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Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (11 May 1752 – 22 January 1840) was a German physician, naturalist, physiologist, and anthropologist. He is considered to be a main founder of zoology and anthropology as comparative, scientific disciplines. He has been called the "founder of racial classifications."

He was one of the first to explore the study of the human being as an aspect of natural history. His teachings in comparative anatomy were applied to his classification of human races, of which he claimed there were five, Caucasian, Mongolian, Malayan, Ethiopian, and American. He was a member of what modern historians call the Göttingen school of history.

He is considered a pivotal figure in the development of physical anthropology. Blumenbach's peers considered him one of the great theorists of his day, and he was a mentor or influence on many of the next generation of German biologists, including Alexander von Humboldt.

Early life and education
Blumenbach was born at his family house in Gotha. His father was Heinrich Blumenbach, a local school headmaster; his mother was Charlotte Eleonore Hedwig Buddeus. He was born into a well-connected family of academics.

Blumenbach was educated at the Illustrious Gymnasium in Gotha before studying medicine, first at Jena and then at Göttingen. He was recognized as a prodigy by the age sixteen in 1768. He graduated from the latter in 1775 with his M.D. thesis De generis humani varietate nativa (On the Natural Variety of Mankind, University of Göttingen, which was first published in 1775, then re-issued with changes to the titlepage in 1776). It is considered one of the most influential works in the development of subsequent human race concepts. It contained the germ of the craniological research to which so many of his subsequent inquiries were directed.

Career
Blumenbach was appointed extraordinary professor of medicine and inspector of the museum of natural history in Göttingen in 1776 and ordinary professor in 1778. His contributions soon began to enrich the pages of the Medicinische Bibliothek, of which he was editor from 1780 to 1794, with various contributions on medicine, physiology, and anatomy. In physiology, he was of the school of Albrecht von Haller, and was in the habit of illustrating his theory by a careful comparison of the animal functions of man with those of other animals. Following Georges Cuvier's identification, Blumenbach gave the woolly mammoth its first scientific name, Elephas primigenius (first-born elephant), in 1799.

His reputation was much extended by the publication of his Institutiones Physiologicae (1787), a condensed, well-arranged view of the animal functions, expounded without discussion of minute anatomical details. Between its first publication and 1821, it went through many editions in Germany, where it was the general textbook of the science of physiology. It was translated into English in America by Charles Caldwell (Philadelphia 1798), and in London by John Elliotson (1807).

He was perhaps still more extensively known by his Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie ("Handbook of comparative anatomy"), which passed through numerous German editions from its appearance in 1805 to 1824. It was translated into English in 1809 by the surgeon William Lawrence, and again, with improvements and additions, by William Coulson in 1827. This manual, though slighter than the subsequent works of Cuvier, Carus, and others, and not to be compared with such later expositions as that of Gegenbaur, was long esteemed for the accuracy of the author's own observations, and his just appreciation of the labors of his predecessors. Although the greatest part of Blumenbach's life was passed at Göttingen, in 1789 he visited Switzerland, and gave a curious medical topography of that country in the Bibliothek. He was in England in 1788 and 1792. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London in 1793 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1794. In 1798, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society. He became a correspondent, living abroad, of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands in 1808. This was changed to associated member in 1827. He was then appointed secretary to the Royal Society of Sciences in 1812, elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1813, appointed physician to the royal family in Hanover (Obermedizinalrat) by the prince regent in 1816, made a knight-commander of the Guelphic Order in 1821, and elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences in 1831. In celebration of his doctoral jubilee (1825), traveling scholarships were founded to assist talented young physicians and naturalists. He retired in 1835. Blumenbach died in 1840 in Göttingen, where he is buried in the Albani cemetery.

Racial anthropology

Blumenbach explored the biodiversity of humans mainly by comparing skull anatomy and skin color. His work included a description of sixty human crania (skulls) published originally in fascicules as Decas craniorum (Göttingen, 1790–1828). This was a founding work for other scientists in the field of craniometry. He established a five-part naming system in 1795 to describe what he called generis humani varietates quinae principes, species vero unica (five principal varieties of humankind, but one species). In his view, humans could be divided into varieties (only in his later work he adopted the term "races", which had been introduced by others) but he was aware that a clear separation was difficult:

"All national differences in the form and colour of the human body [. . .] run so insensibly, by so many shades and transitions one into the other, that it is impossible to separate them by any but very arbitrary limits."

Blumenbach's classification of the single human species into five varieties (later called "races") (1793/1795):
 * the Caucasian or white race. Blumenbach was the first to use this term for Europeans, and he also included Middle Easterners and South Asians in the same category.
 * the Mongolian or yellow race, including all East Asians.
 * the Malayan or brown race, including Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders.
 * the Ethiopian or black race, including all sub-Saharan Africans.
 * the American or red race, including all Native Americans.

Blumenbach assumed that all morphological differences between the varieties were induced by the climate and the way of living and he emphasized that the differences in morphology were so small, gradual and transiently connected that it was not possible to separate these varieties clearly. He also noted that skin color was unsuitable for distinguishing varieties. Although Blumenbach did not propose any hierarchy among the five varieties, he placed the Caucasian form in the center of his description as being the most "primitive" or "primeval" one from which the other forms "degenerated". In the 18th century, however, these terms did not have the negative connotations they possess today. At the time, "primitive" or "primeval" described the ancestral form, while "degeneration" was understood to be the process of change leading to a variety adapted to a new environment by being exposed to a different climate and diet. Hence, he argued that physical characteristics like skin color, cranial profile, etc., depended on geography, diet, and mannerism. Further anatomical study led him to the conclusion that "individual Africans differ as much, or even more, from other Africans as from Europeans".

Like other monogenists such as Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, Blumenbach held to the "degenerative hypothesis" of racial origins. Blumenbach claimed that Adam and Eve were Caucasian inhabitants of Asia, and that other races came about by degeneration from environmental factors such as the sun and poor diet. Thus, he claimed, Negroid pigmentation arose because of the result of the heat of the tropical sun, while the cold wind caused the tawny colour of the Eskimos, and the Chinese were fair skinned compared to the other Asian stocks because they kept mostly in towns protected from environmental factors. He believed that the degeneration could be reversed in a proper environmental control and that all contemporary forms of man could revert to the original Caucasian race.

Moreover, he concluded that Africans were not inferior to the rest of mankind "concerning healthy faculties of understanding, excellent natural talents and mental capacities":

"Finally, I am of opinion that after all these numerous instances I have brought together of negroes of capacity, it would not be difficult to mention entire well-known provinces of Europe, from out of which you would not easily expect to obtain off-hand such good authors, poets, philosophers, and correspondents of the Paris Academy; and on the other hand, there is no so-called savage nation known under the sun which has so much distinguished itself by such examples of perfectibility and original capacity for scientific culture, and thereby attached itself so closely to the most civilized nations of the earth, as the Negro."

He did not consider his "degenerative hypothesis" as racist and sharply criticized Christoph Meiners, an early practitioner of scientific racialism, as well as Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring, who concluded from autopsies that Africans were an inferior race. Blumenbach wrote three other essays stating non-white peoples were capable of excelling in arts and sciences in reaction against racialists of his time. At his time, Blumenbach was perceived as anti-racist and he strongly opposed the practice of slavery and the belief of the inherent savagery of the coloured races. "Alexander von Humboldt wrote on his and Blumenbach's view: 'While we maintain the unity of the human species, we at the same time repel the depressing assumption of superior and inferior races'." However, selected parts of his views were later used by others to encourage scientific racism.

Other natural studies
In his dissertation, Blumenbach mentioned the name Simia troglodytes in connection with a short description for the common chimpanzee. This dissertation was printed and appeared in September 1775, but only for internal use in the University of Göttingen and not for providing a public record. The public print of his dissertation appeared in 1776. Blumenbach knew that Carl Linnaeus had already established a name Homo troglodytes for a badly known primate, and in 1779 he discussed this Linnean name and concluded correctly that Linnaeus had been dealing with two species, a human and an orangutan, neither of which was a chimpanzee, and that by consequence the name Homo troglodytes could not be used. Blumenbach was one of the first scientists to understand the identities of the different species of primates, which were (excluding humans) orangutans and chimpanzees. (Gorillas were not known to Europeans at this time). In Opinion 1368 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) decided in 1985 that Blumenbach's view should be followed, and that his Simia troglodytes as published by Blumenbach in 1779 shall be the type species of the genus Pan and, since it was the oldest available name for the common chimpanzee, be used for this species. However, the commission did not know that Blumenbach had already mentioned this name in his dissertation. Following the rules of the ICZN Code the scientific name of one of the most well-known African animals, currently known as Pan troglodytes, must carry Blumenbach's name combined with the date 1776.

Blumenbach shortly afterward wrote a manual of natural history entitled Handbuch der Naturgeschichte; 12 editions and some translations. It was published first in Göttingen by J. C. Dieterich in 1779/1780. He was also one of the first scientists to study the anatomy of the platypus, assigning the scientific name Ornithorhynchus paradoxus to the animal, being unaware George Shaw had already given it the name Platypus anatinus. However, Platypus had already been shown to be used for the scientific name for a genus of Ambrosia beetles so Blumenbach's scientific name for the genus was used.

Bildungstrieb
Blumenbach made many contributions to the scientific debates of the last half of the 18th century regarding evolution and creation. His central contribution was in the conception of a vis formativa or Bildungstrieb, an inborn force within an organism that led it to create, maintain, and repair its shape.

Background
Enlightenment science and philosophy essentially held a static view of nature and man, but vital nature continued to interrupt this view, and the issue of life, the creation of life and its varieties, increasingly occupied attention and "starting in the 1740s the concept of vital power reentered the scene of generation ... there must be some 'productive power' in nature that enabled unorganized material to generate new living forms."

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon wrote an influential work in 1749, Natural History, that revived interest in vital nature. Buffon held that there were certain penetrating powers which organised the organic particles that made up the living organism. Erasmus Darwin translated Buffon's idea of organic particles into "molecules with formative propensities" and in Germany Buffon's idea of an internal order, moule interieur arising out of the action of the penetrating powers was translated into German as Kraft (power).

The German term for vital power or living power, Lebenskraft, as distinct from chemical or physical forces, first appeared with Medicus's on the Lebenskraft (1774). Scientists were now forced to consider hidden and mysterious powers of and in living matter that resisted physical laws – warm-blooded animals maintaining a consistent temperature despite changing outside temperatures, for example.

In 1759, Caspar Friedrich Wolff, a German embryologist provided evidence for the ancient idea of epigenesis, that is preformed life, that is a chick out of unformed substance and his dispute with Albrecht von Haller brought the issue of life to the forefront of natural science and philosophy. Wolff identified an "essential power" (essentliche Kraft, or vis essentialis) that allowed structure to be a result of power, "the very power through which, in the vegetable body, all those things which we describe as life are effected."

Blumenbach's Bildungstrieb
While Wolff was not concerned to name this vital organising, reproducing power, in 1780 Blumenbach posited a formative drive (nisus formativus or Bildungstrieb) responsible for biological "procreation, nourishment, and reproduction", as well as self-development and self-perfection on a cultural level.

Blumenbach held that all living organisms "from man down to maggots, and from the cedar to common mould or mucor", possess an inherent "effort or tendency which, while life continues, is active and operative; in the first instance to attain the definite form of the species, then to preserve it entire, and, when it is infringed upon, so far as this is possible, to restore it." This power of vitality is "not referable to any qualities merely physical, chemical, or mechanical."

Blumenbach compared the uncertainty about the origin and ultimate nature of the formative drive to similar uncertainties about gravitational attraction: "just in the same way as we use the name of attraction or gravity to denote certain forces, the causes of which however still remain hid, as they say, in Cimmerian darkness, the formative force (nisus formativus) can explain the generation of animals."

At the same time, befitting the central idea of the science and medicine of dynamic polarity, it was also the physiological functional identity of what theorists of society or mind called "aspiration". Blumenbach's Bildungstrieb found quick passage into evolutionary theorizing of the decade following its formulation and in the thinking of the German natural philosophers.

One of Blumenbach's contemporaries, Samuel Hahnemann, undertook to study in detail how this generative, reproductive and creative power, which he termed the Erzeugungskraft of the Lebenskraft of living power of the organism, could be negatively affected by inimical agents to engender disease.

Blumenbach and Kant on Bildungstrieb

Kant is said by several modern authors to have relied on Blumenbach's biological concept of formative power in developing his idea of organic purpose. Kant wrote to Blumenbach in 1790 to praise his concept of the formative force (Bildungstrieb). However, whereas Kant had a heuristic concept in mind, to explain mechanical causes, Blumenbach conceived of a cause fully resident in nature. From this he would argue that the Bildungstrieb was central to the creation of new species. Though Blumenbach left no overt indications of sources for his theory of biological revolution, his ideas harmonize with those of Charles Bonnet and especially with those of his contemporary Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803), and it was Herder whose ideas were influenced by Blumenbach. Blumenbach continued to refine the concept in his De nisu formativo et generationis negotio ('On the Formative Drive and the Operation of Generation', 1787) and in the second edition (1788) of the Handbuch der Naturgeschichte: 'it is a proper force (eigentliche Kraft), whose undeniable existence and extensive effects are apparent throughout the whole of nature and revealed by experience'. He consolidated these in the second edition of Über den Bildungstrieb.

Blumenbach had initially been an advocate of Haller's view, in contrast to those of Wolff, that the essential elements of the embryo were already in the egg, he later sided with Wolff. Blumenbach provided evidence for the actual existence of this formative force, to distinguish it from other, merely nominal terms.

The way in which the Bildungstrieb differed, perhaps, from other such forces was in its comprehensive architectonic character: it directed the formation of anatomical structures and the operations of physiological processes of the organism so that various parts would come into existence and function interactively to achieve the ends of the species.

Influence on German biology
Blumenbach was regarded as a leading light of German science by his contemporaries. Kant and Friedrich Schelling both called him "one of the most profound biological theorists of the modern era. In the words of science historian Peter Watson, "roughly half the German biologists during the early nineteenth century studied under him or were inspired by him: Alexander von Humboldt, Carl Friedrich Kielmeyer, Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus, Heinrich Friedrich Link, Johann Friedrich Meckel, Johannes Illiger, and Rudolph Wagner."

title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach


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Aerides

Aerides, known commonly as cat's-tail orchids and fox brush orchids, is a genus belonging to the orchid family (Orchidaceae, subfamily Epidendroideae, tribe Vandeae, subtribe Aeridinae). It is a group of tropical epiphyte orchids that grow mainly in the warm lowlands of tropical Asia from India to southern China to New Guinea. They are valued in horticulture for their racemes of showy, fragrant, colorful flowers.

The name of the genus refers to the epiphytic growth habit of the species, and literally means "air-plant". The type species, Aerides odorata, was described by João de Loureiro in 1790. This genus is abbreviated Aer in the horticultural trade.

Description
The species in this genus range from small to large monopodial epiphytes, except for Aerides krabiensis, which is a lithophyte. They form pendulous racemes with many long-lasting, fragrant, waxy flowers, which are often white with purple or pink edges. Some species have purple or pink flowers, and a few have yellow. Each flower has a forward-facing spur and grows on a sharp, stout, leafy stem. The leaves are distichous, growing in two vertical rows. The leaf margins are bilobed, and the apex is emarginate. There are ligules. Morphologically, they are very similar to species in the genus Vanda.

Habitat
The genus grows in the tropics of Asia, in India, Nepal, southern China, Southeast Asia, the Philippines, and New Guinea. They flower from June to July. Temperature requirements vary from cool to warm growing depending on the species.

Cultivation
Most Aerides species are considered easy to grow. Their flowers are fragrant and long-lived, which make them popular in horticulture as cut flowers and potted plants. Aerides can be kept in hanging baskets, teak containers or net pots, which allow the roots to extend into the air. They grow best in well-drained media, such as tree fern fibers, fir bark, and sphagnum moss. They require full sunlight, warm temperatures, and water applied to the roots. The plants do not tolerate disturbance or damage of their root systems in cultivation.

The plants do not have pseudobulbs. The leaves are leathery and drought-resistant. Many of these species have a monopodial vine-like growth habit, and the plants can quickly grow large.

Species
The following species are recognized as of June 2014, all monopodial epiphytic plants except the lithophyte A. krabiense.

 * 1) Aerides augustiana Rolfe -  Philippines
 * 2) Aerides crassifolia C.S.P.Parish ex Burb. - Assam, Indochina
 * 3) Aerides crispa Lindl. - western India
 * 4) Aerides emericii  Rchb.f. - Andaman and Nicobar Islands
 * 5) Aerides falcata Lindl. & Paxton - Yunnan, Indochina
 * 6) Aerides houlletiana Rchb.f. - Indochina
 * 7) Aerides huttonii (Hook.f.) J.H.Veitch - Sulawesi
 * 8) Aerides inflexa Teijsm. & Binn. - Borneo, Sulawesi
 * 9) Aerides × jansonii Rolfe - Myanmar    (A. falcata × A. odorata)
 * 10) Aerides krabiense Seidenf. - Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia
 * 11) Aerides lawrenceae Rchb.f. - Philippines
 * 12) Aerides leeana Rchb.f. - Philippines
 * 13) Aerides macmorlandii  B.S.Williams - India
 * 14) Aerides maculosa Lindl. - India
 * 15) Aerides multiflora Roxb. - India, Himalayas, Nepal, Bhutan, Assam, Andaman Islands, Indochina
 * 16) Aerides odorata Lour. - Yunnan, Guangdong, India, Himalayas, Bangladesh, Nepal, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Indochina, Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia
 * 17) Aerides orthocentra Hand.-Mazz. - Yunnan
 * 18) Aerides quinquevulnera Lindl. - Philippines, New Guinea
 * 19) Aerides ringens  (Lindl.) C.E.C.Fisch. in J.S.Gamble - India, Sri Lanka, Andaman Islands
 * 20) Aerides roebelenii  Rchb.f. - Philippines
 * 21) Aerides rosea Lodd. ex Lindl. & Paxton - Guangxi, Guizhou, Yunnan, Bhutan, Assam, India, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam
 * 22) Aerides rubescens  (Rolfe) Schltr. - Vietnam
 * 23) Aerides savageana A.H.Kent in H.J.Veitch - Philippines
 * 24) Aerides shibatiana Boxall ex Náves in F.M.Blanco - Philippines
 * 25) Aerides sukauensis Shim - Sabah
 * 26) Aerides thibautiana Rchb.f. - Sulawesi
 * 27) Aerides timorana Miq. - Timor† (apparently extinct; not collected since 1849)

Hybrids
Natural hybrids include Aerides × jansonii, a cross between Aerides falcata and Aerides odorata.

Many hybrids have been made between Aerides and other orchids. The horticultural specimen × Christieara is a three-way hybrid between Aerides, Vanda, and Ascocentrum. Hybrids come in a wide range of colors due to the high degree of genetic diversity.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Aerides


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Robot Wars (TV series)

Robot Wars is a robot combat competition that was broadcast on British television from 1998 to 2004 and from 2016 to 2018. Each series involves teams of amateur and professional roboteers operating their own constructed remote controlled robots to fight against each other in an arena formed of steel and bullet proof glass fitted with arena hazards and containing areas occupied by hostile and heavier "House Robots". Earlier series included assault and trial courses for competing robots.

The original version of the show was broadcast on BBC Two from 20 February 1998 to 23 February 2001, the celebrity special of the show was broadcast on BBC One on 27 December 2000, on BBC Choice from 8 October 2001 to 7 February 2003 (later repeated on BBC Two) and on Channel 5 from 2 November 2003 to 28 March 2004. A revival was broadcast on BBC Two from 24 July 2016 to 7 January 2018. To date, the show has been broadcast as 10 main series each centred around a single competition, two "Extreme" series with several unconnected events and several special episodes.

