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German Expellees

The German Expellees or Heimatvertriebene (, "homeland expellees") are 12–16 million German citizens (regardless of ethnicity) and ethnic Germans (regardless of citizenship) who fled or were expelled after World War II from parts of Germany annexed by Poland and the Soviet Union and from other countries (the so-called einheitliches Vertreibungsgebiet, i.e. uniform territory of expulsion ), who found refuge in both West and East Germany, and Austria.

Refugees who had fled voluntarily but were later refused permission to return are often not distinguished from those who were forcibly deported. By the definition of the West German Federal Expellee Law, enacted on 19 May 1953, refugees of German citizenship or German ethnicity, whose return to their home places was denied, were treated like expellees, thus the frequent general usage of the term expellees for refugees alike.

Distinguished are refugees and expellees who had neither German citizenship nor German ethnicity but as a matter of fact had fled or been expelled from their former domiciles and stranded in West Germany or West Berlin before 1951. They were taken care of – as part of the displaced persons – by international refugee organisations until 1951 and then by West German authorities granting them the extra status of "heimatloser Ausländer" with preferential naturalisation rules, distinct from other legal aliens or stateless people. Occupational functionaries and other German expatriates, who had moved to German-annexed or German-occupied foreign territory only due to the war were not considered expellees by law unless they showed circumstances (such as marrying a resident of the respective area) providing for the intention to settle abroad also for the time after the war. Besides the narrow legal definition for the Heimatvertriebene, there were also other groups accepted as Vertriebene (expellees) such as the Aussiedler. These comprised refugees and emigrants either originally of foreign citizenship but of German ethnicity, or who themselves or whose ancestors had involuntarily lost German citizenship, coming from the above-mentioned uniform territory of expulsion or from Albania, Bulgaria, China, Romania, the Soviet Union, or Yugoslavia, and arriving only after the end of general expulsions but not later as 31 December 1992.

In a document signed in 1950 the Heimatvertriebene organisations recognised the plight of the different groups of people living in today's Poland who were resettled there by force. The Heimatvertriebene are just one (but by far the largest) of the groups of millions of other people, from many different countries, who all found refuge in today's Germany.

Some of the expellees are active in politics and belong to the political right wing. In West Germany in 1950, a special expellee party - All-German Bloc/League of Expellees and Deprived of Rights (GB/BHE) was founded, that was active in the 1950s. Many others do not belong to any organizations, but they continue to maintain what they call a lawful right to their homeland. The vast majority pledged to work peacefully towards that goal while rebuilding post-war Germany and Europe.

The expellees are still highly active in German politics, and are one of the major social groups of the nation, with around 2 million members. A president of the Federation of Expellees was a member of the Bundestag. Although expellees and their descendants were active in West German politics, the prevailing political climate within West Germany was that of atonement for Nazi actions. However, the CDU governments have shown considerable support for the expellees and German civilian victims.

Expellee towns
As a result of the huge influx of expellees, there was a massive increase of population in some areas such as Mecklenburg (where population numbers doubled), and in some places the previous homogeneity of the population was broken by Protestant expellees moving to a purely Catholic area or vice versa. The population numbers of a number of small settlements in West Germany exploded permanently due to a refugee camp on their territory or nearby. Examples of this phenomenon include Neugablonz, a quarter of Kaufbeuren in Bavaria, founded by the expellees and named after Gablonz (Jablonec nad Nisou). Neugablonz nowadays makes up a third of the town's population. An extreme example of the population explosion is Neutraubling (also in Bavaria), which had 53 inhabitants in 1947, 1300 in 1951, and 3800 in 1960. Since the refugee camps were mostly located on the sites of former hidden ammunition factories, most of these Vertriebenenstädte are located in a (former) forest. See also Espelkamp.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: German Expellees


text:
Idaho State University

Idaho State University (ISU) is a public research university in Pocatello, Idaho. Founded in 1901 as the Academy of Idaho, Idaho State offers more than 250 programs at its main campus in Pocatello and locations in Meridian, Idaho Falls, and Twin Falls. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity ".

More than 12,000 students attend Idaho State, with 57 percent of enrollment female and 43 percent male. The student-teacher ratio at Idaho State is 13:1 and 58 percent of students take classes full-time.

History
On March 11, 1901, Governor Frank W. Hunt signed Senate Bill 53, to establish the Academy of Idaho, contingent upon private land donations being made for its site. Theodore F. Turner, mayor of Pocatello, settled the issue (Battle of the Blocks) by securing a permanent location for the academy. The Academy of Idaho officially opened its doors on September 22, 1902. Theodore Swanson, a member of the board of trustees, secured the services of John W. Faris as the first administrator, with the title of principal. By 1910, enrollment had reached nearly 300 students, and the academy had purchased four additional city blocks in Pocatello to meet its growing needs.

The Academy of Idaho was renamed Idaho Technical Institute in 1915. The end of World War I brought an influx of students to the school, and enrollment surged to more than 1,000 students. In the early 1920s, the institution officially adopted the Bengal as the school's mascot. Ralph Hutchinson was head football coach from 1920 to 1927, and he pushed to establish the tiger mascot and incorporate orange and black as the official colors. Hutchinson was an alumnus of Princeton, a university with a tiger mascot.

The institution was renamed in 1927, this time as the University of Idaho–Southern Branch, and continued as a two-year school, overseen by John R. Nichols. an executive dean. During World War II, Idaho was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program, which offered students a path to a Navy commission.

After Nichols left in 1946, Carl McIntosh, an associate professor of speech, was named the acting executive dean in January 1947. That March, the school was elevated to four-year status and officially became Idaho State College. At the age of 32, McIntosh was appointed the first president of Idaho State College, and he was one of the youngest college presidents in the United States. Although McIntosh was not originally interested in being an administrator, once the school became an independent college, he decided to remain president and see the institution through its early growing pains. Idaho State College was accredited as a four-year degree granting institution in December 1948, after much work by McIntosh and the faculty. Enrollment reached 2,000 in 1949. McIntosh left ISC in 1959 to become president of Long Beach State College, and he was succeeded by Donald E. Walker.

In 1963, ISC was renamed for the fifth and final time to Idaho State University, reflecting its new status as a four-year public university. In the ensuing years, Idaho State continuously expanded both its enrollment and the programs it offered. The presidency of Richard (Dick) Bowen, from 1985 to 2005, is particularly regarded as an era of growth. Bowen served as the president of Idaho State for 20 years, and Connie, his wife, dedicated her time to cultivating community relationships and enhancing long-standing campus traditions. During their tenure at ISU, the Bowens brought several projects forward, including the Stephens Performing Arts Center and Rendezvous Center. Bowen resigned after a vote of no confidence from the faculty, who were angered by generous pay raises for administration members in the midst of calls for fiscal austerity.

Arthur Vailas, former vice chancellor of the University of Houston System and vice president of the University of Houston in Texas, became president of Idaho State on July 1, 2006. He succeeded Michael Gallagher, who had served as interim president for one year during the transition. In February 2011, a majority of ISU faculty voted no confidence in Vailas and called for his resignation. This was also followed by a vote of no confidence by the students. Although Vailas faced mounting criticism and pressure from faculty and students to step down, he refused to resign and campus tension intensified. In February 2011, the Idaho State Board of Education decided to suspend the University's faculty senate. As a result of the move, in June 2011, the American Association of University Professors censured ISU. In June 2019, the AAUP removed Idaho State from the list of sanctioned institutions.

Vailas announced his retirement in August 2017, but he continued to serve as president until the expiration of his contract on June 17, 2018. He was succeeded by Kevin D. Satterlee.

Points of interest
The elevation of its main campus in Pocatello is approximately 4550 ft above sea level.

Idaho State, along with the Idaho National Laboratory and other Idaho universities, worked to establish the Center for Advanced Energy Studies in 2007. Renovation of the ESTEC building began in summer 2007, after a team from ISU's College of Technology, Idaho National Laboratory, and Partners for Prosperity received grants totaling more than $2.5 million.

In fiscal year 2011, ISU underwent a reorganization designed to allow for better interdisciplinary research and collaboration. The School of Performing Arts was created to allow students to collaborate, learn, and perform at the next level. The Kasiska Division of Health Sciences, which includes the College of Pharmacy and College of Health, was reorganized to provide interdisciplinary education while serving the community through ISU's 18 clinics.

In 2011, ISU purchased the $3.6 million former Ballard Medical facility and The ISU Research and Innovation in Science and Engineering Complex (RISE) was created. At that time, research was focused on a Crystal Growth Laboratory (it can grow giant crystals to support nuclear science and engineering programs), High Power Laser/Optics Laboratory, Imaging Laboratory, and a Human Interactive Environment Simulation Laboratory. RISE was eventually closed, and the facility underwent a remodel to become the William M. and Karin A. Eames Advanced Technical Education and Innovations Complex, which is home to many College of Technology programs.

Academics
Established in 2011, the Career Path Internship (CPI) program provides students an opportunity to gain professional experience while in school. All CPI internships are paid positions that are aligned with the student's major or career goals. In 2016 the CPI program provided professional experience in approximately 1,000 internships both on and off campus. The CPI program has seen exceptional growth in past years with a 2016 budget estimated at $2.3 million.

ISU offers two doctoral level nursing programs after the Idaho State Board of Education approved a doctoral degree in advanced nursing practice, which will now give ISU two doctoral-level nursing programs. The first offered is a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree in nursing beginning summer 2013 and the only one in the state.

ISU received top designation for nuclear training and was tagged Regional Center of Excellence. The Energy Systems Technology and Education Center (ESTEC) at the ISU College of Technology will soon be coordinating the nuclear energy education and training for technicians in a nine-state region. The Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) has designated ESTEC as the Northwest Regional Center of Excellence for Nuclear Education and Training. The top designation includes the states of Idaho, Montana, Washington, Oregon, South Dakota, North Dakota, Utah, and Nebraska. ESTEC is one of five regional NEI-designated centers in the country.

ISU's new doctoral experimental psychology program, the only program of its type in Idaho, accepted its first three students fall 2011. The new experimental psychology doctoral program complements ISU's doctoral clinical psychology program, created in the early 1990s. Eventually, the experimental psychology program plans to accept six students annually. A new Idaho State University geosciences doctoral program is approved to begin in August 2013.

The Center for Sports Concussion at ISU, opened in 2009, is housed within the Department of Sport Science and Physical Education. The purpose of the Center for Sports Concussion is to offer educational outreach on concussion identification and management practices to athletic administrators, coaches, and parent groups throughout Idaho in accordance with Idaho law and demonstrated need, and to facilitate baseline and post-concussion neuro-cognitive testing to athletes participating in sports programs throughout eastern Idaho.

The university awards The Teaching Literature Book Award for the best book on teaching literature at the post-secondary or graduate level. The prize is conferred in odd numbered years, and the inaugural award was conferred in 2015. Past winners included Nancy Sorkin Rabinowitz and Fiona McHardy for the book From Abortion to Pederasty: Addressing Difficult Topics in the Classics Classroom.

Research
At the CORE, ISU faculty and students are performing research and scholarship that is leading to the mechanistic understanding of autism, the relationship between sleep and addictive behaviors, and incorporating research into evidence-based practice. In 2010 ISU obtained a new biochemistry laboratory and was finished in time for the fall 2011 semester.

In 2012 ISU researchers in the Bearden Vascular Health Laboratory found clues on how to block the effects of a chemical in the brain that contributes to dementia and strokes. The fight against dementia is gaining ground at Idaho State University thanks to ongoing research that could one day change the way the disease is prevented.

In 2013 A team of Idaho State University researchers discovered that fish show autism-like gene expression after exposure to water containing psychoactive pharmaceuticals. This study was published in June in the open access journal PLoS ONE and was widely publicized nationally and internationally.

Health sciences
Idaho State's Kasiska Division of Health Sciences (KDHS) houses the majority of health-related professional programs in Idaho. The KDHS Family Medicine Residency Program is the only medical education program sponsored by an Idaho university.

Each year, the ISU Health Center receives more than 10,000 visits from students. The center treats patients for all types of medical issues and consultation costs are lower in comparison to mainstream health services across the country.

In 2009, Idaho State opened a new campus in Meridian, Idaho that delivers health professional programs as an addition to Idaho's Project 60 economic development initiative. In 2011 the Delta Dental Clinic was opened at the ISU-Meridian Health Science Center to serve low-income patients and provide advanced training for dentists. The 52000 sqft clinic consists of 17 clinical treatment rooms.

The ISU Meridian Health Science Center plans to open a new anatomy and physiology lab in 2014. The new lab, consisting of "state of the art" virtual applications, will allow students to work directly with the human body and its functions.

Arts
In 1998, Idaho State University received a gift of $10 million from Thelma E. Stephens. It was seed funding for the $34 million center that would bear the Stephens' names. Construction began June 10, 2002. The center's design and construction was funded primarily through the support of hundreds of private donors as part of the university's $152.5 million capital campaign to fund a variety of needs. In fall 2013, ISU began to offer a bachelor's degree in dance. The new major is the only one of its kind offered within Idaho's university system. With the new Bachelor of Arts degree in choreography and performance, ISU's School of Performing Arts now consists of majors in music, theatre and dance.

Student life

Student government is administered by the Associated Students of Idaho State University (ASISU). Each year a president and vice-president are elected by the student body to administer and oversee a variety of activities either partially or fully funded by tuition-based fees. The ASISU Senate is the association's legislative body. Made up of 20 student members elected by the students of each individual college (allocation of seats being based on enrollment of each college), the ASISU Senate is primarily responsible for allocating the ASISU budget.

The Student Activities Board, formerly the ASISU Program Board, oversees most of the student activity programming on campus. The board plans concerts, movie showings, homecoming activities, athletic-related events and other activities generally associated with student life.

Reed Gym features recreational facilities, including a climbing wall, swimming pool, tennis courts, and more. The Pond Student Union operates a movie theater, billiard room, and bowling alley, and hosts many student club activities. Fine arts events are regularly featured at the performing arts theater.

ISU has more than 140 registered professional, academic, cultural, service and social student organizations. The cultural organizations host some of the largest events on campus with their "Cultural Nights" celebrations. There are currently four fraternity and sorority chapters that are recognized by the university.

Students at ISU are represented by the Associated Students of Idaho State University (ASISU). Every year the students elect a president, vice-president, and 20 senators. ASISU has administrative oversight of the 140 student organizations and provides funding to various groups that provide student involvement, leadership and service opportunities and events.

Student media on campus includes The Bengal, a weekly student-run newspaper and KISU-FM (91.1). KISU-FM broadcasts from the first floor of the Pond Student Union, serving the university and surrounding communities with alternative music, NPR programming, and live coverage of ISU women athletics. In 2010, KISU-FM and the university developed a monthly public affairs talk show FIRST MONDAY: Idaho State University Forum. The show provides insight into the university's programs, accomplishments and local interests.

The Pond Student Union, or SUB, serves as the community center for the university. The SUB consists of three floors that house among other things the campus bookstore, student government and organization offices, Outdoor Adventure Center, craft shop, ISU Credit Union, offices of the Vice President for Student Affairs, bowling alley, movie theater, Veterans Sanctuary, LEAD Center and numerous conference/banquet rooms used for meeting and large scale campus events. The SUB is also home for Campus Connection, a one stop shop for event tickets, photo ID and campus information (282-INFO).

The 255,000 square foot, five-level Rendezvous Complex built in 2007 is centrally located on the Idaho State University campus. The complex houses 50 classrooms, ranging from 15-seat seminar rooms to a 250-seat lecture hall. Other facilities in the Rendezvous include a large computer center and a large meeting room with partitions for conversion into three small meeting rooms, 80 student apartments with 301 beds and the Mind's Eye Art Gallery.

The Cooperative Wilderness Handicapped Outdoor Group, otherwise known as CW HOG, is a regional self-help group that was formed in 1981 to provide recreational opportunities for people of all abilities. CW HOG is kept going through dedicated volunteers.

In August 2010, Reed Gym announced the opening of a new addition, the Student Recreation Center, giving Reed nearly 100,000 square feet of recreational opportunities. Additions include added weight and endurance facilities, additional classrooms and teaching facilities, as well as open and window viewing areas to the four indoor tennis courts. Other amenities include racquetball courts, an auxiliary gym, a track, climbing wall, swimming pool, and spinning/multi-purpose rooms.

Student housing
Idaho State University operates several residence halls and apartment complexes for its students. Residence halls include Rendezvous Hall, Turner Hall, Nichols Hall, Owen Hall, and Redfield Hall. On-campus apartments include Bengal Studios, McIntosh Manor (Building #57), Pulling Courts (Building #53), Ridge Crest Townhomes (Building #54), Schubert Heights, University Courts, and West Campus Apartments.

Students with dependent children may live in McIntosh Manor, Pulling Courts, and Ridge Crest Townhouses. Residents are within the Pocatello/Chubbuck School District. Zoned schools include Washington Elementary School, Franklin Middle School, and Century High School.

Athletics
The Idaho State University Bengals compete as a member school of the Big Sky Conference in the NCAA Division I FCS. ISU won the NCAA Division I-AA national championship in football in 1981. It also won NCAA national championships in boxing as Idaho State College in 1953 and 1957.

In more recent years ISU has been competitive in track and field, winning the Big Sky Conference Indoor title in 2005 and 2006. The women's track and field team won their first outdoors women's Big Sky conference in 2007 with a score of 140.5 over Weber State. Dave Nielson was named the Big Sky Coach of the Year in women's track and field, and was later named the Mountain Region's Outdoor Women's Coach of the Year.

Home football games are played at the ICCU Dome (formerly known as Holt Arena), which has a seating capacity of 12,000 for football games and is the oldest enclosed stadium on a college campus in the United States. The ICCU Dome also hosts indoor track and field events.

For years the Bengals enjoyed athletic rivalries with the Boise State Broncos and the University of Idaho Vandals of Moscow. However, in football these rivalries diminished significantly after both BSU and UI left the Big Sky in 1996 to move up to Division I-A. The Bengals still enjoy a healthy rivalry in basketball with both the University of Idaho, who they have dominated in recent years; and Boise State, who has dominated ISU in recent years. With the University of Idaho moving back to Division I FCS in 2018, they, along with the Weber State Wildcats of Ogden, Utah, and the Portland State Vikings of Portland, Oregon, have become Idaho State's main rivals.

Idaho State also offers a rugby program that plays in Division II. Idaho State offers scholarships to rugby players in the form of allowing out-of-state students to pay the in-state tuition rate. Idaho State finished the 2010 regular season ranked ninth in Division II. Idaho State reached the semifinals of the 2011 Mountain 7s tournament, and reached the semifinals of the 2012 Pacific Coast championship.

In January 1968, the ISU student body voted on and approved the construction of the ASISU Minidome by a majority vote of 57 percent not to exceed $2.8 million and was financed by student revenue bonds. The Minidome opened in 1970 and was renamed as Holt Arena in 1988. It hosts on average 300,000 to 400,000 annually and events have an estimated annual economic impact of $15 to 20 million. Since its opening, Holt Arena events have provided roughly $600 million of economic impact to the local community.

Davis Field, home of ISU track and soccer, was built in 1936 as a public works project. It was originally called the "Spud Bowl" and is located at the base of Red Hill on lower campus. After Holt Arena was built, the football field became home to the Bengal track and field program, and the name was changed to honor Bud Davis, ISU's president from 1965 to 1975. In 1998, women's soccer was added as a varsity sport and Davis Field became its home.

ISU started a softball program in 1976, but the program was dropped after the 1983 season. In 2007, the program was reestablished. In 2011, Idaho State completed Miller Ranch Stadium, the home of Bengal softball. The Big Sky Conference added softball in 2013 and ISU won the first ever regular season Big Sky title. (40) ISU won the NCAA Division I-AA national championship in football in 1981. The Bengals also won NCAA national championships in boxing as Idaho State College in 1953 and 1957. ISU cross country team meets on the Centennial Course. The course is located east of the main campus at the Idaho State Research Park. The Bengals opened the course in 2002 and hosted the Big Sky Championship that same year.

Reed Gym is the refurbished home of Idaho State women's basketball, tennis, and volleyball. Featuring a seating capacity of 3,040, the building was remodeled in 2002 and officially reopened on December 17. It is also the home of the men's basketball team on occasions when Holt Arena is unavailable. In more recent years, ISU has been competitive in track and field, winning the Big Sky Conference indoor title in 2005 and 2006. The women's track and field team won its first women's outdoor Big Sky title in 2007. The women's soccer program won its fifth Big Sky Championship in 15 years in 2012 and the women's basketball program won its third Big Sky title since 2001.

In the spring of 2011, ISU's athletic department became fully certified without condition by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). In the summer of 2010, the university received NCAA certification with one condition. To meet the NCAA requirement, ISU constructed a new women's softball complex and increased funding for the program, completed new intercollegiate locker rooms for women's volleyball, softball and basketball, and increased the number of women's athletic scholarships.

Through partnerships between ISU Athletics, ISU Credit Union and Idaho Central Credit Union, ISU received a new basketball court and football field in 2011. The official name of the Bengal basketball facility is Idaho Central Credit Union Court at Holt Arena. Reed Gym is called Idaho Central Credit Union Court at Reed Gym.

In 2013, the ISU Athletics finished third in the Big Sky Conference President's Cup. The third-place finish was the highest ever by ISU's Athletics department. ISU placed first in the conference in overall academics. Academically, Idaho State had a record 183 student-athletes named to Big Sky All-Academic teams in the academic year.

University leaders

 * 1) John W. Faris (1902–1907) – Principal
 * 2) Miles F. Reed (1907–1918) – Principal
 * 3) Norman B. Adkison (1918–1919) – Interim
 * 4) Charles R. Frazier (1919–1925) – President
 * 5) Jesse E. Retherford (1925–1927) – President
 * 6) Martin F. Angell (1927–1929) – Executive Dean
 * 7) John R. Dyer (1929–1933) – Executive Dean
 * 8) John R. Nichols (1934–1942) – Executive Dean
 * 9) Ernest J. Baldwin (1942–1945) – Acting Dean
 * 10) John R. Nichols (1945–1947) – Interim
 * 11) Carl W. McIntosh (1947–1959) – President
 * 12) Donald E. Walker (1960–1964) – President
 * 13) William E. Davis (1965–1975) – President
 * 14) Charles Kegel (1975–1976) – Interim
 * 15) Myron L. Coulter (1976–1984) – President
 * 16) Richard L. Bowen (1985–2005) – President
 * 17) Michael C. Gallagher (2005–2006) – Interim
 * 18) Arthur C. Vailas (2006–2018) – President
 * 19) Kevin Satterlee (2018–2023) – President
 * 20) Brian Sagendorf (2023-2024) – Interim
 * 21) Robert W. Wagner (2024–present) – President

Notable alumni

 * Jared Allen – NFL defensive end, 2x NFL sacks leader (2007, 2011), 5x Pro Bowl (2007–2009, 2011, 2012)
 * Don Aslett – author, speaker and founder of Varsity Contractors Inc.
 * Ron Boone – current Utah Jazz announcer and former ABA player
 * Wally Buono – Canadian Football League head coach; winningest coach in CFL history
 * Bill Byrne – athletic director, Texas A&M University
 * Shay Carl Butler – YouTube content creator, co-founder of Maker Studios (did not graduate)
 * Jeff Charleston – NFL defensive end
 * Jeff Cook – former NBA player
 * Evan Dietrich-Smith – NFL offensive lineman, Super Bowl XLV champion
 * Stacy Dragila – 2000 Olympic gold medalist, women's pole vault
 * Matt Gutierrez – NFL quarterback
 * Josh Hill - New Orleans Saints tight end
 * Merril Hoge – ESPN commentator and Pittsburgh Steelers running back
 * Eddie Johnson – NFL punter
 * Stanley L. Klos – author, professional basketball player in Italy, United States Senate elections, 1994 West Virginia Republican nominee
 * Dirk Koetter – NFL head coach and offensive coordinator, former head coach for Boise State and Arizona State Football
 * Marvin Lewis – NFL head coach and defensive coordinator
 * Dustin Lind - director of hitting and assistant hitting coach for the San Francisco Giants
 * Fred S. Martin – Idaho senator (2012–2022)
 * James A. McClure – U.S. Senator (1973–1991)
 * Bruce Nelson – CEO, Office Depot (2000–2004)
 * William Petersen – actor, star of CSI: Las Vegas
 * Charles Potts – a prominent counter-culture poet and publisher
 * Ed Sanders – boxer, 1952 Olympic gold medalist
 * Antonio Taguba – retired United States Army major general
 * Sue Ane Langdon – actress
 * Roger Williams – pianist

title: Idaho State University


text:
User talk:Peter Capek

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

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title: User talk:Peter Capek


text:
USS San Marcos

Two ships of the United States Navy have been named USS San Marcos.

 * USS San Marcos (1911), was a battleship commissioned USS Texas (1892) in 1895 that saw action in the Spanish–American War, renamed in honor of San Marcos, Texas
 * USS San Marcos (LSD-25), was a dock landing ship, named in honor of Castillo de San Marcos, commissioned in 1945 that saw action at the end of World War II and later commissioned into the Spanish Navy as Galicia (TA31).

title: USS San Marcos


text:
User:PbS

PbS

I'm just some random person.

title: User:PbS


text:
Chancroid

Chancroid is a bacterial sexually transmitted infection characterized by painful sores on the genitalia. Chancroid is known to spread from one individual to another solely through sexual contact. However, there have been reports of accidental infection through the hand.

Signs and symptoms
These are only local and no systemic manifestations are present. The ulcer characteristically:
 * Ranges in size dramatically from 3 to 50 mm (1/8 inch to 2 inches) across
 * Is painful
 * Has sharply defined, undermined borders
 * Has irregular or ragged borders, described as saucer-shaped.
 * Has a base that is covered with a gray or yellowish-gray material
 * Has a base that bleeds easily if traumatized or scraped
 * Painful swollen lymph nodes occur in 30–60% of patients.
 * Dysuria (pain with urination) and dyspareunia (pain with intercourse) in females

About half of infected men have only a single ulcer. Women frequently have four or more ulcers, with fewer symptoms. The ulcers are typically confined to the genital region most of the time.

The initial ulcer may be mistaken as a "hard" chancre, the typical sore of primary syphilis, as opposed to the "soft chancre" of chancroid.

Approximately one-third of the infected individuals will develop enlargements of the inguinal lymph nodes, the nodes located in the fold between the leg and the lower abdomen.

Half of those who develop swelling of the inguinal lymph nodes will progress to a point where the nodes rupture through the skin, producing draining abscesses. The swollen lymph nodes and abscesses are often referred to as buboes.

Complications

 * Extensive lymph node inflammation may develop.
 * Large inguinal abscesses may develop and rupture to form draining sinus or giant ulcer.
 * Superinfection by Fusarium and Bacteroides. These later require debridement and may result in disfiguring scars.
 * Phimosis can develop in long-standing lesion by scarring and thickening of foreskin, which may subsequently require circumcision.

Males

 * Internal and external surface of prepuce.
 * Coronal sulcus
 * Frenulum
 * Shaft of penis
 * Prepucial orifice
 * Urethral meatus
 * Glans penis
 * Perineum area

Females

 * Labia majora is the most common site. "Kissing ulcers" may develop. These are ulcers that occur on opposing surfaces of the labia.
 * Labia minora
 * Fourchette
 * Vestibule
 * Clitoris
 * Perineal area
 * Inner thighs

Causes
Chancroid is a bacterial infection caused by the fastidious Gram-negative streptobacillus Haemophilus ducreyi. This pathogen is highly infectious . It is a disease found primarily in developing countries, most prevalent in low socioeconomic groups, associated with commercial sex workers.

Chancroid, caused by H. ducreyi has infrequently been associated with cases of Genital Ulcer Disease in the US but has been isolated in up to 10% of genital ulcers diagnosed from STI clinics in Memphis and Chicago.

Infection levels are very low in the Western world, typically around one case per two million of the population (Canada, France, Australia, UK and US). Most individuals diagnosed with chancroid have visited countries or areas where the disease is known to occur frequently, although outbreaks have been observed in association with crack cocaine use and prostitution.

Chancroid is a risk factor for contracting HIV, due to their ecological association or shared risk of exposure, and biologically facilitated transmission of one infection by the other. Approximately 10% of people with chancroid will have a co-infection with syphilis and/or HIV.

Pathogenesis
Haemophilus ducreyi enters skin through microabrasions incurred during sexual intercourse. The incubation period of the infection is 10 to 14 days, after which there is progression of the disease. A local tissue reaction leads to development of erythematous papule, which progresses to pustule in 4–7 days. It then undergoes central necrosis to ulcerate.

Variants
Some of clinical variants are as follows.

Laboratory findings
From bubo pus or ulcer secretions, H. ducreyi can be identified using special culture media; however, there is a <80% sensitivity. PCR-based identification of the organisms is available, but none in the United States are FDA-cleared. Simple, rapid, sensitive and inexpensive antigen detection methods for H. ducreyi identification are also popular. Serologic detection of H. ducreyi uses outer membrane protein and lipooligosaccharide. Most of the time, the diagnosis is based on presumptive approach using the symptomatology which in this case includes multiple painful genital ulcers .

Differential diagnosis
Despite many distinguishing features, the clinical spectrums of following diseases may overlap with chancroid: Practical clinical approach for this STI as Genital Ulcer Disease is to rule out top differential diagnosis of Syphilis and Herpes and consider empirical treatment for Chancroid as testing is not commonly done for the latter.
 * Primary syphilis
 * Genital herpes

Comparison with syphilis
There are many differences and similarities between the conditions syphilitic chancre and chancroid:

 * Similarities
 * Both originate as pustules at the site of inoculation, and progress to ulcerated lesions
 * Both lesions are typically 1–2 cm in diameter
 * Both lesions are caused by sexually transmissible organisms
 * Both lesions typically appear on the genitals of infected individuals
 * Both lesions can be present at multiple sites and with multiple lesions

 * Differences
 * Chancre is a lesion typical of infection with the bacterium that causes syphilis, Treponema pallidum
 * Chancroid is a lesion typical of infection with the bacterium Haemophilus ducreyi
 * Chancres are typically painless, whereas chancroid are typically painful
 * Chancres are typically non-exudative, whereas chancroid typically have a grey or yellow purulent exudate
 * Chancres have a hard (indurated) edge, whereas chancroid have a soft edge
 * Chancres heal spontaneously within three to six weeks, even in the absence of treatment
 * Chancres can occur in the pharynx as well as on the genitals

Prevention
Chancroid spreads in populations with high sexual activity, such as prostitutes. Use of condom, prophylaxis by azithromycin, syndromic management of genital ulcers, treating patients with reactive syphilis serology are some of the strategies successfully tried in Thailand. Also, treatment of sexual partners is advocated whether they develop symptoms or not as long as there was unprotected sexual intercourse with the patient within 10 days of developing the symptoms.

Treatment
For the initial stages of the lesion, cleaning with soapy solution is recommended and Sitz bath may be beneficial. Fluctuant nodules may require aspiration. Treatment may include more than one prescribed medication.

Antibiotics
Macrolides are often used to treat chancroid. The CDC recommendation is either a single oral dose (1 gram) of azithromycin, a single IM dose (250 mg) of ceftriaxone, oral (500 mg) of erythromycin three times a day for seven days, or oral (500 mg) of ciprofloxacin twice a day for three days. Due to a paucity of reliable empirical evidence it is not clear whether macrolides are actually more effective and/or better tolerated than other antibiotics when treating chancroid. Data is limited, but there have been reports of ciprofloxacin and erythromycin resistance.

Aminoglycosides such as gentamicin, streptomycin, and kanamycin has been used to successfully treat chancroid; however aminoglycoside-resistant strain of H. ducreyi have been observed in both laboratory and clinical settings.[7] Treatment with aminoglycosides should be considered as only a supplement to a primary treatment.

Pregnant and lactating women, or those below 18 years of age regardless of gender, should not use ciprofloxacin as treatment for chancroid. Treatment failure is possible with HIV co-infection and extended therapy is sometimes required.

Prognosis
Prognosis is excellent with proper treatment. Treating sexual contacts of affected individual helps break cycle of infection.

Follow-up
Within 3–7 days after commencing treatment, patients should be re-examined to determine whether the treatment was successful. Within 3 days, symptoms of ulcers should improve. Healing time of the ulcer depends mainly on size and can take more than two weeks for larger ulcers. In uncircumcised men, healing is slower if the ulcer is under the foreskin. Sometimes, needle aspiration or incision and drainage are necessary.

Epidemiology
Although the prevalence of chancroid has decreased in the United States and worldwide, sporadic outbreaks can still occur in regions of the Caribbean and Africa. Like other sexually transmitted infections, having chancroid increases the risk of transmitting and acquiring HIV.

History
Chancroid has been known to humans since time of ancient Greeks. Some of important events on historical timeline of chancre are:

title: Chancroid


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Talk:Legion of Super-Heroes

Gerry Conway bashing
In regards to this comment: "Ironically, this fell in the middle of what is widely considered to be a low point in the Legion's history. The Conway stories were not very well-received, and often seemed to lack ambition." This is an unsupportable, clearly subjective claim (can it be demonstrated that the stories were widely disliked, and what are the criteria for possessing "ambition" in regards to a 1980 mainstream super-team comic?). Generally speaking, comments like that are only appropriate if the alleged fan discontentment actually amounted to something (the Spider-Man Clone saga, for instance)

List of Legion of Super-Heroes members
Rather than many small quasi-stubs, could it not make sense to expand List of Legion of Super-Heroes members into a table? This would also make it simpler to track where and where not there are changes between the original and rebooted versions. unkamunka 02:15 15 Dec 2003 (UTC).

Is there any place in the article for a outline of the in-comic history of the Legion? --khaosworks 03:35, 24 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Sure! I'd suggest renaming the History header to Publication history, and adding a new section entitled Team history or Fictional biography, perhaps with sub-sections for the pre-reboot and post-reboot teams.  This will mirror the structure I've been using for some other DC articles, such as The Flash, Green Lantern and Hawkman. -mhr 03:42, 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Superman: The Man Of Steel Volume 4
I added this to the trade paperback section recently, since it includes The Death Of Superboy. That being the story that explains Clark Kent's/Superboy's existance in LOSH despite being out of existance Post Crisis.

Pic choices
Wow. This article is heavily biased with images of recent incarnations. Two of the post-ZH teens, two from the current version, one post-Infinite Crisis of the classic version and one cartoon version. Not a single image of the original team that's actually from that era. The Legion didn't suddenly spring into being in 1994, ya know.

Five Years Later
DC has released a second volume of the 5 Years Later era of LSH comics. At this point, the entire 5YL era been reprinted. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.219.24.2 (talk) 15:48, 13 June 2022 (UTC)

List of Legion of Super-Heroes items and The Legion Academy
Were WP:PRODDED by. I have WP:DEPRODDED to allow the fate of these articles to be discussed here. ~Kvng (talk) 21:29, 25 April 2023 (UTC)

 * Sure. Fate: merge or redirect (with some merge)? Or rescue, if someone can show they meet WP:GNG? Both seem very unlikely to survive an AfD. Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus| reply here 02:03, 26 April 2023 (UTC)
 * For a merge, WP:GNG does not apply to article content. ~Kvng (talk) 14:44, 28 April 2023 (UTC)
 * True, but most content here is unreferenced and what refs are here are primary. I don't think anything from either article is salvageable outside a redirect, but if anyone wants to try to merge stuff, I have no objection to seeing such an attempt. Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus| reply here 18:44, 28 April 2023 (UTC)

Page Creation
Can you create the page Monstress for me? Thanks Marvelvsdcvscapcomvssega (talk) 16:21, 8 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Legion of Super-Heroes


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Closed system

A closed system is a natural physical system that does not allow transfer of matter in or out of the system, although – in the contexts of physics, chemistry, engineering, etc. – the transfer of energy (e.g. as work or heat) is allowed.

In classical mechanics
In nonrelativistic classical mechanics, a closed system is a physical system that does not exchange any matter with its surroundings, and is not subject to any net force whose source is external to the system. A closed system in classical mechanics would be equivalent to an isolated system in thermodynamics. Closed systems are often used to limit the factors that can affect the results of a specific problem or experiment.

In thermodynamics

In thermodynamics, a closed system can exchange energy (as heat or work) but not matter, with its surroundings. An isolated system cannot exchange any heat, work, or matter with the surroundings, while an open system can exchange energy and matter. (This scheme of definition of terms is not uniformly used, though it is convenient for some purposes. In particular, some writers use 'closed system' where 'isolated system' is used here. )

For a simple system, with only one type of particle (atom or molecule), a closed system amounts to a constant number of particles. However, for systems which are undergoing a chemical reaction, there may be all sorts of molecules being generated and destroyed by the reaction process. In this case, the fact that the system is closed is expressed by stating that the total number of each elemental atom is conserved, no matter what kind of molecule it may be a part of. Mathematically:

 * $$\sum_{j=1}^m a_{ij}N_j=b_i$$

where $$N_j$$ is the number of j-type molecules, $$a_{ij}$$ is the number of atoms of element $$i$$ in molecule $$j$$ and $$b_i$$ is the total number of atoms of element $$i$$ in the system, which remains constant, since the system is closed. There will be one such equation for each different element in the system.

In thermodynamics, a closed system is important for solving complicated thermodynamic problems. It allows the elimination of some external factors that could alter the results of the experiment or problem thus simplifying it. A closed system can also be used in situations where thermodynamic equilibrium is required to simplify the situation.

In quantum physics
This equation, called Schrödinger's equation, describes the behavior of an isolated or closed quantum system, that is, by definition, a system which does not interchange information (i.e. energy and/or matter) with another system. So if an isolated system is in some pure state |ψ(t) ∈ H at time t, where H denotes the Hilbert space of the system, the time evolution of this state (between two consecutive measurements).

$$i\hbar \frac{\partial}{\partial t} \Psi(\mathbf{r}, t) = \hat{H} \Psi(\mathbf{r}, t) $$

where $i$ is the imaginary unit, $ħ$ is the Planck constant divided by $2π$, the symbol $∂⁄∂t$ indicates a partial derivative with respect to time $t$, $Ψ$ (the Greek letter psi) is the wave function of the quantum system, and $Ĥ$ is the Hamiltonian operator (which characterizes the total energy of any given wave function and takes different forms depending on the situation).

In chemistry
In chemistry, a closed system is where no reactants or products can escape, only heat can be exchanged freely (e.g. an ice cooler). A closed system can be used when conducting chemical experiments where temperature is not a factor (i.e. reaching thermal equilibrium).

