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Air Mobility Command

The Air Mobility Command (AMC) is a Major Command (MAJCOM) of the U.S. Air Force. It is headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois, east of St. Louis, Missouri.

Air Mobility Command was established on 1 June 1992, and was formed from elements of the inactivated Military Airlift Command (MAC) and Strategic Air Command (SAC). AMC melded MAC's worldwide airlift system of primarily C-5 Galaxy, C-141 Starlifter (later replaced by C-17 Globemaster III beginning in 1995), and C-130 Hercules airlift aircraft with SAC's tanker force of KC-135 Stratotanker and KC-10 Extender aerial refueling aircraft, the latter air refueling aircraft having been freed from their strategic nuclear strike commitment to SAC's B-52 Stratofortress and B-1 Lancer bomber fleet by the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Overview
Air Mobility Command's mission is to provide global air mobility. The command also plays a crucial role in providing humanitarian support at home and around the world. AMC Airmen – active duty, Air National Guard, and Air Force Reserve, augmented by the civilian airliners and flight crews of the Civil Reserve Air Fleet (CRAF) – provide airlift and aerial refueling for all of the United States armed forces. Many special duty and operational support aircraft (OSA) and stateside aeromedical evacuation missions are also assigned to AMC.

U.S. forces must be able to provide a rapid, tailored response with the capability to intervene against a well-equipped foe, hit hard and terminate quickly. Rapid global mobility lies at the heart of U.S. strategy in this environment. Without the capability to project forces, there is no conventional deterrent. As the number of U.S. forces stationed overseas continue to decline, global interests remain, making the capabilities AMC can provide even more in demand.

Air Mobility Command also has the mission of establishing bare air bases in contingencies. To accomplish this mission, AMC established two Contingency Response Wings, and operates the Eagle Flag exercise.

In addition to its status as a MAJCOM of the Air Force, AMC is also the Air Force component command of the United States Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM). It provides airlift, special missions, aerial refueling, and aeromedical evacuation for the United States armed forces. It also provides alert aerial refueling aircraft to the United States Strategic Command, and is a provider of theater airlift, aerial refueling, and aeromedical evacuation forces to the regional Unified Combatant Commands. AMC also operates VIP flights such as Air Force One, Air Force Two, and other Special Assignment Airlift Missions (SAAM). Finally, AMC acts as the single manager, on behalf of United States Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM), for Military Space Available Travel.

Principal aircraft assets of the command include: C-17 Globemaster III, C-5 Galaxy, C-130 Hercules, KC-135 Stratotanker, KC-10 Extender, C-40 Clipper, C-37 Gulfstream V, and the C-21 Learjet. As of 2022, the command continues to integrate the KC-46 Pegasus within air refueling wings and air mobility wings in both the Active Component and the Air Reserve Component (ARC, i.e., the Air Force Reserve Command and the Air National Guard).

AMC also operates and maintains additional aircraft in support of high-profile VIP airlift include: VC-25, C-32, C-20G, C-20H, C-37 and the C-38, with the majority of that mission conducted by AMC's 89th Airlift Wing.

Additional long-range airlift aircraft are available during national emergencies through the Civil Reserve Air Fleet (CRAF), a fleet of civilian commercial aircraft committed to support the transportation of military forces and material in times of crisis.

AMC wings and groups
The Air Mobility Command consists of the following active duty units:

 * Numbered Air Forces
 * Eighteenth Air Force (18 AF)

 * Air base wings
 * 87th Air Base Wing at Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst (McGuire AFB), New Jersey
 * 628th Air Base Wing at Joint Base Charleston (Charleston AFB), South Carolina

 * Air mobility wings
 * 60th Air Mobility Wing (C-5, C-17, KC-10) at Travis AFB, California
 * 305th Air Mobility Wing (C-17, KC-10) at Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst (McGuire AFB), New Jersey
 * 375th Air Mobility Wing (C-21, C-40, KC-135) at Scott AFB, Illinois

 * Airlift wings
 * 19th Airlift Wing (C-130J) at Little Rock AFB, Arkansas
 * 62nd Airlift Wing (C-17) at Joint Base Lewis-McChord (McChord AFB), Washington
 * 89th Airlift Wing (C-20, C-32, C-37, C-40, VC-25) at Joint Base Andrews (Andrews AFB), Maryland
 * 436th Airlift Wing (C-5, C-17) at Dover AFB, Delaware
 * 437th Airlift Wing (C-17) at Joint Base Charleston (Charleston AFB), South Carolina
 * 317th Airlift Wing (C-130J) at Dyess AFB, Texas

 * Air refueling wings
 * 6th Air Refueling Wing (KC-135) at MacDill Air Force Base, Florida
 * 22d Air Refueling Wing (KC-135, KC-46) at McConnell AFB, Kansas
 * 92d Air Refueling Wing (KC-135) at Fairchild AFB, Washington

 * Other AMC organizations:
 * Direct reporting units
 * United States Air Force Expeditionary Center at Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst (McGuire AFB), New Jersey

 * Air and space operations centers
 * 618th Air and Space Operations Center (Tanker Airlift Control Center) at Scott AFB, Illinois
 * Air mobility operations wings and groups and contingency response wings
 * 43d Air Mobility Operations Group at Pope Field (former Pope AFB), North Carolina
 * 515th Air Mobility Operations Wing at Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam (Hickam AFB), Hawaii
 * 521st Air Mobility Operations Wing at Ramstein Air Base, Germany
 * 621st Contingency Response Wing at Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst (McGuire AFB), New Jersey
 * Bands
 * USAF Band of Mid-America
 * USAF Band of the Golden West

 * Museums
 * Air Mobility Command Museum at Dover AFB, Delaware

NOTE: Subordinate to the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio

AFRC and ANG wings and groups operationally-gained by AMC
In addition to the active duty AMC units, numerous Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) and Air National Guard (ANG) units equipped with C-5, C-17, C-21, C-38, C-40, C-130, LC-130, WC-130, KC-10, KC-135 and KC-46 aircraft are "operationally gained" by AMC. These units train and exercise frequently and routinely provide augmentative operational support to AMC's active duty forces. AFRC units, when mobilized to active duty, and ANG units, when mobilized to federal service and active duty, may be deployed overseas as part of AMC in Air Expeditionary Groups and Wings as directed by HQ AMC.

 * Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) units

 * Fourth Air Force (4 AF) – March ARB, California (Air Force Reserve C-5, C-17, C-40, KC-135 and KC-10 units)

 * 315th Airlift Wing, Joint Base Charleston, South Carolina
 * C-17 Globemaster III

 * 349th Air Mobility Wing, Travis AFB, California
 * C-5 Galaxy, KC-10 Extender, C-17 Globemaster III

 * 433d Airlift Wing, Lackland AFB, Texas
 * C-5 Galaxy

 * 434th Air Refueling Wing, Grissom ARB, Indiana
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 439th Airlift Wing, Westover ARB, Massachusetts
 * C-5 Galaxy

 * 445th Airlift Wing, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio
 * C-17 Globemaster III

 * 446th Airlift Wing, McChord AFB, Washington
 * C-17 Globemaster III

 * 452d Air Mobility Wing, March ARB, California
 * C-17 Globemaster III, KC-135R Stratotanker

 * 459th Air Refueling Wing, Andrews AFB, Maryland
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 507th Air Refueling Wing, Tinker AFB, Oklahoma
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 512th Airlift Wing, Dover AFB, Delaware
 * C-5 Galaxy, C-17 Globemaster III

 * 514th Air Mobility Wing, McGuire AFB, Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, New Jersey
 * KC-10 Extender, C-17 Globemaster III

 * 911th Airlift Wing, Pittsburgh IAP Air Reserve Station, Pennsylvania
 * C-17 Globemaster III

 * 914th Air Refueling Wing, Niagara Falls ARS, New York
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 916th Air Refueling Wing, Seymour Johnson AFB, North Carolina
 * KC-46 Pegasus

 * 927th Air Refueling Wing, MacDill AFB, Florida
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 931st Air Refueling Wing, McConnell AFB, Kansas
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 932d Airlift Wing, Scott AFB, Illinois
 * C-40 Clipper

 * 940th Air Refueling Wing, Beale AFB, California
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * Twenty-Second Air Force (22 AF) – Dobbins ARB, Georgia (Air Force Reserve C-130 and WC-130 units)

 * 94th Airlift Wing (C-130H Hercules)
 * Dobbins Air Reserve Base, Georgia

 * 302d Airlift Wing (C-130H Hercules)
 * Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado

 * 403d Wing (C-130J and WC-130J Super Hercules)
 * Keesler Air Force Base, Mississippi

 * 908th Airlift Wing (C-130H Hercules)
 * Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama
 * NOTE: 908 AW transitioning missions; extant C-130H aircraft transferred Apr 2022

 * 910th Airlift Wing (C-130H Hercules)
 * Youngstown-Warren Air Reserve Station, Ohio

 * 913th Airlift Group (C-130H Hercules)
 * Little Rock Air Force Base, Arkansas

 * 934th Airlift Wing (C-130H Hercules)
 * Minneapolis-St Paul Joint Air Reserve Station, Minnesota

 * Air National Guard (ANG) units
 * ANG air mobility units currently operate the C-21, C-17, C-38, C-40, C-130, LC-130 and KC-135, but are not assigned to a particular Numbered Air Force in the Air National Guard. Instead, they report to AMC via the National Guard Bureau (NGB).

 * 101st Air Refueling Wing, Bangor Air National Guard Base, Maine
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 103d Airlift Wing, Bradley International Airport, Connecticut
 * C-130H Hercules

 * 105th Airlift Wing, Stewart Air National Guard Base, New York
 * C-17 Globemaster III

 * 108th Air Refueling Wing, McGuire AFB, Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, New Jersey
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 109th Airlift Wing, Stratton Air National Guard Base, New York
 * C-130H Hercules and LC-130H Hercules

 * 113th Wing, Joint Base Andrews, District of Columbia
 * C-38 Courier, C-40 Clipper
 * NOTE: Composite wing with F-16 fighter & C-38/C-40 airlift aircraft.  F-16 assets gained by ACC; C-38/C-40 assets gained by AMC.

 * 117th Air Refueling Wing, Sumpter Smith Air National Guard Base, Alabama
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 120th Airlift Wing, Great Falls Air National Guard Base, Montana
 * C-130H Hercules

 * 121st Air Refueling Wing, Rickenbacker Air National Guard Base, Ohio
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 123d Airlift Wing, Louisville Air National Guard Base, Kentucky
 * C-130H Hercules

 * 126th Air Refueling Wing, Scott AFB, Illinois
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 127th Wing, Selfridge Air National Guard Base, Michigan
 * KC-135 Stratotanker
 * NOTE: Composite wing with A-10 fighter and KC-135 aerial refueling aircraft.  A-10 assets gained by ACC; KC-135 assets gained by AMC.

 * 128th Air Refueling Wing, General Mitchell Air National Guard Base, Wisconsin
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 130th Airlift Wing, McLaughlin Air National Guard Base, West Virginia
 * C-130H Hercules

 * 133d Airlift Wing, Minneapolis–Saint Paul Joint Air Reserve Station, Minnesota
 * C-130H Hercules

 * 134th Air Refueling Wing, McGhee Tyson Air National Guard Base, Tennessee
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 136th Airlift Wing, Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Texas
 * C-130H Hercules

 * 139th Airlift Wing, Rosecrans Air National Guard Base, Missouri
 * C-130H Hercules

 * 140th Wing, Buckley Space Force Base, Colorado
 * C-21 Learjet
 * NOTE: Composite wing with F-16 fighter and C-21 airlift aircraft.  F-16 assets gained by ACC; C-21 assets gained by AMC.

 * 141st Air Refueling Wing, Fairchild AFB, Washington
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 143d Airlift Wing, Quonset Air National Guard Base, Rhode Island
 * C-130J Super Hercules

 * 145th Airlift Wing, Charlotte Air National Guard Base, North Carolina
 * C-17 Globemaster

 * 146th Airlift Wing, Channel Islands Air National Guard Station, California
 * C-130J Super Hercules

 * 151st Air Refueling Wing, Roland R. Wright Air National Guard Base, Utah
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 152d Airlift Wing, Reno Air National Guard Base, Nevada
 * C-130H Hercules

 * 153d Airlift Wing, Cheyenne Air National Guard Base, Wyoming
 * C-130H Hercules

 * 155th Air Refueling Wing, Lincoln Air National Guard Base, Nebraska
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 156th Wing, Muñiz Air National Guard Base, Puerto Rico
 * NOTE: As of 2018, transitioned from a C-130E airlift wing to a non-flying contingency response wing mission

 * 157th Air Refueling Wing, Pease Air National Guard Base, New Hampshire
 * KC-46 Pegasus

 * 161st Air Refueling Wing, Goldwater Air National Guard Base, Arizona
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 164th Airlift Wing, Memphis Air National Guard Base, Tennessee
 * C-17 Globemaster III

 * 165th Airlift Wing, Savannah Air National Guard Base (Travis Field), Georgia
 * C-130H Hercules

 * 166th Airlift Wing, New Castle Air National Guard Base, Delaware
 * C-130H Hercules

 * 167th Airlift Wing, Shepherd Field Air National Guard Base, West Virginia
 * C-17 Globemaster III

 * 171st Air Refueling Wing, Pittsburgh Air National Guard Base, Pennsylvania
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 172d Airlift Wing, Jackson-Evers International Airport, Mississippi
 * C-17 Globemaster III

 * 179th Airlift Wing, Mansfield Lahm Air National Guard Base, Ohio
 * C-130H Hercules

 * 182d Airlift Wing, Peoria Air National Guard Base, Illinois
 * C-130H Hercules

 * 185th Air Refueling Wing, Sioux City Air National Guard Base (Colonel Bud Day Field), Iowa
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 186th Air Refueling Wing, Key Field Air National Guard Base, Mississippi
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * 189th Airlift Wing, Little Rock Air Force Base, Arkansas
 * C-130H Hercules

 * 190th Air Refueling Wing, Forbes Field Air National Guard Base, Kansas
 * KC-135 Stratotanker

 * Civil Reserve Air Fleet

Operations
AMC has undergone considerable change since its establishment.

Focusing on the core mission of strategic air mobility, the command divested itself of infrastructure and forces not directly related to Global Reach. Divestments included the former Air Rescue Service, the Air Force Rescue Coordination Center (AFRCC), intratheater aeromedical airlift forces based overseas, and much of the operational support airlift fleet. Most of these activities were transferred to other commands, such as Air Combat Command (ACC). ACC would later inactivate the Air Rescue Service while continuing to maintain the AFRCC under 1st Air Force.

However, all KC-10 Extender and most KC-135 Stratotanker air refueling aircraft initially assigned to Air Combat Command following the disestablishment of Strategic Air Command (SAC) were transferred to AMC, along with Grand Forks AFB, McConnell AFB and Fairchild AFB.

As a result of the Global War on Terrorism, on 1 October 2003, AMC underwent a major restructuring, bringing a war fighting role to its numbered air force. AMC reactivated Eighteenth Air Force (18 AF) and established it as its main war fighting force. As subordinate components of 18 AF, AMC redesignated its two former numbered air forces as Expeditionary Mobility Task Forces (EMTF). Fifteenth Air Force was redesignated as the 15th Expeditionary Mobility Task Force (15 EMTF), headquartered at Travis AFB, and Twenty-First Air Force was redesignated as the 21st Expeditionary Mobility Task Force (21 EMTF), headquartered at McGuire AFB.

AMC's ability to provide global reach is tested daily. From providing fuel, supplies and aeromedical support to troops on the frontline of the Global War on Terrorism, to providing humanitarian supplies to hurricane, flood, and earthquake victims both at home and abroad, AMC has been engaged in almost nonstop operations since its inception. Command tankers and airlifters have supported peacekeeping and humanitarian efforts in Afghanistan, Bosnia, Iraq, Cambodia, Somalia, Rwanda and Haiti, and continue to play a vital role in the ongoing Global War on Terrorism. The USAF believes that air mobility is a national asset of growing importance for responding to emergencies and protecting national interests around the globe.

AMC coordinates wildlife management on overseas runways between several agencies, including deployments in southwest Asia. Where necessary AMC cooperates outside the DOD such as with the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). This includes obtaining USDA bird netting solutions to fill the military's need for bird strike defense.

Aircraft
AMC accepted its first C-17 Globemaster III at Charleston AFB, South Carolina, on 14 June 1993, and declared initial operational capability on 17 January 1995. AMC's second C-17 wing was established at McChord AFB, Washington, in July 1999. The versatile C-17, America's future core military airlifter, is a key player in the Air Force's post-Cold War strategy of "global reach, global power".

The C-17 replaced the C-141 Starlifter fleet inherited from Military Airlift Command (MAC). C-141s were retired as C-17s were accepted into the inventory. First seeing operational service in 1965 under the Military Air Transport Service (MATS), the last Starlifters were retired in the early 2000s. By 2004, the C-141 left AMC service with active duty USAF units, being confined to Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard units for the remainder of its operational service life. In 2004, 2005, and 2006, the C-141s assigned to the 445 AW participated in missions to Iraq and Afghanistan, mostly for the medical evacuation of wounded service members. The last eight C-141s were officially retired in 2006.

The C-5 Galaxy airlifter, also inherited from MAC, is being modernized and upgraded into the C-5M Super Galaxy model. It is planned to modernize all C-5Bs and C-5Cs and many of the C-5As to the C-5M standard. The first C-5M conversion was completed on 16 May 2006, and performed its first flight on 19 June 2006. It is estimated that the modifications will extend the service life of the C-5 to about 2040.

Most legacy models of the C-130 Hercules (e.g., C-130E, C-130H, C-130H2) in AMC, AFRC and ANG units have been or will eventually be replaced by the C-130J Super Hercules. The C-130 family has the longest continuous production run of any military aircraft in history and has served in every branch of the U.S. armed forces except the U.S. Army and U.S. Space Force. During more than 50 years of service, the C-130 has participated in military, civilian and humanitarian aid operations. It is likely that future improvements to the C-130 will mean the design will be in service into the foreseeable future.

The upgrades of the inherited Strategic Air Command KC-135 Stratotanker to E, R, RT and T models have extended their airframe and powerplant lifetimes to 36,000 (E) and 39,000 flying hours (R, RT and T), respectively. The last KC-135E was retired in 2009 and all remaining operational USAF KC-135 aircraft are of the KC-135R, KC-135RT or KC-135T series. Acquired by SAC in the late 1950s, according to the Air Force, only a few KC-135s would reach these lifetime limits before 2040; but at that time, some of the aircraft would be about 80 years old. The Air Force estimates that their current fleet of KC-135s have between 12,000 and 14,000 flying hours on them, only 33 percent of the lifetime flying hour limit and none will meet the limit until 2040. Therefore, the USAF has decided to replace the KC-135 fleet. However, since there were originally over 500 KC-135s with the since-retired KC-135E included, these aircraft will be replaced gradually, with the first batch of about 100 aircraft to be replaced in the current buy. The effort to replace the KC-135 has been marked by intense controversy.

The 59 KC-10 Extender tankers, originally acquired in the 1980s by SAC, have been operated largely in the refueling of large numbers of fighter aircraft on ferry flights, the refueling of heavy bomber or other transport aircraft, or as supplemental airlift aircraft for palletized cargo, augmenting the C-5 and C-17 fleet. Conversely, the KC-135 fleet has operated largely in the in-theater role. In an attempt to modernize the platform, the USAF has awarded Boeing a US$216 million contract to upgrade its fleet of 59 aircraft with new communication, navigation and surveillance and air traffic management system to operate into the 2020s.

History
The direct successor to the USAF Military Airlift Command, the emblem of Air Mobility Command retained the historic emblem of not only the Military Airlift Command, but also the Military Air Transport Service (MATS), established in 1948 as the first Department of Defense Unified Command. The heritage of Air Mobility Command also includes the air refueling heritage inherited from the historic Strategic Air Command.

Lineage

 * Established as Air Mobility Command and activated on 1 June 1992
 * Consolidated with Military Airlift Command on 1 October 2016

Assignments

 * Headquarters, United States Air Force, 1 June 1992 – present

Stations

 * Scott Air Force Base, Illinois, 1 June 1992 – present

Major components
Air Forces
 * Fifteenth Air Force (15 AF), 1 June 1992 – 1 October 2003
 * Redesignated 15th Expeditionary Mobility Task Force (15 EMTF) and assigned to Eighteenth Air Force, 1 October 2003

 * Eighteenth Air Force (18 AF), 1 October 2003 – present
 * Twenty-First Air Force (21 AF), 1 June 1992 – 1 October 2003
 * Redesignated 21st Expeditionary Mobility Task Force (21 EMTF) and assigned to Eighteenth Air Force, 1 October 2003

 * Twenty-Second Air Force (22 AF), 1 June 1992 – 1 July 1993
 * Reassigned from AMC to Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC), 1 July 1993

Direct Reporting Units
 * Air Mobility Command Tanker Airlift Control Center (later, 618th Air Operations Center (Tanker Airlift Control Center)), 1 June 1992 – 1 October 2003, unknown–present
 * USAF Air Mobility School (later, Air Mobility Warfare Center, USAF Expeditionary Center), 1 June 1992 – present

Services
 * Air Combat Camera Service, 1 June 1992 – 1 October 1994
 * Air Rescue Service, 1 June 1992 – 1 February 1993
 * Defense Courier Service, 1 June 1992 – 1 January 1995, 15 October 1998 – 1 October 2004

title: Air Mobility Command


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Airman basic

Airman basic (AB) is the lowest enlisted rank in the United States Air Force immediately below airman. The male form of rank designation also applies to women. The pay grade for airman basic is E-1.

