York—a building designed by architects Stephenson & Wheeler for the Brewster automobile factory in 1911. JetBlue previously had its headquarters at 80–02 Kew Gardens Road, and then in the Forest Hills Tower, both in Forest Hills, Queens, New York City, 6 mi from the current office in Long Island City.

JetBlue also maintains field offices in Salt Lake City and in Orlando (which is on the property of Orlando International Airport and occupies the airline's training academy).

Leadership
JetBlue's current leadership team is as follows:
 * Chairman: Peter Boneparth (since May 2020)
 * Chief Executive Officer: Joanna Geraghty (since February 2024)
 * President: Marty St. George (since February 2024)

Former Chairmen of the Board

 * 1) David Neeleman (1998–2008)
 * 2) Joel Peterson (2008–2020)

Former Chief Executive Officers

 * 1) David Neeleman (1998–2007)
 * 2) David Barger (2007–2015)
 * 3) Robin Hayes (2015–2024)

Business model
JetBlue operates with most of the features of a low-cost carrier (LCC), for example (and as referred to in their Annual Report), a fleet of new and efficient aircraft of (mainly) one model, high aircraft utilization, point-to-point routes (with several aircraft bases), relatively low distribution costs, and without membership of a major airline alliance.

However, in JetBlue's business model, the airline offers more than one class of cabin, provides free in-flight entertainment and refreshments, and maintains codeshare agreements with several other airlines.

Researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology coined the term "JetBlue Effect" in 2013, describing how fares would drop after JetBlue entered a market.

Marketing strategy
JetBlue's first major advertising campaign incorporated phrases like "Unbelievable" and "We like you, too". Full-page newspaper advertisements boasted low fares, new aircraft, leather seats, spacious legroom, and a customer-service-oriented staff committed to "bringing humanity back to air travel". JetBlue became the first airline to offer all passengers personalized in-flight entertainment. In April 2000, flat-screen monitors installed in every seatback allowed customers live access to over 20 DirecTV channels at no additional cost.

As JetBlue gained market share, they found a position where they competed with other low-cost carriers as well as major carriers. Amenities such as their live in-flight television, free and unlimited snack offerings, comfortable legroom, and unique promotions fostered an image of impeccable customer service that rivaled the major airlines, while competitive low fares made them a threat to low-cost, no-frills carriers as well.

JetBlue Ventures
JetBlue Ventures is the airlines venture capital subsidiary. It was established in February 2016 as JetBlue Technology Ventures (JTV). The subsidiary's primary objective is to invests in and partners with early-stage startups in the travel, hospitality, and transportation space with a mission is to improve the end-to-end experience of travelers everywhere.

, JTV has invested in 21 startups, including hybrid planes, machine learning algorithms, and ground transportation. Investments range in size from $250,000 to $1 million. JetBlue Technology Ventures, along with Toyota Ventures and Parley for the Oceans, is among the corporate investors that have invested $40 million in the Air Company, a carbon negative vodka distiller and perfume and hand sanitizer manufacturer that uses heterogeneous catalysis to convert captured carbon into ethanol.

Universal Hydrogen
In 2021, JetBlue became the first airline to invest in practical hydrogen-powered flight through its partnership with Universal Hydrogen, a company working on retrofitting current aircraft with tools to allow them to fly on hydrogen power. The company focuses on distributing fuel through modular capsules transported on the existing intermodal freight network, offsetting the need to retrofit airports with their own hydrogen fuel farms. JetBlue's initial investment helped Universal Hydrogen accelerate development and production of its regional aircraft conversion kits.

Universal Hydrogen began its initial rounds of testing in 2022 with an ATR-72.

JetBlue Travel Products
JetBlue Travel Products is a subsidiary of JetBlue Airways, established in 2018 with the primary objective of expanding the airline's offerings beyond air travel. Recognizing the growing demand for comprehensive travel services, JetBlue created this wholly owned subsidiary to specialize in non-air products and enhance the overall travel experience for its customers.

In 2020, JetBlue Vacations underwent a significant transformation, introducing new and improved personalization features and perks. This revamp aimed to distinguish JetBlue Vacations as a premier option for travelers seeking tailored vacation packages which include bundled flights, hotels, cruises and more.

The latest addition to JetBlue Travel Products' history occurred in 2021 with the launch of Paisly by JetBlue. This homegrown platform represented JetBlue's expansion into selling non-air travel products, effectively extending the airline's service and loyalty program beyond flights. Paisly serves as a solution to meet the evolving needs of travelers offering hotels, car rentals, activities and travel bags. All while maintaining the high standards of service and customer loyalty synonymous with the JetBlue brand.

LiveTV
LiveTV was a wholly owned subsidiary of JetBlue since 2002. The LiveTV subsidiary provided seat back entertainment systems with Live Satellite Television and Live Satellite Radio to airlines including JetBlue. The subsidiary was sold to Thales for nearly $400 million in June 2014.

JSX
On October 25, 2016, the airline JSX (then branded as JetSuiteX) announced that JetBlue had made a minority equity investment in the airline. Part of the agreement also gave JetBlue a seat on JetSuite's board of directors. Reasons for the investment was outlined by CEO Robin Hayes, stating, "Our investment in JetSuite makes sense as we continue to execute on our west coast plan and invest in innovative ideas that reflect the disruptive spirit of JetBlue." In JetBlue's first quarter 2018 investor call, JetBlue's CFO Steven Priest confirmed the airline held about 10% of JetSuiteX. The airline was rebranded from JetSuiteX to JSX in August 2019.

