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Sandpaper

Sandpaper, also known as glasspaper or as coated abrasive, is a type of material that consists of sheets of paper or cloth with an abrasive substance glued to one face. In the modern manufacture of these products, sand and glass have been replaced by other abrasives such as aluminium oxide or silicon carbide. It is common to use the name of the abrasive when describing the paper, e.g. "aluminium oxide paper", or "silicon carbide paper".

There are many varieties of sandpaper, with variations in the paper or backing, the material used for the grit, grit size, and the bond.

Sandpaper is produced in a range of grit sizes and is used to remove material from surfaces, whether to make them smoother (for example, in painting and wood finishing), to remove a layer of material (such as old paint), or sometimes to make the surface rougher (for example, as a preparation for gluing). The grit size of sandpaper is usually stated as a number that is inversely related to the particle size. A small number such as 20 or 40 indicates a coarse grit, while a large number such as 1500 indicates a fine grit.

History
The first recorded instance of sandpaper was in 13th-century China when crushed shells, seeds, and sand were bonded to parchment using natural gum.

Shark skin (placoid scales) has also been used as an abrasive, and the rough scales of the Coelacanth are used for the same purpose by the natives of Comoros. Boiled and dried, the rough horsetail plant is used in Japan as a traditional polishing material, finer than sandpaper.

Glass paper was manufactured in London in 1833 by John Oakey, whose company had developed new adhesive techniques and processes, enabling mass production. Glass frit has sharp-edged particles and cuts well whereas sand grains are smoothed down and do not work well as an abrasive. Cheap sandpaper was often passed off as glass paper; Stalker and Parker cautioned against it in A Treatise of Japaning and Varnishing published in 1688.

In 1921, 3M invented a sandpaper with silicon carbide grit and a waterproof adhesive and backing, known as Wet and dry. This allowed use with water, which would serve as a lubricant to carry away particles that would otherwise clog the grit. Its first application was in automotive paint refinishing.

Backing

In addition to paper, backing for sandpaper includes cloth (cotton, polyester, rayon), PET film, "fibre", and rubber. Cloth backing is used for sandpaper discs and belts, while PET film is used as backing for extremely fine grits. Fibre or vulcanized fibre is a strong backing material consisting of many layers of polymer impregnated paper. The weight of the backing is usually designated by a letter. For paper backings, the weight ratings range from "A" to "F", with A designating the lightest and F the heaviest. Letter nomenclature follows a different system for cloth backings, with the weight of the backing rated J, X, Y, T, and M, from lightest to heaviest. A flexible backing allows sandpaper to follow irregular contours of a workpiece; relatively inflexible backing is optimal for regular rounded or flat surfaces. Sandpaper backings may be glued to the paper or form a separate support structure for moving sandpaper, such as used in sanding belts and discs. Stronger paper or backing increases the ease of sanding wood. The harder the backing material, the faster the sanding, the faster the wear of the paper and the rougher the sanded surface.

Fitting

A quick-change system is commonly used with disc-type coated abrasives. A plastic or metal hub is bonded to one of the faces, which is threaded. This then mates directly to the sander or angle grinder or to a mandrel that can be mounted in a sander, grinder, or drill. The advantage is that the disc can be quickly replaced when needed. Quick-change discs are available in sizes of about 50 mm and larger.

Abrasives

Common substrates are paper, cloth, vulcanized fiber, and plastic films and come in grit sizes range from very coarse (~2 mm) to ultrafine (submicrometre). The international standard for coated abrasives is ISO 6344. Sandpaper and emery cloth are coated abrasives for hand use, usually non-precision. Other coated abrasive forms include sanding cords, pads, belts, and discs. Variants are available for use by hand or as components for power tools such as sanders, die grinders and belt sanders.

Types of abrasive materials include:

 * Glass: No longer commonly used.
 * Flint: No longer commonly used.
 * Garnet: Commonly used in woodworking.
 * Emery: Commonly used to abrade or polish metals.
 * Aluminium oxide: The most common in modern use, with the widest variety of grits, lowest unit cost; can be used on metal (i.e. body shops) or wood.
 * Silicon carbide: Available in very coarse grits all the way through to microgrits, common in wet applications.
 * Alumina-zirconia: (An aluminium oxide–zirconium oxide alloy), used for machine grinding applications.
 * Chromium(III) oxide: Used in extremely fine micron grit (micrometre level) papers.
 * Diamond: Used for finishing and polishing hard metals, ceramics and glass.
 * Ceramic aluminium oxide: Used in high pressure applications, used in both coated abrasives, as well as in bonded abrasives.

Sandpaper may be "stearated" where a dry lubricant is loaded to the abrasive. Stearated papers are useful in sanding coats of finish and paint as the stearate "soap" prevents clogging and increases the useful life of the sandpaper.

The harder the grit material, the easier the sanding of harder surfaces like hardwoods such as hickory, pecan, or wenge. The grit material for polishing granite must be harder than granite.

Emery

Emery cloth is a type of coated abrasive that has emery glued to a cloth backing. It is used for hand metalworking. It may be sold in sheets or in narrow rolls, typically 25 or 50 mm wide, often described as "emery tape". The cloth backing makes emery cloth stronger in tension than paper, but still allows a sheet to be conveniently torn to size. Emery (largely displaced by improved products such as aluminium oxide and silicon carbide) is used for scrubbing highly abraded and rough surfaces to a smooth and shiny finish, notably in watchmaking. Emery paper, more commonly seen, has a paper backing and is usually a finer grit.

Emery was considered a suitable abrasive for fitting work and the final adjustment of steel parts for a perfect fit. It had the advantage that, unlike harder abrasives, it was not considered to embed abrasive traces in the polished components afterwards. Emery was also used for cleaning, as a means of removing rust from polished steel components.

Both emery cloth and paper are still sold in hardware and do it yourself stores, but have been largely supplanted by the increased use of machine grinding to precision size, which has minimized or eliminated the need for hand-fitting; the widespread availability of powered hand tools employing sanding and grinding accessories such as flapwheels; and a shift to other forms of abrasive, such as aluminium oxide, aluminium zirconia and silicon carbide.

Emery is rated on the average grit size, glued to the backing. Common sizes are, from coarse to fine: 40, 46, 54, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 180, 220, 320, F, and FF. A 46 or 54 grade cloth is used on roughly filed work, while 220 to 320 grit cloth will give a good polish.

By the successive use of progressively finer mesh emery paper, near-mirror finishes can be obtained. Water or oil is often used as a lubricant and to float the abrasive debris and worn abrasive away from the work, preventing the build-up of debris in the emery paper. The paper will lose effectiveness if too much debris builds up, a condition known as "clogging", or "loading".

Originally, emery paper was made from milled emery rock, bonded or sized to paper often with an animal glue for water resistance. Today, synthetic adhesives are used in place of natural glues and silicon carbide (SiC) is often substituted for emery, silicon carbide being slightly harder, and more durable with less tendency to fracture than corundum. The use of natural emery papers is rare today generally being replaced with silicon carbide or pure aluminium oxide papers.

Emery cloth has the abrasives bonded to a fabric instead of a paper. The cloth is more tear resistant, flexible, and costly. Emery boards have applications similar to emery paper or cloth. It also has a use in modelling. For 00 scale modelling, the fine grades of emery paper can have the appearance of a tarmac surface.

Crocus
Crocus cloth is an abrasive sheet similar to sandpaper or emery cloth but covered with a layer of very fine loose iron oxide particles rather than with bound grains of abrasive. It is intended for final metal and gemstone finishing and is available in various grades (particle sizes). Federal Specification P-C-458 described this material in detail, although the specification was cancelled in 1989.

Wet and dry papers
Abrasive papers and cloths with a waterproof backing allow the use of a lubricant, typically water, which can both decapitate rough surfaces when used dry and produce a semi-polished satin type finish when wet. Super-fine grades can produce a "key" adhesion surface appropriate for spray painting in critical decorative applications such as automotive bodywork repair.

Bonds
Different adhesives are used to bond the abrasive to the paper. Hide glue is still used, but this glue often cannot withstand the heat generated during machine sanding and is not waterproof. Waterproof sandpapers or wet/dry sandpapers use a resin bond and a waterproof backing.

Sandpaper can be either closed coat or open coat. Approximately 90% to 95% of the surface is covered with abrasive grains with a closed coat. Closed coat sandpaper is good for hand sanding or working with harder materials. In comparison, 50% to 70% of the surface is covered with abrasive grains with open coat sandpaper. The separation between particles makes the sandpaper more flexible, which prevents the sandpaper from clogging. However, the gaps in grit coverage limits the sandpaper's ability to perform even polishing jobs. Open coat sandpaper is better for softer materials.

