text:
Carl Schmitt

Carl Schmitt (11 July 1888 – 7 April 1985) was a German jurist, political theorist, geopolitician and prominent member of the Nazi Party.

Born in Plettenberg in 1888, Schmitt studied law in Berlin, Munich, and Strasbourg. In 1916, he married his first wife, Pavla Dorotić, but divorced her after realizing that she had pretended to be a countess. Schmitt was Catholic but broke with the church in the 1920s. He married Duška Todorović in 1926. During this time, he taught in Greifswald, Bonn, and Munich and published Dictatorship and Political Theology. Schmitt taught in Cologne in 1932, published The Concept of the Political, and supported the Papen government in Prussia v. Reich. After the appointment of Adolf Hitler as chancellor in 1933, Schmitt joined the Nazi Party. He was an active jurist, a member of the Prussian State Council, and a professor in Berlin. In 1936 Schmitt was forced to resign his political role when the SS targeted him, but Hermann Göring protected him. After the Second World War ended, Schmitt spent over a year in an internment camp and returned to Plettenberg. He refused denazification, which barred him from academic positions. However, he continued his studies and frequently received scholarly visitors. In 1963, he published the Theory of the Partisan. Schmitt died on 7 April 1985 at the age of 96.

Schmitt wrote extensively about the effective wielding of political power. An authoritarian conservative theorist, he is noted as a critic of parliamentary democracy, liberalism, and cosmopolitanism. His works have significantly influenced subsequent political theory, legal theory, continental philosophy, and political theology. However, they are controversial, mainly due to his intellectual support for and active involvement with Nazism.

Schmitt's work has attracted the attention of numerous philosophers and political theorists, including Walter Benjamin, Friedrich Hayek, Leo Strauss, Hannah Arendt, Aleksandr Dugin, Reinhart Koselleck, Jürgen Habermas, Jacques Derrida, Antonio Negri, Jaime Guzmán, and Slavoj Žižek. According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Schmitt was an acute observer and analyst of the weaknesses of liberal constitutionalism and liberal cosmopolitanism. But there can be little doubt that his preferred cure turned out to be infinitely worse than the disease."

Early life
Schmitt was born in Plettenberg, Westphalia, German Empire. His parents were Roman Catholics from the German Eifel region who had settled in Plettenberg. His father was a minor businessman. Schmitt studied law at the Universities of Berlin, Munich, and Strasbourg, and took his graduation and state examinations in then-German Strasbourg in 1915. His 1910 doctoral thesis was titled Über Schuld und Schuldarten (On Guilt and Types of Guilt).

Schmitt volunteered for the army in 1916. The same year, he earned his habilitation at Strasbourg with a thesis under the title Der Wert des Staates und die Bedeutung des Einzelnen (The Value of the State and the Significance of the Individual). He then taught at various business schools and universities, namely the University of Greifswald (1921), the University of Bonn (1921), the Technical University of Munich (1928), the University of Cologne (1933), and the University of Berlin (1933–45).

In 1916, Schmitt married his first wife, Pavla Dorotić, a Croatian woman who pretended to be a countess. They divorced, but no annulment was granted by a Catholic tribunal, so his 1926 marriage to Duška Todorović (1903–1950), a Serbian woman, was not deemed valid under Catholic law. Schmitt was excommunicated by the Catholic Church due to his second marriage.

As a young man, Schmitt was "a devoted Catholic until his break with the church in the mid twenties." From around the end of the First World War, he began to describe his Catholicism as "displaced" and "de-totalised".

Academic career
In 1921, Schmitt became a professor at the University of Greifswald, where he published his essay Die Diktatur (on dictatorship).

In 1922 he published Politische Theologie (political theology) while working as a professor at the University of Bonn. Schmitt changed universities in 1926, when he became professor of law at the Handelshochschule in Berlin, and again in 1932, when he accepted a position in Cologne. His most famous paper, "Der Begriff des Politischen" ("The Concept of the Political"), was based on lectures at the Deutsche Hochschule für Politik in Berlin.

In 1932, Schmitt was counsel for the Reich government in the case Preussen contra Reich (Prussia v. Reich), in which the Social Democratic Party of Germany-controlled government of the state of Prussia disputed its dismissal by the right-wing Reich government of Franz von Papen. Papen was motivated to do so because Prussia, by far the largest state in Germany, served as a powerful base for the political left and provided it with institutional power, particularly in the form of the Prussian police. Schmitt, Carl Bilfinger and Erwin Jacobi represented the Reich and one of the counsel for the Prussian government was Hermann Heller. The court ruled in October 1932 that the Prussian government had been suspended unlawfully but that the Reich had the right to install a commissar. In German history, the struggle resulting in the de facto destruction of federalism in the Weimar republic is known as the Preußenschlag.

Hitler's seizure of control
Schmitt remarked on 31 January 1933 that with Adolf Hitler's appointment as Chancellor, "one can say that 'Hegel died. Richard Wolin observes:

"it is Hegel qua philosopher of the 'bureaucratic class' or Beamtenstaat that has been definitely surpassed with Hitler's triumph… this class of civil servants—which Hegel in the Rechtsphilosophie deems the 'universal class'—represents an impermissible drag on the sovereignty of executive authority. For Schmitt… the very essence of the bureaucratic conduct of business is reverence for the norm, a standpoint that could not but exist in great tension with the doctrines of Carl Schmitt… Hegel had set an ignominious precedent by according this putative universal class a position of preeminence in his political thought, insofar as the primacy of the bureaucracy tends to diminish or supplant the prerogative of sovereign authority."

The Nazis forced through the passage of the Enabling Act of 1933 in March, which changed the Weimar Constitution to allow the "present government" to rule by decree, bypassing both the President, Paul von Hindenburg, and the Reichstag.

Alfred Hugenberg, the leader of the German National People's Party, one of the Nazis' partners in the coalition government that was being squeezed out of existence, hoped to slow the Nazi takeover of the country by threatening to quit his ministry position in the Cabinet. Hugenberg reasoned that by doing so, the government would thereby be changed, and the Enabling Act would no longer apply, as the "present government" would no longer exist. A legal opinion by Schmitt prevented this manoeuvre from succeeding. At the time well known as a constitutional theorist, Schmitt declared that "present government" did not refer to the Cabinet's makeup when the act was passed, but to the "completely different kind of government"—that is, different from the democracy of the Weimar Republic—that the Hitler cabinet had brought into existence.

Nazi Party
Schmitt joined the Nazi Party on 1 May 1933. Within days, he supported the party in the burning of books by Jewish authors, rejoiced in the burning of "un-German" and "anti-German" material, and called for a much more extensive purge, to include works by authors influenced by Jewish ideas. From June 1933, he was in the leadership council of Hans Frank's Academy for German Law and served as chairman of the Committee for State and Administrative Law. In July, Hermann Göring appointed him to the Prussian State Council, and in November he became the president of the Association of National Socialist German Jurists. He also replaced Heller as a professor at the University of Berlin, a position he held until the end of World War II. He presented his theories as an ideological foundation of the Nazi dictatorship and a justification of the Führer state concerning legal philosophy, particularly through the concept of auctoritas.

In June 1934, Schmitt was appointed editor-in-chief of the Nazi newspaper for lawyers, the Deutsche Juristen-Zeitung ("German Jurists' Journal"). In July he published in it "The Leader Protects the Law (Der Führer schützt das Recht)", a justification of the political murders of the Night of the Long Knives with Hitler's authority as the "highest form of administrative justice (höchste Form administrativer Justiz)". Schmitt presented himself as a radical antisemite and was the chairman of an October 1936 law teachers' convention in Berlin at which he demanded that German law be cleansed of the "Jewish spirit (jüdischem Geist)" and that all Jewish scientists' publications be marked with a small symbol.

Nevertheless, in December 1936, the Schutzstaffel (SS) publication Das Schwarze Korps accused Schmitt of being an opportunist, a Hegelian state thinker, and a Catholic, and called his antisemitism a mere pretense, citing earlier statements in which he criticized the Nazis' racial theories. After this, Schmitt resigned as Reichsfachgruppenleiter (Reich Professional Group Leader) but retained his professorship in Berlin and his title "Prussian State Councillor". Schmitt continued to be investigated into 1937, but Göring stopped further reprisals.

During the German occupation of Paris a "round-table" of French and German intellectuals met at the Georges V Hotel, including Schmitt, the writers Ernst Jünger, Paul Morand, Jean Cocteau, and Henry de Montherlant, and the publisher Gaston Gallimard.

After World War II
In 1945, American forces captured Schmitt and, after spending more than a year in an internment camp, he returned to his home town of Plettenberg and later to the house of his housekeeper Anni Stand in Plettenberg-Pasel. He remained unrepentant for his role in the creation of the Nazi state, and refused every attempt at denazification, which barred him from academic jobs. Despite being isolated from the mainstream of the scholarly and political community, he continued his studies, especially of international law, from the 1950s on, and frequently received visitors, both colleagues and younger intellectuals, well into his old age. Important among these visitors were Ernst Jünger, Jacob Taubes and Alexandre Kojève.

In 1962, Schmitt gave lectures in Francoist Spain, two of which resulted in the publication, the next year, of Theory of the Partisan, in which he characterized the Spanish Civil War as a "war of national liberation" against "international Communism". Schmitt regarded the partisan as a specific and significant phenomenon which, during the latter half of the 20th century, indicated the emergence of a new theory of warfare.

Schmitt and Todorović had a daughter, Anima, who in 1957 married Alfonso Otero Varela (1925–2001), a Spanish law professor at the University of Santiago de Compostela and a member of the ruling FET y de las JONS party in Francoist Spain. She translated several of her father's works into Spanish. Letters from Schmitt to his son-in-law have been published. Schmitt died on 7 April 1985 and is buried in Plettenberg.

The Dictatorship
In his essay Die Diktatur ("The Dictatorship"), he discussed the foundations of the newly established Weimar Republic, emphasising the office of the President of Germany. In this essay, Schmitt compared and contrasted what he saw as the effective and ineffective elements of the new constitution of his country. He saw the office of the president as a comparatively effective element, because of the power granted to the president to declare a state of exception (Ausnahmezustand). This power, which Schmitt discussed and implicitly praised as dictatorial, was more in line with the underlying mentality of executive power than the comparatively slow and ineffective processes of legislative power reached through parliamentary discussion and compromise.

Schmitt was at pains to remove what he saw as a taboo surrounding the concept of "dictatorship" and to show that the concept is implicit whenever power is wielded by means other than the slow processes of parliamentary politics and the bureaucracy:

"If the constitution of a state is democratic, then every exceptional negation of democratic principles, every exercise of state power independent of the approval of the majority, can be called dictatorship."

