text:
User talk:Chancemill

Archived conversations
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 * User talk:Chancemill/Archive1

User Status
'''Largely inactive since July 2004 for want of time. A lot has changed since my last edit here. I hope to be back soon. ''' Chancemill Chancemill 11:33, Nov 19, 2004 (UTC)

Please use the space below for a new message.

 * Better yet, thank you for writing such a great article. I enjoyed reading it. 172 10:51, 25 May 2004 (UTC)

 * The article about East India Company was terrific. - Kesava 13:41, 25 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I do not know much about Dhruva, you are the expert:-) Will look at it anyway. Thanks for making the red blue. KRS 18:48, 27 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm back !! How can i help? Deepak 20:02, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Hijra (India)
To: User:Chancemill, User:Sundar, User:Harikishoreaj, User:Nichalp, User:KRS, User:Ambarish, User:Arvindn

The Hijra article needs some help/comments. If you know more on the subject, please feel free to comment at Talk:Hijra (India). Thanks. --Rrjanbiah 04:24, 7 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Main Page Hack ?
Hey man, please set the jpeg on main page right...asap...I dont have the admin perms to do that....Kesava 15:49, 17 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Happy Birthday
Hope you are having a good day. Keep up the good work! Yardcock 16:58, Aug 24, 2004 (UTC)

English
Hi. Please disambiguate English on your user page. For example, English. Thanks. RedWolf 02:46, Sep 3, 2004 (UTC)

Invite
Hi

I'm posting this to invite you to participate in WP:LCOTW, a project you may be interested in. Please consider nominating and/or voting for a suitable article there. Filiocht 12:27, Nov 8, 2004 (UTC)

RFC pages on VfD
Should RFC pages be placed on VfD to be deleted? I'm considering removing Requests for comment/Slrubenstein, Requests for comment/Jwrosenzweig and Requests for comment/John Kenney from WP:VFD. Each of them was listed by CheeseDreams. Your comments on whether I should do this would be appreciated. - Ta bu shi da yu 03:28, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Article Licensing
Hi, I've started a drive to get users to multi-license all of their contributions that they've made to either (1) all U.S. state, county, and city articles or (2) all articles, using the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (CC-by-sa) v1.0 and v2.0 Licenses or into the public domain if they prefer. The CC-by-sa license is a true free documentation license that is similar to Wikipedia's license, the GFDL, but it allows other projects, such as WikiTravel, to use our articles. Since you are among the top 2000 Wikipedians by edits, I was wondering if you would be willing to multi-license all of your contributions or at minimum those on the geographic articles. Over 90% of people asked have agreed. For More Information:
 * Multi-Licensing FAQ - Lots of questions answered
 * Multi-Licensing Guide
 * Free the Rambot Articles Project

To allow us to track those users who muli-license their contributions, many users copy and paste the " " template into their user page, but there are other options at Template messages/User namespace. The following examples could also copied and pasted into your user page:

 * Option 1
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

OR
 * Option 2
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions to any U.S. state, county, or city article as described below:

Or if you wanted to place your work into the public domain, you could replace " " with "  ". If you only prefer using the GFDL, I would like to know that too. Please let me know what you think at my talk page. It's important to know either way so no one keeps asking. -- Ram-Man (comment| talk)

English disambiguation on User page
Hi. Please disambiguate English on your user page. For example, English. Thanks. RedWolf 20:49, Dec 27, 2004 (UTC)

New Mathematics Wikiportal
I noticed you've done some work on Mathematics articles. I wanted to point out to you the new Mathematics Wikiportal- more specifically, to the Mathematics Collaboration of the Week page. I'm looking for any math-related stubs or non-existant articles that you would like to see on Wikipedia. Additionally, I wondered if you'd be willing to help out on some of the Collaboration of the Week pages.

I encourage you to vote on the current Collaboration of the Week, because I'm very interested in which articles you think need to be written or added to, and because I understand that I cannot do the enormous amount of work required on some of the Math stubs alone. I'm asking for your help, and also your critiques on the way the portal is set up.

Please direct all comments to my user-talk page, the Math Wikiportal talk page, or the Math Collaboration of the Week talk page. Thanks a lot for your support! ral315 02:54, Feb 11, 2005 (UTC)

New Mathematics Project Participants List
Hello Chance.

In case you didn't see the discussion on Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Mathematics here: Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Mathematics, I'm writing to you to let you know that I've converted the "WikiProject Mathematics Participants List" into a table. It is now alphabetical, includes links to the participant's talk page and contribution list, and has a field for "Areas of Interest". Since your name is on the list, I thought you might want to check and/or update your entry.

Regards, Paul August ☎ 14:02, Mar 20, 2005 (UTC)

Looking for help on a major wiki project
Hey :) I was wondering if you'd be interesting in helping out with www.Knowmore.org, a corporation search wiki we're trying to get off the ground. We could DEFINATELY use some people that know how to make a wiki community great & the site is almost a blank slate at this point.  It's been heavily customized and is designed to help responsible consumers enter any product or company name and immediatly find information about that co. (the main focus of the wiki is corporate & political information in a much more specialized way then wikipedia currently offers) Let me know if you're interested!  aim: knowmoreorg or bernard@knowmore.org

Birthday
--User:Jenmoa 05:45, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

Please vote on list of lists, a featured article candidate
Please vote at Featured list candidates/List of lists of mathematical topics. Michael Hardy 20:21, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

Welcome back!!
Hey. I saw you editing today for the first time after 7 months and I just wanted to welcome you back. You may not know me (I joined and became an admin after you left). Tell me if you ever need anything.--May the Force be with you! Shreshth91 ($ |-| r 3 $ |-| t |-|) 14:17, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

Wishes
I wish you and your family a Merry Christmas and a happy New Year. --Bhadani 17:41, 25 December 2005 (UTC)

Page for deletion
Revolution within the form is up for deletion. Can I ask for a vote to "Transwiki". Thanks.WHEELER 23:50, 2 March 2006 (UTC)

Request,Nomination for removal Khalistan article
Hello Sir I'm nominating this page for deletion because it is written with a point of view, excessive use of unreliable sources.and the title "Khalistan" is wrong for the topic because "Khalistan" does not exist,lack of support from resident Punjabi's and Sikhs in India, but there was a "Movement for Khalistan" and that is the right title for the topic, and i think this whole article "a new name" should be rewritten with the help of people from sikh community "in" India and other Indians, because this topic is related to politics/people of India.We all should understand Khalistan is not a political entity and having a article is not justified, Microsoft Encarta and Britannic encyclopedia don't have an article known as "Khalistan" but they do have articles on the movement that took place decades back, and i think there are also copyright issues involved with this article because big parts of this article are written on other peoples research. Many reliable sources are used to show "one side" of their view on the topic, there are also indications that organisations banned by US and EU are involved in providing their research on the movement.I am a strong supporter to have a stub on this topic, but im afraid that such articles on wikipedia have become mouthpieces for organisation which are known for disrupting peace (assassination of one of india's prime minister, twin bomb blast in New Delhi on the eve of Diwali) in Indian sub continent. This article requires your attention, please help. Anmol.2k4 18:30, 24 March 2006 (UTC)

IRC for India: #wikipedia-in
Please join this channel for India-related discussions. In case you need help to access IRC, please visit my IndianIRC page. -- Andy123  (talk) 22:15, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

Requesting help
(Moved from Main Page Chancemill 09:48, 8 April 2006 (UTC))

Hello since you are knowledgeable about India. I would like to request you to please review my article Indian Online Classifieds Industry and provide your (hopefully favourable) comments on the deletion page.

Welcome back!
Good to see you're back! 172 | Talk 09:49, 8 April 2006 (UTC)

Need Help with Satguru article
There is currently a debate on the Satguru talk page about whether a satguru is always a sannyasin and unmarried as Sivaya Subramuniyaswami says. One person says these are equated and there is no source saying otherwise. I noticed you created the sannyasin site. Could you please help us? Thank you for your time. Jon 01:11, 26 April 2006 (UTC)

We seem to have worked it out ourselves. Jon 15:51, 26 April 2006 (UTC)

Welcome back!
Nice to see you back in action. It's been almost 2 years!! =Nichalp  «Talk»=  17:44, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

Thanks
Chancemill, Thanks. My english may not be right. Forgive please. You understand the point that the net is not reached into deep rural areas. But in Ayyavazhi books were in good number. But only few days before I understand that books could be used as sources. So I've done something in the Ayyavazhi article. But still outside wikipedia Ayyavazhi is too bad in net. Any way thank you once again for your support and compliment. - Vaikunda Raja 18:29, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

Information Theory
I reverted the introduction on information theory. You were likely motivated to change it by a recent (now undone) change, so hopefully the revert is more to your liking. Please discuss on Talk:information theory if it is not. Calbaer 17:34, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

Ayyavazhi
Hi Chancemill. I noticed your comments here. I'm highly sympathetic to the systematically marginalised "traditional" Tamil religions. It's a pity that all Tamil people are brought under a blanket label of Hinduism if they don't belong to any other organised minority religion. Yes, ayyanar, vandimalaichchiamman, muththaalaiyamman, etc., are quite familiar to me as I come from South Tamil Nadu, where they exist, though sadly kind of getting "Hinduismised" by the day. But, I feel that Ayyavazhi is not quite like that. It's more like the adi parasakthi movement etc., brought into vogue by a single person. Yes, I fully support having a NPOV article on Ayyavazhi. But, mentioning it in each and every article possible is what irks me. It imputes more notability that what it has. Our religious sympathies shouldn't come in the way of notability constraint of wikipedia. Please see my frustrated comment at Talk:India. Tell me if I'm wrong in my inference.

By the way, if I got a digital camera, let me capture some images of the village deities and write-up an article on them. Would ask for your help there. -- Sundar \talk \contribs 05:54, 12 June 2006 (UTC)

Mahawiki
Hi dear Admin,

This is to bring to your notice the wiki-feud I've been having with User:Mahawiki for almost one month now. It started with the Belgaum page which went to mediation, warnings were handed out to both parties, and when Mahawiki's incivil ways continued, Admin:Bluyugen handed him a warning and then a block. Find that here.

I do not want to turn the clock back and go through all those content disputes again. Infact, I dont want to present to you the details of any content dispute we've had. All I want to present to you is the brazen incivility and personal attacks being committed by User:Mahawiki either in the course of his content disputes or even simply just out of spite.

All the diffs(exhibiting his incivility and personal attacks) I provide below are from '''AFTER, I REPEAT, "AFTER". ADMIN BLUGYUEN INTERVENED, WARNED ALL OF US, AND HANDED MAHAWIKI A BLOCK.

Please find below dozens of instances of blatant incivility and personal attacks by User:Mahawiki either on me or on User:Dineshkannambadi and all Kannadigas in general. His remarks are in extremely bad taste and counterproductive resulting in undermining of the good faith efforts of the other editors to carry on editing their articles.

While I dont want to go into each and every diff and explain it, just to give you a sample of his incivility, he has made edits where, even if only in jest or sarcasm, he makes atrocious claims like, I am on a kill Mahawiki mission, that User:Dineshkannambadi is the Kannada (Bin) Laden(sic). In another edit, even if only for jest(which I certainly dont find amusing nor appreciate esp., when it comes from him), he has threatened to sue me. He has called us cultural TERRORISTS, losers, notorious, shameless etc., etc. He uses the word vandalism like one would use 'Hi' and 'Hello'.

Find all the above and much much much more in the diffs I've provided below. '''Whats worse is his antics are going unchecked because Admin:Blugyen who knows about our feud is on a wikibreak and Admin:Sundar whose intervention I've sought more than once, is busy with other things(I presume, in real life) - which ofcourse, I dont hold against either of them.

But wikipedia will be a poorer place if brazen incivility like this goes unchecked for weeks simply because many admins dont know about it or the ones who know are by force of circumstances, too busy to deal with it.

I request immediate and harsh action on Mahawiki.

Once again, let me remind everyone that in the links below, none of them pertain to any content disputes. I belive in dealing with the content disputes on the relevant talk pages and dont usually bring it out on user talk pages.

Infact, I have even not listed below, the atrocious claim he made a couple of days ago that I had deleted and later undeleted an article. Also not listed below is his blatant removal of tags I had added in a couple of articles without even clarifying or providing a citation for the claim which I had tagged. Also not listed below may be umpteen other instances of incivility and npa violations on his part that I might have missed.

All the diffs below deal purely and only with his brazen incivil comments and personal attacks not just on me, but on User:Dineshkannambadi and also highly respected historians like Mr. Suryanath Kamath et al(who have been cited in some articles by Dinesh) whom he has trashed and dismissed in the most uncivil manner possible.

Apart from this he also makes disparaging remarks on Karnataka and Karnataka politicians who he keeps claiming are oppressing and torturing Marathi speaking people in Belgaum. This is not a content dispute, this is plain nonsense and insanely belligerent language.

His incivility apart, he has made it a habit and a routine to go around all over wikipedia branding me and Dinesh as 'Kannadi' vandals bent on Kannadizing all articles we touch. Ask him if we have included any uncited material or if we has ever cited any references for his numerous claims or whether he has taken it up on the article talk page instead of on a random user talk page. His answer will be negative. And yet, that doesnt stop him from going around shouting that we have been vandalising articles!!

Anway, I dont want to veer this towards the 'content disputes' which is a whole different matter altogether. Content disputes can always be discussed and agreements reached. Let me present to you just his brazen incivility and personal attacks.

Here we go -

Sarvagnya 22:19, 26 September 2006 (UTC)

WikiProject Vedanta
Request your membership and participation in the WikiProject_Vedanta. Thanks. -- ॐ Kris 16:21, 17 October 2006 (UTC)

British East India Company
An article you created or improved has been selected for Featured Article Review. Please see the talk page and the nomination page for ways you can improve it. Jeffpw 09:44, 17 January 2007 (UTC)

Mathematics CotW
I am writing you to let you know that the Mathematics Collaboration of the week(soon to "of the month") is getting an overhaul of sorts and I would encourage you to participate in whatever way you can, i.e. nominate an article, contribute to an article, or sign up to be part of the project. Any help would be greatly appreciated, thanks--Cronholm144 18:15, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

Talk:Nicole Bennett
Hello, this is a message from an automated bot. A tag has been placed on Talk:Nicole Bennett, by another Wikipedia user, requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. The tag claims that it should be speedily deleted because Talk:Nicole Bennett fits the criteria for speedy deletion for the following reason: No article To contest the tagging and request that administrators wait before possibly deleting Talk:Nicole Bennett, please affix the template  to the page, and put a note on its talk page. If the article has already been deleted, see the advice and instructions at WP:WMD. Please note, this bot is only informing you of the nomination for speedy deletion, it did not nominate Talk:Nicole Bennett itself. Feel free to leave a message on the bot operator's talk page if you have any questions about this or any problems with this bot. --Android Mouse Bot 2 19:08, 26 June 2007 (UTC)

Malayalee
Hello, there is a dispute in the Malayalee article regarding the origin of Malayalam. I'm contacting you because you have an interest in languages and linguistics and seem to know a bit about the origins of Malayalam. Could you please weigh in on the discussion? Thanks! -- vi5in [talk] 17:51, 11 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Hello please ignore this person's comment. He is bluffing.we have not told anything contradicting the relationship b/w two languages(Malayalam and Tamil). He has not provided any link(atleast) which says the words(Malai and aali) come from any language. I think wikipedia is not the place to add unvarifed content and anyone's political views.Tulu war 17:49, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

WikiProject Java and Portal
I recently posted the following text on Wikipedia regarding the creation of a new computing-related project: 'WikiProject Java is a Wikipedian community that aims to better organize information in articles related to the Java programming language and its platform. Please support this initiative,    A l a i n  R 3 4 5  Techno-Wiki-Geek     04:09, 25 October 2009 (UTC)
 * If I'm cor-rec-to, there are about 900 articles on Java technology in Wikipedia, which may be more than ALL other programming languages articles combined...
 * At least, it's more than for C++, and there IS a C++ WikiProject...
 * And it's MUCH more than the .NET WikiProject with 82 articles...
 * There is also a Ruby project and a Python portal so...
 * Now you can also see a proposal for the Java Portal (temp location).'

Suspension of admin privileges due to inactivity
Following a community discussion in June 2011, consensus was reached to provisionally suspend the administrative privileges of users who have been inactive for one year, meaning administrators who have made neither any edits nor any logged actions in over one year. As a result of this discussion, your administrative privileges have been removed pending your return. If you wish to have these privileges reinstated, please post to the Bureaucrats' noticeboard and the userright will be restored per the re-sysopping process (i.e., as long as the attending bureaucrats are reasonably satisfied that your account has not been compromised and that your inactivity did not have the effect of evading scrutiny of any actions which might have led to sanctions). This removal of access is procedural only, and not intended to reflect negatively upon you in any way. We wish you the best in future endeavors, and thank you for your past administrative efforts. RL0919 (talk) 20:16, 8 July 2011 (UTC)

Notice of change
Hello. You are receiving this message because of a [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_talk:Administrators&oldid=526254016#Restoration_of_the_tools_.28proposal.29 recent change] to the administrator policy that alters what you were told at the time of your desysopping. The effect of the change is that if you are inactive for a continuous three year period, you will be unable to request return of the administrative user right. This includes inactive time prior to your desysopping if you were desysopped for inactivity and inactive time prior to the change in policy. Inactivity is defined as the absence of edits or logged actions. Until such time as you have been inactive for three years, you may request return of the tools at the bureaucrats' noticeboard. After you have been inactive for three years, you may seek return of the tools only through WP:RFA. Thank you.  MBisanz  talk 00:20, 4 December 2012 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:54, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

ArbCom 2022 Elections voter message
 Hello! Voting in the 2022 Arbitration Committee elections is now open until 23:59 (UTC) on. All eligible users are allowed to vote. Users with alternate accounts may only vote once.

The Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to impose binding solutions to disputes between editors, primarily for serious conduct disputes the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the authority to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail.

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title: User talk:Chancemill


text:
Thomas MacGreevy

Thomas MacGreevy (born Thomas McGreevy; 26 October 1893 – 16 March 1967) was a pivotal figure in the history of Irish literary modernism. A poet, he was also director of the National Gallery of Ireland from 1950 to 1963 and served on the first Irish Arts Council (An Chomhairle Ealaíon).

Early life
Thomas McGreevy was born in Tarbert, County Kerry, the son of a Royal Irish Constabulary policeman and a primary school teacher. At the age of 16, he joined the British Civil Service as a boy clerk.

At the outbreak of the First World War he was promoted to an intelligence post with the Admiralty. He enlisted in 1916, and saw active service at the Battle of Ypres Salient and the Somme, being wounded twice. After the war he studied at Trinity College, Dublin, in whose library his papers are now held. He then became involved in various library organisations, began publishing articles in Irish periodicals, and wrote his first poems.

Poet
In 1924, MacGreevy was first introduced to James Joyce in Paris. The following year he moved to London, where he met T. S. Eliot and began writing for The Criterion and other magazines. He also began publishing his poetry.

In 1927, MacGreevy moved to Paris to teach English at the École Normale Supérieure. Here he met Samuel Beckett and resumed his friendship with Joyce. His essay The Catholic Element in Work In Progress was published in 1929 in Our Exagmination round His Factification for Incamination of Work In Progress, a book intended to help promote Joyce's Finnegans Wake. Along with Beckett, he was one of those who signed the Poetry is Vertical manifesto that appeared in issue 21 of transition. In 1931, he produced critical studies of both Eliot and Richard Aldington.

In 1934, Poems was published in London and New York City. The work shows that MacGreevy had absorbed the lessons of Imagism and of The Waste Land, but also demonstrates that he had brought something of his own to these influences. The book was admired by Wallace Stevens, and the two poets became regular correspondents.

Although MacGreevy continued to write poetry, this was the only collection published in his lifetime. Since his death there have been two Collected Poems issued, one in 1971 and an edited edition collecting his published and unpublished poetry published twenty years later.

Art
In 1929 MacGreevy began working at Formes, a journal of the fine arts. He also published a translation of Paul Valéry's Introduction à la méthode de Léonard de Vinci as Introduction to the Method of Leonardo da Vinci. In the mid-1930s, he moved back to London and earned his living lecturing at the National Gallery there.

From 1938 to 1940 he was the chief art critic for The Studio. He published several books on art and artists, including Jack B. Yeats: An Appreciation and an Interpretation (on Jack Butler Yeats) and Pictures in the Irish National Gallery (both 1945), and Nicolas Poussin (1960) on Nicolas Poussin. He was director of the National Gallery of Ireland from 1950 to 1963.

Religion
MacGreevy was a lifelong Roman Catholic. His faith informed both his poetry and his professional life. On returning to Dublin during the Second World War, he wrote for both the Father Mathew Record and The Capuchin Annual and joined the editorial board of the latter.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Thomas MacGreevy


text:
User talk:Kingpr0n

Discussion about your edits moved here:

 * User:Kingpr0n. Signed up today and his edits are quite inappropriate. Seems to have a interest in the female anus. User name probably considered offensive as well. Suspect he's simply a vandal, as he seems to know his way around well enough. I'm going to revert Tera Patrick and Sylvia Saint. Not going to touch current events. References: Tera Patrick, Sylvia Saint, Current Events -- Vudujava
 * I reverted Current events, and left a message for him(?) on his talk page. He's probably twelve. -- Finlay McWalter 15:09, 13 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * He also blanked my user page and left his (rather unhelpful) response there. But he doesn't seem to have done any more changes in the wikipedia namespace (and his user page is none of my business). -- Finlay McWalter 19:55, 13 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * In his defense, the alterations on the porn star pages were genuine additions of genuine information, albeit concerned exclusively with anal sex. Of course, that subject's not wildly surprising on a page about a porn star. (Whether it belong in wikipedia is another story.) But it can't objectively be called vandalism, I don't think. By the way, both starlet pages use the euphemism "erotic actress" rather than the more stright-forward and obvious "porn star". Why the weasel words? orthogonal 22:01, 13 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Making baseless claims about anal stretching is not exactly an appropriate entry. If he wants to do an article on the subject, fine, but saying this porn star or that engages in the practice is pure speculation. vudu 00:40, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Well, I'm starting a stub article on Anal stretching. Kingpr0n, if you like, feel free to state the objective, NPOV facts as you perceive them.  It might be best to keep them there, and not to put allegations on individual actor/actress articles. I also wonder how seriously you take the whole thing, given the goatse reference on your user page, but that's a different issue...  -- Pakaran 02:29, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Anyway, is it baseless speculation if there's documentary evidence? --Charles A. L. 13:24, Nov 14, 2003 (UTC)
 * I won't argue the practice of anal stretching (tho the idea makes my eyes water) as I know the practice exists. Baseless speculation would be claiming that Tera Patrick's motives for leaving the industry were to practice anal stretching AND to return for the express purpose of performing anal for big money. Show me reputable (for some value of reputable) documentation of either Ms Patrick or Ms. Saint's participation in such a practice. vudu 17:06, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * That's fair enough - and in that regard KingPr0n's edits were just as problematic as similiar edits in a less contraversal area of human knowledge - he's making claims that have no apparent factual justification. Nobody argues that a practice of stunt work in filmmaking exists, but saying that Ronald Reagan retired from the movies to gain that skill would be contraversal to say the least.  -- Pakaran 20:28, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kingpr0n


text:
Crystallite

A crystallite is a small or even microscopic crystal which forms, for example, during the cooling of many materials. Crystallites are also referred to as grains.

Bacillite is a type of crystallite. It is rodlike with parallel longulites.

Structure
The orientation of crystallites can be random with no preferred direction, called random texture, or directed, possibly due to growth and processing conditions. While the structure of a single crystal is highly ordered and its lattice is continuous and unbroken, amorphous materials, such as glass and many polymers, are non-crystalline and do not display any structures, as their constituents are not arranged in an ordered manner. Polycrystalline structures and paracrystalline phases are in between these two extremes. Polycrystalline materials, or polycrystals, are solids that are composed of many crystallites of varying size and orientation. Most materials are polycrystalline, made of a large number crystallites held together by thin layers of amorphous solid. Most inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including all common metals, many ceramics, rocks, and ice.

The areas where crystallites meet are known as grain boundaries.

Size
Crystallite size in monodisperse microstructures is usually approximated from X-ray diffraction patterns and grain size by other experimental techniques like transmission electron microscopy. Solid objects large enough to see and handle are rarely composed of a single crystal, except for a few cases (gems, silicon single crystals for the electronics industry, certain types of fiber, single crystals of a nickel-based superalloy for turbojet engines, and some ice crystals which can exceed 0.5 meters in diameter). The crystallite size can vary from a few nanometers to several millimeters.

Effects on material physical properties
The extent to which a solid is crystalline (crystallinity) has important effects on its physical properties. Sulfur, while usually polycrystalline, may also occur in other allotropic forms with completely different properties. Although crystallites are referred to as grains, powder grains are different, as they can be composed of smaller polycrystalline grains themselves. Generally, polycrystals cannot be superheated; they will melt promptly once they are brought to a high enough temperature. This is because grain boundaries are amorphous, and serve as nucleation points for the liquid phase. By contrast, if no solid nucleus is present as a liquid cools, it tends to become supercooled. Since this is undesirable for mechanical materials, alloy designers often take steps against it (by grain refinement).

Material fractures can be either intergranular or a transgranular fracture. There is an ambiguity with powder grains: a powder grain can be made of several crystallites. Thus, the (powder) "grain size" found by laser granulometry can be different from the "grain size" (rather, crystallite size) found by X-ray diffraction (e.g. Scherrer method), by optical microscopy under polarised light, or by scanning electron microscopy (backscattered electrons).

If the individual crystallites are oriented completely at random, a large enough volume of polycrystalline material will be approximately isotropic. This property helps the simplifying assumptions of continuum mechanics to apply to real-world solids. However, most manufactured materials have some alignment to their crystallites, resulting in texture that must be taken into account for accurate predictions of their behavior and characteristics. When the crystallites are mostly ordered with a random spread of orientations, one has a mosaic crystal. Abnormal grain growth, where a small number of crystallites are significantly larger than the mean crystallite size, is commonly observed in diverse polycrystalline materials, and results in mechanical and optical properties that diverge from similar materials having a monodisperse crystallite size distribution with a similar mean crystallite size.

Coarse grained rocks are formed very slowly, while fine grained rocks are formed quickly, on geological time scales. If a rock forms very quickly, such as from the solidification of lava ejected from a volcano, there may be no crystals at all. This is how obsidian forms.

Grain boundaries
Grain boundaries are interfaces where crystals of different orientations meet. A grain boundary is a single-phase interface, with crystals on each side of the boundary being identical except in orientation. The term "crystallite boundary" is sometimes, though rarely, used. Grain boundary areas contain those atoms that have been perturbed from their original lattice sites, dislocations, and impurities that have migrated to the lower energy grain boundary.

Treating a grain boundary geometrically as an interface of a single crystal cut into two parts, one of which is rotated, we see that there are five variables required to define a grain boundary. The first two numbers come from the unit vector that specifies a rotation axis. The third number designates the angle of rotation of the grain. The final two numbers specify the plane of the grain boundary (or a unit vector that is normal to this plane).

Grain boundaries disrupt the motion of dislocations through a material. Dislocation propagation is impeded because of the stress field of the grain boundary defect region and the lack of slip planes and slip directions and overall alignment across the boundaries. Reducing grain size is therefore a common way to improve strength, often without any sacrifice in toughness because the smaller grains create more obstacles per unit area of slip plane. This crystallite size-strength relationship is given by the Hall–Petch relationship. The high interfacial energy and relatively weak bonding in grain boundaries makes them preferred sites for the onset of corrosion and for the precipitation of new phases from the solid.

Grain boundary migration plays an important role in many of the mechanisms of creep. Grain boundary migration occurs when a shear stress acts on the grain boundary plane and causes the grains to slide. This means that fine-grained materials actually have a poor resistance to creep relative to coarser grains, especially at high temperatures, because smaller grains contain more atoms in grain boundary sites. Grain boundaries also cause deformation in that they are sources and sinks of point defects. Voids in a material tend to gather in a grain boundary, and if this happens to a critical extent, the material could fracture.

During grain boundary migration, the rate determining step depends on the angle between two adjacent grains. In a small angle dislocation boundary, the migration rate depends on vacancy diffusion between dislocations. In a high angle dislocation boundary, this depends on the atom transport by single atom jumps from the shrinking to the growing grains.

Grain boundaries are generally only a few nanometers wide. In common materials, crystallites are large enough that grain boundaries account for a small fraction of the material. However, very small grain sizes are achievable. In nanocrystalline solids, grain boundaries become a significant volume fraction of the material, with profound effects on such properties as diffusion and plasticity. In the limit of small crystallites, as the volume fraction of grain boundaries approaches 100%, the material ceases to have any crystalline character, and thus becomes an amorphous solid.

Grain boundaries are also present in magnetic domains in magnetic materials. A computer hard disk, for example, is made of a hard ferromagnetic material that contains regions of atoms whose magnetic moments can be realigned by an inductive head. The magnetization varies from region to region, and the misalignment between these regions forms boundaries that are key to data storage. The inductive head measures the orientation of the magnetic moments of these domain regions and reads out either a “1” or “0”. These bits are the data being read. Grain size is important in this technology because it limits the number of bits that can fit on one hard disk. The smaller the grain sizes, the more data that can be stored.

Because of the dangers of grain boundaries in certain materials such as superalloy turbine blades, great technological leaps were made to minimize as much as possible the effect of grain boundaries in the blades. The result was directional solidification processing in which grain boundaries were eliminated by producing columnar grain structures aligned parallel to the axis of the blade, since this is usually the direction of maximum tensile stress felt by a blade during its rotation in an airplane. The resulting turbine blades consisted of a single grain, improving reliability.

title: Crystallite


text:
Tadeusz Pruszkowski

Tadeusz Pruszkowski (15 April 1888 – 30 June 1942) was a Polish painter and art teacher, known primarily for his portraits.

Biography
He began his artistic studies in 1904 at the School of Fine Arts in Warsaw, under Konrad Krzyżanowski. In 1908, he continued his studies in Paris, where he associated with Polish writers and artists belonging to the Royalist Club, a monarchist organization. He also met his future wife there. After graduating, he travelled to Switzerland and Algeria, returning to Poland in 1911 and helping to create an artists' society known as "Young Art" (Młoda Sztuka). In 1914, he held his first solo exhibition at the "Society for the Appreciation of Fine Arts". In 1915, all the members of Young Art joined the Polish Legion and the organization's funds were used to provide them with equipment. Pruszkowski adopted the name "Rdza" (rust), was assigned to a unit led by Captain Władysław Belina-Prażmowski and served with a Regiment of Uhlans. During a stay in Volhynia he created numerous portraits of the officers and soldiers which were shown at an exhibition in the Zachęta. In 1917, he became a member of the Reserves and later earned a pilot's license; becoming a lifelong enthusiast for air racing.

In 1922, following the death of Krzyżanowski, he was named a Professor at the School of Fine Arts. He took his students to paint en plein aire in Kazimierz Dolny, where he later built a villa, and his classes were very popular. One of his students was Caziel. He continued to participate in numerous exhibitions, both as exhibitor and organizer. In 1926 he directed a short comedy written by Feliks Topolski called Szczęśliwy wisielec, czyli Kalifornia w Polsce (The Happy Hangman, or California in Poland). One of the "stars" was the painter Janina Konarska.

In 1930, he became Rector at the School of Fine Arts; participating in the process that resulted in school being promoted to the Academy of Fine Arts in 1932. During the following years, he was involved in creating several organizations for the promotion of Polish art and wrote essays for various publications. In 1935, he was awarded the "Golden Laurel" of the Polish Academy of Literature. His awards included the Cross of Independence, the Order of Polonia Restituta and the Cross of Merit.

At the outbreak of World War II, he and his wife moved from Kazimierz Dolny to a small apartment in Warsaw and rarely ventured outside. He was arrested in June 1942, for aiding Jews and taken to Gestapo headquarters (now the Mausoleum of Struggle and Martyrdom). After an interrogation, he was in the process of being transferred to Pawiak Prison, when he and another prisoner attempted to escape and were shot. They were buried by people from the nearby Warsaw Ghetto. After the war, his remains were recovered and interred in Powązki Cemetery.

title: Tadeusz Pruszkowski


text:
Caldera International

Caldera International, Inc., earlier Caldera Systems, was an American software company that existed from 1998 to 2002 and developed and sold Linux- and Unix-based operating system products.

Caldera Systems was created in August 1998 as a spinoff of Caldera, Inc., with Ransom Love as its CEO. It focused on selling Caldera OpenLinux, a high-end Linux distribution aimed at business customers that included features it developed, such as an easy-to-use, graphical installer and graphical and web-based system administration tools, as well as features from bundled proprietary software. Caldera Systems was also active in the Java language and software platform on Linux community.

In March 2000, Caldera Systems staged a successful IPO of its stock, although the stock price did not reach the stratospheric heights of its chief competitor Red Hat and some other companies during the "Linux mania" of 1999.

In August 2000, Caldera Systems announced the purchase of Unix technology and services from the Santa Cruz Operation (SCO). The much larger, merged company changed its name to Caldera International when the deal closed in May 2001. Caldera International sought to shape SCO's UnixWare product (renamed Open UNIX) to present a unified view of Unix and Linux that could satisfy high-end business needs and take advantage of SCO's large reseller channel. The Volution suite of higher-layer solutions for system management, mail and messaging, and authentication also had the same goal. Caldera International was part of the United Linux effort of Linux companies seeking to form a common distribution that could compete with Red Hat.

In the end none of these efforts succeeded in the marketplace, and Caldera Systems/International lost large amounts of money in all four years of its existence. Under severe financial pressure, in June 2002 Love was replaced as CEO by Darl McBride, who soon adopted the corporate name The SCO Group and took that entity in a completely different business direction.

Background and formation
Caldera, Inc., based in Utah, was founded in 1994 by Bryan Wayne Sparks and Ransom H. Love, receiving start-up funding from Ray Noorda's Canopy Group. Its main product was Caldera Network Desktop (CND), a Linux distribution mainly targeted at business customers and containing some proprietary additions. Caldera, Inc. later purchased the German LST Software GmbH and its LST Power Linux distribution, which was made the basis of their following product Caldera OpenLinux (COL).

Caldera, Inc. inherited a lawsuit against Microsoft when it purchased DR-DOS from Novell in 1996. This Caldera v. Microsoft action related to Caldera's claims of monopolization, illegal tying, exclusive dealing, and tortious interference by Microsoft.

On September 2, 1998, Caldera, Inc. announced the creation of two Utah-based wholly owned subsidiaries, Caldera Systems, Inc. and Caldera Thin Clients, Inc., in order to split up tasks and directions. Caldera Systems, whose actual incorporation date had been August 21, 1998, took over the Linux business, including development, training, services, and support, while Caldera Thin Clients (which changed its name to Lineo the following year) took over the DOS and embedded business. The shell company Caldera, Inc., remained responsible for the lawsuit only.

"Linux for Business"
Caldera Systems was headquartered in Orem, Utah, and was headed by co-founder Ransom Love as President and CEO. Caldera Deutschland GmbH, based in Erlangen, Germany, served as their Linux development center. Drew Spencer joined in 1999 and became the company's Chief Technology Officer.

The company targeted the Linux-based software business with its Linux distribution named Caldera OpenLinux, and the Caldera Systems business plan stressed the importance of corporate training, support, and services. Towards this end they created a professional certification program for Linux as well as for the KDE desktop that the Caldera Systems distribution used. In doing so they worked with the Linux Professional Institute in developing class materials and created a series of Authorized Linux Education Centers around the globe that would train successful students towards doing well in Linux Professional Institute Certification Programs. Beginning courses trained on several difficult Linux distributions as well as Caldera OpenLinux, while more advanced courses focused on OpenLinux only (the name OpenLinux tended to annoy other Linux distributions, suggesting as it did that the others were not open).

The early leader in the Linux as a business race was Red Hat Software, which attracted equity investments from several major technology companies in early 1999. Red Hat also tended to get the most media attention. Besides Red Hat and Caldera, other well-known companies selling Linux distributions included SuSE, Turbolinux, and Mandrake Soft. But no company at the time had been successful in building a profitable business around open source software.

Caldera Systems focused on a high-end Linux product and its Linux distribution became rich with features with bundled proprietary software. For instance, the company offered NetWare for Linux, which included a full-blown NetWare implementation from Novell. They licensed Sun Microsystems's Wabi to allow people to run Windows applications under Linux. Additionally, they shipped with Linux versions of WordPerfect from Corel as well as productivity applications from Applixware. Since many of their customers used a dual boot setup, Caldera shipped with PowerQuest's PartitionMagic to allow their customers to non-destructively repartition their hard disks.

This approach led to a debate about the purity of Linux-based products. Red Hat CEO Bob Young said in 1999, "One where you might see a problem is Caldera, because they see part of their value added in proprietary tools they have licensed from third parties." In response, a Caldera Systems executive expressed the company's philosophy: "We have produced a product that combines the best of open-source and commercial packages; we are doing Linux for business. We do add to it commercial packages that allow business users to easily integrate it."

Caldera OpenLinux was also available on a retail basis, in the form of a CD-ROM for installing Linux on an IBM PC compatible machine that sold for US$49.

OpenLinux 2.2, released in April 1999, was seen as significantly improved from the previous year's 1.3 release, especially in terms of it having a fully graphical and easy-to-use installation feature. Ease of installation was an important criteria in selecting a Linux distribution, and Caldera Deutschland had created this first fully graphical installer for Linux, called Lizard, starting in November 1998. Several years later it was still receiving praise from reviewers. The installer could even be started from a Microsoft Windows partition.

Industry writer Hal Plotkin praised Caldera as a product development company and noted that OpenLinux won several industry awards, including 1999 product of the year from Linux Journal.

Other products and projects
In addition to other people's applications, Caldera Systems created many Linux extensions to fill voids where no other commercial company was.

Caldera Systems created a full-featured GUI system administration tool called Caldera Open Administration System (COAS) that was deployed during 1999. The tool was a unified, easy to use administration tool with a modular design and goals of scalability and broad scope applicability, and was expressly designed to be usable on other Linux distributions in addition to Caldera Systems'. Following that, Caldera Systems sponsored the development of browser-based Unix system administration via the webmin project between 1999 and 2001. It became the first Linux distribution to include Webmin as the standard tool for system administration.

Caldera Systems was a leader in the adoption of the Java language and software platform on Linux. The Blackdown Java project, which first produced working Java ports for Linux systems, was featured on Caldera OpenLinux. In 2000, Caldera Systems was one of the companies elected to the inaugural JCP Executive Committee for Java SE/EE, which guided the evolution of Java language and software platform through the Java Community Process. Caldera Systems' role on the Executive Committee included representing the Linux and open source communities.

The company was re-elected to its seat on the Executive Committee after it became Caldera International, and represented Java usage on SCO Unix platforms as well. Work to improve just-in-time compilation under the Sun "Classic JVM" for SCO Unix platforms that begun under SCO was completed with Caldera International. Caldera Systems was also involved in several Java Specification Requests, including being the specification lead for JSR 140, Service Location Protocol API for Java, and participating in the JSR 48 WBEM Services Specification.

Investments and IPO

Caldera Systems had not been profitable; for the company's 1998 fiscal year, ending on October 31, it had a loss of $7.9 million on revenue of $1.05 million, and for its 1999 fiscal year, it had a loss of $9.3 million on revenue of $3.05 million. However, the industry saw promise in Linux as a solution for businesses, and in the latter half of 1999 a "Linux hysteria" had erupted in the stock market, with first Red Hat in August 1999 and then Cobalt Networks and VA Linux in November and December 1999 having experienced huge jumps in value during their first day each of trading.

On January 10, 2000, three things happened, all of which were coincidental. A settlement to the Caldera v. Microsoft suit over DR-DOS was announced, with Microsoft paying former parent company Caldera, Inc. an amount estimated at $275 million (which turned out to be $280 million). Caldera Systems received a $30 million private equity investment from a group of companies that included Sun Microsystems, Novell, Citrix, Santa Cruz Operation, Chicago Venture Partners, and Egan-Managed Capital, with the goal to "fund operations and accelerate the growth and acceptance of Linux." Also, Caldera Systems announced that it would be filing to have an initial public offering. Ransom Love said that the Microsoft settlement would not benefit Caldera Systems other than that Caldera, Inc. would relinquish the name "Caldera", which would address existing industry confusion between the two. Reports at the time also indicated that the settlement would not directly benefit Caldera Systems, but that Caldera Systems could get an intangible benefit from a name association with a company that had bested an industry giant. Love also said that the timing between the funding round, work for which had begun six months earlier, and the IPO announcement was "unfortunate, and completely coincidental".

Caldera Systems reincorporated in Delaware on March 6, 2000. By this point it was well positioned in some respects, such as having a strong relationship with Sun and receiving good product reviews within the industry. But it suffered from a lack of public awareness; as IDC analyst Dan Kusnetzky said, "They have a wonderful demo, and the product looks very good. But if you asked people on the street about Caldera they would probably think you are talking about a volcano in Hawaii."

The company then staged an IPO of its common stock, with the symbol CALD. On the first day of trading, March 21, 2000, Caldera Systems' shares doubled in value, going from an initial price of $14 to close at $29 7/16, with heavy trading been seen and an intra-day high of $33. The IPO raised $70 million for the company and gave it a market capitalization of $1.1 billion.

While the launch was successful on its own terms, analysts saw signs that the Linux mania was finally cooling, abetted by Red Hat and VA Linux having seen their values steadily decrease since their spectacular starts. So, while some observers viewed the IPO as a success, others viewed it as a disappointment. Red Hat continued to dominate in North America, with an over 50 percent share of the Linux market.

Acquisition of SCO UNIX
On August 2, 2000, following several months of negotiations, Santa Cruz Operation announced that it would sell its Server Software and Services Divisions, including UnixWare – its most technically advanced proprietary Unix operating systems for Intel commodity hardware – to Caldera Systems. (The agreement was phrased in terms of Caldera Holding, Inc., a typical Newco in such transactions. ) The annual SCO Forum conference of developers and resellers at the University of California, Santa Cruz, held later that month, had its name shortened to just "Forum".

The deal was complex, involving cash, stock, and loans, and difficult to evaluate monetarily, but based on the price of Caldera Systems stock at the time it was worth around $110–114 million. SCO was much the bigger company, with 900 employees to Caldera Systems' 120. But SCO had been in distress; in part due to the advent of Linux, a series of previously good financial results had gone sour for the company as 1999 turned into 2000. As Forbes magazine stated, "Questions remain about execution, but the deal is at least a temporary life preserver for SCO, whose flagship UnixWare server software was in danger of eventually becoming irrelevant in the face of Linux."

As Caldera Systems saw it, Unix and Linux were complementary rather than competitive technologies, especially in the sense that SCO Unix represented a good back-office and database solution while Linux specialized in networking. The deal gave Caldera Systems access to partnerships with Compaq Computer and IBM, both of which resold UnixWare, and also meant Caldera Systems would become the world's largest vendor of Unix licenses. SCO also had thousands of business applications running on it targeted to vertical markets. In addition, Caldera Systems saw SCO's role as one of the OS companies involved in Project Monterey as a means to develop a 64-bit computing strategy.

But a primary reason for the acquisition was to get SCO's $15,000$-strong reseller channel. Caldera Systems had been emphasizing trying to get into much the same VAR channel business that SCO was in, using the argument that resellers could find larger margins with free software than by selling Microsoft's Windows NT. But it had been a difficult sell against SCO; even when Linux outperformed SCO Unix, the idea of switching vendors and support organizations made resellers reluctant to make the move.

So combining these channels was seen as a solution to this problem. As the president of iXorg, a reseller organization focused on SCO, stated, "The real value that Caldera will get from the deal is not the Unix name, not the [SCO] customer base, not even the technologies. It is the reseller channel." Skeptics noted, however, that many of those listed resellers were probably not that active anymore, especially in light of SCO's recent struggles (it had reported a $19 million quarterly loss a week before the acquisition announcement). Traditional SCO users were leery of the move, but Love tried to reassure them that the SCO Unix operating systems would continue on: "Why would we buy it to destroy what we buy? That wouldn't make any sense."

There were hurdles to be overcome, including a fair amount of enmity for SCO within the Linux community. A major question became whether Caldera Systems would make the SCO-acquired Unix source code open source. Ransom Love initially said, "While we're having to look carefully at the licensing, we're going to open up the [UnixWare] source as much as possible, and at least some of it will be under" the GNU Public Licence. But there was pushback on the idea from the UnixWare staff in New Jersey, and in addition the license issues involved proved formidable. Love later said, "at first we wanted to open-source all of Unix's code, but we quickly found that even though we owned it, it was, and still is, full of other companies' copyrights. The challenge was that there were a lot of business entities that didn't want this to happen. Intel was the biggest opposition."

Instead, there was a focus on SCO's Linux Kernel Personality (LKP), a layer that conformed to the Linux Standard Base specification which would allow applications built for Linux to run on SCO's UnixWare. This was seen as both a way to capture more applications for Unix, and as a way to increase the performance of high-end applications. The latter factor was because SCO UnixWare had an advantage over Linux at the time in terms of support for 16- and 32-way symmetric multiprocessing, UnixWare NonStop Clusters, and some other high-end operating system capabilities. Indeed, one SCO product manager said that some Linux applications could run several times faster under UnixWare with LKP than they could under native Linux.

The SCO acquisition was originally scheduled to close in October 2000, but got delayed due to concerns from the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) regarding the details of the merger. However, the two companies' support organizations did get combined during this time. In addition, there was confusion among the SCO customer base about the fate of its other operating system, SCO OpenServer. So in February 2001, the deal was renegotiated to include OpenServer in what was sold to Caldera Systems, although a percentage of OpenServer revenue would still go back to SCO. The monetary terms of the deal were adjusted as well, with Caldera Systems paying SCO more cash than in the original agreement. Analysts were skeptical that these multiple operating systems could be managed without considerable difficulties being encountered.

Financial pressure on the company continued; for fiscal 2000, ending on October 31, Caldera Systems lost $39.2 million on revenue of $4.3 million.

"Unifying Unix with Linux for Business"
The merger was originally being done under the name of the holding company Caldera, Inc., Then on March 26, 2001, during the CeBIT conference in Germany, Caldera Systems announced that it would be changing its name to Caldera International once the SCO acquisition was complete. By this point, the length and difficulty of the acquisition process had alienated some longtime SCO customers and partners.

The acquisition closed on May 7, 2001, and the new Caldera International name became effective. The merged company had major offices in not just Utah, but also Santa Cruz, California, Murray Hill, New Jersey, and Watford, England, as well as smaller facilities in 16 additional countries. Thus included in late May 2001, Caldera International, with investments of Fujitsu and Hitachi, opening the Caldera K.K. (カルデラ株式会社) subsidiary, directed by Makoto Asoh, who had previously run Nihon SCO, in Tokyo, Japan, which had been one of two SCO subsidiaries in that country. Overall, SCO had an infrastructure presence of some kind in 80 countries, whereas Caldera Systems had always been largely domestic, thus in part the rationale for the name change.

"Unifying Unix with Linux for Business" became the company's new marketing slogan. In light of that, the company began the Caldera Developer Network, which was intended to give developers of all kinds "early access to UNIX and Linux technologies, allowing them to develop on UNIX, on Linux or on a combined UNIX and Linux platform."

Caldera International's initial release of UnixWare was renamed Open UNIX 8. This release was what would have been UnixWare 7.1.2. While it may have been done to make the branding more consistent with OpenLinux and Open Server, it confused people as well as build and installation scripts that tested for system name. Later, the newly renamed SCO Group reverted to the previous UnixWare brand and version release numbering, releasing UnixWare 7.1.3.

In terms of the question of making some of UnixWare open source, in August 2001 Caldera International did announce that it was placing the code for the regular expression parser and the  and   commands, as well for the AIM Multiuser Benchmark, under the GNU General Public License. It also said it would begin an "Open Access to Open UNIX 8" program to allow developer partners to read-only viewing of unencumbered parts of the source base.

But overall, Caldera International found itself in a classic business problem where the interests of the existing business conflicted with their growth model. SCO Unix was mature and sold itself (mainly to repeat customers and replicated sites). The VAR relationship was even more problematic. Even though the reseller organizations had been combined, in reality the prior SCO resellers made much more from each SCO Unix sale than from sales of Caldera OpenLinux, so they were not anxious to move existing customers from Unix to Linux. And even those that were supportive of Linux, did not necessarily see a strong value add for Caldera International products and could often sell Red Hat Enterprise Linux instead.

Volution

The Volution program was created out of the desire to create a layer of functionality on top of Linux, and Open UNIX 8 Linux Kernel Personality, that would add value to the operating systems offerings. It would end up having four main components: Volution Manager, Volution Messaging Server, Volution Online, and Volution Authentication Server, with an effort to build a common console for a unified user experience. As Ransom Love said, "Volution is a complex and extensive platform".

In January 2001, Caldera Systems first shipped Volution Manager, a browser-based systems administration solution. Intended for service providers and corporate accounts, it was based around OpenLDAP and Novell eDirectory. It featured some sophisticated functionality, but its initial user interface was limited in some ways and the product was costly.

Caldera Systems made a deal in February 2001 with Acrylis, Inc., a company based in Chelmsford, Massachusetts, to offer Acrylis's subscription-based service that allowed system administrators to test and then update Linux systems over a network. The service also delivered alerts to customers regarding the necessity for upgrades. The effort was an attempt to compete with the Red Hat Network service and gain a source of recurring revenue. Then in May 2001, Caldera International bought the WhatifLinux technology and assets outright from Acrylis, and changed the name of the service to Volution Online.

Caldera Systems had earlier begun work on a Linux equivalent to the Microsoft Exchange Server that was aimed at the small to medium business market. This would eventually become the Volution Messaging Server, which was released in late 2001 for use on Caldera OpenLinux and Open UNIX 8 with LKP. It offered shared calendaring and scheduling options, SSL support for e-mail, simple configuration, and integration with Microsoft Outlook. However, there were already a number of mail servers available for Linux and none of them had taken off in the business market.

Caldera Systems, and then Caldera International, had substantial experience with Web-Based Enterprise Management (WBEM), and its OpenWBEM implementation won the Best Open Source Project Award at LinuxWorld Conference and Expo in February 2002. That, combined with experience in the Kerberos authentication protocol and the difficulties of Windows–Unix integration, led Caldera International into research and development of an overall authentication solution that would find its place among Microsoft Active Directory, LDAP, Kerberos, and WBEM. The product of this work was the Volution Authentication Server, which allowed the management of Unix and Linux authentication via Active Directory.

United Linux and continued decline
When Caldera OpenLinux 3.1 Workstation was released in June 2001, it was with the requirement for per-seat licensing. This was part of what continued to bring criticism of Caldera in the some quarters of the open source and free software communities; Free Software Foundation founder Richard Stallman subsequently said of Ransom Love, "He's only a parasite", to which Love took umbrage, responding, "Did Richard Stallman ever invest £50m in Linux? We did. I have been involved in the Linux community since my time at Novell in 1994. … I am not a greedy capitalist. I am only a businessman. … You can't call our business model parasitic. We add value to Linux, so it can become successful. … I know that the open source movement has no clue about marketing, they underestimate it."

United Linux was an attempt by a consortium of Linux companies to create a common base distribution for enterprise use and minimize duplication of engineering effort. and form an effective competitor to Red Hat. The founding members of United Linux were SuSE, Turbolinux, Conectiva, and Caldera International. The consortium was announced on May 30, 2002. The UnitedLinux distribution would be based mostly SuSE Enterprise Linux rather than Caldera OpenLinux. The Caldera product name was changed to "Caldera OpenLinux powered by United Linux", which as one Network World writer observed, was "certainly never going to become a catchphrase." UnitedLinux did attract some major hardware vendors in support, such as Hewlett-Packard, Intel, and AMD, with the goal of creating a uniform Linux distribution by the end of 2002.

However, as CNET technology reporter Stephen Shankland wrote at the time, "UnitedLinux is widely viewed as an effort by second-tier Linux companies to gain the critical mass held by Linux leader Red Hat, but industry watchers are skeptical it will triumph." Other users saw the venture as more of a marketing move by a group of companies that were in difficulty. Intimations that UnitedLinux would also feature per-seat licensing were unpopular in the broader Linux community, and SuSE for their part said they had no such plans.

Overall, the fortunes of Caldera International had been steadily declining, the SCO–Caldera combined total revenue having decreased from $170 million in 1999 to $70 million in 2001. The company was consistently reporting losses; for the third quarter of its fiscal year in 2001, for instance, it reported a net loss of $18.8 million against revenue of only $18.9 million. In the following quarter they took a large write-down of the assets acquired from SCO, as they could no longer be accounted for as having the value they were originally thought to possess. For the fiscal year ending on October 31, 2001, Caldera International reported a loss of $131.4 million based on revenues of $40.4 million (the loss included a total amount of write-down and other non-cash and restructuring charges of $98.6 million).

The Linux side of Caldera International was bleeding funds; it was spending $4 for each $1 it received in revenue. The only Linux distributor company that was doing even passably well at the time was Red Hat. Caldera International's UnixWare and OpenServer business continued to be focused on small and medium-sized businesses and replicated sites, the latter largely being represented by retail or franchise-based companies such as CVS Pharmacy, Kmart, Pizza Hut, Pep Boys, Nasdaq, and others. A typical deployment scenario was that of McDonald's, which had a server running SCO OpenServer in each store that collected data from point-of-sale devices and relayed it to corporate headquarters while also providing access to corporate applications. An example of Linux Kernel Personality being used was Shoppers Drug Mart, which used it to run a SilverStream Software application server on UnixWare.

In part Caldera International's problems were due to the economic environment surrounding the collapse of the dot-com bubble; investors were very reluctant to put additional monies into unprofitable start-up companies. The additional effects of the early 2000s recession were especially difficult for high-tech companies, with information technology spending slowing to a near halt. Overall the SCO side of the business often saw customers making do with what they had rather than buying anything new.

The Caldera stock price was well under a dollar and NASDAQ was threatening to delist it. Financial analysts stopped their coverage of the company. On March 14, 2002, Caldera engaged in a 1-for-4 reverse stock split in order to get the stock price back over a dollar and avoid delisting. Also in March 2002, Caldera International moved its headquarters from Orem to Lindon, Utah.

Several rounds of layoffs took place during this time. There was one in April 2001 that resulted in 32 employees losing their jobs. In September 2001 there was a layoff of 8 percent of the company's workforce, reducing it from 618 to 567 employees. A localized layoff hit the Santa Cruz office in April 2002. An especially broad, 15 percent layoff in May 2002 affected all areas of the company, with 73 people being let go and around 400 employees remaining. Offices in Chelmsford, Massachusetts and Erlangen, Germany were closed, representing what had been the development sites for Volution Online and the original Caldera OpenLinux. At the same time, the company's CTO, Drew Spencer, also departed. Plans to continue the company's annual Forum conference for the international SCO Unix community in Santa Cruz were scrapped, with instead a GeoForum event announced that would be held in multiple locations around the world and in Las Vegas, Nevada in the United States.

Despite having earlier done the reverse stock split, as well as a stock buyback, in late June 2002 Caldera International received another delisting notice from NASDAQ. The company had less than four months' cash for operations. As Wired magazine later wrote, the company "faced a nearly hopeless situation."

Change of management, name, and direction
On June 27, 2002, Caldera International had a change in management, with Darl McBride, formerly an executive with Novell, FranklinCovey, and several start-ups, taking over as CEO from Ransom Love. At the same time, Caldera International said it would buy back its stock owned by Tarantella, Inc. and MTI Technology, thereby relieving itself of the obligation to pay a percentage of OpenServer revenue past a certain point to Tarantella. Love became head of Caldera International's role in the United Linux effort. IDC analyst Dan Kusnetzky said that while the United Linux role was important, the removal of Love from the CEO post could be seen as "moving him away from the controls at Caldera to let someone else take over."

Changes under McBride happened quickly. On August 26, 2002, it was announced that Caldera International was changing its name back to SCO, in the form of the new name The SCO Group. (The final legal aspects of the name change did not become complete until May 2003. ) This reflected recognition of the reality that almost all of the company's revenue was coming from Unix, not Linux, products.

The product name Caldera OpenLinux became "SCO Linux powered by UnitedLinux" and all other Caldera branded names were changed as well. The Volution Messaging Server product was retained and renamed SCOoffice Server, but the other Volution products were split off under the names Volution Technologies, Center 7, and finally Vintela.

From the start of his time as CEO, McBride had considered the possibility of claiming ownership of some of the code within Linux. Love had told him, "Don't do it. You don't want to take on the entire Linux community." But by October 2002, McBride had created an internal organization "to formalize the licensing of our intellectual property". Within a few months after that, SCO had begun issuing proclamations and lawsuits based upon its belief that its Unix intellectual property had been incorporated into Linux in an unlawful and uncompensated manner, and had stopped selling its own Linux product. The SCO–Linux disputes were fully underway, and SCO would soon become, as Businessweek headlined, "The Most Hated Company In Tech".

Interviewed later in 2003, Ransom Love – by then no longer in the Linux business either – said that SCO might have a legitimate argument regarding some specific contractual issues, but that lawsuits were rarely helpful and that "Fundamentally, I would not have pursued SCO's path."

Legacy
Caldera played an important role in Linux history by establishing what would be necessary to create a mainstream, business-oriented system, with stability and support, out of the Linux kernel. Along with Red Hat and SuSE, it was the most important of the commercial Linux distributions. And as Glyn Moody wrote in Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution, Caldera Systems' announcement in 2000 that it was buying SCO Unix – and with it code that dated back through Unix System Laboratories and AT&T before that – was the final marker for the ascendency of Linux over the Unix old guard: "The hackers had triumphed over the establishment."

But from a business perspective, the Caldera Systems acquisition of SCO Unix has been treated less kindly in retrospect. In 2016, ZDNet ranked it ninth on its list of the worst technology mergers and acquisitions of all time. In any case, the one true success story to come out of business-oriented Linux distributions was Red Hat, who at the time maintained they were competing against Microsoft, not Caldera Systems or the other distributions, and which set several marks for revenue for an open-source oriented business before being acquired by IBM in 2018 for $34 billion.

Perhaps the most successful technology venture to come out of Caldera International was the Volution Authentication Server, which under the Vintela name achieved considerable success. Vintela itself was bought by Quest Software for $56.5 million in 2005, and the Vintela software became a core part of that company's One Identity product.

As Dave Wilson, CEO of Vintela, later said, "Caldera Systems … played a major role in establishing Linux as a serious technology in our industry, and the people who worked for Caldera Systems are very proud of their achievements. Many of those people continue to drive innovation [at a variety of other companies]."

Products

 * Caldera OpenLinux, a Linux distribution with added non-free components
 * UnixWare, a UNIX operating system. UnixWare 2.x and below were direct descendants of Unix System V Release 4.2 and was originally developed by AT&T, Univel, Novell and later on The Santa Cruz Operation. UnixWare 7 was sold as a UNIX OS combining UnixWare 2 and OpenServer 5 and was based on System V Release 5. UnixWare 7.1.2 was branded OpenUNIX 8, but later releases returned to the UnixWare 7.1.x name and version numbering.
 * SCO OpenServer, another UNIX operating system, which was originally developed by The Santa Cruz Operation. SCO OpenServer 5 was a descendant of SCO UNIX, which is in turn a descendant of XENIX. OpenServer 6 is, in fact, an OpenServer compatibility environment running on a modern SVR5 based UNIX kernel.
 * Smallfoot, technology consisting of an operating system and a toolkit to create point of sale applications
 * Volution Manager, a browser-based systems administration solution
 * Volution Online, a subscription-based service for testing and then updating Linux systems over a network
 * Volution Messaging Server, a bundled mail and messaging solution for Linux and Unix servers
 * Volution Authentication Server, technology to allow the management of Linux and Unix authentication via Microsoft servers

title: Caldera International


text:
Rhyton

A rhyton (: rhytons or, following the Greek plural, rhyta) is a roughly conical container from which fluids were intended to be drunk or to be poured in some ceremony such as libation, or merely at table. A rhyton is typically formed in the shape of an animal's head. Items were produced over large areas of ancient Eurasia, especially from Persia to the Balkans. Many have an opening at the bottom through which the liquid fell; others did not, and were merely used as drinking cups, with the characteristic that they could not usually be set down on a surface without spilling their contents.

The English word rhyton originates in the ancient Greek word ῥυτόν (rhy̆tón or rhŭtón). The conical rhyton form has been known in the Aegean region since the Bronze Age, or the 2nd millennium BC. However, it was by no means confined to that region. Similar in form to, and perhaps originating from, the drinking horn, it has been widespread over Eurasia since prehistoric times.

Name and function
Liddell and Scott give a standard derivation from Greek rhein, "to flow", which, according to Julius Pokorny, is from Indo-European *sreu-, "flow". As rhutos is "stream", the neuter, rhuton, would be some sort of object associated with pouring, which is equivalent to English pourer. Many vessels considered rhytons featured a wide mouth at the top and a hole through a conical constriction at the bottom from which the fluid ran. The idea is that one scooped wine or water from a storage vessel or similar source, held it up, unstoppered the hole with one's thumb, and let the fluid run into the mouth (or onto the ground in libation) in the same way that wine is drunk from a wineskin today.

Smith points out that this use is testified in classical paintings and accepts Athenaeus's etymology that it was named ἀπὸ τῆς ῥύσεως, "from the flowing". Smith also categorized the name as having been a recent form (in classical times) of a vessel formerly called the keras, "horn", in the sense of a drinking horn. The word rhyton is not present in what is known about Mycenaean Greek, the oldest form of Greek written in Linear B. However, the bull's head rhyton, of which many examples survive, is mentioned as ke-ra-a on tablet KN K 872, an inventory of vessels at Knossos; it is shown with the bull ideogram (*227VAS; also known as rhyton). Ventris and Chadwick restored the word as the adjective *kera(h)a, with a Mycenaean intervocalic h.

Rhyta shaped after bulls are filled through the large opening and emptied through the secondary, smaller one. This means that two hands are required: one to close the secondary opening and one to fill the rhyton. This has led some scholars to believe that rhytons were typically filled with the help of two people or with the help of a chain or a rope that would be passed through a handle. Rhytons modeled after animals were designed to make it look like the animal was drinking when the vessel was being filled. A bull rhyton weighed about three kilograms when empty and up to six kilograms when full.

Other rhytons with animal themes were modeled after boars, lions, and lionesses (such as Lion head horn). Some shapes, such as lioness rhyta, could be filled through simple submersion, thanks to the vessel's shape and buoyancy. Horizontally designed rhyta, like those modeled after lionesses, could be filled by being lowered into a fluid and supported. Vertically designed rhyta, like those modeled after boars, required another hand to cover the primary opening and to prevent the liquid from spilling as the vessel was filled.

Rhyta were often used to strain liquids such as wine, beer, and oil. Some rhyta were used in blood rituals and animal sacrifice. In these cases, the blood may have been thinned with wine. Some vessels were modeled after the animal with which they were intended to be used during ritual, but this was not always the case.

Wide provenance
It cannot be proven that every drinking horn or libation vessel was pierced at the bottom, especially in the prehistoric phases of the form. The scoop function would have come first. Once the holes began, however, they invited zoomorphic interpretation and plastic decoration in the forms of animal heads—bovids, equines, cervids, and even canines—with the fluid pouring from the animals' mouths.

Rhyta occur among the remains of civilizations speaking different languages and language groups in and around the Near and Middle East, such as Persia, from the second millennium BC. They are often shaped like animals' heads or horns and can be very ornate and compounded with precious metals and stones. In Minoan Crete, silver-and-gold bulls' heads with round openings for the wine (permitting wine to pour from the bulls' mouths) seemed particularly common, for several have been recovered from the great palaces (Heraklion Archaeological Museum).

One of the oldest examples of the concept of an animal figure holding a long flat ended conical shaped vessel in hands was known to be discovered from Susa, in Southwestern Iran, in Proto Elamite era about 3rd millennium BC, is a silver figurine of a cow with body of a sitting woman actually offering the vessel between both her bovine hoofs.

Rhytons were very common in ancient Persia, where they were called takuk (تکوک). After a Greek victory against Persia, much silver, gold, and other luxuries, including numerous rhytons, were brought to Athens. Persian rhytons were immediately imitated by Greek artists. Not all rhyta were so valuable; many were simply decorated conical cups in ceramic.

Greek symbolism
Classical Athenian pottery, such as red-figured vases, are typically painted with themes from mythology. One standard theme depicts satyrs, which symbolize ribaldry, with rhyta and wineskins. The horn-shaped rhyta are carefully woven in composition with the erect male organs of the satyrs, but this blatantly sexual and somewhat humorous theme appears to be a late development, consistent with Athenian humor, as is expressed in the plays of Aristophanes. The ornate and precious rhyta of the great civilizations of earlier times are grandiose rather than ribald, which gives the democratic vase paintings an extra satirical dimension.

The connection of satyrs with wine and rhyta is made in Nonnus's epic Dionysiaca. He describes the satyrs at the first trampling of the grapes during the invention of wine-making by Dionysos:
 * ...the fruit bubbled out red juice with white foam. They scooped it up with oxhorns, instead of cups which had not yet been seen, so that ever after the cup of mixed wine took this divine name of 'Winehorn'.

Károly Kerényi, in quoting this passage, remarks, "At the core of this richly elaborated myth, in which the poet even recalls the rhyta, it is not easy to separate the Cretan elements from those originating in Asia Minor." The connection to which he refers is a pun not present in English translation: the wine is mixed (kerannymenos), which appears to contain the bull's horn (keras), the ancient Greek name of the rhyton.

In the myth, ichor from Olympus falls among rocks. From it grow grapevines. One grows around a pine tree, where a serpent, winding up the tree, eats the grapes. Dionysus, seeing the snake, pursues it into a hole in the rocks. Following an oracle of Rhea, the Cretan mountain goddess, Dionysus hollows out the hole and tramples grapes in it, dancing and shouting. The goddess, the rocks, the snake, and the dancing are Cretan themes. The cult of Dionysus was Anatolian. At its most abstract, the rhyton is the container of the substance of life, celebrated by the ritual dancing on the grapes.

title: Rhyton


text:
Elevator paradox

The elevator paradox is a paradox first noted by Marvin Stern and George Gamow, physicists who had offices on different floors of a multi-story building. Gamow, who had an office near the bottom of the building noticed that the first elevator to stop at his floor was most often going down, while Stern, who had an office near the top, noticed that the first elevator to stop at his floor was most often going up. This creates the false impression that elevator cars are more likely to be going in one direction than the other depending on which floor the observer is on.

Modeling the elevator problem

Several attempts (beginning with Gamow and Stern) were made to analyze the reason for this phenomenon: the basic analysis is simple, while detailed analysis is more difficult than it would at first appear.

Simply, if one is on the top floor of a building, all elevators will come from below (none can come from above), and then depart going down, while if one is on the second from top floor, an elevator going to the top floor will pass first on the way up, and then shortly afterward on the way down – thus, while an equal number will pass going up as going down, downwards elevators will generally shortly follow upwards elevators (unless the elevator idles on the top floor), and thus the first elevator observed will usually be going up. The first elevator observed will be going down only if one begins observing in the short interval after an elevator has passed going up, while the rest of the time the first elevator observed will be going up.

In more detail, the explanation is as follows: a single elevator spends most of its time in the larger section of the building, and thus is more likely to approach from that direction when the prospective elevator user arrives. An observer who remains by the elevator doors for hours or days, observing every elevator arrival, rather than only observing the first elevator to arrive, would note an equal number of elevators traveling in each direction. This then becomes a sampling problem — the observer is sampling stochastically a non uniform interval.

To help visualize this, consider a thirty-story building, plus lobby, with only one slow elevator. The elevator is so slow because it stops at every floor on the way up, and then on every floor on the way down. It takes a minute to travel between floors and wait for passengers. Here is the arrival schedule; as depicted above, it forms a triangle wave:

If you were on the first floor and walked up randomly to the elevator, chances are the next elevator would be heading down. The next elevator would be heading up only during the first two minutes at each hour, e.g., at 9:00 and 9:01. The number of elevator stops going upwards and downwards are the same, but the probability that the next elevator is going up is only 2 in 60.

A similar effect can be observed in railway stations where a station near the end of the line will likely have the next train headed for the end of the line.

More than one elevator
If there is more than one elevator in a building, the bias decreases — since there is a greater chance that the intending passenger will arrive at the elevator lobby during the time that at least one elevator is below them; with an infinite number of elevators, the probabilities would be equal.

In the example above, if there are 30 floors and 58 elevators, so at every minute there are 2 elevators on each floor, one going up and one going down (save at the top and bottom), the bias is eliminated – every minute, one elevator arrives going up and another going down. This also occurs with 30 elevators spaced 2 minutes apart – on odd floors they alternate up/down arrivals, while on even floors they arrive simultaneously every two minutes.

The real-world case
In a real building, there are complicated factors such as: the tendency of elevators to be frequently required on the ground or first floor, and to return there when idle; lopsided demand where everyone wants to go down at the end of the day; people on the lower floors being more willing to take the stairs; or the way full elevators ignore external floor-level calls. These factors tend to shift the frequency of observed arrivals, but do not eliminate the paradox entirely. In particular, a user very near the top floor will perceive the paradox even more strongly, as elevators are infrequently present or required above their floor.

title: Elevator paradox


text:
Cartesian diver

A Cartesian diver or Cartesian devil is a classic science experiment which demonstrates the principle of buoyancy (Archimedes' principle) and the ideal gas law. The first written description of this device is provided by Raffaello Magiotti, in his book Renitenza certissima dell'acqua alla compressione (Very firm resistance of water to compression) published in 1648. It is named after René Descartes as the toy is said to have been invented by him.

The principle is used to make small toys often called "water dancers" or "water devils". The principle is the same, but the eyedropper is instead replaced with a decorative object with the same properties which is a tube of near-neutral buoyancy, for example, a blown-glass bubble. If the tail of the glass bubble is given a twist, the flow of the water into and out of the glass bubble creates spin. This causes the toy to spin as it sinks and rises. An example of such a toy is the red "devil" shown here. The device also has a practical use for measuring the pressure of a liquid.

Plastic divers were given away in American cereal boxes as a free toy in the 1950s, and "Diving Tony," a version of the toy modelled after Kellogg's Frosted Flakes mascot Tony the Tiger, was made available in the 1980s.

Experiment description
[[File:cartesian_diver.svg|thumb|left|upright|A Cartesian diver toy made from a drinking straw, paperclip and plastic bottle 1. The trapped air in the straw makes the diver slightly buoyant, and it thus floats.

2. Squeezing the bottle increases the water pressure; as the bubble shrinks, the diver's density increases and it sinks.]] The experiment requires a large water-filled bottle, inside which is a "diver": a small, rigid tube, open at one end, very similar to an eyedropper with just enough air so that it is nearly neutrally buoyant, but still buoyant enough that it floats at the top while being almost completely submerged. Two alternative "divers" can be constructed. One sealed but a flexible bulb, and the other a sealed glass bulb (flashlight minus metal base) with wool threads trailing below. The flexible one will compress reducing volume, and the solid glass one will not change, but air bubbles will be trapped in the fibres, and be exposed to the pressure – thus will change volume.

The "diving" occurs when the flexible part of the larger container is pressed inwards, increasing the pressure inside the larger container, causing the "diver" to sink to the bottom until the pressure is released, when it rises back to the surface. If the container is rigid, as with a glass bottle, the cork sealing the bottle would be pressed inwards or drawn outwards.

There is just enough air in the diver to make it positively buoyant. Therefore, the diver floats at the water's surface. As a result of Pascal's law, squeezing the airtight container increases the pressure of the air, part of which pressure is exerted against the water that constitutes one "wall" of the airtight container. This water in turn exerts additional pressure on the air bubble inside the diver; because the air inside the diver is compressible but the water is an incompressible fluid, the air's volume is decreased but the water's volume does not expand, such that the pressure external to the diver a) forces the water already in the diver further inward and b) drives water from outside the diver into the diver. Once the air bubble becomes smaller and more water enters the diver, the diver displaces a weight of water that is less than its own weight, so it becomes negatively buoyant and sinks in accordance with Archimedes' principle. When the pressure on the container is released, the air expands again, increasing the weight of water displaced and the diver again becomes positively buoyant and floats.

It might be thought that if the weight of displaced water exactly matched the weight of the diver, it would neither rise nor sink, but float in the middle of the container; however, this does not occur in practice. Assuming such a state were to exist at some point, any departure of the diver from its current depth, however small, will alter the pressure exerted on the bubble in the diver due to the change in the weight of the water above it in the vessel. It is an unstable equilibrium. If the diver rises, by even the most minuscule amount, the pressure on the bubble will decrease, it will expand, it will displace more water, and the diver will become more positively buoyant, rising still more quickly. Conversely, should the diver drop by the smallest amount, the pressure will increase, the bubble contract, additional water enter, the diver will become less buoyant, and the rate of the drop will accelerate as the pressure from the water rises still further. This positive reinforcement will amplify any departure from equilibrium, even that due to random thermal fluctuations in the system. A range of constant applied pressures exists that will allow the diver either to float at the surface, or sink to the bottom, but to have it float within the body of the liquid for an extended period would require continuous manipulation of the applied pressure.

Divers inside an oval plastic bottle acquire new interesting properties. Indeed, an oval bottle can increase in volume when it is compressed, and if this happens, the drowned diver can ascend.

title: Cartesian diver


text:
Felicjan Kowarski

Felicjan Szczesny Kowarski (8 November 1890 – 22 September 1948) was a Polish painter and sculptor, known mostly from his monumental wall paintings and plafonds (e.g. plafond in the Hall under the Birds at castle of Wawel). His work was part of the painting event in the art competition at the 1936 Summer Olympics.

title: Felicjan Kowarski


text:
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Help with Translation
Hi, my name is Ricardo Ramírez, I'm from Colombia and I'm working in the article of Cúcuta. Can you help me to translate it from the Spanish Wikipedia?

 * Cúcuta - Spanish Wikipedia - Click
 * Cúcuta - English Wikipedia - Click

Thanks...

Ricardoramirezj ✍ 15:47, 24 October 2006 (UTC)

Help with Translation
Hi, my name is Ricardo Ramírez, I'm from Colombia and I'm working in the article of Cúcuta. Can you help me to translate it from the Spanish Wikipedia?

 * Cúcuta - Spanish Wikipedia - Click
 * Cúcuta - English Wikipedia - Click

Thanks...

Ricardoramirezj ✍ 15:48, 24 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cbayly