Wet and dry sandpaper is more effective used wet because clogging is reduced by particles washing away from the grinding surface.

Shapes
Sandpaper comes in a number of different shapes and sizes:

 * Sheet: usually 9 by, but other sizes may be available
 * Belt: usually cloth backed, comes in different sizes to fit different belt sanders.
 * Disk: made to fit different models of disc and random orbit sanders. May be perforated for some models of sanders. Attachment includes pressure-sensitive adhesive (PSA) and "hook-and-loop" (similar to Velcro).
 * Rolls: known as "shag rolls" by many contractors
 * Sponge: for tight places

Grit sizes

Grit size refers to the size of the particles of abrading materials embedded in the sandpaper. These measurements are determined by the amount of the abrasive material that can fit through a square inch filter. Several standards have been established for grit size. These standards establish not only the average grit size, but also the allowable variation from the average. The two most common are the United States CAMI (Coated Abrasive Manufacturers Institute, now part of the Unified Abrasives Manufacturer's Association) and the European FEPA (Federation of European Producers of Abrasives) "P" grade. The FEPA system is the same as the ISO 6344 standard. Other systems used in sandpaper include the Japanese Industrial Standards Committee (JIS), the micron grade (generally used for very fine grits). Cheaper sandpapers may sometimes only use descriptive nomenclature such as "coarse", "medium" and "fine" without referring to any standard.

title: Sandpaper


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2000 millennium attack plots

A series of Islamist terrorist attacks linked to al-Qaeda were planned to occur on or near January 1, 2000, in the context of millennium celebrations, including bombing plots against four tourist sites in Jordan, the Los Angeles International Airport (LAX), USS The Sullivans (DDG-68), and the hijacking of Indian Airlines Flight 814.

In Lebanon, dozens were killed in clashes in the Dinnieh district between radical Islamists with connections to the Jordan plots and the Lebanese Army. The plots in Jordan and against LAX were foiled by law enforcement agencies, while the attempted bombing of The Sullivans only failed because the boat filled with explosives sank before detonating.

The revelation of the plot linked to the LAX "Millennium Bomber" Ahmed Ressam led to unprecedented investigations into other potential terrorist cells in the United States, dubbed Operation "Borderbom", and security measures around millennium celebrations. Other al-Qaeda-linked millennium attack plots may have been planned or foiled around the same time.

Jordan bombing plots
In Jordan, members of the Islamist terror organization al-Qaeda planned to bomb four sites: a fully booked Radisson hotel in Amman, Jordan; the border between Jordan and Israel; a Christian church on Mount Nebo; and a site on the Jordan River where John the Baptist is said to have baptized Jesus. These locations were chosen to target tourists from the United States and Israel. The most active participant was a Boston taxi driver named Raed Hijazi.

On November 30, 1999, Jordanian intelligence intercepted a call between Saudi citizen Abu Zubaydah, the leader of the plot, and Khadr Abu Hoshar, a Palestinian militant terrorist. In the conversation, Zubaydah stated, "The time for training is over." Sensing that the attack was imminent, Jordanian police arrested Hoshar and fifteen others on December 12, 1999.

Jordanian authorities put twenty-eight suspects on trial. Twenty-two of them were quickly found guilty. Six of them, thought to be linked to Osama bin Laden, including Hijazi, were sentenced to death. Abu Zubaydah was sentenced to death in absentia. Luai Sakra and Abu Musab al-Zarqawi were sentenced in absentia in 2002 for their part in the plot, which included using poison gas during the bombing.

LAX bombing plot
Ahmed Ressam, an Algerian citizen living in Montreal, Canada, confessed after interrogation to having planned to bomb the Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) on New Year's Eve. He was arrested by a U.S. Customs Service inspector at Port Angeles, Washington, a U.S. port of entry, on December 14, 1999. Customs officials found a cache of explosives that could have produced "a blast forty times greater than that of a devastating car bomb" and four timing devices hidden in the spare tire well in the trunk of the rented car in which he had traveled from Canada. Ressam later asserted that the plot was facilitated by Zubaydah and known to bin Laden.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) conducted door-to-door interviews of up to 50 individuals across the country, made "dozens of arrests" as part of investigations into possible other individuals linked to the case, and reportedly "questioned hundreds of Muslims from Los Angeles to Boston, wiretapped hundreds of conversations, and put hundreds of individuals under surveillance". Abdelghani Meskini, a known criminal was arrested in Brooklyn, New York on December 30 by Joint Terrorism Task Force for his links to Ressam. In New York and Boston, nine other Algerians linked to Meskini were arrested by the FBI, as part of the largest counter-terrorism operation ever conducted in the United States, dubbed Operation "Borderbom". Most, including Meskini faced minor charges after no significant terrorism links could be proven, although a main suspected bomb-making accomplice, Abdelmajid Dahoumane had fled the country. Other suspected targets alleged by Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) sources included the Seattle Space Needle and Disneyland, California, with maps found with circles around "three California airports—Los Angeles International, Long Beach and Ontario—as well as maps with San Francisco's landmark Transamerica building and Seattle's Space Needle."

Ressam began cooperating with investigators in 2001. He was initially sentenced to 22 years in prison, but in 2010 an appellate court reversed and remanded the case based on procedural errors and recommended that his sentence be extended. He was re-sentenced to 37 years' imprisonment in 2012. Another Algerian-Canadian, Mokhtar Haouari was sentenced to 24 years imprisonment for assisting Ressam in the plot. Abu Doha was indicted for the plot, but was denied extradition from the United Kingdom.

Hijacking of Indian Airlines Flight 814
Indian Airlines Flight 814, en route from Nepal to India was hijacked on December 24, 1999, by five militants of the al-Qaeda-linked Harkat-ul-Mujahideen group. The hijackers reportedly told the captain, "Fly slowly, fly carefully, there is no hurry. We have to give India a millennium gift," as a bomb in the cargo room of the plane was timed to go off at midnight, December 31, 1999. The plane eventually landed in Taliban-controlled Kandahar, Afghanistan. On December 31, India agreed to release three captive militants in exchange for the nearly 200 passengers and crew that were being held hostage.

Lebanon and Syria clashes
On December 31, 1999, attacks were launched by a group of up to 300 radical Islamists against Lebanese Army forces in the Dinnieh district in northern Lebanon. The group behind the attack, calling itself after the apocalyptic Takfir wal-Hijra group was led by Bassam Kanj, a close associate of Raed Hijazi who had been indicted for his involvement in the Jordan bombing plots. Kanj had met Hijazi in the Khalden training camp in Afghanistan, and they later worked for the same Boston taxi company in the United States in the 1990s. The fighting lasted for eight days, and killed eleven soldiers, five civilians, and 28 Islamists.

Lebanon being under Syrian occupation at the time, the Lebanon clashes followed clashes in Syria between Syrian security forces and Islamists, some of whom were accused of infiltrating the country from Jordan and Saudi Arabia, that began on December 30 when several Syrian intelligence agents were ambushed and killed. The clashes lasted for four days in Damascus, Homs and nearby villages, and the Hizb ut-Tahrir group claimed that 1,200 of its members had been arrested by January 2000.

USS The Sullivans bombing attempt
On January 3, 2000, in Yemen, members of al-Qaeda attempted to use a boat with explosives to damage the warship USS The Sullivans (DDG-68) while it was refueling in Aden. The attempt failed when the over-loaded, bomb-laden boat sank before detonating.

Jamal Ahmad Mohammad Al Badawi and Fahd al-Quso were charged in absentia in United States district court in 2003 for their alleged roles in several terrorist acts, including the attempted bombing of The Sullivans. In 2011, Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri, held in Guantanamo, was charged with planning the attack on The Sullivans along with other attacks, facing death penalty.

Other plots
According to National Security Advisor of the Clinton administration, Sandy Berger, terrorist cells had been disrupted in "eight countries" in the weeks before New Year's Eve, which was said to have "almost certainly" prevented additional attacks. The man behind the LAX plot, Ahmed Ressam, claimed there had been plans by other terrorist cells of millennium attacks "in Europe, in the Gulf, against U.S. and Israel." Major security operations were launched to improve security for the millennium celebrations in Times Square, New York, along with several other cities in the United States and Europe.

In anticipation of the turn to the new millennium, official concerns by the FBI and U.S. authorities had focused on purported threats by "apocalyptic" religious or political groups, claimed to include lone wolf white supremacists, Christian apocalyptic cults or radical elements of militia organizations.

Investigation
While in prison, Ressam revealed that al-Qaeda sleeper cells existed within the United States. This information was included in the President's Daily Brief delivered to President George W. Bush on August 6, 2001, entitled Bin Laden Determined To Strike in US.

FBI special agent and counter-terrorism chief John P. O'Neill, who had been central in the investigation of al-Qaeda in the late 1990s and the millennium plot, and subsequently suspected the existence of sleeper cells in the United States, died in the September 11 attacks in 2001 as head of security of the World Trade Center. O'Neill had started his new job on August 23 less than a month before the attack, after he had been squeezed out of the bureau.

On July 19, 2004, it was revealed that the U.S. Justice Department was investigating former National Security Advisor of the Clinton administration, Sandy Berger, for unauthorized removal of classified documents in October 2003 from a National Archives reading room prior to testifying before the 9/11 Commission. The documents were five classified copies of a single report commissioned from Richard A. Clarke, covering internal assessments of the Clinton administration's handling of the plots. An associate of Berger said Berger took one copy in September 2003 and four copies in October 2003.

Attacks
After the unsuccessful attack on USS The Sullivans, al-Qaeda attempted the same type of attack for a second time, again in Aden, Yemen. They successfully bombed USS Cole (DDG-67) on October 12, 2000, in an attack that claimed the lives of seventeen U.S. sailors.

The Radisson SAS hotel in Amman, Jordan, which was the target of a millennium attack plot, was one of three hotels in the city that were bombed by al-Qaeda in 2005. Thirty-eight people were killed in the bombing, which was the deadliest of the three hotels attacked.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 2000 millennium attack plots


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PDX

PDX may refer to:

Places

 * Portland, Oregon, US
 * Portland International Airport (IATA code)
 * Portland Union Station (railway code)

Brands and enterprises

 * PDX, a line of musical instruments and equipment by Vestax
 * Paradox Interactive, a Swedish video game publisher
 * Paradox Development Studio, the in-house game development team of the above

Computing and technology

 * Paradox (warez), a warez–demogroup; an anonymous group of software engineers that devise ways to defeat software and video game licensing protections, a process known as cracking

Science and healthcare

 * Pancreatic and duodenal homeobox protein, a transcription factor
 * Patient-derived xenograft, human tumor grown in mice
 * PDX, principal diagnosis (see Medical diagnosis), the main cause of a patient's need for treatment

Other uses

 * PDX.edu, domain name of Portland State University, Oregon
 * Performance Driving eXperience, an event sanctioned by the Sports Car Club of America

title: PDX


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List of buildings, sites, and monuments in New York City

Following is an alphabetical list of notable buildings, sites and monuments located in New York City in the United States. The borough is indicated in parentheses.

 * American Museum of Natural History (Manhattan)
 * Rose Center for Earth and Space
 * America's Response Monument (Manhattan)
 * Apollo Theater (Manhattan)
 * Bank of America Tower (Manhattan)
 * Battery Park (Manhattan)
 * Castle Clinton
 * East Coast Memorial
 * The Sphere
 * Battery Park City Ferry Terminal (Manhattan)
 * Brill Building (Manhattan)
 * Bronx Zoo (Bronx)
 * Brooklyn Botanic Garden (Brooklyn)
 * Brooklyn Bridge (connects Brooklyn and Manhattan)
 * Brooklyn Museum (Brooklyn)
 * Brooklyn Public Library (Brooklyn)
 * Bryant Park (Manhattan)
 * Burton Arms Apartments
 * Carnegie Hall (Manhattan)
 * Cathedral of St. John the Divine (Manhattan)
 * Central Park (Manhattan)
 * Central Park Zoo
 * Strawberry Fields
 * Chelsea Piers (Manhattan)
 * Chrysler Building (Manhattan)
 * Citi Field (Queens)
 * Cleopatra's Needle
 * College Point Little League Building (Queens)
 * Columbia University (Manhattan)
 * Columbus Circle (Manhattan)
 * Downtown Athletic Club (Manhattan)
 * East River Park (Manhattan)
 * East River State Park (Brooklyn)
 * Eleanor Roosevelt Monument
 * Empire State Building (Manhattan)
 * Federal Hall National Memorial (Manhattan)
 * Firemen's Memorial (Manhattan)
 * Flatiron Building (Manhattan)
 * Flushing Meadows-Corona Park (Queens)
 * Fordham University (Bronx)
 * George Gustav Heye Center (Manhattan)
 * George Washington Bridge (connects Manhattan and New Jersey)
 * Gracie Mansion (Manhattan)
 * Grand Army Plaza (Brooklyn)
 * Grand Central Terminal (Manhattan)
 * General Grant National Memorial (Manhattan)
 * Green-Wood Cemetery (Brooklyn)
 * Hall of Fame for Great Americans (Bronx)
 * Harvard Club of New York City (Midtown Manhattan)
 * Historic Richmond Town (Staten Island)
 * Holland Tunnel (connects Manhattan and New Jersey)
 * Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum (Manhattan)
 * Irish Hunger Memorial (Manhattan)
 * Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts (Manhattan)
 * Avery Fisher Hall
 * David H. Koch Theater (formerly known as the New York State Theater)
 * Metropolitan Opera
 * Lincoln Tunnel (connects Manhattan and New Jersey)
 * Lipstick Building (Manhattan)
 * Macy's Herald Square (Manhattan)
 * Madison Square Garden (Manhattan)
 * Manhattan Bridge (connects Manhattan and Brooklyn)
 * Manhattan Municipal Building (Manhattan)
 * Metropolitan Fireproof Warehouse (Manhattan)
 * Metropolitan Museum of Art (Manhattan)
 * MetLife Building (Manhattan)
 * Museum of Modern Art (Manhattan)
 * National September 11 Memorial & Museum (Manhattan)
 * New York City Hall (Manhattan)
 * New York Botanical Garden (Bronx)
 * New York Evening Post Building (Manhattan)
 * New York Life Building (Manhattan)
 * New York Public Library (Manhattan)
 * New York Stock Exchange (Manhattan)
 * Odd Fellows Hall (Manhattan)
 * Paley Center for Media (Manhattan)
 * Pelham Bay Park (The Bronx)
 * Pennsylvania Station (Manhattan)
 * Pier 11/Wall Street (Manhattan)
 * Plaza Hotel (Manhattan)
 * Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument (Brooklyn)
 * Prospect Park (Brooklyn)
 * Prospect Park Zoo
 * Queens Museum of Art (Queens)
 * Racquet and Tennis Club (Manhattan)
 * Rockefeller Center (Manhattan)
 * Radio City Music Hall (Manhattan)
 * St. Patrick's Cathedral (Manhattan)
 * Seagram Building (Manhattan)
 * Shea Stadium (Queens; demolished 2009)
 * Silvercup Studios (Queens)
 * Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum (Manhattan)
 * Statue of Liberty (Manhattan)
 * Times Square (Manhattan)
 * Trinity Church (Manhattan)
 * United Nations Headquarters (Manhattan)
 * Vietnam Veterans Plaza (Manhattan)
 * The Waldorf-Astoria Hotel (Manhattan)
 * Washington Square Park (Manhattan)
 * New York University campus
 * Williamsburg Bridge (connects Manhattan and Brooklyn)
 * Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx)
 * Woolworth Building (Manhattan)
 * World Trade Center site (Manhattan)
 * World Financial Center (Manhattan)
 * Yankee Stadium (Bronx)

Skyscrapers
(in height order; unless otherwise noted, all are in Manhattan)

 * One World Trade Center –  541.32 m
 * Empire State Building – 381.0 m
 * Bank of America Tower – 366.0 m
 * Chrysler Building – 318.8 m
 * American International Building – 290.2 m
 * 40 Wall Street – 282.5 m
 * Citigroup Center – 278.9 m
 * Trump World Tower – 262.4 m
 * Bloomberg Tower – 260.8 m
 * GE Building – 259.1 m
 * CitySpire Center – 248.1 m
 * One Chase Manhattan Plaza – 247.8 m
 * Condé Nast Building – 246.6 m
 * MetLife Building – 246.4 m
 * Woolworth Building – 241 m
 * One Worldwide Plaza – 237 m
 * Carnegie Hall Tower – 231 m
 * 383 Madison Avenue (formerly known as the Bear Stearns Building) – 231 m


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List of New York state prisons

This is a list of state prisons in New York.

The New York State Department of Corrections and Community Supervision is the department of the New York State government that maintains the state prisons and parole system. There are 44 prisons funded by the State of New York, and approximately 28,200 parolees at seven regional offices as of 2022.

As of 2016 New York does not contract with private prisons, according to state law.

Facilities

The following list does not include federal prisons, New York City jails, or county jails located in the state of New York.

title: List of New York state prisons


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White-throated robin

The white-throated robin (Irania gutturalis), or irania, is a small, sexually dimorphic, migratory passerine bird. The vernacular and genus name Irania alludes to Iran, its type locality, while the specific name gutturalis is Medieval Latin for "of the throat". It breeds in western Asia and overwinters in East Africa.

Relationships
It was formerly classed as a member of the thrush family, Turdidae, but is now more generally considered to be an Old World flycatcher, family Muscicapidae. It, and similar passerine species, are often called chats.

Description
This species is larger than the European robin, having a length of 16 cm and a wingspan of 28 cm. The breeding male has lead-grey upperparts, a black face with a white throat and supercilium, and orange underparts. The tail is black, as is the strong bill. Females are plainer, mainly grey apart from a black tail, hints of orange on the flanks, and some white throat streaks.

Song
The male's song is a fast twittering, given from a bush or in flight. The call of this species is a chis-it double note, like that of the pied wagtail.

Food
Though it is insectivorous, it will also eat fruit during autumn.

Range and habitat
It is a migratory species, breeding from Turkey to Afghanistan in western Asia, and wintering in East Africa. In East Africa they are found in closed thicket in dry country, typically Acacia-Commiphora woodland on the dry central plateau. Small numbers reach the Usangu Plains of Ruaha National Park in Tanzania, which is normally their southern limit. In dry years however, some may move still further south, and reach moister uplands at 1,600 metres. It is also a very rare vagrant to Europe.

Breeding
The white-throated robin's breeding habitat is dry rocky slopes with some bushes, often at some altitude. It nests in a shrub, laying 4-5 eggs.

title: White-throated robin


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User:Marc Girod~enwiki

fr:Utilisateur:Marc Girodfi:Käyttäjä:Marc Girod

Marc Girod

Sophisticated communications can only be:
 * asynchronous
 * persistent
 * public
 * continuous

Meta-Wiki

title: User:Marc Girod~enwiki


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Talk:Weavers' Way

Name
Who was Weaver? Kingturtle 07:43, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * It's not named after a person, but a reference to the local weaving industry according to the local council website — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.154.252.52 (talk) 21:12, 3 March 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Weavers' Way


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Peter Fraser

Peter Fraser (28 August 1884 – 12 December 1950) was a New Zealand politician who served as the 24th prime minister of New Zealand from 27 March 1940 until 13 December 1949. Considered a major figure in the history of the New Zealand Labour Party, he was in office longer than any other Labour prime minister, and is to date New Zealand's fourth-longest-serving head of government.

Born and raised in the Scottish Highlands, Fraser left education early in order to support his family. While working in London in 1908, Fraser joined the Independent Labour Party, but unemployment led him to emigrate to New Zealand in 1910. On arrival in Auckland, he gained employment as a wharfie and became involved in union politics upon joining the New Zealand Socialist Party. In 1916, Fraser was involved in the foundation of the unified Labour Party. He spent one year in jail for sedition after speaking out against conscription during the First World War. In 1918, Fraser won a Wellington by-election and entered the House of Representatives.

Fraser became a cabinet minister in, serving under Michael Joseph Savage. He held several portfolios and had a particular interest in education, which he considered vital for social reform. As Minister of Health, he introduced the Social Security Act 1938, which established a universal health care service. Fraser became the Leader of the Labour Party and prime minister in 1940, following Savage's death in office.

Fraser is best known for leading the country during the Second World War when he mobilised New Zealand supplies and volunteers to support Britain while boosting the economy and maintaining home front morale. He formed a war cabinet which included several erstwhile political opponents. Labour suffered significant losses in the election, though the party retained its majority.

Following the war, Fraser was active in the affairs of the 'new' Commonwealth and is credited with increasing New Zealand's international stature. Fraser led his party to its fourth successive election victory in, albeit with a further reduced majority. The after-effects of the war, including ongoing shortages, were affecting his government's popularity. Labour lost the and Fraser's government was succeeded by the first National Party government.

Early life
A native of Scotland, Peter Fraser was born in Hill of Fearn, a small village near the town of Tain in the Highland area of Easter Ross. He received a basic education, but had to leave school due to his family's poor financial state. Though apprenticed to a carpenter, he eventually abandoned this trade due to extremely poor eyesight – later in life, faced with difficulty reading official documents, he would insist on spoken reports rather than written ones. Before the deterioration of his vision, however, he read extensively – with socialist activists such as Keir Hardie and Robert Blatchford among his favourites.

Becoming politically active in his early teens, he was 16 years old upon attaining the post of secretary of the local Liberal Association, and, eight years later, in 1908, joined the Independent Labour Party.

Move to New Zealand
In another two years, at the age of 26, after unsuccessfully seeking employment in London, Fraser decided to move to New Zealand, having apparently chosen the country in the belief that it possessed a strong progressive spirit.

He gained employment as a stevedore (or "wharfie") on arrival in Auckland, and became involved in union politics upon joining the New Zealand Socialist Party. Fraser worked as campaign manager for Michael Joseph Savage as the Socialist candidate for Auckland Central electorate. He was also involved in the New Zealand Federation of Labour, which he represented at Waihi during the Waihi miners' strike of 1912. He moved to Wellington, the country's capital, shortly afterwards. Savage went on to be Fraser's predecessor in office as the nation's first Labour prime minister.

In 1913, he participated in the founding of the Social Democratic Party and, during the year, within the scope of his union activities, found himself under arrest for breaches of the peace. While the arrest led to no serious repercussions, it did prompt a change of strategy – he moved away from direct action and began to promote a parliamentary route to power.

Upon Britain's entry into the First World War, he strongly opposed New Zealand participation since, sharing the belief of many leftist thinkers, Fraser considered the conflict an "imperialist war", fought for reasons of national interest rather than of principle.

Foundation of the Labour Party
In 1916, Fraser became involved in the foundation of the New Zealand Labour Party, which absorbed much of the moribund Social Democratic Party's membership. The members selected Harry Holland as the Labour Party's leader. Michael Joseph Savage, Fraser's old ally from the New Zealand Socialist Party, also participated.

Later in 1916, the government had Fraser and several other members of the new Labour Party arrested on charges of sedition. This resulted from their outspoken opposition to the war, and particularly their call to abolish conscription. Fraser received a sentence of one year in jail. He always rejected the verdict, claiming he would only have committed subversion had he taken active steps to undermine conscription, rather than merely voicing his disapproval.

After his release from prison, Fraser worked as a journalist for the official Labour Party newspaper. He also resumed his activities within the Labour Party, initially in the role of campaign manager for Harry Holland.

Local body politics
In 1919 Fraser stood on the Labour Party's ticket for the Wellington City Council. He and three others were first Labour candidates to win office on the council since before the war. Fraser led a movement on the council to establish a municipal milk distribution department in Wellington, which was to remain in operation until the 1990s. He was re-elected in 1921, though Labour lost ground only winning two seats. In 1923 Fraser stood for Mayor of Wellington. He adopted an "all or nothing" strategy by standing only for the mayoralty, refusing nomination to stand for the council also. Fraser polled higher than any Labour mayoral candidate in New Zealand history but lost by only 273 votes to Robert Wright in the closest result Wellington had ever seen.

Fraser made a comeback on the council when he was persuaded to stand in a 1933 by-election. Wright was his main opponent and was victorious in a heavy polling contest which was dubbed by the media as a "grudge match" repeat of 1923. Fraser was re-elected to the Council in 1935, topping the poll with more votes than any other candidate. The next year he decided to resign from the council in order to focus on his ministerial duties. A by-election was avoided when Andrew Parlane, also the highest polling unsuccessful candidate from 1935, was the only nominated candidate.

Early parliamentary career

In a 1918 by-election, Fraser gained election to Parliament, winning the electorate of. He soon distinguished himself through his work to counter the influenza epidemic of 1918–19, of which Fraser was himself a survivor.

During his early years in parliament, Fraser developed a clearer sense of his political beliefs. Although initially enthusiastic about the Russian October Revolution of 1917 and its Bolshevik leaders, he rejected them soon afterwards, and eventually became one of the strongest advocates of excluding communists from the Labour Party. His commitment to parliamentary politics rather than to direct action became firmer, and he had a moderating influence on many Labour Party policies.

Fraser's views clashed considerably with those of Harry Holland, still serving as leader, but the party gradually shifted its policies away from the more extreme left of the spectrum. Fraser soon became convinced that political action via parliamentary process was the only realistic course of action to achieve Labour movement ambitions. As a result, he accepted the inevitable compromises (which Holland did not) that the attainment of parliamentary success required.

In 1933, however, Holland died, leaving the leadership vacant. Fraser considered contesting it, but eventually endorsed Michael Joseph Savage, Holland's more moderate deputy. Fraser became the new deputy leader. While Savage represented perhaps less moderate views than Fraser, he lacked the extreme ideology of Holland. With Labour now possessing a "softer" image and the existing conservative coalition struggling with the effects of the Great Depression, Savage's party succeeded in winning the and forming a government.

Fraser served as vice-president of the Labour Party in 1919–1920, and as party president in 1920–1921.

Cabinet minister
In the new administration, Fraser became the Minister of External Affairs, the Minister of Island Territories, Minister of Health, Minister of Education and Minister of Marine. He showed himself extremely active as a minister, often working seventeen hours a day, seven days a week. During his first years in cabinet, his wife, Janet, had an office next to his and worked as his research assistant and adviser in order that she could spend time with him. She would also prepare meals for him during his long days at parliament.

He had a particular interest in education, which he considered vital for social reform. His appointment of C.E. Beeby to the Education Department provided him with a valuable ally for these reforms. Fraser held a passionate belief that education had a huge part to play in the social reform he desired.

Fraser's narrowly elitist and Anglophile cultural perspectives are illustrated by his crucial role in planning New Zealand's 1940 Centennial celebrations. He used his cultural protege James Shelly, an Englishman who insisted that England was to be the source of New Zealand's cultural life – and by 'cultural' Shelley and Fraser meant so-called high culture sourced from England. As head of the 1940 Centennial Musical Celebrations Shelley followed Fraser in insisting the music would be 'high' culture only. He reassured Fraser that "established Musical Societies, who, throughout New Zealand’s history, have done such magnificent and effective work in developing and keeping alive that appreciation of good music which is so essential to the cultural development of the people of any country." To implement this the Government would import from England "a Musical Adviser and a sufficient number of outstanding Soloists." The result:"a sumtuous feast of good music." Neither Fraser nor Shelley contemplated involving New Zealand born performers and artists.

As Minister of Health, Fraser also became the driving force behind the 1938 Social Security Act. The Act proposed a comprehensive health care system, free at the point of use; it faced strong opposition, particularly from the New Zealand branch of the British Medical Association. Eventually, Fraser negotiated effectively enough to force the Association to yield. Fortunately for him, Janet Fraser had long volunteered in the health and welfare fields and was an invaluable adviser and collaborator.

When the Second World War broke out in 1939, Fraser had already taken over most of the functions of national leadership. Michael Joseph Savage had been ill for some time and was near death, although the authorities concealed this from the public. Fraser had to assume most of the Prime Minister's duties in addition to his own ministerial ones. Internal disputes within the Labour Party made Fraser's position more difficult. John A. Lee, a notable socialist within the Party, vehemently disapproved of the party's perceived drift towards the political centre, and strongly criticised Savage and Fraser. Lee's attacks, however, became strong enough that even many of his supporters denounced them. Fraser and his allies successfully moved to expel Lee from the Party on 25 March 1940.

Prime Minister
When Savage died on 27 March, Fraser successfully contested the leadership against Gervan McMillan and Clyde Carr. He had, however, to give the party's caucus the right to elect people to Cabinet without the Prime Minister's approval – a practice which has continued as a feature of the Labour Party.

Despite the concession, Fraser remained in command, occasionally alienating colleagues due to a governing style described by some as "authoritarian". Some of his determination to exercise control may have come about due to the war, on which Fraser focused almost exclusively. Nevertheless, certain measures he implemented, such as censorship, wage controls, and conscription, proved unpopular with the party. In particular, conscription provoked strong opposition, especially since Fraser himself had opposed it during the First World War. Fraser replied that fighting in the Second World War, unlike in the First World War, had indeed a worthy cause, making conscription a necessary evil. Despite opposition from within the Labour Party, enough of the general public supported conscription to allow its acceptance.

Second World War
Fraser was one of the immediate few in New Zealand who instantly grasped that war meant not merely the involvement of the military, but that of the whole country. These implications were not always recognised either by his own party or by the opposition. Fraser further developed somewhat of an authoritarian streak as a result; this reflected his insistence on the overwhelming importance of the war effort above all else.

During the war, Fraser attempted to build support for an understanding between Labour and its main rival, the National Party. However, opposition within both parties prevented reaching an agreement, and Labour continued to govern alone. Fraser did, however, work closely with Gordon Coates, a former prime minister and now a National-Party rebel – Fraser praised Coates for his willingness to set aside his party loyalty, and appears to have believed that National leader Sidney Holland placed the interests of his party before national unity.

In terms of the war effort itself, Fraser had a particular concern with ensuring that New Zealand retained control over its own forces. He believed that the more populous countries, particularly Britain, viewed New Zealand's military as a mere extension of their own, rather than as the armed forces of a sovereign nation. After particularly serious New Zealand losses in the Greek campaign in 1941, Fraser determined to retain a say as to where to deploy New Zealand troops. Fraser insisted to British leaders that Bernard Freyberg, commander of the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force, should report to the New Zealand government just as extensively as to the British authorities.

When Japan entered the war in December 1941, Fraser had to choose between recalling New Zealand's forces to the Pacific (as Australia had done) or keeping them in the Middle East (as British prime minister Winston Churchill requested). Opinion was divided on the question and New Zealand's manpower resources were already stretched to capacity. Fraser received assurances from U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt that American forces would be made available for New Zealand's defense. The local populace possessed an understandable view that the division's proper place was defending their homes. Fraser weighed up public opinions against the strategic arguments involved and eventually opted to leave New Zealand's Expeditionary Force where it was.

"In a remarkable display of political acumen and skill, he then persuaded a divided government and Parliament to give their full support [to leave the army in Africa]. It was leadership of the highest order."

Fraser had a very rocky relationship with U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull, particularly over the Canberra Pact in January 1944. Hull gave Fraser a sharp and rather demeaning dressing-down when Fraser visited Washington D.C. in mid-1944, which resulted in New Zealand's military becoming sidelined to some extent in the conduct of the Pacific War.

Furlough Mutiny
By early 1943 Fraser faced a major military and strategic problem that also had significant political implications in this New Zealand election year. The New Zealand Division, part of the Eighth Army in North Africa, were now battle-weary. The bulk of the Division had been overseas for almost three years. Nearly 43% of the troops had suffered casualties. "The men were homesick, exhausted and war-weary."

In 1943 Fraser arranged for 6,000 men to return home from the Mediterranean theatre for a three-month furlough (period of military leave), anticipating that the grateful men and their families would be more disposed to vote Labour in the general election. Upon arrival, however, many of the veterans were furious at the numbers in reserved occupations, some of whom were making menial goods of no use to the war effort. Moreover, unions had ensured that bonuses and high pay were awarded to munitions workers, far in excess of the money paid to the men in combat. "No man twice before every man first" became one of the returning soldiers' mantras, and several thousand of them secured an exemption from further service due to age or being married.

A number of the remainder were court-martialed, sentenced to 90 days' imprisonment and forced to return (though some had deserted and were not able to be found. Further, they were denied a military pension and refused government jobs. Due to censorship, the public heard little of the protests and the affair, known as the "Furlough Mutiny", was omitted from post-war history books for many years.

Trans-Tasman relationship
Fraser's government also established a far closer working understanding with the Labor government in Australia. He signed the Australian–New Zealand Agreement of 1944, in which Fraser, under pressure by Australia's foreign minister, H. V. Evatt, overplayed his hand seeking to ensure that both Australian and New Zealand interests in the Pacific would not be overlooked in the war or its aftermath. New Zealand and Australia were both anxious to have their input in the planning of the Pacific War, and later in the decisions of the "Great Powers" in the shaping of the post-war world.

Post-war
After the war ended, Fraser devoted much attention to the formation of the United Nations at the San Francisco conference (UNCIO) in 1945; this "was the apogee of Fraser's career". Noteworthy for his strong opposition to vesting powers of veto in permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, he often spoke unofficially for smaller states. He was elected chairman of one of the main committees which was considering dependent territories, and next year in London was chairman of one of the social-economic committees at the first assembly in London. He earned the respect of many world statesmen through his commitment to principle, his energy, and most of all his skill as a chairman. It was to Fraser's stature that New Zealand would later owe much of its favourable international reputation.

Fraser had a particularly close working relationship with Alister McIntosh, the head of the Prime Minister's department during most of Fraser's premiership and then of the Department of External Affairs, created in 1946. McIntosh privately described his frustration with Fraser's workaholism, and with Fraser's insensitivity towards officials' needs for private lives; but the two men had a genuinely affectionate relationship.

Fraser also took up the role of Minister of Native Affairs (which he renamed Māori Affairs) in 1947. Fraser had had an interest in Māori concerns for some time, and he implemented a number of measures designed to reduce inequality. The Maori Social and Economic Advancement Act, which he introduced in 1945, allowed Māori involvement and control over welfare programmes and other assistance.

New Commonwealth
Fraser's Government had proposed to adopt the Statute of Westminster 1931 in its Speech from the Throne in 1944 (two years after Australia adopted the Act), in order to gain greater constitutional independence. During the Address-In-Reply debate, the opposition passionately opposed the proposed adoption, claiming the Government was being disloyal to the United Kingdom. National MP for Tauranga, Frederick Doidge, argued "With us, loyalty is an instinct as deep as religion".

The proposal was buried. Ironically, the National opposition prompted the adoption of the Statute in 1947 when its leader and future prime minister Sidney Holland introduced a private members' bill to abolish the Legislative Council, the country's upper house of parliament. Because New Zealand required the consent of the Parliament of the United Kingdom to amend the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, Fraser decided to adopt the Statute with the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947.

The adoption of the Statute of Westminster was soon followed by the debate on the future of the British Commonwealth in its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations. In April 1949 Ireland, formerly the Irish Free State, declared itself a republic and ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth. In response to this, the New Zealand Parliament passing the Republic of Ireland Act the following year, which treated Ireland as if it were still a member of the Commonwealth. Meanwhile, newly independent India would have to leave the Commonwealth on becoming a republic also, although it was the Indian Prime Minister's view that India should remain a member of the Commonwealth as a republic. Fraser believed that the Commonwealth could as a group address the evils of colonialism and maintain the solidarity of common defence.

To Fraser, the acceptance of India as a republican member would threaten the political unity of the Commonwealth. Fraser knew his domestic audience and was tough on republicanism or defence weakness to deflect criticism from the loyalist and imperialist-minded opposition National Party. Labour had been in office for fourteen years and faced an uphill battle to retain power against National at the general election, which would come just months after the high-profile April 1949 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference. In March 1949 Fraser wrote to the Canadian Prime Minister, Louis St Laurent, stating his frustration and unease over India's position. Saint Laurent had indicated that he would not be able to attend the meeting where the issue of India's republican status would dominate. Fraser argued:

"I have the greatest desire to see India retained in the Commonwealth, but for the moment, I see no satisfactory means of bringing this about. Are the members of the Commonwealth who do wish to retain the Crown to end up with a form of words covering an arrangement which is entirely nebulous? Are we justified in releasing India from the obligations which the rest of us willingly assume without any reasonable accommodation on the part of India in return?"

Fraser left little doubt New Zealand was opposed to India's membership as a republic when he stated to his colleagues at Downing Street:

"New Zealand had been colonized by people of British stock, who had built their new country as an extension of the homeland; and their sentiments of loyalty and affection towards the Royal Family had intensified with the passage of time. Throughout the successive stages by which they had attained full national independence, their loyalty and allegiance had grown progressively stronger. New Zealand would not tolerate any dilution of those loyalties."

The conference quashed a proposal of a two-tier structure that would have had the traditional Commonwealth realms, perhaps with defence pacts, on one tier, and the new members which opted for a republic, on the second tier. The final compromise is perhaps best seen from the title finally accepted for the King, as Head of the Commonwealth.

Fraser argued that the compromise allowed the Commonwealth dynamism, that would in the future allow former colonies of Africa to join as republics and be stalwarts of this New Commonwealth. It also allowed New Zealand the freedom to maintain its individual status of loyalty to the Crown and to pursue collective defence. Indeed, Fraser cabled a senior minister, Walter Nash, after the decision was taken to accept India that "while the Declaration is not as I would have wished, it is on the whole acceptable and maximum possible, and does not at any rate leave our position unimpaired".

Decline and defeat
Although he relinquished the role of Minister of Education early in his term as prime minister, he and Walter Nash continued to have an active role in developing educational policy with C. E. Beeby.

Labour's majority at the was reduced to one seat. The after-effects of the war were affecting his government's popularity. Fraser moved to the Wellington seat of Brooklyn, which he held until his death. From 1940 to 1949 Fraser lived in a house "Hill Haven" at 64–66 Harbour View Road, Northland, Wellington, which had been purchased for the use of the then-ill Savage in 1939.

Fraser's domestic policies came under criticism. His slow speed in removing war-time rationing and his support for compulsory military training during peacetime in the 1949 referendum particularly damaged him politically. Some thought this hypocritical compared to Fraser's earlier sentiments on the subject. Much earlier in his career, in 1927 he is noted to have said that compulsory military training was "out of date, inefficient and not worth the money spent on it".

With dwindling support from traditional Labour voters, and a population weary of war-time measures, Fraser's popularity declined. At this stage of his career, Fraser relied heavily on the party "machine". As a result, the gap between the party leadership and rank and file members widened to the point where Labour's political enthusiasm dwindled. In the the National Party defeated his government.

Leader of the Opposition
Following the election defeat, Fraser became Leader of the Opposition, but declining health prevented him from playing a significant role. He died at the age of 66, exactly one year after leaving government. His successor as leader of the Labour Party was Walter Nash. His successor in the electorate, elected in the 1951 Brooklyn by-election, was Arnold Nordmeyer.

Personal life
On 1 November 1919, a year after his election to parliament, Fraser married Janet Kemp née Munro, from Glasgow and also a political activist. They remained together until Janet's death in 1945, five years before Fraser's own passing. During Fraser's time as prime minister, Janet traveled with him and acted as a "political adviser, researcher, gatekeeper and personal support system". Her ideas influenced his political philosophy. The couple had no children, although Janet had a son from her first marriage to George Kemp.

Death
Fraser died in Wellington on 12 December 1950 from a heart attack following hospitalisation with influenza. His body lay in state in the New Zealand Parliament Buildings for three days and a state funeral service was conducted by the Moderator of the Presbyterian Church. He is buried in the Karori Cemetery.

Honours
In 1935, Fraser was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal, and in 1937, he was awarded the King George VI Coronation Medal. He was appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1940 and a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in 1946.

In 2021, Janet Fraser and Peter Fraser, in recognition of their help for the Polish children were awarded by the President of Poland with Virtus et Fraternitas Medal.

title: Peter Fraser


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Mastitis

Mastitis is inflammation of the breast or udder, usually associated with breastfeeding. Symptoms typically include local pain and redness. There is often an associated fever and general soreness. Onset is typically fairly rapid and usually occurs within the first few months of delivery. Complications can include abscess formation.

Risk factors include poor latch, cracked nipples, use of a breast pump, and weaning. The bacteria most commonly involved are Staphylococcus and Streptococci. Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms. Ultrasound may be useful for detecting a potential abscess.

Prevention of this breastfeeding difficulty is by proper breastfeeding techniques. When infection is present, antibiotics such as cephalexin may be recommended. Breastfeeding should typically be continued, as emptying the breast is important for healing. Tentative evidence supports benefits from probiotics. About 10% of breastfeeding women are affected.

Types
When it occurs in breastfeeding mothers, it is known as puerperal mastitis, lactation mastitis, or lactational mastitis. When it occurs in non breastfeeding women it is known as non-puerperal or non-lactational mastitis. Mastitis can, in rare cases, occur in men. Inflammatory breast cancer has symptoms very similar to mastitis and must be ruled out.

The symptoms are similar for puerperal and nonpuerperal mastitis but predisposing factors and treatment can be very different.

Pregnancy related

Puerperal mastitis is the inflammation of the breast in connection with pregnancy, breastfeeding or weaning. Since one of the most prominent symptoms is tension and engorgement of the breast, it is thought to be caused by blocked milk ducts or milk excess. It is relatively common; estimates range depending on methodology between 5–33%. However, only about 0.4–0.5% of breastfeeding mothers develop an abscess.

Some predisposing factors are known but their predictive value is minimal. It appears that proper breastfeeding technique, frequent breastfeeding and avoidance of stress are the most important factors that can be influenced.

Light cases of mastitis are often called breast engorgement; the distinction is overlapping and possibly arbitrary or subject to regional variations.

Non-pregnancy related
The term nonpuerperal mastitis describes inflammatory lesions of the breast occurring unrelated to pregnancy and breastfeeding. This article includes description of mastitis as well as various kinds of mammary abscesses. Skin related conditions like dermatitis and foliculitis are a separate entity.

Names for non-puerperal mastitis are not used very consistently and include mastitis, subareolar abscess, duct ectasia, periductal inflammation, Zuska's disease and others.

Periductal mastitis is a form of nonlactational mastitis, and is characterized by inflammation of the subareolar ducts. Although the cause of periductal mastitis is currently unknown, it is predicted that smoking may be related. This condition is mainly seen in young women but can also be seen in men.

Signs and symptoms

Lactation mastitis usually affects only one breast and the symptoms can develop quickly. It develops into three stages, from the initial stage, the pus formation stage, to the restoration stage. The signs and symptoms usually appear suddenly and they include: Some women may also experience flu-like symptoms such as:
 * Breast tenderness or warmth to the touch
 * General malaise or feeling ill
 * Swelling of the breast
 * Pain or a burning sensation continuously or while breast-feeding
 * Skin redness, often in a wedge-shaped pattern
 * Fever of 101 F (38.3 C) or greater
 * The affected breast can then start to appear lumpy and red.
 * Aches
 * Shivering and chills
 * Feeling anxious or stressed
 * Fatigue

Contact should be made with a health care provider with special breastfeeding competence as soon as the patient recognizes the combination of signs and symptoms. Most of the women first experience the flu-like symptoms and just after they may notice a sore red area on the breast. Also, women should seek medical care if they notice any abnormal discharge from the nipples, if breast pain is making it difficult to function each day, or they have prolonged, unexplained breast pain.

Breast abscess

A breast abscess is a collection of pus that develops in the breast with various causes. During lactation, breast abscess develops only rarely, most sources cite about 0.4–0.5% of breastfeeding women. Known risk factors are age over 30, primiparous and late delivery. No correlation was found with smoking status; however, this may be in part because far fewer smoking women choose to breastfeed. Antibiotics were not shown effective in prevention of lactation abscess but are useful to treat a secondary infection (see the section on the treatment of breast abscess in this article).

Keratinizing squamous metaplasia of lactiferous ducts may play a similar role in the pathogenesis of nonpuerperal subareolar abscess.

Causes
Since the 1980s mastitis has often been divided into non-infectious and infectious sub-groups. However, recent research suggests that it may not be feasible to make divisions in this way. It has been shown that types and amounts of potentially pathogenic bacteria in breast milk are not correlated to the severity of symptoms. Moreover, although only 15% of women with mastitis in Kvist et al.'s study were given antibiotics, all recovered and few had recurring symptoms. Many healthy breastfeeding women wishing to donate breast milk have potentially pathogenic bacteria in their milk but have no symptoms of mastitis.

Risk factors
Mastitis typically develops when the milk is not properly removed from the breast. Milk stasis can lead to the milk ducts in the breasts becoming blocked, as the breast milk is not being properly and regularly expressed. It has also been suggested that blocked milk ducts can occur as a result of pressure on the breast, such as tight-fitting clothing or an over-restrictive bra, although there is sparse evidence for this supposition. Mastitis may occur when the baby is not appropriately attached to the breast while feeding, when the baby has infrequent feeds or has problems suckling the milk out of the breast.

The presence of cracks or sores on the nipples increases the likelihood of infection. There is a possibility that infants carrying infectious pathogens in their noses can infect their mothers; the clinical significance of this finding is still unknown.

Mastitis can also develop due to contamination of a breast implant or any other foreign body, for example after nipple piercing. In such cases, the removal of the foreign body is indicated.

Women who are breastfeeding are at risk for developing mastitis especially if they have sore or cracked nipples or have had mastitis before while breastfeeding another baby. Also, the chances of getting mastitis increases if women use only one position to breastfeed or wear a tight-fitting bra, which may restrict milk flow Difficulties in getting a nursing infant to latch on to the breast can also increase the risk for mastitis.

Women with diabetes, chronic illness, AIDS, or an impaired immune system may be more susceptible to the development of mastitis.

Infection
Some women (approximately 15%) will require antibiotic treatment for infection which is usually caused by bacteria from the skin or the baby's mouth entering the milk ducts through skin lesions of the nipple or through the opening of the nipple. Infection is usually caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Infectious pathogens commonly associated with mastitis are Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus spp. and Gram-negative bacilli such as Escherichia coli. Salmonella spp., mycobacteria, and fungi such as Candida and Cryptococcus have been identified in rare instances.

Recent research suggests that infectious pathogens play a much smaller role in the pathogenesis than was commonly assumed only a few years ago. Most detected pathogens are very common species that are natural part of the breast fauna and simple detection of their presence is not sufficient to prove a causative role. Furthermore, there are indications that treatment with antibiotics may have minimal impact, and over-all there is insufficient evidence to confirm or refute the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy for treating lactational mastitis.

Diagnosis
The diagnosis of mastitis and breast abscess can usually be made based on a physical examination. The doctor will also take into account the signs and symptoms of the condition.

However, if the doctor is not sure whether the mass is an abscess or a tumor, a breast ultrasound may be performed. The ultrasound provides a clear image of the breast tissue and may be helpful in distinguishing between simple mastitis and abscess or in diagnosing an abscess deep in the breast. The test consists of placing an ultrasound probe over the breast.

In cases of infectious mastitis, cultures may be needed in order to determine what type of organism is causing the infection. Cultures are helpful in deciding the specific type of antibiotics that will be used in curing the disease. These cultures may be taken either from the breast milk or of the material aspirated from an abscess.

Mammograms or breast biopsies are normally performed on women who do not respond to treatment or on non-breastfeeding women. This type of tests is sometimes ordered to exclude the possibility of a rare type of breast cancer which causes symptoms similar to those of mastitis.

Perinatal mood and anxiety disorders
Some women who experience pain or other symptoms when breastfeeding, but who have no detectable signs of mastitis, may have a sensory processing disorder, postpartum depression, perinatal anxiety, dysphoric milk ejection reflex, an involuntary aversion to breastfeeding, or other mental health problems.

Breast cancer
Breast cancer may coincide with or mimic symptoms of mastitis. Only full resolution of symptoms and careful examination are sufficient to exclude the diagnosis of breast cancer.

The lifetime risk for breast cancer is significantly reduced for women who were pregnant and breastfeeding. Mastitis episodes do not appear to influence lifetime risk of breast cancer.

Mastitis does however cause great difficulties in diagnosis of breast cancer. Breast cancer may coincide with mastitis or develop shortly afterwards. All suspicious symptoms that do not completely disappear within 5 weeks must be investigated.

Breast cancer incidence during pregnancy and lactation is assumed to be the same as in controls. Course and prognosis are also very similar to age matched controls. However diagnosis during lactation is particularly problematic, often leading to delayed diagnosis and treatment.

Some data suggest that noninflammatory breast cancer incidence is increased within a year following episodes of nonpuerperal mastitis and special care is required for follow-up cancer prevention screening. So far only data from short term observation is available and total risk increase can not be judged. Because of the very short time between presentation of mastitis and breast cancer in this study it is considered very unlikely that the inflammation had any substantial role in carcinogenesis, rather it would appear that some precancerous lesions may increase the risk of inflammation (hyperplasia causing duct obstruction, hypersensitivity to cytokines or hormones) or the lesions may have common predisposing factors.

A very serious type of breast cancer called inflammatory breast cancer presents with similar symptoms as mastitis (both puerperal and nonpuerperal). It is the most aggressive type of breast cancer with the highest mortality rate. The inflammatory phenotype of IBC is thought to be mostly caused by invasion and blocking of dermal lymphatics, however it was recently shown that NF-κB target genes activation may significantly contribute to the inflammatory phenotype. Case reports show that inflammatory breast cancer symptoms can flare up following injury or inflammation making it even more likely to be mistaken for mastitis. Symptoms are also known to partially respond to progesterone and antibiotics, reaction to other common medications can not be ruled out at this point.

Lactational mastitis
When mastitis is associated with breastfeeding, the treatment has to balance short-term reduction of symptoms with solving the underlying problems that caused mastitis. For example, the Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine recommends against trying to "empty" the breasts, whether through pushing the baby to feed more or through using a breast pump. It may reduce the feeling of being full or swollen in the short term, at the cost of triggering milk oversupply, which can cause a mastitis recurrence in the coming days and weeks.

Self-care
For breastfeeding women with breast engorgement or light mastitis, using a warm compress may be comfortable. However, by increasing blood flow to the area, warm compresses make the symptoms worse for other women. A cool compresses can reduce edema (swelling) and pain. In traditional folk medicine, the breast was sometimes cooled by placing a cabbage leaf on the breast, but this is now more commonly done with an ice pack or a wet washcloth.

Gentle massage ("like petting a cat" ) may be comfortable and may reduce swelling. However, more aggressive rubbing can easily damage breast tissues that are already strained by mastitis, and that damage can increase swelling and pain. Excessive massage, like excessive use of a breast pump, may be a risk factor for recurrent mastitis.

Probiotics may or may not help, but they are believed not to be harmful. Over-the-counter nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as ibuprofen and paracetamol, may reduce inflammation.

Medical treatments
Antibiotics are appropriate only for bacterial mastitis, which may develop if non-infective mastitis does not improve. Antifungals are similarly only useful when a fungal infection, such as thrush, is present. Severe infections may require ordinary medical supportive care, such as intravenous fluids if the mother is unable to drink enough water or other fluids.

Therapeutic ultrasound may reduce swelling.

Ineffective and harmful treatments
The shape of swelling in a specific spot may make people suppose that the breasts contain simple tubes, and that one has become plugged. However, milk ducts are not simple tubes, and their interconnected anatomy makes it impossible for them to actually become plugged. Consequently, treatment does not include cutting, popping, or squeezing any so-called "plugged" ducts. There is no "plug" (e.g., of dried-out milk) to be removed. These localized swellings are usually caused by lymphatic congestion (non-milk body fluid accumulating in the breasts), alveolar edema (swelling in the part of the breast that produces milk), or mammary dysbiosis (changes to the breast's microbiome), which can cause some narrowing, but not plugging, at the microscopic level. Breastfeeding at a normal level may provide temporary relief from the swelling without triggering milk oversupply. It is safer to treat nipple blebs (very small, usually pale colored, bumps of tissue on the end of the nipple) with topical steroids than by cutting the skin.

Any action that breaks the skin can cause an infection, which increases inflammation and may become serious.

Antibiotics do not prevent mastitis from recurring.

Nonpuerperal mastitis
Nonpuerperal mastitis is treated by medication and possibly aspiration or drainage (see in particular treatment of subareolar abscess and treatment of granulomatous mastitis). According to a BMJ best practice report, antibiotics are generally to be used in all mastitis cases unrelated to breastfeeding, with replacement of the antibiotics by an antifungal agent such as fluconazole in cases of deep fungal infections, and corticosteroids are to be used in case of granulomatous mastitis (with differential diagnosis to tuberculosis infection of the breast).

In idiopathic granulomatous mastitis, successful treatment includes invasive surgical procedures or less invasive treatment with steroid medications.

Antibiotics for bacterial mastitis
In lactational mastitis, antibiotics are not needed in the overwhelming majority of cases and should be used only for bacterial infections. For people with non-severe infections, dicloxacillin or cephalexin are recommended. For people with severe infections, vancomycin is recommended. The length of antibiotic treatment ranges anywhere from 5–14 days. The effects of antibiotics has not been well studied as of 2013.

A lactational phlegmon (area of inflammation) should be monitored for possible development into an abscess (walled-off area filled with pus from an infection).

Breast abscess
An abscess (or suspected abscess) in the breast may be treated by ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration (percutaneous aspiration) or by surgical incision and drainage; each of these approaches is performed under antibiotic coverage. In case of puerperal breast abscess, breastfeeding from the affected breast should be continued where possible.

For small breast abscesses, ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration such as to completely drain the abscess is widely recognized as a preferred initial management.

One recommended treatment includes antibiotics, ultrasound evaluation and, if fluid is present, ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration of the abscess with an 18 gauge needle, under saline lavage until clear. The exudate is then sent for microbiological analysis for identification of the pathogen and determination of its antibiotic sensitivity profile, which may in turn give an indication for changing the antibiotics. At follow-up, a mammography is performed if the condition has resolved; otherwise the ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration with lavage and microbiological analysis is repeated. If three to five aspirations still do not resolve the condition, percutaneous drainage in combination with placement of an indwelling catheter is indicated, and only if several attempts at ultrasound-guided drainage fail, surgical resection of the inflamed lactiferous ducts (preferably performed after the acute episode is over). It is noted, however, that even the excision of the affected ducts does not necessarily prevent recurrence.

Nonpuerperal breast abscesses have a higher rate of recurrence compared to puerperal breast abscesses. There is a high statistical correlation of nonpuerperal breast abscess with diabetes mellitus (DM). On this basis, it has recently been suggested that diabetes screening should be performed on patients with such abscess.

Although there are a number of recommendations regarding the treatment of breast abscesses, a 2015 review found insufficient evidence of whether needle aspiration is comparable to incision and drainage, or whether antibiotics should generally be given to women undergoing incision and drainage.

Prevention
Most efforts to prevent mastitis in breastfeeding women are believed to be ineffective or have a relatively small effect. Acupoint massage probably reduces the risk somewhat. Possibly effective prevention measures include taking probiotics, breast massage, and low-frequency pulse treatment. Ineffective methods included prophylactic antibiotics, topical treatments (mastitis is inflammation deep in the breast, so treating the skin is irrelevant ), specialist breastfeeding education, and anti‐secretory factor‐inducing cereal.

Prognosis
Neither the presence of a fever nor the severity of symptoms at presentation do not predict outcome; women with sore or damaged nipples may need special attention.

Epidemiology
Mastitis is quite common among breastfeeding women. The WHO estimates that although incidences vary between 2.6% and 33%, the prevalence globally is approximately 10% of breastfeeding women. Most mothers who develop mastitis usually do so within the first few weeks after delivery. Most breast infections occur within the first or second month after delivery or at the time of weaning. However, in rare cases it affects women who are not breastfeeding.

Terminology
Popular usage of the term mastitis varies by geographic region. Outside the US, it is commonly used for both puerperal (that is, occurring to breastfeeding mothers) and nonpuerperal (unrelated to breastfeeding) cases. In the US, mastitis usually refers to puerperal mastitis with fever or other symptoms of systemic infection (these symptoms are not necessarily caused by an actual infection ). Lighter cases of puerperal mastitis, appearing a few days after birth, are often called breast engorgement. In the US, the term nonpuerperal mastitis is rarely used, and alternative names such as duct ectasia, subareolar abscess and plasma cell mastitis are more frequently used.

In this article, mastitis is used in the original sense of the definition as inflammation of the breast, with additional qualifiers where appropriate.

Chronic cystic mastitis is an older name for fibrocystic breast changes.

Etymology and pronunciation
The word mastitis uses combining forms of mast- + -itis. The word mammitis uses combining forms of mamm- + -itis. They are synonymous in modern usage, and mastitis is the more commonly used synonym.

Other animals
Mastitis occurs in other animals as in humans, and is especially a concern in livestock, since milk from the affected udders of livestock may enter the food supply and pose a health risk.

It is a major condition in some species, like dairy cows. It is the cause of much unwanted suffering for the dairy cows. It is of tremendous economic importance for the dairy industry, and it is also of concern for public health. The same considerations apply to mastitis in sheep and goats and other milk-producing females. It is also of economic importance in the sow, but, in this species, it is not related to public health. In other domestic females (queen, mare, etc.), it is more an individual illness dealt with by veterinary practitioners.

title: Mastitis


text:
Siberian blue robin

The Siberian blue robin (Larvivora cyane) is a small passerine bird that was formerly classified as a member of the thrush family, Turdidae, but is now more generally considered to belong to the Old World flycatcher family, Muscicapidae. It and similar small European species are often called chats. Recent research suggests that this species and some other East Asian members of Luscinia should be classified in a new genus, together with the Japanese and Ryūkyū robins. The genus name Larvivora comes from the Neo-Latin larva meaning caterpillar and -vorus meaning eating (vorace to devour), and cyane is Latin for "dark-blue".

This bird is a migratory insectivorous species breeding in the eastern Palearctic from Siberia and northern Mongolia, northeastern China, Korea and across to Japan. It winters in southern and south-eastern Asia and Indonesia.

The breeding habitat is coniferous forest with dense undergrowth, often beside rivers or at woodland edges. It feeds on the ground but is very 'skulking'. In winter, this bird also tends to stay in dense vegetation.

This species is larger than the European robin. The breeding male is unmistakable with blue upperparts and white underparts. The female is much drabber, with brown upperparts and whitish underparts. Her dark eye stands out against the paler brown face.

This species is a very rare vagrant to Europe, and has vagrant status even as far east as Pakistan.

The Siberian blue robin was previously placed in the genus Luscinia. A large molecular phylogenetic study published in 2010 found that Luscinia was not monophyletic. The genus was therefore split and several species including the Siberian blue robin were moved to the reinstated genus Larvivora.

title: Siberian blue robin


text:
List of New Jersey state prisons

This is a list of state prisons in New Jersey. It does not include federal prisons or county jails located in the State of New Jersey. These facilities are operated by the New Jersey Department of Corrections.

Open

 * Bayside State Prison (Leesburg)
 * East Jersey State Prison (Rahway)
 * Edna Mahan Correctional Facility for Women (Clinton)
 * Garden State Youth Correctional Facility (Yardville)
 * Mid-State Correctional Facility (Wrightstown)
 * New Jersey State Prison (Trenton)
 * Northern State Prison (Newark)
 * South Woods State Prison (Bridgeton)

Defunct

 * Albert C. Wagner Youth Correctional Facility (Bordentown)
 * Burlington County Prison
 * Central Reception and Assignment Facility (Trenton)
 * Riverfront State Prison (Camden)
 * Southern State Correctional Facility (Delmont)
 * William H. Fauver Youth Correctional Facility (Annandale)

title: List of New Jersey state prisons