For Schmitt, every government capable of decisive action must include a dictatorial element within its constitution. Although the German concept of Ausnahmezustand is best translated as "state of emergency", it literally means "state of exception" which, according to Schmitt, frees the executive from any legal restraints to its power that would normally apply. The use of the term "exceptional" has to be underlined here: Schmitt defines sovereignty as the power to decide to initiate a state of exception, as Giorgio Agamben has noted. According to Agamben, Schmitt's conceptualization of the "state of exception" as belonging to the core-concept of sovereignty was a response to Walter Benjamin's concept of a "pure" or "revolutionary" violence, which did not enter into any relationship whatsoever with right. Through the state of exception, Schmitt included all types of violence under right, in the case of the authority of Hitler leading to the formulation "The leader defends the law" ("Der Führer schützt das Recht").

Schmitt opposed what he termed "commissarial dictatorship", or the declaration of a state of emergency in order to save the legal order (a temporary suspension of law, defined itself by moral or legal right): the state of emergency is limited (even if a posteriori, by law) to "sovereign dictatorship", in which law was suspended, as in the classical state of exception, not to "save the Constitution", but rather to create another constitution. This is how he theorized Adolf Hitler's continual suspension of the legal constitutional order during the Third Reich (the Weimar Republic's Constitution was never abrogated, emphasized Giorgio Agamben; rather, it was "suspended" for four years, first with the 28 February 1933 Reichstag Fire Decree, with the suspension renewed every four years, implying a continual state of emergency).

Political Theology
On Dictatorship was followed by another essay in 1922, titled Politische Theologie (political theology); in it, Schmitt, gave further substance to his authoritarian theories with the now notorious definition: "Sovereign is he who decides on the exception." By "exception", Schmitt means stepping outside the rule of law under the state of exception (Ausnahmezustand) doctrine he first introduced in On Dictatorship for the purpose of managing some crisis, which Schmitt defines loosely as "a case of extreme peril, a danger to the existence of the state, or the like." For this reason, the "exception" is understood as a "borderline concept" for Schmitt because it is not within the purview of the normal legal order. Schmitt opposes this definition of sovereignty to those offered by contemporary theorists on the issue, particularly Hans Kelsen, whose work is criticized at several points in the essay. The state of exception is a critique of "normativism", a positivist concept of law developed by Kelsen of law as the expression of norms that are abstract and generally applicable, in all circumstances.

A year later, Schmitt supported the emergence of totalitarian power structures in his paper "Die geistesgeschichtliche Lage des heutigen Parlamentarismus" (roughly: "The Intellectual-Historical Situation of Today's Parliamentarianism", translated as The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy by Ellen Kennedy). Schmitt criticized the institutional practices of liberal politics, arguing that they are justified by a faith in rational discussion and openness that is at odds with actual parliamentary party politics, in which outcomes are hammered out in smoke-filled rooms by party leaders. Schmitt also posits an essential division between the liberal doctrine of separation of powers and what he holds to be the nature of democracy itself, the identity of the rulers and the ruled. Although many critics of Schmitt today, such as Stephen Holmes in his The Anatomy of Anti-Liberalism, take exception to his fundamentally authoritarian outlook, the idea of incompatibility between liberalism and democracy is one reason for the continued interest in his political philosophy.

In chapter 4 of his State of Exception (2005), Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben argued that Schmitt's Political Theology ought to be read as a response to Walter Benjamin's influential essay Towards the Critique of Violence.

The book's title derives from Schmitt's assertion (in chapter 3) that "all significant concepts of the modern theory of the state are secularized theological concepts"—in other words, that political theory addresses the state (and sovereignty) in much the same manner as theology does God.

The Concept of the Political
For Schmitt, "the political" is not equal to any other domain, such as the economic (which distinguishes between profitable and not profitable), but instead is the most essential to identity. While churches are predominant in religion or society is predominant in economics, the state is usually predominant in politics. Yet, for Schmitt, the political was not autonomous or equivalent to the other domains, but rather the existential basis that would determine any other domain should it reach the point of politics (e.g. religion ceases to be merely theological when it makes a clear distinction between the "friend" and the "enemy").

He views political concepts and images as inherently contestable. Hegemonic powers seek to control and direct how political concepts are applied for a purpose and to effect an outcome such as making the enemy knowable and, in all cases, intended to manifest the inclusive and exclusive aspects of the social order represented by the political words and symbolism:

All political concepts, images, and terms have a polemical meaning. They are focused on a specific conflict and are bound to a concrete situation; the result (which manifests itself in war or revolution) is a friend–enemy grouping, and they turn into empty and ghostlike abstractions when this situation disappears. Words such as state, republic, society, class, as well as sovereignty, constitutional state, absolutism, dictatorship, economic planning, neutral or total state, and so on, are incomprehensible if one does not know exactly who is to be affected, combated, refuted or negated by such a term.

Schmitt, in perhaps his best-known formulation, bases his conceptual realm of state sovereignty and autonomy upon the distinction between friend and enemy. Schmitt writes:

"The political enemy need not be morally evil or aesthetically ugly… But he is, nevertheless, the other, the stranger…'"

This distinction is to be determined "existentially", which is to say that the enemy is whoever is "in a specially intense way, existentially something different and alien, so that in the extreme case conflicts with him are possible". Such an enemy need not even be based on nationality: so long as the conflict is potentially intense enough to become a violent one between political entities, the actual substance of enmity may be anything. In this work, Schmitt makes the distinction between several different types of enemies one may make, stating that political enemies ought to be made out of a legitimate concern for the safety of the state rather than moral intuitions.

The collectivization of friendship and enmity is, for Schmitt, the essence of politics. This theory of politics was influential in the Third Reich where the recognition and eradication of the enemy became a necessary component of the collective national identity. Similar views were shared by other Nazi legal theorists like Werner Best. Although there have been divergent interpretations concerning this work, there is broad agreement that The Concept of the Political is an attempt to achieve state unity by defining the content of politics as opposition to the "enemy". Additionally, the prominence of the state stands as an arbitrary force dominating potentially fractious civil society, whose various antagonisms must not be allowed to affect politics, lest civil war result.

Political Romanticism
Schmitt's Political Romanticism (1926) contains Schmitt's critique of Romantic conservatism, which he considers unrealistic for the political arena of the modern era as it only seeks a restoration of the ancien régime, which Schmitt considers unfeasible. Distancing himself from the tradition of legitimist "restorative conservatives" such as Adam Müller or Joseph de Maistre, Schmitt instead champions the thought of the 19th century Spanish reactionary thinker Juan Donoso Cortés, who advocated for a dictatorship.

According to György Lukács, this text is both the starting point of Schmitt's advocacy for a politics of realism and his extreme anti-humanism. Lukács quotes Schmitt's comment that Cortes's 'great theoretical significance for the history of counter-revolutionary theory lies in [that] his contempt for human beings knew no bounds; their blind understanding, their feeble wills, the derisory elan of their carnal desires seem so pitiful to him that all the vocabulary of all human languages is not sufficient to express the full baseness of these creatures,' and Lukács writes:

"Here we clearly perceive Schmitt's association with all anti-human tendencies, past and present, along with the reason for it in socio-human terms: he is an enemy of the masses grown blind with hatred, a fanatic in the campaign against Vermassung or mass feeling."

Dialogue with Leo Strauss
Schmitt provided a positive reference for Leo Strauss, and approved his work, which was instrumental in winning Strauss the scholarship funding that allowed him to leave Germany. In turn, Strauss's critique and clarifications of The Concept of the Political led Schmitt to make significant emendations in its second edition. Writing to Schmitt during 1932, Strauss summarized Schmitt's political theology thus: "[B]ecause man is by nature evil, he therefore needs dominion. But dominion can be established, that is, men can be unified only in a unity against—against other men. Every association of men is necessarily a separation from other men… the political thus understood is not the constitutive principle of the state, of order, but a condition of the state."

The Leviathan in the State Theory of Thomas Hobbes
The Leviathan in the State Theory of Thomas Hobbes, with the subtitle "Meaning and Failure of a Political Symbol", is a 1938 work by Schmitt that revisits one of his most critical theoretical inspirations: Thomas Hobbes. Schmitt's work can be described as both a critique and appraisal of the controversial political theorist. This work also contains some of Schmitt's more anti-Semitic language. As contemporary writers on Schmitt have noted, his anti-Semitism may be read as more a kind of "anti-Judaism" as, unlike his Nazi allies, he did not attribute the dangers of Judaism to "biological" reasons but strictly religious ones. This work by Schmitt is also one of the most intimately involved by him with the concept of myth in a political setting.

The text itself begins with an overview of the religious history of the mythical character "Leviathan". Schmitt traces this character as a unique subject of conflicting interpretations in Abrahamic doctrines, whereby the Leviathan, understood most pointedly as a "big fish," is occasionally interchangeable with that of a dragon or serpent, which Schmitt remarks have been "protective and benevolent deities" in the history of non-Jewish peoples. But, as Schmitt makes clear, Hobbes' Leviathan is very different from these interpretations, being illustrated firstly in his work Leviathan as a "huge man". The Leviathan as a "huge man" is used throughout Hobbes' work as a symbol of the sovereign person. Although the Leviathan is not the only allegory made by Hobbes of the sovereign, which gravitates throughout his work as "a huge man, a huge leviathan, an artificial being, an animal artificiale, an automaton, or a machina". Hobbes' concern was mainly to convey the sovereign person as a frightening creature that could instill fear into those chaotic elements of man that belong to his interpretation of the state of nature.

Schmitt's critique of Hobbes begins with Hobbes' understanding of the state as a "machine" which is set into motion by the sovereign. This, according to Schmitt, is actually a continuation of René Descartes's concept of mind–body dualism. For Hobbes to conceptualize the state as a machine whose soul is the sovereign renders it really as just a mechanic structure, carrying over the cartesian dualism into political theory: "As a totality, the state is body and soul, a homo artificialis, and, as such, a machine. It is a manmade product... the soul thereby becomes a mere component of a machine artificially manufactured by man." Schmitt adds that this technical conception of the state is essential in the modern interpretation of government as a widespread administrative organ. Therefore, Schmitt attributes Hobbes' mechanistic and often also a legally positivist interpretation of the state (what is legitimate = what is legal) with the process of political neutralization. This is consistent with Schmitt's larger attitude toward attempts to apply technical principles to political matters.

Also, Schmitt critiques Hobbes' insistence that belief in miracles must only be outwardly consistent with the position of the state and can, privately, deviate into one's own opinion as to the validity of such "miracles". The belief in miracles was a relevant point in Hobbes' century for kings would regularly "bestow miracles" by touching the hands of those of ill health, supposedly healing them—obviously a consequence of the medieval belief that kings had a divine character. Hobbes' position was that "private reason" may disagree with what the state claims to be a miracle, but the "public reason" must by necessity agree to its position in order to avoid chaos. Schmitt's critique of Hobbes here is twofold. Firstly, Hobbes opens the crack toward a liberal understanding of individual rights (such as the right to "private reason") which Schmitt was a tireless critique of and, secondly, Hobbes guts the state of any "substantive truth" (such as the genuine belief of the individual, even in private, of the kings divine right) and renders the state into now simply a "justifiable external power". This opens up the elementary basis of liberal society which, for Schmitt, was pluralism. Such a pluralist society lacked ideological homogeneity and nationally bound group identity, both of which were fundamental premises of a democratic society to Schmitt. Despite his critiques, Schmitt, nonetheless, finishes the book with a celebration of Hobbes as a truly magnificent thinker, ranking him along with other theorists he values greatly like Niccolò Machiavelli and Giambattista Vico.

