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St. Gallen

St. Gallen is a Swiss city and the capital of the canton of St. Gallen. It evolved from the hermitage of Saint Gall, founded in the 7th century. Today, it is a large urban agglomeration (with around 167,000 inhabitants in 2019) and represents the center of eastern Switzerland. Its economy consists mainly of the service sector. The city is home to the University of St. Gallen, one of the best business schools in Europe.

The main tourist attraction is the Abbey of Saint Gall, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Abbey's renowned library contains books from the 9th century. The official language of St. Gallen is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of Alemannic Swiss German. The city has good transport links to the rest of the country and to neighbouring Germany and Austria. It also functions as the gate to the Appenzellerland.

Early history
The town of St. Gallen grew around the Abbey of St Gall, founded in the 8th century. The abbey is said to have been built at the site of the hermitage of Irish missionary Gallus, who according to legend had established himself by the river Steinach in AD 612. The monastery itself was founded by Saint Othmar in c. 720. The abbey prospered in the 9th century and became a site of pilgrimage and a center of trade, with associated guest houses, stables and other facilities, a hospital, one of the first monastery schools north of the Alps. By the tenth century, a settlement had grown up around the abbey.

In 926 Magyar raiders attacked the abbey and surrounding town. Saint Wiborada, the first woman formally canonized by the Vatican, reportedly saw a vision of the impending attack and warned the monks and citizens to flee. While the monks and the abbey treasure escaped, Wiborada chose to stay behind and was killed by the raiders. Between 924 and 933 the Magyars again threatened the abbey, and its books were removed for safekeeping to Reichenau. Not all the books were returned.

On 26 April 937 a fire consumed much of the abbey, spreading to the adjoining settlement. However, the library was spared. Muslim slave-raiders attacked the abbey in 939. About 954 a protective wall was raised around the abbey. By 975, Abbot Notker finished the wall, and the adjoining settlement began growing into the town of St. Gall.

Independence from the Abbey
From the later 12th century, the town of St. Gall increasingly pushed for independence from the abbey. In 1180, an imperial reeve, who was not answerable to the abbot, was installed in the town. In 1207, Abbot Ulrich von Sax was granted the rank of Imperial Prince (Reichsfürst) by Philip of Swabia, King of the Germans. As an ecclesiastical principality, the Abbey of St. Gallen was to constitute an important territorial state and a major regional power in northern Switzerland.

The city of St. Gallen proper progressively freed itself from the rule of the abbot. Abbot Wilhelm von Montfort in 1291 granted special privileges to the citizens. By about 1353 the guilds, headed by the cloth-weavers guild, had gained control of the civic government. In 1415 the city bought its liberty from the German king Sigismund.

Ally of the Swiss Confederacy
In 1405, the Appenzell estates of the abbot successfully rebelled and in 1411 they became allies of the Old Swiss Confederation. A few months later, the town of St. Gallen also became an ally. They joined the "everlasting alliance" as full members of the Confederation in 1454 and in 1457 became completely free from the abbot.

However, in 1451 the abbey became an ally of Zürich, Lucerne, Schwyz, and Glarus who were all members of the Confederation.

Ulrich Varnbüler was an early mayor of St. Gallen and perhaps one of the most colorful. Hans, the father of Ulrich, was prominent in city affairs in St. Gallen in the early 15th century. Ulrich entered public affairs in the early 1460s and attained the various offices and honours that are available to a talented and ambitious man. He demonstrated fine qualities as field commander of the St. Gallen troops in the Burgundian Wars.

In the Battle of Grandson (1476) his troops were part of the advance units of the Confederation and took part in their famous attack. A large painting of Ulrich returning triumphantly to a hero's welcome in St. Gallen is still displayed in St. Gallen.

After the war, Varnbüler often represented St. Gallen at the various parliaments of the Confederation. In December 1480, Varnbüler was offered the position of mayor for the first time. From that time on, he served in several leadership positions and was considered the city's intellectual and political leader.

According to Vadian, who understood his contemporaries well, "Ulrich was a very intelligent, observant, and eloquent man who enjoyed the trust of the citizenry to a high degree."

His reputation among the Confederates was also substantial. However, in the late 1480s, he became involved in a conflict that was to have serious negative consequences for him and for the city. In 1463, Ulrich Rösch had assumed the management of the abbey of Saint Gall. He was an ambitious prelate, whose goal was to return the abbey to prominence by every possible means, following the losses of the Appenzell War.

His restless ambition offended the political and material interests of his neighbours. When he arranged for the help of the Pope and the Emperor to carry out a plan to move the abbey to Rorschach on Lake Constance, he encountered stiff resistance from the St. Gallen citizenry, other clerics, and the Appenzell nobility in the Rhine Valley, who were concerned for their holdings.

At this point, Varnbüler entered the conflict against the prelate. He wanted to restrain the increase of the abbey's power and at the same time increase the power of the town that had been restricted in its development. For this purpose he established contact with farmers and Appenzell residents (led by the fanatical Hermann Schwendiner) who were seeking an opportunity to weaken the abbot.

Initially, he protested to the abbot and the representatives of the four sponsoring Confederate cantons (Zürich, Lucerne, Schwyz, and Glarus) against the construction of the new abbey in Rorschach. Then on 28 July 1489 he had armed troops from St. Gallen and Appenzell destroy the buildings already under construction, an attack known as the Rorschacher Klosterbruch.

When the Abbot complained to the Confederates about the damage and demanded full compensation, Ulrich responded with a countersuit, and in cooperation with Schwendiner rejected the arbitration efforts of the non-partisan Confederates. He motivated the clerics from Wil to Rorschach to abandon their loyalty to the abbey and spoke against the abbey at a meeting of the townspeople at Waldkirch, where the popular league was formed. He was confident that the four sponsoring cantons would not intervene with force, due to the prevailing tensions between the Confederation and the Swabian League. He was strengthened in his resolve when the people of St. Gallen re-elected him as their highest magistrate in 1490.

Invasion of 1490
Ulrich Varnbüler had made a serious miscalculation. In early 1490, the four cantons decided to carry out their duty to the abbey and to invade the St. Gallen canton with an armed force. The people of Appenzell and the local clerics submitted to this force without significant resistance, while the city of St. Gallen braced itself for a fight to the finish. However, when they learned that their compatriots had given up the fight, they lost confidence, and they agreed to a settlement that greatly restricted the city's power and burdened the city with serious penalties and reparation payments.

Ulrich, overwhelmed by the responsibility for his political decisions, panicked in the face of the approaching enemy who wanted him apprehended. His life was in great danger, and he was forced to escape from the city disguised as a messenger. He made his way to Lindau and to Innsbruck and the court of King Maximilian. The victors confiscated those of his properties that lay outside of the city of St. Gallen and banned him from the Confederation. Ulrich then appealed to the imperial court (as did Schwendiner, who had fled with him) for the return of his property.

The suit had the support of Friedrich II and Maximilian and the trial threatened to drag on for years: it was continued by Ulrich's sons Hans and Ulrich after his death in 1496, and eventually the Varnbülers regained their properties. However, other political ramifications resulted from the court action, because the Confederation gained ownership of the city of St. Gallen and rejected the inroads of the empire. Thus, the conflict strengthened the relationship between the Confederation and the city of St. Gallen. On the other hand, the matter deepened the alienation between Switzerland and the German Holy Roman Empire, which eventually led to a total separation after the Swabian War.

Despite the unpropitious end of his career, Ulrich Varnbüler is immortalized in a famous woodcut by Albrecht Dürer, which is now part of the Smithsonian Institution's woodcut collection in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.

Among Varnbüler's sons, the eldest (Hans/Johann) became the mayor of Lindau. He is the patriarch of the Baden and Württemberg Varnbülers.

Reformation
Starting in 1526 then-mayor and humanist Joachim von Watt (Vadian) introduced the Protestant Reformation into St. Gallen. The town converted to the new religion while the abbey remained Roman Catholic. While iconoclastic riots forced the monks to flee the city and remove images from the city's churches, the fortified abbey remained untouched. The abbey would remain a Catholic stronghold in the Protestant city until 1803.

Modern history
In 1798 Napoleon invaded the Old Swiss Confederation, destroying the Ancien Régime. Under the Helvetic Republic both the abbey and the city lost their power and were combined with Appenzell into the Canton of Säntis. The Helvetic Republic was widely unpopular in Switzerland and was overthrown in 1803. Following the Act of Mediation the city of St. Gallen became the capital of the Protestant Canton of St. Gallen.

One of the first acts of the new canton was to suppress the abbey. The monks were driven from the abbey; the last abbot died in Muri in 1829. In 1846 a rearrangement in the local dioceses made St. Gall a separate diocese, with the abbey church as its cathedral and a portion of the monastic buildings designated the bishop's residence.

Gustav Adolf IV, former king of Sweden, spent the last years of his life in St. Gallen, and died there in 1837.

In the 15th century, St. Gallen became known for producing quality textiles. In 1714, the zenith was reached with a yearly production of 38,000 pieces of cloth. The first depression occurred in the middle of the 18th century, caused by strong foreign competition and reforms in methods of cotton production. But St. Gallen recovered and an even more prosperous era arrived.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the first embroidery machines were developed in St. Gallen. In 1910 the embroidery production constituted the largest export branch (18% of the total export value) in Switzerland and more than half of the worldwide production of embroidery originated in St. Gallen. One fifth of the population of the eastern part of Switzerland was involved with the textile industry. However, World War I and the Great Depression caused another severe crisis for St. Gallen embroidery. Only in the 1950s did the textile industry recover somewhat. Nowadays, because of competition and the prevalence of computer-operated embroidery machines, only a reduced textile industry has survived in St. Gallen; but its embroidered textiles are still popular with Parisian haute couture designers.

Topography
St. Gallen is situated in the northeastern part of Switzerland in a valley about 700 m above sea level. It is one of the highest cities in Switzerland and thus receives abundant winter snow. The city lies between Lake Constance and the mountains of the Appenzell Alps (with the Säntis as the highest peak at 2502 m). It therefore offers excellent recreation areas nearby.

As the city center is built on an unstable turf ground (its founder Gallus was looking for a site for a hermitage, not for a city), all buildings on the valley floor must be built on piles. For example, the entire foundation of the train station and its plaza are based on hundreds of piles.

St. Gallen has an area,, of 39.38 km2. Of this area, 27.7% is used for agricultural purposes, while 28.2% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 42.1% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (1.9%) is non-productive (rivers or lakes).

Climate
St. Gallen has a humid continental climate (Dfb) with short, warm summers and long, moderately cold winters. Precipitation is very high year round. St. Gallen has a very cloudy climate.

Between 1981 and 2010 St. Gallen had an average of 141 days of rain or snow per year and on average received 1248 mm of precipitation. The wettest month was July during which time St. Gallen received an average of 172 mm of rain. During this month there was precipitation for an average of 13.8 days. The month with the most days of precipitation were June and July May. The driest month of the year was February with an average of 57 mm of precipitation over 9.1 days.

Radioactivity
St. Gallen is notable for reporting the highest maximum radioactivity measurements of any Swiss city, as published in the 2009 yearly report by the Federal Office of Public Health. While the daily average level of gamma-ray radioactivity in the city is unremarkable at 105 nSv/h, the maximum can reach 195 nSv/h, as high as the average for Jungfraujoch, the location with the highest reported level of radioactivity in Switzerland, due to its high elevation and therefore greater exposure to cosmic rays. The same report explains that the unusually high spikes of radioactivity measured in St. Gallen are due to radioactive products of radon gas being washed to the ground during heavy storms, but does not explain where the sufficient quantities of radon gas and its products to account for the anomaly would come from. The yearly report for 2009 on risks associated with radon published by the same governmental agency shows St. Gallen to lie in an area of the lowest level of radon exposure. In addition to the measured gamma-radiation, the city may be subject to radioactive tritium pollution in Teufen, a satellite town situated 4 km south of the city in the canton of Appenzell Outer Rhodes (this pollution is also covered in the report).

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Argent a Bear rampant Sable langued and in his virility Gules and armed and gorged Or.

Government
The City Council (Stadtrat) constitutes the executive government of the City of St. Gallen and operates as a collegiate authority. It is composed of five councilors (Stadtrat/ Stadträtin), each presiding over a directorate. The president of the presidential directorate acts as mayor (Stadtpräsident). In the mandate period 2017–2020 (Legislatur) the City Council is presided by Stadtpräsidentin Maria Pappa. Departmental tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by the City Parliament are carried by the City Council. The regular election of the City Council by any inhabitant valid to vote is held every four years. Any resident of St. Gallen allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the City Council. The current mandate period is from 1 January 2021 to 31 December 2024. The mayor is elected as such by public election by means of a system of Majorz, while the heads of the other directorates are assigned by the collegiate. The delegates are elected by means of a system of Majorz.

, St. Gallen's City Council is made up of two representatives of the SP (Social Democratic Party) of which one is the mayor, one member of the FDP (FDP.The Liberals), one of the GLP (Green Liberal Party), and one independent. The last regular election was held on 27 September 2020.

Manfred Linke is City Chancellor (Stadtschreiber) since for the City Chancellary.

Parliament
The City Parliament (Stadtparlament) holds legislative power. It is made up of 63 members, with elections held every four years. The City Parliament decrees regulations and by-laws that are executed by the City Council and the administration. The delegates are selected by means of a system of proportional representation (Proporz).

The sessions of the City Parliament are public. Unlike members of the City Council, members of the City Parliament are not politicians by profession, and they are paid a fee based on their attendance. Any resident of St. Gallen allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the City Parliament. The parliament holds its meetings in the Waaghaus once a week on Tuesdays.

The last regular election of the City Parliament was held on 27 September 2020 for the mandate period (Legislatur) from January 2021 to December 2024. Currently the City Parliament consists of 17 members of the Social Democratic Party (SP/PS) and one of its junior section, the JUSO, 11 The Liberals (FDP/PLR), 8 Green Liberal Party (GLP/PVL), 8 Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC), 8 Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC), 7 Green Party (GPS/PES) and 1 of its junior section, the JungeGr, one representative of the Evangelical People's Party (EVP), and one member of the Politische Frauengruppe (PFG) (Political Women Group).

National Council
In the 2019 federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the PS which received 24.4% (-3.8) of the vote. The next five most popular parties were the Green Party (17.5%, +8.3), the SVP (16.5%, -4.6), FDP (14.4%, +0.1), the CVP (12.6%, +0.4), and the GLP (10.9%, +4.4). In the federal election a total of 18,821 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 42.9%.

In the 2015 election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the SPS which received 28.1% of the vote. The next five most popular parties were the SVP (21.1%), the FDP (14.3%), the CVP (12.2%), the GPS (9.2%), and the GLP (6.6%). In the federal election, a total of 20,768 voters were cast, and the voter turnout was 46.0%.

International relations
St. Gallen is twinned with:

Population
St. Gallen has a population (as of ) of. , about 31.4% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. The population has grown at 4.4% per year. Most of the population speaks German (83.0%), with Italian being second most common (3.7%) and Serbo-Croatian being third (3.7%). Of the Swiss national languages, 60,297 speak German, 575 people speak French, 2,722 people speak Italian, and 147 people speak Romansh.

The age distribution,, in St. Gallen is: 6,742 (9.3%) between 0 and 9 years old; 7,595 (10.5%) between 10 and 19; 12,574 (17.3%) between 20 and 29; 11,735 (16.2%) between 30 and 39; 9,535 (13.1%) between 40 and 49; 8,432 (11.6%) between 50 and 59; 6,461 (8.9%) between 60 and 69; 5,633 (7.8%) between 70 and 79; 3,255 (4.5%) between 80 and 89; 655 (0.9%) between 90 and 99; 9 people (0.0%) aged 100 or more.

there were 16,166 people (22.3%) who were living alone in private dwellings; 17,137 (or 23.6%) who were part of a couple (married or otherwise committed) without children, and 27,937 (or 38.5%) who were part of a couple with children. There were 4,533 (or 6.2%) people who lived in single parent home, while there are 419 persons who were adult children living with one or both parents, 475 persons who lived in a household made up of relatives, 2,296 who lived household made up of unrelated persons, and 3,663 who are either institutionalized or live in another type of collective housing.

Historical population
The historical population is given in the following table:

Economy
, St. Gallen had an unemployment rate of 2.69%. , there were 336 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 95 businesses involved in this sector. 11,227 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 707 businesses in this sector. 48,729 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 4,035 businesses in this sector. the average unemployment rate was 4.5%. There were 4857 businesses in the municipality of which 689 were involved in the secondary sector of the economy while 4102 were involved in the third. there were 28,399 residents who worked in the municipality, while 8,927 residents worked outside St. Gallen and 31,543 people commuted into the municipality for work.

Helvetia Insurance is a major company headquartered in St. Gallen.

Religion
According to the, 31,978 or 44.0% are Roman Catholic, while 19,578 or 27.0% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there are 112 individuals (or about 0.15% of the population) who belong to the Christian Catholic faith, there are 3,253 individuals (or about 4.48% of the population) who belong to the Orthodox Church, and there are 1,502 individuals (or about 2.07% of the population) who belong to another Christian church. There are 133 individuals (or about 0.18% of the population) who are Jewish, and 4,856 (or about 6.69% of the population) who are Muslim. There are 837 individuals (or about 1.15% of the population) who belong to another church (not listed on the census), 7,221 (or about 9.94% of the population) belong to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 3,156 individuals (or about 4.35% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education
St. Gallen is known for its business school, now named the University of St. Gallen (HSG). It was ranked as the top business school in Europe by Wirtschaftswoche, a weekly German business news magazine and is highly ranked by several other sources. Recently, HSG has been building a reputation for Executive Education, with its International MBA recognised as one of Europe's leading programmes, and runs a PhD programme. HSG is a focused university that offers degrees in business and management, economics, political science and international relations as well as business law. The Master in Management course was Ranked number 1 in 2014 by The Financial Times ahead of HEC Paris. It is comparatively small, with about 6,500 students enrolled at present, has both EQUIS and AACSB accreditations, and is a member of CEMS (Community of European Management Schools). The university maintains student and faculty exchange programs around the world. The University of St. Gallen is also famous for its high density of clubs. Particularly well known is the International Students’ Committee, which has organised the St. Gallen Symposium for over forty years. The St. Gallen Symposium is the leading student-run economic conference of its kind worldwide and aims to foster the dialogue between generations.

St. Gallen's state school system contains 64 kindergartens, 21 primary schools and 7 secondary schools and about 6,800 students. In addition to the state system, St. Gallen is home to the Institut auf dem Rosenberg — an élite boarding school attracting students from all over the world. The Institut provides an education in English, German and Italian and prepares the students to enter: American, British, Swiss, Italian, German and other European university programmes.

The canton's Gewerbliches Berufs- und Weiterbildungszentrum is the largest occupational school in Switzerland with over 10,000 students and various specialty institutes. One for example, the GBS Schule für Gestaltung teaches students design fundamentals in the practice of graphic design. The school is located in Riethüsli, a small section of the city of St. Gallen.

In St. Gallen about 68.8% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Out of the total population in St. Gallen,, the highest education level completed by 15,035 people (20.7% of the population) was Primary, while 27,465 (37.8%) have completed their secondary education, 10,249 (14.1%) have attended a Tertiary school, and 2,910 (4.0%) are not in school. The remainder did not answer this question.

Culture and sightseeing
After the years of Gallus' death, the place became one of the centers of Germanic culture. This is because of the creative works of the monks who followed the footsteps of the city's founder Gallus. This resulted to numerous heritage sites of national significance of the country.

In 1992, St. Gallen was awarded the Wakker Prize for the city's effort to create a unified structure and appearance in current and future construction.

Heritage sites of national significance
There are 28 sites in St. Gallen that are listed as Swiss heritage sites of national significance, including four religious buildings; the Abbey of St. Gallen, the former Dominican Abbey of St. Katharina, the Reformed Church of St. Laurenzenkirche and the Roman Catholic parish church of St. Maria Neudorf.

There are six museums or archives in the inventory. This includes the Textile museum, the Historical and ethnographical museum, the Cantonal library and city archives, the Art and Natural History museum, the Museum in Lagerhaus and the St. Gallen State Archive. The entire city of St. Gallen is the only archeological heritage site. Two bridges are listed, the Eisenbahnbrücke BT (railroad bridge) and the Kräzern-Strassenbrücke with a custom house.

The twelve other sites include the main train station, main post office, University of St. Gallen, Cantonal School, City Theatre and two towers; the Lokremise with Wasserturm and the Tröckneturm.

Theatre

 * In the modern and somewhat extravagant building of the Theater St. Gallen operas, operettas, ballet, musicals and plays are performed. It has an average utilization of nearly 80 percent.
 * Since 2006 a series of open-air operas have been performed in front of the Cathedral starting around the last weekend of June.
 * In the nearby concert hall, Tonhalle St. Gallen, with its grand art nouveau style, all sorts of concerts (classic, symphony, jazz etc.) are given.

Museums

 * Historical and ethnographical museum (collections of regional early history, city history, folk art, cultural history as well ethnographical collections from all over the world)
 * Art museum (painting and sculptures from the 19th and 20th century)
 * St. Gallen art gallery (national and international modern art)
 * Natural history museum (natural history collection)
 * Museum in the storehouse (Swiss native art and art brut)
 * Textile museum (historical laces, embroidery and cloth)
 * Lapidarium of the abbey (building blocks from 8th to 17th century)
 * Point Jaune museum (Mail Art, Postpostism, 'Pataphysics)
 * Beer bottle museum (located at the Schützengarten brewery—the oldest brewery in Switzerland)

Music

 * The symphony orchestra St. Gallen performs as the Orchestra of the City Theatre, presents numerous symphony concerts in the City Concert Hall.
 * During the summer open-air opera and various concerts are performed at numerous locations in town.
 * The well known St. Gallen Open Air Festival takes place in the nearby Sitter Valley the first weekend in July.
 * St. Gallen is home to the Nordklang Festival, which takes place in February.

Buildings

 * Drei Weieren (three artificial water basins from the zenith of the textile industry with art nouveau-bath houses; reachable by the Mühleggbahn (train) from 1893). The Drei Weieren is a water park by day and a gathering place for young people by night. This results in many complaints by people who live in the vicinity about noise, drug abuse and vandalism. Locals jokingly call the three basins "Lakes with the most THC in the country". The young people who spend their time there claim that the Drei Weieren is a place where they can spend their time in a consumer-free environment.
 * Convent of St. Gall with the famous library and abbey (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
 * Greek Orthodox Church of St.Constantine and Helena, Athonite icons and a stained glass window of the Last Judgement.
 * Wegelin & Co., the oldest bank in Switzerland, founded in 1741
 * Tröckneturm Schönenwegen; the tower was built 1828 and was used to hang up freshly colored cloth panels for drying.
 * Protestant church Linsebühl, an impressive new renaissance building dating from 1897
 * University of St. Gallen (HSG; University for Business Administration, Economics and Law with an excellent reputation in the German-speaking world), founded 1898.
 * Embroidery exchange, splendid building with the god of trade Hermes on its roof.
 * Volksbad, the oldest public bathhouse still in operation in Switzerland dating from 1908.
 * Catholic church of St. Martin in the Bruggen district; the concrete church built in 1936 was at that time glaringly modern.
 * 1992 the city of St. Gallen received the Wakker Prize.
 * Stadtlounge (City Lounge) – a pedestrian area in the city center designed to represent a lounge room, but in the street.
 * Synagogue St. Gallen – Built by the architects Chiodera and Tschudy, it is the only synagogue in the Lake Constance region that has been preserved in its original state.

Parks

 * Wildlife park Peter and Paul
 * City park at the theater
 * Cantonal school park

Regular events

 * The St. Gallen Symposium attracts about 600 personalities from economics, science, politics and society to the University of St. Gallen every year. It hosts the world's largest student essay competition of its kind with about 1,000 participants, of whom the 100 best contributions are selected to participate in the St. Gallen Symposium. The Symposium celebrated its 40th anniversary in May 2010.
 * OLMA, traditional Swiss Fair for Agriculture and Nutrition in autumn as well as numerous other exhibitions at the OLMA Fairs St. Gallen.
 * OpenAir St. Gallen is an annual open air festival in the Sitter Valley.
 * Children's Feast, a triennial observance, originally a product of the textile industry.
 * Nordklang Festival takes place in multiple sites around St. Gallen.

Sport

 * The football club FC St. Gallen play in the Swiss Super League. They are the oldest football club in Switzerland and oldest in continental Europe, founded in 1879. Their stadium is the kybunpark.
 * The football club SC Brühl play in the 1. Liga Promotion. Their stadium is the Paul-Grüninger-Stadion.
 * EHC St. Gallen plays in the Swiss Second League, the fourth tier of Swiss ice hockey.
 * The Rugby Club St. Gallen Bishops (Men) was founded in 1990 and Cindies (Women) in 2014. They play at the Grundenmoos sports fields.

Transportation
The large urban area Zürich is 80 km south-west of St. Gallen, a 60-minute drive or train ride (ICN train).

Road transportation
The A1 motorway links St. Gallen with St. Margrethen, Zürich, Bern and Geneva. In 1987 the city motorway was opened, which conveys the traffic through two tunnels (Rosenberg and Stefanshorn) almost directly below the city center.

Air transportation
The Airport St. Gallen-Altenrhein, near Lake of Constance, provides scheduled airline flights to Vienna and other destinations.

By rail and tram
St. Gallen railway station is part of the national Swiss Federal Railways network and has InterCity connections to Zürich and the Zurich Airport every half-hour. St. Gallen is the hub for many private railways such as the Südostbahn (SOB), connecting St. Gallen with Lucerne, the Appenzeller Bahnen, which operates the Appenzell–St. Gallen–Trogen railway, connecting to Appenzell and Trogen, and also serves as a tram in downtown.

By bus
The city has a dense local bus system, including the city's trolleybus network, which is operated by the VBSG and is well established on the valley floor, but less so on the hills. As St. Gallen is located near the Appenzell mountain area, it offers also many Postauto (post bus) connections. The agglomeration also has its own St. Gallen S-Bahn system (overground local trains).

Expansion - St. Gallen 2013
The "St. Gallen 2013" project aimed to improve local rail services, with infrastructure upgrades and new rolling stock. By December 2013, S-Bahn services would run on six lines, at intervals of 15 to 30 minutes.

Early times

 * Joachim Vadian (1484–1551), humanist, scholar, mayor and reformer in St. Gallen
 * Johannes Zollikofer (1633–1692), reformed vicar
 * Georg Gsell (1673–1740), Baroque painter, art consultant and art dealer
 * Michael Schlatter (1716–1790), American German Reformed clergyman
 * Rev. John Joachim Zubly (1724–1781), American pastor, planter and statesman during the American Revolution
 * Adrian Zingg (1734–1816), painter, draftsman, etcher and engraver
 * Prof Christopher Girtanner FRSE (1760–1800), author, physician and chemist
 * Johann Baptist Isenring (1796–1860), landscape painter, printer and Daguerrotypist

19th century

 * Gall Morel (1803–1872), poet, scholar, aesthete and educationist
 * Arnold Otto Aepli (1816–1897), jurist and statesman, President of the Swiss Council of States 1868–1869
 * Johann Jakob Weilenmann (1819–1896), mountaineer and Alpine writer
 * Karl Hoffmann (1820–1895), politician, President of the Swiss Council of States, 1877–1878 and 1889–1890
 * Ernst Götzinger (1837–1896), Germanist and historian
 * Alphonse Bory (1838–1891), politician, President of the Swiss Council of States 1886–1887
 * Johannes Dierauer (1842–1920), historian and librarian of the Stadtbibliothek Vadiana
 * Samuel Oettli (1846–1911), Protestant theologian
 * Adolf Schlatter (1852–1938), Protestant theologian and professor of the New Testament
 * Arthur Hoffmann (1857–1927), politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council 1911–1917
 * Robert Emden (1862–1940), astrophysicist and meteorologist
 * Julius Billeter (1869–1957), genealogist and Mormon missionary
 * Ernst Rüdin (1874–1952), German psychiatrist, geneticist, eugenicist and Nazi
 * Martha Cunz (1876–1961), artist and printmaker, mastered the modernist woodcut
 * Joseph Joos (1878–1965), German intellectual, politician and MP in Weimar, lived in St. Gallen 1960–1965
 * Franz Riklin (1878–1938), psychiatrist
 * Otto Schlaginhaufen (1879–1973), aanthropologist, ethnologist and eugenicist
 * Heinrich Greinacher (1880–1974), physicist
 * Fritz Platten (1883–1942), Communist politician
 * Regina Ullmann (1884–1961), poet and storyteller
 * Paul Scherrer (1890–1969), physicist, proponent of Switzerland developing its own nuclear weapons
 * Karl Kobelt (1891–1968), politician, President of the Confederation in 1946 and 1952
 * Paul Grüninger (1891–1972), police captain, Righteous Among the Nations
 * Charles Stoffel (1893–1970), bobsledder and equestrian
 * Walter Mittelholzer (1894–1937), aviation pioneer, pilot, photographer and travel writer
 * Ottó Misángyi (1895–1977), Hungarian athletics coach, sports official and university professor
 * Thomas Holenstein (1896–1962), politician, member of the Swiss Federal Council 1955–1959

20th century

 * Jolanda Neff (born 1993), cross-country cyclist
 * Berta Rahm (1910–1998), architect, writer, publisher and feminist activist
 * Bärbel Inhelder (1913–1997), psychologist and epistemologist
 * Peter Maag (1919–2001), conductor
 * Walter Roderer (1920–2012), actor and screenwriter
 * Kurt Furgler (1924–2008), politician, member of the Swiss Federal Council 1972–1986
 * Fred Iklé (1924–2011), sociologist and defense expert
 * Fred Hayman (1925–2016), American fashion retailer and entrepreneur
 * Hansrudi Wäscher (1928–2016), Swiss-German comics artist and comics author
 * Peter Hildebrand Meienberg (1929–2021), Benedictine Missionary
 * Ines Torelli (1931–2019), comedian, radio personality and actress
 * Max Meier (born 1936), boxer
 * Hugo Tschirky (1938–2020), scientist in the field of management science
 * Hans Eugen Frischknecht (born 1939), composer and organist
 * Niklaus Meienberg (1940–1993), writer and investigative journalist
 * Ruth Dreifuss (born 1940), politician, member of the Swiss Federal Council 1993–2002
 * Dieter Mobius (1944–2015), German electronic musician and composer
 * Daniel Thürer (born 1945), jurist and law professor
 * Karl Ammann (born 1948), conservationist and wildlife photographer
 * Josef Flammer (born 1948), ophthalmologist
 * Paola del Medico (born 1950), singer
 * Christophe Boesch (1951–2024), primatologist
 * Peter Liechti (1951–2014), movie director
 * René Tinner (born 1953), recording engineer and producer
 * Hans Fässler (born 1954), historian, politician and satirical revue artist
 * Simone Drexel (born 1957), singer and songwriter
 * Susan Boos (born 1963), journalist
 * Michael Hengartner (born 1966), Swiss-Canadian biochemist and molecular biologist
 * Prince Maximilian of Liechtenstein (born 1969), CEO of the LGT Group
 * Monika Fischer (born 1971), photographer of portrait projects
 * Maria Pappa (born 1971), politician
 * Marco Zwyssig (born 1971), footballer
 * Aurelia Frick (born 1975), Liechtensteiner politician
 * David Philip Hefti (born 1975), composer and conductor
 * Dominik Meichtry (born 1984), swimmer
 * Tranquillo Barnetta (born 1985), footballer
 * Nevin Galmarini (born 1986), snowboarder, Olympic winner
 * Linda Fäh (born 1987), model and beauty pageant titleholder, Miss Switzerland 2009
 * Kevin Fiala (born 1996), ice hockey player

title: St. Gallen


text:
Carranza

Carranza may refer to:

Europe

 * Carança river in the Pyrenees
 * Carranza river, a tributary of the Asón (river)
 * Karrantza, a town in Biscay, northern Spain

North America

 * Monclova International Airport, also known as Carranza International Airport, in Coahuila, Mexico
 * Venustiano Carranza, Baja California, Mexico
 * Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas, Mexico
 * Venustiano Carranza, Mexico City, Mexico
 * Venustiano Carranza, Michoacán, Mexico
 * Carranza, a barrio in Uruca District, San José, Costa Rica

South America

 * Adolfo E. Carranza, a village in Catamarca, Argentina
 * Luis Carranza District, a district in La Mar, Peru
 * Ministro Carranza (Buenos Aires Underground), a line and station on the Buenos Aires Underground, Argentina

Landmarks

 * Carranza Lighthouse, a lighthouse and landmark in Chile
 * Carranza Memorial, a monument in Wharton State Forest, New Jersey
 * Carranza Museum, a museum in Mexico City
 * Estadio Venustiano Carranza, in Morelia, Mexico
 * Estadio Ramón de Carranza, in Cádiz, Spain
 * Estadio Francisco Carranza Limón, in Guasave, Mexico
 * José León de Carranza Bridge, a bridge located in Cádiz, Spain

Other uses

 * Carranza (surname)
 * Carranza Sports Club, a soccer team from Madrid, Spain
 * A fictional tequila tycoon family in the television series Monarca

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Carranza


text:
Leo II, King of Armenia

Leo II or Leon II (occasionally numbered Leo III; Լէոն Բ, Levon II; c. 1236 – 1289) was king of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, ruling from 1269 /1270 to 1289. He was the son of King Hetoum I and Queen Isabella and was a member of the House of Lampron.

Early life
Leo was born in 1236, the son of King Hetoum I and Queen Isabella. Hetoum and Isabella's marriage in 1226 had been forced on them by Hetoum's father Constantine of Baberon, who had cleared the way for Hetoum by arranging the murder of Queen Isabella's first husband. They had six children, of which Leo was the eldest. One of his sisters was Sibylla of Armenia, who was married to Bohemond VI of Antioch to bring peace between Armenia and Antioch.

In 1262, Leo married Keran (Kir Anna), the daughter of Prince Hetoum of Lampron. Thus, he solidified himself as a member of the House of Lampron.

In 1266, while their father king Hetoum I was away to visit the Mongol court, Leo and his younger brother Thoros fought to repel a massive army of Mamluk invaders, at the Battle of Mari. Thoros was killed in combat, and Leo was captured and imprisoned. Following the disaster, the cities of Adana, Tarsus, and Ayas were assaulted and the capital of Sis was sacked and burnt. Thousands of Armenians were massacred and 40,000 taken captive. When King Hetoum returned, he paid a large ransom to retrieve his son, including a large quantity of money, handing over several fortresses, and accepting to intercede with the Mongol ruler Abagha in order to have one of Baybars's relatives freed.

Reign
Hetoum I abdicated in 1269 in favour of his son, and entered the Franciscan order. He died a year later. The new king Leo II was known as a pious king, devoted to Christianity. He pursued active commercial relations with the West, by renewing trade agreements with the Italians and establishing new ones with the Catalans. He also endeavoured to reinforce the Mongol alliance, as his father Hetoum I had submitted Armenia to Mongol authority in 1247.

In 1271, Marco Polo visited the Armenian harbour of Ayas and commented favourably about Leo's reign and the abundance of the country, although he mentions his military forces were rather demoralized:

""The king [Leo II] properly maintains justice in his land, and is a vassal of the Tartars. There are many cities and villages, and everything in abundance.(...) In the past, men were courageous at war, but today they are vile and chetive, and don't have other talents than drink properly.""

- Marco Polo "Le Livre des Merveilles"

In 1275, the Mamluk sultan Baybars invaded Cilicia for a second time. The following year, Armenia fought off an invasion by the Turkoman tribes, but the Constable Sempad, Leo's uncle, was killed in combat.

Mongol alliance
In 1281, Leo joined the Mongols in their invasion of Syria, but they were vanquished at the Second Battle of Homs. Leo had to sue for peace, and in 1285 obtained a 10-year truce in exchange for important territorial concessions in favour of the Mamluks.

Leo died in 1289 from arsenic, and was succeeded by his son Hetoum II.

Descendants
During twenty-one years of marriage Leo had sixteen children by his wife Keran, ten sons and six daughters. Five of his children reached the throne. The eldest, Hethum II of Armenia, abdicated after four years in favor of his younger brother Thoros III of Armenia, but was placed back on the throne in 1294. In 1296, their brother Sempad of Armenia blinded Hetoum and in 1298 he strangled Thoros, in order to seize power. Sempad was then overthrown in 1298 by their younger brother Constantine I of Armenia, who was replaced by older brother Hethum II, who then abdicated in 1305 in favor of Thoros III's son Leo III of Armenia, who was murdered in 1307 with his uncle Hethum II at the hands of the Mongol general Bilarghu, being succeeded by one of the youngest surviving children of Leo and Keran, Oshin of Armenia. Eventually, the inheritance of the Armenian Kingdom was passed to the descendants of Leo and Keran's eldest surviving daughter Isabella of Armenia, wife of Amalric of Lusignan, Lord of Tyre.

 * 1) Son (b. 15 January 1262/14 January 1263 – d. young).
 * 2) Constantine (b. June 1265 – d. young).
 * 3) Fimi [Euphemia] (b. ca. 14 January 1266 – d. young).
 * 4) Hethum II (b. ca. 13 January 1267 – murdered 7 November 1307), King of Armenia (ruled 1289 to 1293, 1294 to 1297, 1299 to 1307).
 * 5) Isabella [Zabel] (b. 13 January 1269/12 January 1270 – d. bef. 1273).
 * 6) Thoros III (b. October 1270 – murdered 23 July 1298), King of Armenia (ruled 1293 to 1298).
 * 7) Ruben (b. 13 January 1272/12 January 1273 – d. young)
 * 8) Isabella [Zabel] (b. 12 January 1273/11 January 1274 – d. bef. 1276)
 * 9) Sempad (b. 12 January 1276/11 January 1277 – d. 1310 or 1311), King of Armenia (ruled 1297 to 1299).
 * 10) Isabella [Zabel] (b. 12 January 1276/11 January 1277 – murdered May 1323), twin with Sempad; married in 1293 with Amalric of Lusignan, Lord of Tyre, son of King Hugh III of Cyprus.
 * 11) Constantine I (b. 11 January 1277/10 January 1278 – d. aft. 1308), King of Armenia (ruled 1299).
 * 12) Rita (b. 11 January 1278/10 January 1279 – July 1333), renamed Maria upon her wedding; married in 1294 with Michael IX Palaeologus, co-Emperor of the Byzantine Empire with his father Andronicus II Palaeologus.
 * 13) Theophanu (b. 11 January 1278/10 January 1279 – d. 1296), twin with Rita; renamed Theodora upon her betrothal; she died en route to marry Theodore, son of John I Doukas, Lord of Thessaly.
 * 14) Nerses (b. 11 January 1279/10 Jan 1280 – d. 26 May 1301), a priest.
 * 15) Oshin (b. 10 January 1283/9 January 1284 – murdered 20 July 1320), King of Armenia (ruled 1308 to 1320).
 * 16) Alinakh (b. 10 January 1283/9 January 1284 – d. 28 August 1310), twin with Oshin; Lord of Lampron and Tarsus.

title: Leo II, King of Armenia


text:
International Pentecostal Church of Christ

The International Pentecostal Church of Christ (or IPCC) is an organization formed in 1976 by the merger of two Pentecostal organizations.

In 1907, Gaston B. Cashwell, called the Apostle of Pentecost in the South, founded a periodical called The Bridegroom's Messenger, in Atlanta, Georgia. About the same time, Paul and Hattie Barth started a church. The Barths became editors of The Bridegroom's Messenger. In 1918, they began Beulah Heights Bible School in Atlanta, and in 1921 they organized an association that became the International Pentecostal Assemblies.

John Stroup, a member of the Methodist Protestant Church, professed receiving the baptism of the Holy Ghost in 1908. Stroup was one of the first individuals to take the Pentecostal message into southern Ohio and parts of Kentucky. He organized the Pentecostal Church of Christ in Flatwoods, Kentucky in 1917. The body originally headquartered in Ashland, Kentucky, and later in London, Ohio.

In 1976, the International Pentecostal Assemblies and the Pentecostal Church of Christ merged to become the International Pentecostal Church of Christ. Headquarters are located in London, Ohio. The church operates two youth camps, and six departments - Education, Global Missions, Home Missions and Evangelism, Christian Education, National Youth, and Women's Ministries. Publications of the church are The Bridegroom's Messenger (considered the oldest Pentecostal periodical in the world) and The Pentecostal Leader, a training magazine.

Doctrines are detailed in a 19-article Statement of Faith ranging from the inspiration of the Scriptures to tithes and offerings. The IPCC is one of the only Pentecostal and Evangelical denominations to elevate the issue of racism to their statement of faith. The church holds two ordinances - water baptism by immersion, and holy communion. The denomination has two practices that are encouraged within the local church - foot washing, and child dedication. The body is Trinitarian, and, like many related bodies, holds that speaking in tongues is the initial evidence of the baptism of the Holy Ghost.

Its affiliations are with the Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches of North America, Pentecostal World Conference, a charter member of the National Association of Evangelicals, and the World Evangelical Fellowship.

In 2003, the denomination had 4,961 members in 67 churches. Nearly half of its congregations are located in Ohio. The rest are concentrated primarily in Kentucky, Virginia, West Virginia, and North Carolina.


text:
Talk:Safeway (UK)

Um... There are Safeways in the US and Canada, but I can't find any reference to them in this or any other article. -Montréalais 05:55, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * There is a reference in the 2nd sentence. They are also referred to from List_of_supermarkets ( 06:11, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I wondered what the connection was between the British and North American chains. While I could see that the company naming could have been coincidental, the fact that they both used the "Select" branding for their own goods seemed to be pushing coincidence too far. -- Derek Ross

UK Supermarket Competition Essay
I am doing an essay for my degree about competition in the UK supermarket industry. I am looking for people to comment on my work and help me find sources of information i.e. books and websites (would prefer websites) I need to some up in 2000 words what the competition in the last 20 and then 5 years of the industry was then what made it change etc. If any one has any help they can give at all please email me below (even if it just to recommend a good website)

Email: woodhousescotty@hotmail.co.uk

Thanks

Goodbye Safeway
Well, that's it, all the stores are now gone, at least here in the United Kingdom. If they think I'm going to shop at Morrisons, they've got another thing coming. Why pay the top price for stuff from them, when it's only the quality of what you can find for 75% less in Aldi, Lidl and all the other cheapo stores. Looks like i might give Tesco a try, or maybe even Adsa (they almost merged with Safeway in the late 1990s.. too bad they didn't!).

There are three Safeway stores left that have not had a complete Morrisons conversion: the computer systems have changed, and they supply Morrisons products, but still have Safeway layout and signs ( such as the pattern of green apples above fridges ). I know one is Bracknell, and there are two more, and all three are in the South East of England. I only know this because I used to work for Safeway - so am trying to find any sources that can verify this and indicate the other two stores. Until then, if anyone knows any more about this, or any citations that can be used, please write to say so. I am aware that their future is being decided within the next few months. Therefore there are still stores that have not been sold or converted. ( as of 15th May 2006 )

 * The store in Hexham is as you describe. Probably cos Tesco recently opened up across the road, after years of Safeway pussyfooting around about a new site, and they're waiting to see if the site is still viable.

84.9.151.25 21:05, 17 June 2006 (UTC) -Any idea which ones?
 * Correction, nine stores left. Two have been given closure dates.

Argyll brands
Something needs to be said about the rebranding programmes within the Argyll Group following the various takeovers. The Hintons outlets were rebranded as Presto (though some, e.g. North Shields, were closed as there was already a Presto store nearby). Later, all of the Presto stores were rebranded Safeway, and the Presto name disappeared within a few years.

To be honest though, I think all of the Argyll brands such as Hintons should be spun off into separate articles. (Some of the North East Morrisons stores have very chequered histories thanks to Argyll - I believe the now defunct Newcastle upon Tyne Greenmarket store was originally Hintons, then Presto, then Safeway, then finally Morrisons!) AdorableRuffian 23:51, 7 October 2006 (UTC)

 * The Green Market store was never Morrisons.

 * I suppose it never actually carried the Morrisons brand name on the outside of the store, but it was definitely Morrisonised internally - Morrisons carrier bags, Morrison product lines, etc. I was quite peeved when I went in to buy some lager not long after the takeover, and found Morrisons own brand swill in place of some of the specialty beers that Safeway used to carry! AdorableRuffian 12:09, 15 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Presto now how its own page and also a few texts about the Argyll brands, Hintons, Liptons etc. See Presto  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.230.166.222 (talk) 17:45, 9 February 2009 (UTC)

 * See also Lipton and Template:Defunct UK grocers. --Hroðulf (or Hrothulf) (Talk) 10:55, 10 February 2009 (UTC)

Loyalty cards
Wasn't Safeway the first UK supermarket to introduce loyalty cards, some time in the early 1990s? Not sure I saw anything mentioned about this in the article. Matthew 10:48, 21 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Ignore me - it's in the 'Project 2000' section; I had expected it to be in the early 1990s section. Matthew 10:51, 21 November 2006 (UTC)

Possible revival
Are Morrisons plc planning to revive Safeway inc, like Safeway did with Presto foodmarkets? Also, i can't quite remember but i have heard that a revival has been suggested? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.192.246.56 (talk) 16:44, 8 February 2009 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with File:Prestologo2.JPG
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 * That there is a non-free use rationale on the image's description page for the use in this article.
 * That this article is linked to from the image description page.

This is an automated notice by FairuseBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see Media copyright questions. --22:06, 4 March 2009 (UTC)

Home and Colonial?
Home and Colonial redirects here, but there's no discussion of it anywhere on the page. Could someone please fill this in? --94.194.57.14 (talk) 00:30, 9 June 2009 (UTC)

 * According to Seth, Andrew; Randall, Geoffrey (2001), The grocers, London: Kogan Page, pp. 103, ISBN 9780749435493, OCLC 59518437, "Allied Suppliers was formed by the 1929 merger of several long-established grocery chains. These included many famous names, such as Home and Colonial (see Introduction), Lipton's, and Maypole Dairies ..." Dormskirk (talk) 22:56, 9 June 2009 (UTC)

 * It now has its own article: see Home and Colonial Dormskirk (talk) 20:58, 10 June 2009 (UTC)

Safeway (UK) ??
If this piece is supposed to be about Safeway in the UK shouldn't it start back in 1962 rather than 1977? Instead it seems to be the history of the group that acquired the Safeway stores in 1977. Gwladys24 (talk) 12:22, 23 July 2009 (UTC)
 * I see your point; however I am not sure that the history of the UK branch of Safeway Inc. from 1962 to 1977 would be very interesting Dormskirk (talk) 22:19, 23 July 2009 (UTC)
 * This isn't immediately obvious in the intro/overview paragraph section though. I've added a brief paragraph to make it clearer the direction the article is coming from. Ubcule (talk) 20:43, 28 July 2009 (UTC)
 * I agree with all the comments above and have now established a separate article dealing with Argyll Foods. Please feel free to add to either article Dormskirk (talk) 23:31, 28 July 2009 (UTC)

Tie up with Abbey National
Safeway had a tie-up with the Abbey National (I think this included some in-store units possibly) to provide some saving products under the Safeway brand. After Morrison's take-over of Safeway brand accounts were transferred to Abbey National and then Santander. John a s (talk) 19:00, 20 September 2013 (UTC)

Factual inconsistency
"In 1987, Safeway Inc. put Safeway Food Stores up for sale" but lower down "KKR (the company which sold Safeway to Argyll in 1986)". For fairly obvious reasons these cannot both be correct. da nn o _ u k 15:12, 27 October 2014 (UTC)
 * I think it was 1987: I have amended accordingly. Dormskirk (talk) 19:49, 27 October 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified
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Bold lettering on A, B and C of abbreviation meaning
In my opinion, the first letters of the definition of the ABC loyalty card should be in bold as in my opinion it looks better as it stands out more. Xboxsponge15 (talk) 07:24, 21 March 2020 (UTC)
 * See MOS:BOLD for the uses of bold text supported by our Manual of Style. Just as importantly, note MOS:NOBOLD for why we wouldn't do this in the case you mention. Have a good weekend. Larry Hockett (Talk) 04:27, 22 March 2020 (UTC)

The link to the Safeway website at the end of the 'Partial brand revival' part of the article should be moved to the 'External links' tab
In my opinion, the link to the Safeway website at the end of the 'Partial brand revival' part of the article should be moved to the 'External links' tab in the article as in my opinion it looks strange in its current location. Xboxsponge15 (talk) 07:07, 21 January 2021 (UTC)

Logo
That, I presume, is the new logo of the brand, not the former chain of supermarkets. If the box is about Safeway PLC, that's not the logo. Secretlondon (talk) 00:13, 25 July 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Safeway (UK)


text:
USS Bridgeport

Three ships of the United States Navy have been named Bridgeport, after the city of Bridgeport, Connecticut.

 * USS Bridgeport (ID-3009 / AR-2 / AD-10), was originally the German passenger ship SS Breslau, seized during World War I and used as a troopship, then as a repair ship and a destroyer tender.
 * USS Bridgeport (PG-166), a Tacoma-class patrol frigate (originally patrol gunboat), was renamed Abilene (PF-58) on 28 June 1944.
 * USS Bridgeport (CA-127) was to have been an Oregon City-class cruiser heavy cruiser but construction was canceled on 12 August 1945.

title: USS Bridgeport


text:
User talk:Zero0000/Fuad

Fuad Moussa is a 27-year-old gay Palestinian man,, who grew up in Ramallah and is now living with his Jewish partner Ezra in Israel. They met 8 years ago and have been working together and sharing an apartment in Jerusalem for the past 4 years.

As a Palestinian Gay man living in Israel Fuad subjected to a double threat: in Palestine he is persecuted for his homosexuality and is in danger of being murdered by his family; in Israel he is being persecuted for being a Palestinian with neither an Israeli citizenship nor a permit to stay inside Israel.

Since the break of the second Intifada in September 2000 tens of thousands of Palestinian laborers had their entry permits into Israel revoked, leaving them exposed to constant threat of being detained and expelled. The Israeli police have begun profiling Palestinians, and on numerous occasions apprehended Fuad, detained him and deported him to Ramallah. Members of his family have stated in unequivocal terms that if he were to return they would kill him due to his sexual preference. Although this is known to the police, they have refused to change their course of action, ignoring the imminent danger to Fuad's life. Each time Fuad was deported, Ezra would drive to the Occupied Palestinians Territories in order to bring him back.

In the past month the police have been determined to hunt Fuad down and to deport him to the west bank permanently. He has been detained 6 times within a period of 2 weeks. Finally, during the last arrest, the police brought him to court at night, and in a swift legal procedure, a judge ruled that he either be imprisoned or be deported immediately and permanently to Ramallah. As a result of an appeal that was submitted by Ezra the following morning, the court put Fuad under house arrest in their one-bedroom apartment for an indeterminate period.

Fuad is a gay Palestinian who has chosen to live in Israel with his Jewish partner. It is within the power of the State of Israel to protect him from a possible death sentence and to allow his Israeli partner to live in the relationship he has chosen. Fuad Moussa's life can be saved with some public pressure. With one quick signature, the Israeli Interior Minister Avraham Poraz can grant Fuad a Jerusalem residency card, which would allow him to legally remain in the city. Israel's President Moshe Katzav can also ensure that such a card be issued.

title: User talk:Zero0000/Fuad


text:
Barnstable (village), Massachusetts

Barnstable is the name of one of the seven villages within the Town of Barnstable, Massachusetts, United States. The Village of Barnstable is located on the north side of the town, centered along "Old King's Highway" (Massachusetts Route 6A), and houses the County Complex of Barnstable County, a small business district, a working harbor, and several small beaches. The village is home to many small attractions, including Sturgis Library, the Olde Colonial Courthouse (now Tales of Cape Cod), the Barnstable Comedy Club, and the Trayser Museum.

The Sturgis Library was constructed in 1644 for the Reverend John Lothrop, founder of Barnstable. The building is one of the oldest houses remaining on Cape Cod. The house which forms the original part of the library is the oldest building housing a public library in the United States. Since Reverend Lothrop used the front room of the house for public worship, another distinction of the Sturgis Library is that it is the oldest structure still standing in America where religious services were regularly held. This room is now called "The Lothrop Room" and contains a beamed ceiling and pumpkin-colored wide-board floors that exemplify the quintessential early character of authentic Cape Cod houses.

The Olde Colonial Courthouse is one of the oldest courthouses in the United States. Built of wood, court proceedings of the King's Court were interrupted in 1774 by James Otis, Samuel Adams and 1,500 other protestors opposed to the King's bill of attainder that denied the right of colonists to a jury trial. As a result, the King's judge decided to cease holding cases. It served as a state courthouse until 1838. This courthouse in now a museum and hosts the "Tales of Cape Cod", a local tourist attraction.

The village is arguably the most historic village in Barnstable; it holds the homes of M. Hinkley, D.G. Bacon, F.D. Cobb, and several other homes dating from the mid-19th century. The area also holds the renowned Cummaquid Golf Club, the Barnstable Comedy Club and the Trayser Museum.

The Barnstable Comedy Club is the oldest and longest-running community theater in Massachusetts. The Trayser Museum is the former county custom house, which now houses a Coast Guard Heritage Museum. Also on the grounds of the museum is a jail, complete with inmates' graffiti. The jail dates back to 1690. Barnstable Village is also home to the Crocker Tavern, which was built around 1754 and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. The Crocker Tavern served as a stagecoach stop, an inn, and an important meeting place into the mid-19th century. Cornelius Crocker, one of the wealthiest men on the Cape, was the first keeper of the tavern. Under the stewardship of Crocker, the inn became the central meeting place for American patriots including James Otis prior to, and during, the Revolutionary War.

In his collection of short stories, Welcome to the Monkey House, author Kurt Vonnegut references Barnstable Village on more than one occasion. Vonnegut and his family lived in Barnstable, in a house overlooking Barnstable Harbor, from 1951 to 1971.

title: Barnstable (village), Massachusetts


text:
Safeway (disambiguation)

Safeway may refer to:

Supermarket chains

 * Safeway Inc., a grocery company in the United States
 * Safeway (Australia), a defunct Australian supermarket chain, which was a subsidiary of the American company and is now part of Woolworths Limited
 * Safeway (Canada), a former subsidiary of the American company and now a division of Sobeys
 * Safeway (Channel Islands), a defunct Channel Islands supermarket chain, which was a subsidiary of the UK Safeway plc and is now part of Waitrose
 * Safeway (UK), a defunct UK supermarket chain, which was a subsidiary of the American company
 * Safeway Stores (Ireland), a former Northern Ireland–based joint venture between Safeway plc and Fitzwilton Group

Other brands and enterprises

 * Safeway Insurance Group, a privately held insurance company in the United States
 * Safway Services, now known as BrandSafway, American construction services company
 * Safe-Way Bus Transit, Inc., a company which owns and runs fleets of American yellow school buses

People

 * Safeway Goya, American singer

title: Safeway (disambiguation)


text:
Light horse field ambulance

A light horse field ambulance was an Australian World War I military unit whose purpose was to provide medical transport and aid to the wounded and sick soldiers of an Australian Light Horse brigade.

Typically a Lieutenant Colonel commanded each ambulance. All officers of the ambulance were medical doctors or surgeons. Dental units were often attached to the ambulance as well.

An ambulance consisted of two sections, the Mobile and the Immobile. The Mobile Section travel with its brigade into combat, where it would establish a Dressing Station. It use stretchers or carts to retrieve the wounded and transport them to the Dressing Station. The Immobile Section established and operated a Receiving Station, which received the wounded the Dressing Station sent on. The ambulance's surgeons would operate on the wounded at the Receiving Station. From the Receiving Station, the sick and wounded would go first to the Casualty Clearing Station and ultimately to a Base Hospital.

Transport
The light horse field ambulances operated in the Middle East theatre: Egypt, the Sinai peninsula, Palestine and Syria. The methods used to transport the wounded had to operate effectively in the sandy, dusty environment.

 * Stretcher : As in infantry field ambulances, stretchers were used for transport over short distances, rough terrain or when enemy fire prevented the safe employment of bearer animals.

 * Cycle stretcher : These were unpopular and ineffective; after the Gaza battles the forces abandoned the use of cycle stretchers.

 * Sand cart : The mainstay of the transport section was the sand cart. It featured wide steel rims and was designed be able to carry three stretchers over soft sand. Six horses or mules provided the motive power. The sand cart was poorly suited to operating on the hard, rough ground of Palestine and Syria, and breakdowns were frequent.

 * Sand sledge : Used to transport one stretcher case over sand; two horses pulled the sledge.

 * Light ambulance wagon : Drawn by a four horse team, the light ambulance wagon was designed by Surgeon Colonel W.D.C. Williams. Wagons of this type were taken to Egypt by some of the field ambulance units during the early days of World War I.

 * Camel cacolet : The camel cacolet was used to carry wounded over long distances on rough terrain impassable to wheeled transport. There were two types of cacolet: the sitting and the lying down type. One camel would carry two patients, one on either side of the camel's hump.

title: Light horse field ambulance


text:
USS Attu

USS Attu (CVE-102) was a Casablanca-class escort carrier of the United States Navy. She was named after the Battle of Attu in the Aleutian Islands and was built for service during World War II. Launched in May 1944, and commissioned in June, she served as a transport carrier, ferrying aircraft, and as a replenishment carrier, supporting the Invasion of Iwo Jima and the Battle of Okinawa. Postwar, she participated in Operation Magic Carpet. She was decommissioned in June 1946, and sold for scrapping in January 1947. After a failed acquisition attempt by the Jewish Agency, she was ultimately scrapped in 1949.

Design and description

Attu was a Casablanca-class escort carrier, the most numerous type of aircraft carriers ever built, and designed specifically to be mass-produced using prefabricated sections, in order to replace heavy early war losses. Standardized with her sister ships, she was 512 ft long overall, had a beam of 65 ft, and a draft of 20 ft. She displaced 8188 LT standard, 10902 LT with a full load. She had a 257 ft long hangar deck and a 477 ft long flight deck. She was powered with two Skinner Unaflow reciprocating steam engines, which drove two shafts, providing 9000 hp, thus enabling her to make. The ship had a cruising range of 10240 nmi at a speed of 15 kn. Her compact size necessitated the installment of an aircraft catapult at her bow, and there were two aircraft elevators to facilitate movement of aircraft between the flight and hangar deck: one each fore and aft.

One 5 in/38 caliber dual-purpose gun was mounted on the stern. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by eight 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft guns in single mounts, as well as twelve 20 mm Oerlikon cannons, which were mounted around the perimeter of the deck. By the end of the war, Casablanca-class carriers had been modified to carry thirty 20-mm cannons, and the amount of 40-mm guns had been doubled to sixteen, by putting them into twin mounts. These modifications were in response to increasing casualties due to kamikaze attacks. Casablanca-class escort carriers were designed to carry 27 aircraft, but the hangar deck could accommodate more.

Construction
Her construction was awarded to Kaiser Shipbuilding Company, Vancouver, Washington under a Maritime Commission contract, on 18 June 1942. She was ordered under the name Elbour Bay (a misspelling of "Elbow Bay"), as part of a tradition which named escort carriers after bays or sounds in Alaska. She was renamed Attu, after the Battle of Attu, on 6 November 1943, as part of a new naval policy which named subsequent Casablanca-class carriers after naval or land engagements. The escort carrier was laid down on 16 March 1944, MC hull 1139, the forty-seventh of a series of fifty Casablanca-class escort carriers. She was launched on 27 May 1944; sponsored by Mrs. George W. Steele; transferred to the United States Navy and commissioned on 30 June 1944, with Captain Henry Fahnestock MacComsey in command.

World War II
Upon being commissioned, Attu underwent a shakedown cruise down the West Coast to San Diego. On 7 August, she departed San Diego, transporting aircraft and passengers to Pearl Harbor. She then took on another load of aircraft and personnel, and proceeded west, making stops at Guadalcanal and Espiritu Santo. Upon finishing her transport run, she got underway on her return trip on 31 August. She arrived at San Diego on 13 September, where overhaul was conducted. On 28 September, she sailed north to Alameda, California, where she loaded fuel, supplies, and replenishment aircraft.

She departed the West Coast on 1 October, bound for Finschhafen, New Guinea, arriving there on 18 October. She then stopped at Seeadler Harbor in Manus Island, before returning via Pearl Harbor back to Alameda. She departed yet again on 23 November, bound for Pearl Harbor. Upon arriving, she began ferrying supplies and troops between Pearl Harbor and Guam. She finished her duties and returned to San Diego on 4 January 1945. After a short period of rest, she sailed again on 20 January, arriving at Pearl Harbor on 27 January. There, she conducted gunnery exercises in the waters off of Oahu. She concluded her exercises and steamed for Enewetak Atoll on 1 February. Pausing briefly, she proceeded onwards to Ulithi. On 16 February, she departed Ulithi, and was assigned to Task Group 50.8.4 (Logistics Support Group), along with the escort carriers USS Admiralty Islands (CVE-99), USS Bougainville (CVE-100), and USS Windham Bay (CVE-92). This task group was responsible for ferrying and transferring replenishment aircraft to the frontline Fifth Fleet and its carriers, which were supporting the Invasion of Iwo Jima.

After transferring all of her aircraft, Attu returned to Guam for replacement of her aircraft and supplies. She then sailed westwards again, and served as a replenishment carrier again, this time in support of the landings on Okinawa. This time, her task group was responsible for resupplying both the escort carriers and the fleet carriers operating over the island. On 4 June, were being refueled by tankers, east of Okinawa. Throughout the day, winds began to pick up, and refueling operations had ceased by the time tropical storm force winds were reported in the late afternoon. In fact, Attu's task group was directly in the path of Typhoon Connie, which was proceeding northwards. As Admiral William Halsey Jr., the commander of the Third Fleet, got word of the typhoon, his orders ended up driving a large part of his fleet directly into the path of the incoming storm. Amazingly, Halsey had previously blundered his way into Typhoon Cobra, with much damage and loss of life, in December 1944. As part of the Logistics Support Group, Attu witnessed the worst of the damage, weathering the eyewall of the storm.

As night fell, it became evident that the task group could not avoid encountering the typhoon. The storm's eyewall struck on the early morning of 5 June, and by 3:30, hurricane-force winds had already been reported. At around 4:00, some flags tore off Attu, and wrapped around her radarscope, rendering her blind to the location of the other ships around her. Consequently, she only narrowly avoided, with careful manipulation of the engines, a collision with the tankers. Her crew noted that the bow once came as close as 50 ft to a catastrophic collision with a tanker's stern. The typhoon's winds blew several aircraft on board her flight deck off her side, and rendered inoperational or otherwise damaged many more. As she passed through the eye of the storm, the crew managed to unfurl the flags blocking her radar, enabling her to pass through the second half of the storm without much further damage.

On 10 June, Captain Paul Hubert Ramsey took over command of the vessel. In early July, she retired back to San Diego for much belayed repairs of her typhoon damage. On 24 July, with repairs quickly concluded, she steamed westwards. She was sailing through a fueling area in the West Pacific when news of the Japanese surrender broke.

Post-war
Following the end of the war, she sailed back to California, arriving on 11 November. On 25 November, she joined the "Magic Carpet" fleet, which repatriated U.S. servicemen from throughout the Pacific. She cruised around the Pacific, making stops and returning U.S. servicemen back to the mainland. She completed her "Magic Carpet" duties, and was discharged in early 1946.

By May 1946, Attu was slated for disposal by the Navy. She sailed for Norfolk, Virginia, passing through the Panama Canal and making a stop at Jacksonville, Florida. She was decommissioned on 8 June, and she was struck from the Navy list on 3 July.

After Attu was decommissioned, she was acquired by representatives of the Jewish Agency in New York. The representatives, led by Yehuda Arazi, planned to use the ship to transport up to 10,000 Jews to Palestine, where they wanted to establish a Jewish state. In addition, they planned to utilize the carrier to ferry a large quantity of armaments for the Haganah, the paramilitary precursor of what would become the Israeli Defense Forces in 1948. An initial payment of about $10,000 was arranged, and a refit was scheduled to prepare the ship. However, the United States Department of State discovered the plan and cancelled the deal; this allowed Attu to be scrapped in 1949. Attu received two battle stars for her World War II service.

title: USS Attu


text:
Christmas pudding

Christmas pudding is sweet, dried-fruit pudding traditionally served as part of Christmas dinner in Britain and other countries to which the tradition has been exported. It has its origins in medieval England, with early recipes making use of dried fruit, suet, breadcrumbs, flour, eggs and spice, along with liquid such as milk or fortified wine. Later, recipes became more elaborate. In 1845, cookery writer Eliza Acton wrote the first recipe for a dish called "Christmas pudding".

The dish is sometimes known as plum pudding (though this can also refer to other kinds of boiled pudding involving dried fruit). The word "plum" was used then for what has been called a "raisin" since the 18th century, and the pudding does not contain plums in the modern sense of the word.

Basics
Some households have their own recipes for Christmas pudding, which may be handed down through families for generations. Essentially the recipe brings together what traditionally were expensive or luxurious ingredients — notably the sweet spices that are so important in developing its distinctive rich aroma, and usually made with suet. The pudding is very dark, almost black in appearance due to the dark sugars and black treacle in most recipes, and its long cooking time. The mixture can be moistened with the juice of citrus fruits, brandy and other alcohol (some recipes call for dark beers such as mild, stout or porter).

Prior to the 19th century, the English Christmas pudding was boiled in a pudding cloth, and often represented as round. The Victorian era fashion involved putting the mixture into a basin and then steaming it, followed by unwrapping the pudding, placing it on a platter, and decorating the top with a sprig of holly.

Initial cooking usually involves steaming for many hours. Most pre-twentieth century recipes assume that the pudding will then be served immediately, but in the second half of the twentieth century, it became more usual to reheat puddings on the day of serving, and recipes changed slightly to allow for maturing. To serve, the pudding is reheated by steaming once more, and may be dressed with warm brandy which is set alight. It can be eaten with hard sauce (usually brandy butter or rum butter), cream, lemon cream, ice cream, custard, or sweetened béchamel, and is sometimes sprinkled with caster sugar.

Legends
There is a popular myth that plum pudding's association with Christmas goes back to a custom in medieval England that the "pudding should be made on the 25th Sunday after Trinity, that it be prepared with 13 ingredients to represent Christ and the 12 apostles, and that every family member stir it in turn from east to west to honour the Magi and their journey in that direction". However, recipes for plum puddings appear mainly, if not entirely, in the 17th century and later. One of the earliest plum pudding recipes is given by Mary Kettilby in her 1714 book A Collection of above Three Hundred Receipts in Cookery, Physick and Surgery. There is a popular and wholly unsubstantiated myth that in 1714, George I of Great Britain (sometimes known as the Pudding King) requested that plum pudding be served as part of his royal feast in his first Christmas in England.

Ancestors
Christmas pudding's possible ancestors include savoury puddings such as those in Harley MS 279, croustades, malaches whyte, creme boiled (a kind of stirred custard), and sippets. Various ingredients and methods of these older recipes appear in early plum puddings. An early example of a bag pudding (without fruit) is "fraunche mele" in the Liber Cure Cocorum Pudding "had the great merit" of not needing to be cooked in an oven, something "most lower class households did not have". Pudding predecessors often contained meat, as well as sweet ingredients, and prior to being steamed in a cloth the ingredients may have been stuffed into the gut or stomach of an animal, like haggis or sausages.

As techniques for meat preserving improved in the 18th century, the savoury element of both the mince pie and the plum pottage diminished as the sweet content increased. People began adding dried fruit and sugar. The mince pie kept its name, though the pottage was increasingly referred to as plum pudding. As plum pudding, it became widespread as a feast dish, not necessarily associated with Christmas, and usually served with beef. It makes numerous appearances in 18th century satire as a symbol of Britishness, including the Gilray cartoon, The Plumb-pudding in danger.

Victorian era
It was not until the 1830s that a boiled cake of flour, fruits, suet, sugar and spices, all topped with holly, made a definite appearance, becoming more and more associated with Christmas. In her bestselling 1845 book Modern Cookery for Private Families, the East Sussex cook Eliza Acton was the first to refer to it as "Christmas Pudding".

British Empire
The custom of eating Christmas pudding was carried to many parts of the world by British colonists. It is a common dish in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and South Africa. Throughout the colonial period, the pudding was a symbol of unity throughout the British Empire.

In 1927, the Empire Marketing Board (EMB) wrote a letter to the Master of the Royal Household, requesting a copy of the recipe used to make the Christmas pudding for the royal family. The King and Queen granted Leo Amery, the head of the EMB, permission to use the recipe in a publication in the following November. The royal chef, Henry Cédard, provided it. In order to distribute the recipe, the EMB had to overcome two challenges: size and ingredients. First, the original recipe was measured to serve 40 people, including the entire royal family and their guests. The EMB was challenged to rework the recipe to serve only 8 people. Second, the ingredients used to make the pudding had to be changed to reflect the ideals of the Empire. The origins of each ingredient were carefully manipulated to represent some of the Empire's many colonies. Brandy from Cyprus and nutmeg from the West Indies, which had been inadvertently forgotten in previous recipes, made special appearances. However, there were a number of colonies that produced the same foodstuffs. The final recipe included Australian currants, South African stoned raisins, Canadian apples, Jamaican rum and English Beer, among other ingredients all sourced from somewhere in the Empire. After finalising the ingredients, the royal recipe was sent out to national newspapers and to popular women's magazines. Copies were also printed and handed out to the public for free. The recipe was a phenomenal success, as thousands of requests for the recipe flooded the EMB office.

In 1931, an annual Christmas market for the People's Dispensary for Sick Animals was held at the Royal Albert Hall on 24 and 25 November. A 10-ton Christmas pudding, the largest ever created up until that time, was featured. The recipe became known as the "Prince of Wales' Empire Christmas Pudding". The Times newspaper noted "The Lord Mayor of London has promised to give the pudding its first 'stir'. He will be followed by the High Commissioners of the Dominions, and afterwards the general public will have the chance of stirring it". The Prince of Wales (later Edward VIII) was then a patron of the PDSA charity. It was then divided up into 11,208 smaller puddings, which were distributed amongst the poor throughout the country. Manchester and Salford, for example, received 512 each.

United States
In America, the tradition of the Christmas pudding had already arrived in pre-independence days. A book entitled The Williamsburg Art of Cookery by Helen Bullock was published in the U.S. as early as 1742. Among the ingredients she includes a pound of each of a variety of dried fruits and sugar, plus half a pound each of candied peel (citron, orange and lemon). She also adds one pint of brandy and 12 eggs.

Jane Cunningham Croly published a 19th-century recipe for plum pudding contributed to Jennie June's American Cookery Book by the American poet sisters Alice Cary and Phoebe Cary. It was made as bread pudding, by soaking stale bread in milk then adding suet, candied citron, nutmeg, eggs, raisins and brandy. It was a moulded dessert, cooked in boiling water for several hours, and served with a sweet wine sauce.

Wishing and other traditions

It was in the late Victorian era that 'Stir up Sunday' (the fifth Sunday before Christmas) began to be associated with the making of Christmas pudding. The collect this Sunday in the Church of England's Book of Common Prayer begins with the words "Stir up, we beseech thee, O Lord, the wills of thy faithful people; that they, plenteously bringing forth the fruit of good works...". This led to the custom of preparing Christmas puddings on that day which became known as Stir-up Sunday, associated with the stirring of the Christmas pudding.

Initially probably a schoolchild joke, latterly the day became known as "Stir-up Sunday". By the 1920s, the custom was established that everyone in the household, or at least every child (and sometimes the servants), gave the mixture a stir and made a wish while doing so.

It was common practice to include small silver coins in the pudding mixture, which could be kept by the person whose serving included them. The usual choice was a silver threepence or a sixpence. The coin was believed to bring wealth in the coming year, and came from an earlier tradition of putting tokens in a cake, which had died out by the twentieth century (see Twelfth Cake).

Other tokens are also known to have been included, such as a tiny wishbone (to bring good luck), a silver thimble (for thrift) or an anchor (to symbolise safe harbour).

Once turned out of its basin, decorated with holly, doused in brandy (or occasionally rum), and flamed (or "fired"), the pudding is traditionally brought to the table ceremoniously, and greeted with a round of applause. In 1843, Charles Dickens describes the scene in A Christmas Carol:

"Mrs Cratchit left the room alone – too nervous to bear witnesses – to take the pudding up and bring it in... Hallo! A great deal of steam! The pudding was out of the copper which smells like a washing-day. That was the cloth. A smell like an eating-house and a pastrycook's next door to each other, with a laundress's next door to that. That was the pudding. In half a minute Mrs Cratchit entered – flushed, but smiling proudly – with the pudding, like a speckled cannon-ball, so hard and firm, blazing in half of half-a-quarter of ignited brandy, and bedight with Christmas holly stuck into the top."

title: Christmas pudding


text:
Virginia Postrel

Virginia Inman Postrel (born January 14, 1960) is an American political and cultural writer of broadly libertarian, or classical liberal, views. She is a recipient of the Bastiat Prize (2011).

Early life and education
Virginia Inman was born and raised in Greenville, South Carolina. Her father was an engineer, while her mother was a homemaker turned English professor, returning to school to pursue a Master's degree while Virginia was in high school. Inman graduated from Princeton University in 1982 with an A.B. in English literature.

Career
Postrel was editor-in-chief of Reason from July 1989 to January 2000, and remained on the masthead as editor-at-large through 2001. Prior to that, she was a reporter for Inc. and the Wall Street Journal. She currently serves on the board of directors of the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education (FIRE). From 2000 to 2006, she wrote an economics column for the New York Times and from 2006 to 2009 she wrote the "Commerce and Culture" column for The Atlantic. She also appeared on the last episode of the third season of Penn and Teller's Bullshit!.

Postrel wrote the biweekly column "Commerce & Culture" for the Wall Street Journal until April 2011. Since May 2011, she has written a biweekly column for Bloomberg View.

She is best known for her non-fiction books including The Future and Its Enemies and The Substance of Style. In the former she explains her philosophy, "dynamism", a forward-looking and change-seeking philosophy that generally favors unregulated organization through "spontaneous order". She contrasts it with "stasis", a philosophy that favors top-down control and regulation and is marked by desire to maintain the present state of affairs. In November 2013, she published a third book, The Power of Glamour, which defined glamour as "nonverbal rhetoric" that "leads us to feel that the life we dream of exists, and to desire it even more." And, in November 2020, she published her fourth book, The Fabric of Civilization. This book looks at the "history of innovation, science, technology, trade, and human history in general" through the lens of the global development of textiles.

Health care, bioethics, and aesthetics
Postrel has written several articles on health care and bioethics, including accounts of her own experiences.

In March 2006 Postrel donated a kidney to an acquaintance, writer Sally Satel. She has recounted the experience, and referred to it in several subsequent articles and blog posts, many of which are critical of legal prohibitions against compensating organ donors. In some of the pieces, she discusses strategies for working around these restrictions, such as organ donor transplant chains.

In her March 2009 article "My Drug Problem" in The Atlantic, Postrel wrote about her own experience of being treated for breast cancer with the expensive drug Herceptin. She questioned if such a costly treatment would be available to others and if the risky research that makes such innovative treatments possible would be profitable under the proposed health care reforms in the United States.

Postrel has also referred to her experience as a cancer patient in her writing about the importance of design aesthetics in hospitals and the competitive forces that drive them to create more attractive environments for patients. This ties into the thesis of her second book, that beauty is more than simply a superficial, frivolous trait and can go more than skin deep. Notions of beauty and desirability, and thoughts on what makes good design good beyond the needs of sound engineering, informed her work at the "Deep Glamour" blog.

title: Virginia Postrel


text:
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title: User:Ilya (usurped)/Main Page/iTemp


text:
FDJ

FDJ may refer to:
 * FDJ (cycling team)
 * Djiboutian franc
 * Faculty Dental Journal, a scholarly journal

 * Française des Jeux (lottery), the operator of the French national lottery
 * Free German Youth (German: Freie Deutsche Jugend), a German antifacist movement
 * Frenkie de Jong, a Dutch football player

title: FDJ