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National Energy Program

The National Energy Program (Programme énergétique national, NEP) was an energy policy of the Canadian federal government from 1980 to 1985. The economically nationalist policy sought to secure Canadian energy independence, though was strongly opposed by the private sector and the oil-producing Western Canadian provinces, most notably Alberta.

Created under the Liberal government of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau on October 28, 1980, following the two oil crises of the 1970s, the NEP had three main objectives: increase ownership of the oil industry by Canadians; price energy fairly for Canadian consumers; and provide Canadian energy self-sufficiency. The NEP was also designed to promote lower prices through price controls; promote exploration for oil in Canada; promote alternative energy sources; and increase federal government revenues from oil sales through a variety of taxes and revenue-sharing with the oil-producing Western Canadian provinces.

The NEP proved to be a highly controversial policy initiative and sparked intense opposition and anger in Western Canada, particularly in Alberta. The province's premier, Peter Lougheed, was a vocal opponent of the NEP on the grounds that it interfered with provincial jurisdiction and unfairly deprived Alberta of oil revenue. In 1981, Lougheed and Trudeau reached a revenue-sharing agreement. Opponents claim that due to the NEP, the unemployment rate in Alberta rose from 3.7 percent to 12.4 percent, the bankruptcy rate in Alberta rose by 150 percent, and Alberta's losses were estimated to be between $50 billion and $100 billion (though Alberta's unemployment rate, bankruptcy rate, and revenue losses were also affected by the early 1980s recession and a crash in oil prices).

The term "Western alienation" was coined as a result of the NEP. The policy was repealed by the newly-elected Progressive Conservative (PC) government of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney on June 1, 1985. The NEP contributed to the creation and rise of the Western Canadian-based and right-wing populist Reform Party which made a major breakthrough in the 1993 federal election; the Reform Party merged with the PCs in 2003, becoming the Conservative Party which governed Canada from 2006 to 2015.

Background
In his preamble to the announcement of the National Energy Program, introduced as part of the October 1980 federal budget, Finance Minister Allan MacEachen echoed concerns by leaders of developed countries regarding the recession that followed both oil crises of the 1970s and the "deeply troubling air of uncertainty and anxiety" that was shared by Canadians. The Bank of Canada reported that economic problems had been accelerated and magnified. Inflation was most commonly between 9% and 10% annually, and prime interest rates were over 10%.

"...ever since the oil crisis of 1973 industrial countries have had to struggle with the problems of inflation and stubbornly high rates of unemployment. In 1979 the world was shaken by a second major oil shock. For the industrial world this has meant a sharp renewal of inflationary forces and real income losses. For the developing world this second oil shock has been a major tragedy. Their international deficits are now three to four times the sum they receive in aid from the rest of the world.... They are not just Canadian problems. ...they are world-wide problems. At the Venice Summit and at meetings of Finance Ministers of the IMF and OECD, we have seen these new themes emerge."

Global context
Historically, the US had been by far the world's largest oil producer, and the world oil market had been dominated by a small number of giant multinational (mostly-American) oil companies (the so-called "Seven Sisters of oil": Standard Oil of New Jersey, alias Exxon (US); Standard Oil of New York, alias Mobil (US/UK); Standard Oil of California, alias Chevron (US), Gulf Oil, now part of Chevron (US); Texaco, now part of Chevron (US); Anglo-Persian Oil Company, alias BP (UK); and Royal Dutch Shell, alias Shell (UK/Netherlands). During the late 1940s, the 1950s, the 1960s, and the early 1970s, the discovery and development of many giant oil and gas fields outside the US by those and other companies kept the world flooded with cheap oil. Meanwhile, global demand increased to take advantage of the increased global supply at lower prices. In particular, US oil consumption increased faster than production, and the country, which had been a net oil exporter, became a major oil importer.

In 1970, US oil production unexpectedly peaked and started to decline, which caused global oil markets to tighten rapidly as the US started to import more and more Arab oil. As the decade continued, global demand caught up with global supply, and two major oil price shocks occurred: the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 oil crisis. The first occurred after the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), whose membership is the Arab members of the similarly named Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), plus Egypt, Syria, and Tunisia, imposed an embargo on oil exports to the US, the UK, the Netherlands, Japan, and Canada in retaliation for supporting for Israel during the Yom Kippur War. US producers had been able to defeat the 1967 oil embargo by ramping up domestic production and flooding the world market with additional product at cut-rate prices, but declining domestic production and the ongoing rise in global demand prevented a similar response to the 1973 Arab embargo. The result was immediate shortages and lineups for gasoline in importing countries, particularly the US, which signalled the end of decades of cheap oil and a change in the balance of power from consuming countries, which now included the United States, to producing countries. On October 16, 1973, the Ministerial Committee of the Persian Gulf's OPEC membership announced an immediate rise in its posted price from $2.18 to $5.12 per barrel of oil. "Thus for the first time in oil history, the producing countries assumed power to consider and set the oil price unilaterally, and independently of the" Seven Sisters.

The Yom Kippur War ended in October, but the price of oil continued to increase, and by January 1974, it had quadrupled to US$12 a barrel. "The more than seven-fold increase in the oil price from $1.80/b in 1970 to $13.54/b in 1978 created profound and far-reaching changes in the world oil balance, as well as the prevailing relationships among major oil producers, principal oil importers, and the major oil companies... [and the] spectacular jump of the crude spot price to more than $US40/b following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, turned the global oil market into total disarray." The Norwegian economics historian Ola Honningdal Grytten described that period in the 1970s as one of a prolonged global recession and slow growth that affected most developed economies.

The 1979 oil crisis, precipitated by the Iranian Revolution and compounded by the Iran–Iraq War, was the second major market disturbance in the 1970s. "The curtailment of oil supplies and the skyrocketing of oil prices had far-reaching effects on producers, consumers, and the oil industry itself."

In his State of the Union Address in January 1980, US President Jimmy Carter described how his country's "excessive dependence on foreign oil is a clear and present danger," and he called for a "clear, comprehensive energy policy for the United States."

Canadian context
The Canadian petroleum industry arose in parallel with that of the US. The first oil well in North America was dug in Ontario in 1848 by using picks and shovels, one year before the first oil well in the United States had been drilled in Pennsylvania. By 1870, Canada had 100 oil refineries in operation and was exporting oil to Europe. However, the oil fields of Ontario were shallow and small, and oil production started to decline around 1900 while the automobile started to become popular. In contrast, US oil production grew rapidly after huge discoveries had been made in Texas, Oklahoma, California, and elsewhere. By the end of World War II, Canada imported 90% of its oil, mostly from the US.

The situation changed dramatically in 1947, when Imperial Oil drilled a well near Leduc, Alberta, to see what was causing peculiar anomalies on its newly introduced reflection seismology surveys. The peculiar anomalies turned out to be oil fields, and Leduc No. 1 was the discovery well for the first of many large oil fields. As a consequence of the large finds, cheap and plentiful Alberta oil produced a huge surplus of oil on the Canadian Prairies, which had no immediate market since the major oil markets were in Ontario and Quebec. In 1949, Imperial Oil applied to the federal government to build the Interprovincial Pipeline (IPL) to Lake Superior, which allowed it to supply the Midwestern United States. By 1956, the pipeline had been extended via Sarnia, Ontario, to Toronto; at 3100 km, it became the longest oil pipeline in the world. The federal government gave approval to build a pipeline in Western Canada, and in 1953, the 1200 km Transmountain Pipeline was built from Edmonton to Vancouver, British Columbia, with an extension to northwest Washington. The pipelines did more to improve the energy security of the United States than that of Canada since the Canadian government was more interested in Canada's trade balance than in military or energy security. The Canadian government assumed that Eastern Canada could always import enough oil to meet its needs and that imported oil would always be cheaper than domestic oil.

National Energy Board
The National Energy Board (NEB) was created in 1959 "to monitor and report on all federal matters of energy as well as regulate pipelines, energy imports and exports and utility rates and tariffs." The NEB regulated mostly the construction and the operation of oil and natural gas pipelines crossing provincial or international borders. The Board approved pipeline traffic, tolls, and tariffs under the authority of the National Energy Board Act.

From its introduction in 1961 to its end in September 1973, the National Oil Policy (NOP) was the cornerstone of Canadian energy policy. It "established a protected market for domestic oil west of the Ottawa Valley, which freed the industry from foreign competition," and the five eastern provinces, which included major refineries in Ontario and Quebec, continued to rely on foreign imports of crude oil, such as from Venezuela. In 1973, "the federal government announced the extension of the inter-provincial oil pipeline to Montreal (completed in 1976), froze prices of domestic crude and certain oil products, and sought to control export prices. The federal government announced this change in policy so that supply problems in the United States would not automatically raise prices for Canadian consumers."

After the first OPEC price shock in 1973, the federal government "formally broke the link between domestic prices and international prices. The objective of 'made-in-Canada' prices for crude oil was to protect Canadians across the country from the whims of the world oil market and to provide producers with enough incentives to develop new energy resources."

In 1981, the Edmonton economist Brian Scarfe claimed that the NEB's setting of the price of oil and natural gas in Canada meant that producers did not receive full world prices for the resource and that consumers were not charged world prices. He claimed that the subsidies had a number of side effects, including larger trade deficits, larger federal budget deficits, higher real interest rates, and higher inflation.

Petro-Canada
In 1975, in response to the world energy crisis, the federal government created Petro-Canada, a Canadian crown corporation that was national oil company. Petro-Canada was involved in the massive Hibernia oil find off Newfoundland and was a partner in the Syncrude oil sands venture in Fort McMurray, Alberta. The Alberta oil industry was then overwhelmingly owned by Americans, who were also the major importer of Albertan oil. The Petro-Canada Centre (1975–2009) was known in the oil patch as "Red Square" until its purchase by Suncor. The NEP included plans for a "greatly-expanded Petro-Canada."

Price controls
In 1974, Canada inaugurated its first system for pricing oil with three objectives: to regulate prices of domestic crude oil by federal-provincial agreements, to subsidize imported oil so that consumers in Eastern Canada would enjoy lower prices, and to control prices and quantities of crude oil and products in the exporting market. Synthetic crude oil (upgraded petroleum from oil sands) was exempted from the policy and was sold at the world price. The federal government levied a tax on all oil refined in Canada to pay for the difference between the price of synthetic and that of conventional crude oil.

The federal budget in October 1980 reflected the concern that Canada could "become increasingly dependent on insecure foreign supplies and, therefore, unnecessarily subject to the vagaries of the world oil market."

On 28 October 1980, Finance Minister Allan MacEachen introduced the National Energy Program but cautioned that things could get worse if there were "new shocks coming from the price of oil or food or if the upward momentum of costs and prices proves impervious to the economic climate I am seeking to create." "'The new energy policy limits the rise in prices of oil and gas to domestic consumers and thus continues to protect us from the violent shocks of OPEC price increases. It strengthens our specific measures to promote the most economical use of energy and in particular the displacement of oil by other fuels. It provides new impetus to the development of new sources of supply, through direct government programs and through new incentives of particular value to Canadian-owned producers. Energy policy is only the most urgent element of our new strategy. Renewed growth in productivity and lower costs are needed throughout the economy. Within the overall expenditure plan which I will lay before the House, we have assigned clear priority to economic development.'"

Goals
The NEP's goals were "security of supply and ultimate independence from the world oil market; opportunity for all Canadians to participate in the energy industry; particularly oil and gas, and to share in the benefits of its expansion; and fairness, with a pricing and revenue-sharing regime which recognizes the needs and rights of all Canadians."

The NEP had three main objectives: increase ownership of the oil industry by Canadians; price energy fairly for Canadian consumers; and provide Canadian energy self-sufficiency. The NEP was also designed to promote lower prices with price controls; promote exploration for oil in Canada; promote alternative energy sources; and increase federal government revenues from oil sales through a variety of taxes and revenue-sharing agreements.

The NEP's Petroleum Gas Revenue Tax (PGRT) instituted a double-taxation mechanism that did not apply to other commodities, such as gold and copper (see "Program details" item (c), below), "to redistribute revenue from the [oil] industry and lessen the cost of oil for Eastern Canada" in an attempt to insulate the Canadian economy from the shock of rising global oil prices (see "Program details" item (a), below). In 1981, Scarfe argued that by keeping domestic oil prices below world market prices, the NEP was essentially mandating provincial generosity and subsidizing all Canadian consumers of fuel, because of Alberta and the other oil-producing provinces (such as Newfoundland, which received funding by the NEP for the Hibernia project).

However, Marc Lalonde, the Minister of Energy Mines and Resources whose department oversaw development of the NEP would later say in 1986: "The major factor behind the NEP wasn't Canadianization or getting more from the industry or even self sufficiency," [...] "The determinant factor was the fiscal imbalance between the provinces and the federal government [...] "Our proposal was to increase Ottawa's share appreciably, so that the share of the producing provinces would decline significantly and the industry's share would decline somewhat."

Details
The NEP "had three principles: (1) security of supply and ultimate independence from the world market, (2) opportunity for all Canadians to participate in the energy industry, particularly oil and gas, and to share in the benefits of its expansion, and (3) fairness, with a pricing and revenue-sharing regime which recognizes the needs and rights of all Canadians."

"The main elements of the program included:

(a) a blended or 'made-in-Canada' price of oil, an average of the costs of imported and domestic oil, which will rise gradually and predictably but will remain well below world prices and will never be more than 85 per cent of the lower of the price of imported oil or of oil in the US, and which will be financed by a Petroleum Compensation Charge levied on refiners...;

(b) natural gas prices which will increase less quickly than oil prices, but which will include a new and rising federal tax on all natural gas and gas liquids;

(c) a petroleum and gas revenue tax of 8 per cent applied to net operating revenues before royalty and other expense deductions on all production of oil and natural gas in Canada...;

(d) the phasing out of the depletion allowances for oil and gas exploration and development, which will be replaced with a new system of direct incentive payments, structured to encourage investment by Canadian companies, with added incentives for exploration on Canada Lands (lands which the federal government held the mineral rights as opposed to private lands and lands which provinces held the mineral rights);

(e) a federal share of petroleum production income at the wellhead which will rise from about 10 per cent in recent years to 24 per cent over the 1980-83 period, with the share of the producing provinces falling from 45 to 43 per cent and that of the industry falling from 45 to 33 per cent over the same period;

(f) added incentives for energy conservation and energy conversion away from oil, particularly applicable to Eastern Canada, including the extension of the natural gas pipe-line system to Quebec City and the maritimes, with the additional transport charges being passed back to the producer; and

(g) a Canadian ownership levy to assist in financing the acquisition of the Canadian operations of one or more multinational oil companies, with the objective of achieving at least 50 per cent Canadian ownership of oil and gas production by 1990, Canadian control of a significant number of the major oil and gas corporations, and an early increase in the share of the oil and gas sector owned by the Government of Canada."

Revenues
While the program increased domestic price controls, the emphasis on revenue sharing and incentives for oil exploration on federally owned lands was viewed critically by Alberta Premier Peter Lougheed. Lougheed fought the program vigorously in the courts and in public, where he actively stoked Alberta nationalism in a television address claiming the program would bring more "Ottawa" to the province. Prior to the announcement of the National Energy Program, Lougheed had threatened to reduce Alberta's production of oil and gas to counter any federal program to increase taxes. If Alberta reduced production, Central Canada refineries and other businesses would need to purchase foreign oil which would be heavily subsidized by the federal government, a cost that it could not afford to with a $13.7 billion deficit in 1980. Lougheed finally decided to exercise this authority to force Trudeau to concede some measures of the Program, and Lougheed announced on television a 60,000 barrel reduction to Alberta's production of crude oil to take place over nine months beginning in April 1981, and the suspension of two oil sands projects. Lougheed however pledged that he would not allow a national oil shortage to occur, and would suspend the cuts if a shortage occurred. The threat was successful as Trudeau and Lougheed signed "an oil and gas prices and revenue sharing" agreement in 1981:

"'The agreement sets a series of price increases for old oil starting with a $2.50 a barrel increase on October 1, 1981 and 'generous' near world prices for new oil, effective January 1, 1982, which will see an estimated wellhead price of $49.22 per barrel by July 1, 1982. New oil is defined as oil from pools initially discovered after December 31, 1980. It includes new conventional oil found in Alberta, synthetic oil, including existing production from the SUNCOR and SYNCRUDE plants, and new oil from Canada lands.... At their press conference Tuesday, the leaders of both parties estimated the deal is worth an approximate $212.8 billion in revenues to Ottawa, Alberta and the petroleum industry over the next five years. An estimate of the revenue share compared to the NEP proposal indicated the federal government will receive $14 billion more than in the NEP schedule, the industry will receive $10 billion more and Alberta will receive $8 billion more. According to Lalonde, in percentage terms compared to the NEP, Ottawa's share will rise from 24% to 29%, Alberta's share will rise to 34% from 33%, and industry's share will drop from 43% to 33% over the life of the agreement. Lougheed said because of the pact industry will receive about 25% more cash flow due to the two-tier new and old pricing scheme, which represents an improvement in cash flow of at least $2 billion for each year of the agreement.'"

Lougheed's success in the agreement was marked by a widely published photograph of a celebratory champagne toast with Trudeau and himself. Lougheed later admitted to regretting the toast.

Lougheed's battle with the National Energy Program corresponded with the 1980s oil glut where energy prices dropped dramatically due to falling demand. Lougheed was forced to lower royalty rates through the Oil and Gas Activity Program and focused the government's efforts on natural gas diversification to stem falling revenues and a declining economy.

Helliwell et al. (1983) reported that the early 1980s energy price declines prompted the federal and provincial governments to update their revenue-sharing agreements. The amended agreements allowed for $4.2 billion in higher revenues ($1.7 billion for the federal government and $1.2 billion each for the provincial governments and industry), which was 30% of the increase that would have been gained from going to world prices. According to Helliwell et al., the NEP made did not in fact cause industry to be significantly exposed to the declining global oil prices, but the largest part of direct revenue losses accrued to governments. Thus, industry operated throughout the period of the NEP under relatively-similar oil prices, the "made-in-Canada" oil price (see item (a) in National Energy Program Details, above).

In 1981, the Edmonton economist Scarfe argued that the greatest impact of the NEP was its failure to deliver the revenues that had been originally forecast in the 1980 federal budget. Introduced by Finance Minister Allan MacEachen, it projected a reduction of federal deficits from $14.2 billion in 1980 to $11.8 billion in fiscal 1984, primarily from substantial increases in revenues from the oil and gas sector, and the maintenance of expenditures. Scarfe speculated that the NEP would discourage large-scale oil investment projects and thus reduce these projected revenues. Federal deficits had been expected to decrease, primarily by substantial increases in revenues from oil and gas. Instead, by 1983, the Ministry of Finance had concluded that the federal government had established a structural deficit of $29.7 billion, an increase from 3.5% of GNP in 1980 to 6.2% of GNP in 1983.

Estimates have placed Alberta's losses between $50 billion and $100 billion because of the NEP. Alberta still initially enjoyed an economic surplus due to high oil prices, but the surplus was heavily reduced by the NEP, which, in turn, stymied many of Lougheed's policies for economic diversification to reduce Alberta's dependence on the cyclical energy industry, such as the Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund, and also left the province with an infrastructure deficit. In particular, the Alberta Heritage Fund was meant to save as much of the earnings during high oil prices to act as a "rainy day" cushion if oil prices collapsed because of the cyclical nature of the oil and gas industry. The NEP was one reason that the fund failed to grow to its full potential. In 2022, the Heritage Savings Trust Fund has $19B, a moderate increase on the $13B it had in 1986. This slow growth occurred despite some years when Alberta government had multi-billion-dollar surpluses.

GDP
Alberta's GDP was between $60 billion and $80 billion annually during the years of the NEP (1980-1986). It is unclear whether the estimates took into account the decline in world crude oil prices that began only a few months after the NEP had come into force, the graph of long-term oil prices shows that prices adjusted for inflation did not drop below pre-1980s levels until 1985. Since the program was cancelled in 1986, the NEP was active for five years with among the most expensive for oil prices on record, and the NEP prevented Alberta's economy from fully realising those prices.

Provincial per capita federal contributions
In inflation-adjusted 2004 dollars, the year the NEP took effect (1980) per capita had fiscal contributions by Alberta to the federal government increase 77% over 1979 levels from $6,578 in 1979 to $11,641 in 1980. In the five years prior to the NEP (1975–1979), the per capita contributions by Alberta had approximated the fluctuations in the price of oil (see graph Fluctuations: Oil Prices & Alberta Per Capita Federal Contributions 1975–1981). In 1980, however, the inflation-adjusted average price of oil was only 5% higher than the previous year, but the per capita contributions from Alberta rose 77% (see graph Fluctuations: Oil Prices & Alberta Per Capita Federal Contributions 1975–1981). Again in inflation-adjusted 2004 dollars, the year the NEP was terminated (1986) had per capita contributions to the federal government by Alberta collapse to $680, a mere 10% of 1979 levels.

During the NEP years (1980–1985), only one other province was a net contributor per capita to the federal government: Saskatchewan, which also produces oil. In 1980 and 1981, Saskatchewan was a net per capita contributor to the federal government with a peak in 1981 at only $514, compared to Alberta's peak of $12,735 the same year, both values being 2004 inflation-adjusted dollars. Thus, during the NEP (1980 to 1985), Alberta was the sole overall net contributor to the federal government, and all other provinces enjoyed being net recipients.

Bankruptcies and unemployment
In 1982, during the severe global recession, there were over 30,000 consumer bankruptcies in Canada, a 33% increase over the previous year. The bankruptcy rate began to fall from 1983 to 1985, as the economy strengthened. From 1980 to 1985, bankruptcies per 1,000 businesses in Canada peaked at 50% above the 1980 rate. Meanwhile, the bankruptcy rate in Alberta rose by 150% after the NEP took effect.

Since bankruptcies and real estate prices did not fare as negatively in Central Canada as in the rest of Canada and in the United States, the NEP might have had a positive effect in Central Canada.

The unemployment rate in Alberta rose from 3.7 percent in September 1980 to 12.4 percent in 1984 following passage of the NEP.

Price of oil
Throughout the 1950s, the 1960s, and the 1970s, the retail price of petroleum in Canada consistently remained close to the price of gasoline in the United States and was often lower than prices seen in the US, especially during the 1970s price spikes. The NEP, which raised the price of fuel in the West and coincided with a hike in provincial gas taxes in Ontario and Quebec, made the retail price of gasoline in Canada become noticeably higher than that of the US, a trend that has continued ever since.

Abolition
The rationale for the program weakened when world oil prices began a slow decline in the early 1980s and collapsed in late 1985 (see figure above, "Long-Term Oil Prices, 1861–2007"). A phased shutdown was commenced by Jean Chrétien, then Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources.

In the 1984 election, the Progressive Conservative Party of Brian Mulroney was elected to a majority in the House of Commons with the support of Western Canada after he had campaigned against the NEP. However, Mulroney did not eliminate the last vestiges of the program until two-and-a half years later, when world oil prices had dropped below pre-1980s levels (as adjusted for inflation: see Long-Term Oil Prices, 1861–2007).

On June 1, 1985, after extensive discussions between the federal Government and the governments of the oil-producing provinces, the "Western Accord on Energy" was agreed. It provided for the full deregulation of oil prices and for allowing the market forces of international and local supply and demand determine prices. Included in the full deregulation of domestic oil prices, the Western Accord also "abolished import subsidies, the export tax on crude and oil products, and the petroleum compensation charge. It also phased out PIP grants and the PGRT. In addition, controls were lifted on oil exports."

Legacy and Western alienation
The NEP was extremely unpopular in Western Canada, especially in Alberta, where most of Canada's oil is produced. With natural resources falling constitutionally within the domain of provincial jurisdictions, many Albertans viewed the NEP as a detrimental intrusion by the federal government into the province's affairs. Edmonton economist Scarfe argued that for people in Western Canada, especially Alberta, the NEP was perceived to be at their expense in benefiting the eastern provinces. Particularly vilified was Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, whose Liberals had no seat west of Manitoba. Ed Clark, a senior bureaucrat in the Trudeau Liberal government, helped to develop the National Energy Program and earned himself the moniker "Red Ed" in the Alberta oil industry. Shortly after Brian Mulroney had taken office, Clark was fired.

Petro-Canada, established in 1975, was responsible for implementing much of the Program. Petro-Canada was given the backronym "Pierre Elliott Trudeau Rips Off Canada" by opponents of the National Energy Program.

According to Mary Elizabeth Vicente, an Edmonton librarian who wrote an article on the National Energy Program in 2005, the popular western slogan during the NEP, appearing on many bumper stickers, was "Let the Eastern bastards freeze in the dark." Other bumpers stated "I'd rather push this thing a mile than buy gas from PetroCan."

McKenzie argued in 1981 that politically, the NEP heightened distrust of the federal government in Western Canada, especially in Alberta, where many believed the NEP to be an intrusion of the federal government into an area of provincial jurisdiction.

According to a National Post journalist,

"'The anger and alienation of this era would provide much of the fuel behind the rise of Reform and Canadian Alliance parties, becoming the Conservative party that rules Ottawa today. The anger and alienation of Albertans also led Mr. Lougheed to oppose many of Mr. Trudeau’s proposed plans for the Constitution Act of 1982; he argued against granting Ontario and Quebec veto powers, fought for provincial resource rights and insisted on the notwithstanding clause."

title: National Energy Program


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Edward de Bono

Edward Charles Francis Publius de Bono (19 May 1933 – 9 June 2021) was a Maltese physician and commentator. He originated the term lateral thinking, and wrote many books on thinking, including Six Thinking Hats.

Life and career
Edward Charles Francis Publius de Bono was born in Malta on 19 May 1933. He was the son of Josephine Burns de Bono.

Educated at St. Edward's College, Malta, he then gained a medical degree from the University of Malta. Following this, he proceeded as a Rhodes Scholar in 1955 to Christ Church, Oxford, where he gained an MA in psychology and physiology. He represented Oxford in polo and set two canoeing records. He then gained a PhD degree in medicine from Trinity College, Cambridge.

De Bono held faculty appointments at the universities of Oxford, Cambridge (where he helped to establish the university's medical school), London and Harvard. He was a professor at the University of Malta, the University of Pretoria, the University of Central England (now called Birmingham City University) and Dublin City University. De Bono held the Da Vinci Professor of Thinking chair at the University of Advancing Technology in Tempe, Arizona, US. He was one of the 27 Ambassadors for the European Year of Creativity and Innovation 2009.

The originator of the term 'Lateral Thinking', de Bono wrote 85 books with translations into 46 languages. He taught his thinking methods to government agencies, corporate clients, organizations and individuals, privately or publicly in group sessions. He promoted the World Center for New Thinking (2004–2011), based in Malta, which applied Thinking Tools to solution and policy design on the geopolitical level.

In 1976, de Bono took part in a radio debate for the BBC with British philosopher A. J. Ayer, on the subject of effective democracy.

Starting on Wednesday 8 September 1982, the BBC ran a series of 10 weekly programmes entitled de Bono's Thinking Course. In the shows, he explained how thinking skills could be improved by attention and practice. The series was repeated the following year. A book with the same title accompanied the series. In May 1994, he gave a half-hour Opinions lecture televised on Channel 4 and subsequently published in The Independent as "Thinking Hats On". In 1995, he created a futuristic documentary film, 2040: Possibilities by Edward de Bono, depicting a lecture to an audience of viewers released from a cryogenic freeze for contemporary society in the year 2040.

Convinced that a key way forward for humanity is a better language, he published The Edward de Bono Code Book in 2000. In this book, he proposed a suite of new words based on numbers, where each number combination represents a useful idea or situation that currently does not have a single-word representation. For example, de Bono code 6/2 means "Give me my point of view and I will give you your point of view." Such a code might be used in situations where one or both of the two parties in a dispute are making insufficient effort to understand the other's perspective.

Parallel thinking
Parallel thinking is a term coined by de Bono. Parallel thinking is described as a constructive alternative to: "adversarial thinking"; debate; and the approaches exemplified by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle (whom de Bono refers to as the "Greek gang of three" (GG3) ). In general, parallel thinking is a further development of the well-known lateral-thinking processes, focusing even more on explorations—looking for what can be rather than for what is.

Parallel thinking is defined as a thinking process where focus is split in specific directions. When done in a group it effectively avoids the consequences of the adversarial approach (as used in courts). In adversarial debate, the objective is to prove or disprove statements put forward by the parties (normally two). This is also known as the dialectic approach. In Parallel Thinking, practitioners put forward as many statements as possible in several (preferably more than two) parallel tracks. This leads to exploration of a subject where all participants can contribute, in parallel, with knowledge, facts, feelings, etc. Crucial to the method is that the process is done in a disciplined manner, and that all participants play along and contribute in parallel. Thus each participant must stick to the specific track. Six Thinking Hats is an example of its implementation.

Other ideas
De Bono invented the L game, which he introduced in his book The Five-Day Course in Thinking.

In 2000, de Bono advised a UK Foreign Office committee that the Arab–Israeli conflict might be due, in part, to low levels of zinc found in people who eat unleavened bread (e.g. pita flatbread). De Bono argued that low zinc levels leads to heightened aggression. He suggested shipping out jars of Marmite to compensate.

Edward de Bono argued that companies could raise money just as governments now do – by printing it. He put forward the idea of private currency as a claim on products or services produced by the issuer.

Critiques
In the Handbook of Creativity, Robert J. Sternberg writes,"Equally damaging to the scientific study of creativity, in our view, has been the takeover of the field, in the popular mind, by those who follow what might be referred to as a pragmatic approach. Those taking this approach have been concerned primarily with developing creativity, secondarily with understanding it, but almost not at all with testing the validity of their ideas about it. [...] Perhaps the foremost proponent of this approach is Edward De Bono, whose work on lateral thinking and other aspects of creativity has had what appears to be considerable commercial success."

Frameworks For Thinking is an evaluation of 42 popular thinking frameworks conducted by a team of researchers. Regarding Edward de Bono they write, "[he] is more interested in the usefulness of developing ideas than proving the reliability or efficacy of his approach. There is sparse research evidence to show that generalised improvements in thinking performance can be attributed to training in the use of CoRT [Cognitive Research Trust] or Thinking Hats tools. An early evaluation of CoRT reported significant benefits for Special Educational Needs (SEN) pupils... However, in a more recent study with Australian aboriginal children (Ritchie and Edwards, 1996), little evidence of generalisation was found other than in the area of creative thinking."

Summarising de Bono's 1985 work in Conflicts: A Better Way to Resolve Them, M. Afzalur Rahim, distinguished professor of management at Western Kentucky University with a particular focus on conflict management in organizations, gives his view that, as pertains to Rahim's own field of research, "De Bono's approach to total elimination of conflict is no different from the approaches of the classicists. This approach to dealing with conflict is completely out of tune with modern thinking and, therefore, unsatisfactory."

Personal life
In 1971 he married Josephine Hall-White. They had two sons, Caspar and Charlie, and later divorced. His will, published after his death, named two more children, another son, Francis Edward de Bono, also known as Edward de Bono, the son of Magdalena Szekely, and a daughter, Juliana Pars.

He has honorary degrees from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, and the University of Dundee.

Asteroid 2541 Edebono discovered by Luboš Kohoutek is named after him.

Published works
A partial list of books by de Bono includes: De Bono also wrote numerous articles published in refereed and other journals, including The Lancet and Clinical Science.
 * The Use of Lateral Thinking (1967) ISBN 978-0-14-013788-0, introduced the term "lateral thinking"
 * New Think (1967, 1968) ISBN 978-0-380-01426-2
 * The Five-Day Course in Thinking (1968), introduced the L game
 * The Mechanism of Mind (1969), Intl Center for Creative Thinking 1992 reprint: ISBN 978-0-14-013787-3
 * Lateral Thinking: Creativity Step by Step, (1970), Harper & Row 1973 paperback: ISBN 978-0-06-090325-1
 * The Dog-Exercising Machine (1970)
 * Technology Today (1971)
 * Practical Thinking (1971)
 * Lateral Thinking for Management (1971)
 * Po: A Device for Successful Thinking (1972), ISBN 978-0-671-21338-1, introduced the term Po
 * Children Solve Problems (1972) ISBN 978-0-14-080323-5, ISBN 978-0-06-011024-6 (1974 reprint)
 * Po: Beyond Yes and No (1973), ISBN 978-0-14-021715-5
 * Eureka!: An Illustrated History of Inventions from the Wheel to the Computer (1974)
 * Teaching Thinking (1976)
 * The Greatest Thinkers: The Thirty Minds That Shaped Our Civilization (1976), ISBN 978-0-399-11762-6
 * Wordpower: An Illustrated Dictionary of Vital Words (1977)
 * The Happiness Purpose (1977)
 * Opportunities: A handbook for business opportunity search (1978)
 * Future Positive (1979)
 * Atlas of Management Thinking (1981)
 * De Bono's Thinking Course (1982)
 * Learn-To-Think: Coursebook and Instructors Manual with Michael Hewitt-Gleeson de Saint-Arnaud (1982), ISBN 978-0-88496-199-4
 * Tactics: The Art and Science of Success (1985)
 * Conflicts: A Better Way to Resolve them (1985)
 * Masterthinker's Handbook (1985)
 * Six Thinking Hats (1985) ISBN 978-0-316-17831-0
 * I Am Right, You Are Wrong: From This to the New Renaissance: From Rock Logic to Water Logic (1968) ISBN 978-0-670-84231-5
 * Six Action Shoes (1991)
 * Handbook for the Positive Revolution (1991) ISBN 978-0-14-012679-2
 * Serious Creativity: Using the Power of Lateral Thinking to Create New Ideas (1992) ISBN 978-0-00-255143-4 – a summation of many of De Bono's ideas on creativity
 * Sur/Petition (1992) ISBN 978-0-88730-543-6
 * Water Logic: The Alternative to I am Right You are Wrong (1993) ISBN 978-1-56312-037-4
 * Parallel thinking: from Socratic thinking to de Bono thinking (1994) ISBN 978-0-670-85126-3
 * Teach Yourself How to Think (1995)
 * Textbook of Wisdom (1996) ISBN 978-0-670-87011-0
 * How to Be More Interesting (1998)
 * Simplicity (1999)
 * New Thinking for the New Millennium (1999)
 * Why I Want To Be King of Australia (1999)
 * The De Bono Code Book (2000) ISBN 978-0-14-028777-6
 * How to Have A Beautiful Mind (2004)
 * Six Value Medals (2005) ISBN 978-0-09-189459-7
 * H+ (Plus): A New Religion (2006) ISBN 978-0-09-191047-1
 * How to Have Creative Ideas (2007) ISBN 978-0-09-191048-8
 * Free or Unfree? : Are Americans Really Free? (2007) ISBN 978-1-59777-544-1
 * Intelligence, Information, Thinking (2007) ISBN 978-1-84-218133-1
 * Six Frames For Thinking About Information (2008) ISBN 978-1-40-702316-8
 * The Love of Two Cockroaches (2009) ISBN 978-9-99-326159-9
 * Think! Before It's Too Late (2009) ISBN 978-0-09-192409-6
 * Lateral Thinking – An Introduction (2014) ISBN 978-0-09-195502-1
 * Bonting – Thinking to Create Value (2016) ISBN 978-9-99-575019-0

Research on Edward de Bono's methods

 * 1) Can Simple Ideation Techniques Enhance Idea Generation? Belski, I., Hourani, A., Valentine, A., & Belski, A. In A. Bainbridge-Smith, Z. T. Qi, & G.S. Gupta (Eds.), Proceedings of the 25th Annual Conference of the Australasian Association for Engineering Education (pp. 1-9). Wellington, New Zealand. 2014
 * 2) Can simple ideation techniques influence idea generation: comparing results from Australia, Czech Republic, Finland and Russian Federation. Belski, I., Belski, A., Berdonosov, V., Busov, B., Bartlova, M. Malashevskaya, E., ...Tervonen, N. In A. Oo, A. Patel, T.Hilditch, & S. Chandran (Ed.s), Proceedings of the 26th Annual Conference of the Australasian Association for Engineering Education (pp. 474-873). Geelong, Australia: School of Engineering, Deakin University. 2015
 * 3) Eight Fields of MATCEMIB help students to generate more ideas.Belski, I., Livotov, P., & Mayer, O. Procedia CIRP, 39, 85-90 2016
 * 4) Engineering Creativity: The Influence of General Knowledge and Thinking Heuristics Belski, I., Skiadopoulos, A., Aranda-Mena, G., Cascini, G., Russo, D. Advances in Systematic Creativity pp 245-263 2019
 * 5) ‘E’ posibile migliorare la creattivita’ e’ la riflessivita’ dei ragazzi’ (Can we improve thinking and creativity in school children?) Tidona, G. DIALOGO – mensile regionale di cultura, politica e attualita’, n. 7, anno XXVI, October 2001
 * 6) Reflexivity and creativity at school, Tidona, G. 2002
 * 7) "The effects of the six thinking hats and speed on creativity in brainstorming". Göçmen, O., Coşkun H., 2019
 * 8) The effects of the CoRT 1 thinking skills program on students. Edwards, J., & Baldauf, R. B. (Jr.). The effects of the CoRT 1 thinking skills programme on students. In D. N. Perkins, J. Lochhead, & J. Bishop (Eds.),Thinking: The second international conference (pp. 453–473). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 1987
 * 9) Measuring the effects of the direct teaching of thinking skills. Edwards, J. Human Intelligence Newsletter, 9 (30), pp.9-10;1988
 * 10) The direct teaching of thinking skills Edwards, J. G. Evans, Learning and Teaching Cognitive Skills, Melbourne, Australian Council for Educational Research, 1991, pp. 87-106; 1991
 * 11) Research work on the CoRT method. Edwards, J. In S. Maclure & P. Davies (Eds.), Learning to think: Thinking to learn (pp. 19–30). Oxford, UK: Pergamon. 1991
 * 12) The Teaching of Thinking Edwards, J. Paper presented at the Joint AARE/NZARE Conference, Geelong. 1992
 * 13) Thinking, education and human potential: International Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Melbourne: Hawker Brownlow, 6-15. 1994
 * 14) Thinking and change. Edwards, J. In S. Dingli (Ed.), Creative thinking: A multi-faceted approach (pp. 16–29). Msida: Malta University Press. 1994
 * 15) Teaching thinking in schools: An overview. Edwards, J. Teaching thinking in schools, Unicorn, 21(1), 27-36. 1995
 * 16) The direct teaching of thinking in education and in business. Edwards, J. In S. Dingli (Ed.), Creative thinking: New perspectives (pp. 82–95). Msida: Malta University Press. 1996
 * 17) Learning, Thinking and Assessment Edwards, J. Personal paper summarising work 1999

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Edward de Bono


text:
Talk:Family tree of the British royal family

Suggestions
How about adding some colour to the entries in the trees ? Jay 02:37, 28 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * What do you mean by colours? Ladies pink, men blue? :) I really dont see your point. Muriel Victoria 11:21, 28 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * yup, something like that ... we really cannot give different colours to parents and children, because the children are parents to their children and parents are children of their parents. so the only distinct elements in a family tree are the male and the female. the idea is not to make the whole thing jazzy, but if colours are placed at the right places, it'll make for a good picture. i don't know much abt family trees though. Jay 17:56, 28 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * We could pick three or so colours, and give each 'generation' a colour, rotating in turn. This would help show which people were which in some of the bits (notably around E3) where it gets a bit messy.
 * James F. 19:48, 28 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * I understand the point: sometimes it does get a bit messy. It could be usefull to "paint" Lancastrians vs Yorks around the War of the Roses. Muriel Victoria 08:35, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Ah, yes, we could paint them red and... oh. ;-) I think that the trees are readable enough given the circumstances (they can't be anywhere near as wide as they need to be), and that attempting to add colour to make them easier to read will probably just make them look worse.
 * James F. 14:13, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Hey James! I followed your sugestion in Wars of the Roses! What does everybody think? :) Muriel Victoria 09:48, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Good :) what did you use to edit the image ? Jay 10:21, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I took the original corel file and painted it with the apropriate colours... Muriel

 * Hmm. I was thinking more of a little box around each person (or perhaps grouping). And maybe red and green, instead?
 * James F. (talk) 22:49, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * I'll substitute it tomorrow. It was just for fun, Muriel

Could we have the images modified to read "British monarchs," and the page moved to British monarchs as well? This would follow the format for List of British monarchs, and, furthermore, be more gender-neutral. -- Emsworth 01:55, Feb 26, 2004 (UTC)
 * Yes, his Lordship, by all means, your faithfull servant, Muriel 07:36, 29 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Done, Muriel 07:50, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I think Electress Sophia of Hanover should be included to House of Hanover family tree, because she was heiress pressumptive to the English, Scottish and Irish(Later Britsh and Irish thrones) for 12 years.Chamika1990 (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 08:00, 21 March 2013 (UTC)

Saxon Kings
It would be great if someone could finish the page in the same fashion by providing the Saxon kings. The link is through Matilda of Scotland. 195.92.168.171 21:33, 22 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Line of Descent
There's a problem here. The senior line of descent is actually back through the Scottish monarchs -- not the English ones. So this tree is actually incorrect. It and the Scottish monarchs tree should be re-arranged to create a corrected British monarchs tree and a new English monarchs tree. -- Derek Ross | Talk 03:43, 2004 Sep 10 (UTC)
 * Yes, but its always Scotland who wanted/ts independencence and not England. That says a lot about the real importance of senior lines of descent. [[:pt:Usuário:Muriel Gottrop|muriel@pt]] 10:47, 3 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Many Scots favour parliamentary independence from the UK (although not all, less than a third at the moment in fact). I would guess that even fewer want independence from the Crown. Nobody is saying that senior lines of descent are important in daily life. If they were, the descendants of James VII and II would still be in power. But they surely have some importance in the preparation of this kind of genealogical chart. Otherwise we wouldn't be able to appreciate the irony of Scotland and England being ruled by a family of Irish origin. -- Derek Ross | Talk 06:16, 2004 Nov 4 (UTC)
 * I see your point and you are right of course. Thing is that wikipedia favours the most common point of view, meaning that the reader will expect to see the rulers previous to Queen Victoria (for example) to be the rulers of England not Scotland. I think the change you suggest, though accurate, would be seen as akward (did i get the spelling right??). We can ask Emsworth for his opinion. He's the sort of British royalty expert around here. Cheers, [[:pt:Usuário:Muriel Gottrop|muriel@pt]] 08:33, 4 Nov 2004 (UTC)

What on Earth do you mean by "senior line of descent"? The British monarchs are the senior line of descent from both the English and Scottish monarchs (if you exclude the Jacobite lines), which is (surprisingly enough) why the Kingdoms united in the first place. If you mean "senior line of ascent" (which is what you seem to be talking about, though the expression is a decidedly odd one), then you seem to be implying (since James V, King of Scots, had a claim to the Scottish throne through his father and to the English throne through his mother) that ascent though the male line is senior to ascent through the female line, which would imply that we should actually be showing the family tree of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, which by your logic is "senior" to the House of Hanover which married into it. That, of course, would be ridiculous, as is any claim that the Scottish monarchs are a more "senior line" than the English monarchs. The obvious solution, of course, is to have three different pages - British monarchs family tree, English monarchs family tree and Scottish monarchs family tree, with the first only showing monarchs after 1603. (By the way, the current images need to be replaced, as they are absolutely useless. There are capitalisation errors all over the place, and the styles are a disaster ("William Mountbatten-Windsor" and "Elizabeth II Windsor", for example). Not even the technical aspects are right, as, for example, King Henry VIII appears to have sprung from the Ether, and the birth order of siblings is muddled up all over the place.) Proteus (Talk) 11:01, 4 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Uau! Aren't you having a nice day! Without starting a discussion about what side of the bed you woke up today, I would appreciate a detailed list of corrections to make to the useless figure, in order to improve it. Please be patient with me and describe the proper styles to use, since i no nothing about that, except the obvious HRH and the likes. With a smile, [[:pt:Usuário:Muriel Gottrop|muriel@pt]] 12:57, 4 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Sorry, I slept badly last night and being tired puts me in a bad mood. :-( But following the format in the PDFs on the Royal Family's website (here) should make it perfect. (ObviouslBETHANY DAWN DUNLOP WAS EYAHH DOING HISTORY HOMEWORK :y we can't just use their family tree, because it's copyrighted.) Proteus (Talk) 13:37, 4 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Or perhaps he is just displeased by the result of the U.S. presidential election :-) -- Emsworth 14:30, 4 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * I understand that feeling. What an embarassment! [[:pt:Usuário:Muriel Gottrop|muriel@pt]] 08:53, 5 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I agree with Proteus's proposal that there be separate pages for English, Scottish, and post-1603 monarchs. The English monarch page can even include the Saxon rulers, if anyone is up to the task of adding them. The Royal Family's website, indicated above, does include a PDF chart for them. -- Emsworth 14:21, 4 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I'll make the changes in the drwings, but since its a lot of work, lets discuss them first.
 * As far as I understand the concept of style, that means that the kings should be listed as HRM The King Name N°, the princes HRH, and so on and so forth. I dont really agree with the idea of spamming the drawing with this aditional letters. Is it *really* necessary?
 * Capitalization: I'll change duke to Duke, prince to Prince, king to King and etc.
 * I'll remove the surnames
 * I'll separate the kings of England up to 1603 to a sepparate article.

Opinions, comments, rants, complaints, its now or never! Cheers, [[:pt:Usuário:Muriel Gottrop|muriel@pt]] 08:53, 5 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I don't think we need the HRH and HMs. Monarchs should probably be "Elizabeth II", "George VI", etc., Princes "Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex" (if they have/had peerages), "Prince John" (sons of monarchs), "Prince William of Wales"/"Prince Michael of Kent" (sons of sons of monarchs). Titles should also be included for commoners marrying Royals - "Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon", "Henry Lascelles, 6th Earl of Harewood", etc. All titles should indeed by capitalised. That's about it really. Proteus (Talk) 12:43, 5 Nov 2004 (UTC)

One must also remember that, prior to the Hanoverian monarchs (George I and his successors), "Prince" and "Princess" were not in common use (I think that the only royals to use them consistently were the Princes of Wales). Thus, prior to 1714, just the peerages are enough for lesser royals. To see which individuals should be labeled as princes or princesses, one may consider the following pages: British prince, British princess. -- Emsworth 23:14, 5 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Cant I refer to the princes just with their peerages? Eg. Andrew, Duke of York, instead of Prince Andrew, Duke of York? If we add Prince/Princess up to 1714, the diagram will loose clarity, i'm afraid. [[:pt:Usuário:Muriel Gottrop|muriel@pt]] 09:42, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * That would be okay with me. Proteus (Talk) 10:20, 9 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Since nobody objects anything else, I'll start with the reviewing of the diagrams. [[:pt:Usuário:Muriel Gottrop|muriel@pt]] 08:51, 9 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Its done. See also English monarchs family tree. Now i know the font isnt the best. Any suggestion? [[:pt:Usuário:Muriel Gottrop|muriel@pt]] 10:51, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Muriel, thanks for your hard work in making these family trees, both the originals and the new replacements. I know how fiddly it is to get these types of diagram to look nice and you have done a fine job. Wikipedia would not be the success that it is without the participation of good people like yourself and I for one appreciate it. Cheers -- Derek Ross | Talk 16:12, 2004 Nov 17 (UTC)

 * Thanks! Thats a nice thing to read after a battle with CorelDraw! Cheers! [[:pt:Usuário:Muriel Gottrop|muriel@pt]] 10:18, 18 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Image:UK-Victoriapresent.png
I beleive there is an error on the date of the marriage line between Victoria and Albert. The date shown is 1835, should be 1840. Dennis 19:00 2004 December 22 dennisa@xtra.co.nz

Errors
Saxe-Leiningen? Mecklemburg? Wurtemberg? Streliz? Princess of Portugal? Victoria, Princess Royal, married her father-in-law? Puke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld? These are all errors that must be fixed. I volunteer... for now. Charles 23:51, 26 April 2006 (UTC)

Update
Just a quick note: Prince Charles is now married to Camilla Parker-Bowles. Should she not be added? Especailly since she will become Princess Consort when old Charlie get's the throne.

Please update the Windsor family Tree with this one: http://www.royal.gov.uk/files/pdf/Windsor%20family%20tree.pdf
 * It's preferred to concentrate on the 'line of succession' - unless Charlie & Camillia have children, she's not to be added. GoodDay 21:49, 26 August 2007 (UTC)
 * That's ridiculous. john k 19:52, 7 September 2007 (UTC)
 * That's how the article has it; second marriages haven't been listed (unless a monarch was produced from that marriage). GoodDay 18:40, 8 September 2007 (UTC)
 * But how many opportunities for it are there? The only other one I see is Princess Anne, whose second marriage is obviously less relevant than her brother's. john k 05:13, 9 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Add Charlie's second marriage if you like, can't see any harm in it. GoodDay 21:06, 29 September 2007 (UTC)

Prince William or Wales  and prince Henry of Wales? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.149.254.138 (talk) 13:30, 27 January 2008 (UTC)

Some mistaken dates
These are some of the following mistakes:

1) Henry Stuart, Prince of Wales (1595-1612)?; he was born in 1594

2) Charles I, succeeds the throne in 1626?; he succeeded in 1625

3) Charles II, succeeds the throne in 1661?; he succeeded in 1660

 * He succeeded in 1649. He ascended in 1660. john k 19:47, 7 September 2007 (UTC)

4) Frederick, Prince of Wales married in 1739?; he was married in 1736

5) Victoria, married in 1835?; she was married in 1840

6) Victoria, Princess Royal married William I of Germany?; she married William's son, Frederick III of Germany

7) Edward VII, married in 1862?; he was married in 1863

8) Alice, Duchess of Gloucester still living?; she died in 2004

9) Elizabeth II crowned in 1952?; she succeeded in 1952 & crowned in 1953 (we want the acession date)

10) Charles and Diana divorced in 1992?; they divorced in 1996 Does anyone know how to correct these? GoodDay 23:36, 31 August 2007 (UTC)

 * These trees are full of mistakes. Some more:

 * 1) Frederick V of Bavaria? Obviously, all Wittelsbachs held the title of Duke (or Duchess) in (of?) Bavaria, but Frederick was of the Palatinate line, and its confusing to associate him with Bavaria.
 * 2) Henry, Prince of Wales died in 1612, not 1610
 * 3) Cromwell was Lord Protector from 1653, not 1649.
 * 4) Monsieur would never be called "Philip of Bourbon."
 * 5) James II is considered to have been deposed in December 1688, not 1689
 * 6) Why is William III "William III of Nassau"? Why is Anne  "Anne Stuart"?
 * 7) Princess Augusta, George III's daughter, is not, so far as I'm aware, known to have married.
 * 8) I don't see why Princess Sophia is to be associated with Thomas Garth. We don't have any other extramarital liaisons listed.
 * 9) The Duke of Sussex's marriages were never annulled, as they were never valid in English law to begin with.
 * 10) the Duke o f Cumberland was Ernest Augustus I of Hanover, not Ernest I
 * 11) "Strelitz" is spelled wrong in Queen Charlotte's entry
 * 12) "Alice Scott of Buccleuch"?
 * 13) The 6th earl of Harewood was named, I believe, Henry, not Charles.
 * 14) Antony Armstrong-Jones is the Earl of Snowdon.

That's all I see at the moment, but there might be more. john k 20:02, 7 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Also, James I/VI to William III/II don't belong on this article. They belong at the English monarchs family tree & Scottish monarchs family tree. GoodDay 20:15, 7 September 2007 (UTC)

I don't think this is a big deal. In the first place, this would lead to entirely unnecessary repetition. In the second place, the line going back to James I is necessary to show the relationship between Anne and George I. James I is a logical starting point. Anne certainly isn't. john k 12:54, 8 September 2007 (UTC)
 * It's too bad; on first glance it appears as though the Stuarts are British monarchs (which they weren't -until Anne-). GoodDay 14:46, 8 September 2007 (UTC)
 * They were not the rulers of a kingdom called "Great Britain," but, as rulers of both England and Scotland, they could be seen as "British monarchs" (the term is quite ambiguous). john k 16:38, 8 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Ambigous, but easily misunderstood. GoodDay 18:37, 8 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes, so the text of the article should clarify the situation (which, of course, it doesn't). john k 05:12, 9 September 2007 (UTC)

Viscount Linley and Lady Sarah Chatto
Is there a reason for including Viscount Linley and Lady Sarah Chatto here? -- Jao 11:26, 1 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Nope, they should be omitted. The monarchs's siblings children aren't listed (unless they'd succeeded to the throne). GoodDay 14:30, 1 September 2007 (UTC)

Page Movement
This page should be moved to British Isles monarch's family tree. GoodDay 22:27, 6 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Why? Charles 00:56, 7 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes, why? That's just incredibly awkward, and brings i n "British Isles," a controversial term, unnecessarily. john k 19:51, 7 September 2007 (UTC)
 * I see your point. GoodDay 19:53, 7 September 2007 (UTC)

Chart proposal
How's this: User:DBD/Tree to replace the images? DBD 14:42, 18 September 2009 (UTC)
 * the wikicode for that chart is mindboggling - HTML5/SVG please rescue us! Cander0000 (talk) 06:02, 28 November 2010 (UTC)

Error
The tree shows Diana Spencer as a child of Queen Elizabeth II instead of Prince Charles, could somebody fix this? XXL2oo (talk) 06:45, 27 December 2009 (UTC)

Kingdoms of Polynesia
I suggest that geographically Hawai`i belongs in Polynesia, not the Americas, and a section be created to include the Kingdom of Tonga. --Hugh7 (talk) 06:52, 2 December 2010 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20101202213352/http://www.royal.gov.uk/pdf/Windsor%20family%20tree.pdf to http://www.royal.gov.uk/pdf/Windsor%20family%20tree.pdf

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Requested move 5 May 2017

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: MOVE. (non-admin closure) TheSandDoctor (talk) 05:48, 13 May 2017 (UTC)

British monarchs' family tree → Family tree of the British royal family – Because this is what the page actually shows. Celia Homeford (talk) 09:35, 5 May 2017 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon
Should, Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, have box border that shows she is a child of a monarch? Pennwood711 (talk) 14:44, 9 August 2018 (UTC)

Camilla
Why is Camilla labled as Queen Consort when no other Queen Consort is? I think it should be applied to all Queen Consorts or none. EmilySarah99 (talk) 01:22, 10 September 2022 (UTC)
 * This article is not so much concerned about titles as it is about connections. I suggest, as a general rule, to keep names short so there's more room. —GoldRingChip 12:01, 16 September 2022 (UTC)

Children/Descendants of Royals without titles
Why are we removing or redirecting royal children that do not have royal titles? Shouldn’t this family tree show every member of the royal family their offspring connection? I feel that helps viewers who are interested in learning about the family connections with the offsprings. If we are going to redirect Anne's children why redirect them to a category list?

Honestly I am speaking for every member. We are not able to see the full connection of each family member by doing that. Are we only listing family members with royal status on the family tree. I feel that the family tree should included everyone regardless of royal status to be included in the tree because it helps us follow along.

Also, not all of Anne's children bare the last name Phillip. Zara is married to a man with the last name Tindall. She is not a Phillip only Peter and his children carry that last name.Welcometothenewmillenium (talk) 06:50, 16 September 2022 (UTC)

 * It seems to be listing only people who held British titles, since otherwise, listing every single person descended from British royalty would make the tree impractically long and convoluted. 2601:249:9301:D570:B958:671A:92BB:984 (talk) 19:46, 22 December 2022 (UTC)

Sophia of Hanover parentage link only connecting one parent
Sophia of Hanover was the daughter of Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia and Frederick V of the Palatinate, yet the descent line only connects her to Elizabeth. 98.228.137.44 (talk) 22:22, 8 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Fixed. Celia Homeford (talk) 10:06, 9 April 2024 (UTC)


text:
Factory Showroom

Factory Showroom is the sixth studio album by the American alternative rock band They Might Be Giants, released in 1996 by Elektra Records. It was the band's first album to be produced by Pat Dillett, who would go on to work with the band on all subsequent albums, as well as their first album to feature a second guitarist, Eric Schermerhorn.

Two years after Factory Showroom's release, John Flansburgh cited the album as his favorite by the duo. Feeling that Elektra did not do enough to promote the album, among other disputes, They Might Be Giants left the label after its release.

Factory Showroom was released on vinyl for the first time in March 2012 by Asbestos Records.

Song notes

 * "I Can Hear You" was recorded at the Edison Laboratory on a wax cylinder phonograph without the use of electricity.
 * "New York City" is a cover of a song by the band Cub.
 * "James K. Polk" is a song about James Knox Polk, the 11th President of the United States. A sparser, drum machine driven version had previously appeared on the Istanbul (Not Constantinople) EP (1990). It features singing saw by Julian Koster.
 * The hidden track (track 0) on the CD entitled "Token Back to Brooklyn" is accessible by rewinding from the beginning of track 1 ("S-E-X-X-Y"), and is not playable on all CD players. It can also be heard on the Internet-only album Long Tall Weekend (1999) and the rarities compilation They Got Lost (2002).
 * A cassette version of the album that claimed to be a "promotional item" from Elektra was leaked by an unknown source. Along with most songs from the standard release (including "Token Back to Brooklyn" but excluding "I Can Hear You"), this version also included recordings of "On the Drag" and "Older" that have not reappeared on an official release, as well as "SenSurround", "Counterfeit Faker", "Certain People I Could Name", "Unforgotten", "Reprehensible", "They Got Lost", and "Rat Patrol". All of these tracks were outtakes from the Factory Showroom sessions and were eventually released on either the S-E-X-X-Y EP (1996), Long Tall Weekend, or They Got Lost.

Track listing

 * "Token Back to Brooklyn" is a hidden track placed within the pregap of track 1.

Personnel
Credits adapted from CD liner notes, except where noted.

They Might Be Giants
 * John Linnell – vocal, keyboards, horns, etc.
 * John Flansburgh – vocal, guitar, etc.
 * Brian Doherty – drums
 * Graham Maby – bass guitar
 * Eric Schermerhorn – lead guitar

Additional musicians
 * Yuval Gabay – drums (0)
 * Krystof Witek – violin (1, 8)
 * Gregor Kitzis – violin (1)
 * Ron Lawrence – viola (1)
 * Garo Yellin – cello (1, 4, 7–8)
 * Tim Newman – trombone (1)
 * Jim O'Connor – trumpet (1)
 * Hal Cragin – bass guitar (1, 6, 8)
 * Sue Hadjopoulos – congas (1, 11), percussion (1, 11)
 * Mo' Funky Element – drum break sample (1)
 * Jay Sherman-Godfrey – acoustic guitar (3), electric slide guitar (3)
 * Steve Calhoon – drums (6)
 * Lyle Workman – lead guitar (6)
 * Ralph Farris – viola (8)
 * Amy Allison – vocal (8)
 * Steve Light – vibraphone (9)
 * Julian Koster – singing saw (10)
 * Ron Caswell – tuba (12)
 * Amanda Homi – vocals (13)

Technical
 * Pat Dillett – producer
 * They Might Be Giants – producers
 * Kurt Hoffman – string and horn arranger (1)
 * Tom Durack – mixing (1–3, 5–6)
 * Artie Smith – drum production
 * Tony Gillis – engineer
 * Greg Thompson – engineer
 * David Goodermuth – engineer
 * Albert Caiati – engineer
 * Peter Dilg – producer (12)
 * UE Nastasi – mastering
 * Barbara Glauber (Heavy Meta) – design
 * Beverly Joel – design assistant
 * James Wojcik – photography
 * Jonathan Hoefler – They Might Be Giants typeface

title: Factory Showroom


text:
Richard Harding Davis

Richard Harding Davis (April 18, 1864 – April 11, 1916) was an American journalist and writer of fiction and drama, known foremost as the first American war correspondent to cover the Spanish–American War, the Second Boer War, and World War I. His writing greatly assisted the political career of Theodore Roosevelt. He also played a major role in the evolution of the American magazine. His influence extended to the world of fashion, and he is credited with making the clean-shaven look popular among men at the turn of the 20th century.

Biography
Davis was born on April 18, 1864, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His mother Rebecca Harding Davis was a prominent writer in her day. His father, Lemuel Clarke Davis, was himself a journalist and edited the Philadelphia Public Ledger. As a young man, Davis attended the Episcopal Academy. In 1882, after an unhappy year at Swarthmore College, Davis transferred to Lehigh University, where his uncle, H. Wilson Harding, was a professor. While at Lehigh, Davis published his first book, The Adventures of My Freshman (1884), a collection of short stories. Many of the stories had originally appeared in the student magazine the Lehigh Burr. In 1885, Davis transferred to Johns Hopkins University.

After college, his father helped him gain his first position as a journalist at the Philadelphia Record, but he was soon dismissed. After another brief position at the Philadelphia Press, Davis accepted a better-paying position at the New York Evening Sun where he gained attention for his flamboyant style and his writing on controversial subjects such as abortion, suicide and execution. He first attracted attention in May to June 1889, by reporting on the devastation of Johnstown, Pennsylvania, following the destructive flood. He added to his reputation by reporting on other noteworthy events such as the first electrocution of a criminal (the execution of William Kemmler in 1890).

Davis became a managing editor of Harper's Weekly, and was one of the world's leading war correspondents at the time of the Second Boer War in South Africa. As an American, he had the opportunity to see the war first-hand from both the British and Boer perspectives. Davis also worked as a reporter for the New York Herald, The Times, and Scribner's Magazine.

He was popular among a number of leading writers of his time, and is considered the model for illustrator Charles Dana Gibson's dashing "Gibson man", the male equivalent of his famous Gibson Girl. He is mentioned early in Sinclair Lewis' book Dodsworth as the example of an exciting, adventure-seeking legitimate hero.

Davis had success with his 1897 novel Soldiers of Fortune, which he turned into a play written by Augustus Thomas. His novel was filmed twice, in 1914 and in 1919 by Allan Dwan. The 1914 version starring Dustin Farnum was shot in the Cuban locations that Davis used in his novel, and Davis was present during the filming.

During the Spanish–American War, Davis was on a United States Navy warship when he witnessed the shelling of Matanzas, Cuba, a part of the Battle of Santiago de Cuba. His story made headlines, but as a result, the Navy prohibited reporters from being aboard any American naval vessel for the rest of the war.

Davis was a good friend of Theodore Roosevelt, and he helped create the legend surrounding the Rough Riders, of which he was made an honorary member. Some have even gone so far to accuse Davis of involvement in William Randolph Hearst's alleged plot to have started the war between Spain and the United States in order to boost newspaper sales; however, Davis refused to work for Hearst after a dispute over fictionalizing one of his articles.

Despite his alleged association with yellow journalism, his writings of life and travel in Central America, Venezuela, the Caribbean, Rhodesia and South Africa during the Second Boer War were widely published. He was one of many war correspondents who covered the Russo-Japanese War from the perspective of the Japanese forces.

Davis later reported on the Salonika front of the First World War, where he was arrested by the Germans as a spy, but released.

Personal life
Davis was married twice, first to Cecil Clark, an artist, in 1899, and, following their 1912 divorce, to Bessie McCoy, an actress and vaudeville performer, who is remembered for her signature "Yama Yama Man" routine. Davis and Bessie had a daughter, Hope.

Davis died of a heart attack on April 11, 1916, while on the telephone. It was seven days before his 52nd birthday. He was interred at Leverington Cemetery in Philadelphia. His friend and fellow author John Fox, Jr. was surprised by his sudden death, writing, "He was so intensely alive that I cannot think of him as dead—and I do not. He is just away on another of those trips and it really seems queer that I shall not hear him tell about it." His wife Bessie would also die young, at age 42 in 1931 from intestinal problems.

Legacy
A plaque denoting his boyhood home can be seen at 21st and Chancellor Streets in Philadelphia.

Davis's Gallegher and Other Stories became the series Gallegher, starring Roger Mobley, Edmond O'Brien, and Harvey Korman on Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color on NBC.

Partial list of works

 * Stories for Boys (1891)
 * Cinderella and Other Stories (1891)
 * Gallegher, and Other Stories (1891)
 * The West from a Car Window (1892)
 * Van Bibber and Others (1892)
 * The Rulers of the Mediterranean (1893)
 * The Exiles, and Other Stories (1894)
 * Our English Cousins (1894)
 * About Paris (1895)
 * The Princess Aline (1895)
 * Three Gringos in Central America and Venezuela (1896)
 * Soldiers of Fortune (1897)
 * Cuba in War Time (1897)
 * Dr. Jameson's Raiders vs. the Johannesburg Reformers (1897)
 * A Year From a Reporter's Note-Book (1898)
 * The King's Jackal (1898)
 * The Cuban & Porto Rican Campaigns (1899)
 * The Lion and the Unicorn (1899)
 * With Both Armies (1900), on the Second Boer War
 * In the Fog (1901)
 * Ranson's Folly (1902)
 * Captain Macklin: His Memoirs (1902)
 * The Bar Sinister (1903)
 * The Dictator (1904)
 * Real Soldiers of Fortune (1906) – an early biography of Winston Churchill (1874–1965), Major Frederick Russell Burnham, D.S.O., (1861–1947), Chief of Scouts, General Henry Douglas McIver (1841–1907), James Harden-Hickey (1854–1898), Captain Philo McGiffen (1860–1897), William Walker (1824–1860)
 * The Congo and coasts of Africa (1907)
 * The Scarlet Car (1906)
 * Vera, the Medium (1908)
 * The White Mice (1909)
 * Once Upon A Time  (1910)
 * Notes of a War Correspondent (1910)
 * The Nature Faker (1910)
 * The Red Cross Girl (1912)
 * The Lost Road and Other Stories (1913)
 * Peace Manoeuvres; a Play in One Act (1914)
 * The Boy Scout (1914)
 * With the Allies (1914)
 * With the French in France and Salonika (1916)
 * The Man Who Could Not Lose (1916)
 * The Deserter (1917)

Filmography

 * Ranson's Folly (1910 film), directed by Edwin S. Porter (1910, short film, based on the novel Ranson's Folly)
 * Her First Appearance, directed by Ashley Miller (1910, short film, based on the short story Her First Appearance)
 * Gallegher (film), directed by Ashley Miller (1910, short film, based on the novel Gallegher)
 * The Winning of Miss Langdon, directed by Edwin S. Porter (1910, short film, based on the short story A Peace Manoeuvres)
 * The Romance of Hefty Burke (1910, short film, based on the short story The Romance in the Life of Hefty Burke)
 * An Eventful Evening (1911, short film, based on the short story Miss Civilization)
 * The Disreputable Mr. Raegen (1911, short film, based on the short story My Disreputable Friend Mr. Raegen)
 * How the Hungry Man Was Fed (1911, short film, based on the short story The Hungry Man Was Fed)
 * Van Bibber's Experiment, directed by Ashley Miller (1911, short film, based on the short story Van Bibber's Burglar)
 * The Crucial Test (1911 film) (1911, short film, based on the short story A Derelict)
 * How Sir Andrew Lost His Vote, directed by Ashley Miller (1911, short film, based on the novel In the Fog)
 * Eleanor Cuyler (1912, short film, based on the novel Eleanor Cuyler)
 * Soldiers of Fortune (1914 film), directed by William F. Haddock (1914, based on the novel Soldiers of Fortune)
 * The Man Who Could Not Lose, directed by Carlyle Blackwell (1914, based on the novel The Man Who Could Not Lose)
 * The Last Chapter, directed by William Desmond Taylor (1914, based on the short story An Unfinished Story)
 * The Lost House, directed by Christy Cabanne (1915, short film, based on the short story The Lost House)
 * Captain Macklin, directed by John B. O'Brien (1915, based on the novel Captain Macklin: His Memoirs)
 * The Dictator, directed by Oscar Eagle (1915, based on the play The Dictator)
 * The Galloper, directed by Donald MacKenzie (director) (1915, based on the play The Galloper)
 * Ranson's Folly, directed by Richard Ridgely (1915, based on the novel Ranson's Folly)
 * Playing Dead (1915 film), directed by Sidney Drew (1915, based on the novel Playing Dead)
 * The Buried Treasure of Cobre, directed by Frank Beal (1916, short film, based on the novel The Buried Treasure of Cobre)
 * Somewhere in France, directed by Charles Giblyn (1916, based on the novel Somewhere in France)
 * Vera, the Medium, directed by Broncho Billy Anderson (1917, based on the novel Vera, the Medium)
 * The Boy Who Cried Wolf, directed by Edward H. Griffith (1917, based on the short story The Boy Who Cried Wolf)
 * Billy and the Big Stick, directed by Edward H. Griffith (1917, based on the short story Billy and the Big Stick)
 * Gallegher, directed by Ben Turbett (1917, short film, based on the novel Gallegher)
 * The Scarlet Car, directed by Joseph De Grasse (1917, based on the novel The Scarlet Car)
 * The Trap, directed by Frank Reicher (1919, based on the play The Trap)
 * Soldiers of Fortune, directed by Allan Dwan (1919, based on the novel Soldiers of Fortune)
 * The Men of Zanzibar, directed by Rowland V. Lee (1922, based on the short story The Men of Zanzibar)
 * Restless Souls, directed by Robert Ensminger (1922, based on the novel Playing Dead)
 * The Dictator, directed by James Cruze (1922, based on the play The Dictator)
 * The Scarlet Car, directed by Stuart Paton (1923, based on the novel The Scarlet Car)
 * The Exiles, directed by Edmund Mortimer (1923, based on the novel The Exiles)
 * Stephen Steps Out, directed by Joseph Henabery (1923, based on the novel The Grand Cross of the Crescent)
 * Cupid's Fireman, directed by William A. Wellman (1923, based on the short story Andy M'Gee's Chorus Girl)
 * 24 short films starring Earle Foxe (1924–1927, based on the "Van Bibber" short stories)
 * Honor Among Men, directed by Denison Clift (1924, based on the novel The King's Jackal)
 * White Mice, directed by Edward H. Griffith (1926, based on the novel The White Mice)
 * Ranson's Folly, directed by Sidney Olcott (1926, based on the novel Ranson's Folly)
 * Almost Human, directed by Frank Urson (1927, based on the novel The Bar Sinister)
 * Let 'Er Go Gallegher, directed by Elmer Clifton (1928, based on the novel Gallegher)
 * Driftwood, directed by Christy Cabanne (1928, based on the short story Driftwood)
 * Fugitives, directed by William Beaudine (1929, based on the novel The Exiles)
 * It's a Dog's Life, directed by Herman Hoffman (director) (1955, based on the novel The Bar Sinister)
 * Gallegher (TV series) (1965–1967, Disney TV series, 10 episodes, based on the novel Gallegher)

title: Richard Harding Davis


text:
Mount Kailash

Mount Kailash (also Kailasa; Kangrinboqê or Gang Rinpoche; གངས་རིན་པོ་ཆེ; ; कैलास, ) is a mountain in Ngari Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region of China. It lies in the Kailash Range (Gangdisê Mountains) of the Transhimalaya, in the western part of the Tibetan Plateau. The peak of Mount Kailash is located at an elevation of 6638 m, near the trijunction between China, India and Nepal.

Mount Kailash is located close to Manasarovar and Rakshastal lakes. The sources of four rivers: Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra, and Karnali lie in the vicinity of the region. Mount Kailash is sacred in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Bon religion. People from India, China, Nepal and other countries in the region undertake a pilgrimage to the mountain. The pilgrimage generally involves trekking towards Lake Mansarovar and a circumambulation of Mount Kailash.

While the mountain has been surveyed by climbers in the past, there have been no recorded successful ascent of the mountain. The climbing of the mountain is prohibited by the Chinese government due to its religious significance.

Etymology
The mountain is known as "'" (कैलास; var. ' कैलाश) in Sanskrit. The name could have been derived from the word "" (केलास), which means "crystal".

In his Tibetan-English dictionary, Sarat Chandra Das states that 'kai la ca' from Sanskrit  is used to denote the mountain. The mountain is also called as Gang Rinpoche (Tibetan: གངས་རིན་པོ་ཆེ་; ) or Gang Tise locally. Gang Rinpoche means "snow jewel mountain" with Kang (or Gang) being the Tibetan word meaning white mountain (snow peak) and rinpoche is an honorific meaning "precious one". Gang Tise means "mountain of ice or cool".

"'Tibetan Buddhists call it Kangri Rinpoche; 'Precious Snow Mountain'. Bon texts have many names: Water's Flower, Mountain of Sea Water, Nine Stacked Swastikas Mountain. For Hindus, it is the home of the Hindu god Shiva...for Jains it is where their first leader was enlightened; for Buddhists, the navel of the universe; and for adherents of Bon, the abode of the sky goddess Sipaimen.'"

Geography and topography

Mount Kailash is located in Ngari Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region of China. It lies in the Gangdisê Mountains (also called as Kailash Range) of the Transhimalaya, in the western part of the Tibetan Plateau. The peak of Mount Kailash is situated at an elevation of 6638 m. The region is located north of the western trijunction of the border between China, India and Nepal.

The major rivers rising from the western Gangdise mountains are the Yarlung Tsangpo (which becomes the Brahmaputra), the Indus, the Sutlej and the Karnali, a tributary of Ganges. All these river systems originate within a 60 km stretch in the region. Mount Kailash is located on the banks of Manasarovar, the highest freshwater lake in the world. Mansarovar is a high altitude fresh water lake spread over an area of 320 km2 and overflows into Rakshastal, an endorheic salt water lake.

Geology
The region around Mount Kailash are remnants of large ice sheets that covered the region during the Quaternary period, the last of which retreated about 10,000 years ago. The mountain might be a large metasedimentary roof pendant supported by a base of granite. The Indus headwaters area is typified by wide-scale faulting of metamorphosed late-Cretaceous to mid-Cenozoic sedimentary rocks interspersed with igneous Cenozoic granitic rocks. The Cenozoic rocks represent offshore marine limestones deposited before subduction of the Tethys oceanic crust. These sediments were deposited on the southern margin of the Asia block during subduction of the Tethys oceanic crust before the collision between the Indian and Asian continents. It also consists of sand dunes covering late Eocene volcanic forms interspersed with Cretaceous and Eocene sediments.

Climate
The weather is fairly dry during April to June with day time temperatures of 5 to 17 °C and night time temperatures of 0 to 6 °C. The temperature starts to reduce in October and winters have much lower day time temperatures ranging from -4 to 0 °C and further lower in the night reaching up to -20 °C with January being the coldest. Monsoons bring rain from late June to August with cold winds.

Global warming is described as happening three times faster (by about 0.3 C per decade) on the Tibetan Plateau than anywhere else in the world with lesser snowfall in the winter. According to locals, the land around Mount Kailash has been growing warmer in recent years with winters not as cold as it used to be. The retreating glaciers and thawing of the permafrost in the Tibet region might lead to uncertain effects on water resources of the region. These effects along with population explosion and tourism has put severe stress on the fragile ecosystem around Mount Kailash.

The intergovernmental organisation International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) is involved in a trans boundary project called the Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation and Development Initiative in the region around Mount Kailash. The organization is involved in ongoing efforts to generate climate data, and to device sustainable ways for people.

Mountaineering

In 1926, Hugh Ruttledge, the deputy commissioner of Almora, visited the area to meet the Garpon (local Tibetan leader) of Ngari. As the Garpon was away, he circumbulated Mount Kailash while studying it. He estimated the mountain to be 6000 m high and described it as "utterly unclimbable". He thought about an ascent along the northeast ridge. Ruttledge had been exploring the area with Colonel R. C. Wilson, who was on the other side of the mountain with a Sherpa named Tseten. As per Wilson, Tseten told him that the southeast ridge represented a feasible route to the summit. Wilson explained that although they attempted to climb the mountain, they ran into heavy snowfall, making the ascent impossible.

Herbert Tichy visited the area in 1936, attempting to climb the mountain. When he asked the local people whether Kailash was climbable, a Garpon replied: "Only a man entirely free of sin could climb Kailash. And he wouldn't have to actually scale the sheer walls of ice to do it – he'd just turn himself into a bird and fly to the summit". Italian mountaineer Reinhold Messner was given the opportunity by the Chinese government to climb the mountain in the mid-1980s. But he reportedly declined, saying "If we conquer this mountain, then we conquer something in people's souls. I would suggest they go and climb something a little harder." In 2001, permission was denied to a Spanish team, who requested to climb the peak. Chinese authorities promised that any climbing activities on Mount Kailash were strictly prohibited. , there have been no known successful ascents of the mountain.

Religious significance

Mount Kailash is considered sacred in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Bon religions.

Hinduism
In Hinduism, the mountain is traditionally recognized as the abode of Shiva, who resides there along with his consort goddess Parvati and their children, Ganesha and Kartikeya. Hindus believe Kailash to be the Mount Meru, which is considered to be a stairway to heaven, where the devas reside. According to the Hindu scriptures Agamas and sculptural depictions, Ravana attempted to uproot the mountain which was in his way, which enraged Shiva, who pressed his toe upon the mountain, trapping Ravana in between. Ravana sang hymns in praise of Shiva for a thousand years before he was released. This representation of Shiva is also referred to as Ravananugraha (meaning "form showing favour to Ravana") while seated upon Mount Kailash. As per the Mahabharata, the Pandavas along with their wife Draupadi, traveled towards the summit of Mount Kailash as a means to reach the heaven but only Yudhishthira, who was accompanied by a dog, was able to make it.

While the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata mention Kailash and Mansarovar, it is described further in the various Puranas, linking Kailash to Mount Meru. The Vedas and the Vishnu Purana (2nd century BCE) state that it lies in the center of the world surrounded by six mountain ranges similar to a lotus. It also states that the mountain is eight thousand leagues tall and the four faces were made of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli. Shiva is described as sitting in a lotus position, engaged in meditation within the confines of a mountain.

Jainism
According to Ashtapada, Rishabhanatha, the founder of Jainism attained moksha (liberation) on Mount Kailash. It is believed by Jains that after Rishabhanatha attained nirvana, his son emperor Bharata had constructed three stupas and twenty four shrines of the 24 tirthankaras in the region with their idols studded with precious stones and named it Sinhnishdha and also attained moksha from Kailash. Later in order to protect the mountain, large pits were dug around the mountain and River Ganges was made to flow through it. As per Jain traditions, the 24th and the last Tirthankara, Mahavira, was taken to the summit of Meru by Indra shortly after his birth, after putting his mother into deep slumber. There he was anointed with precious unctions.

Buddhism and Bon

As per Buddhist texts, Mount Kailash (Kailasa) is known as the mythological Mount Meru. Kailash is central to its cosmology, and a major pilgrimage site for some Buddhist traditions. In Buddhism, Kailash represents the father of the world and lake Mansarovar symbolizes the mother. Numerous sites in the region are associated with Padmasambhava, who is credited with establishing Tantric Buddhism in Tibet in the 8th century CE. It is also regarded as the home of the deity Demchung.

Vajrayana Buddhists believe that saint Milarepa (c. 1052) had a challenge with Naro Böncham, a follower of Bön religion of Tibet. The two engaged in a battle of wits with neither able to gain a decisive advantage. Finally, it was agreed that whoever could reach the summit of Kailash first would be the victor. While Naro sat on his magic drum to climb up the slope, Milarepa reached the summit riding on the rays of the Sun, thus winning the contest. He also gave the nearby mountain, since known as Bönri bequeathing it to Bön.

For the Bon people, the mountain was the centre of the ancient Bon empire of Zhang Zhung and the location where its founder descended from heaven to the earth. As per Bon beliefs, the mountain is the source of the mythical Lion, Horse, Peacock and Elephant Rivers which flowed in the four cardinal directions.

Pilgrimage
Due to its perceived sacredness to various religions, people undertake a pilgrimage called yatra to the mountain. It is one of the oldest of the oldest pilgrimage routes, which has been in existence for over a thousand years.

Pilgrimage to the mountain increased in the 1930s but was affected later due to both China and the British Empire claiming the region. Religious pilgrimages to Mount Kailas and Manasarovar were permitted by China after the its occupation of Tibet in 1950-51. While pilgrimage from India was guaranteed by the 1954 Sino-Indian Agreement, access was restricted after the subsequent 1959 Tibetan uprising and the borders were closed after the Sino-Indian War in 1962. After nearly two decades, pilgrimage from India was allowed in 1981 after an agreement between the governments of India and China. The pilgirmage was suspended for three years since 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The route was re-opened in 2023 with new regulations.

Since the reopening of the pilgrimage route from India in 1981, the numbers of pilgrims going on the annual yatra has grown considerably. Before the closure in 2020, several thousand pilgrims from India were going to this pilgrimage every year. Since 2015, aspiring pilgrims from India are required to apply in advance to the Ministry of External Affairs and specific number of passes are issued to pilgrims post computerized selection at random. In India, the pilgrimage is organized by the Government of India and is permitted between June and September. Pilgrims from India travel through two routes opened for the purpose with border crossings at Lipu Lekh pass in Uttarakhand and the Nathu La pass in Sikkim. Since 2020, a motorable road is available till the Lipu Lekh pass through the Indian side of the Mahakali valley, before crossing over to China. The Nathu La route was opened in 2015 and involves travelling to Gangtok before crossing the Nathu La pass into China.

Since 2015, the pilgrimage from Nepal is generally done from the nearby Humla district in northwestern Nepal. The April 2015 Nepal Earthquake resulted in the closure of the border crossing at Tatopani-Zangmu. Pilgrims also pray to Mount Kailash from within Nepal where it is visible from the Lapcha La pass above the Limi valley on a clear day. Another route exists through the crossing at Rasuwa-Gyirong. Pilgrims could reach Lhasa by air before the journey to Lake Manasarovar or Darchen.

The pilgrimage involves trekking towards Lake Mansarovar and a circumambulation of Mount Kailash. The path around Mount Kailash is 53 km long. The circumambulation is made in a clockwise direction by Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains, while Bönpos circumambulate the mountain in a counterclockwise direction. The circumambulation usually begins and ends at Darchen, a small outpost located at an elevation of 4670 m with the highest point at the Drölma pass situated at 5650 m.

Trekking around the mountain can be done on foot with support from a pony or domestic yak. The circumbulation takes three days on average with the first day trek from Darchen to Dirapuk gompa for about 20 km, followed by a journey from Dirpauk to Zutulphuk via the Drölma pass for 16 km and the final trek from Zutulphuk back to Darchen. The most extreme method of doing the circumambulation (called Kora) in Tibetan Buddhism is performed by doing full body-length prostrations over the entire stretch around the mountain. The pilgrim bends down, kneels, prostrates full-length, makes a mark with her fingers, rises to her knees, prays, and then crawls forward on hands and knees to the mark made by her fingers before repeating the process. With this method, the pilgrimage takes three weeks on average to complete.

Pilgrims believe that doing a circumambulation of Mount Kailash is a spiritually beneficial practice that can bring various positive effects, such as the cleansing of one's sins. Each circumambulation is considered to have fulfilled a life-death cycle. There are a lot of stupas, flag poles, Buddhist monasteries and praying stations along the route. Many of the cultural artifacts along the route was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution of China from 1966 to 1976. Hindus take a ritual bath in the Manasarovar before doing circumambulation. Hindu text Skanda Purana states that "There are no mountains like the Himalaya, for in them are Kailas and Mansarovar. As the dew is dried up by the morning Sun, so are the sins of mankind dried up by the sight of the Himalaya."

Tibetan Buddhist pilgrims often chant om mani padme hum (jewel in the lotus) and sing nyelu songs while crossing the Dolma La pass which are believe to proclaim a fraternity amongst all pilgrims who cross paths on a Kailash pilgrimage. As the mountain is located in a remote area of the Himalayas, very few facilities exist to aid during the pilgrimage. For varied reasons for the different faiths that revere the mountain, setting foot on the slopes of the mountain or attempting to climb it is forbidden by law.

title: Mount Kailash


text:
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