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Alfred Stieglitz

Alfred Stieglitz (January 1, 1864 – July 13, 1946) was an American photographer and modern art promoter who was instrumental over his 50-year career in making photography an accepted art form. In addition to his photography, Stieglitz was known for the New York art galleries that he ran in the early part of the 20th century, where he introduced many avant-garde European artists to the U.S. He was married to painter Georgia O'Keeffe.

Early life and education

Stieglitz was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, the first son of German Jewish immigrants Edward Stieglitz (1833–1909) and Hedwig Ann Werner (1845–1922). His father was a lieutenant in the Union Army and worked as a wool merchant. He had five siblings, Flora (1865–1890), twins Julius (1867–1937) and Leopold (1867–1956), Agnes (1869–1952) and Selma (1871–1957). Alfred Stieglitz, seeing the close relationship of the twins, wished he had a soul mate of his own during his childhood.

Stieglitz attended Charlier Institute, a Christian school in New York, in 1871. The following year, his family began spending the summers at Lake George in the Adirondack Mountains, a tradition that continued into Stieglitz's adulthood.

So that he could qualify for admission to the City College of New York, Stieglitz was enrolled in a public school for his junior year of high school, but found the education inadequate. In 1881, Edward Stieglitz sold his company for US $400,000 and moved his family to Europe for the next several years so that his children would receive a better education. Alfred Stieglitz enrolled in the Real Gymnasium in Karlsruhe. The next year, Alfred Stieglitz studied mechanical engineering at the Technische Hochschule in Berlin. He enrolled in a chemistry class taught by Hermann Wilhelm Vogel, a scientist and researcher, who worked on the chemical processes for developing photographs. In Vogel, Stieglitz found both the academic challenge he needed and an outlet for his growing artistic and cultural interests. He received an allowance of $1,200 a year.

Early interest in photography

In 1884, his parents returned to America, but 20-year-old Stieglitz remained in Germany and collected books on photography and photographers in Europe and the U.S. He bought his first camera, an 8 × 10 plate film camera, and traveled through the Netherlands, Italy and Germany. He took photographs of landscapes and workers in the countryside. Photography, he later wrote, "fascinated me, first as a toy, then as a passion, then as an obsession."

Through his self-study, he saw photography as an art form. In 1887, he wrote his very first article, "A Word or Two about Amateur Photography in Germany", for the new magazine The Amateur Photographer.

He won first place for his photography, The Last Joke, Bellagio, in 1887 from Amateur Photographer. The next year he won both first and second prizes in the same competition, and his reputation began to spread as several German and British photographic magazines published his work.

In 1890, his sister Flora died while giving birth, and Stieglitz returned to New York.

New York and the Camera Club (1891–1901)

Stieglitz considered himself an artist, but he refused to sell his photographs. His father purchased a small photography business for him so that he could earn a living in his chosen profession. Because he demanded high quality images and paid his employee high wages, the Photochrome Engraving Company rarely made a profit.

In late 1892, Stieglitz bought his first hand-held camera, a Folmer and Schwing 4×5 plate film camera. Stieglitz gained a reputation for his photography and his magazine articles about how photography is a form of art. In the spring of 1893, he became co-editor of The American Amateur Photographer. In order to avoid the appearance of bias in his opinions and because Photochrome was now printing the photogravures for the magazine, Stieglitz refused to draw a salary.

On November 16, 1893, the 29-year-old Stieglitz married 20-year-old Emmeline Obermeyer, the sister of his close friend and business associate Joe Obermeyer and granddaughter of brewer Samuel Liebmann. They were married in New York City. Stieglitz later wrote that he did not love Emmy, as she was commonly known, when they were married and that their marriage was not consummated for at least a year. Daughter of a wealthy brewery owner, she had inherited money from her father. Stieglitz came to regret his decision to marry Emmy, as she did not share his artistic and cultural interests. Stieglitz biographer Richard Whelan summed up their relationship by saying Stieglitz "resented her bitterly for not becoming his twin." Throughout his life Stieglitz maintained a desire for younger women.

Stieglitz was unanimously elected as one of the first two American members of The Linked Ring. Stieglitz saw this recognition as the impetus he needed to step up his cause of promoting artistic photography in the United States.

In May 1896, the two organizations joined to form The Camera Club of New York. Although offered the organization's presidency, he became vice-president. He developed programs for the club and was involved in all aspects of the organization. He told journalist Theodore Dreiser he wanted to "make the club so large, its labors so distinguished and its authority so final that [it] may satisfactorily use its great prestige to compel recognition for the individual artists without and within its walls."

Stieglitz turned the Camera Club's current newsletter into a magazine, Camera Notes, and was given full control over the new publication. Its first issue was published in July 1897. It was soon considered the finest photographic magazine in the world. Over the next four years Stieglitz used Camera Notes to champion his belief in photography as an art form by including articles on art and aesthetics next to prints by some of the leading American and European photographers. Critic Sadakichi Hartmann wrote "it seemed to me that artistic photography, the Camera Club and Alfred Stieglitz were only three names for one and the same thing."

He also continued to take his own photographs. Late in 1896, he hand-pulled the photogravures for a first portfolio of his own work, Picturesque Bits of New York and Other Studies. He continued to exhibit in shows in Europe and the U.S., and by 1898 he had gained a solid reputation as a photographer. He was paid $75 for his favorite print, Winter – Fifth Avenue.

On September 27, 1898, Stieglitz's daughter, Katherine "Kitty", was born. Using Emmy's inheritance, the couple hired a governess, cook and a chambermaid. Stieglitz worked at the same pace as before the birth of his daughter, and as a result, the couple predominantly lived separate lives under the same roof.

In May 1899, Stieglitz was given a one-man exhibition, consisting of eighty-seven prints, at the Camera Club. The strain of preparing for this show, coupled with the continuing efforts to produce Camera Notes, took a toll on Stieglitz's health. To lessen his burden he brought in his friends Joseph Keiley and Dallet Fugeut, neither of whom were members of the Camera Club, as associate editors of Camera Notes. Upset by this intrusion from outsiders, not to mention their own diminishing presence in the Club's publication, many of the older members of the Club began to actively campaign against Stieglitz's editorial authority. Stieglitz spent most of 1900 finding ways to outmaneuver these efforts, embroiling him in protracted administrative battles.

Due to the continued strain of managing the Camera Club, by the following year he collapsed in the first of several mental breakdowns. He spent much of the summer at the family's Lake George home, Oaklawn, recuperating. When he returned to New York, he announced his resignation as editor of Camera Notes.

The Photo-Secession and Camera Work (1902–1907)
Photographer Eva Watson-Schütze urged him to establish an exhibition that would be judged solely by photographers who, unlike painters and other artists, knew about photography and its technical characteristics. In December 1901, he was invited by Charles DeKay of the National Arts Club to put together an exhibition in which Stieglitz would have "full power to follow his own inclinations." Within two months Stieglitz had assembled a collection of prints from a close circle of his friends, which, in homage to the Munich photographers, he called the Photo-Secession. Stieglitz was not only declaring a secession from the general artistic restrictions of the era, but specifically from the official oversight of the Camera Club.

He began formulating a plan to publish a completely independent magazine of pictorial photography to carry forth the artistic standards of the Photo-Secessionist. By July, he had fully resigned as editor of Camera Notes, and one month later he published a prospectus for a new journal he called Camera Work. He was determined it would be "the best and most sumptuous of photographic publications". The first issue was printed four months later, in December 1902, and like all of the subsequent issues it contained hand-pulled photogravures, critical writings on photography, aesthetics and art, and reviews and commentaries on photographers and exhibitions. Camera Work was "the first photographic journal to be visual in focus."

Stieglitz was a perfectionist, and it showed in every aspect of Camera Work. He advanced the art of photogravure printing by demanding unprecedentedly high standards for the prints in Camera Work. The visual quality of the gravures was so high that when a set of prints failed to arrive for a Photo-Secession exhibition in Brussels, a selection of gravures from the magazine was hung instead. Most viewers assumed they were looking at the original photographs.

Throughout 1903, Stieglitz published Camera Work and worked to exhibit his own work and that of the Photo-Secessionists while dealing with the stresses of his home life. Luxembourgish American photographer, Edward Steichen, who later would curate the landmark exhibit The Family of Man, was the most frequently featured photographer in the magazine. Fuguet, Keiley, and Strauss, Stieglitz's three associate editors at Camera Notes, he brought with him to Camera Work. Later, he said that he alone individually wrapped and mailed some 35,000 copies of Camera Work over the course of its publication.

On November 25, 1905, the "Little Galleries of the Photo-Secession" opened at 291 Fifth Avenue with one hundred prints by thirty-nine photographers. Steichen had recommended and encouraged Stieglitz, on his return from Europe, to lease out three rooms across from Steichen's apartment that the pair felt would be perfect to exhibit photography. The gallery became an instant success, with almost fifteen thousand visitors during its first season and, more importantly, print sales that totaled nearly $2,800, more than half of those sales of Steichen's work.

Stieglitz continued to focus his efforts on photography, at the expense of his family. Emmy, who hoped she would one day earn Stieglitz's love, continued giving him an allowance from her inheritance.

In the October 1906 issue of Camera Work, his friend Joseph Keiley said: "Today in America the real battle for which the Photo-Secession was established has been accomplished – the serious recognition of photography as an additional medium of pictorial expression."

Two months later the 42-year-old Stieglitz met 28-year-old artist Pamela Colman Smith, who wished to have her drawings and watercolors shown at his gallery. He decided to show her work because he thought it would be "highly instructive to compare drawings and photographs in order to judge photography's possibilities and limitations". Her show opened in January 1907, with far more visitors to the gallery than any of the previous photography shows, and soon all of her exhibited works were sold. Stieglitz, hoping to capitalize on the popularity of the show, took photographs of her art work and issued a separate portfolio of his platinum prints of her work.

The Steerage, 291 and modern art (1907–1916)
In the late spring of 1907, Stieglitz collaborated on a series of photographic experiments with his friend Clarence H. White. They took several dozen photographs of two clothed and nude models and printed a selection using unusual techniques, including toning, waxing and drawing on platinum prints. According to Stieglitz, it overcame "the impossibility of the camera to do certain things."

He made less than $400 for the year due to declining Camera Work subscriptions and the gallery's low profit margin.

While on his way to Europe, Stieglitz took what is recognized not only as his signature image but also as one of the most important photographs of the 20th century.

