text:
Trade-off

A trade-off (or tradeoff) is a situational decision that involves diminishing or losing on quality, quantity, or property of a set or design in return for gains in other aspects. In simple terms, a tradeoff is where one thing increases, and another must decrease. Tradeoffs stem from limitations of many origins, including simple physics – for instance, only a certain volume of objects can fit into a given space, so a full container must remove some items in order to accept any more, and vessels can carry a few large items or multiple small items. Tradeoffs also commonly refer to different configurations of a single item, such as the tuning of strings on a guitar to enable different notes to be played, as well as an allocation of time and attention towards different tasks.

The concept of a tradeoff suggests a tactical or strategic choice made with full comprehension of the advantages and disadvantages of each setup. An economic example is the decision to invest in stocks, which are risky but carry great potential return, versus bonds, which are generally safer but with lower potential returns.

Theoretical description
The theoretical description of trade-offs involves the pareto front.

Examples
The concept of a trade-off is often used to describe situations in everyday life.

Economics
In economics a trade-off is expressed in terms of the opportunity cost of a particular choice, which is the loss of the most preferred alternative given up. A tradeoff, then, involves a sacrifice that must be made to obtain a certain product, service, or experience, rather than others that could be made or obtained using the same required resources. For example, for a person going to a basketball game, their opportunity cost is the loss of the alternative of watching a particular television program at home. If the basketball game occurs during her or his working hours, then the opportunity cost would be several hours of lost work, as they would need to take time off work.

Many factors affect the tradeoff environment within a particular country, including the availability of raw materials, a skilled labor force, machinery for producing a product, technology and capital, market rate to produce that product on a reasonable time scale, and so forth.

A trade-off in economics is often illustrated graphically by a Pareto frontier (named after the economist Vilfredo Pareto), which shows the greatest (or least) amount of one thing that can be attained for each of various given amounts of the other. As an example, in production theory, the trade-off between the output of one good and the output of another is illustrated graphically by the production possibilities frontier. The Pareto frontier is also used in multi-objective optimization. In finance, the capital asset pricing model includes an efficient frontier that shows the highest level of expected return that any portfolio could have given any particular level of risk, as measured by the variance of portfolio return.

Opportunity cost
An opportunity cost example of trade-offs for an individual would be the decision by a full-time worker to take time off work with a salary of $50,000 to attend medical school with an annual tuition of $30,000 and earning $150,000 as a doctor after 7 years of study. If we assume for the sake of simplicity that the medical school only allows full-time study, then the individual considering stopping work would face a trade-off between not going to medical school and earning $50,000 at work, or going to medical school and losing $50,000 in salary and having to pay $30,000 in tuition but earning $150,000 or more per year after 7 years of study.

Trash cans
Trash cans that are used inside and then taken out to the street and emptied into a dumpster can be small or large. A large trash can does not need to be taken out to the dumpster so often, but it may become very heavy and difficult to move when full. The choice of big versus small trash can is a trade-off between the frequency of needing to take out the trash and ease of use.

In the case of food waste, a second trade-off presents itself. Large trash cans are more likely to sit for a long time in the kitchen, leading to the food decomposing and a nasty odor. A small trash can will likely need to be taken out to the dumpster more often, thus greatly reducing or eliminating the odor. Of course, a user of a large trash can could simply carry the can outside frequently, but the larger can would be more cumbersome to take out often, and the user would have to think more about when to take the can out.

Mittens
In cold climates, mittens in which all the fingers are in the same compartment work well to keep the hands warm, but this arrangement also confines finger movement and prevents the full range of hand function. Gloves, with their separate fingers, do not have this drawback, but they do not keep the fingers as warm as mittens do. As such, with mittens and gloves, the trade-off is warmth versus dexterity. Similarly, warm coats are often bulky and impede the wearer's freedom of movement. Thin coats give the wearer more freedom of movement, but they are not as warm as a thicker coat would be.

Music
When copying music from compact discs to a computer, lossy compression formats, such as MP3, are used routinely to save hard disk space, but some information is lost resulting in lower sound quality. Lossless compression schemes, such as FLAC or ALAC take much more disk space, but do not affect sound quality.

Cars
Large cars can carry many people, and since they have larger crumple zones, they may be safer in an accident. However, they also tend to be heavy (and often not very aerodynamic) and thus usually have relatively poor fuel economy. Small cars like the Smart Car can only carry two people, and being lightweight, they are more fuel-efficient. At the same time, the smaller size and weight of small cars mean that they have smaller crumple zones, which means occupants are less protected in case of an accident. In addition, if a small car has an accident with a larger, heavier car, the occupants of the smaller car will fare more poorly. Thus, car size (large versus small) involves multiple tradeoffs regarding passenger capacity, accident safety, and fuel economy.

Athletics
In athletics, sprint running demands different physical attributes from running a marathon. Accordingly, the two contests have distinct events in such competitions as the Olympics, and each pursuit features distinct teams of athletes. Whether a professional runner is better suited to marathon running versus sprinting is a trade-off based on the runner's morphology and physiology (e.g., variation in muscle fiber type), as well as the runner's individual interest, preference, and other motivational factors. Sports recruiters are mindful of these tradeoffs as they decide what role a prospective athlete would best suit on a team.

Biology
In biology, several types of tradeoffs have been recognized. Most simply, a tradeoff occurs when a beneficial change in one trait is linked to a detrimental change in another trait. In environmental resource management, trade-offs occur among different targets. For example, these occur among biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration and distributive equity in the distribution of funds of the program for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+), as maximizing one of these targets implies reducing the outcomes in the other two targets.

The term is also used widely in an evolutionary context, in which case the processes of natural selection and sexual selection are in reference as the ultimate decisive factors. In biology, the concepts of tradeoffs and constraints are often closely related.

Demography
In demography, tradeoff examples may include maturity, fecundity, parental care, parity, senescence, and mate choice. For example, the higher the fecundity (number of offspring), the lower the parental care that each offspring will receive. Parental care as a function of fecundity would show a negative sloped linear graph. A related phenomenon, known as demographic compensation, arises when the different components of species life cycles (survival, growth, fecundity, etc.) show negative correlations across the distribution ranges. For example, survival may be higher towards the northern edge of the distribution, while fecundity or growth increases towards the south, leading to a compensation that allows the species to persist along an environmental gradient. Contrasting trends in life cycle components may arise through tradeoffs in resource allocation, but also through independent but opposite responses to environmental conditions.

Engineering
Tradeoffs are important in engineering. For example, in electrical engineering, negative feedback is used in amplifiers to trade gain for other desirable properties, such as improved bandwidth, stability of the gain and/or bias point, noise immunity, and reduction of nonlinear distortion. Similarly, tradeoffs are used to maximize power efficiency in medical devices whilst guaranteeing the required measurement quality.

Computer science
In computer science, tradeoffs are viewed as a tool of the trade. A program can often run faster if it uses more memory (a space–time tradeoff). Consider the following examples: The Software Engineering Institute has a specific method for analyzing tradeoffs, called the Architecture Tradeoff Analysis Method (ATAM).
 * By compressing an image, you can reduce transmission time/costs at the expense of CPU time to perform the compression and decompression. Depending on the compression method, this may also involve the tradeoff of a loss in image quality.
 * By using a lookup table, you may be able to reduce CPU time at the expense of space to hold the table, e.g. to determine the parity of a byte you can either look at each bit individually (using shifts and masks), or use a 256-entry table giving the parity for each possible bit-pattern, or combine the upper and lower nibbles and use a 16-entry table.
 * For some situations (e.g. string manipulation), a compiler may be able to use inline code for greater speed, or call run-time routines for reduced memory; the user of the compiler should be able to indicate whether speed or space is more important.

Board games
Strategy board games often involve tradeoffs: for example, in chess you might trade a pawn for an improved position. In a worst-case scenario, a chess player might even tradeoff the loss of a valuable piece (even the Queen) to protect the King. In Go, you might trade thickness for influence.

Ethics
Ethics often involves competing for interests that must be traded off against each other, such as the interests of different people, or different principles (e.g. is it ethical to use information resulting from inhumane or illegal experiments to treat disease today?)

Medicine
In medicine, patients and physicians are often faced with difficult decisions involving tradeoffs. One example is localized prostate cancer, where patients need to weigh the possibility of a prolonged life expectancy against possible stressful or unpleasant treatment side-effects (patient trade-off).

Government
Governmental tradeoffs are among the most controversial political and social difficulties of any time. All of politics can be viewed as a series of tradeoffs based upon which core values are most core to most people or politicians. Political campaigns also involve tradeoffs, as when attack ads may energize the political base but alienate undecided voters.

Work schedules
With work schedules, employees will often use a tradeoff of "9/80" where an 80-hour work period is compressed into a narrow group of 9 nearly-9 hour working days over the traditional 10 8-hour working days, allowing the employee to take every second Friday off.

title: Trade-off


text:
Hot Anger Soon Cold

Hot Anger Soon Cold is a play written by Henry Chettle, Henry Porter and Ben Jonson. No extant copies of the play are known.

The play is mentioned in Philip Henslowe's diary for August 1598. On 18 August, the authors were paid £6 for the script by the Admiral's Men.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hot Anger Soon Cold


text:
Talk:Rosetta Stone

current requests for return to Egypt
Reliable Source? --> http://www.papermag.com/going-going-gone-2632016072.html?rebelltitem=17#rebelltitem17 50.111.5.59 (talk) 16:37, 15 July 2019 (UTC)

Copying part of 'Memphis decree and its context' section for Rosetta Stone decree page?
I've been very slowly working on Rosetta Stone decree and it needs a 'context' section. This article has a fantastic 'context' section, and far more thorough than anything I could hope to write given its featured article status. If it is okay with everyone here, I will copy the two or three paragraphs and bits and pieces needed from here to Rosetta Stone decree. Let me know if this is not the right course of action! Merytat3n (talk) 00:50, 10 February 2022 (UTC)

 * That should be fine. However, you'll need to state in you edit summary that it was copied from this article. Be sure you copy over all the sources for the text you copy. BilCat (talk) 01:03, 10 February 2022 (UTC)

 * Awesome, will do :) Merytat3n (talk) 07:13, 10 February 2022 (UTC)

It is impossible to interact with the 3D model
The "Description" section contains a 3D image of the Rosetta stone, with which in principle one should be able to interact (by using the mouse cursor). In reality, neither Firefox 116.0.2, nor Microsoft Edge 115.0.1901.203 are able to display the 3D image, let alone also interact with it. If this cannot be fixed, maybe remove the 3D image altogether? 109.98.44.53 (talk) 11:04, 17 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Hmmm, works perfectly fine for me in Microsoft Edge 115.0.1901.188. Took a good few seconds to load properly, but it works fine. Not tried in Firefox. Canterbury Tail talk 13:17, 17 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Tested in Firefox and Opera. It works in both: it disappears occasionally (unlike the real one) but it always comes back. Andrew Dalby 13:55, 20 August 2023 (UTC)

What does Rosetta Stone actually say?
Folks, it's been pretty long time since I am trying to find any information on the content of the Rosetta stone in translation into English or Russian. I've found nothing. They say it was decephered, but if it was why no information what Rosetta Stone is about? Those who know please, scratch a message to archistoriac@Gmail.com97 2.134.233.31 (talk) 17:15, 3 February 2024 (UTC)

 * See Rosetta Stone decree. A. Parrot (talk) 22:53, 3 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Its like in the first sentence feels like a easter egg; one may just expect a link to Decree. Surely this can be presented better?  Aza24  (talk)   02:29, 6 February 2024 (UTC)
 * I rearranged the sentence trying to make the link more visible. See what you think. A. Parrot (talk) 05:53, 6 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Much better I think! Thanks for adjusting it.  Aza24  (talk)   17:34, 7 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rosetta Stone


text:
Red-breasted nuthatch

The red-breasted nuthatch (Sitta canadensis) is a small songbird. The adult has blue-grey upperparts with cinnamon underparts, a white throat and face with a black stripe through the eyes, a straight grey bill and a black crown. Its call, which has been likened to a tin trumpet, is high-pitched and nasal. It breeds in coniferous forests across Canada, Alaska and the northeastern and western United States. Though often a permanent resident, it regularly irrupts further south if its food supply fails. There are records of vagrants occurring as far south as the Gulf Coast and northern Mexico. It forages on the trunks and large branches of trees, often descending head first, sometimes catching insects in flight. It eats mainly insects and seeds, especially from conifers. It excavates its nest in dead wood, often close to the ground, smearing the entrance with pitch.

Taxonomy
In 1760, the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the red-breasted nuthatch in his Ornithologie based on a specimen collected in Canada. He used the French name Le torchepot de Canada and the Latin Sitta Canadensis. Although Brisson coined Latin names for the species, these usually do not conform to the binomial system and none of them are recognised by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. In 1766, when the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the twelfth edition, he added 240 species that had been previously described by Brisson. One of these was the red-breasted nuthatch. Linnaeus included a brief description and used Brisson's name, Sitta canadensis, as his binomial name.

Like all nuthatches, the red-breasted nuthatch is assigned to the genus Sitta (Linnaeus, 1758), a name derived from sittē (σίττη), the Ancient Greek word for the Eurasian nuthatch. The specific epithet canadensis is Neo-Latin for "belonging to Canada". "Nuthatch" is a linguistic corruption of "nuthack", referring to the bird's habit of wedging nuts into cracks in tree bark and hacking at them until they break open. "Red-breasted" is a reference to the rusty colour of the male's underparts.

In the past, the red-breasted nuthatch and four other species — the Corsican nuthatch, the Chinese nuthatch, the Algerian nuthatch and the Krüper's nuthatch — were thought to be a single species. These five make up a well-defined species group known as the "Sitta canadensis group", and are sometimes considered to be a superspecies. Within the species group, DNA studies have shown that the red-breasted nuthatch, the Corsican nuthatch and the Chinese nuthatch make up one clade and the Algerian nuthatch and Krüper's nuthatch make up a sister clade. The red-breasted nuthatch is monotypic across its extensive range.

Description
The red-breasted nuthatch is a small passerine, measuring 4.5 in in length, with a wingspan of 8.5 in and a weight of 9.9 g. Its back and uppertail are bluish, and its underparts are rust-colored. It has a black cap and eye line and a white supercilium (eyebrow). Sexes are similarly plumaged, though females and youngsters have duller heads and paler underparts.

Voice
The red-breasted nuthatch's call is high-pitched, nasal and weak. Transcribed as yenk or ink, they have been likened to a toy tin horn or a child's noisemaker. Its song is a slowly repeated series of clear, nasal, rising notes, transcribed as eeen eeen eeen.

Habitat and range
Though it is primarily a full-time resident of northern and subalpine conifer forests, the red-breasted nuthatch regularly migrates irruptively, with both the number migrating and the wintering locations varying from year to year. They sometimes reach northern Mexico, where they are rare winter visitors to Nuevo León, Baja California Norte and south along the Pacific slope as far as Sinaloa. In the eastern United States, its range is expanding southwards. Though formerly resident on Isla Guadalupe, an island off the western coast of Mexico, it appears to have been extirpated there, with the last known record of the species on the island dating from 1971. There is a single vagrant record for Mexico's Isla Socorro. It is an extremely rare vagrant to Europe, with two records in the western Palearctic; one bird successfully overwintered in eastern England.

Feeding behavior and diet
Like all nuthatches, the red-breasted nuthatch is an acrobatic species, hitching itself up and down tree trunks and branches to look for food. It goes headfirst when climbing down. It can "walk" on the underside of branches. Unlike woodpeckers and creepers, it does not use its tail as a prop while climbing. It tends to forage singly or in pairs.

The red-breasted nuthatch's diet changes depending on the season. In the summer, it eats mostly insects, occasionally even flycatching, while in the winter, it switches to conifer seeds. At feeders, it will take sunflower seeds, peanut butter, and suet. It often wedges food pieces in bark crevices in order to break them up with the bill (as opposed to holding the food in their feet, like the black-capped chickadee does).

Breeding
The red-breasted nuthatch, like all nuthatches, is monogamous. The male courts the female with a peculiar display, lifting his head and tail while turning his back to her, drooping his wings, and swaying from side to side.

This bird excavates its own cavity nest, 1.53 - 37 m above ground (usually around 4.6 m. Excavation is done by both sexes and takes one to eight weeks. The pair smears sap around the entrance hole, presumably to help deter predators. The nest is lined with grass, moss, shredded bark and rootlets. Nest building is done by both sexes, but mostly by females.

The female lays 2–8 eggs (usually 5–6), which are white, creamy or pinkish, and covered with reddish-brown speckles. The eggs measure 0.6 – long by 0.4 – wide. Incubation is done by the female and lasts 12–13 days. The young are altricial and stay in the nest for 2–3 weeks, brooded by the female but fed by both sexes. Normally, there is only one brood per year. Lifespan is around 6 years.

Conservation status and threats
Because of its large global range and its increasing population, the red-breasted nuthatch is rated as a species of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. In the Americas, it is protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918.

title: Red-breasted nuthatch


text:
Talk:Idries Shah

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20051015023705/http://www.idriesshah.info/Shah/IdriesShah.htm to http://www.idriesshah.info/Shah/IdriesShah.htm

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External links modified
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 * Added tag to http://dl.dropbox.com/u/25116143/docs/DeclarationOfThePeople.pdf
 * Fixed (public folder in free dropbox a/cs have now been made private). Public link to pdf provided.  Esowteric + Talk  13:23, 11 November 2017 (UTC)

 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20081004064521/http://www.ishkbooks.com/ishk_leadership.html to http://ishkbooks.com/ishk_leadership.html
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Leading thinker of the 20th century
Is this very subjective label actually qualified by any sources, or has it been subjectively added? Iskandar323 (talk) 09:10, 9 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes, you're quite right. Have changed that, thanks.  Esowteric +  Talk  +  Breadcrumbs   09:14, 9 April 2022 (UTC)

Still a GA by present standards?
This article become a good article in 2009 - do we think this still holds by present standards? This is worth a little discussion before any formal GA review is warranted, but a couple of obvious things that I see now and which I think would present barriers to this article becoming a GA today are some structural issues, including long contents + long paragraphs, and a lack of images. Iskandar323 (talk) 09:45, 7 July 2022 (UTC)

 * Thanks for your interest. I don't see any issue with the length of the content, since Shah had such a prolific life; nor do I see any over-lengthy paragraphs. I know little about getting an aricle to GA status, though.

 * I've fixed the red warnings in book citations (where author was used for an editor with "(ed.)" or "(eds.)" after the name).

 * One issue that you might face in going through a GA is that there are not so many people still familiar with Shah's life and his work, and only a few of them are still active Wikipedians. did a lot of good work developing and maintaining the article. Regards,  Esowteric  +  Talk  +  Breadcrumbs   10:59, 7 July 2022 (UTC)
 * For want of some specifics, there are currently just 4 images in this article, which is roughly one every 2,600 words - so that's one image per undergraduate essay length wall of text. As for paragraph lengths, the worst examples come in the 'assessment' section, where the longest example, beginning: "And Shah's fiercest critic ... ", alone extends to 300 words. Iskandar323 (talk) 11:25, 7 July 2022 (UTC)

Time for a GAR
Hmm. TrangaBellam (talk) 18:16, 31 October 2022 (UTC)

 * I think I've mellowed since I posted the above, as well as come to the realization that there are so many things that need improving that ripping down slightly off GAs is a bit of a waste of community time, as well as the rather specifically limited GA review capacity. Better to perform some quick fixes and just keep aged GAs at something close enough to passable. Iskandar323 (talk) 18:34, 31 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Idries Shah


text:
Valentine and Orson

Valentine and Orson is a romance which has been attached to the Carolingian cycle.

Synopsis
It is the story of twin brothers, abandoned in the woods in infancy. Valentine is brought up as a knight at the court of Pepin, while Orson grows up in a bear's den to be a wild man of the woods, until he is overcome and tamed by Valentine, whose servant and comrade he becomes. In some versions, the pair discover their true history with the help of a magical brazen head. The two eventually rescue their mother Bellisant, sister of Pepin and wife of the emperor of Greece, by whom she had been unjustly repudiated, from the power of a giant named Ferragus.

Early modern versions
The tale is probably based on a lost French original, with Orson originally described as "sans nom" i.e. the "nameless" one. A 14th-century French chanson de geste, Valentin et Sansnom (i.e. Valentin and "Nameless") has not survived but was translated/adapted in medieval German as Valentin und Namelos (first half of the 15th century).

The kernel of the story lies in Orson's upbringing and wildness, and is evidently a folk-tale, with a purely artificial connection to the Carolingian cycle. The story of the wife unjustly accused with which it is bound up is sufficiently common, and was told of the wives both of Pippin and Charlemagne. The work has a number of references to other, older, works, including: Floovant, The Four Sons of Aymon, Lion de Bourges, and Maugis d'Aigremont.

Like nearly all popular romances of chivalry of the period, the French chanson de geste was adapted into a prose romance by the end of the 15th century; several versions from the 16th century are extant; the oldest prose version dates from 1489 (published in Lyon by Jacques Maillet). An English-language version, The Historye of the two Valyannte Brethren: Valentyne and Orson, written by Henry Watson, printed by William Copland about 1550, is the earliest known of a long series of English versions - some of which included illustrations. One such illustrated variant of the tale was prepared by S R Littlwood and accompanied by the illustrations of Florence Anderson when published in 1919.

Other Renaissance versions exist in Italian, Spanish, Swedish, Dutch, German, and Icelandic. The number of translations show a European success for the tale. The works of François Rabelais have a number of echoes to the romance.

A pageant of Valentine and "Urson" was presented in London at Cheapside during the Royal Entry before the Coronation of Edward VI in 1547. It is known that Richard Hathwaye and Anthony Munday produced a theatrical version of the story in 1598.

Modern versions and adaptations
Thomas Dibdin wrote an adaptation in 1804 which was later performed at the Theatres Royal Covent Garden, Haymarket, and Bath.

Nancy Ekholm Burkert wrote and illustrated a version of the story in 1989, in which the story is told through the lens of a traveling group of players (including two brothers) who bring the story to a village in Flanders in the Middle Ages.

title: Valentine and Orson


text:
Édouard Lartet

Édouard Lartet (15 April 1801 – 28 January 1871) was a French geologist and paleontologist, and a pioneer of Paleolithic archaeology. He is also known for coining the prehistoric taxon Amphicyon, making it one of the earliest-described fossil carnivorans in the palaeontological record.

Biography
Lartet was born near Castelnau-Barbarens, département of Gers, France, where his family had lived for more than five hundred years. He was educated for the law at Auch and Toulouse, but having private means elected to devote himself to science. The then recent work of Georges Cuvier on fossil Mammalia encouraged Lartet in excavations which led in 1834 to his first discovery of fossil remains in the neighborhood of Auch. Additionally, he described a fossil carnivoran that had some anatomical relations to caniforms such as canids, provisionally naming the fossil taxon Amphicyon in 1836, although the name would be adopted as a permanent genus name in later studies by other palaeontologists. For the next decade and a half, he continued to explore the geography and palaeontology of the Pyrenees, uncovering ancestral apes close to the hominid line at Sansan.

In 1860, hearing of the discovery of human bones at a cave at Aurignac, and inspired by the work of William Pengelly, he turned his attention most fruitfully to the cave systems of the Dordogne. His first publication on the subject, The Antiquity of Man in Western Europe (1860), was followed in 1861 by New Researches on the Coexistence of Man and of the Great Fossil Mammifers characteristic of the Last Geological Period. Here he revealed the results of his discoveries in the Aurignac cave, demonstrating the contemporaneous existence of man and extinct mammals. While these first results were met with some incredulity, a fellow geologist helpfully pointed Lartet towards the Vézère valley in the Périgord district, where in 1863 he began to dig backed by the financial and personal help of Henry Christy.

Their conjoint work was immediately to open new horizons, and served to establish a basic stratified typology of Paleolithic man which still holds good today. The important discoveries in the Abri de la Madeleine and Le Moustier provided type-sites for archaic stone-age cultures, which (from the associated fauna) Lartet linked to an early 'mammoth' phase and a late 'reindeer' phase. Lartet and Christy were also able to establish and document the presence of mobiliary art in early stratified layers, further transforming the common and professional perception of early man. Such 'home' art, involving bone patternings and carvings, were associated with both the Aurignacian and the Magdalenean cultures.

The account of their joint researches appeared in a paper descriptive of the Dordogne caves and contents published in Revue archéologique (1864); and would eventually be published by Lartet and Christy under the title Reliquiae Aquitanicae, the first part appearing in 1865. Christy unfortunately died before the completion of the work, but Lartet continued it until the breakdown of his health in 1870. Many artefacts from their excavations are now kept in the local museum in Toulouse, as well as the British Museum in London. His son Louis Lartet followed in his father's footsteps.

The most modest and one of the most illustrious of the founders of modern palaeontology, Lartet's work was publicly recognized by his nomination as an officer of the Légion d'honneur; and in 1848 he had had the offer of a political post. In 1857 he had been elected a foreign member of the Geological Society of London, and a few weeks before his death he had been made professor of palaeontology at the museum of the Jardin des Plantes. He died at Séissan. He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1869.

title: Édouard Lartet


text:
The Stepmother's Tragedy

The Stepmother's Tragedy is a play written by Henry Chettle and Thomas Dekker. It is mentioned in Philip Henslowe's diary in August 1599. No extant copies of the play are known.

title: The Stepmother's Tragedy


text:
Lake Athabasca

Lake Athabasca (French: lac Athabasca; from Woods Cree: ᐊᖬᐸᐢᑳᐤ aðapaskāw, "[where] there are plants one after another") is in the north-west corner of Saskatchewan and the north-east corner of Alberta between 58° and 60° N in Canada. The lake is 26% in Alberta and 74% in Saskatchewan.

The lake is fed by the Athabasca River and other rivers, and its water flows northward via the Slave River to the Mackenzie River system, eventually reaching the Arctic Ocean.

History
The name in the Dene language originally referred only to the large delta formed by the confluence of the Athabasca River at the southwest corner of the lake. Prior to 1789, Sir Alexander Mackenzie explored the lake. In 1791, Philip Turnor, cartographer for the Hudson's Bay Company, wrote in his journal, "low swampy ground on the South side with a few willows growing upon it, from which the Lake in general takes its name Athapison in the Southern Cree tongue which signifies open country such as lakes with willows and grass growing about them". Peter Fidler originally recorded the name for the river in 1790 as the Great Arabuska. By 1801, the name had gained a closer spelling to the current name—Athapaskow Lake. By 1820, George Simpson referred to both the lake and the river as "Athabasca".

Geography and natural history
The lake covers 7850 km2, is 283 km long, has a maximum width of 50 km, and a maximum depth of 124 m, and holds 204 km3 of water, making it the largest and one of the deepest lakes in both Alberta and Saskatchewan (nearby Tazin Lake is deeper), and the eighth largest in Canada. Water flows northward from the lake via the Slave River and Mackenzie River systems, eventually reaching the Arctic Ocean.

Fort Chipewyan, one of the oldest European settlements in Alberta, is on the western shore of the lake, where the Rivière des Rochers drains the lake and flows toward Slave River, beginning its northward journey along the eastern boundary of Wood Buffalo National Park. The eastern section of the lake narrows to a width of about 1 km (.6 miles) near the community of Fond du Lac on the northern shore then continues to its most easterly point at the mouth of the Fond du Lac River.

Fidler Point on the north shore of Lake Athabasca is named for Peter Fidler, a surveyor and map maker for the Hudson's Bay Company.

Along with other lakes such as the Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake, Lake Athabasca is a remnant of the vast Glacial Lake McConnell.

Tributaries
Tributaries of Lake Athabasca include (going clockwise); Fond du Lac River, Otherside River, Helmer Creek, MacFarlane River, Archibald River, William River, Ennuyeuse Creek, Dumville Creek, Debussac Creek, Jackfish Creek, Claussen Creek, Old Fort River, Crown Creek, Athabasca River, Colin River, Oldman River, Bulyea River, Grease River and Robillard River.

Development and environment
Uranium and gold mining along the northern shore resulted in the birth of Uranium City, Saskatchewan, which was home to mine workers and their families. While the last mine closed in the 1980s, the effects of mining operations had already heavily contaminated the northern shores. The large oil sands mining nearby is suspected to have added to the current pollution levels in the lake.

On October31, 2013, one of Obed Mountain coal mine's pits failed, and from between 600 million to a billion liters of slurry poured into the Plante and Apetowun Creeks. The plume of waste products then joined the Athabasca River, travelling downstream for a month before settling in Lake Athabasca near Fort Chipewyan, over 500 km away.

The Lake Athabasca Sand Dunes, the largest active sand dunes in the world north of 58°, are adjacent to the southern shore. The dunes were designated a "Provincial Wilderness Park" in 1992.

Lake Athabasca contains 23 species of fish, with a world record lake trout of 46.3 kg caught from its depths in 1961 by means of a gillnet. Other fish species include walleye, yellow perch, northern pike, goldeye, lake whitefish, cisco, Arctic grayling, burbot, white sucker and longnose sucker.

title: Lake Athabasca


text:
Patient Grissel

Patient Grissel is a play by Thomas Dekker, Henry Chettle, and William Haughton, first printed in 1603. It is mentioned in Henslowe's diary in the entry for December 1599.

The plot is a variant of the medieval tale of Patient Griselda, as told in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Boccaccio's Decameron.

The play contains Dekker's poem "Golden Slumbers" (which was adapted by Paul McCartney for the song of the same title on The Beatles' Abbey Road album):

 * Golden slumbers kiss your eyes,
 * Smiles awake you when you rise.
 * Sleep, pretty wantons; do not cry,
 * And I will sing a lullaby:
 * Rock them, rock them, lullaby.

 * Care is heavy, therefore sleep you;
 * You are care, and care must keep you;
 * Sleep, pretty wantons; do not cry,
 * And I will sing a lullaby:
 * Rock them, rock them, lullaby.

title: Patient Grissel


text:
Control reversal

Control reversal is an adverse effect on the controllability of aircraft. The flight controls reverse themselves in a way that is not intuitive, so pilots may not be aware of the situation; to roll to the left, they have to push the control stick to the right, the opposite of the normal direction.

Causes
There are several causes for this problem, pilot error, effects of high-speed flight, incorrectly connected controls and various coupling forces on the aircraft.

Equipment malfunction
Equipment failure may cause flight controls to behave unexpectedly, for example the possible rudder reversal experienced on board United Airlines Flight 585.

Pilot error
Pilot error is the most common cause of control reversal. In unusual attitudes it is not uncommon for the pilot to become disoriented and make incorrect control movements to regain level flight. This is particularly common when using helmet-mounted display systems, which introduce graphics that remain steady in the pilot's view, notably when using a particular form of attitude display known as an inside-out.

Incorrectly connected controls
Incorrectly connected controls are another common cause of this problem. It is a recurring problem after maintenance on aircraft, notably home built designs that are being flown for the first time after some minor work. It is not entirely uncommon on commercial aircraft, and has been the cause of several accidents including the crash of the Short Crusader before the 1927 Schneider Trophy and the 1947 death of Avro designer Roy Chadwick.

Wing twist
Another manifestation of the problem occurs when the amount of airflow over the wing becomes so great that the force generated by the ailerons is enough to twist the wing itself, due to insufficient torsional stiffness of the wing structure. For instance when the aileron is deflected upwards to make that wing move down, the wing twists in the opposite direction. The net result is that the airflow is directed down instead of up and the wing moves upward, opposite of what was expected. This form of control reversal is often lumped in with a number of "high speed" effects as compressibility.

Wright Brothers glider
The Wright Brothers suffered a form of control reversal, normally referred to as adverse yaw. In their 1902 glider they continued to encounter a problem where the glider would roll in one direction but yaw in the reverse direction, then spin into the ground. They eventually cured the problem by adding a movable rudder system, now found on nearly all aircraft.

The root cause of the problem was dynamic. Warping the wing did what was expected in terms of lift, thereby rolling the plane, but also had an effect on drag. The result was that the upward-moving wing was dragged backwards, yawing the glider. If this yaw was violent enough, the additional speed on the lower wing as it was driven forward would make it generate more lift, and reverse the direction of the roll.

Supermarine Spitfire
Due to the high speeds at which the Supermarine Spitfire could dive, this problem of aileron reversal became apparent when it was wished to increase the lateral maneuverability (rate of roll) by increasing the aileron area. The aircraft had a wing designed originally for an aileron reversal airspeed of 580 mph, and any attempt to increase the aileron area would have resulted in the wing twisting when the larger ailerons were applied at high speed, the aircraft then rolling in the opposite direction to that intended by the pilot. The problem of increasing the rate of roll was temporarily alleviated with the introduction of "clipped" wing tips (to reduce the aerodynamic load on the tip area, allowing larger ailerons to be used) until a new, stiffer wing could be incorporated. This new wing was introduced in the Mk 21 and had a theoretical aileron reversal speed of 825 mi/h.

Boeing B-47
The Boeing B-47 was speed limited at low altitudes because the large, flexible wings would cancel out the effect of the control surfaces under some circumstances.

Gossamer Condor
Control reversal also affected the Gossamer Condor, the Kremer Prize-winning human-powered airplane. When a wing warping mechanism was tried as a solution to a long-running turning problem, the effect was to turn the airplane in the opposite direction to that expected by conventional airplane knowledge. When the Condor was rigged "conventionally", the inside wing slowed down so much that it settled to the ground. By employing "backwards" wired wing-warping, the inside wingtip angle of attack was increased so that the added drag slowed that wing while the added lift allowed the airfoil to stay aloft at a slower speed. The tilted canard could then complete the turn.

title: Control reversal


text:
Niagara, Ontario

Niagara, Ontario may refer to:

 * Niagara-on-the-Lake, formerly called Niagara, a town that was at the mouth of the Niagara River
 * Niagara Falls, Ontario, a city located adjacent to Niagara Falls
 * Niagara Peninsula, a peninsula located between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie
 * Regional Municipality of Niagara, also called Niagara Region, a regional municipality located on the Niagara Peninsula

title: Niagara, Ontario


text:
User:Zocky/Table syntax

A simple syntax for simple tables
Here goes:

1) If a line starts and ends with a pipe, it's a table row. Cells are separated by pipes

 |a1|b1|c1| |a2|b2|c2|  displays

'''2) empty lines separate tables  |a1|b1|c1|

|a2|b2|c2|  displays

3) If a cell ends with more than one pipe, it's a column span:  |a1||c1| |a2|b2|c2| |a3|b3|| |a4| |c4|  displays

4) If a line starts with more than one pipe, it's continuing rowspans from above:

 |a1|b1|c1| |||c2| ||b3|c3| |||c4|  displays

5) treat  |a1 ||b1 |||c1|d1|e1|

same as

|a1|b1|c1|d1|e1|

This means that

 |mammalia ||carnivora |||canis ||||dog|house|woofs| ||||wolf|woods|yelps| |||felis ||||cat|house|meows| ||||lynx|woods|hisses| ||rodenta |||ratus ||||brown rat|sewer|squeaks| ||||black rat|middle ages|plagues|  produces

5) Headings are allowed, and are treated as header cells:

 |==Nowheria==|| |===Capital===|Backendsville| |===Surface area===|small| |===People===|many|  displays

Caveat

 * Only one paragraph per cell.
 * Row spans can be specified only for leftmost cells in the table

I don't think either is very important - most tables don't need multiple paragraphs per cell and row spans are much more useful on the left side than anywhere else. If any of it is needed, there's to fall back on.

Things to consider:
<tt> |left | center | right| </tt>
 * Use spacing to specify alignment.

 * Caption row, including alignment for the table.
 * maybe make it should look like section titles?

<tt>
 * =caption=|
 * a1|b1|c1|
 * a2|b2|c2|

</tt>

title: User:Zocky/Table syntax


text:
Paschal Beverly Randolph

Paschal Beverly Randolph (October 8, 1825 – July 29, 1875) was an American medical doctor, occultist, spiritualist, trance medium, and writer. He is notable as perhaps the first person to introduce the principles of erotic alchemy to North America, and, according to A. E. Waite, establishing the earliest known Rosicrucian order in the United States.

Early life
Born in New York City, Randolph grew up in New York City and was baptized at the Church of the Transfiguration, Episcopal (Manhattan). He was a free black man, a descendant of William Randolph. His father was a nephew of John Randolph of Roanoke and his mother was Flora Beverly, whom he later described as being of mixed English, French, German, Native American and African ancestry. His mother died when he was young, leaving him homeless and penniless; he ran away to sea in order to support himself. From his adolescence through to the age of twenty, he worked as a sailor.

As a teen and young man, Randolph traveled widely, due to his work aboard sailing vessels. He journeyed to England, through Europe, and as far east as Persia, where his interest in mysticism and the occult led him to study with local practitioners of folk magic and various religions. On these travels he also met and befriended occultists in England and Paris, France.

Career
Returning to New York City in September 1855, after "a long tour in Europe and Africa," he gave a public lecture to African Americans on the subject of emigrating to India. Randolph believed that "the Negro is destined to extinction" in the United States.

After leaving the sea, Randolph embarked upon a public career as a lecturer and writer. By his mid-twenties, he regularly appeared on stage as a trance medium and advertised his services as a spiritual practitioner in magazines associated with Spiritualism. Like many Spiritualists of his era, he lectured in favor of the abolition of slavery; after emancipation, he taught literacy to freed slaves in New Orleans.

In addition to his work as a trance medium, Randolph trained as a doctor of medicine and wrote and published both fictional and instructive books based on his theories of health, sexuality, Spiritualism and occultism. He wrote more than fifty works on magic and medicine, established an independent publishing company, and was an avid promoter of birth control during a time when it was largely against the law to mention this topic.

Having long used the pseudonym "The Rosicrucian" for his Spiritualist and occult writings, Randolph eventually founded the Fraternitas Rosae Crucis in 1858, and their first lodge in San Francisco in 1861, the oldest Rosicrucian organization in the United States. This group, still in existence, today avoids mention of Randolph's interest in sex magic, but his magico-sexual theories and techniques formed the basis of much of the teachings of another occult fraternity, the Hermetic Brotherhood of Luxor, although it is not clear that Randolph himself was ever personally associated with the Brotherhood.

Belief and teaching
Randolph described himself as a Rosicrucian. He had worked "largely alone", producing "his own synthesis" of "esoteric teachings".

Sex and gender
The manner in which Randolph incorporated sex into his occult system was considered uncharacteristically bold for the period in which he lived. He believed that sex magic could lead to increased health, love, the empowerment of women, and children of superior intelligence. In his more underground publications, he wrote that church and marriage were oppressive forces that could be overthrown with the power of love in a world-wide revolution.

Randolph held an unusually expansive view of gender identity, considering earthly gender to be "provisional," and referring to God as both male and female. In a book on love he wrote: I believe in love, all the way through. And while I live will help every man, woman, and the betweenities to win, obtain, intensify, deepen, purify, strengthen and keep it, and I will help all others to do the same. There! That’s me! I mean it!

In the spirit world that Randolph wrote of in elaborate detail, human bodies are filled with electric current instead of blood and saliva. People move by magnetism. They have art, schools, and cities as terrestrial humans do, but their lives are more enjoyable and sex is better. Spirit-world marriages "last just so long as the parties thereto are agreeably and mutually pleased with, and attracted, to each other, and no longer"

Pre-Adamism
Randolph was a believer in pre-Adamism (the belief that humans existed on earth before the biblical Adam) and wrote the book Pre-Adamite Man: demonstrating the existence of the human race upon the earth 100,000 thousand years ago! under the name of Griffin Lee in 1863. His book was a unique contribution towards pre-Adamism because it wasn't strictly based on biblical grounds. Randolph used a wide range of sources to write his book from many different world traditions, esoterica and ancient religions. Randolph traveled to many countries of the world where he wrote different parts of his book. In the book he claims that Adam was not the first man and that pre-Adamite men existed on all continents around the globe 35,000 years to 100,000 years ago. His book was different from many of the other writings from other pre-Adamite authors because in Randolph's book he claims the pre-Adamites were civilized men while other pre-Adamite authors argued that the pre-Adamites were beasts or hominids.

Personal life
A peripatetic man, he lived in many places, including New York State, New Orleans, San Francisco, and Toledo, Ohio. He married his first wife, Mary Jane, in 1850; she was African (or possibly mixed-race). Together, they had three children, only one of whom (Cora, born 1854) survived to adulthood. They owned a farm in Stockbridge, New York during the 1850s, but sold it in April 1860 for one dollar. They later lived in Utica, New York, where Mary Jane worked as "a healer and dispenser of Native american remedies," in addition to helping Paschal publish and sell several books. They divorced in January 1864.

Later in life he married his second wife, Kate Corson, an Irish-American woman, with whom he had one child, Osiris Budh (or Buddha) Randolph (1874–1929). Corson acted as a medium and a seer in collaboration with Randolph, and published several of his books, but their relationship appears to have been conflicted for its duration. He is reported to have discovered that she was having an affair shortly before his apparent death by suicide in 1875. After his death, Corson continued publishing his works under the Randolph Publishing Company imprint until the early 1900s.

Death
Randolph died in Toledo, Ohio, at the age of 49, under disputed circumstances. According to biographer Carl Edwin Lindgren, many questioned the newspaper article "By His Own Hand" that appeared in The Toledo Daily Blade. According to this article, Randolph had died from a self-inflicted wound to the head. However, many of his writings express his aversion to suicide. R. Swinburne Clymer, a later Supreme Master of the Fraternitas, stated that years after Randolph's demise, in a death-bed confession, a former friend of Randolph had conceded that in a state of jealousy and temporary insanity, he had killed Randolph. Lucus County Probate Court records list the death as accidental. Randolph was succeeded as Supreme Grand Master of the Fraternitas, and in other titles, by his chosen successor Freeman B. Dowd.

Influence and legacy
Randolph influenced both the Theosophical Society and—to a greater degree—the Hermetic Brotherhood of Luxor.

In 1994, the historian Joscelyn Godwin noted that Randolph had been largely neglected by historians of esotericism. In 1996, a biography was published, Paschal Beverly Randolph: A Nineteenth-Century Black American Spiritualist, Rosicrucian, and Sex Magician by John Patrick Deveney and Franklin Rosemont.

Published works
• 1854 Waa-gu-Mah

• 1859 Lara

• 1860 The Grand Secret

• 1860 The Unveiling

• 1861 ;

• 1861 Human Love and Dealing with the Dead

• 1863 Pre-Adamite Man

• 1863

• 1863

• 1866 A Sad Case; A Great Wrong!

• 1866 After death; or, Disembodied man, 1st edition

• 1867 "Clairvoyance, How to Produce It," Guide to Clairvoyance

• 1868

• 1870

• 1869 Love and Its Hidden History

• 1870 Love and the Master Passion

• 1872 The Evils of the Tobacco Habit

• 1873 The New Mola! The Secret of Mediumship

• 1874 Love, Woman, and Marriage

• 1874

• 1875 The Book of the Triplicate Order

• Magia Sexualis: Sexual Practices for Magical Power (published posthumously)

Randolph also edited the Leader (Boston) and the Messenger of Light (New York) between 1852 and 1861 and wrote for the Journal of Progress and Spiritual Telegraph.

Also attributed to Randolph is "Affectional Alchemy and How It Works" (c. 1870).

1 under the pseudonym "Griffin Lee".

2 as anonymous.

3 under the pseudonym "Count de St. Leon".

title: Paschal Beverly Randolph


text:
User:Deadbarnacle

I've started a few articles, worked on a few stubs, and have made lots of minor edits to balance content. WMMMMZ MMM7 MMMM7 XMMS rMMMM MMa   M MM                                                                   @MM     MW2MB MMi. WW MM                                                                 MM. WMMMM @MB .. MS;MM MMZ ,. M MMM MM: ,. MW8MM MM7 ,. MMWMM MMr ,. MMBMM SMW,   MMMMM MM,   MMMM7 MM. MMMM MMS. MMMM MM    MMMM MMi   MMM@ WMM   MMM8 MM   MMMr ZM   MMM iMMMMMMMMrM2  MMM MMMa    iZM8   MMM MM@             XMM MMS     MMMMM@. ,MMMX, MMW ,  2M2M  SMMM  WMMMMMMMMZ: MM  .,  MM   M    M          0MMMMMMMMMMMr MM .,,, :M MMMM  ; M .,,,.X0;     ;28888XMMMMMMMMMMMMS WMMMM .,,,,  M  MMMX  MM   .,   0MMM2            r2Z2XSBMMMM: MMMMr ,,,,,. MM0X M :M  W    iMMMaMM .,,,,,,,           i@MMMa     ZMMMMM 2MMB .,,,,  MM8;,MMM. M. MM2   a .,,,. :8MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMSMMM8MMMMM XMM          XaX   M.  MMM   .,   .. ;MMMMMMM8Si. rMMMMMMBBWWBBWMr MM;,X;            MM;@M7  ,,,,,. rMMMM;           :   ZMZBBBBB0BBMW 0MMMMMMMMMMMMW MMMMM0M. .,,,,  0MMB      .,,,,,,,,. @M ;MM@BBBB88MMM 8MMMMM   XMMMM  MZ  M  ,,. XMM:  .,,,,,,,,,,,,,,      iWZBBB@MM, iMB. M 0W ,. MMi  ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,. MMM@MMMMMM MM ,,,,,,,,,. M  a. MM  ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, SM  @MMZi MM .,,,,,,,,,, M. MB .,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,     MM                      MM  .,,,,,,,,,,, S;.,,  MM  ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.. ZMB MM  ,,,,,,,,,,,,. :.,. WM ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,  rMM MM ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,...,  M  ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,   MM                       WM  ,,.. ..,,,,,, BM ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,   MM                        XM;                    MM8 .,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,   MM                          MM  ,MMMMMMMMMMMMMMM0 7MM  ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,   MM                       i7: MM  M MMM8X:     .78MMMMMM ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,. rM@ MMMMMMMMMMWMM MM8              ., ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,. MMi MMWBM    M@WMMMS         .,,,,. .,,,,,,,,..         MM                      M@BBMM    2WBBBM .rr7;:. XMM MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMaa8WMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM, :;;:                       i7SXXr;i,.

title: User:Deadbarnacle


text:
Talk:Great Officers of State

Ceremonial status
Hmm...I'm not sure if you can say that Lord High Steward, Lord Great Chamberlain, and Earl Marshal were *always* ceremonial offices. Certainly the Lord High Steward at one time had power, as for instance when it was held by John of Gaunt at the beginning of the reign of Richard II. I'm not quite so sure about the other two (although certainly the Marshal had power in the time of William Marshal)... john 00:45, 18 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Scottish Officers
Is there anyone who knows about the Scottish Officers?

 * Very little. I know that the Earl of Erroll is hereditary Lord High Constable of Scotland.  That's about the extent of my knowledge.  Are there any other Scottish great officers about? john 22:28, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Are the Scottish Officers in order? I was under the impression the Lord Lyon was higher up in precedence. In addition, the Lord Clerk Register is held (I think) by the Earl of Wemyss and March. Is this an office held by virtue of the peerage or is it held separately?

Am I missing something? Were Prince Rupert of the Rhine and Prince George of Denmark really Great Officers of State? Because they are linked to Category:Great Officers of State, and i haven't found any evidence that they were really Great Officers of State... ugen64 22:24, Aug 9, 2004 (UTC)

 * Just saw this, but they were both Lord High Admiral. john k 20:08, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)

attained/attainted
Several places in the article it is said that so-and-so was "attained." I believe that should be "attainted". But I'm new to this whole Wikipedia thing, so I will do no more than make the suggestion.

 * Thanks! I've fixed them now, but feel free to be bold! Proteus (Talk) 18:14, 13 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Ireland?
Some information on the Great Officers of Ireland might be relevant as well? john k 00:49, 29 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Fox-Davies records the "Hereditary Marshal of Ireland (an office for long past in abeyance)" and "Hereditary Lord Great Seneschal of Ireland (the Earl of Shrewsbury)". The grant of the last to the Earls of Shrewsbury was made in 1445, and it had been held by others previously. Choess 02:00, July 29, 2005 (UTC)

Future-proofing
"...though the current Government has the posts reversed." I suggest this be changed to make it more resistant to the passage of time (e.g. "...from 199x...", which might in the future gain a corresponding "...to 20xx"). FredV 16:42, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

Mad props on the future-proofing. 98.248.67.211 (talk) 19:10, 10 November 2013 (UTC)

Catholics
I was told at university, none of these posts can be held by a catholic, does anyone know if this is true? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 164.36.44.4 (talk) 12:26, 11 June 2012 (UTC)

The Lord Chancellor (Tenure of Office and Discharge of Ecclesiastial Functions) Act 1974 declared "for the avoidance of doubt" that the office of Lord Chancellor was tenable by an adherent of the Roman Catholic faith.--George Burgess (talk) 21:22, 1 October 2012 (UTC)
 * The earl marshals (held by the Duke of Norfolk) have been Catholic.   Hot Stop     (Edits)   03:38, 2 October 2012 (UTC)

Jacob Rees-Mogg is a Roman Catholic so what you were told at university was or is wrong. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 185.45.52.143 (talk) 09:56, 4 November 2019 (UTC)

lord-chancellor
Kenneth Clarke is shown as occupying this office. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.189.103.145 (talk) 20:09, 16 September 2012 (UTC) Justice Ministers appear to take the title Lord Chancellor, despite not being Lords. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.138.7.142 (talk) 14:00, 1 October 2012 (UTC)

repetition
This part of a sentence occurs in the second paragraph and again after the first table. This seems awkward and redundant, as if the writer was cutting and pasting while semi-somnolent.

I will come back and fix this unless someone bolder and more experienced does first. <{: )}>98.248.67.211 (talk) 19:25, 10 November 2013 (UTC)
 * "Initially having household and governmental duties, some of these officers later split into two counterparts in Great Officer of the State and the royal household, were superseded by new officers or absorbed by existing officers. This was due to many of the officers becoming hereditary(. . .)"

External links modified
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Lord High Admiral of Scotland
I had inserted the Lord High Admiral in the list of Scottish Officers. The edit was reverted on the basis of "not in source". Page 396 of "Magnae Britanniae Notitia" states "But there were Officers of the Crown, such as the High-Chamberlain, Constable, Admiral and Marshal". I therefore propose to reinstate the LHA. List of Lord High Admirals of Scotland says "By the Act of Union 1707 all admiralty jurisdictions were placed under the Lord High Admiral of Great Britain or Commissioners of the Admiralty. Nevertheless, the Vice-Admiral of Scotland who received his commission from the Crown continued to appoint the Judge Admiral (until 1782) and Admirals-depute and to rank as an Officer of the Crown." It lists David Wemyss, 4th Earl of Wemyss as last Lord High Admiral 1706-1707, thereafter Vice-Admiral, and William Cathcart, 1st Earl Cathcart (died 1843) as last Vice-Admiral. The Earl of Wemyss' article in the 1st edtion of the DNB says that "In 1706 he had been appointed high admiral of Scotland, and this office having been abolished at the union, he was then constituted vice-admiral of Scotland". I therefore propose to record the office as 'abolished at the Union'. Alekksandr (talk) 20:20, 12 February 2018 (UTC)
 * The correct list is on page 399 per the text of the source not were it linked to (page 396). Page 399 lists, Lord President of the Council, Lord High Chamberlain, Lord High Steward, Lord High Constable and Lord Marshal. Spshu (talk) 22:45, 12 February 2018 (UTC)

Textual error in a Reference
The text quoted in Ref. 5 is at variance with the content of the source. [I cannot find out how to edit References.] DHW1947 (talk) 20:53, 15 January 2023 (UTC)
 * The text of a note or reference is found in a element at the point where the footnote is called (the place in the text with a clickable superscript number or superscript text). If a single note or reference is called at several places in the text, its value is defined only once, with a name=something argument within the starting tag. — Tonymec (talk) 12:00, 10 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Great Officers of State


text:
Treaty of Tripoli

The Treaty of Tripoli (Treaty of Peace and Friendship between the United States of America and the Bey and Subjects of Tripoli of Barbary) was signed in 1796. It was the first treaty between the United States and Tripoli (now Libya) to secure commercial shipping rights and protect American ships in the Mediterranean Sea from local Barbary pirates.

It was authored by Joel Barlow, an ardent Jeffersonian republican, and signed in Tripoli on November 4, 1796, and at Algiers (for a third-party witness) on January 3, 1797. It was ratified by the United States Senate unanimously without debate on June 7, 1797, taking effect June 10, 1797, with the signature of President John Adams. Succeeding Adams as president, Thomas Jefferson refused to continue paying Tripolitania the tributes stipulated by this treaty, partially leading to the First Barbary War. A superseding treaty, the Treaty of Peace and Amity, was signed on June 4, 1805.

The Treaty is often cited in discussions regarding the role of religion in United States government due to a clause in Article 11 of the English language version which states that "the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion." There is some dispute as to the origin of Article 11, as it does not appear to exist in the Arabic text of the treaty. However, the version containing Article 11 was the version ratified by the United States Senate and signed by the President.

Barbary pirates
For three centuries up to the time of the Treaty, the Mediterranean Sea lanes had been preyed on by the North African Muslim states of the Barbary Coast (Tripoli, Algiers, Morocco and Tunis) through privateering (government-sanctioned piracy). Hostages captured by the Barbary pirates were either ransomed or forced into slavery, contributing to the greater Ottoman slave trade (of which the Barbary states were a segment). Life for the captives often was harsh, especially for Christian captives, and many died from their treatment.

Before the American Revolution (1775–1783), the British colonies in North America were protected from the Barbary pirates by British warships of the Royal Navy and treaties. During the Revolution, the Kingdom of France formed an alliance with the former British colonies in 1778, now the proclaimed independent United States of America and assumed the responsibility of providing protection of U.S. merchant ships in the Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic Ocean against the Barbary pirates with the French Navy. After the Revolutionary War ended and the new United States won its independence with the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), it had to face the threat of the Barbary pirates on its own. Two American ships were captured by Algerian pirates in July 1785 and the survivors forced into slavery, their ransom set at $60,000. A rumor that Benjamin Franklin, who was en route from France to Philadelphia about that time, had been captured by Barbary pirates, caused considerable upset in the U.S. With the disbanding of the former Continental Navy and the selling of its last warship by the Confederation Congress in 1785, now without a standing navy, much less a navy capable of projecting force across an ocean, the U.S. was forced to pay tribute monies and goods to the Barbary nations for the security of its ships and the freedom of its captured citizens. As Lieutenant and consul William Eaton informed newly appointed Secretary of State John Marshall in 1800, "It is a maxim of the Barbary States, that 'The Christians who would be on good terms with them must fight well or pay well.'"

Soon after the formation of the United States, privateering in the Mediterranean Sea and the eastern Atlantic Ocean from the nations of the Barbary Coast prompted the U.S. to initiate a series of so-called peace treaties, collectively known as the Barbary Treaties. Individual treaties were negotiated with Morocco (1786), Algiers (1795), Tripoli (1797) and Tunis (1797), all of them more than once. The United States consul-general to the Barbary states of Algiers, Tripoli and Tunis was Joel Barlow, who dealt with the text of various treaties (including the Treaty of Tripoli) and supported U.S. diplomatic efforts on the Barbary Coast. Commissioner Plenipotentiary (and Minister to the Kingdom of Spain in Madrid) of the United States, David Humphreys, was given the right to establish a treaty with Tripoli and assigned Joel Barlow and Joseph Donaldson to broker it. It was Joel Barlow who certified the signatures on the Arabic original and the English copy provided to him. Later, Captain Richard O'Brien, USN established the original transport of the negotiated goods along with the Treaty, but it was the American Consul James Leander Cathcart who delivered the final requirements of payment for the treaty.

Signing and ratification
The first U.S. president, George Washington, appointed his old colleague David Humphreys as Commissioner Plenipotentiary on March 30, 1795, in order to negotiate a treaty with the Barbary powers. On February 10, 1796, Humphreys appointed Joel Barlow and Joseph Donaldson as "Junior Agents" to forge a "Treaty of Peace and Friendship". Under Humphreys' authority, the treaty was signed at Tripoli on November 4, 1796, and certified at Algiers on January 3, 1797. Humphreys reviewed the treaty and approved it in Lisbon on February 10, 1797.

The official treaty was in Arabic, and a translated version by Consul-General Barlow was ratified by the United States on June 10, 1797. Article 11 of the treaty was said to have not been part of the original Arabic version of the treaty; in its place is a letter from the Dey of Algiers to the Pasha of Tripoli. However, it is the English text which was ratified by Congress. Miller says, "the Barlow translation is that which was submitted to the Senate (American State Papers, Foreign Relations, II, 18–19) and which is printed in the Statutes at Large and in treaty collections generally; it is that English text which in the United States has always been deemed the text of the treaty."

The Treaty had spent seven months traveling from Tripoli to Algiers to Portugal and, finally westward across the North Atlantic Ocean, to the United States, and had been signed by officials at each stop along the way. There is no record of discussion or debate of the Treaty of Tripoli at the time that it was ratified. However, there is a statement made by President John Adams on the document that reads:

"Now be it known, That I John Adams, President of the United States of America, having seen and considered the said Treaty do, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, accept, ratify, and confirm the same, and every clause and article thereof. And to the End that the said Treaty may be observed, and performed with good Faith on the part of the United States, I have ordered the premises to be made public; And I do hereby enjoin and require all persons bearing office civil or military within the United States, and all other citizens or inhabitants thereof, faithfully to observe and fulfill the said Treaty and every clause and article thereof."

Official records show that after President John Adams sent the treaty to the U.S. Senate for ratification in May 1797, the entire treaty was read aloud on the Senate floor, and copies were printed for every Senator. A committee considered the treaty and recommended ratification. Twenty-three of the thirty-two sitting Senators were present for the June 7th vote which unanimously approved the ratification recommendation.

However, before anyone in the United States saw the Treaty, its required payments, in the form of goods and money, had been made in part. As Barlow declared: "The present writing done by our hand and delivered to the American Captain O'Brien makes known that he has delivered to us forty thousand Spanish dollars,-thirteen watches of gold, silver & pinsbach,-five rings, of which three of diamonds, one of saphire and one with a watch in it, One hundred & forty piques of cloth, and four caftans of brocade,-and these on account of the peace concluded with the Americans." However, this was an incomplete amount of goods stipulated under the treaty (according to the Pasha of Tripoli) and an additional $18,000 had to be paid by the American Consul James Leander Cathcart at his arrival on April 10, 1799.

It was not until these final goods were delivered that the Pasha of Tripoli recognized the Treaty as official. In Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America by David Hunter Miller, which is regarded as an authoritative collection of international agreements of the United States between 1776 and 1937, Hunter Miller describes, "While the original ratification remained in the hands of Cathcart ... it is possible that a copy thereof was delivered upon the settlement of April 10, 1799, and further possible that there was something almost in the nature of an exchange of ratifications of the treaty on or about April 10, 1799, the day of the agreed settlement." It is then that the Pasha declares in a Letter to John Adams on April 15, 1799, "Whereby we have consummated the Peace which shall, on our side, be inviolate, provided You are Willing to treat us as You do other Regencies, without any difference being made between Us. Which is the whole of what We have, at present, to say to You, wishing you at the same time the most unlimited prosperity."

Article 11
Article 11 has been and is a point of contention in popular culture disputes on the doctrine of separation of church and state as it applies to the founding principles of the United States. Some religious spokesmen claim that—despite unanimous ratification by the U.S. Senate of the text in English which contained —the page containing Article 11 is missing from the Arabic version of the treaty. The contemporaneous purpose of Article 11 was to make clear that the United States was a secular state and to reassure the Muslims that the agreement was not with an extension of earlier Christian nations that took part in the Crusades.

Article 11 reads:

"Art. 11. As the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion; as it has in itself no character of enmity against the laws, religion, or tranquility, of Mussulmen (Muslims); and as the said States never entered into any war or act of hostility against any Mahometan (Mohammedan) nation, it is declared by the parties that no pretext arising from religious opinions shall ever produce an interruption of the harmony existing between the two countries."

According to Frank Lambert, Professor of History at Purdue University, the assurances in Article 11 were "intended to allay the fears of the Muslim state by insisting that religion would not govern how the treaty was interpreted and enforced. John Adams and the Senate made clear that the pact was between two sovereign states, not between two religious powers." Lambert writes,

"By their actions, the Founding Fathers made clear that their primary concern was religious freedom, not the advancement of a state religion. Individuals, not the government, would define religious faith and practice in the United States. Thus the Founders ensured that in no official sense would America be a Christian Republic. Ten years after the Constitutional Convention ended its work, the country assured the world that the United States was a secular state, and that its negotiations would adhere to the rule of law, not the dictates of the Christian faith. The assurances were contained in the Treaty of Tripoli of 1797 and were intended to allay the fears of the Muslim state by insisting that religion would not govern how the treaty was interpreted and enforced. John Adams and the Senate made clear that the pact was between two sovereign states, not between two religious powers."

The treaty was printed in the Philadelphia Gazette and two New York papers, with only scant public dissent, most notably from William Cobbett.

Later dissent
A prominent member of Adams' cabinet, Secretary of War James McHenry, claimed that he protested the language of Article 11 before its ratification. He wrote to Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott Jr., September 26, 1800: "The Senate, my good friend, and I said so at the time, ought never to have ratified the treaty alluded to, with the declaration that 'the government of the United States, is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion.' What else is it founded on? This act always appeared to me like trampling upon the cross. I do not recollect that Barlow was even reprimanded for this outrage upon the government and religion."

Translation and Article 11

The translation of the Treaty of Tripoli by Barlow has been questioned, and it has been disputed whether Article 11 in the English version of the treaty ratified by the U.S. Senate corresponds to anything of the same purport in the Arabic version.

In 1931 Hunter Miller completed a commission by the United States government to analyze United States' treaties and to explain how they function and what they mean to the United States' legal position in relationship with the rest of the world. According to Hunter Miller's notes, "the Barlow translation is at best a poor attempt at a paraphrase or summary of the sense of the Arabic" and "Article 11 ... does not exist at all."

After comparing the United States' version by Barlow with the Arabic and the Italian version, Miller continues by claiming that:

"The Arabic text which is between Articles 10 and 12 is in form a letter, crude and flamboyant and withal quite unimportant, from the Dey of Algiers to the Pasha of Tripoli. How that script came to be written and to be regarded, as in the Barlow translation, as Article 11 of the treaty as there written, is a mystery and seemingly must remain so. Nothing in the diplomatic correspondence of the time throws any light whatever on the point."

From this, Miller concludes: "A further and perhaps equal mystery is the fact that since 1797 the Barlow translation has been trustfully and universally accepted as the just equivalent of the Arabic ... yet evidence of the erroneous character of the Barlow translation has been in the archives of the Department of State since perhaps 1800 or thereabouts ..." However, as Miller noted:

"It is to be remembered that the Barlow translation is that which was submitted to the Senate (American State Papers, Foreign Relations, II, 18–19) and which is printed in the Statutes at Large and in treaty collections generally; it is that English text which in the United States has always been deemed the text of the treaty."

However the Arabic and English texts differ, the Barlow translation (Article 11 included) was the text presented by the President and ratified unanimously in 1797 by the U.S. Senate following strict constitutional procedures. According to the American legal scholar Francis Wharton the original document was framed by an ex-Congregational preacher.

Barbary wars
The treaty was broken in 1801 by Yusuf Karamanli, the Pasha of Tripoli, over President Thomas Jefferson's refusal to submit to the Pasha's demands for increased payments.

Through subsequent battles, Tripoli eventually agreed to terms of peace with the United States. Tobias Lear negotiated a second "Treaty of Peace and Amity" with the Pasha Yusuf on June 4, 1805. To the dismay of many Americans, the new settlement included a ransom of $60,000 (equal to $ today) paid for the release of prisoners from the USS Philadelphia and several U.S. merchant ships. By 1807, Algiers had gone back to taking U.S. ships and seamen hostage. Distracted by the preludes to the War of 1812 and the war itself, the United States was unable to respond to the provocations until 1815, with the Second Barbary War, thereby concluding the First and the Second Barbary Wars (1800–1815).

title: Treaty of Tripoli


text:
Mugwumps

The Mugwumps were Republican political activists in the United States who were intensely opposed to political corruption. They were never formally organized. Typically, they switched parties from the Republican Party by supporting Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland in the presidential election of 1884. They switched because they rejected the long history of corruption associated with Republican candidate James G. Blaine. In a close election, the Mugwumps claimed they made the difference in New York State and swung the election to Cleveland. The jocular word "mugwump", noted as early as 1832, is from Algonquian mugquomp, "important person, kingpin" (from mugumquomp, "war leader"), implying that Mugwumps were "sanctimonious" or "holier-than-thou" in holding themselves aloof from party politics.

After the election, "mugwump" survived for more than a decade as an epithet for a party bolter in American politics. Many Mugwumps became Democrats or remained independents, and most continued to support reform well into the 20th century. During the Third Party System, party loyalty was in high regard, and independents were rare. Theodore Roosevelt stunned his upper-class New York City friends by supporting Blaine in 1884; by rejecting the Mugwumps, he kept alive his Republican Party leadership, clearing the way for his own political aspirations.

New England and the Northeast had been a stronghold of the Republican Party since the Civil War era, but the Mugwumps considered Blaine to be an untrustworthy and fraudulent candidate. Their idealism and reform sensibilities led them to oppose the corruption in the politics of the Gilded Age.

Patronage and politics

Political patronage, also known as the spoils system, was the issue that angered many reform-minded Republicans, leading them to reject Blaine's candidacy. In the spoils system, the winning candidate would dole out government positions to those who had supported his political party prior to the election. Although the Pendleton Act of 1883 established the United States Civil Service Commission and made competency and merit the base qualifications for government positions, its effective implementation was slow. Political affiliation continued to be the basis for appointment to many positions.

In the early 1880s, the issue of political patronage split the Republican Party down the middle for several consecutive sessions of Congress. The party was divided into two warring factions, each with creative names. The side that held the upper hand in numbers and popular support were the Half-Breeds, led by Senator James Blaine of Maine. The Half-Breeds supported civil service reform and often blocked legislation and political appointments put forth by their main congressional opponents, the Stalwarts, led by Roscoe Conkling of New York.

Blaine was from the reform wing of his own party, but the Mugwumps rejected his candidacy. This division among Republicans may have contributed to the victory in 1884 of Grover Cleveland, the first President elected from the Democratic party since the Civil War. In the period from 1874 to 1894, presidential elections were closely contested at the national level, but the states themselves were mostly dominated by a single party, with Democrats prevailing in the South and the Republicans in the Northeast. Although the defection of the Mugwumps may have helped Cleveland win in New York, one of the few closely contested states, historians attribute Cleveland's victory nationwide to the rising power of urban immigrant voters.

Policies and laws
In Massachusetts, Mugwumps were led by Richard Henry Dana III, (1851–1931), the editor of the Civil Service Record. They took credit for passing the state's 1884 civil service law, which was a stronger version of the federal Pendleton Act of 1883. Both laws were enacted to limit the effect of political patronage, thus disrupting the spoils system. The goals were improved morality and increased efficiency. The 1884 law was also designed to contain the rising political power of the Irish Catholics.

James C. Carter (1827–1905) was a leading New York lawyer and an influential legal theorist among fellow Mugwumps. Carter distrusted politicians and elected officials. Instead he put his trust in disinterested experts, especially judges. He equated common law with custom, and his condemnation of legislation inconsistent with custom, reflected his Mugwumpism. He tried to synthesize traditional thinking with modernity. For example, Carter clung to support for active government intervention he learned from the antebellum Whigs, but he more and more embraced antigovernment positions typical of antebellum Jacksonians. He tried to synthesize traditional faith in timeless, objective moral principles with a more modern vision of evolving customary norms. Given growing problems of industrial urban society he saw the need for positive government but wanted judges to rule not politicians.

A new class of experts needed new modes of training, and those were provided by the new American graduate schools, built along German models. A leading organizer was the German-trained scholar Herbert Baxter Adams (1850–1901), head of the history and political science department at the Johns Hopkins University 1882–1901. He promoted mugwump reform at Hopkins and nationally. Under his direction, the faculty and advanced students worked for numerous reforms, including civil service reform in the Pendleton Act (1883), municipal reform with the New Charter of Baltimore (1895), the training of professional social workers, and efforts to solve labor unrest. Raymond Cunningham, argues that his reformism shows that the Mugwumps movement could attract affirmative and optimistic experts, rather than just suspicious or cautious patricians.

In Chicago the Mugwump reformers worked through the Citizens' Association of Chicago, the Chicago Civic Federation, and the Municipal Voters' League. They opposed corruption, government subsidies, high taxes, and public enterprise. However they also wanted government to solve the problems of the rapidly growing metropolis. This was only possible if the voters were better informed. The newspapers adopted Mugwumpery as a way of building support for municipal reform among working-class voters in the two decades after the 1871 fire. The key leader was Joseph Medill, owner and editor of the Chicago Tribune.

Historical appraisals
Several historians of the 1950s through 1970s portrayed the Mugwumps as members of an insecure elite, one that felt threatened by changes in American society. These historians often focused on the social background and status of their subjects and the narratives they have written share a common outlook.

Mugwumps tended to come from old Protestant families of New York and New England and often from inherited wealth. They belonged to or identified with the emerging business and professional elite and were often members of the most exclusive clubs. Yet they felt threatened by the rise of machine politics, one aspect of which was the spoils system; and by the rising power of both immigrants and of multi-millionaires in American society. They excelled as authors and essayists, yet their writings indicated their social position and class loyalties. In politics, they tended to be ineffectual and unsuccessful, unable and unwilling to operate effectively in a political environment where patronage was the norm.

In his 1998 work, historian David Tucker attempts to rehabilitate the Mugwumps. According to Tucker, the Mugwumps embodied the liberalism of the 19th century and their rejection by 20th-century historians, who embraced the government intervention of the New Deal and the Great Society, is not surprising. To Tucker, their eloquent writings speak for themselves and are testament to a high minded civic morality.

Etymology
Dictionaries report that "mugguomp" is an Algonquian word meaning "person of importance" or "war leader". The Indianapolis Sentinel pinned the moniker on the Independents in 1872, but it was Charles Anderson Dana, the colorful newspaperman and editor of the now-defunct New York Sun, who revived it in March 1884, after which it achieved far wider currency. Dana made the term plural and derided them as amateurs and public moralists.

During the 1884 campaign, they were often portrayed as "fence-sitters", with part of their body on the side of the Democrats and the other on the side of the Republicans. Their "mug" on one side of the fence, and their "wump" (comic mispronunciation of "rump") on the other. Angry Republicans like Roscoe Conkling sometimes hinted they were homosexual, calling them "man milliners".

The epithet "goody-goody" from the 1890s goo-goo, a corruption of "good government", was used in a similar derogatory manner. Whereas "mugwump" has become an obscure and almost forgotten political moniker, "goo-goo" was revived, especially in Chicago, by the political columns of Mike Royko.

Notable Mugwumps

 * Charles Francis Adams Jr., president of the Union Pacific Railroad and the American Historical Association
 * Henry Adams, author
 * Edward Atkinson, entrepreneur and business executive
 * Louis Brandeis, future Supreme Court Justice
 * Charles William Eliot, President of Harvard University
 * Josiah Willard Gibbs, professor of physics at Yale University
 * E.L. Godkin, editor of The Nation
 * Seth Low, Republican mayor of Brooklyn in 1884 who lost his party's support due to his backing Cleveland.
 * Joseph Medill, owner and editor of the Chicago Tribune.
 * Thomas Nast, political cartoonist
 * Carl Schurz, former Senator from Missouri and Secretary of the Interior as well as editor of the Saturday Evening Post
 * Moorfield Storey, lawyer and NAACP president from 1909 to 1915.
 * William Graham Sumner, social scientist, Yale University
 * Mark Twain, author self-identified as a Mugwump in his essay Christian Science
 * Horace White, editor of the Chicago Tribune

title: Mugwumps


text:
Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

Ernest I (Ernst Anton Karl Ludwig; 2 January 1784 – 29 January 1844) served as the last sovereign duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (as Ernest III) from 1806 to 1826 and the first sovereign duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha from 1826 to 1844. He was the father of Prince Albert, who was the husband of Queen Victoria. Ernest fought against Napoleon Bonaparte, and through construction projects and the establishment of a court theatre, he left a strong imprint on his residence town, Coburg.

Early life
Ernest was born on 2 January 1784. He was the eldest son of Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and Countess Augusta of Reuss-Ebersdorf. His youngest brother, Leopold, was later elected the first king of Belgium.

On 10 May 1803, aged 19, Ernest was proclaimed an adult because his father had become gravely ill, and he was required to take part in the government of the duchy. When his father died in 1806, he succeeded in the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld as Ernest III. However, he could not immediately take over the formal government of his lands, because the duchy was occupied by Napoleonic troops and was under French administration. The following year, after the Peace of Tilsit (1807), the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld was reunited (having previously been dissolved) and restored to Ernest. This occurred through Russian pressure, since his sister Juliane was married to the brother of the Russian Tsar.

Marriages and children
Ernest married Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg in Gotha on 31 July 1817. They had two children:
 * Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (21 June 1818 – 22 August 1893), who married Princess Alexandrine of Baden on 3 May 1842.
 * Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (26 August 1819 – 14 December 1861), who married Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom on 10 February 1840. They had nine children.

The marriage was unhappy because both husband and wife were promiscuous. As the biographer Lytton Strachey put it: "The ducal court was not noted for the strictness of its morals; the Duke was a man of gallantry, and the Duchess followed her husband's example. There were scandals: one of the Court Chamberlains, a charming and cultivated man of Jewish extraction, was talked of; at last there was a separation, followed by a divorce." Ernest and Louise were separated in 1824 and were officially divorced on 31 March 1826. As heirs to Coburg, the children remained with their father. Louise died in 1831.

In Coburg on 23 December 1832, Ernest married his niece Duchess Marie of Württemberg, the daughter of his sister Antoinette. They had no children. This marriage made Marie both Prince Albert's first cousin and his stepmother.

Ernest had three illegitimate children:
 * Berta Ernestine von Schauenstein (26 January 1817 – Coburg, 15 August 1896), born to Sophie Fermepin de Marteaux. She married her first cousin Eduard Edgar Schmidt-Löwe von Löwenfels, the illegitimate son of her father's sister, Juliane.
 * Ernst Albert and Robert Ferdinand, twins born in 1838 to Margaretha Braun. They were created Freiherren von Bruneck in 1856.

Estates
After 1813, Ernest was a Prussian general and participated in military actions against Napoleon. He fought in the battles of Lützen and Leipzig (1813), and drew in 1814 into the French fortress of Mainz. After the battle of Leipzig, he commanded the ''5. Armeekorps''.

After the defeat of Napoleon in the Battle of Waterloo, the Congress of Vienna on 9 June 1815 gave Ernest an area of 450 square kilometres with 25,000 inhabitants around the town of St. Wendel. Its area was somewhat augmented by the second Treaty of Paris. In 1816, this estate received the name of Principality of Lichtenberg. Ernest sold it to Prussia in 1834.

In 1825, Frederick IV, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, who was the uncle of Ernest's first wife Louise, died without an heir. This resulted in a rearrangement of the Ernestine duchies. It was only as a member of the Ernestine dynasty (and not as Louise's husband) that Ernest had a claim on the late duke's estates. However, he was at that time in the process of divorcing Louise, and the other branches used this as a leverage to drive a better bargain for themselves by insisting that he should not inherit Gotha. They reached a compromise on 12 November 1826: Ernest received Gotha, but had to cede Saalfeld to Saxe-Meiningen. He subsequently became "Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha". Although he had given a constitution to Coburg in 1821, he did not interfere in the system of government in Gotha.

At Coburg, Ernest was responsible for various construction projects, including the establishment of the Hoftheater in its new building. The Schlossplatz as it appears today is largely due to work under his rule. He is chiefly remembered for the economic, educational and constitutional development of his territories, and for the significant international position attained by the house of Coburg.

Death and burial
Ernest died on 29 January 1844 and was initially buried in the Morizkirche but later reinterred in the newly built mausoleum in .

Honours
He received the following awards: • Russian Empire:

• * Gold Sword for Bravery, in Diamonds, June 1807

• * Knight of St. George, 4th Class, 9 September 1813

• * Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky, in Diamonds, 1813

• * Knight of St. Andrew

• * Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class

•  Kingdom of Saxony:

• * Knight of the Rue Crown, 1810

• * Grand Cross of the Military Order of St. Henry, 1815

•  Austrian Empire: Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen, 1820

•  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the White Falcon, 6 January 1828

•    Ernestine duchies:

• * Joint Founder and Grand Master of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order, 25 December 1833

• * Grand Master of Order of Saint Joachim

• 🇧🇪 Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold, 15 July 1835

•  Kingdom of Portugal:

• * Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword, 9 December 1835

• * Grand Cross of the Royal Military Order of Our Lord Jesus Christ, 23 April 1836

•  undefined: Stranger Knight of the Garter, 16 July 1838

•  Kingdom of France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, May 1840

•  Baden:

• * Knight of the House Order of Fidelity, 1842

• * Grand Cross of the Zähringer Lion, 1842

•  Kingdom of Prussia:

• * Knight of the Black Eagle

• * Grand Cross of the Red Eagle

title: Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha