text:
Talk:Chagatai language

= Comments =

Extinct?
What are the (presumably not extinct?) "discrete languages" mentioned, and are they distinct enough to create a language barrier to the people involved? -- WormRunner

A long time ago I asked for a source for the statement that the last speaker died in the 1990s, and none has been provided. I cannot believe that there were still native speakers of classical Chagatay in the twentieth century: might it be a reference to Teke Turkmen, also sometimes known as "Chagatay"? I am therefore going to delete this statement. If anyone finds a source, they can reinstate it. --Sir Myles na Gopaleen (the da) (talk) 16:16, 14 December 2007 (UTC)

Family
of course it's mongolian language. Tsagaadai(old version Chagatai) was a Mongolian. in hystory of Mongolia at that time wasnt anyword turk. all ethnic groups had their names, but not still turk. turk was 1 time after huns there & go way to west after fight. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.182.44.231 (talk) 23:42, 13 October 2009 (UTC)

 * It doesn't matter who was what. This is about the language itself, and what matters there is what the language itself was like. This one was like Turkish, not Mongolian. 83.253.228.202 (talk) 01:38, 20 June 2012 (UTC)
 * Turkic, not Turkish. Turkish is the turkic language spoken in Anatolia today.50.111.46.18 (talk) 12:12, 21 August 2018 (UTC)

Chagatai and Chagatay
What is the distinction (is there as distinction?) between Chagatai and Chagatay? I see that the latter appears to include the former in the Karluk branch of the Turkic language family according to the Infobox. TonySever (talk) 17:01, 20 March 2013 (UTC)

Chagatai dictionaries and manuscript
Chagatai-French Dictionaries

Dictionnaire turk-oriental By Abel Jean B.M.M. Pavet de Courteille

https://archive.org/details/dictionnairetur00courgoog

http://books.google.com/books?id=Zt8GAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

https://archive.org/details/dictionnairetur01courgoog

http://books.google.com/books?id=d6UCAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

https://archive.org/details/dictionnairetur02courgoog

http://books.google.com/books?id=wamJAF5x50UC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

Name of uyghur language debate during the 19th century
See Uyghur_people and Uyghur_language for context over the naming debate. The Uyghur themselves did not call themselves nor their language as "Uyghur", but some foreign European and Russians applied the "Uyghur" name to them in the 19th century, and in the 20th century the Soviet Union managed to impose the name "Uyghur" and get the Uyghurs themselves to use the name for their language and ethnic group through their puppet Sheng Shicai. The modern Uyghur language is descended from Chagatai language.

http://books.google.com/books?id=oWj9NreO9zYC&pg=PA172#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=oWj9NreO9zYC&pg=PA173#v=onepage&q&f=false

A sketch of the Turki language by Robert Shaw

"In the Turkish of Kashghar and Yarkand (which some European linguists have called Uighur, a name unknown to the inhabitants of those towns, who know their tongue simply as Turki), we can obtain a glimpse backwards at a state of the language when the noun (which in Western Turkish is almost inflected) was but a rude block, labelled if necessary by attaching other nouns, &c, to show its relation to the..."

http://books.google.com/books?id=dw7gAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=Vj1bAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=ZT1bAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=oWj9NreO9zYC&pg=PA9#v=onepage&q&f=false

Chagatai manuscript
https://archive.org/details/mirdjnmehpublip00navogoog

http://books.google.com/books?id=gr0MSY32LOwC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

https://archive.org/details/SharahAlAqeedaAlKhalisaciatayTurkish

06:44, 8 February 2014 (UTC)

Correct Arab/Persian/Osmanic spelling
All spelling as given by ref. [2] is correct -  but I cannot see any reference for the spelling (and associated transcription) "جغتای / Jaghatay". Thus, I think: Regarding all the examples given by ref. [2] together with today's Turkish form "Çağatay", the one correct Arab/Persian/Osmannic spelling is "چغتای". DocumentReader (talk) 17:38, 22 March 2019 (UTC)

Move?
It seem like Chagatay is more used than Chagatai. Can anyone search it up on ngrams? Beshogur (talk) 10:20, 25 April 2021 (UTC)

Chagatai Language
Baburnama page 207, Moghuli (chagatai) language was spoken amongst Hazaras and nikudaris Elyas719 (talk) 18:50, 26 May 2023 (UTC)

 * Please read my edit summary. HistoryofIran (talk) 18:56, 26 May 2023 (UTC)

Encoding of Yeh
In the table of Chagatai language, Yeh is encoded in several different ways:

initial form: as U+FEF3 ARABIC LETTER YEH INITIAL FORM

medial form: as U+FEF4 ARABIC LETTER YEH MEDIAL FORM

final form: as U+FEF0 ARABIC LETTER ALEF MAKSURA FINAL FORM

isolated form: as U+FEEF ARABIC LETTER ALEF MAKSURA ISOLATED FORM

These encodings seem all to be problematic:

1. These characters from Unicode’s Arabic Presentation Forms-B U+FE70-FEFF should not be used. “Instead of these, letters from the Arabic block (U+0600..U+06FF) should be used for interchange.” (The Unicode® Standard 15.0 – Core Specification, p. 400)

2. In the Chagatai orthography, Yeh is used both to indicate consonantal /j/ (“y”) and the vowels /e/ and /i/. The use of both Arabic Alef maksura and Arabic Yeh for what should be one and the same abstract character is highly questionable.

I propose using U+06CC ARABIC LETTER FARSI YEH exclusively: not only has this character the correct semantics (and I have no doubt the familiar Persian letter was ‘borrowed’ for Chagatai, not the much more remote Arabic forms), but it also exhibits the correct shaping behaviour, retaining the two horizontal dots in initial and medial positions, while omitting them in final and isolated positions.

The rendering of initial, medial and final forms can be triggered by adding Zero Width Joiner characters (U+200D) at the appropriate places. This should probably done for all other initial, medial and final forms in the table as well.

What do you all think about this? Pimrietbroek (talk) 21:37, 4 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chagatai language


text:
Vintersorg

Vintersorg ("Winter Sorrow" in English) is a Swedish band from Skellefteå, formed in 1994 under the name Vargatron (Wolfthrone in English). Musically, Vintersorg has covered a wide number of heavy metal genres; while the band is mostly rooted in extreme metal styles, particularly black metal and Viking/folk metal, it has also expanded into progressive metal and avant-garde metal. Lyrically, the band deals with topics on fantasy, mythology, nature, the cosmos, and metaphysics. Vintersorg means "Winter Sorrow," but the name was taken from The Legend of the Ice People series by Margit Sandemo, where the character Vintersorg is the son of a great pagan leader.

History
The project was originally formed in 1994 to "push the limits" of black metal music, where the vocals are mostly clean sung, and only a few parts per song that had the traditional screaming vocals. The sound of Vintersorg has vastly changed over the years, as their earlier sound had more of a folk influence, and later on, more of an experimental sound. This transformation was most notably marked with the release of the Cosmic Genesis album, and the change in sound progressed from album to album, with the 2004 album The Focusing Blur being an extremely avant-garde album. The band's vocal elements have changed from album to album as well, starting out with low-pitched, powerful baritone singing, and gradually shifting towards softer, higher-pitched delivery with more use of harmony and layering with black metal vocals. Solens rötter, marked a return to the earlier folk metal style, while retaining the more complex and non-traditional guitar arrangements and song structures of later albums. On Jordpuls and Orkan there was a continuation with the Swedish sung material and nature oriented themes. Till fjälls: Part II, a double album was released in June 2017.

Along with this change in musical style, the lyrical topics began to shift as well. On earlier albums, the lyrics are all written and performed in Swedish, and dealt with topics of nature and paganism. With the advent of Cosmic Genesis, the lyrics were now written and sung mostly in English, and now dealt with scientific ideas such as astronomy and cosmology, philosophies such as metaphysics, and other ideas such as astrology. In the Cosmic Genesis booklet, Vintersorg extends thanks to Dr. Carl Sagan, author of the book Cosmos. Since, then, the band has alternated between both English and Swedish lyrics, sometimes using both on the same album. In keeping with the band's return to its folk roots, the latter albums are also sung entirely in Swedish and deal with more traditional themes.

Andreas Hedlund (a.k.a. Vintersorg) is constantly creating music. He is the front-man of several bands including Otyg, Borknagar, Havayoth, Fission, Cronian and Waterclime.

Band members

 * Andreas "Vintersorg" Hedlund – composer, vocals, guitars, keyboard, programing
 * Mattias Marklund – guitars
 * Simon Lundström - bass guitar, backing vocals

Session musicians

 * Vargher – keyboards on Hedniskhjärtad, Till fjälls, and Ödemarkens son
 * Cia Hedmark – female vocals on Hedniskhjärtad, Till fjälls, and Ödemarkens son and violin on Ödemarkens son, female vocals on Norrskenssyner.
 * Andreas Frank – guest lead guitar on "För kung och fosterland" & "Asatider" on Till fjälls
 * Nisse Johansson – additional keys on Till fjälls and analog synth, loop editing on Visions from the Spiral Generator and Hammond on "Universums dunkla alfabet"
 * Jan Erik "Tyr" Torgersen – live bass
 * Steve Di Giorgio – bass guitar on Visions from the Spiral Generator and The Focusing Blur
 * Asgeir Mickelson – drums on Visions from the Spiral Generator and The Focusing Blur
 * Lars "Lazare" Nedland – Hammond organ on Visions from the Spiral Generator and Hammond organ, vocals, and lyricist on The Focusing Blur
 * Benny Hägglund – live drums
 * Johan Lindgren – live bass, bass on Solens rötter
 * Andreas Stenlund – live guitar until 2002

Discography

 * Hedniskhjärtad (EP, 1998) ("Paganhearted")
 * Till fjälls (1998) ("To the Mountains")
 * Ödemarkens son (1999) ("Son of the Wilderness")
 * Cosmic Genesis (2000)
 * Visions from the Spiral Generator (2002)
 * The Focusing Blur (2004)
 * Solens rötter (2007) ("Roots of the Sun")
 *  Jordpuls (2011) ("Earthpulse")
 *  Orkan (2012) ("Hurricane")
 *  Naturbål (2014) ("Natural Bonfire")
 *  Till fjälls: Del II (2017) ("To the mountains: Part II")

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Vintersorg


text:
Duke Xiao of Qin

Duke Xiao of Qin (381–338 BC), personal name Ying Quliang, was the ruler of the Qin state from 361 to 338 BC. Duke Xiao is best known for employing the Legalist statesman Shang Yang from the Wey state and authorizing him to conduct a series of ground breaking political, military and economic reforms in Qin. Although the reforms were controversial and drew violent opposition from many Qin politicians, Duke Xiao supported Shang Yang fully and the reforms did help to transform Qin into a dominant superpower among the Seven Warring States.

Biography
Duke Xiao ascended to the throne of the Qin state in 361 BC at the age of 21, succeeding his father, Duke Xian. Duke Xiao was determined to restore the Qin state to its former glory as one of the Five Hegemons during the reign of his ancestor, Duke Mu. Hence, the duke sent out an announcement, calling for men of talent to aid him in strengthening Qin, promising them rewards of high offices and lands in return for their service. Wei Yang (later known as Shang Yang), a scholar from the Legalist School, responded to the duke's call as he had been unsuccessful in attempting to start his career in other states.

Wei Yang was introduced to Duke Xiao by Jing Jian and had two audiences with the duke, during which he proposed ideas on governance based on the principles of Confucianism, Taoism and other schools of thought, but the duke was not impressed. During the third meeting, Wei proposed his ideas on strict governance, based on ideas from Legalism, and captured the duke's attention. Duke Xiao and Wei Yang had a discussion that lasted for three days and three nights, after which they drafted plans for reform. The plans were put into effect in 363 BC, but several Qin politicians objected strongly to the reforms. However, Duke Xiao supported Wei Yang fully and ensured that the reforms were implemented as planned.

The reforms caused ground breaking changes in the Qin state and transformed it into a strict, controlling, militaristic state, which governed by using tough and oppressive laws. Agriculture was expanded through forced migration to new regions, and citizens were rewarded or punished based on their military or agricultural achievements.

In 366 BC, the Qin armies defeated the allied forces from the states of Han and Wei at the Battle of Shimen. The Qin soldiers and officers were promoted to higher ranks based on the number of enemy heads they collected during battle. The Qin state pushed on to seize lands from the Wei state, which managed to survive only with the help of the Zhao state, and Wei was drastically weakened by its losses and defeats.

Legacy
Duke Xiao ruled Qin for 24 years and died at the age of 44 in 338 BC. He was succeeded by his son King Huiwen of Qin. Duke Xiao was given the posthumous name of "Xiao", which means "filial". The reforms that took place during his reign helped to lay a strong foundation for Qin's eventual unification of China under the Qin Dynasty, under the leadership of Duke Xiao's descendant, Zheng, who became Qin Shi Huang (First Emperor of Qin).

Duke Xiao was also the last ruler of Qin to be addressed as "duke", as his successors titled themselves "kings". The change was an indication of the loss of authority of the central government (Zhou Dynasty), as rulers of several other feudal states had begun to call themselves "kings" instead of "dukes".

Family
Concubines:
 * Lady, of Han, the mother of Prince Ji

Sons:
 * Crown Prince Si (太子駟; 356–311 BC), ruled as King Huiwen of Qin from 338–311 BC
 * Prince Ji (公子疾; d. 300 BC)
 * Known by his fiefdom, Master of Chuli (樗裡子), or by his title, Lord Yan (嚴君)
 * Served as the Prime Minister (庶長) of Qin from 306–300 BC
 * Prince Hua (公子華)

title: Duke Xiao of Qin


text:
Ignition system

Ignition systems are used by heat engines to initiate combustion by igniting the fuel-air mixture. In a spark ignition versions of the internal combustion engine (such as petrol engines), the ignition system creates a spark to ignite the fuel-air mixture just before each combustion stroke. Gas turbine engines and rocket engines normally use an ignition system only during start-up.

Diesel engines use compression ignition to ignite the fuel-air mixture using the heat of compression and therefore do not use an ignition system. They usually have glowplugs that preheat the combustion chamber to aid starting in cold weather.

Early cars used ignition magneto and trembler coil systems, which were superseded by Distributor-based systems (first used in 1912). Electronic ignition systems (first used in 1968) became common towards the end of the 20th century, with coil-on-plug versions of these systems becoming widespread since the 1990s.

Ignition magneto systems

An ignition magneto (also called a high-tension magneto) is an older type of ignition system used in spark-ignition engines (such as petrol engines). It uses a magneto and a transformer to make pulses of high voltage for the spark plugs. The older term "high-tension" means "high-voltage".

Used on many cars in the early 20th century, ignition magnetos were largely replaced by induction coil ignition systems. The use of ignition magnetos is now confined mainly to engines without a battery, for example in lawnmowers and chainsaws. It is also used in modern piston-engined aircraft (even though a battery is present), to avoid the engine relying on an electrical system.

Induction coil systems
As batteries became more common in cars (due to the increased usage of electric starter motors), magneto systems were replaced by systems using an induction coil. The 1886 Benz Patent-Motorwagen and the 1908 Ford Model T used a trembler coil ignition system, whereby the trembler interrupted the current through the coil and caused a rapid series of sparks during each firing. The trembler coil would be energized at an appropriate point in the engine cycle. In the Model T, the four-cylinder engine had a trembler coil for each cylinder.

Distributor-based systems

An improved ignition system was invented by Charles Kettering at Delco in the United States and introduced in Cadillac's 1912 cars. The Kettering ignition system consisted of a single ignition coil, breaker points, a capacitor (to prevent the points from arcing at break) and a distributor (to direct the electricity from the ignition coil to the correct cylinder). The Kettering system became the primary ignition system for many years in the automotive industry due to its lower cost and relative simplicity.

Electronic systems
The first electronic ignition (a cold cathode type) was tested in 1948 by Delco-Remy, while Lucas introduced a transistorized ignition in 1955, which was used on BRM and Coventry Climax Formula One engines in 1962. The aftermarket began offering EI that year, with both the AutoLite Electric Transistor 201 and Tung-Sol EI-4 (thyratron capacitive discharge) being available. Pontiac became the first automaker to offer an optional EI, the breakerless magnetic pulse-triggered Delcotronic, on some 1963 models; it was also available on some Corvettes. The first commercially available all solid-state (SCR) capacitive discharge ignition was manufactured by Hyland Electronics in Canada also in 1963. Ford fitted a FORD designed breakerless system on the Lotus 25s entered at Indianapolis the next year, ran a fleet test in 1964, and began offering optional EI on some models in 1965. This electronic system was utilized on the GT40s campaigned by Shelby American and Holman and Moody. Robert C. Hogle, Ford Motor Company, presented the, "Mark II-GT Ignition and Electrical System", Publication #670068, at the SAE Congress, Detroit, Michigan, January 9–13, 1967. Beginning in 1958, Earl W. Meyer at Chrysler worked on EI, continuing until 1961 and resulting in use of EI on the company's NASCAR hemis in 1963 and 1964.