Stieglitz deliberately interspersed exhibitions of what he knew would be controversial art, such as Rodin's sexually explicit drawings, with what Steichen called "understandable art", and with photographs. The intention was to "set up a dialogue that would enable 291 visitors to see, discuss and ponder the differences and similarities between artists of all ranks and types: between painters, draftsmen, sculptors and photographers; between European and American artists; between older or more established figures and younger, newer practitioners." During this same period the National Arts Club mounted a "Special Exhibition of Contemporary Art" that included photographs by Stieglitz, Steichen, Käsebier and White along with paintings by Mary Cassatt, William Glackens, Robert Henri, James McNeill Whistler and others. This is thought to have been the first major show in the U.S. in which photographers were given equal ranking with painters.

For most of 1908 and 1909, Stieglitz spent his time creating shows at 291 and publishing Camera Work. There were no photographs taken during this period that appear in the definitive catalog of his work, Alfred Stieglitz: The Key Set.

In 1910, Stieglitz was invited by the director of the Albright Art Gallery to organize a major show of the best of contemporary photography. Although an announcement of an open competition for the show was printed in Camera Work, the fact that Stieglitz would be in charge of it generated a new round of attacks against him. An editorial in American Photography magazine claimed that Stieglitz could no longer "perceive the value of photographic work of artistic merit which does not conform to a particular style which is so characteristic of all exhibitions under his auspices. Half a generation ago this school [the Photo-Secession] was progressive, and far in advance of its time. Today it is not progressing, but is a reactionary force of the most dangerous type."

Stieglitz wrote to fellow photographer George Seeley "The reputation, not only of the Photo-Secession, but of photography is at stake, and I intend to muster all the forces available to win out for us."

Throughout 1911 and early 1912, Stieglitz organized ground-breaking modern art exhibits at 291 and promoted new art along with photography in the pages of Camera Work. By the summer of 1912, he was so enthralled with non-photographic art that he published an issue of Camera Work (August 1912) devoted solely to Matisse and Picasso.

In late 1912, painters Walter Pach, Arthur B. Davies and Walt Kuhn organized a modern art show, and Stieglitz lent a few modern art pieces from 291 to the show. He also agreed to be listed as an honorary vice-president of the exhibition along with Claude Monet, Odilon Redon, Mabel Dodge and Isabella Stewart Gardner. In February 1913, the watershed Armory Show opened in New York, and soon modern art was a major topic of discussion throughout the city. He saw the popularity of the show as a vindication of the work that he had been sponsoring at 291 for the past five years. He mounted an exhibition of his own photographs at 291 to run at the same time as the Armory Show. He later wrote that allowing people to see both photographs and modern paintings at the same time "afforded the best opportunity to the student and public for a clearer understanding of the place and purpose of the two media."

In January 1916, suffragist Anita Pollitzer showed Stieglitz a set of charcoal drawings by Georgia O'Keeffe. Stieglitz was so taken by her art that without meeting O'Keeffe or even getting her permission to show her works he made plans to exhibit her work at 291. The first that O'Keeffe heard about any of this was from another friend who saw her drawings in the gallery in late May of that year. She finally met Stieglitz after going to 291 and chastising him for showing her work without her permission.

Soon thereafter O'Keeffe met Paul Strand, and for several months she and Strand exchanged increasingly romantic letters. When Strand told his friend Stieglitz about his new yearning, Stieglitz responded by telling Strand about his own infatuation with O'Keeffe. Gradually Strand's interest waned, and Stieglitz's escalated. By the summer of 1917 he and O'Keeffe were writing each other "their most private and complicated thoughts".

O'Keeffe and modern art (1918–1924)
In early June 1918, O'Keeffe moved to New York from Texas after Stieglitz promised he would provide her with a quiet studio where she could paint. Within a month he took the first of many nude photographs of her at his family's apartment while his wife Emmy was away, but she returned while their session was still in progress. She had suspected something was going on between the two for a while, and told him to stop seeing her or get out. Stieglitz left and immediately found a place in the city where he and O'Keeffe could live together. They slept separately for more than two weeks. By the end of July they were in the same bed together, and by mid-August when they visited Oaklawn "they were like two teenagers in love. Several times a day they would run up the stairs to their bedroom, so eager to make love that they would start taking their clothes off as they ran."

O'Keeffe was the muse Stieglitz had always wanted. He photographed O'Keeffe obsessively between 1918 and 1925 in what was the most prolific period in his entire life. During this period he produced more than 350 mounted prints of O'Keeffe that portrayed a wide range of her character, moods and beauty. He shot many close-up studies of parts of her body, especially her hands either isolated by themselves or near her face or hair. O'Keeffe biographer Roxanna Robinson states that her "personality was crucial to these photographs; it was this, as much as her body, that Stieglitz was recording."

In 1920, Stieglitz was invited by Mitchell Kennerly of the Anderson Galleries in New York to put together a major exhibition of his photographs. In early 1921, he hung the first one-man exhibit of his photographs since 1913. Of the 146 prints he put on view, only 17 had been seen before. Forty-six were of O'Keeffe, including many nudes, but she was not identified as the model on any of the prints. It was in the catalog for this show that Stieglitz made his famous declaration: "I was born in Hoboken. I am an American. Photography is my passion. The search for Truth my obsession." What is less known is that he conditioned this statement by following it with these words:

"PLEASE NOTE: In the above STATEMENT the following, fast becoming 'obsolete', terms do not appear: ART, SCIENCE, BEAUTY, RELIGION, every ISM, ABSTRACTION, FORM, PLASTICITY, OBJECTIVITY, SUBJECTIVITY, OLD MASTERS, MODERN ART, PSYCHOANALYSIS, AESTHETICS, PICTORIAL PHOTOGRAPHY, DEMOCRACY, CEZANNE, '291', PROHIBITION. The term TRUTH did creep in but it may be kicked out by any one."

In 1922, Stieglitz organized a large show of John Marin's paintings and etching at the Anderson Galleries, followed by a huge auction of nearly two hundred paintings by more than forty American artists, including O'Keeffe. Energized by this activity, he began one of his most creative and unusual undertakings – photographing a series of cloud studies simply for their form and beauty. He said:

"I wanted to photograph clouds to find out what I had learned in forty years about photography. Through clouds to put down my philosophy of life – to show that (the success of) my photographs (was) not due to subject matter – not to special trees or faces, or interiors, to special privileges – clouds were there for everyone…"

Stieglitz's mother Hedwig died in November 1922, and as he did with his father he buried his grief in his work. He spent time with Paul Strand and wife, painter Rebecca Salsbury, reviewed the work of another newcomer named Edward Weston and began organizing a new show of O'Keeffe's work. Her show opened in early 1923, and Stieglitz spent much of the spring marketing her work. Eventually twenty of her paintings sold for more than $3,000. In the summer, O'Keeffe once again took off for the seclusion of the Southwest, and for a while Stieglitz was alone with Salsbury at Lake George. He took a series of nude photos of her, and soon he became infatuated with her. They had a brief physical affair before O'Keeffe returned in the fall. O'Keeffe could tell what had happened, but since she did not see Stieglitz's new lover as a serious threat to their relationship she let things pass. Six years later she would have her own affair with Beck Strand in New Mexico.

In 1924, Stieglitz's divorce was finally approved by a judge, and within four months he and O'Keeffe married in a small, private ceremony at Marin's house. They went home without a reception or honeymoon. O'Keeffe said later that they married in order to help soothe the troubles of Stieglitz's daughter Kitty, who at that time was being treated in a sanatorium for depression and hallucinations. For the rest of their lives together, their relationship was, as biographer Benita Eisler characterized it, "a collusion ... a system of deals and trade-offs, tacitly agreed to and carried out, for the most part, without the exchange of a word. Preferring avoidance to confrontation on most issues, O'Keeffe was the principal agent of collusion in their union."

In the coming years O'Keeffe would spend much of her time painting in New Mexico, while Stieglitz rarely left New York except for summers at his father's family estate in Lake George in the Adirondacks, his favorite vacation place. O'Keeffe later said "Stieglitz was a hypochondriac and couldn't be more than 50 miles from a doctor."

At the end of 1924, Stieglitz donated 27 photographs to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. It was the first time a major museum included photographs in its permanent collection. In the same year he was awarded the Royal Photographic Society's Progress Medal for advancing photography and received an Honorary Fellowship of the Society.

The Intimate Gallery and An American Place (1925–1937)
In 1925, Stieglitz was invited by the Anderson Galleries to put together one of the largest exhibitions of American art, entitled Alfred Stieglitz Presents Seven Americans: 159 Paintings, Photographs, and Things, Recent and Never Before Publicly Shown by Arthur G. Dove, Marsden Hartley, John Marin, Charles Demuth, Paul Strand, Georgia O'Keeffe and Alfred Stieglitz. Only one small painting by O'Keeffe was sold during the three-week exhibit.

O'Keeffe accepted an offer by Mabel Dodge to go to New Mexico for the summer. Stieglitz took advantage of her time away to begin photographing Dorothy Norman, and he began teaching her the technical aspects of printing as well. When Norman had a second child, she was absent from the gallery for about two months before returning on a regular basis.

In early 1929, Stieglitz was told that the building that housed the Room would be torn down later in the year. After a final show of Demuth's work in May, he retreated to Lake George for the summer, exhausted and depressed. The Strands raised nearly sixteen thousand dollars for a new gallery for Stieglitz, who reacted harshly, saying it was time for "young ones" to do some of the work he had been shouldering for so many years.

In the late fall, Stieglitz returned to New York. On December 15, two weeks before his sixty-fifth birthday, he opened "An American Place", the largest gallery he had ever managed. It had the first darkroom he had ever had in the city. Previously, he had borrowed other darkrooms or worked only when he was at Lake George. He continued showing group or individual shows of his friends Marin, Demuth, Hartley, Dove and Strand for the next sixteen years. O'Keeffe received at least one major exhibition each year. He fiercely controlled access to her works and incessantly promoted her even when critics gave her less than favorable reviews. Often during this time, they would only see each other during the summer, when it was too hot in her New Mexico home, but they wrote to each other almost weekly with the fervor of soul mates.

In 1932, Stieglitz mounted a forty-year retrospective of 127 of his works at The Place. He included all of his most famous photographs, but he also purposely chose to include recent photos of O'Keeffe, who, because of her years in the Southwest sun, looked older than her forty-five years, in comparison to Stieglitz's portraits of his young lover Norman. It was one of the few times he acted spitefully to O'Keeffe in public, and it might have been as a result of their increasingly intense arguments in private about his control over her art.

Later that year, he mounted a show of O'Keeffe's works next to some amateurish paintings on glass by Rebecca Salsbury. He did not publish a catalog of the show, which the Strands took as an insult. Paul Strand never forgave Stieglitz for that. He said, "The day I walked into the Photo-Secession 291 [sic] in 1907 was a great moment in my life… but the day I walked out of An American Place in 1932 was not less good. It was fresh air and personal liberation from something that had become, for me at least, second-rate, corrupt and meaningless."

