text:
History of British film certificates

This article chronicles the history of British film certificates.

Overview
The UK's film ratings are decided by the British Board of Film Classification and have been since 1912. Previously, there were no agreed rating standards, and local councils imposed their own – often differing – conditions or restrictions. For cinema releases, the BBFC has no legal power (technically, films do not even have to be submitted for classification), as it falls to councils to decide who should be admitted to a certain film, but they generally apply the BBFC's certificates, effectively making them legally binding. In exceptional cases, councils may impose their own conditions, either raising or lowering the minimum entry age from the certificate, banning a certified film outright, or setting their own minimum entry age for films that have never been submitted for BBFC certification, or which have been refused a certificate by the Board. Prior to 1985, there were no legally binding ratings on video releases. The Video Recordings Act 1984 introduced new legal powers to certify video releases independently from any existing cinema certificate, with the BBFC being required to rate every new video release (except those exempted from classification) to determine the minimum age of people to whom the recording can be supplied, whether by sale or rental. In August 2009 it was discovered that the Video Recordings Act 1984 never had legal effect, due to a technical error when the terms of the act were not communicated to the European Commission. The relevant provisions were re-enacted by Parliament as the Video Recordings Act 2010.

The following list chronicles the BBFC's ratings system from its inception to the present.

In each section, italics indicates when a certificate has changed since the previous system.

1912–1932
At first, there were just two advisory certificates.

In Ireland, following the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922 (now the Republic of Ireland), the Irish Film Censor's Office was created in 1923 in place of the BBFC. This was renamed the Irish Film Classification Office in 2008.

1932–1951
An H (Horrific) certificate was added in 1932 to alert parents to horror-themed material.

1951–1970
Following a recommendation by the County Councils Association to replace the BBFC, the government established a committee chaired by Professor Kenneth Wheare to examine film censorship. The committee's findings were published in 1950 and proposed creation of four new certificates (X - films aimed at adults only, from which children should be absolutely excluded; C - films aimed specifically at children; Category U - films suitable for all; Category A - films suitable for all, but dealing with mild adult subject matter). Only one of these proposals were adopted and saw for the first time, a compulsory certificate, X, introduced allowing only those aged 16 and older to enter. This replaced the H certificate.

1970–1982
On 1 July 1970 the A certificate was split into two: The old 'A' (advisory) category was split to create a new advisory 'A' which permitted the admission of children of 5 years or over whether accompanied or not, but which warned parents that a film in this category would contain some material that parents might prefer their children under 14 not to see while the new AA allowed only those aged 14 or over to be admitted. As there was now a mandatory certificate at 14, the X certificate was modified to raise its age from 16 to 18.

1982–1985
On 1 November 1982 the ratings system was completely overhauled with only the U certificate remaining unchanged (though its description was slightly modified). The A certificate was replaced by PG, which was now completely advisory. The age of AA was raised a year and the certificate was renamed 15. The X certificate was unchanged but renamed 18 due to the lewd reputation that the letter X had acquired. A new R18 certificate was introduced for sexually explicit films. In order to show R18 films, cinemas must be licensed members-only clubs (previously, a loophole allowed these clubs to show such films unrated). The current and new certificates introduced different shapes for each rating.

1985–1989
The Video Recordings Act 1984 gave the BBFC the legal responsibility to rate all videos. The current certificates were all used and were also modified and coloured. A new Uc certificate was introduced for videos only to indicate a recording that is especially suitable for young children to watch on their own. Those under the age of a certificate could not buy or rent a video with that certificate. Shops wishing to sell or rent R18 videos had to apply for a licence. Video releases in this period often featured unofficial logos with a plain background.

1989–2002
Due to the large gap between PG and 15 and industry pressure regarding Batman, a 12 certificate was introduced on 1 August 1989. However, it was for cinema use only and did not cover videos. From this point on video releases featured the official BBFC logos. The 12 certificate was eventually introduced for videos on 1 July 1994. As the 12 certificate did not apply to video releases before July 1994, several films which had been issued a 12 classification for cinema release had to have a decision made about them regarding which rating was suitable for a video release and if a 15 certificate was deemed too high a rating for a particular film, a PG certificate was given with possible cuts to fit the rating. Films which received the 12 classification for cinema and 15 classification for video include Uncle Buck, which later passed with 12 for video on re-submission, and Nuns on the Run, which currently remains 15, with re-submission. All of the symbols were also graphically edited with lighter text in 1999 from the bolder text used since 1985 although many home video releases continued to use the previous symbols.

In 2002, the cinema 12 certificate was modified and renamed 12A. Those under 12 could now be admitted to 12A films, provided that they were accompanied by an adult aged at least 18 years old, although the BBFC recommends that 12A films are generally unsuitable for children under 12 years old. Contrary to popular belief, the certificate was not introduced for the film Spider-Man; the first film to receive it was actually The Bourne Identity. However, Spider-Man and other films still on general release at the time were reclassified as 12A. Introduction of the 12A followed two years of consultation and a trial period in Norwich, during which time the certificate was known as PG-12 (see below). The video 12 certificate remained unchanged.

2002–2020
In September 2002, all of the symbols were graphically modernised but retained all their main features (colour, shape, etc.). The Uc certificate was retired in 2009, and replaced with BBFCInsight which states where works are 'particularly suitable for pre-school children'; however, older DVDs may still carry the Uc certificate. The consumer advice for the U certificate was updated to advise parents to check the film in case of children under the age of 4 and PG in case of children under 8.

2019–present
The 12 symbol was made the same colour as the 12A symbol, whilst the 15 symbol changed from the white background with red writing to the pink background with white writing. In October 2019, for the first time, all of the symbols were redesigned for digital streaming services and theatrical releases. However, the packaged media continued to only use the previous symbols until late April 2020, although a transition period was allowed for video releases to use either the old or new symbols until 5 October 2020, after which all packaged media must by law use the new symbols. The BBFCInsight was replaced with ratings info.

title: History of British film certificates


text:
I Love the '80s Strikes Back

I Love the '80s Strikes Back is a miniseries and the third installment of the I Love the... series on VH1 in which various music and TV personalities reminisce about 1980s popular culture in a mostly humorous manner. The series premiered on October 20, 2003, and is a sequel to I Love the '80s.

The sequel designation is in the reference to The Empire Strikes Back.

Commentators

 * Carol Alt
 * John Amos*
 * Cedric the Entertainer
 * Curtis Armstrong
 * Rosanna Arquette
 * apl.de.ap & will.i.am
 * Ashanti
 * Sebastian Bach
 * Barenaked Ladies (Ed Robertson, Tyler Stewart and Steven Page)
 * Anna Belknap*
 * Greg Behrendt
 * D.C. Benny
 * Frank Black
 * Michael Ian Black
 * Lesley Boone
 * Bozo the Clown
 * Brooke Burke
 * Bill Burr
 * Timothy Busfield
 * Bryan Callen
 * Candace Cameron
 * Mariah Carey
 * Ellen Cleghorne
 * George Clinton
 * Stewart Copeland
 * David Coverdale
 * Jon Cryer
 * Molly Culver
 * Dido
 * Rocco DiSpirito*
 * The Donnas (Brett Anderson & Torry Castellano and Maya Ford & Allison Robertson)
 * Simon Doonan
 * Howie Dorough
 * Bil Dwyer
 * Sheila E.
 * Rich Eisen
 * Perry Farrell & Chris Chaney
 * Corey Feldman
 * Colin Ferguson
 * Craig Ferguson
 * Mark Feuerstein & Ashley Williams
 * Flavor Flav
 * Lita Ford
 * Samantha Fox
 * Doug E. Fresh
 * John Fugelsang
 * Zach Galligan
 * Boy George
 * Deborah Gibson
 * Godfrey
 * Tracey Gold
 * Gilbert Gottfried
 * Kathy Griffin*
 * Luis Guzman
 * Hall & Oates
 * Hanson
 * Rachael Harris
 * Steve Harwell
 * Colin Hay
 * Jason Hervey
 * Susanna Hoffs & Vicki Peterson
 * Leslie Hope
 * Finola Hughes
 * Scott Ian
 * Stephan Jenkins
 * Chris Jericho
 * Cherie Johnson
 * Cris Judd
 * Nick Lachey
 * Queen Latifah*
 * Cyndi Lauper
 * Juliette Lewis
 * Adam Levine & James Valentine
 * Beth Littleford
 * Donal Logue
 * Loni Love
 * Rob Lowe*
 * Carl Lumbly
 * Stephen Lynch
 * Virginia Madsen
 * Joe Mantegna
 * John Mayer
 * MC Lyte
 * Tim McGraw
 * Darryl McDaniels
 * Mark McGrath
 * Breckin Meyer*
 * Penelope Ann Miller
 * Monica
 * Mandy Moore
 * Tom Morello
 * Vince Neil
 * John Ondrasik
 * Patton Oswalt
 * Paula Jai Parker
 * Steve Perkins & Dave Navarro
 * Liz Phair
 * Kate Pierson
 * Bronson Pinchot
 * Pink
 * Stefanie Powers
 * Lindsay Price*
 * Danny Provenzano
 * Rachel Quaintance
 * Donnell Rawlings
 * Mary Lou Retton
 * Mo Rocca
 * Henry Rollins
 * David Lee Roth
 * Darius Rucker
 * Richie Sambora
 * Emma Samms
 * Fred Schneider & Cindy Wilson
 * Rick Schroder
 * Dennis Seaton*
 * Charlie Sheen
 * Pauly Shore
 * Rena Sofer & Jay Harrington*
 * Hal Sparks
 * Frank Stallone
 * Joel Stein
 * Taboo & Fergie
 * Rob Thomas
 * Lea Thompson
 * Triumph the Insult Comic Dog
 * Brian Unger
 * Usher
 * Frank Vincent & Vincent Pastore
 * Jenna Von Oy
 * Gedde Watanabe
 * Jody Watley
 * Chuck Woolery
 * Adrian Young
 * Young MC
 * Adrian Zmed
 * Rob Zombie

(*) = archival footage

Recurring segments

 * Donal Logue's Unfinished Thoughts: Donal Logue gives an unfinished thought on a pop culture event from each year.
 * Break Up Songs: Boy George presents the breakup songs for each year.
 * Hip-Hop Jam: Doug E. Fresh presents the hip-hop jam for each year.
 * Public Service Announcement: A public service announcement from each year is presented.
 * Nerds: Gedde Watanabe presents the nerds for each year.
 * What the F#?%!!! Moment: Gilbert Gottfried presents the biggest blunders of the year.
 * During the credits of every episode, a clip from a popular music video was played without any type of commentary. These were usually replaced with a show promo by VH1.

1980

 * American Gigolo
 * Too Close for Comfort
 * "Whip It" by Devo
 * Richie Rich
 * Grey Poupon
 * Superman II
 * The Plastic Man Comedy/Adventure Show
 * Flash Gordon
 * "Rock with You" by Michael Jackson
 * Real People
 * The Blues Brothers
 * Eight Is Enough
 * Solid Gold
 * Satin jackets
 * Stir Crazy
 * Private Benjamin
 * Alice
 * Friendship bracelets and ribbon barrettes
 * "I Want You To Want Me" by Cheap Trick
 * Hungry Hungry Hippos
 * Friday the 13th

Donal Logue's Unfinished Thoughts on Superman

Break Up Songs of 1980: "Boys Don't Cry" by The Cure, "Please Don't Go" by KC and the Sunshine Band and "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin" by Hall & Oates

Hip-Hop Jam of 1980: "Rapper's Delight" by The Sugarhill Gang

PSA of 1980: The Bod Squad's "Don't Drown Your Food" PSA (healthy eating)

Nerds of 1980: Steve Jobs, Elvis Costello and C-3PO

The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1980: Alvin and the Chipmunks's Chipmunk Punk album becomes their very first record to go gold

1981

 * Dynasty
 * The Smurfs
 * Journey's Escape album
 * On Golden Pond
 * "The Stroke" by Billy Squier
 * Endless Love
 * Magnum, P.I.
 * "Super Freak" by Rick James
 * Iron-on decals
 * The Fall Guy
 * The Rolling Stones' Tattoo You Tour
 * Fernando Valenzuela
 * Hart to Hart
 * Benetton
 * Benson
 * Ronald Reagan likes Jelly Belly
 * Jelly shoes
 * Clash of the Titans
 * Simon and Garfunkel's concert in Central Park
 * Mommie Dearest

Donal Logue's Unfinished Thoughts on Journey

Break Up Songs of 1981: "Since You're Gone" by The Cars, "Don't You Want Me" by The Human League and "The Breakup Song (They Don't Write 'Em)" by The Greg Kihn Band

Hip-Hop Jam of 1981: "The Breaks" by Kurtis Blow

PSA of 1981: Think Before You Drink (Anti-Drinking Ad starring Brooke Shields)

Nerds of 1981: Prince Charles, Ric Ocasek and Bill Gates

The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1981: The USDA proposes to cut school lunch programs by classifying ketchup as a school lunch vegetable

1982

 * Fame
 * Annie
 * "Abracadabra" by Steve Miller Band
 * Tootsie
 * ColecoVision
 * John Mellencamp
 * Wayne Gretzky
 * "Gloria" by Laura Branigan
 * The Toy
 * Conan the Barbarian and The Beastmaster
 * Men at Work
 * KangaRoos
 * Mad Max 2: The Road Warrior (originally released in 1981)
 * T. J. Hooker
 * "I'm So Excited" by The Pointer Sisters
 * An Officer and a Gentleman
 * G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero
 * "Pass the Dutchie" by Musical Youth
 * Pink Floyd – The Wall
 * Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan

Donal Logue's Unfinished Thoughts on The Beastmaster

Break Up Songs of 1982: "Do You Really Want to Hurt Me" by Culture Club, "Only Time Will Tell" by Asia and "Harden My Heart" by Quarterflash

Hip-Hop Jam of 1982: "Planet Rock" by Afrika Bambaataa & the Soulsonic Force

PSA of 1982: Alternate Escape Routes in case of a fire ("Learn not to burn") Starring Dick Van Dyke

Nerds of 1982: Thomas Dolby, Irwin "Skippy" Handelman and Sarah Jessica Parker

The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1982: Yale University offers a 14-week special course on how to solve the Rubik's Cube

1983

 * Richard Simmons
 * "All Night Long (All Night)" by Lionel Richie
 * Staying Alive
 * Klondike bar
 * The Thorn Birds
 * Risky Business
 * Sunglasses
 * The Day After
 * The Outsiders
 * Cujo and Christine
 * Snausages (dog treats)
 * Chicken McNuggets
 * "Rock This Town" by Stray Cats
 * Donkey Kong
 * Culture Club
 * Yentl
 * KISS takes off their makeup
 * Martina Navratilova
 * Fraggle Rock
 * V

Donal Logue's Unfinished Thoughts on The Day After and Snausages

Break Up Songs of 1983: "Total Eclipse of the Heart" by Bonnie Tyler, "Separate Ways (Worlds Apart)" by Journey and "Always Something There to Remind Me" by Naked Eyes

Hip-Hop Jam of 1983: "White Lines (Don't Don't Do It) by Grandmaster Melle Mel

PSA of 1983: "We're not candy!" (about kids finding pills out of the bottle and accidentally eating them) by The Poison Control Center

Nerds of 1983: Nerds Candy, LeVar Burton and Simon Seville

The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1983: Interior Secretary James Watt bans The Beach Boys from playing on the National Mall

1984

 * The Karate Kid
 * Van Halen's 1984 album
 * The wave
 * "Drive" by The Cars
 * Beverly Hills Cop
 * Cagney & Lacey
 * Menudo
 * Scratch and sniff and Trapper Keeper
 * A Nightmare on Elm Street
 * Thompson Twins
 * My Little Pony and Glo Worm
 * "Somebody's Watching Me" by Rockwell
 * Tom Hanks in Splash and Bachelor Party
 * Gremlins
 * The Burning Bed
 * Tina Turner
 * Stirrup pants
 * Billy Idol
 * Revenge of the Nerds

Donal Logue's Unfinished Thoughts on Scratch and Sniff

Break Up Songs of 1984: "Sister Christian" by Night Ranger, "Hard Habit to Break" by Chicago and "Oh Sherrie" by Steve Perry

Hip-Hop Jam of 1984: "Roxanne, Roxanne" by UTFO

PSA of 1984: McGruff the Crime Dog's "Take A Bite Out of Crime" (subject: getting into cars with strangers)

Nerds of 1984: Ed Grimley, Alex Trebek and Long Duk Dong

The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1984: Ronald Reagan makes an off-the-record joke about outlawing and bombing Russia

1985

 * Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous
 * Rambo: First Blood Part II
 * Crack epidemic
 * "You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)" by Dead or Alive
 * Teen Wolf
 * Inspector Gadget
 * Remington Steele
 * "Rock Me Amadeus" by Falco
 * Jenga
 * Tears for Fears
 * Bobby Knight's explosive temper and getting ejected from the game vs. Purdue
 * The People's Court
 * "That's What Friends Are For" by Dionne Warwick, Elton John, Gladys Knight and Stevie Wonder
 * 227
 * North and South
 * "I Want to Know What Love Is" by Foreigner
 * Mr. Belvedere
 * New Coke
 * Jem
 * Weird Science

Donal Logue's Unfinished Thoughts on crack cocaine

Break Up Songs of 1985: "Broken Wings" by Mr. Mister, "I Miss You" by Klymaxx and "Don't You (Forget About Me)" by Simple Minds

Hip-Hop Jam of 1985: "The Show" by Doug E. Fresh

PSA of 1985: Bob Barker about AIDS (debunking the misconception of getting AIDS from cats)

Nerds of 1985: Crispin Glover, Lukas Haas and Larry King

The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1985: The "mythical unicorns" from Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus are actually goats with surgically-fused horns

1986

 * Pee-wee's Playhouse
 * Jolt Cola
 * Bon Jovi's Slippery When Wet album
 * LA Gear
 * "You Can Call Me Al" by Paul Simon
 * Soul Man
 * Rainbow Brite
 * "Walk Like an Egyptian" by The Bangles
 * Dallas episode "Bobby Ewing Comes Back to Life" (aka "Blast from the Past")
 * Howard the Duck
 * About Last Night...
 * The Mystery of Al Capone's Vault
 * Ocean Pacific
 * "Conga" by Gloria Estefan and Miami Sound Machine
 * L.A. Law
 * The Golden Child
 * Double Dare
 * Garbage Pail Kids
 * Michael Jordan
 * "Heartbeat" by Don Johnson
 * Joe Isuzu
 * The Fly

Donal Logue's Unfinished Thoughts on Bon Jovi

Break Up Songs of 1986: "No One Is to Blame" by Howard Jones, "Don't Dream It's Over" by Crowded House and "If You Leave" by Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark

Hip-Hop Jam of 1986: "Walk This Way" by Run-D.M.C. and Aerosmith

PSA of 1986: Rock Against Drugs (Aimee Mann of 'Til Tuesday)

Nerds of 1986: Willie Tanner, Rick Moranis and Cliff Clavin

The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1986: Fred Grandy runs for Congress from the state of Iowa and wins

1987

 * Beauty and the Beast
 * "Here I Go Again" by Whitesnake
 * Scruples
 * The Fat Boys
 * Flowers in the Attic
 * LL Cool J
 * Macho Movies (specifically Predator, RoboCop, and Over the Top)
 * Doc Martens
 * "Bad" by Michael Jackson
 * Full House
 * Less than Zero
 * Jody Watley
 * Remote Control
 * Biker shorts (Lycra)
 * Thundercats
 * Raising Arizona
 * "Luka" by Suzanne Vega
 * A Different World
 * "Land of Confusion" by Genesis
 * Steve Guttenberg
 * The Princess Bride

Donal Logue's Unfinished Thoughts on Scruples

Break Up Songs of 1987: "With or Without You" by U2, "Didn't We Almost Have It All" by Whitney Houston and "I Won't Forget You" by Poison

Hip-Hop Jam of 1987: "Push It" by Salt-n-Pepa & Spinderella

PSA of 1987: Rock Against Drugs (Anti-Drug)

Nerds of 1987: Revenge of the Nerds II: Nerds in Paradise, Bud Bundy and Gilbert Gottfried

The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1987: Vanna White's autobiography, Vanna Speaks, recalls that she once smoked some pot, then she ate an entire meatloaf

1988

 * Big
 * Growing Pains
 * MTV's Headbangers Ball
 * Ripped jeans
 * Beetlejuice
 * Who Framed Roger Rabbit
 * "Get Outta My Dreams, Get Into My Car" by Billy Ocean
 * Jamaica national bobsled team
 * My Two Dads
 * Garfield stuffed animals
 * Beaches
 * Charles in Charge
 * A Fish Called Wanda
 * Ickey Woods (The "Ickey Shuffle") and the Bash Brothers (Jose Canseco and Mark McGwire)
 * Hypercolor T-shirts
 * "Pour Some Sugar On Me" by Def Leppard
 * Young Guns
 * Alternative rock (specifically R.E.M., Jane's Addiction, and Sonic Youth)
 * Vice President George H. W. Bush elected President of the United States
 * Chia Pet
 * Tracy Chapman
 * Coming to America

Donal Logue's Unfinished Thoughts on Garfield

Break Up Songs of 1988: "Every Rose Has Its Thorn" by Poison, "Don't Know What You Got (Till It's Gone)" by Cinderella and "Look Away" by Chicago

Hip-Hop Jam of 1988: "Mary, Mary" by Run-D.M.C.

PSA of 1988: Sylvester Stallone for Give The Gift Of Literacy

Nerds of 1988: Mike Mills, Paul Pfeiffer and Miles Silverberg

The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1988: The final episode of St. Elsewhere reveals that the entire series has taken place inside the mind of an autistic child

1989

 * Weekend at Bernie's
 * Doogie Howser, M.D.
 * "I Wanna Have Some Fun" by Samantha Fox
 * The Clapper
 * Field of Dreams
 * Pete Rose
 * "Just a Friend" by Biz Markie
 * Thirtysomething
 * Yuppie
 * Richard Marx
 * Driving Miss Daisy
 * Zsa Zsa Gabor slaps a cop
 * "Patience" by Guns N' Roses
 * Rock N Roll Flowers (sound detection dancing flowers)
 * Beastie Boys' Paul's Boutique album
 * Bo Jackson
 * Designing Women
 * York Peppermint Pattie
 * House of Style
 * Choose Your Own Adventure books
 * When Harry Met Sally...

Donal Logue's Unfinished Thoughts on Pete Rose

Break Up Songs of 1989: "How Am I Supposed to Live Without You" by Michael Bolton, "Miss You Much" by Janet Jackson and "Free Fallin'" by Tom Petty

Hip-Hop Jam of 1989: "Don't Believe the Hype" by Public Enemy

PSA of 1989: Magic Johnson on Designated Drivers

Nerds of 1989: Samuel "Screech" Powers, Woody Allen and Steve Urkel

The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1989: 87-year-old Carrie Stringfellow nearly gets embalmed after being mistaken for dead at a Springfield, Ohio funeral home

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: I Love the '80s Strikes Back


text:
Talk:Banqueting house

untitled
"In 1685 the Banqueting House became the first building ever to use crown glass in its windows." Shouldn't this read 'the first English building...'? By 1685 most of Versailles was glazed with crown plass wasn't it? References are always good supports for unusual statements User:Wetman
 * I think you're right. From Crown glass (window), the French were making crown glass centuries earlier, but kept the process secret. I adjusted the text accordingly.--Srleffler 18:44, 30 December 2005 (UTC)

Heading change
The former heading Banqueting House at Whitehall took cognizance of the fact that there were other "banqueting houses" in 16th and 17th century England. A move to a new heading should always follow some research. --Wetman 18:10, 31 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * The former name may be very pretty, but it is not the commonly-used name of the building ("Banqueting House, Whitehall" would be better, for example). Policy is to use the most common name for something unless this conflicts with an extant article, barring a (very, very) few exceptions. This is not one of them.
 * That there was more than one is not only rather evident, but mildly irrelevent.
 * As and when disambiguation becomes necessary, this will of course be moved to a harder-to-find name.
 * James F. (talk) 03:16, 1 Jan 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Banqueting house


text:
Talk:Gary Ridgway

Abusive father
It's mentioned in this article that he had a terrible mother. He actually had two terrible parents. His father was controlling and very violent. Some neighbors witnessed the beatings are were horrified, even though corporal punishment was common back then. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2607:FCC8:AD08:EC00:346F:8017:60CD:DA07 (talk) 05:38, 12 April 2020 (UTC)

DNA?
Okay where it says, "The DNA samples collected in 1987 were later subjected to a DNA analysis," I feel that is incorrect. In 1987 they would not have collected "DNA samples" since we didn't have that technology then. Simply, "The samples collected in 1987 were later subjected to a DNA analysis," would suffice. That said, I'm changing it. If I'm wrong, fine. Just please provide a source that states the samples taken were for DNA as the sentence implies. MagnoliaSouth (talk) 22:14, 22 June 2011 (UTC)
 * Either would work. DNA analysis was used for the first time to convict a suspect (AND exonerate an innocent man) in 1987. I think that even if the technology was not developed, the task force knew what they were doing when they collected the sample. Ridgway could have been naild much earlier if there was not such a backlog in the crime lab testing facility. Even then, the evidence was circumstantial - his DNA was there because he had sex with those prostitutes. So did others. It is the nature of the "profession". 47.137.185.148 (talk) 03:24, 17 June 2018 (UTC)

Silence of the Lambs
86.18.80.97 (talk) 16:51, 10 December 2011 (UTC) Should this article mention the fact that he is an inspiration for buffalo bill in silence of the lambs?

 * I've never heard that he (rather The Green River Killer, as Ridgway was identified long after the novel and film came out) was a direct inspiration for the Buffalo Bill character - do you have a source? Gein was an inspiration for the flesh suit aspect (and Lecter's cannibalism), and Bundy was an inspiration for at least two things: feigning injury to abduct Catherine Martin, and consulting with him in order to catch another serial killer. In Bundy's case, the killer they were seeking his advice on was the Green River Killer, but that would be more of an inspiration for Lecter's character. If you can find a good source on this it should be added. Doc   talk  17:01, 10 December 2011 (UTC)

 * There are three main ways for a serial killer to acquire victims.

 * You can just walk up to them and hit them in the head, strangle them, or shoot them. David Berkowitz and Zodiac shot people, Dennis "BTK" Rader strangled his victims after invading their home, and Ted Bundy hit the Chi Omega sorority sisters in the head ( a marked departure from his usual feigning injury or impersonating a cop method). Bundy's last murder of Kim Leach was a standard snatch and grab - that 12 year old girl never had a chance, though Ted did mix it up a bit by pretending to be a firefighter).

 * The second way is to "woo" your victim. Jeffrey Dahmer was a master at this. He would chat up men at bars, invite them to his apartment for drinks and possible money if they would let him take nude photographs, and once there he would put sleeping pills in their drink and wait like a cat playing with a mouse. Once passed out he would strangle them, dismember their body parts, store the parts, and sometimes eat them.

 * Bundy would pretend to be injured (he worked at a hospital supply store and had access to crutches, or he would portray an authority figure (Carol DaRonch was almost lured to her death because she thought Bundy was a cop trying to track down a car burglar). Bundy was suave and convincing in most of his murders, he was able to talk the women into their doom.

 * The final way is to be a "john". Ridgway fits this method. He sought out prostitutes because they were easy prey. They literally walked into his truck because he promised them cold hard cash. Ridgway had a bit of con in his game because he had a picture of his son on his dash (appealing to the maternal instincts of the women he preyed upon - this nice guy with a kid can't be the killer we are all afraid of!) but his m.o. was simple profit motive. He had the money and the women wanted it. Once they struck a deal he became their worst nightmare.

 * Buffalo Bill was a con and manipulator. He may have gone after some prostitutes, but his character was more about what he did after {the pit - Heidnik and skinning- Gein, - not what he did to catch his prey.

 * No, Buffalo Bill was no Ridgway 47.137.185.148 (talk) 05:30, 23 June 2018 (UTC)

Picture request
It's a bit odd that the article for Americans most prolific serial killer doesn't have a single image. 202.171.168.178 (talk) 12:28, 18 December 2011 (UTC)

 * There was one here, and I'll look into it: but dealing with WP:FU images will burn you out quickly. Doc   talk  12:46, 18 December 2011 (UTC)

Add to lead ranking
I think we should add he is the most prolific American serial killer to the lead. or something interesting like that. Cuz 49 is a lot of people. And I thought they said serial killers do not hunt outside of their ethnic group?--Inayity (talk) 14:46, 4 October 2013 (UTC)
 * I've never heard American be called an ethnicity. There was one serial killer named Armstrong who killed all over the world. He was a sailor on a U.S. Navy ship and liked to take extra "liberty" when the ship was in a foriegn port. He finally got caught in his hometown of Detroit because he couldn't lay off of the local prostitutes. 47.137.185.148 (talk) 03:28, 17 June 2018 (UTC)
 * The man I am thinking of is John Eric Armstrong. He isn't exactly obscure, if you are aware of serial killers. I think that he rates his own page (not trying to glorify him, just saying that he is notable. 47.137.185.148 (talk) 14:26, 23 June 2018 (UTC)

DNA prior to 1995
There are many police departments that correctly preserved DNA prior to 1995. It's actually how they're currently able to solve cold cases.

Ted Bundy and Rodney Alcala are both believed to have murdered over 100 females. Bundy and Alcala were also more intelligent than Ridgway. If they had the DNA testing back when Ridgway was killing that we have today, he would have been caught early on. 108.31.41.5 (talk) 09:54, 27 April 2014 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 108.31.41.5 (talk) 09:31, 27 April 2014 (UTC)

First Wife
The article says:
 * At age 21, after graduating from high school, Ridgway married his high school girlfriend Marcia Winslow. ... the marriage ended within a year.

yet this person is not named in the list of spouses. (Or she may be under a different name, but this is undocumented.) Co149 (talk) 01:32, 13 May 2014 (UTC)

Suspected victim
An anonymous poster indicated two years ago that Ridgeway was ruled out as the murderer of Rose Marie Kurran, A.K.A. "Curran." I'm unable to find any such reference, despite an extensive search for a source. Activist (talk) 11:27, 25 September 2015 (UTC)

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Airway Heights
The article stated: "Roughly around 2005, Ridgway made more pleas with the Federal government and was transferred to Airway Heights where he was put in a minimum-medium security tank." I have removed this entry for a number of reasons:
 * Airway Heights Corrections Center is a corrections centre that has a maximum security section, I cannot believe that his security status would be changed. Allegedly he was sent to Colorado for financial reasons, but also so he could be evaluated independantly. It was feared that he would be at risk if he remained in Washington State. His security status was as much for his own protection as part of his incarceration.
 * The statement is not referenced
 * The statement cannot be corroberated by reliable sources (most reference Wikipedia)
 * This statement seems to be in contradiction of reliable sources, such as the references in the article, where it is stated that he was transferred from Walla Walla.

JHvW 11:09, 24 October 2017 (UTC)

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Douglas
47.137.185.148: I have no particular problem with your last edit, but in response to your edit summary: If you again remove a link from this or another article as "dead" without even attempting to find an archived copy of the URL at archive.org, I will indeed revert it (without discussion on the Talk page). Also, it sounds as if you may be relying on original research rather than published sources for at least some of your edits, and are strongly cautioned about doing so.  General Ization Talk  03:21, 17 June 2018 (UTC)
 * No original research at all. The reference says that Douglas has written 8 books. That is true. None of them are exclusively about the Green River Killer. None of the major books in GRK historiography say that Douglas was a major investigator. He is noteworthy in terms of Ridgway because the FBI was asked to bring some expertise to the investigation and Douglas is the one who came. He was a consultant, played a role, and that is what the article as it stands says. As to Douglas being ill during his visit and not doing all that much in Seattle, Douglas says that himself in his book. He almost died. 47.137.185.148 (talk) 04:33, 18 June 2018 (UTC)

Add animal killings as section?
In https://www.youtube.com/embed/AwOJ4_-1Uq0?start=255 he mentions, "I killed a lot of birds...one cat...shot BBs at dogs"

Citations in beginning paragraphs
I believe that all of the citations within this article stand to strong evidence and reason. But i do think that the opening paragraph is one that needs to showcase a lot more proven information with citations. i just think that the information given within the first few paragraphs need to be backed up and made sure that they are valid. Haileylfox (talk) 02:06, 17 October 2018 (UTC)

Please fix the factual sexist errors.
The page states he had "sexual intercourse with" the bodies of his victims, and that he "had a love/hate relationship" with prostitutes. The former statement indicates a shared participatory act rather than corpse violation or assault. The latter is offensive imagination and nonsense. Calling any feelings he had for a group he murdered in large quantity "love" perpetuates glib misconception at best -- and lethal misogyny at worst.

Not everyone can edit this page, but anyone can read it. I can't imagine how many people would access it in the time it would take to raise this concern via the 'talk' or message boards, but it's easy to imagine the results of spreading this way of thinking. Please revise your standards to make it clear dead women don't have sex with their murderers and wanting to pay prostitutes AND murder them isn't loving and hating them. Marie Casey Stevens (talk) 13:01, 21 March 2019 (UTC)

 * The term "sexual intercourse" in no way indicates a shared participatory act. It just describes an act--anything beyond that you are reading into it. As for the "love-hate relationship" phrasing, it conveys Ridgway's simultaneous attraction and repulsion to prostitutes. Again, I'd suggest that your read here is overly sensitive, but if you think there is better language (that retains the current succinctness), it can be changed. Despite your assertion that Not everyone can edit this page, Wikipedia is, in fact, the encyclopedia anyone can edit; calling upon others to make edits you could just make yourself won't result in much. Grandpallama (talk) 15:40, 21 March 2019 (UTC)
 * I would add that he didn't have sex with "sex workers" but criminal prostitutes.
 * Someone committing robbery isn't a "worker" and street prostitute isn't a "worker" either.
 * The term is very important because how it characterizes victims of killers, who are frequently prostitutes. These are women with a trauma history, drug problems, mental problems, and horrible economic situations. Meanwhile, a "sex worker" is a bourgeois term that makes it sound like the woman has support, a profession, and even some kind of union, when in reality being a street prostitute is illegal, super dangerous, and can create a life ruining record if you're arrested. 2601:49:4300:C540:0:0:0:DAA0 (talk) 18:16, 27 August 2023 (UTC)

Kase(e) Ann Lee (née Woods)
Due to an early transcription error by a member of the investigative team, Kasee's name is found with two spellings: Kase and Kasee. I'm Kasee's brother and this error is a painful reminder of the runaround my mother got as she pursued justice for her daughter over many (many) years, prior to Gary's confession. As perhaps the most definitive reporting on the subject, this Wikipedia article will likely be the go-to source for details on the case for years to come. It is, therefore, important to Kasee's family that the article spell her name correctly.

Of course, an impassioned plea from surviving relatives is not a bonafide source… so I'm coming to you all ask how I might verify (to the extent possible) the correct spelling and (perhaps) protect the spelling from being changed going forward.

For whatever it's worth, my quick and documented argument in favor of Kasee's name goes something like this: that while the Seattle Times article repeatedly writes Kasee's name as "Kase", they also establish that Marilyn Harrison was her mother and Tony Lee was her husband. In the King's Co marriage records, Kasee's marriage to Anthony (Tony) Craig Lee is recorded and her name is written as "Kasee Woods" and. And in Marilyn Harrison's obituary, Kasee is referenced as having preceded Marilyn in death… and her name is, once again, written as "Kasee".

Please advise as to how best document the correct spelling of my sister's name. — Silus Grok (talk) 23:26, 11 June 2019 (UTC)

 * It's odd how this was never corrected. I hope you have (or will) contact investigative agencies to correct this, as her name is universally spelled as "Kase" in missing person databases. I apologize for continuing to change her name back. I will provide a footnote that acknowledges the alternate spelling. --Gourami Watcher Talk 19:21, 13 November 2019 (UTC)

 * That footnote appears to solve the problem. Thank you. — Silus Grok (talk) 01:00, 16 November 2020 (UTC)

In documentaries and films (fiction and non-fiction)

 * ❌. It's not clear what changes you want to make. –Deacon Vorbis (carbon • videos) 13:44, 3 September 2020 (UTC)

Semi protected edit request
Request to add line to "In documentaries and films" section as follows: 72.185.59.101 (talk) 19:09, 9 September 2020 (UTC)
 * February 17, 2020, Investigation Discovery premiered The Green River Killer: Mind of a Monster, Part 1 and 2.
 * ✅. ◢  Ganbaruby!   (Say hi!) 09:53, 26 September 2020 (UTC)

Convictions
The article introduction states that Ridgway was "initially convicted of 48 murders". A conviction is a verdict, and Ridgway pled guilty before trial, so for the benefit of lay persons, wouldn't it be more accurate to say that he "initially pled guilty?" Matuko (talk) 09:12, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 28 December 2021
Source for "In 2003, Philadelphia power electronics duo Deathpile released G.R., a concept album about Ridgway and his murders." in section 7.5 (Popular Culture -> In Music)

https://web.archive.org/web/20131225192807/http://destroyedhuman.blogspot.ie/2013/05/whos-laughing-now-decade-of-deathpiles.html Eramne (talk) 21:15, 28 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: Blogs are not reliable sources. ScottishFinnishRadish (talk) 22:22, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 4 January 2021

 * Section #Adult Life: “…he continued this activity without protection. The marriage ended within a year.[8]” should be rewritten, the last sentence doesn’t make sense where it is. Would recommend putting after the sentence where it said he married his high school sweetheart.—2601:646:8400:1ED0:D991:A1FD:C662:32C2 (talk) 22:29, 4 January 2022 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 4 November 2022
Though Detectives Keppel and Reichert visited with Bundy in prison, per Bundy's request, they were NOT given any information of value which they did not already know. Bundy referred to the killer as The Riverman. All of the information given to Reichert and Keppel was already known to them; however, they did leave the file with Bundy. The file was removed from Bundy's possession the following day as he was found pleasuring himself to the contents. Finally, the underlying reason for the detectives agreeing to Bundy's request for a meeting was to gain insight into Bundy's mind and possibly get more information about his victims. It is often claimed that Bundy "helped" with the case, but this is categorically untrue, and source of consternation to law enforcement involved in the case. (Source: Sherriff Dave Reichert, RET,and Dr. Bill Haglund, Chief Death Investigator, King County Medical Examiner's Office during this time).

The identifying DNA was collected from the first victim in 1982, and a piece of gauze chewed by Ridgway in 1987 was collected and stored for hopeful advances in forensic technology. (Dr. Haglund, as well as reported in the NY Times). 63.239.193.130 (talk) 01:45, 4 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Aoidh (talk) 03:17, 4 November 2022 (UTC)

Possible Connection between one of Ridgway’s suspected victims known as “Unidentified Black Female/Michelle”, and another missing persons case of a Black woman known as Michelle Ellis.
Michelle Ellis, who is a Black female, went missing on August 2, 1978. On December 11, 1980, two years and four months after her disappearance, Ellis's parents got a phone call from someone who said "This is Michelle." The caller then hung up and never called back. It hasn't been verified that the caller was in fact Ellis. She has never been heard from again; her case remains unsolved. Strangely, the Unidentified Black Female, who is one of Ridgway’s suspected victims, disappeared at the same day as Michelle Ellis called. "Michelle" was the possible name of a woman who was last seen in 1980. She may be a victim of the Green River killings. Although Michelle Ellis was from Indianapolis, Indiana, and the Unidentified Black Female disappeared from Seattle, Washington, and had possible ties to New York, it is very possible that Michelle Ellis could have travelled from different states like Washington (where the unidentified Black female and Gary Ridgway were from) (I’m aware that Ridgway was born in Salt Lake City, Utah, but most of his killings took place in Washington). I will give the links to the websites I paraphrased from (I put this paragraph mostly in my own words, I wasn’t copyrighting) to show the comparison and similarities between Michelle Ellis and the unidentified Black female, there are some vague/slightly noticeable similarities. If there is a person who is interested in true crime or would like to help see if these two cases are related, that would be helpful. Maybe someone will solve these two cold cases References and the Photos are in these links: https://charleyproject.org/case/michelle-ellis https://unidentified-awareness.fandom.com/wiki/Michelle Gatorbearratica (talk) 23:07, 2 December 2022 (UTC)

His father, was a bus.
Can someone please edit this to whatever it's supposed to be? 2607:FEA8:A940:2470:C1F:46D6:400E:629E (talk) 01:18, 15 February 2023 (UTC)
 *  General Ization Talk  01:56, 15 February 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 22 October 2023
This is a very minor edit. There is a typo about Tammy Liles' identification year. While the wiki says 1998, the cited source states it was actually 1988. The correct line this should be changed to is "Liles remained unidentified until 1988 and Girdner until October 2009." SimsGuy67 (talk) 03:19, 22 October 2023 (UTC)
 * ✅  — Paper9oll  (🔔 • 📝)  09:32, 22 October 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 13 November 2023
Popular Culture>Movies>His lack of intelligence is mentioned in the 2023 film “Killers”. 2603:6081:55F0:630:2528:448:40D6:DB6 (talk) 00:00, 14 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. voorts (talk/contributions) 03:17, 14 November 2023 (UTC)

identification of jane doe B-17
so i noticed no one bothered to add the identity of jane doe b-17 which is lori anne razpotnik who was identified by parabon nanolabs today https://unidentified-awareness.fandom.com/wiki/Lori_Anne_Razpotnik 72.2.243.103 (talk) 00:03, 20 December 2023 (UTC)

 * It's not that people don't "bother" to do it, but anyway, I have done it now, using a reliable source to support the information instead of a wiki. Larry Hockett (Talk) 00:55, 20 December 2023 (UTC)
 * If you have time, can you update paragraph two under "Murders" that states: "Because most of the bodies were not discovered until only the skeletons remained, two victims are still unidentified."? According to The Seattle Times' article the number of unidentified victims is now only one. Thanks, Larry! Trey Cordova (talk) 12:27, 20 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gary Ridgway


text:
Poliovirus

Poliovirus, the causative agent of polio (also known as poliomyelitis), is a serotype of the species Enterovirus C, in the family of Picornaviridae. There are three poliovirus serotypes: types 1, 2, and 3.

Poliovirus is composed of an RNA genome and a protein capsid. The genome is a single-stranded positive-sense RNA (+ssRNA) genome that is about 7500 nucleotides long. The viral particle is about 30 nm in diameter with icosahedral symmetry. Because of its short genome and its simple composition—only RNA and a nonenveloped icosahedral protein coat that encapsulates it—poliovirus is widely regarded as the simplest significant virus.

Poliovirus was first isolated in 1909 by Karl Landsteiner and Erwin Popper. The structure of the virus was first elucidated in 1958 using X-ray diffraction by a team at Birkbeck College led by Rosalind Franklin, showing the polio virus to have icosahedral symmetry.

In 1981, the poliovirus genome was published by two different teams of researchers: by Vincent Racaniello and David Baltimore at MIT and by Naomi Kitamura and Eckard Wimmer at Stony Brook University.

The three-dimensional structure of poliovirus was determined in 1985 by James Hogle at Scripps Research Institute using X-ray crystallography.

Poliovirus is one of the most well-characterized viruses, and has become a useful model system for understanding the biology of RNA viruses.

Replication cycle

Poliovirus infects human cells by binding to an immunoglobulin-like receptor, CD155 (also known as the poliovirus receptor or PVR) on the cell surface. Interaction of poliovirus and CD155 facilitates an irreversible conformational change of the viral particle necessary for viral entry. Following attachment to the host cell membrane, entry of the viral nucleic acid was thought to occur one of two ways: via the formation of a pore in the plasma membrane through which the RNA is then "injected" into the host cell cytoplasm, or via virus uptake by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Recent experimental evidence supports the latter hypothesis and suggests that poliovirus binds to CD155 and is taken up by endocytosis. Immediately after internalization of the particle, the viral RNA is released.

Poliovirus is a positive-stranded RNA virus. Thus, the genome enclosed within the viral particle can be used as messenger RNA and immediately translated by the host cell. On entry, the virus hijacks the cell's translation machinery, causing inhibition of cellular protein synthesis in favor of virus-specific protein production. Unlike the host cell's mRNAs, the 5' end of poliovirus RNA is extremely long—over 700 nucleotides—and highly structured. This region of the viral genome is called an internal ribosome entry site (IRES). This region consists of many secondary structures and 3 or 4 domains. Domain 3 is a self folding RNA element that contains conserved structural motifs in various stable stem loops linked by two four-way junctions. As IRES consists of many domains, these domains themselves consist of many loops that contribute to modified translation without a 5’ end cap by hijacking ribosomes. The interaction loop of domain 3 is known as GNRA tetraloop. The residues of adenosines A180 and A181 in the GUAA tetraloop form hydrogen bonds via non canonical base pairing interactions with the base pairs of the receptors C230/G242 and G231/C241, respectively. Genetic mutations in this region prevent viral protein production. The first IRES to be discovered was found in poliovirus RNA.

Poliovirus mRNA is translated as one long polypeptide. This polypeptide is then autocleaved by internal proteases into about 10 individual viral proteins. Not all cleavages occur with the same efficiency. Therefore, the amounts of proteins produced by the polypeptide cleavage vary: for example, smaller amounts of 3Dpol are produced than those of capsid proteins, VP1–4. These individual viral proteins are:
 * 3Dpol, an RNA dependent RNA polymerase whose function is to make multiple copies of the viral RNA genome
 * 2Apro and 3Cpro/3CDpro, proteases which cleave the viral polypeptide
 * VPg (3B), a small protein that binds viral RNA and is necessary for synthesis of viral positive and negative strand RNA
 * 2BC, 2B, 2C (an ATPase) , 3AB, 3A, 3B proteins which comprise the protein complex needed for virus replication.
 * VP0, which is further cleaved into VP2 and VP4, VP1 and VP3, proteins of the viral capsid

After translation, transcription and genome replication which involve a single process, synthesis of (+) RNA) is realized. For the infecting (+)RNA to be replicated, multiple copies of (−)RNA must be transcribed and then used as templates for (+)RNA synthesis. Replicative intermediates (RIs), which are an association of RNA molecules consisting of a template RNA and several growing RNAs of varying length, are seen in both the replication complexes for (−)RNAs and (+)RNAs. For synthesis of each negative-strand and positive-strand RNAs, VPg protein in the poliovirus works as a primer. RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of the poliovirus adds two uracil nucleotides (UU) to VPg protein utilizing the poly(A) tail at the 3′-end of the +ssRNA genome as a pattern for synthesis of the negative-strand antigenomic RNA. To initiate this −ssRNA synthesis, the tyrosine hydroxyl of VPg is needed. But for the initiation of positive strand RNA synthesis, CRE-dependent VPg uridylylation is needed. Which means that VPg is once more utilized as a primer however this time it adds the two uridine triphosphates using a cis-acting replication element (CRE) as a template.

The CRE of poliovirus is identified as an unachieved base-paired stem and a final loop consisting of 61 nt. The CRE is found in enteroviruses. It is a highly preserved secondary RNA structural element and bedded in the genome's polyprotein-coding region. The complex can be translocated to the 5' region of the genome that have no coding activity, at least 3.7-kb distant from the initial location. This process can occurs without negatively influencing activity. CRE copies do not influence replication negatively. Uridylylation process of VPg that takes place at CRE needs the presence of 3CDpro that is an RNA binding protein. It is attached to the CRE directly and specifically. Because of its presence VPg can bind the CRE properly and primary production proceeds without problems.

Some of the (+) RNA molecules are used as templates for further (−) RNA synthesis, some function as mRNA, and some are destined to be the genomes of progeny virions.

In the assembly of new virus particles (i.e. the packaging of progeny genome into a procapsid which can survive outside the host cell), including, respectively:
 * Five copies each of VP0, VP3, and VP1 whose N termini and VP4 form interior surface of capsid, assemble into a 'pentamer' and 12 pentamers form a procapsid. (The outer surface of capsid is consisting of VP1, VP2, VP3; C termini of VP1 and VP3 form the canyons which around each of the vertices; around this time, the 60 copies of VP0 are cleaved into VP4 and VP2.)
 * Each procapsid acquires a copy of the virus genome, with VPg still attached at the 5' end.

Fully assembled poliovirus leaves the confines of its host cell by lysis 4 to 6 hours following initiation of infection in cultured mammalian cells. The mechanism of viral release from the cell is unclear, but each dying cell can release up to 10,000 polio virions.

Drake demonstrated that poliovirus is able to undergo multiplicity reactivation. That is, when polioviruses were irradiated with UV light and allowed to undergo multiple infections of host cells, viable progeny could be formed even at UV doses that inactivated the virus in single infections. Poliovirus can undergo genetic recombination when at least two viral genomes are present in the same host cell. Kirkegaard and Baltimore presented evidence that RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) catalyzes recombination by a copy choice mechanism in which the RdRP switches between (+)ssRNA templates during negative strand synthesis. Recombination in RNA viruses appears to be an adaptive mechanism for repairing genome damage.

Origin and serotypes
Poliovirus is structurally similar to other human enteroviruses (coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and rhinoviruses), which also use immunoglobulin-like molecules to recognize and enter host cells. Phylogenetic analysis of the RNA and protein sequences of poliovirus suggests that it may have evolved from a C-cluster Coxsackie A virus ancestor, that arose through a mutation within the capsid. The distinct speciation of poliovirus probably occurred as a result of a change in cellular receptor specificity from intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), used by C-cluster Coxsackie A viruses, to CD155; leading to a change in pathogenicity, and allowing the virus to infect nervous tissue.

The mutation rate in the virus is relatively high even for an RNA virus with a synonymous substitution rate of 1.0 x 10−2 substitutions/site/year and non synonymous substitution rate of 3.0 x 10−4 substitutions/site/year. Base distribution within the genome is not random with adenosine being less common than expected at the 5' end and higher at the 3' end. Codon use is not random with codons ending in adenosine being favoured and those ending in cytosine or guanine being avoided. Codon use differs between the three genotypes and appears to be driven by mutation rather than selection.

The three serotypes of poliovirus, PV-1, PV-2, and PV-3, each have a slightly different capsid protein. Capsid proteins define cellular receptor specificity and virus antigenicity. PV-1 is the most common form encountered in nature, but all three forms are extremely infectious. As of March 2020, wild PV-1 is highly localized to regions in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Certification of the eradication of indigenous transmission occurred in September 2015 for wild PV-2, after last being detected in 1999, and in October 2019 for wild PV-3, after last being detected in 2012.

Specific strains of each serotype are used to prepare vaccines against polio. Inactive polio vaccine is prepared by formalin inactivation of three wild, virulent reference strains, Mahoney or Brunenders (PV-1), MEF-1/Lansing (PV-2), and Saukett/Leon (PV-3). Oral polio vaccine contains live attenuated (weakened) strains of the three serotypes of poliovirus. Passaging the virus strains in monkey kidney epithelial cells introduces mutations in the viral IRES, and hinders (or attenuates) the ability of the virus to infect nervous tissue.

Polioviruses were formerly classified as a distinct species belonging to the genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae. In 2008, the Poliovirus species was eliminated and the three serotypes were assigned to the species Human enterovirus C (later renamed Enterovirus C), in the genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae. The type species of the genus Enterovirus was changed from Poliovirus to (Human) Enterovirus C.

Pathogenesis

The primary determinant of infection for any virus is its ability to enter a cell and produce additional infectious particles. The presence of CD155 is thought to define the animals and tissues that can be infected by poliovirus. CD155 is found (outside of laboratories) only on the cells of humans, higher primates, and Old World monkeys. Poliovirus is, however, strictly a human pathogen, and does not naturally infect any other species (although chimpanzees and Old World monkeys can be experimentally infected).

The CD155 gene appears to have been subject to positive selection. The protein has several domains of which domain D1 contains the polio virus binding site. Within this domain, 37 amino acids are responsible for binding the virus.

Poliovirus is an enterovirus. Infection occurs via the fecal–oral route, meaning that one ingests the virus and viral replication occurs in the gastrointestinal tract. Virus is shed in the feces of infected individuals. In 95% of cases only a primary, transient presence of viremia (virus in the bloodstream) occurs, and the poliovirus infection is asymptomatic. In about 5% of cases, the virus spreads and replicates in other sites such as brown fat, reticuloendothelial tissue, and muscle. The sustained viral replication causes secondary viremia and leads to the development of minor symptoms such as fever, headache, and sore throat. Paralytic poliomyelitis occurs in less than 1% of poliovirus infections. Paralytic disease occurs when the virus enters the central nervous system (CNS) and replicates in motor neurons within the spinal cord, brain stem, or motor cortex, resulting in the selective destruction of motor neurons leading to temporary or permanent paralysis. This is a very rare event in babies, who still have anti-poliovirus antibodies acquired from their mothers. In rare cases, paralytic poliomyelitis leads to respiratory arrest and death. In cases of paralytic disease, muscle pain and spasms are frequently observed prior to onset of weakness and paralysis. Paralysis typically persists from days to weeks prior to recovery.

In many respects, the neurological phase of infection is thought to be an accidental diversion of the normal gastrointestinal infection. The mechanisms by which poliovirus enters the CNS are poorly understood. Three nonmutually exclusive hypotheses have been suggested to explain its entry. All theories require primary viremia. The first hypothesis predicts that virions pass directly from the blood into the central nervous system by crossing the blood–brain barrier independent of CD155. A second hypothesis suggests that the virions are transported from peripheral tissues that have been bathed in the viremic blood, for example muscle tissue, to the spinal cord through nerve pathways via retrograde axonal transport. A third hypothesis is that the virus is imported into the CNS via infected monocytes or macrophages.

Poliomyelitis is a disease of the central nervous system. However, CD155 is believed to be present on the surface of most or all human cells. Therefore, receptor expression does not explain why poliovirus preferentially infects certain tissues. This suggests that tissue tropism is determined after cellular infection. Recent work has suggested that the type I interferon response (specifically that of interferon alpha and beta) is an important factor that defines which types of cells support poliovirus replication. In mice expressing CD155 (through genetic engineering) but lacking the type I interferon receptor, poliovirus not only replicates in an expanded repertoire of tissue types, but these mice are also able to be infected orally with the virus.

Immune system avoidance

Poliovirus uses two key mechanisms to evade the immune system. First, it can survive the highly acidic conditions of the stomach, allowing the virus to infect the host and spread throughout the body via the lymphatic system. Second, because it can replicate very quickly, the virus overwhelms the host organs before an immune response can be mounted. If detail is given at the attachment phase; poliovirus with canyons on the virion surface have virus attachment sites located in pockets at the canyon bases. The canyons are too narrow for access by antibodies, so the virus attachment sites are protected from the host's immune surveillance, while the remainder of the virion surface can mutate to avoid the host's immune response.

Individuals who are exposed to poliovirus, either through infection or by immunization with polio vaccine, develop immunity. In immune individuals, antibodies against poliovirus are present in the tonsils and gastrointestinal tract (specifically IgA antibodies) and are able to block poliovirus replication; IgG and IgM antibodies against poliovirus can prevent the spread of the virus to motor neurons of the central nervous system. Infection with one serotype of poliovirus does not provide immunity against the other serotypes; however, second attacks within the same individual are extremely rare.

PVR transgenic mouse
Although humans are the only known natural hosts of poliovirus, monkeys can be experimentally infected and they have long been used to study poliovirus. In 1990–91, a small animal model of poliomyelitis was developed by two laboratories. Mice were engineered to express a human receptor to poliovirus (hPVR).

Unlike normal mice, transgenic poliovirus receptor (TgPVR) mice are susceptible to poliovirus injected intravenously or intramuscularly, and when injected directly into the spinal cord or the brain. Upon infection, TgPVR mice show signs of paralysis that resemble those of poliomyelitis in humans and monkeys, and the central nervous systems of paralyzed mice are histocytochemically similar to those of humans and monkeys. This mouse model of human poliovirus infection has proven to be an invaluable tool in understanding poliovirus biology and pathogenicity.

Three distinct types of TgPVR mice have been well studied:

 * In TgPVR1 mice, the transgene encoding the human PVR was incorporated into mouse chromosome 4. These mice express the highest levels of the transgene and the highest sensitivity to poliovirus. TgPVR1 mice are susceptible to poliovirus through the intraspinal, intracerebral, intramuscular, and intravenous pathways, but not through the oral route.
 * TgPVR21 mice have incorporated the human PVR at chromosome 13. These mice are less susceptible to poliovirus infection through the intracerebral route, possibly because they express decreased levels of hPVR. TgPVR21 mice have been shown to be susceptible to poliovirus infection through intranasal inoculation, and may be useful as a mucosal infection model.
 * In TgPVR5 mice, the human transgene is located on chromosome 12. These mice exhibit the lowest levels of hPVR expression and are the least susceptible to poliovirus infection.

Recently, a fourth TgPVR mouse model was developed. These "cPVR" mice carry hPVR cDNA, driven by a β-actin promoter, and have proven susceptible to poliovirus through intracerebral, intramuscular, and intranasal routes. In addition, these mice are capable of developing the bulbar form of polio after intranasal inoculation.

The development of the TgPVR mouse has had a profound effect on oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) production. Previously, monitoring the safety of OPV had to be performed using monkeys, because only primates are susceptible to the virus. In 1999, the World Health Organization approved the use of the TgPVR mouse as an alternative method of assessing the effectiveness of the vaccine against poliovirus type-3. In 2000, the mouse model was approved for tests of vaccines against type-1 and type-2 poliovirus.

Cloning and synthesis
In 1981, Racaniello and Baltimore used recombinant DNA technology to generate the first infectious clone of an animal RNA virus, poliovirus. DNA encoding the RNA genome of poliovirus was introduced into cultured mammalian cells and infectious poliovirus was produced. Creation of the infectious clone propelled understanding of poliovirus biology, and has become a standard technology used to study many other viruses.

In 2002, Eckard Wimmer's group at Stony Brook University succeeded in synthesizing poliovirus from its chemical code, producing the world's first synthetic virus. Scientists first converted poliovirus's published RNA sequence, 7741 bases long, into a DNA sequence, as DNA was easier to synthesize. Short fragments of this DNA sequence were obtained by mail-order, and assembled. The complete viral genome was then assembled by a gene synthesis company. Nineteen markers were incorporated into the synthesized DNA, so that it could be distinguished from natural poliovirus. Enzymes were used to convert the DNA back into RNA, its natural state. Other enzymes were then used to translate the RNA into a polypeptide, producing functional viral particle. This whole painstaking process took two years. The newly minted synthetic virus was injected into PVR transgenic mice, to determine if the synthetic version was able to cause disease. The synthetic virus was able to replicate, infect, and cause paralysis or death in mice. However, the synthetic version was between 1,000 and 10,000 times weaker than the original virus, probably due to one of the added markers.

Modification for therapies
A modification of the poliovirus, called PVSRIPO, was tested in early clinical trials as a possible treatment for cancer.

title: Poliovirus


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Urticaceae

The Urticaceae are a family, the nettle family,  of flowering plants. The family name comes from the genus Urtica. The Urticaceae include a number of well-known and useful plants, including nettles in the genus Urtica, ramie (Boehmeria nivea), māmaki (Pipturus albidus), and ajlai (Debregeasia saeneb).

The family includes about 2,625 species, grouped into 53 genera according to the database of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Christenhusz and Byng (2016). The largest genera are Pilea (500 to 715 species), Elatostema (300 species), Urtica (80 species), and Cecropia (75 species). Cecropia contains many myrmecophytes.

Urticaceae species can be found worldwide, apart from the polar regions.

Description
Urticaceae species can be shrubs (e.g. Pilea), lianas, herbs (e.g. Urtica, Parietaria), or, rarely, trees (Dendrocnide, Cecropia). Their leaves are usually entire and bear stipules. Urticating (stinging) hairs are often present. They have usually unisexual flowers and can be both monoecious or dioecious. They are wind-pollinated. Most disperse their pollen when the stamens are mature and their filaments straighten explosively, a peculiar and conspicuously specialised mechanism.

While the stings delivered by Urticaceae species are often unpleasant, they seldom pose any direct threat to health, and deaths directly attributed to stinging are exceedingly rare; species known to cause human fatalities include Dendrocnide cordata and Urtica ferox.

Taxonomy
The APG II system puts the Urticaceae in the order Rosales, while older systems consider them part of the Urticales, along with Ulmaceae, Moraceae, and Cannabaceae. APG still considers "old" Urticales a monophyletic group, but does not recognise it as an order on its own.

Fossil record
The fossil record of Urticaceae is scattered and mostly based on dispersed fruits. Twelve species based on fossil achenes are known from the Late Cretaceous of Central Europe. Most were assigned to the extant genera Boehmeria (three species), Debregeasia (one species) and Pouzolzia (three species), while three species were assigned to the extinct genus Urticoidea. A Colombian fossil flora of the Maastrichtian stage has yielded leaves that resemble leaves of the tribe Ceropieae. In the Cenozoic fossil leaves from the Ypresian Allenby Formation preserve distinct trichomes, and have been attributed to the Tribe Urticeae in the fossil record. The leaves had originally been identified as Rubus by earlier workers on the Eocene Okanagan Highlands, but Devore et al (2020) interpreted the preserved hairs along the stem and major veins as stinging trichomes, rather than simple hairs or thorns.

Phylogeny
Modern molecular phylogenetics suggest the following relationships (see also          ):

Tribes and genera

 * Boehmerieae Gaudich. 1830
 * Archiboehmeria C.J. Chen 1980 (1 sp.)
 * Astrothalamus C.B. Rob. 1911 (1 sp.)
 * Boehmeria Jacq. 1760 (80 spp.)
 * Chamabainia Wight 1853 (1–2 spp.)
 * Cypholophus Wedd. 1854 (15 spp.)
 * Debregeasia Gaudich. 1844 (4 spp.)
 * Gibbsia Rendle 1917 (2 spp.)
 * Gonostegia Turcz. 1846 (5 spp.)
 * Hemistylus Benth. 1843 (4 spp.)
 * Neodistemon Babu & A. N. Henry 1970 (1 sp.)
 * Neraudia Gaudich. 1830 (5 spp.)
 * Nothocnide Blume 1856 (4 spp.)
 * Oreocnide Miq. 1851 (15 spp.)
 * Phenax Wedd. 1854 (12 spp.)

 * Pipturus Wedd. 1854 (30 spp.)
 * Pouzolzia Gaudich. 1826 [1830] (70 spp.)
 * Rousselia Gaudich. 1826 [1830] (3 spp.)
 * Sarcochlamys Gaudich. 1844 (1 sp.)
 * Cecropieae Gaudich. 1830
 * Cecropia Loefl. 1758 (70–80 spp.)
 * Coussapoa Aubl. 1775 (>50 spp.)
 * Leucosyke Zoll. & Moritzi 1845 (35 spp.)
 * Maoutia Wedd. 1854 (15 spp.)
 * Musanga R. Br. in Tuckey 1818 (2 spp.)
 * Myrianthus P. Beauv. 1804 [1805] (7 spp.)
 * Pourouma Aubl. 1775 (>50 spp.)
 * Elatostemateae Gaudich. 1830
 * Aboriella Bennet (1 sp.) (synonym of Achudemia
 * Achudemia Blume 1856

 * Elatostema J.R. Forst. & G. Forst. 1775 (300 spp.)
 * Gyrotaenia Griseb. 1861 (4 spp.)

 * Lecanthus Wedd. 1854 (4 sp.) (syn. Meniscogyne Gagnep. 1928 )
 * Myriocarpa Benth. 1844 [1846] (18 spp.)
 * Pellionia Gaudich. 1826 (60 spp.)
 * Petelotiella Gagnep. in Lecomte 1929 (1 spp.)
 * Pilea Lindl. 1821 (606 spp.) (syn. Sarcopilea Urb. 1912 )
 * Procris Comm. ex Juss. 1789 (24 spp.)

 * Forsskaoleeae Gaudich. 1830
 * Australina Gaudich. 1830 (2 spp.)
 * Didymodoxa E. Mey. ex Wedd. 1857 (2 spp.)
 * Droguetia Gaudich. 1830 (7 spp.)
 * Forsskaolea L. 1764 (6 spp.)
 * Parietarieae Gaudich. 1830

 * Gesnouinia Gaudich. 1830 (2 spp.)
 * Parietaria L. 1753 (20 spp.)
 * Soleirolia Gaudich. 1830 (1 sp.)

 * Urticeae Lamarck & DC. 1806
 * Dendrocnide Miq. 1851 (27 spp.)
 * Discocnide Chew 1965 (1 sp.)

 * Girardinia Gaudich. 1830 (2 spp.)
 * Hesperocnide Torr. 1857 (2 spp.)
 * Laportea Gaudich. 1826 [1830] (21 spp.)
 * Nanocnide Blume 1856 (2 spp.)
 * Obetia Gaudich. 1844 (7 spp.)
 * Poikilospermum Zipp. ex Miq. 1864 (20 spp.)
 * Touchardia Gaudich. 1847 (1–2 spp.)
 * Urera Gaudich. 1826 [1830] (35 spp.)
 * Urtica L. 1753 —nettle (80 spp.)
 * Zhengyia T.Deng, D.G.Zhang & H.Sun 2013 (1 sp.)
 * Incertae sedis
 * Capsulea Yong Wang 2021 (1 sp.)
 * Elatostematoides C.B.Rob. 1910 publ. 1911 (25 sp.)
 * Metapilea W.T.Wang 2016 (1 sp.)
 * Metatrophis F.Br. 1935 (1 sp.)
 * Parsana Parsa & Maleki 1952 (1 sp.)
 * Scepocarpus Wedd. 1869 (14 sp.)

Diseases
The Urticaceae are subject to many bacterial, viral, fungal, and nematode parasitic diseases. Among them are:
 * Bacterial leaf spot, caused by Xanthomonas campestris which affects Pellionia, Pilea, and other genera
 * Anthracnose, a fungal disease caused by Colletotrichum capsici which affects Pilea
 * Myrothecium leaf spot, a fungal disease caused by Myrothecium roridum which affects plants throughout the Urticaceae, as well as other angiosperms
 * Phytophthora blight, a water mold disease caused by Phytophthora nicotianae which affects Pilea
 * Southern blight, a fungal disease caused by Athelia rolfsii which affects both Pellionia and Pilea

title: Urticaceae