Prest-O-Lite's CD-65, which relied on capacitance discharge (CD), appeared in 1965, and had "an unprecedented 50,000 mile warranty." (This differs from the non-CD Prest-O-Lite system introduced on AMC products in 1972, and made standard equipment for the 1975 model year.) A similar CD unit was available from Delco in 1966, which was optional on Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and GMC vehicles in the 1967 model year. Also in 1967, Motorola debuted their breakerless CD system. The most famous aftermarket electronic ignition which debuted in 1965, was the Delta Mark 10 capacitive discharge ignition, which was sold assembled or as a kit.

The Fiat Dino was the first production car to come standard with EI in 1968, followed by the Jaguar XJ Series 1 in 1971, Chrysler (after a 1971 trial) in 1973 and by Ford and GM in 1975.

In 1967, Prest-O-Lite made a "Black Box" ignition amplifier, intended to take the load off the distributor's breaker points during high rpm runs, which was used by Dodge and Plymouth on their factory Super Stock Coronet and Belvedere drag racers. This amplifier was installed on the interior side of the cars' firewall, and had a duct which provided outside air to cool the unit. The rest of the system (distributor and spark plugs) remains as for the mechanical system. The lack of moving parts compared with the mechanical system leads to greater reliability and longer service intervals.

A variation coil-on-plug ignition has each coil handle two plugs, on cylinders which are 360 degrees out of phase (and therefore reach top dead center (TDC) at the same time); in the four-cycle engine this means that one plug will be sparking during the end of the exhaust stroke while the other fires at the usual time, a so-called "wasted spark" arrangement which has no drawbacks apart from faster spark plug erosion; the paired cylinders are 1/4 and 2/3 on four cylinder arrangements, 1/4, 6/3, 2/5 on six cylinder engines and 6/7, 4/1, 8/3 and 2/5 on V8 engines. Other systems do away with the distributor as a timing apparatus and use a magnetic crank angle sensor mounted on the crankshaft to trigger the ignition at the proper time.

Engine Control Units
Modern automotive engines use an engine control unit (ECU), which is a single device that controls various engine functions including the ignition system and the fuel injection. This contrasts earlier engines, where the fuel injection and ignition were operated as separate systems.

Gas turbine and rocket engines
Gas turbine engines (including jet engines) use capacitor discharge ignition, however the ignition system is only used at startup or when the combustor(s) flame goes out.

The ignition system in a rocket engine is critical to avoiding a hard start or explosion. Rockets often employ pyrotechnic devices that place flames across the face of the injector plate, or, alternatively, hypergolic propellants that ignite spontaneously on contact with each other.

title: Ignition system


text:
Feizi

Feizi (died 858 BC), also known as Qin Ying and Ying Feizi, was the founder of the Qin state.

Mythical origin of Qin
According to the founding myths of Qin recorded in the Records of the Grand Historian by Han dynasty historian Sima Qian, Feizi descended from the mythical Yellow Emperor and his grandson and successor Zhuanxu. Zhuanxu's granddaughter Nüxiu (女脩) gave birth to Daye (大業) after swallowing an egg of a swallow. Daye's son Boyi (伯益) was awarded the ancestral name Ying (嬴) by the mythical Chinese ruler Shun.

Ancestry
During the Shang dynasty, Boyi's descendant Zhongjue was in charge of Xichui (西垂, also called Quanqiu, in present-day Li County, Gansu) in the midst of the Rong tribes. Zhongjue's son Feilian (蜚廉) and grandson Elai served King Zhou of Shang, and Elai was killed when King Wu of Zhou overthrew Shang and founded the Zhou dynasty. Feizi's father Daluo (大骆) was the great-great-grandson of Elai. However, Daluo's legal heir was not Feizi, but his other son Cheng (Zhou dynasty), because Cheng was born to Daluo's main wife, daughter of the Marquess of the state of Shen.

Founding of Qin
Feizi lived in Xichui and was a skilled horse breeder. King Xiao of Zhou learned of his reputation and put him in charge of breeding and training horses for the Zhou army. To reward his contributions, King Xiao wanted to make Feizi his father's legal heir instead of his half-brother Cheng. However, Marquess of Shen, Cheng's grandfather, objected and said that the Rong people would revolt if the king deposed Cheng. The king changed his mind and awarded Feizi the small fief of Qin instead (in present-day Zhangjiachuan County, Gansu), separate from his father's fief of Xichui, and gave Feizi the title Qin Ying, a combination of his fief and ancestral name.

This was the beginning of the State of Qin that would over six centuries later conquer all other states and unify China under the rule of Qin Shi Huang, the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty. At this time Qin was only a minor state classified as an "attached state" (附庸, fuyong), and Feizi did not receive any nobility rank. Qin would not become a major vassal state until five generations later, when King Ping of Zhou granted Duke Xiang of Qin a formal nobility rank and recognition as a feudal lord for protecting the king during the invasion of the Quanrong nomads.

After death
Feizi died in 858 BC and was succeeded by his son, known as the Marquis of Qin. In 842 BC the Rong people rebelled, destroying the clan of Feizi's half-brother at Xichui. Twenty years later, Feizi's great-grandson Qin Zhong was also killed by the Rong in 822 BC. However, Qin Zhong's son and successor Duke Zhuang of Qin defeated the Rong and annexed Xichui, thus reuniting the territories of the two branches of the House of Ying.

title: Feizi


text:
Bochs

Bochs (pronounced "box") is a portable IA-32 and x86-64 IBM PC compatible emulator and debugger mostly written in C++ and distributed as free software under the GNU Lesser General Public License. It supports emulation of the processor(s) (including protected mode), memory, disks, display, Ethernet, BIOS and common hardware peripherals of PCs.

Many guest operating systems can be run using the emulator including DOS, several versions of Linux, Xenix, Microsoft Windows, BSDs and Rhapsody OS (precursor of Mac OS X Public Beta). Bochs runs on many host operating systems, including Android OS, Linux, macOS, PlayStation 2, Windows, and Windows CE along with its derivatives.

Bochs is mostly used for operating system development (when an emulated operating system crashes, it does not crash the host operating system, so the emulated OS can be debugged) and to run other guest operating systems inside already running host operating systems. It can also be used to run older software — such as PC games — which will not run on non-compatible, or too fast computers.

History
Bochs started as a program with a commercial license, at the price of US$25, for use as-is. If a user needed to link it to other software, that user would have to negotiate a special license. That changed on 22 March 2000, when Mandrakesoft (later Mandriva) bought Bochs from lead developer Kevin Lawton and released it for Linux under the GNU Lesser General Public License. Support for hosting on Windows XP ended with version 2.6.10.

Use
Bochs emulates the hardware needed by PC operating systems, including hard drives, CD drives, and floppy drives. It doesn't utilize any host CPU virtualization features, therefore is slower than most virtualization (as opposed to emulation) software. It provides additional security by completely isolating the guest OS from the hardware. Bochs also has extensive debugging features. It is widely used for OS development, as it removes the need for constant system restarts (to test code).

BFE, described as a "Graphical Debugger Interface for the Bochs PC Emulator", is a graphical interface for the debugger within the Bochs PC emulator that makes it possible to debug software step-by-step at the instruction and register level, much like Borland's Turbo Debugger.

title: Bochs


text:
Talk:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

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WP:URFA/2020
"Surviving manuscripts" is unsourced, including the map File:ASC.svg. A455bcd9 (talk) 15:49, 3 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Now cited. I had to make one change, and there's one slight vagueness I should point out.  I dropped the mention of Mercian dialect from the description of the Parker Chronicle; Swanton doesn't mention it, at least in the passage I'm citing, and looking in other sources it's not clear that the Mercian elements continue to 1070 anyway.  The vagueness is that Swanton doesn't really cite that the Easter Table Chronicle is given the letter [I] because of the Rolls edition's A through F letters; he only says this for G and H.  I think this is obvious enough that it doesn't need to be cited. Mike Christie (talk - contribs -  library) 18:21, 3 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Thanks! Reference added to Commons as well. A455bcd9 (talk) 19:08, 3 December 2022 (UTC)
 * - It looks like these issues have been resolved through citing or removing the uncited text. Is this article good to remove from WP:FARGIVEN and mark as satisfactory at WP:URFA/2020? Hog Farm Talk 04:47, 14 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the reminder @Hog Farm: ✅ a455bcd9 (Antoine) (talk) 07:55, 14 December 2022 (UTC)

 * I read the article and can see no problems. Marked satisfactory. Desertarun (talk) 21:39, 12 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle


text:
Nathaniel Bowditch

Nathaniel Bowditch (March 26, 1773 – March 16, 1838) was an early American mathematician remembered for his work on ocean navigation. He is often credited as the founder of modern maritime navigation; his book The New American Practical Navigator, first published in 1802, is still carried on board every commissioned U.S. Naval vessel.