In 1936, Stieglitz returned briefly to his photographic roots by mounting one of the first exhibitions of photos by Ansel Adams in New York City. The show was successful and David McAlpin bought eight Adams photos. He also put on one of the first shows of Eliot Porter's work two years later. Stieglitz, considered the "godfather of modern photography", encouraged Todd Webb to develop his own style and immerse himself in the medium.

Last years (1938–1946)
In the summer of 1946, Stieglitz suffered a fatal stroke and went into a coma. O'Keeffe returned to New York and found Dorothy Norman was in his hospital room. She left and O'Keeffe was with him when he died. According to his wishes, a simple funeral was attended by twenty of his closest friends and family members. Stieglitz was cremated, and, with his niece Elizabeth Davidson, O'Keeffe took his ashes to Lake George and "put him where he could hear the water." The day after the funeral, O'Keeffe took control of An American Place.

Key set
Stieglitz produced more than 2,500 mounted photographs over his career. After his death, O'Keeffe assembled a set of what she considered the best of his photographs that he had personally mounted. In some cases she included slightly different versions of the same image, and these series are invaluable for their insights about Stieglitz's aesthetic composition. In 1949, she donated the first part of what she called the "key set" of 1,317 Stieglitz photographs to the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC. In 1980, she added to the set another 325 photographs taken by Stieglitz of her, including many nudes. Now numbering 1,642 photographs, it is the largest, most complete collection of Stieglitz's work. In 2002 the National Gallery published a two-volume, 1,012-page catalog that reproduced the complete key set along with detailed annotations about each photograph.

In 2019, the National Gallery published an updated, Online Edition of the Alfred Stieglitz Key Set.

Legacy

 * Stieglitz explained in 1934:
 * "Personally I like my photography straight, unmanipulated, devoid of all tricks; a print not looking like anything but a photograph, living through its own inherent qualities and revealing its own spirit."

 * "Alfred Stieglitz (1864–1946) is perhaps the most important figure in the history of visual arts in America. That is certainly not to say that he was the greatest artist America has ever produced. Rather, through his many roles – as a photographer, as a discoverer and promoter of photographers and of artists in other media, and as a publisher, patron, and collector – he had a greater impact on American art than any other person has had."
 * "Alfred Stieglitz had the multifold abilities of a Renaissance man. A visionary of enormously wide perspective, his accomplishments were remarkable, his dedication awe-inspiring. A photographer of genius, a publisher of inspiration, a writer of great ability, a gallery owner and exhibition organizer of both photographic and modern art exhibitions, a catalyst and a charismatic leader in the photographic and art worlds for over thirty years, he was, necessarily, a passionate, complex, driven and highly contradictory character, both prophet and martyr. The ultimate maverick, he inspired great love and great hatred in equal measure."
 * Eight of the nine highest prices ever paid at auction for Stieglitz photographs (as of 2008) are images of Georgia O'Keeffe. The highest-priced photograph, a 1919 palladium print of Georgia O'Keeffe - Hands, realized US$1.47 million at auction in February 2006. At the same sale, Georgia O'Keeffe - Torso, another 1919 print, sold for $1.36 million.
 * A large number of his works are held at the Minneapolis Institute of Art.
 * In 1971 Stieglitz was posthumously inducted into the International Photography Hall of Fame and Museum.

title: Alfred Stieglitz


text:
Talk:Market capitalization

Amounts
The market cap of the NYSE is worth more cash money then there is in the United States.

 * Phrasing aside, is this true? And is this M0, M1, M2, something else? --Charles A. L. 20:02, Nov 12, 2003 (UTC)

 * This is true based on the amount of physical, paper, cash. Change the article to specify this.

 * "The total market capitalization of all the companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange is greater than the amount of money in the United States." Yes, so? Stocks are also money, they're just as liquid as bank deposits.--Jerryseinfeld 07:13, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Stocks may be in general liquid, but they are not nearly as liquid as bank deposits. There's nothing to stop me from withdrawing all my money from a bank, but if I can't find a buyer for my stocks I can't sell them.  In practice this isn't usually a problem, but it's an important distinction.  For the average investor stocks will behave in a manner similar to bank deposits, but if you hold large quantities of stock or hold stock in thinly traded areas it will be very clear that moving in and out of your positions can be difficult.--rosciol 15:48, Jan 13, 2005 (UTC)

 * The same problem arises for bank deposits: if everybody wants to withdraw money at the same time, banks will go bankrupt and you won't be able to get any cash. This did happen (basically during any major financial crisis).
 * The problem of holding large quantities of stock is more a question of selling price than a matter of liquidity, considering that you will always be able to sell a stock if you are ready to adjust (sometimes dramatically) its price.
 * So strictly speaking, stocks might be more liquid than cash.

The total market capitalization of all the companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange is greater than the amount of money in the United States.

 * I really think this sentence requires more explanation. Why is this significant? Does it suggest foreign ownership? Debt? Overvalued stocks? Help please. -- Blorg 14:40, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * None of the above. It suggests a fundamental truth about stocks and market cap, though, namely that if every stockholder of every company attempted to sell every share at one moment in time, the stock prices would drop precipitously and the total net of all the sales would be far less than the sum of all of today's market caps.  For this reason, stock holdings aren't, for example, calculated as part of the broad (M3) money supply, and stock holdings cannot be said to act as a store of value in the same way that money can be.  - ikkyu2  ( talk ) 07:18, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

Plummet
The article emphasizes the supply of stock on the open market as a key component in a company's market cap. "If the supply increased, the stock price would plummet." This is overly simplistic. Perhaps this view is indicative of the psychology of a market timer, but many investors will have other approaches to valuing a company. For example, they will price the stock at a price they would pay IF the whole company was for sale on the open market. Thus, the amount of stock actually available has no impact on the price these buyers would be willing to pay for the stock.
 * Good point about "they will price the stock at a price they would pay IF the whole company was for sale". A good example may be GOOG :
 * On Aug 19 2004
 * Shares Outstanding: 172.85M
 * Float: 19.60M
 * Today (16:50, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC))
 * Shares Outstanding: 273.42M
 * Float: 127.70M
 * Then compare that with the price action.
 * --Jerryseinfeld 16:50, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * The market cap is a combination of the company valuations of all types of investors, each with different ways of valuing the company.

Rant
The first paragraph here appears to be a rant against the concept of market cap. It does have limited use, it is true. but that doesn't justify what is written here. Morwen - Talk 16:16, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * "The price would plummet if a greater percentage of an company's shares were sold"
 * The article first states that the company is bought ("to buy an entire company"), not sold. Price usually increase on takeover rumors and announcements.--Jerryseinfeld 07:33, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * "The "market" has not determined the value of a corporation, only a few shares."
 * ?--Jerryseinfeld 07:33, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * The over-inflated market cap of AOL allowed it to leverage that value over the under priced Time-Warner, a company with greater tangible assets.
 * This could make a good topic, how market cap can be used for takeovers. Perhaps with a mention of the "pooling of interests" accounting that was used up until the early 2000s.--Jerryseinfeld 07:33, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Analysis
That analysis is really struggling to grasp the concept. A share in a company is just a claim on future cash flow, nothing else. If there is anticipation of future cash flow the stock will be priced after that. The only thing a shareholder is interested in is return in his investment in form of money from a money generating firm. There are no cheap or expensive stocks, there's just anticipated growth in future cash flow to shareholders. When anticipation falls true new estimates will be set and the price will increase, which is the primary source of return on investment. Second is a part of positive cash flow in form of dividend.--Jerryseinfeld 07:16, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC)

"The size and growth of a company's market capitalization often is one of the critical measurements of a public company's success or failure." This is not true. Only the organic growth of market cap (ie. no shareholder dilution) can be said to be a critical mesaurement of a public companies sucsess, but even this statement shouldn't be made in this article because its too confusing.

Changes
I made some changes to this article before learning the proper etiquette, but I was so moved to fix things that I got ahead of myself. Apologies for stepping on toes.

In essence, it is the price one must pay to buy an entire company (putting aside that trying to buy an entire company off the market would cause immense price distortions, and takeovers are almost always at more than market price).

This is wrong. The price to buy an entire company is either enterprise value, which includes a firm's debt and cash, or, if the intention is to own 100% of a company's equity, equity value, which is a fully-diluted measure that incorporates stock options and convertible securities. Also, the takeover concept in general does nothing but confuse the definition of market capitalization. I deleted the buyout/takeover section further down the page for the same reason.

I simplified the Valuation section because it included some random speculation about why a stock price may be what it is which didn't seem relevant or credible. What is a "high" market capitalization? I think it is relevant to mention that market cap almost always exceeds book value because it highlights the difference between the accounting definition of shareholder's equity and market capitalization. But to judge a market cap as "high" is totally subjective and the reasons given amount to even more subjectivity.

The Time Horizons section didn't seem to be related whatsoever.

mullacc 01:04, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

''Insiders generally don't hold more than a few to perhaps 10% of its own stock, and treasury stock is almost always a smaller percentage ''

Made some copyedits + removed this line because it is an over-generalization. The example in the article shows that Yahoo insiders hold 14%. Walmart insiders hold 40% and at Google the percentage is roughly 50% (including approximately 30% owned by the two founders).

JJay 11:25, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

This article was modified 20/11/10 to include the results of an informal e-survey undertaken of traders on the floor of jpm London, ubs, and canacord adams, among others, to accurately define the term "mega" cap as distinct from large cap. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.90.84.56 (talk) 07:56, 20 November 2010 (UTC)

Merge Small-cap, Large-cap, and Mid-cap here
I'd like to merge the Small-cap, Large-cap, and Mid-cap topics here... specifically, into the "Categorization of companies by market cap" section. What do ya'll think? Mikeblas 20:22, 29 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Sounds like a good idea. -Grick(talk to me!) 20:57, 29 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I did the merge, keeping the numbers that were already there. User:24.176.75.203, I see that you've changed the numbers. Do you want to cite a source, or should we make a table since there are so many different definitions? It appears to be brokerage-specific. Do you disagree that many investors use the Russel indexes to define the categories? -- Mikeblas 10:24, 31 December 2005 (UTC)

Graph/Chart
I have worked incredibly hard both within the industry and out to come up with a set definition for market caps. I did come up with the numbers through widespread use. I would appreciate it if the links to references were not deleted in the future.

