text:
Cheapside

Cheapside is a street in the City of London, the historic and modern financial centre of London, England, which forms part of the A40 London to Fishguard road. It links St Martin's Le Grand with Poultry. Near its eastern end at Bank junction, where it becomes Poultry, is Mansion House, the Bank of England, and Bank station. To the west is St Paul's Cathedral, St Paul's tube station and square.

In the Middle Ages, it was known as Westcheap, as opposed to Eastcheap, another street in the City, near London Bridge. The boundaries of the wards of Cheap, Cordwainer and Bread Street run along Cheapside and Poultry; prior to boundary changes in 2003 the road was divided amongst Farringdon Within and Cripplegate wards in addition to the current three.

The contemporary Cheapside is the location of a range of retail and food outlets and offices, as well as the City's only major shopping centre, One New Change.

Etymology and usage

Cheapside is a common English street name, meaning "market place", from Old English ceapan, "to buy" (cf. German kaufen, Dutch kopen, Danish købe, Norwegian kjøpe, Swedish köpa), whence also chapman and chapbook. There was originally no connection to the modern meaning of cheap ("low-priced" or "low-quality", a shortening of good ceap, "good buy"), though by the 18th century this association may have begun to be inferred.

Other cities and towns in England that have a Cheapside include Ambleside, Ascot, Barnsley, Birmingham, Blackpool, Bradford, Brighton, Bristol, Derby, Halifax, Hanley, Knaresborough, Lancaster, Leicester, Liverpool, Luton, Manchester, Nottingham, Preston, Reading, Settle, Wakefield and Wolverhampton. There is also a Cheapside in Bridgetown, Barbados; Lexington, Kentucky, US; Greenfield, Massachusetts, US; Saint Helier, Jersey; and London, Ontario, Canada.

History

Cheapside is the former site of one of the principal produce markets in London, cheap broadly meaning "market" in medieval English. Many of the streets feeding into the main thoroughfare are named after the produce that was once sold in those areas of the market, including Honey Lane, Milk Street, Bread Street and Poultry.

In medieval times, the royal processional route from the Tower of London to the Palace of Westminster would include Cheapside. During state occasions such as the first entry of Margaret of France (second wife of King Edward I), into London in September 1299, the conduits of Cheapside customarily flowed with wine.

During the reign of Edward III in the 14th century, tournaments were held in adjacent fields. The dangers were, however, not limited to the participants: a wooden stand built to accommodate Queen Philippa and her companions collapsed during a tournament to celebrate the birth of the Black Prince in 1330. No one died, but the King was greatly displeased, and the stand's builders would have been put to death but for the Queen's intercession.

On the day preceding her coronation, in January 1559, Elizabeth I passed through a number of London streets in a pre-coronation procession and was entertained by a number of pageants, including one in Cheapside.

Meat was brought in to Cheapside from Smithfield market, just outside Newgate. After the great Church of St Michael-le-Querne, the top end of the street broadened into a dual carriageway known as the Shambles (referring to an open-air slaughterhouse and meat market), with butcher shops on both sides and a dividing central area also containing butchers. Further down, on the right, was Goldsmiths Row, an area of commodity dealers. From the 14th century to the Great Fire, the eastern end of Cheapside was the location of the Great Conduit.

Literary connections
Cheapside was the birthplace of both John Milton and Robert Herrick. It was for a long time one of the most important streets in London. It is also the site of the 'Bow Bells', the church of St Mary-le-Bow, which has played a part in London's Cockney heritage and the tale of Dick Whittington. Geoffrey Chaucer grew up around Cheapside and there are a scattering of references to the thoroughfare and its environs throughout his work. The first chapter of Peter Ackroyd's Brief Lives series on Chaucer also colourfully describes the street at that time.

William Shakespeare used Cheapside as the setting for several bawdy scenes in Henry IV, Part I. A reference to it is also made in Henry VI, Part II, in a speech by the rebel Jack Cade: "all the realm shall be in common; and in Cheapside shall my palfrey go to grass".

Thomas Middleton's play A Chaste Maid in Cheapside (1613) both satirises and celebrates the citizens of the neighbourhood during the Renaissance, when the street hosted the city's goldsmiths.

William Wordsworth, in his 1797 poem The Reverie of Poor Susan, imagines a naturalistic Cheapside of past:

"And a river flows on through the vale of Cheapside."

Jane Austen, in her 1813 novel Pride and Prejudice, characterises Cheapside as a London neighbourhood frowned upon by the landed elite:

""I think I have heard you say that their uncle is an attorney in Meryton."

"Yes; and they have another, who lives somewhere near Cheapside."

"That is capital," added her sister, and they both laughed heartily.

"If they had uncles enough to fill all Cheapside," cried Bingley, "it would not make them one jot less agreeable."

"But it must very materially lessen their chance of marrying men of any consideration in the world," replied Darcy."

Charles Dickens Jr. wrote in his 1879 book Dickens's Dictionary of London:

Cheapside remains now what it was five centuries ago, the greatest thoroughfare in the City of London. Other localities have had their day, have risen, become fashionable, and have sunk into obscurity and neglect, but Cheapside has maintained its place, and may boast of being the busiest thoroughfare in the world, with the sole exception perhaps of London-bridge.

Hugh Lofting's book Doctor Dolittle, published in 1951, names a quarrelsome London sparrow with a Cockney accent Cheapside. He lives most of the year in St Edmund's left ear in St Paul's Cathedral and is invited to the African country of Fantippo to deliver mail to cities because the other birds are not able to navigate city streets.

Cheapside is also depicted in Rosemary Sutcliff's 1951 children's historical novel The Armourer's House, along with other parts of Tudor London.

In a more contemporary treatment, the Cheapside of the Middle Ages was referenced in a derogatory sense in the 2001 movie A Knight's Tale as being the poor, unhealthy and low-class birthplace and home of the unlikely hero.

Nineteenth century Cheapside is presented as the home of Mary "Jacky" Faber in Bloody Jack by L. A. Meyer.

Additionally, Cheapside is depicted as a major setting in the bestselling novel by Maria McCann, As Meat Loves Salt, a historical feature set against the English Civil War.

William Gibson's mystery novel The Peripheral depicts a 22nd-century Cheapside converted to a Victorian-era cosplay zone where only 19th century costume is allowed.

Contemporary Cheapside

Cheapside today is a street of offices and developments of retail outlets. It can no longer be described as "the busiest thoroughfare in the world" (as in Charles Dickens, Jr.'s day) and is instead simply one of many routes connecting the East End and the City of London with the West End.

Cheapside was extensively damaged during The Blitz in late 1940 and particularly during the Second Great Fire of London. Much of the rebuilding following these raids occurred during the 1950s and 1960s and included a number of unsympathetic contemporary attempts at recreating the centuries-old architecture that had been destroyed. In recent years many of these buildings have themselves been demolished as a programme of regeneration takes place along Cheapside from Paternoster Square to Poultry.

The draft Core Strategy of the City's Local Development Frameworks outlines the vision and policies for the Cheapside area, aiming to increase the amount of retail space along and near the street, and make the area a good environment for visitors and shoppers. The plan is to re-establish the street as the City's "High Street", including as a weekend shopping destination (until recently many retail units in the City were closed on Saturday and Sunday). A major retail and office development at the heart of the scheme, One New Change, opened 28 October 2010. It is sited on Cheapside at the intersection with New Change, immediately to the east of St Paul's Cathedral.

To address the anticipated rise in the number of shoppers as a result of the regeneration, the street itself has undergone reconstruction works to make the area more sympathetic to pedestrian traffic; the works are expected to make Cheapside the main shopping area in the City of London.

Cheapside formed part of the marathon course of the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. The women's Olympic marathon took place on 5 August and the men's Olympic marathon took place on 12 August. The four Paralympic marathons were held on 9 September.

title: Cheapside


text:
Castle Rock Foundation

The Castle Rock Foundation was an American conservative foundation started in 1993 with an endowment of $36.6M from the Adolph Coors Foundation. It ranked as Colorado's 15th largest foundation by assets at the end of 2001. The foundation gathered media attention during Pete Coors' unsuccessful 2004 Senate run, when opponents pointed at the dichotomy between the Coors Brewing Company's attempt to appeal to a broad audience, in particular with minorities and gay customers, while the Castle Rock Foundation was used by the Coors family to fund several conservative initiatives intent on curtailing the rights of these same customers.

The Castle Rock Foundation merged into the Adolph Coors Foundation on November 30, 2011.

Mission

 * "Promote a better understanding of the free enterprise system"
 * "Preserve the principles upon which our democracy was founded to help ensure a limited role for government and the protection of individual rights as provided for in the Constitution"
 * "Encourage personal responsibility and leadership"
 * "Uphold traditional American values"

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Castle Rock Foundation


text:
Saab Quantum

SAAB Quantum was a series of five privately designed and built automobiles using various Saab components. The earliest used Saab 93 two-stroke engines, transmissions and suspension. The later used Saab 96 drivetrains and suspension parts. All were built in the United States.

The Quantum I was built in 1959, with a chassis computer engineered by Walter Kern at IBM in his spare time. It wore only the most basic bodywork at first. After initial testing and a race or two, it was replaced with moderately more complete bodywork which it still wears to this day. The Quantum II was nearly identical in every way, though built later. Both Quantums I and II were raced in the SCCA H-Modified class. They were pure prototypes and racing cars, never intended for production.

The Quantum III was designed to be a production car and was first presented in 1962. Only a few copies were built. Due to a lack of quality it was turned down by Saab in Sweden and never went into production.

 * Quantum I (1959) - 1st iteration was with a very basic aluminum body. Second iteration of the bodywork was only slightly more finished. This is the version it wears today.
 * Quantum II - Nearly identical to the Quantum I in every way. Both use a water-cooled, three-cylinder Saab two-stroke engine.
 * Quantum III - Completely new design. Two built.
 * Quantum IV (1963) - Single seater formula car sold as a kit car. Intended for Sports Car Club of America's (SCCA) "Formula S" series.
 * Quantum V (1965) - Ginetta body. Saab two-stroke engine and transmission. One built.

Pictures

 * Quantum III,
 * Walter Kern (right)
 * 1959 Quantum I

title: Saab Quantum


text:
Threadneedle Street

Threadneedle Street is a street in the City of London, England, between Bishopsgate at its northeast end and Bank junction in the southwest. It is one of nine streets that converge at Bank. It lies in the ward of Cornhill.

History
Threadneedle street is famous as the site of the Bank of England. The bank itself is sometimes known as 'the Old Lady of Threadneedle Street' and has been based at its current location since 1734. The London Stock Exchange was situated on Threadneedle Street until 2004, when it relocated to nearby Paternoster Square. The Baltic Exchange was founded in the on Threadneedle Street in 1744. It is now located on St Mary Axe.

Etymology
Some believe that the name originated as Three Needle Street, first attested to in 1598, perhaps from a signboard portraying three needles, or from the three needles on the arms of needle-makers who had premises on the street. The threads and needles used by the members of the Worshipful Company of Merchant Taylors is another possibility, since the livery company's hall has been located on Threadneedle Street since 1347. Before 1598, the road was part of Broad Street, now Old Broad Street.

Points of interest
In addition to the Bank of England, there are a number of shops, banks, restaurants and offices located on Threadneedle Street.

The Merchant Taylors' Hall, home of the Worshipful Company of Merchant Taylors, has occupied a site off Threadneedle Street since 1347. Reportedly the British national anthem was sung, in private, in 1607 for the first time, conducted by John Bull.

The headquarters of the South Sea Company was located on the street, from 1711 to the 1850s.

The London office of the world's oldest merchant bank, Berenberg Bank, is located at No. 60.

The nearest London Underground station is Bank and Monument. London's first bus service ran between Threadneedle Street and Paddington from 1829. Today, the street is served by bus routes 8, 11, 23, 26, 133, 242, and 388.

Over 5,000 tonnes of gold bars are held by the Bank of England, both official reserves of the UK Treasury, and others, in a system of eight vaults, over two floors, under Threadneedle Street.

title: Threadneedle Street


text:
Electronic art

Electronic art is a form of art that makes use of electronic media. More broadly, it refers to technology and/or electronic media. It is related to information art, new media art, video art, digital art, interactive art, internet art, and electronic music. It is considered an outgrowth of conceptual art and systems art.

Background
The term electronic art is almost synonymous to computer art and digital art. The latter two terms, and especially the term computer-generated art are mostly used for visual artworks generated by computers. However, electronic art has a much broader connotation, referring to artworks that include any type of electronic component, such as works in music, dance, architecture and performance. It is an interdisciplinary field in which artists, scientists and engineers often collaborate when creating their works. The art historian of electronic art Edward A. Shanken works to document current and past experimental art with a focus on the intersection of art, science, and technology. Other writers on the topic of electronic art include Frank Popper, Dominique Moulon, Sarah Cook, and Christiane Paul.

Electronic art often features components of interactivity. Artists make use of technologies like the Internet, computer networks, robotics, wearable technology, digital painting, wireless technology and immersive virtual reality. As the technologies used to deliver works of electronic art become obsolete, electronic art faces serious issues around the challenge to preserve artwork beyond the time of its contemporary production. Currently, research projects are underway to improve the preservation and documentation of the fragile electronic arts heritage (see DOCAM – Documentation and Conservation of the Media Arts Heritage). Digital graphics software such as Photoshop allows for the digital manipulation of analog photographs, the creation of wholly electronic images, and application of AI-enhanced generative fills.

Wearable Tech
With the advancements in lightweight microchips, wireless capabilities, sensors and motion tracking technology, new mediums in digital art and performance have become possible. Technology has the capability to augment and manipulate reality as well as audience or viewer perception. Motion tracking suits are used in creating 3D renders of animated characters for film and video games. The animation or CGI produced can be edited and adjusted before viewing, but research into real time rendering for live performance art is being streamlined through the use of artificial intelligence, automation, and programing. Live renders are similarly used in the metaverse to create more realistic avatar movement and expression. Further implications of wearable technology include audio and music production. Laurie Anderson is a performance artist who used a suit equipped with amplified tactile sensors. She used her movements to create music, as various body parts were assigned different percussive or instrumental sounds and tones when hit or moved. Similar to this musical tech is the SOMI-1 device as used in the dance performance entitled “My body is an instrument” by: Mike Tyus and Luca Renzi. This piece of technology was designed by the company Instrument of Things; the SOMI-1 is a small proprioceptive disk that tracks movement and translates it into sound.

Art festivals that use the term "electronic art" in their name

 * International Symposium for Electronic Art (ISEA), organized annually since 1988, international
 * Ars Electronica Symposium, organized yearly since 1979 by Ars Electronica in Linz, Austria
 * Dutch Electronic Art Festival (DEAF), organized yearly since 1994 by V2 Institute for the Unstable Media in Rotterdam, the Netherlands
 * Electronic Language International Festival (FILE) organized yearly since 2000 in São Paulo, Brazil
 * The Prix Ars Electronica, a major yearly award for several categories of electronic art

Artists
Notable artists working in electronic art include:

 * Laurie Anderson
 * Roy Ascott
 * Maurice Benayoun
 * Maurizio Bolognini
 * Angie Bonino
 * Mez Breeze
 * Miguel Chevalier
 * Heiko Daxl
 * Elizabeth Diller
 * David Em
 * Ken Feingold
 * Ingeborg Fülepp
 * Peter Gabriel
 * Walter Giers
 * Pietro Grossi
 * Genco Gulan
 * Garnet Hertz
 * Perry Hoberman
 * Jodi (art collective)
 * Eduardo Kac
 * Knowbotic Research
 * Marc Lee
 * George Legrady
 * Golan Levin
 * Liu Dao
 * Rafael Lozano-Hemmer
 * Chico MacMurtrie
 * Sergio Maltagliati
 * Jennifer & Kevin McCoy
 * Yucef Merhi
 * Jonathan Monaghan
 * Joseph Nechvatal
 * Yves Netzhammer
 * Graham Nicholls
 * Simon Penny
 * Melinda Rackham
 * Martin Rev
 * Ken Rinaldo
 * David Rokeby
 * Stefan Roloff
 * Lillian Schwartz
 * Ricardo Scofidio
 * Paul Sermon
 * Scott Snibbe
 * Michael Snow
 * Stelarc
 * Survival Research Laboratories
 * Gianni Toti
 * Tamás Waliczky
 * Norman White
 * Allan Kaprow

title: Electronic art


text:
Talk:Gobiidae

The Goby or Mudskipper article did not mention a fact which I think belongs in Wikipedia, but I have no experience of mudskippers. I learned this from a man who grew up in Malaysia: This meant something to me, because in the U.S., Do you think it is appropriate for Wikipedia? The article says that mudskippers live on the coasts of Australia, too. Is it OK to put in this fact? Thank you. 169.207.85.217 18:13, 30 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * A mudskipper can outrun a boy.
 * a rabbit can outrun a boy.

I would put it in with a caveat, e.g. "It is said that..." That doesn't commit us to the detail, but does say that the thing must be fairly fast to have that reputation.

As to the location, there are lots and lots of species of mudskipper, and they're found in all the warmwater oceans of the world.

seglea 20:38, 30 Nov 2003 (UTC)

I don't think mudskipper should be merged with Goby. Mudskippers are a subtype of Goby that are very interesting in their own right because of their amphibious nature and deserve their own page. Nicolharper 01:43, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

 * ok by me; not knowing the difference in detail I thought they were the same, and Mudskipper redirects to Goby. Properly we should really move Mudskippers to Mudskipper, but it's easier to redirect Mudskipper to Mudskippers, so if no one has objections I think I will do so.  bikeable (talk) 17:44, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

Goby/Mudskipper revision
The mudskippers now have their own, distinct article. The comments on mudskippers here are now much briefer and serve only to link them in with the gobies. I don't see any reason to merge these two topics: while mudskippers are gobies, they're very distinct from them; would be merge the article on humans with the article about great apes?

Can we remove these articles from the list of articles needed merging?

-- Neale Monks 11:36, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

 * I took the merge notice off both pages and redirected Mudskipper to Mudskippers. bikeable (talk) 14:12, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

Gobiidae - Genera list
List_of_Gobiidae_genera Should this list figure into this article ? Nhobgood (talk) 10:25, 26 August 2010 (UTC)

fused pelvic fins
I read about the "fused pelvic fins that form a disc-shaped sucker," and I didn't understand it. I looked at the images but couldn't see where it is or how there is a suction until I searched the web for a while. Perhaps if someone could get the rights to an image like this one: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_ckBlasgNSzg/STLpplFP-VI/AAAAAAAAJ5A/OB8A8HaTs-s/s1600/Sirajo+goby.jpg it would be very helpful towards illustrating the fused suction fin.

Peer Review

 * Talk Page: I would suggest adding a segment on the talk page describing what edits you have done.
 * General: Add more hyperlinks to other pages. Also, some links are red, which means that right now, they are not linked to any existing page.  Consider re-formatting these to have them link to actual pages.  Also, all species should be italicized. Make them italicized with double apostrophes on both sides of the name.  Try to incorporate the Research section into other parts of the article instead of giving it its own section.
 * Burrow Building: Double check the phrasing used. For example, consider "helps to provide" as opposed to "helps providing," and "mating opportunities" instead of "mating opportunity."
 * Sex Change: Some of the phrasing is awkward. ("are not that different" instead of "do not differ much." Also consider changing the phrase "fills up for.") Consider changing "in an experiment" to "it has been shown."
 * Sex Determination: Are the quotations around "socially-influenced" necessary?
 * Reproduction: Is mentioning sex changing again necessary? (Consider, "In species with sex changing,...")
 * Symbiosis: Are those terms supposed to be bolded? There are also some grammatical errors. VAleles (talk) 22:49, 10 October 2013 (UTC)

General Comments/Edits:

•More links in the article to other relevant pages or data would be helpful. It would help others perform their own research and help the flow of the article

•Is it possible to add a few mroe sentences explaining the benefits of cannibalism so that unfamiliar readers can understand?

•I would add more transitions between sentences to help improve the flow and reduce the disjointed feel.

•Also is it possible to remove the standalone research section and incorporate the information into other sections?

•A great article! MLiu19 (talk) 21:49, 10 October 2013 (UTC)

Specific changes: 1) "Gobies use their mouth to dig into the sea bottom, removing dead coral-fragments, rubbles, and benthic algae to build burrows. Gobies maintain their burrows by fanning away sand inside the burrow." --> "Gobies use their mouths to dig into the sea bottom, removing dead coral-fragments, rubble, and benthic algae in order to build their burrows. Gobies maintain their burrows by fanning away sand that is inside." 2) "Since not many males have large bodies, some small males decide to cheat instead of putting energy in finding mates and fulfilling the responsibility as males (i.e., protecting the territory and the female)." --> "Since not all males have large bodies, the smaller ones may cheat instead of expending energy to find mates and protect a territory." 3) "Most sex changes in gobies are female-to-male changes, though male-to-female changes are observed as well." --> "Most sex changes in gobies are from female to male, although the opposite is sometimes observed as well." 4) "They can lay from five to a few thousand eggs, depending on species. After fertilizing the eggs, the male remains to guard them from predators and keep them free from detritus." --> "They may lay from five to a few thousand eggs, depending on the species. After fertilizing the eggs, the male guards them from predators and keeps them free from detritus." 5) "Some gobies remember landmarks within short distance and use the information to get away from predators." --> "Some gobies remember landmarks that are within short distances, and use them to escape from predators."

Other suggestions: 1) The sentence “The mound lets the water flow fast over the mound, creating a low-pressure spot” is awkwardly worded and unclear, and should be changed. 2) The sub-header “Research” should either be taken out from the header “Behavior,” or renamed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by W.lin17 (talk • contribs) 04:31, 11 October 2013 (UTC)

---Thank y'all so much! I made changes that y'all recommended!---Hami910311 (talk

Peer review
I would recommend improving the organization of the Behavior section. Here are my suggestions:

Kleptogamy
 * An alternative subheading: Mating
 * How do non-sneakers mate? Give a general description about mating system and introduce kleptogamy as an alternative strategy.

Use of landmarks
 * An alternative subheading: Navigation (Use of landmarks seems to be a navigation mechanism of gobies. )

Habitat choice
 * Foraging behavior and its relation with predation risk is not explicitly explained in this page. I would recommend changing the subheading to foraging and elaborating more on foraging (explain why there is a trade-off between foraging and avoiding predation). *The cited reference seems to be focusing on effects of predation pressure on foraging behavior rather than habitat choice.

My suggestion is: Mating / Sex change and sex determination / Foraging (If you decide to elaborate more on this topic) / Symbiosis / Burrow construction / Navigation -Allasse0927 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2602:30A:2C61:D6E0:7514:1649:3AFA:54CB (talk) 06:28, 22 November 2013 (UTC)
 * Also, try reordering the subsections of the Behavior section in the order of importance.

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Requested move 11 August 2018

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: moved as requested per the discussion below; it may be necessary, now, to discuss what to do with the redirect at Goby. Dekimasu よ! 01:49, 25 August 2018 (UTC)

Goby → Gobiidae – The article is about the family, the vernacular name Goby is applied to lots of fish in other families in the Gobiiformes, e.g. Oxudercidae Quetzal1964 (talk)  09:25, 11 August 2018 (UTC) --Relisting. Dekimasu よ! 18:54, 19 August 2018 (UTC)
 * This is a contested technical request (permalink). — Amakuru (talk) 15:00, 11 August 2018 (UTC)

 * Comment. Not a clear-cut uncontroversial move. Opening for discussion. — Amakuru (talk) 15:00, 11 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Oxudercidae doesn't even have a section at Gobiiformes (yet). I think primary meaning (and WP:UE) can be invoked here to overcome any ambiguity. Srnec (talk) 00:18, 13 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Support. As the original proposer I don't know if I can vote support here. The consensus at WikiProject Fishes was that the higher level taxonomy of fish articles (above genus) would follow the 5th Edition of Fishes of the World. This rearranges the families in the Gobiiformes and splits off Oxudercidae from Gobiidae while merging a number of families previously considered valid into Gobiidae. The common name "goby" is now spread amongst a number of families and it could be argued that it could be applied to all families within the order Gobiiformes, albeit with qualifiers. I would argue that using the name goby as the title of an article which is only about the family Gobiidae lacks both precision and clarity.
 * For example "Sicyopus auxilimentus is a species of goby endemic to the Philippines …."

 * I am about to embark on adding Automatic taxoboxes to the Gobiidae articles (I may be some time!) and in preparation I have edited the article Gobiiformes to reflect the 5th Edition Fishes of the World taxonomy, so Oxudercidae now does have a section at Gobiiformes. Quetzal1964 (talk)  19:40, 16 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Your support is implicit. The closer will know what you want. No need to vote separately.
 * The problem is that your proposed remedy—moving this article—doesn't solve the Sicyopus auxilimentus problem, since goby will still redirect to Gobiidae. If you are proposing to do something entirely different at the goby namespace (e.g., a WP:DABCONCEPT article ,or a redirect to a different article [Gobiiformes?] or merely a dab page) you should tell us. Srnec (talk) 00:52, 17 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Apologies, yes that is exactly what I intend to do. If goby is moved I will edit the Goby page to make it a disambiguation page because, as you say, a simple redirect does not resolve the issue with the other families. Quetzal1964 (talk)  04:47, 17 August 2018 (UTC)
 * That is what I would oppose. I do not see how a list of names like Gobiidae and Oxudercidae serves the reader who just wants to know about gobies. How will s/he know what link to click? Srnec (talk) 00:26, 18 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Well in that case there would still need to be a disambiguation page and a general article, like Monkey, or do you think that it should redirect to Gobiiformes? Quetzal1964 (talk)  06:50, 18 August 2018 (UTC)
 * A broad concept article is fine with me, but so is a redirect to Gobiiformes. The lead would need to be tweaked. Monkey is a good example: a list of families would not be helpful. Srnec (talk) 20:43, 18 August 2018 (UTC)
 * I think I would prefer a broad concept article, with a hat note directing readers to the Gobiiformes. It would be short but not all Gobiiformes are called gobies so some explanation would be preferable. Quetzal1964 (talk)  10:02, 19 August 2018 (UTC)

 * Support. The subject of the article is the family Gobiidae, not fishes known by the common name "goby". The scientific name is a more precise title. Plantdrew (talk) 20:55, 20 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Support. There should be separate articles for gobies in general and the family Gobiidae. This article seems to fit the latter better. The goby article should either be a short disambiguation style article or possibly point to the Gobiiformes with appropriate changes there.  Jts1882 | talk 06:56, 21 August 2018 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Inappropriate claim
In the section Kleptogamy this passage appears:

"The paired males most of the time think that the sneakers are females"

Because there is no way to determine what a fish thinks, this is entirely inappropriate.

We can report on what a fish does, or possibly what the results are of scientific tests on the fish or its environment.

But we cannot tell what a fish thinks.

I should think this would be obvious to anyone editing Wikipedia. 2601:200:C000:1A0:4174:5FF8:7FA:3410 (talk) 19:54, 27 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Rephrased "Most of the time the paired males mistake the sneakers for females". —  Jts1882 | talk 12:31, 28 August 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gobiidae


text:
Saint-Cloud

Saint-Cloud is a commune in the western suburbs of Paris, France, 9.6 km from the centre of Paris. Like other communes of Hauts-de-Seine such as Marnes-la-Coquette, Neuilly-sur-Seine and Vaucresson, Saint-Cloud is one of France's wealthiest towns, with the second-highest average household income of communities with 10,000 to 50,000 households.

Saint-Cloud is home to the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (IBWM), located in the Parc de Saint-Cloud's Pavillon de Breteuil.

History
The town is named after Clodoald, grandson of Clovis, who is supposed to have sought refuge in a hamlet on the Seine near Paris, then named Novigentum, like many other newly founded mercantile settlements outside the traditional towns. After he was canonized, the village where his tomb was located took the name of Sanctus Clodoaldus.

A park contains the ruins of the Château de Saint-Cloud, built in 1572 and destroyed by fire in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War. The château was the residence of several French rulers and served as the main country residence of the cadet Orléans line until the French Revolution. The palace was also the site of the coup d'état led by Napoleon Bonaparte that overthrew the French Directory in 1799.

The town is also famous for the Saint-Cloud porcelain produced there from 1693 to 1766.

The Headquarters of the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol) was at 22 Rue Armengaud from 1966 until 1989, when it moved to Lyon.

Main sights
The main landmarks are the park of the demolished Château de Saint-Cloud and the Pavillon de Breteuil. The Saint-Cloud Racecourse, a racetrack for Thoroughbred flat racing, was built by Edmond Blanc in 1901 and hosts a number of important races, including the annual Grand Prix de Saint-Cloud.

Tribute to Santos-Dumont
On the Avenue de Longchamp is a bronze statue commissioned by the Airclub of France representing the Greek mythological figure Icarus, in honour of Alberto Santos-Dumont. Inaugurated on October 19, 1913, it sits on a square near the old Aerostation of Saint-Cloud, where Santos-Dumont performed his experiments with heavier-than-air aircraft. Santos-Dumont was also responsible for the construction of the world's first hangar. A replica has occupied the hangar's site in Saint-Cloud since 1952 after the original was destroyed for its bronze during the Nazi military occupation.

Transport
Saint-Cloud is served by two stations on the Transilien La Défense and Paris-Saint-Lazare suburban rail lines: Le Val d'Or and Saint-Cloud.

The town is also served by tramway Line T2, which runs alongside the Seine.

Central Saint-Cloud, known as le village ("the village"), is also served by the Métro station Boulogne–Pont de Saint-Cloud (Line 10), just across the Seine on the Boulogne-Billancourt side of the Pont de Saint-Cloud.

Hospital

 * René Huguenin Hospital

Education

Public high schools: It is also served by the public high school Lycée Jean Pierre Vernant in Sèvres.
 * Lycée Alexandre-Dumas
 * Lycée Santos-Dumont

Private high schools:
 * Institution Saint-Pie-X

International schools:
 * American School of Paris
 * Internationale Deutsche Schule Paris (German school)

A campus of the Paris Nanterre University is also located in the city.

Notable births

 * Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (1674–1723), Regent of France from 1715 to 1723
 * Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans (1676–1744), Regent of Lorraine, lived at the Palace at Saint-Cloud
 * Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (1747–1793), a key figure during the early stages of the French Revolution;
 * Princess Marie Bonaparte (1882–1962), psychoanalyst, closely linked with Sigmund Freud
 * Gilbert Norman (1914–1944), Special Operations Executive member
 * Annick Gendron, painter
 * Nicole Courcel (1930–2016), film actress
 * Jean-Claude Killy (born 1943), alpine skier and a triple Olympic champion
 * Gérard Manset (born 1945), known as Manset, rock songwriter
 * Hervé Guibert (1955–1991), writer
 * Mino Cinelu (born 1957), musician
 * Alexandra Fusai (born 1973), former professional tennis player
 * Marie Silin (born 1979), member of parliament
 * Magalie Poisson (born 1982), Olympic rhythmic gymnast
 * Paul Lasne (born 1989), footballer
 * Ingmar Lazar (born 1993), classical pianist, prodigy

Notable residents

 * Henri III of France (1551–1589), King of France, assassinated in Saint-Cloud
 * Philippe d'Orléans (1640–1701) lived in the Château de Saint-Cloud from 1658 to his death in 1701
 * Henrietta of England (1644–1670) lived and died in the Château de Saint-Cloud
 * Napoléon I (1769–1821) lived in the Château de Saint-Cloud
 * Antoine Sénard (1800–1885), member of the National Assembly, mayor of Saint-Cloud from 1871 to 1874
 * Émile Verhaeren (1855–1916), Flemish poet
 * André Chevrillon (1864–1957), French author
 * Florent Schmitt (1870–1958), French composer
 * Maurice Ravel (1875–1937), French composer
 * Marcel Dassault (1892–1986), French businessman and politician
 * Alberto Santos-Dumont (1873–1932), Brazilian inventor and aviation pioneer
 * Lino Ventura (1919–1987), Italian actor, lived and died in Saint-Cloud
 * Jean-Pierre Fourcade (born 1929), French Minister, mayor of Saint-Cloud from 1971 to 1992
 * Christophe Dominici (1972–2020), rugby union player for France and Stade Français
 * Gérard Holtz (born 1946), French sports journalist
 * Jean-Marie Le Pen, French politician, owner of Domaine de Montretout in Saint-Cloud

Notable burials

 * Alimardan Topchubashov (1863–1934)
 * Edmond Blanc (1856–1920)
 * René Alexandre (1885–1946)
 * Maurice Bessy (1910–1993), author of A Pictorial History of Magic and The Supernatural (1963)
 * Gérard Blain (1930–2000)
 * Gilbert Grandval (1904–1981)
 * Fernand Gravey (1905–1970)
 * Jean-René Huguenin (1936–1962)
 * Dorothy Jordan (1761–1816)
 * Vlado Perlemuter (1904–2002)
 * Andrée Servilange (1911–2001)
 * Jean Toulout (1887–1962)
 * Maurice Yvain (1891–1965)

Twin towns – sister cities
Saint-Cloud is twinned with:

 * 🇩🇪 Bad Godesberg (Bonn), Germany
 * 🇪🇸 Boadilla del Monte, Spain
 * 🇮🇹 Frascati, Italy
 * 🇧🇪 Kortrijk, Belgium
 * 🇺🇸 St. Cloud, Florida, United States
 * 🇺🇸 St. Cloud, Minnesota, United States
 * Windsor and Maidenhead, England, United Kingdom

In popular culture
Saint-Cloud is the main setting of the 1955 French film Les Diaboliques (a.k.a. Diabolique).

title: Saint-Cloud


text:
Ethiopian Airlines Flight 961

Ethiopian Airlines Flight 961 was a scheduled international flight serving the route Addis Ababa–Nairobi–Brazzaville–Lagos–Abidjan. On 23 November 1996, the aircraft serving the flight, a Boeing 767-200ER, was hijacked en route from Addis Ababa to Nairobi by three Ethiopians seeking asylum in Australia. The plane crash-landed in the Indian Ocean near Grande Comore, Comoros Islands, due to fuel exhaustion; 125 of the 175 passengers and crew on board, including the three hijackers, died. This is the first recorded instance of a partially successful ditching utilizing a wide-body aircraft.

Aircraft
The aircraft involved in the crash was a Boeing 767-260ER, registration ET-AIZ, c/n 23916, that had its maiden flight on 17 September 1987. Powered by two Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7R4E engines, it was delivered new to Ethiopian Airlines on 22 October 1987. Except for a short period between May 1991 and February 1992 when it was leased to Air Tanzania, the airplane spent its life in the Ethiopian Airlines fleet. It was nine years old at the time the incident took place.

Crew
Captain Leul Abate (42), an experienced pilot with over 11,500 total flight hours (including 4,067 hours in the Boeing 757/767), was the pilot-in-command. The first officer on the flight was Yonas Mekuria (34). He had flown more than 6,500 hours, 3,042 of them in the Boeing 757/767.

Prior to the crash, Leul had experienced two previous hijackings. The first occurred 12 April 1992 on Flight ETH574, a Boeing 727-260. Two hijackers with hand grenades demanded to be taken to Nairobi and onwards to Canada. After a five-hour standoff at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport the hijackers surrendered. The second occurred on 17 March 1995, flying a Boeing 737-260. Five hijackers demanded to be taken to Libya, and the airplane was diverted to El Obeid, Sudan. There the hijackers changed their mind and wanted to fly to Sweden instead. However, the Sudanese authorities refused to refuel the aircraft, and after several hours of standoff the hijackers surrendered. In both cases, the aircraft were undamaged and no one was injured or killed.

Departure
The flight had been delayed in order to wait for a connecting flight. The aircraft took off at 08:09 UTC from Addis Ababa.

Hijacking
At about 08:29 UTC, when the aircraft, referred to as Zulu by Ethiopian Airlines' pilots after the last letter of its registration, was 20 minutes into the flight, three Ethiopian men charged the cockpit and hijacked the aircraft after taking an axe and a fire extinguisher from the cockpit. Ethiopian state-operated radio later identified the hijackers as two unemployed high-school graduates and a nurse; their names were Alemayehu Bekeli Belayneh, Mathias Solomon Belay, and Sultan Ali Hussein (they did not say who had which description).

The men threatened to blow up the plane in flight if the pilots did not obey their demands. The hijackers claimed that there were eleven of them when in fact there were only three. After assaulting and forcing first officer Yonas Mekuria into the cabin, they made an announcement. Over the intercom, they declared in Amharic, French and English that if anyone tried to interfere, they had a bomb and they would use it to blow up the plane. Authorities later determined that the purported bomb was actually a covered bottle of liquor.

The hijackers demanded the plane be flown to Australia. Leul tried to explain they had only taken on the fuel needed for the Addis Ababa to Nairobi sector and thus could not even make a quarter of the journey to Australia, but the hijackers did not believe him. One of them pointed to a statement in the fleet page of the airline's in-flight magazine that the maximum flying time of the 767 was 11 hours.

Leul later commented:

"[The hijackers] knew they wouldn't make it to Australia – they just wanted us to crash. They should be dead. The way they were talking they didn't want to live."

Instead of flying towards Australia, the captain followed the African coastline southward. The hijackers noticed that land was still visible and forced the pilot to steer east. Leul secretly headed for the Comoro Islands, which lie midway between Madagascar and the African mainland. During this time two of the hijackers went into the cabin, with the lead hijacker (as stated in the report) staying in the cockpit.

Crash landing
The plane was nearly out of fuel as it approached the island group, but the hijackers continued to ignore the captain's warnings. Out of options, Leul began to circle the area, hoping to land the plane at the Comoros' main airport. This forced Leul to land at more than 175 kn.

At 11:41 UTC, the right engine flamed out. The hijacker briefly exited the cabin to talk with the other hijackers. Leul took this opportunity to make use of the aircraft's public address system and made the following announcement:

"Ladies and gentlemen this is your pilot, we have run out of fuel and we are losing one engine [at] this time, and we are expecting [a] crash landing and that is all I have to say. We have lost already one engine, and I ask all passengers to react ... to the hijackers"

Hearing this, the lead hijacker returned to the cockpit and knocked Leul's microphone out of his hand. Shortly after this, the left engine flamed out, forcing the 767 to glide. The cockpit voice recorder (CVR) then recorded the following (lowercase words were spoken in Amharic while words typed in uppercase were spoken in English):

"Leul: 'For the sake of my responsibility AT LEAST the passengers must know the condition. Hijacker: 'Descend it increase the speed further.' Leul: 'It doesn't have any difference. PLEASE. All the same. We are going to die. Why don't you – I thought there is no need to. For the passengers – ' End of recording"

Leul's sentence was cut off as the CVR and flight data recorder (FDR) both stopped recording at this point due to both engines having flamed out.

Leul tried to make an emergency landing at Prince Said Ibrahim International Airport on Grande Comore, but a fight with the hijackers at the last minute caused him to lose his visual point of reference, leaving him unable to locate the airport. While still fighting with the hijackers, he tried to ditch the aircraft in shallow waters 500 yd off Le Galawa Beach Hotel, near Mitsamiouli at the northern end of Grande Comore island. Leul attempted to land parallel with the waves instead of against the waves in an effort to smooth the landing. Seconds prior to contacting the water, the aircraft was banked left some ten degrees; the left engine and wingtip struck the water first. The engine acted as a scoop and struck a coral reef, slowing that side of the aircraft quickly and causing the Boeing 767 to suddenly tilt left. The rest of the aircraft then entered the water unevenly, causing it to break apart. Except for the rear part of the airframe, the broken portions of the fuselage sank rapidly. Many passengers died because they prematurely inflated their life jackets in the cabin, causing them to be trapped inside by the sinking plane.

Island residents and tourists, including a group of scuba divers and some French and Indian doctors on vacation, came to the aid of crash survivors. A tourist recorded a video of ET-AIZ crashing. She said that she had begun taping because she initially believed that the 767 formed a part of an air show for tourists.

Medical treatment and repatriation of bodies
Survivors were initially taken to Mitsamiouli Hospital. The crash site was less than 2 km away from this hospital. The passengers were transferred to El-Maarouf Regional Hospital Centre (Centre Hospitalier National El Maarouf) in Moroni the same day. The two French people who survived and 19 injured were transported to Réunion. In Réunion, one of the injured died, making the death toll 125. Excluding those transported to Réunion, survivors were transported to Kenya and South Africa.

At the time, there was no mortuary in Moroni, so cold rooms were used to store 124 bodies.

Investigation
On 3 December 1996, the General Directorate of Civil Aviation of the Comoros (Direction Générale de l'Aviation Civile des Comores) agreed to delegate the investigation of ET961 to the Ethiopian Civil Aviation Authority (ECAA). The Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB) analysed the flight recorders.

Fate of the passengers and crew
The final accident report includes a listing of surviving and dead passengers and crew. All 12 crew members were Ethiopians. Six survived, including the captain.

The passengers originated from 36 countries.

The passenger manifest (including hijackers but not crew members) follows:

The dead passenger count includes the three hijackers. Of the passengers, 42 originated in Bombay, including:
 * 3 Americans
 * 9 Nigerians
 * 9 Sri Lankans
 * 19 Indians

The rest of the passengers originated in Addis Ababa.

Of the 175 passengers and crew members, 125 were killed, including the three hijackers. According to the accident report, all six surviving crew members and 38 passengers received serious injuries, two passengers received minor injuries, and four passengers received no injuries. One passenger, an Ethiopian, was identified as a child on the manifest; this passenger was among the dead.

Many of the passengers survived the initial crash, but they had disregarded, did not understand, or did not hear Leul's warning not to inflate their life jackets inside the aircraft, causing them to be pushed against the ceiling of the fuselage by the inflated life jackets when water flooded in. Unable to escape, they drowned. An estimated 60 to 80 passengers, strapped to their seats, presumably drowned.

Leul and Yonas both survived. For his actions, Leul was awarded the Flight Safety Foundation Professionalism in Flight Safety Award.

Notable passengers
Among those killed was Mohamed Amin, a wartime photojournalist and publisher of Selamta, Ethiopian Airlines' in-flight magazine. He was believed to be standing near the entrance to the cockpit arguing or negotiating with the hijacker presumed to be guarding the cockpit during the final moments of the flight.

Franklin Huddle, the U.S. Consul General of Bombay at the time, and his wife both survived the crash. Huddle said that he chose to fly on Ethiopian Airlines while planning a safari trip to Kenya because of the airline's reputation; it was one of the few airlines in Africa to have Federal Aviation Administration certification. Huddle wanted a flight during the day, reasoning that flying during the day was "safer". He credits his and his wife's survival to a last-minute upgrade to business class.

Aftermath
A memorial service was held in Galawa on 30 November 1996.

The incident has become a well-known hijacking because of the videotape. This was one of very few large airliner water landings, and was the first hijacked water landing. Both the captain and first officer of the flight received aviation awards, and both continued to fly for Ethiopian Airlines, although Leul considers Yonas, the first officer, the real hero. Yonas fought the hijackers while he himself was bruised and bleeding, giving time for Leul to land the airplane. "He was a life-saver", Leul said.

In the media
The crash was featured in an episode of the TV show Mayday with the title "Ocean Landing"; the episode is from season 3, episode 12.

It was also featured in a 2010 episode of the Biography Channel series I Survived..., in which a survivor told his story of what happened on the plane.

title: Ethiopian Airlines Flight 961


text:
General position

In algebraic geometry and computational geometry, general position is a notion of genericity for a set of points, or other geometric objects. It means the general case situation, as opposed to some more special or coincidental cases that are possible, which is referred to as special position. Its precise meaning differs in different settings.

For example, generically, two lines in the plane intersect in a single point (they are not parallel or coincident). One also says "two generic lines intersect in a point", which is formalized by the notion of a generic point. Similarly, three generic points in the plane are not collinear; if three points are collinear (even stronger, if two coincide), this is a degenerate case.

This notion is important in mathematics and its applications, because degenerate cases may require an exceptional treatment; for example, when stating general theorems or giving precise statements thereof, and when writing computer programs (see generic complexity).

General linear position
A set of points in a $d$-dimensional affine space ($d$-dimensional Euclidean space is a common example) is in general linear position (or just general position) if no $k$ of them lie in a $(k − 2)$-dimensional flat for $k = 2, 3, ..., d + 1$. These conditions contain considerable redundancy since, if the condition holds for some value $k_{0}$ then it also must hold for all $k$ with $2 ≤ k ≤ k_{0}$. Thus, for a set containing at least $d + 1$ points in $d$-dimensional affine space to be in general position, it suffices that no hyperplane contains more than $d$ points – i.e. the points do not satisfy any more linear relations than they must.

A set of at most $d + 1$ points in general linear position is also said to be affinely independent (this is the affine analog of linear independence of vectors, or more precisely of maximal rank), and $d + 1$ points in general linear position in affine d-space are an affine basis. See affine transformation for more.

Similarly, n vectors in an n-dimensional vector space are linearly independent if and only if the points they define in projective space (of dimension $n − 1$) are in general linear position.

If a set of points is not in general linear position, it is called a degenerate case or degenerate configuration, which implies that they satisfy a linear relation that need not always hold.

A fundamental application is that, in the plane, five points determine a conic, as long as the points are in general linear position (no three are collinear).

More generally
This definition can be generalized further: one may speak of points in general position with respect to a fixed class of algebraic relations (e.g. conic sections). In algebraic geometry this kind of condition is frequently encountered, in that points should impose independent conditions on curves passing through them.

For example, five points determine a conic, but in general six points do not lie on a conic, so being in general position with respect to conics requires that no six points lie on a conic.

General position is preserved under biregular maps – if image points satisfy a relation, then under a biregular map this relation may be pulled back to the original points. Significantly, the Veronese map is biregular; as points under the Veronese map corresponds to evaluating a degree d polynomial at that point, this formalizes the notion that points in general position impose independent linear conditions on varieties passing through them.

The basic condition for general position is that points do not fall on subvarieties of lower degree than necessary; in the plane two points should not be coincident, three points should not fall on a line, six points should not fall on a conic, ten points should not fall on a cubic, and likewise for higher degree.

This is not sufficient, however. While nine points determine a cubic, there are configurations of nine points that are special with respect to cubics, namely the intersection of two cubics. The intersection of two cubics, which is $$3 \times 3 = 9$$ points (by Bézout's theorem), is special in that nine points in general position are contained in a unique cubic, while if they are contained in two cubics they in fact are contained in a pencil (1-parameter linear system) of cubics, whose equations are the projective linear combinations of the equations for the two cubics. Thus such sets of points impose one fewer condition on cubics containing them than expected, and accordingly satisfy an additional constraint, namely the Cayley–Bacharach theorem that any cubic that contains eight of the points necessarily contains the ninth. Analogous statements hold for higher degree.

For points in the plane or on an algebraic curve, the notion of general position is made algebraically precise by the notion of a regular divisor, and is measured by the vanishing of the higher sheaf cohomology groups of the associated line bundle (formally, invertible sheaf). As the terminology reflects, this is significantly more technical than the intuitive geometric picture, similar to how a formal definition of intersection number requires sophisticated algebra. This definition generalizes in higher dimensions to hypersurfaces (codimension 1 subvarieties), rather than to sets of points, and regular divisors are contrasted with superabundant divisors, as discussed in the Riemann–Roch theorem for surfaces.

Note that not all points in general position are projectively equivalent, which is a much stronger condition; for example, any k distinct points in the line are in general position, but projective transformations are only 3-transitive, with the invariant of 4 points being the cross ratio.

Different geometries
Different geometries allow different notions of geometric constraints. For example, a circle is a concept that makes sense in Euclidean geometry, but not in affine linear geometry or projective geometry, where circles cannot be distinguished from ellipses, since one may squeeze a circle to an ellipse. Similarly, a parabola is a concept in affine geometry but not in projective geometry, where a parabola is simply a kind of conic. The geometry that is overwhelmingly used in algebraic geometry is projective geometry, with affine geometry finding significant but far less use.

Thus, in Euclidean geometry three non-collinear points determine a circle (as the circumcircle of the triangle they define), but four points in general do not (they do so only for cyclic quadrilaterals), so the notion of "general position with respect to circles", namely "no four points lie on a circle" makes sense. In projective geometry, by contrast, circles are not distinct from conics, and five points determine a conic, so there is no projective notion of "general position with respect to circles".

General type
General position is a property of configurations of points, or more generally other subvarieties (lines in general position, so no three concurrent, and the like). General position is an extrinsic notion, which depends on an embedding as a subvariety. Informally, subvarieties are in general position if they cannot be described more simply than others. An intrinsic analog of general position is general type, and corresponds to a variety which cannot be described by simpler polynomial equations than others. This is formalized by the notion of Kodaira dimension of a variety, and by this measure projective spaces are the most special varieties, though there are other equally special ones, meaning having negative Kodaira dimension. For algebraic curves, the resulting classification is: projective line, torus, higher genus surfaces ($$g \geq 2$$), and similar classifications occur in higher dimensions, notably the Enriques–Kodaira classification of algebraic surfaces.

Other contexts
In intersection theory, both in algebraic geometry and in geometric topology, the analogous notion of transversality is used: subvarieties in general intersect transversally, meaning with multiplicity 1, rather than being tangent or other, higher order intersections.

General position for Delaunay triangulations in the plane
When discussing Voronoi tessellations and Delaunay triangulations in the plane, a set of points in the plane is said to be in general position only if no four of them lie on the same circle and no three of them are collinear. The usual lifting transform that relates the Delaunay triangulation to the bottom half of a convex hull (i.e., giving each point p an extra coordinate equal to |p|2) shows the connection to the planar view: Four points lie on a circle or three of them are collinear exactly when their lifted counterparts are not in general linear position.

Abstractly: configuration spaces
In very abstract terms, general position is a discussion of generic properties of a configuration space; in this context one means properties that hold on the generic point of a configuration space, or equivalently on a Zariski-open set.

This notion coincides with the measure theoretic notion of generic, meaning almost everywhere on the configuration space, or equivalently that points chosen at random will almost surely (with probability 1) be in general position.

title: General position


text:
Talk:Thomas Gray

Fishy edit
64.250.194.65 introduced quite confusing Clinton Hamner name and date of birth as 1991 ... can we get revert?

I pondered the words "is considered as the representative poem of its age" and could not work out what they would mean...
 * poem best representing life in the 18th century?
 * poem best representing poetry of the 18th century?
 * most important 18th century poem in the representative style?

As best is a POV term anyway, and the passive verb gives no attribution for the opinion, I decided to remove this language. Anybody want to rephrase more clearly? EdH 18:26, 30 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Elegy
Should we go into any more detail on the Elegy...or maybe offer it its own article? I'm inclined to think that at least some mention of notable phrases from the poem would be wise--"mute inglorious Milton", at least, is common enough that a search for that phrase on Google (with "-elegy" to remove most discussions of the phrase in its poetic context) provides several thousand hits. I'm not well up on Gray's writing, and I haven't read the poem in years, but if others think it would be a worthwhile addition I would pull something together. Jwrosenzweig 23:15, 12 July 2005 (UTC)

-I think we should definitely give it it's own article with some commentary and its legacy. --131.93.88.34 (talk) 21:06, 11 December 2007 (UTC)

Collection of Works
Should we have a collection of works, or at least a list of his more popular works?

RWBronco 14:03, 27 July 2007 (UTC)

Elegy and Collection of Works
I vote for a separate article on the Elegy (with some details about it in this article) and the inclusion of a listing of Gray's works in this article. I also think it needs to be organized with headlines such as Personal Life, Academic Career, The Letters (describing the importance of Gray's letters to the history of the period), The Elegy, Other Major Works, etc. Aside from making the article more accessible, organizing it thus would encourage contributions to flesh it out more. McCune (talk) 21:01, 17 January 2008 (UTC)

Engraving Based on Gray's "Ode on a Spring"
If anyone would be interested, I just finished putting together a page on "The Hours", an engraving by Francesco Bartolozzi, after a work by Maria Cosway which was based on Thomas Gray's "Ode on a Spring".

I did not add this to the Thomas Gray page because I didn't see a clear place to put it, and therefore wasn't very comfortable editing your work.

By the way, could I suggest that you give the last section a title other than "Death"? I read that and burst out laughing. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Mrs rockefeller (talk • contribs) 20:42, 14 March 2008 (UTC)

Aj Cadiz WTF?

whose been monkeying around? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.77.168.184 (talk) 19:45, 8 September 2008 (UTC)

Early Life section in need of expert attention
I am a new editor and not a Gray expert, but I found some very unprofessional wording in this section. I removed the worst of it (a reference to Gray's uncle as "drugged up" and the last sentence ending with "and yeah" for example), but someone knowledgeable about Gray's life needs to fact-check this section to make it a more reliable reference. Gwenhyfara (talk) 16:06, 29 October 2008 (UTC)

I cut out the whole first paragraph and reverted to about six edits ago. Which at least looks plausible. It looks as if the entry was being used to carry some personal insults about someone in Australia. But someone who knows more about the subject ought to check the whole article.

KenBrown (talk) 12:53, 4 November 2008 (UTC)

"The Churchyard Poets"
I have deleted some bogus info on this non-existent or "virtual" entity. According to my research "The Churchyard Poets" are only known through internet mirrors of a defunct, bogus, wikipedia entry, and seem to have no other existence than this...There WAS a group called the Graveyard Poets but these were writing poetry a long time before Gray's Elegy. The first poem of the Graveyard school was Thomas Parnell's A Night-Piece on Death from 1721 when Gray was five years old... Colin4C (talk) 11:43, 4 February 2009 (UTC)

Westminster Abbey?
Poets Corner includes Gray as having a memorial, but none is mentioned here. Martinevans123 (talk) 13:14, 16 March 2010 (UTC)

Opening one of his veins

 * Gray's mother once saved his life by opening one of his veins with her hands.

There's a citation, but nothing online so it's not so easy to check. Could someone follow up on this? I can't think of any situations where "opening one of his veins" is a recognized lifesaving treatment. --Trovatore (talk) 18:56, 8 February 2016 (UTC)
 * Hmm, so actually I'm wrong about "nothing online" — the cite has a link to an article at bartleby.com. But unfortunately the source is no more enlightening than the text in question.  Here's what it says:
 * Thomas Gray was the fifth and only surviving child of this marriage; the rest, to the number of seven, died in infancy; and his own life was saved by the prompt courage of his mother, who opened one of his veins with her own hand.
 * That's it. Nothing about what medical condition would have induced her to do this strange thing, or in what way it was supposed to help.  I don't think we can rely on this claim without further explanation, even if the source is considered generally reliable for non-medical claims.  I'm going to comment out the claim, but leave the reference for the claim about Gray's father. --Trovatore (talk) 10:55, 9 February 2016 (UTC)

Thomas Gray
Gray is such an immortal soul in English Literature that on his part gave a distinguished Linguistic purity to English Literature.His exact imagery, solemn meditation and authorised diction have made him an unparallel voice of true of feelings. Birbal Kumawat (talk) 08:34, 18 December 2017 (UTC)

Quote?
...often afraid of the shadows of his own fame
 * If this is a quotation, it should carry quote-marks. Otherwise I think it's not encyclopedic. Valetude (talk) 14:05, 12 February 2018 (UTC)

Scholarship
I believe he knew Welsh and Icelandic, as well as Latin and Greek, and probably French and Italian too. Can anyone confirm? Esedowns (talk) 00:44, 15 November 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Thomas Gray


text:
Talk:List of Scottish writers

[Untitled]
This page duplicates part of List of Scots. I suggest that the writers be removed from the other page and a link made to this one. Dduck 18:27, 30 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Prettify
Could we not make this list a bit more impressive? It is rather bare, boring and uninformative at present.

If we made it into a nice table format, with a column for Dates, Genre(s), Key works, and Notes, etc. then I think that the reader would find it a lot more useful.

See Featured lists for the benchmarks. --Mais oui! 09:49, 23 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Not sure about this - tables are more useful where the contents are known and limited. Using a table could discourage people from making additions - and the aim should be to make the list as complete as possible. I would suggest adding information to existing names - that would encourage anyone adding names to be more expansive. Robina Fox 10:47, 27 April 2007 (UTC)

Tony Hughes
I'm not sure who this Tony Hughes is, but when I click on it, it leads to Jeffrey Dahmer, who is an American serial killer. Am I missing something here? Tony Hughes may need to be fixed or deleted, depending on who he is ... VictoryClassWoman 21:47, 13 June 2007 (UTC)

List of no-pagers
These are red-linked Scottish writers awaiting identification or the writing of a Wikipedia page before being returned to the main list.
 * NPWilliam Brown Galloway (1811–1903), scholar, theologian and writer on science and the Bible
 * NPStewart Gemmill (b. 1963), novelist, The Treasures of Drumory
 * NPA. J. Hughes (b. 1971), novelist
 * NPAndrew J. Keir novelist
 * NPAlanna Knight, crime writer
 * NPDouglas Lindsay (b. 1964)
 * NPKenneth McGuigan, Marxist theory, history
 * NPMartainn Mac an t-Saoir, novelist (in Gaelic)
 * NPGordon MacLeod (b. 1967), novelist
 * NPKenneth McKay, thriller writer
 * NPChris McKenna, novelist and story writer
 * NPMarilyn Reid (awa Marilyn Cameron, b. 1954), writer and playwright
 * NPNeal Sillars (b. 1968), novelist
 * NPChancery Stone (b. 1956), novelist, Danny
 * NPStephanie Taylor (b. 1975), writer, The Device, the Devil and Me
 * NPSimon Varwell (b. 1978), travel and humorous writer
 * NPPatrick Vickery (b. 1959), garden writer

Why this definition of "Scottish"?
A list of Scottish writers which excludes J K Rowling??

As a Scot born and brought up in England, I don't like the phrase "Those on the list were born and/or brought up in Scotland."

What's the rationale for that? She lives in Scotland, has for 20 years, and when she moved to Scotland she had the first three chapters of HP in her pocket, so the other many chapters were written in Scotland. If the referendum had passed she would have been an automatic Scottish citizen on day 1. Her writing haunts are minor tourist attractions in Edinburgh.

Let's remove that text and make it what it says on the tin - a page of Scottish writers. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.159.116.225 (talk) 18:38, 7 June 2015 (UTC)

I disagree. You'll find her on the List of English writers, which uses similar definitions. It seems like a good working distinction between English, Scottish, Welsh, Northern Irish etc. writers. I think overlap between these pages should be avoided if possible. Bmcln1 (talk) 21:50, 7 June 2015 (UTC)

I don't have a problem describing Rowling as an English writer as well, but why should these lists be separate? Why can't somebody be both a Scottish and and English writer? I don't see what benefit to anyone there is in NOT having somebody on both lists if it is reasonable to call them. And if there is some rationale for having the lists separate, why is "born and brought up" the key issue? (original commenter here, not signed in). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.186.146.142 (talk) 20:04, 11 June 2015 (UTC)

Page name error
Seems to me that this page should be called Scottish authors. A "Writer" in Scotland is a solicitor. 86.170.247.107 (talk) 16:18, 6 July 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of Scottish writers


text:
Town hall

In local government, a city hall, town hall, civic centre (in the UK or Australia), guildhall, or municipal building (in the Philippines) is the chief administrative building of a city, town, or other municipality. It usually houses the city or town council, its associated departments, and their employees. It also usually functions as the base of the mayor of a city, town, borough, county or shire, and of the executive arm of the municipality (if one exists distinctly from the council).

By convention, until the middle of the 19th century, a single large open chamber (or "hall") formed an integral part of the building housing the council. The hall may be used for council meetings and other significant events. This large chamber, the "town hall" (and its later variant "city hall") has become synonymous with the whole building, and with the administrative body housed in it. The terms "council chambers", "municipal building" or variants may be used locally in preference to "town hall" if no such large hall is present within the building.

The local government may endeavor to use the building to promote and enhance the quality of life of the community. In many cases, "town halls" serve not only as buildings for government functions, but also have facilities for various civic and cultural activities. These may include art shows, stage performances, exhibits, and festivals. Modern town halls or "civic centres" are often designed with a great variety and flexibility of purpose in mind. In some European countries, the town hall is the venue for the declaration of Christmas Peace, such as Turku and Porvoo in Finland and Tartu in Estonia.

As symbols of local government, city, and town halls have distinctive architecture, and the buildings may have great historical significance – for example the Guildhall, London. City hall buildings may also serve as cultural icons that symbolize their cities.

Nomenclature
In Commonwealth countries, the term "town hall" may be used even in a city. This is often the case in the United Kingdom (examples being Manchester Town Hall and Liverpool Town Hall), Australia (Sydney Town Hall), New Zealand, and elsewhere.

People in some regions use the term "city hall" to designate the council offices of a municipality of city status. This is the case in North America, where a distinction is made between city halls and town halls. The term is also sometimes (but more rarely) used as a name in Commonwealth countries: for example, for the City Halls of Brisbane in Australia, and of Cardiff, Norwich and Bristol in the UK. City Hall in Dublin, Ireland, is another example. City Hall in London, opened in 2002, is an exceptional case, being the seat not of a conventional municipal authority, but of a regional strategic authority.

The Oxford English Dictionary sums up the generic terms:

 * town hall: "A building used for the administration of local government, the holding of court sessions, public meetings, entertainments, etc.; (in early use also) a large hall used for such purposes within a larger building or set of buildings. ... By metonymy: the government or administration of a town; the town authorities."
 * city hall: "(The name of) the chief administrative building or offices of a municipal government. ... Originally and chiefly North American. Municipal officers collectively; city government."

County Council administrations in parts of England and Wales generally operate from a base in a building called, by analogy, a "county hall" or "shire hall". Conversely, cities that have subdivisions with their councils may have borough halls. Scottish local government in larger cities operates from the "City Chambers", otherwise the "Town House".

Other names are occasionally used. The administrative headquarters of the City of London retains its Anglo-Saxon name, the Guildhall, signifying a place where taxes were paid. In a few English cities (including Birmingham, Coventry and Nottingham) the preferred term is "Council House": this was also true in Bristol until 2012, when the building was renamed "City Hall". In Birmingham, there is a distinction between the Council House and the Town Hall, a concert and meeting venue that pre-dates it. In Sheffield, the distinction is between the Town Hall, the seat of local government, and the City Hall, a concert and ballroom venue. In Leeds, the Town Hall, built in the 1850s as a seat of local government, now functions primarily as a concert, conference, and wedding venue, many of its municipal functions having moved in 1933 to the new Civic Hall.

History
Large halls called basilicas were used in ancient Rome for the administration of justice, as meeting places, and for trade.

In the Early Middle Ages, the great hall, a single large open chamber, was the main, and sometimes only room of the home of a feudal lord. There the lord lived with his family and retinue, ate, slept, and administered rule and justice. Activities in the hall played an essential role in the functioning of the feudal manor, the administrative unit of society. As manorial dwellings developed into manor houses, castles, and palaces, the great hall remained an essential unit within the architectural complex.

In the later Middle Ages or early modern period, many European market towns erected communal market halls, comprising a covered space to function as a marketplace at street level, and one or more rooms used for public or civic purposes above it. These buildings were frequently the precursors of dedicated town halls.

The modern concept of the town hall developed with the rise of local or regional government. Cities administered by a group of elected or chosen representatives, rather than by a lord or princely ruler, required a place for them to meet. Palazzo Senatorio, seat of the municipality of Rome, has been a town hall since AD 1144, making it the oldest town hall in the world. The Cologne City Hall of 1135 is a prominent example of the municipal autonomy of medieval cities. The Palazzo Pubblico of the Republic of Siena and the Palazzo Vecchio of the Republic of Florence, both town halls, date from 1297 and 1299 respectively. In each case, the large, fortified building comprises a large meeting hall and numerous administrative chambers. Both buildings are topped by very tall towers, have ancient clocks by which the townsfolk can regulate their lives, and have storerooms for muniments. These features became standard for town halls across Europe. The 15th-century Brussels Town Hall, with its 96 m tower, is one of the grandest examples of the medieval era, serving as a model for 19th-century town halls such as the Rathaus, Vienna.

During the 19th century, town halls often included reading rooms to provide free education to the public, and it later became customary for the council to establish and maintain a public library. The grand chamber or meeting place, the "town hall" itself, became a place for receptions, banquets, balls, and public entertainment. Town halls were often equipped with large pipe organs to facilitate public recitals.

In the 20th century, town halls served the public as places for voting, examinations, vaccinations, relief in times of disaster, and for posting lists of war casualties, as well as for the more usual civil functions, festivities, and entertainments. Local councils have increasingly tended to move administrative functions into modern offices. Where new premises are designed and constructed to house local governments, the functions of an administrative office and a civic town hall have become separated.

Language
Particularly in North America, "city hall" can be used as a metonym to mean municipal government, or government in general, as in the axiom "You can't fight city hall". "Town hall" tends to have less formal connotations (cf. Town meeting).

title: Town hall


text:
London Biggin Hill Airport

London Biggin Hill Airport is a minor commercial airport serving Biggin Hill in the London Borough of Bromley, located 12 NM south-southeast of Central London. It specialises in general aviation, handling a spectrum of traffic from private aviation to large business jets. It currently has no scheduled airline service, as flights using the airport are not regularly permitted to carry fare-paying passengers.

The airport was formerly a Royal Air Force station RAF Biggin Hill, and a small enclave on the airport still retains that designation. Biggin Hill is best known for its role during the Battle of Britain in the Second World War, when it served as one of the principal fighter bases protecting London and South East England from attack by German Luftwaffe bombers. Over the course of the war, fighters based at Biggin Hill claimed 1,400 enemy aircraft, at the cost of the lives of 453 Biggin Hill based aircrew.

The airport has a CAA Ordinary Licence (Number P804) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction as authorised by the licensee (Regional Airports Limited).

First World War
The airfield was originally opened by the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) during the First World War. Koonowla House was requisitioned by the War Office in 1916 for the RFC to conduct wireless experiments. Then on 13 February 1917 the RFC transferred there (from their long-time HQ at RAF Joyce Green, at Long Reach near Dartford), and established it as part of the London Air Defence Area, using the adjacent Cudham Lodge estate, which contained a huge undivided field ideal for aircraft. The same year Lord Stanhope's Aperfield Court and grounds, some 2 mi from the station, were requisitioned for use as a radio transmitter and fighter ground control station. The station was responsible for defending the capital against attacks by Zeppelins and Gotha bombers. To this end, 141 Squadron of the RFC was based at Biggin Hill and equipped with Bristol Fighters.

Shortly after the war, on 7 January 1919, around 700 RAF technical staff mutinied. Their grievances included poor food and living conditions, with one complaint being that they only had eight washbasins between them. The mutiny was ended by the intervention of sympathetic officers.

Apperfield Court was demolished in 1920 and the aerodrome extended onto its grounds. Between the wars, the airfield was used by a number of experimental units, working on instrument design, ground-based anti-aircraft defences, and night flying. The base was closed between 1929 and 1932, during which period reconstruction work took place including the building of new hangars.

Second World War
During the Second World War the airfield was one of the commanding bases for No. 11 Group RAF, RAF Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain, with both Supermarine Spitfires and Hawker Hurricanes from a variety of squadrons being based there. The squadrons based at Biggin Hill claimed to have destroyed 1,400 enemy aircraft, at the cost of the lives of 453 Biggin Hill-based aircrew. Due to its importance to the defence of London, the airfield itself became a target. Between August 1940 and January 1941, the airfield was attacked twelve times, the worst of which wrecked workshops, stores, barracks, WAAF quarters and a hangar, killing 39 people on the ground.

During the war Biggin Hill was also used by RAF Balloon Command.

Post war
After the war, Biggin Hill was briefly used by RAF Transport Command, and then became a base for both regular and reserve fighter squadrons, flying Spitfires, Meteors and Hunters. A fatal incident involving the loss of three Meteors on 18 June 1951 (see incidents and accidents below) caused the station's continued use by the military to be called into question. However, in 1958 Biggin Hill ceased to be an operational RAF station, becoming the Officer and Aircrew Selection Centre for the RAF. Due to the impending closure of the nearby original London Airport at Croydon, from 1956 much of the civilian light aviation from Croydon relocated to Biggin and it became a joint civilian and military airport. Croydon closed completely in 1959, at which time Biggin Hill became a mainly civilian airport with only occasional military flying taking place.

RAF units at Biggin Hill
The following units were at Biggin Hill at some time: • No. 1 Squadron RAF

• No. 3 Squadron RAF

• No. 19 Squadron RAF

• No. 23 Squadron RAF

• No. 32 Squadron RAF

• No. 37 Squadron RAF

• No. 39 Squadron RAF

• No. 41 Squadron RAF

• No. 56 Squadron RAF

• No. 64 Squadron RAF

• No. 66 Squadron RAF

• No. 72 Squadron RAF

• No. 74 Squadron RAF

• No. 78 Squadron RAF

• No. 79 Squadron RAF

• No. 91 Squadron RAF

• No. 92 Squadron RAF

• No. 124 Squadron RAF

• No. 133 Squadron RAF

• No. 154 Squadron RAF

• No. 213 Squadron RAF

• No. 222 Squadron RAF

• No. 229 Squadron RAF

• No. 242 Squadron RAF

• No. 264 Squadron RAF

• No. 287 Squadron RAF

• No. 322 (Dutch) Squadron RAF

• No. 340 (Free French) Squadron RAF

• No. 341 (G.C.III/2 'Alsace') Squadron

• No. 345 Squadron RAF

• No. 401 Squadron RCAF

• No. 411 Squadron RCAF

• No. 412 Squadron RCAF

• No. 436 Squadron RCAF

• No. 485 Squadron RNZAF

• No. 600 Squadron RAF

• No. 601 Squadron RAF

• No. 602 Squadron RAF

• No. 609 Squadron RAF

• No. 610 Squadron RAF

• No. 611 Squadron RAF

• No. 615 Squadron RAF

• 802 Naval Air Squadron

• 807 Naval Air Squadron

• 819 Naval Air Squadron

• No. 945/947 (Balloon) Squadron

• No. 951 (Balloon) Squadron

• No. 953 (Balloon) Squadron

• No. 958 (Balloon) Squadron • No. 1 Anti-Aircraft Co-operation Unit RAF (1 AACU) (February – May 1937 & September 1937 – April 1938)
 * Units:

• 'C' Flight of 1 AACU (March – May 1937)

• 'D' Flight of 1 AACU (September 1937 – April 1938)

• 'H' Flight of 1 AACU (April – September 1939)

• No. 1 Air Experience Flight RAF (September 1958 – February 1959)

• No. 1 Fighter Command Servicing Unit

• No. 2 Fighter Command Servicing Unit

• No. 5 (Home Defence) Wing RAF (April 1923 - April 1924)

• No. 6 Radio Maintenance Unit (July - August 1940)

• No. 6 Radio Servicing Section (September 1940 - February 1941)

• No. 8 Fighter Command Servicing Unit

• No. 61 Group Communication Flight RAF (March 1958 - January 1959)

• No. 126 Airfield RAF (October 1943 - April 1944)

• No. 141 (Fighter) Wing RAF (October - November 1944)

• No. 162 Gliding School RAF (June 1949 - August 1950)

• No. 403 Repair & Salvage Unit (October - September 1943)

• No. 405 Repair & Salvage Unit (November 1943 - January 1944)

• No. 410 Repair & Salvage Unit (January - April 1944)

• No. 421 (Reconnaissance) Flight RAF (November 1940)

• No. 2705 Squadron RAF Regiment

• No. 2709 Squadron RAF Regiment

• No. 2745 Squadron RAF Regiment

• No. 2767 Squadron RAF Regiment

• No. 2803 Squadron RAF Regiment

• No. 2824 Squadron RAF Regiment

• No. 2847 Squadron RAF Regiment

• Aircrew Selection Centre RAF (April 1962)

• Anti-Aircraft Co-operation Flight RAF (October 1931 - April 1936) became Anti-Aircraft Co-operation Unit RAF (April 1936 - February 1937)

• Ground Officers Selection Centre RAF (April 1962)

• Historic Aircraft Flight RAF (July 1957 - February 1958) became Battle of Britain Flight RAF (February 1958)

• Instrument Design Establishment RAF (November 1919 - March 1920) became Instrument Design Establishment (Home) RAF (March 1920 - April 1922)

• London University Air Squadron (October 1946 - December 1947)

• Detachment from Metropolitan Sector HQ RAF (1946 - 47)

• Navigation Flight RAF (March - April 1920)

• Night Flying Flight RAF (July 1923 - October 1931)

• Officer and Aircrew Selection Centre (April 1962 - September 1992)

• South Eastern Sector HQ RAF (November 1945 - June 1946)

• University of London Air Squadron (April 1957 - February 1959)

• Wireless Telephony School RAF (April 1918)

• Wireless Testing Park RAF (January - December 1917) became Wireless Experimental Establishment RAF (December 1917 - April 1918) became W/T Establishment RAF (April 1918 - November 1919)

Civilian airport
Towards the end of 1963, the Orpington Urban District Council (within whose boundaries the airfield lay) was approached by the Board of Trade as to whether the Council would purchase (effectively from the RAF) Biggin Hill airfield. In 1964, on formation of the London Borough of Bromley, which absorbed Orpington, the offer to purchase was open to the new borough. Protracted negotiations were held with the Board of Trade and later the Department of Trade and Industry. At a special meeting on 15 June 1972 the Council decided to purchase the airport by a recorded vote of 41 to 9. The purchase was eventually completed in 1974. RAF Biggin Hill was awarded the Freedom of the Borough of Bromley on 5 October 1980.

In May 1992 the Department of Transport issued a direction to the Council under s.13 of the Airports Act 1986. The effect of this direction, which affected airports generating turnover of £1 million or more (Biggin Hill just scraped into this limit), was to require the Council to set up a new company for the purpose of operating the airport as an independent commercial undertaking. To comply with the direction would have required the transfer of all the assets and liabilities to the company with a consequential loss of council control over airport activities. In the circumstances, the council decided that the granting of a 125-year lease would enable more control to be retained than an outright disposal of the freehold or by a transfer to a local authority company with an uncertain future. In May 1994, the airport was leased to Biggin Hill Airport Limited ("BHAL"), now a subsidiary of Regional Airports Limited, for 125 years.

Meanwhile, the Officer and Aircrew Selection Centre moved to RAF Cranwell in 1992, marking the end of active RAF involvement.

In 2001, the London Borough of Bromley as freeholder of the airport succeeded in an action in the Court of Appeal. The court ruling prohibits the airport operators from allowing tickets to be sold for flights into and out of the airport, thus preventing its use for scheduled or holiday charter flights, but allowing business aviation and corporate shuttles.

In May 2017 runway 29/11 was permanently withdrawn from use.

Description
The airport is located on a hilltop, just to the east of the Bromley to Westerham road (A233) and about 1 mi to the north of the town of Biggin Hill in the London Borough of Bromley. It is in a rural area to the south-east of Greater London, outside of the Greater London Built-up Area. The small village of Leaves Green lies adjacent to the north-western perimeter of the airport.

The airport has one runway (03/21, so close to northeast by north/southwest by west) 1,820 metres in length, making it usable by aircraft up to Boeing 737/Airbus A320 size, and it has an Instrument Landing System. Radar air traffic control (ATC) services are provided by Thames Radar at the London Terminal Control Centre, while procedural approach and VFR ATC services are provided by the airport itself.

Despite the ban on scheduled services, Biggin Hill is used by a large number of business flights by business jets and similar sized aircraft. The airport has a passenger terminal, located on the A233 road just south of Leaves Green, which provides facilities for such flights, including departure lounges, a licensed café bar, and customs and immigration facilities.

The current RAF Biggin Hill is a small enclave on the western boundary of the airport to the south of the passenger terminal, and contains the headquarters of 2427 Squadron of the Air Training Corps. Next to this is St George's Chapel of Remembrance. This brick built chapel was erected in 1951, to replace an earlier chapel destroyed by fire, and now serves as a memorial to all the aircrew who died flying from the Biggin Hill Sector. It is surrounded by a garden of remembrance and has gate guardians in the form of full-sized replicas of a Hurricane and a Spitfire, representing the aircraft that flew from the former airfield during the Battle of Britain. The replicas replaced genuine aircraft that formerly served as the guardians. Air Marshal Hugh Dowding laid the foundation stone. The chapel was taken out of the RAF's control in 2015, and is now run by Biggin Hill Airport.

Besides the passenger terminal and RAF enclave, other former RAF buildings still exist in the 'North Camp' to the west of the main runway, including the Sergeant's Mess of 1932, the Airmen's Institute of circa 1926, the former Station Headquarters building of 1931 and several barrack blocks. The buildings, which are Grade II listed, are in a redbrick neo-Georgian style typical of military airfields of the interwar period. They have been vacant since the Officer and Aircrew Selection Centre closed in 1992, and were added to English Heritage's list of buildings at risk in 2006.

The 'South Camp', situated to the south of runway 11/29, was transferred to civil usage in the 1950s and now consists of a utilitarian collection of hangars and sheds, together with a modern office park. It now contains many aviation related businesses, flying clubs and flying schools. Many private light aircraft are based on the airport.

From 1963, Biggin Hill airport was the venue of the Biggin Hill International Air Fair, an annual airshow that usually took place towards the end of June. On 5 July 2010 Biggin Hill Airport Ltd cancelled the 25-year contract with Air Displays International (the Air Fair organisers) without warning, a few weeks after the 2010 event, during which the Air Fair had attracted record breaking crowds.

Construction on a new state-of-the-art hangar alongside the Passenger Terminal commenced in October 2010. Excavations of the site uncovered underground war-time fuel tanks and associated pump rooms; these were re-covered during the same building works. Construction was planned to finish late in Spring 2011.

Biggin Hill is the location of one of the four "stacks" for aircraft landing at Heathrow Airport, and is used by aircraft approaching from the south east. It uses a VOR navigational beacon with the identifier "BIG". Noise from aircraft using this stack is often wrongly attributed to aircraft using Biggin Hill Airport.

Three model aircraft clubs operate within a three-mile radius of Biggin Hill Airport. One site operates within its Aerodrome Traffic Zone (2.5 NM radius)

For 60 years (to 2016) an Air Scout centre has been located on the grounds of the airport. The centre allowed young people aged between 7 and 18 to take part in aviation activities with their scout groups. In 2016, Biggin Hill Airport Limited, which has historically claimed to support young people coming into aviation, rescinded its sub-lease to the Scout Aviation Centre in order to make way for new car parking spaces, giving them until 30 September 2016 to vacate their home of some 60 years.

The airfield still retains its history by the continued restoration projects running at the Biggin Hill Heritage Hangar. IntotheBlue experience days, a UK company within the airfield allows members of the public to fly alongside a Mk9 Spitfire in a 1950s Harvard. Projects like this hold a timely reminder to how important the airport was during the Second World War.

Airlines and destinations
Commercial service to the airport has previously been rejected. An application by the airport to allow such flights around the time of the 2012 London Olympics was rejected by Bromley Council in March 2011. Under the terms of its lease, no scheduled or fare-paying passenger services are permitted to operate to or from the airport. Air Alderney announced it planned to launch charter services between the airport and Alderney.

Accidents

 * On 18 June 1951, three Gloster Meteors crashed and their pilots were killed in accidents, all three crashing in an area of about 100 yd. The first, a Meteor VIII piloted by Flight Lieutenant Gordon McDonald of 41 Squadron, crashed shortly after take-off, corkscrewing as pieces of structure fell from the aircraft. The aircraft hit a bungalow, killing the pilot. The jet wash of his flight leader was named as a possible cause. Within seconds of this accident two Mark IV Meteors of 600 Squadron, piloted by Sergeant Kenneth Clarkson and Squadron Leader Phillip Sandeman, both circling over the wreckage and preparing to land, collided at 2000 ft above the scene. Although Sandeman managed to bail out, he was killed when his parachute failed to open. Clarkson was killed in his aircraft. A week after this incident, another Meteor overshot the runway, narrowly missing passing cars. After these incidents, several residents stated they would be "selling up" and there were calls for traffic lights to be installed on the Bromley road for use during take-offs and landings.
 * On 15 May 1977, during the annual International Air Fair, a Bell 206 helicopter was in a mid-air collision with a de Havilland Tiger Moth at the airport. The Tiger Moth landed but the Bell 206 crashed, killing all five on board.
 * On 25 November 1978, a Socata Rallye 150 collided with a Cessna 150 over the airfield. The Rallye crashed near flying club buildings, killing the student pilot. The Cessna landed in a field and both occupants escaped with minor injuries. A report by the Air Accidents Investigation Branch concluded that the collision was caused by the failure of the Cessna pilot to see and give way to the other aircraft. The failure of the Rallye pilot to keep sufficient look-out was a contributory factor.
 * On 21 September 1980 a Douglas B-26 Invader (registered N3710G) crashed during an air display. The aircraft was attempting to carry out a climbing roll in front of the crowd when the nose dropped sharply, and the aircraft continued rolling until it dropped vertically into a valley. The pilot and seven passengers were killed. The Civil Aviation Authority subsequently introduced rules preventing passengers from being carried during air displays.
 * On 2 June 2001 a vintage de Havilland Vampire jet crashed during an air display, killing both pilots. The Vampire had been flying a display in tandem with a de Havilland Sea Vixen aircraft, and the likely cause of the accident was that the Vampire's flight path had been disrupted by wake turbulence from the larger aircraft.
 * On 3 June 2001 a 1944 Bell P-63 Kingcobra crashed during a display, killing the pilot. The American Second World War fighter aircraft had been flying an unplanned sequence when the pilot lost control at the top of a climbing manoeuvre and was unable to recover from the resulting dive. The aircraft impacted the ground to the west of the runway in a steep nose-down attitude.
 * On 30 March 2008 a Cessna Citation 501 aircraft crashed into a housing estate north of the airfield, killing all five people on board. Shortly after take-off from Biggin Hill, the pilot had reported severe engine vibration and was attempting to return to the airfield when the aircraft crashed. An investigation concluded that both engines had been shut down (possibly inadvertently) during the course of the short flight. Among those killed were Eurosport commentator and former Touring Car driver David Leslie and ex-Le Mans driver Richard Lloyd.
 * On 24 November 2014, a Gulfstream II owned by noted televangelist Creflo Dollar was destroyed (with no injuries) when it taxied off of the runway at high speed during takeoff. To replace the old jet, Dollar famously launched a fundraising campaign to get his followers to pay approximately $60,000,000 for a new Gulfstream G650 jet. He suggested his followers each commit to giving "$300 or more." The jet he wanted was the "fastest plane ever built in civilian aviation" at that time. After receiving immediate backlash, Dollar ended his fundraising campaign.

In popular culture
One of the taxiways appears on the back cover of Pink Floyd's 1969 album Ummagumma.

The airport is used in the film The Da Vinci Code (2006).

The airport was used in the filming of the 2005 British television series Space Cadets.

title: London Biggin Hill Airport