Jeremy Clarkson presented the first series, with Craig Charles taking over for the second to seventh series. Philippa Forrester co-hosted the first three series, the fifth, sixth and Extreme 2. Forrester also hosted the spin-off series Robot Wars Revealed from 1998 to 1999. The fourth series and Extreme 1 were co-hosted by Julia Reed and the seventh by Jayne Middlemiss. The revived series were hosted by Dara Ó Briain and Angela Scanlon. Jonathan Pearce provided commentary for all series.

Additional series were filmed at the UK venue for specific sectors of the global market, including two series of Robot Wars Extreme Warriors with American competitors for the TNN network (hosted by Mick Foley with Rebecca Grant serving as pit reporter), two of Dutch Robot Wars for distribution in the Netherlands and a single series for Germany. The fourth series of the UK Robot Wars was shown in the US on TNN as Robot Wars: Grand Champions in 2002 and hosted by Joanie Laurer.

Its merchandising was commercially successful, being one of the most popular selling toy ranges in 2002 produced by Logistix Kids. It included a mini arena, pullback, friction and ripcord toys and radio-controlled versions of the House Robots.

In 2003, the roboteers themselves formed The Fighting Robot Association and with their associated event organizers, carry on participating in competitions for new audiences. In 2013, Roaming Robots purchased the rights to the Robot Wars brand from Robot Wars LLC and operated their travelling robotic combat show under that name. The use of the name Robot Wars for live shows ceased in early 2017, being renamed Extreme Robots.

With a peak audience of six million viewers in the UK during the late 1990s, the format went on to become a worldwide success, showing in 45 countries including the US, Australia, Canada, China, India, Germany and Italy. In March 2003, it was dropped by BBC Two after eight series and Mentorn announced it was making 22 episodes for Channel 5, concluding with The Third World Championships broadcast in March 2004. Channel 5 later axed the show after one series due to low ratings.

In July 2016, the show returned to BBC Two with a new arena, house robots and presenters. The first episode was well received, becoming the top trending topic on Twitter that evening and having two million viewers, more than the last episode of the 23rd series of Top Gear in the same 8pm Sunday slot just a few weeks earlier. The revived show ran for three series, before it ended in March 2018.

In October 2023, the MECH+ channel (run by Mentorn and Passion Distribution) was added to Freeview with the complete Robot Wars UK catalogue streaming on the channel.

US Robot Wars events
Robot Wars was the brainchild of Marc Thorpe, a designer working for the LucasToys division of Lucasfilm. In 1992, Thorpe had the initial idea for robot combat sport after unsuccessfully attempting to create a radio-controlled vacuum cleaner. In 1994, Marc Thorpe created Robot Wars and held the first competition at the Fort Mason Center in San Francisco. Approximately one month prior to the event, Thorpe formed a partnership with New York-based record company Sm:)e Communications, later Profile Records, who provided additional funding.

Between 1995 and 1997, three further Robot Wars events took place in America and in 1995, Profile Records partnered with production company Mentorn to produce and televise a Robot Wars event in the UK. Mentorn acquired the worldwide television rights from Profile in 1995 after Tom Gutteridge (the head of Mentorn) had seen an amateur tape of a San Francisco event.

Original television series
Gutteridge and one of his producers Steve Carsey created a television format based on the Robot Wars concept. They produced a live event opposite BBC Television Centre in Wood Lane, Shepherd's Bush, London and hired Derek Foxwell to build 3 combat robots, 2 of which were named The Mouse and Grunt who would eventually take part in the first UK series of Robot Wars, to take on three American robots, Thor, La Machine and The Master, all of which were veterans of the original American competition. The Controller of BBC Two, Michael Jackson, attended the event, which was not filmed and he promised to commission a series. However, it was not until 1998 that a subsequent Controller of BBC Two, Mark Thompson, fulfilled Jackson's promise and actually commissioned 6 episodes. Gutteridge and Carsey were producers and Foxwell was the technical supervisor and senior technical consultant. He drafted the rules and regulations and was in charge of the pit area and the technical team, which scrutinised the robots, got them on and off stage and helped the contestants prepare and repair their robots. Mat Irvine, initially a member of the technical team, served as a member of the judging panel in 2002 and 2003.

The three person judging panel consisted of Noel Sharkey (head judge on every series: 1998–2003, 2016–), Eric Dickinson (1998), Adam Harper (1998–99), Martin Smith (1999–2003), Myra Wilson (2000–01), Mat Irvine (2001–03), Sethu Vijayakumar (2016–) and Lucy Rogers (2016–).

"On the first day, I was in the dressing room and looking in the mirror and looking down at the arena. And they were pulling the robots into the arena on an invisible twine because nothing was working. And I was thinking: 'Oh my God, what have I done with my career?' And you know, within the blink of an eye, it was the most watched show on BBC2."

Profile sought no input or consent from Thorpe before doing this, which aggravated the already troubled relationship between Thorpe and Profile Records and indirectly spurred legal disagreements surrounding the ownership of the Robot Wars concept. The legal proceedings surrounding these would last until 6 February 2002. Mentorn used Thorpe as a Consultant on the series, however and the initial series of Robot Wars in the UK was broadcast over six weeks in February and March 1998. It was an immediate hit, with more than two million viewers and a further 18 episodes were commissioned by the BBC that year. 155 episodes were produced in total and the show was seen in 26 countries. Two series were produced in the US for The National Network (now Paramount Network) and a version was also shown on Nickelodeon. TechTV (and later G4techTV/G4) in the US aired the UK series proper. Series were also produced in many European countries. Although the series had various directors and producers, all were produced in the UK by Mentorn and executive produced by Tom Gutteridge and Steve Carsey. The initial series were staged in various film studios around London but the stage and pit area became too large to fit into any of the conventional studios, so filming was later moved to an aircraft hangar at RAF Newton.

Viewing figures dropped significantly in the early 2000s, reaching only 1.2 million in the sixth series - the final to be broadcast on BBC Two. Following its move to Channel 5 in November 2003, the show first began airing in a new Sunday night slot and launched with one million viewers; however ratings fell quickly to 800,000 resulting in the show moving to Saturday nights after just three episodes. After Robot Wars ended, an edited half-hour version of this series aired on Fox Kids (later Jetix) from 2004, on Bravo from after 2004, on Dave from 2010 and on Challenge & Sky History from before 2016.

Revival
On 13 January 2016, the BBC confirmed that it would be rebooting the show for a six-part series. The revived series was hosted by Dara Ó Briain and Angela Scanlon with Jonathan Pearce returning as commentator. The first episode was broadcast on 24 July at 8pm, the same slot as Top Gear. Some robots from the original series returned, including Behemoth and Storm II, as well as four of the original House Robots, which were upgraded to be heavier, faster, better armed and with new looks. The 2016 series was filmed in a warehouse at Westway Park in Renfrew, Scotland.

The first episode received about two million viewers and was the top trending topic on Twitter with over 20,000 tweets.

A second rebooted series was commissioned with a first celebrity special in 16 years, in which celebrities, such as Olympians Kadeena Cox and Alistair Brownlee and Jonny Brownlee, TV presenters Suzi Perry, Neil Oliver and Maggie Aderin-Pocock, singer Jordan Stevens and radio presenters Scott Mills and Robbie Savage had bespoke robots designed for them by eight major roboteers, who mentored them during the specials.

During its original airing, the first rebooted series was sometimes referred to as 'Series 1', presenting itself as a completely new show. Starting in 2017, however, the BBC began referring to it as Series 8, with the following second series appropriately dubbed Series 9, acknowledging itself as a continuation of the original show. Following the 10th series, it was revealed that the BBC had decided not to renew the show for an 11th, and Robot Wars has been axed for the second time, the complete cancellation was met with backlash from fans.

Battle rules
A robot could lose a match in several ways during the knockout format of the show:
 * Immobilisation: A robot that is unable to move is counted out. In the original series 30 seconds of immobility were necessary, in later series this was reduced to 10 seconds.
 * Pit: One of the arena hazards is the pit of oblivion, a large square hole in the arena. A robot that falls or is pushed into this is eliminated.
 * Removal from arena: If a robot is ejected from the arena – typically by the flipper or vertical flywheel of an opponent, it is eliminated. In the original series the perimeter of the arena was a short barrier, in later series the wall was higher, making this type of elimination harder. In the rebooted series, only certain areas of the arena were not fully walled off. This meant that removal from the arena was only practical in certain areas.
 * If none of the above conditions were satisfied, a panel of three judges (listed below) scored the competitors on style, control, damage and aggression.
 * The judges' decisions are based on the following categories:
 * Aggression: The extent to which the robot was on the 'front foot' against the opposing robot as opposed to staying out of trouble.
 * Damage: The amount of damage inflicted on the opposing robot.
 * Control: The ability of the driver to push opposing robots, avoiding the arena hazards and if they're attacking how they're meant to.
 * Style (original series only): The extent to which the robot demonstrated its abilities such as self-righting. For the revived series, the style category was omitted.
 * In the original series, the Aggression, Damage, Control and Style points were weighted 3:4:2:1 respectively. In the 2016 series the weightings for Aggression, Damage and Control were 3:2:1, with "Style" no longer a judged criterion.

Although the format changed several times over the years, these rules remained the same across all series and competitions.

Extreme
There were also two series made for the UK, Robot Wars Extreme, which did not focus on a single championship.

Bold text indicates robot wars extreme events that debuted ahead of the actual debut series.

Bold Italic text indicates robot wars extrmeme events that made separate debuts ahead of the added event of the second series of robot wars extreme.

Presenters
The first series of Robot Wars was presented by Jeremy Clarkson and co-hosted by Philippa Forrester. In keeping with his edgy persona established on Top Gear, Clarkson frequently made tongue-in-cheek jokes about competitors and their robots, such as remarking that a contestant robot called "Skarab" looked like "cheese on toast".

