text:
1947 BSAA Avro Lancastrian Star Dust accident

On 2 August 1947, Star Dust, a British South American Airways (BSAA) Avro Lancastrian airliner on a flight from Buenos Aires, Argentina, to Santiago, Chile, crashed into Mount Tupungato in the Argentine Andes. An extensive search operation failed to locate the wreckage, despite covering the area of the crash site. The fate of the aircraft and its occupants remained unknown for over fifty years, giving rise to various conspiracy theories about its disappearance.

In the late 1990s, pieces of wreckage from the missing aircraft began to emerge from the glacial ice. It is now believed that the crew became confused as to their exact location while flying at high altitudes through the (then poorly understood) jet stream. Mistakenly believing they had already cleared the mountain tops, they started their descent when they were in fact still behind cloud-covered peaks. Star Dust crashed into Mount Tupungato, killing all aboard and burying itself in snow and ice.

The last word in Star Dust final Morse code transmission to Santiago airport, "STENDEC," was received by the airport control tower four minutes before its planned landing and repeated twice; it has never been satisfactorily explained.

Background
The accident aircraft, an Avro 691 Lancastrian 3, was built as constructor's number 1280 for the Argentine Ministry of Supply to carry thirteen passengers, and first flew on 27 November 1945. Its civil certificate of airworthiness (CofA) number 7282 was issued on 1 January 1946. It was delivered to BSAA on 12 January 1946, was registered on 16 January as G-AGWH and given the individual aircraft name "Star Dust".

Star Dust carried six passengers and a crew of five on its final flight. The captain, Reginald Cook, was an experienced former Royal Air Force pilot with combat experience during the Second World War, as were his first officer, Norman Hilton Cook, and second officer, Donald Checklin. Cook had been awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) and the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC). The radio operator, Dennis Harmer, also had a record of wartime as well as civilian service. Iris Evans, who had previously served in the Women's Royal Naval Service ("Wrens") as a chief petty officer, was the flight attendant.

Star Dust last flight was the final leg of BSAA Flight CS59, which had started in London on an Avro York named Star Mist on 29 July 1947, landing in Buenos Aires on 1 August. The passengers were one woman and five men of Palestinian, Swiss, German and British nationality. One was a British diplomatic courier, a King's Messenger. Marta Limpert, a German émigré, was the only passenger known for certain to have initially boarded Star Mist in London before changing aircraft in Buenos Aires to continue on to Santiago with the other passengers.

Disappearance
Star Dust left Buenos Aires at 1:46 pm on 2 August. This leg of the flight was apparently uneventful until the radio operator (Harmer) sent a routine message in Morse code to the airport in Santiago at 5:41 pm, announcing an expected arrival of 5:45 pm. However, Star Dust never arrived, no more radio transmissions were received by the airport, and intensive efforts by both Chilean and Argentine search teams, as well as by other BSAA pilots, failed to uncover any trace of the aircraft or of the people on board. The head of BSAA, Air Vice Marshal Don Bennett, personally directed an unsuccessful five-day search.

A report by an amateur radio operator who claimed to have received a faint SOS signal from Star Dust initially raised hopes that there might have been survivors, but all subsequent attempts over the years to find the vanished aircraft failed. In the absence of any hard evidence, numerous theories arose—including rumours of sabotage (compounded by the later disappearance of two other aircraft also belonging to BSAA); speculation that Star Dust might have been blown up to destroy diplomatic documents being carried by the King's Messenger; or even the suggestion that Star Dust had been taken or destroyed by a UFO (an idea fuelled by unresolved questions about the flight's final Morse code message).

Discovery of wreckage and reconstruction of the crash
In 1998, two Argentine mountaineers climbing Mount Tupungato—about 60 mi west-southwest of Mendoza, and about 50 mi east of Santiago—found the wreckage of a Rolls-Royce Merlin aircraft engine, along with twisted pieces of metal and shreds of clothing, in the Tupungato Glacier at an elevation of 15000 ft.

In 2000, an Argentine Army expedition found additional wreckage—including a propeller and wheels (one of which had an intact and inflated tyre)—and noted that the wreckage was well localised, a fact which pointed to a head-on impact with the ground, and which also ruled out a mid-air explosion. Human remains were also recovered, including three torsos, a foot in an ankle boot and a manicured hand. By 2002, the bodies of five of the eight British victims had been identified through DNA testing.

A recovered propeller showed that the engine had been running at near-cruising speed at the time of the impact. Additionally, the condition of the wheels proved that the undercarriage was still retracted, suggesting controlled flight into terrain rather than an attempted emergency landing. During the final portion of Star Dust flight, heavy clouds would have blocked visibility of the ground. It has therefore been suggested that, in the absence of visual sightings of the ground due to the clouds, a navigational error could have been made as the aircraft flew through the jet stream—a phenomenon not well understood in 1947, in which high-altitude winds can blow at high speed in directions different from those of winds observed at ground level. If the airliner, which had to cross the Andes mountain range at 24000 ft, had entered the jet-stream zone—which in this area normally blows from the west and south-west, resulting in the aircraft encountering a headwind—this would have significantly decreased the aircraft's ground speed.

Mistakenly assuming their ground speed to be faster than it really was, the crew might have deduced that they had already safely crossed the Andes, and so commenced their descent to Santiago, whereas in fact they were still a considerable distance to the east-north-east and were approaching the cloud-enshrouded Tupungato Glacier at high speed. Some BSAA pilots, however, expressed scepticism at this theory; convinced that Cook would not have started his descent without a positive indication that he had crossed the mountains; they have suggested that strong winds may have brought down the craft in some other way. One of the pilots recalled that "we had all been warned not to enter cloud over the mountains as the turbulence and icing posed too great a threat."

A set of events similar to those that doomed Star Dust also caused the crash of Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 in 1972 (depicted in the film Alive), although there were survivors from that crash because it involved a glancing blow to a mountainside rather than a head-on collision.

Star Dust is likely to have flown into a nearly vertical snowfield near the top of the glacier, causing an avalanche that buried the wreckage within seconds and concealed it from searchers. As the compressed snow turned to ice, the wreckage would have been incorporated into the body of the glacier, with fragments emerging many years later and much further down the mountain. Between 1998 and 2000, about ten per cent of the total expected wreckage emerged from the glacier, prompting several re-examinations of the accident. More debris is expected to emerge in future, not only as a result of normal glacial motion, but also as the glacier melts.

A 2000 Argentine Air Force investigation cleared Cook of any blame, concluding that the crash had resulted from "a heavy snowstorm" and "very cloudy weather", as a result of which the crew "were unable to correct their positioning".

STENDEC
The last Morse code message sent by Star Dust was "ETA SANTIAGO 17.45 HRS STENDEC". The Chilean Air Force radio operator at Santiago airport described this transmission as coming in "loud and clear" but very fast; as he did not recognise the last word, he requested clarification and heard "STENDEC" repeated twice in succession before contact with the aircraft was lost. This word has not been definitively explained and has given rise to much speculation.

The staff of the BBC television series Horizon—which presented an episode in 2000 on the Star Dust disappearance—received hundreds of messages from viewers proposing explanations of "STENDEC." These included suggestions that the radio operator, possibly suffering from hypoxia, had scrambled the word "DESCENT" (of which "STENDEC" is an anagram); that "STENDEC" may have been the initials of some obscure phrase or that the airport radio operator had misheard the Morse code transmission despite it reportedly having been repeated multiple times. The Horizon staff concluded that, with the possible exception of some misunderstanding based on Morse code, none of these proposed solutions was plausible. It has also been suggested that World War II pilots used this seemingly obscure abbreviation when an aircraft was in hazardous weather and was likely to crash, meaning "Severe Turbulence Encountered, Now Descending Emergency Crash-landing."

The simplest explanation put forward to date is that the spacing of the rapidly sent message was misheard or sloppily sent. In Morse code, determining accurate spacing between characters is vital to properly interpret the message; "STENDEC" uses exactly the same dot/dash sequence as "SCTI AR" (SCTI being the four-letter code for Los Cerrillos Airport in Santiago, AR being the Morse abbreviation for "over"). Alternatively, the Morse spelling for "STENDEC" is one character off from instead spelling VALP, the call sign for the airport at Valparaiso, 110 kilometers north of Santiago.


text:
Immune thrombocytopenic purpura

Immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), also known as idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura or immune thrombocytopenia, is an autoimmune primary disorder of hemostasis characterized by a low platelet count in the absence of other causes. ITP often results in an increased risk of bleeding from mucosal surfaces (such as the nose or gums) or the skin (causing purpura and bruises). Depending on which age group is affected, ITP causes two distinct clinical syndromes: an acute form observed in children and a chronic form in adults. Acute ITP often follows a viral infection and is typically self-limited (resolving within two months), while the more chronic form (persisting for longer than six months) does not yet have a specific identified cause. Nevertheless, the pathogenesis of ITP is similar in both syndromes involving antibodies against various platelet surface antigens such as glycoproteins.

Diagnosis of ITP involves identifying a low platelet count through a complete blood count, a common blood test. However, since the diagnosis relies on excluding other potential causes of a low platelet count, additional investigations, such as a bone marrow biopsy, may be necessary in certain cases.

For mild cases, careful observation may be sufficient. However, in instances of very low platelet counts or significant bleeding, treatment options may include corticosteroids, intravenous immunoglobulin, anti-D immunoglobulin, or immunosuppressive medications. Refractory ITP, which does not respond to conventional treatment or shows constant relapse after splenectomy, requires treatment to reduce the risk of significant bleeding. Platelet transfusions may be used in severe cases with extremely low platelet counts in individuals experiencing bleeding. In some cases, the body may compensate by producing abnormally large platelets.

Signs and symptoms
Signs of ITP include the spontaneous formation of bruises (purpura) and petechiae (tiny bruises), especially on the extremities. Additionally, bleeding from the nostrils and/or gums, as well as menorrhagia (excessive menstrual bleeding), may occur if the platelet count falls below 20,000 per μL. A platelet count below 10,000 per μL can lead to the spontaneous formation of hematomas (blood masses) in the mouth or on other mucous membranes. Furthermore, bleeding time from minor lacerations or abrasions is usually prolonged.

In cases where platelet counts drop to extremely low levels (<5,000 per μL), serious and potentially fatal complications may arise. These complications include subarachnoid or intracerebral hemorrhage (bleeding inside the skull or brain), lower gastrointestinal bleeding, or other internal bleeding. A person with ITP with an extremely low platelet count is susceptible to internal bleeding resulting from blunt abdominal trauma, such as in a motor vehicle crash. These complications are unlikely to occur when the platelet count is less than 20,000 per μL.

Pathogenesis
In approximately 60 percent of cases, antibodies against platelets can be detected. Most often these antibodies are against platelet membrane glycoproteins IIb-IIIa or Ib-IX, and are of the immunoglobulin G (IgG) type. The Harrington–Hollingsworth experiment established the immune pathogenesis of ITP.

The coating of platelets with IgG renders them susceptible to opsonization and phagocytosis by splenic macrophages, as well by Kupffer cells in the liver. The IgG autoantibodies are also thought to damage megakaryocytes, the precursor cells to platelets, although this is believed to contribute only slightly to the decrease in platelet numbers. Recent research now indicates that impaired production of the glycoprotein hormone, thrombopoietin, which is the stimulant for platelet production, may be a contributing factor to the reduction in circulating platelets. This observation has led to the development of a class of ITP-targeted medications referred to as thrombopoietin receptor agonists.

The stimulus for auto-antibody production in ITP is probably abnormal T cell activity. Preliminary findings suggest that these T cells can be influenced by medications that target B cells, such as rituximab.

Diagnosis
The diagnosis of ITP is a process of exclusion. First, it has to be determined that there are no blood abnormalities other than a low platelet count, and no physical signs other than bleeding. Then, secondary causes (around 5–10 percent of suspected ITP cases) should be excluded including medications (quinine or heparin), viral infection (HIV or HCV), malignancy (leukemia), autoimmune conditions (systemic lupus erythematosus or antiphospholipid syndrome), onyalai, and others. All patients with presumed ITP should be tested for HIV and hepatitis C virus, as platelet counts may be corrected by treating the underlying disease. In approximately 2.7 to 5 percent of cases, autoimmune hemolytic anemia and ITP coexist, a condition referred to as Evans syndrome.

Despite the destruction of platelets by splenic macrophages, the spleen is normally not enlarged. In fact, an enlarged spleen should lead to a search for other possible causes for the thrombocytopenia. Bleeding time is usually prolonged in ITP patients. However, the use of bleeding time in diagnosis is discouraged by the American Society of Hematology practice guidelines and a normal bleeding time does not exclude a platelet disorder.

Bone marrow examination may be performed on patients over the age of 60 and those who do not respond to treatment, or when the diagnosis is in doubt. On examination of the marrow, an increase in the production of megakaryocytes may be observed and may help in establishing a diagnosis of ITP. An analysis for anti-platelet antibodies is a matter of clinician's preference, as there is disagreement on whether the 80 percent specificity of this test is sufficient to be clinically useful.

Treatment
With rare exceptions, there is usually no need to treat based on platelet counts. Many older recommendations suggested a certain platelet count threshold (usually somewhere below 20.0/μL) as an indication for hospitalization or treatment. Current guidelines recommend treatment only in cases of significant bleeding. Treatment recommendations sometimes differ for adult and pediatric ITP.

Steroids
Initial treatment usually consists of the administration of corticosteroids, a group of medications that suppress the immune system. The dose and mode of administration is determined by platelet count and whether there is active bleeding: in urgent situations, infusions of dexamethasone or methylprednisolone may be used, while oral prednisone or prednisolone may suffice in less severe cases. Once the platelet count has improved, the dose of steroid is gradually reduced while the possibility of relapse is monitored. 60–90 percent will experience a relapse during dose reduction or cessation. Long-term steroids are avoided if possible because of potential side-effects that include osteoporosis, diabetes and cataracts.

Anti-D
Another option, suitable for Rh-positive patients with functional spleens is intravenous administration of Rho(D) immune globulin [Human; Anti-D]. The mechanism of action of anti-D is not fully understood. However, following administration, anti-D-coated red blood cell complexes saturate Fcγ receptor sites on macrophages, resulting in preferential destruction of red blood cells (RBCs), therefore sparing antibody-coated platelets. There are two anti-D products indicated for use in patients with ITP: WinRho SDF and Rhophylac. The most common adverse reactions are headache (15%), nausea/vomiting (12%) chills (<2%) and fever (1%).

Steroid-sparing agents
There is increasing use of immunosuppressants such as mycophenolate mofetil and azathioprine because of their effectiveness. In chronic refractory cases, where immune pathogenesis has been confirmed, the off-label use of the vinca alkaloid  and chemotherapy agent vincristine may be attempted. However, vincristine has significant side effects and its use in treating ITP must be approached with caution, especially in children.

Intravenous immunoglobulin
Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) may be infused in some cases in order to decrease the rate at which macrophages consume antibody-tagged platelets. However, while sometimes effective, it is costly and produces improvement that generally lasts less than a month. Nevertheless, in the case of an ITP patient already scheduled for surgery who has a dangerously low platelet count and has experienced a poor response to other treatments, IVIg can rapidly increase platelet counts, and can also help reduce the risk of major bleeding by transiently increasing platelet counts.

Thrombopoietin receptor agonists
Thrombopoietin receptor agonists are pharmaceutical agents that stimulate platelet production in the bone marrow. In this, they differ from the previously discussed agents that act by attempting to curtail platelet destruction. Two such products are currently available:
 * Romiplostim (trade name Nplate) is a thrombopoiesis stimulating Fc-peptide fusion protein (peptibody) that is administered by subcutaneous injection. Designated an orphan drug in 2003 under United States law, clinical trials demonstrated romiplostim to be effective in treating chronic ITP, especially in relapsed post-splenectomy patients. Romiplostim was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for long-term treatment of adult chronic ITP on August 22, 2008.
 * Eltrombopag (trade name Promacta in the US, Revolade in the EU) is an orally-administered agent with an effect similar to that of romiplostim. It too has been demonstrated to increase platelet counts and decrease bleeding in a dose-dependent manner. Developed by GlaxoSmithKline and also designated an orphan drug by the FDA, Promacta was approved by the FDA on November 20, 2008.

Thrombopoietin receptor agonists exhibited the greatest success so far in treating patients with refractory ITP.

Side effects of thrombopoietin receptor agonists include headache, joint or muscle pain, dizziness, nausea or vomiting, and an increased risk of blood clots.

Surgery
Splenectomy (removal of the spleen) may be considered in patients who are either unresponsive to steroid treatment, have frequent relapses, or cannot be tapered off steroids after a few months. Platelets which have been bound by antibodies are taken up by macrophages in the spleen (which have Fc receptors), and so removal of the spleen reduces platelet destruction. The procedure is potentially risky in ITP cases due to the increased possibility of significant bleeding during surgery. Durable remission following splenectomy is achieved in 60 - 80 percent of ITP cases. Even though there is a consensus regarding the short-term efficacy of splenectomy, findings on its long-term efficacy and side-effects are controversial. After splenectomy, 11.6 - 75 percent of ITP cases relapsed, and 8.7 - 40 percent of ITP cases had no response to splenectomy. The use of splenectomy to treat ITP has diminished since the development of steroid therapy and other pharmaceutical remedies.

Platelet transfusion
Platelet transfusion alone is normally not recommended except in an emergency and is usually unsuccessful in producing a long-term platelet count increase. This is because the underlying autoimmune mechanism that is destroying the patient's platelets will also destroy donor platelets, and so platelet transfusions are not considered a long-term treatment option.

H. pylori eradication
In adults, particularly those living in areas with a high prevalence of Helicobacter pylori (which normally inhabits the stomach wall and has been associated with peptic ulcers), identification and treatment of this infection has been shown to improve platelet counts in a third of patients. In a fifth, the platelet count normalized completely; this response rate is similar to that found in treatment with rituximab, which is more expensive and less safe. In children, this approach is not supported by evidence, except in high prevalence areas. Urea breath testing and stool antigen testing perform better than serology-based tests; moreover, serology may be false-positive after treatment with IVIG.

Other agents

 * Dapsone (also called diphenylsulfone, DDS, or avlosulfon) is an anti-infective sulfone medication. Dapsone may also be helpful in treating lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, and as a second-line treatment for ITP. The mechanism by which dapsone assists in ITP is unclear but an increased platelet count is seen in 40–60 percent of recipients.
 * The off-label use of rituximab, a chimeric monoclonal antibody against the B cell surface antigen CD20, may sometimes be an effective alternative to splenectomy. However, significant side-effects can occur, and randomized controlled trials are inconclusive.
 * In a phase 1-2 open-label study treatment with CM313, a novel anti-CD38 monoclonal antibody, rapidly boosted platelet levels in adults with ITP by inhibiting antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity on platelets; maintained long-term efficacy by clearing plasma cells; and was associated with low-grade toxic effects.

Prognosis
In general patients with acute ITP will only rarely have life-threatening bleeding. most of the patients ultimately have stable but lower platelet counts which is hemostatic for a person. Unlike in pediatric patients who can be cured, most of the adults will run a chronic course even after splenectomy.

Epidemiology
A normal platelet count is considered to be in the range of 150,000–450,000 per microlitre (μL) of blood for most healthy individuals. Hence one may be considered thrombocytopenic below that range, although the threshold for a diagnosis of ITP is not tied to any specific number.

The incidence of ITP is estimated at 50–100 new cases per million per year, with children accounting for half of that number. At least 70 percent of childhood cases will end up in remission within six months, even without treatment. Moreover, a third of the remaining chronic cases will usually remit during follow-up observation, and another third will end up with only mild thrombocytopenia (defined as a platelet count above 50,000). A number of immune related genes and polymorphisms have been identified as influencing predisposition to ITP, with FCGR3a-V158 allele and KIRDS2/DL2 increasing susceptibility and KIR2DS5 shown to be protective.

ITP is usually chronic in adults and the probability of durable remission is 20–40 percent. The male to female ratio in the adult group varies from 1:1.2 to 1.7 in most age ranges (childhood cases are roughly equal for both sexes) and the median age of adults at the diagnosis is 56–60. The ratio between male and female adult cases tends to widen with age. In the United States, the adult chronic population is thought to be approximately 60,000—with women outnumbering men approximately 2 to 1, which has resulted in ITP being designated an orphan disease.

The mortality rate due to chronic ITP varies but tends to be higher relative to the general population for any age range. In a study conducted in Great Britain, it was noted that ITP causes an approximately 60 percent higher rate of mortality compared to sex- and age-matched subjects without ITP. This increased risk of death with ITP is largely concentrated in the middle-aged and elderly. Ninety-six percent of reported ITP-related deaths were individuals 45 years or older. No significant difference was noted in the rate of survival between males and females.

Pregnancy
The incidence of ITP in pregnancy is not well known. It may occur during any trimester of pregnancy. It is the most common cause of significant thrombocytopenia (platelets less than 100,000) in the second trimester, and it is a common cause of significant thrombocytopenia in the first and third trimesters. As in non-pregnant individuals, ITP in pregnancy is a diagnosis of exclusion and other potential causes of low platelets in pregnancy require consideration. These include obstetrical causes such as pre-eclampsia, HELLP syndrome (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes and low platelets), or thrombotic microangiopathies that may occur during pregnancy. Other causes of thrombocytopenia which may occur in pregnancy, such as drug induced thrombocytopenia, hereditary thrombocytopenia and pseudothrombocytopenia should also be ruled out. ITP can be difficult to distinguish from gestational thrombocytopenia (which is by far the most common cause of thrombocytopenia in pregnancy). Unlike ITP, the platelet count in gestational thrombocytopenia rarely goes below 100,000, and a platelet count below 80,000 is even more rare (seen in less than 0.1% of cases of gestational thrombocytopenia). Also unlike ITP, gestational thrombocytopenia is not a cause of neonatal or maternal bleeding, or neonatal thrombocytopenia.

Women with ITP often have a decrease in their platelet counts when they become pregnant, often requiring treatment. Pregnant women with ITP are 1.83 times more likely to have bleeding episodes during pregnancy compared to non-pregnant females with ITP, however, with proper treatment, platelets rarely drop below 30,000. In ITP, severe bleeding is a rare occurrence, and with treatment maternal deaths due to ITP are extremely rare. ITP has not been found to increase the risk of some common obstetrical complications; with no increased risk of pre-eclampsia, premature delivery, placental abruption or blood clots observed. Further, in those with ITP, platelet counts usually return to pre-pregnancy levels after delivery.

Anti-platelet autoantibodies in a pregnant woman with ITP will attack the patient's own platelets and will also cross the placenta and react against fetal platelets leading to thrombocytopenia. Thrombopoietin levels are also increased during pregnancy (which is thought to be due to placental production of estradiol) and this estradiol leads to decreased megakaryocyte activity and therefore decreased platelet production. Therefore, ITP is a significant cause of fetal and neonatal immune thrombocytopenia. Approximately 10% of newborns affected by ITP will have platelet counts <50,000/uL and 1% to 2% will have a risk of intracerebral hemorrhage, comparable to that of infants with neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia (NAIT).

No lab test can reliably predict if neonatal thrombocytopenia will occur. The risk of neonatal thrombocytopenia is increased with:
 * Mothers with a history of splenectomy for ITP
 * Mothers who had a previous infant affected with ITP
 * Gestational (maternal) platelet count less than 100,000/uL

It is recommended that pregnant women with thrombocytopenia or a previous diagnosis of ITP be tested for serum antiplatelet antibodies. Indications for treatment of pregnant people with ITP include the presence of bleeding, platelet counts less than 20-30,000, planned procedures (such as an amniocentesis), and raising platelet levels prior to delivery (the minimum platelet level for a vaginal delivery is 30,000 and for a cesarean section is 50,000). Rarely, a platelet transfusion may be needed to facilitate safe delivery. First line therapies for ITP include steroids such as prednisone, IVIG or both. Second line therapies (usually used in those in whom first line therapies fail and thrombocytopenia persists) include rituximab, thrombopoetin receptor agonsists (such as romiplostim), or a splenectomy. Platelet transfusions may be performed in newborns, depending on the degree of thrombocytopenia. IVIG and steroids (methylprednisolone) may also be given to raise the platelet counts. It is recommended that neonates be followed with serial platelet counts for the first few days after birth. Ultrasound or MRI are also recommended for severely thrombocytopenic infants to rule out a brain bleed.

History
After initial reports by the Portuguese physician Amato Lusitano in 1556 and Lazarus de la Rivière (physician to the King of France) in 1658, it was the German physician and poet Paul Gottlieb Werlhof who in 1735 wrote the most complete initial report of the purpura of ITP. Platelets were unknown at the time. The name "Werlhof's disease" was used more widely before the current descriptive name became more popular. Platelets were described in the early 19th century, and in the 1880s several investigators linked the purpura with abnormalities in the platelet count. The first report of a successful therapy for ITP was in 1916, when a young Polish medical student, Paul Kaznelson, described a female patient's response to a splenectomy. Splenectomy remained a first-line remedy until the introduction of steroid therapy in the 1950s.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Immune thrombocytopenic purpura


text:
Elektra (character)

Elektra Natchios is a fictional character  appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, usually in supporting roles featuring the superhero Matt Murdock / Daredevil, to whom Elektra has functioned as a villainous adversary, love interest, and later, a heroic ally. Created by Frank Miller, the character first appeared in Daredevil #168 (Jan. 1981). In the various storylines in which the character has appeared since her debut, her violent nature and mercenary lifestyle has served as a divisive point of conflict between her and Daredevil, which in 2020, culminated in her becoming the second Daredevil.

The character is a highly trained assassin of Greek descent who wields a pair of sai as her trademark weapons. Elektra is one of Frank Miller's best-known creations, and has appeared in numerous modern storylines even though Marvel had promised not to revive the character without Miller's permission. She has also appeared as a supporting character of the X-Men's Wolverine and in other series and mini-series, as well as in adaptations for the screen.

Jennifer Garner portrayed Elektra in the films Daredevil (2003) and Elektra (2005), and will reprise the role in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film Deadpool & Wolverine (2024), while Élodie Yung portrayed the character in the MCU Netflix television series Daredevil (2016) and The Defenders (2017).

Publication history
Created by Frank Miller, Elektra first appeared in Daredevil #168 (January 1981). Miller based the character's appearance on Lisa Lyon, a female bodybuilder. Miller intended this issue, which was essentially a filler story, to be Elektra's only appearance, but she instead became a frequently appearing villain in Daredevil until her death in issue #181 (April 1982). She was resurrected shortly after, but the story contained a narrative note which indicates that Daredevil must never encounter her again.

After over a decade's absence, she reappeared in Daredevil #324–327 (Jan.–April 1994), and went on to a brief stint as a supporting character in Wolverine (in #100–106). Daredevil writer D. G. Chichester recounted that he and editor Ralph Macchio had discussed the character's return several times:

"We'd bandied about the idea [of bringing back Elektra] in a casual fashion now and again, but neither of us wanted to do it as a gimmick. On the rare occasion I thought I had a legitimate angle to use her, Ralph was cool to the idea. But as we geared up for what would become 'Fall From Grace', Ralph out of the blue said, 'What about bringing back Elektra?' – and it was really the missing piece that clicked together all the loose pieces of the story in my head, and became the nexus for everything tying together as well as it did. In my mind, it's always been her to whom the title refers."

This upset Frank Miller, who claimed that Marvel had previously promised him that the character would not be used in any publication. She has since appeared in two eponymous ongoing series and several mini-series.

Family and early life
Elektra was born on a Greek island near the Aegean Sea, to Hugo Kostas Natchios and Christina Natchios. She had an older brother named Orestez.

Two contradictory accounts of her family history have been given. In Elektra: Root of Evil #1–4 (March–June 1995), Christina is killed by assassins hired by Orestez, while in Elektra #18 (1995), she is killed by an insurrectionist during the Greek Civil War. In both accounts, she gives premature birth to Elektra just before dying.

When nine-year-old Elektra was assaulted by kidnappers, the men were all killed by Orestez, who had grown into an accomplished martial artist after leaving home. Orestez advised his father that Elektra needed to learn self-defense. Hugo hired a sensei to teach her the martial arts.

In Elektra: Assassin #1 (Aug. 1986), the adult Elektra has vague memories of being raped by her father as a five-year-old. Years of counseling and medication had convinced her this was a false memory, but the doubt remained. Elektra grew up close to her father but was plagued by dark visions and voices with no known source. She occasionally reacted to them with self-harm. Her father eventually sent her away to psychotherapy to become more stable. It was uncertain whether Elektra actually became more stable or merely appeared to be.

Activities as an adult
Hugo Natchios eventually served as a Greek ambassador to the United States. Nineteen-year-old Elektra attended Columbia University in New York City. There, Elektra began dating classmate Matt Murdock.

