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Bletchley

Bletchley is a constituent town of Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, England. It is situated in the south-west of the city, and is split between the civil parishes of Bletchley and Fenny Stratford and West Bletchley. In 2011, the two parishes had a combined population of 37,114.

Bletchley is best known for Bletchley Park, the headquarters of Britain's World War II codebreaking organisation, and now a major tourist attraction. The National Museum of Computing is also located on the Park.

Origins and early modern history
The town name is Anglo-Saxon and means Blæcca's clearing. It was first recorded in manorial rolls in the 12th century as Bicchelai, then later as Blechelegh (13th century) and Blecheley (14th–16th centuries). Just to the south of Fenny Stratford, there was Romano-British town, MAGIOVINIUM on either side of Watling Street, a Roman road.

Bletchley was originally a minor village on the outskirts of Fenny Stratford, of lesser importance than Water Eaton. Fenny Stratford fell into decline from the English Civil War (17c) onwards. The arrival of the London and Birmingham Railway (now part of the West Coast Main Line) from 1838, and particularly of the branch lines to Bedford (1846) and Buckingham (1850) (that together subsequently became the Oxford – Cambridge "Varsity Line"), made the station at Bletchley a substantial one. Bletchley grew to eclipse both its antecedents.

Almost forty years after the construction of Bletchley railway station, the 1884/5 Ordnance Survey shows Bletchley as still just a small village around the C of E parish church at Old Bletchley, and a (separate) hamlet near the Methodist chapel and Shoulder of Mutton public house at the junction of Shenley Road/Newton Road with Buckingham Road. (These districts are known today as Old Bletchley and Far Bletchley). The major settlement of the time is nearby Fenny Stratford.

The Bletchley area is rich in Oxford Clay, which has long been used for bricks. Brick-making has taken place on the Newton Leys site and the surrounding area from the late 19th century, circa 1897. Bletchley Brickworks closed in September 1990.

"Bigger, Better, Brighter" – Bletchley in the 20th century
In the urban growth of the Victorian period brought by the railway, the town merged with Fenny Stratford. The latter had been constituted an urban district (with Simpson) in 1895, and Bletchley was added in 1898. By 1911, the population of the combined parishes was 5,166 but the balance between them had changed: in that year, the name of the local council (Urban District) changed from Fenny Stratford UD to Bletchley UD. The 1926 Ordnance Survey shows the settlements beginning to merge, with large private houses along the Bletchley Road between them. In 1933, the newly founded Bletchley Gazette began a campaign for a "Bigger, Better, Brighter, Bletchley". As the nation emerged from World War II, Bletchley Council renewed its desire to expand from its 1951 population of 10,919. By mid-1952, the council was able to agree terms with five London Boroughs to accept people and businesses from bombed-out sites in London. This trend continued through the 1950s and 1960s, culminating in the GLC-funded Lakes Estate in Water Eaton parish, even as Milton Keynes was being founded. Industrial development kept pace, with former London businesses relocating to new industrial estates in Mount Farm and Denbigh – Marshall Amplification being the most notable. With compulsory purchase, Bletchley Road (now renamed to Queensway after a royal visit in 1966) became the new high street with wide pavements where front gardens once lay. Houses near the railway end were replaced by shops but those nearer Fenny Stratford became banks and professional premises. At the 1971 Census, the population of the Bletchley Urban District was 30,642.

Bletchley in Milton Keynes
Proposals for a new city in North Buckinghamshire had been floated from the early 1960s. Bletchley had fought to be the centre of the proposed new city, but it was not to be. When the Milton Keynes designation order was made in 1967, Bletchley was at its southern end rather than its centre. The 1971 Plan for Milton Keynes placed Central Milton Keynes on a completely new hill-top site four miles further north, halfway to Wolverton. Bletchley was relegated to the status of suburb. Bletchley thrived in the early years of the growth of Milton Keynes, since it was the main shopping area. Bletchley centre was altered considerably when the Brunel Shopping Centre was built in the early 1970s, creating a new end to Queensway. (Previously, Queensway – formerly known as Bletchley Road – was a continuous run from Fenny Stratford to Old Bletchley). Bletchley's boom came to an end when the new Central Milton Keynes Shopping Centre was built and commercial Bletchley has declined as a retail destination since then.

The town's importance as a major hub within Milton Keynes and the wider region was recognised in March 2021 following a successful bid by the Bletchley and Fenny Stratford Town Deal Board, when MK City Council was successful in securing an award of £22.7mn as part of the UK Government's "New Towns Deal", with the City Council focusing most of that money on Bletchley and Fenny Stratford. This led to the publishing of the Bletchley and Fenny Stratford Town Investment Plan (TIP), with the plan aiming to boost jobs, skills and connectivity in the area, and further invest in Central Bletchley (the town centre).

Bletchley Park
Within the West Bletchley parish, in the Church Green district, is Bletchley Park, which, during the Second World War, was home to the Government Code and Cypher School. The German Enigma code was cracked here by, amongst others, Alan Turing. Another cipher machine was solved with the aid of early computing devices, known as Colossus. The park is now a museum, although many areas of the park grounds have been sold off for housing development.

Wilton Hall
The nearby Wilton Hall was built in 1943 as part of the Bletchley Park estate and was used by the government as a meeting place by day and a music and dance venue by night. After World War II, the venue continued to remain open and played host to musicians such as Lulu and The Rolling Stones.

In recent years, the building was slated for demolition after its closure in 2019. However, after residents and the local MP rejected calls for the demolition of the site due to historical value, the building was sold to a new partnership in 2020 who have refurbished and reopened the building in 2022.

Civil parishes: Bletchley and Fenny Stratford, and West Bletchley
For more details about the districts of Bletchley, see these civil parish articles.

The Bletchley built-up area is divided for administrative purposes into two civil parishes, Bletchley and Fenny Stratford and West Bletchley

The districts that make up Bletchley and Fenny Stratford CP are: Brickfields (includes the Blue Lagoon), Central Bletchley, Denbigh (including Denbigh North), Eaton Manor, Fenny Stratford, Granby, Manor Farm, Mount Farm, Newton Leys and Water Eaton (includes "Lakes Estate"). At the 2011 Census, the population of the parish was 15,313.

West Bletchley CP covers that part of Milton Keynes that is south of Standing Way (A421), west of the West Coast Main Line and north of the Varsity Line. At the 2011 Census, the population of the parish was 15,313. The districts and neighbourhoods in the parish are: Church Green (including Bletchley Park); Far Bletchley; Old Bletchley; West Bletchley (district); Whaddon (ward around Whaddon Way, not to be confused with nearby Whaddon in Aylesbury Vale).

In 1961 the parish of Bletchley had a population of 17,095. On 1 April 1974 the parish was abolished and became an unparished area of the Milton Keynes district.

Rail
The town is served by Bletchley railway station, on Sherwood Drive, which is on both the West Coast Main Line and the Bletchley-Bedford Marston Vale Line, a constituent part of the former Oxford-Cambridge Varsity Line that closed in 1967. However, a major project called East West Rail is underway to rebuild and reopen the route to the west of Bletchley to Bicester Village via Winslow; the line from Bicester Village to Oxford has already been rebuilt. Eventually, full services through to Cambridge are planned.

Road
Major Milton Keynes grid roads serving the town include Watling Street (which has the V4 designation between Denbigh North and Stony Stratford), V7 Saxon Street (connecting Central Bletchley with the rest of the city) and H8 Standing Way (A421) (which runs westwards towards Buckingham, the M40 and Oxford, and eastwards through the south-east of the city crossing and connecting to the M1 at Junction 13 and running towards Bedford, the A1 and Cambridge). The A5 passes along the eastern flank of Fenny Stratford, connecting it and Bletchley with the city centre, the A509, A422 and A508 roads. The A4146 southern bypass serves Water Eaton, Newton Leys and Fenny Stratford.

Watling Street, originally the Roman road between Dover and Wroxeter and serving Magiovinium (the Romano-British town that preceded Fenny, runs through Fenny Stratford and on through Stony Stratford).

Bus
Bletchley is MK's main southern interchange point for cross-city and rural bus services. The town is served by Arriva buses 4, 5, 6, 150, F70/F77 and M6; Z&S Transport bus 50; Red Rose bus 100; and Star Travel bus 162.

The town's main bus station is located on South Terrace, just east of V7 Saxon Street in Central Bletchley.

MK City Council also operates an on demand bus service known as "MK Connect", which serves the whole MK unitary authority area, including Bletchley.

Sport and leisure
Bletchley has a football club, Milton Keynes Irish and a rugby union club, Bletchley RUFC, both of which play at Manor Fields just south of Fenny Stratford.

Bletchley Leisure Centre was completed in 2009, replacing the original 1970s building.

Stadium MK, home of Milton Keynes Dons is at the northern edge of the town. This area also contains what is known as the "MK1" shopping centre. This includes shops, restaurants, and an Odeon cinema (which moved to MK1 from The Point building in Milton Keynes Central in 2015).

Political representation
Bletchley is divided between three electoral wards of Milton Keynes City Council, consisting of Bletchley East (3 Labour), Bletchley West (2 Labour, 1 Conservative) and Bletchley Park (1 Labour, 2 Conservative), and is in the parliamentary constituency of Milton Keynes South.

