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Harju County

Harju County (Harju maakond or Harjumaa), is one of the fifteen counties of Estonia. It is situated in northern Estonia, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland, and borders Lääne-Viru County to the east, Järva County to the southeast, Rapla County to the south, and Lääne County to the southwest. The capital and largest city of Estonia, Tallinn, is situated in Harju County. Harju is the largest county in Estonia in terms of population, as almost half (45%) of Estonia's population lives in Harju County.

Ancient history
The territory of modern Harju County consists mostly of two ancient Estonian counties: Revala, around what is now Tallinn, and Harjumaa, which was situated south of Revala and presently rests mostly in Rapla County. Lindanise, then a small trading post at the Gulf of Finland, served as the capital of Revala. It eventually grew into the mostly German-populated Hanseatic town of Reval and later into the Estonian capital, Tallinn.

Conquest

In 1219, the Danish King, Valdemar II, landed in Lindanise (Danish: Lyndanisse) and conquered both Revala and Harju counties, while the inhabitants were forced into Christianity. At the end of the Livonian Crusade (1208–1227 in Estonia), both counties were captured by the Order of the Sword Brothers until given back to Denmark with the Treaty of Stensby in 1238.

The Danes built the Toompea Castle (Castrum Danorum) on Toompea Hill in Tallinn, which quickly became the biggest settlement in Estonia. In 1248, it was the first settlement in Estonia to receive its town rights, and in 1285 it became the northernmost member of the Hanseatic League.

German dominance led to the St. George's Night Uprising, which broke out in 1343 with the burning of Padise Abbey in modern Padise Parish. The uprising led Denmark to sell its possessions in Northern Estonia to the Livonian Order. In 1561, after the outbreak of the Livonian War, the nobility of North Estonia and the Tallinn Town Council declared loyalty to Sweden. Tallinn and other Swedish-occupied territories gained during warfare were secured by the Treaty of Plyussa.

During the Great Northern War, Harju was one of the few regions in Estonia untouched by warfare for a long time. Nonetheless, Harju County was greatly affected by the 1710-1713 Plague that killed more than eighty percent of the county's population. Russian forces finally arrived in 1710 and laid siege to Tallinn for a month until the Swedish garrison surrendered, thus ending the Great Northern War in Estonia. Russian rule was secured with the Treaty of Nystad in 1721. The plague raged on for several years, eventually leaving several parts of the county completely empty of human habitation.

Russian rule

Imperial Russian rule started with the construction of naval harbours in Tallinn and Paldiski (Swedish: Rogerwiek). Russian Tsar Peter I visited Tallinn at least nine times between 1711 and 1723. He personally opened the construction for Tallinn Naval Harbour in 1714 and Paldiski Naval Harbour in 1718.

In 1870, the Paldiski-Tallinn-St. Petersburg Railway was opened, after which several smaller settlements along the line - Paldiski, Keila, Saue, Nõmme, Aruküla, Raasiku, Kehra and Aegviidu (then in Viru County) - started to grow. Several elements of Peter the Great's Naval Fortress were built in Harju County and its headquarters were in Tallinn.

During World War I in 1914, the native population of Naissaar island was expelled from the island and it was turned into a military base. A narrow-gauge railway network was built on the island. Tallinn was the site for the very beginning of the October Revolution when the Estonian Bolshevik Jaan Anvelt took power in Tallinn on 5 November 1917, two days before the Revolution started in Petrograd. On 9 November 1917, the Bolsheviks took power from Governor Jaan Poska. After the coup, refusing to cooperate with the Estonian Soviet Executive Committee, the Estonian Provincial Assembly (Estonian: Maanõukogu) in Tallinn declared sovereignty from the Russian Empire on 28 November 1917. In December 1917, Russian sailors under the leadership of Stepan Maximovich Petrichenko declared the "Soviet Republic of Soldiers and Fortress-Builders of Naissaar". They were ousted by German forces on 26 February 1918.

Republic of Estonia
The Republic of Estonia was proclaimed in Tallinn on 24 February 1918 while German occupation followed on the next day. German rule ended with the November Revolution in Germany. During the Estonian War of Independence, Soviet troops were halted only 40 km east of Tallinn by the end of 1918. Tallinn was the site of a failed Communist coup d'état attempt of 1924.

Soviet occupation
On 18 September 1939, after both Germany and the Soviet Union had invaded Poland, the Polish submarine ORP Orzeł escaped from internment in Tallinn Harbor during the Orzeł incident. The submarine eventually made her way to the United Kingdom, which led both the Soviet Union and Germany to question Estonia's neutrality. On 24 September 1939, Soviet Navy warships appeared in North Estonian waters and Soviet Air Force bombers patrolled above Tallinn and the nearby countryside.

The Soviet Union demanded that Estonia allow the Soviet military bases and stationed 25,000 troops on Estonian soil for the duration of the European war. On 28 September 1939, the government of Estonia accepted the ultimatum and signed the mutual assistance treaty. Paldiski was made a Soviet Naval Base and its population was expelled from the town. With its new military bases in Northern Estonia, the Soviet Union invaded Finland on 30 November 1939, starting the Winter War. During 1939–1940, most of the Baltic German population from Tallinn and the Harju County countryside fled to Germany (Umsiedlung).

On 14 June 1940, the Soviet Navy set up a naval blockade in the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea and stationed a navy squadron west of Naissaar island near Tallinn. Soviet bombers shot down the passenger airplane "Kaleva" near Keri island, killing all nine on board, which had included foreign diplomats.

On 16 June 1940, the Red Army invaded Estonia and organised a Soviet coup d'état in Tallinn. On 21 June 1940, the Independent Signal Battalion in Tallinn showed resistance to the Red Army, until it surrendered and was disarmed on the same day. The Soviet powers organised rigged parliamentary elections and the new parliament declared the Estonian SSR on 21 July 1940, which was annexed by the Soviet Union on 6 August 1940. Most county and municipal leaders were replaced and local assemblies were replaced with Soviets. The native population of Naissaar island was expelled from the island (as in 1914) as the island was turned into a military base. During the 1940–41 Soviet Occupation, thousands were executed, imprisoned, mobilised into the Red Army labour battalions or deported to Siberia on 14 June 1941 (June deportation).

Summer War
Germany invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 and Finland declared the Continuation War with the Soviet Union on 25 June 1941. As the Soviet Union retreated, its destruction battalions carried out the scorched-earth tactics. The Erna long-range reconnaissance group was sent from Finland to Northern Estonia on 10 July 1941 to perform reconnaissance of the retreating Red Army, but it eventually engaged the destruction battalions near Kautla forest (Battle of Kautla) on 31 July to 1 August 1941, allowing 2,000 civilians to flee.

German forces started its Tallinn Offensive on 19 August 1941, capturing Rapla on 21 August 1941. They reached Tallinn outskirts in Pirita on 24 August 1941 and Harku and Lasnamäe on 26 August 1941. Ordinary citizens were ordered to build defenses around Tallinn. Soviet forces started evacuating by sea on 24 August 1941. Of the 195 ships, that left Tallinn and Paldiski, 55 were sunk by mines near Juminda Peninsula, killing around 15,000 evacuees. Evacuating Soviet forces destroyed much of the infrastructure and industry around Tallinn. German forces captured Paldiski and Tallinn on 28 August 1941, shooting down the Soviet Flag on Tallinn Pikk Hermann Tower. Estonians replaced it with the Flag of Estonia, but it was replaced with the Flag of Germany the next day. German forces were greeted as liberators in Tallinn. It was also the first time since 1219 that Tallinn had been captured following a military engagement.

German occupation
Northern Estonia was the site of several concentration camps and massacres. In September 1942, up to three thousand foreign Jews and Gypsies were executed at Kalevi-Liiva in Jõelähtme Parish, while the rest were sent to the small Jägala concentration camp nearby, that never had more than 200 prisoners as their lifespan was short. Klooga concentration camp in Keila Parish was mostly evacuated before the Soviet takeover, however, 2,000 prisoners were executed before the German retreat. The Red Army liberated the few survivors on 22 September 1944.

Tallinn was bombed by the Soviet Air Force on 9 and 10 March 1944, killing 757 people and destroying 8,000 buildings (about one-third of the capital). Among others, Harju Street, St. Nicholas' Church, and Estonia Theatre were hit. 36-38 Soviet bombers were shot down during the bombardment.

After the Red Army broke through the Tannenberg Line in Eastern Estonia and crossed the Emajõgi river near Tartu, it launched the Tallinn Offensive on 17 September 1944 when Adolf Hitler had agreed to start abandoning Estonia on 16 September 1944. The National Committee of the Republic of Estonia was formed in Tallinn in March 1944 and the last Prime Minister of Estonia Jüri Uluots organized a new government under Otto Tief on 18 September 1944, captured government offices in Tallinn on 20 September 1944, and put the Estonian flag on top of the Pikk Hermann Tower.

German forces started Operation Aster to evacuate its 50,000 soldiers and 20,000 civilians through Tallinn and Paldiski. On the way, the hospital ship "Moero" was attacked and sunk by the Soviet Air Force, killing 637 of its passengers. The retreating German forces avoided conflict with the Red Army in Tallinn and the invading army saw only little resistance by Estonian units led by Rear Admiral Johan Pitka. The Red Army entered Tallinn on 22 September and Paldiski on 24 September 1944.