A year later, Elektra and her father were kidnapped by terrorists. A rescue attempt by Matt went wrong, and Hugo was gunned down. Elektra lost faith and hope. She quit Columbia and returned to China to study martial arts. Stick, a member of the benevolent Chaste organization, recognized the darkness in her soul and attempted to train her himself, but she ultimately sided with the Hand, a sect of mystical ninja who trained her as an assassin. She later broke away from them and became an independent agent, and in this role she encountered Daredevil. She defeated Daredevil in her mission to kill the criminal Alarich Wallenquist. However, she failed her assignment, and Daredevil had to save her from being killed by Eric Slaughter, revealing his secret identity to her in the process. Although the pair worked together to fight the Hand, they also came into conflict frequently.

Elektra later battled the Hand alongside Daredevil and Gladiator. She then battled Kirigi.

She soon became the chief assassin in the employ of the Kingpin, New York City's premier crime lord. She attempted to kill Daredevil after he tried to stop her from terrorizing Ben Urich. The Kingpin then assigned her to kill Franklin "Foggy" Nelson, Matt's partner. When Nelson recognized Elektra as Matt's college girlfriend, she was unable to kill him.

Elektra was fatally stabbed by Bullseye with one of her own sai in a battle over which of them would be the Kingpin's assassin. Elektra managed to crawl to Daredevil's house before dying in his arms as Bullseye watched the two, hidden among a crowd that had gathered to see what was going on. Later, members of The Hand stole her body and attempted to resurrect her. Daredevil, with the assistance of Stone, a member of Stick's order, intervened, defeating The Hand ninja. Daredevil then tried to revive Elektra himself. Although his attempt failed, it did have the effect of purifying Elektra's soul. Elektra's body subsequently disappeared, as did Stone.

Later, Elektra was found to have been resurrected by Stone and residing upon the Chaste mountain, where she claimed to have found peace. It was revealed that when Elektra was resurrected, the evil aspect of her soul had physically split apart from her and had been placed in its own body by the Snakeroot (a part of The Hand), as a consequence of the ritual performed by Daredevil. Her darker half, calling itself Erynys, was tasked to get the About Face Virus for the Snakeroot so that the merger of the corpse and Elektra's essence would become permanent, allowing them complete control over an obedient version of the assassin. Confronted by Daredevil, Stone and Elektra, the Snakeroot fought back in a gruelling battle over the virus. Eventually, Erynys was killed, thus returning the dark side to Elektra's soul.

Some time later, Stick sent Elektra to help Wolverine at a time when physically and mentally regressed to a bestial form. She helped retrain Logan to the point where the latter could think and vocalise as a human once more, and spent time thereafter as the X-Man returned to a normal form, including taking Logan with her on a visit to her ancestral home.

Seeking a focus for her life, Elektra recruited her own order of fighters and mercenaries called the Ryu, to oppose the Snakeroot. She proved to be a poor leader, however, and the entire Ryu was killed trying to prevent the Snakeroot from assassinating a set of pure souls for their cause. Elektra ultimately completed the destruction of the Snakeroot and the protection of the last soul alone.

Later, Elektra asked martial-artist King Lau and boxer McKinley Stewart to help her open a Dojo. After a showdown with Bullseye led to the death of a young woman’s father, Elektra took in the girl, Nina, as her roommate and ward. During this time, a villain named the Architect was calling all super-villains to meet in New York City, for a competition to have Elektra kill him so that he could be reborn in a new host body. With the help of Doctor Strange, the Architect was killed and his essence was trapped in the body of a small demon, caged by Strange.

She was hired by Nick Fury to assassinate Saddam Abed Dassam, the leader of Iraq who was in league with HYDRA, and retrieve the Scorpio Key. Fury hired her as a way to avoid accountability in global political circles. HYDRA tried to hire her, an offer she refused. They then set the Silver Samurai on to her and it appeared she killed the Silver Samurai though the latter appeared alive and well in other comics. When she eventually obtained the Scorpio Key, she refused to give it to Fury, believing that Fury could not be trusted with such a powerful weapon. She instead gave it to the police officer who had killed her father, stating that the officer had a debt to her and would not let her down.

Wolverine: Enemy of the State
Elektra worked with S.H.I.E.L.D.

HYDRA and The Hand joined forces, killing off various heroes and resurrecting them into their possessed warriors, including Wolverine, who became their killing machine. Based on her relationship with Logan and her ties to the Hand, Fury hired Elektra to lead the mission, paying her in excess of $200,000, more money in one day than the (then) yearly salary of the President of the United States. She worked to stop Wolverine from killing others as well as to try to turn him back to his normal self. During a fight with The Hand, Elektra was killed and resurrected as a Hand warrior, eventually becoming their leader. Along with the X-Man Northstar and other superhumans killed and resurrected by the Hand, Elektra attacked Fury, injuring the latter badly and causing the destruction of a S.H.I.E.L.D. helicarrier.

Thanks to S.H.I.E.L.D., Wolverine eventually came to his senses and wanted revenge. During a fight with Elektra, she mentally spoke to Wolverine, using new abilities given to her by the Hand. She explained that being killed by The Hand was all part of a plan she had from the beginning. She explained that she had been resurrected by The Hand and infiltrated the organization, making them believe they had been successful in resurrecting her as a brainwashed warrior. She told him that they would take The Hand and HYDRA down together. They fought off many ninjas and were victorious. Gorgon, however, attacked Elektra and threw off her mental blocks, enabling him to read her thoughts and see where Fury was being treated for his injuries (he also discovered that the Vatican also hired her, to kill him). Gorgon teleported, with Elektra, to kill Fury. When they arrived, Elektra ordered the S.H.I.E.L.D. soldiers to attack. Gorgon used his power on her neck and she collapsed. Wolverine eventually used Gorgon's own powers against him, defeating him.

In an email to Kitty Pryde, Fury says that Elektra has survived albeit missing and probably in Eastern Europe, creating her own militia group which intends to be her own version of The Hand. Fury also says that Elektra is at present, no threat. It is during the time following the helicarrier's destruction that she is abducted by Skrulls and replaced with an imposter.

Daredevil and the Kingpin
Elektra resurfaces to help Daredevil with a situation with the Kingpin. The crime lord, in exchange for his freedom, offered the FBI irrefutable evidence that Matt was Daredevil.

It is revealed that Elektra actually helped the Kingpin gain all the needed information back when she was Daredevil's enemy, and she returned because she felt an obligation to help Matt out of the trouble for which she felt responsible. It was also revealed by the Black Widow that Elektra is now the leader of The Hand.

Daredevil meets up with Elektra, the Black Widow, and the new White Tiger in front of the building that holds the "Murdock Papers" (the evidence Kingpin was talking about). They intended to retrieve the papers before the FBI could get there, but were suddenly attacked by Bullseye. Daredevil and Elektra fought the villain and, after a lengthy and bloody battle, won. However, Daredevil was suddenly shot by Paladin (who was working for FBI operatives) and was left bleeding profusely in Elektra's arms. Elektra then takes Matt to the Night Nurse, but insists that The Hand should cure him. Black Widow appears and objects. While Elektra and Black Widow fight, The Hand heals Murdock.

Outside the Night Nurse's medical office, reporters and police gather. Elektra then jumps out the side window, along with The Hand to drive off the police and FBI. She gets in a quarrel with Luke Cage, and quickly exits the scene at Matt's request.

It was later revealed that "Elektra" was actually a Skrull and not the real Elektra.

Replacement by Skrulls
Elektra seemingly reappears, appearing to be corrupted by the Hand. She kills, resurrects, and imprisons the vigilante Maya Lopez to use as a weapon. The New Avengers rescue Lopez who ends up stabbing Elektra to death, however, her death revealed that "Elektra" is actually a Skrull in disguise.

It turns out that the real Elektra was selected to be replaced by the Skrull Siri. Elektra was targeted by several Skrull impostors while staying in Japan, but she fought and killed most of these Skrulls (including Siri). Elektra gets blindsided and severely beaten by the Super-Skrull Pagon who ultimately took Elektra's place (since Siri was killed by Elektra) as a major "reveal" of Veranke's intent to take over the world's superheroes.

The real Elektra was revealed to be alive upon one of the Skrull ships and was released during the final battle between the heroes and the Skrulls. Iron Man immediately orders her held in protective custody at S.H.I.E.L.D.

"Dark Reign"
Being the only Skrull captive showing signs of experimentation and torture, Elektra finds herself weakened by multiple injuries. Norman Osborn orders her studied and monitored to obtain information as to why this was the case. Paladin breaks into H.A.M.M.E.R. headquarters intending to kill Elektra for $82 million. She overpowers Paladin and chokes him by spitting her broken tooth down his throat. She forces him to surrender the keys to her to escape. Before leaving the cell, she murders the interrogator who was torturing her for information. She finally makes her escape after taking down several H.A.M.M.E.R. operatives and manages to reach Murdock's office to raid his stash of first aid supplies. After being confronted by Nelson, she collapses from extensive blood loss due to her injuries.

Elektra wakes up handcuffed to a hospital bed in the Night Nurse's clinic. The nurse explains that she bound Elektra for her own safety, although the ninja easily frees herself. Their conversation is interrupted when a hit woman named Nico breaks in and attempts to kill both of them. Elektra sends Nico flying out the window then arms herself with the ninja's weapons while telling the Night Nurse to escape. Elektra jumps into the alley and battles Nico, only to find that another hit man named Carmine is also attempting to kill her with a sniper rifle from a rooftop. She manages to defeat Nico while evading Carmine's shots and obtains some clues from Nico as to why she was being targeted for assassination. On the rooftop, Carmine is murdered by Bullseye (in the guise of Hawkeye) who was sent by Osborn to kill Elektra.

Elektra climbs to the top of the building to confront the third assassin, only to be taken aback when she discovers that he is Bullseye. Although initially hesitant, she stands her ground and faces her killer. The two begin to fight when Nico manages to reach the rooftop to check on Carmine. Bullseye attempts to kill her with a drug laced arrow, but she is saved by Elektra (who accidentally gets the drugs on the arrow in her system in the process). Bullseye then kicks the seemingly sedated Elektra off the building, but she manages to land safely. Bullseye follows and confronts her on the street, attempting to kill her with her own sai, much like their first encounter. However, this time Elektra outmaneuvers him and stabs him through the back with one of his own arrows. Nico once more interrupts the fight, attempting to shoot the fleeing Bullseye, then confronting the heavily drugged, helpless Elektra. H.A.M.M.E.R. agents enter the fray and shoot Nico, but are ambushed and killed by Wolverine before they can finish Elektra off.

After escaping H.A.M.M.E.R., Wolverine reveals to Elektra where Nico ran, and Elektra tries to confront the problem head on and peaceably end the conflict. Arriving at the Blackhawk crash site, she discovers that Agent Brothers, a former S.H.I.E.L.D. agent, was the one who put a price on her head. Brothers claims that she was responsible for killing hundreds of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents during the Blackhawk incident. Elektra, having no memory of the incident, denies the accusations and urges both Brothers and Nico to go in peace, stating that it was her Skrull impostor who was responsible for the incident. However, Osborn then appears, and reveals that Elektra was in fact abducted after the Helicarrier attack, although she has no memory of this because she had used a mind trick to "forget" her resurrections and the incidents surrounding them to prevent the Skrulls from accessing them during her abduction. Osborn taunts Elektra to undo this mind trick, and Elektra obliges. It is then revealed that Elektra is actually guilty of the accusations. She then proceeds to kill both Nico and Brothers.

Code Red
Elektra was involved in an incident with the Red Hulk, X-Force, a new villain, the Red She-Hulk, and a few other well known mercenaries such as Deadpool and the Punisher.

Shadowland
In "Shadowland" storyline, Stick tries to convince Elektra to help stop the Hand from corrupting Matt. But she refuses, because she wanted him to be cold-hearted just like her out of spite for him. She reconsiders when she witnessed the broadcast of Daredevil killing Bullseye. She joins the Hand so she can gain intel on the Shadowland fortress to help the super heroes infiltrate it. Later upon rejoining the Hand, Elektra visits Daredevil and Typhoid Mary at Bullseye's grave intending to resurrect him. She then helps sneak the super heroes into the building, to stop Daredevil from resurrecting Bullseye. A fight erupts and just when Elektra tried to reach out to Matt, the Demon of the Hand finally possesses him. Once he defeats all of the super heroes, Iron Fist used his chi energy on the demon to help heal Matt's soul. While that was happening, Elektra entered Matt's mind to encourage him fight the evil presence of the demon. Matt killed himself to stop the demon from causing any more chaos. Elektra later resurrected him.

Thunderbolts
As part of the 2012 Marvel NOW! branding, Elektra becomes a member of Red Hulk's Thunderbolts.

Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D.
During the "Avengers: Standoff!" storyline, Elektra was incarcerated for some unknown reason in Pleasant Hill, a gated community established by S.H.I.E.L.D. S.H.I.E.L.D. used the powers of Kobik to turn her into Sheriff Eva. During this time, she was in love with Absorbing Man's altered human form of an ice cream vendor named Henry. After Baron Helmut Zemo and Fixer started using a machine to turn all the inmates back to normal, Elektra was among those restored. She talked Absorbing Man out to harming the innocent lives at Pleasant Hill.

During the 2016 "Civil War II" storyline, Elektra joined S.H.I.E.L.D. to free her conscience of the deaths of the passengers of the crashed Black Hawk. She took the position of field director when Phil Coulson left the group. When Coulson was trying to interfere with Captain Marvel's plans to use Ulysses Cain's abilities to stop crime before it happens, Elektra discovered that Leo Fitz was Coulson's mole in her group which Maria Hill was alerted to. At the same time, she also reinstated Grant Ward into S.H.I.E.L.D. and placed an explosive collar on his neck to ensure his loyalty.

Becoming Daredevil
During Chip Zdarsky's run on Daredevil, Elektra seeks out Murdock to help form an organization called The Fist to take down The Hand once and for all. To prove herself trustworthy, she takes up the mantle of Daredevil and protects Hell Kitchen while Matt is in prison.

Powers and abilities
Elektra's primary abilities are a strong knowledge of martial arts and weaponry. Elektra learned ancient martial arts of China, Siam, and Japan. She is a master combatant with the Okinawan sai, her usual weapon of choice. She is also highly skilled with the katana, daggers, three-section staff, and shuriken. She is a master of many Japanese combat forms including Ninjutsu, Aikido and Karate. Elektra is an Olympic-level athlete, strong in gymnastics and swimming, with superior strength, speed, agility, reflexes, stamina, endurance, dexterity, reactions, coordination and balance. She is resistant to pain and extreme heat and cold. She is also able to keep to the shadows and move with such speed that she can remain unseen even in daylight.

Elektra has the ability to mesmerize others, and as such make them see illusions or other phenomena.

Elektra also has the ability to "throw" her mind into those of others. For instance, she was able to track down her enemy, Ken Wind, by temporarily "borrowing" people's minds and acting through them while she hunted around for her prey. This temporary mind control enables her to metaphorically sniff out the psyche, or intent, of her targets. It saw extensive use during Elektra: Assassin, in which she was heavily reliant on only her ninja powers.

Elektra can communicate telepathically with individuals possessing similar levels of mental discipline, such as the Chaste. She mastered this ability during training with The Hand, which mentally links her to The Beast, the demigod of The Hand. She is able to shield her mind from others.

She can see glimpses of future events across precognitive visions.

Critical reception
Lukas Shayo of Screen Rant has stated, "Her background makes her nature as a hero all the more interesting. Much like Matt Murdock used Daredevil to help cope with his doubts and guilt, Elektra used the mantle to prove that she was more than a mercenary. Desperate to prove that she was not all terrible, her need for redemption made her an extraordinary hero."

Accolades

 * In 2011, Comics Buyer's Guide ranked Elektra 22nd in their "100 Sexiest Women in Comics" list.
 * in 2017, The Daily Dot ranked Elektra 16th in their "Top 33 female superheroes of all time" list.
 * In 2020, TheWrap included Elektra in their "24 Badass Female Superheroes" list.
 * In 2020, CBR.com ranked Elektra 1st in their "10 Deadliest Female Assassins Of The Marvel Universe" list.
 * In 2021, Screen Rant included Elektra in their "10 Best Marvel Martial Artists" list.
 * In 2022, CBR.com ranked Elektra 1st in their "15 Best Daredevil Love Interests" list, 7th in their "Marvel: 10 Best Reformed Villains" list, 8th in their "Marvel's 10 Best Infiltrators" list, and 10th in their "10 Most Violent Marvel Heroes" list.
 * In 2022, Screen Rant included Elektra in their "10 Best Street-Level Heroes In Marvel Comics" list and in their "15 Most Powerful Daredevil Villains" list.

What If?
In the story "What If Elektra Had Lived?", penned by Frank Miller, Elektra's murder at the hands of Bullseye does not occur as Bullseye is cut down and killed while trying to escape from prison. Elektra spares Franklin Nelson's life, irritating the Kingpin, who swiftly orders her execution. After fighting off several assassination attempts, Elektra flees to Matt Murdock's brownstone home. Murdock initially wants to take Elektra into custody, but she warns him that with the Kingpin putting a bounty on her head, she will die at the hands of his agents if she is sent to prison. Murdock decides to flee New York with Elektra, putting up his home for sale and cutting off contact with Nelson. The couple are last seen enjoying a quiet sunset on a beach, far removed from society and seemingly happy.

Exiles
In one of the universes visited by the Exiles, Elektra was one of the few remaining survivors in a world ravaged by HYDRA and their leader, Sue Storm. Elektra is shown to be the lover of Reed Richards, and is a key player in the revival of the inhabitants of that earth. Her abilities are identical to that of her mainstream version.

House of M
Elektra appears as one of the assassins of the Kingpin and is later hired by John Proudstar to bring down Luke Cage's "Avengers".

Marvel Mangaverse
In the Marvel Mangaverse, Elektra is evil and works for the Hand. When she is first introduced she encounters Daredevil who at first refuses to believe that she was working for the enemy. After a tearful reunion they kiss and she says to him "You tried to save my soul once. Unfortunately there was nothing there worth saving" and then proceeds to cut him in half. Later, during her fight with Carol Danvers, she shows remorse for having killed him. Elektra thanks Carol when Carol cuts her in half with her own blades.

Marvel Zombies
In the Ultimate Fantastic Four arc "Crossover", Elektra is seen among the zombie hordes preparing to attack Magneto, Mr. Fantastic, and the few living humans they are protecting. She is also among the zombies that attack (and infect) Frank Castle. The infected Wolverine from this incident travels to another Earth where he kills the human Elektra with his claws, impaling her through the stomach in the manner of Bullseye.

MC2
In the MC2 Universe (an alternate future primarily focused on the children of current Marvel superheroes), Elektra married Wolverine and the two had a daughter named Rina Logan, a.k.a. Wild Thing. Very little is said about the future of Elektra, although we do see that she is actively involved in parenting Rina. Additionally, it is shown that she is wealthy enough to have an "extra-dimensional" credit rating.

Elektra also has a cameo in Spider-Girl where she is hired by the Black Tarantula to be Spider-Girl's martial arts instructor. Though not knowing Spider-Girl's true identity, Elektra quickly surmises that she is the daughter of Spider-Man based on how she talks, fights and carries herself.

Mutant X
In the Mutant X Universe – an alternate world which was visited by the Earth-616 (mainstream Marvel Universe) Havok – Elektra (surname: Stavros), while still equally trained as a martial artist and assassin, is the nanny and bodyguard of Scotty Summers. Scotty is the son of that reality's Alex Summers and Madelyne Pryor. Elektra stays close to Scotty, protecting him from repeated assaults by his mother, the Goblin Queen, and her brainwashed allies. Following the disappearance of the Goblin Queen, she indulges in an affair with Havok. She seemingly dies near the end of the series, though Scotty reassures Alex that she will come back.

Ultimate Marvel

 *  See also: Ultimate Daredevil and Elektra and Ultimate Elektra for information on the two starring miniseries.

In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Elektra Natchios is a student at Columbia University who has a knack for martial arts and is a great fan of Bruce Lee. Her mother died of breast cancer when she was 6, and her father is trying to make money with a laundromat.

In this universe, she starts out as a sweet, innocent girl who cares deeply for her loved ones – so deeply that she is willing to go over dead bodies to help them. This trait starts her descent into becoming one of the most deadly assassins in the world.

There is a gap between the Elektra featured in Ultimate Daredevil and Elektra and Ultimate Elektra and the one shown in Ultimate Spider-Man. In the first two arcs, she is a normal college student, but in the last arc – which is set a few years later – she has become the Kingpin's right hand and is a villainess. She is hired by an unknown person to kill a Latverian terrorist, but Spider-Man prevented her from doing it. She is shown in this universe as a highly dangerous and skilled killer, and was able to take down the likes of Hammerhead, Black Cat, Moon Knight, and Spider-Man easily. She was later put into a coma when Moon Knight threw one of his crescent blades at her, hitting her in the head when she was about to kill Black Cat.

PunisherMax
A more "realistic" version of Elektra appears in the PunisherMAX series, from Marvel's MAX imprint. This version of the character is Japanese: the Hand lends her services as a bodyguard to the Kingpin, especially to protect him from the Punisher. She also becomes the Kingpin's lover. It is revealed that Elektra was secretly hired by Kingpin's ex-wife Vanessa to assassinate him for failing to prevent the murder of their son Richard. It is also revealed that she is in a lesbian relationship with her. Elektra eventually has a final confrontation with the Punisher to save Vanessa. She manages to seriously wound the Punisher, but is shot several times and left permanently incapacitated. Later, a representative from the Hand has one of his men finish her with a sword.

Secret Wars (2015)
During the Secret Wars storyline, there are two different Elektras that exist in Battleworld:

 * A Wild West version of Elektra resides on the Battleworld domain of the Valley of Doom. She is seen as a minion of Governor Roxxon alongside Bullseye, Grizzly, and Otto Octavius where they were first seen intimidating Judge Franklin Nelson into leaving town so that he wouldn't preside over Red Wolf's trial. Sheriff Steve Rogers and Red Wolf later fought the villains which ended with Otto Octavius being killed in battle, Bullseye killing Sheriff Rogers, and Natasha Barnes diverting the remaining villains in the other direction so that she can hide Red Wolf. Elektra and Grizzly later fought Red Wolf again where they end up defeated by him.
 * Elektra is known as Red Sai, the leader of the Red Hand school in the wuxia-inspired K'un-L'un region of Battleworld. Due to an oath made by a previous master of the Red Hand to serve every emperor of K'un-L'un, she serves as Emperor Zheng Zu's assassin. Red Sai is also the former friend and lover of Shang-Chi, the emperor's son, who was exiled for the murder of Lord Tuan, the previous master of the Iron Fist. During the tournament to decide the new ruler of K'un-L'un, Red Sai and Rand-K'ai, Tuan's pupil, fight Shang-Chi in the penultimate round of the Thirteen Chambers.  During the fight, Red Sai confesses that Zu had sent her to assassinate his rival Tuan but ultimately failed. To spare his lover and her students from the emperor's wrath, Shang-Chi killed Tuan; Zu implicated and exiled his son for the murder to cover his own involvement. After the truth is revealed, Red Sai and Rand-K'ai let Shang-Chi pass so that he could defeat his father. After Shang-Chi emerges victorious, Red Sai pledges herself to the new emperor.

Television
Elektra appears in Marvel's Netflix television series, portrayed by Élodie Yung as an adult and by Lily Chee in flashbacks.
 * First appearing in the second season of Daredevil (2016), this version was trained by Stick from childhood until the Chaste deemed her too dangerous and he had her adopted by a Greek ambassador to keep her safe. While in college, she met and dated Matt Murdock. In the present, Stick sends her back to New York City to make him return to his side and help defeat the Hand. Though she falls in love with him, they break up after she fails to make Murdock kill Roscoe Sweeney for killing his father years prior. Murdock attempts to reconcile with her by convincing her to leave Stick and become her own person, but she seeks revenge on Stick after one of his assassins attacks her. When Stick gets kidnapped by the Hand, Elektra and Murdock work together to find him, discovering she was destined to become the Hand's leader "Black Sky" in the process, though he helps her choose her own path. She later sacrifices herself to save Murdock from the Hand's forces, but they dig up her body and prepare to revive her.
 * Elektra appears in The Defenders. Revived and now working for the Hand as a brainwashed assassin, she is tasked with killing Chaste members and anyone who can threaten their plans, running afoul of Danny Rand, Colleen Wing, and Jessica Jones in the process. When Murdock, Rand, Jones, and Luke Cage join forces to form the Defenders and combat the Hand, Elektra is sent to attack them, but is defeated by Rand. Following this, she slowly regains her memories, but kills Stick, kidnaps Rand, kills the Hand's leader Alexandra Reid to assume control of the group, and manipulates Rand into helping her unearth ancient caverns filled with dragon skeletons said to contain the secret to eternal life. After the Defenders rescue Rand and set explosives in the Hand's headquarters, Murdock stays behind to reach Elektra before they share a kiss and disappear in the explosion. While Murdock survives, Elektra's fate is left ambiguous.

Film

 * Elektra appears in the 20th Century Fox film Daredevil (2003), portrayed by Jennifer Garner. This version is the daughter of billionaire Nikolas Natchios, who had her trained in martial arts after she witnessed her mother's death at a young age. In the present, she encounters and falls in love with Matt Murdock before witnessing Nikolas' death. Initially assuming Daredevil was the culprit, she attacks him, only to learn he is Murdock. Realizing Bullseye is her father's killer, she confronts him, but is fatally stabbed, left for dead, and dies in Murdock's arms.
 * Elektra appears in a self-titled spin-off film, portrayed again by Jennifer Garner. In this film, it is revealed that she was once a martial arts prodigy called the "Treasure". Following her death, Stick resurrected her and trained her in Kimagure, which grants the practitioner precognition and the ability to resurrect the dead. Due to her rage and fear of seeing her mother's killer however, she is expelled from Stick's training compound and becomes a contract killer. Years later, she finds herself protecting a target she was meant to kill but became acquainted with, Mark Miller, and his daughter Abby Miller, the current "Treasure", from the Hand.
 * Following her previous film appearances, Elektra's film rights reverted to Marvel Studios in 2014 and became available for use in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU).
 * Garner will reprise her role as Elektra in the upcoming MCU film Deadpool & Wolverine.

Video games

 * Elektra makes a cameo appearance in Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter as one of Apocalypse's prisoners.
 * Elektra appears as a boss in the Daredevil (2003) tie-in game as a brainwashed servant of the Kingpin until Daredevil eventually frees her.
 * Elektra appears in a self-titled mobile game.
 * Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel Nemesis: Rise of the Imperfects, voiced by Jani Jakovac.
 * Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, voiced by Gabrielle Carteris.
 * Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online.
 * Elektra appears in LittleBigPlanet via the "Marvel Costume Kit 2" DLC.
 * Elektra appears as a boss, later unlockable character in Marvel Avengers Alliance.
 * Elektra appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes, voiced by Laura Bailey. This version works for the Kingpin.
 * Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel Heroes, voiced by Kathryn Cressida.
 * Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel Contest of Champions.
 * Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel: Future Fight.
 * A Marvel Noir-inspired incarnation of Elektra named Eliza appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2.
 * Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel Strike Force.
 * Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, voiced again by Kathryn Cressida.
 * Elektra appears as a playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest.
 * Elektra appears in Marvel Snap.

Miscellaneous

 * Elektra appears in the Marvel Comics Super Heroes collection of commemorative postage-stamps.
 * Elektra appears in a Marvel-licensed slot machine.

By Frank Miller
In addition to her signature appearances in Daredevil, Elektra starred in three series produced by her creator, Frank Miller:
 * Elektra Saga #1–4 (Marvel Comics, 1984) (reprints of material from Daredevil #168, 174-177, 181-182, 187-190 and Bizarre Adventures #28)
 * Elektra: Assassin #1–8 (Marvel Comics, 1986, with Bill Sienkewicz)
 * Elektra Lives Again original graphic novel (Marvel Comics / Epic Comics, 1990)

Additional series
Elektra has also headlined the following series:
 * Elektra vol. 1 #1–4 (Marvel Comics, 1995)
 * Elektra Megazine #1–2 (Marvel Comics, 1996, reprint series)
 * Elektra vol. 2, #1–19 (Marvel Comics, 1996–1998)
 * Elektra vol. 2, #−1 (Marvel Comics, 1997, "FlashBack Month" issue)
 * Peter Parker: Spider-Man / Elektra '98 Annual (Marvel Comics, 1998)
 * Elektra vol. 3, #1–35 (Marvel Comics / Marvel Knights, 2001–2004)
 * Issue 3 was recalled by Marvel due to featuring nude images of the character. An edited version was later reissued to retailers.
 * Elektra and Wolverine: The Redeemer #1–3 (Marvel Comics, 2002)
 * Elektra: Glimpse & Echo #1–4 (Marvel Comics / Marvel Knights, 2002)
 * Elektra: The Hand #1–5 (Marvel Comics, 2004)
 * Dark Reign: Elektra #1–5 (Marvel Comics, 2009)
 * Shadowland: Elektra one-shot (Marvel Comics, 2010)
 * Elektra vol. 4, #1–11 (Marvel Comics, 2014–2015)
 * Elektra vol. 5, #1–5 (Marvel Comics, 2017)
 * Daredevil: Woman Without Fear #1–3 (Marvel Comics, 2021)
 * Elektra: Black, White & Blood #1–4 (Marvel Comics, 2021)

Ultimate Marvel
An alternate version of Elektra starred in the following series set in the fictional Ultimate Marvel Universe:
 * Ultimate Daredevil and Elektra #1–4 (Marvel Comics, 2002)
 * Ultimate Elektra #1–5 (Marvel Comics, 2004)

Intercompany crossovers
Elektra has been featured in crossovers with characters from other publishing companies:
 * Elektra/Cyblade one-shot (Marvel Comics / Top Cow Productions, 1997)
 * Witchblade/Elektra one-shot (Top Cow Productions / Marvel Comics, 1997)

title: Elektra (character)


text:
Tropic (disambiguation)

The term tropic refers to the tropics, a region of the Earth surrounding the Equator.

Tropic or Tropics may also refer to:

Places and geography

 * Tropic of Cancer
 * Tropic of Capricorn
 * Tropic, Florida, a town in the United States
 * Tropic, Utah, a town in the United States

Sports

 * Miami Tropics (American football), a professional football team
 * Miami Tropics, a team in the Premier Basketball League
 * TSV Oberhaching Tropics, a German basketball team
 * West Palm Beach Tropics, Senior Professional Baseball Association

Other uses

 * SS Tropic (1871)
 * SS Tropic (1904), see List of White Star Line ships
 * Tropic (Josep Renau), a 1945 painting by Spanish artist Josep Renau
 * Tropic (magazine), a Sunday magazine published as an insert to the Miami Herald
 * Time-Resolved Observations of Precipitation structure and storm Intensity with a Constellation of Smallsats (TROPICS), a NASA spacecraft mission
 * Tropic Skincare, a British cosmetic products marketing company

title: Tropic (disambiguation)


text:
Phonemic orthography

A phonemic orthography is an orthography (system for writing a language) in which the graphemes (written symbols) correspond consistently to the language's phonemes (the smallest units of speech that can differentiate words). Natural languages rarely have perfectly phonemic orthographies; a high degree of grapheme–phoneme correspondence can be expected in orthographies based on alphabetic writing systems, but they differ in how complete this correspondence is. English orthography, for example, is alphabetic but highly nonphonemic; it was once mostly phonemic during the Middle English stage, when the modern spellings originated, but spoken English changed rapidly while the orthography was much more stable, resulting in the modern nonphonemic situation. On the contrary the Albanian, Serbian/Croatian/Bosnian/Montenegrin, Romanian, Italian, Turkish, Spanish, Finnish, Czech, Latvian, Lithuanian, Esperanto, Korean, Swahili and Georgian orthographic systems come much closer to being consistent phonemic representations.

In less formal terms, a language with a highly phonemic orthography may be described as having regular spelling. Another terminology is that of deep and shallow orthographies, in which the depth of an orthography is the degree to which it diverges from being truly phonemic. The concept can also be applied to nonalphabetic writing systems like syllabaries.

Ideal phonemic orthography
In an ideal phonemic orthography, there would be a complete one-to-one correspondence (bijection) between the graphemes (letters) and the phonemes of the language, and each phoneme would invariably be represented by its corresponding grapheme. So the spelling of a word would unambiguously and transparently indicate its pronunciation, and conversely, a speaker knowing the pronunciation of a word would be able to infer its spelling without any doubt. That ideal situation is rare but exists in a few languages.

A disputed example of an ideally phonemic orthography is the Serbo-Croatian language. In its alphabet (Latin as well as Serbian Cyrillic alphabet), there are 30 graphemes, each uniquely corresponding to one of the phonemes. This seemingly perfect yet simple phonemic orthography was achieved in the 19th century—the Cyrillic alphabet first in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić, and the Latin alphabet in 1830 by Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj. However, both Gaj's Latin alphabet and Serbian Cyrillic do not distinguish short and long vowels, and non-tonic (the short one is written), rising, and falling tones that Serbo-Croatian has. In Serbo-Croatian, the tones and vowel lengths were optionally written as (in Latin) ⟨e⟩, ⟨ē⟩, ⟨è⟩, ⟨é⟩, ⟨ȅ⟩, and ⟨ȇ⟩, especially in dictionaries.

Another such ideal phonemic orthography is native to Esperanto, employing the language creator L. L. Zamenhof's then-pronounced principle "one letter, one sound".

Deviations from phonemic orthography
There are two distinct types of deviation from the phonemic ideal. In the first case, the exact one-to-one correspondence may be lost (for example, some phoneme may be represented by a digraph instead of a single letter), but the "regularity" is retained: there is still an algorithm (but a more complex one) for predicting the spelling from the pronunciation and vice versa. In the second case, true irregularity is introduced, as certain words come to be spelled and pronounced according to different rules from others, and prediction of spelling from pronunciation and vice versa is no longer possible.

Case 1: Regular
Pronunciation and spelling still correspond in a predictable way
 * A phoneme may be represented by a sequence of letters, called a multigraph, rather than by a single letter (as in the case of the digraph ch in French and the trigraph sch in German), that retains predictability only if the multigraph cannot be broken down into smaller units. Some languages use diacritics to distinguish between a digraph and a sequence of individual letters, and others require knowledge of the language to distinguish them; compare goatherd and loather in English.

Examples:

sch versus s-ch in Romansch

ng versus n + g in Welsh

ch versus çh in Manx Gaelic: this is a slightly different case where the same digraph is used for two different single phonemes.

ai versus aï in French

This is often due to the use of an alphabet that was originally used for a different language (the Latin alphabet in these examples) and so does not have single letters available for all the phonemes used in the current language (although some orthographies use devices such as diacritics to increase the number of available letters).
 * Sometimes, conversely, a single letter may represent a sequence of more than one phoneme (as x can represent the sequence /ks/ in English and other languages).
 * Sometimes, the rules of correspondence are more complex and depend on adjacent letters, often as a result of historical sound changes (as with the rules for the pronunciation of ca and ci in Italian and the silent e in English).

Case 2: Irregular
Pronunciation and spelling do not always correspond in a predictable way In Bengali, the letters, 'শ', 'ষ', and ' স, correspond to the same sound //. Moreover, consonant clusters, 'স্ব', 'স্য' , 'শ্ব ', 'শ্ম', 'শ্য', 'ষ্ম ', 'ষ্য', also often have the same pronunciation, // or //.
 * Sometimes, different letters correspond to the same phoneme (for instance u and ó in Polish are both pronounced as the phoneme /u/). That is often for historical reasons (the Polish letters originally stood for different phonemes, which later merged phonologically). That affects the predictability of spelling from pronunciation but not necessarily vice versa. Another example is found in Modern Greek, whose phoneme /i/ can be written in six different ways: ι, η, υ, ει, οι and υι.
 * Conversely, a letter or group of letters can correspond to different phonemes in different contexts. For example, th in English can represent /ð/ (as in this) or /θ/ (as in thin), as well as /th/ (as in goatherd).
 * Spelling may otherwise represent a historical pronunciation; orthography does not necessarily keep up with sound changes in the spoken language. For example, both the k and the digraph gh of English knight were once pronounced (the latter is still pronounced in some Scots varieties), but after the loss of their sounds, they no longer represent the word's phonemic structure or its pronunciation.
 * Spelling may represent the pronunciation of a different dialect from the one being considered.
 * Spellings of loanwords often adhere to or are influenced by the orthography of the source language (as with the English words ballet and fajita, from French and Spanish respectively). With some loanwords, though, regularity is retained either by
 * nativizing the pronunciation to match the spelling (as with the Russian word шофёр, from French chauffeur but pronounced in accordance with the normal rules of Russian vowel reduction; see also spelling pronunciation) or by
 * nativizing the spelling (for example, football is spelt fútbol in Spanish and futebol in Portuguese).
 * Spelling may reflect a folk etymology (as in the English words hiccough and island, so spelt because of an imagined connection with the words cough and isle), or distant etymology (as in the English word debt in which the silent b was added under the influence of Latin).
 * Spelling may reflect morphophonemic structure rather than the purely phonemic (see next section) although it is often also a reflection of historical pronunciation.

Most orthographies do not reflect the changes in pronunciation known as sandhi in which pronunciation is affected by adjacent sounds in neighboring words (written Sanskrit and other Indian languages, however, reflect such changes). A language may also use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items such as the Japanese hiragana and katakana syllabaries (and the different treatment in English orthography of words derived from Latin and Greek).

Morphophonemic features
Alphabetic orthographies often have features that are morphophonemic rather than purely phonemic. This means that the spelling reflects to some extent the underlying morphological structure of the words, not only their pronunciation. Hence different forms of a morpheme (minimum meaningful unit of language) are often spelt identically or similarly in spite of differences in their pronunciation. That is often for historical reasons; the morphophonemic spelling reflects a previous pronunciation from before historical sound changes that caused the variation in pronunciation of a given morpheme. Such spellings can assist in the recognition of words when reading.

Some examples of morphophonemic features in orthography are described below.
 * The English plural morpheme is written -s regardless of whether it is pronounced as or, e.g. cats and dogs, not cats and dogz. This is because the  and  sounds are forms of the same underlying morphophoneme, automatically pronounced differently depending on its environment. (However, when this morpheme takes the form , the addition of the vowel is reflected in the spelling: churches, masses.)
 * Similarly the English past tense morpheme is written -ed regardless of whether it is pronounced as, or  (with some exceptions: spilt, knelt).
 * Many English words retain spellings that reflect their etymology and morphology rather than their present-day pronunciation. For example, sign and signature include the spelling $\langlesign\rangle$, which means the same but is pronounced differently in the two words. Other examples are science vs. conscience, prejudice  vs. prequel , nation  vs. nationalism , and special  vs. species.
 * Phonological assimilation is often not reflected in spelling even in otherwise phonemic orthographies such as Spanish, in which obtener "obtain" and optimista "optimist" are written with b and p, but are commonly neutralized with regard to voicing and pronounced in various ways, such as both [β] in neutral style or both [p] in emphatic pronunciation. On the other hand, Serbo-Croatian (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin) spelling reflects assimilation so one writes Србија/Srbija "Serbia" but српски/srpski "Serbian".
 * The final-obstruent devoicing that occurs in many languages (such as German, Polish and Russian) is not normally reflected in the spelling. For example, in German, Bad "bath" is spelt with a final $\langled\rangle$ even though it is pronounced, thus corresponding to other morphologically related forms such as the verb baden (bathe) in which the d is pronounced . (Compare Rat, raten ("advice", "advise") in which the t is pronounced in both positions.)  Turkish orthography, however, is more strictly phonemic: for example, the imperative of eder "does" is spelled et, as it is pronounced (and the same as the word for "meat"), not *ed, as it would be if German spelling were used.

Korean hangul has changed over the centuries from a highly phonemic to a largely morphophonemic orthography. Japanese kana are almost completely phonemic but have a few morphophonemic aspects, notably in the use of ぢ di and づ du (rather than じ ji and ず zu, their pronunciation in standard Tokyo dialect), when the character is a voicing of an underlying ち or つ. That is from the rendaku sound change combined with the yotsugana merger of formally different morae. The Russian orthography is also mostly morphophonemic, because it does not reflect vowel reduction, consonant assimilation and final-obstruent devoicing. Also, some consonant combinations have silent consonants.

Defective orthographies
A defective orthography is one that is not capable of representing all the phonemes or phonemic distinctions in a language. An example of such a deficiency in English orthography is the lack of distinction between the voiced and voiceless "th" phonemes ( and, respectively), occurring in words like this (voiced) and thin  (voiceless) respectively, with both written $\langleth\rangle$.

Comparison between languages
Languages whose current orthographies have a high grapheme-to-phoneme and phoneme-to-grapheme correspondence (excluding exceptions due to loan words and assimilation) include:

 * Afrikaans
 * Amharic
 * Arabic (with diacritics, apart from ى and assimilation of -ال)
 * Kurdish
 * Maltese
 * Estonian (apart from palatalization or long and "over-long" phoneme length distinction)
 * Finnish
 * Albanian
 * Georgian
 * Hindi (apart from schwa deletion)
 * Sanskrit
 * Kannada
 * Telugu
 * Malayalam
 * Dhivehi
 * Turkish (apart from ğ and various palatal and vowel allophones)
 * Serbo-Croatian (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin; written in either Cyrillic or Latin script)
 * Slovenian
 * Bulgarian
 * Macedonian (if the apostrophe denoting schwa is counted, though slight inconsistencies may be found)
 * Eastern Armenian (apart from o, v)
 * Basque (apart from palatalized l, n)
 * Haitian Creole
 * Spanish (apart from h, x, b/v, and sometimes k, c, g, j, z)
 * Czech (apart from ě, ů, y, ý)
 * Polish (apart from ó, ch, rz and nasal vowels ą and ę)
 * Romanian (apart from â or î (see Î versus Â))
 * Ukrainian (mainly phonemic with some other historical/morphological rules, as well as palatalization)
 * Belarusian (phonemic for vowels but mostly morphophonemic for consonants except ў written phonetically)
 * Swahili (missing aspirated consonants, which do not occur in all varieties and anyway are sparsely used)
 * Mongolian (Cyrillic) (apart from letters representing multiple sounds depending on front or back vowels, the soft and hard sign, silent letters to indicate from  and voiced versus voiceless consonants)
 * Azerbaijani (apart from k)
 * Hungarian (apart from j and ly)
 * Oromo
 * Malay and Indonesian (apart from e and various vowel allophones, as well as k, s, and z if an Arabic-style pronunciation is followed)

Many otherwise phonemic orthographies are slightly defective, see the page Defective script § Latin script. The graphemes b and v represent the same phoneme in all varieties of Spanish (except in Valencia), while in the Spanish of the Americas, can be represented by graphemes s, c, or z.

Modern Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Maithili and several others feature schwa deletion, where the implicit default vowel is suppressed without being explicitly marked as such. Others, like Marathi, do not have a high grapheme-to-phoneme correspondence for vowel lengths.

Bengali, despite having a slightly shallow orthography, has a deeper orthography than its Indo-Aryan cousins as it features silent consonants at places. Moreover, due to sound mergers, the same phonemes are often represented by different graphemes. On the other hand, Assamese does not have retroflex consonants and so, the characters for retroflex consonants ( like ট ('t') and ড ('d') ) that it has inherited in its script from the ancient Brahmi script are also pronounced like their dental versions. Moreover, in both Bengali and Assamese do not make any distinctions in vowel length. Thus the letters like ই ('i') and ঈ ('i:') as well as উ ('u') and ঊ ('u:') have the same pronunciations as 'i' and 'u' respectively. This leads to the existence of many homophones (words with same pronunciations but different spellings and meanings) in these languages.

French, with its silent letters and its heavy use of nasal vowels and elision, may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation, though complex, are consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy. The phoneme-to-letter correspondence, on the other hand, is often low and a sequence of sounds may have multiple ways of being spelt, often with different meanings.

Orthographies such as those of German, Hungarian (mainly phonemic with the exception ly, j representing the same sound, but consonant and vowel length are not always accurate and various spellings reflect etymology, not pronunciation), Portuguese, and modern Greek (written with the Greek alphabet), as well as Korean hangul, are sometimes considered to be of intermediate depth (for example they include many morphophonemic features, as described above).

Similarly to French, it is much easier to infer the pronunciation of a German word from its spelling than vice versa. For example, for speakers who merge /eː/ and /ɛː/, the phoneme /eː/ may be spelt e, ee, eh, ä or äh.

English orthography is highly non-phonemic. The irregularity of English spelling arises partly because the Great Vowel Shift occurred after the orthography was established; partly because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels; and partly because the regularisation of the spelling (moving away from the situation in which many different spellings were acceptable for the same word) happened arbitrarily over a period without any central plan. However even English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and several of these rules are successful most of the time; rules to predict spelling from the pronunciation have a higher failure rate.

Most constructed languages such as Esperanto and Lojban have mostly phonemic orthographies.

The syllabary systems of Japanese (hiragana and katakana) are examples of almost perfectly shallow orthography – exceptions include the use of ぢ and づ (discussed above) and the use of は, を, and へ to represent the sounds わ, お, and え, as relics of historical kana usage. There is also no indication of pitch accent, which results in homography of words like 箸 and 橋 (はし in hiragana), which are distinguished in speech.

Xavier Marjou uses an artificial neural network to rank 17 orthographies according to their level of Orthographic depth. Among the tested orthographies, Chinese and French orthographies, followed by English and Russian, are the most opaque regarding writing (i.e. phonemes to graphemes direction) and English, followed by Dutch, is the most opaque regarding reading (i.e. graphemes to phonemes direction); Esperanto, Arabic, Finnish, Korean, Serbo-Croatian and Turkish are very shallow both to read and to write; Italian is shallow to read and very shallow to write, Breton, German, Portuguese and Spanish are shallow to read and to write.

Realignment of orthography
With time, pronunciations change and spellings become out of date, as has happened to English and French. In order to maintain a phonemic orthography such a system would need periodic updating, as has been attempted by various language regulators and proposed by other spelling reformers.

Sometimes the pronunciation of a word changes to match its spelling; this is called a spelling pronunciation. This is most common with loanwords, but occasionally occurs in the case of established native words too.

In some English personal names and place names, the relationship between the spelling of the name and its pronunciation is so distant that associations between phonemes and graphemes cannot be readily identified. Moreover, in many other words, the pronunciation has subsequently evolved from a fixed spelling, so that it has to be said that the phonemes represent the graphemes rather than vice versa. And in much technical jargon, the primary medium of communication is the written language rather than the spoken language, so the phonemes represent the graphemes, and it is unimportant how the word is pronounced. Moreover, the sounds which literate people perceive being heard in a word are significantly influenced by the actual spelling of the word.

Sometimes, countries have the written language undergo a spelling reform to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word forms to switching the entire writing system itself, as when Turkey switched from the Arabic alphabet to the Latin-based Turkish alphabet.

Phonetic transcription
Methods for phonetic transcription such as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) aim to describe pronunciation in a standard form. They are often used to solve ambiguities in the spelling of written language. They may also be used to write languages with no previous written form. Systems like IPA can be used for phonemic representation or for showing more detailed phonetic information (see Narrow vs. broad transcription).

Phonemic orthographies are different from phonetic transcription; whereas in a phonemic orthography, allophones will usually be represented by the same grapheme, a purely phonetic script would demand that phonetically distinct allophones be distinguished. To take an example from American English: the sound in the words "table" and "cat" would, in a phonemic orthography, be written with the same character; however, a strictly phonetic script would make a distinction between the aspirated "t" in "table", the flap in "butter", the unaspirated "t" in "stop" and the glottalized "t" in "cat" (not all these allophones exist in all English dialects). In other words, the sound that most English speakers think of as is really a group of sounds, all pronounced slightly differently depending on where they occur in a word. A perfect phonemic orthography has one letter per group of sounds (phoneme), with different letters only where the sounds distinguish words (so "bed" is spelled differently from "bet").

A narrow phonetic transcription represents phones, the sounds humans are capable of producing, many of which will often be grouped together as a single phoneme in any given natural language, though the groupings vary across languages. English, for example, does not distinguish between aspirated and unaspirated consonants, but other languages, like Korean, Bengali and Hindi do.

The sounds of speech of all languages of the world can be written by a rather small universal phonetic alphabet. A standard for this is the International Phonetic Alphabet.

title: Phonemic orthography