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Production–possibility frontier

In microeconomics, a production–possibility frontier (PPF), production possibility curve (PPC), or production possibility boundary (PPB) is a graphical representation showing all the possible options of output for two goods that can be produced using all factors of production, where the given resources are fully and efficiently utilized per unit time. A PPF illustrates several economic concepts, such as allocative efficiency, economies of scale, opportunity cost (or marginal rate of transformation), productive efficiency, and scarcity of resources (the fundamental economic problem that all societies face).

This tradeoff is usually considered for an economy, but also applies to each individual, household, and economic organization. One good can only be produced by diverting resources from other goods, and so by producing less of them.

Graphically bounding the production set for fixed input quantities, the PPF curve shows the maximum possible production level of one commodity for any given production level of the other, given the existing state of technology. By doing so, it defines productive efficiency in the context of that production set: a point on the frontier indicates efficient use of the available inputs (such as points B, D and C in the graph), a point beneath the curve (such as A) indicates inefficiency, and a point beyond the curve (such as X) indicates impossibility.

PPFs are normally drawn as bulging upwards or outwards from the origin ("concave" when viewed from the origin), but they can be represented as bulging downward (inwards) or linear (straight), depending on a number of assumptions.

An outward shift of the PPC results from growth of the availability of inputs, such as physical capital or labour, or from technological progress in knowledge of how to transform inputs into outputs. Such a shift reflects, for instance, economic growth of an economy already operating at its full productivity (on the PPF), which means that more of both outputs can now be produced during the specified period of time without sacrificing the output of either good. Conversely, the PPF will shift inward if the labour force shrinks, the supply of raw materials is depleted, or a natural disaster decreases the stock of physical capital.

However, most economic contractions reflect not that less can be produced but that the economy has started operating below the frontier, as typically, both labour and physical capital are underemployed, remaining therefore idle.

In microeconomics, the PPF shows the options open to an individual, household, or firm in a two-good world. By definition, each point on the curve is productively efficient, but, given the nature of market demand, some points will be more profitable than others. Equilibrium for a firm will be the combination of outputs on the PPF that is most profitable.

From a macroeconomic perspective, the PPF illustrates the production possibilities available to a nation or economy during a given period of time for broad categories of output. It is traditionally used to show the movement between committing all funds to consumption on the y-axis versus investment on the x-axis. However, an economy may achieve productive efficiency without necessarily being allocatively efficient. Market failure (such as imperfect competition or externalities) and some institutions of social decision-making (such as government and tradition) may lead to the wrong combination of goods being produced (hence the wrong mix of resources being allocated between producing the two goods) compared to what consumers would prefer, given what is feasible on the PPF.

Position
The two main determinants of the position of the PPF at any given time are the state of technology and management expertise (which are reflected in the available production functions) and the available quantities of factors of production (materials, direct labor, and factory overhead).

Only points on or within a PPF are actually possible to achieve in the short run. In the long run, if technology improves or if the supply of factors of production increases, the economy's capacity to produce both goods increases; if this potential is realized, economic growth occurs. That increase is shown by a shift of the production-possibility frontier to the right. Conversely, a natural, military or ecological disaster might move the PPF to the left in response to a reduction in an economy's productive capability. Thus all points on or within the curve are part of the production set: combinations of goods that the economy could potentially produce.

If the two production goods depicted are capital investment (to increase future production possibilities) and current consumption goods, the higher the investment this year, the more the PPF would shift out in following years. Shifts of the curve can represent how technological progress that favors production possibilities of one good, say guns, more than the other shifts the PPF outwards more along the favored good's axis, "biasing" production possibilities in that direction. Similarly, if one good makes more use of say capital and if capital grows faster than other factors, growth possibilities might be biased in favor of the capital-intensive good. Also a shift in the PPF could depict that there's an improvement in technology or good use of capital goods.

Efficiency

Production-Possibility Frontier delineates the maximum amount/quantities of outputs (goods/services) an economy can achieve, given fixed resources (factors of production) and fixed technological progress.

Points that are unattainable can be achieved through external trade and economic growth. Examples include importations of resources and technology, and the increase in the production of goods and services.
 * Points that lie either on or below the production possibilities frontier/curve are possible/attainable: the quantities can be produced with currently available resources and technology.
 * Points that lie above the production possibilities frontier/curve are not possible/unattainable because the quantities cannot be produced using currently available resources and technology.
 * Points that lie strictly below the frontier/curve are inefficient, because the economy can produce more of at least one good without sacrificing the production of any other good, with existing resources and technology.
 * Points that lie on the frontier/curve are efficient.

Specifically, at all points on the frontier, the economy achieves productive efficiency: no more output of any good can be achieved from the given inputs without sacrificing output of some good.

Some productive efficient points are Pareto efficient: impossible to find any trade that will make no consumer worse off. Pareto efficiency is achieved when the marginal rate of transformation (slope of the frontier/opportunity cost of goods) is equal to all consumers' marginal rate of substitution.

Similarly, not all Pareto efficient points on the frontier are Allocative efficient. Allocative efficient is only achieved when the economy produces at quantities that match societal preference.

A PPF typically takes the form of the curve illustrated above. An economy that is operating on the PPF is said to be efficient, meaning that it would be impossible to produce more of one good without decreasing production of the other good. In contrast, if the economy is operating below the curve, it is said to be operating inefficiently because it could reallocate resources in order to produce more of both goods or some resources such as labor or capital are sitting idle and could be fully employed to produce more of both goods.

For example, if one assumes that the economy's available quantities of factors of production do not change over time and that technological progress does not occur, if the economy is operating on the PPF, production of guns would need to be sacrificed to produce more butter. If production is efficient, the economy can choose between combinations (points) on the PPF: B if guns are of interest, C if more butter is needed, D if an equal mix of butter and guns is required.

In the PPF, all points on the curve are points of maximum productive efficiency (no more output of any good can be achieved from the given inputs without sacrificing output of some good); all points inside the frontier (such as A) can be produced but are productively inefficient; all points outside the curve (such as X) cannot be produced with the given, existing resources. Not all points on the curve are Pareto efficient, however; only in the case where the marginal rate of transformation is equal to all consumers' marginal rate of substitution and hence equal to the ratio of prices will it be impossible to find any trade that will make no consumer worse off.

Any point that lies either on the production possibilities curve or to the left of it is said to be an attainable point: it can be produced with currently available resources. Points that lie to the right of the production possibilities curve are said to be unattainable because they cannot be produced using currently available resources. Points that lie strictly to the left of the curve are said to be inefficient, because existing resources would allow for production of more of at least one good without sacrificing the production of any other good. An efficient point is one that lies on the production possibilities curve. At any such point, more of one good can be produced only by producing less of the other.

For an extensive discussion of various types of efficiency measures ( Farrell, Hyperbolic, Directional, Cost, Revenue, Profit, Additive, etc.) and their relationships, see Sickles and Zelenyuk (2019, Chapter 3).

Marginal rate of transformation
The slope of the production–possibility frontier (PPF) at any given point is called the marginal rate of transformation (MRT). The slope defines the rate at which production of one good can be redirected (by reallocation of productive resources) into production of the other. It is also called the (marginal) "opportunity cost" of a commodity, that is, it is the opportunity cost of X in terms of Y at the margin. It measures how much of good Y is given up for one more unit of good X or vice versa. The shape of a PPF is commonly drawn as concave to the origin to represent increasing opportunity cost with increased output of a good. Thus, MRT increases in absolute size as one moves from the top left of the PPF to the bottom right of the PPF.

The marginal rate of transformation can be expressed in terms of either commodity. The marginal opportunity costs of guns in terms of butter is simply the reciprocal of the marginal opportunity cost of butter in terms of guns. If, for example, the (absolute) slope at point BB in the diagram is equal to 2, to produce one more packet of butter, the production of 2 guns must be sacrificed. If at AA, the marginal opportunity cost of butter in terms of guns is equal to 0.25, the sacrifice of one gun could produce four packets of butter, and the opportunity cost of guns in terms of butter is 4.

Shape
The production-possibility frontier can be constructed from the contract curve in an Edgeworth production box diagram of factor intensity. The example used above (which demonstrates increasing opportunity costs, with a curve concave to the origin) is the most common form of PPF. It represents a disparity, in the factor intensities and technologies of the two production sectors. That is, as an economy specializes more and more into one product (such as moving from point B to point D), the opportunity cost of producing that product increases, because we are using more and more resources that are less efficient in producing it. With increasing production of butter, workers from the gun industry will move to it. At first, the least qualified (or most general) gun workers will be transferred into making more butter, and moving these workers has little impact on the opportunity cost of increasing butter production: the loss in gun production will be small. However, the cost of producing successive units of butter will increase as resources that are more and more specialized in gun production are moved into the butter industry.

If opportunity costs are constant, a straight-line (linear) PPF is produced. This case reflects a situation where resources are not specialised and can be substituted for each other with no added cost. Products requiring similar resources (bread and pastry, for instance) will have an almost straight PPF and so almost constant opportunity costs. More specifically, with constant returns to scale, there are two opportunities for a linear PPF: if there was only one factor of production to consider or if the factor intensity ratios in the two sectors were constant at all points on the production-possibilities curve. With varying returns to scale, however, it may not be entirely linear in either case.

With economies of scale, the PPF would curve inward, with the opportunity cost of one good falling as more of it is produced. Specialization in producing successive units of a good determines its opportunity cost (say from mass production methods or specialization of labor).

Opportunity cost

From a starting point on the frontier, if there is no increase in productive resources, increasing the production of a first good entails decreasing the production of a second, because resources must be transferred to the first and away from the second. Points along the curve describe the tradeoff between the goods. The sacrifice in the production of the second good is called the opportunity cost (because increasing production of the first good entails losing the opportunity to produce some amount of the second). Opportunity cost is measured in the number of units of the second good forgone for one or more units of the first good.

In the context of a PPF, opportunity cost is directly related to the shape of the curve (see below). If the shape of the PPF curve is a straight-line, the opportunity cost is constant as the production of different goods is changing. But, opportunity cost usually will vary depending on the start and end points. In Figure 7, producing 10 more packets of butter, at a low level of butter production, costs the loss of 5 guns (shown as a movement from A to B). At point C, the economy is already close to its maximum potential butter output. To produce 10 more packets of butter, 50 guns must be sacrificed (as with a movement from C to D). The ratio of gains to losses is determined by the ''marginal rate of transformation.'

title: Production–possibility frontier


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CDU

CDU may refer to:

Education

 * Catholic Distance University, a private online Roman Catholic university in Charles Town, West Virginia.
 * Cebu Doctors' University, a medical university in the Philippines
 * Charles Darwin University, a university in Darwin, Australia
 * Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science, a university in Willowbrook, California, USA
 * Chengdu University, a university in Chengdu, Sichuan, China

Organizations

 * CentrumDemokraternes Ungdom, a youth organization in Denmark
 * Country Development Unit, a non-governmental organization in Afghanistan

Political parties

 * Cameroon Democratic Union, a political party in Cameroon
 * Caribbean Democrat Union, an alliance of centre-right political parties in the Caribbean
 * Christian Democratic Union of Germany, Christlich Demokratische Union, a German political party
 * CDU/CSU, political alliance of the CDU and Christian Social Union parties in Germany
 * Christian Democratic Union (East Germany), former political party in East Germany
 * Christian Democratic Union (Netherlands), former political party in the Netherlands
 * Christian Democratic Union (Ukraine), a political party in Ukraine
 * Croatian Democratic Union, a conservative political party in Croatia led by Andrej Plenković
 * United Christian Democrats, Cristiani Democratici Uniti, former Italian political party
 * Unitary Democratic Coalition, Coligação Democrática Unitária, leftist political coalition in Portugal
 * United Democratic Centre, Centro Democrático Unido, a political party in El Salvador

Technology

 * Control display unit, a device used in remote operated gasfields
 * Control display unit, a device used to access an aircraft Flight Management Computer
 * Counter display unit, a retail display unit normally sited on a shop counter to encourage consumer impulse purchases
 * Crude oil distillation unit, a processing unit in an oil refinery

Other uses

 * Cam and Dursley railway station, a station in Gloucestershire, England with code CDU
 * Clinical Decisions Unit, a short-stay department in some hospitals
 * Camden Airport (New South Wales), IATA airport code "CDU"

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: CDU


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Damavand, Iran

Damavand is a city in the Central District of Damavand County, Tehran province, Iran, serving as capital of both the county and the district.

Population
At the time of the 2006 National Census, the city's population was 36,433 in 10,279 households. The following census in 2011 counted 37,315 people in 11,455 households. The 2016 census measured the population of the city as 48,380 people in 15,267 households.

Overview
Damavand is an ancient and historic city. The name Damavand appears in Sassanid texts (as Dunbawand), and Parthian remains have been found there. The city fell to Arab Muslim invaders in 651 CE. It is close to Iran's tallest peak Mount Damavand, which Ferdowsi mentions abundantly in the Shahnameh. The city has relatively cool weather year-round.

Climate
Damavand has a humid continental climate with hot summers, very cold snowy winters and cool rainy springs and autumns (Köppen: Dsa). The average annual temperature is 9.6°C in Damavand.

Economy
Damavand is an agricultural city and due to its streams, rivers, springs and temperate climate, it has numerous gardens and fields. An important part of the city's economy is provided by the export of tree products. Apples, pears, cherries, apricots, walnuts, apricots, tomatoes, wheat, potatoes, beans and cucumbers are some of the products of this city, some of which, like apples and pears, are famous and distinguished in terms of type. In recent years, beekeeping has become one of the sources of income for the people of this city and Damavand honey competes with the best honey in Iran in terms of quality and constitutes a significant part of the city's exports. New style livestock has been developed in Damavand for several years and the obtained products are exported to Tehran in addition to meeting the needs of the region.

Transportation
Damavand can be reached by road from Firuzkuh  via Gilavand  and from Haraz road, via Mosha.

Historical attractions
Damavand contains 37 historical tombs (Imamzadeh), 27 castle ruins, 23 traditional houses of architectural significance, 18 traditional bath houses, 6 caves, 5 historical bridges, 3 historical mosques, and 3 caravanserais.

The main landmarks are the Friday Mosque (15th century) and the  Sheikh Shebli Mausoleum and Tower, dating to the Seljuq era.

title: Damavand, Iran


text:
Posting style

When a message is replied to in e-mail, Internet forums, or Usenet, the original can often be included, or "quoted", in a variety of different posting styles.

The main options are interleaved posting (also called inline replying, in which the different parts of the reply follow the relevant parts of the original post), bottom-posting (in which the reply follows the quote) or top-posting (in which the reply precedes the quoted original message). For each of those options, there is also the issue of whether trimming of the original text is allowed, required, or preferred.

For a long time the traditional style was to post the answer below as much of the quoted original as was necessary to understand the reply (bottom or inline). Many years later, when email became widespread in business communication, it became a widespread practice to reply above the entire original and leave it (supposedly untouched) below the reply.

While each online community differs on which styles are appropriate or acceptable, within some communities the use of the "wrong" method risks being seen as a breach of netiquette, and can provoke vehement response from community regulars.

Quoting previous messages
In an e-mail reply, it is sometimes appropriate to include a full or partial copy of the original message that is being replied to; due to the asynchronous nature of Internet communication, people often engage in many conversations at the same time, and email responses may be received long after the original message was sent. For these reasons, the original poster may not be aware of what message a post is intended to be a response to, and providing context is helpful. Many email reading programs (mail user agents) encourage this behaviour by automatically including a copy of the original message in the reply editing window.

Quoted text from previous messages is usually distinguished in some way from the new (reply) text. Often, the two parts are given different indentation. In the example below, the first paragraph is the original message, the second is the reply:

I can't believe you would say something like this. All these words are terrible. They're hurtful and they make no sense. -- DocEvil Much like your posting. -- Jim

Alternatively, special delimiter lines may be used:

Hey Joe, Paris is in France, not England. --Mary --- original message --- You just had a call from England, from Paris I think. --Joe --- end of original message ---

For extra clarity, blank lines may also be inserted between the two parts. When using an email medium that supports text markup (such as HTML or RTF), the previous text may be indicated by a distinctive font and/or color:

The meeting has been postponed to next Friday. --Mary Has the deadline for the report been moved too? --Joe

Quoted line prefix

A common convention in plain-text email is to prefix each line of the quoted text with a distinctive character or string. As of 2020 (and for many years previously), the greater-than sign (" ", the canonical prefix) is almost universally used; but other characters such as the ASCII vertical bar character (" ") have been used as well, sometimes with one or more spaces inserted before or after the quoted text marker.

There is no standard declaring one quote-prefix to be "right" and others to be "wrong", but some standards depend on conventional quoting. The "never issued" and obsolete "son-of-1036" draft RFC 1849 recommends " " as the quote-prefix; RFC 3676 depends on it and considers " " and " " to be semantically different. That is, " " has a quote-depth of two, while " " has a quote-depth of one, quoting a line starting with ">". Most e-mail clients treat the two sequences as equivalent, however.

The convention of quoting was common in Usenet newsgroups by 1990, and is supported by many popular email interfaces, either by default or as a user-settable option. In Microsoft Outlook, for instance, this behavior is controlled by an option labeled "Prefix each line of the original". Besides inserting markers automatically in quoted lines, some interfaces assume that a line starting with a " " character or similar is quoted text, and will automatically display it in a distinctive font or color:

> How is the report coming? --Mary It will be on your desk by noon. --Joe

Sometimes the insertion of a quoted line marker will cause one original line to be folded as two lines in the reply, and the continuation line may not have the proper marker. To avoid ambiguity in such cases, one may consider inserting blank lines after each block of quoted text:

>The board is asking again for the sales data. We really must provide > them with some figures. How is the report coming? --Mary It will be on your desk by noon. --Joe

Quoted line markers are most commonly used in plain-text messages. In HTML messages, other devices may be used to indicate quoted text, such as HTML indentation elements like  or.

