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The Crown

The Crown broadly represents the state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their subdivisions (such as the Crown Dependencies, overseas territories, provinces, or states). The term can be used to refer to the office of the monarch or the monarchy as institutions; to the rule of law; or to the functions of executive (the Crown-in-council), legislative (the Crown-in-parliament), and judicial (the Crown on the bench) governance and the civil service.

The concept of the Crown as a corporation sole developed first in the Kingdom of England as a separation of the physical crown and property of the kingdom from the person and personal property of the monarch. It spread through English and later British colonisation and is now rooted in the legal lexicon of all 15 Commonwealth realms, their various dependencies, and states in free association with them. It is not to be confused with any physical crown, such as those of the British regalia.

The term is also found in various expressions such as Crown land, which some countries refer to as public land or state land; as well as in some offices, such as minister of the Crown, Crown attorney, and Crown prosecutor.

Definition
The term the Crown does not have a single definition. Legal scholars Maurice Sunkin and Sebastian Payne opined, "the nature of the Crown has been taken for granted, in part because it is fundamental and, in part, because many academics have no idea what the term the Crown amounts to". Nicholas Browne-Wilkinson theorised that the Crown is "an amorphous, abstract concept" and, thus, "impossible to define", while William Wade stated the Crown "means simply the Queen".

Warren J. Newman described the Crown is "a useful and convenient means of conveying, in a word, the compendious formal, executive and administrative powers and apparatus attendant upon the modern constitutional and monarchical state."

The Lord Simon of Glaisdale stated, "the crown is a piece of bejewelled headgear under guard at the Tower of London; but, one that symbolises the powers of government, which were formerly wielded by the wearer of the crown".

The Lord Diplock suggested the Crown means "the government [and] all of the ministers and parliamentary secretaries under whose direction the administrative work of the government is carried out by the civil servants employed in the various government departments." This interpretation was supported by section 8 of the Pensions (Colonial Service) Act 1887 (50 & 51 Vict. c. 13), which set the terms "permanent civil service of the state", "permanent civil service of Her Majesty" and "permanent civil service of the Crown" as having the same meaning.

Concept
The concept of the Crown took form under the feudal system. Though not used this way in all countries that had this system, in England, all rights and privileges were ultimately bestowed by the ruler. Land, for instance, was granted by the Crown to lords in exchange for feudal services and they, in turn, granted the land to lesser lords. One exception to this was common socage: owners of land held as socage held it subject only to the crown. When such lands become ownerless, they are said to escheat; i.e. return to direct ownership of the Crown (Crown land). Bona vacantia is the royal prerogative by which unowned property, primarily unclaimed inheritances, becomes the property of the Crown.

As such, the physical crown and the property belonging to successive monarchs in perpetuity came to be separated from the person of the monarch and his or her private property. After several centuries of the monarch personally exercising supreme legislative, executive, and judicial power, these functions decreased as parliaments, ministries, and courts grew through the 13th century. The term the Crown then developed into a means by which to differentiate the monarch's official functions from his personal choices and actions. Even within mediaeval England, there was the doctrine of capacities separating the person of the king from his actions in the capacity of monarch.

When the kingdom of England merged with those of Scotland and Ireland, the concept extended into the legal lexicons of the United Kingdom and its dependencies and overseas territories and, eventually, all of the independent Commonwealth realms. There are, thus, now many distinct crowns, as a legal concept, "worn by"—or many different offices of monarch occupied by—one person as sovereign (supreme monarch) of each country. However, the Crown can also mean the pan-national institution shared by all 15 Commonwealth realms.

In each Commonwealth realm, the term the Crown, at its broadest, now means the government or the polity known as the state, while the sovereign in all realms is the living embodiment of the state, or symbolic personification of the Crown. The body of the reigning sovereign thus holds two distinct personas in constant coexistence, an ancient theory of the "King's two bodies"—the body natural (subject to infirmity and death) and the body politic (which never dies). The Crown and the sovereign are "conceptually divisible but legally indivisible [...] The office cannot exist without the office-holder".

The terms the state, the Crown, the Crown in Right of [jurisdiction], His Majesty the King in Right of [jurisdiction], and similar, are all synonymous and the monarch's legal personality is sometimes referred to simply as the relevant jurisdiction's name. (In countries using systems of government derived from Roman civil law, the state is the equivalent concept. ) However, the terms the sovereign or monarch and the Crown, though related, have different meanings: The Crown includes both the monarch and the government. The institution and powers of the Crown are formally vested in the king, but, conventionally, its functions are exercised in the sovereign's name by ministers of the Crown drawn from and responsible to the elected chamber of parliament.

Still, the king or queen is the employer of all government officials and staff (including the viceroys, judges, members of the armed forces, police officers, and parliamentarians), the guardian of foster children (Crown wards), as well as the owner of all state lands (Crown land), buildings and equipment (Crown property), state-owned companies (Crown corporations or Crown entities), and the copyright for government publications (Crown copyright). This is all in his or her position as sovereign, not as an individual; all such property is held by the Crown in perpetuity and cannot be sold by the sovereign without the proper advice and consent of his or her relevant ministers.

The Crown also represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative, and judicial governance. While the Crown's legal personality is usually regarded as a corporation sole, it can, at least for some purposes, be described as a corporation aggregate headed by the monarch. Frederic William Maitland argued the Crown is a corporation aggregate embracing the government and the "whole political community". J.G. Allen preferred to view the Crown as a corporation sole; one office occupied by a single person, enduring "through generations of incumbents and, historically, lends coherence to a network of other institutions of a similar nature." Canadian academic Philippe Lagassé found the crown "acts in various capacities, as such: crown-in-council (executive); crown-in-parliament (legislative); crown-in-court (judicial). It is also an artificial person and office as a corporation sole. At its most basic, "the Crown" is, in the UK and other Commonwealth realms, what in most other countries is "the state"."

Divisibility of the Crown
Historically, the Crown was considered to be indivisible. Two judgments—Ex parte Indian Association of Alberta (EWCA, 1982) and Ex parte Quark (House of Lords, 2005)—challenged that view. Today, it is considered separate in every country, province, state, or territory, regardless of its degree of independence, that has the shared monarch as part of the respective country's government; though, limitations on the power of the monarch in right of each territory vary according to relevant laws, thus making the difference between full sovereignty, semi-sovereignty, dependency, etc. The Lords of Appeal wrote, "the Queen is as much the Queen of New South Wales and Mauritius and other territories acknowledging her as head of state as she is of England and Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, or the United Kingdom."

The Crown in each of the Commonwealth realms is a similar, but separate, legal concept. To distinguish the institution's role in one jurisdiction from its place in another, Commonwealth law employs the expression the Crown in Right of [place]; for example, the Crown in Right of the United Kingdom, the Crown in Right of Canada, the Crown in Right of the Commonwealth of Australia, etc. Because both Canada and Australia are federations, there are also crowns in right of each Canadian province and each Australian state. When referring to the Crown in multiple jurisdictions, wording is typically akin to "the Crown in right of [place], and all its other capacities".

The powers of a realm's crown are exercised either by the monarch, personally, or by his or her representative on the advice of the appropriate local ministers, legislature, or judges, none of which may advise the Crown in any other realm.

New Zealand
In New Zealand, the term the Crown (te Karauna ) is used to mostly mean the authority of government; its meaning changes in different contexts. In the context of people considering the claims and settlements related to the Treaty of Waitangi, professor of history Alan Ward defines the Crown as "the people of New Zealand—including Māori themselves—acted through elected parliament and government."

