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Sheng Shicai

Sheng Shicai (3 December 1895 –13 July 1970) was a Chinese warlord who ruled Xinjiang from 1933 to 1944. Sheng's rise to power started with a coup d'état in 1933 when he was appointed the duban (Military Governor) of Xinjiang. The Soviet era ended in 1942, when Sheng approached the Nationalist Chinese government, but still retained much power over the province. He was dismissed from this post in 1944 and named Minister of Agriculture and Forestry. Growing animosity against him led the government to dismiss him again and appoint him to a military post. At the end of the Chinese Civil War, Sheng fled mainland China to Taiwan with the rest of Kuomintang.

Sheng Shicai was a Manchurian-born Han Chinese, educated in Tokyo, Japan, where he studied political economy and later attended the Imperial Japanese Army Academy. Having become a Marxist in his youth, Sheng participated in the anti-imperialist May Fourth Movement in 1919. He participated in the Northern Expedition, a military campaign of the Kuomintang against the Beiyang government.

In 1929, he was called into service of the Governor of Xinjiang, Jin Shuren, where he served as Chief of Staff of the Frontier Military and Chief Instructor at the Provincial Military College. With the Kumul Rebellion ongoing, Jin was overthrown in a coup on 12 April 1933 and Sheng was appointed duban or Military Governor of Xinjiang. Since then, he led a power struggle against his rivals, of whom Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan were most notable. The first to be removed were the coup leaders and by them appointed Civil Governor Liu Wenlong by September 1933. Ma and Zhang were defeated militarily by June 1934 with help from the Soviet Union, whom Sheng invited to intervene, subordinating himself to the Soviets in return. He was dubbed the "King of Xinjiang" during his rule.

As ruler of Xinjiang, Sheng implemented his Soviet-inspired policies through his political program of Six Great Policies, adopted in December 1934. His rule was marked by his nationality policy which promoted national and religious equality and identity of various nationalities of Xinjiang. The province saw a process of modernization, but also the subordination of economic interests in Soviet favor. The Soviets had a monopoly over Xinjiang trade and exploited its rare materials and oil. In 1937, in parallel with the Soviet Great Purge, Sheng conducted a purge on his own, executing, torturing to death and imprisoning 100,000 people, the majority of which were Uyghurs.

With the Soviets distracted by its war with Germany, Sheng approached the Chinese government in July 1942 and expelled the Soviet military and technical personnel. However, he still maintained effective power over Xinjiang. In the meantime, the Soviets managed to hold off the Germans and the Japanese launched an extensive offensive against the Chinese, which led Sheng to try to change sides again by arresting the Kuomintang officials and invoking Soviet intervention for the second time in 1944. The Soviets ignored the request and the Chinese government removed him from the post naming him Minister of Agriculture and Forestry in August 1944.

Sheng held the ministerial post by July 1945 and later worked as an adviser to Hu Zongnan and held a military post. He joined the rest of the Kuomintang in Taiwan after the defeat in the Chinese Civil War in 1949. In Taiwan, Sheng lived in a comfortable retirement and died in Taipei in 1970.

Early life
Sheng, an ethnic Han Chinese, was born in Kaiyuan, Manchuria in a well-to-do peasant family on 3 December 1895. His great grandfather, Sheng Fuxin(盛福信), was originally from Shandong Province and later fled to Kaiyuan. Sheng enrolled at the Provincial Forestry and Agricultural School in Mukden, aged 14. Aged 17, Sheng enrolled at the Wusong Public School in Shanghai, where he studied political science and economy. There, he became friendly with students and teachers of "radical inclinations". After graduating in 1915, under their advice he went to study in Tokyo, Japan. There, Sheng enrolled at the Waseda University, where he studied political economy for a year. During that time, Sheng expressed nationalistic attitudes and was exposed to "The ABC of Communism" and other leftist publications.

Unrest in China made him return to homeland. In 1919, he participated in the May Fourth Movement as a representative of the Liaoning students. During this period, he developed radical and anti-Japanese sentiments. By his own admission, Sheng became a Marxist the very same year and his political opponents claimed he became a communist during his second stay in Japan in the 1920s. During that time, he realised the "futility of book learning", and decided to enter a military career. He took military training in the southern province of Kwantung, known for liberal and reformist views. Later, he enrolled at the Northeastern Military Academy.

Sheng entered military service under Guo Songling, Deputy of Zhang Zuolin, a Manchurian warlord. He rapidly rose to become Staff Officer with the rank of lieutenant colonel, and was given command of a company. Because of his commendable service, Guo sponsored his admission to the Imperial Japanese Army Academy for advanced military studies. Three years later he completed his studies, with minor interruptions in 1925, when he was involved in Manchurian politics.

At that time, Sheng supported a campaign against Zhang, briefly returning to Manchuria. Although he supported the anti-Zhang coup, he was able to return to Japan with the support of Feng Yuxiang and Chiang Kai-Shek, from whom he received financial help and considered him as his patron.

Sheng returned from Japan in 1927 to participate in the Northern Expedition A rising young officer, Sheng was given the rank of colonel and served as a Staff Officer of the Chiang's field headquarters under He Yingqin. During the Northern Expedition, Sheng proved himself as a worthy officer, serving in various command staff capacities.

Sheng was a member of the Guominjun, a leftist nationalist faction that supported the Nationalist government in China. However, Sheng did not join the Kuomintang because of his belief in Marxism. After the Expedition was completed, he was made chief of the war operations section of the general staff in Nanjing, but resigned in 1929 over a disagreement with his superiors. After the apparent setback in his career, Sheng dedicated himself to the question of strengthening China's border defences.

Rise to power

Not long after Sheng's resignation, a delegation from Xinjiang came to Nanjing to ask for financial aid. The Governor of Xinjiang Jin Shuren asked one of the members of the delegation, the Deputy General Secretary of Xinjiang Guang Lu, to find a competent officer to reorganise the provincial military. After discreet enquiries, Sheng was appointed to Jin's staff and arrived in Xinjiang via Soviet Union in the winter of 1929–30. Chiang Kai-Shek may have endorsed Sheng's decision to go to Xinjiang. Therefore, the appointment of Ma Zhongying, Sheng's rival, as a commander of the 36th Division in Xinjiang embarrassed and frustrated Sheng. Sheng's welcome in Xinjiang was cold. Jin considered him a potential threat. Despite the doubts, Jin appointed him Chief of Staff of the Frontier Army and subsequently named him Chief Instructor at the Provincial Military College.

In the summer of 1932, the fighting between Ma and Jin had significantly intensified. Ma's Hui forces were able to break the defence lines at Hami and enter Xinjiang through the Hexi Corridor. In December 1932, Ma's forces started the siege of Ürümqi, but the White Russians and Sheng's troops successfully defended the city. In March 1933, the Manchurian Salvation Army, part of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA), came to their aid through the Soviet territory. During these events, Jin's prestige declined and correspondingly Sheng became increasingly popular. The culmination was the coup staged by the White Russians and a group of provincial bureaucrats led by Chen Zhong, Tao Mingyue and Li Xiaotian on 12 April 1933, who overthrew Jin, who escaped to China proper via Siberia.

Sheng, who was marshalling the provincial forces in eastern Xinjiang, returned to Ürümqi to seize power in the midst of the chaos. Without conferring the Chinese government, the coup leaders appointed Sheng the Commissioner of the Xinjiang Border Defence, i. e., Military Governor or duban on 14 April 1933, resurrecting the old title. Liu Wenlong, a powerless provincial bureaucrat was installed as the Civil Governor.

Rivalry with Ma and Zhang
Sheng's appointment as duban did not mean that his position was secured. Installment of Wenlong as governor meant that the bureaucrats had the upper hand over Sheng, whom they considered their protege. His position was also challenged by Ma, as well as Zhang Peiyuan, Jin's old ally and a commander of the Yining region. The Chinese government, having learned that Zhang refused to cooperate with the new regime in Xinjiang and that Ma's forces represented the gravest threat to the new regime, tried to take the advantage of the situation and take control over the province. Without clearly stating whether it recognized the changes in Xinjiang, the government appointed Huang Musong, then a Deputy Chief of General Staff, a "pacification commissioner" in May 1933. He arrived in Ürümqi on 10 June. The appointment of Huang as a pacification commissioner further strained the relations between Shang and the Chinese government.

Sheng expected that the Chinese government would recognise him as duban, and that Huang's visit would affect that decision. Huang was ignorant of the frontier problems and his arrogant behaviour offended some of the provincial leaders. The rumours spread that Huang was already named a new governor or that Chiang decided to split Xinjiang into several smaller provinces. However, the true Huang's task was to secure the cooperation between the coup leaders and establish a new provincial mechanism with a pro-Nanjing stance. Sheng exploited the rumours and charged that Huang, an agent of Wang Jingwei had plotted with Liu, Zhang and Ma to overthrow the provincial government. On 26 June Huang was placed under house arrest, and the three coup leaders were also arrested and immediately executed. After the Chinese government apologised and promised Sheng the recognition of his position, Huang was allowed to return to Nanjing three weeks after the arrest.

Shortly afterwards, in August Chiang sent Foreign Minister Luo Wengan, as a sign of goodwill, to preside over Sheng's inauguration ceremony as a Commissioner of the Xinjiang Border Defence. However, at the same time, the Chinese government used Luo's visit to contact two of Sheng's rivals, Ma in Turpan and Zhang in Yining. They were encouraged to launch an attack against Sheng. As soon as Luo left the province, a war broke out between Sheng on one side, and Ma and Zhang on the other. Sheng accused Luo not only for plotting but also of an assassination attempt. Luo's left Xinjiang in early October, and his departure marked the beginning of the era of deep alienation between Sheng and the Chinese government.

In September 1933, Sheng accused Civil Governor Liu Wenlong of plotting with Ma and Zhang through Luo with Nanjing in order to overthrow him. He was forced to resign and was replaced by Zhu Ruichi, a more controllable official. Sheng created a new bureaucratic hierarchy, nepotistically appointing new officials and replacing one of his predecessors.

Confronted by Ma's army outside of Ürümqi, Sheng sent a delegation to Soviet Central Asia to request assistance. Sheng later claimed that the delegation was sent under the aegis of Jin's request for military equipment. However, Sheng made a more comprehensive deal with the Soviets. His delegation returned in December 1933, together with Garegin Apresov, who would later be appointed as the Soviet General Consul in Ürümqi. The Soviets provided substantive military assistance to Sheng, who in return gave the Soviets wide political, economic and military control over Xinjiang.

Ma sieged Ürümqi for the second time in January 1934. This time, the Soviets assisted Sheng with air support and two brigades of the Joint State Political Directorate. With their aid, Sheng again defeated Ma's forces, who retreated south from Tien Shan, in a region controlled by the East Turkestan Republic (ETR). The same month, Ma's forces arrived in Kashgar, extinguishing the ETR. Hoja-Niyaz, president of the ETR escaped upon the arrival of Ma's troops to the Xinjiang-Soviet border, and in town Irkeshtam signed an agreement that abolished the East Turkestan Republic and supported Sheng's regime. In early 1934, Zhu Ruichi died and was replaced by Li Rong as Civil Governor.

In January, the Chinese government approved Huang Shaohong's plan for military operation in Xinjiang, in order to put the province under its effective control. Huang had in mind to act pragmatically, offering support either to Sheng or Ma, whoever was willing to cooperate with the Chinese government. The pretext for the operation was the development of Xinjiang and adjacent provinces. For that purpose, the Xinjiang Construction Planning Office was established in Xinjiang with Huang in charge. With enthusiasm from the Minister of Finance H. H. Kung, Huang purchased foreign-manufactured armored vehicles. By April, the preparations reached their final stage. However, the whole plan came to a halt in May because the Soviets have already entered Xinjiang and assisted Sheng against Ma.

Under pressure from Sheng's strengthened military forces, Ma's troops retreated from Kashgar in June–July 1934 to the southeast towards Hotan and Yarkand, where they remained until 1937. Ma himself retreated via Irkeshtam to Soviet Central Asia, accompanied by several officers and a Soviet official. Sheng sent requests to the Soviets to turn him in, but they refused. By this move, the Soviets intended to achieve dual benefits. First, by removing Ma from Xinjiang's political arena, they wanted to increase Sheng's rule, which would give them higher control over the province; and second, they intended to use Ma as leverage against Sheng in case he did not comply with their interests in the province. The armistice between the Hui forces and the Xinjiang government was agreed upon in September 1934. Zhang, after suffering defeat, committed suicide.

Following the withdrawal of the Hui forces to Hotan in July 1934, Ma Hushan consolidated his power over the remote oases of the Tarim Basin, thus establishing a Hui satrapy, where Hui Muslims ruled as colonial masters over their Turkic Muslim subjects. The region was named Tunganistan by Walther Heissig. Tunganistan was bordering on two, eventually, three sides with Xinjiang province, and on the fourth side bordered the Tibetan Plateau. Despite the fact that negotiations were underway with the command of the 36th Division, the Dungan command did not make concessions on any issues. Moreover, the Soviets, intending to keep the 36th Division as a fallback against Sheng, vacillated regarding the complete annihilation of the 36th Division, giving refuge to the Dungan commanders and establishing trade relations with the 36th Division.

Consolidation
On the anniversary of the 12 April coup in 1934, the Xinjiang provincial government published an administrative plan called the "Great Eight-Point Manifesto" or "Eight Great Proclamations". These included: the establishment of racial equality, guarantee of religious freedom, equitable distribution of agricultural and rural relief, reform of government finance, the cleaning up of government administration, the expansion of education, the promotion of self-government and the improvement of the judiciary. The program was practicable since each point represented a grievance that one nationality had against the previous government, which enabled Sheng to enact the reforms. The first two points which dealt with "the realisation of equality for all nationalities" and "the protection of the rights of believers" advanced the national and religious rights of the Xinjiang nationalities.

Sheng sent a letter to Joseph Stalin, Vyacheslav Molotov and Kliment Voroshilov in June 1934. In the letter, Sheng expressed his belief in the victory of Communism and referred to himself as "convinced supporter of Communism". He called for the "fastest possible implementation of Communism in Xinjiang". Sheng also not only denounced the Nationalist government, but expressed his aim in overthrowing it, suggesting support for the Chinese Soviet Republic and joint offensive against the Chinese government. Sheng also expressed his wish to join the Communist Party of Soviet Union. In a letter sent to the Soviet General Consul Garegin Apresov in Ürümqi, Stalin commented that the Sheng's letter made a "depressing impression on our comrades". The content of Sheng's letter led Stalin to refer him as "a provocateur or a hopeless "leftist" having no idea about Marxism". In a reply to Sheng, Stalin, Molotov and Voroshilov refused all of his proposals.

In August 1934, Sheng affirmed that the nine duties of his government are to eradicate corruption, to develop economy and culture, to maintain peace by avoiding war, to mobilise all manpower for the cultivation of land, to improve communication facilities, to keep Xinjiang permanently a Chinese province, to fight against imperialism and Fascism and to sustain a close relationship with Soviet Russia, to reconstruct a "New Xinjiang", and to protect the positions and privileges of religious leaders.

The dependency of the Sheng regime on the Soviet Union was further highlighted with the publication of the "Six Great Policies" in December 1934. The Policies guaranteed his previously enacted "Great Eight-Point Manifesto" and included "anti-imperialism, friendship with the Soviet Union, racial and national equality, clean government, peace and reconstruction". Sheng referred to them as "a skillful, vital application of Marxism, Leninism, and Stalinism in the conditions of the feudal society of economically and culturally backward Xinjiang". They served as the ideological basis of Sheng's rule. With the proclamation of the Six Great Policies, Sheng adopted a new flag with a six-pointed star to represent these policies.

On 1 August 1935, Sheng founded the People's Anti-Imperialist Association in Ürümqi. Garegin Apresov submitted a presentation to the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union which accepted the creation of the association on 5 August. The association had to be composed of representatives of the Soviet special services bodies. As the leader of the association, Sheng became one of the main figures of Soviet regional policy. The creation of the association strengthened the Soviet position in Xinjiang.

The propaganda of the association was the Anti-Imperialist War Front. Xinjiang's Youth and Xinjiang's Women served as the association's youth and women's wing respectively. In 1935, the association had 2,489 members, and in 1939, the Association's membership rose to 10,000. The membership was nationally diverse, and included Han, Hui and various Turkic peoples.

In 1935 the British consul in Kashgar sent a report to the Foreign Office which stated that the influence of the Soviet Union on Xinjiang and its population increased. In order to check the reliability of these claims, the Chinese government sent a special commission to Ürümqi. However, the commission concluded that Soviet assistance is friendly and commensurate with the assistance previously provided to the province by the Soviet Union. Only after this, the governments of Xinjiang, China, and the Soviet Union issued a joint statement in which the allegedly impending annexation of Xinjiang to the USSR was characterised as untrue. Sheng and the "reliable people" he appointed in the province played a special role in the fact that the Chinese authorities came to this conclusion. After this joint statement, the Soviet Union felt even more comfortable in Xinjiang politics. In 1935 the Politburo made several secret decisions to strengthen Soviet influence in the region.

When in December 1936 Zhang Xueliang rebelled against the Chinese government and arrested Chiang Kai-shek, which led to the Xi'an Incident. Sheng sided with Zhang, who asked for his help, and intended to proclaim that his rebels were under Xinjiang's protection. Only after the Soviets condemned the incident and characterised it as a Japanese provocation, and demanded from Sheng to drop his support for Zhang, did Sheng refuse to support Zhang.

Kashgar region and Islamic Rebellion
Two weeks after Ma Zhongying left for the Soviet territory, in early July 1934, Kashgar was occupied by a unit of 400 Chinese soldiers under the command of Kung Cheng-han on 20 July. He was accompanied by the 2,000 strong Uighurs commanded by Mahmut Muhiti, a wealthy ex-merchant. Thus, Kashgar was peacefully taken over by Xinjiang's provincial authority after almost a year.

To reassure the local population and to give himself additional time to consolidate his power in the northern and eastern parts of the province, Sheng appointed Muhiti as the overall Military Commander for the Kashgar region. Sheng was not comfortable with the Muslim officials in Kashgar, therefore a month later, he appointed his fellow Manchurian Liu Pin to the position of Commanding Officer in Kashgar. Muhiti was demoted and retained the position of Divisional Commander.

Sheng's Han Chinese appointees took effective control over the Kashgar region, and foremost amongst them was Liu, a Chinese nationalist, and a Christian. Liu understood little about the local Muslim culture. Immediately upon his arrival, he ordered that the picture of Sun Yat-sen, the founder of the Chinese Republic, be hung in the Kashgar mosque. The local Muslim population was dismayed by the developments in Kashgar and considered that the "Bolsheviks had taken over the country and were bent on destroying religion". Also Sheng's educational reform which attacked basic Islamic principles, as well as atheistic propaganda, contributed to the alienation of the Xinjiang's Muslim population.

Also in 1936, in the Altay region in northern Xinjiang, local Muslim nationalists, led by Younis Haji, founded the Society of National Defence. This society included influential Muslim figures. Sheng received information on the preparation of a powerful protest movement by this society. However, he did not have the capacity to suppress this movement with his own forces.

In Afghanistan, Muhammad Amin Bughra, the exiled leader of the East Turkestan Republic, approached the Japanese ambassador in 1935 proposing the establishment of the ETR under Japanese patronage and proposed Mahmut Muhiti as the leader of the newly established puppet state. The plan was later aborted when Mahmud in fear for his life fled from Kashgar to British India in April 1937.

Muhiti became the focal point of the opposition to Sheng's government. From the middle of 1936, he and his supporters began to propagate the idea of creating an "independent Uyghur state". In this case, he was supported by Muslim religious leaders and influential people from Xinjiang. Muhiti, having entered into contact with the Soviet consul in Kashgar Smirnov, even tried to get weapons from the Soviet Union, but his appeal was rejected. Then, by contacting former Dungan opponents, in early April 1937, Muhiti was able to raise an uprising against the Xinjiang authorities. However, only two regiments of the 6th Uyghur Division, stationed north and south of Kashgar in Artush and Yengihissar, came out in his defence, while the other two regiments, 33rd and 34th, stationed in Kashgar itself, declared their loyalty to the Sheng's government.

Urged by the Soviets, Sheng's government sent a peacekeeping mission to Kashgar to resolve the conflict. The negotiations, however, did not take place. The Soviets tried to contact Ma Hushan, the new commander of the Dungan 36th Division, via Ma Zhongying, to disarm Muhiti's rebels. However, Muhiti, with 17 of his associated fled to British India on 2 April 1937.

After Muhiti's flight to British India, Muhiti's troops revolted. The revolt was Islamic in its nature. Muhiti's officer Abdul Niyaz succeeded him and was proclaimed a general. Niyaz took Yarkand and moved towards Kashgar, eventually capturing it. Those with pro-Soviet inclinations were executed and thus new Muslim administration was established. Simultaneously, the uprising spread amongst the Kirghiz near Kucha and among Muslims in Hami. After capturing Kashgar, Niyaz's forces started to move towards Karashar, receiving assistance from the local population along the way.

In order to jointly fight against the Soviets and Chinese, Niyaz and Ma Hushan signed a secret agreement on 15 May. Ma Hushan used the opportunity and moved from Khotan to take over Kashgar from the rebels in June, as promulgated by the agreement. However, 5,000 Soviet troops, including airborne and armoured vehicles were marching towards southern Xinjiang on Sheng's invitation along with Sheng's forces and Dungan troops.

The Turkic rebels were defeated and Kashgar retook. After the defeat of the Turkic rebels, the Soviets also stopped maintaining the 36th Division. Ma Hushan's administration collapsed. By October 1937, along with the collapse of the Turkic rebellion and the Tungan satrapy, Muslim control over the southern part of the province ended. Soon afterwards, Yulbars Khan troops in Hami were also defeated. Thus, Sheng became the ruler of the whole province for the first time.

1937–38 purges

During the Islamic rebellion, Sheng launched his own purge in Xinjiang to coincide with Stalin's Great Purge. Sheng started the elimination of "traitors", "pan-Turkists", "enemies of the people", "nationalists" and "imperialist spies". His purges swept the entire Uyghur and Hui political elite. The NKVD provided the support during the purges. In the later stages of the purge, Sheng turned against the "Trotskyites", mostly a group of Han Chinese sent to him by Moscow. In the group were Soviet General Consul Garegin Apresov, General Ma Hushan, Ma Shaowu, Mahmud Sijan, the official leader of the Xinjiang province Huang Han-chang, and Hoja-Niyaz. Xinjiang came under virtual Soviet control. It is estimated that between 50,000 and 100,000 people perished during the purge.

In 1937, Sheng initiated a three-year plan for reconstruction, for which he received a Soviet loan of 15 million rubles. At Joseph Stalin's request, Sheng joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in August 1938 and received Party Card No.1859118 directly from Molotov during his secret visit to Moscow. However, Sheng did not set up the provincial branch of the CPSU in Xinjiang.

Having eliminated many of his opponents, Sheng's administration had a staff shortage. For this reason, he turned to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in Ya'an for help. In the circumstances of the Second United Front against the Japanese, the CCP sent dozens of its cadres to Xinjiang. The CCP members were mostly employed in high-level administrative, financial, educational and cultural ministerial posts in Ürümqi, Kashgar, Khotan and elsewhere, helping to implement Sheng's policies. They also maintained the only open communication line between Ya'an and the Soviet Union. Among those sent by the CCP was Mao Zemin, a younger brother of Mao Zedong, who served as Deputy Finance Minister.

Nationality policy

During Sheng's rule, the Han Chinese represented only a small minority in Xinjiang. F. Gilbert Chan claimed that they made up only 6% of the population at the time, while Sheng himself during his visit in Moscow in 1938, told Kliment Voroshilov that the Han made around 10% (roughly 400,000 people) of the population of Xinjiang. In his relationship with Xinjiang's non-Han populace, Sheng adopted the Soviet nationality policy. The non-Han nationalities were for the first time included in the provincial government. The first principle of his Declaration of Ten Guiding Principles stated that "all nationalities enjoy equal rights in politics, economy, and education". He also reorganized Xinjiang Daily, the only regional newspaper at the time, to be issued in Mandarin, Uyghur and Kazakh language. The educational programme encouraged the Han to learn Uyghur and the Uyghurs to learn Mandarin. Sheng's nationality policy also entailed the establishment of the Turkic languages schools, the revival of madrassas (Islamic schools), the publication of the Turkic languages newspapers and the formation of the Uyghur Progress Union.

Sheng initiated the idea of 14 separate nationalities in Xinjiang, and these were Han Chinese, Uyghurs, Mongols, Kazakhs, Muslims or Dungan, Sibe, Solon, Manchu, Kyrgyz, White Russian, Taranchi, Tajiks, and Uzbeks. To foster this idea, he encouraged the establishment of cultural societies for each nationality. The description of Xinjiang as a home of 14 nationalities, both in Xinjiang, as well as in proper China, brought Sheng popularity. However, Sheng's policy was criticized by the Pan-Turkic Jadidists and East Turkestan Independence activists Muhammad Amin Bughra and Masud Sabri, who rejected the Sheng's imposition of the name "Uyghur people" upon the Turkic people of Xinjiang. They wanted instead the name "Turkic nationality" (Tujue zu in Chinese) to be applied to their people. Sabri also viewed the Hui people as Muslim Han Chinese and separate from his own people. Bughra accused Sheng of trying to sow disunion among the Turkic peoples. However, Sheng argued that such separation was necessary in order to guarantee the success of the future union.

Another agenda from the Soviet Union Sheng implemented in Xinjiang was secularization with the purpose of undermining religious influence. Moreover, many Uyghurs and non-Han people were sent for education abroad, most notably in Tashkent, Uzbek SSR to the Central Asia University or Central Asia Military Academy. With their return, these students would find employment as teachers or within the Xinjiang administration.

Sheng's nationality policy served as a basis for the later Communist regime's nationality policy in Xinjiang, with few exceptions.

Relations with the Soviet Union

In March 1935, Lazar Kaganovich, who headed a newly established commission for developing areas of cooperation with Xinjiang, submitted a proposal to Politburo. Based on these proposals Politburo adopted a number of resolutions. Xinjiang received loans at low-interest rates, various economic assistance, and the sending of numerous consultants and specialists, which strengthened the position of Sheng's regime.

Kaganovich proposed a trade turnover with Xinjiang in 1935 of 9750 thousand rubles, of which 5000 thousand rubles were to come to the share of import, and 4,750 thousand rubles from export operations. Since Kaganovich's proposal was deemed unrealistic, Politburo once again discussed the issue and adopted the resolution "On Trade with Xinjiang" in June. According to the resolution, imports from Xinjiang were reduced, while exports remained the same. The imports from Xinjiang included cotton, wool, leather, livestock, and other raw materials.

The second section of the proposal deals with financial issues. To improve the financial sector of the Xinjiang economy and strengthen the provincial currency, it was proposed to balance the budget as a priority task. To this end, it was envisaged to reduce costs in administrative and managerial and military areas, centralise expenses and tax operations, replace all taxes with general provincial taxes, ban the issuance of counterfeit money, reconstruct a provincial bank, etc.

The proposal's third section were concerned with agriculture and the fourth with transport issues. In that matter, the construction of the main road connecting Xinjiang and the Soviet Union, the increase of cargo transportation along the Ili and Kara Irtysh Rivers and a number of other measures were planned here. These works were later expanded. In October 1937, begun the construction of the Sary-Tash–Sary-Ozek–Ürümqi–Lanzhou road with a length of 2,925 km, of which 230 km passed through the territory of the Soviet Union, 1,530 km through Xinjiang, and 1,165 km through the province of Gansu. Several thousands of Soviet citizens worked on the construction of the road.

The fifth section of the proposals prepared by the Kaganovich Commission regulated the issues of commodity credit. According to this section, machines and equipment supplied by the Soviets for the industrial enterprises being built and reconstructed in Xinjiang were to be registered as commodity loans.

The document related to the exploration work in Xinjiang stated that "geological exploration of minerals and, first of all, tin, in Xinjiang, was done at the expense of the USSR" and that the People's Commissar of Heavy Industry (NKTP) was to send a geological expedition. The search for tin, tungsten, and molybdenum was very important for the Soviets, so they established a special expedition for this task.

The sixth section of the proposal dealt with personnel issues. The section suggests that the departments sending advisers and instructors to Xinjiang pay special attention to the qualitative selection of workers sent to Xinjiang. According to the Kaganovich Commission, the number of advisers and instructors sent to Xinjiang, including military consultants and instructors, should not exceed 50 people.

On 11 September 1935, Politburo adopted five resolutions regarding Xinjiang. In the second resolution, it decided to amend the Kaganovich proposal for the establishment of the joint-stock company and to replace it with a special Soviet trading office. Additionally, Politburo discussed the issue of "Xinjiang Oil" and adopted a resolution. The resolution called for the preparation of the development of oil near the Soviet border under the firm of the Xinjiang government. Exploration was carried out in accordance with this decision and in 1938 oil fields were discovered in Shikho. The same year, the joint Xinjiang-Soviet company "Xinjiangneft" was established. Also, General Consul Apresov was given extended powers. Soviet officials in Xinjiang needed his permission to take any action and he could dismiss any Soviet worker "who did not know how to behave in a foreign country". Two days later he was awarded the Order of Lenin "for successful work in Xinjiang".

Along with decisions concerning the economy, Politburo also adopted a resolution on the possibility for Xinjiang young people to receive education in the USSR. At first, there was a quota for 15 students, which was expanded to 100 in June 1936. In the 1930s, 30,000 Xinjiang people, preferably Chinese, received education in the various specialties in the Soviet Union.

The resolutions also concerned the reconstruction of the Xinjiang army. The Soviet Union sent equipment and instructors for this end. Xinjiang received aircraft, equipment for aviation, rifle-machine-guns and artillery workshops, uniforms, personal supplies, and other military equipment. Soviets also opened pilot schools to train local airmen. The Soviets also proposed the reduction of army to 10,000 men, but Sheng refused this proposal and instead reduced it to 20,000 men.

In an agreement from 16 May 1935, ratified without consent from the Chinese government, the Soviet government provided substantial financial and material aid, including a five-year loan of five million "gold rubles" (Sheng actually received silver bullion). At about the same time, again without consent from the Chinese government, Soviet geologists started a survey of Xinjiang's mineral resources. The result was Soviet oil drilling at Dushanzi. During Sheng's rule, Xinjiang's trade came under Soviet control. The Soviet General Consul in Ürümqi was effectively in control of governing, with Sheng required to consult them for any decision he made. Alexander Barmine, the Soviet official responsible for supplying arms to Sheng, wrote that Xinjiang was "a Soviet colony in all but name".

The Soviet stranglehold around Xinjiang was further enhanced through a secret agreement signed on 1 January 1936. The agreement included a Soviet guarantee to come to the aid of Xinjiang "politically, economically and by armed force... in case of some external attack upon the province". By mid-1936, a significant number of Soviet specialists were active in Xinjiang involved in construction, education, health, and military training. The Russian language replaced English as the foreign language taught in schools. A number of Muslim youths, including Muslim girls, were sent to Soviet Central Asia for education. Sheng's government implemented atheistic propaganda, and Muslim women were encouraged to appear in public without a veil.

Approachment to the Chinese government
Between 1934 and 1942, there were no significant relations between the Sheng's government and the Nationalist government. As the full-scale War of Resistance/WWII broke out between China and the Empire of Japan, the Chinese government entered the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact in a joint war effort against imperial Japan. However, with the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Sheng saw an opportunity to strike down Soviet proxies, the CCP and to mend his relationship with the Chinese government now seated in Chongqing.

Sheng had long prepared to purge the CCP in Xinjiang. In 1939, his agents filled reports on clandestine meetings, the constant exchange of letters, and the unauthorized content of some of their propaganda. A month after the German invasion, in July 1941, the CCP cadre had been demoted or cashiered. Chen Tanqiu, the chief liaison of the CCP reported in Yan'an that his relations with Sheng became "extremely cold".

In the same month, the first sign of a thaw in the relationship between Xinjiang and the Chinese government occurred, a month after the German invasion, when Sheng allowed the Chinese diplomat in Moscow to visit Xinjiang for an official tour.

On 19 March 1942, Sheng's brother Sheng Shiqi was mysteriously murdered. According to one version, the Soviets, fearing that Sheng Shicai might switch sides, tried to overthrow him. The coup started with Sheng Shiqi's murder committed by his wife, convinced to do so by the Soviet agents. The other version is that he was murdered by Sheng Shicai because of his close ties to Moscow. After his brother's death, Sheng continued his crackdown on the CCP. On 1 July 1942 he ordered their relocation in the Ürümqi outskirts for "protection".

On 3 July 1942, a major delegation of the Chinese government's officials arrived at Ürümqi upon Sheng's invitation. Chiang Kai-Shek designated Zhu Shaoliang as a leader of the mission. The mission was initiated by Sheng's younger brother Sheng Shiji a few months earlier. The reaction of the Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov followed soon after, as he presented Chiang the Sheng's ideas about the implementation of Communism in Xinjiang, his support for Chiang's arrest in Xi'an Incident and the offer to make Xinjiang a Soviet republic. However, the Chinese government disregarded Molotov's presentation. On 9 July, Chiang informed the Soviet ambassador that the Soviet authorities "must now deal with the central government of China" and are not permitted to "discuss anything with Sheng duban [i. e. military governor]". Chiang designated Zhu Shaoliang as a contact person for the Soviets.

The later publication of Sheng's correspondence with the Soviet authorities, allowed the Chinese government to set up a special office in Ürümqi, from where they handled Xinjiang's foreign affairs, and to set up the Kuomintang roots throughout the province, replacing the People's Anti-Imperialist Association, which he disbanded in April 1942. Sheng was appointed the head of the provincial Kuomintang. Both dubanship and civil governorship remained in Sheng's hands. The National Revolutionary Army troops were not allowed to enter Xinjiang.

As Wu Shaoliang shuttled between Ürümqi and Chongqing, Sheng requested a permanent liaison to be appointed to handle his foreign affairs. The Chinese government appointed Wu Zexiang Minister of Foreign Affairs of Xinjiang. Ministerial position for a domestic post was unusual but approved by Chiang due to "special conditions and circumstances" in Xinjiang. Minister Wu's post was of consultative nature, and the Chinese government acted as an arbiter in the case of a dispute between him and the provincial authorities. Sheng demanded that Wu assumes more responsibility in dealings with the Soviets.

The final months of 1942 saw the most turbulent period in Xinjiang-Soviet relations. In October 1942 Sheng demanded from the Soviet General Consul that all Soviet technical and military personnel be withdrawn from Xinjiang within three months. To the Soviets, who were engaged in the Battle of Stalingrad and desperate to retain the oil reserves at Dushanzi, which oil quality was comparable with product of Baku oil fields, this demand represented numerous logistical difficulties. On 3 November 1942 Sheng issued a directive prohibiting "organizations, groups, and private persons" to engage in "any trade activity involving foreign imports and exports." The aim of the directive was to end the Soviet trade monopoly in Xinjiang. The Soviets withdrew their military and civilian personnel in March 1943. Despite Sheng's ultimatum, only in March–April 1943 did the Soviets notify Sheng and the Chinese government of their withdrawal.

With the Soviet gradual withdrawal, the Kuomintang representatives and personnel filled the void. In June 1943, four divisions of the NRA New 2nd Army commanded by Zhu Shaoliang were transferred to Xinjiang from Gansu. In October 1943, the Kuomintang effectively removed Soviet influence from Xinjiang. With the Soviets gone, in September Sheng ordered the arrest and execution of the CCP cadres. Among them was Mao Zemin, Mao Zedong's younger brother, who was among eighty-eight conspirators involved in the Soviet plot to overthrow Sheng.

Later tenures and retirement
As the Germans lost the Battle for Stalingrad and Battle of Kursk, Sheng tried to return to the pro-Soviet policy. He ordered the arrest of the Kuomintang personnel, telling Stalin that they were Japanese spies, and telling Chiang that they were communists. Stalin, however, refused to intervene and left Sheng at the mercy of the Chinese government, which engineered his removal from office. Zhu Shaoliang convinced him to resign and accept the post of Minister of Agriculture. Sheng officially resigned from his post and was appointed as Minister of Agriculture and Forestry on 29 August 1944. He left Xinjiang on 11 September 1944 to join the Chinese government in Chongqing. The post of Minister of Agriculture under Kuomintang was reserved for men out of power since the post was insignificant with the increasing power of the landlords. Chiang signed an order allowing Sheng to recoup the wealth beneath the governor's building. The storehouse contained fifty thousand taels of gold, chests full of valuable antelope horns, and endless blocks of opium. In total, Sheng removed 135 truckloads of wealth.

Sheng's stay in Chongqing was troublesome. In April 1945, his former Finance Minister Peng Jiyuan was beaten in Ürümqi, and sought refuge with Sheng after his recovery. Wu Zhongxin, his successor in Xinjiang, wrote that Sheng "started to lose his mind in Chongqing" and that in accordance with the tenets of Buddhism and as recompense for his past crimes, he has descended to the lowest depths of hell". At the Sixth Party Congress held in May 1945, Uyghur leader Masud Sabri called for Sheng's head, however, Chiang defended Sheng. Sheng held the ministerial post until 30 July 1945, and later worked as an adviser to Hu Zongnan in Xi'an.

In 1949, Sheng accompanied the Kuomintang in Taiwan where he lived in comfortable retirement with his wife and four children. Sheng was interviewed by Allen S. Whiting and wrote his own accounts under the title Red failure in Sinkiang in Sinkiang: pawn or pivot?, published in 1958.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sheng Shicai


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Languages/Template

Classification
A description of the genetic classification of the language.

History
Probable history of the language. What language(s) it is derived from and when it started diverging from the ancestral language(s). Dates of movement of major groups of speakers, etc. Brief descriptions of important changes in the language, such as reduction of sounds or grammatical cases.

When creating sub-articles, use the formula History of XXX where XXX is the standard English name of the language. Avoid the bulkier format History of XXX language since there is no need for disambiguation in this case.

Geographic distribution
In what countries/regions the language is spoken, and how many people speak it there.

Official status
List which countries have this language as an official language or other special status.

Dialects/Varieties
List of varieties/dialects of the language. Major dialects with lots of information should probably have their own page.

Derived languages
Creoles and other languages that are derived from this language.

Sounds/Phonology
If there is a significant amount of information here, it is probably best to have a separate article on the phonology, called XXX phonology (eg Somali phonology). See WikiProject Phonetics/Phonology template for a suggested structure.

If a separate page is not warranted, it may still be best to divide the information in this section into sub-sections following the structure on the above phonology template.

If there is a separate page, give a brief summary here, eg the number of consonant and vowel phonemes; important features such as phonemic use of tone or vowel harmony; and unusual or interesting features of the language's phonology.

Grammar
A general outline of the grammar of the language. Focus on what makes the grammar of the language unique compared to other languages, related as well as unrelated. Lists of each word class and their individual properties, as well as full-fledged inflection or conjugation tables, are probably best put in a separate article.

Morphology
General description of the morphology of the language.

Syntax
General description of the syntax of the language. What is the usual word order (SVO, SOV, VSO, etc.)? Theoretical descriptions, lists of example sentences, and explanations involving syntax trees are probably best put in a separate article.

Vocabulary/Lexis
This section should contain a discussion of any special features of the vocabulary of the language, like if it contains a large number of borrowed words or a different sets of words for different politeness levels, taboo groups, etc.

Writing system
A brief description of the writing system(s) used to write the language. Writing systems have their own page, so what's written here should just be a brief discussion of how this language makes any special use of the writing system and a link to all the writing systems used to write the language.

Examples
Some short examples of the language in the writing system(s) used to write the language. You might also include sound samples of the language being spoken. Avoid making lists of tourist phrases such as "hello", "goodbye" and "where's the lavatory?" since these do not represent the specifics of either grammar or phonetics particularly well.

Categories
If there are reliable sources about when the language was first attested, consider adding the page to the relevant Category:Languages by time subcategory. If the language is extinct and there are reliable sources about when the language went extinct, consider adding the page to the relevant Category:Extinct languages by time.


text:
User talk:Cco

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Tip: you can sign your name with ~

snoyes 16:51, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cco


text:
Ted Rogers (comedian)

Edward George Rogers (20 July 1933 – 2 May 2001) was an English comedian and light entertainment host who started his career as a Redcoat entertainer. He was best known for hosting the Yorkshire Television game show 3-2-1 from 1978 to 1988.

Early life and career
Rogers was born in Kennington, South London, the son of Edward Rodgers, a soap machine operator, and Lily May Rodgers née Cobb, an office cleaner. He went to school in Lambeth. His idol as a youngster was Danny Kaye, and Rogers won a holiday camp talent contest impersonating Kaye as a youngster, but he would later put all showbusiness offers on hold whilst he did his national service in the Royal Air Force.

In the early 1960s, Rogers appeared as a stand up comedian on the radio programme Billy Cotton Band Show, alongside singers such as Tom Jones, Cliff Richard and Alma Cogan and comedians Terry Scott and Hugh Lloyd. He went on to host Sunday Night at the London Palladium in 1974. Rogers also appeared on the comedy panel game Jokers Wild. He was asked by Perry Como to join him on his tour of Britain in 1975 as a comedian after a Royal Variety Performance. Bing Crosby later invited Rogers to join him on his concerts of 1976 and 1977, to form a double act and sing "Gone Fishin'" with Crosby as a tribute to Louis Armstrong. Whilst on tour, Rogers was asked to film a pilot for a new television game show.

3-2-1
Rogers became the presenter of ITV's variety gameshow 3-2-1 in 1978. It ran for just over ten years in a top-rating Saturday night slot. He earned £130,000 a year in the early 1980s from 3-2-1 alone and combined this with a career as a highly paid after-dinner speaker, also making regular cabaret and public appearances.

In March 1986, he was featured on This Is Your Life. Rogers was surprised by host Eamonn Andrews in Covent Garden, central London, with guests on the show including Jimmy Edwards and Sacha Distel.

3-2-1 was cancelled in December 1987, when it was still attracting audiences of 12 million and in the Top 20 ratings. Initially, the plan was for the show to carry on with Christmas and one-off specials. There was an Olympics special shown in September 1988, and a Christmas special that year, which was the final ever episode. In April 1996, Rogers told the Sunday Mirror that "The Oxbridge lot got control of TV and they didn't really want [the show]. It was too downmarket for them. We were still getting 12 million viewers when they took it off after 10 years. These days if a show gets nine million everyone does a lap of honour".

After 3-2-1
In 1989, Rogers appeared on the ITV game show You Bet! In the early 1990s, Rogers fell on hard times and was declared bankrupt in February 1992, having apparently invested his fortune in a failed business venture, Wyvern Rogers Television. His home at Little Chalfont, Buckinghamshire, was repossessed, and Rogers' production company collapsed with debts of £50,000. He moved from Buckinghamshire to a more modest home in Haslemere, Surrey.

Rogers was a guest on Celebrity Squares in January 1993, and in April 1994 he appeared on Surprise Surprise.

In 1997–98, Rogers appeared in the touring production of Danny and Me, a play about his hero, Danny Kaye, which often sold out. Towards the end of the decade, Challenge TV began repeating episodes of 3-2-1. In 2000, Rogers was seen during the sponsor credits for the ITV quiz Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? – sitting in a dressing room with 3-2-1 mascot Dusty Bin and bemoaning the new show's success.

In 1999 and 2000, Rogers made several commercials for fast food chain McDonald's. On 10 November 2000, Rogers appeared as a guest on TFI Friday. His final television appearance, which was screened at the end of January 2001, saw him playing the host of a downmarket quiz show in the Series 13 episode Let's Get Quizzical of the BBC children's sitcom ChuckleVision. Had he lived, he would have worked with his old friend Jackie Mason on a Vaudeville-type act in America which was due to start in October 2001.

Personal life and death
Rogers was married twice. He married his childhood sweetheart Marge, in 1953, with whom he had two daughters. In 1979, he married Marion, with whom he had a daughter and a son.

On 2 May 2001, Rogers died after emergency open-heart surgery to repair a heart valve at St Thomas' Hospital in London, aged 65. He is buried at St Michael and All Angels Church, Sunninghill, in Berkshire.

Singles and EPs

 * "I Can't Stop Thinking Of You" (1965), Piccadilly
 * "The Man From Cuckoo" (1966), Piccadilly
 * "L'amour" / Cool Date (1967), Pye
 * "Beware Of Mr. Shark" (1976), Sol-Doon
 * "Dusty Bin" (1982), Patch Records (Ted Rogers with the Young 'Uns)

title: Ted Rogers (comedian)


text:
San (letter)

San (Ϻ) was an archaic letter of the Greek alphabet. Its shape was similar to modern M or Mu, or to a modern Greek Sigma (Σ) turned sideways, and it was used as an alternative to Sigma to denote the sound. Unlike Sigma, whose position in the alphabet is between Rho and Tau, San appeared between Pi and Qoppa in alphabetic order. In addition to denoting this separate archaic character, the name San was also used as an alternative name to denote the standard letter Sigma.

Sigma and san
The existence of the two competing letters Sigma and San is traditionally believed to have been due to confusion during the adoption of the Greek alphabet from the Phoenician script, because Phoenician had more sibilant sounds than Greek had. According to one theory, the distribution of the sibilant letters in Greek is due to pair-wise confusion between the sounds and alphabet positions of the four Phoenician sibilant signs: Greek Sigma got its shape and alphabetic position from Phoenician Šin, but its name and sound value from Phoenician Samekh. Conversely, Greek Xi (Ξ) got its shape and position from Samekh, but its name and sound value from Šin.

According to a different theory, "San" was indeed the original name of what is now known as Sigma, and as such presents a direct representation of the corresponding name "Shin" in that position. This name was only later also associated with the alternative local letter now known as "San", whose original name remains unknown. The modern name "Sigma", in turn, was a transparent Greek innovation that simply meant "hissing", based on a nominalization of a verb σίζω (sízō, from an earlier stem *sigj-, meaning 'to hiss').

Moreover, a modern re-interpretation of the sound values of the sibilants in Proto-Semitic, and thus in Phoenician, can account for the values of the Greek sibilants with less recourse to "confusion". Most significant is the reconstruction of Šin as and thus also the source of the sound value of Sigma; in turn, Samekh is reconstructed as the affricate, which is a better match for the plosive-fricative cluster value  of Xi.

Whereas in early abecedaria, Sigma and San are typically listed as two separate letters in their separate alphabetic positions, each Greek dialect tended to use either San or Sigma exclusively in practical writing. The use of San became a characteristic of the Doric dialects of Corinth and neighboring Sikyon, as well as Crete. San became largely obsolete by the second half of the fifth century BC, when it was generally replaced by Sigma, although in Crete it continued in use for about a century longer. In Sikyon, it was retained as a symbolic mark of the city used on coin inscriptions (just as the likewise archaic Qoppa was used by Corinth, and a special local form of Beta by Byzantium).

San could be written with the outer stems either straight or slanted outwards, and either longer or of equal length with the inner strokes. It was typically distinguished from the similar-looking Mu (Μ) by the fact that San tended to be symmetrical, whereas Mu had a longer left stem in its archaic forms.

Outside Greece, San was borrowed into the Old Italic alphabets (𐌑, transcribed as Ś). It initially retained its M-shape in the archaic Etruscan alphabet, but from the 6th century BC changing its aspect to a shape similar to that of the d-rune.

The name of "San" lived on as an alternative (dialectal or archaic) name for "Sigma" even at a time when the letter itself had everywhere been replaced with standard Sigma. Thus, Herodotus in the late 5th century reports that the same letter was called "San" by the Dorians but "Sigma" by the Ionians. Athenaeus in his Deipnosophistae (c.200 AD) quotes an epigram which contained the spelled-out name of the philosopher Thrasymachus, still using "San" as the name for Sigma:

Arcadian "tsan"
A unique letter variant, shaped (similar to modern Cyrillic И, but with a slight leftward bend) has been found in a single inscription in the Arcado-Cypriot dialect of Mantineia, Arcadia, a 5th-century BC inscription dedicated to Athena Alea (Inscriptiones Graecae V.ii.262)  It is widely assumed to be a local innovation based on San, although Jeffery (1961) classes it as a variant of Sigma. It appears to have denoted a sound and has been labelled "Tsan" by some modern writers. In the local Arcadian dialect, this sound occurred in words that reflect Proto-Greek. In such words, other Greek dialects usually have, while the related Cypriot dialect has. Examples are:

 * ͷις (cf. Attic τις, 'somebody')
 * ͷινα (cf. Attic τινα, 'somebody')
 * οͷεοι (cf. Attic ὅτῳ 'to whomever')
 * ειͷε (cf. Attic εἴτε 'either')

From these correspondences, it can be concluded that the letter most likely denoted an affricate sound, possibly or, which would have been a natural intermediate step in the sound change from  to. The letter has been represented in modern scholarly transcriptions of the Mantinea inscription by ⟨ś⟩ (s with an acute accent) or by ⟨σ̱⟩ (sigma with a macron underneath).

Note, however, that the same symbol is used to denote the unrelated letter waw in Pamphylia (the "Pamphylian digamma") and  was also the form of beta  used in Melos.

Sampi
The Ionian letter, which later gave rise to the numeral symbol Sampi (ϡ = 900) may also be a continuation of San, although it did not have the same alphabetic position.

Bactrian þ
In the Greek script used for writing the Bactrian language, there existed a letter resembling a "ϸ", which apparently stood for the sound (transliterated as š) and has been named "Sho" in recent times. According to one hypothesis, this letter too may go back to San.

Modern use

In modern editions and transcriptions of ancient Greek writing, San has rarely been used as a separate letter. Since it never contrasts systematically with Sigma except in abecedaria, it is usually silently regularized to Sigma in modern editorial practice. In the electronic encoding standard Unicode, a pair of uppercase and lowercase forms of the letter was introduced in version 4.0 (2003). For this purpose, new lowercase forms for modern typography, for which no prior typographic tradition existed, had to be designed. Most fonts have adopted the convention of distinguishing uppercase San from Mu by having its central V-like section descend only halfway down above the baseline, and lowercase San by giving it a left stem descending below the baseline. (Note that in historical epigraphic practice it was the other way round, with San being symmetrical and Mu having a longer left stem.)

Character encoding
San is encoded in Unicode, while the Arcadian "Tsan" variant is unified with the identical-looking Pamphylian Digamma since version 5.1.

title: San (letter)


text:
List of paintings by Charles Marion Russell

These are paintings by the American artist Charles Marion Russell


text:
Dirichlet L-function

In mathematics, a Dirichlet L-series is a function of the form

 * $$L(s,\chi) = \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{\chi(n)}{n^s}.$$

where $$ \chi $$ is a Dirichlet character and s a complex variable with real part greater than 1. It is a special case of a Dirichlet series. By analytic continuation, it can be extended to a meromorphic function on the whole complex plane, and is then called a Dirichlet L-function and also denoted L(s, χ).

These functions are named after Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet who introduced them in to prove the theorem on primes in arithmetic progressions that also bears his name. In the course of the proof, Dirichlet shows that L(s, χ) is non-zero at s = 1. Moreover, if χ is principal, then the corresponding Dirichlet L-function has a simple pole at s = 1. Otherwise, the L-function is entire.

Euler product
Since a Dirichlet character χ is completely multiplicative, its L-function can also be written as an Euler product in the half-plane of absolute convergence:
 * $$L(s,\chi)=\prod_p\left(1-\chi(p)p^{-s}\right)^{-1}\text{ for }\text{Re}(s) > 1,$$

where the product is over all prime numbers.

Primitive characters
Results about L-functions are often stated more simply if the character is assumed to be primitive, although the results typically can be extended to imprimitive characters with minor complications. This is because of the relationship between a imprimitive character $$\chi$$ and the primitive character $$\chi^\star$$ which induces it:

\chi(n) = \begin{cases} \chi^\star(n), & \mathrm{if} \gcd(n,q) = 1 \\ 0, & \mathrm{if} \gcd(n,q) \ne 1 \end{cases} $$ (Here, q is the modulus of χ.) An application of the Euler product gives a simple relationship between the corresponding L-functions:

L(s,\chi) = L(s,\chi^\star) \prod_{p \,|\, q}\left(1 - \frac{\chi^\star(p)}{p^s} \right) $$ (This formula holds for all s, by analytic continuation, even though the Euler product is only valid when Re(s) > 1.) The formula shows that the L-function of χ is equal to the L-function of the primitive character which induces χ, multiplied by only a finite number of factors.

As a special case, the L-function of the principal character $$\chi_0$$ modulo q can be expressed in terms of the Riemann zeta function:

L(s,\chi_0) = \zeta(s) \prod_{p \,|\, q}(1 - p^{-s}) $$

Functional equation
Dirichlet L-functions satisfy a functional equation, which provides a way to analytically continue them throughout the complex plane. The functional equation relates the value of $$L(s,\chi)$$ to the value of $$L(1-s, \overline{\chi})$$. Let χ be a primitive character modulo f, where f > 1. One way to express the functional equation is:
 * $$L(s,\chi) = W(\chi) 2^s \pi^{s-1} f^{1/2-s} \sin \left( \frac{\pi}{2} (s + \delta) \right) \Gamma(1-s) L(1-s, \overline{\chi}).$$

In this equation, Γ denotes the gamma function;
 * $$\chi(-1)=(-1)^{\delta}$$ ; and
 * $$W(\chi) = \frac{\tau(\chi)}{i^{\delta} \sqrt{f}}$$

where τ ( χ) is a Gauss sum:
 * $$\tau(\chi) = \sum_{a=1}^f \chi(a)\exp(2\pi ia/f).$$

It is a property of Gauss sums that |τ ( χ) | = f1/2, so |W ( χ) | = 1.

Another way to state the functional equation is in terms of
 * $$\Lambda(s,\chi) = f ^{s/2} \pi^{-(s+\delta)/2} \operatorname{\Gamma}\left(\frac{s+\delta}{2}\right) L(s,\chi).$$

The functional equation can be expressed as:
 * $$\Lambda(s,\chi) = W(\chi) \Lambda(1-s,\overline{\chi}).$$

The functional equation implies that $$L(s,\chi)$$ (and $$\Lambda(s,\chi)$$) are entire functions of s. (Again, this assumes that χ is primitive character modulo f with f > 1. If f = 1, then $$L(s,\chi) = \zeta(s)$$ has a pole at s = 1.)

For generalizations, see: Functional equation (L-function).

Zeros

Let χ be a primitive character modulo q, with q > 1.

There are no zeros of L(s, χ) with Re(s) > 1. For Re(s) < 0, there are zeros at certain negative integers s: These are called the trivial zeros.
 * If χ(−1) = 1, the only zeros of L(s, χ) with Re(s) < 0 are simple zeros at −2, −4, −6, .... (There is also a zero at s = 0.) These correspond to the poles of $$\textstyle \Gamma(\frac{s}{2})$$.
 * If χ(−1) = −1, then the only zeros of L(s, χ) with Re(s) < 0 are simple zeros at −1, −3, −5, .... These correspond to the poles of $$\textstyle \Gamma(\frac{s+1}{2})$$.

The remaining zeros lie in the critical strip 0 ≤ Re(s) ≤ 1, and are called the non-trivial zeros. The non-trivial zeros are symmetrical about the critical line Re(s) = 1/2. That is, if $$L(\rho,\chi)=0$$ then $$L(1-\overline{\rho},\chi)=0$$ too, because of the functional equation. If χ is a real character, then the non-trivial zeros are also symmetrical about the real axis, but not if χ is a complex character. The generalized Riemann hypothesis is the conjecture that all the non-trivial zeros lie on the critical line Re(s) = 1/2.

Up to the possible existence of a Siegel zero, zero-free regions including and beyond the line Re(s) = 1 similar to that of the Riemann zeta function are known to exist for all Dirichlet L-functions: for example, for χ a non-real character of modulus q, we have

 * $$ \beta < 1 - \frac{c}{\log\!\!\; \big(q(2+|\gamma|)\big)} \ $$

for β + iγ a non-real zero.

Relation to the Hurwitz zeta function
The Dirichlet L-functions may be written as a linear combination of the Hurwitz zeta function at rational values. Fixing an integer k ≥ 1, the Dirichlet L-functions for characters modulo k are linear combinations, with constant coefficients, of the ζ(s,a) where a = r/k and r = 1, 2, ..., k. This means that the Hurwitz zeta function for rational a has analytic properties that are closely related to the Dirichlet L-functions. Specifically, let χ be a character modulo k. Then we can write its Dirichlet L-function as:

 * $$L(s,\chi) = \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{\chi(n)}{n^s}

= \frac{1}{k^s} \sum_{r=1}^k \chi(r) \operatorname{\zeta}\left(s,\frac{r}{k}\right).$$

title: Dirichlet L-function


text:
Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Languages/Template

 * Archive 1 (2003-2004)

Language Template ill-equipped for sign languages
In the info-box, the terms 'spoken in' and 'total speakers' are confusing when referring to sign languages (see Auslan for an example).

Also, the template's section on the sounds of a language could offer an alternative template for sign languages, eg Fingerspelling system, handshapes. I'm happy to help develop this. ntennis

Update: See WikiProject Language Template (sign language). ntennis 11:49, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

Common ancestral languages
Should languages like Old Norse or Vulgar Latin get templates, infobox and all, too? In the narrower definition of Old Norse as "West Scandinavian" (900-1300) it could be said to be a fairly well-defined seperate language. Any suggestions? Peter Isotalo 20:43, Apr 19, 2005 (UTC)

vowel section after consonant
Usually, in most of the literature that I read on individual languages (mostly descriptivist, often old structuralist stuff) has the the consonant section before the vowel. This is rather standard, although there are exceptions (e.g. Akamatsu's manual on Japanese phonetics). I am following this tendency. I suggest (gently) that this template follow suit. Or perhaps this is of no concern...? peace — ishwar  (S PEAK )  15:36, 2005 Apr 21 (UTC)

 * It's true that in most of what I've read, consonants precede vowels. Frankly, I don't really care either way whether consonants or vowels come first, but I suppose consonants first makes a little more sense, just because that's how most people do it. --Whimemsz 22:33, Apr 22, 2005 (UTC)

Restructuring of "Sounds"
Since this section is intended to be a phonology in itself, I removed the "Phonology" section and pasted the text under the main section header. I also added sections on phonotactics and prosody, both of these aspects of phonetics being very much forgotten in most language articles. "Historical sound changes" seem to far more convenient to mention under "History" (preferably without it's own section), so I simply removed it.

Peter Isotalo July 4, 2005 03:29 (UTC)

Ethnologue disclaimer
I've added quite explicit advice to not use Ethnologue as a source. There has been several conflicts here concering Scanian (linguistics) and Norwegian language (ongoing actually) that are almost entirely due to SIL's inability to abide by consensus among other linguists and, in the case of Scanian, the speakers themselves. Please change the wording if you feel it is too harsh, but one thing needs to be made clear; Ethnologue is not a valid source of information in of itself at the present moment. There are too many factual errors and blatant POV (or just fringe theories).

Peter Isotalo 15:52, 19 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Ethnologue is particularly bad on sign languages. I concur with the advice in this section. ntennis 00:58, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

Assimilation etc
I'm not confident enough in my level of knowledge to edit the page. Should there be a sub-section which would cover assimilation, elision, epenthesis, etc. These don't fit within any of the current categories for sounds. Is "Phonological processes" the correct description, or is there another name for this branch of phonology? Gailtb 04:58, 23 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I would call them "phonological processes". In fact, that's what I did call them at Old English phonology. --Angr/undefined 06:08, 23 October 2005 (UTC)

Ok. I got brave and did it. Also swapped the order of vowels and consonants in agreement with the discussion above. Changed the main section title to "Sound system" since that seemed to include prosody etc better than "Sounds". Not sure whether "Phonology" would be a better alternative. Hope I'm not treading on anyone's feet! Gailtb 08:40, 23 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I have always used the section title "phonology" in the articles I've made, but then I'm a phonologist and so am perhaps biased. --Angr/undefined 09:04, 23 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Did it! Gailtb 07:53, 27 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I really prefer "Sound system". Us wikilinguists might be more comfortable having the proper terms for headers, but I don't see why the use of simpler wording should be avoided. I'm cutting down on the amount of sections: "Tones" can be included in "Prosody", "Phonological processes" can be included in the main description and "Phonotactics" is very, very technical. I think it belongs in the phonology articles, not in the main articles. At least not as a separate section. It's the linguistic equivalent of filling articles on mathematics with tons of obscure equations.
 * Peter Isotalo 09:01, 16 December 2005 (UTC)
 * I don't see any reason why Wikipedia articles should be dumbed down. "Phonology" is the correct term, and anyone not knowing what it means can look it up. Tones should not be included in prosody. In tone languages, tones behave parallel to vowels and consonants, and some tone languages have stress in addition to tone. The prosody section should be for word stress, sentence stress, and intonation. More detailed phonological descriptions are best in separate articles, of course, but in some articles there's just not enough content to warrant separating the phonology section out into a separate article. --Angr (t·c) 09:15, 16 December 2005 (UTC)
 * It's just not a good idea to include words in actual section headers that require a lot of readers to look up the word. Calling it "Sound system" is not dumbing anything down, it's just giving the average reader a break. And prosody includes both stress, intonation as well as use of tones. There is no inherent problem in describing them all under the same header. Most importantly, any language article that has already started breaking it's phonology section down into sections like "Phonological processes" and "Phonotactics" is getting too technical or too large. The point is to encourage summaries that don't dominate the main article and at the same time keeping highly detailed phonology articles for those who want to know more. Just try showing some of the truly huge phonology sections to friends and acquintances who don't know much about phonetics. It's one of the most potent eye-glazers apart from math articles, even for people who are open-minded and curious.
 * Peter Isotalo 09:34, 16 December 2005 (UTC)

I've just revised it to a far briefer version, with a pointer to WikiProject Phonology Template, which I've revised at the same time. Although as an ESOL teacher the language phonologies are my main use for Wikipedia, I agree with Peter that the level of detail is likely to be a turn-off for many readers. As regards the title, I guess it's a matter of how academic or "person-in-the-street" friendly we aim to be. Would a compromise like "Phonology (sound system)" be too unwieldy? Another reader-friendly suggestion would be "Pronunciation". That's what is normally used in my line of work to cover all of the topics in Phonology. It also more clearly includes the phonetic descriptions, which to my mind are a little peripheral to Phonology proper. Gailtb 20:55, 27 January 2006 (UTC)
 * I would say we should aim to be maximally academic, provided enough links are provided that the person in the street can find out what the technical terms mean. An encyclopedia's goal should be to educate, not to spoon-feed its readers monosyllabic sound bites. --Angr 21:11, 27 January 2006 (UTC)
 * In my experience, the view of way too many academics tends to be that everyone else should be maximally academic, no matter the context. It's something I find fairly arrogant. The aim of an encyclopedia, especially a wiki, is to be as accessible as possible to the broadest possible range of readers. You seem more concerned with placating the needs of the expert minority to use their favorite inkhorn terms instead of biting the bullet and accepting perfectly useful alternatives. (The job of vocabulary enhancement is that of dictionaries.) And why on earth should wikipedias focus on helping those who already know how to get the information elsewhere? That's just adding yet another systemic bias that favors the well-educated.
 * Peter Isotalo 14:51, 14 February 2006 (UTC)
 * That's what the links are for. If the reader doesn't know what phonology is, he can click phonology and find out. And an encyclopedia that's inaccurate or misleading simply because accuracy is considered "elitist" is useless (and you used to consider yourself elitist, too). I can't understand a word of Kramers-Kronig relation, a page I recently edited myself, but I would never suggest dumbing it down to the point where I could understand it, because then it would be useless as an encyclopedia article on the Kramers-Kronig relations. Angr/ talk 15:03, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

Sign language template page; Cultural info
Hello friends :) I finally put up a sister template page for sign languages - WikiProject Language Template (sign language). It would be nice if others have a look at it and see if it fits with the project guidelines, offer feedback etc.

Also, I've been wondering why this template page doesn't include any space for cultural information about the language? For example, literature in the language, or storytelling traditions. Many languages have been suppressed by attempts by a state to impose a national language; some are not used in schools. This kind of information is actually there on many pages, but the template page is really focussed on linguistics. Any thoughts?

Thirdly, I wonder if the name "template" for this page is confusing when the word "template" has a specific meaning on wikipedia. Maybe "Standard page guidelines" or something would be better? ntennis 12:07, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

Phonology and grammar
Before, the template had separate sections for phonology, morphology, and syntax. Now Peter has grouped morphology and syntax together under "grammar". This seems wrong to me, as phonology is as much a part of grammar as morphology and syntax are. What do other people think? --Angr 12:21, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Could you please elaborate on that a bit more? I don't see the usefulness in grouping phonology under grammar. Is this a common academic standpoint?
 * Peter Isotalo 10:06, 26 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Well, the sources I looked up agree that "grammar" has a narrow meaning (morphology and (morpho)syntax) and a broad meaning (those plus phonology, semantics, and maybe pragmatics). I don't see any reason to impose the narrow definition of "grammar" on this template. --Angr 20:14, 26 January 2006 (UTC)
 * I'm quite sure that people think of grammar in the more narrow way. At the very least I doubt anyone excepts to see phonology sorted under that category. If we weren't writing for an encyclopedia, I'd agree. In this context I think it will just serve to confuse.
 * Peter Isotalo 11:08, 6 February 2006 (UTC)
 * I'm not saying we should sort phonology under the header "Grammar"; I'm saying we should have three separate headers "Phonology", "Morphology", and "Syntax", and no header "Grammar" at all. Imposing either the broad or the narrow definition of "grammar" is POV, so it's better to just avoid using it. Angr/ talk 11:48, 6 February 2006 (UTC)
 * It's so not a political/ideological issue, Angr. It's convenience and more detail for us linguistic aficionados vs reasonable expectations and summary style for the general readership. The former aren't the ones who really need these article in the first place.
 * Peter Isotalo 11:24, 14 February 2006 (UTC)
 * I don't see how it's easier for the general reader to be confronted with two headings "Phonology" and "Grammar" with "Grammar" divided into "Morphology" and "Syntax" than to be confronted with three headings "Phonology", "Morphology", and "Syntax". And I disagree with you on the last point: language aficionados are far more likely than non-aficionados to read articles about obscure languages like Nobiin or Lower Sorbian. Angr/ talk 12:06, 14 February 2006 (UTC)
 * It's more difficult because both "morphology" and "syntax" are somewhat obscure terms to most people. If you actually explained their meaning without using the terms themselves, most people would say: "Oh, you mean grammar." And, yes, more lingonerds are likely to read about smaller or lesser known languages, but even if this is true (I think the sheer numbers of non-nerds evens the stats out) they are intended for all readers, not just the nerds. You're telling we have to abide to a putative semantic POV to placate the very people who won't have a problem with a slightly simplified article structure to begin with.
 * Peter Isotalo 13:53, 14 February 2006 (UTC)
 * No, I'm saying we should avoid the semantic POV problems by avoiding the ambiguous term "grammar" (which most nonlinguists interpret as prescriptive grammar anyway) altogether. Omitting to group syntax and morphology together as "grammar" is not the same thing as denying that definition. Angr/ talk 14:09, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

One of the major drawbacks of the template is the vast disparity in the quality and quantity of he contents of language articles. On the whole, I don't like grammar as a section header as it is far too vague. However, in short and stubby article, this 'how it all works' section might be useful. There has to be some flexibility in our well desired uniformity. In some articles it makes sense to discuss the writing system alongside phonology, in others it doesn't. I do not see how morphology and syntax are that difficult, and I certainly do not want to see a dumbing down of Wikipedia. For a start, both terms should be wikilinked in the text (not the heading). In addition, when discussion language X, one could say "Morphology — The way in which words are formed in X, or the morphology of the language, is..." and "Syntax — X uses the Verb Object Subject structure to form sentences, the syntax of the language". As you can see, some early circumlocution produces a reduction of obfuscatory calamity. — Gareth Hughes 15:11, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

How about an alphabet addition as here?
click Ksenon 00:41, 6 February 2006 (UTC)

Addition of "Writing system" has been discussed on the template page. You need to go there to contribute to the discussion. "Alphabet" would be highly inappropriate - it would show a lack of topic knowledge. Gailtb 09:13, 6 February 2006 (UTC)

Note on IPA symbols
The infobox contains the following note:

 * Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. See IPA chart for English for an English-based pronunciation key.

Why give a link to the restricted subset of sounds found in English? If the treatment in International Phonetic Alphabet is considered too detailed, couldn't a summary with the main consonant & vowel tables be used? --NigelG (or Ndsg) | Talk 20:52, 16 April 2007 (UTC)

 * We are an English-language encyclopedia, no matter how international the English language might be. Even if we summarized the consonant and vowel tables, they'd still be pretty darned big. How exactly would the sounds not found in English be illustrated, for example?
 * Peter Isotalo 00:10, 22 April 2007 (UTC)

 * I have no idea. Perhaps I didn't make myself clear.  The above note about IPA appears in the infobox in Turkish language—an article you & I have both been evaluating recently.  How exactly is the reader who knows no Turkish going to work out how to pronounce [ɟy'neʃ] (güneş) or [ɯˈɫɯk] (ılık) from the "IPA chart for English"?  Phonetics is hard; but it doesn't make it any easier to refer the English-speaking reader to a table of English sounds.

 * In any case, the consonant and vowel tables aren't that big: a couple of screens at the most. --NigelG (or Ndsg) | Talk 21:44, 22 April 2007 (UTC)

Links to Rosetta project now broken
Links to the Rosetta project of the form http://www.rosettaproject.org/archive/kmq (from Kwama people) are now broken, as they've removed those language pages. The nearest thing I could find to such pages are listed on their new wiki. Would it be appropriate to replace all external links to rosettaproject.org with links to the corresponding wiki page? Paulmorriss (talk) 16:23, 27 November 2012 (UTC)


text:
Hanwa Line

The Hanwa Line (阪和線) is a commuter rail line in the Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto Metropolitan Area, owned and operated by West Japan Railway Company (JR West). The 61.3 km (38.1 mi) line runs between Osaka and Wakayama, Japan and has a 1.7 km branchline in a southern Osaka suburb. The name is taken from the second syllable of Osaka and the first syllable of Wakayama.

Services
The terminus of the line in Osaka is Tennōji Station in Tennōji-ku where most of the commuter trains on the line originate and terminate. However, many intercity limited express and rapid trains extend to the Osaka Loop Line beyond Tennōji.

The terminus in Wakayama is Wakayama Station. Some trains from Osaka terminate before Wakayama and some spur off to Kansai Airport Station on the Kansai Airport Line from Hineno Station. Tracks are connected to the Kisei Main Line and some trains continue on from there.

The Hagoromo Branch Line (羽衣支線), also called the Hagoromo Line (羽衣線) or the Higashi-Hagoromo Branch Line (東羽衣支線), between Ōtori Station and Higashi-Hagoromo Station, is officially a part of the Hanwa Line. On the 1.7 km branch, only local shuttle trains operate.

Limited express services

 * Hanwa Line segment in bold. Stations in brackets are only served by some services.

 * Haruka: Maibara/Kyoto/Shin-Osaka - Tennoji - (Izumi-Fuchu) - (Hineno) - Kansai Airport
 * Kuroshio: Kyoto/Shin-Osaka - Tennoji - (Izumi-Fuchu) - Hineno - (Izumi-Sunagawa) - Wakayama ~ Shirahama/Shingu

Commuter services

 * Local: Tennoji - Wakayama
 * Trains stop at every station on the line, and they are operated between Tennoji and Otori in the non-rush hour.

 * Kishuji Rapid Service: Osaka Loop Line/Tennoji - Wakayama
 * Trains run on the Osaka Loop Line before entering Hanwa Line at Tennoji with stopping at every station between Tennoji and Fukushima via Tsuruhashi, Kyobashi, and Osaka, then Nishikujo, Bentencho, Taisho and Shin-Imamiya stations (part of trains originate and terminate at Kyobashi). They make rapid service stops throughout the Hanwa Line and stop at every station between Hineno and Wakayama except in the morning and night.

 * Kansai Airport Rapid Service: Osaka Loop Line/Tennoji - Hineno - Kansai Airport
 * Trains usually run in tandem with Kishuji Rapid between the Osaka Loop Line and Hineno before splitting off and making every stop on the Kansai Airport Line. They go loop with stops at every station between Tennoji and Fukushima via Tsuruhashi, Kyobashi, and Osaka, then Nishikujo, Bentencho, Taisho and Shin-Imamiya (part of trains originate and terminate at Kyobashi).

 * Direct Rapid Service: Osaka Loop Line ← Tennoji ← Wakayama/Kansai Airport
 * Trains run on weekday mornings, and make rapid service stops throughout its route and every stop on the Osaka Loop Line.

 * Rapid Service: Tennoji - Wakayama
 * Trains run entirely on the Hanwa Line with extended service to the Kisei Main Line except the non-rush hour.
 * Stations on the Hanwa Line where trains stop: at Tennōji, Sakaishi, Mikunigaoka, Ōtori, Izumi-Fuchū, Higashi-Kishiwada, Kumatori, Hineno, Izumi-Sunagawa, Kii, Musota and Wakayama

 * Regional Rapid Service: Tennoji - Hineno/Wakayama

 * Trains make rapid service stops from Tennoji to Otori, then local stops to Wakayama. They mainly run between Tennoji and Hineno in the non-rush hour, and also in the morning and as the last train for Hineno.

 * B-Rapid Service (Discontinued): Tennoji - Wakayama

 * Trains ran in early mornings and between the mornings and non-rush hours, with rapid service stops from Tennoji to Kumatori, then local stops to Wakayama.
 * The first train of the service from Wakayama ran to Shin-Osaka via the Osaka Loop Line and the Umeda Freight Line.

Hanwa Line
Legend:

 * ● : All trains stop
 * ｜: All trains pass
 * ○ : Some trains stop
 * ↑ : Pass, northbound services only
 * ▲: Stop, northbound services only
 * ▼: Stop, southbound services only

Local trains stop at all stations.

For limited expresses Haruka and Kuroshio, please see their respective articles.

Rolling stock
All trains are based at Hineno and Suita Depots.

Commuter

 * 223-0/2500 series
 * 225-5000/5100 series

Limited Express

 * 271 series (Haruka service, from Spring 2020)
 * 281 series (Haruka service)
 * 283 series (Kuroshio service)
 * 287 series (Kuroshio service)
 * 289 series (Kuroshio service)

JNR, JR West

 * 51 series
 * 52 series
 * 70 series
 * 72 series
 * 103 series (until 16 March 2018)
 * 113 series (until March 2012)
 * 117 series
 * 123 series
 * 165 series
 * 205-0 series (until 16 March 2018)
 * 205-1000 series (until 16 March 2018)
 * 221 series (until March 2012)
 * 381 series (until 30 October 2015)
 * 485 series
 * KiHa 55 series
 * KiHa 58 series
 * KiHa 65
 * KiHa 81 series
 * KiHa 82 series

Hanwa Electric Railway, Nankai Railway

 * MoYo 100
 * MoTa 300
 * KuYo 500
 * KuTa 600
 * KuTe 700
 * KuTa 750
 * KuTa 3000
 * KuTa 7000

JNR

 * ED16
 * EF15

Hanwa Electric Railway, Nankai Railway

 * RoKo 1000 (now ED38)
 * RoKo 1100
 * MoKa 2000
 * ED1151 (now Nankai ED5151)

History
The line was opened as a double-track electrified line by the Hanwa Electric Railway in 1929. In 1940, the company was merged with Nankai Railway (predecessor of Nankai Electric Railway) and became the Yamanote Line of Nankai. The Yamanote Line was then nationalized in 1944 and renamed the Hanwa Line.

When Kansai International Airport opened in 1994, the Hanwa Line became one of the main railway links between the city and the airport (along with the Nankai Main Line).

Station numbering was introduced in March 2018 with the Hanwa line being assigned station numbers between JR-R20 and JR-R54.

title: Hanwa Line