Reply level indication
A message often includes text from two or more messages exchanged in previous rounds of a long discussion. If an additional quotation marker is inserted at every round, without removing any existing markers, the number of markers at the beginning of each line will show the "level" of the reply, that is, how many rounds have occurred since that line was written. These accumulated markers are usually sufficient to distinguish the parts that came from each message. Some email interfaces recognize this convention and automatically render each level in a different color. For example:

>>> How is the report coming? --Mary >> >> It will be on your desk by noon. --Joe > > Sorry Joe, I need it by 11:00 at the latest. --Mary OK, but it will be missing this month's figures. --Joe

If the discussion is between two parties only, then an even number of markers (including zero) identifies text written by the sender, while an odd number of markers identifies text by the recipient. (In the above example even numbers are Joe's text and odd numbers are Mary's.)

No problem. 6pm it is then. --Jim At 10.01am Wednesday, Danny wrote: > Whoa! I need to email a report at 5:30. > Could you push it back an hour? --Danny > > At 9.40am Wednesday, Jim wrote: > >> I'm going to suspend the mail service for approx. thirty >> minutes tonight, starting at 5pm. --Jim

In HTML messages,  or   elements may be nested to achieve the same effect.

Attribution lines
Quoted material is often preceded by an attribution line that identifies its author. These lines are particularly helpful in discussions between multiple parties. For example:

Nancy wrote: > Peter wrote: >> When will we have the performance figures? > The tests will be completed next week. Peter wrote: > Mary wrote: >> We should meet today to discuss the marketing strategy. > Better wait, we do not have the West Coast sales data yet. I agree with Peter. We need the sales data and also Nancy's performance figures. Let's meet next Friday after lunch.

This reply quotes two messages, one by Nancy (itself a reply to Peter) and one by Peter (itself a reply to Mary).

Many mail agents will add these attribution lines automatically to the top of the quoted material. Note that a newly added attribution line should not get the quotation marker, since it is not part of the quoted text; so that the level indicator of the attribution line is always one less than the corresponding text. Doing otherwise may confuse the reader and also e-mail interfaces that choose the text color according to the number of leading markers.

Instead of an attribution line, one may indicate the author by a comment in brackets, at the beginning of the quotation:

>> [Peter:] When will we have the performance figures? > [Nancy:] The tests will be completed next week. >> [Mary:] We should meet today to discuss the marketing strategy. > [Peter:] Better wait, we do not have the West Coast sales data yet. I agree with Peter. We need the sales data and Nancy's performance figures. Let's meet next Friday after lunch.

Another alternative, used in Fidonet and some mail user agents, is to place the initials of the author before the quoting marker. This may be used with or without attribution lines:

Nancy wrote: N> Peter wrote: P>> When will we have the performance figures? N> The tests will be completed next week. Peter wrote: P> Mary wrote: M>> We should meet today to discuss the marketing strategy. P> Better wait, we do not have the West Coast sales data yet. I agree with Peter. We need the sales data and also Nancy's performance figures. Let's meet next Friday after lunch.

Trimming and reformatting
When replying to long discussions, particularly in newsgroup discussions, quoted text from the original message is often trimmed so as to leave only the parts that are relevant to the reply—or only a reminder thereof. This practice is sometimes called "trim-posting" or "edited posting", and is recommended by some manuals of posting etiquette.

Sometimes an indicator of deleted text is given, usually in the form of a square bracketed tag as: "[snipped]", "[trimmed]", or simply "[...]". The text that is retained may be edited to some extent, e.g. by re-folding the lines. For example, if the original message was

This is a reminder that the project meeting which was canceled last week will be held today in the 3rd floor conference room at 14:30 sharp. Everybody must attend. --Mary

the reply may be or even just Deleted text may also be replaced by a summary in brackets: Automatically included text (such as signature blocks, free e-mail service ads, and corporate disclaimers) are more likely to be deleted, usually without ellipses, than manually written text. Some posters may delete any parts of the original message that they are not replying to. Some posters delete only parts dealing with issues that they see as "closed", and leave any parts that, in their opinion, deserve further discussion or will be replied to in a later message.

How much to trim
Some style guides recommend that, as a general rule, quoted material in replies should be trimmed or summarized as much as possible, keeping only the parts that are necessary to make the readers understand the replies. That of course depends on how much the readers can be assumed to know about the discussion. For personal e-mail, in particular, the subject line is often sufficient, and no quoting is necessary; unless one is replying to only some points of a long message.

In particular, when replying to a message that already included quoted text, one should consider whether that quoted material is still relevant. For example:

>> [Mary:] Shall we meet this afternoon to discuss the >> marketing strategy? > > [Peter:] Perhaps, if we can get all the information we need. > Do we have the West Coast sales data yet? The LA office just sent them in. Joe

The quote from Mary's message is relevant to Peter's reply, but not to Joe's reply. The latter could have been trimmed to On the other hand, in some situations, any trimming or editing of the original message may be inappropriate. For example, if the reply is being copied to a third person who did not see the original message, it may be advisable to quote it in full; otherwise the trimmed message may be misinterpreted by the new recipient, for lack of context.

Also, when replying to a customer or supplier, it may be advisable to quote the original message in its entirety, in case the other party somehow failed to keep a copy of it.

Interleaved style
In the interleaved reply style (also called "inline reply", "interlined reply", "point-by-point rebuttal", or, sometimes, "bottom posting"), the original message is broken into two or more sections, each followed by a specific reply or comment. A reply in inline style may also include some top-posted or bottom-posted comments that apply to the whole reply message, rather than to a specific point. For example:

I have been following the discussion about the new product line. Here are my thoughts. Joe wrote: > Will our prices be competitive? That may not be a problem for now, we still have a quality edge. > We do not have enough trained people on the West Coast. We have many > new employees but they do not know our products yet. We can bring them here for a crash training course. Mary wrote: > We still do not have a clear marketing plan. Peter, would you take charge of that? Let me know if you need help. On the whole, I am quite optimistic. It looks like we will be shipping the basic system before the end of this quarter. Nancy

The interleaved reply style can also be combined with top-posting: selected points are quoted and replied to, as above, and then a full copy of the original message is appended.

> Can you present your report an hour later? Yes I can. The summary will be sent no later than 5pm. Jim At 10.01am Wednesday, Danny wrote: >> 2.00pm: Present report > Jim, I have a meeting at that time. Can you present your report an hour later? > >> 4.30pm: Send out summary of feedback > Also if you do the above, this may need to happen later too. > Danny > > At 9.40am Wednesday, Jim wrote: >> My schedule for today will be: >> 10.00am: Gather data for report >> 2.00pm: Present report to team >> 4.30pm: Send out summary of feedback >> Jim

Interleaving was the predominant reply style in the Usenet discussion lists, years before the existence of the WWW and the spread of e-mail and the Internet outside the academic community.

Interleaving was also common originally in e-mail, because many internet users had been exposed to Usenet newsgroups and other Internet forums, where it is still used. The style became less common for email after the opening of the internet to commercial and non-academic personal use. One possible reason is the large number of casual e-mail users that entered the scene at that time. Another possible reason is the inadequate support provided by the reply function of some webmail readers, which either do not automatically insert a copy of the original message into the reply, or do so without any quoting prefix level indicators. Finally, most forums, wiki discussion pages, and blogs (such as Slashdot) essentially impose the bottom-post format, by displaying all recent messages in chronological order.. Interleaving continues to be used on technical mailing lists where clarity within complex threads is important..

Top-posting
In top-posting style, the original message is included verbatim, with the reply above it. It is sometimes referred to by the acronym TOFU ("text over, fullquote under"). It has also been colloquially referred to as Jeopardy! reply style: as in the game show's signature clue/response format, the answers precede the question.

Example: No problem. 6pm it is then. Jim Original Message From: Danny  Sent: Tuesday, October 16, 2007 10:01 AM To: Jim  Subject: RE: Job Whoa! Hold on. I have a job scheduled at 5:30 which mails out a report to key tech staff. Could you please push it back an hour? Danny Original Message From: Jim  Sent: Tuesday, October 16, 2007 9:40 AM To: Danny  Subject: Job I'm going to suspend the mail service for approx. thirty minutes tonight, starting at 5pm, to install some updates and important fixes. Jim

Top-posting preserves an apparently unmodified transcript of a branch in the conversation. Often all replies line up in a single branch of a conversation. The top of the text shows the latest replies. This appears to be advantageous for business correspondence, where an e-mail thread can dupe others into believing it is an "official" record.

By contrast, excessive indentation of interleaved and bottom posting may turn difficult to interpret. If the participants have different stature such as manager vs. employee or consultant vs. client, one person's cutting apart another person's words without the full context may look impolite or cause misunderstanding.

In the earlier days of Usenet informal discussions where everyone was an equal encouraged bottom-posting. Until the mid-1990s, posts in a net.newcomers newsgroup insisted on interleaving replies. Usenet comp.lang hierarchy, especially comp.lang.c and comp.lang.c++ insisted on the same as of the 2010s. The alt hierarchy tolerated top-posting. Newer online participants, especially those with limited experience of Usenet, tend to be less sensitive to arguments about posting style.

Top-posting can be problematic on mailing lists with ongoing discussions which eventually require someone to act on the top-posted material. For example, top-posting "Those changes look ok to me, go ahead and make them" can be very inconvenient, as readers may need to read through a long email trail to know which changes the top-poster is referring to. Inter-leaving the text directly below the text describing the changes is much more convenient in these cases.

Users of mobile devices, like smartphones, are encouraged to use top-posting because the devices may only download the beginning of a message for viewing. The rest of the message is only retrieved when needed, which takes additional download time. Putting the relevant content at the beginning of the message requires less bandwidth, less time, and less scrolling for the user.

Top-posting is a natural consequence of the behavior of the "reply" function in many current e-mail readers, such as Microsoft Outlook, Gmail, and others. By default, these programs insert into the reply message a copy of the original message (without headers and often without any extra indentation or quotation markers), and position the editing cursor above it. Moreover, a bug present on most flavours of Microsoft Outlook caused the quotation markers to be lost when replying in plain text to a message that was originally sent in HTML/RTF. For these and possibly other reasons, many users seem to accept top-posting as the "standard" reply style.

Partially because of Microsoft's influence, top-posting is very common on mailing lists and in personal e-mail.

Top-posting has always been the standard format for forwarding a message to a third party, in which case the comments at the top (if any) are a "cover note" for the recipient.

Bottom-posting
In the "bottom-posting" style, the reply is appended to a full or partial copy of the original message. The name bottom-posting is sometimes used for inline-style replies, and indeed the two formats are the same when only one point is being replied to.

At 10.01am Wednesday, Danny wrote: > At 9.40am Wednesday, Jim wrote: >> I'm going to suspend the mail service for approx. thirty >> minutes tonight, starting at 5pm, to install some updates >> and important fixes. > Whoa! Hold on. I have a job scheduled at 5:30 which mails out > a report to key tech staff. Could you push it back an hour? > > By the way, which systems will be updated? I had some network > problems after last week's update. Will I have to reboot? No problems. 6pm it is then. Basically, I will update our WWW server and firewall. No, you won't have to reboot.

Bottom-posting, like inline replies, encourages posters to trim the original message as much as possible, so that readers are not forced to scroll past irrelevant text, or text that they have already seen in the original message:

At 10.01am Wednesday, Danny wrote: > Could you push it back an hour? > [...] which systems will be updated? > [...] Will I have to reboot? No problems. 6pm it is then. Basically, I will update our WWW server and firewall. No, you won't have to reboot.

Choosing the proper posting style
The choice between interleaved, top and bottom posting generally depends on the forum and on the nature of the message. Some forums (such as personal e-mail) are quite tolerant, in which case the proper style is dictated by taste and effectiveness. In any case one should consider whether the reply will be easily read by the intended recipient(s). Their e-mail interfaces may have different rules for handling quoted line markers and long lines, so a reply that looks readable in one's screen may be jumbled and incorrectly colored on theirs. Blank lines and judicious trimming of the original text may help avoid ambiguity.

