text:
Dentate gyrus

The dentate gyrus (DG) is part of the hippocampal formation in the temporal lobe of the brain, which also includes the hippocampus and the subiculum. The dentate gyrus is part of the hippocampal trisynaptic circuit and is thought to contribute to the formation of new episodic memories, the spontaneous exploration of novel environments and other functions.

It is notable as being one of a select few brain structures which may have significant rates of adult neurogenesis in many species of mammals, from rodents to primates. Other sites of adult neurogenesis may include the subventricular zone, the striatum and the cerebellum. However, whether significant neurogenesis exists in the adult human dentate gyrus has been a matter of debate.

Structure

The dentate gyrus, like the hippocampus, consists of three distinct layers: an outer molecular layer, a middle granule cell layer, and an inner polymorphic layer. (In the hippocampus the outer layer is the molecular layer, the middle layer is the pyramidal layer, and the inner layer the stratum oriens). The polymorphic layer is also the hilus of the dentate gyrus (CA4, the junction of the hippocampus and dentate gyrus).

The granule layer is between the overlying molecular layer and the underlying hilus (polymorphic layer). The granule cells of the granule layer project their axons known as mossy fibers to make excitatory synapses on the dendrites of CA3 pyramidal neurons. The granule cells are tightly packed together in a laminated manner that dampens the excitability of neurons.

Some of the basal dendrites of the granule cells curve up into the molecular layer. Most basal dendrites enter the hilus. These hilar dendrites are shorter and thinner, and have fewer side branches.

A second excitatory cell type in the hilus is the mossy cell, which projects its axons widely along the septotemporal axis (running from the septal area to the temporal lobe) with the ipsilateral projection skipping the first 1–2 mm near the cell bodies, an unusual configuration, hypothesized to prepare a set of cell assemblies in CA3 for a data retrieval role, by randomizing their cell distribution.

Between the hilus and the granule cell layer is a region called the subgranular zone which is a site of adult neurogenesis.

The anteromedial continuation of the dentate gyrus is called the tail of the dentate gyrus, or the band of Giacomini. Most of the dentate gyrus is not exposed on the surface of the brain but the band of Giacomini is visible, and makes an important landmark of the inferior surface of the uncus.

Trisynaptic circuit
The trisynaptic circuit consists of excitatory cells (mostly stellate cells) in layer II of the entorhinal cortex, projecting to the granule cell layer of the dentate gyrus via the perforant path. The dentate gyrus receives no direct inputs from other cortical structures. The perforant path is divided into the medial and lateral perforant paths, generated, respectively, at the medial and lateral portions of the entorhinal cortex. The medial perforant path synapses onto the proximal dendritic area of the granule cells, whereas the lateral perforant path does so onto their distal dendrites. Most lateral views of the dentate gyrus may appear to suggest a structure consisting of just one entity, but medial movement may provide evidence of the ventral and dorsal parts of the dentate gyrus. The axons of the granule cells called mossy fibres, make excitatory synaptic connections with the pyramidal cells of CA3 and CA1.

Development
The granule cells in the dentate gyrus are distinguished by their late time of formation during brain development. In rats, approximately 85% of the granule cells are generated after birth. In humans, it is estimated that granule cells begin to be generated during gestation weeks 10.5 to 11, and continue being generated during the second and third trimesters, after birth and all the way into adulthood. The germinal sources of granule cells and their migration pathways have been studied during rat brain development. The oldest granule cells are generated in a specific region of the hippocampal neuroepithelium and migrate into the primordial dentate gyrus around embryonic days (E) 17/18, and then settle as the outermost cells in the forming granular layer. Next, dentate precursor cells move out of this same area of the hippocampal neuroepithelium and, retaining their mitotic capacity, invade the hilus (core) of the forming dentate gyrus. This dispersed germinal matrix is the source of granule cells from that point on. The newly generated granule cells accumulate under the older cells that began to settle in the granular layer. As more granule cells are produced, the layer thickens and the cells are stacked up according to age—the oldest being the most superficial and the youngest being deeper. The granule cell precursors remain in a subgranular zone that becomes progressively thinner as the dentate gyrus grows, but these precursor cells are retained in adult rats. These sparsely scattered cells constantly generate granule cell neurons, which add to the total population. There are a variety of other differences in the rat, monkey and human dentate gyrus. The granule cells only have apical dendrites in the rat. But in the monkey and human, many granule cells also have basal dendrites.

Function

The dentate gyrus is thought to contribute to the formation of memories, and to play a role in depression.

The role of the hippocampus in learning and memory has been studied for many decades particularly since the late 1950s, following the results of surgery, in an American male, to remove most of the hippocampus. It remains unclear how the hippocampus enables new memory formation, but one process, called long term potentiation (LTP), occurs in this brain region. LTP involves long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections after repeated stimulation. While the dentate gyrus shows LTP, it is also one of the few regions of the mammalian brain where adult neurogenesis (the formation of new neurons) takes place. Some studies hypothesize that new memories could preferentially use newly formed granule cells of the dentate gyrus, providing a potential mechanism for distinguishing multiple instances of similar events or multiple visits to the same location. Correspondingly, it has been proposed that the immature, newborn granule cells are receptive to form new synaptic connections with the axons arriving from the layer II of the entorhinal cortex, this way a particular new constellation of events is remembered as an episodic memory by first associating the events in the young granule cells that have the appropriate, permissive age. This concept is reinforced by the fact that increased neurogenesis is associated with improved spatial memory in rodents, as seen through performance in a maze.

The dentate gyrus is known to serve as a pre-processing unit. While the CA3 subfield is involved in encoding, storage, and retrieval of memory, the dentate gyrus is important in pattern separation. When information enters via the perforant path, the dentate gyrus separates very similar information into distinct and unique details. This ensures that new memories are encoded separately without input from previously stored memories of similar feature, and prepares the relevant data for storage in the CA3 region. Pattern separation gives the ability to differentiate one memory from other stored memories. Pattern separation begins in the dentate gyrus. Granule cells in the dentate gyrus process sensory information using competitive learning, and relay a preliminary representation to form place fields. Place fields are extremely specific, as they are capable of remapping and adjusting firing rates in response to subtle sensory signal changes. This specificity is critical for pattern separation, as it distinguishes memories from one another.

The dentate gyrus shows a specific form of neural plasticity resulting from the ongoing integration of newly formed excitatory granule cells.

Memory
One of the most prominent early cases of anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories) linking the hippocampus to memory formation was the case of Henry Molaison (anonymously known as Patient H.M. until his death in 2008). His epilepsy was treated with surgical removal of his hippocampi (left and right hemispheres each have their own hippocampus) as well as some surrounding tissue. This targeted brain tissue removal left Mr. Molaison with an inability to form new memories, and the hippocampus has been thought critical to memory formation since that time, though the processes involved are unclear.

Stress and depression
The dentate gyrus may also have a functional role in stress and depression. For instance, in the rat, neurogenesis has been found to increase in response to chronic treatment with antidepressants. The physiological effects of stress, often characterized by release of glucocorticoids such as cortisol, as well as activation of the sympathetic nervous system (a division of the autonomic nervous system), have been shown to inhibit the process of neurogenesis in primates. Both endogenous and exogenous glucocorticoids are known to cause psychosis and depression, implying that neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus may play an important role in modulating symptoms of stress and depression.

Blood sugar
Studies by researchers at Columbia University Medical Center indicate that poor glucose control can lead to deleterious effects on the dentate gyrus, resulting in memory decline.

Other
Some evidence seen in the mouse suggests that neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus increases in response to aerobic exercise. Several experiments have shown neurogenesis (the development of nerve tissues) often increases in the dentate gyrus of adult rodents when they are exposed to an enriched environment.

Spatial behavior
Studies have shown that after having about 90% of their dentate gyrus cells destroyed, rats had extreme difficulty in maneuvering through a maze they had previously navigated. When being tested a number of times to see whether they could learn a maze, the results showed that the rats did not improve at all, indicating that their working memories were severely impaired. Rats had trouble with place strategies because they could not consolidate learned information about a maze into their working memory, and, thus, could not remember it when maneuvering through the same maze in a later trial. Every time a rat entered the maze, the rat behaved as if it was seeing the maze for the first time.

title: Dentate gyrus


text:
Dolphin (disambiguation)

Dolphin is a common name of aquatic mammals within the infraorder Cetacea.

Dolphin, Dolphins, The Dolphin or The Dolphins may also refer to:

Film

 * Dolphins (2000 film), an IMAX documentary
 * Dolphins, a 2007 film starring Karl Davies
 * The Dolphin: Story of a Dreamer, a 2009 Peruvian-American film
 * The Dolphins (film), a 2014 comedy-drama feature film

Literature

 * The Dolphin (student publication), a publication of John B. Lacson Foundation Maritime University
 * The Dolphin, a 1973 book of poems by Robert Lowell
 * The Dolphin (fairy tale), a French literary fairy tale by Madame d'Aulnoy

Music

 * Dolphin Stradivarius, a violin built by Antonio Stradivari in 1714
 * Dolphin (musician), Russian hip hop artist Andrey Vyacheslavovich Lysikov (born 1971)
 * "The Dolphin", a jazz standard composed by Luiz Eça
 * "The Dolphins", a 1966 single by Fred Neil
 * The Dolphin (album), by Stan Getz, 1981
 * "Dolphin", a song from the 1970 album Parallelograms by Linda Perhacs
 * "Dolphin", a song from the 1994 album Change Giver by Shed Seven
 * "Dolphin", a song from the 1995 album The Gold Experience by Prince
 * "Dolphin", a song from the 2019 album Buoys by Panda Bear
 * "Dolphins", a song from the 2021 re-release of the 2011 EP It's Time
 * "Dolphins", a song from the 2005 album Black & White 050505 by Simple Minds

Other uses in arts and entertainment

 * Dolphin (character), a DC Comics superheroine
 * Dolphin (video game), a 1983 Atari 2600 video game
 * Dolphins (M. C. Escher), a 1923 woodcut print

Businesses

 * Dolphin Air, a charter airline based in Dubai, United Arab Emirates
 * Dolphin Cruise Line, based in Greece
 * Dolphin Energy, an Abu Dhabi gas company
 * Dolphin Gas Project, a GCC gas project
 * Dolphin Hotel (disambiguation), the name of several establishments
 * Dolphin Inn, Plymouth, UK
 * The Dolphin, Hackney, London, UK
 * Dolphin Interconnect Solutions, a manufacturer of high speed data communication systems
 * Dolphin Music, an online retailer of musical instruments and recording equipment
 * Byford Dolphin, a drilling rig
 * Dolphin Mall, in Miami, Florida, US
 * Walt Disney World Dolphin, a hotel resort in Florida, US

Computing

 * Dolphin (emulator), an open-source GameCube and Wii emulator
 * Dolphin (file manager), an open source file manager
 * Dolphin Browser, a web browser for Android mobile devices
 * Dolphin, the codename for the Nintendo GameCube

Aviation

 * Sopwith Dolphin, a British First World War fighter plane

Navy

 * HMS Dolphin, several ships of the Royal Navy
 * USS Dolphin, several ships of the U.S. Navy
 * Dolphin-class submarine, of the Israeli Navy
 * Dolphin, one of the Queensland Maritime Defence Force Auxiliary Gunboats
 * Dolphin (weapon), an ancient naval ramming weapon
 * "Dolphins", the common name for Submarine Warfare insignia

People

 * Dolphin (surname), including a list of people with the name
 * Dolphin D. Overton (1926–2013), US Air Force Korean War flying ace

Places

 * Dolphin, Virginia, US, an unincorporated community
 * Dolphin Township, Knox County, Nebraska, US
 * Dolphin Town, Isles of Scilly, England, a hamlet
 * Dolphin, Flintshire, a village in the community of Brynford, Wales
 * Cape Dolphin, Falkland Islands
 * Dolphin Island (disambiguation), including a list of islands in various countries
 * Dolphin Lighthouse, off the coast of Mumbai, India
 * Dolphin Square, a large London apartment block, UK

Sports

 * Australian Swim Team, nicknamed the Dolphins
 * Daikyo Dolphins, a member of the defunct Australian Baseball League
 * Dolphin F.C. (Dublin), a former Irish football team
 * Dolphin RFC, an Irish rugby union team based in Cork
 * Dolphins BC, a basketball club in Botswana
 * Dolphins F.C. (Port Harcourt), a Nigerian football team
 * Dolphins United F.C., a football club in the Philippines
 * Dolphins (cricket team), the KwaZulu Natal cricket team in South Africa
 * Dolphins (NRL), a professional rugby league team based in Queensland, Australia
 * Dräger Dolphin, a recreational rebreather
 * Frankston Football Club, nicknamed The Dolphins, an Australian rules football club
 * Jacksonville Dolphins, Jacksonville University's athletic teams
 * Karachi Dolphins, a Pakistani cricket team
 * Miami Dolphins, a professional American football team in the National Football League
 * Nagoya Diamond Dolphins, a Japanese basketball team
 * Norrköping Dolphins, a professional Swedish basketball club
 * Paderborn Dolphins, an American football club from Paderborn, Germany
 * PCU Dolphins, the senior athletic teams of Philippine Christian University
 * Redcliffe Dolphins, Australian rugby league team
 * Ulsan Hyundai Mipo Dockyard Dolphins FC, a South Korean football team

Aircraft

 * De Havilland Dolphin, a 1930s British prototype light biplane
 * Eurocopter MH-65 Dolphin, a helicopter used by the United States Coast Guard

Automobiles

 * Brilliance Dolphin, a 2014–2015 Chinese city car
 * BYD Dolphin, a 2021–present Chinese electric subcompact hatchback
 * Karry Dolphin, a 2019–present Chinese electric commercial van
 * Sipani Dolphin, a 1982–1997 Indian subcompact hatchback

Watercraft

 * Dolphin (1922 yacht), later HMCS Lynx
 * Dolphin 15 Senior, an American sailing dinghy design
 * Douglas Dolphin, a 1930s amphibious flying boat

Other

 * Dolphin and Walrus (locomotives), of the Groudle Glen Railway, Isle of Man
 * Florida State Road 836, known as the Dolphin Expressway

Other uses

 * Dolphin School (disambiguation), various schools in several countries
 * Dolphin (structure), a man-made marine structure not connected to shore
 * Dolphin shorts or Dolfins, a style of unisex shorts for athletics
 * Typhoon Dolphin, the name of 3 tropical cyclones

 * Senecio 'Hippogriff', a houseplant known as "dolphin plant" because of the shape of its leaves
 * Dolphin, codename for GameCube

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dolphin (disambiguation)


text:
User talk:(:Julien:)

Please put them in alphabetical order by language. Adam 13:41, 19 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Welcome
Hello, (:Julien:), and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you are stuck, and looking for help, please come to the Wikipedia Boot Camp, where experienced Wikipedians can answer any queries you have! Or, you can just type   on your user page, and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~~~. Four tildes (~~~~) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. Again, welcome! Although you've been here far longer than I have. Falphin 8 July 2005 17:05 (UTC)
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List of state leaders
I did not claim that Mahmud Ahmadinejad is president. You reverted another user's edit. — Sesel wa  15:24, 17 July 2005 (UTC)

Thanks for your support
Hey there! Thanks a lot for your support on my RfA. See you later on IRC! Sam Hocevar 17:41, 3 September 2005 (UTC)

Maps
Well, most of my maps are in English (this one of Brčko District is in Serbian, but it is an exception). Thus, since most of these maps are in English, I did not posted them on commons, because Wikipedias in other languages require also maps written in these languages, not those written in English. I posted some of those maps written in Serbian on Serbian Wikipedia, but since I mostly work on English Wikipedia, most of them are in English. I think that proper map for French Wikipedia would be one written in French, so feel free to use any of my maps and to translate them into French if you have time and will. PANONIAN  (talk)  23:07, 28 January 2006 (UTC)

Semi-automated template substitution

 * This page was modified to semi-automatically substitute templates using Pathoschild's template list. // Tawker 12:08, 12 February 2006 (UTC)

Your question at User talk:Jkelly
Hi (:Julien:). I hope it's not rude to answer a question addressed to someone else, but see here and here. ElinorD (talk) 23:10, 28 March 2007 (UTC)

Notification: changes to "Mark my edits as minor by default" preference
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wp/lez
Hello, could you not do 10 small edits to the lezgin section incubator wikipedia. Not enough for statistics. Thank you in advance.Namik555 (talk) 04:34, 9 August 2011 (UTC)
 * Please learn how to read the history of an article before making such statements: i never edited the incubator as could be seen here. (:Julien:) ✒ 07:16, 9 August 2011 (UTC)

Sockpuppet investigation
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DS notice for Sarah Jeong

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title: User talk:(:Julien:)


text:
Zoological Society of London

The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) is a charity devoted to the worldwide conservation of animals and their habitats. It was founded in 1826. Since 1828, it has maintained London Zoo, and since 1931 Whipsnade Zoo.

History

On 29 November 1822, the birthday of John Ray, "the father of modern zoology", a meeting held in the Linnean Society in Soho Square led by Rev. William Kirby, resolved to form a "Zoological Club of the Linnean Society of London". Between 1816 and 1826, discussions between Stamford Raffles, Humphry Davy, Joseph Banks and others led to the idea that London should have an establishment similar to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. It would house a zoological collection "which should interest and amuse the public."

The society was founded in April 1826 by Sir Stamford Raffles, the Marquess of Lansdowne, Lord Auckland, Sir Humphry Davy, Robert Peel, Joseph Sabine, Nicholas Aylward Vigors along with various other nobility, clergy, and naturalists. Raffles was the first chairman and president, but died after only a few months in office, in July 1826. He was succeeded by the Marquess of Lansdowne who supervised the building of the first animal houses, a parcel of land in Regent's Park having already been obtained from the Crown at the inaugural meeting. It received a royal charter from George IV on 27 March 1829.

The purpose of the society was to create a collection of animals for study at leisure, an associated museum and library. In April 1828, the Zoological Gardens were opened to members. In 1831 William IV presented the Royal Menagerie to the Zoological Society, and in 1847 the public was admitted to aid funding, and Londoners soon christened the Zoological Gardens the "Zoo". London Zoo soon had the most extensive collection of animals in the world.

A History of the ZSL, written by Henry Scherren (FZS), was published in 1905. The History was criticised as inadequately researched by Peter Chalmers Mitchell in 1929; both histories were labelled inaccurate by John Bastin in 1970.

As the twentieth century began, the need to maintain and research large animals in a more natural environment became clear. Peter Chalmers Mitchell (ZSL Secretary 1903–35) conceived the vision of a new park no more than 70 mi away from London and thus accessible to the public, and at least 200 acre in extent. In 1926, profiting from the agricultural depression, the ideal place was found: Hall Farm, near Whipsnade village, was derelict, and held almost 600 acre on the Chiltern Hills. ZSL bought the farm in December 1926 for £13,480 12s 10d. In 1928 the first animals arrived at the new Whipsnade Park—two Amherst pheasants, a golden pheasant and five red jungle fowl. Others soon followed, including muntjac deer, llamas, wombats and skunks. In 1931 Whipsnade Park was opened to the public as the world's first open zoological park.

In 1960–61, Lord Zuckerman, then Secretary of ZSL, raised funds from two medical foundations to found laboratories as an Institute of Zoology where scientists would be employed by ZSL and undertake research.

The Society is a registered charity under English law.

The Institute of Zoology
The Institute of Zoology is the scientific research division of the ZSL. It is a government-funded research institute, which specialises in scientific issues relevant to the conservation of species and their habitats. The Institute of Zoology focuses its research on five areas: evolutionary biology, genetics, ecology, reproductive biology and wildlife epidemiology. The Institute of Zoology was graded 4 in the 1997–2001 UK Research Assessment Exercise, and publishes reports annually. From the late 1980s the Institute of Zoology had been affiliated to the University of London. However, in 2000 this was replaced with a partnership with the University of Cambridge.

Zoos and publications
ZSL runs London Zoo, Whipsnade Zoo and had planned to open an aquarium, Biota!. The society published the Zoological Record (ZR) from 1864 to 1980, when the ZR was transferred to BIOSIS. The Society has published the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, now called the Journal of Zoology, since 1830. Since 1998 it has also published Animal Conservation. Other publications include the International Zoo Yearbook and Remote Sensing in Ecology and Conservation.

Awards
The society administers the following award programmes:

 * Frink Medal
 * Stamford Raffles Award
 * Silver Medal
 * ZSL Scientific Medal
 * Marsh Award for Conservation Biology
 * Marsh Award for Marine and Freshwater Conservation
 * Thomson Reuters/Zoological Record Award for Communicating Zoology
 * Prince Philip Award and Marsh Prize
 * Charles Darwin Award and Marsh Prize
 * Thomas Henry Huxley Award and Marsh Prize
 * the Landseer Medal

Fellows
Individuals can be elected Fellows of the Zoological Society of London and therefore granted the post-nominal letters FZS.

Honorary Fellows
The ZSL's Honorary Fellows include:

 * 1975: Jean Anthony, Jean Dorst
 * 1977: Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
 * 1984: Ernst Mayr
 * 1988: Milton Thiago de Mello
 * 1990: Knut Schmidt-Nielsen
 * 1991: Emperor Akihito of Japan
 * 1992: Edward O. Wilson
 * 1996: John Maynard Smith
 * 1997: Miriam Rothschild
 * 1998: Sir David Attenborough
 * 1999: Sir Robert May
 * 2001: Patrick Bateson
 * 2002: Robert McNeill Alexander, CBE, FRS
 * 2002: William G. Conway
 * 2003: Brian Follett
 * 2004: Sir Martin Holdgate
 * 2005: Sir John Krebs, Katherine Ralls, Sir Brian Heap
 * 2006: Sir John Lawton
 * 2007: John Beddington
 * 2011: Lord Moser
 * 2012: Desmond Morris
 * 2013: Ken Sims

Council
The council is the governing body of the ZSL. There are 15 council members, led by the president and served by the secretary and treasurer. Council members are the trustees of the society and serve for up to five years at a time.

Presidents
The Presidency is a voluntary position, with the role of leading the ZSL Council. The Society's Presidents and their dates in office are:
 * Sir Stamford Raffles (1826)
 * Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne (1827–1831)
 * Edward Smith-Stanley, 13th Earl of Derby (1831–1851)
 * Prince Albert, Prince Consort (1851–1862)
 * Sir George Clerk, Bt (1862–1868)
 * Arthur Hay, 9th Marquess of Tweeddale (1868–1878)
 * Sir William H. Flower (1879–1899)
 * Herbrand Russell, 11th Duke of Bedford (1899–1936)
 * Richard Onslow, 5th Earl of Onslow (1936–1942)
 * Henry Gascoyne Maurice (1942–1948)
 * Edward Cavendish, 10th Duke of Devonshire (1948–1950)
 * Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke (1950–1954)
 * Sir Landsborough Thomson (1954–1960)
 * Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (1960–1977)
 * Solly Zuckerman, Baron Zuckerman (1977–1984)
 * Sir William MacGregor Henderson (1984–1989)
 * Avrion Mitchison (1989–1992)
 * Field Marshal Sir John Chapple (1992–1994)
 * Sir Martin Holdgate (1994–2004)
 * Professor Sir Patrick Bateson (2004–2014)
 * Professor Sir John Beddington, CMG, FRS (2014–2022)
 * Professor Sir Jim Smith FRS (2022–Present)

Secretaries
The post of secretary is honorary and under the society's constitution carries the responsibility for the day-to-day management of the affairs of the ZSL. The secretaries and their dates in office are:

 * Nicholas Aylward Vigors (1826–1833)
 * Edward Turner Bennett (1833–1836)
 * William Yarrell (1836–1838)
 * John Barlow (1838–1840)
 * William Ogilby (1840–1847)
 * David William Mitchell (1847–1859)
 * Philip Lutley Sclater (1859–1902)
 * William Lutley Sclater (1903)
 * Peter Chalmers Mitchell (1903–1935)
 * Julian Huxley (1935–1942)
 * Sheffield Airey Neave (1942–1952)
 * Anthony Chaplin, 3rd Viscount Chaplin (1952–1955)
 * Solly Zuckerman, Baron Zuckerman (1955–1977)
 * Ronald Henderson Hedley (1977–1980)
 * Erasmus Darwin Barlow (1980–1982)
 * John Guest Phillips (1982–1984)
 * Richard M. Laws (1984–1988)
 * Barry Albert Cross (1988–1992)
 * Professor Robert McNeill Alexander, CBE, FRS (1992–1999)
 * Paul H. Harvey (2000–2011)
 * Professor Geoffrey Boxshall, FRS (2011–2021)
 * Professor Sir Jim Smith FRS (2021–2022)

title: Zoological Society of London


text:
Talk:Ethylene glycol

bio ethylene glycol
www.plasticsnews.com/article/20130607/NEWS/130609933/cokes-plantbottle-use-swells-globally it seems that their is a bio source for this, perhaps something sould be added about how its obtained. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.116.80.153 (talk) 21:28, 15 November 2013 (UTC)

teratogen
My edit naming and sourcing ethylene glycol as teratogen was reverted by with the reason "we [sic!]'d need a better resource for this." This appears unreasonable and heavy-handed.

First, the source is the Canadian government, a tertiary source, no little peer-reviewed article. Second, the prior, unsourced claim of teratogenicity in birds was in the article with a citation needed sign. If Smokefoot really had an issue with this claim, he could have removed that. Thus t fact that a properly sourced claim is reverted, smells of WP:POV. Third, if Smokefoot was interested in the issue he could have added a source he likes, there are numerous to choose from.

IMHO a general problem with the chemistry sites is, that they have no toxicology section in their template and most chemists appear uncomfortable with the material. --Wuerzele (talk) 18:11, 27 August 2014 (UTC)

which one is it?
"first prepared ethylene glycol in 1859, he actually first prepared it in 1856". I think this needs fixed, does it not?--Craxd (talk) 13:23, 24 November 2014 (UTC)
 * The cited reference says 1856, so I rephrased the sentence to agree with that. -- Ed (Edgar181) 14:53, 24 November 2014 (UTC)

Polyethylengylcol - PEG - Macrogol
Hi,

maybe it should be mentioned that in some Areas (Europe) it is the No. 1 for obstipation (I hope it is in English correct too), if it is not just a easy one, but for me for example, high methadone dosage... and when a clear "intestinal"(?)-tract is needed a high dose and than Macrogol 4000 or higher is used, against long-term obstipation, the Macrogol 3350 (mmol/L I think it is, since it comes with a mmol/L like 44, but is not really solutable in water than), however the heavy packs contain like Macrogol 4000 from 50 to 100g to REALLY make everything clean. The other bags usually have Macrogol 3350 with 13.125g combined with 3 substances to keep body in balance (Caliumchlorid, Natriumhydrogencarbonat, Natriumchlorid).

It is the best long-term medication compared to things like Lactulose (which sucks...) or older salts. I think the production of Polyethylenglycol (PEG/Macrogol) goes far beyond 1 million tons, I can't believe that it is only used in German speaking countries?! Movicol is the "trademark" best known there, Generica of course exist... It is over the counter but for people getting Opioid medication the medical insurance I have (the most common) pays only 2 medications, this being one of them.

So I guess they get heavy discount than... I first did not believe it could help on dosages equivalent to far over 1000 mg or Morphine, but if you drink enough it works... Poly... always "plastic" for me, and somehow I think it is? But wayne, wouldn't it be safe it would not be registered and so widely used in Germany. Even kids get it ("Movicol Junior") with lower dosage of course than. I am taking Methadone so long now, I think next weekend with Take-Home I will try the dose they use for colonoscopy to get everything clear since I once saw a ugly picture. However, it is made from crude oil or?!

Greetings Kilon22 (talk) 16:28, 24 October 2016 (UTC)

 * Polyethylene glycol has its own page, it is a common laxative in the US and many other countries. In the US, it is often referred to by the trade name MiraLax. It is over-the-counter in the US. I would estimate that polyethylene glycol and cellulose are the two laxatives most often recommended by doctors in the US for long-term use. Polyethylene glycol is the most common laxative for colonoscopy preparation in the US. Fluoborate (talk) 18:54, 17 June 2017 (UTC)

Pure propylene glycol is not bitter
Several months ago, I removed a claim that propylene glycol tastes bitter, whereas ethylene glycol tastes sweet. My edit was reverted because the source cited actually does claim that propylene glycol tastes bitter. This is a reasonable misunderstanding, a Google search indicates that commercial-grade propylene glycol often tastes bitter or acrid, but the taste is variable because it depends on impurities. Propylene glycol is also a common food additive, it serves a role similar to glycerol as a hygroscopic liquid and solvent. I added two citations to the Merck Index, which describes the flavor of both ethylene glycol and propylene glycol (and thousands of other chemicals). In my opinion, the Merck Index is a more reliable source when the fact in question is the taste of a common chemical. A scientific study where volunteers rate the taste would be even higher-quality evidence, but I doubt such a study exists. Here is some original research that I did not include in my footnote: I have tasted pure propylene glycol, and the taste is very mild and a bit sweet. Propylene glycol tastes similar to glycerol, but far less sweet. They both are a tiny bit bitter, similar to aspartame or many other non-sugar sweeteners. The bitterness is so mild that a small child would definitely drink a large volume of propylene glycol or glycerol, if given the chance. In contrast, isopropanol (the analogous compound with only one hydroxyl group) tastes very foul, similar to ethanol, and a child would not want to drink it. Fluoborate (talk) 18:48, 17 June 2017 (UTC)

Toxicity?
Moderately toxic? No. Very toxic.Longinus876 (talk) 14:42, 16 February 2018 (UTC)
 * Compared to many other poisonous things it is only moderate. But because it is sweet, it can be consumed with awareness of the danger. With some substances you would be killed by 0.05 grams, but not this. Graeme Bartlett (talk) 11:19, 17 February 2018 (UTC)
 * I have updated GHS hazards info. Graeme Bartlett (talk) 11:25, 17 February 2018 (UTC)

Incorrect formula for ethene
Under "Production" -> "Industrial routes" it states the formula for ethene is C2H4O whereas it should be without the final oxygen atom. Or am I missing something..? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Wikikrema33 (talk • contribs) 09:08, 21 January 2021 (UTC)

Replacing a citation to berrymanchemical.com with one to atamanchemicals.com
The article cites a dead link from berrymanchemical.com as supporting: It also can be used as a formaldehyde substitute when preserving biological specimens. I have looked at web archive, and this produces archived pages to the berrymanchemical.com site that say "page not found". I searched for "Monoethylene Glycol" on the berrymanchemical.com site and found: [https://www.berrymanchemical.com/products/specialty-and-commodity-chemicals/ Specialty and Commodity Chemicals. Berryman Chemical provides the specialty and commodity chemicals, packaging, shipping and support you need.] This says: Monoethylene glycol (MEG) is a basic building block in applications that require chemical intermediates for resins, solvent couplers, freezing point depression solvents, and humectants. MEG is also used in chemical intermediates such as antifreeze, automotive coolants, resins, water-based adhesives, electrolytic capacitors, latex paints, asphalt emulsions, textile fibers, paper, and leather.

The citation and the text was added by Editor755 on 5 August 2020, with a citation template that gave the access date as 5 August 2020. The text at that date included in vaccine manufacture or.

atamanchemicals.com Monoethylene Glycol is a citation that also supports the current text. So I have replaced the berrymanchemical.com citation with one to atamanchemicals.com. -- Toddy1 (talk) 13:09, 21 August 2023 (UTC)

Solubility
the solubility says it is "partially miscible" in some solvent. That's not a thing. A liquid is either miscible with another liquid or it isn't. Miscible means that they can be mixed in any proportion without phase separation. Science Is My Life (talk) 23:40, 18 April 2024 (UTC)

why would the substance be green? 🤔
💭 2601:100:C180:4350:A0FB:401C:E971:EEC8 (talk) 11:51, 20 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Do you means (a) the colour green, or (b) environmentally friendly?

 * Are you referring to part of the article? If yes, what part? -- Toddy1 (talk) 12:28, 20 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ethylene glycol


text:
Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India Pipeline

The Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India (TAPI) Gas Pipeline, also known as Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline, is a natural gas pipeline being developed by the Galkynysh – TAPI Pipeline Company Limited with participation of the Asian Development Bank. The pipeline will transport natural gas from the Galkynysh Gas Field in Turkmenistan through Afghanistan into Pakistan and then to India. Construction on the project started in Turkmenistan on 13 December 2015, while construction of the Afghanistan-Pakistan section of the pipeline was held in February 2018. Proponents of the project see it as a modern continuation of the Silk Road.

As of 2023, construction of the pipeline remains stalled.

History
The roots of this project lie in the involvement of international oil companies in Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan beginning of 1990s. As Russia, who controlled all export pipelines of these countries, consistently refused to allow the use of its pipeline network, these companies needed an independent export route avoiding both Iran and Russia.

The original project started on 15 March 1995 when an inaugural memorandum of understanding between the governments of Turkmenistan and Pakistan for a pipeline project was signed. This project was promoted by Argentinian company Bridas Corporation. The U.S. company Unocal, in conjunction with the Saudi oil company Delta, promoted an alternative project without Bridas' involvement. On 21 October 1995, these two companies signed a separate agreement with Turkmenistan's president Saparmurat Niyazov. In August 1996, the Central Asia Gas Pipeline, Ltd. (CentGas) consortium for construction of a pipeline, led by Unocal, was formed. On 27 October 1997, CentGas was incorporated in formal signing ceremonies in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, by several international oil companies along with the Government of Turkmenistan.

Since the pipeline was to pass through Afghanistan, it was necessary to work with the Taliban. The U.S. ambassador to Pakistan, Robert Oakley, left his post and was hired by CentGas in 1997. In January 1998, the Taliban, selecting CentGas over Argentinian competitor Bridas Corporation, signed an agreement that allowed the proposed project to proceed. In June 1998, Russian Gazprom relinquished its 10% stake in the project. On 7 August 1998, American embassies in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam were bombed. The United States alleged that Osama bin Laden was behind those attacks, and all pipeline negotiations halted, as the Taliban's then leader, Mullah Omar, announced that bin Laden had the Taliban's support. Unocal withdrew from the consortium on 8 December 1998, and soon after closed its offices in Afghanistan and Pakistan.

The new deal on the pipeline was signed on 27 December 2002 by the leaders of Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan. In 2005, the Asian Development Bank submitted the final version of a feasibility study designed by British company Penspen. The project has drawn strong US support as it would allow the Central Asian republics to export energy to Western markets "without relying on Russian routes". Then-US Ambassador to Turkmenistan Tracey Ann Jacobson noted, "We are seriously looking at the project, and it is quite possible that American companies will join it". Due to increasing instability, the project has essentially stalled; construction of the Turkmen part was supposed to start in 2006, but the overall feasibility is questionable since the southern part of the Afghan section runs through territory which continues to be under de facto Taliban control.

On 24 April 2008, Pakistan, India and Afghanistan signed a framework agreement to buy natural gas from Turkmenistan. The intergovernmental agreement on the pipeline was signed on 11 December 2010 in Ashgabat. However, in April 2012, India and Afghanistan have failed to agree on transit fee for gas passing through Afghan territory. Consequently, Islamabad and New Delhi too could not agree on the transit fee for the segment of the pipeline passing through Pakistan, which has linked its fee structure to any India-Afghanistan agreement. On 16 May 2012, the Afghan Parliament, approved the agreement on a gas pipeline and the day after, the Indian Cabinet allowed state-run gas-firm GAIL to sign the Gas Sale and Purchase Agreement (GSPA) with Türkmengaz, Turkmenistan's national oil company.

Construction on the project started in Turkmenistan on 13 December 2015 and was completed by mid-2019. Construction on the Afghan side started on 24 February 2018. The Taliban have vowed to cooperate and not disrupt the project in areas they control.

Technical features
The pipeline will be 1420 mm in diameter with a working pressure of 100 atm. The capacity will be 33 e9m3 of natural gas per year of which 5 e9m3 will be provided to Afghanistan and 14 e9m3 to each Pakistan and India. Six compressor stations would be constructed along the pipeline. The pipeline was intended to be operational by 2019.

Originally, the cost of the pipeline project was reportedly estimated at US$7.6 billion, but a more recent estimate was $10 billion. The leading partner of the project is Türkmengaz.

Route
The 1814 km pipeline will run from the world's second largest gas field namely Galkynysh gas fields in Turkmenistan through Afghanistan and Pakistan to India. In Afghanistan, TAPI pipeline will be constructed alongside the Kandahar–Herat Highway in western Afghanistan, and then via Quetta and Multan in Pakistan. The final destination of the pipeline will be the Indian town of Fazilka, near the border between Pakistan and India.


text:
Tap

Tap(s), TAP(S) or tapped may refer to:

Film

 * Tap (film), a 1989 American dance drama film
 * Taps (film), a 1981 American drama film
 * Taps (2006 film), a short film
 * Tapped (film), a 2009 documentary

Gaming

 * Tap (gaming), a mechanic in Magic: The Gathering and other card games where a card is rotated
 * Tapping, creating an artificial lag, a method of cheating in online games
 * TapTap, video game distribution platform

Music and dancing

 * Spinal Tap (band), a parody band
 * Tap dance, a type of dance using the sounds of tap shoes striking the floor
 * Tapping, a guitar playing technique
 * "Taps" (bugle call), a U.S. armed forces bugle call
 * Tap: Book of Angels Volume 20, a 2013 album by Pat Metheny composed by John Zorn
 * Tap (EP), a 2024 extended play by Taeyong

Publications

 * Tap!, a defunct magazine for owners of Apple's iOS devices
 * The American Prospect, a liberal policy magazine based in Washington, D.C.
 * TAP, a Youth International Party magazine
 * "TAP" (novelette), by Greg Egan, 1995

Businesses and organisations

 * TAP Air Portugal, Portugal's flag carrier airline
 * TAP Digital Media Ventures Corporation, a Philippine media and entertainment company
 * TAP Pharmaceuticals, a joint venture
 * The Atlantic Paranormal Society (TAPS), an organization that investigates reported paranormal activity
 * Secret Polish Army, Tajna Armia Polska, a Polish resistance movement in World War II
 * Molson Coors Brewing Company, NYSE symbol TAP
 * Tunis Afrique Presse, a Tunisian news agency
 * TAP Boyz (The Arabian Posse), a Chicago street gang
 * Tasmanians Against the Pulpmill, a group opposing the Bell Bay Pulp Mill
 * TAPS Division, Informatics General, an American computer software company
 * Trafficking and Prostitution Services (TAPS), an organisation for sexual trafficking victims
 * Tragedy Assistance Program for Survivors (TAPS), a U.S. non-profit organization

Medicine
Conditions: Procedures involving fluid removal through a needle:
 * Twin anemia-polycythemia sequence
 * Lumbar puncture, also known as a spinal tap
 * Paracentesis, also known as an abdominal tap
 * Thoracentesis / thoracocentesis, also known as a pleural tap

People

 * Tap Canutt (1932–2014), American stunt performer and actor
 * Taps Mugadza (born 1988), Zimbabwean singer known by the mononym Taps
 * Taps Miller (1915–?), American entertainer

Places

 * Tap, Azerbaijan
 * Táp, Hungary
 * Taps, the German name of Tapa, Estonia

Engineering

 * Tap (valve), a device for controlling the release of a liquid or gas, e.g. a water faucet
 * Beer tap
 * Tap (transformer), an intermediate point on the winding of an electrical transformer
 * Tap and die, tools to create screw threads

Computing and communications

 * Tap (signal processing), a delayed impulse response
 * Network tap (terminal access point), a system that monitors events on a local network
 * Telephone tap, a device that monitors phone conversations
 * Vampire tap, a method for attaching computer nodes to a network cable
 * Telelocator Alphanumeric Protocol, a protocol for sending messages to a cellular or pager service
 * Test Anything Protocol, a communication protocol
 * Topfield Application Program, a software application for digital TV
 * Tap, a pointing device gesture
 * Test access port in JTAG standard
 * Amazon Tap, a portable version of the Amazon Echo voice assistant
 * TUN/TAP, virtual network kernel interfaces
 * .TAP files, tape images from Commodore 8-bit computers; see Commodore 64 disk / tape emulation
 * Transferred Account Procedure data files, see Roaming
 * Task-based asynchronous pattern, Microsoft's term for the Async/await pattern in C#

Science

 * Tap consonant, a type of phonetic sound
 * TAPS (buffer), a chemical compound commonly used to make buffer solutions
 * Tandem affinity purification (TAP), a technique for studying protein interactions
 * Timor–Alor–Pantar languages
 * Transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP), a protein complex
 * Twin anemia-polycythemia sequence (TAPS), a form of chronic inter-twin transfusion

Transportation

 * Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP), a gas pipeline via Greece, Albania and Italy
 * Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS), a petroleum pipeline across Alaska, United States
 * Transit Access Pass (TAP), an electronic ticketing payment method in Los Angeles County, California, United States
 * Tapachula International Airport, Chiapas, Mexico, IATA airport code TAP
 * Tai Po Market station, Hong Kong, MTR station code TAP
 * Taplow railway station, Buckinghamshire, England, National Rail station code TAP

Other uses

 * Tap code, a simple way to encode text messages on a letter-by-letter basis
 * Tap, a method of contactless payment
 * Tarapur Atomic Power Station (TAPS), Tarapur, Palghar, India
 * Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP), a gas pipeline
 * Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS), a crude-oil pipeline
 * Tuition Assistance Program, New York State, U.S.
 * Tap, or Tab (cuneiform), a cuneiform sign
 * Tap room, in a British bar

title: Tap


text:
User:Arseni

I migrated to User:Khakhalin for naming reasons (Arseni was not global, and was occupied by other people in different wikipedias, and I could not merge with Khakhalin already. So had to move).

title: User:Arseni


text:
Åland State Provincial Office

The State Provincial Office on the Åland Islands (Länsstyrelsen på Åland) represented the Finnish central government on Åland between 1918 and 2009. Due to its autonomy, it had somewhat different functions than similar offices in other Provinces of Finland. Generally a State Provincial Office was a joint regional authority of seven different ministries of the Government of Finland. In Åland the State Provincial Office also represented a set of other authorities of the central government, which in mainland-Finland has separate bureaucracies. On the other hand duties, which on mainland-Finland were handled by the provincial offices, were transferred to the autonomous government of Åland.

Along with the abolition of all Provinces of Finland, the Åland State Provincial Office was replaced by the State Department of Åland in 2009.

List of governors

 * William Isaksson (1918-1922)
 * Wilhelm Fagerlund (1922-1938)
 * Torsten Rothberg (1938-1938)
 * Walter Johansson (acting 1938)
 * Ruben Österberg (1938-1945)
 * Herman Koroleff (1945-1954)
 * Tor Brenning (1954-1972)
 * Martin Isaksson (1972-1982)
 * Henrik Gustafsson (1982-1999)
 * Peter Lindbäck (1999-2009)

title: Åland State Provincial Office


text:
Politics of Åland

Politics of the Åland Islands takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic autonomous, demilitarised, and unilingually Swedish territory of Finland, whereby the Lantråd is the head of government, and of a multi-party system.

The Åland Islands are governed according to the Act on Åland Autonomy and international treaties, which guarantees autonomy and demilitarized status. The Government of Åland, or Landskapsregering, is dependent on the Parliament of Åland, or Lagting, according to the principles of parliamentarism.

In 1634, Åland was made part of the Åbo and Björneborg County as a part of the grand administrative reforms initiated by Count Axel Oxenstierna. The county became part of the Russian Empire within the Grand Duchy of Finland in 1809, when Sweden was forced to cede vast areas in the Napoleonic Wars. When Finland declared its independence in 1917, the newly established state inherited the Åland islands.

During the Civil War in 1918, some Russian troops were still stationed on the islands, causing serious instability and nervousness. This anxiety in the local population, and the other Scandinavian states, resulted in a Swedish occupation and 7,135 people (of a total population of approximately 22,500 at the time) signing the address for Åland joining the kingdom of Sweden. The fear of Russia finally resulted in a German occupation of the islands. In the meantime, the Finnish press was playing with the idea of an exchange of land areas between Sweden and Finland. The areas in question of this exchange would have been the Swedish-speaking Åland to Sweden and some Finnish-speaking areas of Norrbotten and Västerbotten to Finland. The response from the Swedish government was bluntly negative to any exchanges of this nature.

Since the 1920s, the primary political issue in Åland Islands relates to the promotion and protection of the self-government of the islands. There is widespread political support for retaining self-government. The sovereignty over Åland belongs to Finland, and Åland is thus not independent. The Åland Islands are guaranteed representation in the Finnish parliament, and elect one representative.

In 1921 the question of Åland was brought to the council of the League of Nations. The council decided unanimously, that the islands would remain under Finland's sovereignty, but stated that the native population's rights to their language had to be preserved, that the area had to stay demilitarized, and that Åland was granted autonomy during peacetime.

Åland has its national flag, has issued its postage stamps since 1984, has its police force, and is a member of the Nordic Council. The islands are demilitarised, and the male population is exempted from conscription. Parliamentarism has been the custom since 1988. The Åland autonomy preceded the creation of the Regions of Finland, but the autonomous government of Åland also handles what the regional councils do.

Until the late 1970s, Åland politics was predominantly personalised, as politics was oriented around notable individuals. In the late 1970s, a party system developed. The prominent parties in Åland since 1979 are the Social Democrats, Centre, Liberals, and Moderates. In comparison to the other Nordic countries, the political left is weak in Åland.

Executive branch

!align=left|Lantråd In addition to Åland's government, the Government of Åland (Ålands Landskapsregering), there is also a State Department of Åland (Statens ämbetsverk på Åland), headed by the Governor, Peter Lindbäck, and which is a department of the Government of Finland concerned with its functions in the islands.
 * Katrin Sjögren
 * Lib
 * 2015
 * Other Government parties
 * MSÅ, ÅS
 * }
 * MSÅ, ÅS
 * }
 * }

Legislative branch
The Parliament of Åland (Lagtinget, which means Law Thing) has 30 members, elected for a four-year term by proportional representation.

Local government

 * Municipalities of Åland, or Kommuner

title: Politics of Åland


text:
Rozhok

The rozhok (рожок) is an ancient Russian wooden trumpet, a relative of the cornett, which has remained in continuous use until the present day. It is also known as Vladimirskiy rozhok, (Владимирский рожок, meaning "Vladimir horn").

Names
The origins of the instrument date to before AD 1600. The tradition of playing the rozhok in an ensemble probably dates to a much earlier time. It is possible that the name rozhok was used for the instrument later, and that in the earliest written sources it was simply called a pipe. A rozhok can be called be various names: shepherd's horn (пастуший рожок), Russian horn (Русский рожок), or song horn (песенный рожок). At the end of the 19th century, the name Vladimir was added to this instrument's name (Владимирский рожок, Vladimirskiy rozhok, "Vladimir horn"), due to the success of a chorus of rozhok players under the leadership of Nikolai Vasilyevich Kondratyev from the Vladimir region.

Structure
A rozhok is a conical straight tube with the six playing holes: five on top and one underneath. The total length of a rozhok ranges from 320 to 830 mm (13" to 33"). A mouthpiece is cut in the form of a small cup, and the lower end of the tube is shaped like a conical bell. A rozhok is usually made of birch, maple, or juniper. Musicians say that rozhoks of juniper have the best sound. In the past they were made in the same manner as a shepherd's rozhok, in which two halves are fastened together with birch bark; today they are turned. The sound of a rozhok is strong, but mellow, having a range of about an octave, or a little more. There are several types of rozhoks: the shortest one, having the highest sound is called vizgunok (squeaker), typically in F# or G; the longest and thus the lowest one is called bas (bass), in F# or G an octave below, while a mid-size instrument is called a polubasok (half-bass), typically in C. It is polubasok instruments that are most frequently used for solo playing. Rozhok ensembles usually consist of just vizgunok and bas instruments in the ratio 2:1 (twice as many high-pitched horns).

Varieties
Rozhok's folk tunes are divided into four stylistic varieties: signal, song, dancing, and dance, with a large number of songs in all styles. There are several types of shepherd's signals and more of others. The main repertoire is song folk-tunes.

As of 2015, rozhok ensembles exist in Moscow, Vladimir and Nerekhta. In addition, rozhoks can sometimes be heard in Russian folk orchestra concerts.

title: Rozhok


text:
Short-finned pilot whale

The short-finned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus) is one of the two species of cetaceans in the genus Globicephala, which it shares with the long-finned pilot whale (G. melas). It is part of the oceanic dolphin family (Delphinidae).

It has a worldwide distribution with a global population of about 700,000, and there may be 3 or 4 distinct populations—two in the Pacific and one in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Its range is moving northward due to global warming. In the Pacific, males average 4 – and females 3 –. It generally has a stocky build with black to dark gray or brown skin, and can be distinguished from its counterpart by shorter flippers, fewer teeth, and a shorter beak. It is thought to pursue fast-moving squid typically at a depth of 700 m, but the maximum recorded depth is 1,018 m.

The short-finned pilot whale has been reported as being highly playful and social. It typically travels in pods of 10–30 members, usually family, but has been observed moving in groups of several hundred. Like killer whales, it has a matrilineal social hierarchy with an elder female at the head and a sizable post-reproductive lifespan. It is polygynous; females often outnumber males 8:1 in a pod.

Pods are known to mass strand, possibly due to sheer accident, biosonars confused by geomagnetic anomalies, injury from loud military sonar, or disease. It was historically whaled, and is still whaled today by Japan and the Lesser Antilles, but it is protected by several international treaties.

Taxonomy
The name "pilot whale" originated with an early theory that pods were "piloted" by a leader. Other common names include the "pothead whale" (after the bulbous melon), and "blackfish" (a catch-all term used to designate numerous species of small, dark-colored toothed whales, including the pygmy sperm whale and false killer whale).

Worldwide, the diversity of mitochondrial DNA in short-finned pilot whales is considered to be low relative to other species with global distributions. A 2014 study found a unique haplotype in the Caribbean region.

Evolution
The short-finned pilot whale is considered to be a single species with three divergent types: the Shiho, Naisa and Atlantic short-finned pilot whales.

The Shiho and Naisa forms are actually subspecies of the short-finned pilot whale, with the Shiho clade having diverged approximately 17.5 thousand years ago (kya), during the last glacial maximum. The exact boundaries of the two subspecies' ranges remain undefined due to lack of data. Based on current evidence, the Shiho subspecies is distributed in the eastern Pacific Ocean, and the Naisa subspecies encompasses the central/western Pacific and Indian Oceans, as well as the Atlantic Ocean. It appears as though the Pacific Ocean acts as a semi‐permeable barrier between the two subspecies, allowing occasional migration and mixing between the eastern and western Pacific Ocean, but keeping the populations separate enough to drive this differentiation.

The Atlantic clade is thought to have diverged from the Naisa approximately 12.5 kya, however this split is supported by mitochondrial DNA only, and not nuclear DNA. Further analysis is required to clarify whether the Atlantic Ocean and central/western Pacific and Indian Oceans pilot whales may also be sufficiently distinct to be considered subspecies.

The Atlantic and Indian/western-central Pacific types are also diverging from each other, with the Benguela Current off the coast of South Africa separating the two.

Description
Short-finned pilot whales are black to dark gray/brown, with a thick tail stock, fluke with sharply pointed tips, bulbous head, and a broad, sickle-shaped dorsal fin. Coloration typically includes light grey to white areas such as a saddle patch behind the dorsal fin, a light grey or white anchor-shaped patch under the chin and belly, and a blaze marking behind the eye. These traits, however, can vary between populations. For example, two distinct forms are described from on the Pacific coast of central Japan: the Shiho morphotype is the larger of the two– females 4 to 5 m, males 5 to 6 m, and has a white dorsal patch and round melon, while the Naisa type is smaller– females 3 to 4 m, males 4 to 5 m– with a characteristic flattened or squarish melon and a darker, indistinct saddle patch. Short-finned pilot whales can reach up to 7.2 m in length and weigh up to 4000 kg, making it the third-largest species of oceanic dolphin, behind the orca and long-finned pilot whale. When they are born, short-finned pilot whales weigh about 60 kg at a length of 1.4 to 1.9 m.

Long-finned and short-finned pilot whales are often hard to tell apart. However, as their names indicate, short-finned pilot whale flippers are shorter than those of the long-finned pilot whale, measuring about 1/6th of the body length. Short-finned pilot whales also have fewer teeth – 7–9 in each row – and a shorter and broader rostrum with a premaxilla that covers more of the maxilla. Both species exhibit sexual dimorphism and have similar lifespans of about 45 years for males and 60 years for females, with long-finned pilot whales being generally larger than short-finned pilot whales. The two species have limited overlap worldwide; long-finned pilot whales are found in cooler temperate waters, while the distribution of short-finned pilot whales is largely tropical and subtropical.

Geographic distribution
Short-finned pilot whales are found in both coastal and pelagic waters in temperate and tropical regions of the Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans. Information on the spatial habitat use of pilot whales in the northwest Atlantic is limited, however short-finned pilot whales are thought to range from the southern end of Georges Bank into the tropics, overlapping with the range of the long-finned pilot whales along the mid-Atlantic shelf break between Delaware and Georges Bank.

Off the coast of Japan, the distributions of the Shiho and Naisa types are well-documented and largely nonoverlapping, with the Naisa-type inhabiting the warm-temperate waters of the Kuroshio Current, and the Shiho-type inhabiting cold-temperate waters of the Oyashio Current. Some evidence suggests these populations might even be distinct subspecies, based on differences in morphology, mitochondrial DNA and breeding seasons. Beyond Japan, the Naisa-type occurs in southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, and Hawaii, and the Shiho-type can be found in the California Current and off Peru.

Pilot whales show strong natal philopatry, often remaining year-round in places such as Hawaii, the U.S. and British Virgin Islands, the Madeira Islands, and parts of California, though some populations migrate with the seasonal and annual fluctuations in temperature and productivity.

Once commonly seen off of Southern California, short-finned pilot whales disappeared from the area after a strong El Niño year in 1982 and 1983, and have since been encountered infrequently, primarily during warm-water years such as 1991, 1993, 1997, 2014, and 2015. It is not known whether the animals sighted more recently were part of the same population that was documented off Southern California before the mid-1980s, or a different wide-ranging pelagic population, therefore the status of this stock remains unknown.

Pilot whales are economically important in the whale-watching industry of some areas of the world, such as Madeira, Hawaii, and the Canary Islands, which host resident populations of these whales. The effects of tourism activities on pilot whales have not been well studied, but some evidence suggests that the impact of underwater noise from whale-watching boats can have the potential to significantly disrupt communication at close range. Many countries offer safe whale-watching guidelines designed to minimize the impact of their activities on the animals being watched (see supplementary materials).

Social lives
Short-finned pilot whales are long-lived, slow to reproduce, and highly social animals. They are usually found in pods of 10 to 30 individuals, though groups of up to several hundred short-finned pilot whales have been reported in the Caribbean. These pods are stable social structures, meaning that they form hierarchical associations that remain stable for generations, and are primarily thought to be matrilineal, i.e. led by an elder female relative, similar to those of resident killer whales. However, a study by Van Cise et al. (2017) showed that, in the Hawaii islands, the social organization of pods was indicative of familial behaviour rather than matrilineal, and was driven by genetic relatedness. Groups of closely related individuals formed tight associations, or clusters, with other close relatives, and genetic analysis revealed a significant differentiation between clusters, even those that were present in the same area. Clusters that were more genetically different also spent less time together. This could suggest that social behaviour in short-finned pilot whales inhibits gene flow outside of family groups.

Pilot whales are also known for their socializing and playful behaviour at the surface, such as lobtailing (slapping their flukes on the water surface) and spy-hopping (poking their heads above the surface). Members of a pod have also been observed making various altruistic behaviours, such as alloparental care, in which nonparent whales help to take care of young that are not their own. In the closely related long-finned pilot whales, babysitting of calves by other group members is frequently documented, and can be performed by males as well as females.

Reproduction
Males are polygynous, meaning they will mate with multiple females at one time and throughout their lives. Pods are often found with around one mature male per every eight mature females. During mating aggregations, males will temporarily leave their pods to mate with females from other pods, but will return to their own pods once mating is over, which helps to prevent inbreeding. Female pilot whales mature at about 7–12 years of age, and will start having calves every five to eight years, averaging about 4 to 5 calves in a lifetime. A calf will suckle its mother for a minimum of two years, with most continuing to suckle for five years, and some evidence suggests that females may continue to lactate for up to 15 years after the birth of their last calf. A female will usually stop reproducing once reaching the age of 40 years, even though the maximum lifespan exceeds 60 years.

Foraging
Short-finned pilot whales are apex predators. The diet preferences and foraging habits of short-finned pilot whales are still poorly understood, however, they are known to be deep-divers, and are generally found foraging on the steep slopes along the continental shelf break. The diet of these large marine predators is thought to consist primarily of squid, but will also include certain species of fish and octopus. On rare occasions, they are also known to prey on other marine mammals.

They use echolocation when they hunt, clicking and listening for echoes from prey as they descend and generating a rapid "buzz" of clicks at the depth of their dive that accompanies a high-speed sprinting attack.

They have been recorded to feed at a maximum depth of 1018 m (3340 ft) for a length of 21 minutes, although average dives tend to be shallower (around 700m) and last around 15 minutes. When foraging, a pod may spread out up to 800 m (half-mile) to find food. Pilot whales are known as the 'cheetahs of the deep' for the high-speed pursuits of squid at depths of hundreds of meters.

Population status
The total of all available abundance estimates for short-finned pilot whales is approximately 700,000 individuals, but populations vary worldwide, and large parts of the species' range have not been surveyed, therefore actual abundance could be considerably greater than this.

In the western Pacific, population estimates range from 5,300 individuals in Northern Japan to 53,608 in Southern Japan. 7,700 individuals are reported in the eastern Sulu Sea (Philippines), and in the Eastern tropical Pacific the most recent estimate from 2000 gives 589,000 individuals. The resident population in Tenerife, Spain, is estimated at only 350 individuals.

Three stocks of short-finned pilot whales are recognized in U.S. waters, which live along the east and west coasts, and around the Hawaiian Islands. The best available abundance estimates place the West Coast stock at only 800 animals, and the East Coast stock at 21,500. These estimates come from sightings reported from vessel and aerial surveys, and may be under-representing the true population abundance due to the wide range that the species covers, and the difficulty of distinguishing long-finned and short-finned pilot whales at sea.

The Hawaiian archipelago is home to the Naisa-type short-finned pilot whale, which appears to be segregated into three island-associated communities based on photo-ID and satellite tagging data: the Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI) community, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) community, found around O’ahu and Kaua’i Islands, and the central MHI community around O’ahu and Lāna’i Islands. There are no population estimates for the different island communities, but in all of Hawaiian waters there are an estimated 90-20 thousand short-finned pilot whales, with the MHI community being the most abundant.

Short-finned pilot whales are among the most frequently encountered cetaceans in the Canary Islands, but estimates of abundance are not available. Records suggest they are also abundant in deep water off the west coast of Africa, around the Maldives, and in the northern Indian Ocean more generally. However, despite previous study efforts, there is still no information on global numbers or trends for this species.

Natural predators and strandings
There are no documented cases of natural predation on pilot whales, although the species could occasionally be targeted by killer whales or large sharks. Most of the data on pilot whale mortalities comes from mass stranding events. Pilot whales are often involved in mass strandings throughout their range, with several well-documented incidents involving dozens of individuals in Australia, the Canary Islands, and the U.S.  Many theories have been proposed to explain these events, which include accidents in navigation that lead animals to unexpectedly shallow waters, anomalies in the earth's geomagnetic fields impacting navigation, injury or disorientation caused by military sonar, or impaired navigation in diseased individuals that lead the rest of the group astray. Due to their tight social bonds, rescue attempts following strandings are not always successful, as whales will often re-strand themselves upon hearing the calls of their group members on shore.

Human-induced threats
Short-finned pilot whales have been hunted for many centuries, particularly by Japanese whalers. Between 1948 and 1980, hundreds of whales were exploited at Hokkaido and Sanriku in the north and Taiji, Izu, and Okinawa in the south. Annual catches have ranged from 100 to 500 whales from 1972 to 2009 across the country, and the practice continues to this day. Today, pilot whales are hunted in a few areas of Japan, mainly along the central Pacific coast, as well as the Lesser Antilles (e.g., St. Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia, Dominica, Martinique), where whales are commercially hunted and the meat is available for human consumption. Pilot whales' strong social bonds and herding instincts make them prime candidates for so-called drive fisheries, where whales are herded towards shore by boats and then killed in shallow waters. Other hunting methods include hand or crossbow-projected harpooning, and small-type whaling (defined as the use of a cannon mounted on a vessel below a certain size). From 1993 to 2004, the annual quota for all short-finned pilot whale takes in Japan was 500, a large proportion of which was allocated to the drive hunt in Taiji. Whaling documentation in the Caribbean has been sporadic and often incomplete, but at least in St. Vincent and the Grenadines, local hunters have taken an average of 141 pilot whales and 159 dolphins of various species annually from 1962 to 2009.

Certain Japanese restaurants serve pilot whale as sashimi, or as steaks that are marinated, cut into small chunks, and grilled. The meat is high in protein and low in fat (a whale's fat is contained in the layer of blubber beneath the skin). It is considered integral to certain cultures. When grilled, the meat is slightly flaky and described as being quite flavorful, somewhat gamey, with distinct yet subtle undertones recalling its marine origin.

Like many marine predators, pilot whales are susceptible to entanglement and bycatch in pelagic fishing gear, such as gill nets, long lines and some trawl fisheries. Once entangled or hooked, whales may drag the gear behind them for long distances, resulting in fatigue, compromised feeding ability, or injury, often leading to reduced reproductive success and death. Pilot whales are also susceptible to vessel strikes, which can be lethal, or lead to injury and behavioural changes. As top predators, pilot whales also suffer from the bioaccumulation of contaminants such as heavy metals and organichlorines in their tissues, which can have serious long-term impacts on health and reproduction, and is a rising concern in cultures that consume pilot whale meat. Short-finned pilot whales off the west coast of the US were found to have high amounts of DDT and PCB, however the levels were lower in whales from Japan and the Antilles.

Captivity
Short-finned pilot whales, have been kept in captivity in various marine parks off southern California, Hawaii and Japan, arguably starting the late 1940s. Pilot whales have historically had low survival rates in captivity, with less than half surviving past 24 months. Bubbles, a female short-finned pilot whale who was displayed in Marineland, and eventually at Sea World California, was one exception to the rule, living to be somewhere in her 50s when she eventually died on 12 June 2016.

Climate change
In the context of global warming, the ranges of short-finned pilot whales are expected to shift northward in response to warming temperatures, which could eventually lead to increased overlap and potential hybridization with their long-finned cousins. The distribution limit of short-finned pilot whales in the Northeast Atlantic has already shifted 3° latitude in only two decades, and evidence for introgressive hybridization (i.e. the movement of a genes from one species into the gene pool of another) with long-finned pilot whales is appearing in DNA samples from the Northeast Atlantic. Like many other species, pilot whales are also likely to be affected by changes in prey distribution and abundance, habitat degradation, and other secondary effects of climate change, coupled with human-mediated stressors such as marine traffic and pollution, which could lead to the global decline, or even loss, of this species.

Conservation
The short-finned pilot whale was listed on the IUCN Red List as Data Deficient in 2008, and remains data-poor in much of its range, especially in the Southern Hemisphere and in large parts of the tropical and warm temperate North Atlantic Ocean.

The short-finned pilot whale is covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas (ASCOBANS), and the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS). The purpose of these two groups is to reduce threats to cetaceans through improving current knowledge, and enforcement of the outlined conservation measures.

The species is further included in the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia (Western African Aquatic Mammals MoU) and the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (Pacific Cetaceans MoU). In the United States, short-finned pilot whales are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Globally, they are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.

Around the world, several efforts aim to address the threats faced by cetaceans, including pilot whales. For example, in the United States, NOAA Fisheries implemented the Pacific Offshore Cetacean Take Reduction Plan, which aims to reduce serious injuries and deaths of marine mammals incidental to the California/Oregon thresher shark/swordfish drift gillnet fishery through methods like gear modifications, limited fishing depth, and skipper education workshops. In areas where resident pilot whale populations are seen near the coast, such as those off the Canary Islands, Madeira, and Hawaii, they can be studied using photo-identification. This technique helps researchers identify unique markings and scars on the whales' dorsal fins, which are used to recognize individuals from photographic surveys to monitor movements and life histories over time. Other research techniques including satellite tagging, acoustics, and genetics to learn about the species' long-range movements, genetic diversity and social behaviour. However, there have been few long-term studies focused on this species, and data is spotty for many of the small local populations. This makes assessing threats and population dynamics difficult, and more research is needed before any statements can be made on the global status of short-finned pilot whales.

title: Short-finned pilot whale