Before the Soviet reoccupation in 1944, thousands fled to Sweden across the Baltic Sea, including the entire Estonian Swedish population, who had been settling also on Pakri islands in Harju County.

Second Soviet occupation
The Forest Brothers resistance movement was considered to be the weakest in Harju County, due to dense population, fewer forests and more Soviet military activity. New deportations followed in 1949. The Soviet era brought development of heavy industry, a massive influx of foreign workers from throughout the Soviet Union and construction of new districts (Maardu, Mustamäe, Väike-Õismäe and Lasnamäe) for Tallinn.

Hotel Viru in Tallinn was built in 1972 as the first modern highrise in Estonia. The 1980 Summer Olympics Sailing events were held in Tallinn. The event also brought major construction, such as the seaside road from Central Tallinn to Pirita, renovation projects in Tallinn Old Town and the iconic highrise Hotel Olümpia and Tallinn TV Tower.

In 1962, Paldiski became a Soviet Navy nuclear submarine training centre and had two land-based nuclear reactors with 16,000 employees. It was a closed town until the last Russian warship left in August 1994. Until then it was the last Russian military base in Estonia. Russia relinquished control of the nuclear reactor facilities in September 1995.

Formation of the county
The ancient counties of Harjumaa and Revala were merged into Harju County in 1266. It remained within most of its borders until 1949 (with the exclusion of 1783–1796, when Paldiski County was separated).

During the Soviet occupation, in 1940, Tallinn became a city of republic significance. Loksa was transferred to Viru County in 1949. The rest of Harju County was replaced with four raions during the Soviet occupation in 1950. Harju Raion around Tallinn gradually absorbed the former areas of Harju County as Loksa Raion was abolished in 1957, Kose Raion in 1959 and Keila Raion in 1962 and most of their territories transferred to Harju Raion. Aegviidu, Aegviidu Village Council and Kohila Village Council were transferred to Harju Raion in 1962. Harju Raion and the remaining Rapla Raion became Harju County and Rapla County in 1990. Tallinn was reincorporated into Harju County in 1993.

Urban municipalities
Tallinn was the first settlement in Harju County to receive town rights in 1248. Municipally, it consisted of the "upper town" of Toompea and the "lower town". The two municipalities were merged in 1877. The naval harbour town of Paldiski received its town rights in 1783. Nõmme was given a town status in 1926 and Keila in 1938.

Soviet powers merged Nõmme with Tallinn already in 1940. They also separated Tallinn from Harju County and it became a centrally administered town. The same was applied to Paldiski in 1941. The German occupation of 1941-1944 left only Tallinn separated from Harju County. The Soviet reoccupation brought Paldiski back to central administration. Tallinn was divided into four urban raions in 1945 and it gained several new territories from its surrounding parishes. Aegviidu (then in Järva County), Järvakandi and Kohila (both now in Rapla County) and Kehra were named boroughs. The central administration of Paldiski was abolished in 1950 when Paldiski was merged with Keila Raion. Tallinn absorbed Saue in 1960 and Maardu in 1962 and the latter became a town within the municipality of Tallinn in 1980.

Maardu and Saue were separated from Tallinn in 1991 and Kehra, Loksa and Saue were given town status in 1993. The central administration of Tallinn was abolished and the town was re-transferred into Harju County. Its urban raions were abolished in 1993 and replaced with eight modern districts.

Rural municipalities
Ancient Estonian counties were divided into parishes (Estonian language: kihelkond), that became centered on local churches from the 13th century. Modern municipal parishes (Estonian: vald) were created in the 19th century. They were created within the old parishes, that were still centered on the local church.

Soviet rule brought major changes in rural municipalities as local village councils were created throughout 1945. The parishes were abolished with the creation of raions in 1950. Naissaar Parish had been abolished and given to the Red Army already in 1940 and Pakri Parish had been abolished and merged with Paldiski in 1947.

Village councils were renamed "parishes" in 1990–1993. Kehra merged into Anija Parish in 2002, Loksa Parish merged into Kuusalu Parish in 2005 and Kõue Parish merged into Kose Parish in 2013.

Population
On 31 December 2021, there were 614,567 people living permanently in Harju county, which was 11.2% more than at the same time ten years ago. Ethnic Estonians made up 60.57% (372,245) of the population, Russians 28.99% (178,169), Ukrainians 3.07% (18,886), Belarusians 1.22% (7,473), Finns 0.69% (4,226), Latvians 0.29% (1,812) and others 5.17% (31,756).

Geography

Harju County lies on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland. Its shores are dominated by the North-Estonian coastal plain and the North-Estonian Klint separates the plain from Harju plateau in central and southern Harju County. The forested Kõrvemaa area is situated in eastern Harju County and the West-Estonian plain in western Harju County.

Shoreline
The shoreline is mostly low, but is at some places close to the high North-Estonian Klint. The coastal cliff is the highest in Rannamõisa (35 m) and Türisalu (30 m) in Harku Parish, and in three points in Paldiski: Pakri Peninsula (24 m), Leetse (20 m) and Väike-Pakri island (13 m). There are also several long sand beaches, for example Kakumäe, Stroomi in Pelguranna, Pikakari in Paljassaare and Pirita along the shoreline and Lake Harku in Pikaliiva, all within Tallinn, and Kloogaranna and Kaberneeme in the countryside. The shoreline is also characterized by many peninsulas, such as Pakri, Lohusalu, Suurupi, Kakumäe, Kopli, Paljassaare, Viimsi, Ihasalu, Kaberneeme, Juminda and Pärispea.

Islands
The shoreline is dotted with several islands, with the largest ones being Naissaar (18.6 km2), Väike-Pakri (12.9 km2), Suur-Pakri (11.6 km2), Prangli (6.4 km2), Aegna (2.9 km2) and Rammu (1.0 km2). All of the larger islands and several of the smaller islands have had a considerable historical population. Pakri Islands, Naissaar and Prangli even formed separate municipalities. Their population diminished during Soviet occupation, either gradually or by force. Today, Prangli (73 inhabitants) and Naissaar (three inhabitants) both consist of three villages within Viimsi Parish. Aegna (eight inhabitants) is a subdistrict in Kesklinn (central) district of Tallinn. Pakri islands (six inhabitants) are part of Paldiski. Koipsi and Rammu form uninhabited villages within Jõelähtme Parish.

Lakes and rivers
The largest lakes in Harju County are Lake Ülemiste (9.6 km2) and Lake Harku (1.6 km2) in Tallinn and Lake Kahala (3.5 km2) in Kuusalu Parish. The largest artificial lake is Paunküla Reservoir (4.1 km2) in Kose Parish. The longest rivers are the Keila River (107 km in total), Pirita River (105 km), Jägala River (97 km) and Valgejõgi River (85 km). The two largest permanently active waterfalls in Estonia, Jägala Falls (8 m) and Keila Falls (6 m), are situated on these rivers.

Geographical extremes

 * Northernmost point: Keri island, Kelnase village, Viimsi Parish
 * Mainland: Cape Purekkari, Pärispea village, Kuusalu Parish (Northernmost point of mainland Estonia)
 * Easternmost point: Kolgu village, Kuusalu Parish
 * Southernmost point: Aela village, Kose Parish
 * Westernmost point: Keibu village, Lääne-Harju Parish
 * Highest point: 102 m - Määrasmägi, Vetla village, Anija Parish
 * Lowest point: 0 m (sea level) - Baltic Sea

Protected areas
There are a number of protected areas in Harju County. Lahemaa National Park was the first national park in the Soviet Union, when it was created in 1971. The park was intended for the protection of the natural and cultural heritage of the coastal landscapes of Northern Estonia. There are 21 nature reserves and 25 landscape protection areas, that are at least partly situated in Harju County. The largest is the Põhja-Kõrvemaa Nature Reserve in Kuusalu Parish and Anija Parish.

Highways
The Harju County highway system is determined by roads leading out from Tallinn.
 * runs from Tallinn to Lääne-Viru County towards Narva. Expressway for 80 km out of Tallinn.
 * runs from Tallinn to Järva County towards Tartu. Expressway for 26 km out of Tallinn.
 * runs from Tallinn to Rapla County towards Pärnu. Expressway for 14 km out of Tallinn.
 * runs from Tallinn to Paldiski via Keila.
 * runs from Ääsmäe, Saue Parish to Lääne County towards Haapsalu.
 * runs from Lasnamäe to Keila and forms the Tallinn ring road.

Rail
Paldiski-Tallinn-St Petersburg line was opened as the first line in Estonia in 1870. Today, Elron operates both commuter rail in Harju County and inter-city rail from Tallinn. Important lines include Tallinn-Narva/Tartu through Kehra and Aegviidu, Tallinn-Pärnu/Viljandi through Saku and Tallinn-Paldiski through Saue and Keila. Tallinn-Riisipere line used to be extended to Haapsalu. The Rail Baltic Tallinn-Riga-Warsaw line is estimated to become operational in 2024.

Air
Harju County and Estonia are serviced by Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport, which is open to both domestic and international flights. The Tallinn Linnahall Heliport offers international flights to Helsinki, Finland.

Ports and harbours
Tallinn Passenger Port or the Old City Harbour served 8.84 million passengers in 2012 on lines to Helsinki, Stockholm and St. Petersburg. Transport to Kelnase Harbour on Prangli Island is provided from Leppneeme Harbour in Viimsi Parish and to Naissaar Island from Tallinn Lennusadam Harbour. Seasonal transport to Aegna Island is provided from Tallinn Kalasadam Harbour.

The biggest cargo port is Muuga Harbour in Maardu and Viimsi Parish. Other large ports include Paldiski North Harbour and Paldiski South Harbour, Miiduranna Harbour in Viimsi Parish and Bekkeri-Meeruse Port, Hundipea Harbour, Lennusadama Harbour, Paljassaare Harbour, Patarei Harbour, Peetri Harbour and Vene-Balti Port in Tallinn.

Media
The official newspaper of Harju County is Harju Elu.

County government
The County Government (Maavalitsus) is led by a governor (maavanem), who is appointed by the Government of Estonia for a term of five years. Since 2009 the Governor position has been held by Ülle Rajasalu.

Harju County received municipal functions on 30 March 1917. Members of the Harju County Council were elected by the delegates of county municipalities and the first meeting was held on 1 July 1917 in Tallinn's Toompea Castle. Johannes Reinthal won the election for the Chair of the Council. The language of the proceedings was decided to be Estonian.

Harju County Government became the Executive Committee of Harju County Soviet in January 1941. The County Government was restored during the German occupation from autumn 1941 until autumn 1944. In 1950, the Executive Committee of Harju County Soviet became the Executive Committee of Harju District Labour Soviet. The Harju County Government was re-formed in 1990.

The Chairs of Harju County Councils, the Heads of County Governments and the County Governors:
 * 1917–1920 Johannes Reinthal
 * 1920–1922 Oskar Suursööt
 * 1922–1927 Martin Kruusimaa (Krusemann)
 * 1927–1936 Rudolf Kuris
 * 1936–1940 Karl Robert Ruus
 * 1940–1941 Gustav Abel
 * 1940; 1941–1944 Paul Männik
 * 1990–1991 Anti Oidsalu
 * 1991–1994 Mati Zernand
 * 1994–1999 Mait Kornet
 * 1999–2004 Orm Valtson
 * 2005–2006 Jaan Mark
 * 2006–2009 Värner Lootsmann
 * 2009–present Ülle Rajasalu

Settlements
Harju County has seven settlements with town status: Tallinn, Maardu, Keila, Saue, Paldiski, Kehra and Loksa. All but Kehra are municipal towns, the latter being part of the parish of Anija Parish since 2002. There are also two boroughs: Kiili and Aegviidu, of which Aegviidu (Aegviidu Parish) is one of the five municipal boroughs of Estonia. There are also 31 small boroughs in Harju County. There are plans to give a town status to Haabneeme in Viimsi Parish and Peetri in Rae Parish.

Municipalities
Harju County is subdivided into 16 municipalities, of which 4 are urban (linnad — cities or towns) and 12 are rural (vallad — parishes).

title: Harju County


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Russian Liberation Army

The Russian Liberation Army (Russische Befreiungsarmee; Русская освободительная армия, Russkaya osvoboditel'naya armiya, abbreviated as РОА, ROA, also known as the Vlasov army (Власовская армия, Vlasovskaya armiya) was a collaborationist formation, primarily composed of Russians, that fought under German command during World War II. The army was led by Andrey Vlasov, a Red Army general who had defected, and members of the army are often referred to as Vlasovtsy (Власовцы). In 1944, it became known as the Armed Forces of the Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia (Вооружённые силы Комитета освобождения народов России, Vooruzhonnyye sily Komiteta osvobozhdeniya narodov Rossii, abbreviated as ВС КОНР, VS KONR).

Vlasov agreed to collaborate with Nazi Germany after having been captured on the Eastern Front. The soldiers under his command were mostly former Soviet prisoners of war but also included White Russian émigrés, some of whom were veterans of the anti-communist White Army from the Russian Civil War (1917–23). On 14 November 1944, it was officially renamed the Armed Forces of the Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia, with the KONR being formed as a political body to which the army pledged loyalty. On 28 January 1945, it was officially declared that the Russian divisions no longer form part of the German Army, but would directly be under the command of KONR.

In May 1945, members of the ROA switched sides and joined the anti-Nazi Prague uprising.

Origins
These volunteers (called Hiwi, a compression of Hilfswilliger, which can be translated as "those willing to help") were not under any Russian command or control; they were exclusively under German command carrying out various non-combat duties. A number of them were employed at the Battle of Stalingrad, where it was estimated that as much as one quarter of the 6th Army's strength was USSR citizens. Soon, several German commanders began to use them in small armed units for various tasks, including combat against Soviet partisans, driving vehicles, carrying wounded, and delivering supplies.

As a result, some Red Army soldiers surrendered or defected in hopes of joining an army that did not exist. Many Soviet prisoners of war volunteered to serve under German command just to get out of Nazi POW camps, which were notorious for starving Soviet prisoners to death.

Meanwhile, the newly captured Soviet general Vlasov, along with his German and Russian allies, was desperately lobbying the German high command, hoping that the green light would be given for the formation of a real armed force that would be exclusively under Russian control. They were able to win over only Alfred Rosenberg to some extent.

Although Hitler's staff repeatedly refused to even consider the idea, Vlasov and his allies reasoned that Hitler would eventually come to realize the futility of a war against the USSR without winning over the Russian people, and respond to Vlasov's demands.

Irrespective of the political wrangling over Vlasov and the status of the ROA, by mid-1943 several hundred thousand ex-Soviet volunteers were serving in the German forces, either as Hiwis or in Eastern volunteer units (referred to as Osteinheiten ("Eastern units") or landeseigene Verbände). These latter were generally deployed in a security role at the rear of the armies and army groups in the East, where they constituted a major part of the German effort to counter the activity of Soviet partisan forces, dating as far back as early 1942. The Germans were, however, always concerned about their reliability.

Following the German defeats in the summer of 1943 the units began to disintegrate. On 12 September for example, 2nd Army had to withdraw Sturm-Btl. AOK 2 in order to deal with what was described as "several mutinies and desertions of Eastern units". A 14 September communication from the army states that in the recent period, Hiwi absenteeism had risen considerably. Following a series of attempted or successful mutinies, and a surge in desertions, the Germans decided in September 1943 that the reliability of the units had fallen to a level where they were more a liability than an asset. In an October 1943 report, the 8th Army concluded grimly: "All local volunteers are unreliable during enemy contact. Principal reason of unreliability is the employment of these volunteers in the East." Two days previously, the German army had given permission to the KTB to take harsh measures in the event of further cases of rebellion or unreliability, investing regimental commanders with far-reaching powers to hold summary courts and execute the verdicts.

Since it was felt that the reliability of Russian volunteers would improve if they were removed from contact with the local population, it was decided to send them to the Western Front, and the majority of them were re-deployed in late 1943 or early 1944.

Many of these battalions were integrated into the divisions in the West. A number of the Russian soldiers were on guard in Normandy on D-Day but, without the equipment or motivation to fight the Allies, most promptly surrendered.

A total of 71 "Eastern" battalions served on the Eastern Front, while 42 battalions served in Belgium, Finland, France, and Italy.

The Russian Liberation Army Air Arm was disbanded in July 1944 before seeing combat.

Formation

The ROA did not officially exist until autumn of 1944, after Heinrich Himmler persuaded a very reluctant Hitler to permit the formation of 10 Russian Liberation Army divisions.

On 14 November in Prague, Vlasov read aloud the Prague Manifesto before the newly created Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia. This document stated the purposes of the battle against Stalin, and spelled out 14 points which the army was fighting for. German insistence that the document carry anti-Semitic rhetoric was successfully parried by Vlasov's committee, but they were obliged to include a statement criticising the Western Allies, labelling them "plutocracies" that were "allies of Stalin in his conquest of Europe".

By February 1945, only one division, the 1st Infantry (600th Infantry), was fully organised, under the command of General Sergei Bunyachenko. Formed at Münsingen, it fought briefly on the Oder Front before switching sides and helping the Czechs liberate Prague.

A second division, the 2nd Infantry (650th Infantry), was incomplete when it left Lager Heuberg but was sent into action under the command of General Mikhail Meandrov. This division was joined in large numbers by eastern workers, which caused it to nearly double in size as it marched south. A third, the 3rd Infantry (700th German Infantry), had only begun formation.

Several other Russian units, such as the Russian Corps, XVth SS Cossack Cavalry Corps of General Helmuth von Pannwitz, the Cossack Camp of Ataman Domanov, and other primarily White émigré formations, had agreed to become a part of Vlasov's army. However, their membership remained de jure as the turn of events did not permit Vlasov to use the troops in any operation (even reliable communications were often impossible).

A small group of ROA volunteers fought against the Red Army on 9 February 1945. Their fighting spirit earned them the praise of Heinrich Himmler. The only active combat the Russian Liberation Army undertook against the Red Army was by the Oder River on 11 April 1945, largely at the insistence of Himmler, as a test of the army's reliability. After three days, the outnumbered 1st Division had to retreat.

On 28 January 1945, it was officially declared that the Russian divisions no longer formed part of the German Army, but would be directly under the command of KONR.

