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Mandaluyong

Mandaluyong, officially the City of Mandaluyong (Lungsod ng Mandaluyong, ), is a first class highly urbanized city in the National Capital Region of the Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 425,758 people.

Located directly east of Manila, Mandaluyong was originally a barrio of Santa Ana de Sapa (now a district of Manila) called San Felipe Neri. It separated and became its own town in 1841, and later acquired the name Mandaluyong in 1931 during the American occupation. In 1994, it became the first municipality of Metro Manila to become a city since the metropolis' establishment in 1975.

At present, it is known for the Ortigas Center, a commercial and business center that it also shares with the city of Pasig. Notable institutions and establishments in the city include the Asian Development Bank, the headquarters of Banco de Oro and San Miguel Corporation and shopping malls like Shangri-La Plaza and SM Megamall.

The city is bordered by Manila to the west, San Juan to the north, Quezon City to the northeast, Pasig to the east, Taguig to the southeast, and Makati to the south. It is also the 6th-smallest city in the Philippines with a land area of 21.26 sqkm, similar to Makati and Marikina.

Etymology
There are different stories on the origin of the name Mandaluyong.

One tells of how the place was abundant with a kind of tree called luyong, now more commonly known as anahaw (Saribus rotundifolius), from which canes and furniture were made.

Another claims that the Spaniards named the place based on the report of a navigator named Acapulco, who saw the rolling hills frequently being lashed at by daluyong (“big waves from the sea”). This seems to confirm traditional pre-Hispanic stories that giant waves from the sea would meet the adjoining hills of the vast lowland, referred to as salpukan ng alon. Felix dela Huerta, a Franciscan historian, observed that the rolling topography of this land resembled giant waves of the sea.

As with the etymological legends of many Philippine places, when the foreigners asked what the place was called, the locals answered with the description "madaluyong" ("undulating"), later transcribed by Spanish writers as "Mandaluyong," with the addition of an “n”.

Another version of the name is based on a legend that a Maharlika named Luyong fell in love with Manda, the lovely daughter of a barangay chieftain. The chieftain did not like Luyong and forbade him Manda's hand. Luyong overcame this objection by winning a series of tribal contests, as was the custom at the time. The couple settled thereafter in a place which was later called “Mandaluyong" – a term made up of joining their names.

Early history
Residents of Mandaluyong have always been known for their industry. Men did the laundry to the amusement of non-residents until shortly after the war, while the women ironed the clothes.

These industrious people trace their roots to Emperor Soledan (also known as "Anka Widyaya" of the Great Madjapahit Empire) and Empress Sasaban of the Kingdom of Sapa, whose son Prince Balagtas ruled as sovereign of the kingdom in about the year 1300.

More than a century later, in about the year 1470, it expanded and was called the "Kingdom of Namayan" with "Lakan Takhan" as sovereign. The vast Kingdom comprised what are now Quiapo, San Miguel, Sta, Mesa, Paco, Pandacan, Malate, Malate and Santa Ana in Manila, and Mandaluyong, San Juan, Makati, Pasay, Pateros, Taguig, Parañaque, and portions of Pasig and Quezon City up to Diliman, which were then part of Mandaluyong.

Foundation
Mandaluyong was first known as a barrio of Santa Ana de Sapa, which was part of the District of Paco, Province of Tondo (later known as the Province of Manila). It was named San Felipe Neri by the Spaniards in honor of the patron saint of Rome. It was separated civilly from Santa Ana de Sapa in 1841.

On September 15, 1863, San Felipe Neri established its own parish. Under the administration of the Congregation “Dulcísimo Nombre de Jesús”, it constructed its own church, convent and school. The Parish of San Felipe Neri played a significant role as a relay station for propagating the Katipunan during the 1896–1898 Revolution.

Original barrios
According to Pedro Patricio in his book Mandaluyong: 1837–1975, Mandaluyong had five original barrios: Poblacion, Barangka, Hagdang Bato, Namayan, and Hulo. This was according to the first recorded census in 1903. From these five evolved 22 sub-barrios.

The Philippine revolution
Mandaluyong was significant in the Philippine Revolution of 1896 as the baluarte (territory) of the Katipunan or "Makabuhay" group, with seventeen branches.

On August 29, 1896, Andres Bonifacio, together with Emilio Jacinto and other members of the Katipunan went into the house of Romualdo Vicencio at Sitio Balakbak (now Villa San Miguel) to prepare for the upcoming revolution against Spanish authority. In this site, Bonifacio read the last manifestation of the Katipunan before they transferred in Hagdan Bato, in the house of Felix Sanchez. This event is also known as the "29 De Agosto" and "Pinagtipunan" in which it is already named in two streets near the historic Barangay Hagdan Bato Itaas. It was in Barangay Hagdang Bato on August 28, 1896, where Andres Bonifacio issued a proclamation setting Saturday, August 29, 1896, as the date of the attack on Manila.

On August 30, 1896, after the successfully revolution in San Felipe Neri, the Katipuneros went to San Juan del Monte and attacked the El Polvorin (gunpowder depot) in order to amass more weapons to use against the Spaniards. This event is popularly known as the Battle of San Juan del Monte. It was also in this town that the revolutionary paper, La Republika, was established on September 15, 1896.

American colonial era
On June 11, 1901, San Felipe Neri was incorporated into the newly established province of Rizal. During the American Occupation, it was raised to a first-class municipality with five barrios, namely: Poblacion, Barangka, Hagdang Bato, Namayan and Hulo. By virtue of Act No. 942 dated November 6, 1903, it was consolidated with the municipality of San Juan del Monte and became the seat of the municipal government. For several months in 1904, San Felipe Neri became the capital of Rizal. San Juan del Monte was later separated from San Felipe Neri to regain its independent municipality status on March 27, 1907.

San Felipe Neri was renamed to its present name of Mandaluyong on November 6, 1931, by virtue of Act No. 3836. Many government infrastructures are established during the American Period, including the Correctional Institute for Women, Welfareville Compound, The Boy's Town, and the National Center for Mental Health.

Japanese occupation era
From 1942 to 1945, during World War II, Mandaluyong formed part of the City of Greater Manila, along with Manila, Quezon City, and other nearby towns of Rizal. Also during the war, Mandaluyong lost many of her people; among them were Catholic priests and civilians. Destruction was felt all over, but with the timely arrival of the American Liberation Forces and the Philippine Commonwealth troops on February 9, 1945, the municipality was saved from further damages. That day became a red calendar day for Mandaluyong marking its liberation from the Japanese Imperial forces by the Allies.

Philippine independence
After World War II, Mandaluyong began to become progressive and dramatically increase the economy. Many infrastructures, companies, and other businesses were developed in 1950s–1960s and as the result, making Mandaluyong recognized as the most developed municipality in the province of Rizal.

Ambush of Juan Ponce Enrile
Mandaluyong played a small part in Ferdinand Marcos' efforts to rationalize his declaration of Martial law because the alleged 1972 ambush of Juan Ponce Enrile took place in Wack Wack, an exclusive neighborhood in Mandaluyong, in the hours immediately preceding its implementation. Because the alleged ambush took place in an exclusive subdivision, no independent eyewitnesses of the event have come forward, and witnesses of the immediate aftermath are few. This has lent credence to accounts which say that the ambush was faked, and that the site was selected specifically because it was easy to stage the incident there. The 14-year period which followed that night is remembered for the Marcos administration's record of human rights abuses, particularly targeting political opponents, student activists, journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought against the Marcos dictatorship.

Industrial growth and government takeover efforts
A prominent figure in Philippine business before Martial Law was Mandaluyong-based industrialist Domingo M. Guevara Sr., whose success began when he created Radiowealth, a brand of affordable Philippine-made appliances including radios and televisions. This eventually became the Mandaluyong-based Guevara Enterprises which dominated the fields of electronics, communications, agriculture and industrial development, transportation, and manufacturing in the Philippines, whose headquarters was on Libertad (now D.M. Guevarra). National Artist Nick Joaqin noted that Guevara's projects - which included the manufacturing the "Sakbayan," which was the ever first Philippine-made car - brought the Philippine economy to the verge of Newly Industrialized Country status in the years before Martial Law. However, the growth of Guevara's businesses stopped when he refused to surrender control of his businesses to President Ferdinand Marcos during Martial Law, and Marcos retaliated by making it difficult for Guevarra to do business.

Separation from Rizal province
On November 7, 1975, Mandaluyong was formally included in newly established Metropolitan Manila by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 824 signed by President Ferdinand Marcos.

Cityhood
By virtue of the 1987 Constitution, Mandaluyong and the then-municipality of San Juan were represented in Congress by a single congressman.

San Juan–Mandaluyong Representative Ronaldo Zamora sponsored a House Bill which eventually became Republic Act No. 7675 otherwise known as "An Act Converting the Municipality of Mandaluyong into a Highly Urbanized City to be known as the City of Mandaluyong." President Fidel V. Ramos signed R.A. No. 7675 into law on February 9, 1994 (the 49th anniversary of its liberation from the Japanese), which was ratified through a plebiscite on April 10, 1994, making Mandaluyong the fifth city in Metro Manila. Mandaluyong became a lone district with its own representative in Congress. Prior to the enactment of the assailed statute, the municipalities of Mandaluyong and San Juan belonged to only one legislative district.

Contemporary
Mandaluyong today is composed of 27 barangays divided into two political districts mainly by Boni Avenue and G. Aglipay Street.

In 2002, Mandaluyong was recognized as "The Tiger City of the Philippines" because of the dramatic improvement in the city's economy.

Geography
Mandaluyong lies on a heart-shaped 21.26 km2 of land, 7 km southeast of Manila and 8 km west of Pasig. To the south lies Makati across Pasig River, To the southeast lies Taguig also across Pasig River, to the northwest, San Juan, and to the northeast, Quezon City. Thus, Mandaluyong is located at the center of Metro Manila.

Barangays
Mandaluyong is politically subdivided into 27 barangays.

Climate
Mandaluyong's climate is classified as tropical. In winter, there is much less rainfall in Mandaluyong than in summer. This climate is considered to be Aw according to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. The temperature here averages 27.2 C. In a year, the average rainfall is 2093 mm. Precipitation is the lowest in February, with an average of 8 mm. With an average of 448 mm, the most precipitation falls in August. At an average temperature of 29.2 C, May is the hottest month of the year. January has the lowest average temperature of the year. It is 25.5 C. Between the driest and wettest months, the difference in precipitation is 440 mm. During the year, the average temperatures vary by 3.7 C.

Economy
The city is home to a number of shopping centers, entertainment hubs, commercial establishments, high-rise offices, residential condominiums and hotels. The city is one of the important business and financial areas in the metropolis.

Commercial activities
Like other cities in Metro Manila, Mandaluyong has its own share of commercial strips and a central business district. The former commercial area, consisting mostly of banks, offices and service establishments, stretch along public transport routes thereby serving both local consumers and passers-by from the neighboring localities. Major commercial strips of the city include the stretch of Boni Avenue, Shaw Boulevard, Libertad-Sierra Madre area, Kalentong, San Francisco, part of Martinez, Sgt. Bumatay towards Barangka Drive and Pinatubo towards EDSA. Mandaluyong's central business district is concentrated on the EDSA-Shaw-Pioneer area; it includes the Greenfield District development.

Industrial activities
Industrial activities are mostly concentrated within the Shaw Boulevard-Pioneer area and along the Pasig River. Although prominent in the manufacture of foods, medicines and laboratory equipment, these industries are gradually declining in number, opting to relocate in newly developed industrial zones outside Metropolitan Manila. In the Pasig River area, particularly in Barangays Namayan and Mabini–J. Rizal, areas formerly industrial are now the sites for residential subdivisions and townhouses. In the EDSA-Shaw-Pioneer area, the transformation is toward a more economically profitable and globally competitive commercial activity. And since December 2013, Mandaluyong is the home of one of the largest television networks in the country TV5 and one of the largest pay TV operator Cignal TV (both owned by the PLDT-backed firm MediaQuest Holdings located at the TV5 Media Center), and the master playout facility of Solar Entertainment Corporation (located at the Worldwide Corporate Center which also housed the main offices of companies owned by real estate magnate and former Senator Manny Villar and formerly the Nine Media Corporation-owned news channel CNN Philippines), and several radio stations associated to the Vera Group (Mellow 94.7, Magic 89.9, 99.5 Play FM, All Radio 103.5, DWBL and the now-defunct DWSS, all are located at the Paragon Plaza).

Shopping centers
These super-regional supermalls each have over a hundred local and international stores and are anchored by at least one department store and supermarket or hypermarket. They are the largest malls in Metro Manila which feature not just stores but also such attractions as movie theaters, rides, skating rinks, bowling alleys and other recreational facilities. Each provides thousands of automobile parking spaces and are located mostly near rail stations and established business districts within the metropolis. These malls serve not only the Metro Manila and Greater Manila Area residents, but also local and foreign tourists. Among the malls in the city are Shangri-La Plaza, SM Megamall, The Podium, St. Francis Square, Starmall EDSA-Shaw, SM Cherry Shaw, The Marketplace Shopping Mall (the site of the Mandaluyong Public Market), Shaw Center Mall, four strip malls at the Greenfield District, and pocket malls at residential condominiums.

The city is also home to Puregold Shaw, the supermarket chain's inaugural branch that opened in 1998.

Mayors of Mandaluyong
Listed below are persons who have served as mayors (previously municipal president) of Mandaluyong.

Transportation

The city is provided with good access roads to and from adjacent cities in Metro Manila through main roads such as the Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA), Ortigas Avenue and Shaw Boulevard.

Airport
The city is 36 minutes away from Ninoy Aquino International Airport.

Land
Mandaluyong is primarily served by a public road network consisting of 80.93 km concrete and asphalt roads. With a total road density of 7.19 km per 1 ha of land, the city is considered to be over-served with roads.

The city is mainly served by EDSA, Metro Manila's main thoroughfare. Considered as the heart of the metropolis, main roads such as Ortigas Avenue and Shaw Boulevard provide inter-city linkages, while Boni Avenue and F. Martinez Street serve as alternate routes in the city. Other major roads in Mandaluyong include the Boni-Pioneer Underpass, a 280 m tunnel underneath EDSA connecting Boni Avenue on its western-end and Pioneer Street on the east. and Julia Vargas Avenue in Ortigas Center. Jeepneys are one of the most common modes of public transportation for commuters in the city. Aside from jeepneys, tricycles and pedicabs are also one of the important modes of public transportation in Mandaluyong, especially on alleys around the city.

Water
The presence of the Pasig River stretching along the south border of Mandaluyong provides an alternative route and mode of public transportation mainly for cargo freight of industries along the river, and for commuters seeking for a faster and more direct route to and from the cities of Pasig and Manila. The Pasig River Ferry Service has one station in the city.

Railway
The city is also served by rail via the Manila Metro Rail Transit System Line 3, located along EDSA. The city is served by the three MRT-3 stations of Ortigas, Shaw Boulevard, and Boni.

Philippine National Railways once served Mandaluyong through its defunct Santa Mesa–Antipolo branch until the bridge that carried it across the San Juan River collapsed in 1982.

Bridges
Mandaluyong is accessed by the Pasig River, the San Juan River, and the Maytunas Creek:

Healthcare
Mandaluyong has several private and public hospitals & health center, namely the privately owned Dr. Victor R. Potenciano Medical Center along EDSA and Unciano General Hospital, and the government hospital Mandaluyong City Medical Center. The city is also home to the National Center for Mental Health. Many residents, specifically the middle-to-upper class medical clientele, visit the nearby The Medical City in Ortigas Center, Pasig.

In 2007, the Mandaluyong city government, together with non-governmental organization Rehabilitation and Empowerment of Adults and Children (REACH) Foundation, established a community-based rehabilitation program called Project Therapy, Education, and Assimilation of Children with Handicap (TEACH), that caters to children with special needs coming from indigent families. Services given by Project TEACH include free occupational therapy, physical therapy, speech therapy and special education classes.

Education

Four well-known educational institutions in the city are the Arellano University – Plaridel Campus, Don Bosco Technical College, José Rizal University and Rizal Technological University.

A good number of city officials of Mandaluyong are alumni of Don Bosco, including incumbent Mayor, Benjamin Abalos Jr. (HS '79); former Vice Mayor, Renato Santa Maria (HS '65); City Councilors Edward Bartolome (HS '96), Noel Bernardo (HS '79), and Jonathan Abalos (HS '85). Other notable alumni include rapper Francis Magalona (HS '81); and actor Ricky Davao (HS '78). Meanwhile, the alumni of JRU that includes President Ramon Magsaysay, Roderick Paulate, and Armand Fabella. Other colleges in the city include the Our Lady of Guadalupe Colleges (specializing in Medicine and Nursing), STI and AMA (both specializing in Computer Technology education, both located on Shaw Boulevard), NAMEI Polytechnic Institute (specializing in Marine Sciences), and the International Baptist College.

The city is also home to Lourdes School of Mandaluyong (est. 1959), a Franciscan-Marian all-boys school, located in the Ortigas Center district managed by the OFM Capuchins; La Salle Green Hills (est. 1959), a private co-educational school, managed by the De La Salle Brothers, located along Ortigas Avenue; and Saint Pedro Poveda College (est. 1960), another all-girls institution, offering pre-school, grade school, high school, and college education. Although the official school address is Quezon City, part of the lot Poveda's campus stands on is under Mandaluyong.

Mandaluyong High School (est. 1977) is the oldest public high school in the city. City of Mandaluyong Science High School (est. 1996) is a public science high school on E. Pantaleon Street. The city has 18 public schools, including primary and secondary schools, all under the supervision of Department of Education's Schools Division Office (SDO) of Mandaluyong. The Mataas Na Paaralang Neptali A. Gonzales, named after Mandaluyong native and former Senator Neptali Gonzales, is the largest school in Mandaluyong and the only school in the city with the STEM high school program.

Diplomatic missions
Countries that have set up permanent missions or embassies in the city include:

Notable personalities

 * Aljon Mariano (b. 1992) - basketball player
 * Angelo Kyle Arcangel (b. 1999) - 2 Times MLBB World Champion
 * Anicka Castañeda (b. 1999) - footballer
 * Antonio Cabangon-Chua (b. 1934, d. 2016) - Philippine Ambassador to Laos, entrepreneur, and businessman
 * Benjamin Abalos (b. 1934) - 16th and 23rd (current) mayor of Mandaluyong, former Chairperson of the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority, and former chairman of the Commission on Elections
 * Benjamin Abalos Jr. (b. 1962) - 15th mayor of Mandaluyong, former Chairperson of the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority, and current Secretary of the Interior and Local Government
 * Brigiding (b. 1992) – drag performer, Drag Race Philippines (Season 1) contestant
 * Carmela Tunay (b. 1995) - former volleyball player, actress, and TV host
 * Carmelita Abalos (b. 1962) - 22nd mayor of Mandaluyong, current vice mayor of Mandaluyong
 * Coleen Garcia (b. 1992) - actress, host, and model
 * Elias R. Lazo, Jr. (b. 1925, d. 1978) - main captor (second capture) of Nardong Putik and Gold Cross Medal awardee
 * Dante Jimenez (b. 1952, d. 2021) - chariman of the Presidential Anti-Corruption Commission, founder of Volunteers Against Crime and Corruption, and educator
 * Elmer Borlongan (b. 1967) - painter
 * Francis Magalona (b. 1964, d. 2009) - rapper, singer, and songwriter
 * Freddy Gonzalez (b. 1978) - former football player
 * Gio Alvarez (b. 1976) - actor
 * Imee Marcos (b. 1955) - current Senator, politician, sister of current Philippine president Bongbong Marcos
 * Javi Gómez de Liaño (b. 1998) - basketball player
 * John Raspado (b. 1981) - businessman, titleholder of Mr. Gay World Philippines 2016 and Mr Gay World 2017
 * Johnedel Cardel (b. 1970) - head coach of Terrafirma Dyip, former basketball player
 * Juami Tiongson (b. 1991) - basketball player
 * Kevin Racal (b. 1991) - basketball player
 * Lance Serrano (b. 1992) - actor, model, and basketball player
 * Lei Ponce (b. 1984) - make-up artist and titleholder of Mr. Fahrenheit 2016
 * Louie Mar Gangcuangco (b. 1987) - physician, HIV researcher, and professor
 * Manny Victorino (b. 1958) - retired basketball player
 * Maico Buncio (b. 1988, d. 2011) - motorcycle racer
 * Mark Cardona (b. 1981) - basketball player
 * Marlon Manalo (b. 1975) - former pool player
 * Michele Bumgarner (b. 1989) - racing driver
 * Mikey Bustos (b. 1981) - YouTuber, vlogger, singer, and comedian
 * Neptali Gonzales (b. 1923, d. 2001) - 13th Senate president, former congressman of the first district of Rizal and San Juan–Mandaluyong
 * Neptali Gonzales II (b. 1954) - 14th mayor of Mandaluyong and current representative of the Lone District of Mandaluyong
 * Paul Zamar (b. 1987) - basketball player
 * Renz Ongkiko (b. 1988) - newscaster, media personality, and model
 * Ria Atayde (b. 1992) - actress
 * Rico Yan (b. 1975, d. 2002) - actor and entrepreneur
 * Shehyee (b. 1992) - rapper, songwriter, and Internet personality
 * Sophie Albert (b. 1990) - actress
 * Troy Rosario (b. 1992) - basketball player

title: Mandaluyong


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Myanmar Baptist Convention

The Myanmar Baptist Convention (မြန်မာနိုင်ငံနှစ်ခြင်း ခရစ်ယာန်အသင်းချုပ်) is a Baptist Christian denomination in Myanmar. It is affiliated with the Baptist World Alliance and the World Council of Churches. The headquarters is in Yangon.

History
The Convention has its origins in an American mission of the American Baptist Mission (American Baptist Churches USA) in 1813 from Adoniram Judson and Ann Judson to Yangon. It was officially founded in 1865 as the Burma Baptist Missionary Convention. In 2006, it had 4,522 churches and 1,142,655 members. According to a census published by the association in 2023, it claimed 5,337 churches and 1,013,499 members.

Member Associations

 * Myanmar Baptist Churches Union
 * Karen Baptist Convention
 * Kachin Baptist Convention
 * Lisu Baptist Convention
 * Chin Baptist Convention
 * Southern Shan State Baptist Home Mission Society
 * Shweli Shan Baptist Convention
 * Northern Shan State Baptist Convention
 * Eastern Shan State Baptist Convention
 * Akhar Baptist Convention
 * Naga Baptist Convention
 * Tedim Baptist Convention
 * Asho Chin Baptist Convention
 * Wa Baptist Convention
 * Po Kayin Baptist Convention
 * Rakhine Baptist Convention
 * Mon Baptist Convention
 * Lahu Baptist Convention
 * Judson Church
 * Immanuel Baptist Church

Departments of Myanmar Baptist Convention

 * Finance & Property
 * Evangelism & Mission
 * Christian Education
 * Christian Communication
 * Theological Education
 * Christian Social and Service & Development
 * Literature & Publication
 * Leadership Development
 * Ministers
 * Men
 * Women
 * Youth

Schools
It has 49 affiliated institutes of theology. The main is the Myanmar Institute of Theology, founded in 1927 and located in Insein.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Myanmar Baptist Convention


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Defensive back

In gridiron football, defensive backs (DBs), also called the secondary, are the players on the defensive side of the ball who play farthest back from the line of scrimmage. They are distinguished from the other two sets of defensive players, the defensive linemen who play directly on the line of scrimmage, and the linebackers, who play in the middle of the defense, and between the defensive line and the defensive backs.

Among all the defensive backs, there are two main types, cornerbacks, which play nearer the line of scrimmage and the sideline, whose main role is to cover the opposing team's wide receivers, and the safeties, who play further back near the center of the field, and who act as the last line of defense. American defensive formations usually includes two of each, a left and right cornerback, as well as a strong safety and a free safety, with the free safety tending to play further back than the strong safety. In Canadian football, which has twelve players on the field compared to the eleven of American football, there is an additional position called defensive halfback, which plays like a hybrid between a linebacker and cornerback. Canadian formations include two cornerbacks, two halfbacks and one safety, for a total of five defensive backs. Besides the standard set of defensive backs, teams may also remove a defensive lineman or a linebacker and replace them with an additional defensive back. The fifth defensive back is commonly called the nickelback (so named because a five-cent coin in the U.S. and Canada is called a nickel). By extension, a sixth defensive back is called a dimeback (because the next value coin in the U.S. and Canada is called a dime). Rarely, teams may employ seven or even eight defensive backs.

Historic notable defensive backs include Hall-of-Famers Dick "Night Train" Lane, Mike Haynes, Ronnie Lott, and Troy Polamalu, Deion Sanders (aka "Primetime"), and Ed Reed, among others. In 2019, the National Football League released its all-time team in honor of the league's 100th anniversary, in which the top defensive backs in its history were noted and honored.

Longtime National Football League executive and renowned former general manager of the Dallas Cowboys, Gil Brandt released a list of the top cornerbacks of all time.

title: Defensive back


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Dishonoured cheque

A dishonoured cheque (also spelled check) is a cheque that the bank on which it is drawn declines to pay (“honour”). There are a number of reasons why a bank might refuse to honour a cheque, with non-sufficient funds (NSF) being the most common one, indicating that there are insufficient cleared funds in the account on which the cheque was drawn. An NSF check may be referred to as a bad check, dishonored check, bounced check, cold check, rubber check, returned item, or hot check. Lost or bounced checks result in late payments and affect the relationship with customers. In England and Wales and Australia, such cheques are typically returned endorsed "Refer to drawer", an instruction to contact the person issuing the cheque for an explanation as to why it was not paid. If there are funds in an account, but insufficient cleared funds, the cheque is normally endorsed “Present again”, by which time the funds should have cleared.

When more than one cheque is presented for payment on the same day, and the payment of both would result in the account becoming overdrawn (or below some approved credit limit), the bank has a discretion as to which cheque to pay and which to dishonour. A bank has a general discretion whether or not to honour a cheque that will result in an account becoming overdrawn, but a payment on one occasion does not bind the bank to do so again on another occasion. A bank cannot partially pay on a cheque, so that it must either pay a cheque in full or dishonour it. If a bank declines to pay a cheque, it must promptly return the cheque to the person who deposited it or presented it to be cashed. In general, a bank can only pay out of the account on which it was drawn, and cannot draw on any other account that the customer may have at the bank, unless expressly instructed to the contrary.

Reasons for dishonour
Cheques may be dishonoured by a financial institution because:
 * There are insufficient cleared funds in the account to cover the value of the cheque.
 * The account holder has instructed the bank not to pay the cheque (called a stopped cheque).
 * The account holder's funds have been frozen.
 * The account does not actually exist, either due to a false cheque being presented, an error in writing the account number, or the account being closed.
 * The cheque has expired, is cashed before the date on the cheque, or the date on the cheque is erroneous.
 * There is a discrepancy in the amounts written in numbers and the amount in words.
 * The cheque is scribbled or overwritten.
 * The signature on the cheque does not match the signature on file of the account holder or an authorised signatory on the account, or has touched the MICR strip on the cheque.
 * The cheque is damaged.

Process
If a bank receives a cheque that it would normally dishonour, such as there being insufficient funds in an account on which it is drawn, the manager may as a courtesy contact the customer to advise them of the situation to allow them to rectify the situation promptly to avoid a cheque being dishonoured. The bank is not obliged to contact the customer, and is unlikely to do so more than once.

When a cheque is dishonoured, the bank customer may be charged a dishonour fee by their bank. If paying the cheque would result in the account becoming overdrawn, the bank may in its discretion still to honour the cheque. In this situation, the bank may charge an overdraft establishment fee, in addition to interest at the overdraft rate until the account is back in credit.

If a cheque is dishonoured for any reason, the bank on which it is drawn must promptly return the cheque to the depositor's (payee's) bank, which will ultimately return it to the depositor. The depositor's bank will debit the amount of the cheque from the depositor's account into which it had been deposited, as well as a service fee.

Depending on the reason for a cheque being dishonoured, the depositor may determine whether to re-submit the cheque, hoping it will be paid on a second attempt, or else proceed immediately with collection activities, civil or criminal.

Consequences of insufficient funds
Among the consequences of issuing a NSF cheque are actions by financial institutions, civil liability to the drawee, and possible criminal penalties. When a bad cheque is negotiated, the recipient of the cheque may choose to take action against the drawer. The action that is taken may be a civil collection action or lawsuit, or seeking criminal charges, depending on the amount of the cheque and the laws in the jurisdiction where the cheque is drawn.

Civil consequences
If the dishonored check has been scanned and replaced by a substitute check, the original check is not returned to the depositor, but instead the substitute check will be marked "not sufficient funds" and returned to the depositor. The recipient may choose not to accept checks in the future from the writer (typically recorded on a paper or electronic "Do not accept checks from..." list), or may suspend the check-writer's privileges until the check-writer has made good on the debt.

The recipient may also choose to report the writer to a database service. This may lead to other merchants in the future refusing to accept checks from the writer or a joint account holder, or the writer having trouble obtaining a checking account at another bank. If a merchant or other place of business receives too many bad checks from customers, it may simply decide to not accept any checks at all from anyone.

Criminal consequences
In some cases the issuance of a NSF check may result in criminal prosecution of the drawer of the check. Criminal charges are more likely where the drawer can be shown to have issued the check knowing that it would not be honored. Charges are also more likely when the NSF check is for a large amount, or where the drawer issues multiple NSF checks.

Prevention
Steps that can be taken to reduce the likelihood of a bad check include:
 * Carrying a higher balance in the checking account; that is to always have a "buffer" amount just in case an unexpected check does clear.
 * Better balancing techniques
 * Overdraft protection - This may be in the form of a link to a savings account from which funds will be automatically transferred, a credit card, or, a line of credit designed specially for this purpose.
 * Using a credit/debit card or cash instead of checks.

Australia
The Cheques Act 1986 (Cth) imposes strict liability on the drawer of a dishonoured cheque. The payee may sue the drawer on the cheque itself, who may not have been the original debtor.

India
In India, a bounced check is a criminal offense, punishable by fines and/or jail term, under Section 138 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881.

United Arab Emirates
Until January 2013, a bounced check was a criminal offense in the United Arab Emirates that led to imprisonment of the person who wrote it.

United States
In many jurisdictions in the United States, a bad check restitution program exists that allows recipients of bad checks to collect the funds from the local district attorney's office, regardless of the amount. An agency run by the district attorney will pursue the drawer of the check by attempting to collect the funds in exchange for avoiding criminal prosecution. The check drawer will be responsible to cover the amount of the check, plus all fees to which the recipient is legally entitled, plus a program fee. The drawer will also be required to take a course designed to improve check-writing habits. These programs are controversial and in recent years, have come under fire in lawsuits. Normally, if check writer can cover up their bad credits in sixty days, all charges will be dropped.

In some jurisdictions, for a criminal prosecution on a bad check there must be some element of fraud involved in the issuance of the check. In some U.S. states, if the check drawer informs the party they are uttering the check to that it will not clear at the current time (such as asking someone to “hold” a check for a few days), if the check bounces, they can still be sued for the value of the check, but warning the recipient before acceptance that the check will not clear immediately negates the element of fraud and prevents criminal prosecution. For similar reasons, a post-dated check will not normally support a conviction for issuing a NSF check.

United Kingdom
In England and Wales, the use of the endorsement "refer to drawer" has become standard after a bank was successfully sued for libel after returning a cheque incorrectly endorsed "insufficient funds"; the court ruled that, as there were sufficient funds, the statement was demonstrably false and damaging to the reputation of the person issuing the cheque. Even with the use of this revised endorsement, the mere implication that funds were insufficient has been held to be libelous in other cases of banks mistakenly refusing to pay cheques.

title: Dishonoured cheque


text:
Article Seven of the United States Constitution

Article Seven of the United States Constitution sets the number of state ratifications necessary for the Constitution to take effect and prescribes the method through which the states may ratify it. Under the terms of Article VII, constitutional ratification conventions were held in each of the thirteen states, with the ratification of nine states required for the Constitution to take effect. Delaware was the first state to ratify the Constitution, doing so on December 7, 1787. On June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the Constitution, ensuring that the Constitution would take effect. Rhode Island was the last state to ratify the Constitution under Article VII, doing so on May 29, 1790.

Text
"The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same."

Background
On September 20, 1787, three days after its adoption by the Constitutional Convention, the drafted Constitution was submitted to the Congress of the Confederation for its endorsement. After eight days of debate, the opposing sides came to the first of many compromises that would define the ratification process. The Confederation Congress voted to release the proposed Constitution to the states for their consideration, but neither endorsed nor opposed its ratification.

Ratification
The Constitution was ratified by the 13 states between December 7, 1787, and May 29, 1790, as follows:

Implementation
In 1787 and 1788, following the Constitutional Convention, a great debate took place throughout the United States over the Constitution that had been proposed. The supporters of the Constitution began the ratification campaign in those states where there was little or no controversy, postponing until later the more difficult ones.

On June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the Constitution, thus establishing it as the new framework of governance for the United States. Though officially enacted, four states, Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island remained outside the new government. The Congress of the Confederation chose March 4, 1789, as the day "for commencing proceedings under the Constitution." Virginia and New York ratified the Constitution before the members of the new Congress assembled on the appointed day to bring the new government into operation.

After twelve amendments, including the ten in the Bill of Rights, were sent to the states in June 1789, North Carolina ratified the Constitution. Finally, Rhode Island, after having rejected the Constitution in a March 1788 referendum, called a ratifying convention in 1790. Faced with the threat of being treated as a foreign government, it ratified the Constitution by just two votes.


text:
Talk:Closings and cancellations following the September 11 attacks

November 2003
Nice job on the reworking of this page. JamesDay 02:45, 8 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Thanks James. I'm a big fan of lists. :) Martin 22:27, 8 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Do you watch The West Wing? How about a nice List of anecdotes about US presidents:) JamesDay 23:32, 8 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * I used to - not so much now. Don't we have that list at presidential trivia? Martin 23:45, 8 Nov 2003 (UTC)

From Vfd

 * Delete. wikipedia is not a newspaper; the article is hopelessly outdated: "Reagan airport (in Washington, D.C.) is still closed one week after the attack." --Jiang
 * Delete, merge if information still interesting. Fuzheado
 * Keep or merge and redirect. It is a valid collection of information about the response to a huge terrorist event. The closings and cancellations caused by 9/11 is unprecedented in US history. The article is also a daughter article of the 9/11 article. Thus it naturally is more focused. Do not delete! --mav 16:10, 3 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Merge and delete. DJ Clayworth 16:17, 3 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Keep; merging all of the sub-pages would make the main 9-11 article way too large. I've corrected the tense. JamesDay 18:09, 3 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * No you haven't! The sentence I quoted is still there. I'm not asking that all articles be merged. Some are just not worth keeping. Are we interested in every minute detail? "Disneyland and Walt Disney World were closed." Closed until when? For how long? The article doesn't contain much in fact. Sentences like these don't need to be merged. They can be deleted. --Jiang
 * That edit was initially lost while connecting to the server and never posted. I redid it a few hours later. Looks as though you posted here between the time of my initial attempt to save the change and the time I redid it and it got through. Yes, I do think that there's merit in including quite a lot of detail of how the US shut down various systems and facilities in response to the attacks. Not as much as I'd like to see in this one yet and I'll probably add more once it's off VfD, if its still around. JamesDay 16:28, 4 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Yes, there needs to be more detail, but this article lacks it. The current article just lists a whole bunch of stuff that was closed without saying how long they were closed, the effects of the closings, etc. The details (and significance) should be added for this article to stay. We don't need to know that the Sunnyvale Daycare Center shut down for a day either! So what if Disneyland shut down? How often do they shut down? How unprecedented is this? The flight cancellations could be merged with economic effects...we dont have to merge all into the main article. Another extremely outdated sentence: "As of November 2001, it has been rescheduled to March 2002 and moved to a holiday resort outside Brisbane involving a more restricted program" --Jiang
 * So add more of the details than I have already or merge it elsewhere. See the Eternal Ephemera discussions on Wikien-l for part of why I'm no longer so keen on simply deleting things. JamesDay 03:00, 6 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Delete. Anything of historical significance can be merged. -- Minesweeper 02:21, 5 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * It is better to keep separate pages than to merge content. The entry title is a perfectly valid one under any reasonable criteria. --The Cunctator
 * No, it is not always better. It is only better when the main article is too long and the subarticles will also have sufficient content.--Jiang
 * Tidied up by MyRedDice so it's fine now. --Jiang
 * Keep. -- Taku
 * Keep, because people are going to start insisting there's too much detail on institutions being closed once we cram it into the main September 11 page, and then they'll start demanding we lessen the amount of information, which will result in us losing some of it . . . Whatever it takes to keep it on here. As Mav said, the aftermath of 9/11 was unparalleled in history in the number of closures and cancellations it caused. Wiwaxia 01:49, 8 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Keep! This is useful, relevant, and is too detailed to be merged. -- Special-K

Union Station disambiguation/PoV
Can someone figure out which Union Station this article refers to? There are at least a dozen and a half in the page this article links to. I also removed "Most importantly, never ever again, can Americans take their safety for granted." That sentence reeks with PoV. It's like something ou of a Bush-Cheyney 2004 commercial! Why not just have "I'm George W. Bush, and I approved this message..." at the end?

Please stop the edit war in the 'Cancellations' section
Hello. I'd like to take a moment to justify my wording in the cancellations paragraph. My wording was intentional.

There was a widespread perception shortly after the attacks that recreational events and sport were not appropriate after... is a statement of fact. It could be bolstered by polls, or by the self evident statements of the officials cancelling events.

Recreational events and sport were not appropriate after... is a prescriptive statement of opinion, however correct it may be.

Similarly, removing 'Safety could never ever be taken for granted again' was removed by me for the same general reason; it is an opinion which is in fact contradicted by recent moves such as the TSA's relaxation of the ban of certain pointed objects in the cabins of passenger aircraft. It is my perception that however long it is taking, there is concrete evidence that certain parts of safety assumptions are beginning to be 'taken for granted' again.

Thank you, and I'll leave this be. User:SNIyer12, if you wish to, I encourage you to reply here with your concerns, so that others may correspond with you. Skybunny 03:54, 24 January 2006 (UTC)

WPMILHIST
Tagged for the military history project due to the inclusion of federal building closures, diversion of incoming international flights, and FAA grounding of all aircraft within the states. TomStar81 (Talk) 02:18, 21 November 2007 (UTC)

International Event Cancellation
Removing that the Mexican Independence Day was cancelled, here is a reference that it was celebrated: http://www2.eluniversal.com.mx/pls/impreso/noticia.html?id_nota=66094&tabla=nacion  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.104.165.162 (talk) 21:37, 28 October 2008 (UTC)

Which Country, which States
The introduction doesn't mention United States of America. "Many closings and cancellations followed the September 11 attacks, including major landmarks, buildings[...]": in which Countries? "Many states declared a state of emergency": states as countries, or as US subdivisions? The introduction assumes the United States is the only country in the World. I propose to mention "United States of America" in the introduction. From Switzerland (which also is a State), Boris.oriet (talk) 10:43, 4 December 2008 (UTC).

Manhattan Closed
I recall the mayor closed Manhattan south of some street or another. Does anyone recall which street? How long was the area closed? Paul, in Saudi (talk) 12:32, 23 May 2009 (UTC)

 * That's right. Manhattan was closed to pedestrians in lower Manhattan for some time after Sept. 11. This needs to be mentioned. I remember the line went right through Chinatown and you could circumvent it by going through one of the arcades. ScottyBerg (talk) 21:40, 10 January 2011 (UTC)

Everything was closed from 14th St. southward, which was gradually relaxed to Canal St. For details, see https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/4339. N.B.: Note 2 of the article is now stored there. 2604:2000:F64D:FC00:4C65:F947:AFEE:E7CA (talk) 11:31, 23 April 2018 (UTC)

Cancellations outside of North America
I don't have a source for this, but I still recall that the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur were also evacuated. DanTD (talk) 22:23, 10 January 2011 (UTC)

Downtown Cleveland was closed?
The citation for downtown Cleveland being closed (under evacuations, now citation 6), while being a dead link, has a date embedded in the link of November 25, 2002, is from a college newspaper, and has the title "Plan for Emergency Evacuation of Downtown Released". Without the original article, I am lead to believe that the article in question was talking about future evacuation plans and did not discuss Cleveland being evacuated at all on September 11th. Is there any other links to back this claim? --- 64.18.42.118 (talk) 14:01, 11 September 2012 (UTC)
 * Removed pending citation. Tom Harrison Talk 14:14, 11 September 2012 (UTC)

Diversion
If I was reading correctly then Hawaii/Iceland/etc. also help handled some diverted planes?C933103 (talk) 13:07, 20 September 2016 (UTC)

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Question re North American airspace section
I'm curious about this unattributed statement, which has no source: "The only traffic from LaGuardia during the closure was a single C-9C government VIP jet, departing at approximately 5:15 p.m. on the 12th." 108.54.201.30 (talk) 17:14, 2 April 2023 (UTC)


text:
Pierre Charles L'Enfant

Pierre "Peter" Charles L'Enfant (August 2, 1754 – June 14, 1825) was a French-American artist, professor, and military engineer who in 1791 designed the baroque styled plan for Washington, D.C., the capital city of the United States. His work is known today as the L'Enfant Plan which inspired plans for other world capitals such as Brasilia, New Delhi, and Canberra. In the United States, plans for Detroit, Indianapolis and Sacramento took inspiration from the plan for Washington, DC.

Early life and education
L'Enfant was born on August 2, 1754, in Paris, specifically at the Gobelins located in the 13th arrondissement on the city's left bank. He was the third child and second son of Pierre L'Enfant (1704–1787), a painter and professor at Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture known for his panoramas of battles, and Marie Charlotte Leullier, the daughter of a French military officer. In 1758, his brother Pierre Joseph died at six, and Pierre Charles became the eldest son. He studied with an intense curriculum at the Royal Academy from 1771 until 1776 with his father being one of his instructors. Academy classes were held at the Louvre, benefiting from the close proximity to some of Paris' greatest landmarks, such as the Tuileries Garden and Champs-Élysées, both designed by André Le Nôtre, and Place de la Concorde. L'Enfant would have also learned about city and urban planning during his time at the academy, likely examining baroque plans for Rome by Domenico Fontana and London by Sir Christopher Wren.

He was described by William Wilson Corcoran as "a tall, erect man, fully six feet in height, finely proportioned, nose prominent, of military bearing, courtly air and polite manners, his figure usually enveloped in a long overcoat and surmounted by a bell-crowned hat -- a man who would attract attention in any assembly." Sarah De Hart, daughter of New Jersey statesman John De Hart, drew a silhouette of L'Enfant in 1785. It now hangs in the Diplomatic Reception Rooms at the US Department of State.

Military service
After his education L'Enfant was recruited by Pierre Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais to serve in the American Revolutionary War in the United States. He arrived in 1777 at the age of 23, and served as a military engineer in the Continental Army with Major General Lafayette. He was commissioned as a captain in the Corps of Engineers on April 3, 1779, to rank from February 18, 1778.

Despite his aristocratic origins, L'Enfant closely identified with the United States, changing his first name from Pierre to Peter when he first came to the rebelling colonies in 1777. (1) L'Enfant identified himself as "Peter Charles L'Enfant" or Major L'Enfant while residing in the United States during most of his life. He wrote this name on the last line of text in an oval in the upper left corner of his "Plan of the city intended for the permanent seat of the government of t(he) United States ...." (Washington, D.C.) and on other legal documents, including a 1791 deed (See: Bowling, 2002 and Sterling, 2003 ). During the early 1900s, a French ambassador to the U.S., Jean Jules Jusserand, popularized the use of L'Enfant's birth name, "Pierre Charles L'Enfant". (See: Bowling (2002).) The National Park Service has identified L'Enfant as "Major Peter Charles L'Enfant" and as "Major Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant" in its histories of the Washington Monument on its website. The United States Code states in : "(a) In General. – The purposes of this chapter shall be carried out in the District of Columbia as nearly as may be practicable in harmony with the plan of Peter Charles L'Enfant." (2)  L'Enfant served on General George Washington's staff at Valley Forge. While there, the Marquis de Lafayette commissioned L'Enfant to paint a portrait of Washington.

During the war, L'Enfant made a number of pencil portraits of George Washington and other Continental Army officers. He also made at least two paintings of Continental Army encampments in 1782. They depict panoramas of West Point and Washington's tent at Verplanck's Point. The latter details what is believed to be "the only known wartime depiction of Washington’s tent by an eyewitness." The seven-and-a-half-foot-long painting was purchased by the Museum of American Revolution in Philadelphia.

During the fall of 1779 L’Enfant contributed to the Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States authored by General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben. He was tasked to draft the eight "plates" or illustrations detailing camp and troop formations, as he was the only artistically trained individual involved. The "Blue Book" was completed by April 1779, receiving approval from General Washington and Congress. For his efforts, Congress awarded L’Enfant $500 and officially promoted him to captain of engineers, retroactive to February 1778.

L'Enfant was wounded at the Siege of Savannah on October 9, 1779. He recovered and became a prisoner of war at the surrender of Charleston, South Carolina, on May 12, 1780. He was exchanged in November 1780 and served on General Washington's staff for the remainder of the American Revolution. While the historical consensus generally attributes the creation of the Badge of Military Merit, later known as the Purple Heart, to George Washington in 1782, there is an implied claim by Pamela Scott, Washington D.C. historian and former editor of The L'Enfant Papers at the Library of Congress, that L'Enfant may have conceived the medal's design. L'Enfant was promoted by brevet to Major in the Corps of Engineers on May 2, 1783, in recognition of his service to the cause of American liberty. He was discharged when the Continental Army was disbanded in December 1783. In acknowledgment of his Revolutionary War contributions, L'Enfant received 300 acres of land in present-day Ohio from the United States. However, he never set foot on or resided in the granted land. A map outlining the territory was sketched on the reverse side of a segment of L'Enfant's land deed, signed by President Thomas Jefferson on January 13, 1803.

Post–Revolutionary War

Following the American Revolutionary War, L'Enfant settled in New York City and achieved fame as an architect by redesigning the City Hall in New York for the First Congress of the United States (See: Federal Hall).

L'Enfant also designed furniture and houses for the wealthy, as well as coins and medals. Among the medals was the eagle-shaped badge of the Society of the Cincinnati, an organization of former officers of the Continental Army of which he was a founder. At the request of George Washington, the first President of the Society, L'Enfant had the insignias made in France during a 1783–84 visit to his father and helped to organize a chapter of the Society there.

In 1787 L'Enfant received an inheritance upon his father's death that included a farm in Normandy. His military pension and success as a designer provided financial stability enabling him to pursue his career and contribute to various projects for a period of time. While L'Enfant was in New York City, he was initiated into Freemasonry. His initiation took place on April 17, 1789, at Holland Lodge No. 8, F & A M, which the Grand Lodge of New York F & A M had chartered in 1787. L'Enfant took only the first of three degrees offered by the Lodge and did not progress further in Freemasonry.

Around this period, L'Enfant designed the "Glory" ornamentation above the altar in St. Paul's Church. The chapel, built in 1766, is the oldest continuously used building in New York City. George Washington worshipped there on his inauguration day. The intricate design vividly depicts Mt. Sinai amidst clouds and lightning, capturing the dramatic moment of divine revelation. At the center of the piece is the Hebrew word for "God" enclosed within a triangle, symbolizing the Holy Trinity. Below, the two tablets of the Law are inscribed with the Ten Commandments, highlighting the enduring significance of these foundational moral laws.

L'Enfant was also a close friend of Alexander Hamilton. Some of their correspondences from 1793 to 1801 now reside in the Library of Congress. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Hamilton is credited with helping L'Enfant with the federal city commission.

Plan for Washington, DC
The new Constitution of the United States, which took effect in March and April 1789, gave the newly organized Congress of the United States authority to establish a federal district up to 10 miles square in size. L'Enfant had already written first to President George Washington, asking to be commissioned to plan the city. However, a decision on the capital was put on hold until July 1790 when the First Congress passed the "Residence Act", setting the site of the new federal district and national capital to be on the shores of the Potomac River.

The Residence Act was the result of an important early political compromise between northern and southern congressional delegations, brokered by new cabinet members, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton of New York and political opponent, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia. It specified the new capital would be situated on the northern and southern banks of the Potomac River, at some location, to be determined by the president, between the Eastern Branch (now referred to as the Anacostia River) near Washington's estate of Mount Vernon and the confluence with the Conococheague Creek, further upstream near Hagerstown, Maryland. The Residence Act also gave authority to President Washington to appoint three commissioners to oversee the survey of the ten mile square federal district and "according to such Plans, as the President shall approve," provide public buildings to accommodate the Federal government in 1800.

President Washington appointed L'Enfant in 1791 to plan the new "Federal City" (later named the "City of Washington") under the supervision of the three Commissioners, whom Washington had appointed to oversee the planning and development of the federal territory that would later become designated the "District of Columbia". Included in the new district were the river port towns of Georgetown (formerly in Montgomery County of the State of Maryland) and Alexandria (in Fairfax County, in the Commonwealth of Virginia). Thomas Jefferson, who worked alongside President Washington in overseeing the plans for the capital, sent L'Enfant a letter outlining his task, which was to provide a drawing of suitable sites for the federal city and the public buildings. Though Jefferson had modest ideas for the Capital, L'Enfant saw the task as far more grandiose, believing he was not only surveying the capital, but devising the city plan and designing the buildings. The work of André Le Nôtre, particularly his Gardens of Versailles and Tuileries Garden, is said to have influenced L'Enfant's master plan for the capital.

Arrival in Georgetown
L'Enfant arrived in Georgetown on March 9, 1791, and began his work, from Suter's Fountain Inn. Washington arrived later on March 28, to meet with L'Enfant and the Commissioners for several days. On June 22, L'Enfant presented his first plan for the federal city to the President. On August 19, he appended a new map to a letter that he sent to the President. 100 square miles, roughly 6,000 acres, had been allocated to the city with the ambitious goal of having one million residents inhabit the area; it was to be as large as the occupied portions of New York, Boston, and Philadelphia combined. In a letter to then Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, L’Enfant stated that his models for the new city included such “grand” cities as London, Madrid, Paris, Amsterdam, Naples, Venice, Genoa, and Florence.

L'Enfant collaborated with a talented team of assistants whose contributions were instrumental in realizing his grand vision. Among these collaborators were Andrew Ellicott, a skilled surveyor whose meticulous measurements helped lay the groundwork for the city's layout. Benjamin Banneker, an African American mathematician and surveyor, provided invaluable expertise and calculations essential to the project. Étienne Sulpice Hallet or Stephen Hallet, an accomplished architect, served as a draftsman. Alexander Ralston, renowned for his urban design prowess, helped L'Enfant lay out the city plan. Isaac Roberdeau, a competent draftsman and son of the American founding father Daniel Roberdeau, served as L'Enfant's main assistant. Together, this diverse team of assistants collaborated closely with L'Enfant, each contributing their unique skills and expertise to the creation of the plan for the nation's capital.

President Washington retained a copy of one of L'Enfant's plans, showed it to the Congress, and later gave it to the three Commissioners.(1) Note: The plan that this web page describes identifies the plan's author as "Peter Charles L'Enfant". The web page nevertheless identifies the author as "Pierre-Charles L'Enfant." (2) Full-color facsimile of Peter Charles L'Enfant's 1791 manuscript plan for the City of Washington in Repository of the Library of Congress Geography and Map Division, Washington, D.C. (3)  Computer-assisted reproduction of Peter Charles L'Enfant's 1791 manuscript plan for the city of Washington, produced by the U.S. Geological Survey for the Library of Congress in: Repository of the Library of Congress Geography and Map Division, Washington, D.C. The U.S. Library of Congress now holds both the plan that Washington apparently gave to the Commissioners and an undated anonymous "dotted line" survey map that the Library considers L'Enfant to have drawn before August 19, 1791. The full plan identifies "Peter Charles L'Enfant" as its author in the last line of an oval in its upper left corner. The "dotted line" survey map may be one that L'Enfant appended to his August 19 letter to the President.

L'Enfant's "Plan of the city intended for the permanent seat of the government of the United States..." encompassed an area bounded by the Potomac River, the Eastern Branch, the base of the escarpment of the Atlantic Seaboard Fall Line, and Rock Creek. His plan specified locations for two buildings, the "Congress House" (the United States Capitol) and the "President's House" (known after its 1815–1817 rebuilding and re-painting of its stone walls, as the "White House" or "Executive Mansion"). The plan specified that most streets would be laid out in a grid. To form the grid, some streets (later named for letters of the alphabet) would travel in an east–west direction, while others (named for numbers) would travel in a north–south direction. Diagonal broader avenues, later named after the states of the Union, crossed the north–south-east/west grid. The diagonal avenues intersected with the north–south and east–west streets at circles and rectangular plazas that would later honor notable Americans and provide open space. The 15 states at the time were each allocated a square to build on and decorate as they saw fit. They would be located along the avenues and were to be easily visible from each other to engender friendly competition. L'Enfant's plan additionally laid out a system of canals (later designated as the Washington City Canal) that would pass the "Congress House" and the "President's House". One branch of the canal would empty into the Potomac River south of the "President's House" at the mouth of old Tiber Creek, which would be channelized and straightened.

Congress House
The "Congress House" would be built on "Jenkins Hill" (later to be known as "Capitol Hill"), which L'Enfant described as a "pedestal awaiting a monument". Emphasizing the importance of the new Nation's Legislature, the "Congress House" would be located on a longitude designated as 0:0. A sunburst of avenues would radiate out from this structure affirming its role as the center of the new republic. John Trumbull was given a tour of "Jenkins Hill" by L'Enfant himself; Trumbull confirmed in his autobiography that the concept for a "great circular room and dome" had originated with L'Enfant. It is unknown what L'Enfant's vision for the capitol building would have looked like. However, a separate plan submitted at a later date by his draftsman Étienne Sulpice Hallet might provides researchers a glimpse of what L'Enfant may have had in mind. Hallet's plan incorporates L'Enfant's ideas and shows different points of focus that align with the radiating avenues, thus ensuring harmony and balance that was important to L'Enfant.

President's House
L'Enfant envisioned the "President's House" to have public gardens and monumental architecture. Reflecting his grandiose visions, he specified that the "President's House" (occasionally referred to as the "President's Palace") would be five times the size of the building that was actually constructed, even then becoming the largest residence then constructed in America. The "President's House" would be located at a northwest diagonal from the "Congress House" along the future Pennsylvania Avenue. while situated on a ridge parallel to the Potomac River, north of a riverfront marsh and Tiber Creek.

The Mall
L'Enfant laid out a 400 ft-wide garden-lined "grand avenue", which he expected to travel for about 1 mi along an east–west axis in the center of an area that would later become the National Mall. The figure 1.6 symbolizes the Golden Ratio and is considered significant in art and architecture for creating visually appealing compositions. It can be found in many natural and man-made objects. The Mall was to be a democratic and egalitarian space—the complete opposite of the gardens of Versailles where only royalty and nobility accessed similar spaces in size and scope. It was to be flanked by gardens and spacious accommodations for foreign ministers.

Pennsylvania Avenue
L'Enfant also laid out a narrower avenue (later to be named Pennsylvania Avenue) which would connect two important landmarks: "Congress House" and the "President's House". Following the trajectory of the old Ferry Road, Pennsylvania Avenue would start from Georgetown—across the federal city—to the drawbridge by the Eastern Branch. The width of the avenue was set at 160 feet, identical to the narrowest points of the Champs Elysees in Paris that L'Enfant is likely to have examined. The most common explanation for the avenue being named after the state of Pennsylvania is likely pride of place to make up for losing the capital.

Plan Revisions and Dismissal
L'Enfant secured the lease of quarries at Wigginton Island and further southeast along Aquia Creek off the lower Potomac River's southern bank in Virginia to supply well-regarded "Aquia Creek sandstone" for the foundation and later for the wall slabs and blocks of the "Congress House" in November 1791. However, his temperament and his insistence that his city design be realized as a whole brought him into conflict with the Commissioners, who wanted to direct the limited funds available into the construction of the Federal buildings. In this, they had the support of Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson. Meanwhile, a concurrent plot began brewing that involved a local and wealthy landowner named Daniel Carroll of Duddington. He built a house that protruded exactly where L'Enfant planned for New Jersey Avenue SE to run; L'Enfant had the house torn down which infuriated the owner.

During a contentious period in February 1792, Andrew Ellicott, who had been conducting the original boundary survey of the future District of Columbia (see: Boundary markers of the original District of Columbia) and the survey of the "Federal City" under the direction of the Commissioners, informed the Commissioners that L'Enfant had not been able to have the city plan engraved and had refused to provide him with the original plan (of which L'Enfant had prepared several versions). Additionally, L'Enfant hinted that he rendered draft plans for the "Congress House" and "President's House", but he was not ready to share them. During a trip to Philadelphia in December 1791, his office had been burgled and sketches and plans for the city and public buildings had been stolen.

Andrew Ellicott stated in his letters that, although he was refused the original plan, he was familiar with L'Enfant's system and had many notes of the surveys that he had made himself. It is, therefore, possible that Ellicott recreated the plan. Ellicott, with the aid of his brother, Benjamin Ellicott, later revised the plan, despite L'Enfant's protests. Ellicott's revisions included the straightening of Massachusetts Avenue (Washington, D.C.), the removal of Randolph Square (close to present day Shaw Library) (1) Washington Map Society: Plan of the City of Washington. (2) At HathiTrust Digital Library. (3) The U.S. National Archives holds a copy of "Ellicott's engraved Plan superimposed on the Plan of L'Enfant showing the changes made in the engraved Plan under the direction of President Washington". See "Scope & Contents" page of "Archival Description" for National Archives holding of "Miscellaneous Oversize Prints, Drawings and Posters of Projects Associated with the Commission of Fine Arts, compiled 1893 – 1950", ARC Identifier 518229/Local Identifier 66-M; Series from Record Group 66: Records of the Commission of Fine Arts, 1893 – 1981. Record of holding obtained through search in Archival Descriptions Search of ARC – Archival Research Catalog using search term L'Enfant Plan Ellicott, 2008-08-22. and geometric changes to the public spaces. In L'Enfant's plan, the original design of what became known as Dupont Circle was rectangular while Logan Circle (Washington, D.C.) featured a triangular shape.

Shortly thereafter, Washington dismissed L'Enfant due to insubordination. Andrew Ellicott continued the city survey in accordance with the revised plan, several versions of which were engraved, published and distributed. As a result, Ellicott's revisions subsequently became the basis for the capital city's development. Ellicott's brother Joseph later adopted the radial plan of Washington for Buffalo, New York.

However, L'Enfant was not the only person to experience frustration overseeing the project. Ellicott complained to Washington on March 16, 1793, and expressed immense dissatisfaction at being rushed through his work. He left the project and the role of chief surveyor and planner fell to a succession of men: Isaac Briggs, Benjamin Ellicott and Joseph Ellicott, Thomas Freeman, Nicholas King, Robert King Sr., and Nicholas King again. In 1802, Jefferson relieved the Commissioners of their duties and appointed three individuals to report directly to him on matters concerning the city's development: Thomas Munroe was appointed superintendent, Nicholas King assumed the role of surveyor for the federal city, and Benjamin Latrobe was designated as surveyor of public buildings.

Later works
Soon after leaving the national capital area, L'Enfant prepared the initial plans for the city of Paterson, in northeast New Jersey along the Passaic River, but was discharged from this project after a year had passed. However, in 1846 the city reinstated the original scheme proposed by L'Enfant after the city's raceway system encountered problems. During the same period (1792–1793) he designed Robert Morris's mansion in Philadelphia, which was never finished because of his delays and Morris's bankruptcy. In 1794, L'Enfant was placed in charge of reconstructing Fort Mifflin on Mud Island in the Delaware River below Philadelphia.

In 1812, L'Enfant was offered a position as a professor of engineering at United States Military Academy, at West Point, New York, but declined that post. He later served as a professor of engineering at West Point from 1813 to 1817. In 1814, acting secretary of war James Monroe hired L'Enfant to oversee the design and reconstruction of Fort Washington on the Potomac River southeast of Washington, D.C., but others soon replaced him. Monroe urged L'Enfant to be more economical as project costs soared. Ultimately, L'Enfant left the project due to these financial issues.

L'Enfant had no part in planning or platting Perrysburg, Ohio, or Indianapolis, Indiana, as has been claimed in Internet postings. (1) (2)  (3) (4)  (5)  Alexander Bourne, Joseph Wampler and William Brookfield surveyed and platted the future Perrysburg area in 1816. Alexander Ralston, an engineer who had assisted L'Enfant in planning the city of Washington, used elements of L'Enfant's plan for his own design and survey in the 1820s of the future city of Indianapolis (the state capital of Indiana).

Death
L'Enfant approached his financial matters with a casual attitude, especially related to payment for his work. Operating on a gentlemanly code of conduct, L'Enfant believed that if he committed his efforts to a project, he would eventually receive compensation and/or more work, without the need for formal contracts. This laissez-faire approach meant that L'Enfant often found himself in precarious financial situations. L'Enfant also valued fame and notoriety over money and land. After his work on Federal Hall for Washington's inauguration, the Common Council of New York offered L'Enfant honorary citizenship and a ten-acre plot on the city's northern edge; he accepted citizenship, but declined the plot. However, in times of financial desperation, he demanded back pay for his work and was dissatisfied when the amounts offered did not meet his expectations.

In an 1806 journal entry, architect Benjamin Latrobe said the following of the major: "Daily through the city stalks the picture of famine, L'Enfant and his dog. The plan of the city is probably his, though others claim it. He had the courage to undertake any public work whatever was offered to him. He has not succeeded in any, but was always honest and is now miserably poor. He is too proud to receive any assistance, and it is very doubtful in what manner he subsists."

Although the United States Congress paid him $4,600 in 1808 and $1,300 in 1810 for his work on the design of the City of Washington, after many years of petitioning for back pay and recognition, L'Enfant lost most of the money from a lawsuit filed by his friend and housemate, Richard Soderstrom, the Swedish counsel to the United States. Soderstrom claimed that the L'Enfant owed him for a decade worth of rent, firewood, and meals among other things. He had supported L'Enfant with his quest for back pay and was also in a position to know when Congress might act on the matter. Sadly, L'Enfant "had become the victim of an outright swindle.".

In his final years, he befriended Thomas Digges and became a permanent guest at the family estate in Maryland. L'Enfant died on June 14, 1825, and was originally buried at the Green Hill farm in Chillum, Prince George's County, Maryland. He left behind three watches, three compasses, some books, some maps, and surveying instruments, the total value was forty-six dollars.

1825 to 1860s

For the 40 years following L'Enfant's death, Washington was seen as a stillborn city, growing slowly and remaining a collection of muddy villages. After John Adams left office, Democratic-Republicans insisted the federal city remain small and modest, believing in limited government and fearing grandiose buildings would symbolize excessive power. They aimed for a capital reflecting republican virtues of simplicity and frugality, avoiding European-style ostentation and ensuring the city did not overshadow the states.

Between the administrations of Thomas Jefferson and Abraham Lincoln, many presidents neglected the city's overall upkeep and development, resulting in inadequate infrastructure, poor planning, and overall chaos. In an 1800 letter to the commissioners, L'Enfant accused some politicians of being infatuated with the idea of the city becoming a "mere contemptible hamlet." The lack of basic infrastructure led to unsanitary conditions, with the Washington City Canal becoming an open sewer. Summer heat and oppressive humidity compounded these issues. President Lincoln's third son died from typhoid fever likely due to contaminated water. Crime and gang violence proliferated, creating the rise of unstable neighborhoods like Hell's Bottom (Shaw), Murder Bay (Federal Triangle), and Swampoodle (NoMa). The Mall was a wasteland where animals grazed casually around an unfinished Washington Monument. Slave trading was rampant and often operated near the Capitol and White House.

Charles Dickens, in his 1842 visit, famously characterized the city as "the City of Magnificent Intentions" due to its incomplete streets and buildings. Considered a national embarrassment, the capital faced significant challenges, transforming into a hotbed of issues that tarnished its image. Foreign diplomats considered their assignments to the city as a hardship post.

1870 and onwards
The city's fortunes changed after the Civil War with the arrival of President Ulysses S. Grant and his appointment of Alexander Robey Shepherd as head of the DC Board of Public Works from 1871 to 1873. Shepherd rapidly improved infrastructure by paving roads, installing gas and sewer lines, and planting thousands of trees. Through these investments in public works, Grant squashed debates about moving the capital westward. In 1874, landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted was asked to redesign the Capitol grounds, addressing issues with its placement by building marble terraces on the west front.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the ideals of the City Beautiful movement influenced the McMillan Commission under the leadership of Senator James McMillan, (1838–1902) of Michigan, who modified L'Enfant's plan within a report that recommended a partial redesign of the capital city. Among other things, the commission's report laid out a plan for a sweeping mall in the area of L'Enfant's widest "grand avenue", which had not yet been constructed. The McMillan Plan has since been instrumental in the further development of Washington, D.C. (See: History of Washington, D.C. in the 20th century). Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., ("Rick" Olmsted), was part of the Commission alongside Daniel Burnham, Charles Follen McKim and Augustus Saint-Gaudens.

At the instigation of a French ambassador to the United States, Jean Jules Jusserand, L'Enfant's adopted nation then recognized his contributions. In 1909, L'Enfant's remains were exhumed from their burial site at Green Hill and placed in a metal-lined casket. After lying in state at the Capitol rotunda, L'Enfant was re-interred in front of Arlington House on a slope in Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia. His re-burial site overlooks the Potomac River and the portion of Washington, D.C., that he had originally designed. In 1911, a monument was placed on top of L'Enfant's grave during a dedication ceremony at which President William Howard Taft, Jusserand, and Senator Elihu Root spoke. Engraved on the monument is a portion of L'Enfant's plan in a diagram map, which Andrew Ellicott's revision and the McMillan Commission's plan had superseded.

When the British decided to move the capital of their Indian Empire from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911, by creating a new district of the latter entitled New Delhi, architect Sir Edwin Lutyens took inspiration from the McMillan Plan with the inclusion of broad avenues and a ceremonial axis placing important monuments at strategic locations.

Today, various government agencies such as the National Capital Planning Commission and United States Commission of Fine Arts oversee development in the city and surrounding areas ensuring adherence to the L'Enfant plan and its historical accuracy.

The design and development of Washington, D.C. is the story of six influential men: three presidents and three visionary figures who shaped the city. George Washington, Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt provided crucial presidential leadership, while Pierre Charles L'Enfant, Alexander Robey Shepherd, and Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. made significant contributions to the city's design and development.

Artist Peter Waddell painted the federal city plan in the way L'Enfant intended it to look; the painting is called "The Indispensable Plan."

In the run up to the Paris 2024 Summer Olympics, media outlets are examining the connection between Washington, DC and L'Enfant.

Honors

 * In 1942, an American cargo-carrying Liberty ship in World War II, named the S.S. Pierre L'Enfant was launched, part of a series of almost 2,000 ships mass-produced in an "assembly-line" fashion from eleven coastal shipyards. In 1970, she was shipwrecked and abandoned.
 * L'Enfant Plaza, a complex of office buildings, was dedicated in 1968 and named for the architect. It includes the 1972 headquarters of the United States Postal Service, an adjacent L'Enfant Plaza Hotel, an office building and underground parking garage, and a series of underground corridors with a shopping center, centered around an esplanade ('L'Enfant Promenade") in southwest Washington, D.C.. Meeting rooms in the L'Enfant Plaza Hotel bear the names of French artists, military leaders, and explorers. The central portion of the plaza contains an engraved map of the city by Pierre L'Enfant from 1791. Within the city map is a smaller map that shows the plaza's location.
 * Beneath L'Enfant Plaza is one of the central Metro subway stops in Washington, D.C., the L'Enfant Plaza station.
 * In 1980, Western Plaza (subsequently renamed to "Freedom Plaza") opened in downtown Washington, D.C., adjacent to Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W. A raised marble inlay in the Plaza's surface depicts parts of L'Enfant's 1791 plan for the City of Washington. The inlay contains an oval bearing the title of the plan followed by the words "By Peter Charles L'Enfant".
 * In 2003, L'Enfant's 1791 Plan for Washington was commemorated on a USPS commemorative postage stamp. The diamond shape of the stamp reflects the original 100 sqmi tract of land selected for the District. Shown is a view along the National Mall, including the Capitol, the Washington Monument, and the Lincoln Memorial. Also portrayed are cherry blossoms around the "Tidal Basin" and row houses from the Shaw neighborhood.
 * The Government of the District of Columbia commissioned a statue of L'Enfant in 2008 that now resides in the U.S. Capitol as part of the National Statuary Hall Collection as of February 2022. Federal Law only allows U.S. states (and not federal territories, commonwealths, districts or other possessions) to contribute statues to the Collection, which the District of Columbia's Delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives, Eleanor Holmes Norton, attempted to have Congress change the law to permit the installation of the statue to represent the District in the Statuary Hall. The statue was displayed in the historic John A. Wilson District Building for the municipal government offices on Pennsylvania Avenue prior to the Capitol.
 * Since 2005, the National Building Museum in Washington, D.C. has held an annual "L'Enfant Lecture on City Planning and Design" to draw attention to critical issues in city and regional planning in the United States.
 * The American Planning Association (APA) has created an award named in "L'Enfant's honor" which recognizes excellence in international planning.
 * In a presentation at the University of Toronto, landscape architect Kathryn Gustafson said "L'Enfant's plan was one of the most amazing urban plans in the world."

title: Pierre Charles L'Enfant