Thanks Hansfret

I think it would be really good to have a graph or chart of the distribution of nano, micro, small, mid, and large-cap stocks. That way people can see intuitively how the distribution of the market looks. We can include percentages as well. for a quick screen of everything, check out:. You can go quickly through the pages by editting the last number in the link, which shows which number stock in the market cap sort you are on. By jumping around on the pages, you can easily figure out how much are in each category. --68.239.240.144 02:30, 22 February 2007 (UTC) It'd be even better if we could show the differences per year and how they are changing over time. Of course the picture should be SVG. --165.230.46.153 13:54, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

Capitalized value
I made some edits based on this term, which is generally synonomous with it. Also, I added an external link and a category. Bearian 20:43, 7 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Capitalized value is a synonomous phrase of market capitalization.

I'm not sure if this is true. For example, see this:
 * Capitalized Vale is the amount arrived based on the net present value of future anticipated or projected earnings of a business, investments, expenditure etc . (http://www.legal-explanations.com/definitions/capitalized-value.htm).80.235.71.160 06:58, 25 June 2007 (UTC)

Mega-cap
Should the less common "mega-cap" or "mega cap" (>$200B) be added? Investopedia defines it and there's over 100k hits on Google for it. --Georgeryp (talk) 17:45, 1 January 2008 (UTC)

Categorization of companies by capitalization
You have Large Cap defined as >200B where investopedia has it as >10B. Also the gap you have between Mid Cap and Large cap does not join properly. Just another comment to add to the above regarding Mega-Cap.

Reasonable?
Can someone help find any references for what these numbers mean relative to each other? For instance, Microsoft shows Market cap about 4x higher than Revenue, but HP shows market cap BELOW revenue. Should it be measured against Revenue, Operating expenses or what? (Using the Corporate Infobox numbers as reference...)Mjquin_id (talk) 02:30, 9 November 2008 (UTC)

"we"
The second section:

"Cap is short for capitalization, a measure by which we can classify a company's size."

Was this copied from somewhere?

Suzukaze-c (talk) 03:02, 6 April 2012 (UTC)

 * The problem with Wikipedia is that one never knows. Was it here first, then spammed onto many other sites automatically? Or did someone copy it from somewhere else? Running the text through a plagiarism detector (http://www.dustball.com/cs/plagiarism.checker/) indicates that yes, it is "possible plagiarism." But it doesn't say whether it's the chicken or the egg. In any case, the writing needed improving so I did that and we're fine. The Sound and the Fury (talk) 06:30, 6 April 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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Who began "Market Capitalization"? When?
The article should specify the creation of the concept, and (if separate) its current name. I could not find this in a quick search. I don't remember hearing the term more than ~25 years ago. Thank you. StarryEye (talk) 14:31, 20 April 2019 (UTC)

Net worth
Re: introduction: If net worth is defined as assets minus liabilities, and if, as in the tables provided by the Federal Reserve, the market value of the outstanding shares is treated as part of the liabilities, then rising share values result in a diminution of net worth. In fact, since the 1990s net worth is usually negative for nonfinancial corporations. --Alex1011 (talk) 16:23, 10 April 2022 (UTC)

Inline citations to textbook
Greetings Wikipedians! Looks like this talk page has seen no activity (except bots) for 10 years. Now, as to the edits I made yesterday: in my humble opinion, it's not a good idea to rely solely on Investopedia for citations. (I explain why on the WikiProject Finance & Investment). The book I've cited was co-authored by a Duke University prof and president of the American Finance Association. Adding academic citations strengthens the article and builds confidence. Cordially, BuzzWeiser196 (talk) 10:39, 9 August 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Research Process and Methodology - SU24 - Sect 200 - Thu
— Assignment last updated by Mt5332 (talk) 18:04, 10 July 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Market capitalization


text:
Elbert

Elbert is a name that derived from the Germanic Alibert and may refer to:

Given name

 * Elbert Andrews (1901–1979), American baseball player
 * Elbert Dysart Botts (1893–1962), American engineer
 * Elbert Adrain Brinckerhoff (1838–1913), American merchant and mayor
 * Elbert Caraway (1905–1975), American football and baseball player and coach
 * Elbert Frank Cox (1895–1969), American mathematician
 * Elbert Crawford (1966–2013), American football player
 * Elbert Dijkgraaf (born 1970), Dutch economist and politician
 * Elbert Allen Drummond (1943–2012), American heir, businessman and philanthropist
 * Elbert Drungo (1943–2014), American football offensive lineman
 * Elbert Dubenion (1933–2019), American football flanker
 * Elbert Eatmon (1914–1998), American professional baseball pitcher
 * Elbert H. English (1816–1884), associate justice of the Arkansas Supreme Court
 * Elbert Floyd-Jones (1817–1901), American politician
 * Elbert Foules (born 1961), American football cornerback
 * Elbert Gill (1931–2014), American chiropractor and politician
 * Elbert Glover (born 1945), American researcher and author in the field of tobacco addiction and smoking cessation
 * Elbert Guillory (born 1944), Louisiana politician
 * Elbert Bertram Haltom Jr. (1922–2003), judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Alabama
 * Elbert de Hochepied (1706–1763), Dutch politician and diplomat
 * Elbert Hubbard (1856–1915), American writer, publisher, artist, and philosopher
 * Elbert H. Hubbard (1849–1912), United States congressman
 * Elbert de Leeuw (1519/20–1598), Dutch jurist and statesman better known as Elbertus Leoninus
 * Elbert G. Mathews (1910–1977), American diplomat
 * Elbert H. Parsons (1907–1968), Mississippi judge and namesake of the Elbert H. Parsons Law Library
 * Elbert Peets (1886–1968), American landscape architect, city planner
 * Elbert Roest (born 1954), Dutch politician and historian
 * Elbert Root (1915–1983), American Olympic diver
 * Elbert A. Smith (1871–1959), American Latter Day Saints leader
 * Elbert B. Smith (1921–2013), American historian and author
 * Elbert H. Smith (fl. 1839), American poet
 * Elbert S. Smith (1911–1983), American politician
 * Elbert D. Thomas (1883–1953), United States Senator for Utah
 * Elbert Lee Trinkle (1876–1939), American Governor of Virginia
 * Elbert Tuttle (1897–1996), American judge
 * Elbert B. Watson (1879-1963), American architect
 * Elbert Weinberg (1928–1991), American sculptor
 * Elbert West (1967–2015), American country singer-songwriter
 * Elbert Williams (1908–1940), African-American civil rights leader
 * Elbert A. Woodward (1836–1905), American fraudster

Surname

 * Andor Elbert (1934–2014), Hungarian-born Canadian sprint canoer
 * Donnie Elbert (1936–1989), American soul singer and songwriter
 * Emily Elbert (born 1988), American singer-songwriter and guitarist
 * Samuel Elbert (1740–1788), American merchant, revolutionary soldier, and politician
 * Samuel Hitt Elbert (1833–1899), American governor and chief justice of Colorado
 * Samuel Hoyt Elbert (1907–1997), American linguist

Places in the United States

 * Elbert, Colorado, named for Samuel Elbert (1833–1899)
 * Elbert County, Colorado, named for Samuel Elbert (1833–1899)
 * Elbert County, Georgia, named for Samuel Elbert (1740–1788)
 * Elbert, Texas
 * Elbert, West Virginia
 * Lake Elbert, Florida
 * Mount Elbert, the highest mountain in the Rocky Mountains; named for Samuel Elbert (1833–1899)

Other

 * Elbert meteorite, a meteorite which fell in Colorado in 1998

title: Elbert


text:
Mount Elbert

Mount Elbert is the highest summit of the Rocky Mountains of North America. With an elevation of 4401.2 m, it is also the highest point in the U.S. state of Colorado and the second-highest summit in the contiguous United States after Mount Whitney, which is slightly taller. The ultra-prominent fourteener is the highest peak in the Sawatch Range, as well as the highest point in the entire Mississippi River drainage basin. Mount Elbert is located in San Isabel National Forest, 19.4 km southwest (bearing 223°) of the city of Leadville in Lake County, Colorado.

The mountain was named in honor of a Colorado statesman, Samuel Hitt Elbert, who was active in the formative period of the state and Governor of the Territory of Colorado from 1873 to 1874. Henry W. Stuckle of the Hayden Survey was the first to record an ascent of the peak, in 1874. The easiest and most popular climbing routes are categorized as Class 1 to 2 or A+ in mountaineering parlance. Mount Elbert is therefore often referred to as the "gentle giant" that tops all others in the Rocky Mountains.

Geography
Mount Elbert is visible to the southwest of Leadville, often snow-capped even in the summer. Many other fourteeners surround Elbert in all directions, and it is very close to central Colorado's Collegiate Peaks. The neighboring Mount Massive, to the north, is the second-highest peak in the Rocky Mountains and the third-highest in the contiguous United States, and La Plata Peak, to the south, is the fifth-highest in the Rockies. The community of Twin Lakes lies at the base of Mount Elbert, Denver is about 130 mi to the east, Vail is 50 mi to the north, and Aspen is 40 mi to the west. Leadville, about 16 mi to the northeast, is the nearest large town. Elbert's parent peak is Mount Whitney in California. Including Alaska and Hawaii, Mount Elbert is the fourteenth-highest mountain in the United States.

Climate
Weather conditions often change rapidly, and afternoon thunderstorms are common in the summertime; hailstorms and snow are possible year-round. An electrical storm on the mountain's summit was considered remarkable enough to be reported in the July 1894 issue of Science.

Geology
Mount Elbert is part of the Sawatch Range, an uplift of the Laramide Orogeny which separated from the Mosquito Range to the east around 28 million years ago. The tops of this range were heavily glaciated, leaving behind characteristic summit features and other such clues. For example, the base of Elbert on the eastern side exhibits expanses of igneous and metamorphic rocks exposed when the glaciers receded, leaving a lateral moraine. Further up the eastern side there is a large cirque with a small tarn. There are also lakes to both the north and south, Turquoise and Twin Lakes respectively; the Twin Lakes are a result of the natural dam of end moraines, and Turquoise Lake was created by the manmade Sugar Loaf Dam.

Mount Elbert is composed largely of quartzite. However, the summit ridge consists of metamorphic basement rock, which is Pre-Cambrian in origin and about 1.7 billion years old. There are various igneous intrusions including pegmatite, as well as bands of gneiss and schist. Unlike mountains of similar altitude elsewhere, Elbert lacks both a permanent snowpack and a prominent north-facing cirque, which can be attributed to its position among other mountains of similar height, causing it to receive relatively small quantities of precipitation.

History
Mount Elbert was named by miners in honor of Samuel Hitt Elbert, the governor of the then-Territory of Colorado, because he brokered a treaty in September 1873 with the Ute tribe that opened up more than 3000000 acre of reservation land to mining and railroad activity. The first recorded ascent of the peak was by H.W. Stuckle in 1874, who was surveying the mountain as part of the Hayden Survey.