Crown Dependencies
In the Bailiwick of Guernsey, legislation refers to the Crown in Right of the Bailiwick of Guernsey or the Crown in Right of the Bailiwick and the law officers of the Crown of Guernsey submitted that, "the Crown in this context ordinarily means the Crown in right of the république of the Bailiwick of Guernsey" and that this comprises "the collective governmental and civic institutions, established by and under the authority of the monarch, for the governance of these islands, including the states of Guernsey and legislatures in the other islands, the royal court and other courts, the lieutenant governor, parish authorities, and the Crown acting in and through the Privy Council".

In the Bailiwick of Jersey, statements by the law officers of the Crown define the Crown's operation in that jurisdiction as the Crown in Right of Jersey, with all Crown land in the Bailiwick of Jersey belonging to the Crown in Right of Jersey and not to the Crown Estate of the United Kingdom. The Succession to the Crown (Jersey) Law 2013 defined the Crown, for the purposes of implementing the Perth Agreement in Jersey law, as the Crown in Right of the Bailiwick of Jersey.

Legislation in the Isle of Man also defines the Crown in Right of the Isle of Man as being separate from the Crown in Right of the United Kingdom.

British Overseas Territories
Following the Lords' decision in Ex parte Quark, 2005, it is held that the King, in exercising his authority over British Overseas Territories, does not act on the advice of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, but, in his role as king of each territory, with the exception of fulfilling the UK's international responsibilities for its territories. To comply with the court's decision, the territorial governors now act on the advice of each territory's executive and the UK government can no longer disallow legislation passed by territorial legislatures.

In the courts
In criminal proceedings, the state is the prosecuting party; the case is usually designated (in case citation) as R v [ defendant ] , where R can stand for either rex (if the current monarch is male) or regina (if the monarch is female), and the v stands for versus. For example, a criminal case against Smith might be referred to as R v Smith and verbally read as "the Crown against Smith".

The Crown is, in general, immune to prosecution and civil lawsuits. So, R is rarely (albeit sometimes) seen on the right hand side of the 'v' in the first instance. To pursue a case against alleged unlawful activity by the government, a case in judicial review is brought by the Crown against a minister of the Crown on the application of a claimant. The titles of these cases now follow the pattern of R (on the application of [X]) v [Y], notated as R ([X]) v [Y], for short. Thus, R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union is R (on the application of Miller and other) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, where "Miller" is Gina Miller, a citizen. Until the end of the 20th century, such case titles used the pattern R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, ex parte Miller. Either form may be abbreviated R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union.

In Scotland, criminal prosecutions are undertaken by the lord advocate (or the relevant procurator fiscal) in the name of the Crown. Accordingly, the abbreviation HMA is used in the High Court of Justiciary for His/Her Majesty's Advocate, in place of rex or regina; as in, HMA v Al Megrahi and Fahima.

Most jurisdictions in Australia use R or The King (or The Queen) in criminal cases. If the Crown is the respondent to an appeal, the words The King will be spelled out, instead of using the abbreviation R (i.e. the case name at trial would be R v Smith; if the defendant appeals against the Crown, the case name would be Smith v The King). In Western Australia and Tasmania, prosecutions will be brought in the name of the respective state instead of the Crown (e.g. The State of Western Australia v Smith). Victorian trials in the original jurisdiction will be brought in the name of the director of public prosecutions. The Commonwealth director of public prosecutions may choose which name to bring the proceeding in. Judges usually refer to the prosecuting party as simply "the prosecution" in the text of judgments. In civil cases where the Crown is a party, it is a customary to list the body politic (e.g. State of Queensland or Commonwealth of Australia) or the appropriate government minister as the party, instead. When a case is announced in court, the clerk or bailiff may refer to the Crown orally as our sovereign lord the king (or our sovereign lady the queen).

In reporting on court proceedings in New Zealand, news reports will refer to the prosecuting lawyer (often called a Crown prosecutor, as in Canada and the United Kingdom) as representing the Crown; usages such as, "for the Crown, Joe Bloggs argued", being common.

The Crown can also be a plaintiff or defendant in civil actions to which the government of the Commonwealth realm in question is a party. Such crown proceedings are often subject to specific rules and limitations, such as the enforcement of judgments against the Crown. Qui tam lawsuits on behalf of the Crown were once common, but have been unusual since the Common Informers Act 1951 ended the practice of allowing such suits by common informers.

Crown forces
The term "Crown forces" has been used by Irish republicans and nationalists, including members of paramilitary groups, to refer to British security forces which operate in Ireland. The term was used by various iterations of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) during conflicts such as Irish War of Independence and the Troubles. As noted by Irish republican Danny Morrison, "[t]he term 'security forces' suggests legitimacy, which is why republicans prefer terms like 'the Brits' or 'the Crown Forces', which undermines their authority." Due to the Irish War of Independence, "the phrase 'Crown Forces' came to represent something abhorrent in the Republican narrative".

title: The Crown


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Wonderful Life

Wonderful Life may refer to:
 * Wonderful Life (book), a 1989 book on evolution by Stephen Jay Gould

Film and television

 * Wonderful Life (1964 film), 1964 film starring Cliff Richard
 * Wonderful Life (2018 film), a 2017 fantasy film directed by Jo Won-hee
 * Wonderful Life, original Japanese title of After Life, a 1998 Japanese film directed by Hirokazu Koreeda
 * Wonderful Life (2004 TV series), 2004 Japanese television drama
 * Wonderful Life (2005 TV series), 2005 South Korean television drama

Albums

 * Wonderful Life (Black album), 1987
 * Wonderful Life (Cliff Richard album), 1964

Songs

 * "Wonderful Life" (Black song), the title track from the 1987 album
 * "Wonderful Life" (Bring Me The Horizon song), 2019
 * "Wonderful Life" (Hurts song), 2010
 * "Wonderful Life", a song by Alter Bridge from their 2010 album AB III
 * "Wonderful Life", a song and title track from the 1964 Cliff Richard with the Shadows album Wonderful Life
 * "Wonderful Life", a song by Estelle from her 2012 album All of Me
 * "Wonderful Life", a song by Gwen Stefani from her 2006 album The Sweet Escape
 * "Wonderful Life", a song by Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds from their 2003 album Nocturama
 * "Wonderful Life", a song by T.I. from his 2012 album Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wonderful Life


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Crown (disambiguation)

A crown is an emblem of a monarchy, a monarch's government, or items endorsed by it.

Crown or The Crown may also refer to:

Groups

 * Carolina Crown Drum and Bugle Corps, a junior drum corps from South Carolina
 * Crown the Empire, an American metalcore band
 * Crowns (band), an English folk punk band
 * The Crown (band), a Swedish death/thrash band

Albums

 * Crown (Aja album), a 2021 album by Aja
 * The Crown (album), a 2014 album by Z-Ro

Songs

 * "Crown" (Azealia Banks song) (2017)
 * "Crown" (Stormzy song) (2019)
 * "Crown" (TXT song) (2019)
 * "Crown", a song by Camila Cabello and Grey from Bright: The Album
 * "Crown", a song by Jay-Z from Magna Carta Holy Grail
 * "Crown", a song by Kelly Rowland
 * "Crown", a song by NEFFEX
 * "The Crown", a song by Gary Byrd and the GB Experience
 * "The Crown", a song by Gaza from No Absolutes in Human Suffering
 * "Crowns", a song by Phinehas from Thegodmachine
 * "Crown" a song by Kendrick Lamar from Mr. Morale & the Big Steppers

Other uses in arts and media

 * Crown, the symbol for the Special Cup in the Mario Kart franchise
 * Crown (manga), a Japanese comic series
 * The Crown (TV series), about Queen Elizabeth II
 * "The Crown: Joancoming: It's a Cleo Cleo Cleo Cleo World", an episode of Clone High about Cleopatra

Brands and enterprises

 * Crown (St. Paul's Churchyard), a historical bookseller in London
 * Crown Equipment Corporation, an American manufacturer of forklifts
 * Crown International (Crown Audio), an American manufacturer of audio electronics
 * Crown International Pictures, a defunct American film company
 * Crown Lager, an Australian beer
 * Crown Liquor Saloon, a pub in Belfast
 * Crown, an imprint of Crown Publishing Group
 * Crown Royal, a Canadian whisky
 * Crowns brand cigarettes, produced by Commonwealth Brands
 * Crown Resorts, a hotel, casino, and resort company

Currencies

 * Crown (currency)

Contemporary currencies

 * Czech koruna
 * Danish krone
 * Faroese króna
 * Icelandic króna
 * Norwegian krone
 * Swedish krona

Historical currencies

 * Austrian krone
 * Austro-Hungarian krone
 * Bohemian and Moravian koruna
 * Czechoslovak koruna
 * Estonian kroon
 * Hungarian korona
 * Slovak koruna

Historical coins

 * Crown (Australian coin)
 * Crown (British coin), a British coin introduced in 1707
 * Crown (English coin), an English coin introduced in 1526
 * Crown, the French Écu
 * Crown, the 5 Mark coin of the German gold mark

Dentistry

 * Crown (dental restoration), a dental treatment
 * Crown (tooth), a portion of a tooth

Monarchy and government

 * Crown (heraldry), a depiction of a crown used in heraldry
 * Crown, by metonymy, the term for a monarch or the form of government of a monarchy
 * The Crown, the legal embodiment of monarchical governance in a realm of the Commonwealth of Nations
 * Crown prosecutor, the state prosecutor in the Commonwealth of Nations jurisdictions
 * Crown Estate, a collection of lands and holdings in the territories of England, Wales and Northern Ireland belonging to the British monarch as a corporation sole
 * Crown Property Bureau, the quasi-government agency responsible for managing the property of the Monarchy of Thailand

Ancient Roman awards

 * Camp crown, in penetrating a camp
 * Civic Crown, of a citizen
 * Grass Crown, of a city
 * Mural crown, in scaling city walls
 * Naval crown, in boarding an enemy ship

Australian casinos and resorts

 * Crown Melbourne
 * Crown Perth
 * Crown Sydney

Pubs

 * The Crown, Bristol, a historic pub in England
 * The Crown, Covent Garden, a pub in London
 * The Crown, Cowley, a pub in London
 * The Crown, Houghton Regis, a pub in Bedfordshire, England
 * The Crown, Islington, a pub in London
 * The Crown, Shoreditch, now The Owl and Pussycat, a pub in London
 * The Crown, Strand, later the Crown and Anchor, a tavern in 18th–19th-century London
 * The Crown, Twickenham, a pub in London

Suburbs in South Africa

 * Crown, Gauteng, a suburb of Johannesburg
 * Crown North, a suburb of Johannesburg
 * Crown Gardens, a suburb of Johannesburg

Other places and buildings

 * The Crown (mountain), a mountain in the Karakoram of China
 * Crown, Inverness, an area beside the city centre of Inverness, Scotland
 * Crown, Missouri, a community in the United States
 * The Crown, Cincinnati, now Heritage Bank Center, an indoor arena in Cincinnati, Ohio
 * Crown, Pennsylvania, a census-designated place in Farmington Township
 * The Crown Inn, later The Flying Pig, a pub in Cambridge, England
 * Crown Theatre, Wollongong, an historic theatre in Wollongong, NSW, Australia
 * Crown Theatre, a theatre within the Crown Perth complex
 * Crown Wetlands, Cayman Islands

Vehicles

 * Crown (automobile), a 1905 American automobile
 * Pacer Crown, a show car by AMC
 * Toyota Crown, a luxury vehicle from Toyota

Ships

 * Crown (1793 ship)
 * MS Albatros or Crown, a cruise ship
 * HMS Crown (1654), a 48-gun ship launched as Taunton
 * HMS Crown (1782), a 64-gun third rate

Science

 * Crown (anatomy), the top of the head
 * Crown (botany), the branching leaf-bearing portion of a tree
 * Crown ether, a cyclic chemical compound that consists of a ring containing several ether groups
 * Crown group, the most recent common ancestor of a collection of species as well as all of that ancestor's descendants
 * Hair whorl or crown

Other uses

 * Confederation of the Polish Crown, or The Crown, monarchist political party in Poland
 * Crown, the cross-sectional shape of a road surface
 * Crown, part of the muzzle of a gun barrel
 * Crown, the top or hinge of a bell
 * Crown, the topmost part of a hat
 * Crown (arch), the top portion of an arch
 * Crown (watch), the grooved knob or dial on the outside of a watch case
 * Crown cap, a type of bottle seal
 * Crown graph, a type of undirected graph in graph theory
 * Crowns, a play by Regina Taylor

title: Crown (disambiguation)


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Luigi Cherubini

Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobio Salvatore Cherubini (8 or 14 September 1760 – 15 March 1842) was an Italian Classical and Romantic composer. His most significant compositions are operas and sacred music. Beethoven regarded Cherubini as the greatest living composer of his era. Cherubini's operas were heavily praised and interpreted by Rossini.

Early years
Cherubini was born Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobio Salvatore Cherubini in Florence in 1760. There is uncertainty about his exact date of birth. Although 14 September is sometimes stated, evidence from baptismal records and Cherubini himself suggests the 8th is correct. Perhaps the strongest evidence is his first name, Maria, which is traditional for a child born on 8 September, the feast-day of the Nativity of the Virgin. His instruction in music began at the age of six with his father, Bartolomeo, maestro al cembalo ("Master of the harpsichord", in other words, ensemble leader from the harpsichord). Considered a child prodigy, Cherubini studied counterpoint and dramatic style at an early age. By the time he was thirteen, he had composed several religious works.

Adulthood and first operas
In 1780, he was awarded a scholarship by the Grand Duke of Tuscany to study music in Bologna and Milan. Cherubini's early opere serie used libretti by Apostolo Zeno, Metastasio (Pietro Trapassi), and others that adhered closely to standard dramatic conventions. His music was strongly influenced by Niccolò Jommelli, Tommaso Traetta, and Antonio Sacchini, who were the leading Italian composers of the day. The first of his two comic works, Lo sposo di tre e marito di nessuna, premiered at a Venetian theater in November 1783.

Feeling constrained by Italian traditions and eager to experiment, Cherubini traveled to London in 1785 where he produced two opere serie and an opera buffa for the King's Theatre. In the same year, he made an excursion to Paris with his friend the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti, who presented him to Marie Antoinette and Parisian society. Cherubini received an important commission to write Démophoon to a French libretto by Jean-François Marmontel that would be his first tragédie en musique. Except for a brief return trip to London and to Turin for an opera seria commissioned by King Victor Amadeus III, Cherubini spent the rest of his life in France where he was initiated into Grand Orient de France "Saint-Jean de Palestine" Masonic Lodge in 1784.