TWA Flight Center Hotel
The TWA Hotel is the TWA Flight Center structure at JFK airport that was rebuilt into 505-room hotel. The hotel preserves the Eero Saarinen TWA head house while replacing the structures on either side of the head house. Situated in front of JetBlue's JFK terminal, JetBlue has 5–10% ownership of the hotel. The hotel is an effective replacement for the Ramada Plaza JFK Hotel on the north end of the airport grounds in Building 144, which closed in 2009.

Destinations
, JetBlue Airways flies to 104 destinations in the Americas, with most of them in the United States and the Caribbean, a smaller selection of destinations in parts of Central and South America, and four destinations in Europe.

Codeshare agreements
JetBlue has entered into a number of codeshare agreements with other airlines, meaning airlines agree to share certain flights, which both airlines market and publish on their own flight schedules under their respective airline designators and flight numbers.

JetBlue codeshares with the following airlines:

 * Aer Lingus
 * Air Serbia
 * Azul Brazilian Airlines
 * British Airways
 * Cape Air
 * El Al
 * Etihad Airways
 * JSX
 * Hawaiian Airlines
 * Icelandair
 * LOT Polish Airlines
 * Porter Airlines
 * Qatar Airways
 * Royal Air Maroc
 * Seaborne Airlines
 * Silver Airways
 * Singapore Airlines
 * South African Airways
 * Turkish Airlines

Current fleet
, JetBlue operates the following aircraft:

Fleet development
Since 2011 JetBlue has made multiple order and order differentials. At first the airline intended to revamp its fleet with the introduction of 40 Airbus A320neos. The airline has made multiple changes to its order books with ordering multiple Airbus A321 aircraft and later converting almost all of its A320neo orders to ones for the Airbus A321neo.

From 2018 to 2019, the airline made multiple changes to its fleet plans, with the airline intending to replace all of its aging Embraer 190 aircraft with the Airbus A220-300. The airline later modified its Airbus A321neo orders to introduce the Airbus A321XLR aircraft to its fleet.

In 2020, JetBlue welcomed its first Airbus A220, and in 2021, the A321LR was added to the fleet. The airline expects to welcome the Airbus A321XLR aircraft to its fleet in 2025.

Seating
On most of its aircraft, JetBlue offers a uniquely unified cabin experience called Core. In Core, some rows offer Customers 7 extra inches of legroom, referred to as Even More Space seats. The Core cabin includes leather seats, complimentary Wi-Fi, complimentary snacks and non-alcoholic drinks, and entertainment screens with DirecTV, Sirius XM Radio, and movies.

The airline re-styled Core seats in 2014 with the debut of JetBlue's first Airbus A321. The revamped Core seats started to appear on the airline's A320 aircraft in 2018, with further modifications in 2019. This seat design carried over to JetBlue's Airbus A220 aircraft upon launch.

JetBlue's E190s are not undergoing retrofitting due to the airline's plan to phase the aircraft type out of service by 2026.

Mint
In 2014, the airline introduced its version of a business class cabin, called Mint. The service was originally available only on transcontinental domestic routes on select Airbus A321s starting in 2014. The seat design includes fully lie-flat seats, some of which have sliding panels for more privacy.

Mint has since been expanded to select Caribbean routes, and in 2021, a newly reimagined version of the service and seating was announced.

In-flight entertainment
JetBlue's in-flight entertainment options consist of gate-to-gate Fly-Fi internet access, over 100 channels of DIRECTV, Sirius XM Radio, and movies, and on the Airbus A321 and newer retrofitted Airbus A320 aircraft, a 15-inch interactive video screen which is not available on the rest of the fleet. JetBlue's partnership with Amazon lets customers watch Amazon Prime videos by connecting to Wi-Fi and downloading the Amazon Video app on their mobile phone or tablet.

The in-flight WiFi under the "Fly-Fi" network is complimentary on all flights, at speeds of 12–15 megabits per second.

Frequent-flyer program
JetBlue's frequent-flyer program is called TrueBlue. Under the original TrueBlue program, flights were worth two, four, or six points based on distance of the flights, and double points were awarded for flights booked online.

In September 2009, JetBlue made changes to its TrueBlue program. In the new program, members receive three points for every dollar spent toward a flight, excluding taxes and fees, plus an additional three points for every dollar spent on a flight if booked online directly on the JetBlue.com website. Additional points are awarded if the member uses the Barclay's issued JetBlue Mastercard credit card to purchase the flight. The price of flights in points depend on the fare of the flight in U.S. dollars. The new program launched on November 9, 2009.

In June 2013, JetBlue announced that TrueBlue points will never expire for any reason.

In May 2023, JetBlue overhauled its TrueBlue Loyalty Program with enhancing its top tier status Mosaic with a 4-tier status and pick your own perks offers.

Accidents and incidents

 * September 21, 2005: Flight 292 (Airbus A320-232) en route from Bob Hope Airport in Burbank to New York JFK Airport performed an emergency landing at Los Angeles International Airport (pictured) following a failure of the nose landing gear during retraction when it turned 90 degrees. The plane landed after flying in a holding pattern in air for about three hours to burn fuel and therefore lighten the aircraft. The aircraft came to a stop without incident on runway 25L, the second-longest runway at LAX. The only apparent damage to the plane upon landing was the destruction of the front wheels, which were ground down to almost semicircles, and the tires; the front landing strut held. No one sustained injuries.
 * August 9, 2010, an incident occurred on board Flight 1052, from Pittsburgh to New York City on board an Embraer 190 registered N274JB. A veteran flight attendant, Steven Slater announced over the intercom that he was abused by a passenger and he was quitting his job. He then stole and guzzled two beers before deploying the emergency evacuation slide and sliding down. The same flight attendant then claimed to be injured by the woman as he was instructing her to sit down. Steven later attempted to reapply for his job but failed.
 * March 27, 2012: Flight 191 (Airbus A320-232) en route from New York JFK Airport to McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas performed an emergency landing at Rick Husband Amarillo International Airport after the captain, Clayton Osbon, was locked out of the cockpit and subdued by passengers after he started acting erratically and ranting about terrorists. It is believed that Osbon suffered from an unspecified mental breakdown; he was later treated by Northwest Texas Healthcare System. There were no fatalities.
 * January 22, 2022 : Flight 1748 (Airbus A320-232) en route from Yampa Valley Regional Airport to Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport suffered a tail strike during takeoff whilst trying to avoid an oncoming Beechcraft Super King Air 350 that was landing on the opposite side of the runway. Flight 1748 was diverted to Denver International Airport with no injuries on board. The aircraft was later repaired, and put back into service.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: JetBlue


text:
Neurotransmitter receptor

A neurotransmitter receptor (also known as a neuroreceptor) is a membrane receptor protein that is activated by a neurotransmitter. Chemicals on the outside of the cell, such as a neurotransmitter, can bump into the cell's membrane, in which there are receptors. If a neurotransmitter bumps into its corresponding receptor, they will bind and can trigger other events to occur inside the cell. Therefore, a membrane receptor is part of the molecular machinery that allows cells to communicate with one another. A neurotransmitter receptor is a class of receptors that specifically binds with neurotransmitters as opposed to other molecules.

In postsynaptic cells, neurotransmitter receptors receive signals that trigger an electrical signal, by regulating the activity of ion channels. The influx of ions through ion channels opened due to the binding of neurotransmitters to specific receptors can change the membrane potential of a neuron. This can result in a signal that runs along the axon (see action potential) and is passed along at a synapse to another neuron and possibly on to a neural network. On presynaptic cells, there are receptors known as autoreceptors that are specific to the neurotransmitters released by that cell, which provide feedback and mediate excessive neurotransmitter release from it.

There are two major types of neurotransmitter receptors: ionotropic and metabotropic. Ionotropic means that ions can pass through the receptor, whereas metabotropic means that a second messenger inside the cell relays the message (i.e. metabotropic receptors do not have channels). There are several kinds of metabotropic receptors, including G protein-coupled receptors. Ionotropic receptors are also called ligand-gated ion channels and they can be activated by neurotransmitters (ligands) like glutamate and GABA, which then allow specific ions through the membrane. Sodium ions (that are, for example, allowed passage by the glutamate receptor) excite the post-synaptic cell, while chloride ions (that are, for example, allowed passage by the GABA receptor) inhibit the post-synaptic cell. Inhibition reduces the chance that an action potential will occur, while excitation increases the chance. Conversely, G-protein-coupled receptors are neither excitatory nor inhibitory. Rather, they can have a broad number of functions such as modulating the actions of excitatory and inhibitory ion channels or triggering a signalling cascade that releases calcium from stores inside the cell. Most neurotransmitters receptors are G-protein coupled.

Localization
Neurotransmitter (NT) receptors are located on the surface of neuronal and glial cells. At a synapse, one neuron sends messages to the other neuron via neurotransmitters. Therefore, the postsynaptic neuron, the one receiving the message, clusters NT receptors at this specific place in its membrane. NT receptors can be inserted into any region of the neuron's membrane such as dendrites, axons, and the cell body. Receptors can be located in different parts of the body to act as either an inhibitor or an excitatory receptor for a specific Neurotransmitter An example of this are the receptors for the neurotransmitter Acetylcholine (ACh), one receptor is located at the neuromuscular junction in skeletal muscle to facilitate muscle contraction (excitation), while the other receptor is located in the heart to slow down heart rate (inhibitory)

Ionotropic receptors: neurotransmitter-gated ion channels

Ligand-gated ion channels (LGICs) are one type of ionotropic receptor or channel-linked receptor. They are a group of transmembrane ion channels that are opened or closed in response to the binding of a chemical messenger (i.e., a ligand), such as a neurotransmitter.

The binding site of endogenous ligands on LGICs protein complexes are normally located on a different portion of the protein (an allosteric binding site) compared to where the ion conduction pore is located. The direct link between ligand binding and opening or closing of the ion channel, which is characteristic of ligand-gated ion channels, is contrasted with the indirect function of metabotropic receptors, which use second messengers. LGICs are also different from voltage-gated ion channels (which open and close depending on membrane potential), and stretch-activated ion channels (which open and close depending on mechanical deformation of the cell membrane).

Metabotropic receptors: G-protein coupled receptors

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), also known as seven-transmembrane domain receptors, 7TM receptors, heptahelical receptors, serpentine receptor, and G protein-linked receptors (GPLR), comprise a large protein family of transmembrane receptors that sense molecules outside the cell and activate inside signal transduction pathways and, ultimately, cellular responses. G protein-coupled receptors are found only in eukaryotes, including yeast, choanoflagellates, and animals. The ligands that bind and activate these receptors include light-sensitive compounds, odors, pheromones, hormones, and neurotransmitters, and vary in size from small molecules to peptides to large proteins. G protein-coupled receptors are involved in many diseases, and are also the target of approximately 30% of all modern medicinal drugs.