ONS built up area
For the 2011 census, the Office for National Statistics designated a "built up area sub-division", being that part of Milton Keynes that is west of the A5 and south of the A421, some 1073.5 ha. At the 2011 census, the population of the area was 37,114.

For the 2001 census, it designated a (larger) "urban sub-area" that approximates to the boundaries of the former Bletchley Urban District Council at the time of the designation of Milton Keynes. It also included that part of Winslow Rural District that fell within the designation. In outline, the ONS Sub-area consisted of Bletchley and Fenny Stratford Civil Parish, West Bletchley Civil Parish and part of Shenley Brook End Civil Parish (specifically Furzton, Emerson Valley, Tattenhoe and Snelshall). At the 2001 Census, the population of the Sub-area was 47,176.

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Aero Spacelines Mini Guppy

The Aero Spacelines Mini Guppy is a large, wide-bodied, American cargo aircraft used for aerial transport of outsized cargo components. The Mini Guppy is one of the Guppy line of aircraft produced by Aero Spacelines, alongside the Pregnant Guppy and Super Guppy.

Variants
The Mini Guppy was produced in two variants.

Mini Guppy

The sole Model 377MG Mini Guppy was converted from a Boeing 377-10-26 (c/n 15937) and registered N1037V. An entirely new fuselage was fitted to the aircraft with a cargo bay measuring 73 ft long and 18 ft wide with a 13 ft cargo floor; smaller than the cargo bay of the preceding Pregnant Guppy. Cargo was loaded through a hinged swinging tail. It retained the Pratt & Whitney R-4360 engines of the Stratocruiser, though provisions were made for the installation of Allison 501 turboprop engines. The vertical tail was extended by 80 in, while a new wing center section increased the wingspan by 15 ft. The Mini Guppy's empty weight was 90,000 lb.

Mini Guppy Turbine
Two further Mini Guppies were built from parts of several Boeing 377 and C-97 aircraft, registered N111AS (c/n 0001) and N112AS (c/n 0002). Known as the Model 101 Mini Guppy Turbine, these aircraft differed from the original Mini Guppy in that they were powered by four 5700 shp Pratt & Whitney T34-PWA turboprop engines and that cargo was loaded through a swinging nose section.

Operational history
Mini Guppy N1037V made its first flight on May 24, 1967 and was displayed at the that year's Paris Air Show. In 1969, N1037V ferried parts to repair a Boeing 707 that had been damaged in a hijacking in Damascus. In 1972, N1037V was used to transport Pioneer 10 to Cape Canaveral and the Goodyear GZ-20 Europa from Akron Municipal Airport to Cardington Airfield, becoming the largest aircraft to fly out of Akron. American Jet Industries acquired the aircraft in 1974 and operated it as N422AU. N422AU was subsequently sold to Aero Union in 1980 and Erickson Inc. in 1988 before being retired to the Tillamook Air Museum in 1995.

N111AS first took to the air on May 1, 1970, but was short-lived. On May 12, 1970, N111AS crashed during its twelfth test flight at Edwards Air Force Base, California, killing all four onboard crew members. The aircraft was performing a planned three-engine takeoff when it rolled and turned. The left wingtip struck the ground followed by the forward fuselage, destroying the flight deck.

The FAA registration for N112AS was canceled on October 9, 1975.

Aircraft on display
Mini Guppy N422AU is on display at Tillamook Air Museum. In 2014, the museum announced that it planned to transfer its aircraft collection to Madras, Oregon, which would require the Mini Guppy to be restored to airworthy condition and flown to the new location. A new airworthiness certificate was issued for N422AU in January 2017.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Aero Spacelines Mini Guppy


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Meneñ Stadium

Meneñ Stadium is a former stadium on the island Nauru. It is located in the Meneng District. Constructed in 2006, it had a capacity of 3,500 spectators. Unlike other stadiums on the island, Meneñ Stadium had bleachers for spectators.

History
The area, a large empty sports field, was converted by the Australian Government into a containment area for asylum seekers under the Pacific Solution. At its place is the Nauru Australian Immigration Detention Center (Nauru Regional Processing Centre), which had a small soccer field in the facility.

As part of Nauru's unsuccessful bid to host the 2017 Pacific Mini Games, the Meneng stadium complex was to be upgraded to include tiered seating for 10,000 spectators, reclaiming land that was previously damaged by phosphate mining.

title: Meneñ Stadium


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Hamburg (disambiguation)

Hamburg, officially the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, is Germany's second-largest city and a federated state.

Hamburg may also refer to:

Germany

 * Port of Hamburg, the deep-water harbor of Hamburg

United States

 * Glenville, North Carolina, formerly Hamburg
 * Hamburg, Alabama, an unincorporated community
 * Hamburg, Arkansas, a town
 * Hamburg, Connecticut, a town
 * Hamburg, Illinois, a village
 * Hamburg Precinct, Calhoun County, Illinois, a precinct and township
 * Hamburg, Clark County, Indiana, unincorporated community
 * Hamburg, Franklin County, Indiana, unincorporated community
 * Hamburg, Iowa, a city
 * Hamburg, Louisiana, an unincorporated community
 * Hamburg Township, Michigan, a township
 * Hamburg, Minnesota, a town and city
 * Hamburg, Missouri, a ghost town
 * Hamburg, New Jersey, a borough
 * Hamburg, New York, three places
 * Hamburg, Fairfield County, Ohio, an unincorporated community
 * Hamburg, Preble County, Ohio, an unincorporated community
 * Hamburg, Pennsylvania, a borough
 * Hamburg, Aiken County, South Carolina
 * Hamburg (community), Marathon County, Wisconsin, a town
 * Hamburg, Marathon County, Wisconsin, a town
 * Hamburg, Vernon County, Wisconsin, a town
 * Hamburg State Park in Georgia
 * Highwood, Hamden, a neighborhood in Hamden, Connecticut, formerly Hamburg
 * Stadium/Federal Hill station, a light rail station in Baltimore, Maryland, formerly known as Hamburg Street

Elsewhere

 * German name of Brezovička, Slovakia, municipality
 * Hamburg (oil field) in Alberta, Canada, town
 * Hamburg, Eastern Cape, South Africa, a city

Plants and animals

 * Hamburg (chicken), a breed of chicken
 * Hamburg (horse) (1895–1915), a champion of thoroughbred horse racing
 * Ulmus 'Hamburg', a tree

Ships

 * GERMAN FRIGATE Hamburg, a Sachsen-class frigate
 * Hamburg (barque) (1886), a Canadian sailing barque
 * Hamburg-class destroyer, German military ship class
 * MS Hamburg (1997), a cruise ship
 * SS Hamburg (1925), a German ocean liner
 * SS Hamburg (1969), a German cruise ship operated by German Atlantic Line 1969–1973
 * USS Powhatan (ID-3013), originally the SS Hamburg (1899), a transport ship of the United States Navy

Other uses

 * Black Hambourg, another name for the German/Italian wine grape Trollinger
 * Black Hamburg, another name for the German wine grape Black Muscat
 * Hamburg, a short form sometimes used for hamburger
 * Hamburg steak, a patty of ground beef
 * Hamburg, a group in the Sri Lankan grading system for cinnamon quills
 * Hamburg (surname), a German surname. Notable people see there
 * Hamburg/ESO Survey, a star catalog published by the University of Hamburg
 * Hamburg High School (Arkansas), Hamburg, Arkansas
 * Hamburg High School (Hamburg, New York)
 * Hamburg International, a defunct independent airline

title: Hamburg (disambiguation)


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Triangular trade

Triangular trade or triangle trade is a historical term indicating trade among three ports or regions. Triangular trade usually evolves when a region has export commodities that are not required in the region from which its major imports come. Triangular trade thus provides a method for rectifying trade imbalances between the above regions.

From the 16th to 19th centuries, the Atlantic slave trade was a system of triangular trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas that involved European manufactured goods, West African slaves, and Caribbean molasses.

The colonial molasses trade, which also involved slaves and molasses, made trade stops in the colonies of British North America in the 17th and 18th centuries. The sea lane west from Africa to the West Indies (and later, also to Brazil) was known as the Middle Passage; its cargo consisted of abducted or recently purchased African people. The countries that controlled the transatlantic slave market until the 18th century in terms of the number of enslaved people shipped were the United Kingdom, Portugal, and France.

During the Age of Sail, the particular routes were also shaped by the powerful influence of winds and currents. For example, from the main trading nations of Western Europe, it was much easier to sail westwards after first going south of 30° N latitude and reaching the so-called "trade winds", thus arriving in the Caribbean rather than going straight west to the North American mainland. Returning from North America, it was easiest to follow the Gulf Stream in a northeasterly direction using the westerlies. (Even before the voyages of Christopher Columbus, the Portuguese had been using a similar triangle to sail to the Canary Islands and the Azores, and it was then expanded outwards.)

