text:
Plessey System 250

Plessey System 250, also known as PP250, was the first operational computer to implement capability-based addressing, to check and balance the computation as a pure Church–Turing machine. Plessey built the systems for a British Army message routing project.

Description
A Church–Turing machine is a digital computer that encapsulates the symbols in a thread of computation as a chain of protected abstractions by enforcing the dynamic binding laws of Alonzo Church's lambda calculus Other capability based computers, which include CHERI and CAP computers, are hybrids. They retain default instructions that can access every word of accessible physical or logical (paged) memory.

It is an unavoidable characteristic of the von Neumann architecture that is founded on shared random access memory and trust in the sharing default access rights. For example, every word in every page managed by the virtual memory manager in an operating system using a memory management unit (MMU) must be trusted. Using a default privilege among many compiled programs allows corruption to grow without any method of error detection. However, the range of virtual addresses given to the MMU or the range of physical addresses produced by the MMU is shared undetected corruption flows across the shared memory space from one software function to another. PP250 removed not only virtual memory or any centralized, precompiled operating system, but also the superuser, removing all default machine privileges.

It is default privileges that empower undetected malware and hacking in a computer. Instead, the pure object capability model of PP250 always requires a limited capability key to define the authority to operate. PP250 separated binary data from capability data to protect access rights, simplify the computer and speed garbage collection. The Church machine encapsulates and context limits the Turing machine by enforcing the laws of the lambda calculus. The typed digital media is program controlled by distinctly different machine instructions.

Mutable binary data is programmed by 28 RISC instruction set for Imperative programming and procedural programming the binary data using binary data registers confined to a capability limited memory segment. The immutable capability keys, exclusive to six Church instructions, navigate the computational context of a Turing machine through the separately programmed structure of the object-capability model.

Immutable capability keys represent named lambda calculus variables. This Church side is a lambda calculus meta-machine. The other side is an object-oriented machine of binary objects, programmed functions, capability lists defining function abstractions, storage for threads of computation (lambda calculus applications) or storage for the list of capability keys in a namespace. The laws of the lambda calculus are implemented by the Church instructions with micro-programmed access to the reserved (hidden) capability registers. The software is incrementally assembled as object-oriented machine-code linked by the capability keys. The structure of function abstractions, including those for memory management, input, and output, scheduling and communication services are protected as private frames in a thread. Threads computer inline or as parallel computations activated by program controlled Church instruction.

Conceptually, the PP250 operates as a digitally secure, functional Church–Turing Machine for trusted software. As a real-time controller, the PP250 provided fail-safe software applications for computerized telephone and military communication systems with decades of software and hardware reliability. Capability limited addressing detects and recovers from errors on contact without any harmful corruption or information theft. Furthermore, no unfair, default privileges exist for an operating system or a superuser, thereby blocking all hacking and malware. The multiprocessing hardware architecture and the dynamically bound, type limited memory, exclusively accessed through capability limited addressing, replace the statically bound, page based linear compilations with dynamically bound instructions, crosschecked and authorized at run time.

By checking all memory references as an offset within the base, limit, and access types specified bugs, errors and attacks are detected by the type limited capability register. The imperative Turing commands must bind to binary data objects as defined by the selected capability register. The access rights of the selected capability register must approve data access rights (Read Binary Data, Write Binary Data or Execute Machine Code). On the other hand, functional Church instructions are bound dynamically to a capability key in a capability list held in a capability register with capability access rights (Load Capability Key, Save Capability Key or Enter Capability List). In this way, object-oriented machine code is encapsulated as a function abstraction in private execution space.

It is a register-oriented architecture, with 8 program accessible data registers and 8 program accessible capability registers. Data registers are 24-bit; capability registers are 48-bit and contain the base address of the segment to which the capability refers, the size of the segment, and the access rights granted by the capability. Capabilities in memory are 24-bit and contain the access rights and an index into the System Capability Table for the segment to which the capability refers; entries in that table contain the segment base address and length for the segment to which the entry refers.

Instructions that access memory have an opcode, a field specifying a data register operand, a field specifying a data register used as an index register containing an offset into a segment, a field specifying a capability register referring to the segment containing the memory location, and a field containing a base offset into the segment. The offset into the segment is the sum of the base offset and the contents of the index register.

The software was modular based on the universal model of computation and the lambda calculus. Six Church instructions hide the details of a named function application using capability keys for the typed concepts of variables, functions, abstractions, applications and a namespace. Instead of binding instructions to static linear memory as a default shared privilege used by malware and hackers, instructions are bound to typed and protected, private digital objects using capability keys in a capability-based security system of immutable mathematical symbols. The result achieved many decades of trusted software reliability.

History
Manufactured by Plessey company plc in the United Kingdom in 1970, it was successfully deployed by the Ministry of Defence for the  British Army Ptarmigan project and served in the first Gulf War as a tactical mobile communication network switch.

The PP250 was sold commercially circa 1972.

title: Plessey System 250


text:
List of people from Jammu and Kashmir

This is the list of notable people from Jammu and Kashmir.

Academics, science and technology

 * G. M. Bhat, geologist and professor.
 * Ved Kumari Ghai, Padma Shri and Nari Shakti Puraskar recipient, eminent Sanskrit Scholar and renowned social worker
 * Lalit Gupta, art historian
 * Subhash Kak, American computer scientist
 * Vijay Mahajan, American Marketing Professor from Jammu
 * Amitabh Mattoo, thinker and professor
 * Anusha Shah, civil engineer
 * Vishwamurti Shastri, Sanskrit scholar
 * Sonam Wangchuk, engineer, innovator and education reformist

Administration and police

 * Masud Choudhary, ex IPS officer
 * Shah Faesal, first IAS topper from Kashmir
 * V. N. Kaul, Comptroller and Auditor General of India, Padma Bhushan
 * Abdul Rashid Khan, IPS, Ex Inspector General of Police and Member State Human Rights Commission.
 * Farooq Khan, ex IPS, politician, advisor
 * Kewal Kumar Sharma,ex IAS officer and advisor to Governor
 * Shesh Paul Vaid, IPS officer

Artists

 * Aamir Bashir, actor
 * Rahul Bhat, actor
 * MC Kash, rapper and singer
 * KRSNA, rapper and actor
 * Kshmr, EDM artist
 * Vidyut Jamwal, actor
 * Baabarr Mudacer, singer and rapper
 * Malika Pukhraj, singer
 * Alla Rakha, musician
 * Ghulam Rasool Santosh, painter
 * Vibha Saraf, singer & musician
 * Mir Sarwar, actor
 * Kanish Sharma, music director and singer
 * Shivkumar Sharma, musician
 * Bhajan Sopori, musician
 * Dina Nath Walli, painter

Defence forces

 * Ajay Singh Jasrotia, Sena Medal recipient, Kargil War
 * Chewang Rinchen, double MVC recipient
 * Bana Singh, PVC recipient
 * General Bikram Singh, ex Chief of Army Staff
 * Rajinder Singh, first MVC recipient
 * Nirmal Chander Vij, ex Chief of Army Staff
 * Nazir Ahmad Wani, first Ashoka Chakra recipient

Films and television

 * Anjali Abrol, film actress
 * Raj Singh Arora, TV actor
 * Praneet Bhat, actor
 * Vidhu Vinod Chopra
 * Aditya Dhar, film director & lyricist
 * Sandeepa Dhar, actress
 * Zain Khan Durrani actor, poet
 * Sana Dua, model
 * Aly Goni, TV actor
 * Sidhant Gupta, actor
 * Jeevan, actor
 * Mushtaq Kak, actor and theatre director
 * Sanjay Kak, documentary film maker
 * Siddharth Kak, television producer and presenter
 * Ekta Kaul, TV actress
 * Kanchi Kaul, actress
 * Sumit Kaul, actor
 * Hina Khan, TV actress
 * Mohammed Iqbal Khan, actor
 * Mushtaq Khan actor, writer, producer
 * Kunal Khemu, actor
 * Anupam Kher, actor
 * Kiran Kumar, actor
 * Raaj Kumar, film actor
 * Reyhna Malhotra, TV actress
 * Leenesh Mattoo, TV actor
 * Wasim Mushtaq, TV actor
 * Om Prakash, character actor
 * Abrar Qazi, actor
 * K. K. Raina, actor, director
 * M. K. Raina, actor, theatre director
 * Mohit Raina, actor
 * Priya Raina, actor, singer, voice artist
 * Mukesh Rishi, actor
 * Vineet Raina, actor
 * K. L. Saigal, singer and actor
 * Tej Sapru, actor
 * Mir Sarwar, actor, former model
 * Loveleen Kaur Sasan, TV serial actress
 * Kanish Sharma, music director
 * Nitin Sharma, model
 * Shaheer Sheikh, TV actor
 * Sunder, actor
 * Sanjay Suri, actor
 * Qazi Touqeer, singer
 * Zaira Wasim, former film actress
 * Rajendranath Zutshi, film actor

Journalism & media

 * Shujaat Bukhari
 * Sajjad Haider, journalist and editor of Kashmir Observer
 * Yusuf Jameel, veteran Kashmiri journalist known for his coverage of Kashmir conflict.
 * Altaf Qadri, photojournalist working with the Associated Press.
 * Nidhi Razdan, newscaster
 * Fahad Shah, journalist, founder and editor of The Kashmir Walla.
 * Qazi Shibli, journalist and editor of The Kashmiryat.
 * Asif Sultan, journalist and editor in chief of Kashmir Narrator
 * Kamran Yousuf, photojournalist
 * Masrat Zahra, freelance photojournalist.

Law and justice

 * Adarsh Sein Anand, ex Chief Justice of India
 * Parvez Imroz, human rights activist and lawyer
 * Mehr Chand Mahajan, ex Chief Justice of India
 * Bilal Nazki, ex Chief Justice of Orissa and Chairman of Human Rights Commission of Bihar
 * T. S. Thakur, ex Chief Justice of India

Literature

 * Agha Shahid Ali, poet and finalist for National Book Award of United States in 2001
 * Rafiq Anjum, poet, researcher, poet and critic of Prof. Rahman Rahi
 * Bashir Bhadarwahi, writer, educationist, poet
 * Moti Lal Kemmu, Kashmiri writer and social worker
 * Habba Khatun, 16th-century poet, known as "Nightingale of Kashmir"
 * Lalleshwari, poet-saint
 * Hakeem Manzoor, writer, poet
 * Farooq Nazki, poet, broadcaster and media personality
 * Basharat Peer, author and scriptwriter
 * Padma Sachdev, poet, novelist, first modern women poet of Dogri language
 * Ali Mohammad Shahbaz, writer, poet
 * Deen Bandhu Sharma, writer
 * Nilamber Dev Sharma, first publication in English about Dogri literature
 * Ram Nath Shastri, known as "Father of Dogri" as he brought Dogri language at national level, Dogri poet
 * Jitendra Udhampuri, writer

Politics

 * Farooq Abdullah, former Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir
 * Omar Abdullah, former Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir
 * Sheikh Abdullah, former Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir.
 * Ghulam Nabi Azad, former Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir
 * Mirza Afzal Beg (d.1982) was the first Deputy Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir
 * Mirza Mehboob Beg (1949-), politician. He is Former Member of Parliament from Anantnag
 * Altaf Bukhari, former Finance Minister of Jammu and Kashmir
 * Abdul Rashid Dar Chairman of J&K Legislative Council and MLA, MLC
 * Prem Nath Dogra, founder of Praja Parishad Party
 * Shah Faesal, Independent politician, founder of Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Movement.
 * Peer Mohammed Hussain, former Minister of State and co founder of Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party
 * Sakina Itoo, former Social Welfare And Tourism Minister of Jammu and Kashmir
 * Wali Mohammad Itoo, former Speaker of J&K Legislative Assembly
 * Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad, former Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir
 * Mehbooba Mufti, former Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir
 * Syed Mir Qasim, former Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir
 * G. M. Saroori, former MLA
 * Mufti Mohammad Sayeed, former Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir. and former Home Minister of India
 * Sunil Sharma, former MLA
 * Karan Singh, ex Sadar-e-Raiyasat
 * Firdous Tak, former MLC

Religion

 * Banda Singh Bahadur
 * Alhaj Ghulam Qadir Ganipuri
 * Rahmatullah Mir Qasmi
 * Showkat Ahmed Shah
 * Mohammad Anwar Shopiani
 * Faizul Waheed

Royalty

 * Gulab Singh, Maharaja
 * Hari Singh, Maharaja
 * Karan Singh, Maharaja
 * Pratap Singh, Maharaja
 * Ranbir Singh, Maharaja
 * Shah Mir, Sultan
 * Ghazi Shah Chak, Sultan
 * Zayn al-Abidin the Great, Sultan
 * Sikandar Shah Miri, Sultan
 * Yousuf Shah Chak, Sultan
 * Habba Khatoon, Queen Consort

Social Activists

 * Parveena Ahanger, cofounder and chairman of the Association of Parents of Disappeared Persons (APDP)
 * Mushtaq Pahalgami, social activist, environmentalist

Sports

 * Ishfaq Ahmed, Indian football team
 * Danish Farooq Bhat, Indian footballer plays as midfielder for real Kashmir team
 * Manzoor Dar, Indian cricketer
 * Gul Dev, Winter Olympian
 * Nadeem Iqbal, Winter Olympian
 * Ranveer Jamwal, mountaineer, climbed Everest 3 times, has climbed the highest peaks of all 7 continents
 * Shubham Khajuria, cricketer
 * Arif Khan, Winter Olympian
 * Umran Malik, J&K cricketer, played IPL through Sunrisers Hyderabad
 * Mithun Manhas, Indian Premier League player
 * Aadil Manzoor Peer, international ice stock sport athlete, web developer
 * Samay Raina, chess player, YouTuber, streamer
 * Iqra Rasool, Indian cricketer
 * Parvez Rasool, first J&K cricketer to represent India in International cricket
 * Rasikh Salam, Indian Premier League player
 * Abdul Samad, J&K cricketer, played IPL through Sunrisers Hyderabad
 * Mohammad Sarfaraz, international ice stock sport athlete, Digital Marketer
 * Chain Singh, J&K's first Olympian, Asian Games 2014 Bronze Medal winner in shooting
 * Mehrajuddin Wadoo, Indian Football team
 * Zahid Hussain, Indian sport shooter

Other

 * Faizan Arif, J&K's first recognized independent weatherman, columnist, and founder of Kashmir Weather.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of people from Jammu and Kashmir


text:
List of people from Madhya Pradesh

This is a list of famous and notable people from Madhya Pradesh, India. This would include persons who are known to a large number of people and is based on the extent of their popularity. Their fame could be brief, what matters is that they were well known during the peak of their popularity.

Ancient

 * Yashodharman, (Gupta script: Gupta allahabad y.svgGupta allahabad sho.jpgGupta allahabad dh.svgGupta allahabad rmm.jpg Ya-śo-dha-rmma, ) (r. 515 – 545) was a ruler of Malwa, in Central India, during the early part of the 6th century. He probably belonged to the Second Aulikara dynasty. He conquered much of the Indian subcontinent between c. 530-540 AD according to Mandsaur pillar inscription.
 * Devi (wife of Ashoka) was, according to the Sri Lankan chronicles, the first wife of the third Mauryan Emperor Ashoka The Great. She was also the mother of Ashoka's first two children—his son, Mahendra, and daughter, Sanghamitra—both of whom played important roles in the spread of Buddhism to other countries. She is also remembered for the Sanchi Stupa.

Medieval

 * Nagabhata I, (r. c. 730 – 760 CE) was the founder of the imperial Gurjara Pratihara dynasty in northern India. He ruled the Avanti (or Malava) region in present-day Madhya Pradesh, from his capital at Ujjain. He may have extended his control over Gurjaradesa, which includes parts of present-day Gujarat and Rajasthan.
 * Nagabhata II, (reign 795–833) was an Indian Emperor from Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. He ascended the throne of Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty after his father Vatsraja.
 * Mihira Bhoja, (c. 836–885 CE) or Bhoja I was a Gurjara-Pratihara emperor. He succeeded his father, Ramabhadra. Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Ādivarāha, which is inscribed on some of his coins. . One of the outstanding political figures of India in the ninth century, he ranks with Dhruva Dharavarsha and Dharmapala as a great general and empire builder.
 * Lakshmikarna, (IAST: Lakśmi-Karṇa, r. c. 1041–1073 CE), also known as Karna, was a ruler of the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri in central India. His kingdom was centered around the Chedi or Dahala region in present-day Madhya Pradesh.
 * Hammiravarman, (IAST: Hammīravarman, c. 1288–1311 CE) was a king of the Chandela dynasty of central India. He ruled in the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh). During his reign, the Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khalji conquered some parts of the Chandela kingdom.
 * Rahila, (IAST: Rāhila, reigned c. 885–905 CE) was a king of the Chandela dynasty of India. He ruled in the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh).
 * Yashovarman, (IAST: Yaśovarman; reigned c. 925–950 CE), also known as Lakshavarman, was a king of the Chandela dynasty of India. He ruled in the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh). He practically established the Chandelas as a sovereign power, although he formally acknowledged suzerainty of the Gurjara-Pratiharas. His major military achievement was the conquest of Kalanjara (modern Kalinjar). He is also notable for having commissioned the Lakshmana Temple at Khajuraho.
 * Dhanga, (r. c. 950–999 CE), also known as Dhaṇgadeva in inscriptions, was a king of the Chandela dynasty of India. He ruled in the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh). Dhanga established the sovereignty of the Chandelas, who had served as vassals to the Pratiharas until his reign. He is also notable for having commissioned magnificent temples at Khajuraho, including the Vishvanatha temple.
 * Vidyadhara, (r. c. 1003–1035 CE) was a Chandela king of central India. He ruled in the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh). Vidyadhara was the successor of Ganda, and expanded the Chandela power between Chambal river in the northwest and Narmada River in south.
 * Madanavarman, (reigned c. 1128–1165 CE) was a king of the Chandela dynasty of India. He succeeded his father Prithvi-Varman as the ruler of the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand in present-day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh). He revived the Chandela glory by subduing the neighbouring kingdoms, and commissioned several tanks and temples.
 * Bhoja, (reigned c. 1010–1055 CE) was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty. His kingdom was centered around the Malwa region in central India, where his capital Dhara-nagara (modern Dhar) was located. Bhoja fought wars with nearly all his neighbours in attempts to extend his kingdom, with varying degrees of success. At its zenith, his empire extended from Chittor in the north to upper Konkan in the south, and from the Sabarmati River in the west to Vidisha in the east.
 * Devapala, (reigned c. 1218–1239 CE) was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty, who ruled in the Malwa region of central India.
 * Mahalakadeva, (died 1305 CE), also known as Mahlak Deo or Mahlak Deva, was a king of the Paramara dynasty in central India. The last known ruler of the dynasty, he was defeated and killed by the forces of Alauddin Khalji of Delhi.

Modern Day

 * Vijaya Raje Scindia (12 October 1919 – 25 January 2001), born Lekha Divyeshwari Devi in Nepal and known popularly as the Rajmata of Gwalior in India, was a prominent Indian political personality. In the days of the British Raj, as consort of the last ruling Maharaja of Gwalior, Jivajirao Scindia, she ranked among the highest royal figures of the land. In later life, she became a politician of considerable influence and was elected repeatedly to both houses of the Indian parliament. She was one of the founding members of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh.

Freedom fighters

 * Chandra Shekhar Azad, (23 July 1906 – 27 February 1931), popularly known as Chandra Shekhar Azad, was an Indian revolutionary who reorganised the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) under its new name of Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) after the death of its founder, Ram Prasad Bismil, and three other prominent party leaders, Roshan Singh, Rajendra Nath Lahiri and Ashfaqulla Khan. He hailed from Bardarka village in Unnao district of United Provinces and his parents were Sitaram Tiwari and Jagrani Devi. He often used the pseudonym "Balraj" while signing pamphlets issued as the commander-in-chief of the HSRA.
 * Ravishankar Shukla, (2 August 1877 — 31 December 1956) was a leader of the Indian National Congress, Indian independence movement activist, the Premier of the Central Provinces and Berar from 27 April 1946 to 25 January 1950, first Chief Minister of the reorganised Madhya Pradesh state from 1 November 1956 until his death on 31 December 1956, he was elected from Saraipali in Madhya Pradesh (now in Chhattisgarh). He also served as Member of Constituent Assembly of India from Central Provinces and Berar.
 * Tatya Tope
 * Rani Lakshmi Bai, born Manikarnika Tambe; 19 November 1828 — 18 June 1858), was the Maharani consort of the princely state of Jhansi in Maratha Empire from 1843 to 1853 by marriage to Maharaja Gangadhar Rao Newalkar. She was one of the leading figures in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, who became a national hero and symbol of resistance to the British rule in India for Indian nationalists.
 * Tantya Bheel (Tantya Mama), (or Tantya Bheel, Tantya Mama; 26 January 1842 – 4 December 1889) was a freedom fighter active in India between 1878 and 1889. He is described very negatively as a criminal in the British-era accounts, but is recognized by Indians as a heroic figure. Accounts of both eras have described him as an "Indian Robin Hood".
 * Jhalkari Bai
 * Rani Avanti Bai (16 August 1831 – 20 March 1858) was an Indian queen-ruler and freedom fighter. She was the queen of the Ramgarh (present-day Dindori) in Madhya Pradesh. An opponent of the British East India Company during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, information concerning her is sparse and mostly comes from folklore. In 21st century, she has been used as an icon in Lodhi politics as she comes from Lodhi Rajput community.

Scientists

 * Raj Chandra Bose (or Basu) (19 June 1901 – 31 October 1987) was an Indian American mathematician and statistician best known for his work in design theory, finite geometry and the theory of error-correcting codes in which the class of BCH codes is partly named after him.
 * Narendra Karmarkar, Gwalior, mathematician. Karmarkar developed Karmarkar's algorithm.
 * Anil Kakodkar, Barwani,, nuclear physicist and mechanical engineer
 * Siddhartha Paul Tiwari FRAS, academic, technologist and researcher.
 * D. D. Bhawalkar
 * Shiv Prasad Kosta
 * Usha Kulshreshtha
 * Sudhir Kumar Mishra
 * Sangita Mukhopadhyay
 * Manmohan Parida
 * Vijay Kumar Patodi
 * Waman Dattatreya Patwardhan
 * J. S. Rajput
 * C. K. Raju
 * N. J. Rao
 * R. Sankararamakrishnan
 * V. K. Saraswat
 * Sharadchandra Shankar Shrikhande
 * Ajay K. Sood
 * Har Swarup
 * Umesh Varshney
 * V. S. Wakankar
 * Leela Dube
 * Usha Kulshreshtha
 * Shalini Moghe
 * Mrunalini Devi Puar
 * Bhakti Yadav

Business

 * Ramesh Chandra Agarwal, (30 November 1944 – 12 April 2017) was an Indian media proprietor and founder-chairman of the Dainik Bhaskar group of newspapers that has a presence in 14 states of India with 62 editions and has an estimated readership of over 15 million. He started Dainik Bhaskar newspaper at Bhopal in 1958. In 1983 he launched the Indore edition and in 1996 it was produced in Rajasthan. He was on the board of D.B. Corp Limited from its inception.
 * Sir Seth Hukumchand (or Hukamchand) of Indore, Holkar State (1874–1959) was an Indian industrialist and a prominent leader of the Jain community for about 50 years.
 * Ganesh Ayyar
 * Ruda Ladha Chawra
 * Kailash Chandra Gahtori
 * Ramnath Goenka
 * Dara Nusserwanji Khurody
 * Ravina Raj Kohli
 * Rajendra Singh Pawar
 * Kanika Tekriwal

Nobel Laureates

 * Kailash Satyarthi

Craftspeople

 * Abdul Kadar Khatri (1961–2019) Master Craftsman
 * Mohammed Yusuf Khatri

Educators

 * Frank Anthony
 * Daya Bai
 * Janaki Devi Bajaj
 * Anil Bordia
 * Annapurna Devi
 * Leela Dube
 * Shehla Masood
 * Shalini Moghe
 * Sumati Mutatkar
 * Mrunalini Devi Puar
 * Vijayalaxmi Sadho
 * Vidya Shah
 * Nirmala Srivastava
 * Shah Jahan Begum of Bhopal
 * B. P. Tiwari
 * Siddhartha Paul Tiwari
 * Kanta Tyagi
 * Raj Jain (born 17 August 1951) is a professor of Computer Science and Engineering in the Washington University School of Engineering and Applied Science at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri.

Sport medal Winners

 * Sita Sahu
 * Varsha Varman
 * Aditya Joshi
 * Satendra Singh Lohiya

Medicine and Doctors

 * Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Bhopal born scholar of Unani medicine
 * Keshavrao Krishnarao Datey cardiologist
 * Vipin Buckshey
 * Dipshikha Chakravortty
 * M. G. Deo
 * Laxmi Chand Gupta
 * Hakim Syed Karam Husain
 * J. S. Mahashabde
 * G. N. Malviya
 * B.G. Matapurkar
 * Gaya Prasad Pal
 * M. N. Passey
 * Mrunalini Devi Puar
 * Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman
 * Rajendra Prakash Singh
 * Amit Sood
 * Shashi Wadhwa
 * Bhakti Yadav

Chief Justices of India

 * J.S.Verma, (18 January 1933 – 22 April 2013) was an Indian jurist who served as the 27th Chief Justice of India from 25 March 1997 to 18 January 1998. He was the chairman of the National Human Rights Commission from 1999 to 2003, and chairman of the Justice Verma Committee Report on Amendments to Criminal Law after the 2012 Delhi gang rape case. He remains one of India's most highly regarded Chief Justices and eminent jurists in its history.
 * Ramesh Chandra Lahoti, (1 November 1940 – 23 March 2022) was the 35th Chief Justice of India, serving from 1 June 2004 to 1 November 2005.

Judge

 * Jitendra Kumar Maheshwari (born 29 June 1961) is a judge of the Supreme Court of India. He is former chief justice of the Sikkim High Court. Before that, he served as chief justice of the Andhra Pradesh High Court and judge of Madhya Pradesh High Court. He was born in Joura, Madhya Pradesh. He was a practicing lawyer in Gwalior before he got elevated to the bench.

Governor of RBI

 * Raghuram Rajan, (born 3 February 1963) is an Indian economist and the Katherine Dusak Miller Distinguished Service Professor of Finance at the University of Chicago's Booth School of Business.    Between 2003 and 2006  he was   Chief Economist and director of research at the International Monetary Fund. From September 2013 through September 2016 he was the 23rd Governor of the Reserve Bank of India. In 2015, during his tenure at the RBI, he became the Vice-Chairman of the Bank for International Settlements.

Hindi and Urdu literature

 * Pandit Makhanlal Chaturvedi (4 April 1889 – 30 January 1968), also called Pandit ji, was an Indian poet, writer, essayist, playwright and a journalist who is particularly remembered for his participation in India's national struggle for independence and his contribution to Chhayavaad, the Neo-romanticism movement of Hindi literature.
 * Nathuram Premi
 * Ramkumar Verma
 * Gajanan Madhav Muktibodh
 * Harishankar Parsai
 * Sharad Joshi
 * Rahat Indori
 * Rajneesh
 * Bihari Lal
 * Abdul Qavi Desnavi
 * Rahat Indori
 * Kaif Bhopali
 * Uday Prakash
 * Seth Govind Das
 * Hari Krishna Devsare
 * Nida Fazli
 * Anupam Mishra
 * Balachandra Shastri
 * Vidya Shah
 * Mrinal Pande
 * Vagish Shastri
 * Khurram Murad
 * Bhagwan Datt Sharma

Sports

 * Master Chief Petty Officer Omkar Singh (ओमकार सिंह, born 8 August 1984) is an Indian sports shooter. He won three gold medals and a silver medal in shooting events at the 2010 Commonwealth Games held in Delhi. He hails from Anuppur district of Madhya Pradesh and is currently serving the Indian Navy.
 * Paan Singh Tomar (1 January 1932 — 1 October 1981) was an Indian soldier, athlete, and later, Baaghi (rebel/outlaw).

Activists

 * Ashif Shaikh (born 18 October 1982) is a social activist from India who has worked for ending sexual violence against women and children, eradication of manual scavenging, forced labour practices and human trafficking in India. He is the founder of Rashtriya Garima Abhiyan (National Campaign for Dignity) and the non profit organisation,  Jan Sahas.
 * Alok Agarwal
 * B. R. Ambedkar
 * Mabelle Arole
 * Daya Bai
 * Rashida Bee
 * Rajeev John George
 * Abdul Jabbar Khan
 * Harsh Mander
 * Vishal Mangalwadi
 * Shehla Masood
 * Lilatai Pradkar
 * Anand Rai
 * Satinath Sarangi
 * Kailash Satyarthi
 * Vidya Shah
 * Champa Devi Shukla
 * Aditya Tiwari
 * Sunil Verma

Journalists

 * Makhanlal Chaturvedi
 * Nathuram Premi
 * Mrinal Pande
 * Prabhash Joshi
 * Deepak Chaurasia

==Actors ==

Male

 * Raj Arjun is an Indian actor who mainly works in Hindi cinema. He has also worked in Tamil, Malayalam and Telugu cinema. He is the recipient of Zee Cine Awards for  Best Actor In A Negative Role and Indian Television Academy Awards for Best Actor.
 * Ami Mishra
 * Anil Mange
 * Arjun Rampal
 * Arunoday Singh
 * Ashok Kumar
 * Javed Khan
 * Johnny Walker
 * Salim Khan
 * Salman Khan
 * Praveen Morchhale
 * Sharat Saxena
 * Kumar Pallana
 * Raghuvir Yadav
 * Swanand Kirkire
 * Govind Namdev
 * Ashutosh Rana
 * Mukesh Tiwari
 * Shaan
 * Sharad Kelkar
 * Annu Kapoor
 * Rajeev Verma
 * Mushtaq Khan
 * Razak Khan
 * Sachin Nayak
 * Rishiking
 * Kartik Aaryan
 * Sunil Lahri

Female

 * Divyanka Tripathi
 * Isha Malviya
 * Paridhi Sharma
 * Lata Mangeshkar
 * Jaya Bachchan
 * Ananya Khare
 * Palak Muchhal
 * Aishwarya Khare
 * Kritika Kamra
 * Mamta Sharma
 * Sara Khan
 * Himangini Singh Yadu
 * Neha Hinge

Directors

 * Vivek Agnihotri
 * Sanjay Puran Singh Chauhan
 * Deepshikha Nagpal
 * Akhilesh Jaiswal
 * Saandesh B. Nayak
 * Baburao Patel
 * Rishiking
 * Alok Shrivastava
 * Aparnaa Singh
 * Chandrakant Singh
 * Nitesh Tiwari
 * Leena Yadav

Singers

 * Pandit Kumar Gandharva (pronunciation:, Kn: ಕುಮಾರ್ ಗಂಧರ್ವ; 8 April 1924 – 12 January 1992), originally known as Shivaputra Siddharamayya Komkalimath was an Indian classical singer, well known for his unique vocal style and for his refusal to be bound by the tradition of any gharana. The name, Kumar Gandharva, is a title given to him when he was a child prodigy; a Gandharva is a musical spirit in Hindu mythology.
 * Pandit Mukul Shivputra (born 25 March 1956) (previously known as Mukul Komkalimath) is a Hindustani Classical vocalist of the Gwalior Gharana and the son and foremost disciple of Pt. Kumar Gandharva.
 * Asgari Bai
 * Suhit Gosain
 * Gundecha Brothers
 * Meenal Jain
 * Junior Dagar Brothers
 * Amir Khan (singer)
 * Swanand Kirkire
 * Sombala Kumar
 * Pinky Maidasani
 * Shashwati Mandal
 * Lata Mangeshkar
 * Penaz Masani
 * Piyush Mishra
 * Sumati Mutatkar
 * Santy Sharma
 * Madhura Naik
 * Krishnarao Shankar Pandit
 * Ritu Pathak
 * Kavi Pradeep
 * Madhavapeddi Satyam
 * Vidya Shah
 * Mamta Sharma
 * Jaymala Shiledar
 * Vayu Shrivastav
 * Kishore Kumar

Politics

 * B.R. Ambedkar
 * Shankar Dayal Sharma, former President of India
 * Atal Bihari Vajpayee, former PM of India
 * Kailash Nath Katju
 * Vijaya Raje Scindia
 * Madhavrao Scindia, former Union Minister
 * Paras Chandra Jain, Energy Minister, Government of Madhya Pradesh
 * Kailash Vijayvargiya, BJP National General Secretary
 * Kamal Patel, former Minister, Government of Madhya Pradesh
 * Arjun Singh, politician
 * Vasundhara Raje
 * Sharad Yadav
 * Jaya Bachchan
 * Sumitra Mahajan
 * Jyotiraditya Madhavrao Scindia
 * Prithviraj Chavan
 * Shivraj Singh Chouhan, current chief minister
 * Uma Bharti
 * Digvijaya Singh
 * Satish Kumar Sharma, politician
 * Prahlad Pandey, politician

Hockey

 * Roop Singh
 * Ahmed Khan
 * Aslam Sher Khan
 * Shivendra Singh
 * Shankar Laxman

Cricket

 * Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi
 * Mushtaq Ali
 * Chandu Sarwate, former India cricketer.
 * Amay Khurasiya, former India cricketer.
 * Narendra Hirwani, former India cricketer.
 * C. K. Nayudu
 * Sanjay Jagdale
 * Narendra Menon
 * Sudhir Asnani
 * Rahul Dravid, Indian cricketer born in Indore.
 * Amay Khurasiya
 * Jai Prakash Yadav
 * Naman Ojha
 * Devendra Bundela
 * Nuzhat Parween
 * Ishwar Pandey

Militants

 * Safdar Nagori

Skiing

 * Himanshu Thakur

Information Technology and Research

 * Siddhartha Paul Tiwari FRAS (born 1979) is an academic, technologist and researcher. Currently, he works with Google Asia Pacific, Singapore. Prior to this, he led Google's global learning and development efforts from Tokyo. He is known for his work in the areas of e-governance, mobile technologies, digital intervention strategies, and information and communication technologies (ICTs).
 * Surya Narayan Vyas (2 March 1902 in Ujjain, India – 22 June 1976) was an Indian astrologer and diviner from Ujjain, in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.

Airforce

 * Air Chief Marshal Shashindra Pal Tyagi, more commonly known as S P Tyagi, is an Indian Air Force officer who served as the 20th Chief of Air Staff of the Indian Air Force and served from 31 December 2004 to 31 March 2007. He was succeeded by Air Chief Marshal Fali Homi Major.
 * Squadron Leader Avani Chaturvedi (born 27 October 1993) is an Indian pilot from Rewa district, Madhya Pradesh. She was declared as the first female combat pilot in India along with two of her cohorts, Mohana Singh Jitarwal, and Bhawana Kanth.

Contribution in other fields

 * Ratnesh Pandey (born 12 May 1985) is an Indian mountaineer, who climbed Mount Everest in 2016.
 * V. S. Pathak (1926–2003) was a historian, Sanskrit scholar and an Indologist who authored several books.

title: List of people from Madhya Pradesh


text:
Chetwode

Chetwode is a village and civil parish about 4 mi southwest of Buckingham in the Aylesbury Vale district of Buckinghamshire. The parish is bounded to the southwest and southeast by a brook called The Birne, which here also forms part of the county boundary with Oxfordshire.

Manor
There is a manor at Chetwode that stayed in the same family from the time of the Domesday Book in 1086 through to the 1960s. The Domesday Book records that in 1086 Robert de Thain held the manor from Odo, Bishop of Bayeux.

Priory and parish church
In 1244 Sir Ralphe de Norwich founded an Augustinian priory at Chetwode. In 1460, owing to its poverty, the priory was dissolved and annexed to the nearby Nutley Abbey in Long Crendon. This led to the first recognition of Chetwode as a village rather than just a priory.

The Church of England parish church of Saint Mary and Saint Nicholas was once part of the Augustinian priory church. However the parish church had become ruinous in the 15th century and this building replaced it as the parish church in 1480. The stonework is a fine example of the work of the 13th century, particularly the sedilia, the east window of five lancets and the triple-lancet window on the south side, with stained glass of the 13th and 14th centuries. The 14th century north chapel later became the manor pew.

A plan of the arrangements of the church and priory cloister in the 16th-century shows the development of Priory House.

Economic history
The parish's common lands were enclosed by an Act of Parliament passed in 1812.

In 1899 the Great Central Railway opened its main line to London through the southwestern part of the parish. The nearest station was Finmere for Buckingham, which was just over the Oxfordshire county boundary on the main road between Buckingham and Bicester and just over 1 mi from Chetwode. The station was 5 mi from Buckingham, more than 1 mi from Finmere and was actually in Shelswell parish next to the village of Newton Purcell. In about 1922 the Great Central renamed the station Finmere. British Railways closed the station in 1963 and the line in 1966.

The route of High Speed 2 follows the old Great Central line route through the parish.

title: Chetwode


text:
Death by sawing

Death by sawing is the act of sawing or cutting a living person in half, either sagittally (usually midsagittally), or transversely.

Methods
Different methods of death by sawing have been recorded. In cases related to the Roman Emperor Caligula, the sawing is said to be through the middle (transversely). This method is similar to the ancient Chinese execution method of waist chopping. In the cases of Morocco, it is stated that the sawing was lengthwise, both from the groin upwards and from the skull downwards (midsagittally).

In only one case, the story about Simon the Zealot, the person is explicitly described as being hanged upside-down and sawn apart vertically through the middle, starting at the groin, with no mention of fastenings or support boards around the person, in the manner depicted in illustrations. In other cases where details about the method beyond the mere sawing act are explicitly supplied, the condemned person was apparently fastened to either one or two boards prior to sawing.

Ancient Persia
Jamshid was a legendary shah of Persia, whose story is told in the Shahnameh by Ferdowsi. After 300 years of blessed reign, Jamshid forgot the blessings came from God, and began demanding that he be revered as a god himself. The people rebelled, and Zahhak had him sawn asunder. Parysatis, wife and half-sister of Darius II (r. 423–405 BC) was the real power behind the throne of the Achaemenid Empire; she instigated and became involved in a number of court intrigues, made several enemies, yet had an uncanny knack for dispatching them at an opportune time. At one point, she decided to have the siblings of her daughter-in-law Stateira killed, and only relented from killing Stateira as well due to the desperate pleas of her son, Artaxerxes II. Stateira's sister Roxana was the first of her siblings to be killed, by being sawn in half. When Darius II died, Parysatis moved quickly, and was able to have the new queen Stateira poisoned; Parysatis still remained a power to be reckoned with for years after. Hormizd IV, son of Khosrow I, was the twenty-first King of Persia from AD 579 to 590. He was deeply resented by the nobility due to his cruelties. In 590, a palace coup was staged in which his son, Khosrow II, was declared king. Hormizd was forced to watch his wife and one of his sons sawn in two, and the deposed king was then blinded. After a few days, the new king is said to have killed his father in a fit of rage.
 * The legend of Jamshid
 * Parysatis
 * Hormizd IV

Thracians
Thracians were regarded as warlike, ferocious, and bloodthirsty by Romans and Greeks. One of the most notorious was the king Diegylis, possibly only topped by his son Ziselmius. According to Diodorus Siculus, Ziselmius sawed several people to death and commanded their families to eat the flesh of their murdered relatives. The Thracians eventually rebelled, captured him and sought to inflict every conceivable torture upon him prior to his death.

Ancient Rome
Promulgated about 451 BC, the Twelve Tables is the oldest extant law code for the Romans. Aulus Gellius, whose work "Attic Nights" is partially preserved, states that death by the saw was mentioned for some offenses in the tables, but that the use of which was so infrequent that no one could remember ever having seen it done. Of the retained laws in the Twelve Tables, the following concerning how creditors should proceed with debtors is found in Table 3, article 6: "On the third market-day they [the creditors] shall cut pieces. If they shall have cut more or less [than their shares], it shall be with impunity." The translator notes the ambiguity of the original text, but says that later Roman writers understood this to mean that creditors were allowed to cut their shares from the body of the debtor. If true, that would constitute dismemberment, rather than sawing. This method of execution was uncommon throughout the time of the Roman Empire, though common during Caligula's reign. when the condemned, including members of his own family, were sawn across the torso rather than lengthwise down the body. It is said that Caligula would watch such executions while he ate, stating that witnessing the suffering acted as an appetiser. The Kitos War occurred 115–117 AD, and was a rebellion by the Jews within the Roman Empire. Major revolts happened several places, and the main source by Cassius Dio claims that in Cyrene, 220,000 Greeks were massacred by the Jews; in Cyprus, 240,000. Dio adds that many of the victims were sawn asunder, and that the Jews licked up the blood of the slain, and "twisted the entrails like a girdle about their bodies". In 365 AD, Procopius declared himself emperor, and moved against Valens. He was defeated in battle, and due to the treachery of his two generals Agilonius and Gomoarius (they had been promised they would be "shown favour" by Valens), he was captured. In 366, he was fastened to two trees bent down with force; when the trees were released, Procopius was ripped apart in the manner of the legendary execution of the bandit Sinis. The "favour" Valens showed to Agilonius and Gomoarius was to have them both sawn asunder.
 * The Twelve Tables
 * Caligula
 * The Kitos War
 * Valens

Jewish tradition
The prophet Isaiah was, according to some traditional rabbinic texts, sawn apart on orders of King Manasseh of Judah. One tradition states that he was put within a tree, and then sawn apart; another says he was sawn apart by means of a wooden saw.
 * Death of Isaiah

Christian martyrs
Several early Christians are credited with being martyred by means of a saw. The earliest, and most famous, is the obscure apostle of Jesus, Simon the Zealot. He is said to have been martyred in Persia, and that the express mode by which he was executed was to be hanged up by the feet, as in the woodcut illustration.
 * Simon the Zealot
 * Conus and his son

According to the Acta Sanctorum, after his wife's death in the age of Domitian, Conus went with his 7-year-old son into a desert. He destroyed several pagan idols in Cogni, Asia Minor (Anatolia). When caught, he and his son were tortured by starvation and fire, and were finally put to the saw, praying while they died.
 * Symphorosa and her seven sons

According to the 16th-century Foxe's Book of Martyrs, Symphorosa was a widow with seven sons living in the age of emperor Trajan (98–117) or Hadrian (117–138). Refusing a command to pray at a heathen temple, Symphorosa was scourged, and then thrown in the river Aniene with a large stone fastened to her. The six eldest sons were all killed by stab wounds, and the youngest, Eugenius, was sawn apart.

 * The 38 monks and martyrs on Mount Sinai

According to the Martyrologium Romanum, during the reign of Diocletian "wild barbarians" decided to rob a community of monks living at Mount Sinai. There was nothing of material wealth there, and in their rage, the Arabs slaughtered them all, several by flaying, others by sawing them with dull saws.
 * St. Tarbula

Accused of practising witchcraft and causing the sickness of the wife of the ardently anti-Christian Persian king Shapur II, Tarbula was condemned and executed by being sawn in half in the year 345.

Egypt
In the 1630s, there are several reports from the Levant and Egypt that monks were killed. One of them, Brother Conrad d'Elis Barthelemy, a native of Montepulciano is said to have been sawn in two, from the head downwards. Writing in 1843, William Holt Yates speaks of a governor under Muhammad Ali (r.1801–1849), Abd-ur-Rahman Bey, who was said to be particularly cruel and avaricious. He was a renegade Copt, and abused his position to gain hold of wealth. He is even credited with having sawn people in two. Yates further supplies the detail: "This fellow has since been assassinated-report says, with sanction and approval of the Government"
 * The monk from Montepulciano
 * The renegade Coptic governor

Morocco
One of the most notorious cases of sawing as execution is that of the Alcaide (castellan/governor) Melec under Sultan Moulay Ishmael (r. 1672–1727). The fullest description of this execution is found in Dominique Busnot's 1714 work Histoire du règne de Mouley Ismael, although a brief notice of the event can be found in the January 1706 edition of Present state of Europe. In the following, the tale as told by Busnot will be given.
 * 1705 The sawing of Alcaide Melec

Melec was judged as the chief rebel to be punished in a rebellion instigated by one of the Sultan's sons, Mulay Muhammad. In particular, according to Busnot, the Sultaness was incensed that Melec had personally beheaded one of her cousins, Ali Bouchasra. In September/October 1705, Mulay Ismail sent for his chief carpenter and asked if his saws were capable of sawing a man in two. The carpenter answered "Sure enough". He was then given the grisly task, and before he left, he asked him whether Melec should be sawn across or along the length. The emperor said the sawing should proceed lengthwise, from the head downwards. He told Boachasra's sons they should follow the carpenter and decide for themselves how best to take revenge upon the murderer (i.e., Melec) of their father. Taking with him eight of the public executioner's assistants, the master carpenter went to the prison where Melec was held, two of his brand new saws packed in cloth, in order to keep from Melec information of the intended manner of execution. Melec was now placed on a mule, bound with an iron chain, and led to the public square, where some 4000 of his relatives and members of his tribe were assembled. These made a "terrifying" spectacle through screaming, and clawing their faces in a public display of grief. Melec, on the other hand, seemed unperturbed, calmly smoking from his tobacco pipe. When taken down from the mule, Melec's clothes were removed and damning letters "proving" his treason were cast into the fire.

Then, he was strapped onto a board, and placed upon a saw-bench, his arms and legs fastened. The executioner's team then sought to start by sawing him from the head downwards, but Boucasra's sons intervened, and demanded that one began between Melec's legs instead, because otherwise, he would die too quickly. Under the terrible screams of Melec and his relatives, thus began his execution. Once they had sawn him up to the navel, they pulled out the saw in order to commence from the other side. Melec is said to have been still conscious, asking for some water. His friends, though, thought it best to hasten his demise and shorten his sufferings, and the executioners went on, sawing him from skull to navel so he fell apart. In the process, chunks of flesh were ripped out by the saw's teeth, causing blood to splatter everywhere, thus making the execution quite unbearable to watch.

Around 300 other conspirators were impaled alive, and another report states that in addition to these, some other 20 chief conspirators had their arms and legs sawn off, and left to expire in the marketplace. 19 July 1721, a noble descended from the Andalusian Moors, Larbe Shott was put to the saw. He had spent considerable time at Gibraltar, and one of the crimes imputed to him was to have spent time in Christian kingdoms without his emperor's leave. Furthermore, he had been found guilty of defiling himself with Christian women, and often drunk alcohol. In short, he was charged as an apostate and unbeliever, in addition to being charged with having invited the "Spaniards" to invade Barbary (i.e., treason). They brought him to one of the gates in the city, fastened him between two boards, and sawed him in two, from the skull downwards. After his death, Mulay Ishmael pardoned him, so that his body could be picked up and given a decent burial at least, instead of being eaten by the dogs.
 * 1721 The sawing of Larbe Shott

Americas
In 1757, a French officer was executed by his men in a mutiny on Cat Island in current-day Mississippi. Three of the mutineers were eventually captured and brought to New Orleans for trial. After conviction, two of the mutineers died on the breaking wheel. The last, a Swiss from the Karrer regiment, was nailed into a coffin-shaped wooden box which was sawn in two with a cross-cut saw. This claim was first made by the French captain and traveller Jean Bernard Bossu in his 1768 Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes Occidentales, translated into English by Johann Reinhold Forster in 1771.
 * Cat Island mutiny

In a footnote to his essay A Map within an Indian Painting?, jurist Morris S. Arnold wrote: "Bossu's books contain a lot of tall tales, so one needs to be cautious about relying on him." Bossu claims that being "sawed asunder" was a traditional Swiss military punishment, and alleges that one Swiss mutineer actually committed suicide to avoid that punishment. Therefore, the one who was allegedly sawn in half had his punishment as governed by Swiss military law, rather than French. An incident from 1741 (in Louisbourg, Canada) shows that at that time, when two Frenchmen and a Swiss were executed, Swiss mercenary troops had been placed under French military law, rather than under Swiss. Furthermore, detailing the recorded executions in the Swiss Canton of Zürich through the 15th-18th century, Gerold Meyer von Knonau records 1445 executions in total, none of them being through death by sawing. In August 1791, a great slave revolt broke out at Saint-Domingue, eventually leading to Haitian independence. In the process, some 4,000 white planters and their family members were massacred. One of the victims was a carpenter by trade, Robert. The rebels decided he "should die in the way of his occupation" and accordingly fastened him between two boards and sawed him apart.
 * Haitian revolution

Levant
In 1123, Joscelin de Courtenay and Baldwin II were separately ambushed and surprised by a Turkish emir, Balac, and made prisoners at the castle at Quartapiert. Some 50 Armenians, bound by oath to Joscelin as Count of Edessa, decided to free their liege lord as well as Baldwin II. Dressed as monks and pedlars, they gained entry in the town where the two nobles were held captive, and managed, through massacre, to take control of the castle. Joscelin slipped out in order to raise a force, while Baldwin II and his nephew Galeran remained behind to hold the castle. Apprised of the capture of the castle, Balac sent quickly a force to recapture it, and Baldwin II saw no possibility of holding it. Graciously, Balac took Baldwin and his nephew merely prisoners. Not so merciful was he towards the Armenians: Several of them were flayed, others buried up to the neck and used as target practice, the rest were sawn apart. The Assassins, a misnomer for the Nizari, an Ismaili sect, had an independent kingdom in the Levant during the age of the Crusades, and were feared and loathed by Muslims and Christians alike. The Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela, travelling the region around 1157 notes that the Assassins were reputed to saw in two the kings of other peoples, if they managed to capture them.
 * An episode from the Crusades
 * The Assassins

Ottoman Empire
A number of accounts exist where the Ottomans are said to have sawn persons in two, most of them said to occur in Mehmed the Conqueror's reign (1451–1481). A number of cruel excesses against the populace of Constantinople is said to have happened in the wake of the taking of the city. according to one rendering of the tale: "They no sooner found themselves masters of it, than they began to exercise On the inhabitants the most unremitting barbarities, destroying them by every method of ingenious cruelty. Some they roasted alive on spits, others they starved, some they flayed alive, and left them in that horrid manner to perish; many were sawn asunder, and others torn to pieces by horses. Three days and nights was the city given to spoil, in which time the soldiers were licensed to commit every enormity" After the last Despot of Morea, Demetrios Palaiologos in 1460 switched allegiance to the Turks and gave them entry to Mystras, a tale grew up that the actual castellan at the castle of Mystras was ordered sawn in two. This tale was "well known" in later centuries, whatever actual veracity. In 1460, the Hungarian general Michael Szilágyi was seized by the Turks, and since he was regarded as a traitor and spy, he was sawn in half at Constantinople. In the following years, inhabitants in Greece under the Venetians fought several battles in the Morea. In 1464, for example, a small city is said to have been subdued, and 500 prisoners sent to Constantinople. There, they were put to the saw, according to one account. The Knights Hospitallers, then stationed at Rhodes, sent several knights to aid in the defence of Mytilene from the Turks. They eventually surrendered, under promise of having their lives spared. Instead, according to some reports, they were sawn asunder. According to Kenneth Meyer Setton, the sultan had actually promised to spare the heads of some 400 knights, and sawed them in half to keep his oath of not harming the heads. The Triarchy of Negroponte, a Crusader state or Stato da Màr under control of the Republic of Venice, was extinguished by the capture of the city in 1469/1470, and the governor Paolo Erizzo, is said to treacherously to have been ordered sawn in two, after have being promised his life would be spared. The sultan, Mehmed the Conqueror, is said to have cut off the head of Erizzo's daughter by his own hands, because she would not yield to his desires. In 1473, a Sicilian called Anthony, is said to have managed set fire to the sultan's ships at the Sanjak of Gelibolu, Gallipoli. After being captured at Negroponte, he was brought before the sultan who asked him what harm had been done to him that he performed such an evil deed? The young man answered that he simply wanted to harm the enemy of Christianity in some glorious way. The sultan is said to have ordered that Anthony should be sawn in two. In 1480, the Ottomans, led by Gedik Ahmed Pasha, invaded mainland Italy, occupying Otranto. A general massacre, of disputed magnitude, occurred. Archbishop Stefano Pendinelli was, by some reports, ordered to be sawn in half. Dionysius the Philosopher led an eventually unsuccessful revolt against the Ottomans, seeking to establish a power base at Ioannina. Dionysius was flayed alive, and his skin, stuffed with straw, was sent as a present to the sultan, Ahmed I, at Constantinople. The other principal conspirators were said to be punished in various ways, some were burnt alive, others impaled, and yet others sawn asunder. Rigas Feraios (1760–1798) was an early Greek patriot, whose struggle for independence of Greece preceded with about 30 years the general uprising known as the Greek War of Independence. His actual manner of death has garnered many tales; Encyclopædia Britannica 1911, for example, states that he was shot in the back. Yet others state that he was strangled. Some 19th century stories report that he was sawn in two. Finally, one source asserts he was beheaded.
 * 1453 conquest of Constantinople
 * 1460 Capture of Mystras
 * 1460 Michael Szilágyi
 * 1460-64 campaigns and slaughter in the Morea
 * 1463 conquest of Mytilene, Lesbos
 * 1469/1470 conquest of Negroponte
 * 1473 the arsonist at Gallipoli
 * 1480 invasion of Otranto
 * 1611 revolt of Dionysius the Philosopher
 * The mythologized death of Rhigas, the protomartyr of Greek independence

Mughal Empire
The Sikh Bhai Mati Das, a follower of the 9th guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur was in 1675 AD ordered executed by emperor Aurangzeb, along with several other prominent Sikhs, including their Guru, because the Guru was resisting the forceful conversion of Kashmiri Pandits into Islam. Bhai Mati Das was sawn in half, the others in different manners.

Burma
Several reports state that even in the 1820s, sawing criminals in two was an occasional punishment in Burma for "certain offences". The criminals were fastened between two planks prior to the sawing. This may have been conflated by reports of disembowelment'', for which eyewitness reports exist.

The Burmese general Maha Bandula is said to have had one of his high-ranking officers sawn in two, due to some act of disobedience, the person being fastened between two planks for that purpose.

Vietnam
On occasion, a confusion of reports may exist where, for example, performed post-mortem indignities are misinterpreted as the actual manner of execution:
 * Martyrdom of Augustin Huy

In 1839, the governor of Vietnam's Nam Định Province summoned five hundred soldiers to a banquet to pressure them into trampling upon a cross in renunciation of Christianity. Most of the guests complied, but three Catholic soldiers refused. One of the Vietnamese Martyrs, Augustin Huy, is reported by some sources to have been sawn in two. Others report that he was hacked to death, or cut in two. But, a letter from 1839, just three weeks after the execution 12 June, states that he was beheaded:

"I have to announce to you the death of two Tonquinese, who here shed their blood for the faith on the 12th of June, 1839. They were beheaded near the port of Cua-thuan-an, the principal port of Hue. Their bodies were first cut into five pieces and then cast into the sea."

Imperial China
The movement of a saw may cause a body to sway back and forth making the process difficult for the executioners. The Chinese overcame this problem by securing the victim in an upright position between two boards firmly fixed between stakes driven deep into the ground. Two executioners, one at each end of the saw, would saw downwards through the stabilized boards and enclosed victim. Whether sawing as an execution method actually existed, or that cases referred to are garbled accounts of the "slow slicing" method of execution remains an open question. The emperor Zhaozong of Tang (r. 888–904) is said to have commanded one of his prisoners sawn asunder. When the last emperor of the Ming dynasty committed suicide in 1644, the new emperor had one of the previous regime's strongest supporters, Chen, said to be viceroy of Canton, sawn in two. Growing more popular in his martyrdom, the new regime condemned Chen's execution, declared he was a holy man and erected a Canton pagoda in his memory.
 * Technique
 * Tang dynasty
 * Qing dynasty

Spain
In the aftermath of the destruction of the last Islamic kingdom in Spain, Granada in 1492, the Moriscoes, the descendants of Muslims and those who still were, in secret, adherents of Islam, felt increasingly persecuted. In 1568, the Morisco revolt broke out, under leadership of Aben Humeya. The crushing of the revolt was extremely bloody, and at Almería 1569, the historian Luis del Marmol Carvajal states that one Morisco was sawn apart alive.
 * Morisco revolt
 * La Mancha rebellion

In the Spanish rebellion of 1808 against the occupying French forces, reports exist that some French officers were sawn in two. In one of those reports, it is colonel Rene (or Frene ) who met this fate. In another report, Rene was merely thrown into a kettle of boiling water, whereas the officers Caynier and Vaugien were the ones sawn in two.

Russia
After the Fire of Moscow in September 1812, the French Grande Armée had not exactly endeared itself to the local population. The peasant population is said to have become embittered, fanaticized, and even developed an effective guerrilla. In addition, the "wild Cossacks" lurked about, and both groups of Russians could be a deadly enemy to solitary French soldiers. Some of those unfortunates are said to have been sawn apart.
 * 1812 the Grande Armée

Hungary
The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was a bitter struggle where atrocities were committed against others of different ethnicities and of different religious persuasions. A decidedly partisan pamphlet from 1850, Ungarns gutes recht (The well-founded right of Hungary) from 1850, states that in the struggles around Banat, some 4,000 Serbians, spurred on by the preaching of the Metropolitan of Karlovci, Josif Rajačić, committed heinous deeds against the Hungarians. Women, children and old men were mutilated, roasted over slow fires, some sawn apart.
 * 1848 Revolution

Tortures in Hell
In Hindu lore, Yama is the god of death. He determines the punishments to those who were wicked in life. Those guilty of robbing a Brahmin, are to be sawn apart while being in Naraka (Hell). Sawing people asunder is one of the punishments said to occur in Buddhist Hell, and the priests knew how to make a visible spectacle of sufferings in the beyond, by commissioning artists to make paintings the populace were meant to see and reflect upon: "At a Buddhist temple in Canton, at certain seasons of the year, the court is set round with pictures, which pourtray in a fearful manner the sufferings of the dead. Some are sawn asunder; some are gored with pitchforks; some are thrown into a cauldron of boiling water; others are burnt. The artists, under the gifted instruction of the priests, succeeded in representing every sight that is terrible to the eye or revolting to the senses. In the recess at Mongha beforementioned, a few of these choice subjects were displayed with an edifying effect. The presumed existence of a place of torment brings a revenue into the coffers of the priest, who is assumed to have the power of appeasing the wrath of the judges."
 * Hindu mythology
 * Chinese mythology

Segare la vecchia
In Italy and Spain, a curious tradition of "segare la vecchia" ("sawing the old woman") was upheld on Laetare Sunday (Mid-Lent Sunday) in hamlets and towns, well into the 19th century. The custom consisted of the boys running about to find the "oldest woman in the village", and then make a wooden effigy in her likeness. Then, the wooden figure was sawn across the middle. The folklorist Jacob Grimm regards this as an odd spring ritual, in which the "old year"/winter is symbolically defeated. He also notes that a rather similar custom existed in his day among Southern Slavs.

title: Death by sawing


text:
User:Grin/tmp

DO NOT CHANGE THIS PAGE!!

title: User:Grin/tmp


text:
User talk:Plasmaroo

Hello Plasmaroo, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Angela. 21:45, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

authors: Template namespace initialisation script

title: User talk:Plasmaroo


text:
Encyclopedism

Encyclopedism is an outlook that aims to include a wide range of knowledge in a single work. The term covers both encyclopedias themselves and related genres in which comprehensiveness is a notable feature. The word encyclopedia is a Latinization of the Greek enkýklios paideía, which means all-around education. The encyclopedia is "one of the few generalizing influences in a world of overspecialization. It serves to recall that knowledge has unity," according to Louis Shores, editor of Collier's Encyclopedia. It should not be "a miscellany, but a concentration, a clarification, and a synthesis", according to British writer H. G. Wells.

Besides comprehensiveness, encyclopedic writing is distinguished by its lack of a specific audience or practical application. The author explains facts concisely for the benefit of a reader who will then use the information in a way that the writer does not try to anticipate. Early examples of encyclopedic writing include discussions of agriculture and craft by Roman writers such as Pliny the Elder and Varro – discussions presumably not intended as practical advice to farmers or craftsmen.

The vast majority of classical learning was lost during the Dark Ages. This enhanced the status of encyclopedic works which survived, including those of Aristotle and Pliny. With the development of printing in the 15th century, the range of knowledge available to readers expanded greatly. Encyclopedic writing became both a practical necessity and a clearly distinguished genre. Renaissance encyclopedists were keenly aware of how much classical learning had been lost. They hoped to recover and record knowledge and were anxious to prevent further loss.

In their modern form, encyclopedias consist of alphabetized articles written by teams of specialists. This format was developed in the 18th century by expanding the technical dictionary to include non-technical topics. The Encyclopédie (1751–1772), edited by Diderot and D'Alembert, was a model for many later works. Like Renaissance encyclopedists, Diderot worried about the possible destruction of civilization and selected knowledge he hoped would survive.

Etymology
The word "encyclopedia" is a Latinization of the Greek enkýklios paideía. The Greek phrase refers to the education that a well-round student should receive. Latin writer Quintilian uses it to refer to the subjects a student of oratory should be familiar with before beginning an apprenticeship. It translates literally as "in (en) the circle (kýklios) of knowledge (paideía)." The earliest citation for "encyclopedia" given in Oxford English Dictionary refers to the Greek curriculum and is dated 1531.

The use of the term to refer to a genre of literature was prompted by a line that Pliny used in the preface of Natural History: "My object is to treat of all those things which the Greeks include in the Encyclopædia [tē̂s enkyklíou paideías], which, however, are either not generally known or are rendered dubious from our ingenious conceits." Pliny writes the relevant phrase using Greek letters. Latin printers of incunabula lacked the typeface to render it. Some printers substituted encyclopædia or another Latin phrase. Others just left a blank space. This led to the misunderstanding that Pliny had called his work an encyclopedia.

In the Renaissance, writers who wanted their work compared to that of Pliny used the word. In 1517, Bavarian Johannes Aventinus wrote Encyclopedia orbisqve doctrinarum, a Latin reference work. Ringelberg's Cyclopedia was published in 1541 and Paul Scalich's Encyclopedia in 1559. Both of these reference works were written in Latin. The French Encyclopédistes popularized the word in the 18th century.

The Oxford English Dictionary's first citation of "enyclopedism" is dated 1833. The context is a book on Diderot.

Aristotle
The Greek writer and teacher Aristotle (384–322 BC) had much to say on a broad range of subjects, including biology, anatomy, psychology, physics, meteorology, zoology, poetics, rhetoric, logic, epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and political thought. He was among the first writers to describe how to classify material by subject, the first step in writing an encyclopedia. Aristotle wrote to help his students follow his teaching, so his corpus did not much resemble an encyclopedia during his lifetime. Long after his death, commentators filled in the gaps, reordered his works, and put his writing in a systematic form. Catalogs of his work were produced by Andronicus in the first century and by Ptolemy in the second century. As Aristotle's corpus was one of the few encyclopedic works to survive the Middle Ages, it became a widely used reference work in late medieval and Renaissance times.

Alexandria
Dorotheus (mid first century AD) and Pamphilus (late first century AD) both wrote enormous lexicons. Neither work has survived, but their lengths suggest that they were considerably more than just dictionaries. Pamphilus's work was 95 books long and was a sequel to a lexicon of four books by Zopyrion. This passage from the Souda suggests that it was made up of alphabetized entries: Pamphilus, of Alexandria, a grammarian of the school of Aristarchus. He wrote A Meadow, which is a summary of miscellaneous contents. On rare words; i.e. vocabulary in 95 books (it contains entries from epsilon to omega, because Zopyrion had done letters alpha to delta.) On unexplained matters in Nicander and the so called Optica; Art of Criticism and a large number of other grammatical works.

Hesychius (fifth century) credits Diogenianus as a source, who in turn used Pamphilus. This is the only form in which any of Pamphilus's work may have survived.

Rome
A Roman who wanted to learn about a certain subject would send a slave to a private library with orders to copy relevant passages from whatever books were available. As they were less likely to withdraw or buy a book, readers were little concerned with the scope of a given work. So the emergence of encyclopedic writing cannot be explained by practical need. Instead, it may have been inspired by Cato's ideal of the vir bonus, the informed citizen able to participate in the life of the Republic.

Three Roman works are commonly identified as encyclopedic: The collected works of Varro (116–27 BC), Pliny the Elder's (c. 77–79 AD) Natural History, and On the Arts by Cornelius Celsus (c. 25 BC – c. 50 AD). These three were grouped together as a genre, not by the Romans themselves, but by later writers in search of antique precedent.

In Cicero's time, the study of literature was still controversial. In Pro Archia, Cicero explains that he studied literature to improve his rhetorical skills and because it provides a source of elevating moral examples. Varro's emphasis on the city's history and culture suggests patriotic motives. Pliny emphasized utilitarian motives and public service. He criticized Livy for writing history simply for his own pleasure.

Varro
Varro's Antiquities consisted of 41 books on Roman history. His Disciplines was nine books on liberal arts. Varro also wrote 25 books on Latin and 15 on law. Only fragments of Varro's work survive. According to Cicero, Varro's comprehensive work allowed the Romans to feel at home in their own city.

Cornelius Celsus
Celsus wrote prolifically on many subjects. "Cornelius Celsus, a man of modest intellect, could write not only about all these arts but also left behind accounts of military science, agriculture, and medicine: indeed, he deserves, on the basis on this design alone, to be thought to have known all things," according to Quintilian. Only the medical section of his massive On the Arts has survived. This is eight books long. Celsus followed the structure of the medical writers that had gone before him. He summarized their views in a workmanlike manner. He seldom presented insights of his own. He struggled to manage the overwhelming quantity of relevant source material. His medical books were rediscovered in 1426-1427 at libraries in the Vatican and in Florence and published in 1478. He is our main source concerning Roman medical practices.

Pliny the Elder
If Varro made the Romans feel at home their own city, Pliny tried to do the same for the natural world and for the Empire. Pliny's approach was very different than that of Celsus. He was a man ahead of his time. Not content to build on what went before, he reorganized the world of knowledge to fit his encyclopedic vision. In a Latin preface, the writer customarily listed the models he hoped to surpass. Pliny found no model in previous writing. Instead, he emphasized that his work was novicium (new), a word suitable for describing a major discovery. Although Pliny was widely read, no later Roman writer followed his structure or claimed him as a model. Niccolò Leoniceno published an essay in 1492 listing Pliny's many scientific errors.

In the introduction of Natural History, Pliny writes:"... in Thirty-six Books I have comprised 20,000 Things that are worthy of Consideration, and these I have collected out of about 2000 Volumes that I have diligently read (and of which there are few that Men otherwise learned have ventured to meddle with, for the deep Matter therein contained), and those written by one hundred several excellent Authors; besides a Multitude of other Matters, which either were unknown to our former Writers, or Experience has lately ascertained."

With an entire book dedicated to listing sources, Natural History is 37 books long. (It's 10 volumes in the modern translation. ) Eschewing established disciplines and categories, Pliny begins with a general description of the world. Book 2 covers astronomy, meteorology, and the elements. Books 3–6 cover geography. Humanity is covered in Book 7, animals in Books 8–11, trees in 12–17, agriculture in 18–19, medicine in 20–32, metals in 33–34, and craft and art in 35–37.

Following Aristotle, Pliny counts four elements: fire, earth, air and water. There are seven planets: Saturn, Jupiter, Mars ("of a fiery and burning nature"), the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon ("the last of the stars"). The earth is a "perfect globe," suspended in the middle of space, that rotates with incredible swiftness once every 24 hours. As a good Stoic, Pliny dismisses astrology: "it is ridiculous to suppose, that the great head of all things, whatever it be, pays any regard to human affairs." He considers the possibility of other worlds ("there will be so many suns and so many moons, and that each of them will have immense trains of other heavenly bodies") only to dismiss such speculation as "madness." The idea of space travel is "perfect madness."

Pliny had opinions on a wide variety of subjects often interjected them. He tells us which uses of plants, animals, and stone are proper, and which ones are improper. Was the Roman Empire benefiting or corrupting the classical world? Pliny returns to this theme repeatedly. He analogizes Rome's civilizing mission to the way poisonous plants of all nation were tamed into medicines. Pliny also wants us to know that he is a heroic explorer, a genius responsible for a highly original and most remarkable work. The extensive reading and note taking of his slave secretaries is rarely mentioned.

At the very end of the work, Pliny writes, "Hail Nature, parent of all things, and in recognition of the fact that I alone have praised you in all your manifestations, look favorably upon me." Here Pliny points to comprehensiveness as his project's outstanding asset. Nature awarded Pliny a heroic death that gave him "a kind of eternal life," according to his nephew. The great encyclopedist was commander of the Naples fleet and died trying to assist the local inhabitants during the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79.

The Middle Ages
While classical and modern encyclopedic writers sought to distribute knowledge, those of the Middle Ages were more interested in establishing orthodoxy. They produced works to be used as educational texts in schools and universities. Students could consider the knowledge within them as safely orthodox and thus be kept from heresy. Limiting knowledge was an important part of their function.

As a Stoic, Pliny began with astronomy and ended with the fine arts. Cassiodorus attempted to write a Christian equivalent to Pliny's work. His Institutiones (560) begins with discussions of scripture and the church. Other subjects are treated briefly toward the end of the work. With onset of the Dark Ages, access to Greek learning and literacy in Greek declined. The works of Boethius (c. 480–524) filled the gap by compiling Greek handbooks and summarizing their content in Latin. These works served as general purpose references in the early Middle Ages.

The Etymologies (c. 600–625) by Isidore of Seville consisted of extracts from earlier writers. Three of the Isidore's twenty books represent material from Pliny. Isidore was the most widely read and fundamental text in terms of medieval encyclopedic writing.

These early medieval writers organized their material in the form of a trivium (grammar, logic, rhetoric) followed by a quadrivium (geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, music). This division of seven liberal arts was a feature of monastic education as well as the medieval universities, which developed beginning in the 12th century.

From the fourth to the ninth centuries, Byzantium experienced a series of religious debates. As part of these debates, excerpts were compiled and organized thematically to support the theological views of the compiler. Once orthodoxy was established, the energy of the compilation tradition transferred to other subjects. The tenth century, or Macedonian dynasty, saw a flowering of encyclopedic writing. The Suda is believed to have been compiled at this time. This is the earliest work that a modern reader would recognize as an encyclopedia. It contains 30,000 alphabetized entries. The Suda is not mentioned until the 12th century, and it might have been put together in stages.

The most massive encyclopedia of the Middle Ages was Speculum Maius (The Great Mirror) by Vincent of Beauvais. It was 80 books long and was completed in 1244. With a total of 4.5 million words, the work is presumably the product of an anonymous team. (By comparison, the current edition of Britannica has 44 million words. ) It was divided into three sections. "Naturale" covered God and the natural world; "Doctrinale" covered language, ethics, crafts, medicine; and "Historiale" covered world history. Vincent had great respect for classical writers such Aristotle, Cicero, and Hippocrates. The encyclopedia shows a tendency toward "exhaustiveness," or systemic plagiarism, typical of the medieval period. Vincent was used as a source by Chaucer. The full version of Speculum proved to be too long to circulate in the era of manuscripts and manual copying. However, an abridged version by Bartholomeus Anglicus did enjoy a wide readership.

The Arab counterpart to these works was Kitab al-Fehrest by Ibn al-Nadim.

Renaissance
With the advent of printing and a dramatic reduction in paper costs, the volume of encyclopedic writing exploded in the Renaissance. This was an age of "info-lust" and enormous compilations. Many compilers cited the fear of a traumatic loss of knowledge to justify their efforts. They were keenly aware of how much classical learning had been lost in the Dark Ages. Pliny was their model. His axiom that, "there is no book so bad that some good cannot be got from it" was a favorite. Conrad Gesner listed over 10,000 books in Bibliotheca universalis (1545). By including both Christian and barbarian works, Gesner rejected the medieval quest for orthodoxy. Ironically, Jesuit Antonio Possevino used Bibliotheca universalis as a basis to create a list of forbidden books.

England
The invention of printing helped spread new ideas, but also revived old misconceptions. Printers of incunabulia were eager to publish books, both ancient and modern. The best-known encyclopedia of Elizabethan England was Batman upon Bartholomew, published in 1582. This book is based on a work compiled by Bartholomaeus Anglicus in the 13th century. It was translated by John Trevisa in 1398, revised by Thomas Berthelet in 1535, and revised again by Stephen Batman. In Shakespeare's day, it represented a worldview already four centuries old, only modestly updated. Yet several ideas inspired by Batman can be found in Shakespeare. The idea that the rays of the moon cause madness can be found Measure for Measure and Othello, hence the word "lunacy." The discussion of the geometric properties of the soul in King Lear is likely to reflect the influence of Batman as well. An encyclopedia that Shakespeare consulted more obviously than Batman is French Academy by Pierre de la Primaudaye. Primaudaye was much taken with analogies, some of which have found their way into Shakespeare: the unweeded garden, death as an unknown country, and the world as a stage. (Various other sources have also been suggested for the last analogy.) Both Batman and Primaudaye were Protestant.

Francis Bacon wrote a plan for an encyclopedia in Instauratio magna (1620). He drew up a checklist of the major areas of knowledge a complete encyclopedia needed to contain. Bacon's plan influenced Diderot and thus indirectly later encyclopedias, which generally follow Diderot's scheme.

The Enlightenment
While ancient and medieval encyclopedism emphasized the classics, liberal arts, informed citizenship, or law, the modern encyclopedia springs from a separate tradition. The advance of technology meant that there was much unfamiliar terminology to explain. John Harris's Lexicon Technicum (1704) proclaims itself, "An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences: Explaining not only the Terms of Art, but the Arts Themselves." This was the first alphabetical encyclopedia written in English. Harris's work inspired Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopedia (1728). Chambers's two-volume work is considered the first modern encyclopedia.

Encyclopédie (1751–1777) was a massively expanded version of Chambers's idea. This 32-volume work, edited by Diderot and D'Alembert, was the pride of Enlightenment France. It consisted of 21 volumes of text and 11 volumes of illustrations. There were 74,000 articles written by more than 130 contributors. It presented a secular worldview, drawing the ire of several Church officials. It sought to empower its readers with knowledge and played a role in fomenting the dissent that led to the French Revolution. Diderot explained the project this way:

"This is a work that cannot be completed except by a society of men of letters and skilled workmen, each working separately on his own part, but all bound together solely by their zeal for the best interests of the human race and a feeling of mutual good will."

This realization that no one person, not even a genius like Pliny assisted by slave secretaries, could produce a work of the comprehensiveness required, is the mark of the modern era of encyclopedism.

Diderot's project was a great success and inspired several similar projects, including Britain's Encyclopædia Britannica (first edition, 1768) as well as Germany's Brockhaus Enzyklopädie (beginning 1808). Enlightenment encyclopedias also inspired authors and editors to undertake or critique "encyclopedic" knowledge projects in other genres and formats: the 65-volume Universal History (Sale et al) (1747-1768), for example, far exceeded its predecessors in terms of scope, and The General Magazine of Arts and Sciences (1755-1765) published by Benjamin Martin (lexicographer) sought to bring encyclopedism to the monthly periodical. A loyal subscriber, he wrote, would “be allowed to make a great Proficiency, if he can make himself Master of the useful Arts and Sciences in the Compass of Ten Years.” In Laurence Sterne's The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759-1767), the title character satirically refers to his fictional autobiography as a “cyclopædia of arts and sciences." Such "experiments in encyclopedism" demonstrate the widespread literary and cultural influence of the form in the 18th century.

The 19th and 20th centuries
Once solely for society's elites, in the 19th and 20th centuries encyclopedias were increasingly written, marketed to, and purchased by middle and working class households. Different styles of encyclopedism emerged which would target particular age groups, presenting the works as educational tools—even made available through payment plans advertised on TV.

One of the earliest individuals to advocate for a technologically enhanced encyclopedia indexing all the world's information was H. G. Wells. Inspired by the possibilities of microfilm, he put forward his idea of a global encyclopedia in the 1930s through a series of international talks and his essay World Brain.

It would be another several decades before the earliest electronic encyclopedias were published in the 1980s and 1990s. The production of electronic encyclopedias began as conversions of printed work, but soon added multimedia elements, requiring new methods of content gathering and presentation. Early applications of hypertext similarly had a great benefit to readers but did not require significant changes in writing. The launching of Wikipedia in the 2000s and its subsequent rise in popularity and influence, however, radically altered popular conception of the ways in which an encyclopedia is produced (collaboratively, openly) and consumed (ubiquitously).

China
The nearest Chinese equivalent to an encyclopedia is the leishu. These consist of extensive quotations arranged by category. The earliest known Chinese encyclopedia is Huang Lan (Emperor's mirror), produced around 220 under the Wei dynasty. No copy has survived. The best-known leishu are those of Li Fang (925–996), who wrote three such works during the Song dynasty. These three were later combined with a fourth work, Cefu Yuangui, to create Four Great Books of Song.

title: Encyclopedism