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Magnesium in biology

Magnesium is an essential element in biological systems. Magnesium occurs typically as the Mg2+ ion. It is an essential mineral nutrient (i.e., element) for life  and is present in every cell type in every organism. For example, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the main source of energy in cells, must bind to a magnesium ion in order to be biologically active. What is called ATP is often actually Mg-ATP. As such, magnesium plays a role in the stability of all polyphosphate compounds in the cells, including those associated with the synthesis of DNA and RNA.

Over 300 enzymes require the presence of magnesium ions for their catalytic action, including all enzymes utilizing or synthesizing ATP, or those that use other nucleotides to synthesize DNA and RNA.

In plants, magnesium is necessary for synthesis of chlorophyll and photosynthesis.

Function
A balance of magnesium is vital to the well-being of all organisms. Magnesium is a relatively abundant ion in Earth's crust and mantle and is highly bioavailable in the hydrosphere. This availability, in combination with a useful and very unusual chemistry, may have led to its utilization in evolution as an ion for signaling, enzyme activation, and catalysis. However, the unusual nature of ionic magnesium has also led to a major challenge in the use of the ion in biological systems. Biological membranes are impermeable to magnesium (and other ions), so transport proteins must facilitate the flow of magnesium, both into and out of cells and intracellular compartments.

Human health
Inadequate magnesium intake frequently causes muscle spasms, and has been associated with cardiovascular disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, anxiety disorders, migraines, osteoporosis, and cerebral infarction. Acute deficiency (see hypomagnesemia) is rare, and is more common as a drug side-effect (such as chronic alcohol or diuretic use) than from low food intake per se, but it can occur in people fed intravenously for extended periods of time.

The most common symptom of excess oral magnesium intake is diarrhea. Supplements based on amino acid chelates (such as glycinate, lysinate etc.) are much better-tolerated by the digestive system and do not have the side-effects of the older compounds used, while sustained-release dietary supplements prevent the occurrence of diarrhea. Since the kidneys of adult humans excrete excess magnesium efficiently, oral magnesium poisoning in adults with normal renal function is very rare. Infants, which have less ability to excrete excess magnesium even when healthy, should not be given magnesium supplements, except under a physician's care.

Pharmaceutical preparations with magnesium are used to treat conditions including magnesium deficiency and hypomagnesemia, as well as eclampsia. Such preparations are usually in the form of magnesium sulfate or chloride when given parenterally. Magnesium is absorbed with reasonable efficiency (30% to 40%) by the body from any soluble magnesium salt, such as the chloride or citrate. Magnesium is similarly absorbed from Epsom salts, although the sulfate in these salts adds to their laxative effect at higher doses. Magnesium absorption from the insoluble oxide and hydroxide salts (milk of magnesia) is erratic and of poorer efficiency, since it depends on the neutralization and solution of the salt by the acid of the stomach, which may not be (and usually is not) complete.

Magnesium orotate may be used as adjuvant therapy in patients on optimal treatment for severe congestive heart failure, increasing survival rate and improving clinical symptoms and patient's quality of life.

In 2021, magnesium salts were the 211th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2million prescriptions.

Nerve conduction
Magnesium can affect muscle relaxation through direct action on cell membranes. Mg2+ ions close certain types of calcium channels, which conduct positively charged calcium ions into neurons. With an excess of magnesium, more channels will be blocked and nerve cells activity will decrease.

Hypertension
Intravenous magnesium sulphate is used in treating pre-eclampsia. For other than pregnancy-related hypertension, a meta-analysis of 22 clinical trials with dose ranges of 120 to 973 mg/day and a mean dose of 410 mg, concluded that magnesium supplementation had a small but statistically significant effect, lowering systolic blood pressure by 3–4 mm Hg and diastolic blood pressure by 2–3 mm Hg. The effect was larger when the dose was more than 370 mg/day.

Diabetes and glucose tolerance
Higher dietary intakes of magnesium correspond to lower diabetes incidence. For people with diabetes or at high risk of diabetes, magnesium supplementation lowers fasting glucose.

Mitochondria
Magnesium is essential as part of the process that generates adenosine triphosphate.

Mitochondria are often referred to as the "powerhouses of the cell" because their primary role is generating energy for cellular processes. They achieve this by breaking down nutrients, primarily glucose, through a series of chemical reactions known as cellular respiration. This process ultimately produces adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell's main energy currency.

Vitamin D
Magnesium and vitamin D have a synergistic relationship in the body, meaning they work together to optimize each other's functions:

 * Magnesium activates vitamin D
 * Vitamin D influences magnesium absorption.
 * Bone health: They play crucial roles in calcium absorption and bone metabolism.
 * Muscle function: They contribute to muscle contraction and relaxation, impacting physical performance and overall well-being.
 * Immune function: They support a healthy immune system and may help reduce inflammation.

Overall, maintaining adequate levels of both magnesium and vitamin D is essential for optimal health and well-being.

Testosterone
It is theorized that the process of making testosterone from cholesterol, needs magnesium to function properly.

Studies have shown that significant gains in testosterone occur after taking 10 mg magnesium/kg body weight/day.

Dietary recommendations
The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for magnesium in 1997. If there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs, an estimate designated Adequate Intake (AI) is used instead. The current EARs for magnesium for women and men ages 31 and up are 265 mg/day and 350 mg/day, respectively. The RDAs are 320 and 420 mg/day. RDAs are higher than EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements. RDA for pregnancy is 350 to 400 mg/day depending on age of the woman. RDA for lactation ranges 310 to 360 mg/day for same reason. For children ages 1–13 years the RDA increases with age from 65 to 200 mg/day. As for safety, the IOM also sets Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of magnesium the UL is set at 350 mg/day. The UL is specific to magnesium consumed as a dietary supplement, the reason being that too much magnesium consumed at one time can cause diarrhea. The UL does not apply to food-sourced magnesium. Collectively the EARs, RDAs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes.

* = Adequate intake

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL defined the same as in United States. For women and men ages 18 and older the AIs are set at 300 and 350 mg/day, respectively. AIs for pregnancy and lactation are also 300 mg/day. For children ages 1–17 years the AIs increase with age from 170 to 250 mg/day. These AIs are lower than the U.S. RDAs. The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and set its UL at 250 mg/day - lower than the U.S. value. The magnesium UL is unique in that it is lower than some of the RDAs. It applies to intake from a pharmacological agent or dietary supplement only, and does not include intake from food and water.

Labeling
For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of daily value (%DV). For magnesium labeling purposes 100% of the daily value was 400 mg, but as of May 27, 2016, it was revised to 420 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA. A table of the old and new adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.

Food sources
Green vegetables such as spinach provide magnesium because of the abundance of chlorophyll molecules, which contain the ion. Nuts (especially Brazil nuts, cashews and almonds), seeds (e.g., pumpkin seeds), dark chocolate, roasted soybeans, bran, and some whole grains are also good sources of magnesium.

Although many foods contain magnesium, it is usually found in low levels. As with most nutrients, daily needs for magnesium are unlikely to be met by one serving of any single food. Eating a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and grains will help ensure adequate intake of magnesium.

Because magnesium readily dissolves in water, refined foods, which are often processed or cooked in water and dried, in general, are poor sources of the nutrient. For example, whole-wheat bread has twice as much magnesium as white bread because the magnesium-rich germ and bran are removed when white flour is processed. The table of food sources of magnesium suggests many dietary sources of magnesium.

"Hard" water can also provide magnesium, but "soft" water contains less of the ion. Dietary surveys do not assess magnesium intake from water, which may lead to underestimating total magnesium intake and its variability.

Too much magnesium may make it difficult for the body to absorb calcium. Not enough magnesium can lead to hypomagnesemia as described above, with irregular heartbeats, high blood pressure (a sign in humans but not some experimental animals such as rodents), insomnia, and muscle spasms (fasciculation). However, as noted, symptoms of low magnesium from pure dietary deficiency are thought to be rarely encountered.

Following are some foods and the amount of magnesium in them:

 * Pumpkin seeds, no hulls (1⁄4 cup) = 303 mg
 * Chia seeds, (1⁄4 cup) = 162 mg
 * Buckwheat flour (1⁄2 cup) = 151 mg
 * Brazil nuts (1⁄4 cup) = 125 mg
 * Oat bran, raw (1⁄2 cup) = 110 mg
 * Cocoa powder (1⁄4 cup) = 107 mg
 * Halibut (3 oz) = 103 mg
 * Almonds (1⁄4 cup) = 99 mg
 * Cashews (1⁄4 cup) = 89 mg
 * Whole wheat flour (1⁄2 cup) = 83 mg
 * Spinach, boiled (1⁄2 cup) = 79 mg
 * Swiss chard, boiled (1⁄2 cup) = 75 mg
 * Chocolate, 70% cocoa (1 oz) = 73 mg
 * Tofu, firm (1⁄2 cup) = 73 mg
 * Black beans, boiled (1⁄2 cup) = 60 mg
 * Quinoa, cooked (1⁄2 cup) = 59 mg
 * Peanut butter (2 tablespoons) = 50 mg
 * Walnuts (1⁄4 cup) = 46 mg
 * Sunflower seeds, hulled (1⁄4 cup) = 41 mg
 * Chickpeas, boiled (1⁄2 cup) = 39 mg
 * Kale, boiled (1⁄2 cup) = 37 mg
 * Lentils, boiled (1⁄2 cup) = 36 mg
 * Oatmeal, cooked (1⁄2 cup) = 32 mg
 * Fish sauce (1 Tbsp) = 32 mg
 * Milk, non fat (1 cup) = 27 mg
 * Coffee, espresso (1 oz) = 24 mg
 * Whole wheat bread (1 slice) = 23 mg

Biological range, distribution, and regulation
In animals, it has been shown that different cell types maintain different concentrations of magnesium. It seems likely that the same is true for plants. This suggests that different cell types may regulate influx and efflux of magnesium in different ways based on their unique metabolic needs. Interstitial and systemic concentrations of free magnesium must be delicately maintained by the combined processes of buffering (binding of ions to proteins and other molecules) and muffling (the transport of ions to storage or extracellular spaces ).

In plants, and more recently in animals, magnesium has been recognized as an important signaling ion, both activating and mediating many biochemical reactions. The best example of this is perhaps the regulation of carbon fixation in chloroplasts in the Calvin cycle.

Magnesium is very important in cellular function. Deficiency of the nutrient causes disease of the affected organism. In single-cell organisms such as bacteria and yeast, low levels of magnesium manifests in greatly reduced growth rates. In magnesium transport knockout strains of bacteria, healthy rates are maintained only with exposure to very high external concentrations of the ion. In yeast, mitochondrial magnesium deficiency also leads to disease.

Plants deficient in magnesium show stress responses. The first observable signs of both magnesium starvation and overexposure in plants is a decrease in the rate of photosynthesis. This is due to the central position of the Mg2+ ion in the chlorophyll molecule. The later effects of magnesium deficiency on plants are a significant reduction in growth and reproductive viability. Magnesium can also be toxic to plants, although this is typically seen only in drought conditions.

In animals, magnesium deficiency (hypomagnesemia) is seen when the environmental availability of magnesium is low. In ruminant animals, particularly vulnerable to magnesium availability in pasture grasses, the condition is known as 'grass tetany'. Hypomagnesemia is identified by a loss of balance due to muscle weakness. A number of genetically attributable hypomagnesemia disorders have also been identified in humans.

Overexposure to magnesium may be toxic to individual cells, though these effects have been difficult to show experimentally. Hypermagnesemia, an overabundance of magnesium in the blood, is usually caused by loss of kidney function. Healthy animals rapidly excrete excess magnesium in the urine and stool. Urinary magnesium is called magnesuria. Characteristic concentrations of magnesium in model organisms are: in E. coli 30-100mM (bound), 0.01-1mM (free), in budding yeast 50mM, in mammalian cell 10mM (bound), 0.5mM (free) and in blood plasma 1mM.

Biological chemistry
Mg2+ is the fourth-most-abundant metal ion in cells (per moles) and the most abundant free divalent cation — as a result, it is deeply and intrinsically woven into cellular metabolism. Indeed, Mg2+-dependent enzymes appear in virtually every metabolic pathway: Specific binding of Mg2+ to biological membranes is frequently observed, Mg2+ is also used as a signalling molecule, and much of nucleic acid biochemistry requires Mg2+, including all reactions that require release of energy from ATP. In nucleotides, the triple-phosphate moiety of the compound is invariably stabilized by association with Mg2+ in all enzymatic processes.

Chlorophyll
In photosynthetic organisms, Mg2+ has the additional vital role of being the coordinating ion in the chlorophyll molecule. This role was discovered by Richard Willstätter, who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1915 for the purification and structure of chlorophyll binding with sixth number of carbon

Enzymes
The chemistry of the Mg2+ ion, as applied to enzymes, uses the full range of this ion's unusual reaction chemistry to fulfill a range of functions. Mg2+ interacts with substrates, enzymes, and occasionally both (Mg2+ may form part of the active site). In general, Mg2+ interacts with substrates through inner sphere coordination, stabilising anions or reactive intermediates, also including binding to ATP and activating the molecule to nucleophilic attack. When interacting with enzymes and other proteins, Mg2+ may bind using inner or outer sphere coordination, to either alter the conformation of the enzyme or take part in the chemistry of the catalytic reaction. In either case, because Mg2+ is only rarely fully dehydrated during ligand binding, it may be a water molecule associated with the Mg2+ that is important rather than the ion itself. The Lewis acidity of Mg2+ (pKa 11.4) is used to allow both hydrolysis and condensation reactions (most common ones being phosphate ester hydrolysis and phosphoryl transfer) that would otherwise require pH values greatly removed from physiological values.

Essential role in the biological activity of ATP
ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the main source of energy in cells, must be bound to a magnesium ion in order to be biologically active. What is called ATP is often actually Mg-ATP.

Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids have an important range of interactions with Mg2+. The binding of Mg2+ to DNA and RNA stabilises structure; this can be observed in the increased melting temperature (Tm) of double-stranded DNA in the presence of Mg2+. In addition, ribosomes contain large amounts of Mg2+ and the stabilisation provided is essential to the complexation of this ribo-protein. A large number of enzymes involved in the biochemistry of nucleic acids bind Mg2+ for activity, using the ion for both activation and catalysis. Finally, the autocatalysis of many ribozymes (enzymes containing only RNA) is Mg2+ dependent (e.g. the yeast mitochondrial group II self splicing introns ).

Magnesium ions can be critical in maintaining the positional integrity of closely clustered phosphate groups. These clusters appear in numerous and distinct parts of the cell nucleus and cytoplasm. For instance, hexahydrated Mg2+ ions bind in the deep major groove and at the outer mouth of A-form nucleic acid duplexes.

Cell membranes and walls
Biological cell membranes and cell walls are polyanionic surfaces. This has important implications for the transport of ions, in particular because it has been shown that different membranes preferentially bind different ions. Both Mg2+ and Ca2+ regularly stabilize membranes by the cross-linking of carboxylated and phosphorylated head groups of lipids. However, the envelope membrane of E. coli has also been shown to bind Na+, K+, Mn2+ and Fe3+. The transport of ions is dependent on both the concentration gradient of the ion and the electric potential (ΔΨ) across the membrane, which will be affected by the charge on the membrane surface. For example, the specific binding of Mg2+ to the chloroplast envelope has been implicated in a loss of photosynthetic efficiency by the blockage of K+ uptake and the subsequent acidification of the chloroplast stroma.

Proteins
The Mg2+ ion tends to bind only weakly to proteins (Ka ≤ 105 ) and this can be exploited by the cell to switch enzymatic activity on and off by changes in the local concentration of Mg2+. Although the concentration of free cytoplasmic Mg2+ is on the order of 1 mmol/L, the total Mg2+ content of animal cells is 30 mmol/L and in plants the content of leaf endodermal cells has been measured at values as high as 100 mmol/L (Stelzer et al., 1990), much of which buffered in storage compartments. The cytoplasmic concentration of free Mg2+ is buffered by binding to chelators (e.g., ATP), but also, what is more important, it is buffered by storage of Mg2+ in intracellular compartments. The transport of Mg2+ between intracellular compartments may be a major part of regulating enzyme activity. The interaction of Mg2+ with proteins must also be considered for the transport of the ion across biological membranes.

Manganese
In biological systems, only manganese (Mn2+) is readily capable of replacing Mg2+, but only in a limited set of circumstances. Mn2+ is very similar to Mg2+ in terms of its chemical properties, including inner and outer shell complexation. Mn2+ effectively binds ATP and allows hydrolysis of the energy molecule by most ATPases. Mn2+ can also replace Mg2+ as the activating ion for a number of Mg2+-dependent enzymes, although some enzyme activity is usually lost. Sometimes such enzyme metal preferences vary among closely related species: For example, the reverse transcriptase enzyme of lentiviruses like HIV, SIV and FIV is typically dependent on Mg2+, whereas the analogous enzyme for other retroviruses prefers Mn2+.

Importance in drug binding
An article investigating the structural basis of interactions between clinically relevant antibiotics and the 50S ribosome appeared in Nature in October 2001. High-resolution X-ray crystallography established that these antibiotics associate only with the 23S rRNA of a ribosomal subunit, and no interactions are formed with a subunit's protein portion. The article stresses that the results show "the importance of putative Mg2+ ions for the binding of some drugs".

By radioactive isotopes
The use of radioactive tracer elements in ion uptake assays allows the calculation of km, Ki and Vmax and determines the initial change in the ion content of the cells. 28Mg decays by the emission of a high-energy beta or gamma particle, which can be measured using a scintillation counter. However, the radioactive half-life of 28Mg, the most stable of the radioactive magnesium isotopes, is only 21 hours. This severely restricts the experiments involving the nuclide. Also, since 1990, no facility has routinely produced 28Mg, and the price per mCi is now predicted to be approximately US$30,000. The chemical nature of Mg2+ is such that it is closely approximated by few other cations. However, Co2+, Mn2+ and Ni2+ have been used successfully to mimic the properties of Mg2+ in some enzyme reactions, and radioactive forms of these elements have been employed successfully in cation transport studies. The difficulty of using metal ion replacement in the study of enzyme function is that the relationship between the enzyme activities with the replacement ion compared to the original is very difficult to ascertain.

By fluorescent indicators
A number of chelators of divalent cations have different fluorescence spectra in the bound and unbound states. Chelators for Ca2+ are well established, have high affinity for the cation, and low interference from other ions. Mg2+ chelators lag behind and the major fluorescence dye for Mg2+ (mag-fura 2 ) actually has a higher affinity for Ca2+. This limits the application of this dye to cell types where the resting level of Ca2+ is < 1 μM and does not vary with the experimental conditions under which Mg2+ is to be measured. Recently, Otten et al. (2001) have described work into a new class of compounds that may prove more useful, having significantly better binding affinities for Mg2+. The use of the fluorescent dyes is limited to measuring the free Mg2+. If the ion concentration is buffered by the cell by chelation or removal to subcellular compartments, the measured rate of uptake will give only minimum values of km and Vmax.

By electrophysiology
First, ion-specific microelectrodes can be used to measure the internal free ion concentration of cells and organelles. The major advantages are that readings can be made from cells over relatively long periods of time, and that unlike dyes very little extra ion buffering capacity is added to the cells.

Second, the technique of two-electrode voltage-clamp allows the direct measurement of the ion flux across the membrane of a cell. The membrane is held at an electric potential and the responding current is measured. All ions passing across the membrane contribute to the measured current.

Third, the technique of patch-clamp uses isolated sections of natural or artificial membrane in much the same manner as voltage-clamp but without the secondary effects of a cellular system. Under ideal conditions the conductance of individual channels can be quantified. This methodology gives the most direct measurement of the action of ion channels.

By absorption spectroscopy
Flame atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) determines the total magnesium content of a biological sample. This method is destructive; biological samples must be broken down in concentrated acids to avoid clogging the fine nebulising apparatus. Beyond this, the only limitation is that samples must be in a volume of approximately 2 mL and at a concentration range of 0.1 – 0.4 μmol/L for optimum accuracy. As this technique cannot distinguish between Mg2+ already present in the cell and that taken up during the experiment, only content not uptaken can be quantified.

Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) using either the mass spectrometry (MS) or atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) modifications also allows the determination of the total ion content of biological samples. These techniques are more sensitive than flame AAS and are capable of measuring the quantities of multiple ions simultaneously. However, they are also significantly more expensive.

Magnesium transport
The chemical and biochemical properties of Mg2+ present the cellular system with a significant challenge when transporting the ion across biological membranes. The dogma of ion transport states that the transporter recognises the ion then progressively removes the water of hydration, removing most or all of the water at a selective pore before releasing the ion on the far side of the membrane. Due to the properties of Mg2+, large volume change from hydrated to bare ion, high energy of hydration and very low rate of ligand exchange in the inner coordination sphere, these steps are probably more difficult than for most other ions. To date, only the ZntA protein of Paramecium has been shown to be a Mg2+ channel. The mechanisms of Mg2+ transport by the remaining proteins are beginning to be uncovered with the first three-dimensional structure of a Mg2+ transport complex being solved in 2004.

The hydration shell of the Mg2+ ion has a very tightly bound inner shell of six water molecules and a relatively tightly bound second shell containing 12–14 water molecules (Markham et al., 2002). Thus, it is presumed that recognition of the Mg2+ ion requires some mechanism to interact initially with the hydration shell of Mg2+, followed by a direct recognition/binding of the ion to the protein. Due to the strength of the inner sphere complexation between Mg2+ and any ligand, multiple simultaneous interactions with the transport protein at this level might significantly retard the ion in the transport pore. Hence, it is possible that much of the hydration water is retained during transport, allowing the weaker (but still specific) outer sphere coordination.

In spite of the mechanistic difficulty, Mg2+ must be transported across membranes, and a large number of Mg2+ fluxes across membranes from a variety of systems have been described. However, only a small selection of Mg2+ transporters have been characterised at the molecular level.

Ligand ion channel blockade
Magnesium ions (Mg2+) in cellular biology are usually in almost all senses opposite to Ca2+ ions, because they are bivalent too, but have greater electronegativity and thus exert greater pull on water molecules, preventing passage through the channel (even though the magnesium itself is smaller). Thus, Mg2+ ions block Ca2+ channels such as (NMDA channels) and have been shown to affect gap junction channels forming electrical synapses.

Plant physiology of magnesium
The previous sections have dealt in detail with the chemical and biochemical aspects of Mg2+ and its transport across cellular membranes. This section will apply this knowledge to aspects of whole plant physiology, in an attempt to show how these processes interact with the larger and more complex environment of the multicellular organism.

Nutritional requirements and interactions
Mg2+ is essential for plant growth and is present in higher plants in amounts on the order of 80 μmol g−1 dry weight. The amounts of Mg2+ vary in different parts of the plant and are dependent upon nutritional status. In times of plenty, excess Mg2+ may be stored in vascular cells (Stelzer et al., 1990; and in times of starvation Mg2+ is redistributed, in many plants, from older to newer leaves.

Mg2+ is taken up into plants via the roots. Interactions with other cations in the rhizosphere can have a significant effect on the uptake of the ion.(Kurvits and Kirkby, 1980; The structure of root cell walls is highly permeable to water and ions, and hence ion uptake into root cells can occur anywhere from the root hairs to cells located almost in the centre of the root (limited only by the Casparian strip). Plant cell walls and membranes carry a great number of negative charges, and the interactions of cations with these charges is key to the uptake of cations by root cells allowing a local concentrating effect. Mg2+ binds relatively weakly to these charges, and can be displaced by other cations, impeding uptake and causing deficiency in the plant.

Within individual plant cells, the Mg2+ requirements are largely the same as for all cellular life; Mg2+ is used to stabilise membranes, is vital to the utilisation of ATP, is extensively involved in the nucleic acid biochemistry, and is a cofactor for many enzymes (including the ribosome). Also, Mg2+ is the coordinating ion in the chlorophyll molecule. It is the intracellular compartmentalisation of Mg2+ in plant cells that leads to additional complexity. Four compartments within the plant cell have reported interactions with Mg2+. Initially, Mg2+ will enter the cell into the cytoplasm (by an as yet unidentified system), but free Mg2+ concentrations in this compartment are tightly regulated at relatively low levels (≈2 mmol/L) and so any excess Mg2+ is either quickly exported or stored in the second intracellular compartment, the vacuole. The requirement for Mg2+ in mitochondria has been demonstrated in yeast and it seems highly likely that the same will apply in plants. The chloroplasts also require significant amounts of internal Mg2+, and low concentrations of cytoplasmic Mg2+. In addition, it seems likely that the other subcellular organelles (e.g., Golgi, endoplasmic reticulum, etc.) also require Mg2+.

Distributing magnesium ions within the plant
Once in the cytoplasmic space of root cells Mg2+, along with the other cations, is probably transported radially into the stele and the vascular tissue. From the cells surrounding the xylem the ions are released or pumped into the xylem and carried up through the plant. In the case of Mg2+, which is highly mobile in both the xylem and phloem, the ions will be transported to the top of the plant and back down again in a continuous cycle of replenishment. Hence, uptake and release from vascular cells is probably a key part of whole plant Mg2+ homeostasis. Figure 1 shows how few processes have been connected to their molecular mechanisms (only vacuolar uptake has been associated with a transport protein, AtMHX).

The diagram shows a schematic of a plant and the putative processes of Mg2+ transport at the root and leaf where Mg2+ is loaded and unloaded from the vascular tissues. Mg2+ is taken up into the root cell wall space (1) and interacts with the negative charges associated with the cell walls and membranes. Mg2+ may be taken up into cells immediately (symplastic pathway) or may travel as far as the Casparian band (4) before being absorbed into cells (apoplastic pathway; 2). The concentration of Mg2+ in the root cells is probably buffered by storage in root cell vacuoles (3). Note that cells in the root tip do not contain vacuoles. Once in the root cell cytoplasm, Mg2+ travels toward the centre of the root by plasmodesmata, where it is loaded into the xylem (5) for transport to the upper parts of the plant. When the Mg2+ reaches the leaves it is unloaded from the xylem into cells (6) and again is buffered in vacuoles (7). Whether cycling of Mg2+ into the phloem occurs via general cells in the leaf (8) or directly from xylem to phloem via transfer cells (9) is unknown. Mg2+ may return to the roots in the phloem sap.

When a Mg2+ ion has been absorbed by a cell requiring it for metabolic processes, it is generally assumed that the ion stays in that cell for as long as the cell is active. In vascular cells, this is not always the case; in times of plenty, Mg2+ is stored in the vacuole, takes no part in the day-to-day metabolic processes of the cell (Stelzer et al., 1990), and is released at need. But for most cells it is death by senescence or injury that releases Mg2+ and many of the other ionic constituents, recycling them into healthy parts of the plant. In addition, when Mg2+ in the environment is limiting, some species are able to mobilise Mg2+ from older tissues. These processes involve the release of Mg2+ from its bound and stored states and its transport back into the vascular tissue, where it can be distributed to the rest of the plant. In times of growth and development, Mg2+ is also remobilised within the plant as source and sink relationships change.

The homeostasis of Mg2+ within single plant cells is maintained by processes occurring at the plasma membrane and at the vacuole membrane (see Figure 2). The major driving force for the translocation of ions in plant cells is ΔpH. H+-ATPases pump H+ ions against their concentration gradient to maintain the pH differential that can be used for the transport of other ions and molecules. H+ ions are pumped out of the cytoplasm into the extracellular space or into the vacuole. The entry of Mg2+ into cells may occur through one of two pathways, via channels using the ΔΨ (negative inside) across this membrane or by symport with H+ ions. To transport the Mg2+ ion into the vacuole requires a Mg2+/H+ antiport transporter (such as AtMHX). The H+-ATPases are dependent on Mg2+ (bound to ATP) for activity, so that Mg2+ is required to maintain its own homeostasis.

A schematic of a plant cell is shown including the four major compartments currently recognised as interacting with Mg2+. H+-ATPases maintain a constant ΔpH across the plasma membrane and the vacuole membrane. Mg2+ is transported into the vacuole using the energy of ΔpH (in A. thaliana by AtMHX). Transport of Mg2+ into cells may use either the negative ΔΨ or the ΔpH. The transport of Mg2+ into mitochondria probably uses ΔΨ as in the mitochondria of yeast, and it is likely that chloroplasts take Mg2+ by a similar system. The mechanism and the molecular basis for the release of Mg2+ from vacuoles and from the cell is not known. Likewise, the light-regulated Mg2+ concentration changes in chloroplasts are not fully understood, but do require the transport of H+ ions across the thylakoid membrane.

Magnesium, chloroplasts and photosynthesis
Mg2+ is the coordinating metal ion in the chlorophyll molecule, and in plants where the ion is in high supply about 6% of the total Mg2+ is bound to chlorophyll. Thylakoid stacking is stabilised by Mg2+ and is important for the efficiency of photosynthesis, allowing phase transitions to occur.

Mg2+ is probably taken up into chloroplasts to the greatest extent during the light-induced development from proplastid to chloroplast or etioplast to chloroplast. At these times, the synthesis of chlorophyll and the biogenesis of the thylakoid membrane stacks absolutely require the divalent cation.

Whether Mg2+ is able to move into and out of chloroplasts after this initial developmental phase has been the subject of several conflicting reports. Deshaies et al. (1984) found that Mg2+ did move in and out of isolated chloroplasts from young pea plants, but Gupta and Berkowitz (1989) were unable to reproduce the result using older spinach chloroplasts. Deshaies et al. had stated in their paper that older pea chloroplasts showed less significant changes in Mg2+ content than those used to form their conclusions. The relative proportion of immature chloroplasts present in the preparations may explain these observations.

The metabolic state of the chloroplast changes considerably between night and day. During the day, the chloroplast is actively harvesting the energy of light and converting it into chemical energy. The activation of the metabolic pathways involved comes from the changes in the chemical nature of the stroma on the addition of light. H+ is pumped out of the stroma (into both the cytoplasm and the lumen) leading to an alkaline pH. Mg2+ (along with K+) is released from the lumen into the stroma, in an electroneutralisation process to balance the flow of H+. Finally, thiol groups on enzymes are reduced by a change in the redox state of the stroma. Examples of enzymes activated in response to these changes are fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, sedoheptulose bisphosphatase and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase. During the dark period, if these enzymes were active a wasteful cycling of products and substrates would occur.

Two major classes of the enzymes that interact with Mg2+ in the stroma during the light phase can be identified. Firstly, enzymes in the glycolytic pathway most often interact with two atoms of Mg2+. The first atom is as an allosteric modulator of the enzymes' activity, while the second forms part of the active site and is directly involved in the catalytic reaction. The second class of enzymes includes those where the Mg2+ is complexed to nucleotide di- and tri-phosphates (ADP and ATP), and the chemical change involves phosphoryl transfer. Mg2+ may also serve in a structural maintenance role in these enzymes (e.g., enolase).

Magnesium stress
Plant stress responses can be observed in plants that are under- or over-supplied with Mg2+. The first observable signs of Mg2+ stress in plants for both starvation and toxicity is a depression of the rate of photosynthesis, it is presumed because of the strong relationships between Mg2+ and chloroplasts/chlorophyll. In pine trees, even before the visible appearance of yellowing and necrotic spots, the photosynthetic efficiency of the needles drops markedly. In Mg2+ deficiency, reported secondary effects include carbohydrate immobility, loss of RNA transcription and loss of protein synthesis. However, due to the mobility of Mg2+ within the plant, the deficiency phenotype may be present only in the older parts of the plant. For example, in Pinus radiata starved of Mg2+, one of the earliest identifying signs is the chlorosis in the needles on the lower branches of the tree. This is because Mg2+ has been recovered from these tissues and moved to growing (green) needles higher in the tree.

A Mg2+ deficit can be caused by the lack of the ion in the media (soil), but more commonly comes from inhibition of its uptake. Mg2+ binds quite weakly to the negatively charged groups in the root cell walls, so that excesses of other cations such as K+, NH4+, Ca2+, and Mn2+ can all impede uptake.(Kurvits and Kirkby, 1980; In acid soils Al3+ is a particularly strong inhibitor of Mg2+ uptake. The inhibition by Al3+ and Mn2+ is more severe than can be explained by simple displacement, hence it is possible that these ions bind to the Mg2+ uptake system directly. In bacteria and yeast, such binding by Mn2+ has already been observed. Stress responses in the plant develop as cellular processes halt due to a lack of Mg2+ (e.g. maintenance of ΔpH across the plasma and vacuole membranes). In Mg2+-starved plants under low light conditions, the percentage of Mg2+ bound to chlorophyll has been recorded at 50%. Presumably, this imbalance has detrimental effects on other cellular processes.

Mg2+ toxicity stress is more difficult to develop. When Mg2+ is plentiful, in general the plants take up the ion and store it (Stelzer et al., 1990). However, if this is followed by drought then ionic concentrations within the cell can increase dramatically. High cytoplasmic Mg2+ concentrations block a K+ channel in the inner envelope membrane of the chloroplast, in turn inhibiting the removal of H+ ions from the chloroplast stroma. This leads to an acidification of the stroma that inactivates key enzymes in carbon fixation, which all leads to the production of oxygen free radicals in the chloroplast that then cause oxidative damage.

title: Magnesium in biology


text:
Talk:Military history of the Philippines

Transfer
The material from this page was transferred to the more appropriate Talk:Military history of the Philippines during World War II. --Noypi380 14:59, 30 October 2005 (UTC)

B-class, really?
Hey, this article lacks a lot of conflicts involving Philippine history(ex. Philippine revolts against Spain, Islamic Insurgency in the Philippines, New People's Army insurgency). Can anyon improve it?--23prootie 03:30, 3 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Be bold!. Edit and improve as you see fit. :) --Noypi380 10:49, 3 July 2006 (UTC)

Needed: Japanese occupation of the Philippines (1941-1945)
Hi. The Military history of the Philippines during World War II article is very sketchy and on its page there is a red link for an article about the Japanese occupation of the Philippines (1941-1945) a very important subject that is still needed as there are already articles about: the Japanese occupation of Burma; Japanese occupation of Hong Kong; Japanese occupation of Indonesia; Japanese occupation of Malaya, North Borneo and Sarawak and Japanese occupation of Singapore, so this gap is glaring. Anyone with and interest or expertise in this topic is welcome to start writing it. Thank you, IZAK (talk) 11:34, 28 December 2007 (UTC)

World War I
According to one history book, the colonial government donated one destroyer and one submarine to the US Navy during the Great War. Can anyone out there name these vessels? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 124.107.159.125 (talk) 10:10, 2 May 2008 (UTC)

See Filipinos in the French military and Filipinos WW1 US Military Service for additional information about Filipinos in World War 1. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 124.107.159.125 (talk) 09:50, 11 November 2008 (UTC)

The site about Filipinos in US military service during World War I, which has information about Filipinos in the Hawaii National Guard, is interesting but does not include any information about the Philippine National Guard. It should be recalled that during WW1 the Philippines and Hawaii were equal in status: they were both American colonies. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 121.96.178.84 (talk) 10:07, 25 November 2008 (UTC)

Regarding the 23 Filipinos who served in the French Foreign Legion during the Great War: It is likely that they all served in Europe during the war, because the only deployment of the Foreign Legion outside Europe in the 1914-1918 period was in Morocco. Almost all of the Legionnaires deployed in North Africa at that time came from countries of the Central Powers, because they obviously could not be expected to fight against their own side. By the way, these 23 Filipinos outnumber those Filipinos who served in the American Expeditionary Force, who numbered about 10.

— Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.105.76.54 (talk) 07:59, 9 October 2021 (UTC)

When the United States entered the First World War (1914-1918) to fight Germany, the Filipinos stopped their agitation for independence and cooperated with the American government in its war effort.

The Philippine Legislature organized the National Militia to train Filipino soldiers for service in the war. It offered 25,000 men to fight in Europe. About 6,000 Filipinos joined the United States Navy. In Hawaii more than 4,000 Filipinos, who could very well have claimed exemption under the citizenship clause of the draft law, insisted on joining the United States Army. Many Filipinos actually fought in France under the American flag. One of them was Private Tomas Claudio, who died gallantly in France on June 29, 1918.

Filipino citizens contributed P1,000,000 to the American Red Cross fund and subscribed about P40,000,000 in Liberty Bonds. Moreover, they offered to the United States Government a submarine and a destroyer for use in the war. They showed their loyalty to America in every possible way.

Zaide, Gregorio F. Philippine History:  Development of Our Nation. Manila: Bookman, 1960.

Prior to World War I the station was the largest U.S. Marine Corps training facility in the world and most of the U.S. marines who fought in World War I secured training at Subic Naval Station.

United States Information Service. Background on the Bases: American Military Facilities in the Philippines. 1986. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 119.93.253.199 (talk) 10:50, 19 November 2017 (UTC)

There are some streets in Metro Manila that bear names associated with World War I:
 * Mandaluyong: Haig; Pershing (now Romualdez); and Cpl. York (now Magalona).
 * San Juan: Allenby; Argonne; Arras; T. Claudio; Clemenceau (now P. Guevarra); Hoover; Joffre (now Ibuna); Kitchener (now C. M. Recto); Liège; L. George; Marne (now G. Ocampo); Maude; Mons (now E. Maclang); Soissons; Somme; Verdun (now Reraon); and Wilson.  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 119.93.253.199 (talk) 11:19, 19 November 2017 (UTC)

The streets listed above were within a 1930s suburban residential area known as Addition Hills Subdivision, which was managed by P. D. Carman Co., Ltd., a real estate company. An American businessman, Philip Durkee Carman was its managing partner. He had served in the US Army in WWI as a captain and a major, which explains why this area's streets bear names associated with a war in which America was a belligerent. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.3.27.206 (talk) 04:51, 11 February 2021 (UTC)

The University of the Philippines Los Baños commemorates Loyalty Day, which has its origins in the Great War. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 119.93.253.199 (talk) 14:06, 23 September 2018 (UTC)

On 9 November 1917, the S.S. Rizal which was a Tabacalera-owned cargo ship, was sunk by German submarine SM UB-50. The following year the Philippines donated a destroyer also named for Rizal to the US Navy. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 119.93.253.199 (talk) 14:58, 29 September 2018 (UTC)

The opening of the Constabulary School in 1905 and the gradual Filipinization of the PC officer corps proved to be a wise and timely move on the part of the American military authorities. The replacement of American regular army officers by Filipino officers in the PC was hastened by the outbreak of World War I. When the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies, most of the American officers detailed to the Constabulary were recalled to their mother units in the U.S. Regular Army and the vacancies left by them were of necessity filled by Filipinos.

Among the American PC officers who joined the U.S. Expeditionary Forces to France were Generals Henry T. Allen, James G. Harbord, Harry H. Bandholtz, William C. Rivers and Herman Hall who, at one time or another served as PC Chief. All of the above-named generals served as general officers in World War I.

Another factor which hastened the Filipinization of the officer corps of the PC was the withdrawal of the longevity or "fogey" pay and all the extra compensation for dialect and special services. When these were withdrawn and the officers' base pay was reduced in 1916, many American officers then still with the PC left the service and joined American commercial establishments in Manila while others set up their own businesses.

The rapid Filipinization of the PC officer corps triggered a veritable race to the top position of Chief among the senior Filipino officers. The first Filipino officer to reach the top post in the insular police force was Brig. Gen. Rafael Crame, who was named PC Chief in December 1917. He served as PC Chief for some 10 years, the longest ever in the history of the Constabulary.

Philippine Constabulary: 75 Years of Service to the Nation.

The Philippines, which in World War I was an American colony, had its own versions of the Victory Medal. There was a Philippine Constabulary Victory Medal, as well as a Philippine National Guard Victory Medal. According to one source, each medal had two different ribbons. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 119.93.253.199 (talk) 12:38, 1 February 2019 (UTC)

The Great War victory medals of the Philippines, which in World War I was merely an American colony, are comparable to American WWI state service medals such as the Maryland World War I Service Medal and the New York World War I Service Medal, rather than the Victory Medal issued by various countries. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.3.27.206 (talk) 10:30, 18 February 2021 (UTC)

The Philippines wasn't the only colony that issued a victory medal, South Africa also had its own victory medal. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 112.203.224.25 (talk) 05:22, 5 June 2022 (UTC)

". . . during World War I . . . German raiders [in the Philippines were supplied] with fuel and food."

Shalom, Stephen Rosskamm. The United States and the Philippines: A Study of Neocolonialism. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1981; reprint ed., Quezon City:  New Day Publishers, 1986. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 120.28.144.251 (talk) 15:05, 16 February 2020 (UTC)

Anzac Day, which has its origins in World War I, is commemorated annually in the Philippines by the embassies of Australia and New Zealand. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.3.27.247 (talk) 09:08, 11 December 2022 (UTC)

Today [1920s], American domination is so firmly established that peace in the archipelago is maintained by only 12,000 American soldiers and 5,000 Filipino scouts. The Constabulary, which is at the disposal of the Philippine government, has never been utilized for repressive police operations, and the need for the Constabulary is nowhere in evidence.

During the [world] war, the Filipinos displayed perfect loyalty, and despite the withdrawal of the American garrison, the government in Washington did not have the slightest fear of an uprising.

Crokaert, Jacques. "Americans in the Philippines." In From Revolution to a Second Colonization: The Philippines under Spain and the United States, pp. 44-60. Translated by Marietta E. Guerrero. Manila: National Historical Institute, 1990. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.3.27.206 (talk) 05:43, 4 February 2024 (UTC)

Other effects of the World War

 * The Muslim-American conflict finally ended in 1917. At that time America entered the First World War "to make the world safe for democracy," and American troops in Mindanao and Sulu were evacuated to fight the Germans in Europe.
 * In 1914 the pensionado system was abolished owing to the First World War, but it was revived in 1919.  (see Pensionado Act)
 * During and after the First World War our commerce and trade expanded. With the resulting material prosperity came more labor activity.  On May 1, 1919, the Federacion del Trabajo de las Filipinas was organized.  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.105.136.212 (talk) 02:16, 30 December 2022 (UTC)
 * The Great War created a shortage of currency in the Philippine Islands.
 * In 1916 the importation of foreign-made products declined by about 8 percent as a result of the effect that the European War had on European industries.
 * The Kaiser War caused a rise in the price of rice in the Philippine Islands.
 * The sugar boom of World War I caused an increase in the population of Iloilo City, which was a sugar entrepôt.
 * In the Western Visayas region, foreign capital investments during World War I provided the finance for construction of large centrifugal sugar factories, called centrals, and effectively industrialized the milling sector of the region's sugar industry. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.3.27.247 (talk) 07:32, 26 March 2023 (UTC)

Sources consulted

 * Hofileña, Saul Jr. Under the Stacks.  Manila:  N.p., 2011.
 * McCoy, Alfred W., and de Jesus, Ed. C., eds. Philippine Social History:  Global Trade and Local Transformations.  Asian Studies Association of Australia Southeast Asia Publications Series, no. 7.  Quezon City:  Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1982.
 * Zaide, Gregorio F. Philippine History:  Development of Our Nation.  Manila:  Bookman, 1960.

The Philippines during Vietnam War
Was the "Philippine Civil Affairs Assistance Group" an alternate name for the Philippine Civic Action Group, Vietnam, or the name doesn't exist at all? Kevzspeare (talk) 06:04, 11 October 2009 (UTC)

Blanking of the "Philippine Revolution (1896-1898)" section
I've blanked this section. It was supported by a link to an archived article at http://web.archive.org/web/20060105090248/http://www.ncca.gov.ph/culture&arts/cularts/heritage/research/research-history.htm. A live version of that article is at http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?igm=2&i=190. The section was a near-copypaste of the page at that URL, with some apparent not-WP:NPOV and apparent WP:original research changes (e.g., "charged with sedition and treason" changed to "falsely charged with sedition and treason", "$400,000" changed to "$800,000", perhaps others). Wtmitchell (talk) (earlier Boracay Bill) 08:30, 14 June 2011 (UTC)

 * Well spotted. Nick-D (talk) 08:34, 14 June 2011 (UTC)

Lacking lots of Visayan revolts and military campaigns
Lacking Visayan revolts and campaigns. To name a few:

1) Juan Diyo march in Cebu 2) Tamblot Revolt 3) Bankaw Revolt 4) Dagohoy Revolt 5) Babaylan Revolt 6) Negros Revolution 7) Pacification of Bohol 8) Cebu Revolution — Preceding unsigned comment added by 222.127.146.86 (talk) 18:07, 28 May 2013 (UTC)

Battle of Mactan Miseducation
The so called "Battle of Mactan" was not a war against foreign aggressors as pop historians love to point out. It was a "battle" between tribes: that of Rajah Humabon and Datu Zula, against Lapu-lapu. Rajah Humabon asked his newly found "allies", the Spaniards, to attack Lapu-Lapu's tribe and in the process help in subjugating them.

This was never a battle for freedom, it was merely a tribal war wherein one side was assisted by the Spaniards.--Arius1988 (talk) 04:34, 9 February 2016 (UTC)

Orphaned references in Military history of the Philippines
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Filipinos in ETO
According to Gregorio Zaide, apart from Isidro Paredes serving in Europe in World War II, "Procopio Matayabas, a Filipino guitarist, served in General Montgomery's British Eighth Army during the North African and European campaigns. He survived the war.  Manuel Varga, member of the anti-aircraft gun crew of the USS Altair, was killed during the Normandy landing in June, 1943.  Alberto Galza, boatswain of the USS Delisle, risked his life on two occasions—in 1942 and 1943—and saved the life of his superior officer when the ship was torpedoed twice in the Atlantic.  In recognition of his heroism, he was awarded on February 18, 1945, the Distinguished Service Medal of the U.S. Merchant Marine.  The most decorated Filipino who fought on the European soil was First-Class Private Ramon Subejano, a sharpshooter of General George Patton's Army. He was credited to have killed 400 Germans. He survived the war, like Galza and Matayabas. He holds numerous decorations from the American, Belgian, and French Governments, including the Silver Star, the Bronze Star, the Purple Heart, and the Combat Infantryman's Badge." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 119.93.253.199 (talk) 09:51, 9 September 2018 (UTC)

There were also Filipinos who served in the Atlantic with the U.S. Coast Guard.

Additionally, there are unconfirmed reports that some Filipinos and other Asians such as Koreans serving in the Japanese military were captured by the Soviets, and were conscripted into the Soviet military and were sent to the west to fight the Germans. These Filipinos were then captured by the Germans and conscripted into the German military. See Ostlegionen.

Filipino-Australians in WWII
Some Australians of Filipino ancestry served in the Australian military during World War II. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 119.93.253.199 (talk) 14:11, 23 September 2018 (UTC)

Filipino auxiliaries, mercenaries, soldiers of fortune, volunteers, etc.
List of foreign volunteers 122.3.27.247 (talk) 05:57, 21 July 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Djivan Gasparyan

Djivan Gasparyan (var. Jivan Gasparyan; Ջիվան Գասպարյան, ; 12 October 1928 – 6 July 2021) was an Armenian musician and composer. He played the duduk, a double reed woodwind instrument related to the orchestral oboe. Gasparyan is known as the "Master of the duduk". In 2006 he was nominated for Grammy awards for the Best Traditional World Music Album.

Biography
Born in Solak, Armenia, to parents from Mush, Gasparyan started to play duduk when he was six. In 1948, he became a soloist of the Armenian Song and Dance Popular Ensemble and the Yerevan Philharmonic Orchestra.

He won four medals at UNESCO worldwide competitions (1959, 1962, 1973, and 1980). In 1973 Gasparyan was awarded the honorary title People's Artist of Armenia. In 2002, he received the WOMEX (World Music Expo) Lifetime Achievement Award. He is a Honorary citizen of Yerevan.

A professor at the Yerevan State Musical Conservatory, he instructed and nurtured many performers to professional levels of performance in duduk. In 1998, he released an album with a unique duduk quartet he formed. Creating arrangements for four musicians with "new duduk tones, alto and bass, was an extremely difficult task" and challenge, but the quartet did become a reality performing and "there is no other like it in the world", he witnessed in the liner notes of Nazeli. He toured the world several times with a small ensemble playing Armenian folk music. His music has been chosen on the soundtrack of several international films.

He collaborated with many artists, such as Sting, Peter Gabriel, Hossein Alizadeh, Erkan Oğur, Michael Brook, Brian May, Lionel Richie, Derek Sherinian, Roman Miroshnichenko, Ludovico Einaudi, Boris Grebenshchikov, Brian Eno, David Sylvian, Hans Zimmer, and Andreas Vollenweider. He also recorded with the Kronos Quartet and the Los Angeles Philharmonic.

Gasparyan played as part of the Armenian entry "Apricot Stone" by Eva Rivas at the 2010 Eurovision Song Contest in Oslo and became the oldest ever person to feature in a Eurovision Song Contest performance, but was not officially listed as a guest artist.

Death and legacy
Gasparyan died on 6 July 2021, aged 92. It was announced by his grandson, Djivan Gasparyan Jr. He said "The world has suffered an unimaginable loss tonight. He was not only a legend, but also a person with a beautiful soul. I write with great sorrow about my huge loss. May God keep your soul in the bright sky."

Peter Gabriel called Gasparyan "the great master of the instrument." He added, "When he lifted his duduk to his lips he cast a spell over all who listened."

Gasparyan was highly recognized by the Armenian government. On his 90th birthday, Armenia's Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan congratulated Gasparyan, stating: "Our people and music lovers around the world have already ranked you among the world’s great musicians. As a living legend, you are a credit to all Armenians." Upon his death, President Armen Sarkissian described him as a "legendary duduk player" who was "one of the pillars of our modern culture, whose name is associated with the creative and working activities of musicians, especially a whole generation of duduk players." Pashinyan called him "an exceptional Armenian intellectual and ranked him among the Greats of the world art; we were proud and inspired by him."

Catholicos Karekin II, leader of the Armenian Apostolic Church, sent a letter of condolences to his family. "For decades, he performed the gems of the Armenian music on many stages in Armenia and abroad, serving the grateful mission of recognizing and spreading our culture," read the statement.

Discography

 * Duduk. Armenian folk songs (Мелодия / Melody, 1983) / I Will Not Be Sad in This World (All Saints Records, 1989)
 * Moon Shines at Night (All Saints Records, 1993)
 * Ask Me No Questions (Traditional Crossroads 4268, 1994)
 * Apricots From Eden (Traditional Crossroads 4276, 1996)
 * Salute (1998)
 * Black Rock, with Michael Brook (Realworld 46230, 1998)
 * Djivan Gasparyan Quartet - Nazeli (Libra Music 1998)
 * Heavenly Duduk (Network 1999)
 * Armenian Fantasies (Network 34801, 2000)
 * Nazani (2001)
 * Fuad, with Erkan Oğur (Traditional Turkish & Armenian songs) (2001)
 * In My World, I Have No Pain (World Records - Parseghian Records, 2002)
 * Endless Vision: Persian And Armenian Songs, with Hossein Alizadeh (World Village, Harmonia Mundi, 2005)
 * Nectar for the Bitter World (2007)
 * The Soul of Armenia (Network Medien's double-CD package 2008)
 * Penumbra, with Michael Brook (Canadian Rational/bigHelium, 2008)

Collaborations as guest artist
 * Dead Bees on a Cake, David Sylvian; (Gasparyan appears on the track 'Darkest Dreaming')
 * Cosmopoly, as guest of Andreas Vollenweider (EDEL Records, SLG Records (USA/Canada)
 * Naked Spirit, special guest of Sainkho, 1998
 * Eden Roc, Ludovico Einaudi, (1999) (Gasparyan appears on 3 tracks)
 * Free Fall, Jesse Cook (Narada, 2000) (Gasparyan appears on the track "Incantation")
 * Blood of the Snake, Derek Sherinian (2006) (Gasparyan appears on the track "Prelude To Battle")
 * RockPaperScissors, Michael Brook (EQR 0006, 2006) (Gasparyan appears on track "Pasadena part two")
 * Pangea with Lian Ensemble (Houman Pourmehdi & Piraye Pourafar), Swapan Chaudhuri and Miroslav Tadić (Lian Records 118, 2006)
 * Lightpost EP by The Apex Theory featuring Djivan Gasparyan (2007)

Selection of film soundtrack contributions
 * The Crow, soundtrack (1994)
 * The Siege, soundtrack (1998)
 * Ronin, soundtrack (1998)
 * Gladiator: More Music From the Motion Picture, soundtrack 2000
 * Syriana, soundtrack (2005)
 * Blood Diamond, soundtrack (2006)
 * Samsara, soundtrack (2011) (as Dijan Gasparyan)

title: Djivan Gasparyan


text:
Boa (genus)

Boa is a genus of boas found in Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central and South America. Five extant species, and one extinct, are currently recognized.

Etymology
The Online Etymology Dictionary says that the word comes from the "late 14c., "large snake," from Latin boa, type of large serpent mentioned in Pliny's "Natural History;" origin unknown (in medieval folk etymology the name was associated with Greek bous "ox")."

Species

 * ) Not including the nominate subspecies.

Distribution and habitat
Boa species are found in northern Mexico through Central America (Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama) to South America north of 35°S (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil, Bolivia, Uruguay and Argentina). One species is present in the Lesser Antilles (Dominica and St. Lucia), on San Andrés, Providencia and many other islands along the Caribbean coasts of Mexico and Central and South America.

Taxonomy
Kluge (1991) moved the genera Sanzinia and Acrantophis into Boa, based on a phylogeny derived from morphological characters. However, it has since been shown that the Malagasy boids and Boa constrictor do not form a monophyletic group, and the lumping of Sanzinia, Acrantophis and Boa was, therefore, an error. These snakes are therefore correctly represented in their own genera: Sanzinia and Acrantophis.

To add further to the naming confusion, many species of snake in the family Boidae are known colloquially as "boas". Also, four subspecies of B. constrictor are recognized, each with a distinct common name.

title: Boa (genus)


text:
PPE

PPE may refer to:

Medicine, science and technology

 * Personal protective equipment, against injury or infection
 * Palmoplantar erythema, peeling of skin from the palms
 * Perturbed physics ensemble, or perturbed parameter ensemble, climate ensembles in climate change research
 * Polyphenyl ether, a class of polymers
 * Poly(p-phenylene oxide), a high-temperature thermoplastic
 * Power and Propulsion Element, a solar electric Lunar Gateway space station module
 * Premium Platform Electric, a modular car platform
 * Pruritic papular eruption of HIV disease
 * Preparticipation physical evaluation, a physical examination of an athlete

Computing

 * Power Processing Element, a PowerPC implementation
 * PCBoard Program Executable, for the PCBoard BBS

Other uses

 * Philosophy, politics and economics, an academic programme
 * Property, plant and equipment (PP&E) in accounting
 * Mar de Cortés International Airport (IATA code), Mexico
 * Permitted paid engagement, in the visa policy of the United Kingdom

title: PPE


text:
Polish alphabet

The Polish alphabet (Polish: alfabet polski, abecadło) is the script of the Polish language, the basis for the Polish system of orthography. It is based on the Latin alphabet but includes certain letters (9) with diacritics: the acute accent (kreska; ); the overdot (kropka; ); the tail or ogonek ; and the stroke. ,, and , which are used only in foreign words, are usually absent from the Polish alphabet. However, prior to the standardization of Polish spelling, was sometimes used in place of, and  in place of.

Modified variations of the Polish alphabet are used for writing Silesian and Kashubian, whereas the Sorbian languages use a mixture of Polish and Czech orthography.

Letters: aspect, name, value
There are 32 letters in the Polish alphabet: 9 vowels and 23 consonants.

,, and are not used in any native Polish words and are mostly found in foreign words (such as place names) and commercial names. In loanwords they are usually replaced by, , and , respectively (as in nikab 'niqab', kwark 'quark', weranda 'veranda', sawanna 'savanna', ekstra 'extra', oksymoron 'oxymoron'), although some loanwords retain their original spelling (e.g., quiz, virga), and in a few cases both spellings are accepted (such as veto or weto, volt or wolt). In addition, they can occasionally be found in common abbreviations (e.g., ksiądz 'priest' can be abbreviated as either or ). As a result, they are sometimes included in the Polish alphabet (bringing the total number of letters in the alphabet to 35); when included, they take their usual positions from the Latin alphabet ( after ; and  either side of ).

The following table lists the letters of the alphabet, their Polish names (see also Names of letters below), the Polish spelling alphabet name, the Polish phonemes which they usually represent (and rough equivalents for them), other possible pronunciations, and letter frequencies. Diacritics are shown for the sake of clarity. For more information about the sounds, see Polish phonology.

 * For English speakers who end the word with a nasal vowel and not a consonant.
 * Sequences may be pronounced as geminates.
 * is sometimes transcribed phonetically as ⟨ɪ⟩, though it is phonetically.

was historically used in native words prior to the 1891 spelling reform by the Academy of Learning, e.g., cztéry, papiéż (now cztery 'four', papież 'pope'). Now it is used in some loanwords, e.g., attaché, exposé, chargé d’affaires.

For digraphs and other rules about spelling and the corresponding pronunciations, see Polish orthography.

Names of letters
The spoken Polish names of the letters are given in the table under Letters above.

The names of the letters are not normally written out in the way shown above, except as part of certain lexicalized abbreviations, such as Pekao (or PeKaO), the name of a bank, which represents the spoken form of the abbreviation P.K.O. (for Polska Kasa Opieki).

Some letters may be referred to in alternative ways, often consisting of just the sound of the letter. For example, may be called y rather than igrek (from 'Greek i').

When giving the spelling of words, certain letters may be said in more emphatic ways to distinguish them from other identically pronounced characters. For example, may be referred to as samo ha ('h alone') to distinguish it from  (ce ha). may be called żet z kropką or zet z kropką ('z with an overdot') to distinguish it from (er zet). may be called u otwarte ('open u', a reference to its graphical form) or u zwykłe ('normal u') to distinguish it from, which is sometimes called u zamknięte ('closed u') or ó kreskowane, o kreskowane, o z kreską ('dashed ó', 'dashed o', 'o with a dash').

Alphabetical order
Polish alphabetical ordering uses the order of letters as in the table under Letters above.

Note that (unlike in languages such as French, Spanish, and German) Polish letters with diacritics are treated as fully independent letters in alphabetical ordering. For example, być comes after bycie. The accented letters also have their own sections in dictionaries (words beginning with are not usually listed under ).

Digraphs are not given any special treatment in alphabetical ordering. For example, is treated simply as  followed by  and not as a single letter as in Czech.

Computer encoding
There are several systems for encoding the Polish alphabet for computers. All letters of the Polish alphabet are included in Unicode, and thus Unicode-based encodings such as UTF-8 and UTF-16 can be used. The Polish alphabet is completely included in the Basic Multilingual Plane of Unicode. The standard 8-bit character encoding for the Polish alphabet is ISO 8859-2 (Latin-2), although both ISO 8859-13 (Latin-7) and ISO 8859-16 (Latin-10) encodings include glyphs of the Polish alphabet. Microsoft's format for encoding the Polish alphabet is Windows-1250.

The Polish letters which are not present in the English alphabet have the following HTML codes and Unicode codepoints:

For other encodings, see Polish code pages, but also Combining Diacritical Marks Unicode block.

A common test sentence containing all the Polish diacritic letters is the nonsensical Zażółć gęślą jaźń ('Yellow the ego with/of a gusle').

title: Polish alphabet


text:
Talk:Lancaster, California

Old comments
Let it be known that on November 25, 2003 the new monster server passed through Lancaster, California on its way to Wikipedia computer HQ.

cool!

History Section coming soon.... --Anon 06:49, Feb 17, 2005 (UTC)

Those messages are a bit difficult to decipher.

hopiakuta 16:29, 2 October 2006 (UTC)

Who's the douchenozzle Republican who keeps burying facts about Lancaster? ARNOLD RODIO WAS THE FIRST MAYOR, NOT KLIENER! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Desertbob (talk • contribs) 05:36, 10 June 2013 (UTC)

Lancaster
It looks like the business bureau has written this description of Lancaster for Wikipedia. There needs to be mention of a few of the social ills Lancaster has. Which are many. There is a lot of gang activity. There is a lot of drug use. It may say on paper that a majority own their own homes, but a lot of these homes are rented out. People buy the homes cheap and then rent them which does nothing for neighborhood cohesion let alone appearance. There is a lot of dumping. Lancaster is low-rent; it feels that way and looks that way. Get real. - signed by anon IP

Indeed, "Car Wreck" Parris, the "big frog in a little pond" lawyer and mayor, has had his minions policing Wackypedia, weeding out all the bad stuff that is true. Lancaster is listed as one of the 100 most dangerous cities in the US, and its principle industry right now is welfare. The place is a sewer by anyones' standards except for the ghetto trash that are moving in here every month in a flotilla of U-Hauls. All these latest "fluff" edits MUST be regressed back to the real truth. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Desertbob (talk • contribs) 05:29, 10 June 2013 (UTC)

 * Lancaster and its neighbor Palmdale are victims of its own success as a "cheap" housing tract and the economic downturns it suffered seems to be stronger felt than in L.A. or the coast/beach cities. Many real estate property prices are low because it has "no scenery" (facing north is flatland and desolate), and the reputation of Lancaster-Palmdale as a hotbed of biker gangs, far-rightists, Neo-Nazi skinheads, meth labs in homesteads, antisocial types, paroled sex offenders and mentally ill patients on halfway house supervision. Lancaster has lots of rural outskirts: trailer parks, boarded up homes, decrepit apartment "duplexes" and a sense of isolation seems to attract an "underclass" element fleeing rising home prices in L.A. in the last quarter a century, and same goes to Palmdale, the city known for "gang wars" and "bored out kids" by parents driving 60 miles to work in slave-wage "to be laidoff" jobs. To be honest, I don't hate Lancaster, Palmdale or the general High Desert area, there's a need to improve living standards, create more good-paying jobs (not just NASA or US Armed forces) and to take civic pride in making the Antelope Valley "their home" not a "welfare project" or an abandoned middle-class suburban community it has become in a short 30 years time. + 71.102.3.86 (talk) 01:06, 21 July 2009 (UTC)

i live in lancaster plz ask me about it. i live near 60th W and Ave L. I dont get out much because it's a hell hole though. btw why am i one out of two comments here??
 * You should get out more...it really isn't that much of a hell hole...and QH is actually quite nice (except during flood season!) Akradecki 14:58, 30 October 2006 (UTC)
 * What? Why? I don't think he'd wanna get freaking SHOT. How can you say that when it's a cesspool of gang activity? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.130.199.76 (talk) 23:57, 25 March 2008 (UTC)

 * Quartz Hill used to be a great place to live when it had groves, fields, ranches, cleaner air, a sense of openness, a sense of community and wasn't viewed as a "downscale" place to relocate street gangsters. My how it has changed since 1988-89 in the first decade of the real estate "boom" when homes costed on average $150,000 (cheap) before it inflated 3 times the price and only came crashing down since the real estate bubble burst in 2006-07. Quartz Hill is where I heard stories of white and black, Latino and Asian, Jewish and Christian, and conservative and liberal neighbors are accusing each other for the decline of community, which is like a repeat of what taken place in South-central L.A. with Compton, Inglewood, Lynwood and Willowbrook in the 1960's/70's all over. Youth gangs moved up to Quartz Hill in 1990-95, since the poverty-stricken families received (bad) home loans and the impact of L.A. riots of 1992 drove out large numbers of blacks, followed by Mexican immigration arrived as housing construction workers and finally the reactionary rural white stereotypes complained loudly on Quartz Hill is now "ghetto". I find it tragic and ironic on what taken place in Lancaster/ Palmdale when suburban "escapees" in the 80s were followed by the things they feared. + 71.102.3.86 (talk) 01:15, 21 July 2009 (UTC)

There used to be a subheading mentioning the Jethawks and a picture of the stadium. Where did they go? Whomever edited this article needs to go and put that info back on the page. It is an important part of Lancaster and possibly an important reference point for the city for outsiders. Someone should also go and get a photo of the fairgrounds as well.

The info is still there, it's in the Recreation and culture section. The JetHawks is such a small paragraph linking to their own wikipedia article that a separate heading isn't really appropriate. Good point on the stadium pic, though, I think I've got one that I can add. Will have to go dig it out. Akradecki 19:08, 17 January 2007 (UTC)

Please remember that Wikipedia strives to offer information from a neutral point of view. This is a place to report facts, rather than to offer your opinion on them; the point of the article is not to give vent to anyone's opinion for whether, or why, or how, the city has troubles. There are things about our community I'm not happy about either, but this is not the forum for airing those grievances.198.72.160.7 (talk) 13:42, 22 April 2016 (UTC)Burt Likko

Ethnic demographics
(moving question erroneously posted at top to here: Where is the ethnic make-up of the city that should be in the Demographics section?

213.118.140.70 21:51, 16 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Come up with some citeable references and add it....that's what "anyone can edit" means! Akradecki 02:27, 17 February 2007 (UTC)

Can someone tell me where the facts behind this statement reside. "but since the 1980s was a destination for African Americans, most represented in upper-incomes and middle-class families" Additionally, it would be nice to not have such a sugar coating on this page. It reads like it is written the the city council and the chamber of commerce. What about the a section on local economy that list the prison, challenger juvenile hall, the county immigrant detention center. What the the fact that we have a higher concentration of Section 8 housing than anywhere in the county? Or that we have relocated Bloods and Crips street gangs? This is supposed to be a factual, objective, website, and if this page is any indication of the sugar coating that goes on, then is calls into question all the rest of the content on this site. I honestly believed that it was more acurate then what has been portrayed on this page. I would be happy to do the research and add the "other half of the story" as it where. --Robertl3rd 15:32, 29 April 2007 (UTC)

 * The "other half" of the story would certainly be appropriate as long as you cite references. For instance, the Section 8 issue is a good one, but do you have a reference that supports your statement that we have a higher concentration? You are correct in that there's a lot of unreferenced material in this article. I've not had the time to go and dig out refs to support it, but I have tried to stem the flow of new unreferenced material. Akradecki 22:50, 29 April 2007 (UTC) (from J and 15th East)

 * Agreed on the sugar coating and tight control; the article seems to be actively policed by someone. I made what I thought was a very positive mention of the dog park on M & 30th West was removed within a few hours because apparently some booster doesn't want the rest of the world to know that there's a dog park there.  Burt Likko

 * The editors could well taken offense and removed the controversial entries in regards to the racial makeup or socioeconomic profile of Lancaster, indeed has a large number of those under the poverty line. The percentage of African-Americans hover around 20-25 percent, with Latinos at 35 percent (or higher to 40) and the remainder being White/Anglo/European (if the Asian-American percentage was included) is at 50 percent or half the city's population in the year 2006. In the 1980's & 90s due to its proximity to Edwards Air Force Base and US Air force plant 42 (now the Palmdale Airport), a large wave of political war refugees from Asia, Latin America and eastern Europe settled in the central district of Lancaster. The Vietnamese, Cambodians, Thais and Laotians; then Guatemalans, Salvadorans, Hondurans and Nicaraguans of Central America; and now Bosnians, Kosovars, Romanians and Serbians moved in to establish an ethnically diverse community. Lancaster/Palmdale is a very large commuting suburb and with a presence of high-technology firms, you have other nationalities and Asian-Americans known to formed a segment of employent in aviation/aerospace industries involving NASA and US Air force plants, though in a huge decline in the 2000's in a place known for high unemployment rates. + 71.102.3.86 (talk) 01:24, 21 July 2009 (UTC)

Income info
Is this really believable, considering ACS estimates 22% of the population living in poverty in 2006? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.5.170.110 (talk) 20:31, 3 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Time would tell Lancaster and Palmdale will become a much impoverished majority community the same way the original suburbs south and east of L.A. went through in the mid 20th century. First it was northern Long Beach and El Monte, then Norwalk and Inglewood facing L.A. city limits, following Orange County's largest older post-war suburbs like central Anaheim and Santa Ana, and recently Fontana and Moreno Valley in the Inland Empire, with Oxnard and Santa Paula in Ventura county...became poorer, more urban blighted and foreclosed homes turned to rentals for welfare receipent families. The fastest growing cities in Southern California are now the eastern Coachella Valley, Victorville/Apple Valley, the Santa Maria area away from the ocean and the serious poverty-stricken Kern County and Imperial Valley facing the border. The trend for "great place to live" to morph into that of poverty and unemployment with broken families and racial strife. Don't get me started on San Diego, anyone living within 5 miles of the beach north of National City and south of Carlsbad must be living well, and some locals praise the construction of a border fence at the port of entry in San Ysidro as the best way to keep out "Mexicans". Now drive up 30 miles north to Escondido, San Marcos and Vista, and you're gonna be surprised the pre-Depression and post-WWII-era neighborhoods had become. + 71.102.3.86 (talk) 01:30, 21 July 2009 (UTC)

Civic commercial
Hope this is the place to add this.

Can some one add info about: Civic Commercial: "Grooves" In September of 2008, we carved grooves into a quarter mile stretch of asphalt on the outskirts of Lancaster, CA. The goal was to create an experience that embodied the connection Civic drivers feel with the road. Did it work? How’d we do it? What was the song? Watch and learn. Not sure where to put it? Recreation?

http://automobiles.honda.com/civic-sedan/videos.aspx —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.110.83.179 (talk) 01:55, 10 April 2009 (UTC)
 * This information is already in the article. It is the last paragraph under Recreation and culture. Alanraywiki (talk) 02:52, 10 April 2009 (UTC)

History
In 1930 I believe it was the US Army that began flight testing and bombing pracitce. The US Air Force did not come into existance until after WWII. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 150.125.102.2 (talk) 20:05, 14 April 2009 (UTC)

Lancaster, CA is not on the list of 100 Most Dangerous Cities at the link described which was in 2008. http://os.cqpress.com/Crime%20State%202008_Most%20Dangerous.pdf —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jamesrist (talk • contribs) 06:05, 28 October 2009 (UTC)

 * In 2010, the area composed of Lancaster, Palmdale, Victorville and Barstow (the so-called High Desert of California) leads the state in real estate price declines and mass housing foreclosures. The population growth was attributed not only to long-distance freeway commuters in the Los Angeles basin, it came from construction workers arriving from Mexico, one reason for a high percentage of Latinos in the Antelope-Victor valleys when the demand was high in the early 1990s and mid 2000s. 71.102.12.55 (talk) 08:51, 29 January 2011 (UTC)

Pre-incorporation Lancaster appeared inside the Thomas Bros. Maps logo on the first page of the L.A. County 1970 edition. Lancaster Boulevard is covered in pink (Lancaster) and the green swath of land below (Palmdale?. But the section was known as "Antelope Village", but Palmdale was in orange in 1960's TBM pages, so it wasn't Palmdale. The community of Dennis on Sierra Highway located between them and Palmdale was unincorporated, unless there was two Lancasters or Lancaster and Dennis disincorporated in the 1970's. http://i57.photobucket.com/albums/g224/Bigmikelakers/IMG_0011-1.jpg[/img]

"Dennis" is a misspelling of the Southern Pacific spur and siding named "Denis" that feeds (or used to feed) Lockheed's Plant 10 and the rest of Plant 42. Since there's no manufacturing going on at any plant anymore, the spur has been inactive for years, just like the one north of Ave I that used to serve a mill. Union Pacific recently ripped out the crossing at Division St. and removed the rails east of there. Reason? No more industry (meaning jobs) here...all welfare and Section 8. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Desertbob (talk • contribs) 06:12, 10 June 2013 (UTC)

I knew Palmdale was less populated and was formed earlier in 1962, but experienced massive population loss between 1964 and 1969 out of fear that the nearby San Andreas Fault would rupture and the Palmdale Bulge geological phenomena was thought to predict a Mag. 8+ tremor, and the 1969 new age psychic prediction of L.A. was gonna get hit...never happened. Palmdale and Lancaster would experience rapid population growth later.71.102.26.168 (talk) 04:02, 13 June 2011 (UTC)

 * The map page reads "Middleton", but I cannot say for sure there was a city of Middleton or not, the pink shaded area should be Lancaster and the green shaded area should be Antelope Village. 68.190.254.86 (talk) 20:44, 13 June 2011 (UTC)

Inland Empire
Isn't Lancaster is considered to be part of the Inland Empire? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.175.10.152 (talk) 01:10, 25 May 2011 (UTC)

 * Nope, it's the High Desert region. Inland Empire covers the San Bernardino county part of the Mojave desert, and includes Riverside county. I heard of other terms like Desert Empire for the Imperial area, Golden empire for the San Joaquin valley and Mountain empire for San Diego county. There's even a Coastal Kingdom for the Central coast of california from Monterey Bay or Santa Cruz down to santa Barbara or Ventura county. Regionalisms for Southern California and that Lancaster and Palmdale are High Desert are well known to locals and anyone familiar of the subject. 68.190.254.86 (talk) 20:47, 13 June 2011 (UTC)

Economy
The article contradicts itself....in the section entitled economy, it cites 70% home ownership, but the US Census info cites owner occupied homes at 60%. Also think lots of this article sounds like an advert... — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.232.225.61 (talk) 15:51, 21 August 2011 (UTC)

This article is a puff piece concocted by "Car Wreck" Parris and his small biz buddies. The city is a sewer, and a ghetto. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Desertbob (talk • contribs) 05:40, 10 June 2013 (UTC)

California State Prison, Los Angeles County (LAC)
An editor added a paragraph about a prison in Lancaster. One of the sources, by Denis Wolcott, could not be confirmed, so I only added information by the source that could be confirmed. As well, this prison has its own article; it does not need a category of it's own on this article, or such a lengthy entry. Magnolia677 (talk) 05:19, 16 February 2015 (UTC)

Lancaster State prison
The above editor did not add a thing but deleted much that has good references and has long been sourced in the article about the prison. We are dealing with an editor who history shows a lengthy history of reverting IP editors with very little reasoning given. Frequent reverting of articles which an editor has little knowledge or interest often leads to sloppy edits as above. The article edit is an obvious attempt to minimize the prison from the history of the city. It was not even mentioned in the article about the city of Lancaster which is quite surprising to not find a state prison mentioned. The history section also is labeled as written like a tourist brochure and the editor Magnolia has done nothing to improve the article and has actually helped maintain the tourist brochure style. 172.56.31.136 (talk) 06:44, 16 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Kindly focus discussion on the content under dispute, not on the editors involved nor any unrelated issues with the article.—Stepheng3 (talk) 09:27, 16 February 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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LA Aqueduct Water
Because the Los Angeles Aqueduct is a city owned utility, Lancaster cannot be a beneficiary of an improved water supply coming from the aqueduct. Water passing through LAA1 and LAA2 benefits only the city of Los Angeles. However, Lancaster may have benefited from the State California Aqueduct.

"The construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, starting in 1908, brought growth to the local economy by housing the aqueduct workers and introducing a steady stream of water"

Dcoffida (talk) 01:41, 9 June 2022 (UTC)

Zip code
You forgot to post 93535 as a zip code on east side 2603:8001:1B00:4879:851:DFFB:3A2B:EE26 (talk) 08:34, 23 February 2023 (UTC)

Is the flag real
Genuinely cannot seem to find it anywhere on the current Lancaster site or on archived versions, can anyone find an official reference to it anywhrre 2603:8001:2200:C200:7CED:96DB:E354:20E9 (talk) 06:15, 18 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lancaster, California


text:
Lumbricus

The genus Lumbricus contains some of the most commonly seen earthworms in Europe among its nearly 700 valid species.

Characteristics of some commonly encountered species are:

 * Lumbricus rubellus is usually reddish brown or reddish violet, iridescent dorsally, and pale yellow ventrally. They are usually about 25–105 mm in length, and have around 95-120 segments.
 * Lumbricus castaneus varies from chesnut to violet brown; brown or yellow ventrally, and has an orange clitellum. They are usually about 30–70 mm long, and have around 82–100 segments.
 * Lumbricus terrestris has several common names, including common earthworm, nightcrawler, and dew worm. It is strongly pigmented, brown-red dorsally, and yellowish ventrally. Setae are widely paired at both ends of the body. It is about 90–300 mm long, and has around 110–160 segments.
 * Lumbricus festivus is not found in large numbers. It is red-brown, lighter ventrally, iridescent dorsally. The body length varies from 48 to 108 mm, with about 100–143 segments.
 * Lumbricus badensis, the giant earthworm, also belongs to this genus. Its range is restricted to the Black Forest area of southwestern Germany. It is very large and grows up to 600mm.

title: Lumbricus