Clarkson left Robot Wars after the first series and was replaced with Craig Charles. Charles, well known as playing the character Dave Lister in the science fiction-themed sitcom Red Dwarf, was seen as taking the programme and its contestants more seriously than Clarkson and was more enthusiastic while presenting it. He was also often known as the "Master of Mayhem" when introduced at the start of episodes from Extreme 1 onwards. Charles would close each episode with a four line poem ending with the words "Robot Wars". Charles presented Robot Wars until it ceased production in 2004.

"'My son, Jack, was a fan of the first series and said I should get involved. So I made a few phone calls and the rest is history.'"

In comparison to Charles' background in science fiction, Philippa Forrester was best known as co-host of the science and technology programme Tomorrow's World. Her role on Robot Wars was as the pit reporter who would speak to contestants about their robots before and after battles. Forrester was pit reporter for six of the show's nine series; Julia Reed took the role for Series 4 and Extreme 1 since Forrester was unable to participate in the programme due to pregnancy, but Forrester returned for Series 5, Series 6 and Extreme 2. When the programme moved to Channel 5 for the seventh series, Forrester did not return for unknown reasons, so Jayne Middlemiss took over the pit reporter duties.

Jonathan Pearce was the show's commentator throughout its entire run, becoming one of only two people (the other being judge Noel Sharkey) to appear in every episode of the programme; he commentated in the same loud and enthusiastic manner as his football commentaries. The programme was well known for phrases such as "Roboteers, stand by", "3. 2. 1. Activate" and "Cease!". These phrases were announced by the director, Stuart McDonald and became a recognisable part of the series for the entire duration of its run.

In 2016, Dara Ó Briain and Angela Scanlon were announced as the hosts of the eighth series, with Jonathan Pearce returning as commentator. They reprised their roles in the ninth and tenth series.

House robots
Throughout the series, house robots acted as obstacles to competing robots in battles and challenges. House robots were permitted to attack robots that were in the Corner Patrol Zones at the corners of the arena or upon the submission of a competing robot. The house robots were an intrinsic part of the programme's success and merchandising of these robots was highly successful. Furthermore, the house robots were not subject to the 100 kg weight limit or weapon rules that contestant robots had to adhere to, the most notable example of this was Sergeant Bash's flamethrower.

From the Fourth Wars, a non-competitive "Refbot" was present during fights. This robot conveyed officiating signals (such as counting out immobile competitors) on the arena, gave occasional nudges to help battles along and could deploy a fire extinguisher where necessary.

For Series 8, new versions of Matilda, Shunt, Dead Metal and Sir Killalot were constructed. They are considerably heavier with improved weaponry. All the house robots are over 300 kg in weight and Sir Killalot now weighs 741 kg. Visually, all four look similar to their predecessors, but with significant differences: Dead Metal's head has been enlarged with glowing eyes, Matilda's back-mounted fins have been replaced with smaller crocodilian scales, spikes appear on her frill, her eyes are now red and her whole head section now flips up; Shunt has enlarged wheel protectors and metal chimneys replacing the smokestack; and Sir Killalot's armour and helmet has been entirely redesigned. This was said to be to show the actual shape of Sir Killalot's head, rather than the helmet he is wearing. The other house robots did not return for this series.

Bold text indicates house robots that returned for the new series.

Arenas
There were numerous arena incarnations used during the original run of Robot Wars on the BBC. These arenas were also used by international versions such as Robot Wars: Extreme Warriors in the United States. The arena was approximately 32 by. For Series 1 to 3 the arena was not enclosed as such, as the audience were raised above the arena. The increasing sophistication of weaponry from contestant robots – most notably demonstrated by Hypno-Disc in Series 3 – as well as arena hazards prompted producers to enclose the arena entirely in a perspex box 20 ft high from Series 4 onwards, to protect the audience and production team from debris.

In early 2004, the Robot Wars arena was purchased from the television production firm Mentorn by a company called Robot Arenas Ltd., based in the UK, an organization set up by a past competitor in Robot Wars to continue the sport of robot combat in the UK. The arena – valued originally at £11,000 – was sold for scrap in 2005 for £250 by the new owners of the former RAF Newton air base, where the arena was housed. A suit filed against RAF Newton by Robot Arenas Ltd. found that RAF Newton had acted reasonably in the matter and owed no compensation to Robot Arenas Ltd.

In 2016, a new arena was constructed in a warehouse in Renfrew, on the outskirts of Glasgow, for use in the rebooted series. This arena is 15 m square, with a 6 mm steel floor and higher bulletproof walls, making it harder for robots to be thrown out of the arena.

Hazards
Throughout Robot Wars' run, arena booby-traps were introduced and amended. Generally, traps which proved ineffective were omitted in later series, however some traps proved to be a success (such as the Pit of Oblivion, Floor Flipper and the Drop Zone) and were retained. The assorted traps in the arena that changed from one series the next included:

 * Arena Sidebars - The First Wars Only - These were parts of the arena side fence that were on the floor. These trapped robots and potentially immobilised them if they could not drive off.
 * The Patrol Zone (commonly known as PZs) - The First Wars only - Four large squares in the corners of the arena marked with striped tape, each occupied by one House Robot and a booby-trap. Once a competitor robot entered one of these zones, it was open to attack by the House Robot within. The Patrol Zones were much like the CPZ's that appeared in later series but were much larger.
 * Floor grilles - The First Wars Only - Grille floor panels that, like the arena sidebars mentioned above, were designed to trap robots and not allow them to drive off. Proved much more effective than the sidebars. (similar to the flame pit introduced in the second wars)
 * Floor spikes - The First Wars to The Third Wars and Series 8 onwards - These were pneumatic spikes located in several positions on the arena floor that came up whenever a robot drove over them. They trapped robots and on occasion flipped them. They were removed for Series 4 after causing many upsets during The Third Wars, where robots currently winning battles would be overturned and then lose. This most notably happened during Heat B when Behemoth was flipped, could not self-right and its opponent Pitbull won by default. For Series 8, a group of five large spikes form one of the four main traps of the arena. They are powerful and large enough to lift and trap robots for a brief moment (as happened to Bonk in the opening episode), but are not as fast as their predecessors. In theory, this will avoid the sort of upsets seen in Series 3. One spike 'hole' is capable of emitting sparks.
 * The Perimeter Patrol Zones (commonly known as PPZs) - The Second Wars only – A narrow band around the perimeter of the arena that replaced the Patrol Zones. A competitor robot that entered this area was open to attack by any or all of the House Robots stationed there.
 * The Side Patrol Zones (commonly known as SPZs (Pinball Only)) - The Second Wars to The Fourth Wars - the House Robots guard three tyre targets in the sides of the arena during the Pinball Warrior Tournament (Two of the side tyre targets score 50 points and one scores 75 points if any tyre target is pressed).
 * The Pit of Oblivion - The Second Wars onwards - Arguably the arena's most iconic feature, this was a 4 ft square hole in the arena floor, painted black on the inside and partially filled with old tyres. If a robot drove, fell, or was pushed into the Pit, it would be instantly eliminated. In The Second Wars, pits were added to both lanes of The Gauntlet. For The Third Wars the Pit was open during the first two rounds of each heat, then covered during the heat final and following matches. In The Fourth Wars, the Pit was redesigned, with a yellow-and-black chevron-tape outline and was covered until halfway into a battle, whereupon it would "descend". From its very first appearance in The Second Wars, the Pit included a small pyrotechnic "explosion" that formed a large ball of white smoke. This would activate when a robot fell into the Pit, primarily used to show that a competitor had fallen in. This was changed to a small firework explosion for The Third Wars but the smoke returned for The Fourth Wars and remained until the end. From Extreme 1 onwards there was a device on the arena wall that competitor or house robots could use to activate the pit opening. In Extreme and The Fifth Wars that device was a tyre. For The Sixth Wars the tyre was replaced by a metal bumper. The tyre returned in Extreme 2 and remained for the remainder of the shows' run. The pit was enlarged and given an LED decoration on the inside for the eighth series, with the pyrotechnic no longer used. Since Series 9, the pyrotechnics have returned to the Pit.
 * Flame Pit - The Second Wars onwards - A large square grill located close to the right bottom corner of the arena resembling a kitchen stove. Used to set fire to flammable robots and damage electronics. For the eighth series, this was moved to the upper left corner of the arena. (similar to the floor grills which only appeared in the first wars)
 * The Corner Patrol Zones (commonly known as CPZs) - The Third Wars onwards - the House Robots were now confined to the four corners of the arena much like in The First Wars. Which house robot was used in which battle was defined by a rota system but would also sometimes depend on if a house robot was being repaired. In The Fourth Wars, the house robots switched to a rota system of Shunt, Matilda, Sgt. Bash and Dead Metal. Sir Killalot consistently appeared every round excepting battles 3 & 4 of the War of Independence when the original 4 house robots occupy all the CPZs. From The Fifth Wars and Extreme 1 onwards only two house robots were allowed in the arena at a time and this moved in a rota through all of the machines. However some House Robots did not appear in a show or on some occasions missed several shows before making an appearance. For Series 8, the CPZs are larger and L-shaped. The house robots no longer attack competitors who enter any CPZ, but stick to guarding their own and can still attack robots that have been immobilised.
 * The Floor Flipper - The Third Wars onwards - A powerful pneumatic flipper set into the floor resembling an aircraft carrier catapult, capable of throwing a robot across the arena. It was generally only used on robots that had already been defeated, but was occasionally fired during events such as the House Robot Rebellion. When originally introduced, it just looked like a part of the arena floor. For The Fourth Wars the flipper was given a yellow/black paint scheme similar to the redesigned Pit of Oblivion. For Extreme 1/Series 5 the power of the flipper increased, allowing it to hurl even the heaviest robots into the air and flip featherweight robots out of the arena. For Series 8, this is no longer used as a coup de grace for defeated robots, but fires independently during a fight. It is positioned diagonally on the floor and is capable not only of launching robots into the air but also trapping robots as it closes.
 * Red & Blue Perimeters (Sumo & Tag Team Terror only) - The Fourth Wars only - The Red Perimeter zone is for two robots in the red tag team and the Blue Perimeter zone is for two robots in the blue tag team.
 * Angle Grinders - The Third Wars and Extreme 1 to The Seventh Wars - Abrasive grinding wheels built into the arena railings. The grinders were replaced with small pneumatic spikes in The Fourth Wars but brought back from Extreme 1 onwards.
 * Pneumatic Spikes - The Fourth Wars only - As mentioned above, they replaced the Angle Grinders but proved ineffective so were omitted after one series.
 * CO2 geysers - The Fifth Wars and Extreme 1 onwards - High pressure CO2 outlets designed to cause internal damage to robots, but were more useful for extinguishing fires.
 * The Drop Zone - The Fifth Wars and Extreme 1 to The Seventh Wars - A square on the arena floor where heavy objects (television sets, ocean buoys, refrigerators, washing machines, etc.) fell from the top of the arena. Like the Floor Flipper, it was only used on robots that were already immobile. It was actually first used in Series 6 and Extreme 2, although the spot where the object would fall, a black square with a yellow 'X' shape across it, although it first appeared in The Fifth Wars and Extreme 1. Viewers did not know the purpose of this at the time. It is believed it was due to be used in Extreme 1 and The Fifth Wars Semi-Finals and Grand Final but technical difficulties meant it was abandoned.
 * The Disc of Doom - The Sixth Wars and Extreme 2 only - A circular spinning panel set into the arena floor activated by a buffer similar to the pit release. This trap was used to disrupt a robot's driving and worked well on lighter competitors, but proved ineffective against Heavyweight robots. It first appeared in both The Sixth Wars and Extreme 2 but was removed for The Seventh Wars to be replaced by The Dial of Doom in the near future.
 * The Dial of Doom/Doom Dial - Series 9 to Series 10. A dial that will activate when the arena tyre is pressed. If the dial swings left, it will open up the pit and if the dial swings right, it will activate "Rogue House Robot" which allows a house robot to leave the CPZ and attack a competitor robot for up to 10 seconds. Additionally, from the Tenth Wars, swinging right may trigger "The Fog of War" in which the arena is filled with CO2 for 10 seconds, obscuring the robots from view.

Competitors and results

 * Note: After THE BASH was found to be irreparable in the World Series after its first and only battle, it was directly replaced by Tough As Nails.

Toys (from Logistix Kids & Hexbug)
Pullback and Friction toys were made of all the House Robots, with the exception of Cassius Chrome as the toys from Logistix Kids had stopped production when it was introduced for The Seventh Wars and the toys would have resumed production by Series 8, 9 or 10, but this did not happen until Hexbug took over and did so rather late in 2018. There were also pullback and ripcord toys of the Series 3, 4, 5, 6, Extreme 1 and Extreme 2 Competitors Chaos 2, Dantomkia, Firestorm, Hypno-Disc, Panic Attack, Pussycat, Razer, Stinger, Tornado, Wheely Big Cheese and X-Terminator 2. Each came with an accessory.

There were remote controlled versions of Shunt, Matilda, Sir Killalot and Growler. There were also smaller remote control battlers, which had "immobilisation spots" on the rear of the toy. Sgt. Bash and the competitor robot Tornado were the only two made. These were smaller than the other remote control robots mentioned above.

There were customisable kit toys of the House Robot Matilda and competitors Hypno-Disc and Panic Attack. A Sergeant Bash pitstop kit was prototyped but never released.

Minibots were a series of small die-cast replica robots. The range included all of the Series 3, 4, 5 and Extreme 1 House Robots along with competitor robots Chaos 2, Dominator 2, Firestorm III, Gemini, Hypno-Disc, Mega Morg, Panic Attack, Plunderbird 5, Pussycat, Razer, Suicidal Tendencies, Tornado, Wheely Big Cheese, Wild Thing and X-Terminator 2. They had an interactive replica arena and two additional playsets.

Home media
Several VHS videos were released of the show. These included "The First Great War" a look at the making of Series 1, "The First World Championship" which was released exclusively on video and the "Ultimate Warrior Collection" featuring exclusive access to the teams of Chaos 2, Hypno-Disc and Razer, along with footage of their battles. Along the same lines an "Ultimate Archive Collection" was released showing exclusive footage of the House Robots and their operators along with some of their greatest battles and most embarrassing moments.

The Ultimate Warrior Collection and Ultimate Archive Collection were also released on DVD. The footage and content remained the same as the VHS releases. Series 8 was released on DVD and Blu-ray on 29 August 2016, making it the first full series of Robot Wars to be released on home media. It was later released digitally. The Complete Compendium 2017 contained Series 9 and 10, along with the "Battle of the Stars" specials, were released on 11 December 2017 as a 5-disc DVD box set.

Video games
Robot Wars: Metal Mayhem is the first game based on the show, released on Game Boy Color in 2000. It was followed in 2001 by Robot Wars: Arenas of Destruction on PlayStation 2 and Microsoft Windows and Robot Wars: Advanced Destruction on Game Boy Advance. After the first three titles sold over 250,000 copies, a fourth and final game, released on Game Boy Advance, Microsoft Windows and Xbox in 2002 was called Robot Wars: Extreme Destruction.

Other
A large array of other merchandise was produced due to the success of the show. Items available included mugs, glasses, mobile phone covers, toiletries, stationery, clocks, watches, bedding, curtains and clothing. The show even produced an unsuccessful single, which peaked at number 51 in the UK singles charts in December 2000, called "Sir Killalot Vs. Robo Babe - Robot Wars (Android Love)". A custom made game officially licensed under Robot Wars LLC was started on in October 2013, using the Robot Arena 2 video game as the base engine. It featured many robots from the TV series as well as robots competing in the newer live events. It also included the original Robot Wars arena and various live arenas. It was released to the public in September 2015 and an updated version which included more robots was released in February 2016. A smaller update was released in January 2017, adding two new robots. Another update came in August 2017 which added the new Robot Wars arena from the current series and another new arena as well as some unreleased robots from the beta and robots that were due to be released in a cancelled expansion. It is only available for Microsoft Windows.

Transmissions
All episodes were announced by Jonathan Pearce.

Extreme series
All Extreme episodes premiered on BBC Choice.

title: Robot Wars (TV series)


text:
Jean-Marie Messier

Jean-Marie Messier is a French businessman who was chairman and chief executive of the multinational media conglomerate Vivendi (formerly Vivendi Universal) until 2002. He is also frequently referred to by the nickname "J2M" and "J6M", based on his initials.

Early life and education
Jean-Marie Messier was born in Grenoble, France, the son of an accountant.

He studyied at the École Polytechnique from 1976 to 1980, and then at the École nationale d'administration between 1980 and 1982. He was refused sponsorship by Total to study at Harvard Business School.

Business career
Messier held several posts at the French Economy Ministry, including a post as technical counselor for privatization under Édouard Balladur, during the 1980s, before moving to investment bank Lazard Frères in 1989. He established the boutique bank Messier Partners.

After taking up the chairmanship of the utility company Compagnie Générale des Eaux in 1994, he oversaw its diversification into the media sector and its 2000 merger with Groupe Canal+ and Seagram (owners of Universal Studios) to form Vivendi Universal.

Forced resignation
Messier was forced to resign from his position with Vivendi in July 2002, after the company posted a non-cash loss of 13.6 billion euro ($US 11.8 billion) during 2001. During his time as CEO of Vivendi, Messier used corporate funds to buy a $17.5 million apartment for his personal use at 515 Park Avenue at 60th Street in New York City, the swank Arthur Zeckendorf development that was home to Senator Jon Corzine for a time. After he was fired, Messier tried to claim the apartment as part of his severance package, but was rebuffed. However, he did receive 23.4 million dollars in severance from his former employer, Vivendi. Messier then relocated to New York City to work as a business consultant.

Prosecution and conviction
Messier was put on trial in France in 2011 and was found guilty of misappropriation of company funds and divulging misleading information when he headed Vivendi. He appealed the decision, and in 2014 the court overturned Messier's conviction on charges of misleading investors but upheld the conviction on charges of misuse of corporate funds.

title: Jean-Marie Messier


text:
List of women's magazines

This is a list of women's magazines from around the world. These are magazines that have been published primarily for a readership of women.

Currently published

 * 10 Magazine (UK - distributed worldwide)
 * Al Jamila (Saudi Arabia)
 * All You (US)
 * Allure (US)
 * Alt for Damerne (Denmark)
 * Amina (France and Africa)
 * An an (Japan)
 * ASOS.com Magazine (online)
 * The Australian Women's Weekly
 * Avantages (France)
 * Azerbaijan gadini (Azerbaijan)
 * Bella (UK)
 * Best (UK)
 * Better Homes and Gardens (US)
 *  Better Homes and Gardens (Australia)
 * Bild der Frau (Germany)
 * Bis (Japan)
 * Bitch (US)
 * Bona (South Africa)
 * Brigitte (Germany)
 * Burda Style (Germany)
 * Bust (US)
 * Bustle (US)
 * Canadian Living
 * Candis (UK)
 * Chat (UK)
 * Chatelaine (Canada)
 * Claudia (Brazil)
 * Cleo (Australia)
 * Closer (UK and France)
 * Cosmopolitan (US-based)
 * Costume (Finland)
 * Croissant (Japan)
 * Curve
 * Damernas Värld (Sweden)
 * Darling (US)
 * Destiny (South Africa)
 * Diva (UK)
 * Donna Moderna (Italy)
 * Elle
 * elle (Brazil)
 * Essence (US)
 * Ettelaat-e Banuvan (Iran)
 * Familie Journalen (Denmark)
 * Family Circle (US)
 * 'Femina (Denmark)
 * Femina (India)
 * Femme Actuelle (France)
 * Femmes d'Aujourd'hui (Belgium)
 * First for Women (US)
 * Flare (Canada)
 * Fucsia (Colombia)
 * Gael (Belgium)
 * Genevieve Magazine (Nigeria)
 * Glam (Malaysia)
 * Gloria (Croatia)
 * Good Housekeeping (US and UK)
 * Grand Hotel (Italy)
 * Grazia (Italian-based)
 *  Guitar Girl Magazine  (US)
 * Gynaika (Greece)
 * Hänt Extra (Sweden)
 * Harper's Bazaar
 * Harrods Magazine (UK)
 * Hepburn (Australia)
 * Heat (UK)
 * Hello! (UK)
 * Hennes (Sweden)
 * HGTV Magazine (US)
 * Hia (Saudi Arabia)
 * Homemakers (Canada)
 * In Touch Weekly (US)
 * InStyle
 * IO Donna (Italy)
 * JJ (Japan)
 * Kotiliesi (Finland)
 * Kvinner og Klær (Norway)
 * Ladies' Home Journal (US)
 * The Lady (UK)
 * LaIsha (Israel)
 * Latina (US)
 * Lepota & Zdravlje (Serbia)
 * Life & Style (US)
 * Lonny (US)
 * Love It! (UK)
 * Lucire (New Zealand)
 * Madame Figaro (France)
 * Margriet (Netherlands)
 * Marie Claire
 * Martha Stewart Living (US)
 * MaryJanesFarm (US)
 * Máxima (Portugal)
 * Me Naiset (Finland)
 * Moondance (online)
 * Ms. (US)
 * My Weekly (UK)
 * Naj (Poland)
 * Nargis (Azerbaijan)
 * Nesf El Donya (Egypt)
 * new! (London, France)
 * New Idea (Australia)
 * New Woman (India)
 * New Zealand Woman's Weekly
 * Nők Lapja (Hungary)
 * Nona (Malaysia)
 * O: The Oprah Magazine (US)
 * OK! (UK celebrity)
 * Olivia (Finland)
 * Parenting (US)
 * Parents (US)
 * The People's Friend (UK)
 * Pick Me Up! (UK)
 * Plaza Kvinna (Sweden)
 * Pleine Vie (France)
 * Prima (UK)
 * Pronto (Spain)
 * Rabotnitsa (Soviet Union)
 * Real People (UK)
 * Real Simple (US)
 * Re(de)fining Magazine (online)
 *  Red Magazine (UK)
 * Reveal (UK)
 * Sakhi (Karnataka, India)
 * Sayidaty (Saudi Arabia)
 * Shape (US)
 * Star (UK)
 * Stylist (UK)
 * Suitcase (magazine) (UK)
 * Take a Break (UK)
 * Tatler (UK)
 * Tea Moderna (Macedonia)
 * Telva (Spain)
 * Texas Family (US)
 * That's Life! (UK)
 * Urban Woman Magazine
 * Vanitha (India)
 * Veckorevyn (Sweden)
 * Verve (India)
 * View Woman Magazine
 * Vintage Life (UK)
 * VIVmag (online)
 * Vogue
 * W (US)
 * With (Japan; has Chinese version)
 * WFO (Australia)
 * Woman (UK)
 * Woman & Home (UK)
 * Woman Engineer (US)
 * Womankind (Australia)
 * Woman's Day (Australia)
 * Woman's Day (US)
 * Woman's Era (India)
 * Woman's Own (UK)
 * Woman's Weekly (UK)
 * Woman's World (US)
 * Women's Health UK (UK)
 * Women's Health (US)
 * Women's Running (US)
 * Zan-e Rooz (Iran)

Defunct women's magazines

 * Ainslee's Magazine (1897–1926, US)
 * Ain't I a Woman? (1970–1971, US)
 * Al Fatat (1892–1894, Egypt)
 * All You (2004–2015, US)
 * The American Home (1928–1977, US)
 * The American Jewess (1895–1899, US)
 * Arthur's Lady's Home Magazine (1852–c. 1898, US)
 * Arthur's Magazine (1844–1846, US), merged with Godey's Lady's Book
 * Audrey (2003–2015, US)
 * Australian Woman's Mirror (1924–1961, Australia)
 * Der Bazar (1855–1933, Germany)
 * La Belle Assemblée (1806–1868, UK)
 * Bint Al Nil (1945–1957, Egypt)
 * Blueprint: Design Your Life (2006–2008, US)
 * Candida (1972, UK)
 * Children's Party Magazine of Washington, D.C. (1991–1996, US)
 * Chrysalis (1977–1980, US)
 * Conditions (1976–1990, US)
 * Cookie (2005–2009, US)
 * The Delineator (1873–1937, US)
 * Demet (1908), Turkey
 * Domino (2005–2009, US)
 * Elevate Jiu Jitsu Mag (2016–2017, US)
 * The Englishwoman's Domestic Magazine (1852–1879, England)
 * Elle Girl (2001–2006, US)
 * Ewomen (online magazine, for women from the Indian subcontinent)
 * Family Health (1969–1991, US)
 * The Farmer's Wife (1897–1939, US)
 * Fatat al-Sharq (1906-1929, Egypt)
 * The Female Spectator (1744–1746, UK)
 * Femina (1972–2023, Indonesia)
 * Femina (1982–2010, South Africa)
 * Femmes françaises (1944–1957, France)
 * Filament (UK)
 * Fit Pregnancy (1993–2015, US)
 * Fitness (1992–2015, US)
 * Focus: A Journal for Lesbians (1970–1983, US)
 * Funü zazhi (1915–1931, China)
 * g3 (British magazine) (2001–2013, UK)
 * Girl Germs (1990, US)
 * Girlfriends (1993–2006, US)
 * Glamour (1939–2019, US)
 * Godey's Lady's Book (1830–1878, US)
 * The Green Book Magazine (1909–1921, US)
 * Hanımlara Mahsus Gazete (1895–1908, Ottoman Empire)
 * Harpies and Quines (1992–1994, UK)
 * Hearth and Home (1868–1875, US)
 * Heresies: A Feminist Publication on Art and Politics (1977–1992, US)
 * Holland's Magazine (1876–1953, US)
 * The Home (1920–1942, Australia)
 * Home Chat, (1895–1959, UK)
 * Home Notes, (1894–1958, UK)
 * Home Monthly (1896–1900, US)
 * Honey (1960–1986, UK)
 * The Household Magazine (1900–1958, US)
 * I Confess (1922–1932, US)
 * Indianapolis Woman Magazine (1994–2012, US)
 * Jane (1997–2007, US)
 * Janus (1975–1980, US)
 * Kadınca (1978–1998, Turkey)
 * Kartini (1974–2020, Indonesia)
 * Kim (1992–1999, Turkey)
 * The Ladder (1956–1972, US)
 * Ladies' Magazine (1827–1837, US), merged with Godey's Lady's Book
 * The Ladies' Mercury (1693, England)
 * The Lady's Magazine (1770–1847, England)
 * The Lady's Monthly Museum (1798–1832, England)
 * The Lady's Realm (1896–1915, England)
 * Lear's (1988–1994, US)
 * Look (2007–2018, UK)
 * Lucky (2000–2015, US)
 * Mademoiselle (1935–2001)
 * McCall's (1897–2002, US)
 * The Minerviad: Devoted to Literature and Amusement, for the Ladies (March 30-Aug. 24, 1822, US)
 * Mingguan Wanita (1983–2020, Malaysia)
 * Mirabella (1989–2000, US)
 * Missbehave (2006–2009, US)
 * MODE (1997–2001, US)
 * Modern Homemaking, The American Needlewoman (1929, Maine, US)
 * Modern Priscilla (1887–1930, US)
 * Modern Woman (1930s - 1950s UK)
 * More (1997–2016, US)
 * More: for New Zealand women (1983–1996, New Zealand)
 * Mothering (1976–2011, US)
 * Muslim Girl (2007, Canada/US)
 * Nameh-e Banuvan (1920–1921, Iran)
 * New England Offering (1847–1850, US)
 * New York Woman (1986–1992, US)
 * Nova (1965–1975, UK)
 * NOW (1996–2019, UK)
 * off our backs (1970–2008, US)
 * On the Issues (1983–2008, US)
 * On Our Backs (1984–2006, US)
 * Pandora (1971–1979, US)
 * Peg's Paper (1919–1940, UK)
 * Peterson's Magazine (1842–1898, US)
 * Pictorial Review (1899–1939, US)
 * Playgirl (1973–2016, US)
 * Quarante (1984–1990, US)
 * ROCKRGRL (1994–2005, US)
 * Redbook (1903–2019, US)
 * Rosie (2001–2003, US)
 * Sarinah (1982–1994, Indonesia)
 * Savvy (1977-1991, US; called Savvy Woman 1987-1991)
 * Sekar (2009–2013, Indonesia)
 * Smith's Magazine (1905–1922, US)
 * Spare Rib (1972–1993, UK)
 * Sports Illustrated for Women (1999–2002, US)
 * Sportswoman (1973–1977, US)
 * $pread (2005–2010, US)
 * Sudden Weekly (1995–2015, Hong Kong)
 * Terakki-i Muhadderat (1869–1870, Ottoman Empire)
 * Today's Housewife (1905–1928, US)
 * Trouble & Strife (1983–2002, UK)
 * U.S. Lady (1955, US)
 * Velvetpark (2002–2007, US)
 * Venus Zine (1995–2010)
 * VIBE Vixen (2004–2013, US)
 * Vice Versa (1947–1948, US)
 * Viva (circa 1970s, US)
 * The Woman Voter (1910–1917, US)
 * Wanita (1969–2017, Malaysia)
 * Woman's Home Companion (1873–1957, US)
 * Woman's Journal (1870–1931, US)
 * Woman's Realm, merged with Woman's Weekly in 2001
 * Woman's Viewpoint (1923–1927, US)
 * Women in Music (1935–1940, US)
 * Women's Physique World (1984–2006, US)
 * Women's World (1913–1921, Turkey)
 * womenSports (1974–2000, US)
 * Working Woman (1976–2001, US)
 * Young Woman's Journal (1889–1929, US)

title: List of women's magazines


text:
Gemini 6A

Gemini 6A (officially Gemini VI-A) was a 1965 crewed United States spaceflight in NASA's Gemini program. The mission, flown by Wally Schirra and Thomas P. Stafford, achieved the first crewed rendezvous with another spacecraft, its sister Gemini 7. Although the Soviet Union had twice previously launched simultaneous pairs of Vostok spacecraft, these established radio contact with each other, but they had no ability to adjust their orbits in order to rendezvous and came no closer than several kilometers of each other, while the Gemini 6 and 7 spacecraft came as close as one foot (30 cm) and could have docked had they been so equipped.

