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House of Glücksburg

The House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, better known as the House of Glücksburg, is a branch of the German House of Oldenburg. Oldenburg house members have reigned at various times in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Greece, and several northern German states.

Current monarchs King Harald V of Norway and King Charles III of the United Kingdom, as well as the former Queen of Denmark Margrethe II and former queens consort Anne-Marie of Greece and Sofía of Spain, are patrilineal members of cadet branches of the House of Glücksburg.

Etymology
"House of Glücksburg" is the shortened form of "House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg"a collateral branch of the House of Oldenburg. The house derives its name from two regions and two towns on the Jutland Peninsula.

The two regions of Schleswig and Holstein are divided by the Eider River. While Schleswig for centuries constituted the southernmost region of Denmark, Holstein historically has been the northernmost area within the Holy Roman Empire. The northern border of Holstein along the Eider had already formed the northern border of Francia and the Carolingian Empire, after Emperor Charlemagne upon the Saxon Wars reached an agreement with King Hemming of Denmark in 811. The lands of Schleswig beyond the river remained a fief of the Danish Crown, while Holstein became an integral part of East Francia, the Kingdom of Germany and the Holy Roman Empire. Even earlier, the Eider had already been the border river between Saxons and Polabian Slavs to the south, and Danes and North Frisians to the north. This is evidenced in the largely Slavic-derived toponomy in Holstein, as opposed to the many Danish-derived place names in Schleswig including Southern Schleswig. Since the 1920 Schleswig plebiscites, Schleswig has been divided between Denmark (Northern Schleswig), and Germany (Southern Schleswig).

The town of Sønderborgthe German name of which is "Sonderburg"is located on the northern shores of the Flensburg Firth in Denmark (Northern Schleswig), while Glücksburg (Ostsee) lies on the southern shores of the firth in Germany (Southern Schleswig). The "Ostsee" suffix means "Baltic Sea" (East Sea).

Since Glücksburg Castle is the ancestral seat of the house, the house is mostly shortened to just "House of Glücksburg". It is also spelled "House of Glücksborg" (the name of Glücksburg in the local Low German dialect) or "House of Lyksborg" (the Danish name of Glücksburg).

The literal translation of "Glücksburg" is "Luck's Castle" (Glück = luck; Burg = castle). Glücksburg is officially bilingual and since 2016, there are German/Danish city limit signs in the town.

History
Glücksburg is a small coastal town on the German southern side of the fjord of Flensburg that divides Germany from Denmark. In 1460, Glücksburg came, as part of the conjoined Dano-German duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, to Count Christian of Oldenburg whom, in 1448, the Danes had elected their king as Christian I, the Norwegians likewise taking him as their hereditary king in 1450.

In 1564, Christian I's great-grandson, King Frederick II, in re-distributing Schleswig and Holstein's fiefs, retained some lands for his own senior royal line while allocating Glücksburg to his brother Duke John the Younger (1545–1622), along with Sønderborg, in appanage. John's heirs further sub-divided their share and created, among other branches, a line of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg dukes at Beck (an estate near Minden bought by the family in 1605), who remained vassals of Denmark's kings.

By 1825, the castle of Glücksburg had returned to the Danish crown (from another ducal branch called Glücksburg, extinct in 1779) and was given that year by King Frederick VI, along with a new ducal title, to his kinsman Frederick of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck. Frederick suffixed the territorial designation to the ducal title he already held, in lieu of "Beck" (an estate the family had, in fact, sold in 1745). Thus emerged the extant Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg.

The Danish line of Oldenburg kings died out in 1863, and the elder line of the Schleswig-Holstein family became extinct with the death of the last Augustenburg duke in 1931. Thereafter, the House of Glücksburg became the senior surviving line of the House of Oldenburg. Another cadet line of Oldenburgs, the Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp, consisted of two branches which held onto sovereignty into the 20th century. But members of the Romanov line were executed in or exiled from their Russian Empire in 1917, while the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg was abolished in 1918, although its dynastic line survives.

Neither the Dukes of Beck nor of Glücksburg had been sovereign rulers; they held their lands in fief from the ruling Dukes of Schleswig and Holstein, i.e. the Kings of Denmark and (until 1773) the Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp.

Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, the fourth son of Duke Friedrich of Glücksburg, was recognized in the London Protocol of 1852 as successor to the childless King Frederick VII of Denmark. He became King of Denmark as Christian IX on 15 November 1863.

Prince Vilhelm, the second son of Crown Prince Christian and Crown Princess Luise, was elected King of the Hellenes on 30 March 1863, succeeding the ousted Wittelsbach Otto of Greece and reigning under the name George I.

Prince Carl, the second son of Frederick VIII of Denmark, Christian IX's eldest son, became King of Norway on 18 November 1905 as Haakon VII of Norway.

Christian IX's daughters, Alexandra and Dagmar (as Maria Feodorovna) became the consorts of, respectively, King Edward VII of the United Kingdom and Emperor Alexander III of Russia. As a result, by 1914 descendants of King Christian IX held the crowns of several European realms, and he became known as the "Father-in-law of Europe".

Christian IX's older brother inherited formal headship of the family as Karl, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, followed by their brother Friedrich, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. It is his descendants who now represent the senior line of the Schleswig-Holstein branch of the House of Oldenburg, with Christoph, Prince of Schleswig-Holstein, as its current head.

Patrilineal ancestry of Duke Friedrich Wilhelm

 * 1) Elimar I, Count of Oldenburg
 * 2) Elimar II, Count of Oldenburg
 * 3) Christian I, Count of Oldenburg (Christian the Quarrelsome)
 * 4) Maurice, Count of Oldenburg
 * 5) Christian II, Count of Oldenburg
 * 6) John I, Count of Oldenburg
 * 7) Christian III, Count of Oldenburg
 * 8) John II, Count of Oldenburg
 * 9) Conrad I, Count of Oldenburg
 * 10) Christian V, Count of Oldenburg
 * 11) Dietrich, Count of Oldenburg
 * 12) Christian I of Denmark
 * 13) Frederick I of Denmark
 * 14) Christian III of Denmark
 * 15) John II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg
 * 16) Alexander, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg
 * 17) August Philipp, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck
 * 18) Frederick Louis, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck
 * 19) Peter August, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck
 * 20) Karl Anton August, Prince of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck
 * 21) Friedrich Karl Ludwig, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck
 * 22) Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg

Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg

The Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg constitute the senior male line of the branch. They hold the headship by primogeniture of the cadet house of Glücksburg. The headship by agnatic primogeniture of the entire House of Oldenburg is held by Friedrich Ferdinand, Prince of Schleswig-Holstein.

The heir apparent is Prince Alfred of Schleswig-Holstein (born 2019).

Denmark

In 1853, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg became heir to the Kingdom of Denmark, and in 1863, he ascended the throne. He was the fourth son of Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, whose elder brother (and male-line descendants) retained the Glücksburg dukedom. The Danish royal family still calls itself Glücksborg, using a slightly Danicized form of Glücksburg.

Greece

In 1863 and with the name George I, Prince Wilhelm of Denmark was elected King of the Hellenes on the recommendation of Europe's Great Powers. He was the second son of King Christian IX of Denmark.

The Hellenic constitutional monarchy was usurped in a coup d'état by a military junta in 1967 and the royal family fled into exile. The monarchy was abolished in 1973. After the collapse of the military dictatorship in 1974, 69.18% of votes recorded in a republic referendum were against the return of the monarchy.

Norway

In 1905, Prince Carl of Denmark became Norway's first independent monarch in 518 years, taking the regnal name Haakon VII. His father was King Frederick VIII of Denmark, and one of his uncles was King George I of Greece.

The heir apparent is Crown Prince Haakon of Norway (born 1973). See the present line of succession.

Iceland

In 1918, Iceland was elevated from an autonomous Danish province to a separate Kingdom of Iceland. Christian X of Denmark was henceforth King of Denmark and Iceland until 1944, when Iceland dissolved the personal union between the two countries and became a republic.

The heir apparent was his son, Frederik IX of Denmark (1899–1972).

United Kingdom

In 1947, Philip Mountbatten married Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II). Born into the house of Glücksburg as a prince of Denmark and Greece, he later relinquished these titles and was created Duke of Edinburgh by his father-in-law, King George VI of the United Kingdom.

The heir apparent is Charles's elder son William, Prince of Wales (born 1982). See the present line of succession.

 * Charles is agnatically descended from the House of Glücksburg via his father. However, he reigns as a member of the House of Windsor.
 * Also Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles, and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland.
 * Also Earl of Chester.
 * Also Earl of Merioneth and Baron Greenwich.
 * Also King of Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, The Bahamas, Belize, Canada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, The Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, and Head of the Commonwealth.

Line of succession
By agnatic primogeniture:
 * Frederick I of Denmark (1471–1533)
 * Christian III of Denmark (1503–1559)
 * John II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg (1545–1622)
 * Alexander, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg (1573–1627)
 * August Philipp, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck (1612–1675)
 * Frederick Louis, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck (1653–1728)
 * Peter August, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck (1697–1775)
 * Prince Karl Anton August of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck (1727–1759)
 * Friedrich Karl Ludwig, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck (1757–1816)
 * Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (1785–1831)
 * Friedrich, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (1814–1885)
 * Friedrich Ferdinand, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein (1855–1934)
 * Wilhelm Friedrich, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein (1891–1965)
 * Peter, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein (1922–1980)
 * Christoph, Prince of Schleswig-Holstein (1949–2023)
 * [[Image:Simple gold crown.svg|15px]] Friedrich Ferdinand, Prince of Schleswig-Holstein (b. 1985)
 * (1) Prince Alfred of Schleswig-Holstein
 * (2) Prince Albert of Schleswig-Holstein
 * (3) Prince Constantin of Schleswig-Holstein (b. 1986)
 * (4) Prince Tassilo of Schleswig-Holstein, Prince of Lyxborg
 * (5) Prince Leopold of Schleswig-Holstein (b. 1991)
 * (6) Prince Alexander of Schleswig-Holstein (b. 1953)
 * (7) Prince Julian of Schleswig-Holstein (b. 1997)
 * Christian IX of Denmark (1818–1906)
 * Frederick VIII of Denmark (1843–1912)
 * Christian X of Denmark (1870–1947)
 * Knud, Hereditary Prince of Denmark (1900–1976)
 * (8) Count Ingolf of Rosenborg (b. 1940)
 * Haakon VII of Norway (1872–1957)
 * Olav V of Norway (1903–1991)
 * (9) Harald V of Norway (b. 1937)
 * (10) Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway (b. 1973)
 * (11) Prince Sverre Magnus of Norway (b. 2005)
 * Prince Harald of Denmark (1876–1949)
 * Count Oluf of Rosenborg (1923–1990)
 * (12) Count Ulrik of Rosenborg (b. 1950)
 * (13) Count Philip of Rosenborg (b. 1986)
 * George I of Greece (1845–1913)
 * Constantine I of Greece (1868–1923)
 * Paul of Greece (1901–1964)
 * Constantine II of Greece (1940–2023)
 * (14) Pavlos, Crown Prince of Greece (b. 1967)
 * (15) Prince Constantine Alexios of Greece and Denmark (b. 1998)
 * (16) Prince Achileas-Andreas of Greece and Denmark (b. 2000)
 * (17) Prince Odysseas Kimon of Greece and Denmark (b. 2004)
 * (18) Prince Aristide Stavros of Greece and Denmark (b. 2008)
 * (19) Prince Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark (b. 1969)
 * (20) Prince Philippos of Greece and Denmark (b. 1986)
 * Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark (1882–1944)
 * Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (1921–2021)
 * (21) Charles III of the United Kingdom (b. 1948)
 * (22) William, Prince of Wales (b. 1982)
 * (23) Prince George of Wales (b. 2013)
 * (24) Prince Louis of Wales (b. 2018)
 * (25) Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex (b. 1984)
 * (26) Prince Archie of Sussex (b. 2019)
 * (27) Prince Andrew, Duke of York (b. 1960)
 * (28) Prince Edward, Duke of Edinburgh (b. 1964)
 * (29) James Mountbatten-Windsor, Earl of Wessex (b. 2007)
 * Prince Christopher of Greece and Denmark (1888–1940)
 * (30) Prince Michael of Greece and Denmark (b. 1939)
 * Prince Valdemar of Denmark (1858–1939)
 * Prince Axel of Denmark (1888–1964)
 * Count Flemming of Rosenborg (1922–2002)
 * (31) Count Axel of Rosenborg (b. 1950)
 * (32) Count Carl Johan of Rosenborg (b. 1979)
 * (33) Count Alexander Flemming of Rosenborg (b. 1993)
 * (34) Count Birger of Rosenborg (b. 1950)
 * (35) Count Carl Johan of Rosenborg (b. 1952)
 * Prince Erik, Count of Rosenborg (1890–1950)
 * Count Christian of Rosenborg (1932–1997)
 * (36) Count Valdemar of Rosenborg (b. 1965)
 * (37) Count Nicolai of Rosenborg (b. 1997)
 * Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (1526–1586)
 * John Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (1575–1616)
 * Frederick III, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (1597–1659)
 * Christian Albert, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (1641–1695)
 * Frederick IV, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (1671–1702)
 * Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (1700–1739)
 * Peter III of Russia (1728–1762)
 * Paul I of Russia (1754–1801)
 * Nicholas I of Russia (1796–1855)
 * Alexander II of Russia (1818–1881)
 * Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia (1860–1919)
 * Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia (1891–1941)
 * Prince Paul Dimitrievich Romanovsky-Ilyinsky (1928–2004)
 * (38) Prince Dimitri Pavlovich Romanovsky-Ilyinsky (b. 1954)
 * (39) Prince Michael Pavlovich Romanovsky-Ilyinsky (b. 1961)
 * Prince George Alexandrovich Yurievsky (1872–1913)
 * Prince Alexander Georgijevich Yurievsky (1900–1988)
 * (40) Prince George Alexandrovich Yurievsky (b. 1961)
 * Grand Duke Michael Nicolaevich of Russia (1832–1909)
 * Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Russia (1866–1933)
 * Prince Andrei Alexandrovich of Russia (1897–1981)
 * Andrew Andreevich, Prince of Russia (1923–2021)
 * (41) Alexis Andreevich, Prince of Russia (b. 1953)
 * (42) Prince Peter Andreevich of Russia (b. 1961)
 * (43) Prince Andrew Andreevich of Russia (b. 1963)
 * Prince Rostislav Alexandrovich of Russia (1902–1978)
 * Prince Rostislav Rostislavovich of Russia (1938–1999)
 * (44) Prince Rostislav Rostislavovich of Russia (b. 1985)
 * (45) Prince Rostislav Rostislavovich of Russia (b. 2013)
 * (46) Prince Mikhail Rostislavovich of Russia (b. 2015)
 * (47) Prince Nikita Rostislavovich of Russia (b. 1987)
 * Prince Nicholas Rostislavovich of Russia (1945–2000)
 * (48) Prince Nicholas Nicolaevich of Russia (b. 1968)
 * (49) Prince Daniel Nicolaevich of Russia (b. 1972)
 * (50) Prince Jackson Danielovich of Russia (b. 2009)
 * Prince Christian August of Holstein-Gottorp (1673–1726)
 * Prince Georg Ludwig of Holstein-Gottorp (1719–1763)
 * Peter I, Grand Duke of Oldenburg (1755–1829)
 * Augustus, Grand Duke of Oldenburg (1783–1853)
 * Peter II, Grand Duke of Oldenburg (1827–1900)
 * Frederick Augustus II, Grand Duke of Oldenburg (1852–1931)
 * Nikolaus, Hereditary Grand Duke of Oldenburg (1897–1970)
 * Anton-Günther, Duke of Oldenburg (1923–2014)
 * (51) Christian, Duke of Oldenburg (b. 1955)''
 * (52) Duke Alexander of Oldenburg (b. 1990)
 * (53) Duke Philipp of Oldenburg (b. 1991)
 * (54) Duke Anton Friedrich of Oldenburg (b. 1993)
 * Duke Peter of Oldenburg (1926–2016)
 * (55) Duke Nikolaus of Oldenburg (b. 1955)
 * (56) Duke Christoph of Oldenburg (b. 1985)
 * (57) Duke Georg of Oldenburg (b. 1990)
 * (58) Duke Oscar of Oldenburg (b. 1991)
 * Duke Friedrich August of Oldenburg (1936–2017)
 * (60) Duke Paul-Wladimir of Oldenburg (b. 1969)
 * (61) Duke Kirill of Oldenburg (b. 2002)
 * (62) Duke Carlos of Oldenburg (b. 2004)
 * (63) Duke Paul of Oldenburg (b. 2005)
 * (64) Duke Huno of Oldenburg (b. 1940)
 * (65) Duke Johann of Oldenburg (b. 1940)
 * (66) Duke Konstantin Nikolaus of Oldenburg (b. 1975)

title: House of Glücksburg


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Free National Movement

The Free National Movement (abbreviated FNM) is a political party in the Bahamas formed in the early 1970s and led by Sir Cecil Wallace-Whitfield. The current leader of the party is Michael Pintard and the current deputy leader is Shanendon Cartwright.

The Free National Movement first came to power in 1992 after contesting numerous general elections without success. The party swept the 2017 general election, winning 35 of the 39 seats in the Legislature, but was defeated in 2021, losing 28 seats.

History
The party was established at the home of Jimmy Shepherd on Spring Hills Farms in Fox Hill in 1971. The Free-PLP had been a breakaway group of eight MPs from the governing Progressive Liberal Party. This group, which was known as the "Dissident Eight", included Arthur Foulkes, Cecil Wallace-Whitfield, Warren J. Levarity, Maurice E. Moore, Curtis McMillan, James (Jimmy) Shepherd, Elwood Donaldson, and George Thompson. Following meetings held at Spring Hill Farms, the FNM officially became a political party in October 1971, with Wallace-Whitfield as leader.

The United Bahamian Party (UBP) had been one of the main political parties in the Bahamas, governing the country since the advent of party politics in 1958, until it lost the 1967 general election to the opposition PLP. The UBP party's leadership was predominantly white, while blacks made up most of the citizenry. Once out of power, its leaders decided that the party's time was at an end and they looked to the Free-PLP to form a new party that would follow a conservative party line.

The FNM grew in part by uniting independent black voters and the old UBP voter base.

Led by Kendal Isaacs, the party first contested the 1972 general election. However, these were heady days for the governing PLP, who had led the country to independence in 1973, and the FNM failed to gain much more than 40% of the vote in a string of general elections defeats.

1992 General election
In 1990, Hubert Ingraham took over the leadership of the party after the death of Sir Cecil Wallace-Whitfield. The FNM attacked the governing PLP on corruption charges.

In the general election of 1992, the FNM defeated its rival, the PLP, by wide margins, winning 32 of the then 49 seats. The FNM Government privatised the government-owned hotels, which had fallen into decline since nationalisation. Private radio stations were allowed to operate, ending the government's broadcast monopoly. The FNM introduced local government and encouraged inward investment to grow the economy.

1997 General election
The elections of 1997 saw the FNM re-elected in a landslide, with 35 of the 40 seats in a reduced House.

2002 General election
After Ingraham vowed not to seek a third term in office, Tommy Turnquest was elected leader of the party. The party then lost the 2002 elections. Many voters, including FNM supporters, felt that Turnquest was much "weaker" than Perry Christie, leader of the Progressive Liberal Party.

2007 General election
At the FNM's party convention, following the general elections of 2002, Ingraham was returned as leader of the Free National Movement. The FNM went on to regain control of the House of Assembly in the elections of 2007.

2012 General election
The FNM lost government to the Progressive Liberal Party once again in the 2012 Bahamian general elections; it dropped its total share of votes (obtaining only 42.1 percent of the vote, compared to 48.7 percent by the Progressive Liberal Party). The Progressives won 29 of the seats in the legislature and thus the government, compared to the FNM's 9.

Ingraham's retirement and the 2017 General election
Ingraham subsequently resigned, both as party leader as well as the Member of Parliament for North Abaco, and announced his retirement from politics following the defeat. He had served in Parliament for 35 years, winning re-election seven times, including 2012. Ingraham told supporters, "I gave it the best I could and now I've been rejected by the public of the Bahamas... We had no indication from the general public they would go that way."

Following this series of events the FNM went on to lose the by-election triggered by Ingraham's retirement held on 15 October 2012, reducing the total FNM seat count to 8 of the 38 seats in the House of Assembly. The FNM however went on to win the 2017 general election under the leadership of Hubert Minnis, gaining 35 seats out of 39 total.

2021 General election
In September 2021, Prime Minister Minnis called a snap election. The ruling Free National Movement lost to the opposition Progressive Liberal Party, as the twin challenges of COVID-19 and 2019's Hurricane Dorian left the Bahamian economy struggling to recover from its deepest crash since at least 1971.

The Progressive Liberal Party (PLP) won 32 of the 39 seats in the House of Assembly. Free National Movement (FNM), led by Minnis, took the remaining seats. On 17 September 2021, the leader of the Progressive Liberal Party (PLP) Phillip Davis was sworn in as the new Prime Minister of Bahamas to succeed Hubert Minnis.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Free National Movement


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Coup of 18 Brumaire

The coup d'état of 18 Brumaire brought Napoleon Bonaparte to power as First Consul of France. In the view of most historians, it ended the French Revolution and would soon lead to the coronation of Napoleon as emperor. This bloodless coup d'état overthrew the Directory, replacing it with the French Consulate. This occurred on 9 November 1799, which was 18 Brumaire, Year VIII under the short-lived French Republican calendar system.

Context
After Habsburg-controlled Austria declared war on France on 12 March 1799, emergency measures were adopted and the pro-war Jacobin faction triumphed in the April elections. With Napoleon and the republic's best army engaged in the Egypt and Syria campaign, France suffered a series of reverses on the battlefield in the spring and summer of 1799. The Coup of 30 Prairial VII (18 June) ousted the Jacobins and left Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, a member of the five-man ruling Directory, the dominant figure in the government. France's military situation improved following the Second Battle of Zurich. As the prospect of invasion receded, the Jacobins feared a revival of the pro-peace Royalist faction. When Napoleon returned to France on 9 October, both factions hailed him as the country's saviour.

Dazzled by Napoleon's campaign in the Middle East, the public received him with an ardor that convinced Sieyès he had found the general indispensable to his planned coup. However, from the moment of his return, Napoleon plotted a coup within the coup, ultimately gaining power for himself rather than Sieyès.

Probably the weightiest possible obstacles to a coup were in the army. Some generals, such as Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, believed in republicanism; others, such as Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, believed themselves capable of governing France. Napoleon worked on the feelings of all, keeping secret his own intentions.

Before the coup, troops were conveniently deployed around Paris. The plan was, first, to persuade the Directors to resign, then, second, to get the Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred (the upper and lower houses of the legislature, respectively) to appoint a pliant commission that would draw up a new constitution to the plotters' specifications.

Events of 18 Brumaire, Year VIII
On the morning of 18 Brumaire, Lucien Bonaparte falsely persuaded the Councils that a Jacobin coup was at hand in Paris, and induced them to depart for the safety of the suburban Château de Saint-Cloud. Napoleon was charged with the safety of the two Councils and given command of all available local troops.

Later that morning, Sieyès and Roger Ducos resigned as Directors. The now former Minister of Foreign Affairs Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, a close ally of Napoleon, pressured Director Paul Barras to do the same.

The resignation of three of the five Directors on day one of the coup prevented a quorum and thus practically abolished the five-man Directory, but the two Jacobin Directors, Louis-Jérôme Gohier and Jean-François-Auguste Moulin, continued to protest furiously. Both men were arrested on day two by Napoleon's ally General Jean Victor Marie Moreau, and by the following day, they were compelled to surrender.

In contrast to the Directory, the two Councils were not yet intimidated and continued meeting.

Events of 19 Brumaire
By the following day, the deputies had, for the most part, realised that they were facing an attempted coup rather than being protected from a Jacobin rebellion. Faced with their refusal to submit, Napoleon stormed into the chambers, escorted by a small force of grenadiers. While perhaps unplanned, this proved to be the coup within the coup: from this point, this was a military affair.

Napoleon found the Ancients resistant "despite a massive show of military strength." He was met with heckling as he addressed them with such "home truths" as, "the Republic has no government" and, most likely, "the Revolution is over." One deputy called out, "And the Constitution?" Napoleon replied, referring to earlier parliamentary coups, "The Constitution! You yourselves have destroyed it. You violated it on 18 Fructidor; you violated it on 22 Floreal; you violated it on 30 Prairial. It no longer has the respect of anyone."

Napoleon's reception by the Council of Five Hundred was even more hostile. His grenadiers entered just as the legality of Barras's resignation was being challenged by the Jacobins in the chamber. Upon entering, Napoleon was first jostled, then outright assaulted. By some accounts, he came close to fainting. It was not Napoleon himself, but his brother Lucien, president of the council, who called upon the grenadiers to defend their leader. Napoleon escaped, but only through the use of military force.

A motion was raised in the Council of Five Hundred to declare Napoleon an outlaw. At this point, Lucien apparently slipped out of the chamber and told the soldiers guarding the Councils that the majority of the Five Hundred were being terrorised by a group of deputies brandishing daggers. According to Michael Rapport, "He pointed to Napoleon's bloody, pallid face as proof; although at least one account mentions Napoleon scratching his own face in frustration and rage until he drew blood. Then, in a theatrical gesture, Lucien seized a sword and promised to plunge it through his own brother's heart if he were a traitor." Lucien ordered the troops to expel the violent deputies from the chamber. Grenadiers under the command of General Joachim Murat marched into the Orangerie and dispersed the council. This was effectively the end of the Directory.

The Ancients passed a decree that adjourned the Councils for three months, appointed Napoleon, Sieyès, and Ducos provisional consuls, and named the Corps législatif. Some tractable members of the Five Hundred, rounded up afterwards, served to give these measures the confirmation of their House. Thus the Directory and the Councils came to an end.

Completion of the coup
With the Council routed, the plotters convened two commissions, each consisting of twenty-five deputies from the two Councils. The plotters essentially intimidated the commissions into declaring a provisional government, the first form of the consulate with Napoleon, Sieyès, and Ducos as Consuls. The lack of reaction from the streets proved that the Revolution was, indeed, over. "A shabby compound of brute force and imposture, the 18th Brumaire was nevertheless condoned, nay applauded, by the French nation. Weary of revolution, men sought no more than to be wisely and firmly governed." Resistance by Jacobin officeholders in the provinces was quickly crushed. Twenty Jacobin deputies were exiled, and others were arrested. The commissions then drew up the "short and obscure Constitution of the Year VIII", the first of the constitutions since the Revolution without a Declaration of Rights.

Napoleon thus completed his coup within a coup by the adoption of a constitution under which the First Consul, a position he was sure to hold, had greater power than the other two. In particular, he appointed the Senate and the Senate interpreted the constitution. The Sénat conservateur allowed him to rule by decree, so the more independent Conseil d'État and Tribunat were relegated to unimportant roles. It led ultimately to the rise of the First French Empire.

Legacy
In 1852, Karl Marx wrote The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte about a much later event, the coup d'état of 1851 against the Second Republic by Napoleon III, who was Napoleon's nephew. Marx considered Napoleon III a trifling politician compared to his world-shaking uncle, as expressed in Marx's oft-quoted opening bon mot: "Hegel remarks somewhere that all great world-historic facts and personages appear, so to speak, twice. He forgot to add: the first time as tragedy, the second time as farce."

title: Coup of 18 Brumaire


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Talk:Daniel Pearl

The Language is Arabic, not Urdu
The language at the bottom of the video and picture is Arabic, not Urdu. -  Dr. Ayesha Ahmed Ali. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.215.182.239 (talk) 06:24, 19 September 2005 (UTC)

Definite Incorrect Statements
"He was kidnapped and DESTROYED in Karachi"

"Six days later, Pearl was DESTROYED in spectacular fashion"

- Eh??? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.40.56.250 (talk) 22:01, 23 March 2006 (UTC)

Final words in section Aftermath
According to this article from the Jerusalem Post, there are some issues regarding his last words in the section "Aftermath". Does anybody more familiar with this article want to have a look at it? If not, I will add a link and comment myself.

Cheers,  pedrito  -  talk  - 07.05.2008 06:54 06:54, 7 May 2008 (UTC)

Footnote 38
This footnote is used twice, so I'm hesitant to change it. But the second usage is definitely leading to the incorrect location. Here is the article url: https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-Ed-Contributors/Right-of-Reply-Daniel-Pearls-last-words jamie sinclair (talk) 11:44, 15 October 2023 (UTC)

 * I changed it. archive.org indicates that the old URL used to lead to the correct article, so something changed on JPost's end of things. Einsof (talk) 21:53, 15 October 2023 (UTC)

Vandalism of page
Reverting edits from address 2601:584:c300:cf50:246b:cc12:8a28:9935 to last coherent point at 06:21, 17 May 2024 by TheDoodbly ; seems to be a series of nonsensical edits.

title: Talk:Daniel Pearl


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User talk:Cougar21

Hi. You can't make articles about yourself in the main encyclopedia namespace. I'm afraid you are not famous enough! Secretlondon 22:30, Dec 19, 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cougar21


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Progressive Liberal Party

The Progressive Liberal Party (abbreviated PLP) is a populist and social liberal party in the Bahamas. Philip Davis is the leader of the party.

History
The PLP was founded in 1953 by William Cartwright, Cyril Stevenson, and Henry Milton Taylor. The PLP was the first national political party in the Bahamas.

The party governed for 25 straight years from 1967 to 1992, as well as from 2002 to 2007 and 2012 to 2017. Leading the party to its first victory in 1967 was Lynden Pindling, the country's first Prime Minister.

Perry Christie was Prime Minister of the Bahamas between 2 May 2002 and the 2007 general elections when the party was defeated by the rival Free National Movement (FNM) which won 23 seats. The FNM installed leader Hubert Ingraham as the Prime Minister. After defeat and one of its MPs leaving the party since, the PLP held 17 of the 41 seats in the Bahamas National Assembly.

In the 2012 general election, the Progressive Liberals won a solid majority in a landslide election victory, taking 29 of the 38 seats in parliament. Christie was sworn into office on 8 May 2012.

Hubert Ingraham announced his retirement from politics following the defeat of his party.

In September 2021, the PLP defeated the ruling FNM in a snap election, as the economy struggled to recover from its deepest crash since at least 1971. Progressive Liberal Party (PLP) won 32 of the 39 seats in the House of Assembly. Free National Movement (FNM) took the remaining seats. On 17 September 2021, the chairman of the Progressive Liberal Party (PLP) Philip Davis was sworn in as the new Prime Minister of Bahamas to succeed Hubert Minnis.

title: Progressive Liberal Party


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Chawton

Chawton is a village and civil parish in the East Hampshire district of Hampshire, England. The village lies within the South Downs National Park and is famous as the home of Jane Austen for the last eight years of her life.

History
Chawton's recorded history begins in the Domesday survey of 1086. The village held nineteen free residents, eight smallholders, six slaves (part of the sixty-seven slaves in the area from Alresford to the ridge parishes) and woodland with fifty pigs. In the 13th century, there was a royal manor house. The owner, John St John, served as deputy to Edward I in Scotland. Henry III visited the manor on over forty occasions. The descendants of John Knight, who built the present Chawton House at the time of the Armada (1588), added to it and modified the landscape in ways that reflect changes in politics, religion and taste. One of those descendants was Elizabeth Knight, whose progresses were marked by the ringing of church bells and whose two husbands both had to adopt her surname. Later in the 18th century, Jane Austen's brother Edward Austen Knight (who had been adopted by the Knights) succeeded, and in 1809 was able to move his mother and sisters to a cottage in the village.

Chawton never developed into a settlement of substance, ‘possibly because the lords of the manor wished to keep the area for themselves’. Chawton’s private parliamentary enclosure took place in 1740-1 when a bad harvest followed a severe winter and eighteen food riots were recorded over large parts of the country. However, the Chawton act was mostly about sheep and its private act was merely the confirmation of an agreement already made. There is no mention at Chawton of encroachments, peasants’ cottages, or peasants’ rights of common forage and the rest. This was entirely an arrangement between the owners of the land for their individual benefit. From lists in Leigh’s book of Chawton Manor, one might have expected over thirty families to have held an interest, but all but one were already gone, not just from the Commons, but, soon, from the village entirely. ‘A thick cultural and social wedge was inserted between the improving husbandmen, the better sort of the parish, and the poor.’

Enclosure was nothing new in Chawton. In 1605, a court held by John Knight recognised that for the last thirty or forty years a ‘great part’ of the commons had been enclosed by tenants with the consent of the lord. However, these tenants still kept the same number of sheep on the reduced common land to everyone’s detriment. The enclosed lands at Chawton in 1740 came from the 312 acres of Common and from 309 acres made up of seven common fields: Ridgefield, Southfield, Northfield, Upper and Lower Eastfield, Whitedown and Winstreetfield. The lord, Thomas Knight, newly in position, did very well. His existing local estate already comprised fifteen houses and 1,569 acres: 734 of arable land, 108 of pasture, 56 meadow, 615 woodland and 55 rough heath. Now, through enclosure, he added 156 acres from the common and 143 acres from the common fields, 48 per cent of the available total, and almost 2,000 acres altogether in Hampshire. Knight’s allotment was increased by the herbage of all the highways on the Common, and, because he was the lord, ‘free liberty’ by June 1742 to ‘sell, cut down, grub up, take, cart, and carry away’ all the timber trees, pollard trees, bushes and wood, anywhere on the Common for which his workmen could enter any allotment at any time.

Chawton Cottage
Chawton Cottage, Jane Austen's house and garden are open to the public.

Chawton House
Chawton House, the 400-year-old Grade II* listed Elizabethan manor house that once belonged to Jane Austen's brother and 275 acre of land, has been restored as part of a major international project to establish the new Centre for the Study of Early Women's Writing, 1600–1830. It houses a collection of over 9,000 volumes, together with some related manuscripts. Visitors can see the relationship between the library, the house, the estate and a working farm of the 18th and early 19th centuries.

In 1992 a 125-year lease on the house was purchased for £1.25 million by a foundation established by Sandra Lerner, co-founder of Cisco Systems.

St Nicholas' Church
Chawton has a single church, St Nicholas. A church has stood on the site in Chawton since at least 1270 when it was mentioned in a diocesan document. The church suffered a disastrous fire in 1871 which destroyed all but the chancel. The rebuilt church was designed by Sir Arthur Blomfield and is now listed Grade 2*.

The churchyard was reserved for burial for the Knight family, and the graves include that of Jane Austen's mother and sister, both called Cassandra.

Inside the tower are a total of eight bells, six of which were cast in 2009 by the firm Taylors, Eayre & Smith at Loughborough Bellfoundry in Leicestershire, and these form a ring of bells for traditional English change ringing. These replaced an earlier ring of bells, two of which remain in the tower for chiming.

Services
Chawton C of E Primary School is the only school in Chawton. It is within the Diocese of Winchester and accepts children from ages four to eleven, and has close ties with St Nicholas's church. There has been a school on the site since about 1840, and the site sits opposite the village green and cricket field.

On Winchester Road, which runs through the village, there is a tea shop and small shop opposite Jane Austen's house called Cassandra's Cup, which is named after Jane Austen's sister. Just down the road from this is a Fuller's pub called The Greyfriar which has an oak beamed traditional bar, a secluded beer garden and a large car park. Also on Winchester Road is the Village Hall.

Adjacent to Gosport Road lies a green containing a cricket pitch and the home of Chawton Cricket Club, a newly refurbished playground and a set of allotments.

Transport
Chawton has two road exits, one leading to a roundabout connected to the A31 and the A32, and the other to the A339/B3006 Selborne Road.

The nearest railway station is 1.7 miles (2.7 km) northeast of the village, at Alton.

title: Chawton


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Barbados Labour Party

The Barbados Labour Party (BLP), colloquially known as the "Bees", is a social democratic political party in Barbados established in 1938. It has been in power in 1954–1961, 1976–1986, 1994–2008, and 2018–present. Its leaders have included Grantley Adams and Owen Arthur.

Now led by Prime Minister Mia Amor Mottley, it is the governing party of Barbados, holding 29 out of 30 seats.

In common with Barbados' other major party, the Democratic Labour Party or the "Dems", the BLP has been broadly described as a centre-left social-democratic party, with local politics being largely personality-driven and responsive to contemporary issues and the state of the economy. However, the party distinguishes itself by being rooted in Asquithian Liberal policies, including a focus on trade as a way of bolstering economic growth over the creation of social services.

The BLP is a former observer member of the Socialist International.

History
Originally called the Barbados Progressive League until 1944, the party was founded on 31 March 1938 at the home of James Martineau. During the first meeting, Chrissie Brathwaite and Grantley Adams were elected as chairman and vice-chairman, respectively. Adams had entered the House of Assembly in 1934 partly through his deconstruction of the labour-focused efforts of the Charles Duncan O'Neal's Democratic League, but this new party turned to organizing the political movement brought on by the unrest of 1937 that he had earlier opposed. As such, their objectives included many of the league's original goals, such as adult suffrage, free education, and better housing and health care.

The BLP first participated in general elections in 1940. In 1994, Owen Arthur became the prime minister as leader of the Barbados Labour Party. In the 2003 elections the BLP won 23 out of the 30 seats. The number increased to 24 in 2006, when in an almost unprecedented development the leader of the opposition, after a bitter and tumultuous internal battle within his own party, resigned the post and joined the governing party.

The Barbados Labour Party governed from 1994 to 2008, which was commonly called the "Owen Arthur Administration". Prime Minister Arthur was chosen from among leaders around the globe to deliver the William Wilberforce lecture on the 200th anniversary of the Abolition of the Atlantic Slave Trade Act.

The party lost power in the 2008 general election, winning 10 seats against 20 for the Democratic Labour Party (DLP). After the election, Arthur stepped down as BLP leader and was replaced by former deputy prime minister Mia Mottley in a leadership election against Attorney-General of Barbados Dale Marshall. Mottley also became opposition leader.

In the summer of 2008 Hamilton Lashley, MP for St. Michael South East, resigned from the party to become an independent candidate in the House of Assembly. He was thereafter given a job by the DLP, the party he had belonged before crossing the floor to the BLP, as a consultant on poverty. This move by the member reduced to nine the number of seats the Barbados Labour Party had in the House.

After a decade in opposition, the BLP returned to power on 25 May 2018 under Mia Mottley, who became Barbados's first female prime minister. The party originally won all of the seats in the House of Assembly, but Bishop Joseph Atherley, the MP for St. Michael West, became an independent MP (later founder and leader of the People's Party for Democracy and Development ) and the leader of the opposition on 2 June 2018.

In January 2022, Prime Minister Mia Mottley's Labor Party (BLP) obtained a landslide victory, winning all 30 legislative seats, in the first general election since Barbados became a republic in 2021.

2018 candidates

 * Wilfred Abrahams (Christ Church East)
 * William Duguid (Christ Church West)
 * Rev. Joseph Atherley (St. Michael West)
 * Colin Jordan (St. Peter)
 * Jeffrey Bostic (The City of Bridgetown)
 * Santia Bradshaw (St. Michael South East)
 * Gline Clarke (St. George North)
 * Adrian "Medic" Forde (Christ Church West Central)
 * John King (St. Philip West)
 * Ian Gooding-Edghill (St. Michael West Central)

 * Cynthia Forde (St. Thomas)
 * Marsha K. Caddle (St. Michael South Central)
 * Charles Griffith (St. John)
 * Edmund Hinkson (St. James North)
 * Arthur Holder (St. Michael Central)
 * Sandra Husbands (St. James South)
 * Kirk Humphrey (St. Michael South)
 * Dale Marshall (St. Joseph)
 * Mia Mottley (St. Michael North East)
 * Neil Rowe (St. Michael North West)

 * George Payne (St. Andrew)
 * Peter Phillips (St. Lucy)
 * Trevor Prescod (St. Michael East)
 * Ryan Straughn (Christ Church East Central)
 * Dwight Sutherland (St. George South)
 * Kerrie Symmonds (St. James Central)
 * Ronald Toppin (St. Michael North)
 * Dr. Ralph Thorne (Christ Church South)
 * Sonia Browne (St. Philip North)
 * Indar Weir (St. Philip South)

Branches
The women's branch of the Barbados Labour Party is called the Women's League. The youth branch is called the League of Young Socialists.

title: Barbados Labour Party


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List of political parties in Armenia

This article lists political parties in Armenia. Armenia has a multi-party system with numerous political parties, who mostly work with each other to form coalition governments, with some parties having a history of changing in and out of government functions. As of June 2022, there are 117 political parties in Armenia which are registered with the Ministry of Justice.

Parliamentary parties
Current political representation in the National Assembly following the 2021 Armenian parliamentary election:

Extra-parliamentary major parties
The extra-parliamentary parties listed below have no seats in the current National Assembly, but had at least one seat since 2007:

Other parties
Below is a list of other active political parties in Armenia:

Dissolved parties
The following political parties have been officially dissolved:

title: List of political parties in Armenia


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Democratic Labour Party

Democratic Labour Party may refer to:

 * Democratic Labour Party (Australia, 1978) – spelt Labor until 2013
 * Democratic Labor Party (Australia, 1955) – predecessor to DLP (1955–1978)
 * Democratic Labour Party (Barbados)
 * Democratic Labour Party (Brazil)
 * Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania
 * Democratic Labour Party (New Zealand)
 * Democratic Labor Party (South Korea)
 * Democratic Labour Party (Spain), or PTD
 * Democratic Labour Party (Trinidad and Tobago), a Trinidadian political party that existed from 1957 to 1971
 * Democratic Labour Party (UK, 1972), a UK political party that existed from 1972 to 1980
 * Democratic Labour Party (UK, 1998), a UK political party that existed from 1998 to 2016
 * West Indies Democratic Labour Party a West Indian political party group that existed from 1958 to 1962
 * Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party in the United States

title: Democratic Labour Party


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List of political parties in the Bahamas

Political parties in the Bahamas may be "classified", "nonclassified", or "unclassified". Classified parties are "major" or "minor" depending on electoral performance and competitive ability.

Classified Major

 * Progressive Liberal Party (PLP)
 * Free National Movement (FNM)
 * Bahamas Democratic Party (BDP)
 * United Bahamian Party (UBP)
 * Bahama Democrat Labour Party (BDLP)

Classified Minor: Macro

 * Bahamas Constitution Party (BCP)
 * Democratic National Alliance (DNA)
 * Coalition for Democratic Reform (CDR)

Classified Minor: Micro

 * The People's Movement (TPM)
 * Bahamas National Coalition Party (BNCP)
 * Bahamas Constitution Party (BCP)
 * God's People Party (GPP)
 * Vanguard Nationalist & Socialist Party (VNSP)

Nonclassified: NANO

 * Independent

New

 * Bahamian Way Forward Movement (BWFM)
 * Coalition of Independents (COI)
 * Grand Commonwealth Party (GCP)
 * Kingdom Government Movement (KGM)
 * Justice Labour Party (JLP)
 * Righteous Government Movement (RGM)
 * United Coalition (independents)

Unclassified Political Parties (defunct)

 * United Bahamian Party (UBP)
 * National Development Party (NDP)
 * National Democratic Party
 * Bahama Democrat Labour Party (BDLP)
 * Social Democratic Party (SDP)
 * Workers Party (WP)
 * Coalition for Democratic Reform (CDR)
 * Vanguard Nationalist & Socialist Party (VNSP)
 * Bahamian National Party (BNP)
 * Bahamian Democratic Party (BDP)
 * Commonwealth Democratic Party (CDP)


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List of political parties in Barbados

This article lists political parties in Barbados.

Barbados has a two-party system, which means that there are two dominant political parties, with extreme difficulty for anybody to achieve electoral success under the banner of any other party. Occasionally various members of political parties in Barbados have used an option of crossing the floor.

Others

 * People's Empowerment Party (PEP)
 * Clement Payne Movement (CPM)
 * Pan-Caribbean Congress (PCP)
 * Bajan Free Party (BFP)
 * Solutions Barbados (SB)
 * United Progressive Party (Barbados) (UPP)
 * People's Democratic Congress (Barbados) (PDC)
 * Kingdom Government of Barbados (KGB)
 * New Barbados Kingdom Alliance (NBKA)
 * Barbados Integrity Movement (BIM)
 * Barbados Sovereignty Party (BSP)
 * Alliance Party for Progress (APP)

Defunct

 * Barbados National Party (BNP)
 * National Democratic Party (NDP)
 * People's Political Alliance (PPA)
 * People's Progressive Movement (PPM)
 * Worker's Party of Barbados (WPB)
 * Barbados Electors Association (BEA)
 * West Indian National Congress Party (CP)
 * Citizens Action Partnership (CAP)
 * Progressive Conservative Party (PCP)
 * Coalition of United Parties (CUP)

Names in italics denote Electoral Alliances

title: List of political parties in Barbados


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List of political parties in Belarus

This is a list of political parties in Belarus.

Though Belarus has a de jure multi-party system, however it operates as a de facto one-party system within an Authoritarian State.

Officially registered parties
According to the "press service of the president of Belarus" only four parties are officially registered:

title: List of political parties in Belarus


text:
Democratic Labour Party (Barbados)

The Democratic Labour Party (DLP), colloquially known as the "Dems", is a political party in Barbados, established in 1955. It was the ruling party from 15 January 2008 to 24 May 2018 but faced an electoral wipeout in the 2018 general election which left it with no MPs.

In common with Barbados' other major party, the Barbados Labour Party, the DLP has been broadly described as centre-left social-democratic party, with local politics being largely personality-driven and responsive to contemporary issues and the state of the economy. Historically, the BLP claims a heritage from British liberalism, while the DLP was founded 11 years afterwards as a more left-leaning breakaway group.

History
The DLP was founded in 1955 by Errol Barrow, James Cameron Tudor, Frederick "Sleepy" Smith and 26 others. Once members of the Barbados Labour Party (BLP), these 29 broke away to form this more left-leaning alternative. However, as a result of their common origin, the two parties have been and remain ideologically similar. In the 1956 general election the DLP received 19.9% of the vote and won four seats. In the following election in 1961 it received fewer votes than the BLP, but won a majority of the seats in Parliament, with Barrow becoming Premier.

After the party retained power in the 1966 election (this time with a plurality of the vote), Barrow became the country's first Prime Minister. The party won a third successive election in 1971, but lost power to the BLP in 1976. It remained in opposition until victory in the 1986 election, in which it won 24 of the 27 seats. The DLP remained in power following the 1991 election, but was defeated by the BLP in 1994. It returned to power again in the 2008 election, when DLP leader David Thompson became Prime Minister. Following his death in 2010, Freundel Stuart succeeded to the office, and led the party to a narrow election victory in 2013.

The 2018 election saw the DLP lose all of its MPs. Stuart stepped down as leader, and Verla De Peiza, unopposed in a leadership election held by the party on 1 August 2018, became his successor in the role of DLP leader and president.

After losing the 2022 election which resulted in the DLP not regaining any seats in the House of Assembly, De Peiza resigned on 21 January 2022. Ronnie Yearwood was then later elected DLP president after DLP elections took place on 1 May 2022.

Barbados Labour Party MP Ralph Thorne left the BLP in February 2024, becoming Leader of the Opposition. He joined the DLP shortly thereafter, becoming the party's leader. Ronnie Yearwood remains as president of the party. Thorne became the first DLP MP since 2018.

title: Democratic Labour Party (Barbados)


text:
List of political parties in Belize

This article lists political parties in the country of Belize.

Belize has a two-party system, which means that there are two dominant political parties. It is difficult to achieve electoral success under the banner of any other party.

Political culture
In 1950, after the general worker union had been formed, the people's committee constituted itself as the PUP (People's United Party) and taken the majority seating in the elected Belize city council. When Belize became fully independent and joined in the Commonwealth on September 21, 1981, the two parties UDP (United Democratic Party) and PUP rose in the political scene. This made an effect two-party system. The UDP believes in pro-business and the PUP believes in pro-labour but both are closely centred in the spectrum. The PUP foster the idea of political independence but their opposition UDP believe in the national interest of equitable distribution of public services from the government.

The party system is dominated by the centre-left People's United Party and the centre-right United Democratic Party. There have been other small parties that have participated at all levels of governmental elections in the past. Although none of these small political parties have ever won any significant number of seats and/or offices, their challenge has been growing over the years.

Defunct parties

 * Democratic and Agricultural Labour Party (DALP)
 * Honduran Independence Party (HIP)
 * National Alliance for Belizean Rights (NABR)
 * National Independence Party (NIP)
 * National Party (NP)
 * National Reform Party (NRP)
 * People's Action Committee (PAC)
 * People's Democratic Party (PDP)
 * People's National Party (PNP)
 * United Black Association for Development (UBAD; now known as the UBAD Educational Foundation, UEF)
 * We the People Reform Movement (WTP)

Provincial parties
These parties were/are active only in a certain area.

Current

 * Corozal United Front (CUF)
 * San Pedro United Movement (SPUM)

Defunct

 * Christian Democratic Party (CDP) (was only active in Dangriga)
 * National Reality Truth Creation Party (NRTCP) (was only active in Belize City)
 * Toledo Progressive Party (TPP) (was only active in Punta Gorda)

title: List of political parties in Belize


text:
List of political parties in Benin

This article lists political parties in Benin. Benin has a multi-party system.

Parliamentary parties
Elected in the 2023 parliamentary election.

Other parties

 * Presidential Movement (Mouvance Presidentielle)
 * Union for Future Benin or Union of Tomorrow's Benin (Union pour le Bénin du futur)
 * Action Front for Renewal and Development (Front d'action pour le rénouveau et le développement, FARD-ALAFIA)
 * Impulse to Progress and Democracy (Impulsion au progrès et la démocratie)
 * Alliance MDC-PS-CPP
 * Movement for Development by Culture (Mouvement pour le Développement par la Culture)
 * Party of Salvation (Parti du Salut)
 * Congress of People for Progress (Congrès du Peuple pour le Progrès)
 * Alliance of Progress Forces (Alliance des Forces du Progrès)
 * Rally for Democracy and Progres (Rassemblement pour la Démocratie et le Progrès)
 * Amana Alliance (Alliance Amana)
 * Cowry Forces for an Emerging Benin (Forces Cauris pour un Bénin émergent)
 * Union Makes the Nation (L'Union fait la Nation) and Alliance for a Democratic Dynamic (Alliance pour une Dynamique Démocratique)
 * Democratic Renewal Party (Parti du renouveau démocratique)
 * African Movement for Development and Progress (Mouvement africain pour la dévelloppement et le progrès)
 * Social Democratic Party (Parti Social-Démocrate)
 * Benin Rebirth Party or Renaissance Party of Benin (Parti de la renaissance du Bénin)
 * Movement for Development and Solidarity (Mouvement pour le Développement et la Solidarité)
 * National Union for Democracy and Progress (Union Nationale pour la Démocratie et le Progrès)
 * Party for Democracy and Social Progress (Parti pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social)
 * Liberal Democrats' Rally for National Reconstruction-Vivoten (Rassemblement des Démocrates Libéraux pour la Reconstruction nationale)
 * Star Alliance (Alliance Étoile)
 * Builders and Managers of Freedom and Democracy (Bâtisseurs et Gestionnaires de la Liberté et de la Démocratie)
 * The Greens (Les Verts)
 * Union for Democracy and National Solidarity (Union pour la Démocratie et la Solidarité Nationale)
 * New Alliance (Nouvelle Alliance)
 * Rally for Progress and Renewal (Rassemblement pour le Progrès et le Renouveau)
 * Sun Alliance (Alliance Soleil)
 * Union for Relief (Union pour la Relève)
 * Hope Force (Force Espoir)
 * United Democratic Forces (Forces Démocratiques Unies)
 * Union for Progress and Democracy
 * Impulse for a New Vision of the Republic
 * Party for Progress and Democracy
 * Party for Democracy and Solidarity
 * Alliance for a Triumphant Benin (Alliance pour un Bénin Triomphant)
 * Résoatao Party (Parti RésoAtao)
 * African Movement for Democracy and Progress (MADEP)
 * Alliance of the Social Democratic Party (PSD)
 * Cameleon Alliance (AC)
 * Coalition of Democratic Forces
 * Communist Party of Benin (PCB)
 * Movement for Citizens' Commitment and Awakening (MERCI)
 * Movement for the People's Alternative (Mouvement pour une Alternative du Peuple)
 * Movement for Solidary Prosperity (MPS)
 * New Generation for the Republic (NGR)
 * Our Common Cause (NCC)
 * Parti Démocratique du Bénin (PDB)
 * Rally for Democracy and Pan-Africanism (RDP)
 * Union for Homeland and Labour (UPT)
 * Union for National Democracy and Solidarity (UDS)
 * Coalition for an Emerging Benin (Coalition pour un Bénin Emergent)
 * Union for Benin (Union pour le Bénin)
 * Alliance for Revival (Alliance Le Réveil)
 * Restore the Hope (Restaurer l’Espoir)

There are approximately 20 minor parties.

Defunct parties

 * African Congress for Renewal (DUNYA)
 * Alliance for Democracy and Progress (ADP)
 * National Union for Solidarity and Progress (UNSP)
 * Key Force (Force clé)

title: List of political parties in Benin


text:
System Shock 2

System Shock 2 is a 1999 action role-playing survival horror video game designed by Ken Levine and co-developed by Irrational Games and Looking Glass Studios. Originally intended to be a standalone title, its story was changed during production into a sequel to the 1994 game System Shock. The alterations were made when Electronic Arts—who owned the System Shock franchise rights—signed on as publisher.

The game takes place on board a starship in a cyberpunk depiction of 2114. The player assumes the role of a soldier trying to stem the outbreak of a genetic infection that has devastated the ship. Like System Shock, gameplay consists of first-person combat and exploration. It incorporates role-playing elements, in which the player can develop skills and traits, such as hacking and psionic abilities.

System Shock 2 was originally released in August 1999 for Microsoft Windows. The game received critical acclaim but failed to meet commercial sales expectations. Many critics later determined that the game was highly influential in subsequent game design, particularly on first-person shooters, and considered it far ahead of its time. It has been included in several "greatest games of all time" lists. In 2007, Irrational Games released a spiritual successor to the System Shock series, titled BioShock, to critical acclaim and strong sales.

System Shock 2 had been in intellectual property limbo following the closure of Looking Glass Studios. Nightdive Studios were able to secure the rights to the game and the System Shock franchise in 2013 to release an updated version of System Shock 2 for modern operating systems, including for OS X and Linux, and announced plans to release an Enhanced Edition of the game. OtherSide Entertainment announced in 2015 that they had acquired the rights from Nightdive Studios to produce a sequel, System Shock 3, but as of 2020 the rights have since been transferred to Tencent.

Gameplay

As in its predecessor, System Shock, gameplay in System Shock 2 is an amalgamation of the action role-playing game and survival horror genres. The developers achieved this gameplay design by rendering the experience as a standard first-person shooter and adding a character customization and development system, which are considered signature role-playing elements. The player uses melee and projectile weapons to defeat enemies, while the role-playing system allows the development of useful abilities. Navigation is presented from a first-person view and complemented with a heads-up display that shows character and weapon information, a map, and a drag and drop inventory.

The backstory is explained progressively through the player's acquisition of audio logs and encounters with ghostly apparitions. At the beginning of the game, the player chooses a career in a branch of the Unified National Nominate, a fictional military organization. Each branch of service gives the player a set of starting bonuses composed of certain skills, though may thereafter freely develop as the player chooses. The Marine begins with bonuses to weaponry, the Navy officer is skilled in repairing and hacking, and the OSA agent gets a starting set of psionic powers.

The player can upgrade their skills by using "cyber-modules" given as rewards for completing objectives such as searching the ship and spend them at devices called "cyber-upgrade units" to obtain enhanced skills. Operating system (O/S) units allow one-time character upgrades to be made (e.g. permanent health enhancement). An in-game currency called "nanites" may be spent on items at vending machines, including ammunition supplies and health packs. "Quantum Bio-Reconstruction Machines" can be activated and reconstitute the player for 10 nanites if they die inside the area in which the machine resides. Otherwise, the game ends and progress must be resumed from a save point. The player can hack devices, such as keypads to open alternate areas and vending machines to reduce prices. When a hack is attempted, a minigame begins that features a grid of green nodes; the player must connect three in a straight row to succeed. Optionally, electronic lock picks, called "ICE-picks", can be found that will automatically hack a machine, regardless of its difficulty.

Throughout the game, the player can procure various weapons, including melee weapons, pistols, shotguns, and alien weapons. Non-melee weapons degrade with use and will break if they are not regularly repaired with maintenance tools. There are a variety of ammunition types, each of which is most damaging to a specific enemy. For example, organic enemies are vulnerable to anti-personnel rounds, while mechanical foes are weak against armor-piercing rounds. Similarly, energy weapons cause the most damage against robots and cyborgs, and the annelid-made exotic weaponry is particularly harmful to organic targets. Because ammunition is scarce, to be effective the player must use it sparingly and carefully search rooms for supplies.

The game includes a research function. When new objects are encountered in the game, especially enemies, their organs can be collected and, when combined with chemicals found in storage rooms, the player can research the enemies and thus improve their damage against them. Similarly, some exotic weapons and items can only be used after being researched. OSA agents effectively have a separate weapons tree available to them. Psionic powers can be learned, such as invisibility, fireballs, and teleportation.

Backstory
In 2072, after the Citadel Station's demise in System Shock, TriOptimum's attempts to cover up the incident were exposed to the media, and the corporation was brought up on charges from multiple individuals and companies for the ensuing scandal. The virus developed there killed the station's population; the ruthless malevolent AI supercomputer named SHODAN controlled the Citadel Station in hopes of enslaving and destroying humanity. After a large number of trials, the company went bankrupt, and its operations were shut down. The United Nations Nominate (UNN), a successor to the UN, was established to combat the hostility and corruption of power-hungry corporations, including TriOptimum. Artificial intelligence was reduced to the most rudimentary of tasks to prevent the creation of another SHODAN-like malevolent AI, and the development of new technologies was halted. Meanwhile, the hacker (System Shock's main protagonist), who became the most famous person in the world, vanished from the public eye.

In 2100, 28 years later, the company's failed stocks and assets were bought by a Russian oligarch named Anatoly Korenchkin, a former black market operator who sought to make money legitimately. He re-licensed and restored the company to its former status in the following decade. Along with producing healthcare and consumer products, Korenchkin signed weapons contracts with various military organizations, private and political-owned. The new UNN was virtually powerless, with Korenchkin exercising control over them.

In January 2114, 42 years after the Citadel events and 14 years into rebuilding TriOptimum, the company created an experimental FTL starship, the Von Braun, which is on its maiden voyage. The ship is followed by a UNN space vessel, the Rickenbacker, controlled by Captain William Bedford Diego, son of the Citadel Station's infamous commander, Edward Diego, and public hero of the Battle of the Boston Harbor during the Eastern States Police Action. Because the Rickenbacker does not have an FTL system, the two ships are attached for the trip. However, Korenchkin was egotistical enough to make himself the captain of the Von Braun despite being inexperienced.

Five months into the journey, the ships respond to a distress signal from the planet Tau Ceti V, outside the Solar System. A rescue team is sent to the planet's surface, where they discover strange eggs; these eggs, found in an old ejection pod, infect the rescue team and integrate them into an alien communion known as "the Many" - a psychic hive mind generated by parasitic worms which can infect and mutate a human host. The parasites eventually spread to both ships and take over or kill most of their crews.

Story
Owing to a computer malfunction, the remaining soldier awakens with amnesia in a cryo-tube on the medical deck of the Von Braun, being implanted with an illegal cyber-neural interface. Another survivor, Dr. Janice Polito, contacts and guides him to safety before the cabin depressurizes. She demands that he meets her on deck 4 of the Von Braun. Along the way, the soldier battles the infected crew members. The Many telepathically communicate with him, attempting to convince him to join them. After restarting the ship's engine core, the soldier reaches deck 4 and discovers that Polito is dead and is soon confronted by SHODAN. It is revealed she has been posing as Polito to gain the soldier's trust.

SHODAN mentions that she is responsible for creating the Many through her bioengineering experiments on Citadel Station. The Hacker, who freed her from her ethical restraints, ejected the grove that contained her experiments to prevent them from contaminating Earth, an act that allowed part of SHODAN to survive in the grove. The grove crash-landed on Tau Ceti V. While SHODAN went into forced hibernation, the Many evolved beyond her control. SHODAN tells the soldier that his only chance for survival lies in helping destroy her creations. Efforts to regain control of XERXES, the main computer on the Von Braun, fail. SHODAN informs the soldier that destroying the ship is their only option, but he must transmit her program to the Rickenbacker first. While en route, the soldier briefly encounters two survivors, Thomas "Tommy" Suarez and Rebecca Siddons, who flee the ship aboard an escape pod.

With the transfer complete, the soldier travels to the Rickenbacker and learns both ships have been enveloped by the infection's source, a gigantic mass of bio-organic tissue that has wrapped itself over the two ships. The soldier enters the biomass and destroys its core, stopping the infection. SHODAN congratulates him and tells of her intentions to merge real space and cyberspace through the Von Braun's faster-than-light drive. The soldier confronts SHODAN in cyberspace and defeats her. The final scene shows Tommy and Rebecca receiving a message from the Von Braun. Tommy responds, saying they will return and noting that Rebecca is acting strange. Rebecca speaks in a SHODAN-like voice, asking Tommy if he "likes her new look" as the screen fades to black.

Development

Development of System Shock 2 began in 1997 when Looking Glass Studios approached Irrational Games with an idea to co-develop a game. The development team were fans of System Shock and sought to create a similar game. Early story ideas were similar to the novella Heart of Darkness. In an early draft, the player was tasked with assassinating an insane commander on a starship. The original title, according to its pitch document, was Junction Point. The philosophy of the design was to continue to develop the concept of a dungeon crawler, like Ultima Underworld: The Stygian Abyss, in a science fiction setting, the basis for System Shock. However, the press mistook System Shock to be closer to a Doom clone which was cited for its poor financial success. With Junction Point, the goal was to add in significant role-playing elements and a persistent storyline as to distance the game from Doom.

The title took 18 months to create with a budget of $1.7 million and was pitched to several publishers until Electronic Arts—who owned the rights to the System Shock franchise—responded by suggesting the game become a sequel to System Shock. The development team agreed; Electronic Arts became the publisher and story changes were made to incorporate the franchise. The project was allotted one year to be completed and to compensate for the short time frame, the staff began working with Looking Glass Studio's unfinished Dark Engine, the same engine used to create Thief: The Dark Project.

The designers included role-playing elements. Similar to Ultima Underworld, another Looking Glass Studios project, the environment in System Shock 2 is persistent and constantly changes without the player's presence. Paper-and-pencil role-playing games were influential; the character customization system was based on Traveller's methodology and was implemented in the fictional military branches which, by allowing multiple character paths, the player could receive a more open-ended gameplay experience. Horror was a key focus and four major points were identified to successfully incorporate it. Isolation was deemed primary, which resulted in the player having little physical contact with other sentient beings. Secondly, a vulnerability was created by focusing on a fragile character. Last were the inclusion of moody sound effects and "the intelligent placement of lighting and shadows". The game's lead designer, Ken Levine, oversaw the return of System Shock villain SHODAN. Part of Levine's design was to ally the player with her. Levine sought to challenge the player by having SHODAN betray the player: "Sometimes characters are betrayed, but the player never is. I wanted to violate that trust and make the player feel that they, and not [only] the character, were led on and deceived". This design choice was controversial with the development team.

Several problems were encountered during the project. Because the team comprised two software companies, tension emerged regarding job assignments and some developers left the project. Additionally, many employees were largely inexperienced, but in retrospect project manager Jonathan Chey felt this was advantageous, stating "inexperience also bred enthusiasm and commitment that might not have been present with a more jaded set of developers." The Dark Engine posed problems of its own. It was unfinished, forcing the programmers to fix software bugs when encountered. In contrast, working closely with the engine code allowed them to write additional features. Not all setbacks were localized; a demonstration build at E3 was hindered when it was requested all guns be removed from the presentation due to then-recent Columbine High School massacre.

Release
A demo for the game, featuring a tutorial and a third of the first mission, was released on August 2, 1999. Nine days later, System Shock 2 was shipped to retailers in North America. The game was made available in the United Kingdom one month later on September 18. An enhancement patch was released a month later and added significant features, such as co-operative multiplayer and control over weapon degradation and enemy respawn rates. A port was planned for the Dreamcast but was canceled.

End-of-support
Around 2000, with the end-of-support for the game by the developer and publisher, remaining bugs and compatibility with newer operating systems and hardware became a growing problem. To compensate the missing support, some fans of the game became active in the modding community to update the game. For instance, the "Rebirth" graphical enhancement mod replaced many low-polygonal models with higher quality ones, a "Shock Texture Upgrade Project" increased the resolution of textures, and an updated level editor was released by the user community.

Intellectual property debacle and re-release
The intellectual property (IP) rights of System Shock 2 were caught for years in complications between Electronic Arts and Meadowbrook Insurance Group (the parent company of Star Insurance Company), the entity that acquired the assets of Looking Glass Studios on their closure, though according to a lawyer for Star Insurance, they themselves have since acquired the lingering intellectual property rights from EA.

In the player community, attempts had been made to update and patch System Shock 2 for known issues on newer operating systems and limitations that had been hard-coded into the game. In 2009, a complete copy of System Shock 2's Dark Engine source code was discovered in the possession of an ex-Looking Glass Studios employee who was at the time continuing his work for Eidos Interactive. In late April 2010, a user on the Dreamcast Talk forum disassembled the contents of a Dreamcast development kit he had purchased, and among the content he received into some of the source code for Looking Glass games, including System Shock. An unknown user, going only as "Le Corbeau" (The Raven), issued a patch for System Shock 2 and Thief 2 in 2012 that resolved several of the known issue with the Dark engine and other features. It is believed that the patches were enabled by the Dreamcast kit, using a combination of the available source code and by disassembling libraries off the development kit. The patch became known informally as the "NewDark" patch to distinguish it from other efforts to improve the game.

At about the same time, Stephen Kick of Night Dive Studios had been seeking to license the System Shock property as to create System Shock 3. Star Insurance had not been willing to grant that license but did agree to allow Night Dive Studios to bring System Shock 2 to modern systems. Shortly after getting this approval, the NewDark patch had been released, and Kick attempted to contact "Le Corbeau" to discuss the use of their patch, but the user was impossible to contact. Kick decided to approach GOG.com for a timed-exclusive release on their digital distribution website in February 2013, where the game was the most requested to be added to the catalog. This version, considered by GOG.com to be a "collector's edition", included the "Le Corbeau" NewDark patch. In addition, the updates allow user-made modifications to be applied more seamlessly. The release also contains additional material such as the game's soundtrack, maps of the Von Braun, and the original pitch document for the game. The update rights also allowed a Mac OS X version of System Shock 2 to be subsequently released on June 18, 2013, through GOG.com. The title became available on Steam on May 10, 2013. In April 2014 a Linux version was also released. "Le Corbeau" has continued to update the game since 2012, with their patches being incorporated into the versions that Night Dive distributes through GOG.com and Steam.

Since then, Night Dive Studios acquired the rights to System Shock, releasing an enhanced version in September 2015. Kick has reported they have acquired full rights to the series since then.

Reception
System Shock 2 received critical acclaim. It received over a dozen awards, including seven "Game of the Year" prizes. Reviews were very positive and lauded the title for its hybrid gameplay, moody sound design, and engaging story. System Shock 2 is regarded by critics as highly influential, particularly on first-person shooters and the horror genre. In a retrospective article, GameSpot declared the title "well ahead of its time" and stated that it "upped the ante in dramatic and mechanical terms" by creating a horrific gameplay experience. Despite critical acclaim and being the tenth best selling PC game in the US the month of its release, the title did not perform well commercially; only 58,671 copies were sold by April 2000.

Several publications praised the title for its open-ended gameplay. With regard to character customization, Trent Ward of IGN stated the best element of the role-playing system was allowing gamers to "play the game as completely different characters", and felt this made each play-through unique. Erik Reckase writing for Just Adventure agreed, saying "There are very few games that allow you [to] play the way you want". Alec Norands of Allgame believed that the different character classes made the game “diverse enough to demand instant replayability". Robert Mayer from Computer Games Magazine called System Shock 2 "a game that truly defies classification in a single genre", and ensured that "the action is occasionally fast-paced, it's more often tactical, placing a premium on thought rather than on reflexes."

Buck DeFore reviewed the PC version of the game for Next Generation, rating it four stars out of five, and stated that "Bluntly put, System Shock 2 is a welcome visit to the lost arts of the good old days, and an immersive experience as long as you don't mind some of the cobwebs that come along with it."

A number of critics described the game as frightening. Computer and Video Games described the atmosphere as "gripping" and guaranteed readers they would "jump out of [their] skin" numerous times. Allgame found the sound design particularly effective, calling it “absolutely, teeth-clenchingly disturbing", while PC Gamer's William Harms christened System Shock 2 as the most frightening game he had ever played. Some critics found the weapon degradation system to be irritating, and members of the development team have also expressed misgivings about the system. The role-playing system was another point of contention; GameSpot described the job system as "badly unbalanced" because the player can develop skills outside their career choice. Allgame felt similarly about the system, saying it "leaned towards a hacker character".

Along with Deus Ex, Sid Shuman of GamePro christened System Shock 2 "[one of the] twin barrels of modern [first-person shooter] innovation", owing to its complex role-playing gameplay. IGN writer Cam Shea referred to the game as "another reinvention of the FPS genre", citing the story, characters, and RPG system. PC Zone lauded the game as a "fabulous example of a modern-day computer game" and named it "a sci-fi horror masterpiece". The title has been inducted into a number of features listing the greatest games ever made, including ones by GameSpy, Edge, Empire, IGN, GameSpot and PC Gamer. IGN also ranked System Shock 2 as the 35th greatest first-person shooter of all time. X-Play called it the second scariest game of all time, behind Silent Hill 2. SHODAN has proven to be a popular character among most critics, including IGN, GameSpot and The Phoenix.

System Shock 2 won PC Gamer US's 1999 "Best Roleplaying Game" and "Special Achievement in Sound" awards, and was a runner-up in the magazine's overall "Game of the Year" category. The editors of Computer Gaming World nominated it for their "Role-Playing Game of the Year" prize, which ultimately went to Planescape: Torment.

Enhanced edition
On a stream during the 20th anniversary of System Shock 2 on August 11, 2019, Night Dive announced an Enhanced Edition of the game was in development. Night Dive had been able to acquire and use the original game's source code, allowing them to improve upon the original. They plan to port the game to their KEX engine, the same engine they are using for the System Shock enhanced edition, and will work to make sure that the co-operative play features are better implemented. The enhanced version will aim to support all existing mods and custom maps developed by the gaming community, though will require work with the community to help with compatibility. Kick has stated that while they would like to work with "Le Corbeau" to incorporate their patches into the Enhanced Edition, they will likely need to deviate so that Night Dive can improve upon the original title. Kick later confirmed on Twitter that the enhanced edition will release for all platforms.

Alongside development of the Enhanced Edition will be a virtual reality (VR) version, though this will release at a later time as the Enhanced Edition. The VR version will use gameplay features that were introduced with Half-Life: Alyx, and will be cross-play compatible in its multiplayer mode with PC users that are not using VR modes.

Sequel projects
System Shock 2 has amassed a cult following, with fans asking for a sequel. On January 9, 2006, GameSpot reported that Electronic Arts had renewed its trademark protection on the System Shock name, leading to speculation that System Shock 3 might be under development. Three days later, Computer and Video Games reported a reliable source had come forward and confirmed the title's production. Electronic Arts UK made no comment when confronted with the information. PC Gamer UK stated the team behind The Godfather: The Game (EA Redwood Shores, later Visceral, defunct 2017) was charged with its creation. Ken Levine, when asked whether he would helm the third installment, replied: "that question is completely out of my hands". He expressed optimism at the prospect of System Shock 3, but revealed that EA had not shown interest in his own proposal for a sequel, and was not optimistic with regards to their abilities. Electronic Arts did not confirm a new title in the series and allowed the System Shock trademark registration to lapse. Redwood Shores' next release was 2008's Dead Space, a game with noted similarities in theme and presentation to the System Shock series. According to Dead Space designers Ben Wanat and Wright Bagwell, their project was originally intended to be System Shock 3, before the release of Resident Evil 4 inspired them to go back to the drawing board and develop it into something more along those lines, eventually becoming Dead Space.

In March 2015, a fan sequel mod for the game, System Shock Infinite, was released, incorporating elements from spiritual successor BioShock Infinite.

In November 2015, Night Dive Studios, after acquiring the rights to the System Shock franchise, stated they were considering developing a third title in the series. In December 2015, OtherSide Entertainment, a studio founded by former Looking Glass Studios designer Paul Neurath, announced they were developing System Shock 3 with rights granted to them by Night Dive Studios. OtherSide had acquired rights to make sequels to System Shock some years before this point but did not have the rights to the series name, which Night Dive was able to provide. The sequel will feature Terri Brosius reprising her voice for SHODAN, and will include work from original System Shock concept artist Robb Waters. Warren Spector, the producer of the first System Shock, announced in February 2016 that he has joined OtherSide Entertainment and will be working on System Shock 3. According to Spector, the narrative will pick up immediately from the end of System Shock 2, with SHODAN having taken over Rebecca's body. System Shock 3 will use the Unity game engine, with a teaser shown during Unity's press event at the 2019 Game Developers Conference.

Starbreeze Studios was originally planning to provide a $12 million "publishing-only" investment in System Shock 3, allowing OtherSide to retain all rights while seeking a 120% return on investment followed by equal shares of revenue splitting. Starbreeze's investment would allow the game to be developed for consoles in addition to the planned personal computer versions. However, in the wake of several financial problems in late 2018, Starbreeze has given back the publishing rights to System Shock 3 to OtherSide, and separated itself from the project. OtherSide stated they had the capability to self-publish System Shock 3 should they be unable to find a publishing partner but would prefer to have a publishing partner. At least twelve OtherSide employees working on System Shock 3, including several in lead roles, left the studio between late 2019 and early 2020. One former employee stated that the game's development team was "no longer employed"; however, in April 2020, OtherSide's vice president of marketing and development, Walter Somol, stated that the team was "still here" and progress on the project was "coming along nicely", but they were working remotely, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. After several journalists noted that the System Shock 3 websites had been transferred to ownership under Tencent in May 2020, Otherside confirmed that they had been unable to continue the series as a smaller studio and transferred the licensed rights to Tencent to continue its development, though Spector affirmed that OtherSide was still involved in its development alongside Tencent.

Warren Spector has since stated that OtherSide stopped working on System Shock 3 in 2019, and that they are now working on an immersive simulation based on a new intellectual property developed by OtherSide.

In 2022, during Gamescon, Stephen Kick, Night Dive's CEO, stated in an interview after he finished the System Shock remake, that he intended to begin development on a System Shock 2 remake.

Spiritual successors
In 2007, Irrational Games—briefly known as 2K Boston/2K Australia —released a spiritual successor to the System Shock series, entitled BioShock. The game takes place in an abandoned underwater utopian community destroyed by the genetic modification of its populace and shares many gameplay elements with System Shock 2: reconstitution stations can be activated, allowing the player to be resurrected when they die; hacking, ammo conservation, and exploration are integral parts of gameplay; and unique powers may be acquired via plasmids, special abilities that function similarly to psionics in System Shock 2. The two titles share plot similarities and employ audio logs and encounters with ghostly apparitions to reveal backstory. In BioShock Infinite, Irrational Games included a gameplay feature called "1999 Mode", specifically in reference to System Shock 2s release year, designed to provide a similar game experience with a higher difficulty and long-lasting effects of choices made that would remind players of System Shocks unforgiving nature.

In 2017, Arkane Studios published Prey, which takes place on a space station named Talos I, similar to System Shock. It, too, features psionic abilities, in the form of "Neuromods", as a fundamental gameplay feature, and uses a mixture of audio logs and pieces of text to advance the game's backstory. Prey features elements like hacking, crafting, and features a heavy emphasis on side-quest exploration and careful conservation of ammunition and "Psi Points", player stat that controls how many psi abilities can be used. The game features crew members who have become infected, though, not as the result of an AI, but instead as the result of a failure of containment around a mysterious alien species known as the Typhon. Within the game, references are made to System Shock's developers, such as the "Looking Glass" technology that plays a significant role in the story's plot.

title: System Shock 2


text:
Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham

Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham (24 October 1675 – 14 September 1749) was a British soldier and Whig politician. After serving as a junior officer under William III during the Williamite War in Ireland and during the Nine Years' War, he fought under John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, during the War of the Spanish Succession. During the War of the Quadruple Alliance Temple led a force of 4,000 troops on a raid on the Spanish coastline which captured Vigo and occupied it for ten days before withdrawing. In Parliament he generally supported the Whigs but fell out with Sir Robert Walpole in 1733. He was known for his ownership of and modifications to the estate at Stowe and for serving as a political mentor to the young William Pitt.

Military career
Born the son of Sir Richard Temple, 3rd Baronet, and his wife Mary Temple (née Knapp, daughter of Thomas Knapp), Temple was educated at Eton College and Christ's College, Cambridge, and was commissioned as an ensign in Prince George of Denmark's Regiment on 30 June 1685. After becoming a captain in Babington's Regiment in 1689, he fought under William III during the Williamite War in Ireland against the Jacobite Irish Army of James II. He was present at the Siege of Namur in July 1695 during the Nine Years' War.

Temple succeeded his father as 4th Baronet in May 1697 and as Whig member of parliament for Buckingham later that year: he continued to represent either Buckingham or Buckinghamshire for the next 16 years. Promoted to lieutenant colonel on 10 February 1702, he was given his own regiment to command. He fought under John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough at the Battle of Venlo in September 1702 and at the Battle of Roermond in October 1702 during the War of the Spanish Succession. He also took part in the Battle of Oudenarde in July 1708 and the Siege of Lille in Autumn 1708.

For his good conduct at Lille he was sent home to present the despatches to Queen Anne. In Parliament he supported the Whigs and voted for the Foreign Protestants Naturalization Act 1708 which allowed Protestants fleeing from the continent to enter Great Britain. Promoted to major-general on 1 January 1709, he fought again at the Battle of Malplaquet in September 1709 and was promoted to lieutenant general on 1 January 1710. In Parliament, in accordance with Whig party policy, he voted for the impeachment of Henry Sacheverell, a clergyman who had criticised the party, in March 1710.

In recognition of his service in the field, Temple was appointed colonel of the Princess Anne of Denmark's Regiment of Dragoons in April 1710. From 1711, he made dramatic changes to his family estate at Stowe; the work was carried out under the guidance of John Vanbrugh, a skilled architect, and the future royal gardener, Charles Bridgeman.

In 1713, the Harley Ministry stripped Temple of his colonelcy for voting against the Treaty of Utrecht. However, after George I ascended the throne following the Hanoverian Succession, Temple became ambassador to Vienna and was created Baron Cobham in October 1714. He became colonel of The Royal Regiment of Dragoons in 1715 and Constable of Windsor Castle in 1716. He was made a Privy Councillor in July 1716 and created Viscount Cobham in April 1718. Temple was a mentor and Patron to a number of young Whigs, the most notable being William Pitt. Collectively they became known as Cobham's Cubs. Two of them, Pitt and Temple's nephew George Grenville went on to be Prime Minister. In September 1719, during the War of the Quadruple Alliance, Temple led a force of 4,000 troops on a raid on the Spanish coastline which captured Vigo and occupied it for ten days before withdrawing.

Temple generally supported the government of Sir Robert Walpole once it came to power in April 1721 and was rewarded with the colonelcy of the King's Own Regiment of Horse later that year. He became Governor of Jersey in May 1723 and Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire in March 1728.

Later life
Temple fell out with Prime Minister Robert Walpole in 1733 and formed a faction in the Whig Party to oppose the Excise Bill which resulted in his being stripped of his colonelcy again. He was promoted to full general on 27 October 1735.

Temple provided patronage to the rising star of the Whig Party, William Pitt, securing him a cornet's commission in his regiment. The group of Temple's young supporters were known as Cobham's Cubs and included Richard Grenville, George Grenville and George Lyttelton, as well as Pitt. After Walpole's fall as Prime Minister in 1742, they turned their attacks on his replacement – a government led by Lord Wilmington and Lord Carteret.

Promoted to field marshal on 10 July 1742, Temple became colonel of the 1st Troop of Horse Grenadier Guards that same day, colonel of Viscount Cobham's Regiment of Horse in 1744 and colonel of Viscount Cobham's Regiment of Dragoons in June 1745. He died at Stowe on 13 September 1749 and was buried there.

Family
In September 1715 Temple married Anne Halsey, daughter of Edmund Halsey who had owned the Anchor Brewery: her inheritance allowed Temple to maintain the Stowe estate; they had no surviving children. (Their daughter, Elizabeth, was born on 1 September 1738, and baptised at St James' Church, Westminster, on 28 September. She died shortly before her 4th birthday and was buried on the family estate on 16 July 1742 ). Cobham came to an agreement with his heirs, distant cousins on whom the estate would have been entailed, on order to favour the family of his sister Hester Grenville. Hester's eldest son would take the name Grenville-Temple and eventually inherit the title 2nd Viscount Cobham and the estates of Wotton and Stowe.

Legacy
Temple was admired by Alexander Pope, and Temple's gardens were praised by Pope in his Epistle to Burlington as a wonder. Pope wrote a "moral epistle" to Temple in 1733 and published it in the same year as ''An Epistle to the Right Honourable Richard Lord Visct. Cobham''. Pope praises Temple as a practical man of the world whose "ruling passion" was service to his country, whatever the cost. Basil Williams said Temple "had all the coarse, roystering bluffness of the hardened old campaigners of that time".

title: Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham