text:
President of Georgia

The president of Georgia (საქართველოს პრეზიდენტი) is the ceremonial head of state of Georgia as well as the commander-in-chief of the Defense Forces. The constitution defines the presidential office as "the guarantor of the country's unity and national independence."

The president is largely a figurehead as in many parliamentary democracies. Executive power is vested in the Government and the prime minister. The office was first introduced by the Supreme Council of the Republic of Georgia on 14 April 1991, five days after Georgia's declaration of independence from the Soviet Union. The president serves a five-year term.

The current president is Salome Zourabichvili. Because of Georgia's transition to a fully parliamentary system she is the last president to be elected directly by the citizens.

Qualifications
Any citizen of Georgia having the electoral right, who has attained the age of 35 and who has lived in Georgia for at least 15 years, may be elected President of Georgia. The office cannot be held by a citizen of Georgia who is simultaneously the citizen of a foreign country. The president of Georgia shall not be a member of a political party.

Election
According to the 2018 version of Georgia's constitution, starting in 2024, the president will be elected for a five-year term by the 300-member Electoral College, consisting of all members of the Parliament of Georgia and of the supreme representative bodies of the autonomous republics of Abkhazia and Adjara, also members from the representative bodies of local-self-governments (municipalities). The same person may be elected President of Georgia only twice. No less than 30 members of the Electoral College shall have the right to nominate a candidate for the president of Georgia. The election of the president of Georgia is appointed by the Parliament for October.

Impeachment
One third of the total number of the members of Parliament has the right to raise the question of impeachment of the president of Georgia. They can be considered impeached if the decision is supported by at least two thirds of the members of Parliament. The procedure of the impeachment of the president is constitutionally banned during a state of emergency or martial law.

Constitutional powers and duties
1. The President of Georgia shall:

a) with the consent of the Government, exercise representative powers in foreign relations, negotiate with other states and international organisations, conclude international treaties, and accept the accreditation of ambassadors and other diplomatic representatives of other states and international organisations; upon nomination by the Government, appoint and dismiss ambassadors and other heads of diplomatic missions of Georgia;

b) conclude a constitutional agreement with the Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church of Georgia on behalf of the state of Georgia;

c) call the elections of Parliament and local self-government bodies in accordance with the Constitution and the procedures established by the organic law;

d) upon nomination by the Government, appoint and dismiss the Commander of the Defence Forces of Georgia; appoint one member of the High Council of Justice; participate in the appointment of the chairperson and members of the Central Election Commission of Georgia in cases defined by the organic law and in accordance with the established procedure; upon nomination by the Government, submit to Parliament candidates for the membership of the national regulatory bodies;

e) decide on citizenship issues in accordance with the procedures established by the organic law;

f) pardon convicts;

g) in accordance with the procedures established by law, grant state awards and rewards; highest military ranks, special ranks and honorary titles; and highest diplomatic ranks;

h) be entitled, upon recommendation by the Government and with the consent of Parliament, to suspend the activity of a representative body of a territorial unit, or to dissolve such a body, if its activities threaten the sovereignty or territorial integrity of the country, or the exercise of constitutional powers by state bodies;

i) exercise other powers determined by the Constitution.

2. The President of Georgia shall have the right to call a referendum on issues defined in the Constitution and law, at the request of the Parliament of Georgia, the Government of Georgia or no less than 200 000 voters, within 30 days after such a request is received. A referendum shall not be held in order to adopt or repeal a law, to grant amnesty or pardon, to ratify or denounce international treaties, or to decide issues that envisage the restriction of fundamental constitutional human rights. Issues related to calling and holding referendums shall be defined by the organic law.

3. The President of Georgia shall have the right to address the people. The President shall annually submit a report on crucial state-related issues to Parliament.

Oath
Prior to assuming office, on the third Sunday after the election day, the newly elected president of Georgia addresses the people and is required to take the following oath of office:

Immunity
The president of Georgia enjoys immunity. No one shall have the right to detain or bring criminal proceedings against the president of Georgia while in office. Security of the president of Georgia is provided by the Special State Protection Service.

Standard
The standard is adapted from the national flag of Georgia, charged in the center with the Georgian coat of arms. Copies of the standard are used inside the president's office, at the Chancellery Building, other state agencies, and as a car flag on vehicles bearing the president within Georgian territory.

History of office
After Georgia formally seceded from the Soviet Union on 9 April 1991, the Supreme Council voted, on 14 April, to create the post of executive president, and appointed Zviad Gamsakhurdia to the office pending the holding of direct elections. In the nationwide elections to this post, on 26 May 1991, Gamsakhurdia won a landslide victory, becoming the first president of the Republic of Georgia. Gamsakhurdia was ousted in a military coup d'état on 6 January 1992. He continued to function as a president-in-exile until his death in a failed attempt to regain power on 31 December 1993.

In the post-coup absence of legitimate power, a position of the head of state was introduced for Georgia's new leader Eduard Shevardnadze on 10 March 1992. After the adoption of a new Constitution on 24 August 1995, the post of president was restored. Shevardnadze was elected to presidency on 5 November 1995, and reelected on 9 April 2000. He resigned under pressure of mass demonstrations known as Rose Revolution on 23 November 2003. After Nino Burjanadze's brief tenure as an acting president, Mikheil Saakashvili was elected on 4 January 2004. He did not serve his full first term, but voluntarily resigned to defuse tensions in the aftermath of the 2007 Georgian demonstrations and brought the presidential elections forward from the original date in autumn 2008. He was reelected on 5 January 2008. The president's executive powers were significantly curtailed in favor of the prime minister and the Government in a series of amendments passed between 2013 and 2018. After the election of Giorgi Margvelashvili to presidency in October 2013, Georgia finalized its transition to a parliamentary republic. In November 2018, Salome Zourabichvili, became Georgia's first female president in permanent capacity and, according to the new constitution, the last president to be elected by a direct vote. In view of these changes, she is set to serve a term of six years.

Succession and acting president
In the event of the president's resignation, death or impeachment the chairperson of Parliament will temporarily serve until a new president is appointed. There were cases of this in Georgia in 2003 and 2007, in both cases, the president resigned prematurely and was replaced by the chairperson of parliament, before new elections were held. In both cases, the then-chairperson Nino Burjanadze became acting president; she was the only one in this position, and it can be said that she was also the first female president of the country. However, the first fully elected female president in Georgia was Salome Zourabichvili, who is still in this position.

Administration
Administration of the President of Georgia (საქართველოს პრეზიდენტის ადმინისტრაცია, sometimes translated as Presidential Administration of Georgia) is the body supporting and organizing the exercise of the powers defined by the Constitution of Georgia and other legislative acts for the President of Georgia. The Administration of the President of Georgia was established on February 14, 2004 by the Decree №60 of the President of Georgia, Mikheil Saakashvili. In its activities, the administration is guided by the Constitution of Georgia, the legislation of Georgia, the statute and other legal acts of the President of Georgia. The structure and rules of operation of the administration are determined by the President of Georgia.

List of officeholders

 * Notes

title: President of Georgia


text:
Bouyei

Bouyei can refer to:

 * Bouyei language, a Tai language spoken in Vietnam and southern China
 * Bouyei people, an ethnic group of Vietnam and southern China
 * Giáy people, an ethnic group of Vietnam, speakers of Bouyei

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bouyei


text:
User talk:WolfgangPeters

Feel free to make the changes you want on Landsmannschaft Ostpreussen. It's unnecessary to insert a "disputed article" notice. When I rewrote the anonymous user's edit, it was because he/she totally removed the word "expelled". But you are probably right that it should be stated that some also was evacuated or emigrated. Nico 01:50, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

OK, I will do the job.

I was about to do it, but you were faster. :) ~ Nico

User:Maximus Rex Why I don't like that guy?

Hi Wolfgang, I don't think it's a good idea to copy this dispute to people's talk pages. Perhaps a better way would just be to provide a link to the Current disputes over articles page and ask people to comment there? Angela. 20:07, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

OK!

Regarding "Voila: Adam Mez, The Renaissance of Islam : classical book about Middle Ages" will I find many mentions of Jews in the slave trade or can you provide a page number? OneVoice 10:21, 29 Jan 2004 (UTC)

There is a chapter, that describes the slave routes. There were 2 routes: Eastern through Khazar empire and western through Frank Empire. The reason why Jewish traders acted as middle man between Christians and muslims, was that Christians were not allowed to trade (Christian) slaves. Prague used to be the biggest center of slave trade. It was the main reason, why Adalbert from Prague escaped from his bishopry. If you want to know more, I would advise you to read the life stories of beatified by the Church. One of them was beatified, because she spent all her property on purchasing back Christian slaves from Jewish traders. I cannot recall her name. For Middle Age historians it is common knowledge, you shouldn't have any problem with confirming it. By the way, blond Slavic beauties were very expensive for Muslims. WolfgangPeters 10:30, 29 Jan 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:WolfgangPeters


text:
Talk:English

distinctions of people?
I'm somewhat bemused by some of these distinctions: 'British English'? I can understand Irish English, Scottish English etc. Likewise 'American English' - beneath it is 'Canadian English', there was me thinking Canada was IN America.
 * Eh? Canada is in North America, or The Americas - no Canadian would ever agree that Canada is in America, and I suspect most could easily be pushed to violence on the issue WilyD 15:07, 21 March 2006 (UTC)

Wouldn't it make more sense to have 'English' - as spoken by the residents of England, then pre-fix with the appropriate country name: Australian English, South African English, U.S.A. English etc. hi my name is emily goddingdfright ad i just whant to teAEEL youthat i am biologiclly smart. BYE!! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2600:1700:3940:26A0:756C:9B0F:29CA:2DA (talk) 01:39, 70 January 2089 (UTC)

Disambiguation for the English language
"Keep in mind that the primary purpose of the disambiguation page is to help people find the page they want quickly and easily." - from Manual of Style (disambiguation pages)

So I am changing the entry for English language from "a West Germanic language" to "spoken mainly in the United States, the UK as well as its former colonies."