The Nomos of the Earth
The Nomos of the Earth is Schmitt's most historical and geopolitical work. Published in 1950, it was also one of his final texts. It describes the origin of the Eurocentric global order, which Schmitt dates from the discovery of the New World, discusses its specific character and its contribution to civilization, analyses the reasons for its decline at the end of the 19th century, and concludes with prospects for a new world order. It defends European achievements, not only in creating the first truly global order of international law, but also in limiting war to conflicts among sovereign states, which, in effect, civilized war. In Schmitt's view, the European sovereign state was the greatest achievement of Occidental rationalism; in becoming the principal agency of secularization, the European state created the modern age.

Notable in Schmitt's discussion of the European epoch of world history is the role played by the New World, which ultimately replaced the Old World as the centre of the Earth and became the arbiter in European and world politics. According to Schmitt, the United States' internal conflicts between economic presence and political absence, between isolationism and interventionism, are global problems, which today continue to hamper the creation of a new world order. But however critical Schmitt is of American actions at the end of the 19th century and after World War I, he considered the United States to be the only political entity capable of resolving the crisis of global order.

Hamlet or Hecuba
Published in 1956, Hamlet or Hecuba: The Intrusion of the Time into the Play was Schmitt's most extended piece of literary criticism. In it Schmitt focuses his attention on Shakespeare's Hamlet and argues that the significance of the work hinges on its ability to integrate history in the form of the taboo of the queen and the deformation of the figure of the avenger. Schmitt uses this interpretation to develop a theory of myth and politics that serves as a cultural foundation for his concept of political representation. Beyond literary criticism or historical analysis, Schmitt's book also reveals a comprehensive theory of the relationship between aesthetics and politics that responds to alternative ideas developed by Walter Benjamin and Theodor W. Adorno.

Theory of the Partisan
Schmitt's Theory of the Partisan originated in two lectures delivered during 1962, and has been seen as a rethinking of The Concept of the Political. It addressed the transformation of war in the post-European age, analysing a specific and significant phenomenon that ushered in a new theory of war and enmity. It contains an implicit theory of the terrorist, which during the 21st century has resulted in yet another new theory of war and enmity. In the lectures, Schmitt directly tackles the issues surrounding "the problem of the Partisan" figure: the guerrilla or revolutionary who "fights irregularly" (p. 3). Both because of its scope, with extended discussions on historical figures like Napoleon, Vladimir Lenin, and Mao Zedong, as well as the events marking the beginning of the 20th century, Schmitt's text has had a resurgence of popularity. Jacques Derrida, in his Politics of Friendship remarked:

Despite certain signs of ironic distrust in the areas of metaphysics and ontology, The Concept of the Political was, as we have seen, a philosophical type of essay to 'frame' the topic of a concept unable to constitute itself on philosophical ground. But in Theory of the Partisan, it is in the same areas that the topic of this concept is both radicalized and properly uprooted, where Schmitt wished to regrasp in history the event or node of events that engaged this uprooting radicalization, and it is precisely there that the philosophical as such intervenes again.

Schmitt concludes Theory of the Partisan with the statement: "The theory of the partisan flows into the question of the concept of the political, into the question of the real enemy and of a new nomos of the earth." Schmitt's work on the Partisan has since spurred comparisons with the post-9/11 'terrorist' in recent scholarship. The Italian philosopher Domenico Losurdo comments:

"Thus, for Schmitt, the colonized peoples' struggle for national independence, although embracing ever larger sections of the population, becomes synonymous with terrorism, while the actions of the occupying army, foreign and hated by the citizens of the occupied country, are characterized as 'counter-terrorist'. Of course, the 'retaliations' can be very harsh, but - Schmitt observes, referring to Algeria and Vietnam - we must take into account the 'irresistible logic of the old rule according to which insurgents can only be dealt with by insurgent methods.' As we see, the main difference between terrorism and counter-terrorism is not a specific behavior (ie. the impact on, or participation of, citizens). It coincides with the border between barbarism and civilization, between East and West. The power that determines who the barbarians are every time also determines who the terrorists are."

Influence
Through Walter Benjamin, Giorgio Agamben, Andrew Arato, Chantal Mouffe and other writers, Schmitt has become a common reference in recent writings of the intellectual left as well as the right. These discussions concern not only the interpretation of Schmitt's own positions, but also matters relevant to contemporary politics: the idea that laws of the state cannot strictly limit actions of its sovereign, the problem of a "state of exception" (later expanded upon by Agamben).

Schmitt's argument that political concepts are secularized theological concepts has also recently been seen as consequential for those interested in contemporary political theology. The German-Jewish philosopher Jacob Taubes, for example, engaged Schmitt widely in his study of Saint Paul, The Political Theology of Paul (Stanford Univ. Press, 2004). Taubes' understanding of political theology is, however, very different from Schmitt's, and emphasizes the political aspect of theological claims, rather than the religious derivation of political claims.

Schmitt is described as a "classic of political thought" by Herfried Münkler, while in the same article Münkler speaks of his post-war writings as reflecting an "embittered, jealous, occasionally malicious man" ("verbitterten, eifersüchtigen, gelegentlich bösartigen Mann"). Schmitt was termed the "Crown Jurist of the Third Reich" ("Kronjurist des Dritten Reiches") by Waldemar Gurian.

According to historian Renato Cristi in the writing of the 1980 Constitution of Chile, Pinochet collaborator Jaime Guzmán based his work on the pouvoir constituant concept used by Schmitt (as well as drawing inspiration in the ideas of market society of Friedrich Hayek). This way Guzmán would have enabled a framework for a dictatorial state combined with a free market economic system.

Law of emergency powers
Schmitt's "state of exception" doctrine has enjoyed a revival in the 21st century. Formulated 10 years before the 1933 Nazi takeover of Germany, Schmitt claimed that urgency justified the following:

 * 1) Special executive powers
 * 2) Suspension of the Rule of Law
 * 3) Derogation of legal and constitutional rights

Schmitt's doctrine helped clear the way for Hitler's rise to power by providing the theoretical legal foundation of the Nazi regime.

China
Some have argued that Schmitt has become an important influence on Chinese political theory in the 21st century, particularly since Xi Jinping became General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in 2012. Leading Chinese Schmittians include the theologian Liu Xiaofeng, the public policy scholar Wang Shaoguang, and the legal theorist and government adviser Jiang Shigong. Schmitt's ideas have proved popular and useful instruments in justifying the legitimacy of Chinese Communist Party rule.

The first important wave of Schmitt's reception in China started with Liu's writings at the end of the 1990s. In the context of a transition period, Schmitt was used both by liberal, nationalist and conservative intellectuals to find answers to contemporary issues. In the 21st century, most of them are still concerned with state power and to what extent a strong state is required to tackle China's modernization. Some authors consider Schmitt's works as a weapon against liberalism. Others think that his theories are helpful for China's development.

A critical reception of his use in a Chinese context does also exist. These differences go together with different interpretations of Schmitt's relation with fascism. While some scholars regard him as a faithful follower of fascism, others, such as Liu Xiaofeng, consider his support to the Nazi regime only as instrumental and attempt to separate his works from their historical context. According to them, his real goal is to pave a different and unique way for the modernization of Germany—precisely what makes him interesting for China. Generally speaking, the Chinese reception is ambivalent: quite diverse and dynamic, but also highly ideological. Other scholars are cautious when it comes to Schmitt's arguments for state power, considering the danger of totalitarianism, they assume at the same time that state power is necessary for the current transition and that a "dogmatic faith" in liberalism is unsuitable for China. By emphasizing the danger of social chaos, many of them agree with Schmitt—beyond their differences—on the necessity of a strong state.

Other countries
Among other things, his work is considered to have influenced neoconservatism in the United States.Legal justification
 * Thinking out loud about John Yoo (and about Carl Schmitt) by Sandy Levinson, Balkinization, April 12, 2008
 * The Bush Regime from Elections to Detentions: A Moral Economy of Carl Schmitt and Human Rights by Abraham, David, University of Miami – School of Law, University of Miami Legal Studies Research Paper No. 2007 – 20 May 2007
 * Torture, Necessity and Existential Politics by Kutz, Christopher L., University of California, Berkeley – School of Law (Boalt Hall), UC Berkeley Public Law Research Paper No. 870602, December 2005
 * The Return of Carl Schmitt Scott Horton, Balkinization, 7 November 2005
 * Deconstructing John Yoo by Scott Horton, Harpers, 23 January 2008
 * The will to undemocratic power By Philip S Golub, Le Monde Diplomatique, September 2006
 * The Leo-conservatives by GERHARD SPÖRL, Der Spiegel, 4 August 2003 Most notably the legal opinions offered by Alberto Gonzales, John Yoo et al. by invoking the unitary executive theory to justify the Bush administration's legally controversial decisions during the War on terror (such as introducing unlawful combatant status which purportedly would eliminate protection by the Geneva Conventions, the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse, the National Security Agency's electronic surveillance program and various excesses of the Patriot Act) mimic his writings. Professor David Luban points out that the American legal database Lexis.com has five references to Schmitt in the period between 1980 and 1990, 114 between 1990 and 2000, and 420 between 2000 and 2010, with almost twice as many in the last five years of the 2000s decade as the first five.

Several scholars have noted the influence of Carl Schmitt on Vladimir Putin and Russia, specifically in defence of illiberal norms and exercising power, such as in disputes with Ukraine. Timothy Snyder has asserted that Schmitt's work has greatly influenced Eurasianist philosophy in Russia by revealing a counter to the liberal order.

Works
Some of Schmitt's major works are:
 * Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty (1922)
 * The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy (1923)
 * The Concept of the Political (1932)
 * Die Wendung zum diskriminierenden Kriegsbegriff (1938)
 * Land and Sea: A World-Historical Meditation (1942)
 * Ex Captivitate Salus (1950)
 * The Nomos of the Earth (1950)
 * Hamlet or Hecuba: The Intrusion of the Time into the Play (1956)
 * Theory of the Partisan: Intermediate Commentary on the Concept of the Political (1963)
 * Political Theology 2 (1970)

title: Carl Schmitt


text:
President of Germany (1919–1945)

The President of the Reich (Reichspräsident) was the German head of state under the Weimar constitution, which was officially in force from 1919 to 1945. In English he was usually simply referred to as the President of Germany.

The Weimar constitution created a semi-presidential system in which power was divided between president, cabinet and parliament. The Reichspräsident was directly elected under universal adult suffrage for a seven-year term. It was intended that the president would rule in conjunction with the Reichstag (legislature) and that his emergency powers would be exercised only in extraordinary circumstances, but the political instability of the Weimar period, and a paralysing factionalism in the legislature, meant that the president came to occupy a position of considerable power, capable of legislating by decree and appointing and dismissing governments at will.

In 1934, after the death of President Hindenburg, Adolf Hitler, already chancellor, assumed the powers of the presidency as Führer und Reichskanzler ("Leader and Chancellor"), highlighting the positions he already held in party and government. In his last will in April 1945, Hitler named Joseph Goebbels his successor as chancellor but named Karl Dönitz as Reichspräsident, thus reviving the presidential office. However, this revival only lasted until shortly after the German surrender in May 1945.

The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany established the office of Federal President (Bundespräsident), which is, however, a chiefly ceremonial post largely devoid of political power.

List of officeholders
† denotes people who died in office.

Election
Under the Weimar constitution, the President was directly elected by universal adult suffrage for a term of seven years; reelection was not limited.

The law provided that the presidency was open to all German citizens who had reached 35 years of age. The direct election of the president occurred under a form of the two round system. If no candidate received the support of an absolute majority of votes cast (i.e. more than half) in a first round of voting, a second vote was held at a later date. In this round the candidate who received the support of a plurality of voters was deemed elected. A group could also nominate a substitute candidate in the second round, in place of the candidate it had supported in the first.

The President could not be a member of the Reichstag (parliament) at the same time. The constitution required that on taking office the president swore the following oath (the inclusion of additional religious language was permitted):

 * I swear to devote my energy to the welfare of the German people, to increase its prosperity, to prevent damage, to hold up the constitution of the Reich and its laws, to consciously honour my duties and to exercise justice to every individual.

Only two regular presidential elections under the provisions of the Weimar Constitution actually occurred, in 1925 and 1932:

The first office-holder, the Social Democrat Friedrich Ebert was elected by the National Assembly on 11 February 1919 on a provisional basis.

Ebert intended to stand in presidential elections in 1922 when the outcry about assassination of Walther Rathenau seemed to generate a pro-republican atmosphere. However, National Liberal politician Gustav Stresemann persuaded the other centrist parties that the situation was still too turbulent to hold elections. Hence, the Reichstag extended Ebert's term to June 30, 1925, in late 1922, which required a constitutional change. However, Ebert died in office in February 1925.

The first presidential election was held in 1925. After the first ballot had not resulted in a clear winner, the right-wing parties urged their candidate, Karl Jarres, to drop out in favour of Paul von Hindenburg, who won a plurality on the second ballot. The decision of the Communist Party of Germany to run their candidate Ernst Thälmann in the second round in 1925 (widely considered to have been a spoiler candidate throwing the election to Hindenburg) was controversial at the time and later officially declared a mistake by the Komintern and East German historiography. Hindenburg served a full term and was reelected in 1932, this time nominated by the pro-republican parties, who thought only he could prevent the election of Adolf Hitler to the office. Hindenburg died in office in August 1934, a little over two years after his reelection, having since appointed Hitler as Chancellor. Hitler then assumed the powers of the Presidency, though not the actual office. Prior to his suicide in 1945, Hitler named Karl Dönitz his successor as President. Neither Hitler's nor Dönitz's accession to the presidency occurred within the bounds of constitutional legality and the title "President" was virtually never used in Nazi Germany regardless, Hitler preferring to go by "Führer".

Duties and functions

 * Appointment of the Government: The Reichskanzler ("Chancellor of the Reich") and his cabinet were appointed and dismissed by the president. No vote of confirmation was required in the Reichstag before the members of the cabinet could assume office, but any member of the cabinet was obliged to resign if the body passed a vote of no confidence in him. The president could appoint and dismiss the chancellor at will, but all other cabinet members could, save in the event of a no confidence motion, only be appointed or dismissed at the chancellor's request.
 * Dissolution of the Reichstag: The president had the right to dissolve the Reichstag at any time, in which case a general election had to occur within sixty days. Legally, he was not permitted to do so more than once for the same reason, but this limitation had little significance in practice.
 * Promulgation of the law: The president was responsible for signing bills into law. The president was constitutionally obliged to sign every law passed in accordance with the correct procedure but could insist that a bill first be submitted to the electorate in a referendum. Such a referendum could, however, only override the decision of the Reichstag if a majority of eligible voters participated.
 * Foreign relations: The president was entitled to represent the nation in its foreign affairs, to accredit and receive ambassadors and to conclude treaties in the name of the state. However approval of the Reichstag was required to declare war, conclude peace or to conclude any treaty that related to German laws.
 * Commander-in-chief: The president held supreme command of the armed forces.
 * Amnesties: The president had the right to confer amnesties.

Emergency powers
The Weimar constitution granted the president sweeping powers in the event of a crisis. Article 48 empowered the president, if "public order and security [were] seriously disturbed or endangered" to "take all necessary steps to re-establish law and order". These permissible steps included the use of armed force, the suspension of many of the civil rights guaranteed by the constitution and using his authority to oblige a state government to cooperate if it failed to meet its obligations under the constitution or under federal law. Most importantly, the president could issue emergency decrees (Notverordnungen) which had the same legal force as laws passed by parliament.

The Reichstag had to be informed immediately of any measures taken under Article 48 and had the right to reverse any such measures. Though the article was intended for use only in an extraordinary emergency, it was used to by-pass parliament in the latter years of the Weimar Republic.

Powers in practice
The Weimar constitution created a system in which the cabinet was answerable to both the president and the legislature. This meant that the parliament had the power to make a government retreat without the burden to create a new one. Ebert and Hindenburg (initially) both attempted to appoint cabinets that enjoyed the confidence of the Reichstag. Most of the Weimar governments were minority cabinets of the centrist parties tolerated by the social democrats or the conservatives.

Ebert (especially in 1923) and Hindenburg (from 1930 onwards) supported governments also by presidential decrees. The last four cabinets of the republic (Brüning I and II, Papen, Schleicher) are even called "presidential" cabinets (Präsidialkabinette) because the presidential decrees more and more replaced the Reichstag legislature. Under Brüning the social democrats still tolerated the government by not supporting motions that revoked the decrees, but after Papen (1932) they refused to do so. This made Hindenburg dismiss the parliament twice, to "buy" time without a functioning Parliament.

Removal and succession
The Weimar constitution did not provide for a vice presidency. If the president died or left office prematurely a successor would be elected. During a temporary vacancy, or in the event that the president was "unavailable", the powers and functions of the presidency passed to the chancellor. In December 1932, according to a constitutional amendment, if the president died or was permanently incapacitated, the President of the Reichsgericht (Supreme Court) would be interim president instead of the chancellor, holding the post until new elections.

The provisions of the Weimar constitution for the impeachment or deposition of the president are similar to those found in the Constitution of Austria. The Weimar constitution provided that the president could be removed from office prematurely by a referendum initiated by the Reichstag. To require such a referendum the Reichstag had to pass a motion supported by at least two-thirds of votes cast in the chamber. If such a proposal to depose the president was rejected by voters the president would be deemed to have been re-elected and the Reichstag would be automatically dissolved.

The Reichstag also had authority to impeach the president before the Staatsgerichtshof, a court exclusively concerned with disputes between state organs. However it could only do this on a charge of willfully violating German law; furthermore the move had to be supported by a two-thirds majority of votes cast, at a meeting with a quorum of two-thirds of the total number of members.

History
The Reichspräsident was established as a kind of Ersatzkaiser (English: replacement Emperor), that is, a substitute for the monarch who had reigned in Germany from 1871 until 1918. The new president's role was therefore informed, at least in part, by that played by the Emperors, such as William II of Germany under the system of constitutional monarchy being replaced. Hugo Preuss, the writer of the Weimar constitution, is said to have accepted the advice of Max Weber as to the term of office and powers of the presidency, and the method by which the president would be elected. The structure of the relationship between the Reichspräsident and Reichstag is said to have been suggested by Robert Redslob.

On 11 February 1919, the National Assembly elected Friedrich Ebert of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) as the first Reich President by 379 votes to 277. While in office he used emergency decrees on a number of occasions, including to suppress the Kapp Putsch in 1920. His term came to an abrupt end with his death in 1925. In the election that followed, Hindenburg was eventually settled on as the candidate of the political right, while the Weimar coalition united behind Wilhelm Marx of the Centre Party. Many on the right hoped that once in office Hindenburg would destroy Weimar democracy from the inside but in the years that followed his election Hindenburg never attempted to overthrow the Weimar constitution.

In March 1930, Hindenburg appointed Heinrich Brüning to head the first "presidential cabinet", which did not enjoy the support of the Reichstag. In July Hindenburg adopted the national budget by decree and, when the Reichstag reversed this act, he dissolved the legislature. The years that followed would see an explosion of legislation by decree, where previously this power had been used only occasionally.

In March 1932, Hindenburg, although suffering from the onset of senility, decided to stand for re-election. Adolf Hitler was his major opponent but Hindenburg won the election by a substantial margin. In June he replaced Brüning as chancellor with Franz von Papen and again dissolved the Reichstag before it could adopt a vote of no confidence. After reconvening it was again dissolved in September.

After briefly appointing General Kurt von Schleicher as chancellor in December, Hindenburg responded to growing civil unrest and Nazi activism by appointing Hitler as chancellor in January, 1933. A parliamentary dissolution followed after which Hitler's government, with the aid of another party, were able to command the support of a majority in the Reichstag. On 23 March the Reichstag adopted the Enabling Act, which effectively brought an end to democracy. From this point onwards almost all political authority was exercised by Hitler.

On 1 August 1934, Hitler's government issued the "Law Concerning the Head of State of the German Reich" providing that upon Hindenburg's death (which occurred the next day) the offices of President and Chancellor would be merged into one and held by Hitler. However, Hitler styled himself as Führer und Reichskanzler ("Leader and Chancellor"), not using the title of Reichspräsident. The law was approved by a popular referendum on 19 August.

Hitler committed suicide on 30 April 1945, as World War II in Europe drew to a close. In his Final Political Testament, Hitler intended to split again the two offices he had merged: he appointed Karl Dönitz as the new President, and propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels was to succeed him as Chancellor. Goebbels committed suicide shortly after Hitler and within days Dönitz ordered Germany's military (not political) surrender on the 7 May, which ended the war in Europe. He had by then appointed Ludwig von Krosigk as head of government and the two attempted to gather together a government. However this government was not recognised by the Allied powers and was dissolved when its members were captured and arrested by British forces on 23 May at Flensburg.

On 5 June 1945, the four occupying powers signed a document creating the Allied Control Council, that did not mention the name of the previous German government.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: President of Germany (1919–1945)


text:
Quebec Legislature

The Quebec Legislature (officially Parliament of Quebec, Parlement du Québec) is the legislature of the province of Quebec, Canada. The legislature is made of two elements: the lieutenant governor of Quebec, representing the King of Canada, and the unicameral assembly called the National Assembly of Quebec. The legislature has existed since Canadian Confederation in 1867 when Quebec, then called Canada East, became one of the founding provinces. From 1867 to 1968 the legislature was bicameral, containing a lower chamber called the Legislative Assembly of Quebec and an upper chamber called the Legislative Council of Quebec.

Like the Canadian federal government, Quebec uses a Westminster-style parliamentary government, in which members are elected to the National Assembly after general elections and from there the party with the most seats chooses a premier of Quebec and Executive Council of Quebec. The premier is Quebec's head of government, while the King is its head of state. When the party with the most seats has fewer than half of the total number of seats, it forms a minority government, which can be voted out of power by the other parties.

Members meet in the Quebec Parliament Building in the provincial capital city of Quebec City.

title: Quebec Legislature


text:
Talk:Mark Shainblum

Untitled
To 67.70.180.157: Sorry if I gave you an edit conflict while you were editing this page. I was just itching to wikify it... did you know you put two apostrophes together at the beginning and end of a word or phrase to italicise it, you put three apostrophes at the beginning and end to make it bold, and you can make a new heading by putting two equals signs on either side of the heading you want. - Mark Ryan 17:58, 18 Dec 2003 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one article was rated and this bot brought all the other ratings up to at least that level. BetacommandBot 23:30, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Mark Shainblum. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20050827074636/http://www.sandycarruthers.com/canadiana.html to http://www.sandycarruthers.com/canadiana.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 14:13, 3 June 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Mark Shainblum. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20050920210158/http://www.collectionscanada.ca/superheroes/ to http://www.collectionscanada.ca/superheroes/

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 23:58, 10 December 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mark Shainblum


text:
User:Vinodscaria

Dr. Vinod Scaria

I am a medical graduate hailing from Calicut.I studied for graduation at the Calicut Medical College. My interests include Internet, Cybermedicine and Research into ICT applications in Medicine. I am authored a number of papers on the topic.

I also serve as Editorial board member of Calicut Medical Journal, Asian Student Medical Journal http://www.asmj.org, Internet Health Internet Healthhttp://www.internet-health.org and OJHAS http://ojhas.org.

More information on me and my projects can be found at http://drvinod.netfirms.com.

title: User:Vinodscaria


text:
Field (heraldry)

In heraldry, the background of the shield is called the field. The field is usually composed of one or more tinctures (colours or metals) or furs. The field may be divided or may consist of a variegated pattern.

In rare modern cases, the field or a subdivision thereof is not a tincture but is shown as a scene from a landscape, or, in the case of the 329th Fighter Group of the United States Air Force, blazoned as the sky proper. Landscape fields are regarded by many heralds as unheraldic and debased, as they defy the heraldic ideal of simple, boldly-coloured images, and they cannot be consistently drawn from blazon.

The arms of the Inveraray and District Community Council in Scotland have as a field In waves of the sea. The correct language of heraldry is very flexible and virtually any image may be blazoned in a correct manner; for example "sky proper" might be blazoned simply Azure or bleu celeste, whilst "waves of the sea" might be blazoned correctly as Azure, 3 bars undee argent which would provide 3 wavy thick white lines on a blue field.

title: Field (heraldry)


text:
Talk:West Midlands Metro

Maps are out of date!
File:Map Midland Metro.png and File:Midland Metro Line 1 Birmingham Extensions Map.png are long outdated as they don't show the latest completed extensions. Can someone update these maps? 185.69.145.65 (talk) 00:31, 5 April 2023 (UTC)

Dudley Line
What is about progress and delays of the construction of the south western extension to Dudley? See https://www.dudleynews.co.uk/news/23870189.work-start-new-24m-dudley-bus-station-2024/ --Ulamm (talk) 16:55, 19 July 2024 (UTC)

And in Dudley itself, I do not understand the parallelity of the intended Midland Metro line and the VLR, see https://www.railway-technology.com/projects/very-light-rail-vlr-innovation-centre-and-rail-line-dudley/?cf-view --Ulamm (talk) 17:47, 19 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:West Midlands Metro


text:
United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights

The United Nations Prizes in the Field of Human Rights were instituted by United Nations General Assembly in 1966. They are intended to "honour and commend people and organizations which have made an outstanding contribution to the promotion and protection of the human rights embodied in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in other United Nations human rights instruments".

The UN first awarded the prize to six recipients at a ceremony on 10 December 1968 – the 20th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which the UN has designated Human Rights Day. They have been given out at five-year intervals since then, with the exception of 1983, to individuals, groups and organizations. , 64 awards have been presented, including nine awards presented posthumously (four to recipients who had been murdered while pursuing human rights for others). The recipients are selected by a committee composed of the presidents of the UN General Assembly, the UN Economic and Social Council and the UN Human Rights Council (which replaced the UN Commission on Human Rights in 2006), and the chairs of the UN Commission on the Status of Women and of the Advisory Committee of the UN Human Rights Council (which replaced the UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights in 2006). Since 1998, the awards are announced by the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, which was created a few days after the 1993 ceremony.

The physical token of the award is a metal plaque bearing the UN seal and an artistic design, and engraved with an appropriate citation. In contrast to the Nobel prizes – whose list of prizewinners of the Nobel Peace Prize shares much common ground with the UN Prize in the Field of Human Rights – the UN's awards are non-monetary in nature.

1968 Prizewinners
FIRST AWARD: December 1968 – 20th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
 * Manuel Bianchi, chairman of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (Chile)
 * René Cassin, member of the UN Commission on Human Rights (France)
 * Albert Luthuli (posthumously), president of the African National Congress (South Africa)
 * Mehrangiz Manouchehrian, attorney and senator (Iran)
 * Petr Emelyanovich Nedbailo, member of the UN Commission on Human Rights (Ukraine)
 * Eleanor Roosevelt (posthumously), president of the UN Commission on Human Rights (United States)

1973 Prizewinners
SECOND AWARD: December 1973 – 25th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
 * Taha Hussein (posthumously), professor of literature (Egypt)
 * C. Wilfred Jenks (posthumously), director-general of the International Labour Office (United Kingdom)
 * María Lavalle Urbina, lawyer and lecturer (Mexico)
 * Abel Muzorewa, president of the United African National Council (Rhodesia)
 * Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, prime minister (Mauritius)
 * U Thant, UN secretary-general (Burma)

1978 Prizewinners
THIRD AWARD: December 1978 – 30th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
 * Begum Ra'Ana Liaquat Ali Khan, active in the social, educational and cultural uplift of women (Pakistan)
 * Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, later a Special Rapporteur of the UN Human Rights Commission (Iran)
 * Martin Luther King Jr. (posthumously), assassinated leader of the American civil rights movement (United States)
 * Helen Suzman, anti-apartheid activist and politician (South Africa)
 * International Committee of the Red Cross
 * Amnesty International
 * Vicariate of Solidarity (Chile)
 * National Union of Tunisian Women (Tunisia)

1988 Prizewinners
FOURTH AWARD: December 1988 – 40th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
 * Baba Amte, human rights lawyer (India)
 * John Peters Humphrey, principal drafter of the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Canada)
 * Adam Lopatka, president of the Supreme Court (Poland)
 * Leonidas Proaño, Roman Catholic bishop (Ecuador)
 * Nelson Mandela, lawyer and statesman (South Africa)
 * Winnie Mandela, medical social worker (South Africa)

1993 Prizewinners
FIFTH AWARD: December 1993 – 45th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
 * Hassib Ben Ammar, president of the Tunisian Human Rights League and of Arab Organization for Human Rights (Tunisia)
 * Erica-Irene Daes, chair of the UN's Working Group on Indigenous Populations (Greece)
 * James P. Grant, executive director of UNICEF (United States)
 * International Commission of Jurists (based in Geneva)
 * Medical personnel of the Central Hospital of Sarajevo
 * Sonia Picado Sotela, vice-president of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (Costa Rica)
 * Ganesh Man Singh, supreme leader of Nepal
 * Sudanese Women's Union (Sudan)
 * Julio Tumiri Javier, founder of the Permanent Assembly for Human Rights (Bolivia)

1998 Prizewinners
SIXTH AWARD: December 1998 – 50th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
 * Sunila Abeysekera, executive director of INFORM (Sri Lanka)
 * Angelina Acheng Atyam, founder of the Concerned Parents Association (Uganda)
 * Jimmy Carter, statesman and former president (United States)
 * José Gregori, inaugural Secretary, National Human Rights Secretariat (Brazil)
 * Anna Šabatová, founder of Charter 77 (Czech Republic)
 * All human rights defenders, "thousands of courageous individuals worldwide"

2003 Prizewinners
SEVENTH AWARD: December 2003 – 55th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
 * Enriqueta Estela Barnes de Carlotto, president of the Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo (Argentina)
 * Mano River Women's Peace Network (Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Guinea)
 * Family Protection Project Management Team (Jordan)
 * Deng Pufang, chairman of the China Disabled Persons' Federation (People's Republic of China)
 * Shulamith Koenig, executive director of the People's Movement for Human Rights Education (United States)
 * Sérgio Vieira de Mello (posthumously), UN Special Representative murdered in Iraq (Brazil)

2008 Prizewinners
EIGHTH AWARD: December 2008 – 60th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
 * Louise Arbour, former UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (Canada)
 * Benazir Bhutto (posthumously), assassinated former prime minister and leader of the opposition (Pakistan)
 * Ramsey Clark, former Attorney General (United States)
 * Dr. Carolyn Gomes of Jamaicans for Justice
 * Dr. Denis Mukwege, co-founder of the General Referral Hospital of Panzi (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
 * Sr. Dorothy Stang (posthumously), murdered Roman Catholic nun (Brazil)
 * Human Rights Watch

2013 Prizewinners
NINTH AWARD: December 2013 – 65th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
 * Biram Dah Abeid, son of a freed slave who works to eradicate slavery (Mauritania)
 * Hiljmnijeta Apuk, a campaigner for the rights of people of short stature (Kosovo)
 * Liisa Kauppinen, President Emeritus of the World Federation of the Deaf (Finland)
 * Khadija Ryadi, former President of the Morocco Association for Human Rights (Morocco)
 * Supreme Court of Justice (Mexico)
 * Malala Yousafzai, schoolgirl shot by the Taliban for attending school (Pakistan)

2018 Prizewinners
TENTH AWARD: December 2018 – 70th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
 * Asma Jahangir (posthumously), human rights lawyer (Pakistan)
 * Rebeca Gyumi, activist for the rights of women and girls (Tanzania)
 * Joênia Wapixana, activist for the rights of indigenous communities (Brazil)
 * Front Line Defenders, organization advocating and working for the protection of human rights defenders (Ireland)

2023 Prizewinners
ELEVENTH AWARD: December 2023:
 * Viasna Human Rights Centre, Belarus
 * Julienne Lusenge, Democratic Republic of the Congo
 * Amman Center for Human Rights Studies, Jordan
 * Julio Pereyra Sánchez, Uruguay
 * Global Coalition of Civil Society Organizations, Indigenous Peoples, Social Movements, and Local Communities for the Universal Recognition of the Right to a Clean, Healthy, and Sustainable Environment


text:
Football at the 1920 Summer Olympics

Football was one of the 154 events at the 1920 Summer Olympics, held in Antwerp, Belgium. It was the fifth time association football was on the Olympic schedule. The tournament expanded to 15 countries, including a non-European nation (Egypt) for the first time. Only amateur non-professional players were allowed to participate.

As these were the first Olympics after World War I, the football teams representing the Central Powers were not invited (Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey). The English Football Association had also withdrawn from FIFA, together with the associations of the other UK Home Nations (Scotland, Ireland and Wales), after their demands that the federations of Germany, Austria and Hungary be expelled from that organisation were rejected: FIFA nevertheless accepted the entry of a team from Great Britain (representing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland), ruling that countries entering the Olympic Games in other sports should not be excluded from the football tournament.

Britain had won the 1908 and 1912 gold medals, but were beaten by Norway 3–1 in the first round: the Norway national football team thus celebrated one of their iconic victories, alongside the elimination of Nazi Germany at the 1936 Berlin Olympics, the 1993 win over England in World Cup qualifying, and the 2–1 defeat of reigning world champions Brazil at the 1998 World Cup.

Hosts Belgium won the gold medal, with the final being abandoned in the 39th minute with Belgium leading 2–0 after Czechoslovakia – who participated in an international competition for the first time – walked off to protest the officiating: the Czechslovaks were subsequently ejected from the competition.

As a result of Czechoslovakia's ejection and Belgium having received a first-round bye, the beaten quarter-finalists (Italy, Norway, Spain and Sweden) faced each other to determine who would play the Netherlands (who were beaten in their semifinal by Belgium), who were now assured of a medal.

The tournament ended with Belgium winning the gold medal, with Spain winning the silver and the Netherlands winning the bronze.

Tournament
15 teams entered the competition, which was organized on a knockout basis, but Switzerland withdrew on the morning before the first round due to internal dissent: their opponent, France, was awarded a 2–0 victory.

As such, 12 teams entered the first round, with the winners joining France and host Belgium in the quarter-finals.

Norway defeated Great Britain in the first round, considered by Elo as one of the greatest football upsets of all time.

Czechoslovakia, participating in their first international tournament, made it to the final, beating Kingdom of SCS (who also played their first ever international match in the competition), Norway, and France, while Belgium, after their first-round bye, beat Spain and the Netherlands to qualify for the final.

The final was abandoned in the 39th minute and Belgium were awarded the gold medal after Czechoslovakia walked off to protest the officiating of the English referee, John Lewis, and his linesmen.

A form of the Bergvall System was used to determine the silver and bronze medals: firstly, the beaten quarter-finalists played off, and Spain emerged triumphant, overcoming Sweden 2–1 and Italy 2–0.

Under the original format, Spain would have played off against the teams beaten in the main tournament by gold medalists Belgium, with the winners of these matches playing off for silver and bronze medals. However, Czechoslovakia had been ejected from the competition, and Belgium had received a first-round bye: therefore, the semi-finals were scratched, and Spain advanced to the silver and bronze medal match against the Netherlands, who had been beaten by Belgium in their semi-final. Spain won the match 3–1.

Exhibition match
This match was not part of the tournament, but was organized after both teams were eliminated. Some sources erroneously refer to this as an eighth-place match or as part of the silver and bronze medal tournament.

First round
Bye:

Gold medal match

The final was highly controversial, and is the only time as of 2024 that an international final has been abandoned: Belgium were awarded the gold medal after Czechoslovakia walked off the pitch in the 39th minute with Belgium leading 2–0 to protest the officiating after Czechoslovak left-back Karel Steiner was ejected for assaulting Belgian striker Robert Coppée.

The Czechoslovaks were also deeply dissatisfied with the performance of the 65-year-old English referee, John Lewis, as well as that of the English linesmen, Charles Wreford-Brown and Arthur Knight, who had allowed a contentious second Belgian goal by Henri Larnoe in the 30th minute.

Lewis, Wreford-Brown and Knight had officiated the Belgian semi-final victory over the Netherlands two days earlier, a match observed by the Czechoslovaks (it had taken place on the same day and in the same stadium as their own semi-final victory against France).

The Czechoslovaks immediately protested the result of the final, but their protest was dismissed, and the Czechoslovak team was immediately ejected from the competition.

Repechage bracket
The original format was based on a form of the Bergvall System: after a knockout tournament between the four teams beaten in the quarter-finals, the winner of that tournament would play off in the semi-finals with the teams beaten in the main tournament by the gold medalists (Belgium), with the winners of these matches playing off for silver and bronze medals.

However, Czechoslovakia had been ejected from the competition, and Belgium had received a first-round bye: therefore, the semi-finals were scratched, and Spain (the winner of the beaten quarter-finalists tournament) advanced to the silver and bronze medal match against the Netherlands (who had been beaten in the semifinals by gold medalists Belgium).

Final ranking
Final positions:

Goalscorers

 * 7 goals

 * 🇸🇪 Herbert Carlsson (Sweden)

 * 6 goals

 * 🇨🇿 Antonín Janda (Czechoslovakia)

 * 5 goals

 * Ber Groosjohan (Netherlands)

 * 4 goals

 * 🇧🇪 Robert Coppée (Belgium)
 * 🇨🇿 Jan Vanik (Czechoslovakia)
 * 🇪🇸 Félix Sesúmaga (Spain)

 * 3 goals

 * 🇨🇿 Otakar Mazal (Czechoslovakia)
 * Jaap Bulder (Netherlands)
 * 🇸🇪 Albin Dahl (Sweden)
 * 🇸🇪 Albert Olsson (Sweden)

 * 2 goals

 * 🇧🇪 Henri Larnoe (Belgium)
 * 🇪🇬 Sayed Abaza (Egypt)
 * 🇫🇷 Jean Boyer (France)
 * 🇮🇹 Guglielmo Brezzi (Italy)
 * 🇳🇴 Einar Gundersen (Norway)

 * 1 goal

 * 🇧🇪 Mathieu Bragard (Belgium)
 * 🇧🇪 Louis Van Hege (Belgium)
 * 🇨🇿 Josef Sedláček (Czechoslovakia)
 * 🇨🇿 Karel Steiner (Czechoslovakia)
 * 🇪🇬 Hassan Allouba (Egypt)
 * 🇪🇬 Hussein Hegazi (Egypt)
 * 🇪🇬 Zaki Osman (Egypt)
 * 🇫🇷 Henri Bard (France)
 * 🇫🇷 Paul Nicolas (France)
 * 🇬🇧 Fred Nicholas (Great Britain)
 * 🇮🇹 Emilio Badini (Italy)
 * 🇮🇹 Adolfo Baloncieri (Italy)
 * 🇮🇹 Enrico Sardi (Italy)
 * Jan de Natris (Netherlands)
 * 🇳🇴 Arne Andersen (Norway)
 * 🇳🇴 Einar Wilhelms (Norway)
 * 🇪🇸 Domingo Acedo (Spain)
 * 🇪🇸 Patricio Arabolaza (Spain)
 * 🇪🇸 Mariano Arrate (Spain)
 * 🇪🇸 José María Belauste (Spain)
 * 🇪🇸 Pichichi (Spain)
 * 🇸🇪 Ragnar Wicksell (Sweden)
 * Artur Dubravčić (Kingdom of SCS)
 * Jovan Ružić (Kingdom of SCS)

title: Football at the 1920 Summer Olympics


text:
Talk:Calicut Medical college Alumni Association

The contents are from http://cmcnetwork.netfirms.com/alumniassoc.html which the author owns.


text:
Jim Starlin

James P. Starlin (born October 9, 1949) is an American comics artist and writer. Beginning his career in the early 1970s, he is best known for space opera stories, for revamping the Marvel Comics characters Captain Marvel and Adam Warlock, and for creating or co-creating the Marvel characters Thanos, Drax the Destroyer, Gamora, Nebula, and Shang-Chi, as well as writing the acclaimed miniseries The Infinity Gauntlet and its many sequels including The Infinity War and The Infinity Crusade, all detailing Thanos' pursuit of the Infinity Gems to court Mistress Death by annihilating half of all life in the cosmos, before coming into conflict with the Avengers, X-Men, Fantastic Four, and the Elders of the Universe, joined by the Silver Surfer, Doctor Strange, Gamora, Nebula, and Drax.

Later, for DC Comics, he drew many of their iconic characters, including Darkseid and other characters from Jack Kirby's Fourth World, and wrote the seminal storyline A Death in the Family which featured the death of Jason Todd, the second Robin, during his run on Batman. For Epic Illustrated, he created his own character, Dreadstar.

Early life
Jim Starlin was born on October 9, 1949, in Detroit, Michigan. He had a Catholic upbringing. In the 1960s, Starlin served as an aviation photographer in the US Navy in Vietnam. During his off duty time, he drew and submitted various comics.

Early career
After leaving the navy, Starlin sold two stories to DC Comics.

After writing and drawing stories for a number of fan publications, Jim Starlin entered the comics industry in 1972, working for Roy Thomas and John Romita at Marvel Comics. Starlin was part of the generation of artists and writers who grew up as fans of Silver Age Marvel Comics. At a Steve Ditko-focused panel at the 2008 Comic-Con International, Starlin said, "Everything I learned about storytelling was [due to] him or Kirby. [Ditko] did the best layouts."

Starlin's first job for Marvel was as a finisher on pages of The Amazing Spider-Man. He then drew three issues of Iron Man which introduced the characters Thanos and Drax the Destroyer. He was then given the chance to draw an issue (#25) of the "cosmic" title Captain Marvel. Starlin took over as plotter the following issue, and began developing an elaborate story arc centered on the villainous Thanos which spread across a number of Marvel titles. Starlin left Captain Marvel one issue after concluding his Thanos saga.

Concurrently in the mid-1970s, Starlin contributed a cache of stories to the independently published science-fiction anthology Star Reach. Here he developed his ideas of God, death, and infinity, free of the restrictions of mainstream comics publishers' self-censorship arm, the Comics Code Authority. Starlin also drew "The Secret of Skull River", inked by frequent collaborator Al Milgrom, for Savage Tales #5 (July 1974).

After working on Captain Marvel, Starlin and writer Steve Englehart co-created the character Shang-Chi, Master of Kung Fu, though they only worked on the early issues of the Master of Kung Fu series. Starlin then took over the title Warlock, starring a genetically engineered being created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby in the 1960s and re-imagined by Roy Thomas and Gil Kane in the 1970s as a Jesus Christ-like figure on an alternate Earth. Envisioning the character as philosophical and existentially tortured, Starlin wrote and drew a complex space opera with theological and psychological themes. Warlock confronted the militaristic Universal Church of Truth, eventually revealed to be created and led by an evil evolution of his future–past self, known as Magus. Starlin ultimately incorporated Thanos into this story. Comics historian Les Daniels noted that "In a brief stint with Marvel, which included work on two characters [Captain Marvel and Adam Warlock] that had previously never quite made their mark, Starlin managed to build a considerable cult following."

In Fall 1978, Starlin, Howard Chaykin, Walt Simonson, and Val Mayerik formed Upstart Associates, a shared studio space on West 29th Street in New York City. The membership of the studio changed over time.

Death and suicide are recurring themes in Starlin's work: Personifications of Death appeared in his Captain Marvel series and in a fill-in story for Ghost Rider; Warlock commits suicide by killing his future self; and suicide is a theme in a story he plotted and drew for The Rampaging Hulk magazine.

Starlin occasionally worked for Marvel's chief competitor DC Comics and drew stories for Legion of Super-Heroes and the "Batman" feature in Detective Comics in the late 1970s.

1980s
Starlin co-created the supervillain Mongul with writer Len Wein in DC Comics Presents #27 (Nov. 1980).

The new decade found Starlin creating an expansive story titled "the Metamorphosis Odyssey", which introduced the character of Vanth Dreadstar in Epic Illustrated #3. From its beginning in Epic Illustrated, the initial story was painted in monochromatic grays, eventually added to with other tones, and finally becoming full color. The storyline was further developed in The Price and Marvel Graphic Novel #3 and eventually the long-running Dreadstar comic book, published first by Epic Comics, and then by First Comics.

Starlin was given the opportunity to produce a one-shot story in which to kill off a main character. The Death of Captain Marvel became the first graphic novel published by Marvel itself.

Starlin and Bernie Wrightson produced Heroes for Hope, a 1985 one-shot designed to raise money for African famine relief and recovery. Published in the form of a "comic jam," the book featured an all-star lineup of comics creators as well as a few notable authors from outside the comic book industry, such as Stephen King, George R. R. Martin, Harlan Ellison, and Edward Bryant. In 1986, he and Wrightson produced a second benefit comic for famine relief. Heroes Against Hunger, featuring Superman and Batman, was published by DC and like the earlier Marvel benefit project featured many top comics creators.

Starlin became the writer of Batman, and one of his first storylines for the title was "Ten Nights of The Beast" in issues #417–420 (March – June 1988) which introduced the KGBeast. Starlin then wrote the four-issue miniseries Batman: The Cult (Aug.–Nov. 1988) drawn by Wrightson, and the storyline "Batman: A Death in the Family" in Batman #426–429 (Dec. 1988 – Jan. 1989), in which Jason Todd, the second of Batman's Robin sidekicks, was killed by the Joker. The controversial storyline was suggested by editor Denny O'Neil and lined up with Starlin's well-known desire to remove the Robin character from Batman's storyline. The death was decided by fans, as DC Comics set up a hotline for readers to vote on as to whether or not Jason Todd should survive a potentially fatal situation. Starlin was fired off the Batman title soon afterward.

Other projects for DC included writing The Weird drawn by Wrightson and Cosmic Odyssey drawn by Mike Mignola. Starlin wrote and drew Gilgamesh II in 1989 before returning to Marvel.

Later career
Back at Marvel, Starlin began scripting a revival of the Silver Surfer series. As had become his Marvel norm, he introduced his creation Thanos into the story arc, which led to The Infinity Gauntlet miniseries and its crossover storyline. Here, Starlin brought back Adam Warlock, whom he had killed years earlier in his concluding Warlock story in The Avengers Annual #7 and Marvel Two-in-One Annual #2 in 1977. The Infinity Gauntlet proved successful and was followed by the sequel miniseries The Infinity War and Infinity Crusade.

For DC he created Hardcore Station in 1998.

In 2003, Starlin wrote and drew the Marvel Comics miniseries Marvel: The End. The series starred Thanos and a multitude of Marvel characters, and subsequently, Starlin was assigned an eponymous Thanos series. Starlin then worked for independent companies, creating Cosmic Guard (later renamed Kid Cosmos) published by Devil's Due and then Dynamite Entertainment in 2006.

Starlin returned to DC and, with artist Shane Davis, wrote the miniseries Mystery in Space vol. 2, featuring Captain Comet and Starlin's earlier creation, the Weird. In 2007–2008, he worked on the DC miniseries Death of the New Gods and Rann-Thanagar Holy War, as well as a Hawkman tie-in which altered the character's origins. He wrote the eight-issue miniseries Strange Adventures in 2009 and in 2013, became the writer of Stormwatch, one of the series of The New 52 line, beginning with issue #19.

In 2016, Starlin's drawing hand was injured in an accident, which limited him to writing stories without the opportunity to illustrate them. "It takes me two minutes to write the sentence and will take the artist a day and a half to draw the scene. But there is a certain satisfaction to the drawing part … you get up from the drawing board at the end of the day and there’s this image there that wasn’t there before. That’s very satisfying and I miss that."

In early 2020 it was announced that Starlin had rehabilitated his drawing hand and would be publishing a new Dreadstar graphic novel, Dreadstar Returns, backed by a successful Kickstarter campaign. The book was published in June 2021.

Other work

 * Starlin co-wrote four novels with his then-wife Daina Graziunas (whom he married in October 1980): Among Madmen (Roc Books, 1990), Lady El (Roc Books, 1992), Thinning the Predators (1996, Warner Books; paperback edition entitled Predators); and Pawns (1989, serialized in comic book Dreadstar #42–54).
 * Starlin makes a cameo appearance in the film Avengers: Endgame as a member of Steve Rogers's support group.

Awards

 * 1973: Won the "Outstanding New Talent" Shazam Award, tied with Walt Simonson
 * 1974: Nominated for the "Superior Achievement by an Individual" Shazam Award
 * 1975: Won the "Favorite Pro Penciller" Comic Fan Art Award
 * 1975: Received an Inkpot Award
 * 1977: Nominated for the "Favourite Comicbook Artist" Eagle Award
 * 1978:
 * Won the "Favourite Single Story" Eagle Award, for Avengers Annual #7: The Final Threat
 * Won the "Favourite Continued Story" Eagle Award, for Avengers Annual #7 / Marvel Two-in-One Annual #2
 * Nominated for the "Favourite Artist" Eagle Award
 * Nominated for "Best Comic" British Fantasy Award, for Avengers Annual #7: The Final Threat
 * 1979: Nominated for "Best Comic" British Fantasy Award, for Among the Great Divide (The Rampaging Hulk #7), with Steve Gerber and Bob Wiacek
 * 1986:
 * Won the "Best Long Story" Haxtur Award, for Dreadstar
 * Received the Bob Clampett Humanitarian Award, jointly with Bernie Wrightson
 * 1992:
 * Won the "Best Script" Haxtur Award, for Silver Surfer #1–5
 * Nominated for the "Best Long Story" Haxtur Award, for Silver Surfer #1–5, with Ron Lim
 * 1993:
 * Nominated for the "Best Script" Haxtur Award, for Deeply Buried Secrets (Silver Surfer #12)
 * Nominated for the "Best Short Story" Haxtur Award, for Deeply Buried Secrets (Silver Surfer #12), with Ron Lim
 * 1995:
 * Nominated for the "Best Short Story" Haxtur Award, for Daredevil/Black Widow: Abattoir, with Joe Chiodo
 * Nominated for the "Best Cover" Haxtur Award, for Breed #6
 * 2005: Received the "Author That We Loved" Haxtur Award
 * 2014: Inkwell Awards Special Ambassador (August 2014 – present)
 * 2017: Eisner Award Hall of Fame

DC Comics

 * Adam Strange Special #1 (writer, 2008)
 * The Adventures of Superman Annual #1 (writer, 1987)
 * Batman #402 (artist, 1986); #414–430 (writer, 1987–1989)
 * Batman: The Cult, miniseries, #1–4 (writer, 1988)
 * Cosmic Odyssey, miniseries, #1–4 (writer, 1988–1989)
 * Countdown to Final Crisis #5 (artist, 2008)
 * DC Comics Presents #26–29, 36–37 (writer/artist, 1980–1981)
 * Death of the New Gods miniseries #1–8 (writer/artist, 2007–2008)
 * Detective Comics #481–482 (writer/artist) (1981)
 * The Flash (Firestorm backup stories) #294–296 (artist, 1981)
 * Gilgamesh II, miniseries, #1–4 (writer and artist, 1989)
 * Hardcore Station #1–6 (writer/artist, 1998)
 * Heroes Against Hunger (writer, 1986)
 * Kamandi #59 (OMAC backup story) (writer/artist 1978)
 * Mystery in Space miniseries #1–8 (writer/artist with Shane Davis, 2006–2007)
 * New Gods vol. 3 #2–4 (writer, with Paris Cullins, 1989)
 * Rann-Thanagar Holy War, miniseries, #1–8 (writer, 2008–2009)
 * Richard Dragon, Kung-Fu Fighter #2 (artist, with Alan Weiss) (1975)
 * Stormwatch vol.3 #19–29 (writer) (2013–2014)
 * Strange Adventures miniseries #1–8 (writer/artist among others, 2009)
 * Superboy (Legion of Super-Heroes) #239, 250–251 (writer/artist as "Steve Apollo", with co-author Paul Levitz) (1978–1979)
 * Superman: The Computers That Saved Metropolis, one-shot (artist, 1980)
 * Superman vol. 2 #139 (artist, 1998)
 * Sword of Sorcery #5 (artist, 1973)
 * The Warlord (OMAC backup stories) #37–39 (writer/artist 1980)
 * The Weird, miniseries, #1–4 (writer, 1988)
 * Weird War Tales, #89 (cover artist, 1980)