The interleaved reply style can require more work in terms of labeling lines, but possibly less work in establishing the context of each reply line. It also keeps the quotes and their replies close to each other and in logical reading order, and encourages trimming of the quoted material to the bare minimum. This style makes it easier for readers to identify the points of the original message that are being replied to; in particular, whether the reply misunderstood or ignored some point of the original text. It also gives the sender freedom to arrange the quoted parts in any order, and to provide a single comment to quotations from two or more separate messages, even if these did not include each other.

Top- and bottom-posting are sometimes compared to traditional written correspondence in that the response is a single continuous text, and the whole original is appended only to clarify which letter is being replied to. Customer service e-mail practices, in particular, often require that all points be addressed in a clear manner without quoting, while the original e-mail message may be included as an attachment. Including the whole original message may be necessary also when a new correspondent is included in an ongoing discussion. Especially in business correspondence, an entire message thread may need to be forwarded to a third party for handling or discussion. On the other hand, in environments where the entire discussion is accessible to new readers (such as newsgroups or online forums), full inclusion of previous messages is inappropriate; if quoting is necessary, the interleaved style is probably best.

If the original message is to be quoted in full, for any reason, bottom-posting is usually the most appropriate format—because it preserves the logical order of the replies and is consistent with the Western reading direction from top to bottom.

It is not uncommon during discussions concerning top-posting vs. bottom-posting to hear quotes from "Netiquette Guidelines (RFC 1855)". While many RFCs are vetted and approved though a committee process, some RFCs, such as RFC 1855, are just "Informational" and in reality, sometimes just personal opinions. (Additional information on "Informational" RFCs can be found in RFC 2026, under "4.2.2 Informational" and "4.2.3  Procedures for Experimental and Informational RFCs".) The nature of RFC 1855 should be considered while reading the following discussion.

According to RFC 1855, a message can begin with an abbreviated summary; i.e. a post can begin with a paraphrasing instead of quoting selectively. Specifically, it says:

"If you are sending a reply to a message or a posting be sure you summarize the original at the top of the message, or include just enough text of the original to give a context. This will make sure readers understand when they start to read your response. Since NetNews, especially, is proliferated by distributing the postings from one host to another, it is possible to see a response to a message before seeing the original. Giving context helps everyone. But do not include the entire original!"

Interleaved reply combined with top-posting combines the advantages of both styles. However this also results in some portions of the original message being quoted twice, which takes up extra space and may confuse the reader.

In forwarding it is sometimes preferred to include the entire original message (including all headers) as a MIME attachment, while in top-posted replies these are often trimmed or replaced by an attribution line. An untrimmed quoted message is a weaker form of transcript, as key pieces of meta information are destroyed. (This is why an ISP's Postmaster will typically insist on a forwarded copy of any problematic e-mail, rather than a quote.) These forwarded messages are displayed in the same way as top-posting in some mail clients. Top-posting is viewed as seriously destructive to mailing-list digests, where multiple levels of top-posting are difficult to skip. The worst case would be top-posting while including an entire digest as the original message.

Some believe that "top-posting" is appropriate for interpersonal e-mail, but inline posting should always be applied to threaded discussions such as newsgroups.

This example is occasionally used in mailing lists to mock and discourage top-posting:

Because it messes up the order in which people normally read text. Why is top-posting such a bad thing? Top-posting. What is the most annoying thing in e-mail?

Bottom-posting preserves the logical order of the replies and is consistent with the Western reading direction from top to bottom.

The major argument against bottom-posting is that scrolling down through a post to find a reply is inconvenient, especially for short replies to long messages, and many inexperienced computer users may not know that they need to scroll down to find a reply to their query. When sending an untrimmed bottom-posted message, one might indicate inline replies with a notice at the top such as "I have replied below." However, as many modern mail programs are capable of displaying different levels of quotation with different colors (as seen in the bottom-posting example on this page), this is not so much of an issue any more. Another method to indicate that there is more reply text still to come is to always end your text with a signature line. Then a reader who is familiar with your reply style will know to continue to read until your signature line appears. This method is particularly polite and useful when using the inline reply method, since it tells the reader that your response is complete at the point where your signature line appears.

Quoting support in popular mail clients
This widespread policy in business communication made bottom and inline posting so unknown among most users that some of the most popular email programs no longer support the traditional posting style. For example, Microsoft Outlook (when replying to an HTML message), AOL, and Yahoo! make it difficult or impossible to indicate which part of a message is the quoted original or do not let users insert comments between parts of the original. When replying to a plain text message with Microsoft Outlook when configured to plain text mode however, Outlook properly uses Quoted line markers allowing for easy insertion of comments between parts of the original. Unfortunately however, the default mode is HTML and few users bother to change the default settings.

Yahoo! does not have the option "Quote the text of the original message" in Mail Classic, but this setting is retained after turning it on in All-New Mail and then switching back to Mail Classic. Inline replying is broken in Microsoft Outlook, which despite choosing the setting to prefix each line of the original with the "greater-than" character (>) produces a blue line that makes answers inserted between quotes of an HTML email look like part of the original. The workarounds are to use the setting "read all standard mail in plain text", or to use the "Edit Message" option on the original email and convert it to plain text before replying (then discard the edited version).

title: Posting style


text:
Cibo Matto

Cibo Matto (, Italian for "crazy food") was an American alternative rock band formed by Yuka Honda and Miho Hatori in New York City in 1994. Their first album, Viva! La Woman (1996), had lyrics primarily concerned with food. For their second album, Stereo Type A (1999), they expanded into broader subject matter and recruited Sean Lennon, Timo Ellis, and Duma Love.

Honda and Hatori are Japanese expatriates. Their first album sold 40,000 copies in Japan, but was more successful in the U.S., with over 74,000 copies sold. Over time, their following in Japan grew, which resulted in their signing to Japanese record label Commmons in 2014.

After an almost decade-long hiatus, Honda and Hatori reunited in 2011, playing a series of concerts and recording new material. They released their third and final studio album, Hotel Valentine, in 2014. It reached number 168 on the Billboard 200. Cibo Matto announced their split in December 2017.

Viva! La Woman: 1994–1996
After working together in the noise rock band Leitoh Lychee, Miho Hatori and Yuka Honda formed Cibo Matto in 1994 with Honda as the instrumentalist and Hatori as the vocalist (although occasionally Honda sang and Hatori contributed instrumentally). In 1995, Cibo Matto released a self titled EP on El Diablo Records. The EP caught the attention of Warner Bros. Records, which signed Cibo Matto later in the year. Through Warner Bros., the duo released its first major album, Viva! La Woman. Cibo Matto is an Italian phrase that translates to "Crazy Food" and many of the tracks from ''Viva! La Woman'', which was produced by Mitchell Froom, featured lyrics related to food, including "Know Your Chicken", "Apple", and "Birthday Cake". The album's first single, "Sugar Water", was a modest college radio and dance hit. The song was accompanied by an innovative split screen music video that was directed by Michel Gondry, where each side showed the same footage—one side going forward, and one backward, meeting mid-song. After the music videos for "Know Your Chicken" and "Sugar Water" enjoyed success on MTV, Cibo Matto made appearances on various television shows such as Oddville, Viva Variety, and Buffy the Vampire Slayer. "Birthday Cake" was heavily featured in the video game Jet Set Radio Future. In 1996, Cibo Matto contributed "Águas De Março (Waters of March)" to the AIDS benefit album Silencio=Muerte: Red Hot + Latin, which was produced by the Red Hot Organization.

Stereo Type A: 1997–2001
In 1997, Cibo Matto released a new EP entitled Super Relax, which would complete the line-up by introducing new members Sean Lennon and Timo Ellis with Duma Love joining soon thereafter. In 1998 Lennon released his debut solo album Into the Sun, which featured Hatori ("Into the Sun", "Sean's Theme") and Ellis ("Mystery Juice", "Home", "Spaceship"). Into the Sun was produced and inspired by Honda (whom Lennon was dating at the time). Honda, Hatori, Ellis and Love appeared in the closing scene of the video for Lennon's single "Home". Cibo Matto went on to release its second album Stereo Type A in 1999. Although it was a departure from the familiar sound of ''Viva! La Woman, Stereo Type A'' was well received by music critics. That year the band performed in Toronto with Luscious Jackson at The Opera House in Toronto.

Hiatus: 2002–2010
Cibo Matto continued to play live and tour until disbanding in 2002. Honda said: "We felt the need to move to the next step. It was a healthy decision, though it was sad at the same time. Things just need to grow out of things sometimes." All of the members of Cibo Matto went on to release solo material. A compilation entitled Pom Pom: The Essential Cibo Matto was released in 2007.

Reunion and Hotel Valentine: 2011–2017
Cibo Matto announced its reunion on March 18, 2011, to perform as part of a benefit concert for victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. The concert, which took place on March 27 at Columbia University in New York City, also included Yoko Ono, John Zorn, Sonic Youth, and Mike Patton. Following the success of this show, a second was added, this time featuring the Plastic Ono Band and Patti Smith along with Cibo Matto.

The group appeared at the Hollywood Bowl on June 26, 2011, for another benefit, alongside Yellow Magic Orchestra.

On May 16, 2011, Cibo Matto announced its US reunion tour titled "Yeah, Basically Cibo Matto" with a tour Web site and promotional video. During the concerts, the band reportedly spoke about a new studio album that was to be released in 2012. On July 17, 2012, the band announced it would be opening for Wilco at one of its shows. The band included Yuko Araki on drums during this time.

On June 15, 2013, the band played the Meltdown Festival in London and announced that its new album would be released in 2014. While the performance also featured Yoko Ono on "Know Your Chicken", the group also played new songs titled "MFN", "Check In", and "Tenth Floor Ghost Girl". On December 11, Pitchfork reported that Hotel Valentine would be released on February 14, 2014 (Valentine's Day), and that Cibo Matto had shared its music video for "MFN". Hotel Valentine peaked at number 168 on the Billboard 200.

In 2014, the band signed with Japanese label Commmons. This new relationship resulted in several live dates in Japan including Summer Sonic Festival 2014 and shows at Blue Note Jazz Club Nagoya and Blue Note Jazz Club Tokyo.

In September 2014, Cibo Matto released a teaser video announcing their Fall Flavor Tour and a new music video. Rioux opened for multiple US shows. Nels Cline (of Wilco) also performed with the group on tour. The music video for "Déjà Vu" was released on September 18, 2014 in collaboration with New York City-based director Jean Claude Billmaier and creative house Marabigo. Pitchfork identified the video as "a colorful, datamosh-y new video", and Spin as a "stylish bubblegum pop-meets-digital-disaster (intentional)".

Cibo Matto completed two small tours in 2015; an "Avocado Tour" of Japan and a "Banana Split Tour" across the eastern US and Canada. On December 11, 2017, Cibo Matto announced their breakup, explaining that this was a "necessary and positive change".

Band members

 * Yuka Honda: sampler, sequencer, keyboard, piano, organ, synthesizer, harpsichord, backing vocals (1994–2002, 2011–2017)
 * Miho Hatori: lead vocals, percussion, acoustic guitar (1994–2002, 2011–2017)
 * Sean Lennon: bass guitar, electric guitar, 12-string acoustic guitar, drums, percussion, synthesizer, backing vocals (1997–2002)
 * Timo Ellis: drums, percussion, bass guitar, electric and acoustic guitar, backing vocals (1997–2002)
 * Duma Love: percussion, vocals, turntable, beat box (1997–2002)
 * Yuko Araki: drums, backing vocals (2011–2017)

Grand Royal involvement
Although Cibo Matto was represented by Warner Bros. Records, they were also considered to be a major part of the Grand Royal Records family.
 * Under Grand Royal, Honda and Hatori formed side-project band Butter 08 (1996) with Russell Simins, Rick Lee and Mike Mills.
 * Hatori collaborated with the Beastie Boys (who founded Grand Royal) on their 1998 album, Hello Nasty.
 * Sean Lennon released his debut album, Into the Sun (1998) on Grand Royal (which featured Honda, Hatori and Ellis).
 * Yumiko Ōno of Buffalo Daughter (a former Grand Royal band) contributed moog synthesizer and backing vocals to Stereo-Type A (1999).
 * In 2000, Grand Royal released a compilation album titled At Home with the Groove Box in which Lennon contributed the song "Winged Elephants", while Honda and Hatori contributed the song "We Love Our Lawyers". The compilation also featured artists such as Beck and Sonic Youth.
 * In 2002, despite Grand Royal's recent "official" disbandment, the Grand Royal team was bought onto to provide additional soundtrack work on Jet Set Radio Future. A number of Grand Royal-associated acts were included on the soundtrack because of so, including Cibo Matto's "Birthday Cake".

Studio albums

 * Viva! La Woman (1996)
 * Stereo Type A (1999)
 * Hotel Valentine (2014)

Compilations

 * Pom Pom: The Essential Cibo Matto (2007)

EPs

 * Cibo Matto (1995)
 * Super Relax (1997)

Singles

 * "Birthday Cake" 7" (1995)
 * "Know Your Chicken" 7" (1996)
 * "Working for Vacation" (1999)
 * "Moonchild" (1999)
 * "Spoon" (1999)

Music videos

 * "Know Your Chicken" directed by Evan Bernard (1996)
 * "Sugar Water" directed by Michel Gondry (1996)
 * "MFN" directed by Georgia (2013)
 * "Déjà Vu" directed by Jean Claude Billmaier (2014)

In popular culture
The band's name appears in the lyrics of the Le Tigre song "Hot Topic".

They also appear in the second season of Buffy the Vampire Slayer episode "When She Was Bad", to play a concert in the fictional Sunnydale nightclub, the Bronze.

Their song "Birthday Cake" appears on the 1996 soundtrack Kids in the Hall: Brain Candy and in the 2002 video game Jet Set Radio Future.

title: Cibo Matto


text:
User talk:Arashi

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

UtherSRG 06:27, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

you can sign your name using three tildes, like. If you use four, you can add a datestamp too. Hello — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2409:4054:1A:C84D:0:0:8F1:E0A1 (talk) 16:41, 28 March 2022 (UTC)

Wikipedia in Tetum

 * Help building a Wikipedia in Tetum, the national language of East Timor. Give your contribution to the improvement of its test page -- Regards, 195.23.53.121 11:25, 15 February 2006 (UTC) Manuel de Sousa

Re: Collection agency rewrite
Much better! The article was such a hodge podge that I didn't know where to start improving it. However, you've done a great job making it flow better.--Kubigula (talk) 02:21, 24 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Actually, I am concerned that you had completely removed verifiable facts of which I had included the references. Would you please explain why you had removed the entire section I wrote on Collection Agencies in Canada?  Alan.ca 10:07, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:54, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Arashi


text:
Talk:Eight Immortals

Untitled
I recall that quite a few dramas(TW, HK, SG, CN??) were made about the Eight Immortals. I can't remember exactly the titles or when they were broadcasted, though. There's a vague memory of one drama where it was shown how each of them became Immortals.

Summary
I've read what may be a good summary of each immortal [ - link dead]. The eight representated qualities/conditions/situations are age or youth, masculinity or femininity, poverty or wealth, nobility or commonness. Do they each corresponde nicely to an immortal?

If we can clear this out, we could add this concise description to the list (which should be concise). Of course, the dichotomy may be be one trait per immortal, but some immortals may possess more than one. For example, Cao seems to be both wealth and nobility. --Menchi (Talk)ü| â 06:32, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I'm reading Braziller's Japanese Ghosts & Demons and it has a chapter "Sennin: The Immortals of Taoism" which says (page 58):

 * "According to legend, the immortals were at one time historical personages who achieved transcendence by refining body and mind. In addition to serving as an inspiration to human souls striving for inner peace or for everlasting life, the immortals fucntioned as guardians of Taoism. In time, a group of 'Eight Immortals' was created, modelled after the Eighteeen Arhats of Buddhism. The individiual members of the 'Eight Immortals' varied, but each had a legend surrounding his life and transmutation into immortality."

 * This suggests there was never one fixed set of 8 Immortals. There are actually 497 immortals all listed in Yu-hsiang lieh-hsien ch'uan-chuun written y Liu Hsiang (77-76BC - this doesn't seem right) and expanded by Wang Shih-chen (1528-1590). Gama (and his 3 legged frog) and Tekkai are named as being amongst these but it isn't immediately clear what the complete line up of the 8 Immortals is - if there is a definitive list. I'd suggest a separate entry for the hsien. Currently Hsien is a redirect but looking at what links there it should be easy enough to use for our purposes. Thoughts?

 * The main references seems to be: Henri Maspero. Taoism and Chinese Religion. Amherst, MA (1981) (Emperor 21:01, 5 August 2006 (UTC))

 * From Braziller (page 60): "In both China and Japan, depcitions of Gama were often paired with another sennin named Tekkai (T'ieh-kuai in Chinese); they are both at times included in the group of 'Eight Immortals'". This is also confirmed by this page which includes common depictions of them (which crop up a lot). This page  gives Gama's Chinese name  Liu Hai or Liu Har and his three-legged frog is Ch'an Chu. I'll get around to starting an entry but I suspect someone else will have to sort out the various charactes. (Emperor 23:38, 8 August 2006 (UTC))

Sennin
The book I mentioned above says that Sennin is just the Japanese equivalent of the word hsien or hsien-jen - immortals. The current entry on this suggests they are something different but states no sources. I've requested some and see the talk page for more discussion. If it can't be proved Sennin should probably either be turned into the hsien entry I mention above or turned into a redirect to that article (my prefered). (Emperor 21:01, 5 August 2006 (UTC))

title: Talk:Eight Immortals


text:
Wikipedia:Historical archive/Changing attribution for an edit/Old log 2

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 * Ginnie_Mae_(GNMA) 20031023041002
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