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Is–ought problem

The is–ought problem, as articulated by the Scottish philosopher and historian David Hume, arises when one makes claims about what ought to be that are based solely on statements about what is. Hume found that there seems to be a significant difference between positive (or descriptive) statements (about what is) and prescriptive or normative statements (about what ought to be), and that it is not obvious how one can coherently transition from descriptive statements to prescriptive ones. Hume's law or Hume's guillotine is the thesis that an ethical or judgmental conclusion cannot be inferred from purely descriptive factual statements.

A similar view is defended by G. E. Moore's open-question argument, intended to refute any identification of moral properties with natural properties. Ethical naturalists don't deem this so-called naturalistic fallacy a fallacy.

The is–ought problem is closely related to the fact–value distinction in epistemology. Though the terms are often used interchangeably, academic discourse concerning the latter may encompass aesthetics in addition to ethics.

Overview
Hume discusses the problem in book III, part I, section I of his book, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739):

"In every system of morality, which I have hitherto met with, I have always remarked, that the author proceeds for some time in the ordinary way of reasoning, and establishes the being of a God, or makes observations concerning human affairs; when of a sudden I am surprised to find, that instead of the usual copulations of propositions, is, and is not, I meet with no proposition that is not connected with an ought, or an ought not. This change is imperceptible; but is, however, of the last consequence. For as this ought, or ought not, expresses some new relation or affirmation, it's necessary that it should be observed and explained; and at the same time that a reason should be given, for what seems altogether inconceivable, how this new relation can be a deduction from others, which are entirely different from it. But as authors do not commonly use this precaution, I shall presume to recommend it to the readers; and am persuaded, that this small attention would subvert all the vulgar systems of morality, and let us see, that the distinction of vice and virtue is not founded merely on the relations of objects, nor is perceived by reason."

Hume calls for caution against such inferences in the absence of any explanation of how the ought-statements follow from the is-statements. But how exactly can an "ought" be derived from an "is"? The question, prompted by Hume's small paragraph, has become one of the central questions of ethical theory, and Hume is usually assigned the position that such a derivation is impossible.

In modern times, "Hume's law" often denotes the informal thesis that, if a reasoner only has access to non-moral factual premises, the reasoner cannot logically infer the truth of moral statements; or, more broadly, that one cannot infer evaluative statements (including aesthetic statements) from non-evaluative statements. An alternative definition of Hume's law is that "If P implies Q, and Q is moral, then P is moral". This interpretation-driven definition avoids a loophole with the principle of explosion. Other versions state that the is–ought gap can technically be formally bridged without a moral premise, but only in ways that are formally "vacuous" or "irrelevant", and that provide no "guidance". For example, one can infer from "The Sun is yellow" that "Either the Sun is yellow, or it is wrong to murder". But this provides no relevant moral guidance; absent a contradiction, one cannot deductively infer that "it is wrong to murder" solely from non-moral premises alone, adherents argue.

Implications
The apparent gap between "is" statements and "ought" statements, when combined with Hume's fork, renders "ought" statements of dubious validity. Hume's fork is the idea that all items of knowledge are based either on logic and definitions, or else on observation. If the is–ought problem holds, then "ought" statements do not seem to be known in either of these two ways, and it would seem that there can be no moral knowledge. Moral skepticism and non-cognitivism work with such conclusions.

Oughts and goals
Ethical naturalists contend that moral truths exist, and that their truth value relates to facts about physical reality. Many modern naturalistic philosophers see no impenetrable barrier in deriving "ought" from "is", believing it can be done whenever we analyze goal-directed behavior. They suggest that a statement of the form "In order for agent A to achieve goal B, A reasonably ought to do C" exhibits no category error and may be factually verified or refuted. "Oughts" exist, then, in light of the existence of goals. A counterargument to this response is that it merely pushes back the "ought" to the subjectively valued "goal" and thus provides no fundamentally objective basis to one's goals which, consequentially, provides no basis of distinguishing moral value of fundamentally different goals. A dialectical naturalist response to this objection is that although it is true that individual goals have a degree of subjectivity, the process through which the existence of goals is made possible is not subjective—that is, the advent of organisms capable of subjectivity, having occurred through the objective process of evolution. This dialectical approach goes further to state that subjectivity should be conceptualized as objectivity at its highest point, having been the result of an unfolding developmental process.

This is similar to work done by the moral philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre, who attempts to show that because ethical language developed in the West in the context of a belief in a human telos—an end or goal—our inherited moral language, including terms such as good and bad, have functioned, and function, to evaluate the way in which certain behaviors facilitate the achievement of that telos. In an evaluative capacity, therefore, good and bad carry moral weight without committing a category error. For instance, a pair of scissors that cannot easily cut through paper can legitimately be called bad since it cannot fulfill its purpose effectively. Likewise, if a person is understood as having a particular purpose, then behaviour can be evaluated as good or bad in reference to that purpose. In plainer words, a person is acting good when that person fulfills that person's purpose.

Even if the concept of an "ought" is meaningful, this need not involve morality. This is because some goals may be morally neutral, or (if they exist) against what is moral. A poisoner might realize his victim has not died and say, for example, "I ought to have used more poison," since his goal is to murder. The next challenge of a moral realist is thus to explain what is meant by a "moral ought".

Discourse ethics
Proponents of discourse ethics argue that the very act of discourse implies certain "oughts", that is, certain presuppositions that are necessarily accepted by the participants in discourse, and can be used to further derive prescriptive statements. They therefore argue that it is incoherent to argumentatively advance an ethical position on the basis of the is–ought problem, which contradicts these implied assumptions.

Moral oughts
As MacIntyre explained, someone may be called a good person if people have an inherent purpose. Many ethical systems appeal to such a purpose. This is true of some forms of moral realism, which states that something can be wrong, even if every thinking person believes otherwise (the idea of brute fact about morality). The ethical realist might suggest that humans were created for a purpose (e.g. to serve God), especially if they are an ethical non-naturalist. If the ethical realist is instead an ethical naturalist, they may start with the fact that humans have evolved and pursue some sort of evolutionary ethics (which risks “committing” the moralistic fallacy). Not all moral systems appeal to a human telos or purpose. This is because it is not obvious that people even have any sort of natural purpose, or what that purpose would be. Although many scientists do recognize teleonomy (a tendency in nature), few philosophers appeal to it (this time, to avoid the naturalistic fallacy).

Goal-dependent oughts run into problems even without an appeal to an innate human purpose. Consider cases where one has no desire to be good—whatever it is. If, for instance, a person wants to be good, and good means washing one's hands, then it seems one morally ought to wash their hands. The bigger problem in moral philosophy is what happens if someone does not want to be good, whatever its origins? Put simply, in what sense ought we to hold the goal of being good? It seems one can ask "how am I rationally required to hold 'good' as a value, or to pursue it?"

The issue above mentioned is a result of an important ethical relativist critique. Even if "oughts" depend on goals, the ought seems to vary with the person's goal. This is the conclusion of the ethical subjectivist, who says a person can only be called good according to whether they fulfill their own, self-assigned goal. Alasdair MacIntyre himself suggests that a person's purpose comes from their culture, making him a sort of ethical relativist. Ethical relativists acknowledge local, institutional facts about what is right, but these are facts that can still vary by society. Thus, without an objective "moral goal", a moral ought is difficult to establish. G. E. M. Anscombe was particularly critical of the word "ought" for this reason; understood as "We need such-and-such, and will only get it this way"—for somebody may need something immoral, or else find that their noble need requires immoral action. Anscombe would even go as far to suggest that "the concepts of obligation, and duty—moral obligation and moral duty, that is to say—and of what is morally right and wrong, and of the moral sense of 'ought,' ought to be jettisoned if this is psychologically possible".

If moral goals depend on private assumptions or public agreement, so may morality as a whole. For example, Canada might call it good to maximize global welfare, where a citizen, Alice, calls it good to focus on herself, and then her family, and finally her friends (with little empathy for strangers). It does not seem that Alice can be objectively or rationally bound—without regard to her personal values nor those of groups of other people—to act a certain way. In other words, we may not be able to say "You just should do this". Moreover, persuading her to help strangers would necessarily mean appealing to values she already possesses (or else we would never even have a hope of persuading her). This is another interest of normative ethics—questions of binding forces.

There may be responses to the above relativistic critiques. As mentioned above, ethical realists that are non-natural can appeal to God's purpose for humankind. On the other hand, naturalistic thinkers may posit that valuing people's well-being is somehow "obviously" the purpose of ethics, or else the only relevant purpose worth talking about. This is the move made by natural law, scientific moralists and some utilitarians.

Institutional facts
John Searle also attempts to derive "ought" from "is". He tries to show that the act of making a promise places one under an obligation by definition, and that such an obligation amounts to an "ought". This view is still widely debated, and to answer criticisms, Searle has further developed the concept of institutional facts, for example, that a certain building is in fact a bank and that certain paper is in fact money, which would seem to depend upon general recognition of those institutions and their value.

Indefinables
Indefinables are concepts so global that they cannot be defined; rather, in a sense, they themselves, and the objects to which they refer, define our reality and our ideas. Their meanings cannot be stated in a true definition, but their meanings can be referred to instead by being placed with their incomplete definitions in self-evident statements, the truth of which can be tested by whether or not it is impossible to think the opposite without a contradiction. Thus, the truth of indefinable concepts and propositions using them is entirely a matter of logic.

An example of the above is that of the concepts "finite parts" and "wholes"; they cannot be defined without reference to each other and thus with some amount of circularity, but we can make the self-evident statement that "the whole is greater than any of its parts", and thus establish a meaning particular to the two concepts.

These two notions being granted, it can be said that statements of "ought" are measured by their prescriptive truth, just as statements of "is" are measured by their descriptive truth; and the descriptive truth of an "is" judgment is defined by its correspondence to reality (actual or in the mind), while the prescriptive truth of an "ought" judgment is defined according to a more limited scope—its correspondence to right desire (conceivable in the mind and able to be found in the rational appetite, but not in the more "actual" reality of things independent of the mind or rational appetite).

To some, this may immediately suggest the question: "How can we know what is a right desire if it is already admitted that it is not based on the more actual reality of things independent of the mind?" The beginning of the answer is found when we consider that the concepts "good", "bad", "right" and "wrong" are indefinables. Thus, right desire cannot be defined properly, but a way to refer to its meaning may be found through a self-evident prescriptive truth.

That self-evident truth which the moral cognitivist claims to exist upon which all other prescriptive truths are ultimately based is: One ought to desire what is really good for one and nothing else. The terms "real good" and "right desire" cannot be defined apart from each other, and thus their definitions would contain some degree of circularity, but the stated self-evident truth indicates a meaning particular to the ideas sought to be understood, and it is (the moral cognitivist might claim) impossible to think the opposite without a contradiction. Thus combined with other descriptive truths of what is good (goods in particular considered in terms of whether they suit a particular end and the limits to the possession of such particular goods being compatible with the general end of the possession of the total of all real goods throughout a whole life), a valid body of knowledge of right desire is generated.

Functionalist counterexamples
Several counterexamples have been offered by philosophers claiming to show that there are cases when an "ought" logically follows from an "is." First of all, Hilary Putnam, by tracing back the quarrel to Hume's dictum, claims fact/value entanglement as an objection, since the distinction between them entails a value. A. N. Prior points out, from the statement "He is a sea captain," it logically follows, "He ought to do what a sea captain ought to do." Alasdair MacIntyre points out, from the statement "This watch is grossly inaccurate and irregular in time-keeping and too heavy to carry about comfortably," the evaluative conclusion validly follows, "This is a bad watch." John Searle points out, from the statement "Jones promised to pay Smith five dollars," it logically follows that "Jones ought to pay Smith five dollars." The act of promising by definition places the promiser under obligation.

Moral realism
Philippa Foot adopts a moral realist position, criticizing the idea that when evaluation is superposed on fact there has been a "committal in a new dimension." She introduces, by analogy, the practical implications of using the word "injury." Not just anything counts as an injury. There must be some impairment. If one supposes a man wants the things the injury prevents him from obtaining, has one fallen into the old naturalist fallacy? She states the following: "It may seem that the only way to make a necessary connection between 'injury' and the things that are to be avoided, is to say that it is only used in an 'action-guiding sense' when applied to something the speaker intends to avoid. But we should look carefully at the crucial move in that argument, and query the suggestion that someone might happen not to want anything for which he would need the use of hands or eyes. Hands and eyes, like ears and legs, play a part in so many operations that a man could only be said not to need them if he had no wants at all." Foot argues that the virtues, like hands and eyes in the analogy, play so large a part in so many operations that it is implausible to suppose that a committal in a non-naturalist dimension is necessary to demonstrate their goodness. "Philosophers who have supposed that actual action was required if 'good' were to be used in a sincere evaluation have got into difficulties over weakness of will, and they should surely agree that enough has been done if we can show that any man has reason to aim at virtue and avoid vice. But is this impossibly difficult if we consider the kinds of things that count as virtue and vice? Consider, for instance, the cardinal virtues, prudence, temperance, courage and justice. Obviously any man needs prudence, but does he not also need to resist the temptation of pleasure when there is harm involved? And how could it be argued that he would never need to face what was fearful for the sake of some good? It is not obvious what someone would mean if he said that temperance or courage were not good qualities, and this not because of the 'praising' sense of these words, but because of the things that courage and temperance are."

Misunderstanding
Hilary Putnam argues that philosophers who accept Hume's "is–ought" distinction reject his reasons in making it, and thus undermine the entire claim.

Various scholars have also indicated that, in the very work where Hume argues for the is–ought problem, Hume himself derives an "ought" from an "is". Such seeming inconsistencies in Hume have led to an ongoing debate over whether Hume actually held to the is–ought problem in the first place, or whether he meant that ought inferences can be made but only with good argumentation.

title: Is–ought problem


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Evangelical People's Party of Switzerland

The Evangelical People's Party of Switzerland (Evangelische Volkspartei der Schweiz, EVP), Swiss Evangelical Party (Parti évangelique suisse, PEV; Partito Evangelico Svizzero, PEV), or Evangelical Party of Switzerland (Partida evangelica da la Svizra, PEV) is a Protestant Christian-democratic political party in Switzerland, active mainly in the Cantons of Bern, Basel-Land, Basel-Stadt, Aargau and Zürich. "Evangelical" translates as evangelisch, the German term for "Protestant", as opposed to "evangelical" as used in Anglo-Saxon Christianity.

The EVP is conservative on euthanasia, abortion, registered partnerships and other typically Christian issues, centrist on economic issues and stands rather centre-left on issues of wealth redistribution, education, environmentalism and immigration. Among other things, it claims to be "dedicated to protecting the environment out of a sense of responsibility for Creation" and states that "the ethical values of the Bible should be the foundation of society."

The EVP is a member of the European Christian Political Movement (EPCM) and was previously an observer member of the European People's Party (EPP) until 2008. In the Federal Assembly of Switzerland the EVP forms a joint group along with the Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP) and the Christian Social Party of Obwalden (CSP OW).

In February 2023, in a shock result, Thomi Jourdan of Basel-Landschaft's EVP – which has a voter base of less than 4 % in that canton – was elected into the state government, and will join four centrist-leftist-green colleagues. He is the first EVP government member on the state or federal level in Swiss history. This was due to a very active campaign from his side, and a lackluster one of his SVP opponent, national councillor Sandra Sollberger, who only appealed to right-wing voters. She also cited a lack of time which prevented her from campaigning properly.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Annette Funicello

Annette Joanne Funicello (October 22, 1942 – April 8, 2013) was an American actress and singer. She began her professional career at age 12, becoming one of the most popular Mouseketeers on the original Mickey Mouse Club. In her teenage years, Funicello had a successful career as a pop singer recording under the name "Annette". Her most notable singles are "O Dio Mio", "First Name Initial", "Tall Paul", and "Pineapple Princess". During the mid-1960s, she established herself as a film actress, popularizing the successful "Beach Party" genre alongside co-star Frankie Avalon.

In 1992, Funicello announced that she had been diagnosed with multiple sclerosis in 1987. She died of complications from the disease on April 8, 2013.

Early life
Annette Joanne Funicello was born in Utica, New York, to Virginia Jeanne (née Albano), and Joseph Edward Funicello. Her family moved to Southern California when she was four years old. She was of Italian American heritage.

The Mickey Mouse Club
Funicello took dancing and music lessons when she was a child in order to overcome her shyness. In 1955, the 12-year-old was discovered by Walt Disney when she performed as the Swan Queen in Swan Lake at a dance recital at the Starlight Bowl in Burbank, California. Disney cast her as one of the original Mouseketeers. She was the last to be selected, and one of the few cast members to be personally selected by Walt Disney himself.

In 1955, she signed a seven-year contract with Disney at $160 a week that would rise to $500 a week if all options were exercised.

Funicello proved to be very popular and by the end of the first season of The Mickey Mouse Club, she was receiving 6,000 letters a month, more than any other Mouseketeer. She dated fellow Mouseketeer Lonnie Burr. Saying goodbye to cast members in the 1958 show finale, Funicello said "I never cried so hard in my life".

In addition to appearing in many Mouseketeer sketches and dance routines, Funicello starred in several serials on The Mickey Mouse Club. These included Adventure in Dairyland, the second and third Spin and Marty serials – The Further Adventures of Spin and Marty (1956) and The New Adventures of Spin and Marty (1957) – and Walt Disney Presents: Annette (1958) (which co-starred Richard Deacon).

Singing career
In several scenes in the Annette serial, she performed the song that launched her singing career. The studio received so much mail about "How Will I Know My Love" (lyrics by Tom Adair, music by Frances Jeffords and William Walsh), that Walt Disney issued it as a single, and gave Funicello (somewhat unwillingly) a recording contract.

A proposed live-action feature, The Rainbow Road to Oz, was to have starred some of the Mouseketeers, including Darlene Gillespie as Dorothy and Funicello as Ozma. Preview segments from the film aired on September 11, 1957, on Disneyland's fourth anniversary show. By then, MGM's The Wizard of Oz had been shown on CBS Television for the first time. Theories on why the film was abandoned include Disney's failure to develop a satisfactory script, and the positive reception of the MGM film's television screening. Disney ultimately replaced this film project with a new adaptation of Babes in Toyland (1961), which starred Funicello as Mary Contrary.

Post-Mickey Mouse Club
After the Mickey Mouse Club, Funicello remained under contract with Disney for a time. She had a role on the Disney television series Zorro, playing Anita Cabrillo in a three-episode storyline about a teen-aged girl arriving in Los Angeles to visit a father who does not seem to exist. This role was reportedly a 16th birthday present from Walt Disney, and it was the first of two different characters she played opposite Guy Williams as Zorro. She had a multiple-episode guest arc on Make Room for Daddy as an Italian exchange student.

Funicello made her feature film debut in the Disney-produced comedy The Shaggy Dog (1959) with Fred MacMurray and Tommy Kirk. The film was a success at the box-office.

Although uncomfortable being thought of as a singer, Funicello had a number of pop record hits in the late 1950s and early 1960s, mostly written by the Sherman Brothers and including: "Tall Paul", "First Name Initial", "O Dio Mio", "Train of Love" (written by Paul Anka) and "Pineapple Princess". They were released by Disney's Buena Vista label. She also recorded "It's Really Love" in 1959, a reworking of an earlier Paul Anka song called "Toot Sweet" (which was later reworked again into Johnny's Theme for The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson).

In an episode of the Disney anthology television series titled "Disneyland After Dark", Funicello can be seen singing live at Disneyland. Walt Disney was reportedly a fan of 1950s pop star Teresa Brewer and tried to pattern Funicello's singing on the same style. However, Funicello credits "the Annette sound" to her record producer, Tutti Camarata, who worked for Disney in that era. Camarata had her double-track her vocals, matching her first track as closely as possible on the second recording to achieve a fuller sound than her voice would otherwise produce. Early in her career, she appeared on the NBC interview program Here's Hollywood.

In December 1959, Funicello attempted to have her contract with Disney set aside, claiming that it was unequitable and that she was without an agent or legal counsel when she signed it. She was receiving $325 a week (About $3,000 in 2020 dollars). The court refused.

Return to Disney
In 1961, Funicello returned to Zorro playing a different role. She starred in a big budget musical for Disney, Babes in Toyland (1961), alongside Tommy Sands and Kirk.

She also appeared in two television movies filmed in Europe for Disney alongside Kirk, both of which were released theatrically in some markets: The Horsemasters (1961), shot in England, and Escapade in Florence (1962), filmed in Italy. It has been pointed out that although Disney had Funicello under contract a long time "he never seemed to have much faith in her abilities to carry a film (she usually supported the boy)."

Beach party series
Funicello moved on from Disney to become a "teen idol", starring in a series of "Beach Party" movies with Frankie Avalon for American International Pictures. These started with Beach Party (1963) when Funicello was 21 years old. The movie was so successful American International Pictures signed Funicello to a seven-year contract and starred her in a series of beach party movies.

Funicello guest-starred on episodes of Wagon Train, Burke's Law and The Greatest Show on Earth, then starred in another two-part Disney telemovie with Kirk, The Misadventures of Merlin Jones (1964). This was released to cinemas in the US and became a surprise box office hit.

Also popular were the follow ups to Beach Party, Muscle Beach Party (1964) and Bikini Beach (1964).

When she was cast in her first beach movie, Walt Disney requested that she wear only modest bathing suits and keep her navel covered. However, she wore a pink two-piece in Beach Party, a white two-piece fishnet suit in the second film (Muscle Beach Party) and a blue and white bikini in the third (Bikini Beach). All three swimsuits bared her navel, particularly in Bikini Beach, where it is visible extensively during close up shots in a sequence early in the film when she meets Frankie Avalon's "Potato Bug" character outside his tent.

Funicello made Pajama Party (1964) for AIP with Kirk, not Avalon, though it was an unofficial Beach Party movie and Avalon made a cameo. Avalon was back as Funicello's co-star in Beach Blanket Bingo (1965), then she and Kirk did a sequel to Merlin Jones, The Monkey's Uncle (1965). The Monkey's Uncle featured Annette singing with The Beach Boys and was another huge hit.

Funicello made a cameo in two AIP comedies starring Avalon, Ski Party (1965) and Dr Goldfoot and the Bikini Machine (1965), then she did How to Stuff a Wild Bikini (1965) with Dwayne Hickman. Box office receipts for the series were in decline, and neither Avalon nor Funicello appeared in the final installment, The Ghost in the Invisible Bikini (1966).

Stock-car racing films
AIP tried a new formula with stock car racing films, starting with Fireball 500 (1966) which starred Funicello, Avalon and Fabian Forte. The movie was popular enough for them to try another stock car movie, Thunder Alley (1967) with Funicello and Fabian. It would be her last lead in a feature film for two decades.

Funicello guest starred on Hondo and had a short role in Head (1968), opposite The Monkees.

1970s and 1980s
During the 1970s, Funicello focused on raising her family. However she still occasionally acted, making guest appearances on shows like Love, American Style, Easy Does It... Starring Frankie Avalon, Fantasy Island and The Love Boat.

In 1979, Funicello began starring in a series of television commercials for Skippy peanut butter. Her role as spokesperson for the brand forced Funicello to turn down a role in Grease 2. In November 1985, she starred in the 16th episode of the Disney Channel documentary series Disney Family Album in an episode about her career.

She starred in a TV movie for Disney, Lots of Luck (1985), and was reunited with Avalon in Back to the Beach (1987). The two also performed together live.

Later career
Funicello's autobiography, A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes: My Story, was dictated to Patricia Romanowski and published in 1994. The title was taken from a song from the Disney movie Cinderella. A television film based on the book, A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes: The Annette Funicello Story, appeared in 1995. In the final scene, the actress portraying Funicello (Eva LaRue), using a wheelchair, turns away from the camera and when turning back, Funicello herself appears to deliver a message to a group of children.

During this period, Funicello produced a line of teddy bears for the Annette Funicello Collectible Bear Company. The last collection in the series was made in 2004. She also had her own fragrance called "Cello, by Annette".

"Now that I've gone public with my illness, they can't do enough," she said in 1994. "They even send me home remedies to try. Everyone says, 'God bless you and I'm praying for you.

Funicello made her final public appearance on September 13, 1998 at California's Multiple Sclerosis Society with Frankie Avalon.

Personal life
Funicello's best friend was actress and singer Shelley Fabares, whom she had met in a catechism class when they were teens. Fabares was a bridesmaid at Funicello's first wedding. Funicello was also very close to fellow Mouseketeers Lonnie Burr (her first boyfriend), Sharon Baird, Doreen Tracey, Cheryl Holdridge, Disney co-star Tommy Kirk and beach-movie co-star Frankie Avalon. She dated Canadian singer/songwriter Paul Anka and he wrote his hit song "Puppy Love" about her.

Marriages and children
Funicello was married to Jack L. Gilardi (1930–2019) from 1965 until 1981. They had three children: Gina Portman (born 1965), Jack Jr. (born 1970) and Jason (born 1974). In 1986, she married California harness racing horse breeder/trainer Glen D. Holt (1930–2018). The couple was frequently seen attending harness horse races at the Los Alamitos Race Course and Fairplex in Pomona in the 1980s and 1990s.

In March 2011, Funicello's longtime Encino, California, home caught fire. She suffered smoke inhalation, but was otherwise unharmed. After the fire, Funicello and Holt lived in a modest ranch that they had purchased decades earlier, located just south of Shafter, California (north of Bakersfield), where she lived her remaining years.

Illness and death
In early 1987, at around 45 years old, Funicello reunited with Frankie Avalon for a series of promotional concerts to promote their film Back to the Beach. She began to experience dizziness, headaches, and balance issues and was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. For the next five years, she hid her condition from her family and friends until 1992 when she finally publicly disclosed her diagnosis to combat rumors that her impaired ability to walk was the result of alcoholism. In 1993, she opened the Annette Funicello Fund for Neurological Disorders at the California Community Foundation.

The Canadian program W5 profiled Funicello in 2012 after 15 years out of the public eye, revealing that her disease had severely damaged her nervous system. She had lost the ability to walk in 2004, had lost the ability to speak half a decade later in 2009 and required a feeding tube, needing round-the-clock care in order to survive. Funicello's close friend Shelley Fabares also appeared in the profile piece.

On April 8, 2013, Funicello died at age 70 at Mercy Southwest Hospital in Bakersfield, California, from complications attributed to multiple sclerosis. Her family and Fabares were with her when she died. A private funeral was held at the Cherished Memories Memorial Chapel in Bakersfield. Commenting on her death, Walt Disney Company chairman and CEO Bob Iger said: "Annette was and always will be a cherished member of the Disney family, synonymous with the word Mouseketeer, and a true Disney Legend. She will forever hold a place in our hearts as one of Walt Disney's brightest stars, delighting an entire generation of baby boomers with her jubilant personality and endless talent. Annette was well known for being as beautiful inside as she was on the outside, and she faced her physical challenges with dignity, bravery and grace. All of us at Disney join with family, friends and fans around the world in celebrating her extraordinary life."

Legacy
The power pop band Redd Kross's 1980 song "Annette's Got The Hits" was inspired by Funicello.

In 1992, Funicello was inducted as a Disney Legend. She received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for motion pictures on September 14, 1993; it is located at 6834 Hollywood Blvd. In 1995, she appeared on a Disney TV documentary commemorating the 40th anniversary of The Mickey Mouse Club.

In the Disney Village shopping and dining area of Disneyland Paris, a 1950s themed restaurant called Annette's Diner is named after her.

Albums
Numbers in parentheses after title indicate peak position in Billboard charts.

 * Annette – Vista BV-3301 (Mono) (1959)
 * Annette Sings Anka (#21) – Vista BV-3302 (Mono) (1960)
 * Hawaiiannette (#38) – Vista BV-3303 (Mono) (1960)
 * Italiannette – Vista BV-3304 (Mono) (1960)
 * Dance Annette – Vista BV-3305 (Mono) (1961)
 * The Story of My Teens – Vista BV-3312 (Mono) (1962)
 * Annette's Beach Party (#39) – Vista BV-3316 (Mono), STER-3316 (Stereo) (July 1963)
 * Muscle Beach Party – Vista BV-3314 (Mono), STER-3314 (Stereo) (April 1964)
 * Annette on Campus – Vista BV-3320 (Mono), STER-3320 (Stereo) (1964)
 * Annette at Bikini Beach – Vista BV-3324 (Mono), STER-3324 (Stereo) (September 1964)
 * Pajama Party – Vista BV-3325 (Mono), STER-3325 (Stereo) (November 1964)
 * Something Borrowed Something Blue – Vista BV-3328 (Mono), STER-3328 (Stereo) (1964)
 * Annette Sings Golden Surfin' Hits – Vista BV-3327 (Mono), STER-3327 (Stereo) (July 1965)
 * Annette Funicello – Vista BV-4037 (1972)
 * Annette Funicello Country Album – Starview 4001 (1984)
 * Best of Annette – Rhino RNDF-206 (1984) (also released as a picture disk on Rhino RNLP-702)
 * Annette: A Musical Reunion with America's Girl-Next-Door – Vista 60010 (1993)
 * A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes – Time/Warner 520564 (April 16, 1995)
 * The Best of Annette – Vista (August 14, 1991)
 * A Tribute to Walt Disney – Promised Land – Glanco Music (2013)

