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Cortaderia

Cortaderia is a genus of South American and Central American plants in the Poaceae grass family.

Etymology
The common name pampas grass, though strictly referring to C. selloana, is frequently applied to all species in the genus (and sometimes also to species of Erianthus and Saccharum ravennae). The name of the genus is derived from the Argentine Spanish word cortadera, which in turn refers to the sharp serrations on the leaves. Cortaderia jubata and C. rudiuscula produce copious seed asexually.

Description
The species of Cortaderia are imposing tall grasses growing 1.5–3 m tall, with graceful white inflorescence plumes. They are in widespread use as ornamental plants.

 * Species
 * Cortaderia araucana Stapf - Chile, Argentina
 * Cortaderia atacamensis (Phil.) Pilg. - Chile, Argentina, Bolivia
 * Cortaderia bifida Pilg. - Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia
 * Cortaderia boliviensis M.Lyle - Bolivia
 * Cortaderia columbiana (Pilg.) Pilg. - Venezuela, Colombia
 * Cortaderia hapalotricha (Pilg.) Conert - Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia
 * Cortaderia hieronymi (Kuntze) N.P.Barker & H.P.Linder - Bolivia, Peru, Argentina
 * Cortaderia jubata (Lemoine ex Carrière) Stapf  – Andean pampas grass - Andes of  Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina; naturalized in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Oregon, California, Hawaii
 * Cortaderia modesta (Döll) Hack. ex Dusén - southern Brazil
 * Cortaderia nitida (Kunth) Pilg. - Costa Rica, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru
 * Cortaderia peruviana (Hitchc.) N.P.Barker & H.P.Linder - Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia
 * Cortaderia pilosa (d'Urv.) Hack. - Chile, Argentina, Falkland Islands
 * Cortaderia planifolia Swallen - Colombia, Peru
 * Cortaderia pungens Swallen - Colombia, Peru, Venezuela
 * Cortaderia roraimensis (N.E.Br.) Pilg. - Guyana, Venezuela, Colombia, northwestern Brazil
 * Cortaderia rudiuscula Stapf - Andes of Chile, Argentina, Peru, Bolivia
 * Cortaderia selloana (Schult. & Schult.f.) Asch. & Graebn. – pampas grass - Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia; naturalized in parts of northern South America, Mesoamerica, West Indies, southern USA, Australia, New Zealand, Mediterranean Basin, etc.
 * Cortaderia sericantha (Steud.) Hitchc. - Colombia, Peru
 * Cortaderia speciosa (Nees) Stapf - Chile, Argentina, Bolivia
 * Cortaderia vaginata Swallen - southern Brazil

see Austroderia Chionochloa Chusquea Phragmites • Cortaderia archboldii - Chionochloa archboldii
 * formerly included

• Cortaderia conspicua - Chionochloa conspicua

• Cortaderia egmontiana - Phragmites australis

• Cortaderia fulvida - Austroderia fulvida

• Cortaderia quila - Chusquea quila

• Cortaderia richardii - Austroderia richardii

• Cortaderia splendens - Austroderia splendens

• Cortaderia toetoe - Austroderia toetoe

• Cortaderia turbaria - Austroderia turbaria

title: Cortaderia


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St Paul's tube station

St Paul's is a London Underground station located in the City of London financial district. The station, which takes its name from the nearby St Paul's Cathedral, is on the Central line, between Bank and Chancery Lane stations, and is in fare zone 1.

It should not be confused with City Thameslink railway station which opened in 1990 with the name St. Paul's Thameslink, but is some distance from the Underground station. That station was subsequently renamed City Thameslink to avoid confusion for the emergency services, but for some years afterwards many maps and guidebooks in circulation continued to carry the earlier name.

History
The station was opened by the Central London Railway (CLR) on 30 July 1900 with the name Post Office, after the headquarters of the General Post Office on nearby St. Martin's Le Grand. The name Post Office was possibly chosen instead of the more obvious St. Paul's to differentiate it from a South Eastern Railway (SER) station which already held that name (but which today is called Blackfriars).

The station entrance was originally located on the north side of Newgate Street, on the west side of the junction with King Edward Street, but was moved to the east when the station was modernised in the 1930s with an underground ticket hall and escalators. A modern ventilation shaft in the centre of the traffic island at the junction indicates the location of the original lift shafts. When the SER station called St. Paul's was renamed as Blackfriars in 1937, the Underground station called Post Office took the name St. Paul's, which it has kept ever since.

At the end of the 19th century, Newgate Street was a narrow road with some of its medieval character remaining. To reduce land purchase and compensation payments, the CLR routed its tunnels directly under public roads. At St. Paul's the narrowness of the road required the tunnels to be placed one above the other with the westbound tunnel uppermost. The lifts originally operated to a level between the two platforms, with stairs up or down to the platforms as necessary. A high-level access passageway is visible at the lowest level leading to the disused lift lobby.

During the Second World War the electricity grid control room for London and Southeast England was housed below ground in the lift shaft.

The station today
The station entrances are located around the junction of Newgate Street, Cheapside and St. Martin's Le Grand. St Paul's Cathedral is a short distance to the south. The main entrance to the cathedral is at its western end, a few minutes' walk away.

St Paul's is also the nearest Underground station to the London Stock Exchange and One New Change. Other notable sites in the vicinity include the Old Bailey, Museum of London and the church of St Mary-le-Bow.

Connections
London Buses routes 4, 8, 25, 56, 76, 100, 133 and night routes N8, N25 and N242 serve the station.

Future proposals
An underground passageway linking City Thameslink railway station to St Paul's tube station to provide an interchange between the Central line and National Rail services on the Thameslink railway has been suggested by London TravelWatch in a report in 2014, which suggested it would benefit passengers travelling from the Central line to Gatwick and Luton Airports.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: St Paul's tube station


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Pampas

The Pampas (from the pampa, meaning "plain") are fertile South American low grasslands that cover more than 1,200,000 km2 and include the Argentine provinces of Buenos Aires, La Pampa, Santa Fe, Entre Ríos, and Córdoba; all of Uruguay; and Brazil's southernmost state, Rio Grande do Sul. The vast plains are a natural region, interrupted only by the low Ventana and Tandil hills, near Bahía Blanca and Tandil (Argentina), with a height of 1300 m and 500 m, respectively.

The climate is temperate, with precipitation of 600 to 1200 mm that is more or less evenly distributed throughout the year, making the soils appropriate for agriculture. The area is also one of the distinct physiography provinces of the larger Paraná–Paraguay plain division.

Topography
This region has generally low elevations, whose highest levels generally do not exceed 600 m in altitude. The coastal areas and most of the Buenos Aires Province are predominantly plain (with some wetlands) and the interior areas (mainly in the southern part of the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul and Uruguay) have low ranges of hills (like Serras de Sudeste in Brazil and Cuchilla Grande in Uruguay). Low hills covered by grasslands are called coxilhas in Portuguese and cuchillas  in Spanish, and it is the most typical landscape of the countryside areas in the northern parts of the Pampas. The highest elevations of the Pampas region are found in the Sierra de la Ventana mountains, in the southern part of Buenos Aires Province, with 1,239 m at the summit of Cerro Tres Picos.

Climates
The climate of the Pampas is generally temperate, gradually giving way to a more humid subtropical climate in the north (Cfa, according to the Köppen climate classification, with a Cwa tendency (drier winters) in the northwestern edge); a cold semi-arid climate (BSk) on the southern and western fringes (like San Luis Province, western La Pampa Province and southern Buenos Aires Province); and an oceanic climate (Cfb) in the southeastern part (in the localities of Mar del Plata, Necochea, Tandil and the Sierra de la Ventana mountains, Argentina). Summer temperatures are more uniform than winter temperatures, generally ranging from 28 to 33 C during the day. However, most cities in the Pampas occasionally have high temperatures that push 38 C, as occurs when warm, dry, northerly winds blow from southern Brazil, northern Argentina or Paraguay. Autumn arrives gradually in March and peaks in April and May. In April, highs range from 20 to 25 C and lows from 9 to 13 C. The first frosts arrive in mid-April in the south and late May or early June in the north.

Winters are generally mild, but cold waves often occur. Typical temperatures range from 12 to 19 C during the day, and from 1 to 6 C at night. With strong northerly winds, days of over 25 C can be recorded almost everywhere, and during cold waves, high temperatures can be only 6 C. Frost occurs everywhere in the Pampas, but it is much more frequent in the southwest than around the Parana and Uruguay Rivers. Temperatures under −5 C can occur everywhere, but values of −10 C or lower are confined to the south and west. Snow almost never falls in the northernmost third and is rare and light elsewhere, except for exceptional events in which depths have reached 30 cm. Springs are very variable; it is warmer than fall in most areas (especially in the west) but significantly colder along the Atlantic. Violent storms are more common as well as wide temperature variations: days of 35 C can give way to nights of under 5 C or even frost, all within only a few days.

Precipitation ranges from 1400 mm in the northeast to about 400 mm or less in the southern and western edges. It is highly seasonal in the West, with some places recording averages of 120 mm monthly in the summer, and only 20 mm monthly in the winter. The eastern areas have small peaks in the fall and the spring, with relatively rainy summers and winters that are only slightly drier. However, where summer rain falls as short, heavy storms, winter rain falls mostly as cold drizzle, and so the amount of rainy days is fairly constant. Very intense thunderstorms are common in the spring and summer, and it has among the most frequent lightning and highest convective cloud tops in the world. The severe thunderstorms produce intense hailstorms, both floods and flash floods, and the most consistently active tornado region outside the central and southeastern US.

Climate charts
Climate charts for different locations of the Pampas:

Wildlife
Human activity has caused major changes to the wildlife of the Pampas. Most big or medium-sized species such as puma, rhea, Capybara, plains viscacha, maned wolf, marsh deer and Pampas deer have lost their habitats especially due to the spread of agriculture and ranching, and are only present in very few relicts of the pampas. Other species, such as the Jaguar and the Guanaco have been extirpated completely from this habitat.

