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Symon Petliura

Symon Vasyliovych Petliura (Симон Васильович Петлюра; 22 May 1879 – 25 May 1926) was a Ukrainian politician and journalist. He was the Supreme Commander of the Ukrainian People's Army (UNA) and led the Ukrainian People's Republic during the Ukrainian War of Independence, a part of the wider Russian Civil War.

Petliura was born to a family of Cossack heritage in Poltava. From an early age he embraced socialism and Ukrainian nationalism, which he advocated through his highly prolific career as a journalist. After the 1917 February Revolution overthrew the Tsarist monarchy, the Ukrainian People's Republic was proclaimed and Petliura was elected head of its military. The Republic was briefly interrupted by the pro-German Ukrainian State, but in late 1918 Petliura, along with other members of the socialist Directorate of Ukraine, organised a revolt and overthrew the regime, restoring the Republic. He became the leader of the Directorate in early 1919, after the Bolsheviks invaded Ukraine and drove the UNA to Galicia. Facing imminent defeat, Petliura entered an alliance with Józef Piłsudski's Poland. The Polish–Soviet War concluded with Polish victory but Ukraine remained under Soviet control, forcing Petliura into exile. He initially directed the government-in-exile from Poland, but eventually settled in Paris.

During the Civil War, the UNA were responsible for the deaths of tens of thousands of Jewish civilians, and Petliura's role in the pogroms has been a topic of dispute. In 1926, Petliura was assassinated in Paris by Jewish anarchist Sholem Schwarzbard, who had lost relatives in the pogroms.

Career to 1917
Born on 22 May 1879 in a suburb of Poltava (then part of the Russian Empire), Symon Petliura was the son of Vasyl Pavlovych Petliura and Olha Oleksiyivna (née Marchenko), of Cossack background. His father, a Poltava city resident, had owned a transportation business; his mother was a daughter of an Orthodox hieromonk (priest-monk). Petliura obtained his initial education in parochial schools, and planned to become an Orthodox priest.

Petliura studied in the Russian Orthodox Seminary in Poltava from 1895 to 1901. While there he joined the Hromada society in 1898. When his membership in Hromada was discovered in 1901, he was expelled from the seminary. In 1900 Petliura joined the Revolutionary Ukrainian Party (RUP). In 1902, under threat of arrest, he moved to Yekaterinodar in the Kuban, where he worked for two years – initially as a schoolteacher and later as an archivist for the Kuban Cossack Host helping to organize over 200,000 documents. In December 1903 he was arrested for organizing a RUP branch in Yekaterinodar and for publishing inflammatory anti-tsarist articles in the Ukrainian press outside of Imperial Russia (in Austrian-controlled Lemberg, currently named Lviv, in Galicia). Released on bail in March 1904, he moved briefly to Kyiv and then to Lemberg.

In Lviv, Petliura lived under the name of Sviatoslav Tagon, working alongside Ivan Franko and Volodymyr Hnatiuk as an editor for the journal Literaturno-Naukovyi Vistnyk ("Literary Scientific Herald"), the Shevchenko Scientific Society and as a co-editor of Volia (newspaper) newspaper. He also contributed numerous articles to the Ukrainian-language press in Galicia.

At the end of 1905, after an nationwide amnesty was declared by the authorities, Petliura returned briefly to Kyiv, but soon moved to the Russian capital of Petersburg in order to publish the socialist-democratic monthly magazine Vil’na Ukrayina ("Free Ukraine") along with Prokip Poniatenko and Mykola Porsh. After Russian censors closed this magazine in July 1905, he moved back to Kyiv where he worked for the newspaper Rada (newspaper) ("The Council"). In 1907–09 he became the editor of the literary magazine Slovo (Слово, The Word) and co-editor of Ukrayina (Україна, "Ukraine").

Because of the closure of these publications by the Russian Imperial authorities, Petliura had once again to move from Kyiv. He went to Moscow in 1909, where he worked briefly as an accountant. There in 1910 he married Olha Bilska (1885–1959), with whom he had a daughter, Lesia (1911–1942). From 1912 until May 1917, he served as a co-editor of the influential Russian-language journal Ukrayinskaya Zhizn (Ukrainian Life).

Journalism and publications
As the editor of numerous journals and newspapers, Petliura published over 15,000 critical articles, reviews, stories and poems under an estimated 120 noms-de-plume. His prolific work in both the Russian and Ukrainian languages helped shape the mindset of the Ukrainian population in the years leading up to the Revolution in both Eastern and Western Ukraine. His prolific correspondence was of great benefit when the Revolution broke out in 1917, as he had contacts throughout Ukraine.

Publications before 1914
As the Ukrainian language had been outlawed in the Russian Empire by the Ems Ukaz of 1876, Petliura found more freedom to publish Ukraine oriented articles in Saint Petersburg than in Ukraine. There, he published the magazine Vilna Ukrayina (Вільна Україна, "Independent Ukraine") until July 1905. Tsarist censors, however, closed this magazine, and Petliura moved back to Kyiv.

In Kyiv, Petliura first worked for Rada. In 1907 he became editor of the literary magazine Slovo. Also, he co-edited the magazine Ukrayina.

In 1909, these publications were closed by Russian imperial police, and Petliura moved back to Moscow to publish. There, he was co-editor of the Russian-language journal Ukrayinskaya Zhizn to familiarize the local population with news and culture of what was known as Malorossia. He was the chief editor of this publication from 1912 to 1914. In Moscow, he married his wife Olha Bilska in 1915 (later she was also known as her husband under the surname of Marchenko). There, in Moscow was born the daughter of Petliura, Lesia (Olesia).

Publications after emigration
In Paris, Petliura continued the struggle for Ukrainian independence as a publicist. In 1924, Petliura became the editor and publisher of the weekly journal Tryzub (newspaper) (Trident). He contributed to this journal using various pen names, including V. Marchenko, and V. Salevsky.

Rise to power
In May 1917 Petliura attended the First All-Ukrainian Congress of Soldier Deputies held in Kyiv as a delegate. On 18 May he was elected head of the Ukrainian General Military Committee, today seen as the ultimate progenitor of the modern Ukrainian Ministry of Defense. With the proclamation of the Central Council of Ukraine on 28 June 1917, Petliura became the first Secretary (Minister) for Military Affairs.

Disagreeing with the politics of the then chairman of the General Secretariat Volodymyr Vynnychenko, Petliura left the government and became the head of the Haydamaky Kish, a military formation of Sloboda Ukraine (in Kharkiv). In January–February 1918 the Haidamaka Kish was forced back to protect Kyiv during the Uprising at the Kyiv Arsenal Plant and to prevent the capture of the capital by the Bolshevik Red Guard.

After the April 1918 Ukrainian coup d'état, Pavlo Skoropadskyi's government arrested Petliura and incarcerated him for four months in Bila Tserkva.

Petliura participated in the Anti-Hetman Uprising of November 1918 and became a member of the Directorate of Ukraine as the Chief of Military Forces. Following the fall of Kyiv (February 1919) and the emigration of Vynnychenko from Ukraine, Petliura became the leader of the Directorate on 11 February 1919. In his capacity as head of the Army and State, he continued to fight both Bolshevik and White forces in Ukraine for the next ten months.

1919
With the outbreak of hostilities between Ukraine and Soviet Russia in January 1919, and with Vynnychenko's emigration, Petliura ultimately became the leading figure in the Directorate. During the winter of 1919 the Petliura army lost most of Ukraine (including Kyiv) to Bolsheviks and by March 6 relocated to Podolia. In the spring of 1919 he managed to extinguish a coup-d'etat led by Volodymyr Oskilko who saw Petliura cooperating with socialists such as Borys Martos. During the course of the year, Petliura continued to defend the fledgling republic against incursions by the Bolsheviks, Anton Denikin's White Russians, and the Romanian-Polish troops. By autumn of 1919, most of Denikin's White Russian forces were defeated — in the meantime, however, the Bolsheviks had grown to become the dominant force in Ukraine.

1920
On 5 December 1919, Petliura withdrew to Poland, which had previously recognized him as the head of the legal government of Ukraine. In April 1920, as head of the Ukrainian People's Republic, he signed an alliance in Warsaw with the Polish government, agreeing to a border on the River Zbruch and recognizing Poland's right to Galicia in exchange for military aid in overthrowing the Bolshevik régime. Polish forces, reinforced by Petliura's remaining troops (some two divisions), attacked Kyiv on 7 May 1920, in what proved a turning point of the 1919–21 Polish-Bolshevik war. Following initial successes, Piłsudski's and Petliura's forces had to retreat to the Vistula River and to the Polish capital, Warsaw. The Polish Army defeated the Bolshevik Russians in the end, but the Red Army remained in parts of Ukraine and therefore Ukrainians were unable to secure their independence. Petliura directed the affairs of the Ukrainian government-in-exile from Tarnów in Lesser Poland, and when the Soviet government in Moscow requested Petliura's extradition from Poland, the Poles engineered his "disappearance", secretly moving him from Tarnów to Warsaw.

After the revolution
Bolshevik Russia persistently demanded that Petliura be handed over. Protected by several Polish friends and colleagues, such as Henryk Józewski, with the establishment of the Soviet Union on 30 December 1922, Petliura, in late 1923 left Poland for Budapest, then Vienna, Geneva and finally settled in Paris in early 1924. Here he established and edited the Ukrainian-language newspaper Tryzub.

Promoting a Ukrainian cultural identity
During his time as leader of the Directorate, Petliura was active in supporting Ukrainian culture both in Ukraine and in the Ukrainian diaspora.

Supporting culture in Ukraine
Petliura introduced the awarding of the title "People's Artist of Ukraine" to artists who had made significant contributions to Ukrainian culture. A similar titled award was continued after a significant break under the Soviet regime. Among those who had received this award was blind kobza player Ivan Kuchuhura-Kucherenko.

Promoting Ukrainian culture abroad
He also saw the value in gaining international support and recognition of Ukrainian arts through cultural exchanges. Most notably, Petliura actively supported the work of cultural leaders such as the choreographer Vasyl Avramenko, conductor Oleksander Koshetz and bandurist Vasyl Yemetz, to allow them to travel internationally and promote an awareness of Ukrainian culture. Koshetz created the Ukrainian Republic Capella and took it on tour internationally, giving concerts in Europe and the Americas. One of the concerts by the Capella inspired George Gershwin to write "Summertime", based on the lullaby "Oi Khodyt Son Kolo Vikon" All three musicians later emigrated to the United States.

Life in exile
In Paris, Petliura directed the activities of the government of the Ukrainian National Republic in exile. He launched the weekly Tryzub, and continued to edit and write numerous articles under various pen names with an emphasis on questions dealing with national oppression in Ukraine. These articles were written with a literary flair. The question of national awareness was often of significance in his literary work.

Petliura's articles had a significant impact on the shaping of Ukrainian national awareness in the early 20th century. He published articles and brochures under a variety of noms de plume, including V. Marchenko, V. Salevsky, I. Rokytsky, and O. Riastr.

Role in pogroms
Petliura is considered a controversial figure connected with the pogroms of Jews during his rule of the Ukrainian National Republic. According to Peter Kenez, "before the advent of Hitler, the greatest mass murder of Jews occurs in Ukraine in the course of the Civil War. All participants in the conflict were guilty of murdering Jews, even the Bolsheviks; however the Volunteer Army had the largest number of victims." The number of Jews killed during the period is estimated to be between 50,000 and 200,000. A total of 1,236 violent attacks on Jews had been recorded between 1918 and 1921 in Ukraine. Among them, 493 were carried out by Ukrainian People's Republic soldiers under the command of Symon Petliura, 307 by independent Ukrainian warlords, 213 by Denikin's army, 106 by the Red Army, and 32 by the Polish Army.

The newly formed Ukrainian state (Ukrainian People's Republic) promised Jews full equality and autonomy. Arnold Margolin, a Jewish assistant minister in Petliura's UPR government, declared in May 1919 that the Ukrainian government had given Jews more rights than they enjoyed in any other European government. However, after 1918, military units became involved in pogroms against Jews. During Petliura's term as Head of State (1919–20), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory.

Petliura's role in the pogroms has been a topic of dispute since his assassination in 1926 and the succeeding Schwartzbard's trial. In 1969, the journal Jewish Social Studies published two opposing views regarding Petliura's responsibility in pogroms against Jews during his reign over Ukraine, by scholars Taras Hunczak and Zosa Szajkowski. Later the Journal published letters from the two authors.

According to Hunczak, Petliura actively sought to halt anti-Jewish violence on numerous occasions, introducing capital punishment for carrying out pogroms. Conversely, he is also accused of not having done enough to stop the pogroms and being afraid to punish officers and soldiers engaged in crimes against Jews for fear of losing their support.

Assassination

On 25 May 1926, at 14:12, by the Gibert bookstore, Petliura was walking on Rue Racine near Boulevard Saint-Michel of the Latin Quarter in Paris and was approached by Sholom Schwartzbard. Schwartzbard asked him in Ukrainian, "Are you Mr. Petliura?" Petliura did not answer but raised his walking cane. Schwartzbard pulled out a gun, proclaimed "dirty dog, killer of my people, defend yourself!" and shot him five times. Evading a lynch-mob attempting to avenge Petliura, Schwartzbard gave himself into the police with a note reading: "I have killed Petliura to avenge the death of the thousands of pogrom victims in Ukraine who were massacred by Petliura's forces without his taking any steps to prevent these massacres." The Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported on 27 May 1926 that Petliura's "pogrom bands" were responsible for killing tens of thousands of Jews.

Schwartzbard was an anarchist of Jewish descent, born in Ukraine. He participated in the Jewish self-defense of Balta in 1905. The Russian Tsarist government sentenced him to 3 months in prison for "provoking" the Balta pogrom. He was twice convicted of taking part in anarchist "expropriation" (burglary) and bank robbery in Austria-Hungary. He later joined the French Foreign Legion (1914–1917) and was wounded in the Battle of the Somme. It is reported that Schwartzbard told famous fellow anarchist leader Nestor Makhno in Paris that he was terminally ill and expected to die and that he would take Petliura with him; Makhno forbade Schwartzbard to do so.

Schwartzbard's parents were among fifteen members of his family murdered in the pogroms in Odesa. The core defense at the Schwartzbard trial was — as presented by the noted jurist Henri Torres — that he was avenging the deaths of more than 50,000 Jewish victims of the pogroms, whereas the prosecution (both criminal and civil) tried to show that Petliura was not responsible for the pogroms and that Schwartzbard was a Soviet agent. After a trial lasting eight days the jury acquitted Schwartzbard.

According to a defected KGB operative Peter Deriabin, Schwartzbard was a Soviet (NKVD) agent and acted on the order from a former chairman of the Soviet Ukrainian government and current Soviet Ambassador to France, Christian Rakovsky. The special operation of the GPU was consolidated by GPU agent Mikhail Volodin, who arrived in France 8 August 1925, and who had been in close contact with Schwartzbard.

It is claimed that in March 1926, Vlas Chubar (Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of Ukraine), in a speech given in Kharkiv and repeated in Moscow, warned of the danger Petliura represented to Soviet power. It was after this speech that the command had allegedly been given to assassinate Petliura. Petliura was buried alongside his wife and daughter in the Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris.

Petliura's two sisters, Orthodox nuns who had remained in Poltava, were arrested and shot in 1928 by the NKVD (the Soviet secret police).

Ukraine
With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, previously restricted Soviet archives have allowed numerous politicians and historians to review Petliura's role in Ukrainian history. Some consider him a national hero who strove for the independence of Ukraine. Several cities, including Kyiv, the Ukrainian capital, and Poltava, the city of his birth, have erected monuments to Petliura, with a museum complex also being planned in Poltava. Petliura's statue, unveiled in Vinnytsia in October 2017, was denounced as disgraceful and deplorable by the World Jewish Congress. To mark the 80th anniversary of his assassination, a twelve-volume edition of his writings, including articles, letters and historic documents, has been published in Kyiv by Taras Shevchenko University and the State Archive of Ukraine. In 1992 in Poltava, a series of readings known as "Petliurivski chytannia" have become an annual event, and since 1993, they have taken place annually at Kyiv University.

In June 2009, Kyiv City Council renamed Comintern Street (located in Shevchenkivskyi District) as Symon Petliura Street (Kyiv) to commemorate the 130th anniversary of his birth.

In modern-day Ukraine, Petliura has not been as lionized as Mykhailo Hrushevsky (who played a much smaller role in the Ukrainian People's Republic), since Petliura was too closely associated with violence to make a good symbolic figure. In a 2008 poll of "Famous Ukrainians of all times" (in which respondents did not receive any lists or tips), Petliura was not mentioned (Hrushevsky came in sixth place in this poll). In the 2008 TV project Velyki Ukraïntsi ("Greatest Ukrainians"), he placed 26th.

A nephew of Symon Petliura, Stepan Skrypnyk, became Patriarch Mstyslav of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church on 6 June 1990.

In December 2022, the city of Izium – recently liberated from Russian forces – decided to rename Maxim Gorky Street as Symon Petliura Street.

Ukrainian diaspora
For part of the Western Ukrainian diaspora, Petliura is remembered as a national hero, a fighter for Ukrainian independence, a martyr, who inspired hundreds of thousands to fight for an independent Ukrainian state. He has inspired original music, and youth organizations.

Petliura in Ukrainian folk songs
During the revolution Petliura became the subject of numerous folk songs, primarily as a hero calling for his people to unite against foreign oppression. His name became synonymous with the call for freedom. 15 songs were recorded by the ethnographer rev. prof. K. Danylevsky. In the songs Petliura is depicted as a soldier, in a manner similar to Robin Hood, mocking Skoropadsky and the Bolshevik Red Guard.

News of Petliura's assassination in the summer of 1926 was marked by numerous revolts in eastern Ukraine particularly in Boromlia, Zhehailivtsi, (Sumy province), Velyka Rublivka, Myloradov (Poltava province), Hnylsk, Bilsk, Kuzemyn and all along the Vorskla River from Okhtyrka to Poltava, Burynia, Nizhyn (Chernihiv province) and other cities. These revolts were brutally pacified by the Soviet administration. The blind kobzars Pavlo Hashchenko and Ivan Kuchuhura Kucherenko composed a duma (epic poem) in memory of Symon Petliura. To date Petliura is the only modern Ukrainian politician to have a duma created and sung in his memory. This duma became popular among the kobzars of left-bank Ukraine and was sung also by Stepan Pasiuha, Petro Drevchenko, Bohushchenko, and Chumak.

The Soviets also tried their hand at portraying Petliura through the arts in order to discredit the Ukrainian national leader. A number of humorous songs appeared in which Petliura is portrayed as a traveling beggar whose only territory is that which is under his train carriage. A number of plays such as The Republic on Wheels by Yakov Mamontov and the opera Shchors by Boris Liatoshinsky and Arsenal by Heorhiy Maiboroda portray Petliura in a negative light, as a lackey who sold out Western Ukraine to Poland, often using the very same melodies which had become popular during the fight for Ukrainian Independence in 1918.

Petliura continues to be portrayed by the Ukrainian people in its folk songs in a manner similar to Taras Shevchenko and Bohdan Khmelnytsky. He is likened to the sun which suddenly stopped shining.

English

 * Symon Petliura, Yevhen Konovalets, Stepan Bandera - Three Leaders of Ukrainian Liberation Movement murdered by the Order of Moscow (audiobook).
 * Biography of Petliura on website of the Ukrainian government
 * Petliura site in Poltava (Documents, articles and photographs)
 * (Time magazine on the Petlura trial)
 * Turning the pages back...May 25, 1926 (Ukrainian Weekly account of shooting of Petliura)
 * Review of books on Petliura
 * Review of Henry Abramson's A Prayer for the Government: Ukrainians and Jews in Revolutionary Times
 * The Odyssey of the Petliura Library and the Records of the Ukrainian National Republic during World War II

Non-English

 * "Symon Petliura. Facts against myths" by Alik Gomelsky.
 * "Unknown Symon Petliura: history of an interview," Zerkalo Nedeli (Mirror Weekly), July 7–13, 2001. Available online in Russian and in Ukrainian.
 * "A Belated Idealist," Zerkalo Nedeli (Mirror Weekly), May 22–28, 2004. Available online in Russian and in Ukrainian.
 * "Symon Petliura as opponent of Jewish pogroms," Zerkalo Nedeli (Mirror Weekly), 25–31 July 1996. Available online in Russian.
 * Article published in the "Archives of the Ukrainian Security Service" on Petlura and the GPU re his assassination based on recently discovered materials from the vaults of the Ukrainian Security Service in Ukrainian.
 * Symon Petliura in opposition to Jewish Pogroms (in Russian)
 * Petliura web site in Poltava Web site of documents pertaining to Symon Petliura in Ukrainian, Russian and English.

authors: Максим Огородник

title: Symon Petliura


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Shandong University

Shandong University (SDU) is a public university in Jinan, Shandong, China. It is affiliated with the Ministry of Education of China. The university is part of Project 211, Project 985, and the Double First-Class Construction.

The oldest of Shandong University's precursor institutions, Cheeloo University, was founded by American and English mission agencies in the late 19th century (as Tengchow College of Liberal Arts in Penglai). Tengchow College was the first modern institution of higher learning in China. Shandong University derives its official founding date from the Imperial Shandong University established in Jinan in November 1901 as the second modern national university in the country.

Shandong University has eight campuses, all but two of which are located in the provincial capital city of Jinan. The newest of these campuses is located to the northeast of the port city of Qingdao.

Traditional Learning in Shandong (1733-1901)

The Luoyuan Academy was established in Jinan in 1733 by an imperial edict from the Yongzheng Emperor of the Qing Dynasty. The governor of Shandong, Yue Jun, received 1,000 taels of silver (approximately 37 kg) to fund the establishment of the academy. The name "Luoyuan" (literally "source of the Luo [River]") refers to the original location of the academy near the Baotu Spring. The academy was dedicated to teaching the Chinese classics to the sons of the gentry. Scholars affiliated with the academy include: Bi Yuan (畢沅, 1730–1797), Sang Tiaoyuan (桑调元, 1695–1771), Shen Qiyuan (沈起元, 1685–1763), He Shaoji (何紹基, 1799–1873), Kuang Yuan (匡源, 1815–1881), Wang Zhihan (王之翰, 1821–1850), Liu Yaochun (刘耀春), Zhu Xuedu (朱学笃, 1826–1892), and Miao Quansun (缪荃孙, 1844–1919). In 1881, the American Presbyterian missionaries John Murray and Stephen A. Hunter  attempted to purchase a property adjacent to the Luoyuan Academy for use as a chapel. This led to a violent reaction when on July 13, 1881, literati from the academy incited an attack on the property. The incident, known as the "Jinan Jiaoan", had considerable diplomatic repercussions for the relationship between the Qing Dynasty and the United States. The Luoyuan Academy was rebuilt in 1896 to become the largest institution of its kind in Shandong. Five years later (in 1901) it was replaced by the newly founded Imperial Shandong College which took over its campus (today the site of the Provincial Bureau of Statistics on Spring City Road, ).

19th-Century Precursors
The earliest precursor institutions that would later be fused into Shandong University were founded by American and English mission agencies: In early January 1864, Calvin W. Mateer, an American Presbyterian missionary, and his wife Julia Brown Mateer, arrived in the recently opened treaty port of Dengzhou in the area of the present-day city of Penglai on the north-eastern coast of Shandong Peninsula. Their journey had begun in New York on July 3, 1863, had taken them around the Cape of Good Hope to Shanghai, and had ended with a shipwreck off the coast of Yantai. In the autumn of 1864, the Mateers opened an elementary school for boys (Mengyang Educational Society, ) in a Guanyin temple that had been sold to them since there were insufficient funds for its upkeep as a temple. The school's first class consisted of six boarders and two day pupils. The school was enlarged to accommodate 30 boarders and divided into primary and high school sections in 1869. The high school became known as the Wenhui Guan. The Tengchow College of Liberal Arts was formally established in 1882, i.e., at a time when the school had been operated as a primary and high school for 18 years already. By 1889, enrollment in the college had grown to 100 students. The six-year curriculum included algebra, geometry and conic sections, trigonometry and measurement, surveying and navigation, analytical geometry and mathematical physics, calculus, as well as astronomy. Religion also featured prominently in the curriculum as well as in daily life at Tengchow College. The college soon enjoyed a reputation for its high standards of academic excellence. When W.A.P Martin hired young professors of Western learning for the Imperial Capital University (the precursor of present-day Peking University), 12 out of 13 young professors hired were graduates of Tengchow College of Liberal Arts. In 1884, shortly after the formal establishment of Tengchow College of Liberal Arts, British Baptists established Tsingchow Boys' Boarding School in Qingzhou, also located in northern Shandong, but not directly on the coast.

In 1902, the American and British missionaries agreed to combine their education ventures in Shandong, and established an arts college in Weifang, a theological college  in Qingzhou, and a medical college  in Jinan. In 1909, all three colleges were consolidated into Shantung Protestant University which was later renamed Shantung Christian University. "Cheeloo University", the school's informal name that had been officially approved by the school council in 1915, was derived from "Qilu", a nickname of Shandong Province coined after the ancient states of Qi (1046 BC–221 BC) and Lu (10th century BC–256 BC) that once existed in the area. Jinan was chosen as the new location for the consolidated university.

A prominent member of Cheeloo University's faculty was Henry Winters Luce (1868–1941), the father of the publisher Henry R. Luce (founder of TIME, Fortune, and Life). Henry W. Luce initially led the fundraising efforts for the new campus in Jinan (today the Baotuquan Campus of Shandong University). In this capacity, he raised 300,000 dollars between 1912 and 1915 from donors in the United States. The buildings on the new Cheeloo campus were designed by the architectural firm of Perkins, Fellows, & Hamilton from Chicago. Henry W. Luce was elected vice-president of Cheeloo University in 1916, but resigned in the following year already, because he felt that he had insufficient support for his vision of a university of major national influence from the then Cheeloo president J. Percy Bruce. Cheeloo University particularly made its mark in the field of medicine: From 1914 to 1936, the university built and subsequently expanded Cheeloo Hospital as a major facility for medical education in China. Between 1916 and 1923, the former Peking Union Medical College, the Medical Department of Nanking University, the Hankow Medical College, and the North China Union Medical College for Women were all moved to Jinan and merged into the Cheeloo University School of Medicine under Dean and acting university president Samuel Cochran. Cheeloo University attracted Chinese intellectuals and scholars. The writer Lao She, author of the novel "Rickshaw Boy" and the play "Teahouse", taught at Cheeloo University (1930–1934) as well as at National Shandong University in Qingdao and other universities between 1934 and 1937. In 1937, when the Japanese forces occupied northern China during the Second Sino-Japanese War, Cheeloo University evacuated to Sichuan and operated on the campus of West China Union University in Chengdu. In Jinan, the university's hospital remained open with a largely Western staff. During the war, the Japanese military used the entire campus for housing about 1,200 patients along with 600 officers. During the Korean War (1950–1953), the Chinese government came to regard Christian schools as tools of "American imperialism" and hence embarked on closing them down. Cheeloo University was dissolved in 1952. Its Medical School was fused with Shandong Provincial Medical College and the East China Norman Bethune Medical College to form Shandong Medical College (renamed into "Shandong Medical University" in 1985).

Formal Establishment
The initiative for the founding of Shandong University (as Imperial Shandong University, ) in 1901 as a national, modern university came from Yuan Shikai, then the governor of Shandong province. Yuan Shikai was the chief military modernizer of the late Qing Dynasty whose control over a powerful army combined with his personal ambition played a key role in the birth of the Republic of China as well as its descent into warlordism in the early 20th century. Yuan Shikai had been governor of Shandong Province since December 1899. He had been appointed to this post to quell the Boxer Uprising in the province and to reassure the foreign diplomats in the country who were looking for quick decisive actions against the boxers. In 1901, the same year that marked the end of the Boxer Uprising, Yuan sent a draft for the university charter to the Guangxu Emperor and instructed Li Yukai, the magistrate of Penglai, to start preparations for the university. The draft of the university charter was approved by the emperor in November 1901, shortly after the Boxer Uprising had officially ended with the signing of the Boxer Protocol on September 7, 1901. Shandong Imperial University became hence the second modern national university established in the country after Imperial Capital University that had been founded in 1898 and later became Peking University. The charter of Shandong Imperial University served as a model for subsequent foundations of imperial university. The original charter document for Shandong University is now kept in the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan where it had been taken during the retreat of the Kuomintang at the end of the Chinese Civil War.

Governor Yuan Shikai wanted a prominent position for Western learning in the curriculum of the new college. Hence, he invited the American Presbyterian missionary Dr. Watson McMillan Hayes (, 1857–1944) who was then serving as president of Tengchow College in Penglai to help with setting up the new Imperial Shandong University and serve as its president. The appointment of the Presbyterian missionary W. A. P. Martin as inaugural president of the Imperial Capital University three years earlier had set a precedent for this arrangement. Hayes arrived in Jinan in July 1901 and started the preparations for the new college. Hayes also published Shandong's first successful daily newspaper and petitioned the Qing court to grant a holiday on Sundays; As a consequence, Shandong University was closed on Sundays right from the start. However, by the end of the year, Hayes and six Chinese Christian teachers he had brought with him had resigned already over disagreements regarding the policy of mandatory Confucius worship for students of the imperial university. Hayes went on to teach the Presbyterian Mission Theological Class in Chefoo (present-day Yantai) and continued to work as a missionary and educator in Shandong until his death in a Japanese internment camp in Wei County (present-day Weifang) in 1944. Imperial Shandong University occupied the premises of the Luoyuan Academy which had been renovated and extended significantly five years earlier. It was opened on November 13, 1901, in a ceremony attended by Governor Yuan Shikai. 299 student were enrolled in the first term, of which 120 passed the first examination and 100 were finally admitted. The first faculty had 50 members that also included teachers from overseas, it was later increased to 110. The curriculum contained Chinese classics, Chinese history, social sciences, natural sciences, and foreign language with more than 20 subjects being taught. At the beginning, the curriculum covered 3 years, but it was later expanded to 4 years. The first president of the new university was Zhou Xuexi. In 1904, Imperial Shandong University moved to new premises in the Ganshi Qiao area of Jinan (located to the south-west of the historical city center) and changed its name to "Shandong Institution of Higher Learning". In 1911, it changed its name once again, this time to the "School of Higher Learning".

Qingdao Era (1909–36)
The first modern academic institution in the port city of Qingdao, then part of the German Kiautschou Bay colonial concession, was the German-Chinese "Advanced School of Special Sciences of a Special Type" ("Hochschule für Spezialwissenschaften mit besonderem Charakter", ). It was founded on October 25, 1909, about 11 years after the German lease on the territory went into effect. In establishing the university, the German authorities took a much more accommodating approach towards the Chinese government than they had taken in the de facto annexation of the territory. The negotiations over the establishment of the school were led by sinologist Otto Franke. Although the German governor Oskar von Truppel vigorously objected to Chinese influence over the school, Franke's collaboration plan received firm backing from Admiral von Tirpitz as well as the German envoy in Beijing. The university operated under the supervision of the German naval administration, but was recognized and supported financially by the Chinese government. The cumbersome name of the school ("spezial" or "tebie", i.e., "special") was chosen at the insistence of the Chinese government to reflect its special status, below the Imperial College in Beijing but above the other provincial Chinese universities. The local informal name for the university was "Hainan School" in reference to an old name for Qingdao. Studies were organized in a "preparatory level" with a six-year (since 1911, five-year) curriculum for students aged 13 to 15 years and an "upper school". Subjects covered included German, history, geography, mathematics, natural history, zoology, botany, health, physics, chemistry, drawing, music, sports, as well as Chinese language and sciences. Whereas engineering and natural sciences were taught in an entirely "Western mode", the Chinese and European approaches were combined in the teaching of the humanities. Religious subjects had been excluded from the curriculum at the request of the Chinese government. The number of students at the school rose to about 400 in 1914, the school assembled a German and a Chinese library with about 5000 and 8000 volumes respectively. School operations ceased with the beginning of the First World War in 1914 and never resumed.

Qingdao reverted from Japanese to Chinese control in 1922 and Qingdao University was founded as a new private university in August 1924; its first president was Gao Enhong, the governor of the Jiaozhou territory. The former German-Chinese university was not mentioned during the opening ceremony and it was decided not to hire foreign teachers for the time being.

Qingdao University was housed in the former Bismarck barracks that had been constructed for the German troops in 1903, i.e., during the time when Qingdao was part of the German concession in Shandong. The curriculum of Qingdao University was mainly focused on engineering and business administration and a bachelor's degree was to be awarded after four years of study. Luo Ronghuan, later a marshal of the People's Liberation Army, was among Qingdao University's students. Qingdao University fell on hard times after the Zhili clique of warlords that had ruled Shandong since the takeover from the Japanese unexpectedly lost to its rival Fengtian clique in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War of 1924. Gao Enhong was forced to resign as president of the university and funding dried up.

The Fengtian clique installed the warlord Zhang Zongchang as ruler of Shandong. Zhang, an illiterate former bandit who had built a reputation mainly for ruthlessness, brutality, and colorful antics, ordered the fusion of six schools into a provincial Shandong University in Jinan in 1926.

In 1928, the Kuomintang Government in Nanjing regained control of northern China and Shandong through the Northern Expedition. Soon afterwards, preparations commenced for a National University in the province. In August 1928, the government ordered the replacement of the provincial Shandong University with a National University in Shandong. The National University of Qingdao was formally established with an opening ceremony on September 21, 1930. In 1932, it was renamed "National Shandong University". Like Qingdao University, Shandong National University was housed in the buildings of the former Bismarck barracks. The university's chancellor, Yang Zhensheng, followed the model set by Peking University in establishing an "inclusive" , "scientific and democratic" academic environment. During this period, Shandong National University hired distinguished scientists, scholars and literary figures such as Lao She, Wen Yiduo, Shen Congwen, Liang Shiqiu, the nuclear physicist Wang Ganchang (faculty member from 1934 to 1936), and the embryologist Tong Dizhou. Poet Zang Kejia, who later co-edited the "Selected Poems of Chairman Mao" (, 1957), was a student of Wen Yiduo from 1930 to 1934 in Qingdao.

Wartime (1937-49)
In November 1937, a few months after Marco Polo Bridge Incident that had marked the outbreak of a fully-fledged war in July of the same year, National Shandong University was evacuated from Qingdao. The university first moved to Anqing in Anhui Province and soon afterwards to Wanxian in Sichuan Province (today Wanzhou District in Chongqing). Books, equipment, and administrative files were shipped in separate installments and suffered severe loss. Classes resumed in Wanxian in Spring 1938, but were stopped soon after that on orders of the Ministry of Education. Teachers and students were then transferred to the National Central University that had been moved from Nanjing to Chongqing in the previous year. The books and equipment of Shandong University were placed into storage in the National Central Library, the National Central University, and the National Central Vocational School. After the war, in the spring of 1946, the university moved back to Qingdao.

From 1945 until May 1949, part of the Shandong University campus in Qingdao served as the headquarters for the U.S. Sixth Marine Division until it was disbanded on March 31, 1946 and later on for the U.S. Fleet Marine Force, Western Pacific. In 1947, the Su Mingcheng Incident, in which an American seaman had killed a rickshaw puller after an argument, caused protests of the university students.

Before the surrender of Japanese, in 1944, the Central China Bureau of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) decided to establish Huazhong Construction University (华中建设大学) on the basis of the Huazhonga Party School. The school was located in Xinpu, Xuyi County, in the border area of Jiangsu and Anhui. In August 1945, the school moved to Qingjiang City.

In August 1945, the Shandong Anti-Japanese People's Government of the CCP established Shandong University in Linyi, the capital of the communist base; to distinguish it from the National Shandong University, it was called Linyi Shandong University. In early 1946, Peng Kang, the president of Huazhong Construction University, led the teachers and students of the university to merge into Linyi Shandong University.

Shortly after Japanese withdrew from China, CCP and KMT fought the Chinese Civil War. In the summer of 1948, the East China Bureau of the Chinese Communist Party decided to establish East China University in Weifang by combining the former Linyi Shandong University with Huazhong Construction University. After Jinan was taken by the communists, East China University moved to Jinan in November. In the winter of 1950, after KMT and US Navy left Qingdao, it was ordered to move to Qingdao, and in 1951 it merged with Shandong University in Qingdao.

Early Time in PRC (1949–65)
In 1951, East China University was merged into Shandong University. In the same year, the university published the "Journal of Shandong University". Cheeloo University was dissolved in 1952 and its Medical School became part of Shandong Medical College. Prior to the Sino-Soviet split, Soviet faculty members worked at Shandong University. In October 1958, the university moved back to Jinan from Qingdao. The marine sciences remained in Qingdao, where they later formed Shandong Ocean University. In Jinan, Shandong University first occupied the Hongjialou Campus. Construction of the new Central Campus commenced in 1959, during the Great Leap Forward and in the year of a great Yellow River flood. Shandong University was added to the list of National Key University on October 10, 1960.

Cultural Revolution (1966–76)
Starting from early June 1966, schools in Jinan were closed down by strikes as teachers were "struggled against" in the Cultural Revolution. Shandong University was also completely paralyzed by the events. A complete restructuring was imposed on Shandong's university system: according to a resolution passed by the Revolutionary Committee of Shandong Province on July 29, 1970, the liberal arts of Shandong University were moved to Qufu and combined with Qufu Normal College to form a new Shandong University. The biology department was moved to Tai'an and merged into the Shandong Agricultural College. The rest of the sciences was to form the Shandong Science and Technology University. In 1971, the university's admission policy was also changed: in order to open the university to workers and peasants, new students were now nominated "by the masses" and then approved by the political leadership and the university. Until 1976, a total of 3267 students who were admitted under this scheme graduated after completing a 2- or 3-year curriculum. Premier Zhou Enlai learned of Shandong University's reorganization in 1973. Although he was already terminally ill with bladder cancer at the time, he intervened and ordered a return to previous structure of the university. As a consequence, all organizational changes imposed by the Revolutionary Committee of Shandong Province were undone in early 1974.

Recent history (1980–present)
Shandong University Weihai Campus was established in 1984. In 1985, Shandong Medical College was renamed Shandong Medical University. From 1986 to 1996, Shandong University underwent a period of rapid academic expansion. By 1997, is contained 14 colleges, 45 schools and offered 56 undergraduate program, 57 master's degree programs as well as 17 doctoral degree programs. Shandong University merged with Shandong Medical University and the Shandong University of Technology in 2000. With Shandong Medical University the former campus of Cheeloo University became part of Shandong University (as the West Campus, renamed Baotuquan Campus in 2009). The campus of Shandong University of Technology became the South Campus of Shandong University (renamed Qianfoshan Campus in 2009). Construction of the Xinglongshan Campus (then under the name "New South Campus"), a large new campus located in a mountain valley to the south of Jinan dedicated to education of first- and second-year undergraduate students, began in 2003.

In July 2019, the university attracted controversy when it was reported that male foreign students were assigned three generally female Chinese "buddies" to help them with life in China. An application form for the study program even mentioned "making foreign friends of the opposite sex". The university subsequently apologized but dismissed reports of male international students being paired with three female domestic students, saying that the language on the application form was "improper expression" due to "insufficient checks". The incident led to complaints about foreign students receiving too many privileges.

Reputation and ranking
Shandong University was one of the Project 985 universities in China to appear in the world's top 500 universities in the first global university ranking in 2003, according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities. The joint THE-QS World University Rankings 2005 ranked Shandong University =282nd in the world. In the general university ranking performed by the Chinese University Alumni Association (CUAA), Shandong University ranked number 14 among Top 100 Chinese universities in 2010. It reached the 11th highest score in the "teaching" category of this ranking. Shandong University's engineering programs have also been ranked number 15 nationwide by the Research Center of Management and Science in China (2008). For the last 10 years, Shandong University has been continuously ranked among the top 10 universities nationwide in terms of the number of publications included in the Science Citation Index. Research at Shandong University is deemed particular strong in the areas of physics, mathematics, and medicine. A ranking by Mines ParisTech based on the number of alumni holding CEO position in Fortune Global 500 companies placed Shandong University first within China.

The 2023 CWTS Leiden Ranking ranked Shandong University at 19th in the world based on their publications for the time period 2018–2021. In 2021, it ranked 75th among the universities around the world by SCImago Institutions Rankings. Shandong University ranked 34th among the leading universities globally in the Nature Index 2023 Annual Tables by Nature Research, that measure the high-quality research published in 82 high-quality science journals. The Academic Ranking of World Universities, also known as the "Shanghai Ranking", placed the university 101th-150th in the world. Shandong University ranked 191st worldwide and 18th nationwide in the CWUR World University Ranking 2023.

A controversy occurred in 2019 regarding the assignment of study buddies for international students at Shandong University.

Administration

At the top level, Shandong University is governed by a president and a cabinet of vice presidents, each with a specific portfolio of responsibilities (e.g., research, international exchange). Central administrative departments (e.g., for finance, human resources, research, or international affairs) are led by a director. Below the central administration, the university is organized by subject area into 31 faculties that are referred to as "Schools" as well as a graduate school. Each school is headed by a dean and may be divided further into departments headed by a chairperson. Academic programs are offered in 11 main disciplines: philosophy, economics, law, literature, history, natural sciences, engineering, management, medicine, education, and military science. There are 104 undergraduate degree programs, 209 master's degree programs, and 127 doctoral degree programs. In addition, there are seven professional master's degree programs in law, business management, engineering, clinical medicine, public health, dentistry, and public administration.

The student population is around 57,500 full-time students, of which 14,500 are postgraduate students, and over 1,000 are foreign students (data from 2009).

The major research efforts at Shandong University are organized in 34 national, provincial, and ministerial key academic disciplines, two national key research labs, 21 provincial and ministerial key research labs, a national engineering and technology promotion center, 10 provincial technology research centers, three national basic scientific research and personnel development bases; three social science key research bases approved by Ministry of Education; and three national fundamental science personnel development bases. Among its faculty are 23 members (including adjuncts) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Chinese Academy of Engineering. Three general hospitals, including Qilu Hospital, and 12 teaching hospitals are affiliated with the university. The university library houses a collection of over 3,550,000 items.

Schools and departments

 * School of Business Administration
 * School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
 * School of Civil Engineering
 * School of Computer Science and Technology
 * School of Control Science and Engineering
 * School of Dentistry
 * School of Economics
 * School of Electrical Engineering
 * School of Energy and Power Engineering
 * School of Environmental Science and Engineering
 * School of Fine Arts
 * School of Foreign Languages and Literature
 * School of History and Culture
 * School of Information Science and Engineering
 * School of International Education
 * School of Journalism
 * School of Law
 * School of Life Science
 * School of Literature and Journalism
 * School of Macroelectronics
 * School of Marxist Theory Education
 * School of Materials Science and Engineering
 * School of Mathematics and System Sciences
 * School of Mechanical Engineering
 * School of Medicine
 * School of Nursing
 * School of Pharmacy
 * School of Philosophy and Social Development
 * School of Physical Education
 * School of Physics
 * School of Political Science and Public Administration
 * School of Public Health
 * Taishan College (honor school)
 * Nishan College (honor school)
 * General Study Program

Campuses
Shandong University has a total of seven campuses. All but two of them are located in Jinan, the capital city of Shandong Province. Together they cover an area of 3.8 km2. There are two campuses outside Jinan, one is located in Qingdao, and another is in Weihai.

Central Campus
Construction of the Central Campus commenced in 1959, about a year after the university had moved back from Qingdao to Jinan and during a time that coincided with the Great Leap Forward, the Great Chinese Famine, as well as a devastating flood of the Yellow River (in July 1959). The Central Campus houses the central administration (in the Mingde Building, ), the main university library, a large dining hall, as well as student dormitories. The central campus is home to the schools of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Economics, History and Culture, Marxism–Leninism, Life Sciences, Mathematics and System Science, Literature and Journalism and Communication, as well as Information Science and Engineering. One of Shandong University's hotels (, or for short: "Xueren Dasha", ) is also located on the central campus. The roads within the Central Campus are named after concepts from Confucianism.

Hongjialou Campus
The Hongjialou Campus derives its name from the Hongjialou Square and is located immediately to the north and east of the Square and the Sacred Heart Cathedral. The first construction on the campus dates back to 1936 when it was used for the Jinan Yifan Girls' Middle School that was operated by Franciscan sisters  of the Archdiocese of Jinan. In 1948, the Yifan Girls' Middle School was combined with Liming Middle School  and its former campus became part of the Shandong Agricultural Institute that used it until 1958, when the Institute moved to Tai'an. In October 1958, the Hongjialou Campus became Shandong University's first Campus after the university moved back to Jinan from Qingdao. The Hongjialou Campus houses the Schools of Law, Foreign Languages and Literature as well as Fine Arts.

Baotuquan Campus
The Baotuquan Campus is the former campus of Cheeloo University and was established in 1909. The design for the campus was made by Perkins, Fellows and Hamilton, an architectural firm from Chicago renowned for its school buildings in the "Prairie School" style. The American architects attempted to include Chinese architectural features into the design of the buildings on the new Cheeloo University campus in Jinan. They did, however, mistakenly assume that the roof shape was the only distinguishing feature of Chinese architecture. As a result, the buildings feature Chinese-style roofs on buildings that lack the matching support elements such as wooden Dougong brackets that characterize Chinese architecture. Historical buildings on the Baotuquan Campus include the Bergen Science Hall (, formerly for Chemistry and Biology), the Mateer Science Hall (formerly for Physics and Physiology), the  McCormick Hall, and the Alumni Gate (the former main entrance, construction completed on June 17, 1924). Baotuquan Campus houses the schools of public health, nursing, dentistry, pharmacy, and medicine.

Qianfoshan Campus
The Qianfoshan Campus was established in 1949 and served as the campus of Shandong University of Technology. It became a part of Shandong University when Shandong University of Technology was merged into Shandong University in July 2000. The campus has a total area of about 420,000 square meters and remains exclusively dedicated to engineering. It is home to the schools of Materials Science and Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Computer Science and Technology, Control Science and Engineering, Energy and Power Engineering, Physical Education, as well as Civil Engineering. The roads on the Qianfoshan Campus are named after famous engineers and inventors from China as well as abroad.

Xinglongshan Campus
The Xinglongshan Campus is the newest campus of Shandong University and also its largest campus in Jinan with an area of about 769,000 square meters. Construction of the campus started in March 2003 and its first facilities were ready for use in August 2004. The campus is used to house first- and second-year students of nine different departments. The Xinglongshan Campus also houses a Student Associations Activity Center with a total floor space of about 2000 square meters.

Qilu Software College Campus
The Qilu Software College Campus is home to the School of Computer Science and Technology as well as to the university's Software College. Campus construction started in July 2001 and the campus now has a total area of about 267,000 square meters. More than 3,000 students live on the Qilu Software College Campus. The campus is located next to a cluster of commercial software ventures, such as the China International ICT Innovation Cluster (CIIIC) and shares educational resources with these businesses.

Weihai Campus
Shandong University Weihai Campus was established in 1984, its campus covers a total area of about 1 million square meters, making it the largest campus of Shandong University. Shandong University Weihai Campus is organized in 13 departments that include the College of Korean Studies, the Business School, the Law School, the School of Journalism and Communication, the Art Institute, the College of Ocean Science, the School of Information Engineering, the School of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, the Institute of Space Science and Physics, the Mathematics and Statistics Institute, the School of International Education, and the College of Vocational and Technical Training. To the west of the Weihai campus lies the Shandong University Academic Center, a beach-front hotel and conference center.

Qingdao Campus
Construction of the Qingdao Campus started in March 2011 and the first development phase was inaugurated in September 2016. The campus is located north of Xingshi Zhuang Village in Aoshanwei Town  that is part of Jimo City and located to the northeast of Qingdao. The campus site is immediately adjacent to the seashore of Aoshan Bay and the coastal highway. The total planning area covers about two million square meters, 43 percent of which are included in the first construction phase. When completed, the Qingdao Campus will have a capacity of 30,000 students; recruitment of the first class of 5,000 freshman students is planned for the fall of 2013. The construction cost is estimated at 800 million Chinese Yuan (about 124 million US Dollars). The architecture of the new campus is intended to blend Chinese and western elements. Many buildings will incorporate the red roofs and other building style elements of the German colonial architecture in Qingdao. The master plan for the campus was developed by Perkins Eastman (New York). One of the founders of Perkins Eastman, Bradford Perkins is the grandson of Dwight H. Perkins, whose firm (Perkins, Fellows, & Hamilton) designed the Cheeloo University campus in Jinan. The campus will be dedicated to advanced science and engineering research, with a special emphasis on interfacing with high-tech industry and international academic collaboration. It is part of a plan to give Shandong University a presence that is distributed throughout the province in a manner that is comparable to the University of California system, but retains a greater level of central control.

International Cooperation
Shandong University has established an international network for educational cooperation and has signed exchange agreements with over 70 universities from over 50 countries. Shandong also is associated in a sister school for American Middle Schools and Junior Highs, including Scofield Magnet Middle School. Among its faculty are international researchers and scholars, who either visit for a short term (less than 1 month, 160 visitors in 2009), a medium term (less than half a year, 70 visitors in 2009), or for the long term (more than half a year, 80 visitors in 2009). Of the 80 long-term international faculty members, 30 language scholars teach languages such as English, Japanese, Korean, French, German, Spanish, and Russian. The others are active in disciplines such as philosophy, biology, chemistry, physics, law, international politics and economics, as well as Chinese classics and traditional philosophy.

About 1500 international students from about 40 countries come to study at Shandong University each year. An international student population numbering more than 1000 can be found on campus at any given time during the semester. Most of these international students come from Asian and African countries, but there are also students from Europe, the United States, Canada, and Australia. Since 1980, Shandong University has received more than 10,000 students from over 60 countries. Popular study subjects are Chinese language and culture, but also economics and medicine. Furthermore, Shandong University participates in international short term exchange programs and receives approximately 2500 international student visitors for such programs per year.

In 2006, Shandong University created a joint urban research center with the University of Cincinnati in the United States, and a presence on each other's campus. An International Laboratory operated in the a partnership with Virginia Tech was inaugurated in the Integrated Research Building on the Central Campus in August 2010. The laboratory focuses on a biophysics and engineering analysis of biological model systems drawn from China's biodiversity. Shandong University is a partner university of the Study China Programme, which is coordinated by the University of Manchester and funded by the UK Department for Business, Innovation and Skills.

State Key Laboratories

 * State Key Laboratory for Crystal Materials
 * State Laboratory for Microbial Technology

National Engineering Laboratory

 * National Engineering Laboratory for the Reduction of Coal-fired Pollutants Emission

National Research Center

 * National Glycoengineering Research Center

Ministry of Education Key Laboratories

 * Key Laboratory for Colloid and Interface Chemistry
 * Key Laboratory for Liquid Structure and Heredity of Materials
 * Key Laboratory for Experimental Teratology
 * Key Laboratory for Cardiovascular Remodelling and Function Research
 * Key Laboratory for Cryptologic Technology and Information Security
 * Key Laboratory of Power System Intelligent Dispatch and Control

Ministry of Health Key Laboratories

 * Key Laboratory for Otolaryngology

Key Research Base of the Ministry of Education in Humanities and Social Sciences

 * Center for Zhouyi and Ancient Chinese Philosophy
 * Center for Judaic and Inter-Religious Studies
 * Institute for Literary Theory and Aesthetics
 * Institute for Contemporary Socialism

National Research Institutes

 * Institute for Crystal Materials
 * Institute for Microbiology
 * Institute for Infrared and Remote Sensing Technology

Research Centers of Shandong Province

 * Geotechnical and Structural Engineering Research Center
 * Laboratory for Risk Analysis and Random Calculus
 * Institute for Religion, Science, and Social Studies
 * Number Theory at Shandong University
 * High Energy Physics Group
 * Oriental Archaeology Research Center
 * Center for Economic Research
 * Center for Health Management & Policy
 * Center for European Studies
 * Center for Space Thermal Science
 * Center for Japanese Studies
 * Key Laboratory for Otolaryngology
 * Modern Logistics Research Center
 * Institute of ECIWO Biology

Shandong University Qilu Hospital
Qilu Hospital was established as the hospital of Cheeloo University. Construction started in 1914 and was supervised by Harold Balme (1878–1953), a British physician from King's College Hospital in London, who would later serve as the third president of Cheeloo University (from 1921 until 1927). The first building of the new hospital (today known as the "Republican Building") was inaugurated on September 27, 1915, by the military governor of Shandong, Jin Yunpeng. About 20 years later, the hospital moved to a new building (completed in 1936) and the old building was used by Cheeloo University's School of Medicine. Today, the Shandong University Qilu Hospital as a total capacity of 1,800 beds and treats more than 1.9 million outpatient treatments per year. It has departments include cardiology, internal medicine, hematology, gynecology and obstetrics, otolaryngology, general surgery, neurosurgery, and pediatrics. The hospital is located at Wenhua West Road 107 in Jinan.

Second Hospital of Shandong University
The Second Hospital of Shandong University has a capacity of about 2431 beds and has departments for neurosurgery, orthopedic surgery, and internal medicine. The hospital is managed by the National Medical Department and affiliated with Shandong University, it is located at Beiyuan Street 247 in Jinan.

Stomatology Hospital of Shandong University
The Stomatology Hospital of Shandong University was founded in 1977. It has 105 employees and is organized into four research centers and two laboratories. It is located at Wenhua West Road 44 in Jinan.

Motto and Slogan
The official university motto is "Noble in Spirit, Boundless in Knowledge" ; it was adopted in The university also uses the branding slogan "Soul of the mountains, spirit of the sea"  in reference to Shandong's geographical nature as a mountainous peninsula. At the main entrance gate (south gate) to the university's Central Campus, an inscription defines the mission of the university as "Preparing talents for the world; Striving for the prosperity and strength of the country". The official lettering is a reproduction of calligraphy written by Mao Zedong. In March 1964, during the period between the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, Mao wrote the characters in the address of a thank-you note to Gao Heng, a professor at Shandong University who had sent him literature.

Anthem
The official anthem of Shandong University (山东大学校歌) was written by lyricist Cheng Fangwu (成仿吾), modified by a group of people, and composer Zheng Lvcheng (郑律成). The lyrics of the official anthem are:

The song of Shandong University (山东大学之歌) was written by lyricist Qiao Yu (乔羽), who also wrote the lyrics for My Motherland, and composer Gu Jianfen (谷建芬), both natives of Shandong Province. The lyrics of the anthem are:

Logo
The core of the pattern is based on the Chinese characters "山" (meaning Mountain, and also the abbreviation of Shandong) and "大" (meanig University) as the basic design elements, and is transformed using modern deformation techniques, making it easy to identify. The logo is simple and bright, easy to produce and disseminate. The school emblem combines straight and curved lines, and is both rigid and flexible, stable and dynamic. It is upward-developing, full of vitality and vigor, full of modernity and rhythm, and has a strong visual impact and rich imagination.

The entire pattern is symmetrical, stable, and balanced, full of the style of a great university and a famous school. The "山" character at the top of the pattern is a deformation of the Chinese pictographic character "山", which is full of Chinese cultural characteristics. The deformation of the "山" character has an upward trend, implying that Shandong University is constantly developing and striving to create a world-class university. The bottom is a deformation of the "大" character, which looks like a vast ocean, implying that the sea of knowledge is endless. The integration of "山" and "海" easily reminds people of "there is a path to the mountain of books, and diligence is the path; there is no end to the sea of knowledge, and hard work is the boat" (书山有路勤为径, 学海无涯苦作舟), which shows the spirit of Shandong University teachers and students who are diligent in seeking knowledge and bravely climbing the peak of science. At the same time, it emphasizes the university culture of "soul of the mountains, spirit of the sea" (山之魂, 海之韵).

List of university presidents

 * Tang Shaoyi, 1901
 * Zhou Xuexi, 1901, later became 2-term Finance Minister of the Republic of China
 * Wang Shoupeng, (acting) president of Shandong University in Jinan, 1926–1927
 * Yang Zhensheng, president of National Shandong University in Qingdao, 1930–1932
 * Zhao Taimou, president of National Shandong University in Qingdao, 1932–1936 and 1946–1949
 * Lin Jiqing, (acting) president of National Shandong University in Qingdao, 1936–1946
 * Hua Gang, president of Shandong University (Qingdao), 1951–1955
 * Chao Zhefu, president of Shandong University (Qingdao), 1956–1958
 * Cheng Fangwu, president of Shandong University (Jinan), 1958–1974
 * Wu Fuheng, 1979–1984
 * Deng Conghao, 1984–1986
 * Pan Chengdong, 1986–1997
 * Zeng Fanren, 1998–2000
 * Zhan Tao, 2000–2008
 * Xu Xianming, 2008–2013
 * Zhang Rong, 2013–2017
 * Fan Liming, 2017–2022
 * Li Shucai, 2022-present

Notable faculty and alumni

 * Lao She (1899–1966), writer, author of the novel "Rickshaw Boy" and the play "Teahouse"
 * Feng Yuanjun (1900–1974), writer and scholar of Chinese classical literature and literary history
 * Gao Heng (1900–1986), pioneer in the modern interpretation of the I Ching, corresponded with Mao Zedong
 * Ji Xianlin (1911–2009), linguist, paleographer, historian, writer
 * Jīn Xuěfēi (1956-, pen name Ha Jin), writer, publishes in English, winner of the American National Book Award (1999)
 * James Veneris (1922-2004), American soldier in the Korean War who defected, English professor
 * Li Congjun (1949– ), president of Xinhua News Agency (since 2008)
 * Liang Shiqiu (1903–1987), writer and translator, translated the complete works of Shakespeare and George Orwell's Animal Farm into Chinese
 * Lydia H. Liu, comparative literature scholar, Columbia University, 1997 Guggenheim Fellow
 * Lu Kanru (1903–1978), scholar of classical Chinese literature
 * Luo Ronghuan (1902–1963), Marshall of the People's Liberation Army, served as security chief during the Long March
 * Ma Ruifang (1949– ), author and scholar, studied works of Pu Songling
 * Mo Yan (1955– ), novelist and author of short stories, winner of Nobel Prize in Literature 2012
 * Peng Shige (1947– ), mathematician contributed to stochastic analysis and mathematical finance
 * Shen Congwen (1902–1988), writer combining vernacular and classical Chinese writing techniques
 * Tong Dizhou (1902–1979), embryologist and vice president of the Chinese Academy of Science
 * Wang Ganchang (1907–1998), nuclear physicist (student of Lise Meitner) and one of the principal contributors to the Chinese nuclear deterrent
 * Wang Pu (1902–1969), nuclear physicist (also a student of Lise Meitner) and founder of Shandong University's School of Physics
 * Wang Tongzhao (王统照, 1897–1957), novelist and poet, author of the novel "Mountain Rain" and head of Shandong University's Chinese Department
 * Wang Xiaoyun (1966– ), mathematician, demonstrated collision attacks against commonly used hash functions
 * Wen Yiduo (1899–1946), poet and scholar, author of poetry influenced by Western models, wrote poetry collections Hongzhu (紅燭, "Red Candle") and Sishui (死水, "Dead Water")
 * Wu Aiying (1951– ), Minister of Justice of China (since 2005)
 * Xiang Huaicheng (1939– ), economist and former Minister of Finance of China
 * Zang Kejia (1905–2004), poet, chief editor of Poetry magazine, co-edited the "Selected Poems of Chairman Mao"
 * Zhang Dongju
 * Zhao Xiao (1967– ), economist, argued that China's economy would benefit from the spread of Christianity
 * Zhou Ming-Zhen (1918–1996), paleontologist, worked on early tertiary mammals

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Shandong University


text:
Talk:From Time Immemorial

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Pipes, two years later
The cited item begins with his explanation for the two time periods. That might be of interest to readers of this article. Even more of interest is to flesh out the LETTER quote with the sentence that follows it. Pi314m (talk) 18:15, 17 March 2021 (UTC)

 * Details to Finkelstein's views seem to crowd the lead; part of it I'm moving to where it hopefully fits better. Pi314m (talk) 19:03, 17 March 2021 (UTC)

Lack of clarity in third paragraph?
The text says the book was criticized "including by historians that were politically conservative or supportive of Israel". Does this include historians who lean "conservative" on the conflict? If not (and it only means overall conservative or supportive of Israel's existence in some fashion), the phrasing is potentially misleading. If it does, it could stand to have some examples, as the two given are Ian Gilmour (arguably conservative, but from his page it seems he's more pro-Palestinian than pro-Israel) and Yehoshua Porath (who has shifted on the political spectrum over the years, but at the time of the statement was apparently fairly far to the left of Israeli politics). 2604:2000:DFC0:15:F1DF:64AA:76A7:E5D9 (talk) 04:22, 8 June 2021 (UTC)

Norman Finkelstein not a "reputable scholar", Noam Chomsky, Edward Said all have deep hatred for Zionism and Israel
Norman Finkelstein, Noam Chomsky, Edward Said all have two things in common, a history of lying about Israel and a deep hatred for Israel & Zionism. Finklestein is not a "reputable scholar" either. His articles frequently appear on white supremacist websites like "Veterans Today" and he was deported from Israel as well as banned for 10 years. Having those three listed as "reputable scholars" regarding the history of Israel is a joke. Chomsky was a close friend of Finklestein, also a linguist, not a scholar of Middle East history.

"To summarize the background of Finkelstein's work, he is considered to be a Holocaust revisionist who overemphasizes poorly-conceived Israeli policies while dismissing Arab repression of Jews in the Middle East. He glosses over the fact that Israel allows political participation of Muslims in voting and government, while many Arab Muslim governments reject any notion of allowing Jews to partake in the states' political processes." "In essence, sponsoring scholars who distort history and contemporary political affairs is not an issue of academic freedom but an issue of academic integrity."

https://www.meforum.org/campus-watch/10948/unethical-sponsorship-on-sponsorship-of-norman

https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/arts-letters/articles/qa-norman-finkelstein 136.26.178.95 (talk) 19:03, 10 August 2023 (UTC)

 * Eh, no, you'll have to find better sources and a more moderate view. This is POV. Andre🚐 19:20, 10 August 2023 (UTC)

Did Joan Peters wrote the book?
"Noam Chomsky has publicly declared his skepticism that Joan Peters even wrote the book, speculating that it might have been authored by some intelligence agency. That may be true, but I would have guessed that any “intelligence” agency would have written a better book." here 91.54.31.187 (talk) 02:24, 17 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:From Time Immemorial


text:
Portobello Road

 is a street in the Notting Hill district of the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea in West London. It runs almost the length of Notting Hill from South to North, roughly parallel with Ladbroke Grove. On Saturdays it is home to Portobello Road Market, one of London's notable street markets, known for its second-hand clothes, pastries and antiques. Every August since 1996, the Portobello Film Festival has been held in locations around Portobello Road and, in 2015, Portobello Radio was founded as the area's community radio station.

Origins
Portobello Road was known prior to 1740 as Green's Lane – a winding country path leading from Kensington Gravel Pits, in what is now Notting Hill Gate, up to Kensal Green in the north. It descends from 84 feet (25.6 m) above sea level at the northern end, the highest point, to a lowest point of 65 feet (19.8 m) after which the road rises and falls before reaching a high point of 78 feet (23.8 m) at the southern end. The average grade of ascent or descent between the northern end and the lowest point is about 1.77 percent.

18th century
In 1740, Portobello Farm was built in the area near what is now Golborne Road. The farm got its name from the 1739 Battle of Porto Bello during the lost War of Jenkins' Ear, when Admiral Edward Vernon captured the Spanish-ruled town of Puerto Bello (now known as Portobelo in modern-day Panama). Vernon Yard, which runs off Portobello Road, still honours the Admiral's name to this day. The Portobello farming area covered the land which is now St Charles' Hospital.

Urbanisation
Portobello Road became an urban highway in the Victorian era. Before about 1850, it was little more than a country lane connecting Portobello Farm with Kensal Green in the north and what is today Notting Hill in the south. Much of it consisted of hayfields, orchards and other open land. The road ultimately took form piecemeal in the second half of the 19th century, nestling between the large new residential developments of Paddington and Notting Hill. Its shops and markets thrived on serving the wealthy inhabitants of the elegant crescents and terraces that sprang up around it, and its working-class residents found employment in the immediate vicinity as construction workers, domestic servants, coachmen, messengers, tradesmen and costermongers. After the Hammersmith and City Railway line was completed in 1864, and Ladbroke Grove station opened, the northern end of Portobello Road was also developed, and the last of the open fields disappeared under brick and concrete.

Portobello Farm was sold to an order of nuns after the railways came in 1864. They built St Joseph's Convent for the Dominican Order - or the "Black Friars" as they were known in England.

A range of communities inhabit Portobello. Its architecture is characterised by meandering roads and curving streets, in contrast to the more formally planned layout of most of the nearby area. Mid- to late-Victorian terrace houses and shops predominate, squeezed tightly into the available space. The Friends of Portobello campaign seeks to preserve the street's unique dynamic, and campaigns against branded chain stores. Portobello Road is also home to the Grade II* Electric Cinema, one of Britain's oldest cinemas.

Portobello Road Market

Portobello Road Market draws thousands of tourists each year. The main market day for antiques is Saturday, the only day when all five sections are opened: second-hand goods, clothing and fashion, household essentials, fruit, vegetables and other food, and antiques. However, there are also clothing, antique, bric-a-brac, fruit and vegetable stalls throughout the week and are located further north than the antiques, near the Westway Flyover. Shops and cafes are opened daily.

The market began as many other London markets and mainly sold fresh-food in the 19th century; antiques and wares dealers arrived in the late 1940s and '50s, and gradually antiques have become the main attraction of this market, having a substantial number of them trading mainly on Saturday mornings. It is the largest antiques market in the UK.

The market section of Portobello Road runs in a direction generally between the north-northwest and the south-south-east. The northern terminus is at Golborne Road; the southern end is at Westbourne Grove, to the east. The market area is about 1,028 yards (940 m) long.

About one third of the way from its north end, the market runs beneath adjacent bridges of the A40 road and the Hammersmith & City line of the London Underground. Here the market focuses on second hand clothes as well as couture.

Films
The market was the setting for the 1999 film Notting Hill, with much of the filming taking place on the street. The famed blue door, however, no longer exists, having been sold.

The 1950 Ealing Studios police thriller The Blue Lamp, starring Dirk Bogarde and Jack Warner, as P.C. George Dixon, a character later revived in the long-running TV drama, Dixon of Dock Green, featured location filming in the Paddington/Notting Hill/Portobello area. It features good shots of these locations in pre-Westway days, and it includes a thrilling car chase along largely traffic-free roads, including Portobello Road.

The market was featured in the 1971 musical film Bedknobs and Broomsticks in a scene involving a song ("Portobello Road") and dance in and around the market staged on sets built at Disney's Burbank Studios. The lyrics refer to the market and the people who live and work there.

In 2006, the 20-minute documentary Portobello: Attack of the Clones won London awards and was screened a number of times at the infamous Electric Cinema. The film showed how Portobello Road is threatened by high-street stores changing the street's independent spirit. It featured a large number of local stallholders and influencers, and it was made by local filmmakers Paul McCrudden and Alex Thomas for TAG Films.

Alice's Antiques shop at the southern end of Portobello Road is also famous as being the location of Gruber's Antiques in the Paddington Bear movies.

Theatre
The 1959 British musical Make Me an Offer, with book by Wolf Mankowitz based on his novel of the same title, and music and lyrics by David Heneker and Monty Norman, takes place on Portobello Road, and includes the song "Portobello Road", sung by the ensemble. Another song, "I Want a Lock-up", also refers to Portobello Road. The musical is available for licensing through Samuel French, Inc.

Literature
The Portobello Road features prominently in Martin Amis's 1989 satirical novel London Fields.

In the short story "The Portobello Road", Muriel Spark narrates the story of a murderer who, visited by the ghost of his victim, Macbeth-style, tends to constantly go to the Portobello Road market to meet her. "The Portobello Road" was included in the 1958 collection The Go-away Bird and Other Stories.

The cult British children's book character Paddington Bear, featured in the books written by Michael Bond, enjoys visiting Portobello Market on a daily basis. His friend Mr. Gruber, with whom Paddington has his elevenses every day, owns an antique shop on the Portobello Road.

In Cathy Hopkins' Mates, Dates and Portobello Princess, the fourth book of her young adult Mates, Dates series, Nesta Williams who is from a middle-class North London family struggles to fit in as she starts dating rich Simon Peddington-Lee.

In 2008, Ruth Rendell published a novel set in the area, entitled Portobello.

It is the setting for Paulo Coelho's 2007 novel, The Witch of Portobello.

In the 1970 novel The Chinese Agent by Michael Moorcock, a world-renowned jewel-thief more than meets his match when he attempts to swipe a brooch from a Portobello Road market stall, and is hunted down through the streets like a dog by the sharp-eyed market traders.

Portobello Road is also mentioned in Indian Urdu writer Shamsur Rahman Faruqi's 2006 novel The Mirror of Beauty.

In the short story "Different Skies" by China Miéville, the protagonist buys an eerie coloured window pane in Portobello Road Market. This story is included in the 2005 collection Looking for Jake.

Music
In 1979, the rock band Dire Straits sang about the road in the song "Portobello Belle" on their second album Communiqué.

In the narrative introduction to their song Have Some Madeira M'Dear, Michael Flanders of Flanders & Swann mentions a decanter he owns – "cut glass, from the Portobello Road" – in which he keeps Madeira. That decanter plus his Edwardian hat, are credited as the inspirations for the song (album: At the Drop of a Hat).

Donovan's song "Sunny South Kensington" containing the lyrics: "...in the Portobella I met a fella with a cane umbrella."

The B-side of British Singer-Songwriter Cat Stevens' 1966 single "I Love My Dog" is titled "Portobello Road" and discusses a walk through the famous street and market. The track also appears on Cat Stevens' 1967 debut album Matthew and Son.

It is also referenced in the song "Blue Jeans" by alternative rock band Blur, from the 1993 album Modern Life Is Rubbish, in which the opening lyrics are: "Air cushioned soles, I bought them on the Portobello Road on a Saturday."

In Caetano Veloso's "Nine Out Of Ten" song from the 1972 album Transa, he sings "walk down Portobello Road to the sound of reggae". The Brazilian artist lived in London in the late 1960s and early 1970s during his exile.

TV
Steptoe and Son, a UK TV sitcom about Rag and Bone men, frequently refers to the road.

In the Only Fools and Horses episode "Cash and Curry", conmen use a statue of Kubera they bought from Portobello Road to deceive Del Boy and Rodney Trotter. The episode's writer, John Sullivan, had the idea after visiting the street.

The street and its name also appeared regularly on the hit TV series Minder.

BBC One's daytime antiques-based gameshow Bargain Hunt regularly features contestants buying items at the market to sell later at auction.

The 1977 to 1983 Italian television broadcast RAI was named Portobello after Portobello Road.

title: Portobello Road


text:
Straddling checkerboard

A straddling checkerboard is a device for converting an alphanumeric plaintext into digits whilst simultaneously achieving fractionation (a simple form of information diffusion) and data compression relative to other schemes using digits. It also is known as a monôme-binôme cipher.

History
In 1555, Pope Paul IV created the office of Cipher Secretary to the Pontiff. In the late 1580s, this position was held by members of the Argenti family, most notably Giovanni Batista and his nephew, Matteo. Matteo was the first to intentionally obscure borders between one-digit and two-digit codes, designing the first variable length cipher, although this was still a substitution cipher:

With that cipher, La vigilanza di papa Clemente fu grande in ogni genere de negotii was enciphered as 550365178370360088658074864865534032402000824315833060080257009830075583200230258020028390875.

The following table rearranges the same key so that the column number corresponds to the second digit and while the row correspond to the first digit or lack thereof:

Comparing this table with a lower one, it is evident that it is not the modern straddling checkerboard, and letters encoded with one digit are not the most frequent letters of Latin (T is much more frequent than O ), but the idea exploited in the latter ciphers is present.

In its modern form described below the cipher's first documented use was in 1937 by Swedish communist Per Meurling during the Spanish Civil War. It was later used as the basis for the message-to-digits step in the VIC cipher.

Setup
A straddling checkerboard is set up something like this:

The header row is populated with the ten digits, 0-9. They can be presented in order, as in the above table, or scrambled (based on a secret key value) for additional security. The second row is typically set up with eight high-frequency letters (mnemonics for the English language include; 'ESTONIA-R', 'A SIN TO ER(R)', 'AT ONE SIR', 'AERO TINS'), leaving two blank spots; this row has no row coordinate in the first column. The remaining two rows are labeled with one of the two digits that were not assigned a letter in the second row, and then filled out with the rest of the alphabet, plus the two symbols '.' and '/'.
 * The period '.' is used as a full stop or decimal separator,
 * The slash '/' is used as a numeric escape character (indicating that a numeral follows).

Similar to the ordering of the digits in the header row, the alphabet characters can be presented in order (as it is here), or scrambled based on a secret keyword/phrase.

Enciphering
Letter-Encipherment: To encipher a letter in the second row is simply replaced by the number labeling its column. Characters in the third and fourth rows are replaced by a two-digit number representing their row and column numbers (with the row coordinate written first, i.e. B=20)

Digit-Encipherment: To encipher a digit, there are a few possible methods (which must be known/agreed beforehand):
 * Single Digit Escape: Encode the numerical escape character (i.e. the slash '/') as per any letter, then write the required digit 'in-clear'. This means a digit is encrypted by 3 ciphertext characters; 2 for the escape character, 1 for the digit itself. In this scheme, each digit requires an escape character encoded before it.
 * Double-Digit Scheme: If the escape character is encoded by two different digits (e.g. '26' in the example above), then multiple digits can be encoded by writing each out twice. To 'escape' back to text the escape character is used. In this way a stream of digits can be encoded with only one escape character. This method cannot be used if the escape character is itself encoded by a double digit combination.
 * Triple-Digit Scheme: As per the double-digit scheme above, but triple digits are used. This was the mechanism used in the VIC cipher.'

Example
The table below shows the conversion of string "ATTACK AT DAWN" into numbers using the straddling checkerboard setup above. The resulting message, 3113212731223655 has to be secured by other means if the straddling checkerboard table is not scrambled. By passing digits through an additional transposition or substitution cipher stage can be used to secure message -- to whatever extent transposition or substitution can be considered secure.

For example, securing the message above using as a secret key digits "0452" -- digits of the secret key are repeated to get at least as many digits as there are digits in the message -- and adding modulo 10 for transposition produces: The message can also be ciphered with a substitution cipher using the same straddling checkerboard to convert the digits back to letters again:

Deciphering is simply the reverse of these processes. Although the size of groups can vary, deciphering is unambiguous because whenever the next element to be deciphered starts with a 2 or a 6, it is a pair; otherwise, it is a singleton. If the letter decoded is the numerical escape character '/' then the next 1+ digits (depending on scheme) are to be interpreted as a digit.

Cryptographic properties
Compression: The more common characters are encoded by only one character, instead of two; this reduces the ciphertext size and potentially the cipher's proneness to a frequency attack.

Fractionation: Unlike in the Polybius Square (where every character is represented by a pair of digits), a straddling checkerboard will not encrypt each character with the same number of ciphertext digits. This makes it harder for a cryptanalysts to determine the boundaries between plaintext characters. This may be combined with a transposition (as it is in the VIC cipher) in order to locate the ciphertext letters of the same plaintext character at unknown locations in the ciphertext.

title: Straddling checkerboard


text:
Talk:AC Cars

This external link has gone bad The official site is http://acautomotive.info
 * http://www.accars.co.uk

There is an error in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_Cars The Cobras mentioned were not AC cars. The Shelby Cobra used an AC Body and chassis and Ford engine and running gear. The car was produced and sold by the company Shelby-American.

Cobras sold in Britain and overseas (apart from the US) were built at Thames Ditton in complete form and sold under the 'AC' brand. Those built for Shelby were built by AC at Thames Ditton, minus engines. These were installed by Shelby in the US.92.8.118.22 (talk) 18:57, 30 August 2011 (UTC)

That sounds right to me, except that it was not exactly the same suspension. Apparently the upper and lower leaf springs were replaced by upper and lower A arms, with similar geometry, that could take the ridiculously high torque. The name Cobra clearly belonged to Shelby, because the Mustang Cobras were called Cobras and the Ford V8 ACs were not called Cobras. Engineering wise, there there had already been a V8 conversion of an AC, so Shelby's success was more in the business areas. David R. Ingham 03:33, 18 March 2006 (UTC)

Actually you are confusing the small block mk1 and 2 which had leaf spring suspension a A arms and the 427 mk3 with coil springs. The small block cars are identical to the last AC powered car with the 6 cylinder Ford Zephyr motor with the exception of the engine and transmition of course.

REMINISCENCES

I used to buy parts, circa 1969-1975, from a Mr. Taylor, parts manager at AC Cars in Thames Ditton, for my 1962 Aceca. He was marvelously polite and concise. I had the pleasure of meeting him in Thames Ditton in summer 1973. He was quite tall and well-along in years. He gave me a tour of the service room and then took me to the "Ledger". "Which car is yours," he asked. And to my surprise he opened up the ledger to the transaction. "Ah, yes," he remarked. "White, with the left-side steering. I remember this sale to Dr. Frost." ~ jlancaster

Mystery AC image

I've found a picture I took of an AC outside Earls Court at the London Motor show in (probably) 1973. It looks Italian bodied so presumably was a Frua bodied AC. It was parked in a privileged position at the motor show so was probably a new model at the time. I think the image might slot in quite comfortably along with the others we have here. IF anyone agrees that the image would sit well on the AC page AND knows what the thing was called.....  And thank you. Charles01 12:40, 17 October 2007 (UTC)

 * It's one of the 428s.Proscriptus (talk) 19:33, 28 October 2011 (UTC)

 * Thank you.  Regards   Charles01 (talk) 13:22, 29 October 2011 (UTC)

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AC Ace Bristol Zagato
Someone needs to look at this section. It's near indecipherable.Longinus876 (talk) 13:00, 26 September 2017 (UTC)

Unwanted sub-titles
Dear fellow wikipedians, I just want to let you know that I removed much subtitles, because I thought they were too confusing about the topic, and I have moved the content about the four trains and the railbuses to a new section after the model boards. (I had removed the big sections a little older as an IP user.) There is a chance that now much blank space is there, so there's maybe a need of someone to clean this up. And if I'm wrong, feel free to revert my edit. Best regards, Enivak (talk) 19:10, 25 June 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:AC Cars