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Harvard Kennedy School

Harvard Kennedy School (HKS), officially the John F. Kennedy School of Government, is the school of public policy and government of Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The school offers master's degrees in public policy, public administration, and international development, four doctoral degrees, and various executive education programs. It conducts research in subjects relating to politics, government, international affairs, and economics. HKS had an endowment of $1.7 billion. It is a member of the Association of Professional Schools of International Affairs (APSIA), a global consortium of schools that trains leaders in international affairs.

The primary campus of Harvard Kennedy School is on John F. Kennedy Street in Cambridge. The main buildings overlook the Charles River and are southwest of Harvard Yard and Harvard Square, on the site of a former MBTA Red Line trainyard. The School is adjacent to the public riverfront John F. Kennedy Memorial Park.

Harvard Kennedy School alumni include 21 heads of state or government from around the world. Alumni also include cabinet officials, military leaders, heads of central banks, and legislators.

Founding
Harvard Kennedy School was founded as the Harvard Graduate School of Public Administration in 1936 with a $2 million gift (equivalent to roughly $43 million as of 2023) from Lucius Littauer, an 1878 Harvard College alumnus, businessman, former U.S. Congressman, and the first coach of the Harvard Crimson football team.

Harvard Kennedy School's shield was designed to express the national purpose of the school and was modeled after the U.S. shield. The School drew its initial faculty from Harvard's existing government and economics departments, and welcomed its first students in 1937.

The School's original home was in the Littauer Center, north of Harvard Yard, which is now home to Harvard University's Economics Department. The first students at the Graduate School were called Littauer Fellows, participating in a one-year course listing which later developed into the school's mid-career Master in Public Administration program. In the 1960s, the School began to develop its current public policy degree and course curriculum associated with its Master in Public Policy program.

Renaming and move
In 1966, three years following the assassination of U.S. President and 1940 Harvard College alumnus John F. Kennedy, the school was renamed in his honor.

In 1966, concurrent with the school's renaming, the Harvard Institute of Politics was created with Neustadt as its founding director. Harvard Institute of Politics has been housed on the school campus since 1978, and today sponsors and hosts a series of programs, speeches and study groups for Harvard undergraduates and graduate students. Along with major Harvard Kennedy School events, the Institute of Politics holds the John F. Kennedy Jr. Forum, named in honor of John F. Kennedy Jr., in Harvard Kennedy School's Littauer Building.

By 1978, the faculty, including presidential scholar and adviser Richard Neustadt, a foreign policy scholar and later dean of the School, Graham Allison, Richard Zeckhauser, and others consolidated the school's programs and research centers at the present Harvard Kennedy School campus. The first new building opened on the southern half of the former Eliot Shops site in October 1978. Under the terms of Littauer's original grant, the current campus also features a building called Littauer.

Rebranding and campus expansion
In late 2007, the Kennedy School of Government announced that while its official name was not being altered, it was rebranding itself as Harvard Kennedy School effective Fall 2008. The goal was to make clearer the school's connection with Harvard. It was also thought that the new branding would reduce confusion with other entities named after Kennedy, including the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C. and the Kennedy Library in Boston. The rebranding had the support of John F. Kennedy's brother, U.S. Senator Edward M. Kennedy, and Caroline Kennedy, the former president's daughter.

In 2012, Harvard Kennedy School announced a $500 million fundraising campaign, $120 million of which was to be used to significantly expand the Harvard Kennedy School campus, adding 91,000 square feet of space including six new classrooms, a new kitchen, and dining facility, offices and meeting spaces, a new student lounge and study space, more collaboration and active learning spaces, and a redesigned central courtyard. Groundbreaking commenced on May 7, 2015, and the project was completed in late 2017. The new Harvard Kennedy School campus opened in December 2017.

From 2004 to 2015, Harvard Kennedy School's dean was David T. Ellwood, a U.S. Department of Health and Human Services official in the Clinton administration.

In 2015, Douglas Elmendorf, a former director of the U.S. Congressional Budget Office, was named both dean of the Harvard Kennedy School and the school's Don K. Price Professor of Public Policy. Elmendorf announced in September 2023 that he would step down as dean at the end of the academic year 2023/2024.

Degrees
Harvard Kennedy School offers four master's degree programs. The two-year Master in Public Policy (MPP) program focuses on policy analysis, economics, management, ethics, statistics and negotiations in the public sector. There are three separate Master in Public Administration (MPA) programs: a one-year Mid-Career Program (MC/MPA) intended for professionals who are more than seven years removed from their college graduation; a two-year MPA program intended for professionals who have an additional graduate degree and are more recently out of school; and a two-year international development track (MPA/ID) focused on development studies with a strong emphasis on economics and quantitative analysis.

Members of the mid-career MPA class also include Mason Fellows, who are public and private executives from developing countries. Mason Fellows typically constitute about 50 percent of the incoming class of Mid-Career MPA candidates. The Mason cohort is the most diverse at Harvard in terms of nationalities and ethnicities represented. It is named after Edward Sagendorph Mason, the former Harvard professor who, from 1947 to 1958, was dean of Harvard's Graduate School of Public Administration, now known as Harvard Kennedy School.

In addition to the master's programs, Harvard Kennedy School administers three doctoral programs. Ph.D. degrees are awarded in public policy, in social policy in conjunction with Harvard's departments of government and sociology, and in health policy in conjunction with FAS and the Harvard School of Public Health.

Joint and concurrent degrees
Harvard Kennedy School has a number of joint and concurrent degree programs within Harvard and with other leading universities, which allow students to receive multiple degrees in a reduced period of time. Joint and current students spend at least one year in residence in Cambridge taking courses. Harvard Kennedy School joint degree programs are run with Harvard Business School, Harvard Law School, and Harvard Graduate School of Design, and concurrent programs are offered with Harvard Divinity School and Harvard Medical School.

Beyond Harvard, HKS has concurrent degree arrangements with other law, business, and medical schools, including the Stanford Graduate School of Business, the MIT Sloan School of Management, the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College, The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, Columbia Law School, Duke University School of Law, Georgetown University Law Center, New York University School of Law, Northwestern University School of Law, Stanford Law School, University of California, Berkeley School of Law, University of Michigan Law School, University of Pennsylvania Law School, Yale Law School, and UCSF School of Medicine.

Abroad, Harvard Kennedy School offers a dual degree with the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva.

HKS courses
Harvard Kennedy School maintains six academic divisions each headed by a faculty chair. In addition to offerings in the Harvard Kennedy School course listing, students are eligible to cross-register for courses at the other graduate and professional schools at Harvard and at the MIT Sloan School of Management, The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University, and the MIT School of Architecture and Planning. MPP coursework is focused on one of five areas, called a Policy Area of Concentration (PAC), and includes a year-long research seminar in their second year, which includes a master's thesis called a Policy Analysis Exercise.

Rankings
Harvard Kennedy School has routinely ranked as the best, or among the best, of the world's public policy graduate schools. U.S. News & World Report ranks it the best graduate school for social policy, the best for health policy, and second best for public policy analysis. In 2015 rankings, Kennedy School is ranked first in the subcategory of health policy and second in the category of public policy analysis and social policy.

Kennedy's School's foreign affairs programs have consistently ranked at the top or near the top of Foreign Policy magazine's Inside the Ivory Tower survey, which lists the world's top twenty academic international relations programs at the undergraduate, Master's, and Ph.D. levels. In 2012, for example, the survey ranked Kennedy School first overall for doctoral and undergraduate programs and third overall in the Master's category.

Student organizations
Harvard Kennedy School maintains a range of student activities, including interest-driven student caucuses, the student government (Kennedy School Student Government, known as KSSG), student-edited policy journals including Harvard Journal of Hispanic Policy, Kennedy School Review, the Journal of Middle Eastern Politics and Policy, a student newspaper (The Citizen), and a number of student athletic groups.

Students can join the Harvard Graduate Council, which is the centralized student government for the twelve graduate and professional schools of Harvard University. The Harvard Graduate Council is responsible for advocating student concerns to central administrators, including the president of Harvard University, provost, deans of students, and deans for the nearly 15,000 graduate and professional students across the twelve schools, organizing large university-wide initiatives and events, administering and providing funding for university-wide student groups, and representing the Harvard graduate student population to other universities and external organizations. Harvard Graduate Council is known for spearheading the "One Harvard" movement, which aims to bring all of Harvard's graduate schools together through closer collaboration and social interaction.

Centers
Harvard Kennedy School is home to 14 centers, including:
 * Ash Center for Democratic Governance and Innovation
 * Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs
 * Carr Center for Human Rights Policy
 * Center for International Development
 * Center for Public Leadership
 * Edmond & Lily Safra Center for Ethics
 * Institute of Politics
 * Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy
 * Mossavar Rahmani Center for Business and Government
 * Rappaport Institute for Greater Boston
 * Taubman Center for State and Local Government
 * Malcolm Wiener Center for Social Policy
 * Joint Center for Housing Studies
 * Women and Public Policy Program

The majority of centers offer research and academic fellowships through which fellows can engage in research projects, lead study groups into specific topics and share their experiences with industry and government with the student body.

Controversies
Under Dean Elmendorf, the school has tried to focus its engagement across the political spectrum, which has caused controversy at times. The school came under criticism for offering a fellowship to Chelsea Manning on September 13, 2017. It then publicly rescinded the offer on September 15, 2017, after CIA director Mike Pompeo canceled a speaking engagement at Harvard and sent a letter condemning the university for awarding the fellowship.

A 2021 investigative report by student group Fossil Fuel Divest Harvard found that many of the centers' climate initiatives were funded in part by fossil fuel companies, and that some of the centers had allegedly taken several steps to cover up that fact.

The Kennedy School's Carr Center for Human Rights Policy in 2022 invited Kenneth Roth, former executive director of Human Rights Watch, a leading global human rights organizations, to join it as a senior fellow. The Kennedy School eventually rescinded the invitation to Roth because Human Rights Watch had investigated the State of Israel's treatment of Palestinians and concluded in 2021 that it meets the threshold for the "crime of apartheid". After condemnation by faculty, students, The American Civil Liberties Union and others, the dean of the school reversed this decision.

Awards
The Robert F. Kennedy Award for Excellence in Public Service is awarded to "a graduating student whose commitment, activities, and contributions to public service are extraordinary". Several other awards are also awarded on Class Day annually at the end of May.

Notable faculty

 * Graham Allison
 * Alan A. Altshuler
 * Jacinda Ardern
 * Mary Jo Bane
 * David J. Barron
 * Jacqueline Bhabha
 * Linda Bilmes
 * Robert Blendon
 * Derek Bok
 * George Borjas
 * R. Nicholas Burns
 * Felipe Calderón
 * Albert Carnesale
 * Ashton Carter
 * Antonia Handler Chayes
 * William C. Clark
 * Richard Clarke
 * Susan P. Crawford
 * David Cutler
 * Michael Dukakis
 * David Ellwood
 * Jeffrey Frankel
 * Jason Furman
 * Marshall Ganz
 * David Gergen
 * Edward Glaeser
 * Robert R. Glauber
 * Stephen Goldsmith
 * Ricardo Hausmann
 * J. Bryan Hehir
 * Ronald Heifetz
 * A. Leon Higginbotham Jr.
 * John P. Holdren
 * Swanee Hunt
 * Michael Ignatieff
 * Sheila Jasanoff
 * Christopher Jencks
 * Alex Jones
 * Dale Jorgenson
 * Juliette Kayyem
 * Alexander Keyssar
 * Alexandra Killewald
 * Robert Z. Lawrence
 * Jennifer Lerner
 * Viktor Mayer-Schönberger
 * Joseph Newhouse
 * Pippa Norris
 * Joseph Nye
 * Rafael O'Ferrall
 * Meghan O'Sullivan
 * George Papandreou
 * Roger B. Porter
 * Michael Porter
 * Samantha Power
 * Lant Pritchett
 * Robert Putnam
 * Carmen M. Reinhart
 * Leni Robredo
 * Dani Rodrik
 * Todd Rogers (behavioral scientist)
 * Kevin Rudd
 * John Ruggie
 * Juan Manuel Santos
 * Frederic M. Scherer
 * Jeffrey L. Seglin
 * Sarah Sewall
 * Kathryn Sikkink
 * Lawrence Summers
 * Dennis Frank Thompson
 * Stephen Walt
 * Marilyn Waring
 * Martin Weitzman
 * Shirley Williams, Baroness Williams of Crosby
 * John P. White
 * William Julius Wilson
 * Richard Zeckhauser
 * Dorothy Zinberg
 * Jonathan Zittrain
 * Robert Zoellick

Notable alumni
Harvard Kennedy School has over 63,000 alumni, many of whom have gone on to notable careers around the world in government, business, public policy, and other fields. Its alumni include 20 heads of state and dozens of leaders of government department and agencies, non-profit public policy organizations, the military, thought leadership and advocacy, academia, and other fields:

Heads of government and state

 * Felipe Calderón (MPA '00), former President of Mexico
 * Miguel de la Madrid (MPA '65), former President of Mexico
 * Carlos Salinas de Gortari (MPA '73, PhD '76), former President of Mexico
 * Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj (MPA '02), former President and Prime Minister of Mongolia
 * Abdiweli Gaas (MPA '99), former Prime Minister of Somalia
 * John Haglelgam (MPA '93), former President of the Federated States of Micronesia
 * Lee Hsien Loong (MPA '80), former Prime Minister of Singapore
 * Daniel Noboa (MCMPA '20), President of Ecuador
 * Tharman Shanmugaratnam (MPA), current President of Singapore
 * José María Figueres Olsen (MPA '91), former President of Costa Rica and former World Economic Forum CEO
 * Maia Sandu (MPA '10), current President and former Prime Minister of Moldova
 * Juan Manuel Santos (MPA '81), former President of Colombia and Nobel Peace Prize laureate
 * Ellen Johnson Sirleaf (MPA '71), former President of Liberia and Nobel Peace Prize laureate
 * Frederick Sumaye (MPA '07), former Prime Minister of Tanzania
 * Tshering Tobgay (MPA '04), former Prime Minister and current leader of People's Democratic Party in Bhutan
 * Pierre Trudeau (MA '45), former Prime Minister of Canada
 * Donald Tsang (MPA '82), former Chief Executive of Hong Kong
 * Morgan Tsvangirai ('02), former Prime Minister of Zimbabwe
 * Eduardo Rodríguez Veltzé (MPA '88), former President of Bolivia
 * Jamil Mahuad Witt (MPA '89), former President of Ecuador
 * Lawrence Wong (MPA), Prime Minister of Singapore

Government administrators and officials

 * Rizwan Ahmed (MPA), former Maritime Secretary of Pakistan
 * Nripendra Misra (MPA), former IAS officer and Principal Secretary to the Prime Minister of India
 * Yoshimasa Hayashi (MPA '94), Minister for Foreign Affairs of Japan
 * Yam Ah Mee (MPA '91), chief executive director, People's Association in Singapore
 * Sartaj Aziz (MNA), served in several Ministerial positions in Pakistan
 * Phillip Jones (MPA '21), Politician, Mayor of Newport News, Virginia
 * Tariq Bajwa (MPA), former Finance Secretary of Pakistan
 * Nisrin Barwari (MPA '99), former Minister of Municipalities and Public Works of Iraq
 * Gankhuurai Battungalag, Director General of the Department for Europe of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Mongolia
 * Charles Blanchard (MPP '85), former General Counsel of the Army and General Counsel of the Air Force
 * J. Richard Blankenship (MPA '08), former U.S. ambassador to The Bahamas
 * André Boisclair (MPA '05), former leader of Parti Québécois and former Minister of Citizenship and Immigration of Quebec, Canada
 * Nick Boles (MPP '89), former Member of Parliament for Grantham and Stamford and former director of Policy Exchange in the United Kingdom
 * Emilia Boncodin (MPA '86), former Secretary of Budget and Management for the Philippines
 * Anna Escobedo Cabral (MPA '90), former Treasurer of the United States
 * Piper Campbell (MPA '99), former U.S. ambassador to Mongolia and Chargé d'affaires ad interim at the U.S. Mission to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
 * Rajkumar Chellaraj (MPA '86), former U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for Administration
 * Frank Chikane (MPA '95), member, African National Congress and advisor to President of South Africa
 * Aneesh Chopra (MPP '97), former U.S. Chief Technology Officer
 * Albert Chua (MPA '00), former Permanent Representative of Singapore to the United Nations
 * Henry Cisneros (MPA '73), former U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development
 * Mark Daly (MPA, '11), member, Ireland's Seanad Éireann
 * Božidar Đelić (MPA '91), former Deputy Prime Minister of Serbia and Minister of Finance of Serbia
 * Stephen Donnelly (MPA '08), Ireland Minister of Health and member, Teachta Dála, representing Wicklow
 * Shaun Donovan (MPA '95), former U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development and Office of Management and Budget director
 * Theodore L. Eliot Jr. (MPA '56), former U.S. ambassador to Afghanistan
 * Robert S. Gelbard (MPA '79), former U.S. ambassador to Indonesia and Bolivia
 * Héctor Gramajo (MPA '95), former Defense Minister of Guatemala
 * Liu He (MPA '95), Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China
 * Teo Chee Hean (MPA '86), Coordinating Minister for National Security for Singapore
 * Keith Hennessey (MPP '94), former National Economic Council director
 * Rafael Hui (MPA '83), former Chief Secretary for Administration of Hong Kong
 * Muhammad Ibrahim (MPA '93), former Central Bank of Malaysia governor
 * Natalie Jaresko (MPP '89), former Ukrainian Minister of Finance
 * Vuk Jeremić (MPA '03), former President of the United Nations General Assembly and former Minister of Foreign Affairs for Serbia
 * Ajay Narayan Jha, former Indian Administrative Service officer, former Expenditure Secretary, and former Finance Secretary of India
 * Daniel J. Jones, lead investigator for U.S. Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA Torture
 * Mitzi Johnson (MPA '13), former Speaker of the Vermont House of Representatives
 * Lim Hng Kiang (MPA '85), former Minister for Trade and Industry of Singapore
 * Ban Ki-moon (MPA '84), former Secretary-General of the United Nations and former Minister of Foreign Affairs of South Korea
 * Raymond Kelly (MPA '84), New York City Police Commissioner
 * Rajive Kumar (MPA), Indian Administrative Service officer and former Chief Secretary of Government of Uttar Pradesh in India
 * Andrew Leigh (PhD '04), Assistant Minister for Competition, Charities and Treasury for Australia and former Australian House of Representatives member
 * Nabiel Makarim (MPA '84), former Minister of Environment and Forestry for Indonesia
 * Mark McClellan (MPA '91), former U.S. Commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration
 * Sanjay Mitra (MPA), IAS officer and former Defence Secretary of India
 * Toshimitsu Motegi (MPP '83), Secretary-General of Liberal Democratic Party and former Minister of Foreign Affairs for Japan
 * George Muñoz (MPP '78), former Assistant Secretary and CFO of the U.S. Department of Treasury and former president and CEO of OPIC
 * Andrew Natsios (MPA '79), former U.S. Agency for International Development administrator and U.S. Special Envoy to Sudan
 * Amon Nikoi (MPA '56), former Minister for Finance and Economic Planning, Bank of Ghana governor, and Permanent Representative of Ghana to the United Nations
 * Patrick Nip (MPA '01), former Secretary for the Civil Service of Hong Kong
 * Christine Nixon (MPA '85), former chief police commissioner for Victoria, Australia
 * Herbert S. Okun (MPA '59), former U.S. Ambassador to East Germany and former U.S. Deputy Ambassador to the United Nations
 * Nóirín O'Sullivan (Exec '07), former national police commissioner for Ireland
 * Marcus Peacock (MPP '86), former Deputy Administrator, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
 * Brune Poirson, Secretary of State of France
 * Angelo Reyes (MPA '90), Secretary of Energy of the Philippines and former Secretary of National Defense of the Philippines
 * Jesse Robredo (MPA '99), Secretary of Interior and Local Government of the Philippines
 * Henry Rotich (MPA '), Cabinet Secretary for National Treasury of Kenya
 * Pete Rouse (MPA '77), former White House Chief of Staff
 * Nasir Ahmad el-Rufai, Executive Governor of Kaduna State in Nigeria, former Minister of FCT, and Director General of Bureau of Public Enterprises of Nigeria
 * T. N. Seshan (MPA '68), former IAS officer and former Chief Election Commissioner and Cabinet Secretary of India
 * Yasuhisa Shiozaki (MPA '82), former Chief Cabinet Secretary of Japan
 * Corazon Soliman (MPA '98), former Secretary of the Department of Social Welfare and Development of the Philippines
 * T. S. R. Subramanian (MPA), former Indian Administrative Service officer and Cabinet Secretary of India
 * Sardar Ahmad Nawaz Sukhera (MPA), Commerce Secretary of Pakistan
 * Nancy Sutley (MPP '86), White House Council on Environmental Quality director
 * Syahrir (MPA '80, PhD '83), economic adviser, Republic of Indonesia's Council of Presidential Advisors
 * Mark E. Talisman (1972), U.S. congressional aide and lobbyist
 * William B. Taylor Jr. (MPP '77), U.S. ambassador to Ukraine
 * Conrad Tillard (born 1964), Baptist minister, radio host, author, civil rights activist, and politician
 * John Tsang (MPA '82), Financial Secretary of Hong Kong
 * Paul Volcker (MA '51, GSPA), former chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve and U.S. presidential economic advisor
 * Solomon Areda Waktolla (MPA '13 and LLM'14), Judge at United Nations Dispute Tribunal, Judge of the Administrative Tribunal of the African Development Bank. Former Deputy  chief justice of the Federal Supreme Court of Ethiopia and member of Permanent Court of Arbitration at  Hague  Netherlands
 * Yin Yong (MPA), mayor of Beijing
 * Adolfo Aguilar Zínser (MPA '78), former national security adviser and ambassador to the United Nations for Mexico

Elected federal officials

 * Andrea Álvarez Marín (MPA '21), member of the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica
 * Ami Ayalon (MPA '92), former member of Israeli Knesset and Shin Bet director
 * Ed Balls (MPA '90), former British Member of the Parliament, Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families, and Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer
 * Doug Bereuter (MPA '73), former U.S. Congressman for Nebraska's 1st congressional district
 * Brendan Boyle (MPP '05), U.S. Congressman for Pennsylvania's 2nd congressional district
 * Katherine Clark (MPA '97), U.S. Representative, Massachusetts's 5th congressional district
 * Gerry Connolly (MPA '79), U.S. Congressman, Virginia's 11th congressional district
 * Dan Crenshaw (MPA '17), U.S. Congressman, Texas's 2nd congressional district
 * David Cunliffe (MPA '95), Labour Party leader in Parliament of New Zealand
 * John Fetterman (MPP '99) – U.S. Senator from Pennsylvania and former Lieutenant Governor of Pennsylvania
 * Roy Folkman (MPA '13) – member, Israeli Knesset
 * Alan Grayson (MPP '83), former U.S. Congressman, Florida's 8th congressional district
 * Katherine Harris (MPA '97), former Congresswoman, Florida's 13th congressional district and former Secretary of State of Florida
 * Brian Higgins (MPA '96), U.S. Congressman, New York's 26th congressional district
 * Steve Horn (MPA '55), former U.S. Congressman, California's 38th congressional district
 * Shane Jones (MPA '91), former member, Parliament of New Zealand, and former Minister of Building and Construction of New Zealand
 * James Langevin (MPA '94), former U.S. Congressman, Rhode Island's 2nd congressional district
 * Stephen Lynch (MPA '99), U.S. Congressman, Massachusetts's 8th congressional district
 * Dan Maffei (MPP '95), former U.S. Congressman, New York's 24th congressional district
 * Jim Moody (MPA '67), former U.S. Congressman, Wisconsin's 5th congressional district
 * Taku Otsuka (MPP '05), a member of the House of Representatives of Japan
 * Francis Pangilinan (MPA '98), Senator and the Majority Leader of the Senate of the Philippines
 * Yohanan Plesner (MPA '04), member, Israeli Knesset
 * Larry Pressler (MPA '66), former U.S. Senator from South Dakota
 * William Proxmire (MPA '48), former U.S. Senator from Wisconsin
 * Jack Reed (MPP '73), U.S. Senator from Rhode Island
 * Joe Sestak (MPA '80, PhD '84), former U.S. Congressman, Pennsylvania's 7th congressional district
 * Rob Simmons (MPA '79), former U.S. Congressman, Connecticut's 2nd congressional district
 * Ralf Stegner (MPA '89), former leader of the Social Democratic Party in Germany
 * Peter G. Torkildsen (MPA '90), former U.S. Congressman, Massachusetts's 6th congressional district and former chair of Massachusetts Republican Party
 * Robert Torricelli (MPA '80), former U.S. Senator from New Jersey
 * Chris Van Hollen (MPP '85), U.S. Senator from Maryland
 * David Wilhelm (MPP '90), campaign manager, Clinton-Gore 1992 campaign and former Democratic National Committee chairman

Elected state and municipal officials

 * Jeffrey Amestoy (MPA), Chief Justice of the Vermont Supreme Court and Vermont Attorney General. As Chief Justice, authored the opinion in Baker v. Vermont, 744 A.2d 864 (Vt. 1999), which held that the state's denial of marriage rights to same-sex couples violated the Vermont Constitution.
 * Bob Anthony (MPA), Oklahoma Corporation Commission member
 * Robert Castelli (MPA '96), former member, New York State Assembly
 * Jacqueline Y. Collins (MPA '01), member, Illinois Senate, representing the 16th district
 * Joseph Curtatone (MPA '11), former mayor, Somerville, Massachusetts
 * Fernando Martín García (MPP '74), former New Hampshire State Representative
 * Marilinda Garcia (MPA '10), member of the New Hampshire House of Representatives
 * Paul Heroux, (MPA '11), Bristol County, Massachusetts sheriff, former Attleboro, Massachusetts mayor, and former Massachusetts State Representative
 * Mark Levine (MPP '95), Manhattan borough president and former New York City Councilman
 * Elias Mudzuri (MPA ), former Mayor of Harare, Zimbabwe
 * Charles A. Murphy, (MPA '02), member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives and Massachusetts House Ways and Means Committee chairman
 * Naheed Nenshi (MPP '98), former mayor of Calgary, Alberta
 * Barry T. Smitherman (MPA), member of the Texas Railroad Commission
 * Kevin White (MA '57, GSPA), former Mayor of Boston
 * Anthony A. Williams (MPP '87), former Mayor of Washington, D.C.
 * Anthony Winza Probowo (MPA'2024), former Member of Parliament of Jakarta, Indonesia

Academia

 * William Alonso (MPP '56), economist, former director of Harvard Center for Population Studies
 * Bernadette Atuahene (MPA '02), property law scholar, James E. Jones Chair at the University of Wisconsin Law School
 * Lawrence S. Bacow (MPP '76, PhD '76), former Harvard University president, former Tufts University president, former MIT chancellor
 * Steve Charnovitz (MPP '83), international law professor, George Washington University Law School
 * Ronald A. Heifetz (MPA '83), co-founder, Center for Public Leadership, and public leadership lecturer at Harvard Kennedy School
 * Steve Horn (MPA '55), former president of California State University, Long Beach
 * Ira Jackson (MPA '86), dean, Peter F. Drucker and Masatoshi Ito Graduate School of Management at Claremont Graduate University
 * Nancy Koehn (MPP), author, historian, and Harvard Business School business history professor
 * Mark Lilla (MPP '80), professor of humanities, Columbia University
 * Hollis Robbins (MPP '90), dean of humanities, University of Utah
 * Mark Schuster (MPP '88), dean and founding CEO, Kaiser Permanente Bernard J. Tyson School of Medicine
 * Stephen Joel Trachtenberg (MPA '66), former president, George Washington University
 * William E. Trueheart (MPA '73), former president, Bryant University
 * Jonathan Zittrain (MPA '95), professor of international law, Harvard Law School and co-founder of Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society

Arts

 * Will Butler (MPA '17), musician and former member of Arcade Fire
 * Ashley Judd (MPA '10), actress and activist
 * Hill Harper (MPA '92), actor and author
 * Thor Steingraber (MPA '09), opera director
 * Damian Woetzel (MPA '07), former principal dancer, New York City Ballet

Business

 * Rune Bjerke (MPA '97), CEO, DNB ASA
 * Gregory C. Carr (MPP '86), founder, Boston Technology
 * Leonard S. Coleman Jr. (MPA '75), former president of the National League
 * Benjamin Fernandes (Exec. Ed'17), Tanzanian entrepreneur
 * Debra L. Lee (MPP '80), President and CEO, Black Entertainment Television
 * Daniel Mudd (MPA '86), former president and CEO of U.S. Fannie Mae
 * Carolina Müller-Möhl (Woman's Leadership Board), businesswoman, philanthropist and women's rights activist
 * Hilda Ochoa-Brillembourg (MPA '71), founder, president, and CEO of Strategic Investment Group
 * Greg Rosenbaum (MPP '77), CEO, Empire Kosher Poultry, Inc.
 * Peter Sands (MPA '88), Group CEO, Standard Chartered
 * Klaus Schwab (MPA '67), founder and executive chairman, World Economic Forum
 * Faryar Shirzad (MPP '89), managing director, Goldman Sachs, former U.S. Deputy National Security Advisor
 * Chris Voss, adjunct professor at McDonough School of Business

Media

 * Malik Siraj Akbar (MPA, '16), editor-in-chief of The Baloch Hal, exiled Pakistani journalist
 * Kevin Corke (MPA '04), White House Correspondent, Fox News
 * Komla Dumor (MPA,'03), television news presenter, BBC World News and Africa Business Report
 * Justin Fox (born 1964), financial journalist, commentator, and writer
 * Caroline Glick (MPP '00), deputy managing editor, The Jerusalem Post
 * Wajahat Saeed Khan, Pakistani journalist for Dunya News and NBC News
 * Mark A. R. Kleiman (MPP, PhD '85), author
 * Kaj Larsen (MPP '07), former U.S. Navy SEAL, journalist for Vice News
 * Dambisa Moyo (MPA '07), economist and author
 * Bill O'Reilly (MPA '96), political commentator
 * Andrew Sullivan (MPA, PhD '90), journalist, The Atlantic

Military

 * John C. Acton (Exec '05) – retired United States Coast Guard rear admiral who serves as the Director of Operations Coordination for DHS
 * John R. Allen Jr. (Exec '85) – retired United States Air Force brigadier general and highly decorated command pilot
 * William J. Begert (Exec '95) – served as commander, Pacific Air Forces, and Air Component Commander for the Commander, United States Pacific Command
 * Franklin J. Blaisdell (Exec) – U.S. Air Force Major General
 * Sally Brice-O'Hara (MPA '93) – 27th Vice Commandant of the United States Coast Guard
 * Dan Crenshaw (MPA '17) – medically retired United States Navy SEAL Lieutenant Commander
 * Peter V. Neffenger (MPA '95) – 29th Vice Commandant of the United States Coast Guard and former Administrator of the Transportation Security Administration
 * Michael E. Fortney (Exec '11) – U.S. Air Force Brigadier General
 * Jeffrey Fowler (MPA '90) – United States Navy, Vice Admiral; Superintendent, United States Naval Academy
 * John C. Harvey (MPA '88) – United States Navy, Admiral; Commander, U.S. Fleet Forces Command
 * Muhammad Haszaimi (Exec '16) – Royal Brunei Armed Forces Commander
 * Robert C. Hinson (Exec) – U.S. Air Force Lieutenant General
 * William E. Ingram Jr. (Exec '02) – U.S. Army Lieutenant General and Director of the Army National Guard
 * Richard C. Johnston (Exec) – U.S. Air Force Brigadier General
 * Andrew F. Krepinevich Jr. (MPA '80) – United States Army, Lt. Col.; author of The Army and Vietnam
 * Rick Linnehan (MPA '09) – astronaut
 * Christopher Loria (MPA '04) – astronaut
 * Robert W. Parker (Exec '91) – U.S. Air Force Major General
 * Timothy S. Sullivan (Exec) – U.S. Coast Guard Rear Admiral
 * Guy C. Swan III (MPA '86) – U.S. Army Major General, Commanding General of the Military District of Washington
 * Jack Weinstein (Exec '06) – U.S. Air Force Major General

Non-profit organizations

 * Ramaswami Balasubramaniam (MPA'10) – Founder and president, Swami Vivekananda Youth Movement
 * Lester R. Brown (MPA '62) – founder and President of the Earth Policy Institute
 * Rick Doblin (PhD '01) – Founder and executive director, Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS)
 * Robert Kagan (MPP '91) – co-founder, Project for a New American Century
 * Nancy LeaMond (MPP '74) – Executive vice president, AARP
 * Giovanna Negretti (MPA '05) – co-founder and executive director of ¿Oiste?
 * Ayisha Osori – former CEO, Nigerian Women's Trust Fund
 * Michelle Rhee (MPP '97) – founder of The New Teacher Project; Chancellor of the Washington, D.C. public school system
 * Bryan Stevenson (MPP '85) – founder and executive director of the Equal Justice Initiative, and author of Just Mercy

Science

 * Susan C. Gardner, Environment scientist

Spies

 * Donald Heathfield (real name: Andrey Bezrukov) (MPA '00) – KGB and SVR operative until his disclosure in the United States in 2010

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Harvard Kennedy School


text:
New-York Tribune

The New-York Tribune (from 1914: New York Tribune) was an American newspaper founded in 1841 by editor Horace Greeley. It bore the moniker New-York Daily Tribune from 1842 to 1866 before returning to its original name. From the 1840s through the 1860s it was the dominant newspaper first of the American Whig Party, then of the Republican Party. The paper achieved a circulation of approximately 200,000 in the 1850s, making it the largest daily paper in New York City at the time. The Tribunes editorials were widely read, shared, and copied in other city newspapers, helping to shape national opinion. It was one of the first papers in the North to send reporters, correspondents, and illustrators to cover the campaigns of the American Civil War. It continued as an independent daily newspaper until 1924, when it merged with the New York Herald. The resulting New York Herald Tribune remained in publication until 1966.

Among those who served on the paper's editorial board were Bayard Taylor, George Ripley, and Isidor Lewi.

History

The Tribune was created by Horace Greeley in 1841 with the goal of providing a straightforward, trustworthy media source. Greeley had previously published a weekly newspaper, The New Yorker (unrelated to the later modern magazine of the same name), in 1833 and was also publisher of the Whig Party's political organ, Log Cabin. In 1841, he merged operations of these two publications into a new newspaper that he named the New-York Tribune.

Greeley sponsored a host of reforms, including pacifism and feminism and especially the ideal of the hardworking free laborer. Greeley demanded reforms to make all citizens free and equal. He envisioned virtuous citizens who would eradicate corruption. He talked endlessly about progress, improvement, and freedom, while calling for harmony between labor and capital. Greeley's editorials promoted social democratic reforms and were widely reprinted. They influenced the free-labor ideology of the Whigs and the radical wing of the Republican Party, especially in promoting the free-labor ideology. Before 1848 he sponsored an American version of Fourierist socialist reform, but backed away after the failed revolutions of 1848 in Europe.

To promote multiple reforms, Greeley hired a roster of writers who later became famous in their own right, including Margaret Fuller, Charles Anderson Dana, George William Curtis, William Henry Fry, Bayard Taylor, George Ripley, Julius Chambers, and Henry Jarvis Raymond, who later co-founded The New York Times. In 1852–62, the paper retained Karl Marx as its London-based European correspondent. Friedrich Engels also submitted articles under Marx's by-line. Marx resented much of his time working for the Tribune, particularly the many edits and deadlines they imposed upon him, and bemoaned the "excessive fragmentation of [his] studies", noting that since much of his work was reporting on current economic events, "I was compelled to become conversant with practical detail which, strictly speaking, lie outside the sphere of political economy". Engels wrote "It doesn't matter if they are never read again.". In the same correspondence Marx disparagingly referred to the publication as a "blotting paper vendor". Nevertheless, Engels cited this career as a positive achievement of Marx's during a eulogy given at his funeral.

Edgar Allan Poe's poem "Annabel Lee" was first published in the newspaper as part of his October 9, 1849, obituary, "Death of Edgar A. Poe", by Rufus Griswold. In addition, Poe's "The Bells" was published in the October 17, 1849, issue as "Poe's Last Poem".

Political influence
Founded in a time of civil unrest, the paper joined the newly formed Republican Party in 1854, named it after the party of Thomas Jefferson, and emphasized its opposition to slavery. The paper generated a large readership, with a circulation of approximately 200,000 during the 1850s. This made the paper the largest circulation daily in New York City—gaining commensurate influence among voters and political decision-makers in the process. During the Civil War Greeley crusaded against slavery, lambasting Democrats while calling for a mandatory draft of soldiers for the first time in the U.S. This led to an Irish mob attempting to burn down the Tribune building in lower Manhattan during the Draft Riots.

Greeley ran for president as the nominee of the Liberal Republican Party (and subsequently the Democratic Party) in the 1872 election against incumbent Ulysses S. Grant in his bid for a second term. Greeley was unsuccessful and, soon after the defeat, checked into Dr. George C.S. Choate's Sanitarium, where he died only a few weeks later. Tribune editor Whitelaw Reid purchased the paper following Greeley's death.

In 1886, with Reid's support, the Tribune became the first publication in the world to be printed on a linotype machine, which was invented by a German immigrant, inventor Ottmar Mergenthaler. This technique allowed it to exceed the standard newspaper size of only eight pages while still speeding up printing time per copy, thereby increasing the overall number of copies that could be printed.

New York Herald Tribune
Under Reid's son, Ogden Mills Reid, the paper acquired and merged with the New York Herald in 1924 to form the New York Herald Tribune. The New York Herald Tribune continued to be run by Ogden M. Reid until his death in 1947.

Former Tribune buildings today

 * The New York Tribune Building was the first home of Pace University. Today, the site where the building once stood is now the One Pace Plaza complex of Pace University's New York City campus. Dr. Choate's residence and private hospital, where Horace Greeley died, today is part of the campus of Pace University in Pleasantville, New York.
 * On December 15, 1921, The New York Tribune bought two plots of ground at 219 and 220 West 40th Street. The headquarters that The New York Tribune built at that site is now the home of the City University of New York Graduate School of Journalism.

Archives
Copies of the New-York Tribune are available on microfilm at many large libraries and online at the Library of Congress. Also, indices from selected years in the late nineteenth century are available on the Library of Congress' website. The original paper articles from the newspaper's morgue are kept at The Center for American History at the University of Texas at Austin.

title: New-York Tribune


text:
Cowcatcher

A cowcatcher, also known as a pilot, is the device mounted at the front of a locomotive to deflect obstacles on the track that might otherwise damage or derail it or the train.

In the UK, small metal bars called life-guards, rail guards or guard irons are provided immediately in front of the wheels. They knock away smaller obstacles lying directly on the running surface of the railhead. Historically, fenced-off railway systems in Europe relied exclusively on those devices and cowcatchers were not required, but in modern systems cowcatchers have generally superseded them.

Instead of a cowcatcher, trams use a device called a fender. Objects lying on the tram track come in contact with a sensor bracket, which triggers the lowering of a basket-shaped device to the ground, preventing the overrunning of the obstacles and dragging them along the road surface in front of the wheels.

In snowy areas the cowcatcher also has the function of a snowplough.

Invention
An idea for a cowcatcher was proposed by Charles Babbage in 1830, during his period of working for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. However, Babbage's invention was not constructed, and it is uncertain whether later manufacturers were aware of Babbage's idea.

The first practical cowcatcher is widely credited to Isaac Dripps, who fitted one to the John Bull (locomotive) in 1833  shortly after steam haulage commenced on the  Camden and Amboy Railroad. His design is described and illustrated in David Stevenson's book Sketch of the Civil Engineering of North America, published in 1838.

Design
On a mainline locomotive, the cowcatcher has to successfully deflect an obstacle hit at speed. The design principle is to push the object upwards and sideways out of the way and not to lift the locomotive on impact.

The typical shape is a blunt wedge with a shallow V-shape in plan. In the later days of steam locomotives, the front coupler was designed to swing out of the way also, so it could not get caught up; this was called a 'drop coupler pilot'.

Early on, cowcatchers were normally fabricated of bars mounted on a frame; later on, sheet metal cowcatchers were often used for their additional smoothness, and some cast steel cowcatchers were employed for their mass and smooth shape. Early diesel locomotives followed the same plan.

Cowcatchers on early switcher locomotives in the US often had steps (called "footboard pilots") to allow yard workers to ride with the locomotive. In some countries, footboard pilots are outlawed for safety reasons, and have been removed. Modern locomotives often have front and rear platforms with safety rails, or deeply recessed steps, where workers can ride.

Modern cowcatchers
Most modern European rail vehicles must have cowcatchers with a snowplough function and rail guards. The required strength of the system is 30 kN in the middle of the track and 50 kN near the rails.

Modern US diesel locomotives have flatter, less wedge-shaped cowcatchers, because a diesel locomotive has the cab near the front, and the crew are vulnerable to impact from obstacles pushed up by the cowcatcher.

Anti-climbers

To protect the crew and passengers, most modern locomotives have a horizontally grooved steel beam known as an anti-climber fitted across the front, above the coupler. Its purpose is to prevent colliding locomotives from riding up and moving over the locomotive frame through the cab.

title: Cowcatcher


text:
Thai Rak Thai Party

The Thai Rak Thai Party (TRT; พรรคไทยรักไทย,, ; "Thais Love Thais Party") was a Thai political party founded in 1998. From 2001 to 2006, it was the ruling party under its founder, Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra. During its brief existence, Thai Rak Thai won the three general elections it contested. Eight months after a military coup forced Thaksin to remain in exile, the party was dissolved on 30 May 2007 by the Constitutional Tribunal for violation of electoral laws, with 111 former party members banned from participating in politics for five years.

Party platform and electoral outcomes
Thai Rak Thai was registered on 15 July 1998, by telecommunications entrepreneur Thaksin Shinawatra and 22 other founding members, including Somkid Jatusripitak, Thanong Bidaya, Sudarat Keyuraphan, Purachai Piumsombun, Thammarak Isaragura na Ayuthaya, and Prommin Lertsuridej.

The Thai Rak Thai party had a populist platform, appealing to indebted farmers, who had become indebted as a result of the Asian financial crisis of 1997, with promises of a strong economic recovery. The party also reached out to rural villages, and struggling businesses. Thai Rak Thai's policies included a 30 baht per hospital visit scheme, an extended debt moratorium for farmers, one million baht microcredit development funds for all rural districts, and the One Tambon One Product project.

Thai Rak Thai won the legislative election of 2001 by a landslide over the ruling Democrat Party led by Prime Minister Chuan Leekpai. Forty percent of elected MPs were freshmen. Thai Rak Thai was able to negotiate a merger with the New Aspiration Party and a coalition with the Thai Nation Party, resulting in a majority of 325 of 500 seats for the coalition government of Thaksin Shinawatra.

The Thai Rak Thai Party was the first political party in Thailand to have been represented by more than half of the members of the House of Representatives. In the 2005 legislative election, the party's candidates were elected to occupy 376 seats of the 500 seats in the House of Representatives, defeating the largest opposition party, the Democrat Party which won 96 seats. After the election, Thailand's first single party government was successfully formed.

In the invalid elections of April 2006, TRT won 61.6 percent of the vote and 460 out of 500 seats, many without any opposition, and the rest remaining vacant because the election was boycotted by opposition parties in the first-past-the-post electoral system.

Factions
As an amalgam of several different parties, Thai Rak Thai politicians owed their allegiance to different factions. Precise figures on faction membership do not exist, but estimates of the numerical strength of the major factions are provided below. These numbers are based on the membership of the House of Representatives elected in the 2005 general election, which was dissolved on 24 February 2006.

 * Wang Bua Ban – Led by Thaksin's sister, Yaowapa Wongsawat, this faction is one of the party's most important groupings, as it included many members of prime minister's inner circle. The faction's base is Thaksin's home province of Chiang Mai. It was estimated that Wang Bua Ban commanded the support of over 30 MPs (as of December 2005), mostly from the northern region.
 * Wang Nam Yom – Originally a splinter group from Wang Bua Ban, Wang Nam Yom was led by then-Labour Minister Somsak Thepsutin and Industry Minister Suriya Jungrungreangkit, who also served as Thai Rak Thai's Secretary-General. With the financial backing of Suriya, whose family controls the largest auto parts manufacturer in Thailand, some observers claimed that this faction had the resources to form a party in its own right. The group is said to include over 100 MPs, hailing from the northern, northeastern, and central regions of Thailand.
 * Wang Nam Yen – This was the most notorious faction, led by the veteran political power-broker, Sanoh Thienthong, a former Interior Minister who held the title of Chief Advisor to the Thai Rak Thai Party. A native of Sa Kaeo Province, Sanoh in the 1990s built a political empire that came to dominate several border provinces in eastern and northeastern Thailand. Rather than start a political party of his own, however, Sanoh preferred to play the role of kingmaker by shifting his group from party to party. With the collapse in 1992 of the pro-military government, which Sanoh supported, the faction moved to the Chart Thai Party, which went on to win the elections held in 1995. Amid squabbles with Chart Thai leader Banharn Silpa-archa, Sanoh then defected to the New Aspiration Party, which won the 1996 elections. However, with New Aspiration's star waning after it was forced out of power in 1997, Sanoh decided to cast his lot with Thai Rak Thai before the 2001 elections. Since joining Thai Rak Thai, however, Wang Nam Yen has largely been sidelined by Thaksin amid occasional squabbles with Sanoh. As a result, Sanoh has become one of Thaksin's most vocal critics in the Thai Rak Thai Party. Wang Nam Yen's electoral fortunes have also declined slightly since joining Thai Rak Thai at the expense of other factions, and as of February 2006, Sanoh commanded the loyalty of only 37 MPs. He and his wife resigned from the TRT in February 2006 to establish the Royalist People's Party.
 * Wang Phayanak – This group was led by Deputy Prime Minister Phinij Jarusombat, who was leader of the small Seritham Party before it merged with Thai Rak Thai after the 2001 election. Most of the faction's following of approximately 30 MPs (as of December 2005) hail from the northeastern region, where the group often competes with Wang Nam Yen for influence.
 * Wang Lam Takong – This faction was composed of the remnants of the old Chart Pattana (National Development) Party, which merged into Thai Rak Thai before the 2005 elections. Chart Pattana's former leader, Deputy Prime Minister Suwat Liptapanlop, served as head of this group. The faction's influence derives from its strength in the country's second-most populous province, Nakhon Ratchasima, which was the stronghold of Chart Pattana. Wang Lam Katong's membership is estimated to include as many as 20 MPs.
 * Bangkok Faction – The leader of this group was Sudarat Keyuraphan and Chalerm Yubamrung
 * Chonburi Faction – Former Sports and Tourism Minister Sontaya Kunplome led this faction, which split from the Chart Thai Party before the 2005 elections to join Thai Rak Thai. Sontaya's father is the infamous Somchai Khunpluem, the "godfather" of Chonburi who is better known as "Kamnan Po." The dominant political force in the eastern provinces of Chonburi and Rayong, this faction counts approximately seven MPs under its wing.
 * Buriram Faction – Like the Chonburi Faction, this group also defected from the Chart Thai Party before the 2005 elections. The faction's leader is Prime Minister's Office Minister Newin Chidchob, probably one of the most popular members of Thai Rak Thai and at the time was considered to be one of Thaksin's right hand men. It had a solid base in Newin's home province of Buriram and in neighboring Surin Province.
 * Ban Rim Nam – This group was led by Deputy House Speaker Suchart Tancharoen, a key figure in the former New Aspiration Party, which merged with Thai Rak Thai after the 2001 elections. The faction has around 15 members.
 * Maleenont Faction – Led by Sports and Tourism Minister (as of February 2006) Pracha Maleenont, whose family controls the local broadcasting and entertainment group BEC World. This group's influence derives from the Maleenont family's role as one of the leading financiers of the Thai Rak Thai Party.
 * Pongsak Faction – Under the leadership of Transport Minister Pongsak Raktapongpisak, this group has emerged recently as a significant force within the party, counting approximately 30 MPs as supporters as of December 2005. Pongsak's alleged close friendship with Khunying Potjaman Shinawatra, the wife of Prime Minister Thaksin, is said to allow him to wield considerable influence over party and government affairs.

Whereabouts of party leaders after the coup
On the evening of 19 September 2006, the Thai military seized control of Bangkok to take over the government. Thaksin Shinawatra was in New York City attending a meeting of the United Nations General Assembly. Most of the TRT executive leadership were also abroad: Deputy Premier Surakiart Sathirathai was with Thaksin in New York, Finance Minister Thanong Bidaya was in Singapore attending the annual meeting of the World Bank/IMF, Commerce Minister Somkid Jatusripitak was attending the Thai-France Cultural Exhibition in Paris with Foreign Minister Kantathi Suphamongkhon and HRH Princess Sirindhorn.

Several party executives remaining in Thailand were arrested and detained by the junta. Deputy Prime Minister in charge of national security Chitchai Wannasathit and Defence Minister Thammarak Isaragura na Ayuthaya were in Thailand and were immediately arrested and detained by the junta. Secretary-General to the Premier Prommin Lertsuridej was also arrested. Natural Resources and Environmental Minister Yongyuth Tiyapairat and Deputy Agriculture Minister Newin Chidchop were ordered to report to the junta by 21 September. Both reported as ordered and were detained.

Several party executives including Chaturon Chaisang, Phumtham Wechayachai, Suranand Vejjajiva, Veera Musikapong, Party Deputy and Industry Minister Suriya Jungrungreangkit and former Social Development and Human Security Minister Watana Muangsook were reported to be in Thailand and free.

Reactions from party members
With Thaksin and key party executives either abroad or arrested, the reaction of TRT party members was muted and disorganized. In Thaksin's absence, Chaturon Chaisang became the acting party leader.

Several former MPs believed the party would be dissolved by the junta, including former Khon Kaen MP Prajak Kaewklaharn. However, former Udon Thani MP Thirachai Saenkaew, called for the junta to allow Thaksin to contest the next election, claiming that TRT supporters wanted Thaksin to return to politics.

Former Sakon Nakhon MP Chalermchai Ulankul said that although he and others might be unemployed for about a year, his faction was "firm" and preparing to run in the election next year. "As long as the Thai Rak Thai Party is not dissolved, we can't say we will move to be under any other party. However, I don't know who will continue the TRT."

Many party members were reported to have dropped their party membership in the aftermath of the coup. These included Somsak Thepsuthin and 100 members of the Wang Nam Yom faction. It was not clear whether Suriya Jungrungreangkit, another influential member of the faction would also resign. Sonthaya Kunplome also was reported to have led 20 members of the Chonburi faction in resigning from the party. Fear that the party would be dissolved by the junta and its members banned from politics fueled the defections.

On 2 October 2006, Thaksin Shinawatra and his former deputy, Somkid Jatusripitak, resigned from the Thai Rak Thai Party, in all probability ending it as a political force.

Party dissolution
The party's future was in doubt following the military coup that ousted Thaksin's government in September 2006. The party was dissolved on 30 May 2007 by the order of the Constitutional Tribunal for violation of election laws. A few high-ranking party members were found to be directly involved in bribing several small parties into competing in constituencies that were bases of the former opposition parties to ensure that minimum turnout rules were met in favor of the TRT party and its partners. Former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra and 110 members of the party were barred from participating in politics for a five-year period, with only eight of 119 charged acquitted. The remaining MPs and members of the party reorganized in the People's Power Party.

title: Thai Rak Thai Party


text:
Poll

Poll, polled, or polling may refer to:

Forms of voting and counting

 * Poll, a formal election
 * Election verification exit poll, a survey taken to verify election counts
 * Polling, voting to make decisions or determine opinions
 * Polling places or polling station, a.k.a. the polls, where voters cast their ballots in elections

 * Poll, a non-formal election:
 * Opinion poll, a survey of public opinion
 * Exit poll, a survey of voters taken immediately after they have exited the polling stations
 * Straw poll, an ad-hoc or unofficial vote
 * Survey (human research)

Agriculture

 * Poll (livestock), the top of an animal's head
 * Polled livestock, hornless livestock of normally horned species
 * Polling, livestock dehorning

Arts, entertainment, and media

 * Poll (band), a Greek pop group of the 1970s
 * Poll, the German title for the 2010 film The Poll Diaries

Mathematics, science, and technology

 * poll (Unix), a Unix system call
 * POLL, DNA polymerase lambda
 * Polling (computer science), actively and synchronously sampling an external device's status
 * Polling system, a mathematical model where a single server visits a set of queues in some order

Given name or middle name

 * Silvia Poll Ahrens (born 1970), Central American swimmer with Olympic medal
 * Poll Ashokanand (born 1940), Indian former cricketer
 * Poll Shyamsunder (1924–1988), Indian cricketer

Surname

 * Brian Poll (1941–1999), English cricketer
 * Claudia Poll (born 1972), Central American swimmer with Olympic gold medal
 * George St Poll (died 1550s), an English politician
 * Graham Poll (born 1963), British referee
 * Heinrich Wilhelm Poll (1877–1939), German anatomist and geneticist
 * Jana Franziska Poll (born 1988), German volleyball player
 * Jon Poll (born 1958), American film director
 * Martin Poll (1922–2012), American film and television producer
 * Max Poll (1908–1991), Belgian ichthyologist
 * Mihkel Poll (born 1986), Estonian pianist
 * Richard D. Poll (1918–1994), American historian, academic, author
 * Thomas St Poll (died 1582), member of Parliament
 * Kim Polling (born 1991), Dutch judoka

Austria

 * Polling im Innkreis, a municipality in the district of Braunau am Inn in Upper Austria
 * Polling in Tirol, a municipality in the district of Innsbruck-Land in Tyrol

Germany

 * Poll, Cologne, a quarter of Cologne, Germany
 * Polling, Mühldorf, a municipality in the district of Mühldorf in Bavaria
 * Polling, Weilheim-Schongau, a municipality in the district of Weilheim-Schongau in Bavaria

Other uses

 * Deed poll, a legal document binding only to a single person or party
 * Poll, the part of a claw hammer head containing its driving face
 * Poll tax (disambiguation), several related forms of taxation
 * Polling (usually spelled "poleing"), standing up with arms to the sides in unusual public spaces; a variant of planking
 * Polling or pollarding, cutting the upper part of a tree and allowing it to regrow
 * Push poll, an interactive marketing technique or political [mis-]information campaign designed to appear as an opinion poll

title: Poll


text:
Solfatara (volcano)

Solfatara (Solfatara di Pozzuoli) is a shallow volcanic crater at Pozzuoli, near Naples, part of the Phlegraean Fields (Campi Flegrei) volcanic area. It is a dormant volcano, which still emits jets of steam with sulfurous fumes. The name comes from the Latin, Sulpha terra, "land of sulfur", or "sulfur earth". It was formed around 4000 years ago and last erupted in 1198 with what was probably a phreatic eruption – an explosive steam-driven eruption caused when groundwater interacts with magma. The crater floor was a popular tourist attraction until 2017, as it has many fumaroles and mud pools. The area is well known for its bradyseism. The vapours had been used for medical purposes since Roman times.

This volcano is where the thermoacidophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus was first isolated. The archaeon is named for the volcano, as most species of the genus Sulfolobus are named for the area where they are first isolated.

Notable events
Saint Proculus (the patron saint of Pozzuoli) and Saint Januarius (the patron saint of Naples) were beheaded at Solfatara in 305.

In 2017, three people—an 11-year-old boy and his parents—died, when they fell into a chasm. Initial rumors that claimed that the boy had entered an off-limits area of the crater were declared false by an eyewitness who had watched the scene unfold from her balcony. According to the eyewitness, the family were on the official walking path, when the 11-year-old slipped into the unsecured chasm. His parents died in an attempt to save him. The only survivor was the boy's 7-year-old brother.

title: Solfatara (volcano)


text:
Advanced Info Service

Advanced Info Service Public Company Limited (AIS) is Thailand's largest GSM mobile phone operator with 39.87 million customers as of Q3 2016. Founded in April 1985, AIS started off as a computer rental business. In October 1990, it launched analog 900 MHz mobile phone services with a 20-year monopoly concession from the Telephone Organization of Thailand (TOT), and later became the first company allowed to operate on the GSM-900 frequency. It acquired Shinawatra Paging in June 1992.

The company is controlled by the Intouch Holdings (formerly Shin Corporation), headed by Temasek Holdings, a Singapore government-owned agency. AIS listed on the Stock Exchange of Thailand on November 5, 1991. As of 23 December 2011, Intouch holds 40.45 percent of the shares of the company and Singapore Telecommunications (also majority-held by Temasek) together with Thai Trust Fund and OCBC Nominees holds a 23.32 percent stake.

Temasek bought the AIS brand through the 2006 acquisition of the Shin Corporation from ousted former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra.

In February 2014, in a conflict between the People's Democratic Reform Committee (PRDC) and Shinawatra, the PDRC called for a boycott of AIS, wrongly believing it to be owned by the Shinawatra family.

Subsidiaries

 * Advanced Contact Center Company Limited (ACC) – operate AIS Call Center 1175 and 1148
 * Advanced Datanetwork Communications Company Limited (ADC) – provide online data communication service via telephone lines under the name "Datanet", licensed by TOT
 * DataNetwork Solutions Company Limited (DNS) – provide online data communication service via telephone lines under the name "Datanet" in the provincial area
 * mPay – payment processing and e-wallet service

mPay
mPay, an AIS subsidiary, is a payment processor and one of Thailand's three major payment service providers. Its partners include CIMB and 2C2P.

According to a 2014 article in The Nation, mPay has around 1.6 million registered users, of which roughly 1.2 million are end-users and 400,000 are mPay agents. 150,000 of mPay's end-users use the service monthly, spending on average 30,000 baht. In November 2015, four million people in Thailand used mPay, and in August 2013, mPay had around 700 merchant partners.

Services and coverage
As of August 2019, AIS is the largest network in Thailand, with 40.1 million subscribers. In addition to post pay services, AIS offers prepaid services under the 1-2-Call brand.

Currently (2020) data is sold in time-based, volume-based and unlimited packages.

AIS operates 2G, 3G WCDMA/HSPA+, LTE, 5G NR, NB-IoT, and eMTC networks.

Wi-Fi hotspots
AIS owns and operates more than 100,000 Wi-Fi hotspots under the name "AIS SUPER WIFI."

Next G
In 2017 AIS announced it has teamed up with Samsung Electronics to combine Wi-Fi and LTE in a gigabit-speed mobile service called AIS Next G. The new network is estimated to be 15 times faster than the existing LTE and four times faster than the tri-band LTE-A, the fastest wireless network currently available in Thailand.

AIS Play
AIS also provides online multiplatform entertainment, business and financial services called AIS Play, launched on 1 February 2017. AIS Play was the first Thai OTT TV with 4K resolution and VOD. Programming From Warner Bros. Discovery Asia-Pacific: Programming From Paramount Global (Asia) Programming From Rock Entertainment:
 * Warner TV
 * HLN
 * Cartoon Network
 * CNN International
 * Discovery Asia
 * Discovery Channel
 * Animal Planet
 * TLC
 * Asian Food Channel
 * Food Network Asia
 * Eurosport
 * HBO
 * Cinemax
 * HBO Hits
 * HBO Family
 * HBO Signature
 * HBO On Demand (On Demand, TBA)
 * HGTV (Coming Soon)
 * Travel Channel (Coming Soon)
 * Cartoonito
 * Nickelodeon (Include On Demand)
 * Nick Jr. (Include On Demand)
 * MTV Live (Coming Soon)
 * MTV 90s (Coming Soon)
 * MTV India (Coming Soon)
 * Rock Entertainment
 * Rock Action
 * Love Nature
 * ZooMoo (Coming Soon)

Programming From BBC Studios Programming From KC Global Media Asia (Coming Soon) Programming From A+E Network Asia (Coming Soon) Programming From CJ ENM HK (Coming Soon) Programming From Other Channels: Subscription Apps Freemium channels:
 * BBC News
 * BBC First (On Demand, TBA)
 * BBC Brit (On Demand, TBA)
 * BBC Earth (Coming Soon)
 * BBC Lifestyle
 * CBeebies (Coming Soon)
 * AXN
 * Animax
 * GEM
 * ONE
 * Colors MENA
 * Colors Rishtey
 * Colors Asia
 * MTV India
 * History
 * Crime + Investigation
 * Lifetime
 * tvN (Localized Feed, Programming Shares With Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines Premium Feed)
 * TVBS Asia (Coming Soon)
 * beIN Sports (1-3)
 * Techstorm
 * TVB Xing He (Coming Soon)
 * NHK World Premium (Coming Soon, A La carte Only.)
 * SPOTV (Include SPOTV & SPOTV2, Coming Soon)
 * Disney+ Hotstar (Exclusive Disney+ Hotstar privilege is for AIS customers who use AIS mobile number)
 * Viu
 * WeTV
 * Netflix
 * NHK World Japan
 * France 24
 * Cartoonito (Localized Feed)
 * CNA
 * DW
 * Euronews
 * Al Jazeera English
 * Arirang TV
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title: Advanced Info Service


text:
Shang Yang

Shang Yang (c. 390 – 338 BC), also known as Wei Yang and originally surnamed Gongsun, was a statesman, chancellor and reformer of the State of Qin. Born in the Zhou vassal state of Wey during the Warring States period, he took up office in the Qin state, where his policies laid the administrative, political and economic foundations that would eventually enable Qin to conquer the other six rival states, unifying China into a centralized rule for the first time in history under the Qin dynasty. Scholars consider it likely that both he and his followers contributed to The Book of Lord Shang, a foundational philosophical work for the school of Chinese legalism.

Biography
Shang Yang was born as the son of a concubine to the ruling family of the minor state Wey (衞). His surname (氏, lineage name) was Gongsun and his personal name Yang. As a member of the Wei family, he was also known as Wei Yang.

At a young age, Yang studied law and obtained a position under Prime Minister Shuzuo of Wei (魏, not the same as his birth state). With the support of Duke Xiao of Qin, Yang left his lowly position in Wei to become the chief adviser in Qin. His numerous reforms transformed the peripheral Qin state into a militarily powerful and strongly centralized kingdom. Changes to the state's legal system (which were said to have been built upon Li Kui's Canon of Laws) propelled the Qin to prosperity. Enhancing the administration through an emphasis on meritocracy, his policies weakened the power of the feudal lords.

In 341 BC, Qin attacked the state of Wei. Yang personally led the Qin army to defeat Wei, and eventually Wei ceded the land west of the Yellow River to Qin. For his role in the war, Yang received 15 cities in Shang as his personal fief and became known as the lord of Shang (Shang Jun) or Shang Yang. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, with his personal connections while serving in the court of Wei, Shang Yang invited Gongzi Ang, the Wei general, to negotiate a peace treaty. As soon as Ang arrived, he was taken prisoner, and the Qin army attacked, successfully defeating their opponents.

Gongsun oversaw the construction of Xianyang. and Mark Edward Lewis considered reorganization of the military as potentially responsible for the orderly plan of roads and fields throughout north China. This might be far fetched, but Yang was as much a military reformer as a legal one.

The Shang Yang school of thought was favoured by Emperor Wu of Han, and John Keay mentions that Tang figure Du You was drawn to Shang Yang.

Reforms
He is credited by Han Fei, often considered to be the greatest representative of Chinese Legalism (法家), with the creation of two theories;

 * 1) "fixing the standards"
 * 2) "equality before the law"

Believing in the rule of law and considering loyalty to the state above that of the family, Yang introduced two sets of changes to the State of Qin. The first, in 356 BC, were:
 * 1) Li Kui's Book of Law was implemented, with the important addition of a rule providing punishment equal to that of the perpetrator for those aware of a crime but failing to inform the government. He codified reforms into enforceable laws. The laws were stringent and multitudinous reformed by Yang and the punishments were strict.
 * 2) Assigning land to soldiers based upon their military successes and stripping nobility unwilling to fight of their land rights. The army was separated into twenty military ranks, based upon battlefield achievements. The reform of military made Qin citizens willing to join the army and helped the Qin dynasty build the military power necessary to unify China.
 * 3) As manpower was short in Qin, Yang encouraged the cultivation of unsettled lands and wastelands and immigration, favouring agriculture over luxury commerce (though also paying more recognition to especially successful merchants).

Yang introduced his second set of changes in 350 BC, which included a new standardized system of land allocation and reforms to taxation.

The vast majority of Yang's reforms were taken from policies instituted elsewhere, such as from Wu Qi of the State of Chu; however, Yang's reforms were more thorough and extreme than those of other states, and monopolized policy in the hands of the ruler. Under his tenure, Qin quickly caught up with and surpassed the reforms of other states.

Domestic policies
Yang introduced land reforms, privatized land, rewarded farmers who exceeded harvest quotas, enslaved farmers who failed to meet quotas, and used enslaved subjects as (state-owned) rewards for those who met government policies.

As manpower was short in Qin relative to the other states at the time, Yang enacted policies to increase its manpower. As Qin peasants were recruited into the military, he encouraged active migration of peasants from other states into Qin as a replacement workforce; this policy simultaneously increased the manpower of Qin and weakened the manpower of Qin's rivals. Yang made laws forcing citizens to marry at a young age and passed tax laws to encourage raising multiple children. He also enacted policies to free convicts who worked in opening wastelands for agriculture.

Yang partly abolished primogeniture (depending on the performance of the son) and created a double tax on households that had more than one son living in the household, to break up large clans into nuclear families.

Yang moved the capital from the city of Yueyang to Xianyang, in order to reduce the influence of nobles on the administration. Xianyang remained Qin's capital until its fall in 207 BC.

Death
Yang was deeply despised by the Qin nobility and became vulnerable after the death of Duke Xiao. The next ruler, King Huiwen, ordered the nine familial exterminations against Yang and his family, on the grounds of fomenting rebellion. Yang had previously humiliated the new duke "by causing him to be punished for an offense as though he were an ordinary citizen." According to Zhan Guo Ce, Yang went into hiding; at one point Yang was refused a room at an inn because one of his own laws prevented admission of a guest without proper identification.

Yang was executed by jūliè (: dismemberment by being fastened to five chariots, cattle or horses and being torn to pieces); his whole family was also executed. Despite his death, King Huiwen kept the reforms enacted by Yang.

A number of alternate versions of Yang's death have survived. According to Sima Qian in his Records of the Grand Historian, Yang first escaped to Wei. However, he was hated there for his earlier betrayal of Gongzi Ang and was expelled. Yang then fled to his fiefdom, where he raised a rebel army but was killed in battle. After the battle, King Hui of Qin had Yang's corpse torn apart by chariots as a warning to others.

Following the execution of Yang, King Huiwen turned away from the central valley south to conquer Sichuan (Shu and Ba) in what Steven Sage calls a "visionary reorientation of thinking" toward material interests in Qin's bid for universal rule.

Assessments
A. F. P. Hulsewé considered Shang Yang the "founder of the school of law", and considers his unification of punishments one of his most important contributions; that is, giving the penalty of death to any grade of person disobeying the king's orders. Shang Yang even expected the king, though the source of law (authorizing it), to follow it. This treatment is in contrast to ideas more typical of archaic society, more closely represented in the Rites of Zhou as giving different punishments to different strata of society.

Hulsewe points out that Sima Tan considered equal treatment the "school of law's" most salient point: "They do not distinguish between close and far relatives, nor do they disriminate between noble and humble, but in a uniform manner they decide on them in law." The Han dynasty adopted essentially the same denominations of crimes, and conception of equality, as Shang Yang set down for Qin, without collective punishment of the three sets of relatives.

Shang Yang appeared to act according to his own teachings, and translator Duvendak (1928) references him as being considered "like a bamboo‑frame which keeps a bow straight, and one could not get him out of his straightness", even if spoken of by some pre-modern Chinese in ill regard with the fall of Qin. Duvendak believed that Shang Yang should be of interest not just to Sinologists, but Western Jurists as well.

Despite traditional history's dim view, Sima Qian recounts the immediate effect of his policies as such: After [the ordinances] had been in effect for ten years, the commoners of Qin were delighted; no one picked up articles lost on the road, there were no bandits or thieves in the mountains, households were well provided for and the people were well off. The commoners were brave in the duke’s battles but cowardly in private feuds and the townships and cities were in good order. (Sima Qian 1994a, 90)

In fiction and popular culture

 * Portrayed by Shi Jingming in The Legend of Mi Yue (2015) as a guest appearance, depicting his execution.
 * Portrayed by Wang Zhifei in the TV series The Qin Empire as a main character.

title: Shang Yang