Also, "Unlike a regular article page, don't wikilink any other words in the line, unless they may be essential to help the reader determine which page they are looking for", so I am removing excess wikilinks as well.

Singkong2005 12:18, 19 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Come to think of it, just having "the English language", with no description is probably clearest of all. Nice and uncluttered. What think ye? Singkong2005 12:34, 19 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I think you're right, it is better as just "the English language". For one thing, we have just "the English people", and if that's good enough without going into detail then so too should the language stand on its own.  (Warning: now that I've answered the question, it's time to rant...)

 * Furthermore, the current phrasing, splitting as it does the English-speaking world (occasionally referred to by the bloody stupid neologism "the anglosphere") into "the US" and "the UK and former colonies" is frankly offensive, so any move to get rid of it is very welcome. I don't mean to sound like our oversensitive ranting friend higher up the page, but what makes my homeland a "former colony" but that other notorious prison a fully-fledged nation in its own right?  What is it about the USA that makes it special in a way that the other "former colonies" are not?  And what gets me, what absolutely maddens me (and many others who embarrass themselves on talkpages such as this complaining about systemic bias) is that it never even occurs to you lot that this sort of thing could be a problem!  Gah!! --fuddlemark (fuddle me!) 15:03, 19 October 2005 (UTC)

 * On behalf of my fellow inmates, I apologize most sincerely.Petershank 21:29, 10 January 2007 (UTC)

Protected?
Should this page be protected since anonymous IPs mainly deteriorate it? 16@r 11:50, 29 October 2006 (UTC)

Requesting an addition to the English chess opening. Mokru 18:41, 31 May 2007 (UTC) Requesting an addition to the English chess opening. Mokru 18:38, 31 May 2007 (UTC)
 * [[Image:Yes check.svg|20px]] Done. Cheers. --MZMcBride 19:52, 31 May 2007 (UTC)

Polite notice
Please could people avoid placing upon the page unproven assertions without any evidence to support them - such as "English is the most flexible and easiest language in the world".

Thank you

Human@home 22:16, 9 January 2007 (UTC)

"English" may additionally refer to...
When I hear the word "English", the first thing that comes to my mind after the language is English Horn, a double-reed woodwind musical instrument. Can this be added to the list of disambiguations? Harmonyseven 00:55, 14 June 2007 (UTC)

 * [[Image:Yes check.svg|20px]] Done. (long ago, and not by me). --Mike Schwartz (talk) 22:05, 20 May 2011 (UTC)

No primary topic
The word "English" refers to the English language as much as, if not more than, the English people. As English people is not a primary topic for the word, I have reverted RexImperium's move of the disambiguation to English (disambiguation) and redirection of 'English' to English people. -- Cyrius|✎ 11:53, 8 August 2007 (UTC)
 * I have done so again, for the same reasons.   Acroterion  (talk)  12:18, 8 August 2007 (UTC)
 * It appears that Reximperium is re-working the various English/English people, etc. relationships, which is not necessarily a bad thing. I would suggest that if a redirect is used for English, it go to English (disambiguation)  rather than English people, since the latter does not reflect a broad usage (and there's nothing wrong with a little disambiguation).   Acroterion  (talk)  12:24, 8 August 2007 (UTC)
 * it is a bad thing if he's doing it against consensus. Fwiiw, the historically primary meaning is "English people", but "English" in isolation more often refers to the language, or to England, and is rarely used in an ethnic sense. To make clear you mean the people, the definite article is necessary. --dab (𒁳) 17:32, 15 August 2007 (UTC)

english literature
User:Peter Isotalo moved a lot of material out of the disambiguation main section into a "see also", commenting "("English literature" is *not* a disambiguation of either the language or the people; use the talkpage if you wish to autorevert)" (diff). I'm really not sure what this comment is supposed to mean, but "English" is commonly used in primary schools in the States to refer simply to literature studies. Accordingly, I have moved "English literature" into the "Other" section. I also moved the "Other" section out from underneath the "See also" section, since it is its own subsection that properly belongs in the main disambiguation. --Lquilter (talk) 20:48, 10 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Actually, "English" is normally used in the U.S. to refer to English studies; the literature portion of an English studies class, if it deals with U.K. literature, is referred to informally as "English lit" ("American lit," obviously, if it deals with U.S. literature). --Tkynerd (talk) 03:23, 11 February 2008 (UTC)

 * "English" can not be used to mean "English literature". It's a adjective+noun cominbation, just like "English cuisine", "English architecture", "English music", etc.
 * Peter Isotalo 07:15, 11 February 2008 (UTC)
 * That's not a persuasive argument. As I posted above, "English" can indeed refer to English studies, which is also an adjective+noun combination; it can also refer to English language and English people, to name two more adjective+noun combinations. --Tkynerd (talk) 23:39, 11 February 2008 (UTC)
 * It would seem as if it could refer to English studies only under rather special circumstances. English people/language, however, are not regular adjective+noun combos, but necessary disambiguations of terms that are most commonly referred to as just "English". "English literature" and similar topics, though, can't really be refered to as just "English".
 * Peter Isotalo 08:16, 12 February 2008 (UTC)
 * It doesn't seem that way to anybody who is sufficiently familiar with the English language. It's actually the term English studies that is relatively restricted in use; the most common term for that subject area is simply English. --Tkynerd (talk) 14:46, 12 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Again, in a rather specific context. Namely that of people who deal with English studies. Anyone not sufficiently familiarity with the English language would hardly find such a reference useful in the first place.
 * Peter Isotalo 07:34, 13 February 2008 (UTC)
 * What? Obviously only people who are talking about English studies will refer to it as anything. Most of those people will, in fact, refer to it as English. (As far as I know, the term "English studies" is only used above the bachelor's degree level of study; since English is a required subject all the way through elementary school, junior high, high school and college in the U.S., and people refer to it just as English at those levels, it's safe to say that most people use just the term English when referring to it.) --Tkynerd (talk) 15:30, 13 February 2008 (UTC)
 * First off, I'd say that "English studies" refers to an academic discipline, not just English classes of any kind. And secondly, a language does not need to be directly disambiguated from the discipline that studies that language. That goes for just about any topic, I might add.
 * Peter Isotalo 08:54, 14 February 2008 (UTC)
 * And you'd be quite wrong on both counts. "English" is used to refer to the discipline of English studies as it is taught at lower levels (through the baccalaureate level at least), and the discipline involves more than just the study of the language. --Tkynerd (talk) 16:35, 14 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Baccalaureate is an academic level of study. High school is not, and what you study in high school isn't "everything generally related to English language and culture". Again, though, topic XXX does not need to be disambiguated from the discipline that studies XXX, whether it encompasses several topics or not. For example, gender isn't on the same level as gender studies. You may study "gender", but no one would define "gender" as a valid synonym to "gender studies" in an encyclopedic context.
 * Peter Isotalo 07:22, 15 February 2008 (UTC)
 * You don't know what you're talking about. English studies at the baccalaureate level and below generally consists only of the study of the English language and English-language literature because those are the portions of the discipline considered appropriate for those levels. (For the same reason, the study of literature is not generally introduced into English classes until the junior-high level in the U.S.) The reason "no one would define 'gender' as a valid synonym for 'gender studies' in an encyclopedic context" is simply that gender is not a valid synonym for gender studies in English, whereas English is frequently used to refer to English studies. --Tkynerd (talk) 19:26, 15 February 2008 (UTC)

13:08, 22 April 2008 (UTC)
 * It seems odd that Peter has continued this discussion for so long, considering English is his second or third language. I speak it as a first language and have never heard the phrase "English Studies" -- the subject is almost universally known as English (including the study of both the language and literature) and is properly included on this page. calr (talk) 13:45, 22 April 2008 (UTC)

England as target or in See also?
A revision just made by User:Ordosingularis wikilinked England in the first item on the page. This raises two issues:
 * Do we need to include England both as an item in the disambiguations and in the See also section?
 * Which link should we keep in that first item? (Per WP:MOSDAB, except in very special circumstances each disambiguation item should have exactly one bluelink.)

My own preference would be to remove England from the See also section and to delink United Kingdom in the first item on the page, leaving England wikilinked there. Opinions? --Tkynerd (talk) 17:03, 9 August 2008 (UTC)

 * As no opinions have been forthcoming, I'm going to follow my own suggestion above. --Tkynerd (talk) 13:40, 23 August 2008 (UTC)

but i do not see your point. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.185.195.129 (talk) 17:58, 10 April 2009 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: page not moved: no concensus in 33 days; majority for oppose. Anthony Appleyard (talk) 22:55, 12 November 2010 (UTC)

English → English (disambiguation) —
 * 1) The language is unquestionably the primary topic for English, therefore the article about the language, not the dab page, should be at English. Per page views alone --878,877 views for English language in Sep 2010 v.s. only 55,635 views for English people -- this is obvious. Also, if you google for "English", the first hit is the English language page, and there is no sign of the people page or any other Wikipedia article for pages of results. All this means readers entering English in the search box are "much more likely [to be searching for the language] than any other [subject], and more likely than all the [other topics] combined", which is the criteria for determining primary topic, and yet these readers are currently incorrectly taken to the dab page.
 * 2) The most common name used to refer to the language is English, not English language.
 * 3) Consistency in naming with other similar articles (in this case other language articles) should not trump principle naming criteria like WP:PRIMARYTOPIC and WP:COMMONNAME that applies to all article titles.  The convention for adding "language" to the title should only apply when disambiguation is necessary; when the name of the language is not the primary topic for that term.  That is clearly not the case here.
 * 4) Personal preference, including the preference to have similar articles look the same, should not be a valid reason for naming articles contrary to what principle naming criteria that applies to all articles clearly indicates. Born2cycle (talk) 16:57, 11 October 2010 (UTC)

 * English language → English

 * Oppose not all those language hits about English actually mean "English language", some of them mean "American English" others mean "British English". In popular culture, there are many instances where an American asks a Brit if they speak English, when they use non-US terminology. So even when English is referring to the English language, it is not always "English language" that is meant, rather a dialect of it. Or "plain English", when technical jargon abounds. 76.66.200.95 (talk) 05:25, 12 October 2010 (UTC)
 * But if someone is looking for a variety of English like "American English" or "British English" they are likely to enter that in the search box, not just "English". Recall the definition of WP:PRIMARYTOPIC: "much more likely than any other [subject that uses that name], and more likely than all the [other subjects that use that name] combined – to be the subject being sought when a reader enters that term in the Search box."  Do you seriously doubt that when someone types in just English in the Search box, that it is much more likely that they are looking for the English language than any other topic, and that it is more likely that they are looking for the English language than for all of the other topics on the dab page combined?  Regardless, that's the issue here.  --Born2cycle (talk) 15:41, 12 October 2010 (UTC)
 * I agree with Born2cycle that if someone was looking for American or British English they would put the qualifier in the search term. If they just put English and were looking for either of those, it's a single click to go to the English disambig page anyway.  Considering the statistics indicate that a vast majority of people are looking for English language, I think the less click for those people far outweighs the extra click incurred in the case you describe. Starwrath (talk) 23:28, 12 October 2010 (UTC)

What is the status regarding other languages in terms of primary topic? For example, is this the same case in French/German/Chinese? If so, for consistency, either all the articles should be changed or none of them. On the basis of his argument though, in accordance with Wikipedia policy, I have to Support. Starwrath (talk) 23:28, 12 October 2010 (UTC)
 * I would support moving the others too, but often change can only occur incrementally, the price of which means a period of inconsistency in between. The reason wholesale change often does not work is because changes to the relevant guideline is resisted on the grounds that, as-is, it reflects current practice, and changing the articles is opposed on grounds that that would contradict the guideline.  This is why the argument that "it follows article-specific guidelines" cannot be given much weight in these discussions and decisions, because the guideline/convention itself is what is at issue.  But if we can establish there is consensus to move (when discounting opposition that is entirely based on just following existing guideline/convention) one or two articles contrary to article-specific conventions, then we can show that consensus is changing, and get the whole thing fixed.  --Born2cycle (talk) 23:48, 12 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Well... there was a large argument at Cantonese, Yue Chinese about what is a language, which deserved to be at the primary location, and why the dab page (Cantonese (disambiguation) isn't at the primary since there is so much acrimony about things, and why the primary usage in English (Cantonese food) didn't count... So, things are already a mess regarding atleast one of these names. Recently Swiss (disambiguation) came up for renaming... to move the dab page to primary, the opposite of the request here. 76.66.200.95 (talk) 04:06, 14 October 2010 (UTC)
 * It should be noted that the article at Cantonese is the language and of course there is no Swiss language, and the issue there was about whether the people or the country is the primary topic for "Swiss". --Born2cycle (talk) 00:14, 26 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Actually, Cantonese is the dialect of the language article Yue Chinese. 76.66.203.138 (talk) 05:12, 29 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Point taken. In any case I don't see how any of that is relevant to the issues that need to be resolved here.  --Born2cycle (talk) 17:27, 12 November 2010 (UTC)

 * Oppose - The language may indeed be the main topic that people are looking for when they write "English," but because there are plenty of situations where "English" is used as an adjective related to England, the language cannot be considered the primary topic for English. From a practical standpoint, it is frequent for new internal links to point to English when the meaning is something other than the language; keeping it as a disambiguation page increases the likelihood that those links will be discovered and disambiguated. Finally, maintaining this as a disambiguation page is consistent with widespread Wikipedia practice seen at pages such as French and German. --Orlady (talk) 01:08, 31 October 2010 (UTC)
 * With respect to primary topic determination, all that matters is whether this is the topic usually being searched for when people enter "English" in the Search box. That editors might use the link incorrectly is a) something that can be fixed, and b) not really that big of a deal when broken, especially considering this article will have a hatnote redirecting to the article about the country as well as the dab page when moved to English, and so anyone getting here instead of the dab page will be just as far (one click) from their intended destination.  --Born2cycle (talk) 21:22, 5 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Oppose this must be requested in many languages since are as common as English, (e.g. Portuguese and Chinese). Tb hotch Ta lk C. 02:44, 11 November 2010 (UTC)
 * I suggest we determine here whether there is consensus that the English language is primary for "English". Whether other articles are misplaced is a separate though possibly related issue.  At any rate, "all or none" does not normally amount to a strong and serious opposition in a discussion about whether one particular article should be moved per primary topic.  --17:22, 12 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Oppose - the current set-up is just fine, exactly the way I would expect it to be under our MOS, etc. -- Orange Mike  |   Talk  02:49, 11 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Please explain how MOS indicates the current set-up. Thanks.  --Born2cycle (talk) 17:22, 12 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Comment from nom - This is quite disappointing so far because this seemed like a very clear case of primary topic, and I thought I explained this well in the proposal. Yet everyone (except Starwrath who seems to be the only to have read the nominating argument) so far is opposing, and pretty much ignoring the argument presented.  No one is arguing that the language is not the primary topic, they just apparently don't care. So, should we just delete WP:PRIMARYTOPIC from WP:DISAMBIGUATION?  If this discussion is closed without moving apparently not even a good reason is required to ignore what WP:PRIMARYTOPIC clearly says..  if so, then what's the point of having it?  Maybe we should just forget about all naming policies and guidelines and just have a vote and count how many like or don't like one name vs. another?    --Born2cycle (talk) 10:15, 12 November 2010 (UTC)
 * reply - sorry to disappoint, but you've not made any kind of a very good case that the language is in fact the primary topic. -- Orange Mike  |   Talk  13:56, 12 November 2010 (UTC)
 * If Point 1 in the proposal argument (which has not been addressed much less refuted) does not constitute as making a case for primary topic, I suggest no case has ever been made for primary topic for any article. I mean, that's about as good as it gets.  --Born2cycle (talk) 16:52, 12 November 2010 (UTC)
 * You've made an assertion; but the arguments are in my opinion not strong enough to constitute much of a case. Nonetheless, I have stricken part of my prior statement as being over-strong. -- Orange Mike  |   Talk  18:56, 12 November 2010 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

British English and English English removed
Someone has just removed the link to British English from this page. I did the same for English English and wanted to explain why I thought these removals were appropriate.

British English and English English are both essentially subsets of the English language, which, appropriately, is included on this page. To the extent that the term English can refer to either British English or English English, it can also refer to U.S. English, Canadian English, South African English, Australian English, New Zealand English, Indian English...and the list goes on. There is no particular reason to represent British English and English English on this page as meanings of the word English any more than there is a particular reason to represent, say, New Zealand English in that manner. Either we need to list all the varieties of the English language, which would be such a long list that it would make the page difficult to use for no real benefit, or we don't need to list any of them. --Tkynerd (talk) 00:50, 8 December 2011 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 27 December 2017
"English Language" should link to "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language" 170.12.232.233 (talk) 19:39, 27 December 2017 (UTC)
 * Yes check.svg Done  JTP (talk • contribs) 21:21, 27 December 2017 (UTC)

 * I concur. The purpose of a disambiguation page ought to be to get readers to the correct article, not to make them search or type again. It seems incredible not to link one of the two clear primary topics. - BilCat (talk) 23:35, 27 December 2017 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 26 January 2018
I wanted to improve this article about the english language, pretty please with a cherry on top ;) Blazetheonly1 (talk) 14:29, 26 January 2018 (UTC)

 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. @Blazetheonly1: Unless you make a specific suggestion, we can't update the article. —C.Fred (talk) 14:31, 26 January 2018 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 30 January 2020
The English people are a nation and an ethnic group native to England who speak the English language. The English identity is of early medieval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Angelcynn (‘family of the Angles’). Their ethnonym is derived from the Angles, one of the Germanic peoples who migrated to Great Britain around the 5th century AD.[8] England is the largest and most populous country of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the majority of people living there are British citizens. 71.169.165.216 (talk) 21:36, 30 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. It looks like you're interested in the article English people, not this one. — KuyaBriBri Talk 23:33, 30 January 2020 (UTC)

Geography
Names of settlement 41.113.210.248 (talk) 07:50, 13 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Are you looking for England? Ghmyrtle (talk) 10:37, 13 August 2022 (UTC)

"Anglais" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anglais&redirect=no Anglais] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Jay 💬 07:51, 27 January 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 24 March 2029
Shashtipriya2023 (talk) 12:30, 18 February 2024 (UTC)
 * You haven't said what change you think should be made. JBW (talk) 12:37, 18 February 2024 (UTC)

English
Looking for a brighter feature — Preceding unsigned comment added by 102.220.249.252 (talk) 23:30, 20 March 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 11 July 2024
english is a language. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:4479:C703:AB00:2553:C493:4EA5:AC4C (talk) 10:04, 11 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:English


text:
Jew's harp

The Jew's harp, also known as jaw harp, juice harp, or mouth harp, is a lamellophone instrument, consisting of a flexible metal or bamboo tongue or reed attached to a frame. Despite the colloquial name, the Jew's harp most likely originated in Siberia, specifically in or around the Altai Mountains, and is of Turkic origin. It has no relation to the Jewish people.

Jew's harps may be categorized as idioglot or heteroglot (whether or not the frame and the tine are one piece); by the shape of the frame (rod or plaque); by the number of tines, and whether the tines are plucked, joint-tapped, or string-pulled.

Characteristics
The frame is held firmly against the performer's parted teeth or lips (depending on the type), using the mouth as a resonator, greatly increasing the volume of the instrument. The teeth must be parted sufficiently for the reed to vibrate freely, and the fleshy parts of the mouth should not come into contact with the reed to prevent damping of the vibrations and possible pain. The note or tone thus produced is constant in pitch, though by changing the shape of the mouth, and the amount of air contained in it (and in some traditions closing the glottis), the performer can cause different overtones to sound and thus create melodies.

According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, "The vibrations of the steel tongue produce a compound sound composed of a fundamental and its harmonics. By using the cavity of the mouth as a resonator, each harmonic in succession can be isolated and reinforced, giving the instrument the compass shown." "The lower harmonics of the series cannot be obtained, owing to the limited capacity of the resonating cavity. The black notes on the stave show the scale which may be produced by using two harps, one tuned a fourth above the other. The player on the Jew's harp, in order to isolate the harmonics, frames his mouth as though intending to pronounce the various vowels." See: bugle scale.

History
The earliest depiction of somebody playing what seems to be a Jew's harp is a Chinese drawing from the 3rd century BCE, and curved bones discovered in the Shimao fortifications in Shaanxi, China are believed to be the earliest evidence of its existence, dating back to before 1800 BCE. Archaeological finds of surviving examples in Europe have been claimed to be almost as old, but those dates have been challenged both on the grounds of excavation techniques, and the lack of contemporary writing or pictures mentioning the instrument.

"Although this instrument is used by lackeys and people of the lower class, this does not mean it is not worthy of consideration by better minds ... The trump is grasped while its extremity is placed between the teeth in order to play it and make it sound ... Now one may strike the tongue with the index finger in two ways, i.e., by lifting it or lowering it: but it is easier to strike it by raising it, which is why the extremity, C, is slightly curved, so that the finger is not injured ... Many people play this instrument. When the tongue is made to vibrate, a buzzing is heard which imitates that of bees, wasps, and flies ... [if one uses] several Jew's harps of various sizes, a curious harmony is produced."

Etymology
There are many theories for the origin of the name jew's harp. The apparent reference to Jewish people is especially misleading since it "has nothing to do with the Jewish people; neither does it look like a harp in its structure and appearance". In Sicilian it is translated as marranzanu or mariolu; both of which are derogatory terms for Jewish people also found in Italian and Spanish. In German, it is known as Maultrommel, which roughly translates as 'mouth drum'. The name "Jew's Harp" first appears in 1481 in a customs account book under the name "Jue harpes". The "jaw" variant is attested at least as early as 1774 and 1809, the "juice" variant appearing only in the late 19th and 20th centuries.

It has also been suggested that the name derives from the French jeu-trompe meaning 'toy trumpet'. The current French word for the instrument is guimbarde. Wedgwood, an English etymologist, wrote in 1855 that the derivation from jeu harpe opposes the French idiom, where "if two substantives are joined together, the qualifying noun is invariably the last. He refers to the jeu harpe derivation, but not to the jeu tromp derivation.

Both theories—that the name is a corruption of jaws or jeu—are described by the Oxford English Dictionary as "lacking any supporting evidence." The OED says that, "more or less satisfactory reasons may be conjectured: e.g. that the instrument was actually made, sold, or imported to England by Jewish people, or purported to be so; or that it was attributed to Jewish people, suggesting the trumps and harps mentioned in the Bible, and hence considered a good commercial name." Although the OED states that "the association of the instrument with Jewish people occurs, so far as is known, only in English", the term jødeharpe is also used in Danish.

Manufacture of Indian morchang
Indian morchangs are made in many metals but mainly in brass, iron, copper and silver. Different types of construction art are used for the construction of Morchang in each metal.

Brass
Brass murchangs are manufactured from ancient Indian manufacturing style brass metal casting. Brass molding is a process of shaping brass, into desired shapes using a mold. The brass is heated to a molten state and then poured or forced into the mold, where it cools and solidifies into the desired shape. Brass molding is often used to create intricate or complex shapes.

Cambodian music
The angkuoch (Khmer: អង្គួច) is a Cambodian Jew's harp. It is a folk instrument made of bamboo and carved into a long, flat shape with a hole in the center and the tongue across the hole. There is also a metal variety, more round or tree-leaf shaped. It may also have metal bells attached. The instrument is both a wind instrument and percussion instrument. As a wind instrument, it is placed against the mouth, which acts as a resonator and tool to alter the sound. Although mainly a folk instrument, better-made examples exist. While the instrument was thought to be the invention of children herding cattle, it is sometimes used in public performance, to accompany the Mahori music in public dancing.

Indian music
The instrument is used as part of the rhythm section in various styles of Indian folk and classical music. Most notably the Morsing in the Carnatic music of South India, or the Morchang in the lok geet (folk music) of Rajasthan.

Russian music
In Russia, the instrument has its own brand called vargan. A Jew's harp was excavated in a 9th-century burial mound in Idelbayev, Bashkortostan.

Murchunga
In Nepal, one type of Jew's harp is named the (Nepali: मुर्चुङ्गा). It is very similar to an Indian morsing or morchang in that the tongue (or twanger) extends beyond the frame, thus giving the instrument more sustain.

Binayo
The (Nepali बिनायो बाजा) is a bamboo Jew's harp, in the Kiranti musical tradition from Malingo. It is popular in the Eastern Himalayan region of Nepal, Sikkim, Darjeeling, and Bhutan. It is a wind instrument played by blowing the air without tuning the node with fingers. The is six inches long and one inch in width.

Kyrgyz music
The temir komuz is made of iron, usually with a length of 100–200 mm and with a width of approximately 2–7 mm. The range of the instrument varies with the size of the instrument but generally hovers around an octave span. The Kyrgyz people are exceptionally proficient on the instrument and it is quite popular among children, although some adults continue to play the instrument. Temir komuz pieces were notated by Aleksandr Zataevich in two or three parts. An octave drone is possible, or even an ostinato alternating the fifth step of a scale with an octave.

Turkish music
In Turkish, the Jew's harp is called as ağız kopuzu. The Jew's harp traditionally used in Turkish folk songs from Anatolia has fallen out of use with time. Modern renditions of Turkish folk songs with the Jew's harp have been done by artists such as Senem Diyici in the song 'Dolama Dolamayı' and Ravan Yuzkhan.

Sindhi music
In Sindhi music, the Jew's harp is called (چنگُ). In Sindhi music, it can be an accompaniment or the main instrument. One of the most famous players is Amir Bux Ruunjho.

Sicilian music
In Sicily, the Jew's harp is commonly known as marranzanu, but other names include angalarruni, calarruni, gangalarruni, ganghilarruni, mariolu, mariolu di fera, marranzana, and ngannalarruni.

Austrian Jew's harp playing
Austrian Jew's harp music uses typical Western harmony. The UNESCO has included Austrian Jew's harp playing in its Intangible Cultural Heritage list.

In Austria, the instrument is known as Maultrommel (the literal translation is 'mouth drum').

Western classical music
Early representations of Jew's harps have appeared in Western churches since the fourteenth century.

The Austrian composer Johann Albrechtsberger—chiefly known today as a teacher of Beethoven—wrote seven concerti for Jew's harp, mandora, and orchestra between 1769 and 1771. Four of them have survived, in the keys of F major, E-flat major, E major, and D major. They are based on the special use of the Jew's harp in Austrian folk music.

"In the experimental period at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century there were very virtuoso instrumentalists on the mouth harp. Thus, for example, Johann Heinrich Scheibler was able to mount up to ten mouth harps on a support disc. He called the instrument 'Aura'. Each mouth harp was tuned to different basic tones, which made even chromatic sequences possible."

Well known performer Franz Koch (1761–1831), discovered by Frederick the Great, could play two Jew's harps at once, while the also well known performer Karl Eulenstein (1802–1890), "invented a system of playing four at once, connecting them by silken strings in such a way that he could clasp all four with the lips, and strike all the four springs at the same time".

The American composer Charles Ives wrote a part for Jew's harp in the Washington's Birthday movement of A Symphony: New England Holidays.

Western music
The Jew's harp has been used occasionally in rock and country music. For example:
 * Canned Heat's multi-part piece "Parthenogenesis" from their Living the Blues album.
 * Black Sabbath – "Sleeping Village"

General and cited references

 * Alekseev, Ivan, and E. I. [i.e. Egor Innokent'evich] Okoneshnikov (1988). Iskusstvo igry na iakutskom khomuse. IAkutsk: Akademiia nauk SSSR, Sibirskoe otd-nie, IAkutskii filial, In-t iazyka, lit-ry i istorii.
 * Bakx, Phons (1992). De gedachtenverdrijver: de historie van de mondharp. Hadewijch wereldmuziek. Antwerpen: Hadewijch; ISBN 90-5240-163-2.
 * Boone, Hubert, and René de Maeyer (1986). De Mondtrom. Volksmuziekinstrumenten in Belgie en in Nederland. Brussel: La Renaissance du Livre.
 * Crane, Frederick (1982). "Jew's (jaw's? jeu? jeugd? gewgaw? juice?) harp." In: Vierundzwanzigsteljahrschrift der Internationalen Maultrommelvirtuosengenossenschaft, vol. 1 (1982). With: "The Jew's Harp in Colonial America," by Brian L. Mihura.
 * Crane, Frederick (2003). A History of the Trump in Pictures: Europe and America. A special supplement to Vierundzwanzigsteljahrsschrift der Internationalen Maultrommelvirtuosengenossenschaft. Mount Pleasant, Iowa: [Frederick Crane].
 * Dournon-Taurelle, Geneviève, and John Wright (1978). Les Guimbardes du Musée de l'homme. Preface by Gilbert Rouget. Published by the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle and l'Institut d'ethnologie.
 * Emsheimer, Ernst (1941). "Über das Vorkommen und die Anwendungsart der Maultrommel in Sibirien und Zentralasien". In: Ethnos (Stockholm), nos 3–4 (1941).
 * Emsheimer, Ernst (1964). "Maultrommeln in Sibirien und Zentralasien." In: Studia ethnomusicologica eurasiatica (Stockholm: Musikhistoriska museet, pp. 13–27).
 * Fox, Leonard (1984). The Jew's Harp: A Comprehensive Anthology. Selected, edited, and translated by Leonard Fox. Charleston, South Carolina: L. Fox.
 * Fox, Leonard (1988). The Jew's Harp: A Comprehensive Anthology. Selected, edited, and translated by Leonard Fox. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press; London: Associated University Presses; ISBN 0-8387-5116-4.
 * Gallmann, Matthew S. (1977). The Jews Harp: A Select List of References With Library of Congress Call Numbers. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, Archive of Folk Song.
 * Gotovtsev, Innokenty. New Technologies for Yakut Khomus. Yakutsk.
 * Kolltveit, Gjermund (2006). Jew's Harps in European Archaeology. BAR International series, 1500. Oxford: Archaeopress; ISBN 1-84171-931-5.
 * Mercurio, Paolo (1998). Sa Trumba. Armomia tra telarzu e limbeddhu. Solinas Edition, Nuoro (IT).
 * Plate, Regina (1992). Kulturgeschichte der Maultrommel. Orpheus-Schriftenreihe zu Grundfragen der Musik, Bd. 64. Bonn: Verlag für Systematische Musikwissenschaft; ISBN 3-922626-64-5.
 * Mercurio, Paolo (2013). Gli Scacciapensieri Strumenti Musicali dell'Armonia Internazionali, Interculturali, Interdisciplinari. Milano; ISBN 978-88-6885-391-4.
 * Shishigin, S. S. (1994). Igraite na khomuse. Mezhdunarodnyi tsentr khomusnoi (vargannoi) muzyki. Pokrovsk: S.S. Shishigin/Ministerstvo kul'tury Respubliki Sakha (IAkutiia). ISBN 5-85157-012-1.
 * Shishigin, Spiridon. Kulakovsky and Khomus. Yakutia.
 * Smeck, Roy (1974). Mel Bay's Fun With the Jaws Harp. ISBN 9780871664495
 * Wright, Michael (2008). "The Jew's Harp in the Law, 1590–1825". Folk Music Journal 9.3 pp. 349–371; ISSN 0531-9684..
 * Wright, Michael (2015). The Jew's Harp in Britain and Ireland. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate; ISBN 978-1-4724-1413-7.
 * Yuan, Bingchang, and Jizeng Mao (1986). Zhongguo Shao Shu Min Zu Yue Qi Zhi. Beijing: Xin Shi Jie Chu Ban She: Xin Hua Shu Dian Beijing Fa Xing Suo Fa Xing; ISBN 7-80005-017-3.
 * Yuan, Bingchang, and Jizeng Mao (1986). Zhongguo Shao Shu Min Zu Yue Qi Zhi. Beijing: Xin Shi Jie Chu Ban She: Xin Hua Shu Dian Beijing Fa Xing Suo Fa Xing; ISBN 7-80005-017-3.

title: Jew's harp


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Call and response (music)

In music, call and response is a compositional technique, often a succession of two distinct phrases that works like a conversation in music. One musician offers a phrase, and a second player answers with a direct commentary or response. The phrases can be vocal, instrumental, or both. Additionally, they can take form as commentary to a statement, an answer to a question or repetition of a phrase following or slightly overlapping the initial speaker(s). It corresponds to the call and response pattern in human communication and is found as a basic element of musical form, such as the verse-chorus form, in many traditions.

Africa
In Sub-Saharan African cultures, call and response is a pervasive pattern of democratic participation—in public gatherings in the discussion of civic affairs, in religious rituals, as well as in vocal and instrumental musical expression. Most of the call and response practices found in modern culture originated in Sub-Saharan Africa.

North America
Enslaved Africans brought call and response music with them to the colonized American continents and it has been transmitted over the centuries in various forms of cultural expression—in religious observance, public gatherings, sporting events, children's rhymes, and most notably, in African-American music in its myriad forms and descendants. These include soul, gospel, blues, rhythm and blues, rock and roll, funk, pop, and hip hop. Hear for example the recordings entitled "Negro Folklore from Texas State Prisons" collected by Bruce Jackson on an Electra Records recording. Call and response are widely present in parts of the Americas touched by the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The tradition of call and response fosters dialogue and its legacy continues today, as it is an important component of oral traditions. Both African-American women work songs, African American work songs, and the work song, in general, use the call-and-response format often. It can also be found in the music of the Afro-Caribbean populations of Jamaica, Trinidad & Tobago, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, and many nations of the diaspora, especially Brazil.

Call and response is extensively used in Cuban music, where it is known as coro-pregón. It derives from African musical elements, both in the secular rumba and in African religious ceremonies (Santería).

South America
When enslaved African populations were brought to work in coastal agricultural areas of Peru during colonial times, they brought along their musical traditions. In Peru, those traditions mixed with Spanish popular music of the nineteenth century, as well as the indigenous music of Peru, eventually growing into what is commonly known as Afro-Peruvian music. Known as “huachihualo“, and characterized by competitive call-and-response verses, it is the defining trademark of various musical styles in Afro-Peruvian musical culture such as marinera, festejo, landó, tondero, zamacueca, and contrapunto de zapateo

In Colombia, the dance and musical form of cumbia originated with the enslaved African population of the coastal region of the country in the late 17th century. The style developed in Colombia from the intermingling of three cultures. From Africa, the drum percussion, foot movements and call-and-response. Its melodies and use of the gaita or caña de millo (cane flute) represents the Native Colombian influence, and the dress represents the Spanish influence.

United Kingdom
In 1644, lining out – where one person sang a solo (a precentor) and others followed – is outlined by the Westminster Assembly for psalm singing in English churches. It has influenced popular music singing styles. Presentinge line was characterized a slow, drawn-out heterophonic and often profusely ornamented melody, while a clerk or precentor (song leader) chanted the text line by line before it was sung by the congregation. Scottish Gaelic psalm-singing by prepresentinge line was the earliest form of congregational singing adopted by Africans in America.

Call and response is also a common structure of songs and carols originating in the Middle Ages, for example "All in the Morning" and "Down in yon Forest", both traditional Derbyshire carols.

Classical music
In Western classical music, call and response is known as antiphony. The New Grove Dictionary defines antiphony as "music in which an ensemble is divided into distinct groups, used in opposition, often spatial, and using contrasts of volume, pitch, timbre, etc." Early examples can be found in the music of Giovanni Gabrieli, one of the renowned practitioners of the Venetian polychoral style:

Gabrieli also contributed many instrumental canzonas, composed for contrasting groups of players:

Heinrich Schütz was one of the first composers to realise the expressive potential of the polychoral style in his "Little Sacred Concertos". The best known of these works is "Saul, Saul, was verfolgst du mich?", a vivid setting of the narrative of the Conversion of Paul as told in Acts 9 verses 3-4: "And as he journeyed, he came near Damascus: and suddenly there shined round about him a light from heaven. And he fell to the earth, and heard a voice saying unto him, Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me?"

"The musical phrase on which most of the concerto is built is sounded immediately by a pair of basses":

This idea is "then taken up by the alto and tenor, then by the sopranos, and finally by the pair of violins as transition to the explosive tutti":

"The syncopated repetitions of the name Saul are strategically planted so that, when the whole ensemble takes them up, they can be augmented into hockets resounding back and forth between the choirs, adding to the impression of an enveloping space And achieving in sound something like the effect of the surrounding light described by the Apostle."

In the following century, J.S. Bach featured antiphonal exchanges in his St Matthew Passion and the motets. In his motet Komm, Jesu, komm, Bach uses eight voices deployed as two antiphonal choirs. According to John Eliot Gardiner, in this "intimate and touching" work, Bach “goes many steps beyond the manipulation of spatially separate blocks of sound” and “finds ways of weaving all eight lines into a rich contrapuntal tapestry.”

The development of the classical orchestra in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries exploited the dramatic potential of antiphonal exchanges between groups of instruments. An example can be found in the development section of the finale of Mozart’s Symphony No. 41:

Even terser are the exchanges between wind and strings in the first movement of Beethoven's 5th Symphony. Here, the development culminates in a "singularly dramatic passage" consisting of a "strange sequence of block harmonies":

Twentieth century works that feature antiphonal exchanges include the second movement of Béla Bartók's Music for Strings Percussion and Celesta (1936) and Michael Tippett’s Concerto for Double String Orchestra (1938). One spectacular example from the 1950s is Karlheinz Stockhausen's Gruppen for Three Orchestras (1955–1957), which culminates in a "synchronized build-up of brass 'points' in the three orchestras ... leading to a climax of chord exchanges from orchestra to orchestra". When heard live, this piece creates a genuine sensation of music moving in space. "The combination of the three orchestras leads to great climaxes: long percussion solos, concertante trumpet solos, powerful brass sections, alternating and interpenetrating."

Popular music
Call and response is common in modern Western popular music. Cross-over rhythm and blues, rock 'n' roll and rock music exhibit call-and-response characteristics, as well. The Who's song "My Generation" is an example:

Leader/chorus call and response
A single leader makes a musical statement, and then the chorus responds together. American bluesman Muddy Waters utilizes call and response in one of his signature songs, "Mannish Boy" which is almost entirely leader/chorus call and response.

Another example is from Chuck Berry's "School Day (Ring Ring Goes the Bell)".

A contemporary example is from Carly Rae Jepsen's "Call Me Maybe".

This technique is utilized in Jepsen's song several times. While mostly in the chorus, it can also be heard in the breakdown (approximately 2:25) between the vocals ("It's hard to look right") and distorted guitar.

Question/answer call and response
Part of the band poses a musical "question", or a phrase that feels unfinished, and another part of the band "answers" (finishes) it. In the blues, the B section often has a question-and-answer pattern (dominant-to-tonic).

An example of this is the 1960 Christmas song "Must Be Santa":

A similar question-and-answer exchange occurs in the 1942 film Casablanca between Sam (Dooley Wilson) and the band in the song "Knock On Wood":

title: Call and response (music)


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Potassium in biology

Potassium is the main intracellular ion for all types of cells, while having a major role in maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance. Potassium is necessary for the function of all living cells, and is thus present in all plant and animal tissues. It is found in especially high concentrations within plant cells, and in a mixed diet, it is most highly concentrated in fruits. The high concentration of potassium in plants, associated with comparatively very low amounts of sodium there, historically resulted in potassium first being isolated from the ashes of plants (potash), which in turn gave the element its modern name. The high concentration of potassium in plants means that heavy crop production rapidly depletes soils of potassium, and agricultural fertilizers consume 93% of the potassium chemical production of the modern world economy.

The functions of potassium and sodium in living organisms are quite different. Animals, in particular, employ sodium and potassium differentially to generate electrical potentials in animal cells, especially in nervous tissue. Potassium depletion in animals, including humans, results in various neurological dysfunctions. Characteristic concentrations of potassium in model organisms are: 30–300mM in E. coli, 300mM in budding yeast, 100mM in mammalian cell and 4mM in blood plasma.

Function in plants
The main role of potassium in plants is to provide the ionic environment for metabolic processes in the cytosol, and as such functions as a regulator of various processes including growth regulation. Plants require potassium ions (K+) for protein synthesis and for the opening and closing of stomata, which is regulated by proton pumps to make surrounding guard cells either turgid or flaccid. A deficiency of potassium ions can impair a plant's ability to maintain these processes. Potassium also functions in other physiological processes such as photosynthesis, protein synthesis, activation of some enzymes, phloem solute transport of photoassimilates into source organs, and maintenance of cation:anion balance in the cytosol and vacuole.

Function in animals
Potassium is the major cation (K+, a positive ion) inside animal cells, while sodium (Na+) is the major cation outside animal cells. The difference between the concentrations of these charged particles causes a difference in electric potential between the inside and outside of cells, known as the membrane potential. The balance between potassium and sodium is maintained by ion transporters in the cell membrane. All potassium ion channels are tetramers with several conserved secondary structural elements. A number of potassium channel structures have been solved including voltage gated,  ligand gated,     tandem-pore,   and inwardly rectifying channels,     from prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate an action potential—a "spike" of electrical discharge. The ability of cells to produce electrical discharge is critical for body functions such as neurotransmission, muscle contraction, and heart function.

Dietary recommendations
The U.S. National Academy of Medicine (NAM), on behalf of both the U.S. and Canada, sets Dietary Reference Intakes, including Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs), or Adequate Intakes (AIs) for when there is not sufficient information to set EARs and RDAs.

For both males and females under 9 years of age, the AIs for potassium are: 400mg of potassium for 0 to 6-month-old infants, 860mg of potassium for 7 to 12-month-old infants, 2,000mg of potassium for 1 to 3-year-old children, and 2,300mg of potassium for 4 to 8-year-old children.

For males 9 years of age and older, the AIs for potassium are: 2,500mg of potassium for 9 to 13-year-old males, 3,000mg of potassium for 14 to 18-year-old males, and 3,400mg for males that are 19 years of age and older.

For females 9 years of age and older, the AIs for potassium are: 2,300mg of potassium for 9 to 18-year-old females, and 2,600mg of potassium for females that are 19 years of age and older.

For pregnant and lactating females, the AIs for potassium are: 2,600mg of potassium for 14 to 18-year-old pregnant females, 2,900mg for pregnant females that are 19 years of age and older; furthermore, 2,500mg of potassium for 14 to 18-year-old lactating females, and 2,800mg for lactating females that are 19 years of age and older. As for safety, the NAM also sets tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals, but for potassium the evidence was insufficient, so no UL was established.

In 2019, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine revised the Adequate Intake for potassium to 2,600 mg/day for females 19 years of age and older who are not pregnant or lactating, and 3,400 mg/day for males 19 years of age and older.

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL defined the same as in United States. For people ages 15 and older the AI is set at 3,500 mg/day. AIs for pregnancy is 3,500 mg/day, for lactation 4,000 mg/day. For children ages 1–14 years the AIs increase with age from 800 to 2,700 mg/day. These AIs are lower than the U.S. RDAs. The EFSA reviewed the same safety question and decided that there was insufficient data to establish a UL for potassium.

Labeling
For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For potassium labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 3500 mg, but as of May 2016, it has been revised to 4700 mg. A table of the old and new adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.

Supplements
20 mEq (781 mg) potassium from potassium gluconate (4680 mg), or potassium citrate (2040 mg), mixed with a half-cup (1.12 dL) water, taken two to four times a day, may be used on daily basis.

Labeling
Because of the risk of small-bowel lesions, the US FDA requires some potassium salts (for example potassium chloride) containing more than 99 mg (about 1.3 mEq) to be labeled with a warning.

Food sources
Eating a variety of foods that contain potassium is the best way to get an adequate amount. Foods with high sources of potassium include kiwifruit, orange juice, potatoes, coconut, avocados, apricots, parsnips and turnips, although many other fruits, vegetables, legumes, and meats contain potassium.

Common foods very high in potassium:
 * beans (white beans and others)
 * dark leafy greens (spinach, Swiss chard, and others)
 * potatoes
 * dried fruit (apricots, peaches, prunes, raisins; figs and dates)
 * squash
 * yogurt
 * fish (salmon)
 * avocado
 * nuts (pistachios, almonds, walnuts, etc.)
 * seeds (squash, pumpkin, sunflower)

Foods containing the highest concentration:
 * dried herbs
 * sun dried tomatoes
 * cocoa solids
 * whey powder
 * paprika
 * yeast extract
 * rice bran
 * molasses
 * dry roasted soybeans

High blood pressure/Hypertension
Diets low in potassium increase risk of hypertension, stroke and cardiovascular disease.

Hypokalemia
A severe shortage of potassium in body fluids may cause a potentially fatal condition known as hypokalemia. Hypokalemia typically results from loss of potassium through diarrhea, diuresis, or vomiting. Symptoms are related to alterations in membrane potential and cellular metabolism. Symptoms include muscle weakness and cramps, paralytic ileus, ECG abnormalities, intestinal paralysis, decreased reflex response and (in severe cases) respiratory paralysis, alkalosis and arrhythmia.

In rare cases, habitual consumption of large amounts of black licorice has resulted in hypokalemia. Licorice contains a compound (Glycyrrhizin) that increases urinary excretion of potassium.

Insufficient intake
Adult women in the United States consume on average half the AI, for men two-thirds. For all adults, fewer than 5% exceed the AI. Similarly, in the European Union, insufficient potassium intake is widespread.

Side effects and toxicity
Gastrointestinal symptoms are the most common side effects of potassium supplements, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea. Taking potassium with meals or taking a microencapsulated form of potassium may reduce gastrointestinal side effects.

Hyperkalemia is the most serious adverse reaction to potassium. Hyperkalemia occurs when potassium builds up faster than the kidneys can remove it. It is most common in individuals with renal failure. Symptoms of hyperkalemia may include tingling of the hands and feet, muscular weakness, and temporary paralysis. The most serious complication of hyperkalemia is the development of an abnormal heart rhythm (arrhythmia), which can lead to cardiac arrest.

Although hyperkalemia is rare in healthy individuals, oral doses greater than 18 grams taken at one time in individuals not accustomed to high intakes can lead to hyperkalemia.

title: Potassium in biology


text:
Speed reading

Speed reading is any of many techniques claiming to improve one's ability to read quickly. Speed-reading methods include chunking and minimizing subvocalization. The many available speed-reading training programs may utilize books, videos, software, and seminars. There is little scientific evidence regarding speed reading, and as a result its value seems uncertain. Cognitive neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene says that claims of reading up to 1,000 words per minute "must be viewed with skepticism".

History
The term "speed reading" is thought to have been coined in the late 1950s by Evelyn Wood, a schoolteacher. She was reportedly curious why some people were naturally faster at reading, so tried to force herself to read very quickly. In 1958, while brushing off the pages of a book she had thrown, she noticed that the sweeping motion of her hand across the page caught the attention of her eyes, and helped them move more smoothly across the page. She then used the hand as a pacer. Wood first taught the method at the University of Utah, before launching it to the public as Evelyn Wood's Reading Dynamics in Washington, D.C. in 1959.

Skimming and scanning
Skimming is a process of speed reading that involves visually searching the sentences of a page for clues to the main idea or when reading an essay, it can mean reading the beginning and ending for summary information, then optionally the first sentence of each paragraph to quickly determine whether to seek still more detail, as determined by the questions or purpose of the reading. For some people, this comes naturally, but is usually acquired by practice. Skimming is usually seen more in adults than in children. It is conducted at a higher rate (700 words per minute and above) than normal reading for comprehension (around 200–230 wpm), and results in lower comprehension rates, especially with information-rich reading material.

Scanning is the process where one actively looks for information using a mind-map (organizing information in a visually hierarchical manner that showcases the interrelatedness of the information for better retrievability) formed from skimming. These techniques are used by meta-guiding your eyes. Scanning includes the main point as well as headings and important information.

Meta guiding
Meta guiding is the visual guiding of the eye using a finger or pointer, such as a pen, in order for the eye to move faster along the length of a passage of text. It involves drawing invisible shapes on a page of text in order to broaden the visual span for speed reading. For example, an audience of customers at a speed reading seminar will be instructed to use a finger or pen to make these shapes on a page and told that this will speed up their visual cortex, increase their visual span to take in the whole line, and even imprint the information into their subconscious for later retrieval. It has also been claimed to reduce subvocalization (saying words in your head rather than grasping the idea), thereby speeding up reading. Because this encourages the eye to skim over the text, it can reduce comprehension and memory, and lead to missing important details of the text. An emphasis on viewing each word, albeit briefly without regression (Regression is an unconscious process where the eyes go forward two or three "stops" and then go back.) is required for this method to be effective. E.g. S movement and Z movement.

Speed reading is a skill honed through practice. Reading a text involves comprehension of the material. In speed reading practice this is done through multiple reading processes: preview, overview, read, review and recite; and by read and recall (recording through writing a short summary or a mental outline) exercises. Another important method for better comprehension is the SQ3R process. These processes help an individual to retain most of the presented ideas from a reading material. A better focus in comprehension is attained through a better reading process with good understanding of the topic.

Types of reading
There are three types of reading:

 * 1) Subvocalization: sounding out each word internally, as reading to yourself. This is the slowest form of reading.
 * 2) Auditory reading: hearing out the read words. This is a faster process.
 * 3) Visual reading: understanding the meaning of the word, rather than sounding or hearing. This is the fastest process.

Subvocalization readers (Mental readers) generally read at approximately 250 words per minute, auditory readers at approximately 450 words per minute and visual readers at approximately 700 words per minute. Proficient readers are able to read 280–350 wpm without compromising comprehension.

Effect on comprehension
Skimming is mainly used for researching and getting an overall idea of a text, especially when time is limited. Duggan & Payne (2009) compared skimming with reading normally, given only enough time to read normally through half of a text. They found that the main points of the full text were better understood after skimming (which could view the full text) than after normal reading (which only read half the text). There was no difference between the groups in their understanding of less important information from the text. Skimming or skipping over text can also aid in comprehension when layered reading, a process of strategic rereading, is employed. Further findings suggest that trained speed readers have a slight advantage in both comprehension and speed to untrained skimmers. It is thus suggested by experts that speed-reading is most useful to those who need "to skim a large amount of material or need to improve their study skills" and less useful to those who read "highly technical material that requires careful study of each sentence".

Software

Computer programs are available to help instruct speed reading students. Some programs present the data as a serial stream, since the brain handles text more efficiently by breaking it into such a stream before parsing and interpreting it. The 2000 National Reading Panel (NRP) report (p. 3-1) seems to support such a mechanism.

To increase speed, some older programs required readers to view the center of the screen while the lines of text around it grew longer. They also presented several objects (instead of text) that move line by line or bounce around the screen. Users had to follow the object(s) with only their eyes. A number of researchers criticize using objects instead of words as an effective training method, claiming that the only way to read faster is to read actual text. Many of the newer speed reading programs use built-in text, and they primarily guide users through the lines of an on-screen book at defined speeds. Often, the text is highlighted to indicate where users should focus their eyes. They are not expected to read by pronouncing the words but instead to read by viewing the words as complete images. The exercises are also intended to train readers to eliminate subvocalization.

Controversies in speed reading
Common controversies in speed reading are between its intent and nature with traditional concepts like comprehension versus speed, reading versus skimming, and popular psychology versus evidence-based psychology. Much of the controversy is raised over these points. This is mainly because a reading comprehension level of 50% is deemed unusable by some educationalists. Advocates claim that speed reading is a great success and that it is a demonstration of good comprehension for many purposes. The trade-off between speed and comprehension must be analyzed with respect to the type of reading that is being done, the risks associated with misunderstanding due to low comprehension, and the benefits associated with getting through the material quickly and gaining information at the actual rate is to be obtained. Mark Seidenberg considers claims like reading 25,000 words per minute "cannot be true given basic facts about eyes and texts". He goes on to say that "people are as likely to read thousands of words per minute as they are to run faster than the speed of light". Marshall McLuhan was initially a convert to speed reading, however later concluded it was only useful for tasks like "scanning junk mail".

Similarly, in evaluating a claim that a similar reading strategy known as PhotoReading could increase reading rates to 25,000 words per minute, McNamara published a preliminary analysis funded by NASA to evaluate whether this strategy could improve reading speed, comprehension, and information gathering efficiency. When identical versions of five reading samples and accompanying reading comprehension tests were administered to a trainee and an expert in this reading strategy, there was no advantage in overall reading time or comprehension. This strategy may also cause overestimation of one's knowledge, as demonstrated by the following case in McNamara's preliminary analysis, showing evidence of the Dunning-Kruger effect:

"The final task given to the PhotoReading expert was to read the three chapters from the textbook on Physiology in order to take an exam from a course that used that textbook. The question was simply: Would she pass the exam? The expert took 73 minutes to PhotoRead and read the three chapters of the textbook required for the test (i.e., 361 words per minute). She PhotoRead for 9 minutes the night before taking the test. The following morning, she read the text using various rapid reading and activation techniques. She then answered the questions. She completed the 6 true/false and 30 multiple choice questions, but did not attempt to answer the fill-in-the-blank or short-answer questions. Hence, comprehension performance on the conceptual questions was 0 percent. She answered 2 of 7 multiple-choice prior knowledge questions correctly (29%). Of the text relevant questions, she answered 4 of 6 true/false questions correctly (67%), and 8 of 23 multiple-choice question correctly (35%). This performance is extremely low and only slightly above chance level performance for these types of questions (i.e., 50% and 25%, respectively). In sum, she did not pass the exam.

It is important to note that after PhotoReading the text (but before taking the test), she rated her understanding of the material as 4.5 on a 5-point scale (5 representing a good understanding). Moreover, she estimated that she would remember approximately 68 percent of the material for the test, with a grade of C+. This high level of confidence in terms of her text comprehension would have remained unshattered had she not then taken the test – after which she rated her comprehension much lower (i.e., 2)"

In a 2016 article published in the journal of Psychological Science in the Public Interest, the authors conclude there is no "magic bullet" for reading more quickly while maintaining comprehension other than to practice reading and to become a more skilled language user (e.g. through increased vocabulary). The authors proceed with debunking common speed reading techniques such as eliminating sub-vocalization, reading more than one word at a time a.k.a. grouping, using RSVP (Rapid Serial Visual Presentation), increasing peripheral vision, alternating colors for each line of text.

U.S. President John F. Kennedy was a proponent of speed reading, encouraging his staff to take lessons, and he suggested in an interview that he had a reading speed of 1,200 words per minute. U.S. President Jimmy Carter, and his wife Rosalynn, were both avid readers and enrolled in a speed-reading course at the White House, along with several staff members.

Ronald Carver, a professor of education research and psychology, claims that the fastest college graduate readers can read only about 600 words per minute, at most twice as fast as their slowest counterparts, and suggests that Kennedy's claimed reading speed was more a measure of how fast he could skim a piece of text. Other critics have suggested that speed reading is actually skimming, not reading.

The World Championship Speed Reading Competition stresses reading comprehension as critical. The top contestants typically read around 1,000 to 2,000 words per minute with approximately 50% comprehension or above. The six-time world champion Anne Jones is recorded for 4200 wpm with previous exposure to the material and 67% comprehension. The recorded number of words the eye can see in single fixation is three words.

"Speed Reading World Record" claims have been controversial. Howard Stephen Berg from the United States has claimed to be the Guinness World Record holder for fast reading with a speed of 25,000 words per minute, and Maria Teresa Calderon from the Philippines claims to have earned the Guinness World Record for World's Fastest Reader at 80,000 words per minute reading speed and 100% comprehension. Critics point out that it is possible to beat some speed reading world records by reading a pre-read or pre-memorized text, flipping the pages as fast as possible without reading it. The Guinness Speed Reading World Record Standards are not known and they have terminated adding speed readers to its honor list. In 2015, Memoriad, the World Mental Sports Federation, set the rules for "Speed Reading World Record Standards" in order to prevent unclear claims.

title: Speed reading


text:
Simulation video game

Simulation video games are a diverse super-category of video games, generally designed to closely simulate real world activities. A simulation game attempts to copy various activities from real life in the form of a game for various purposes such as training, analysis, prediction, or entertainment. Usually there are no strictly defined goals in the game, and the player is allowed to control a character or environment freely. Well-known examples are war games, business games, and role play simulation. From three basic types of strategic, planning, and learning exercises: games, simulations, and case studies, a number of hybrids may be considered, including simulation games that are used as case studies. Comparisons of the merits of simulation games versus other teaching techniques have been carried out by many researchers and a number of comprehensive reviews have been published.

Construction and management simulation
Construction and management simulation (CMS) is a type of simulation game in which players build, expand or manage fictional communities or projects with limited resources. Strategy games sometimes incorporate CMS aspects into their game economy, as players must manage resources while expanding their projects. Pure CMS games differ from strategy games in that "the player's goal is not to defeat an enemy, but to build something within the context of an ongoing process." Games in this category are sometimes also called "management games".

Life simulation
Life simulation games (or artificial life games) are a subgenre of simulation video games in which the player lives or controls one or more artificial lifeforms. A life simulation game can revolve around "individuals and relationships, or it could be a simulation of an ecosystem". Social simulation games are one of its subgenres.

Sports
Some video games simulate the playing of sports. Most sports have been recreated by video games, including team sports, athletics and extreme sports. Some games emphasize playing the sport (such as the Madden NFL series), whilst others emphasize strategy and organization (such as Football Manager). Some, such as Arch Rivals, satirize the sport for comic effect. This genre has been popular throughout the history of video games, and is competitive, just like real-world sports. A number of game series feature the names and characteristics of real teams and players, and are updated continuously to reflect real-world changes.

Other types

 * In medical simulation games, the player takes the role of a surgeon. Examples include the Trauma Center and LifeSigns series.
 * In photography simulation games, players take photographs of animals or people. This includes games such as Pokémon Snap and Afrika.
 * Military simulation games are wargames with higher degrees of realism than other wargames set in a fantasy or science fiction environment. These attempt to simulate real warfare at either a tactical or strategic level.
 * Some simulators, like GeoCommander by Intelligence Gaming, are designed for the US military to help new officers learn how to handle situations in a game setting before taking command in the field.
 * Certain tactical shooters have higher degrees of realism than other shooters. Sometimes called "soldier sims", these games try to simulate the feeling of being in combat. This includes games such as Arma.
 * Vehicle simulation game
 * Flight simulators, including amateur flight simulators, combat flight simulators and space flight simulators
 * Racing video games, including sim racing
 * Submarine simulator games
 * Train simulator games
 * Truck simulator games
 * Immersive sims are typically played from the first-person perspective in a simulates a consistent lived-in world, and include elements of numerous gameplay systems that the player can use to complete objectives in many different manners, creating a sense of player agency and emergent gameplay.
 * "Blue collar" games that include both realistic and hyper-realistic presentation of blue collar jobs in a game setting. These can include some of the vehicle simulation games including the flight, train and truck simulator titles, hunting games like TheHunter series, other job simulation games like House Flipper or PowerWash Simulator, and games themed around these types of jobs like Overcooked.
 * Digital card games simulating blackjack and poker (including video poker)
 * Video games designed to simulate mechanical or other real-world games. These may include simulations of pinball games and casino games such as slot machines, pachinko, and roulette.

Simulation games in education
Because Simulation games make learning a matter of direct experience, they may relieve the tedium associated with more conventional modes of instruction, as they demand increased participation rather than merely reading about or discussing concepts and ideas (like discrimination, culture, stratification, and norms). Students will experience them by actually ''living" the experiences. Therefore, the use of simulation games may increase students' motivation and interest in learning.

Simulation games can provide increased insights into how the world is seen, like the moral and intellectual idiosyncrasies of others. They may also increase empathy for others and help develop awareness of personal and interpersonal values by allowing players to see moral and ethical implications of the choices they make. As such, they can be used to change and improve students attitudes toward self, environment, and classroom learning.

Many games are designed to change and develop specific skills of decision making, problem solving and critical thinking (such as those involved in survey sampling, perception and communication).

History
The Sumerian Game (1964), a text-based early mainframe game designed by Mabel Addis, based on the ancient Sumerian city-state of Lagash, was the first economic simulation game. In 1968, Cornell University funded several simulation games which were developed by Prof. Robert Chase and his students. These included Cornell Hotel Administration Simulation Exercise and Cornell Restaurant Administration Simulation Exercise. Notably the restaurant game featured competitive play, with teams managing competing restaurants. The games drew attention from the relevant industries of the time and were made playable at national conventions for the American Hotel & Motel Association and the Club Managers Association of America in 1969.

Another early economic sim by Danielle Bunten Berry, M.U.L.E., released in 1983.

In the 1980s, it became a trend for arcade video games to use hydraulic motion simulator arcade cabinets. The trend was sparked by Sega's "taikan" games, with "taikan" meaning "body sensation" in Japanese. Sega's first game to use a motion simulator cabinet was Space Tactics (1981), a space combat simulator that had a cockpit cabinet where the screen moved in sync with the on-screen action. The "taikan" trend later began when Yu Suzuki's team at Sega (later known as Sega AM2) developed Hang-On (1985), a racing video game where the player sits on and moves a motorbike replica to control the in-game actions. Suzuki's team at Sega followed it with hydraulic motion simulator cockpit cabinets for rail shooters such as Space Harrier (1985), racing games such as Out Run (1986), and combat flight simulators such as After Burner (1987) and G-LOC: Air Battle (1990). One of the most sophisticated motion simulator cabinets in arcades was Sega's R360 (1990), which simulated the full 360-degree rotation of an aircraft. Sega have since continued to manufacture motion simulator cabinets for arcade games through to the 2010s.

In the mid-1980s, Codemasters and the Oliver Twins released a number of games with "Simulator" in the title, including BMX Simulator (1986), Grand Prix Simulator (1986), and Pro Boxing Simulator (1988). Richard and David Darling of Codemasters were inspired by Concertmaster's best-selling games, which were based on real sports such as football and BMX racing, which had a pre-existing popularity. In a parody of the established "simulator" cliche, Your Sinclair released a game titled Advanced Lawnmower Simulator in 1988.

The introduction of the city-building simulation subgenre is closely associated with the 1989 release of SimCity by developer Will Wright. However, earlier city-building titles had been published, including the 1984 Colecovision title Fortune Builder. Later games published by Wright's company Maxis, including SimLife and SimEarth, simulated worlds at a broader scale, including recreations of genetics and global ecosystems.

A study of adolescents who played SimCity 2000 found that those players had a greater appreciation and expectation of their government officials after playing.

title: Simulation video game