text:
User talk:Calvinchong

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them; *How to edit a page *How to write a great article *Naming conventions *Manual of Style If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Alexandros 16:08, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Regarding my page edits - i honestly do not know much on how to wiki-ify the pages, so please kindly help me in that :) - calvinchong

--bubu~ 16:17, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

Laser article
Thanks for leaving a note on my talk page. Seems to me that the point of the second paragraph in the Laser article is that although the word laser incorporates a reference to light in its acronym, in practice lasers are not limited to using visible light. And so it makes better sense for the fourth word of the paragraph to be light rather than laser. Unless you have some other interpretation, I think we should change it back. Grafen (talk) 17:31, 14 February 2008 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Calvinchong


text:
Cheongju

Cheongju is the capital and largest city of North Chungcheong Province in South Korea.

History
Cheongju has been an important provincial town since ancient times. In the Cheongju Mountains, particularly in the area where Sangdang Sanseong is located, ruins dating from the Old Stone Age to the Bronze Age have been discovered. Settlements associated with the Paleolithic Age have also been found in Cheongju, such as the Durubong Cave Site.

After the unification of the kingdoms by Shilla in 676, various parts of Korea, including Cheongju, began to adopt Buddhism. This was influenced by the Shilla culture's connection with the Silk Road, which facilitated the spread of Buddhism from Nepal across Northern China to the Korean Peninsula. During the Goryeo era, particularly during the reign of Gwangjong, several monuments related to Buddhism were created. Among them is Cheol Danggan, built in the year 962 in the center of the city near the remains of Yongdu Temple. Cheol Danggan is a flagpole used to hang the Dang flag, which is raised to pay tribute to Buddha. It was listed as a National Treasure in 1962 by the South Korean government. In the Joseon period, the Cheongju region began to adopt Confucianism as its main religion.

Throughout the history of Cheongju, various temples were established during different periods in the history of the Korean peninsula. Examples include the Buddhist Yonghwasa Temple, dating back to the Goryeo period, and the Bulguksa Temple, established in the 8th century during the Shilla Dynasty period. Cheongju temples were also significant in the advancement of Korean printing, including book printing. One of the important documents printed in Cheongju was done so at Heungdeok Temple during the Goryeo Dynasty, specifically in the year 1377.

One of the first schools established in North Chungcheong Province was founded in Cheongju City during 1896. During the Baekje Dynasty period, several tombs were built around the city, in addition to Joseon Dynasty period forts such as Sangdangsanseong, which served to connect the northern and southern provinces after the Japanese invasion of 1592.

In 1593, the Battle of Cheongju took place between Japanese forces and the Joseon kingdom that then ruled the Korean peninsula during the Hideyoshi's Invasions of Korea, in which more than 8,000 Korean warrior monks participated.

The government of the province relocated here from Chungju in 1908. The opening of the Chungbuk-line in 1926 sparked regional development. In 1946, Cheongju and Cheongwon-gun were separated, and in 1949, Cheongju was upgraded to Cheongju City. Afterwards, it went through the separation of administrative dong and their transfer to Cheongwon-gun, with 2 branch offices (East and West) established in July 1989 that were upgraded to Sangdang-gu and Heungdeok-gu in January.

Cheongju experienced one of the largest population growths in Korea, having almost quadrupled its population from 147,000 in 1970 to 582,158 in 2000.

Geography
Geum River goes through the center of Cheongju city. Additionally, the tributaries of Musim and Miho flow together in the northern part of the city. To the east and west, there are the mountains of Wuam and Bumo. Musimcheon River also goes through the middle of Cheongju city.

Climate
Cheongju is a temperate zone, so there are four seasons. The climate is a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dwa), but can be considered a borderline humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cwa) using the -3 C isotherm.

Administrative districts
From 1 July 2014, Cheongju and Cheongwon County unified, and administrative districts were changed to the following: Osong-eup, Gangnae-myeon, Oksan-myeon, Uncheon-dong, Sinbong-dong, Bokdae1-dong, Bokdae2-dong, Gakyeong-dong, Bongmyeong1-dong, Bongmyeong2-dong, Songjeong-dong, Gangseo1-dong, Gangseo2-dong, Ochang-eup Nami-myeon, Hyeondo-myeon, Sajik1-dong, Sajik2-dong, Sachang-dong, Mochooung-dong, Sugok1-dong, Sugok2-dong, Sannam-dong, Bunpyeong-dong, Seonghwa-dong, Geasin-dong, Jookrim-dong Nangseong-myeon, Miwon-myeon, Gaduk-myeon, Namil-myeon, Mooni-myeon, Joongang-dong, Seongan-dong, Top-dong, Deasung-dong, Yeongun-dong, Geumcheon-dong, Yongam-dong, Myeongam-dong, Sinsung-dong, Yongam1-dong, Yongam2-dong Nesoo-eup, Buki-myeon, Wooam-dong, Neduk1-dong, Neduk2-dong, Yoolang-dong, Sacheon-dong, Ogeunjang-dong, Ochang-eup
 * Heungdeok-gu West
 * Seowon-gu South
 * Sangdang-gu East
 * Cheongwon-gu North

Government and infrastructure
The headquarters of the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety are located in the Osong Health Technology Administration Complex.

Cultural properties

 * Sangdangsanseong (Sangdang Mountain Fortress) lies on the slopes of Mt. Uam within the city limits. The fortress is mainly a 3 to(-) wall that stretches over 4.2 km in circumference.  The present walls date to the 1716 restoration of the site.  Within the walls lies a small tourist village that has several restaurants.
 * Cheongju National Museum also lies near Mt. Uam, and houses several exhibits of cultural artifacts from the nearby area.
 * Heungdeoksa Temple Site is the home to the Early Printing Museum, and is to be the site of the printing of Jikji, the oldest existent book printed using movable metal type. The museum itself contains exhibits related to the art of printing through the ages.
 * Yongdusaji Cheoldanggan (The Iron Flagpole of the Yongdu Temple Site) is designated Korean National Treasure number 41, and is located near Lotte Department Store in downtown Cheongju. Made of twenty iron cylinders, the flagpole stands 13.1 m tall, and was formerly used to hang flags to honour the Buddha.
 * National Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art – Cheongju (MMCA Cheongju) which is scheduled to open in December 2018, will be the first museum in Korea to open its conservation center to the general public. Notably, MMCA Cheongju is being constructed within a renovated tobacco factory, which once played a major role in Korea's modern industry. The new building has been especially designed to use energy more efficiently and thus reduce greenhouse gas emissions. As such, the new museum will be a high-profile example of a project combining elements of urban revitalization and historical preservation.
 * Chojeonghaenggung (Chojeong Temporary Palace) is a temporary palace where King Sejong stayed for treatment of an eye disease. It is said that King Sejong completed the creation of Hangul here. This place was destroyed during the Joseon Dynasty, and restoration work began in December 2017, and construction was completed in December 2019. It opened in June 2020. Also, Chojeong Mineral Water produced near here is quite famous carbonated water. It is known that King Sejong also tried to treat an eye disease with carbonated water produced in Chojeong. Chojeonghaenggung is located in Naesu-eup, Cheongwon-gu.

Transport
Cheongju International Airport provides scheduled flights within Korea and to China. The main train station is located at Ogeunjang approximately 8 km north of the city hall. This station is on the Chungbuk Line. Cheongju Bus Terminal provides almost all of the bus lines to bus terminals located in other cities. Ticketing time is between 4:00 am and 11:40 pm. Cheongju Express Bus Terminal provides some bus lines for Seoul (Gangnam, Sangbong, South Seoul, East Seoul, Busan, East Deagu, Gwangju).

In 2023, the Cheongju tunnel flooded during the annual monsoon which trapped 15 vehicles and resulted in at least 7 deaths and 11 reported missing.

Education
Cheongju is the site of several tertiary institutions, including:

 * Cheongju National University of Education
 * Cheongju University
 * Chungbuk National University
 * Chung Cheong University
 * Korea Air Force Academy
 * Korea National University of Education
 * Seowon University

Festival
The Cheongju International Craft Biennale is usually held in September or October.

There is also the Osong Cosmetic and Beauty Expo.

Notable people from Cheongju

 * Cho Sung-dal, footballer.
 * Choi Eun-sil, basketball player.
 * Choi Ji-hyun, short track speed skater.
 * Choi Soon-ho, football manager and former professional football player.
 * Han Hyo-joo, actress.
 * Hwang Eun-bi (known as SinB), singer (Viviz).
 * Im Jin-ah (known as Nana), singer, actress and model (After School, Orange Caramel).
 * Ji Chang-min (known as Q), singer and dancer (The Boyz).
 * Ji Min-hyuk, actor.
 * Jun Hyo-seong, singer and actress (Secret).
 * Kim Ji-woo (known as Chuu), singer (Loona).
 * Kim Jung-eun (known as Kim Lip), singer-songwriter (Loona).
 * Kim Joo-young (known as Jooyoung), singer-songwriter.
 * Kim So-yeon (known as Kassy), singer and rapper.
 * C. S. Lee, actor and comedian.
 * Lee Jin-wook, actor.
 * Lee Na-eun, singer and actress (April).
 * Lee Seung-hee, ceramic artist.
 * Lee Yi-kyung, actor.
 * Moonbin, singer (Astro).
 * Moon Sua, singer (Billlie).
 * Na Young-seok, television producer.
 * Park Cho-rong, singer-songwriter, actress (Apink).
 * Shin Dong-woo (known as CNU), singer-songwriter, rapper and actor (B1A4).
 * Yoon Dae-woong (known as Bigman), beatboxer, singer-songwriter and composer.
 * Bae Ho-young (known as Hoyoung), singer and rapper (Verivery).
 * Wonstein, rapper and singer.
 * Yoo Hae-jin, actor.
 * Lee Si-young, actress.
 * Kim Kang-hoon, child actor.
 * Park Bo-young, Actress from nearby Jeungpyeong County but attended high school in Sangdang-gu.

title: Cheongju


text:
Jeanne Lapauze

Jeanne Lapauze, née Loiseau (1860–1920) was a French poet and novelist who used the pen name Daniel Lesueur.

Biography
She was born in the vicinity of Paris. Her volume of poems, Fleurs d'avril (1882), was crowned by the Académie française. She also wrote some powerful novels dealing with contemporary life.

Her poems were collected in 1882, Fleurs d'Avril; 1884, Sursum corda !, Great Prize by Académie française; and 1895, Rêves et Visions. She published in 1905 a book on the economic status of women: L'Evolution feminine; and in 1891-1893, a two volume translation of the works of Lord Byron, which was awarded another prize by the Académie.

Her Masque d'amour, a five-act play based on her novel (1904) of the same name, was produced at the Théâtre Sarah Bernhardt in 1905. She received the ribbon of the Legion of Honor in 1900 and 1913, and the Prix Vitet from the French Academy in 1905. She married in 1904 Henry Lapauze, a well-known writer on art.

Works

 * Le mariage de Gabrielle, 1882 (novel, édit. Calmann-Lévy), prix Montyon of the Académie françaiseRead online
 * Fleurs d’avril, poèmes, 1882 (poésies, edit. Lemerre), prix Montyon of the Académie française
 * L’amant de Geneviève, 1883 (novel, Calmann Lévy)
 * Marcelle, étude parisienne, 1885 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * "Sursum corda !" pièce de vers…, 1885 (édit. Lemerre) Grand prix de Poésie de l’Académie française
 * Un mystérieux amour, 1886 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Amour d’aujourd’hui, 1888 (novel, edit. Lemerre). Read online
 * Rêves et visions. Souvenirs ; Visions divines ; Visions antiques ; Sonnets philosophiques ; Échos et reflets ; Paroles d’amitié ; Paroles d’amour. 1889 (edit. Lemerre) Couronné par l’Académie française (prix Archon-Despérouses)
 * L’Auberge des Saules, 1890 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Névrosée, 1890 (novel, edit. Lemerre).Read online
 * Pour les pauvres, prologue dit par Mlle Rachel Boyer… sous la tente Willis, à la Ville-d’Avray le 23 juin 1889, 1890
 * Une vie tragique, 1890 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Passion slave, 1892 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Justice de femme, 1893 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Haine d’amour, 1894 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * À force d’aimer, 1895 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Poésies de Daniel Lesueur : Visions divines ; les vrais dieux ; Visions antiques ; Sonnets philosophiques ; "Sursum corda !" Souvenirs ; Paroles d’amour, 1896 (edit. Lemerre)
 * Invincible charme, 1897 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Comédienne, 1898 (novel, edit. Lemerre), couronné par l'Académie française (prix de Jouy)
 * Lèvres closes, 1898 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Au-delà de l’amour, 1899 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * La Fleur de joie, 1900 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Lointaine Revanche, 1900 (2 volumes ), dont :
 * L’Or sanglant (1er vol.), 1900 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * La Fleur de Joie (2° vol.), 1900 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Fiancée d’outre-mer. Péril d’amour. Justice mondaine. Une mère, 1901 (edit. Lemerre)
 * L’Honneur d’une femme, 1901 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Mortel secret, 1902 (2 volumes), including:
 * Lys Royal (1er vol.), 1902 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Le Meurtre d’une âme (2° vol.), 1902 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Le Cœur chemine, 1903 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Le masque d'amour, 1904 (2 volumes), including:
 * Le Marquis de Valcor (1er vol.), 1904 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Madame de Ferneuse (2° vol.), 1904 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Le masque d’amour : play in 5 acts and 7 tableaux, 1905 (L'Illustration)
 * L’évolution féminine, ses résultats économiques, 1905 (edit. Lemerre)
 * La Force du passé, 1905 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Calvaire de femme, 1907 (2 volumes), including:
 * Fils de l’amant (1er vol.), 1907 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Madame l’ambassadrice (2° vol.), 1907 (novel, edit. Lemerre)
 * Nietzschéenne, 1907 (novel, edit. Plon).Read online
 * Le droit à la force, 1909 (novel)
 * Du sang dans les ténèbres, 1910 (2 volumes), including:
 * Flaviana princesse (1er vol.), 1910 (novel)
 * Chacune son rêve (2) vol.), 1910 (novel)
 * Une âme de vingt ans, 1911 (novel)
 * Au tournant des jours (Gilles de Claircœur), novel, 1913
 * Un foyer du soldat au front. Le foyer du soldat Mary Mather à l’armée du général Humbert, 1919 (monograph)
 * Traduction des Œuvres complètes de lord Byron. Traduction nouvelle, précédée d'un essai sur lord Byron (édit. Lemerre, 1891) Les 2 premiers volumes sont couronnés par l'Académie française (prix Langlois) ; un 3° et dernier volume sortira en 1905 (édit. Lemerre).
 * Pour bien tenir sa maison, 1911 (preface by Daniel Lesueur, collection Femina-Bibliothèque)

title: Jeanne Lapauze


text:
User talk:Rübezahl~enwiki

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them; *How to edit a page *How to write a great article *Naming conventions *Manual of Style If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Alexandros 16:20, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Is it me, or Cautious, who's not going with common sense on Talk:Gdansk? john 02:51, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Glad to see. I shall respond. john 21:31, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Thanks for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test worked, and has been removed or reverted. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. Thanks. moink 02:03, 24 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I deleted a page called Duchy de Wroclaw that contained only a question mark. You were listed as the only contributor to the page.  Or so I think; I might be confused.  :) moink 02:33, 24 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm very sorry that you considered my tone inappropriate. I was in no way intending to be condescending or sarcastic, and I'm having trouble seeing what I said that you interpreted that way.  If you're referring to my first post on your page, that's a standard message from Template:test.  I removed the page because it may have been confusing for a reader to stumble across, and because to me it was indistinguishable from a newbie test.  moink 02:59, 24 Mar 2004 (UTC)

making us into barbarians
Please consider http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Talk:Erika_Steinbach&diff=0&oldid=3681741 at Talk:Erika Steinbach --Ruhrjung 01:04, 22 May 2004 (UTC)

Naming wars
Since you were either directly or indirectly once involved into edits revolving around "proper" naming of cities like Gdansk/Danzig etc i thought you may be interested in my proposition in User:Szopen/NamingWar. I would want to create a way aimed at stopping the revert wars in future - through creating something like a msg (in see also list or header) explaining that's there is compromise and why, and by linking to the article explaining changes of the statuses of the Royal Prussia province (I would prefer it ot have it as separate article, not scatter it in plethora other articles). I would be happy to hear from you. Szopen 09:21, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Weichsel and other names
I hope you won't mind that, following your logic, I'll add Slavic names to all geographical locations in what is now Eastern part of Germany and Danube area. After all these areas belonged to the Slavs for several hundred years in the past... [[User:Halibutt|Halibutt]] 07:45, Sep 2, 2004 (UTC)

 * Vistula is still often mentioned as Weichsel in some sources, I’ve added the name only to avoid confusion. Prussia was an European superpower and Weichsel had special psychological and geo-strategical importance for it and later Germany. I hope your nationalism does not blind you. GeneralPatton 13:02, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I fully agree with you (although you'd still have to show me the English-speaking sources to call the Vistula with the German name). That's why I believe you will understand that the Danube (as the southern border of the Western Slavs, one of the most populous tribes in Europe) needs to be called with a Slavic name. Similarily the Berlin article should mention the former Slavic name Berolina since it was founded by Slavs. Also, Elbe and Spree articles should mention their Slavic names. The Slavs were an European superpower and Sprewa had its psychological and geo-political importance as the borders of the Slavic expansion and important trade routes. I hope your nationalism does not blind you and you will not change my entries. It's all about consistency, otherwise it's just German nationalism which should be avoided at wikipedia. [[User:Halibutt|Halibutt]] 13:44, Sep 2, 2004 (UTC)

I'm glad you guys found a convenient place to fight on my "Discussion" page. Please continue to barge in and wash your dirty laundry here. That's after all what this place is here for. If you could just start your comments with "To user Halibutt" and "To user GeneralPatton", I would greatly appreciate it. Thank you in advance for your cooperation, your host Rübezahl 16:45, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * We're not fighting at all, this is just a little exchange of arguments. Anyway, we ought to move this whole thing to Talk:Vistula. GeneralPatton 18:04, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * We're not fighting, it's just a friendly chatter, nothing more. Also, the discussion is located here since I started to comment your edits and then General Patton broke in. Hope you don't mind that, especially that there are no better places to comment on your edits than your talk page (at least I don't know such a place). However, I'll continue the talk with Patton on his talk page while replying to you here. Deal?

 * You wrote on my talk page that The Slavic names for German cities and rivers will not bother ma at all, it will greatly enrich the article and that's fine with me. The arguments behind that are absurd, but that doesn't matter much as long as we aggree on the principles - and we apparently do. As to the Slavic names - the easiest way to handle that is to use the names mentioned in the chronicles.

 * I'm still not sure how does the fact that Germany bordered Poland on some 30 kilometres long strip of Vistula 60 years ago is relevant to the river article (note that this river is there for some 25.000 years now). Just take a look at the map if you don't believe me (borderline with the Free City of Danzig was along the Nogat, not Vistula). Also, the only period when the German name was the "official name" I can think of is when the Polish language was banned - that is during less than six years of Nazi occupation. Other than that the German name was just one of the names used. During the 123 years of partitions the major part of the river was in Russia and for a large part of that period Polish language was also banned, so the Russian name should actually be more important than the German. And, historically speaking, the river was in Poland for some 800 years, then for some 120 years it was in four different countries (except for the Napoleonic period), then again for the last 80 years in Poland (except for the last 60 kilometres in the inter-war period).

 * If you read my posts more carefully you'd probably understood that I'm not one of those guys who want to erase all traces of German presence on present-day Polish territories. It's the contrary, I'm totally in favour of underlining the history of all the cities that are still considered German by many of your fellow countrymen. It's the history of those places that make them so special and everyone should be proud of it. However, we're not talking here of Gdansk or Stettin, it's a river we're talking about. It was never inhabitated by Germans, never built by Germans nor it was an important centre of German culture. It's a river and nothing more. Contrary to Gdansk or Szczecin articles, I believe that the German name simply does not belong here - just as the German name does not belong to the Somme River (if such a name existed). This is just my point of view and there's no hidden agenda behind that. Please, try to understand that some people might not agree with you because they have other views, not because they are stupid or nationalists.

 * However, I believe there's no sense in quarreling about that. The name is not used in English language (I've never seen it used in a contemporary English text), but if you believe that it should be mentioned - fine. However, for consistency reasons, we'd have to add all possible names to all possible articles. That's not what I like, but if the choice is either to surrender or be called a Polish nationalist - I prefer to give up.

 * Finally, I thought that I have admitted that you were right on the eagle some.. let me think... half a year ago..? I have no idea why do you revive that topic, I thought it was finished long ago. [[User:Halibutt|Halibutt]] 21:09, Sep 2, 2004 (UTC)

Habelschwerdt
I just thought you might be interested in my new Habelschwerdt article. Halibutt 20:54, Oct 12, 2004 (UTC)

Template:Polishcity
Could you take a look at Template talk:Polishcity? Halibutt 07:33, Jan 18, 2005 (UTC)

Voting Warschau/Warsaw
Hi. Since you have edited on pages with disputes about the names of German/polish locations, I would invite you to vote on Warsaw/Vote to settle the multi-year dozends-of-pages dispute about the naming of Warschau/Warsaw and other locations.--Schlesier 08:43, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

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Bad Landeck, Habelschwerdt, Glatz
Hey,

Couldn't helped noticing where you come from. I myself come from Bad Kudowa which is about 40 km west of Glatz. One of my co-workers comes from Ebersdorf bei Habelschwerdt. Nice to see someone from my region.

Norum 12:21, 24 April 2006

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

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Renamed
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title: User talk:Rübezahl~enwiki


text:
Memorization

Memorization (British English: memorisation) is the process of committing something to memory. It is a mental process undertaken in order to store in memory for later recall visual, auditory, or tactical information.

The scientific study of memory is part of cognitive neuroscience, an interdisciplinary link between cognitive psychology and neuroscience.

Development of memorization
Within the first three years of a child's life, they begin to show signs of memory that is later improved into their adolescent years. This includes short-term memory, long-term memory, working memory, and autobiographical memory. Memory is a fundamental capacity that plays a special role in social, emotional, and cognitive functioning. Problems with studying the development of memorization include having to use verbal response and confirmation.

Techniques

Some principles and techniques that have been used to assist in memorization include:
 * Rote learning, a learning technique which focuses not on understanding but on memorization by means of repetition. For example, if words are to be learned, they may be repeatedly spoken aloud or repeatedly written down. Specialized forms of rote learning have also been used in Vedic chant since as long as three thousand years ago, to preserve the intonation and lexical accuracy of very long texts, some with tens of thousands of verses.
 * Spaced repetition, a principle of committing information into long-term memory by means of increasing time intervals between subsequent review of the previously learned material. Spaced repetition exploits the psychological spacing effect. This technique is combined with active recall by spaced repetition software such as SuperMemo, Anki or Mnemosyne.
 * Active recall, a learning method that exploits the testing effect − the fact that memorization is more efficient when some time is devoted to actively retrieving the to-be-learned information through testing with proper feedback. Flashcards are a practical application of active recall. Another method for memorization is via the 'SURF' process (SURF is an acronym standing for: spotting 'Sonic patterns', 'Understanding' the text, 'Repetition/Recall/Rehearsal', 'Familiarity') which uses specific cyclic forms of active recall to, for instance, memorize poems for public performance.
 * A mnemonic, a type of memory aid. Mnemonics are often verbal, such as a very short poem or a special word used to help a person remember something, particularly lists, but they may be visual, kinesthetic or auditory. Mnemonics rely on associations between easy-to-remember constructs which can be related back to the data that is to be remembered. This is based on the principle that the human mind much more easily remembers spatial, personal, surprising, sexual or humorous or otherwise meaningful information than arbitrary sequences.
 * A mnemonic link system, a method of remembering lists, based on creating an association between the elements of that list. For example, if one wished to remember the list (dog, envelope, thirteen, yarn, window), one could create a link system, such as a story about a "dog stuck in an envelope, mailed to an unlucky black cat playing with yarn by the window". It is then argued that the story would be easier to remember than the list itself. Alternatively one could use visualisation, seeing in one's mind's eye an image that includes two elements in the list that are next to each other. One could imagine a dog inside a giant envelope, then visualise an unlucky black cat (or whatever that reminds the user 'thirteen') eating a huge envelope.  In order to access a certain element of the list, one needs to "traverse" the system (much in the same vein as a linked list), in order to get the element from the system.
 * A peg system, a technique for memorizing lists. It works by pre-memorizing a list of words that are easy to associate with the numbers they represent (1 to 10, 1-100, 1-1000, etc.). Those objects form the "pegs" of the system. Then in the future, to rapidly memorize a list of arbitrary objects, each one is associated with the appropriate peg. Generally, a peglist only has to be memorized one time, and can then be used over and over every time a list of items needs to be memorized. The peglists are generated from words that are easy to associate with the numbers (or letters). Peg lists created from letters of the alphabet or from rhymes are very simple to learn, but are limited in the number of pegs they can produce.
 * The Major system, a mnemonic technique used to aid in memorizing numbers which is also called the phonetic number system or phonetic mnemonic system. It works by converting numbers first into consonant sounds, then into words by adding vowels. The words can then be remembered more easily than the numbers, especially when using other mnemonic rules which call for the words to be visual and emotive.
 * The Method of loci or mind palace, a technique for memorizing practiced since classical antiquity which is a type of mnemonic link system based on places (loci, otherwise known as locations). It is often used where long lists of items need to be memorized. The technique was taught for many centuries as a part of the curriculum in schools, enabling an orator to easily remember a speech or students to easily remember many things at will.
 * The Art of memory, a group of mnemonic principles and techniques used to organize memory impressions, improve recall, and assist in the combination and 'invention' of ideas. This group of principles was usually associated with training in Rhetoric or Logic from the time of Ancient Greece, but variants of the art were employed in other contexts, particularly the religious and the magical. Techniques commonly employed in the art include the association of emotionally striking memory images within visualized locations, the chaining or association of groups of images, the association of images with schematic graphics or notae ("signs, markings, figures" in Latin), and the association of text with images. Any or all of these techniques were often used in combination with the contemplation or study of architecture, books, sculpture and painting, which were seen by practitioners of the art of memory as externalizations of internal memory images and/or organization.
 * It has been shown that sleep aids memory; this applies to naps as well.
 * Dramatizing the information that needs to be memorized will help you remember it more. If said in an exaggerated and dramatic manner it will most likely not be forgotten,
 * The "desirable difficulty" is a principle based on a theory which suggests that people remember things better when their brains have to overcome minor obstacles to catch the information. For example, the font Sans forgetica is based on this principle, according to a small study.

Improving
Although maintenance rehearsal (a method of learning through repetition, similar to rote learning) can be useful for memorizing information for a short period of time, studies have shown that elaborative rehearsal, which is a means of relating new material with old information in order to obtain a deeper understanding of the content, is a more efficient means of improving memory. This can be explained by the levels-of-processing model of memory which states that the more in-depth encoding a person undergoes while learning new material by associating it with memories already known to the person, the more likely they are to remember the information later.

Another useful way to improve memorization is to use chunking, a method in which a person categorizes the information they are trying to memorize into groups. For example, a person wishing to memorize a long sequence of numbers can break the sequence up into chunks of three, allowing them to remember more of the numbers. Similarly, this is how many in North America memorize telephone numbers, by breaking them up into the three sections: an area code, followed by a three-digit number and then a four-digit number. If a list of words is to be memorized, using chunking, the words could be broken up into groups based on their starting letter or based on their category (ex: Months of the year, types of food, etc.).

title: Memorization


text:
Panama Canal Railway

The Panama Canal Railway (PCR, Ferrocarril de Panamá) is a railway line linking the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean in Central America. The route stretches 47.6 mi across the Isthmus of Panama from Colón (Atlantic) to Balboa (Pacific, near Panama City). Because of the difficult physical conditions of the route and state of technology, the construction was renowned as an international engineering achievement, one that cost US$8 million and the lives of an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 workers. Opened in 1855, the railway preceded the Panama Canal by half a century; the railway was vital in assisting the construction of the canal in the early 1900s. With the opening of the canal, the railroad's route was changed as a result of the creation of Gatun Lake, which flooded part of the original route. Following World War II, the railroad's importance declined and much of it fell into a state of neglect until 1998, when a project to rebuild the railroad to haul intermodal traffic began; the new railroad opened in 2001.

The original line was built by the United States and the principal incentive was the vast increase in passenger and freight traffic from the Eastern United States to California following the 1849 California Gold Rush. The United States Congress had provided subsidies to companies to operate mail and passenger steamships on the coasts, and supported some funds for construction of the railroad, which began in 1850; the first revenue train ran over the full length on January 28, 1855. Referred to as an inter-oceanic railroad when it opened, it was later also described by some as representing a "transcontinental" railroad, despite traversing only the narrow isthmus connecting the North and South American continents. For a time the Panama Railroad also owned and operated ocean-going ships that provided mail and passenger service to a few major US East Coast and West Coast cities, respectively.

Known as the Panama Railroad Company when founded in the 19th century, today it is operated as Panama Canal Railway Company (reporting mark: PCRC). Since 1998 it has been jointly owned by then Kansas City Southern, now Canadian Pacific Kansas City, and Mi-Jack Products and leased to the government of Panama. The Panama Canal Railway is primarily dedicated to freight transport, but it has also operated a passenger service between Panama City and Colón.

History of earlier isthmus crossings and plans
The Spanish improved what they called the Camino Real (royal road), and later the Las Cruces trail, built and maintained for transportation of cargo and passengers across the Isthmus of Panama. These were the main routes across the isthmus for more than three centuries. By the 19th century businessmen thought it was time to develop a cheaper, safer, and faster alternative. Railroad technology had developed in the early 19th century. Given the cost and difficulty of constructing a canal with the available technology, a railway seemed the ideal solution.

President Bolívar of La Gran Colombia (Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, Colombia) commissioned a study into the possibility of building a railway from Chagres (on the Chagres River) to the town of Panama City. This study was carried out between 1827 and 1829, just as locomotives were being invented. Previously railroads used horses for motive power. The report stated that such a railway might be possible. However, the idea was shelved.

In 1836, United States President Andrew Jackson commissioned a study of proposed routes for inter-oceanic communication in order to protect the interests of Americans traveling between the oceans and those living in the developing Oregon Country of the Pacific Northwest. The United States acquired a franchise for a trans-Isthmian railroad; however, the scheme was disrupted by the economic downturn after the business panic of 1837, and came to nothing.

In 1838 a French company was given a concession for the construction of a road, rail, or canal route across the isthmus. An initial engineering study recommended a sea-level canal from Limón Bay to the bay of Boca del Monte, 12 mi west of Panama City. The proposed project collapsed for lack of technology and funding needed.

Following the United States' acquisition of Alta California in 1846, the Oregon Territory in 1848, and the Mexican–American War and with the prospective movement of many more settlers to and from the West Coast, the United States again turned its attention to securing a safe, reliable, and speedy link between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In 1846 the United States signed a treaty with Colombia (then the Republic of New Granada) by which the United States guaranteed Colombian sovereignty over Panama and was authorized to build a railroad or canal at the Panamanian isthmus, guaranteeing its open transit.

In 1847, the east–west transit across the isthmus was by native dugout canoe (and later by modified lifeboats) up the often dangerous Chagres River. Travelers had to go overland by mules for the final 20 mi over the old Spanish trails. The trails had fallen into serious disrepair after some 50 years of little or no maintenance; the 3 m of rain each year in the April–December rainy season also made the trails hard to maintain. A transit from the Atlantic to the Pacific or vice versa would usually take four to eight days by dugout canoe and mule. The transit was fraught with dangers, and travelers were subject to contracting tropical diseases along the way.

William H. Aspinwall, the man who had won the bid for the building and operating the Pacific mail steamships, conceived a plan to construct a railway across the isthmus. He and his partners created a company registered in New York, the Panama Railroad Company, raised $1,000,000 from the sale of stock, and hired companies to conduct engineering and route studies. Their venture happened to be well-timed, as the discovery of gold in California in January 1848 created a rush of emigrants wanting to cross the Isthmus of Panama to go to California.

The first steamship used on the Pacific run was the $200,000 three-mast, dual-paddle steamer SS California (1848). It was 203 ft in length, 33.5 ft in beam, and 20 ft deep, with a draft of 14 ft, and grossed 1,057 tons. When it sailed around the Cape Horn of South America, it was the first steamship on the west coast of South and North America. When it stopped at Panama City on January 17, 1849, it was besieged by about 700 desperate gold seekers. Eventually, it departed Panama City for California on January 31, 1849, with almost 400 passengers, and entered San Francisco Bay, a distance of about 3500 mi, on February 28, 1849 – 145 days after leaving New York. In San Francisco nearly all its crew except the captain deserted to seek their fortunes in the city and the gold fields. The ship was stranded for about four months until the company could buy a new supply of coal and hire a new – and much more expensive – crew.

The route between California and Panama was soon frequently traveled, as it provided one of the fastest links between San Francisco, California, and the East Coast cities, about 40 days' transit in total. Nearly all the gold that was shipped out of California went by the fast Panama route. Several new and larger paddle steamers were soon plying this new route.

Construction
In January 1849, Aspinwall hired Colonel George W. Hughes to lead a survey party and pick a proposed Panama Railroad roadbed to Panama City. The eventual survey turned out to be full of errors, omissions, and optimistic forecasts, which made it of little use. In April 1849, William Henry Aspinwall was chosen head of the Panama Railroad company, which was incorporated in the State of New York and initially raised $1,000,000 in capital.

In early 1850, George Law, owner of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, bought up the options of the land from the mouth of the Chagres River to the end of Navy Bay in order to force the directors of the new Panama Railroad to give him a position on the board of the company. Since there were no harbor facilities on the Atlantic side of the isthmus, they needed to create a town with docking facilities to unload their railroad supplies there. Refusing to allow Law onto the board, the directors decided to start building harbor facilities, an Atlantic terminus, and their railroad from the vacant site of Manzanillo Island. Starting in May 1850, what would become the city of Aspinwall (now Colón) was founded on 650 acre on the western end of Manzanillo Island, a treacherously marshy islet covered with mangrove trees.

The board solicited bids from construction companies in the United States to build the railroad. George Totten and John Trautwine initially submitted one of the winning bids. After surveying the railroad's proposed course and the probable construction difficulties and uncertainties, they withdrew their bid. Totten agreed to become the chief engineer on the railroad construction project, working for a salary instead of as a general contractor.

A new town on the Atlantic end of the railroad would have to be built on swampy ground that was often awash at high tide. The mangrove, palms, and poisonous manchineel (manzanilla) trees and other jungle vegetation had to be felled, and many of the buildings in the new town had to be built on stilts to keep them above the water. As more worker housing was needed, abandoned ships brought to the mouth of the Chagres River as part of the California Gold Rush were towed near the island and used for temporary housing. A steam-powered pile driver was brought from New York. Docks were constructed on pile-driven timbers, more of the island was stripped of vegetation, and elevated living spaces, docks, warehouses, and the like were constructed.

Before the railroad construction could get fully started, the island was connected to the Panamanian mainland by a causeway supported by pile-driven timbers. The first rolling stock consisting of a steam locomotive built by William Sellers & Co., and several gondola cars arrived in February 1851. The required steam locomotives, railroad cars, ties, rails, and other equipment were unloaded at the newly constructed docks and driven across the track laid across the about 200 yd causeway separating the island from the mainland. This causeway connected the Atlantic terminus to the railroad and allowed the ties, iron rails, steam engines, workers, backfill, and other construction material to be hauled onto the mainland. Later, passengers and freight would go the same way. As the railroad progressed, more of the island was filled in, and the causeway was expanded to permanently connect the island to the mainland; its island status disappeared and the town of Aspinwall was created.

In May 1850, the first preparations were begun on Manzanillo Island, and the start of the roadway was partially cleared of trees and jungle on the mainland. Quickly, the difficulty of the scheme became apparent. The initial 8 mi of the proposed route passed through a jungle of gelatinous swamps infested with alligators, the heat was stifling, mosquitoes and sandflies were everywhere, and deluges of up to 3 yd of rain for almost half the year required some workers to work in swamp water up to four feet deep. When they tried to build a railroad near Aspinwall, the swamps were apparently deep, often requiring over 200 feet (60 m) of gravel backfill to secure a roadbed. Fortunately, they had found a quarry near Porto Bello, Panama, so they could load sandstone onto barges and tow it to Aspinwall to get the backfill needed to build the roadbed.

Built as the steam revolution was just starting, the only power equipment was a steam-driven pile driver, steam tugs, and steam locomotives equipped with gondola and dump cars for carrying fill material; the rest of the work had to be done by laborers wielding machete, axe, pick, shovel, black powder, and mule cart. As more track was laid, the workers had to continually add backfill to the roadbed, as it continued to slowly sink into the swamp. Once about 2 mi of track were laid, the first solid ground was reached, at what was then called Monkey Hill (now Mount Hope). This was soon converted to a cemetery that accepted nearly continuous burials.

Cholera, yellow fever, and malaria took a deadly toll on workers. Despite the company's constant importation of high numbers of new workers, there were times when progress stalled for simple lack of workers. All supplies and nearly all foodstuffs had to be imported from thousands of miles away, greatly adding to the cost of construction. Laborers came from the United States, the Caribbean Islands, and as far away as Ireland, India, China, and Australia.

After almost 20 months of work, the Panama Railroad had laid about 8 mi of track and had spent about $1,000,000 to cross the swamps to Gatún. The project's fortunes turned in November 1851 – just as they were running out of the original $1,000,000 – when two large paddle steamers, the SS Georgia and the SS Philadelphia, with about 1,000 passengers, were forced to shelter in Limón Bay, Panama, owing to a hurricane in the Caribbean. Since the railroad's docks had been completed by this time and rail had been laid 8 mi up to Gatún on the Chagres River, it was possible to unload the ships' cargoes of emigrants and their luggage and transport them by rail, using flatcars and gondolas, for at least the first part of their journey up the Chagres River on their way to Panama City. Desperate to get off the ships and across the isthmus, the gold seekers paid $0.50 per mile and $3.00 per 100 pounds of luggage to be hauled to the end of the track. This infusion of money saved the company and made it possible to raise more capital to make it an ongoing moneymaker. The company's directors immediately ordered passenger cars, and the railway began passenger and freight operations with about 40 mi of track still to be laid. Each year it added more and more track and charged more for its services. This greatly boosted the value of the company's franchise, enabling it to sell more stock to finance the remainder of the project, which took more than $8,000,000 and cost 5,000 to 10,000 workers' lives to complete.

By July 1852, the company had finished 23 mi of track and reached the Chagres River, where an enormous bridge was to be built. The first wooden bridge failed when the Chagres rose by over 40 ft in a day and washed it away. Work was begun on a much higher, 300 ft, hefty iron bridge, which took more than a year to finish. In all, the company built more than 170 bridges and culverts.

In January 1854, excavation began at the summit of the Continental Divide at the Culebra Cut, where the earth had to be cut from 20 ft to 40 ft deep over a distance of about 2500 ft. Several months were spent digging. In March 1854, 700 Chinese laborers arrived to work for the Panama Railroad Company. Decades later, the Panama Canal project required years to cut through this area deeply enough for a canal. The road over the crest of the continental divide at Culebra was completed from the Atlantic side in January 1855; 37 miles (60 km) of track having been laid from Aspinwall (Colón). A second team, working under less harsh conditions with railroad track, ties, railroad cars, steam locomotives, and other supplies brought around Cape Horn by ship, completed its 11 mi of track from Panama City to the summit from the Pacific side of the isthmus at the same time.

On a rainy midnight on January 27, 1855, lit by sputtering whale oil lamps, the last rail was set in place on pine crossties. Chief engineer George Totten, in pouring rain with a nine-pound maul, drove the spike that completed the railroad. The next day the first locomotive with freight and passenger cars passed from sea to sea. The huge project was completed.

Upon completion the railroad stretched 47 miles, 3,020 feet (76 km), with a maximum grade of 60 feet to the mile (11.4 m/km, or 1.14%). The summit grade, located 37.38 mi from the Atlantic and 10.2 mi from the Pacific, was 258.64 ft above the assumed grade at the Atlantic terminus and 242.7 ft above that at the Pacific, being 263.9 ft above the mean tide of the Atlantic Ocean and the summit ridge 287 ft above the same level. The gauge was in 53 lb/yd, Ω-shaped rail. This gauge was that of the southern United States railway companies at the time. This gauge was converted to standard in the United States in May 1886 after the American Civil War, and remained in use in Panama until the railroad was rebuilt in 2001.

The next step was making things permanent and upgrading the railway. Hastily erected wooden bridges that quickly rotted in the tropical heat and often torrential rain had to be replaced with iron bridges. Wooden trestles had to be converted to gravel embankments before they rotted away. The original pine railroad ties lasted only about a year, and had to be replaced with ties made of lignum vitae, a wood so hard that they had to drill the ties before driving in the screw spikes. The line was eventually built as double track.

The railroad became one of the most profitable in the world. Upon completion, the railway was proclaimed an engineering marvel of the era. Until the opening of the Panama Canal, it carried the heaviest volume of freight per unit length of any railroad in the world. The existence of the railway was one of the keys to the selection of Panama as the site of the canal.

In 1881 the French Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interocéanique purchased controlling interest in the Panama Railway Company. In 1904, the United States government under Theodore Roosevelt purchased the railway from the French canal company. At the time, railway assets included some 75 mi of track, 35 locomotives, 30 passenger cars, and 900 freight cars. Much of this equipment was worn out or obsolete and had to be scrapped.

Financing

The railway cost some US$8 million to build – eight times the initial 1850 estimate – and presented considerable engineering challenges, passing over mountains and through swamps. Over 300 bridges and culverts needed to be built along the route.

It was built and financed by private companies from the United States. Among the key individuals in building the railway were William H. Aspinwall, David Hoadley, George Muirson Totten, and John Lloyd Stephens. The railroad was built and originally owned by a publicly traded corporation based in New York City, the Panama Rail Road Company, which was chartered by the State of New York on April 7, 1849, and the stock in which would eventually become some of the most highly valued of the era. The company bought exclusive rights from the government of Colombia (then known as Republic of New Granada, of which Panama was a part) to build the railroad across the isthmus.

The railway carried significant traffic even while it was under construction, with traffic carried by canoe and mules over the unfinished sections. This had not been originally intended, but people crossing the isthmus to California and returning east were eager to use such track as had been laid. When only 7 mi of track had been completed, the railway was doing a brisk business, charging $0.50 per mile per person for the train ride and increasing to $25 per person (first class) when the line was finally completed. By the time the line was officially completed and the first revenue train ran over the full length of its grade on January 28, 1855, more than one-third of its $8 million cost had already been paid for from fares and freight tariffs.

At $25, the first-class fare, one way, was one of the highest rates in existence for a 47 mi ride. High prices for carrying freight and passengers, despite very expensive ongoing maintenance and upgrades, made the railroad one of the most profitable in the world. Engineering and medical difficulties made the Panama Railway the most expensive railway, per unit length of track, built at the time.

Death toll
It is estimated that from 5,000 to 10,000 people may have died in the construction of the railroad, though the Panama Railway company kept no official count and the total may be higher or lower. Cholera, malaria, and yellow fever killed thousands of workers, who were from the United States, Europe, Colombia, China, the Caribbean islands, and also included some African slaves. Many of these workers had come to Panama to seek their fortune and had arrived with little or no identification. Many died with no known next of kin, nor permanent address, nor even a known surname.

Shipping lines
The Panama Railway operated a significant shipping line, connecting its service with New York and San Francisco. It ran a Central American line of steamships linking Nicaragua, Costa Rica, San Salvador, and Guatemala to Panama City. The shipping service was greatly expanded when canal construction began. Ships included the SS Salvador, SS Guatemala, SS Cristobal, and SS Ancon (1901), which became the first of the ships to cross the completed canal in 1914.

1904–12 rebuild: Panama Canal building and afterward
In 1904 the United States obtained consent from the newly-formed Panamanian government to build and operate a canal. The choice to use locks and an artificial lake (Gatun) meant that the old railway route from 1855 had to be changed because it followed the Chagres River valley, which would be flooded by the lake. Also, the railway would be extended and altered continuously for the building process. The stock of the Panama Railway Company, vital in canal construction, was entirely controlled by the United States Secretary of War.

Canal construction years
The construction of the Panama Canal was envisioned by John Frank Stevens, chief American railroad construction engineer, as a huge earthmoving project using the extended railroad system. Many tracks were added temporarily to transport the sand and rock from the excavation. Stevens used the biggest and most durable equipment available. The French equipment was nearly all judged obsolete, worn out, or too light duty, and nearly all their railroad equipment was not built for heavy-duty use. Some of this French equipment was melted down and converted into medals presented to men working on the Panama Canal.

Also, since the 1855 route followed the Chagres valley (which would become Gatun Lake), the route had to change. The new railroad, starting in 1904, had to be greatly upgraded with heavy-duty double-tracked rails over most of the line to accommodate all the new rolling stock of about 115 powerful locomotives, 2,300 dirt spoils railroad cars, and 102 railroad-mounted steam shovels brought in from the United States and elsewhere. This work was commenced by the first chief engineer, John Findley Wallace (1904–1905).

The steam shovels were some of the largest in the world when they were introduced. The new permanent railroad closely paralleled the canal where it could and was moved and reconstructed where it interfered with the canal work. In addition to moving and expanding the railroad where needed, considerable track additions, extensive machine shops and maintenance facilities were added, and other upgrades were made to the rail system. These improvements were started at about the same time the extensive mosquito abatement projects were undertaken, by Stevens, to make it safer to work in Panama. Once the mosquitoes were under control, much of the railroad was ready to go to work.

The railway greatly assisted the building of the Panama Canal. Besides hauling millions of tons of men, equipment, and supplies, the railroad did much more. Essentially all of the hundreds of millions of cubic yards of material removed from the required canal cuts were broken up by explosives, loaded by steam shovels, mounted on one set of railroad tracks, loaded onto rail cars, and hauled out by locomotives pulling the spoils cars running on parallel tracks.

Most of the cars carrying the dirt spoils were wooden flat cars lined with steel floors that used a crude but effective unloading device, the Lidgerwood system. The railroad cars had only one side, and steel aprons bridged the spaces between them. The rock and dirt were first blasted loose by explosives. Two sets of tracks were then built or moved up to where the loosened material lay. The steam shovels, moving on one set of tracks, picked up the loosened dirt and piled it on the flat cars traveling on a parallel set of tracks. The dirt was piled high against the one closed side of the car. The train moved forward until all cars were filled. A typical train had 20 dirt cars arranged as essentially one long car.

On arrival of the train at one of the approximately 60 different dumping grounds, a three-ton steel plow was put on the last car (or a car carrying the plow was attached as the last car) and a huge winch with a braided steel cable stretching the length of all cars was attached to the engine. The winch, powered by the train's steam engine, pulled the plow the length of the dirt loaded train by winching up the steel cable. The plow scraped the dirt off the railroad cars, allowing the entire trainload of dirt cars to be unloaded in ten minutes or less. The plow and winch were then detached for use on another train. Another plow, mounted on a steam engine, then plowed the dirt spoils away from the track.

When the fill got large enough, the track was relocated on top of the old fill to allow almost continuous unloading of new fill with minimal effort. When the steam shovels or dirt trains needed to move to a new section, techniques were developed by William Bierd, former head of the Panama Railroad, to lift large sections of track and their attached ties by steam-powered cranes and relocate them intact, without disassembling and rebuilding the track. A dozen men could move a mile of track a day – the work previously done by up to 600 men. This allowed the tracks used by both the steam shovels and dirt trains to be quickly moved to wherever they were needed. While constructing the Culebra Cut (Gaillard Cut), about 160 loaded dirt trains went out daily and returned empty.

The railroads, steam shovels, steam-powered cranes, rock crushers, cement mixers, dredges, and pneumatic power drills used to drill holes for explosives (about 30000000 lb were used) were some of the new construction equipment used to construct the canal. Nearly all this equipment was built by new, extensive machine-building technology developed and made in the United States by companies such as the Joshua Hendy Iron Works.

In addition operation of the canal used large refrigeration systems for making ice, large electrical motors to power the pumps and controls on the canal's locks, and other new technology. Extensive electrical generation and distribution systems were built, one of the first large-scale uses of large electrical motors. Electricity-powered donkey engines pulled the ships through the locks on railroad tracks laid parallel to the locks.

Permanent railroad
New technology not available in the 1850s allowed earth cuts and fills to be used on the new railroad that were many times larger than those done in the original 1851–1855 construction. The rebuilt, much improved, and often rerouted Panama Railway continued alongside the new canal and across Gatun Lake. The railroad was completed in its final configuration in 1912, two years before the canal, at a cost of $9 million—$1 million more than the original.

After World War II, few additional improvements were made to the Panama Railway. The United States returned control of the railroad to Panama in 1979, and conditions began to decline. By the 1990s, service had declined to the point that trains were limited to 10 mph, and the railroad was losing millions of dollars per month. Recognizing the railroad was operating far below its potential, in 1998 the government of Panama offered private companies a 50-year concession to take over and rebuild the railroad.

Except for dedicated railroad sections, such as the concrete factory, the broad gauge was used. This gauge was also used for the locomotives along the locks ("mules"). When the gauge for the railroad was changed in 2001, the mules kept the broad gauge.

2001 reconstruction
On June 19, 1998, the government of Panama turned over control of the railroad to the private Panama Canal Railway Company (PCRC), a joint venture between Kansas City Southern and gantry crane manufacturer Mi-Jack Products. The new company decided to rebuild the railroad line to handle container traffic parallel to the canal. The railroad projected it could move containers across Panama eight times as fast as the canal. Work on the new railroad started in January 2000, and was complete in July 2001 at a cost of $76 million. Passenger service began at that time, with freight service started a few months later. Two container handling terminals were created: on the Atlantic side, near Manzanillo International Terminal (Colón), and the Pacific Intermodal Terminal near Balboa Harbour. Passenger stations are in Colón (called Atlantic Passenger Station) and Corozal railway station, 6 km from Panama City.

Tracks
The renovation project involved the laying of new ballast, sleepers (ties), and rail. The track gauge was changed from to, which is the same "standard gauge" used on the North American rail network. The rails were replaced with 136 lb/yd continuously welded rail, purchased from Sydney Steel Corporation in Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada. Similarly, the crushed rock used for ballast was purchased from Martin Marietta Materials in Auld's Cove, Nova Scotia, Canada. Concrete sleepers (ties) were used to avoid termite and other insect damage. The route was realigned slightly, with a shortcut added around the Gatún locks. The line is now single track, with some strategically placed sections of double track (near Gamboa and Monte Lirio). The floor of the old Miraflores Tunnel was lowered to accommodate the extra height of double-stacked containers. A maintenance shop was built near Colón that can also receive the container-loading portal cranes, which are also owned and operated by PCRC.

Passenger service and freight capacity
, one passenger service per direction was offered every Monday thru Friday. The Corozal (Panama City)–Colón train has a traveling time of one hour.

While the main purpose of the train is as a commuter rail for those living in Panama City and working in Colon, it has also become a tourist excursion. As it was used during the construction of the canal, it runs parallel to the canal and offers views of the canal. The rail cars are classic in nature, with first-class amenities, bar service, with second-level viewing areas and outdoor viewing.

For freight services – that is, transporting containers across the isthmus – the initial capacity allows for 10 trains to run in each direction per 24 hours. With the current rail configuration, this could be extended to a maximum of 32 trains per 24 hours. A train is composed of double-stack bulkhead-type rail cars, typically containing 75 containers, a mix of 60 × 40' and 15 × 20' containers. The basic capacity is around 500,000 container moves a year (approximately 900,000 TEU), with a maximum capacity of 2 million TEU per year.

Freight trains are loaded and unloaded in the railway terminals by portal cranes, serving 3000 ft long tracks that can be expanded into six tracks. Containers are transported to and from nearby dock container stacks by truck on a dedicated road.

, the railroad was handling about 1,500 containers per day. The Panama Canal carries some 33,500 containers each day.

2020 Chagres River bridge damage
On June 23, 2020, the bulk carrier (freighter) "Bluebill" struck the railway bridge crossing the Chagres River, near Gamboa, severely damaging the bridge and severing the rail route approximately midway between the two terminals. The rail connection was reopened in late September 2020.

Original railroad
Many of the early locomotives were built by the Portland Company. All were five-foot gauge.

2001 rebuild
In the 2001 rebuild, most rolling stock was replaced, too, as the line was switched to standard gauge. The railroad has a fleet of several historic passenger cars in service, including PCRC #102, which is a vintage dome car first built by the Southern Pacific Railroad in 1955. The passenger cars are Clocker coaches built by the Budd Company and leased from Amtrak.

As of August 2009, the railway's motive power consists of ten former Amtrak F40PHs, five EMD SD60s and two EMD SD40-2s from the Kansas City Southern Railway, and one GP10. The locomotive numbering scheme begins with 1855, honoring the year in which the original Panama Railroad was completed.

The rebuilt railway's revenue freight rolling stock consists of 5-well, articulated, double-stack container railcars with bulkheads. The 265-foot-long car sets were built by Gunderson Inc. and each car set can hold ten 40 foot containers. The bottom level in each well can hold two 20 foot containers instead of one 40 foot unit. The intermodal terminals at each end can accommodate trains of 11 of these cars, which carry a total of up to 110 forty-foot equivalent units (FEUs).

title: Panama Canal Railway


text:
Desiré-Raoul Rochette

Desiré-Raoul Rochette (March 6, 1790 – July 3, 1854), was a French archaeologist.

Life and work
Born at Saint-Amand in the department of Cher, he received his education at Bourges. In 1810, he obtained a chair of grammar in the Lycée Louis-le-Grand. He was named professor of history in the College of Louis-le-Grand at Paris in 1813 and in the Sorbonne in 1817. His first major work was Histoire critique de l'établissement des colonies grecques (4 vols., 1815).

He was superintendent of antiquities at the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris from 1819 to 1848, and professor of archaeology at the Bibliothèque from 1826, during which time he produced his Cours d'archéologie (1828). In 1829 he published Monuments inédits, with Peintures inédites following in 1836 and Peintures de Pompei in 1844. He contributed to the Annali of the Roman Institute, the Journal des Savants and the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.

He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1838. At his death on 3 July 1854 Rochette was perpetual secretary of the Academy of Fine Arts and a corresponding member of most of the learned societies in Europe.

title: Desiré-Raoul Rochette


text:
Hypoallergenic

Hypoallergenic, meaning "below average" or "slightly" allergenic, is a term meaning that something (usually cosmetics, pets, textiles, food, etc.) causes fewer allergic reactions. The term was first used in 1953 in an advertising campaign for cosmetics or perhaps as early as 1940. A 2017 study of the top-selling skin moisturizers from Amazon, Target, and Walmart found 83% of those marketed as "hypoallergenic" contained at least one potentially allergenic chemical.

The term is also commonly applied to pet breeds which are claimed to produce fewer allergens than other breeds of the same species, due to some combination of their coat type, absence of fur, or absence of a gene that produces a certain protein. All breeds still produce allergens and a 2011 study failed to find a difference in allergen concentrations in homes with dogs of "hypoallergenic breeds" and other breeds.

Certifications and definitions
Some cosmetics are marketed as hypoallergenic to imply that their use is less likely to lead to an allergic reaction than other products. However, the term hypoallergenic is not regulated, and no research has been done showing that products labeled hypoallergenic are less problematic than any others. In 1975, the US Food and Drug Administration tried to regulate the term hypoallergenic, but the proposal was challenged by cosmetic companies Clinique and Almay in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia. In 1977, courts overruled the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's regulation of the use of the term hypoallergenic. In 2019, the European Union released a document about claims made concerning cosmetics, but this was issued as guidance, not a regulation.

In some countries, there are allergy interest groups that provide manufacturers with a certification procedure including tests that ensure a product is unlikely to cause an allergic reaction, but such products are usually described and labeled using other but similar terms. So far, public authorities in no country provide an official certification that an item must undergo before being described as hypoallergenic.

Hypoallergenic pets
Most dogs, cats, rabbits, and other fur-bearing animals can cause an allergic reaction. The proteins that cause allergies (mainly Fel d 1 in cats and Can f 1 in dogs) are found not only in the animals' fur or hair but also in saliva, urine, mucous, and hair roots and in the dander sloughed from the animals' skin. Thus, the widespread idea that "hypoallergenic pets" are those that have less hair or shed less is a myth. Furthermore, there is no evidence that certain pet breeds are less likely to trigger allergic reactions than other pet breeds. Despite that, because allergies are quite prevalent and a hypoallergenic pet would allow people with allergies to have a pet in their home, many breeds are marketed as hypoallergenic.

Dog breeds which have been claimed to be hypoallergenic include Yorkshire Terriers, Portuguese Water Dogs, Poodles and Poodle hybrids. Common rationalizations for these claims include that a breed does not shed its fur, sheds very little, or has fur with the same pH as human hair. Cat breeds such as the LaPerm, Sphynx, Peterbald, Devon Rex and Cornish Rex, which lack some or all of the normal layers in cats' fur, are claimed by some to be hypoallergenic. Siberian cats and Russian Blues are also believed by some to have such properties.

The Bashkir Curly is the only horse breed which has been claimed to be hypoallergenic, because it has a uniquely textured coat that lacks the protein (present in all other horse fur) believed to be the primary source of allergic reactions to equines.

Some species of pets such as the pig are claimed to be hypoallergenic as a whole, regardless of breed.

title: Hypoallergenic


text:
List of High Court judges of England and Wales

This is a list of justices of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales, the puisne judges of the court. They serve in addition to the High Court's ex officio members:
 * Lady Chief Justice
 * President of the King's Bench Division
 * President of the Family Division
 * Chancellor of the High Court
 * Senior Presiding Judge
 * Vice-President of the King's Bench Division

In addition to the justices, Masters of the High Court (King's Bench Masters, Chancery Masters, Taxing Masters/Costs Judges) and Insolvency and Companies Court Judges also form part of the judiciary of the High Court. Decisions of justices, masters and of Insolvency and Companies Court Judges are of equal standing, both types being judges of the High Court sitting at first instance.

Within months of appointment, male justices are made knights bachelor, and female justices are made Dame Commanders of the British Empire (DBE). In addition, all High Court judges are entitled to the judicial style Mr/Mrs Justice X'.

The number of justices of the High Court is limited to 108, and the Public Service Pensions and Judicial Offices Act 2022 mandates they retire at 75.

List of current judges
Category:Articles with hCards

Common Pleas Division (1875–81)
The Common Pleas Division was one of the original divisions of the High Court. It was created in 1875 through the merger of the Court of Common Pleas into the High Court. The five existing Justices of the Common Pleas were transferred to the new Common Pleas Division, and retained their previous titles until they left office. The Common Pleas Division was merged into the King's Bench Division in 1881, and all of its remaining Justices were transferred to the latter.

The head of the Division was the Chief Justice of the Common Pleas; the post was abolished along with the Common Pleas Division in 1881, and its powers vested in the Lord Chief Justice.

Exchequer Division (1875–81)
The Exchequer Division was one of the original divisions of the High Court. It was created in 1875 through the merger of the Court of Exchequer into the High Court. The six existing Barons of the Exchequer were transferred to the new Exchequer Division, and retained their previous titles until they left office. Sir Henry Hawkins, the first judge to be directly appointed to the Exchequer Division, tried in vain to obtain the title of Baron, but was styled a Judge of the High Court instead. The Exchequer Division was merged into the King's Bench Division in 1881, and all of its remaining Justices were transferred to the latter.

The head of the Division was the Chief Baron of the Exchequer; the post was abolished along with the Exchequer Division in 1881, and its powers vested in the Lord Chief Justice.