Life and work
Nathaniel Bowditch, the fourth of seven children, was born in Salem, Province of Massachusetts Bay, to Habakkuk Bowditch, a cooper who at one point was a sailor as well but stopped after his ship went aground in 1775, and Mary Ingersoll Bowditch. At the age of ten, he was made to leave school to work in his father's cooperage, before becoming indentured at twelve for nine years as a bookkeeping apprentice to a ship chandler. Here is where he first learned bookkeeping, an important step in his life.

In 1786, age fourteen, Bowditch began to study algebra and two years later he taught himself calculus. He also taught himself Latin in 1790 and French in 1792 so he was able to read mathematical works such as Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. He found thousands of errors in John Hamilton Moore's The New Practical Navigator; at eighteen, he copied all the mathematical papers of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Among his many significant scientific contributions would be a translation of Pierre-Simon de Laplace's Mécanique céleste, a lengthy work on mathematics and theoretical astronomy. This translation was critical to the development of astronomy in the United States.

Serendipity aided Bowditch's self-directed study, in as much as he found himself able to use the eminent Irish chemist Richard Kirwan's library: Hugh Hill, a privateer from Salem who captained the Pilgrim, had intercepted the ship carrying the library between Ireland and England and brought the library back to Salem in 1781.

In 1795, Bowditch went to sea on the first of four voyages as a ship's clerk and captain's writer. His fifth voyage was as master and part owner of a ship. Following this voyage, he returned to Salem in 1803 to resume his mathematical studies and enter the insurance business. One of his family homes in Salem, the Nathaniel Bowditch House, still exists and was restored in 2000. This house has been designated a National Historic Landmark.

In 1798 Bowditch married Elizabeth Boardman, who died seven months later. In 1800 Bowditch married his second wife and cousin, Mary "Polly" Ingersoll Bowditch (1781–1834). They had 2 daughters and 6 sons, including Henry Ingersoll Bowditch and William Ingersoll Bowditch. Among his grandchildren were Henry Pickering Bowditch and Charles Pickering Bowditch.

In 1802, his book The American Practical Navigator was first published. That same year, Harvard University awarded Bowditch an honorary degree.

In 1804, Bowditch became America's first insurance actuary as president of the Essex Fire and Marine Insurance Company in Salem. Under his direction, the company prospered despite difficult political conditions and the War of 1812.

Bowditch's mathematical and astronomical work during this time earned him a significant standing, including election to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1799 and the American Philosophical Society in 1809. He was offered the chair of mathematics and physics at Harvard in 1806, but turned it down. In 1804, an article on his observations of the Moon was published and in 1806 he published naval charts of several harbors, including Salem. More scientific publications followed, including a study of a meteor explosion (1807), three papers on the orbits of comets (1815, 1818, 1820) and a study of the Lissajous figures created by the motion of a pendulum suspended from two points (1815).

In 1816, Harvard awarded Nathaniel Bowditch an honorary Doctor of Laws.

As well as Harvard, the United States Military Academy and the University of Virginia offered Bowditch chairs in mathematics. Bowditch again refused these offers, perhaps (in the case of the University of Virginia) because the $2,000 salary offered was two-thirds of the salary he received as president of the insurance company.

Bowditch's translation of the first four volumes of Laplace's Traité de mécanique céleste was completed by 1818. Publication of the work, however, was delayed for many years, most likely due to cost. Nonetheless, he continued to work on it with the assistance of Benjamin Peirce, adding commentaries that doubled its length.

By 1819, Bowditch's international reputation had grown to the extent that he was elected as a member of the Royal Societies of Edinburgh and London, and the Royal Irish Academy.

In 1823, Bowditch left the Essex Fire and Marine Insurance Company to become an actuary for the Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company in Boston. There he served as a "money manager" (an investment manager) for wealthy individuals who made their fortunes at sea, directing their wealth toward manufacturing. Towns such as Lowell prospered as a result.

Bowditch's move from Salem to Boston involved the transfer of over 2,500 books, 100 maps and charts, and 29 volumes of his own manuscripts.

Bowditch's American Practical Navigator
During his time at sea, Bowditch became intensely interested in the mathematics involved in celestial navigation. He worked initially with John Hamilton Moore's London-published Navigator, which was known to have errors. To have exact tables to work from, Bowditch recomputed all of Moore's tables, and rearranged and expanded the work. He contacted the US publisher of the work, Edmund March Blunt, who asked him to correct and revise the third edition on his fifth voyage. The task was so extensive that Bowditch decided to write his own book, and to "put down in the book nothing I can't teach the crew". On that trip, it is said that every man of the crew of 12, including the ship's cook, became competent to take and calculate lunar observations and to plot the correct position of the ship. In 1802 Blunt published the first edition of Bowditch's American Practical Navigator, which became the western hemisphere shipping industry standard for the next century and a half. The text included several solutions to the spherical triangle problem that were new, as well as extensive formulae and tables for navigation. In 1866, the United States Hydrographic Office purchased the copyright and since that time the book has been in continuous publication, with regular revisions to keep it current. Bowditch's influence on the American Practical Navigator was so profound that to this day mariners refer to it simply as Bowditch. Student Naval officers prior to the establishment of the Naval Academy referred to the work as "the immaculate Bowditch".

Bowditch died in Boston in 1838 from stomach cancer. He is buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, where a monument to him was erected through public collections.

The statue was the first life-size bronze to be cast in America. It was the creation of renowned sculptor Robert Ball Hughes.

The following eulogy was written by the Salem Marine Society: "In his death a public, a national, a human benefactor has departed. Not this community nor our country only, but the whole world has reason to do honor to his memory. When the voice of eulogy shall cease to flow, no monument will be needed to keep alive his memory among men; but as long as ships shall sail, the needle point to the north, and the stars go through their wonted courses in the heavens, the name of Dr. Bowditch will be revered as of one who has helped his fellowmen in time of need, who was and is a guide to them over the pathless oceans, and one who forwarded the great interests of mankind."

In the 1840s and 1850s, Bowditch's son, H. I. Bowditch, ran the "Bowditch Library" on Otis Place in Boston's Financial District. It was "free to those who reside in Boston, or in the vicinity. ... This is the library of the late Nathaniel Bowditch, and is almost exclusively of a scientific character." In 1858 the family gave the collection, "which consists mostly of mathematical and astronomical works", to the Boston Public Library.

Legacy
The Oceanographic Survey Ship USNS Bowditch (T-AGS-62) and the Nathaniel Bowditch, a high-speed catamaran passenger ferry serving downtown Boston and Salem, were named for him, as was a lunar crater. Additionally, a William Hand–designed Schooner built in 1922, which is currently part of the Maine Windjammer fleet and sails out of Rockland, Maine, is also named after Nathaniel Bowditch.

In 1955, a book for younger readers, Carry On, Mr. Bowditch, was published by Jean Lee Latham, portraying Bowditch's life dramatized and fictionalized. A serious modern biography is Robert E. Berry's Yankee Stargazer, published in 1941.

A grammar school, two middle schools and a dorm in America were also named for him, in Boston, Foster City, California (Bowditch Middle School), Salem, Massachusetts and Salem State College, respectively. The Department of Marine Transportation building on the grounds of the United States Merchant Marine Academy is named in his honor and houses classrooms, laboratories, and the 900-seat Ackerman Auditorium. He also gives his name to a street in Berkeley, California. Actor David Morse was named after him − David Bowditch Morse.

Bowditch Point Park, in Fort Myers Beach, Florida, is named for Bowditch.

Bowditch was inducted into the National Sailing Hall of Fame in 2014.

title: Nathaniel Bowditch


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Duke Mu of Qin

Duke Mu of Qin (died 621BC), born Ying Renhao, was a duke of the Qin state. Sometimes considered one of the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period, Duke Mu greatly expanded the territory of Qin during the reign of King Xiang of Zhou. He was also known for his many talented advisors, such as Baili Xi, Jian Shu (蹇叔), Pi Bao (丕豹), and Gong Sun (公孫).

Names
Renhao is a Chinese name: Ying is the surname and Renhao is the given name. During his time in power, he would have simply been called Qin or the Duke of Qin (Qingong). The title Qin Mugong—the "Solemn Duke of Qin"—is a posthumous name bestowed by his successors as part of Chinese ancestral veneration. Despite this being a descriptive title, it is common in English to treat it as though it were a common name. All of these are the modern Mandarin pronunciations of the characters in his names; their reconstructed Old Chinese pronunciations are different.

Life
He was the son of Duke De of Qin and the younger brother of Duke Cheng. He married Mu Ji, the daughter of Duke Xian of Jin, and married his daughter Huai Ying (懷嬴) to two of Duke Xian's sons. He helped his son-in-law win the Battle of Chengpu against Chu; these two marriages led to the saying "the Friendship of Qin and Jin" (秦晉之好) to denote political marriages and alliances based on marital bonds. He is also noted as the retainer of Bole, the horse expert.

During the early reign of Duke Mu of Qin, the Jin state was a formidable power under the leadership of Duke Xian of Jin. However, after the death of Duke Xian, Jin plunged into a state of internal conflict as Duke Xian's sons fought over the succession. One of them won the contention and became Duke Hui of Jin, but Jin was struck by a famine not long later and Duke Hui requested aid from Qin. Duke Mu of Qin sent relief food supplies and agricultural equipment to Jin. However, Qin was struck by famine later and by then, Jin had recovered and it turned to attack Qin. Qin and Jin engaged in several battles over the next few years.

During the battles with Jin, Duke Mu heard that Duke Hui's older brother Ji Chong'er had gone from his northern and eastern wanderings to the southern court of Chu. After consulting his subjects, Duke Mu sent an emissary to Chu to invite Chong'er to Qin. Upon Duke Hui's death, his son fled from captivity in the Qin court to establish himself as the new duke. Instead of permitting this, Duke Mu sent his army to establish Chong'er as Duke Hui's successor, defeating the Jin army at the Battle of Gaoliang. Chong'er— his posthumous name is "Duke Wen"—was grateful for Duke Mu's assistance and relations between Qin and Jin improved. Qin used the opportunity when its eastern front was stable, to launch military campaigns against the minority tribes in the west.

At this time, Qin and Jin were the most powerful states in China. Duke Wen of Jin expelled the Di barbarians and drove them into the region west of the Yellow River between the Yun and Luo rivers; there they were known as the Red Di and the White Di. Shortly afterwards, Duke Mu of Qin, having obtained the services of You Yu, succeeded in getting the eight barbarian tribes of the west to submit to their authority.

Thus, at this time, there lived in the region west of Long the Mianzhu, the Hunrong, and the Diyuan tribes. North of Mts. Qi and Liang and the Jing and Qi rivers lived the Yiqu, Dali, Wuzhi, and Quyuan tribes. North of Jin were the Forest Barbarians and the Loufan, while north of Yan lived the Eastern Barbarians and Mountain Barbarians. All of them were scattered about in their own little valleys, each with its own chieftain. From time to time they would have gatherings of a hundred or so men, but no one tribe was capable of unifying the others under a single rule.

In 627 BC, Duke Mu of Qin planned a secret attack on the State of Zheng, but the Qin army retreated after being tricked into believing that Zheng was prepared for Qin's invasion. Duke Wen had died and his successor, Duke Xiang of Jin, ordered his troops to lay an ambush for the retreating Qin army. The Qin forces were defeated in an ambush by Jin at the Battle of Yao (zh) near present-day Luoning County, Henan Province and suffered heavy casualties. Three years later, Qin attacked Jin for revenge and scored a major victory. Duke Mu refused to advance east further after holding a funeral service for those killed in action at the Battle of Yao, and focused on the traditional policy of expanding Qin's borders in the west. Duke Mu's achievements in the western campaigns and his handling of foreign relations with Jin earned him a position among the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period.

Family
He had at least two known sons: Ying and Hong. Ying succeeded him as Duke Kang of Qin. He also had several known daughters: Huai Ying (wife of Dukes Huai and Wen of Jin), Wen Ying (wife of Duke Wen of Jin), Qin Ying (wife of King Gong of Chu), Jianbi, and Nongyu (wife of Xiao Shi). There are doubts as to whether Huai Ying and Wen Ying were different names for the same daughter; likewise, some argue for the conflation of Jianbi and Nongyu.

 * Great-great-grandfather: Duke Wen of Qin
 * Great-grandfather: Duke Jing of Qin (秦靜公)
 * Grandfather: Duke Xian of Qin
 * Father: Duke De of Qin
 * Brothers: Duke Xuan of Qin, Duke Cheng of Qin
 * Wife: Lady Mu (~672－637 BC), sister of Shensheng
 * Son: Duke Kang of Qin (d. 609 BC)
 * Daughter: Huai Ying (650 BC - 620 BC)
 * Daughter: Wenying
 * Daughter: Jianbi
 * Daughter: Nongyu

Popular culture
In the manga and anime series Kingdom as well as a oneshot written by Yasuhisa Hara, he made an alliance with mountain tribes, after seeing his horse devoured by them, even giving the barbarians wine. Later, he fought against Jin, but was rescued by the same barbarians.

title: Duke Mu of Qin


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Fairfield Porter

Fairfield Porter (June 10, 1907 – September 18, 1975) was an American painter and art critic. He was the fourth of five children of James Porter, an architect, and Ruth Furness Porter, a poet from a literary family. He was the brother of photographer Eliot Porter and the brother-in-law of federal Reclamation Commissioner Michael W. Straus.

While a student at Harvard, Porter majored in fine arts; he continued his studies at the Art Students' League when he moved to New York City in 1928. His studies at the Art Students' League predisposed him to produce socially relevant art and, although the subjects would change, he continued to produce realist work for the rest of his career. He would be criticized and revered for continuing his representational style in the midst of the Abstract Expressionist movement.

His subjects were primarily landscapes, domestic interiors and portraits of family, friends and fellow artists, many of them affiliated with the New York School of writers, including John Ashbery, Frank O'Hara, and James Schuyler. Many of his paintings were set in or around the family summer house on Great Spruce Head Island, Maine and the family home at 49 South Main Street, Southampton, New York.

His painterly vision, which encompassed a fascination with nature and the ability to reveal extraordinariness in ordinary life, was heavily indebted to the French painters Pierre Bonnard and Édouard Vuillard. John Ashbery wrote of him: "Characteristically, [Porter] tended to prefer the late woolly Vuillards to the early ones everyone likes".

Porter said once, "When I paint, I think that what would satisfy me is to express what Bonnard said Renoir told him: 'make everything more beautiful.'"

Work in public collections
Porter bequeathed about 250 of his works to the Parrish Art Museum. "John MacWhinnie" (1968) (Parrish Art Museum) "Inez MacWhinnie" (1974)Mother of John MacWhinnie,artist (Parrish Art Museum)
 * Laurence at the Piano (1953), New Britain Museum of American Art.
 * Katie and Anne (1955), Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
 * Still Life with Casserole (1955), Smithsonian American Art Museum
 * Elaine de Kooning (1957), Metropolitan Museum of Art
 * Frank O' Hara (1957), Toledo Museum of Art
 * Maine Coast (1958), Metropolitan Museum of Art
 * Chrysanthemums (1958), Wadsworth Atheneum
 * Schwenk, (1959), Museum of Modern Art
 * Children in a Field (1960), Whitney Museum of American Art
 * Boathouses (1961), Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
 * The Garden Road (1962), Whitney Museum of American Art
 * Jerry at the Piano (1962), Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
 * Jimmy and Liz (1963), Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts
 * The Screen Porch (1964), Whitney Museum of American Art
 * Flowers by the Sea (1965), Museum of Modern Art
 * Interior in Sunlight (1965), Brooklyn Museum
 * The Mirror (1966), Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art
 * Anne in a Striped Dress (1967), Parrish Art Museum
 * Under the Elms (1971), Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts
 * Sunrise on South Main Street (1973), Metropolitan Museum of Art
 * The Dock (1974–75), Farnsworth Art Museum
 * Near Union Square--Looking up Park Avenue (1975), Metropolitan Museum of Art
 * October Interior (1963), Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art
 * Apple Blossoms I (1974), The Christmas Tree (1971), Street Scene (1969), Muscarelle Museum of Art

title: Fairfield Porter


text:
Lists of television stations in Atlantic Canada

The following articles contain lists of television stations in Atlantic Canada:

 * List of television stations in New Brunswick
 * List of television stations in Prince Edward Island
 * List of television stations in Nova Scotia
 * List of television stations in Newfoundland and Labrador


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Rakesh Sharma

Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma, AC (born 13 January 1949) is an Indian former Air Force pilot veteran, known for being the first Indian to travel to outer space. Sharma was part of the crew of Soyuz T-11, a joint venture between the space agencies of the Soviet Union and India.

Early life
Born on 13 January 1949 in Patiala of present-day Punjab, India into a Punjabi family originally belongs to Bahawalpur, Pakistan. Sharma attended St. George's Grammar School, Hyderabad and graduated from Nizam College, Hyderabad. He joined the National Defence Academy as an air force plebe in July 1966 and was commissioned into the Indian Air Force as a pilot in 1970. He flew 21 combat missions as a MiG-21 pilot during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War.

IAF career
An alumnus of the 35thNational Defence Academy, Sharma joined the Indian Air Force as a test pilot in 1970 and progressed through numerous levels where in 1984 he was promoted to the rank of squadron leader. He was selected on 20September 1982 to become a cosmonaut and go into space as part of a joint programme between the Indian Air Force and the Soviet Interkosmos space programme.

Cosmonaut
In 1984, Sharma became the first Indian citizen to enter space when he flew aboard the Soviet rocket Soyuz T-11 launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome in the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic on 3 April 1984. The Soyuz T-11 spacecraft carrying cosmonauts including Sharma docked and transferred the three member Soviet-Indian international crew, consisting of the ship's commander, Yury Malyshev, and flight engineer, Gennadi Strekalov, to the Salyut 7 Orbital Station. Sharma spent 7days, 21hours, and 40minutes aboard the Salyut 7 during which his team conducted scientific and technical studies which included forty-threeexperimental sessions. His work was mainly in the fields of bio-medicine and remote sensing. The crew held a joint television news conference with officials in Moscow and then Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. When Indira Gandhi asked Sharma how India looked from outer space, he replied, "Sare Jahan Se Accha" (better than the whole world). This is the title of a patriotic poem by Iqbal that had been written when India was under British colonial rule, that continues to be popular today. With Sharma's voyage aboard Soyuz T-11, India became the 14thnation to send a man to outer space.

Post-retirement
Sharma retired as a wing commander and later joined Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in 1987, serving as the chief test pilot in the HAL Nashik Division until 1992, before moving on to Bangalore to work as HAL's chief test pilot. Sharma retired from flying in 2001.

Military awards and decorations
Sharma was conferred the honour of the Hero of the Soviet Union along with the Order of Lenin upon his return from space. He remains to date the only Indian to have been conferred this honour. India also conferred its highest peacetime gallantry award, the 'Ashoka Chakra', on him and the twoSoviet members of his mission, Malyshev and Strekalov. He also received the Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration" from Russia.

The citation for the Ashoka Chakra reads as follows: {{Blockquote|Gazette Notification: No.57-Pres/85 dated 7th May 1985 Date of Award: 3 April 1984

Ashoka Chakra citation
CITATION SQUADRON LEADER RAKESH SHARMA (12396) FLYING (PILOT) In January 1982, when it was decided that an Indian would go into space on a Soviet space ship, Squadron Leader Rakesh Sharma volunteered for this very challenging mission. After a very rigorous selection process, which included a most exacting medical test, he was selected as one of the two cosmonaut candidates from among 150 highly qualified and experienced pilots of the Indian Air Force. After his selection, he underwent training as a cosmonaut at YURI GAGARIN CENTRE in the USSR, where he applied himself with total devotion and dedication and won acclaim from Soviet Space experts. Squadron Leader Rakesh Sharma completed a most arduous training schedule, with distinction and with exceptional professionalism.

On 3 April 1984, Sqn Ldr Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian to orbit in space. He carried out all the scientific experiments planned for the joint Indo-Soviet Space Mission and other tasks assigned to him with great facility and excellence. Sqn Ldr Sharma has not only carved out a place for himself in the space roll of honour but has brought glory and credit to the nation.

Squadron leader Rakesh Sharma has thus displayed most conspicuous daring and courage to become the first Indian to go into space.|sign=|source=}}

Personal life
Sharma married Madhu. His son, Kapil, is a film director, while his daughter, Krittika, is a media artist.

Popular culture
A biographical Hindi-language film titled, Saare Jahaan Se Achcha (formerly "Salute"), is under pre-production since 2018.

title: Rakesh Sharma


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Matthew Fontaine Maury

Matthew Fontaine Maury (January 14, 1806 – February 1, 1873) was an American oceanographer and naval officer, serving the United States and then joining the Confederacy during the American Civil War.

He was nicknamed "Pathfinder of the Seas" and is considered a founder of modern oceanography. He wrote extensively on the subject, and his book, The Physical Geography of the Sea (1855), was the first comprehensive work on oceanography to be published.

In 1825, at 19, Maury obtained, through U.S. Representative Sam Houston, a midshipman's warrant in the United States Navy. As a midshipman on board the frigate USS Brandywine (1825), he almost immediately began to study the seas and record methods of navigation. When a leg injury left him unfit for sea duty, Maury devoted his time to studying navigation, meteorology, winds, and currents.

He became Superintendent of the Depot of Charts and Instruments, later renamed the United States Naval Observatory, in 1844. There, Maury studied thousands of ships' logs and charts. He published the Wind and Current Chart of the North Atlantic, which showed sailors how to use the ocean's currents and winds to their advantage, drastically reducing the length of ocean voyages. Maury's uniform system of recording oceanographic data was adopted by navies and merchant marines worldwide and was used to develop charts for all the major trade routes.

With the outbreak of the American Civil War, Maury, a Virginian, resigned his commission as a U.S. Navy commander and joined the Confederacy. He spent the war in the Southern United States, and Great Britain and France as a Confederate envoy. He helped the Confederacy acquire a ship, CSS Georgia, while trying to convince several European powers to help stop the war. Following the war, Maury was eventually pardoned; he accepted a teaching position at the Virginia Military Institute in Lexington, Virginia.

He died at the institute in 1873 after he had completed an exhausting state-to-state lecture tour on national and international weather forecasting on land. He had also completed his book, Geological Survey of Virginia, and a new series on geography for young people.

Early life and career
Maury was a descendant of the Maury family, a prominent Virginia family of Huguenot ancestry that can be traced back to 15th-century France. His grandfather (the Reverend James Maury) was an inspiring teacher to a future U.S. president, Thomas Jefferson. Maury also had Dutch-American ancestry from the Minor family of early Virginia.

He was born in 1806 in Spotsylvania County, Virginia, near Fredericksburg; his parents were Richard Maury and Diane Minor Maury. The family moved to Franklin, Tennessee when he was five. He wanted to emulate the naval career of his older brother, Flag Lieutenant John Minor Maury, an officer in the U.S. Navy, who caught yellow fever after fighting pirates. As a result of John's painful death, Matthew's father, Richard, forbade him from joining the Navy. Maury strongly considered attending West Point to get a better education than the Navy could offer. Instead, he obtained a naval appointment through the influence of Tennessee Representative Sam Houston, a family friend, in 1825, at the age of 19.

Maury joined the Navy as a midshipman on board the frigate USS Brandywine (1825), which was carrying the elderly Marquis de La Fayette home to France following his famous 1824 visit to the United States. Almost immediately, Maury began to study the seas and to record methods of navigation. One of the experiences that piqued this interest was circumnavigating the globe on the USS Vincennes (1826), his assigned ship and the first U.S. warship to travel around the world.

Scientific career
Maury's seagoing days ended abruptly at the age of 33 after he broke his right leg in a stagecoach accident. After that he studied naval meteorology, navigation, and charting the winds and currents. He told his family that his work was inspired by Psalm 8, "Thou madest him to have dominion over the works of thy hands... and whatsoever passeth through the paths of the seas."

As officer-in-charge of the United States Navy office in Washington, DC, called the "Depot of Charts and Instruments," the young lieutenant became a librarian of the many unorganized log books and records in 1842. On his initiative, he sought to improve seamanship by organizing the information in his office and instituting a reporting system among the nation's shipmasters to gather further information on sea conditions and observations. The product of his work was international recognition and the publication in 1847 of Wind and Current Chart of the North Atlantic, causing the change of purpose and renaming of the depot to the United States Naval Observatory and Hydrographical Office in 1854. He held that position until his resignation in April 1861. Maury was one of the principal advocates for founding a national observatory and he appealed to a science enthusiast and former U.S. president, Representative John Quincy Adams, for the creation of what would eventually become the Naval Observatory. Maury occasionally hosted Adams, who enjoyed astronomy as an avocation, at the Naval Observatory. Concerned that Maury always had a long trek to and from his home on upper Pennsylvania Avenue, Adams introduced an appropriations bill that funded a Superintendent's House on the Observatory grounds. Adams thus felt no constraint in regularly stopping by for a look through the facility's telescope.

As a sailor, Maury noted numerous lessons that ship masters had learned about the effects of adverse winds and drift currents on the path of a ship. The captains recorded the lessons faithfully in their logbooks, which were then forgotten. At the Observatory, Maury uncovered an enormous collection of thousands of old ships' logs and charts in storage in trunks dating back to the start of the U.S. Navy. He pored over the documents, collecting information on winds, calms, and currents for all seas in all seasons. His dream was to put that information in the hands of all captains.

Maury's work on ocean currents and investigations of the whaling industry led him to suspect that a warm-water, ice-free northern passage existed between the Atlantic and Pacific. He thought he detected a warm surface current pushing into the Arctic, and logs of old whaling ships indicated that whales killed in the Atlantic bore harpoons from ships in the Pacific (and vice versa). The frequency of these occurrences seemed unlikely if the whales had traveled around Cape Horn.

Lieutenant Maury published his Wind and Current Chart of the North Atlantic, which showed sailors how to use the ocean's currents and winds to their advantage, drastically reducing the length of voyages. His Sailing Directions and Physical Geography of the Seas and Its Meteorology remain standard. Maury's uniform system of recording synoptic oceanographic data was adopted by navies and merchant marines around the world and was used to develop charts for all the major trade routes.

Maury's Naval Observatory team included midshipmen assigned to him: James Melville Gilliss, Lieutenants John Mercer Brooke, William Lewis Herndon, Lardner Gibbon, Isaac Strain, John "Jack" Minor Maury II of the USN 1854 Darien Exploration Expedition, and others. Their duty at the observatory was always temporary, and new men had to be trained repeatedly. Thus Lt. Maury was simultaneously employed with astronomical and nautical work, as well as constantly training new temporary men to assist in these works. As his reputation grew, the competition among young midshipmen to be assigned to work with him intensified. Thus, he always had able assistants.

Maury advocated for naval reform, including a school for the Navy that would rival the Army's United States Military Academy. That reform was heavily pushed by Maury's "Scraps from the Lucky Bag" and other articles printed in the newspapers, bringing about many changes in the Navy, including his finally fulfilled dream of the creation of the United States Naval Academy.

During its first 1848 meeting, he helped launch the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).

In 1849, Maury spoke out on the need for a transcontinental railroad to join the Eastern United States to California. He recommended a southerly route with Memphis, Tennessee, as the eastern terminus, as it is equidistant from Lake Michigan and the Gulf of Mexico. He argued that a southerly route running through Texas would avoid winter snows and could open up commerce with the northern states of Mexico. Maury also advocated construction of a railroad across the Isthmus of Panama.

For his scientific endeavors, Maury was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1852.

International meteorological conference
Maury also called for an international sea and land weather service. Having charted the seas and currents, he worked on charting land weather forecasting. Congress refused to appropriate funds for a land system of weather observations.

Maury became convinced that adequate scientific knowledge of the sea could be obtained only through international cooperation. He proposed that the United States invite the maritime nations of the world to a conference to establish a "universal system" of meteorology, and he was the leading spirit of a pioneer scientific conference when it met in Brussels in 1853. Within a few years, nations owning three-fourths of the shipping of the world were sending their oceanographic observations to Maury at the Naval Observatory, where the information was evaluated and the results were given worldwide distribution.

As its representative at the conference, the United States sent Maury. As a result of the Brussels Conference, many nations, including many traditional enemies, agreed to cooperate in sharing land and sea weather data using uniform standards. It was soon after the Brussels conference that Prussia, Spain, Sardinia, the Free City of Hamburg, the Republic of Bremen, Chile, Austria, Brazil, and others agreed to join the enterprise.

The Pope established honorary flags of distinction for the ships of the Papal States, which could be awarded only to the vessels that filled out and sent to Maury in Washington, DC, the Maury abstract logs.

Proposed deportation of slaves to Brazil
Maury's stance on the institution of slavery has been termed "proslavery international". Maury, along with other politicians, newspaper editors, merchants, and United States government officials, envisioned a future for slavery that linked the United States, the Caribbean Sea, and the Amazon basin in Brazil. He believed the future of United States commerce lay in South America, colonized by white southerners and their enslaved people. There, Maury claimed, was "work to be done by Africans with the American axe in his hand." In the 1850s, he studied a way to send Virginia's slaves to Brazil as a way to phase out slavery in the state gradually. Maury was aware of an 1853 survey of the Amazon region conducted by the Navy Lt. William Lewis Herndon. The 1853 expedition aimed to map the area for trade so that American traders could go "with their goods and chattels [including enslaved people] to settle and to trade goods from South American countries along the river highways of the Amazon valley". Brazil maintained legal enslavement but had prohibited the importation of newly enslaved people from Africa in 1850 under the pressure of the British. Maury proposed that moving people enslaved in the United States to Brazil would reduce or eliminate slavery over time in as many areas of the southern United States as possible and would end new enslavement for Brazil. Maury's primary concern, however, was neither the freedom of enslaved people nor the amelioration of slavery in Brazil, but rather an absolution for slaveholders of Virginia and other southern states. Maury wrote to his cousin, "Therefore I see in the slave territory of the Amazon the SAFETY VALVE of the Southern States."

Maury wanted to open up the Amazon to free navigation in his plan. However, Emperor Pedro II's government firmly rejected the proposals, and Maury's proposal received little or no support in the United States, especially in the South, which sought to perpetuate the institution and the riches made off the yoke of slavery. By 1855, the proposal had failed. Brazil authorized free navigation to all nations in the Amazon in 1866, only when it was at war against Paraguay, when free navigation in the area had become necessary.

Maury was not an enslaver, but he did not actively oppose the institution of slavery. An article tying his legacy in oceanography to the slave trade suggested that Maury was ambivalent about slavery, seeing it as wrong but not intent on forcing others to free enslaved people. However, a recent article explaining the removal of his monument from Monument Avenue in Richmond, Virginia, illustrated a proslavery stance through deep ties to the slave trade that accompanied his scientific achievements.

American Civil War

Maury staunchly opposed secession, but in 1860, he wrote letters to the governors of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland urging them to stop the momentum toward war. When Virginia declared secession in April 1861, Maury nonetheless resigned his commission in the U.S. Navy, choosing to fight against the North. With the outbreak of the American Civil War, Maury joined the Confederacy.

Upon his resignation from the U.S. Navy, the Virginia governor appointed Maury commander of the Virginia Navy. When this was consolidated into the Confederate Navy, Maury was made a Commander in the Confederate States Navy and appointed as chief of the Naval Bureau of Coast, Harbor, and River Defense. In this role, Maury helped develop the first electrically controlled naval mine, which caused havoc for U.S. shipping. He'd had experience with transatlantic cable and electricity flowing through wires underwater when working with Cyrus West Field and Samuel Finley Breese Morse. The naval mines, called torpedoes at that time, were similar to present-day contact mines and were said by the Secretary of the Navy in 1865 "to have cost the Union more vessels than all other causes combined."

In September 1862, Maury, partly because of his international reputation, and partly due to jealousy of superior officers who wanted him placed at some distance, was ordered on special service to England. There, he sought to purchase and fit ships for the Confederacy and persuade European powers to recognize and support the Confederacy. Maury traveled to England, Ireland, and France, acquiring and fitting out ships for the Confederacy and soliciting supplies. Through speeches and newspaper publications, Maury unsuccessfully called for European nations to intercede on behalf of the Confederacy and help end the American Civil War. Maury established relations for the Confederacy with Emperor Napoleon III of France and Archduke Maximilian of Austria, who, on April 10, 1864, was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico.

At an early stage in the war, the Confederate States Congress assigned Maury and Francis H. Smith, a mathematics professor at the University of Virginia, to develop a system of weights and measures.

Later life
Maury was in the West Indies on his way back to the Confederacy when he learned of its collapse. The war had brought ruin to many in Fredericksburg, where Maury's immediate family lived. On the advice of Robert E. Lee and other friends, he decided not to return to Virginia but sent a letter of surrender to U.S. naval forces in the Gulf of Mexico and headed for Mexico. There Maximilian, whom he had met in Europe, appointed him "Imperial Commissioner of Colonization". Maury and Maximilian planned to entice former Confederates to emigrate to Mexico, building Carlotta and New Virginia Colony for displaced Confederates and immigrants from other lands. Upon learning of the plan, Lee wrote Maury saying, "The thought of abandoning the country, and all that must be left in it, is abhorrent to my feelings, and I prefer to struggle for its restoration, and share its fate, rather than to give up all as lost." In the end, the plan did not attract the intended immigrants and Maximilian, facing increasing opposition in Mexico, ended it. Maury then returned to England in 1866 and found work there.

In 1868 he was pardoned by the federal government and returned to the US, accepting a teaching position at the Virginia Military Institute in Lexington, Virginia, holding the chair of physics. While in Lexington, he completed a physical survey of Virginia, which he documented in the book The Physical Geography of Virginia. He had once been a gold mining superintendent outside Fredericksburg and had studied geology intensely during that time, so he was well-equipped to write such a book. He aimed to assist war-torn Virginia in rebuilding by discovering and extracting minerals, improving farming, etc. He lectured extensively in the United States and abroad. He advocated for creating a state agricultural college as an adjunct to Virginia Military Institute. This led to the establishment at Blacksburg of the Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College, later renamed Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, in 1872. Maury was offered the position as its first president but turned it down because of his age.

He had previously been suggested as president of the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1848 by Benjamin Blake Minor in his publication the Southern Literary Messenger. He considered becoming president of St. John's College in Annapolis, Maryland, the University of Alabama, and the University of Tennessee. From statements that he made in letters, it appears that he preferred being close to General Robert E. Lee in Lexington, where Lee was president of Washington College. Maury served as a pallbearer for Lee. He also gave talks in Europe about cooperation on a weather bureau for land, just as he had charted the winds and predicted storms at sea many years before. He gave speeches until his last days when he collapsed while giving one. He went home after he recovered and told his wife Ann Hull Herndon-Maury, "I have come home to die."

Death and burial
He died at home in Lexington at 12:40 pm on Saturday, February 1, 1873. He was exhausted from traveling throughout the nation giving speeches promoting land meteorology. His eldest son, Major Richard Launcelot Maury, and son-in-law, Major Spottswood Wellford Corbin, attended him at the time. Maury asked his daughters and wife to leave the room. His last words, recorded verbatim, were "all's well," a nautical expression meaning calm conditions at sea.

His body was placed on display in the Virginia Military Institute library. Maury was initially buried in the Gilham family vault in Lexington's cemetery, across from Stonewall Jackson, until, after some delay, his remains were taken through Goshen Pass to Richmond, Virginia the following year He was reburied between Presidents James Monroe and John Tyler in Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia.

Legacy

After decades of national and international work, Maury received fame and honors, including being knighted by several nations and given medals with precious gems as well as a collection of all medals struck by Pope Pius IX during his pontificate, a book dedication and more from Father Angelo Secchi, who was a student of Maury from 1848 to 1849 in the United States Naval Observatory. The two remained lifelong friends. Other religious friends of Maury included James Hervey Otey, his former teacher who, before 1857, worked with Bishop Leonidas Polk on the construction of the University of the South in Tennessee. While visiting there, Maury was convinced by his old teacher to give the "cornerstone speech."

As a U.S. Navy officer, he was required to decline awards from foreign nations. Some were offered to Maury's wife, Ann Hull Herndon-Maury, who accepted them for her husband. Some have been placed at Virginia Military Institute or lent to the Smithsonian. He became a commodore (often a title of courtesy) in the Virginia Provisional Navy and a Commander in the Confederacy.

Buildings on several college campuses are named in his honor. Maury Hall was the home of the Naval Science Department at the University of Virginia and headquarters of the university's Navy ROTC battalion until being renamed in 2022. The original building of the College of William & Mary Virginia Institute of Marine Science is named Maury Hall as well. Another Maury Hall housed the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department and the Robotics and Control Engineering Department at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland. On February 17, 2023, the academy announced that it had renamed this building in honor of Jimmy Carter, the only Naval Academy graduate to become President of the United States. The change had been recommended by a naming commission created by federal law to reexamine Confederate-related names and symbols on military installations. James Madison University also has a Maury Hall, the university's first academic and administrative building. In the wake of the 2020 George Floyd protests, JMU student organizations called for renaming the building. On Monday, June 22, 2020, hearing the calls of students and alums, the university president announced it would recommend to the JMU board of visitors to rename Maury Hall, along with Ashby Hall and Jackson Hall.

Ships have been named in his honor, including various vessels named USS Maury; USS Commodore Maury (SP-656), a patrol vessel and minesweeper of World War I; and a World War II Liberty Ship. Additionally, Tidewater Community College, based in Norfolk, Virginia, owns the R/V Matthew F. Maury. The ship is used for oceanography research and student cruises. In March 2013, the U.S. Navy launched the oceanographic survey ship USNS Maury (T-AGS-66), in 2023 the ship was renamed USNS Marie Tharp.

The Mariners' Lake, in Newport News, Virginia, had been named after Maury but had its name changed during the George Floyd protests. The lake is located on the Mariners' Museum property and is encircled by a walking trail.

The Maury River, entirely in Rockbridge County, Virginia, near Virginia Military Institute (where Maury taught), also honors the scientist, as does Maury crater, on the Moon.

Matthew Fontaine Maury High School in Norfolk, Virginia, is named after him. Matthew Maury Elementary School in Alexandria, Virginia, was built in 1929. Nearby Arlington, Va., renamed its 1910 Clarendon Elementary to honor Maury in 1944; Since 1976, the building has been home to the Arlington Arts Center (rebranded in 2022 as the Museum of Contemporary Art Arlington). There is a county historical marker outside the former school. Matthew Fontaine Maury School in Fredericksburg was built in 1919-1920 and closed in 1980. The building was converted into condominiums and is on the National Register of Historic Places. Adjoining it is Maury Stadium, built in 1935 and still used for local high school sports events.

Numerous historical markers commemorate Maury throughout the South, including those in Richmond, Virginia, Fletcher, North Carolina, Franklin, Tennessee, and several in Chancellorsville, Virginia.

The Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers collection at the Library of Congress contains over 14,000 items. It documents Maury's extensive career and scientific endeavors, including correspondence, notebooks, lectures, and written speeches.

On July 2, 2020, the mayor of Richmond, Levar Stoney ordered the removal of a statue of Maury erected in 1929 on Richmond's Monument Avenue. The mayor used his emergency powers to bypass a state-mandated review process, calling the statue a "severe, immediate and growing threat to public safety."

Publications

 * On the Navigation of Cape Horn
 * Whaling Charts
 * Wind and Current Charts
 * Explanations and Sailing Directions to Accompany the Wind and Current Charts, 1851, 1854, 1855
 * Lieut. Maury's Investigations of the Winds and Currents of the Sea, 1851
 * On the Probable Relation between Magnetism and the Circulation of the Atmosphere, 1851
 * Maury's Wind and Current Charts: Gales in the Atlantic, 1857
 * Observations to Determine the Solar Parallax, 1856
 * Amazon, and the Atlantic Slopes of South America, 1853
 * Commander M. F. Maury on American Affairs, 1861
 * The Physical Geography of the Sea and Its Meteorology, 1861
 * Maury's New Elements of Geography for Primary and Intermediate Classes
 * Geography: "First Lessons"
 * Elementary Geography: Designed for Primary and Intermediate Classes
 * Geography: "The World We Live In"
 * Published Address of Com. M. F. Maury, before the Fair of the Agricultural & Mechanical Society
 * Geology: A Physical Survey of Virginia; Her Geographical Position, Its Commercial Advantages and National Importance, Virginia Military Institute, 1869
 * Published Address of Com. M. F. Maury, before the Fair of the Agricultural & Mechanical Society
 * Geology: A Physical Survey of Virginia; Her Geographical Position, Its Commercial Advantages and National Importance, Virginia Military Institute, 1869

title: Matthew Fontaine Maury


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Hi, got your message from my talk page user talk:marijn. What year did you graduate from UDP? Was it any use to you to study at the UDP? What are you doing now? I guess things are still very much the same at the factulty since then, I have the feeling the course is slow to move with the times, but ohh well, the fundaments they try to install are fine, the rest I can do by myself.

Regards, -- Marijn, 03:48, 10 Nov 2003

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Hello... I was wondering if you have heard of an art called Boabom? If so, what was your experience with this art? Please email me or comment on my page (ihatequantex@hotmail.com)

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Talk:Benjamin Silliman

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Video about a letter written by Silliman, describing the 1837 disinterment of George Washington. Shows the letter, which is read aloud. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nMiBb_ax3PM — Preceding unsigned comment added by Palmleaf (talk • contribs) 12:08, 29 April 2024 (UTC)

Is Mary Fish Noyes related to John Humphrey Noyes, the founder of the Oneida community?
 * I don't know. Do you know the ancestry of John Humphrey Noyes? Mary Fish had at least five children by her first husband John Noyes. -- Someone else 04:34, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

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