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Biblical studies

Biblical studies is the academic application of a set of diverse disciplines to the study of the Bible (the Old Testament and New Testament). For its theory and methods, the field draws on disciplines ranging from ancient history, historical criticism, philology, theology, textual criticism, literary criticism, historical backgrounds, mythology, and comparative religion.

Many secular as well as religious universities and colleges offer courses in biblical studies, usually in departments of religious studies, theology, Judaic studies, history, or comparative literature. Biblical scholars do not necessarily have a faith commitment to the texts they study, but many do.

Definition
The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies defines the field as a set of various, and in some cases independent disciplines for the study of the collection of ancient texts generally known as the Bible. These disciplines include but are not limited to historical criticism, archaeology, hermeneutics, textual criticism, cultural anthropology, history, the history of interpretation, sociology, theology, and patristics.

Academic societies
Several academic associations and societies promote research in the field. The largest is the Society of Biblical Literature (SBL) with around 8,500 members in more than 80 countries. It publishes many books and journals in the biblical studies, including its flagship, the Journal of Biblical Literature. SBL hosts one academic conference in North America and another international conference each year, as well as smaller regional meetings. Others include the European Association of Biblical Studies, the Canadian Society of Biblical Studies, the Evangelical Theological Society, the Institute for Biblical Research, the American Schools of Oriental Research, and the Catholic Biblical Association.

Biblical criticism
Biblical criticism is the scholarly "study and investigation of biblical writings that seeks to make discerning judgments about these writings". Viewing biblical texts as being ordinary pieces of literature, rather than set apart from other literature, as in the traditional view, biblical criticism asks when and where a particular text originated; how, why, by whom, for whom, and in what circumstances it was produced; what influences were at work in its production; what sources were used in its composition; and what message it was intended to convey. It varies slightly depending on whether the focus is on the Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament, the letters of New Testament or the canonical gospels. It also plays an important role in the quest for a historical Jesus.

It also addresses the physical text, including the meaning of the words and the way in which they are used and its preservation, history and integrity. Biblical criticism draws upon a wide range of scholarly disciplines, including archaeology, anthropology, folklore, comparative religion, oral tradition studies and historical and religious studies.

New Testament and Old Testament rhetorical analysis differ because if the context in which they were written. The New Testament was written during a time that had many new Greek and Roman ideas on literature and rhetoric, which provide an avenue on what is known and gives additional resources on to study New Testament texts in those contexts.

Old Testament texts were not written in the same context, and due to their ancient nature have few additional resources to refer to for common themes in rhetoric and literature. There are many abstract text styles in the Old Testament, including historical accounts, proverbs, poetic texts, praise texts (such as psalms) and prophetic texts. The New Testament is different in that it has primarily two styles present: the gospels, which are mostly historical accounts, and the letters, or epistles.

When it comes to textually analyzing and criticizing the New Testament, there are a couple of eclectic approaches to understanding the text on a deeper level. External criticism in the context of biblical studies involves understanding the who, what and when of New Testament texts. It does not analyze within the text itself, which is referred to as internal criticism. External criticism focuses on the source and dates of text and what type of text it is (in the New Testament, that is mostly a gospel account or a letter to a church or person). Internal criticism focuses specifically on the content and nature of the texts. Things like the literary style and the theology of the author may affect how one reads the text. That may require some external criticism knowledge since who the author is will shine light on what they may be saying what they are saying.

Biblical exegesis
Biblical exegesis is the explanation or interpretation of the scriptures traditionally known as The Bible. Much biblical exegesis is founded upon historical-literary dynamics, either using scripture to interpret history and science, or using science and history to interpret scripture.

This is particularly important when applied to the person of Jesus Christ and the Gospels in the New Testament. Many people agree that Jesus was a real historical person, but whether he was truly the Son of God is debatable among many people, and this distinction proves to be important for one's interpretation of texts and whether the Gospels should be read literally or symbolically.

The Book of Revelation is very different from the other books of the Bible, drawing need for additional analysis to determine whether it should be read literally or symbolically. The goals of the author of the book (John) also have implications toward how one reads the book. If one reads Revelation as a literal unfolding of the end times vs reading Revelation as a highly symbolic book, there will be different outcomes in the interpretation of particular sections.

Additionally, one's view of the scriptures as sacred and written by God or as a historical text has implications on one's interpretation of text.

Textual criticism
Textual criticism is a branch of textual scholarship, philology, and literary criticism that is concerned with the identification and removal of transcription errors in texts, both manuscripts and printed books. Ancient scribes made errors or alterations when copying manuscripts by hand. Given a manuscript copy, several or many copies, but not the original document, the textual critic seeks to reconstruct the original text (the urtext, archetype or autograph) as closely as possible. The same processes can be used to attempt to reconstruct intermediate editions, or recensions, of a document's transcription history. The ultimate objective of the textual critic's work is the production of a "critical edition" containing a text most closely approximating the original.

There are three fundamental approaches to textual criticism: eclecticism, stemmatics, and copy-text editing. Techniques from the biological discipline of cladistics are currently also being used to determine the relationships between manuscripts.

The phrase "lower criticism" is used to describe the contrast between textual criticism and "higher criticism", which is the endeavor to establish the authorship, date, and place of composition of the original text.

Biblical history
Historical research has often dominated modern biblical studies. Biblical scholars usually try to interpret a particular text within its original historical context and use whatever information is available to reconstruct that setting. Historical criticism aims to determine the provenance, authorship, and process by which ancient texts were composed. Famous theories of historical criticism include the documentary hypothesis, which suggests that the Pentateuch was compiled from four different written sources, and different reconstructions of "the historical Jesus", which are based primarily on the differences between the canonical Gospels.

There is much controversy around using the Bible as a historical source. The Old Testament is supposed to serve as a continuous account of the establishment of ancient Israel. While many historians agree that figures like King David and King Solomon are real historical figures, there comes trouble when seeking to affirm or deny events like the creation of the world and the flood of Noah. The use of terms like "myth" vs "history" also creates controversy due to some connotations that each word has. Oftentimes "myth" or "mythical" texts are seen as not true stories, where as "history" or "historical" texts are seen as fact. Mythical stories can also sometimes be seen as stories which serve some sort of religious or moral lesson, but are not necessarily true, however this does not mean that true historical stories do not have religious and moral lessons that accompany them. These views on myth and history are examples of a few difficulties when it comes to analyzing the Old Testament as a historical text.

New Testament historical analysis is also difficult due to the nature of the original texts that we can analyze, specifically their translatability as well as how oral tradition had effects on written tradition during the formation and canonization of gospel texts and the teachings of Jesus.

Original languages
The Hebrew Bible, the textual basis of the Christian Old Testament (although with order rearranged and some books split into two), was written in Biblical Hebrew, although a few chapters were written in Biblical Aramaic. Deuterocanonical books removed from the Old Testament in some Protestant Christian Bibles are variously written in Hebrew, Greek or Aramaic. The New Testament was written in Koine Greek, with possible Aramaic undertones, as was the first translation of the Hebrew Bible, known as the Septuagint or Greek Old Testament. Therefore, Hebrew, Greek and sometimes Aramaic continue to be taught in most universities, colleges and seminaries with strong programs in biblical studies.

There are few original Old Testament/Hebrew Bible manuscripts, and while the ancient translations (such as the Septuagint) are available, there comes a problem with comparing the translation to the original Hebrew (because we have it). This may lead to problems of establishing the reliability of translations like the Septuagint. In order to overcome this, researches have come up with methods to use the very few manuscripts we have and continually draw conclusions and compare to original texts using those conclusions to provide more reliability to available texts. In order to indicate if a translation is authentic or not, it is crucial to look for keywords that may seem unique and that are not translated from a root language such as Hebrew or any of the other original languages. This shows that there are many other languages present in the translations that seems as if it was reinvented over and over again. However, it is normal to see such a change, and it shows the difference between the original writings versus the final outcome of the translations. Although the Bible was originally written in Hebrew, it was first translated into Old Greek in the 3rd century BC. This was still translated into the Old Testament. However, when the Bible was translated into the New Testament, it was now in Greek, or in other words, Koine Greek which is also known as Biblical Greek.

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Education in Argentina

Education in state institutions is at the initial, primary, secondary and tertiary levels and in the undergraduate university level (not for graduate programs). Private education is paid, although in some cases (especially in primary and secondary schools) state subsidies support its costs. According to studies by UNESCO, education in Argentina and Uruguay guarantee equality to have institutional features that hinder the commercialization of education, as well as Finland has characteristics that favor multiethnic population education and special education, education favors Argentina equality. According to the last census, the illiteracy rate is 1.9%, the second lowest in Latin America. In the last decade, Argentina has created nine new universities, while the outflow of university students increased by 68%.

Education is a responsibility shared by the national government, the provinces and federal district and private institutions, though basic guidelines have historically been set by the Ministry of Education. Closely associated in Argentina with President Domingo Sarmiento's assertion that "the sovereign should be educated" ("sovereign" referring to the people), education has been extended nearly universally and its maintenance remains central to political and cultural debate. Even though education at all levels, including universities, has always been free, there are a significant number of private schools and universities.

History

The education in Argentina known as the Latin American docta has had a convoluted history. There was no effective education plan until President Domingo Sarmiento (1868–1874) placed emphasis on bringing Argentina up-to-date with practices in developed countries. Sarmiento encouraged the immigration and settling of European educators and built schools and public libraries throughout the country, in a programme that doubled the enrollment of students during his term; in Argentina, Teacher's Day (on September 11) commemorates his death. The first national laws mandating universal, compulsory, free and secular education (Law 1420 of Common Education) were sanctioned in 1884 during the administration of President Julio Roca. The non-religious character of this system, which forbade parochial schools from issuing official degrees directly but only through a public university, harmed the relations between the Argentine State and the Catholic Church, leading to resistance from the local clergy and a heated conflict with the Holy See (through the Papal Nuncio).

Following the University Reform of 1918, Argentine education, especially at university level, became more independent of the government, as well as the influential Catholic Church. The church began to re-emerge in country's secular education system during the administration Juan Perón, when in 1947, catechism was reintroduced in public schools, and parochial institutions began again receiving subsidies. A sudden reversal in the policy in 1954 helped lead to Perón's violent overthrow, after which his earlier, pro-clerical policies were reinstated by General Pedro Aramburu. Aramburu's Law 6403 of 1955, which advanced private education generally, and parochial, or more often, Catholic-run schools (those staffed with lay teachers), in particular, helped lead to the establishment of the Argentine Catholic University.

The program of deregulation and privatization pursued by President Carlos Menem in reaction to the country's socio-economic crisis of 1989 led to the decentralization of the Argentine secondary school system, whereby, from 1992 onward, the schools' administration and funding became a provincial responsibility. The policy's weakness, however, lay in that federal revenue sharing did not increase accordingly, particularly given the decision to shift two primary school years to the secondary system.

Real government spending on education increased steadily from the return of democratic rule in 1983 (with the exception of the crises in 1989 and 2002) and, in 2007, totaled over US$14 billion.

Achievements
In spite of its many problems, Argentina's higher education managed to reach worldwide levels of excellence in the 1960s. Up to 2013 Argentina educated five Nobel Prize winners, three in the sciences: Luis Federico Leloir, Bernardo Houssay and César Milstein and two in peace: Carlos Saavedra Lamas and Adolfo Pérez Esquivel, the highest number surpassing countries economically more developed and populated as Ireland or Spain. In addition, as of 2010, Argentines are the only South Americans to have ever been honoured with a Rolf Schock Prize.

The Argentine population benefits from a relatively high level of educational attainment, by regional standards. Among those age 20 and over, the highest level attained, per the 2010 Census, was distributed thus:

Characteristics
Education in Argentina has four levels and two different systems: initial level (kindergarten, educación inicial), primary level (educación primaria), secondary level (educación secundaria) and tertiary level (educación superior).

In some provinces, primary level is called educación primaria or EP (Spanish for "primary education") and comprises grades first to sixth. Secondary level, called educación secundaria or ES (Spanish for "secondary education") comprises grades first to sixth (called years). EP and ES are divided in two stages, called ciclos ("cycles"):

 * EP: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th school grades
 * ES: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th school years

In some other provinces EP comprises grades first to seventh (the traditional system, established by Argentine law 1420/1884). ES comprises grades first to fifth (the traditional system, in use throughout the 20th century).

In both systems EP is mandatory to all students, as well as secondary education, according to the National Educational Law established in 2011.

The fourth stage is tertiary education, which includes both college and university education.

Education is funded by tax payers at all levels except for the majority of graduate studies. There are many private school institutions in the primary, secondary and university levels. Around 11.4 million people were enrolled in formal education of some kind in 2005:

Qualification modes of grading
The scale to grade up the academic performance in students at most of the primary and secondary schools rests in the 1-10 ladder as is described in the following frame.

As of the start of the 2019 school year, in 16 out of 24 jurisdictions (23 provinces + the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires), 6 is the minimum passing grade, while in the others is 7. In the University System however the scale can vary depending on the independent policies and statutes of grading of each independent Argentine University.

Primary education

Accepted between ages 6 and 14. Primary education is the first EP cycle (grades 1–6). Because of the system that was in place during 1995–2007, most schools that offered 7 years of primary school prior to 1995 were forced to be converted and accept grades 8th and 9th, while others chose to eliminate 7th grade altogether, forcing students to complete the 3rd cycle in another institution.

Secondary education
Secondary education in Argentina comprises two levels. Years 1st to 3rd are common to all schools (Ciclo básico). Years 4th to 6th (in some provinces 4th to 5th) are organized in orientations (Ciclo orientado) such as Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, Arts, Sport, Design, etc. An additional year is offered in certain schools (Technical-Professional schools), which grants a professional title, also with orientations (agriculture, electricity, mechanics, construction, etc.).

In many provinces the secondary education system is still divided in three traditional large groups, "Bachiller" schools (very similar to grammar schools with a huge emphasis on humanistic studies), "Comercial" schools (focusing on economic sciences and everything related to it) and "Escuelas Técnicas" (with a focus on technical and scientific assignments, this one having the particularity of lasting six/seven years instead of five/six, it used to be called "Industrial") each one subdivided in more specific orientations related to its main branch.

In December 2006 the Chamber of Deputies of the Argentine Congress approved a new National Education Law restoring the old system of primary followed by secondary education, making secondary education obligatory and a right, and increasing the length of compulsory education to 12 years. The transitional period ended in 2011.

In addition an adult system of high schools (usually called Acelerados, Spanish for accelerated) exists in order to guarantee secondary education to people over 18. Normally it consists in 2 or 3 years of intensive program of study and it is provided by a large number of public and private schools varying on each province. Night shift is available in order to satisfy those who work during the day. These high school diplomas are accepted to enroll in a university.

Argentina's network of vocational schools, many under the auspices of the National Technological University (UTN) or the provincial educational systems, have historically given students viable alternatives, as well.

International education
As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed Argentina as having 160 international schools. ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms "ISC includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an English-medium curriculum other than the country’s national curriculum and is international in its orientation." This definition is used by publications including The Economist.

Higher Education in Argentina
Argentine higher education system is based, since its conception during the colonial period, on the old and dogmatic Spanish higher education system, which is basically a Continental education system (opposed to the Anglo-Saxon Model). A historic event took place in the Reforma Universitaria de 1918, a highly-popular series of reforms that took place in the oldest university of the Country, the Universidad de Córdoba that finally paved the way to the modernization of the Argentinian higher university systems as it is known nowadays. Since its foundation, it was focused on the teaching of Professions offering Professional degrees.

 * Higher education institutes: 1- to 5-year degrees related to education or technical professions like Teachers, Professorship, Technicians.
 * Universities: 4- to 7-years of professional education taught at universities offering many different degrees, such as Licentiate, Engineer's degree, Medic Title, Attorney Title, Professorships, Translation degrees, etc.
 * Post-graduate degrees: This is a specialized and research-oriented education level. It is roughly divided in a first sub-level where a Specialist degree can be obtained in a 12–18 months period or Master's degree, requiring 24–30 months and an original research work and a higher sub-level where a Doctorate degree could be achieved.

Funding
One important aspect is that Public universities at tertiary education level and at university level are tuition-free and open to anyone. Although it is not required to pay any kind of fee at universities, hidden costs of education, like transportation and materials, are often neglected. The lack of a well-developed and widespread scholarship system makes it hard for students from low-income families to enroll in public universities: for each eight students from the 20% upper-income class, there is only one student from the 20% lower-income class. In contrast, post-graduate education requires some form of funding and it is generally not free.