Gemini 6A was the fifth crewed Gemini flight, the 13th crewed American flight, and the 21st crewed spaceflight of all time (including two X-15 flights over 100 km).

Backup crew
This was the prime crew of Gemini 3

Support crew

 * Charles A. Bassett II (Houston CAPCOM)
 * Alan L. Bean (Cape CAPCOM)
 * Eugene A. Cernan (Houston CAPCOM)
 * Elliot M. See Jr. (Houston CAPCOM)

Mission parameters

 * Mass: 3546 kg
 * Perigee: 161 km
 * Apogee: 259.4 km
 * Inclination: 28.97°
 * Period: 88.7 min

Stationkeeping with GT-7

 * Start: December 15, 1965 19:33 UTC
 * End: December 16, 1965 00:52 UTC
 * Duration: 5 hours, 19 minutes

Objective
The original Gemini 6 mission, scheduled for launch on October 25, 1965, at 12:41 pm EDT, had a planned mission duration of 46 hours 47 minutes, completing a total of 29 orbits. It was to land in the western Atlantic Ocean south of Bermuda.

The mission was to include four dockings with the Agena Target Vehicle. The first docking was scheduled for five hours and forty minutes into the mission. The second was scheduled for seven hours and forty-five minutes, the third at nine hours and forty minutes, and the fourth and final docking at ten hours and five minutes into the mission. The final undocking would take place at 18 hours and 20 minutes into the mission. At 23 hours and 55 minutes into the mission, while the spacecraft passed over White Sands, New Mexico, the crew was to attempt to observe a laser beam originating from the ground. The retrorockets were scheduled to be fired at 46 hours and 10 minutes into the mission over the Pacific Ocean on the 29th orbit.

Original mission plans also included the first live television coverage of the recovery of a US spacecraft at sea from the recovery ship, the US aircraft carrier Wasp. The Wasp was fitted with ground station equipment by ITT to relay live television, via the Intelsat I (nicknamed the "Early Bird") satellite.

Original mission canceled
On October 25, 1965, Schirra and Stafford boarded their Gemini 6 craft to prepare for launch. Fifteen minutes later, the uncrewed Atlas-Agena target vehicle was launched. After a successful burn of the Atlas booster, the Agena's engine fired to separate it from the Atlas. But immediately after the Agena's engine fired at the six-minute mark in the flight, telemetry was lost. A catastrophic failure apparently caused the vehicle to explode, as Range Safety was tracking multiple pieces of debris falling into the Atlantic Ocean. After 50 minutes, the Gemini launch was canceled.

Revised mission
After reviewing the situation, NASA decided to launch an alternate Gemini 6A mission, eight days after the launch of Gemini 7, which was scheduled as a 14-day long-duration mission in December. Gemini 6A would perform the first rendezvous of two spacecraft in orbit, using Gemini 7 as the target, though they would not dock. The crews also discussed the possibility of Stafford performing an EVA from 6A to 7, swapping places with Gemini 7 pilot Jim Lovell, but the commander of Gemini 7, Frank Borman, objected, pointing out that it would require Lovell to wear an uncomfortable EVA suit on a long-duration mission.

First launch attempt

The first attempt to launch the 6A mission (second attempt for Gemini spacecraft No. 6) was on December 12, 1965, at 9:54 a.m. EST. All went well right up to ignition; the engines ignited, but after about 1.5 seconds they abruptly shut down. Since the lift-off clock had started in the spacecraft, mission rules dictated that Wally Schirra, as the commander, had to immediately pull the D-ring between his knees and activate the ejection seats, carrying the astronauts away from the disaster that would be the result of a fully fueled Titan II falling back onto LC-19. However, Schirra did not feel any movement and knew that the booster had not lifted, so he decided not to abort. His quick thinking probably saved the mission as the reliability of the Gemini ejector seats was questionable; the astronauts could have been badly injured from high g-forces as the seats had to launch them at least 800 feet, which was deemed a safe distance from an exploding Titan II.

In addition, the cabin interior had been soaking in pure oxygen for hours. Tom Stafford, in a NASA oral history in 1997, later recalled:

"So it turns out what we would have seen, had we had to do that, would have been two Roman candles going out, because we were 15 or 16 psi, pure oxygen, soaking in that for an hour and a half. You remember the tragic fire we had at the Cape. (...) Jesus, with that fire going off and that, it would have burned the suits. Everything was soaked in oxygen. So thank God. That was another thing: NASA never tested it under the conditions that they would have had if they would have had to eject. They did have some tests at China Lake where they had a simulated mock-up of Gemini capsule, but what they did is fill it full of nitrogen. They didn't have it filled full of oxygen in the sled test they had."

Even if the astronauts had not been injured or killed, ejection would ruin the spacecraft and delay the mission for months.

After the Stage I engines ignited and shut down, fuel (UDMH) was leaking out of the PSV drain valve. The fuel had been ignited by the engine start, and the resulting fire was discovered when the Pad Crew inspected the engine compartment. Water spray was initiated and a cap was installed on the drain line. About 60 minutes after the aborted launch, the booster and spacecraft had been made safe and the service tower raised up to it. After removing the propellants from the Titan II, the booster was checked out and they quickly uncovered one culprit, which was an umbilical plug that dropped out of the base of the booster prematurely. This plug sent a lift-off signal to the spacecraft. Testing revealed that some plugs came out more easily than others, so they were replaced by different ones that would stay in place properly.

However, the electrical plug turned out to not be the only problem with the booster. Examination of telemetry also showed that the Titan actually began experiencing thrust decay before the plug dropped out. Engine No. 1 was unaffected and nearly reached 100% thrust at shutdown, while Engine No. 2 never transitioned to in-flight performance levels. Engineers spent all night combing through the first stage, but failed to find any cause for the thrust decay. Eventually however, one technician identified the problem, which was a plastic dust cover inside the gas generator that had been carelessly left inside when the booster was assembled months earlier at the Martin-Marietta plant, blocking the flow of oxidizer. The cover was removed and the Titan II cleared for another launch attempt.

Had the inadvertent electrical disconnect not occurred, the abort sensing system would have sent a shutoff command to the Titan at T+2.2 seconds due to the loss of Engine No. 2 chamber pressure. Since launcher release and liftoff would take place at T+3.2 seconds, a pad fallback still would not have occurred in this scenario and the astronauts would have been safe.

Second attempt and rendezvous
The Titan's batteries were replaced and the fuel prevalves, which had opened, were removed and it was decided to launch without them. The second attempt to launch the 6A mission (third attempt for Gemini spacecraft No. 6) was successful on December 15 at 8:37:26 a.m. EST. All went well through launch and ascent; first stage cutoff occurred at T+160 seconds and second stage cutoff at T+341 seconds. Spacecraft separation occurred at T+361 seconds and the crew entered a 100 by orbit.

The plan called for the rendezvous to take place on the fourth orbit of Gemini 6. Their first burn came 94 minutes after launch when they increased their speed by 5 meters (16$1/2$ feet) per second. Due to their lower orbit they were gaining on Gemini 7 and were only 730 miles, (or 1,175 kilometers), behind. The next burn was at two hours and eighteen minutes when Gemini 6A made a phase adjustment to put them on the same orbital inclination as Gemini 7. They now only trailed by 483 km.

The radar on Gemini 6A first made contact with Gemini 7 at three hours and fifteen minutes when they were 434 km away. A third burn put them into a 168 by orbit. As they slowly gained, Schirra put Gemini 6A's computer in charge of the rendezvous. At five hours and four minutes, he saw a bright star that he thought was Sirius, but this was in fact Gemini 7.

After several more burns, the two spacecraft were only 130 feet (40 meters) apart. The burns had only used 112 lbs. (51 kilograms) of propellant on Gemini 6A, leaving plenty for some fly-arounds. During the next 270 minutes, the crews moved as close as one foot (30 centimeters), talking over the radio. At one stage the spacecraft were stationkeeping so well that neither crew had to make any burns for 20 minutes.

Schirra said that because there is no turbulence in space, "I was amazed at my ability to maneuver. I did a fly-around inspection of Gemini 7, literally flying rings around it, and I could move to within inches of it in perfect confidence". As the crew sleep periods approached, Gemini 6A made a separation burn and slowly drifted more than 30 km from Gemini 7. This ensured that there would not be any accidental collisions while the astronauts slept.

A Christmas surprise
The next day, before reentry, the crew of Gemini 6A had a surprise:

"...this is Gemini VI. We have an object, looks like a satellite going from north to south, up in a polar orbit. He's in a very low trajectory traveling from north to south and has a very high climbing ratio. It looks like it might even be a ... Very low. Looks like he might be going to reenter soon. Stand by one ... You might just let me try to pick up that thing."

At that point, the sound of "Jingle Bells" was heard played on an eight-note Hohner "Little Lady" harmonica and a handful of small bells. The Smithsonian Institution claims these were the first musical instruments played in space and keeps the instruments on display.

Reentry
Gemini 6A fired its retro-rockets and landed within 18 km of the planned site in the Atlantic Ocean northeast of Turks and Caicos. It was the first recovery to be televised live, through a transportable satellite earth station developed by ITT on the deck of the recovery aircraft carrier USS Wasp.

The Gemini 7 and 6A missions were supported by the following U.S. Department of Defense resources: 10,125 personnel, 125 aircraft and 16 ships.

Insignia

Walter Schirra explained the patch in the book All We Did Was Fly to the Moon: "The Gemini 6 patch is hexagonal in shape, reflecting the mission number; and the spacecraft trajectory also traces out the number '6'. The Gemini 6 spacecraft is shown superimposed on the 'twin stars' Castor and Pollux, for 'Gemini'.

