text:
Talk:Peerage of Ireland

old edit
shouldn't a list of Irish peers only contain, you know, Irish peers, and the Gaelic nobles be moved to a different page? john 11:14, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

No. I think they should be here. There have recognition from the Chief Herald of Ireland and many also have peerages from the Kingdom of Ireland and the UK of GB and I. The O'Conor Don, for example, was given pride of place as the premier "Irish peer" at the coronation of King Edward VII. FearÉIREANN 23:38, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Hmm...well, they're obviously members of the Irish nobility, but the page is specifically a list of "peers"...so I don't know...The explanatory material should certainly be clearer, though. john 02:46, 17 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I think that a page could be made on "Gaelic Nobility," for instance, because the term Peerage does not seem to properly apply to those who are not peers. By the way, is it agreeable if the (in my humble opinion neater) format used in Peerage of England and Peerage of Scotland be applied here? -- Lord Emsworth 19:26, Dec 21, 2003 (UTC)

I have no objection, but it would mean we'd lose some information, wouldn't it? I created the other two pages after working through this one. john 01:03, 22 Dec 2003 (UTC)

The article states: "This list covers peerages possessed by Irish people from any of the three categories. The title is listed first, followed by famous figures associated with the family beneath. It does not include non-Irish people awarded Irish titles; for example, the Duke of Connaught, son of Queen Victoria." I don't think that "Peerage of Ireland" is the right place to fulfil such a requirement. Instead, I deem that a page, either Gaelic Nobility or Irish Nobility be used for the same, and that the Peerages of England, Scotland and Ireland be similar in format and in purpose. -- Lord Emsworth 11:38, Dec 22, 2003 (UTC)

 * Irish nobility would be a good place for this, I'd think, and yeah, then we can make the Peerage of Ireland more standardized. john 00:34, 23 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Republic of Ireland
What is the present-day position of Irish peers in the eyes of the Republic of Ireland? Specifically:
 * What proportion of the peers live in the Republic (as opposed to in the UK or abroad)?
 * Of those living in the republic, do they typically hold Irish or UK passports? If the former, do the passports include their titles or only their personal names?
 * If there were a dispute over the descent of an Irish peerage, where would it be decided?

Thanks. Doops 20:54, 14 Sep 2004 (UTC)

I could not give you an exact number relating to your first question. I can, however, accurately state that historically, many Irish peers have had nothing to do with Ireland; rather, many (or perhaps even most) were granted Irish peerage dignities so that they would not flood the House of Lords. If you have the time, you may check Burke's Peerage, which gives the addresses of all peers. Your second question, and perhaps also your first question, may be addressed in this article (1995).

 * Well, I looked a number of them up in the online Burke's (insofar as possible without registering), and I discovered several whose listed residence was in the republic, but whose CV included stints at Eton and/or in the British military. Doops 22:57, 21 Sep 2004 (UTC)

After the Union of 1801, the House of Lords (of the United Kingdom) assumed jurisdiction over Irish peerage disputes, even though Irish were not automatically entitled to seats in that House. The House of Lords continued to retain jurisdiction after 1922; see the Standing Orders of the House of Lords. In practice, the matter is resolved not by the whole House, but by the Privileges Committee. (Note: Theoretically, the Sovereign, as fons honorum or fount of honour, determines all disputes relating to peerages or other dignities, whether English, Scottish or Irish. It is, however, well-established that the Sovereign and his or her ministers would consult the House of Lords if there is any dispute over a Peerage. The Sovereign could in theory disregard the House of Lords entirely, but in practice would not.) -- Emsworth 20:26, 20 Sep 2004 (UTC)

What is the role of the Ulster King of Arms? john k 23:51, 20 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I know that Lyon is, for all practical purposes, the arbiter of peerage disputes in Scotland. He would determine which individual is entitled to the deceased peer's arms undifferenced; the House of Lords would just abide by his decision. But I do not believe that the Earl Marshal or Garter have similar functions in England; I would imagine that the same would apply to Ulster. -- Emsworth 22:20, 21 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * On one of the three questions - Irish law specifically allows for a choice between using the "peer name" or the ordinary first + family name combination. SeoR 11:24, 27 September 2007 (UTC)

Yes, Ireland does not recognise peerages as anything more than a form of name, so someone calling himself the Duke of Connacht would be treated the same if he called himself John Smith or the Guru of Eternal Happiness.Cavort (talk) 09:29, 14 August 2008 (UTC)

Viscount Fitzwilliam
Viscount Fitzwilliam is not mentioned...? --Joy [shallot]   17:36, 22 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * That's because it's extinct. Proteus (Talk) 17:38, 22 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Same goes for Viscount Palmerston then I guess? Should they not be mentioned somewhere in a table? deadstar not logged in

 * You mean here? Mackensen (talk) 29 June 2005 10:06 (UTC)

extinct titles
some extinct titles have been haphazardly added. Please don't do this - this page was meant to be a list of currently extant Irish peerdoms. the List of dukedoms, etc. pages list all the extinct titles. john k 20:28, 17 July 2007 (UTC)

name
Peerage is a countable noun; the correct term is the nobility of Ireland. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.140.57.113 (talk) 12:52, 3 June 2008 (UTC)
 * No. You are wrong. Wereon (talk) 11:18, 4 June 2008 (UTC)

Jurisdiction / subsistence of titles
People keep trying to bring the Republic of Ireland into this issue - it's irrelevant. These titles were created by a state - either the Kingdom of Ireland, or the state into which it merged, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The legal successor to that state is the current United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Peerages are a legal concept, not a territorial one, and so are unaffected by territorial movements. Indeed, they continue to be treated by the United Kingdom in exactly the same way as they were before. They may refer to places outside the UK, but that no more removes them from the UK's jurisdiction as it does the Earl of Albemarle. And the Republic of Ireland has never purported to have any control over Irish peerages - instead it merely recognises that they exist, as do many states recognise foreign titles held by its citizens. People seem to be under the impression that peerages are somehow inextricably linked to the place to which they refer, and that when that place changes jurisdiction, so does the title. This is simply a gross misunderstanding of the law. (And, in any event, it could only ever hope to apply to places outside the UK - I can't even begin to see how Irish law could have any bearing on the Marquess of Londonderry or the Earl of Antrim.) Proteus (Talk) 17:18, 7 February 2010 (UTC)
 * Entirely agree with you. Though as a matter of human interest, it would be good if the article got into how these titles operate in indepdent Ireland today (e.g. does the Government refer to persons by their titles etc). I think it touches on it but its a topic people are naturally interested to understand. Frenchmalawi (talk) 01:50, 9 January 2013 (UTC)
 * As to the original quote from nearly 3 years ago, I can't remember anyone trying to bring RoI into the issue. But agree with FrenchMalawi as to the interest in a section to describe how the titles operate in Ireland today.  FWIW, from my own experience, people are still referred to by their titles.  --HighKing (talk) 23:14, 9 January 2013 (UTC)
 * This is an old comment on this talk page, but it's as good as one as any to address.
 * "People seem to be under the impression that peerages are somehow inextricably linked to the place to which they refer, and that when that place changes jurisdiction, so does the title. This is simply a gross misunderstanding of the law."
 * I guess the wording of peerages e.g Earl of Cork would give that impression. How is it not linked to a place? What law, or set of laws, are you speaking of?
 * The United Kingdom has absolutely no jurisdiction in the Republic of Ireland. Do your research on that one. Any pretence to is a gross continuation of a brutal occupation of a sovereign country. I can't imagine the amount of nonsense going on in Russian wikipedia right now, with Russian trolls citing "the law" as justification for laughably out-dated vestiges of power, or claims of power.
 * I completely reject the idea Britain has "jurisdiction". "the Republic of Ireland has never purported to have any control over Irish peerages" Why would it? It's a foreign concept. What I need to see evidence of is that current civilian government Britain purporting to have control over Irish peerages. It is a fact that no Irish peers have ascended into the House of Lords since the 1970s, AFAIK.
 * @SeoR suggested that I bring some conversation to the talk page. You said in the revision tab "It is a fact that the old titles are regulated by UK law". Can you provide a source for this?
 * You also said "And no new titles have been given, but if they were, they are not 100% barred but would require permission to accept." New titles are being given every time it "passes down" to next person who believes themselves entitled to it. The real matter is no permission has been given, nor to my knowledge has permission ever been sought. That is the arrogance of foreign imperialism, to pretend that Ireland is in fact not a republic.
 * I'm happy to hear fact-based opinions on this, or research to show that this is not a bunch of makebelieve kept alive by dreamers of past Empire. Like current British statute, or current Irish statute that supports this. Wikiejd2 (talk) 08:00, 3 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Hi,, and good to debate this here - and I hope others, such as , , and , might join in. Before I address the specific points, and as, with ~40 edits, you may not yet have come across all our policies, let's remember that we are only here to document the world as it is. We do not deal with what might be or give much space to obscure alternative theories, not is Wikipedia a place to right perceived wrongs ... so, for example, whether use of titles might be considered pretentious is not relevant. Nor can we burden the biography of a person whose common naming is "Duke x" or "Lady y" with notes asserting that this is somehow out of order - that sort of thing is not our role. And we absolutely do try to avoid original research. The titles are extant, very public facts, they have legal standing in the world (they are a form of both property right and honour, though they are not, as some feudal baronies were, saleable), they are massively referenced in reliable sources, including every major Irish news source, and so we work with them.  Some holders of titles use (or they are used by others when referring to them) their titles strongly (some branches of the Guinnesses, and the folks at Lismore), some intermittently (the people at Slane and the Dunsanys, for example), and some actively avoid public use (the current Longford, for example) - none of this changes the facts.
 * We can hold whatever opinions we like about all this. Some people find these old titles cute, some an interesting historical remnant, some see them as a reminder of bad past times, some offensive - that's all fine, and none of it has anything to do with Wikipedia.
 * So, titles being tied to places and their current legal environment - that's a no. They were named after places, once upon a time, but even long ago, landholdings were a separate point - they might cross over with a title, usually did back in the early centuries of the Anglo system, for example, but they did not and do not have to, and there are, even now, titles related to places in the world long severed by borders. And certainly the nominal place of a title and its legal standing have no link at all - any government can assign whatever titles it wishes, and no other country can stop it (it might be considered odd or impolite, but that's a whole other thing).
 * Then, jurisdiction - well, as explained above, and maybe below too, jurisdiction is with whatever power or polity created the title, or their successor, and that's, for the Peerage of Ireland, the UK powers (technically the Crown but with the usual sorts of delegation). They have nothing at all to do with Irish law (including the constitution). Of course, DeValera's government, or anyone since, could have, or have tried to, ban their use within Irish borders, or demanded that Irish-only citizens surrender them, but they didn't - they largely chose to ignore them. Irish peerage lines have continued uninterrupted all these years, and no one has ever suggested in Dail or Seanad doing anything to try to interfere with that, or to try to limit public expression using them. Now if someone wants to bring a case, or pass a piece of legislation, changing this, we will report on that and its effects. But the titles would still exist in the wider world anyway. And, an important point, many holders are not Irish residents, some not even Irish citizens, so where would Irish jurisdiction come from for them? We have no exclusive rights over Irish place names.
 * The comparison with Russia and Ukraine is irrelevant. But what might be useful is to think about the big foreign companies so critical to our economy - they are founded within, and regulated largely by, US, UK and other legal systems, and no one questions that. Likewise with most books, cars, computers, etc. Things from one jurisdiction are often interacting in other jurisdictions, and we defer to some arrangements formally, as with double tax treaties, but others just exist.
 * And so, succession - no, a successor does not take a new title, they assume the holding of a long extant title. Again, the Dail and Seanad could attempt to forbid heirs from taking up their titles, but they have never even debated this idea, never mind acted on it.
 * I hope that this helps. I have no strong views on the substance of the matter, but I do have very strong ones about Wikipedia working from facts, and keeping personal opinion out of it - but I always welcome new and active editors who care about the work and its quality. SeoR (talk) 13:38, 3 August 2023 (UTC)
 * On the current position, it is regulated by a UK Royal Warrant of 2004, under which a process for validating succession exists (Claims to peerage) but note that the rights exist anyway, and this process regulates a record (the Roll of Peerage), not the underlying right, which follows automatically from the underlying patent. It seems that some of the surviving Irish peerage holders have been through this process, some not. On the question of applications to the government for permission to accept a foreign title award, at least 9 applications have been made, all for UK knighthoods; as far as I can see, 7 were in some form authorised by the Irish Government, while 2 were submitted after the fact, and these were "noted" but not authorized as current rules simply don't provide for retrospective authorization. As I see, no peerage applications from any country have been received (and they could have been - Ireland has had Spanish, Polish and German nobles too, and Papal Counts - anyone for a certain Countess of 1916 fame, or our first, and for long only Cabinet-level, Arts minister?)...
 * And adding, as it seems I forgot to press return earlier - on the cessation of titles. Even in UK law, it is hard to end / extinguish titles. The UK Crown cannot undo its own Letters Patent, warrants or charters in this regard, and while the UK Parliament, being supreme, can, it has rarely acted on this. There was an act passed in WWI times, but the powers it grants have rarely been used (there was at least one instance, in 1919, and as it happens, all four peers involved had Ireland-related titles in their "portfolios"). Other laws provide for removal from the House of Lords, but this does not end a title, and is less relevant now (and in Ireland, for centuries, titles and Irish HoL membership were only partly in common). It's not even easy to give up a title - life peers can't, and inheritors have only 12 months from date of entitlement, or majority, to do so (as Tony Benn did). SeoR (talk) 20:08, 3 August 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm abroad outside the EU, so don't have ready internet connection, so I'll add a little here. I'm happy to contribute in more detail if necessary on my return. In short, the titles on the peerage of Ireland (or any other order of nobility) or not recognised in the Irish constitution but nor are they prohibited; at the very least, they remain in common use for those few who use them. This is but one of a number of articles I found on a particular intervention by an Irish peer. They are used, so there's no need to qualify each one. Clarifying information on the page of Peerage of Ireland should be sufficient. Iveagh Gardens (talk) 14:14, 4 August 2023 (UTC)

 * Hi, replying to this delayed as I seem to get no notifications at all.
 * Thanks for your contribution to the conversation.
 * I do not see how the comparison with Russia and Ukraine is irrelevant. As you are interested in royal titles, are there any Russian titles of nobility in place in Ukraine?
 * At the end of the day, sovereignity of Ireland is completely under the hands of the Irish. You say that the jurisdiction is in the hands of the UK crown - I mean, have a look at the UN charter. Ireland is an independent sovereign nation. No other nation can claim jurisdiction or entitlement to any part of Ireland. You said " They were named after places, once upon a time" - What's changed that? What reference do you have to support that claim that it now has magically changed susbtance?
 * In terms of foreign companies, the analogy is a good one. These companies must operate under our jurisdiction and under our rule of law. Any company can claim to operate in Ireland, despite having never set foot in it, but it would be incorrect.
 * I appreciate keeping Wikipedia to the facts, which is why I made an account in the first place. What makes you draw the conclusion of "no, a successor does not take a new title, they assume the holding of a long extant title. Again, the Dail and Seanad could attempt to forbid heirs from taking up their titles, but they have never even debated this idea, never mind acted on it." The debate is not about new titles. It is about ACCEPTING titles. It is forbidden by the constitution for any citizen to ACCEPT a title. "No title of nobility or of honour may be accepted by any citizen except with the prior approval of the Government"
 * That is the principal fact for any current Anglo-Irish citizen.
 * "And, an important point, many holders are not Irish residents, some not even Irish citizens, so where would Irish jurisdiction come from for them? We have no exclusive rights over Irish place names."
 * Again, this does come to decolonisation and sovereignity. It is patently absurd to treat as factual the entitlement of positions of privilege, or positions of honour, based on the colonisation of Ireland. It's not factual. It's a fantasy game of make believe.
 * There are of course people who style themselves a certain way. I just don't see why on Wikipedia editors should bend over backwards to support self-flattering titles? It's factual to say that they are nonsense. It's not factual to say that any person is more deserving of a Wikipedia entry because of a stubborn role call of the popular crowd. Wikiejd2 (talk) 13:16, 1 November 2023 (UTC)

 * Thanks for coming back to the discussion. On the Russia / Ukraine point, I have no idea in detail - my interests are in Irish history, in which the Norman and British Crown-derived peerages have intervened. But Russian Empire titles, as far as I recall general history, worked quite differently from British ones (noting that under Peter the Great, much of Russian society found its social rank codified, far beyond the aristocracy). And with so much distance and cultural difference, I really can't see the relevance.
 * Points about decolonisation and sovereignity are fine - like most people here, I suspect, I'm quite happy to live in a country where people are not held to be legally of different "class" simply because of accidents of birth - but such points, and the feelings held by me, you or any other editor, simply aren't relevant to the topic area. It is not about people who make up titles - anyone can do that, no one much will care, and they will not be mentioned here because of that. It's about people who objectively hold titles based on ancient bits of parchment, or whatever, which have factual existence, and are mentioned in sources. Merely being a member of the aristocracy, of any country, is not enough to be written up with an article any more (it was once so for some peerages), but it can contribute, and the Peerage of Ireland as a whole is substantial enough to have some coverage.
 * As to the link between titles and places, it is just a matter of naming. Older titles were land-bound but later ones were often nominal (the Baroness of Finchley did not receive so much as a square foot of Finchley when elevated to the peerage, for example). And a title can be linked to anywhere, and no, one country can't stop people from another country using placenames for their titles. We might frown, but that's all we could do. Likewise, anyone can say that titles are nonsense, and even some title holders have done so.  But they still exist, with a whole body of law around them. Meantime, your point that a successor could be considered to be accepting a title is a possible view, but it is not the view taken by Irish authorities from 1922 to date (and legally a title descends, subject to a process to reject it afterwards), and so no bar applies to these titles continuing. Maybe the Oireachtas will someday act on this matter, but they have not done so yet.
 * I note your re-removal of the factual statement that no new titles have been created since 1922. That is not about the Constitution, it's about actions of the UK Crown, and it seems a useful thing to note. But OK, let someone find a better source for the statement, and then add it back. SeoR (talk) 16:51, 2 November 2023 (UTC)

Thanks SeoR for your patient explanations to wikiejd2. To the mix, I’d only add that generally people are free to ‘self-identify’ as they please in Ireland. If you fancy styling yourself the Duke of Baluka (sic); no problem in Ireland. UK titles aren’t a subject of Irish law. Frenchmalawi (talk) 03:12, 29 August 2023 (UTC)

 * FWIW, "Count O'Kelly of Galway" is, notwithstanding the name, a title created 1720 in the nobility of the now long-defunct Austrian Low Countries, not of Ireland. That title never had anything to do with the peerage of Ireland even though it includes an Irish family name and refers to a county located in the west of the Republic of Ireland. One holder of the title was a Belgian Chess Grandmaster (died 1980 aged 69) and his title was recognized by, among others, Belgium, as ultimate successor to the Hapsburgian Low Countries. — Tonymec (talk) 02:12, 5 September 2023 (UTC)

Factually wrong claim
The claim that "titles of peerage being regarded as merely courtesy titles" in the Republic of Ireland is factually wrong. The constitution says they cannot be created or accepted, but it is silent on the status of those already in existence. Nor does any law state they are merely courtesy titles. In some republics it is explicitly stated in law or in a constitution that a peerage is abolished. Ireland's law does not state that. So they are in a limbo. They are not a creation of the state, and not abolished by the state, nor is their status defined by the state. They just are there. Someone here keeps misinterpreting the constitution and reading into it something that it very definitely does not say. John Hearne, its author, working under de Valera, deliberately left them in that limbo state. 213.233.148.4 (talk) 00:20, 26 August 2015 (UTC)

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Italics?
Do we know why some of the table entries are in italics? I didn't notice any annotation that provides an explanation. With concurrence, I'll get around to fixing them - eventually... jxm (talk) 02:22, 13 February 2019 (UTC)

sep
In the short list of recently extinct titles, what does "(sep)" mean? —Tamfang (talk) 20:57, 20 May 2023 (UTC)

 * @Tamfang - I'm not really sure, I think it means that they used to be separate but became subsidiary titles upon the granting of a more senior title. For example, Earl of Egmont was created in 1733. The 1st Earl of Egmont was styled as Viscount Perceval. Upon the granting of the earldom, the viscountcy became a subsidiary title. I'm not really sure why it is there but this is just my assumption. DDMS123 (talk) 01:18, 21 May 2023 (UTC)
 * So are these cases of "the earldom is extinct but the viscountcy passes to a distant kinsman"? —Tamfang (talk) 01:23, 21 May 2023 (UTC)
 * @Tamfang - No, I think they are still extinct. I don't why it is showing a subsidiary title of an earldom. The viscountcies with "(sep)" should probably be removed from the extinct titles list as once the senior title goes extinct, so does the subsidiary titles. DDMS123 (talk) 01:33, 21 May 2023 (UTC)
 * In each of these cases, the first Earl was the first of each of his titles, so indeed they all went together when they went. But there plenty of examples of a lesser title surviving a higher one created later. —Tamfang (talk) 01:41, 21 May 2023 (UTC)

On yet another hand, one could question the value of a list of recently extinct titles. For Irish peerages there's nothing special about the HoL Act 1999! —Tamfang (talk) 16:47, 21 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Peerage of Ireland


text:
Sadegh Khalkhali

Mohammed Sadeq Givi Khalkhali (27 July 1926 – 26 November 2003) was an Iranian Shia cleric who is said to have "brought to his job as Chief Justice of the revolutionary courts a relish for summary execution" that earned him a reputation as Iran's "hanging judge". A farmer's son from Iranian Azeri origins was born in Givi, Azerbaijani SSR, in the Soviet Union (now in Azerbaijan). He is also reported to have born in Kivi, in the Khalkhal County, Iran (ergo his name). Khalkhali has been described as "a small, rotund man with a pointed beard, kindly smile, and a high-pitched giggle" by The Daily Telegraph.

Career and activities
Khalkhali was one of Khomeini's circle of disciples as far back as 1955 and reconstructed the former secret society of Islamic assassins known as the Fadayan-e Islam after its suppression, but was not a well-known figure to the public prior to the Islamic Revolution.

On 24 February 1979, Khalkhali was chosen by Ruhollah Khomeini to be the Sharia ruler or head the newly established Revolutionary Courts, and to make Islamic rulings. In the early days of the revolution he sentenced to death "hundreds of former government officials" on charges such as "spreading corruption on earth" and "warring against God." Most of the condemned did not have access to a lawyer or a jury. Following the Iranian Revolution in 1979, Reza Shah's mausoleum was destroyed under the direction of Khalkhali, which was sanctioned by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.

Khalkhali ordered the executions of Amir Abbas Hoveida, the Shah's longtime prime minister, and Nematollah Nassiri, a former head of SAVAK. According to one report, after sentencing Hoveida to death: "Pleas for clemency poured in from all over the world and it was said that Khalkhali was told by telephone to stay the execution. Khalkhali replied that he would go and see what was happening. He then went to Hoveyda and either shot him himself or instructed a minion to do the deed. 'I'm sorry,' he told the person at the other end of the telephone, 'the sentence has already been carried out.'"

Another version of the story has Khalkhali saying that while presiding over Hoveida's execution he made sure communication links between Qasr Prison and the outside world were severed, "to prevent any last-minute intercession on his behalf by Mehdi Bazargan, the provisional prime minister."

By trying Hoveida, Khalkhali effectively undermined the position of the provisional prime minister of the Islamic Revolution, the moderate Mehdi Bazargan, who disapproved of the Islamic Revolutionary Court and sought to establish the Revolution's reputation for justice and moderation.

Khalkhali held antipathy towards pre-Islamic Iran. In 1979 he wrote a book "branding king Cyrus the Great a tyrant, a liar, and a homosexual" and "called for the destruction of the Tomb of Cyrus and remains of the two-thousand-year-old Persian palace in Shiraz, Fars Province, the Persepolis." According to an interview by Elaine Sciolino of Shiraz-based Ayatollah Majdeddin Mahallati, Khalkhali came to Persepolis with "a band of thugs" and gave an angry speech demanding that "the faithful torch the silk-lined tent city and the grandstand that the Shah had built," but was driven off by stone-throwing local residents.

At the height of the Iran hostage crisis in 1980 following the failure of the American rescue mission Operation Eagle Claw and crash of U.S. helicopters killing their crews, Khalkhali appeared on television "ordering the bags containing the dismembered limbs of the dead servicemen to be split open so that the blackened remains could be picked over and photographed," to the anger of American viewers.

Khalkhali, in his positions in the Islamic Revolutionary government, made it his mission to eliminate the community of Bahá'ís in Iran (the largest non-Muslim religious minority). Bahá'ís were stripped of any civil and human rights they had previously been permitted and more than 200 executed or killed in the early years of the Islamic Republic. All Bahá'í properties were seized, including its holiest site, the House of the Báb in Shiraz, which was turned over by the government to Khalkhali for the activities of the Fada'iyan-i-Islam. The site was subsequently razed, along with the entire neighborhood, for the construction of a mosque and a new road. In addition to presiding over the Islamic Revolutionary Court that brought about the execution of dozens of members of elected Bahá'í Councils, Khalkhali murdered a Bahá'í, Muhammad Muvahhed, who disappeared in 1980 into the revolutionary prison system. It was later reported that Khalkhali personally went to Muvahhed's cell, demanded that he recant his faith and become a Muslim. When Muvahhed refused, Khalkhali covered his face with a pillow and shot him in the head.

Khalkhali later investigated and ordered the execution of many activists for federalism in Kurdistan and Turkmen Sahra, At the height of its activity, Khalkhali's revolutionary court sentenced to death "up to 60 Kurds a day." Following that, in August 1980 he was asked by President Banisadr to take charge of trying and sentencing drug dealers, and sentenced hundreds to death. One of the complaints of the revolution's leader and Khalkhali's superior, the Ayatollah Khomeini against the regime they had overthrown was that the Shah's far more limited number of executions of drug traffickers had been "inhuman."

In December 1980 his influence waned when he was forced to resign from the revolutionary courts because of his failure to account for $14 million seized through drug raids, confiscations, and fines, although some believe this as much the doing of President Bani-Sadr and the powerful head of the Islamic Republic Party Ayatollah Mohammad Beheshti "working behind the scenes" to remove a source of bad publicity for the revolution, as a matter of outright corruption.

In an interview, Khalkhali personally confirmed ordering more than 100 executions, although many sources believe that by the time of his death he had sent 8,000 men and women to their deaths. In some cases he was the executioner, where he executed his victims using machine guns. In an interview with the French newspaper Le Figaro he is quoted as saying, "If my victims were to come back on earth, I would execute them again, without exceptions."

Khalkhali was elected as representative for Qom in Islamic Consultative Assembly for two terms, serving for "more than a decade." In 1992, however, he was one of 39 incumbents from the Third Majles and 1000 or so candidates rejected that winter and spring by the Council of Guardians, which vets candidates. The reason given was a failure to show a "practical commitment to Islam and to the Islamic government," but it was thought by some to be a purge of radical critics of the conservatives in power.

Khalkhali sided with reformists after the election of President Mohammad Khatami in 1997, although he was never really accepted by the movement.

Later years and death
Khalkhali retired to Qom, where he taught Islamic seminarians.

He died in 2003, at the age of 77, of cancer and heart disease. At the time of his death, the speaker of Parliament, Mehdi Karoubi, praised the judge's performance in the early days of the revolution.

Personal life
Khalkhali was married and had a son and two daughters. His daughter, Fatemeh Sadeqi, though born in a restrictive Islamic environment, has attended university, attained PhD and is now known for her secular views. She was the author of "Why We Say No to Forced Hijab" — a widely circulated 2008 essay.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sadegh Khalkhali


text:
Talk:Graphics file format summary

SVG is used for much more than only webbrowsers

Conversion page
Any chance of a summary of how to convert from one format to another using netpbm, imagemagick, pngtools and other command line programs?

Other Formats
Great page. How about .pcx? olivier 11:16, Dec 16, 2003 (UTC)
 * I've added it. Romanito 10:51, 29 May 2006 (UTC)

And DjVu? NemethE May 26 10:12:43 UTC 2006

Debian MIME types
Very useful.

FWIW, my system (Debian) has the following MIME types, which are missing or different from those listed:

 * PBM: image/x-portable-bitmap
 * PGM: image/x-portable-graymap
 * PPM: image/x-portable-pixmap
 * ART: image/x-jg (for Johnson-Grace, I bet)
 * CPT: image/x-corelphotopaint
 * XCF: application/x-xcf
 * EPS: application/postscript (same as PS)
 * AI: application/postscript (same as PS)
 * BMP: image/x-ms-bmp (an obsolete MIME type?)

The last 3 are different from the table here. I don't know if these are more correct or less correct than the ones already here. Though image/x-ms-bmp sounds like an obsolete MIME type to me. Then again, this page says Windows bitmaps have no fewer than 12 MIME types. (Debian switched in January 2004 from image/bmp to image/x-ms-bmp consistency with Imagemagick, apparently. Don't you wish MIME types were canonical?) 4.16.250.42 02:10, March 1, 2005 (PST)

 * MIME types are defined by IANA, no room for error....--feline1 12:29, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Sure mime types are supposed to be defined by the IANA but any new format will initally have to use an unregistered mime type (such names are supposed to begin with x- but that rule does get broken). Such names commonly remain in use for compatibility reasons even when a different official name is registered. Plugwash 17:01, 7 April 2006 (UTC)

Similar article and naming conventions
There's an article Image file formats that I think we merge and/or reorganize. Also, according to Naming convention we should name the articles "List of… " something. The question is, is it graphics formats, or image formats? The Category:Graphics file formats already exists.

I believe the Image file formats article should be called Image file or Graphics file and talk about what an image is. Then, it should have a "see also" for the specifics to a List of image files, perphaps listing the most popular on the former, but still pointing to the latter. Also, this page needs a style cleanup.

So what do you think? —Fitch 19:33, 1 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I believe it should be something with "graphic", not with "image", since the word "image" is used in a wider context in computer science, for example as a "disc image". -- Peter 11:37, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Graphics file format summary


text:
Come Dancing

Come Dancing was a British ballroom dancing competition show made by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) which aired on BBC One at various intervals from 1950  to 1998. Unlike its subsequent follow-up show, Strictly Come Dancing, contestants were neither celebrities nor professionals.

The show was created by Eric Morley, the founder of Miss World, in 1949, and began by broadcasting from regional ballroom studios owned by Mecca, with professional dancers Syd Perkin and Edna Duffield on hand to offer teaching. Its original format was based on a knock-out process of teams from various regions around the UK, such as East Anglia or the South West. In 1953, the format changed to become a competition, with dancers representing the home nations (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales), with later series seeing regions of the United Kingdom going head to head for its coveted trophy.

Broadcast
In 1950, Come Dancing joined Television Dancing Club, and the two programmes ran on alternate weeks until 1964, when the latter finished. At its peak, in the late 1960s and 1970s, it attracted audiences of ten million. The last regular series was aired in 1995 (with no series in 1982 or 1987); this was followed by International Come Dancing specials in 1996 and 1998. The final episode, a 50th anniversary special, was presented by Rosemarie Ford and broadcast on BBC One from the Royal Albert Hall in London on 29 December 1998.

In 2023, BBC Four began repeating episodes of the show from the 1970s.

Presenters
The first presenter in 1950 was Peter Dimmock,  and was assisted by Leslie Mitchell as its master of ceremonies. Many subsequent presenters over the years included Sylvia Peters, Peter West (1957 to 1972),  McDonald Hobley, Charles Nove, Terry Wogan,    Brian Johnston,  Peter Marshall, Angela Rippon,    Frank Bough, Michael Aspel,  David Jacobs,   Judith Chalmers,    Pete Murray and Rosemarie Ford. Commentators included Ray Moore, Bruce Hammal, and Charles Nove.

Revival
Inspired by the resurgence in ballroom dancing in the UK following the 1992 Australian film Strictly Ballroom, a relaunched celebrity version entitled Strictly Come Dancing (affectionately known simply as Strictly) debuted on BBC One in 2004, and became a major success with Saturday evening audiences. Strictly paired a professional dancer together with a celebrity partner, and was originally hosted by Bruce Forsyth and Tess Daly, assisted by Claudia Winkleman. In later years, Claudia Winkleman was promoted to full time host in 2014 after Forsyth's departure. The title is an amalgamation of the titles of Come Dancing and the film Strictly Ballroom. The format of the newer show has become an international success, having been successfully exported to many other countries as Dancing with the Stars or similar names in local languages.

title: Come Dancing


text:
Carla Harryman

Carla Harryman (born January 11, 1952) is an American poet, essayist, and playwright often associated with the Language poets. She teaches Creative Writing at Eastern Michigan University and serves on the MFA faculty of the Milton Avery School of the Arts at Bard College. She is married to the poet Barrett Watten.

Life and work
Born in Orange, California, Harryman studied at the University of California, Santa Barbara and San Francisco State University. In 1979, she co-founded the San Francisco Poets Theater, which staged numerous experimental plays, including her Third Man and other plays.

Harryman has received the Foundation for Contemporary Arts Grants to Artists award (2004) and other grants and awards from Fund for Poetry, Opera America Next Stage Grant (with composer Erling Wold), Alexander Gerbode Foundation, and the NEA Consortium Playwrights Commission, among others.

Harryman's work is known for genre-disrupting poetry, performance and prose. In addition to her work and her interdisciplinary collaborations, she has written numerous experimental essays and writings about contemporary innovative women's writing and experimental language-centered performance and co-edited a book devoted to the work of Kathy Acker.

Publications

 * Percentage, 1979, Tuumba (Berkeley, CA)
 * Under the Bridge, 1980, This Press (Berkeley, CA)
 * Property, 1982, Tuumba (Berkeley, CA)
 * The Middle, 1983, Gaz Press (San Francisco, CA)
 * Vice, 1986, Potes and Poets (Hartford, CT)
 * Animal Instincts: Prose, Plays, Essays, 1989, This Press (Berkeley, CA)
 * In the Mode of, 1992, Zasterle (Tenerife, Spain)
 * Memory Play, 1994, O Books (Oakland, CA)
 * There Never Was a Rose Without a Thorn, 1995, City Lights (San Francisco, CA)
 * The Words: After Carl Sandburg's Rootabaga Stories and Jean-Paul Sartre, 1994, O Books (Oakland, CA)
 * Gardener of Stars, 2001, Atelos (Berkeley, CA)
 * Baby, 2005, Adventures in Poetry (New York, NY)
 *  Tourjours L’epine Est Sous La Rose, 2006, Ikko (Paris, France) Translation of There Never Was a Rose Without a Thorn. Translated by Martin Richet
 * Open Box (Improvisations), 2007, Belladonna Books, (Brooklyn, NY)
 * Lust for Life: On the Writing of Kathy Acker, 2006, Verso (New York, NY and London, England): co-edited with Amy Scholder and Avital Ronell.
 * Adorno's Noise, 2008, Essay Press (Ithaca, NY)
 * The Wide Road (with Lyn Hejinian), 2011, Belladonna Books (New York, NY)
 * W--/M--, 2013, SplitLevel Texts (Ann Arbor, MI)
 * Artifact of Hope, 2017, Ordinance Series, Kenning Editions (Chicago, IL)
 * L'impromptue de Hannah/Hannah Cut In, 2018. Translated by Abigail Lange, Joca Seria (Paris, France)
 * Sue in Berlin, 2018, "To" Series, PURH (Rouen, France)
 * Sue á Berlin, 2018. Translated by Sabine Huynh, "To" Series, PURH (Rouen, France)
 * A Voice to Perform, 2020, SplitLevel Texts (Alexandria, VA)

title: Carla Harryman


text:
Talk:Carla Harryman

Untitled
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title: Talk:Carla Harryman


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Talk:Drinking culture

Wiki Education assignment: Research Process and Methodology - FA23 - Sect 202 - Thu
— Assignment last updated by Anubhutij28 (talk) 18:32, 15 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Drinking culture


text:
Talk:Isauria

[Untitled]
A FEW THINGS - it is marked wrong on the map provided. Isauria, or Rough Cilicia constitutes the western half of the Cilician province presented on the map. It extends south from the Taurus mountain range to the Mediterranean. SECONDLY "The site contains ruins of the town and its fortifications" this is a Roman Provice, with at least 27 known towns (either epigraphically or archaeologically). Each city had its own unique character and some were not fortified at all. This article is confused and needs better, more specific citation.

—Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.235.168.193 (talk) 14:36, 11 April 2011 (UTC)

 * [The Romans] regarded Cilicia Trachea as part of Isauria, which thus extended to the sea...

Which sea? The name would help clarify this sentence a little. -- Sam - - - Cilicia Trachea and Isauria are the same place and had always been regarded as the same place, Cilicia proper and Isauria were only separated for administrative purposes, it didn't change the ethnicity of the people. It would be helpful to clarify the geography of the province to understand the banditry of the Isaurians and the inability of the Romans to control them (i.e. collect taxes).

Paragraph flip
I flipped around the third and fourth paragraphs, so that Perdiccas' siege (which happened centuries before the encounter with the Romans) no longer interrupts the two paragraphs describing the Roman period. It would also be helpful to clean up the geographical references throughout the article. The current information is of little use to anyone except scholars of late-Classical Anatolian geography.

Michael Simone

Mountain Turks!!!
"The region had not been completely subdued until the arrival in the 11th century of the Seljuk Turks whose descendants have now coalesced with the local population and formed a settled people; these are thought to be the ancestors of the Kurds."

The "Great Leader" Atatürk was right: the Kurds are "Mountain Turks" -- and the Armenian Genocide never happened!!! What utter nonsense.

Outdated sources
All of the sources mentioning any relationship to modern groups have been printed before 1940 and are outdated. Some of them mention "probably". I have removed them until there are new sources. Note the Sultan and his subjects are from 1897 and followers int he way is from 1934. Also these sources are not specialized towards the specific topic at hand.--Nepaheshgar (talk) 01:39, 30 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Although various ancient Iranic peoples dwelled in large numbers throughout Anatolia, to whom Kurds origins can be traced, however, I do not think there is a clear tie between Kurds and Isaurians. I try to reword the passage you removed; feel free to change or remove it if you see it redundant! Ellipi (talk) 21:41, 31 December 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Isauria


text:
Pirates of Silicon Valley

Pirates of Silicon Valley is a 1999 American biographical drama television film directed by Martyn Burke and starring Noah Wyle as Steve Jobs and Anthony Michael Hall as Bill Gates. Spanning the years 1971–1997 and based on Paul Freiberger and Michael Swaine's 1984 book Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer, it explores the impact that the rivalry between Jobs (Apple Computer) and Gates (Microsoft) had on the development of the personal computer. The film premiered on TNT on June 20, 1999.

Plot
Steve Jobs is speaking with director Ridley Scott about the creation of the 1984 advertisement for Apple Computer, which introduced the first Macintosh. Jobs is trying to convey his idea that "We're creating a completely new consciousness." Scott is more concerned with the technical aspects of the advertisement.

Next in 1997 with Jobs, returning to Apple, and announcing a new deal with Microsoft at the 1997 Macworld Expo. His partner, Steve "Woz" Wozniak, is introduced as one of the two central narrators of the story. Wozniak notes to the audience the resemblance between Big Brother and the image of Bill Gates on the screen behind Jobs during this announcement. Asking how they "got from there to here", the film turns to flashbacks of his youth with Jobs, prior to the forming of Apple.

The earliest flashback is in 1971 and takes place on the U.C. Berkeley campus during the period of the student anti-war movements. Teenagers Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak are shown caught on the campus during a riot between students and police. They flee and after finding safety, Jobs states to Wozniak, "Those guys think they're revolutionaries. They're not revolutionaries, we are." Wozniak then comments that "Steve was never like you or me. He always saw things differently. Even when I was in Berkeley, I would see something and just see kilobytes or circuit boards while he'd see karma or the meaning of the universe."

Using a similar structure, the film next turns to a young Bill Gates at Harvard University, in the early 1970s, with classmate Steve Ballmer, and Gates's high school friend Paul Allen. As with Wozniak in the earlier segment, Ballmer narrates Gates's story, particularly the moment when Gates discovers the existence of Ed Roberts's MITS Altair causing him to drop out of Harvard. Gates's and Allen's early work with MITS is juxtaposed against the involvement of Jobs and Wozniak with the "Homebrew Computer Club". Jobs and Woz develop Apple Computer in the garage of Jobs's family home, with the help of Daniel and Elizabeth. Eventually, Mike Markkula invests in the company which allows it to expand and move forward. In 1977, Jobs, Woz, and Markkula demo the Apple II at the West Coast Computer Faire. This event is followed by the development of the IBM PC with the help of Gates and Microsoft in 1981.

The film follows Jobs's relationship with his high school girlfriend and early Apple employee, Arlene (a pseudonym for Chrisann Brennan), and the difficulties he had with acknowledging his parental legitimacy of their daughter, Lisa. Around the time she was born, Jobs unveiled his next computer, which he named Lisa. The Lisa was followed in 1984 by the Macintosh, both having been inspired by the Xerox Alto.

On the eve of the release of Windows 1.0 (and with Microsoft's licensing deal with NEC undercutting Apple's dealings in Japan), Jobs and Gates have a bitter falling out. Jobs claimed that Gates completely ripped off of Apple's design. Gates responds by saying that Apple had done the same thing to Xerox, and rather that it was analogous to both of them stealing from a rich neighbor who left their door unlocked. The main body of the film finally concludes with a 30th birthday toast in 1985 to Steve Jobs shortly before he was forced out of Apple by CEO John Sculley.

The film ends in 1997, with the return of 42-year-old Jobs to Apple (after its acquisition of NeXT Computer) and with his announcement at the MacWorld Expo of an alliance between Apple and Microsoft. It also indicates that Jobs is now married, has children, and has reconciled with Lisa.

Cast

 * Noah Wyle as Steve Jobs
 * Anthony Michael Hall as Bill Gates
 * Joey Slotnick as Steve Wozniak
 * John DiMaggio as Steve Ballmer
 * Josh Hopkins as Paul Allen
 * Gailard Sartain as Ed Roberts
 * Jeffrey Nordling as Mike Markkula
 * Allan Royal as John Sculley
 * J. G. Hertzler as Ridley Scott
 * Gema Zamprogna as "Arlene" (a pseudonym for Chrisann Brennan)
 * Brooke Radding as Lisa Brennan-Jobs
 * Wayne Pere as Captain Crunch
 * Brian Lester as Charles Simonyi
 * Gerald McCullouch as Rod Brock
 * Marcus Giamatti as Daniel Kottke
 * Melissa McBride as Elizabeth Holmes

Development
Burke notes that when he was shown the first draft of the screenplay, which is based upon Freiberger and Swaine's Fire in the Valley, "It was all about how the '286 computer' became the '386' and so on ... I was bored by it." After the studio asked him for suggestions Burke states that "I'm a great believer in Shakespeare, and what we had was a modern equivalent of Hamlet, featuring two young princes, Bill Gates and Steve Jobs ... the more I read about Steve in particular, the more I saw him in those Shakespearean terms. He was brilliant, volcanic, obsessive, suspicious, even vicious in a business sense. He was about conquest, always conquest. I said, 'That's the sort of movie I want to make.'" Burke was thus hired as director of the project and rewrote the screenplay. In developing the characters themselves, Burke also stated that he chose not to speak with any of the central figures portrayed in the film:

"I did not want to do an 'authorized biography' on either Microsoft or Apple, so we made the decision going in that we would not talk or meet with them. With a team of Harvard researchers, I embarked on a seven-month research project that encompassed virtually everything we could find on the history of both companies, including old technical magazines from the '70s. I intended every scene to be based on actual events, including such seemingly fantastic moments as Bill Gates's bulldozer races in the middle of the night and Steve Jobs's bare feet going up on the board room table during an applicant's job interview. I have two or more sources that verify each scene."

Casting
Burke sought Noah Wyle for the part of Jobs. Wyle originally turned down the role, but changed his mind after Burke had him watch the 1996 documentary, Triumph of the Nerds. Wyle states that he watched the documentary "for ten seconds and knew I'd kick myself for the rest of my life if I didn't play this part." He also noted that Triumph of the Nerds led him to be "taken by [Jobs's] presence, his confidence, smugness, smartness, ego, and his story's trajectory. He seemed to be the most Shakespearean figure in American culture in the last 50 years I could think of – the rise of, the fall of, and the return of. The truest definition of a tragic hero—but you get the 'bonus round' that F. Scott Fitzgerald said didn't exist. Jobs has had one hell of a second act." Burke later credited Wyle for the success of the film stating that, "whatever was in the air, [Wyle] just absorbed it ... he became Jobs. It was a remarkable transformation. We had a photo of Steve Jobs at about 28 years old, from the cover of Fortune magazine. We did a mockup with Noah and it was almost impossible to tell them apart." Burke also credits Joey Slotnick's interpretation of Steve Wozniak with Wozniak's enthusiasm for the film; Wozniak was so impressed that he flew to Los Angeles to have lunch with Slotnick. Burke notes that, "Steve Wozniak made several speeches in which he said that the film accurately portrays how things actually happened ... To me that was better than any awards or nominations the film could get."

Anthony Michael Hall, who was cast as Bill Gates, commented on his interest in the role, stating that he, "really fought for this part because I knew it would be the role of a lifetime ... it was a thrill and a daunting challenge to play someone of his stature and brilliance."

Filming
Pirates of Silicon Valley was originally scheduled to be shot in Toronto, with more than $1 million in sets. However, when Wyle was unable to receive a long enough release from ER to shoot in Canada, the film temporarily shut down. Filming began again later in Los Angeles. During the filming, the cast broke down into PC and Mac factions, arguing over the merits of each platform. Burke states that he began the film as a PC user and ended a Mac user.

Themes
Young Steve Jobs participated in aspects of the 1960s counterculture. Actor Noah Wyle, who portrays Jobs, stated in an interview with CNN, "These kids grew up 30 miles south of the [University of California] Berkeley campus, which was ripe with revolution ... and they couldn't have cared less about the politics going on. They were in the garage tinkering with their electronics and starting a revolution that was a thousand times greater than anything that was going on the college campuses, politically." Director Martyn Burke also noted in an interview that, "Steve Jobs and Bill Gates are the true revolutionaries of our time. Not the students who occupied the dean's office in the late '60s. Not the anti-war marchers who were determined to overthrow the establishment. Jobs and Gates are the ones who changed the way the world thinks, acts and communicates."

Music
The soundtrack consists of classic rock, disco, and new wave from the 1960s, 1970s, and early-mid 1980s.

The piano song that is playing in the scene when Steve Jobs accuses Bill Gates of stealing Apple's ideas is not on the soundtrack. That omission sparked a search that lasted a few years until it was eventually found to be "Soliloquy" by English composer Tony Hymas. The song was originally published in the 1980 collection "The Piano Album", correctly fitting the movie events timeline.

Critical response
On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 89% based on 9 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2/10. Ray Richmond of Variety states that it is "a brilliant piece of filmmaking" and "a wildly entertaining geek tragedy with the stylistic feel of true art." John Leonard of New York Magazine, refers to it as "a hoot". Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette argues that the film is "a fascinating drama filled with Shakespearean twists and betrayals as viewers come to know the geniuses who transformed not only the way we communicate, but the way we live." Brian J. Dillard of AllMovie argues that "thanks to inspired casting and strong writing, this well-oiled TV biopic managed to transform the unglamorous genesis of the personal-computer industry into solid entertainment precisely at the moment when dot-com mania was sweeping the nation." Mike Lipton of People, found the film to be "engagingly irreverent" and "a real-life Revenge of the Nerds [that] stands cheekily on its own."

Historical accuracy
Steve Jobs, Bill Gates, and Steve Wozniak all responded to the film. Jobs's only public response occurred at the 1999 Macworld Expo. After Pirates of Silicon Valley had aired, he contacted Noah Wyle and told him that while he "hated" both the film and the screenplay, he liked Wyle's performance, noting "you do look like me." Jobs then invited Wyle to the 1999 Macworld convention to play a prank on the audience. Wyle agreed and initially appeared as Jobs, until Jobs walked onto the stage and let the audience in on the joke. In contrast, Jobs avoided meeting the director Martyn Burke, who later said that "Steve wanted nothing to do with me." In a 2013 Ask Me Anything session with Reddit, Gates responded to a question about his portrayal in the film by stating that it was "reasonably accurate".

Wozniak had a positive response to the film and discussed it in detail with fans on his official website. Wozniak said that many aspects of the film were accurate, stating that "when the movie opened with [a scene of] tear gas and riots ... I thought, 'My God! That's just how it was.'" He also responded to a fan email, that some of his portrayal was inaccurate: "I never quit Apple. That suggestion was based on an incorrect Wall Street Journal [article] that said I was leaving Apple because I didn't like things there. Actually, I had told the Wall Street Journal writer that I wasn't leaving Apple because of things that I didn't like and that I wasn't even leaving, keeping my small salary forever as a loyal employee. I just wanted a small startup experience and a chance to design a smaller product again, a universal remote control." In May 2015, Wozniak once again commented on the film, stating that Pirates of Silicon Valley is an example of a good Hollywood dramatization of himself, Steve Jobs, and the story of Apple Inc. He described Pirates of Silicon Valley as "intriguing, interesting. I loved watching it ... every one of those incidences occurred and it occurred with the meaning that was shown" in the film.

A college friend of Jobs and early Apple employee Daniel Kottke also liked the film. He noted in an interview that it was "a great movie. Noah Wyle was just uncannily close to Jobs. Just unbelievable. I found myself thinking it was actually Steve on the screen." He also states that in the film there were "all these scenes of the garage where it's like half a dozen people working, busily carrying things back and forth, and oscilloscopes" when he [Kottke] "was really the only person who worked in the garage. Woz would show up once a week with his latest to test it out, and Steve Jobs was on the phone a lot in the kitchen."

Two individuals have responded to the film's interpretation of the 1979 visit of Jobs and his team to the Xerox PARC research center, which influenced the development of both the Lisa and Macintosh computers. PARC's director, John Seely Brown stated in a 2006 interview that the scene in which Gates and Jobs argue about the role of Xerox is not entirely accurate. He said that Jobs was invited by PARC to view their technology in exchange for the ability to buy pre-IPO Apple stock. Wozniak said, "Apple worked with Xerox openly to bring their developments to a mass audience. That's what Steve portrayed Apple as being good at. Xerox got a lot of Apple stock for it too, it was an agreement. Microsoft just took it from Xerox or Apple or whomever. It took them a long time to get it halfway right."

title: Pirates of Silicon Valley


text:
Cherven Cities

The Cherven Cities or Cherven Gords (Grody Czerwieńskie, Червенские города), often literally translated as Red Cities, Red Forts or Red Boroughs, was a point of dispute between the Kingdom of Poland and Kievan Rus' at the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries, with both sides claiming their rights to the land.

Etymology
Originally, the name "Cherven Cities" probably identified a territory between the Bug and Wieprz rivers. Its name is derived from Czerwień (cf. Proto-Slavic *čьrvenъ "red"), a gord that existed there, possibly on the site of the present-day village of Czermno. The first mention of the "Cherven cities" is given by the Primary Chronicle (12th century), when Vladimir the Great captured them from the Lyakhs (Poles) in 981.

History

The Cherven Cities first described in the Primary Chronicle by Nestor the Chronicler have a central role in the history of the Early Medieval Polish-Ruthenian borderlands. The area is first mentioned in 981, when Vladimir the Great took it during his expansion campaign to the west.

Cosmas of Prague (c. 1045 – 1125) relates that the Přemyslid rulers of Bohemia controlled the land of Kraków until 999. In support of Cosmas, the foundation charter of the Archdiocese of Prague (1086) traces the Eastern border of the archdiocese, as established in 973, along the Bug and Styr (or Stryi) rivers, which marked the approximate boundaries of the region where Cherven Cities were located. Abraham ben Jacob, who travelled in Eastern Europe in 965, remarks that Boleslaus II of Bohemia ruled the country "stretching from the city of Prague to the city of Kraków".

In the 970s, it is assumed that Mieszko I of Poland took over the region: the Primary Chronicle infers this when reporting that Vladimir the Great conquered the Cherven Cities from the Lyakhs (an alternative archaic name for Poles ) in 981. Nestor writes in his chronicle that: "Vladimir marched upon the Lyakhs and took their cities: Peremyshl (Przemyśl), Cherven (Czermno), and other towns, all of which are subject to Rus' even to this day". However, historian Leontii Voitovych speculates that contrary to Nestor's account in the Primary Chronicle, if the lands were under control of the Duchy of Poland then the Kievan Rus' conquest would have been an open call for war between the principalities with an inevitable long struggle, but such a thing did not happen according to Voitovych, possibly indicating in Voitovych's view that the lands and its population weren't Polish, but an independent political-tribal union with some vassalage to Bohemia. In the following decades, the contested region would change hands between Poland and Rus' several more times.

In 1018, Poland re-took the area under Bolesław I the Brave, and in 1031 it fell again to Rus'. The Rus'ian expedition against Poland (1030–1031) had as its object not only the recovery of territories previously lost in 1018; it also delivered a powerful blow against the Polish Metropolis of Slavonic rite. In 1031, Harald and his men reached the land of the Kievan Rus, where they served the armies of Yaroslav I the Wise, the Grand Prince of the Rus, whose wife Ingigerd was a distant relative of Harald. In the spring 1031, where he became chief of Yaroslav's bodyguard jointly with Eilifr, son of that Rognvaldr who had originally come to Novgorod with Ingigerd. Harald served a military apprenticeship, fighting in the Polish campaign of 1031, and against the Læsir (Lendians). The gord of Sutiejsk was most likely founded in 1034 - 1039 by Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise, who built the fortified settlement to guard the border with Poland. Around the year 1069, the region again returned to Poland, after Bolesław II the Generous retook the area and the city of Przemyśl, making it his temporary residence. Then in 1085, the region became a principality under the lordship of Rus', known as the Principality of Peremyshl.

title: Cherven Cities


text:
Gestalt

Gestalt may refer to:

Psychology

 * Gestalt psychology, a school of psychology
 * Gestalt therapy, a form of psychotherapy
 * Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test, an assessment of development disorders
 * Gestalt Practice, a practice of self-exploration
 * Gestalt Therapy, a 1951 book detailing Gestalt psychology
 * Gestalt qualities, concepts found in gestalt psychology
 * Gestalt theoretical psychotherapy, an application of Gestalt psychology

Arts and media

 * Gestalt (album), a 2012 album by The Spill Canvas
 * Gestalt (manga), a manga series
 * Gestalt intelligence, or group mind, a science fiction plot device
 * Gestalt Publishing, an Australian publishing house
 * Nier Gestalt, an alternative title to the video game Nier

title: Gestalt


text:
Oskar Ursinus

Carl Oskar Ursinus (11 March 1877 – 6 July 1952) was a pioneer of German aviation and is remembered mainly for his contributions to sailplane designs and the sport of gliding. He has been nicknamed the Rhönvater ("Rhön father") because he founded Germany’s first gliding club at the Wasserkuppe in the Rhön Mountains in 1920.

Ursinus was born in Weißenfels and attended Technical College in Mittweida. After graduation, he worked for Borsig on compressors for locomotives, and spent some time working on mining machinery in Romania for the firm.

In 1908, back in Germany, Ursinus began to publish a magazine titled Flugsport (“Sports Flying”), since he had become fascinated by the new technology of flight. The magazine helped establish a network among Germany’s aviation enthusiasts, and led to the organisation of Germany’s first international airshow.

He was conscripted into the German Army in 1914 and requested a position in aircraft design. The request was approved and he was posted to Gothaer Waggonfabrik designing warplanes. The famous series of Gotha bombers used by the German air corps throughout World War I, were all based on an Ursinus design of 1915 that was refined and manufactured as the Gotha G.I. Ursinus' real passion, however, was for seaplanes, and in 1916 he designed a seaplane fighter with retractable floats that was unfortunately destroyed before testing was complete.

Following the war, the Treaty of Versailles prohibited Germany from building powered aircraft, and the attention of German aviators therefore turned to gliding. A plateau particularly suited to gliding, the Wasserkuppe, became a focal point for this activity, and in 1920, Ursinus organized a competition there. Twenty-four people attended the meeting between 15 July and 15 September 1920, including Wolf Hirth and other gliding pioneers. (see also Rhön-Rossitten Gesellschaft.)

Over the next decade, this grew in importance to become an international event. Ursinus also constructed the first clubhouse on the Wasserkuppe in 1924. He was pursuing experiments in human-powered flight when the outbreak of World War II intervened.

Following the war, powered flying was once again forbidden in Germany, but Ursinus lived just long enough to see this prohibition lifted.

Today, he is regarded in Germany as the father of gliding, and Germany’s association for homebuilt aircraft, the Oskar Ursinus-Vereinigung ("Oskar Ursinus Association") bears his name.

title: Oskar Ursinus


text:
Piecewise

In mathematics, a piecewise-defined function (also called a piecewise function, a hybrid function, or definition by cases) is a function whose domain is partitioned into several intervals ("subdomains") on which the function may be defined differently. Piecewise definition is actually a way of specifying the function, rather than a characteristic of the resulting function itself.

A function property holds piecewise for a function, if the function can be piecewise defined in a way that the property holds for every subdomain. Examples of functions with such piecewise properties are piecewise constant functions, piecewise linear functions (see the figure), piecewise continuous functions, and piecewise differentiable functions.

Notation and interpretation
Piecewise functions can be defined using the common functional notation, where the body of the function is an array of functions and associated subdomains. A semicolon or comma may follow the subfunction or subdomain columns. The $$\text{if}$$ or $$\text{for}$$ usually appears, and belongs at the start of the right column.

The subdomains together must cover the whole domain; often it is also required that they are pairwise disjoint, i.e. form a partition of the domain. In order for the overall function to be called "piecewise", the subdomains are usually required to be intervals (some may be degenerated intervals, i.e. single points or unbounded intervals). For bounded intervals, the number of subdomains is required to be finite, for unbounded intervals it is often only required to be locally finite. For example, consider the piecewise definition of the absolute value function:
 * $$|x| = \begin{cases}

-x, & \text{if } x < 0 \\ +x, & \text{if } x \ge 0. \end{cases} $$ For all values of $$x$$ less than zero, the first sub-function ($$-x$$) is used, which negates the sign of the input value, making negative numbers positive. For all values of $$x$$ greater than or equal to zero, the second sub-function ($x$) is used, which evaluates trivially to the input value itself.

The following table documents the absolute value function at certain values of $$x$$:

In order to evaluate a piecewise-defined function at a given input value, the appropriate subdomain needs to be chosen in order to select the correct sub-function—and produce the correct output value.

Examples
\exp\left( -\frac{1}{1 - x^2}\right), & x \in (-1,1) \\ 0,                                   & \text{otherwise} \end{cases}$$ and some other common Bump functions. These are infinitely differentiable, but analyticity holds only piecewise.
 * Piecewise linear function, a function composed of line segments
 * Step function, a function composed of constant sub-functions
 * Boxcar function,
 * Heaviside step function
 * Sign function
 * Absolute value
 * Triangular function
 * Broken power law, a function composed of power-law sub-functions
 * Spline, a function composed of polynomial sub-functions, possessing a high degree of smoothness at the places where the polynomial pieces connect
 * B-spline
 * PDIFF
 * $$f(x)= \begin{cases}

Continuity and differentiability of piecewise-defined functions
A piecewise-defined function is continuous on a given interval in its domain if the following conditions are met:
 * its sub-functions are continuous on the corresponding intervals (subdomains),
 * there is no discontinuity at an endpoint of any subdomain within that interval.

The pictured function, for example, is piecewise-continuous throughout its subdomains, but is not continuous on the entire domain, as it contains a jump discontinuity at $$x_0$$. The filled circle indicates that the value of the right sub-function is used in this position.

For a piecewise-defined function to be differentiable on a given interval in its domain, the following conditions have to fulfilled in addition to those for continuity above:
 * its sub-functions are differentiable on the corresponding open intervals,
 * the one-sided derivatives exist at all intervals' endpoints,
 * at the points where two subintervals touch, the corresponding one-sided derivatives of the two neighboring subintervals coincide.

Applications
In applied mathematical analysis, "piecewise-regular" functions have been found to be consistent with many models of the human visual system, where images are perceived at a first stage as consisting of smooth regions separated by edges. In particular, shearlets have been used as a representation system to provide sparse approximations of this model class in 2D and 3D.

Piecewise defined functions are also commonly used for interpolation, such as in nearest-neighbor interpolation.

title: Piecewise


text:
Golden-crowned kinglet

The golden-crowned kinglet (Regulus satrapa) is a very small songbird in the family Regulidae that lives throughout much of North America.

Description
Adults are olive-gray on the upperparts with white underparts, with thin bills and short tails. They have white wing bars, a black stripe through the eyes and a yellow crown surrounded by black. The adult male has an orange patch in the middle of the yellow crown. The juvenile is similar to the adult, but with a browner back and without the yellow crown. This is one of the smallest passerines in North America. Its length, at 8 to 11 cm, is probably the shortest of any American passerine. Its weight, averaging 6.1 g for females and 6.3 g (0.22 oz) for males and ranging from 4.5 to 7.8 g, is similar to the American bushtit and black-tailed gnatcatcher. The golden-crowned kinglet has a wingspan of 5.5-7.1 in (14-18 cm).

Ecology
The golden-crowned kinglet is insectivorous, foraging in trees or shrubs, where it eats insects (especially caterpillars), insect eggs and spiders. It produces a series of high-pitched calls on a single note, and tends not to fear human approach. Its nest is a well-concealed hanging cup suspended from a conifer branch.

Distribution
The golden-crowned kinglet is a widespread migratory bird throughout North America. Its breeding habitat is coniferous forests across Canada, the northeastern and western United States, Mexico and Central America. It migrates to the United States in the non-breeding season. Some birds are permanent residents in coastal regions and in the southern parts of their range. Northern birds remain further north in winter than the ruby-crowned kinglet.

Taxonomy
The kinglets are a small group of birds sometimes included in the Old World warblers, but frequently given family status, especially as recent research showed that, despite superficial similarities, the crests are taxonomically remote from the warblers. The names of the family, Regulidae, and its only genus, Regulus, are derived from the Latin regulus, a diminutive of rex, "a king", and refer to the characteristic orange or yellow crests of adult kinglets.

There are three migratory subspecies in the United States and Canada, differing in size, bill length, back and rump colours, wing bar width and colour, and length of supercilium:

 * R. s. apache, breeding and wintering from southern Alaska and the southern Yukon to southwestern California and southern New Mexico. This subspecies is medium-small, has a long bill, and has the back and rump bright yellowish-olive.
 * R. s. olivaceus, breeding from coastal southeastern Alaska to southwestern Oregon, wintering to Idaho and southwestern California. This subspecies is small, with a medium-long bill, and has the back and rump dark greenish-olive.
 * R. s. satrapa, breeding from northern Alberta to Newfoundland and North Carolina. This subspecies is large, with a short bill, has the back and rump olive with a greyish wash. It further differs from apache and olivaceus in two other regards: the white supercilium stops short of the rear of the crown, whereas on the other two species the supercilium extends farther back, and the wingbars are wide, and white (or slightly lemon-tinged) compared with narrow dingy whitish (or lemon- or olive-washed) wingbars of the other two subspecies.

The subspecies "amoenus" has been synonymised with apache, as the distinctions between these populations are obscured by individual variation.

Two other (non-migratory) subspecies occur south of the bird's core range, although these are weakly differentiated from each other and so are perhaps best synonymised:

 * R. s. aztecus in south-central Mexico, in the mountains from Michoacán south to Oaxaca. This subspecies is dark greenish above, has poorly developed wing markings, and its underparts are washed greyish-brown.
 * R. s. clarus in the mountains of Chiapas, southern Mexico, and Guatemala. This subspecies resembles aztecus but is paler and duller, with a shorter tail.

Hybridization with ruby-crowned kinglets has been reported to have possibly occurred.

title: Golden-crowned kinglet


text:
User talk:01567

Please don't make nonsense pages. Thanks. Secretlondon 11:40, Dec 16, 2003 (UTC)

Hi - we count what you are doing as vandalism. You can be blocked from editing if you continue. Secretlondon 11:45, Dec 16, 2003 (UTC)

Attacking other users IS vandalism, if you don't stop immidiatly you will be blocked! andy 11:54, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:01567


text:
Eric Houghton

William Eric Houghton (29 June 1910 – 1 May 1996) was an English footballer and manager.

Eric Houghton was born in Billingborough, Lincolnshire, and educated at Donington Grammar School.

Houghton signed for Aston Villa as a seventeen-year-old and played in the Villa side for two decades, scoring 170 goals in 392 games. (The total including wartime matches was over 200 goals.) He also won seven caps for England. His formidable and powerful shot was regarded as the hardest shot of his era. Houghton converted 58 spot kicks and also scored direct from about 30 free-kicks. He is often referred to as 'Mr Aston Villa' in recognition of his long standing service and contribution to the club.

Houghton scored 30 goals in the 1930–31 season, in which Villa scored 128 league goals, a First Division record.

Houghton finished his playing career at Notts County.

After managing Notts County, he went on to become Aston Villa manager, guiding Villa to a record seventh FA Cup triumph in 1957. He later returned to Villa as a director, the only person to do this at the club. He had four children. In 2006 the club announced the creation of an Aston Villa Hall of Fame. This was voted for by fans and the inaugural induction saw 12 former players, managers and directors named. Eric Houghton was chosen.

He also played seven first-class matches as a right-handed batsman and a right-arm bowler for Warwickshire County Cricket Club (1946–1947) and also minor counties cricket for Lincolnshire County Cricket Club. He also played club cricket for Sleaford, Aston Unity and Olton Cricket Clubs.

His brother, Roy Houghton, and cousin, Reg Goodacre, were also footballers. His son Neil chaired Warwickshire County Cricket Club (2003–2011) and his great-nephew Chris Woods was a successful international footballer.

He died in Sutton Coldfield on 1 May 1996, aged 85.

title: Eric Houghton


text: User talk:213.18.248.20

title: User talk:213.18.248.20


text: User:Unkamunka/projects

title: User:Unkamunka/projects


text:
Dutch Language Union

The Dutch Language Union (Dutch:, NTU) is an international regulatory institution that governs issues regarding the Dutch language. It is best known for its spelling reforms which are promulgated by member states, grammar books, the Green Booklet and its support of Dutch language courses and studies worldwide. It was founded on a treaty concluded between the Netherlands and Belgium (in respect of the Flemish Community) on 9 September 1980. Suriname has been an associate member of the Taalunie since 2004.

History

The Dutch Language Union was established by a treaty between Belgium and the Netherlands, signed on 9 September 1980 in Brussels. It succeeded the "Cultural Agreement" (governing more than just language) between the two countries signed just after the Second World War. This agreement was redone in 1995, after the federalization of Belgium, and a new treaty was signed between the Netherlands and Flanders. On 12 December 2003, president of the Committee of Ministers of the Dutch Language Union Medy van der Laan and Minister of Education of Suriname Walter Sandriman signed the agreement to the accession of Suriname to the union. The accession was ratified by the National Assembly of Suriname in 2004 and came into force in 2005.

Standard Dutch (Algemeen Nederlands, often abbreviated to AN) is the standard language as it is taught in schools and used by authorities in the Netherlands, Flanders, Suriname, and the Dutch Caribbean. The Dutch Language Union defines what is AN and what is not. Since efforts to "uplift" people had come to be considered rather presumptuous, the earlier name Algemeen Beschaafd Nederlands ("Common Civilised Dutch") and its abbreviation, ABN, were replaced with Algemeen Nederlands (AN). The implication that non-standard varieties are not civilised was thus removed.

Word list

An important change that was carried out by the Dutch Language Union was the modification of Dutch orthography in 1995, regarding in particular the writing of the interfix -n in many compounds. Among the Union's publications is the well-known Word list of the Dutch language (Woordenlijst Nederlandse taal), commonly known as the “Groene boekje” ("Green booklet", because of its distinctive green colour). The green booklet is the official orthographic and grammatical reference of the Dutch language. It is laid out like a vocabulary, including plural forms and spelling but without actual word definitions.

The most recent version of the Green Booklet appeared on 13 October 2015. Its content does not differ from the previous version of 2005, which included a somewhat controversial spelling reform that was not received well in general because a part of the spelling reforms of 1996 was changed again. In December 2005, most of the Dutch mainstream media announced a boycott. In August 2006, they released a 'White book' as their own, subtly different guideline. Currently these two spellings are both in use, sometimes confusing people; the 'green' one is used by schools and officials, the 'white' one by papers, magazines and television stations.

In Belgium, on the other hand, the spelling reform was generally accepted without protest.

Dictionary
The Van Dale dictionary is commonly accepted as the most authoritative Dutch dictionary. Commonly named the Dikke Van Dale ("Thick" Van Dale due to its size) the dictionary is split into three tomes (A–I, J–R, S–Z) and is usually updated every 7–8 years. The 15th edition was published on 23 September 2015.

The Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal (WNT) is a historic dictionary that includes all words used from 1500 to the present day. Work began in 1864 and was finished in 1998 when the last volume was published. It has 43 volumes, needing about 3m if placed on a shelf, with about 400,000 words on 49,255 pages. In 2001, three additional volumes were published containing mostly words from the 20th century that were not included in the previous 43 volumes. This dictionary is published by Instituut voor Nederlandse Lexicologie and can be found online.

Dutch as a foreign language
The Dutch Language Union supports the teaching of Dutch in primary and secondary schools in the neighbouring regions and countries. It concerns Belgium (Brussels and Wallonia; 350,000 learners), Germany (Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia, 40,000 learners) and France (Nord-Pas-de-Calais, 8,000 learners).

The Union also supports the study of Dutch language and culture at universities and schools worldwide. Approximately 14,000 people study the Dutch language and Dutch literature at 140 institutions.

Internal organisation
The NTU has offices in The Hague and Brussels, and it comprises four institutions:
 * The Secretariat-General, responsible for preparing and implementing policy, headed by Kris Van de Poel since March 2020
 * The Committee of Ministers, containing the ministers of education and culture from the Netherlands and Flanders;
 * The Interparliamentary Commission, made up of members of the Dutch and Flemish parliaments;
 * The Council for Dutch Language and Literature.

Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal
The binational (Belgium and the Netherlands) Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal ("Institute for the Dutch Language") in Leiden, formerly Instituut voor Nederlandse Lexicologie, works under the auspices of the Dutch Language Union, and is responsible for the Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal (Dictionary of the Dutch language). In addition, the institute publishes a number of dictionaries, including the Old Dutch Dictionary, the Early Middle Dutch Dictionary, and an etymological dictionary; and databases, including databases indexing various newspapers and magazines, and legal documents. The Spoken Dutch Corpus has contemporary Dutch as spoken in the Netherlands and Flanders, including audio recordings of Standard Dutch.

Royal Academy of Dutch Language and Literature
The Royal Academy of Dutch Language and Literature was founded in Belgium in 1886 to stimulate the culture and literature of Flanders. It is the official advisory board to the Flanders government, and publishes the Materiaal Willems database, based on the dialect surveys done by Pieter Willems, containing material from dialects in Flanders, the Netherlands, and French Flanders.

External connections
The organisation is also responsible for the external linguistic policy of the Netherlands and Flanders and is active in Indonesia and South Africa, two countries with historic links with the Dutch language. Nevertheless, cooperation with South Africa is not limited to the Afrikaans language but aimed also at fostering multilingualism.

The purposes of the organisation are limited to Dutch language and Dutch-language literature, and are hence not as wide as those of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, La Francophonie or the Commonwealth of Nations.

The Treaty on the Dutch Language Union foresees the possibility that the Kingdom of the Netherlands extends application to NTU members’ parts outside Europe. The organs of the NTU are its Committee of Ministers (composed of the ministers of education and culture of the Dutch and Flemish Governments), its Secretariat-General, an Interparliamentary Committee (composed of members of the States General of the Netherlands and the Flemish Parliament) and a Dutch Language and Literature Council (composed of twelve independent experts). There are specific arrangements for the participation of Suriname in the organisation's inner workings.

Member states
The basis of the Taalunie is a treaty between the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Kingdom of Belgium, the two sovereign states that constitute the Union. For the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the treaty is only applicable to its European territory. The treaty allows for two types of extensions:
 * membership of other sovereign states through an "association membership"
 * extension to other territories of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (presently: Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten, and the Caribbean Netherlands).

In 2004, Suriname signed an "associative treaty" with the Taalunie. From 27 November 2013 the treaty also applies to the Caribbean Netherlands. The three autonomous Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten, are designated as candidate member states. Additionally, Indonesia and South Africa are considered "special partners" of the Dutch Language Union.

title: Dutch Language Union