text:
Nacre

Nacre, also known as mother of pearl, is an organic–inorganic composite material produced by some molluscs as an inner shell layer. It is also the material of which pearls are composed. It is strong, resilient, and iridescent.

Nacre is found in some of the most ancient lineages of bivalves, gastropods, and cephalopods. However, the inner layer in the great majority of mollusc shells is porcellaneous, not nacreous, and this usually results in a non-iridescent shine, or more rarely in non-nacreous iridescence such as flame structure as is found in conch pearls.

The outer layer of cultured pearls and the inside layer of pearl oyster and freshwater pearl mussel shells are made of nacre. Other mollusc families that have a nacreous inner shell layer include marine gastropods such as the Haliotidae, the Trochidae and the Turbinidae.

Structure and appearance

Nacre is composed of hexagonal platelets of aragonite (a form of calcium carbonate) 10–20 μm wide and 0.5 μm thick arranged in a continuous parallel lamina. Depending on the species, the shape of the tablets differs; in Pinna, the tablets are rectangular, with symmetric sectors more or less soluble. Whatever the shape of the tablets, the smallest units they contain are irregular rounded granules. These layers are separated by sheets of organic matrix (interfaces) composed of elastic biopolymers (such as chitin, lustrin and silk-like proteins).

Nacre appears iridescent because the thickness of the aragonite platelets is close to the wavelength of visible light. These structures interfere constructively and destructively with different wavelengths of light at different viewing angles, creating structural colours.

The crystallographic c-axis points approximately perpendicular to the shell wall, but the direction of the other axes varies between groups. Adjacent tablets have been shown to have dramatically different c-axis orientation, generally randomly oriented within ~20° of vertical. In bivalves and cephalopods, the b-axis points in the direction of shell growth, whereas in the monoplacophora it is the a-axis that is this way inclined.

Mechanical properties
This mixture of brittle platelets and the thin layers of elastic biopolymers makes the material strong and resilient, with a Young's modulus of 70 GPa and a yield stress of roughly 70 MPa (when dry). Strength and resilience are also likely to be due to adhesion by the "brickwork" arrangement of the platelets, which inhibits transverse crack propagation. This structure, spanning multiple length sizes, greatly increases its toughness, making it almost as strong as silicon. The mineral–organic interface results in enhanced resilience and strength of the organic interlayers. The interlocking of bricks of nacre has large impact on both the deformation mechanism as well as its toughness. Tensile, shear, and compression tests, Weibull analysis, nanoindentation, and other techniques have all been used to probe the mechanical properties of nacre. Theoretical and computational methods have also been developed to explain the experimental observations of nacre's mechanical behavior. Nacre is stronger under compressive loads than tensile ones when the force is applied parallel or perpendicular to the platelets. As an oriented structure, nacre is highly anisotropic and as such, its mechanical properties are also dependent on the direction.

A variety of toughening mechanisms are responsible for nacre's mechanical behavior. The adhesive force needed to separate the proteinaceous and the aragonite phases is high, indicating that there are molecular interactions between the components. In laminated structures with hard and soft layers, a model system that can be applied to understand nacre, the fracture energy and fracture strength are both larger than those values characteristic of the hard material only. Specifically, this structure facilitates crack deflection, since it is easier for the crack to continue into the viscoelastic and compliant organic matrix than going straight into another aragonite platelet. This results in the ductile protein phase deforming such that the crack changes directions and avoids the brittle ceramic phase. Based on experiments done on nacre-like synthetic materials, it is hypothesized that the compliant matrix needs to have a larger fracture energy than the elastic energy at fracture of the hard phase. Fiber pull-out, which occurs in other ceramic composite materials, contributes to this phenomenon. Unlike in traditional synthetic composites, the aragonite in nacre forms bridges between individual tablets, so the structure is not only held together by the strong adhesion of the ceramic phase to the organic one, but also by these connecting nanoscale features. As plastic deformation starts, the mineral bridges may break, creating small asperities that roughen the aragonite-protein interface. The additional friction generated by the asperities helps the material withstand shear stresses. In nacre-like composites, the mineral bridges have also been shown to increase the flexural strength of the material because they can transfer stress in the material. Developing synthetic composites that exhibit similar mechanical properties as nacre is of interest to scientists working on developing stronger materials. To achieve these effects, researchers take inspiration from nacre and use synthetic ceramics and polymers to mimic the "brick-and-mortar" structure, mineral bridges, and other hierarchical features.

When dehydrated, nacre loses much of its strength and acts as a brittle material, like pure aragonite. The hardness of this material is also negatively impacted by dehydration. Water acts as a plasticizer for the organic matrix, improving its toughness and reducing its shear modulus. Hydrating the protein layer also decreases its Young's modulus, which is expected to improve the fracture energy and strength of a composite with alternating hard and soft layers.

The statistical variation of the platelets has a negative effect on the mechanical performance (stiffness, strength, and energy absorption) because statistical variation precipitates localization of deformation. However, the negative effects of statistical variations can be offset by interfaces with large strain at failure accompanied by strain hardening. On the other hand, the fracture toughness of nacre increases with moderate statistical variations which creates tough regions where the crack gets pinned. But, higher statistical variations generates very weak regions which allows the crack to propagate without much resistance causing the fracture toughness to decrease. Studies have shown that this weak structural defects act as dissipative topological defects coupled by an elastic distortion.

Formation
The process of how nacre is formed is not completely clear. It has been observed in Pinna nobilis, where it starts as tiny particles (~50–80 nm) grouping together inside a natural material. These particles line up in a way that resembles fibers, and they continue to multiply. When there are enough particles, they come together to form early stages of nacre. The growth of nacre is regulated by organic substances that determine how and when the nacre crystals start and develop.

Each crystal, which can be thought of as a "brick", is thought to rapidly grow to match the full height of the layer of nacre. They continue to grow until they meet the surrounding bricks. This produces the hexagonal close-packing characteristic of nacre. The growth of these bricks can be initiated in various ways such as from randomly scattered elements within the organic layer, well-defined arrangements of proteins, or they may expand from mineral bridges coming from the layer underneath.

What sets nacre apart from fibrous aragonite, a similarly formed but brittle mineral, is the speed at which it grows in a certain direction (roughly perpendicular to the shell). This growth is slow in nacre, but fast in fibrous aragonite.

A 2021 paper in Nature Physics examined nacre from Unio pictorum, noting that in each case the initial layers of nacre laid down by the organism contained spiral defects. Defects that spiralled in opposite directions created distortions in the material that drew them towards each other as the layers built up until they merged and cancelled each other out. Later layers of nacre were found to be uniform and ordered in structure.

Function
Nacre is secreted by the epithelial cells of the mantle tissue of various molluscs. The nacre is continuously deposited onto the inner surface of the shell, the iridescent nacreous layer, commonly known as mother of pearl. The layers of nacre smooth the shell surface and help defend the soft tissues against parasites and damaging debris by entombing them in successive layers of nacre, forming either a blister pearl attached to the interior of the shell, or a free pearl within the mantle tissues. The process is called encystation and it continues as long as the mollusc lives.

In different mollusc groups
The form of nacre varies from group to group. In bivalves, the nacre layer is formed of single crystals in a hexagonal close packing. In gastropods, crystals are twinned, and in cephalopods, they are pseudohexagonal monocrystals, which are often twinned.

Commercial sources

The main commercial sources of mother of pearl have been the pearl oyster, freshwater pearl mussels, and to a lesser extent the abalone, popular for their sturdiness and beauty in the latter half of the 19th century.

Widely used for pearl buttons especially during the 1900s, were the shells of the great green turban snail Turbo marmoratus and the large top snail, Tectus niloticus. The international trade in mother of pearl is governed by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, an agreement signed by more than 170 countries.

Architecture
Both black and white nacre are used for architectural purposes. The natural nacre may be artificially tinted to almost any color. Nacre tesserae may be cut into shapes and laminated to a ceramic tile or marble base. The tesserae are hand-placed and closely sandwiched together, creating an irregular mosaic or pattern (such as a weave). The laminated material is typically about 2 mm thick. The tesserae are then lacquered and polished creating a durable and glossy surface. Instead of using a marble or tile base, the nacre tesserae can be glued to fiberglass. The result is a lightweight material that offers a seamless installation and there is no limit to the sheet size. Nacre sheets may be used on interior floors, exterior and interior walls, countertops, doors and ceilings. Insertion into architectural elements, such as columns or furniture is easily accomplished.

Musical instruments
Nacre inlay is often used for music keys and other decorative motifs on musical instruments. Many accordion and concertina bodies are completely covered in nacre, and some guitars have fingerboard or headstock inlays made of nacre (or imitation pearloid plastic inlays). The bouzouki and baglamas (Greek plucked string instruments of the lute family) typically feature nacre decorations, as does the related Middle Eastern oud (typically around the sound holes and on the back of the instrument). Bows of stringed instruments such as the violin and cello often have mother of pearl inlay at the frog. It is traditionally used on saxophone keytouches, as well as the valve buttons of trumpets and other brass instruments. The Middle Eastern goblet drum (darbuka) is commonly decorated by mother of pearl.

Indian mother of pearl art
At the end of 19th century, Anukul Munsi was the first accomplished artist who successfully carved the shells of oysters to give a shape of human being which led to the invention of new horizon in Indian contemporary art. For the British Empire Exhibition in 1924, he received a gold medal. His eldest son Annada Munshi is credited with drawing Indian Swadesi Movement in the form of Indian advertising. Anukul Charan Munshi's third son Manu Munshi was one of the finest mother of pearl artists in the middle of 20th century. As the best example of "Charu and Karu art of Bengal," the former Chief Minister of West Bengal, Dr. Bidhan Chandra Roy, sent Manu's artwork, "Gandhiji's Noakhali Abhiyan", to the United States. Numerous illustrious figures, such as Satyajit Ray, Bidhan Chandra Roy, Barrister Subodh Chandra Roy, Subho Tagore, Humayun Kabir, Jehangir Kabir, as well as his elder brother Annada Munshi, were among the patrons of his works of art. "Indira Gandhi" was one of his famous mother of pearl works of art. He is credited with portraying Tagore in various creative stances that were skillfully carved into metallic plates. His cousin Pratip Munshi was also a famed mother of pearl artist.

Other
Mother of pearl buttons are used in clothing either for functional or decorative purposes. The Pearly Kings and Queens are an elaborate example of this.

It is sometimes used in the decorative grips of firearms, and in other gun furniture.

Mother of pearl is sometimes used to make spoon-like utensils for caviar (i.e. caviar servers ) so as to not spoil the taste with metallic spoons.

Biomedical use
The biotech company Marine Biomedical, formed by a collaboration between the University of Western Australia Medical School and a Broome pearling business, is developing a product nacre to create "PearlBone", which could be used on patients needing bone grafting and reconstructive surgery. The company is applying for regulatory approval in Australia and several other countries, and is expecting it to be approved for clinical use around 2024–5. It is intended to build a factory in the Kimberley region, where pearl shells are plentiful, which would grind the nacre into a product fit for use in biomedical products. Future applications could include dental fillings and spinal surgery.

Manufactured nacre
In 2012, researchers created calcium-based nacre in the laboratory by mimicking its natural growth process.

In 2014, researchers used lasers to create an analogue of nacre by engraving networks of wavy 3D "micro-cracks" in glass. When the slides were subjected to an impact, the micro-cracks absorbed and dispersed the energy, keeping the glass from shattering. Altogether, treated glass was reportedly 200 times tougher than untreated glass.

title: Nacre


text:
Strzelin County

Strzelin County (powiat strzeliński) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, south-western Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. The county covers an area of 622.3 km2. Its administrative seat is the town of Strzelin, and its only other town is Wiązów.

As of 2019 the total population of the county is 43,713, out of which the population of Strzelin is 12,460, that of Wiązów is 2,241, and the rural population is 29,012.

Neighbouring counties
Strzelin County is bordered by Wrocław County to the north, Oława County to the north-east, Brzeg County to the east, Nysa County to the south, Ząbkowice Śląskie County to the south-west and Dzierżoniów County to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into five gminas (two urban-rural and three rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Strzelin County


text:
Hitachi Province

Hitachi Province (常陸国) was an old province of Japan in the area of  Ibaraki Prefecture. It was sometimes called Jōshū (常州). Hitachi Province bordered on Shimōsa (Lower Fusa), Shimotsuke, and Mutsu (Iwase -1718-, Iwashiro -1869-, Iwaki -1718- and  -1869-) Provinces. Generally, its northern border was with Mutsu.

History
The ancient provincial capital (Hitachi Kokufu) and temple (Hitachi Kokubun-ji) were located near modern Ishioka and have been excavated, while the chief shrine was further east at Kashima (Kashima Shrine). The province was established in the 7th century.

In the Sengoku period the area was divided among several daimyōs, but the chief castle was usually in the Mito Castle of the modern city of Mito.

In Edo period, one of the clans originating from Tokugawa Ieyasu, settled in the Mito Domain, known as Mito Tokugawa family or Mito Clan. Mito Domain, was a Japanese domain of the Edo period it was associated with Hitachi Province.

In Meiji era the political maps of the provinces of Japan were reformed in the 1870s, and the provinces became prefectures, and also some provinces were modified or merged, when creating the prefectures.

Historical districts

 * Ibaraki Prefecture
 * Ibaraki District (茨城郡) - dissolved
 * Higashiibaraki District (東茨城郡)
 * Nishiibaraki District (西茨城郡) - dissolved
 * Kashima District (鹿島郡) - dissolved
 * Kōchi District (河内郡, こうちぐん、かわちぐん (Kōchi-gun, Kawachi-gun)) - merged with Shida District to become Inashiki District (稲敷郡) on March 29, 1896 - Kōchi dissolved
 * Kuji District (久慈郡)
 * Makabe District (真壁郡) - dissolved
 * Naka District (那珂郡)
 * Namegata District (行方郡) - dissolved
 * Niihari District (新治郡) - dissolved
 * Shida District (信太郡) - merged with Kōchi District to become Inashiki District on March 29, 1896 - Shida dissolved
 * Taga District (多賀郡) - dissolved
 * Tsukuba District (筑波郡) - dissolved

History books about Japan
Two renowned history books about Japan were written in this province:
 * Jinnō Shōtōki (Chronicles of the Authentic Lineages of the Divine Emperors), in the 14th century Kitabatake Chikafusa in the Oda Castle wrote it.
 * Dai Nihonshi (Great History of Japan), in the 17th century Tokugawa Mitsukuni beginning his composition, work was continued until its completion in the Meiji era.

title: Hitachi Province


text:
Polkowice County

Polkowice County (powiat polkowicki) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, south-western Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. The county covers an area of 779.9 km2. Its administrative seat is the town of Polkowice, and it also contains the towns of Chocianów and Przemków.

As of 2019 the total population of the county is 62,948, out of which the population of Polkowice is 22,480, that of Chocianów is 7,892, that of Przemków is 6,107, and the rural population is 26,469.

Neighbouring counties
Polkowice County is bordered by Głogów County to the north, Lubin County to the south-east, Legnica County to the south, Bolesławiec County to the south-west and Żagań County to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into six gminas (three urban-rural and three rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Polkowice County


text:
Oława County

Oława County (powiat oławski) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, south-western Poland. It was created on January 1, 1999 as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. The county covers an area of 523.7 km2. Its administrative seat is the town of Oława, and its only other town is Jelcz-Laskowice.

As of 2019 the total population of the county is 76,723, out of which the population of Oława is 33,029, that of Jelcz-Laskowice is 15,803, and the rural population is 27,891.

Neighbouring counties
Oława County is bordered by Oleśnica County to the north, Namysłów County and Brzeg County to the east, Strzelin County to the south-west, and Wrocław County to the north-west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into four gminas (one urban, one urban-rural and two rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Oława County


text:
Floating raft system

Floating raft is a land-based building foundation that protects it against settlement and liquefaction of soft soil from seismic activity. It was a necessary innovation in the development of tall buildings in the wet soil of Chicago in the 19th century, when it was developed by John Wellborn Root who came up with the idea of interlacing the concrete slab with steel beams. The earliest precursor to the modern version may be the concrete rafts developed for the building of Millbank Prison in 1815 by Robert Smirke.

For a floating raft foundation – or simply "floating foundation" – the foundation has a volume such that, if that volume filled with soil, it would be equal in weight to the total weight of the structure.

When the soil is so soft that not even friction piles will support the building load, these types of foundation are the final option and makes the building behave like a boat: obeying Archimedes' principle, buoyed up by the weight of the earth displaced in creating the foundation.

Buildings with a floating raft system

 * Jin Mao Tower (1999) in Shanghai, China
 * Rönesans Rezidans (2012) in Antakya, Turkey

title: Floating raft system


text:
Oleśnica County

Oleśnica County (powiat oleśnicki) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, south-western Poland. It was created on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. The county covers an area of 1049.7 km2. Its administrative seat is the town of Oleśnica, and it also contains the towns of Syców, Twardogóra, Bierutów and Międzybórz.

As of 2019 the total population of the county is 107,090. The most populated towns are Oleśnica with 37,169 inhabitants and Syców is 10,397 inhabitants.

Neighbouring counties
Oleśnica County is bordered by Milicz County and Ostrów Wielkopolski County to the north, Ostrzeszów County, Kępno County and Namysłów County to the east, Oława County to the south, and Wrocław County and Trzebnica County to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into eight gminas (one urban, four urban-rural and three rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Oleśnica County


text:
Paul Renner

Paul Friedrich August Renner (9 August 1878 – 25 April 1956) was a German typeface designer, author, and founder of the Master School for Germany's Printers in Munich. In 1927, he designed the Futura typeface, which became one of the most successful and most-used types of the 20th century.

Renner was born in Wernigerode, and died in Hödingen (today part of Überlingen, Germany).

He had a strict Protestant upbringing, being educated in a 19th-century Gymnasium. He was brought up to have a sense of leadership, duty and responsibility. He disliked abstract art and many forms of modern culture, such as jazz, cinema, and dancing. But equally, he admired the functionalist strain in modernism. Thus, Renner can be seen as a bridge between the traditional (19th century) and the modern (20th century). He attempted to fuse the Gothic and the roman typefaces.

Renner was a prominent member of the Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation). Two of his major texts are Typografie als Kunst (Typography as Art) and Die Kunst der Typographie (The Art of Typography). He created a new set of guidelines for good book design and invented the popular Futura, a geometric sans-serif font used by many typographers throughout the 20th century and today. The typeface Architype Renner is based upon Renner's early experimental exploration of geometric letterforms for the Futura typeface, most of which were deleted from the face's character set before it was issued. Tasse, a 1994 typeface is a revival of Renner's 1953 typeface Steile Futura.

Renner was a friend of the German typographer Jan Tschichold and a key participant in the heated ideological and artistic debates of that time.

Politics
Even before 1932, Renner made his opposition to the Nazis very clear, notably in his book “Kulturbolschewismus?” (Cultural Bolshevism?). He was unable to find a German publisher, so it was published by his Swiss friend Eugen Rentsch. While designing his typeface Futura, Renner appeared at a public forum in Munich with several other German authors to speak out against the Nazis and other right-leaning parties who criticized anything that deviated from tradition as being "cultural bolshevism."

After the Nazis seized power in March 1933, Renner was arrested and dismissed from his post in Munich in 1933, and subsequently emigrated to Switzerland. Soon after the book's publication, it was withdrawn from the German book market, until a photo-mechanical reprint was issued by Stroemfeld Verlag, Frankfurt am Main/Basel, in 2003. The new edition included comments by Roland Reuss and Peter Staengle (a main source for these notes).

Typefaces

 * Architype Renner (1927)
 * Futura (1927)
 * Plak (1930)
 * Futura Black (1929)
 * Futura light (1932)
 * Ballade (1938)
 * Renner Antiqua (1939)

Books
All books are German editions.

 * Typographie als Kunst, Munich 1922
 * Mechanisierte Grafik. Schrift, Typo, Foto, Film, Farbe, Berlin 1930
 * Kulturbolschewismus?, Zurich 1932,
 * Die Kunst der Typographie, Berlin 1939, New print Augsburg 2003; ISBN 3-87512-414-6,
 * Das moderne Buch, Lindau 1946,
 * Ordnung und Harmonie der Farben. Eine Farbenlehre für Künstler und Handwerker, Ravensburg 1947
 * Vom Geheimnis der Darstellung, Frankfurt 1955

title: Paul Renner


text:
Focke-Wulf Fw 187 Falke

The Focke-Wulf Fw 187 Falke ("Falcon") was a German aircraft designed in 1935. It was conceived by Kurt Tank as a twin-engine, high-performance fighter, but the Luftwaffe saw no role for the design, perceiving it as intermediate between the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Bf 110. Later prototypes were adapted to two-seats to compete with the Bf 110 in the heavy fighter (Zerstörer) role, but only nine aircraft were built in total.