Additionally, financial pressure to freshman college students force them to join the work force before graduation, thus it is very common for young students to have full-time jobs and at the same time study at the University. This is considered beneficial because when the students graduate they already have working experience, though this could also be one of the causes of the high ratio of dropouts.

College education

Argentina maintains a network of 39 National universities, financed by the Ministry of Education since 1946. Private and parochial universities are also abundant, numbering 46 among the active institutions and they enroll about a sixth of the collegiate student body (see University reform in Argentina and List of universities in Argentina). Summing up, over 1.5 million students attend institutions of higher learning in Argentina, annually (roughly half the population of college age).

Argentina does not have a standard and common system of examination after high school, thus admission to universities is strictly defined by each university. Moreover, a steady degradation in primary and secondary education created a huge difference between the required level to enter a university and the level achieved by the high school students. Some universities like University of Buenos Aires cope with this issue by creating a 1-year shared program called CBC that students need to complete in order to join the university. In April 2024, tens of thousands of people took to the streets in Argentina's capital Buenos Aires to demand increased funding for public universities.

Graduate school
The doctoral fields of study in Argentina are generally research-oriented doctoral studies, leading mostly to the awarding of the degrees of Doctor of Philosophy, Doctor of Science, Doctor of Medicine, and Doctor of Law, among others. Enrollment in doctorate programs in Argentina is available to candidates having earned a Licentiate, Professorships Engineer's degree or Master's degree in a related area of study.

Doctoral fields of study mostly pertain to one of five fields of knowledge: Applied Sciences, Basic Sciences, Health Sciences, Human Sciences and Social Sciences. The doctoral studies offered by the Argentine universities include multiple fields and do have national and international validity of the degrees granted.

Academic regulations governing doctorates, and their corresponding fields, in Argentina prescribe that all graduate courses must be accredited by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation. This entity stands as a public and decentralized body working under the jurisdiction of the Department of Education, Science and Technology. It administers the process of evaluation and accreditation for all doctorate programs, and is responsible for the institutional evaluation of all such programs at a national level. Graduate programs, including the Doctorados (PhDs), set standards per guidelines set forth by the Ministry of Science and Technology, together with the Universities Council.

Additionally, external evaluations of the doctoral programs are carried out by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation, or private entities created to that effect, together with the participation of academic peers. Argentine institutions of higher education provide further accreditation by international establishments to many of their courses of studies.

Public universities

 * Autonomous University of Entre Ríos
 * University of Buenos Aires
 * National University Arturo Jauretche
 * National University of Avellaneda
 * National University of Catamarca
 * National University of Chilecito
 * National University of Córdoba
 * National University of Cuyo
 * National University of Entre Ríos
 * National University of Formosa
 * National University of General San Martín
 * National University of General Sarmiento
 * National University of José C. Paz
 * National University of Jujuy
 * National University of La Matanza
 * National University of La Pampa
 * National University of Patagonia
 * National University of Patagonia Austral
 * National University of La Plata
 * National University of La Rioja
 * National University of Lanús
 * National University of Lomas de Zamora
 * National University of Luján
 * National University of Mar del Plata
 * National University of Misiones
 * National University of Moreno
 * National University of Quilmes
 * National University of Río Cuarto
 * National University of Río Negro
 * National University of Rosario
 * National University of Salta
 * National University of San Juan
 * National University of San Luis
 * National University of Santiago del Estero
 * National University of the South
 * National University of Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica and South Atlantic Islands
 * National University of Tres de Febrero
 * National University of Tucumán
 * National University of Villa María
 * National University of Villa Mercedes
 * National University of Central Buenos Aires
 * National University of Austral Chaco
 * National University of Comahue
 * National University of Litoral
 * National University of Noroeste of Buenos Aires
 * National University of the Oeste
 * National Technological University
 * National University Of San Antonio De Areco

Private universities

 * Technological Institute of Buenos Aires
 * University Institute of Health Sciences - HA Barceló Foundation
 * H. A. Barceló Foundation
 * Open Interamerican University
 * Adventist University of Plata
 * Argentina University of the Company
 * Universidad Argentina John F. Kennedy
 * Atlantis Argentina University
 * Austral University (Argentina)
 * University Blas Pascal
 * Caece University
 * Catholic University Argentina
 * Catholic University of Córdoba
 * Catholic University of Cuyo
 * Catholic University of La Plata
 * Catholic University of Parana
 * Catholic University of Salta
 * Catholic University of Santa Fe
 * Catholic University of Santiago del Estero
 * Champagnat University
 * University of Belgrano
 * CEMA University
 * Universidad Argentina de la Empresa
 * University of Business and Social Sciences
 * University of Concepcion del Uruguay
 * University of Congress
 * University of Flores
 * University of Cuenca del Plata
 * University of the Fraternity of St. Thomas Aquino Groupings
 * University of Merchant
 * University of Mendoza
 * University of Morón
 * University of Palermo
 * University of San Andrés
 * University of San Isidro (USI)
 * University of Sao Paulo (Tucuman)
 * University of Aconcagua
 * University of the Latin American Educational Center
 * University of Cinema
 * University of the Argentine Social Museum
 * University of North St. Thomas Aquinas
 * University of Salvador
 * 21st Century Business University
 * University Favaloro
 * University ISALUD
 * Juan Agustín Maza University
 * University Maimonides
 * University Notarial Argentina
 * Torcuato di Tella University

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Education in Argentina


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National Civic League

The National Civic League is an American nonpartisan, non-profit organization founded in 1894 as the "National Municipal League," it adopted its new name in 1937. Its mission is to advance civic engagement to create equitable, thriving communities. To upgrade quality and efficiency of government in cities it enlists the business and professional classes, and promotes greater involvement in government. It also sought create merit-based systems for selecting public officials. The League envisions a country where the full diversity of community members are actively and meaningfully engaged in local governance, including both decision making and implementation of activities to advance the common good. It also promotes professional management of local government through publication of "model charters" for both city and county governments.

The National Civic League applies civic engagement principles through key programs: community assistance, research and publications, and awards and events. Key issue areas include, but are not limited to: racial equity, environmental sustainability, health equity, youth leadership, education, and housing.

History
The National Civic League was founded as the National Municipal League in 1894 at the National Conference for Good City Government in Philadelphia. The convention of politicians, policy-makers, journalists, and educators (including Theodore Roosevelt, Louis Brandeis, Marshall Field, and Frederick Law Olmsted) met to discuss "incompetence, inefficiency, patronage and corruption in local governments." During the next 120+ years, the National Civic League led major reforms in the way local communities were governed, including the professionalism of city services, the creation of the city manager system, the nonpartisan makeup of many local elected bodies, electoral reform and inclusive civic engagement.

All-America City Award
The League is best known for its All-America City Award, celebrating the best in civic innovation since 1949. The Award, bestowed yearly on 10 communities recognizes the work of communities in using inclusive civic engagement to address critical issues and create stronger connections among residents, businesses and nonprofit and government leaders. Once called the "Nobel Prize for constructive citizenship" – it has been awarded to more than 500 communities across the country. The Award is open to all American communities, from major cities, counties and regions to tribes, neighborhoods, towns and villages. In applying, communities reflect on their strengths, weaknesses, challenges and the progress they have made. Each year hundreds of leaders, volunteers, and young people from the finalist communities travel to Denver to present the story of their work and their community to a jury of national experts. The awards conference includes workshops on promising practices.

National Conference on Local Governance
The National Civic League hosted the 109th National Conference on Local Governance in Denver on June 22, 2018. The Conference focused on inclusive civic engagement, innovation and collaboration as essential elements for making progress on complex issues. The conference featured three issue tracks: Health Equity, Youth and Education, Police-Community Relations.

Confirmed speakers included:

 * Jandel Allen-Davis, MD: Kaiser Permanente, Vice President of Government and External Relations
 * Honorable Fred Harris: Former U.S. Senator and member of President Johnson's Kerner Commission
 * Manuel Pastor, PhD:Professor at University of Southern California and author
 * Honorable Hilda L. Solis: Los Angeles County Supervisor, Former Congresswoman and Former U.S. Secretary of Labor
 * Reverend Alvin Herring: Executive Director of Faith in Action

Community assistance
National Civic League facilitates strategic planning processes, community engagement trainings, and development of local engagement plans and materials—helping local governments and institutions engage and involve residents in ways that lead to tangible outcomes.

