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User talk:Dduck

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help, see How to edit a page. You can also see how to format pages at Manual of Style. You can practise this in Dundee FC, an non-wiki-formated article! If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or post a question in my talk page. Cheers, Muriel Gottrop 13:06, 7 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Arabs frae Dundee
Hi DDuck, how r u doing? Hope you don't mind but I added some stuff to the Dundee United FC article. There was actually already a Dundee United article but I have merged them at your article which is the better name for such a topic.

Hope you enjoy adding to Wikipedia!

PS Are you an Arab yersel? Big Jim Fae Scotland

 * I'm beginning to get the hang of this thing. I'm amazed how sometimes I finish working on something and just minutes later someone is adding bits, moving pages, and wikifying away. To answer your question, I no football fan, but everything to do with my home town, Dundee, holds some significance for me. :) - Iain

Bonnie Dundee
Hi again Iain, how r u? Just to let you know you will have loads of punters on at you moaning about yer Bonnie Dundee article cos it is out of context. I think you should add a bit about it before reproducing the text. Just a suggestion mate. :o) Big Jim

 * Hi Big man, I'm fine. I've added a short introduction, with links to all over. That should keep a'body happy. Dduck 20:40, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Hi, it seems some of the information you contributed was listed at Request for immediate removal of copyright violation and has since been removed. Please note that it is not permitted to copy from other sites unless you have permission to use that material under the terms of the GFDL. See Copyrights for further information. Angela. 01:37, Jan 24, 2004 (UTC)

 * Well it wasn't technically a copyright violation, but it was borderline plagiarism. I rewrote the material and added a reference to each article so that it can no longer be considered to be plagiarism. Dduck, please be more careful in the future. :) --mav 03:39, 25 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Weblog
The weblog link on your user page appears to be inactive. --Commander Keane 11:54, 17 Apr 2005 (UTC)

File source problem with File:Tayrailbridge.jpg
Thank you for uploading File:Tayrailbridge.jpg. I noticed that the file's description page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is unclear. If you did not create this file yourself, you will need to specify the owner of the copyright. If you obtained it from a website, please add a link to the website from which it was taken, together with a brief restatement of that website's terms of use of its content. However, if the copyright holder is a party unaffiliated from the website's publisher, that copyright should also be acknowledged.

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ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:54, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Nomination of Government and binding theory for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Government and binding theory is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

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title: User talk:Dduck


text:
Serre duality

In algebraic geometry, a branch of mathematics, Serre duality is a duality for the coherent sheaf cohomology of algebraic varieties, proved by Jean-Pierre Serre. The basic version applies to vector bundles on a smooth projective variety, but Alexander Grothendieck found wide generalizations, for example to singular varieties. On an n-dimensional variety, the theorem says that a cohomology group $$H^i$$ is the dual space of another one, $$H^{n-i}$$. Serre duality is the analog for coherent sheaf cohomology of Poincaré duality in topology, with the canonical line bundle replacing the orientation sheaf.

The Serre duality theorem is also true in complex geometry more generally, for compact complex manifolds that are not necessarily projective complex algebraic varieties. In this setting, the Serre duality theorem is an application of Hodge theory for Dolbeault cohomology, and may be seen as a result in the theory of elliptic operators.

These two different interpretations of Serre duality coincide for non-singular projective complex algebraic varieties, by an application of Dolbeault's theorem relating sheaf cohomology to Dolbeault cohomology.

Algebraic theorem
Let X be a smooth variety of dimension n over a field k. Define the canonical line bundle $$K_X$$ to be the bundle of n-forms on X, the top exterior power of the cotangent bundle:
 * $$K_X=\Omega^n_X={\bigwedge}^n(T^*X).$$

Suppose in addition that X is proper (for example, projective) over k. Then Serre duality says: for an algebraic vector bundle E on X and an integer i, there is a natural isomorphism:
 * $$H^i(X,E)\cong H^{n-i}(X,K_X\otimes E^{\ast})^{\ast}$$

of finite-dimensional k-vector spaces. Here $$\otimes$$ denotes the tensor product of vector bundles. It follows that the dimensions of the two cohomology groups are equal:
 * $$h^i(X,E)=h^{n-i}(X,K_X\otimes E^{\ast}).$$

As in Poincaré duality, the isomorphism in Serre duality comes from the cup product in sheaf cohomology. Namely, the composition of the cup product with a natural trace map on $$H^n(X,K_X)$$ is a perfect pairing:
 * $$H^i(X,E)\times H^{n-i}(X,K_X\otimes E^{\ast})\to H^n(X,K_X)\to k.$$

The trace map is the analog for coherent sheaf cohomology of integration in de Rham cohomology.

Differential-geometric theorem
Serre also proved the same duality statement for X a compact complex manifold and E a holomorphic vector bundle. Here, the Serre duality theorem is a consequence of Hodge theory. Namely, on a compact complex manifold $$X$$ equipped with a Riemannian metric, there is a Hodge star operator:

 * $$\star: \Omega^p(X) \to \Omega^{2n-p}(X),$$

where $$\dim_{\mathbb{C}} X = n$$. Additionally, since $$X$$ is complex, there is a splitting of the complex differential forms into forms of type $$(p,q)$$. The Hodge star operator (extended complex-linearly to complex-valued differential forms) interacts with this grading as:

 * $$\star: \Omega^{p,q}(X) \to \Omega^{n-q,n-p}(X).$$

Notice that the holomorphic and anti-holomorphic indices have switched places. There is a conjugation on complex differential forms which interchanges forms of type $$(p,q)$$ and $$(q,p)$$, and if one defines the conjugate-linear Hodge star operator by $$\bar{\star}\omega = \star \bar{\omega}$$ then we have:

 * $$\bar{\star} : \Omega^{p,q}(X) \to \Omega^{n-p,n-q}(X).$$

Using the conjugate-linear Hodge star, one may define a Hermitian $$L^2$$-inner product on complex differential forms, by:
 * $$\langle \alpha, \beta \rangle_{L^2} = \int_X \alpha \wedge \bar{\star}\beta,$$

where now $$\alpha \wedge \bar{\star}\beta$$ is an $$(n,n)$$-form, and in particular a complex-valued $$2n$$-form and can therefore be integrated on $$X$$ with respect to its canonical orientation. Furthermore, suppose $$(E,h)$$ is a Hermitian holomorphic vector bundle. Then the Hermitian metric $$h$$ gives a conjugate-linear isomorphism $$E\cong E^*$$ between $$E$$ and its dual vector bundle, say $$\tau: E\to E^*$$. Defining $$\bar{\star}_E (\omega \otimes s) = \bar{\star} \omega \otimes \tau(s)$$, one obtains an isomorphism:

 * $$\bar{\star}_E : \Omega^{p,q}(X,E) \to \Omega^{n-p,n-q}(X,E^*)$$

where $$\Omega^{p,q}(X,E)= \Omega^{p,q}(X) \otimes \Gamma(E)$$ consists of smooth $$E$$-valued complex differential forms. Using the pairing between $$E$$ and $$E^*$$ given by $$\tau$$ and $$h$$, one can therefore define a Hermitian $$L^2$$-inner product on such $$E$$-valued forms by:
 * $$\langle \alpha, \beta \rangle_{L^2} = \int_X \alpha \wedge_h \bar{\star}_E \beta,$$

where here $$\wedge_h$$ means wedge product of differential forms and using the pairing between $$E$$ and $$E^*$$ given by $$h$$.

The Hodge theorem for Dolbeault cohomology asserts that if we define:

 * $$\Delta_{\bar{\partial}_E} = \bar{\partial}_E^* \bar{\partial}_E + \bar{\partial}_E \bar{\partial}_E^*$$

where $$\bar{\partial}_E$$ is the Dolbeault operator of $$E$$ and $$\bar{\partial}_E^*$$ is its formal adjoint with respect to the inner product, then:
 * $$H^{p,q}(X,E) \cong \mathcal{H}^{p,q}_{\Delta_{\bar{\partial}_E}} (X).$$

On the left is Dolbeault cohomology, and on the right is the vector space of harmonic $$E$$-valued differential forms defined by:

 * $$\mathcal{H}^{p,q}_{\Delta_{\bar{\partial}_E}} (X) = \{\alpha \in \Omega^{p,q}(X,E) \mid \Delta_{\bar{\partial}_E} (\alpha) = 0\}.$$

Using this description, the Serre duality theorem can be stated as follows: The isomorphism $$\bar{\star}_E$$ induces a complex linear isomorphism:

 * $$H^{p,q}(X,E) \cong H^{n-p,n-q}(X,E^*)^*.$$

This can be easily proved using the Hodge theory above. Namely, if $$[\alpha]$$ is a cohomology class in $$H^{p,q}(X,E)$$ with unique harmonic representative $$\alpha \in \mathcal{H}^{p,q}_{\Delta_{\bar{\partial}_E}} (X)$$, then:

 * $$(\alpha, \bar{\star}_E \alpha) = \langle \alpha, \alpha \rangle_{L^2} \ge 0$$

with equality if and only if $$\alpha = 0$$. In particular, the complex linear pairing:

 * $$(\alpha, \beta) = \int_X \alpha \wedge_h \beta$$

between $$\mathcal{H}^{p,q}_{\Delta_{\bar{\partial}_E}} (X)$$ and $$\mathcal{H}^{n-p,n-q}_{\Delta_{\bar{\partial}_{E^*}}} (X)$$ is non-degenerate, and induces the isomorphism in the Serre duality theorem.

The statement of Serre duality in the algebraic setting may be recovered by taking $$p=0$$, and applying Dolbeault's theorem, which states that:

 * $$H^{p,q}(X,E) \cong H^q(X, \boldsymbol{\Omega}^p \otimes E)$$

where on the left is Dolbeault cohomology and on the right sheaf cohomology, where $$\boldsymbol{\Omega}^p $$ denotes the sheaf of holomorphic $$(p,0)$$-forms. In particular, we obtain:

 * $$H^q(X,E) \cong H^{0,q}(X,E) \cong H^{n,n-q}(X,E^*)^* \cong H^{n-q}(X, K_X \otimes E^*)^*$$

where we have used that the sheaf of holomorphic $$(n,0)$$-forms is just the canonical bundle of $$X$$.

Algebraic curves
A fundamental application of Serre duality is to algebraic curves. (Over the complex numbers, it is equivalent to consider compact Riemann surfaces.) For a line bundle L on a smooth projective curve X over a field k, the only possibly nonzero cohomology groups are $$H^0(X,L)$$ and $$H^1(X,L)$$. Serre duality describes the $$H^1$$ group in terms of an $$H^0$$ group (for a different line bundle). That is more concrete, since $$H^0$$ of a line bundle is simply its space of sections.

Serre duality is especially relevant to the Riemann–Roch theorem for curves. For a line bundle L of degree d on a curve X of genus g, the Riemann–Roch theorem says that:
 * $$h^0(X,L)-h^1(X,L)=d-g+1.$$

Using Serre duality, this can be restated in more elementary terms:
 * $$h^0(X,L)-h^0(X,K_X\otimes L^*)=d-g+1.$$

The latter statement (expressed in terms of divisors) is in fact the original version of the theorem from the 19th century. This is the main tool used to analyze how a given curve can be embedded into projective space and hence to classify algebraic curves.

Example: Every global section of a line bundle of negative degree is zero. Moreover, the degree of the canonical bundle is $$2g-2$$. Therefore, Riemann–Roch implies that for a line bundle L of degree $$d>2g-2$$, $$h^0(X,L)$$ is equal to $$d-g+1$$. When the genus g is at least 2, it follows by Serre duality that $$h^1(X,TX)=h^0(X,K_X^{\otimes 2})=3g-3$$. Here $$H^1(X,TX)$$ is the first-order deformation space of X. This is the basic calculation needed to show that the moduli space of curves of genus g has dimension $$3g-3$$.

Serre duality for coherent sheaves
Another formulation of Serre duality holds for all coherent sheaves, not just vector bundles. As a first step in generalizing Serre duality, Grothendieck showed that this version works for schemes with mild singularities, Cohen–Macaulay schemes, not just smooth schemes.

Namely, for a Cohen–Macaulay scheme X of pure dimension n over a field k, Grothendieck defined a coherent sheaf $$\omega_X$$ on X called the dualizing sheaf. (Some authors call this sheaf $$K_X$$.) Suppose in addition that X is proper over k. For a coherent sheaf E on X and an integer i, Serre duality says that there is a natural isomorphism:
 * $$\operatorname{Ext}^i_X(E,\omega_X)\cong H^{n-i}(X,E)^*$$

of finite-dimensional k-vector spaces. Here the Ext group is taken in the abelian category of $O_X$-modules. This includes the previous statement, since $$\operatorname{Ext}^i_X(E,\omega_X)$$ is isomorphic to $$H^i(X,E^*\otimes \omega_X)$$ when E is a vector bundle.

In order to use this result, one has to determine the dualizing sheaf explicitly, at least in special cases. When X is smooth over k, $$\omega_X$$ is the canonical line bundle $$K_X$$ defined above. More generally, if X is a Cohen–Macaulay subscheme of codimension r in a smooth scheme Y over k, then the dualizing sheaf can be described as an Ext sheaf:
 * $$\omega_X\cong\mathcal{Ext}^r_{O_Y}(O_X,K_Y).$$

When X is a local complete intersection of codimension r in a smooth scheme Y, there is a more elementary description: the normal bundle of X in Y is a vector bundle of rank r, and the dualizing sheaf of X is given by:
 * $$\omega_X\cong K_Y|_X\otimes {\bigwedge}^r(N_{X/Y}).$$

In this case, X is a Cohen–Macaulay scheme with $$\omega_X$$ a line bundle, which says that X is Gorenstein.

Example: Let X be a complete intersection in projective space $${\mathbf P}^n$$ over a field k, defined by homogeneous polynomials $$f_1,\ldots,f_r$$ of degrees $$d_1,\ldots,d_r$$. (To say that this is a complete intersection means that X has dimension $$n-r$$.) There are line bundles O(d) on $${\mathbf P}^n$$ for integers d, with the property that homogeneous polynomials of degree d can be viewed as sections of O(d). Then the dualizing sheaf of X is the line bundle:
 * $$\omega_X=O(d_1+\cdots+d_r-n-1)|_X,$$

by the adjunction formula. For example, the dualizing sheaf of a plane curve X of degree d is $$O(d-3)|_X$$.

Complex moduli of Calabi–Yau threefolds
In particular, we can compute the number of complex deformations, equal to $$\dim(H^1(X,TX))$$ for a quintic threefold in $$\mathbb{P}^4$$, a Calabi–Yau variety, using Serre duality. Since the Calabi–Yau property ensures $$K_X \cong \mathcal{O}_X$$ Serre duality shows us that $$H^1(X,TX) \cong H^2(X, \mathcal{O}_X\otimes \Omega_X) \cong H^2(X, \Omega_X)$$ showing the number of complex moduli is equal to $$h^{2,1}$$ in the Hodge diamond. Of course, the last statement depends on the Bogomolev–Tian–Todorov theorem which states every deformation on a Calabi–Yau is unobstructed.

Grothendieck duality
Grothendieck's theory of coherent duality is a broad generalization of Serre duality, using the language of derived categories. For any scheme X of finite type over a field k, there is an object $$\omega_X^{\bullet}$$ of the bounded derived category of coherent sheaves on X, $$D^b_{\operatorname{coh}}(X)$$, called the dualizing complex of X over k. Formally, $$\omega_X^{\bullet}$$ is the exceptional inverse image $$f^!O_Y$$, where f is the given morphism $$X\to Y=\operatorname{Spec}(k)$$. When X is Cohen–Macaulay of pure dimension n, $$\omega_X^{\bullet}$$ is $$\omega_X[n]$$; that is, it is the dualizing sheaf discussed above, viewed as a complex in (cohomological) degree −n. In particular, when X is smooth over k, $$\omega_X^{\bullet}$$ is the canonical line bundle placed in degree −n.

Using the dualizing complex, Serre duality generalizes to any proper scheme X over k. Namely, there is a natural isomorphism of finite-dimensional k-vector spaces:
 * $$\operatorname{Hom}_X(E,\omega_X^{\bullet})\cong \operatorname{Hom}_X(O_X,E)^*$$

for any object E in $$D^b_{\operatorname{coh}}(X)$$.

More generally, for a proper scheme X over k, an object E in $$D^b_{\operatorname{coh}}(X)$$, and F a perfect complex in $$D_{\operatorname{perf}}(X)$$, one has the elegant statement:
 * $$\operatorname{Hom}_X(E,F\otimes \omega_X^{\bullet})\cong\operatorname{Hom}_X(F,E)^*.$$

Here the tensor product means the derived tensor product, as is natural in derived categories. (To compare with previous formulations, note that $$\operatorname{Ext}^i_X(E,\omega_X)$$ can be viewed as $$\operatorname{Hom}_X(E,\omega_X[i])$$.) When X is also smooth over k, every object in $$D^b_{\operatorname{coh}}(X)$$ is a perfect complex, and so this duality applies to all E and F in $$D^b_{\operatorname{coh}}(X)$$. The statement above is then summarized by saying that $$F\mapsto F\otimes \omega_X^{\bullet}$$ is a Serre functor on $$D^b_{\operatorname{coh}}(X)$$ for X smooth and proper over k.

Serre duality holds more generally for proper algebraic spaces over a field.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Serre duality


text:
Biosphere (musician)

Geir Aule Jenssen (born 30 May 1962) is a Norwegian electronic musician and composer who records as Biosphere. A resident of Tromsø within the Arctic Circle, Jenssen is well known for ambient and ambient house pieces, often inspired by Arctic or mountain settings, and his use of loops and peculiar samples from science fiction and natural sources. His 1997 album Substrata was voted by the users of the Hyperreal.org website in 2001 as the best all-time classic ambient album. He has also composed several film scores.

Prior to Biosphere (1962–1991)
Jenssen was born on 30 May 1962 in Tromsø, a city within the Arctic Circle in the northernmost portion of Norway. He was inspired by the music of artists such as New Order, Depeche Mode, Wire, and Brian Eno, which he described as "like discovering a new universe—a universe which I wanted to be a part of". In 1983, he bought his first synthesizer and composed his first piece of music, taking influence from his archaeological studies, later stating "Studying the Ice Age and Stone Age has definitely influenced my music." In 1984 Jenssen issued his first album, "E-Man", released on cassette only on the Norwegian indie label Likvider and credited to E-man.

In 1985, Jenssen was part of the newly created Norwegian moody synth trio Bel Canto with Nils Johansen and singer Anneli Drecker. The band signed with Belgian label Crammed Discs and to Nettwerk in North America, and relocated to Brussels. Jenssen, however, soon returned to Tromsø, collaborating with the other band members by post, and continuing with his solo work. Bel Canto released two albums while Jenssen was a member, White-Out Conditions and Birds of Passage. In 1990, he left the band in order to pursue a different music style altogether, and began using a sampler.

Throughout the late 1980s, Jenssen used the moniker Bleep, under which he produced various 12" records, now releasing records via the Crammed Discs subsidiary SSR. His early influences were from acid house and New Beat music. Released in 1990, The North Pole by Submarine was the only album recorded as Bleep. Further singles followed in 1990 and 1991 before Jenssen abandoned the Bleep moniker and again changed musical direction.

As Biosphere (1991–present)
Following the release of The North Pole by Submarine, Jenssen began releasing his music as Biosphere on obscure Norwegian compilation albums. His first Biosphere releases were the 12-inch single "The Fairy Tale" and the album Microgravity, both of which were rejected by SSR as unmarketable. Microgravity was released in 1991 on the Norwegian label Origo Sound, and saw wider release via the R&S Records subsidiary Apollo in 1992, to much critical acclaim. In 1992, Jenssen contributed "I'll Strangle You" to Hector Zazou's Sahara Blue project. In 1993, Jenssen collaborated with German ambient musician Pete Namlook on The Fires of Ork.

In 1994, the second Biosphere album, Patashnik was released, through which Jenssen continued to explore his ambient-house stylings to an even greater extent, employing the theme of a lost cosmonaut drifting aimlessly through space. Patashnik contained the first hints of the reduction in beat-driven song structure that would mark later Biosphere releases. Unlike the first album, Patashnik was quickly picked up by a comparatively large international audience, which brought Biosphere greater recognition. Jenssen also recorded as Cosmic Explorer, scoring a hit in Belgium with the EP The Hubble.

In 1995, Levi Strauss & Co. was searching for a new angle to add to their television advertisement campaign (which up to that point had never featured electronic music), and they decided to use the uptempo track "Novelty Waves" from Patashnik. Shortly thereafter, "Novelty Waves" was released as a single (featuring remixes by various other artists), and managed to chart in several countries, reaching #51 in the United Kingdom. Although Jenssen never regretted his approval for use of the track, he also never sought this kind of fame and subsequently turned down various requests by his record company and peers to collaborate with well-known techno and drum 'n bass artists or to create a follow-up album in the same style. During that same year, Biosphere contributed the song "The Seal and the Hydrophone" exclusively to Apollo 2 – The Divine Compilation released by Apollo Records.

Substrata (1997) is a purely atmospheric ambient Biosphere album, released on All Saints Records. Substrata, which marked Jenssen's embarkation towards an intensely minimal style, is not only often considered to be Jenssen's best work to date, but is also seen as one of the all-time classic ambient albums. Substrata contains samples from the American TV show Twin Peaks.

In 2000, Jenssen released Cirque on his new home Touch, an ambient album driven by muffled beats, samples, and minimal atmospherics. Though Cirque briefly revisited territory covered by earlier Biosphere releases, the rhythm section throughout the album remains an element of the background, unlike Jenssen's first two Biosphere releases, wherein the drums occupied a dominating proportion of the foreground.

In 2002, he released Shenzhou, the fifth full-length album under the name Biosphere. This album was a more abstract work, comparable to Aphex Twin's 1994 album Selected Ambient Works Volume II. The material on the album draws from elongated, pitch-shifted loops taken from Debussy's La Mer (The Sea), and Jeux.

Released in 2004, Autour de la Lune stands as the most minimal and austere Biosphere album to date. The drones employed on this album are comparable to Coil's 1998 album Time Machines in their timbre and slow rate of change. The bulk of this work was originally commissioned and broadcast in September 2003 by Radio France Culture for a musical evocation of Jules Verne.

In 2006, Jenssen released Dropsonde, a half beatless, half rhythmic album composed of jazz rhythms evocative of Miles Davis' 1970s jazz fusion works. A partial vinyl sampler was released a few months earlier in 2005.

In 2009, Biosphere issued Wireless: Live at the Arnolfini, Bristol, his first live album, containing new tracks such as "Pneuma" and "Pneuma II".

Jenssen has scored a number of films, including Eternal Stars (1993) and Insomnia (1997). He collaborated with German ambient composer Pete Namlook on Fires of Ork, and has also worked with Jah Wobble's Invaders of the Heart and with Bobby Bird of Higher Intelligence Agency. In 2010, two soundtracks were announced on Biosphere's website, for German film "Im Schatten" and Norwegian "NOKAS".

On 27 June 2011, Geir Jenssen released the album N-Plants, inspired by nuclear energy and nuclear plants in Japan.

In 2016, Jenssen released Departed Glories as Biosphere. The thematic focus of the album draws inspiration from the defence of Kraków from Nazi invasion during the Second World War. Jenssen conceived of the album while living in the city.

On 5 February 2021, Jenssen released the electronic-classical album Angel's Flight which features twelve tracks based on Beethoven's String Quartet No. 14.

In January 2022, Jenssen released Shortwave Memories as Biosphere. The album marked a sonic departure from Jenssen's previous work - using manually-programmed analogue synthesizers from the late 70s and early 80s to create a more vintage sound.

On 14 October 2022, Jenssen released Substrata (Alternative Versions) on Biophon Records, featuring ten alternative versions picked from the Substrata recording sessions that took place between 1995 and 1996.

Live
Biosphere regularly performs live during electronic music festivals and in clubs throughout Europe and various other locales around the world. Live performances usually consist of Jenssen performing improvisations or variations on newer tracks on a laptop while video art is projected behind him; for example, full-screen video art was projected in his Picturehouse cinema tour in April 2006. Although these performances are rarely tied specifically to a recent album release, the uptempo material from the Bleep and Microgravity/Patashnik era is occasionally featured in Biosphere performances.

In May 2004, Biosphere's first United States performance took place in Detroit.

In 2008 Jenssen announced a year-long break from touring due to his reported hatred of "airports, security checks, unhealthy food, air conditioning, hotels, etc.". However he resumed concert activity in 2009 and 2011.

Other interests
Jenssen is also an active climber and mountaineer. This hobby is an inspiration on his work, as well as a source of natural sound samples. His highest feat was in 2001, climbing the Cho Oyu (Himalaya, 8201 meters) without oxygen; in 2006, he thus released Cho Oyu 8201m – Field Recordings from Tibet (as Geir Jenssen).

Solo discography
Albums as E-Man
 * E-Man (1984)

Albums as Bleep
 * The North Pole by Submarine (1990)

Albums as Biosphere
 * Microgravity (1991)
 * Patashnik (1994)
 * Substrata (1997)
 * Cirque (2000)
 * Substrata² (2-CD reissue of Substrata with Man with a Movie Camera, 2001) (Touch)
 * Shenzhou (2002) (Touch)
 * Autour de la Lune (2004) (Touch)
 * Dropsonde (2006) (Touch)
 * Wireless: Live at the Arnolfini, Bristol (2009) (Touch)
 * N-Plants (2011) (Touch)
 * L'incoronazione di Poppea (2012)
 * Patashnik 2 (tracks recorded between 1992 and 1994) (2014)
 * Das Subharchord EP (2014)
 * Departed Glories (2016)
 * Black Mesa EP (2017)
 * The Petrified Forest (2017)
 * The Hilvarenbeek Recordings (2018)
 * The Senja Recordings (2019)
 * Angel's Flight (2021)
 * Shortwave Memories (2022)
 * Substrata [Alternative Versions] (2022)
 * Inland Delta (2023)

Soundtracks and sounds
 * Eternal Stars (1993 film soundtrack)
 * Man with a Movie Camera (1996 festival soundtrack, 2001 release in Substrata²)
 * Insomnia (1997 soundtrack for the original Norwegian version of Insomnia)
 * Cho Oyu 8201m – Field Recordings from Tibet (as Geir Jenssen, 2006) (Ash International)
 * Nokas (2010 film soundtrack, as Geir Jenssen)
 * Kill by Inches (soundtrack to the 1999 movie Kill by Inches, released 2012)
 * Stromboli - field recording from the Stromboli crater edge - 2013 12" single released on Touch
 * Sound Installations (2000-2009) (2015)
 * The Good Nurse (2022 film score)

Collaboration discography
Usually as "Geir Jenssen" instead of "Biosphere":
 * White-Out Conditions (1987, in Bel Canto)
 * Birds of Passage (1989, in Bel Canto)
 * Fires of Ork (1993, with Pete Namlook)
 * Polar Sequences (1996, live, with Higher Intelligence Agency)
 * Nordheim Transformed (1998, with Deathprod, remixing Arne Nordheim)
 * Biosystems: The Biosphere Remixes (1999, collection of 8 other bands)
 * Birmingham Frequencies (2000, live, with Higher Intelligence Agency)
 * Fires of Ork II (2000, with Pete Namlook)
 * Stator (2015, with Deathprod) (Touch)

title: Biosphere (musician)


text:
User talk:Randyroe

http://www.justgetitdone.com

title: User talk:Randyroe


text:
Santander Department

Santander is a department of Colombia. Santander inherited the name of one of the nine original states of the United States of Colombia. It is located in the central northern part of the country, borders the Magdalena River to the east, Boyacá to the south and southeast, the Norte de Santander Department to the northeast, the Cesar Department to the north, the Bolivar and Antioquia Departments to the west. Its capital is the city of Bucaramanga.

Pre-Columbian era
Prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, the territory now known as Santander was inhabited by Amerindian ethnic groups: Muisca, Chitareros, Laches, Yariguí, Opón, Carare and Guanes.

Their political and social structure was based on cacicazgos, a federation of tribes led by a cacique, with different social classes. Their main activity was planting maize, beans, yuca, arracacha, cotton, agave, tobacco, tomato, pineapple and guava, among others. Their agricultural skills were sufficiently developed to take advantage of the different mountainous terrains. The Guanes utilized terraces and an artificial system of irrigation. They had a knowledge of arts and crafts based on ovens to produce ceramics. They had cotton to make clothing and accessories such as hats and bags.

Colonization
Spanish conqueror Antonio de Lebrija led the first expedition through the area in 1529. The area was later invaded c. 1532 by German Ambrosius Ehinger in a quest to find El Dorado. This disrupted or destroyed many of the Amerindian villages. Some ethnic groups like the Yariguíes, Opones, and Carares fought the conquerors until they became extinct. Explorer Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada later went to the area in an effort to appease the tribes. The colonization process in the area was started by Martín Galeano who founded the village of Vélez on July 3, 1539 and Pedro de Ursúa and Ortún Velázquez de Velasco founded the village of Pamplona (now part of the Norte de Santander Department) in 1549.

Once the Amerindian tribes were dominated, the Spanish organized the territory based on Cabildos (councils) to maintain the dominance and administer justice in the conquered territory. Amerindians were assimilated and subject to the encomienda regime to work in agriculture, manufacturing goods, and mines. These two villages functioned as centers for the Cabildos' territories. In 1636 the Cabildo of Vélez was transferred to a new jurisdiction centered on the village of Girón, comprising from the Sogamoso River, and Río del Oro to the Magdalena River. The village of San Gil was created in 1689, segregated from the Jurisdiction of Vélez. In 1789 the village of Socorro was also segregated from Vélez and they were all put under the mandate of the Province of Tunja, a subdivision of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. On July 9, 1795 the corregimiento of Vélez – San Gil – Socorro was created due to the unsustainability of the Province of Tunja, and local government was established in the village of Socorro.

Culture
The department's culture descends from a mix of Spanish and Chibcha influences, particularly in the south where the Muisca controlled territory and in the Chicamocha Canyon where the Guane are situated. During the colony and independence war times, people from Santander were especially recognized for their bravery in battle and their policy of "not even a step back". Soldiers from Santander were valued and respected but also difficult to control as they were, in general, more politically aware than people from other regions and therefore prone to question orders and law.

Cuisine
Santander cuisine includes regional specialties and food from the Department's capital city of Bucaramanga and other cities such as Cepita.

The most famous dishes are sancocho, oreada (dried cured beef), mute, egg broth, yellow arepa, masato, guarapo, aguapanela, tamale, and the exotic culona ants.

Goat
Usually accompanied by pepitoria and yellow arepa, it can be eaten fried, oven-baked, or dried.

Arepa Santandereana
Flat corn bread. This dish includes chicharron (pork belly-fat) and cooked peeled corn. When possible, the peeled corn is roasted in clay pots, to provide even more flavor.

Mute
A soup prepared with a variety of ingredients such as red meat, tripe, beef ribs, grains, potatoes, pasta, corn, and spices. Due to the ingredients included, it has a thick consistency.

Pepitoria
Pepitoria is prepared with the intestines of a goat or lamb. Served with rice, yuca, and potatoes.

Santander tamale
The tamale is a dish that is eaten in various parts of Colombia, but in Santander it is prepared with peeled corn dough and filled with beef, chicken or pork, chickpeas, onions, and paprika. It is then wrapped in banana leaf giving it a rectangular shape.

Oreada meat
This is a marinated, salted, sun-dried beef ready to grill. It is a classic dish that can be found in many restaurants as a specialty, served with yucca and chili.

Hormigas Culonas (Big Bum Ants)
A traditional dish of the Guane indigenous inhabitants of this region. The head, wings, and legs of these giant ants are removed, leaving the body and bum to be fried and seasoned with salt.

Bocadillo Veleño
Created in the town of Vélez, the Veleño Sandwich is prepared with the pulp of ripe Guava and is wrapped in a bijao leaf, giving it a characteristic flavor. It is sometimes paired with goat cheese.

Broth
A soup prepared with water, potatoes, toast, coriander, and egg (no milk or cream) and enjoyed for breakfast or lunch. There is also a variation called changua or chingua, which is normally prepared with water, potatoes, milk, cream and coriander. Sometimes broth (caldo) and changua comes with chicken or beef. Not to be confused with ajiaco, which is eaten in Bogota with creamy potato, huascas (green herb) and shredded chicken.

Obleas wafers
The wafer is a superfine cookie that is spread with Arequipe (caramel, sweetened milk spread). Over time, other ingredients such as cheese, blackberry, chocolate, etc. have been incorporated.

Masato
Masato is a fermented drink that is prepared with rice, water, wheat flour, sugar, cloves, and cinnamon. All this together forms a desired drink to accompany fritters or meat patties.

Chorizo from the San José Valley
12 km from San Gil, on the road that leads to Charalá, you will find a town called Valle de San José. People from this region say this is the best Colombian Chorizo, but people from Santa Rosa de Cabal, in the Coffee Zone, will tell you the same.

Beverages

 * Chicha de maiz, chicha from maize
 * Chicha de corozo, chicha from palm nut
 * Masato Fermented rice drink.
 * Goat milk
 * Guarapo
 * Aguardiente, alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane (White rum)
 * Panela's limonada, lemonade drink with sugar cane.

Artists
Among the most outstanding and representative artists of the Colombian Santander Department are Segundo Agelvis, Mario Hernández Prada, Carlos Gómez Castro, Martín Quintero, Oscar Rodríguez Naranjo and Pacheco de Suratá.

Notable people

 * Manuela Beltrán (1724-??) a Neogranadine woman who organized a peasant revolt against excess taxation in 1780
 * Juan Eloy Valenzuela y Mantilla, (Spanish Wiki) (1756-1834) a Colombian priest and botanist, worked on the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada which classified plants and wildlife.
 * María Antonia Santos Plata (1782 in Pinchote – 1819 in Socorro, Santander) was a Neogranadine peasant, rebel leader and heroine
 * Geo von Lengerke (1827 − 1882) was a German engineer, merchant and landowner.
 * Ofelia Uribe de Acosta (1900 in Oiba – 1988 in Bogota) was a Colombian suffragist.
 * Oscar Rodríguez Naranjo (1907–2006) a painter from Socorro, Santander Department, Colombia. His works include mainly oil paintings and sculptures
 * José de Jesús Pimiento Rodríguez (1919 in Zapatoca - 2019) a Colombian Prelate of the Catholic Church
 * Virginia Gutiérrez de Pineda (1921 in El Socorro, Santander - 1999 in Bogotá) was a Colombian anthropologist who pioneered work on Colombian family and medical anthropology
 * Reiner Bredemeyer (1929 in Vélez, Santander − 1995) a German composer
 * Carlos Ardila Lülle (1930–2021, born in Bucaramanga) a Colombian entrepreneur, founded Organización Ardila Lülle.
 * Carlos Prada Sanmiguel (1939−2013) a Colombian Roman Catholic bishop.
 * Patricia Ariza (born 1948 in Vélez, Santander) a Colombian poet, playwright and actor

Provinces
The department is subdivided into provinces:

 * Metropolitana Province
 * North Soto Province
 * Comunera Province
 * Guanentá Province
 * Vélez Province
 * García Rovira Province
 * Mares Province
 * Carare-Opón Province

Municipalities

 * Aguada
 * Albania
 * Aratoca
 * Barbosa
 * Barichara
 * Barrancabermeja
 * Betulia
 * Bolívar
 * Bucaramanga
 * Cabrera
 * California
 * Capitanejo
 * Carcasí
 * Cepitá
 * Cerrito
 * Charalá
 * Charta
 * Chima
 * Chipatá
 * Cimitarra
 * Concepción
 * Confines
 * Contratación
 * Coromoro
 * Curití
 * El Carmen
 * El Guacamayo
 * El Peñón
 * El Playón
 * Encino
 * Enciso
 * Florián
 * Floridablanca
 * Galán
 * Gámbita
 * Girón
 * Guaca
 * Guadalupe
 * Guapotá
 * Guavatá
 * Güepsa
 * Hato
 * Jesús María
 * Jordán
 * La Belleza
 * Landázuri
 * La Paz
 * Lebrija
 * Los Santos
 * Macaravita
 * Málaga
 * Matanza
 * Mogotes
 * Molagavita
 * Ocamonte
 * Oiba
 * Onzaga
 * Palmar
 * Palmas del Socorro
 * Páramo
 * Piedecuesta
 * Pinchote
 * Puente Nacional
 * Puerto Parra
 * Puerto Wilches
 * Rionegro
 * Sabana de Torres
 * San Andrés
 * San Benito
 * San Gil
 * San Joaquín
 * San José de Miranda
 * San Miguel
 * Santa Bárbara
 * Santa Helena del Opón
 * San Vicente de Chucurí
 * Simacota
 * Socorro
 * Suaita
 * Sucre
 * Suratá
 * Tona
 * Valle de San José
 * Vélez
 * Vetas
 * Villanueva
 * Zapatoca

title: Santander Department


text:
Talk:Indian cuisine

Semi-protected edit request on 25 December 2022
Indian cuisine is ranked fifth on the global list of the best cuisines for 2022, according to Taste Atlas. https://www.ndtv.com/feature/indias-cuisine-ranked-fifth-in-the-list-of-best-cuisines-of-the-world-3636735/amp/1 Somnath107 (talk) 12:31, 25 December 2022 (UTC)

India is ranked fifth on the global list of the best cuisines for 2022, according to Taste Atlas. https://www.ndtv.com/feature/indias-cuisine-ranked-fifth-in-the-list-of-best-cuisines-of-the-world-3636735/amp/1 Somnath107 (talk) 12:33, 25 December 2022 (UTC)

 * Where this should be added? RealAspects (talk) 07:43, 26 December 2022 (UTC)

Commons files used on this page or its Wikidata item have been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons files used on this page or its Wikidata item have been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 12:45, 16 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Chhattisgarhi Chila roti and tomato Chutni.png
 * Chhattisgarhi Thali.png

Semi-protected edit request on 14 October 2023
Remove "Tourism in the area adds an international aspect, hence vegetarianism has become quite favored." There's no such statement in the cited source. 2402:8100:3166:1655:3C58:9B48:5040:DCD9 (talk) 19:51, 14 October 2023 (UTC)
 * ✅ It looked like an unreliable source anyways. —TechnoSquirrel69 (sigh) 19:46, 15 October 2023 (UTC)

Refs

 * https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/north-indian-diet-high-salt-phosphorus-low-potassium-protein-study-red-flag-9237342/

 * https://desiindianrecipes.com/

 Bookku   (talk) 04:20, 29 March 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 16 May 2024
{Indian Cuisines} Glocalrecipes (talk) 19:34, 16 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate.  JTP (talk • contribs) 19:39, 16 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Indian cuisine


text:
Internet exchange point

Internet exchange points (IXes or IXPs) are common grounds of IP networking, allowing participant Internet service providers (ISPs) to exchange data destined for their respective networks. IXPs are generally located at places with preexisting connections to multiple distinct networks, i.e., datacenters, and operate physical infrastructure (switches) to connect their participants. Organizationally, most IXPs are each independent not-for-profit associations of their constituent participating networks (that is, the set of ISPs which participate at that IXP). The primary alternative to IXPs is private peering, where ISPs directly connect their networks to each other.

IXPs reduce the portion of an ISP's traffic that must be delivered via their upstream transit providers, thereby reducing the average per-bit delivery cost of their service. Furthermore, the increased number of paths available through the IXP improves routing efficiency (by allowing routers to select shorter paths) and fault-tolerance. IXPs exhibit the characteristics of the network effect.

History

Internet exchange points began as Network Access Points or NAPs, a key component of Al Gore's National Information Infrastructure (NII) plan, which defined the transition from the US Government-paid-for NSFNET era (when Internet access was government sponsored and commercial traffic was prohibited) to the commercial Internet of today. The four Network Access Points (NAPs) were defined as transitional data communications facilities at which Network Service Providers (NSPs) would exchange traffic, in replacement of the publicly financed NSFNET Internet backbone. The National Science Foundation let contracts supporting the four NAPs, one to MFS Datanet for the preexisting MAE-East in Washington, D.C., and three others to Sprint, Ameritech, and Pacific Bell, for new facilities of various designs and technologies, in New York (actually Pennsauken, New Jersey), Chicago, and California, respectively. As a transitional strategy, they were effective, providing a bridge from the Internet's beginnings as a government-funded academic experiment, to the modern Internet of many private-sector competitors collaborating to form a network-of-networks, transporting Internet bandwidth from its points-of-production at Internet exchange points to its sites-of-consumption at users' locations.

This transition was particularly timely, coming hard on the heels of the ANS CO+RE controversy, which had disturbed the nascent industry, led to congressional hearings, resulted in a law allowing NSF to promote and use networks that carry commercial traffic, prompted a review of the administration of NSFNET by the NSF's Inspector General (no serious problems were found), and caused commercial operators to realize that they needed to be able to communicate with each other independent of third parties or at neutral exchange points.

Although the three telco-operated NAPs faded into obscurity relatively quickly after the expiration of the federal subsidies, MAE-East, thrived for fifteen more years, and its west-coast counterpart MAE-West continued for more than twenty years.

Today, the phrase "Network Access Point" is of historical interest only, since the four transitional NAPs disappeared long ago, replaced by hundreds of modern Internet exchange points, though in Spanish-speaking Latin America, the phrase lives on to a small degree, among those who conflate the NAPs with IXPs.

Function

The primary purpose of an IXP is to allow networks to interconnect directly, via the exchange, rather than going through one or more third-party networks. The primary advantages of direct interconnection are cost, latency, and bandwidth.

Traffic passing through an exchange is typically not billed by any party, whereas traffic to an ISP's upstream provider is. The direct interconnection, often located in the same city as both networks, avoids the need for data to travel to other cities—and potentially on other continents—to get from one network to another, thus reducing latency.

The third advantage, speed, is most noticeable in areas that have poorly developed long-distance connections. ISPs in regions with poor connections might have to pay between 10 or 100 times more for data transport than ISPs in North America, Europe, or Japan. Therefore, these ISPs typically have slower, more limited connections to the rest of the Internet. However, a connection to a local IXP may allow them to transfer data without limit, and without cost, vastly improving the bandwidth between customers of such adjacent ISPs.

Internet Exchange Points (IXPs) are public locations where several networks are connected to each other. Public peering is done at IXPs, while private peering can be done with direct links between networks.

Technical operations
A typical IXP consists of one or more network switches, to which each of the participating ISPs connect. Prior to the existence of switches, IXPs typically employed fiber-optic inter-repeater link (FOIRL) hubs or Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) rings, migrating to Ethernet and FDDI switches as those became available in 1993 and 1994.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) switches were briefly used at a few IXPs in the late 1990s, accounting for approximately 4% of the market at their peak, and there was an attempt by Stockholm-based IXP NetNod to use SRP/DPT, but Ethernet has prevailed, accounting for more than 95% of all existing Internet exchange switch fabrics. All Ethernet port speeds are to be found at modern IXPs, ranging from 10 Mb/second ports in use in small developing-country IXPs, to ganged 10 Gb/second ports in major centers like Seoul, New York, London, Frankfurt, Amsterdam, and Palo Alto. Ports with 100 Gb/second are available, for example, at the AMS-IX in Amsterdam and at the DE-CIX in Frankfurt.

Business operations
The principal business and governance models for IXPs include:
 * Not-for-profit association (usually of the participating ISPs)
 * Operator-neutral for-profit company (usually the operator of a datacenter hosting the IXP)
 * University
 * Government agency (often the communications ministry or regulator, at national scale, or municipal government, at local scale)
 * Unincorporated informal association of networks (defined by an open-ended multi-party contract, without independent legal existence)

The technical and business logistics of traffic exchange between ISPs is governed by bilateral or multilateral peering agreements. Under such agreements, traffic is exchanged without compensation. When an IXP incurs operating costs, they are typically shared among all of its participants.

At the more expensive exchanges, participants pay a monthly or annual fee, usually determined by the speed of the port or ports which they are using. Fees based on the volume of traffic are less common because they provide a counterincentive to the growth of the exchange. Some exchanges charge a setup fee to offset the costs of the switch port and any media adaptors (gigabit interface converters, small form-factor pluggable transceivers, XFP transceivers, XENPAKs, etc.) that the new participant requires.

Traffic exchange

Internet traffic exchange between two participants on an IXP is facilitated by Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) routing configurations between them. They choose to announce routes via the peering relationship – either routes to their own addresses or routes to addresses of other ISPs that they connect to, possibly via other mechanisms. The other party to the peering can then apply route filtering, where it chooses to accept those routes, and route traffic accordingly, or to ignore those routes, and use other routes to reach those addresses.

In many cases, an ISP will have both a direct link to another ISP and accept a route (normally ignored) to the other ISP through the IXP; if the direct link fails, traffic will then start flowing over the IXP. In this way, the IXP acts as a backup link.

When these conditions are met, and a contractual structure exists to create a market to purchase network services, the IXP is sometimes called a "transit exchange". The Vancouver Transit Exchange, for example, is described as a "shopping mall" of service providers at one central location, making it easy to switch providers, "as simple as getting a VLAN to a new provider". The VTE is run by BCNET, a public entity.

Advocates of green broadband schemes and more competitive telecommunications services often advocate aggressive expansion of transit exchanges into every municipal area network so that competing service providers can place such equipment as video on demand hosts and PSTN switches to serve existing phone equipment, without being answerable to any monopoly incumbent.

Since the dissolution of the Internet backbone and transition to the IXP system in 1992, the measurement of Internet traffic exchanged at IXPs has been the primary source of data about Internet bandwidth production: how it grows over time and where it is produced. Standardized measures of bandwidth production have been in place since 1996 and have been refined over time.

title: Internet exchange point


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Tuxedo Mask

Tuxedo Mask (タキシード仮面), also known as Mamoru Chiba (地場 衛), is a fictional character and one of the primary protagonists of the Sailor Moon media franchise created by Naoko Takeuchi. He disguises himself to support the series' central heroines, the Sailor Guardians. Wearing a mask to conceal his identity, he interferes with enemy operations, offers the Sailor Guardians advice, and sometimes physically aids them in battle. He is the guardian and protector of the Earth, thus making him a member of the Sailor Guardians.

Like the Sailor Guardians, Tuxedo Mask possesses a power item: a Sailor Crystal, which gives him guardianship over the planet Earth. He also has psychic powers, including psychometry and healing, which evolve and become important to the storyline in the manga, but which play only a minor role and remain static in the anime. Along with his primary love interest Sailor Moon, a significant player in much of the story, he has royal credentials in the "past life" storyline as well as in the future.

Profile
Mamoru Chiba first appears as a high-school student studying at Moto-Azabu High School. Before the beginning of the series, his parents are killed in a car crash on his sixth birthday, which revealed the memories of his previous life as Prince Endymion. Living alone, Mamoru befriends school student Usagi Tsukino. In the beginning of the series, dreams of Princess Serenity haunt Mamoru. Unaware of his dual-identity as Tuxedo Mask, he suffers painful visions whenever Usagi becomes endangered, and he transforms unknowingly into Tuxedo Mask. As Mamoru, he tries to piece together his strange dreams, and as Tuxedo Mask, he tries to remember his past and identity, while searching for Princess Serenity. He seeks the Legendary Silver Crystal in the belief that this will fully restore his previous memories. In the anime adaptation, he seeks it because Princess Serenity tells him to in a dream. Of all the characters, Mamoru gets brainwashed and captured the most throughout the series.

Mamoru and Usagi share romantic feelings well before they discover their identities. Once they became a couple, they remain deeply devoted to each other and their love survives many trials. In the manga they briefly show jealousy towards each other. Usagi always addresses him as "Mamo" (まもちゃん) throughout the series during this time-period (Chibiusa also addresses him with this nickname later on). After dating for two years, Mamoru gives Usagi an engagement ring at an airport. Five years later, Mamoru and Usagi marry. In the future, they become king and queen and have a child together whom they name "Small Lady", known in the majority of the series as "Chibiusa".

Mamoru struggles with his identity and function throughout the series, worrying first about his true nature, then later whether he gets in the way of the Sailor Guardians. A fair amount of subtle characterization is made for Mamoru, and later extending his role within the manga as to who he is. He also is given the power of psychometry, which also showed up in the anime, but was not given a name. This manifests in his ability to see and read dreams (such as Chibiusa's), to heal people and to monitor the status of the Earth. This does not develop fully until the Black Moon arc, and is used occasionally throughout the series.

In the original anime adaptation, Mamoru is a generally outgoing person, though somewhat acerbic, and appears as a college student. He demonstrates interests in a variety of subjects and emerges as smart. The musical Kakyu Ouhi Kourin shows that he is aspiring to become a doctor. He also "dates" Rei Hino for a short time before the revelation of all the past-life identities, though he believes they are just friends. This history stirs jealousy in Usagi in later seasons. Sailor Moon Crystal, the second anime adaptation, follows the manga continuity and thus has Mamoru as a high school student, without much interaction with Rei. Unlike the original anime, Mamoru and Usagi start getting along relatively quickly instead of having to warm up to each other.

Most of Sailor Moon's transformations and final victories come as a result of her and Tuxedo Mask cooperating together. In the final battle against the Dark Kingdom, Queen Metaria absorbs Sailor Moon and Tuxedo Mask into her body. However, they succeed in combining their powers through the Silver Crystal and destroy Queen Metalia from within. Tuxedo Mask also combines his power into Super Sailor Moon's last item with the rest of the Guardians using the Golden Crystal. In the Infinity story arc he combines his powers with Sailor Moon to create the next scepter. The episode in which this happens is The Rod of Love is born: Usagi's new transformation. The manga tends to show Mamoru as quiet, studious, mysterious and stoic. The student body of his high school often admires him for these qualities. The anime adaptation also tends to make him appear in every episode to save Sailor Moon's life. His attacks in the anime resemble those shown in the manga, but are not named.

In the musical adaptations, Mamoru protects Usagi and generally appears at her side. However, several of his relationships change in different settings: for example, one musical reveals Queen Beryl as Mamoru's fiancé from his time as Prince of the Earth. Associating with Silver Millennium was against Earth law, and Endymion violated this law when he fell in love with Princess Serenity. In this version of events, Serenity and Endymion are outlaws (similar to Romeo and Juliet) who drive an otherwise innocent woman, Beryl, to evil by making her jealous. Sailor Pluto also reveals that she is in love with Endymion, though she has contented herself with watching from afar.

Another variation occurs in the Ryuusei Densetsu musical, when Galaxia does not kill Mamoru, leaving him able to fight alongside the Sailor Guardians. Mamoru typically gets very involved in the Sailor Guardians' battles, fighting alongside them as opposed to his anime role of throwing a rose and then letting Sailor Moon deliver the finishing blow.

Tuxedo Mask always gets his own song; these songs vary from musical to musical. One musical featured multiple songs as both the present Mamoru appeared as Tuxedo Mask and later King Endymion appeared in disguise as Space Knight to look out for Chibiusa.

In the live-action series, Mamoru is a more silent, yet dedicated person. For example, he stays loyal to his girlfriend Hina, despite not loving her, on the basis of a promise they made as children. He searches for the Silver Crystal due to his amnesia: dreams told him that the magical object could restore his memories. To do this, he donned the Tuxedo Mask disguise and became a thief, searching for the Silver Crystal. Once he regained his memories of his past and present lives, he assumed his Endymion form to help the Sailor Guardians and tried his best to protect Usagi from the dangers of overusing the Silver Crystal. However, because of his dedication he has to join the Dark Kingdom or the Four Kings of Heaven will be killed. He also joins to keep a promise with Usagi that they will not destroy the planet. Learning that the Silver Crystal made Metaria stronger every time Sailor Moon used it, Endymion took Metaria into his body before succumbing to its dark power. Now an evil parody of himself, Dark Prince Endymion, he almost kills Sailor Mercury when Sailor Moon was forced to kill him to stop Metaria, causing Sailor Moon to kill herself but they survive. However they were saved. Mamo's pocket watch stops the sword from through Sailor Moon. His knights from a past life’gems saves him though the knights were killed. He revives once Sailor Moon manages to finally control the Crystal's power and destroys Metaria for good.

Aspects and forms
As a character with different incarnations, special powers, transformations, and a long lifetime spanning the Silver Millennium era and the 30th century, Mamoru gains multiple aspects and aliases as the series progresses.

Tuxedo Mask
"Tuxedo Mask" represents a disguise Mamoru created for himself in order to hunt for the Silver Crystal incognito and—later—to assist the Sailor Guardians in battle. In addition to his white mask, he wears a full-dress tailcoat (as opposed to the dinner jacket of an actual tuxedo) with a red-lined black cape, and in the anime and live-action series he carries a black baton which he uses like a sword. He takes the place of Sailor Earth.

The anime shows him standing on poles, defying gravity, and acting as a "swoop-in" type. He appears less developed, and has no special powers or named attacks, but remains a constant force in helping the Sailor Guardians throughout the series when they are in trouble. At the beginning he cannot control the transformation and his body automatically (and painfully) transforms if Sailor Moon is in danger. By the end of the first story arc he can willingly activate the transformation; in a stylized henshin sequence, this is indicated by pulling a rose out of his pocket which then changes colors, and his tuxedo and mask fly in. Later in the series he is shown transforming instantaneously.

In the manga he starts out as an ordinary thief trying to find the Silver Crystal. Luna initially tells Usagi not to trust him, but relents when they begin to fall in love and his true identity emerges. His function goes beyond that of the rescuer portrayed so often in the anime – it is frequently Sailor Moon who goes to his rescue, and he lends her strength, support, and guidance to use the Silver Crystal to defeat the enemies in return.

In the fourth story arc of the manga Helios reinforces Tuxedo Mask's role as a hero by revealing that he, as the Prince of the Golden Kingdom, Elysion, possesses a holy stone in the same way that the Princess of the Silver Millennium owns the Silver Crystal. This holy stone is the Golden Crystal, the Sailor Crystal of the Earth.

Prince Endymion
Prince Endymion (プリンス・エンディミオン) was the crown prince of planet Earth during the age of Silver Millennium and Mamoru's identity in his previous life. He resided in the Golden Kingdom, which protected the Earth from within. Even though he and Elysion's guardian Helios never met each other in person during that time, they shared the common desire to protect the planet. Endymion also had four guardians, the Four Kings of Heaven, who protected him. He and Princess Serenity fell in love, breaking the taboo between their peoples which was exploited by Queen Metaria when she corrupted the people of Earth. Being killed by Beryl when she attempted to kill Serenity, the 90s anime depicting his death with the princess committed by Metaria herself, Prince Endymion is reincarnated in the 20th century as Mamoru Chiba.

The manga often portrays Prince Endymion as the silent protagonist; his past life remains a mystery. Mamoru usually does not transform into Prince Endymion willfully, but is usually used as a power-up from his Tuxedo Mask form. Mamoru was under Metaria's thralldom, he assumed an evil form of Endymion and used his power to hypnotize Motoki Furuhata to assume he was his best friend "Endou". In the 90s anime, Mamoru can transform into Prince Endymion. Often this occurs when Sailor Moon transforms into Princess Serenity. As in the manga, he wears black armor.

In the live-action series, Endymion wears white, and after obtaining this form it becomes Mamoru's primary combat form. He gains the power of teleportation, a power shared by the Four Kings of Heaven. After he takes Metaria into his body, his armor and accessories blacken as he becomes known as Metaria Endymion with trace remnants of his white armor in his possessed state.

King Endymion
Later in the series Mamoru emerges as King Endymion, King of 30th-century Crystal Tokyo. He is the husband of Neo-Queen Serenity, and father of Chibiusa. As king of Crystal Tokyo his royal garments are a white and lavender tuxedo, as well as a royal staff. King Endymion's first appearance is at the end of manga and Crystal Act 18. He is not actually in a physical form but a spiritual entity guarding the Crystal Palace while his real body sleeps. During this time he helps to guide the Sailor Guardians and his past self against the Dark Moon Kingdom. It is then revealed to the Sailor Guardians that Mamoru never aged due to the Silver Crystal's power. It is the ghost of King Endymion who instructs Tuxedo Mask in the first use of his attack "Tuxedo La Smoking Bomber." Prince Endymion becomes King at the end of the battle with the Dead Moon Circus when Helios, the priest of his former home, Elysion, hands him his sacred golden crystal atop his king's staff. After this, both Tuxedo Mask and Sailor Moon turn into their respective future selves, all of the Sailor Guardians transform into their princess forms. However, after this point, Mamoru is not seen in this form again.

The anime shows King Endymion only in the future as the father of Small Lady and the King of Crystal Tokyo. He also appears as a computerized image when they first meet him. However, he is never shown to fight in battle. Diana makes a comment about the future King and Queen. She says in SuperS that the King and Queen like to fake being sick to be excused from attending important banquets and meetings. In the original English dub, he was not referred to as Endymion; only the "King of the Earth" or "The King" or "King Darien".

Moonlight Knight
Moonlight Knight (月影の騎士), clad in Arabian robes while possessing a saber and white roses, appears in 90s anime during the "Hell Tree" arc of Sailor Moon R. When Usagi wished to be a normal girl at the end of the 90s depiction of the "Dark Kingdom" arc, Mamoru was included with the Sailor Guardians' memories being magically sealed to resume civilian lives. But Mamoru's subconscious desire to protect Usagi caused his sealed memories to leave his body and assume physical form as Moonlight Knight, existing independently from Mamoru. Like with Tuxedo Mask, with even Mamoru a suspect, Usagi assumed every cute guy she met was Moonlight Knight before learning his true identity. It was only once Mamoru recovered his memories and regained his ability of becoming Tuxedo Mask that Moonlight Knight ceased to exist and reintegrated back into Mamoru's being.

Special powers and items
Even in civilian form, Mamoru demonstrates a variety of psychic powers throughout each series. In both the anime and manga he uses psychometry to read past, present, and future events through touch, and heals others' wounds through psychokinesis. Inconsistently, he is shown teleporting; just once in the anime while under Queen Beryl's power, and several times as Prince Endymion in the live-action series.

Mamoru also demonstrates a spiritual connection with Usagi: he can detect when she has transformed into Sailor Moon. Early on in the anime series, before they become friends, this connection forcibly transforms Mamoru into Tuxedo Mask so that he can protect her. In later episodes, he seems to have control over his transformations, although he still shows up shortly after the start of most of the battles, no matter how far away from the developing situation.

On one occasion the anime gives Tuxedo Mask a stylized transformation sequence, with his tuxedo and accessories forming around him as he flings a rose. He does not shout any special phrase, although his voice-actor jokingly ad-libbed the line "Tuxedo Power! Make up!" He also acquires a transformation in the live-action series, using the same phrase, which is a part of an outrageous story he tells Usagi about how he became Tuxedo Mask. This transformation is initiated with a special band-aid, and the sequence consists of Mamoru pulling on his pants and coat with dramatic flair.

Once transformed, Tuxedo Mask displays additional powers. In the anime shows these as mainly physical, while the manga depicts them as rare and magical. His iconic mainstay in the anime involves the use of roses, thrown like darts to injure or distract enemies. He can also twirl them or throw a wide array to block attacks, or can throw many at a time to pin an enemy down. He seems to have an unlimited supply of these roses, which are supernaturally strong and embed themselves in most any material, including concrete. In addition, when Mamoru takes on different forms or aspects, his roses change color accordingly. Tuxedo Mask's roses are red, the evil Prince Endymion's are black (and electrified), and the Moonlight Knight's are white.

Tuxedo Mask's secondary weapon, his cane, often serves as a sword, and he can extend its length, either to attack or to rescue people. As both Prince Endymion and Moonlight Knight, he uses real swords of different styles.

In the manga, Tuxedo Mask can blast energy from his hand, crying "Tuxedo La Smoking Bomber!" He also has a combination attack with his daughter, Sailor Chibi Moon: "Pink Sugar Tuxedo Attack." The musicals reproduce this attack, and in the second anime, he gradually learns to use it over the course of the first season.

Mamoru's most important magical possession in the manga, the Golden Crystal, serves as both his star seed and as the Sailor Crystal of the Earth. He uses it in combination with Sailor Moon's Silver Crystal to defend the Solar System. In the anime, although Mamoru has the "golden star seed" of Earth, it differs from the Golden Crystal, which instead is possessed by Pegasus and can be used by people with good intentions.

Development
Takeuchi designed the character of Tuxedo Mask as her own ideal of a man, describing him as "strong, silent, unshakeable, a little like Captain Harlock." Takeuchi based his design on Shonentai member Noriyuki Higashiyama and she also took inspiration from Kaito Kid. Takeuchi originally intended his persona as Tuxedo Mask to "have more mysteries and take a greater role."

The kanji in Mamoru's surname translate as "earth" (地) and "place" (場). Together, they form the term "local," with a pun on his identity as Endymion, Prince of Earth. His given name means "protect" (衛).

Originally Naoko Takeuchi used the codename "Mysterious 2098 Face" for Tuxedo Mask. She later expressed bewilderment at herself for the idea. Although Takeuchi had designed his costume herself, she found it difficult to draw, as it had many parts to it; she often forgot to draw parts of it in the early manga. She later had the same problem with Sailor Galaxia's costume.

Tōru Furuya stated in a making-of extra that he had an influence on the development of the anime persona of Tuxedo Mask. When asked about any differences between the anime and manga counterparts, he ad-libbed "I'm driving." Because of this, Tuxedo Mask became more comical.

The name Endymion fits particularly appropriately as a reference to Greek mythology. The Greek Endymion falls in love with Selene, the Greek goddess of the moon.

Actors
Mamoru Chiba was originally voiced by Tōru Furuya in the first Japanese anime series and related media. Furuya described the role as "very special to me." Mamoru was voiced by Kenji Nojima in Sailor Moon Crystal and all media since. In the DIC and Cloverway English adaptations, his name is changed to Darien Chiba and his voice is first provided by Rino Romano for the first eleven episodes, Toby Proctor for the next fifty-five episodes, and Vince Corazza for the rest of the series and its films. In the Viz Media English dub, Mamoru's voice is supplied by Robbie Daymond.

In the stage musicals, different actors and actreses have played Mamoru: Mizuki Sano, Yūta Mochizuki, Yuuta Enomoto, Kousei Amano, Hidemasa Edo, Kenji Urai, Yuu Shirota, Gyo Miyamoto, Yūga Yamato, Mikako Ishii, Riona Tatemichi, and Mitsuki Tenju. Creator Naoko Takeuchi has described Sano's portrayal of Mamoru as "a cute, sweet boy." Yūta Mochizuki, the longest-running among the musical actors, went on to perform as King Endymion during Fumina Hara's musicals.

In the live action series, Mamoru was portrayed by Jouji Shibue.

Reception and influence
The official Sailor Moon-character popularity-polls listed Mamoru Chiba, Tuxedo Mask, and Endymion as separate entities. In 1992, readers ranked Tuxedo Mask as the twelfth most popular character, Prince Endymion as the fifteenth most popular character, and Mamoru Chiba as the sixteenth most popular character out of thirty eight choices. One year later, now with fifty choices, King Endymion became the eighteenth most popular character, while Tuxedo Mask and Mamoru came in at twentieth and twenty-first respectively. Moonlight Knight, being an anime only form, was never included in the manga popularity polls. Tuxedo Mask was the fourth favorite male character in a May 1993 Animage poll, and Mamoru was seventh the following year.

Although Takeuchi herself had a soft spot for Mamoru, she has said that friends complained to her about Usagi being in love with "such a useless guy." He has been described as being both a "dashing hero" and a "boy-damsel in distress" by Jonathan Clements and Helen McCarthy. He has even been called a "liability" and a "burden," his relationship with Usagi being described as a child-mother relationship rather than that of a principality couple. Usagi is said to show him amae, or "indulgent love." When compared to male leads of male-targeted series, Mamoru, although unafraid of girls, seems uncomfortable with them. He also gives the impression of a "character who never laughs or has fun": "noble, passive and effectively totally ineffectual."

The image of the top hat and cape also influenced the early making of "Tuxedo Umino Mask" ("Tuxedo Melvin" in the original dub) in the anime. In this particular episode, Umino tries to impress Naru by dressing up like Tuxedo Mask. This image was also used later in the manga for Tubby Mask for the Chibiusa Picture Diary, Story of the Hammer Price Shrine. This character was based on Makoto Hanmatsuura, who bid ¥2 million in a charity auction for the Kobe earthquake disaster to be put in the Sailor Moon manga.

title: Tuxedo Mask


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Earl Attlee

Earl Attlee is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 16 December 1955 for Clement Attlee, the former Labour prime minister. At the same time he was made Viscount Prestwood, of Walthamstow in the County of Essex, which serves as the subsidiary title to the earldom and is also in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.

As of 2022, the titles are held by his grandson, the third Earl, who succeeded his father in 1991. He is one of the ninety elected hereditary peers that remain in the House of Lords after the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999. In contrast to his father and grandfather, the current Lord Attlee is a member of the Conservative Party.

Air Vice-Marshal Donald Laurence Attlee, CB, LVO, DL (2 September 1922 – 28 April 2021), was a nephew of the 1st Earl Attlee.

Earls Attlee (1955)

 * Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee (1883–1967)
 * Martin Richard Attlee, 2nd Earl Attlee (1927–1991)
 * John Richard Attlee, 3rd Earl Attlee (born 1956)

There is no heir to the earldom.

title: Earl Attlee


text:
Kent and East Sussex Railway

The Kent and East Sussex Railway (K&ESR) refers to both a historical private railway company in Kent and East Sussex in England, as well as a heritage railway currently running on part of the route of the historical company. The railway runs between Tenterden Town and Bodiam.

A separate railway preservation effort, the Rother Valley Railway, is restoring track at the western end between Robertsbridge Junction and Bodiam.

Background
By the mid 19th century, Tenterden was in the middle of a triangle of railway lines. The South Eastern Railway had opened its line from Redhill to Tonbridge on 12 July 1841. The line was opened as far as Headcorn on 31 August 1842 and to Ashford on 1 December 1843. The South Eastern Railway opened its line from Ashford to Hastings on 13 February 1851.

The third part of the triangle was the line between Tonbridge and Hastings which had opened as far as Tunbridge Wells on 24 November 1846, Robertsbridge on 1 September 1851, Battle on 1 January 1852 and to St Leonards on 1 February 1852, running powers over the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway's line to Hastings having been negotiated.

The Ashford–Hastings line had originally been promoted to run via Headcorn and Tenterden, but the government preferred the more southerly route. In 1855, a proposed railway from Headcorn via Cranbrook to Tenterden failed to obtain an act of Parliament. In 1864, a proposed railway from Paddock Wood via Cranbrook and Tenterden to Hythe (the Weald of Kent Railway) also failed to obtain an act of Parliament. A proposed roadside tramway from Headcorn to Tenterden suffered the same fate in 1882. In 1877, the Cranbrook and Paddock Wood Railway was incorporated, and powers obtained to build the northern section of the Weald of Kent Railway to transport agricultural produce and livestock from low-lying land adjacent to Wittersham Road to a better mainline connection. Powers were obtained in 1882 to extend the line to Hawkhurst. The line opened to Goudhurst in 1892 and Hawkhurst in 1893.

The Tenterden Railway was the next to be proposed, running from Maidstone to Hastings via Headcorn, Tenterden, and Appledore. The section from Headcorn to Appledore was authorised in 1892, and agreement was reached in 1896 with the South Eastern Railway over the operation of the line. In 1898, the proposal was abandoned in favour of extending the Cranbrook and Paddock Wood railway to Tenterden and Appledore. This was abandoned in 1899 as it was deemed too expensive to construct, and the South Eastern Railway again backed the Tenterden Railway, but no work was done and powers to construct the line lapsed in 1901.

With the passing of the Light Railways Act 1896, a group of citizens of Tenterden, led by Myles Fenton, proposed a railway line from Robertsbridge to Tenterden—the Rother Valley Railway. Assent was granted to construct the line under the act. The contract for the construction of the line was won by London and Scottish Contract Corporation, who sub-contracted the work to Godfrey and Siddelow. The work was overseen by Holman F Stephens, who was appointed general manager in 1899 and managing director in 1900. Stephens attained the rank of lieutenant colonel in the Territorial Army (TA) in 1916 and was subsequently known as Colonel Stephens.

Opening and growth
The Light Railways Act 1896 allowed for cheaper construction methods in return for a speed restriction. The line was authorised to be built with 56 lb/yd rails but was actually built with 60 lb/yd rails. Speed was to be limited to 15 mph, but under the terms of the Act was soon raised to 25 mph. The line was opened for freight between Robertsbridge and Rolvenden on 26 March 1900, and to passenger traffic on 2 April 1900. A wind pump was provided at Robertsbridge to supply water for locomotives. The original Tenterden station, later renamed Rolvenden was some 2 mi from the town. The first train departed at 7:30 am, carrying some 60.2 passengers. The lukewarm reception was partly because of the distance of the station from the town, and partly due to fears that the opening of the light railway from Robertsbridge would prevent a more heavily engineered line being built from Headcorn.

The South Eastern Railway abandoned its plans to build the Cranbrook to Appledore line; the scheme was adopted by the Rother Valley Railway. Opposition from the South Eastern Railway meant that the Tenterden to Appledore section was dropped. Authorisation was received in December 1899 to build the Cranbrook and Tenterden Light Railway from Cranbrook via Benenden to the Tenterden terminus of the Rother Valley Railway, and to extend further into the town of Tenterden itself. A proposal was promoted in 1900 to build a line from Robertsbridge to Pevensey, which was to be worked by the Rother Valley Railway. The East Sussex Light Railway was authorised in 1901. This was a line from Northiam to Rye. Only the section from the original Tenterden terminus to Tenterden Town was actually built of all these schemes.

The extension to Tenterden Town opened on 15 April 1903. The original Tenterden station was renamed Rolvenden on this date. The first train from Rolvenden to Tenterden carried 312. 78 schoolchildren, along with Sir Myles Fenton, Holman F Stephens, and other dignitaries. The South Eastern and Chatham Railway, seeking to relieve themselves from building the Tenterden Railway, entered into an agreement with the Rother Valley Railway for the latter to build and operate the line from Tenterden to Headcorn. The South Eastern and Chatham Railway agreed to make up any operating losses in exchange for an option to purchase the line at any time within the next 21 years from the date of opening. The option was not exercised. A wind pump was provided at the Headcorn end of the station. It supplied a water tower located at the Robertsbridge end of the station. In 1904, the Rother Valley Railway changed its name to the Kent & East Sussex Light Railway.

The line from Tenterden to Headcorn Junction opened to traffic on 15 May 1905. A wind pump was provided just outside Headcorn Junction to supply water for the locomotives. In 1904, the Headcorn and Maidstone Junction Light Railway was authorised. This line would have run from Headcorn via Sutton Valence to Tovil, where running powers over part of the Medway Valley Line would have allowed access to Maidstone. Only the section from Tovil to Tovil Goods was ever built. The original junction at Headcorn was on the Ashford side of the station. Headcorn was remodelled by the Southern Railway in 1930 to provide two through roads and the junction was then moved to the Tonbridge side of the station.

On the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the K&ESR came under government control, as did most railways at the time. It was released from government control in 1921, and £1,487 in compensation was paid. The K&ESR was not included in the grouping of the railways into the Big Four in 1923, and continued its independent existence.

Grouping and decline
By 1924, the section from Tenterden to Headcorn was operating at a loss. Correspondence with the Southern Railway in 1930 led to Sir Herbert Walker stating that there was no chance of the line making a profit, and that even if passenger services were withdrawn, it was doubtful whether the receipts from freight traffic would cover operating expenses. The Southern Railway were liable to make up any operating losses, as the successor to the South Eastern and Chatham Railway under the terms of the Act of Parliament for the construction of that section of line.

In 1931, Colonel Stephens died, and the management of the K&ESR came under the control of William Henry Austen, who had been assistant and life-partner to Stephens for a number of years. In 1932, Austen was appointed Official Receiver for the line. He entered into negotiations with the Southern Railway aimed at disposing of worn out stock and obtaining serviceable replacements. One batch of stock disposed of was valued at £855, but realised only £6 10s 0d. In 1935, the K&ESR purchased a 2-ton Bedford LQ lorry, and another was purchased in 1936. In that year, the first of the locomotives hired from the Southern Railway arrived on the line, this was P Class No. 1556. The whole line was relaid with 60 lb/yd rails in 1939.

When World War II broke out in 1939, the K&ESR again came under government control, being placed under the Railway Operating Division of the Royal Engineers. Rail mounted guns were stationed at Rolvenden and Wittersham. The line was an alternative supply route to the south coast, and relieved some of the pressure on Ashford. Components for Operation Pluto were conveyed along the line. With the increase in price for scrap metal during the war, most of the line's surplus stock was scrapped. On 1 January 1948, the line became part of Southern Region of British Railways on nationalisation.

British Railways

Upon nationalisation, one of the surviving two locomotives and all but the newest rolling stock were scrapped. Ex South Eastern and Chatham Railway birdcage carriages were put into service on the line, supplementing the ex London and South Western Railway carriages. Mixed trains continued to run, but were now provided with a brake van. The line continued to be run as two sections. A proposal to double the line wasn't carried out, but the track was again relaid to a higher standard, using rails salvaged from the Elham Valley Railway. All ticket stock was withdrawn and new tickets were printed, and the staffing of stations was increased. That was not accompanied by an increase in passengers, and regular passenger services ceased. The final passenger train ran on 2 January 1954. It was the 5:50 pm from Robertsbridge to Headcorn, composed of six corridor coaches which had been specially brought from Ashford for the occasion. Motive power was Terriers 32655 leading and 32678 at the rear. 32655 was replaced by O1 31065 and 32678 banked the train to St Michael's. The two Terriers then ran back to Robertsbridge with a carriage between them to reduce the weight on the bridges. Double-heading was prohibited between Rolvenden and Robertsbridge.

Two freight trains a day continued to run, with hop-pickers' specials operating until 1958. There was occasional passenger traffic in the form of railtours. In 1957, Drewry diesel locomotive 11220 was successfully trialled on the line, and it and 11223 were the regular locomotives for the final years of operation. In 1958, Hastings Diesel Electric Multiple Unit number 1002 underwent load tests between Bodiam and Northiam – the only time one of these units visited the line prior to the preservation era.

Closure
The final passenger train over the line before closure was a Locomotive Club of Great Britain railtour on 11 June 1961. The line closed the following day, apart from a short stretch at Robertsbridge serving Hodson's Flour Mill, which became a private siding. This final section of the line closed on 1 January 1970.

Operation
The Kent & East Sussex Light Railway was operated as two separate sections, Robertsbridge - Tenterden Town and Tenterden Town - Headcorn. The extension to Headcorn had been built with heavier rails than the Robertsbridge - Rolvenden section, and thus had a higher axle loading allowing the use of heavier locomotives. The section between Tenterden Town and Headcorn was largely paralleled by roads, and was open to competition from road transport. Although the Rother Valley Railway and the Kent & East Sussex Light Railway originally ran separate passenger and freight trains, by the 1920s mixed trains were the norm. The first railbus was introduced in 1923. Although these were light and economical to run, they did not provide much in the way of passenger comfort.

Between 1928 and 1933, a through coach was added to the 5:15 pm from Cannon Street to Hastings, which was detached at Robertsbridge and worked on to Tenterden. In the hop-picking season, special trains were run to bring the hop-pickers down from London. One such train in 1936 is recorded as having consisted of four Southern Railway bogie carriages, two K&ESR six-wheeled carriages and a van. The train was hauled by the ex LSWR Saddletank No 4. The K&ESR's own stock was generally confined to that system. The Southern Railway refused permission for some of the K&ESR carriages to be taken to Lydd in 1947 citing safety reasons. The carriages were required for use in the filming of The Loves of Joanna Godden.

Tickets were usually issued on the trains, although the K&ESR did not acquire any corridor carriages until 1944. The tickets were printed at Rolvenden. Tickets for other lines under Colonel Stephens's control were also printed here.

Accidents

 * In 1916, Hesperus was derailed when the locomotive ploughed into a snow drift.
 * On 9 January 1929, the Ford railmotor was derailed at Junction Road (for Hawkhurst).
 * No 7 was derailed at an unknown date.
 * On Saturday 26 March 1949, A1 32678 was derailed between Northiam and the Rother Bridge working the 5:50 pm from Bexhill West. A month passed before 32678 was recovered.
 * In May 1983, Manning Wardle 'Charwelton' was derailed between Wittersham Road and Rolvenden causing damage to approximately 100 yards of track and to the locomotive's axle boxes.

Preservation history
Preservation activities began immediately. However, due to difficulties in obtaining the necessary Light Railway (Transfer) Order, it was 1974 before the line partially reopened as a heritage steam railway between Tenterden and Rolvenden. Extensions followed, notably to Wittersham Road in 1977 and Northiam in 1990; then to Bodiam in 2000, and an extra 1 mile extension to the site of Junction Road halt in 2011.

The preserved railway has had a tempestuous history, with two financial crises and disputes between the volunteer group and their elected board of trustees. In the late 1990s, the company was almost bankrupted but avoided administration due to an error in the bank's loan agreement. The financial position has since improved.

As with most heritage railways, the line has a number of paid employees to secure its continued operation and stages a variety of special events days to boost income.

The railway has suffered from the legacy of Colonel Stephens's cheap and poor construction of the permanent way; thus the preserved railway has sought to update permanent way features, for instance by renewing culverts and embankments.

In 1990, the railway had to remove 200 metres of embankment damaged by badgers. There are some problems of subsidence outside Rolvenden, which often requires speed restrictions to avoid further damage to the line's foundations. Most of the permanent way between Northiam and Bodiam has now been rebuilt to modern standards.

The line today
The line today is a tourist attraction in the South East of England. It offers an 11+1/2 mile ride through the Rother Valley in vintage and British Railways coaches usually hauled by a steam locomotive, although some off-peak services are operated by a diesel multiple unit.

The preserved line currently runs from Tenterden Town station to Bodiam (within sight of the National Trust's Bodiam Castle), with an extra 1 mile of track to the Junction Road station site (though there are currently no plans to re-open for alighting).

Tenterden Town station is the main headquarters for the heritage railway, where a book and gift shop can be found, selling Thomas the Tank Engine gifts, the carriage and wagon department and a cafe that was once the Maidstone & District Motor Services bus station building from Maidstone, Kent. The railway emphasises the Colonel Stephens connection as a major factor of its utilitarian heritage. The locomotive works is located at Rolvenden station and has a viewing platform overlooking the works yard and a selection of former inter-modal shipping containers used for equipment storage. Themed events are run through the year. Some are connected with local history and the railway whilst, as on other heritage lines, Thomas and Santa specials provide a commercial underpinning to the company's activities. Railway experience days are also offered.

Colonel Stephens Railway Museum
Situated at Tenterden is the Colonel Stephens Railway Museum. This houses a number of exhibits including a wax dummy of the colonel, telling the story of the man himself and of his railways. This is a popular exhibit amongst children visiting the museum, many of whom delight in the collection of old railway magazines and timetables.

Rother Valley Railway
At Robertsbridge, a separate railway preservation effort was set up by the Rother Valley Railway in 1990. It aims to restore track and services east from the main line railway station to Bodiam.

The initial plan was to work towards operating brake van rides on the site, but progress was slow due mainly to lack of funds. However, in 2011 this plan was dropped in favour of moving directly to a final layout suitable to handle the eventual traffic to and from Tenterden, with no interim railway operations. By 2013, much of the new Robertsbridge layout was in place including new track and most of a new full-length station platform. Future developments are to include a carriage shed, loco shed and completion of the station building.

Plans for the missing central part of the route are well advanced, despite being hampered by the A21 trunk road crossing the track bed, the need for some very expensive bridge works and the necessity to purchase the route from landowners. Two landowners remain resistant to selling the necessary agricultural land for railway development, and the plans for a level crossing on the A21 in particular has caused local controversy.

At the beginning of 2009 about 750 yd of former track bed was purchased from just west of Bodiam station to within 150 yd yards of the site of Junction Road Halt. Work began on restoration and by April of that year the track was laid. In 2010 a further 150yds of track bed was obtained and track was laid to the site of Junction Road Halt adjacent to the B2244 (formerly the A229). The first advertised passenger service over this section ran on the weekend of 19/20 March 2011, although services are currently restricted to occasional gala days only.

By end of 2013, the track had been laid from the newly built platform at Robertsbridge all the way to Northbridge Street over five newly rebuilt bridges, and during 2013 the first steam trains ran along this line since it was closed. In 2012 a plan to reconnect the RVR to the national railway network once more was announced, and this connection opened in 2016.

On 16 March 2017, Rother District Council granted planning permission for the reinstatement of the line between Northbridge Street and Junction Road. An application has been made for a Transport and Works Act order which would give statutory powers to rebuild and operate the line. This awaits a public inquiry.

On 9 May 2023, the Transport and Works act order (TWAO) was granted.

Steam locomotives
Owned by the Rother Valley Railway and/or the Kent & East Sussex Light Railway.

Note:

The order of scrapping of the locomotives was 7, 5, 6 (steam railcar), 1, 9, 2 and 8.

Railcars
Owned by the Rother Valley Railway and/or the Kent & East Sussex Light Railway.

Hired or loaned locomotives
Hired or loaned to the Kent & East Sussex Light Railway.

Passenger stock
Owned by the Rother Valley Railway and/or the Kent and East Sussex Light Railway.

Freight stock
Owned by the Rother Valley Railway and/or the Kent and East Sussex Light Railway.

Non-rail vehicles
The K&ESR owned a number of non-rail vehicles, one of which survives today.

 * Horse Bus - built in 1902 by W J Mercer, Tenterden Carriage Works. Operated under contract by William Hook & Son until the firm ceased trading in 1916. Then operated by the K&ESR until withdrawn in 1924 and stored. Became British Railways property on nationalisation. Now an exhibit at the National Railway Museum, York.
 * Horse-drawn van and two drays. The K&ESR acquired a horse-drawn van and two drays in 1916. These were withdrawn in the mid-1930s.
 * 2 2-ton Bedford LQ Lorries. One was purchased in 1935 and the second hire purchased in 1936, replacing the horse-drawn vehicles. Both vehicles passed to British Railways on nationalisation.

British Railways
These locomotives worked on the line between 1948 and 1961.

Twinning
The Kent & East Sussex Railway is twinned with the Chemin de Fer de la Baie de Somme, a preserved railway in France. K&ESR locomotives have made visits to the CFBS.

Culture and media
In the 1924 book A Parcel of Kent by F J Harvey Darton, the railway described is clearly based on the Kent & East Sussex Railway. The railway also appears in the 1940 book Ember Lane by Sheila Kaye-Smith, where it is titled the Sussex Border Railway. The Kent & East Sussex Railway is the subject of the poem Farmer's Train by Hugh Bevan, illustrated by Rowland Emett, and published in Punch issue dated 3 June 1946.

title: Kent and East Sussex Railway