As opposed to all other USAF enlisted and officer ranks, airman basic has no rank insignia affiliated. The lack of uniform insignia for airman basic is the reason for the nickname "slick-sleeve"; all other enlisted Air Force ranks wear stripes and chevrons on their uniform sleeves.

In accordance with Air Force Instruction (AFI) 36-2618, The Enlisted Force Structure, the term of address for an airman basic is "Airman Basic" or "Airman".

History
When the U.S. Air Force was split from the U.S. Army on July 26, 1947, it inherited the U.S. Army's enlisted ranks; the lowest U.S. Air Force enlisted rank became "private" (falling immediately below private, E-2), which wore no rank insignia.

In March 1952, the Air Council and United States Air Force Chief of Staff General Hoyt Vandenberg adopted a number of changes to the U.S. Air Force enlisted rank structure that had been recommended by studies made in 1950 and 1951. On April 24, 1952, Air Force Regulation 39-36 was published, changing the name of the lowest enlisted U.S. Air Force rank to "basic airman"—whose holders still bore no insignia—immediately below the new "airman third class".

On February 5, 1959, the new Air Force regulation governing the titles of enlisted ranks was released; the only change being direction that the title for E-1 was changed from "basic airman" to "airman basic".

Promotion from airman basic
Under normal circumstances, airmen basic are eligible for promotion to airman (E-2) after six months' time in grade (TIG). However, individuals enlisting for six years are promoted from AB to airman first class (A1C) upon completion of either technical training (or 20 weeks thereof) or the indoctrination course for combat control or pararescue.

Demotion to airman basic
If an airman of E-2 or higher rank is court-martialed and convicted of an offense or crime, s/he may be demoted to airman basic, with or without being discharged (dishonorably or otherwise) from the service.

In accordance with AFI 36-2502, Airman Promotion Program, all promotions from AB require that an airman's immediate commanding officer approve the promotion in writing before he or she may assume it.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Airman basic


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Daniel Chorzempa

Daniel Walter Chorzempa (December 7, 1944 – March 25, 2023) was an American organist, composer and architect.

Biography
Daniel Chorzempa was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota on December 7, 1944. He subsequently studied music and architecture at the University of Minnesota and further music studies in Cologne. After starting out as a pianist (achieving some success in Europe during the late 1960s and early 1970s), he became better known as an organist. In the 1970s he was also active as a composer associated with the Cologne School and New Simplicity.

Chorzempa never married. He died on March 25, 2023, at the age of 78.

title: Daniel Chorzempa


text:
Talk:Des Knaben Wunderhorn

list
If it's possible for someone to put a list of the individuals DKW songs here, please do.
 * There are about 700: --89.204.135.141 (talk) 21:11, 2 December 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Des Knaben Wunderhorn


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Royal National Institute of Blind People

The Royal National Institute of Blind People (RNIB) is a UK charity that offers information, support and advice to people in the UK with sight loss.

The Charity Commission for England and Wales investigated the charity from 2015 to 2019 and said that its failings which included medical errors and undocumented cases of physical restraint at its schools and residential facilities were some of the worst it had ever dealt with.

Organisation
Anna Tylor has been RNIB's Chair since 2020. Matt Stringer was appointed Chief Executive in 2019.

King Charles III is the charity's Patron. His mother Queen Elizabeth II was RNIB's Patron from the start of her reign in 1952 until her death in 2022.

History
The RNIB's founder was Thomas Rhodes Armitage, a doctor with impaired eyesight who, in 1868, founded the British and Foreign Society for Improving Embossed Literature for the Blind. This later became the British and Foreign Blind Association. In 1875 Queen Victoria became the organisation's first patron.

The organisation received a Royal Charter in 1948, and changed its name to Royal National Institute for the Blind in 1953. In 2002, RNIB membership was introduced and the organisation's name changed to Royal National Institute of the Blind. In June 2007 the organisation changed its name again, to Royal National Institute of Blind People.

In October 2008, RNIB and Action for Blind People agreed in principle to combine some services across England. The new arrangement began in April 2009, resulting in Action for Blind People becoming an Associate Charity of RNIB.

From 2000 the charity operated out of an office on London's Judd Street which it shared with Guide Dogs. However, it sold the remaining 90-years of its lease in 2021. The Duchess of Edinburgh opened the organisation's new headquarters in the Grimaldi Building on Pentonville Road, London in 2023.

Charity Commission Inquiry
In 2015, the Charity Commission for England and Wales launched an inquiry into the institute following serious allegations of systemic failings within the organisation. The inquiry uncovered significant management, oversight, and staffing shortcomings that led to repeated incidents where young people in the charity's care were put at risk or harmed. Moreover, it revealed that staff and trustees at RNIB had been guilty of misconduct and mismanagement in several of its care facilities over several years, breaching their duty of care to beneficiaries. The Charity Commission described this investigation as one of the most severe cases of charity failure. It highlighted that RNIB's corporate stewardship of services for children with complex needs fell far short of expectations.

The Charity Commission's report stated that the RNIB failed to protect its beneficiaries from coming to harm. Moreover, that serious safeguarding breaches occurred within the charity due to systemic weaknesses and the absence of a centralised data-management system for its care settings. As part of the inquiry, the charities commission heard from multiple parties involved with the charity who attributed its failings to dysfunctional leadership and governance over many years. It also found that the RNIB Pears Centre for Specialist Learning, a residential school near Coventry, failed to ensure its staff had adequate training, made multiple administration errors, neglected to document incidents of physical restraint, lacked effective safeguarding procedures, and administered the wrong medication on numerous occasions.

The review attributed the charity's failings to a culture that was dismissive of external criticism from the parents of its beneficiaries. Furthermore, the charity's board was focused on narrow regulatory compliance and dismissive of criticism from the regulatory organisations it was accountable to; the Care Quality Commission and Ofsted.

The inquiry also found inadequate responses to complaints about unexplained injuries and improper management of medical care, possibly due to a reliance on unqualified and temporary staff. Moreover, five RNIB staff members were referred to the Disclosure and Barring Service after an audit uncovered twenty-six unreported serious incidents across the charity's facilities from March 2017 to April 2018.

Two of the charity's institutional creditors considered it to have defaulted on its credit agreement terms because of the Pears Centre's regulatory difficulties and Ofted's proposed cancellation of the establishment's registration. Therefore, its creditors declared that the organisation had to pay £21 million immediately. Subsequently, RNIB sold all 18 of its care homes and schools to mitigate the financial crises and limit the impact on its reputation.

The Charity Commission described RNIB's shortcomings as 'one of the worst examples we have uncovered of poor governance and oversight having a direct impact on vulnerable people'. The charity's former chief executive and four of its trustees resigned at the start of the inquiry.

RNIB’s chief executive, Matt Stringer, apologised for the failings.

Programmes
RNIB participates in the UK Vision Strategy, an initiative of a large eye health and sight loss alliance to promote the eye health of the nation.

Education and residential care
RNIB owns several educational establishments and residential care homes:

RNIB Sunshine House School and Children's Home
Sunshine House is a specialist primary school, children's home and service for families in Northwood, Middlesex. The school educates blind and partially sighted children with significant learning difficulties and disabilities between the ages of 2 and 11 years. The residential accommodation is open to children aged between 2 and 14 years who are blind or partially sighted with significant learning difficulties and disabilities, whether they also attend the school. Children stay at Sunshine House overnight up to four nights per week, up to 50 weeks per year.

RNIB Pears Centre for Specialist Learning
RNIB Pears Centre for Specialist Learning was a school and children’s home for young people who are blind or partially sighted and who also have multiple disabilities or complex needs such as severe or profound learning disabilities, physical disabilities, additional sensory impairment, healthcare needs and autistic spectrum disorders. The school was run by RNIB (Royal National Institute of Blind People). It was based just outside Coventry.

RNIB Pears Centre was categorised by Ofsted as a special, non-maintained school for 2- to 19-year-olds and as a children's home. Each service was inspected independently of one another by Ofsted. The children's home was rated as 'Outstanding' by Ofsted in November 2011. The school also achieved an 'Outstanding' Ofsted grading in February 2013, but in November 2017 it was graded as inadequate. The Charity Commission for England and Wales launched an inquiry into the school in 2018 following a sexual abuse allegation. On Tuesday 4 September 2018 the RNIB announced both the children's home and school will close on 7 November 2018, as the RNIB closed the children's home on site. The school was previously known as Rushton Hall School and then RNIB Rushton School and Children's Home. Princess Anne reopened the school in 2012 as the RNIB Pears Centre for Specialist Learning – the new name reflected the donation and support given to the school by the Pears Foundation.

The school was founded in 1957, at Rushton Hall in Northamptonshire. In 2002, the school moved to a shared site with Exhall Grange School in Coventry.

In 2005, planning began for a major redevelopment of the entire school site. The redevelopment was finished in 2012.

The Charity Commission for England and Wales (CC) made a two-year inquiry into the residential school after one of its subsidiaries alleged a 'sexually abusive practice' was occurring there. The CCs' report posited that the institution had exposed vulnerable children to harm and said that it was 'one of the worst examples' it had ever uncovered.

The CC's report said that the RNIB run school's failings had a serious impact on vulnerable people and recorded several cases of distress and harm to young disabled children.

The RNIB claimed it had attempted to 'turn the service around' after the CC published their report.

When the CC published its report the RNIB issued an apology which claimed that the findings, 'represent(s) a low point in our 152-year history'. The findings included a child whose feet were injured because they wore shoes that were too small for three months. Moreover, the inquiry found a 'disproportionately high number of basic medication errors' with one epileptic child suffering an increase in seizures. It also found that the school failed to document physical restraint incidents.

RNIB College Loughborough
RNIB College Loughborough is based in Loughborough, Leicestershire, and supports students with sight loss and other disabilities. The college provides further education programmes to learners aged 16–25 and adult employment programmes for adult learners aged 18–63 who are unemployed and looking to develop their skills or retrain and gain employment. The college offers residential or day programmes.

Books
The RNIB National Library Service contains more than 40,000 titles, making it the largest specialist library in the UK for readers with sight loss. It stocks books in accessible formats, such as braille and giant print. It also stocks braille music. The RNIB National Library Service was created in 2007 when the RNIB's library services merged with the National Library for the Blind.

Media
RNIB produces a number of magazines for professionals, carers and blind and partially sighted people.

Insight magazine
Insight magazine is aimed at parents and professionals who support blind and partially sighted children and young people, including those with complex needs. The magazine covers a number of areas including information about learning and development, news and personal stories. Insight was first published by RNIB in January 2006; prior to this RNIB produced VisAbility and Eye Contact.

NB magazine
NB (New Beacon) magazine is aimed at health and social care professionals who work with blind and partially sighted people. NB supports RNIB's focus on prevention, independent living and inclusion. The magazine covers a number of areas including eye health, rehabilitation and case studies. NB was first published by in 1917 as The Beacon; the magazine changed its name in 1930 to New Beacon and became known as NB in 2006. NB celebrated its 1,000th issue in 2001.

Radio
The RNIB runs RNIB Connect Radio, which was Europe's first radio service for blind people. The group lobbied through 2023 for better disability support across the National Health Service (NHS) broadly.

Alumni

 * Bitrus Gani-Ikilama


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Al Murray

Alastair James Hay Murray (born 10 May 1968) is a British comedian, actor, musician and writer.

After graduating from the University of Oxford, his comedy career began by working with Harry Hill for BBC Radio 4. He regularly performed at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, before launching his "Pub Landlord" persona (which he describes as a "know-all know-nothing blowhard who knows the answer to every question even though he hasn't been asked any of them"). This led to the Sky One sitcom Time Gentlemen Please and the chat show Al Murray's Happy Hour for ITV.

In 2003, Murray was listed in The Observer as one of the 50 funniest acts in British comedy, and in 2007 he was voted the 16th greatest stand-up comic on Channel 4's 100 Greatest Stand-Ups. He continues to perform as a stand-up and is a regular on British TV and radio.

Early life and family background
Murray was born in Stewkley, Buckinghamshire. His father was a lieutenant colonel in 131 (Parachute) Regiment, Royal Engineers and worked for British Rail. A descendant of the novelist William Makepeace Thackeray, Murray's grandfather was the former British ambassador Sir Ralph Murray, from the Scottish aristocracy and married into the Kuenberg family, Counts of the Holy Roman Empire. His maternal grandfather was killed in action at the Battle of Dunkirk.

Murray was educated at Bedford School. He played percussion in the Bedfordshire County Youth Orchestra, which was based in Bedford; the orchestra played concerts with the Bedfordshire county choirs. He also performed in the Bedfordshire second youth orchestra, in Dunstable. With the orchestra he performed in Spain, France and Scotland.

He later said of his time at school: "When I was nine I was sent to boarding school, which I despised. The first five years were hideous because I wanted to be at home. I guess I resented my parents a little and it put tons of distance between us. One of the things I took from boarding school is that it made me emotionally self-sufficient."

Murray read Modern History at St Edmund Hall, Oxford. He performed in the comedy group the Oxford Revue, in a show directed by Stewart Lee.

Career
Having started out by touring with comedians such as Harry Hill and Frank Skinner, Murray won the Perrier Award at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 1999, after being nominated in 1996, 1997 and 1998. He started out with an act that involved sound-effect impressions, including guns, animals and a car boot. He made his first TV appearance on Channel 4's The Word in November 1991. With this act, he supported Jim Tavaré in Leeds in winter 1992.

In 1994–95, he was the drummer in the band Evangelista, the house band at Stewart Lee and Simon Munnery's experimental Cluub Zarathustra in London. Film maker Martin Pickles made a short film about the band in 2002. At this time the lead singer Reid said of Murray: "He's still not a household name, but anyone who's into comedy knows who Al Murray is".

The Pub Landlord
Murray's principal character in performance is an English publican with conservative values and an animosity towards Germans and the French; he challenges audience members to name any country before producing some plausible instance of Britain bettering it. The character has a great love of the British 1970s rock band Queen, often getting musician(s) on his show to perform one of Queen's tunes in their own style.

The character first appeared in 1994 during the Edinburgh Fringe Festival, in the show "Pub Internationale", with Harry Hill and Matthew Bradstock-Smith (who played "Little Alan" as well as the keyboards in Hill's Edinburgh, radio and TV shows). The show featured the "Pub Band", with Murray playing the drums and compering. After trying out a character deemed not to have worked, at the opening show Murray suggested saying that the compere had not made it to the show and that the barman in the venue, the Pleasance Cabaret Bar, had offered to fill in. At the Edinburgh Festival, Murray came up with "The Pub Landlord".

Murray made his first television appearances on Harry Hill in 1997 playing Harry's big brother Alan ("If it's too hard, I can't understand it!"), and subsequently featured in a short film, Pub Fiction. He made a brief appearance as the Pub Landlord in Series 2, Episode 6 of Lee and Herring's This Morning with Richard Not Judy. Murray's Pub Landlord theatre show, My Gaff, My Rules was short-listed for an Olivier Award in 2002.

The Pub Landlord is the central character in the television series Time Gentlemen Please. He has made many other television appearances, including the An Audience with... strand. He hosted three series of Al Murray's Happy Hour in a peak Saturday evening time slot for ITV in 2007–08.

Theatre tours have included ...And a Glass of White Wine for the Lady (another catchphrase) and Giving it Both Barrels.

The Pub Landlord has hosted television programmes including Fact Hunt, named after the fictional quiz machine of the same name from Time Gentlemen Please. In addition, the character has ghost written four books: The Pub Landlord's Book of British Common Sense, The Pub Landlord's Think Yourself British, The Pub Landlord's Great British Quiz Book and Let's Re-Great Britain.

Other work
Murray has an interest in music and is a semi-professional drummer. As a teenager, he played in the big band at Bedford School, and also played percussion in the Bedfordshire County Youth Orchestra. He plays drums for the rock covers band T-34 and appeared at the Download Festival in 2010, returning once again in 2011. Murray is a fan of the progressive rock bands Genesis, King Crimson and Yes. He appeared in the documentary Genesis: Together and Apart, and was announced as the host of the 2019 Progressive Music Awards for Prog magazine.

Murray played in the Hampshire located Folk Rock band: Bemis "Folk Rock That Breathes New life into The Spirit of Woodstock"

In 2013, Murray guest-starred in series 5 of children's show Horrible Histories.

Murray presented Al Murray's Road to Berlin on the Discovery Channel. This was a series about the last phase of the Second World War, taking him from the beaches of Normandy, through Arnhem and up the Rhine, ending in Berlin. He drove around in a restored Willys jeep, and interviewed survivors from both sides of the war. In the episode about Operation Market Garden he parachuted, together with veterans, from an aircraft, to commemorate the battle.

Murray starred in Al Murray's Multiple Personality Disorder, a sketch show, which aired in early 2009. In late 2010, Murray made a documentary on German culture for BBC Four Al Murray's German Adventure in which he presented a different side of the German nation from the one portrayed by "The Pub Landlord" character.

Murray invented his own potato crisps – branded "Steak and Al Pie" – as entered in a "crisp competition" hosted by Gary Lineker, used to raise money for Comic Relief. The other flavours were "Jimmy Con Carne" (Jimmy Carr), "Stephen Fry-Up" (Stephen Fry) and "Frank Roast Dinner" (Frank Skinner). The winner was Stephen Fry-up at 27%, with Al's in 2nd with 25%. The other two got 24% each.

In April 2016, Murray played Nick Bottom in Shakespeare Live, a celebration of 400 years of Shakespeare, opposite Judi Dench as Titania. In 2018 he starred in pantomime at the New Wimbledon Theatre, as Jack's brother Al, in Jack and the Beanstalk, winning 'Best Newcomer' for this role, at the Great British Pantomime Awards in April 2018. In 2016, Murray appeared in Taskmaster series 3. He finished third overall.

In October 2018, Murray fronted the History channel TV series Al Murray: Why Does Everyone Hate The English, appearing both as Al Murray and his alter-ego The Pub Landlord. The series looks at the historical rivalries between England and its closest neighbours and features comedians Antoine de Caunes, Elis James, Andrew Maxwell, Fred MacAulay and Henning Wehn representing their respective nations.

In 2019, Murray starred as his own ancestor William Makepeace Thackeray in a three-part BBC Radio 4 adaptation of Vanity Fair by Jim Poyser, with additional material by himself.

In April 2019, Murray started a podcast with historian James Holland called 'We Have Ways of Making You Talk', where they discuss battles and campaigns of World War II. Over 700 episodes have been released, including interviews with veterans and other historians, as well as Murray's narration of the book, 'The Cauldron' by Zeno.

In October 2021, Murray presented the Sky History programme Why Do the Brits Win Every War? In each episode, Murray was joined by a different guest in examining conflicts against the Romans, Vikings, Scottish, French, Americans, and Germans. The programme features Bruno Tonioli, John Thomson, Sanjeev Kohli, Reginald D. Hunter, and Henning Wehn.

In 2023, Murray co-wrote with Matt Forde and Sean Foley and is a voiceover artist Idiots Assemble: Spitting Image The Musical based on the TV series Spitting Image, which premiered at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre in February, before transferring to London's West End at the Phoenix Theatre in May for 13 weeks.

Murray played the part of King Charles II in The Crown Jewels, a humorous play written by screenwriter Simon Nye and performed at the Garrick Theatre in London in 2023, about Colonel Blood's theft of the Crown Jewels in 1671. The part of Blood was played by Aidan McArdle, and the cast also included Neil Morrissey and Mel Giedroyc.

Parliamentary candidacy
On 14 January 2015, Murray announced his formation of the "Free United Kingdom Party" (FUKP) and declared his candidacy, deploying his Pub Landlord persona, for the seat of South Thanet running against UKIP leader Nigel Farage, as parliamentary candidate in the 2015 general election. Murray's agent, Dan Lloyd, told the BBC: "it's definitely happening". The party's logo is an upside-down pound sign, not dissimilar to UKIP's purple and gold pound sign. Murray said: "it seems to me that the UK is ready for a bloke waving a pint around, offering common sense solutions", adding: "let it be known that like many of the parliamentary hopefuls in the forthcoming election, I have no idea where South Thanet is – but did that stop Margaret Thatcher from saving the Falkland Islands? No!”

Farage appeared to welcome his new opponent on Twitter, saying "the more, the merrier", and a spokesperson for the UKIP MEP said: "at last, serious competition in the constituency". The Conservative candidate, Craig Mackinlay, said he enjoyed Murray's video and his proclamations but was not worried that the comedian would split the anti-UKIP vote. Finally, the Labour candidate, Will Scobie, insisted it was "always good to have people putting their names forward to stand" and that Murray would "certainly make things interesting". When nominations for South Thanet were released on 9 April 2015, it was confirmed that Murray would appear on the ballot paper with no description, rather than his FUKP name and emblem.

The results of the election were announced on 8 May, revealing that Murray received 318 votes. When it was announced that Farage had failed to get elected, coming second in the poll to the Conservative candidate Craig Mackinlay, Murray's reaction – feigning shock and clapping on stage – garnered widespread media attention. Speaking to the media during the vote count, Murray invited Farage to a drink in his pub to drown his sorrow at losing.

Political views and activism

Murray, together with Stephen Fry, supported Paul Chambers's High Court appeals after Chambers had been arrested for contravening the Communications Act 2003 when a joke tweet was regarded by police as "menacing" and a terrorist threat. An appeal against Chambers's conviction was successful.

In August 2014, Murray was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian expressing their hope that Scotland would vote to remain part of the United Kingdom in September's referendum on that issue.

Personal life
Murray married Amber Hargreaves in 2002. The couple, who have two daughters, separated in 2008. He now resides in Chiswick.

Murray is a keen cricket fan, and was invited to attend a farewell lunch for the England cricket team before their departure for the 2013–14 Ashes series.

Murray was awarded an honorary degree (Hon MA) by the University of Bedfordshire in 2014, and an honorary doctorate of Social Science (Hon SScD) by the University of Wolverhampton in 2017.

title: Al Murray


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Stefan Edberg

Jan Stefan Edberg (born 19 January 1966) is a Swedish former professional tennis player. A major practitioner of the serve-and-volley style of tennis, he won six Grand Slam singles titles and three Grand Slam men's doubles titles between 1985 and 1996. He is one of only two men in the Open Era to have been ranked world No. 1 in both singles and doubles, the other being John McEnroe.

Edberg also won the Masters Grand Prix and was a part of the Swedish Davis Cup-winning team four times. In addition, he won four Masters Series titles, four Championship Series titles and the unofficial 1984 Olympic tournament, was ranked in the singles top 10 for ten successive years and ranked nine years in the top 5. After retirement, Edberg began coaching Roger Federer in January 2014, with this partnership ending in December 2015.

Career
Edberg first came to the tennis world's attention as a junior player. In the early 1980s, he won the European Junior Championships in the Under 14 and Under 16 categories, beating Jonas Svensson in both finals. He then won all four Grand Slam junior titles in 1983 to become the first (and only) player to achieve the "Junior Grand Slam" in the open era. Later that year as a professional, Edberg won his first career doubles title in Basel. Edberg accidentally caused the death of linesman Dick Wertheim with an errant serve during the 1983 US Open.

In 1984, Edberg won his first top-level singles title in Milan. Edberg also won the tennis tournament at the 1984 Summer Olympics when the sport was an exhibition event and partnered with fellow Swede Anders Järryd to reach the final of the US Open. Edberg also reached the French Open doubles final with Järryd in 1986 and consequently was world No. 1 in doubles in that year.

U.S. fans first took notice of Edberg's professional career when he won the U.S. Indoor in Memphis in February 1985, defeating Yannick Noah in the final. Edberg's first two Grand Slam singles titles came at the Australian Open. In December 1985, he defeated No. 1 Ivan Lendl in a five-set epic in the Australian Open semifinals stopped multiple times by rain and played over two days. He then defeated Mats Wilander in straight sets to claim his first major title. In January 1987, he defended his title by defeating local favourite Pat Cash in five sets to win the last Australian Open held on grass courts. Edberg also won the Australian Open and US Open men's doubles titles in 1987 (partnering fellow Swede Anders Järryd).

In 1988, Edberg reached the first of three consecutive finals at Wimbledon, but lost his ranking as Sweden's number-one-player when Mats Wilander had his best year by winning the Australian, French and US Opens, becoming the world's number-one-ranked player. In all three of his consecutive Wimbledon finals, Edberg played German Boris Becker in what became one of Wimbledon's greatest rivalries. Edberg won their first encounter in a four-set match spread over two days because of rain delays. A year later, Becker won in straight sets. The closest of their matches came in the 1990 final, when Edberg won in five sets after being down a break in the fifth set.

Edberg reached the French Open final in 1989 but lost in five sets to 17-year-old Michael Chang, who became the youngest-ever male winner of a Grand Slam singles title. This was the only Grand Slam singles title that Edberg never won, denying him the completion of a career Grand Slam at the senior level, to match his junior Grand Slam.

In 1990, an abdominal muscle injury forced Edberg to retire from the Australian Open final while trailing Ivan Lendl 5–2 (including two breaks of serve) in the third set. Edberg nevertheless took the world No. 1 ranking from Lendl on 13 August 1990 by winning the Super 9 tournament in Cincinnati. He held it for the rest of that year and for much of 1991 and 1992. Edberg spent a total of 72 weeks as World No. 1. In 1991, Edberg again reached the semifinals of Wimbledon but lost to Michael Stich in a close match: 6–4, 6–7, 6–7, 6–7.

Edberg's final two Grand Slam singles triumphs came at the US Open, with wins over Jim Courier in the 1991 final and Pete Sampras (who was just months away from attaining the world No. 1 ranking) in the 1992 final. At the 1992 US Open, Edberg defeated Lendl in a five-set thriller spread over 2 days in the quarterfinals. He then beat Michael Chang in the longest US Open match in history, in the semifinals, at 5 hours and 26 minutes.

Edberg reached the finals of the Australian Open again in 1992 and 1993, losing both times to Jim Courier in four sets. He was one of the few players who reached the finals of the Australian Open five times. The 1993 Australian Open final was Edberg's last Grand Slam singles final appearance.

In 1996, Edberg reached the finals of Queens Club but lost the match to Boris Becker. He won his third and final Grand Slam doubles title at the Australian Open with Petr Korda. He reached the quarterfinals of his last US Open after defeating Richard Krajicek and Tim Henman, but lost in the quarterfinals to Goran Ivanišević.

Edberg was most comfortable playing tennis on fast-playing surfaces. Of his six Grand Slam singles titles, four were won on grass courts at the Australian Open (1985 and 1987) and Wimbledon (1988 and 1990) and two were won on hardcourts at the US Open (1991 and 1992).

In December 2013, Edberg began coaching Roger Federer. His coaching stint ended in December 2015 after which Federer hired Ivan Ljubičić as coach.

Style of play
Edberg is noted as one of the finest serve-and-volley players of his era. Edberg did not possess a powerful dominating serve like Pete Sampras or Boris Becker, but his serve was still largely effective. Edberg often chose to use a less powerful serve, such as a kick or slice serve. The extra time from using a slower serve gave Edberg more time to get to the net, where he used his quick feet and athleticism to gain control of the point. Edberg's volleying skills were among the very best and he could easily redirect powerfully struck balls to the open court. He had sufficient groundstrokes, and his one-handed backhand was one of his marquee shots. Edberg's backhand was extremely effective and considered amongst the best of his era.

Equipment
Throughout his career, Edberg used Wilson racquets and Adidas clothing and shoes.

Post-career competitive racquet sports
Edberg began playing competitive squash after his retirement from professional tennis and soon became an elite player in Sweden. When racketlon emerged as a growing sport in Scandinavia, Edberg's pro-level tennis ability and emerging squash prowess made him highly competitive, despite his relative inexperience in badminton and table tennis.

In September 2008, Stefan Edberg officially joined the "Black Rock Tour of Champions", a tour for professional tennis players who have retired from the ATP Tour. Edberg won his first tournament in Paris held on clay, winning matches against clay court specialists Thomas Muster in the opening round and Sergi Bruguera in the finals.

In January 2012, Edberg played a one-set exhibition against Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in Doha, Qatar, and lost 5–7.

Coaching
Edberg signed a contract to become Roger Federer's coach at the end of 2013. Their collaboration officially started at the 2014 Australian Open. Federer described Edberg's role as "more of a mentor than a coach"; nonetheless, his influence has been widely regarded as pivotal in the Swiss champion's eventual resurgence, especially in bringing effective and more frequent serve-and-volley and net charging to his game. Their collaboration ended in December 2015.

Distinctions and honors

 * Edberg played on four Swedish Davis Cup winning teams in 1984, 1985, 1987 and 1994. He appeared in seven Davis Cup finals – a record for a Swedish player.
 * Until 2016, the Australian Open logo was a silhouette of Stefan Edberg's unique service action. It was then changed to the current logo to make it more friendly for the digital medium.
 * Since the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) computer rankings began, Edberg and John McEnroe are the only men to be ranked world No. 1 in both singles and doubles. Edberg is also the only player to achieve the "Junior Grand Slam" in the history of the game.
 * Edberg is the only player to earn both Player of the Year and Doubles Team of the Year. Edberg won Player of the Year in 1990 and 1991 and Doubles Team of the Year (with fellow Swede Anders Järryd) in 1986.
 * Edberg and Boris Becker are the only male tennis players ever to receive the United Press International Athlete of the Year Award (with Edberg having received the award in 1990).
 * Edberg was also a member of the Swedish teams that won the World Team Cup in 1988, 1991, and 1995.
 * At the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles, where tennis was a demonstration sport, Edberg won the men's singles gold medal. Four years later, at the 1988 Olympics in Seoul, tennis became a full medal sport and Edberg won bronze medals in both the men's singles and the men's doubles.
 * During his career, Edberg won a total of 41 top-level singles titles (6 majors) and 18 doubles titles (3 majors) and appeared in a then record 54 consecutive Grand Slam tournaments (since then broken by Wayne Ferreira).
 * He was ranked the world no. 1 in singles for a total of 72 weeks.
 * Edberg was a five-time recipient of the ATP Sportsmanship Award (1988–90, 1992, and 1995). In recognition of this achievement, the ATP renamed the award the Stefan Edberg Sportsmanship Award in 1996.
 * In 1996, Edberg won the Philippe Chatrier Award for his contribution to tennis both on and off the court.
 * Edberg won the International Club's prestigious Jean Borotra Sportsmanship Award in 1998.
 * In 2004, Edberg was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in Newport, Rhode Island, United States.
 * Edberg won singles titles in 12 countries: Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Qatar, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
 * In 2008, Edberg was considered by Tennis Magazine to be the 14th greatest player, counting both male and female tennis players, of the Tennis Era. Counting men only, Edberg ranked eighth.
 * Edberg was awarded the Svenska Dagbladet Gold Medal in 1990.
 * Edberg is one of the few players who reached the final of all four Grand Slam tournaments, winning three of them. In the 1989 French Open final, Edberg led the match by two sets to one over Michael Chang and broke Chang's serve in the opening game of the fourth set, only for Chang to break right back. From 1–1 to 4–4 in the fourth set, every Chang service game was a struggle where Chang had to save 11 break points while Edberg held comfortably in his service games. At 5–4 to Chang in the fourth set, Chang broke Edberg's serve completely against the run of play to win the set. Edberg was also a break up early in the fifth set, but Chang won the fifth set 6–2 to take the title at the age of 17.
 * Edberg won several Grand Slam matches after being down a break of serve in the fifth and deciding set. Notable examples include the 1985 Australian Open semi final against Ivan Lendl, the 1988 Wimbledon semi final against Miloslav Mečíř, the 1989 French Open semi final against Boris Becker, and the 1990 Wimbledon final against Becker. In the 1992 US Open, Edberg won from a break down in the fifth set in three consecutive matches, against Richard Krajicek in the fourth round, Ivan Lendl in the quarter-final, and Michael Chang in the semi-final. In all of these tournaments, with the exception of the 1989 French Open, Edberg went on to win the tournament.

Personal life
Edberg was born in Västervik, Sweden. He is married to Annette Hjort Olsen, whom he married in April 1992. They have two children, Emilie and Christopher. Olsen was previously in a relationship with Edberg's tennis rival Mats Wilander before her relationship with Edberg began in 1985.

Edberg is a supporter of English football team Leeds United and the Swedish ice hockey team Växjö Lakers.

Records

 * These records were attained in Open Era of tennis.
 * Records in bold indicate peer-less achievements.

Place in history
Edberg is considered by many to be one of the greatest tennis players of his era. In his home country, together with Mats Wilander, he is commonly regarded as the best Swedish tennis player after Björn Borg.

Professional awards

 * ITF World Champion: 1991
 * ATP Player of the Year: 1990, 1991

title: Stefan Edberg


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Down-low (sexual slang)

Down-low is an African-American slang term specifically used within the African-American community that typically refers to a sexual subculture of Black men who usually identify as heterosexual but actively seek sexual encounters and relations with other men, practice gay cruising, and frequently don a specific hip-hop attire during these activities. They generally avoid disclosing their same-sex sexual activities, even if they have female sexual partner(s), they are married to a woman, or they are single. The term is also used to refer to a related sexual identity. Down-low has been viewed as "a type of impression management that some of the informants use to present themselves in a manner that is consistent with perceived norms about masculine attribute, attitudes, and behavior".

Origins
The term down-low originated within the African-American community, and was originally used to describe "any kind of slick, secretive behavior, including infidelity in heterosexual relationships". In medical research, the term is used to identify sexual identity-behaviour discordance among men who have sex with men (MSM).

According to a study published in the Journal of Bisexuality, "[t]he Down Low is a lifestyle predominately practiced by young, urban Black men who have sex with other men and women, yet do not identify as gay or bisexual".

In this context, "being on the down-low" is more than just men having sex with men in secret, or a variant of closeted homosexuality or bisexuality—it is a sexual identity that is, at least partly, defined by its "cult of masculinity" and its rejection of what is perceived as White American culture (including what is perceived as White American LGBT culture) and terms. A 2003 cover story in The New York Times Magazine on the down-low phenomenon explains that the American Black community sees "homosexuality as a white man's perversion." It then goes on to describe the down-low subculture as follows:

Rejecting a gay culture they perceive as white and effeminate, many black men have settled on a new identity, with its own vocabulary and customs and its own name: Down Low. There have always been men – black and white – who have had secret sexual lives with men. But the creation of an organized, underground subculture largely made up of black men who otherwise live straight lives is a phenomenon of the last decade. ... Most date or marry women and engage sexually with men they meet only in anonymous settings like bathhouses and parks or through the Internet. Many of these men are young and from the inner city, where they live in a hypermasculine thug culture. Other DL men form romantic relationships with men and may even be peripheral participants in mainstream gay culture, all unknown to their colleagues and families. Most DL men identify themselves not as gay or bisexual but first and foremost as black. To them, as to many blacks, that equates to being inherently masculine.

Social context and American sexual subcultures
In his book Beyond the Down Low: Sex, Lies and Denial in Black America, Keith Boykin states that secret homosexual relations are not unique to African-American men, and in fact occur in many societies and among all races.

In "Power Plays, Power Works" John Fiske suggests that closeted homosexuality may be more common in American communities suffering from widespread poverty, in which members reportedly depend heavily on traditional family networks (and often religious institutions) for financial and emotional support.

The term quickly became conflated with an eroticization of homosexual activities among Black and Latino men. Throughout the gay pornographic industry and internet networks, down-low quickly became a marketing term used to publicize pornographic movies, models, sex-clubs, and social gatherings that included Black and Latino men.

Media interest
The first known person to use the term down-low in a homosexual context was George Hanna, who used the term in the 1930 song Boy in the Boat about lesbian women. The term was popularized in the late 1990s and after by a series of mainstream media reports emphasizing the danger of Black men transmitting HIV/AIDS to their unsuspecting female partners.

The first mainstream media account of the down-low as a subculture of closeted homosexuality or bisexuality was reported in the Los Angeles Times on February 7, 2001. By the end of the year, numerous major media outlets had reported on the down-low. They included The New York Times (11 February), USA Today (March 15), Columbus Dispatch (March 19), St. Louis Post-Dispatch (April 1), The New York Times (April 3), Chicago Sun-Times (April 22), Atlanta Journal-Constitution (June 3), San Francisco Chronicle (June 4), Village Voice (June 6), VIBE magazine (July), Jet magazine (September 8), Essence magazine (October), San Diego Union-Tribune (December 2), and Los Angeles Times (December 7). Nearly all these stories connected the down-low phenomenon to the HIV/AIDS epidemic within the African-American community.

In the summer of 2003, Village Voice contributing writer and NYU professor Jason King published "Remixing the Closet: The Down Low Way of Knowledge", in the newspaper's June 2003 "Queer Issue," a controversial op-ed piece that questioned the relationship between HIV/AIDS and men "on the down low". The article was the first mainstream piece to openly criticize negative mainstream media depictions of down-low Black men and evaluated the down-low phenomenon from a different perspective.

King argued that the use of the term down-low was a way for many African-American men to admit to having sex with other men without necessarily identifying as "gay" in the traditional sense. On the heels of that article, San Francisco Chronicle contributing writer Frank Leon Roberts published "Stereotypes and Sexual Orientation: The 'down-low' – Coming out your own way in [B]lack clubs" in the newspaper's July 23, 2003 issue.

Then in August 2003 The New York Times Magazine ran a cover story called "Double Lives on the Down Low", written by Benoit Denizet-Lewis. Several episodes of The Oprah Winfrey Show were also dedicated to the subject including an episode aired 16 April 2004 and titled A Secret Sex World: Living on the 'Down Low' ; the show featured J. L. King discussing his book On the Down Low: A Journey Into the Lives of Straight Black Men Who Sleep with Men. The down-low subculture was also part of story lines on episodes of the television shows Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, Homicide Hunter, The Starter Wife, ER, and Oz.

In 2003 Jeffrey Q. McCune Jr. wrote a full-length play entitled Dancin the Down Low that he directed and produced at Northwestern University in April 2004. In addition, McCune has dedicated a dissertation on this topic. His study examines discourses on the down-low subculture closely, while also exploring how down-low Black men face the issues of masculinity and sexuality.

In 2008, writer Terrance Dean published his memoir, Hiding in Hip-Hop: On the Down Low in the Entertainment Industry—from Music to Hollywood, where he discusses his own experience being down-low in the industry as well as others in the industry who are also down-low. He distinguishes the difference between being down-low and being down-low-gay. Someone who is down-low is on the receiving end of homosexual sexual pleasure and for that reason does not view themselves as gay, while down-low-gay is someone who is a closeted gay man.

Using a content analysis of more than 170 articles written between 2001 and 2006, sociologist Richard N. Pitt Jr. concluded that the media pathologized Black bisexual men's behavior while either ignoring or sympathizing with White bisexual men's similar actions. He argued that the down-low Black bisexual is often described negatively as a "duplicitous heterosexual" man whose behaviors threaten the Black community. Alternatively, the "Brokeback" White bisexual (when seen as bisexual at all) is often described in pitying language as a "victimized homosexual" man who is forced into the closet by the heterosexist society around him.

HIV/AIDS epidemic
Men who have sex with both men and women are a "significant bridge for HIV to women", a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention study suggested. The CDC's Young Men's Survey shows that about one in 10 men reporting sex with men also have sex with women. And more than one in four of these bisexual men have unsafe sex with both kinds of partners. "Men who also have sex with women have similar levels of HIV and STDs [as exclusively homosexual men] and higher levels of many risky behaviors."

A study by Glenn and Spieldenner uses the CDC as a source to report the following: "'This issue continues to be stigmatized and connected to HIV/AIDS research, particularly how it connects to risky sexual practices influencing its transmission to partners, controversies regarding social awareness and acceptance of Black male sexuality, as well as disclosure or nondisclosure of those practices and behaviors.'"

The CDC report that analyzes the above-mentioned survey states that "many men who have sex with men (MSM), especially young and minority MSM, do not disclose their sexual orientation" in order to avoid "social isolation, discrimination, or verbal or physical abuse." The report connects non-disclosure to an increased risk of HIV by stating: "Young MSM who do not disclose their sexual orientation (nondisclosers) are thought to be at particularly high risk for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection because of low self-esteem, depression, or lack of peer support and prevention services that are available to MSM who are more open about their sexuality (disclosers)."

The CDC added a note to their report stating, in part:

"The findings in this report are consistent with previous research suggesting that among MSM, nondisclosure of sexual orientation is associated with being a member of a racial/ethnic minority group, identifying as bisexual or heterosexual, having greater perceived community and internalized homophobia, and being less integrated socially within homosexual communities (1—3,6). Although this study did not find that nondisclosing MSM were at higher risk for HIV infection than MSM who are more open about their sexuality (1—3), the data suggests that a substantial proportion of nondisclosers are infected with HIV and other STDs and are at high risk for transmitting these infections to their male and female sex partners.

The finding that more than one in three nondisclosers reported having recent female sex partners suggests that nondisclosing MSM might have an important role in HIV/STD transmission to women. This might be particularly true for Black nondisclosing MSM, of whom approximately one in five was infected with HBV and one in seven was infected with HIV."

The CDC cited three findings that relate to African-American men who operate on the down-low (engage in MSM activity but don't disclose to others):
 * African American men who have sex with men (MSM), but who do not disclose their sexual orientation (nondisclosers), have a high prevalence of HIV infection (14%); nearly three times higher than nondisclosing MSMs of all other races/ethnicities combined (5%).
 * Confirming previous research, the study of 5,589 MSM, aged 15–29 years, in six U.S. cities found that African American MSM were more likely not to disclose their sexual orientation compared with white MSM (18% vs. 8%).
 * HIV-infected nondisclosers were less likely to know their HIV status (98% were unaware of their infection compared with 75% of HIV-positive disclosers), and more likely to have had recent female sex partners.

In Beyond the Down Low, Keith Boykin denied this connection, attributing the media claim to sexism, racism, homophobia and classism. Boykin stated that despite the numerous media accounts linking the down-low to the occurrence of AIDS in the African-American community, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has never cited men on the down-low as a factor. Boykin claimed that no extensive research has ever been published about men on the down-low, in part because of the difficulty of identifying the targeted population. In his book, Beyond The Down Low: Sex, Lies and Denial in Black America, he wrote that men on the 'down-low' are not the cause of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Black America. Boykin argued that the down-low debate demonizes Black men, stigmatizes Black women, and encourages an unhealthy "battle of the sexes" that distracts the community's attention from the issues of HIV prevention, personal responsibility and condom use.

The authors of a study of the down-low on Craigslist.org also argue that the discourse about the down-low is about pathologizing Black sexualities. These authors found that white men also claim to be on the down-low as much as Black men; however, society and the media still only attributes the down-low to Black people and their sexual behaviors. The authors maintain that by only focusing on Black people's sexual behaviors, larger structural issues such as poverty and drug use are ignored in the discussion about rising HIV rates in certain Black communities.

A cross-study analysis that reviewed 24 articles (and published in the Journal of the National Medical Association) found that "Black MSM are more likely than MSM of other racial or ethnic groups to be bisexually active or identified; and, compared with white MSM, are less likely to disclose their bisexual or homosexual activities to others." The authors concluded that:

"The high prevalence of HIV in the Black community and the greater likelihood of bisexuality among Black men place heterosexual Black women at risk for HIV infection. However, the contribution of high-risk heterosexual Black men to the rising HIV caseload among Black women has been largely ignored. Future research must evaluate the relative contributions of bisexual men and exclusively heterosexual Black men to HIV cases among Black women."

Additionally, a qualitative study, published in the Medical Anthropological Quarterly, concluded that:

"'... covert and unprotected sex among bisexually active Black men was commonplace for reasons that included prostitution, habituation to same-sex relations during incarceration, and the desire to maintain a facade of heterosexuality in homophobic communities. It was concluded that bisexual activity is highly correlated with secrecy and unprotected sex. The risks of bisexuality among Black men are exacerbated by incarceration, homophobia, drug use, and the prison and public health focus on surveillance rather than prevention.'"

Black people in the glass closet
In Nobody Is Supposed to Know: Black Sexuality on the Down Low (2014), scholar C. Riley Snorton contends that Black sexuality operates within the glass closet, a space "marked by hypervisibility and confinement, spectacle, and speculation." Down-low men have been subjected to demonization and criminalization by the media, health officials, as well as the general public, especially during the early to mid-2000s. This type of hypervisibility reinforces the confining space of the glass closet, and continues to position Black men as subjects of regulation and surveillance. Therefore, Black masculinity is perceived as "dangerous, prone to trickery, promiscuous, and contaminated while also framing white masculinity and sexuality as less susceptible to such problems." The glass closet represents the immobility of Black people and sexuality. Down-low men are racialized, sexualized, gendered, and classed.

Snorton describes:

"The (meta)physics of the glass closet are like the physical properties of glass, sometimes liquid and sometimes solid, located in the slippages of categorization. If we understand the closet as a racialized metaphor, then we must fully consider what it means when Black bodies enter the illuminating space of the closet. It resembles the phenomenon of peering into a lit window at night—the contents inside captured by the glass frame."

Despite the hypervisibility of the glass closet, there is still potential for the performative tactic which Snorton calls "ignorance". This ignorance "relies on the subversion of knowledge and a deft manipulation of spectacle." Thus, the glass closet can also function as a space of willful invisibility for down-low Black men.

title: Down-low (sexual slang)


text:
Hackney carriage

A hackney or hackney carriage (also called a cab, black cab, hack or London taxi) is a carriage or car for hire. A hackney of a more expensive or high class was called a remise. A symbol of London and Britain, the black taxi is a common sight on the streets of London. The hackney carriages carry a roof sign TAXI that can be illuminated to indicate their availability for passengers.

In the UK, the name hackney carriage today refers to a taxicab licensed by the Public Carriage Office, local authority (non-metropolitan district councils, unitary authorities) or the Department of the Environment depending on region of the country.

In the United States, the police department of the city of Boston has a Hackney Carriage Unit, analogous to taxicab regulators in other cities, that issues Hackney Carriage medallions to its taxi operators.

Etymology
The origins of the word hackney in connection with horses and carriages are uncertain. The origin is often attributed to the London borough of Hackney, whose name likely originated in Old English meaning 'Haka's Island'. There is some doubt whether the word hack for a horse was derived from this place-name, as the area was historically marshy and not well-suited for keeping horses. The American Hackney Horse Society favours an alternative etymology stemming from the French word haquenée—a horse of medium size recommended for lady riders—which was brought to England with the Norman Conquest and became fully assimilated into the English language by the start of the 14th century. The word became associated with an ambling horse, usually for hire.

The place-name, through its famous association with horses and horse-drawn carriages, is also the root of the Spanish word jaca, a term used for a small breed of horse and the Sardinian achetta horse. The first documented hackney coach—the name later extended to the newer and smaller carriages—operated in London in 1621.

The New York City colloquial terms "hack" (taxi or taxi-driver), hackstand (taxi stand), and hack license (taxi licence) are probably derived from hackney carriage. Such cabs are now regulated by the New York City Taxi and Limousine Commission.

==History==

The widespread use of private coaches by the English aristocracy began to be seen in the 1580s; within fifty years hackney coaches were regularly to be seen on the streets of London. In the 1620s there was a proliferation of coaches for hire in the metropolis, so much so that they were seen as a danger to pedestrians in the narrow streets of the city, and in 1635 an Order in Council was issued limiting the number allowed. Two years later a system for licensing hackney coachmen was established (overseen by the Master of the Horse).

"An Ordinance for the Regulation of Hackney-Coachmen in London and the places adjacent" was approved by Parliament in 1654, to remedy what it described as the "many Inconveniences [that] do daily arise by reason of the late increase and great irregularity of Hackney Coaches and Hackney Coachmen in London, Westminster and the places thereabouts". The first hackney-carriage licences date from a 1662 act of Parliament, the London and Westminster Streets Act 1662 (14 Cha. 2. c. 2) establishing the Commissioners of Scotland Yard to regulate them. Licences applied literally to horse-drawn carriages, later modernised as hansom cabs (1834), that operated as vehicles for hire. The 1662 act limited the licences to 400; when it expired in 1679, extra licences were created until a 1694 act imposed a limit of 700. The limit was increased to 800 in 1715, 1,000 in 1770 and 1,100 in 1802, before being abolished in 1832. The 1694 Act established the Hackney Coach Commissioners to oversee the regulation of fares, licences and other matters; in 1831 their work was taken over by the Stamp Office and in 1869 responsibility for licensing was passed on to the Metropolitan Police. In the 18th and 19th centuries, private carriages were commonly sold off for use as hackney carriages, often displaying painted-over traces of the previous owner's coat of arms on the doors.

There was a distinction between a general hackney carriage and a hackney coach, which was specifically a hireable vehicle with four wheels, two horses and six seats: four on the inside for the passengers and two on the outside (one for a servant and the other for the driver, who was popularly termed the Jarvey (also spelled jarvie)). For many years only coaches, to this specification, could be licensed for hire; but in 1814 the licensing of up to 200 hackney chariots was permitted, which carried a maximum of three passengers inside and one servant outside (such was the popularity of these new faster carriages that the number of licences was doubled the following year).

Shortly afterwards even lighter carriages began to be licensed: the two-wheel, single-horse cabriolets or 'cabs', which were licensed to carry no more than two passengers. Then, in 1834, the hansom cab was patented by Joseph Hansom: a jaunty single-horse, two-wheel carriage with a distinctive appearance, designed to carry passengers safely in an urban environment. The hansom cab quickly established itself as the standard two-wheel hackney carriage and remained in use into the 20th century.

In 1836 the Clarence was introduced to London's streets: a type of small four-wheel enclosed carriage drawn by one or two horses. These became known as 'growlers' because of the sound they made on the cobbled streets. Much slower than a hansom cab, they nevertheless had room for up to four passengers (plus one servant) and space on the roof for luggage. As such they remained in use as the standard form of four-wheeled hackney carriage until replaced by motorised taxi cabs in the early 20th century.

A small, usually two-wheeled, one-horse hackney vehicle called a noddy once plied the roads in Ireland and Scotland. The French had a small hackney coach called a fiacre.

Motorisation
Electric hackney carriages appeared before the introduction of the internal combustion engine to vehicles for hire in 1897. In fact there was even London Electrical Cab Company: the cabs were informally called Berseys after the manager who designed them, Walter Bersey. Another nickname was Hummingbirds from the sound that they made. In August 1897, 25 were introduced, and by 1898, there were 50 more. During the early 20th century, cars generally replaced horse-drawn models. In 1910, the number of motor cabs on London streets outnumbered horse-drawn growlers and hansoms for the first time. At the time of the outbreak of World War I, the ratio was seven to one in favor of motorized cabs. The last horse-drawn hackney carriage ceased service in London in 1947.

UK regulations define a hackney carriage as a taxicab allowed to ply the streets looking for passengers to pick up, as opposed to private hire vehicles (sometimes called minicabs), which may pick up only passengers who have previously booked or who visit the taxi operator's office. In 1999, the first of a series of fuel cell powered taxis were tried out in London. The "Millennium Cab" built by ZeTek gained television coverage and great interest when driven in the Sheraton Hotel ballroom in New York by Judd Hirsch, the star of the television series Taxi. ZeTek built three cabs but ceased activities in 2001.

Continuing horse-drawn cab services
Horse-drawn hackney services continue to operate in parts of the UK, for example in Cockington, Torquay. The town of Windsor, Berkshire, is believed to be the last remaining town with a continuous lineage of horse-drawn hackney carriages, currently run by Orchard Poyle Carriages, the licence having been passed down from driver to driver since 1830.

The Royal Borough now licenses the carriage for rides around Windsor Castle and Great Park; however, the original hackney licence is in place, allowing for passenger travel under the same law that was originally passed in 1662. The city of Bath has an occasional horse-drawn Hackney, principally for tourists, but still carrying hackney plates.

Black cabs
Though there has never been law requiring London's taxis to be black, they were, since the end of the Second World War, sold in a standard colour of black. This, in the 1970s gave rise within the minicab trade to the nickname 'black cab' and it has become common currency. However, before the Second World War, London's cabs were seen in a variety of colours. They are produced in a variety of colours, sometimes in advertising brand liveries (see below). Fifty golden cabs were produced for the Queen's Golden Jubilee celebrations in 2002.

Vehicle design
In Edwardian times, Renault and Unic, but also smaller players like Charron and Darracq were to be found. Fiat was also a presence, with their importer d'Arcy Baker running a fleet of 400 cars of the brand. In the 1920s, Beardmore cabs were introduced and became for a while the most popular. They were nicknamed 'the Rolls-Royce of cabs' for their comfort and robustness. Maxwell Monson introduced Citroën cabs, which were cheaper, but crude in comparison to the Beardmore. In 1930 dealers Mann and Overton struck a deal with the Austin to bring a modified version of the Austin 12/4 car to the London taxi market. This established Austin as dominant until the end of the 1970s and Mann and Overton until 2012. Morrises cabs were also seen, in small numbers, but after the Second World War, produced the Oxford, made by Wolseleys.

Outside of London, the regulations governing the hackney cab trade are different. Four-door saloon cars have been highly popular as hackney carriages, but with disability regulations growing in strength and some councils offering free licensing for disabled-friendly vehicles, many operators are now opting for wheelchair-adapted taxis such as the LEVC TX of London Electric Vehicle Company (LEVC). London taxis have broad rear doors that open very wide (or slide), and an electrically controlled ramp that is extended for access.

Other models of specialist taxis include the Peugeot E7 and rivals from Fiat, Ford, Volkswagen, and Mercedes-Benz. These vehicles normally allow six or seven passengers, although some models can accommodate eight. Some of these minibus taxis include a front passenger seat next to the driver, while others reserve this space solely for luggage.

London taxis must have a turning circle not greater than 8.535 m. One reason for this is the configuration of the famed Savoy Hotel: the hotel entrance's small roundabout meant that vehicles needed the small turning circle in order to navigate it. That requirement became the legally required turning circles for all London cabs, while the custom of a passenger's sitting on the right, behind the driver, provided a reason for the right-hand traffic in Savoy Court, allowing hotel patrons to board and alight from the driver's side.

The design standards for London taxis are set out in the Conditions of Fitness, which are now published by Transport for London. The first edition was published in May 1906, by the Public Carriage Office, which was then part of the Metropolitan Police. These regulations set out the conditions under which a taxi may operate and have been updated over the years to keep pace with motor car development and legislation. Changes include regulating the taximeter (made compulsory in 1907), advertisements and the turning circle of 8.535 m. Until the beginning of the 1980s, London Taxis were not allowed to carry any advertisements.

The London Taxis fleet has been fully accessible since 1 January 2000, following the introduction of the first accessible taxi in 1987. Since 2018, all newly registered taxis in London must be zero emission, and more than half of the 14,700 fleet is zero emission capable.

As part of the Transported by Design programme of activities, on 15 October 2015, after two months of public voting, the black cab was elected by Londoners as their favourite transport design icon.

Driver qualification
In London, hackney-carriage drivers have to pass a test called The Knowledge to demonstrate that they have an intimate knowledge of the geography of London streets, important buildings, etc. Learning The Knowledge allows the driver to become a member of the Worshipful Company of Hackney Carriage Drivers. There are two types of badge, a yellow one for the suburban areas and a green one for all of London. The latter is considered far more difficult. Drivers who own their cabs as opposed to renting from a garage are known as "mushers" and those who have just passed the "knowledge" are known as "butter boys". There are currently around 21,000 black cabs in London, licensed by the Public Carriage Office.

Elsewhere, councils have their own regulations. Some merely require a driver to pass a DBS disclosure and have a reasonably clean driving licence, while others use their own local versions of London's The Knowledge test.

Notable drivers

 * Alfred Collins, who retired in 2007 at the age of 92, was the oldest cab driver and had been driving for 70 years.
 * Fred Housego is a former London taxi driver who became a television and radio personality and presenter after winning the BBC television quiz Mastermind in 1980.
 * Clive Efford, Labour MP for the London constituency of Eltham, was a cab driver for 10 years before entering parliament in 1997.

Private users
Oil millionaire Nubar Gulbenkian owned an Austin FX3 Brougham Sedanca taxi, with custom coachwork by FLM Panelcraft Ltd as he was quoted "because it turns on a sixpence whatever that is." Gulbenkian had two such taxis built, the second of which was built on an FX4 chassis and was sold at auction by Bonhams for $39,600 in 2015. Other celebrities are known to have used hackney carriages both for their anonymity and their ruggedness and manoeuvrability in London traffic. Users included Prince Philip, whose cab was converted to run on liquefied petroleum gas, author and actor Stephen Fry, and the Sheriffs of the City of London. A black cab was used in the band Oasis's video for the song "Don't Look Back in Anger." Black cabs were used as recording studios for indie band performances and other performances in the Black Cab Sessions internet project.

Ghosthunting With... featured a black cab owned by host of the show, Yvette Fielding. Bez of the Happy Mondays owns one, shown on the UK edition of Pimp My Ride. Noel Edmonds used a black cab to commute from his home to the Deal or No Deal studios in Bristol. He placed a dressed mannequin in the back so that he could use special bus/taxi lanes, and so that people would not attempt to hail his cab.

The official car of the Governor of the Falkland Islands between 1976 and 2010 was a London taxi.

In other countries

Between 2003 and 1 August 2009 the London taxi model TXII could be purchased in the United States. Today there are approximately 250 TXIIs in the US, operating as taxis in San Francisco, Dallas, Long Beach, Houston, New Orleans, Las Vegas, Newport, Rhode Island, Wilmington, North Carolina and Portland, Oregon. There are also a few operating in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. The largest London taxi rental fleet in North America is in Wilmington, owned by The British Taxi Company. There are London cabs in Saudi Arabia, Romania, South Africa, Lebanon, Egypt, Bahrain and Cyprus, and in Israel, where a Chinese-made version of LTI's model TX4 built by Geely Automobile is available. In February 2010, a number of TX4s started operating in Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, and are known as London Taxi.

Singapore has used London-style cabs since 1992; starting with the "Fairway". The flag-down fares for the London Taxis are the same as for other taxis. SMRT Corporation, the sole operator, had by March 2013 replaced its fleet of 15 ageing multi-coloured (gold, pink, etc.) taxis with new white ones. They are the only wheelchair-accessible taxis in Singapore, and were brought back following an outcry after the removal of the service.

By 2011 a thousand of a Chinese-made version of LTI's latest model, TX4, had been ordered by Baku Taxi Company. The plan is part of a program originally announced by Azerbaijan's Ministry of Transportation to introduce London cabs to the capital, Baku. The move was part of a £16 million agreement between the London Taxi Company and Baku Taxi Company.

Although the LEVC TX is more expensive and exceeds the Japanese size classifications to gain the tax advantages Japanese livery drivers enjoy with the similarly designed but smaller Toyota JPN Taxi, Geely has attempted to break into the Japanese market. Alternatively, while the Toyota JPN Taxi doesn't meet the passenger capacity or turning radius Conditions of Fitness required by Transport for London, it does meet the emissions and accessibility requirements that may make it an ideal option for cities outside of London without the seating requirements or as a private hire vehicle while still evoking the familiar black cab profile.

During the 2008 Olympic Games, there were about 100 Hackney carriages were operating in Beijing.

Variety of models
There have been different makes and types of hackney cab through the years, including:
 * Mann & Overton - including Carbodies, The London Taxi Company and currently London EV Company
 * Unic sold in London from 1906 to 1930s
 * Austin London Taxicab
 * Austin FX3
 * Austin/Carbodies/LTI FX4 and Fairway
 * LTI TX1, TXII and TX4
 * LEVC TX (plug-in hybrid range-extender)
 * Mercedes-Benz
 * Vito W639
 * Morris
 * Nuffield Oxford Taxi
 * London General Cab Co.
 * Citroën
 * Beardmore
 * Beardmore Marks I to VII
 * Metrocab (originally formed by Metro Cammell Weymann)
 * MCW/Reliant/Hooper Metrocab
 * Dynamo Motor Company
 * Dynamo Taxi(Nissan NV200 based)

Use in advertising
In October 2011 the company Eyetease Ltd. introduced digital screens on the roofs of London taxis for dynamically changing location-specific advertising.

Future
On 14 December 2010, Mayor of London Boris Johnson released an air quality strategy paper encouraging phasing out of the oldest of the LT cabs, and proposing a £1m fund to encourage taxi owners to upgrade to low-emission vehicles. From 2018, all newly licensed taxis in London must be zero emission capable.

In 2017, the LEVC TX was introduced - a purpose built hackney carriage, built as a plug-in hybrid range-extender electric vehicle. By April 2022, over 5,000 TX's had been sold in London, around a third of London's taxi fleet. In October 2019 the first fully electric cab since the Bersey in 1897, the Dynamo Taxi, was launched with a 187-mile range and with the bodywork based on Nissan's NV200 platform.

Digital hailing
2011 saw the launch of many digital hailing applications for hackney carriages that operate through smartphones, including GetTaxi and Hailo. Many of these applications also facilitate payment and tracking of the taxicabs.

United Kingdom law
Laws about the definition, licensing and operation of hackney carriages have a long history. The most significant pieces of legislation by region are:

 * In England and Wales: the Town Police Clauses Act 1847, and the Local Government (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1976. In Wales, responsibility for licensing is now devolved to the Senedd. In September 2017, a consultation started about the future of such licensing.
 * In London: the Metropolitan Public Carriage Act 1869 and the London Cab Order 1934.
 * In Scotland: the Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982.
 * In Northern Ireland: the Taxis Act (Northern Ireland) 2008

title: Hackney carriage