Originally measured as 14,433 ft in height, Mount Elbert's elevation was later adjusted to 14,440 ft following a re-evaluation of mapped elevations, which sparked protests. The actual change was made in 1988 as a result of the North American Vertical Datum of 1988; it seems the original measurement resulted from the Sea Level Datum of 1929. A matter of some contention arose after the Great Depression over the heights of Elbert and its neighbor Mount Massive, which differ in elevation by only 12 ft. This led to an ongoing dispute that came to a head with the Mount Massive supporters building large piles of stones on the summit to boost its height, only to have the Mount Elbert proponents demolish them. The effort was ultimately unsuccessful and Mount Elbert has remained the highest peak in Colorado. The first motorized ascent of Elbert occurred in 1949, when a Jeep was driven to the summit, apparently to judge suitability for skiing development.

Flora and fauna
The summit of Mount Elbert is an alpine environment, featuring plants such as Phacelia sericea (sky-pilot), Hymenoxys grandiflora (old-man-of-the-mountain), and Geum rossii (alpine avens). Also noted are Carex atrata var. pullata, Salix desertorum, Platanthera hyperborea, Thalictrum fendleri, Aquilegia canadensis, Chenopodium album, Gentiana detonsa var. hallii, and Bigelovia parryi. Below treeline the mountain is heavily forested, with the lower slopes covered with a mixture of lodgepole pine, spruce, aspen, and fir.

Some of the fauna reported on the climb to the summit include black bears, marmots, mule deer, pikas, and pocket gophers; there are also many species of birds. Elk, grouse, turkey, and bighorn sheep are present in the area during the summer. Grizzly bears are extirpated.

Climbing
There are three main routes to ascend the mountain, all of which gain over 4100 ft elevation. The standard route ascends the peak from the east, starting from the Colorado Trail just north of Twin Lakes. The 4.6 mi long North (Main) Elbert Trail begins close to the Elbert Creek Campground, and gains about 4500 ft. The trail is open to equestrians, mountain bikers and hunters during season. An easier, but longer route, the South Elbert Trail, is 5.5 mi long, climbing 4600 ft at a less-punishing gradient than the North Elbert Trail, approaching from the south and then climbing the eastern ridge.

The most difficult of the main routes is the Black Cloud Trail, a Class 2 climb that takes ten to fourteen hours depending on pace, gains 5300 ft in elevation, and also involves an ascent of the sub-peak, South Elbert, at 14134 ft. Even healthy and experienced climbers report great difficulty on this route, and despite the fact that there is a trail, the route is extremely steep, unstable, and rocky in places. The elevation gain is not evenly distributed over the 5.5-mile ascent. There are also routes approaching from the western face, and southwestern ridge, from South Halfmoon Creek Trailhead and Echo Canyon Trailhead respectively.

Although strenuous and requiring physical fitness, none of the conventional routes require specialist mountaineering skills or technical rock climbing. The main dangers of the mountain are those common to all high mountains, particularly altitude sickness. This can affect anyone, even those who are acclimatized. In serious cases, it can lead to high-altitude pulmonary edema and cerebral edema, which can lead to difficulties with breathing, paralysis, and death. Climbers are advised to begin their ascent at or before 6 A.M. and to summit and descend before early afternoon to minimize exposure to possible afternoon thunderstorms while at high altitudes. Although the most conventional form of ascent is by hiking, Anna Elizabeth Dickinson, the orator, ascended the mountain on a mule borrowed from the U.S. government.

title: Mount Elbert


text:
The Mooseheart Faith Stellar Groove Band

The Mooseheart Faith Stellar Groove Band, sometimes known as Mooseheart Faith, is a Los Angeles–based rock band blending 1960s folk rock and psychedelia, 1970s space rock and progressive rock and a variety of influences from world music and jazz.

Background
The core of the band is made of two main vocalists: Todd Homer, formerly of the punk band The Angry Samoans, and Larry Robinson, formerly of the 1970s teen pop/soul group Apollo, who also performs under the name OMB. Both of the band's primary vocalists play a number of other instruments on the band's recordings. Homer plays bass, harmonica, and synthesizer; while Robinson plays guitar, keyboards, synthesizer, and theremin. The band also features drummer Ritchie West (also of Camper Van Beethoven and The Wrestling Worms) and bassist Joe Dean (also of Crawlspace).

Their name is derived from a 19th-century man named either Edward Mooseheart or Edwin Mooseheart, known for his public statements on UFOs.

Albums

 * Mooseheart Faith (1988, De Milo Records)
 * Magic Square of the Sun (1990, Stellar Records)
 * Golden Light (1992, Stellar Records)
 * Cosmic Dialogues (1993, September Gurls)
 * Coronal Mass Injection (1998, September Gurls)
 * Memories of the Future (2010, Stellar Records)

As various artists

 * Smiles, Vibes & Harmony: A Tribute to Brian Wilson (1990, De Milo Records) – "Wind Chimes"
 * Groin Thunder! A Tribute to The Troggs (1992, Dog Meat Records) – "Love Is All Around"
 * Fun with Mushrooms (1993, Delerium Records) – "Thought Dial"
 * Eyesore: A Stab at the Residents (1996, Vaccination Records, as "The Mooseheart Faith") – "Firefly/Vinegar"
 * Not of This Earth: Sci-Fi Movies Tribute (2003, Black Widow Records) – "Viva Von Daniken"
 * Yr Agog (Oggum Records) – "Invisible Invader" & "Face on Mars"


text:
Vassar

Vassar may refer to:
 * Vassar Brothers Medical Center
 * Vassar College
 * 1312 Vassar, an asteroid

People

 * John Ellison Vassar (1813–1878), American lay preacher and missionary
 * Matthew Vassar (1792–1868), American brewer and merchant, founder of Vassar College
 * Phil Vassar (born 1964), American country music artist
 * Vassar B. Carlton (1912–2005), American jurist
 * Vassar Clements (1928–2005), American fiddler
 * Vassar Miller (1924–1998), American writer and poet

Places

 * Vassar, Manitoba, Canada
 * Vassar, Idaho, US
 * Vassar, Kansas, US
 * Vassar, Michigan, US
 * Vassar Township, Michigan, US
 * Vassar Glacier, Alaska, US

title: Vassar


text:
Sarah Kirsch

Sarah Kirsch (16 April 1935 – 5 May 2013) was a German poet.

Biography
Sarah Kirsch was originally born Ingrid Bernstein in Limlingerode, Prussian Saxony but had changed her first name to Sarah in order to protest against her father's antisemitism. She studied biology in Halle and literature at the Johannes R. Becher Institute for Literature in Leipzig. In 1965, she co-wrote a book of poems with writer Rainer Kirsch, to whom she was married for ten years. She protested against East Germany's expulsion of Wolf Biermann in 1976, which led to her exclusion from the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). One year later she left the country herself, nevertheless being critical of the West as well. She is mainly known for her poetry, but she also wrote prose and translated children's books into German.

According to complete review, "the great German-language post-war poets were largely East German (or Austrian) born in the mid to late 1930s which included towering figures such as Volker Braun, Heinz Czechowski" and Sarah Kirsch who was "the most prominent female representative of that generation."

She won many prizes and honours including the German international literary Petrarca-Preis in 1976, the Peter-Huchel Prize in 1993 and the Georg Büchner Prize in 1996. From 1960-1968 she was married to lyricist Rainer Kirsch. Sarah Kirsch died in May 2013 following a brief illness.

Bibliography (selection)

 * Berlin – Sonnenseite. Deutschlandtreffen der Jugend in der Hauptstadt der DDR (1964), photo reportage, together with Thomas Billhardt and Rainer Kirsch
 * Gespräch mit dem Saurier (1965), poems, together with Rainer Kirsch
 * Die betrunkene Sonne (1966), children's book. Illustrations by Erich Gürtzig
 * Landaufenthalt (1967), poems
 * Zaubersprüche (1973), poems
 * Trauriger Tag
 * Die Pantherfrau. Fünf unfrisierte Erzählungen aus dem Kassettenrecorder (1973), Prose
 * Die ungeheuren bergehohen Wellen auf See (1973), Prose
 * Es war dieser merkwürdige Sommer (1974), poems selections
 * Caroline im Wassertropfen (1975), children's book. Illustrations by Erdmut Oelschläger
 * Zwischen Herbst und Winter (1975), children's book together with Ingrid Schuppan
 * Rückenwind. Gedichte (1976), poems
 * Im Sommer (1977)
 * Musik auf dem Wasser (1977)
 * Wintergedichte (1978)
 * Katzenkopfpflaster (1978), poems
 * Sieben Häute. Gedichte 1962–1979 (1979)
 * Drachensteigen (1979), poems
 * Trennung (1979), poems
 * Wind und Schatten, together with Kota Taniuchi
 * La Pagerie (1980), Prose, poems
 * Geschlechtertausch (1980), together with Irmtraud Morgner and Christa Wolf
 * Hans mein Igel (1980), children's book after the Brothers Grimm, Illustrations by Paula Schmidt
 * Papiersterne (1981), set by music by Wolfgang von Schweinitz
 * Erdreich (1982), poems
 * Zwischen Herbst und Winter (1983), Illustrations by Kurt Mühlenhaupt. Gertraud Middelhauve Verlag, ISBN 3-7876-9154-5
 * Katzenleben (1984), poems
 * Landwege. Eine Auswahl 1980–1985 (1985), with an epilogue by Günter Kunert
 * Hundert Gedichte und ein Gespräch über ihre Gedichte. (1985) (a selection from the books Landaufenthalt, Zaubersprüche, Rückenwind, Drachensteigen), Ebenhausen
 * Reisezehrung (1986), Prose
 * Irrstern (1987), Prose
 * Book with poems by Sarah Kirsch and drawings by A. R. Penck in the Berlin „Edition Malerbücher“ (1987)
 * Allerlei-Rauh. Eine Chronik (1988), Prose
 * Luft und Wasser. Gedichte und Bilder, with pictures by Ingo Kühl, Edition Lutz Arnold in the Steidl Verlag, Göttingen 1988.
 * Schneewärme. Gedichte (1989)
 * Wintermusik (1989)
 * Die Flut (1990), selection, compiled by Gerhard Wolf
 * Schwingrasen (1991), Prose
 * Spreu (1991), pictures diary
 * Erlkönigs Tochter (1992), poems
 * Das simple Leben (1994), Prose and poems
 * Bodenlos (1996)
 * Werke, Complete edition, five volumes in a slipcase (1999), DVA and dtv
 * Katzen sprangen am Rande und lachten, poems and prose, selection by Franz-Heinrich Hackel, Manesse Verlag, Zürich 2000, ISBN 3-7175-8270-4
 * Sarah Kirsch and Christoph W. Aigner: Beim Malen bin ich weggetreten (2000), art book
 * Schwanenliebe. Zeilen und Wunder (2001), lyrical miniatures
 * Islandhoch, Tagebruchstücke (2002), Prose
 * Kommt der Schnee im Sturm geflogen (2005), Prose
 * Kuckuckslichtnelken (2006), Prose
 * Regenkatze (2007), Prose (Lyrical diary)
 * Sommerhütchen (2008)
 * Krähengeschwätz. Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, München 2010, ISBN 978-3-421-04451-8
 * Märzveilchen. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, München 2012, ISBN 978-3-421-04541-6
 * Juninovember. Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, München 2014, ISBN 978-3-421-04636-9
 * Ice Roses: Selected Poems, translated to English by Anne Stokes, Carcanet, 2014 ISBN 978-1-84777-151-3
 * Ænglisch. Prose; with an epilogue by Frank Trende. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, München 2015, ISBN 978-3-421-04649-9
 * Freie Verse: 99 Gedichte, Manesse Verlag, Zürich 2020, ISBN 978-3-7175-2506-6