Atlantic triangular slave trade
The most historically significant triangular trade was the transatlantic slave trade which operated between Europe, Africa, and the Americas from the 16th to 19th centuries. Slave ships would leave European ports (such as Bristol and Nantes) and sail to African ports loaded with goods manufactured in Europe. There, the slave traders would purchase enslaved Africans by exchanging the goods, then sail to the Americas via the Middle Passage to sell their enslaved cargo in European colonies. In what was referred to as a "golden triangle", the slave ship would sail back to Europe to begin the cycle again. The enslaved Africans were primarily purchased for the purpose of working on plantations to work producing valuable cash crops (such as sugar, cotton, and tobacco) which were in high demand in Europe. Slave traders from European colonies would occasionally travel to Africa themselves, eliminating the European portion of the voyage.

A classic example is the colonial molasses trade. Merchants purchased raw sugar (often in its liquid form, molasses) from plantations in the Caribbean and shipped it to New England and Europe, where it was sold to distillery companies that produced rum. Merchant capitalists used cash from the sale of sugar to purchase rum, furs, and lumber in New England which their crews shipped to Europe. With the profits from the European sales, merchants purchased Europe's manufactured goods, including tools and weapons and on the next leg, shipped those manufactured goods, along with the American sugar and rum, to West Africa where they bartered the goods for slaves seized by local potentates. Crews then transported the slaves to the Caribbean and sold them to sugar plantation owners. The cash from the sale of slaves in Brazil, the Caribbean islands, and the American South was used to buy more raw materials, restarting the cycle. The full triangle trip took a calendar year on average, according to historian Clifford Shipton.

The first leg of the triangle was from a European port to one in West Africa (then known as the "Slave Coast"), in which ships carried supplies for sale and trade, such as copper, cloth, trinkets, slave beads, guns and ammunition. When the ship arrived, its cargo would be sold or bartered for slaves. Ports that exported these enslaved people from Africa include Ouidah, Lagos, Aného (Little Popo), Grand-Popo, Agoué, Jakin, Porto-Novo, and Badagry. These ports traded slaves who were supplied from African communities, tribes and kingdoms, including the Alladah and Ouidah, which were later taken over by the Dahomey kingdom.

On the second leg, ships made the journey of the Middle Passage from Africa to the New World. Many slaves died of disease in the crowded holds of the slave ships. Once the ship reached the New World, enslaved survivors were sold in the Caribbean or the American colonies. The ships were then prepared to get them thoroughly cleaned, drained, and loaded with export goods for a return voyage, the third leg, to their home port, from the West Indies the main export cargoes were sugar, rum, and molasses; from Virginia, tobacco and hemp. The ship then returned to Europe to complete the triangle.

The triangle route was not generally followed by individual ships. Slave ships were built to carry large numbers of people, rather than cargo, and variations in the duration of the Atlantic crossing meant that they often arrived in the Americas out-of-season. Slave ships thus often returned to their home port carrying whatever goods were readily available in the Americas but with a large part or all of their capacity with ballast. Cash crops were transported mainly by a separate fleet which only sailed from Europe to the Americas and back. In his books, Herbert S. Klein has argued that in many fields (cost of trade, ways of transport, mortality levels, earnings and benefits of trade for the Europeans and the "so-called triangular trade"), the non-scientific literature portrays a situation which the contemporary historiography refuted a long time ago. "Finally, even if the 'triangle trade' idea is essentially incorrect, the Atlantic slave trade was one of the more complex of international trades that existed in the modern period. (…) Thus, while an actual 'triangle trade' may not have existed as a significant development for ships in the trade, the economic ties between Asia, Europe, Africa, and America clearly involved a web of relationships that spanned the globe."

A 2017 study provides evidence for the hypothesis that the export of gunpowder to Africa increased the transatlantic slave trade: "A one percent increase in gunpowder set in motion a 5-year gun-slave cycle that increased slave exports by an average of 50%, and the impact continued to grow over time."

New England

New England also made rum from Caribbean sugar and molasses, which it shipped to Africa as well as within the New World. Yet, the "triangle trade" as considered in relation to New England was a piecemeal operation. No New England traders are known to have completed a sequential circuit of the full triangle, which took a calendar year on average, according to historian Clifford Shipton. The concept of the New England Triangular trade was first suggested, inconclusively, in an 1866 book by George H. Moore, was picked up in 1872 by historian George C. Mason, and reached full consideration from a lecture in 1887 by American businessman and historian William B. Weeden.

In the context of an incohesive operation rather than a sequential circuit, expansive eastern seaboard "Farms" had, in earnest after 1690, sustained southern New England proprietorship, land banks, and currency within a Greater Caribbean plantation complex. Historian Sean Kelley examines nineteenth-century "American slavers" because "the North American transatlantic slave trade before 1776 was, in essence, merely another branch of the carrying trade." During the seventeenth century, colonial charters and royal commissioners precluded earlier attempts to establish a New England carrying trade by, for example, the Atherton Trading Company and John Hull. But proposals by Peleg Sanford provided implementation frameworks for "Farms" and carriers. Linkages within the complex would also ebb and flow with the tides of war and hurricanes. Before 1780, the Atlantic hurricane season contributed to New England and Greater Caribbean circumvention of mercantile trade restrictions. Newport carriers, for instance, provisioned Dutch, Danish, and especially French plantations in the Greater Caribbean, periodically more than lackluster British sites, to recompense for hurricane reductions in exports and imports. Periodic trials and executions of notorious smugglers diminshed royal peacetime embargoes, particularly in response to illegal carrying as well as General Assembly endorsement of Aquidneck as a haven for pirates. These pirates began to disperse from Newport between Queen Anne's War and 1723 mass executions, establishing the seaport as the dominant carrying hub, with Providence coming in a distant second. British carriers continued to provision plantations outside the boundaries of empire.

Wartime embargoes that reduced overseas trade would, in turn, spur speculative ventures as well as land and estuary auctions of Narragansett tribal reserves, under legislature (public) jurisdiction, by private trusts, a specific type of fiduciary relationship for subsidizing expense accounts, purveying regular annuities, or both. Bidders at vendue were frequently interior "composite" yeomen and fishermen, who (according to certain historians) misconceived of revenue derived from the carrying trade as income "competency." Bidders included competitive carriers in secondary seaports such as Providence as well. Despite the antebellum rise of "Greater Northeast" industrial agriculture, the southern New England "Farms" and the carrying trade in Caribbean sugar, molasses, rice, coffee, indigo, mahogany, and pre-1740 "seasoned slaves", began to dissipate by the Election of 1800 and largely collapsed into agrarian ruins by the War of 1812.

Newport and Bristol, Rhode Island, were major ports involved in the colonial triangular slave trade. Many significant Newport merchants and traders participated in the trade, working closely with merchants and traders in the Caribbean and Charleston, South Carolina.

Statistics
According to research provided by Emory University as well as Henry Louis Gates Jr., an estimated 12.5 million slaves were transported from Africa to colonies in North and South America. The website Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database assembles data regarding past trafficking in slaves from Africa. It shows that the top four nations were Portugal, Great Britain, France, and Spain.

Other triangular trades
The term "triangular trade" also refers to a variety of other trades.
 * A triangular trade is hypothesized to have taken place among ancient East Greece (and possibly Attica), Kommos, and Egypt.
 * A trade pattern which evolved before the American Revolutionary War among Great Britain, the Colonies of British North America, and British colonies in the Caribbean. This typically involved exporting raw resources, such as fish (especially salt cod), agricultural produce or lumber, from British North American colonies to slaves and planters in the West Indies; sugar and molasses from the Caribbean; and various manufactured commodities from Great Britain.
 * The shipment of Newfoundland salt cod and corn from Boston in British vessels to southern Europe. This also included the shipment of wine and olive oil to Britain.
 * A new "sugar triangle" developed in the 1820s and 1830s whereby American ships took local produce to Cuba, then brought sugar or coffee from Cuba to the Baltic coast (Russian Empire and Sweden), then bar iron and hemp back to New England.

title: Triangular trade


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HMS Nottingham

Four ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Nottingham, after the city of Nottingham in the East Midlands, or alternatively after Lord High Admiral Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham, who commanded the English fleet against the Spanish Armada in 1588. The first ship was rebuilt twice, and each is sometimes considered a separate ship:

 * HMS Nottingham (1703) was a 60-gun fourth rate launched in 1703. She was rebuilt in 1719 and 1745, and was sunk in 1773 as a breakwater.
 * HMS Nottingham (1794), was a 3-gun gunvessel, formerly a barge. She was purchased in 1796 and sold in 1800.
 * HMS Nottingham (1913) was a Town-class cruiser (1910) cruiser launched in 1913 and sunk in 1916.
 * HMS Nottingham (D91) was a batch two Type 42 destroyer launched in 1980, decommissioned in 2010 and scrapped from 2011.

Battle honours
Ships named Nottingham have been awarded the following battle honours:
 * Gibraltar, 1704
 * Velez Malaga, 1704
 * Marbella, 1705
 * Finisterre, 1747
 * Ushant, 1747
 * Magnanime, 1748
 * Louisburg, 1758
 * Martinique, 1762
 * Havana, 1762
 * Heligoland, 1914
 * Dogger Bank, 1915
 * Jutland, 1916

title: HMS Nottingham


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Spencer Fullerton Baird

Spencer Fullerton Baird (February 3, 1823 – August 19, 1887) was an American naturalist, ornithologist, ichthyologist, herpetologist, and museum curator. Baird was the first curator to be named at the Smithsonian Institution. He eventually served as assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian from 1850 to 1878, and as Secretary from 1878 until 1887. He was dedicated to expanding the natural history collections of the Smithsonian which he increased from 6,000 specimens in 1850 to over 2 million by the time of his death. He also served as the U.S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries from 1871 to 1887 and published over 1,000 works during his lifetime.

Early life and education
Spencer Fullerton Baird was born in Reading, Pennsylvania in 1823. His mother was a member of the prominent Philadelphia Biddle family; he was a nephew of Speaker of the Pennsylvania Senate Charles B. Penrose and a first cousin, once removed, of U.S. Senator Boies Penrose and his distinguished brothers, Richard, Spencer, and Charles. He became a self-trained naturalist as a young man, learning about the field from his brother, William, who was a birder, and the likes of John James Audubon, who instructed Baird on how to draw scientific illustrations of birds. His father was also a big influence on Baird's interest in nature, taking Baird on walks and gardening with him. He died of cholera when Baird was ten years old. As a young boy he attended Nottingham Academy in Port Deposit, Maryland and public school in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.

Baird attended Dickinson College and earned his bachelor's and master's degrees, finishing the former in 1840. After graduation he moved to New York City with an interest in studying medicine at the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. He returned to Carlisle two years later. He taught natural history at Dickinson starting in 1845. While at Dickinson, he did research, participated in collecting trips, did specimen exchanges with other naturalists, and traveled frequently. He married Mary Helen Churchill in 1846. In 1848, their daughter, Lucy Hunter Baird, was born. He was awarded a grant, in 1848, from the Smithsonian Institution to explore bone caves and the natural history of southeastern Pennsylvania. In 1849 he was given $75 by the Smithsonian Institution to collect, pack and transport specimens for them. It was during this time that he met Smithsonian Secretary Joseph Henry. The two became close friends and colleagues. Throughout the 1840s Baird traveled extensively throughout the northeastern and central United States. Often traveling by foot, Baird hiked more than 2,100 miles in 1842 alone.

Starting at the Smithsonian
In 1850, Baird became the first curator at the Smithsonian Institution and the Permanent Secretary for the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the latter which he served for three years. Upon his arrival in Washington, he brought two railroad box cars worth of his personal collection. Baird created a museum program for the Smithsonian, requesting that the organization focus on natural history in the United States. His program also allowed him to create a network of collectors through an exchange system. He asked that members of the Army and Navy collect rare animals and plant specimens from west of the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. In order to balance the collection, Baird sent duplicate specimens to other museums around the country, often exchanging the duplicates for specimens the Smithsonian needed. During the 1850s he described over 50 new species of reptiles, some by himself, and others with his student Charles Frédéric Girard. Their 1853 catalog of the Smithsonian's snake collection is a benchmark work in North American herpetology. Baird also was a mentor to herpetologist Robert Kennicott who died prematurely, at which point Baird left the field of herpetology to focus on larger projects. Eventually, he became the Assistant Secretary, serving under Joseph Henry. As assistant, Baird helped develop a publication and journal exchange, that provided scientists around the world with publications they would have a hard time accessing. He supported the work of William Stimpson, Robert Kennicott, Henry Ulke and Henry Bryant. Between his start as Assistant Secretary and 1855, he worked with Joseph Henry to provide scientific equipment and needs to the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey. In 1855, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society. He received his Ph.D. in physical science in 1856 from Dickinson College. In 1857 and 1852 he acquired the collection of the National Institute for the Promotion of Science. However, the objects did not join the permanent collection of the Smithsonian until 1858. Baird attended the funeral of Abraham Lincoln in 1865, alongside Joseph Henry. In 1870, Baird was vacationing in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, where he developed an interest in maritime research. He went on to lead expeditions in Nova Scotia and New England.

United States Fish Commission and United States National Museum
On February 25, 1871, Ulysses S. Grant appointed Baird as the first Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for the United States Fish Commission. He served in this position until his death. With Baird as Commissioner, the commission sought opportunities to restock rivers with salmon and lakes with other food fish and the depletion of food fish in coastal waters. Baird reported that humans were the reason for the decline of food fish in these coastal areas. Individuals with access to shoreline property used weirs, or nets, to capture large amounts of fish on the coast, which threatened the supply of fish on the coast. Baird used the U.S. Fish Commission to limit human impact through a compromise by prohibiting the capture of fish in traps from 6pm on Fridays until 6pm on Mondays. The Albatross research vessel was launched during his tenure, in 1882. He was highly active in developing fishing and fishery policies for the United States, and was instrumental in making Woods Hole the research venue it is today.

Baird became the manager of the United States National Museum in 1872. Baird told George Perkins Marsh that he sought to be the director of the National Museum and that he had intentions to expand on the collections within the museum en masse. He was the primary writer of A History of North American Birds, which was published in 1874 and continues to be an important publication in ornithology today. He created all of the United States federal exhibits in the Centennial Exposition, many of which won awards. When the exposition ended, Baird was successful in persuading other exhibitors to contribute the objects from their exhibits to the Smithsonian. In total, Baird left with sixty-two boxcars filled with 4,000 cartons of objects. Owing to the large number of objects collected, in 1879, Congress approved construction for the first National Museum building, which is now the Arts and Industries Building.

Second Secretary at the Smithsonian
Joseph Henry died on May 13, 1878 and on May 17, Baird became the second Secretary of the Smithsonian. Baird was allowed to live, rent free, in the Smithsonian Institution Building, but declined and had the east wing converted into workspace. He also had telephones installed throughout the building. That year, he was made a member of the Order of St. Olav by the King of Sweden. In 1880 Baird was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society He oversaw the building of the new National Museum building, which opened in 1881. In September 1883, he was unanimously declared a founding member of the American Ornithologists' Union even though his duties prevented him from attending their first convention. During the February 1887, Baird went on leave due to "intellectual exertion". Samuel P. Langley served as Acting Secretary.

Death and legacy
Spencer Fullerton Baird died on August 19, 1887. Upon Baird's death, the Arts and Industries building was draped with a mourning cloth. John Wesley Powell spoke at Baird's funeral. Baird is buried at Oak Hill Cemetery.

Baird's sparrow, a migratory bird native to Canada, Mexico and the United States, is named after him. A medium-sized shorebird known as Baird's sandpiper is also named after him.

Baird Auditorium in the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History is named in his honor. It is located on the National Mall side of the first floor of the museum.

Baird's wife, Mary, donated his stamp collection to the National Museum. His papers are held in the Smithsonian Institution Archives.

In 1946, Baird was one of four Smithsonian Secretaries featured in an exhibition about their lives and work curated by United States National Museum curator Theodore T. Belote. In 1922, the Baird Ornithological Club was founded and named after Baird. Spencer Baird Road in Woods Hole is named for him.

Natural world

 * The genus Bairdiella of drumfishes was named after him by Theodore Gill in 1861.
 * Baird's smooth-head, Alepocephalus bairdii Goode and Bean, 1879.
 * Lancer dragonet, Callionymus bairdi Jordan, 1888
 * Mottled sculpin, Cottus bairdii Girard, 1850.
 * Bumphead damselfish, Microspathodon bairdii (Gill, 1862).
 * Marlin-spike grenadier, Nezumia bairdii (Goode & Bean, 1877).

 * Baird's beaked whale, Berardius bairdii Stejneger, 1883.
 * Baird's pocket gopher, Geomys breviceps (Baird, 1855)
 * Prairie deer mouse, Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii (Hoy and Kennicott, 1857)
 * Baird's shrew, Sorex bairdi (Meriam, 1895)
 * Baird's tapir, Tapirus bairdii (Gill, 1865).

 * Baird's sparrow, Ammodramus bairdii (Audubon, 1844).
 * Baird's sandpiper, Calidris bairdii Coues, 1861.
 * Cuban ivory-billed woodpecker, Campephilus bairdii (now C. principalis bairdii), Cassin, 1863.
 * Baird's flycatcher, Myiodynastes bairdii Gambell, 1847.
 * Baird's trogon, Trogon bairdii Lawrence, 1868.

 * Tanner crab, Chionoecetes bairdi Rathbun, 1924.
 * Red lobster, Eunephrops bairdii S. I. Smith, 1885.

 * Baird's rat snake, Pantherophis bairdi (Yarrow, 1880).
 * Baird's patch-nosed snake, Salvadora bairdi Jan, 1860.

Author abbreviation in zoology

 * Baird

Sea vessel

 * M.V. Spencer F. Baird, Ocean-surveying ship.

Locations

 * The Lake Shasta Caverns were formerly named Baird Cave.

Publications by Spencer Fullerton Baird

 * "Directions for Collecting, Preserving, and Transporting Specimens of Natural History." Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the Year 1856. p. 235-253.
 * with Robert Ridgway and Thomas Mayo Brewer. A History Of North American Birds. ISBN 1286040981
 * with Charles Frédéric Girard. Catalogue of North American Reptiles in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution. Part I.—Serpents. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution. xvi + 172 pp. (1853).

Publications about Baird

 * Allard, Dean C. Spencer Fullerton Baird and the U. S. Fish Commission: A Study in the History of American Science. Washington: The George Washington University (1967).
 * Belote, Theodore T. "The Secretarial Cases." Scientific Monthly. 58 (1946): 366–370.
 * Cockerell, Theodore D.A. "Spencer Fullerton Baird." Popular Science Monthly. 68 (1906): 63–83.
 * Dall, William Healey. "Spencer Fullerton Baird: a biography, including selections from his correspondence with Audubon, Agassiz, Dana, and others." Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company (1915).
 * Goode, G. Brown. The Published Writings of Spencer Fullerton Baird, 1843-1882. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office (1883).
 * Ripley, S. Dillon. "The View From the Castle: Take two freight cars of specimens, add time and energy--eventually you'll get a natural history museum." Smithsonian. 1.11 (1971): 2.
 * Rivinus, Edward F. and Youssef, Elizabeth M. . Spencer F. Baird of the Smithsonian. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press (1992).

title: Spencer Fullerton Baird


text:
Trivia (disambiguation)

Trivia is information and data that are considered to be of little value.

Trivia may also refer to:
 * Trivia (album), a 1986 album by Utopia
 * Trivia (gastropod), a genus of small sea snails in the family Triviidae
 * Trivia, an epithet of the Roman goddesses Diana and Hecate, in their shared role as protector of the crossroads (trivia, “three ways”).
 * Trivia (poem), a poem by John Gay
 * "Trivia" (The Office), an episode of The Office

title: Trivia (disambiguation)


text:
Golf (disambiguation)

Golf is a sport.

Golf or GOLF may also refer to:

Games

 * Golf (billiards), a pocket billiards game that allows more than two people to play
 * Golf (card game), a card game where players try to earn the lowest number of points
 * Golf (patience), a solitaire card game
 * Golf (1979 video game), released by Magnavox for the Videopac console
 * Golf (1980 video game), released for the Atari 2600
 * Golf (1984 video game), released by Nintendo in 1984 for the Nintendo Entertainment System
 * Golf (1995 video game), released for Virtual Boy game console, and published by T&E Soft in Japan and published by Nintendo in North America

Media

 * Golf (film), a 1922 film starring Oliver Hardy
 * Golf Channel, an American cable TV network focused on the sport of golf
 * Golf Magazine, a monthly golf magazine

Places

 * Golf, Florida, a village in Palm Beach County
 * Golf, Illinois, a village in Cook County
 * Golf, Belgrade, a neighborhood of Belgrade, Serbia

Other uses

 * Volkswagen Golf, a car model built by the German manufacturer Volkswagen
 * Golf-class submarine, used by the Soviet Navy
 * Golf Wang, an American clothing company founded by Tyler, the Creator
 * Global Oscillations at Low Frequencies, an instrument used by the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
 * Code word for the letter G in the NATO spelling alphabet

title: Golf (disambiguation)


text:
Norrington Table

The Norrington Table is an annual ranking of the colleges of the University of Oxford based on a score computed from the proportions of undergraduate students earning each of the various degree classifications based on that year's final examinations.

Overview
The rankings of each college in the Norrington Table are calculated by awarding 5 points for a student who receives a First Class degree, 3 points for a 2:1, 2 for a 2:2 and 1 for a Third; the total is then divided by the maximum possible score (i.e. the number of finalists in that college multiplied by 5), and the result for each college is expressed as a percentage, rounded to 2 decimal places. Although the differences between the highest places on the table are usually slight, the top colleges remain very competitive about their rankings in the Table. Their competitiveness has been heightened in recent years by increased media attention towards the rankings.

Previously the university had refused to endorse an official table, leading to inaccuracies (see Criticisms below), so the university finally published its own rankings using examination results from all final year undergraduates in 2005.

History
Contrary to popular belief, the Norrington Table was not created in 1962 by Sir Arthur Norrington, who was then president of Trinity College. Norrington did not invent the idea of producing a table of the results of Oxford colleges. Rather, he suggested a refinement to the weightings given to results in a existing table. Norrington's scoring system was suggested in 1963 and abandoned after 1985, owing to changes in the Oxford examination system.

On 5 September 1963, Norrington had a letter published in The Times, in which he objected to the table that their correspondent had published two days earlier (3 September 1963, p. 12). The Times had previously published a table of Oxford colleges' results in 1962 (29 August 1962, p. 5).

Norrington wrote: "Your Correspondent has analysed the final examination results this year and gives an order of merit, among the first colleges, based on the percentage of Firsts and Seconds. This, in effect, is the same as basing it on the percentage of Thirds, and gives it no extra credit for Firsts.  College A, for example, that gets 20 Firsts, 60 Seconds, and 20 Thirds scores less by this method than College B that gets no Firsts, 81 Seconds and 19 Thirds, but surely A has, in reality, done much better than B.  A better result, I submit, is obtained by a points system in which a First scores more than a second and a Second more than a Third.  If you make the points 3, 2, and 1 respectively and calculate what percentage of its "possible" each college has secured, you will find that College A, with 200 points out of 300, has scored 66.67 per cent, and B, with 181, only 60 per cent. This method of calculation will be found to promote Magdalen and Merton, which come surprisingly low in your Correspondent's order." (5 September 1963, p. 13)

In 1986, when Oxford for the first time split Second Class honours into Upper Seconds and Lower Seconds, The Times unilaterally adopted the Tompkins Table, which gives more weight to a First class degree: five points for a First, three for a 2.1, two for a 2.2, and one for a Third. This system was devised in 1981 by Peter Tompkins, of Birkenhead, to classify the results of Cambridge colleges, and a table compiled by Tompkins on this basis was published on 28 August by The Times (28 Aug 1981, p. 10) alongside a table using the Norrington scoring system, which had been compiled by the Cambridge Evening News. The Tompkins Table became the preferred rating for Cambridge colleges and has prevailed for Oxford colleges as well since 1986.

Recent rankings
Below is the Norrington Table for the academic years 2021/22 and 2019/20 along with mean values for the period 2006 to 2019.

Past rankings
Norrington Table rankings from 2006 to 2019 by college, ordered by mean rank, and omitting all PPHs since they take very few undergraduates, with the exception of Regent's Park:

Criticisms
The table is biased towards colleges with above average proportions of students in science subjects such as chemistry and mathematics, in which a higher proportion attain a first-class degree compared to humanities (in which more students attain a 2:1). The corresponding Tompkins Table at Cambridge makes an adjustment for this feature.

John Lucas, Fellow of Merton, presented a critique of the Norrington Table in a 1980 article titled "Norrington Blues".

Other tables and debate over use of Norrington name
The Norrington Table has inspired other tables ranking the performance of Oxford colleges, such as the "Vegetarian Norrington Table", which was first published in 2016. A play on the original, the Vegetarian Norrington Table ranks the best and worst colleges in Oxford not for their undergraduate examination results, but for the quality of their vegetarian and vegan food, using data collected from staff and students of the University. The table caused some controversy, however, as a number of college bursars argued that it bore no relation to the original and further questioned its metrics. The current top-ranked college in the Vegetarian Norrington Table is Mansfield College, followed by Worcester College, with Kellogg College in third.

There have been attempts to rework the original Norrington Table, specifically in light of debates surrounding access and the equality of process. In 2018, one article used geographical data to rank colleges based on the percentage of undergraduate students from poorer backgrounds. In this same report, the Vice President of the Oxford University Student Union announced work was underway on an "alternative Norrington Table" which would seek to measure social mobility as well as academic success in colleges.

title: Norrington Table


text:
Johann Friedrich von Brandt

Johann Friedrich von Brandt (25 May 1802 – 15 July 1879) was a German-Russian naturalist, who worked mostly in Russia.

Brandt was born in Jüterbog and educated at a gymnasium in Wittenberg and the University of Berlin.

In 1831 he emigrated to Russia, and soon was appointed director of the Zoological Museum of the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Brandt encouraged the collection of native animals, many of which were not represented in the museum. Many specimens began to arrive from the expeditions of Severtzov, Przhevalsky, Middendorff, Schrenck and Gustav Radde.

He described several birds collected by Russian explorers off the Pacific Coast of North America, including Brandt's cormorant, red-legged kittiwake and spectacled eider.

As a paleontologist, Brandt ranks among the best. He was also an entomologist, specialising in Coleoptera (beetles) and Diplopoda (millipedes).

He died in Merreküll, Governorate of Estonia.

He is also commemorated in Brandt's bat, Brandt's hedgehog, three other species of mammals, and the lizard Iranolacerta brandtii.

Works
In addition, Johann Friedrich von Brandt concerned the continuation of the work Getreue Darstellung und Beschreibung der in der Arzneykunde gebräuchlichen Gewächse of Friedrich Gottlob Hayne.
 * Flora Berolinensis, sive descriptio plantarum phanerogamarum circa Berolinum sponte crescentium vel in agris cultarum additis filicibus et charis (Berlin, 1824)
 * Deutschlands phanerogamische Giftgewächse (Berlin, 1828)
 * Tabellar Uebersichi d. offizin. Gewächse nach d. Linn. Sexualsystem u. d. natürl. System (Berlin, 1829)
 * Medizinische Zoologie oder getreue Darstellung und Beschreibung der Thiere, die in der Arzneimittellehre in Betracht kommen, 2 vols. (Berlin, 1829–1833), written with J. T. C. Ratzeburt
 * Uebersicht d. Charactere d. Familien d. offizin. Gewächse nach R. Brown, De Candolle, Jussieu,… (Berlin, 1830)
 * Deutschlands kryptogamische Giftgewächse (Berlin, 1838)
 * Deutschlands phanerogamische Geftgewächse as Abbildung und Beschreibung der in Deutschland wild wachsenden und in Gärten in freien ausdauernden Giftgewächse, nach natürlichen Familien erläutert, mit Beiträgen von P. Phoebus und J. T. C. Ratzeburg (Berlin, 1838)
 * Symbolae Sirenologicae quibus praecipue Rhutinae historia naturalis illustratur (St. Petersburg, 1846)
 * Symbolae Sirenologicae…, fasc. 2 and 3 (St. Petersburg, 1861–1868)
 * Mémoires de l’Académie impériale des sciences, St. Pétersbourg, 7th ser., 12, no. 1; Untersuchungen über die fossilen und subfossilen Cetaceen Europa’s mit Beiträgen von Van Beneden, Cornalia, Gastaldi, Quenstedt, und Paulson, nebst einem geologischen Anhange von Barbot de Marny, G. von Helmersen, A. Goebel und Th. Fuchs, ibid., 20, no. 1 (1873)
 * Ergänzungen, ibid., 21, no. 6 (1874)
 * Bericht über die Fortschritte, welche die zoologischen Wissenschaften den von der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu St. Petersburg von 1831 bis 1879 herausgegeben Schriften verdanken (St. Petersburg, 1879)
 * J. F. Brandtii index operum omnium (St. Petersburg, 1876), issued as a Festschrift.
 * Getreue Darstellung und Beschreibung der in der Arzneykunde gebräuchlichen Gewächse wie auch solcher, welche mit ihnen verwechselt werden können. 12 Volumes, 1805–1856 (continued from Johann Friedrich Brandt, Julius Theodor Christian Ratzeburg und Johann Friedrich Klotzsch). Digital Edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
 * Abbildung und Beschreibung der in Deutschland wild wachsenden und in Gärten im Freien ausdauernden Giftgewächse nach natürlichen Familien erläutert. Band 1: Phanerogamen Hirschwald, Berlin 1834 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
 * Abbildung und Beschreibung der in Deutschland wild wachsenden und in Gärten im Freien ausdauernden Giftgewächse nach natürlichen Familien erläutert. Band 2: Kryptogamen Hirschwald, Berlin 1838 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
 * Untersuchungen über die fossilen und subfossilen cetaceen Europa's. Mémoires de L'Académie Impériale des Sciences de Saint-Petersbourg, Series 7 20(1):1-372 1873

Genera

 * Hemisyntrachelus

Species

 * Acipenser baerii Brandt, 1869 (Siberian sturgeon)
 * Acipenser guldenstadti Brandt & Ratzeburg, 1833 (Caspian or Russian sturgeon)
 * Acipenser schrenckii Brandt, 1869 (Amur sturgeon)
 * Chrysaora Fuscescens Brandt, 1835 (Pacific sea nettle)
 * Emberiza bruniceps Brandt, 1841 (Red-headed bunting)
 * Emberiza cioides Brandt, 1843 (Meadow bunting)
 * Holothuria leucospilota Brandt, 1835 (black long sea cucumber)
 * Idotea ochotensis Brandt, 1851
 * Lasiopodomys brandtii (Radde, 1861) (Brandt's vole)
 * Ligia dilatata Brandt, 1833 (sea slater)
 * Metridium farcimen Brandt, 1835 (Giant Plumose Anemone)
 * Mesocricetus brandti (Nehring, 1898) (Brandt's or Turkish hamster)
 * Myotis brandtii Eversmann, 1845 (Brandt's bat)
 * Paraechinus hypomelas (Brandt, 1836) (Brandt's hedgehog)
 * Urile penicillatus (Brandt, 1837) (Brandt's cormorant)
 * Porphyrophora hamelii Brandt, 1833 (Armenian cochineal)
 * Somateria fischeri Brandt, 1847 (spectacled eider)
 * Stichopus chloronotus Brandt, 1835 (black sea cucumber)
 * Trionyx maackii Brandt, 1858 (Chinese softshell turtle)

title: Johann Friedrich von Brandt


text:
Talk:Baroque chess

Hyperchess?
I learned a variant of Baroque chess under the name of "Hyperchess". There are a few quite significant differences, though:

 * Pawns (called straddlers) can only capture by pinching an enemy piece against another pawn, rather than any friendly piece (so the two pawns "straddle" the piece). However, they also can capture passively--any enemy piece that moves to a square straddled by two pawns dies instantly, unless its move would capture one of the pawns.
 * The withdrawer (called the retractor) can only move one square to capture. It can still move more than one square away from an enemy piece, but only captures it if it moves just one square.
 * The leapers are a single leapers, and are called "springers".
 * The coordinator is the upside-down rook, and can capture passively (like the straddlers). This passive capture means that when the King moves, the coordinator can capture.  Both the coordinator and the king always start on the right-hand side of the board for both players (from that player's perspective).

These changes make captures more difficult, and make pawns less useful for capturing but more useful for blocking. Also, in Hyperchess, the coordinator and immobilizer are by far the most powerful pieces, the coordinator in particular being far more powerful than it appears to be in Baroque chess.

Is this variant well-known/widespread enough to be worth mentioning?--70.135.19.102 19:59, 21 August 2006 (UTC)

Cambridge Variation
Hi folks. I apologise for introducing tweaks to the rule description in December 2005 before realising that the version of ultima I learnt in 1974 is significantly different from the one on wikipedia and chessvariants.org. Rather than fighting over the rules on wikipedia, I thought it much better to write a webpage - Pure rules of ultima - detailing what I call the pure rules. If someone can think of a better name (eg the Cambridge rules) I'd be happy to change the name (email me, please). In my view the pure rules are more logical, so I think they should be folded into the wikipedia article somewhere. However if the current set of rules is truly the more widely-played, and no-one else knows the variant I describe, then we can leave it at just the link that I have added to the page to start with.

131.111.48.158 15:01, 5 January 2006 (UTC) David MacKay jan 2006

Another comment: I reckon that the current page's mix of strategy discussion and rules is undesirable. I think all the sections on topics like 'don't worry about losing a pawn' should be cut. It'd be more interesting to include a summary of why Abbott thought ultima is flawed (ie that it favours the defender over the attacker).

131.111.48.158 15:04, 5 January 2006 (UTC) David MacKay

 * I just took a look at your variation of Baroque, and like the way it has regularized some points of play (that are predictable enough, but which, if disputed, must be endorsed as "house rule" variations), but I haven't yet had the pleasure of meeting anyone who's played it that way, and I've been playing it since 1968 or so, whenever I get the chance. Players should definitely agree on a common set of rules before they start a game.  To improve Wikipedia, maybe you could create an extra article that you could call Cambridge Baroque?

There's a bug in the last diagram. This situation cannot occur; white long-leaper at c8 threatens black king at d7, so it's check. And it's white's move.

Long-leaper could simply capture the king.

 * Sharp eye. I'll fix it when I get a chance. --Fritzlein 04:14, 24 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Image replaced. --Fritzlein 23:58, 5 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Suggestions: Tualha 21:23, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Redo the diagrams with a-h/1-8 coordinates for those unfamiliar with them
 * Move the bit about what the page used to say to the talk page and rewrite the beginning (which I don't see a good way to do right now, or I'd be bold)

There's no reason to point out that this page was previously incorrect. However, I don't know enough about this game to make a smooth introduction in its place. Anyone? --cprompt 02:42, 7 Jan 2004 (UTC)

I have never read the Fairy Chessmen, because I can't find a copy. C. L. Moore is actually my favorite Science Fiction author. However, I seriously doubt that the author of this page is correct in attributing the creation of Ultima to Kuttner and Moore instead of Robert Abbott. First of all, Robert Abbott claims on his own website to be the inventor of Ultima. Second, if Kuttner and Moore had created Ultima, I would expect this fact to be as well known as Edgar Rice Burrough's creation of Jetan, the chess game described in his novel Chessmen of Mars. I suspect that the author has made two mistakes. The first is to equate Ultima with Fairy Chess. The second mistake is to attribute the invention of Fairy Chess to the Lewis Padgett novel. The truth about Fairy Chess is that it is a commonly used label for the vast spectrum of unorthodox Chess rules, boards, and pieces. The term has most commonly been employed for unorthodox Chess problems, and in this context, it was used in the name of the magazine Fairy Chess Review, which was first published about a decade before the Padgett novel. Kuttner and Moore did not invent Fairy Chess, and Ultima is only one example of a Fairy Chess game, what is more commonly known as a Chess variant. You can find many more examples of Chess variants at the website http://www.chessvariants.com --Fergus

I have restored the original introductory paragraph with some corrections in spelling and grammar. Robert Abbott has told me by email that he did invent Ultima and that he has never heard of Padgett's Fairy Chessmen. Fergus 23:48, Jan 24, 2004 (UTC)

Abbott's Revision
A bit on the difference between the original, more popular rules and Abbott's later revisions would be nice. — Gwalla | Talk 03:38, 28 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * The revision that I learned was to encourage attacking play by making pieces less powerful if closer to home. The movement of the king didn't change.  All other pieces could move only as many squares as the number of the rank they occupied at the start of the move.  For example a pawn on the third rank would still move like a rook, but be limited to three squares of movement.  I tried to play that way and I can see why it didn't catch on, because it's a complication that adds nothing to a complicated game.  I'd put this variant in the article, but I have no reference to verify it.  --Fritzlein 06:22, 29 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Poor Grammar
I've noticed that this page has poor grammar. Well- what do we do know? We fix it! --Stratford15 02:13, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Nothing wrong with improving a page when you discover an error or inaccuracy.

What Wikipedia is not
Wikipedia is not a strategy guide. See WP:What Wikipedia is not. --Stratford15 02:17, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

 * There are certain series of moves that are not obvious to beginners, like that of the Jacob's Ladder in the endgame in Chess, and it doesn't hurt to post a solution or two to a puzzle. The same thing ought to apply to a puzzle in Baroque.  As you rightly point out, however, offhand tips on strategy are not appropriate here.
 * Wikipedia is also not an instruction manual, so I added a template suggesting some content may need to be rewritten, made more concise, or deleted altogether.—OhioOakTree (talk) 04:58, 16 October 2017 (UTC)

Rename this article
I suggest to rename this article to "Ultima (chess)". The game is much better known under the name "Ultima" then as "Baroque chess". Any objections? Andreas Kaufmann 21:14, 22 October 2006 (UTC)

 * I object to renaming it Ultima. I learned the game in the 1960s, and it was called "Baroque" back then.  In the 1980s, a popular computer game was called "Ultima" (and it even had sequels), but everybody I knew, knew the chesslike boardgame as Baroque.  It wasn't until 1990 that I discovered people in New York knew it as the game that Abbott's publishers rechristened it as.

 * One of the problems with renaming it "Ultima (chess)" is confusion with the computer game from the 1980s, which it has nothing to do with. Another problem is the likelihood someone will write a new article called Baroque chess to replace the one that disappeared.

 * I learned it in 1978 in Southern California as Ultimal (yes, with an ell at the end, but pronounced "Ultima") from a machine gun designer who said he had picked it up in his Ivy League college days in the early '60s. This cat had a Xerox copy of the instructions and it contained the unusual spelling. I don't have an opinion about the title of the article; redirects will suffice. Binksternet (talk) 02:51, 25 June 2009 (UTC)

Optima?
This article briefly mentions a variant called Optima without details. I can't find anything on google or chessvariants.com. Can anyone verify? Indium (talk) 19:46, 10 March 2008 (UTC)

Confusion about the pawns
One question about the pawns. What if you move a non-pawn so it completes a pinch? Like: Pp.W -> PpW. Is the black pawn captured? This is not obvious from the article. 75.15.224.220 (talk) 05:00, 24 May 2008 (UTC)

No, pincers(pawns) can only capture when they move, except in special rule games where they can capture passively, (i.e. your example.) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 205.243.126.168 (talk) 23:26, 9 April 2009 (UTC)

Confusion about Coordinator capturing
Lets assume

a4-a5 : Black Coordinator captures White Pawn(c5)

After that can White King move to c5 as Coordinator cannot make move which makes this field captured again? Or is it captured until Black Coordinator or Black King moves?

In other words - does "check" in this game is forever (like any piece in Chess where there is simply defined set of captured fields) or is it only per current round?

Can it be like this:

a4-a6: check

c6-c7: King escapes

g3-g4: some unimportant move

c7-c6: King comes back, as no one bother him in this round

I assume some basic version without passive capturing (or is it most popular version?)

 * Your diagrams would make more sense if you resisted the urge to depict the Coordinator as a Queen.  Back in 1967 (when I learned the rules to this game), we used a Rook to be a Coordinator.   It would be better if you used a Windmill symbol (with four vanes) instead of a "Castle" symbol.   If you are actually setting these pieces up on a real board, I will leave that to you.   I would suggest a paper cone with "fans" mounted on a toothpick that's been stuck into the side of the cone.     Dexter Nextnumber (talk) 06:40, 19 March 2013 (UTC)
 * I think the capturing must be active, not passive, i.e. it's only check if the coordinator moved to give it. So 1...Ca6+ 2.Kc7 g4 3.Kc6 would be legal, I think. (Otherwise, the pawn on d2 in the diagram illustrating the coordinator in the article would have been captured passively.) Double sharp (talk) 15:46, 12 March 2016 (UTC)

 * Right, the capture is only active. Two spaces are targeted the moment the moving Coordinator comes to a stop, but they are not continually targeted thereafter. Binksternet (talk) 16:15, 12 March 2016 (UTC)

Renaissance Chess?
I can find no source for this other than on a piece list of Chess Variants, where no information is given. Verification?

How are the Swapper, Puller, and Pusher represented on a real board? --Tfdavisatsnetnet (talk) 06:32, 11 June 2020 (UTC)
 * It is on p. 156 of John Beasley's The Classified Encyclopedia of Chess Variants. (Rococo and Maxima are also included.) Double sharp (talk) 14:21, 30 September 2023 (UTC)

Prison and Ultima Chess
Do to a lack of things to do in jail, ultima and other veriants have taken some root in some jail/prison systems. Largly we played with some revisions Albert set forth as the games creator was found to be a more credible source as to how the game should be played than a gaming community that found that the game was just too complicated. It was found that the pincher pawn was the most powerful piece when otherwise without any distance limitations. We played pinchers to skip over only 2 squares and land on the third in what would be its maximum distance move.

 * Which jails were they?  Can different variants be attributed to different jails?   Dexter Nextnumber (talk) 04:13, 20 March 2013 (UTC)

Game name
, renaming this article to "Baroque Chess" is a mistake. (My commnets at Template talk:Chess variants: "Baroque" is Abbott's orig name for "Ultima". "Baroque Chess" is a variant invented by G. Capellen. "Baroque chess" is a WP anomaly name.) This article w/ be better renamed to Baroque (chess variant). A possible alternative w/ be Ultima (chess variant). But the latter might call for some discussion. --IHTS (talk) 03:50, 26 June 2018 (UTC)

 * If the article shouldn't be at Baroque chess and it shouldn't be at Baroque Chess, then we broke even. It might not be better, but you haven't said it's worse. Hyacinth (talk) 03:52, 26 June 2018 (UTC)
 * That's crazy. (Did you read what I wrote? I wrote your rename to Baroque Chess was a mistake. You've essentially made up a game name yourself, and implemented it. Bad!) --IHTS (talk) 04:04, 26 June 2018 (UTC)

 * I believe I read what your wrote, but I can't prove it to you. Where did you ask me to move the article back to Baroque chess? Keep in mind that "crazy" sounds both personalizing and insulting. Hyacinth (talk) 21:04, 26 June 2018 (UTC)
 * What would be worse, the article "Dog" at "Dob" or at "Dod"? Hyacinth (talk) 21:12, 26 June 2018 (UTC)
 * I have no idea what you're saying or why re "Dog", & your rationale for the rename made no sense to me. You're pushing my limit on patience, I'm telling you three times now your rename was a mistake, thus, *obviously*, you should reverse your change (I'm not going to "ask [you]" to do it beyond explaining why the change was a mistake), rather than bicker with me over various forms of nonsense. --IHTS (talk) 00:50, 27 June 2018 (UTC)

 * I know it's annoying when people on Wikipedia act like the articles should be improved by using the correct titles, correct spellings, and correct capitalization. Hyacinth (talk) 19:22, 27 June 2018 (UTC)
 * Sticking words in my mouth I never said, meant, implied, or suggested, is another way you're being annoying. What was annoying was when you fought me baselessly after I wrote simply that the rename was a mistake, and why. --IHTS (talk) 18:20, 1 July 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Baroque chess


text:
Talk:Lake Lugano/Archive 1

I just removed this photo from the article: image:lago_di_lugano.jpg. If anyone thinks, that it should stay there, feel free to include it again. -- Baldhur 21:23, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Move from Lake Lugano (now at Lake Ceresio)
In English, the lake as a whole is generally known as Lake Lugano, thus I would move it back there. -- User:Docu

title: Talk:Lake Lugano/Archive 1


text:
Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke

Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke, (1 December 1690 – 6 March 1764) was an English lawyer and politician who served as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain. He was a close confidant of the Duke of Newcastle, Prime Minister between 1754 and 1756 and 1757 until 1762.

Background
A son of Philip Yorke, an attorney, he was born at Dover. Through his mother, Elizabeth, daughter and co-heiress of Richard Gibbon of Rolvenden, Kent, he was connected with the family of Edward Gibbon the historian. He was educated at a school in Bethnal Green run by Samuel Morland, a nonconformist.

