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Metacentric height

The metacentric height (GM) is a measurement of the initial static stability of a floating body. It is calculated as the distance between the centre of gravity of a ship and its metacentre. A larger metacentric height implies greater initial stability against overturning. The metacentric height also influences the natural period of rolling of a hull, with very large metacentric heights being associated with shorter periods of roll which are uncomfortable for passengers. Hence, a sufficiently, but not excessively, high metacentric height is considered ideal for passenger ships.

Different centres

The centre of buoyancy is at the centre of mass of the volume of water that the hull displaces. This point is referred to as B in naval architecture. The centre of gravity of the ship is commonly denoted as point G or CG. When a ship is at equilibrium, the centre of buoyancy is vertically in line with the centre of gravity of the ship.

The metacentre is the point where the lines intersect (at angle φ) of the upward force of buoyancy of φ ± dφ. When the ship is vertical, the metacentre lies above the centre of gravity and so moves in the opposite direction of heel as the ship rolls. This distance is also abbreviated as GM. As the ship heels over, the centre of gravity generally remains fixed with respect to the ship because it just depends on the position of the ship's weight and cargo, but the surface area increases, increasing BMφ. Work must be done to roll a stable hull. This is converted to potential energy by raising the centre of mass of the hull with respect to the water level or by lowering the centre of buoyancy or both. This potential energy will be released in order to right the hull and the stable attitude will be where it has the least magnitude. It is the interplay of potential and kinetic energy that results in the ship having a natural rolling frequency. For small angles, the metacentre, Mφ, moves with a lateral component so it is no longer directly over the centre of mass.

The righting couple on the ship is proportional to the horizontal distance between two equal forces. These are gravity acting downwards at the centre of mass and the same magnitude force acting upwards through the centre of buoyancy, and through the metacentre above it. The righting couple is proportional to the metacentric height multiplied by the sine of the angle of heel, hence the importance of metacentric height to stability. As the hull rights, work is done either by its centre of mass falling, or by water falling to accommodate a rising centre of buoyancy, or both.

For example, when a perfectly cylindrical hull rolls, the centre of buoyancy stays on the axis of the cylinder at the same depth. However, if the centre of mass is below the axis, it will move to one side and rise, creating potential energy. Conversely if a hull having a perfectly rectangular cross section has its centre of mass at the water line, the centre of mass stays at the same height, but the centre of buoyancy goes down as the hull heels, again storing potential energy.

When setting a common reference for the centres, the molded (within the plate or planking) line of the keel (K) is generally chosen; thus, the reference heights are:

 * KB – to Centre of Buoyancy
 * KG – to Centre of Gravity
 * KMT – to Transverse Metacentre

Metacentre
When a ship heels (rolls sideways), the centre of buoyancy of the ship moves laterally. It might also move up or down with respect to the water line. The point at which a vertical line through the heeled centre of buoyancy crosses the line through the original, vertical centre of buoyancy is the metacentre. The metacentre remains directly above the centre of buoyancy by definition. In the diagram above, the two Bs show the centres of buoyancy of a ship in the upright and heeled conditions. The metacentre, M, is considered to be fixed relative to the ship for small angles of heel; however, at larger angles the metacentre can no longer be considered fixed, and its actual location must be found to calculate the ship's stability.

It can be calculated using the formulae:

 * $$KM = KB + BM$$
 * $$BM =\frac{I}{V} \ $$

Where KB is the centre of buoyancy (height above the keel), I is the second moment of area of the waterplane around the rotation axis in metres4, and V is the volume of displacement in metres3. KM is the distance from the keel to the metacentre.

Stable floating objects have a natural rolling frequency, just like a weight on a spring, where the frequency is increased as the spring gets stiffer. In a boat, the equivalent of the spring stiffness is the distance called "GM" or "metacentric height", being the distance between two points: "G" the centre of gravity of the boat and "M", which is a point called the metacentre.

Metacentre is determined by the ratio between the inertia resistance of the boat and the volume of the boat. (The inertia resistance is a quantified description of how the waterline width of the boat resists overturning.) Wide and shallow hulls have high transverse metacentres, whilst narrow and deep hulls have low metacentres . Ignoring the ballast, wide and shallow means that the ship is very quick to roll, and narrow and deep means that the ship is very hard to overturn and is stiff.

"G", is the center of gravity. "GM", the stiffness parameter of a boat, can be lengthened by lowering the center of gravity or changing the hull form (and thus changing the volume displaced and second moment of area of the waterplane) or both.

An ideal boat strikes a balance. Very tender boats with very slow roll periods are at risk of overturning, but are comfortable for passengers. However, vessels with a higher metacentric height are "excessively stable" with a short roll period resulting in high accelerations at the deck level.

Sailing yachts, especially racing yachts, are designed to be stiff, meaning the distance between the centre of mass and the metacentre is very large in order to resist the heeling effect of the wind on the sails. In such vessels, the rolling motion is not uncomfortable because of the moment of inertia of the tall mast and the aerodynamic damping of the sails.

Righting arm
The metacentric height is an approximation for the vessel stability at a small angle (0-15 degrees) of heel. Beyond that range, the stability of the vessel is dominated by what is known as a righting moment. Depending on the geometry of the hull, naval architects must iteratively calculate the center of buoyancy at increasing angles of heel. They then calculate the righting moment at this angle, which is determined using the equation:

$$RM = GZ\cdot\Delta$$

Where RM is the righting moment, GZ is the righting arm and $Δ$ is the displacement. Because the vessel displacement is constant, common practice is to simply graph the righting arm vs the angle of heel. The righting arm (known also as GZ — see diagram): the horizontal distance between the lines of buoyancy and gravity.

 * $$GZ = GM\cdot\sin\phi$$ at small angles of heel

There are several important factors that must be determined with regards to righting arm/moment. These are known as the maximum righting arm/moment, the point of deck immersion, the downflooding angle, and the point of vanishing stability. The maximum righting moment is the maximum moment that could be applied to the vessel without causing it to capsize. The point of deck immersion is the angle at which the main deck will first encounter the sea. Similarly, the downflooding angle is the angle at which water will be able to flood deeper into the vessel. Finally, the point of vanishing stability is a point of unstable equilibrium. Any heel lesser than this angle will allow the vessel to right itself, while any heel greater than this angle will cause a negative righting moment (or heeling moment) and force the vessel to continue to roll over. When a vessel reaches a heel equal to its point of vanishing stability, any external force will cause the vessel to capsize.

Sailing vessels are designed to operate with a higher degree of heel than motorized vessels and the righting moment at extreme angles is of high importance.

Monohulled sailing vessels should be designed to have a positive righting arm (the limit of positive stability) to at least 120° of heel, although many sailing yachts have stability limits down to 90° (mast parallel to the water surface). As the displacement of the hull at any particular degree of list is not proportional, calculations can be difficult, and the concept was not introduced formally into naval architecture until about 1970.

GM and rolling period
The metacentre has a direct relationship with a ship's rolling period. A ship with a small GM will be "tender" - have a long roll period. An excessively low or negative GM increases the risk of a ship capsizing in rough weather, for example HMS Captain or the Vasa. It also puts the vessel at risk of potential for large angles of heel if the cargo or ballast shifts, such as with the Cougar Ace. A ship with low GM is less safe if damaged and partially flooded because the lower metacentric height leaves less safety margin. For this reason, maritime regulatory agencies such as the International Maritime Organization specify minimum safety margins for seagoing vessels. A larger metacentric height on the other hand can cause a vessel to be too "stiff"; excessive stability is uncomfortable for passengers and crew. This is because the stiff vessel quickly responds to the sea  as it attempts to assume the slope of the wave. An overly stiff vessel rolls with a short period and high amplitude which results in high angular acceleration. This increases the risk of damage to the ship and to cargo and may cause excessive roll in special circumstances where eigenperiod of wave coincide with eigenperiod of ship roll. Roll damping by bilge keels of sufficient size will reduce the hazard. Criteria for this dynamic stability effect remain to be developed. In contrast, a "tender" ship lags behind the motion of the waves and tends to roll at lesser amplitudes. A passenger ship will typically have a long rolling period for comfort, perhaps 12 seconds while a tanker or freighter might have a rolling period of 6 to 8 seconds.

The period of roll can be estimated from the following equation:

$$T =\frac{2 \pi\, (a_{44} + k)}{\sqrt{g \overline{GM}}}\ $$

where g is the gravitational acceleration, a44 is the added radius of gyration and k is the radius of gyration about the longitudinal axis through the centre of gravity and $$\overline{GM}$$ is the stability index.

Damaged stability
If a ship floods, the loss of stability is caused by the increase in KB, the centre of buoyancy, and the loss of waterplane area - thus a loss of the waterplane moment of inertia - which decreases the metacentric height. This additional mass will also reduce freeboard (distance from water to the deck) and the ship's downflooding angle (minimum angle of heel at which water will be able to flow into the hull). The range of positive stability will be reduced to the angle of down flooding resulting in a reduced righting lever. When the vessel is inclined, the fluid in the flooded volume will move to the lower side, shifting its centre of gravity toward the list, further extending the heeling force. This is known as the free surface effect.

Free surface effect
In tanks or spaces that are partially filled with a fluid or semi-fluid (fish, ice, or grain for example) as the tank is inclined the surface of the liquid, or semi-fluid, stays level. This results in a displacement of the centre of gravity of the tank or space relative to the overall centre of gravity. The effect is similar to that of carrying a large flat tray of water. When an edge is tipped, the water rushes to that side, which exacerbates the tip even further.

The significance of this effect is proportional to the cube of the width of the tank or compartment, so two baffles separating the area into thirds will reduce the displacement of the centre of gravity of the fluid by a factor of 9. This is of significance in ship fuel tanks or ballast tanks, tanker cargo tanks, and in flooded or partially flooded compartments of damaged ships. Another worrying feature of free surface effect is that a positive feedback loop can be established, in which the period of the roll is equal or almost equal to the period of the motion of the centre of gravity in the fluid, resulting in each roll increasing in magnitude until the loop is broken or the ship capsizes.

This has been significant in historic capsizes, most notably the MS Herald of Free Enterprise and the MS Estonia.

Transverse and longitudinal metacentric heights
There is also a similar consideration in the movement of the metacentre forward and aft as a ship pitches. Metacentres are usually separately calculated for transverse (side to side) rolling motion and for lengthwise longitudinal pitching motion. These are variously known as $$\overline{GM_{T}}$$ and $$\overline{GM_{L}}$$, GM(t) and GM(l), or sometimes GMt and GMl.

Technically, there are different metacentric heights for any combination of pitch and roll motion, depending on the moment of inertia of the waterplane area of the ship around the axis of rotation under consideration, but they are normally only calculated and stated as specific values for the limiting pure pitch and roll motion.

Measurement
The metacentric height is normally estimated during the design of a ship but can be determined by an inclining test once it has been built. This can also be done when a ship or offshore floating platform is in service. It can be calculated by theoretical formulas based on the shape of the structure.

The angle(s) obtained during the inclining experiment are directly related to GM. By means of the inclining experiment, the 'as-built' centre of gravity can be found; obtaining GM and KM by experiment measurement (by means of pendulum swing measurements and draft readings), the centre of gravity KG can be found. So KM and GM become the known variables during inclining and KG is the wanted calculated variable (KG = KM-GM)

title: Metacentric height


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1950s in film

The decade of the 1950s in film involved many significant films.

Trends
Films of the 1950s were of a wide variety. As a result of the introduction of television, the studios and companies sought to put audiences back in theaters. They used more techniques in presenting their films through widescreen and big-approach methods, such as Cinemascope, VistaVision, and Cinerama, as well as gimmicks like 3-D film. Big production and spectacle films were perfect for this gained popularity, with the many historic and fantasy epics like The Robe (1953),The Story of Robin Hood and His Merrie Men (1952), The Ten Commandments (1956), The Seventh Voyage of Sinbad (1958), and Ben-Hur (1959). Other big-scoped films thrived internationally, too, such as Soviet fantasy director Aleksandr Ptushko's mythological epics Sadko, Ilya Muromets, and Sampo, and Japanese director Akira Kurosawa's historic Seven Samurai, Throne of Blood, and Rashomon. Toshiro Mifune, who starred in those Kurosawa films, also starred in the color spectacle Samurai Trilogy.

This spectacle approach, coupled with Cold War paranoia, a renewed interest in science from the atomic bomb, as well as increased interest in the mysteries of outer space and other forteana, lent itself well to what this film decade is best known for, science fiction. The science fiction genre began its golden age during this decade with such notable films as The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951), The Thing from Another World (1951), The War of the Worlds (1953), It Came from Outer Space (1953), Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954), Them! (1954), This Island Earth (1955), Earth vs. the Flying Saucers (1956), and Forbidden Planet (1956), as well as Japanese science fiction tokusatsu films. There were also Earth-based "sci-fi" subjects, including kaiju films such as the Godzilla series as well as 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954) and When Worlds Collide (1951). Companies such as American International Pictures, Japan's Toho, and Britain's Hammer Film Productions were created to solely produce films of the fantastique genres.

The decade was equally adept at both character and realistic films. The highly noted actors James Stewart, John Wayne, and Marlon Brando were at the peak of their popularity. Stewart, starring in Winchester '73, and Wayne, starring in John Ford's Cavalry Trilogy and The Searchers, revitalized the western. Brando mastered versatile roles in films such as A Streetcar Named Desire, The Wild One (1953), Julius Caesar, On the Waterfront (1954), Guys and Dolls (1955), The Teahouse of the August Moon (1956), and Sayonara (1957).

Director Alfred Hitchcock was at the peak of his craft, with films such as Strangers on a Train (1951), Dial M for Murder (1954), Rear Window (1954), To Catch a Thief (1955), The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956), Vertigo (1958), and North by Northwest (1959), with James Stewart and Grace Kelly starring in three each. The Bengali Indian director Satyajit Ray, who began his career in the 1950s, was also at the peak of his career during this decade, with films such as The Apu Trilogy (1955–1959), Jalsaghar (1958), and Parash Pathar (1958).

Lists of films
• 1950 in film

• 1951 in film

• 1952 in film

• 1953 in film

• 1954 in film

• 1955 in film

• 1956 in film

• 1957 in film

• 1958 in film

• 1959 in film

External lists

 * List of 1950s films at IMDb
 * List of 1950s deaths at IMDb
 * List of 1950s births at IMDb

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1950s in film


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Mallakastër

Mallakastër (Mallakastra) is a region and a municipality in Fier County, southwestern Albania. It was created in 2015 by the merger of the present municipalities Aranitas, Ballsh, Fratar, Greshicë, Hekal, Kutë, Ngraçan, Qendër Dukas and Selitë. The seat of the municipality is the town Ballsh. The total population is 27,062 (2011 census), in a total area of 329.37 km2. It is coterminous with the former Mallakastër District.

Name
The municipality takes its name from the Mallakastër hills.

Geography
The landscape consists of fields alternated with low hills. Their highest point is the hill Shëndëlli (712 m), not to be confused with the much higher Mount Shëndelli further south.

Population
The people from this region are called Mallakastriotë. The population is Muslim and Orthodox Christian. The region is a center of both the Bektashi order and the Halveti order (to a lesser extent). The region is known for its cultural traditions and has produced many brave fighters including Rrapo Hekali.

Economy
Mallakastër was an industrially important region for Albania since it has reserves of natural gas and oil which make area a center of oil production and refining in Albania. Mallakastër is also known for its agriculture which produces a large variety of products.

Notable people

 * Kadri Roshi, famous actor
 * Mehmet Shehu, communist politician
 * Rrapo Hekali, key figure in the Albanian revolt of 1847
 * Liri Belishova, communist politician
 * Qani Toro, communist politician
 * Dervish Hekali, Hero
 * Luftar Paja
 * Ismail Klosi
 * Ramiz Aranitasi
 * Bilbil Klosi, lawyer and judge
 * Ardian Klosi, writer and historian

title: Mallakastër


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Vardar Banovina

The Vardar Banovina, or Vardar Banate (Вардарска бановина; Вардарска бановина; Banovina e Vardarit), was a province (banate) of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia between 1929 and 1941.

History
It was located in the southernmost part of the country, encompassing the whole of today's North Macedonia, southern parts of Southern and Eastern Serbia and southeastern parts of Kosovo and Serbia. It was named after the Vardar River and its administrative capital was the city of Skopje. According to the 1930 statistics of the Central Press Bureau of the Ministerial Council out of the 9 Yugoslav banovinas, the "Vardarska" banovina was the largest at 38879 km2; while its population, was the fourth at 1,386,370 inhabitants. Following the First World War in Vardar Macedonia and the so-called Western Outlands, the local Bulgarian/Macedonian population was not recognized and state-policy of Serbianisation occurred. It also suffered the worst health problems, especially typhus and smallpox, and required one Institute of Hygiene, 3 health stations and 6 dispensaries and convalescent homes. On the other hand, unlike the banovinas that until the creation of Yugoslavia had belonged to the Austro-Hungarian empire and the lands of Montenegro, it had inherited no debts. According to the 1931 Constitution of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the Vardar Banovina was bounded on the north by the boundaries of the Zeta and Morava Banovinas, and on the east, south and west by the State frontiers with Bulgaria, Greece, and Albania. In 1941, the World War II Axis Powers occupied the Vardar Banovina and divided it between Bulgaria, German-occupied Serbia, and Albania under Italy. Following World War II, the southern portion of the region became Socialist Republic of Macedonia while the northern portions were made a part of the Socialist Republic of Serbia, both within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Bans of Vardar Banovina

 * Živojin Lazić (1929–1932)
 * Dobrica Matković (1932–1933)
 * Dragoslav Đorđević (1933–1935)
 * Ranko Trifunović (1935–1936)
 * Dušan Filipović (1936)
 * Dragan Paunović (1936–1937)
 * Marko Novaković (1937–1939)
 * Vladimir Hajduk-Veljković (1939)
 * Aleksandar Cvetković (1939)
 * Aleksandar Andrejević (1939–1940)
 * Žika Rafajlović (1940–1941)

Cities and towns

 * Skopje (capital)
 * Berovo
 * Bitola
 * Bosilegrad
 * Delčevo
 * Debar
 * Dragaš
 * Gevgelija
 * Gjilan
 * Gostivar
 * Makedonski Brod
 * Kaçanik
 * Kavadarci
 * Kičevo
 * Kočani
 * Kratovo
 * Kriva Palanka
 * Kruševo
 * Kumanovo
 * Lebane
 * Leskovac
 * Negotino
 * Ohrid
 * Preševo
 * Prilep
 * Pristina
 * Prizren
 * Radoviš
 * Resen
 * Rostuša
 * Strumica
 * Surdulica
 * Suva Reka
 * Sveti Nikola
 * Štip
 * Tetovo
 * Ferizaj
 * Valandovo
 * Veles
 * Vladičin Han
 * Vranje

title: Vardar Banovina


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Force H

Force H was a British naval formation during the Second World War. It was formed in late-June 1940, to replace French naval power in the western Mediterranean removed by the French armistice with Nazi Germany. The force occupied an odd place within the naval chain of command. Normal British practice was to have naval stations and fleets around the world, whose commanders reported to the First Sea Lord via a flag officer. Force H was based at Gibraltar but there was already a flag officer at the base, Flag Officer Commanding, North Atlantic. The commanding officer of Force H did not report to this Flag Officer but directly to the First Sea Lord, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Dudley Pound.

Operation Catapult
One of the first operations that Force H took part in was connected with the reason for its formation. French naval power still existed in the Mediterranean, and the British Government viewed it as a threat to British interests. It was feared that the Vichy government of Philippe Pétain would hand the ships over to Germany, despite a vow that that would never happen. This would almost certainly tip the balance decisively against Britain in the Mediterranean. Consequently, Force H was ordered to execute Operation Catapult.

The most powerful of the remaining French forces was in port at Mers-el-Kébir in Algeria. It consisted of the French battleships FRENCH BATTLESHIP Strasbourg and FRENCH BATTLESHIP Dunkerque, two older battleships, and with escorting vessels. Force H steamed to off the Algerian coast, and an envoy was sent to the French commander. Various terms were offered, including internment of the fleet in a neutral country, joining the British forces, or scuttling the fleet at its berths. However, the commander of the French forces reported only the scuttling option to his superiors, and was consequently ordered to fight the British. The reasons for the omission have been debated by many. It is often thought that the anti-British bias of the French commander was to blame.

The result of the action was that the remains of the French fleet escaped to Toulon, a French base on the Mediterranean coast of metropolitan France. They did so at heavy cost. The French battleship FRENCH BATTLESHIP Bretagne blew up under British gunfire, killing over 1,000 French sailors. The battleship FRENCH BATTLESHIP Provence was also badly damaged; Strasbourg and Dunkerque were also hit, although Strasbourg escaped with four destroyers.

Convoy operations
After this unpleasant operation, Force H settled down to its more normal operations. These involved general naval tasks in the western basin of the Mediterranean. Prominent amongst these tasks was fighting convoys through to Malta. The early convoys came through with relatively light losses. That changed in 1941, when the Germans sent the Luftwaffe's X. Fliegerkorps to Sicily; its bombers took a high toll of both warships and merchantmen. Also, from 1942 the improved combat efficiency of the Regia Aeronautica (and especially of its SM.79 torpedo bombers) and of the Regia Marina's submarines posed a far greater threat to these convoys than the 1940 Italian opposition.

In November 1940, screening convoys to Malta, Force H made an important contribution to Operation MB8, and the resulting success of Operation Judgement, the attack on Taranto harbour.

"Sink the Bismarck!"
The most famous incident involving Force H in 1941 did not occur in the Mediterranean, but in the Atlantic Ocean. The German battleship GERMAN BATTLESHIP Bismarck had sailed in company with the heavy cruiser GERMAN CRUISER Prinz Eugen to attack commercial shipping. She went far to the north of the UK, passing southwest through the Denmark Strait between Iceland and Greenland. There, she was intercepted by a British force made up of the battleship HMS Prince of Wales (53) and the battlecruiser HMS Hood (51). The engagement was a disaster for the Royal Navy; Prince of Wales was damaged and Hood's magazine exploded, breaking the ship in half. Only three out of 1,418 crew aboard were rescued from the sinking. Every Royal Navy unit available was then given the task of destroying Bismarck.

Force H set sail from Gibraltar to intercept Bismarck with the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal (91), the battlecruiser HMS Renown (1916) and the light cruiser HMS Sheffield (C24). Bismarck had not come out of the Denmark Strait engagement completely unscathed: a shell from Prince of Wales had ruptured the ship's fuel tanks, causing her to lose oil. The commerce-raiding cruise was thus cut short, and the ship headed for the port of Brest in occupied France. Bismarck was temporarily lost to the Royal Navy after she evaded the radar of the shadowing cruisers HMS Suffolk (55) and HMS Norfolk (78). She was found again, but the only way of stopping her was if something slowed the ship down. To try to do this, Ark Royal launched a strike with her Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers. However, the aircrews were wrongly informed of the location of Sheffield and attacked her instead, mistaking her for Bismarck. The torpedoes that the Swordfish had dropped carried a new type of magnetic detonator which proved too unreliable. A second strike was flown carrying the older, and more reliable, contact detonator. Bismarck was found and a torpedo jammed her steering gear. Unable to evade the British ships closing in, the German battleship was scuttled following incapacitating battle damage dealt by a force including HMS King George V (41) and HMS Rodney (29).

Britain at rock bottom
The end of 1941 saw the nadir of British naval fortunes in the Mediterranean. The Mediterranean Fleet lost the services of HMS Illustrious to bomb damage, HMS Barham was sunk off Crete by GS U-331, and its two remaining battleships were put out of action by an Italian raid on Alexandria. Force H in its turn suffered as well: Ark Royal was sunk by GS U-81 (1941) in November 1941. It was only the lack of action by the Italians that prevented a complete disaster for British fortunes. The most urgent task during the first part of the year was supplying Malta. The island had been under heavy attack for many months and supply convoys had to be escorted by many ships and aircraft to stand any chance of getting through. Malta was kept from starving but it was very close. Operation Pedestal, the most escorted convoy in the Second World War, delivered enough supplies in August to keep Malta going.

Amphibious assaults and the end of Force H
Force H was not actually extant for a portion of 1942. It was stripped bare in May to provide ships for the assault on Vichy French forces at Diego Suarez in Madagascar during Operation Ironclad. This operation succeeded, but many argue that it was a waste of British naval resources at a critical time in the war.

November saw the turning point of the conflict. Operation Torch saw British and American forces landed in Morocco and Algeria under the British First Army. Force H was reinforced to cover these landings. The two main threats were the Italian fleet and French forces. In the end, only French forces fought, and the most significant battles took place at Casablanca where only American naval units supported the operations.

The end of the campaign in North Africa saw an interdiction effort on a vast scale. The aim was to cut Tunisia completely off from Axis support. It succeeded, and 250,000 men surrendered to the 18th Army Group, a number equal to those who surrendered at Stalingrad. Force H again provided heavy cover for this operation.

Two further sets of landings were covered by Force H against interference from the Italian fleet. Operation Husky in July 1943 saw the invasion and conquest of Sicily, and Operation Avalanche saw an attack on the Italian mainland at Salerno.

Following the Allied landings on Italy itself, the Italian government surrendered. The Italian fleet mostly escaped German capture and much of it formed the Italian Co-Belligerent Navy. However, two German Fritz X radio-controlled missiles did hit and sink the battleship ITALIAN BATTLESHIP Roma, killing the Commander-in-Chief of the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina), Admiral Carlo Bergamini.

With the surrender of the Italian fleet, the need for heavy units in the Mediterranean disappeared. The battleships and aircraft carriers of Force H dispersed to the Home and Eastern Fleets and the command was disbanded. Naval operations in the Mediterranean from now on would be conducted by lighter units.

Battles and operations of Force H

 * Attack on Mers-el-Kébir The action at Oran – 3 July 1940
 * The Battle of Calabria – 9 July 1940
 * The Battle of Taranto – 11/12 November 1940
 * The Battle of Cape Spartivento – 27 November 1940
 * Operation Collar – November 1940
 * Operation Excess – January 1941
 * Operation Grog – 9 February 1941
 * Operation Substance – July 1941
 * Operation Halberd – September 1941
 * Operation Ironclad as part of Force 121 – March to May 1942
 * Operation Harpoon – June 1942
 * Operation Pedestal – August 1942
 * Operation Husky – July 1943
 * Operation Avalanche – September 1943

Major combatant ships in Force H

 * HMS Ark Royal (91), aircraft carrier (June 1940 – November 1941)
 * HMS Eagle (1918), aircraft carrier (February–August 1942)
 * HMS Hood (51), battlecruiser (June–August 1940)
 * HMS Renown (1916), battlecruiser (August 1940 – August 1941, October 1941 – February 1943)
 * HMS Resolution (09), battleship (June–August 1940)
 * HMS Valiant (1914), battleship (June 1940 – December 1941, June–October 1943)
 * HMS Malaya, battleship (December 1940 – March 1941)
 * HMS Nelson (28), battleship (June–September 1941, August 1942 – November 1943)
 * HMS Rodney (29), battleship (May 1942 – October 1943)
 * HMS King George V (41), battleship (May 1943 – February 1944)
 * HMS Enterprise (D52), cruiser (June–December 1940)
 * HMS Arethusa (26), cruiser (June 1940 – December 1941)
 * HMS Sheffield (C24), cruiser (August 1940 – October 1941)
 * HMS Coventry (D43), cruiser (August 1940 – September 1942)
 * HMS Calcutta (D82), cruiser (August 1940 – June 1941)
 * HMS Berwick (65), cruiser (November 1940)
 * HMS Fiji (58), cruiser (April–May 1941)
 * HMS Hermione (74), cruiser (June 1941 – March 1942)
 * HMS Cairo (D87), cruiser (January–August 1942)
 * HMS Charybdis (88), cruiser (April–November 1942)
 * HMS Argonaut (61), cruiser (October–December 1942)
 * HMS Sussex (96), heavy cruiser (September–December 1939)

title: Force H


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Attitude (psychology)

An attitude "is a summary evaluation of an object of thought. An attitude object can be anything a person discriminates or holds in mind." Attitudes include beliefs (cognition), emotional responses (affect) and behavioral tendencies (intentions, motivations). In the classical definition an attitude is persistent, while in more contemporary conceptualizations, attitudes may vary depending upon situations, context, or moods.

While different researchers have defined attitudes in various ways, and may use different terms for the same concepts or the same term for different concepts, two essential attitude functions emerge from empirical research. For individuals, attitudes are cognitive schema that provide a structure to organize complex or ambiguous information, guiding particular evaluations or behaviors. More abstractly, attitudes serve higher psychological needs: expressive or symbolic functions (affirming values), maintaining social identity, and regulating emotions. Attitudes influence behavior at individual, interpersonal, and societal levels.

Attitudes are complex and are acquired through life experience and socialization. Key topics in the study of attitudes include attitude strength, attitude change, and attitude-behavior relationships. The decades-long interest in attitude research is due to the interest in pursuing individual and social goals, an example being the public health campaigns to reduce cigarette smoking.

Definitions
The term attitude with the psychological meaning of an internal state of preparedness for action was not used until the 19th century.

The American Psychological Association (APA) defines attitude as "a relatively enduring and general evaluation of an object, person, group, issue, or concept on a dimension ranging from negative to positive. Attitudes provide summary evaluations of target objects and are often assumed to be derived from specific beliefs, emotions, and past behaviors associated with those objects."

For much of the 20th century, the empirical study of attitudes was at the core of social psychology. Attitudes can be derived from affective information (feelings), cognitive information (beliefs), and behavioral information (experiences), often predicting subsequent behavior. Alice H. Eagly and Shelly Chaiken, for example, define an attitude as "a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor."

Though it is sometimes common to define an attitude as affect toward an object, affect (i.e., discrete emotions or overall arousal) is generally understood as an evaluative structure used to form an attitude object. Attitude may influence the attention to attitude objects, the use of categories for encoding information and the interpretation, judgement and recall of attitude-relevant information. These influences tend to be more powerful for strong attitudes which are accessible and based on elaborate supportive knowledge structure. The durability and impact of influence depend upon the strength formed from the consistency of heuristics. Attitudes can guide encoding information, attention and behaviors, even if the individual is pursuing unrelated goals.

Past research reflected the traditional notion that attitudes are simple tendencies to like or dislike attitude objects, while contemporary research has begun to adopt more complex perspectives. Recent advances on the mental structure of attitudes have suggested that attitudes (and their components) might not always be simply positive or negative, but may include both positivity and negativity. In addition, strong and weak attitudes are associated with many different outcomes. Methodological advances have allowed researchers to consider with greater precision the existence and implications of possessing implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) attitudes.

A sociological approach relates attitudes to concepts of values and ideologies that conceptualize the relationship of thought to action at higher levels of analysis. Values represent the social goals which are used by individuals to orient their behaviors. Cross-cultural studies seek to understand cultural differences in terms of differences in values. For example, the individualism-collectivism dimension suggests that Western and Eastern societies differ fundamentally in the priority given to individual vs. group goals. Ideologies represent more generalized orientations that seek to make sense of related attitudes and values, and are the basis for moral judgements.

Most contemporary perspectives on attitudes permit that people can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object by holding both positive and negative beliefs or feelings toward the same object. Additionally, measures of attitude may include intentions, but are not always predictive of behaviors.

Explicit measures are of attitudes at the conscious level that are deliberately formed and easy to self-report. Implicit measures are of attitudes at an unconscious level, that function out of awareness. Both explicit and implicit attitudes can shape an individual's behavior. Implicit attitudes, however, are most likely to affect behavior when the demands are steep and an individual feels stressed or distracted.

Measurement
An attitude is a latent psychological construct, which consequently can only be measured indirectly. Commonly used measures include Likert scales which records agreement or disagreement with a series of belief statements. The semantic differential uses bipolar adjectives to measure the meaning associated with attitude objects. The Guttman scale focuses on items that vary in their degree of psychological difficulty. Supplementing these are several techniques that do not depend on deliberate responses such as unobtrusive, standard physiological, and neuroscientific measures. Following the explicit-implicit dichotomy, attitudes can be examined different measures.

Explicit
Explicit measures tend to rely on self-reports or easily observed behaviors. These tend to involve bipolar scales (e.g., good-bad, favorable-unfavorable, support-oppose, etc.). Explicit measures can also be used by measuring the straightforward attribution of characteristics to nominate groups. Explicit attitudes that develop in response to recent information, automatic evaluation were thought to reflect mental associations through early socialization experiences. Once formed, these associations are highly robust and resistant to change, as well as stable across both context and time. Hence the impact of contextual influences was assumed to be obfuscate assessment of a person's "true" and enduring evaluative disposition as well as limit the capacity to predict subsequent behavior.

Implicit
Implicit measures are not consciously directed and are assumed to be automatic, which may make implicit measures more valid and reliable than explicit measures (such as self-reports). For example, people can be motivated such that they find it socially desirable to appear to have certain attitudes. An example of this is that people can hold implicit prejudicial attitudes, but express explicit attitudes that report little prejudice. Implicit measures help account for these situations and look at attitudes that a person may not be aware of or want to show. Implicit measures therefore usually rely on an indirect measure of attitude. For example, the Implicit Association Test (IAT) examines the strength between the target concept and an attribute element by considering the latency in which a person can examine two response keys when each has two meanings. With little time to carefully examine what the participant is doing they respond according to internal keys. This priming can show attitudes the person has about a particular object. People are often unwilling to provide responses perceived as socially undesirable and therefore tend to report what they think their attitudes should be rather than what they know them to be. More complicated still, people may not even be consciously aware that they hold biased attitudes. Over the past few decades, scientists have developed several measures to avoid these unconscious biases.

Intra-attitudinal and inter-attitudinal structures
There is also considerable interest in intra-attitudinal and inter-attitudinal structure, which is how an attitude is made (expectancy and value) and how different attitudes relate to one another. Intra-attitudinal structures are how underlying attitudes are consistent with one another. This connects different attitudes to one another and to more underlying psychological structures, such as values or ideology. Unlike intra-attitudinal structures, inter-attitudinal structures involve the strength of relations of more than one attitude within a network.

Components
The classic, tripartite view offered by Rosenberg and Hovland in 1960 is that an attitude contains cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. Empirical research, however, fails to support clear distinctions between thoughts, emotions, and behavioral intentions associated with a particular attitude. A criticism of the tripartite view of attitudes is that it requires cognitive, affective, and behavioral associations of an attitude to be consistent, but this may be implausible. Thus some views of attitude structure see the cognitive and behavioral components as derivative of affect or affect and behavior as derivative of underlying beliefs. "The cognitive component refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes associated with an object". "The affective component refers to feelings or emotions linked to an attitude object". "The behavioral component refers to behaviors or experiences regarding an attitude object".

An influential model of attitude is the multi-component model, where attitudes are evaluations of an object that have affective (relating to moods and feelings), behavioral, and cognitive components (the ABC model). The affective component of attitudes refers to feelings or emotions linked to an attitude object. Affective responses influence attitudes in a number of ways. For example, many people are afraid or scared of spiders. So this negative affective response is likely to cause someone to have a negative attitude towards spiders. The behavioral component of attitudes refers to the way an attitude influences how a person acts or behaves. The cognitive component of attitudes refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes that a person associates with an object. Many times a person's attitude might be based on the negative and positive attributes they associate with an object. As a result of assigning negative or positive attributes to a person, place, or object, individuals may behave negatively or positively towards them.

Beliefs
Beliefs are cognitive states about the world—subjective probabilities that an object has a particular attribute or that an action will lead to a particular outcome. Beliefs can be patently and unequivocally false. For example, surveys show that a third of U.S. adults think that vaccines cause autism, despite the preponderance of scientific research to the contrary. It was found that beliefs like these are tenaciously held and are highly resistant to change. Another important factor that affects attitude is symbolic interactionism, these are rife with powerful symbols and charged with affect which can lead to a selective perception. Persuasion theories say that in politics, successful persuaders convince its message recipients into a selective perception or attitude polarization for turning against the opposite candidate through a repetitive process that they are in a noncommittal state and it is unacceptable and does not have any moral basis for it and for this they only require to chain the persuading message into a realm of plausibility.

Despite debate about the particular structure of attitudes, there is considerable evidence that attitudes reflect more than evaluations of a particular object that vary from positive to negative.

Behaviors
The effects of attitudes on behaviors is a growing research enterprise within psychology. Icek Ajzen has led research and helped develop two prominent theoretical approaches within this field: the theory of reasoned action and, its theoretical descendant, the theory of planned behavior. Both theories help explain the link between attitude and behavior as a controlled and deliberative process.

Theory of reasoned action
The theory of reasoned action (TRA) is a model for the prediction of behavioral intention, spanning predictions of attitude and predictions of behavior. The theory of reasoned action was developed by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen, derived from previous research that started out as the theory of attitude, which led to the study of attitude and behavior.

Theory of planned behavior
The theory of planned behavior suggests that behaviors are primarily influenced by the attitude and other intentions. The theory of planned behavior was proposed by Icek Ajzen in 1985 through his article "From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior." The theory was developed from the theory of reasoned action, which was proposed by Martin Fishbein together with Icek Ajzen in 1975. The theory of reasoned action was in turn grounded in various theories of attitude such as learning theories, expectancy-value theories, consistency theories, and attribution theory. According to the theory of reasoned action, if people evaluate the suggested behavior as positive (attitude), and if they think their significant others want them to perform the behavior (subjective norm), this results in a higher intention (motivation) and they are more likely to do so. A high correlation of attitudes and subjective norms to behavioral intention, and subsequently to behavior, has been confirmed in many studies. The theory of planned behavior contains the same component as the theory of reasoned action, but adds the component of perceived behavioral control to account for barriers outside one's own control.

Motivation and Opportunity as Determinants (MODE)
Russell H. Fazio proposed an alternative theory called "Motivation and Opportunity as Determinants" or MODE. Fazio believes that because there is deliberative process happening, individuals must be motivated to reflect on their attitudes and subsequent behaviors. Simply put, when an attitude is automatically activated, the individual must be motivated to avoid making an invalid judgement as well as have the opportunity to reflect on their attitude and behavior.

The MODE (motivation and opportunity as determinants of the attitude-behavior relation) model was developed by Fazio. The MODE model, in short is a theory of attitude evaluation that attempts to predict and explain behavioral outcomes of attitudes. When both are present, behavior will be deliberate. When one is absent, impact on behavior will be spontaneous. A person's attitude can be measured explicitly and implicitly. The model suggests whether attitude activation occurs and, therefore, whether selective perception occurs depends on attitude accessibility. More accessible attitudes are more likely to be activated in a behavioral situation and, therefore, are more likely to influence perceptions and behavior

A counter-argument against the high relationship between behavioral intention and actual behavior has also been proposed, as the results of some studies show that, because of circumstantial limitations, behavioral intention does not always lead to actual behavior. Namely, since behavioral intention cannot be the exclusive determinant of behavior where an individual's control over the behavior is incomplete, Ajzen introduced the theory of planned behavior by adding a new component, "perceived behavioral control." By this, he extended the theory of reasoned action to cover non-volitional behaviors for predicting behavioral intention and actual behavior.

Function
Another classic view of attitudes is that attitudes serve particular functions for individuals. That is, researchers have tried to understand why individuals hold particular attitudes or why they hold attitudes in general by considering how attitudes affect the individuals who hold them. Daniel Katz, for example, writes that attitudes can serve "instrumental, adjustive or utilitarian," "ego-defensive," "value-expressive," or "knowledge" functions. This functional attitude theory suggests that in order for attitudes to change (e.g., via persuasion), appeals must be made to the function(s) that a particular attitude serves for the individual. As an example, the ego-defensive function might be used to influence the racially prejudicial attitudes of an individual who sees themselves as open-minded and tolerant. By appealing to that individual's image of themselves as tolerant and open-minded, it may be possible to change their prejudicial attitudes to be more consistent with their self-concept. Similarly, a persuasive message that threatens self-image is much more likely to be rejected.

Daniel Katz classified attitudes into four different groups based on their functions.
 * 1) Utilitarian: provides general approach or avoidance tendencies
 * 2) Knowledge: organizes and interprets new information
 * 3) Ego-defensive: protects self-esteem
 * 4) Value-expressive: expresses central values or beliefs

Utilitarian
People adopt attitudes that are rewarding and that help them avoid punishment. In other words, any attitude that is adopted in a person's own self-interest is considered to serve a utilitarian function. For example, a person who has a condo would pay property taxes. If that leads to an attitude that "increases in property taxes are bad", then the attitude is serving a utilitarian function.

Knowledge
Several studies have shown that knowledge increases are associated with heightened attitudes that influence behavior. The framework for knowledge is based on significant values and general principles. Attitudes achieve this goal by making things fit together and make sense. As a result, people can maintain a sense of stability and meaning within their worldview. For example: When a person is relying on a single dimension of knowledge and that dimension is not directly related to their behavior goal, that person might conclude that the attitude is wrong.
 * 1) I believe that I am a good person.
 * 2) I believe that good things happen to good people.
 * 3) Something bad happens to Bob.
 * So, I believe Bob must not be a good person.

Ego-Defensive
This function involves psychoanalytic principles where people use defense mechanisms to protect themselves from psychological harm. Mechanisms include denial, repression, projection, and rationalization.

The ego-defensive notion correlates with Downward Comparison Theory, which argues that derogating a less fortunate other increases a person's own subjective well-being. A person is more likely to use the ego-defensive function when they suffer a frustration or misfortune.

Value-Expressive
Identity and social approval are established by central values that reveal who we are and what we stand for. Individuals define and interpret situations based on their central values. An example would be attitudes toward a controversial political issue.

Formation
According to Doob in 1947, learning can account for most of the attitudes a person holds. The study of attitude formation is the study of how people form evaluations of persons, places or things. Theories of classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning and social learning are mainly responsible for formation of attitude. Unlike personality, attitudes are expected to change as a function of experience. In addition, exposure to the 'attitude' objects may have an effect on how a person forms his or her attitude. This concept was seen as the mere-exposure effect. Robert Zajonc showed that people were more likely to have a positive attitude on 'attitude objects' when they were exposed to it frequently than if they were not. Mere repeated exposure of the individual to a stimulus is a sufficient condition for the enhancement of his attitude toward it. Tesser in 1993 argued that hereditary variables may affect attitudes - but believes that they do so indirectly. For example, consistency theories, which imply that beliefs and values must be consistent. As with any type of heritability, to determine if a particular trait has a basis in genetics, twin studies are used. The most famous example of such a theory is Dissonance-reduction theory, associated with Leon Festinger, which explains that when the components of an attitude (including belief and behavior) are at odds an individual may adjust one to match the other (for example, adjusting a belief to match a behavior). Other theories include balance theory, originally proposed by Heider in 1958, and the self-perception theory, originally proposed by Daryl Bem.

Change
Attitudes can be changed through persuasion and an important domain of research on attitude change focuses on responses to communication. Experimental research into the factors that can affect the persuasiveness of a message include:

 * Target characteristics: These are characteristics that refer to the person who receives and processes a message. One such trait is intelligence - it seems that more intelligent people are less easily persuaded by one-sided messages. Another variable that has been studied in this category is self-esteem. Although it is sometimes thought that those higher in self-esteem are less easily persuaded, there is some evidence that the relationship between self-esteem and persuasibility is actually curvilinear, with people of moderate self-esteem being more easily persuaded than both those of high and low self-esteem levels.
 * Source characteristics: The major source characteristics are expertise, trustworthiness and interpersonal attraction or attractiveness. The credibility of a perceived message has been found to be a key variable here; if one reads a report about health and believes it came from a professional medical journal, one may be more easily persuaded than if one believes it is from a popular newspaper. Some psychologists have debated whether this is a long-lasting effect and Hovland and Weiss found the effect of telling people that a message came from a credible source disappeared after several weeks (the so-called sleeper effect). Whether there is a sleeper effect is controversial. Perceived wisdom is that if people are informed of the source of a message before hearing it, there is less likelihood of a sleeper effect than if they are told a message and then told its source.
 * Message Characteristics: The nature of the message plays a role in persuasion. Sometimes presenting both sides of a story is useful to help change attitudes. When people are not motivated to process the message, simply the number of arguments presented in a persuasive message will influence attitude change, such that a greater number of arguments will produce greater attitude change.

Emotion and attitude change
Emotion is a common component in persuasion, social influence, and attitude change. Much of attitude research emphasized the importance of affective or emotion components. Emotion works hand-in-hand with the cognitive, or thought, process about an issue or situation. Emotional appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing the fear of terrorism. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of cognitive, affective and cognitive components. Attitudes are part of the brain's associative networks, the spider-like structures residing in long-term memory that consist of affective and cognitive nodes.

By activating an affective or emotion node, attitude change may be possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined. One may be able to change their attitudes with attitude correctness, which varies with the level of confidence they have in their attitude validity and accuracy. In general, the higher the confidence level, the more the person believes others around them should share the same attitude. As we learn other people share those attitudes and how socially acceptable, they are, the importance of attitude correctness becomes even more apparent. Our attitudes can greatly impact our behavior and the manner of how we treat those around us. In primarily affective networks, it is more difficult to produce cognitive counterarguments in the resistance to persuasion and attitude change. The idea of attitude clarity refers to a feeling of security or uncertainty about a particular attitude, a feeling strengthened by the act of reporting one's particular attitude towards an issue or thing, which will make that attitude more crystallized.

Affective forecasting, otherwise known as intuition or the prediction of emotion, also impacts attitude change. Research suggests that predicting emotions is an important component of decision making, in addition to the cognitive processes. How a person feels about an outcome may override purely cognitive rationales.

In terms of research methodology, the challenge for researchers is measuring emotion and subsequent impacts on attitude. Various models and measurement tools have been constructed to obtain emotion and attitude information. Measures may include the use of physiological cues like facial expressions, vocal changes, and other body rate measures. For instance, fear is associated with raised eyebrows, increased heart rate and increase body tension. Other methods include concept or network mapping and using primes or word cues in the era.

Components of emotional appeals
Any discrete emotion can be used in a persuasive appeal; this may include jealousy, disgust, indignation, fear, blue, disturbed, haunted, and anger. Fear is one of the most studied emotional appeals in communication and social influence research.

Important consequences of fear appeals and other emotional appeals include the possibility of reactance which may lead to either message rejections or source rejection and the absence of attitude change. As the EPPM suggests, there is an optimal emotion level in motivating attitude change. If there is not enough motivation, an attitude will not change; if the emotional appeal is overdone, the motivation can be paralyzed thereby preventing attitude change.

Emotions perceived as negative or containing threat are often studied more than perceived positive emotions like humor. Though the inner-workings of humor are not agreed upon, humor appeals may work by creating incongruities in the mind. Recent research has looked at the impact of humor on the processing of political messages. While evidence is inconclusive, there appears to be potential for targeted attitude change is receivers with low political message involvement.

Important factors that influence the impact of emotional appeals include self-efficacy, attitude accessibility, issue involvement, and message/source features. Self efficacy is a person's perception of their agency or ability to deal with a situation. It is an important variable in emotional appeal messages because it dictates a person's ability to deal with both the emotion and the situation. For example, if a person is not self-efficacious about their ability to impact the global environment, they are not likely to change their attitude or behavior about global warming.

Dillard in 1994 suggested that message features such as source non-verbal communication, message content, and receiver differences can impact the emotion impact of fear appeals. The characteristics of a message are important because one message can elicit different levels of emotion for different people. Thus, in terms of emotional appeals messages, one size does not fit all.

Attitude accessibility refers to the activation of an attitude from memory in other words, how readily available is an attitude about an object, issue, or situation. Issue involvement is the relevance and salience of an issue or situation to an individual. Issue involvement has been correlated with both attitude access and attitude strength. Past studies conclude accessible attitudes are more resistant to change.

title: Attitude (psychology)


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1940s in film

Thousands of full-length films were produced during the decade of the 1940s. The great actor Humphrey Bogart made his most memorable films in this decade. Frank Capra's masterpiece It's a Wonderful Life and Orson Welles's masterpiece Citizen Kane were released. Citizen Kane made use of matte paintings, miniatures and optical printing techniques. The film noir genre was at its height. Alfred Hitchcock made his American debut with the film Rebecca, and made many classics throughout the 1940s. The most successful film of the decade was Samuel Goldwyn's The Best Years of Our Lives; the film was directed by William Wyler, and starred Fredric March, Myrna Loy, Dana Andrews, Teresa Wright, Virginia Mayo, and Harold Russell. The film won nine Academy Awards.

Technicolor
By the 1940s, Hollywood's effects specialists had over a decade of studio experience. Technicolor had been especially challenging but faster film introduced in 1939 began to make Technicolor a viable option for studio production. Rear projection in color remained out of reach until Paramount introduced a new projection system in the 1940s. New matte techniques, modified for use with color, were for the first time used in the British film The Thief of Bagdad(1940). However, the high cost of color production in the 1940s meant most films were black and white.

World War II
Hollywood films in the 1940s included morale films for those serving in World War II and their families. War films made extensive use of models and miniature photography. New techniques developed to realistically depict naval battles were used in films like Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (1944) and Ships with Wings (1942). In Mrs. Miniver (1942) a technique using systems of wires was used to depict two dozen model aircraft taking off in precise formation. Miniature explosions were needed for the destruction of models.

Post-war slowdown
Cinemas were located in the city and the expansion of suburban housing in the post-War period meant declining revenues at the box office. The availability of television in homes was another factor that gave families in the suburbs an alternative to traveling to the theaters located in city centers. Between 1948 and 1952 average weekly attendance declined from 90 million to 51 million.

The Supreme Court in 1948 decided in United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. that owning both studios and theaters violated the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. After this decision film studios were forced to sell their theater chains.

Lists of films
• 1940 in film

• 1941 in film

• 1942 in film

• 1943 in film

• 1944 in film

• 1945 in film

• 1946 in film

• 1947 in film

• 1948 in film

• 1949 in film

External lists

 * List of 1940s films at IMDb
 * List of 1940s deaths at IMDb
 * List of 1940s births at IMDb

title: 1940s in film


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Ken Watanabe

Ken Watanabe (渡辺 謙) is a Japanese actor. To English-speaking audiences, he is known for playing tragic hero characters, such as General Tadamichi Kuribayashi in Letters from Iwo Jima and Lord Katsumoto Moritsugu in The Last Samurai, for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Among other awards, he has won the Japan Academy Film Prize for Best Actor twice, in 2007 for Memories of Tomorrow and in 2010 for Shizumanu Taiyō. He is also known for his roles in Christopher Nolan's films Batman Begins and Inception, as well as Memoirs of a Geisha, and Pokémon Detective Pikachu.

In 2014, he starred in the reboot Godzilla as Dr. Ishiro Serizawa, a role he reprised in the sequel, Godzilla: King of the Monsters. He lent his voice to the fourth and fifth installments of the Transformers franchise respectively, Transformers: Age of Extinction and Transformers: The Last Knight, as Decepticon-turned-Autobot Drift. In 2022, he starred in the HBO Max crime drama series Tokyo Vice.

He made his Broadway debut in April 2015 in Lincoln Center Theater's revival production of The King and I in the title role. In 2015, Watanabe received his first Tony Award nomination for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical at the 69th Tony Awards for his role as The King. He is the first Japanese actor to be nominated in this category. Watanabe reprised his role at the London Palladium in June 2018.

Early life
Watanabe was born on October 21, 1959, in the mountain village of Koide in Niigata Prefecture, Japan. His mother was a school teacher and his father taught calligraphy. Due to a number of relocations for his parents' work, he spent his childhood in the villages of Irihirose and Sumon, both now part of the city of Uonuma, and in Takada, now part of the city of Jōetsu. He attended Niigata Prefectural Koide High School, where he was a member of the concert band club, playing trumpet, which he had played since childhood.

After graduation from high school, in 1978 he aimed to enter Musashino Academia Musicae, a conservatory in Tokyo. However, he had never received a formal musical education, and his father became seriously ill when he was in junior high school and was unable to work, which meant that his family could no longer afford to pay for his music lessons. Because of these problems, Watanabe was forced to give up his intention of entering the conservatory. He said of the decision: "I had to give up my musical aspirations. I realised I had no talent as a musician. But I still wanted to find a way to be creative, so I decided to try acting".

Japanese roles
After graduating from high school in 1978, Watanabe moved to Tokyo to begin his acting career, by enrolling in the drama school run by the Engeki-Shudan En theatre troupe. While with the troupe, he was cast as the hero in the play Shimodani Mannencho Monogatari, directed by the acclaimed Yukio Ninagawa. The role attracted critical and popular notice.

In 1982, he made his first TV appearance in Michinaru Hanran (Unknown Rebellion), and his first appearance on TV as a samurai in Mibu no koiuta. He made his feature-film debut in 1984 with MacArthur's Children.

Watanabe is mostly known in Japan for playing samurai, as in the 1987 Dokuganryu Masamune (One eyed dragon, Masamune) the 50-episode NHK taiga drama. He played the lead character, Matsudaira Kurō, in the television jidaigeki Gokenin Zankurō, which ran for several seasons. He has gone on to garner acclaim in such historical dramas as Oda Nobunaga, Chūshingura, and the movie Bakumatsu Junjo Den.

In 1989, while filming Haruki Kadokawa's Heaven and Earth, Watanabe was diagnosed with acute myelogenous leukemia. He returned to acting while simultaneously undergoing chemotherapy treatments, but in 1991 suffered a relapse.

As his health improved his career picked back up. He co-starred with Kōji Yakusho in the 1998 Kizuna, for which he was nominated for the Japan Academy Film Prize for Best Supporting Actor.

In 2002, he quit the 'En' theatre group where he had his start and joined the K Dash agency. The film Sennen no Koi (Thousand-year Love, based on The Tale of Genji) earned him another Japanese Academy Award nomination.

In 2006, he won Best Lead Actor at the 30th Japan Academy Film Prize for his role in Memories of Tomorrow (Ashita no Kioku), in which he played a patient with Alzheimer's disease.

International films
Watanabe was introduced to most Western audiences in the 2003 American film The Last Samurai, set in 19th Century Japan. His performance as Lord Katsumoto earned him an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor.

Watanabe appeared in the 2005 film Memoirs of a Geisha, playing Chairman Iwamura. That same year, he also played the decoy of Ra's al Ghul in Christopher Nolan's Batman film reboot, Batman Begins. In 2006, he starred in Clint Eastwood's Letters from Iwo Jima, playing Tadamichi Kuribayashi. He has voiced Ra's al Ghul in the Batman Begins video game. He has filmed advertisements for American Express, Yakult, Canon and NTT Docomo. In 2004, he was featured in People Magazine's 50 Most Beautiful People edition. In 2009, he appeared in The Vampire's Assistant. In 2010, he co-starred in Inception, where he stars as Saito, a mark-turned-benefactor businessman of the film's heist team.

In 2014, he starred in two Hollywood blockbusters Godzilla and Transformers: Age of Extinction. In 2019, he starred in two other Hollywood blockbusters Pokémon Detective Pikachu and Godzilla: King of the Monsters.

In 2023, he returned to work with director Gareth Edwards again in the science fiction action film, The Creator.

Television
Watanabe appears in Tokyo Vice, a television series based on the non-fiction book by Jake Adelstein and written for television by J.T. Rogers. The ten-part series was produced by HBO Max and is distributed by HBO Max and in Japan by Wowow. Tokyo Vice stars Ansel Elgort as Adelstein, an American journalist who embeds himself into the Tokyo Vice police squad to expose corruption. Ken is currently starring in the NHK World Japan's comedy You're a Genius!.

In April 2019, it was announced that Warner Bros. International Television Production and TV Asahi were teaming up to remake The Fugitive (1993). Watanabe is set to star in the upcoming remake, taking place in present-day Tokyo just before the opening of the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. The broadcast date has yet to be announced.

Personal life
In 1983, Watanabe married his first wife, Yumiko. The couple had two children, a son, Dai Watanabe (born 1984), who is an actor, and a daughter Anne Watanabe (born 1986) who is an actress and fashion model. In September 2005, following two years of arbitration, he and Yumiko were divorced. In August 2008, Dai had his first child, a son, making Ken a grandfather at the age of 48. A daughter was born to Dai in March 2010. In May 2016, Watanabe's daughter gave birth to twin girls. In November 2017 she gave birth to a son, giving Watanabe five grandchildren altogether.

He met his second wife, Kaho Minami, when they were both acting in a suspense drama for TV Tokyo. They married on 3 December 2005. The marriage was announced by their agencies on 7 December, just after they had attended a New York City premiere of his film Sayuri together.

Watanabe formally adopted Minami's son from her previous marriage to director Jinsei Tsuji, and for a time the three of them lived in Los Angeles. In order to increase the amount of time the family could spend together, considering Ken's work requiring him to travel so much, they later returned to Japan. Initially Minami and Ken did not hold a wedding ceremony, but in 2010 they announced that they had held a ceremony on August 1 in Los Angeles.

On May 17, 2018, Minami's agency announced that she and Watanabe had divorced after he had admitted to having an extramarital affair.

In June 2023, Watanabe remarried for the third time, a woman who is 21 years his junior, after dating for 9 years.

Philanthropy
On March 13, 2011, he launched a YouTube page to raise awareness about the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and the subsequent Fukushima nuclear disaster and invited celebrities to add their videos of the triple tragedy in Japan. In his video in English, he made a call to action to support the victims of triple disaster and to raise funds in the relief effort. In conjunction amidst the Fukushima crisis, he has also created his own website for the cause.

Health issues
In 1989, Watanabe was diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia. The cancer returned in 1994, but he later recovered.

In 2006, Watanabe revealed in his autobiography ''Dare? - Who Am I? that prior to commencing work on The Last Samurai'', it was discovered that he had contracted hepatitis C from a blood transfusion he received while undergoing treatment for his leukemia. At a press conference held on May 23, 2006, he said he was in "good" condition but was still undergoing treatment.

In 2016, while on a break from performing in a Broadway production of The King and I, Watanabe was diagnosed with stomach cancer. He subsequently announced on February 9, 2016, that he would postpone scheduled performances in order to undergo the necessary treatment. Due to the early diagnosis, surgery was successfully able to remove the cancer.

Stage

 * Britannicus henso (1980)
 * Shitaya mannencho monogatari (1981)
 * Fuyu no raion (The Lion in Winter) (1981)
 * Pajaze (1981)
 * Platonof (1982)
 * Kafun netsu (1982)
 * Pizarro (1985)
 * Hamlet (1988)
 * Hamlet no gakuya -anten (2000)
 * Towa part1-kanojo (2000)
 * Towa part2-kanojo to kare (2001)
 * Dialogue with Horowitz (2013)
 * The King and I (2015)
 * The King and I (2016)
 * The King and I (2018)
 * The Royal Hunt of the Sun (2020)

Dubbing

 * First Blood (1985 NTV edition) (John Rambo (Sylvester Stallone))

title: Ken Watanabe


text:
Hill climbing

In numerical analysis, hill climbing is a mathematical optimization technique which belongs to the family of local search. It is an iterative algorithm that starts with an arbitrary solution to a problem, then attempts to find a better solution by making an incremental change to the solution. If the change produces a better solution, another incremental change is made to the new solution, and so on until no further improvements can be found.

For example, hill climbing can be applied to the travelling salesman problem. It is easy to find an initial solution that visits all the cities but will likely be very poor compared to the optimal solution. The algorithm starts with such a solution and makes small improvements to it, such as switching the order in which two cities are visited. Eventually, a much shorter route is likely to be obtained.