Vlasov then ordered the first division to march south to concentrate all Russian anti-communist forces loyal to him. As an army, he reasoned, they could all surrender to the Allies on "favorable" terms, which particularly meant no repatriation to the Soviet Union. Vlasov sent several secret delegations to the Allies to begin negotiating a surrender, hoping they would sympathise with the goals of ROA and potentially use it in an inevitable future war with the USSR.

Fight against the Germans and capture by the Soviets
During the march south, the first division of the ROA came to the help of the Czech partisans in the Prague uprising against the German occupation, which started on May 5, 1945. Vlasov was initially reluctant to agree to that move, but ultimately did not resist General Bunyachenko's decision to fight against the Germans.

The first division engaged in battle with Waffen-SS units that had been sent to level the city. The ROA units, armed with heavy weaponry, fended off the relentless SS assault, and together with the Czech insurgents succeeded in preserving most of Prague from destruction. Due to the predominance of communists in the new Czech Rada ("council"), the first division had to leave the city the very next day and tried to surrender to US Third Army of General Patton. The Allies, however, were not interested in aiding or sheltering the ROA, fearing such aid would harm relations with the USSR.

More than a thousand soldiers were initially taken into Allied custody by the 44th Infantry Division and other U.S. troops. In a move that Allied command kept secret for many years, they were then forcefully handed over to the Soviets by the Allies, due to a previous agreement between Churchill and Stalin that all ROA soldiers would be returned to the USSR. Some Allied officers who were sympathetic to the ROA soldiers permitted them to escape in small groups into the American-controlled zones.

The Soviet government labelled all ROA soldiers (vlasovtsy) as traitors, and those who were repatriated were tried and sentenced to detention in prison camps. Vlasov and several other leaders of the ROA were tried and hanged in Moscow on August 1, 1946.

Order of battle
The composition of the VS-KONR was as follows:

Air elements
 * I. Ostfliegerstaffel (russische) (1st Eastern Squadron-Russian) (1943–1944)
 * II. Störkampfstaffel (Night Harassment Squadron) 8 (1945)
 * KONR Air Force

Two ace pilots of the Soviet Air Force, Semyon Trofimovich Bychkov and Bronislav Romanovich Antilevsky, defected and became part of the ROA air force, which was commanded by Major General Maltsev Viktor Ivanovich. The air force was disbanded in July 1944.

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title: Russian Liberation Army


text:
The King's English

The King's English is a book on English usage and grammar. It was written by the brothers Henry Watson Fowler and Francis George Fowler and published in 1906; it thus predates by twenty years Modern English Usage, which was written by Henry alone after Francis's death in 1918.

The King's English is less like a dictionary than Modern English Usage: it consists of longer articles on more general topics, such as vocabulary, syntax, and punctuation and draws heavily on examples from many sources throughout. One of its sections is a systematic description of the appropriate uses of shall and will. The third and last edition was published in 1931, by which time Modern English Usage had superseded it in popularity.

Because all living languages continually evolve, the book is now considered outdated in some respects, and some of the Fowlers' opinions about correct English usage are at times seen as antiquated (yet not incorrect) with regard to contemporary standards. For example, the Fowlers disapprove of the word "concision" on the grounds that it had a technical meaning in theology, "to which it may well be left"; but "concision" is now a common synonym for "conciseness". The Fowlers also criticised the use of standpoint and just how much (as in "Just how much more of this can we take?"), describing them as undesirable "Americanisms", but both are now common in British English. The book nevertheless remains a benchmark for usage and is still in print.

title: The King's English


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Ildefons Cerdà

Ildefons Cerdà Sunyer (Ildefonso Cerdá Suñer; 23 December 1815, Centelles – 21 August 1876, Caldas de Besaya) was a Spanish urban planner and civil engineer who designed the 19th-century "extension" of Barcelona called the Eixample. Because of his extensive theoretical and practical work, he is considered the founder of modern town planning as a discipline, having coined the word "urbanization".

Biography
Cerdà was born in Centelles, Catalonia, Spain, in 1815. He trained as a civil engineer at the Escuela de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, in Madrid. He joined the Corps of Engineers and lived in various cities in Spain before settling in Barcelona in 1848 and marrying Clotilde Bosch. After the death of his brothers, Cerdà inherited the family fortune, and left the civil service. He became interested in politics and the study of urban planning.

When the government of the time finally gave in to public pressure and allowed Barcelona's city walls to be torn down, he realized the need to plan the city's expansion so that the new extension would become an efficient and livable place, unlike the congested, epidemic-prone old town within the walls. When he failed to find suitable reference works, he undertook the task of writing one from scratch while designing what he called the Ensanche or Eixample, borrowing a few technological ideas from his contemporaries to create a unique, thoroughly modern integrated concept that was carefully considered rather than whimsically designed.

He continued to create projects and improve existing designs throughout his lifetime, as well as to develop his theories taking on larger planning scopes (at the regional planning level), until the very end. In the process, he lost all his family's inheritance and he died in 1876 a heavily indebted near-pauper, never having been paid for his chief masterpiece, the design of Barcelona's Eixample.

Achievements
Cerdà was a multi-faceted man who, in pursuit of his vision, gave up a steady job in the civil engineering service, stood for election and became a member of the Cortes (the Spanish Parliament); drafted useful ground-breaking legislation, drew up a detailed topographical survey map of Barcelona's surroundings, and wrote a theoretical treatise to support each of his major planning projects. He actually coined a number of important words in Spanish, including urbanización.

Approach
Cerdà focused on key needs: chiefly, the need for sunlight, natural lighting and ventilation in homes (he was heavily influenced by the sanitarian movement), the need for greenery in people's surroundings, the need for effective waste disposal including good sewerage, and the need for seamless movement of people, goods, energy, and information.

His designs belie a network-oriented approach far ahead of his time. His street layout and grid plan were optimized to accommodate pedestrians, carriages, horse-drawn trams, urban railway lines (as yet unheard-of), gas supply and large-capacity sewers to prevent frequent floods, without neglecting public and private gardens and other key amenities. The latest technical innovations were incorporated in his designs if they could further the cause of better integration, but he also came up with remarkable new concepts of his own, including a logical system of land readjustment that was essential to the success of his project, and produced a thorough statistical analysis of working-class conditions at the time, which he undertook in order to demonstrate the ills of congestion.

Controversy
Cerdà's plan for Barcelona underwent two major revisions; the second version, approved by the Spanish government at the time, is the one still recognizable in the layout of today's Eixample, though the low height of buildings and the gardens within every city block were soon dispensed with by politicians inclined toward property speculation. In addition, only one of the two planned diagonal streets was realized. Culturally, the Eixample was (and still is) inhabited by the well-to-do, instead of integrating social classes. Many of the Catalan architects of his time opposed Cerdà's ideas, even accusing him of promoting socialism; in the end, however, they designed the Modernista façades that brought fame to the district.

Political developments in Spain and Catalonia eventually led to the enshrinement of a revisionist version of how Cerdà secured official approval of his plan. Cerdà actually drew up his plan under the commission of the then competent authority, the Spanish central government, with the support of the city council. A political reversal led to a change in local government, and the new council sought to preempt the previous central government's decision by holding a project competition in 1859, which Cerdà lost; nevertheless, Cerdà's design prevailed, much to the chagrin of the major property owners.

Major works

 * Teoría de la Construcción de Ciudades ("Theory of City Construction", 1859), written to support his 1855 preliminary project for the Barcelona Extension.
 * Teoría de la Viabilidad Urbana y Reforma de la de Madrid ("Theory of Urban Roadspace and Reform of That of Madrid", 1861), to support his inner-city reform designs for the capital of Spain.
 * Teoría del Enlace del Movimiento de las Vías Marítimas y Terrestres ("Theory of the Linkage of movement on Landways and Seaways", 1863), to accompany a Preliminary Project for a road-rail-sea intermodal system at the port of Barcelona, evidence of which is conclusive though most of the content has not yet been found.
 * Teoría General de la Urbanización ("General Theory of Urbanization", 1867), to support his 1859 project for the Barcelona Extension (digizalization: Volume 1 and Volume 2).
 * Teoría General de la Rurización ("General Theory of Ruralization")

title: Ildefons Cerdà


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ROA

ROA may refer to:

Sports and arts

 * Racehorse Owners Association, a British horse racing organisation
 * Refugee Olympics Athletes, a selection of refugees who will be competing under the Olympic flag at the 2016 Summer Olympics
 * Revolt On Antares, a science-fiction themed microgame designed by Tom Moldvay and produced by TSR in 1981
 * Rules of Acquisition, in the fictional Star Trek universe, a set of sacred guidelines intended to ensure the profitability of businesses owned by members of the ultra-capitalist alien race known as the Ferengi
 * X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse, a video/computer game
 * Rivals of Aether, a 2017 fighting game

People

 * ROA (artist) (born c. 1975), pseudonym of a Belgian graffiti artist known for his large realistic depictions of animals in black-and-white
 * ROA Crewe-Milnes (1858–1945), a British statesman and writer

Government

 * ROA Time, the official time of Spain established by The Royal Institute and Observatory of the Spanish Navy in San Fernando, Cádiz
 * Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974, United Kingdom act that enables some criminal convictions to be ignored after a rehabilitation period

Military

 * Reserve Officers Association, a professional association of officers, former officers, and spouses of all the uniformed services of the United States
 * Russian Liberation Army (РОА in Cyrillic letters, or ROA), a group of predominantly Russian forces subordinated to the Nazi German high command during World War II

Finance

 * Return on assets, a financial metric
 * Real Options Analysis, option valuation techniques for capital budgeting decisions

Science and medicine

 * Raman optical activity, a vibrational spectroscopic technique
 * Right occipito-anterior, a cephalic vertex presentation in childbirth where the fetus is in a longitudinal lie and the head enters the pelvis first
 * Roaccutane, a medication used mostly for cystic acne and in chemotherapy
 * Route of administration, in pharmacology and toxicology, the path by which a drug, fluid, poison, or other substance is taken into the body
 * Route Origin Authorization (Internet routing), a cryptographically signed entry in IP registry databases that specifies the authorized source AS of a certain network
 * Rutgers Optimality Archive, an archive of work in Optimality Theory managed by Eric Bakovic

Schools

 * Retford Oaks Academy, a secondary school with academy status in the market town of Retford, Nottinghamshire, England
 * River Oaks Academy, a private kindergarten through 12th grade school in the Westchase district of Houston, Texas

Other uses

 * Peugeot ROA, an Iranian made car
 * Roanoke-Blacksburg Regional Airport in Roanoke, Virginia, USA, IATA code
 * Rear Occupant Alert, a warning when a car door is closed from the outside with people still inside
 * Resource-oriented architecture, a style of software architecture and programming paradigm for designing and developing software
 * Reformed Armenian Orthography, a spelling reform of the Armenian alphabet in 1922–1924
 * Ruger Old Army, a black-powder percussion revolver introduced in 1972 by the Sturm, Ruger company
 * Republic of Artsakh, unrecognized state in Southern Caucasus
 * Route Origination Authorization, proof of authorization to announce a route for an IP prefix

title: ROA


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Ashendon

Ashendon is a small village and civil parish in Buckinghamshire, England. It is about nine miles west of Aylesbury and seven miles north of Thame.

The toponym is derived from the Old English for "Hill overgrown with ash trees". The Domesday Book of 1086 records the village as the property of the Grenville family; it was called Assedune. The original name refers to the fact that in Saxon times this area was forested, serving as hunting land for the king.

In recent times the manor of Ashendon passed into the hands of the Marquis of Buckingham.

Included in with the parish of Ashendon are the hamlets of Upper Pollicott and Lower Pollicott. The names of these hamlets derive from the Anglo-Saxon Pol's Cottage.

In the less distant past, Ashendon was an entirely farming village and, at present, there is still much agricultural activity within the village. However, some of the farmhouses have been converted into private residences, the best example of this being Ashendon Farm and its barns. Although Ashendon is a small village, in comparison with many nearby Buckinghamshire villages, it has a pub, a recreational playing field, a church and a thriving social club.

One mile south-west of the village, near Lower Pollicott, on the Chiltern Main Line between and, is the site of the former Ashendon Junction, which was an elaborate flying junction engineered for a high-speed turnout on to the now-dismantled link to the now disused Great Central Main Line at Grendon Underwood Junction. In former times this route was used by express trains between London Marylebone, Leicester and Sheffield.

title: Ashendon


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Aubigny-en-Artois

Aubigny-en-Artois (literally "Aubigny in Artois") is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France.

Geography
A town located 8 miles (13 km) northwest of Arras at the junction of the D73, D74, D75 and D49 roads, just by the N39 Arras-Le Touquet road.

Sights

 * The church of St. Kilien, dating from the eighteenth century
 * The World War I cemetery
 * The World War II memorial

title: Aubigny-en-Artois


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Mintaka

Mintaka, designation Delta Orionis (δ Orionis, abbreviated Delta Ori, δ Ori) and 34 Orionis (34 Ori), is a multiple star system some 1,200 light-years from the Sun in the constellation of Orion. Together with Alnitak (Zeta Orionis) and Alnilam (Epsilon Orionis), the three stars form Orion's Belt, known by many names among ancient cultures. The star is located very close to the celestial equator. When Orion is near the meridian, Mintaka is the rightmost of the Belt's stars when viewed from the Northern Hemisphere facing south.

Nomenclature
Delta Orionis is the star's Bayer designation, 34 Orionis its Flamsteed designation. The name Mintaka itself is derived from an Arabic term for 'belt': منطقة or manṭaqa. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN, which included Mintaka for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.

Observational history
Mintaka is the westernmost of the three stars of Orion's belt. It is easily visible to the naked eye, one of the brightest stars in the sky, and has been known since antiquity.

Radial velocity measurements taken by Henri-Alexandre Deslandres in 1900 at Paris Observatory showed that Mintaka had a variable radial velocity and therefore was a spectroscopic binary. His preliminary orbital period estimate of 1.92 days was shown to be incorrect in 1904 when Johannes Franz Hartmann using photographic plates taken at Potsdam Observatory showed that the orbital period was 5.7 days. Hartmann also noticed that the calcium K line at 393.4 nanometres in the stellar spectrum did not share in the periodic displacements of the lines due to orbital motion of the star and theorized that there was a cloud in the line of sight to Mintaka that contained calcium. This was the first detection of the interstellar medium.

System
δ Orionis is a multiple star system. There is a magnitude 7 star about 52 arcseconds away from the second-magnitude primary and a much fainter star in between. The system is designated WDS 05320-0018 in the Washington Double Star Catalog, with the 14th-magnitude companion listed as component B and the seventh-magnitude star as component C.

The primary component is itself a triple system: a class-O9.5 bright giant and a class-B main-sequence star orbit every 5.73 days and exhibit shallow eclipses when the star dims about 0.2 of a magnitude, and a B-class subgiant is resolved 0.26" away. At the primary eclipse, the apparent magnitude (of the whole system) drops from 2.23 to 2.35, while it only drops to 2.29 at the secondary eclipse.

The outer star of the triple system orbits the inner pair once every 53,839 days. The orbit is quite eccentric, with the separation varying between 8244 solar radius and 31832 solar radius.

The seventh-magnitude companion, HD 36485, is a chemically peculiar B-type main-sequence star and itself a spectroscopic binary with a faint A-type companion in a 30-day orbit. It has an unusual spectrum with H-alpha emission and unusually strong helium absorption lines. It has a strong magnetic field and a very slow rotational velocity that produces chemical stratification in its atmosphere, which leads to the unusual abundances seen in the spectrum.

The 14th-magnitude companion is thought to be around the same distance and is a somewhat cooler and less luminous star than the Sun.

Mintaka is surrounded by a cluster of faint stars, possibly part of the cluster surrounding σ Ori.

Distance
The distance derived from the Hipparcos satellite parallax is $18.5$, while spectroscopic distances, comparisons to similar stars, and cluster membership all suggest a value more than double that. This type of unreconcilable discrepancy is not unique to Mintaka and the reasons for it have yet to be clarified. In Gaia Data Release 3, component C is listed with a parallax of $0.64$, consistent with the distances derived by other methods but disagreeing with the Hipparcos-derived value for the primary.

The Gaia DR3 parallax for component B is $-0.69$, strongly suggesting it is considerably closer than the other members of the system and merely a chance alignment. At that distance it is likely to be a K-type main sequence star.

Etymology and cultural significance
Mintaka was seen by astrologers as a portent of good fortune.

Orion's Belt
The three belt stars were collectively known by many names in many cultures. Arabic terms include Al Nijād 'the Belt', Al Nasak 'the Line', Al Alkāt 'the Golden Grains or Nuts', and, in modern Arabic, Al Mīzān al Ḥakk 'the Accurate Scale Beam'. In Chinese mythology, they were also known as the Weighing Beam.

In Chinese, 參宿 (Shēn Sù), meaning Three Stars (asterism), refers to an asterism consisting of Mintaka, Alnilam, and Alnitak (Orion's Belt), with Betelgeuse, Bellatrix, Saiph and Rigel later added. Consequently, the Chinese name for Mintaka is 參宿三 (Shēn Sù sān, the Third Star of Three Stars). It is one of the western mansions of the White Tiger.

Namesakes
The USS Mintaka (AK-94) was a United States Navy Crater-class cargo ship named after the star.

title: Mintaka


text:
Cornelis Tromp

Cornelis Maartenszoon Tromp, Count of Sølvesborg (3 September 1629 – 29 May 1691) was a Dutch naval officer who served as lieutenant-admiral general in the Dutch Navy, and briefly as a general admiral in the Royal Danish-Norwegian Navy. Tromp is one of the most celebrated and controversial figures in Dutch naval history due to his actions in the Anglo-Dutch Wars and the Scanian War. His father was the renowned Lieutenant Admiral Maarten Tromp.

Early life
Cornelis Maartenszoon Tromp was born on 9 September 1629, in Rotterdam, in the historically dominant county of Holland. He was the second son of Maarten Tromp and Dina Cornelisdochter de Haas. His name Maartenszoon, sometimes abbreviated to Maartensz, is a patronymic. He had two full brothers, Harper and Johan.

In 1633, when he was only four years old, his mother died. His father remarried in 1634, and again in 1640. The two marriages brought Tromp four half brothers and five half sisters. His father had made career as an officer for the Admiralty of the Maze. After a conflict with Lieutenant Admiral Philips van Dorp in 1634, Maarten Tromp left the fleet starting to work as a deacon. After Van Dorp was removed from his position in 1637, his father became lieutenant admiral and supreme commander of the Dutch Navy. In 1642, Tromp was sent to Harfleur, France, to learn to speak French from a Calvinist preacher.