At age 16, Yorke entered the attorney's office of Charles Salkeld in Holborn, London. He was entered at the Middle Temple in November 1708, and perhaps recommended by his employer to Lord Chief Justice Parker as law tutor to his sons.

In 1715, Yorke was called to the bar, where his progress was, says Lord Campbell, more rapid than that of any other debutant in the annals of our profession, his advancement being greatly furthered by the patronage of Thomas Parker, 1st Earl of Macclesfield, who became Lord Chancellor in 1718, when Yorke transferred his practice from the king's bench to the court of chancery, though he continued to go on the western circuit. In the following year he established his reputation as an equity lawyer in a case in which Robert Walpole's family was interested, by an argument displaying profound learning and research concerning the jurisdiction of the chancellor, on lines which he afterwards more fully developed in a celebrated letter to Lord Kames on the distinction between law and equity.

Through the Earl of Macclesfield's influence with the Duke of Newcastle Yorke entered parliament in 1719 as member for Lewes, and was appointed solicitor-general, with a knighthood, in 1720, although he was then a barrister of only four years standing. Although in his youth he contributed to The Spectator over the signature Philip Homebred, he seems early to have abandoned all care for literature, and he has been reproached by Lord Campbell and others with his neglect of art and letters. On 16 May 1719 he married Margaret, daughter of Charles Cocks (by his wife Mary Cocks, sister of Lord Chancellor Somers) and widow of William Lygon (who died without issue in 1716), There is some variance in sources as to the name of Margaret Cocks's first husband.

According to Cokayne's Complete Peerage (1st ed, vol 4, p. 165 (1892), and 2nd ed vol 6 p.306 (1926), under "Hardwicke") his name was John Lygon. So also the Dictionary of National Biography (1900) vol 63 p. 350, Encyclopedia Britannica (1911) sv Hardwicke, and The History of Parliament (1970) sv YORKE, Philip (1690-1764). However, according to the Visitation of Worcestershire of 1682-83 (1883), under "Lygon of Madresfield", p. 70, he was William Lygon. This is also the name given in John Bennett Boddie (1936), "Lygon of Madresfield, Worcester, England and Henrico, Virginia", The William and Mary Quarterly, 16, 289-315 at p. 296; in William D. Ligon Jr, The Ligon Family and Connections (1947), pp. 62 and 293, based on extensive primary sources; and in Jane Mulvagh (2011), Madresfield p. 153. The names from the Visitation correspond to the names found for baptisms in the parish register for Madresfield: see eg FamilySearch GWBV-JJX for Lygon's father, with its linked sources. The 2004 edition of the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography sv Yorke, Philip, first earl of Hardwicke avoided the question, referring to Margaret as "a widow, Margaret Lygon", without naming her first husband. by whom he had five sons and two daughters:
 * Philip Yorke, Viscount Royston (1720–1790), who succeeded him
 * Hon. Charles Yorke (1722–1770), became, like his father, Lord Chancellor
 * Lady Elizabeth Yorke (1725–1760), married Lord Anson
 * Hon. Joseph Yorke (d. 1792), a diplomat, created Baron Dover
 * Hon. John Yorke (1728–1801), Member of Parliament for Reigate and Higham Ferrers
 * Hon. James Yorke (1730–1808), became Bishop of Ely
 * Lady Margaret Yorke, married Sir Gilbert Heathcote, Bt

In 1739, he purchased Wimpole Hall, the greatest country house in Cambridgeshire.

He is buried, with many of his descendants, at the St. Andrew Churchyard at Wimpole. Hardwicke was succeeded in the earldom by his eldest son, Philip. His monument was sculpted by Peter Scheemakers.

His cousin Sir William Yorke, 1st Baronet had a highly successful career as a judge in Ireland, becoming Chief Justice of the Irish Common Pleas.

Attorney-General
The prosecution of Christopher Layer for treason as a Jacobite raised Yorke's reputation as a forensic orator; and in 1723, having already become attorney-general, he passed through the House of Commons the bill of pains and penalties against Francis Atterbury. He was excused, on the ground of his personal friendship, from acting for the crown in the impeachment of the Earl of Macclesfield in 1725; he soon found a new patron in the Duke of Newcastle.

Lord Hardwicke is also remembered as one of the two authors of the Yorke–Talbot slavery opinion whilst he was a crown law officer in 1729. The opinion was sought to determinate the legality of slavery and Hardwicke (then Philip Yorke) and Charles Talbot opined that it was legal. The opinion was disseminated and relied upon widely. Lord Hardwicke would subsequently endorse the views in the opinion in a judicial capacity in Pearne v Lisle (1749) Amb 75, 27 ER 47. He rendered valuable service to Walpole's government by his support of the bill for prohibiting loans to foreign powers (1730), of the increase of the army (1732) and of the Excise Bill (1733).

Walpole government
In 1733 Yorke was appointed lord chief justice of the king's bench, with the title of Lord Hardwicke, and was sworn of the privy council; and in 1737 he succeeded Lord Talbot as Lord Chancellor, thus becoming a member of Walpole's cabinet. One of his first official acts was to deprive the poet James Thomson of a small office conferred on him by Talbot.

House of Lords
Hardwicke's political importance was greatly increased by his move to the House of Lords, where the incompetency of Newcastle threw on the chancellor the duty of defending the measures of the government. He resisted Carteret's motion to reduce the army in 1738, and the resolutions hostile to Spain over the affair of Captain Jenkins's ears. But when Walpole bent before the storm and declared war against Spain, Hardwicke advocated energetic measures for its conduct; and he tried to keep the peace between Newcastle and Walpole. There is no sufficient ground for Horace Walpole's charge that the fall of Sir Robert was brought about by Hardwicke's treachery.

Wilmington government
No one was more surprised than himself when he retained the chancellorship in the following administration, and he resisted the proposal to indemnify witnesses against Walpole in one of his finest speeches in May 1742. He exercised a leading influence in the Wilmington Cabinet; and when Wilmington died in August 1743, it was Hardwicke who put forward Henry Pelham for the vacant office against the claims of Pulteney. For many years from this time he was the controlling power in the government.

During the king's absences on the continent Hardwicke was left at the head of the council of regency; it thus fell to him to concert measures for dealing with the Jacobite rising in 1745. After Culloden he presided at the trial of the Scottish Jacobite peers, his conduct of which, though judicially impartial, was neither dignified nor generous; and he must be held partly responsible for the severity meted out to the rebels, and especially for the executions on obsolete attainders of Charles Radclyffe and (in 1753) of Archibald Cameron of Locheil. He carried out a major reform in 1746 which swept away the feudal power surviving in Scotland in the form of private heritable jurisdictions in the hands of the landed gentry. On the other hand, his legislation in 1748 for disarming the Highlanders and prohibiting the use of the tartan in their dress was vexatious without being effective. Hardwicke supported Chesterfield's reform of the calendar in 1751; in 1753 his bill for legalizing the naturalization of Jews in England had to be dropped on account of the popular clamour it excited; but he successfully carried a Marriage Act which became the basis of subsequent legislation.

Newcastle government
On the death of Pelham in 1754 Hardwicke obtained for Newcastle the post of prime minister, and for reward was created earl of Hardwicke and Viscount Royston; and when in November 1756 the weakness of the ministry and the threatening aspect of foreign affairs compelled Newcastle to resign, Hardwicke retired with him. He played a part in negotiating the coalition between Newcastle and Pitt in 1757, when he accepted a seat in Pitt's cabinet without returning to the woolsack. After the accession of George III Hardwicke opposed the ministry of Lord Bute on the peace with France in 1762, and on the cider tax in the following year. In the Wilkes case Hardwicke condemned general warrants, and also the doctrine that seditious libels published by members of parliament were protected by parliamentary privilege. He died in London on 6 March 1764.

Influence
In 1736 the King's Bench, under his presidency, delivered the seminal judgment in Middleton v. Crofts 2 Atk 650, which held that canons made in the provincial clergy convocations could not, by themselves, bind the lay faithful. He held the office of Lord Chancellor longer than any of his predecessors, with a single exception. His decisions fixed limits and established principles of Equity. His influence was powerful in obliterating the traditions of the judicial bench under the Stuart monarchy, and in establishing the modern conception of the duties and demeanour of English judges. While still at the bar Lord Chesterfield praised his conduct of crown prosecutions as a contrast to the former bloodhounds of the crown; and he described Sir Philip Yorke as naturally humane, moderate and decent.

Cases and legislation

 * Cases
 * Gyles v Wilcox (1740) 3 Atk. 143, on fair use
 * Attorney General v Davy (1741) 26 ER 531, on majority decision making in corporations
 * The Charitable Corporation v Sutton (1742) 26 ER 642, on the duty of care
 * Whelpdale v Cookson (1747) 1 Ves Sen 9, on the duty of loyalty and no inquiry rule
 * Pearne v. Lisle (1749) Amb 75, 27 ER 47
 * Penn v Lord Baltimore (1750) 1 Ves Sen 444, in relation to the Penn–Calvert boundary dispute

 * Legislation
 * Marriage Act 1753

title: Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke