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Defection

In politics, a defector is a person who gives up allegiance to one state in exchange for allegiance to another, changing sides in a way which is considered illegitimate by the first state. More broadly, defection involves abandoning a person, cause, or doctrine to which one is bound by some tie, as of allegiance or duty.

This term is also applied, often pejoratively, to anyone who switches loyalty to another religion, sports team, political party, or other rival faction. In that sense, the defector is often considered a traitor by their original side.

International politics
The physical act of defection is usually in a manner which violates the laws of the nation or political entity from which the person is seeking to depart. By contrast, mere changes in citizenship, or working with allied militia, usually do not violate any law(s).

For example, in the 1950s, East Germans were increasingly prohibited from traveling to the western Federal Republic of Germany where they were automatically regarded as citizens according to Exclusive mandate. The Berlin Wall (1961) and fortifications along the Inner German border (1952 onward) were erected by the Communist German Democratic Republic to enforce the policy. When people tried to "defect" from the GDR they were to be shot on sight. Several hundred people were killed along that border in their Republikflucht attempt. Official crossings did exist, but permissions to leave temporarily or permanently were seldom granted. On the other hand, the GDR citizenship of some "inconvenient" East Germans was revoked, and they had to leave their home on short notice against their will. Others, like singer Wolf Biermann, were prohibited from returning to the GDR.

During the Cold War, the many people illegally emigrating from the Soviet Union or Eastern Bloc to the West were called defectors. Westerners defected to the Eastern Bloc as well, often to avoid prosecution as spies. Some of the more famous cases were British spy Kim Philby, who defected to the USSR to avoid exposure as a KGB mole, and 22 Allied POWs (one Briton and twenty-one Americans) who declined repatriation after the Korean War, electing to remain in China.

When the individual leaves his country and provides information to a foreign intelligence service, they are a HUMINT source defector. In some cases, defectors remain in the country or with the political entity they were against, functioning as a defector in place. Intelligence services are always concerned when debriefing defectors with the possibility of a fake defection.

Entire militaries can defect and choose not to follow orders from a state's leaders. During the Arab Spring protests, militaries in Egypt and Tunisia refused orders to fire upon protesters or use other methods to disperse them. The decision to defect can be driven by the desire to prevent insubordination: if a military leader judges that lower officers will disobey orders to fire upon protesters, they could be more likely to defect.

Artists

 * Paquito D'Rivera, Cuban saxophonist and clarinetist, who defected to the United States in 1980.
 * Mikhail Baryshnikov, Soviet (Russian) dancer, who defected to Canada in 1974, while in Toronto, touring with the Kirov Ballet. He later moved to the United States.
 * Natalia Makarova, Soviet (Russian) dancer, who defected while in London in 1970.
 * Georgi Markov, Bulgarian author, who defected in 1968, eventually settling in London, England, later assassinated.
 * Rudolf Nureyev, Soviet (Russian) dancer, who defected while in Paris touring with the Kirov Ballet in 1961.
 * George Balanchine, Georgian choreographer, who defected to the Weimar Republic in 1924.
 * Arturo Sandoval, Cuban trumpeter, pianist, and composer, who defected to the United States in 1990.
 * Jan Sobota, Czech fine bookbinder, who defected to Switzerland in 1982, and settled in the United States in 1984.

Athletes

 * Guillermo Rigondeaux, Cuban professional boxer, who defected to the United States in 2009.
 * Aroldis Chapman, Cuban baseball pitcher, who defected to Andorra in 2009 before signing a Major League Baseball contract in 2010.
 * José Fernández, Cuban baseball player, who defected to the United States in 2008.
 * Lutz Eigendorf, an East German football player for BFC Dynamo who defected to West Germany in 1979.
 * Orlando Hernandez, Cuban baseball pitcher, who defected to the United States in 1997.
 * Nadia Comăneci, Romanian Olympic gymnast, who defected to the United States in 1989.
 * Martina Navratilova, Czechoslovak tennis player, who defected to the United States in 1975.
 * Alexander Mogilny, Soviet (Russian) ice hockey forward, who defected to the United States in 1988. He was the first Soviet player to defect to play in the NHL.
 * Béla Károlyi and his wife Márta Károlyi, Romanian gymnastics coaches (of Nadia Comăneci and Mary Lou Retton among others), who defected to the United States in 1981.
 * Osvaldo Alonso, Cuban soccer player, who defected to the United States in 2007.
 * José Abreu, Cuban baseball player, who defected to the United States in 2013.
 * Kimia Alizadeh, Iranian taekwondo martial artist, who defected to the Netherlands in 2020.
 * César Prieto, Cuban baseball player, who defected to the United States in 2021.
 * Krystsina Tsimanouskaya, Belarus sprinter, who defected to Poland in 2021.

Military

 * Larry Allen Abshier, the first of six American soldiers to defect to North Korea between the years 1962–1982. He died in 1983 from a heart attack while residing in Pyongyang.
 * Benedict Arnold‚ a colonial general who during the American Revolutionary War defected to the British Army.
 * Riad al-Asaad, founder of the Free Syrian Army and the entire Tlass Family during the Syrian civil war.
 * Viktor Belenko, a Soviet Air Force lieutenant who flew a MiG-25 fighter to Japan in 1976 and gained political asylum in the United States.
 * James Joseph Dresnok, a US Army private who defected to North Korea by sneaking across the Demilitarized Zone in 1962. He would live the remainder of his life in the DPRK until his death in 2016.
 * Igor Gouzenko, a Soviet cipher clerk who defected to Canada and released information regarding Soviet espionage activities in western society. Credited as one of the triggering factors for the beginning of the Cold War.
 * No Kum-Sok (later Kenneth Rowe) is known for having been a lieutenant in the North Korean Air Force during the Korean War who defected to South Korea. On September 21, 1953, he flew his MiG-15 to the Kimpo Air Base in South Korea, claiming that he wanted to get away from the "red deceit" and is often associated with Operation Moolah.
 * Maxim Kuzminov, former Russian military pilot-navigator of the Mi-8AMTSh military transport helicopter. During the Russian-Ukrainian War, on August 9, 2023, he flew across the front line to the Ukrainian side as part of the special Operation Synytsia, prepared by the Main Intelligence Directorate of the Ukrainian Defense Ministry.
 * Genrikh Lyushkov, the NKVD chief in the Russian Far East, defected to Manchukuo in 1938 under the Great Purge and then cooperated with the Imperial Japanese Army.
 * Ivan Mazepa, Ukrainian Hetman of Zaporizhian Host from 1687–1708 who defected from the Russian Empire to the Swedish Empire during the Battle of Poltava of the Great Northern War.
 * Lee Harvey Oswald, the later assassin of President John F. Kennedy had claimed defection to the Soviet Union in October 1959 but was ultimately refused citizenship and returned to the United States in 1962.
 * Ion Mihai Pacepa, a Romanian Securitate general who defected to the United States from the Socialist Republic of Romania in 1978.
 * Matiur Rahman, a Pakistani/Bangladeshi pilot who in 1971 attempted to defect with a T-33 along with confidential Pakistani war plans to India to join the Bangladesh Liberation War. However his plan was foiled by Flt.Lt Rashid Minhas who crashed the plane after a brief struggle for control over the aircraft. The plane crashed some 50 Kilometres from the border.
 * Leamsy Salazar, former lieutenant colonel of Bolivarian Navy of Venezuela and head of security detail for Hugo Chávez, defected to United States in December 2014.
 * Heng Samrin, a top-brass military figure in Democratic Kampuchea defected to Vietnam during the Khmer Rouge purges of the Eastern Zone after considering the fate of So Phim, his superior in command.
 * Travis King, a US Army private who defected to North Korea, possibly to avoid facing a dishonorable discharge and legal charges, in 2023. North Korea would later return him to American custody.

Politics

 * Guy Burgess, British diplomat and member of the Cambridge Five, defected to the Soviet Union in 1951.
 * Donald Maclean, British diplomat and member of the Cambridge Five, defected to the Soviet Union in 1951.
 * Kim Philby, British intelligence officer and member of the Cambridge Five, defected to the Soviet Union in 1963.
 * Viktor Suvorov (born 1947), Russian writer and former Soviet military intelligence officer who defected to the United Kingdom in 1978.
 * Thae Yong-ho, a former North Korean diplomat for Britain. At an unknown date Thae defected from North Korea for his family, because he "didn't want his children, who were used to life of freedom, to suffer life of oppression". Being one of North Korea's elite, for the nation he was the highest profile defection since No Kum-sok (above) in 1953. He was elected to the South Korean National Assembly in 2020 for the United Future Party, representing the Gangnam A district of Seoul.
 * Vladimir Petrov - Soviet diplomat who defected to Australia in 1954.