French assimilation

Cherubini adopted the French version of his name, Marie-Louis-Charles-Zénobi-Salvador Cherubini; this appears in all extant documents that show his full name after 1790, though his Italian name is favored nowadays. Performances of Démophoon were favorably received at the Académie Royale de Musique in 1788. With Viotti's help, the Théâtre de Monsieur in the Tuileries appointed Cherubini as its director in 1789. Three years later, after a move to the rue Feydeau and the fall of the monarchy, the company became known as the Théâtre Feydeau. This position gave Cherubini the opportunity to read countless libretti and choose one that best suited his temperament.

Cherubini's music began to show more originality and daring. His first major success was Lodoïska (1791), which was admired for its realistic heroism. This was followed by Elisa (1794), set in the Swiss Alps, and Médée (1797), Cherubini's best-known work. Les deux journées (1800), in which Cherubini simplified his style, was a popular success. These and other operas were premièred at the Théâtre Feydeau or the Opéra-Comique. Feeling financially secure, he married Anne Cécile Tourette in 1794 and began a family of three children.

The fallout from the French Revolution affected Cherubini until the end of his life. Politics forced him to hide his connections with the former aristocracy and seek governmental appointments. Although Napoleon found him too complex, Cherubini wrote at least one patriotic work per year for more than a decade. He was appointed Napoleon's director of music in Vienna for part of 1805 and 1806, whereupon he conducted several of his works in that city.

In 1808 Cherubini was elected an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands.

From opera to church music
After Les deux journées, Parisian audiences began to favor younger composers such as Boieldieu. Cherubini's opera-ballet Anacréon was an outright failure and most stage works after it did not achieve success. Faniska, produced in 1806, was an exception, receiving an enthusiastic response, in particular by Haydn and Beethoven. Les Abencérages (1813), an heroic drama set in Spain during the last days of the Moorish kingdom of Granada, was Cherubini's attempt to compete with Spontini's La vestale; it received critical praise but few performances.

Disappointed with his lack of acclaim in the theater, Cherubini turned increasingly to church music, writing seven masses, two requiems, and many shorter pieces. During this period (under the restored monarchy) he was appointed Surintendant de la Musique du Roi, a position he would hold until the fall of Charles X (1830). In 1815 London's Royal Philharmonic Society commissioned him to write a symphony, an overture, and a composition for chorus and orchestra, the performances of which he went especially to London to conduct, increasing his fame.

Cherubini's Requiem in C minor (1816), commemorating the anniversary of the execution of King Louis XVI of France, was a huge success. The work was greatly admired by Beethoven, Schumann and Brahms. In 1836, Cherubini wrote a Requiem in D minor to be performed at his own funeral. It is for male choir only, as the religious authorities had criticised his use of female voices in the earlier work.

Later years and legacy

In 1822, Cherubini became director of the Conservatoire and completed his textbook, Cours de contrepoint et de fugue, in 1835. His role at the Conservatoire brought him into conflict with the young Hector Berlioz, who portrayed the old composer in his memoirs as a crotchety pedant. Some critics, such as Basil Deane, maintain that Berlioz's depiction has distorted Cherubini's image with posterity. There are many allusions to Cherubini's personal irritability among his contemporaries; Adolphe Adam wrote, "some maintain his temper was very even, because he was always angry." Nevertheless, Cherubini had many friends, including Szymanowska, Rossini, Chopin and, above all, the artist Ingres. The two had mutual interests: Cherubini was a keen amateur painter and Ingres enjoyed practising the violin. In 1841, Ingres produced the most celebrated portrait of the old composer.

Although chamber music does not make up a large portion of his output, what he did write was important. Wilhelm Altmann, writing in his Handbuch für Streichquartettspieler (Handbook for String Quartet Players) about Cherubini's six string quartets, stated that they are first rate and regarded Nos. 1 and 3 as masterworks. His String Quintet for two violins, viola and two cellos is also considered a first-rate work.

During his lifetime, Cherubini received France's highest and most prestigious honors. These included the Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur (1814) and Membre de l'Académie des Beaux-Arts (1815). In 1841, he was made Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur, the first musician to receive that title.

Cherubini died in Paris in 1842 at age 81 and is buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery, just four metres from his friend Chopin. His tomb was designed by the architect Achille Leclère and includes a figure by the sculptor Augustin-Alexandre Dumont representing "Music" crowning a bust of the composer with a wreath.

Orchestral music

 * Overture in G (1815)
 * Symphony in D major (1815)
 * Marche funèbre (1820)

Chamber music

 * String Quartet No. 1 in E-flat (1814)
 * String Quartet No. 2 in C (1829) - transcription of Symphony in D major with new second movement
 * String Quartet No. 3 in D minor (1834)
 * String Quartet No. 4 in E (1835)
 * String Quartet No. 5 in F (1835)
 * String Quartet No. 6 in A minor (1837)
 * String Quintet (2 violins, viola, 2 cellos) in E minor (1837)

Masses and sections of the Mass

 * Five masses (written 1773–1776, lost)
 * Messe solennelle brève in B-flat (1805, dubious)
 * Credo a capella for eight voices and organ (1806)
 * Mass in A for three voices (1809, dubious)
 * Messe de Chimay in F (1809)
 * Missa solemnis in D minor (1811) per il Principe Esterházy
 * Mass (4th messe solennelle) in C (1816)
 * Credo in D (1816)
 * Requiem in C minor for mixed chorus (1816) in memory of Louis XVI
 * Missa solemnis in E (1818)
 * Mass in G (1819) for the Coronation of Louis XVIII
 * Mass in B-flat (1821, dubious)
 * Messe solennelle in A for the Coronation of Charles X (1825)
 * Requiem in D minor for male chorus (1836) written for his own funeral

Motets and other choral works

 * Cantata Amphion (1786)
 * Cantata Circé (premiered 1789)
 * Trois chœrs: Incidental music for the play La Mort de Mirabeau by Jean-Baptiste Pujoulx (1791)
 * Cantata Clytemnestra (1794)
 * Cantata Hymne au printemps ("Hymn to Spring") (1815)
 * Hymne du Panthéon (1794)
 * 38 motets

Operas

 * See List of operas by Luigi Cherubini

Teaching manuals

 * A treatise on counterpoint and fugue (1841)

title: Luigi Cherubini


text:
Afonso, Hereditary Prince of Portugal

Afonso, Hereditary Prince of Portugal (18 May 1475 – 13 July 1491) was the heir apparent to the throne of Portugal. He was born in Lisbon, Portugal, and died in a horse-riding accident on the banks of the river Tagus.

Heir apparent
Afonso, named after his grandfather, King Afonso V, was the only son of King John II and Eleanor of Viseu. The king was very fond of him and named the island of Príncipe after him (príncipe meaning "prince" in the Portuguese language).

Marriage
Afonso's grandfather Afonso V of Portugal had sided with Joanna la Beltraneja, who was a rival for the throne of Castile against her half-aunt, Queen Isabella I of Castile. She was never considered legitimate and, when the king was dying, no one took her as a serious contender for the crown. Isabella was due to inherit the crown, but Afonso V was keen to interfere with the succession in Castile. In 1475 he married his niece Joanna, whom he considered the legitimate heir to the crown. Since her adulteress mother was his own sister, Afonso V had not only ambition, but the family honour to protect. He proclaimed himself King of Castile and León and prepared to defend his wife's rights.

King Ferdinand and Isabella, however, won the war of succession and, as part of the Treaty of Alcáçovas, signed in 1479, it was agreed that their eldest daughter Isabella would marry Afonso. Isabella was also to come with a very large dowry that in practice represented the war compensation obtained by Portugal. In 1480, Prince Afonso, who at that time was five years old, went to live in the town of Moura with his maternal grandmother, Beatrice. In the early months of the following year, his future wife, the ten-year-old Isabella, joined him and lived there for about two years.

The wedding, by proxy, took place ten years later in the spring of 1490 in Seville. On 19 November of that year, Isabella arrived in Badajoz where she was welcomed by Afonso's uncle, Manuel, the future King Manuel I of Portugal, whom she would eventually marry six years after her husband's death. Afonso and Isabella were reunited in Elvas on 22 November and, on the following day, Isabella met her mother-in-law, Queen Eleanor, in the Convento do Espinheiro in Évora, where the court had gathered to ratify the marriage that had been celebrated earlier in Seville.

This wedding had the blessings of both Kingdoms. The queen of Castile, whose mother and nurse were Portuguese, wanted to strengthen the ties with Portugal, and, at the same time, this would allow her to "keep an eye on and control the steps of her eternal rival, Joanna la Beltraneja", through her daughter.

Death
In July 1491, the royal family was spending the summer in the Santarém District near the banks of the River Tagus. King John invited his son to swim with him. The young prince refused the invitation at first, but seeing that his father wanted him to keep him company, decided to join him. According to the chronicle of Rui de Pina: "...na força do correr, o cavalo do príncipe caiu, e o levou debaixo de si, onde logo de improviso ficou como morto, sem fala e sem sentidos. ("...running at a great speed, the Prince's horse fell, dragging (the prince) under him, where he remained, seemingly dead, without speaking and having lost his senses")."

According to the same author, when Afonso's mother heard the news of the accident, stricken with grief, she ran, riding on a mule, accompanied by her daughter-in-law, to be with her son who was lying on the ground. Nothing could be done. As a sign of mourning, his parents decided to dress in black. The funeral rites were held at Batalha Monastery and Prince Afonso was buried there, also the resting place of his grandfather King Afonso V. His widow, Infanta Isabella, returned to Castile and even before the siege of Granada was lifted, she joined her parents in Íllora. The Catholic Monarchs abandoned the camp temporarily to be with their daughter and to console her.

Aftermath
King John tried without success until the end of his life to legitimize the ten-year-old Jorge, Duke of Coimbra, his illegitimate son. His wife, Queen Eleanor, was adamantly against having the king's bastard son occupy the throne, an opinion shared by the Catholic Monarchs, who, like Queen Eleanor, supported the claims of the Duke of Beja, Eleanor's brother, as the heir to the throne. In 1494, King John, whose health had worsened, executed his last will in which named his cousin and brother-in-law, the Duke of Beja, his successor. King John died in October 1495 and, in 1497, his successor, the Duke of Beja, now King Manuel I of Portugal, married Isabella, Prince Afonso's widow.

title: Afonso, Hereditary Prince of Portugal


text:
Charles Lucien Bonaparte

Charles Lucien Jules Laurent Bonaparte, 2nd Prince of Canino and Musignano (24 May 1803 – 29 July 1857) was a French naturalist and ornithologist. Lucien and his wife had twelve children, including Cardinal Lucien Bonaparte.

Life and career
Bonaparte was the son of Lucien Bonaparte and Alexandrine de Bleschamp. Lucien was a younger brother of Napoleon I, making Charles the emperor’s nephew. Born in Paris, he was raised in Italy. On 29 June 1822, he married his cousin, Zénaïde, in Brussels. Soon after the marriage, the couple left for Philadelphia in the United States to live with Zénaïde's father, Joseph Bonaparte (who was also the paternal uncle of Charles). Before leaving Italy, Charles had already discovered a warbler new to science, the moustached warbler, and on the voyage he collected specimens of a new storm-petrel. On arrival in the United States, he presented a paper on this new bird, which was later named after Alexander Wilson.

He and his wife resided in the Lake House in his father-in-law's Point Breeze estate in Bordentown, New Jersey.

Bonaparte then set about studying the ornithology of the United States and updating Wilson's Ornithology or History of the Birds of the United States. The revised edition was published between 1825 and 1833. His other publications included "Observations on the Nomenclature of Wilson's Ornithology" (in the Journal of the Philadelphia Academy) and "Synopsis of the Birds of the United States" (in the Annals of the Lyceum of New York). In 1824, Bonaparte tried to get the then unknown John James Audubon accepted by the Academy of Natural Sciences, but this was opposed by the ornithologist George Ord who disliked Audubon's dramatic bird poses and considered him to be "a back-country upstart who romanticized his subject matter," according to the Audubon Galleries.

At the end of 1826, Bonaparte and his family returned to Europe. He visited Germany, where he met Philipp Jakob Cretzschmar, and England, where he met John Edward Gray at the British Museum, and renewed his acquaintance with Audubon. In 1828, the family settled in Rome. In Italy, he was the originator of several scientific congresses, and lectured and wrote extensively on American and European ornithology and other branches of natural history. Between 1832 and 1841, Bonaparte published his work on the animals of Italy, Iconografia della Fauna Italica. He had also published Specchio Comparativo delle Ornithologie di Roma e di Filadelfia (Pisa, 1827), presenting a comparison between birds of the latitude of Philadelphia and Italian species. He created the genus Zenaida, after his wife, for the mourning dove and its relatives. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1845.

In 1840, he became Prince of Canino and Musignano after his father's death and became involved in politics, particularly the anti-Austrian party that he joined in 1848. He did not, however, lose interest in his favourite studies for he organized and presided over several scientific congresses in Italy.

In 1849, he was elected to the Roman Assembly and participated in the creation of the Roman Republic. According to Jasper Ridley, when the Assembly convened for the first time: "When the name of Carlo Bonaparte, who was a member for Viterbo, was called, he replied to the roll-call by calling out Long live the Republic!" (Viva la Repubblica!). He participated in the defense of Rome against the 40,000 French troops sent by his cousin Louis Napoleon. He left Rome after the Republican army was defeated in July 1849. He landed at Marseilles, but was ordered to leave the country by Louis Napoleon. He reaffirmed his political beliefs the following year in naming Wilson's bird-of-paradise (Cicinnurus respublica) in honor of the republican idea.

He travelled to the United Kingdom, attending the meeting of the British Association in Birmingham. He then visited Sir William Jardine in southern Scotland. Charles then began work on preparing a methodical classification of all the birds in the world, visiting museums across Europe to study the collections. In 1850, he was allowed to return to France and made Paris his home for the rest of his life. In 1854, he became director of the Jardin des Plantes. In 1855, he was made a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He published the first volume of his Conspectus Generum Avium before his death, the second volume being edited by Hermann Schlegel.

Bonaparte also studied amphibians and reptiles, and is the author of Vipera ursinii, commonly known as Orsini's viper.

Bonaparte was extremely prolific and is responsible for coining Latin names for a large number of bird species. As of August 2019, in the online list of birds maintained by Frank Gill and David Donsker on behalf of the International Ornithological Committee (IOC), Bonaparte is credited as the authority for 165 genera, 203 species and 262 subspecies.

Lucien Charles Bonaparte died in Paris at age 54.

In Luigi Magni's film In the Name of the Sovereign People (1990), Bonaparte is played by Carlo Croccolo.

Honours

 * 1823: Member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.
 * 1845: Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium.

Family
Prince Charles and Princess Zénaïde Bonaparte had twelve children, listed below:

Works

 * American Ornithology, or, The Natural History of Birds Inhabiting the United States, not given by Wilson (4 vols., Philadelphia, 1825-1833). This work contains more than 100 new species discovered by Bonaparte.
 * Conspectus Generum Avium (Leyden, 1850)
 * Revue critique de l'ornithologie Européenne (Brussels, 1850)
 * Monographie des loxiens (Leyden, 1850) in collaboration with H. Schlegel
 * Catalogue des oiseaux d'Europe (Paris, 1856)
 * Memoirs (New York, 1836)

In conjunction with M. de Pouancé, he also prepared descriptive catalogue of pigeons and one of parrots which were published after his death. Among his papers published are:
 * “Observations on the Nomenclature of Wilson's ‘Ornithology,’” Journal of the Academy of Philadelphia
 * “Synopsis of the Birds of the United States,” Annals of the Lyceum of New York
 * “Catalogue of the Birds of the United States,” Contributions of the Maclurian Lyceum of Philadelphia

He published several scientific papers on ornithological topics in the Bolognese journal Nuovi annali delle scienze naturali, as Carlo Luciano Bonaparte.

Legacy
Several birds are named after him:
 * Bonaparte's gull - Chroicocephalus philadelphia
 * Bonaparte's nightjar - Caprimulgus concretus
 * Bonaparte's parakeet - Pyrrhura lucianii
 * Highland tinamou Nothocercus bonapartei
 * The Napoleon snake eel Ophichthus bonaparti, also known as the Napoleon Eel, the Purplebanded Snake Eel, or the Saddled snake-eel is named after him.

title: Charles Lucien Bonaparte


text:
Heuristic evaluation

A heuristic evaluation is a usability inspection method for computer software that helps to identify usability problems in the user interface design. It specifically involves evaluators examining the interface and judging its compliance with recognized usability principles (the "heuristics"). These evaluation methods are now widely taught and practiced in the new media sector, where user interfaces are often designed in a short space of time on a budget that may restrict the amount of money available to provide for other types of interface testing.

Introduction
The main goal of heuristic evaluations is to identify any problems associated with the design of user interfaces. Usability consultants Rolf Molich and Jakob Nielsen developed this method on the basis of several years of experience in teaching and consulting about usability engineering. Heuristic evaluations are one of the most informal methods of usability inspection in the field of human–computer interaction. There are many sets of usability design heuristics; they are not mutually exclusive and cover many of the same aspects of user interface design. Quite often, usability problems that are discovered are categorized—often on a numeric scale—according to their estimated impact on user performance or acceptance. Often the heuristic evaluation is conducted in the context of use cases (typical user tasks), to provide feedback to the developers on the extent to which the interface is likely to be compatible with the intended users' needs and preferences.

The simplicity of heuristic evaluation is beneficial at the early stages of design and prior to user-based testing. This usability inspection method does not rely on users which can be burdensome due to the need for recruiting, scheduling issues, a place to perform the evaluation, and a payment for participant time. In the original report published, Nielsen stated that four experiments showed that individual evaluators were "mostly quite bad" at doing heuristic evaluations and suggested multiple evaluators were needed, with the results aggregated, to produce and to complete an acceptable review. Most heuristic evaluations can be accomplished in a matter of days. The time required varies with the size of the artifact, its complexity, the purpose of the review, the nature of the usability issues that arise in the review, and the competence of the reviewers. Using heuristic evaluation prior to user testing is often conducted to identify areas to be included in the evaluation or to eliminate perceived design issues prior to user-based evaluation.

Although heuristic evaluation can uncover many major usability issues in a short period of time, a criticism that is often leveled is that results are highly influenced by the knowledge of the expert reviewer(s). This "one-sided" review repeatedly has different results than software performance testing, each type of testing uncovering a different set of problems.

Methodology
Heuristic evaluation are conducted in variety of ways depending on the scope and type of project. As a general rule of thumb, there are researched frameworks involved to reduce bias and maximize findings within an evaluation. There are various pros and cons to heuristic evaluation. A lot of it depends on the amount of resources and the time available to the user.

Pros: Because there’s a very detailed list of criteria the evaluator goes through, it’s a very detailed process and provides good feedback on areas that could be improved on. In addition, since it’s done by several people the designer can get feedback from multiple perspectives. Since it’s a relatively straightforward process, there are less ethical and logistical concerns related to organizing the evaluation and executing it.

Cons: Since there is a specific set of criteria, the quality of the evaluation is limited by the skill and knowledge of the people who evaluate it. This leads to another issue: finding experts and people qualified enough to conduct this evaluation. However, if you have close resources of experts and qualified evaluators, this wouldn’t pose an issue. In addition, because the evaluations are more just personal observations, there’s no hard data in the results — the designer just has to take all the information and evaluations with these considerations in mind.

Number of Evaluators
According to Nielsen, three to five evaluators are recommended within a study. Having more than five evaluators does not necessarily increase the amount of insights, and this may add more cost than benefit to the overall evaluation.

Individual and Group Process
Heuristic evaluation must start individually before aggregating results in order to reduce group confirmation bias. The evaluator should examine the prototype independently before entering group discussions to accumulate insights.

Observer Trade-offs
There are costs and benefits associated when adding an observer to an evaluation session.

In a session without an observer, evaluators would need to formalize their individual observations within a written report as they interact with the product/prototype. This option would require more time and effort from the evaluators, and this would also require further time for the conductors of the study to interpret individual reports. However, this option is less costly because it reduces the overhead costs associated with hiring observers.

With an observer, evaluators can provide their analysis verbally while observers transcribe and interpret the evaluators' findings. This option reduces the amount of workload from the evaluators and the amount of time needed to interpret findings from multiple evaluators.

Nielsen's heuristics
Jakob Nielsen's heuristics are probably the most-used usability heuristics for user interface design. An early version of the heuristics appeared in two papers by Nielsen and Rolf Molich published in 1989-1990. Nielsen published an updated set in 1994, and the final set still in use today was published in 2005:

 * 1) Visibility of system status: The system should always keep users informed about what is going on, through appropriate feedback within reasonable time.
 * 2) Match between system and the real world: The system should speak the user's language, with words, phrases and concepts familiar to the user, rather than system-oriented terms. Follow real-world conventions, making information appear in a natural and logical order.
 * 3) User control and freedom: Users often choose system functions by mistake and will need a clearly marked "emergency exit" to leave the unwanted state without having to go through an extended dialogue. Support undo and redo.
 * 4) Consistency and standards: Users should not have to wonder whether different words, situations, or actions mean the same thing. Follow platform conventions.
 * 5) Error prevention: Even better than good error messages is a careful design which prevents a problem from occurring in the first place. Either eliminate error-prone conditions or check for them and present users with a confirmation option before they commit to the action.
 * 6) Recognition rather than recall: Minimize the user's memory load by making objects, actions, and options visible. The user should not have to remember information from one part of the dialogue to another. Instructions for use of the system should be visible or easily retrievable whenever appropriate.
 * 7) Flexibility and efficiency of use: Accelerators—unseen by the novice user—may often speed up the interaction for the expert user such that the system can cater to both inexperienced and experienced users. Allow users to tailor frequent actions.
 * 8) Aesthetic and minimalist design: Dialogues should not contain information which is irrelevant or rarely needed. Every extra unit of information in a dialogue competes with the relevant units of information and diminishes their relative visibility.
 * 9) Help users recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors: Error messages should be expressed in plain language (no codes), precisely indicate the problem, and constructively suggest a solution.
 * 10) Help and documentation: Even though it is better if the system can be used without documentation, it may be necessary to provide help and documentation. Any such information should be easy to search, focused on the user's task, list concrete steps to be carried out, and not be too large.

Gerhardt-Powals' cognitive engineering principles
Although Nielsen is considered the expert and field leader in heuristic evaluation, Jill Gerhardt-Powals developed a set of cognitive engineering principles for enhancing human-computer performance. These heuristics, or principles, are similar to Nielsen's heuristics but take a more holistic approach to evaluation. The Gerhardt Powals' principles are listed below.

'''Use color and graphics, for example, to reduce the time spent assimilating raw data.
 * 1) Automate unwanted workload: Eliminate mental calculations, estimations, comparisons, and any unnecessary thinking, to free cognitive resources for high-level tasks.
 * 2) Reduce uncertainty: Display data in a manner that is clear and obvious to reduce decision time and error.
 * 3) Fuse data: Bring together lower level data into a higher level summation to reduce cognitive load.
 * 4) Present new information with meaningful aids to interpretation: New information should be presented within familiar frameworks (e.g., schemas, metaphors, everyday terms) so that information is easier to absorb.
 * 5) Use names that are conceptually related to function: Display names and labels should be context-dependent, which will improve recall and recognition.
 * 6) Group data in consistently meaningful ways: Within a screen, data should be logically grouped; across screens, it should be consistently grouped. This will decrease information search time.
 * 7) Limit data-driven tasks:'''
 * 1) Include in the displays only that information needed by the user at a given time: Exclude extraneous information that is not relevant to current tasks so that the user can focus attention on critical data.
 * 2) Provide multiple coding of data when appropriate: The system should provide data in varying formats and/or levels of detail in order to promote cognitive flexibility and satisfy user preferences.
 * 3) Practice judicious redundancy: Principle 10 was devised by the first two authors to resolve the possible conflict between Principles 6 and 8, that is, in order to be consistent, it is sometimes necessary to include more information than may be needed at a given time.

Shneiderman's Eight Golden Rules of Interface Design
Ben Shneiderman's book was published a few years prior to Nielsen, Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human-Computer Interaction (1986) covered his popular list of the, "Eight Golden Rules".

 * 1) Strive for consistency: Consistent sequences of actions should be required in similar situations ...
 * 2) Enable frequent users to use shortcuts: As the frequency of use increases, so do the user's desires to reduce the number of interactions ...
 * 3) Offer informative feedback: For every operator action, there should be some system feedback ...
 * 4) Design dialog to yield closure: Sequences of actions should be organized into groups with a beginning, middle, and end ...
 * 5) Offer simple error handling: As much as possible, design the system so the user cannot make a serious error ...
 * 6) Permit easy reversal of actions: This feature relieves anxiety, since the user knows that errors can be undone ...
 * 7) Support internal locus of control: Experienced operators strongly desire the sense that they are in charge of the system and that the system responds to their actions. Design the system to make users the initiators of actions rather than the responders.
 * 8) Reduce short-term memory load: The limitation of human information processing in short-term memory requires that displays be kept simple, multiple page displays be consolidated, window-motion frequency be reduced, and sufficient training time be allotted for codes, mnemonics, and sequences of actions.

Weinschenk and Barker classification
In 2000, Susan Weinschenk and Dean Barker created a categorization of heuristics and guidelines used by several major providers into the following twenty types:

 * 1) User Control: The interface will allow the user to perceive that they are in control and will allow appropriate control.
 * 2) Human Limitations: The interface will not overload the user’s cognitive, visual, auditory, tactile, or motor limits.
 * 3) Modal Integrity: The interface will fit individual tasks within whatever modality is being used: auditory, visual, or motor/kinesthetic.
 * 4) Accommodation: The interface will fit the way each user group works and thinks.
 * 5) Linguistic Clarity: The interface will communicate as efficiently as possible.
 * 6) Aesthetic Integrity: The interface will have an attractive and appropriate design.
 * 7) Simplicity: The interface will present elements simply.
 * 8) Predictability: The interface will behave in a manner such that users can accurately predict what will happen next.
 * 9) Interpretation: The interface will make reasonable guesses about what the user is trying to do.
 * 10) Accuracy: The interface will be free from errors.
 * 11) Technical Clarity: The interface will have the highest possible fidelity.
 * 12) Flexibility: The interface will allow the user to adjust the design for custom use.
 * 13) Fulfillment: The interface will provide a satisfying user experience.
 * 14) Cultural Propriety: The interface will match the user’s social customs and expectations.
 * 15) Suitable Tempo: The interface will operate at a tempo suitable to the user.
 * 16) Consistency: The interface will be consistent.
 * 17) User Support: The interface will provide additional assistance as needed or requested.
 * 18) Precision: The interface will allow the users to perform a task exactly.
 * 19) Forgiveness: The interface will make actions recoverable.
 * 20) Responsiveness: The interface will inform users about the results of their actions and the interface’s status.

Domain or culture-specific heuristic evaluation
For an application with a specific domain and culture, the heuristics mentioned above do not identify the potential usability problems. These limitations of heuristics occur because these heuristics are incapable of considering the domain and culture-specific features of an application. This results in the introduction of domain-specific or culture-specific heuristic evaluation.

title: Heuristic evaluation


text:
Granny Smith

The Granny Smith, also known as a green apple or sour apple, is an apple cultivar that originated in Australia in 1868. It is named after Maria Ann Smith, who propagated the cultivar from a chance seedling. The tree is thought to be a hybrid of Malus sylvestris, the European wild apple, with the domesticated apple Malus domestica as the polleniser.

The fruit is hard, firm and with a light green skin and crisp, juicy flesh. The flavour is tart and acidic. It remains firm when baked, making it a popular cooking apple used in pies, where it can be sweetened. The apple goes from being completely green to turning yellow when overripe. The US Apple Association reported in 2019 that the Granny Smith was the third most popular apple in the United States of America.

History
The Granny Smith cultivar originated in Eastwood, New South Wales, Australia (now a suburb of Sydney) in 1868. Its discoverer, Maria Ann Smith (née Sherwood ), had emigrated to the district from Beckley, East Sussex in 1839 with her husband Thomas. They purchased a small orchard in the area in 1855–1856 and began cultivating fruit, for which the area was a well known centre in colonial Australia. Smith had eight children and was a prominent figure in the district, earning the nickname "Granny" Smith in her advanced years. The first description of the origin of the Granny Smith apple was not published until 1924. In that year, Farmer and Settler published the account of a local historian who had interviewed two men who had known Smith. One of those interviewed recalled that, in 1868, he (then twelve years old) and his father had been invited to Smith's farm to inspect a chance seedling that had sprung near a creek. Smith had dumped there, among the ferns, the remains of French crab-apples that had been grown in Tasmania. Another story recounted that Smith had been testing French crab-apples for cooking, and, throwing the apple cores out her window as she worked, had found that the new cultivar had sprung up underneath her kitchen windowsill. Whatever the case, Smith took it upon herself to propagate the new cultivar on her property, finding the apples good for cooking and for general consumption. Having "all the appearances of a cooking apple," they were not tart but instead were "sweet and crisp to eat." She took a stall at Sydney's George Street market, where the apples stored "exceptionally well and became popular" and "once a week sold her produce there."

Smith died only a couple of years after her discovery (in 1870), but her work had been noticed by other local planters. Edward Gallard was one such planter, who extensively planted Granny Smith trees on his property and bought the Smith farm when Thomas died in 1876. Gallard was successful in marketing the apple locally, but it did not receive widespread attention until 1890. In that year, it was exhibited as "Smith's Seedling" at the Castle Hill Agricultural and Horticultural Show, and the following year it won the prize for cooking apples under the name "Granny Smith's Seedling." The apple was so highly successful that the following year, many were exhibiting Granny Smith apples at horticultural shows.

In 1895, the New South Wales Department of Agriculture recognised the cultivar and had begun growing the trees at the Government Experimental Station in Bathurst, New South Wales, recommending the gazette of its properties as a late-picking cooking apple for potential export. Over the following years the government actively promoted the apple, leading to its widespread adoption. Its worldwide fame grew from the fact that it could be picked from March and stored till November. Enterprising fruit merchants in the 1890s and the 1900s experimented with methods to transport the apples overseas in cold storage. Because of its excellent shelf life, the Granny Smith could be exported long distances and most times of the year, at a time when Australian food exports were growing dramatically on the back of international demand. Granny Smiths were exported in enormous quantities after the First World War, and by 1975, 40 percent of Australia's apple crop was Granny Smith. By this time, it was being grown intensely elsewhere in the Southern Hemisphere, as well as in France and the United States. The advent of the Granny Smith apple is now celebrated annually in Eastwood with the Granny Smith Festival.

Culinary
Granny Smith apples are light green in colour. The tart flavor of these apples makes them one of the most versatile varieties of apple to cook with. They are popularly used in many apple dishes, such as apple pie, apple cobbler, apple crumble, and apple cake. They are also commonly eaten raw as table apples, and at least one company (Woodchuck Hard Cider) makes Granny Smith varietal cider.

Properties
It is moderately susceptible to fire blight and is very prone to scab, powdery mildew, and cedar apple rust.

Granny Smith is much more easily preserved in storage than other apples, a factor which has greatly contributed to its success in export markets. Its long storage life has been attributed to its fairly low levels of ethylene production, and in the right conditions Granny Smiths can be stored without loss of quality for as long as a year. This cultivar needs fewer winter chill hours and a longer season to mature the fruit, so it is favoured for the milder areas of the apple growing regions. However, they are susceptible to superficial scald and bitter pit. Superficial scald may be controlled by treatment with diphenylamine before storage. It can also be controlled with low-oxygen storage. Pit can be controlled with calcium sprays during the growing season and with postharvest calcium dips.

According to the US Apple Association website, it is one of the fifteen most popular apple cultivars in the United States.

Cultural references
In 1968, the rock band The Beatles used an image of a Granny Smith apple as the logo for their corporation, Apple Corps Limited. For their record label, Apple Records, one side of vinyl albums featured the exterior of the fruit, while the other side of the recording featured a cross-section of the apple.

Yoko Ono's 1966 artwork Apple used a Granny Smith apple in its 2015 recreation at New York City's Museum of Modern Art. John Lennon had taken a bite from the apple on display in its 1966 incarnation at the Indica Gallery in London.

The Granny Smith was one of four apples honored by the United States Postal Service in a 2013 set of four 33¢ stamps commemorating historic strains, joined by Northern Spy, Baldwin, and Golden Delicious.

title: Granny Smith


text:
Dickson's lemma

In mathematics, Dickson's lemma states that every set of $$n$$-tuples of natural numbers has finitely many minimal elements. This simple fact from combinatorics has become attributed to the American algebraist L. E. Dickson, who used it to prove a result in number theory about perfect numbers. However, the lemma was certainly known earlier, for example to Paul Gordan in his research on invariant theory.

Example
Let $$K$$ be a fixed natural number, and let $$S = \{(x,y)\mid xy\ge K\}$$ be the set of pairs of numbers whose product is at least $$K$$. When defined over the positive real numbers, $$S$$ has infinitely many minimal elements of the form $$(x,K/x)$$, one for each positive number $$x$$; this set of points forms one of the branches of a hyperbola. The pairs on this hyperbola are minimal, because it is not possible for a different pair that belongs to $$S$$ to be less than or equal to $$(x,K/x)$$ in both of its coordinates. However, Dickson's lemma concerns only tuples of natural numbers, and over the natural numbers there are only finitely many minimal pairs. Every minimal pair $$(x,y)$$ of natural numbers has $$x \le K$$ and $$y \le K$$, for if x were greater than K then (x − 1, y) would also belong to S, contradicting the minimality of (x, y), and symmetrically if y were greater than K then (x, y − 1) would also belong to S. Therefore, over the natural numbers, $$S$$ has at most $$K^2$$ minimal elements, a finite number.

Formal statement
Let $$\mathbb{N}$$ be the set of non-negative integers (natural numbers), let n be any fixed constant, and let $$\mathbb{N}^n$$ be the set of $$n$$-tuples of natural numbers. These tuples may be given a pointwise partial order, the product order, in which $$(a_1,a_2,\dots,a_n)\le (b_1,b_2,\dots b_n)$$ if and only if $$a_i\le b_i$$ for every $$i$$. The set of tuples that are greater than or equal to some particular tuple $$(a_1,a_2,\dots,a_n)$$ forms a positive orthant with its apex at the given tuple.

With this notation, Dickson's lemma may be stated in several equivalent forms:
 * In every non-empty subset $$S$$ of $$\mathbb{N}^n$$ there is at least one but no more than a finite number of elements that are minimal elements of $$S$$ for the pointwise partial order.
 * For every infinite sequence $$(x_i)_{i\in\mathbb{N}}$$ of $$n$$-tuples of natural numbers, there exist two indices $$i<j$$ such that $$x_i \leq x_j$$ holds with respect to the pointwise order.
 * The partially ordered set $$(\mathbb{N}^n,\le)$$ does not contain infinite antichains nor infinite (strictly) descending sequences of $$n$$-tuples.
 * The partially ordered set $$(\mathbb{N}^n,\le)$$ is a well partial order.
 * Every subset $$S$$ of $$\mathbb{N}^n$$ may be covered by a finite set of positive orthants, whose apexes all belong to $$S$$.

Generalizations and applications
Dickson used his lemma to prove that, for any given number $$n$$, there can exist only a finite number of odd perfect numbers that have at most $$n$$ prime factors. However, it remains open whether there exist any odd perfect numbers at all.

The divisibility relation among the P-smooth numbers, natural numbers whose prime factors all belong to the finite set P, gives these numbers the structure of a partially ordered set isomorphic to $$(\mathbb{N}^{|P|},\le)$$. Thus, for any set S of P-smooth numbers, there is a finite subset of S such that every element of S is divisible by one of the numbers in this subset. This fact has been used, for instance, to show that there exists an algorithm for classifying the winning and losing moves from the initial position in the game of Sylver coinage, even though the algorithm itself remains unknown.

The tuples $$(a_1,a_2,\dots,a_n)$$ in $$\mathbb{N}^n$$ correspond one-for-one with the monomials $$x_1^{a_1} x_2^{a_2} \dots x_n^{a_n}$$ over a set of $$n$$ variables $$x_1,x_2,\dots x_n$$. Under this correspondence, Dickson's lemma may be seen as a special case of Hilbert's basis theorem stating that every polynomial ideal has a finite basis, for the ideals generated by monomials. Indeed, Paul Gordan used this restatement of Dickson's lemma in 1899 as part of a proof of Hilbert's basis theorem.

title: Dickson's lemma