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Proszowice

Proszowice is a town in southern Poland, situated in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship (since 1999), previously in Kraków Voivodeship (1975–1998). Its population numbers 6,206 inhabitants (2004). It is the capital of Proszowice County, and the town is located some 25 kilometers northeast of Kraków, on the right bank of the Szreniawa river. Proszowice received its Magdeburg rights charter in 1358. Proszowice has a sports club Proszowianka, established in 1916.

First mention about the village of Proszowice comes from 1222. The origin of its name is not known, probably the village was named after a knight named Proszkomir, who lived here. By 1240, Proszowice already had a brick church of St. John the Baptist. The village was privately owned, and in the mid-14th century it became royal property of King Kazimierz Wielki, who granted it town charter in 1358. The King greatly contributed to the development of Proszowice, building here a palace, which for some time was one of the royal residences (later on, its role was taken on by the Niepołomice Castle). Proszowice prospered due to several royal privileges. A number of artisans lived here, there was a parish school, and the period from the early 15th century to the early 17th century is regarded as Golden Age of the town, which was one of the most important centers of Kraków Voivodeship; here sejmiks took place. King Kazimierz Jagiellończyk initiated the construction of a new church, which was finished in 1454 and was among most impressive Gothic churches in Lesser Poland. Here, Stańczyk, the legendary court jester was born, and in the 16th century, Proszowice became one of centers of Protestant Reformation. All Catholic churches in the area were turned into Calvinist or Polish Brethren prayer houses, but later on, the Counter-Reformation prevailed. In 1616, the town was almost completely burned in a fire. Like almost all towns of Lesser Poland, Proszowice was destroyed in the Swedish invasion of Poland (1655–1660).

After Partitions of Poland, Proszowice first belonged to the Habsburg Empire, but in 1815 it became part of Russian-controlled Congress Poland. During January Uprising, several skirmishes took place in the area of the town, and as a punishment, the Russians reduced Proszowice to the status of a village (1869). In 1923, already in Kielce Voivodeship of the Second Polish Republic, Proszowice regained its town charter. In 1999 the town became the seat of a county.

The center of Proszowice is of typical medieval shape, with a market square and streets radiating from it. Houses in the market square, however, are modern, most of them were built in the 20th century. Once there was a town hall, which was dismantled in the mid-19th century. Local parish church was first erected in the 13th century, during the reign of Prince Bolesław V the Chaste. The first church burned between 1306 and 1308. New complex was built in 1325, and most likely, it burned in a fire in 1407. Third parish church was completed in 1454. It was partly destroyed after a storm in May 1824, when one of the walls collapsed, together with the Gothic vault. The reconstruction took 12 years.

title: Proszowice


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Myślenice

Myślenice is a town in southern Poland, situated in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship. The town is divided into six districts. One of them, Zarabie, is a popular local tourist destination. It is located behind the Raba river (Zarabie meaning "Beyond the (River) Raba"), and it has Chełm mountain, with a view tower, a landscape park and ski lifts.

Myślenice is located on the so-called Zakopianka Road, which is a popular name of the European route E77 road, connecting Kraków with Zakopane (the E77 itself separates itself from the Zakopianka at Rabka). Myślenice does not have a train station.

History
First mentions of Myślenice come from 1253 - 1258. At that time, it was a defensive settlement, with a castle and fortifications, designed to protect Kraków from the south. In 1342, Myślenice received its Magdeburg rights town charter, and it started to develop into a local commercial center. Among visitors who came here, were Mikolaj Rej, who wrote part of his Life of an Honest Man during his stay there; King Władysław II Jagiełło and Queen Jadwiga; German emperor Sigismund; and other personalities. In 1557, Myślenice came under the jurisdiction of Kraków castellans, who were much more concerned with their city. The town began to decline, and it was destroyed in the deluge. In 1772 (see Partitions of Poland), Myślenice was annexed by Austria, and until 1918, it belonged to the province of Galicia. After World War I, the town became part of the Second Polish Republic. On 22 January 1945, Myślenice was liberated by the troops of 38th Army of the 4th Ukrainian Front. Between 1975-1998 the city was part of the Kraków Voivodeship.

Twin towns — Sister cities
Myślenice is twinned with:

Sports

 * Dalin Myślenice - women's volleyball team that has won Polish Seria B Women's Volleyball League in 2003/2004 season and was promoted to play in Polish Seria A Women's Volleyball League in 2004/2005 season.
 * CFL slotback Dave Stala was born here.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Myślenice


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Słomniki

Słomniki is a town in southern Poland, situated in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship. Słomniki lies 24 km north of Kraków, among the hills of Lesser Poland Upland. On December 31, 2010, its population was 4,365, and the town is a center of commerce and services for the local agricultural area. Its name probably comes from a Medieval guild called szłomiarze or szłomniki, who manufactured helmets for royal knights.

The town has two rail stations (Słomniki and Słomniki Miasto), on a major electrified double track railway from Kraków to Warsaw. Słomniki is also served by the Kraków Transit Authority (MPK Kraków), with bus line 222 reaching it from Nowa Huta. The town has several schools, house of culture, cinema, library and Museum of Słomniki Land. Its sports club KS Słomniczanka was founded in 1923, and currently has football and volleyball departments.

History
The village of Słomniki was first mentioned in 1287, as a hunting settlement in the middle of dense forests. At that time, it belonged to Cistercian monks, and was located along a merchant route from Bochnia and Wieliczka to Greater Poland. In the 13th century, Lesser Poland suffered from several Mongol raids (see Mongol invasion of Poland), in which Słomniki was also destroyed. In 1358 King Casimir III the Great granted Słomniki Magdeburg rights charter, and medieval style market square was fashioned, which still exists. It was administratively located in the Kraków Voivodeship in the Lesser Poland Province of the Kingdom of Poland. The town developed, and several Polish rulers visited it in the 15th and 16th centuries. In 1554, Słomniki became one of main centers of Protestant Reformation, when a Calvinist temple was opened here. In 1564, the Polish Reformed Church synod took place in Słomniki. Like most towns in Lesser Poland, Słomniki was completely destroyed in the Swedish invasion of Poland, and the period of prosperity ended.

During the Kościuszko Uprising, Polish units gathered in Słomniki after the Battle of Racławice. On April 6, 1794, at Słomniki market square, Józef Zajączek and Antoni Madaliński were promoted to the rank of general. After the Partitions of Poland, Słomniki briefly belonged to the Habsburg Empire. After the Polish victory in the Austro-Polish War of 1809, it became part of the short-lived Duchy of Warsaw. Following the duchy's dissolution, the town was part of Russian-controlled Congress Poland. The town was a major center of the January Uprising, for which it was stripped of its charter (1870), remaining a village until 1917. In the interwar period (1918–1939), Słomniki belonged to Kielce Voivodeship in reborn Poland.

Following the joint German-Soviet invasion of Poland, which started World War II in September 1939, the village was occupied by Germany until 1945. The occupiers operated a forced labour camp for Jews in the town.

Major attraction of the town is Romanesque Revival Corpus Christi church (1888–1893).

title: Słomniki


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Świątniki Górne

Świątniki Górne is a town in southern Poland, situated in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship (since 1999), previously in Kraków Voivodeship (1975–1998).

title: Świątniki Górne


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User talk:Tell~enwiki

Hello Tell, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Angela. 11:52, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Thanks for the quote. :) I've added it to my user page. Feel free to add stuff there yourself if you want. Some people don't like others editing their user page, but I don't mind. Angela. 19:21, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Tell. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Tell~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

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Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 19:34, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Tell~enwiki


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Sułkowice

Sułkowice is a town in southern Poland, situated in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship (since 1999), previously in Kraków Voivodeship (1975–1998).

Sport

 * Meble-Ryś Gościbia Sułkowice - women's handball team

title: Sułkowice


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Isolated point

In mathematics, a point $x$ is called an isolated point of a subset $S$ (in a topological space $X$) if $x$ is an element of $S$ and there exists a neighborhood of $x$ that does not contain any other points of $S$. This is equivalent to saying that the singleton ${x}$ is an open set in the topological space $S$ (considered as a subspace of $X$). Another equivalent formulation is: an element $x$ of $S$ is an isolated point of $S$ if and only if it is not a limit point of $S$.

If the space $X$ is a metric space, for example a Euclidean space, then an element $x$ of $S$ is an isolated point of $S$ if there exists an open ball around $x$ that contains only finitely many elements of $S$. A point set that is made up only of isolated points is called a discrete set or discrete point set (see also discrete space).

Related notions
Any discrete subset $S$ of Euclidean space must be countable, since the isolation of each of its points together with the fact that rationals are dense in the reals means that the points of $S$ may be mapped injectively onto a set of points with rational coordinates, of which there are only countably many. However, not every countable set is discrete, of which the rational numbers under the usual Euclidean metric are the canonical example.

A set with no isolated point is said to be dense-in-itself (every neighbourhood of a point contains other points of the set). A closed set with no isolated point is called a perfect set (it contains all its limit points and no isolated points).

The number of isolated points is a topological invariant, i.e. if two topological spaces $X, Y$ are homeomorphic, the number of isolated points in each is equal.

Standard examples
Topological spaces in the following three examples are considered as subspaces of the real line with the standard topology.

In the topological space $$X=\{a,b\}$$ with topology $$\tau=\{\emptyset,\{a\},X\},$$ the element $\tfrac 1 k$ is an isolated point, even though $$b$$ belongs to the closure of $$\{a\}$$ (and is therefore, in some sense, "close" to $S$). Such a situation is not possible in a Hausdorff space.
 * For the set $$S=\{0\}\cup [1, 2],$$ the point 0 is an isolated point.
 * For the set $$S=\{0\}\cup \{1, \tfrac 1 2, \tfrac 1 3, \dots \},$$ each of the points $a$ is an isolated point, but $0$ is not an isolated point because there are other points in $a$ as close to $0$ as desired.
 * The set $$\N = \{0, 1, 2, \ldots \}$$ of natural numbers is a discrete set.

The Morse lemma states that non-degenerate critical points of certain functions are isolated.

Two counter-intuitive examples
Consider the set $F$ of points $x$ in the real interval $(0,1)$ such that every digit $xi$ of their binary representation fulfills the following conditions: Informally, these conditions means that every digit of the binary representation of $$x$$ that equals 1 belongs to a pair ...0110..., except for ...010... at the very end.
 * Either $$x_i=0$$ or $$x_i=1.$$
 * $$x_i=1$$ only for finitely many indices $i$.
 * If $m$ denotes the largest index such that $$x_m=1,$$ then $$x_{m-1}=0.$$
 * If $$x_i=1$$ and $$i < m,$$ then exactly one of the following two conditions holds: $$x_{i-1}=1$$ or $$x_{i+1}=1.$$

Now, $F$ is an explicit set consisting entirely of isolated points but has the counter-intuitive property that its closure is an uncountable set.

Another set $F$ with the same properties can be obtained as follows. Let $C$ be the middle-thirds Cantor set, let $$I_1,I_2,I_3,\ldots,I_k,\ldots$$ be the component intervals of $$[0,1]-C$$, and let $F$ be a set consisting of one point from each $Ik$. Since each $Ik$ contains only one point from $F$, every point of $F$ is an isolated point. However, if $p$ is any point in the Cantor set, then every neighborhood of $p$ contains at least one $Ik$, and hence at least one point of $F$. It follows that each point of the Cantor set lies in the closure of $F$, and therefore $F$ has uncountable closure.

title: Isolated point


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Jasło

Jasło is a county town in south-eastern Poland with 36,641 inhabitants, as of 31 December 2012. It is situated in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship (since 1999), and it was previously part of Krosno Voivodeship (1975–1998). It is located in Lesser Poland, in the heartland of the Doły (Pits), and its average altitude is 320 metres above sea level, although there are some hills located within the confines of the city. The Patron Saint of the city is Saint Anthony of Padua.

History
In the early days of Polish statehood, Jasło was part of the Castellany of Biecz, out of which Biecz County emerged in the 14th century. A list of rectories, created for collecting tithes, a church in "Jassel" in Zręcin deanery, Kraków diocese, is shown in 1328. The area of the future town belonged to a Cistercian Abbey from Koprzywnica, and by the mid 13th century, Jasło, known then as Jasiel or Jasiol, had a fair of local importance. Together with a number of other locations in Lesser Poland, the village was granted Magdeburg rights by King Casimir III the Great, on April 23, 1366. In 1368 the king made a transaction with the Cistercian monks - in exchange for the town of Frysztak, and the villages of Glinik and Kobyle, Jasło became a royal town. It already had a parish church, founded before 1325 by King Władysław I the Elbow-high. The parish had a school, and in the mid-14th century, Carmelite brothers came to the town. According to Dlugosz in Liber beneficiorum Dioecesis cracoviensis, the church that stands today was built by brothers Stanislaw Cielatko (Czelanthco), Sandomierz scholastic, and Mikolaj of Ciołek arms, in 1446. This occurred because the original was destroyed by the Hungarians. The coats of arms of Strzemie, Trąby, Gryf, Janina, and Pobóg are on the vault of the church, and because of this, the Slownik Geograficzny suggests these may be noble houses that contributed to the development.

The Polish Golden Age was a period of prosperity for both Lesser Poland and Jasło, which belonged to Kraków Voivodeship of the Lesser Poland Province of the Polish Crown. The city was challenged at the start of the period; in 1474, the King of Hungary, Matthias Corvinus, burned Jasło in his assault of the foothills of the Carpathians. After this, the town grew, but it never became an important urban location of this part of the country. It had a number of artisans, several fairs and markets. Local merchants traded with both Polish and foreign merchants, mostly from the Kingdom of Hungary, taking advantage of the vicinity of the border. In 1550, Joachim Lubomirski, a courtier of King Sigismund II Augustus, and his lineage, was given Jasło, after it was converted to a starostwo. When referring the details of a 1564 city inspection, the Slownik Geograficzny described: "Judging by the number of bakers and cobblers, one must conclude that the town was significantly larger than today." This is about the Jasło of around 1902, with 2,962 inhabitants at that later time. Jasło was given to Mikołaj Struś by King Sigismund III of Poland in 1613. He revived the town and strengthened the prohibition against Jews, "because they hinder the townsmen in trade and buy up all the victuals," as described Strus, according to the Slownik Geograficzny.

Good times ended in the 1650s. In 1655, the town was captured and destroyed by the Swedes (see the Deluge), in 1657 – by the Transilvanians of George II Rakoczi, and in the first years of the 18th century - again by Swedish troops of King Charles XII of Sweden (see Great Northern War). Additionally, destructive fires occurred in Jasło in 1683, 1755, and 1826, which likely slowed development of the city. The town was destroyed once again by the Russians during the Bar Confederation.

Adam Tarlo became the starosta of Jasło in 1733, and Jedrzej Moszczenski was the next starosta to take office. The starosta lived in a castle in Krajowice, since Jasło had no walls or castle; no traditional castle ruins exist in Jaslo. A monastery and church of the Carmelites also existed in Jasło. The Slownik Geograficzny suggests that it was probably founded before 1437. A well, which St. Wojciech supposedly blessed while traveling from Hungary, existed in the church, which drew pilgrims to the town. The monastery was changed to an office for the starosta in 1786, the well cannot be found today.

In 1772, after the First Partition of Poland, Jasło was annexed by Austria, and made part of Galicia. In 1790, the town became the seat of a district, which had been moved here from Dukla. Several Austrian civil servants came here, and office buildings, with a new town hall, courthouse, prison and schools were built. Several houses in the market square burned in the 1826 fire, which resulted in a construction boom, and in early 1846, farmers from villages around Jasło took part in the Galician peasant revolt. On June 12, 1846, the Galician riots bred a wave of anti-Jewish riots, which swept through the city, injuring and destroying the property of many of the native Jews. Very close to Jasło, the spirit refinery of Jacob Frant was burnt down. Fire-fighting utilities were ordered not to extinguish the fires by the district captain that arrived at the scene, and other authorities did not intervene. The city and surrounding villages were reported to contain six thousand inhabitants at this time, and a quarter of that population was Jewish, according to the special correspondent of The Jewish World newspaper at the time. One of the clerics that mobilized the peasantry in the following 1848 anti-Austrian rising was Father Karol Szlegal from near Jasło.

Between 1840 and 1849, the city maintained a population of about 1950 individuals, according to census data included in the Dictionary of Geography. In 1858, Ignacy Łukasiewicz, a world-renowned inventor, moved to Jasło. Due to his pioneering work, an oil well was constructed in Niegłowice near Jasło (1889–1890). Near Jasło and the nearby town of Krosno, other crude-oil refineries were established in the mid-late 1800s. At approximately same time, a rail line from Stróże to Zagórz was constructed (1872-1884), with additional connection from Jasło to Rzeszów opened in 1890. "The Parish of Christ's Crucifixion,” which resides at the cemetery, was established in 1862. In 1860, the Austrian Imperial administration again declared the right for Jews to live inside the confines of Jasło. Afterwards, the Jewish population rapidly increased, ingraining itself in the financial and commercial sectors of the city and nearby areas.

In the early 20th century, the population of Jasło was 10,000. The town was well-kept and clean, a power plant was built in 1897, then a municipal park was opened, and in September 1900, Jasło was visited by Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria. Between 1880 and 1902, agriculture and cloth manufacturing were the common main occupations in the area around the city. Around 1910, the priest Kisevsky and his six gendarmes persecuted Eastern Orthodox peasants by fining them on trivial pretexts, and many were taken to the court in Jasło to receive their sentences. A Jewish lawyer represented the Orthodox peasants, and described that the Jews in the area were not persecuted for handling lit candles openly, for which the Orthodox peasants were fined. The Ukrainian national group known as the Prosvita (Enlightenment) Society developed affiliates in Jasło between 1893 and 1903. By 1914, the Society spread to 22 Lemko villages, and promoted Ukrainian national ideology, identity, and language.

Several World War I battles took place in the area of Jasło, but the town itself was not destroyed. The city was taken behind the Russian front. Railroads ran from Sanok to Jasło and from Jasło to Przemysl, which the occupying Russian forces relied on for transportation of food, munitions, and troops through the front. In May 1915, in the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive, Russian forces were pushed back by the Germans, who entered Jasło on May 6, 1915, at 22:30. Prussian commander August von Mackensen moved his headquarters to Jasło the following morning, after the line was pushed back several miles beyond the city. Following the war, in 1918, Poland regained independence and control of the town.

In the Second Polish Republic, Jasło was the seat of a county in Kraków Voivodeship. For most part of the interwar period, unemployment and poverty were prevalent, and the situation began slowly to improve in the late 1930s, after creation of the Central Industrial Region. In 1937, Gamrat chemical plant was opened, but all efforts were destroyed in the German invasion of Poland, which started World War II in September 1939.

Under German occupation Jasło belonged to the General Government, and was an important center of the Polish resistance movement. At the turn of 1939 and 1940, 93 Poles who tried to cross the border to find refuge in Hungary were imprisoned by the Germans in Jasło, and then massacred in the nearby village of Sieklówka (see Nazi crimes against the Polish nation). 27 Poles born in Jasło, as well as other Poles who lived or studied in the town, were murdered by the Russians in the large Katyn massacre in April–May 1940. In the night of August 5/6, 1943, the Kedyw carried out a successful attack on the local prison. Poles who rescued Jews from the Holocaust, were tied up with Jews by the Germans and deported with them. In September and October 1944, after the Soviet–German frontline was established, and remained unchanged for several months, the Germans began expulsion of all inhabitants of Jasło, as the town was located on the front line. In the late autumn of 1944, Wehrmacht units burned the whole town, as the occupying German administration ordered the town to be destroyed, and as a result, 90% of Jasło was destroyed. It was one of the most destroyed Polish towns. In January 1945, only 365 people dwelled among the ruins of the town.

Etymology
The name derives from Old Polish common word for the "manger" or "trough [trof]" which sounded "jasło" < *jesło (before the Lechitic umlaut). Plausibly, it comes from the Slavonic verb "to eat" - "jeść" < *jesti. The Modern Polish equivalent is "żłób" or more seldom "koryto" and the word "jasło" is forgotten in this meaning. The Germanized version was Jassel or Jessel which appeared in 1325.

Transport
Jasło is an important railroad junction of southeastern Poland, with trains going into three directions - eastwards (to Zagórz), westwards (to Stróże) and northeast, to Rzeszów. Another line, along the Wisłoka to Dębica, was planned in the interebellum period. Construction on it began in 1938, but it was never completed because of World War II.

Education

 * Podkarpacka Szkoła Wyższa

Sports
→Jasło is home to a sports club Czarni Jasło, founded in 1910.

→Polish Folk Dance

Churches of Jasło
Jasło has a population that includes Roman Catholics, Greek Catholics, non-Catholics (mostly Protestants), and a small Jewish population. However, it is mainly Roman Catholic, and contains 9 Catholic Churches.

 * Św. Antoniego Padewskiego
 * Chrystusa Króla
 * Dobrego Pasterza
 * Matki Bożej Królowej Świata
 * Miłosierdzia Bożego
 * Najświętszego Serca Pana Jezusa
 * Świętego Stanisława
 * Wniebowzięcia Najświętszej Marii Panny
 * Matki Bożej Częstochowskiej

Notable people

 * Henryk Dobrzański (1897–1940) – soldier
 * Piotr Feliks (1883–1941) – activist
 * Cezary Geroń (1960–1998) – poet
 * Yoel Halpern (1904-1983) – rabbi
 * Karol Irzykowski (1873–1944) – writer and critic
 * Piotr Jaroszewicz (1909–1992) – politician
 * Ralph Kaminski (born 1990) – singer
 * Tadeusz Klimecki (1895–1943) – soldier and political aide
 * Janusz Kołodziej (born 1959) – politician
 * Cecilia Krieger (1894–1974) – Austro-Hungarian mathematician
 * Ignacy Kruszewski (1799–1879) – military leader
 * Elżbieta Łukacijewska (born 1966) – politician
 * Ignacy Łukasiewicz (1822–1882) – inventor, pharmacist, businessman, philanthropist, pioneer of the oil industry
 * Karol Myśliwiec (born 1942) – archeologist
 * Sławomir Peszko (born 1985) – footballer
 * Kamil Piątkowski (born 2000) – footballer
 * Hugo Steinhaus (1887–1972) – Jewish-Polish mathematician
 * Michał Szpak (born 1990) – singer
 * Adam Tarło (1713–1744) – nobleman
 * Jan Tarło (1684–1750) – nobleman
 * Roksana Węgiel (born 2005) – singer (Winner of Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2018)
 * Paweł Zagumny (born 1977) – volleyball player
 * Jerzy Żuławski (1874–1915) – writer
 * Zyndram of Maszkowice (1355–1414) – Polish knight

Twin towns — Sister cities
Jasło is twinned with:
 * 🇭🇺 Sárospatak, Hungary

title: Jasło


text:
PTL

PTL may refer to:
 * The PTL Club, a former television program
 * PTL Satellite Network
 * Pass transistor logic in digital electronic circuits
 * Pittsburgh Today Live, program on KDKA-TV
 * Propositional temporal logic (Linear temporal logic)
 * "PTL", a song by Relient K from the album Collapsible Lung
 * Paschall Truck Lines

title: PTL


text:
Sanok, Poland

Sanok (in full the Royal Free City of Sanok — Królewskie Wolne Miasto Sanok, Санок, Sanok, Сянок or Cянік, Sianok or Sianik, Sanocum, סאניק, Sonik) is a town in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship of southeastern Poland with 38,397 inhabitants, as of June 2016. Located on the San River and around 52 km south of Przemyśl, Sanok lies directly by the Carpathian Mountains.

Once settled by Poles, Jews and Lemkos, the town's history goes back almost 1000 years when it was part of a medieval trade route. The Museum of Folk Architecture as well as the refurbished Sanok Castle and Old Town are popular points of interest. The region also features a 70 km trail for hikers and cyclists.

Geography
The city of Sanok is the capital of Sanok County in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship in Poland. Previously, it was in the Krosno Voivodeship (1975–1998) and in the Ruthenian Voivodeship (1340–1772), which was part of the Cherven Cities/Red Ruthenia region, and in wider sense, of the Lesser Poland Province (not of Lesser Poland proper). Historically, it was part of the Land of Sanok.

This historic city is situated on the San River at the foot of Castle Hill in the Lesser Poland (Małopolska) region. It lies in a wooded, hilly area near the national road number 28, which runs along southern Poland, from Ustrzyki Dolne to Wadowice (340 km away). It is located in the heartland of the Pogórze Bukowskie part of Doły (Pits), and its average elevation is 300 m above sea level, although there are some hills located within the confines of the city.

Sanok is located on the bank of the river San. The area surrounding mountain range stretches between the Wisłok, Osława and San Rivers in the Salt Mountains (Central Beskidian Piedmont), in the inland with temperateness climate. The hills of the Bieszczady mountain range are typical for this countryside. Sanok County is bordered by Krosno County to the west, Brzozów County to the north, Przemyśl County to the north-east and Lesko County to the east. It also borders Slovakia to the south. Before World War II, the Oslawa and San Rivers line was designated the wild frontier between Poles and Lemkos.

The city is a member of Carpathian Euroregion, which is designed to bring together the people who inhabit the region of the Carpathian Mountains and to facilitate their cooperation in the fields of science, culture, education, trade, tourism and economy.

Middle Ages

In 981, Sanok along with several other Cherven gords, then inhabited by the Slavic tribe of Lendians, was made a part of Red Ruthenia, when Vladimir I of Kiev invaded the area and took it over from Poland. In 1018, the settlement along with the surrounding region returned to Poland, and in 1031, was again recaptured by Rus'. In 1339, the town was given the Magdeburg law by Boleslaw-Yuri II of Galicia.

Sanok was mentioned in the Ruthenian Hypatian Codex chronicle, where one can read that in the year 1150: The Hungarian King Géza II of Hungary crossed the mountains and seized the stronghold of Sanok with its governor as well as many villages in the Przemyśl area. The same chronicle refers to Sanok twice more, stating that in 1205 it was the meeting place of a Ruthenian princess Anna and a Hungarian king, and that in 1231 a Ruthenian prince made an expedition to "Sanok - Hungarian Gate".

During the Galicia–Volhynia Wars, Sanok was seized by King Casimir III of Poland, who reconfirmed its municipal status on 25 April 1366, and made it a royal city of the Polish Crown. At that time Sanok became the centre of a new administrative district called Sanok Land, a part of the Ruthenian Voivodeship. Several courts of justice operated in the town, including the municipal and rural courts of lower instance and also the higher instance court for the entire Sanok Land, based on the German town law. Germans settled in the territory of the Kingdom of Poland (territory of present-day Subcarpathian Voivodeship) from the 14th to 16th centuries (see Ostsiedlung), mostly after the region returned to Poland in 1340, when Casimir III of Poland took the Czerwień towns.

Marcin Bielski states that Bolesław I the Brave had settled some Germans in the region to defend the borders against Hungary and Kievan Rus', who later turned to farming. Maciej Stryjkowski mentions German peasants near Przeworsk, Przemyśl, Sanok, and Jarosław, describing them as good farmers. The region was also traditionally inhabited by subgroups of the Rusyn people: Lemkos and Boykos.

Modern period
As early at the 17th century, an important trade route went across Sanok connecting the interior of Hungary with Poland through the Łupków Pass. As a result of the First Partition of Poland (Treaty of St-Petersburg dated 5 July 1772), Sanok was attributed to the Habsburg monarchy. At that time the area (including west and east of Subcarpathian Voivodship) became known as the Galicia province. For more details, see the article Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. In the mid-18th century, 47.7% of the town's population was Roman Catholic (Polish), 36.4% Jewish, and 14.7% Greek Catholic (Ruthenian).

The Galician peasant revolt took place in the region during the revolutions of 1848.

The course of the river Dunajec and that of the San, both in West Galicia, marked the two successive stages in the breakthrough battle which initiated the Austro-German offensive of 1915 on the eastern front. An attempt to hold the line of the Wisłok river and the Łupków Pass failed before renewed Austro-German attacks on 8 May 1915. Wisłok Valley was one of the strategically important Carpathian rivers bitterly contested in battles on the Eastern Front of World War I during the winter of 1914–1915.

During World War I, the Russian army occupied the town from May until July, 1915 and significantly damaged the town. The town was subsequently occupied by troops of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

In 1918 Poland regained independence and control of the town and within the interwar Second Polish Republic it was the seat of the Sanok County in the Lwów Voivodeship. Sanok was known as a centre of Ukrainian movement in Galicia, and of cultural heritage of the Lemkos and other Rusyns.

World War II
The Jewish population of Sanok may have been almost 30% for many years in the early 20th century. During the joint German–Soviet invasion of Poland, which started World War II, in September 1939, it was invaded by Germany, and the Einsatzgruppe I entered the town on September 25, 1939 to commit various atrocities against the populace. In 1939–1940, the Germans imprisoned many Poles in the local prison, especially those who tried to escape occupation to take refuge in Hungary. The Germans then massacred 112 Poles at the Gruszka mountain near Tarnawa Dolna. The victims are buried at the Central Cemetery in Sanok. At the beginning of the German occupation during World War II, the Jewish population was around 5,000. During the occupation, most of the Jews were either executed or killed in Nazi death camps or Nazi concentration camps during the Holocaust. Some of the actions against the Jews were assisted by local auxiliaries and hundreds of the deaths occurred in Sanok itself, while the Polish resistance movement established the secret Polish Council to Aid Jews "Żegota", which operated in the town. Buildings that had been owned by Jews were taken over by the local population. The local Jewish cemetery still exists. Several hundred Jews are thought to have survived, most of whom fled to the Soviet Union at the beginning of the war. Some of the Jews emigrated to Canada and the United States in the early 1900s with Sanoker Burial Societies spreading throughout New York and other regions where they settled.

In 1943 the foundation of the Waffen-SS Division Galizien took place among the Ukrainian minority in Sanok, with many locals volunteering in the ethnic Ukrainian Waffen-SS. Because of material support and assistance provided by the Ukrainian minority to the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, which was waging a battle for Ukrainian separatism against the Polish state, new Soviet-installed communist authorities deported the Ukrainian and Lemko population of Sanok and its region to the Recovered Territories attached to Poland after World War II during Operation Vistula (1946–1947). Some of the Lemkos expelled returned to Sanok in 1957-58 and others after 1989.

Sanok contains an open-air museum called a skansen in the Biała Góra district, where examples of architecture from all of the region's main ethnic groups have been moved and carefully reassembled in a skansen evoking everyday rural life in the 19th century.

Archaeology

Settled in prehistoric times, the south-eastern Poland region that is now Subcarpathia was overrun in pre-Roman times by various tribes, including the Celts (Anarti), Goths and Vandals (Przeworsk culture and Púchov culture). In the Middle Ages, the area was inhabited by the Polish tribe of Lendians, and the area was also invaded by Hungarians, before it eventually became part of the emerging Polish state in the 10th century.

The region subsequently became part of the Great Moravian state. Upon the invasion of the Hungarian tribes into the heart of the Great Moravian Empire around 899, the Lendians of the area declared their allegiance to Hungarian Empire. The region then became a site of contention between Poland, Kievan Rus' and Hungary starting in at least the 9th century.

The first traces of settlement in the area of modern Sanok date back to at least the 9th century. The following century a Slavic fortified town (gord) was created there and initially served as a center of pagan worship. The etymology of the name is unclear, though most scholars derive it from the Celtic river-name San. Certain archaeological excavations performed on the castle hill and on Fajka hill near Sanok-Trepcza, not only confirm the written resources, but date the Sanok stronghold origin to as early as the 9th century. On Fajka hill, where probably the first settlement of Sanok was situated, some remains of an ancient sanctuary and a cemetery were found, as well as numerous decorations and encolpions in Kievan type. Also found were two seals of the Great Kievan Prince Rurik Rostislavich from the second half of the 12th century.

Sights
Near the central town square and the previous Jewish ghetto, there is a valley where much of the Jewish population was murdered en masse by the Nazis during the Holocaust.
 * Skansen in Sanok - detailed houses, churches, cerkiews (Orthodox/Uniate churches of Lemkos, Boykos etc.)
 * Sanok castle and Icon collection - one of the largest collections of this in Central and Eastern Europe.
 * Town square/Rynek
 * Parish Church dating to the 19th century
 * Franciscan Church dating to the 14th century.

Economy
Sanok has a strong industry base - home to Stomil Sanok (established in 1932) and Pass Gummiwerke plants, producers of various rubber and metal-rubber seals, strings and laggings for automotive sector, construction industries and electrical household goods sector, PGNiG and Sanok Bus Car Factory "Autosan" (established in 1832), a producer of high capacity buses, cabins for the Polish Army and bodies for rail-vehicles. Stomil is next to the main train station in Sanok and Autosan is a 10-minute walk from the station, while the town centre is a 15-minute walk in the other direction.

Culture and education
The town has several public schools and a branch of the Polish High School of Technology. The town also has a football club called Stal Sanok and some other sport clubs (including volleyball, swimming, handball, ice hockey). The Sanok Castle near the centre of the old town houses a museum displaying over 300 fine icons. The Museum of Folk Architecture is one of the biggest open-air museums in Poland and show cases 19th and early 20th century life in this area of Poland.

Sport
The city has two professional sports teams. The local ice hockey team is STS Sanok, which has won the Polska Hokej Liga league title twice, in the 2011/2012 and 2013/2014 season. They won the Polish Cup twice, in 2010-11 and 2011–12. The local football club is Stal Sanok, which competes in the lower leagues.

There many sports facilities in Sanok and the main complex of those facilities is The Civic Sports and Recreation Centre, situated near the San River. The Centre includes: the artificial speed skating oval Tor Błonie, a complex of indoor and outdoor swimming pools, a hotel, a tourist hostel, a camp-site, a sports stadium with technical facilities, etc. There is also another artificial ice rink in the centre of the town, designed for ice hockey and managed by the ice hockey club STS Sanok. There are two more sports facilities at Stróżowska street: a stadium of sports club Stal Sanok, and a gymnasium of the Technical Schools Complex.

In winter, a ski-lift operates in the nearby Karlików.

Notable people

 * Katarzyna Bachleda-Curuś (born 1980), speed skater
 * Tomasz Beksiński (1958–1999), radio presenter
 * Zdzisław Beksiński (1929–2005), painter, photographer, sculptor
 * Rena Bernstein (born 1938), only child survivor of 30,000 Jews in South Eastern Poland
 * Adam Fastnacht (1913–1987), Polish historian
 * Jan Grodek (?–1554), nine-time rector of Jagiellonian University
 * Szlomo Halberstam (1847–1905), first Bobover Rebbe
 * Mikołaj Kamieniecki(1460–1515), nobleman
 * Juliusz Kühl (1913–1985), Polish diplomat
 * Piotr Michalski (born 1994), speed skater
 * Jerzy Mniszech (c. 1548–1613), nobleman
 * Ryszard Pacławski (born 1958), lawyer
 * Marian Pankowski (1919–2011), resistance fighter of World War II
 * Zdzisław Peszkowski (1918–2007), survivor of the Katyn massacre
 * Majer Szapira (1887–1933), first Orthodox Jew to become a member in the Sejm (Parliament)
 * Kazimierz Świtalski (1886–1962), politician and diplomat
 * Tadeusz Vetulani (1897–1952), agriculturalist and biologist
 * Frank-Wojnarowski (1921–1966), American Polish Orchestra leader
 * Janusz Szuber (1947 - 2020), Poet, Author, Journalist

Demographics
In the mid-18th century, Roman Catholics constituted 48.7% of the population, people of Jewish faith 36.5%, and 14.7% of the inhabitants belonged to the Greek Catholic Church.

In 1900, the town had 6123 inhabitants, 57% Polish, 30% Jewish, and the remainder of various Rusyn ethnicities (Boyko, Lemkos, etc.), and others. The town's large population of Jews were almost all murdered during the Holocaust.
 * Ethnic Groups
 * Poles

title: Sanok, Poland


text:
Krosno

Krosno (in full The Royal Free City of Krosno, Królewskie Wolne Miasto Krosno) is a historical town and county in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship, in southeastern Poland. The estimated population of the town is 47,140 inhabitants as of 2014.

The functional urban area of Krosno has a population of 115,000 inhabitants.

Krosno is a medieval fortified town, a former Royal Free Town and centre of cloth, linen, canvas, baize and Hungarian wine trade. It is also notable for its glassmaking traditions, which became known as the Krosno Glassware. Until recently it was a provincial capital.

Krosno is the site of the first oil well (or "mine") in the world.

Geography
The River Wisłok passes by Krosno. Slovakia is about 35 km south, and Ukraine is about 85 km east of the city. It is located in the heartland of the Doły (Pits), and its average altitude is 310 m above sea level, but some hills are located within the confines of the city.

Neighbouring municipalities are Korczyna, Krościenko Wyżne, Miejsce Piastowe, Chorkówka, Jedlicze, and Wojaszówka.

Situated in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship (since 1999), previously it was the capital of Krosno Voivodeship (1975–1998). It is the capital of Krosno County.

Krosno covers an area of 45 km2, and has seven separate town quarters and 5 housing estates. The historical centre is situated on a hill between the fork of the Lubatówka and Wisłok Rivers (tributary of the San River).

Middle Ages
The first mention of the town, which names Krosno as one of 34 estates in Lesser Poland granted to the Bishopric of Lubusz, appears in a document signed by High Duke of Poland Leszek II the Black in 1282. However, the oldest traces of settlement in the fork of the Wisłok and Lubatówka Rivers, found during archaeological research, date back to the 10th and 11th centuries. The area was inhabited by the old Polish tribe of Lendians.

Today it is difficult to clearly determine the etymology of the place-name of Krosno. Scholars give several versions explaining the origin of the name. Some researchers thought that the name is connected with "weaving loom" (in Polish: krosno), while others traced it back to "pustules", "pimples" or "being pimply" (in Polish: krosta, krostowatość), which apparently reflected the bumpy shape of the area where the first settlement was founded. Finally an opinion was adopted that the original Polish name disappeared and the existing name is the result of a transformation of the German (see: Walddeutsche) name "Krossen".

The date of the first foundation charter of the town is not known though we may presume that the oldest preserved royal document of Casimir the Great, dating from 1367, regarding the sale of the Krosno aldermanship, was modelled on an earlier foundation act. Hence it should be assumed that about the middle of the 14th century, King Casimir transformed Krosno from a settlement into a town chartered according to the Magdeburg rights and brought in numerous groups of German settlers.

Krosno, a royal town from its origin, used the coat of arms of the Kuyavian branch of the Piast dynasty (half an eagle and half a lion with a crown over their heads) and, owing to the king's foundation, was surrounded with a defensive wall as early as the 14th century. During the reign of Casimir III the Great the construction of stone fortifications was begun to encircle the hill. But it was only under King Władysław II Jagiełło that the full-length stone and partly earth town fortifications were completed. Two gates led into the town: the Hungarian one from the south-east and the Kraków one from the north-west. The well-fortified and secure town provided perfect conditions for the development of craft and trade. The statutes of the butchers guild were known as early as 1403 and in the middle of the 15th century the guilds of bakers, shoemakers, tailors, blacksmiths as well as clothiers and fullers were constituted. Krosno became an important production centre of cloths and fustians.

The medieval town had waterworks and a sewage system, which is evidence of its importance and the wealth of its inhabitants. The privilege granted by King Casimir IV Jagiellon in 1461 shows that Krosno, next to Kraków and Lwów, was the third town in the Kingdom of Poland with such facilities. The archaeological research conducted recently, based on the dendrochronological method, enabled scholars to move the date of the system's installation back to the middle of the 14th century. The pipe-line master dealt with repairs and maintenance of the whole water-supply and sewage systems. From the research conducted by the Krosno archaeologists it appears that the system was used until the beginning of the 19th century.

The 15th century meant the beginning of commerce development for Krosno. Apart from local trade during weekly Monday fairs the town participated in a large-scale import-export and transit commerce. The main trade routes led to the Red Ruthenia, Hungary and the countries of southern Europe. The largest transactions were made during yearly fairs held three times a year. The trade was mainly in local cloths and baizes, horses, cattle, copperware and imported commodities made of copper and iron, and obviously, in Hungarian wine, on which several Krosno merchant families made fortunes. The first Jews to settle in Krosno were the brothers Nechemia and Lazar of Regensburg who received special permits from the Polish King, Władysław II Jagiełło in the 15th century.

Early modern era
In spite of natural disasters (flood in 1497, the fire of a suburb in 1474 and of the town in 1500), Thomas Tarczay's troops raids (1473 and 1474), pestilence, which nearly depopulated the town, the 16th century was the most favourable for the development of Krosno. The town had its own bleachery, fullery, brickyard, flour mill, municipal baths, it enjoyed the royal privilege for limestone excavation, it had the customs chamber and the right of storage of commodities. High standards of living in Krosno, called at that time parva Cracovia, resulted partially from the activity of the local parish school. In the years 1400-1600 173 natives of Krosno studied in the Kraków Academy, which is evidenced by the entries in Album studiosorum.

Krosno of the 16th century was renowned not only for the wealth of its inhabitants, thrift and wide commercial contacts. It was also one of the most populous towns in the province of Lesser Poland: the population is estimated at 4 thousand. The view of Krosno was included in the work of J. Braun and F. Hoghenberg entitled ‘The Towns of the World’, published in Cologne in 1617 or in Andreas Cellarius's work entitled ‘Regin Poloniae Magnique Ducatus Lithuaniae omniumque regionum subiectorum novissima descriptio’, published in Amsterdam in 1659.

At the beginning of the 17th century there were about 11 collective guilds in which craftsmen representing 79 production and service trades were associated. Apart from traditional specialities connected with basic functions of the town there were also goldsmiths, painters, comb-makers, armourers, pavers, leather-dressers, violin makers and soapboilers. But it was commerce that provided the town with most revenues, both from goods exchange and from services for visiting merchants. Local clerks, scribes, innkeepers, brewers, and even townspeople providing accommodation and letting shops and cellars earned a lot. Higher donations were given to the clergy for church expenses. At that time many Hungarian merchants settled in Krosno, mainly those trading in wine. Scots, who specialised in large-scale commerce, also came to stay and the most outstanding person among them was Robert Porteous, a wine trader from Langside, Dalkeith, who used his wealth to become a benefactor of institutions within the city. There were also Armenians and Ruthenians from Lwów, but the most numerous group of traders were Jews, although Krosno had a privilege ‘de non tolerandis Judeis’, barring Jews from residing and trading within the city walls. Jewish traders living in nearby townships of Korczyna, Rymanów or Dukla were frequently jailed and their wares confiscated for attempting to enter Krosno.

The middle of the 17th century witnessed the beginning of a gradual loss of the earlier position of the town. Natural disasters, raids of the Swedish, Transylvanian, and Tartar troops, pestilences and war requisitions brought Krosno to a desperate state at the end of 17th century.

19th century and interbellum
In the time of the partitions of Poland and under the Austrian rule, once rich and important, the town experienced a period of severe impoverishment. It became one of many small towns of Galicia. Weaving was the only handicraft which enjoyed prosperity at that time. Large-scale flax and hemp plantations provided work for many weaving shops near Krosno. Korczyna and Kombornia were the strongest centres of this industry but there were thousands of home weaving shops in the vicinity of Krosno.

It was not until the middle of the 19th century, the period of the Galician autonomy from 1867 to the outbreak of the World War I, that Krosno started to rise from the decline. The birth of Polish oil industry undoubtedly contributed to the notable and rapid increase of importance of the town. The first oil company started by Ignacy Łukasiewicz, Tytus Trzecielski and Karol Klobassa in 1856 and the refinery they erected in Chorkówka caused gradual inflow of foreign capital. As a results of the new administrative division the Krosno district (powiat) was established and in 1867 Krosno became the seat of the offices of the district authorities (starostwo). At the turn of the 20th century many societies, schools and institutions were established in the town: Loan Society, Nationwide Weaving School, Teacher Training School, Real Secondary School, "Zgoda" (Accord) Townspeople's Society, "Sokół" (Falcon) Gymnastic Society, Bleach and Finish Plant, an oil refinery, the First Domestic Factory of Tower Clocks. This state of relative progress lasted until the outbreak of World War I.

During the war Krosno suffered serious damages. The inhabitants of the town, bombed and looted several times, suffered both from the Austrian and the Russian troops. After the war, in 1918, Poland regained independence and control of the town. In interwar Poland, Krosno was a county seat administratively located in the Lwów Voivodeship, and the town evolved gradually into an important industrial centre: a licence was issued to establish a flax straw breaking plant and a linen weaving plant, in the 1920s Polish Glass Factory, Joint-Stock Company was set up, in 1928 the construction of the airfield was begun and the aviation school was moved to Krosno from Bydgoszcz, in the 1930s the hangars were erected.

World War II
During the German invasion of Poland, which started World War II, on 4 September 1939, the Poles evacuated the local aviation school in three groups to Łuck in then-eastern Poland. After the Soviet invasion of Poland from the east, two groups were captured by the Soviets, while one managed to escape through the Polish-Romanian border.

Krosno was under German occupation from 8 September 1939 to 11 September 1944. On 25 September 1939, the German Einsatzgruppe I entered the town to commit various atrocities against the populace. As a result of the genocidal policy of Nazi Germany, which goal was also the biological extermination of Polish children, about 80% of Polish children in the area suffered from anemia. 100 Poles who were either born, lived or studied in Krosno were murdered by the Russians in April–May 1940 in the large Katyn massacre. Among the victims were many local policemen. 24 students of the local aviation school were murdered in Katyn and Kharkiv. From 1942 to 1944, the Germans operated a forced labour camp for Jews in the town.

The war interrupted the prosperous development of Krosno. The machinery and equipment of the glass factory, the refinery and the flax processing plant were stolen or devastated. The Krosno industry was completely ruined.

Post-war period
In September 1944, almost immediately after liberation, the reconstruction of the industry, destroyed during World War II, began. The glass factory and the flax plant were put into operation. Later on research in geology and oil drilling began, "Polmo" Shock Absorbers Factory and Transport and Aircraft Equipment Factory (WSK) were set up. Oil industry was and still is of importance for the town. Oil Industry Engineering Institute, "Naftomet" Oil Drilling Equipment Factory, Oil Drilling Establishment and "Naftomontaż" enterprise ( assembling oil drilling equipment on oil fields) are organizations which continue the oil industry traditions of the region.

Climate
Krosno has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) using the -3 C isotherm or a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfb) using the 0 C isotherm. Krosno has warm summers and cold winters.

Tourism
Due to a continuously rising number of travelers from Poland and abroad, the town authorities, in 2016, launched a website for tourists (available in English): visitkrosno

Some of Krosno highlights are:
 * The Old Town with the Town Square, the Portius Tower and multiple historic townhouses
 * Holy Trinity church
 * Franciscan church
 * Glass Heritage Centre
 * Subcarpathian Museum
 * The Museum of Crafts

In the nearest neighbourhood:
 * the Kamieniec Castle in Odrzykoń
 * Assumption of Holy Mary Church, Haczów
 * health resort and spa Iwonicz-Zdrój
 * Petroleum Industry Museum in Bóbrka, Krosno County
 * Maria Konopnicka Museum in Żarnowiec

Education

 * Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa in Krosno
 * Wyzsza Szkoła Informatyki i Zarzadzania in Rzeszów, branch in Krosno
 * I Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Mikołaja Kopernika in Krosno, in 2000 best of the region,

Politics
The Krosno constituency includes several other smaller cities.

Sport and Culture
Several cultural and sporting events on local, national and international scale are held in the town. Culture is celebrated by the Krosno Days of Music, the theatrical Encounters, the Musical Spring, the Krosno Fairs, the Galicia Festival, reviews of children theatres, hiker's songs and poetry singing festivals, the "Kontakt" Euro-Regional Fair, the "Soli Deo Gloria" Euro-Regional Concerts of Christmas Carols. Every two years Krosno hosts the National Biennial of Photography "Krosno - Town and People", International Biennial of Artistic Linen Tapestry "Z Krosna do Krosna", Biennial of Krosno Plastic Arts. Fans of sports throng to international volleyball and basketball tournaments organized annually, the International Mountain Ballooning Contest, the National Tournament of Ballroom Dancing for the Podkarpacie Cup. The band Decapitated hails from Krosno.

 * Karpaty Krosno - a football team.
 * Wilki Krosno - speedway team
 * UKS Krosno - cycle speedway

Economy
Krosno is located in an oil bearing region. Surface seepage of oil was locally used (unrefined) in lamps as early as the 16th century. In the 19th century Ignacy Łukasiewicz a local pharmacist began exploiting the deposits from hand-dug wells, years before the drilling at Titusville, Pennsylvania which is usually said to be the beginning of modern petroleum development.

One of the things that Krosno is well known for is the quality glassware and crystal that is produced in the town, and distributed throughout the world. The history of the company Krosno Glass S.A. (former Krosno Glassworks) dates back to 1923. The company employs nearly 2,200 people and is the largest employer in the region. A long tradition in glass production and the influence of the glass industry on the local economy have made Krosno known as the "City of Glass".

Notable people

 * Stanisław Bergman (1862–1930), Polish painter
 * Seweryn Bieszczad (1852–1923), Polish painter
 * Kacper Bieszczad (born 2002), footballer
 * Decapitated, Polish Death Metal band established in 1996
 * Władysław Gomułka (1905–1982), communist leader of Poland
 * Fabius Gross (1906–1950), Austrian marine zoologist
 * Andrzej Pikul (born 1954), Polish pianist
 * Paweł Przytocki (born 1958), Polish conductor of classical music
 * Kamil Radulj (born 1988), football player
 * Jerzy Werner (1909–1977), Polish car designer
 * Karolina Zmarlak (born 1982), Polish-American fashion designer

Twin towns — Sister cities
Krosno is twinned with:

title: Krosno


text:
Tomasulo's algorithm

Tomasulo's algorithm is a computer architecture hardware algorithm for dynamic scheduling of instructions that allows out-of-order execution and enables more efficient use of multiple execution units. It was developed by Robert Tomasulo at IBM in 1967 and was first implemented in the IBM System/360 Model 91’s floating point unit.

The major innovations of Tomasulo’s algorithm include register renaming in hardware, reservation stations for all execution units, and a common data bus (CDB) on which computed values broadcast to all reservation stations that may need them. These developments allow for improved parallel execution of instructions that would otherwise stall under the use of scoreboarding or other earlier algorithms.

Robert Tomasulo received the Eckert–Mauchly Award in 1997 for his work on the algorithm.

Implementation concepts

The following are the concepts necessary to the implementation of Tomasulo's algorithm:

Common data bus
The Common Data Bus (CDB) connects reservation stations directly to functional units. According to Tomasulo it "preserves precedence while encouraging concurrency". This has two important effects:
 * 1) Functional units can access the result of any operation without involving a floating-point-register, allowing multiple units waiting on a result to proceed without waiting to resolve contention for access to register file read ports.
 * 2) Hazard Detection and control execution are distributed. The reservation stations control when an instruction can execute, rather than a single dedicated hazard unit.

Instruction order
Instructions are issued sequentially so that the effects of a sequence of instructions, such as exceptions raised by these instructions, occur in the same order as they would on an in-order processor, regardless of the fact that they are being executed out-of-order (i.e. non-sequentially).

Register renaming
Tomasulo's algorithm uses register renaming to correctly perform out-of-order execution. All general-purpose and reservation station registers hold either a real value or a placeholder value. If a real value is unavailable to a destination register during the issue stage, a placeholder value is initially used. The placeholder value is a tag indicating which reservation station will produce the real value. When the unit finishes and broadcasts the result on the CDB, the placeholder will be replaced with the real value.

Each functional unit has a single reservation station. Reservation stations hold information needed to execute a single instruction, including the operation and the operands. The functional unit begins processing when it is free and when all source operands needed for an instruction are real.

Exceptions
Practically speaking, there may be exceptions for which not enough status information about an exception is available, in which case the processor may raise a special exception, called an imprecise exception. Imprecise exceptions cannot occur in in-order implementations, as processor state is changed only in program order (see ).

Programs that experience precise exceptions, where the specific instruction that took the exception can be determined, can restart or re-execute at the point of the exception. However, those that experience imprecise exceptions generally cannot restart or re-execute, as the system cannot determine the specific instruction that took the exception.

Instruction lifecycle
The three stages listed below are the stages through which each instruction passes from the time it is issued to the time its execution is complete.

Legend

 * RS - Reservation Status
 * RegisterStat - Register Status; contains information about the registers.
 * regs[x] - Value of register x
 * Mem[A] - Value of memory at address A

 * rd - destination register number
 * rs, rt - source registration numbers
 * imm - sign extended immediate field
 * r - reservation station or buffer that the instruction is assigned to

Reservation Station Fields

 * Op - represents the operation being performed on operands
 * Qj, Qk - the reservation station that will produce the relevant source operand (0 indicates the value is in Vj, Vk)
 * Vj, Vk - the value of the source operands
 * A - used to hold the memory address information for a load or store
 * Busy - 1 if occupied, 0 if not occupied

Register Status Fields

 * Qi - the reservation station whose result should be stored in this register (if blank or 0, no values are destined for this register)

Stage 1: issue
In the issue stage, instructions are issued for execution if all operands and reservation stations are ready or else they are stalled. Registers are renamed in this step, eliminating WAR and WAW hazards.

 * Retrieve the next instruction from the head of the instruction queue. If the instruction operands are currently in the registers, then
 * If a matching functional unit is available, issue the instruction.
 * Else, as there is no available functional unit, stall the instruction until a station or buffer is free.
 * Otherwise, we can assume the operands are not in the registers, and so use virtual values. The functional unit must calculate the real value to keep track of the functional units that produce the operand.

Stage 2: execute
In the execute stage, the instruction operations are carried out. Instructions are delayed in this step until all of their operands are available, eliminating RAW hazards. Program correctness is maintained through effective address calculation to prevent hazards through memory.

 * If one or more of the operands is not yet available then: wait for operand to become available on the CDB.
 * When all operands are available, then: if the instruction is a load or store
 * Compute the effective address when the base register is available, and place it in the load/store buffer
 * If the instruction is a load then: execute as soon as the memory unit is available
 * Else, if the instruction is a store then: wait for the value to be stored before sending it to the memory unit
 * Else, the instruction is an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) operation then: execute the instruction at the corresponding functional unit

Stage 3: write result
In the write Result stage, ALU operations results are written back to registers and store operations are written back to memory.
 * If the instruction was an ALU operation
 * If the result is available, then: write it on the CDB and from there into the registers and any reservation stations waiting for this result
 * Else, if the instruction was a store then: write the data to memory during this step

Algorithm improvements
The concepts of reservation stations, register renaming, and the common data bus in Tomasulo's algorithm presents significant advancements in the design of high-performance computers.

Reservation stations take on the responsibility of waiting for operands in the presence of data dependencies and other inconsistencies such as varying storage access time and circuit speeds, thus freeing up the functional units. This improvement overcomes long floating point delays and memory accesses. In particular the algorithm is more tolerant of cache misses. Additionally, programmers are freed from implementing optimized code. This is a result of the common data bus and reservation station working together to preserve dependencies as well as encouraging concurrency.

By tracking operands for instructions in the reservation stations and register renaming in hardware the algorithm minimizes read-after-write (RAW) and eliminates write-after-write (WAW) and Write-after-Read (WAR) computer architecture hazards. This improves performance by reducing wasted time that would otherwise be required for stalls.

An equally important improvement in the algorithm is the design is not limited to a specific pipeline structure. This improvement allows the algorithm to be more widely adopted by multiple-issue processors. Additionally, the algorithm is easily extended to enable branch speculation.

Applications and legacy
Tomasulo's algorithm, outside of IBM, was unused for several years after its implementation in the System/360 Model 91 architecture. However, it saw a vast increase in usage during the 1990s for 3 reasons:
 * 1) Once caches became commonplace, the Tomasulo algorithm's ability to maintain concurrency during unpredictable load times caused by cache misses became valuable in processors.
 * 2) Dynamic scheduling and the branch speculation that the algorithm enables helped performance as processors issued more and more instructions.
 * 3) Proliferation of mass-market software meant that programmers would not want to compile for a specific pipeline structure. The algorithm can function with any pipeline architecture and thus software requires few architecture-specific modifications.

Many modern processors implement dynamic scheduling schemes that are derivative of Tomasulo's original algorithm, including popular Intel x86-64 chips.

title: Tomasulo's algorithm


text:
Pabianice

Pabianice is a city in central Poland with 63,023 inhabitants (2021). Situated in the Łódź Voivodeship, it is the capital of Pabianice County. It lies about 10 km southwest of Łódź and belongs to the metropolitan area of that city. It is the third largest city in the Łódź Voivodeship by population. The area of the city covers 32.9 km2, being the 10th largest in Łódź Voivodeship.

According to data from 2009, agricultural land constitutes 53%, of the area and forests another 9%. The city covers 6.70% of Pabianice County.

It is located in the Sieradz Land. Neighbour administrative divisions: gmina Dobroń, gmina Ksawerów, miasto Łódź, gmina Pabianice, gmina Rzgów.

Transportation
Pabianice has seen major infrastructural changes over the past few years amidst increased investment and economic growth. The city has a much improved infrastructure with new roads. Pabianice now has a good circular road system. Pabianice bypass (express road S14) opened in May 2012. However, parts of S8 (part of the European route E67) are currently under construction and to be completed within 2012.

Near Pabianice there is an international airport: Łódź Władysław Reymont Airport (IATA: LCJ, ICAO: EPLL) located just 11 km from the city centre.

Public transport in Pabianice includes buses, trams (streetcars), commuter railway Łódzka Kolej Aglomeracyjna and regional rail PKP Przewozy Regionalne. The regional rail and light rail is operated by Polish State Railways (PKP). There are also some suburban bus lines run by private operators. Bus service covers the entire city. Currently, the Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo Komunikacyjne (City Transport Company) company runs line number 41 which connects Pabianice with Łódź City.

History
Pabianice was established in the 10th or 11th century, and was part of early Piast-ruled Poland. In 1297, Władysław I Łokietek granted town rights. Pabianice was a private church town, administratively located in the Szadek County in the Sieradz Voivodeship in the Greater Poland Province of the Kingdom of Poland. In 1555, Polish King Sigismund II Augustus issued a privilege, which established craft guilds in Pabianice.

Before World War II, Pabianice had a substantial Jewish population, comprising about a quarter of all residents of the town. Jews had been living in the town since the 1700s. Following the joint German-Soviet invasion of Poland, which started World War II in September 1939, the town was under German occupation. As part of the Intelligenzaktion, in late 1939, the Germans carried out mass arrests of local Polish intelligentsia, who were initially imprisoned in a local transit camp and the nearby Radogoszcz concentration camp, and then either deported to other concentration camps or mostly murdered in nearby forests. Local Polish teachers and activists were murdered by the Germans during large massacres in the nearby Łagiewniki forest (within today's city limits of Łódź) in November and December 1939. The Germans also expelled around 1,000 Poles from the town in December 1939. Under German occupation nearly the entire Jewish population was murdered. Some were murdered in the town, several thousand were sent to the Chełmno extermination camp where they were immediately gassed, and others were expelled to Łódź and to forced labour camps in the area. Only about 150 survived of the 9,000 Jews thought to be living in Pabianice at the start of the war. For more on the wartime experience see Megargee. The German occupation ended in 1945.

Demography
Recently, the population of Pabianice has been steadily decreasing. Between 2002 and 2016 it fell from 72,444 to 66,265 (a decrease of about 400 people every year).

Unemployment
According to source data from 2009 average income per capita was on the level of 1844,96 PLN. According to source data from October 2011 average unemployment rate in Pabianice is on the level of 15,6%

Architecture

 * 1) Church of St. Matthew the Evangelist
 * 2) Renaissance fortified manor house of Cracovian Chapter
 * 3) Weaver houses (Domy tkaczy)
 * 4) "Krusche-Ender" cotton factory buildings
 * 5) Old offices "Krusche-Ender" with "prządki" sculpture
 * 6) Old palace of Enders' family
 * 7) Lutheran Church of St. Peter and St. Paul
 * 8) Neo-Gothic Church of Saint Mary
 * 9) Railway station
 * 10) Renaissance Revival pentecostal chapel near Ludwik Waryński St. (ruins)
 * 11) Maria Konopnicka Special Education School Complex
 * 12) Pabianicki Harvard Heureka Private Schools
 * 13) Christian cemeteries
 * 14) Jewish cemetery
 * 15) Synagogue (destroyed)

Quarters and administrative subdivisions
Centrum, Bugaj, Piaski, Stare Miasto, Karniszewice, Klimkowizna, Jutrzkowice, Wola Zaradzyńska Nowa, J. Salwy, Marii Konopnickiej, Jana Pawła II, Mikołaja Kopernika, Dąbrowa, Rypułtowice, Czyryczyn (formerly Sereczyn), Karolew, Zatorze.

Notable people

 * St. Maximilian Kolbe (1894–1941), Polish Catholic priest
 * Menachem Mendel Alter (1877–1942), Grand Rabbi of Pabianice, son of Rabbi Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter and brother of Rabbi Avraham Mordechai Alter, murdered in Treblinka August 12, 1942.
 * Paweł Janas (born 1953), football player and coach
 * Mieczysław Klimek (1913–1995), Polish professor, engineer, prisoner of Nazi concentration camps during World War II
 * Marcin Komorowski (born 1984), football player
 * Krystyna Mikołajewska (born 1939), actress
 * (1877–1946), Polish painter
 * Józef Pluskowski (1896–1950), poet
 * Aleksandra Shelton (born 1982), sabre fencer
 * Stanisław Staszewski (1925–1973), Polish architect and poet, Polish resistance participant during World War II, prisoner of the Mauthausen concentration camp
 * Jadwiga Wajs (1912–1990), discus thrower
 * Jadwiga Wajs (1912–1990), discus thrower

Twin towns – sister cities
Pabianice is twinned with:

 * 🇱🇹 Rokiškis in Lithuania (since 1998)
 * 🇩🇪 Plauen in Germany (since 2005)
 * 🇭🇺 Kerepes in Hungary (since 2009)

Former twin towns:
 * 🇷🇺 Gusev in Russia (since 2002 until 2022)

In March 2022, Pabianice ended its partnership with the Russian city of Gusev as a response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.

title: Pabianice


text:
Zgierz

Zgierz is a city in central Poland, located just to the north of Łódź, and part of the metropolitan area centered on that city. As of 2021, it had a population of 54,974. Located within the historic Łęczyca Land, it is the capital of Zgierz County in the Łódź Voivodeship.

History
Zgierz is one of the oldest cities in central Poland. The oldest known mention of Zgierz comes from 1231, when two dukes of fragmented Piast-ruled Poland, Władysław Odonic of Greater Poland and Konrad I of Masovia, held a meeting there. Zgierz acquired its town rights some time before 1288, and those rights were renewed by Polish King Władysław II Jagiełło in 1420. In 1494, King John I Albert exempted the town from taxes for 10 years, and in 1504, King Alexander Jagiellon established three annual fairs. Zgierz was a royal city of Poland, administratively located in the Łęczyca County in the Łęczyca Voivodeship in the Greater Poland Province of the Kingdom of Poland.

During the joint German-Soviet invasion of Poland, which started World War II, on September 3 and 5, 1939, Zgierz was raided by Germany, and captured on September 6. Already in September 1939, the Germans committed first atrocities against Poles and carried out executions of Polish civilian defenders. Inhabitants of Zgierz were also among Poles murdered in nearby Łagiewniki on September 12 and in Retki on September 16. As part the Intelligenzaktion, Germans carried out large massacres of Poles from the region in the nearby forests of Łagiewniki and Lućmierz, killing hundreds and thousands of people respectively. Germans also carried out expulsions of Poles and deported over 8,000 people to forced labour to Germany. Some were also killed in Nazi concentration camps, including the interwar director of the local State School of Economics, Jakub Stefan Cezak, and local Protestant parish priest, Aleksander Falzman. Schools were closed, factories were looted, Polish monuments were destroyed. Despite this, the Polish underground resistance movement was active in Zgierz.

Before the war, Zgierz had a thriving Jewish community of around 4,000, which formed 16,6% of the town's populace as of 1931. When the Germans occupied the town, they began persecuting the Jews, with the assistance of local ethnic Germans. The synagogue was burned and Jews were kidnapped from the streets for forced labor. Many tried to flee the town, though some of these returned. In December, 1939, the Germans deported 2500 of the Jews to Głowno in the General Gouvernment, German-occupied central Poland. Left behind were fewer than 100 Jews, mostly craftsmen thought to be useful to the Germans. In 1942, these Jews were deported to the Łódź Ghetto. This history is unusual in that no mass killings in Zgierz were reported. Of course, the Jews deported to Łódz and Głowno were caught up in the fate of those communities, and most were later deported to the Treblinka extermination camp. As many as 350 Jewish residents of Zgierz survived the war, but did not return to the town.

On March 20, 1942, the Germans carried out a public execution of 100 Poles in the town, who were then buried in Lućmierz-Las. A memorial was erected at the site of the massacre after the war. Around 50 Poles from Zgierz took part in the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. In total over 7,600 inhabitants of Zgierz died under German occupation, which ended in January 1945.

Town limits were expanded in 1954, 1959, and 1988.

Sports
The local football team is. It competes in the lower leagues.

Twin towns – sister cities
Zgierz is twinned with:

 * 🇫🇷 Bischwiller, France
 * 🇩🇪 Glauchau, Germany
 * 🇭🇺 Hódmezővásárhely, Hungary
 * 🇨🇿 Jihlava, Czech Republic
 * 🇸🇰 Kežmarok, Slovakia
 * 🇱🇹 Kupiškis, Lithuania
 * 🇺🇦 Manevychi Raion, Ukraine
 * 🇵🇱 Orzysz, Poland
 * 🇵🇱 Supraśl, Poland

title: Zgierz


text:
Ozorków

Ozorków (אוזורקוב) is a town on the Bzura River in central Poland, with 19,128 inhabitants (2020). It has been situated in the Łódź Voivodeship (Lodz Province) since 1919.

History
The city's history dates back to the fifteenth century. In 1415 a small village with inaccessible forests and swamps, belonging to the Szczawiński family was mentioned in one of the Polish chronicles. In 1807, the future owner of Ozorków, Ignacy Starzyński, hoping to expand his textile business, brought 19 drapers from Saxony to the village. In 1815, their number has risen to 117, while the city of Łódź had 331.

A year later, in 1816, the village was granted city rights and became the capital of the Ozorków county. In 1817 the Schlösserow family, who came from Aachen, settled in the city and founded the first modern cotton mill. Ozorków was the first settlement that experienced the modern development of cotton and wool industry near the Bzura River and later that spread to Zgierz and Łódź, creating the largest Polish center of the textile industry. Because of the rapidly growing industry started running out of space, already in 1820 business families purchased farmlands from nearby villages. In 1828 the town population rose to 5,669 people. Ozorków was inhabited by a sizeable population of Jewish and German citizens, therefore a synagogue and an Evangelical Church was built in the upcoming years, which also turned the town into a multicultural settlement. In the thirties, Karl Schlösser built a factory in the centre of the town, which also greatly influenced the population. After the fall of the November Uprising, the city underwent a stagnation caused by the loss of orders for the army of Congress Poland, repressive tariff barriers, the growing role of Zgierz and Łódź, as well as the displacement of the market for cotton and wool fabrics. In 1864, during the January Uprising, the local leader of the Polish insurgents Wawrzyniec Jeziorski was hanged by the Russians at the Market Square. In 1866, under the control of Polish Count Feliks Łubieński, Ozorków became a protected city of the Russian Empire, which resulted in greater investment opportunities.

The First World War caused a further economic decline of the city. It was not until the period of independent statehood that it became more attractive for foreign and domestic investors. Already in the early twenties, Ozorków received a railway connection with Łódź and Kutno, and with the electrification of the city carried in 1928, a tramway was built between Ozorków, Zgierz and Łódź (between 1922 and 1928 the line was operated by a steam tram). During the interwar period (1918–1939) two public primary schools as well as a recreational centre were built in the city.

The time of the German occupation of Poland (World War II), beginning in September 1939, was a tragic period in the history of the town. Already on September 12, 1939, the Germans murdered some inhabitants of Ozorków in a massacre of 13 Poles in nearby Łagiewniki (present-day district of Łódź). The town was incorporated directly into the Third Reich and between 1943 and 1945 it was called Brunnstadt. The extermination policy of the occupier (the murder of 6,000 Jews and the persecution of the Polish population) resulted in a drastic population decrease. In 1940, the Germans expelled hundreds of Poles from the town, and also established a transit camp at the local movie theater for Poles expelled from the area. Young people were then deported from the camp to forced labour in Germany, and children and older people were deported to the General Government (German-occupied central Poland), while their homes, shops and workshops were handed over to German colonists as part of the Lebensraum policy. Jews were forced into a ghetto, and some were afterwards murdered in the town. Hundreds were sent to the Chełmno extermination camp where they were gassed immediately. Others were forcibly taken to work camps or the Lodz ghetto where they were later killed. Only a few survived. The historical synagogue located on Wyszyński Street was completely destroyed by German troops. There is some evidence that a few Poles brought food to Jewish neighbours in the ghetto.

After 1945, there was an expansion and modernization of the cotton and wool industry applied by the new Soviet-installed communist government, which stayed in power until the Fall of Communism in the 1980s. In the 1950s the development of housing and urban infrastructure resulted in rapid population increase.

Today Ozorków is rapidly increasing in the role of services and slowly loses its former industrial character.

Notable residents

 * Samuel Reshevsky, chessmaster
 * Aron Brand, pediatric cardiologist

title: Ozorków


text:
Aleksandrów Łódzki

Aleksandrów Łódzki (1943–45 Wirkheim) is a town in Zgierz County, Łódź Voivodeship, Poland. It is a part of the Łódź agglomeration. Aleksandrów Łódzki has an area of 13.82 sqkm, and as of June 2022 its population was 22,160.

History
The village was founded in 1816 by. In 1820, Rajmund Rembieliński called Aleksandrów "one of the better towns in Poland." was the author of the town planning project. In order to gain sympathy of the government, Bratoszewski called the town after the then ruling Russian Emperor Alexander I Romanov. This resulted in Aleksandrów gaining the town rights in 1822. After Bratoszewski died in 1824, the Kossowski family took over the town.

After 1832, the town began to fall back, economically overwhelmed by the nearby towns of Pabianice, Zgierz and Łódź. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, many knitting companies were founded in Aleksandrów, so it is called the cradle of the Polish stocking industry and also gained the nickname "Sock-city" among the citizens. This trade is still the main one today. In 1910, the town gained a tram connection with Łódź, which was discontinued in 1991.

Historically, Aleksandrów was a town of multiple cultures and religions. There were Protestant descendants of German knitters, Jews who were in trade and Catholic Poles who mainly worked as craftsmen and in factories. The Jewish population in 1900 was 1,673. For the Jewish, Aleksandrów was an important religious centre - the seat of Hasidic tzadikim of the Aleksander dynasty founded by Rabbi Yechiel Dancyger (1828–1894). It was also where Rabbi Chanokh Heynekh HaKohen Levin, the second Rebbe of the Ger Hasidim held court until his death in Aleksandrów in 1870.

In 1869, Aleksandrów lost its town rights. These rights were regained in 1924 in the newly reborn Poland.

Currently, it is the seat of the Aleksandrów Łódzki county. In September 2006, the first International Convention of Aleksandrów citizens was held.

Economy
Currently, there are 2,623 registered companies in Aleksandrów. The textile industry constitutes 38% of the economy, trade - 24%, vehicle mechanics and transport - 5%, and other - 33%.

Tourism
The oldest monuments of Aleksandrów include:
 * St. Rafael and Michael Catholic church - built between 1816 and 1818 and rebuilt three times (1922–1926 - two aisles added; 1933–1935 - two towers added; 1993 - added a second nave with its own altar). Under the church lies buried Rafał Bratoszewski - founder of Aleksandrów
 * Evangelic church - built in 1828 by pastor
 * Jatki - rebuilt in 1998, formerly a place for butchers and bakers to sell their goods; now a part of the town hall
 * The town hall - built in 1824. It still serves its function today
 * The library - originally the house of a pastor built in 1848
 * The oldest grave - dating from 1830, the place of burial for Fryderyk Jerzy Tuve. There is also a Jewish cemetery in the northern part of the town with graves of Hasidic tzadiks
 * The municipal park - an English-styled garden founded by Rafał Bratoszewski in 1824
 * Weaver houses - long wooden houses of the first settlers from the first half of the 19th century
 * Albert Stiller's villa and factory - built in 1908
 * Dormitory of Nicolaus Copernicus High School, a former mansion of Hasidic tzadikim from Danziger dynasty, built in 1935

Sports

 * Towarzystwo Sportowe Sokół-Syguła. Founded in 1998, with soccer and karate sections. Stanisław Syguła is the chairman and main sponsor of the club
 * MULKS Aleksandrów - established in 2004 - youth soccer
 * MKS Aleksandrów - track and field athletics
 * UKS Jedynka - volleyball
 * Sporting events
 * Józef Jaworski track and field memorial - held annually since 1983

Local media

 * 40 i cztery (title is a reference to the tram line number 44 that connected Aleksandrów with Łódź) monthly bulletin issued by the local commune. It has appeared since 8 December 1991, formerly as a biweekly. Current editor-in-chief - Dorota Bełdowska-Zemła
 * Alternatywy 44 monthly bulletin issued by the Aleksandrów Association of Entrepreneurs 2000. Current editor-in-chief - Tomasz Dominowski
 * Wiadomości aleksandrowskie bulletin of St. by Rafael and Michael parish initiated by Rev. dr Norbert Rucki
 * Aleksandrów wczoraj i dziś [Aleksandrów yesterday and today] - a yearly publication appearing since 1983 on behalf of Friends of Aleksandrów Association. Current editor-in-chief - Zenon Kozanecki
 * Gazeta Matusiaka, independent newspaper issued by Grzegorz Matusiak in 1992–2004
 * TELETOP TV

Twin towns – sister cities
Aleksandrów Łódzki is twinned with:
 * 🇱🇻 Krāslava, Latvia
 * 🇦🇹 Ossiach, Austria
 * 🇫🇷 Puget-Ville, France

title: Aleksandrów Łódzki


text:
Sirajuddin of Perlis

Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin ibni Almarhum Tuanku Syed Putra Jamalullail (Jawi: توانكو سيد سراج الدين ابن المرحوم توانكو سيد ڤوترا جمل الليل; born 17 May 1943) is the current Raja of Perlis, reigning since 2000. He previously reigned as the twelfth Yang di-Pertuan Agong, (King of Malaysia), from 2001 to 2006.

Early life and education
Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin was born in Arau, Perlis, the second of ten children of Raja Putra of Perlis and Raja Perempuan Budriah. He studied at the Arau Malay School until standard two, then from 5 January 1950 he continued his primary education at Wellesley Primary School in Penang followed by Westland Primary School until the end of 1955. Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin began his secondary education at Penang Free School on 9 January 1956 and later left for England to study at Wellingborough School for four years until 1963. He underwent training as a cadet officer at the Royal Military Academy in Sandhurst, England, from January 1964 until December 1965.

Early career
Upon his return from England, Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin served with Malaysia's Ministry of Defence. His first post was as second lieutenant in the 2nd Regiment of the Malaysian Reconnaissance Corps on 12 December 1965. In 1966, he was transferred to Sabah and then to Sarawak in 1967. He then served in Pahang for several years until he resigned on 31 December 1969 to return to Perlis. He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant in December 1967.

In 1970, he served in the armed forces again, as Captain of the Local Territorial Army from 16 November 1970 until 1 October 1972. He was promoted to major on 1 October 1972. Currently, he is the Commanding Officer of Regiment 504 of the Army Reserve Unit with the rank of colonel.

Raja of Perlis
In October 1960, he was made the Raja Muda (Crown Prince) of Perlis while still a student. He was installed as the 12th Ruler of Perlis on 17 April 2000, the day after the death of his father, Putra, who had been the raja since 1945, and was the world's longest reigning monarch at the time.

Yang di-Pertuan Agong
Continuing the tradition of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong rotation, Sirajuddin was elected as the 12th Yang di-Pertuan Agong. His term began on 13 December 2001. This was earlier than expected because the previous and 11th Yang di-Pertuan Agong, Sultan Salahuddin of Selangor, died in office on 21 November 2001 while his term should have ended in 2004. At that time, he was the fastest ruler to become the Yang di-Pertuan Agong from his accession to his state's throne, at 1 year and 241 days (record now held by Sultan Abdullah of Pahang). Tuanku Sirajuddin's term ended on 12 December 2006.

Personal life
On 15 February 1967, he married Tuanku Tengku Fauziah (born 6 June 1946) at Kota Bharu, Kelantan, daughter of Sultan Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah of Terengganu, by his wife Tengku Maharani Putri Tengku Kembang Puteri binti Almarhum Sultan Ibrahim of Kelantan, who became the Raja Puan Muda of Perlis. Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin was appointed for the first time as the Regent of Perlis when the Raja of Perlis and the Raja Perempuan of Perlis travelled to the United States and Europe from 23 June 1967 until 24 October 1967.

Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin has one son and one daughter:
 * His Royal Highness Tuanku Syed Faizuddin Putra, Raja Muda of Perlis (born on December 30, 1967)
 * Her Highness Sharifah Fazira, Tengku Puteri Mahkota of Perlis (born on June 5, 1973).

Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin has travelled to many countries including United Kingdom, France, Germany, Denmark, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, Egypt, Spain, Libya, the Netherlands, Belgium, Thailand and Saudi Arabia.

Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin is also active in sports. Among his favourite sports are golf, tennis, football and is a fan of Tottenham Hotspur football club. He has been the Chairman of Putra Golf Club, Perlis since May 1971, and the patron of the Association of Football Referees of Perlis since 1967. He was also the Chairman of the Football Association of Perlis for 18 years.

Social contributions
Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin interacts frequently with his people through various fields and heads many social organisations, which are:
 * Chairman of the Rayuan Binaan Wisma Pahlawan Negeri Perlis and Chairman of the Exhibition Committee of the Malaysian Royal Armed Forces in Perlis on 1 April 1971.
 * Chairman of the Association of Malaysian Ex-Servicemen, Perlis branch for five years.
 * Chairman of the Rayuan Derma Hari Pahlawan Negeri Perlis since 1972.
 * Patron of 4B Youth Movement of Perlis.

Sirajuddin is known for his dedication towards his people and takes an interest in education. With the establishment of the Tuanku Syed Putra Foundation in 1986, many Perlis students have been able to further their studies locally and abroad. Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin is the Chairman of this foundation.

Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin became directly involved in religious affairs when he was appointed President of the Islamic Council of Perlis by Sultan Putra of Perlis. Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin is especially concerned that the religious affairs of the state are based on the 'Ahlis Sunnah Waljamaah' doctrine. In this regard, Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin is constantly in touch with the religious leaders of Perlis.

Awards and recognitions

 * Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin held the rank of Marshal of the Royal Malaysian Air Force, Admiral of the Fleet, Royal Malaysian Navy and Field Marshal, Malaysian Army in light of his duties as Supreme Commander of the Malaysian Armed Forces, thus becoming the third royal ruler to rise from the ranks as an active military officer to the rank of supreme commander-in-chief.
 * Colonel-in-Chief, Royal Ranger Regiment

He has been awarded:

Honours of Perlis
Perlis:
 * MY-PERL Royal Family Order of Perlis - DKP.svg Founding Grand Master of the Royal Family Order of Perlis (since 17 May 2001)
 * [[File:MY-PERL Perlis Family Order of the Gallant Prince Syed Putra Jamalullail - DK.svg|50px]] Grand Master of the Perlis Family Order of the Gallant Prince Syed Putra Jamalullail (since 17 April 2000)
 * [[File:MY-PERL Order of the Gallant Prince Syed Sirajuddin Jamalullail - Knight Grand Companion - SSSJ.svg|50px]] Grand Master of the Order of the Gallant Prince Syed Sirajuddin Jamalullail (since 2001)
 * [[File:MY-PERL Order of Prince Syed Sirajuddin Jamalullail of Perlis - Knight Grand Companion - SPSJ.svg|50px]] Grand Master of the Order of Prince Syed Sirajuddin Jamalullail of Perlis (since 2005)
 * Order of the Gallant Prince Syed Putra Jamalullail: Knight Grand Companion (SSPJ, 4 December 1995) and Grand Master (since 17 April 2000)
 * MY-PERL Order of the Crown of Perlis - Knight Grand Commander - SPMP.svg Grand Master of the Order of the Crown of Perlis (since 17 April 2000)

Honours of Malaysia

 * 🇲🇾 Malaysia (as Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia):
 * MY Darjah Kerabat Diraja Malaysia - Royal Family Order of Malaysia - DKM.svg Recipient (DKM) (2002) and Grand Master of the Order of the Royal House of Malaysia (DKM, 13 December 2001)
 * MY Darjah Utama Seri Mahkota Negara (Crown of the Realm) - DMN.svg Order of the Crown of the Realm: Recipient (DMN) (2001) and Grand Master (13 December 2001 – 12 December 2006)
 * MY Darjah Yang Mulia Pangkuan Negara (Defender of the Realm) - SMN.svg Grand Master of the Order of the Defender of the Realm (13 December 2001 – 12 December 2006)
 * Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia - SSM.svg Grand Master of the Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia (13 December 2001 – 12 December 2006)
 * MY Darjah Bakti - Order of Merit of Malaysia - DB.svg Grand Master of the Order of Merit of Malaysia (13 December 2001 – 12 December 2006)
 * MY Darjah Jasa Negara - Order of Meritorious Service - PJN.svg Grand Master of the Order for Important Services (Malaysia) (13 December 2001 – 12 December 2006)
 * MY Panglima Setia Diraja - Order of the Royal Household - PSD.svg Grand Master of the Order of the Royal Household of Malaysia (13 December 2001 – 12 December 2006)
 * Pingat Jasa Malaysia ribbon.png Malaysian Service Medal (PJM) (17 April 2009)
 * Johor:
 * Order of the Crown of Johor ribbon bar.svg Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Crown of Johor (SPMJ) – Dato'
 * Kedah:
 * MY-KED Royal Family Order of Kedah (DK).svg Member of the Royal Family Order of Kedah (DK) (21 January 2002)
 * Kelantan:
 * MY-KEL Royal Family Order - Star of Yunus - DK.svg Recipient of the Royal Family Order or Star of Yunus (DK) (2002)
 * Negeri Sembilan:
 * MY-NEG Royal Family Order of Negeri Sembilan - DKNS.svg Member of the Royal Family Order of Negeri Sembilan (DKNS) (19 July 2001)
 * Pahang:
 * MY-PAH Family Order of the Crown of Indra of Pahang - DK I.svg Member 1st class of the Family Order of the Crown of Indra of Pahang (DK I) (26 October 2005)
 * Perak:
 * MY-PERA Royal Family Order of Perak - DK.svg Recipient of the Royal Family Order of Perak (DK)
 * MY-PERA Order of Cura Si Manja Kini - Grand Knight - SPCM (new).svg Grand Knight of the Order of Cura Si Manja Kini (SPCM) – Dato' Seri
 * Selangor:
 * MY-SEL Royal Family Order of Selangor - DK I.svg First Class of the Royal Family Order of Selangor (DK I) (14 December 2002)
 * Terengganu:
 * MY-TER Family Order of Terengganu 2nd class - DK II.svg Member second class of the Family Order of Terengganu (DK II)
 * MY-TER Order of Sultan Mahmud I of Terengganu - SSMT.svg Member Grand Companion of the Order of Sultan Mahmud I of Terengganu (SSMT) – Dato' Seri (8 October 1998)

Foreign honours

 * Brunei: Recipient of the Royal Family Order of the Crown of Brunei (DKMB) (10 August 2002)
 * 🇰🇭 Cambodia:
 * Grand Collar of the National Order of Independence (16 December 2002)
 * Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Cambodia (16 December 2002)
 * 🇭🇷 Croatia: Recipient of the Grand Order of King Tomislav
 * 🇫🇷 France: Grand Cross of the National Order of the Legion of Honour (8 May 2004)
 * 🇫🇮 Finland: Commander Grand Cross with Collar of Order of the White Rose of Finland (19 September 2005)
 * 🇮🇹 Italy: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (9 June 2003)
 * 🇯🇵 Japan:
 * Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (7 March 2005)
 * Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure (22 February 1970)
 * 🇸🇦 Saudi Arabia: Collar of Badr Chain
 * 🇸🇬 Singapore: Member 1st Class of the Order of Temasek (DUT) (11 April 2005)
 * 🇸🇪 Sweden: Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (14 September 2005)
 * Syria: Member 1st Class of the Order of Umayyad (7 May 2004)

Places named after him
Several places were named after him, including:
 * Persiaran Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin (formerly known as Persiaran Duta) in Kuala Lumpur
 * Politeknik Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin in Arau, Perlis
 * Sirajuddin Mosque in Padang Pauh, Perlis
 * Kem Syed Sirajuddin, a military camp in Gemas, Negeri Sembilan
 * SMK Syed Sirajuddin, a secondary school in Arau, Perlis
 * SK Kem Syed Sirajuddin, a primary school in Gemas, Negeri Sembilan

title: Sirajuddin of Perlis