Design and development
In the early to mid-1930s, developments in airframe design outpaced available aircraft engine power. Consequently, some designs with two engines outperformed aircraft with just one engine. In European air races, the Dornier Do 17 - a military design concealed under the guise of civilian use - proved faster than single-engined fighters. Although the period of twin-engine superiority was brief, it sparked the idea in Nazi Germany of the "schnellbomber" (fast bomber), which defensive fighters could not catch. Other air forces also developed twin-engine fighters.

In 1935, Kurt Tank suggested creating a long-range single-seat fighter as a private venture within Focke-Wulf. The idea was not to produce a heavy fighter or bomber destroyer like the Bf 110, but instead a long-range fighter with the performance of a single-seat design. Powered by the new 736 kW (1,000 PS) Daimler-Benz DB 600, it had an expected speed of 560 km/h (350 mph). The design was unveiled in 1936 at an exhibition of new weapons, prototypes and projects held at the Henschel factory at Berlin-Schönefeld, where it was viewed by high-ranking Nazi officials including Hitler. However, the Reich Air Ministry (RLM) rejected the design because the single-engine Bf 109 had comparable performance at half the cost. There was thought to be little need for a long-range fighter, as it was believed bombers would not need to be escorted.

Prototypes
Tank took the design to Wolfram von Richthofen, chief of the development section of the Technischen Amt, the research and development arm of the RLM. Richthofen was not so convinced that bomber performance would remain superior to fighters, and gave the go-ahead for the construction of two prototypes on the condition that they replace the DB 600, which was in extremely short supply, with the less-powerful 515 kW (700 PS) Junkers Jumo 210. The first prototype, the V1 (D-AANA), was fitted with 680hp Junkers Jumo 210Da engines. The second prototype, V-2, was fitted with 670hp Jumo 210G engines

R. Blaser was assigned to detail design. In order to improve performance compared with the Bf 110, the fuselage was made as small as possible. This meant there was no room on the instrument panel for the complete set of engine instruments, some of which were moved to the inside faces of the engine nacelles, as would also be done for the Henschel Hs 129 ground attack aircraft and some versions of the Bf 110. The engine nacelles were relatively normal, including both the engine and the main landing gear storage, but the front-mounted engine radiators were retractable for high speed when less frontal area was needed for the same airflow (an idea which was also used in the French Morane-Saulnier M.S.406). The mainwheels were fully retractable and faired. Unlike some contemporary designs, like the Bf 109, the wing and tailplane required no struts. The two wing spars passed under the pilot's seat. As was common on pre-war designs, the line of the rear fuselage flowed straight into the line of the canopy, which created less drag than a bubble canopy, but also blocked direct viewing to the rear. Cutouts in the rear fuselage and the rear section of the canopy helped compensate for this. A small window panel was fitted by the pilot's feet to improve his view for landing.

The first prototype flew for the first time in late spring 1937, with Hans Sander at its controls. In testing it demonstrated a speed of 523 km/h (325 mph) despite the use of the low-powered Jumo engines; 80 km/h (50 mph) faster than the contemporary Jumo-powered Messerschmitt Bf 109B, despite having twice the range, more than twice the weight, and using two of the same engines. Members of the RLM complained that this was due to faulty flight instruments, but further testing ruled this out. The Fw 187's climb rate and dive rates were also on par - if not superior - to the single-seater.

Several changes were made to the design as a result of the testing, including new DVL propellers in place of the original Junkers-Hamiltons, and experimental twin-wheel bogies that were abandoned after testing. Blaser was concerned about flutter in the rudder at high speed and had a weight fitted to reduce it but in testing this caused so much flutter it was torn off at high speed. A second prototype followed with fixed radiators rather than earlier retractable versions, a semi-retractable tailwheel, changes to the elevator, and a vertical stabilizer with reduced chord. The engine was also upgraded to the 210G version of the Jumo, featuring direct fuel injection which resulted in a significant increase in power. New ejector-type exhaust stacks also contributed to increased speed by directing engine exhaust to the rear. Fw 187 V2 started testing in the summer of 1937, but crashed on landing when part of the main landing gear failed, and V1 was destroyed on 14 May 1938 after a high-speed pass over the Bremen facilities when the pilot, Paul Bauer, pulled up too sharply at the end of the pass resulting in a stall that sent the aircraft spinning into the ground.

Two-seater prototypes
Ernst Udet had replaced von Richthofen in 1936. An influential proponent of high-speed monoplane fighters, he nonetheless demanded manoeuvrability and doubted twin-engine designs could ever fully compete with single-engine types. Nevertheless, he felt the performance of the aircraft warranted development as a potential replacement for the Bf 110 in the bomber destroyer role. Even before V1 flew, Tank had been instructed to convert the design to a two-seater for this role despite the requirement for a second crew member in this role being marginal. The first two prototypes were already at an advanced stage of construction at this point, so two-seater work began on the third prototype which had just begun construction.

Blaser adapted the design by stretching the fuselage slightly but the inclusion of a second crew member altered the center of gravity which demanded the engine nacelles be modified to correct changes to handling characteristics. A new extended-length cockpit "framed" canopy was added, but due to the high line of the fuselage there was no easy way to include defensive rear-facing armament, relegating the second crew member to the role of radio operator. It was intended the offensive armament be improved by replacing two 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17 machine guns with 20 mm MG FF cannons, although these were never actually fitted.

Fw 187 V3 (D-ORHP) flew in spring 1938, but it suffered a starboard engine fire during one of the initial test flights and damaged its main landing gear in the resulting forced landing. It was quickly repaired and returned to service.

Two additional two-seat prototypes, V4 (D-OSNP) and V5 (D-OTGN), followed in the summer and autumn of 1938 respectively. While also powered by the Jumo 210, their performance was disappointing and led to a decision that any advantages of the new type would not warrant the replacement of the existing Bf 110.

The final prototype, Fw 187 V6 (D-CINY), was more heavily modified, receiving the originally specified 736 kW (1,000 PS) DB 600 engines, as well as a new surface evaporative cooling system for reduced drag. First flown in early 1939 it proved to have serious cooling problems (in common with other designs using the system, like the Heinkel He 100) and suffered some skin buckling and distortion. Nevertheless, during a series of carefully timed and measured runs in October 1939, the Fw 187 V6 reached 634 km/h (395 mph) in level flight, making it the fastest fighter in Germany at the time.

Production run
A small production run of three Fw 187 A-0 followed in the summer of 1939, based upon the V3 prototype and using the Jumo 210G engines. The Luftwaffe, however, stated that without defensive armament the aircraft could not fulfill the Zerstörer role, and remained uninterested in the design. The three two-seat prototypes were returned to Focke-Wulf after testing at Rechlin. There was a brief study in the winter of 1942/43 as a night fighter, but the lack of room in the cockpit for radar equipment quickly eliminated it from contention. After rejecting the design, the RLM "recycled" their 8-187 airframe number to Junkers for their Junkers Ju 187 dive bomber prototype.

Tank nevertheless directed a series of studies based around new versions of the basic airframe in roles including dive bomber, night fighter, fighter-bomber, high-altitude interceptor (with greater wingspan and lengthened rear fuselage), among others. These designs explored a variety of engines including the Daimler-Benz DB 601, DB 605 and even the BMW 801 radial engine.

In time the Focke-Wulf Ta 154 Moskito resulted from the Luftwaffe requirement for a twin-engine heavy fighter like the Fw 187, but constructed from wood instead of light alloys. Due to the different material and construction techniques Tank made no use of the Fw 187 work, instead having to design a completely new aircraft to meet this requirement.

Surviving Fw 187s were apparently used as flying test beds during this program.

Operational history
An Industrie-Schutzstaffel (Industry-Defense Squadron) comprising the three Fw 187 A-0s was manned by Focke-Wulf test-pilots in defense of the factory in Bremen. Although there are claims that they scored several kills, it is likely that these were propaganda claims. The three A-0s were even sent to 13.(Z)/JG 77 "Herz As" (Ace of Hearts) in Norway and promoted as evidence that the aircraft was entering service to replace the Bf 110 (a similar scheme employing prototype Panzer VIs was also carried out), but by this time any such plan was long dead. The pilots reportedly found the Fw 187 generally superior to the Bf 110 in almost all respects, but the RLM quickly withdrew them from service. They returned to Focke-Wulf, where they were again used for plant defense. One Fw 187 was sent to the LSS (Luftkriegschulen) aerial gunnery school in Værløse, Denmark in 1942.

Specifications (Fw 187 A-0)
Data taken from Nowarra (1993) and Smith and Kay (1990) unless indicated

title: Focke-Wulf Fw 187 Falke


text:
Commanders Field

Commanders Field is an American football stadium located in Landover, Maryland, 5 mi east of Washington, D.C. The stadium is the home of the Washington Commanders of the National Football League (NFL). From 2004 until 2010, it had the NFL's largest seating capacity: over 91,000. By 2023, the capacity had been reduced to about 65,000.

The stadium is owned and operated by the Commanders, with non-NFL events managed by team owner Josh Harris's company, Harris Blitzer Sports & Entertainment (HBSE). The stadium opened in 1997 as Jack Kent Cooke Stadium. FedEx Corporation purchased the naming rights in 1999, and the building was renamed FedExField. In 2024, FedEx relinquished those rights and the franchise temporarily applied the team name to the stadium while seeking a new sponsor.

20th century
In the 1990s, Redskins owner Jack Kent Cooke was seeking to build a new stadium that would allow him to make more money than did Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium in Washington, D.C. In 1994, Cooke sought to build next to Laurel Park Racecourse along Whiskey Bottom and Brock Bridge roads, but lack of parking facilities and public support prompted him to discard the idea. Instead, the stadium was built in Landover, Maryland, on Wilson Dairy Farm. A special exit, Exit 16 (Arena Drive), was built from Interstate 495, also known as the Capital Beltway. Cooke named the site Raljon after his sons Ralph and John, registering Raljon with the United States Postal Service for the stadium campus's specific 20785-4534 ZIP+4 Code, and going to some lengths to require media to use Raljon in datelines from the stadium.

Cooke died months before the opening of the new stadium, which his sons named Jack Kent Cooke Stadium. It opened on September 14, 1997, when the Redskins hosted the Arizona Cardinals. In May 1999, Daniel Snyder bought the team and the stadium, briefly renaming the building Redskins Stadium. Later that year, he sold naming rights to FedEx for 27 years at an average of $7.6 million per year. The stadium was officially renamed FedExField on November 21, 1999. The Raljon dateline requirements and placename were phased out by Snyder by the 1999 preseason, and the team has listed the stadium as residing in Landover since then.

21st century
Initially, the waiting list for season tickets was reportedly more than 160,000 names long. The Washington Post reported in 2009 that ticket office employees improperly sold tickets directly to ticket brokers for several years before the practice was discovered that year.

The team has not had a game blacked out on local television since 1972 when home-game broadcasts were banned outright because it does not count premium-club-level seating when calculating sellouts. The stadium's sellout streak, excluding premium seating, dates to 1965, eight years before the new blackout rules were implemented.

In 2002, the Prince George's County Sheriff's Office helped provide security at FedExField during Redskins games. Security was also reinforced in October 2002 during the D.C. sniper attacks.

From 2004 to 2010, Washington's fans set the NFL regular-season home paid attendance records. In 2005 the team drew a record 716,998 fans overall. The December 30, 2007, 27–6 win against the Dallas Cowboys was the most-watched game in franchise history, with 90,910 fans in the stands to see Washington clinch a playoff spot. The team led the NFL in attendance in 2000 and every year between 2002 and 2008. On January 8, 2000, the Redskins defeated the Detroit Lions 27–13 in the first NFL playoff game at FedExField.

In 2023, the stadium and team were acquired by a group headed by Josh Harris for $6.05 billion. The following year, Harris's company Harris Blitzer Sports & Entertainment (HBSE) took over operating non-NFL events at the stadium. In February 2024, FedEx announced that it had opted out of its naming rights contract before its expiration in 2026. The franchise temporarily applied the team name to the stadium while seeking a new sponsor.

Design
The stadium has five levels: the Lower Level, the Club Level, the Upper Level, and the Lower and Upper Suite Levels. The Lower Level is named the Bobby Mitchell Level in honor of Bobby Mitchell, a Redskins running back from 1962 to 1968 and later a team executive. The Club Level is named the Joe Gibbs Club Level in honor of Joe Gibbs, the team's head coach from 1981 to 1992 and again from 2004 to 2007. The Upper Level is called the Pete Rozelle Upper Level in honor of Pete Rozelle, the commissioner of the National Football League from 1969 to 1989. The stadium has 257 suites.

College football
Commanders Field hosts the annual Prince George's Classic college football game, which is a game usually between two historically black universities. It has hosted several other college football games, including the 1998 game between Notre Dame and Navy, the 2004 Black Coaches Association Classic between USC and the Virginia Tech, and the 112th Army–Navy Game.

Soccer
Commanders Field has been used for some international and exhibition soccer matches. On March 28, 2015, Argentina defeated El Salvador at the stadium before a crowd of 53,978. On June 7, 2014, the stadium hosted a doubleheader. In the first game, Spain, the 2010 World Cup winner, defeated El Salvador 2–0 in a warm-up match in front of a crowd of 53,267. In the second game, D.C. United played Columbus Crew to a scoreless draw in the first regular-season game United hosted at the stadium.

It hosted four preliminary matches and one quarterfinal doubleheader in the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup. On July 1, 1999, the United States women's national soccer team defeated Germany's women's national team 3–2 in the FIFA Women's World Cup 1999 quarterfinals.

The stadium has also hosted a number of club soccer exhibition matches. During the July 2005 World Series of Football, D.C. United hosted Chelsea F.C. there; the 31,473 spectators represented D.C. United's third-highest ever home attendance. On August 9, 2009, D.C. United hosted another international friendly against Real Madrid at FedExField. On July 30, 2011, Manchester United ended its 2011 summer tour with a 2–1 win over F.C. Barcelona at FedExField in front of 81,807 fans. This represented the largest soccer crowd in D.C.-area history. FedExField was used on July 29, 2014, in the International Champions Cup as Manchester United played Inter Milan; the game ended in a 0-0 draw and the shootout was won by Manchester United 5-3. On July 26, 2017, Manchester United played F.C. Barcelona again at the FedExField as part of International Champions Cup. This time the Catalan club secured a narrow 1-0 victory over Manchester United in front of 80,162 fans, with Neymar's last goal for F.C. Barcelona being the difference. On August 4, 2018, FedExField hosted a 2018 International Champions Cup match between Real Madrid and Juventus. Real Madrid won 3-1. On July 23, 2019, FedExField also hosted a match between Real Madrid and Arsenal. The match ended 2-2, and Real Madrid won the penalty shootout.

Commanders Field was being considered as a 2026 FIFA World Cup venue and was up against 16 other venues around the United States, including M&T Bank Stadium in nearby Baltimore; with the final list of 10 stadiums to be decided in 2022. However on April 22, 2022, the stadium dropped out of the bidding process, the organizers having decided instead to merge their bid with Baltimore and move the region's games to M&T Bank Stadium, though fan activities would still have been staged on the National Mall. The Baltimore bid was ultimately rejected in the final round, making it the first time since 2002 that a World Cup match was not played in the capital city.

Rugby union
Commanders Field hosted a rugby union match between New Zealand and the USA Eagles on October 23, 2021. This was the first time a rugby union game has been hosted at FedExField. The Eagles lost 104–14 in front of a crowd of 39,720 people.

Concerts
The stadium has hosted several major concerts, including the HFStival and George Strait Country Music Festival in 2000, the Rolling Stones with the Strokes in 2002 and with Ghost Hounds in 2019, Metallica with Deftones, Linkin Park, and Limp Bizkit in 2003, Bruce Springsteen in 2003, Kenny Chesney in 2005, 2011, 2012, and 2013. U2 with Muse, and Paul McCartney with Thievery Corporation in 2009.

In 2017, U2 returned to the stadium with The Lumineers. Guns N' Roses and Alice in Chains played at the stadium in 2016, Coldplay played in 2017 and 2022, Taylor Swift performed two nights in 2018 as part of her Reputation Stadium Tour with Camila Cabello and Charli XCX. Beyoncé and Jay Z performed two nights as part of the On the Run II Tour with Chloe x Halle and DJ Khaled. Childish Gambino and Lil Wayne performed in 2019 as part of the Broccoli City Festival. The Weeknd performed at the stadium on July 30, 2022, as part of the After Hours til Dawn Stadium Tour. Ed Sheeran performed at the stadium on June 24, 2023, as part of his Mathematics Tour. Beyoncé performed two nights in 2023 as part of the Renaissance World Tour.

Criticisms
Many fans feel Commanders Field does not compare favorably with RFK Stadium, the team's previous stadium, being widely regarded as one of the worst current NFL stadiums, if not the worst current NFL stadium. Commanders Field was rated as the worst stadium in the NFL in a 2022 poll.

In January 2007, The Washington Post reported that former team owner Daniel Snyder met with Washington, D.C., officials and former Virginia Governor Terry McAuliffe about building a new stadium. In 2005, eight years after the stadium opened, 1,488 premium "dream seats" in three rows were added in front of what was the first row when the stadium was built. Because some of these seats are too low to see over the players on the sideline, occupants of these seats stand in order to see the game.

In 2011 and 2012, 14,000 seats were removed from the upper deck due to lack of demand. In June 2015, The Washington Post reported that another 4,000 to 6,000 seats in the upper decks were removed in 2015.

The stadium is about a mile away from the Morgan Boulevard station, the nearest Metro station to the stadium. Furthermore, federal regulations prohibit publicly paid shuttle service from public transit agencies when a private service is available. Since private service is not cost-effective, fans taking public transportation must walk to and from the stadium.

In 2021, three water leaks occurred near to fans. In 2022, as Philadelphia Eagles quarterback Jalen Hurts was walking down the away team tunnel, a barrier separating seated fans from the away team tunnel gave way, causing several people to fall. According to several witnesses, team staff did not show care for or call for medical attention for the fans who fell, but yelled "get the F off the field". The team released a statement responding to the criticisms, claiming the team did provide medical evaluations on site, but one fan denied that they did. Hurts was the only one who asked if they were okay. Hurts later wrote an open letter about the incident to the NFL, asking that action be taken to prevent an incident like this from recurring.

title: Commanders Field


text:
Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury

Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury (15 July 1660 – 1 February 1718) was an English peer and Whig politician who was part of the Immortal Seven group that invited William of Orange to depose King James II of England during the Glorious Revolution. He was appointed to several minor roles before the revolution, but came to prominence as a member of William's government. Born to Roman Catholic parents, he remained in that faith until 1679 when—during the time of the Popish Plot and following the advice of the divine John Tillotson—he converted to the Church of England. Shrewsbury took his seat in the House of Lords in 1680 and three years later was appointed Gentleman-Extraordinary of the Bedchamber, suggesting he was in favour at the court of Charles II.

With the accession in 1685 of James II, Shrewsbury was appointed a captain in order to defeat the Monmouth rebellion, although he resigned his commission in 1687 after refusing to bow to pressure from James to convert back to the Catholic faith. Making contact with William of Orange, Shrewsbury's home became a meeting place for the opposition to James II and Shrewsbury was one of seven English statesmen to sign the invitation to William to invade England in June 1688. In September he fled England for Holland and returned with William to England in November. Shrewsbury was influential in the making of the Revolution Settlement, arguing strongly in favour of recognising William and Mary as sovereigns. Shrewsbury resigned from William's government in 1690 due to ill health and his opposition to the dissolution of Parliament and the dropping of the Bill that would have required an oath abjuring James as King. In opposition, Shrewsbury contacted the exiled Stuart court in France as a prelude to a Stuart restoration. In 1694, Shrewsbury returned to government and was prominent in persuading the House of Commons to vote for the funds needed for William's war against France. Ill health led to his resignation in 1698, but he returned to the government in 1699 until resigning again in 1700.

From 1700 until 1705, Shrewsbury was in self-imposed exile abroad, during which he married Countess Adelhida Paleotti. In April 1710 Shrewsbury return to government and was an early supporter of the Tory efforts to negotiate peace with France to end the War of the Spanish Succession, concerned at the negative financial impact it was having on landowners. However, he was uncomfortable with peace negotiations that left out Britain's ally, the Dutch. In November 1712 he was appointed ambassador to France and then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, returning to England in June 1714.

In July Shrewsbury was appointed Lord Treasurer but in August Queen Anne died and George I succeeded her. The new Whig regime opposed Shrewsbury remaining in government and by 1715 he had lost all his governmental offices, although until his death he remained George's Groom of the Stool. Shrewsbury opposed the Whigs' attack on the previous Tory ministers and opposed their other policies in the Lords, making contact with the Stuart Pretender and sending him money. He died in 1718.

Early life and family
He was the only son of the 11th Earl of Shrewsbury and his second wife, formerly Anna Maria Brudenell, a daughter of the 2nd Earl of Cardigan. His mother became the notorious mistress of the 2nd Duke of Buckingham, who killed her husband in a duel in 1668. It has been argued that the traumatic events of his early childhood left a permanent mark on him. Talbot was a godson of King Charles II, after whom he was named, and he was brought up as a Roman Catholic, but after the scandal of his father's death, he was placed in the care of Protestant relatives. In 1679, under the influence of John Tillotson, he became a member of the Church of England.

Under Charles II and James II
On his father's death he succeeded to the Earldom of Shrewsbury, received an appointment in the household of Charles II, and served in the army under James II. Nonetheless, in 1687 he was in correspondence with the Prince of Orange, and he was one of the seven signatories of the letter of invitation to William in the following year. He contributed towards defraying the expenses of the projected invasion, and having crossed to Holland to join William, he landed with him in England in November 1688 during the Glorious Revolution.

The Glorious Revolution and William III
Shrewsbury became Secretary of State for the Southern Department in the first administration of William and Mary, succeeding his uncle the Earl of Middleton, but he resigned from office in 1690 when the Tories gained the upper hand in parliament. While in opposition he brought forward the Triennial Bill, to which the King initially refused assent. In 1694 he again became Secretary of State; but there is evidence that as early as 1690, when he resigned, he had made overtures to the Jacobites and was in correspondence with James at his court in exile at Saint Germain, though it has been stated on the other hand that these relations were entered upon with William's full connivance, for reasons of policy. Others aver that Shrewsbury himself was unaware of the King's knowledge and toleration, which would explain the terrifying letters he was in the habit of penning to him.

However this may be, William affected to have no suspicion of Shrewsbury's loyalty, although often presented with evidence against him. On 30 April 1694 Shrewsbury was created Marquess of Alton and Duke of Shrewsbury, and he acted as one of the regents during the King's absence from England in the two following years. In 1696 definite accusations of treason were brought against him by Sir John Fenwick, which William immediately communicated to Shrewsbury; and about this time the Secretary of State took but a small part in public business, again professing his anxiety to resign. As Lord Lieutenant of Worcestershire of Worcestershire, he served as Colonel of the Worcestershire Militia in 1697. His plea of ill health was a genuine one, and in 1700 the King reluctantly consented to his retirement into private life.

Exile
For the next seven years Shrewsbury lived abroad, chiefly at Rome, whence in 1701 he wrote a celebrated letter to Lord Somers expressing his abhorrence of public life and declaring that if he had a son he "would sooner bind him to a cobbler than a courtier, and a hangman than a statesman". He also visited France and Switzerland.

Recalled from exile and the accession of Anne

On the accession of Queen Anne the Whig leaders made an ineffectual attempt to persuade Shrewsbury to return to office. He returned at last to England on 30 December 1705. Upon his return to England, Shrewsbury concentrated on the construction of Heythrop Park.

Lord Chamberlain and Lord Treasurer
He took his seat in the House of Lords in January 1706. He gradually became alienated from his old political associates, and in 1710 he accepted the post of Lord Chamberlain in the Tory administration, to which the queen appointed him without the knowledge of Godolphin and Marlborough; his wife was at the same time made a Lady of the Bedchamber.

After a diplomatic mission to France for the purpose of negotiating preliminaries of peace, Shrewsbury became Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in 1713; but he was in London in July 1714 during the memorable crisis occasioned by the impending death of Queen Anne. On 29 July, when the queen was dying, the Earl of Oxford received his long-delayed dismissal from the office of Lord Treasurer. On 30 July, Shrewsbury and other ministers assembled at Kensington Palace and, being admitted to the queen's bedchamber, Bolingbroke recommended the appointment of Shrewsbury to the vacant treasurership; Anne at once placed the staff of that high office in the duke's hands. He was to be the very last person to hold that position but the first to have been Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Chamberlain and Lord Treasurer at the same time.

Accession of George I
Thus, when the queen died on 1 August, Shrewsbury was in a position of supreme power with reference to the momentous question of the succession to the crown. He threw his influence into the scale in favour of the Elector of Hanover, and was powerfully influential in bringing about the peaceful accession of George I, and in defeating the design of the Jacobites to place the son of James II on the throne. His disinclination for the highest political offices remained, however, as great as before; and having resigned the lord-treasurership and the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, he was appointed Lord Chamberlain. This place he resigned in July 1715.

Legacy
The Duke of Shrewsbury was one of the greatest noblemen of the reign of Queen Anne. Though blind in one eye, he was strikingly handsome in person, his demeanour was dignified and his manners full of grace and courtesy. Swift described him as "the finest gentleman we have", and as "the favourite of the nation", while William III spoke of him as "the King of Hearts". Like most of his contemporaries, he endeavoured to keep himself in favour both with the exiled house of Stuart and with the reigning sovereign in England; but at the two critical junctures of 1688 and 1714, he acted decisively in favour of the Protestant succession. At other times he appeared weak and vacillating, and he never wholeheartedly supported either Whigs or Tories, though he co-operated with each in turn. His magnanimous disposition saved him from the vindictiveness of the party politician of the period; and the weak health from which he suffered through life probably combined with a congenital lack of ambition to prevent his grasping the power which his personality and talents might have placed in his hands.

Private life and death

In 1705 Shrewsbury married, at Augsburg, Bavaria, Adelhida Paleotti, daughter of the Marquis Andrea Paleotti by his second wife Maria Cristina Dudley, fifth daughter of Carlo Dudley, titular Duke of Northumberland (himself son of Sir Robert Dudley (1574–1649), an Englishman turned member of the Tuscan nobility). Robert Dudley was the illegitimate son of Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, by his high-born mistress Douglas Sheffield née Howard. Both Lady Sheffield and Leicester married other parties by 1679, which damaged Robert Dudley's efforts to have his legitimacy recognized. He was recognized by Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor as Duke of Northumberland in 1620, but was debarred by illegitimacy from all the Dudley family titles. He married three times, secondly circa 1595/6 Alice Leigh, whom he deserted by 1605, and lastly (bigamously) 1606 by Catholic rites to his mistress and first cousin twice removed Elizabeth Southwell (died 1631 in childbirth), daughter of Sir Robert Southwell and Lady Elizabeth Howard, granddaughter of Robert Dudley's maternal uncle Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham. His deserted wife was created Duchess of Dudley in 1644 for life by Charles I, who also made Robert Dudley legitimate. However, the Dudley titles (Leicester and Warwick) and estates had passed elsewhere in the reign of James I. His children were 1. Alice Dudley, 2. Douglas Dudley, 3. Catherine Leveson, née Dudley, 4. Frances Kniveton née Dudley, 5. Anne Dudley (all probably by his 2nd wife Alice Leigh), and then by his 3rd "wife" Elizabeth Southwell (married 1606 by Catholic rites) 6. Maria, Princess of Piombino; 7. Carlo, Duke of Northumbria (maternal grandfather of Adelhida Talbot, Duchess of Shrewsbury), 8. Ambrogio Dudley (named for Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick, 9. Ferdinando Dudley, 10. Teresa, Duchess of Cornia, 11. Cosimo Dudley, 12. Maria Christina, Marchesa Clivola, 13. Maria Maddalena, Marchesa Malaspina, 14. Antonio Dudley, 15. Enrico Dudley, 16. Anna Dudley, 17. Giovanni Dudley, and 18. daughter (born 1631), who became Duchess de Castillion del Lago This lady, who is said to have had "a great many engaging qualities" besides many accomplishments, was the subject of much malicious gossip. She was the widow, or as some declared, the mistress of a Count Brachiano; and Lady Cowper reported that the lady's brother had forced Shrewsbury to marry her "after an intrigue together".

After Shrewsbury's return to England, the duchess became conspicuous in London society, where the caustic wit of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu was exercised at her expense. She won the favour of Queen Anne, after the death of Prince George of Denmark, by her impulsive comment: "Oh my poor Queen I see how much you do miss your dear husband". During the Paris embassy, she became extremely popular, due to her hospitality and lively conversation. Saint Simon thought that her eccentricity bordered on madness, but he did praise the simple, practical hairstyle which she made fashionable.

On the accession of George I, the Duchess of Shrewsbury became a lady of the bedchamber to the Princess of Wales, a position which she retained till her death on 29 June 1726. Shrewsbury left no children, and at his death the dukedom became extinct, the earldom of Shrewsbury passing to his cousin Gilbert Talbot. Gilbert was a Roman Catholic priest living abroad and on his death in 1744 the titles and estates devolved on his brother George.

He died at his London home, Warwick House, Charing Cross, on 1 February 1718, from inflammation of the lungs, aged fifty-seven. He was buried in the family tomb at the parish church of Albrighton (near Wolverhampton), Shropshire.

Cultural references
The Duke is the central character in the historical novel, Shrewsbury (1897), by Stanley Weyman. As a minor but pivotal character, he was portrayed by Job Stewart in six episodes of the sprawling ensemble BBC serial The First Churchills (1969).

title: Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury


text:
Rokuhara Tandai

Rokuhara Tandai (六波羅探題) was the post of the chiefs of the Kamakura shogunate in Kyoto whose agency, the Rokuhara (六波羅), kept responsibility for security in Kinai and judicial affairs on western Japan, and negotiated with the imperial court. Despite keeping security, the Rokuhara were also a sort of secret police and widely feared.

Rokuhara Tandai was set up after the Jōkyū Incident in 1221. The two chiefs were called Kitakata (北方) and Minamikata (南方). Kitakata was higher-ranking than Minamikata. Like shikken and rensho, both posts were monopolized by the Hōjō clan. The agency was destroyed with the fall of Kamakura shogunate in 1333.

Kitakata

 * 1) Hōjō Yasutoki (r. 1221–1224)
 * 2) Hōjō Tokiuji (r. 1224–1230)
 * 3) Hōjō Shigetoki (r. 1230–1247)
 * 4) Hōjō Nagatoki (r. 1247–1256)
 * 5) Hōjō Tokimochi (r. 1256–1270)
 * 6) Hōjō Yoshimune (r. 1271–1276)
 * 7) Hōjō Tokimura (r. 1277–1287)
 * 8) Hōjō Kanetoki (r. 1287–1293)
 * 9) Hōjō Hisatoki (r. 1293–1297)
 * 10) Hōjō Munekata (r. 1297–1300)
 * 11) Hōjō Mototoki (r. 1301–1303)
 * 12) Hōjō Tokinori (r. 1303–1307)
 * 13) Hōjō Sadaaki (r. 1311–1314)
 * 14) Hōjō Tokiatsu (r. 1315–1320)
 * 15) Hōjō Norisada (r. 1321–1330)
 * 16) Hōjō Nakatoki (r. 1330–1333)

Minamikata

 * 1) Hōjō Tokifusa (r. 1221–1225)
 * 2) Hōjō Tokimori (r. 1224–1242)
 * 3) Hōjō Tokisuke (r. 1264–1272)
 * 4) Hōjō Tokikuni (r. 1277–1284)
 * 5) Hōjō Kanetoki (r. 1284–1287)
 * 6) Hōjō Morifusa (r. 1288–1297)
 * 7) Hōjō Munenobu (r. 1297–1302)
 * 8) Hōjō Sadaaki (r. 1302–1308)
 * 9) Hōjō Sadafusa (r. 1308–1309)
 * 10) Hōjō Tokiatsu (r. 1311–1315)
 * 11) Hōjō Koresada (r. 1315–1324)
 * 12) Hōjō Sadayuki (r. 1324–1330)
 * 13) Hōjō Tokimasu (r. 1330–1333)

title: Rokuhara Tandai


text:
Trzebnica County

Trzebnica County (powiat trzebnicki) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, south-western Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. The county covers an area of 1025.5 km2. Its administrative seat is Trzebnica, and it also contains the towns of Oborniki Śląskie, Żmigród and Prusice.

As of 2019 the total population of the county is 85,092. The most populated towns are Trzebnica with 13,331 inhabitants and Oborniki Śląskie with 9,099 inhabitants.

Neighbouring counties
Trzebnica County is bordered by Rawicz County and Milicz County to the north, Oleśnica County to the east, Wrocław County and the city of Wrocław to the south, Środa Śląska County and Wołów County to the west, and Góra County to the north-west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into six gminas (four urban-rural and two rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Trzebnica County


text:
Edward Villiers, 1st Earl of Jersey

Edward Villiers, 1st Earl of Jersey (c. 1656 – 25 August 1711) was an English peer, courtier, and statesman of the Villiers family. He was created Baron Villiers and Viscount Villiers in 1691 and Earl of Jersey in 1697. A leading Tory politician opposed to the Whig Junto, he was made Southern Secretary in 1699.

He persuaded the young writer and diplomat Matthew Prior to abandon his former Whig allies and vote for the impeachment of his fellow Kit Cat Club member and patron Lord Halifax. Jersey replaced Halifax as Prior's patron.

Origins
He was the son of Sir Edward Villiers (1620–1689) of Richmond, Surrey, by his wife Frances Howard, the youngest daughter of Theophilus Howard, 2nd Earl of Suffolk, and Elizabeth Home.

His grandfather was Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1585–1626), Master of the Mint and Lord President of Munster who was half brother of George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham and of Christopher Villiers, 1st Earl of Anglesey. His sister was Elizabeth Villiers, the mistress of King William III, and was later Countess of Orkney as the wife of George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney.

Education
He was admitted to St John's College, Cambridge in 1671.

Career
Villiers was Knight Marshal to the royal household in succession to his father. He was Master of the Horse to Queen Mary II and was Lord Chamberlain to King William III and to Queen Anne. In 1696 he represented his country at the Congress of Ryswick. He was ambassador at The Hague and after his elevation to the peerage (1697) was ambassador in Paris. In 1699 he was made Secretary of State for the Southern Department, and on three occasions he was one of the Lords Justices of England. In 1704 he was dismissed from office by Queen Anne, after which he was involved in some of the Jacobite schemes, using his wife, who was a Roman Catholic, as a useful go-between. In 1711 the Queen was reluctantly persuaded to bring him back into the Cabinet, but he died immediately afterwards.

Marriage and children
On 17 December 1681 he married Barbara Chiffinch (1663 – before 13 December 1735), only daughter of William Chiffinch (1602–1691), Keeper of the Privy Closet and a confidant of King Charles II, and his wife Barbara Nunn. By her he had two sons and a daughter:
 * William Villiers, 2nd Earl of Jersey (c. 1682 – 13 July 1721)
 * Henry Villiers (died 1743)
 * Mary Villiers (died 17 Jan 1734/35), who married twice:
 * Firstly to Thomas Thynne (died 1710) son of Henry Frederick Thynne and Dorothy Philips, to whom she bore a son: Thomas Thynne, 2nd Viscount Weymouth.
 * Secondly in 1711 she married George Granville, 1st Baron Lansdowne (1666–1735), without sons.

After Lord Jersey's death, his widow took her younger son Henry to France, for the express purpose of having him raised in the Roman Catholic faith, to which she strongly adhered. This caused something of a scandal, as Henry was a minor and a royal ward.

Death
He died on 25 August 1711 of apoplexy. The Queen had just, with reluctance, appointed him Lord Privy Seal.

title: Edward Villiers, 1st Earl of Jersey


text:
Złotoryja County

Złotoryja County (powiat złotoryjski) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, south-western Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. The county covers an area of 575.45 km2. Its administrative seat is Złotoryja, and it also contains the towns of Wojcieszów and Świerzawa.

As of 2019 the total population of the county is 43,719, out of which the population of Złotoryja is 15,564, that of Wojcieszów is 3,668, that of Świerzawa is 2,286, and the rural population is 22,201.

Neighbouring counties
Złotoryja County is bordered by Legnica County to the north-east, Jawor County to the east, Jelenia Góra County to the south, and Lwówek Śląski County and Bolesławiec County to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into six gminas (two urban, one urban-rural and three rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Złotoryja County


text:
Wołów County

Wołów County (, powiat wołowski ) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, south-western Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. The county covers an area of 675 km2. Its administrative seat is the town of Wołów, although the county also contains the slightly larger town of Brzeg Dolny.

As of 2019 the total population of the county is 46,914, out of which the population of Wołów is 12,373, the population of Brzeg Dolny is 12,511, and the rural population is 22,030.

Neighbouring counties
Wołów County is bordered by Góra County to the north, Trzebnica County to the east, Środa Śląska County to the south, and Legnica County and Lubin County to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into three gminas (two urban-rural and one rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Wołów County


text:
Battle of Coronea (447 BC)

The Battle of Coronea (also known as the First Battle of Coronea) took place between the Athenian-led Delian League and the Boeotian League in 447 BC during the First Peloponnesian War.

In 457 BC the Athenians had taken control of Boeotia at the Battle of Oenophyta, and spent the next ten years attempting to consolidate the League's power. In 454 BC Athens lost a fleet attempting to aid an Egyptian revolt against Persia; fearing revolts by the other members of the Delian League, Athens moved the treasury to their city from Delos in 453 BC, and signed the Peace of Callias with Persia around 450 BC.

The Delian League was essentially an Athenian empire, and while Athens was usually successful at holding their possessions in the Aegean Sea, they were less successful on land. By 447 BC some of the men exiled from Boeotia after the Athenian victory there in 457 BC had returned home and began to take back some of the Boeotian towns. The Athenians under Tolmides, with 1,000 hoplites plus other troops from their allies, marched into Boeotia to take back the recaptured towns. They captured Chaeronea, but were attacked and defeated by the Boeotians at Coronea. The Athenians were forced to give up control of Boeotia. Boeotia was allowed to leave the Delian League in return for allowing the Athenians to leave Boeotia safely. The defeat led to revolts on Euboea and in Megara, which in turn led to further conflict with Sparta, contributing to the Peloponnesian War.

title: Battle of Coronea (447 BC)


text:
Ray Combs

Raymond Neil Combs Jr. (April 3, 1956 – June 2, 1996) was an American stand-up comedian, actor and game show host. He began his professional career in the late 1970s. His popularity on the stand-up circuit led to him being signed as the second host of the game show Family Feud in its second run and first revival. The show aired on CBS from 1988–1993 and was in syndication from 1988–1994. From 1995 to 1996, Combs hosted another game show, Family Challenge.

Early life
Raymond Neil Combs Jr. was born in Hamilton, Ohio, on April 3, 1956. He graduated in 1974 from Garfield High School, where he was an actor, senior class president, and Boys State delegate. He declined a nomination to the United States Military Academy and served as a missionary from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints for two years in Arizona.

Career
Combs began performing comedy at Cincinnati's Red Dog Saloon, where he developed his best-known shtick of audience sing-alongs of sitcom theme songs. In 1979, Combs sent a letter to David Letterman, asking for advice; Letterman encouraged him to continue in comedy. In 1982, convinced that he was better than the comedians whose acts he saw on The Tonight Show, Combs left his job as an Indianapolis furniture salesman and moved with his family to Los Angeles. He did well in a competition with more than 200 other young comedians, and began doing audience warm-ups for NBC sitcoms such as The Golden Girls, The Facts of Life and Amen. He became so popular that other sitcoms changed their production schedules just so they could have him warm up their audiences. Johnny Carson heard the audience's laughter and then invited Combs to perform on The Tonight Show in October 1986; the audience gave him a standing ovation.

In 1985, he appeared on an episode of The Facts of Life as a background character. Around this time, he also guest-starred on an episode of The Golden Girls. In 1987, he appeared as a celebrity panelist on the John Davidson version of Hollywood Squares, and had a small role in the comedy film Overboard starring Kurt Russell and Goldie Hawn (he was the local cop in the beginning hospital sequence).

Family Feud
In 1988, game-show producers Mark Goodson and Howard Felsher gave Combs a seven-year contract to host a new version of Family Feud. The program premiered on July 4, 1988, on CBS's daytime lineup, and a syndicated version was launched on September 19. According to Feud announcer Gene Wood, Combs also toured extensively around the United States to promote the show, and made guest appearances on Card Sharks and The Price Is Right to discuss the new version of Family Feud with respective hosts Bob Eubanks and Bob Barker.

On June 29, 1992, CBS expanded the daytime show from 30 minutes to one hour. A new "Bullseye" round was added and the show was retitled The New Family Feud Challenge. On September 14, 1992, the Bullseye round was integrated into the syndicated run, which remained 30 minutes in length, but was renamed as The New Family Feud. Combs was one of the most seen hosts on television during the 1992–93 season, with an hour and a half of Family Feud airing five days a week.

While Combs enjoyed hosting Family Feud, he grew increasingly frustrated by the rigid formula of the show. He pressured his agent to find new opportunities for him in acting and comedy.

Midway through the 1992–93 season, ratings for the show began to plummet. CBS cancelled the daytime version in early 1993, with the final new episode airing March 26 (reruns aired through September 10), as many CBS affiliates had dropped the show entirely by that time. The syndicated version was also on the verge of cancellation (as many stations had also dropped that or moved it into overnight time slots). Jonathan Goodson, who had become chairman of Mark Goodson Productions after the death of his father, Mark Goodson, in 1992, decided to replace Combs with original host Richard Dawson in the hopes of spiking ratings (Dawson's return season initially drew good ratings, but was unable to sustain this strength long-term, and Family Feud's second incarnation ended after the 1994–95 season). By all accounts, Combs was hurt by his dismissal from the show.

Other appearances
Combs also made an appearance for the World Wrestling Federation as a guest ring announcer at WrestleMania VIII, where he amused the capacity crowd at Indianapolis' Hoosier Dome by lashing into the team of the Nasty Boys, The Mountie, and Repo Man with various scathing insults before being ultimately chased out of the ring. He later served as a guest commentator alongside Vince McMahon and Bobby Heenan at Survivor Series 1993 in a match of the Hart Family against Shawn Michaels and his Knights.

In addition to these two appearances, he appeared in various WWF/WBF celebrity editions of Family Feud. Heenan and Combs also struck up a friendship, which Heenan recounted in his autobiography, noting that he believed Combs felt pigeonholed by being a game-show host.

Combs portrayed himself in episodes of In Living Color and 227 in Family Feud sketches and made an appearance on the TNN television series The Statler Brothers Show, where he did a stand-up comedy routine. In October 1993, a Family Feud video game featuring Combs's likeness was released for both the Super NES and the Sega Genesis.

Combs was master of ceremonies of the annual StarGaze charity events produced by Jim Kelly from 1993 to 1995.

Personal life
In July 1994, Combs was involved in a serious car accident along the SR 134 portion of the Ventura Freeway. He sustained an injury in one of his spinal discs, leaving him in severe and continuous pain. Combs also struggled with financial problems after the failure of two of his comedy clubs (Caddy Combs and the Cincinnati Comedy Connection) and his home in Hamilton, Ohio, went into foreclosure. In September 1995, he separated from Debbie, his wife of 18 years (with whom he had six children). The couple attempted to reconcile, but later refiled for divorce. It was never finalized.

Combs made several attempts to resurrect his television career. He taped a pilot for a talk show called The Ray Combs Show, but it was ultimately not picked up. Combs also hosted Family Challenge on The Family Channel from 1995–96, and made a number of appearances on the Game Show Network.

Death
On June 1, 1996, police were called to Combs' home at 1318 Sonora Avenue in Glendale, California, over reports of a disturbance. Combs had reportedly destroyed most of the inside of his house, and had also been banging his head against the walls, though Combs later told the police that he fell in the jacuzzi. Shortly after police arrived, Combs' estranged wife Debbie arrived and informed them that Combs was suicidal and had spent the previous week in the hospital for a suicide attempt. He was taken by police to Glendale Adventist Medical Center, where he was assessed by a medical doctor and placed on a 72-hour psychiatric observation hold. On June 2, 1996, at around 4:10 a.m., hospital personnel discovered Combs hanging by his bed sheets in the closet of his room. He was taken to the emergency room, where he was pronounced dead upon arrival, aged 40. His death was ruled a suicide.

On June 7, 1996, Combs' funeral was held at the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Glendale. His remains were flown back to his hometown of Hamilton, Ohio, where he was interred at the Greenwood Cemetery.

title: Ray Combs


text:
Ząbkowice County

Ząbkowice County (powiat ząbkowicki) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, south-western Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. The county covers an area of 801.75 km2. Its administrative seat is Ząbkowice Śląskie, and it also contains the towns of Ziębice, Złoty Stok and Bardo.

As of 2019 the total population of the county is 65,104. The most populated towns are Ząbkowice Śląskie with 15,004 inhabitants and Ziębice with 8,708 inhabitants.

Neighbouring counties
Ząbkowice County is bordered by Kłodzko County to the south-west, Dzierżoniów County to the north-west, Strzelin County to the north-east and Nysa County to the east. It also borders the Czech Republic to the south.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into seven gminas (four urban-rural and three rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Ząbkowice County


text:
Charles Montagu, 1st Duke of Manchester

Charles Edward Montagu, 1st Duke of Manchester, (previously 4th Earl of Manchester) (c. 1662 – 20 January 1722) was a British aristocrat and statesman.

Early life
Charles was born c. 1662 into the Noble House of Montagu. He was the eldest son of the former Anne Yelverton and Robert Montagu, 3rd Earl of Manchester. Among his siblings were Lady Anne Montagu (wife of James Howard, 3rd Earl of Suffolk) and politicians the Hon. Robert Montagu and the Hon. Heneage Montagu, both MPs for Huntingdonshire. After his father's death in 1683, his mother married Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax.

His paternal grandparents were Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester and his second wife Lady Anne Rich (a daughter of Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick). His maternal grandparents were Sir Christopher Yelverton, 1st Baronet of Easton Maudit and Anne Twysden (daughter of Sir William Twysden, 1st Baronet).

He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and succeeded to his father's earldom in 1683. Warmly sympathizing with the Whig revolution of 1688, he attended William and Mary at their coronation, and fought under William at the Boyne.

Career
In 1697, he was sent as an Envoy to Venice to try to procure the release of British sailors, but the Venetians proved unwilling to negotiate. On his return in 1698, he was appointed a privy councillor. The following year he was sent as English Ambassador to France, remaining there until the outbreak of war in 1701. He was then briefly appointed Secretary of State for the Southern Department, a post he held between January and May 1702. He was then out of office until again sent to Venice, as Ambassador, but during his time there in 1707 and 1708, this negotiations (to persuade Venice to adhere to the Grand Alliance) were again unsuccessful.

In 1714, he received an appointment in the household of George I, by whom on 28 April 1719 he was created Duke of Manchester.

In 1719, he was one of the main subscribers to the Royal Academy of Music, a corporation that produced baroque opera on the stage. He also served as High Steward of the University of Cambridge from 1697 to 1722.

Personal life
On 19 February 1690, Lord Manchester was married the Hon. Doddington Greville (1671–1720). She was a daughter of Robert Greville, 4th Baron Brooke of Beauchamps Court and Anne (née Doddington) Greville (who married Thomas Hoby after the death of Lord Brooke in 1676). Together, they were the parents of:

 * Lady Doddington Montagu (c. 1694–1774), who died unmarried.
 * William Montagu, 2nd Duke of Manchester (1700–1739), who married Lady Isabella Montagu, a daughter of John Montagu, 2nd Duke of Montagu and Lady Mary Churchill (the youngest surviving daughter of John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough).
 * Lady Charlotte Montagu (1705–1759), who married Pattee Byng, 2nd Viscount Torrington, the eldest son of George Byng, 1st Viscount Torrington.
 * Robert Montagu, 3rd Duke of Manchester (c. 1710–1762), who married Harriet Dunch, daughter and co-heiress of Edmund Dunch.

He died on 20 January 1722.

title: Charles Montagu, 1st Duke of Manchester


text:
Virginia Railway Express

Virginia Railway Express (VRE) is a commuter rail service that connects outlying small cities of Northern Virginia to Washington Union Station in Washington, D.C. It operates two lines which run during weekday rush hour only: the Fredericksburg Line from Spotsylvania, Virginia, and the Manassas Line from Broad Run station in Bristow, Virginia. In, the system had a ridership of , or about per weekday as of.

Service to Manassas began on June 22, 1992; the Fredericksburg service started on July 20, 1992.

VRE is owned by the Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) and the Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC). The NVTC and PRTC are governmental entities that were created by the Commonwealth of Virginia. Local governments (such as counties and cities) within each commission's geographic area are members of each commission. The service will undergo expansion as the result of a December 19, 2019 deal brokered between former Virginia governor Ralph Northam and rail company CSX Transportation.

History
Discussions about commuter rail service in Northern Virginia had occurred as early as 1964 at the Northern Virginia Transportation Commission, but died in the face of opposition by the freight railroads whose tracks offered ready access to core employment areas. The Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments eventually commissioned a regional feasibility study by R.L. Banks and Associates, Inc., and planning began in earnest for VRE in 1984. In the meantime, Washington Metro extended its service to much of the inner ring of Northern Virginia, including the independent cities of Alexandria, Fairfax and Falls Church and Arlington and Fairfax counties, which are members of the NVTC.

By 1986, it became apparent that Prince William and Stafford counties and the cities of Manassas and Manassas Park could not reach agreement on how to support VRE by joining NVTC, so the Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission was created for them. Legislation established a 2% motor fuels tax to support VRE expenses and other transportation investments.

By 1988, NVTC and PRTC established a VRE Operations Board, consisting of three voting members plus alternates from each of the two commissions, plus a voting representative of the Commonwealth of Virginia (currently a representative of the Director of the Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation). The following year, the jurisdictions participating in the VRE project agreed to fund it according to a formula that weighted ridership by jurisdiction of residence with a factor of 90% and population with a factor of 10%. Arlington and Alexandria agreed to contribute to the project and have paid each year approximately what their formula share would be. The cities of Fredericksburg and Manassas Park joined PRTC in 1990 and signed the VRE Master Agreement and became participating jurisdictions in 1992.

Spotsylvania County joined in February 2010 to allow construction of Spotsylvania station, which opened in November 2015.

Operations
Rail service operates Monday through Friday during rush hour in the peak direction, with trains traveling toward Washington in the morning and toward either Manassas or Fredericksburg in the afternoon. Service is suspended or reduced on some holidays.

Through a cross-honoring agreement, VRE and the MARC Train allow passengers to transfer to trains on the other system that are going in the opposite direction of the rush-hour commuters.

VRE operates on lines owned and maintained by Amtrak, Norfolk Southern, and CSX Transportation. In December 2019, the state of Virginia agreed to purchase large portions of the right-of-way and track on the CSX line, as well as the Long Bridge into the District of Columbia. The state will add parallel tracks and make other improvements for increased service on the VRE. Most of the Fredericksburg Line is on CSX tracks, while the portion of the Manassas Line west of Alexandria is mostly on Norfolk Southern tracks. Washington Union Station in Washington, D.C., the northern terminus for most VRE trains, is owned and operated by Amtrak, including the station tracks.

VRE's trains were initially run by Amtrak. On November 5, 2009, VRE awarded a five-year, $85 million operating and maintenance contract to Keolis. The change in operations took place on July 12, 2010, two weeks later than planned, to allow Keolis employees to learn how to run VRE trains.

Ridership on VRE increased an average of 13% each year from 2000 to 2005, but fell 2% in the fiscal year ending June 30, 2005. VRE said passengers affected by track maintenance and heat restrictions were taking other forms of transportation. The trend reversed in the summer of 2007, with ridership up nearly 2% in June and 4% in July compared with the corresponding months in 2006. As of October 2016, VRE transports an average of 19,400 passengers per day.

In 2015, VRE extended its contract with Keolis for five years, with an additional option for another five-year extension in 2020. That option was exercised in 2020, so Keolis will continue to provide operational and maintenance services through June 2025.

Starting in 2015, VRE began a study of extending service to Haymarket via a short branch line from the Manassas Line, but found that ridership would not sufficiently increase to justify the estimated $660 million cost and ended further consideration of the line.

Lines and stations
VRE's fares are based on distance, with the 19 stations grouped into zones. The two lines diverge at Alexandria Union Station in Alexandria.

Manassas Line
The Manassas Line runs east–west along trackage owned by Norfolk Southern. Amtrak's Crescent and Cardinal, as well as Northeast Regional trains bound for Roanoke, also use this line. VRE studied an extension of the Manassas Line west to the communities of Gainesville and Haymarket, but chose instead to pursue added service on the existing line to Broad Run.

Fredericksburg Line
The Fredericksburg Line runs north–south along trackage that was once part of the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad and is now part of CSX. Amtrak service to Richmond, Virginia, and points south (the Silver Service, Palmetto, Carolinian, and Northeast Regional runs to Hampton Roads) also uses this line. An extension to Spotsylvania opened in November 2015.

Rolling stock
Virginia Railway Express commenced operations in 1992 with ten EMD RP39-2C diesel locomotives, 38 Mafersa coaches, and 21 remanufactured Budd Rail Diesel Cars from the MBTA. Morrison-Knudsen rebuilt the locomotives from EMD GP40s at a total cost of $5.9 million. Mafersa built the coaches new at $24.7 million, or $600,000–$700,000 per car. During Summer 1998, SEPTA leased some VRE Boisie Budds for the Regional Rail services. VRE sold 33 of the Mafersa coaches to the Connecticut Department of Transportation in 2004 for its Shore Line East service. QIT-Fer et Titane, a Quebec mining company, purchased the remaining five cars in 2008.

VRE operated 13 Kawasaki bi-level cars between 1999 and 2008, after which they were sold to MARC (these cars were originally procured as an option on MARC's larger order). Starting in 2001, VRE also operated a number of second-hand Pullman-Standard gallery cars from Metra in Chicago. These were all replaced by new Sumitomo/Nippon Sharyo gallery cars from 2006 to 2017 as some cars returned to Metra and others went to the North Carolina Transportation Museum in Spencer, North Carolina.

Trains currently comprise one and on some occasions two MPI MP36PH-3C locomotives that pull their fleet of Sumitomo/Nippon Sharyo gallery cars. As of 2018, train lengths usually range from at least four cars to a maximum of eight cars.

Locomotive fleet
VRE also operated a pair of EMD F59PHI locomotives and 18 high capacity Bombardier BiLevel cars leased from Sound Transit from 2002 to 2008; they have been returned to Sounder and replaced by locomotives V50–V69 and the Sumitomo bi-level cars.

Coach fleet
* with restroom

† Eight cars ordered in February 2012 with options for 42 more. As of 2018, 21 further cars had been procured from these options.

Safety and accidents
On January 5, 2006, at 6:45 am, Fredericksburg line train No. 304 bound for Washington, D.C., derailed at Possum Point, just north of Quantico. Four people, including the assistant conductor, suffered minor injuries. The National Transportation Safety Board determined that the derailment was intimately related to CSX's maintenance practices: a switch point had been repeatedly identified as deteriorating, but CSX failed to replace it. Eventually, the excessively worn and chipped point caused the lead truck of a passenger car to derail—the fourth car on train 304.

On October 3, 2012, Virginia Governor Bob McDonnell launched a review of "multiple internal control issues", including reports of corruption and favoritism, that "call into question the management of the Virginia Railway Express". For example, VRE managers disregarded warnings by a former employee, later borne out, that trains would hit the new Broad Run platform.

title: Virginia Railway Express


text:
Zgorzelec County

Zgorzelec County (powiat zgorzelecki) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. It is situated in the extreme south-west of Poland, bordering both Germany and the Czech Republic. The county covers an area of 838.1 km2. Its administrative seat is Zgorzelec, on the German border; the other towns in the county are Bogatynia, Pieńsk, Zawidów and Węgliniec.

As of 2019 the total population of the county is 89,612. The most populated towns are Zgorzelec with 30,374 inhabitants and Bogatynia with 17,436 inhabitants.

Neighbouring counties
Zgorzelec County is bordered by Żary County and Żagań County to the north, and Bolesławiec County and Lubań County to the east. It also borders the Czech Republic to the south and Germany to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into seven gminas (two urban, three urban-rural and two rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Zgorzelec County


text:
Charles Middleton, 2nd Earl of Middleton

Charles Middleton, 2nd Earl of Middleton, Jacobite 1st Earl of Monmouth, PC (1649/1650 – 9 August 1719) was a Scottish and English politician who held several offices under Charles II and James II & VII. He served as Secretary of State for Scotland, the Northern Department and the Southern Department, before acting as Jacobite Secretary of State and chief advisor to James II and then his son James III during their exile in France.

Life
Charles Middleton was born around 1650, the only son of John Middleton, 1st Earl of Middleton, and his first wife Grizel Durham. He had two elder sisters, Helen and Grizel.

Originally from Kincardineshire, in the first part of the 1638 to 1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms, John Middleton supported the Covenanters, who appointed him commander-in-chief in 1644. After switching sides in 1648, he accompanied Charles II into exile, and Charles grew up in exile, returning home in the 1660 Restoration.

His father died in 1674 leaving him little except for the title and debts; in 1683, Charles married Lady Catherine Brudenell, (1648–1743), daughter of the Catholic Earl of Cardigan. They had four children; John (1683–1746), Katherine (1685–1763), Charles (1688–1738), and Elizabeth (1690–1773).

Middleton was described by Gilbert Burnet as ‘a man of generous temper, but without much religion’; he remained a Protestant until 1701, when he converted to Catholicism at the request of the dying James II.

Career
Middleton is thought to have spent 1669 to 1671 in France and Italy; in 1673, he was commissioned as a captain in the 3rd Foot, later the Buffs, which served in the 1672-1678 Franco-Dutch War as part of the Dutch Scots Brigade. By 1678, he was a Lieutenant-Colonel and governor of Bruges. Shortly after this, he was suggested as Secretary of State for Scotland, in place of the Duke of Lauderdale. This went to Alexander Stuart, 5th Earl of Moray and in June 1680, Middleton was made envoy to Emperor Leopold I.

He returned to Scotland in July 1681, where he became a close associate of James and his wife Mary of Modena. He was appointed to the Scottish Privy Council and made joint Secretary of State for Scotland with Moray on 26 September 1682.

In 1684, he relocated to London and joined the English Privy Council in July and Secretary of State for the Northern Department in August. After James succeeded as king in February 1685, he was elected for Winchelsea and given the task of managing the House of Commons. Parliament was suspended for refusing to repeal the Test Act, while James' reliance on a small circle of Catholics made Middleton suspect as one of the few remaining Protestants.

He was present at the birth of the Prince of Wales in June 1688 and became Secretary of State for the Southern Department in September 1688. When James fled to France after the November 1688 Glorious Revolution, he remained in England; in 1692, he was held in the Tower of London for plotting to restore him and after his release, joined the exiled court at Saint-Germain.

He proposed a more moderate declaration for a Jacobite restoration than James' chief advisor and Secretary of State, John Drummond, 1st Earl of Melfort. He became joint Secretary of State with Melfort, responsible for correspondence with England and Scotland, and became sole Secretary of State after Melfort was dismissed in June 1694. In England, he was tried for treason and outlawed on 23 July 1694, and attainted on 2 July 1695.

He continued as Secretary until James' death in September 1701, when he was appointed to the Regency Council during the minority of his son, James III. Despite his wish to resign, he was persuaded to remain in office and made the Earl of Monmouth in the Jacobite peerage.

With his two sons, Middleton accompanied James in 1708 during the attempted Franco-Jacobite landing in Scotland and allowed to resign as Secretary in 1713. He briefly joined James in Scotland during the 1715 Rising, before returning to France, where he served as Mary's Lord Chamberlain until her death in 1718. Granted a pension by the French government, he died on 9 August 1719 and was buried at the parish church of Saint-Germain.


text:
Wrocław County

Wrocław County (powiat wrocławski) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, south-western Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. The county covers an area of 1116 km2. Its administrative seat is the city of Wrocław, although this city is not part of the county (it forms a separate city county). Wrocław County consists of areas to the east and south of Wrocław (city with county rights), and contains three towns: Sobótka, Kąty Wrocławskie and Siechnice.

As of 2019 the total population of the county is 148,663, out of which the population of Siechnice is 8,113, that of Kąty Wrocławskie is 6,994, that of Sobótka is 6,981, and the rural population is 126,575.

Neighbouring counties
Apart from the city of Wrocław, Wrocław County is also bordered by Trzebnica County to the north, Oleśnica County to the east, Oława County to the south-east, Strzelin County to the south, Dzierżoniów County and Świdnica County to the south-west, and Środa Śląska County to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into nine gminas (three urban-rural and six rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Wrocław County


text:
Wałbrzych County

Wałbrzych County (powiat wałbrzyski; Waldenburg) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, south-western Poland. It was created on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. The county covers an area of 514.2 km2. Its administrative seat is the city of Wałbrzych, which is located outside of the county, and it also contains the towns of Boguszów-Gorce, Głuszyca, Szczawno-Zdrój, Jedlina-Zdrój and Mieroszów.

When the county came into being in 1999, the city of Wałbrzych was not part of its territory, although it served as the county seat. As of 2003 the city county (powiat grodzki) of Wałbrzych was incorporated into Wałbrzych County. Wałbrzych became again a separate city county starting from 1 January 2013 and is no longer part of the Wałbrzych County (powiat wałbrzyski).

As of 2019 the total population of the county is 55,820. The most populated towns are Boguszów-Gorce with 15,368 inhabitants and Głuszyca with 6,361 inhabitants.

Neighbouring counties
Wałbrzych County is bordered by Kamienna Góra County to the west, Jawor County to the north, Świdnica County to the north-east, Dzierżoniów County to the east and Kłodzko County to the south-east. It also borders the Czech Republic to the south.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into eight gminas (three urban, two urban-rural and three rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Wałbrzych County