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Driebergen

Driebergen is a former village and municipality in the Dutch province of Utrecht. It is first mentioned as Thriberghen in 1159. The former municipality of Driebergen existed until 1931, when it merged with Rijsenburg, to create the new municipality of Driebergen-Rijsenburg. In later years, due to growth of the villages of Driebergen and Rijsenburg, the villages themselves also merged, to become the single town of Driebergen-Rijsenburg. Since 2006, Driebergen-Rijsenburg has been part of the new municipality of Utrechtse Heuvelrug.Driebergen-Rijsenburg also houses the Driebergen Forest and Rijsenburg Forest in which the renowned Heidetuin is also located.

Transport

 * Driebergen-Zeist railway station

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Driebergen


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User talk:Iwsmith

Hi :) If you want to change your user name, see Changing username. Thanks Dysprosia 13:00, 28 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Ian I suggest you move the content at User:Ian Walker-Smith back to your own user page, or change your user name formally using the link above. If you are logged in as User:Iwsmith and someone sends you a message at User talk:Ian Walker-Smith you will not get the message, for example. This sort of fragmentation isn't helpful. Please consider moving content back to your own user page at User:Iwsmith. Thanks Dysprosia 13:13, 28 Nov 2003 (UTC)

License tagging for Image:Oxford-brogues.jpg
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San Pedro Image
Can you have another look at the image you added to San_Pedro_de_Atacama for some reason its not showing up, although i can't see why (might be the hyphens in the name?). Zootalures 17:31, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Iwsmith


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OpenMP

OpenMP (Open Multi-Processing) is an application programming interface (API) that supports multi-platform shared-memory multiprocessing programming in C, C++, and Fortran, on many platforms, instruction-set architectures and operating systems, including Solaris, AIX, FreeBSD, HP-UX, Linux, macOS, and Windows. It consists of a set of compiler directives, library routines, and environment variables that influence run-time behavior.

OpenMP is managed by the nonprofit technology consortium OpenMP Architecture Review Board (or OpenMP ARB), jointly defined by a broad swath of leading computer hardware and software vendors, including Arm, AMD, IBM, Intel, Cray, HP, Fujitsu, Nvidia, NEC, Red Hat, Texas Instruments, and Oracle Corporation.

OpenMP uses a portable, scalable model that gives programmers a simple and flexible interface for developing parallel applications for platforms ranging from the standard desktop computer to the supercomputer.

An application built with the hybrid model of parallel programming can run on a computer cluster using both OpenMP and Message Passing Interface (MPI), such that OpenMP is used for parallelism within a (multi-core) node while MPI is used for parallelism between nodes. There have also been efforts to run OpenMP on software distributed shared memory systems, to translate OpenMP into MPI and to extend OpenMP for non-shared memory systems.

Design

OpenMP is an implementation of multithreading, a method of parallelizing whereby a primary thread (a series of instructions executed consecutively) forks a specified number of sub-threads and the system divides a task among them. The threads then run concurrently, with the runtime environment allocating threads to different processors.

The section of code that is meant to run in parallel is marked accordingly, with a compiler directive that will cause the threads to form before the section is executed. Each thread has an ID attached to it which can be obtained using a function (called ). The thread ID is an integer, and the primary thread has an ID of 0. After the execution of the parallelized code, the threads join back into the primary thread, which continues onward to the end of the program.

By default, each thread executes the parallelized section of code independently. Work-sharing constructs can be used to divide a task among the threads so that each thread executes its allocated part of the code. Both task parallelism and data parallelism can be achieved using OpenMP in this way.

The runtime environment allocates threads to processors depending on usage, machine load and other factors. The runtime environment can assign the number of threads based on environment variables, or the code can do so using functions. The OpenMP functions are included in a header file labelled omp.h in C/C++.

History
The OpenMP Architecture Review Board (ARB) published its first API specifications, OpenMP for Fortran 1.0, in October 1997. In October the following year they released the C/C++ standard. 2000 saw version 2.0 of the Fortran specifications with version 2.0 of the C/C++ specifications being released in 2002. Version 2.5 is a combined C/C++/Fortran specification that was released in 2005.

Up to version 2.0, OpenMP primarily specified ways to parallelize highly regular loops, as they occur in matrix-oriented numerical programming, where the number of iterations of the loop is known at entry time. This was recognized as a limitation, and various task parallel extensions were added to implementations. In 2005, an effort to standardize task parallelism was formed, which published a proposal in 2007, taking inspiration from task parallelism features in Cilk, X10 and Chapel.

Version 3.0 was released in May 2008. Included in the new features in 3.0 is the concept of tasks and the task construct, significantly broadening the scope of OpenMP beyond the parallel loop constructs that made up most of OpenMP 2.0.

Version 4.0 of the specification was released in July 2013. It adds or improves the following features: support for accelerators; atomics; error handling; thread affinity; tasking extensions; user defined reduction; SIMD support; Fortran 2003 support.

The current version is 5.2, released in November 2021.

Version 6.0 is due for release in 2024.

Note that not all compilers (and OSes) support the full set of features for the latest version/s.

Core elements

The core elements of OpenMP are the constructs for thread creation, workload distribution (work sharing), data-environment management, thread synchronization, user-level runtime routines and environment variables.

In C/C++, OpenMP uses #pragmas. The OpenMP specific pragmas are listed below.

Thread creation
The pragma omp parallel is used to fork additional threads to carry out the work enclosed in the construct in parallel. The original thread will be denoted as master thread with thread ID 0.

Example (C program): Display "Hello, world." using multiple threads.

Use flag -fopenmp to compile using GCC:

Output on a computer with two cores, and thus two threads:

However, the output may also be garbled because of the race condition caused from the two threads sharing the standard output. Whether  is atomic depends on the underlying implementation unlike C++11's , which is thread-safe by default.

Work-sharing constructs
Used to specify how to assign independent work to one or all of the threads. Example: initialize the value of a large array in parallel, using each thread to do part of the work
 * omp for or omp do: used to split up loop iterations among the threads, also called loop constructs.
 * sections: assigning consecutive but independent code blocks to different threads
 * single: specifying a code block that is executed by only one thread, a barrier is implied in the end
 * master: similar to single, but the code block will be executed by the master thread only and no barrier implied in the end.

This example is embarrassingly parallel, and depends only on the value of i. The OpenMP parallel for flag tells the OpenMP system to split this task among its working threads. The threads will each receive a unique and private version of the variable. For instance, with two worker threads, one thread might be handed a version of i that runs from 0 to 49999 while the second gets a version running from 50000 to 99999.

Variant directives
Variant directives are one of the major features introduced in OpenMP 5.0 specification to facilitate programmers to improve performance portability. They enable adaptation of OpenMP pragmas and user code at compile time. The specification defines traits to describe active OpenMP constructs, execution devices, and functionality provided by an implementation, context selectors based on the traits and user-defined conditions, and metadirective and declare directive directives for users to program the same code region with variant directives. The mechanism provided by the two variant directives for selecting variants is more convenient to use than the C/C++ preprocessing since it directly supports variant selection in OpenMP and allows an OpenMP compiler to analyze and determine the final directive from variants and context.
 * The metadirective is an executable directive that conditionally resolves to another directive at compile time by selecting from multiple directive variants based on traits that define an OpenMP condition or context.
 * The declare variant directive has similar functionality as metadirective but selects a function variant at the call-site based on context or user-defined conditions.

Clauses
Since OpenMP is a shared memory programming model, most variables in OpenMP code are visible to all threads by default. But sometimes private variables are necessary to avoid race conditions and there is a need to pass values between the sequential part and the parallel region (the code block executed in parallel), so data environment management is introduced as data sharing attribute clauses by appending them to the OpenMP directive. The different types of clauses are:

 * Data sharing attribute clauses:
 * shared: the data declared outside a parallel region is shared, which means visible and accessible by all threads simultaneously. By default, all variables in the work sharing region are shared except the loop iteration counter.
 * private: the data declared within a parallel region is private to each thread, which means each thread will have a local copy and use it as a temporary variable. A private variable is not initialized and the value is not maintained for use outside the parallel region. By default, the loop iteration counters in the OpenMP loop constructs are private.
 * default: allows the programmer to state that the default data scoping within a parallel region will be either shared, or none for C/C++, or shared, firstprivate, private, or none for Fortran. The none option forces the programmer to declare each variable in the parallel region using the data sharing attribute clauses.
 * firstprivate: like private except initialized to original value.
 * lastprivate: like private except original value is updated after construct.
 * reduction: a safe way of joining work from all threads after construct.

 * Synchronization clauses:
 * critical: the enclosed code block will be executed by only one thread at a time, and not simultaneously executed by multiple threads. It is often used to protect shared data from race conditions.
 * atomic: the memory update (write, or read-modify-write) in the next instruction will be performed atomically. It does not make the entire statement atomic; only the memory update is atomic. A compiler might use special hardware instructions for better performance than when using critical.
 * ordered: the structured block is executed in the order in which iterations would be executed in a sequential loop
 * barrier: each thread waits until all of the other threads of a team have reached this point. A work-sharing construct has an implicit barrier synchronization at the end.
 * nowait: specifies that threads completing assigned work can proceed without waiting for all threads in the team to finish. In the absence of this clause, threads encounter a barrier synchronization at the end of the work sharing construct.

 * Scheduling clauses:
 * schedule (type, chunk): This is useful if the work sharing construct is a do-loop or for-loop. The iterations in the work sharing construct are assigned to threads according to the scheduling method defined by this clause. The three types of scheduling are:
 * static: Here, all the threads are allocated iterations before they execute the loop iterations. The iterations are divided among threads equally by default. However, specifying an integer for the parameter chunk will allocate chunk number of contiguous iterations to a particular thread.
 * dynamic: Here, some of the iterations are allocated to a smaller number of threads. Once a particular thread finishes its allocated iteration, it returns to get another one from the iterations that are left. The parameter chunk defines the number of contiguous iterations that are allocated to a thread at a time.
 * guided: A large chunk of contiguous iterations are allocated to each thread dynamically (as above). The chunk size decreases exponentially with each successive allocation to a minimum size specified in the parameter chunk

 * IF control:
 * if: This will cause the threads to parallelize the task only if a condition is met. Otherwise the code block executes serially.

 * Initialization:
 * firstprivate: the data is private to each thread, but initialized using the value of the variable using the same name from the master thread.
 * lastprivate: the data is private to each thread. The value of this private data will be copied to a global variable using the same name outside the parallel region if current iteration is the last iteration in the parallelized loop. A variable can be both firstprivate and lastprivate.
 * threadprivate: The data is a global data, but it is private in each parallel region during the runtime. The difference between threadprivate and private is the global scope associated with threadprivate and the preserved value across parallel regions.

 * Data copying:
 * copyin: similar to firstprivate for private variables, threadprivate variables are not initialized, unless using copyin to pass the value from the corresponding global variables. No copyout is needed because the value of a threadprivate variable is maintained throughout the execution of the whole program.
 * copyprivate: used with single to support the copying of data values from private objects on one thread (the single thread) to the corresponding objects on other threads in the team.

 * Reduction:
 * reduction (operator | intrinsic : list): the variable has a local copy in each thread, but the values of the local copies will be summarized (reduced) into a global shared variable. This is very useful if a particular operation (specified in operator for this particular clause) on a variable runs iteratively, so that its value at a particular iteration depends on its value at a prior iteration. The steps that lead up to the operational increment are parallelized, but the threads updates the global variable in a thread safe manner. This would be required in parallelizing numerical integration of functions and differential equations, as a common example.

 * Others:
 * flush: The value of this variable is restored from the register to the memory for using this value outside of a parallel part
 * master: Executed only by the master thread (the thread which forked off all the others during the execution of the OpenMP directive). No implicit barrier; other team members (threads) not required to reach.

User-level runtime routines
Used to modify/check the number of threads, detect if the execution context is in a parallel region, how many processors in current system, set/unset locks, timing functions, etc

Environment variables
A method to alter the execution features of OpenMP applications. Used to control loop iterations scheduling, default number of threads, etc. For example, OMP_NUM_THREADS is used to specify number of threads for an application.

Implementations
OpenMP has been implemented in many commercial compilers. For instance, Visual C++ 2005, 2008, 2010, 2012 and 2013 support it (OpenMP 2.0, in Professional, Team System, Premium and Ultimate editions  ), as well as Intel Parallel Studio for various processors. Oracle Solaris Studio compilers and tools support the latest OpenMP specifications with productivity enhancements for Solaris OS (UltraSPARC and x86/x64) and Linux platforms. The Fortran, C and C++ compilers from The Portland Group also support OpenMP 2.5. GCC has also supported OpenMP since version 4.2.

Compilers with an implementation of OpenMP 3.0:
 * GCC 4.3.1
 * Mercurium compiler
 * Intel Fortran and C/C++ versions 11.0 and 11.1 compilers, Intel C/C++ and Fortran Composer XE 2011 and Intel Parallel Studio.
 * IBM XL compiler
 * Sun Studio 12 update 1 has a full implementation of OpenMP 3.0
 * Multi-Processor Computing

Several compilers support OpenMP 3.1:
 * GCC 4.7
 * Intel Fortran and C/C++ compilers 12.1
 * IBM XL C/C++ compilers for AIX and Linux, V13.1 & IBM XL Fortran compilers for AIX and Linux, V14.1
 * LLVM/Clang 3.7
 * Absoft Fortran Compilers v. 19 for Windows, Mac OS X and Linux

Compilers supporting OpenMP 4.0:
 * GCC 4.9.0 for C/C++, GCC 4.9.1 for Fortran
 * Intel Fortran and C/C++ compilers 15.0
 * IBM XL C/C++ for Linux, V13.1 (partial) & XL Fortran for Linux, V15.1 (partial)
 * LLVM/Clang 3.7 (partial)

Several Compilers supporting OpenMP 4.5: Partial support for OpenMP 5.0:
 * GCC 6 for C/C++
 * Intel Fortran and C/C++ compilers 17.0, 18.0, 19.0
 * LLVM/Clang 12

 * GCC 9 for C/C++
 * Intel Fortran and C/C++ compilers 19.1
 * LLVM/Clang 12

Auto-parallelizing compilers that generates source code annotated with OpenMP directives:
 * iPat/OMP
 * Parallware
 * PLUTO
 * ROSE (compiler framework)
 * S2P by KPIT Cummins Infosystems Ltd.
 * ComPar
 * PragFormer

Several profilers and debuggers expressly support OpenMP:

 * Intel VTune Profiler - a profiler for the x86 CPU and Xe GPU architectures
 * Intel Advisor - a design assistance and analysis tool for OpenMP and MPI codes
 * Allinea Distributed Debugging Tool (DDT) – debugger for OpenMP and MPI codes
 * Allinea MAP – profiler for OpenMP and MPI codes
 * TotalView - debugger from Rogue Wave Software for OpenMP, MPI and serial codes
 * ompP – profiler for OpenMP
 * VAMPIR – profiler for OpenMP and MPI code

Pros and cons
Pros:
 * Portable multithreading code (in C/C++ and other languages, one typically has to call platform-specific primitives in order to get multithreading).
 * Simple: need not deal with message passing as MPI does.
 * Data layout and decomposition is handled automatically by directives.
 * Scalability comparable to MPI on shared-memory systems.
 * Incremental parallelism: can work on one part of the program at one time, no dramatic change to code is needed.
 * Unified code for both serial and parallel applications: OpenMP constructs are treated as comments when sequential compilers are used.
 * Original (serial) code statements need not, in general, be modified when parallelized with OpenMP. This reduces the chance of inadvertently introducing bugs.
 * Both coarse-grained and fine-grained parallelism are possible.
 * In irregular multi-physics applications which do not adhere solely to the SPMD mode of computation, as encountered in tightly coupled fluid-particulate systems, the flexibility of OpenMP can have a big performance advantage over MPI.
 * Can be used on various accelerators such as GPGPU and FPGAs.

Cons:
 * Risk of introducing difficult to debug synchronization bugs and race conditions.
 * only runs efficiently in shared-memory multiprocessor platforms (see however Intel's Cluster OpenMP and other distributed shared memory platforms).
 * Requires a compiler that supports OpenMP.
 * Scalability is limited by memory architecture.
 * No support for compare-and-swap.
 * Reliable error handling is missing.
 * Lacks fine-grained mechanisms to control thread-processor mapping.
 * High chance of accidentally writing false sharing code.

Performance expectations
One might expect to get an N times speedup when running a program parallelized using OpenMP on a N processor platform. However, this seldom occurs for these reasons:
 * When a dependency exists, a process must wait until the data it depends on is computed.
 * When multiple processes share a non-parallel proof resource (like a file to write in), their requests are executed sequentially. Therefore, each thread must wait until the other thread releases the resource.
 * A large part of the program may not be parallelized by OpenMP, which means that the theoretical upper limit of speedup is limited according to Amdahl's law.
 * N processors in a symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) may have N times the computation power, but the memory bandwidth usually does not scale up N times. Quite often, the original memory path is shared by multiple processors and performance degradation may be observed when they compete for the shared memory bandwidth.
 * Many other common problems affecting the final speedup in parallel computing also apply to OpenMP, like load balancing and synchronization overhead.
 * Compiler optimisation may not be as effective when invoking OpenMP. This can commonly lead to a single-threaded OpenMP program running slower than the same code compiled without an OpenMP flag (which will be fully serial).

Thread affinity
Some vendors recommend setting the processor affinity on OpenMP threads to associate them with particular processor cores. This minimizes thread migration and context-switching cost among cores. It also improves the data locality and reduces the cache-coherency traffic among the cores (or processors).

Benchmarks
A variety of benchmarks has been developed to demonstrate the use of OpenMP, test its performance and evaluate correctness.

Simple examples
 * OmpSCR: OpenMP Source Code Repository

Performance benchmarks include: Correctness benchmarks include:
 * NAS Parallel Benchmark
 * Barcelona OpenMP Task Suite a collection of applications that allow to test OpenMP tasking implementations.
 * SPEC series
 * SPEC OMP 2012
 * The SPEC ACCEL benchmark suite testing OpenMP 4 target offloading API
 * The SPEChpc 2002 benchmark
 * CORAL benchmarks
 * Exascale Proxy Applications
 * Rodinia focusing on accelerators.
 * Problem Based Benchmark Suite
 * OpenMP Validation Suite
 * OpenMP Validation and Verification Testsuite
 * DataRaceBench is a benchmark suite designed to systematically and quantitatively evaluate the effectiveness of OpenMP data race detection tools.
 * AutoParBench is a benchmark suite to evaluate compilers and tools which can automatically insert OpenMP directives.

title: OpenMP


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Suceava

Suceava is a municipality and the namesake county seat town of Suceava County, situated in the historical regions of Bukovina and Moldavia, northeastern Romania and at the crossroads of Central and Eastern Europe respectively. It is the largest urban settlement of Suceava County, with a population of 84,308 inhabitants according to the 2021 Romanian census (postponed one year and conducted in 2022 because of the COVID-19 pandemic in Romania).

During the late Middle Ages, namely between 1388 and 1564 (or from the late 14th century to the late 16th century), this middle-sized town was the capital of the Principality of Moldavia. Later on, it became an important, strategically-located commercial town of the Habsburg monarchy, Austrian Empire, and Austria-Hungary (formerly belonging to Cisleithania or the Austrian part of the dual monarchy) on the border with the Romanian Old Kingdom.

Nowadays, the town is known for its reconstructed medieval seat fortress (further rebuilt through the EU-funded Regio programme) and its UNESCO-recognized World Heritage Site Saint John the New Monastery (part of the Churches of Moldavia), both local and national tourist attractions. In addition, the Administrative Palace, a historic and civic building dating to imperial Austrian times and designed by Viennese architect Peter Paul Brang, is located in the historic town centre along with the Roman Catholic Saint John of Nepomuk church (one building faces the other).

Suceava is the 22nd largest Romanian city, according to the 2021 census. The city's population has increased exponentially during the second half of the 20th century, from just over 10,000 people in the late 1940s to over 100,000 in the early 1990s.

Historical overview

During the late Middle Ages, the town of Suceava was the capital of the Principality of Moldavia, being strategically located at the crossroads of several trade routes linking Central Europe with Eastern Europe, and, more specifically for that period of time, the former Principality of Moldavia with the Kingdom of Poland and the Kingdom of Hungary respectively. The town of Suceava had also operated under the Magdeburg law back in the Middle Ages (Das Magdeburger Recht).

From 1775 to 1918, Suceava was under the administration of the Habsburg Empire, initially part of its Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, then gradually becoming the third most populous urban settlement of the Duchy of Bukovina, a constituent land of the Austrian Empire and subsequently a crown land within the Austrian part of Austria-Hungary. During this time, Suceava was an important, strategically-located commercial border town with the then Romanian Old Kingdom to the south-east (Vechiul Regat, Altreich).

Throughout the Austrian-ruled period of Bukovina, Suceava was also regarded as a 'miniature Austria' by native intellectual Rudolf Gassauer given its significant ethnic diversity (which, up until the early 20th century, included an overwhelming majority of ethnic Germans, more specifically Bukovina Germans, as well). An even older ethnic German presence in the town (as well as in the entire region of Bukovina) can be traced back to the end of the 14th century, more specifically during the Late Middle Ages (represented by a relatively small group of Transylvanian Saxons).

In the wake of World War I, after 1918, along with the rest of Bukovina, Suceava became part of the then newly enlarged Kingdom of Romania. After the end of World War II, the town slowly underwent a process of communist systematization which increased its population approximately tenfold throughout the decades prior to the 1989 Romanian Revolution. It became a municipality in 1968. Suceava is also crossed by the namesake river, a tributary of Siret, to the northwest, in the neighbourhood of Ițcani (Itzkany).

An important market town at the crossroads of several Central and Eastern European commercial routes since the Middle Ages (toward the Kingdom of Hungary to the west and the Kingdom of Poland to the north), Suceava is still an important commercial town nowadays. Furthermore, The CFR 500 highway crosses it, which is a railway junction and thus from here the railway line then branches off to Transylvania to the west.

Names and etymology

Moldavian chronicler Grigore Ureche presumed the name of the town came from the Hungarian Szűcsvár, which is combined of the words szűcs (i.e. furrier, skinner) and vár (i.e. castle). This was taken over by Dimitrie Cantemir, who, in his work Descriptio Moldaviae, gave the very same explanation of the origin of the town's name; however, there is neither historical nor vernacular evidence for this. According to another theory, the town bears the name of the river with the same name and that, in turn, is supposed to be of Ukrainian origin.

In Old German, the town was known as Sedschopff, in both contemporary German (i.e. Standard German/Hochdeutsch) and Old German sources it can be found under such variations as Sotschen,     Sutschawa, or Suczawa (most commonly), in Hungarian as Szucsáva  or Szőcsvásár (most likely according to his work Letopisețul Țării Moldovei până la Aron Vodă written in Romanian), in Polish as Suczawa, in Ukrainian as Сучава (Sučava), while in Yiddish as שאָץ.

Antiquity
The present-day territory of the town of Suceava and the adjacent surroundings were already inhabited since the Paleolithic period. Stemming from the late Antiquity, there are also traces of Dacian oppidum of the 2nd century. In stark contrast to several other historical regions of Romania (most notably Transylvania and Oltenia), Suceava (along with the entire region of Bukovina for that matter) was not conquered by the legions of the Roman Empire and consequently was one of the lands of the Free Dacian tribes during ancient times. Nonetheless, according to ancient Roman scholar Ptolemy, at that time in the region also dwelled two likely Celtic-speaking tribes, more specifically the Anartes and the Taurisci, as well as the Germanic Bastarnae, who have also been attested there. The presence of Celtic-speaking tribes in Bukovina is further attested during the late La Tène culture period through archaeological studies.

Middle Ages
After the fall of Rome and during the Migration Period, the predominantly Carpiani population was successively invaded by East Germanic peoples (such as the Goths or the Gepids), Huns, Slavs, Magyars (i.e. Hungarians), Pechenegs, and ultimately Cumans.

When the town was established and very shortly afterwards, its trade was also facilitated with other Central European towns and markets by a local community of German potters and merchants (quite probably Transylvanian Saxons from Bistrița/Bistritz area) who migrated here during the Ostsiedlung. At the same time, the town had operated under the Magdeburg law (a type of medieval German town law applied mostly in Eastern Europe, but also in several parts of Central Europe), as was the case of Câmpulung Moldovenesc (Kimpolung), Siret (Sereth), Baia (Baja, Stadt Molde, or Moldenmarkt), or Târgu Neamț (Niamtz), all which were also situated on the territory of the Principality of Moldavia (more specifically on its northern area or the highlands).

As it was the case of other medieval towns in which the Magdeburg law held sway, this particular German town law came hand in hand with the medieval municipal law (discernible with the foundation of Freiburg im Breisgau in the early 12th century) and the Sachsenspiegel (an important law book during the time of the Holy Roman Empire). The town of Suceava is referred to as Sotschen (an Old High German name) in one of the works of Abraham Ortelius on European geography for the 15th and 16th centuries.

During the late Middle Ages, the town of Suceava was the capital of the Principality of Moldavia and the main residence of the Moldavian princes for nearly two centuries (namely between 1388 and 1564). The town was the capital of the lands of Stephen the Great, one of the pivotal royal figures in Romanian history, who died in Suceava in 1504. During the rule of Alexandru Lăpușneanu, the seat was moved to Iași in 1565 and Suceava failed to become the capital again. Michael the Brave captured the town in 1600 during the Moldavian Magnate Wars as he became the ruler of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania, but he was defeated during the same year. In 1653, Suceava was sieged.

Habsburg rule and unification with the Kingdom of Romania

Together with the rest of Bukovina, Suceava was under the rule of the Habsburg monarchy (and, subsequently, the Austrian Empire as well as Austria-Hungary) from 1775 to 1918 (with the border of the Habsburg domains passing just south-east of the town).

During the late 19th century and early 20th century, the town was the third largest in the Duchy of Bukovina, after Cernăuți (Czernowitz or Tschernowitz) and Rădăuți (Radautz). Throughout this period of time, in the process of the Josephine colonization (Josephinisches siedlung), the Habsburgs and, later on, the Austrians, attracted many German-speaking settlers from abroad to settle down in Bukovina and, implicitly, in contemporary Suceava, then just a small market town. Over the passing of time, these newly arrived German settlers and their descendants became collectively known as Bukovina Germans. This community has since dwindled to a very small number.

Nonetheless, despite their current numbers, the Germans from Suceava are still culturally, socially, and politically active. Given its diverse ethnic background during the late Modern Age, Austrian architect Rudolf Gassauer stated that the town of Suceava could have well been perceived back then as a 'miniature Austria'. Additionally, at that time, on an administrative level, the town of Suceava was part of a namesake bezirk (i.e. district) with a total population of 66,826 inhabitants.

In 1918, the town of Suceava (as well as the entire region of Bukovina) became part of the enlarged and unified Kingdom of Romania (and what is known in Romanian historiography as Greater Romania), after an overwhelming vote of the German, Romanian, and Polish representatives of the General Congress of Bukovina. All 7 political representatives of the Bukovina Germans led by Alois Lebouton voted for the union of Bukovina with the Kingdom of Romania.

Kingdom of Romania, communist period, and 21st century history

Throughout the interwar period, Suceava underwent further infrastructural development within the then enlarged Kingdom of Romania (Regatul României). Moreover, from an administrative point of view, it had also briefly belonged to Ținutul Suceava (between 1938 and 1940), one of the 10 lands established during King Carol II's reign.

In addition, the town had previously had sizeable German, Jewish, and Polish ethnic communities which gradually dramatically dwindled throughout both the late 20th century and early 21st century. However, they are still present in smaller numbers nowadays and are socially, culturally, and politically active and mostly well integrated through their representative institutions.

Subsequently, from the 1950s onwards (concomitantly with the rise of communism in Romania), Suceava was heavily industrialized and a significant series of historical buildings from its historical centre (including the entire Franz Josef Straße) were demolished in order for Plattenbau-like blocks of flats to be constructed at the orders of the former communist officials.

Geography
Suceava is situated in the south-western part of the Suceava County, in a moderately hilly area, and is an important commercial town and regional transport hub with Ukraine to the north, on the one hand, and with Transylvania to the west on the other hand.

The town of Suceava covers two types of geographical areas, the hills (of which the highest is Zamca Hill) and the meadows of the Suceava river valley. The unique setting of the urban settlement includes two groves, Zamca and Șipote, which are both located within the town's limits.

Burdujeni, one of the town's neighbourhoods, is connected to the rest of the town by a prominent avenue, which makes the neighbourhood appear as a separate satellite town.

Suceava is also crossed by Mitocu and Dragomirna rivers in Ițcani.

Climate
The town of Suceava has a temperate continental climate which is typical to Central and Eastern Europe. In addition, the yearly weather can be described with short springs, usually moderately warm summers as well as prolonged autumns and winters.

Historical data for the town proper

The Austrian census of 1869, which recorded only population in absolute numbers (bereft of ethnicity or religion), indicated that then small town of Suceava had a total population of 7,450 permanent inhabitants. The Austrian census of 1880 indicated that the town of Suceava had a total population of 10,104, of which 5,862 were Germans (i.e. Bukovina Germans), 2,652 Romanians, 441 Ruthenians, and 784 inhabitants belonging to other ethnic groups.

The Austrian census of 1890 indicated that the town of Suceava had a total population of 10,221, of which 5,965 were Germans (i.e. Bukovina Germans), 2,417 Romanians, 644 Ruthenians, and 905 inhabitants belonging to other ethnic groups.

In 1900, when the town was still under Imperial Austrian administration, its total population amounted to 10,955 inhabitants. Of those, 61.5% declared their native language to be German (i.e. Hochdeutsch), followed by Romanian with 25.38%, and Ruthenian (or Ukrainian) with 5.46%. 20 years later, when the town had already switched to the Kingdom of Romania, the 1930 Romanian census recorded a population that amounted to c. 17,000 inhabitants with the following ethno-linguistic composition:

 * Romanians: 61.5%
 * Jews: 18.7%
 * Germans (i.e. Bukovina Germans) : 13.9%
 * Poles: 2.6%
 * Other ethnic groups (most notably Lipovans, Ukrainians, Hungarians, and Armenians): 3.3%

Another census was conducted in the Kingdom of Romania during World War II, namely in 1941, which recorded a total population of 13,744 inhabitants for the town of Suceava. The ethnic composition of the town at that time was the following one:

 * Romanians: 8,823 (or 64.19%)
 * Germans (i.e. Bukovina Germans) : 709 (5.15%)
 * Hungarians: 28 (or 0.20%)
 * Other ethnic groups or undeclared: 4,184 (or 30.44%)

Therefore, the then remaining German community of the town became the second-largest declared ethnic group even after the vast majority of the Bukovina Germans were forcefully resettled by the Nazi German authorities to former Nazi-occupied Poland (or the former General Governorate for the Occupied Polish Region) one year earlier in 1940, as part of the Heim ins Reich population transfer plan.

Shortly after the end of World War II, the ethnic minorities (mainly Germans and Jews but also Poles) considerably and gradually dwindled in the town of Suceava. However, as during communism, the overall population of the town raised (as it was the general case of other cities and towns in Romania as well as the country's total population given the pro-natalist policies of the Ceaușescu regime). After the 1989 Romanian Revolution (as it was the general case of the total population of the country), the population of Suceava dwindled once more given constant emigration both abroad or to other more developed towns and cities across Romania.

According to the 2002 Romanian census, the ethnic structure of the town of Suceava can be divided into distinct groups as follows:

 * Romanians: 98.17%
 * Roma (Gypsies): 0.48%
 * Germans (i.e. Bukovina Germans) : 0.35%
 * Ukrainians: 0.27%
 * Poles: 0.23%
 * Lipovans: 0.20%
 * Other ethnic groups (most notably Hungarians, Jews, and Armenians): 0.30%

According to the 2011 census data, Suceava had a population of 92,121, a decrease from the figure recorded at the 2002 census (106,138), making it the 23rd largest urban settlement in Romania at that time. Additionally, the ethnic composition was as follows:

 * Romanians: 98.3%
 * Roma (Gypsies): 0.7%
 * Ukrainians: 0.3%
 * Germans (i.e. Bukovina Germans) : 0.2%
 * Poles: 0.1%
 * Lipovans: 0.1%
 * Other ethnic groups (most notably Hungarians, Jews, and Armenians): 0.3%

Historical data for the Ițcani neighborhood

According to the 1930 Romanian census, the population of present-day Ițcani neighborhood, which, at the time, was considered a separate commune comprising two villages, namely Ițcanii Noi (Neu Itzkany) and Ițcani Gară (Itzkany Bahnhof), amounted to 2,422 residents. By ethnic criterion, those residents were:

 * Germans (i.e. Bukovina Germans): 45%
 * Romanians: 21.40%
 * Jews: 17.84%
 * Ukrainians: 6.77%
 * Poles: 5.24%
 * Russians (i.e. Lipovans): 2.15%
 * Hungarians: 1.53%
 * Other minor ethnic groups (forming the remainder of 0.07%)

In religious terms, 28.4% of the then residents were Roman Catholic, 22.7% were Evangelical Lutheran, 22.04% were Orthodox, 18.04% belonged to Judaism, 8.17% were Greek Catholic, and the rest either belonged to other smaller cults or were irreligious.

List of mayors (1990–present)
The mayors elected since Romania's transition back to democracy and a free market economy in the wake of the 1989 Romanian Revolution have been the following ones:

Notes:

1 Initially elected on the lists of the Democratic Agrarian Party of Romania (PDAR) but subsequently switched to the National Liberal Party (PNL).

2 Initially elected on the lists of the National Liberal Party (PNL), subsequently switched to the Democratic Liberal Party (PDL), then re-elected on the lists of the PNL

1992–1996
Following the 1992 Romanian local elections, the first such type of elections in post-1989 Romania, the town had a new local council.

1996–2000
The town's former local council for the period 1996–2000 had the following multi-party political composition, based on the results of the votes cast at the 1996 Romanian local elections:

2000–2004
The town's former local council for the period 2000–2004 had the following multi-party political composition, based on the results of the votes cast at the 2000 Romanian local elections:

2004–2008
The town's former local council for the period 2004–2008 had the following multi-party political composition, based on the results of the votes cast at the 2004 Romanian local elections:

2008–2012
The town's former local council for the period 2008–2012 had the following multi-party political composition, based on the results of the votes cast at the 2008 Romanian local elections:

2012–2016
The town's former local council for the period 2012–2016 had the following multi-party political composition, based on the results of the votes cast at the 2012 Romanian local elections:

2016–2020
The town's former local council for the period 2016–2020 had the following multi-party political composition, based on the results of the votes cast at the 2016 Romanian local elections:

2020–2024
The town's current local council has the following multi-party political composition, based on the results of the votes cast at the 2020 Romanian local elections:

The Seat Fortress of Suceava

Suceava is the place of several medieval sites that are closely linked to the history of the former Principality of Moldavia. By far the most significant (and at the same time the most well preserved one) is the Seat Fortress of Suceava (Cetatea de Scaun a Sucevei; Sotschen Festung) or Suceava Citadel, a medieval castle situated on the eastern edge of the contemporary town.

The fortress was built during the reign of Petru of Moldavia (1375–1391), also known as Petru Mușat. It was further expanded and strengthened during the reigns of Alexander I of Moldavia (1400–1432) and Stephen the Great (1457–1504). The medieval castle was part of the fortification system built in Moldavia during the late 14th century, given the emergence of the expansionist Ottoman danger. It even became strong enough to hold off an attack by Ottoman sultan Mehmed II (the conqueror of Constantinople) in 1476.

Suceava was the capital of the former Principality of Moldavia between 1388 and 1565. During this period, the castle served as princely residence. Alexandru Lăpușneanu had subsequently moved the Moldavian capital to Iași in 1565, so the castle lost its status. Afterwards, the citadel entered a period of steep decline. In 1675, during the reign of Dumitrașcu Cantacuzino, the fortress was destroyed. Then, for over two centuries, the castle was completely deserted.

During the late 19th century and early 20th century, under the patronage of Austrian architect Karl Adolf Romstorfer, a series of rehabilitation works and archaeological research had been conducted. Between 1961 and 1970 other restoration and consolidation processes were carried out. In 2013, a major reconstruction program was launched, aiming to return the castle to its original architecture and shape.

The Seat Fortress of Suceava consists of two concentric citadels. The inner citadel, known as fortul mușatin, has a rectangular shape and a patio (i.e. inner courtyard). It was built by Prince (Domnitor) Petru Mușat during the late 14th century. During the second half of the 15th century, Stephen the Great expanded the structure by adding another citadel that had a circular shape surrounding the old one.

After 1476, new fortifications were added to the outer citadel. Furthermore, the whole castle is encircled by a large defensive ditch. Today, the fortress is a landmark of Suceava and a noteworthy touristic attraction. Since 2011, it has also been used for hosting cultural events such as the rock music festival Bucovina Rock Castle. The festival attracted a series of renowned national and international bands and artists (e.g. guitarist Jan Akkerman, formerly of Dutch jazz fusion and progressive rock band Focus).

The Princely Court of Suceava

The Princely Court of Suceava (Curtea Domnească din Suceava) was built and developed along with the Seat Fortress. During the late 14th century, voivode Petru Mușat built the Princely House, a structure made in wood, which included a cellar. After 1400, Alexander I of Moldavia rebuilt the wooden house and added a surrounding stone wall and a complex of buildings also built in stone. During the second half of the 15th century, the Princely Court was severely affected by fire, the wooden house being completely burned out.

During his reign, Stephen the Great (1457–1504) restored the whole complex. A new Princely House was built, this time made of stone, and the other buildings were extended. Vasile Lupu (1634–1653) was the last ruler of Moldavia who took care of the Princely Court. During his time, the cellars were rehabilitated. The complex was abandoned at some point in the late 17th century, the buildings and the walls being gradually dismantled. Currently, on the site of the Princely Court there are only ruins and leftovers of the former buildings. The ruins of the former medieval court are located in the city center of Suceava. Between 14th and 17th centuries, in the proximity of the Princely Court there were built several churches that still exist today and attract tourists.

Șcheia Fortress
On the north-western edge of the contemporary city, on a hilltop, there is another medieval citadel known as Șcheia Fortress (Cetatea Șcheia) or the Western Fortress of Suceava (Cetatea de Apus a Sucevei). Unlike the Seat Fortress, Șcheia Fortress has left nothing but some ruined walls. The citadel proper was built during the reign of Petru Mușat during the late 14th century, but was short-lived, given that it was dismantled during the early 15th century, in the time of Alexander I of Moldavia. Șcheia Fortress, just like the main Seat Fortress, was part of the fortification system built in the medieval Principality of Moldavia during the late 14th century.

Museums

The first museum in Suceava was opened in 1900, by the initiative of some local intellectuals. In the beginning, the museum included only a few collections that were obtained as a result of the researches and excavation works at the Seat Fortress of Suceava. The museum was expanded and developed over time and became an important cultural institution, currently named Bukovina Museum (Muzeul Bucovinei). It has several departments and administers the medieval sites of the Seat Fortress, Șcheia Fortress and the Princely Court, local museums (Bukovina Village Museum, the history, ethnographic, and natural sciences museums), the memorial houses of Simion Florea Marian in Suceava, Nicolae Labiș in Mălini, Eusebiu Camilar in Udești, Ciprian Porumbescu in Stupca, and two traditional houses located in Solca and Bilca.

The oldest department of Bukovina Museum is the history museum, which was the backbone for creating a county museum at Suceava. This museum presents the local history of Suceava and Moldavia in the context of Romanian national history. The exhibits of the history museum and the offices of Bukovina Museum are located in a historic building, in the city center. The building, which hosted the prefecture of Suceava County during the interwar period, was built between 1902 and 1903. Since 1968, it houses the history museum. In 2014, the building and the museum entered an extensive program of modernization, rehabilitation, and expansion.

At the history museum there is a reconstitution of a scene from the former throne hall located in the Seat Fortress. The scene presents some notable people from the history of Moldavia, made in glass fiber: Stephen the Great (ruler of Moldavia), Maria Voichița (his third wife), Bogdan III the One-Eyed (his son and successor to the throne), officials of that time. The scene chosen to be reconstructed is an allotment of land for peasants. The reconstitution is based on medieval documents, frescoes, and archaeological researches. Furthermore, the history museum periodically organizes a wide range of cultural events, several of which also involve the local branch of the Democratic Forum of Germans in Romania (FDGR/DFDR). Furthermore, the local branch of the FDGR/DFDR (DFDR Buchenland) is also in charge of the ACI Bukowina Stiftung, a Romanian-German cultural foundation whose president is Josef-Otto Exner.

Bukovina Village Museum (Muzeul Satului Bucovinean) is an open-air museum that highlights the traditional cultural and architectural heritage of Bukovina region. It is located in the eastern part of Suceava, near the Seat Fortress. It was founded in the 1970s, but its major expansion and development took place after 1990. The museum is designed as a traditional village in Bukovina, containing houses and various objectives from the ethnographic areas of Rădăuți, Humor, Câmpulung Moldovenesc, Dorna, and Fălticeni.

The museum includes among others a water mill from Mănăstirea Humorului, a traditional blacksmith workshop, a pottery workshop from Marginea and one of the many old wooden churches in northern Moldavia: Church of the Ascension, a Romanian Orthodox wooden church built in 1783 in Vama, a village in Suceava County. The bell tower is also made in wood, and dates from 1787. The church and the bell tower were both relocated in 2001, and currently are part of the museum.

Besides Bukovina Village Museum, another museum that reflects the traditional life in this part of Romania is the ethnographic museum. It was opened in 1968 and includes old collections and exhibits that are housed in a medieval inn located in the center of Suceava, known as the Princely Inn of Suceava (Hanul Domnesc din Suceava). This landmark dates from the late 16th and early 17th century. It was built of stone and has two floors and a cellar. During the Austrian rule (1775–1918), the inn operated as a hunting lodge for the imperial family. Since 1968, it hosts the ethnographic museum. The Princely Inn is the oldest civic building in Suceava which had not been seriously affected by time and maintained its original architecture.

The natural sciences museum was founded in 1976–1977, being the newest museum in Suceava. It highlights the flora and fauna of the surrounding area. The museum's rare exhibits and collections are housed in an old building, located in the central park of the city and built between 1811 and 1814. In the past, before being an attraction for visitors, the building operated as a school for boys.

Along with all these museums, Bukovina Museum includes memorial houses of some writers and artists born in this area of the country. The memorial house of Simion Florea Marian (Casa memorială Simion Florea Marian) is the only one located in Suceava, the other ones being in the surrounding area. The memorial house operates as a museum. It was opened in 1974 in the home where Romanian priest and writer Simion Florea Marian lived, from 1884 until 1907, when he died. The museum hosts a collection that contains over 10,000 volumes, over 450 collections of magazines and newspapers, of which 150 are from Bukovina, manuscripts, letters, cultural and historical documents, old photos. In front of the memorial house it was opened a small park with a statue dedicated to Simion Florea Marian.

Historical buildings

Colegiul de Artă Ciprian Porumbescu (Ciprian Porumbescu Art College) is a high school which is hosted in a historic building, built in 1859, in the city center of Suceava. The building had several destinations in the past: Suceava Town Hall (until 1904) and Școala primară română de fete (Primary Romanian school for girls). Romanian jazz singer Anca Parghel taught music for a living in Suceava at this local Arts high school before turning to a professional singing career in 1989.

Gara Suceava Nord-Ițcani (Suceava North railway station, also known as Ițcani) is a train station built in 1871 in the village of Ițcani (today district of Suceava). Between 1871 and 1918, it was a train station at the Austro-Hungarian border. The historic building of Ițcani railway station was built in the Gothic style of the Central European railway stations of that period.

Palatul de Justiție (The Palace of Justice) is a historic building which was built in 1885 to serve as the seat of Suceava Tribunal and Court. The building has four sides and a patio, and was designed by Viennese architect Ferdinand Fellner. Later, during the communist regime, the city hall was moved in this palace and operated here until 2000.

Spitalul Vechi (The Old Hospital) is a complex of buildings built between 1891 and 1903 which originally hosted the district hospital. The hospital ensemble consists of four pavilions of historic value and was built in the southwestern end of Suceava, in Areni neighborhood. In 1964 a new hospital building (known as Spitalul Nou) was inaugurated nearby.

Colegiul Național Ștefan cel Mare (Ștefan cel Mare National College) is the oldest and most prestigious high school in Suceava County, established in 1860. The baroque style building which houses the high school was built between 1893 and 1895, downtown Suceava, and today is considered a historical monument.

Gara Suceava-Burdujeni (Suceava railway station, also known as Burdujeni) is a train station built between 1892 and 1902 in the village of Burdujeni (today district of Suceava). Between 1902 and 1918, it was a train station at the Austro-Hungarian border. The historic building of Burdujeni railway station was built in the architectural style of Fribourg railway station, located in Switzerland.

Palatul Administrativ (The Administrative Palace) is a historic building which was built between 1903–1904 to serve as the seat of Suceava City Hall. The building originally had only two sides of the four current sides, and was designed by Viennese architect Peter Paul Brang. It was designed in the baroque style. Currently, the palace houses the prefecture and the county council of Suceava County.

Casa Polonă (The Polish House) is a building made between 1903 and 1907 by the Polish community in the city of Suceava. The building was designed by architect Alojz Friedel. During the communist regime, The Polish House was nationalized, and since 1954, it housed Ansamblul Artistic Ciprian Porumbescu (Ciprian Porumbescu Artistic Ensemble). In 1984 the building was restored, and then hosted a local theatre, until 1990. In 1996, the building was returned to the Polish community of the city.

Uzina de Apă (The Water Plant) is a set of industrial heritage buildings, designed in 1908 by engineer G. Thiem from Leipzig and built between 1910 and 1912. The water plant operated in these buildings between 1912 and 1960, and then it was moved into a modern building. In 2012, in celebration of 100 years since its establishment, in the former water plant buildings there was inaugurated the Centre for Architecture, Urban Culture and Landscape in Suceava.

Biblioteca Bucovinei I.G. Sbiera (I.G. Sbiera Bukovina Library) is the first public library in Suceava, inaugurated on 12 December 1923. It is also the largest library in Suceava County, with over 350,000 bibliographic units. Currently, the library is hosted by two historic buildings located in downtown Suceava and built between 1925 and 1926, respectively 1929–1930.

The County Forestry Department in Suceava is an institution which operates in a heritage building located in Areni neighborhood, in the city of Suceava. The building dates from the first half of the 20th century.

The Unions House in Suceava is a heritage building, located in downtown Suceava, which houses the unions offices, along with some shops. The building is also known as Samuil Isopescu House.

Casa Costin Tarangul (Costin Tarangul House) is a heritage house dating from the 19th century (1886). The building is located next to Simion Florea Marian Memorial House, in the center of Suceava.

Casa Ciprian Porumbescu (Ciprian Porumbescu House) is a heritage house dating from the 19th century, where Romanian composer Ciprian Porumbescu lived and created some of his works. The house is located in Prunului street, downtown Suceava.

School No. 5 Jean Bart in Burdujeni (Suceava) is a school built in 1902 in the village Burdujeni, today a town district of Suceava. The building that houses the school has historic value.

School No. 6 in Burdujeni-Sat (Suceava) is a school built in 1911 in the village Burdujeni, today a town district of Suceava. The building that houses the school has historic value.

Former Burdujeni Town Hall in Suceava is a building that was built in 1902 in the village Burdujeni and initially was the town hall of the locality. In 1926 Burdujeni became a district of Suceava, and so the town hall was abolished. The historic building currently houses the headquarters of Electrica company.

Ițcani neighbourhood
Ițcani is a neighbourhood located several miles northwest of the city centre. Initially established as a small village in the 15th century under the rulership of Alexăndrel of Moldavia, it expanded as a German-speaking colony starting in the late 19th century, seeing an influx of German settlers during the Josephine colonization which took place in the time of the Austrian Empire. The north railway station (which depicts architectural elements of both Gothic revival and Neo-romanticist styles, also the oldest in the city) is situated in this neighbourhood as well.

Monuments
Near the fortress, in Șipote-Cetate Park, there is an equestrian statue of Stephen the Great, designed and made by the local sculptor Iftimie Bârleanu in 1977. The monument has 23 meters in height, being the tallest equestrian statue in Romania. In the town centre there's also a statue dedicated to Petru Mușat, Prince of Moldavia between 1375 and 1391 and to Petru Rareș, twice Prince of Moldavia, firstly between 1527 and 1538 then secondly and for the last time between 1541 and 1546.

Romanian Orthodox churches

One of the most important cultural sites in Suceava is Saint John the New Monastery which includes the monumental Church of Saint George, built between 1514 and 1522. The construction began during the reign of voivode Bogdan III the One-Eyed of Moldavia, after the nearby Mirăuți Church (the metropolitan cathedral of Moldavia at that moment) was devastated in 1513. The construction was completed by Stephen IV of Moldavia (also known as Ștefăniță). The monastery church served as metropolitan cathedral of Moldavia until 1677. It has frescoes painted on the outside, typical of the region, and is one of eight buildings that make up the churches of Moldavia UNESCO World Heritage Site. Since 1991 Saint John the New Monastery serves as the cathedral of the Archdiocese of Suceava and Rădăuți. Saint John the New was a Moldavian monk who preached during Turkish occupation and was subsequently martyred in Cetatea Albă, present-day Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi in Ukraine. Alexander I of Moldavia brought his relics to Suceava in 1402.

Mirăuți Church, dedicated to Saint George, is the oldest religious building in Suceava, founded by Petru II of Moldavia in late 14th century, in the same period with the Seat Fortress, when he moved the capital from Siret to Suceava. The church established the city as a see of it. Mirăuți was the metropolitan cathedral of Moldavia between 1402 and 1522, when the church of Saint John the New Monastery was completed. In 1402, the relics of Saint John the New were transferred to this church from Cetatea Albă, and then, in 1589 transferred again to the nearby monastery church by voivode Peter the Lame. The name Mirăuți derives from the fact that it was the coronation church of Moldavia until 1522. Stephen the Great was crowned in here in 1457. After the church was devastated, it was rebuilt in early 17th century, and then, in the 18th century, abandoned.

Church of Saint Demetrius was founded by Peter IV Rareș, ruler of Moldavia (1527–1538, 1541–1546), and the son of Stephan the Great. The church was built in 1534–1535, with a bell tower added in 1560–1561 by Alexandru Lăpușneanu. The bell tower is 40 meters high, being the tallest bell tower in Suceava and a landmark of the city. The church had frescoes painted on the outside, that are still visible on one side wall. The frescoes inside were restored recently. Church of Saint Demetrius is located near the ruins of the former Princely Court of Suceava.

Furthermore, there is another old church near these ruins. Church of Saint John the Baptist, also known as Coconilor Church or Domnițelor Church, was founded in 1643 by Vasile Lupu, voivode of Moldavia between 1632 and 1653. It has no exterior frescoes and a short bell tower that has its roof linked with the roof above the church. In its early days, the church functioned as a chapel for the Princely Court.

Church of the Resurrection (located in the proximity of Saint John the New Monastery) dates from 1551, and was founded by Elena Rareș, the wife of voivode Peter IV Rareș. The church has no tower above the naos, its architecture reflecting the urban style of the medieval period. Instead of the bell tower, the church has a zvonnitsa, an architectural form especially used in the Russian architecture of the 14th–17th centuries. Church of the Resurrection was used by the local Roman Catholic community during the Habsburg occupation, and then by the Ruthenian Greek Catholic community, until 1936. It is also known as Văscresenia Church or Elena Doamna Church.

Church of Saint Nicholas (Prăjescu) is another religious building in Suceava that features the medieval Moldavian architectural style. The present church was rebuilt by treasurer Nicoară Prăjescu in 1611, during the reign of Constantin Movilă (1607–1611). Throughout its history, the church functioned as a necropolis for the local boyars.

Between the city center and Ițcani neighborhood, on the slopes that descend to the Suceava river valley, there is Church of the Assumption, another old Romanian Orthodox church, founded in the first half of the 17th century (1639). The church was built on the place where Ițcani Monastery existed before. It functioned as a nunnery until late 18th century. Today it is parish church, and has a zvonnitsa similar to that of Church of the Resurrection, located downtown.

In Burdujeni neighborhood, 4 km north-east of the city center, there is Teodoreni Monastery, founded in 1597 by local boyar Teodor Movilă, the elder brother of Ieremia Movilă, ruler of Moldavia (1595–1600, 1600–1606). Burdujeni village (now a district of Suceava) was established and developed around this monastery. The set of buildings includes Church of Ascension, the bell tower, living quarters for nuns and a surrounding wall. Just 1 km north of Teodoreni Monastery, in the old district of Burdujeni, there is Church of the Holy Trinity, founded by archimandrite Filaret Scriban in 1851.

Ițcani neighborhood has two Romanian Orthodox churches founded in the first half of the 20th century: Church of the Holy Archangels (built near Suceava North railway station, in 1933–1938) and Church of the Holy Apostles (located on European route E85 and built in 1905–1908 by the German community of Ițcani, initially as a Lutheran church).

Church of the Holy Cross, located in Pătrăuți village (a few miles north-west of Ițcani), was founded in 1487 by Stephen the Great, and is one of the monuments that make up the churches of Moldavia UNESCO World Heritage Site. Also not far away from Ițcani, there is Dragomirna Monastery, established by clergyman Anastasie Crimca in 1609. Voroneț Monastery is located 40 km west of Suceava, in the town of Gura Humorului.

German Roman Catholic and Evangelical Lutheran churches
During the late Modern Age up until the early 1940s, a sizeable ethnic German community lived in the town of Suceava. They were of both Roman Catholic and Lutheran faith. These German-speaking colonists who were settled by the Austrian Empire in the town proper can trace their origins most notably to the territories of present-day southern Germany, Austria, and the Czech Republic (more specifically Bohemia or the Bohemian Forest), being thus both Roman Catholics and Protestants (more specifically Lutherans).

Several religious buildings that served both aforementioned religious denominations can still be found today both in the town proper and in the Ițcani neighbourhood, where a bygone community of ethnic Germans (stemming from the contemporary Rhineland-Palatinate land in Germany) once lived in sizeable numbers.

Armenian Orthodox churches

In the past, Suceava used to have an important Armenian community as well. Their cultural and historical legacy is highlighted by a series of well preserved religious buildings that still exist to this today.

The most representative ecclesiastical landmark established by the local Armenian population is Zamca Monastery (the term Zamca can actually trace its linguistic origin to Polish, denoting as such a 'fortified place' and being named this way by King Jan Sobieski of Poland in 1691), a fortified complex of buildings located on a plateau at the western point of the contemporary city.

Zamca Monastery was constructed between 1551 and 1606 and its church is dedicated to Saint Auxentius. Along with the church, the monastery includes several buildings made of stone and a defensive wall that surrounds the whole medieval complex.

Between Zamca Monastery and the city center there are two more Armenian Orthodox churches. Church of Saint Simon (also known as The Red Tower Church because of its bell tower) was founded in 1513. The bell tower was constructed in 1551.

The church has an old Armenian cemetery in the proximity and a chapel that was built in 1902 (Pruncul Chapel). Church of the Holy Cross was established in 1521 and was renovated several times in its history. The Armenian parsonage is located near the church, along with several old tomb stones.

Hagigadar Monastery is another medieval complex built by the local Armenians. It was founded in 1512–1513, and is located on the south-western proximity of the town, on a valley near European route E85.

Tourism
In the past few years Suceava started to evolve more rapidly. The most important sights in the town date from its time as a princely capital (i.e. the Middle Ages). There are numerous museums in the city proper including, most notably, the Bucovina History Museum, the Bucovina Village Museum, Bucovina Ethnographic Museum (housed in an inn dating back to the 17th century), or the Natural History Museum.

Shopping centres
Suceava is renowned in Romania for having the most modern shopping centres (i.e. malls) and commercial spaces per capita. The most significant and also largest shopping centres of the town are Iulius Mall Suceava (situated closer to Ițcani), Galleria Shopping Center (outside the town proper), and Bucovina Shopping Center (located closer in the town centre). The latter was built during communist times whereas the former were both built after 1989.

The biggest and most representative shopping centre in Suceava is Iulius Mall and remains as such to this day, given the total volume of customers coming there for their needs as well as for the total amount of commercial spaces which the mall includes.

Football

ACS Foresta Suceava (Asociația Club Sportiv Foresta Suceava), formerly known as Rapid CFR Suceava, currently plays in Liga III, the third tier of the Romanian football system.

The town has also had other significant football clubs competing in either Liga I or Liga II such as CSM Suceava, FC Cetatea Suceava, or Foresta Suceava, the last initially based in the city of Fălticeni from the same county. The town also used to have another Liga III side, Sporting Suceava, but it went bankrupt.

All the major sporting events are hosted on the Areni Stadium, a multi-purpose stadium with a capacity of 12,500 people. It is currently the home ground of ACS Foresta Suceava. The stadium was initially opened in 1963 as the "Municipal Stadium".

Handball
CS Universitatea Bucovina Suceava is the town's men's handball team which currently competes in the Romanian Handball League (Liga Națională). It was founded in 2002 and it started playing in the first tier of the Romanian handball system in 2006. In 2011, it achieved its greatest performance to date, namely finishing 3rd in the national handball division.

Education

The only university of the town is the Ștefan cel Mare University of Suceava (Universitatea "Ștefan cel Mare" din Suceava, USV) which was established in 1990. However, this institution of higher education was initially founded as the Institute of Pedagogy as early as 1963.

The most prominent high schools with theoretical pathways of the town are the following ones:

National College "Mihai Eminescu" Suceava
 * Named after the most well-known Moldavian and Romanian poet, Mihai Eminescu
 * Main study offers are: Social Sciences, Mathematics and Computer Science, and Philology

National College "Petru Rareș" Suceava
 * Named after the voievod of Moldavia, Peter IV Rareș
 * Main study offers are: English, Philology, Mathematics and Computer Science.

National College "Ștefan cel Mare" Suceava
 * Named after the prince of Moldavia between the years 1457 and 1504, Stephen III of Moldavia (also known as Stephen the Great)
 * Main study offers are: Natural Sciences, Mathematics and Computer Science.

Economical College "Dimitre Cantemir" Suceava
 * Named after the twice Prince of Moldavia and the famous writer of Descriptio Moldavie, Dimitrie Cantemir.
 * It is the only economics high-school in Suceava.
 * Main study offers are Tourism, Gastronomy, Alimentation, Economy, Countability, and Trade.
 * The main profile which the school promovates is the Technical profile.

Public transport

In terms of public transportation, the Municipality of Suceava currently has a series of green electric buses within its public transportation fleet with the support of Switzerland. In the past, there were both buses and trolleybuses in circulation across the town and in the neighbouring localities. The trolleybus system of the town was officially opened on 15 August 1987 and was officially closed on 2 April 2006.

Nowadays, public transportation is mostly modern and meets efficient technical standards. The type of buses which were in service and operated across the town before the arrival of the green buses were of Irisbus type. As of 2023, the town's fleet of electric buses stops around various stations both across the town and outside of it in the nearby localities (e.g. in Șcheia). The main operator of public transportation in Suceava is SC Transport Public Local SA (TPL).

Air

Suceava is served by the Suceava International "Ștefan cel Mare" Airport (SCV), located 12 km east of the town centre, in the nearby small town of Salcea. The airport initially opened in 1962 when commercial services started with TAROM, the oldest operating Romanian airline. In 1963, the runway was paved, and an apron was built. Services by TAROM were discontinued in 2001, but resumed in 2004. During this period, the airport was only served by Angel Airlines. In March 2005, the airport was renamed Ștefan cel Mare Airport, and opened to international traffic.

In 2013, Suceava International Airport started a plan (worth c. €39 million) to rebuild and extend the old runway of 1800 m, to construct a new control tower and to install a new ILS system. In August 2013, the construction works commenced, and on 12 January 2014, the airport closed in order to allow the runway works to resume. The old concrete runway was completely removed, and a new asphalt runway was constructed.

On 25 October 2015, the airport was officially reopened. As of 2019, Suceava International Airport had an annual traffic of 430,064 passengers, a local record thus far, making it the 8th busiest airport in Romania.

Natives
Intellectuals and artists

Sportsmen
 * Marius Babias, art critic, author, and curator (director of Neuer Berliner Kunstverein since 2008)
 * Iosif Berman, photographer and journalist during the interwar period
 * Eugeniu Botez (nom de plume Jean Bart), writer
 * Olga Bucătaru, actress
 * Stela Cheptea, historian and medievalist
 * Vladimir Găitan, actor
 * Norman Manea, writer and intellectual
 * Ioan Nemeș, physicist and biologist
 * George Ostafi, abstract painter
 * Gheorghe Panaiteanu Bardasare, painter
 * Nicolae Picu, violinist
 * Pamfil Polonic, archaeologist and topographer
 * Ioana Rostoș (nom de plume Jane Rostos), writer
 * Ludwig Adolf Staufe-Simiginowicz, poet and German language teacher

Clergymen
 * Daniel Bălan, football player and coach
 * Petru Bălan, rugby union footballer
 * Cristian Mugur Bolohan, former football player and coach
 * Alexandru Buziuc, football player
 * Ionuț Dimofte, rugby union football player
 * Irina Dorneanu, Olympic rower
 * Iulian Dumitraș, rugby union football player
 * Dorin Goian, former football player and coach
 * Lucian Goian, football player
 * Cătălin Golofca, football player
 * Lidia Havriștiuc, football player
 * Aleksandru Longher, football player
 * Paul Mateciuc, football player
 * Cosmin Pașcovici, former football player
 * Anca Polocoșer, handball player
 * Doru Popadiuc, football player
 * Mihai Roman, football player
 * Tiberiu Serediuc, football player
 * Ovidiu Slușariuc, former rugby union football player
 * Sonia Ursu-Kim, basketball player

Politicians
 * Dimitrie Barilă, 17th century Moldavian Metropolitan, scholar, poet, and translator
 * Iosif Bobulescu, 19th century bishop
 * Anastasie Crimca, 16th century Eastern Orthodox clergyman, calligrapher, illuminator, and writer
 * Peter Mogila, 17th century theologian
 * Eugen J. Pentiuc, theologian, dean of Hellenic College
 * Shulem Moskovitz, chasidic Rebbe
 * Filaret Scriban, 19th century theologian
 * Meir Shapiro, Hasidic rabbi and rosh yeshiva

 * Luca Arbore, 15th–16th century Moldavian boyar, diplomat, and statesman
 * Cristian Adomniței, former PNL Minister of Education (2007–2008)
 * Eugen Bejinariu, former PSD acting Prime Minister (2004)

Consulates and embassies

 * 🇺🇦 Consulate general of Ukraine

Twin towns – sister cities
Suceava is twinned with:

 * 🇵🇸 Bethlehem, Palestine
 * 🇺🇦 Chernivtsi, Ukraine
 * 🇲🇩 Chișinău, Moldova
 * 🇨🇾 Karavas, Cyprus
 * 🇫🇷 Laval, France
 * 🇺🇦 Mahala, Ukraine
 * 🇲🇩 Soroca, Moldova
 * 🇵🇱 Sosnowiec, Poland
 * 🇨🇳 Yinchuan, China

Other partnerships
In addition to the town twinning, Suceava shares a series of regional, cultural, and economic partnerships with the following urban settlements or regions:

 * 🇩🇪 Germany, Baden-Württemberg, and Bavaria – economic, cultural, and touristic contacts with the historical region of Swabia. Furthermore, there is also an academic partnership with the Bukowina Institut of the University of Augsburg from Augsburg.
 * Denmark – local development partnership with the town of Aalborg, North Jutland
 * 🇮🇹 Italy – local development partnership with the city of Naples, Campania
 * United Kingdom – local development partnership with the city of Liverpool, North West England
 * 🇫🇷 France – local development partnership with the city of Lyon, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes

title: Suceava


text:
Louis Paul Boon

Lodewijk Paul Aalbrecht (Louis Paul) Boon (15 March 1912, in Aalst – 10 May 1979, in Erembodegem) was a Belgian writer of novels, poetry, pornography, columns and art criticism. He was also a painter. He is best known for the novels My Little War (1947), the diptych Chapel Road (1953) / Summer in Termuren (1956), Menuet (1955) and Pieter Daens (1971).

Biography
He was born in 1912 as Lodewijk Paul Aalbrecht Boon in Aalst, Belgium, the oldest son in a working-class family. Although he was still very young during the First World War, memories of a German soldier shooting a prisoner would end up in later autobiographical work. Boon left school at age 16 to work for his father as a car painter. He was expelled from school for possession of forbidden books. During evenings and weekends he studied art at the Academy of Fine Arts, but soon had to abandon his studies due to lack of funds. In 1936 he married Jeanneke De Wolf. Three years later, their son Jo was born.

World War II
In September 1939, Boon was mobilised and stationed as a soldier in Gooik and Tessenderlo. Boon was moved to Veldwezelt at the outbreak of World War II in May 1940 in order to defend the Albert Canal. However, he was captured as a prisoner of war on the first day and eventually sent home, after a few weeks in a prisoner camp. His experiences during the War and mostly the Occupation are the subject of Boon's fourth book, My Little War (1947).

After writing an unpublished novel, Boon's official debut came in 1942 with De voorstad groeit (The suburb grows). It was awarded the Leo J. Krynprijs award at the recommendation of Willem Elsschot. His next novel was loosely based on the life of Vincent van Gogh, Abel Gholarts (1944, not available in translation).

After World War II
Boon started working as a journalist for the communist dailies De Rode Vaan (1945–1946), Front (1946–1947) and De Vlaamse Gids (1948). Later he contributed to the newspaper Vooruit with which he established himself as a freelancer. In subsequent years, Boon continued to combine newspaper and literary work, and even added painting and sculpture to his activities. His literary output ranges from short prose, longer experimental novels, one man magazines, documentary and historical novels, poetry, erotic works and fairy tales.

Boon died in his home in Erembodegem in 1979 at the age of 67.

My Little War
His experiences during World War II and the Occupation are the subject of Boon's fourth book, My Little War (1947, translation 2010 by Paul Vincent, Dalkey Archive Press). With this title Boon emerged for the first time as an important innovator of the novel. Rather than containing one story, "My Little War" contains over thirty loosely interrelated chapters, each containing a story that can be read as an independent piece. Most stories describe the difficult circumstances of life during the Occupation, such as finding food and fuel to warm the house, some deal with the deteriorating sexual mores, and some treat more direct war experiences such as bombings. Yet the overarching structure, though well hidden, makes for a coherent whole as well. The stories are interspersed with numerous raw fragments about equally raw incidents during the Occupation as the short stories: rape, theft, treason, humiliation. Boon admitted that the work of John Dos Passos provided the inspiration for this literary device. In this book, the term 'enemy' by no means signifies Germans exclusively, even though one story tells of the extermination of a Jewish girl and another of a camp prisoner's experiences. People are just as likely, if not more, to be robbed of food, money, or even their spouse's fidelity by their neighbours as they are by the Germans.

Chapel Road
In 1953 he published the work that now stands as his greatest masterpiece, Chapel Road (De Kapellekensbaan, translated by Adrienne Dixon), which he began to write as early as 1943. Its dazzling construction combines several narrative threads, including an almost postmodern one where the writer and his friends discuss how the story should develop further. Another one is an extensive reworking of the most classic medieval work in the Dutch language, the twelfth-century story of Reynard the fox. There are several references to Chapel Road in Boon's lengthy 1956 novel Zomer te Ter-muren (Summer in Termuren), which picks up where the earlier novel left off.

Legacy
Boon's literary legacy is a versatile, ranging from journalistic pieces on Belgian politics and society to erotic novelas. In historical novels such as De Bende van Jan de Lichte, De zoon van Jan de Lichte, De Zwarte Hand, and Daens, he depicted the oppression of the working class in 18th century Flanders; in his controversial Geuzenboek, he wrote about the Spanish domination of the Low Countries in the 16th century. Nearly all of Boon's work was infused by his profound commitment to socialism; in experimental, modernistic works such as Vergeten straat, Boon projected an ideal society but at the same time shared his doubts as to whether human nature could achieve utopia.

Nobel Prize
Boon was thought to have been shortlisted for a Nobel Prize in Literature in the late 1970s, and even received an invitation to appear at the Swedish Embassy, probably to be told that the Prize had been awarded to him. The day before the appointment he died at his writing table of a heart attack. Very little of his writing has been translated into English, but De Kapellekensbaan and Zomer in Ter-Muren are both available in English translation from Dalkey Archive Press as Chapel Road and Summer in Termuren, and Paul Vincent's translation of Mijn kleine oorlog (as My Little War) was published by Dalkey in 2009.

Translated in English

 * My Little War (1946), translated by Paul Vincent, Dalkey Archive Press
 * Chapel Road (1953), translated by Adrienne Dixon, Dalkey Archive Press
 * Summer in Termuren (1956), translated by Paul Vincent, Dalkey Archive Press

Other selected works, not translated

 * De voorstad groeit (1942), novel
 * Abel Gholaerts (1944), novel
 * Vergeten straat (1946), novel
 * Boontje's reservaat (1954-1957), one-man magazine with documentary reports, stories, memories and essays
 * Menuet (1955), novella
 * De kleine Eva uit de Kromme Bijlstraat (1956), long-form, narrative poem. Awarded the Henriette Roland Holst-prize
 * De bende van Jan de Lichte (1957), modern picaresque novel
 * De paradijsvogel (1958), novel
 * Blauwbaardje in Wonderland en andere grimmige sprookjes voor verdorven kinderen (1962), fairy tales
 * Geniaal, maar met korte beentjes (1967), essays
 * Pieter Daens of hoe in de negentiende eeuw de arbeiders van Aalst vochten tegen armoede en onrecht (1971), historical novel. Awarded the Multatuli-prize
 * Mieke Maaike's obscene jeugd (1972), pornographic novella
 * De zwarte hand, of het anarchisme van de negentiende eeuw in het industriestadje Aalst (1976), historical novel
 * Het geuzenboek (1979), historical novel

title: Louis Paul Boon


text:
Talk:Wallis Simpson

Article Name
Why is the article named "Wallis Simpson" and not "Wallis, Duchess of Windsor"? She was married to Ernest Simpson for 9 years, and to the Duke of Windsor for 35 years. She resumed her maiden name after her divorce from Simpson. ThreeOfCups (talk)
 * Per WP:CONSORTS, courtesy titles are only used by living or recently decease subjects, other than that they should revert back to their common name before the courtesy title. Most sources refer to her as Simpson rather than Warfield. --Shivertimbers433 (talk) 23:19, 22 April 2024 (UTC)

Picture of the Rogerses and Brownlow in 1936
The image of Wallis with the Rogerses and Lord Brownlow in France in 1936 should be next to the text about Wallis being in France with the Rogerses and Lord Brownlow in 1936. See Manual of Style/Images: "An image should generally be placed in the most relevant article section; if this is not possible, try not to place an image too early, i.e., far ahead of the text discussing what the image illustrates, if this could puzzle the reader." Celia Homeford (talk) 08:53, 25 March 2024 (UTC)

Additional bad citations
The part about Wallis being in China already has 4 citations. We don't need an additional 6 unformatted bare links, which includes 4 deprecated sources (see Reliable sources/Perennial sources and Reliable sources). These citations should be removed. Celia Homeford (talk) 08:58, 25 March 2024 (UTC)

 * @Celia Homeford citations are about the people not the country and are not deprecated and not self-published and not offline 3MRB1 (talk) 09:38, 25 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Familysearch is deprecated: Reliable sources/Perennial_sources. HouseHistree is self-published. All the content of that sentence is already supported by the citations at the end of the sentence. They are not offline: they are available for free at https://openlibrary.org/books/OL24924598M/Behind_closed_doors and https://openlibrary.org/books/OL8612543M/The_Duchess_Of_Windsor. Celia Homeford (talk) 09:41, 25 March 2024 (UTC)
 * @Celia Homeford Houisehistree is not self-published like youtube, okay on FS 3MRB1 (talk) 09:52, 25 March 2024 (UTC)
 * That's not the only criterion for whether a source is reliable. Please engage with WP:Reliable sources. Remsense  诉  09:55, 25 March 2024 (UTC)
 * HouseHistree is user-generated. It is therefore self-published according to the Reliable sources policy. Celia Homeford (talk) 09:56, 25 March 2024 (UTC)

herman-livingston-rogers-1891-1957
https://ancestors.familysearch.org/en/K2SG-1KC/herman-livingston-rogers-1891-1957 3MRB1 (talk) 09:57, 25 March 2024 (UTC)

 * WP:FamilySearch. Remsense  诉  09:59, 25 March 2024 (UTC)
 * https://househistree.com/people/herman-livingston-rogers 3MRB1 (talk) 10:01, 25 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Also user-generated. What are you doing? Remsense  诉  10:02, 25 March 2024 (UTC)
 * @Remsense what are you adding? 3MRB1 (talk) 10:05, 25 March 2024 (UTC)
 * There's nothing else to add, because there's one well-defined reason these sources shouldn't be in the article. All we can do is attempt to make the same point in different ways. Remsense  诉  10:15, 25 March 2024 (UTC)
 * @Remsense you were thoughtlessly undoing my edits which were removals thus adding back, so you don't know what you are doing 3MRB1 (talk) 10:22, 25 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Wallis Simpson


text:
Serapis (disambiguation)

Serapis is a Greco-Egyptian god.

Serapis may also refer to:

 * HMS Serapis, various British ships
 * USS Serapis, several US ships

title: Serapis (disambiguation)


text:
Edward Walter Maunder

Edward Walter Maunder (12 April 1851 – 21 March 1928) was an English astronomer. His study of sunspots and the solar magnetic cycle led to his identification of the period from 1645 to 1715 that is now known as the Maunder Minimum.

Early and personal life
Maunder was born in 1851, in London, the youngest child of a minister of the Wesleyan Society. He attended King's College London but never graduated. He took a job in a London bank to finance his studies.

In 1873 Maunder returned to the Royal Observatory, taking a position as a spectroscopic assistant. Shortly after, in 1875, he married Edith Hannah Bustin, who gave birth to six children: four sons (one of whom died in infancy) and two daughters. Following the death of Edith in 1888, in 1890 he met Annie Scott Dill Russell (later Annie Russell Maunder, 1868–1947), a mathematician and astronomer educated at Girton College in Cambridge, with whom he collaborated for the remainder of his life. She worked as a "lady computer" at the Observatory from 1890 to 1895.

In 1895 Maunder and Russell married. In 1916 Annie Maunder became one of the first women accepted by the Royal Astronomical Society.

Solar observations

Part of Maunder's job at the Observatory involved photographing and measuring sunspots, and in doing so he observed that the solar latitudes at which sunspots occur varies in a regular way over the course of the 11-year cycle. After 1891, he was assisted in his work by his wife Annie Maunder. In 1904, he published their results in the form of the "butterfly" diagram.

After studying the work of Gustav Spörer, who examined old records from the different observatories archives looking for changes of the heliographic latitude of sunspots, Maunder presented a paper on Spörer's conclusions to the Royal Astronomical Society in 1890 and analyzed the results to show the presence of a prolonged sunspot minimum in the 17-18th century in a paper published in 1894. The period, recognised initially by Spörer, now bears the name Maunder minimum.

He travelled extensively for observations going to places such as the West Indies, Lapland, India, Algiers, Mauritius. His last eclipse expedition was to Labrador for the Solar eclipse of 30 August 1905 at the invitation of the Canadian government.

Other astronomical observations
In 1882 Maunder (and some other European astronomers) observed what he called an "auroral beam"; as yet unexplained, it had some similarity in appearance to either a noctilucent cloud or an upper tangent arc. However, Maunder wrote that the phenomenon moved rapidly from horizon to horizon, which would rule out a noctilucent cloud or upper tangent arc. Further, upper tangent arc cannot occur during nighttime when the observation was made. Since he made his observation during highly intense auroral activity, he assumed it was some extraordinary auroral phenomenon, though one he had never observed again before or after.

He observed Mars and was a sceptic of the notion of Martian canals. He conducted visual experiments using marked circular disks which led him to conclude, correctly, that the viewing of canals arose as an optical illusion. Also he was convinced that there cannot be life "as in our world" on Mars, as there are no temperature-equating winds and too low mean temperatures. Craters on Mars and the Moon were named in his and his wife Annie's honour.

Establishment of the British Astronomical Association
In 1890, Maunder was a driving force in the foundation of the British Astronomical Association. Although he had been fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society since 1875, Maunder wanted an association of astronomers open to every person interested in astronomy, from every class of society, and especially open for women.

Maunder was the first editor of the Journal of the BAA, an office later taken by his wife Annie Maunder. He was also director of its Mars Section 1892–1893, the Star Colour Section 1900–1901, President 1894-1896 and finally Solar Section director 1910–1925. His older brother, Thomas Frid Maunder (1841–1935), was a co-founder and secretary of the Association for 38 years.

Publications

 * Maunder, E. Walter (1900). The Royal Observatory, Greenwich—Original publication: London: The Religious Tract Society
 * Maunder, E. Walter (1900). The Royal Observatory, Greenwich—Original publication: London: The Religious Tract Society

Commemoration
In 2022 English Heritage announced that Annie and Walter Maunder would be commemorated with a blue plaque at their former home in Brockley, London, later that year. The Maunders wrote The Heavens and their Story while they were living in Brockley.

title: Edward Walter Maunder