Early navy career
On 1 September 1643, he joined his father on his flagship the Aemilia. In September 1645, he was appointed as lieutenant and commanded a small squadron charged to pursue the Barbary pirates. On 22 August 1649, he was made a full captain. He served in the First Anglo-Dutch War, fighting in the battle of Leghorn, but was not given command of the Mediterranean fleet after the death of Johan van Galen, only being promoted to rear admiral with the Admiralty of de Maze on 11 November 1653, after the death of his beloved father, Maarten.

In 1656, he participated in the relief of Gdańsk. In 1658, it was discovered he had used his ships to trade in luxury goods; as a result he was fined and not allowed to have an active command until 1662. Just before the Second Anglo-Dutch War, he was promoted to vice admiral on 29 January 1665; at the battle of Lowestoft, he prevented total catastrophe by taking over fleet command to allow the escape of the larger part of the fleet.

Lieutenant admiral
Gaining sudden popularity, he was temporarily given supreme command as lieutenant admiral of the confederate fleet on 23 July 1665, but had to give up this function (but not rank) the next month in favour of Lieutenant Admiral Michiel de Ruyter; he fought, having been transferred to the Admiralty of Amsterdam on 6 February 1666, under the latter in the Four Days Battle and the St. James's Day Battle.

As this failure off Nieuwpoort in August 1666 was imputed to him by De Ruyter, he was dismissed, at the same time, being under the suspicion of plotting to overthrow the government, but he was reinstated in April 1673 by William of Orange, after the Orangists seized power, to fight against the French and English navies in the Third Anglo-Dutch War. There he participated in the last three fleet actions under Lieutenant-Admiral-General Michiel de Ruyter, distinguishing himself in the double battle of Schooneveld and the battle of Texel in August 1673, fighting out an epic duel with his personal enemy Edward Spragge, who drowned. During this war, his flagship was the Gouden Leeuw, of 82 cannons.

In 1674 a Dutch fleet under Tromp operated along the French coast. He directed a landing on 27 June on the island of Belle Île, on the coast of Brittany, and captured its coastal bulwarks. The Dutch however left the island again after 2 days, because the 3,000 French defenders had taken refuge in the island's strong fortress and a siege would have taken too long. A few days later, on 4 July, the island of Noirmoutier was attacked. After a short struggle, which left more than a hundred Dutch men out of action, the French retreated to Poitou, leaving the island, with its castle, coastal batteries, more than 30 pieces of artillery and several ships, in the hands of the Dutch. For nearly three weeks, the Dutch flag flew from the walls of the French stronghold and the Dutch fleet captured many French ships in the meantime. The whole region from Brest to Bayonne was in turmoil, and several strong French forces gathered there to prevent the Dutch from landing. On 23 July the island of Noirmoutier was however abandoned after the Dutch blew up the castle and demolished the coastal batteries. The French coast was kept in fear for some time, but after visiting the Mediterranean Sea, Tromp's fleet returned to Holland at the end of 1674.

He was closely involved in the murder of Johan de Witt and Cornelis de Witt in 1672. In 1675, he visited England and was created an English baronet and a Dutch erfridder by Charles II of England, but he refused an honorary doctorate when visiting Oxford.

Danish-Norwegian Navy and Scanian War
On 8 May 1676, he became admiral general of the Danish-Norwegian Navy and Knight in the Order of the Elephant; in 1677, Count of Sølvesborg – then a Danish nobility title. During the Scanian War he defeated the Swedish navy in the Battle of Öland. Tromp led the successful Landing at Ystad in Scania in June 1677, where there was a minor but still notable fighting before the Swedes withdrew and left the city in Danish hands. Tromp summoned all the local noblemen of Danish origin to his presence in order to promise they would stay still on their estates and not cause any trouble. He then took a two-week holiday at Baron Jörgen Krabbe's Castle Krogholm (now Krageholm), just north of Aletophilus (Olluf Rosencrantz?) Ystad. During this period Tromp also licensed the local Danish bailiffs to recruit as many males as possible for the local Danish militias and sheriffs' teams. Tromp is mentioned in the local court registers for having licensed a Sheriff by the name of Bendix Clausen to recruit men in six different districts (hundreds) and there was some fierce fighting between these troops and the Swedes. Clausen and his men were branded as criminal 'snapphanar' by the Swedes. For that reason Tromp also played a role for the snapphanar, who were in essence the local resistance and Danish para-military troops.

Lieutenant-admiral general
On 6 February 1679, he became lieutenant-admiral general of the Republic but never fought in that capacity, having become a liability to the new regime of William III. He died in Amsterdam in 1691, his mind broken by alcohol abuse and remorse, still officially commander of the Dutch fleet, after having been for a period replaced by Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest.

Character

Tromp was a very aggressive squadron commander who personally relished the fight, preferring the direct attack having the weather gage over line-of-battle tactics. As a result, he had to change ships often: four times at the Four Days' Battle, three times at Schooneveld and two times at Texel. He was popular with his crews, despite the danger he put them in, because of his easy-going manners and his supporting the cause of the House of Orange against the States regime of Johan de Witt. However, he often treated his fellow officers with contempt, both his equals and superiors.

Tromp is infamous for his insubordination, although the two examples most often mentioned in this context, not following De Ruyter on the second day of the Four Days' Battle and chasing the English rear in the St James's Day Fight, seem to have been honest mistakes. He was very jealous of De Ruyter but generally treated him with respect, though he considered him too common. Tromp tried to imitate the lifestyle of the nobility, marrying a rich elderly widow, Margaretha van Raephorst, in 1667. He had no children. At home, without fighting to distract him, Cornelis, or Kees as he was normally called, grew quickly bored and indolent. He had the reputation of being a heavy drinker, so much so that many inns at the time were named after him.

Tromp was a vain man, having an extremely high opinion of himself, which he never hesitated in sharing with others. He felt that, son of a famous father, he had a natural right to the position of naval hero. During his life he posed as a sitter for at least 22 paintings, a record for the 17th century, many by top artists such as Ferdinand Bol. His art possessions were displayed in his estate, that long after his death was called 'Trompenburgh', the manor house built in the form of a warship.

As his wider family was among the most fanatical supporters of Orange, he participated in most of their schemes, especially those of his brother-in-law Johan Kievit, a shrewd and unscrupulous intriguer. Tromp however had no great enthusiasm for subtle plotting; later in life he came to regret many of his actions. He died in great mental anguish, convinced he would go to hell as punishment for his crimes.

Legacy
The Dutch Ministry of Defence names Maarten Tromp and Cornelis Tromp as naval heroes. Since 1777, nine navy ships have been named Tromp in honour of them, most recently the frigate HNLMS Tromp (F803).

title: Cornelis Tromp


text: Talk:Tornado watch

title: Talk:Tornado watch


text:
Daejeon Southern Ring Expressway

The Daejeon Southern Ring Expressway, Daejeon Nambu Sunhwan Expressway or Daejeon Southern Beltway is an expressway in South Korea, connecting Honam Expressway Branch (Expressway 251) to Gyeongbu Expressway (Expressway 1) in Daejeon. Numbered 300, it covers a length of 20.8 kilometers.

History

 * December 1993: Construction Begin.
 * 6 September 1999: Opens to traffic.

Lane

 * 4 Lanes

Length

 * 20.8 km

Limited Speed

 * 100 km/h

List of Facilities

 * IC: Interchange, JC: Junction, SA: Service Area, TG:Tollgate

title: Daejeon Southern Ring Expressway


text:
Ashley Green

Ashley Green is a village and civil parish in Buckinghamshire, England. The parish is on the boundary with Hertfordshire, midway between Chesham and Berkhamsted.

Originally a hamlet within Chesham parish, its toponym is derived from the Old English for Ash Field, referring to the forest that once covered this part of the Chiltern Hills.

Churches
Ashley Green used to have a Baptist church, situated down Hog Lane, which was a branch of Broadway Baptist Church in Chesham. It closed in the early 1900s.

Anglican services started in the village school in 1872, led by Rev Pratt, vicar of St Mary's Chesham. Land for an Anglican church was given by Lord Chesham. The architect was G.E. Street and the contractor G. Cooper of Aylesbury Buckinghamshire. The total cost of the building was over £2,000 with the endowment being a further £6,000. The Church was built and endowed by the gift of Elizabeth Dorrien of Clifton, Bristol, in memory of her sisters and dedicated to John the Evangelist on 31 December 1873, although it was already in use when it was dedicated. Ashley Green became a separate ecclesiastical parish in 1876. Newspapers and coins were built into the pillar adjoining the pulpit. In 1980 the parish rejoined Chesham parish under a team ministry.

The Church is built of local knapped black flints with Bath stone dressings. There is a bellcote with two bells. There is a boiler house, and the church was originally being heated by "Hayden's hot air apparatus", now disused. The porch is on the Northern side of the building the front of which is an oak moulded archway, the timber being framed in red bricks - herringboned. The roof is of plain clay tiles. St. John's has stained glass windows from various makers including Burlison and Grylls, Kempe and Co., James Powell and Sons, C.E. Moore and A.L. Moore.

Some of St. Johns' pews used to have a note on them that stated: "The seats in this Church are entirely free and unappropriated. The Church Wardens look to the Congregation for the support through the offertory of the usual Church expenses."

The bellcote has two bells, one of a diameter of 1 ft and the other of a diameter of 1 ft. John Taylor & Co of Loughborough cast them in 1874 and refurbished and re-hung in the early 1990s.

In 2010 a kitchen and toilet was installed in the Church. In keeping with the tradition of the original builders, a time capsule that included a newspaper and a photograph of the congregation was buried under the floor of the kitchen.

Population
Today Ashley Green is a popular home for commuters and executives who commute daily to London. There are also many local residents who have lived and raised children who also continue to live in the village along with several farms surrounding the area.

Local business

Ashley Green has one public house, "The Golden Eagle", referred to locally as "The Eagle". On the junction of Chesham Road and Hog Lane the corner house used to be a shop and post office. An old post box still remains built into one of the entrance posts. There is a "farm shop" at John's Lane farm and the Chesham side of the village has a farm selling free range eggs.

Community facilities
The old school is used by a playgroup youth club and for ballet classes. The village hall also hosts regular events such as the village fete and for rehearsals by local actors who put on productions around the local area. Behind the village hall in The Glebe there is a play park. There is a well on the village green outside the entrance gates to the old school.

Media
Ashley Village School was the subject of a documentary film (Village School 1940) directed by John Eldridge. The film is a tribute to Britain's women teachers in wartime.

The film 'starred' Mrs. James the headmistress of the school and Mrs. Glover the other teacher at the school. Many of the pupils are shown taking part in school activities both indoors and outdoors. Some of the pupils were evacuees.

title: Ashley Green


text:
Neighborhood watch

A neighborhood watch or neighbourhood watch (see spelling differences), also called a crime watch or neighbourhood crime watch, is an organized group of civilians devoted to crime and vandalism prevention within a neighborhood.

The aim of neighborhood watch includes educating residents of a community on security and safety and achieving safe and secure neighborhoods. However, when a criminal activity is suspected, members are encouraged to report to authorities, and not to intervene.

In the United States, neighborhood watch builds on the concept of a town watch from early American colonialism and the system of slavery and their slave patrols.

Organization
A neighborhood watch may be organized as its own group or may simply be a function of a neighborhood association or other community association.

While not all neighborhood watch groups are vigilantes, some are and use vigilante practices in order for them to handle crime in their neighborhoods. In the United States, neighborhood watch groups increased in popularity throughout the 1980s and 1990s in part as a response to the perceived ineffectiveness of new policing strategies.

Other programs similar to Neighborhood Watch include Operation Identification, a citizen's burglary prevention program for use in homes and businesses that was developed in the United States during the 1960s.

Australia
The Neighbourhood Watch Australasia (NHWA) program was first introduced in New South Wales in 1984. The logo with the four faces was designed by a Victorian volunteer community commission in 1983, where it has since become the nationally acknowledged brand of NHW. The first NHWA Journal was published in October 2006, where it contained information on crime prevention instructions and events from each of the NHWA regions. In 2007 NHWA was listed as an incorporated association. In 2010 NHWA featured its own online website and in 2011 it established its Facebook page.

In 2014, several Neighbourhood Watch groups in the Gold Coast faced a lack of interest from the community. Throughout the 2000s, Broadbeach had 22 groups that were surveilling the streets in Mermaid Waters. In 2014, however, only three people attended the committees due to disinterest.

Run by members of the community, the NSW Police supports and assists the NHW program. The program is not for profit and it is not funded by the NSW Police Force, or any other government organisations. It is rather assisted through fundraising, sponsorships and grants. Members of the community are encouraged to participate within the program and membership is free of charge. Participators act as a conduit between NSW Police and their local area by encouraging crime prevention and closer community relations. Diversity is reflected in the NHW program and is encouraged.

United States
The current American system of neighborhood watches began developing in the late 1960s as a response to the rape and murder of Kitty Genovese in Queens, New York. People became outraged after false reports that a dozen witnesses did nothing to save Genovese or to apprehend her killer. Inspired in part by Jane Jacobs' The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961), which stated that Americans need to keep their "eyes on the streets" and connect with each other in their neighborhoods, national law enforcement agencies began pushing for community members to get more involved with reporting crimes at the local level.

Some local civilians formed groups to watch over their neighborhoods and to look out for any suspicious activity in their areas. Shortly thereafter, the National Sheriffs' Association began a concerted effort in 1972 to revitalize the "watch group" effort nationwide. During the first few years of the program, neighborhood watch functioned primarily as an intermediary between local law enforcement agencies and neighborhoods, to pass along information about burglaries and thefts in specific neighborhoods. Soon thereafter, the neighborhood watch became more involved and partnered with law enforcement agencies to report other types of crime as well.

Kazakhstan
In August 2011, police and municipal authorities in Petropavl city, the administrative center of the North Kazakhstan province, introduced the concept of a ‘neighborhood watch.' Having studied Estonia’s neighborhood watch model, police chief of this province set up a special office consisting of a 24-hour telephone hotline operated by civilians to respond to citizen complaints and anonymous tip offs. To support their work, the provincial authorities spent 15 million tenge that year to set up billboards and play television and radio ads encouraging citizens to report wrongdoing or anything suspicious to the police: ‘the safety of your home, your family and friends is in your hands’. By the end of 2012, this hotline had received 3,245 calls and in 2013, 2,797 calls. The police chiefs viewed this as a success. In 2013, the North Kazakhstan province police chief was transferred to lead the police department of the Almaty province and he launched the neighborhood watch program there by linking it explicitly to zero tolerance policing.

Some attempts to introduce the neighborhood watch program have been made in the cities of Taraz (2016), Aqtau (2017) and Qyzylorda (2020) but they produced little success and have been largely ignored in other parts of the country.

United States
The neighborhood watch system gained intense media attention after the February 2012 fatal shooting of teenager Trayvon Martin in Sanford, Florida by George Zimmerman, an appointed neighborhood watch coordinator. Zimmerman claimed self-defense and was tried for second-degree murder and manslaughter before he was acquitted from all charges. His actions on the night of the shooting generated controversy as he exited his vehicle and was carrying a firearm, both of which go against neighborhood watch recommendations. He has also been accused by prosecutors of racially profiling Martin, and he was investigated by the United States Department of Justice for possibly committing a racial hate crime. However, the FBI concluded their investigation and dropped its charges. Martin was black and Zimmerman is a mixed-race Hispanic.

In another incident involving a neighborhood watch, Eliyahu Werdesheim, part of an Orthodox Jewish community in Maryland, was convicted in May 2012 of second-degree assault and false imprisonment for beating and then pinning down a teenager he thought suspicious in 2010. Werdersheim and his brother, who had also been charged in the case but was acquitted, chose a bench trial, contending they would not get a fair trial due to the publicity over the Martin case. He was given a three-year suspended sentence and three years of probation at sentencing in June 2012. In December 2013, Werdesheim's probation was cut short, and he was released at the end of the month.

A June 2012 New York Times article reported that neighborhood watches in the New York City area are growing again after decades of decrease due to lower crime rates. It also said that neighborhood watch groups fell under scrutiny since the shooting of Trayvon Martin.

In response to the Trayvon Martin case, Congresswoman Sheila Jackson Lee (D-Texas) began drafting a bill that would require neighborhood watch groups to be certified and limit their duties. Currently, with local police agencies setting guidelines for their neighborhood watches, groups across the U.S. vary greatly in their scope, function, the level of activity by their members, and training. Robert McCrie, professor of security management at John Jay College of Criminal Justice in New York City, disagrees with Lee's initiative. He believes that standards for neighborhood watches "are best left to the state or local community," although he would support background checks for volunteers.

Notable neighborhood watch organizations

 * Block Parent Program (Canada)
 * Chaoyang masses (China)
 * Citizen Observer (US)
 * Crimestoppers (US, UK and Australia)
 * Grid-style social management (China)
 * Guardian Angels (US)
 * National Neighborhood Watch Program (US)
 * National Night Out (US)
 * Natteravnene (Norway)
 * Neighbourhood Watch (United Kingdom)
 * Inminban (North Korea)
 * PubWatch (UK)
 * Shopwatch (UK)
 * Police Mitra (India)
 * Senkom Mitra Polri (Indonesia)
 * Shomrim (US and UK)
 * Voluntary People's Druzhina (Soviet Union)
 * Neighbourhood Watch & Community Service Corps (Nigeria)

title: Neighborhood watch


text:
Asheridge

Asheridge (recorded Esserugge in the 13th century) is a small village in the parish of Chartridge, in Buckinghamshire, England. Prior to 1898 it was part of Chesham parish. It is situated in the Chiltern Hills, about two and a half miles north west of Chesham, 5 miles from Great Missenden and 6 miles from Wendover.

Another suggestion is that the name derives from the Old English æsc and hrycg, and meant ‘long hill covered with ash trees.’

Asheridge Farmhouse is of 16th-century origin. In 1848 Asheridge is recorded as having a population of 129. A school and congregational church were established there during the latter part of the 19th century and records show they were still in existence in 1891. The Blue Ball public house which was at the centre of the settlement at that time is still in business today.

On 5 March 1945 an Avro Lancaster PB745 crashed in fields near Asheridge. The seven crew of the aircraft were drawn from the Royal Air Force and the Royal Australian Air Force. There was only one survivor, the rear gunner, William Hart. A memorial service and dedication of a plaque took place on 13 May 2012.

Aneurin (Nye) Bevan, Labour Minister responsible for the establishment of the National Health Service and his wife Jennie Lee, also a Minister in the same Labour Government and a key figure in the creation of the Open University, came to live at Asheridge Farm in 1954. After the death of her husband in 1960, Lee continued to live there until moving to London in 1968. She became Baroness Lee of Asheridge in 1970.

title: Asheridge


text:
Hollywood Science

Hollywood Science is an Open University TV programme produced for the BBC, which attempted to determine whether or not scenes in various films were scientifically credible. In the show, presenter Robert Llewellyn and scientist Jonathan Hare look at the science behind a scene in a film. They experiment or perform calculations, to see how the scene would work in real life. The scene is then given an accuracy rating. The approach is similar to that of the Bad Astronomer, who also uses films as a vehicle to teach science. The presence of Robert Llewellyn means the tone of the show is fairly light-hearted.

The show started in the BBC Learning Zone, a section of education programming broadcast in the early morning, meant to be recorded and watched later. It was then given a higher profile programming slot on BBC2 in the early evening. The programme is currently repeated on UKTV Documentary.

The series formed the basis of a Jonathan Hare lecture at Hull University in 2008.

Series 1
The first series of six ten-minute episodes premiered in the Open University's Learning Zone on BBC2 at 12:30 from 10 May 2001.

Each of these episodes concentrated on the science of a single film.
 * Shanghai Noon
 * Dante's Peak
 * Cool Hand Luke
 * Ice Cold in Alex
 * Die Hard
 * Speed

Series 2
The second series consisted of four half-hour episodes.

"Break-Ins"
 * The Score – If one fills a safe with water, will an explosion produce a more powerful door-busting effect?
 * Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves – Could a medieval trebuchet fire Robin Hood and Will Scarlet into a castle, and land them on target?
 * The Thomas Crown Affair – Would knocking out the air conditioning cause InfraRed cameras to become useless?

"Gross Out"
 * Waterworld – Is it possible to sufficiently purify one's own urine to be able to drink it? The team concluded that the film was portraying a reverse osmosis process with a realistic looking unit.
 * Fight Club – Can high quality soap be made from liposuction fat? The team succeeded in making soap from pig fat, but it was not top quality soap.
 * The Great Outdoors – Could someone eat a 96-ounce steak? The team concluded that this amount of meat would not fit in a human stomach, and thus gave it the "least plausible" award for the episode.

"Tricky Situations"
 * Deep Blue Sea – Is it possible to be surrounded by electricity and water without being electrocuted?
 * The Last Castle – How far can a water cannon fire a grappling iron?
 * A View to a Kill – Can one survive underwater by breathing the air from a car tyre?

"Escapes"
 * Chain Reaction – Could a hydrogen gas cylinder move a concrete slab? The team concluded it could, but probably not enough to allow escape and with a great risk of explosion.
 * Escape from Alcatraz – Can one braze together a spoon and some nail clippers using a US dime, and some matches? After initial failure, the team concluded they needed a pre-1960s dime for its high silver content. Although they then succeeded in melting the dime, they failed to make a solid joint, largely due to the lack of flux.  They also could not generate sufficient heat from matches, the heat source portrayed in the film.
 * Hollow Man – Would you be able to move a metal bolt using a hand-made electromagnet? While this may be possible with good electromagnets, the team concluded the power source used in the film (a defibrillator) would be too feeble to do the job. This film was given the "least plausible" award of the episode.

title: Hollywood Science


text:
Askett

Askett is a picturesque hamlet in the civil parish of Princes Risborough, Buckinghamshire, England. It is situated where the steep escarpment of the Chiltern Hills meets the flat expanse of the Vale of Aylesbury. It lies within an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and Conservation Area less than four miles from Chequers, country home of the UK Prime Minister.

One mile from the market town of Princes Risborough, Askett is served with The Three Crowns pub and an Indian restaurant, The Coco Tamarind. The nearby Monks Risborough railway station provides direct access to London Marylebone.

History
The Manor house at Askett sat on the site of Old Manor Close estate. At the beginning of the 20th century small cottages resided on the original land but by 1969 had been demolished and in 1983 five new houses were built. Opposite the entrance to the estate stood the wheelwrights shop where a modern bungalow now stands.

In the 19th Century, the small hamlet was a renowned village for lacemaking. By the 20th Century, villages like Askett and Kimble became the stopping point on the way to Aylesbury, Dillons Garage was a small well-known service station opened in Askett in 1933 which has since been demolished.

The village still holds many old fashioned cottages and bungalows. The area has more recently been described as 'A Hamlet in a Meadow'.

title: Askett


text:
Talk:Hollywood Science

2003 comments
Who is the Bad Astronomer?

Is this related to www.badastronomy.com? Anjouli 14:38, 9 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I believe so; I've heard him on Coast to Coast AM with George Noory. --Merovingian 14:39, Dec 9, 2003 (UTC)

I was referring to the guy who runs www.badastronomy.com, who I gather refers to himself as 'The Bad Astronomer'. Perhaps there should be a link to the website. Silverfish 14:53, 9 Dec 2003 (UTC)~

Can somebody verify that? (I can't find anyhting). If not, then I think we should remove the reference. Anjouli 06:49, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * On the Bad Astronomy 'who am I' page, it says 'Who is this guy who calls himself "The Bad Astronomer?"', confirming that Phil Plait who presumedly runs www.badastronomy.com calls himself 'The Bad Astronomer'. Is that what you wanted confirmed? Silverfish 11:58, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Good enough for me. Thanks. Anjouli 07:58, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

US Show
There is also a show with the same name on the National Geographic Channel in the US. The narrator and most of the scientists are American, so I think it's a different show.... Should it have its own page? - 69.171.34.159 16:48, 5 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I think this would be the same show as mentioned, but I'll try to catch the one on the British National Geographic channel sometime - it may be like MythBusters and just have a different narration in the UK. --Neo 21:38, 12 January 2007 (UTC)

I can see no reason why this page lists three different subjects (definition, then two shows). They should all have their own page. --59.167.122.89 12:49, 12 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Well, the first is just a dictionary definition, and of course Wikipedia is not a dictionary. And it may be against policy, but do the two programmes need to have seperate pages? They're both of pretty much the same premise, and the page is not yet large enough to warrent their separation out. --Neo 21:38, 12 January 2007 (UTC)

Movie science
Is there any article here that lists the science goofs that are traditional or typical in Hollywood movies, especially science fiction? I would have thought to find such a list here. For example, here are a few "rules" that Hollywood seems to follow, off the top of my head:
 * Sounds are always be present in the vacuum of space.
 * Lasers must make interesting noises.
 * The light of a laser beam must be brightly visible even in a vacuum, and it must travel slower than the speed of light, so that viewers can get a sense of the beam's trajectory over a couple frames of film.
 * Ships maneuvering in a weightless vacuum shall bank when they turn, as if they are flying through an atmosphere in a gravitational field.
 * Camera shots of an actor's face in front of a video display should show what's being displayed projected onto the actor's face, in focus, as if the display were projecting through a lens. It is not necessary for the projection to be reversed.
 * Control panels must have high-current power running through them, so that when disaster strikes, the control panel emits showers of sparks.
 * Two or more ships in space must always orient themselves as if there is a universal "up" direction agreed upon by all.
 * When a ship flies by the camera while orbiting a planet, the viewer must see the ship's flight path curve. as if the planet is small enough for an observer to notice the curved path before the ship disappears due to distance from the camera.
 * It is permissible for actors to wear helmets with bright internal lights that illuminate their faces and prevent them from seeing in low-light environments.
 * Aliens are always humanoid.
 * The hero or heroine escaping from an underwater confined space must be able to hold breath during extreme physical exertion longer than is humanly possible.
 * Language barriers usually don't exist.
 * Sound travels at infinite velocity. The sound from events (such as explosions) visible far away in the distance are heard simultaneously with the event.
 * Computers must always make cute little noises when keys are pressed or when characters appear on the display.

And so on. I'm sure I could even find sources of examples of each of these. Is there such an article here? For now, I have created the redirect page movie science to redirect to this Hollywood science article. ~Amatulić (talk) 04:43, 26 March 2008 (UTC)

Proposed deletion
The proposer said in part "Just a bunch of unconnected references...". Actually, there are just two, the BBC series and the National Geographic series. This page started off as an article on the BBC/Open University series. If it is felt that the Nat Geographic program is unconnected, then it can simply be reverted to the original article. However, I think a case can be made for a more general article. There are a number of books discussing Hollywood's relationship with science; Hollywood Science: Movies, Science, and the End of the World (Columbia University Press), Lab Coats in Hollywood: Science, Scientists, and Cinema (MIT Press), Hollywood Chemistry: When Science Met Entertainment (American Chemical Society), Hollywood Science: Dangers from Ourselves (Columbia University Press), and Hollyweird Science: From Quantum Quirks to the Multiverse (Springer). These are all solidly reliable sources and a wide-ranging article could easily be constructed from them. SpinningSpark 22:33, 1 December 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hollywood Science