Mammals that are still fairly present include Brazilian guinea pig, southern mountain cavy, coypu, Pampas fox, Geoffroy's cat, lesser grison, white-eared opossum, Molina's hog-nosed skunk, big lutrine opossum, big hairy armadillo and southern long-nosed armadillo. Bird species of the pampas are ruddy-headed goose, pampas meadowlark, hudsonian godwit, maguari stork, white-faced ibis, white-winged coot, southern screamer, dot-winged crake, curve-billed reedhaunter, burrowing owl and the rhea. Invasive species include the European hare, wild boar and house sparrow.

Vegetation
The dominant vegetation types are grassy prairie and grass steppe, in which numerous species of the grass genus Stipa are particularly conspicuous. "Pampas grass" (Cortaderia selloana) is an iconic species of the Pampas. Vegetation typically includes perennial grasses and herbs. Different strata of grasses occur because of gradients of water availability.

Why the pristine pampas were treeless regions has been much debated. Perhaps the most commonly cited explanation is seasonal drought. A related hypothesis is that grass roots compete for water and exclude tree seedlings. The effect might be increased by heavy, clayed soils which limit tap root penetration. Other causes that have been proposed are fires set by indigenous peoples for land clearance; the existence of heavy-bodied herbivores; and that the pampas are relicts of drier past climates. These explanations have been criticised as mono-causal. "Overall, we expect that low propagule pressure, abiotic stresses, biotic resistance, and a paucity of specific symbionts might have exerted a synergistic influence in slowing tree invasion rates ".

The World Wildlife Fund divides the Pampas into three distinct ecoregions. The Uruguayan Savanna lies east of the Paraná River, and includes all of Uruguay, most of Entre Ríos and Corrientes provinces in Argentina, and the southern portion of Brazil's state of Rio Grande do Sul. The Humid Pampas include eastern Buenos Aires Province, and southern Entre Ríos Province. The Semiarid Pampas includes western Buenos Aires Province and adjacent portions of Santa Fe, Córdoba, and La Pampa provinces. The Pampas are bounded by the drier Argentine Espinal grasslands, which form a semicircle around the north, west, and south of the Humid Pampas.

Winters are cold to mild, and summers are hot and humid. Rainfall is fairly uniform throughout the year but is a little heavier during the summer. Annual rainfall is heaviest near the coast and decreases gradually further inland. Rain during the late spring and summer usually arrives in the form of brief heavy showers and thunderstorms. More general rainfall occurs the remainder of the year as cold fronts and storm systems move through. Although cold spells during the winter often send nighttime temperatures below freezing, snow is quite rare. In most winters, a few light snowfalls occur over inland areas.

Central Argentina boasts a successful agricultural business, with crops grown on the Pampas south and west of Buenos Aires. Much of the area is also used for cattle, and more recently, to cultivate vineyards in the Buenos Aires wine region. The area is also used for farming honey using European honeybees. These farming regions are particularly susceptible to flooding during thunderstorms. The weather averages out to be 60 °F year-round in the Pampas.

Population

 * 🇦🇷 Argentina
 * Buenos Aires 17,196,396
 * Córdoba 3,683,937
 * Santa Fe 3,481,514
 * City of Buenos Aires 3,068,043
 * Entre Ríos 1,360,443
 * La Pampa 352,378
 * 🇧🇷 Brazil
 * Rio Grande do Sul 11,247,972
 * 🇺🇾 Uruguay
 * All departments 3,518,552
 * Total Population 43,909,235

Immigration
Starting in the 1840s but intensifying after the 1880s, European immigrants began to migrate to the Pampas, first as part of government-sponsored colonization schemes to settle the land and later as tenant farmers "working as either a sharecropper or as paid laborers for absentee landowners" in an attempt to make a living for themselves.

However, many immigrants eventually moved to more permanent employment in cities, as industrialization picked up after the 1930s. As a result, Argentina's history of immigration in Buenos Aires Province is typically associated with cities and urban life, unlike in Entre Ríos Province and Santa Fe Province, where European immigration took on a more rural profile.

title: Pampas


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Chancery Lane tube station

Chancery Lane is a London Underground station on the Central line between Holborn and The City in Central London, England. It has entrances within both the London Borough of Camden and the City of London. It opened in 1900 and takes its name from the nearby Chancery Lane.

The station is located between Holborn and St Paul's stations, within fare zone 1.

It is located at the junction of High Holborn, Hatton Garden and Gray's Inn Road, with subway entrances giving access to the ticket office under the roadway. Chancery Lane is one of the few London Underground stations which have no associated buildings above ground.

History
The station was opened by the Central London Railway (CLR) on 30 July 1900. The current station entrance is not the original. The original, disused station building is on the north side of High Holborn at Nos. 31–33, approximately 400 ft to the west, closer to High Holborn's junction with Chancery Lane. Originally provided with four lifts between ground and platform levels, the station was rebuilt in the early 1930s to operate with escalators. It was not possible to construct the inclined escalator shaft between the platforms and the existing entrance, so a new sub-surface ticket hall was constructed below the road junction. The new station entrance came into use on 25 June 1934. The old entrance building became redundant and, in recognition of the location of the new entrance, the station was renamed Chancery Lane (Gray's Inn), although the suffix subsequently fell out of use.

When the CLR excavated the running tunnels it routed them to avoid passing under surface buildings in order to limit the risk to the buildings from vibration. At Chancery Lane, the eastbound tunnel runs above the westbound one.

It is one of eight Underground stations with a deep-level air-raid shelter underneath it; after World War II this was turned into Kingsway telephone exchange. Access to the shelter was via the original station building and lift shaft as well as subsidiary entrances in Furnival Street and Took's Court.

Accidents and incidents
On 25 January 2003, a 1992 Stock train derailed at Chancery Lane, injuring 32 passengers, after a motor became detached from the train. All services on the entire Central line and the Waterloo & City line (which used the same type of train) were suspended, as the trains had to be taken out of service whilst the cause of the failure was determined and appropriate modifications made to the trains.

Connections
London Buses routes and night routes serve the station.

title: Chancery Lane tube station


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Covent Garden tube station

Covent Garden is a London Underground station serving Covent Garden and the surrounding area in the West End of London. It is on the Piccadilly line between Leicester Square and Holborn stations and is in Travelcard Zone 1. The station is at the corner of Long Acre and James Street and the street-level concourse is a Grade II listed building.

History
The station was planned by the Great Northern and Strand Railway (GN&SR), which had received parliamentary approval for a route from Wood Green station (now Alexandra Palace) to Strand in 1899. After the GN&SR was taken over by the Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway (B&PCR) in September 1901, the two companies came under the control of Charles Yerkes' Metropolitan District Electric Traction Company before being transferred to his new holding company, the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) in June 1902. To connect the two companies' planned routes, the UERL obtained permission for new tunnels between Piccadilly Circus and Holborn. The companies were formally merged as the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway following parliamentary approval in November 1902. The station was opened by the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway on 11 April 1907, four months after services on the rest of the line began operating on 15 December 1906.

In 1929, Covent Garden was suggested for closure in connection with the extension of the Piccadilly line: the elimination of less-busy stations in the central area would improve both reliability and journey times for long-distance commuters, though the closure did not proceed.

In 2011, English Heritage gave the station frontage Grade II listed status, on account of it being a good example of Leslie Green's architecture.

Design
Like the rest of the original GNP&BR stations, the street level station building and platform tiling were designed by Leslie Green in the Modern Style (British Art Nouveau style). As is commonplace with other Central London stations Green designed, the station building is a classic red 'Oxblood' building which has two elevations fronting onto the end of James Street and Long Acre. The platform wall was tiled with two shades of yellow and white tiling which formed geometric shapes along with three blank spaces to incorporate the station name. As part of Transport for London's investment programme, the ageing tiling dating back from the station's opening was replaced in 2010 in a like-for-like basis, retaining the look and feel of the platforms.

Platform level tiling

The stations along the central part of the Piccadilly line, as well as some sections of the Northern line, were financed by Charles Yerkes, and are famous for the Leslie Green designed red station buildings and distinctive platform tiling. Each station had its own unique tile pattern and colours.

Access
Covent Garden station is one of the few stations in Central London for which platform access is only by lift or an emergency spiral staircase with 193 steps. There are four lifts that give access to street level, although a final flight of stairs from the lifts to the platforms means that the station is wheelchair-inaccessible.

At the bottom of the staircase, numerous posters, warning users of the long climb ahead, suggest they make use of the station’s lifts instead.

Proximity to Leicester Square
The journey between Leicester Square station and Covent Garden takes only about 20 seconds, and measures only 260 m, the shortest distance between two adjacent stations on the Underground network. The stations are so close that a pedestrian standing halfway between them on Long Acre can see both tube stations by turning around 180°.

As of 2022, the cash fare for the journey is £6.30, or £36.21 per mile. In 2015, at £29.81/mi, the journey was more expensive per unit distance than the Venice-Simplon Orient Express. Posters at the station give details of the alternative methods of getting to and from Covent Garden using surrounding stations.

Services and connections
Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but generally operate every 3–7 minutes in both directions. As a part of the Piccadilly line, the train is served by Night Tube on Friday and Saturday nights.

Folklore
It is said that the ghost of actor William Terriss (murdered in 1897) haunts the station. It is claimed that he used to visit a bakery demolished when the station was built. The last reported sighting of Terriss was in 1972.

title: Covent Garden tube station


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Hyde Park Corner tube station

Hyde Park Corner is a London Underground station near Hyde Park Corner in Hyde Park. It is in Travelcard Zone 1, between Knightsbridge and Green Park on the Piccadilly line.

History
The station was opened by the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway on 15 December 1906. It was the connecting station between the two original companies, the London United Railway and the Piccadilly and City Railway, who amalgamated after Parliament demanded the entire line from Hammersmith to Finsbury Park should be built as one scheme.

The original, Leslie Green-designed station building still remains to the south of the road junction, notable by its ox-blood coloured tiles; it was until June 2010 used as a pizza restaurant, and since 14 December 2012 it has been the Wellesley Hotel. The building was taken out of use when the station was provided with escalators in place of lifts and a new sub-surface ticket hall that came into use on 23 May 1932 although an emergency stairway provides a connection to the platforms. The lift shafts are now used to provide ventilation. The 1932 station had showcases inset to the walls that showed a series of dioramas depicting the development of the London bus – long gone, some of the scale models survive in the LT Museum Collections.

When the station was rebuilt with escalators the adjacent little-used station at Down Street to the east (towards Green Park) was taken out of use.

Present day
It is one of the few stations which have no associated buildings above ground, the station being fully underground. The current entrance to the station is accessed from within the pedestrian underpass system around the Hyde Park Corner junction.

When the central section of the Piccadilly line is closed, the station becomes the terminus of the western part due to the crossover tunnel to the east of the station.

Connections

 * London Buses routes 2, 6, 9, 13, 14, 19, 22, 23, 36, 38, 52, 74, 137, 148, 390 and 414, night routes N2, N9, N19, N22, N32, N38, N74 and N137 and Green Line Coaches route 702 serve the station.

title: Hyde Park Corner tube station


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Copley Medal

The Copley Medal is the most prestigious award of the Royal Society, conferred "for sustained, outstanding achievements in any field of science". It alternates between the physical sciences or mathematics and the biological sciences. Given annually, the medal is the oldest Royal Society medal awarded and the oldest surviving scientific award in the world, having first been given in 1731 to Stephen Gray, for "his new Electrical Experiments: – as an encouragement to him for the readiness he has always shown in obliging the Society with his discoveries and improvements in this part of Natural Knowledge". The medal is made of silver-gilt and awarded with a £25,000 prize.

The Copley Medal is arguably the highest British and Commonwealth award for scientific achievement, and has been included among the most distinguished international scientific awards. It is awarded to "senior scientists" irrespective of nationality, and nominations are considered over three nomination cycles. Since 2022, scientific teams or research groups are collectively eligible to receive the medal; that year, the research team which developed the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine became the first collective recipient. John Theophilus Desaguliers has won the medal the most often, winning three times, in 1734, 1736 and 1741. In 1976, Dorothy Hodgkin became the first female recipient; Jocelyn Bell Burnell, in 2021, became the second.

History
In 1709, Sir Godfrey Copley, the MP for Thirsk, bequeathed Abraham Hill and Hans Sloane £100 (roughly equivalent to £0 in ) to be held in trust for the Royal Society "for improving natural knowledge to be laid out in experiments or otherwise for the benefit thereof as they shall direct and appoint". After the legacy had been received the following year, the interest of £5 was duly used to provide recurring grants for experimental work to researchers associated with the Royal Society, provided they registered their research within a stipulated period and demonstrated their experiments at an annual meeting. In 1726, following a proposal by Sloane, the grants were extended to "strangers" unaffiliated with the Society to encourage "new and useful experiments," though it was only five years later that Stephen Gray became the first such recipient. Prior to Gray, John Theophilus Desaguliers was apparently the only recipient of the grant, but had not always conducted the required annual demonstration.

In November 1736, Martin Folkes, then vice-president of the Society, suggested the Copley grant be converted to "a medal or other honorary prize to be bestowed on the person whose experiment should be best approved...a laudable emulation might be excited among men of genius to try their invention, who in all probability may never be moved for the sake of lucre". On 7 December 1736, the Council of the Royal Society agreed to Folkes' proposal, passing a resolution that the annual Copley grant of five pounds (roughly equivalent to £0 in ) be converted to a gold medal "of the same Value, with the Arms of the Society impress’d on it," to be gifted "for the best Experiment produced within the Year, and bestowed in such a manner as to avoid any Envy or Disgust in Rivalship". John Belchier was the first to receive the new award in 1737; due to delays in approving a medal design, however, the medal, designed and struck by John Sigismund Tanner of the Royal Mint, was only presented to Belchier in 1742. Gray and Desaguliers received their medals retrospectively.

Into the early 19th century, medal recipients were selected by the President of the Royal Society, though not always on the basis of publications and experimental demonstrations; political and social connections were also key considerations, along with service in the general interests of the Society. During the long presidency of Joseph Banks, the medal was frequently awarded to recipients whose researches were of a practical or technical nature, involving improvements to scientific equipment or instrument design. In 1831, new regulations adopted by the Royal Society Council made the medal an annual award, dropped the requirement for conducting the qualifying research within a certain period and officially opened it to scientists from any nation; although the medal had previously been awarded to foreign scientists including Alessandro Volta, the majority of recipients had been British subjects. A second donation of £1666 13s. 4d. (roughly equivalent to £0 in ) was made by Sir Joseph William Copley in 1881, and the interest from that amount is used to pay for the medal.

Prestige of the medal
By the 1840s, the Copley Medal had achieved international prestige; in 1850, George Airy noted the distinction of the medal was that it was "offered to the competition of the world." The Copley medal has been characterised as a predecessor to the Nobel Prize. Since its inception, it has been awarded to many distinguished scientists, including 52 winners of the Nobel Prize: 17 in Physics, 21 in Physiology or Medicine, and 14 in Chemistry.

title: Copley Medal


text:
Euston Square tube station

Euston Square is a London Underground station at the corner of Euston Road and Gower Street, just north of University College London – its main (south) entrance faces the tower of University College Hospital. The multi-interchange Euston station is beyond Euston Square Gardens, which is one street east. The station is between Great Portland Street and King's Cross St Pancras stations on the Circle, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines in Travelcard Zone 1.

History
The station was opened as "Gower Street" on 10 January 1863 by the Metropolitan Railway (MR), the world's first underground railway. The line runs east–west under Euston Road at this point. The station originally had entrances in single-storey pavilions with stone-effect stucco render on each side of Euston Road with stairs to the platforms.

The MR was constructed using the cut-and-cover method with the tunnel and station platforms directly under the road. The walls to the rear of the platforms were originally lined in buttressed brickwork supporting a brick arch 45 ft wide and 10 ft high composed of between six and twelve layers of brickwork. Ventilation shafts lined with glazed white tiling were spaced along the platforms to let in light from openings in the front gardens of the houses at street level.

In 1864, Parliament authorised the North Western and Charing Cross Railway to construct a line to connect the mainline stations at Euston and Charing Cross. This would have connected to the MR to the west of Gower Street, but the company was unable to raise funds. A revised scheme under the name of the London Central Railway (LCR) was approved in 1871. The proposals included an interchange at Gower Street with the LCR's platforms north of and parallel to the MR's. LCR branches would have connected from east of Gower Street to Euston and St Pancras stations. As before, the LCR was unable to raise funding and the scheme was abandoned in 1874.

In 1890, the MR obtained parliamentary permission to construct a pedestrian subway under Euston Road from the station to the mainline station. This was never constructed.

In 1906, the original timber platforms were reconstructed in concrete as a fire precaution related to the electrification of the MR. The station was given its present name on 1 November 1909.

Between 1929 and 1931, the station buildings were reconstructed to a design by the MR's architect C. W. Clark. A bridge was constructed above the tracks so that a single ticket office could be provided in place of the separate ones for each platform. At the same time the station platforms were lengthened requiring the closure of Euston Road to enable the roadway and tunnels to be excavated as quickly as possible. The brick arch of the tunnel roof and the side walls were removed and replaced with a flat roof on steel beams supported by concrete walls to the rear of the new platforms.

During World War II, much of the southern side of Euston Road between Gower Street and Gordon Street was destroyed by bombing. When the site was reconstructed post-war the southern entrance was reconstructed again to incorporate it into the corner of the new building that occupied the site. The north entrance remained. In the 1960s, in conjunction with the construction of an underpass at the junction of Euston Road and Tottenham Court Road, Euston Road was widened. At this time, the north entrance building was demolished and converted to a simple subway entrance.

In the 21st century, the buildings on the south side of Euston Road were again redeveloped and the station entrance was again reconstructed. Since late 2006, the south entrance is incorporated into the corner of the headquarters of the Wellcome Trust with the entrance in Gower Street. A linking pedestrian subway connects under Euston Road from the north side. Since 2011, two lifts provide access between the main entrance and the westbound platform.

Future
In December 2005, Network Rail announced plans to create a subway link between the station and Euston station as part of the re-development of Euston station. This will create a direct link for users of main line rail services which depart from Euston. These plans would also be pursued during a rebuilding for High Speed 2.

Services
The station is served by the Metropolitan, Hammersmith & City and Circle lines, between to the east and Great Portland Street to the west. All three lines share the same pair of tracks from Baker Street Junction to Aldgate Junction making this section of track one of the most intensely used on the London Underground network.

Circle line
The typical service in trains per hour (tph) is:

 * 6 tph clockwise via Liverpool Street and Tower Hill
 * 6 tph anti-clockwise to Hammersmith via Paddington

Hammersmith & City line
The typical service in trains per hour (tph) is:

 * 6 tph Eastbound to Barking
 * 6 tph Westbound to Hammersmith via Paddington

Metropolitan line
The Metropolitan line is the only line to operate express services, though currently this is only during peak times (Westbound 06:30-09:30 / Eastbound 16:00-19:00). Fast services run non-stop between Wembley Park, Harrow-on-the-Hill and Moor Park, while semi-fast services run non-stop between Wembley Park and Harrow-On-The-Hill.

The typical off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is:

 * 12 tph Eastbound to Aldgate
 * 2 tph Westbound to Amersham (all stations)
 * 2 tph Westbound to Chesham (all stations)
 * 8 tph Westbound to Uxbridge (all stations)

Off-peak services to/from Watford terminate at Baker Street

The typical peak time service in trains per hour (tph) is:
 * 14 tph Eastbound to Aldgate
 * 2 tph Westbound to Amersham (fast in the evening peak only)
 * 2 tph Westbound to Chesham (fast in the evening peak only)
 * 4 tph Westbound to Watford (semi-fast in the evening peak only)
 * 6 tph Westbound to Uxbridge (all stations)

Connections
That station is served by London Buses day and night routes.

title: Euston Square tube station


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Tomi (name)

Tomi is a common name. In Finnish, it is a masculine name. In Japan, it can be a feminine or masculine given name. Notable persons with that name include:

Persons with the given name

 * Tomi Adeyemi (born 1993), American author
 * Tomi Ameobi (born 1988), English footballer
 * Tomi Rae Hynie (born 1969), American singer
 * Tomi Janežič, Slovenian theatre director and professor
 * Tomi Joutsen (born 1975), Finnish musician
 * Tomi Juric (born 1991), Australian footballer
 * Tomi Kallio (born 1977), Finnish ice hockey player
 * Tomi Kalliola (born 1979), Finnish musician
 * Tomi Karhunen (born 1989), Finnish ice hockey player
 * Tomi Koivusaari (born 1973), Finnish musician
 * Tomi Lahren (born 1992), American television and online video host
 * Tomi Lotta (born 1976), Finnish strongman competitor
 * Tomi Maanoja (born 1986), Finnish footballer
 * Tomi Mäki (born 1983), Finnish ice hockey player
 * Tomi Nybäck (born 1985), Finnish chess and poker player
 * Tomi Pallassalo (born 1989), Finnish ice hockey player
 * Tomi Petrescu (born 1986), Finnish footballer
 * Tomi Pettinen (born 1977), Finnish ice hockey player
 * Tomi Kay Phillips, American academic administrator
 * Tomi Poikolainen (born 1961), Finnish archer
 * Tomi Pöllänen (born 1978), Finnish ice hockey player
 * Tomi Putaansuu (born 1974), Finnish musician
 * Tomi Räisänen (born 1976), Finnish composer
 * Tomi Sallinen (born 1989), Finnish ice hockey player
 * Tomi Shimomura (born 1980), Austrian-Japanese footballer
 * Tomi Sovilj, Serbian musician
 * Tomi Ståhlhammar (born 1988), Finnish ice hockey player
 * Tomi Swick, Canadian singer-songwriter
 * Tomi Taira (1928–2015), Japanese actress
 * Tomi Tuuha (born 1989), Finnish artistic gymnast
 * Tomi Ungerer, French illustrator

Fictional characters

 * Tomi Shishido, comic book character
 * Tomi Kisaragi, one of the 13 main protagonists of the video game 13 Sentinels: Aegis Rim

title: Tomi (name)


text:
Talk:Failed state

18th century Poland
Could 18th century Poland be classed as a 'failed state'? —Preceding unsigned comment added by GCarty (talk • contribs) 13:36, 20 November 2003

title: Talk:Failed state


text:
Galatz

Galatz may refer to:

 * Alternative spelling for Galați, a town in Romania
 * Galil Tzalafim (גל"צ), a sniper version of the Israeli IMI Galil assault rifle
 * Galey Tzahal (גל"צ), an abbreviation of the Israel Army Radio network
 * Galgalatz (גלגל"צ)

title: Galatz


text:
Tower Hill tube station

Tower Hill is a London Underground station in Tower Hill in the East End of London. It is on the Circle line between Monument and Aldgate stations, and the District line between Monument and Aldgate East. Tower Hill is within Travelcard zone 1 and is a short distance from Tower Gateway station for the Docklands Light Railway, Fenchurch Street station for National Rail mainline services, and Tower Millennium Pier for River Services.

History
The station was built on the site of the former Tower of London station that closed in 1884. The present Tower Hill station opened in 1967 and replaced a nearby station with the same name but which was originally called Mark Lane, that was slightly to the west.

In 2021, Transport for London made Tower Hill the tenth Underground station to replace some standard platform logos with 'poppy roundels' for the period leading up to Remembrance Day each year. Opposite the station in Trinity Square Gardens is The Merchant Navy Memorial commemorating merchant seafarers lost in the two World Wars and Falklands Campaign who have no grave but the sea. Its total of some 36,000 names is greater than that of any other Commonwealth War Graves Commission memorial in the UK.

Design
The entrance to Tower Hill station is a few metres from one of the largest remaining segments of the Roman London Wall which once surrounded the historic City of London. A small section of this wall is visible above the track at the far Eastern end of the Westbound platform, near the ceiling.

Services
Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but the typical off-peak service pattern is:

 * District line:
 * Eastbound:
 * 12 tph (trains per hour) to Upminster.
 * 3 tph to Barking
 * 3 tph terminate here
 * Westbound:
 * 6 tph to Ealing Broadway;
 * 6 tph to Richmond;
 * 6 tph to Wimbledon.
 * Circle line:
 * Anti-clockwise:
 * 6 tph to Hammersmith via Aldgate.
 * Clockwise:
 * 6 tph to Edgware Road via Embankment.

Future
A Transport Supporting Paper released by the office of the Mayor of London envisages the closure of Tower Gateway DLR station and the branch serving it, with a replacement interchange being provided via new platforms at Tower Hill tube station. The reasoning is given that currently, 90 per cent of DLR City passengers use Bank station, but only 75 per cent of services go there; this would increase service to Bank from 23tph to 30tph, thereby unlocking more capacity on the Bank branch.

Connections
London Buses day and nighttime routes, plus long-distance coach routes serve the station.

title: Tower Hill tube station


text:
Tower Gateway DLR station

Tower Gateway is a Docklands Light Railway (DLR) station in the City of London and is located near the Tower of London and Tower Bridge. It adjoins the tracks to Fenchurch Street station and is located on the site of a former station called Minories. Tower Gateway is within London fare zone 1.

It is a short walk from both Tower Hill Underground station and Fenchurch Street. Access at street level from the Minories is via escalator, stairs or lift at the western end of the station. A pedestrian crossing connects the station with Tower Hill station, its closest London Underground connection. A narrow secondary staircase entrance at the eastern end of the platform, improved considerably in the early 2000s, descends to Mansell Street. It serves the eastern edge of the City of London financial district and development around St Katharine Docks.

History
It was opened in 1987 as the western terminus of the initial DLR system and the station closest to central London.

The underground extension to Bank, which opened in 1991, diverges from the original route between Tower Gateway and Shadwell, the next station to the east. It dives down a steep ramp not far from the eastern end of the platforms, from which it is clearly visible. Tower Gateway is the terminus for the less busy service to Beckton. Journeys to other branches of the DLR normally require a change. In keeping with the DLR's original basic lightweight philosophy, Tower Gateway is a simple elevated terminus. As built it had two tracks and a cross-over. When the extension to Bank opened, its importance was substantially reduced. Before reconstruction it had a fairly narrow central platform, and a single track leading from the main route to a set of points immediately prior to the platforms.

Further major alterations began on 30 June 2008. The station reopened on 2 March 2009, rebuilt as a single-track terminus to enable three-car trains with a platform on each side of the train, one for arriving passengers and the other for departures (the Spanish solution).

Services
The typical off-peak service in trains per hour from Tower Gateway is 6 tph to and from Beckton via Canning Town. Additional services run to and from the station during the peak hours, increasing the service up to 8 tph to and from the station.

Future
A Transport Supporting Paper released by the office of the Mayor of London envisages the closure of Tower Gateway DLR station and the branch serving it, with a replacement interchange being provided via a new station on the Bank branch connected to Tower Hill station. The reasoning is given that currently, 90 per cent of DLR City passengers use Bank station, but only 75 per cent of services go there; this would increase service to Bank from 23tph to 30tph, thereby unlocking more capacity on the Bank branch. In exchange, services from Fenchurch Street railway station might move to the current Tower Gateway location.

Connections
London Buses routes 42, 78, 100, 343 and night route N551 serve the station.

title: Tower Gateway DLR station


text:
Superior Dome

The Superior Dome is a domed stadium on the campus of Northern Michigan University (NMU) in Marquette, Michigan, United States. It opened as the "world’s largest wooden dome" on September 14, 1991, and is home to the Northern Michigan Wildcats football, women's lacrosse, and women's track and field teams, the NMU Wildcat marching band, and hosts a variety of other campus and community events.

The dome is 143 ft tall, has a diameter of 536 ft, covers an area of 5.1 acres and has a volume of 16,135,907 cubic feet. It is a geodesic dome constructed with 781 Douglas fir beams and 108.5 mi of fir decking and is designed to support snow up to 60 psf and withstand 80 mph winds. It has a permanent seating capacity of 8,000 people, though the building can hold as many as 16,000 people. The 2010 edition of Guinness World Records listed it as the fifth-largest dome and largest wooden dome in the world.

Construction
The construction was finished in two phases. Phase I was finished in August 1991 and included the construction of the domed complex. Phase II, completed in May 1995, added locker rooms, department offices, meeting rooms, concession areas, a retail store and other building amenities. Phase I of the project cost $21.8 million and was funded entirely by the State of Michigan. Phase II was completed for $2.1 million, with $800,000 in private donations and $1.3 million in loans. Total cost for the Superior Dome stands at $23.9 million. The general contractor for Phase 1 was R.E. Dailey & Company (Perini Corp.), Southfield, MI. The architect was TMP Associates, Bloomfield Hills, MI.

Use
The Wildcats football team was the first to christen the Dome, hosting the first event in the facility on September 14, 1991. Northern defeated Indianapolis, 31–20, in front of a crowd of 7,942. Later that season, a Superior Dome attendance record was set at 8,432, when Northern defeated Ferris State, 27–17, on October 5. On September 18, 2008, a new attendance record was set as 8,672 watched Northern lose to the Michigan Tech Huskies in a televised game.

The dome features a retractable artificial turf carpet, the largest of its kind in the world. When extended, the turf can accommodate football, soccer and field hockey. Underneath the carpet is a synthetic playing surface that features three basketball/volleyball courts, two tennis courts and a 200 m track. The carpet is winched in and out of place on a cushion of air. Retracting the turf carpet takes 30 minutes, with full setup taking approximately two hours.

The Superior Dome is also host to a number of campus and community events, including the Michigan High School Athletic Association 8 man football championship games, trade shows (approximately 100000 sqft of space), conventions, conferences, banquets, high school track meets, the Upper Peninsula "Band Day" competition/exhibition, Special Olympics and NMU's commencement exercises.

President George W. Bush held a campaign rally in the stadium during the 2004 Presidential campaign.

title: Superior Dome


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Shadwell station

Shadwell station could refer to:

 * Shadwell railway station, a station on the London Overground (formerly Shadwell tube station on the East London Line)
 * Shadwell DLR station, a station on the Docklands Light Railway
 * Shadwell and St George's East railway station, a closed station on the former London & Blackwall Railway

title: Shadwell station


text:
Shadwell railway station

Shadwell is a London Overground station in Shadwell in East London. It was formerly a London Underground station on the East London line until 2007. The station is between to the north and Wapping to the south. It is located near to Shadwell DLR station. The station is in Travelcard Zone 2.

The Overground station is underground (the DLR station is on a viaduct).

The Overground platforms are decorated with enamel panels designed by Sarah McMenemy in 1995.

London Underground
The original station was one of the oldest on the network, and was built over a spring. First opened by the East London Railway on 10 April 1876, it was first served by the District Railway and Metropolitan Railway on 1 October 1884. It was renamed Shadwell & St. George-in-the-East on 1 July 1900, but reverted to its original name in 1918. A new ticket hall was built on Cable Street in 1983, replacing the original building in Watney Street, which was demolished in May 2010. Access to the station platforms was through lifts or stairs. The station was closed between 1995 and 1998, owing to repair work on the East London line's Thames Tunnel. The typical off-peak East London line service from the station was:

 * 9 tph to
 * 5 tph to New Cross
 * 4 tph to New Cross Gate

London Overground
The station closed on 22 December 2007; it reopened on 27 April 2010 for a preview service to and New Cross Gate, and from 23 May 2010, the latter service was extended to West Croydon / Crystal Palace, operated within the London Overground network. A new gated northern access fronting Cornwall Street has been added, easing interchange with Shadwell DLR station, while the rest of the station has been heavily refurbished.

Services
All times below are correct as of the December 2012 timetables.

East London Line
There is a service every 3–5 minutes throughout the day. Current hourly off-peak frequency is:

 * 16 tph to Dalston Junction, of which 8 continue to Highbury & Islington
 * 4 tph to West Croydon
 * 4 tph to Crystal Palace
 * 4 tph to New Cross
 * 4 tph to Clapham Junction via Peckham Rye

Connections
London Buses routes 100, 339 and D3 serve the station.

title: Shadwell railway station


text:
Cernavodă

Cernavodă is a town in Constanța County, Northern Dobruja, Romania with a population of 15,088 as of 2021.

The town's name is derived from the Bulgarian černa voda (черна вода in Cyrillic), meaning 'black water'. This name is regarded by some scholars as a calque of the earlier Thracian name Axíopa, from IE *n̥ksei 'dark' and upā 'water' (cf. Avestan axšaēna- 'dark' and Lithuanian ùpė 'river, creek').

Economy
The town is a Danube fluvial port. It houses the Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant, consisting of two CANDU reactors providing about 18% of Romania's electrical energy output. The second reactor was built through a joint venture between Canada's Atomic Energy of Canada Limited and Italy's ANSALDO and became fully functional in November 2007.

The Danube–Black Sea Canal, opened in 1984, runs from Cernavodă to Agigea and Năvodari.

The outskirts of Cernavodă host numerous vineyards, producers of Chardonnay wine. The largest winery in the area is Murfatlar.

History
Cernavodă was founded under the name Axiopolis by the ancient Greeks in the 4th century BC as a trading post for contacts with local Dacians. A Roman fort was built as part of the defensive frontier system of the Moesian Limes along the Danube.

The railroad from Constanța to Cernavodă was opened in 1860 by the Ottoman administration.

Cernavodă was one of the capitals of the short-lived Silistra Nouă County (1878–1879).

The town gives its name to the late copper age Cernavodă archaeological culture, ca. 4000–3200 BC.

Demographics
At the 2021 census Cernavodă had a population of 15,088 with a majority of Romanians (80.4%) and minorities of Turks (2.23%), Roma (0.66%), Lipovans (0.47%), Tatars (0.15%), Hungarians (0.05%), Bulgarians (0.02%), others (0.7%) and unknown (15.32%).

At the 2011 census Cernavodă had 16,129 inhabitants; of those, 14,969 were Romanians (92.81%), 463 Turks (2.87%), 374 Roma (2.32%), 106 Lipovans (0.66%), 40 Tatars (0.25%), 15 Hungarians (0.09%), and 162 others.

Natives

 * Iulian Carabela (born 1996), footballer
 * Alexandru Claudian (1898–1962), sociologist, political figure, and poet
 * Iosipos Moisiodax (1725–1800), philosopher, deacon, and educator

title: Cernavodă


text:
Lie group decomposition

In mathematics, Lie group decompositions are used to analyse the structure of Lie groups and associated objects, by showing how they are built up out of subgroups. They are essential technical tools in the representation theory of Lie groups and Lie algebras; they can also be used to study the algebraic topology of such groups and associated homogeneous spaces. Since the use of Lie group methods became one of the standard techniques in twentieth century mathematics, many phenomena can now be referred back to decompositions.

The same ideas are often applied to Lie groups, Lie algebras, algebraic groups and p-adic number analogues, making it harder to summarise the facts into a unified theory.

List of decompositions

 * The Jordan–Chevalley decomposition of an element in algebraic group as a product of semisimple and unipotent elements
 * The Bruhat decomposition G = BWB of a semisimple algebraic group into double cosets of a Borel subgroup can be regarded as a generalization of the principle of Gauss–Jordan elimination, which generically writes a matrix as the product of an upper triangular matrix with a lower triangular matrix—but with exceptional cases. It is related to the Schubert cell decomposition of Grassmannians: see Weyl group for more details.
 * The Cartan decomposition writes a semisimple real Lie algebra as the sum of eigenspaces of a Cartan involution.
 * The Iwasawa decomposition G = KAN of a semisimple group G as the product of compact, abelian, and nilpotent subgroups generalises the way a square real matrix can be written as a product of an orthogonal matrix and an upper triangular matrix (a consequence of Gram–Schmidt orthogonalization).
 * The Langlands decomposition P = MAN writes a parabolic subgroup P of a Lie group as the product of semisimple, abelian, and nilpotent subgroups.
 * The Levi decomposition writes a finite dimensional Lie algebra as a semidirect product of a solvable ideal and a semisimple subalgebra.
 * The LU decomposition of a dense subset in the general linear group. It can be considered as a special case of the Bruhat decomposition.
 * The Birkhoff decomposition, a special case of the Bruhat decomposition for affine groups.

title: Lie group decomposition


text:
William Deane

Sir William Patrick Deane, (born 4 January 1931) is an Australian barrister and jurist who served as the 22nd governor-general of Australia, in office from 1996 to 2001. He was previously a Justice of the High Court of Australia from 1982 to 1995.

Deane received his undergraduate education at the University of Sydney, and later studied international law at The Hague Academy of International Law in the Netherlands. Prior to joining the judiciary, Deane worked for periods as a barrister and university lecturer. He was appointed to the Supreme Court of New South Wales in 1977, and later that year was also appointed to the Federal Court of Australia. Deane was elevated to the High Court in 1982, and during his tenure was generally considered to fall on the court's progressive side. He retired from the court in 1995, and the following year was appointed governor-general on the recommendation of Paul Keating. Deane had a low profile during his five-year term, facing no major constitutional issues, but did come to international notice by officially opening the 2000 Summer Olympics.

Early life
Deane was born on 4 January 1931 in Melbourne. He was the youngest of three children and only son born to Lillian Elizabeth (Hussey) and Cornelius Aloysius Deane. His father grew up in a large Catholic family in Wahring, Victoria, and won the Military Cross during World War I. He later worked as a patent examiner. The family moved to Canberra in 1933, and Deane grew up in the suburb of Griffith. He attended St Christopher's Convent School in Manuka and later boarded in Sydney at St Joseph's College, Hunters Hill. He won an exhibition and Canberra scholarship to attend the University of Sydney, where he graduated Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws and "won numerous scholarships, exhibitions and prizes". He was a member of the staff of the Sydney Law Review and served on the Student's Representative Council and as secretary and vice-president of the Sydney University Law Society. He also trained with the University Air Squadron and attained a pilot's licence. In 1954 Deane won a Rotary Foundation Fellowship to undertake postgraduate studies in Europe. He was awarded a diploma from The Hague Academy of International Law in 1955.

After graduation, Deane worked in the federal Attorney-General's Department in Canberra and at the law firm Minter Simpson (later to become Minter Ellison). He was called to the Sydney Bar in 1957 and also lectured in law at university.

Deane joined the Democratic Labor Party (DLP) in the 1950s and served on the party's executive. He later recalled having "very strong views on the threat of communism" at the time. He subsequently became disillusioned by factional disputes and ceased to have any involvement in politics.

Judicial career
In 1977, Deane was appointed a Judge of the Supreme Court of New South Wales and, in the same year, he was appointed to the Federal Court of Australia and as President of the Australian Trade Practices Tribunal. In June 1982 he was appointed to the High Court of Australia, replacing Sir Ninian Stephen on his appointment as Governor-General. He received a knighthood in August 1982. On the court he formed part of the majority which recognised native title in the landmark Mabo case of 1992.

Governor-General
In August 1995, the Labor Prime Minister, Paul Keating, announced that Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia had agreed to the appointment of Deane as Governor-General to succeed Bill Hayden. Deane retired from the High Court in November and was sworn in as Governor-General on 16 February 1996. Less than a month later the Liberal/National coalition led by John Howard defeated Keating's government in the 1996 Australian federal election.

Deane was Australia's first Catholic governor-general. He "represented the Catholic social justice position on just about every issue that came forward".

On 28 August 1996, as governor-general, Deane, issued a proclamation that officially established 3 September as Australian National Flag Day.

As governor-general, Deane received praise for his role in publicly mourning the victims of tragedies that took place during his term in office, including the Port Arthur massacre (1996), the Thredbo landslide (1997) the Swiss canyoning disaster (1999) and the Childers Palace Backpackers Hostel fire (2000). His speech in Switzerland titled "It is still winter at home" was especially well received. He also was asked to deliver the eulogies at the funerals of several prominent Australians, including Sir Donald Bradman, Nugget Coombs, Dame Roma Mitchell, Sir Marcus Oliphant, and Mum Shirl.

Deane's term of office was due to expire on 31 December 2000, but was extended by six months to cover the Centenary of Federation celebrations. Upon leaving office in June 2001, he stated that his main regret as governor-general was that Australia did not achieve Reconciliation by the end of the 20th century as he had hoped. Howard stated he had "displayed an unfailing interest in the place of the disadvantaged within Australian society".

Olympics
Deane officially opened the 2000 Summer Olympics, giving a brief speech in front of a crowd of 110,000 people at the Sydney Olympic Stadium. Prime Minister John Howard had originally planned to open the games himself, with the agreement of the organizing committee and the International Olympic Committee (IOC). However, in November 1999 he changed his mind and advised the IOC that Deane would be opening the games. Howard said this was due to "a concern that my opening the Olympic Games would become a party political issue [...] I think in the long run it'll be better for the Olympic Games for the Governor-General to open them because we will be removing that one area of political controversy". Members of the opposition Labor Party had advocated that the Queen be asked to perform the honours, arguing that it was hypocritical for Howard to support the retention of the monarchy at the 1999 republic referendum but not call upon the Queen to represent Australia.

Later years
As of Deane acted as Patron or co-Patron of a large number of charitable organisations working for the disadvantaged, including Matthew Talbot Homeless Services, Father Chris Riley's Youth off the Streets, the Starlight Foundation and the Australian Indigenous Education Foundation. He was also a Patron of Reconciliation Australia and of the Australian Indigenous Doctors Association.

The A.C.T. Government appointed him as Patron of the National Capital's 2013 Centenary Celebrations.

He is a former Patron and Chair of international aid-organization CARE Australia and a member of its advisory board.

Honours
Deane was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) on 10 August 1982, a few weeks after being appointed to the High Court. On Australia Day 1988, he was made a Companion of the Order of Australia (AC). He is also a Knight Commander with Star of the Papal Order of St. Gregory the Great and a Knight of the Venerable Order of St. John.

In 2001, Deane was awarded the Sydney Peace Prize "for his consistent support of vulnerable and disadvantaged Australians and his strong commitment to the cause of reconciliation".

Personal life
Deane married solicitor Helen Russell on 6 January 1965. The couple had one son and one daughter. He was described in 2002 as "a devout Catholic who regularly attends Mass at St Christopher's, Canberra".

title: William Deane


text:
Kurt Schneider

Kurt Schneider (7 January 1887 – 27 October 1967) was a German psychiatrist known largely for his writing on the diagnosis and understanding of schizophrenia, as well as personality disorders then known as psychopathic personalities.

Biography
Schneider was born in Crailsheim, Kingdom of Württemberg in 1887. He began his psychiatric training in Cologne; however, his training was interrupted by the first World War, in which he served on the Western Front. When his post-war career began, Schneider was influenced and mentored by Max Scheler, a philosophy professor and one of the co-founders of the phenomenological movement in philosophy. Scheler served as Schneider’s supervisor for his postgraduate degree in philosophy in 1921. Schneider applied Scheler’s theory of emotions to his studies and this theory was the topic of his first major publications.

In 1931 he became director of the German Psychiatric Research Institute in Munich, which was founded by Emil Kraepelin. Disgusted by the developing tide of psychiatric eugenics championed by the Nazi Party, Schneider left the institute, but did serve as a doctor for the German armed forces during World War II.

After the war, academics who had not taken part in the Nazi eugenics policies were appointed to serve in, and rebuild Germany's medical institutions. Schneider was appointed Dean of the Medical School at Heidelberg University and remained there until his retirement in 1955.

Heidelberg School of Psychiatry
Schneider and Karl Jaspers founded the Heidelberg school of psychiatry.

Publications
Schneider also wrote and published many books and articles; his first book on psychopathic personalities in 1923 ran to nine editions and discussed the psychological differences between two sorts of depressive conditions – melancholic and reactive. Schneider’s publication, “First Rank Symptoms,” remains one of his most notable contributions to the field of psychiatry and outlined the diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia. Even though he published “First Rank Symptoms” in 1939, the work remained unnoticed until much later, primarily due to the Second World War. His paper, The Stratification of Emotional Life and the Structure of Depressive States, was noted as one of the first applications of phenomenological philosophy to psychiatry. His most historically significant publication, "Clinical Psychopathology" was originally published in 1946, but it was later titled "Beiträge zur Psychiatrie". In its third edition, it was titled "Klinische Psychopathologie", before its final edition, which was translated into English as "Clinical Psychopathology".

Contributions to psychiatry
Schneider was concerned with improving the method of diagnosis in psychiatry. He contributed to diagnostic procedures and the definition of disorders in the following areas of psychiatry:

Mood disorders
Schneider coined the terms endogenous depression, derived from Emil Kraepelin's use of the adjective to mean biological in origin, and reactive depression, more usually seen in outpatients, in 1920.

Schizophrenia
Like Karl Jaspers, Schneider particularly championed diagnoses based on the form, rather than the content of a sign or symptom. For example, he argued that a delusion should not be diagnosed by the content of the belief, but by the way in which a belief is held.

He was also concerned with differentiating schizophrenia from other forms of psychosis, by listing the psychotic symptoms that are particularly characteristic of schizophrenia. These have become known as Schneiderian First-Rank Symptoms or simply, first-rank symptoms.

First-rank symptoms

 * Auditory hallucinations.
 * Auditory hallucinations taking the form of a voice or voices repeating the subject's thoughts out loud.
 * Auditory hallucinations discussing the subject or arguing about them and referring to them in the third person.
 * Auditory hallucinations discussing the patient's thoughts as or before they occur.
 * Auditory hallucinations taking the form of a commentary on the subject's thoughts or behavior.
 * The experience of intrusion of unusual ideas or thoughts into the subject's mind as a result of the action of some external agency (thought insertion).
 * The experience that the subject's thinking is no longer confined within their own mind but is shared by or is accessible to other people (thought broadcasting).
 * The experience of being deprived of thought as a result of the removal of the subject's thoughts from the mind by some person or influence (thought withdrawal).
 * The experience that actions, sensations, bodily movements, emotions or thought processes are generated by an outside agency that takes over the will of the subject (passivity experiences).
 * Primary delusions: beliefs arising suddenly ‘out of a clear blue sky’ from a normal perception which would seem commonplace and unrelated to others but which nevertheless generates an unshakable delusional conviction.
 * Delusional perception - the belief that a normal perception has special significance or meaning.

The reliability of using first-rank symptoms for the diagnosis of schizophrenia has since been questioned, although the terms might still be used descriptively by mental health professionals who do not use them as diagnostic aids.

Individuals with dissociative identity disorder experience first-rank symptoms more often than patients with schizophrenia though patients with DID lack the negative symptoms of schizophrenia and normally do not mistake hallucinations for reality. Differentiating between dissociative identity disorder and psychotic disorders is not done by listing first-rank symptoms as these conditions have a considerable overlap yet a different overall clinical picture and treatment approach.

Psychopathic personalities
Schneider also played a key role in developing concepts of psychopathy, used in a broad sense to mean personality disorder or particularly the connotation of Gemütlose psychopathy with antisocial personality disorder. He published the influential 'The Psychopathic Personalities' in 1923. This was based in part on his earlier 1921 work 'The Personality and Fate of Registered Prostitutes' where he outlined 12 character types.

Schneider sought to put psychopathy diagnoses on a morally neutral and scientific footing. He defined abnormal personality as a statistical deviation from the norm, vaguely conceptualised. He thought very creative or intelligent people had abnormal personalities by definition, but defined the psychopathic personality as those who suffered from their abnormal personality or caused suffering to society because of it. He did not see these as mental illnesses as such - thus adding to a divide, contrary to Eugen Bleuler for example, between those considered psychotic and those considered psychopathic.

Schneider's unsystematic typology was based on his clinical views. He proposed 10 psychopathic personalities: those showing abnormal mood/activity; the insecure sensitive and insecure anankastic (drifting, feckless); fanatics; self-assertive; emotionally unstable; explosive; Gemütlose; Haltlose and asthenic.

Schneider's work in this respect is said to have influenced all future descriptive typologies, including the current classifications of personality disorders in the DSM-V and ICD-11. Nevertheless, Schneider is considered to not exactly have succeeded in his attempted and claimed production of a value-free non-judgmental diagnostic system. In fact, Schneider's mixing of the medical and the moral has been described as the most noteworthy aspect of this work, which has been linked back to German reception of Cesare Lombroso's theory of the 'born criminal', redefined by Emil Kraepelin and others (see also Koch) in to psychiatric terms as a 'moral defect'. After World War I it lived on in Schneider's 'gemütlos' (compassionless) psychopaths, or what Karl Birnbaum called 'amoral' psychopaths. It has been described as remarkable that Schneider criticized Kraepelin and others for basing their personality diagnoses on moral judgments, yet appeared to do so himself. For example, Schneider admitted that the 'suffering of society' was a 'totally subjective' and 'teleological’ criterion for defining psychopathic personalities, but said that in 'scientific studies' this could be avoided by operating by the broader statistical category of abnormal personalities, which he believed were always congenital and therefore largely hereditary. The attempt to finesse the problem of value judgments has been described as 'clearly unsatisfactory'.

title: Kurt Schneider


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Lewisham station

Lewisham is an interchange station in Lewisham, south-east London for Docklands Light Railway (DLR) and National Rail services.

On the National Rail network it is 7 mi measured from London Victoria and is operated by Southeastern.

Station layout
There are four platforms for main-line trains: 3 and 4 on the North Kent Line, and 1 and 2 on the Mid-Kent line which is also used as a loop off the South Eastern Main Line. The current station which dates from 1857 is constructed of yellow stock brick with stone dressing and has an unusual survival of a wooden clapboard building at the back. The facade has a pleasing symmetry of three windows, three entrance doors, and three windows.

Original doors sash windows skirting tiling and banisters are present inside. The original corniced ceiling of the main hall is currently concealed by a lowered fake ceiling. Platform 3 has kept its original canopy with its elaborate cast iron brackets which depict cherries. some of the original chamfered wood and cast iron supports of the original canopy survive on platform 2.

The station has similarities with other listed stations built at around the same time such as the listed Ladywell railway station, Blackheath station and Gravesend railway station which has the same elaborate cast iron supporting brackets as can be found at Lewisham.

Platforms 5 and 6 are served by Docklands Light Railway trains to Bank and Stratford. The Docklands Light Railway station opened in 1999 following a southward extension from Island Gardens. The original canopy over platform 4 was demolished at some point post 1990.

The original canopy over the main entrance was demolished in 2009 at a cost of £790k and replaced with a steel version.

From December 2009, Lewisham was fitted with electric ticket gates, in line with the Government's new strategy to give all Greater London National Rail stations Oyster card accessibility and closing access to those who attempt to travel without tickets. This was controversial as it involved the closure of the gate on Platform 4 and led to a petition signed by over 1,000.

British Transport Police also maintains a neighbourhood policing presence at Lewisham.

Opening and early years (1849–1922)
The North Kent line opened on 30 July 1849 by the South Eastern Railway linking Strood with the London and Greenwich Railway route to London Bridge. The original station was located east of the Lewisham Road overbridge with access off Lewisham Road.

With the opening of the Mid-Kent line on 1 January 1857 a new station was built to the west so both lines could be served. For a period Old Lewisham Station was also kept open

Eleven passengers were killed in the 1857 Lewisham rail crash when a train ran into the back of a stationary train.

In 1898 the South Eastern Railway and the London Chatham and Dover Railway agreed to work as one railway company under the name of the South Eastern and Chatham Railway.

Southern Railway (1923–1947)
Following the Railways Act 1921 (also known as the Grouping Act), Lewisham became a Southern Railway station on 1 January 1923.

The Mid-Kent line was electrified with services commencing on 28 February 1926.

The North Kent Line was electrified with the (750 V DC third rail) system. Electrification was initially to Dartford (6 June 1926) and was extended to Gillingham by World War Two.

In 1929 large-scale remodelling of the junction was undertaken to enable cross-London freight traffic to be routed via Nunhead and Loughborough Junction. The new route utilised part of the former Greenwich Park branch (which had closed in 1917) and included a flyover.

The loop between Lewisham and the main line towards Hither Green, which had opened in 1929, was electrified on 16 July 1933 allowing Sidcup and Orpington local electric services to call.

The Nunhead line was electrified in summer 1935 and opened to electric traffic on 30 September 1935 with services from the Bexleyheath and Sidcup to St Paul's (today Blackfriars). This service was cancelled during World War 2 as an economy measure recommencing on 12 August 1946.

British Railways (1948–1994)
After World War II and following nationalisation on 1 January 1948, it fell under the auspices of British Railways Southern Region.

On 4 December 1957 the Lewisham rail crash occurred to the west of the station with 90 fatalities.

As part of the London Bridge re-signalling a new loop line was opened with a reversible track down to the west (Fast Line) side of St Johns which opened up on 1 April 1976.

Upon sectorisation in 1982, three passenger sectors were created: Provincial (later renamed Regional Railways) for local services outside of the London area; InterCity, operating principal express services; and London & South East (renamed Network SouthEast in 1986) who operated commuter services in the London area.

Franchise (1994–present day)
Following de-nationalisation of British Rail on 1 April 1994 the infrastructure to St Johns station became the responsibility of Railtrack whilst a business unit operated the train services. On 13 October 1996 operation of the passenger services passed to Connex South Eastern who were originally due to run the franchise until 2011.

On 22 November 1999 Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott opened the 4·2 km Lewisham extension of London's Docklands Light Railway with trains running through to Bank.

Following a number of accidents and financial issues Railtrack plc was sold to Network Rail on 3 October 2002 who became responsible for the infrastructure.

On 27 June 2003 the Strategic Rail Authority decided to strip Connex of the franchise citing poor financial management and run the franchise itself. Connex South Eastern continued to operate the franchise until 8 November 2003 with the services transferring to the Strategic Rail Authority's South Eastern Trains subsidiary the following day.

On 30 November 2005 the Department for Transport awarded Govia the Integrated Kent franchise. The services operated by South Eastern Trains transferred to Southeastern on 1 April 2006.

The loop line to St Johns was doubled in 2013.

There was formerly a bus terminus within the station, but this was relocated to Thurston Road as part of the Lewisham Gateway project.

Incidents

 * On 4 December 1957, the Lewisham rail crash occurred to the west of the station with 90 fatalities. A plaque at the station commemorates this incident.
 * In the early morning hours of 24 January 2017, a GB Railfreight train travelling from Grain to Neasden derailed at Lewisham. Although no railway workers or passengers were injured in the derailment, it caused widespread disruption across the Southeastern system, with numerous delays and cancellations for the day.
 * On the evening of 2 March 2018 during exceptionally cold weather, several trains were delayed close to the station and passengers evacuated the train and went onto the tracks.

Fleet line service
In 1971 and 1972, parliamentary approval was given for construction of Phases 2 and 3 of the planned Fleet line. Phase 3 on the proposal would have extended the line from Fenchurch Street to Lewisham, with new platforms constructed underground. Further plans for Phase 4 of the extension considered the line taking over the mainline tracks on the Addiscombe and Hayes branch lines. Preliminary construction works were carried out elsewhere on the extension before the plan was postponed by lack of funds. Following a change of name to Jubilee line, the first part of the line opened in 1979, but the remaining plans were not carried out. When the Jubilee line was extended in 1999, a different route to Stratford was followed.

Bakerloo line service
TfL is currently considering extending the Bakerloo line to Lewisham. Both line options stop at Lewisham. If progressed the station is currently expected to open in 2030.

In its draft Kent Route Utilisation Strategy, Network Rail mentions the possibility of extending the Bakerloo line from Elephant & Castle to Lewisham, and then taking over the Hayes branch line. Network Rail states that this would free up six paths per hour into central London and so increasing capacity on the Tonbridge main line, which would also relieve the junctions around Lewisham.

Services
Lewisham is the southern terminus of the DLR, the previous station being Elverson Road. It is on the boundary of Travelcard Zone 2 and Zone 3 and is a major transport hub, with many buses passing through or terminating here.

During infrastructure works on the Greenwich Line, Thameslink services are normally diverted through Lewisham, giving it a temporary link to Luton in the north and Rainham in the east.

National Rail
National Rail services at Lewisham are operated by Southeastern using, , and  EMUs.

The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is:

 * 6 tph to London Charing Cross (non-stop to London Bridge)
 * 4 tph to London Cannon Street (all stations)
 * 2 tph to London Victoria
 * 2 tph to Sevenoaks via Grove Park
 * 2 tph to Hayes via Catford Bridge
 * 2 tph to Dartford via Sidcup
 * 2 tph to Slade Green via Bexleyheath, continuing to London Cannon Street via Woolwich Arsenal and Greenwich
 * 2 tph to Dartford via Bexleyheath
 * 2 tph to Gravesend via Woolwich Arsenal

Additional trains serve the station during the peak hours.

Docklands Light Railway
The typical off-peak DLR service from Lewisham is 12 trains per hour to and from Bank. Additional services run to and from the station during the peak hours, increasing the service to up to 22 trains per hour, with up to 8 trains per hour running to and from Stratford instead of Bank.

Connections
London Buses routes 21, 47, 75, 89, 129, 136, 178, 181, 185, 199, 208, 225, 261, 273, 284, 321, 380, 436, 484, P4, school route 621 and night routes N21, N89, N136 and N199 serve the station.

Lewisham previously had an adjoining bus station for terminating routes. The station closed on 28 February 2014 for the major Lewisham Gateway redevelopment project.

title: Lewisham station


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Gusli

Gusli (гусли) is the oldest East Slavic multi-string plucked instrument, belonging to the zither family, due to its strings being parallel to its resonance board. Its roots lie in Veliky Novgorod in Novgorodian Republic. It has its relatives in Europe and throughout the world: kantele in Finland, kannel in Estonia, kanklės in Lithuania, kokles in Latvia, Zither in Germany, citera in the Czech Republic, and psalterium in France. Furthermore, the kanun has been found in Arabic countries, and the autoharp, in the United States. It is also related to such ancient instruments as Chinese gu zheng, which has a thousand-year history, and its Japanese relative koto. A stringed musical instrument called guslim is listed as one of the Me in ancient Sumer.

Etymology
Word gusli the word comes from verb *gǫsti(make sound, howl, play music) with suffix *slь(from PIE *-trom). In the times of Kievan Rus', the term Gusli is thought to simply refer to any generic stringed instrument. The root of the term comes from the word to make sound in the wind. The term was eventually associated with the trapezoidal Gusli-psaltyry (which may have originated in Byzantium).

History
The Gusli is one of the oldest musical instruments that have played an important role in the Russian music culture. Vertkov states that the first mentions of the Gusli date back to 591 AD to a treatise by the Greek historian Theophylact Simocatta which describes the instrument being used by Slavs from the area of the later Kievan Rus' kingdom. However, it is not exactly clear what instrument was meant by that word, because in Old Slavic or Old Russian "gusli" was used to refer to any stringed instrument. The first documented gusli were recorded in 1170 in Veliky Novgorod in Novgorodian Rus'. The Greek historian Theophan also mentioned the gusli. During the war at the end of the 6th century, the Greeks took Slavonic prisoners and found a musical instrument named the Gusli. This corresponds to what the Arabic authors Al-Masudi and Ibn-Dasta mentioned in the 10th century.

The gusli are thought to have been the instrument used by the legendary Boyan (a singer of tales) described in the Lay of Igor's campaign.

The instruments were used by the wandering Skomorokh musicians and entertainers. Preserved instruments discovered by archaeologists in various digs have between five and nine strings with one example having twelve strings.

Types
Folk Gusli have from eleven to thirty-six gut or metal strings, tuned diatonically.

There were two main forms:

 * helmet-shaped (Shlemovidnye gusli – Шлемовидные гусли)
 * wing-shaped (Krylovidnye gusli).

Shlemovidnye gusli
Shlemovidnye gusli (Helmet-shaped gusli; Шлемовидные гусли) is a variety of Gusli held by the musician on his knees, so that the strings are horizontal, the resonator body under them. He uses his left hand to mute unnecessary strings and thus form chords, while strumming all the strings with his right hand. The instrument was spread in southern and western regions of Kievan Rus'.

Krylovidnye gusli

Krylovidnye gusli ("wing-shaped gusli"; Крыловидные гусли) is much smaller, and has more resemblance to Baltic psaltery such as the kankles, kokles, kannel and kantele. They are held much more like modern guitars (although the strings are still muted by the left hand through a special opening in the instrument's body). This modification was more prevalent in northern parts of Russia, especially Novgorod and Pskov.

Keyboard Gusli
The Keyboard Gusli ["Claviroobraznie Gusli" | (Клавирообразные гусли)] is a heavily strung 19th-century variant with an iron frame, supported on a stand or with table legs. It has a one-octave piano-type chromatic keyboard. Pressing a key raises the dampers on all strings of that note. Pressing the keys for a chord enables its arpeggiated execution.

Related instruments
A number of Slavic folk music instruments have names which are related to Gusli such as the Czech violin housle and the Balkan one-stringed fiddle gusle. In western Ukraine and Belarus, husli can also refer to a fiddle or even a ducted flute. The violin-like variant of the instrument is also related to the South Slavic gusle.

The psaltery variant is related to the zither. It is also related to the Lithuanian kanklės, the Latvian kokles, the Estonian kannel and the Finnish kantele. Together these instruments make up the family known as Baltic psalteries.

A related instrument is the tsymbaly, a hammered dulcimer.

In Ukraine, it is thought that the gusli may have influenced the development of the multi-stringed bandura, which largely replaced it in the nineteenth century.

Modern Russian performers

 * Olga Glazova
 * Elena Frolova
 * Olga Shishkina
 * Alexander Matochkin
 * Alexandra Sakovich
 * Alexey Belkin

title: Gusli


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Ski Club of Great Britain

The Ski Club of Great Britain is a not-for-profit recreational snow sports club. It was founded on 6 May 1903 during a meeting at the Hotel Café Royal in London. Until the 1960s, the Ski Club of Great Britain was responsible for British Alpine ski racing teams.

In April 2020, the Ski Club had about 23,000 members, making it the largest membership-based snow sports club in the UK.

History
The aims of the club, as outlined at the very first meeting, are to encourage people to learn to ski; help members to improve; get more enjoyment from skiing; and bring together people who are interested in the sport.

Before World War I, the club was primarily concerned with cross country (Nordic) skiing. The first official Ski Championship of Great Britain was held in Saanenmöser, Switzerland in 1914. The results were based on performance in cross country and ski jumping.

The first British Ski Championships to include Alpine skiing took place in Wengen on 6-7 January 1921. The championships were organised by Sir Arnold Lunn on behalf of the Ski Club. Sir Arnold Lunn was a central figure in this period of the Ski Club's history and the development of ski racing, setting the first modern slalom in Murren in 1922 and helping to persuade the International Olympic Committee to include downhill and slalom in the 1936 Winter Olympic Games in Garmisch-Partenkirchen.

In the mid-1920s, the Ski Club began providing snow and weather reports for national newspapers.

The National Ski Federation of Great Britain (later the British Ski and Snowboard Federation) was founded in 1964 as the governing body for alpine skiing in Britain. The Ski Club of Great Britain thereafter became aligned more closely with recreational skiing.

Ski Club Leaders
The Ski Club sent its first representatives to the Alps in 1928. The Ski Club and its leaders began to organize touring parties during the 1930s. These were to teach people to ski and keep them entertained in the evenings. The Ski Club currently operates a volunteer-leading service in around 17 resorts worldwide. In France, the club operates an 'Instructor Led Guiding Service' due to legal issues with volunteer leaders.

Ski Club Freshtracks
The Ski Club has a long history of running ski holidays. Family holidays were first introduced in the 1970s, and later extended to include adult and over-50s holidays; and Peak Experience holidays. In 1996–97 the holiday's programme expanded once more with the incorporation of the off-piste ski company ‘Freshtracks’. This increased the off-piste programme and included many holidays with qualified mountain guides. On holidays a rating system is employed to match skiers of similar abilities. This rating system is a continuation of that used during the early decades of the club's existence.

Ski Industry Involvement
The Ski Club publishes an annual Consumer Research Report, advises the media on snow sports-related matters, and raises awareness of British athletes and events through its website and social media channels.

The Pery Medal
The Pery medal was instituted in 1929 by the Hon. E. C. Pery, later the Earl of Limerick, DSO and President of the Ski Club of Great Britain (1925–27) and was first awarded in 1930. Previous recipients of the medal include inspirational explorers, ski pioneers, Olympic and Paralympic champions, scientists and authors. Arnold Lunn was the first to be presented with the Pery medal in 1930 (he was also knighted for services to British skiing and Anglo-Swiss relations in 1952) and Sir Ranulph Fiennes, Frans Klammer, Konrad Bartelski, Alain Baxter and Hermann Maier feature among some of the well-known recipients.

Skiclub.co.uk
In 1995, the Ski Club launched the first ever winter sports website; www.skiclub.co.uk. Despite constantly increasing competition, it remains one of the leading skiing websites. Relaunched in 2000, the website was transformed from a ‘brochure’ website into a fully interactive site. Ski Club TV, the first dedicated snow sports internet TV channel, was launched in 2006.

Ski Club Insurance
The Ski Club of Great Britain has provided snow sports insurance for over 40 years. Insurance policies are designed by experts specifically for snow sports enthusiasts.

Publications
In 1905 the Ski Club began publishing the British Ski Year Book. This provided a record of changes in equipment, clothes, facilities, ski techniques, and holidays over the decades. In 1972 the British Ski Year Book became Ski Survey. In 1997 Ski Survey became Ski+board Magazine and was redesigned. Ski+board is published five times in the winter months, in September, October, December, February and March (this fifth issue is online only). There is also a summer version of the magazine, called Elevation.

Editors
The following persons have been editor-in-chief of the magazine:
 * 2014–present: Colin Nicholson
 * 2001–2014: Arnie Wilson
 * 1974–1992: Elizabeth Hussey
 * 1919–1974: Arnold Lunn

Notable Presidents

 * Air Commodore Hugh Dowding (Later Air Chief Marshal The Lord Dowding) (1924–25)
 * Gerald Seligman (1927–28)
 * Sir Arnold Lunn (1928–30)
 * Sir Claud Schuster GCB (later Lord Schuster) (1932–34)
 * Sir Malcolm Eve GBE MC QC (1950)
 * The Earl of Limerick (1974–81)
 * Alan Blackshaw (1997–2003)
 * Frank Gardner (journalist) (2011–2017)
 * Chemmy Alcott (2017–)

title: Ski Club of Great Britain


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Interstellar

Interstellar or Interstella may refer to:

Space

 * Interstellar space
 * Interstellar medium
 * Interstellar travel
 * Interstellar communication
 * Interstellar probe
 * Interstellar Probe (spacecraft) (ISP), a NASA probe proposed in 2018 for launch in the 2030s.
 * Interstellar Express (IHP), Chinese probes proposed in 2019 for launch in 2024.

Books

 * Interstellar: The Search for Extraterrestrial Life and Our Future in the Stars
 * Interstellarum Deep Sky Atlas, a 2014 star atlas

Films and soundtracks

 * Interstella 5555: The 5tory of the 5ecret 5tar 5ystem, an animated film set to Daft Punk's album Discovery
 * Interstellar (film), a 2014 science fiction film directed by Christopher Nolan
 * Interstellar (soundtrack), the soundtrack to the 2014 film Interstellar

Groups

 * Intastella, a band in the second wave of the Manchester music scene
 * Interstellar (band), a Canadian rock band

Albums

 *  Interstellar Space, John Coltrane album
 * Interstellar: The String Quartet Tribute to Interpol, an album by Vitamin String Quartet
 * Interstellar, an album by Frankie Rose

Songs

 * "Interstellar", a track from the album Folk by Ultramarine

Organizations

 * Interstellar Technologies, Japanese company

title: Interstellar