There are two principal signal transduction pathways involving the G protein-coupled receptors: the cAMP signal pathway and the phosphatidylinositol signal pathway. When a ligand binds to the GPCR it causes a conformational change in the GPCR, which allows it to act as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF). The GPCR can then activate an associated G-protein by exchanging its bound GDP for a GTP. The G-protein's α subunit, together with the bound GTP, can then dissociate from the β and γ subunits to further affect intracellular signaling proteins or target functional proteins directly depending on the α subunit type (Gαs, Gαi/o, Gαq/11, Gα12/13).

Desensitization and neurotransmitter concentration
Neurotransmitter receptors are subject to ligand-induced desensitization: That is, they can become unresponsive upon prolonged exposure to their neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitter receptors are present on both postsynaptic neurons and presynaptic neurons with the former being used to receive neurotransmitters and the latter for the purpose of preventing further release of a given neurotransmitter. In addition to being found in neuron cells, neurotransmitter receptors are also found in various immune and muscle tissues. Many neurotransmitter receptors are categorized as a serpentine receptor or G protein-coupled receptor because they span the cell membrane not once, but seven times. Neurotransmitter receptors are known to become unresponsive to the type of neurotransmitter they receive when exposed for extended periods of time. This phenomenon is known as ligand-induced desensitization or downregulation.

Example neurotransmitter receptors
The following are some major classes of neurotransmitter receptors:
 * Adrenergic:  α1A, α1b, α1c, α1d,   α2a, α2b, α2c, α2d,   β1, β2, β3
 * Cholinergic:
 * Muscarinic: M1, M2, M3, M4, M5
 * Nicotinic: muscle, neuronal (α-bungarotoxin-insensitive), neuronal (α-bungarotoxin-sensitive)
 * Dopaminergic:  D1, D2, D3, D4, D5
 * GABAergic:  GABAA, GABAB1a, GABAB1δ, GABAB2, GABAC
 * Glutamatergic:  NMDA, AMPA, Kainate, mGluR1, mGluR2, mGluR3, mGluR4, mGluR5, mGluR6, mGluR7
 * Glycinergic:  Glycine
 * Histaminergic:  H1, H2, H3
 * Opioidergic:  μ, δ1, δ2, κ
 * Serotonergic:  5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5-HT1D, 5-HT1E, 5-HT1F, 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B, 5-HT2C, 5-HT3, 5-HT4, 5-HT5, 5-HT6, 5-HT7

title: Neurotransmitter receptor


text:
Campaign for Nationalism in Scotland

The Campaign for Nationalism in Scotland was an internal grouping within the Scottish National Party (SNP) that formed in response to the efforts of the 79 Group within the party. The 79 Group was another internal grouping within the SNP that was attempting to turn the party into an expressly socialist party. The Campaign for Nationalism in Scotland formed itself to try to ensure that the SNP avoided traditional debates of left and right, arguing that the cause of Scottish independence transcended such arguments. It had the support of prominent traditionalists inside the party such as Winnie Ewing who had been a Member of Parliament in the 1960s and was by this stage a Member of the European Parliament.

SNP leader Gordon Wilson was determined to end factionalism inside the SNP, and at the party conference of 1982 internal groupings were banned. This was largely a reaction to the growth of the 79 Group who faded in significance after this decision was taken. After the 79 Group fell apart the Campaign for Nationalism in Scotland did likewise (however, many of the members of the 79 group were readmitted, and indeed came to lead the party).

title: Campaign for Nationalism in Scotland


text:
AMPA receptor

The α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (also known as AMPA receptor, AMPAR, or quisqualate receptor) is an ionotropic transmembrane receptor for glutamate (iGluR) and predominantly Na+ ion channel that mediates fast synaptic transmission in the central nervous system (CNS). It has been traditionally classified as a non-NMDA-type receptor, along with the kainate receptor. Its name is derived from its ability to be activated by the artificial glutamate analog AMPA. The receptor was first named the "quisqualate receptor" by Watkins and colleagues after a naturally occurring agonist quisqualate and was only later given the label "AMPA receptor" after the selective agonist developed by Tage Honore and colleagues at the Royal Danish School of Pharmacy in Copenhagen. The GRIA2-encoded AMPA receptor ligand binding core (GluA2 LBD) was the first glutamate receptor ion channel domain to be crystallized.

Subunit composition
AMPARs are composed of four types of subunits encoded by different genes, designated as GRIA1 (also named GluA1 or GluR1), GRIA2 (also named GluA2 or GluR2), GRIA3 (Also named GluA3 or GluR3), and GRIA4 (also called GluA4 or GluRA-D2 ), which combine to form tetramers. Most AMPARs are heterotetrameric, consisting of symmetric 'dimer of dimers' of GluA2 and either GluA1, GluA3 or GluA4. Dimerization starts in the endoplasmic reticulum with the interaction of N-terminal LIVBP domains, then "zips up" through the ligand-binding domain into the transmembrane ion pore.

The conformation of the subunit protein in the plasma membrane caused controversy for some time. While the amino acid sequence of the subunit indicated that there seemed to be four transmembrane domains (parts of the protein that pass through the plasma membrane), proteins interacting with the subunit indicated that the N-terminus seemed to be extracellular, while the C-terminus seemed to be intracellular. However, if each of the four transmembrane domains went all the way through the plasma membrane, then the two termini would have to be on the same side of the membrane. It was eventually discovered that the second "transmembrane" domain does not in fact cross the membrane at all, but kinks back on itself within the membrane and returns to the intracellular side. When the four subunits of the tetramer come together, this second membranous domain forms the ion-permeable pore of the receptor.

AMPAR subunits differ most in their C-terminal sequence, which determines their interactions with scaffolding proteins. All AMPARs contain PDZ-binding domains, but which PDZ domain they bind to differs. For example, GluA1 binds to SAP97 through SAP97's class I PDZ domain, while GluA2 binds to PICK1 and GRIP/ABP. Of note, AMPARs cannot directly bind to the common synaptic protein PSD-95 owing to incompatible PDZ domains, although they do interact with PSD-95 via stargazin (the prototypical member of the TARP family of AMPAR auxiliary subunits).

Phosphorylation of AMPARs can regulate channel localization, conductance, and open probability. GluA1 has four known phosphorylation sites at serine 818 (S818), S831, threonine 840, and S845 (other subunits have similar phosphorylation sites, but GluR1 has been the most extensively studied). S818 is phosphorylated by protein kinase C, and is necessary for long-term potentiation (LTP; for GluA1's role in LTP, see below). S831 is phosphorylated by CaMKII and PKC during LTP, which helps deliver GluA1-containing AMPAR to the synapse, and increases their single channel conductance. The T840 site was more recently discovered, and has been implicated in LTD. Finally, S845 is phosphorylated by PKA which regulates its open probability.

Ion channel function
Each AMPAR has four sites to which an agonist (such as glutamate) can bind, one for each subunit. The binding site is believed to be formed by the N-terminal tail and the extracellular loop between transmembrane domains three and four. When an agonist binds, these two loops move towards each other, opening the pore. The channel opens when two sites are occupied, and increases its current as more binding sites are occupied. Once open, the channel may undergo rapid desensitization, stopping the current. The mechanism of desensitization is believed to be due to a small change in angle of one of the parts of the binding site, closing the pore. AMPARs open and close quickly (1ms), and are thus responsible for most of the fast excitatory synaptic transmission in the central nervous system. The AMPAR's permeability to calcium and other cations, such as sodium and potassium, is governed by the GluA2 subunit. If an AMPAR lacks a GluA2 subunit, then it will be permeable to sodium, potassium, and calcium. The presence of a GluA2 subunit will almost always render the channel impermeable to calcium. This is determined by post-transcriptional modification — RNA editing — of the Q-to-R editing site of the GluA2 mRNA. Here, A→I editing alters the uncharged amino acid glutamine (Q) to the positively charged arginine (R) in the receptor's ion channel. The positively charged amino acid at the critical point makes it energetically unfavourable for calcium to enter the cell through the pore. Almost all of the GluA2 subunits in CNS are edited to the GluA2(R) form. This means that the principal ions gated by AMPARs are sodium and potassium, distinguishing AMPARs from NMDA receptors (the other main ionotropic glutamate receptors in the brain), which also permit calcium influx. Both AMPA and NMDA receptors, however, have an equilibrium potential near 0 mV. The prevention of calcium entry into the cell on activation of GluA2-containing AMPARs is proposed to guard against excitotoxicity.

The subunit composition of the AMPAR is also important for the way this receptor is modulated. If an AMPAR lacks GluA2 subunits, then it is susceptible to being blocked in a voltage-dependent manner by a class of molecules called polyamines. Thus, when the neuron is at a depolarized membrane potential, polyamines will block the AMPAR channel more strongly, preventing the flux of potassium ions through the channel pore. GluA2-lacking AMPARs are, thus, said to have an inwardly rectifying I/V curve, which means that they pass less outward current than inward current at equivalent distance from the reversal potential. Calcium permeable AMPARs are found typically early during postnatal development on neocortical pyramidal neurons, some interneurons, or in dopamine neurons of the ventral tegmental area after the exposure to an addictive drug.

Alongside RNA editing, alternative splicing allows a range of functional AMPA receptor subunits beyond what is encoded in the genome. In other words, although one gene (GRIA1–GRIA4) is encoded for each subunit (GluA1–GluA4), splicing after transcription from DNA allows some exons to be translated interchangeably, leading to several functionally different subunits from each gene.

The flip/flop sequence is one such interchangeable exon. A 38-amino acid sequence found prior to (i.e., before the N-terminus of) the fourth membranous domain in all four AMPAR subunits, it determines the speed of desensitisation of the receptor and also the speed at which the receptor is resensitised and the rate of channel closing. The flip form is present in prenatal AMPA receptors and gives a sustained current in response to glutamate activation.

Synaptic plasticity
AMPA receptors (AMPAR) are both glutamate receptors and cation channels that are integral to plasticity and synaptic transmission at many postsynaptic membranes. One of the most widely and thoroughly investigated forms of plasticity in the nervous system is known as long-term potentiation, or LTP. There are two necessary components of LTP: presynaptic glutamate release and postsynaptic depolarization. Therefore, LTP can be induced experimentally in a paired electrophysiological recording when a presynaptic cell is stimulated to release glutamate on a postsynaptic cell that is depolarized. The typical LTP induction protocol involves a "tetanus" stimulation, which is a 100 Hz stimulation for 1 second. When one applies this protocol to a pair of cells, one will see a sustained increase of the amplitude of the excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) following tetanus. This response is interesting since it is thought to be the physiological correlate for learning and memory in the cell. In fact, it has been shown that, following a single paired-avoidance paradigm in mice, LTP can be recorded in some hippocampal synapses in vivo.

The molecular basis for LTP has been extensively studied, and AMPARs have been shown to play an integral role in the process. Both GluR1 and GluR2 play an important role in synaptic plasticity. It is now known that the underlying physiological correlate for the increase in EPSP size is a postsynaptic upregulation of AMPARs at the membrane, which is accomplished through the interactions of AMPARs with many cellular proteins.

The simplest explanation for LTP is as follows (see the long-term potentiation article for a much more detailed account). Glutamate binds to postsynaptic AMPARs and another glutamate receptor, the NMDA receptor (NMDAR). Ligand binding causes the AMPARs to open, and Na+ flows into the postsynaptic cell, resulting in a depolarization. NMDARs, on the other hand, do not open directly because their pores are occluded at resting membrane potential by Mg2+ ions. NMDARs can open only when a depolarization from the AMPAR activation leads to repulsion of the Mg2+ cation out into the extracellular space, allowing the pore to pass current. Unlike AMPARs, however, NMDARs are permeable to both Na+ and Ca2+. The Ca2+ that enters the cell triggers the upregulation of AMPARs to the membrane, which results in a long-lasting increase in EPSP size underlying LTP. The calcium entry also phosphorylates CaMKII, which phosphorylates AMPARs, increasing their single-channel conductance.

Molecular and signaling response to LTP-inducing stimuli
The mechanism for LTP has long been a topic of debate, but, recently, mechanisms have come to some consensus. AMPARs play a key role in this process, as one of the key indicators of LTP induction is the increase in the ratio of AMPAR to NMDARs following high-frequency stimulation. The idea is that AMPARs are trafficked from the dendrite into the synapse and incorporated through some series of signaling cascades.

AMPARs are initially regulated at the transcriptional level at their 5' promoter regions. There is significant evidence pointing towards the transcriptional control of AMPA receptors in longer-term memory through cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK). Messages are translated on the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) and modified there. Subunit compositions are determined at the time of modification at the rough ER. After post-ER processing in the golgi apparatus, AMPARs are released into the perisynaptic membrane as a reserve waiting for the LTP process to be initiated.

The first key step in the process following glutamate binding to NMDARs is the influx of calcium through the NMDA receptors and the resultant activation of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMKII). Blocking either this influx or the activation of CaMKII prevents LTP, showing that these are necessary mechanisms for LTP. In addition, profusion of CaMKII into a synapse causes LTP, showing that it is a causal and sufficient mechanism.

CaMKII has multiple modes of activation to cause the incorporation of AMPA receptors into the perisynaptic membrane. CAMKII enzyme is eventually responsible for the development of the actin cytoskeleton of neuronal cells and, eventually, for the dendrite and axon development (synaptic plasticity). The first is direct phosphorylation of synaptic-associated protein 97(SAP97). First, SAP-97 and Myosin-VI, a motor protein, are bound as a complex to the C-terminus of AMPARs. Following phosphorylation by CaMKII, the complex moves into the perisynaptic membrane. The second mode of activation is through the MAPK pathway. CaMKII activates the Ras proteins, which go on to activate p42/44 MAPK, which drives AMPAR insertion directly into the perisynaptic membrane.

AMPA receptor trafficking to the PSD in response to LTP
Once AMPA receptors are transported to the perisynaptic region through PKA or SAP97 phosphorylation, receptors are then trafficked to the postsynaptic density (PSD). However, this process of trafficking to the PSD still remains controversial. One possibility is that, during LTP, there is lateral movement of AMPA receptors from perisynaptic sites directly to the PSD. Another possibility is that exocytosis of intracellular vesicles is responsible for AMPA trafficking to the PSD directly. Recent evidence suggests that both of these processes are happening after an LTP stimulus; however, only the lateral movement of AMPA receptors from the perisynaptic region enhances the number of AMPA receptors at the PSD. The exact mechanism responsible for lateral movement of AMPA receptors to the PSD remains to be discovered; however, research has discovered several essential proteins for AMPA receptor trafficking. For example, overexpression of SAP97 leads to increased AMPA receptor trafficking to synapses. In addition to influencing synaptic localization, SAP97 has also been found to influence AMPA receptor conductance in response to glutamate. Myosin proteins are calcium sensitive motor proteins that have also been found to be essential for AMPA receptor trafficking. Disruption of myosin Vb interaction with Rab11 and Rab11-FIP2 blocks spine growth and AMPA receptor trafficking. Therefore, it is possible that myosin may drive the lateral movement of AMPA receptors in the perisynaptic region to the PSD. Transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory proteins (TARPs) are a family proteins that associate with AMPA receptors and control their trafficking and conductance. CACNG2 (Stargazin) is one such protein and is found to bind AMPA receptors in the perisynaptic and postsynaptic regions. The role of stargazin in trafficking between the perisynaptic and postsynaptic regions remains unclear; however, stargazin is essential for immobilizing AMPA receptors in the PSD by interacting with PSD-95. PSD-95 stabilizes AMPA receptors to the synapse and disruption of the stargazin-PSD-95 interaction suppressed synaptic transmission.

Biophysics of AMPA receptor trafficking
The motion of AMPA receptors on the synaptic membrane are well approximated as a Brownian, which can however be stabilized at the PSD by retention forces. These forces can stabilize receptors transienstly, but allow a constant exchanges with the peri-synaptic domain. These forces may results from the PSD local organization, sometimes refer to as phase separation.

Constitutive trafficking and changes in subunit composition
AMPA receptors are continuously being trafficked (endocytosed, recycled, and reinserted) into and out of the plasma membrane. Recycling endosomes within the dendritic spine contain pools of AMPA receptors for such synaptic reinsertion. Two distinct pathways exist for the trafficking of AMPA receptors: a regulated pathway and a constitutive pathway.

In the regulated pathway, GluA1-containing AMPA receptors are trafficked to the synapse in an activity-dependent manner, stimulated by NMDA receptor activation. Under basal conditions, the regulated pathway is essentially inactive, being transiently activated only upon the induction of long-term potentiation. This pathway is responsible for synaptic strengthening and the initial formation of new memories.

In the constitutive pathway, GluA1-lacking AMPA receptors, usually GluR2-GluR3 heteromeric receptors, replace the GluA1-containing receptors in a one-for-one, activity-independent manner, preserving the total number of AMPA receptors in the synapse. This pathway is responsible for the maintenance of new memories, sustaining the transient changes resulting from the regulated pathway. Under basal conditions, this pathway is routinely active, as it is necessary also for the replacement of damaged receptors.

The GluA1 and GluA4 subunits consist of a long carboxy (C)-tail, whereas the GluA2 and GluA3 subunits consist of a short carboxy-tail. The two pathways are governed by interactions between the C termini of the AMPA receptor subunits and synaptic compounds and proteins. Long C-tails prevent GluR1/4 receptors from being inserted directly into the postsynaptic density zone (PSDZ) in the absence of activity, whereas the short C-tails of GluA2/3 receptors allow them to be inserted directly into the PSDZ. The GluA2 C terminus interacts with and binds to N-ethylmaleimide sensitive fusion protein,  which allows for the rapid insertion of GluR2-containing AMPA receptors at the synapse. In addition, GluR2/3 subunits are more stably tethered to the synapse than GluR1 subunits.

LTD-induced endocytosis of AMPA receptors
Long-term depression enacts mechanisms to decrease AMPA receptor density in selected dendritic spines, dependent on clathrin and calcineurin and distinct from that of constitutive AMPAR trafficking. The starting signal for AMPAR endocytosis is an NMDAR-dependent calcium influx from low-frequency stimulation, which in turn activates protein phosphatases PP1 and calcineurin. However, AMPAR endocytosis has also been activated by voltage-dependent calcium channels, agonism of AMPA receptors, and administration of insulin, suggesting general calcium influx as the cause of AMPAR endocytosis. Blockage of PP1 did not prevent AMPAR endocytosis, but antagonist application to calcineurin led to significant inhibition of this process.

Calcineurin interacts with an endocytotic complex at the postsynaptic zone, explaining its effects on LTD. The complex, consisting of a clathrin-coated pit underneath a section of AMPAR-containing plasma membrane and interacting proteins, is the direct mechanism for reduction of AMPARs, in particular GluR2/GluR3 subunit-containing receptors, in the synapse. Interactions from calcineurin activate dynamin GTPase activity, allowing the clathrin pit to excise itself from the cell membrane and become a cytoplasmic vesicle. Once the clathrin coat detaches, other proteins can interact directly with the AMPARs using PDZ carboxyl tail domains; for example, glutamate receptor-interacting protein 1 (GRIP1) has been implicated in intracellular sequestration of AMPARs. Intracellular AMPARs are subsequently sorted for degradation by lysosomes or recycling to the cell membrane. For the latter, PICK1 and PKC can displace GRIP1 to return AMPARs to the surface, reversing the effects of endocytosis and LTD. when appropriate. Nevertheless, the highlighted calcium-dependent, dynamin-mediated mechanism above has been implicated as a key component of LTD. and as such may have applications to further behavioral research.

Role in Seizures
AMPA receptors play a key role in the generation and spread of epileptic seizures. Kainic acid, a convulsant that is widely used in epilepsy research induces seizures, in part, via activation of AMPA receptors

Molecular target for epilepsy therapy
The noncompetitive AMPA receptor antagonists talampanel and perampanel have been demonstrated to have activity in the treatment of adults with partial seizures, indicating that AMPA receptor antagonists represent a potential target for the treatment of epilepsy. Perampanel (trade name: Fycompa) received Marketing Authorisation Approval by the European Commission for the treatment of partial epilepsy on July 27, 2012. The drug was approved in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on October 22, 2012. As has been the case for most recently developed AEDs including pregabalin, lacosamide and ezogabine, the FDA recommended that perampanel be classified by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) as a scheduled drug. It has been designated as a Schedule 3 controlled substance.

Decanoic acid acts as a non-competitive AMPA receptor antagonist at therapeutically relevant concentrations, in a voltage- and subunit-dependent manner, and this is sufficient to explain its antiseizure effects. This direct inhibition of excitatory neurotransmission by decanoic acid in the brain contributes to the anticonvulsant effect of the medium-chain triglyceride ketogenic diet. Decanoic acid and the AMPA receptor antagonist drug perampanel act at separate sites on the AMPA receptor, and so it is possible that they have a cooperative effect at the AMPA receptor, suggesting that perampanel and the ketogenic diet could be synergistic.

Preclinical research suggest that several derivatives of aromatic amino acids with antiglutamatergic properties including AMPA receptor antagonism and inhibition of glutamate release such as 3,5-dibromo-D-tyrosine and 3,5-dibromo-L-phenylalnine exhibit strong anticonvulsant effect in animal models suggesting use of these compounds as a novel class of antiepileptic drugs.

Agonists

 * 5-Fluorowillardiine – a synthetic modification of willardiine
 * AMPA – a synthetic agonist after which the receptor is named
 * Domoic acid – a naturally occurring agonist that causes amnesic shellfish poisoning
 * Glutamic acid (glutamate) – the endogenous agonist
 * Ibotenic acid – a naturally occurring agonist found in Amanita muscaria
 * Quisqualic acid – a naturally occurring agonist found in certain species
 * Willardiine – a naturally occurring agonist

Positive allosteric modulators

 * Aniracetam
 * Cyclothiazide
 * CX-516
 * CX-546
 * CX-614
 * TAK-653
 * CX-717
 * Farampator (CX-691, ORG-24448)
 * IDRA-21
 * LY-404187
 * LY-503430
 * Mibampator (LY-451395)
 * ORG-26576
 * Oxiracetam
 * PEPA
 * PF-04958242
 * Piracetam
 * Pramiracetam
 * Tulrampator (S-47445, CX-1632)

Antagonists

 * Becampanel
 * CNQX
 * Dasolampanel
 * DNQX
 * Fanapanel (MPQX)
 * Kaitocephalin
 * Kynurenic acid – endogenous ligand
 * L-theanine
 * NBQX
 * 3,5-Dibromo-L-phenylalanine, a naturally occurring halogenated derivative of L-phenylalanine
 * Perampanel
 * Selurampanel
 * Tezampanel
 * Zonampanel

Negative allosteric modulators

 * Barbiturates (e.g., pentobarbital, sodium thiopental) – non-selective
 * Ethanol – non-selective
 * Inhalational anaesthetics (e.g., cyclopropane, enflurane, halothane, isoflurane, sevoflurane) – non-selective
 * GYKI-52466
 * Irampanel
 * Perampanel
 * Talampanel
 * PEP1-TGL : GluA1 subunit C-terminus peptide analog that inhibits AMPA receptor incorporation to the postsynaptic density

title: AMPA receptor


text:
Atlanta Airport (Idaho)

Atlanta Airport is a public airport located one mile (2 km) northwest of the central business district of Atlanta, a town in Elmore County, Idaho, United States. It is owned by the State of Idaho, Idaho Transportation Department, Division of Aeronautics.

Facilities and aircraft
Atlanta Airport covers an area of 14 acre and had one runway designated 16/34 with a 2,460 by 75 ft (750 by 23 m) turf/dirt surface. For the 12-month period ending July 29, 2005, the airport had 900 aircraft operations, an average of 75 per month: 89% general aviation and 11% air taxi.

Video

 * YouTube.com - Landing in Atlanta, Idaho
 * YouTube.com - Maule MX-7 landing at Atlanta, Idaho
 * YouTube.com - Maule MX-7 departure from Atlanta, Idaho

title: Atlanta Airport (Idaho)


text:
Metabotropic receptor

A metabotropic receptor, also referred to by the broader term G-protein-coupled receptor, is a type of membrane receptor that initiates a number of metabolic steps to modulate cell activity. The nervous system utilizes two types of receptors: metabotropic and ionotropic receptors. While ionotropic receptors form an ion channel pore, metabotropic receptors are indirectly linked with ion channels through signal transduction mechanisms, such as G proteins.

Both receptor types are activated by specific chemical ligands. When an ionotropic receptor is activated, it opens a channel that allows ions such as Na+, K+, or Cl− to flow. In contrast, when a metabotropic receptor is activated, a series of intracellular events are triggered that can also result in ion channels opening or other intracellular events, but involve a range of second messenger chemicals.

Mechanism
Chemical messengers bind to metabotropic receptors to initiate a diversity of effects caused by biochemical signaling cascades. G protein-coupled receptors are all metabotropic receptors. When a ligand binds to a G protein-coupled receptor, a guanine nucleotide-binding protein, or G protein, activates a second messenger cascade which can alter gene transcription, regulate other proteins in the cell, release intracellular Ca2+, or directly affect ion channels on the membrane. These receptors can remain open from seconds to minutes and are associated with long-lasting effects, such as modifying synaptic strength and modulating short- and long-term synaptic plasticity.

Metabotropic receptors have a diversity of ligands, including but not limited to: small molecule transmitters, monoamines, peptides, hormones, and even gases. In comparison to fast-acting neurotransmitters, these ligands are not taken up again or degraded quickly. They can also enter the circulatory system to globalize a signal. Most metabotropic ligands have unique receptors. Some examples include: metabotropic glutamate receptors, muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, GABAB receptors.

Structure
The G protein-coupled receptors have seven hydrophobic transmembrane domains. Most of them are monomeric proteins, although GABAB receptors require heterodimerization to function properly. The protein's N terminus is located on the extracellular side of the membrane and its C terminus is on the intracellular side.

The 7 transmembrane spanning domains, with an external amino terminus, are often claimed as being alpha helix shaped, and the polypeptide chain is said to be composed of around 450–550 amino acids.

title: Metabotropic receptor