Others

 * Viktor Korchnoi, Russian chess Grandmaster, defected in Amsterdam in 1976.
 * Walter Polovchak, minor, defected to the United States in 1980 at 12. He and his parents moved to the United States from Soviet Ukraine in 1980 but later that year his parents decided to move back to Ukraine. He did not wish to return with them and was the subject of a five-year struggle to stay permanently. He won the right to permanent sanctuary in 1985 upon turning 18.
 * The crew of oil tanker Tuapse, held hostage in 1954 by the government of Taiwan during the White Terror. An unusual case of forced defection, where the crew were forced to defect to the United States to secure their release. Those who refused were subjected to various forms of torture, while those who subsequently retracted their defection and returned to the Soviet Union were sentenced for treason but later pardoned. All surviving crew were released in 1988.
 * , in order to defect from Russia in 2021, swam from Kunashir Island to Hokkaido, a distance of about 20 kilometers, in 23 hours.
 * Yeonmi Park is a North Korean defector and activist whose family fled from North Korea to China in 2007

title: Defection


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Live in Texas (Linkin Park album)

Live in Texas is the first live album and the second DVD by American rock band Linkin Park, released on November 18, 2003 through Warner Records. The band's main setlist includes songs from their studio albums Hybrid Theory and Meteora, as well as one song from their remix album Reanimation. The live album peaked at #23 on the Billboard 200, and it has sold 1.1 million copies in the United States. The audio version of the concert includes 12 out of the 17 tracks. At the end of "A Place for My Head", Chester Bennington breaks Brad Delson's guitar. At the end of the concert, Joe Hahn threw a piece of his equipment on the stage floor.

Background
The DVD comes with a bonus CD that features twelve of the songs from the DVD. The other five live tracks can be found on the LP Underground 3.0 CD. The audio on the CD is mixed differently from the audio on the DVD. The DVD/CD comes in two versions: a CD case and, although harder to find, a DVD case. Live in Texas was awarded Gold certification in 2003 by the RIAA, only 29 days after the release of album, and Platinum certification in 2007.

The concert footage was shot on August 2 and August 3 during the Summer Sanitarium Tour 2003 at Reliant Stadium in Houston, Texas, and Texas Stadium in Irving, Texas. The video footage is made up of the audio from the Dallas show and video from both the Houston and Dallas shows; because of this the band had to wear the same clothes on two shows, although there are still noticeable differences. For example, it can be seen that Mike Shinoda wears two similar but different shirts, Brad Delson's guitar sometimes changes multiple times in the middle of songs from a red PRS to a black Ibanez, Dave Farrell's basses change a few times as well in the middle of songs, as well as lead singer Chester Bennington's shirt soaked with sweat, and it being completely dry the next time he is shown on screen.

Lars Ulrich also makes a quick, surprise appearance dressed up as a Hulk-fisted bunny man during "From the Inside".

In some Asian countries, the package was released with a VCD instead of a DVD. The VCD contains identical content.

The audio versions of "From the Inside" and "Runaway" were released as the b-sides of the "From the Inside" single. When "Lying from You" was released as a single, the footage from Live in Texas was used as the song's music video with the studio version dubbed over.

iTunes
The live performances of "Points of Authority" and "Lying from You" are available for purchase on iTunes.

Reception
Johnny Loftus of AllMusic gave the album a mixed review, saying "their cool professionalism makes Live in Texas sound somewhat sterile," as well as saying the band "seems lost inside its own sound." Nevertheless, he also says that the album "will likely serve as a [the fans'] memento of the tour."

Enhanced CD Extras

 * Website toolkit
 * Merchandise
 * Screensaver
 * Web links

Personnel

 * Linkin Park
 * Chester Bennington – vocals
 * Rob Bourdon – drums
 * Brad Delson – lead guitar
 * Joe Hahn – turntables, sampling, programming
 * Dave "Phoenix" Farrell – bass
 * Mike Shinoda – vocals, rhythm guitar, keyboard
 * CD production
 * Produced and mixed by: Josh Abraham
 * Engineered by: Ryan Williams
 * ProTools engineer: Brandon Belsky
 * Mixed at Pulse Recordings, Los Angeles, California

 * DVD production
 * Director: Kimo Proudfoot
 * DVD producer: Matt Caltabiano
 * Director of photography: Jim Hawkinson
 * Edited by: Kevin McCullough

 * Production team
 * Worldwide representation: Rob McDermott for The Firm
 * Additional representation by: Ryan Saullo and Ryan DeMarti
 * Booking agent: Mike Arfin for Artist Group International
 * Legal: Danny Hayes for Davis, Shapiro, Lewit, Montone & Hayes
 * Business manager: Michael Oppenheim and Jonathan Schwartz for Gudvi, Sussman and Oppenheim
 * Worldwide licensing and merchandising: Bandmerch
 * Creative direction: Mike Shinoda and the Flem
 * Art direction and design: The Flem
 * Digipak design: The Flem
 * Booklet design: Lawrence Azerrad Design
 * Digipak photography: Gret Watermann
 * Recorded live August 2, 2003 at Reliant Stadium in Houston, TX and August 3, 2003, at Texas Stadium in Irving, TX on Metallica's Summer Sanitarium Tour
 * Mobile audio recording:
 * Live recording engineer: Joel Singer with Effanel Music
 * Assistant recording engineer: Hardi Kamsani with Effanel Music
 * Mobile recording equipment provided by: Effanel Music
 * DVD producer: David May
 * DVD mastered by: Gateway Mastering
 * DVD production director: Penny Marciano
 * DVD graphics coordinator: Raena Winscott
 * DVD graphics design: Sean Donnelly and Kimo Proudfoot
 * Authoring: Wamo

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Live in Texas (Linkin Park album)


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Net Book Agreement

The Net Book Agreement (NBA) was a fixed book price agreement in the United Kingdom and Ireland between The Publishers Association and booksellers which set the prices at which books were to be sold to the public. The agreement was concerned solely with price maintenance. It operated in the UK from 1900 until the 1990s when it was abandoned by some large bookshop chains and was then ruled illegal. It also operated in Ireland until shortly before its final demise.

History
It came into effect on 1 January 1900 and involved retailers selling books at agreed prices. Any bookseller who sold a book at less than the agreed price would no longer be supplied by the publisher in question. In 1905, The Times tried but failed to challenge the agreement by setting up a low-cost book borrowing club.

In 1905, following The Education Act, The Publishers Association introduced the practice of deeming school books 'non-net' allowing schools discounts that were not available on other books. There were also agreements in place to allow public libraries to receive discounts of up to 5% on the net books they purchased.

In 1962 the Net Book Agreement was examined by the Restrictive Practices Court, which decided that the NBA was of benefit to the industry, since it enabled publishers to subsidise the printing of the works of important but less widely read authors using money from bestsellers.

In 1991 the large bookshop chain Dillons, followed by Waterstones, began to offer some books at a discount.

As the agreement did not cover books that were damaged (or second hand), shops that wished to sell "new" books below cover price for any reason (for example to get rid of obsolete stock or titles that were not otherwise selling) adopted a simple strategy which meant that they were still sticking to the terms of the agreement: they deliberately defaced or damaged the book(s). The two methods most commonly used were to either use a hole punch to punch a hole in the cover of the book or to use a marker pen to mark the edge of the pages. The marker pen method was the most common as it took the least effort.

Dissolution of the NBA
The Publishers Association applied the NBA in the Republic of Ireland until 1992, after the Competition Act 1991 came into force. In June 1994 Ireland's Competition Authority refused to license the NBA, on the grounds that UK publishers' market share was high enough for the NPA to distort competition in Ireland.

In the UK in August 1994 the Director General of the Office of Fair Trading decided that the Restrictive Practices Court should review the agreement. In September 1995 several major publishers (including HarperCollins and Random House) withdrew, and in September 1996 the Booksellers Association decided to take no part in the case. In March 1997 the Restrictive Practices Court ruled that the Net Book Agreement was against the public interest and therefore illegal. The adoption of this new procurement discipline by academic libraries since the demise of the NBA is the focus of "Managing suppliers for collection development: the UK higher education perspective." The collapse of the Agreement strengthened large bookstore chains and reduced book prices. It also paved the way for the large supermarket chains to take a chunk of the book business, typically offering a small number of best-selling titles at deeply discounted prices. As of 2009, 500 independent bookshops had closed since the demise of the agreement. An early example of the changes in the book publishing markets following the termination of the agreement was the entry of the US-owned booksellers Borders into the British high street, following their purchase of Books Etc, but the failure of the changes was demonstrated by the rapid bankruptcy of Borders, as the supermarkets rapidly dominated the market with loss-leading price discounting, wiping out the competition.

However, market concentration and a demise of independent bookshops also took place in economies such as Germany and France where a fixed book price agreement is still in place. The loss in business was smaller than predicted by many commentators. The number of titles published in the UK briefly increased when the NBA was dissolved in 1997; the volume of books sold in the UK increased temporarily by about 30% compared to 1995, but the retail prices collapsed.

title: Net Book Agreement


text:
Talk:Mary Ann Bickerdyke

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 07:18, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

I updated to C class based on recent edits. TeriEmbrey (talk) 15:38, 8 December 2014 (UTC)

Comments
I started to clean-up the article a bit. A lot of the information was unnecessarily spaced out, so I've collapsed some sections into larger paragraphs. There are a number of claims that do not have clear citations from my read-- these will need to be clarified. The nice thing is that there appears to be numerous sources for Bickerdyke bio that haven't yet been tapped. Are many of these accessible at the Pritzker? I, JethroBT drop me a line 08:03, 15 January 2015 (UTC)

Yes, those sources are available at Pritzker. Thanks for taking a look at this article. TeriEmbrey (talk) 14:44, 15 January 2015 (UTC)
 * I worked on this a bit today as well and there are only two missing citations now. TeriEmbrey (talk) 21:15, 15 January 2015 (UTC)

Military history project review
I've upped this to B class by our standards, although I think it could use additional visuals. Perhaps some pictures of the conditions in the hospitals, the locales where she worked, especially in the CW. Also, their should be a bio box, not only her picture at the head of the article. The box should contain the relevant statistics on her. auntieruth (talk) 16:04, 28 January 2015 (UTC)

 * Thanks for taking a look at it. TeriEmbrey (talk) 16:05, 28 January 2015 (UTC)
 * Teri, I suggest expanded it with some info from other sources, such as Spencer Tucker's. I don't remember if you used More than Petticoats, or not.   Also it would be useful to include some information from soldiers and officers about her.  auntieruth (talk) 16:13, 28 January 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Mary Ann Bickerdyke


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Talk:Commander-in-chief

Untitled
Does that make the president of the US a military officer?

 * No. It's a little bit of a weird situation, because for instance military personnel are expected to salute him, but not vice versa - the saluting President was an idea of Reagan's IIRC. All military officers have uniforms, but not the President, etc etc. Somebody who really knows this stuff (which is not me) could flesh out some details for this article.

Yes, it does make him a Military officer, see below under Job function. LotteryOhYah 04:43, 26 October 2005 (UTC)

 * No, the president is not a military officer. The President of the United States in no way falls under the UCMJ.--RLent 21:12, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

Where is the documentation for the October 24th Rumsfeld statement? "On October 24, 2002, U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld announced that the title of "Commander-in-Chief" would thereafter be reserved for the President, and that armed forces CINCs would shorten their title to "commander.""

Political Garbage Removal
The "War on Terrorism" section should be removed, or else rewritten from scratch. The definition of the "unitary executive theory" is completely incorrect. The UET has nothing to do with the scope of power as CIC. The statements that follow that definition are likewise wrong, except for the last sentence in the section which is simply a non-factual weasel statement. Equally bad are the three footnotes, containing nothing but 19 references to opinion columns! Since when does an encyclopedia entry back up its facts with references to opinion columns? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.39.157.13 (talk) 08:15, 22 October 2007 (UTC)

New Article
I suggest we make a new article based on the title "Commander In Chief of the United States of America". LotteryOhYah 04:43, 26 October 2005 (UTC)

CINC Quotes
All of those quotes are from instances where they are discussing his role as the military commander, and as such is proper IMO. Now if they used CINC when discussing directly social issues then there would be a cause of concern, and a notable quote. PPGMD

---

There is *way* too much detail on the US politics here.

Since the September_11,_2001_attacks on the World Trade Center and the declaration of the War on Terror, American media has increasingly refered to the President as the "Commander-in-Chief", even in civil affairs. This is often done when discussing the restriction of civil rights, such as with the Patriot Act, suggesting a comparison between the President and the military leaders of dictatorial countries; but ambiguous statements are also regulary featured in statements of personalities favourable to the Bush administration :

 * Zell Miller : "Now, while young Americans are dying in the sands of Iraq and the mountains of Afghanistan, our nation is being torn apart and made weaker because of the Democrat's manic obsession to bring down our Commander in Chief."

 * Pat Buchanan : "Here was a cabal of intellectuals telling the Commander-in-Chief, nine days after an attack on America, that if he did not follow their war plans, he would be charged with surrendering to terror.".

 * Dick Cheney : "Just as surely as the Nazis during World War Two and the Soviet communists during the Cold War, the enemy we face today is bent on our destruction. As in other times, we are in a war we did not start, and have no choice but to win. Firm in our resolve, focused on our mission, and led by a superb commander in chief, we will prevail. ".

 * "A political candidate who jumps to conclusions without knowing the facts is not a person you want as your commander in chief when it comes to your security." (Good illustration, since the "Commander in Chief" part of the presidential charge always comes to security, this somehow implies that the "commander in chief" has taken over other parts of the presidency -- Bush campaign line, cited by John F. Kerry )

Roadrunner 07:39, 29 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * What about keeping only the last quote ? Rama 13:52, 29 Oct 2004 (UTC)

This isn't true

 * Subordinate to the President of the United States are the Commanders of the regional Unified Commands. This model is followed in many other nations.

The US is the only military that has enough global reach to require the creation of regional unified commands. Most other militaries actually have the service chiefs of staff in the chain of command which the United States does not.

Roadrunner 07:42, 29 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Image
What was so POV about the image ? Perhaps the formulation was not adequte, but I don't understand ow the image in itself is POV. Is it actually appropriate to salute for the President ? I've heard that Reagan was the first to do this and that it is not in the protocole, can anyone confirm and infirm this ? Rama 00:24, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * First you reffered to President Bush, as President Bush Jr. What does the President getting saluted have to do with the idea of CinC? And finally it adds nothing to the article. PPGMD
 * Well, I had honestly no idea that refering to "President Bush Jr." would be so offfensive; I suppose that in any case, this could be addressed by replacing this by "President George W. Bush" or something unambiguous like this, could it not ?
 * The point of the photograph, and its relationship with the title, is that saluting is usually a military custom; the President of the USA is a civil title; thus, there is something remarkable, from the protocol point of view, that the President of the USA would militarly salute the troops: either a traditional oddity, or a formal manifestation of a "military aspect" of the function. I don't know wether I have made my notice understandable ? Thank you for caring. Rama 09:16, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Military members must salute members with a higher rank than themselves. It is a sign of respect. As a side note, failure to salute an officer is a sign of insubordination, and is against the law of the military.

The President is both the civilian AND military head of the government. He is a civilian as is every member down the succession line.

It is his role as head of the military that officers are saluting.

(please don't be offended if I use the term officers, I mean all members of the military)

Political Implications Section
I agree with the dividing up into Country sections. But the political implications section is worthless. None of the quotes you give justify your criticism. All are on Security issues, or relating to security. For some reason it has become vogue to call the POTUS, Commander in Chief when it comes to security issues, but it seems like they use it to make him sound more important. But it's pretty rare that the administration using CinC for anything other than security issues, but even then it's not that common, and they prefer the traditional title of President.

Unless you can come up with quotes that show anyone other than his critics (remember quite a number of his critics, like to associate President Bush with Hitler, so using a military title fits their agenda) using the title CinC for the POTUS on a regular basis, I will remove it tomorrow. PPGMD 16:14, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * The quote by Zell Miller, for instance (a supporter of Bush, if I recall correctly) clearly gives the impression the the President would be the Commander in Chief of the United States of America, not only of the US Forces. This is naturally a slip of language (I doubt that a parallel with Hitler's title of Führer could be done without reserves), however, the mediatisation of the title seems to me like somethin worth mentionning. I do not recall Presidents Bush (the first one), or Clinton, being refered to as "Commander in Chief" very frenquently, even though the USA did take part in military operations at the time.
 * It is certainly possible that the section, as it is, could be perfected, but I wonder wether removing it completely would be fair; do you think the passage is irreparable ? Rama 17:04, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * The Zel Miller quote has directly to do with military side of the President. He is saying that you can't have the highest commander of the troops be someone who has called them murders in the past. To me, the CinC title is used only when talking about the military commander side of the Presidency, and is appropriate. It's simply that it's become vogue with the press, and soon after even the politicians are using it, but almost all only use when referring to military and security issues. And has very little to do with politics, simply the media using the name more, which the politicians picked up on. I would support a rewrite to this effect.
 * I also think that the section could use a more complete rewrite, going into more detail of the US system. Starting with the Defense Reorginzation Act would confuse readers that aren't as up with US politican structure.PPGMD 17:29, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Parts of this section really need to be deleted because of bias. LotteryOhYah 03:29, 26 October 2005 (UTC)

Title?
What is our justification in calling Commander-in-Chief a "title" for the POTUS? I always learned about CinC being a role of the President (like head of state, head of government, party leader, etc.) rather than a title. I know this is a subtle distinction, but I think it's significant. The Constitution certainly supports this characterization just as well.

69.47.159.58
there should be no poltics of any sort in what should be a simple dictionary style entry.

for cripe's sake! take your politics to the message boards

 * This is not a dictionnary, this is an encyclopedia. If you want a dictionary, please see http://wiktionary.org/ . Thank you. Rama 05:23, 23 September 2005 (UTC)

Job Function (US)
The "Commander In Chief" was used by the founding fathers as a way of saying that the President is the head of the armed forces. The military is a pyramid with the President of the United States at the top. It is part of the executive function of the office. The job of the President is to lead the country in a time of war, especially from a military standpoint, although he may leave the planning of this to other officers, if necessary.

He cannot be considered to be a dictator in the technical sense, because he has to be elected for each four year period prior to gaining this title. Note the distinction between this, and the case of where a military coup takes place, and a general assumes control of a nation. No General can legally take control of the United States highest office (technically) because they are not elected.

Should the generals decide to kill the President, the office falls on the Vice President, and down the line of command. The modern day notion is that a "civilian" will always have control of the military. The idea is that the American people will always have control of their own military and not be subjects to it, like in a Kingdom. Power rises from the bottom to the top, not vice versa.

The founding fathers were just as wary of military dictatorship as they were of Kings, so they gave the President the title so that he might be able to remove Generals at will. Technically the President could dissolve the whole military, if necessary. For example, in the case of a President who was opposed to the idea of going to an undeclared war, one which Congress could not muster enough votes to declare. In order to add top officials, it has been customary for them to be confirmed by the Senate, giving a balance of power. The President can fire without consultation, but he cannot hire without it except perhaps temporarily in the case of a recess appointment.

Note that the President is still accountable to Congress and that Congress has the right to impeach the President, given a 2/3's majority, should it so choose. If this were to happen, the Vice-President would become the Commander in Chief, and the President would no longer control the military. This can be considered as either a weakness or a strength in the system. In general, you want the person the people elected as President to serve, but should things turn out badly enough, you also want the option to remove that person. And if you do remove that person, you don't want them reaching using the military.

The importance of the Commander in Chief function is that it allows the President to plan wars in wartime, and to direct military operations in peace time. Because of this, there is an expectation that the President will have served in the military at some point in his or her life adding practical knowledge to this position. Several Presidential candidates and many hopefuls have come from the military. Dwight D. Eisenhower served as a General before he assumed the nations highest military position.

Another side note.. In the film (by the same name) where Nixon is threatened with impeachment, he considers his role as military head. He decides that he would not use the military. Nixon argued throughout the film that his role was comparable to that of, but not that of a King. A King for four years, if you will. Most modern politicians would not assert they were kings.

Technically, if Congress was not able to impeach the President, and still acted as though it had, the military could be used to put down whatever insurection there was. This is a check on Congress as well. Though a worrying one.

The most important military function the President has as Commander In Chief is control over the Nuclear Weapons of the US. This may be the most important function he has period given the stakes involved.

LotteryOhYah 04:07, 26 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Because of this, there is an expectation that the President will have served in the military at some point in his or her life adding practical knowledge to this position. I can't agree there. There is no requirement of military service to be president, so it can't be said that there is an expectation of military service. You could say, however, that many in the public consider military service to be a plus.--RLent 21:11, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

An improper link
A U. S. Supreme Court case from 1864 is a link to this article. A fix is needed. See: volume #68. Superslum 03:18, 7 July 2006 (UTC)

Sink
If the last name is Sink, then he will be known as CINC Sink. Just a thought. Jigen III 20:20, 10 September 2006 (UTC)

Supreme Commander is a real term
I noticed that in the article, it notes that "In Fiction" the term Supreme Commander is used for the main commander of a nations military force. However, according to the "Dictionary of Military Terms", it has a listing for Supreme Commander as an unofficial term used by others to descirbe the leader of such forces. --Eldarone (talk) 04:10, 15 May 2008 (UTC)

who is the commander in chif of the armed forces
he is the commander of a nation's military forces or sighificant element of those forces —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.120.107.163 (talk) 00:16, 7 October 2008 (UTC)

NATO
I spy that the German language version of this page has a section on NATO (I can't read it though). Does NATO have a commander-in-chief? BigBlueFish (talk) 13:57, 14 October 2008 (UTC)
 * It basicially gives a brief form of what can be read in NATO. NATO uses the term Supreme Allied Commander for the head of a Strategic Command, of which there are two. In a general encyclopedia, one would perhaps think that the term Supreme Commander would redirect to this page, rather than being a page describing a computer game with just a hatnote to this article, but that's another story. And then there is a Chairman of the NATO Military Committee. Tomas e (talk) 11:10, 30 October 2008 (UTC)

4chan Spam
4chan is currently vandalizing this.

Please revert when they are gone. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.176.0.55 (talk) 12:28, 13 November 2008 (UTC)

United Kingdom?
Why does this page not contain any information about the Commander-in-chief of the united kingdom?, the UK's armed forces has the 2nd/3rd higest Budget in the world, is currantly supporting the USA in the war on terror and is the only western country that has been invloved in modern warfare in the last 20 years, and the name commander in cheif originates from the UK, so it should be added Alexsau1991 (talk) 20:40, 6 January 2009 (UTC)
 * I have added the information from the UK armed forces page about Command Alexsau1991 (talk) 20:44, 6 January 2009 (UTC)

presidentual powers
does the US president need any support from any other house before makeing a decision like bombing —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.137.184.30 (talk) 10:41, 16 February 2009 (UTC)

Federalist #69

 * Federalist No. 69 spelled out that the President would not be commander-in-chief until Congress had first declared war. The governors of the states are ordinarily the commanders-in-chief of their states' respective State Defense Forces, National Guard, or other military forces, except when those forces are called into "active service of the United States" (a process sometimes referred to as "federalizing").

No it doesn't. Federalist No. 69 simply restates the constitution and says

 * Second. The President is to be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States. In this respect his authority would be nominally the same with that of the king of Great Britain, but in substance much inferior to it. It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces, as first General and admiral of the Confederacy; while that of the British king extends to the declaring of war and to the raising and regulating of fleets and armies -- all which, by the Constitution under consideration, would appertain to the legislature

Roadrunner (talk) 20:32, 13 April 2009 (UTC)

"Commander-in-chief" derives from Latin "Imperator"?
What?!

I just don't see the corellation, and it really isn't explained adequately (or at all, for that matter) in the article.

Will someone please shed some light on how we get from the word "Imperator" to the term "Commander-in-chief"? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.58.204.115 (talk) 10:03, 31 May 2009 (UTC)

legal definition
What about the legal rights given (or not given) to the President of the US, as commander-in-chief? The discussion on what the president may or may not order his troops to do is entirely missing here. If you know more about it, please add. -- 92.229.98.128 (talk) 21:46, 23 February 2010 (UTC)

Commander-in- chief Chief
The article title is missing a capital! --Kurtle (talk) 21:25, 13 April 2010 (UTC)

"and thus often a strange paradox is created as the Commander-In-Chief usually must take direction from officers whom he outranks, especially in a crisis situation."

This is not a strange paradox at all. A constitutional monarch does this in the military and other fields -- It is how a parliamentary democracy works. In the case of a US President unlike the Queen of Britain he does not have to take the advise proffered. So the US president usually " must takes direction from officers whom he outranks", but there is no must about it and Presidents such as Truman and Kennedy have listened to advise (not direction) but have made their own decisions on the dropping of the bomb and the Cuban blockade.-- PBS (talk) 07:36, 24 July 2010 (UTC)

Commander in Chief in Egypt has to be edited!!
Who is Commander in Chief in Egypt now? Mubarak has resigned? The Supreme Council of the armed Forces is the administrative!

Please someone has to clearify the Situation - pls. post answer to me: torusernet =at= googlemail =dot= com —Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.51.148.98 (talk) 14:55, 15 February 2011 (UTC)

Bring troops home that are in Afghanistan
Bold text Hi Commander-in Chief!

My name is Polly Lee,and MY Fiance is in Afghanistan,and he and his troop has been there for 10 months already!I am trying to get him home,we where ot be married on OCT 3,2011! HIS TROOP IS 3rd Beigade Combat 1 st Infatry Division,and he thought that he and his troop would be home befor now.We has plans to have military wedding with his troop with us on this Great Day for US! Due to them not coming home befor the OCT we do not know what to do about this matter! It would Please me and my fiance sgt Les Dodson for all of them to be brought home some time this month even if it is only for 60 days so that we all can be joined in this happy Day! They have been there for 10 months all ready and would love to have your help for this Day to be one in a life Time for ME and HIM and the troops that he servies with. I could pay for him to come home ,but the troop would still be there and not with us on our GREAT DAY! THANK YOU VERY MUCH WITH THIS MATTER! I PRAY THAT YOU CAN HELP US WITH THIS! Polly Lee    leepolly30@yahoo.com  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.23.195.151 (talk) 18:28, 7 September 2011 (UTC)

Obama "44th person"
"The current Commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces is Barack Obama, the 44th person to hold the position."

Technically, wouldn't Obama be the 43rd person to hold the position? He is the 44th President, but since Grover Cleveland was the 22nd AND 24th President, there are only 43 people to have held the position. Sam (talk) 17:47, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

One World Government Being Ushered in Wholesale by the Obama Regime and Our Rogue Government
This was inspired when reading an article about a Company in Oregon that is building and marketing a Drone Jammer that people can buy to protect themselves from being spied on by Government Drones that are now being used by the U.S. Government and some cities and states, all in violation of the U.S. Constitution on all kinds of levels, not the least of which is Privacy Rights as in the Privacy Act of 1967 for one, and the 4th Amendment, and First Amendment as well. Anyway, thanks. If you want to read, great, if not, just delete. Thanks—Jerome

One World Order Begins In Earnest (2009 to present) (Started with Woodrow Wilson and has expanded ever since.) By Jerome Ennis The USA has plans in place for UN forces who have been training with our military for decades on U.S. soil and in other countries, to be used against the U.S. citizenry should civil war breakout or if the U.S. government decides to Declare Martial Law and Suspension of our Constitutional Rights. This is not a Conspiracy Theory. This is fact and has been going on for some time. It really took off during the 1980's. Blue Helmeted Foreign UN forces were training at U.S. military bases all over the country, including Mountain Warfare Training in North Georgia, North Carolina and other cities, as well as at Fort Benning, Ga. and many other bases.

This has been a joint U.S./NATO/UN plan for decades. The idea being that Foreign Troops with Blue Helmets (UN Forces) would be more willing to arrest or murder U.S. Citizens when ordered to do so than would our own Soldiers. That is how the world is operating now, and the U.S. is now getting ready to add the USA to the World War that is now being Waged at the Behest of the United Nations and NATO in Africa, The Middle East, and other Hot Spots. Our government is using our military with NATO and UN Forces to fight and kill Other Countries Citizens that Fight Back.

The aim is for the UN to be the Seat of Government For The World. One world United under Threat From Foreign Soldiers on "Enemy Soil". The USA is now considered an Enemy of the One World Government, and that is what the Obama Regime with Collusion from our Congress and Fascist Bureaucratic Department Heads and Supreme Court Judges, is preparing us for. They (all of them) aim to collapse our economy, and when Austerity Measures Really Come, they know Riots and Looting and Shooting will break out in the streets all over the country, and then the Foreign Troops with the aid of Local and State Governments and National Guard will be called in to Put Down the Riots and the New World Order Will Be Installed, and anybody who Refuses or Retaliates will be summarily Gunned Down by any means necessary, INCLUDING DRONE Strikes On U.S. Citizens, will begin. That is why the Obama Regime Refused to Answer Rand Paul's and Other Conservative Republicans questions when asked about Shooting Down Citizens on U.S. soil if Obama Deems them Enemies of the Regime. And, no matter what the official answer in “Spoken Words Only” from the Obama Regime, with no Written Guarantees, the aim and plan is the same. They are going to do anything they want with these drones either at home or abroad. Their spoken and written words are meaningless. They are absolutely Fascist and Fascism Dictates No Opposition Allowed in Any Form, spoken, written or action.

That is the plan, and that is exactly what they will do when the time comes. This is the real Reason That Our Gun And Ammo Rights are being First Limited and Later Ended at Gun Point If Necessary. They, the OWO and Our Government's Part In It, want as little Opposition Voices and Forces as possible to protect the OWO attackers. Why else would China, Cuba, Venezuela, Iran and other countries be concerned with 2nd Amendment Rights in the USA? They are all part of the OWO and they are getting ready to Force the USA citizenry into the Control of the OWO.

(Side Note: The reason our government refuses to Defend Our Borders and refusing to do anything about the Invading Forces who are already “In Country” and more coming each day, will join in with the UN Invading Forces because these Foreign Invaders basically hate the Regular Law Abiding U.S. Citizens and they come from Third World Countries where Tin Hat Fascist Dictators are in Power and are already a Part of the One World Order, which was the aim of World Communism past and present. The Communists with help and aid of the Obama Regime with Hillary Clinton and Susan Rice doing the Negotiating have now joined in a Pact With Radical Islam, the same as Hitler did during WWII.)

This did not start Right Now. It is just Right Now, that they plan to Put the Final Nails Into USA Independence As a Free and Sovereign Nation. This is not conspiratorial, this is fact, yet you will be called a Conspiracy Theorist by the Powers that Be. They do this to Demonize You and Make People who might Listen To and Believe You and Join Forces With You, think that your either one: A Nut Case or two: A possible Terrorist. That is why the TEA Party Movement has been Demonized By both Political Parties and the Fascist Bureaucrat Heads like HLS Department Head, Janet Napolitano. That is why Homeland Security is Buying Up As Much Ammo as Possible along with all the AR-15's and other Rifles that can be used for Self Defense Against An Invading Force or Home Invaders. The Invading UN Forces will be Home Invaders and they want to take as few casualties On Their Side as possible while taking out as many of us that they can in the shortest period of time, so that the USA infrastructure is not Damaged Too Much so that Invading Forces can Occupy our Buildings and Homes. This is the real aim, and it all started way back when Woodrow Wilson, a Communist Professor was POTUS, and over time has been pushed further and further, and they now believe the time is Right to Move on the USA Takeover and our Government is Behind It All. The National Defense Act of 1958 and the Creation of the So-Called National Security Council were the beginnings of what we now have with The So-Called Patriot Act and other Totalitarian and Fascist Policies we have allowed our government to implement over the past 50 or so years. Now, Armed Drones over USA cities? Surveillance Drones Over USA Cities and countryside, mapping out everything in the USA and compiling in a Huge Data Base being put together by Companies such as Google, Apple, IBM, Microsoft and other Tech Companies that have huge multi-billion dollar contracts with the U.S. Government to compile all the date and to put together the Technology to Keep Tabs on Every Move You Make and Every Word you Dare Utter, and Every Step You Might Take to Either Escape or to Fight Back. Money is being Electronically Monitored as well as every Phone Call You Make and Every time You Log Onto Your Computers as in Right Now. That is why Face Book, for example, was able to Go Public. That was with US. Government Help in order to Further Consolidate all Computer Sites.

When the TEA Party first started in 2009, Janet Napolitano came out and said the TEA Party Members and Movement was A Terrorist Movement and that Veterans, and others who Dared Expose or to talk about our government and how they are destroying our country were to be considered as enemies and possible terrorists. They called us Racists, Terrorists, and all sorts of other things in order To Demonize The TEA Party to limit it's growth. That is what happens anytime the government is preparing for War. They Identify and Then Demonize A "Perceived Enemy" over and over and eventually when the government Strikes The Perceived Enemy, the citizenry that has been conditioned and brainwashed into hating the “Perceived Enemy” (The Enemy that the government's repeated Propaganda Campaign has Conditioned and Brainwashed You Into Believing as Fact) will join forces in helping the government destroy their friends and neighbors, who otherwise were their friends and family.

This has always been the Rhetoric In the Art Of War, when a war is being staged to start at the drop of a Hat after some “Perceived Event” or “Perceived Threat” that the Government Has Already Brainwashed the Citizenry Into Backing when the Attacks Begin, and therefore to get as Many Brainwashed Stooges Behind the Government and the Actions as they can, and therefore be willing to Attack Their Fellow Friends, Neighbors and USA Citizens in General, because the Government Has Lied To Them and Disarmed Them, and made them believe that the Lies the Government Told Them is The Truth.

Obama, McCain, Pelosi, Reid, and all the rest of the DC Capitol Hill Gang, all know this is happening and they are going along with it, because they feel they, themselves, will be safe and rich at the same time. They love personal power, wealth and prestige more than they love the country they are supposedly defending and serving.

The Lobbyists who Have Controlled Our Elected Officials and Bureaucratic Department and Agency Heads Tell Them What to Do and Not To Do, and the politicians pretend to Represent We The People and our interests and the interests of a Free and Sovereign USA, but that is all a sham. They are Bought and Sold by the Lobbyists who are Profiteering and Sharing With the Elected Politicians who become Mult-Millionaires after a couple of Terms In DC as Senator or Congress Member. They sell out We The People, The Country and our National Sovereignty. They know what they are doing, and that is why Lindsey Graham and John McCain jump on, ridicule and demonize Paul Ryan, Allen West, Rand Paul, Sara Palin and anybody else Identified as Conservative or Tea Party Affiliation. Karl Rove, Krauthammer, O'Reilly, and all the rest of the so-called Fair and Balanced FAUX News are the Propaganda Voices of the so-called Republican Party. Yes, they Represent the Main Stream Republicans who are just One Half of the Illicit Regime we now have Posing as a Divided Congress. There is no Division, and they know it. They have to Pretend to Be Opposed To One Another in order for the General Public Believing in the System and believing our Votes Really Matter.

No matter which party is in or out of party, nothing ever changes or is undone, but is only added on to with more and more intrusions on our freedoms by government and the once slow and now Rapid Destruction of Our Monetary System and Economy and at the same Time Downsizing and Disarming Our Military, for they fear that their might just be a Few Warrior Generals Left to Fight Back against an Invading Army from Germany, Saudi Arabia, China, Japan, Russia and other Nations that have Already Acquiesced to the NEW World Order. Obama, Hillary Clinton, Susan Rice, Leon Panetta and all the other Scoundrels in the Obama Regime have been Putting In The Final Details and Agreements to Put the USA into the ONE World Order. The Political Generals and Civilians now Running the Military care more for their own Individual Power and Riches than they do in the USA and Our Constitution. They are all co-conspirators with the OWO Regime with Obama now being the Head of that Organization in the USA until we elect the Next Puppet, either Democrat or Republican.

That is why Both Democrats and Establishment Republicans Hate and Demonize the TEA Party. They see the TEA Party is a Threat to Their Positions and the TEA Party is seen as a Threat because the TEA Party Candidates are Exposing these Frauds, Subversives, Perverts and Criminals who now run our country, especially at the National Level. Jerome Ennis, 17 March 2013 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.62.126.155 (talk) 17:08, 17 March 2013 (UTC)

Common anglophone military ranks
In the introduction section, why is the table entitled "Common anglophone military ranks" repeated directly below? We have two, with no discernible difference between them. Did somebody intend to put another table there, do a copy-and-paste job, and then screw up when updating the second table? I don't want to remove it right now because I'm afraid I don't know enough about the situation and I don't want to screw up somebody else's stuff. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Bcroner (talk • contribs) 04:13, 10 October 2014 (UTC)

This term is not hyphenated!
This article makes the repeated mistake of hyphenating this term. It is not hyphenated, as any style guide will tell you. The correct term is "commander in chief."

Here's the New York Times on this question, showing that the hyphens are wrong: http://afterdeadline.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/11/26/too-many-commas/?_r=0

North Korea
The North Korean constitution may be unclear as to who is head of state, but it certainly is not "the Chairman of the National Defence Commission who in article 100 is described as the "highest military leading organ of State power and an organ for general control over national defense of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea". This is a purely military position.101.98.74.13 (talk) 07:28, 16 March 2016 (UTC)

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India
Is there any reason for India to be given a particular mention right at the start of the article? I'm not denying India should be in the article, but adding it there just seems like someone over-emphasising one state for no apparent reason. If nobody objects, I propose to remove it in a few days — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.153.90.169 (talk) 11:37, 16 January 2018 (UTC)
 * DoneGaruda28 (talk) 13:59, 16 January 2018 (UTC)

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Table of ranks
Why is there a table of comparative military ranks here? It's a very nice table, although perhaps limited in application to countries that follow the British pattern, but as far as I can see has absolutely nothing to do with the subject. Lower Slobovia might have a completely different set of ranks and still have a CinC. I don't want to just arbitrarily delete it, since evidently many editors have no problem with it. --D Anthony Patriarche (talk) 17:23, 31 May 2019 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Commander-in-chief


text:
Carbohydrate metabolism

Carbohydrate metabolism is the whole of the biochemical processes responsible for the metabolic formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms.

Carbohydrates are central to many essential metabolic pathways. Plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water through photosynthesis, allowing them to store energy absorbed from sunlight internally. When animals and fungi consume plants, they use cellular respiration to break down these stored carbohydrates to make energy available to cells. Both animals and plants temporarily store the released energy in the form of high-energy molecules, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), for use in various cellular processes.

Humans can consume a variety of carbohydrates, digestion breaks down complex carbohydrates into simple monomers (monosaccharides): glucose, fructose, mannose and galactose. After resorption in the gut, the monosaccharides are transported, through the portal vein, to the liver, where all non-glucose monosacharids (fructose, galactose) are transformed into glucose as well. Glucose (blood sugar) is distributed to cells in the tissues, where it is broken down via cellular respiration, or stored as glycogen. In cellular (aerobic) respiration, glucose and oxygen are metabolized to release energy, with carbon dioxide and water as endproducts.

Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the process of breaking down a glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules, while storing energy released during this process as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). Nearly all organisms that break down glucose utilize glycolysis. Glucose regulation and product use are the primary categories in which these pathways differ between organisms. In some tissues and organisms, glycolysis is the sole method of energy production. This pathway is common to both anaerobic and aerobic respiration.

Glycolysis consists of ten steps, split into two phases. During the first phase, it requires the breakdown of two ATP molecules. During the second phase, chemical energy from the intermediates is transferred into ATP and NADH. The breakdown of one molecule of glucose results in two molecules of pyruvate, which can be further oxidized to access more energy in later processes.

Glycolysis can be regulated at different steps of the process through feedback regulation. The step that is regulated the most is the third step. This regulation is to ensure that the body is not over-producing pyruvate molecules. The regulation also allows for the storage of glucose molecules into fatty acids. There are various enzymes that are used throughout glycolysis. The enzymes upregulate, downregulate, and feedback regulate the process.

Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis (GNG) is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from certain non-carbohydrate carbon substrates. It is a ubiquitous process, present in plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms. In vertebrates, gluconeogenesis occurs mainly in the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the cortex of the kidneys. It is one of two primary mechanisms – the other being degradation of glycogen (glycogenolysis) – used by humans and many other animals to maintain blood sugar levels, avoiding low levels (hypoglycemia). In ruminants, because dietary carbohydrates tend to be metabolized by rumen organisms, gluconeogenesis occurs regardless of fasting, low-carbohydrate diets, exercise, etc. In many other animals, the process occurs during periods of fasting, starvation, low-carbohydrate diets, or intense exercise.

In humans, substrates for gluconeogenesis may come from any non-carbohydrate sources that can be converted to pyruvate or intermediates of glycolysis (see figure). For the breakdown of proteins, these substrates include glucogenic amino acids (although not ketogenic amino acids); from breakdown of lipids (such as triglycerides), they include glycerol, odd-chain fatty acids (although not even-chain fatty acids, see below); and from other parts of metabolism they include lactate from the Cori cycle. Under conditions of prolonged fasting, acetone derived from ketone bodies can also serve as a substrate, providing a pathway from fatty acids to glucose. Although most gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver, the relative contribution of gluconeogenesis by the kidney is increased in diabetes and prolonged fasting.

The gluconeogenesis pathway is highly endergonic until it is coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP or guanosine triphosphate (GTP), effectively making the process exergonic. For example, the pathway leading from pyruvate to glucose-6-phosphate requires 4 molecules of ATP and 2 molecules of GTP to proceed spontaneously. These ATPs are supplied from fatty acid catabolism via beta oxidation.

Glycogenolysis
Glycogenolysis refers to the breakdown of glycogen. In the liver, muscles, and the kidney, this process occurs to provide glucose when necessary. A single glucose molecule is cleaved from a branch of glycogen, and is transformed into glucose-1-phosphate during this process. This molecule can then be converted to glucose-6-phosphate, an intermediate in the glycolysis pathway.

Glucose-6-phosphate can then progress through glycolysis. Glycolysis only requires the input of one molecule of ATP when the glucose originates in glycogen. Alternatively, glucose-6-phosphate can be converted back into glucose in the liver and the kidneys, allowing it to raise blood glucose levels if necessary.

Glucagon in the liver stimulates glycogenolysis when the blood glucose is lowered, known as hypoglycemia. The glycogen in the liver can function as a backup source of glucose between meals. Liver glycogen mainly serves the central nervous system. Adrenaline stimulates the breakdown of glycogen in the skeletal muscle during exercise. In the muscles, glycogen ensures a rapidly accessible energy source for movement.

Glycogenesis
Glycogenesis refers to the process of synthesizing glycogen. In humans, glucose can be converted to glycogen via this process. Glycogen is a highly branched structure, consisting of the core protein Glycogenin, surrounded by branches of glucose units, linked together. The branching of glycogen increases its solubility, and allows for a higher number of glucose molecules to be accessible for breakdown at the same time. Glycogenesis occurs primarily in the liver, skeletal muscles, and kidney. The Glycogenesis pathway consumes energy, like most synthetic pathways, because an ATP and a UTP are consumed for each molecule of glucose introduced.

Pentose phosphate pathway
The pentose phosphate pathway is an alternative method of oxidizing glucose. It occurs in the liver, adipose tissue, adrenal cortex, testis, mammary glands, phagocytes, and red blood cells. It produces products that are used in other cell processes, while reducing NADP to NADPH. This pathway is regulated through changes in the activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase.

Fructose metabolism
Fructose must undergo certain extra steps in order to enter the glycolysis pathway. Enzymes located in certain tissues can add a phosphate group to fructose. This phosphorylation creates fructose-6-phosphate, an intermediate in the glycolysis pathway that can be broken down directly in those tissues. This pathway occurs in the muscles, adipose tissue, and kidney. In the liver, enzymes produce fructose-1-phosphate, which enters the glycolysis pathway and is later cleaved into glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate.

Galactose metabolism
Lactose, or milk sugar, consists of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of galactose. After separation from glucose, galactose travels to the liver for conversion to glucose. Galactokinase uses one molecule of ATP to phosphorylate galactose. The phosphorylated galactose is then converted to glucose-1-phosphate, and then eventually glucose-6-phosphate, which can be broken down in glycolysis.

Energy production
Many steps of carbohydrate metabolism allow the cells to access energy and store it more transiently in ATP. The cofactors NAD+ and FAD are sometimes reduced during this process to form NADH and FADH2, which drive the creation of ATP in other processes. A molecule of NADH can produce 1.5–2.5 molecules of ATP, whereas a molecule of FADH2 yields 1.5 molecules of ATP. Typically, the complete breakdown of one molecule of glucose by aerobic respiration (i.e. involving glycolysis, the citric-acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation, the last providing the most energy) is usually about 30–32 molecules of ATP. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 4 kcal of energy.

Hormonal regulation
Glucoregulation is the maintenance of steady levels of glucose in the body.

Hormones released from the pancreas regulate the overall metabolism of glucose. Insulin and glucagon are the primary hormones involved in maintaining a steady level of glucose in the blood, and the release of each is controlled by the amount of nutrients currently available. The amount of insulin released in the blood and sensitivity of the cells to the insulin both determine the amount of glucose that cells break down. Increased levels of glucagon activates the enzymes that catalyze glycogenolysis, and inhibits the enzymes that catalyze glycogenesis. Conversely, glycogenesis is enhanced and glycogenolysis inhibited when there are high levels of insulin in the blood.

The level of circulatory glucose (known informally as "blood sugar"), as well as the detection of nutrients in the Duodenum is the most important factor determining the amount of glucagon or insulin produced. The release of glucagon is precipitated by low levels of blood glucose, whereas high levels of blood glucose stimulates cells to produce insulin. Because the level of circulatory glucose is largely determined by the intake of dietary carbohydrates, diet controls major aspects of metabolism via insulin. In humans, insulin is made by beta cells in the pancreas, fat is stored in adipose tissue cells, and glycogen is both stored and released as needed by liver cells. Regardless of insulin levels, no glucose is released to the blood from internal glycogen stores from muscle cells.

Carbohydrates as storage
Carbohydrates are typically stored as long polymers of glucose molecules with glycosidic bonds for structural support (e.g. chitin, cellulose) or for energy storage (e.g. glycogen, starch). However, the strong affinity of most carbohydrates for water makes storage of large quantities of carbohydrates inefficient due to the large molecular weight of the solvated water-carbohydrate complex. In most organisms, excess carbohydrates are regularly catabolised to form acetyl-CoA, which is a feed stock for the fatty acid synthesis pathway; fatty acids, triglycerides, and other lipids are commonly used for long-term energy storage. The hydrophobic character of lipids makes them a much more compact form of energy storage than hydrophilic carbohydrates. Gluconeogenesis permits glucose to be synthesized from various sources, including lipids.

In some animals (such as termites) and some microorganisms (such as protists and bacteria), cellulose can be disassembled during digestion and absorbed as glucose.

Human diseases

 * Diabetes mellitus
 * Lactose intolerance
 * Fructose malabsorption
 * Galactosemia
 * Glycogen storage disease

title: Carbohydrate metabolism


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User:Jiang/Scratch pad

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title: User:Jiang/Scratch pad


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Index register

An index register in a computer's CPU is a processor register (or an assigned memory location) used for pointing to operand addresses during the run of a program. It is useful for stepping through strings and arrays. It can also be used for holding loop iterations and counters. In some architectures it is used for read/writing blocks of memory. Depending on the architecture it may be a dedicated index register or a general-purpose register. Some instruction sets allow more than one index register to be used; in that case additional instruction fields may specify which index registers to use.

Generally, the contents of an index register is added to (in some cases subtracted from) an immediate address (that can be part of the instruction itself or held in another register) to form the "effective" address of the actual data (operand). Special instructions are typically provided to test the index register and, if the test fails, increments the index register by an immediate constant and branches, typically to the start of the loop. While normally processors that allow an instruction to specify multiple index registers add the contents together, IBM had a line of computers in which the contents were or'd together.

Index registers has proved useful for doing vector/array operations and in commercial data processing for navigating from field to field within records. In both uses index registers substantially reduced the amount of memory used and increased execution speed.

History
In early computers without any form of indirect addressing, array operations had to be performed by modifying the instruction address, which required several additional program steps and used up more computer memory, a scarce resource in computer installations of the early era (as well as in early microcomputers two decades later).

Index registers, commonly known as B-lines in early British computers, as B-registers on some machines and a X-registers on others, were first used in the British Manchester Mark 1 computer, in 1949. In general, index registers became a standard part of computers during the technology's second generation, roughly 1954–1966. Most machines in the IBM 700/7000 mainframe series had them, starting with the IBM 704 in 1954, though they were optional on some smaller machines such as the IBM 650 and IBM 1401.

Early "small machines" with index registers include the AN/USQ-17, around 1960, and the 9 series of real-time computers from Scientific Data Systems, from the early 1960s.

The 1962 UNIVAC 1107 has 15 X-registers, four of which were also A-registers.

The 1964 GE-635 has 8 dedicated X-registers; however, it also allows indexing by the instruction counter or by either half of the A or Q register.

The Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-6, introduced in 1964, and the IBM System/360, announced in 1964, do not include dedicated index registers; instead, they have general-purpose registers (called "accumulators" in the PDP-6) that can contain either numerical values or addresses. The memory address of an operand is, in the PDP-6, the sum of the contents of a general-purpose register and an 18-bit offset and, on the System/360, the sum of the contents of two general-purpose registers and a 12-bit offset. The compatible PDP-10 line of successors to the PDP-6, and the IBM System/370 and later compatible successors to the System/360, including the current z/Architecture, work in the same fashion.

The 1969 Data General Nova and successor Eclipse, and 1970 DEC PDP-11, minicomputers also provided general-purpose registers (called "accumulators" in the Nova and Eclipse), rather than separate accumulators and index registers, as did their Eclipse MV and VAX 32-bit superminicomputer successors. In the PDP-11 and VAX, any register could be used when calculating the memory address of an operand; in the Nova, Eclipse, and Eclipse MV, only registers 2 and 3 could be used.

The 1971 CDC STAR-100 has a register file of 256 64-bit registers, 9 of which are reserved. Unlike most computers, the STAR-100 instructions only have register fields and operand fields, so the registers serve more as pointer registers than as traditional index registers.

While the 1972 Intel 8008 allowed indirect addressing via register pairs, the first microprocessor with a true index register appears to have been the 1974 Motorola 6800.

In 1975, the 8-bit MOS Technology 6502 processor had two index registers 'X' and 'Y'.

In 1978, the Intel 8086, the first x86 processor, had eight 16-bit registers, referred to as "general-purpose", all of which can be used as integer data registers in most operations; four of them, 'SI' (source index), 'DI' (destination index), 'BX' (base), and 'BP' (base pointer), can also be used when computing the memory address of an operand, which is the sum of one of those registers and a displacement, or the sum of one of 'BX' or 'BP", one of 'SI' or 'DI', and a displacement. The 1979 Intel 8088, and the 16-bit Intel 80186, Intel 80188, and Intel 80286 successors work the same. In 1985, the i386, a 32-bit successor to those processors, introducing the IA-32 32-bit version of the x86 architecture, extended the eight 16-bit registers to 32 bits, with "E" added to the beginning of the register name; in IA-32, the memory address of an operand is the sum of one of those eight registers, one of seven of those registers (the stack pointer is not allowed as the second register here) multiplied by 1, 2, 4, or 8, and a displacement. The Advanced Micro Devices Opteron, the first model of which was released in 2003, introduced x86-64, the 64-bit version of the x86 instruction set; in x86-64, the general-purpose registers were extended to 64 bits, and eight additional general-purpose registers were added; the memory address of an operand is the sum of two of those 16 registers and a displacement.

The reduced instruction set computing (RISC) instruction sets introduced in the 1980s and 1990s all provide general-purpose registers that can contain either numerical values or address values. In most of those instruction sets, there are 32 general-purpose registers (in some of those instruction sets, the value of one of those registers is hardwired to zero) could be used to calculate the operand address; they did not have dedicated index registers. In the 32-bit version of the ARM architecture, first developed in 1985, there are 16 registers designated as "general-purpose registers", but only 13 of them can be used for all purposes, with register R15 containing the program counter. The memory address of a load or store instruction is the sum of any of the 16 registers and either a displacement or another of the registers with the exception of R15 (possibly shifted left for scaling). In the 64-bit version of the ARM architecture, there are 31 64-bit general-purpose registers plus a stack pointer and a zero register; the memory address of a load or store instruction is the sum of any of the 31 registers and either a displacement or another of the registers.

Examples
Here is a simple example of index register use in assembly language pseudo-code that sums a 100 entry array of 4-byte words:

Clear_accumulator Load_index 400,index2 //load 4*array size into index register 2 (index2) loop_start : Add_word_to_accumulator array_start,index2  //Add to AC the word at the address (array_start + index2) Branch_and_decrement_if_index_not_zero loop_start,4,index2  //loop decrementing by 4 until index register is zero

title: Index register


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Ramsey, Cambridgeshire

Ramsey is a market town and civil parish in the Huntingdonshire district of Cambridgeshire, England. The town is about 9 mi north of Huntingdon. Ramsey parish includes the settlements of Ramsey Forty Foot, Ramsey Heights, Ramsey Mereside, Ramsey Hollow and Ramsey St Mary's.

The town grew up around Ramsey Abbey, an important Benedictine monastery. In the order of precedence for abbots in Parliament, Ramsey was third after Glastonbury and St Albans. The town manor is built on the site of (and using materials from) the ancient Abbey and is the seat of the Lords de Ramsey, major landowners in Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire. The remains of the Abbey are now home to part of the town's secondary school. Abbey College, Ramsey resulted from the amalgamation of the previous two secondary schools, Ailwyn School and Ramsey Abbey School.

History
Besides a Palaeolithic axe discovered in Victoria Road and seen as a chance glacial find, there is no record of prehistoric finds from the town. Roman remains are limited to stray finds of pottery. Early and Middle Saxon Ramsey remains elusive.

Abbey

For the later Anglo-Saxon period, documentary evidence for the foundation of the 10th-century Benedictine abbey at Ramsey has been recently substantiated by the archaeological evidence for activity associated with the pre-Conquest monastery. Tradition has it that Ailwyn, foster brother of King Edgar, founded a hermitage at Ramsey. It received a series of substantial grants of land by King Edgar who confirmed all the privileges in 975, including the banlieue.

The abbey experienced the transition to Norman rule without difficulty and in the 11th century, it underwent a period of rebuilding. In the civil war between King Stephen and Empress Matilda the monastery was badly damaged and impoverished. Geoffrey de Mandeville expelled the monks in 1143 and used the buildings as a fortress. However, in the 13th and 14th centuries the house had a succession of wealthy abbots who undertook a series of costly building programmes. The Black Death brought prosperity to a temporary halt, and by the end of the 14th century, the house was financially decayed. The abbey recovered and continued to thrive until its dissolution in 1537.

At the dissolution the Crown granted the site of the monastery, its land and associated granges at Bodsey and Biggin to Richard Williams (alias Cromwell) who demolished the buildings and sold the materials. The properties remained with the Williams/Cromwell family until 1676.

Town
The early history of the town is obscure. The Domesday Book of 1086 does not mention Ramsey. This may be either because it was part of Bury or because it belonged to the abbey that, at that time, enjoyed royal privileges.

Throughout the Middle Ages Ramsey remained a small market town serving the abbey and never developed into a borough. The original settlement probably developed outside the abbey, along Hollow Lane. By 1200 the town had grown enough to be granted a weekly market held at the junction of High Street with the Great Whyte and, later, an annual fair held at the green by the church. During the Middle Ages, the Great Whyte was a navigable canal that ran along what is now the road. It was culverted by 1854 with a brick tunnel, giving the town its characteristic wide main street.

Properties along Great Whyte appear to represent the secondary (post-Mediæval) development of the town. Archaeological excavations have shown that this area was wet during the mediæval period due to the presence of the fen. A fire occurred at Little Whyte in 1636 which destroyed some 15 tenements. A second fire in 1731 destroyed a great part of the High Street. In 1774 Lord Orford visited Ramsey during his voyage around the Fens.

By the time of the estate map, the village had expanded along the Great Whyte and along the western end of the High Street by progressive infilling of plots. Later editions of the OS Maps up to the 1970s present a similar picture. Since the 1970s progressive increase in the size of the population has prompted development around the town and along Bury Road. The limits of the town of Ramsey and the village of Bury to the south are not clearly defined, with modern housing estates spreading across the urban boundary.

The mediæval economy was dominated by garden produce, cloth trade and alehouse keeping. Fisheries also played an important part in the fen economy, along with livestock. Throughout the Middle Ages, the waterways of the fenland formed commercial transport routes that ran through the heart of the region. Enclosure of land was piecemeal and prompted by the abbey.

After the dispersal of the estates of the abbey into lay hands in the second half of the 16th century, enclosure at Ramsey and neighbouring parishes gathered momentum. Systematic drainage of the Great Level from the 17th century increased the area for hay and pasture which was progressively divided and allotted. The remaining common lands were enclosed by Act of Parliament in 1801.

On the evening of 31 January 1941, the German spy Josef Jakobs parachuted into the Ramsey area, landing near Dovehouse Farm. Jakobs broke his ankle during his descent and was unable to move from his landing site. The next morning at around 8:30 a.m. Jakobs fired his pistol into the air to attract attention. Two local farmers (Charles Baldock and Harry Coulson) were passing by, heard the shots, and found Jakobs lying on the ground under his camouflage parachute. The farmers summoned the local Home Guard, who took charge of Jakobs. The German spy was caught wearing his flying suit and carrying British currency, forged papers, a radio, and a German sausage. Jakobs became the last person to be executed at the Tower of London.

Governance
As a civil parish, Ramsey has a town council. It is elected by eligible residents of the parish who have registered on the electoral roll. The town council has 17 elected councillors and a parish clerk. In 2011 Ramsey became the first town council in the UK to be controlled by the UK Independence Party, In the 2015 election UKIP lost overall control of the council to independent councillors.

Ramsey was in the historic and administrative county of Huntingdonshire until 1965. From 1965 the town was part of the new administrative county of Huntingdon and Peterborough. Then in 1974, as a result of the Local Government Act 1972, Ramsey was made part of the county of Cambridgeshire.

The second tier of local government is Huntingdonshire District Council which is a non-metropolitan district of Cambridgeshire and has its headquarters in Huntingdon. Ramsey forms one of District Council's 29 district wards and elects three of its 52 councillors. District councillors serve for four year terms following elections to Huntingdonshire District Council.

For Ramsey the highest tier of local government is Cambridgeshire County Council, which has its headquarters in Cambridge. Ramsey is an electoral division and is represented on the county council by one councillor.

Ramsey is in the parliamentary constituency of North West Cambridgeshire.

Population
From 1801 to 1901 the population of Ramsey was recorded every ten years in the United Kingdom Census. In that time the population ranged between 1,894 (in 1801) and 4,823 (in 1901).

From 1901 a census was taken every ten years, with the exception of 1941 due to the Second World War.

All population census figures from the report Historic Census figures Cambridgeshire to 2011 by Cambridgeshire Insight.

In 2011 the parish covered an area of 15718 acre and the population density of Ramsey in 2011 was 345.2 persons per square mile (133.3 per square kilometre).

Economy
A weekly market was probably held by 1200. The grant was confirmed by Henry III in 1267 who also granted a fair on the vigil and feast of the Translation of St Benedict and for two days following. The bulk of the trade was dominated by garden produce.

Fisheries also played an important part in the fen economy. The abbey cartulary contains references to detailed arrangements concerning the granting of fisheries and fishing rights around Ramsey Mere and Whittlesey Mere, with rents being often paid in eels.

Livestock and in particular cattle was also an important element of the local economy. Portions of fen were reclaimed for both arable and pasture throughout the Middle Ages and later periods. Meadow and pasture were regulated by common rights. There are accounts of disputes between the major abbeys of Ramsey, Thorney and Ely about profits and limits of their commons.

Among the occupations there were weavers and fullers with others who were connected with the cloth trade. There were also tanners. The most prosperous trade was that of alehouse keeping which suggests that Ramsey had facilities for travellers. The market had lost its prominence in the 18th century to St Ives, and by 1881 'St Ives has drained our market of cattle, and only a few pigs are now its staple', and survived as a pleasure market selling trinkets.

There is a Post Office in Ramsey.

In the 19th century, Ramsey had its own gas company, run by Edmund Broadberry, one of the Broadberry dynasty of gas engineers.

Abbey Renewables erected a 225KW wind turbine at Ramsey in 1993, one of the first in the UK. It was replaced with a 1.8MW turbine in 2008. In 2011 Abbey applied to Huntingdonshire District Council for permission to add a further four turbines to create a five-turbine wind farm capable of powering more than 5,000 homes.

Transport
Ramsey is served by local buses, having regular and direct routes to St Ives, Huntingdon and Peterborough as well as from nearby villages.

There is no longer a railway station at Ramsey. From 1863 a Great Northern Railway branch line linked a terminus in Ramsey with the East Coast Main Line. The London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) ended passenger services on the line in 1947. British Railways ended freight services and closed the branch line in 1973. From 1889 a Great Northern and Great Eastern Joint Railway branch line also terminated in Ramsey, providing the town with a second railway terminus. The LNER closed the station and the branch line in 1930.

Culture and community
Ramsey Rural Museum is in 17th-century farm buildings on Wood Lane. It is a small museum dedicated to the history of rural Fenland life.

Original historical documents relating to Ramsey, including the original church parish registers, local government records, maps, photographs, and records of Ramsey manor (held by the Fellowes family, Lords de Ramsey), are held by Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies at the County Record Office in Huntingdon.

Media
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC East and ITV Anglia. Television signals are received from the Sandy Heath TV transmitter. Local radio stations are BBC Radio Cambridgeshire, Heart East, Greatest Hits Radio East, Star Radio and HCR FM, a community based radio station. The Hunts Post is the town's local weekly newspaper.

Events
The custom of ringing a pancake bell on Pancake Day was revived in 1891.

Every year, over the August Bank Holiday weekend, the town is home to 1940s Ramsey, one of Britain's biggest living history events. The event was held at RAF Upwood until 2011 and is now held at The Camp, Wood Lane. It raises funds for several local charities and is dedicated to recreating the sights and sounds of the 1940s. It features living history re-enactors, period dancing, food, exhibitions and trade stands.

Church of England
The Church of England parish church of St Thomas à Becket was built late in the 12th century as part of Ramsey Abbey, possibly the hospitium. It was converted into a parish church early in the 13th century. The church was remodelled in the 14th and 16th centuries, and the west tower was built in 1672. The church is a Grade I listed building.

Salem Baptist Church
Salem Baptist Church was built in High Street in 1857.

Great Whyte Baptist Church
Great Whyte Baptist Church was built in 1894.

Ramsey Methodist Church
Ramsey Methodist Church in High Street is a Gothic Revival building completed in 1899.

Sport and recreation
Ramsey has a King George's Field in memory of King George V. The local football club, Ramsey Town F.C., plays in the Peterborough and District Football League.

title: Ramsey, Cambridgeshire


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Alois Kayser

Alois Kayser (March 29, 1877 in Lupstein, Alsace – October 21, 1944 in Chuuk) was a German-French Roman Catholic missionary who spent almost forty years on Nauru and wrote a Nauruan grammar (and possibly a Nauruan language dictionary). In 1943, he was deported along with Pierre Clivaz, a Swiss missionary, as well as most of the Nauruan population, by the Japanese to Micronesia, where he died.

In his honour, the government of Nauru named the technical school in the district Ewa after him.

title: Alois Kayser