Hill climbing finds optimal solutions for convex problems – for other problems it will find only local optima (solutions that cannot be improved upon by any neighboring configurations), which are not necessarily the best possible solution (the global optimum) out of all possible solutions (the search space). Examples of algorithms that solve convex problems by hill-climbing include the simplex algorithm for linear programming and binary search. To attempt to avoid getting stuck in local optima, one could use restarts (i.e. repeated local search), or more complex schemes based on iterations (like iterated local search), or on memory (like reactive search optimization and tabu search), or on memory-less stochastic modifications (like simulated annealing).

The relative simplicity of the algorithm makes it a popular first choice amongst optimizing algorithms. It is used widely in artificial intelligence, for reaching a goal state from a starting node. Different choices for next nodes and starting nodes are used in related algorithms. Although more advanced algorithms such as simulated annealing or tabu search may give better results, in some situations hill climbing works just as well. Hill climbing can often produce a better result than other algorithms when the amount of time available to perform a search is limited, such as with real-time systems, so long as a small number of increments typically converges on a good solution (the optimal solution or a close approximation). At the other extreme, bubble sort can be viewed as a hill climbing algorithm (every adjacent element exchange decreases the number of disordered element pairs), yet this approach is far from efficient for even modest N, as the number of exchanges required grows quadratically.

Hill climbing is an anytime algorithm: it can return a valid solution even if it's interrupted at any time before it ends.

Mathematical description
Hill climbing attempts to maximize (or minimize) a target function $$f(\mathbf{x})$$, where $$\mathbf{x}$$ is a vector of continuous and/or discrete values. At each iteration, hill climbing will adjust a single element in $$\mathbf{x}$$ and determine whether the change improves the value of $$f(\mathbf{x})$$. (Note that this differs from gradient descent methods, which adjust all of the values in $$\mathbf{x}$$ at each iteration according to the gradient of the hill.) With hill climbing, any change that improves $$f(\mathbf{x})$$ is accepted, and the process continues until no change can be found to improve the value of $$f(\mathbf{x})$$. Then $$\mathbf{x}$$ is said to be "locally optimal".

In discrete vector spaces, each possible value for $$\mathbf{x}$$ may be visualized as a vertex in a graph. Hill climbing will follow the graph from vertex to vertex, always locally increasing (or decreasing) the value of $$f(\mathbf{x})$$, until a local maximum (or local minimum) $$x_m$$ is reached.

Variants
In simple hill climbing, the first closer node is chosen, whereas in steepest ascent hill climbing all successors are compared and the closest to the solution is chosen. Both forms fail if there is no closer node, which may happen if there are local maxima in the search space which are not solutions. Steepest ascent hill climbing is similar to best-first search, which tries all possible extensions of the current path instead of only one.

Stochastic hill climbing does not examine all neighbors before deciding how to move. Rather, it selects a neighbor at random, and decides (based on the amount of improvement in that neighbor) whether to move to that neighbor or to examine another.

Coordinate descent does a line search along one coordinate direction at the current point in each iteration. Some versions of coordinate descent randomly pick a different coordinate direction each iteration.

Random-restart hill climbing is a meta-algorithm built on top of the hill climbing algorithm. It is also known as Shotgun hill climbing. It iteratively does hill-climbing, each time with a random initial condition $$x_0$$. The best $$x_m$$ is kept: if a new run of hill climbing produces a better $$x_m$$ than the stored state, it replaces the stored state.

Random-restart hill climbing is a surprisingly effective algorithm in many cases. It turns out that it is often better to spend CPU time exploring the space, than carefully optimizing from an initial condition.

Local maxima

Hill climbing will not necessarily find the global maximum, but may instead converge on a local maximum. This problem does not occur if the heuristic is convex. However, as many functions are not convex hill climbing may often fail to reach a global maximum. Other local search algorithms try to overcome this problem such as stochastic hill climbing, random walks and simulated annealing.

Ridges and alleys

Ridges are a challenging problem for hill climbers that optimize in continuous spaces. Because hill climbers only adjust one element in the vector at a time, each step will move in an axis-aligned direction. If the target function creates a narrow ridge that ascends in a non-axis-aligned direction (or if the goal is to minimize, a narrow alley that descends in a non-axis-aligned direction), then the hill climber can only ascend the ridge (or descend the alley) by zig-zagging. If the sides of the ridge (or alley) are very steep, then the hill climber may be forced to take very tiny steps as it zig-zags toward a better position. Thus, it may take an unreasonable length of time for it to ascend the ridge (or descend the alley).

By contrast, gradient descent methods can move in any direction that the ridge or alley may ascend or descend. Hence, gradient descent or the conjugate gradient method is generally preferred over hill climbing when the target function is differentiable. Hill climbers, however, have the advantage of not requiring the target function to be differentiable, so hill climbers may be preferred when the target function is complex.

Plateau
Another problem that sometimes occurs with hill climbing is that of a plateau. A plateau is encountered when the search space is flat, or sufficiently flat that the value returned by the target function is indistinguishable from the value returned for nearby regions due to the precision used by the machine to represent its value. In such cases, the hill climber may not be able to determine in which direction it should step, and may wander in a direction that never leads to improvement.

Pseudocode algorithm Discrete Space Hill Climbing is currentNode := startNode loop do L := NEIGHBORS(currentNode) nextEval := −INF nextNode := NULL for all x in L do if EVAL(x) > nextEval then nextNode := x                nextEval := EVAL(x) if nextEval ≤ EVAL(currentNode) then // Return current node since no better neighbors exist return currentNode currentNode := nextNode

algorithm Continuous Space Hill Climbing is currentPoint := initialPoint   // the zero-magnitude vector is common stepSize := initialStepSizes   // a vector of all 1's is common acceleration := someAcceleration // a value such as 1.2 is common candidate[0] := −acceleration candidate[1] := −1 / acceleration candidate[2] := 1 / acceleration candidate[3] := acceleration bestScore := EVAL(currentPoint) loop do beforeScore := bestScore for each element i in currentPoint do beforePoint := currentPoint[i] bestStep := 0 for j from 0 to 3 do     // try each of 4 candidate locations step := stepSize[i] × candidate[j] currentPoint[i] := beforePoint + step score := EVAL(currentPoint) if score > bestScore then bestScore := score bestStep := step if bestStep is 0 then currentPoint[i] := beforePoint stepSize[i] := stepSize[i] / acceleration else currentPoint[i] := beforePoint + bestStep stepSize[i] := bestStep // acceleration if (bestScore − beforeScore) < epsilon then return currentPoint

Contrast genetic algorithm; random optimization.

title: Hill climbing


text:
New Jersey Route 181

Route 181 is a 7.47 mi state highway in Jefferson Township and Sparta Township in New Jersey. The highway begins in Jefferson Township at a cloverleaf interchange with Route 15 and Espanong Road. Route 181 serves as the local route through Woodport, serving the eastern shores of Lake Hopatcong as well as the main road through the center of Sparta. The route terminates at a jughandle with Route 15 in Sparta.

Route 181 originated as an alignment of State Highway Route 6-A through Woodport and Sparta, which became Route 15 in the 1953 state highway renumbering. In 1974, Route 181 was designated as Route 15 was moved onto a freeway bypass of Sparta.

Route description
Route 181 begins at Espanong Road within a cloverleaf interchange with Route 15 in Jefferson Township. Espanong Road, which heads westward towards Lake Hopatcong, provides some of the missing movements to Route 15 not directly accessible from Route 181. Route 181 runs north past several ramps of the interchange, paralleling Route 15 through Jefferson Township. The route winds northwest and reaches the eastern shores of Lake Hopatcong, where it reaches the community of Woodport.

At Woodport, Lake Hopatcong ends as Route 181 crosses the line from Morris County to Sussex County. Now in the town of Sparta, Route 181 becomes Woodport Road, winding northward back toward Route 15. The two routes parallel northwestward and intersect with Blue Heron Drive, which connects the two roads. Once again, Route 181 turns northwest and away from Route 15, reaching downtown Sparta. The two-lane road winds northwest through the center of Sparta, reaching a junction with County Route 517 (CR 517; Sparta Avenue), which connects to Route 15 once again. After CR 517, Route 181 runs northward out of downtown Sparta, passing the Skyview Golf Club as it approaches Route 15 once again. Becoming a two-lane residential road, the highway heads into an intersection with Route 15 with a jughandle, marking the northern terminus of Route 181.

History
Route 181 originated as an alignment of State Highway Route 6-A, a spur of State Highway Route 6 (now U.S. Route 46) from Dover to Ross Corner. The designation was assigned in 1938, eleven years after the then-current highway system in New Jersey was started. The state highway route designation remained intact for fifteen years, until January 1, 1953, when the routes in state of New Jersey underwent a large renumbering. Route 6-A became Route 15, running along Route 181's alignment from Jefferson to Sparta. The Sparta Bypass was constructed in 1974, and upon completion, Route 15 was taken off of the Jefferson–Sparta alignment, which was re-designated Route 181.

title: New Jersey Route 181


text:
New Jersey Route 182

Route 182 is a 0.96 mi state highway in Hackettstown, New Jersey, United States. The highway serves as a connector of Route 57 to U.S. Route 46 (US 46). The southern end of Route 182 is at a three-way intersection, where Route 57 heads westbound towards Phillipsburg. Also present at this intersection is County Route 517 (CR 517), which is signed as Route 24, but not maintained by the state. CR 517 runs concurrent with Route 182 to its north end at US 46, and turns west with US 46 before splitting in downtown Hackettstown.

Route 182 was first an alignment of pre-1927 Route 12, but was not maintained by the state. In 1927, there was a renumbering, and it became part of Route S-24, which was a spur of Route 24. Route 24 at the time went along the alignment of Route 57, but when the second renumbering occurred in 1953, there was yet another change. In 1953, Route 24 was realigned onto most of Route S24, except for a short part which was designated Route 57. The highway went through a final change on October 9, 1969. On that day, there was a small renumbering of Hackettstown, with Route 24 being truncated to the three-way intersection, and Route 57 reassigned onto the rest of Route 24. The former alignment of Route 57 was reassigned as Route 182.

Route description
Route 182 begins at an intersection with Route 57 and County Route 517 (CR 517). Immediately at that intersection, CR 517 becomes concurrent with Route 182, but is maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation. The fourth road at that intersection is Riveredge–Mobile Home Court, which is a cul-de-sac. The highway progresses northward, passing some small commercial buildings and arriving at the largest free-standing shopping center in Hackettstown, across from Shelley Drive. The next significant intersection is with East Avenue and an adjacent stripmall. East Avenue heads east briefly turning northeast, crosses over the Musconetcong River, passes behind the Union Cemetery, and intersects US 46.

Route 182 continues northward, passing several small businesses and side streets, as well as the main entrance to the Union Cemetery. Route 182 ends at a three-way intersection with US 46 and CR 604. CR 604 is also signed as Willow Grove Street, and heads northwest out of the intersection. US Route 46 is also signed as Mill Street, with the eastbound side heading east-southeast from the intersection and the westbound side heading northwest from the intersection. CR 517 which had been concurrent with Route 182, continues along a concurrency with U.S. Route 46 westbound.

History
Route 182 was originally defined as a segment of a spur of the Washington Turnpike. The stretch of road was later signed as the head of the Lackawanna Trail, running from Hackettstown to Binghamton, NY. In 1916, the road was incorporated into pre-1927 Route 12. However, it was not maintained by the state, and instead, maintained by the county. The highway remained the same until 1927, which is when it became a part of Route S24, which was assigned as a spur off of Route 24. The parent highway, Route 24, was assigned as a highway to run from Schooley's Mountain west to Penwell. There, Route S24 would terminate, but the direct highway was not improved by the county. Instead of the original decision, Route 24 was assigned to end at Hackettstown, where the two highways would intersect at the southern end of Route 182.

The next change to the highway, was in 1953, when the New Jersey State Highway Department renumbered the highway system around the state. This time, Route 24 was defined to run along the alignment of the now-decommissioned Route S24. Now, Route 24 ran along a new alignment, including a part which was supposed to be temporary. The entirety of current Route 57 was also assigned as Route 24. That year, the state took over the alignment that was maintained by the county. The final change in highway alignment around Hackettstown occurred on October 9, 1969. This time Route 24 was truncated off the alignment of current Route 57, and now ended in Hackettstown, at the three-way intersection. The older alignment of Route 57 did not retain its designation, as plans developed to make a bypass of Hackettstown, continuing the highway from Phillipsburg to U.S. Route 46 just east of Hackettstown. However, plans never finished, and instead, the designation of Route 182 was assigned to the original alignment of Route 57.

title: New Jersey Route 182


text:
Talk:Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caídos

Workers
Curious editorial tone in this entry: "slave workers" - compare this to the description in the Wikipedia "Gulag" entry which refers to the activities of the Gulag inmates as "forced labor". It would require a harshly doctrinaire mentality to maintain that the Franco Regime outdid the Soviets in brutality towards its own citizenry.

Suggest a less emotive and more even-handed description here as well, with hopes of keeping the politicization of the Wikipedia to a minimum.

Go ahead and fix it. Be bold in editing Wikipedia pages. RickK 00:05, 12 Nov 2003 (UTC)

When somebody works without pay and liberty is called slave workers. This is a simple fact.Milton 15:38, 12 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Valle_de_los_Ca%C3%ADdos says:
 * En la construcción del monumento participaron, en un régimen brutal de explotación forzada, presos políticos republicanos que de esta forma redimieron parte de la condena que les había sido impuesta por defender sus ideas políticas. Muchos de estos presos no llegaron nunca a gozar de la libertad pues debido a las inexistentes medidas de seguridad los accidentes eran diarios y en muchos casos mortales.
 * "In the building of the monument, republican political prisoners participated in a brutal regime of forced exploitation, who thus redeemed part of the sentence imposed on them for defending their political ideas. Many of these prisoners did never enjoy freedom since, because of the inexistent safety resources, accidents were a daily thing and often deadly".
 * -- Error 03:28, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Death penalty
I don't understand how people sentenced to death can benefit of days of freedom. -- Error 23:14, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

These people were not sentenced to death (or they were sentenced and then their sentences were changed into long term imprisonment). In another article about the monument (I agree that these two should be merged) it says: ''the 1940 Spanish law recognized the possibility to redeem two days of conviction for each working day. This benefit was increased to six days when labour was carried out at the Holy Cross.''

So they could benefit quite a lot. Of course, it does not change the fact that they were at risk of an accident, but in those times accidents during construction work were common anyway. Jasra 20:56, 16 July 2006 (UTC)

Merge
Yes, the two articles should be merged. --Anagnorisis 05:11, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

50%?
This article is biased. First, the monument was built with the forced labor of POW, which should be stated more clearly. Also, while some prisoners redeemed part of their sentence with labor, this does not mean that they went there voluntarily, as the article implies.

Second, it is not true that there are "50% of each side". The identity of 50% of the people buried there is unknown. This does not mean that they are all Republicans.

What is worse, the article implies that the monument commemorates the death of Republican fighters, which is completely false. There's an estimate of 2000-4000 unnamed workers who died during the construction that are there. Some claim that many nameless bodies buried there were exhumed from the common burial grounds of victims of National "night walks". There is a huge difference between hiding crimes of war and memorializing soldiers.

Someone with thorough historical knowledge ought to edit this article. In its present form, it is a shame for the Wikipedia.

title: Talk:Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caídos


text:
Frederick William II

Frederick William II may refer to:

 * Frederick William II, Duke of Saxe-Altenburg (1603–1669)
 * Frederick William II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck (1687–1749)
 * Frederick William II, Prince of Nassau-Siegen (1706–1734)
 * Frederick William II of Prussia (1744–1797), King of Prussia from 1786

title: Frederick William II


text:
1930s in film

The decade of the 1930s in film involved many significant films. The year 1939, in particular, was one of the biggest years (and is still considered one of the greatest years) in Hollywood with MGM's release of Gone with the Wind and The Wizard of Oz.

Events
The 1930s was a decade of political turmoil and economic problems; the Great Depression affected the entire world, and Europe was dealing with both the fallout of World War I and the economic hardships of the time, both of which resulted in the rise of fascist political movements. The uncertainty resulted in the widespread popularity of fantastical escapist fiction. Swashbuckling adventures and the safe scares of the Universal Classic Monsters were highly successful.

Many full-length films were produced in the 1930s. Sound films ("talkies") were a global phenomenon by the early 1930s. Advances in color film included Technicolor and Kodachrome.

The year 1930 is the start of "the golden age of Hollywood", which through at least the 1940s. The studio system was at its height in the 1930s, studios having great control over a film's creative decision. This included the creation of the Hay's Code, which was the first large scale attempt at organized censorship of Hollywood films.

This was also a decade in which many memorable stars made their careers and saw their earliest starring roles.

Trends
Trends in the 1930s film industry include:

Remakes

Following the switch to talking movies c. 1926/1927, many classic films were remade in the 1930s (and later). These include Alice In Wonderland (1933), Cleopatra (1934), and The Prisoner of Zenda (1937).

Monsters

Among the numerous remakes and new films were the 'monster movies', with a wide spectrum of stereotypical monsters. Given that many of these films were produced by Universal, they are regarded as part of the 'Universal Horror' genre. The first of these films debuted in 1931, and consisted of Dracula, Frankenstein, plus Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, then a 1932 trio with The Mummy, Vampyr, and White Zombie, followed by a 1933 trio of King Kong, The Invisible Man, and Mystery of the Wax Museum. In 1935, appeared Werewolf of London and The Raven leading to 1939's The Hunchback of Notre Dame.

Sequels/spin-offs

Within five years of sound films, sequel films and spin-off plots appeared. Examples include The Son of Kong (same year, 1933), Bride of Frankenstein (1935), and Dracula's Daughter (1936).

Stars

The 1930s saw the rise of some of the best known performers in acting and film history. The aforementioned Dracula and Frankenstein films both launched the careers of Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff, respectively; the two men would spend much of the decade starring in Universal Horror films. Actor Errol Flynn, best known for his role as Robin Hood, saw his first starring part in Captain Blood. The Marx Brothers, making their debut at the end of the silent era, rose to fame in the 1930s. The meteoric but short film career of Jean Harlow, The Blonde Bombshell, was completely contained in the 1930s. Fred Astaire, with his frequent partner Ginger Rogers, revolutionized film musicals. With charm and a "distinctive kind of nonmacho masculinity", Cary Grant became the decade's "epitome of masculine glamour". Other stars of this era included Clark Gable, Katharine Hepburn, child star Shirley Temple, Spencer Tracy, and Mae West.

A number of actors from the previous decade continued to be well regarded, such as Charlie Chaplin and Greta Garbo.

The Hays Code and the end of the Pre-Code era

In response to a number of scandals in the 1920s, the studios adopted a series of guidelines known as the "Hays Code", after its creator Will H. Hays. Hays was the head of the Motion Pictures Producers and Distributors Association, which would later be renamed as the Motion Picture Association of America in 1945. Starting in 1927, Hays began compiling a list of topics which he thought Hollywood should avoid. The code was revealed and implemented in 1930, but it was not until 1934, with the establishment of the Production Code Administration, that it was significantly enforced. Due to this delay in enforcement capability, the Pre-Code era of Hollywood is technically considered to last until 1934, despite the code itself being unveiled in 1930.

The specific date in which the Pre-Code era ends could be considered July 1, 1934. According to an amendment made on June 13, 1934, all films released after July 1 of that year had to receive a PCA certificate of approval. After this, the code was stringently enforced, though various forbidden subjects became less taboo and thus regulations regarding them were gradually relaxed. The code would remain in effect until 1968, when it was abandoned entirely. It was then replaced by the familiar letter rating system.

Lists of films
• 1930 in film

• 1931 in film

• 1932 in film

• 1933 in film

• 1934 in film

• 1935 in film

• 1936 in film

• 1937 in film

• 1938 in film

• 1939 in film

External lists

 * Best/Worst 1930s Titles at IMDB
 * List of 1930s films at IMDb
 * List of 1930s deaths at IMDb
 * List of 1930s births at IMDb

title: 1930s in film