I designed the patch to locate in the sixth hour of celestial right ascension. This was the predicted celestial area where the rendezvous should occur (in the constellation Orion). It finally did occur there." The original patch had called the flight GTA-6 (for Gemini-Titan-Agena) and showed the Gemini craft chasing an Agena. It was changed when the mission was altered to depict two Gemini spacecraft.

Spacecraft location
The spacecraft is currently on display at the Stafford Air & Space Museum in Weatherford, Oklahoma, having previously been displayed at the Oklahoma History Center in Oklahoma City. The spacecraft had previously been on display at the Omniplex Science Museum elsewhere in the city. It is on a long-term loan from the Smithsonian Institution.

Before being moved to Oklahoma, the spacecraft was displayed at the St. Louis Science Center in St. Louis, Missouri.

title: Gemini 6A


text:
Kahlan

Kahlan (كهلان) was one of the main tribal confederations of Saba' in Ancient Yemen. They are descended from Kahlan bin Saba bin Yishjab bin Yarub bin Qahtan.

Conflict with Himyar
By the 2nd century BC Saba' was declining gradually and its southern neighbor Himyar was able to settle many nomadic tribes that were allied to Himyar and create a stronger Himyarite nation in the lowlands. Eventually Saba' was incorporated into Himyar and resistance was reduced to the Kahlan tribes who were overpowered by Himyar and forced out of Highlands in Yemen. Most of Kahlan remained in the Yemeni desert region around Marib until the destruction of the Dam in the 3rd century AD. this forced the Kahlani tribes to emigrate northwards through Arabia. They reaching as far as Mesopotamia and Syria prior to the 7th century Arab conquests under Islam. After the Arab conquests, the Kahlani Arabs, among other Qahtani and Adnani tribes, reached all the way to the far edges of the Umayyad Empire.

The Kahlan Septs
The Kahlan branched into 5 main branches; Azd, Hamdan, Lakhm, Tayy, Kinda. Madhhij

Azd branches
In the 3rd century AD. The Azd branched into four branches each led by one of the sons of Amr bin Muzaqiba

Imran bin Amr
Imran bin Amr and the bulk of the tribe went to Oman where they established the Azdi presence in Eastern Arabia and later invaded Karman and Shiraz in Southern Persia. Another branch headed west back to Yemen and a group went further West all the way to Tihama on the Red Sea. This branch will become known as Azd Uman after Islam.

Jafna bin Amr
Jafna bin Amr and his family, headed for Syria where he settled and initiated the kingdom of the Ghassanids who was so named after a spring of water where they stopped on their way to Syria.

Thalabah bin Amr
Thalabah bin Amr left his tribe Al-Azd for Hijaz and lived between Thalabiyah and Dhi Qar. When he gained strength, he headed for Yathrib where he stayed. Of his seed are the great Aws and Khazraj, sons of Haritha bin Thalabah. Those will be the Muslim Ansar and will produce the last Arab Dynasty in Spain (the Nasrids).

Haritha bin Amr
Haritha bin Amr. Lead a branch of the Azd Qahtani tribes wandered with his tribe in Hijaz until they came to Tihama. He has two sons Uday and Lahi, Uday father of Bariq and lahi father of Khuza'a.

Hashid and Bakil
Today still in the same ancient tribal form in Yemen Hashid and Bakil of Hamdan remained in the highlands North of Sana'a between Marib and Hajja'a.

Banu Yam
Banu Yam settled to the North of Bakil in Najran (today in Saudi Arabia) it also branched into the tribes: the Al Murrah and the 'Ujman of eastern Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf coast.

Banu Kathir
Banu Kathir moved to Hadramut in the East of Yemen where they established their own sultanate.

Banu Al-Mashruki
Banu Al-Mashrouki settled in Lebanon producing well known Maronite influential families such as the Awwad, Massa'ad, Al-Sema'ani, Hasroun.

Banu Al Harith remained in Jabal Amil and were mainly Shia. A smaller group joined the Yemeni Druze and were eventually pushed by Kaysi Druze to Jabal Al Druze in Syria.

Banu Lakhm
Under the leadership of Malik bin Uday bin Al-Harith bin Murr bin Add bin Zayed bin Yashjub bin Uraieb bin Zayed. They spread to the North mainly in Southern and Western Mesopotamia, Rafah, Golan, Hauran and they were the first Southern Arabs to settle Northern Egypt where they were later joined with the Sicasik, Banu Judham and the Ghassanids. The Lakhmids produced The Abadi, Ubadi and Banu Bahr dynasties in Spain. Other notable Lakhmid is the late Arab leader Gamal Abdul Nasser from the Bani Mur of Banu Lakhm.

Banu Tayy
Led by Usma bin Luai in their massive exodus out of Yemen (115 BC), the Tayy invaded the mountains of Ajaa and Salma from Banu Assad and Banu Tamim in northern Arabia. The Tayy became camel herders and horse breeders and lived a nomadic lifestyle in northern Nejd for centuries. Because of their strength and blood relations with the Yemenite dynasties that came to rule Syria (Ghassan) and Iraq (the Lakhmids), they expanded north into Iraq all the way to the capital at the time al-Hirah. Tayy later changed their name to Shammar, renaming the mountains of Ajaa and Salma to Jabal Shammar (Shammar's Mountain).

Kinda branches
The Kindah dwelt in the Bahrain but were expelled to East Yemen a group of them moved to Nejd where they instituted a powerful government that was a vassal kingdom for Himyar. They gradually declined After the fall of Himyar in 525 AD. The Kindites towns fell under constant bedouins raids from Nejd that eventually destroyed the Kindites and they were absorbed into the Najdi tribal federations.

Banu Muayiya
Ruled much of northern Arabia and Bahrain. They were mostly affiliated with Himyar and declined after its fall.

Banu Al-Sukun
Largely settled in Wadi Do'an east of Hadramout and did not play a major rule in the Kendite kingdom. they had long lasting battles with the native tribes of hadramout.

Banu Al-Sakasek
Alongside Banu Al-Sukun, they fairly ruled Hadramout.

Banu Al-Harith
Banu Al-Harith converted to Judaism and ruled the city of Najran.

Banu Amela
The Banu Amela were the first South Arabian tribe to settle The Southern part of Mt Lebanon later known as Jabal Amil, possibly as early as the 1st millennium BC.

Banu Judham
The Banu Judham dwelt with Lakhmids, Azdis in Syria and later settled Northern Egypt with Lakhmids. They were a Qahtani Yemeni tribe in alliance with the Kahlan tribes.

Sakasic
The Sakasic were a Himyarite tribe that settled Northern Egypt around 3rd century AD. They settled the ancient town of Bubastis in Egypt giving it its modern name Zaqaziq after the name of their Yemeni Tribe Sakasic. Also its one of Egypt provinces.

Banu Quda'a
The Banu Quda'a were a Himyarite tribe that was exiled from Yemen following the trials of the Lakhmids and they settled The Southern part of the Lakhmid Kingdom in the Samawa region.

title: Kahlan


text:
Zedd (disambiguation)

Zedd (born 1989) is a German music producer and DJ.

Zedd may also refer to:

 * Lord Zedd, a fictional character in the Power Rangers television series
 * Zeddicus Zu'l Zorander, a fictional character in the Sword of Truth fantasy series by Terry Goodkind
 * Nick Zedd (1958-2022), American filmmaker

title: Zedd (disambiguation)


text:
Kawachi

Kawachi (河内 or 川内) may refer to:

Places

 * Kawachi Province, one of the old provinces of Japan
 * Kawachi, Kumamoto, a former town in Kumamoto Prefecture
 * Kawachi, Osaka, a former city in Osaka Prefecture
 * Kawachi, Ibaraki, a town in Ibaraki Prefecture
 * Kawachi, Ishikawa, a former village in Ishikawa Prefecture
 * Kawachi, Tochigi, a former town in Tochigi Prefecture
 * Kawachinagano, a city in Osaka Prefecture

Other uses

 * Kawachi (surname), a Japanese surname
 * Kawachi ondo, a genre of Japanese music
 * Kawachi-class battleship, a two-ship class of dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy
 * JAPANESE BATTLESHIP Kawachi, lead ship of her class battleship during World War I
 * Kawachi Bankan, a pomelo-like citrus hybrid

title: Kawachi


text:
Yamashiro

Yamashiro is a Japanese word with kanji often meaning mountain castle (山城). There are however other kanji spellings.

In addition to kanji variation, the word could also be read as Yamagusuku in the Ryukyu Islands.
 * Yamashiro, Kyoto, former town in Japan
 * Yamashiro, Tokushima, former town in Japan
 * Yamashiro Province, former Japanese province
 * Japanese battleship Yamashiro, a battleship of the Imperial Japanese Navy
 * Yamashiro Onsen, an onsen in Kaga, Ishikawa province
 * Yamashiro Park Taiyogaoka Stadium, an athletic stadium in Uji, Kyoto, Japan
 * Yamashiro Historic District, a villa, restaurant, and gardens in Los Angeles, California
 * Yamashiro, or yamajiro, category of Japanese castle in which the main structures are located on a mountain

People
Yamashiro is also a Japanese surname. In the Okinawan language, the kanji is read Yamagusuku. Notable people with the surname include:
 * Prince Yamashiro (d.643)
 * Danny Yamashiro (1967- )
 * Hiroshi Yamashiro (1958- )
 * Junya Yamashiro (1985- )
 * Rafael Yamashiro (1963- )
 * Shingo Yamashiro (1938–2009)
 * Shoji Yamashiro, pseudonym for Tsutomu Ōhashi
 * Stephen K. Yamashiro (1941–2011)
 * Mary Yamashiro Otani (1923–2005)
 * Augusto Miyashiro Yamashiro (1949- )

Fictional characters

 * Aoba Yamashiro
 * Tatsu Yamashiro

title: Yamashiro