Marvel Comics

 * Adventure into Fear (Man-Thing) #12 (artist, 1973)
 * Amazing Adventures, vol. 2, #17 (Beast feature, 2-pages only) (artist, 1973)
 * The Amazing Spider-Man #113–114 (artist, 1972); #187 (artist, 1978)
 * Astonishing Tales (Ka-Zar) #19 (artist, with Dan Adkins, 1973)
 * The Avengers #107 (artist along with George Tuska, 1972); Annual #7 (writer/artist, 1977)
 * Book of the Dead (Man-Thing), miniseries, #3 (artist, 1994)
 * Captain Marvel #25–34 (full art); #36 (3-pages only) (writer/artist, 1973–1974)
 * Captain Marvel vol. 4 #11, 17–18 (artist, 2000–2001)
 * The Cat #4 (with Alan Weiss) (artist, 1973)
 * Conan the Barbarian #64 (artist, 1976)
 * Daredevil #105 (artist, with Don Heck, 1973)
 * Daredevil/Black Widow: Abattoir (graphic novel) (writer, 1993)
 * Deadly Hands of Kung-Fu #1–2, 15 (writer/artist, 1974–1975)
 * Doctor Strange #23–26 (writer/artist, 1977)
 * Dracula Lives #2 (artist with Syd Shores, 1973)
 * Dreadstar #1–26 (writer/artist, 1982–1986)
 * Epic Illustrated #1–9 (Metamorphosis Odyssey); #14, #15 (Dreadstar), #22, #34 (writer/artist, 1980–1986)
 * Ghost Rider, vol. 2, #35 (artist, 1979)
 * Giant-Size Defenders #1 (nine-pages only), #3 (artist, 1975)
 * Heroes for Hope (writer/back cover artist, 1985)
 * The Incredible Hulk vol. 2 #222 (artist, 1978)
 * Infinity Abyss, miniseries, #1–6 (writer/artist, 2002)
 * The Infinity Crusade, miniseries, #1–6 (writer, 1993)
 * Infinity Entity, miniseries, #1–4 (writer, 2016)
 * The Infinity Gauntlet miniseries #1–6 (writer, 1991)
 * The Infinity War miniseries #1–6 (writer, 1992)
 * Iron Man #55–56 (artist, 1973)
 * Journey into Mystery (vol. 2) #1, 3 (artist, 1972–1973)
 * Marvel Fanfare #20–21 (writer/artist, 1985)
 * Marvel Feature #11–12 (artist, 1973)
 * Marvel Graphic Novel #1 (The Death of Captain Marvel), #3 (Dreadstar) (writer/artist, 1982); #27 (The Incredible Hulk and the Thing: The Big Change (writer, 1987)
 * Marvel Premiere (Doctor Strange) #8 (artist, 1973)
 * Marvel Preview (Thor) #10 (artist, 1977)
 * Marvel: The End, miniseries, #1–6 (writer/artist, 2003)
 * Marvel Two-in-One Annual #2 (writer/artist, 1977)
 * Master of Kung-Fu #17, 24 (1974–1975)
 * Punisher P.O.V., miniseries, #1–4 (writer, 1991)
 * The Punisher: The Ghosts of Innocents (writer, 1993)
 * The Rampaging Hulk #4 (writer/artist, 1977), #7 (Man-Thing feature) (artist, 1978)
 * Savage Tales #5 (penciller, 1974)
 * Shadows & Light #2 (Doctor Strange feature) (writer/artist, 1998), #3 (Werewolf By Night feature) (writer, 1998)
 * Silver Surfer, vol 3, #34–38, 40–48, 50 (writer, 1990–1991)
 * Silver Surfer: Homecoming original graphic novel (writer, 1991)
 * The Silver Surfer/Warlock: Resurrection #1–4 (writer/artist, 1993)
 * Spaceknights #1–5 (writer, 2000–2001)
 * Special Marvel Edition (Shang-Chi) #15–16 (title changes to Master of Kung Fu) (1973–1974)
 * Strange Tales (Warlock) #178–181 (writer/artist, 1975)
 * Thanos #1–6 (writer/artist, 2003–2004)
 * Thanos Annual #1 (writer, 2014)
 * Thanos: The Infinity Finale (graphic novel) (writer, 2016)
 * Thanos: The Infinity Relativity (graphic novel) (writer/artist, 2015)
 * Thanos: The Infinity Revelation (graphic novel) (writer/artist, 2014)
 * Thanos vs. Hulk, miniseries, #1–4 (writer/artist, 2015)
 * The Thanos Quest, miniseries, #1–2 (writer, 1990)
 * Thor, vol. 1, #460-462 (co-writer, 1993)
 * Thor, vol. 2, #37 (artist, 2001)
 * Warlock #9–15 (writer/artist, 1975–1976)
 * Warlock and the Infinity Watch #1–31 (writer, 1992–1994)
 * Warlock Chronicles #1–8 (writer, 1993)
 * X-Factor Special: Prisoner Of Love (writer, 1990)

Other publishers

 * 'Breed: Book of Genesis #1–6 (miniseries) (writer/artist) (Malibu Comics, 1994)
 * 'Breed: Book of Ecclesiastes #1–6 (miniseries) (writer/artist) (Malibu Comics, 1994–1995)
 * 'Breed: Book of Revelation #1–7 (miniseries) (writer/artist) (Image Comics 2011)
 * Cosmic Guard #1–6 (miniseries) & Kid Kosmos (graphic novel) (writer/artist) (Devil's Due Publishing, 2004–2005, 2007)
 * Creepy #106, 114 (artist) (Warren Publishing, 1979–1980)
 * Dreadstar #27–32 (writer/artist); #33–40 main story, 42–54, "Pawns" back-up story (writer) (First Comics, 1986–1989)
 * Eclipse Magazine #1 (writer/artist) (Eclipse Enterprises, 1981)
 * Eerie #76, 79, 80, 84, 100 (Darklon the Mystic) (writer/artist); #101, 128 (artist) (Warren Publishing, 1976–1982)
 * Fighting American: Dogs of War #1–3 (writer) (Awesome, 1998–1999)
 * Heavy Metal (vol 3) #4 (writer/artist) (HM Communications, 1979)
 * Hellboy: Weird Tales #5 (artist) (Dark Horse, 2003)
 * Michael Chabon Presents The Amazing Adventures Of The Escapist #1 (writer/artist) (Dark Horse, 2004)
 * Midnight Rose (one-shot) (writer) (AfterShock Comics, 2022)
 * Star*Reach #1–2 (writer/artist) (Star*Reach Productions, 1974)
 * Supreme: The Return #2 (artist) (Awesome, 1999)
 * Unity 2000 #1–3 (miniseries, #4–6 were not published) (artist) (Acclaim, 1999–2000)
 * Vampirella #78 (artist) (Warren Publishing, 1979)
 * Wyrd the Reluctant Warrior #1–6 (miniseries) (writer/artist) (Slave Labor Graphics, 1999)

Covers only

 * Amazing Adventures vol. 2 #27 (Marvel Comics, 1974)
 * The Avengers #120, 135 (Marvel Comics, 1974–1975)
 * Captain America #162 (Marvel Comics, 1973)
 * Comic Book Artist #18 (Twomorrows Publishing, 2002)
 * Daredevil #107 (Marvel Comics, 1974)
 * Dejah Thoris #1 (Dynamite Comics, 2022)
 * Defenders #110 (Marvel Comics, 1982)
 * Dreadstar (1994 series) #1–2 (Malibu Comics, 1994)
 * FOOM #9 (Marvel Comics, 1975)
 * Green Lantern #129, 133 (DC Comics, 1980)
 * The Incredible Hulk vol. 2 #217 (Marvel Comics, 1977)
 * Iron Man #68, 100, 160, 163 (Marvel Comics, 1974–1982)
 * Jonah Hex #12 (DC Comics, 1978)
 * Jungle Action vol. 2 #3 (Marvel Comics, 1973)
 * Justice League of America #178–180, 183, 185 (DC Comics, 1980)
 * Man-Thing #2 (Marvel Comics, 1974)
 * Marvel Preview #13–14 (Marvel Comics, 1978)
 * Marvel Super-Heroes #33, 47 (Marvel Comics, 1972–1974)
 * Marvel Team-Up #27 (Marvel Comics, 1974)
 * Marvel Two-in-One #6 (Marvel Comics, 1974)
 * Marvel's Greatest Comics #39, 41 (Marvel Comics, 1973)
 * The Mighty World of Marvel #2–20, 22, 24, 26 (Marvel UK, 1972)
 * Miracleman #4 (Eclipse Comics, 1985)
 * The Rampaging Hulk #5 (Marvel Comics, 1977)
 * Super-Villain Team-Up #6 (Marvel Comics, 1976)
 * Thanos #7 (Marvel Comics, 2004)

Collections
Hardcover
 * DC Comics Classics Library: A Death In The Family, 272 pages, September 2009, DC Comics, ISBN 9781401225162
 * Death of the New Gods, 256 pages, September 2008, DC Comics, ISBN 978-1401218393
 * Dreadstar: The Beginning, 230 pages, May 2010, Dynamite, ISBN 978-1606901199
 * Dreadstar: The Definitive Collection, 376 pages, September 2004, Dynamite, ISBN 978-0974963808
 * Marvel Masterworks: Captain Marvel vol. 3, 288 pages, April 2008, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785130154
 * Marvel Masterworks: Warlock vol. 2, 336 pages, July 2009, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785135111
 * Marvel Premiere Classic vol. 43: The Death of Captain Marvel, 128 pages, January 2010, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785146278
 * Marvel Premiere Classic vol. 46: The Infinity Gauntlet, 256 pages, July 2010, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785145509
 * Marvel Premiere Classic vol. 47: Silver Surfer: Rebirth of Thanos, 224 pages, July 2010, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785144786
 * Infinity Gauntlet Omnibus, 1248 pages, July 2014, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785154686

Softcover
 * Batman: A Death in the Family, 144 pages, March 1988, Re-released in November 2011 with "A Lonely Place of Dying" story added, 272 pages, ISBN 1401232744
 * Batman: Ten Nights of the Beast, 96 pages, October 1994, ISBN 1563891557
 * Batman: The Cult, 208 pages, 1991, ISBN 0930289854
 * Avengers vs. Thanos, 472 pages, March 2013, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785168508
 * Captain Marvel by Jim Starlin: The Complete Collection, December 2016, Marvel Comics
 * Cosmic Guard (Kid Kosmos), 132 pages, April 2008, Dynamite, ISBN 978-1933305028
 * Cosmic Odyssey, 200 pages, September 2009, DC Comics, ISBN 978-1563890512
 * Dreadstar: The Definitive Collection
 * Volume 1, 192 pages, August 2004, Dynamite, ISBN 978-0974963815
 * Volume 2, 188 pages, September 2004, Dynamite, ISBN 978-0974963822
 * Death of the New Gods, 256 pages, August 2009, DC Comics, ISBN 978-1401222116
 * Essential Doctor Strange volume 3, 616 pages, December 2007, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785127338
 * Essential Marvel Two-In-One
 * Volume 1, 576 pages, November 2005, Marvel Comics, ISBN 0-7851-1729-6
 * Volume 2, 568 pages, June 2007, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785126980
 * Essential Rampaging Hulk volume 1, 584 pages, May 2008, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785126997
 * Infinity Abyss, 176 pages, March 2003, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785109853
 * Infinity War, 400 pages, April 2006, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785121053
 * Infinity Crusade
 * Volume 1, 248 pages, December 2008, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785131274
 * Volume 2, 240 pages, January 2009, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785131281
 * The Life of Captain Marvel, 256 pages, October 1991, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0871356352
 * Thanos: Epiphany, 144 pages, August 2004, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785113553
 * Warlock by Jim Starlin: The Complete Collection, 328 pages, February, 2014, Marvel Comics, ISBN 978-0785188476

Portfolios

 * Camelot 4005 (seven black-and-white and one colour plates) (Bob Hakins, 1978)
 * Insanity (six black-and-white prints) (Middle Earth, 1974)
 * Metamorphosis Odyssey (four colour plates) (S.Q. Productions, 1980)

title: Jim Starlin