text:
Francis Willughby

Francis Willughby (sometimes spelt Willoughby, Franciscus Willughbeius) FRS (22 November 1635 – 3 July 1672) was an English ornithologist, ichthyologist, mathematician and an early student of linguistics and games.

He was born and raised at Middleton Hall, Warwickshire, the only son of an affluent country family. He was a student at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was tutored by the mathematician and naturalist John Ray, who became a lifetime friend and colleague, and lived with Willughby after 1662 when Ray lost his livelihood through his refusal to sign the Act of Uniformity. Willughby was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1661, then aged 27.

Willughby, Ray, and others such as John Wilkins were advocates of a new way of studying science, relying on observation and classification, rather than the received authority of Aristotle and the Bible. To this end, Willughby, Ray and their friends undertook a number of journeys to gather information and specimens, initially in England and Wales, but culminating in an extensive tour of continental Europe, visiting museums, libraries and private collections as well as studying local animals and plants. After their continental tour, he and Ray lived and worked mainly at Middleton Hall. Willughby married Emma Barnard in 1668 and the couple had three children.

Willughby had suffered bouts of illness over the years, and eventually died of pleurisy in July 1672, aged 36. His premature death meant that it fell to Ray to complete the works on animals they had jointly planned. In due course, Ray published books on birds, fish and invertebrates, the Ornithologiae Libri Tres, Historia Piscium and Historia Insectorum. The Ornithology was also published in an expanded form in English. The books included innovative and effective ways of classifying animals, and all three were influential in the history of life science, including their effect on subsequent natural history writers and their importance in the development of Linnaeus's binomial nomenclature.

Early life
Francis Willughby was born at Middleton Hall, Warwickshire on 22 November 1635, the only son of Sir Francis Willoughby and his wife Cassandra (née Ridgeway). His grandfathers were Sir Percival Willoughby of Wollaton Hall, and Thomas Ridgeway, 1st Earl of Londonderry. The family were affluent gentry, whose main seat, inherited by Francis, was Wollaton Hall, now in Nottingham. The younger Francis studied at Bishop Vesey's Grammar School, Sutton Coldfield and Trinity College, Cambridge. He appears to have read widely, his library at his death containing an estimated 2,000 books, including literary, historical and heraldic works as well as natural science volumes. Willughby commenced his studies at Trinity aged 17 as a Fellow-commoner. His tutor was James Duport, who shared the Willughbys' royalist sympathies in the English Civil War. John Ray, then a mathematics fellow at Trinity, arranged for his student Isaac Barrow to teach Willughby that subject. The two became friends, and in 1655 Barrow dedicated his Euclid's Elements to Willughby and two other wealthy fellow pupils.

Although affluent students often left university without a degree, Willughby graduated BA in January 1656, and this was later promoted to MA by seniority in July 1660. In 1657 he joined Gray's Inn, not an unusual step for a man of property who might have to deal with legal disputes. Willughby and Ray had collaborated at Trinity on several "chymistry" projects, including making "sugar of lead" and extracting antimony, and in 1663 Willughby, then aged 27, was elected a founder Fellow of the Royal Society on the nominations of Ray and John Wilkins, who became Master of Trinity College in 1660, and eventually Bishop of Chester. In 1667 Ray was also elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society, but was excused the subscription because of his relative poverty.

Travels
In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Francis Bacon had advocated the advancement of knowledge through observation and experiment, rather than relying on the authority of Aristotle and the church. The Royal Society and its members such as Ray, Wilkins and Willughby sought to put the empirical method into practice, including travelling to collect specimens and information. Willughby helped Ray in collecting plants for his botanical work Catalogus Plantarum circa Cantabrigiam Nascentium (the Cambridge Catalogue), which was published anonymously in February 1660.

Later that year, Ray and Willughby journeyed through northern England to the Lake District, the Isle of Man and the Calf of Man, seeing a Manx shearwater chick at the last site. Willughby then briefly visited the University of Oxford to consult some rare natural history books.

Cheshire and Wales
In May 1662, Willughby, Ray and Philip Skippon, Ray's student, set out on a second journey through Nantwich and Chester and west to Anglesey. They returned inland to Llanberis and were shown a local lake fish called a torgoch, which Willughby recognised as essentially the same as the Windermere charr he had described previously in the Lake District. The party then headed south through west Wales to Pembroke, visiting Bardsey Island on the way. They then proceeded back along the Welsh south coast to Tenby, where they saw many fish species, and Aberavon, where they were shown a rare black-winged stilt.

Willughby interviewed Welsh speakers to attempt a systematic study of the language that, although never published, influenced subsequent scholars. It was during this trip that Ray and Willughby decided to attempt to classify all living things, with Ray mainly working on plants and Willughby on animals. The tables of species they produced were used by Wilkins as part of a unifying scheme later published in 1668 as An Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language. Wilkins' intention was to create a universal terminology to describe the natural world, and the study of languages and writing systems was meant to create a logical linguistic framework for his classification.

Willughby and his companions parted company when he fell ill at Gloucester while they continued through the West Country to Land's End. When Willughby had recovered, he spent part of the summer birdwatching in Lincolnshire. Ray and Willughby later visited the West Country together in 1667, returning via Dorset, Hampshire and London.

Europe

In August 1662 Ray resigned his Fellowship at Cambridge, being unwilling to subscribe to the requirements of the Act of Uniformity imposed on Church of England clerics. Unemployed and without a source of income, his position might have been difficult, but Willughby offered him accommodation and work at Middleton, writing "I am likely to spend much of my life afterwards in wandring or else in Private Studiing at Oxford. having but little heart to thinke of settling, or ingaging in a family. I shall bee Verie glad of your constant company and assistance in my studies".

In April 1663, Willughby, Ray, Skippon and Nathaniel Bacon (another friend from Trinity) departed for continental Europe on a pre-planned itinerary armed with the requisite passports and letters of introduction to notable personages, with Willughby's wealth making the trip financially viable. They intended to visit museums, libraries and private collections, and also study local animals and plants. Given the limitations of time on their demanding schedule, fish and bird markets were a useful source of information and specimens. Although all kept journals, most of Willughby's are lost, and the journey is mainly documented in Ray's Observations topographical, moral & physiological made in a journey through part of the Low-Countries, Germany, Italy and France, which included Willughby's notes from Spain.

The travellers visited Brussels, the University of Leuven, Antwerp, Delft, The Hague and Leiden's university and public library. On 5 June they visited a colony of cormorants, grey herons and spoonbills at Zevenhuizen, and Willughby dissected a spoonbill chick obtained there. The party continued north through Haarlem, Amsterdam and Utrecht before heading to Strasbourg, where Willughby made a diversion to buy a handwritten book from its author, Leonard Baldner. This book was illustrated with paintings of birds, fish and other animals.

Baldner was a prosperous former fisherman, town councillor and self-taught naturalist who, like the Englishmen, only wrote about what he saw. Frederick Slare FRS made a translation of the German text into English, later added to Willughby's copy after his death. Ray claimed in his preface to the Ornithology: "For my part, I must needs acknowledge that I have received much light and information from the Work of this poor man, and have been thereby inabled to clear many difficulties, and rectifie some mistakes in Gesner.", although in practice few of Baldner's insights were incorporated into the text.

The party continued through Liège, Cologne and Nuremberg, and arrived in Vienna on 15 September where they stayed for several days before leaving on 24 September for Venice. The journey through the Alps was arduous, with poor mountain tracks, bad weather and little food except bread, and it was 6 October before they reached their destination, where Skippon listed 60 species of fish and 28 kinds of birds he had noted in the Venetian markets.

The group remained in Venice from 6 October 1663 to 1 February 1664, apart from a trip to Padua, where they investigated medical procedures including the dissection of human corpses. They then travelled through northern Italy, stopping in Ferrara, Verona, Bologna, Milan and Genoa. In Bologna they toured the public museum of the 'Bologna Aristotle', Ulisse Aldrovandi, "by the favor of Dr. Ovidio Montalbani," its current curator. On 15 April 1664 they set sail for Naples from Livorno. It was here that the party divided, Willughby and Bacon heading to Rome, where they spent May, June and July, while Ray and Skippon went on to Sicily and Malta.

Throughout the continental journey, Willughby and Skippon in particular had continued their research into languages. In Vienna, apart from visiting the local collections, they had taken the opportunity to study Turkish and several Slavic languages, and surviving manuscripts show comparison tables for seventeen languages including Basque, Armenian and Persian.

Bacon contracted smallpox somewhere in Northern Italy, and Willughby continued with just a servant to Montpellier, where Ray was already present. Willughby entered Spain on 31 August and progressed through Valencia, Granada, Seville, Cordoba and Madrid, reaching Irun on 14 November. Willughby found little of scientific interest in Spain, which he considered backward. He also disliked the land and the people: "almost desolate... tyrannical inquisition... multitude of whores... wretched laziness... very like the Welsh and Irish."

Later life and death
In Seville, Willughby had received a letter saying that his father was seriously ill, so he had hastened his return to Middleton where he arrived shortly before Christmas 1664. His father died in December 1665 and Francis then became responsible for the estate. Willughby was soon being urged by his relatives to find a wife, but procrastinated knowing that this would restrict his researches.

In 1661 he had sent the Royal Society the first paper to describe the life cycle of insects, and he and Ray also verified the parasitoidism of caterpillars by ichneumon wasps. Willughby also bred and studied leaf-cutter bees, his chosen research species later being named after him as Willughby's leaf-cutter bee, Megachile willughbiella. Willughby was the first person to unambiguously distinguish the honey buzzard from the common buzzard, and in 2018 it was suggested that the former species should be renamed "Willughby's Buzzard" to commemorate this.

In 1668 Willughby married Emma Barnard, daughter of Sir Henry Barnard of Bridgnorth and London. They had three children. Their first child, Francis, died at the age of nineteen, while their daughter Cassandra Willoughby married the Duke of Chandos, who was a patron of the English naturalist Mark Catesby. The second son, Thomas, was created Baron Middleton in 1711 by Queen Anne.

Willughby and Ray continued their researches, now mainly on birds, with the help of Francis Jessop, another Trinity alumnus, who sent them specimens from the Peak District, including twite and red grouse. They also were the first to investigate the active flow of sap in birches.

Willughby had suffered several periods of illness, including violent fevers, between 1668 and 1671, described by Ray as "tertian ague" (malaria), and the additional physical and financial demands occasioned by having to defend a bitterly disputed inheritance put him under more strain. On 3 June 1672 he became seriously ill again, and signed his will on 24 June, disbarring any Catholic descendants from inheriting. He died on 3 July. The immediate cause of death was pleurisy, probably related to pneumonia. He was buried at St. John the Baptist parish church, Middleton, with Ray, Skippon and Jessop present with the family at the interment. The church contains a large memorial commemorating Francis, his parents, Francis senior and Cassandra, and his son, also Francis; this was erected by his second son, Thomas.

Subjects of his studies

As well as being a friend, John Ray was one of five executors of Willughby's will, in which he was left the sum of £60 a year for life. He saw it as his duty to complete and publish his colleague's work on animals.

Birds
Willughby's Ornithology was intended to describe all the then-known birds worldwide. Its innovative features were an effective classification system based on anatomical features, such the bird's beak, feet and overall size, and a dichotomous key, which helped readers to identify birds by guiding them to the page describing that group. The authors also placed an asterisk against species of which they had no first-hand knowledge, and were therefore unable to verify. Willughby had been keen to add details of "characteristic marks" to help with identification. The authors also largely avoided the practice of previous writers, such as Conrad Gessner, by not including extraneous material relating to the species, such as proverbs, references in history and literature, or use as an emblem. The book was published in Latin as Ornithologiae Libri Tres (Three Books of Ornithology) in 1676.

The first of the three sections included an introduction to bird biology, an explanation of the new classification system and the dichotomous key. The second and third sections described land birds and seabirds respectively. Emma Willughby paid for the 80 metal-engraved plates that completed the work, and this is acknowledged on the title page. The English-language version, The Ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton, published in 1678, included additional material, including a section on fowling to broaden its appeal, but had no mention of Willughby's widow. Its commercial success is unknown, but its influence was profound.

Fish
The next book, on fish, was many years in the making; Willughby's widow had remarried, and her new husband, Josiah Child, had barred Ray from accessing his friend's papers. Furthermore, there were far more known species of fish than there were birds to describe, and Ray was working on his own History of Plants. The Historia Piscium was finally published in Latin in 1686 with a dedication to Samuel Pepys, President of the Royal Society, who had made a generous financial contribution to the project. The book had four sections: an introduction to fish biology; cetaceans; cartilaginous fish (sharks and rays); and bony fish, the last group being further classified by the number and nature of their fins. 187 plates completed the work, their cost making the book a financial disaster for the Royal Society, which had largely funded its publication.

"Insects"
In the seventeenth century, the term "insect" had a much wider meaning than it does today, so the third major book, Historia Insectorum, included many other invertebrates, such as worms, spiders and millipedes. It excluded molluscs, perhaps because Martin Lister, another Fellow of the Royal Society, was writing his own Historia Animalium that covered that group. Ray's problems with completing this publication were much the same as with the fish book, although in 1704 he was able to see manuscripts prepared independently by Sir Thomas Willoughby and the scholar Thomas Man, Sir Thomas having moved into Wollaton Hall in 1687 and regained access to Middleton and his father's papers and possessions.

Ray died in January 1705, and little happened with the Historia Insectorum until William Derham and the Royal Society finally published it in 1710 in Latin, incomplete, unillustrated and under Ray's name only. Ray, however, makes it clear that Willughby did the bulk of the insect research, including, for example, 20 pages of beetle descriptions. The book had four sections, starting with an innovative classification system based on metamorphosis. The second section contained the main species descriptions, followed by Ray's observations of butterflies and moths and their caterpillars, and an appendix by Martin Lister on British beetles. Plates prepared by Sir Thomas Willoughby were not used, and they have now been lost, as have the manuscripts Sir Thomas showed to Ray.

Games and probability
Willughby's Book of Games was unfinished at his death, but was published with accompanying interpretative material in 2003. He gave details of dozens of games and sports, including cards, cockfighting, football and word games; some are now unfamiliar, such as "Lend me your Skimmer". For each entry he included the rules, equipment and manner of play. He also studied the first games that babies and children play, and wrote a more mathematical section "On the rebounding of tennis balls". As with his biological works, the Book of Games is organised on the empirical principles of observation, description, and classification.

A lost work appears to have been one that, according to his daughter Cassandra, "shews the chances of most games", which may have been titled The Book of Dice ("Historii Chartitudii"). Willughby was a competent mathematician, and there is evidence that the lost text considered probability with regard to card and dice games.

Illustrations and sources
The numerous plates illustrating the species in the bird and fish books came from a number of sources. Willughby's own extensive collection included paintings he had bought on his European travels, and he also borrowed pictures owned by friends like Skippon and Sir Thomas Browne. Many illustrations were taken from previous publications by other writers, and some were based on Francis Barlow's oil-paintings of birds in Charles II's aviary in St James's Park.

The illustrations taken from earlier books were from many sources, particularly the earlier natural histories or ornithologies by Ulisse Aldrovandi, Pietro Olina, Georg Marcgrave and Willem Piso. Where feasible, Willughby and Ray compared the available illustrations with life or specimens, or, if that were not possible, against each other, to select the most accurate version for publication. In addition to these authors, sources used for the text included works by Carolus Clusius, Adriaen Collaert, Gervase Markham, Juan Eusebio Nieremberg and Ole Worm. Olina's Ucelliera, at least, seems to have been revisited between the Latin and English editions of the Ornithology, since the later version contains a description of territorial behaviour by the nightingale absent from the earlier work.

Legacy

Much of Willughby's written work has been lost, along with his scientific equipment and most of his collections of items of natural history interest; what remains is largely owned by the family and housed in the University of Nottingham Middleton archive. The Ornithology influenced Réamur in organising his great bird collection, and Brisson in the compilation of his own work on the topic. Georges Cuvier commented on the influence of the Historia Piscium, and Carl Linnaeus from 1735 onwards relied heavily on Willughby and Ray's books in his Systema Naturae, the basis of binomial nomenclature.

The lack of physical evidence, together with Willughby's early death and the publication of his books by Ray, means that the relative contributions of the two men has subsequently been disputed. Willughby's work was initially well-regarded, but Ray's reputation grew as time passed, and, in 1788, the English botanist James Edward Smith wrote that Willughby's contribution had been overstated by his friend, who gave himself too little credit. The opposite view was given by William Swainson, who felt that Ray's fame rested entirely on that of his patron, and he lacked the genius to have achieved anything on his own. The pendulum swung again when Charles E. Raven wrote his 1942 biography of Ray, seeing him as the senior partner and saying that Willughby had "less knowledge, patience and judgment" than Ray, whom he considered a scientist of genius, and whose contributions he tended to compare favourably with the achievements of most other writers. Raven was unaware of the Willughby family archive at the University of Nottingham when he wrote his book, and access to that and other new material have led to modern appraisals giving a more balanced picture, with the two men seen to have made significant individual contributions, each demonstrating his own strengths.

Willughby and Ray discovered several previously undescribed species of birds, fish and invertebrates. The names of the Windermere charr (Salvelinus willughbii), Willughby's leaf-cutter bee (Megachile willughbiella) and the tropical plant genus Willughbeia all commemorate the younger man. However, Willughby and Ray's main influence was through their three books, especially the Ornithology, with their emphasis on systematic description and classification. Even Willughby's own collection of 170 plates and nature paintings seems to be intended not just to provide individual illustrations, but to be an integral part of a collection intended to reinforce the order of nature.

Other resources

 * Middleton archives at the University of Nottingham
 * National Geographic interview with Tim Birkhead "The Amazing Tale of the Genius that History Forgot".
 * National Geographic interview with Tim Birkhead "The Amazing Tale of the Genius that History Forgot".

title: Francis Willughby


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Ernest Walton

Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton MRIA  (6 October 1903 – 25 June 1995) was an Irish physicist and Nobel laureate who first split the atom. He is best known for his work with John Cockcroft to construct one of the earliest types of particle accelerator, the Cockcroft–Walton generator. In experiments performed at Cambridge University in the early 1930s using the generator, Walton and Cockcroft became the first team to use a particle beam to transform one element to another. According to their Nobel Prize citation: "Thus, for the first time, a nuclear transmutation was produced by means entirely under human control".

Early years
Ernest Walton was born in Abbeyside, Dungarvan, County Waterford to a Methodist minister father, Rev John Walton (1874–1936) and Anna Sinton (1874–1906). In those days a general clergyman's family moved once every three years, and this practice carried Ernest and his family, while he was a small child, to Rathkeale, County Limerick (where his mother died) and to County Monaghan. He attended day schools in counties Down and Tyrone, and at Wesley College Dublin before becoming a boarder at Methodist College Belfast in 1915, where he excelled in science and mathematics.

In 1922, Walton won scholarships to Trinity College Dublin for the study of mathematics and science, and would go on to be elected a Foundation Scholar in 1924. He was awarded bachelor's and master's degrees from Trinity in 1926 and 1927, respectively. During these years at college, Walton received numerous prizes for excellence in physics and mathematics (seven prizes in all), including the Foundation Scholarship in 1924. Following graduation, he was awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 and was accepted as a research student at Trinity College, Cambridge, under the supervision of Sir Ernest Rutherford, Director of Cambridge University's Cavendish Laboratory. At the time there were four Nobel Prize laureates on the staff at the Cavendish lab and a further five were to emerge, including Walton and John Cockcroft. Walton was awarded his PhD in 1931 and remained at Cambridge as a researcher until 1934.

During the early 1930s, Walton and John Cockcroft collaborated to build an apparatus that split the nuclei of lithium atoms by bombarding them with a stream of protons accelerated inside a high-voltage tube (700 kilovolts). The splitting of the lithium nuclei produced helium nuclei. They went on to use Boron and Carbon as targets for their 'disintegration' experiments, and to report artificially induced radioactivity. These experiments provided verification of theories about atomic structure that had been proposed earlier by Rutherford, George Gamow, and others. The successful apparatus – a type of particle accelerator now called the Cockcroft-Walton generator – helped to usher in an era of particle-accelerator-based experimental nuclear physics. It was this research at Cambridge in the early 1930s that won Walton and Cockcroft the Nobel Prize in physics in 1951.

Career at Trinity College Dublin
Ernest Walton returned to Ireland in 1934 to become a fellow of Trinity College Dublin in the physics department, and in 1946 was appointed Erasmus Smith's Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy. Walton's lecturing was considered outstanding as he had the ability to present complicated matters in simple and easy-to-understand terms. His research interests were pursued with very limited resources, yet he was able to study, in the late 1950s, the phosphorescent effect in glasses, secondary-electron emissions from surfaces under positive-ion bombardment, radiocarbon dating and low-level counting, and the deposition of thin films on glass.

Walton was associated with the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies for over 40 years, where he served long periods on the board of the School of Cosmic Physics and on the council of the Institute. Following the 1952 death of John J. Nolan, the inaugural chairman of the School of Cosmic Physics, Walton assumed the role and served in that position until 1960, when he was succeeded by John H. Poole.

Later years and death
Although he retired from Trinity College Dublin in 1974, he retained his association with the Physics Department at Trinity up to his final illness. Shortly before his death, he marked his lifelong devotion to Trinity by presenting his Nobel medal and citation to the College. Ernest Walton died in Belfast on 25 June 1995, aged 91. He is buried in Deansgrange Cemetery, Dublin.

Family life
Ernest Walton married Winifred Wilson, a Methodist minister's daughter, in 1934. Their four children are Alan Walton (a physicist at the University of Cambridge), Marian Woods, Philip Walton (Professor of Applied Physics, NUI Galway), and Jean Clarke. He served on a committee of Wesley College, Dublin.

Religious views
Raised as a Methodist, Walton has been described as someone who was strongly committed to the Christian faith. He gave lectures about the relationship of science and religion in several countries after he won the Nobel Prize, and he encouraged the progress of science as a way to know more about God.

Walton is quoted as saying:"'One way to learn the mind of the Creator is to study His creation. We must pay God the compliment of studying His work of art and this should apply to all realms of human thought. A refusal to use our intelligence honestly is an act of contempt for Him who gave us that intelligence'"

Walton held an interest in topics about the government and the Church, and after his death, the organisation Christians in Science Ireland established the Walton Lectures on Science and Religion (an initiative similar to the Boyle Lectures). David Wilkinson, Denis Alexander, and others have given Walton Lectures in universities across Ireland.

Along with Lochlainn O'Raifeartaigh and Michael Fry, Walton helped found the Irish Pugwash group, opposing the nuclear weapons race.

Honours
Walton and John Cockcroft were recipients of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics for their "work on the transmutation of the atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles" (popularly known as splitting the atom). They are credited with being the first to disintegrate the lithium nucleus by bombardment with accelerated protons (or hydrogen nuclei) and identifying helium nuclei in the products in 1930. More generally, they had built an apparatus which showed that nuclei of various lightweight elements (such as lithium) could be split by fast-moving protons.

In 1935, Walton was elected a member of the Royal Irish Academy (MRIA). Walton and Cockcroft received the Hughes Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1938. In much later years – predominantly after his retirement in 1974 – Walton received honorary degrees or conferrals from numerous Irish, British, and North American institutions.

The "Walton Causeway Park" in Walton's native Dungarvan was dedicated in his honour with Walton himself attending the ceremony in 1989. After his death the Waterford Institute of Technology named a building the ETS Walton Building and a plaque was placed on the site of his birthplace.

Other honours for Walton include the Walton Building at Methodist College Belfast, the school where he had been a boarder for five years, and a memorial plaque outside the main entrance to Methodist College. Wesley College in Dublin, where he attended and for many years served as chairman of the board of Governors, established the Walton Prize for Physics, and a prize with the same name at Methodist College is awarded to the pupil who obtains the highest marks in A Level Physics. There is also a scholarship in Waterford named after Walton. In 2014, Trinity College Dublin set up the Trinity Walton Club, an extracurricular STEM Education centre for teenagers.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ernest Walton


text:
Samuel Eilenberg

Samuel Eilenberg (September 30, 1913 – January 30, 1998) was a Polish-American mathematician who co-founded category theory (with Saunders Mac Lane) and homological algebra.

Early life and education
He was born in Warsaw, Kingdom of Poland to a Jewish family. He spent much of his career as a professor at Columbia University.

He earned his Ph.D. from University of Warsaw in 1936, with thesis On the Topological Applications of Maps onto a Circle; his thesis advisors were Kazimierz Kuratowski and Karol Borsuk. He died in New York City in January 1998.

Career
Eilenberg's main body of work was in algebraic topology. He worked on the axiomatic treatment of homology theory with Norman Steenrod (and the Eilenberg–Steenrod axioms are named for the pair), and on homological algebra with Saunders Mac Lane. In the process, Eilenberg and Mac Lane created category theory.

Eilenberg was a member of Bourbaki and, with Henri Cartan, wrote the 1956 book Homological Algebra.

Later in life he worked mainly in pure category theory, being one of the founders of the field. The Eilenberg swindle (or telescope) is a construction applying the telescoping cancellation idea to projective modules.

Eilenberg contributed to automata theory and algebraic automata theory. In particular, he introduced a model of computation called X-machine and a new prime decomposition algorithm for finite state machines in the vein of Krohn–Rhodes theory.

Art collection
Eilenberg was also a prominent collector of Asian art. His collection mainly consisted of small sculptures and other artifacts from India, Indonesia, Nepal, Thailand, Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Central Asia. In 1991–1992, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York staged an exhibition from more than 400 items that Eilenberg had donated to the museum, entitled The Lotus Transcendent: Indian and Southeast Asian Art From the Samuel Eilenberg Collection. In reciprocity, the Metropolitan Museum of Art donated substantially to the endowment of the Samuel Eilenberg Visiting Professorship in Mathematics at Columbia University.

title: Samuel Eilenberg


text:
Talk:Lassi

Untitled
Any resources of authoritative recipes? :) I was looking for the salty lassi, but Wikipedia didn't have the answer. Amazing!
 * You don't really find recipes on Wikipedia. The correct place would be Wikibooks. And in fact, I've just dug out a Cookbook on Lassi there conveniently :) Mar4d (talk) 12:18, 6 July 2010 (UTC)

Salty

 * 0.25L (1 cup) Full-Fat Yogurt
 * 0.25L (1 cup) Chilled milk
 * 1 teaspoon (4g) Cumin seeds
 * 2 teaspoons Lemon juice
 * 1/2 - 1 teaspoon (2-4g) Salt
 * 0.1L (1/2 cup) Ice cubes
 * 1/4 teaspoon Mint (finely crumbled, dried; optional)

Dry-roast cumin seeds by cooking them over low heat in small pan until you can smell the seasoning, about 2 to 3 minutes. Cool and grind. In blender, blend cumin seed powder with yogurt, milk, lemon juice, salt and ice cubes. Optionally scatter with crumbled mint. Serve chilled.

Makes 4 servings.

Sweet
A source says:

Sweet Lassi:
 * 1 c plain full-fat yogurt
 * 1 c water
 * 1 tsp rosewater
 * dash lemon juice
 * dash nutmeg
 * pinch salt
 * splenda to taste (maybe 1 tb)

(should be cross-checked to other recipes; to avoid quoting a source. it was on a bulleting board with no licence.)

 * I wouldn't trust a recipe which mentions Splenda. It's not exactly traditional.  Anyway, that'd be rose lassi, a kind of sweet lassi but not the only kind.  Note that rosewater is sweet anyway.  Jimp 19:11, 12 December 2016 (UTC)

Measures
As far as I get the measures:
 * 1 teaspoon = 4.8 grams
 * 1 cup(liquid) = 0.24 Liters

-

Are they the same?
I don't know Indian lassi, but I think that the Turkish drink (I think the Turkish name is different, check at a döner kebap joint) is quite waterlike. Drinkin yoghourt (Dan'up brand by Danone) is thicker, like tomato sauce if that helps.

 * You are quite right, but the Turkish one is quite bland e.g. no sugar or salt. But it is called Ayran. But is a much "duller" drink compared to the Indian Lassi. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.149.246.86 (talk) 23:49, 25 August 2008 (UTC)

Buffalo Yoghurt
I got the distinct impression when I was in India, 30 years ago, that genuine Lassis were made with buffalo milk yoghurt.--Richardb43 16:59, 14 April 2006 (UTC)
 * that's probably accurate, but buffalo milk tends to have a meaty smell, which a lot of people dislike. i would think normal cow's milk is use more frequently. i haven't drawn up stats yet, but i'm in the process... (yeah, right). but in all my years in india, and all my years of drinking lassi, i've been pretty sure that i was drinking cow's milk. i hav confined myself to the cities though... maybe it's buffalo milk in rural areas.

Muahahha
I moved this to Mango Lassi. Now remember, don't make any more comments on general lassi, only on mango. Cool and oh yeah, Ahung is the smartest guy on earth. AHUNG!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! For more information on this absolute genius, go to User:Ahung

Revert
Mango lassi is a type of lassi and is not the only type of lassi. Make a seperate page for mango lassi if you wish, but don't automatically redirect Lassi to Mango Lassi. Sctele 21:30, 30 December 2006 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as stub, and the rating on other projects was brought up to Stub class. BetacommandBot 18:34, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

Lassi - Indian? Pakistani?
There has been a change from "INdian" drink to "Pakistani" drink. Shouldnt this be made into a Punjabi drink? Since Punjab is also an ethnic region in both countries, this should be both correct and non-controversial. Am changing this back from Pakistani to Punjabi. Hope this is fine. Prashanthns (talk) 08:47, 4 May 2008 (UTC)

 * I have seen Lassi 'bar's in bombay in the late 1970s. So are people sure it originated in the Northern India?.

 * Also lots of South Indian Dosa places in London seem to sell Lassi. Actually, if you go to a Pak or North Indian restaurant it is not that common!. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.149.246.86 (talk) 23:51, 25 August 2008 (UTC)

Cow urine?
I heard that they now put cow urine in it. is this true?

Cow Urine was never put in it to begin with, are you thinking of this?

http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/food_and_drink/article5707554.ece

--Elven6 (talk) 15:07, 5 May 2009 (UTC)

Stop changing it from Indian/Pakistani to Pakistani/Indian
The correct way is Indian/Pakistani- "I" before "P" — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.88.15.63 (talk) 01:25, 11 August 2011 (UTC)

Punjabi
Noticed the recent tilt of the article towards regionalism (Punjab). Lassi is a common milk-based product hardly specific to any region in India (or broadly anywhere), Punjab is not where it "originated". What caught my attention was the mention that the word lassi has been borrowed from Punjabi into other Indian languages based on a passing mention in a cookbook, which is highly dubious, the word itself is of Prakrit origin from Sanskrit present in a multitude of local languages including Punjabi (but not exclusive to it) as clearly visible in Turner's comparative dict among numerous other lingual texts and literature.

The other mentions of Punjabi origin are similarly from passing-quotes from cookbooks. There is a reason we don't use cookbooks for relying on food history which is an entirely different field of its own (the unreliability highlighted by the errant etymology in the cookbook above). Another reason specific regions aren't mentioned for dish origins from India is because they are unlikely to be exclusive to any particular one and likely originated correspondingly, most of them fall-prey to regional one-upmanship of claimant titles. I have reverted these edits for these reasons. Gotitbro (talk) 22:43, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Mml
Ch Sggwhehehhwjwjwjwjwnwnenwnenebe bene even ebe ebe be 27.6.113.59 (talk) 08:49, 16 October 2022 (UTC)

Commons files used on this page or its Wikidata item have been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons files used on this page or its Wikidata item have been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 23:52, 17 December 2022 (UTC)
 * MALAI LASSI-Chowringhee ROAD-KOLKATA-WEST BENGAL-003.jpg
 * MANGO LASSI-ESPLANADE-KOLKATA-WEST BENGAL-2.jpg
 * SWEET LASSI-RANGDEBASANTI DHABA-KOLKATA-WEST BENGAL-004.jpg

Pakistani should be included, it is not exclusively an Indian drink
As can be seen from the previous edits, when it mentioned it being a Pakistani drink, it has also originated in the Punjab region, which is split between Pakistan and India with the majority lying in Pakistan, respectively. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Swordfish31 (talk • contribs) 02:39, 20 April 2023 (UTC)

Ram1751 Lassi is not exclusively Indian
Can you explain why Pakistan is being removed under false pretences of original research ? This book among several others state it is popular in Pakistan and many of the sources suggest it originated in Punjab and it doesnt say Indian Punjab please try and remain neutral when editing just because you dislike Pakistan being mentioned even Bangladesh is mentioned in the category etc you have no basis for removing and your attempt to class it as original research does not hold water as sources clearly name Pakistan another source page 105 clearly states Lassi is very popular in Pakistan to exclusively call it Indian is pure point of view pushing. BrowliaShim (talk) 16:33, 20 April 2023 (UTC)

 * Neither of the reliable sources cited in support of the first sentence of this article state lassi is Pakistani. Both sources characterize lassi as Indian. If you wish to make the edit that lassi is also Pakistani, please add a supporting reliable source to the first sentence to this article. I am reverting your edit until reliable source(s) have been added.
 * Also please do not assume bad faith (see WP:AFG) in violation of Wikipedia guidelines. Thank you. Ram1751 (talk) 00:58, 26 April 2023 (UTC)
 * @BrowliaShim@Ram1751I agree with OP. Pakistan most definitely have Mango Lassi on a national scale and level. You have travel articles mentioning that mango lassi is a popular drink there. Frankly nobody actually knows the exact origin. For all you know, it may have originated in the mango rich areas in Pakistan. Nonetheless the article should not presume it belongs to only one country unless your source explicitly says it only belongs to one country. Everyone knows it's popular in both Pakistan and India. So to completely omit any mention of Pakistan or that it's popular there, is just wrong. Having said that, I found one article that states that it may have originated in an area that is now both divided between Pakistan and India. Which would explain why both nations have such prolific use of it."It is believed that lassi originated in the Punjab region of India, which is now divided between India and Pakistan." 49.180.207.59 (talk) 22:00, 10 January 2024 (UTC)

Spices or salt ?
Someone had added salt in the article but according to some information sites salt is not added. It is made with blending curd or yogurt with water or milk,sugar and a few spices or herbs. Hence it should be kept spices not salt according to me Self made theory (talk) 12:16, 1 October 2023 (UTC)

Not exclusively indian drink
Lassi is an Indian and Pakistani summer drink. Don't forget India and Pakistan used to be the same country before 1947 (not that long ago) so obviously a lot of things like Rogan josh and Lassi drinks are very widespread in both nations. It is impossible to pinpoint the exact origins, but what we do know is that Mango lassi is a popular drink in both India and Pakistan. So you can debate the origins but nobody denies that both India and Pakistan have their versions of this delicious mango-flavored yogurt drink called Lassi. Hence the Wikipedia page should mention that it's a refreshing beverage made with yogurt, mango pulp, sugar, and sometimes cardamom that is (POPULAR IN BOTH INDIA AND PAKISTAN). Such a statement is both true and doesn't presume the origin based on some biased nationalist source. Nobody really knows the origin and so neutrality in wording is needed here. 49.180.207.59 (talk) 21:45, 10 January 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 19 January 2024
Please add the following to the varieties section:

Mango lassi: Made by adding mango to lassi was globally voted third most popular non-alcoholic beverage in 2024. 119.74.238.54 (talk) 20:06, 19 January 2024 (UTC)

 * Mango lassi already appears in the article in the Varieties -> Others section with citations to reliable sources. Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: Ram1751 (talk) 04:16, 20 January 2024 (UTC)

Racial Slur
As of recent the word "lassi" has been used against Sikhs and Punjabis as a racial slur. I beleive such a section should be used in order to educate individuals on how it can be used with a negative connotation. HennyProtector (talk) 23:39, 22 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Per WP:ADVOCACY, "Wikipedia is not a venue for raising the visibility of an issue or agenda." - Ram1751 (talk) 22:25, 28 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lassi


text:
Dole, Jura

Dole (, sometimes pronounced ) is a commune in the Jura département, of which it is a subprefecture (sous-préfecture), in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region, in Eastern France.

History
Dole was the capital of Franche-Comté until Louis XIV conquered the region; he shifted the parlement from Dole to Besançon. The university, founded by Duke Philippe le Bon of Burgundy in 1422, was also transferred to Besançon at that time.

In January 1573, Gilles Garnier was put to death after being found guilty of lycanthropy and witchcraft. He had confessed to murdering and cannibalizing at least six children. The 1995 film Happiness Is in the Field was set in Dole and The Widow Couderc was also partially filmed there.

Geography
Dole is located on the river Doubs. The commune has a land area of 38.38 km2.

Demographics
It is the most populous commune in Jura, although the préfecture is Lons-le-Saunier.

Transport
Dole-Ville station has rail connections to Dijon, Paris, Lausanne and Besançon. Dole – Jura Airport is located in the commune of Tavaux, 7 km southwest of Dole.

Famous residents

 * Suzanne Douvillier (1778 – 1826), pioneer dancer and choreographer.
 * Simon Bernard (28 April 1779 – 5 November 1839)- Napoleonic aide de camp and notable engineer in the United States.
 * Marie Émile Antoine Béthouart (17 December 1889 – 17 October 1982), soldier.
 * Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895), microbiologist and chemist
 * Jacques Duhamel (1924 - 1977), mayor of Dole from 1968 to 1976
 * Michel Chapuis (15 January 1930 – 12 November 2017), organist
 * Hubert-Félix Thiéfaine (21 July 1948 − ), pop-rock singer and songwriter, born in Dole

Museums
The Museum of Fine Arts, Dole founded in 1821, is located in the House of the Officers, an example of military architecture of Franche-Comté at the 18th century.

Twin towns and sister cities
Dole is twinned with:

 * 🇮🇪 Carlow, Ireland
 * 🇨🇳 Chaohu, China
 * 🇷🇺 Kostroma, Russia
 * 🇩🇪 Lahr, Germany
 * Northwich, England, United Kingdom
 * 🇮🇹 Sestri Levante, Italy
 * 🇨🇿 Tábor, Czech Republic

title: Dole, Jura


text:
Paklenica

The Paklenica karst river canyon is a national park in Croatia. It is near Starigrad, northern Dalmatia, on the southern slopes of Velebit mountain, not far from Zadar. It contains two canyons, Mala (Small) and Velika (Big) Paklenica. Today there is no water flowing through Mala Paklenica. Near the entrance to the Velika Paklenica is an artificial tunnel complex built for Josip Broz Tito during the tension between Yugoslavia and the USSR in the late 1940s and early 1950s.

History
The area of South Velebit has been inhabited since prehistoric times. It is believed that, during the last ice age, the area was probably inhabited by small groups of Paleolithic hunters/gatherers, as elsewhere in the Mediterranean. Sea level must have been 120 metres lower than today, and the Velebit Channel was a wide valley with a river flowing through it. The highest parts of the Velebit were covered with glaciers. When sea level began to rise in the late ice age, people moved to higher, hilly areas. The earliest records of humans in Velebit – Mesolithic flint tools found in Vaganačka Cave under Veliko Rujno – date back to this era.

Approximately eight thousand years ago, the first cattle breeders and farmers arrived in the area, bringing wheat, domestic goats and sheep, as well as the knowledge of their breeding. Hunter-gathering lost its importance, and livestock-rearing began on Velebit. Plenty of material evidence, such as bones of domestic animals, tools and equipment used by prehistoric shepherds and decorated clay tableware, was found in the caves that served as shelter for people and cattle. During the last two thousand years BC, during the Bronze Age, the first fortifications and stone buildings were erected by Liburian peoples. They could serve as shelter to the population from the surrounding villages in case of danger, and some of them may have been permanent settlements where the local rulers had their seats. In addition, they oversaw important cattle and trade routes leading to Velebit and further to Lika via Paklenica or Rujan. Some of them served to oversee navigation. They are now destroyed, but ring-shaped mounds ("gromila", pl. "gromile") up to several meters in height can still be seen in some places. In the immediate vicinity of the fortifications, casket heaps – deposits of large round stone under which former rulers were buried in caskets made of stone tablets – have been found. Most of them have been dug out and the graves robbed, but they are still visible, as in the area of hamlet Ljubotić in Tribanj.

Over the last two thousand years BC, the east coast of the Adriatic was gradually conquered by the Roman legions. After the Roman province of Dalmatia was founded in the early 1st century AD, permanent Roman reign was established. Starigrad (Roman name: Argyruntum) was established at the time, and it soon developed into an important trading center. In the 4th century AD, Emperor Tiberius had it fortified with walls and towers. The town cemetery was situated by the road that led southwest of the town. Plenty of archaeological findings were collected from approximately 400 explored graves – jewelry, glassware and metalware, weapons and tools. The most interesting finding is certainly the ancient glass collection – as many as 146 vessels of different forms (bowls, glasses, bottled) – kept in the Zadar Museum of Archeology.

Life in Argyruntum came to a standstill in the early 4th century AD. The era of peace was interrupted by attacks of tribal peoples that contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire in the west. In an attempt to bring the Adriatic coast back into the Empire, East Roman Emperor Justinian built a system of fortifications to secure navigation and protect the local population. The ruins of forts and towers above Modrič and near Sveta Trojica in Tribanj are parts of this defensive system that briefly postponed the final decline of the ancient world in the Adriatic.

The arrival of Croats in this area began in the early Middle Ages. The earliest preserved traces of their presence are the chapels, St. George (Sv. Juraj) in Rovanjska, St. Peter (Sv. Petar) in Starigrad, and St. Mary Magdalene (Sv. Marija Magdalena or Trstenica) built from the 9th or 12th century AD. Two forts – Večka Kula and Paklarić – were probably erected in the late Middle Ages (14th–16th century).

Geological features
The most attractive and most valuable parts of South Velebit are surely the impressive canyons of Velika Paklenica and Mala Paklenica. Velika Paklenica canyon is 14 km long and 500–800 m wide. In its narrowest part around the Bunkers, the canyon is only 50 m wide. Vertical cliffs rise above both sides of the canyon up to a height of over 700 m. The most attractive part is the area around the steep drop of the stream downstream from Anića luka, where steep cliffs rise directly above the stream, forming the narrowest part of the canyon between Anića luka and the parking lot. Mala Paklenica Canyon is of lesser dimension, and the torrent running through it is much less powerful. It is 12 km long and 400–500 m wide. In its narrowest part, it is only 10 m wide, while the surrounding cliffs rise up to a height of 650 m.

The central part of the Park is distinctive for the relief complex of Borovnik and Crni vrh, with the valley of Mala Močila and Velika Močila nearby. In terms of relief, Velika Močila is a very interesting bowl-shaped valley at an altitude 850 m asl, surrounded by Crni vrh (1 110 m asl), Škiljina kosa (1 015 m asl) and Zeleni brig (842 m asl), while Borovnik, named after the black pine forest, stretches along the south edge.

The east part of the Park is very differentiated geomorphologically, inaccessible and wild. Further to the east, this zone of wilderness transforms into an area of milder forms around Malo Libinje and Veliko Libinje, karstic plateaus with numerous pits, the bottoms of which were mostly treated.

The highest area of Paklenica National Park is the narrow ridge of Velebit, 1 to 3 km wide. The highest peak of Velebit – Vaganski vrh (1 757 m asl) is also here. The area of Paklenica National Park is one of the most completely explored areas in Croatia in terms of speleology. 76 speleological objects are known and have been explored in the Park, namely 39 pits and 37 caves. We will mention some of the most interesting speleological objects in the National Park. Vodarica Pit is the longest cave in Velebit at 300 meters, Precipice on Bunovac (534 m) is the deepest object in Central and South Velebit.

Watertight sediments are situated beneath very porous karstic deposits of carbonate rock in the extended part of Velika paklenica, Brezimenjača, and in the spring parts of Mala paklenica and the occasional flow of Orljača. This is why Paklenica National Park has several permanent or occasional flows and many permanent springs. The permanent springs of high-quality drinking water are Stražbenica, Kontinovo vrilo, Crno vrilo, Velika Močila and Pećica.

Flora
The wealth of flora is reflected in the list of 1,000 plant species and subspecies recorded to date, 79 of them endemic. The great diversity, the presence of relict, endemic, rare, statutorily protected species make the Park a very valuable floristic area, not just in Croatia, but in Europe and the world as well.

The forest phenomenon is one of the main reasons why the South Velebit area was proclaimed a national park. Areas of oak and oriental hornbeam forests, beech forest, black pine forests, and fern forest, can all be found in the park. In 2017, the beech forests within the national park were added to the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe because of their testimony to the ecological history of forest dynamics within Europe since the last Ice Age.

Fauna
The diverse habitats in Paklenica and the vertical stratification provide home to a diverse fauna. Invertebrates are relatively poorly explored, attractive insects like diurnal butterflies are well explored. Over 40 species of amphibians and reptiles are found, the endangered Orsini's viper is a highlight.

Birds are the most numerous group of vertebrates, with 230 species recorded to date. The world of birds is represented by 102 species of nesting birds found in the broader park area. The nesting bird group includes a community of birds inhabiting rocks and cliffs in the canyons of Velika Paklenica and Mala Paklenica, with 24 bird species. A special value is added to the park by the endangered and rare bird species such as the golden eagle, peregrine falcon, short-toed eagle and goshawk. Forest areas are rich with woodpeckers, the rarest among them being the white-backed woodpecker and middle spotted woodpecker.

There are also 53 species of mammals at the park, the roe deer and chamois are highlights, while the brown bear is the biggest predator. In the caves there is a host of interesting underground animals such as crabs, mites, Nematodes, aquatic worms, spiders, pseudoscorpion, beetles and bats.

Tourism
Hiking is the only way to really get to know Paklenica. The Park area contains 150–200 km of trails and paths, from those intended for tourists, leading from Velika Paklenica Canyon to Manita peć cave, Lugarnica forest cottage and the mountain hut, to those intended for mountaineers, leading to the highest peaks of Velebit. The trails in the Park are marked with boards and mountaineering signs.

Paklenica National Park is the most visited climbing site in Croatia, and the largest in Southeast Europe. The close proximity of seawater gives this climbing site a special charm, making Paklenica Riviera an ideal place to combine climbing and water sports. Today, there are over 360 equipped and improved routes of various difficulty levels and lengths within Paklenica's climbing sites, so each climber can find to their liking. The main climbing season begins in spring and goes on until late autumn.

title: Paklenica


text:
Kornati

The Kornati archipelago (Isole Incoronate) of Croatia, also known as the Stomorski islands, is located in the northern part of Dalmatia, south from Zadar and west from Šibenik, in the Šibenik-Knin County. With 35 km length and 89 islands, some large, some small, in a sea area of about 320 km², the Kornati are the densest archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea. From northwest to southeast (from the island of Balabra to Samograd), and from northeast to southwest (from Gangarol to Mana) they stretch for 13 km. The name of the archipelago is the plural form of the name of the largest island, called Kornat.

Settlement
There are no permanent settlements in Kornati. Simple houses in well-protected coves such as Vrulje, Kravjačica, Lavsa and others are used by mainland landowners as temporary shelters. Most of the land owners are from the island of Murter and Dugi Otok.

Climate
The average monthly temperature for January is 7.3 °C, in July it is 23.9 °C; the average sea temperature in winter is 14 to 15 C and in summer 22.8 °C.

Geography
Geographically the Kornati islands can be divided into two main groups - the Gornji Kornati or Upper Kornati, closer to the mainland, and the Donji Kornati or Lower Kornati, which are mostly facing the open sea in the southwest.

The islands known as Gornji Kornati include the northernmost island of Sit and the surrounding islets, divided by a channel from Žut and its surrounding islets to the south. Žut is the largest and most indented of these islands.

National park
In 1980, the 89 southernmost of the 140-odd islands, islets and reefs of the Kornati archipelago were declared a national park, Nacionalni Park Kornati, protecting the islands and their marine surroundings. The area covered by the national park mostly coincides with the Donji Kornati, which includes the island of Kornat and the surrounding islets, separated with a channel from the island of Piškera and the surrounding islets.

The national park includes 109 islands, of which 76 are less than 1 hectare in size. Of the total land surface area of Kornati, 62 km2, or 85%, is stony, and only 5% has been cultivated.

The most important places on the Kornati islands are: the shallow channel Mala Proversa, the oval-shaped Taljurič island, Špinuta Bay, Stivina Bay, the fourth largest island Levrnaka, the second largest karst rock-area Tarac, Svršata Vela island, Mana island, Piškera island, Panitula Vela island, the picturesque Lavsa Bay, the resort island Ravni Žakan, Smokvica Vela island, the Opat peninsula, Samograd island, the Purara reserve for marine life, Vrgada and Gangarol islands.

The names of the islands Babina Guzica and Kurba Vela, which in Croatian refer to buttocks and prostitution, offer an opportunity to explain the many vulgar names officially given to many places in the Kornati archipelago. When Austrian surveyors came to record the archipelago at the end of the 19th century, their local guides mocked them by making up vulgar names for the various locations.

Kornat, the biggest of the islands with a total area of 32.44 km2, comprises two-thirds of the park's land area. Although the island is 25.2 km long, it is no wider than 2.5 km. The park is managed from the town of Murter, on the island of the same name, which is connected to the mainland by a drawbridge in the town of Tisno.

Geology
Most of the terrain in the Kornati islands is karst-limestone which, in the distant geological past, arose from sediment from the sea. In the stone on the islands there are numerous fossils of crustaceans and fish. In the area there examples of all the typical forms of karst: bizarre shapes formed by the atmosphere, unexplored caves, areas of flat rock and, above all, cliffs. Karst rock is porous, rapidly draining and dry, and so therefore are the Kornati islands. Numerous cisterns supply water for people and animals.

Human presence on the Kornati islands appear to extend back to the Neolithic Age, and the remains of Illyrian settlements were found on the island of Kornat. The presence of wealthy Romans is attested by the mosaic floors of Roman villas, and Kornat island has a small tower, Toreta, that was probably built in the 6th century AD. The island of Piškera was also inhabited during the Middle Ages and served as a storage point for fish. Archeological sites in Stražišče and Tarac, and on Levrnaka and Lavsa provide evidence that during the Roman era life on Kornati was very active. There are many buildings and it is known that there were also stone quarries.

During the long period of Venetian occupation, the islands were used for resupplying the Venetian fleet. Deforestation and subsequent erosion, and overgrazing by sheep and goats, for whose benefit the scrub was periodically burnt over, impoverished the fauna and depopulated the islands, which were purchased by citizens of Murter during the late 19th century.

Fauna
Apart from sea-gulls, which are the most numerous animals, there are some lizards and ring-snakes, and 69 varieties of butterfly, some amphibians and rodents. The local ichthyological fauna is also sparse. As regards marine life, the Kornati islands are typical of the Adriatic and the Mediterranean, but, due to the underwater relief, streams and special characteristics of the sea in this labyrinth, there are also some peculiarities: algae, coral and sponges. At one time the sea was the richest in the Adriatic for sponge hunters. The rare mollusc Pinna nobilis lives in the Kornati and is protected by law.

Not only the land but also the sea is within the protection of the National Park. Fishing is extremely limited in order to allow the regeneration of fish shoals that had been severely over-fished. According to tradition, the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus albiventur) once lived among these islands. The name of the southernmost point on Vela Kurka (Mendo) is connected with this almost extinct species.

Flora
Vegetation on the islands is very sparse maquis. There have been 200 known varieties of Mediterranean plants, but they have degenerated. The most common plant is a tough variety of grass, but there are many scented and medicinal herbs: sage, feather grass and Xeranthemum, giving a fragrant spring, and during the year providing the best forage for bees. Olive trees account for about 80% of the land under cultivation, followed by vineyards, figs, orchards and vegetable gardens. It is thought that the Kornati islands were once covered with forests of Mediterranean holm oaks, Quercus ilex, but as open fires demanded a great deal of wood, the forests were slowly destroyed; the sole remnant is round the bay of Telašćica.

title: Kornati


text:
Progressive Unionist Party

The Progressive Unionist Party (PUP) is a minor unionist political party in Northern Ireland. It was formed from the Independent Unionist Group operating in the Shankill area of Belfast, becoming the PUP in 1979. Linked to the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and Red Hand Commando (RHC), for a time it described itself as "the only left of centre unionist party" in Northern Ireland, with its main support base in the loyalist working class communities of Belfast.

Since the Ulster Democratic Party's dissolution in 2001, the PUP has been the sole party in Northern Ireland representing paramilitary loyalism.

History
The party was founded by Hugh Smyth in the mid-1970s as the "Independent Unionist Group". In 1977, two prominent members of the Northern Ireland Labour Party, David Overend and Jim McDonald, joined. Overend subsequently wrote many of the group's policy documents, incorporating much of the NILP's platform. In 1979, the group was renamed the "Progressive Unionist Party".

In 1995, shortly after the Combined Loyalist Military Command announced a ceasefire, former UVF member Billy Hutchinson, who was jailed for the murder of two Catholics in 1974, defined the relationship between the PUP and the UVF: "The relationship is a very strict one in terms of acting as political confidants and providing political analysis for them, but it doesn't go any deeper than that."

The party has had a degree of electoral success. In 1994 PUP leader Hugh Smyth became Lord Mayor of Belfast, and in the 1996 elections to the Northern Ireland Forum they secured two seats, with Smyth and David Ervine both being elected. The PUP supported the Belfast Agreement and in the 1998 election to the Northern Ireland Assembly they also won two seats, with Hutchinson and David Ervine elected from the Belfast North and East constituencies respectively. Hutchinson lost his seat in the 2003 election, leaving Ervine as their sole Assembly representative. This was followed by a poor showing in the Northern Ireland local election of 2005, where Smyth and Ervine were their only two members to retain their seats on local authorities, and the party now seems to be in a state of decline.

Their position on the left of the political spectrum differentiates them from other unionist parties (such as the Ulster Unionist Party and the Democratic Unionist Party) which are ideologically right-wing.

Following a loyalist feud between the UVF and Loyalist Volunteer Force, in which four men were murdered by the UVF in Belfast and recognition of the UVF's ceasefire was withdrawn by the British government, the PUP debated ending its "special relationship" with the UVF. This was defeated in a closed vote at the party's annual conference in October 2005.

In March 2006, the Chairwoman of the PUP, Dawn Purvis, a research associate at the University of Ulster, was appointed as an independent member of the Northern Ireland Policing Board.

David Ervine died following a heart attack on 8 January 2007. On 22 January 2007 Dawn Purvis was chosen as party leader. She is the second woman to lead a unionist party in Northern Ireland (after Anne Dickson's short-lived leadership of the Unionist Party of Northern Ireland following Brian Faulkner's retirement). Dr John Kyle was co-opted on to Belfast City Council to fill Ervine's seat. The party did not field any candidates for the 2010 general elections - party members were encouraged to vote for a candidate of their choice.

Assembly elections, March 2007
The election was for 108 seats spread evenly across 18 constituencies.

The PUP fielded three candidates: Elaine Martin in North Down, Andrew Park in Belfast South and Dawn Purvis in Belfast East. Overall the party polled 3,822 votes or 0.6% of the votes cast in Northern Ireland, down 0.6% from the elections of 2003.

Dawn Purvis was elected to represent Belfast East, polling 3,045 votes (10.3%), finishing 5th out of the 15 candidates.

2010 resignations and relationship with UVF/RHC
In June 2010, Dawn Purvis resigned as leader, and as a member, of the party because of its relationship with the UVF and a recent murder attributed to that group. On 28 August 2010 the former deputy leader, David Rose, resigned from the party. He cited the recent murder attributed to the UVF and his belief that the party was "becoming increasingly conservative in outlook.

During a meeting in Belfast on 29 September 2010, members of the party agreed to maintain its relationship with the Ulster Volunteer Force and the Red Hand Commando. Despite these links, party leader Billy Hutchinson acknowledges that most UVF members vote for the larger Democratic Unionist Party.

Assembly elections, May 2011
The election was for 108 seats spread evenly across 18 constituencies. The party failed to regain the East Belfast seat and are unrepresented in the Assembly. Leader Brian Ervine resigned soon after the election and was replaced by veteran west Belfast activist Billy Hutchinson in October 2011.

Notable members
Former UVF member Billy Giles, who spent 14 years in the Maze Prison for a sectarian killing, was part of the PUP's negotiating team at the Good Friday Agreement in April 1998. Others involved in this process included Billy Mitchell, David Ervine, Jim McDonald, William 'Billy' Greer, Winston Churchill Rea and William "Plum" Smyth; all former UVF and Red Hand Commando members.

title: Progressive Unionist Party


text:
Édouard Vuillard

Jean-Édouard Vuillard (11 November 1868 – 21 June 1940) was a French painter, decorative artist, and printmaker. From 1891 through 1900, Vuillard was a prominent member of the avant garde artistic group Les Nabis, creating paintings that assembled areas of pure color. His interior scenes, influenced by Japanese prints, explored the spatial effects of flattened planes of color, pattern, and form. As a decorative artist, Vuillard painted theater sets, panels for interior decoration, and designed plates and stained glass. After 1900, when the Nabis broke up, Vuillard adopted a more realistic style, approaching landscapes and interiors with greater detail and vivid colors. In the 1920s and 1930s, he painted portraits of prominent figures in French industry and the arts in their familiar settings.

Vuillard was influenced by Paul Gauguin, among other post-impressionist painters.

Early life
Jean-Édouard Vuillard was born on 11 November 1868 in Cuiseaux (Saône-et-Loire), where he spent his youth. Vuillard's father was a retired naval captain who became a tax collector after leaving the military. His father was 27 years older than his mother, Marie Vuillard (née Michaud), who was a seamstress.

After his father's retirement in 1877, the family settled in Paris at 18 Rue de Chabrol, then moved to a building on Rue Daunou where his mother had a sewing workshop. Vuillard entered a school run by the Marist Brothers. He was awarded a scholarship to attend the prestigious Lycée Fontaine, which in 1883 became the Lycée Condorcet. Vuillard studied rhetoric and art, making drawings of works by Michelangelo and classical sculptures. At the Lycée he met several of the future Nabis, including Ker-Xavier Roussel (Vuillard's future brother in law), Maurice Denis, writer Pierre Véber, and the future actor and theater director Aurélien Lugné-Poe.

In November 1885, when Vuillard left the Lycée, he gave up his original idea of following his father in a military career, and set out to become an artist. He joined Roussel at the studio of painter Diogène Maillart, in the former studio of Eugène Delacroix on Place Fürstenberg. There, Roussel and Vuillard learned the rudiments of painting. In 1885, Vuillard took courses at the Académie Julian, and frequented the studios of the prominent academic painters William-Adolphe Bouguereau and Robert-Fleury. However, he failed in the competitions to enter the École des Beaux-Arts in February and July 1886 and again in February 1887. In July 1887, the persistent Vuillard was accepted, and was placed in the course of Robert-Fleury, then in 1888 with the academic history painter Jean-Léon Gérôme. In 1888 and 1889, he pursued his studies in academic art. He painted a self-portrait with his friend Waroquoy, and had a crayon portrait of his grandmother accepted for the Salon of 1889. At the end of that academic year, and after a brief period of military service, he set out to become an artist.

Les Nabis
Late in 1889, Vuillard began to frequent meetings of the informal group of artists known as Les Nabis, or The prophets, a semi-secret, semi-mystical club that included Maurice Denis and some of his other friends from the Lycée. In 1888, the young painter Paul Sérusier had traveled to Brittany, where, under the direction of Paul Gauguin, he had made a nearly abstract painting of the seaport, composed of areas of color. This composition, The Talisman, became the first Nabi painting. Serusier and his friend Pierre Bonnard, Maurice Denis and Paul Ranson, were among the first Nabis of nabiim, dedicated to transforming art down to its foundations. In 1890, through Denis, Vuillard became a member of the group, which met in Ransom's studio or in the cafes of the Passage Brady. The existence of the organization was in theory secret, and members used coded nicknames; Vuillard became the Nabi Zouave, because of his military service.

Vuillard first worked on theater decoration. He shared a studio at 28 Rue Pigalle with Bonnard with the theater impresario Lugné-Poe, and the theater critic Georges Rousel. There, Vuillard designed sets for several works by Maeterlinck and other symbolist writers. In 1891, he took part in his first exposition with the Nabis at the Chateau of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. He showed two paintings, including The Woman in a Striped Dress. The reviews were largely good, but the critic of Le Chat Noir wrote of "Works still indecisive, where one finds the features in style, literary shadows, sometimes a tender harmony." (September 19, 1891).

Vuillard began keeping a journal during this time, which records the formation of his artistic philosophy. "We perceive nature through the senses which give us images of forms, sounds, colors, etc." he wrote on 22 November 1888, shortly before he became a Nabi. "A form or a color exists only in relation to another. Form does not exist on its own. We can only conceive of the relations." In 1890 he returned to the same idea: "Let's look at a painting as a set of relations that are definitely detached from any idea of naturalism."

The Japanese influence
The works of Vuillard and the Nabis were strongly influenced by Japanese woodblock prints, which were shown in Paris at the gallery of art dealer Siegfried Bing, and at a large show at the École des Beaux Arts in 1890. Vuillard himself acquired a personal collection of 180 prints, some of which are visible in the backgrounds of his paintings. The Japanese influence appeared particularly in his work in the negation of depth, the simplicity of forms, and strongly contrasting colors. The faces were often turned away, and drawn with just a few lines. There was no attempt to create perspective. Vegetal, floral and geometric designs in the wallpaper or clothing were more important than the faces. In some of Vuillard's works, the persons in the paintings almost entirely disappeared into the designs of the wallpaper. The Japanese influence continued in his later, post-Nabi works, particularly in the painted screens depicting Place Vintimille he made for Marguerite Chaplin.

Decoration
Vuillard, like other members of the Nabis, believed that decorative art was equal to traditional easel painting. Vuillard created theatrical sets and programs, decorative murals and painted screens, prints, designs for stained glass windows, and ceramic plates. In the early 1890s, he worked especially for the Théâtre de l'Œuvre of Lugné-Poe designing backdrops and programs.

From theater decoration, Vuillard soon moved into interior decoration. In the course of his theater work, he met brothers Alexandre and Thadée Natanson, the founders of  La Revue Blanche, a cultural review. Vuillard's graphics appeared in the journal, together with Pierre Bonnard, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Félix Vallotton and others. In 1892, on a commission for Natanson brothers, Vuillard painted his first decorations ("apartment frescoes") for the house of Mme Desmarais. He made others in 1894 for Alexandre Natanson, and in 1898 for Claude Anet.

Vuillard used some of the same techniques he had used in the theater for making scenery, such as peinture à la colle, or distemper, which allowed him to make large panels more quickly. This method, originally used in Renaissance frescoes, involved using rabbit-skin glue as a binder mixed with chalk and white pigment to make gesso, a smooth coating applied to wood panels or canvas, on which the painting was made. This allowed the painter to achieve finer detail and color than on canvas, and was waterproof. In 1892, Vuillard received his first decorative commission to make six paintings to be placed above the doorways of the salon of the family of Paul Desmarais. He designed his panels and murals to fit into the architectural setting and the interests of the client.

In 1894, Vuillard and the other Nabis received a commission from art gallery owner Siegfried Bing, who had given Art Nouveau its name, to design stained glass windows to be made by the American firm of Louis Tiffany. Their designs were displayed in 1895 at the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts, but the actual windows were never made. In 1895, he designed a series of decorative porcelain plates, decorated with faces and figures of women in modern dress, immersed in floral designs. The plates, along with his design for the Tiffany window and the decorative panels made for the Natansons, were displayed at the opening of Bing's gallery Maison de l'Art Nouveau in December 1895.

The Public Gardens
Some of Vuillard's best-known works, including Les Jardins Publiques (The Public Gardens) and Figures dans un Interieur (Figures in an Interior) were made for the Natanson brothers, whom he had known at the Lycée Condorcet, and for their friends. They gave Vuillard freedom to choose the subjects and style. Between 1892 and 1899, Vuillard made eight cycles of decorative paintings, with altogether some thirty panels. The murals, though rarely displayed during his lifetime, later became among his most famous works.

The Public Gardens is a series of six panels depicting children in the parks of Paris. The patrons, Alexander Natanson and his wife Olga, had three young daughters. The paintings show a variety of different inspirations, including the medieval tapestries at the Hotel de Cluny in Paris that Vuillard greatly appreciated. For this series Vuillard did not use oil paint, but peinture à la colle, a method he had used in painting theater sets, which required him to work very quickly, but allowed him to make modifications and to achieve the appearance of frescoes. He received the commission on 24 August 1894, and completed the series at the end of the same year. They were installed in the dining room/salon of the Natansons.

Interior scenes
Vuillard frequently painted interior scenes, usually of women in a workplace, at home, or in a garden. The faces and features of the figures in these scenes are rarely articulated in detail; instead Vuillard often places greater focus on the patterns and planes of wallpaper, carpets, and furnishings.

Vuillard wrote in his journal in 1890, "In the decoration of an apartment, and overly-precise subject can easily become intolerable. One might less quickly get tired of a textile, or drawings without too much literal precision." He also preferred to populate his interiors with women. As he wrote in his journal in 1894, "When my attention is directed toward men, I see only gross caricatures... I never feel so with women, where I always find the means to isolate a few elements which satisfy me as a painter. It's not that men are uglier than women, they're only so in my imagination."

Vuillard painted a series of paintings of seamstresses in the workshop of a dressmaker, based on the workshop of his mother. In La Robe à Ramages (The Flowered Dress; 1891), the women in the workshop are assembled out of areas of color. The faces, seen from the side, have no details. The patterns of their costumes and the decor dominate the pictures. The figures include his grandmother, to the left, and his sister Marie, in the bold patterned dress that is a central feature of the painting. He also placed a mirror on the wall to the left, a device which allowed him to give two points of view simultaneously and to reflect and distort the scene. The result is a work that is deliberately flattened and decorative.

Seamstress with Chiffons (1893) also presents a seamstress at work, seated in front of a window. Her face is obscure and the image appears almost flat, dominated by the floral patterns of the wall.

In 1895, Vuillard received a commission from the cardiologist Henri Vaquez for four panels to decorate the library of his Paris house at 27 rue du Général Foy. The primary subjects were women engaged in playing the piano, sewing, and other solitary occupations in a highly decorated bourgeois apartment. The one man in the series, presumably Vaquez himself, is shown in his library reading, paying little attention to the woman sewing next to him. The figures in the panels are almost entirely integrated into the elaborate wallpaper, carpet, and patterns of the dresses of the women. Art critics immediately compared the works to medieval tapestries. The paintings, completed in 1896, were originally titled simply People in Interiors but later critics added subtitles: Music, Work, The Choice of Books, and Intimacy. They are now in the Museum of the Petit Palais in Paris.

In 1897, Vuillard interiors showed a noticeable change, with Large Interior with Six Persons. The picture was much more complex in its perspective, depth and color, with carpets arranged in different angles, and the figures scattered around the room more recognizable. It was also complex in its subject matter. The setting appears to be the apartment of the Nabi painter Paul Ranson, reading a book; Madame Vuillard seated in an armchair, Ida Rousseau coming in the door, and her daughter Germaine Rousseau, standing at the left. The unstated subject was the romantic affair between Ker-Xavier Roussel and Germaine Rousseau, his sister-in-law, which shocked the Nabis.

After the Nabis (1900–1914)
The Nabis went their separate ways after their exposition in 1900. They had always had different styles, though they shared common ideas and ideals about art. The separation was made deeper by the Dreyfus Affair (1894–1908), which split French society. Dreyfus was a Jewish French army officer accused falsely of treason, and sentenced to a penal colony, before finally being exonerated. Among the Nabis, Vuillard and Pierre Bonnard supported Dreyfus, while Maurice Denis and Sérusier supported the side of the French army.

After the separation of the Nabis in 1900, Vuillard's artistic style and subjects changed. He gradually abandoned the close, crowded and dark interiors he had painted before 1900, and began to paint more outdoors, with natural light. He continued to paint interiors, but the interiors had more light and color, more depth, and the faces and features were clearer. The effects of the light became primary components of his paintings, whether they were interior scenes or the parks and streets of Paris. Vuillard gradually returned to naturalism. He held his second large personal exhibition at the Gallerie Bernheim-Jeune in November 1908, where he presented many of his new landscapes. Vuillard was praised by one anti-modernist critic for "his delicious protest against systematic deformations."

In 1912, Vuillard, Bonnard and Roussel were nominated for the Légion d'honneur, but all three refused the honor. "I do not seek any other compensation for my efforts than the esteem of people with taste," Vuillard told a journalist.

In 1912, Vuillard painted Théodore Duret in his Study, a commissioned portrait that signaled a new phase in Vuillard's work, which was dominated by portraiture from 1920 onwards.

Vuillard served as a juror with Florence Meyer Blumenthal in awarding the Prix Blumenthal, a grant given between 1919–1954 to young French painters, sculptors, decorators, engravers, writers, and musicians.

New interiors, cityscapes and gardens
After 1900, Vuillard continued to paint numerous domestic interiors and gardens, but in a more naturalistic, colorful style than he had used as a Nabi. Though the faces of the persons were still often looking away, the interiors had depth, a richness of detail, and warmer colors. He particularly captured the play of the sunlight on the gardens and his subjects. He did not want to return to the past, but wanted to move into the future with a vision that was more decorative, naturalistic and familiar than that of the modernists.

He made new series of decorative panels, depicting urban scenes and parks in Paris, as well as many interior scenes of Paris shops and homes. He depicted the galleries of the Louvre Museum and the Museum of Decorative Arts, the chapel of the Palace of Versailles.

Theater
The theater was an important part of Vuillard's life. He had started his artistic career making sets and designing programs for an avant-garde theater, and throughout his life, had close contacts with the professional world of the theater. Vuillard painted his friend, the actor and director Sacha Guitry. In May 1912, Vuillard received an important commission for seven panels, and three paintings above the doorways, for the new Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris, including one of Guitry in his loge at the theater, and another of the comic playwright Georges Feydeau. He attended the performances of the Ballets Russes between 1911 and 1914, and dined with the Russian director of the Ballet, Sergei Diaghilev, and with the American dancer Isadora Duncan, and frequented the Folies Bergère and the Moulin Rouge in their heyday. In 1937 he and Bonnard combined their impressions of the history of Paris theater world in a large mural, La Comédie, for the foyer of the new Théâtre national de Chaillot, built for the 1937 Paris International Exposition.

Final years (1914–1940)
Following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, Vuillard was briefly mobilized for military duty as a highway guard. He was soon released from this duty, and returned to painting. He visited the armaments factory of his patron, Thadée Natanson, near Lyon, and later made a series of three paintings of the factories at work. He served briefly, from 2 February to 22 February, as an official artist to the French armies in the region of the Vosges, making a series of pastels. These included a sympathetic sketch of a captured German prisoner being interrogated. In August 1917, back in Paris, he received a commission from the architect Francis Jourdain for a mural for a fashionable Paris café, Le Grand Teddy.

In 1921, Vuillard received an important commission for decorative panels for the art patron Camille Bauer, for his residence in Basel, Switzerland. Vuillard completed a series of four panels, plus two over-the-door paintings, which were finished by 1922. He passed his summers each year from 1917 to 1924 at Vaucresson, at a house he rented with his mother. He also made a series of landscape paintings of the area.

Portraits
After 1920, Vuillard was increasingly occupied painting portraits for wealthy and distinguished Parisians. He preferred to use the technique of peinture à la colle sur toile, or distemper technique, which allowed him to create more precise details and richer color effects. His subjects ranged from the actor and director Sacha Guitry to the fashion designer Jeanne Lanvin, Lanvin's daughter, the Contesse Marie-Blanche de Polignac, the inventor and aviation pioneer Marcel Kapferer, and the actress Jane Renouardt. He usually presented his subjects in their studios or homes or backstage, with lavishly detailed backgrounds, wallpaper, furnishings and carpets. The backgrounds both created a mood, told a story, and served as a contrast to bring out the main figure.

Recognition and death
Between 1930 and 1935, Vuillard divided his time between Paris and the Château de Clayes, owned by his friend Hessel. Vuillard did not receive official recognition from the French state until July 1936, when he was commissioned to make a mural, La Comédie, depicting his impressions of the history of the Paris theater world for the foyer of the new Théâtre national de Chaillot, built for the 1937 Paris International Exposition. In August of the same year, the city of Paris bought four of Vuillard's paintings, Anabaptistes, and a collection of sketches. In 1937, Vuillard received another major commission, along with Maurice Denis and Roussel, for a monumental mural at the Palace of the League of Nations in Geneva.

In 1938, Vuillard was elected to the Académie des Beaux Arts in February, and in July, the Musée des Arts Decoratifs presented a major retrospective of his paintings. Later in the year, he traveled to Geneva to oversee the installation of his mural Peace, Protector of the Arts at the League of Nations Building.

In 1940, Vuillard completed his last two portraits. He suffered from pulmonary difficulties and traveled to La Baule in Loire-Atlantique to restore his health. He died there on 21 June 1940, the same month that the French army was defeated by the Germans in the Battle of France.

Personal life
Vuillard was unmarried, but his personal life and his work were greatly influenced by his women friends. In the late 1890s he began a long relationship with Misia Natanson, the wife of his important patron, Thadée Natanson. Natanson had married her in April 1893, when she was sixteen years old. She appears in the Public Gardens. He helped her decorate the Natansons' apartment, painted her often in his decorative panels, and regularly accompanied her and her husband to their country house.

In 1900, Vuillard met Lucy Hessel, wife of a Swiss art dealer, who became his new muse, traveling with him each year to Normandy in July, August and September, and giving him advice. She remained with him, despite many rivals and many dramatic scenes, until the end of his life. In addition to Misia and Lucy, he also had a long relationship with the actress Lucie Belin, for whom he arranged a pension when she fell ill in the 1920s.

"Le Grand Teddy" painting rediscovery

In 2014, the BBC television program Fake or Fortune? investigated a painting owned by British scriptwriter Keith Tutt, which both he and the previous owners, Mr. and Mrs. Warren, believed to be by Vuillard. The oval painting, which depicts a café scene, was thought to be one of a group of three paintings commissioned from Vuillard in 1918 to decorate a new Parisian café, "Le Grand Teddy", named after American president Teddy Roosevelt. The main painting of the commission, a large horizontal oval work depicting a busy café interior (currently privately owned and kept in secure storage in Geneva, Switzerland) was at the time the only one of the three known to still exist and to have been fully confirmed as a genuine Vuillard. With assistance from art experts, the program undertook an exhaustive investigation and analysis of the Tutt painting, as well as carrying out extensive research to establish the painting's provenance. After submitting all the evidence to a committee at the secretive and highly conservative Wildenstein Institute in Paris, Tutt and the Fake or Fortune? team learned that the committee had unanimously agreed it was genuine.

Market
On 13 November 2017, Misia et Vallotton à Villeneuve painted in 1899 became the most valuable Vuillard sold at auction when it achieved $17.75 million at Christie's. The painting had been owned by Nancy Lee and Perry Bass since 1979 when they bought the painting from Wildenstein & Co., the French art dealing family.

Nazi-looted art
In 2006, the National Gallery of Canada restituted Vuillard's The Salon of Madame Aron (1904, reworked in 1934), which it had purchased in 1956, to the Lindon family in France.

Selected exhibitions

 * 1 July 2021 to 19 September 2021 – Private Lives: Home and Family in the Art of the Nabis, Paris 1889-1900, Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio
 * 13 March 2019 to 30 June 2019 – Les Nabis et le décor – Bonnard, Vuillard, Maurice Denis... Musée du Luxembourg, Paris
 * 19 October 2018 – 20 January 2019 Maman Vuillard and Madame Vuillard, Barber Institute of Fine Arts in Birmingham
 * 16 October 2015 – 15 February 2016 Indoor/Outdoor: Vuillard's "Landscapes and Interiors", Norton Simon Museum in Pasadena
 * 4 May 2012 – 23 September 2012 Edouard Vuillard: A Painter and His Muses, 1890–1940 , The Jewish Museum in New York
 * 19 January 2003 – 20 April 2003 Édouard Vuillard, National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC
 * 25 September 2003 – 4 January 2004 Edouard Vuillard (1868–1940), Musée d'Orsay in Paris

Selected works

 * The Green Interior or Figure in front of a Window with Drawn Curtains (1891), Metropolitan Museum of Art
 * Self Portrait (1892)
 * Woman Sweeping (1892)
 * Mother and Sister of the Artist (1893)
 * The Seamstress (1893), Indianapolis Museum of Art
 * The Yellow Curtain (1893)
 * Married Life (1894)
 * Under the Trees (from "The Public Gardens") (1894), Cleveland Museum of Art
 * Chestnut Trees, a Cartoon for a Tiffany Stained-Glass Window (1894–95), glue-based distemper on cardboard, mounted on canvas, 110 x 70 cm, Dallas Museum of Art
 * At the Café (c.1897–1899), Cleveland Museum of Art
 * Woman in Blue With Child (Misia Natanson with Mimi Godebska, rue Saint-Florentin) (1899)
 * Interior: Madame Vuillard and Grand-Mère Roussel at L'Étang-la-Ville (1900–01), oil on cardboard, 53 x 70 cm, Dallas Museum of Art
 * At the Revue Blanche (Portrait of Félix Fénéon), 1901, Guggenheim Museum
 * Le Déjeuner à Villeneuve-sur-Yonne (1902)
 * Café Wepler (1908–10, reworked in 1912), Cleveland Museum of Art
 * Le Grand Teddy (1918)
 * Garden at Vaucresson (1920, reworked in 1926, 1935, 1936), Metropolitan Museum of Art
 * André Bénac (1936), Cleveland Museum of Art

Books cited in text

 * Brown, Stephen (2012). Édouard Vuillard: A Painter and His Muses, 1890–1940. New York, New Haven and London: Jewish Museum and Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300176759.
 * Brown, Stephen (2012). Édouard Vuillard: A Painter and His Muses, 1890–1940. New York, New Haven and London: Jewish Museum and Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300176759.
 * Brown, Stephen (2012). Édouard Vuillard: A Painter and His Muses, 1890–1940. New York, New Haven and London: Jewish Museum and Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300176759.
 * Brown, Stephen (2012). Édouard Vuillard: A Painter and His Muses, 1890–1940. New York, New Haven and London: Jewish Museum and Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300176759.
 * Brown, Stephen (2012). Édouard Vuillard: A Painter and His Muses, 1890–1940. New York, New Haven and London: Jewish Museum and Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300176759.

title: Édouard Vuillard


text:
Józef Marcinkiewicz

Józef Marcinkiewicz (30 March 1910 in Cimoszka, near Białystok, Poland – 1940 in Kharkiv, USSR) was a Polish mathematician.

He was a student of Antoni Zygmund; and later worked with Juliusz Schauder, Stefan Kaczmarz and Raphaël Salem. He was a professor of the Stefan Batory University in Wilno.

He enlisted in the Polish Army during the German invasion of Poland. In the aftermath of the simultaneous Soviet invasion of Poland, Marcinkiewicz was taken as a Polish POW to a Soviet camp in Starobielsk. The exact place and date of his death remain unknown, but it is believed that he died, when aged 30, murdered by the NKVD in Kharkiv. His parents, to whom he gave his manuscripts before the beginning of World War II, were transported to the Soviet Union in 1940 and later died of hunger in a camp.

Their fate is described by Zygmund described the last and his lost mathematical works as follows:

"War broke out a few days after Marcinkiewicz returned to Wilno. Zygmund writes On 2 September, the second day of the war, I came across him accidentally in the street in Wilno, already in military uniform ... We agreed to meet the same day in the evening but apparently circumstances prevented him from coming since he did not show up at the appointed place. A few months later came the news that he was a prisoner of war and was asking for mathematical books. It seems that this was the last news about Marcinkiewicz. During his time in Paris and England, Marcinkiewicz had produced some mathematical work which he had written down in manuscript form. After returning to Poland he gave these manuscripts to his parents for safe keeping. Sadly Marcinkiewicz's parents suffered the same fate as he did and died during the war. No trace of the manuscripts was ever found."

title: Józef Marcinkiewicz