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El Mirador

El Mirador (which translates as "the lookout", "the viewpoint", or "the belvedere") is a large pre-Columbian Middle and Late Preclassic (1000 BC – 250 AD) Maya settlement, located in the north of the modern department of El Petén, Guatemala. It is part of the Mirador-Calakmul Karst Basin of northern Guatemala.

Discovery
Some of the Mirador basin was surveyed in 1885 by Claudio Urrutia, who noted the presence of ruins. But El Mirador had little attention paid to it until Ian Graham spent some time there making the first map of the area in 1962. A detailed investigation began in 1978 with an archaeological project under the direction of Bruce Dahlin at Catholic University of America and Ray Matheny at Brigham Young University. Dahlin's work focused primarily on the bajo swamps and mapping, while Matheny's team focused primarily on excavations in the site center and architecture. This project ended in 1983. To the surprise of the archaeologists, it was found that a large amount of construction was not contemporary with the large Maya classic cities in the area, like Tikal and Uaxactun, but rather from centuries earlier in the pre-classic era (see: Mesoamerican chronology).

In 2003, Richard D. Hansen, a senior scientist from Idaho State University, initiated major investigation, stabilization, and conservation programs at El Mirador with a multi-disciplinary approach, including staff and technical personnel from 52 universities and research institutions from throughout the world. By August 2008, the team had published 168 scientific papers, and produced many technical reports and scientific presentations.

In the popular media, documentary films for the History Channel, National Geographic, the Learning Channel, BBC, ABC's 20/20 and Good Morning America, 60 Minutes (Australia), and the Discovery Channel were produced.

History
El Mirador flourished from about the 6th century BCE to the 1st century CE, reaching its height from the 3rd century BCE. Then it experienced a hiatus of construction and perhaps abandonment for generations, followed by re-occupation and further construction in the Late Classic era, and a final abandonment about the end of the 9th century. The civic center of the site covers some 10 sqmi with several thousand structures, including monumental architecture from 10 to 72 meters high.

One of the key elements for this tremendous rise in human population was the many bajos, seasonal swamps, in the region. Tropical-forest soil contains hardly any nutrients, and most of the nutrients present get washed away by rain. Yet the Maya developed a system that was highly productive. In the Mirador basin, the swamps provided the solution. By importing mud from the swamps by the thousands of tonnes, the Maya created mud-covered terraces ready for agriculture. By adding lime to the soil, they elevated the pH, making it suitable for a variety of crops: corn, squash, beans, cacao, cotton and palm. When the ground was depleted of nutrients, adding another layer of mud reinvigorated the fields.

There are a number of "triadic" structures (around 35 structures), consisting of large artificial platforms topped with a set of 3 summit pyramids. The most notable of such structures are three huge complexes; one is nicknamed El Tigre, with height 55 m; another is called La Danta (or Danta) temple. The La Danta temple measures approximately 72 m tall from the forest floor, and considering its total volume (2,800,000 cubic meters) is one of the largest pyramids in the world. When the large man-made platform that the temple is built upon (some 180,000 square meters) is included in calculations, La Danta is considered by some archeologists to be one of the largest ancient structures in the world. Also the Los Monos complex is very large (48 meters high) although not as well known. Most of the structures were originally faced with cut stone which was then decorated with large stucco masks depicting the deities of Maya mythology. According to Carlos Morales-Aguilar, a Guatemalan archaeologist from Pantheon-Sorbonne University, the city appears to have been planned from its foundation, as alignments have been found between the architectural groups and main temples, which were possibly related to solar alignments. The study reflects an importance of urban planning and sacred spaces since the first settlers.

An additional feature of El Mirador is the quantity and size of causeways, internally linking important architectural compounds, and externally linking the numerous major ancient cities within the Mirador Basin during the later part of the Middle and Late Preclassic periods. The causeways are commonly referred to as sacbeob (the plural form of sacbe, meaning "white road" in Mayan, from sac "white" and be "road"). These are raised stone causeways rising 2 to 6 meters above the level of the surrounding landscape and measuring from 20 to 50 meters wide. One sacbe links El Mirador to the neighbouring site of Nakbe, approximately 12 km away, while another joined El Mirador to El Tintal, 20 km away.

While the city and the sister centers of the Mirador Basin thrived between 300 BCE and the Common Era (CE), apparently, the site was abandoned, as were nearly all other major sites in the area, by about 150 CE. A large wall, which must have been as high as 3 to 8 meters, had been constructed on the entire northern, eastern, and southern portions of the West Group of the city prior to its abandonment in the terminal Preclassic period, suggesting a possible threat that had been perceived by this time.

Another aspect that may have led to the downfall of the system was soil erosion due to deforestation; trees were burned as part of the process of making stucco. The Maya were fond of plastering buildings, houses, floors and even ceramics with layers of lime plaster called stucco. This plaster created a nice smooth surface which facilitated painting. With this stucco, the Maya created many astonishingly beautiful artifacts, as well as smooth-walled pyramids and 'paved' roads. But a darker side to this production became evident when consumption started to evolve into conspicuous consumption. The production of lime needs a large amount of green wood. Archeologists have calculated that for the production of 1 tonne of lime cement, 5 tonnes of limestone and 5 tonnes of wood were needed.

Excavations in and around the bajos (swamps) revealed the effects of deforestation. When trees vanish, the soil becomes loose and is easily transported by water (e.g. rain). Also, water flows downhill, and the only places in the Basin where it could flow to were these bajos. The nutrient-rich muck that was so vigorously imported from the bajos was now buried under a 2 to 3-metre thick layer of sterile clay. This cut off the driving force behind the sustainable agricultural fields. When you cannot replenish your crop fields, more and more harvests start to fail. In the end the failing crop fields led to starvation and collapse of society.

In the Late Classic period, c. 700 CE, portions of the site were reoccupied on a more modest scale, with small structures nestled among the ruins of the great preclassic center. The largest structure from this time period is scarcely more than 8 meters high, and many of the preclassic buildings were plundered for stone materials for construction and lime making. The Late Classic occupants, however, were noted scribes and artists. The area of the Mirador Basin is the only known source of the "codex-style ceramics", a particularly fine polychrome ceramic consisting of black line drawings on a cream colored background. The Late Classic occupation was brief, and by about 900 CE the area was again nearly completely abandoned and remains so until the present time.

Today
Richard D. Hansen, an archaeologist from the University of Utah, is the current director of the Mirador Basin Project, and according to his discoveries here, he thinks that the more than 45 mapped sites in the Mirador Basin may have formed the earliest well-defined political state in Mesoamerica. Although containing striking examples of Preclassic Maya civilization, the remote location of El Mirador has prevented it from becoming a popular tourist site. Major plans by the current government of Guatemala include El Mirador as an important center of the Cuatro Balam Conservation and Development project.

Threats to Mirador
This large concentration of Preclassic Maya cities in Mesoamerica is threatened by massive deforestation, looting, and destruction caused by equipment used in logging road construction, which itself facilitates intrusive settlements. The Mirador Basin in the far northern Petén region of Guatemala is known for its abundance of sites, many of which are among the largest and earliest in the Maya world. Of 26 known sites, only 14 have been studied; an estimated 30 more await discovery. By the time scholars get there, looters may already have plundered them:

Trafficking in Maya artifacts is big business. George S. Stuart of the National Geographic Society has suggested that 1,000 pieces of fine pottery leave the Maya region each month, not an unreasonable estimate in light of the site damage observed. The most sought-after finds are codex-style ceramics, Late Classic (600–900 CE) black-line-on-cream pottery depicting mythological and historical events. Looters are often paid between $200 and $500 per vessel. Collectors may pay more than $100,000 for the same pieces in a gallery or at auction. At even minimal prices this amounts to a $10-million-a-month business in stolen cultural property. Collecting Precolumbian art is often viewed as a justifiable means of preserving the past. It is, in fact, a destructive and sometimes violent business, as attested to by the recent assassination in Carmelita of Carlos Catalán, a local chiclero who had become a staunch opponent of looting in Petén.

Since 2003, California-based non-profit organization Global Heritage Fund (GHF) has been working to preserve and protect Mirador. In an October 2010 report titled Saving Our Vanishing Heritage, GHF listed Mirador as one of 12 worldwide heritage sites most "On the Verge" of irreparable loss and destruction, citing deforestation, fires, major logging, poaching, looting, and narcotics trafficking as major threats to the region.

title: El Mirador


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Shin-Ōsaka Station

Shin-Ōsaka Station (新大阪駅) is a major interchange railway station in Yodogawa-ku, Osaka, Japan. It is the western terminus of the high-speed Tōkaidō Shinkansen line from Tokyo, the eastern terminus of the San'yō Shinkansen and one of the main railway terminals in the north of Osaka. The Shinkansen lines are physically joined, and many trains offer through service.

Shin-Osaka is about 3 km from the older Ōsaka Station (Shin-Ōsaka-eki means "New Osaka Station"). The new station was built in 1964 to avoid the engineering difficulties of running Shinkansen lines into the center of the city. The JR Kyoto Line and subway Midōsuji Line provide convenient connections to other stations around the city center.

Lines

 * JR Kyoto Line (Tōkaidō Main Line, West Japan Railway Company (JR West))
 * San'yō Shinkansen (JR West)
 * Osaka Higashi Line (JR West)
 * Tōkaidō Shinkansen (Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central))
 * Osaka Municipal Subway Midōsuji Line (M13)

Station layout
The JR station consists of five island platforms serving ten tracks for JR West Lines at ground level, with two side platforms and three island platforms serving eight Shinkansen tracks operated by JR Central located on the fourth level, over the platforms and tracks for the JR West Lines in the east. There was a space on the east side of former Track 10 from the opening of the station, where another platform serving current Tracks 9 and 10 is located, and the existing services shifted eastward one platform at a time (and renovations performed on each newly vacated platform), with the westernmost platform used by services on the Osaka Higashi Line, was commenced by the 16 March 2019. On the northern side of the station, an additional eastbound Shinkansen platform, Track 27, was opened on 16 March 2013. (This northern area was originally reserved for a connection from Awaji Station and Jūsō Station by Hankyu Railway, but these plans were later cancelled and the space unused).

Limited express trains

 * for the Hokuriku Main Line
 * Thunderbird: Osaka - Tsuruga
 * for the Tōkaidō Line, and the Takayama Line
 * Hida: Osaka - Takayama, Toyama
 * Rakuraku Biwako: Osaka - Maibara
 * for the Hanwa Line, the Kansai Airport Line, and the Kinokuni Line
 * Haruka: Maibara, Kyoto - Kansai Airport
 * Kuroshio: Kyoto, Shin-Osaka - Shirahama, Shingu
 * for the Fukuchiyama Line
 * Kounotori: Shin-Osaka - Fukuchiyama, Toyooka, Kinosaki Onsen
 * for the Sanin region via the Chizu Express Chizu Line
 * Super Hakuto: Kyoto - Tottori, Kurayoshi

Station layout
This station has one island platform with two tracks on the third level, located to the west of the platforms and tracks for the Shinkansen.

Surrounding area
Inside the station
 * Nippon Travel Agency TiS Shin-Osaka
 * JR Tokai Tours Shin-Osaka Branch
 * Osaka Prefectural Police, Railway Police Force Shin-Osaka
 * Osaka Noren Meguri restaurant (in the paid area for the Shinkansen)

North
 * Shin-Osaka Hankyu Building
 * Mielparque Osaka
 * Hotel La Foret Osaka
 * Via Inn Shin-Osaka West
 * Konami Sports Club

South
 * Nissin Foods
 * Shin-Osaka Washington Hotel Plaza
 * Osaka Prefectural Police, Railway Police Force Headquarters

East (Hinode side)
 * Shin-Osaka Youth Hostel
 * Shin-Osaka Station Hotel
 * Life Corporation

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Shin-Ōsaka Station


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Florida–Georgia football rivalry

The Florida–Georgia football rivalry is an American college football rivalry game played annually by the University of Florida Gators and the University of Georgia Bulldogs, both members of the Eastern Division of the Southeastern Conference. The programs first met in 1904 or 1915 (the status of the first game is disputed) and have played every season since 1926 except for a war-time interruption in 1943. It is one of the most prominent rivalry games in college football, and it has been held in Jacksonville, Florida since 1933, with only two exceptions, making it one of the few remaining neutral-site rivalries in college football. The game attracts huge crowds to Jacksonville, and the associated tailgating and other events earned it the nickname of the "World's Largest Outdoor Cocktail Party", although that name is no longer officially used.

Though highly contested on both sides, the rivalry has gone through several periods in which one team dominated for more than a decade. Georgia dominated the early series while Florida held the advantage in the 1950s and early 1960s. Georgia again dominated from the late 1960s through the 80s under coach Vince Dooley, while Florida again took the upper hand in the rivalry during the 1990s and early 2000s under coaches Steve Spurrier and Urban Meyer. The series was uncharacteristically even over twelve seasons beginning in 2008, with the rivals enjoying and then suffering through alternating sets of three-game win streaks. After winning in 2023, Georgia has won six out of the last seven meetings.

Disputed beginnings
The two universities do not agree on the date of their first meeting on the gridiron. In 1904, the Georgia Bulldogs defeated a team known as the University of Florida Blue and White by the lopsided score of 52–0. However, this was not the modern University of Florida in Gainesville, but one of its four predecessor institutions: a school based in Lake City that was known as Florida Agricultural College before 1903. Florida's University Athletic Association does not include this game in the series record, as the modern University of Florida was established in 1905 and its first football squad took the field in 1906. Georgia, on the other hand, counts the 1904 game as a victory against its future rival. UGA sports historian Dan Magill sums up the school's attitude: "That's where Florida was back then. We can't help it if they got run out of Lake City."

The first game in the rivalry acknowledged by both schools took place in Jacksonville in 1915. The series has been played annually since 1926 except in 1943, when Florida did not field a team due to World War II.

Series trends
Georgia dominated the early rivalry. Florida did not score a single point against the Bulldogs until their fifth (or sixth) meeting. The Gators won their first two games against Georgia in 1928 and 1929, when coach Charlie Bachman's squads briefly brought Florida's football program to national prominence. However, after a scoreless tie in 1930, Georgia resumed its dominance, winning fifteen out of the next seventeen games in the series as coach Wally Butts led the Bulldogs to several SEC championships while the Gators suffered through a period of mediocrity in the 1930s and 1940s. Florida finally enjoyed longer-term success in the rivalry in the 1950s under coach Bob Woodruff, a trend that continued into the 1960s under coach Ray Graves. The hiring of new Georgia coach Vince Dooley in 1964 evened the rivalry for the remainder of the decade, and in the 1970s and 1980s, his Bulldog squads usually won the game in Jacksonville while winning a national championship in 1980 along the way. Coach Steve Spurrier's arrival in Gainesville turned the rivalry back around beginning in 1990, and his Gator squads went 11–1 against the Bulldogs. Coach Urban Meyer continued Florida's winning trend through the mid-2000s, but the rivalry has been unusually even since 2008. Florida began a three game series win streak in that season, which was followed by a three game Georgia streak, then another three game streak for Florida, which was answered by three Georgia wins, marking the longest evenly-divided dozen years in series history.

Since the 1960s, the Florida–Georgia rivalry often held conference or national championship implications for one or both teams, and both schools have had title hopes dashed in the game, sometimes in a surprising upset. In 1966, the Bulldogs intercepted 3 passes by eventual Heisman Trophy winner Steve Spurrier, derailing the Gators' title hopes in a 27–10 upset. On the other hand, Florida's upset win over Georgia in 2002 was the Bulldogs' only loss of the season and likely cost them a chance to play for a national championship. The rivalry has taken on even more importance since the SEC split into divisions in 1992. Both teams were placed in the SEC East, meaning that the contest has often decided who will play in the SEC Championship Game. To date, Florida has fifteen Eastern Division titles while Georgia has twelve.

Site of the game
The Florida-Georgia game has been played in Jacksonville almost every season since 1933. This neutral site trend began very early in the series; in over 100 meetings, the rivalry has been played at on-campus facilities on just seven occasions.

Florida's original football facility of Fleming Field was quite small and primitive, so early Gator squads regularly scheduled "home" games against major college opposition in various cities across the state. Early Florida-Georgia contests were held in Jacksonville (three times), Savannah (twice), and Tampa (once), along with several Georgia home games in Athens. (The disputed 1904 game was played in Macon, Georgia, another neutral site.)

Florida Field opened in 1930, the Bulldogs made their first trip to Gainesville in 1931, and the Gators made a return visit to Athens in 1932. The schools agreed to meet in Jacksonville in 1933, and the game has been played there every subsequent season except for 1994 and 1995, when the old Gator Bowl stadium was demolished and the current Everbank Field built on the same site for the expansion Jacksonville Jaguars of the NFL.

There have been some calls to move the game from Jacksonville over the years, usually when one or the other school was dominating the rivalry. More recently, Georgia coach Kirby Smart has argued that playing at a neutral site cost both programs a valuable home recruiting weekend every other year. However, the schools have repeatedly extended their agreement to play in Jacksonville, both for tradition's sake and because the neutral-site contest has become quite lucrative for the universities. Florida and Georgia have long split ticket revenue for the game, and in 2019, the city of Jacksonville agreed to compensate the schools for the loss of a home game by paying all travel expenses plus a $1 million per year bonus, a figure which increases to $1.5 million in 2024. As of the latest renewal agreement, each university makes almost $4 million from the game every year, far more than the approximately $3 million every other year they would earn from a home-and-home series.

The most recent contract extension keeps the game in Jacksonville until 2025, though it may have to temporarily shift to an alternative site if Everbank Field undergoes a proposed major renovation tentatively scheduled to begin in 2026. Though playing the games on-campus is a possibility, the schools are reportedly planning on playing at two different NFL stadiums in Georgia and Florida.

"World's Largest Outdoor Cocktail Party"
The city of Jacksonville is willing to provide financial guarantees to keep the rivalry in town because the game weekend is extremely lucrative for local businesses, drawing thousands of fans to a community that is more known for its naval base and heavy industry than for tourism. Local hotels fill to near capacity, downtown and the Jacksonville Landing along the St. Johns River hosts festivities on Friday and Saturday, and the area around the stadium is alive with tailgating and other happenings on game day.

Besides Jacksonville, the Georgia Golden Isles also depend on the game to sustain businesses through the winter season. Georgia students and alumni spend the game weekend on the Georgia Coast, particularly on Saint Simons Island, where thousands of Georgia students gather each year at the aptly named "Frat Beach" on Friday before commuting to Jacksonville the next day.

As a result of the festive atmosphere, the game and associated revelry was once known as "the World's Largest Outdoor Cocktail Party", a nickname coined in 1958 by then Florida Times-Union sports editor Bill Kastelz after he witnessed an inebriated fan cheerfully offer an alcoholic beverage to an on-duty police officer before the game. The "Cocktail Party" moniker proved so popular that the City of Jacksonville used it officially for many years, but the practice ended in the 1980s following a series of alcohol-fueled outbursts. In 1984, Florida fans stormed the field and tore down the goal posts after a 27–0 victory; the following year, a 24–3 Georgia win led Bulldogs fans to do the same, resulting in dozens of arrests and several injuries on both occasions. Thereafter, the city cracked down on excessive drinking and dropped the name, though the media continued to use it until 2006, when both schools and the Southeastern Conference asked CBS Sports (which broadcasts the game) to stop using the nickname due to concerns about alcohol abuse by students and other attendees.

Since then, the rivalry has simply been called the "Florida–Georgia game" or "Georgia–Florida game", with some entities (including the Florida Times-Union, which initiated the Cocktail Party nickname) rotating the names each year to list the designated home team first. Since 2009, the respective student government associations of the institutions have referred to the game as the War for the Oar, as the winning team takes home the Okefenokee Oar.

Home teams and seating
The designated "home" team alternates from year to year, with ticket distribution split evenly between the fans of the two teams. Beginning in the late 1980s, fans from Florida and Georgia were assigned seats grouped in alternating sections of the stadium to minimize incidents, and the contrasting colors worn by the fans (red and black for Georgia, orange and blue for Florida) created a "beach ball" visual effect in the stands. More recently, the seating arrangement has split the stadium lengthwise and fans sit on the side corresponding to the sideline their team occupies. The teams take turns serving as the "home" team, with the "hosts" usually wearing their home uniforms and the visitors wearing white road jerseys. However, on several occasions, the Bulldogs and Gators have faced off with both squads wearing their home uniforms.

Florida–Georgia Hall of Fame
The Jacksonville Economic Development Commission created the Florida–Georgia Hall of Fame in 1995 to recognize the players, coaches, and other representatives from each school who have made their mark on the rivalry. Each year, four new members (two from each school) are announced in June, and are formally inducted at a luncheon in Jacksonville the Friday before the football game. Florida–Georgia Hall of Fame inductees through 2023 include:

Florida: Carlos Alvarez, Reidel Anthony, Kerwin Bell, Howell Boney, Scot Brantley, Joe Brodsky, Alex Brown, Trey Burton, Andre Caldwell, Norm Carlson, Kevin Carter, Rick Casares, Jeff Chandler, Wes Chandler, Brad Culpepper, Doug Dickey, Chris Doering, Jimmy Dunn, Larry Dupree, Ciatrick Fason, Jeremy Foley, Don Gaffney, Jabar Gaffney, Ray Graves, Earnest Graham, Rex Grossman, Joe Haden, Galen Hall, Percy Harvin, Ike Hilliard, Chuck Hunsinger, Lindy Infante, Willie Jackson, Jr., Doug Johnson, Jevon Kearse, Charlie LaPradd, Chris Leak, Buford Long, Wilber Marshall, Shane Matthews, Lee McGriff, Nat Moore, Ricky Nattiel, Keiwan Ratliff, John Reaves, Errict Rhett, Lito Sheppard, Brandon Spikes, Steve Spurrier, Fred Taylor, Tim Tebow, Richard Trapp, Ben Troupe, John L. Williams, Lawrence Wright, Danny Wuerffel, Jack Youngblood.

Georgia: Peter Anderson, Richard Appleby, Buck Belue, Boss Bailey, Champ Bailey, John Brantley, Zeke Bratkowski, Charley Britt, Kevin Butler, Wally Butts, Mike Cavan, Knox Culpepper, Rennie Curran, Thomas Davis Sr., Vince Dooley, Robert Edwards, Terrence Edwards, Bob Etter, Randall Godfrey, Ray Goff, Cy Grant, David Greene, Rodney Hampton, Garrison Hearst, Terry Hoage, Jarvis Jones, John Little, Dan Magill, Kevin McLee, Willie McClendon, Knowshon Moreno, Larry Munson, Aaron Murray, George Patton, David Pollack, John Rauch, Mark Richt, Rex Robinson, Matt Robinson, Erk Russell, Bill Saye, Jake Scott, Lindsay Scott, Richard Seymour, Frank Sinkwich, Bill Stanfill, Jon Stinchcomb, Matt Stinchcomb, Marcus Stroud, Tommy Thurson, Charley Trippi, Herschel Walker, Gene Washington, Charles Wittemore, Scott Woerner, Tim Worley, Eric Zeier.

In 2017, two members were inducted who were not linked with one particular school: Greg McGarity, who was a long-serving athletic administrator at Florida before becoming Georgia's athletic director, and Verne Lundquist, a retired broadcaster who was the television play-by-play announcer for many Florida-Georgia games as part of SEC on CBS coverage.

Okefenokee Oar
Unlike many college sports rivalries, the Florida–Georgia game historically has not been played for a trophy. The city of Jacksonville announced that it would award the winning teams the goalposts from the game in 1986, in order to persuade fans not to storm the field and destroy them as they had the previous two years. However, no goalposts were ever given out because neither university wanted them.

In 2009, the student governments of the two universities announced the creation of a new trophy, the "Okefenokee Oar". The 10-foot-long Oar was donated anonymously to the University of Florida in 2009, and has opposing sides carved with symbols and logos from each school. The Oar was carved from the remains of a 1,000-year-old cypress tree that once grew in the Okefenokee Swamp, which straddles the Florida–Georgia border and was the source of an interstate boundary dispute. Beginning with the 2009 contest, the Okefenokee Oar is presented to the winning university's student body president. No trophy is presented at the game, however.

1928
When Charlie Bachman became the 1928 Gators' new head coach, he inherited a team loaded with talent recruited by his predecessor, Harold Sebring. However, he also inherited a program which had never come close to beating the Georgia Bulldogs, their Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association rival. Georgia was 6–0 against Florida with five shutouts and an overall scoring advantage of 190–9.

The teams met again in Savannah, Georgia on November 10, and Bachman's Gators finally beat the Bulldogs through the efforts of Florida's "Phantom Four" backfield of Dale Van Sickle, Carl Brumbaugh, Rainey Cawthon, Clyde Crabtree and Royce Goodbread. With Florida holding a commanding lead in fourth quarter, jubilant Gator fans prematurely rushed the field to tear down the goal posts, resulting in fist fights breaking out between supporters of the two schools. Order was restored, the game was completed, and Florida earned its first victory in the series by the score of 26–6.

1941
Georgia's All-American back Frank Sinkwich had broken his jaw in a game earlier in the season, but that didn't keep him off the field. Wearing a custom-made chinstrap attached to his helmet, Sinkwich ran 31 times for 142 yards and two touchdowns and kicked Georgia's first field goal since 1924 in the Bulldogs' 19–3 victory over the Gators. When speaking about the loss after the game, Florida coach Tom Lieb simply said "Too much Sinkwich."

1942
Having lost most upper-class players and several members of the coaching staff to service in World War II, the 1942 Florida Gators brought an inexperienced 3–4 squad into Jacksonville for the 1942 contest with Georgia. The Bulldogs, on the other hand, still had the services of many key contributors thanks to draft deferments issued to players enrolled in the University of Georgia's ROTC program, and brought a 7–0 record and No. 1 ranking to Jacksonville.

Georgia halfback Charley Trippi and Heisman Trophy-winning back Frank Sinkwich combined to score seven touchdowns as Georgia defeated Florida 75–0, the largest margin in series history. The Bulldogs finished the regular season 10–1, won the Southeastern Conference championship, defeated the UCLA Bruins 9–0 in the Rose Bowl, and were named national champions by multiple polls and ratings services. Meanwhile, the depleted Gators would not win another game on the season, and when even more students and staff joined the war effort, the school did not field a football team at all in 1943.

1949
The post–World War II 1940s were a tough slog for the Florida Gators. Coached by Raymond Wolf, the Gators' collection of recent high school graduates and returning war veterans suffered the indignity of four consecutive losing seasons—the lowest point in the history of the Gators football program, ironically remembered by the close-knit players as the "Golden Era." But there were still stars and bright moments; Wolf's 1949 Florida Gators were led by senior lineman Jimmy Kynes and running back Chuck Hunsinger. Given little chance by anyone to beat coach Wally Butts' Georgia Bulldogs in Jacksonville, Kynes inspired his two-way linemen to their outstanding effort of the season, stopping the Bulldogs' running game on defense, and blocking for Hunsinger on offense. Hunsinger rushed eighteen times for 174 yards and three touchdowns, and the Gators won 28–7, breaking a seven-game Georgia winning streak. Wolf would be dismissed as Florida's head coach at the end of the season, but on that day in Jacksonville, he was jubilantly carried off the field by his players.

1952
Georgia clearly dominated the first several decades of their series against Florida. Coming into the 1952 contest, the Bulldogs were 23–5–1 all-time against the Gators and had won nine of the previous ten meetings, including two straight victories over Florida coach Bob Woodruff.

The Gators arrived in Jacksonville with a 3–2 record and an offense that had struggled against good defenses. In an attempt to jump-start their run-oriented attack, Woodruff and Florida offensive coordinator Frank Broyles decided to swap the positions of quarterback Rick Casares and running back Doug Dickey. Casares had been heavily recruited by Georgia but thought that Bulldog Coach Wally Butts was "too rough" with his players during a recruiting visit, so he opted to attend Florida instead.

Led by All-American lineman Charlie LaPradd on defense and Casares on offense and special teams (he was also the team's place-kicker), the Gators dominated the Bulldogs 30–0 in Jacksonville, which would remain the Gators' largest victory over the Bulldogs for almost forty years and was the first shutout over the Bulldogs since 1937. Casares ran for 108 yards and two touchdowns and kicked three extra points and a field goal, while halfback Buford Long ran for 116 yards on 10 carries.

Florida finished the season 8–3 and were invited to their first major bowl game, the 1953 Gator Bowl. Georgia finished 7–4 and went on to suffer through several sub-par seasons in the 1950s, helping Florida earn a winning decade over their border rivals for first time in the series.

1964
While Georgia still held an overall advantage in the series, Florida enjoyed a 10–2 streak from 1952 to 1963 under head coaches Bob Woodruff and Ray Graves. That changed with the arrival of Vince Dooley as the new head coach of the underdog 1964 Georgia Bulldogs. In a game where the Bulldogs' quarterback failed to complete a single pass and was intercepted twice, Dooleys' 'Dogs relied on their running game, a staunch second-half defense, and a little bit of luck to beat Graves' tenth-ranked Florida Gators. With the game tied at 7–7 in the fourth quarter, Bulldogs placekicker Bob Etter lined up for a potential game-winning field goal. Instead, in a wild broken play, the Bulldogs' center and placeholder mishandled the snap, but Etter picked up the bobbled ball and ran it for a touchdown to score the winning points in the 14–7 contest.

Dooley's teams would split their first seven games 3–3–1 against Graves' Gators. Thereafter, Dooley's 'Dogs would go on to dominate the rivalry, winning fourteen of the nineteen games from 1971 to 1989.

1966
The seventh-ranked 1966 Florida Gators entered the game with a 7–0 record and the opportunity to clinch a share of their first-ever SEC title. The Gators' senior quarterback, Steve Spurrier, had just locked up the Heisman trophy the previous week with a stellar performance versus the Auburn Tigers. The Florida–Georgia game turned out very differently, however, as the Bulldogs defense dominated the game, and Spurrier threw three interceptions in the 27–10 Georgia victory. All-American defensive tackle Bill Stanfill would later reference Spurrier in recounting his experiences growing up on a farm in southwest Georgia before the advent of weightlifting: "Holding pigs for my dad to castrate was quite a challenge. I can't say that helped prepare me for football, but it sure did remind me an awful lot of sacking Steve Spurrier."

Spurrier returned to Gainesville as the Gators' head coach in 1990 and, with the sting of the 1966 loss in mind, emphasized the annual Florida–Georgia contest as the "biggest of the year." Under his tenure, the Gators were 11–1 against their bitter rivals.

1970
The 1970 Florida Gators featured All-American defensive end Jack Youngblood, and he pulled off one of the most remarkable plays in Florida football history. With Bulldogs leading 17–10 and in possession of the ball at the Gators' two-yard line, Youngblood stood up Georgia back Ricky Lake short of the goal, forced a fumble and fell on the football. "They ran a lead play to my side, and I cut it off", Youngblood said. "I'm standing there holding the ballcarrier and I take the ball away from him, and gave it back to our offense." Gators quarterback John Reaves and wide receiver Carlos Alvarez then connected for two touchdown passes in the final 5:13 to rally the Florida Gators to a 24–17 victory.

1975
The 1975 Florida Gators came into the game with a 6–1 record and No. 7 ranking, while the Georgia Bulldogs were 5–2 and ranked No. 19. The Gators' offense was led by running back Tony Green, who ran an early one-yard touchdown to put the Gators ahead 7–0. The Gators led 7–3 as time was winding down in the fourth quarter. Georgia's "Junkyard Dawgs" defense allowed yards between the 20-yard-lines, but ceded little ground in the red zone. The Bulldogs set up at their own 20-yard-line with 3:10 remaining, and head coach Vince Dooley did something he rarely did: he called a trick play. Tight end Richard Appleby accepted the handoff on a reverse to the right, but instead of running downfield, he threw the ball to wide receiver Gene Washington for an improbable 80-yard touchdown play. Florida mounted a drive in the closing minutes but a bad snap foiled the Gators' game-tying field goal attempt, and Georgia held on for a 10–7 victory.

1976
The 1976 Florida Gators were 6–1 and ranked No. 10 coming into the game, and again seeking to secure their first SEC football championship. The Gators held a 27–13 halftime advantage and seemed to have the game in hand until the Bulldogs scored early in the third quarter to cut the lead to 27–20. Then, faced with a fourth-and-one situation at the Gators' own 29-yard-line, coach Doug Dickey decided to go for the first down rather than punt. Gators running back Earl Carr was stopped short by Bulldogs safety Johnny Henderson. Led by quarterback Ray Goff's game management and running back Kevin McLee's 198-yard rushing performance, the Bulldogs seized the momentum and scored three touchdowns on their way to a 41–27 win. After the game, Dickey admitted that "We were not outplayed; we were outcoached. I made some dumb calls." Sports writers seized on Dickey's mea culpa, and in subsequent months and years popularized the phrase "fourth and dumb" to refer to both Dickey's failed fourth down attempt and the game itself.

1980
Trailing the underdog 1980 Florida Gators with their perfect season and their No. 2 ranking in jeopardy, the Bulldogs executed one of the most famous plays in college football history. Georgia trailed 21–20 with less than a minute to play and faced third and long from their own 7-yard-line. Bulldog quarterback Buck Belue dropped back to pass and was forced to scramble around in his own endzone to avoid the Gator pass rush before finding wide receiver Lindsay Scott open in the middle of the field near the Georgia 25-yard-line. Scott caught the pass facing his own endzone, turned and darted diagonally through Florida's secondary, and outran everyone down the sideline to score the game-winning touchdown with only seconds left on the game clock.

Long-time Georgia radio announcer Larry Munson's legendary call of the play gave the game its nickname:

''Florida in a stand-up five, they may or may not blitz. Buck back, third down on the eight. In trouble, he got a block behind him. Gotta throw on the run. Complete to the 25. To the 30, Lindsay Scott 35, 40, Lindsay Scott 45, 50, 45, 40. . . Run Lindsay, 25, 20, 15, 10, 5, Lindsay Scott! Lindsay Scott! Lindsay Scott!''

The improbable 93-yard pass play sealed the Bulldogs' 26–21 victory, and kept Georgia's national championship hopes alive. The Bulldogs moved to No. 1 in the next round of polls and would go on to win the 1980 consensus national championship.

1981
Much like the previous year, the favored Georgia Bulldogs trailed the Florida Gators in the fourth quarter 21–20. Backed up on their own five yard line with eight minutes remaining in the fourth quarter, the Bulldogs methodically marched 95 yards on 17 plays, mostly on the ground. The drive culminated in three straight hand-offs to running back Herschel Walker in which he attempted to jump over the line into the endzone, finally succeeding on third down. Florida still had two minutes to score but turned over the ball on downs near midfield, and Georgia won 26–21 for the second year in a row.

1984
After suffering several defeats to the Bulldogs with a conference championship at stake, coach Galen Hall's 1984 Florida Gators entered the contest undefeated in the SEC. The Gators dominated early, building a 17–0 lead by early in the second half. But the Bulldogs seemed to come alive in the third quarter, mounting a long drive; however, Georgia's drive died in the shadow of the Gators' goal line when they were stuffed on fourth down, checking the Bulldogs momentarily but pinning the Gators deep in their own territory. On the third play following the change of possession, Gators quarterback Kerwin Bell dropped back into his own end zone and lofted a long pass to streaking receiver Ricky Nattiel, who went 96 yards for a touchdown. The Bulldog momentum was snuffed out and the Gators went on to a convincing 27–0 victory, inspiring jubilant Florida fans to storm the field and tear down the goalposts after the final whistle.

1985
The 1985 Florida Gators entered the contest on a roll: coming off an emotional win over the Auburn Tigers, undefeated, and ranked No. 1 in the nation for the first time in school history. This would not be a repeat of the 1984 game, however. As they had done so many times in the past, the Bulldogs spoiled Florida's season, defeating the Gators 24–3 with freshmen running backs Keith Henderson and Tim Worley both rushing for over 100 yards. After the game, jubilant Georgia fans stormed the field and tore down the goalposts.

1993
In constant rain, the usually prolific passing game of coach Steve Spurrier's 1993 Florida Gators was stymied. Instead, the Gators relied on tailback Errict Rhett to amass 183 yards and two touchdowns to build a 33–26 fourth-quarter lead. Led by quarterback Eric Zeier, the Georgia Bulldogs mounted a drive into Florida territory in the final minute and a half. Zeier completed what appeared to be the game-tying touchdown to Jerry Jerman with five seconds remaining in the game. However, Gators cornerback Anthone Lott had called a timeout just before the ball was snapped, forcing the Bulldogs to play the down again. Lott was called for pass interference on the ensuing play, giving Georgia one last untimed chance to score. Zeier's final pass fell incomplete, and the Gators won a hard-fought, but controversial 33–26 victory.

1995
In the mid-1990s, the old Gator Bowl Stadium was rebuilt as Jacksonville Municipal Stadium for the expansion Jacksonville Jaguars of the NFL, temporarily moving the Florida-Georgia game to on-campus sites for the first time in over six decades Florida had soundly defeated Georgia at "The Swamp" in 1994, and an undefeated 1995 Florida Gators hoped to repeat the feat at Sanford Stadium against a struggling Georgia Bulldogs team led by soon-to-be-fired coach Ray Goff.

Gators starting quarterback Danny Wuerffel threw for 242 yards and five touchdowns before leaving the game in the third quarter. With the Gators leading 38–17 in the fourth quarter, Gators backup quarterback Eric Kresser threw for two more touchdowns, one with 1:21 remaining, to make the final score 52–17. After the game, Gators coach Steve Spurrier stated that he had wanted to be the first opponent to hang "half a hundred" on the Bulldogs in their own stadium because "we heard no one had ever done that before." The Gators' fifty-two points remains the record for most scored against Georgia "between the hedges" that surround the Bulldog's home field.

2002
The 2002 Bulldogs brought a perfect 8–0 record and No. 4 ranking to the annual grudge match in Jacksonville. Under new head coach Ron Zook, the Gators limped into the game with a 5–3 record and were unranked for the first time in over a decade. In a reversal of many Florida-Georgia games over the years, it was the underdog Gators who would ruin the Bulldogs' season.

Trailing 7–6, the Gators took the lead with a key play on defense. Upon entering the contest in the second quarter, Bulldogs quarterback DJ Shockley was intercepted by Gators safety Guss Scott, who returned it for a touchdown, giving his team a 12–7 lead after a failed two-point conversion attempt. The Bulldogs moved the ball but could not punch it into the endzone, settling for two field goals to take a halftime 13–12 lead. The defenses continued to dominate in the second half, until an early fourth-quarter Gator drive ended with a touchdown pass from quarterback Rex Grossman and gave Florida a 20–13 advantage. The Georgia offense failed to score again and failed to convert a third-down in thirteen attempts as Florida held on for the upset. This turned out to be Georgia's only loss of the season. They went 13–1 and won the SEC Championship and Sugar Bowl.

2007
The 2007 game is remembered for the "Gator Stomp", a first-quarter mass celebration of the entire Georgia team in the Gators' endzone after Georgia running back Knowshon Moreno scored the game's first touchdown early in the contest. Georgia coach Mark Richt later acknowledged that he had encouraged his players to draw an excessive celebration penalty after their first touchdown, but intended that only the eleven players on the field celebrate, not the entire team. Georgia received two unsportsmanlike conduct penalties for the celebration, moving the ensuing kickoff to their own 8-yard line, and Florida scored a touchdown on their next possession to tie the game at seven. Still, the early celebration seemed to fire up the underdog Bulldogs. Moreno ran for 188 yards and Georgia's defense sacked Gators quarterback Tim Tebow six times, holding him to the lowest rushing total (−15 net yards) of his Heisman Trophy-winning season in the Bulldogs' 42–30 victory. The high-scoring game was the first in series history in which both teams scored thirty or more points.

2008
As the 2008 game approached, both coaches repeatedly stated that the previous year's incident would have no bearing on the contest. Florida coach Urban Meyer went so far as to issue a gag order to his players, instructing them not to talk about the 2007 game with the media. However, in his authorized biography published soon after the 2007 season, Meyer wrote: "That wasn't right. It was a bad deal. . . .  We'll handle it, and it's going to be a big deal." The Bulldogs and Gators were both ranked in the top 10, and the winner would have the inside track in the SEC Eastern Division race and a possible shot at a national title. Some commentators went so far as to call it the biggest match-up in the series history, or at least the previous 20 years.

Both offenses moved the ball with some effectiveness in the first half, but while the Gators scored two touchdowns, the Bulldogs were held to three field goal attempts and missed two of them. Georgia coach Mark Richt also called an unsuccessful onside kick after his team's made field goal, further blunting their momentum, and Florida held a 14–3 halftime lead. The Bulldogs turned the ball over four times in the second half and the Gators took advantage, pulling away for a 49–10 win in what was the Bulldogs' second worst loss in series history. In an apparent response to the Bulldogs' endzone celebration of the previous year, Meyer used both of his remaining timeouts with less than a minute to play, giving his team and fans more time to celebrate the sure victory. After the game, he broke his pre-game silence on the 2007 celebration. "Was it motivation for our players? Yeah, it was."

Florida went on to win the SEC Championship Game and the BCS National Championship that season.

2012
The rivals came into their 2012 matchup with only one loss between them – Florida had a 7–0 record and a No. 2 ranking in the AP poll while Georgia was 6–1 and ranked No. 12 – once again making the game in Jacksonville a pivotal one for the teams' conference and national championship prospects, as South Carolina, the only other SEC East contender, already had 2 conference losses to LSU and Florida and was thus eliminated from SEC East contention. Both teams featured strong defenses and ball control offenses, so it was not a surprise that the contest was a low scoring one. Georgia running back Todd Gurley scored to cap the Bulldog's first possession and give his team an early 7–0 lead, but that would be the only touchdown for much of the game. With the defenses dominating and the offenses committing nine total turnovers between them, the rivals could only muster field goals for the next 40 minutes of game time, and Florida kicker Caleb Sturgis booted his third of the contest to cut Georgia's lead to 10–9 early in the 4th quarter.

Georgia's offense finally broke through with a 45-yard touchdown pass from Aaron Murray to Malcolm Mitchell, putting them up 17–9 midway through the final period. Florida's offense also found a rhythm with the game on the line, and quarterback Jeff Driskel led the Gators on a potential tying drive deep into Georgia territory. With just over two minutes remaining, he threw a strike over the middle to tight end Jordan Reed, who appeared to be headed for a touchdown before Bulldog outside line-backer Jarvis Jones punched the ball out of his hands. Georgia recovered in the back of the endzone for a touchback, and Florida's sixth turnover of the game allowed Georgia to hold on for the win. The teams finished the regular season tied for first in the SEC East with identical 7–1 records in conference play, but by virtue of their head-to-head victory over the Gators, the Bulldogs advanced to the SEC Championship game, where they lost to eventual BCS national champion Alabama.

Results by Location
A The University of Georgia athletic association includes the 1904 game in the series win–loss record; the University of Florida's athletic association does not. Please see the Series history section above for further explanation.

title: Florida–Georgia football rivalry


text:
Collier's

{{Infobox magazine }} Collier's was an American general interest magazine founded in 1888 by Peter Fenelon Collier. It was launched as Collier's Once a Week, then renamed in 1895 as Collier's Weekly: An Illustrated Journal, shortened in 1905 to Collier's: The National Weekly and eventually to simply Collier's. The magazine ceased publication with the issue dated the week ending January 4, 1957, although a brief, failed attempt was made to revive the Collier's name with a new magazine in 2012.
 * title          = Collier's
 * image_file     = Collier's-Remington-3-18-05.jpg
 * image_size     =
 * image_alt      =
 * image_caption  = The cover of the March 18, 1905 issue of Collier's featuring an illustration by Frederic Remington
 * editor_title   =
 * previous_editor =
 * frequency      =
 * circulation    =
 * category       =
 * company        =
 * publisher      =
 * founder        = Peter Fenelon Collier
 * firstdate      = {{Start date|1888|04|28}}
 * finaldate      = {{Start date|1957|01|04}}
 * finalnumber    =
 * based          = New York City (until 1939} and then Springfield, Ohio, U.S.
 * country        = United States
 * language       = English
 * issn           = 2161-6469

As a result of Peter Collier's pioneering investigative journalism, Collier's established a reputation as a proponent of social reform. After lawsuits by several companies against Collier's ended in failure, other magazines joined in what Theodore Roosevelt described as "muckraking journalism." Founded by Nathan S. Collier, a descendant of Peter Collier, the Collier Prize for State Government Accountability was created in 2019. The annual US$25,000 prize is one of the largest American journalism prizes, and it was established to honor Peter Collier’s legacy and contributions in the field of investigative reporting.

19th century
Peter F. Collier (1849–1909) left Ireland for the U.S. at age 17. Although he went to a seminary to become a priest, he instead started work as a salesman for P. J. Kenedy, publisher of books for the Roman Catholic market. When Collier wanted to boost sales by offering books on a subscription plan, it led to a disagreement with Kenedy, so Collier left to start his own subscription service. P. F. Collier & Son began in 1875, expanding into the largest subscription house in America with sales of 30 million books during the 1900–1910 decade.

With the issue dated April 28, 1888, Collier's Once a Week was launched as a magazine of "fiction, fact, sensation, wit, humor, news". It was sold with the biweekly Collier's Library of novels and popular books at bargain rates and as a stand-alone priced at seven cents. By 1892, with a circulation climbing past the 250,000 mark, Collier's Once a Week was one of the best selling magazines in the United States. The name was changed to Collier's Weekly: An Illustrated Journal in 1895 or the longer title Collier's Weekly: An Illustrated Journal of Art, Literature & Current Events. With an emphasis on news, the magazine became a leading exponent of the halftone news picture. To fully exploit the new technology, Collier recruited James H. Hare, one of the pioneers of photojournalism.

Collier's only son, Robert J. Collier, became a full partner in 1898.

20th century
By 1904, the magazine was known as Collier's: The National Weekly. Peter Collier died in 1909. When Robert Collier died in 1918, he left a will that turned the magazine over to three of his friends, Samuel Dunn, Harry Payne Whitney and Francis Patrick Garvan.

Robert J. Collier won a lawsuit against Postum Cereal Company and was awarded $50,000 in damages, but in 1912 an appeals court then handed down a majority decision that Postum deserved a new trial. The Postum Company believed that Collier's weekly used magazine coverage to attack their company's products in retaliation for not advertising in Collier's after Collier's wrote against a Grape-Nuts's claim that it was an "A Food for Brain and Nerves." Postum then bought advertising pages in major newspapers in retaliation.

The magazine was sold in 1919 to the Crowell Publishing Company, which in 1939 was renamed as Crowell-Collier Publishing Company.

In 1924, Crowell moved the printing operations from New York City to Springfield, Ohio, but kept the editorial and business departments in New York City. Reasons given for moving print operations included conditions imposed by unions in the printing trade, expansion of the Gansevoort Market into the property occupied by the Collier plant, and "excessive postage involved in mailing from a seaboard city under wartime postal rates. After 1924, printing of the magazine was done at the Crowell-Collier printing plant on West High Street in Springfield, Ohio. The factory complex, much of which is no longer standing (finally razed in 2020), was built between 1899 and 1946, and incorporated seven buildings that together had more than 846000 sqft—20 acre—of floor space.

Fiction
Collier's popularized the short-short story which was often planned to fit on a single page. Knox Burger was Collier's fiction editor from 1948 to 1951 when he left to edit books for Dell and Fawcett Publications; he was replaced by Eleanor Stierhem Rawson. The numerous authors who contributed fiction to Collier's included F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ray Bradbury, Eleanor Hoyt Brainerd, Willa Cather, Roald Dahl, Jack Finney, Erle Stanley Gardner, Zane Grey, Ring Lardner, Sinclair Lewis, E. Phillips Oppenheim, J. D. Salinger, Kurt Vonnegut, Louis L'Amour, Albert Payson Terhune and Walter Tevis. Humor writers included Parke Cummings and H. Allen Smith.

Serializing novels during the late 1920s, Collier's sometimes simultaneously ran two ten-part novels, and non-fiction was also serialized. Between 1913 and 1949, Sax Rohmer's Fu Manchu serials, illustrated by Joseph Clement Coll and others, were hugely popular. The first three Fu Manchu novels by Rohmer were actually compilations of 29 short stories that Rohmer wrote for Collier’s.

The Mask of Fu Manchu, which was adapted into a 1932 film and a 1951 Wally Wood comic book, was first published as a 12-part Collier's serial, running from May 7 to July 23, 1932. The May 7 issue displayed a memorable cover illustration by famed maskmaker Władysław T. Benda, and his mask design for that cover was repeated by many other illustrators in subsequent adaptations and reprints.

A 1951 condensed version of the book Day of the Triffids by John Wyndham also appeared.

Illustrators
Leading illustrators contributed to the covers of Collier's. They included C. C. Beall, W.T. Benda, Chesley Bonestell, Charles R. Chickering, Howard Chandler Christy, Arthur Crouch, Harrison Fisher, James Montgomery Flagg, Alan Foster, Charles Dana Gibson, Vernon Grant, Emil Hering, Earl Oliver Hurst, Alonzo Myron Kimball, Percy Leason, Frank X. Leyendecker, J. C. Leyendecker, Paul Martin, John Alan Maxwell, Ronald McLeod, John Cullen Murphy, Maxfield Parrish, Edward Penfield, Robert O. Reed, Frederic Remington, Anthony Saris, John Sloan, Jessie Willcox Smith, Frederic Dorr Steele, Emmett Watson, Jon Whitcomb and Lawson Wood. Other top illustrators contributed prolifically to their short stories. They included Harold Mathews Brett, Richard V. Culter, Robert Fawcett, Denver Gillen and Quentin Reynolds.

In 1903, Gibson signed a $100,000 contract, agreeing to deliver 100 pictures (at $1000 each) during the next four years. From 1904 to 1910, Parrish was under exclusive contract to Collier's, which published his famed Arabian Nights paintings in 1906-07.

Investigative journalism
When Norman Hapgood became editor of Collier's in 1903, he attracted many leading writers. In May 1906, he commissioned Jack London to cover the San Francisco earthquake, a report accompanied by 16 pages of pictures. Under Hapgood's guidance, Collier's began publishing the work of investigative journalists such as Samuel Hopkins Adams, Ray Stannard Baker, C.P. Connolly and Ida Tarbell. Hapgood's approach had great impact, resulting in such changes as the reform of the child labor laws, slum clearance and women's suffrage. In April 1905, an article by Upton Sinclair, "Is Chicago Meat Clean?", persuaded the Senate to pass the 1906 Meat Inspection Act.

Starting October 7, 1905, Adams startled readers with "The Great American Fraud", an 11-part Collier's series. Analyzing the contents of popular patent medicines, Adams pointed out that the companies producing these medicines were making false claims about their products and some were health hazards. Hapgood launched the series with the following editorial: "In the present number we print the first article in 'The Great American Fraud' series, which is to describe thoroughly the ways and methods, as well as the evils and dangers, of the patent medicine business. This article is but the opening gun of the campaign, and is largely introductory in character, but it will give the reader a good idea of what is to come when Mr. Adams gets down to peculiarities. The next article, to appear two weeks hence, will treat of 'Peruna and the 'Bracers',' that is, of those concoctions which are advertised and sold as medicines, but which in reality are practically cocktails.

Since these articles on patent medicine frauds were announced in Collier's some time ago, most of the makers of alcoholic and opiated medicines have been running to cover, and even the Government has been awakened to a sense of responsibility. A few weeks ago the Commissioner of Internal Revenue issued an order to his Collectors, ordering them to exact a special tax from the manufacturer of every compound composed of distilled spirits, 'even though drugs have been added thereto.' The list of 'tonics,' 'blood purifiers' and 'cures' that will come under this head has not yet been published by the Treasury Department, but it is bound to include a good many of the beverages which, up to the present time, have been soothing the consciences while stimulating the palates of the temperance folk. The next official move will doubtless be against the opium-sellers; but these have likewise taken fright, and several of the most notorious 'consumption cures' no longer include opium or hasheesh in their concoction."

"The Great American Fraud" had a powerful impact and led to the first Pure Food and Drug Act (1906). The entire series was reprinted by the American Medical Association in a book, The Great American Fraud, which sold 500,000 copies at 50 cents each.

Hapgood had a huge influence on public opinion, and between 1909 and 1912, he succeeded in doubling the circulation of Collier's from a half million to a million. When he moved on to Harper's Weekly in 1912, he was replaced as editor for the next couple years by Robert J. Collier, the son of the founder. Arthur H. Vandenberg, later to become a prominent Senator, had a brief stint as a Collier's editor during the 1900s. H. C. Witwer was a war correspondent in France during World War I. Rob Wagner covered the film industry for Collier's during the 1920s. They reversed their position on prohibition in 1925. This was due to the difficulty in enforcing the referendum, and people's unwillingness to stay away from alcohol. The new law brought about bribing, thieving, corruption and other ills, which far exceeded their expectations. This new alignment gained favor with the public and helped to rebuild circulation.

Writers such as Martha Gellhorn and Ernest Hemingway, who reported on the Spanish Civil War, helped boost the circulation. Winston Churchill, who wrote an account of the First World War, was a regular contributor during the 1930s, but his series of articles ended in 1939 when he became a minister in the British government. Carl Fick was a Collier's staff writer prior to World War II.

Cartoonists
The magazine's roster of top cartoonists included Charles Addams, Carl Anderson, Stan and Jan Berenstain, Sam Berman, Sam Cobean, Jack Cole, A. B. Frost, Ralph Fuller, Dave Gerard, Vernon Grant, Jay Irving, Crockett Johnson, E. W. Kemble, Hank Ketcham, George Lichty, David Low, Bill Mauldin, Virgil Partch, Mischa Richter, William Steig, Charles Henry "Bill" Sykes, Richard Taylor, Gluyas Williams, Gahan Wilson and Rowland B. Wilson. Irving's association with Collier's began in 1932, and his "Collier's Cops" became a mainstay of the magazine during his 13-year association with it.

Kate Osann's Tizzy cartoons first appeared in Collier's. The redheaded Tizzy was a teenage American girl who wore horn-rimmed glasses with triangular lenses. Tizzy was syndicated by NEA after Collier's folded. The cartoons were in color in Collier's but black-and-white in syndication and paperback reprints.

After World War II, Harry Devlin became the top editorial cartoonist at Collier's, one of the few publications then displaying editorial cartoons in full color. During the 1940s, Gurney Williams was the cartoon editor for Collier's, American Magazine and Woman's Home Companion, paying $40 to $150 for each cartoon. From a staggering stack of some 2000 submissions each week, Williams made a weekly selection of 30 to 50 cartoons, lamenting: "The other day I found myself staring at the millionth cartoon submitted to me since I became humor editor here. I wish it could have been fresh and original. Instead, it showed several ostriches with their heads buried in the sand. Two others stood nearby. Said one to the other: 'Where is everybody?'"

Joseph Barbera, before he found fame in animation, had several cartoons published in Collier's in the late 1920s and early 1930s.

Radio
The circulation battle with The Saturday Evening Post led to the creation of The Collier Hour, broadcast 1927–32 on the NBC Blue Network. It was radio's first major dramatic anthology series, adapting stories and serials from Collier's. The hour-long program initially aired on the Wednesday before weekly publication, but switched to Sundays to avoid spoilers with stories that appeared simultaneously in the magazine. In 1929 the program began to incorporate music, news, sports and comedy with the dramatic content of the show.

Later years
At the outbreak of World War II in 1941 with William L. Chenery as editor, Collier's readership reached 2.5 million. In the October 14, 1944, issue, the magazine published one of the first articles about concentration camps. It was Jan Karski's "Polish Death Camp," a harrowing account of his visit to Belzec. The now problematic title is explored in "Polish death camp controversy", under the heading "Use and Reactions". Karski's book Story of a Secret State, which included the Collier's excerpt, was published later that year by Houghton Mifflin. It became a Book of the Month Club selection, and bestseller with 400,000 copies sold in 1944-45. The Collier's selection was reprinted in Robert H. Abzug's America Views the Holocaust: 1933-1945 (Palgrave, 1999).

Collier's had a circulation of 2,846,052 when Walter Davenport took over as editor in 1946, but the magazine began to lose readers during the post-World War II years. Collier's published a regular men's fashion feature contributed by Esquire co-founder Henry L. Jackson and also published long-awaited images from the 200-inch (5.08 m) Hale Telescope's first light in 1949. In the early 1950s, Collier's ran a groundbreaking series of science-based articles speculating on space flight, Man Will Conquer Space Soon!, which prompted the general public to seriously consider the possibility of a trip to the moon, with the percentage of Americans who believed a crewed lunar trip could happen within 50 years changing from 15% to 38% by 1955.

In 1951, an entire issue described the events and outcome of a hypothetical war between the United States and the Soviet Union, entitled Preview of the War We Do Not Want. Collier's changed from a weekly to a biweekly in August 1953, but it continued to lose money. In 1954, John O'Hara became a columnist with his "Appointment with O'Hara" column.

The magazine ceased publication with the issue for the week ending January 4, 1957. Princess Grace of Monaco was featured on the cover, pregnant with her first child Caroline.

Books
The company also published the Collier's Encyclopedia, Collier Books and the Collier's Year Book.

Patricia Fulford edited Over 100 Best Cartoons from Collier's, Ladies Home Journal, Redbook, The American Magazine, Saturday Evening Post, The New Yorker, Argosy, Sport (Checkerbooks, 1949), and Collier's cartoon editor Gurney Williams edited Collier's Kids: Cartoons from Collier's About Your Children, Holt, 1952.

Collier's fiction editor Knox Burger chose 19 stories for Collier's Best (Harper & Bros., 1951), and he also selected Best Stories from Collier's (William Kimber, 1952). A huge history and collection appeared with the publication of the 558-page A Cavalcade of Collier's, edited by Kenneth McArdle (Barnes, 1959).

Cornelius Ryan's 1957 book One Minute to Ditch!, about the successful ocean ditching of a Pan American Boeing 377 Stratocruiser, was an expansion of his Collier's article on December 21, 1956. Ryan was an associate editor of the magazine during the mid-1950s, and the novelist Lonnie Coleman was an editorial associate during that same period.

Titles

 * Collier's Once a Week (1888-1889)
 * Once a Week, an Illustrated Weekly Newspaper (1889-1895)
 * Collier's Weekly, an Illustrated Journal (1895-1904)
 * Collier's, The National Weekly (1905-1957)

First and last issues

 * First Issue: April 28, 1888
 * Last Issue: January 4, 1957

Publishing frequency

 * Weekly (1888-1953)
 * Fortnightly (1953-1957)

Publishers

 * P.F. Collier, New York (1888-1900)
 * P.F. Collier and Son, New York (1900-1919)
 * P.F. Collier & Son Company, editorial offices, New York; publication offices, Springfield, Ohio (1919-1934)
 * Crowell Publishing Company, editorial offices, New York; publication offices, Springfield, Ohio (1934-1939)
 * Crowell-Collier Publishing Company, editorial offices, New York; publication offices, Springfield, Ohio (1939-1957)

Editors

 * Nugent Robinson (1888-1890)
 * Mayo Williamson Hazeltine (1891)
 * Julius Chambers (1892-1893)
 * T.B. Connory (1893-1896)
 * Daniel Lyons (1896-1898)
 * Robert Joseph Collier (1898-1902)
 * Norman Hapgood (1902-1913)
 * Mark Sullivan (1913-1917)
 * Finley Peter Dunne (1917-1919)
 * Harford Powel Jr. (1919-1922)
 * Richard J. Walsh (1922-1924)
 * Loren Palmer (1924-1925)
 * William L. Chenery (1925-1943)
 * Charles Colebaugh (1943-1944)
 * Henry La Cossitt (1944-1946)
 * Walter Davenport (1946-1949)
 * Louis Ruppel (1949-1952)
 * Roger Dakin (1952-1955)
 * Kenneth McArdle (1955-1957)
 * Paul Clifford Smith, editor-in-chief, (1954-1957)

title: Collier's


text:
Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line

The Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line (東京メトロ千代田線) is a subway line owned and operated by Tokyo Metro in Tokyo, Japan. On average, the line carries 1,447,730 passengers daily (2017), the second highest of the Tokyo Metro network, behind the Tozai Line (1,642,378).

The line was named after the Chiyoda ward, under which it passes. On maps, diagrams and signboards, the line is shown using the color green, and its stations are given numbers using the letter "C".

Overview
The 24.0 km line serves the wards of Adachi, Arakawa, Bunkyō, Chiyoda, Minato and Shibuya, and a short stretch of tunnel in Taitō with no station. Its official name, rarely used, is Line 9 Chiyoda Line (9号線千代田線). The Chiyoda Line was built as a bypass for the older Hibiya Line, with both lines following a similar route and having direct interchanges at three stations. Trains have through running onto other railway lines on both ends. More than half of these are trains to the northeast beyond Ayase onto the East Japan Railway Company (JR East) Joban Line to Toride. The rest run to the southwest beyond Yoyogi-Uehara onto the Odakyu Odawara Line to Isehara.

The Chiyoda Line has direct interchanges with all other Tokyo Metro and Toei lines with the exception of the Toei Oedo Line. However, Yushima Station is located relatively close to Ueno-okachimachi Station on the Oedo Line without being marked as an official transfer between the lines.

According to the Tokyo Metropolitan Bureau of Transportation, as of June 2009 the Chiyoda Line was the second most crowded subway line in Tokyo, at its peak running at 181% capacity between Machiya and Nishi-Nippori stations.

Basic data

 * Distance: 24.0 km
 * Double-tracking: Entire line
 * Railway signalling: New CS-ATC

Station list

 * All stations are located in Tokyo.
 * Stopping patterns:
 * Commuter Semi Express, Local, Semi Express, and Express trains stop at every station.
 * Odakyu Romancecar limited express services stop at stations marked "●" and does not stop at those marked "｜".

Rolling stock
, the following train types are used on the line, all running as ten-car formations unless otherwise indicated.

Tokyo Metro

 * 16000 series (x37) (since November 2010)
 * 05 series 3-car trains (x4) (since April 2014, used on Kita-Ayase Branch)

Odakyu

 * 4000 series (since September 2007)
 * 60000 series MSE (since spring 2008)

JR East

 * E233-2000 series (x19) (since summer 2009)

Former rolling stock

 * 6000 series (x35) (from 1971 until November 2018)
 * JNR 103-1000 series (x16) (from 1971 until April 1986)
 * JR East 203 series (x17) (from August 27, 1982 until September 26, 2011)
 * JR East 209-1000 series (x2) (from 1999 until October 13, 2018)
 * JNR 207–900 series (x1) (from 1986 until December 2009)
 * 5000 series 3-car trains (x2) (from 1969 until 2014, later used on branch line)
 * 6000 series 3-car train (x1) (prototype of the series built in 1968 until 2014, used on branch line)
 * 06 series (x1) (from 1993 until January 2015)
 * 07 series (x1) (September 2008 – December 2008)
 * Odakyu 1000 series (1988–2010)
 * Odakyu 9000 series (1978–1990)

History
The Chiyoda Line was originally proposed in 1962 as a line from Setagaya in Tokyo to Matsudo, Chiba; the initial name was "Line 8". In 1964, the plan was changed slightly so that through service would be offered on the Joban Line north of Tokyo, and the number was changed to "Line 9".

Line 9 was designed to pass through built-up areas in Chiyoda, and also intended to relieve the busy Ginza Line and Hibiya Line, which follow a roughly similar route through central Tokyo. The first stretch was opened on December 20, 1969 between Kita-Senju and Ōtemachi. The line was almost completed by October 10, 1972 when it reached Yoyogi-Kōen, although the 1 km section to Yoyogi-Uehara was not completed until March 31, 1978.

The branch line to Kita-Ayase was opened on December 20, 1979. This branch primarily serves as a connection to Ayase Depot, but also serves Kita-Ayase Station constructed in the area. A three-car shuttle service operates between Ayase and Kita-Ayase.

The Chiyoda Line was one of the lines targeted in the Aum sarin gas attack on March 20, 1995.

On May 15, 2006, women-only cars were introduced on early-morning trains from Toride on the Joban Line to Yoyogi-Uehara.

On March 18, 2008, the Chiyoda Line became the first subway line in Japan with operations by reserved-seating trains when Odakyu Romancecar limited express services began running between Kita-Senju and Hakone-Yumoto (on the Hakone Tozan Line) and Karakida (on the Odakyu Tama Line). Trains also run from/to Shin-Kiba using tracks connecting to the Yurakucho Line.

On March 16, 2019, 10 car services to Kita-Ayase station commenced.

title: Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line


text:
User:Morwen/generic

 * Democratic Party (disambiguation)
 * Labour Party
 * National Party
 * Republican Party (disambiguation)
 * Socialist Labour Party
 * Socialist Party
 * Socialist Workers' Party
 * Workers' Party

title: User:Morwen/generic


text:
Alexander Wedderburn, 1st Earl of Rosslyn

Alexander Wedderburn, 1st Earl of Rosslyn, PC, KC (3 February 1733 – 2 January 1805) was a Scottish lawyer and politician who sat in the House of Commons between 1761 and 1780 when he was raised to the peerage as Baron Loughborough. He served as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain from 1793 to 1801.

Life
Wedderburn was the eldest son of Peter Wedderburn, Lord Chesterhall (a lord of session), and was born at Chesterhall near Dunbar in East Lothian.

He received his initial education at Dalkeith and then the Royal High School, Edinburgh, and matriculated at the University of Edinburgh aged 14. During his studies in Edinburgh he resided at his father's townhouse on Elphinstone Court, south of the Royal Mile, around 200m from the university. He qualified as an advocate serving in Scotland in 1752 aged only 19. He did not see eye to eye with others in the courts and on one occasion felt so insulted at comments on his age that he threw off his gown and never again appeared in the Scottish courts. He instead passed the English bar and went to practice in England, famously acting as counsel to the 1st Baron Clive.

His father was called to the Scottish bench in 1755, and for the next three years Wedderburn returned to Edinburgh, where he employed his oratorical powers in the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and passed his evenings in social and argumentative clubs.

In 1755 the precursor of the later Edinburgh Review was started, and Wedderburn edited two of its issues. The dean of faculty at this time, Alexander Lockhart (later Lord Covington), a lawyer notorious for his harsh demeanour, in the autumn of 1757 assailed Wedderburn with more than ordinary insolence. Wedderburn retorted with extraordinary powers of invective, and, on being rebuked by the bench, declined to retract or apologise. Instead, he left the court forever.

Legal career
Wedderburn was called to the English bar at the Inner Temple in 1757. To shake off his Scottish accent and to improve his oratory, he engaged the services of Thomas Sheridan and Charles Macklin. He studied the forms of English law in order to secure business and to conduct his cases with adequate knowledge. He solicited William Strahan, a printer, to get him employed in city causes, and he entered into social intercourse with busy London solicitors. His local connections and the incidents of his previous career brought him to the notice of his countrymen Lord Bute and Lord Mansfield.

When Lord Bute was prime minister, Wedderburn used to go on errands for him, and it is to Wedderburn's credit that he first suggested to the premier the propriety of granting Samuel Johnson a pension.

Through the favour of Lord Bute, he was returned to parliament for the Ayr Burghs in 1761. In 1763 he became king's counsel and bencher of Lincoln's Inn, and for a short time went the northern circuits, but was more successful in obtaining business in the Court of Chancery. In 1767, he married Betty Anne Dawson, only child and heiress of John Dawson of Marly, Yorkshire who brought him considerable wealth in addition to his own. (Carlyle puts the amount at £10,000)

Political career
When George Grenville, whose principles leaned to Toryism, quarrelled with the court, Wedderburn affected to regard him as his leader in politics. At the dissolution in the spring of 1768 he was returned by Sir Lawrence Dundas for Richmond as a Tory, but in the questions that arose over John Wilkes he took the popular side of Wilkes and liberty, and resigned his seat in May 1769. In the opinion of the people he was now regarded as the embodiment of all legal virtue; his health was toasted at the dinners of the Whigs amid rounds of applause, and, in recompense for the loss of his seat in parliament, he was returned by Lord Clive for his pocket-borough of Bishop's Castle, in Shropshire, in January 1770.

During the next session he acted vigorously in opposition, but his conduct was always viewed with distrust by his new associates, and his attacks on the ministry of Lord North grew less and less animated in proportion to its apparent fixity of tenure. In January 1771 he was offered and accepted the post of solicitor-general. The high road to the woolsack was now open, but his defection from his former path has stamped his character with general infamy. Junius wrote of him, "As for Mr Wedderburn, there is something about him which even treachery cannot trust," and Colonel Barr attacked him in the House of Commons. The new law officer defended his conduct with the assertion that his alliance in politics had been with George Grenville, and that the connection had been severed on his death.

All through the American War of Independence he consistently declaimed against the colonies, and he was bitter (and, some historians say, downright slanderous) in his attack on Benjamin Franklin before the Privy Council. In June 1778 Wedderburn was promoted to the post of attorney-general, and in the same year he refused the dignity of chief baron of the exchequer because the offer was not accompanied by the promise of a peerage. At the dissolution in 1774 he had been returned for Okehampton in Devon, and for Castle Rising in Norfolk, and selected the former constituency; on his promotion as leading law officer of the crown he returned to Bishops Castle. The coveted peerage was not long delayed. In June 1780 he was created Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, with the title of Baron Loughborough.

During the existence of the coalition ministry of North and Fox, the great seal was in commission (April to December 1783), and Lord Loughborough held the leading place among the commissioners. For some time after that ministry's fall he was considered the leader of the Whig party in the House of Lords, and, had the illness of the King George III brought about the return of the Whigs to power, the great seal would have been placed in his hands. The king's restoration to health secured William Pitt The Younger's continuance in office, and disappointed the Whigs. In 1792, during the period of the French Revolution, Lord Loughborough seceded from Fox, and on 28 January 1793 he received the great seal in the Tory cabinet of Pitt. The resignation of Pitt on the question of Catholic emancipation (1801) put an end to Wedderburn's tenure of the Lord Chancellorship, for, much to his surprise, no place was found for him in Addington's cabinet. Pitt's friends believed he had been guilty of treachery over the Emancipation issue; and even the King, who used Loughborough as a spy in Cabinet, later commented that his death removed "the greatest knave in the Kingdom".

Marriages and later life
His first wife died childless in 1781, and the following year he married Charlotte, youngest daughter of William, Viscount Courtenay; her only son died in childhood. Lord Loughborough accordingly obtained in 1795 a re-grant of his barony with remainder to his nephew, Sir James St Clair Erskine. The end of his tenure as Lord Chancellor in 1801 was softened by the grant of an earldom (he was created Earl of Rosslyn on 21 April 1801, also with remainder to his nephew), and by a pension of £4000 per annum. After this date he rarely appeared in public, but he was a constant figure at all the royal festivities. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1787 and accepted an honorary vice presidency at London's charitable Foundling Hospital in 1799.

He attended a festive gathering, quite typical for this time in his life, at Frogmore, in December 1804. On the following day he was seized with an attack of gout in the stomach, and on 2 January 1805 he died of an apoplectic fit at his country seat of Baylis, near Salt Hill, Windsor. He was buried in St Paul's Cathedral on 11 January 1805.

Assessment
At the bar Wedderburn was the most elegant speaker of his time, and, although his knowledge of the principles and precedents of law was deficient, his skill in marshalling facts and his clearness of diction were marvellous; on the bench his judgments were remarkable for their perspicuity, particularly in the appeal cases to the House of Lords. For cool and sustained declamation he stood unrivalled in parliament, and his readiness in debate was universally acknowledged. In social life, in the company of the wits and writers of his day, his faculties seemed to desert him. He was not only dull, but the cause of dullness in others, and even Alexander Carlyle confesses that in conversation his illustrious countryman was stiff and pompous. In Wedderburn's character ambition banished all rectitude of principle, but the love of money for money's sake was not among his faults.

Quote
Regarding the Thellusson Will Case, the Lord Chancellor stated:

"A fortune in circulation, even if spent in luxuries, waste, and dissipation, did more good to the public, and afforded more emulation to industry, and better encouragement to arts and manufactures, than any useless accumulation of money could do."


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Henry Lee III

Henry Lee III (January 29, 1756 – March 25, 1818) was an early American Patriot and politician who served as the ninth Governor of Virginia and as the Virginia Representative to the United States Congress. Lee's service during the American Revolution as a cavalry officer in the Continental Army earned him the nickname by which he is best known, "Light-Horse Harry". He was the father of Robert E. Lee, who led the Army of Northern Virginia against the Union Army during the American Civil War.

Early life and education
Lee was born on Leesylvania Plantation in Prince William County in the Colony of Virginia. He was the son of Col. Henry Lee II (1730–1787) of "Leesylvania" and Lucy Grymes (1734–1792). His father was the first cousin of Richard Henry Lee, twelfth President of the Continental Congress. His mother was an aunt of the wife of Virginia Governor Thomas Nelson Jr. His great-grandmother Mary Bland was also a grand aunt of President Thomas Jefferson. Lee was the grandson of Henry Lee I, a great-grandson of Richard Bland, and a great-great-grandson of William Randolph. He was also a descendant of Theodorick Bland of Westover and Governor Richard Bennett.

Lee graduated from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in 1773 and began pursuing a legal career.

American Revolutionary War
With the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War at the Battles of Lexington and Concord in 1775, Lee became a captain in a dragoon detachment in the Colony of Virginia, which was attached to the 1st Continental Light Dragoons.

In 1778, Lee was promoted to major and given the command of a mixed corps of cavalry and infantry known as Lee's Legion, with which he won a great reputation as a capable leader of light troops. At the time, highly mobile groups of light cavalry provided valuable service not only during major battles but also by conducting reconnaissance and surveillance, engaging the enemy during troop movements, disrupting the delivery of supplies, raiding and skirmishing, and organizing expeditions behind enemy lines; part of such tactics now are known as guerrilla warfare and maneuver warfare. In August, Lee led a detachment on a raid on a British fort, culminating in the Battle of Paulus Hook in New Jersey on August 19, in which 50 enemy soldiers were killed or wounded and 158 captured, while the Americans suffered two dead, three wounded and seven captured. (Despite his success, some of his fellow officers saw to it he was brought before a court martial on eight charges, over George Washington's disapproval; he was acquitted on all counts.) In September of the same year, Lee commanded a unit of dragoons which defeated a Hessian regiment at the Battle of Edgar's Lane.

During his time as commander of the Legion, Lee earned the moniker of "Light-Horse Harry" for his horsemanship. On September 22, 1779, the Continental Congress voted to present Lee with a gold medal, an honor given to no other officer below the rank of general, for the Legion's actions during the Battle of Paulus Hook.

Lee was promoted to lieutenant colonel and was assigned with his Legion to the southern theater of war. Lee's Legion attacked a British outpost at Georgetown, South Carolina along side General Francis Marion in January 1781 and helped screen the British Army in its race to the Dan River the following month. Lee united with General Francis Marion and General Andrew Pickens in the spring of 1781 to capture several British outposts in South Carolina and Georgia, including Fort Watson, Fort Motte, Fort Granby, Fort Galphin, Fort Grierson, and Fort Cornwallis. Lee and his legion also served at the Battle of Guilford Court House, the Siege of Ninety-Six, and the Battle of Eutaw Springs. He was present at Charles Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown but left the Army shortly after, claiming fatigue and disappointment with his treatment from fellow officers.

Post-war career
From 1786 to 1788, Lee was a delegate to the Congress of the Confederation. In 1788, he served in the Virginia convention and supported ratifying the United States Constitution. From 1789 to 1791, he served in the Virginia General Assembly, and from 1791 to 1794, he was Governor of Virginia. A new county of Virginia was named after him during his governorship.

In 1794, President George Washington summoned Lee to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania. Lee commanded the 12,950 militiamen sent to quash the rebels; there was no fighting because of a peaceful surrender. In 1798, in anticipation of a war with France, Henry Lee was appointed a major general in the U.S. Army.

At Washington's funeral on December 26, 1799, Lee famously eulogized him to a crowd of 4,000 as "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen."

From 1799 to 1801, he served in the United States House of Representatives as a member of the Federalist Party. After retiring from public service in 1801, he lived with his family at Stratford Hall and unsuccessfully tried to manage his plantation. The Panic of 1796–1797 and bankruptcy of Robert Morris reduced Lee's fortune.

In 1808, he was recommissioned by President Thomas Jefferson as major-general when war with Great Britain was imminent; Lee organized the Virginia militia. In 1809, he became bankrupt and served one year in debtors' prison in Montross, Virginia; his son, Robert Lee, was two years old at the time. After release, Lee moved his family to Alexandria, Virginia.

Later life and death
He asked President James Madison for a commission at the onset of the War of 1812 but without success. In 1812 he published his Memoirs of the War in the Southern Department of the United States, where he summarized his military experiences during the Revolutionary War. During the civil unrest in Baltimore, Maryland in 1812, Lee received grave injuries while helping to resist an attack on his friend, Alexander Contee Hanson, editor of the Baltimore newspaper, The Federal Republican on July 27, 1812. Hanson was attacked by a Democratic-Republican mob because his paper opposed the War of 1812. Lee, Hanson, and two dozen other Federalists had taken refuge in the paper's offices. The group surrendered to Baltimore city officials the next day and was jailed. Laborer George Woolslager led a mob that forced its way into the jail and removed the Federalists, beating and torturing them over the next three hours. All were severely injured, and one Federalist, James Lingan, died.

Lee suffered extensive internal injuries and head and face wounds, and even his speech was affected. His observed symptoms were consistent with what is now called post-traumatic stress disorder. After an unsuccessful recovery at home, he sailed to the West Indies to recuperate from his injuries. On his way back to Virginia, he died on March 25, 1818, at Dungeness, on Cumberland Island, Georgia, cared for by Nathanael Greene's daughter Louisa. "Light-Horse Harry" was buried with full military honors, provided by an American fleet stationed near St. Marys, Georgia, in a small cemetery at Dungeness. In 1913, his remains were moved to the Lee family crypt at University Chapel, on the campus of Washington & Lee University in Lexington, Virginia.

Personal life and family
Between April 8 and 13, 1782, at Stratford Hall, Lee married his second cousin, Matilda Ludwell Lee (1764–1790), who was known as "the Divine Matilda". She was the daughter of Philip Ludwell Lee Sr. and Elizabeth Steptoe. Matilda had three children before she died in 1790:
 * Philip Ludwell Lee (1784–1794)
 * Lucy Grymes Lee (1786–1860)
 * Henry Lee IV (May 28, 1787 – January 30, 1837) was a historian and author who also served as a speechwriter for both John C. Calhoun and presidential candidate Andrew Jackson, also helping the latter to write his inaugural address.

On June 18, 1793, Lee married the wealthy Anne Hill Carter (1773–1829) at Shirley Plantation. Anne was the daughter of Charles Carter, Esq., of Shirley, and his wife Ann Butler Moore. According to Winston Fontaine's research, Anne Moore's paternal pedigree dates back to Sir Thomas More. Her mother, Anne Katherine, was the daughter of Virginia Governor Alexander Spotswood, who was the great-grandson of John Spotswood and Rachel Lindsay; Rachelle's ancestors were David Lindsay, 1st Earl of Crawford, and Elizabeth Stewart, daughter of King Robert II of Scotland. They had six children:
 * Algernon Sidney Lee (April 2, 1795 – August 9, 1796), died at Sully Plantation, buried there in an unmarked grave
 * Charles Carter Lee (1798–1871)
 * Anne Kinloch Lee (1800–1864)
 * Sydney Smith Lee (1802–1869)
 * Robert Edward Lee (January 19, 1807 – October 12, 1870), the fifth child of Henry and Anne, served as Confederate general-in-chief during the American Civil War.
 * Mildred Lee (1811–1856)

In popular culture
According to screenwriter Robert Rodat, the fictional character of Colonel Harry Burwell in the 2000 film The Patriot was inspired by the historical exploits of Henry Lee.

In the 1969 musical 1776, Lee's nickname is mentioned (anachronistically) during the song "The Lees of Old Virginia," sung by the character of his older cousin Richard Henry Lee.

Henry Lee III was a member of the Society of the Cincinnati in the State of Virginia.

Works

 * Lee, Henry, and Robert E. Lee. Memoirs of the War in the Southern Department of the United States. Eyewitness accounts of the American Revolution. Philadelphia: Bradford and Inskeep, 1812. (3rd ed. published in 1869, with a memoir by his son Robert E. Lee.)

title: Henry Lee III