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Alba Iulia

Alba Iulia (Karlsburg or Carlsburg, formerly Weißenburg; Gyulafehérvár; Apulum ) is a city that serves as the seat of Alba County in the west-central part of Romania. Located on the river Mureș in the historical region of Transylvania, it has a population of 63,536.

During ancient times, the site was the location of the Roman camp Apulum. Since the High Middle Ages, the city has been the seat of Transylvania's Roman Catholic diocese. Between 1526 and 1570 it was the capital of the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom from which the Principality of Transylvania emerged by the Treaty of Speyer in 1570 and it was the capital of the Principality of Transylvania until 1711. At one point it also was a center of the Eastern Orthodox Metropolitan of Transylvania with suffragan to Vad diocese. On 1 December 1918, the Union of Transylvania with Romania was declared in Alba Iulia, and the Romania's King Ferdinand I and Queen Marie were crowned in the Alba Iulia Orthodox Cathedral, in 1922.

Alba Iulia is historically important for Romanians, Hungarians, and Transylvanian Saxons. In December 1918, Alba Iulia was officially declared Capital of the Great Union of Romania.

The city administers four villages: Bărăbanț (Borbánd), Micești (Ompolykisfalud), Oarda (Alsóváradja), and Pâclișa (Poklos).

Names
During the Roman period the settlement was called Apulum (from the Dacian Apoulon, mentioned by Ptolemy). When the settlement with its Roman ruins became the seat of a dukedom in the 10th century, the population may have been Slavic. From the 9th to the 11th centuries, the settlement bore the Slavic name Bălgrad (meaning "white castle" or "white town"). The old Romanian name of the town was Bălgrad, which originated from Slavic.

The Hungarian name Gyulafehérvár is a translation of the earlier Slavic form, meaning "white castle of the Gyula" meaning "white city of Julius". Alba is the Romanian feminine form of the word for white, and Iulia ("Julius") refers to Gyula II, a mid-10th-century Hungarian warlord who was baptized in Constantinople.

Under the influence of the Hungarian form, Gyulafehérvár, the town's Latin name eventually became Alba Julia or Alba Yulia. Its modern Romanian name, Alba Iulia, is the adoption of this that started to spread in Romanian in ordinary speech in the 18th century. The modern name has been officially used since the town became part of Romania.

The 16th-century German name was Weyssenburg. The Saxons later renamed the town to Karlsburg (Carlsburg) in honour of Charles VI (1685–1740). In Yiddish and Hebrew, Karlsburg was prevalent. In Ladino, Carlosburg was used. Alba Carolina was also a Medieval Latin form of its name.

Among Ruthenians, the city was known as Bilhorod ("white city").

The city's Latin name in the 10th century was Civitatem Albam in Ereel. The first part of the name Alba denotes the ruins of the Roman fort Apulum, the pre-feudal white citadel. Later in the Middle Ages, different names were used: Frank episcopus Belleggradienesis in 1071, Albae Civitatis in 1134, Belegrada in 1153, Albensis Ultrasilvanus in 1177, ''eccl. Micahelis in 1199, Albe Transilvane in 1200, Albe Transsilvane in 1201, castrum Albens in 1206, canonicis Albensibus in 1213, Albensis eccl. Transsylvane in 1219, B. Michaelis arch. Transsilv. in 1231, Alba... Civitas in 1242, Alba sedes eptus in 1245, Alba Jula in 1291, Feyrvar in 1572, Feyérvár in 1574, Weissenburg in 1576, Belugrad in 1579, Gyula Feyervár in 1619, Gyula Fehérvár in 1690 and Karlsburg'' in 1715.

Ancient times

The modern city is located near the site of the important Dacian political, economic and social centre of Apulon, which was mentioned by the ancient Greek geographer Ptolemy and believed by some archaeologists to be the Dacian fortifications on top of Piatra Craivii. After Dacia became a province of the Roman Empire, the capital of Dacia Apulensis was established here, and the city was known as Apulum. Apulum was the largest urban centre in Roman Dacia and was the seat of the XIII Gemina Legion. Apulum is the largest castrum located in Romania, occupying 37.5 ha (750 x 500 m2).

Middle Ages

The Gesta Hungarorum mentions a Hungarian regent named Jula or Geula—the maternal grandfather of Stephen I of Hungary and lord [regent] of Transylvania—who built the capital of his dukedom there during the 10th century. Geula was baptized in the Byzantine Empire and built around 950 in Alba Iulia the first church of Transylvania. The ruins of a church were discovered in 2011. According to Ioan Aurel Pop and other historians, here lived Hierotheos the first bishop of Transylvania, who accompanied Geula back to Hungary after Geula had been baptized in Constantinople around 950.

Analysis of the necropoles of the city prior to the 11th century show that they were used by a population different from the conquering Hungarians.

After Stephen I adopted Catholicism, and the establishment of the Catholic Transylvanian bishopric, recent archaeological discoveries suggest that the first cathedral was built in the 11th century or possibly before. The present Catholic cathedral was built in the 12th or 13th century. In 1442, John Hunyadi, Voivode of Transylvania, used the citadel to prepare for a major battle against the Ottoman Turks. The cathedral was enlarged during his reign and he was entombed there after his death.

Ottoman and Habsburg period
In 1542 — after the partition of the Kingdom of Hungary — Alba Iulia became the capital of Transylvania and some of its neighboring territories to the west (later known as Partium ), the autonomous Principality of Transylvania, and remained so until 1690. The Treaty of Weissenburg was signed in the town in 1551. During the reign of Prince Gábor Bethlen, the city reached a high point in its cultural history with the establishment of an academy. The former Ottoman Turkish equivalent was Erdel Belgradı or Belgrad-ı Erdel ("Belgrade of Transylvania" in English) where Erdel (Erdély) was added to prevent confusion with Belgrat and Arnavut Belgradı ("Albanian Belgrade" in Turkish, early name of Berat during Ottoman rule).

In 29 November 1599, Michael the Brave, Voivode of Wallachia, entered Alba Iulia following his victory in the Battle of Șelimbăr and became Voivode of Transylvania. In 1600 he gained control of Moldavia, uniting the principalities of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania under his rule, which lasted for a year and a half until he was murdered in 1601, by General Giorgio Basta's agents.

Alba Iulia became part of the Habsburg Monarchy in 1690. The fortress Alba Carolina, designed by architect Giovanni Morando Visconti, was built between 1716 and 1735, at the behest of Emperor Charles VI of Habsburg. The leaders of the Transylvanian peasant rebellion were executed in Alba Iulia in January 1785. Important milestones in the city's development include the creation of the Batthyaneum Library in 1780 and the arrival of the railway in the 19th century.

20th and 21st centuries
At the end of World War I, representatives of the Romanian population of Transylvania, the National Assembly of Romanians of Transylvania and Hungary, gathered in Alba Iulia on 1 December 1918 during the so-called Great National Assembly of Alba Iulia to proclaim the Union of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Romania. The representatives of the Transylvanian Saxons decided to join this declaration on 8 January 1919.

In 1922, Ferdinand I of Romania was symbolically crowned King of Romania in Alba Iulia. In October 2012, at the 90th anniversary of King Ferdinand's coronation, his great-granddaughter Princess Margarita of Romania visited Alba Iulia to commemorate the event.

Jewish history

The Jewish community, which was the first in Transylvania, was established in the 14th century. A community was officially founded by permission of Prince Gabriel Bethlen in 1623. The 18th century saw an influx of Ashkenazim from Hungary and Wallachia, as well as Sephardim. From 1754 to 1868, the town rabbi was the chief rabbi of Transylvania. A synagogue was built in 1840, with a Sephardic one following in 1874. Most local Jews in the 19th century worked in viticulture and bought land for growing vines; in the 20th century, they were mainly artisans. By 1930, the 1558 Jews of Alba Iulia represented nearly 13% of the town's population.

In October 1940, during the National Legionary State, the Iron Guard terrorized local Jews. The following year, the Ion Antonescu regime confiscated Jewish property and sent the men to forced labor. After World War II, the community was re-established but soon dwindled as Jews emigrated.

Climate
Alba Iulia has a humid continental climate (Dfa in the Köppen climate classification).

Landmarks

The main historical area of Alba Iulia is the Upper Town region, developed by Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor in honour of whom the Habsburgs renamed the city Karlsburg. The fortress, with seven bastions in a stellar shape, was constructed between 1716 and 1735 by two Swiss fortification architects. The first was Giovanni Morandi Visconti, who built two old Italian-style bastions. The second was Nicolaus Doxat de Demoret—nicknamed "Austrian Vauban". After 1720, the two architects radically transformed the medieval fortress shaped by the former Roman castrum into a seven-bastion baroque fortress, developing Menno van Coehorn's new Dutch system, of which the fortress of Alba Iulia is the best preserved example.

Inside the fortress are The Union Hall with the National Honour Gallery, The National History Museum of Unification, the Princely Palace (Voivodal Palace), the Orthodox cathedral, the Roman Catholic cathedral, the Batthyaneum Library, the Roman Catholic bishop's palace, the Apor Palace, and the University of Alba Iulia. Built in the 10th and 11th centuries, the Roman Catholic cathedral is the most representative building in the medieval Romanic style in Transylvania, and is considered to be an important monument of early Transylvanian medieval architecture. The tombs of John Hunyadi and Isabella Jagiełło—Queen of Hungary are located there.

The Batthyaneum Library is held in a former church built in Baroque style. In 1780, Ignác Batthyány, bishop of Transylvania, adapted the inside of the building for use as a library. It is famous for its series of manuscripts, incunabula and rare books—such as half of the 9th century Codex Aureus of Lorsch, the 15th century Codex Burgundus and the 13th century Biblia Sacra (13th century). The first astronomical observatory in Transylvania was founded here in 1792. The Apor Palace, situated on the same street as the Bathyaneum Library, belonged to Prince Apor and was built in the second half of the 17th century. At the beginning of the 18th century, it was the residence of the Austrian army leader Prince Steinville. The palace was renovated in 2007 under the supervision of the Romanian Ministry of Culture.

The Orthodox Unification Cathedral was built between 1921 and 1923, following the plans of architect D.G. Ștefănescu and built under the supervision of eng. T. Eremia. The frescoes were painted by Constantin in a traditional iconographic style. The first monarchs of the Unified Romania, King Ferdinand I and Queen Marie were crowned in the cathedral on 15 October 1922.

The National Museum of Unification in Alba Iulia is located in the "Babylon" Building. It was built between 1851 and 1853 for military purposes and became a museum in 1887. The museum exhibits over 130,000 pieces of artworks, organized chronologically. The Unification Hall, also part of the National History Museum, retains historical significance from having hosted, on 1 December 1918, the rally of the 1228 Romanian delegations from Transylvania who determined the province's union with the Kingdom of Romania. The building was used in 1895 as a military casino.

The Princely Palace (Palatul Principilor or Palatul Voievodal) was Michael the Brave's residence during the first political unification of the Romanians in 1600. Foreign chronicles pictured it as an extremely luxurious building, richly adorned with frescos and marble stairs, which later deteriorated. During the rule of Princes Gábor Bethlen and George II Rákóczi the second palace was restored, but not to its previous condition. After 1716, the building was used as an Habsburg Imperial Army barracks.

Natives

 * Francis I Rákóczi (1645–1676), elected prince of Transylvania
 * Michael II Apafi (1676–1713), Prince of Transylvania 1690 to 1699
 * Ernst Michael Mangel (1800–1887), musician and Philhellene
 * Rudolf Züllich (1813–1890), sculptor
 * Alexandru Borza (1887–1971), botanist and monk
 * Ernest Krausz (1931–2018), Israeli professor of sociology and President at Bar Ilan University
 * Dan Eugen Demco (1942–), physicist and member of the Romanian Academy
 * Ion Mărgineanu (1949–), writer and poet
 * Marius Moga (1981–), producer, composer, and singer

Other notable residents

 * Johann Heinrich Alsted (1588–1638), German Calvinist minister and academic. Spent his last years and died there.
 * David Friesenhausen (1756–1828), Jewish writer, mathematician, and rabbi. Retired and died there.

Twin towns – sister cities
Alba Iulia is twinned with:

 * 🇬🇷 Aigio, Greece
 * 🇪🇸 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
 * 🇮🇹 Alessandria, Italy
 * 🇩🇪 Arnsberg, Germany
 * Biograd na Moru, Croatia
 * 🇲🇪 Cetinje, Montenegro
 * 🇲🇩 Chișinău, Moldova
 * 🇹🇷 Düzce, Turkey
 * 🇨🇳 Lanzhou, China
 * 🇮🇱 Nof HaGalil, Israel

 * 🇧🇬 Sliven, Bulgaria
 * 🇭🇺 Székesfehérvár, Hungary
 * 🇮🇹 Varese, Italy
 * 🇮🇹 Viadana, Italy

Demographics
According to the 2021 census, there was a total population of 64,227 people living in this city. At the 2011 census, there were 63,536 inhabitants; of these, 95.3% were ethnic Romanians, 3.2% Romani, 1.9% Hungarians, and 0.2% Germans (more specifically Transylvanian Saxons).

In 1850, Alba Iulia had 5,408 inhabitants, 2,530 of them being Romanians (46.78%), 1,009 Hungarians (18.67%), 748 Germans/Transylvanian Saxons (13.83%), and 1,121 (20.73%) others.

In 1891, the city had 8,167 residents, of which 3,482 were Hungarians (42.63%), 3,426 Romanians (41.94%), and 867 Germans/Transylvanian Saxons (10.62%). By 1910 the number of inhabitants increased to 11,616. 5,226 of them were Hungarians (45%), 5,170 Romanians (44.51%), and 792 Germans/Transylvanian Saxons (6.82%). At the 1930 census, 34.7% of the population were Romanian Orthodox, 28.1% Romanian Greek Catholic, 12.9% Roman Catholic, 12.7% Jews, 7.3% Reformed Protestant, and 3.1% Lutheran.

title: Alba Iulia


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Northern Star Award

The Northern Star Award, formerly known as the Lou Marsh Trophy, the Lou Marsh Memorial Trophy and Lou Marsh Award, is a trophy that is awarded annually to Canada's top athlete, professional or amateur. It is awarded by a panel of journalists, with the vote taking place in December. It was first awarded in 1936. It was named in honour of Lou Marsh, a prominent Canadian athlete, referee, and former sports editor of the Toronto Star. The trophy is made of black marble and stands around 75 centimetres high. The words "With Pick and Shovel" (the name of Marsh's long-running Star column) appear above the engraved names of the winners. The voting panel consists of sports media voters from across the country including representatives from the Toronto Star, The Canadian Press, FAN590, The Globe and Mail, CBC, Rogers Sportsnet, CTV/TSN, La Presse and the National Post.

The award has been awarded 79 times and won by 62 individual athletes and three pairs; in the voting for the 2018 Lou Marsh Trophy, it was decided that in the future pairs should not be eligible for the trophy, thereby disqualifying Tessa Virtue / Scott Moir from consideration. Wayne Gretzky won the trophy four times, more than any other athlete, while Barbara Ann Scott won the trophy three times, more than any other woman. It was not awarded from 1942 to 1944 due to World War II.

There were ties between different athletes in 1978 and 2020 with soccer player Alphonso Davies & American football player Laurent Duvernay-Tardif as the most recent co-winners. In 1982, Rick Hansen was the auxiliary award of special merit winner (he won nine gold medals at the Pan-American Wheelchair Games) alongside first-time winner Wayne Gretzky, "who was the unanimous choice of the selection committee".

On November 16, 2022, it was announced that the award would be renamed from the Lou Marsh Award to the Northern Star Award "after concerns were raised about racist language used by Marsh, who died in 1936, during his years of sportswriting."

Winners

 * Key
 * * = Also won the Lionel Conacher Award as Canadian male athlete of the year
 * ^ = Also won the Bobbie Rosenfeld Award as Canadian female athlete of the year

Winners by sport
Not included in this table are Terry Fox and Laurent Duvernay-Tardif, as their respective wins were based on their social contributions, rather than their participation in a sport in general. Fox was awarded for the Marathon of Hope; Duvernay-Tardif was awarded for opting out of playing in the 2020 NFL season for the Kansas City Chiefs after winning Super Bowl LIV to work as an orderly at a long-term care facility during the COVID-19 pandemic in Quebec.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Northern Star Award


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Talk:Christian symbolism

POV
I removed the NPOV banner and it was restored due to excessive coverage of the Jesse Tree. By my count there are exactly two sentences about the Jesse Tree in the entire article. What is the POV dispute? I read the talk page and archived it as every thread was from last summer or earlier. Now, what is the real issue here? -- SECisek (talk) 03:10, 26 November 2007 (UTC)
 * according to Wikipedia policy:
 * Undue weight applies to more than just viewpoints. Just as giving undue weight to a viewpoint is not neutral, so is giving undue weight to other verifiable and sourced statements. An article should not give undue weight to any aspects of the subject, but should strive to treat each aspect with a weight appropriate to its significance to the subject. Note that undue weight can be given in several ways, including, but not limited to, depth of detail, quantity of text, prominence of placement, and juxtaposition of statements.
 * I believe the emphasis on the Tree of Jesse violates this. Certainly there are other symbols that are more prominant and deserve better coverage.  Bytebear (talk) 03:19, 26 November 2007 (UTC)

Alright, in principle I do not disagree with you. Since you feel it is unbalanced, what do you propose? -- SECisek (talk) 03:26, 26 November 2007 (UTC)
 * I think we need to decide what this article is about. If I were a non-Christian, I would think the Tree of Jesse was a central tennant of the faith, but I do not believe that to be the case.  I would focus on the Cross and Crucifix, the trinity symbology, but also things like the stations of the cross, even go into Easter and Christmas symbols.  I don't know the subject matter as well as some, but I certainly think of these symbols when I think of Christianity.  I had never heard of the Tree of Jesse prior to reading this article.  Bytebear (talk) 03:32, 26 November 2007 (UTC)

I see nothing wrong with your comment. I agree and will try to do some work on this article, perhaps a full rewrite. -- SECisek (talk) 03:35, 26 November 2007 (UTC)
 * it may be just a matter of adjusting the headings so things are easier and more clearly defined. Bytebear (talk) 03:35, 26 November 2007 (UTC)

No you are right, this is a poor article. A major overhauled was acomplished. -- SECisek (talk) 03:47, 26 November 2007 (UTC)

I used to edit for Wikipedia as I have a Th.D. in Early Church History, but the POV is so strong and factually wrong, that most of my edits were edited away by those with a POV that was not based upon historical fact. Anyway, I want to comment that the idea that Christian graves were marked by pictures of Christ etc. from the earliest times is utter nonsense. I have visited the catacombs in Rome and traveled throughout Asia Minor and this is a falsehood. Furthermore, many of the so-called symbols of the cross that many claim (like X, the Greek letter Chi which begins the word chiliasm, in fact, were symbols of the millennial hope of the resurrection according to both Catholic and Protestant scholars. If someday, Wikipedia is willing to actually accept what really happened, I would edit again.  HistoryTHD. (cogwriter@aol.com)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.126.28.253 (talk) 17:22, 13 November 2011 (UTC)

Please discuss things a little bit more!
First off, the whole bit about the Tree of Jesse was actually ancillary and subordinate to a discussion of the Christmas tree, and the discussion of the Christmas tree was not to pretend that the Christmas tree is an important or basic Christian symbol (in fact, the opposite is specifically disclaimed), but as an in-depth examination of one particular semi-random symbol to examine the general methods of symbolism.

And Secisek's edits were rather unfortunate, in that the first section after the introduction seems to give the impression that the the majority of Christian symbols were plagiarized from other traditions. AnonMoos (talk) 06:11, 26 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Not my intent at all. The article is clearly a work in progress. Wikipedia sholuld not be "semi-random" or have lengthy passages that are acknowledged to not be about the the subject of the article.  The Christmas tree section was totaly out of place here and I believe I have laid the ground work for the article to move forward: 1. Pre-christian symbols. 2. Early Christian. 3. Symbols of the Church. Add relavent material to each secion.  Please let's all just try to keep it relavent. There was no discussion here since last August. It is December. I felt given that fact I could be bold.  Instead of complaining about the cuts, be bold and add cited material that will help this article reach B and GA status. Best. -- SECisek (talk) 06:26, 26 November 2007 (UTC)
 * I think Secisek's edit was in good faith, and I will remind you to follow WP:OWNERSHIP guidelines. Bytebear (talk) 06:33, 26 November 2007 (UTC)

I have begun the process of making citations. Most of what was kept was easily cited with source around my house I will continue to develop the article. Please contribute where possible. -- SECisek (talk) 06:48, 26 November 2007 (UTC)

Eh?
True-to-the-pope Roman Catholics are not true-to-The Lord Jesus Christ-Christians; why are they included on the Christianity page? Is there no distinct page for Roman Catholics? Are Christians included there? Invmog (talk) 18:25, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Yeah...that's not offensive at all. Catholics are Christians.  We are "true-to-The Lord Jesus Christ-Christians" and we take offense to being called otherwise.  And even if we weren't Christians, it doesn't matter because wikipedia only reports what reliable sources say, not our own opinions, and reliable sources say that Catholics are Christians.  End of story.  If you have a suggestion for improving the article, then provide it.  Offensive comments like that are not welcome here, nor, according to St. Paul, are they very Christian. Farsight001 (talk) 11:39, 12 May 2009 (UTC)

 * Since when does being "true-to-the-pope" contradict being "true-to-our Lord"? Christ clearly built a Church and placed His Church under the authority of St. Peter. Not only are Catholics Christians but they are the only true Christians, for those who reject the authority of St. Peter and his successors (i.e. the pope) are cut off from the Church. 64.6.124.31 (talk) 15:03, 4 August 2016 (UTC)

Tomb Paintings section
Under the Tomb Paintings section there is a paragraph that starts: In its modern image, usually depicted as bumper stickers and t-shirts and a miasma of other modern items, it carries a strong and puzzling visual connection to the Odal, an ancient Norse rune often associated with the Norse god Odin. What in the world is it? It seems the author was speaking about a specific item, but I can't make heads-or-tails of it. What is modern imagery doing under Tomb Paintings, anyway? --74.241.56.136 (talk) 12:50, 7 May 2010 (UTC)
 * I've cut what seems an irrelevant OR insertion. If you look at Odal (rune), I suppose it is about the fish symbol (oddly not mentioned in the text. The reference, to the 1911 Catholic Encyclopedia "Veneration of Images", clearly belongs to the para above. Johnbod (talk) 13:29, 7 May 2010 (UTC)

Criticism?
The portion about the Celtic cross makes a number of interesting claims. However, the claims lack the slightest bit of sourcing. Because the claims in this part are utterly unsourced, they should be removed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.225.13.122 (talk) 23:26, 3 April 2019 (UTC)

Indeed, the section on the Celtic cross seems to confuse the Christian Celtic cross and the earlier Pagan solar wheel motif associated with Taranis's cult. The section should be modified to reflect this. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.173.53.86 (talk) 05:49, 9 August 2020 (UTC)

I know there are at least a few christian faiths that believe use of symbols including the cross is akin to worshiping an idol, and I think there could be room for some mention of this on this page. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.8.119.13 (talk) 17:42, 5 August 2010 (UTC)

 * The JW's (but they're out of the mainstream). AnonMoos (talk) 10:45, 3 November 2011 (UTC)

 * The Iconoclasm article touches on this topic a bit in its Reformation section, but from a historical perspective. Andreas Karlstadt, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Calvin were the most notable theologians who preached against religious imagery around the time of the Beeldenstorm.  Although there are some mainstream denominations that follow their teachings, I don't recall any of them subscribing to their iconoclastic views in the present day.  The Aniconism in Christianity article touches on the subject a bit more, and might be interesting enough to link to in the "see also" section.  --Dulcimerist (talk) 07:01, 26 March 2012 (UTC)

 * Would anyone want to take the lead on doing something along the lines of my previous post? I believe it would be beneficial to the article, but I'd like to hear other people's thoughts.  I've thought of a few different options:
 * 1. Simply add a small paragraph at the end of the Icons section which touches on the Iconoclasm period during the Protestant Reformation, briefly describing some of the details from my previous post (although the actions during the Protestant Reformation weren't confined exclusively to icons).
 * 2. Create an actual Criticism section in the article in order to add Protestant Reformation iconoclasm/aniconism information.
 * 3. Create an actual Criticism section in the article, keep the Icon section specifically about Icons, and move the Byzantine Iconoclasm information into the Criticism section. Protestant Reformation iconoclasm/aniconism information could then follow in this section.  (I think I like this option best of the three.)
 * Although the modern-day aniconistic beliefs of the Amish and certain Mennonite sects could also be included in a Criticism section (along with certain Presbyterian sects), they're pretty much out of the mainstream and might not be beneficial to mention. They're a continuation of the aniconistic movement from the Protestant Reformation, so they might deserve a passing mention, though.
 * Anyway, those are my thoughts. For now I'll just add Aniconism in Christianity to the bottom of the See Also section, since it's of interest to the article's topic.  However, I won't make any of the modifications mentioned above without input and opinions from other Wiki users.  Thanks!  --Dulcimerist (talk) 18:13, 13 April 2012 (UTC)

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Eye of Providence
In some interpretations it's associated with the Christian Trinity (because of the enclosing Triangle), but ca. 1800 it could also be associated with Deism and/or Freemasonry. while in the 20th century it became a Cao Dai symbol... AnonMoos (talk) 08:50, 12 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Christian symbolism


text:
ITV Choice

ITV Choice (formerly Granada UKTV, Granada TV and ITV Granada) was a television channel owned and operated by ITV plc.

History
The channel was launched in 1997 by Granada Media under the name Granada UKTV, and offered cable and satellite services in Middle East, Malta and Asia. It was also carried by Sky Network Television in New Zealand between 1999 and 2002.

The service was expanded and relaunched as Granada TV during 2008, when ITV announced plans to offer the channel to cable and satellite operators in Asia.

On 1 November 2010, it was rebranded as ITV Granada. The channel was renamed again as ITV Choice on 25 March 2013.

On 20 August 2019, it suddenly ceased broadcasting in many markets across the Middle East, Malta and Asia, while transmission in South Africa was unaffected. On 18 March 2020, it was announced that the channel would cease broadcasting in Africa on 4 June of that year. Tipping Point was the last programme to be broadcast on the channel before closure in Africa.

In December 2022, an ITV Choice branded FAST channel was launched on the Samsung TV Plus platform in Australia in December 2022, which airs various ITV Studios-owned programmes. In October 2023, it was renamed as Entertain by ITV Studios.

Programming
It primarily carried ITV and other UK programming, produced by ITV Studios and other independent production companies. Key programmes include Coronation Street, Emmerdale, Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway, Dancing on Ice, I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!, The Jonathan Ross Show, Doc Martin, The Chase, Tipping Point, among others.

Availability

 * Asia and Middle East on Measat 3
 * Australia on Samsung TV Plus
 * Malaysia on Astro (channel 735, from 21 December 2009 until 16 January 2017)
 * New Zealand on Sky Television (from January 1999 until 1 January 2002)
 * Taiwan on Chunghwa Telecom (channel 82, from 6 December 2010)
 * Malta on GO Channel 305 and Melita Cable (channel 309)
 * The Middle East on Star TV's Star Select service, Orbit Showtime Network OSN channel 47 and Arab Digital Distribution
 * Hong Kong on now TV (channel 517, from 7 September 2010) and Star TV (from January 1997 until 1 January 2002)
 * Indonesia on Skynindo (channel 27) and TelkomVision (channel 503)
 * India on Airtel digital TV (from 5 January 2012)
 * Singapore on mio TV (channel 23, from 15 July 2009 until 25 March 2013), StarHub TV (channel 523, from 1 December 2009 until 30 December 2013) and Singtel TV (channel 337, from 1 July 2015 until 19 August 2019)
 * Thailand through Cable Thai Holding.
 * Africa on DStv (from 5 May 2015 until 4 June 2020)

title: ITV Choice


text:
Talk:Holiness Baptist Association

Untitled
The statement:

John Wesley taught that holiness, or Christian perfection, was a definite and instantaneous second work of grace received by faith, and followed by gradual sanctification.

seems to be somewhat controversial; it certainly surprized me. Such research as I've done suggests Wesley may not have been consistent on this point. I reference the following link:

A Look At Holiness And Perfectionism Theology

Where is the "perfection followed by gradual sanctification" documented in Wesley's writings?

 * I'll have to check my references, but I can tell you that my idea of his teachings comes more from reading about him, than from reading his writings. I have The Journal of John Wesley, but as it is not indexed, I cannot easily check it. I have problems with Adobe & pdf's on my home computer, so I'll check you link at my office tomorrow. Nevertheless, if you feel you can add a more accurate statement on Wesley's teachings on holiness/perfection, I would welcome your making the change. I certainly am no expert on Wesley or Methodism. Also my use of "followed by gradual sanctification" may need explanation, and could probably have been written in a better way. By the statement, I meant to say that Wesley taught an initial experience followed by a lifelong process of being sanctified or made holy. - Rlvaughn 02:27, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Thanks for the response. While I admire the man, I am not a student of John Wesley. But if I come up with a better description, I'll make the edit. mjscud 06:37, 2003 Dec 19 (UTC)

title: Talk:Holiness Baptist Association


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Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville

Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville (12 September 1777 – 1 May 1850) was a French zoologist and anatomist.

Life
Blainville was born at Arques, near Dieppe. As a young man, he went to Paris to study art, but ultimately devoted himself to natural history. He attracted the attention of Georges Cuvier, for whom he occasionally substituted as lecturer at the Collège de France and at the Athenaeum Club, London. In 1812, he was aided by Cuvier in acquiring the position of assistant professor of anatomy and zoology in the Faculty of Sciences at Paris. Eventually, relations between the two men soured, a situation that ended in open enmity.

In 1819, Blainville was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia. In 1825, he was admitted a member of the French Academy of Sciences; and in 1830, he was appointed to succeed Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in the chair of natural history at the museum. Two years later, on the death of Cuvier, he obtained the chair of comparative anatomy, of which he proved himself a worthy successor to his former teacher. In 1837, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. On May 1, 1850, he died from an attack of apoplexy in a railway carriage at the Embarcadère du Havre (current Gare Saint-Lazare) in Paris.

He was the taxonomic authority of numerous zoological species, extinct and extant; including the eponymous Blainville's beaked whale, Mesoplodon densirostris.

In the field of herpetology, he adopted Pierre André Latreille's proposal of separating Amphibia from Reptilia, and then (1816) developed a unique arrangement in regards to sub-groupings, using organs of generation as primary criteria. He described several new species of reptiles.

Blainville rejected evolution. He was a critic of Lamarck's evolutionary ideas but similar to Lamarck proposed a great chain of being. It was in 1822 that he coined the term paleontology.

Taxon named in his honor
Blainville is commemorated in the scientific names of several species, such as the
 * North American lizard Phrynosoma blainvillii.
 * The fossil actinopterygian fish Aeduella blainvillei from the Permian period of Europe.
 * The deep-bodied pipefish (Leptonotus blainvilleanus) (Eydoux & Gervais, 1837) is a species of marine fish belonging to the family Syngnathidae.

Selected writings

 * Sur les ichthyolites, ou, Les poissons fossiles (1818) - On "ichthyolites", or fossil fish.
 * De l'organisation des animaux, ou Principes d'anatomie comparée (1822) - On the organization of animals, or principles of comparative anatomy.
 * Manuel de malacologie et de conchyliologie (1825-1827) - Manual of malacology and conchology.
 * Cours de physiologie générale et comparée (1829) - Course of general and comparative physiology.
 * Manuel d'actinologie, ou de zoophytologie (1834) - Manual of actinology [the study of the chemical effects of visible and ultraviolet light] or zoophytology.
 * Ostéographie ou description iconographique comparée du squelette et du système dentaire des mammifères récents et fossiles (1839–64) - Osteography or comparative iconographical descriptions of the skeleton and teeth of living and fossil mammals.

Taxon described by him

 * See Category:Taxa named by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville

title: Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville


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Lazar Kaganovich

Lazar Moiseyevich Kaganovich (Лазарь Моисеевич Каганович; 22 November 1893 – 25 July 1991) was a Soviet politician and one of Joseph Stalin's closest associates.

Born to a Jewish family in Ukraine, Kaganovich worked as a shoemaker and joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1911. During and after the 1917 October Revolution, he held leading positions in Bolshevik organizations in Belarus and Russia, and helped consolidate Soviet rule in Turkestan. In 1922, Stalin placed Kaganovich in charge of an organizational department of the Communist Party, assisting the former in consolidating his grip on the party. Kaganovich was appointed First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine in 1925, and a full member of the Politburo and Stalin's deputy party secretary in 1930. In 1932–33, he helped enforce grain quotas in Ukraine which contributed to the Holodomor famine. From the mid-1930s on, Kaganovich variously served as the People's Commissar for Railways, Heavy Industry and Oil Industry, and during the Second World War was appointed a member of the State Defence Committee.

After Stalin's death in 1953 and the rise of Nikita Khrushchev, Kaganovich quickly lost his influence. After joining in a failed coup against Khrushchev in 1957, Kaganovich was dismissed from the Presidium and demoted to the director of a small potash works in the Urals. He was expelled from the party in 1961 and lived out his life as a pensioner in Moscow. At his death in 1991, he was the last surviving Old Bolshevik. The Soviet Union itself outlasted him by only five months, dissolving on 26 December 1991.

Early life
Kaganovich was born in 1893 to Jewish parents in the village of Kabany, Radomyshl uyezd, Kiev Governorate, Russian Empire (today Dibrova, Kyiv Oblast, Ukraine). Although not from a "fanatically observant" family, according to Kaganovich, he spoke Yiddish at home. He was the son of Moisei Benovich Kaganovich (1863–1923) and Genya Iosifovna Dubinskaya (1860–1933). Of the 13 children born to the family, 6 died in infancy. Lazar had four elder brothers, all of whom became members of the Bolshevik party. Several of Lazar's brothers ended up occupying positions of varying significance in the Soviet government. Mikhail Kaganovich (1888–1941) served as People's Commissar of Defence Industry before being appointed Head of the People's Commissariat of the Aviation Industry of the USSR, while Yuli Kaganovich (1892–1962) became the 3rd First Secretary of the Gorky Regional Committee of the CPSU. Israel Kaganovich (1884–1973) was made the head of the Main Directorate for Cattle Harvesting of the Ministry of Meat and Dairy Industry. However, Aron Moiseevich Kaganovich (1888–1960s) apparently decided against following his siblings into government, and did not pursue a career in politics. Lazar also had a sister, Rachel Moiseevna Kaganovich (1883–1926), who married Mordechai Ber Lantzman; they lived together in Chernobyl for a period, but she subsequently died in the 1920s and was interred in Kiev.

Lazar Kaganovich left school at 14, to work in shoe factories and cobblers' shops. Around 1911, he joined the Bolshevik party (his older brother Mikhail Kaganovich had become a member in 1905). Early in his political career, in 1915, Kaganovich became a Communist organizer at a shoe factory where he worked. During the same year he was arrested and sent back to Kabany.

Revolution and Civil War
During March and April 1917, he served as the Chairman of the Tanners Union and as the vice-chairman of the Yuzovka Soviet. In May 1917, he became the leader of the military organization of Bolsheviks in Saratov, and in August 1917, he became the leader of the Polessky Committee of the Bolshevik party in Belarus. During the October Revolution of 1917 he led the revolt in Gomel.

In 1918 Kaganovich acted as Commissar of the propaganda department of the Red Army. From May 1918 to August 1919 he was the Chairman of the Ispolkom (Committee) of the Nizhny Novgorod Governorate. In 1919–1920, he served as governor of the Voronezh Governorate. The years 1920 to 1922 he spent in Turkmenistan as one of the leaders of the Bolshevik struggle against local Muslim rebels (basmachi), and also commanding the succeeding punitive expeditions against local opposition.

Communist functionary
In June 1922, two months after Stalin became the General Secretary of the Communist Party, Kaganovich was appointed head of the party's Organisation and Instruction Department (Orgotdel), which was expanded a year later by absorbing the Records and Assignment Department, and renamed the Organisation-Assignment Department (Orgraspred). This department was responsible for all assignments within the apparatus of the Communist Party. Working there, Kaganovich helped to place Stalin's supporters in important jobs within the Communist Party bureaucracy. In this position he became noted for his great work capacity and for his personal loyalty to Stalin. He stated publicly that he would execute absolutely any order from Stalin, which at that time was a novelty.

In May 1924, Kaganovich became a full member of the Central Committee, after having first been elected as a candidate one year earlier, a member of the Orgburo, and a Secretary of the Central Committee.

From 1925 to 1928, Kaganovich was the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Ukrainian SSR. In July 1926, he was also elected a candidate member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. He was given the task of "ukrainizatsiya" – meaning at that time the building up of Ukrainian communist popular cadres, and encouraging 'low' Ukrainian culture, by removing bureaucratic obstacles to the use of the Ukrainian language; but he treated high culture with great suspicion. He was particularly suspicious of the poet, Mykola Khvylovy, and sent Stalin a selection of quotations from Khvylovy's verses, which incited Stalin to launch an attack on the poet. He clashed frequently with the two most prominent ethnic Ukrainian Bolsheviks Vlas Chubar and Alexander Shumsky. Shumsky obtained an audience with Stalin in 1926 to insist that Kaganovich be recalled, but Kaganovich succeeded in getting Shumsky dismissed the following year, over his support for Khvylovy. Later, Stalin had a similar visit from Chubar, and the Ukraine President, Grigory Petrovsky. In 1928, Stalin reluctantly agreed to recall Kaganovich.

In Moscow, he returned to his position as a Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, a job he held until 1939. As Secretary, he endorsed Stalin's struggle against the so-called Left and Right oppositions within the Communist Party, and backed Stalin's decision to enforce rapid collectivisation of agriculture, against the more moderate policy of Nikolai Bukharin, who argued in favor of the "peaceful integration of kulaks into socialism." In summer 1930, he was warned that Lenin's widow, Nadezhda Krupskaya had delivered a speech at a district party branch in Moscow, in which she criticised collectivisation. Kaganovich rushed to the meeting, and subjected Krupskaya to "coarse and scathing abuse."

In July 1930, Kaganovich was promoted to full membership of the Politburo, which he retained for 27 years.

Stalin's deputy
In December 1930, when Vyacheslav Molotov promoted to the post of chairman of the Soviet government, Kaganovich replaced him as Stalin's deputy in the party secretariat, a position he held until February 1935. In these four years, he was the third most powerful figure in the Soviet leadership, behind Stalin and Molotov. He was left in Moscow in charge of party affairs when Stalin was on vacation. In 2001, a collection of 836 letters and telegrams that Stalin and Kaganovich exchanged in 1931–36 were published in Russia. The bulk of them were translated and published in the US in 2003.

In 1933 and 1934, he served as the Chairman of the Commission for Vetting of the Party Membership (Tsentralnaya komissiya po proverke partiynykh ryadov) and ensured personally that nobody associated with anti-Stalin opposition would be permitted to remain a Communist Party member. In 1934, at the XVII Congress of the Communist Party, Kaganovich chaired the Counting Committee. He falsified voting for positions in the Central Committee, deleting 290 votes opposing the Stalin candidacy. His actions resulted in Stalin's being re-elected as the General Secretary instead of Sergey Kirov. By the rules, the candidate receiving fewer opposing votes should become the General Secretary. Before Kaganovich's falsification, Stalin received 292 opposing votes and Kirov only three. However, the "official" result (due to the interference of Kaganovich) saw Stalin with just two opposing votes.

In 1930–35, he was also First Secretary of the Moscow Obkom of the Communist Party (1930–1935). He later headed the Moscow Gorkom of the Communist Party (1931–1934). During this period, he also supervised destruction of many of the city's oldest monuments, including the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour. In 1932, he led the suppression of the workers' strike in Ivanovo-Voznesensk.

Moscow Metro
In the 1930s, Kaganovich – along with project managers Ivan Kuznetsov and, later Isaac Segal – organized and led the building of the first Soviet underground rapid-transport system, the Moscow Metro, known as Metropoliten imeni L.M. Kaganovicha after him until 1955. The decision to construct the metro was made at a plenum of the Central Committee on June 15, 1931, after a report by Kaganovich.

On October 15, 1941, L. M. Kaganovich received an order to close the Moscow Metro, and within three hours to prepare proposals for its destruction, as a strategically important object. The metro was supposed to be destroyed, and the remaining cars and equipment removed. On the morning of October 16, 1941, on the day of the panic in Moscow, the metro was not opened for the first time. It was the only day in the history of the Moscow metro when it did not work. By evening, the order to destroy the metro was canceled.

In 1955, after the death of Stalin, the Moscow Metro was renamed to no longer include Kaganovich's name.

Responsibility for the 1932–1933 famine
In July 1932, Molotov and Kaganovich travelled to Kharkov, then the capital of Ukraine, to order the Politburo of the Ukrainian Communist party to set a quote of grain procurement of 356 million pood a year. Every member of the Ukrainian Poliburo pleaded for a reduction in the quantity of grain peasants were required to hand over to the state, but Kaganovich and Molotov "categorically refused". Later the same month, they sent the Ukrainian party leaders a secret telegram ordering them to intensify grain production and impose harsh penalties on peasants who failed to comply. In August, Stalin and Kaganovich pushed through a decree that made theft or sabotage of state property, including the property of collective farms, punishable by death, and Kaganovich sent a telegram to the Ukrainian leaders on "the unsatisfactory pace of grain procurement." On 13 January 2010, Years later, when the Kyiv Court of Appeal had investigated the causes of the 1932–33 famine, known as the Holodomor, the court cited these four incidents as proof that Kaganovich was complicit in an act of genocide against the Ukrainian nation. Though he and others were pronounced guilty as criminals, the case was ended immediately according to paragraph 8 of Article 6 of the Criminal Procedural Code of Ukraine. The court's ruling also referred to Kaganovich's return visit to Kharkiv in December 1932, when, during a Politburo session that lasted until 4.00 am, Ukrainians present begged that peasants should be allowed to retain more grain for their own consumption and seeds for the next year's crop, but Kaganovich overruled them and messaged Stalin accusing them of "seriously hampering and undermining the entire grain procurement."

Kaganovich also travelled to the Northern Caucasus in October 1932 to "struggle with the class enemy who sabotaged the grain collection and sowing." Meeting resistance from Cossacks, he had the entire population of 16 Cossack villages, of more than 1,000 people each, deported, and brought in peasants from less fertile land to replace them.

He also traveled to the central regions of the USSR, and Siberia demanding the acceleration of collectivization and repressions against the Kulaks, who were generally blamed for the slow progress of collectivization.

Repression of Poltavskaya
Poltavskaya sabotaged and resisted collectivization period of the Soviet Union more than any other area in the Kuban which was perceived by Lazar Kaganovich to be connected to Ukrainian nationalist and Cossack conspiracy. Kaganovich relentlessly pursued the policy of requisition of grain in Poltavskaya and the rest of the Kuban and personally oversaw the purging of local leaders and Cossacks. Kaganovich viewed the resistance of Poltavskaya through Ukrainian lens delivering oration in a mixed Ukrainian language. To justify this Kaganovich cited a letter allegedly written by a stanitsa ataman (local Cossack leader) named Grigorii Omel'chenko advocating Cossack separatism and local reports of resistance to collectivization in association with this figure to substantiate this suspicion of the area. However Kaganocvich did not reveal in speeches throughout the region that many of those targeted by persecution in Poltavskaya had their family members and friends deported or shot including in years before the supposed Omel'chenko crisis even started. Ultimately due to being perceived as the most rebellious area almost all (or 12,000) members of the Poltavskaya stantisa were deported to the north. This coincided with and was a part of a wider deportation of 46,000 Cossacks from Kuban. At the same time, Poltavskaya was renamed Krasnoarmeyskaya (Красноарме́йская).

"Iron Lazar"
In spring 1935, Kaganovich was replaced as the secretary in charge of party organisation, and as chairman of the purge commission, by Nikolai Yezhov, the future head of the NKVD, whose rise was a harbinger of the Great Purge. Kaganovich had handpicked Yezhov in 1933 to be deputy head of the purge commission, significantly boosting his career. In March 1935, Kaganovich was replaced as first secretary of the Moscow party organisation, by Nikita Khrushchev. From February 1935 to 1937, Kaganovich was Narkom (Minister) for the railways. This was the first step in his eventual switch from party to economic work, but in 1935, he played a significant role in preparations for the Great Purge. Even before it started, he organized the arrests of thousands of railway administrators and managers accused of sabotage.. Before the opening of the first of the Moscow show trials in August 1936, Kaganovich and Yezhov jointly reported to Stalin, who was on vacation, about progress in forcing the defendants to confess. He was also in Moscow to facilitate Yezhov's appointment as head of the NKVD, after Stalin had demanded the sacking of the incumbent, Genrikh Yagoda, which Kaganovich praised as a "remarkable and wise decision of our father."

During the Great Purge, Kaganovich was sent from Moscow to Ivanovo, the Kuban, Smolensk and elsewhere, to instigate sackings and arrests. In Ivanovo, he ordered the arrests of the provincial party secretary, and the head of the propaganda department, and accused a majority of the executive of being "enemies of the people". His visit became known as the "black tornado".

In all Party conferences of the later 1930s, he made speeches demanding increased efforts in the search for and prosecution of "foreign spies" and "saboteurs." For his ruthlessness in the execution of Stalin's orders, he was nicknamed "Iron Lazar." During his time serving as Railways Commissar, Kaganovich participated in the murder of 36,000 people by signing death lists. Kaganovich had exterminated so many railwaymen that one official called to warn that one line was entirely unmanned. In 1936–39, Kaganovich's signature appears on 188 out of 357 documented execution lists.

Kaganovich was appointed People's Commissar for Heavy Industry after his predecessor, Sergo Ordzhonikidze committed suicide, in February 1937. In August 1938, he was named as a Deputy Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars. In 1939, he was appointed People's Commissar for the Oil Industry. During World War II (known as the Great Patriotic War in the USSR), Kaganovich was Commissar (Member of the Military Council) of the North Caucasian and Transcaucasian Fronts. During 1943–1944, he was again the Narkom for the railways. In 1943, he was presented with the title of Hero of Socialist Labour. From 1944 to 1947, Kaganovich was the Minister for Building Materials.

Political decline
Politically, Kaganovich was a much diminished figure after the war. An early sign of his weakened position was that in 1941, his brother, Mikhail, committed suicide when facing arrest, just after the German invasion. Lazar Kaganovich reputedly made no attempt to help him. When the State Defence Committee was formed to direct the war, Kaganovich was initially excluded, though he was co-opted in February 1942. In 1946, he was officially ranked ninth in seniority in the Kremlin pecking order.

In 1947, after Ukraine had failed to deliver its grain quota in the wake of a drought, Kaganovich was sent to replace Khrushchev as First Secretary of the Ukrainian CP, while Khrushchev was downgraded to the post of head of government. However, Kaganovich was recalled and Khrushchev reinstated in December 1947.

From 1949, until Stalin's death in March 1953, Kaganovich was in a precarious situation because of the state-sponsored anti-semitism, culminating in the Slánský trial in Prague, and the Doctors' plot, during which hundreds of Jews, including Molotov's wife, Polina Zhemchuzhina, were arrested, and many were tortured and shot. Kaganovich remained in office throughout, as the most prominent Jew in the Soviet leadership, but was no longer invited to meet Stalin socially, and "was lying low, watching the course of events in fear and trembling".

From 1948 to 1952, he was the Chairman of Gossnab (State Committee for Material-Technical Supply, charged with the primary responsibility for the allocation of producer goods to enterprises, a critical state function in the absence of markets).

After Stalin's death, Kaganovich appeared to regain some of the influence he had lost. In March 1953, he was appointed one of four First Vice-Premiers of the Council of Ministers, and confirmed as a full member of the ten-man Praesidium (the new name given to the Politburo), and on 24 May 1955, he was appointed the first Chairman of Goskomtrud.

But his position rapidly deteriorated with the rise of Nikita Khrushchev. In the 1930s, he had been Khrushchev's mentor, but Khrushchev had not forgiven the interlude when Kaganovich supplanted him as the Ukrainian party leader in 1947, and had come to despise him. In his memoirs, Khrushchev wrote:

"His behaviour disgusted me, and it disgusted others. He was nothing but a lackey ... Stalin used to hold him up as an example of a man 'resolute in his class consciousness' and 'implacable towards his class enemies.' Later we found out all to well how resolute and implacable Kaganovich really was. He was the kind of man who wouldn't say a single word on behalf of his own brother, Mikhail Kaganovich."

In 1956–57, Kaganovich joined Molotov, Georgy Malenkov, and Dmitri Shepilov in an attempt to remove Khrushchev from office, partly in reaction against Khrushchev's Secret Speech in February 1956, denouncing Stalin and the persecution of innocent party officials. On 6 June 1956, Kaganovich was removed from the chairmanship of the State Committee on Labour and Wages. When the Central Committee convened to resolve this dispute, in June 1957, Kaganovich was accused of "inactivity and crude violations of revolutionary legality" in his management of the state committees he chaired, and was expelled from the Praesidium, with the other three members of what was now officially called the Anti-Party Group'. He was reportedly terrified that he would be arrested and shot, and phoned Khrushchev to beg for clemency. He was given the job of director of a small potash works in the Urals.

In 1961, Kaganovich was expelled from the Party and became a pensioner living in Moscow. His grandchildren reported that after his dismissal from the Central Committee, Kaganovich (who had a reputation for his temperamental and allegedly violent nature) never shouted again and became a devoted grandfather.

In 1984, his re-admission to the Party was considered by the Politburo, alongside that of Molotov. During the last years of life he played dominoes with fellow pensioners and criticized Soviet media attacks on Stalin: "First, Stalin is disowned, now, little by little, it gets to prosecute socialism, the October Revolution, and in no time they will also want to prosecute Lenin and Marx." Shortly before death he suffered a heart attack.

In 1991 Kaganovich was interviewed about the alleged murder of Lenin's widow, in which he suggested Lavrentiy Beria may have been involved with Krupskaya's poisoning and was quoted in 1991 saying "I can't dismiss that possibility. He might have." Russian writer Arkady Vaksberg further commented that the fact Kaganovich had confirmed the poisoning "did actually take place is more important than specifying who ordered it."

Kaganovich died on July 25, 1991, at the age of 97, just before the events that resulted in the end of the USSR. He is buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow.

'Rosa Kaganovich'
In 1987, American journalist Stuart Kahan published a book entitled The Wolf of the Kremlin: The First Biography of L.M. Kaganovich, the Soviet Union's Architect of Fear (William Morrow & Co). In the book, Kahan claimed to be Kaganovich's long-lost nephew, and claimed to have interviewed Kaganovich personally and stated that Kaganovich admitted to being partially responsible for the death of Stalin in 1953 (supposedly by poisoning). A number of other unusual claims were made as well, including that Stalin was married to a sister of Kaganovich (supposedly named "Rosa") during the last year of his life and that Kaganovich (who was raised Jewish) was the architect of anti-Jewish pogroms.

The rumor that Stalin married a sister of Kaganovich after the death of Nadezhda Alliluyeva in 1932 seems to have originated in the 1930s. Elizabeth Lermolo, who emigrated to the US in 1950 and published a memoir, Face of a Victim reported hearing the story while she was a prisoner in the gulag. The story has been repeated in sources including The Rise and Fall of Stalin, (1965) by Robert Payne, The Private Life of Josif Stalin (1962) by Jack Fishman and Bernard Hutton, and in Stalin: the History of a Dictator (1982) by Harford Montgomery Hyde. There were also frequent mentions of 'Rosa Kaganovich' in western media including The New York Times, Time and Life. See:

 * Life – July 14, 1941. p. 19: "A sister Rosa first lived with Stalin, then after the suicide of his second wife is supposed to have married Stalin"
 * Life – March 29, 1943. p. 40: "His sister Rosa is supposedly married to Stalin"
 * Time – April 18, 1949: "Lazar Kaganovich, who is Stalin's brother-in-law"
 * Time – July 23, 1951: "Lazar Kaganovich, long time politburo member and Stalin's brother-in-law"
 * Life – March 16, 1953. p. 22: "Kaganovich, the brilliant and energetic Jew, Stalin's brother-in-law"
 * Life – April 13, 1953. p. 168: "Kaganovich (a member of the Politburo and brother of Stalin's third wife)"
 * Time – September 7, 1953: "Lazar Kaganovich (Stalin's brother-in-law)"
 * The New York Times – November 22, 1953 Kaganovich Decorated: Malenkov's Regime Gives High Honor to Stalin's Brother-in-Law
 * Time – February 7, 1955 – "Lazar M. Kaganovich, wartime commissar for transport, reputedly Stalin's brother-in-law"
 * Youngstown Vindicator – March 7, 1953: "Rosa Kaganovich"
 * Milwaukee Sentinel – June 11, 1960: "Rosa Kaganovich"
 * The New York Times – July 27, 1991: "Kaganovich's sister, Rosa" The story of Rosa Kaganovich was mentioned by Trotsky, who alleged that "Stalin married the sister of Kaganovich, thereby presenting the latter with hopes for a promising future."

After The Wolf of the Kremlin was translated into Russian by Progress Publishers, and a chapter from it printed in the Nedelya (Week) newspaper in 1991, remaining members of Kaganovich's family composed the Statement of the Kaganovich Family in response. The statement disputed all of Kahan's claims. The family denied that Kaganovich ever had a sister called Rosa, though he had a niece of that name, who was 13 years old in the year when Stalin's second wife committed suicide. Stalin's daughter, Svetlana Alliluyeva was equally emphatic, writing in a memoir published in 1969:

"Nothing could be more unlikely than the story spread in the West about 'Stalin's third wife' – the mythical Rosa Kaganovich. Apart from the fact that I never saw any 'Rosa' in the Kaganovich family, the idea that this legendary Rosa, an intellectual woman ... and above all a Jewess, could have captured my father's fancy shows how totally ignorant people were of his true nature."

After the fall of communism in 1991, it became possible for historians to study evidence the archives. There is no mention of 'Rosa Kaganovich' in the hundreds of published letters and telegrams found in the archives that Stalin and Kaganovich exchanged in the period when, supposedly, they were brothers-in-law. Simon Sebag Montefiore mentioned her in his detailed study of life in the Kremlin under Stalin, but only to say that "it seems this particular story is a myth." He added:

"The significance of the story was that Stalin had a Jewish wife, useful propaganda for the Nazis who had an interest in merging the Jewish and Bolshevik devils into Mr and Mrs Stalin."

Personal life
Kaganovich entered the workforce at the age of 13, an event which would shape his aesthetics and preferences through adulthood. Stalin himself confided to Kaganovich that the latter had a much greater fondness and appreciation for the proletariat. As his favorability with Stalin rose, Kaganovich felt compelled to rapidly fill the noticeable gaps in his education and upbringing. Stalin, upon noticing that Kaganovich could not use commas properly, gave Kaganovich three months' leave to undertake a rapid course in grammar. Kaganovich was married to Maria Markovna Kaganovich (née Privorotskaya) (1894–1961), a fellow assimilated Kievan Jew who was part of the revolutionary effort since 1909. Mrs Kaganovich spent many years as a powerful municipal official, directly ordering the demolition of the Iberian Gate and Chapel and Cathedral of Christ the Saviour. The couple had two children: a daughter, named Maya, and an adopted son, Yuri. Much attention has been devoted by historians to Kaganovich's Jewishness, and how it conflicted with Stalin's biases. Kaganovich frequently found it necessary to allow great cruelties to occur to his family to preserve Stalin's trust in him, such as allowing his brother to be coerced into suicide.

The Kaganovich family initially lived, as most high-level Soviet functionaries in the 1930s, a conservative lifestyle in modest conditions. This changed when Stalin entrusted the construction of the Moscow Metro to Kaganovich. The family moved into a luxurious apartment near ground zero (Sokolniki station), located at 3 Pesochniy Pereulok (Sandy Lane). Kaganovich's apartment consisted of two floors (an extreme rarity in the USSR), a private access garage, and a designated space for butlers, security, and drivers.

Decorations and awards

 * Order of Lenin, four times
 * Order of the Red Banner of Labour (27 October 1938)
 * Hero of Socialist Labour (5 November 1943)

title: Lazar Kaganovich


text:
Nelson S. Bond

Nelson Slade Bond (November 23, 1908 – November 4, 2006) was an American writer. His works included books, magazine articles, and scripts used in radio, for television and on the stage.

The 1998 recipient of the Nebula Author Emeritus award for lifetime achievement, Bond was a pioneer in early science fiction and fantasy. His published fiction is mainly short stories, most of which appeared in pulp magazines in the 1930s and 1940s. Many were published in Blue Book magazine. He is noted for his "Lancelot Biggs" series of stories and for his "Meg the Priestess" tales, which introduced one of the first powerful female characters in science fiction.

Early life
Bond's parents, Richard Slade Bond and Mary Bond, were from Nova Scotia, but moved to Scranton, Pennsylvania shortly before his birth in that city. The family later relocated to Philadelphia after World War I. In high school, Bond reviewed plays for The Philadelphia Inquirer. He worked for an insurance company during the Great Depression before enrolling in a college. He attended Marshall College in Huntington, West Virginia from 1932 to 1934. While at Marshall, he contributed to the Huntington Herald Advertiser and edited the college newspaper, The Parthenon. He met his future wife, Betty Gough Folsom, while at Marshall, and they married in 1934.

After graduating, Bond briefly worked for his father's public relations agency. Shortly after joining, he was offered the position of public relations field director for the province of Nova Scotia. This involved meeting celebrities visiting the province and writing pieces about them that were placed in various periodicals.

He started selling fiction when he realised he could make more money by writing, sending works to newspapers, pulp magazines and the more upmarket "slick" magazines.

He started by writing sports stories but made his first significant sale with "Mr. Mergenthwerker's Lobblies", which was published in Scribner's Magazine in 1937. His first science fiction story was "Down the Dimensions" in the April 1937 issue of Astounding. He only wrote occasional non-fiction once he was established as an author of fiction. Bond wrote and sold more for Blue Book than the pulps, which was not only more prestigious but paid more for his work.

He also published articles on philately and served on the Board of Governors / Board of Directors of the British North America Philatelic Society.

Radio and television
Bond wrote for such radio programs as Dr. Christian, Hot Copy (1941–44) and The Sheriff (1944–51), a continuation of Death Valley Days. Bond also scripted for numerous television anthology programs, such as Lux Video Theatre, Studio One, General Motors Theatre and Tales of Tomorrow. "Mr. Mergenthwirker's Lobblies" was adapted to radio at least a half-dozen times and also ran as a 1938 radio series. After Bond scripted the story as a teleplay, it became the first full-length play presented on network television. It was televised three times - on Broadway Previews (1946), The Philco Television Playhouse (1949) and the Kraft Television Theatre (1953). For Locus Bond described his experiences in radio and TV:

"I began writing for radio after they started adapting some of my stories. I thought, 'Well, hell, I can do better than that,' and I started adapting them myself. After a while, a couple of series opened up, and they asked me to become the writer. I wrote 52 weeks of Hot Copy and about 26 weeks of The Sheriff show, a comedy Western. Then television came along. I had just written Mr. Mergenthwirker's Lobblies as a radio series, and I adapted it for television. It became the first television play ever aired on a network. The network, however, consisted of Boston, New York and Washington. (This was 1946.) The presentation was so elaborate, there was a studio audience, and they printed a program for it. Unfortunately, no copy of the show exists, because they didn't have tape in those days. All they had was kinescope, flickering black and white movie stuff. That was probably the golden opportunity of my life that I threw out the window. After the play was done, the director said, 'This is a brand-new medium. Why don't you come up here and get into it with us?' They couldn't pay me very much, and I said, 'I'm making more than that in radio right now,' so I turned it down... But I wrote about 15 or 20 television plays, some of them adaptations of my own things, others original. State of Mind was a fantasy about a man who got pissed off at modern civilization. He said, 'I'm gonna secede from the Union.' So he did. I thought it was a helluva good idea! (Still a cute play, but it's not produced anymore.) I adapted my second Mergenthwirker/Lobblies story as a television play, and then there was a third one."

Other writing
Bond worked in public relations before and after his writing career, opening his own agency in 1959. He later became a noted antiquarian bookseller. Bond retired from writing in the late 1950s. After encouragement from fans and professionals, notably Harlan Ellison, he published a new story in 1995.

Bond had an extensive correspondence with James Branch Cabell and after Cabell's death was his literary executor for a while.

In 1998 the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America made Bond an Author Emeritus. In 2002 Bond donated his personal papers to the Marshall University library, which created a replica of his home office. Bond died of complications from heart problems on November 4, 2006.

Nelson and Betty Bond had two sons, Kit and Lynn. Betty Bond had her own career in Virginia television, interviewing local notables for her Betty Bond Show on Roanoke's WSLS-TV. Bond died in Las Vegas, Nevada while visiting his son.

Novels

 * Exiles of Time (Prime Press, 1949)
 * That Worlds May Live (Wildside, 2003)

Short story collections

 * Mr. Mergenthwirker's Lobblies and Other Fantastic Tales (Coward-McCann, 1946)
 * The Thirty-First of February (Gnome Press, 1949)
 * The Remarkable Exploits of Lancelot Biggs, Spaceman (Doubleday, 1950)
 * No Time Like the Future (Avon, 1954)
 * Nightmares and Daydreams (Arkham House, 1968)
 * The Far Side of Nowhere (Arkham House, 2002)
 * Other Worlds Than Ours (Arkham House, 2005)

Nonfiction

 * The Postal Stationery of Canada: A Reference Catalog (Herman Herst, 1953)
 * James Branch Cabell: A Complete Checklist (1974)

Audio

 * Johnny Presents: "Mr. Mergenthwirker's Lobblies" (February 11, 1941)
 * Nelson Bond recites from memory fragments of poems by Thomas Bailey Aldrich, Rudyard Kipling and Sara Teasdale (July 2005)
 * Full text of the three poems
 * Full text of the three poems

title: Nelson S. Bond


text:
Talk:Fatal Microbes

Untitled
hey well its my firs time here.

I've got a little more info re honey bane and would apprecate advice about how best to post it. mail me neville_thumbcatch@excite.com

 * Hi there- to edit any page in wikipedia simply press the 'edit this page' button at the botteom of the article page and type in your new stuff. Cheers quercus robur 23:23, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Dear 70.188.252.177
By all means add to the article, but please don't wipe my and previous editors contributions unless you have created a new home for it (I guess I am referring to Honey Bane, whose article only seems to contain her name). You might also want to quote the source of your information regarding who played what on the tracks on the ep. I do not understand why you removed the Porno Grows reference on the Donna and the Kebabs ep, since it uses the same vocal refrain on the chorus as does Violence Grows

Because the main track on that EP was "Girl On The Run" and the reference was used only in a way to try to personally discredit her. You know nothing about her, or some of the amazing things she has achieved in her life, against all odds and adversity. I will be glad when she finishes her autobiography, so people will get to see who she really is, and not what they think she is. She is one of a kind!

and it is ironic considering that Donna appeared as a soft porn model later in life. Adding titles for other tracks is fine, removing data is not.

Then get the data correct!

I would also comment that the Poison Girls were not aged Anarcho-Punks; they were an Anarcho-Punk collective who happened to be some years older than most of their contemporaries. Calling them aged is prejudicial, same as if you defined them by their sex, sexuality, physical ability, colour of skin or by their culture,

It is therefore also prejudicial, to make comments about Honey Bane that are unrelated to her music! Incorrect personal information about what children she has or does not and where she is in the world is of no consequence either. Scott Barker was the drummer on the violence Grows EP, I know because we played together in the Sods and I have maintained contact with Honey Bane over the years and we have worked on some very good projects together. You should not expect incorrect and/or irrelevant information to not be edited out. If this article is supposed to be about Fatal Microbes then keep it at just that. Honey Bane and related information should be created under Honey Bane, not Fatal Microbes!

religion. As an aged contributor myself, I would also suggest that you improve the presentation of your contribution; correct grammer and not vernacular.LessHeard vanU 21:16, 10 April 2006 (UTC)

 * You seem to be under the impression that this is a fansite, it is not - it is an encyclopedia. You should note that searching for "Honey Bane" brings you back to the " 'Fatal' Microbes" page, therefore this is the correct page for any pertinent information on any of the artists (since you have no problem with the post Microbes career of the rest of the band I think you are being selective.) The only reason for commenting on both the track "Porno Grows and one of the career paths she later chose is that they seem to conflict with each other - and other than pointing it out (and that the track references the song she is most likely to be associated with) I made no judgment. It is the truth as far as I know (I can provide links in the article, but I don't think it would be suitable.) Any information about the rest of the tracks is welcome - since my copy of the ep is probably "filed" in a storage box. The information about the family and America was here before my edits - as I had no knowledge of this part of her life then I had no reason to drop it (and it is pertinent since it indicates that she is/was no longer in the music biz). Take a look around at the other sites, information which helps the reader better understand the subject is appropriate. I would suggest that being mates does not give you a subjective view anyway.

LessHeard vanU 21:14, 28 April 2006 (UTC)

She is still in the music business and is seeing success elsewhere! I am a music producer and our relationship is professional, I just happen to be privy to more information than most and have known her a very long time. Do you know how old she was when she wrote Porno Grows, she was barely 12 yrs old. She may have chosen some diverse paths along the way, but she was always involved in music in some capacity. What about her other acting work, she has played lead roles in TV Drama and been a main character in a feature film. Funny how it is assumed that people only want to hear about her porn stardom! Ironically! she is very involved in the fight against sexual predators, and volunteers her spare time to shield kids from pedophiles and actively participates in assisting with bringing such people to justice. Yes, she assists the police! She was a sexually abused child herself, which probably accounts for some of her past less desirable behavior. But she is a survivor, and a wonderfully compassionate person. I would just appreciate it if you would move the porn stuff elsewhere! It has no business on the Fatal Microbes page. I know this is not a fan page. But even encyclopedias have there information in context. Thank you.

 * You can keep your precious sanctified version of her life, since it seems to be more important than the truth. You could always have written around the fact that she briefly earned her living as a nude model, giving reasons or justifications.
 * You seem to be the person with a problem with it, it doesn't matter to me. I liked and bought the "Violence Grows" single and the "You Can Be You" ep (at the time of release), and "Violence Grows" is still one my favourite records in my collection. I also bought the "Turn Me Off, Turn Me On" single and was really disappointed. That, as far as I am concerned, was it. When I got connected to the internet and googled Honey Bane I was surprised to get as many hits for porn sites as for "post punk" sites. When I clicked the link, my first thought was "How ironic!". That was it. I don't care what she chose to do with her body, or about why, and it doesn't alter my enjoyment of her early recordings.
 * As an old "punk" - and not a fucking Kings Road Sid Clone - I adhere to the principle of taking the consequences for your choices - good or bad. Something a bunch of aging anarcho punks might know about. They might tell you there is a name for people who suppress or deny facts when they don't like the consequences; they are called politicians. You keep to writing only the "nice stuff", and kid yourself that you are part of some "alternative" scene. At least when I sold out, I knew I was doing it and I have never pretented otherwise.
 * ps. Be brave enough to sign your comments, learn how to write the fucking language, and how to use the talk pages - if you ever want to be taken seriously.LessHeard vanU 13:40, 29 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I was out of order. Bad language and stuff. I still think "Porno Grows" is worthy of comment - but, hey, what the fuc.. hell, it isn't my website.LessHeard vanU 00:19, 1 May 2006 (UTC)

 * A technicality, but if memory serves, Porno Grows was done by Honey bane on the B side of her Donna & the Kebabs Crass Records EP, hence doesn't actaully belong on the fatal microbes page any more than a PiL release should be on the Sex Pistols page??? quercus robur 00:36, 2 May 2006 (UTC)

I had forgotten this article was on my watchlist... After long consideration I would comment; If this article is solely about The Fatal Microbes, then why so much comment of the others band members post Microbes career(s)? The fact that Donna/Honey Bane redirected (before someone removed same) to this page and that individuals solo article quickly disappeared clearly shows this is the correct place for her subsequent career. Ms Bane also had a brief career in the same porn industry she had previously sung about, in a track that references her most famous recording, which is worthy of noting. I also retract my apology to anonymous user:70.188.252.177. This is the type of sanctimonious fool who prefers presentation over truth; in other words a censor. Such individuals are the cancer of free speech and personal freedom!LessHeard vanU 23:51, 30 September 2006 (UTC)

Honey Bane
Prompted by naustalgia provoked by this article I did a web search on Honey Bane and came up with this which might be a useful basis for an wiki article http://www.geocities.com/punkettes80s/honeybane.html I think she deserves her own entry rather than being lumped in with Fatla Microbes, which was only a part of her story, just as the Sex Pistols are only part of John Lydon's story quercus robur 00:32, 2 May 2006 (UTC)
 * A Wiki search for "Honey Bane" redirects to Fatal Microbes. There was an article previously, which was very brief, and it is likely that it was merged with the Microbes article. If, however, there is some more good verifiable information that justifies a seperate entry - then it sounds like you are just the person to go ahead and do it. (nb. Unless they specify otherwise you cannot just take the geocities stuff without referencing them or the people they are quoting.) The info held on this article can also be transferred over to the Honey Bane page, with a link on her name.LessHeard vanU 12:55, 2 May 2006 (UTC)http://www.myspace.com/honeybaneband

title: Talk:Fatal Microbes


text:
Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia

Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia (Reichsgau Danzig-Westpreußen) was an administrative division of Nazi Germany created on 8 October 1939 from annexed territory of the Free City of Danzig, the Greater Pomeranian Voivodship (Polish Corridor), and the Regierungsbezirk West Prussia of Gau East Prussia.

Before 2 November 1939, the Reichsgau was called Reichsgau West Prussia. Though the name resembled that of the pre-1920 Prussian province of West Prussia, the territory was not identical. Unlike the former Prussian province, the Reichsgau included the Bromberg (Bydgoszcz) region in the south and lacked the Deutsch-Krone (Wałcz) region in the west.

The province's capital was Danzig (Gdańsk), and its population without the city was (in 1939) 1,487,452. The province's area was 26,056 km2, 21,237 km2 of which was annexed Danzig and Pomeranian territory. During the Reichsgau's short existence, Poles and Jews in that area were subjected by Nazi Germany to extermination as "subhumans".

History
The Prussian province West Prussia created from Polish territory annexed by Prussia in Partitions of Poland was dissolved in 1920, following the Treaty of Versailles. The bulk of it inhabited by Polish majority became part of the newly established Second Republic of Poland and was administered as Pomeranian Voivodship (Polish Corridor). The eastern remains of German West Prussia were attached to the Province of East Prussia as Regierungsbezirk West Prussia - a Regierungsbezirk ("government region") being a German administrative subunit of a province (Provinz) comprising several counties (Kreise). The western remains of German West Prussia were merged to the German remains of the former Province of Posen and made a new province, Posen-West Prussia.

After the Nazis came to power in Germany, they reformed the administrative system by transforming the former German provinces and states into their Gau system in 1935 as a part of their Gleichschaltung policy.

In 1938, German Posen-West Prussia was dissolved and its former West Prussian territory was attached to the German Pomeranian Gau. Also in 1938, the Polish Pomeranian Voivodship was expanded southward to comprise the Bydgoszcz region. The resulting enlarged Pomeranian voivodeship was called Greater Pomeranian Voivodship (Wielkopomorskie).

When Nazi Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, this Greater Pomeranian voivodship was first made the German military district "West Prussia", and by a decree of Adolf Hitler on 8 October merged with the Free City of Danzig and the East Prussian Regierungsbezirk West Prussia, to form the Reichsgau West Prussia. The western remains remained outside and continued to be administered by the German Pomeranian Gau as Regierungsbezirk Grenzmark Posen-West Prussia according to the 1938 reform, while the Bromberg (Bydogoszcz) region stayed with Reichsgau West Prussia and was not attached to Reichsgau Posen, the later "Warthegau". The designation Reichsgau instead of just Gau indicates that the province primarily consisted of annexed territory. A Gauleiter of a Reichsgau was also titled Reichsstatthalter. Other Reichsgaue were e.g. Reichsgau Wartheland and Reichsgau Sudetenland.

The Free City of Danzig comprised the Nazi Party's Gau Danzig which had been established in March 1926. The Gauleiters of Gau Danzig were:

Hans Albert Hohnfeldt (March 1926 - June 1928) Walter Maass, Acting (August 1928 - March 1929) Erich Koch, Acting (March 1929 - September 1930) Arthur Greiser, Acting (October 1930), and Albert Forster (from 15 October 1930)

On 1 September 1939 at the start of the war, Germany immediately annexed the Free City of Danzig. Following the establishment of the new Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia on 8 October, Forster was named Gauleiter and Reichsstatthalter of the expanded territory on 26 October.

Population
The Reichsgau was very heterogenous, like the territory, which comprised territory of the pre-war Danzig (completely), of Germany (West Prussia Government Region) and of Poland (roughly the Pomeranian Voivodeship), the population amounted to 2,179,000 altogether, with 1,494,000 Polish citizens of mostly Polish ethnicity, 408,000 Danzig citizens of mostly German ethnicity and 277,000 German citizens of mostly German ethnicity. The German occupiers considered the Danzig and Polish citizenships as naught, due to the de facto abolition of these two states. Christian Danzigers and Christian Poles of German ethnicity were granted German citizenship, Jewish Danzigers, and Jewish Poles of which ethnicity so ever were denied the German citizenship. As to Christian Danzigers and Christian Poles of Polish ethnicity the acceptance as citizens was mostly denied, but under certain circumstances granted.

Extermination and expulsion of ethnic Poles and Jews by Nazi Germany

Nazi German policy aimed at extermination of Jewish and Polish population. Mass-murder sites in the region include:
 * Stutthof concentration camp, where over 85,000 died (mostly Poles);
 * Piaśnica, where some 12,000 local Polish-Kashub intelligentsia and others were murdered.

Nazi policy to exterminate the Polish and Jewish populations was conducted in several phases; the first stage occurred in September 1939. The main Nazi responsible for genocide conducted in the Pomeranian Voivodeship was Gauleiter Albert Forster, who was involved in the mass murder and ethnic cleansing of Jews and ethnic Poles and enlisted to his program, often under threat of violence, Polish citizens—descendants of Germanic settlers—whom the Nazis saw as Germans. Forster declared that Poles must be eradicated:  "We must exterminate this nation, starting from the cradle."

The Reichsgau was the site of the Stutthof concentration camp and its sub camps where over 85,000 people were executed or died of illness, starvation or mistreatment. Of the 52,000 Jews who were sent to the camp only around 3,000 would survive.

During the Winter of 1939/40 between 12,000 and 16,000 people were murdered at Piaśnica by Einsatzkommando 16, units of the 36th Regiment of SS, and members of the Selbstschutz, a militia force made up of Poles of German ethnicity. The local Selbstschutz, under the command of Ludolf von Alvensleben, numbered 17,667 and before their disbandment in October 1939 had killed 4,247 people.

Commander of the Selbstschutz Ludolf von Alvensleben told his men on 16 October 1939: "You are now the master race here. Nothing was yet built up through softness and weakness... That’s why I expect, just as our Führer Adolf Hitler expects from you, that you are disciplined, but stand together hard as Krupp steel. Don’t be soft, be merciless, and clear out everything that is not German and could hinder us in the work of construction."

Jews did not figure prominently among the victims in West Prussia, as the area's Jewish population was small and most had fled before the Germans arrived. However, in places where they were present, they were expelled and murdered in what was classified as "other measures" which simply meant murder. In areas where Jewish families or individuals remained, a "shameful situation" was proclaimed, and Nazi authorities expected the Selbstschutz to remedy it through "direct action". In August 1943 around 500 Jews from a camp in the Pomeranian Voivodeship were sent to Auschwitz, out of which 434 were immediately killed upon arrival

It is estimated that, by war's end, up to 60,000 people had been murdered in the region, and up to 170,000 expelled. though other estimates place the figure at around 35,000. Forster himself reported that, by February 1940, 87,000 people had been "evacuated" from the region.

Administration
Danzig-West Prussia was divided into three government regions (Regierungsbezirk), with the name-giving capital cities of Bromberg, Danzig and Marienwerder.

In 1939 the Free City of Danzig was annexed to Germany. After a brief transitional period, its territory became part of the restored Regierungsbezirk Danzig in the Reichsgau Danzig-Westpreussen (the restored Prussian Province of West Prussia) and was divided into nine districts (Kreise):

 * Kreis Berent
 * Danzig-Land (Rural)
 * Danzig-Stadt City
 * Dirschau
 * Elbing-Land (Rural)
 * Grosses Werder
 * Karthaus
 * Neustadt
 * Zoppot City County (detached from Neustadt)

Regierungsbezirk Danzig Governing Presidents/Regierungspräsidenten:
 * 1940–1943 – Fritz Hermann
 * 1943–1945 – Albert Forster

The NSDAP gauleiter of Danzig, Albert Forster, became leader of Civil Administration in Danzig in 1939, as well as Gauleiter and Reichsstatthalter of the Reichsgau. He remained the most powerful politician throughout the war, until the area was overrun by the Soviet forces in March 1945.

The Wehrmacht established there the Wehrkreis XX, based at Danzig, under the command of
 * General der Artillerie Walter Heitz (11 Sep 1939 - 23 Oct 1939) (as Befehlshaber Danzig-Westpreußen)
 * General der Infanterie Max Bock (23 Oct 1939 - 30 Apr 1943)
 * General der Infanterie Bodewin Keitel (30 Apr 1943 - 30 Nov 1944)
 * General der Infanterie Karl-Wilhelm Specht (1 Dec 1944 - ? Jan 1945)

Polish resistance
The Polish resistance movement was active in the region, both in the pre-war Polish and German-controlled parts of the region, with activities including secret Polish schooling, printing and distribution of Polish underground press, sabotage actions, espionage of German activity, smuggling data on German persecution of Poles and Jews and on German V-weapons to Western Europe and facilitating escapes of endangered Polish resistance members and Polish, British, French and Russian prisoners of war who fled from German POW camps via the port cities to neutral Sweden. In 1943, local Poles managed to save some kidnapped Polish children from the Zamość region, by buying them from the Germans during transport through the region. The Gestapo cracked down on the Polish resistance several times, with the Poles either killed or sent to prisons of concentration camps.

Post-war
In March 1945, the region was reclaimed by Poland, and the Nazi governor, Albert Forster, was later sentenced to death and executed for crimes against humanity. The German population (including wartime settlers, Nazis, and military officials) either fled or was expelled in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement.

title: Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia