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Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum

The Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum (PETM), alternatively ”Eocene thermal maximum 1 (ETM1)“ and formerly known as the "Initial Eocene" or “Late Paleocene thermal maximum", was a geologically brief time interval characterized by a 5–8 °C global average temperature rise and massive input of carbon into the ocean and atmosphere. The event began, now formally, at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs. The exact age and duration of the PETM remain uncertain,  but it occurred around 55.8 million years ago (Ma) and lasted about 200 thousand years (Ka).

The onset of the Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum has been linked to volcanism and uplift associated with the North Atlantic Igneous Province, causing extreme changes in Earth's carbon cycle and a significant temperature rise. The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe; more specifically, there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon. Paired, , and ratio of boron to calcium data suggest that $~14,900 Gt$ of carbon were released into the ocean–atmosphere system, over 6,000 years.

Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes. Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers. For example, in the marine realm, a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera, a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates, and an appearance of excursion, planktic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM. On land, modern mammal orders (including primates) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America.

Setting
The configuration of oceans and continents was somewhat different during the early Paleogene relative to the present day. The Panama Isthmus did not yet connect North America and South America, and this allowed direct low-latitude circulation between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. The Drake Passage, which now separates South America and Antarctica, was closed, and this perhaps prevented thermal isolation of Antarctica. The Arctic was also more restricted. Although various proxies for past atmospheric levels in the Eocene do not agree in absolute terms, all suggest that levels then were much higher than at present. In any case, there were no significant ice sheets during this time.

Earth surface temperatures increased by about 6 °C from the late Paleocene through the early Eocene. Superimposed on this long-term, gradual warming were at least two (and probably more) "hyperthermals". These can be defined as geologically brief (<200,000 year) events characterized by rapid global warming, major changes in the environment, and massive carbon addition. Though not the first within the Cenozoic, the PETM was the most extreme of these hyperthermals. Another hyperthermal clearly occurred at approximately 53.7 Ma, and is now called ETM-2 (also referred to as H-1, or the Elmo event). However, additional hyperthermals probably occurred at about 53.6 Ma (H-2), 53.3 (I-1), 53.2 (I-2) and 52.8 Ma (informally called K, X or ETM-3). The number, nomenclature, absolute ages, and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of considerable current research. Whether they only occurred during the long-term warming, and whether they are causally related to apparently similar events in older intervals of the geological record (e.g. the Toarcian turnover of the Jurassic) are open issues.

Global warming
A study in 2020 estimated the global mean surface temperature (GMST) with 66% confidence during the latest Paleocene (c. 57 Ma) as 22.3-28.3 C, PETM (56 Ma) as 27.2-34.5 C and Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO) (53.3 to 49.1 Ma) as 23.2-29.7 C. Estimates of the amount of average global temperature rise at the start of the PETM range from approximately 3 to 6 °C to between 5 and 8 °C. This warming was superimposed on "long-term" early Paleogene warming, and is based on several lines of evidence. There is a prominent (>1‰) negative excursion in the of foraminifera shells, both those made in surface and deep ocean water. Because there was little or no polar ice in the early Paleogene, the shift in very probably signifies a rise in ocean temperature. The temperature rise is also supported by the spread of warmth-loving taxa to higher latitudes, changes in plant leaf shape and size, the Mg/Ca ratios of foraminifera, and the ratios of certain organic compounds, such as TEXH86.

Proxy data from Esplugafereda in northeastern Spain shows a rapid +8 °C temperature rise, in accordance with existing regional records of marine and terrestrial environments. Southern California had a mean annual temperature of about 17 °C  ± 4.4 °C. In Antarctica, at least part of the year saw minimum temperatures of 15 °C.

TEXH86 values indicate that the average sea surface temperature (SST) reached over 36 C in the tropics during the PETM, enough to cause heat stress even in organisms resistant to extreme thermal stress, such as dinoflagellates, of which a significant number of species went extinct. Oxygen isotope ratios from Tanzania suggest that tropical SSTs may have been even higher, exceeding 40 °C. Ocean Drilling Program Site 1209 from the tropical western Pacific shows an increase in SST from 34 °C before the PETM to ~40 °C. Low latitude Indian Ocean Mg/Ca records show seawater at all depths warmed by ~4-5 °C. In the Pacific Ocean, tropical SSTs increased by about 4-5 °C. TEXL86 values from deposits in New Zealand, then located between 50°S and 60°S in the southwestern Pacific, indicate SSTs of 26 C to 28 C, an increase of over 10 C-change from an average of 13 C to 16 C at the boundary between the Selandian and Thanetian. The extreme warmth of the southwestern Pacific extended into the Australo-Antarctic Gulf. Sediment core samples from the East Tasman Plateau, then located at a palaeolatitude of ~65 °S, show an increase in SSTs from ~26 °C to ~33 °C during the PETM. In the North Sea, SSTs jumped by 10 °C, reaching highs of ~33 °C.

Certainly, the central Arctic Ocean was ice-free before, during, and after the PETM. This can be ascertained from the composition of sediment cores recovered during the Arctic Coring Expedition (ACEX) at 87°N on Lomonosov Ridge. Moreover, temperatures increased during the PETM, as indicated by the brief presence of subtropical dinoflagellates, and a marked increase in TEX86. The latter record is intriguing, though, because it suggests a 6 °C (11 °F) rise from ~17 C before the PETM to ~23 C during the PETM. Assuming the TEX86 record reflects summer temperatures, it still implies much warmer temperatures on the North Pole compared to the present day, but no significant latitudinal amplification relative to surrounding time.

The above considerations are important because, in many global warming simulations, high latitude temperatures increase much more at the poles through an ice–albedo feedback. It may be the case, however, that during the PETM, this feedback was largely absent because of limited polar ice, so temperatures on the Equator and at the poles increased similarly. Notable is the absence of documented greater warming in polar regions compared to other regions. This implies a non-existing ice-albedo feedback, suggesting no sea or land ice was present in the late Paleocene.

Precise limits on the global temperature rise during the PETM and whether this varied significantly with latitude remain open issues. Oxygen isotope and Mg/Ca of carbonate shells precipitated in surface waters of the ocean are commonly used measurements for reconstructing past temperature; however, both paleotemperature proxies can be compromised at low latitude locations, because re-crystallization of carbonate on the seafloor renders lower values than when formed. On the other hand, these and other temperature proxies (e.g., TEX86) are impacted at high latitudes because of seasonality; that is, the "temperature recorder" is biased toward summer, and therefore higher values, when the production of carbonate and organic carbon occurred.

Carbon cycle disturbance
Clear evidence for massive addition of 13C-depleted carbon at the onset of the PETM comes from two observations. First, a prominent negative excursion in the carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing phases characterizes the PETM in numerous (>130) widespread locations from a range of environments. Second, carbonate dissolution marks the PETM in sections from the deep sea.

The total mass of carbon injected to the ocean and atmosphere during the PETM remains the source of debate. In theory, it can be estimated from the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion (CIE), the amount of carbonate dissolution on the seafloor, or ideally both. However, the shift in the across the PETM depends on the location and the carbon-bearing phase analyzed. In some records of bulk carbonate, it is about 2‰ (per mil); in some records of terrestrial carbonate or organic matter it exceeds 6‰. Carbonate dissolution also varies throughout different ocean basins. It was extreme in parts of the north and central Atlantic Ocean, but far less pronounced in the Pacific Ocean. With available information, estimates of the carbon addition range from about 2,000 to 7,000 gigatons.

Timing of carbon addition and warming
The timing of the PETM excursion is of considerable interest. This is because the total duration of the CIE, from the rapid drop in through the near recovery to initial conditions, relates to key parameters of our global carbon cycle, and because the onset provides insight to the source of 13C-depleted.

The total duration of the CIE can be estimated in several ways. The iconic sediment interval for examining and dating the PETM is a core recovered in 1987 by the Ocean Drilling Program at Hole 690B at Maud Rise in the South Atlantic Ocean. At this location, the PETM CIE, from start to end, spans about 2 m. Long-term age constraints, through biostratigraphy and magnetostratigraphy, suggest an average Paleogene sedimentation rate of about 1.23 cm/1,000yrs. Assuming a constant sedimentation rate, the entire event, from onset though termination, was therefore estimated at 200,000 years. Subsequently, it was noted that the CIE spanned 10 or 11 subtle cycles in various sediment properties, such as Fe content. Assuming these cycles represent precession, a similar but slightly longer age was calculated by Rohl et al. 2000. If a massive amount of 13C-depleted is rapidly injected into the modern ocean or atmosphere and projected into the future, a ~200,000 year CIE results because of slow flushing through quasi steady-state inputs (weathering and volcanism) and outputs (carbonate and organic) of carbon. A different study, based on a revised orbital chronology and data from sediment cores in the South Atlantic and the Southern Ocean, calculated a slightly shorter duration of about 170,000 years.

A ~200,000 year duration for the CIE is estimated from models of global carbon cycling.

Age constraints at several deep-sea sites have been independently examined using 3He contents, assuming the flux of this cosmogenic nuclide is roughly constant over short time periods. This approach also suggests a rapid onset for the PETM CIE (<20,000 years). However, the 3He records support a faster recovery to near initial conditions (<100,000 years) than predicted by flushing via weathering inputs and carbonate and organic outputs.

There is other evidence to suggest that warming predated the excursion by some 3,000 years.

Some authors have suggested that the magnitude of the CIE may be underestimated due to local processes in many sites causing a large proportion of allochthonous sediments to accumulate in their sedimentary rocks, contaminating and offsetting isotopic values derived from them. Organic matter degradation by microbes has also been implicated as a source of skewing of carbon isotopic ratios in bulk organic matter.

Precipitation
The climate would also have become much wetter, with the increase in evaporation rates peaking in the tropics. Deuterium isotopes reveal that much more of this moisture was transported polewards than normal. Warm weather would have predominated as far north as the Polar basin. Finds of fossils of Azolla floating ferns in polar regions indicate subtropic temperatures at the poles. Central China during the PETM hosted dense subtropical forests as a result of the significant increase in rates of precipitation in the region, with average temperatures between 21 °C and 24 °C and mean annual precipitation ranging from 1,396 to 1,997 mm. Very high precipitation is also evidenced in the Cambay Shale Formation of India by the deposition of thick lignitic seams as a consequence of increased soil erosion and organic matter burial. Precipitation rates in the North Sea likewise soared during the PETM. In Cap d'Ailly, in present-day Normandy, a transient dry spell occurred just before the negative CIE, after which much moister conditions predominated, with the local environment transitioning from a closed marsh to an open, eutrophic swamp with frequent algal blooms. Precipitation patterns became highly unstable along the New Jersey Shelf. In the Rocky Mountain Interior, precipitation locally declined, however, as the interior of North America became more seasonally arid. The drying of western North America is explained by the northward shift of low-level jets and atmospheric rivers. East African sites display evidence of aridity punctuated by seasonal episodes of potent precipitation, revealing the global climate during the PETM not to be universally humid. Evidence from Forada in northeastern Italy suggests that arid and humid climatic intervals alternated over the course of the PETM concomitantly with precessional cycles in mid-latitudes, and that overall, net precipitation over the central-western Tethys Ocean decreased.

Ocean
The amount of freshwater in the Arctic Ocean increased, in part due to Northern Hemisphere rainfall patterns, fueled by poleward storm track migrations under global warming conditions. The flux of freshwater entering the oceans increased drastically during the PETM, and continued for a time after the PETM's termination.

Anoxia
The PETM generated the only oceanic anoxic event (OAE) of the Cenozoic. Oxygen depletion was achieved through a combination of elevated seawater temperatures, water column stratification, and oxidation of methane released from undersea clathrates. In parts of the oceans, especially the North Atlantic Ocean, bioturbation was absent. This may be due to bottom-water anoxia or due to changing ocean circulation patterns changing the temperatures of the bottom water. However, many ocean basins remained bioturbated through the PETM. Iodine to calcium ratios suggest oxygen minimum zones in the oceans expanded vertically and possibly also laterally. Water column anoxia and euxinia was most prevalent in restricted oceanic basins, such as the Arctic and Tethys Oceans. Euxinia struck the epicontinental North Sea Basin as well, as shown by increases in sedimentary uranium, molybdenum, sulphur, and pyrite concentrations, along with the presence of sulphur-bound isorenieratane. The Gulf Coastal Plain was also affected by euxinia.

It is possible that during the PETM's early stages, anoxia helped to slow down warming through carbon drawdown via organic matter burial. A pronounced negative lithium isotope excursion in both marine carbonates and local weathering inputs suggests that weathering and erosion rates increased during the PETM, generating an increase in organic carbon burial, which acted as a negative feedback on the PETM's severe global warming.

Sea level
Along with the global lack of ice, the sea level would have risen due to thermal expansion. Evidence for this can be found in the shifting palynomorph assemblages of the Arctic Ocean, which reflect a relative decrease in terrestrial organic material compared to marine organic matter. A significant marine transgression took place in the Indian Subcontinent. In the Tarim Sea, sea levels rose by 20-50 metres.

Currents
At the start of the PETM, the ocean circulation patterns changed radically in the course of under 5,000 years. Global-scale current directions reversed due to a shift in overturning from the Southern Hemisphere to Northern Hemisphere. This "backwards" flow persisted for 40,000 years. Such a change would transport warm water to the deep oceans, enhancing further warming. The major biotic turnover among benthic foraminifera has been cited as evidence of a significant change in deep water circulation.

Acidification
Ocean acidification occurred during the PETM, causing the calcite compensation depth to shoal. The lysocline marks the depth at which carbonate starts to dissolve (above the lysocline, carbonate is oversaturated): today, this is at about 4 km, comparable to the median depth of the oceans. This depth depends on (among other things) temperature and the amount of dissolved in the ocean. Adding initially raises the lysocline, resulting in the dissolution of deep water carbonates. This deep-water acidification can be observed in ocean cores, which show (where bioturbation has not destroyed the signal) an abrupt change from grey carbonate ooze to red clays (followed by a gradual grading back to grey). It is far more pronounced in North Atlantic cores than elsewhere, suggesting that acidification was more concentrated here, related to a greater rise in the level of the lysocline. Corrosive waters may have then spilled over into other regions of the world ocean from the North Atlantic. Model simulations show acidic water accumulation in the deep North Atlantic at the onset of the event. Acidification of deep waters, and the later spreading from the North Atlantic can explain spatial variations in carbonate dissolution. In parts of the southeast Atlantic, the lysocline rose by 2 km in just a few thousand years. Evidence from the tropical Pacific Ocean suggests a minimum lysocline shoaling of around 500 m at the time of this hyperthermal. Acidification may have increased the efficiency of transport of photic zone water into the ocean depths, thus partially acting as a negative feedback that retarded the rate of atmospheric carbon dioxide buildup. Also, diminished biocalcification inhibited the removal of alkalinity from the deep ocean, causing an overshoot of calcium carbonate deposition once net calcium carbonate production resumed, helping restore the ocean to its state before the PETM. As a consequence of coccolithophorid blooms enabled by enhanced runoff, carbonate was removed from seawater as the Earth recovered from the negative carbon isotope excursion, thus acting to ameliorate ocean acidification.

Life
Stoichiometric magnetite particles were obtained from PETM-age marine sediments. The study from 2008 found elongate prism and spearhead crystal morphologies, considered unlike any magnetite crystals previously reported, and are potentially of biogenic origin. These biogenic magnetite crystals show unique gigantism, and probably are of aquatic origin. The study suggests that development of thick suboxic zones with high iron bioavailability, the result of dramatic changes in weathering and sedimentation rates, drove diversification of magnetite-forming organisms, likely including eukaryotes. Biogenic magnetites in animals have a crucial role in geomagnetic field navigation.

Ocean
The PETM is accompanied by significant changes in the diversity of calcareous nannofossils and benthic and planktonic foraminifera. A mass extinction of 35–50% of benthic foraminifera (especially in deeper waters) occurred over the course of ~1,000 years, with the group suffering more during the PETM than during the dinosaur-slaying K-T extinction. At the onset of the PETM, benthic foraminiferal diversity dropped by 30% in the Pacific Ocean, while at Zumaia in what is now Spain, 55% of benthic foraminifera went extinct over the course of the PETM, though this decline was not ubiquitous to all sites; Himalayan platform carbonates show no major change in assemblages of large benthic foraminifera at the onset of the PETM; their decline came about towards the end of the event. A decrease in diversity and migration away from the oppressively hot tropics indicates planktonic foraminifera were adversely affected as well. The Lilliput effect is observed in shallow water foraminifera, possibly as a response to decreased surficial water density or diminished nutrient availability. The nannoplankton genus Fasciculithus went extinct, most likely as a result of increased surface water oligotrophy; the genera Sphenolithus, Zygrhablithus, Octolithus suffered badly too.

Samples from the tropical Atlantic show that overall, dinocyst abundance diminished sharply. Contrarily, thermophilic dinoflagellates bloomed, particularly Apectodinium. This acme in Apectodinium abundance is used as a biostratigraphic marker defining the PETM. The fitness of Apectodinium homomorphum stayed constant over the PETM while that of others declined.

Colonial corals, sensitive to rising temperatures, declined during the PETM, being replaced by larger benthic foraminifera. Aragonitic corals were greatly hampered in their ability to grow by the acidification of the ocean and eutrophication in surficial waters. Overall, coral framework-building capacity was greatly diminished.

The deep-sea extinctions are difficult to explain, because many species of benthic foraminifera in the deep-sea are cosmopolitan, and can find refugia against local extinction. General hypotheses such as a temperature-related reduction in oxygen availability, or increased corrosion due to carbonate undersaturated deep waters, are insufficient as explanations. Acidification may also have played a role in the extinction of the calcifying foraminifera, and the higher temperatures would have increased metabolic rates, thus demanding a higher food supply. Such a higher food supply might not have materialized because warming and increased ocean stratification might have led to declining productivity, along with increased remineralization of organic matter in the water column before it reached the benthic foraminifera on the sea floor. The only factor global in extent was an increase in temperature. Regional extinctions in the North Atlantic can be attributed to increased deep-sea anoxia, which could be due to the slowdown of overturning ocean currents, or the release and rapid oxidation of large amounts of methane.

In shallower waters, it's undeniable that increased levels result in a decreased oceanic pH, which has a profound negative effect on corals. Experiments suggest it is also very harmful to calcifying plankton. However, the strong acids used to simulate the natural increase in acidity which would result from elevated concentrations may have given misleading results, and the most recent evidence is that coccolithophores (E. huxleyi at least) become more, not less, calcified and abundant in acidic waters. No change in the distribution of calcareous nannoplankton such as the coccolithophores can be attributed to acidification during the PETM. Nor was the abundance of calcareous nannoplankton controlled by changes in acidity, with local variations in nutrient availability and temperature playing much greater roles according to one study. Extinction rates among calcareous nannoplankton increased, but so did origination rates. Acidification did lead to an abundance of heavily calcified algae and weakly calcified forams. The calcareous nannofossil species Neochiastozygus junctus thrived; its success is attributable to enhanced surficial productivity caused by enhanced nutrient runoff. Eutrophication at the onset of the PETM precipitated a decline among K-strategist large foraminifera, though they rebounded during the post-PETM oligotrophy coevally with the demise of low-latitude corals.

A study published in May 2021 concluded that fish thrived in at least some tropical areas during the PETM, based on discovered fish fossils including Mene maculata at Ras Gharib, Egypt.

Land
Humid conditions caused migration of modern Asian mammals northward, dependent on the climatic belts. Uncertainty remains for the timing and tempo of migration. Terrestrial animals suffered mass mortality due to toxigenic cyanobacterial blooms enkindled by the extreme heat.

The increase in mammalian abundance is intriguing. Increased global temperatures may have promoted dwarfing – which may have encouraged speciation. Major dwarfing occurred early in the PETM, with further dwarfing taking place during the middle of the hyperthermal. The dwarfing of various mammal lineages led to further dwarfing in other mammals whose reduction in body size was not directly induced by the PETM. Many major mammalian clades – including hyaenodontids, artiodactyls, perissodactyls, and primates – appeared and spread around the globe 13,000 to 22,000 years after the initiation of the PETM.

The diversity of insect herbivory, as measured by the amount and diversity of damage to plants caused by insects, increased during the PETM in correlation with global warming. The ant genus Gesomyrmex radiated across Eurasia during the PETM. As with mammals, soil-dwelling invertebrates are observed to have dwarfed during the PETM.

A profound change in terrestrial vegetation across the globe is associated with the PETM. Across all regions, floras from the latest Palaeocene are highly distinct from those of the PETM and the Early Eocene. The Arctic became dominated by palms and broadleaf forests.

Geologic effects
Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval. During the PETM, sediments are enriched with kaolinite from a detrital source due to denudation (initial processes such as volcanoes, earthquakes, and plate tectonics). Increased precipitation and enhanced erosion of older kaolinite-rich soils and sediments may have been responsible for this. Increased weathering from the enhanced runoff formed thick paleosoil enriched with carbonate nodules (Microcodium like), and this suggests a semi-arid climate. Unlike during lesser, more gradual hyperthermals, glauconite authigenesis was inhibited.

The sedimentological effects of the PETM lagged behind the carbon isotope shifts. In the Tremp-Graus Basin of northern Spain, fluvial systems grew and rates of deposition of alluvial sediments increased with a lag time of around 3,800 years after the PETM.

At some marine locations (mostly deep-marine), sedimentation rates must have decreased across the PETM, presumably because of carbonate dissolution on the seafloor; at other locations (mostly shallow-marine), sedimentation rates must have increased across the PETM, presumably because of enhanced delivery of riverine material during the event.

Possible causes
Discriminating between different possible causes of the PETM is difficult. Temperatures were rising globally at a steady pace, and a mechanism must be invoked to produce an instantaneous spike which may have been accentuated or catalyzed by positive feedback (or activation of "tipping or points" ). The biggest aid in disentangling these factors comes from a consideration of the carbon isotope mass balance. We know the entire exogenic carbon cycle (i.e. the carbon contained within the oceans and atmosphere, which can change on short timescales) underwent a −0.2 % to −0.3 % perturbation in, and by considering the isotopic signatures of other carbon reserves, can consider what mass of the reserve would be necessary to produce this effect. The assumption underpinning this approach is that the mass of exogenic carbon was the same in the Paleogene as it is today – something which is very difficult to confirm.

Eruption of large kimberlite field
Although the cause of the initial warming has been attributed to a massive injection of carbon ( and/or CH4) into the atmosphere, the source of the carbon has yet to be found. The emplacement of a large cluster of kimberlite pipes at ~56 Ma in the Lac de Gras region of northern Canada may have provided the carbon that triggered early warming in the form of exsolved magmatic. Calculations indicate that the estimated 900–1,100 Pg of carbon required for the initial approximately 3 °C of ocean water warming associated with the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum could have been released during the emplacement of a large kimberlite cluster. The transfer of warm surface ocean water to intermediate depths led to thermal dissociation of seafloor methane hydrates, providing the isotopically depleted carbon that produced the carbon isotopic excursion. The coeval ages of two other kimberlite clusters in the Lac de Gras field and two other early Cenozoic hyperthermals indicate that degassing during kimberlite emplacement is a plausible source of the  responsible for these sudden global warming events.

North Atlantic Igneous Province
One of the leading candidates for the cause of the observed carbon cycle disturbances and global warming is volcanic activity associated with the North Atlantic Igneous Province (NAIP), which is believed to have released more than 10,000 gigatons of carbon during the PETM based on the relatively isotopically heavy values of the initial carbon addition. Mercury anomalies during the PETM point to massive volcanism during the event. On top of that, increases in ∆199Hg show intense volcanism was concurrent with the beginning of the PETM. Osmium isotopic anomalies in Arctic Ocean sediments dating to the PETM have been interpreted as evidence of a volcanic cause of this hyperthermal.

Intrusions of hot magma into carbon-rich sediments may have triggered the degassing of isotopically light methane in sufficient volumes to cause global warming and the observed isotope anomaly. This hypothesis is documented by the presence of extensive intrusive sill complexes and thousands of kilometer-sized hydrothermal vent complexes in sedimentary basins on the mid-Norwegian margin and west of Shetland. This hydrothermal venting occurred at shallow depths, enhancing its ability to vent gases into the atmosphere and influence the global climate. Volcanic eruptions of a large magnitude can impact global climate, reducing the amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface, lowering temperatures in the troposphere, and changing atmospheric circulation patterns. Large-scale volcanic activity may last only a few days, but the massive outpouring of gases and ash can influence climate patterns for years. Sulfuric gases convert to sulfate aerosols, sub-micron droplets containing about 75 percent sulfuric acid. Following eruptions, these aerosol particles can linger as long as three to four years in the stratosphere. Furthermore, phases of volcanic activity could have triggered the release of methane clathrates and other potential feedback loops. NAIP volcanism influenced the climatic changes of the time not only through the addition of greenhouse gases but also by changing the bathymetry of the North Atlantic. The connection between the North Sea and the North Atlantic through the Faroe-Shetland Basin was severely restricted,  as was its connection to it by way of the English Channel.

Later phases of NAIP volcanic activity may have caused the other hyperthermal events of the Early Eocene as well, such as ETM2.

Other volcanic activity
It has also been suggested that volcanic activity around the Caribbean may have disrupted the circulation of oceanic currents, amplifying the magnitude of climate change.

Orbital forcing
The presence of later (smaller) warming events of a global scale, such as the Elmo horizon (aka ETM2), has led to the hypothesis that the events repeat on a regular basis, driven by maxima in the 400,000 and 100,000 year eccentricity cycles in the Earth's orbit. Cores from Howard's Tract, Maryland indicate the PETM occurred as a result of an extreme in axial precession during an orbital eccentricity maximum. The current warming period is expected to last another 50,000 years due to a minimum in the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit. Orbital increase in insolation (and thus temperature) would force the system over a threshold and unleash positive feedbacks. The orbital forcing hypothesis has been challenged by a study finding the PETM to have coincided with a minimum in the ~400 kyr eccentricity cycle, inconsistent with a proposed orbital trigger for the hyperthermal.

Comet impact
One theory holds that a 12C-rich comet struck the earth and initiated the warming event. A cometary impact coincident with the P/E boundary can also help explain some enigmatic features associated with this event, such as the iridium anomaly at Zumaia, the abrupt appearance of a localized kaolinitic clay layer with abundant magnetic nanoparticles, and especially the nearly simultaneous onset of the carbon isotope excursion and the thermal maximum.

A key feature and testable prediction of a comet impact is that it should produce virtually instantaneous environmental effects in the atmosphere and surface ocean with later repercussions in the deeper ocean. Even allowing for feedback processes, this would require at least 100 gigatons of extraterrestrial carbon. Such a catastrophic impact should have left its mark on the globe. A clay layer of 5-20m thickness on the coastal shelf of New Jersey contained unusual amounts of magnetite, but it was found to have formed 9-18 kyr too late for these magnetic particles to have been a result of a comet's impact, and the particles had a crystal structure which was a signature of magnetotactic bacteria rather than an extraterrestrial origin. However, recent analyses have shown that isolated particles of non-biogenic origin make up the majority of the magnetic particles in the clay sample.

A 2016 report in Science describes the discovery of impact ejecta from three marine P-E boundary sections from the Atlantic margin of the eastern U.S., indicating that an extraterrestrial impact occurred during the carbon isotope excursion at the P-E boundary. The silicate glass spherules found were identified as microtektites and microkrystites.

Burning of peat
The combustion of prodigious quantities of peat was once postulated, because there was probably a greater mass of carbon stored as living terrestrial biomass during the Paleocene than there is today since plants in fact grew more vigorously during the period of the PETM. This theory was refuted, because in order to produce the excursion observed, over 90 percent of the Earth's biomass would have to have been combusted. However, the Paleocene is also recognized as a time of significant peat accumulation worldwide. A comprehensive search failed to find evidence for the combustion of fossil organic matter, in the form of soot or similar particulate carbon.

Enhanced respiration
Respiration rates of organic matter increase when temperatures rise. One feedback mechanism proposed to explain the rapid rise in carbon dioxide levels is a sudden, speedy rise in terrestrial respiration rates concordant with global temperature rise initiated by any of the other causes of warming. Mathematical modelling supports increased organic matter oxidation as a viable explanation for observed isotopic excursions in carbon during the PETM's onset.

Terrestrial methane release
Release of methane from wetlands was a contributor to the PETM warming. Evidence for this comes from a decrease in hopanoids from mire sediments, likely reflecting increased wetland methanogenesis deeper within the mires.

Methane clathrate release
Methane hydrate dissolution has been invoked as a highly plausible causal mechanism for the carbon isotope excursion and warming observed at the PETM. The most obvious feedback mechanism that could amplify the initial perturbation is that of methane clathrates. Under certain temperature and pressure conditions, methane – which is being produced continually by decomposing microbes in sea bottom sediments – is stable in a complex with water, which forms ice-like cages trapping the methane in solid form. As temperature rises, the pressure required to keep this clathrate configuration stable increases, so shallow clathrates dissociate, releasing methane gas to make its way into the atmosphere. Since biogenic clathrates have a signature of −60 ‰ (inorganic clathrates are the still rather large −40 ‰), relatively small masses can produce large  excursions. Further, methane is a potent greenhouse gas as it is released into the atmosphere, so it causes warming, and as the ocean transports this warmth to the bottom sediments, it destabilizes more clathrates.

In order for the clathrate hypothesis to be applicable to PETM, the oceans must show signs of having been warmer slightly before the carbon isotope excursion, because it would take some time for the methane to become mixed into the system and -reduced carbon to be returned to the deep ocean sedimentary record. Up until the 2000s, the evidence suggested that the two peaks were in fact simultaneous, weakening the support for the methane theory. In 2002, a short gap between the initial warming and the excursion was detected. In 2007, chemical markers of surface temperature (TEX86) had also indicated that warming occurred around 3,000 years before the carbon isotope excursion, although this did not seem to hold true for all cores. However, research in 2005 found no evidence of this time gap in the deeper (non-surface) waters. Moreover, the small apparent change in TEX86 that precede the anomaly can easily (and more plausibly) be ascribed to local variability (especially on the Atlantic coastal plain, e.g. Sluijs, et al., 2007) as the TEX86 paleo-thermometer is prone to significant biological effects. The of benthic or planktonic forams does not show any pre-warming in any of these localities, and in an ice-free world, it is generally a much more reliable indicator of past ocean temperatures. Analysis of these records reveals another interesting fact: planktonic (floating) forams record the shift to lighter isotope values earlier than benthic (bottom dwelling) forams. The lighter (lower ) methanogenic carbon can only be incorporated into foraminifer shells after it has been oxidised. A gradual release of the gas would allow it to be oxidised in the deep ocean, which would make benthic foraminifera show lighter values earlier. The fact that the planktonic foraminifera are the first to show the signal suggests that the methane was released so rapidly that its oxidation used up all the oxygen at depth in the water column, allowing some methane to reach the atmosphere unoxidised, where atmospheric oxygen would react with it. This observation also allows us to constrain the duration of methane release to under around 10,000 years.

However, there are several major problems with the methane hydrate dissociation hypothesis. The most parsimonious interpretation for surface-water foraminifera to show the excursion before their benthic counterparts (as in the Thomas et al. paper) is that the perturbation occurred from the top down, and not the bottom up. If the anomalous (in whatever form: CH4 or ) entered the atmospheric carbon reservoir first, and then diffused into the surface ocean waters, which mix with the deeper ocean waters over much longer time-scales, we would expect to observe the planktonics shifting toward lighter values before the benthics.

An additional critique of the methane clathrate release hypothesis is that the warming effects of large-scale methane release would not be sustainable for more than a millennium. Thus, exponents of this line of criticism suggest that methane clathrate release could not have been the main driver of the PETM, which lasted for 50,000 to 200,000 years.

There has been some debate about whether there was a large enough amount of methane hydrate to be a major carbon source; a 2011 paper proposed that was the case. The present-day global methane hydrate reserve was once considered to be between 2,000 and 10,000 Gt C (billions of tons of carbon), but is now estimated between 1500 and 2000 Gt C. However, because the global ocean bottom temperatures were ~6 °C higher than today, which implies a much smaller volume of sediment hosting gas hydrate than today, the global amount of hydrate before the PETM has been thought to be much less than present-day estimates. One study, however, suggests that because seawater oxygen content was lower, sufficient methane clathrate deposits could have been present to make them a viable mechanism for explaining the isotopic changes. In a 2006 study, scientists regarded the source of carbon for the PETM to be a mystery. A 2011 study, using numerical simulations suggests that enhanced organic carbon sedimentation and methanogenesis could have compensated for the smaller volume of hydrate stability. A 2016 study based on reconstructions of atmospheric content during the PETM's carbon isotope excursions (CIE), using triple oxygen isotope analysis, suggests a massive release of seabed methane into the atmosphere as the driver of climatic changes. The authors also state that a massive release of methane hydrates through thermal dissociation of methane hydrate deposits has been the most convincing hypothesis for explaining the CIE ever since it was first identified, according to them. In 2019, a study suggested that there was a global warming of around 2 degrees several millennia before PETM, and that this warming had eventually destabilized methane hydrates and caused the increased carbon emission during PETM, as evidenced by the large increase in barium ocean concentrations (since PETM-era hydrate deposits would have been also been rich in barium, and would have released it upon their meltdown). In 2022, a foraminiferal records study had reinforced this conclusion, suggesting that the release of CO2 before PETM was comparable to the current anthropogenic emissions in its rate and scope, to the point that that there was enough time for a recovery to background levels of warming and ocean acidification in the centuries to millennia between the so-called pre-onset excursion (POE) and the main event (carbon isotope excursion, or CIE). A 2021 paper had further indicated that while PETM began with a significant intensification of volcanic activity and that lower-intensity volcanic activity sustained elevated carbon dioxide levels, "at least one other carbon reservoir released significant greenhouse gases in response to initial warming".

It was estimated in 2001 that it would take around 2,300 years for an increased temperature to diffuse warmth into the sea bed to a depth sufficient to cause a release of clathrates, although the exact time-frame is highly dependent on a number of poorly constrained assumptions. Ocean warming due to flooding and pressure changes due to a sea-level drop may have caused clathrates to become unstable and release methane. This can take place over as short of a period as a few thousand years. The reverse process, that of fixing methane in clathrates, occurs over a larger scale of tens of thousands of years.

Ocean circulation
The large scale patterns of ocean circulation are important when considering how heat was transported through the oceans. Our understanding of these patterns is still in a preliminary stage. Models show that there are possible mechanisms to quickly transport heat to the shallow, clathrate-containing ocean shelves, given the right bathymetric profile, but the models cannot yet match the distribution of data we observe. "Warming accompanying a south-to-north switch in deepwater formation would produce sufficient warming to destabilize seafloor gas hydrates over most of the world ocean to a water depth of at least 1900 m." This destabilization could have resulted in the release of more than 2000 gigatons of methane gas from the clathrate zone of the ocean floor. The timing of changes in ocean circulation with respect to the shift in carbon isotope ratios has been argued to support the proposition that warmer deep water caused methane hydrate release. However, a different study found no evidence of a change in deep water formation, instead suggesting that deepened subtropical subduction rather than subtropical deep water formation occurred during the PETM.

Arctic freshwater input into the North Pacific could serve as a catalyst for methane hydrate destabilization, an event suggested as a precursor to the onset of the PETM.

Recovery
Climate proxies, such as ocean sediments (depositional rates) indicate a duration of ~83 ka, with ~33 ka in the early rapid phase and ~50 ka in a subsequent gradual phase.

The most likely method of recovery involves an increase in biological productivity, transporting carbon to the deep ocean. This would be assisted by higher global temperatures and levels, as well as an increased nutrient supply (which would result from higher continental weathering due to higher temperatures and rainfall; volcanoes may have provided further nutrients). Evidence for higher biological productivity comes in the form of bio-concentrated barium. However, this proxy may instead reflect the addition of barium dissolved in methane. Diversifications suggest that productivity increased in near-shore environments, which would have been warm and fertilized by run-off, outweighing the reduction in productivity in the deep oceans. Another pulse of NAIP volcanic activity may have also played a role in terminating the hyperthermal via a volcanic winter.

Comparison with today's climate change
Since at least 1997, the PETM has been investigated in geoscience as an analogue to understand the effects of global warming and of massive carbon inputs to the ocean and atmosphere, including ocean acidification. A main difference is that during the PETM, the planet was ice-free, as the Drake Passage had not yet opened and the Central American Seaway had not yet closed. Although the PETM is now commonly held to be a "case study" for global warming and massive carbon emission, the cause, details, and overall significance of the event remain uncertain.

Rate of carbon addition
Model simulations of peak carbon addition to the ocean–atmosphere system during the PETM give a probable range of 0.3–1.7 petagrams of carbon per year (Pg C/yr), which is much slower than the currently observed rate of carbon emissions. One petagram of carbon is equivalent to a gigaton of carbon (GtC); the current rate of carbon injection into the atmosphere is over 10 GtC/yr, a rate much greater than the carbon injection rate that occurred during the PETM. It has been suggested that today's methane emission regime from the ocean floor is potentially similar to that during the PETM. Because the modern rate of carbon release exceeds the PETM's, it is speculated the a PETM-like scenario is the best-case consequence of anthropogenic global warming, with a mass extinction of a magnitude similar to the Cretaceous-Palaeogene extinction event being a worst-case scenario.

Similarity of temperatures
Professor of Earth and planetary sciences James Zachos notes that IPCC projections for 2300 in the 'business-as-usual' scenario could "potentially bring global temperature to a level the planet has not seen in 50 million years" – during the early Eocene. Some have described the PETM as arguably the best ancient analog of modern climate change. Scientists have investigated effects of climate change on chemistry of the oceans by exploring oceanic changes during the PETM.

Tipping points
A study found that the PETM shows that substantial climate-shifting tipping points in the Earth system exist, which "can trigger release of additional carbon reservoirs and drive Earth's climate into a hotter state".

Climate sensitivity
Whether climate sensitivity was lower or higher during the PETM than today remains under debate. A 2022 study found that the Eurasian Epicontinental Sea acted as a major carbon sink during the PETM due to its high biological productivity and helped to slow and mitigate the warming, and that the existence of many large epicontinental seas at that time made the Earth's climate less sensitive to forcing by greenhouse gases relative to today, when much fewer epicontinental seas exist. Other research, however, suggests that climate sensitivity was higher during the PETM than today, meaning that sensitivity to greenhouse gas release increases the higher their concentration in the atmosphere.

title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum


text:
Cibi

The Cibi is a Fijian meke of Bauan origin and war dance, generally performed before or after a battle. It came to prominence in the rugby field in 1939 when it was performed by the Fiji national rugby union team before the match. It is also known as Teivovo ("war fence", from tei voavoa "planting on abandoned land").

Origins
The origins of the cibi date back to the country's warring times with their Pacific neighbours and intertribal warfare. On their return home the warriors heralded their victory by displaying flags – one for every enemy slain. They were met by the women who would sing songs with accompanying gestures. The cibi was meant for open battle to inspire the troops, but it was sung with more vigour when the victorious army returned home to celebrate.

In 1939, when Fiji prepared for its first-ever tour of New Zealand, the captain, Ratu Sir George Cakobau, thought his team should have a war dance to match the All Blacks' haka. He approached Ratu Bola, the high chief of the warrior clan of Navusaradave in Bau, who taught them the Cibi which has been adopted as Fiji's pre-match ritual ever since and went on to become the only team to remain unbeaten on a full tour of New Zealand.

The chant
The cibi had perhaps been used incorrectly though, as the word actually means "a celebration of victory by warriors", "a dance of triumph" whereas bole or ibole is the acceptance of a challenge. For this reason, the Cibi was replaced in 2012 with the new Bole ( mbo-lay) war cry. The Bole war cry has a lot more energy compared to the Cibi and seems far more fitting for the gruelling match that is about to commence, However, after the 2012 Pacific Nations Rugby Cup, the Cibi returned to be used.

The Bole however has not been used after the 2012 Pacific Nations Rugby Cup match against Tonga. The Flying Fijians have opted to use the Cibi for the rest of their matches. The current reason for the team removing the Bole is unknown.

Composed by Ratu Manoa Rasigatale, the Bole is translated as follows:

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cibi


text:
Siva Tau

The Manu Siva Tau is a Samoan war dance, performed by the Samoan sporting teams before each match.

The national rugby union team used to perform the traditional 'Maulu'ulu Moa' on tour. Prior to the 1991 World Cup, the 'Manu' war chant was composed, it was considered to be more effective at psyching up players.

The national Australian rules football team performs the Siva Tau at its International Cup appearances.

In WWE, The Usos, as faces, performed the Siva Tau as part of their ring entrance.

The Toa Samoa national rugby league team also perform the Siva Tau before each match (with the "Toa" replacing "Manu" in the words).

The song "Le Manu" by the New Zealand metal band Shepherds Reign has the lyrics of the Siva Tau as performed by the Manu Samoa.

Alternate versions
During the 2007 Rugby World Cup, the Samoa national rugby union team used a more aggressive version of the Siva Tau. However, this version was dropped by the Manu Samoa before the 2007 Rugby World Cup match against United States in favour of the original version.

This version of the Siva Tau, similar to the version used by the Manu Samoa in the 2007 Rugby World Cup, is used by the Samoa national rugby league team, however, differently from the prior version, the final lines are similar to the Siva Tau performed by the Manu Samoa.

title: Siva Tau


text:
Kailao

The kailao is a cultural dance from the South Pacific country of Tonga. It originates from Wallis and Futuna.

History
The kailao originated on the island collectivity of Wallis and Futuna, where it is still performed in public ceremonies. In Tonga it is performed at public and private ceremonies. The men, bearing stylized clubs (pate kailao), dance in a fierce manner that emulates fighting, to the accompaniment of a beaten slit drum or tin box which sets the tempo. Unlike most other Tongan dances, it is performed without singing. The sequences of movements are called by the lead dancer, who calls out the names of the sequences and signals when to do them. They can involve mock combat between dancers, changes in formation, and tricks involving the pate kailao themselves. The moves display the dancers' discipline, obedience, and skills with their weapons. A similar Rotuman dance, also derived from the 'Uvean original, is similarly called the ka'loa.

The 'Ikale Tahi, the Tongan national rugby union team, used to perform the kailao with kailao clubs or sticks, as they did against Wales in 1974. In the 1980s, they stopped performing the kailao and switched to the sipi tau, which is performed without sticks, as it was considered more appropriate for the non-ceremonial setting.

Sipi Tau
The Tonga rugby union national team's pre-game challenge, the Sipi Tau was penned by King Tama Tu'i Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV in 1994, but its origins can be traced back much further. In Tonga in the pre-1800s there were no challenges before war. Indeed, talking was considered a sign of weakness in battle. But in the 19th century a war dance was introduced from the neighbouring Wallis and Futuna Islands and Tonga quickly annexed it. There have been several different Sipi Tau used by the Tongan rugby team over the years, but it is unsure when they were first used in rugby. The latest one was composed in honour of a short, successful tour of New Zealand in 1994. The current words were first used in the 2011 Rugby World Cup.

Tongan (current words)
Sipi Tau a'e 'Ikale Tahi

 * Teu ke tau! (Leader)
 * Tonga! (Team)
 * Teu lea pea tala ki mamani katoa
 * Ko e Ikale Tahi kuo halofia.
 * Ke ilo e he sola mo e taka
 * Ko e aho ni te u tamate tangata,
 * 'A e haafe mo e tautuaa
 * Kuo hui hoku anga tangata.

 * Ei! (Leader)
 * E!
 * Ei! (Leader)
 * E!

 * Te u peluki e molo mo e foueti taka,
 * Pea ngungu mo ha loto fitaa
 * Ngungu! (Leader)
 * Io!
 * Ngungu! (Leader)
 * Io!

 * Ko Tonga pe mate ki he moto (Leader)
 * Otua mo Tonga ko hoku tofi'a
 * Ei e! (Leader)
 * TONGA!

English translation (current words)

 * Leader:Get ready to the battle!
 * Team:Tonga!
 * I shall speak to the whole world
 * The Sea Eagles are famished unfurl.
 * Let the foreigner and sojourner beware
 * Today, destroyer of souls, I am everywhere
 * To the halfback and backs
 * Gone has my humanness.

 * Leader:Hey! hey!
 * Ay!
 * Leader:Aye!
 * Aye!
 * Maul and loose forwards shall I mow
 * And crunch any fierce hearts you know

 * Leader:Crunch!
 * Yeah!
 * Leader:Crunch!
 * Yeah!
 * That's how Tonga dies to her motto
 * God and Tonga are my inheritance.

 * Leader:Aye, ay!
 * Tonga!

==Tongan (old version) ==
 * 'Ei e!, 'Ei e!
 * Teu lea pea tala ki mamani katoa
 * Ko e 'Ikale Tahi kuo halofia.

 * Ke 'ilo 'e he sola mo e taka
 * Ko e 'aho ni teu tamate tangata,
 * 'A e haafe mo e tautua'a
 * Kuo hu'i hoku anga tangata.

 * He! he! 'Ei e! Tu.

 * Teu peluki e molo mo e foueti taka,
 * Pea ngungu mo ha loto fita'a
 * Teu inu e 'oseni, pea kana mo e afi
 * Keu mate ai he ko hoku loto.

 * Ko Tonga pe mate ki he moto
 * Ko Tonga pe mate ki he moto.

English translation (old words)

 * Aye, ay! Aye, ay!
 * I shall speak to the whole world
 * The Sea Eagles are famished unfurl.

 * Let the foreigner and sojourner beware
 * Today, destroyer of souls, I am everywhere
 * To the halfback and backs
 * Gone has my humanness.

 * Hey! hey! Aye ay! Zap.

 * Maul and loose forwards shall I mow
 * And crunch any fierce hearts you know
 * Ocean I drink, fire I dine
 * To death or victory my will is fine.

 * That's how Tonga dies to her motto
 * To her motto Tonga gives all.

Rugby League Sipi Tau
The Tonga national rugby league team uses a different Sipi Tau.

 * Teu to ki he tupe!
 * Ko e 'aho!
 * Ko e 'aho mavava mo e tangi!
 * Teu mate maa Tonga!
 * Hi!

 * Tonga 'e!
 * Ta ke hu ki ai!
 * Katoa pe!
 * Taha!
 * Mo e to kotoa!
 * Teu fetau folau!

 * Hi! Ha!
 * Mo e pese!
 * Mo e lea!
 * 'Otua ke tau!

 * Tau malohi!
 * 'Ai Malohi!
 * Tau Fefeka!
 * 'Ai Fefeka!

 * Tau ki Tonga!
 * To'o mo e hi!
 * Tau mo tangi!
 * 'I 'olunga moihulo!
 * Feinga te tau 'ikuna!
 * 'Ikuna kotoa!
 * Hi!

This Sipi Tau is translated as follows:
 * I will stomp the ground with a thunderous noise
 * The day
 * The day of clamor and howling
 * My life for Tonga
 * Yeah!

 * O Tonga
 * Behold, we make our entrance
 * All of us
 * As one
 * Stomping in unison
 * I will journey into battle

 * Hee! Haa!
 * In jubilation
 * In speech
 * O God, bless us that we may...

 * Fight well
 * Be strong
 * Fight hard
 * Be firm

 * Fight for Tonga
 * Take with you the "hee"!
 * Fight and howl
 * Towards the goal
 * We must be victorious
 * Victory all the way
 * Yeah!

title: Kailao


text:
User:Dcutter

Dcutter ist Daniel Cutter aus Wales.

Dcutter is Daniel Cutter from Wales.

Homepage: [Daniel Cutter].

title: User:Dcutter


text:
Talk:Lists of case law

A wonderful list, and a good idea. If this list becomes too big we might have to have this as a master list and have it segmented by country. --ShaunMacPherson 10:39, 21 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * I wonder if this list would be best served by containing a list of court case lists rather than cases. Most countries have their own supreme court case lists. There could be lists by topics too, such as list of copyright cases, list of abortion cases, etc. As it is, listing any and all cases seems little crazy. -- PullUpYourSocks 21:41, 22 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree that we also need lists by topic. Ultimately we will need to move to Categories though I do have to count myself among those who have no enthusiasm for the current Category system. This article would then need to become some sort of guide to help people navigate the Categories/ lists. Cutler 10:53, Mar 24, 2005 (UTC)

ICLR special issue
There is Category:United Kingdom case law; from Category talk:United Kingdom case law: All cases in the Special Issue of the Law Reports should be included here [and I have added them]:-

 * Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co
 * Donoghue v Steveson
 * R v Dudley and Stephens (1884) 14 QBD 273 DC
 * Woolmington v DPP [1935] AC 462 HL(E)
 * Young v Bristol Aeroplane Co Ltd [1944] KB 718 CA
 * Central London Property Trust Ltd v High Trees House Ltd [1947] KB 130
 * Associated Provincial Picture Houses Ltd v Wednesbury Corpn [1948] 1 KB 223 CA
 * Incorporated Council of Law Reporting for England and Wales v Attorney General [1972] Ch 73 CA
 * American Cyanamid Co v Ethicon Ltd [1975] AC 396 HL(E)
 * Van Duyn v Home Office [1975] Ch 358 ECJ

-- Kaihsu 15:38, 2004 Jul 14 (UTC)

Merger proposal
I think it's time to remove this page, as it serves exactly the same pupose as Category:Case law lists. -- Framhein 21:31, 6 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete - can't think of any way this article could help anybody but perhaps redirect to Category to help searchers.Cutler 23:54, 6 October 2007 (UTC)
 * I'm not sure it serves the same purpose at all, but the case law lists category needs some cleaning up, so I've begun to do that. --lquilter 23:45, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

Under US, a list of the biggest Sherman Antitrust Act violation yields
Under US, we should have a list of Sherman Act violations - the whole list or those yielding over, say $98MM? It's all wrapped up for us at https://www.justice.gov/atr/sherman-act-violations-yielding-corporate-fine-10-million-or-more !--50.201.195.170 (talk) 03:22, 23 April 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lists of case law


text:
Cisitalia Grand Prix

The Cisitalia Grand Prix is a single-seater car for the postwar 1.5-litre supercharged Grand Prix class, built by Italian sports car manufacturer Cisitalia and introduced in 1949. It was designed on behalf of Cisitalia by Porsche between 1946–47, and is therefore also known by its Porsche project number, Type 360.

An extremely advanced design, it proved too complex to build for the small Italian firm—leading to a lengthy development and eventually to the financial downfall of the company. Between Cisitalia's 1949 liquidation and the fact that supercharged engines were banned for the 1952 Formula One season, the car never raced.

The Type 360 is also noticeable for using an early form of sequential manual transmission, and was one of the first race cars to do so.

History
The car was commissioned by Piero Dusio in 1946. Dusio paid a large sum of money upfront, part of which was used to free Ferdinand Porsche from the French prison in which he was being held effectively for ransom. Dusio gave Porsche only 16 months to complete the car which proved too short a time to sort out the advanced design.

Design
The Dr. Porsche designed unraced 1939 1,482.56 cc (53.0 x 56.0 mm) 2-stage Roots supercharged flat-12 Auto-Union had been projected to deliver 327 bhp at 9,000 rpm. This provided the basis of the Cisitalia 360 car which was built in Italy by Cisitalia personnel with help from former Porsche employee Robert Eberan von Eberhorst around a mid mounted supercharged 1,492.58 cc (56.0 x 50.5 mm) flat 12 engine giving a conservative 300 hp at 8,500 rpm and a top speed of 300 km/h. A fully enclosed streamlined body for fast circuits was planned giving over 200 mi/h. Later bench tests showed about 385 bhp at 10,500 rpm. The chassis was of chromoly tubing and featured on/off four-wheel-drive with a sequential gear-shift and a rear-mounted transaxle also sending power through a driveshaft to a front differential. Suspension was independent with Porsche type trailing arms in front and parallel acting arms in the rear. Porsche's experience with the pre-war Auto Union Grand Prix cars showed through in the layout and design of the Cisitalia to the extent that it has been referred to as the "E-Type".

Legacy
By the time the only prototype was finished Dusio was out of cash. The car languished in development until 1951, at one point being shipped off to Argentina to try to persuade president Juan Perón to invest in the company. By 1952 Formula One rules had changed and while Dusio attempted to source a 2-liter motor for the car a lack of funds relegated one of the most advanced Grand Prix cars of its day to a few Formula Libre events and quick retirement. The car is currently on display in the Porsche Museum in Stuttgart.

title: Cisitalia Grand Prix


text:
Talk:Savage Love

Concerned articles not mentioning saddlebacking
There has been considerable controversy at the two articles Saddleback Church and Rick Warren about this term, and none of these articles made any mention of the term or its inception before I added the term today to both articles in the See also sections. In case this past controversy now flares up, I'd like editors of this article also to keep an eye on it or participate in any consensus-making process on the issue of whether or not a tenable case can be presented for completely suppressing the existence of this term from those two articles. __meco (talk) 15:18, 8 April 2010 (UTC)

Santorum (sexual neologism)
This article has recently been expanded with additional sources and referencing improvements. There is also some ongoing discussion about that, at the article's talk page. If you are interested, please have a look at Santorum (sexual neologism) and the associated talk page discussion at Talk:Santorum (sexual neologism). Thank you for your time, -- Cirt (talk) 20:51, 13 May 2011 (UTC)
 * Santorum (sexual neologism)

Biphobia
I'm glad you put the section about how Dan Savage is biphobic in there but if you have ever read what Dan Savage has said about bisexuals in his "advice column" you can see how he is biphobic and does practice bisexual erasure. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.175.70.175 (talk) 11:22, 26 June 2011 (UTC)

Where is this published?
The article currently states the column appears weekly in several dozen newspapers, mainly free newspapers in the US and Canada, but also newspapers in Europe and Asia. Can somebody clarify which papers carry this column, especially outside the US? I've never heard of it, and the article implies it has a completely US perspective and readership. --Ef80 (talk) 15:18, 8 February 2012 (UTC) Dan Savage's column is published in a newspaper in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The website of the paper is http://www.straight.com/ and it is called "The Georgia Straight" or just "The Straight." Janice Vian, Ph.D. (talk) 01:25, 13 July 2015 (UTC)

"Pegging" citation
User:Binksternet added a to the Pegging section on December 26, 2012, saying it needed a source other that Savage himself and citing WP:SECONDARY. Then followed a string of reversions by Binksternet and a few other people. I came here now and added a reference to the column in question. I see the Policy on WP:SECONDARY for Primary Sources allows primary sources to be used, so long as there is not analysis based on them. I think that column is a valid reference, and besides, where are you going to find someone reporting on the percentages of the votes? Savage was the only one with access to them.

Thoughts? —Ignatzmicetalkcontribs 21:34, 7 April 2013 (UTC)
 * Removed the whole section. Needs secondary source. If there isn't one, then it doesn't belong in the article. -Nathan Johnson (talk) 18:23, 18 June 2013 (UTC)

 * What kind of secondary source are you *expecting*? Tamtrible (talk) 15:58, 20 June 2013 (UTC)
 * One that exists. -Nathan Johnson (talk) 17:07, 20 June 2013 (UTC)

 * Like this? http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pegging_%28sexual_practice%29 It was the *first* thing that came up when I googled "pegging"  — Preceding unsigned comment added by Tamtrible (talk • contribs) 23:06, 20 June 2013 (UTC)

 * and, for the campsite rule, will this do? http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Campsite%20rule Tamtrible (talk) 23:08, 20 June 2013 (UTC)
 * You can't cite Wikipedia as a source in a Wikipedia article. None of the sources on that page are reliable. Urban Dictionary is likewise not reliable. -Nathan Johnson (talk) 12:36, 22 June 2013 (UTC)

 * You're the one who said "one that exists". If those don't meet your criteria, then *please* indicate what *would* meet your criteria, for the existence and/or significance of a *slang term*?Tamtrible (talk) 18:03, 24 June 2013 (UTC)

Tamtrible, have you looked through WP:RS and WP:CITE yet? Those will explain how/what to cite. That being said, the references in the pegging article itself seem like they could be of some use in this situation. DP 76764 (Talk) 19:27, 24 June 2013 (UTC)

 * I guess... my point of confusion is, what do you want citation for? That Dan originated the term?  That the term is used?  That the practice exists?  For the first, I think the relevant column is more than adequate citation.  For the second, I'd think that Urban Dictionary would suffice, as presumably it wouldn't have an entry if people didn't use the term.  I'm mostly trying to get clarification here as to exactly *what* is being requested...  Tamtrible (talk) 19:53, 27 June 2013 (UTC)
 * You're almost there! The point remains that UD cannot be used though; see my link above to WP:RS. Tangent to this: reliable sources (in quantity) are generally used to prove notability. If something is not notable enough to be covered by sources, then it doesn't belong on Wikipedia.  DP 76764  (Talk) 20:47, 27 June 2013 (UTC)

The description edit war
I'm pretty sure Savage would agree fully with that description of himself... many of the bits could probably be linked to things he has directly said in his column, if someone was to be obsessive enough... Tamtrible (talk) 02:19, 12 November 2013 (UTC)

 * Savage would probably agree with it, and so would I. However, you must have a reliable third party source for this summary of his stance on various issues. Binksternet (talk) 02:35, 12 November 2013 (UTC)

 * Some potentially likely links:
 * http://www.thestranger.com/seattle/SavageLove?oid=18144030 he encourages readers to pursue their fetishes
 * http://www.thestranger.com/seattle/SavageLove?oid=340 tolerable example of humor here, plus pretty clear indication that he's gay and has no problem with everyone knowing it
 * http://www.thestranger.com/seattle/SavageLove?oid=880970 profanity
 * Is that enough references, or do I need to archive-dive for the rest? I'm not 100% sure how to put 'em in...  — Preceding unsigned comment added by Tamtrible (talk • contribs) 07:25, 12 November 2013 (UTC)
 * No. Those aren't okay. Please see WP:V, WP:IRS, WP:CITE, WP:BLP, and probably others. -Nathan Johnson (talk) 19:25, 21 November 2013 (UTC)

 * Then I am not comprehending *how* you would reference *the views of a person* other than by looking at *what he has actually said*... Tamtrible (talk) 21:46, 22 November 2013 (UTC)
 * Find a secondary source. If the information you desire to include hasn't been covered in a third-party, secondary, reliable source, it doesn't belong in an encyclopedia. -Nathan Johnson (talk) 02:29, 26 November 2013 (UTC)

I think it seems... odd that we can't use a person's own words as a reference for what that person's views are, but... Here's the offending section, I don't want it lost in the edit history if/when someone figures out how to reference it properly.

[snip]BLP offending material removed by User:Nathan Johnson[/snip]

Tamtrible (talk) 00:07, 27 November 2013 (UTC)
 * You can't put that here either unless it's sourced. You should really read up on the policies and guidelines that I linked above. -Nathan Johnson (talk) 03:43, 27 November 2013 (UTC)

 * While we are having the discussion about whether/how to source it, I didn't want the text itself, which was a pretty good way of phrasing the relevant points, lost to editing. And it seemed reasonable to say "Here is the text we're trying to find sources for.  Any ideas?"  The whole problem is that everyone who knows about the subject pretty much agrees that *these things are true*.  The problem is just *how to source it*.  So I wanted to keep *the paragraph that we are trying to find sources for* somewhere that we could say "Hey, anyone know how to find sources for this?"...  especially since *I found sources* for at least most of them, that were *the person's own words*, they just were not sufficiently encyclopedic.  I'm pretty sure the primary intent of those policies is to keep from misrepresenting someone's words, et cetera, not to make it impossible to say something about a person without backing it up in triplicate or something.  I just wanted to leave *the paragraph itself*, on the *talk page* (not the article) until we can clear up how to source it.
 * The paragraph in question: "The openly gay author uses the column as a forum for his strong opinions that reject conservative views on love, sex, and family. He generally encourages advice-seekers to pursue their fetishes, so long as activities are legal, consensual, safe, and respectful. The tone of the column is humorous, and Savage does not shy away from using profanity. The cornerstone of his sexual ethics is consent; he is thus strongly opposed to bestiality, child molestation, and rape, and frequently speaks out against incest and social inequality. Though Savage encourages sexual experimentation, he does not encourage carelessness. He frequently uses his position to promote safe sex and awareness of AIDS."

 * Is there any way we can refer this to some sort of moderating authority or something, instead of just going back and forth at each other?... Tamtrible (talk) 05:58, 29 November 2013 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Savage Love