In engineering
In an engineering context, a closed system is a bound system, i.e. defined, in which every input is known and every resultant is known (or can be known) within a specific time.

title: Closed system


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Flag of convenience

Flag of convenience (FOC) is a business practice whereby a ship's owners register a merchant ship in a ship register of a country other than that of the ship's owners, and the ship flies the civil ensign of that country, called the flag state. The term is often used pejoratively, and although common, the practice is sometimes regarded as contentious.

Each merchant ship is required by international law to be registered in a registry created by a country, and a ship is subject to the laws of that country, which are used also if the ship is involved in a case under admiralty law. A ship's owners may elect to register a ship in a foreign country so as to avoid the regulations of the owners' country, which may, for example, have stricter safety standards. They may also select a jurisdiction to reduce operating costs, avoiding higher taxes in the owners' country and bypassing laws that protect the wages and working conditions of mariners. The term "flag of convenience" has been used since the 1950s. A registry which does not have a nationality or residency requirement for ship registration is often described as an open registry. Panama, for example, offers advantages such as easier registration (often online), the ability to employ cheaper foreign labour, and an exemption on income taxes.

The modern practice of ships being registered in a foreign country began in the 1920s in the United States when shipowners seeking to serve alcohol to passengers during Prohibition registered their ships in Panama. Owners soon began to perceive advantages in terms of avoiding increased regulations and rising labor costs and continued to register their ships in Panama even after Prohibition ended. The use of open registries steadily increased, and in 1968, Liberia grew to surpass the United Kingdom with the world's largest ship register.

, more than half the world's merchant ships were registered with open registries, and almost 40% of the entire world fleet, in terms of deadweight tonnage, (DWT) were registered in Panama, Liberia, and the Marshall Islands. It is estimated that nearly two thirds of the world's fleet is registered in states to which they have no connection. According to the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), in January 2021, Panama had 6,653 ships on its registry (16 per cent of the global fleet by DWT), followed by Liberia (3,909), Marshall Islands (3,732), Singapore (2,541), and Hong Kong (2,440).

Background
Open registries have been criticised, mainly by trade union organisations based in developed countries, especially those in the European Union, United States, Japan, Canada, or the United Kingdom. One criticism is that shipowners who want to hide their ownership may select a flag-of-convenience jurisdiction which enables them to be legally anonymous. Some ships with flags of convenience have been found engaging in crime, offering substandard working conditions, and negatively impacting the environment, primarily through illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing. Prior to the implementation of the International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969, shipowners may have selected a jurisdiction with measurement rules that reduced the certified gross register tonnage of a ship, to reduce subsequent port of call dock dues. Such was a consideration when Carnival Cruise Line changed the flag of the RMS Empress of Canada in 1972 to that of Panama. In 2011, Cunard Line registered all its ships in Bermuda, which, besides other considerations, enabled its ship captains to marry couples at sea. Weddings at sea are described as a lucrative market.

, thirteen flag states have been found by international shipping organisations to have substandard regulations. On the other hand, maritime industry practitioners and seafarers from other countries contend that this is a natural product of globalisation. Supporters of the practice, however, point to economic and regulatory advantages, and increased freedom in choosing employees from an international labour pool. Publications from as early as 1962 argue that shipowners from developed countries use the practice to be competitive in a global environment.

Legal context
International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in a country. The country in which a ship is registered is its flag state, and the flag state gives the ship the right to fly its civil ensign. A ship operates under the laws of its flag state, and these laws are used if the ship is involved in an admiralty case. A ship's flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel and is required to inspect it regularly, certify the ship's equipment and crew, and issue safety and pollution prevention documents. The organization which actually registers the ship is known as its registry. Registries may be governmental or private agencies.

Reasons for adopting a flag of convenience
The reasons for choosing an open register are varied and include tax avoidance, the ability to avoid national labor and environmental regulations, and the ability to hire crews from lower-wage countries. National or closed registries typically require a ship be owned and constructed by national interests, and at least partially crewed by its citizens. Conversely, open registries frequently offer on-line registration with few questions asked. The use of flags of convenience lowers registration and maintenance costs, which in turn reduces overall transportation costs. The accumulated advantages can be significant, for example in 1999, 28 of the American company SeaLand's fleet of 63 ships were foreign-flagged, saving the company up to US$3.5 million per ship every year.

Accidents and reform

The environmental disaster caused by the 1978 sinking of the MV Amoco Cadiz, which flew the Liberian flag, spurred the creation of a new type of maritime enforcement. Resulting from strong political and public outcry over the Amoco Cadiz sinking, fourteen European nations signed the 1982 Paris Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control or Paris MOU. Under port state control, ships in international trade became subject to inspection by the states they visit. In addition to shipboard living and working conditions, these inspections cover items concerning the safety of life at sea and the prevention of pollution by ships. In cases when a port state inspection uncovers problems with a ship, the port state may take actions including detaining the ship. In 2015, member states of the Paris MOU conducted 17,858 inspections with deficiencies, which resulted in 595 detained vessels and 11 banned. Member states of the Tokyo Memorandum of Understanding conducted 17,269 ship inspections in 2015, recording 83,606 deficiencies which resulted in 1,153 detentions.

The principle that there be a genuine link between a ship's owners and its flag state dates back to 1958, when Article 5(1) of the Geneva Convention on the High Seas also required that "the state must effectively exercise its jurisdiction and control in administrative, technical and social matters over ships flying its flag." The principle was repeated in Article 91 of the 1982 treaty called the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and often referred to as UNCLOS. In 1986, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development attempted to solidify the genuine link concept in the United Nations Convention on Conditions for Registration of Ships. The Convention for Registration of Ships would require that a flag state be linked to its ships either by having an economic stake in the ownership of its ships or by providing mariners to crew the ships. To come into force, the 1986 treaty requires 40 signatories whose combined tonnage exceeds 25% of the world total. , only 14 countries have signed the treaty.

History
Merchant ships have used false flags as a tactic to evade enemy warships since antiquity, and examples can be found from as early as the Roman era through to the Middle Ages. Following the American Revolutionary War, merchantmen flying the flag of the fledgling United States quickly found it offered little protection against attack by Barbary pirates – many responded by seeking to transfer their registry back to Great Britain. The use of false flags was frequently used as a ruse de guerre by the British during the Napoleonic Wars and the United States during the War of 1812. During the mid-19th century, slave ships flew various flags to avoid being searched by British anti-slavery fleets. The Belen Quezada, in August 1919, was the first foreign ship to be re-registered in the Panamanian registry, and was employed in running illegal alcohol between Canada and the United States during Prohibition. The modern practice of registering ships in foreign countries to gain economic advantage originated in the United States in the era of World War I, though the term "flag of convenience" did not come into use until the 1950s.

Between 1915 and 1922, several laws were passed in the United States to strengthen the United States Merchant Marine and provide safeguards for its mariners. During this period, U.S.-flagged ships became subject to regular inspections undertaken by the American Bureau of Shipping. This was also the time of Robert LaFollette's Seamen's Act of 1915, which has been described as the "Magna Carta of American sailors' rights". The Seamen's Act regulated mariners' working hours, their payment, and established baseline requirements for shipboard food. It also reduced penalties for disobedience and abolished the practice of imprisoning sailors for the offense of desertion. Another aspect of the Seamen's Act was enforcement of safety standards, with requirements on lifeboats, the number of qualified able seamen on board, and that officers and seamen be able to speak the same language. These laws put U.S.-flagged vessels at an economic disadvantage against countries lacking such safeguards, and ships started to be re-registered in Panama's open registry from 1919. In addition to sidestepping the Seamen's Act, Panamanian-flagged ships in this early period paid sailors on the Japanese wage scale, which was much lower than that of western merchant powers. In the early phase of World War II the transfer of American-owned ships to the Panama registry was sanctioned by the United States government so that they could be used to deliver materials to Britain without dragging the United States, as a neutral, unintentionally into war.

The Liberian open registry, founded in 1948, was the brainchild of Edward Stettinius, who had been Franklin D. Roosevelt's Secretary of State during World War II. Stettinius created a corporate structure that included The Liberia Corporation, a joint-venture with the government of Liberia. The corporation was structured so that 25% of its revenue would go to the Liberian government, another 10% went to fund social programs in Liberia, and the remainder returned to Stettinius' corporation. The Liberian registry was created at a time when Panama's registry was becoming less attractive for several reasons including its unpopularity with the U.S. labor movement and European shipping concerns, political unrest in Panama, and increases in its fees and regulations.

On 11 March 1949, Greek shipping magnate Stavros Niarchos registered the first ship under the Liberian flag, World Peace. When Stettinius died in 1949, ownership of the registry passed to the International Bank of Washington, led by General George Olmsted. Within 18 years, Liberia grew to surpass the United Kingdom as the world's largest register.

Due to Liberia's 1989 and 1999 civil wars, its registry eventually fell second to Panama's flag of convenience, but maritime funds continued to supply 70% of its total government revenue. After the civil war of 1990, Liberia joined with the Republic of the Marshall Islands to develop a new maritime and corporate program. The resulting company, International Registries, was formed as a parent company, and in 1993 was bought out by its management. After taking over the Liberian government, Americo-Liberian warlord Charles Taylor signed a new registry contract with the Liberian International Ship and Corporate Registry, commonly known as LISCR. LISCR was one of the few legal sources of income for Taylor's regime. Liberia's registry is operated from Virginia, United States.

To counteract class hopping, in 2009 the International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) established a Transfer of Class Agreement (TOCA).

In 2016 one report said that "72 percent of all commercial shipping worldwide" adopted the flag of Panama.

, the open registries of Panama, Liberia, and Marshall Islands accounted for almost 40% of the entire world fleet by deadweight tonnage, maintaining roughly the same proportion for over a decade. In 2009, the top ten flags of convenience registered 55% of the world's deadweight tonnage, including 61% of bulk carriers and 56% of oil tankers; by 2021, they accounted for 38% of the world's vessels and over two-thirds of the global deadweight tonnage.

Extent of use
The International Transport Workers' Federation (ITF) maintains a list of registries it considers to be flags of convenience (FOC) registries. In developing the list, the ITF considers "ability and willingness of the flag state to enforce international minimum social standards on its vessels," the "degree of ratification and enforcement of ILO Conventions and Recommendations," and "safety and environmental record". , the list includes 43 countries.

, Panama, Liberia and the Marshall Islands are the world's three largest registries in terms of deadweight tonnage (DWT). These three organizations registered 11,636 ships of and above, for a total of : more than 39% of the world's shipborne carrying capacity. Panama dominates the scene with over 8,065 ships accounting for almost 23% of the world's DWT. Of the three, the Marshall Islands (with 1,265 registered ships) had the greatest rate of DWT increase in 2009, increasing its tonnage by almost 15%.

The Bahamian flag ranks sixth worldwide, behind the Hong Kong and Greek registries, but is similar in size to the Marshallese flag of convenience, with about 200 more ships but a carrying capacity about lower. Malta, at the ninth position worldwide, had about 100 more ships than the Bahamas, with a capacity of, representing 4% of the world fleet with 12% growth that year.

At the eleventh position, Cyprus registered 1,016 ships in 2009, 2.6% of world tonnage. The remaining top 11 flags of convenience are Antigua and Barbuda (#20), Bermuda (#22), Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (#26), and the French International Registry (RIF) at number No. 27. Bermuda and the FIS have fewer than 200 ships apiece, but they are large: the average Bermudan ship is and the average FIS ship is at. (By way of reference, the average capacity of ships in the U.S. and U.K. registers is and  respectively. ) The registries of Antigua and Barbuda and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines both have over 1,000 ships with average capacity of  and  respectively.

The remaining flags of convenience listed by the ITF each account for less than 1% of the world's DWT. , more than half of the world's merchant ships (measured by tonnage) are registered under flags of convenience.

Criticism
There are a number of common threads found in criticisms of the flag of convenience system. One is that these flag states have insufficient regulations and that those regulations they do have are poorly enforced. Another is that, in many cases, the flag state cannot identify a shipowner, much less hold the owner civilly or criminally responsible for a ship's actions. As a result of this lack of flag state control, flags of convenience are criticized on grounds of enabling tax avoidance, providing an environment for conducting criminal activities, supporting terrorism, providing poor working conditions for seafarers, and having an adverse effect on the environment.

David Cockroft, former general secretary of the ITF says:

"Arms smuggling, the ability to conceal large sums of money, trafficking in goods and people and other illegal activities can also thrive in the unregulated havens which the flag of convenience system provides."

Panama has the largest maritime register, followed by Liberia. Landlocked Mongolia also has a major registry, as does Bolivia. Also, some registers are based in other countries. For example, Panamanian overseas consulates manage the documentation and collect registration fees, Liberia's registry is managed by a company in Virginia and Bahamas' from the City of London.

Concealed ownership
A ship's beneficial owner is legally and financially responsible for the ship and its activities. For any of a number of reasons, some justifiable and some suspicious, shipowners who wish to conceal their ownership may use a number of strategies to achieve that goal.

In jurisdictions that permit it, actual owners may establish shell corporations to be the legal owners of their ships, making it difficult, if not impossible, to track who is the beneficial owner of the ship. The 2004 Report of the UN Secretary General's Consultative Group on Flag State Implementation reported that "It is very easy, and comparatively inexpensive, to establish a complex web of corporate entities to provide very effective cover to the identities of beneficial owners who do not want to be known."

According to a 2003 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report entitled "Ownership and Control of Ships", these corporate structures are often multi-layered, spread across numerous jurisdictions, and make the beneficial owner "almost impenetrable" to law enforcement officials and taxation. The report concludes that "regardless of the reasons why the cloak of anonymity is made available, if it is provided it will also assist those who may wish to remain hidden because they engage in illegal or criminal activities, including terrorists." The OECD report concludes that the use of bearer shares is "perhaps the single most important (and perhaps the most widely used) mechanism" to protect the anonymity of a ship's beneficial owner. Physically possessing a bearer share accords ownership of the corporation. There is no requirement for reporting the transfer of bearer shares, and not every jurisdiction requires that their serial numbers even be recorded.

Two similar techniques to provide anonymity for a ship's beneficial owner are "nominee shareholders" and "nominee directors". In some jurisdictions that require shareholder identities to be reported, a loophole may exist where the beneficial owner may appoint a nominee to be the shareholder, and that nominee cannot legally be compelled to reveal the identity of the beneficial owner. All corporations are required to have at least one director, however many jurisdictions allow this to be a nominee director. A nominee director's name would appear on all corporate paperwork in place of the beneficial owners, and like nominee shareholders, few jurisdictions can compel a nominee director to divulge the identity of beneficial owners. A further hurdle is that some jurisdictions allow a corporation to be named as a director.

Crime
Flag of convenience ships have long been linked to crime on the high seas. For example, in 1982, Honduras shut down its open registry operations because it had enabled "illegal traffic of all kinds and had given Honduras a bad name".

Ships registered by the Cambodia Shipping Corporation (CSC) were found smuggling drugs and cigarettes in Europe, breaking the Iraq oil embargo, and engaging in human trafficking and prostitution in Europe and Asia. In response to these activities, in 2000, Ahmad Yahya of the Cambodian Ministry of Public Works and Transport told industry publication Fairplay "We don't know or care who owns the ships or whether they're doing 'white' or 'black' business ... it is not our concern." Less than two years later, French forces seized the Cambodian-flagged, Greek-owned MV Winner for cocaine smuggling. Shortly after the seizure, Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen closed the registry to foreign ships, and Cambodia canceled its contract with CSC shortly thereafter.

The North Korean flag of convenience has also garnered significant scrutiny. In 2003, the North Korean freighter Pong Su reflagged to Tuvalu in the middle of a voyage shortly before being seized by Australian authorities for smuggling heroin into that country. That year, thirteen nations began monitoring vessels under the North Korean flag for "illicit cargos like drugs, missiles or nuclear weapon fuel".

Working conditions
In the accompanying material of the ILO's Maritime Labour Convention of 2006, the International Labour Organization estimated that at that time there were approximately 1,200,000 working seafarers across the world. This document goes on to say that when working aboard ships flagged to states that do not "exercise effective jurisdiction and control" over their ships that "seafarers often have to work under unacceptable conditions, to the detriment of their well-being, health and safety and the safety of the ships on which they work."

The International Transport Workers' Federation goes further, stating that flags of convenience "provide a means of avoiding labor regulation in the country of ownership, and become a vehicle for paying low wages and forcing long hours of work and unsafe working conditions. Since FOC ships have no real nationality, they are beyond the reach of any single national seafarers' trade union." They also say that these ships have low safety standards and no construction requirements, that they "do not enforce safety standards, minimum social standards or trade union rights for seafarers", that they frequently fail to pay their crews, have poor safety records, and engage in practices such as abandoning crewmen in distant ports.

Environmental effects
While flag of convenience ships have been involved with some of the highest-profile oil spills in history (such as the Maltese-flagged MV Erika, the Bahamian-flagged MV Prestige, the Marshallese-flagged Deepwater Horizon, and the Liberian-flagged SS Torrey Canyon, MV Amoco Cadiz and MV Sea Empress ), the most common environmental criticism they face regards illegal fishing. These critics of the flag of convenience system argue that many of the FOC flag states lack the resources or the will to properly monitor and control those vessels. The Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF) contends that illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU) vessels use flags of convenience to avoid fisheries regulations and controls. Flags of convenience help reduce the operating costs associated with illegal fishing methods, and help illegal operators avoid prosecution and hide beneficial ownership. As a result, flags of convenience perpetuate IUU fishing which has extensive environmental, social and economic impacts, particularly in developing countries. The EJF is campaigning to end the granting of flags of convenience to fishing vessels as an effective measure to combat IUU fishing.

According to Franz Fischler, European Union Fisheries Commissioner,

"The practice of flags of convenience, where owners register vessels in countries other than their own in order to avoid binding regulations or controls, is a serious menace to today's maritime world."

Port state control
In 1978, a number of European countries agreed in The Hague to audit labour conditions on board vessels vis-a-vis the rules of the International Labour Organization. To this end, in 1982 the "Paris Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control" (Paris MOU) was established, setting port state control standards for what is now twenty-six European countries and Canada.

Several other regional Memoranda of Understanding have been established based on the Paris model, including the "Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control in the Asia-Pacific Region", typically referred to as the "Tokyo MOU", and organizations for the Black Sea, the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean, and Latin America. The Tokyo and Paris organizations generate, based on deficiencies and detentions, black-, white-, and grey-lists of flag states. The US Coast Guard, which handles port state control inspections in the US, maintains a similar target list for underperforming flag states. , at least ten of the 43 flags of convenience listed by the ITF are targeted for special enforcement by the countries of the Paris and Tokyo MOUs or U.S. Coast Guard.

The effectiveness of the port state control regime in correcting deficiencies is mitigated in some part by the practice of flag-hopping, in which shipowners and operators will rename their ships and acquire new vessel registrations in other jurisdictions in order to avoid detection and reduce the likelihood of being selected for port state control inspections.

Ratification of maritime conventions
International regulations for the maritime industry are promulgated by agencies of the United Nations, particularly the International Maritime Organization and International Labour Organization. Flag states adopt these regulations for their ships by ratifying individual treaties. One common criticism against flag of convenience countries is that they allow shipowners to avoid these regulations by not ratifying important treaties or by failing to enforce them.

The International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) issues an annual report entitled the Shipping Industry Flag State Performance Table identifying the six "core" conventions representing a minimum level of maritime regulation, from the viewpoint of shipowners, as SOLAS, MARPOL, LL 66, STCW, MLC, and CLC/FUND92. Of these, all 43 flag of convenience countries listed by ITF have ratified the STCW Convention, concerning standards of training, certification and watchkeeping for seafarers, and 23 of them have ratified all six. However, at least fifteen listed countries have not ratified all the remaining five conventions. To put this in context, over 50 flag states have not ratified all six conventions, including China and United States of America.

The Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and Load Line (LL 66) conventions focus on shipboard safety issues. Originally developed in response to the sinking of RMS Titanic, SOLAS sets regulations on lifeboats, emergency equipment and safety procedures, including continuous radio watches. It has been updated to include regulations on ship construction, fire protection systems, life-saving appliances, radio communications, safety of navigation, management for the safe operation of ships, and other safety and security concerns. LL 66 sets standards for minimum buoyancy, hull stress, and ship's fittings, as well as establishing navigational zones where extra precautions must be taken.

The International Labour Organization Maritime Labour Convention, 2006 provides comprehensive rights and protection at work for seafarers, including requirements for minimum age, qualifications, hours of work and rest, medical care, complaint procedures, wage payments, and onboard living arrangements. The MLC replaced a number of earlier ILO Conventions including ILO147.

MARPOL and CLC/FUND92 relate to pollution. The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 (MARPOL), as modified by the Protocol of 1978, including Annexes I–VI" regulates pollution by ships, including oil and air pollution, shipboard sewage and garbage. The Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC) and International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (FUND92) together provide mechanisms to ensure compensation for victims of oil spills.

Wages
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, in its 2009 Report on Maritime Trade, states that shipowners often register their ships under a foreign flag in order to employ "seafarers from developing countries with lower wages". The Philippines and China supply a large percentage of maritime labor in general, and major flags of convenience in particular. In 2009, the flag-states employing the highest number of expatriate-Filipino seafarers were Panama, the Bahamas, Liberia and the Marshall Islands. That year, more than 150,000 Filipino sailors were employed by these four flags of convenience. In a 2006 study by the United States Maritime Administration (MARAD), sailors from the People's Republic of China comprised over 40% of the crews on surveyed ships flying the Panamanian flag, and around 10% of those flying the Liberian flag. The MARAD report referred to both China and the Philippines as "low cost" crewing sources.

The seafaring industry is often divided into two employment groups: licensed mariners including deck officers and marine engineers, and mariners that are not required to have licenses, such as able seamen and cooks, but are required to be certified. The latter group is collectively known as unlicensed mariners or ratings. Differences in wages can be seen in both groups, between "high cost" crewing sources such as the United States, and "low cost" sources such as China and The Philippines. However, salaries on flag of convenience ships are still far higher than median salaries of non-seafarers in these countries, in addition to income tax exemption of some seamen, particularly those from the Philippines.

For unlicensed mariners, 2009 statistics from the American Bureau of Labor Statistics give median earnings for able and ordinary seamen as US$35,810, varying from $21,640 (at the 10th percentile) to $55,360 (at the 90th percentile). This can be compared with 2006 statistics from the International Labour Organization, giving average yearly earnings for Filipino and Chinese able seamen around $2,000 to $3,000 per year (PHP9,900 per month and CNY3,071 per year). Among licensed mariners, American chief engineers earned a median $63,630, varying from $35,030 to $109,310 while their Filipino counterparts averaged $5,500 per year (PHP21,342 per month).

title: Flag of convenience


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64 Baker Street

64 Baker Street is a commercial property in Baker Street, central London. It was the address of the headquarters of the Special Operations Executive.

History
The building was completed in the first half of the 20th century and, after becoming part of the Government estate, was let to the Prison Commission. It became the headquarters of the Special Operations Executive in September 1940. A plaque on the building's face gives details of its former inhabitants.

After the war, the property was occupied by EMI Classics before it was converted for retail use.

title: 64 Baker Street