Resources

 * Sarah Kirsch by Mererid Hopwood (1997)

title: Sarah Kirsch


text:
Talk:Neville Chamberlain

Unitarian?
I remember reading here that he was a Unitarian, and it is easy to find good sources for this. Why has any mention of the mans religion been removed from the article, especially when it was clearly an important influence on his politics. Bsdrevise (talk) 22:29, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

German version
I find this is a very good article and is currently very relevant due to the situation in the world. As I live in Switzerland, I speak German but I found the German article in Wikipedia on Neville Chamberlain to be very weak. Would it not be possible to simply translate the English article for the German Wikipedia. Just a friendly suggestion David Norman Ipsach Switzerland info@david-norman.ch 138.248.51.141 (talk) 09:48, 19 September 2022 (UTC)

Lead image
Which image should be used in the infobox?

Discussion

 * Option B - Taken much closer to Chamberlain's premiership (during his second chancellorship), is high resolution, and looks towards the text per the Manual of Style. Chamberlain is too young in Option A and looks away from the text; the photograph is also of inferior quality. Not convinced by any of the alternatives either. Tim O'Doherty (talk) 20:06, 21 March 2023 (UTC)
 * B, assuming the copyright is proper, as there's some mention on the image page of claims being made concerning it versus WMF. A,C,E and I show him much younger-appearing than during his prime ministerial career, his point of greatest fame. Remainder are either substandard shots, historical images that should appear at the proper point in the article rather than the infobox, or paintings. Wehwalt (talk) 21:42, 21 March 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm going to go ahead and WP:BOLDly change it now; the all of two participants thus far have unanimously agreed on Option B. Anyone in disagreement can comment here. Tim O'Doherty (talk) 20:43, 26 March 2023 (UTC)
 * That's fine, but keep in mind that articles that need to have polls on infobox images are very few. Most with large numbers of PD images have an adequate image chosen, or the population of editors interested enough to vote is thin. As here. Wehwalt (talk) 22:39, 26 March 2023 (UTC)
 * My motivation for starting the discussion was a recent edit summary: "consensus needed to change long-standing image". I thought the 1936 image was better, hence the discussion. Tim O'Doherty (talk) 22:53, 26 March 2023 (UTC)
 * Option B Looks towards the text and is closer to the time when Chamberlain was Prime Minister. Ollieisanerd  (talk • contribs) 18:01, 30 May 2023 (UTC)

WHY do so many of you who write entries on Wikipedia give such a loooooooong introduction before you get into the actual biography?! This is totally unneccessary, and appears on almost all of the entries. Simply get into the biographical information- beginning with place of birth- after a short, and I said SHORT, introduction! This introductory section runs for many paragraphs, and needs to be shortened! 98.123.126.45 (talk) 21:04, 2 June 2023 (UTC)

 * Since most people do not read the whole article, we put an executive summary at the top. Wehwalt (talk) 22:38, 2 June 2023 (UTC)

Rearmament
The article somewhat underplays Chamberlain's part, as Chancellor of the Exchequer, in rearmament. His use of filmed speeches to camera, shown in cinemas, was also quite groundbreaking. (Churchill didn't like the microphone and hated the camera, preferring a live audience.) Chamberlain's 1936 newsreel address, explaining the need to rearm and the cost of doing it, is of some interest in terms of policy and personality. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TAHJt-Oi7lo Although he undermined himself at Munich by treating Hitler as a reasonable and appeasable negotiator, Chamberlain did fund massive rearmament for all three services as well as supporting Churchill in the May Debates of 1940. Khamba Tendal (talk) 18:29, 17 June 2023 (UTC)

The Walker-Smith ref
I removed the Walker-Smith citation. I initially came to fix it, as it was giving a CS1 error, but the link as it stood went to a tiny fragment of the text which didn't seem particularly relevant. I found a complete copy of the book online (here), where I couldn't see any reference to Chamberlain's papers, nor to the Birmingham University archives. So I felt the best option was to remove the ref. Posting here since it seemed to require more explanation than would fit in an edit summary. RobertG ♬ talk 11:19, 19 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Neville Chamberlain


text:
Talk:List of German-language authors

[Untitled]
Why the distinction between the languages? Or as Emil Cioran said: "We dont't live in a county, but in a language". 82.82.117.83 20:17, 12 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Maybe Cioran didn't, but people live in a country. Curero 20:12, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

But because people have also lived in several countries, organizing these authors by country resulted in duplications. Elias Cannetti, for example, would have to be classified under Austria, England, and Romania. It seems to me that the individual page is the place to talk about these movements. Thus, I've decided to WP:BB and reorganize the list alphabetically. Organizing lists alphabetically seems the least contentious way. (Note: I've put I and J together for now, since their distinction is a newer invention anyway. If someone wants to separate them, I have no objection.) Universitytruth 21:08, 5 July 2006 (UTC)

This [] was a major change, and was not signalled in the edit summary or on the talk page. I'm going to fix that when I have a moment. Anthony Krupp 11:57, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

Ok. I've reformatted to avoid value judgments: living authors get a bullet (so to speak) to signal that they are alive, rather than getting a bullet because one user thinks they are 'important.' That said, I think it is a long list, and it could be useful to those consulting wikipedia to see a more surveyable list involving value. But I might suggest that it would be then worth having an article like "Princeton's Ph.D. reading list" or "Harvard's M.A. reading list" or something like that. Does anyone know if that is ok from a copyright perspective? Anthony Krupp 22:35, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of German-language authors


text:
User:Sverdrup

Subpages: .css .js 1

title: User:Sverdrup


text:
Tokyo Station

Tōkyō Station (東京駅, ) is a major railway station in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan. The original station is located in Chiyoda's Marunouchi business district near the Imperial Palace grounds. The newer Eastern extension is not far from the Ginza commercial district. Due to the large area covered by the station, it is divided into the Marunouchi (west) and Yaesu (east) sides in its directional signage.

Served by the high-speed rail lines of the Shinkansen network, Tōkyō Station is the main inter-city rail terminal in Tokyo. It is the busiest station in Japan in terms of scheduled trains, with more than 4,000 trains arriving and departing daily, and the fifth-busiest in eastern Japan in terms of passenger throughput; on average, more than 500,000 people use Tōkyō Station every day. The station is also served by many regional commuter lines of Japan Railways, as well as the Tokyo Metro network.

Lines
Trains on the following lines are available at Tōkyō Station:
 * Tōhoku Shinkansen
 * Yamagata Shinkansen
 * Akita Shinkansen
 * Jōetsu Shinkansen
 * Hokuriku Shinkansen
 * Hokkaido Shinkansen
 * Tōkaidō Main Line
 * Ueno–Tokyo Line
 * Keihin–Tōhoku Line
 * Yamanote Line
 * Chūō Main Line (including Chūō Line (Rapid))
 * Sōbu Main Line (including Sōbu Line (Rapid), Limited Express Narita Express, Shiosai)
 * Yokosuka Line (including Limited Express Narita Express)
 * Keiyō Line
 * (through services to/from San'yō Shinkansen operated by JR West)
 *  Tokyo Metro
 * Marunouchi Line
 *  Tokyo Metro
 * Marunouchi Line

The station is linked by underground passageways to the Ōtemachi underground (subway) station complex served by the Tōzai, Chiyoda, Hanzōmon, and Mita subway lines.

It is also possible to walk to the Nijūbashimae, Hibiya, Yūrakuchō, Ginza, and Higashi-ginza Stations completely underground (the last a distance of over 2 km), but these stations can usually be reached more quickly by train.

Tokyo Station is also a major intercity bus terminal, with regular midday service to several cities in the Kantō region and overnight service to the Kansai and Tōhoku regions. The furthest overnight bus service goes to Izumo-Taisha, over 800 km away.

Station layout

The main station facade on the Marunouchi side is made primarily of bricks, and partly dates back to the station's opening in 1914. The main station consists of ten island platforms serving twenty tracks, raised above street level and running in a north–south direction. The main concourse runs east–west below the platforms.

The Shinkansen lines are on the Yaesu side of the station, along with a multi-storey Daimaru department store. The entrances nearest to the Shinkansen lines are named Yaesu, and those at the extreme east of the station are named Nihonbashi.

On the far west side is the Marunouchi entrances, which are closest to the two underground Sōbu/Yokosuka line platforms serving four tracks (five stories below ground level). The Narita Express to Narita International Airport (NRT) uses these platforms.

The two Keiyō Line platforms serving four tracks are four stories below ground some hundreds of meters to the south of the main station with moving walkways to serve connecting passengers.

The whole complex is linked by an extensive system of underground passageways that merge with surrounding commercial buildings and shopping centers.

Main-level platforms
(listed in order from west to east)

JR Central
Originally, platforms 3 to 10 were numbered as platforms 1 to 8 and additional platforms were numbered sequentially from west to east through the opening of the Tōkaidō Shinkansen in 1964. Platforms 9 to 13 were used for the Tōkaidō Main Line and Yokosuka Line but were removed in 1988, and platforms 12 and 13 were then used for the new Tōhoku Shinkansen from 1991 to 1997. The current Chūō Main Line platform opened in 1995 as platforms 1 and 2, and other platforms were renumbered accordingly, leaving platforms 10 and 11 unused. The current platform numbering became effective in 1997 when one of the Tōkaidō Main Line platforms was repurposed for the Jōetsu Shinkansen as platforms 20 and 21. The existing Tōhoku Shinkansen platforms were simultaneously renumbered as 22 and 23.