The National Civic League consults with communities in a variety of capacities, including:

 * Resident-led strategic planning
 * Lead local engagement trainings to increase institution's internal engagement capacity
 * Partner with local communities to develop specific conversation guides, engagement plans and other relevant tools.
 * Developing organizational and community-wide engagement plans
 * Civic engagement coaching and support for local leaders

The League has provided, or is providing, community assistance to the following cities:

 * Gladstone, Missouri
 * Eau Claire, Wisconsin
 * Dubuque, Iowa
 * Castle Pines, Colorado
 * Blue Springs, Missouri
 * Ray Town, Missouri
 * Palm Desert, California
 * Lees Summit, Missouri

SolSmart
The National Civic League's focus on civic engagement and environmental sustainability led it to partner with the International City/County Management Association on SolSmart. SolSmart is funded by the U.S. Department of Energy SunShot Initiative and works to make it faster, cheaper and easier to go solar. The League works to support the designation program and to encourage communities to engage residents around solar and sustainability issues.

The SolSmart designation program recognizes communities that have taken steps to make it easier for businesses and residents to go solar. Communities pursuing SolSmart designation are eligible for no-cost technical assistance from a team of national solar experts. National Civic League is working to see 300 communities become designated and advocate for strong community engagement practices in creating and further local community solar goals.

Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Health Equity Award
Together with the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, National Civic League is recognizing, celebrating and rewarding individuals who are making health equity a reality in their community. The RWJF-National Civic League Health Equity Award recognizes individuals who are leveraging engagement to improve health outcomes for those most impacted by health disparities.

The RWJF-National Civic League Health Equity Award recognizes and honors individuals that have successfully implemented a systems change approach within the past two years to improve health outcomes for those most impacted by health disparities. In addition to national recognition at the National Civic League's annual All-America City Award and an invitation to participate in Robert Wood Johnson Foundation's yearly Health Equity Award annual learning and recognition the winner will receive a $3,000.00 prize.

The 2018 Health Equity Award Winner was Angela Bannerman Ankoma and Sharon Conard Wells, of the Sankofa Initiative in Providence, RI. The Sankofa Community Initiative is a unique urban agricultural project integrating food production and economic development with high-quality, stable affordable housing for the sizable refugee and immigrant population of Providence, Rhode Island.

Truth, Racial Healing and Transformation
Due to the League's focus on civic engagement and racial equity, they have engaged with W.K. Kellogg Foundation's Truth, Racial Healing and Transformation (TRHT) initiative. Kellogg's TRHT is a comprehensive, national and community-based process to plan for, and bring about transformational and sustainable change, and to address the historic and contemporary effects of racism.

As a partner of the Kellogg Foundation, the National Civic League introduced the TRHT initiative to their All-America City network. The hope is to see communities face and embrace an accurate narrative of all residents' experiences, pursue healing where divisions exist and experience transformation that comes with addressing inequities. Using the TRHT framework, local communities can address segregated and impoverished neighborhoods, provide equitable opportunities in the economy and ensure fair treatment in public policies as well as civil and criminal law.

TRHT was launched in January 2016 with a year-long design phase, and builds upon and complements the foundation's decades-long commitment to advancing racial healing and racial equity throughout the U.S. In June 2017 WKKF awarded 10 grants for nearly $24 million over the next two to five years to help diverse, multi-sector coalitions in 14 places implement the foundation's TRHT process and framework.

All-America Conversations
The National Civic League has worked with communities across the U.S. to hold "All-America Conversations" across dividing lines and identify ways that we can work together. All-America Conversations are designed to help cities and other groups understand residents' aspirations for the community, the divisions facing the community, and most importantly, the small, specific actions that give people confidence that we can work across dividing lines.

The League created the All-America Conversations Toolkit to provide communities with everything necessary to hold a productive and meaningful conversation. The toolkit walks readers through every step of holding a conversation from:

 * Identifying whom to engage and recruiting participants
 * Picking a location for your conversation
 * Finding and preparing facilitators and note takers
 * Knowing what to ask
 * Making sense of what you heard

The kit also includes tips for facilitators and note takers, a note-taking tool, ground rules, a sign-in sheet, sample recruitment letter, and many other resources.

National Civic Review
One of the nation's oldest and most respected journals of civic affairs, the National Civic Review includes case studies, reports, interviews and essays to help communities learn about the latest developments in collaborative problems-solving, civic engagement, local government innovation and democratic governance. Some of the country's leading doers and thinkers have contributed articles to this invaluable resource for elected officials, public managers, nonprofit leaders, grassroots activists, and public administration scholars seeking to make America's communities more inclusive, participatory, innovative and successful.

Promising practices monthly webinars
Th League hosts a free monthly webinar series highlighting successful projects around the country with speakers from cities implementing creative strategies for civic engagement. By equipping individuals, institutions and local governmental bodies through this series with ideas, models and insights that can be adopted/adapted to individual communities National Civic League hopes to accelerate the pace of change in communities across the country. Webinar topics include:

 * Building community trust using police data
 * Community dialogues with On the Table
 * Infusing engagement in city planning and visioning
 * Infusing equity in city government
 * Building equity in parks and recreation
 * The power of libraries to foster inclusive civic engagement
 * Racial equity and healing

Civic Index
For 30+ years, the Civic Index has been a way to measure a community's civic infrastructure—the formal and informal relationships, networks and capacities communities use to make decisions and solve problems. Building on decades of work in communities, the fourth edition updates the Civic Index with a specific focus on equity and engagement; key components for healthy, thriving communities.

Promising Practices Database
The database includes summaries of projects that leverage civic engagement from some of the 500 All-America Cities and other communities. Highlighted projects tackle how cities make progress on issues like health, racial equity, youth and education, housing and neighborhood development, sustainability and conservation, community-police relations and more.

Model City Charter
The Model City Charter serves as a "blueprint" for communities seeking to draft or revise their own home-rule charters. A city charter establishes the framework for how a municipal government operates—its structure, responsibilities, functions, and processes.

Currently in its eighth edition, the National Civic League's model calls for a small city council with deliberative powers to make decisions on policy and an appointed city manager to oversee day-to-day administrative matters. The model provides communities with detailed provisions for the conduct of local elections, the administration of budgets and duties of city officials and managers.

The Second Printing (2011), Eighth Edition of the Model City Charter expands diversity and inclusiveness language in the charter preamble to underscore the right of every individual to equal opportunities and establish policies to prohibit discrimination.

Community Visioning and Strategic Planning Handbook
Based on decades of hands-on experience by National Civic League staff, the Community Visioning and Strategic Planning Handbook (2000) aims to help communities convene diverse groups of stakeholders to envision and implement ambitious goals for the future with an inclusive process for planning and decision-making. The handbook also gives communities useful tips on action planning to implement the ambitious goals they have set for themselves.

Framework for a Financial Sustainability Index
A joint project of the National Civic League, the Government Finance Officers Association, the University of Southern California and the University of San Francisco, the Framework for a Financial Sustainability Index was developed with support from the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. It provides a new set of tools and techniques to help local government leaders develop systems of governance and decision-making that will make their communities more financially sustainable. It addresses both technical concerns and the psychological and interpersonal aspects of financial governance that have a critical impact on how decisions are made.

Guide for Charter Commissions
A local charter is the foundation of a local government and functions as the municipal equivalent of a state or federal constitution, setting forth guiding principles for governance. Composed by citizens, a charter specifies the most fundamental relationships between a government and its community. This publication, from 2011, helps communities decide when and how to draft or review their home rule charters. It provides useful information on how to set up a charter review commission, who should serve on it and how to engage community members in the process.

Making Public Participation Legal
This publication helps city attorneys and other legal advisors make recommendations in an ever-changing context of public participation and democratic governance for which there are few clear laws or legal precedents.

Over the last two decades, a wide range of participatory meeting formats and dynamic online tools have emerged. So why do communities continue conducting public business in such an outdated fashion? One obstacle is the legal framework that governs public participation. At the local, state, and federal levels, these laws can stifle innovation and discourage public officials and employees from reaching out to citizens while failing to achieve the intended goal of greater transparency.

A working group of representatives from the International Municipal Lawyers' Association, International City/County Management Association, American Bar Association, National League of Cities, National Civic League, Policy Consensus Initiative, National Coalition for Dialogue and Deliberation, and Deliberative Democracy Consortium developed new set of legal tools for public participation, including:

 * Model public participation ordinance for local governments
 * Model public participation act for state governments
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Model Executive Orders for Equity
The National Civic League has researched executive orders and ordinances designed to improve equity and inclusiveness. Cities are encouraged to use these models to develop ordinances or other public policies. Model Executive Orders include:

 * Diversity training for Board and Commission members
 * Creation of chief diversity and inclusion officer
 * Establishes public engagement and outreach principles
 * Police accountability and racial justice
 * Use "Rooney Rule" for city openings
 * Use "returning citizen" instead of "ex-offender" in city efforts policy
 * Executive order re: pay equity
 * Proclamation about National Day of Racial Healing

Officers
* NOTE: Overlapping years of service indicate that the position changed hands mid-year.

title: National Civic League


text:
Talk:Homeland Security Advisory System

Current Event?
Is this really a "current event"? Shouldn't the CE template be removed? --Tysto 2005 July 8 19:35 (UTC)
 * I've removed it. The excitement in London seems to be over. --Carnildo 8 July 2005 21:58 (UTC)

=i just wanted to know how home land sec department is planning to deal with religious extremists specially once their is no check on spread of muslim fundamentals. why can the spread of mosques and beard persons stopped and discouraged

Court Decision
Did anyone catch this page being cited in the 11th Circuit case about the School of the America's protest? Pretty cool.

Here's the decision -- 84.129.121.164 10:54, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Actually, given that Wikipedia can be edited by anyone at anytime, I think it's quite scary. 69.58.249.133 2 July 2005 14:44 (UTC)
 * Wow, I've just read that, and I have to agree. What a joke.

 * Interesting, the court case citation said it's been raised to high six times, while the current article states five. Which is right, I wonder? Crisco 1492 18:44, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

Threat Grading
What is it with the USA and it's use of colour grading systems that don't follow the natural order found in the optical spectrum? One would expect ROYGB (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue) not ROYBG. The NOAA is similar in that its map's hurricane strike probability zones run ROGY instead of the natural ROYG.

 * I don't know about the NOAA scale, but with the Homeland Security scale, blue is below green because it's considered a "cooler" color than green, and thus should be further from the "hot" end of the scale: red. --Carnildo 04:04, 22 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes, but blue is NOT below green on the HSAS scale, and the point you mention (blue being cooler and furthest away from hot red) is exactly the reason I'm questioning the scales ordering - I'm glad we agree. =P  I should really email both organisations and see if they have a reason for the ordering...

 * It's because green is the opposite of red. Red means stop, green means go. Red is bad, green is good. These are pretty common mnemonics anymore. 71.98.94.170 00:41, 26 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Yeah, from a logical point of view, blue should be bottom. From a "green is a really friendly looking colour" point of view, green should be bottom. As Colbert would say, it just feels like the right thing to do. Also, I'd bet a good amount of money this thing is never going below yellow.--Headcase 06:00, 27 May 2006 (UTC)

 * From a logical point of view, there's no reason the system should follow the order of the optical spectrum. It's not the terror alert rainbow. That would get confused with the gay pride rainbow.--69.241.225.103 13:32, 28 September 2007 (UTC)

This article needs to discuss the process of deciding what the colour of the day should be. --snoyes 02:40, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Hey, it's an American system, use an American spelling: COLOR. There, was that so hard?

Or at least describe what the various risk levels mean in concrete terms; what is the difference between "guarded", "elevated", and "severe"? User:Wiml
 * I don't even think Homeland Security has figured out the differences in concrete terms ;-) Karmafist 17:34, 16 July 2005 (UTC)

I don't want to sounds "partisan" or "biased," but surely the public's perception of this device should be mentioned? Given it's supposed importance, it is openly mocked by journalists, entertainers, and some government officials. --Feitclub 21:11, Sep 5, 2004 (UTC)

 * By some journalists, some entertainers, and some politicians. The public in general seem to be split by it, so there should be something about it, but not to give the idea that the public are deadset against it.

Redirect
I believe that anyone who searches for "terror alert", "terrorism alert", or "US alert level" should be redirected here. Trying to find this page I first had to go to the US Department of Homeland Security article and then read until I found the reference to the color coded alert level article. I mean seriously, how many will search for "homeland Security Advisory System" when searching for information?

Retardedity??
Although I am a critic of the terror alert system, lets keep the information here objective and useable. The editorial in the first two sections should be edited or moved. I would do it, but I am not sure how to move anything less than a whole page.--Mirokudesign 05:16, 20 October 2005 (UTC)

Did you pick the title to this category? I only ask because if you in fact did come up with "Retardedity", I would almost have to insist that any statements, advice or input by you be completely dismissed as suspect, questionable with a high probability of being brazen and inflammatory.Griessinthewood (talk) 01:56, 27 September 2016 (UTC)

History
Please see the end HSPD-5 which cleans up some old parts of HSPD-3.

"The Homeland Security Act of 2002 assigned the responsibility for administering the Homeland Security Advisory System to the Secretary of Homeland Security."

Changes in the alert is made in consultation with others (including Justice and the White House), but is the responsibility of the Secretary.

Other resources:

HSPD-5 http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/02/20030228-9.html

HSPD-3 http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/03/20020312-5.html

The Homeland Securiyt Act of 2002 at http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c107:h.r.5005.enr: or http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/display?theme=46&content=41070.61.22.110 16:35, 16 August 2007 (UTC)Gwynne

I'd give a lot to see a citation or link of a formal, governmentally-issued historical chart of threat levels.70.61.22.110 16:35, 16 August 2007 (UTC)Newt

For anyone who doesnt know
What level is this then?

 * $$\sqrt-7$$ --Carnildo 00:44, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

Referring by Colors
Please... DO NOT refer to the Homeland Security Advisory System by colors. That is why they have names. It is not Code Red, it is Severe. And the only Code Blue's there are involve crash carts. --Signed and Sealed, JJJJust (T C) 11:03, 10 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Why in the world would they assign colors to the levels if you aren't supposed to us the color names???

 * This is not intended as a meaningful discussion for change, just an observation for wiki purposes.

 * From the Homeland security site "Code Red or Severe" and "Code Orange or High" are used to describe current levels. It would seem that a code in reference to a color could reference any use of a word(s) as cross organizational standard has not been set. Otherwise, if standards where set, color codes would be limited to four or five uses. So if a government entity required the use of visual aids to describe action levels not relevant to an emergency room use, the government would have no choice but to move down the color spectrum to find a new color, henceforth they would have to use code colors such as ox blood instead of red and code sky blue instead of blue.

 * I might note that, as far as I could tell on my most recent visits to US airports (which was today and yesterday), out of all the repetitive announcements coming out of the PA system about the Homeland Security Advisory level, I heard zero of them ever referring to "high" as the current level; they all said "orange" only. Just as another data point.  --Drake Wilson 00:44, 23 March 2007 (UTC)

^ I'm with Drake. ~signed...paul. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.194.37.144 (talk) 09:36, 27 December 2010 (UTC)

Added HSAS-based template
I created this template for your convenience at the right. If you liked it, please contact me. -- Big  top  01:48, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

David Cross joke amusing but pointless
The whole paragraph about the David Cross joke about the President eating a baby may be amusing, but it doesn't contribute anything useful to the article. It only seems to be there to promote the comedian and/or make the article longer, and the "humor" affects the NPOV of the article. 64.169.12.26 22:20, 7 December 2006 (UTC) SKR

¶ Here is as good a spot as any to express the thought that was shared by many people: The color coding was pointless because (1) the media ALWAYS explained (and had to explain) the significance of the current color code and what the change in codes represented, and (2) even with explanations the various levels meant nothing to people - does yellow mean I can leave my car at the curb unlocked with the motor running? Does red mean I should shoot my neighbor when he walks his dog? Which color means my family all should hide in the attic? Sussmanbern (talk) 08:11, 19 January 2014 (UTC)

Color order
Is anyone else bothered in an OCD way that it goes yellow blue green? Is there a source out there that says this isn't the normal way colors are ordered?69.12.143.197 03:22, 20 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Well, first off you have to consider the people who designed the system were idiots. Then you have to consider that green and blue are never used because Bush doesn't want people to know that our chances of getting attacked by terrorists is pretty close to 0, because it helps his rating among crazy people. Unfortunately, this has the net effect of everyone else completely ignoring it. It doesn't really matter what order the last two colors are in for that reason. Titanium Dragon 21:38, 8 May 2007 (UTC)

 * They were idiots? So they aren't anymore? And BTW this has already been discussed on this talk page. It's not a rainbow, or hot/cold. The reason why green is below blue is this: green is a universal "OK" symbol; red is a universal "Danger" symbol. -- 12.116.162.162 20:13, 4 July 2007 (UTC)
 * I'm not sure I agree with your logic. Blue could be said to be a universal "relaxed" symbol, while green is a universal "ready" symbol. Any 4th grade art student can tell you the logical progression (by color order) would be blue, green, yellow, orange, red. The current layot just feels "wrong". But this is all academic because I doubt the threat level will ever be lowered to green, nor do the threat levels really indicate anything meaningful.--Eion 18:10, 9 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I know I'm joining this discussion a year and a half late, but... Green is the most non-threatening color out there, and I don't think anyone will disagree that red is the most threatening. Plus, the most common and well-known color-coding system out there is traffic lights, where green is the "opposite" of red. I see your point, but this way feels much more intuitive to me (that the whole alert system is scaremongering bullshit is another matter). -- MQ Duck 03:30, 16 December 2008 (UTC)

Alert level history
Is anyone aware of a history of the alert level changes? I can't find anything at the official DHS site, but perhaps some interested observer might have kept track of changes since the system's inception? Thanks. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.241.198.109 (talk) 14:07, 12 December 2007 (UTC)

Alerts and real stories they covered up
[http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/story/18056504/truth_or_terrorism_the_real_story_behind_five_years_of_high_alerts/print Truth or Terrorism? The Real Story Behind Five Years of High Alerts] - which headlines were buried by alerts —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.36.29.71 (talk) 20:46, 25 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Great. This isn't a discussion about the HSAS.  Go find a form for that. 209.180.155.12 (talk) 13:29, 11 November 2010 (UTC)

The Rolling Stone website no longer offers the article mentioned above, but (at least for the moment) the full text is at:  You're welcome. Sussmanbern (talk) 08:25, 19 January 2014 (UTC)

Blue and Green
Why even have blue and green? It'll never be used. And if it ever is used, it's like saying "hey, our security level is low right now. attack us". Retarded... —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.137.169.123 (talk) 06:26, 22 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Thats just unconstructive. Itfc+canes=me (talk) 12:51, 11 August 2008 (UTC) —Preceding unsigned comment added by Itfc+canes=me (talk • contribs)

Umm
I looked for this article to find out what the current threat level is. But it doesn't say anything about that. Nor does it mention the September 11th attacks.Abce2 (talk) 16:54, 5 January 2009 (UTC)Abce2

 * It helps if you read..."The system was created by Homeland Security Presidential Directive 3 six months after the terror attacks of September 11, 2001" and "The threat level has stood at Elevated (Yellow) for most of its existence" (25 December 2008 revision). -- 97.113.116.173 (talk) 19:09, 20 April 2009 (UTC)

Ever Been Lower Than Yellow?
The article mentions the the history of alerts for yellow, orange, and red but there is no mention of blue or green. Has the alert system ever gone below yellow? I've been on many flights since 9/11, and I've never seen it lower than yellow. In fact, the system seems to hover at orange at all times. It kind of reduces the credibility of the system in my mind.
 * Well, if you look at the history of the alert levels, and don't see blue or green there, it's a good bet that it's never been blue or green. Do people RTFM before asking questions here? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.113.116.173 (talk) 19:12, 20 April 2009 (UTC)
 * This isn't a discussion about the HSAS. Please do research or ask questions elsewhere if you want to learn more about it.  Also, other guy, don't bite the newcomers.  RTFM is a bit inflammatory. 209.180.155.12 (talk) 13:28, 11 November 2010 (UTC)

Other terror warnings
I flagged this as incomplete. It is a hopeless list. It needs to perhaps include the word "major" and have criteria for being included —Preceding unsigned comment added by Touchdown Turnaround (talk • contribs) 22:37, 2 June 2009 (UTC)

The whole system is under review by DHS
According to a July 14, 2009, press release from the DHS, the whole system is under review. Also, this release contains a complete timeline that can be used to confirm and reference the timeline as presented in the article. I include the link below in a convenient cite template for easy insertion into the article by a motivated editor. - Dravecky (talk) 10:15, 18 July 2009 (UTC)

Brigitte L Nacos Study
Columbia University academic Brigitte L. Nacos has published a study identifying a correlation between increases in terrorism alert levels and Bush's popularity.

The above text was removed from the main page. There is a study, but the reference link is to an article _about_ the study, rather than the study itself. I was going to correct the sentence to provide information about the correlation (which is suspected to be cause, and which effect), but it is not possible to do so with any rigor with the reference available. Given this, this sentence does not add anything useful to the article. If a proper reference can be added, this is definitely relevant. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Nightsmaiden (talk • contribs) 06:14, 30 September 2009 (UTC)

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Talk:John the Merciful

Untitled
From where do you know that he is in the St. Martin's Cathedral? (This is no doubt,just a question). Juro
 * I posted what the Catholic Encyclopedia says as an alternative, which differs from the original version. If anybody can find the answer to this, please change the article. Liblamb 04:36, 7 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * The Catholic Encyclopedia says, "His body was brought to Constantinople, thence to Ofen by King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary; thence in 1530 to Toll near Presburg, and finally in 1632 to Presburg cathedral." Ofen is another name for Budapest, "Budapest was formed in 1873 by the union of Buda (Ger. Ofen) and Óbuda (Ger. Alt-Ofen) on the right bank of the Danube River with Pest on the left bank."  I couldn't find further info about Toll.  Presburg is another name for Bratislava. According to this site, the body was not in Venice but in Constantinople until the Ottoman Sultan gave it to King Mathius in the 15th century. It is also confusing because his body and his relics seem to have taken different routes to get to their current destination at St. Martins.

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National Consumers League

The National Consumers League, founded in 1899, is an American consumer organization. The National Consumers League is a private, nonprofit advocacy group representing consumers on marketplace and workplace issues. The NCL provides government, businesses, and other organizations with the consumer's perspective on concerns including child labor, privacy, food safety, and medication information.

The organization was chartered in 1899 by social reformers Jane Addams and Josephine Lowell. Its first general secretary was Florence Kelley. Under Kelley's direction, the League's early focus was to oppose the harsh, unregulated working conditions many Americans were forced to endure. The founding principles of the NCL are: "That the working conditions we accept for our fellow citizens should be reflected by our purchases, and that consumers should demand safety and reliability from the goods and services they buy." The league's focus continues to be to promote a fair marketplace for workers and consumers.

Goals
The NCL based their organization on the ideals of consumer citizenship, in which it is a citizens duty to advocate for government legislation and use their individual purchasing power to shape a more ethical consumer market. For many years the majority of the members were middle or upper class women who worked primarily in cross-class activism using their power as consumers to protect those in their community who had fewer resources and whose voices carried less social currency. They pushed for better working conditions and a higher standard of available products for the purchaser. The league used tools such as investigating and educating to promote change. League members would often do thorough investigations in order to study the relevant social problems within their community. They would then create a report and present it to other women and community members often through public events, women's talk clubs, or fairs. In its early years it would award a company or producer with a "White Label" which signified that the league was in approval of their ethicality and it would be recognized by other informed consumers. As they progressed they turned their attention more toward implementing legislation that would provide protection to exploited workers and consumers. In the 1970s they shifted their focus onto the well being of consumers as individuals rather than the focus on working conditions.

Florence Kelley
Florence Kelley was the general secretary of the National Consumers League from its founding in 1899 to her death in 1931.

In founding the National Consumers League in 1899, one of Kelley's primary concerns was that the league oppose sweatshop labor. Kelley also worked to establish a work-day limited to eight hours. She worked in support of unionization to further protect workers. In 1907 she participated in the Supreme Court case Muller v. Oregon, which sought to overturn limits to the hours female workers could work in non-hazardous professions. Kelley helped to file the Brandeis Brief, which included sociological and medical evidence of the hazards of working long hours, and set the precedent of the Supreme Court's recognition of sociological evidence, which was used to great effect later in the case Brown v. Board of Education. In addition, Kelley assisted in organizing the National Association For Advancement of Colored People.

Esther Peterson
Esther Peterson's involvement in the NCL played an important role in consumer politics and worked within government office as well as the consumer market itself. She was a long time member of the NCL having worked with them as early as 1944 and served as the organizations president from 1974-1976. Peterson worked with the White House as a Special Assistant on Consumer Affairs from 1964-70 during Lyndon B.Johnson's presidency. She carried on her position as director of the Office of Consumer Affairs until 1981. Peterson was also a consumer advisor for the supermarket chain, Giant, from 1970-1976. Peterson also worked closely with president Jimmy Carter's office to represent consumers in policy making. Peterson dedicated her work to consumer protections like accurate food labeling and advocated for protections regarding class, race, and gender in the workforce and consumer market. Peterson made efforts to improve the market in ways that would benefit both business and consumer.

New Deal Era
In the 1920s and 1930's the NCL focus was set on lobbying for a gendered-minimum wage. As the U.S. entered the depression they began to lobby for both male and female working conditions and contributed to the passing of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 which is one of their first legislative achievements that set a standard for working conditions and outlawed child labor. In addition they fought for the use of the codes for fair competition through pressuring the National Recovery Administration. The NCL experienced some opposition through the New Deal Era from the National Women's Party over differing beliefs of gendered-wages.

Current leadership
Sally Greenberg, formerly a senior attorney at Consumers Union (CU), is the executive director of the National Consumers League. Greenberg has worked with members of Congress, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, other federal agencies, the media and consumer safety organizations to shape policy on such issues as product safety, auto safety, and legal and liability reform.

Programs
LifeSmarts (www.LifeSmarts.org) is a free program designed to teach teenagers consumer rights and responsibilities as they pertain to health, finance, technology, and the environment.

Fraud.org is a reporting platform through which the National Consumers League collects information about scams, extracts trends from data, and forwards reports to law enforcement.

The Child Labor Coalition (www.StopChildLabor.org) was formed in 1989 to combat child labor and protect teen workers from health and safety hazards. It is co-chaired by the National Consumers League and the American Federation of Teachers.

Script Your Future (www.ScriptYourFuture.org) is a public awareness initiative which teaches patients undergoing long-term prescription therapy the importance of communicating with healthcare professionals and following regimens carefully.

Criticism
NCL has faced criticism from progressive groups and labor unions for receiving funding from corporations with a financial stake in the industries where NCL offers policy recommendations. In 1998, Mother Jones argued that NCL "has been saturated in recent years with financial contributions from major U.S. corporations to the point where it can no longer be considered a legitimate independent consumer or public interest group."

In 2021, union leaders at Communications Workers of America, United Food and Commercial Workers, and United Auto Workers resigned from NCL's board over NCL's involvement with and financial support from Amazon.

title: National Consumers League


text:
Wartime

Wartime may refer to:

 * Wartime, Saskatchewan, a small community in Saskatchewan, Canada
 * Wartime, a formal state of war, as opposed to peacetime
 * Wartime (film), a 1987 science fiction film spin-off of the TV series Doctor Who
 * Wartime: Understanding and Behavior in the Second World War, a 1989 book by Paul Fussell
 * Wartime, a 1977 book by Yugoslav politician Milovan Djilas

title: Wartime


text:
User talk:Daume

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
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Civitan International

Civitan International, based in Birmingham, Alabama, is an association of community service clubs founded in 1917. The organization aims "to build good citizenship by providing a volunteer organization of clubs dedicated to serving individual and community needs with an emphasis on helping people with developmental disabilities." The organization includes 40,000 members (referred to as Civitans) in almost 1,000 clubs around the world.

History
In 1917, a group of Birmingham, Alabama, businessmen were members of the local Rotary club. Many of the men thought that the club focused too much on increasing the business of club members, so they surrendered their club's charter. Led by Courtney Shropshire, a local doctor, they formed an independent service club named Civitan, derived from the Latin word for citizenship.

The United States entered World War I just one month after the club formed. With all attention focused on the war, Civitan remained a local organization. Some of the earliest projects the club undertook supported soldiers, helped European war orphans, and encouraged voter participation through the payment of poll taxes.

Shropshire envisioned an international organization of Civitan clubs dedicated to serving humanity. The process to incorporate was begun, and the International Association of Civitan Clubs was founded in 1920. In the years immediately following World War I, the organization saw rapid growth. By June 1922 at the second international convention, delegates from 115 clubs attended; there were more than 3,300 Civitans throughout the United States. Service clubs like Civitan were extremely popular, since they promoted the spirit of optimism which characterized much of the Roaring Twenties.

"The vast multiplication of voluntary organizations for altruistic purposes are themselves proof of the ferment of spirituality, service, and mutual responsibility. These associations for advancement of public welfare, improvement, morals, charity, public opinion, health, the clubs and societies for recreation and intellectual advancement, represent something moving at a far greater depth than "joining." They represent the widespread aspiration for mutual advancement, self-expression, and neighborly helpfulness."

- Herbert Hoover

The club suffered sharp declines in membership and fundraising during the Great Depression. Some also questioned the necessity of service clubs after the New Deal's creation of relief programs. The organization persevered, in part due to cooperation with Rotary, Kiwanis, and Lions clubs. One of the few bright spots in the 1930s was the creation and rapid growth of the first Junior Civitan clubs.

The organization experienced another noticeable drop in membership at the outbreak of World War II, since many of its civic-minded members were among the first to volunteer for military service. Civitans who remained at home organized scrap metal collections, war bond sales, and blood drives. One club in Birmingham, Alabama, held so many successful bond drives that the Army Air Forces named a B-25 and a P-47 in the club's honor.

The period after World War II saw another surge in growth. There were 10,000 members by 1947, with membership tripling in size between 1946 and 1956 as Civitan became the sixth largest service club in the United States. By 1960, there were 34,000 active Civitans in 998 clubs. One reason that Civitan expanded so quickly was the flexibility that it allowed to clubs in other countries. Compromises over issues such as the Civitan creed and membership dues allowed the ethnically diverse organization to maintain a strong sense of unity.

By the 1950s, Civitan's focus had shifted to helping the developmentally disabled. The Civitan International Foundation, established in 1960, provided financial support for many organizations and programs which benefited developmentally disabled individuals. By 2005, the Civitan International Foundation had provided $13,000,000 in grants to the UAB Civitan International Research Center, the first institution in the United States to focus solely on researching developmental disabilities.

Service projects

On a local level, individual Civitan clubs undertake various service projects which benefit their local communities. Examples of club projects include maintaining a section of highway (the Tyler Civitan Club was the first to volunteer for the Adopt a Highway program), promoting the creation of hospitals, honoring community leaders, supporting local reading programs, sponsoring children in financial need, purchasing playground equipment for developmentally disabled children, and holding events for developmentally disabled individuals. Clubs operate independently of the international organization or other clubs, leaving them free to participate in whatever service they deem appropriate.

Focus on developmental disabilities
While individual clubs are free to pursue their own projects, on an international level Civitan is focused on service to the developmentally disabled. This emphasis was adopted in 1956, with Civitans becoming some of the first to provide special training for teachers of developmentally disabled children.

Civitan continues to focus on assisting those with developmental disabilities. In 1990, the Civitan International Research Center was established on the campus of the University of Alabama at Birmingham with a $20,000,000 grant from the Civitan International Foundation. The Civitan International Research Center was the first institution of its kind in the United States to be focused solely on the research of developmental disabilities. Medical professionals from all over the world also come to the center for training on developmental disabilities.

Clergy Appreciation Week
One of Civitan's most significant international events is Clergy Appreciation Week, inspired by the story of the Four Chaplains. Begun in 1964, the interfaith event honors the sacrifice of the Four Chaplains by encouraging citizens to thank the clergy who serve their communities. The week usually involves Civitan clubs presenting local clergy with an award or certificate of appreciation. Local mayors often sign a proclamation recognizing Clergy Appreciation Week and encouraging its observance.

Junior Civitan International
Junior Civitan International is one of Civitan's oldest and most successful programs. Students between the ages of 13 and 18 can join a Junior Civitan club at their school or in their community. Each Junior Civitan club is sponsored by a senior Civitan club and promotes student leadership, character development, and community service.

YP Civitan
YP Civitan clubs are designed to provide community service and networking opportunities for young professionals aged 21 to 35. YP Civitan of Greensboro, North Carolina was chartered on June 25, 2013 as the first YP Civitan club.

World Citizenship Award

Civitan has awarded its World Citizenship Award to those "who have made significant contributions to mankind." Recipients of the award include Winston Churchill, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Wernher von Braun, Thor Heyerdahl, and Eunice Kennedy Shriver.

Candy Box Project
The Civitan Candy Box Project, one of Civitan's oldest and most successful fundraising programs, has raised $50,000,000 since its inception in 1976. Civitan volunteers place boxes of mints at businesses in their community, and patrons donate money to take a piece of candy. Volunteers collect the money, keeping some for club service projects and sending the rest to Civitan International for its charitable projects.

Claxton fruitcake sales
Civitan's other important fundraiser involves the sale of Claxton Bakery's fruitcakes. This partnership began in 1951 when Tampa Civitan club (#0202) member Earl Carver enjoyed the cake so much that he suggested they be sold nationally as a fundraiser. Each year during the holiday season, local Civitan clubs sell millions of pounds of fruitcake. The proceeds from these sales benefit Civitan International's work with developmentally disabled persons.

International activities
Civitan has clubs in 49 countries and maintains a strong international focus. Because of its long history of service in West Africa, Civitan was invited by the Special Court for Sierra Leone to monitor the war crimes trial of former Liberian President Charles Taylor, held at the International Criminal Court facilities in The Hague. Civitan clubs are active in the following countries:

 * Bangladesh
 * Cameroon
 * Canada
 * China
 * Ivory Coast
 * Denmark
 * Egypt
 * Estonia
 * Germany
 * Ghana
 * Haiti
 * Hungary
 * India
 * Italy
 * Japan
 * Jordan
 * Kenya
 * Liberia
 * Mexico
 * Moldova
 * Nepal
 * Netherlands
 * Nigeria
 * Norway
 * Pakistan
 * Philippines
 * Romania
 * Russia
 * Senegal
 * Sierra Leone
 * Slovakia
 * South Korea
 * Sweden
 * Taiwan
 * Tanzania
 * Thailand
 * Togo
 * Uganda
 * Ukraine
 * United Kingdom
 * United States of America

Notable Civitans

Several well-known individuals have been Civitans, including:

 * Thomas Edison
 * President Calvin Coolidge
 * President Franklin D. Roosevelt, charter member of the New York Civitan Club
 * Rep. Joseph W. Byrns Sr., Speaker of the House under Franklin D. Roosevelt from January 3, 1935 to June 4, 1936
 * President John F. Kennedy
 * President Harry Truman
 * Jake Delhomme, former NFL quarterback
 * U.S. Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black
 * U.S. Supreme Court Justice Ed Sanford
 * General John Pershing
 * Cornelius Vanderbilt IV, charter member of the New York Civitan Club
 * Richard Petty
 * Bo Jackson
 * Frank Thomas
 * Richard Rohmer, who served as a Civitan district governor and international treasurer.
 * Richmond H. Hilton, Medal of Honor recipient.

title: Civitan International


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Peter Tomarken

Peter David Tomarken (December 7, 1942 – March 13, 2006) was an American television personality primarily known as the host of the game show Press Your Luck.

Early life
Tomarken was born in Olean, New York, the middle son of Barnett and Pearl Tomarken, who owned Dee's Jewelry store in Olean. His family was Jewish, members of Temple B'nai Israel. They relocated to Beverly Hills, California, in the early 1950s. Peter graduated from Beverly Hills High School in 1960 and from UCLA with a bachelor's degree in English. Before hosting game shows, he appeared as a contestant on The Rebus Game in the 1960s.

After graduating from college, Tomarken married his first wife, Dana, who later served on the Beverly Hills Board of Education from 1985 to 1993. He and Dana had three children: Jason, and fraternal twin sisters, Alexis and Candace.

Tomarken worked on the magazines Women's Wear Daily and Business Week in New York City during the late 1960s before moving back to California to work at various advertising agencies. He made an appearance as a reporter in the 1978 film Heaven Can Wait, as well as the character Roe in "The Secret Empire" portion of the short lived NBC series Cliffhangers.

Game show career
He later started his own advertising firm, which put him behind and in front of the camera for many commercials in the late 1970s. His agent then suggested that he should try his hand at game-show hosting, to which Tomarken replied, "Why would I want to do that?" His agent said, "Because you work four days a month and get paid six figures!" After a pair of failed pilots for NBC — Rodeo Drive in October 1980 (later picked as a series for Lifetime in 1990, ten years later) and Duel in the Daytime in August 1981, both produced by Jay Wolpert — Tomarken got his first network job of another Wolpert production as the host of Hit Man for NBC; it lasted just 13 weeks, from January 3 to April 1 of 1983. He also co-anchored a newsmagazine show on Playboy TV called Playboy on the Scene. Later that year, Bill Carruthers hired Tomarken to host Press Your Luck, a revival of his 1977 game show Second Chance, originally hosted by Jim Peck on ABC. Carruthers originally considered Pat Sajak for the job (when Sajak was still meteorologist at KNBC), but with Sajak committed to  Wheel of Fortune, Tomarken got the job instead. Tomarken hosted for three seasons on CBS until its cancellation in 1986. He also co-produced and co-wrote the 1984 NBC special Those Wonderful TV Game Shows.

Tomarken then hosted the pilot for Wordplay in October 1986 with announcer Rod Roddy, but Tom Kennedy hosted and Charlie O'Donnell announced the series. Next he hosted the short-lived Bargain Hunters for ABC during the summer of 1987. After a year hiatus, he returned to host Wipeout (which he also produced), which ran in syndication for one season (1988–89).

Tomarken's next project was a pilot for a game-show adaptation of the board game Monopoly, which was produced by Merv Griffin and intended to air daily in syndication. Tomarken (and stations) balked at the use of a midget (Patty Maloney) to portray "Rich Uncle Pennybags", making it impossible to sell. The project was reworked into a summer replacement weekly series for ABC in 1990; Tomarken was replaced by Mike Reilly, a contestant on the pilot, and "Rich Uncle Pennybags" was removed. He hosted several other unsold pilots, including TKO for Mark Goodson, Two Heads Are Better Than One and Live Wire for PYL producer Bill Carruthers, Winds of Fortune, and Show Me the World before the game show market stalled in the early 1990s.

Tomarken then turned to working behind the scenes as a producer and writer. He joined the staff of ABC's America's Funniest People as a segment producer for one season in 1991. He also wrote and produced episodes for Real Stories of the Highway Patrol. He returned to the game-show arena in 1994 when he was hired by the fledgling GSN during its conception and early years in the mid-to-late 1990s, and served as host for their evening interactive telephone games, Prime Games, which featured Decades and Race for the Numbers. In 2000, Tomarken took his final hosting position on the Fox Family Channel game show Paranoia. He also appeared on several infomercials and acted in small roles, including on the TV show Ally McBeal, during that time. He semi-retired from television to work as a real estate agent.

When GSN decided to revive Tomarken's most successful series as Whammy! The All-New Press Your Luck, Tomarken taped a pilot episode. Todd Newton (who also hosted a pilot) was eventually selected to host the revival, which lasted for two seasons.

In 2003, Tomarken returned to GSN to participate in a documentary based on Michael Larson's run on Press Your Luck in 1984. He narrated the program, titled Big Bucks: The Press Your Luck Scandal, and also gave his own take on the event. As part of the special, he hosted a segment of ''Whammy! The All-New Press Your Luck'' (making a surprise appearance to host the question round) which reunited the two contestants who competed against Michael Larson with Larson's brother, James, for a grudge match; James won, with a total of $6,695. (Michael Larson had died in February 1999 of throat cancer.)

Death
Tomarken—a private pilot—and his second wife, Kathleen (born June 12, 1964), were killed when his Beechcraft Bonanza A36, N16JR, crashed a few hundred feet offshore in Santa Monica Bay during climb-out from the Santa Monica Airport in California on the morning of March 13, 2006. The aircraft lost power shortly after takeoff and Tomarken attempted to turn back to the airport before crashing into the bay. The National Transportation Safety Board determined that the Tomarkens' chances of survival "would have significantly increased" had the plane been equipped with shoulder harnesses in addition to lap seat belts. The cause of the crash was determined to be an improper repair to the aircraft engine that resulted in a complete loss of power.

The Tomarkens were volunteers with Angel Flight West, a nonprofit organization that provides free air transportation to needy medical patients. They were en route to San Diego to pick up a cancer patient who needed transportation to UCLA Medical Center for treatment when their airplane crashed. The charity and the Tomarken children have since established a "Tomarken Heroes" fund in memory of the couple.

Tomarken and his wife are buried in the same plot at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery in Culver City, California.

title: Peter Tomarken