History
In 1889, a Tokyo municipal committee drew up plans for an elevated railway line connecting the Tōkaidō Main Line terminal at Shinbashi to the Nippon Railway (now Tōhoku Main Line) terminal at Ueno. The Imperial Diet resolved in 1896 to construct a new station on this line called Central Station (中央停車場), located directly in front of the gardens of the Imperial Palace.

Construction was delayed by the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War and Russo-Japanese War, but finally commenced in 1908. The three-story station building was designed by architect Tatsuno Kingo (who also designed Manseibashi Station and the nearby Bank of Japan building) as a restrained celebration of Japan's costly victory in the Russo-Japanese War. The building is often mentioned in guidebooks to be fashioned after Amsterdam Centraal station in the Netherlands. This is in dispute, as it has a similarity to a family of other railway station buildings built at the beginning of the twentieth century. Terunobu Fujimori, a scholar of Western architecture, also refutes the rumor, having studied Tatsuno's styles as well as the building itself.

Tokyo Station opened on December 20, 1914 with four platforms; two serving electric trains (current Yamanote/Keihin–Tōhoku Line platforms) and two serving non-electric trains (current Tōkaidō Line platforms). The Chūō Main Line extension to the station was completed in 1919 and originally stopped at the platform now used by northbound Yamanote/Keihin–Tōhoku trains. During this early era, the station only had gates on the Marunouchi side, with the north side serving as an exit and the south side serving as an entrance. The Yaesu side of the station opened in 1929.

Much of the station was destroyed in a B-29 firebombing raid on May 25, 1945. The bombing shattered the impressive rooftop domes and the entire third floor of the building. The station was quickly rebuilt within a year, but the restored building had only two stories instead of three, and simple angular roofs were built in place of the original domes. These postwar alterations were blamed for creating the mistaken impression that the building was based on the Centraal station in Amsterdam. Plans in the 1980s to demolish the building and replace it with a larger structure were derailed by a preservation movement.

The Yaesu side was also rebuilt after the war, but the new structure was damaged by fire in 1949, and this side of the building was then significantly upgraded with a contemporary exterior and a large Daimaru department store. The new Yaesu side facilities opened in 1953, including two new platforms for Tōkaidō Main Line services (now used by Shinkansen trains). Two more platforms opened in 1964 to accommodate the first Shinkansen services. The Yaesu side was partially rebuilt again in 1991 to accommodate the Shinkansen extension from Ueno.

A plan was finalized in 1971 to build a Narita Shinkansen high-speed line connecting Tokyo Station to Narita International Airport. The line was envisioned as extending underground from Tokyo to Shinjuku Station, and the plan was to build the platforms underneath Kajibashi-dori (to the south of Tokyo Station) to avoid the need to run the line under the Imperial Palace. Construction of the Narita Shinkansen was halted in 1983 due to difficulties acquiring the necessary land to build the line, but the area set aside for its platforms was eventually used for the Keiyō Line and Musashino Line terminals, which opened in 1990.

From July 1987, the station hosted a series of regular free public concerts referred to as "Tokyo Eki Kon" (Tokyo Station Concerts). These were first held as a celebration of the launch of Japan Railways Group as the privatized successor to the state-owned Japanese National Railways. Altogether 246 concerts were performed, but the event was discontinued when its popularity waned and the last concert took place in November 2000. The event returned in 2004 as the "Aka Renga (Red Brick) Concerts" but it was again suspended, after 19 concerts, when redevelopment of the station started in earnest. In 2012, as the reconstruction was nearing completion, there were calls for the concerts to resume.

The station facilities of the Marunouchi Line were inherited by Tokyo Metro after the privatization of the Teito Rapid Transit Authority (TRTA) in 2004.

The Tokyo Station complex has undergone extensive development, including major improvements to the Marunouchi (west) and Yaesu (east) sides of the station. The Marunouchi side underwent an extensive five-year renovation, completed in October 2012, in which the historic 98-year-old façade on this side of the station was restored to its pre-war condition. The restoration work included recreating the two domes according to their original design. The surrounding area was converted into a broad plaza (Marunouchi Central Plaza) extending into a walkway toward the Imperial Palace, with space for bus and taxi ranks. In contrast, the Yaesu side of the station is very urban in appearance. The North and South GranTokyo towers are connected to the terminal by the GranRoof, a new commercial facility with a large canopy representing a "sail of light" which covers the outdoor areas. The high-rise towers include multi-story shopping areas and the offices of a number of leading companies and universities. This part of the project was completed in 2013.

Station numbering was introduced to the JR East commuter platforms in 2016 with Tokyo being assigned station numbers JT01 for the Tokaido Line, JU01 for the Utsunomiya/Takasaki lines, JK26 for the Keihin-Tōhoku line, JY01 for the Yamanote line, JC01 for the Chūō line rapid service, JO19 for both the Sōbu line rapid service as well as the adjoining Yokosuka line, and JE01 for the Keiyō line. At the same time, JR East assigned a three-letter code to their major interchange station; Tokyo was assigned the three-letter code "TYO".

Assassinations
Tokyo Station has been the site of the assassination of two Japanese prime ministers. On November 4, 1921, Hara Takashi was stabbed to death by a right-wing railroad switchman in front of the south wing as he arrived to board a train for Kyoto. On November 14, 1930, Osachi Hamaguchi was shot by a member of the Aikokusha ultra-nationalist secret society. He survived the attack but died of his wounds in August the following year.

Proposed developments
There was a proposal to build a spur to Tokyo Station from the nearby Toei Asakusa Line, which would provide another connection to the subway network, and also possibly provide faster connections from the station to Tokyo's airports, Haneda and Narita. The plan has yet to be formally adopted. Authorities are re-considering a similar plan as part of the infrastructure improvements for the 2020 Summer Olympics; the proposed line would cut travel time to Haneda from 30 minutes to 18 minutes, and to Narita from 55 minutes to 36 minutes, at a total cost of around 400 billion yen.

There are also plans to extend the Tsukuba Express from Akihabara to Tokyo. In September 2013, a number of municipalities along the Tsukuba Express line in Ibaraki Prefecture submitted a proposal to complete the extension at the same time as the new airport-to-airport line.

Tokyo Metro is also planning Tokyo as the terminus for their future line that could connect Odaiba.

Passenger statistics
In fiscal 2018, the JR East station was used by an average of 467,165 passengers daily (boarding passengers only), making it the third busiest station on the JR East network. Over the same fiscal year, the Tokyo Metro station was used by an average of 218,275 passengers daily (both exiting and entering passengers), making it the ninth-busiest Tokyo Metro station. The passenger figures (boarding passengers only) for the JR East (formerly JNR) station in previous years are as shown below.

Districts

 * Marunouchi
 * Yaesu
 * Ginza

Buildings

 * Tokyo Midtown Yaesu Yaesu Central Tower
 * Marunouchi Building
 * Shin-Marunouchi Building
 * JP Tower
 * Tokyo International Forum
 * Tokyo Imperial Palace
 * Mitsubishi Ichigokan Museum, Tokyo

Hotels

 * Shangri-La Hotel, Tokyo

Stations
Other stations within walking distance of Tokyo station include the following.
 * Ōtemachi Station (Tokyo Metro Marunouchi Line, Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line, Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line, Tokyo Metro Hanzōmon Line, Toei Mita Line)
 * Hatchōbori Station (Keiyō Line, Tokyo Metro Hibiya Line)
 * Nihombashi Station (Tokyo Metro Ginza Line, Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line, Toei Asakusa Line)
 * Mitsukoshimae Station (Tokyo Metro Hanzōmon Line, Tokyo Metro Ginza Line)
 * Shin-Nihombashi Station (Sōbu Line Rapid)
 * Nijūbashimae Station (Subway TokyoChiyoda.png Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line)
 * Hibiya Station (Tokyo Metro Hibiya Line, Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line, Toei Mita Line)
 * Yūrakuchō Station (Yamanote Line, Keihin-Tōhoku Line, Tokyo Metro Yūrakuchō Line)
 * Ginza-itchōme Station (Tokyo Metro Yūrakuchō Line)
 * Kyōbashi Station (Tokyo Metro Ginza Line)
 * Takarachō Station (Toei Asakusa Line)

Bus terminal

 * Yaesu South Exit Highway Bus Terminal

Sister stations
Tokyo Station has "sister station" agreements with Amsterdam Centraal station in the Netherlands, Grand Central Terminal in New York, USA, Beijing railway station in China, Hsinchu Station in Taiwan, and Frankfurt (Main) Hauptbahnhof in Germany.

title: Tokyo Station


text:
Pakistani literature

Pakistani literature is a distinct literature that gradually came to be defined after Pakistan gained nationhood status in 1947, emerging out of literary traditions of the South Asia. The shared tradition of Urdu literature and English literature of British India was inherited by the new state. Over a big time of period a body of literature unique to Pakistan has emerged in nearly all major Pakistani languages, including Balochi, English, Pushto, Punjabi, Seraiki, Sindhi, and Urdu,.

History
The nature of Pakistani literature soon after independence aroused controversy among writers due to its being centred heavily on the negative events related to the independence movement. According to Gilani Kamran (GC University), Pakistani literature was expected to take a new direction along with the new state of Pakistan at this point, but did not immediately meet this expectation.

Saadat Hassan Manto (1912–1955), a prominent writer of short stories of South Asia writing mainly in Urdu, produced great literature out of the events relating to the India-Pakistan independence. His literature is considered to be progressive in its tone and spirit. According to several critics it had not only evolved its own identity but also had played a significant role in documenting the hardships and hopes of Pakistan in the latter part of the 20th century.

Today, Pakistani literature has taken a shape of its own by depicting the complex class system and the common man. It also has evolved in merging Urdu literary forms and English literature leading to experimentation. Many writers of fiction borrow from English and vice versa.

Pakistani literature's main official platform is the Pakistan Academy of Letters, whose work is overseen by a Board of Governors.

Digests
Since 1960s Pakistan had periodicals called digests. As some digests cater to current events, but a large number of them used to publish pulp fiction. Karachi was leading in publishing of popular pulp fiction. Ibn-e-Safi and Shakeel Adilzada of Sabrang Digest (1960s) was Pakistan's early popular pulp fiction writers. Mohiuddin Nawab ran a 33 year long Suspense Digest series called Devta until 2010. Some of the fiction digests not being adequately in tune with Pakistan's Islamist religious orthodoxy faced challenging times during General Zia times, but also had to find ways and means to bypass official & unofficial moral police at times by bribing them. According to Haseeb Asif historically not only romance & sexuality but also soft erotica had always been a part Pakistani pulp fiction digests, only that some of them make it feel it guilt free by imputing something negative along natural human instincts. While government tried to interfere, one important cross road came with Television and their after digital media. Some of digest writers shifted to television drama script writing, same time to sustain in business print media digests rather than subscription started depending more upon advertising & spirituality business and therefore had to compromise with their sexual openness to an extent. Haseeb Asif says as much predominant language of these digest is language of middle class in Pakistan society, consuming sexual content masked with imputing moral guilt on self & judge upper & lower classes too is feature of middle class. Asif further says while some of the authors of classical Urdu literature too explored human sexuality, but most times it comes as an argument to question social & patriarchal hypocrisy where as pulp fiction continue to compromise with misogyny & patriarchal values of the society.

English
English is one of the official languages of Pakistan (Urdu, being the other) and has been established in the area since the British colonial era. The dialect of English spoken in Pakistan is known as Pakistani English. English language poetry from Pakistan from the beginning held a special place in South Asian writing, notably with the work of Shahid Suhrawardy, Ahmed Ali, Alamgir Hashmi, Daud Kamal, Taufiq Rafat, and Maki Kureishi, and later of M. Athar Tahir, Waqas Ahmed Khwaja, Omer Tarin, Hina Babar Ali and others; but fiction from Pakistan began to receive recognition in the latter part of the 20th century, with the popularity of the Parsi author Bapsi Sidhwa who wrote The Crow Eaters (1978), Cracking India (1988), etc., after the earlier reputations of Ahmed Ali and Zulfikar Ghose had been made in international fiction. In the diaspora, Hanif Kureshi commenced a prolific career with the novel The Buddha of Suburbia (1990), which won the Whitbread Award, and Aamer Hussein wrote a series of acclaimed short story collections. Sara Suleri published her literary memoir, Meatless Days (1989).

Pakistani English writing has had some readership in the country. From 1980s Pakistani English literature began to receive national and official recognition, when the Pakistan Academy of Letters included works originally written English in its annual literary awards. The first major English writer to receive this national honour was Alamgir Hashmi. Subsequently, through the last three decades, a number of other English writers, including Bapsi Sidhwa and Nadeem Aslam, have been recognized by the Academy. In the early years of the 21st century, a number of Pakistani novelists writing in English won or were shortlisted for international awards. Mohsin Hamid published his first novel Moth Smoke (2000), which won the Betty Trask Award and was a finalist for the PEN/Hemingway Award; he has since published his second novel, The Reluctant Fundamentalist (2007), which was shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize. British-Pakistani writer Nadeem Aslam won the Kiriyama Prize for his second book, Maps for Lost Lovers (2004). The first novel of Mohammed Hanif, A Case of Exploding Mangoes (2008) was shortlisted for the 2008 Guardian First Book Award. Emerging authors Kamila Shamsie and Daniyal Mueenuddin have garnered wide attention.

Persian
During the early Muslim period, foreign Persian language became the lingua franca of South Asia, adopted and used by most of the educated and the government. Urdu, Pakistan's national language and lingua franca, draws heavy influences from the Persian language (see Persian and Urdu). Although Persian literature from Persia itself was popular, several figures in South Asia, and later Pakistan, became major poets in Persian, the most notable being Allama Iqbal. For a time, Persian remained the court language of the Mughals, soon to be replaced by Urdu and English. Persian still held its status, despite the spread of Urdu, well into the early years of the British rule in South Asia.

title: Pakistani literature


text:
Rose Ausländer

Rose Ausländer (born Rosalie Beatrice Scherzer; May 11, 1901 – January 3, 1988) was a Jewish poet writing in German and English. Born in Czernowitz in the Bukovina, she lived through its tumultuous history of belonging to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Kingdom of Romania, and eventually the Soviet Union. Rose Ausländer spent her life in several countries: Austria-Hungary, Romania, the United States, and Germany.

Early life and education, 1901–20
Rose Ausländer was born in Czernowitz, Bukovina (now Chernivtsi, Ukraine), to a German-speaking Jewish family. At the time Czernowitz was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Her father Sigmund (Süssi) Scherzer (1871–1920) was from a small town near Czernowitz, and her mother Kathi Etie Rifke Binder (1873–1947) was born in Czernowitz to a German-speaking family. From 1907, she went to school in Czernowitz. In 1916, her family fled the Imperial Russian Army to Vienna but returned to Czernowitz in 1920, which had become part of the Kingdom of Romania and was known as Cernăuți after 1918.

In 1919, she began studying literature and philosophy in Cernăuți. At this time, she developed a lifelong interest in the philosopher Constantin Brunner. After her father died in 1920 she left university.

Minneapolis & New York, 1921–27
In 1921, she immigrated to the United States with her university friend, and future husband, Ignaz Ausländer. In Minneapolis, she worked as an editor for the German language newspaper Westlicher Herold and was a collaborator of the anthology Amerika-Herold-Kalender, in which she published her first poems. In 1922, she moved with Ausländer to New York City, where they were married on October 19, 1923. She separated from Ausländer three years later aged 25, but kept his last name. She became an American citizen in 1926. In the cycle of poems New York (1926/27), the expressionism of her early work yields to a cool-controlled language of Neue Sachlichkeit. Her interest in the ideas of Baruch Spinoza inspired philosopher Constantin Brunner, next to Plato, Sigmund Freud and others is a topic of later essays, that he disappeared.

Cernauti and New York 1926–31
In 1926, she returned for two years home to Cernăuți to take care of her sick mother. There, she met graphologist Helios Hecht, who became her partner. In 1928, she went back to New York with Hecht. She published poems in the "New Yorker Volkszeitung" and in the Cernauti-based socialist daily Vorwärts until 1931.

Cernauti 1931–45
In 1931, she returned to look after her mother again, working for the newspaper Czernowitzer Morgenblatt until 1940. She lost her US citizenship by 1934, because she had not been in the US for more than 3 years. She separated from Hecht that year. She was in a relationship with Hecht until 1936, when she left for Bucharest.

At the beginning of 1939, she traveled to Paris and New York, but once more returned to Cernăuți to take care of her sick mother. In 1939, her first volume of poems, Der Regenbogen (The Rainbow) was published with the help of her mentor, the Bukovinian writer Alfred Margul-Sperber. Even though critics received it favorably, it was not accepted by the public. The greater part of the print run was destroyed when Nazi Germany occupied Cernauti in 1941.

From October 1941–44, she worked as a forced laborer (Zwangsarbeiter) in the ghetto of Cernauti. She remained there with her mother and brother for two years, and another year in hiding so as not to be deported to the Nazi concentration camps.

In the spring of 1943 Ausländer met poet Paul Celan in the Cernăuți ghetto. He later used Ausländer's image of "black milk" of a 1939 poem in his well-known poem Todesfuge published in 1948. Ausländer herself is recorded as saying that Celan's usage was "self-explanatory, as the poet may take all material to transmute in his own poetry. It's an honour to me that a great poet found a stimulus in my own modest work". 4 In the spring of 1944, the Bukowina became part of the Soviet Union. Ausländer worked in the Cernăuți city library until September 1944.

New York, 1944–66
In October 1944, Ausländer returned to live in New York. In 1947, her mother died and Ausländer suffered a physical collapse. From 1948 to 1956, Ausländer wrote her poems only in English. From 1953 to 1961, she made a living by working as a foreign correspondent at a shipping company in New York, and obtained US citizenship again in 1948.

While attending the New York City Writer's Conference at Wagner College, Staten Island, Ausländer met poet Marianne Moore. This was the beginning of a friendship documented in several letters, in which Moore advised Ausländer on her writing and finally encouraged her to return to writing poetry in German. Several of Ausländer's English poems are dedicated to Moore.

In 1957, she met Paul Celan in Paris again, with whom she discussed modern poetry, poem and shoah. She returned to her mother tongue. Celan encouraged her "to radically change her poetic style, which had been solemn and plangent, influenced by Hölderlin and Trakl, yielding to a no-frills, ever more musical-rhythmic clarity". In 1963, she spent time in Vienna, where she published her first book since 1939. The public welcomed Blinder Sommer (Blind summer) enthusiastically.

Düsseldorf, 1967–88
In 1967, she remigrated to Europe. After an unsuccessful attempt to settle in Vienna, she finally moved to Düsseldorf. She first lived in a pension on Poensgenstraße 9 near the rail road station. She was invited to read her poems at the legendary Oberkasseler pub Sassafras. Here she created her expansive late work in rapid sequence and several major pushes. After an accident she moved in the Nelly Sachs Home for the elderly starting in 1972. Severely affected by arthritis and bedridden from 1978 onward she still created a large part of her work, dictating her texts until 1986, as she was not able to write by herself. She died in Düsseldorf in 1988.

Works
Ausländer wrote more than 3000 poems, essentially revolving around the topics of "Heimat" (home land, Bukowina), childhood, relationship to her mother, Judaism (Holocaust, exile), language (as a medium of expression and of home), love, ageing and death. With any poem written after 1945 one has to consider that it is influenced by her experience of the Holocaust whether it directly deals with the topic or not. Ausländer lived in the hope that writing was still possible, not the least because she derived her identity from writing: "Wer bin ich / wenn ich nicht schreibe?" (Who am I / if not writing?).

 * Der Regenbogen (The Rainbow), 1939.
 * Blinder Sommer (Blind Summer), 1965.
 * Brief aus Rosen (Letter from Rosa/Letter from Roses)
 * Das Schönste (The most beautiful)
 * Denn wo ist Heimat? (Then Where is the Homeland)
 * Die Musik ist zerbrochen (The Music is Broken)
 * Die Nacht hat zahllose Augen (The Night Has Countless Eyes)
 * Die Sonne fällt (The Sun Fails)
 * Gelassen atmet der Tag (The Day Breathes Calmly)
 * Hinter allen Worten (Behind All Words)
 * Sanduhrschritt (Hourglass Pace)
 * Schattenwald (Shadow Forest)
 * Schweigen auf deine Lippen (Silence on Your Lips)
 * The Forbidden Tree
 * Treffpunkt der Winde (Meetingplace of the Wind)
 * Und nenne dich Glück (And Call You Luck)
 * Wir pflanzen Zedern (We Plant Cedars)
 * Wir wohnen in Babylon (We Live in Babylon)
 * Wir ziehen mit den dunklen Flüssen (We Row the Dark Rivers)
 * Herbst in New York (Autumn in New York)
 * An ein Blatt (To a Leaf)
 * Anders II

Posthumous work

 * Poems of Rose Auslander. An Ark of Stars (Translated by Ingeborg Wald, Drawings by Ed Colker, Haybarn Press 1989)
 * Rose Auslander: Twelve Poems, Twelve Paintings (Translated by Ingeborg Wald, Paintings Adrienne Yarme, Ithaca, NY 1991)
 * Dánta le Rose Ausländer (Translated into Irish by Isobel Ní Riain, Coiscéim, Dublin, 2023)

title: Rose Ausländer