Filmography

 * There's No Business Like Show Business (1954, Cameo) – Laughing Girl (uncredited)
 * The Shaggy Dog (1959) – Allison D'Allessio
 * Babes in Toyland (1961) – Mary Quite Contrary
 * Beach Party (1963) – Dolores
 * The Misadventures of Merlin Jones (1964) – Jennifer
 * Muscle Beach Party (1964) – Dee Dee
 * Bikini Beach (1964) – Dee Dee
 * Pajama Party (1964) – Connie
 * Beach Blanket Bingo (1965) – Dee Dee
 * The Monkey's Uncle (1965) – Jennifer
 * Ski Party (1965, Cameo) – Prof. Sonya Roberts (uncredited)
 * How to Stuff a Wild Bikini (1965) – Dee Dee
 * Dr. Goldfoot and the Bikini Machine (1965, cameo) – Girl in Dungeon
 * Fireball 500 (1966) – Jane Harris
 * Thunder Alley (1967) – Francie Madsen
 * Head (1968) – Minnie
 * Back to the Beach (1987) – Annette
 * Troop Beverly Hills (1989, cameo)

Television work

 * Mickey Mouse Club (1955–1959; 1977; 1980; 1990; 1993)
 * Elfego Baca: Six Gun Law (1959) (compilation of episodes from Wonderful World of Color serial) – Chiquita Bernal
 * The Danny Thomas Show (cast member in 1959) – Gina Minelli
 * Zorro (1959–1961) – Anita Cabrillo / Constancia de la Torre
 * The Horsemasters (1962) – Dinah Wilcox
 * Escapade in Florence (1962) – Annette Aliotto
 * Burke's Law (1963–1965) – Anna Najensky / Dorrie Marsh
 * Wagon Train (1963, Episode: "The Sam Pulaski Story") – Rose Pulaski
 * The Greatest Show on Earth (1964, Episode: "Rosetta") – Melanie Keller
 * Hondo (1967, episode "Hondo and the Apache Trail")
 * Love, American Style segment "Love and the Tuba" (with Frankie Avalon, 1971) – Millie
 * Easy Does It... Starring Frankie Avalon (1976, four-week summer variety series)
 * Frankie and Annette: The Second Time Around (1978, TV movie) (unsold pilot) – Annette
 * Fantasy Island episode "Ghostbreaker" (1978)
 * The Mouseketeer Reunion (November 23, 1980)
 * The Love Boat (1982)
 * Lots of Luck (1985; TV movie)
 * Growing Pains episode "The Seavers and the Cleavers" (guest star, 1985)
 * Pee-wee's Playhouse Christmas Special (guest star, 1988)
 * Full House episode "Joey Goes Hollywood" (guest star with Frankie Avalon, March 29, 1991)
 * A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes: The Annette Funicello Story (1995; TV movie) – Annette Funicello (final film role)
 * The Mickey Mouse Club Story (1995; documentary)

Books

 * Funicello, Annette and Patricia Romanowski. A Dream is a Wish Your Heart Makes: My Story 1994, ISBN 0-7868-8092-9
 * The Annette Mysteries: Includes The Desert Inn Mystery, The Mystery at Moonstone Bay, The Mystery at Smugglers' Cove, Mystery of Medicine Wheel and Sierra Summer

title: Annette Funicello


text:
Talk:Is–ought problem

Images?
I'm not exactly sure what the purpose is of some of the images in this article. A view of the Earth from the moon and an image of a goalpost seem rather... unnecessary. As if one of the authors of this article wanted to include graphics and couldn't think of anything that actually applied to the article. I believe they should be removed. RobertM525 (talk) 17:38, 21 February 2021 (UTC)
 * I don't have a strong opinion either way, but if you think it fails MOS:IMAGERELEVANCE, feel free to just attempt to remove it per WP:BRD. Rolf H Nelson (talk) 00:52, 22 February 2021 (UTC)

References needed
There are no references in the paragraph about ethical naturalism and the "category error" response to ethical naturalism. Who's responses are these?? 198.91.156.175 (talk) 15:23, 3 October 2021 (UTC)

positivism
"The is–ought problem, as articulated by the Scottish philosopher and historian David Hume, arises when one makes claims about what ought to be that are based solely on statements about what is." I find this conclusion absurd. A basic moral truth has to exist but nowhere does anyone specify it has to belong in the empirical domains of reality. This is only a naive empricisitic problem. It does not meaningfully distinguish between rational and empirical truths in their most basic manners. This whole problem arises from the stubborn determination of trying to reduce all rational truths to some empirical and "facts" when obviously the square peg does not fit in the circular hole. Positivsm aka "science"tm in a nutshell.109.245.35.84 (talk) 16:21, 28 November 2022 (UTC)

 * There are many philosophers who disagree with Hume's meta-ethics, including the is-ought problem. But others agree with it. As wikipedia editors, we shouldn't take sides but just present Hume's theory and how other philosophers responded to it. Phlsph7 (talk) 08:52, 30 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Much of the article is a tapestry of bad and irrelevant arguments. Is there really any point in reciting so many futile attempts to refute Hume? Liscaraig (talk) 22:47, 21 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Is–ought problem


text:
John Negroponte

John Dimitri Negroponte (born July 21, 1939) is an American diplomat. In 2018, he was a James R. Schlesinger Distinguished Professor at the Miller Center for Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. He is a former J.B. and Maurice C. Shapiro Professor of International Affairs at the George Washington University's Elliott School of International Affairs. Prior to this appointment, he served as a research fellow and lecturer in international affairs at Yale University's Jackson Institute for Global Affairs, United States Deputy Secretary of State (2007–2009), and the first ever Director of National Intelligence (2005–2007).

Negroponte served in the United States Foreign Service from 1960 to 1997. From 1981 to 1996, he had tours of duty as United States ambassador in Honduras, Mexico, and the Philippines. After leaving the Foreign Service, he subsequently served in the Bush administration as U.S. permanent representative to the United Nations from 2001 to 2004, and was ambassador to Iraq from June 2004 to April 2005.

Early life and education
Negroponte was born in London on July 21, 1939, to Greek parents Dimitrios Negrepontis (1915–1996) and Catherine Coumantaros (1917–2001). His father was a shipping magnate and alpine skier who competed in the 1936 Winter Olympics. Negroponte attended the Allen-Stevenson School and The Buckley School and graduated from Phillips Exeter Academy in 1956 and Yale University in 1960. He was a member of Fence Club (Psi Upsilon fraternity), alongside William H. T. Bush, the brother of President George H. W. Bush, and Porter Goss, who served as Director of Central Intelligence and Director of the Central Intelligence Agency under Negroponte from 2005 to 2006.

After less than a semester at Harvard Law School, Negroponte joined the Foreign Service in 1960. He served at eight different Foreign Service posts in Asia (including the U.S. Embassy, Saigon), Europe and Latin America, and he also held important positions at the State Department and the White House. As a young Foreign Service officer—one of the few men in Washington who dared to openly disagree with Henry Kissinger's secret handling of the Vietnam peace talks—Negroponte attempted to convince his superior that any peace agreement negotiated without the consent of South Vietnam's leader Nguyen Van Thieu would be doomed to failure. Seymour Hersh claims in his book The Price of Power that Kissinger never forgave Negroponte, and, upon becoming Secretary of State, exiled him to Quito, Ecuador. Ironically, this was to be the beginning of Negroponte's long distinguished career as an ambassador. In 1981, he became the U.S. Ambassador to Honduras. From 1985 to 1987, Negroponte held the position of Assistant Secretary of State for Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs. Subsequently, he served as Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, from 1987 to 1989; Ambassador to Mexico, from 1989 to 1993; and Ambassador to the Philippines from 1993 to 1996. As Deputy National Security Advisor to President Ronald Reagan, he was involved in the campaign to remove from power General Manuel Noriega in Panama. From 1997 until his appointment as ambassador to the U.N., Negroponte was an executive with McGraw-Hill.

Ambassador to Honduras (1981–1985)
From 1981 to 1985, Negroponte was the U.S. ambassador to Honduras. During this time, military aid to Honduras grew from $4 million to $77.4 million a year, and the US began to maintain a significant military presence there, with the goal of overthrowing the revolutionary Sandinista government of Nicaragua, which had overthrown the Somoza dictatorship in a civil war.

The previous U.S. ambassador to Honduras, Jack Binns, who was appointed by President Jimmy Carter, made numerous complaints about human rights abuses by the Honduran Army under the government of Policarpo Paz García. After the inauguration of Ronald Reagan, Binns was replaced by Negroponte, who has denied any knowledge of wrongdoing by the Honduran Army.

In 1995, The Baltimore Sun published an extensive investigation of U.S. activities in Honduras. Speaking of Negroponte and other senior U.S. officials, an ex-Honduran congressman, Efraín Díaz, was quoted as saying:

"Their attitude was one of tolerance and silence. They needed Honduras to loan its territory more than they were concerned about innocent people being killed."

Substantial evidence subsequently emerged to support the contention that Negroponte knew serious violations of human rights were being committed by the Honduran government, but despite this he did not recommend ending U.S. military aid to Honduras. Senator Christopher Dodd of Connecticut, on September 14, 2001, as reported in the Congressional Record, aired his suspicions on the occasion of Negroponte's nomination to the position of UN ambassador:

"Based upon the Committee's review of State Department and CIA documents, it would seem that Ambassador Negroponte knew far more about human rights abuses perpetrated by the Honduran government than he chose to share with the committee in 1989 or in embassy contributions at the time to annual State Department Human Rights reports."

Among other evidence, Dodd cited a 1985 cable sent by Negroponte that made it clear that Negroponte was aware of the threat of "future human rights abuses" by "secret operating cells" left over by General Gustavo Álvarez Martínez, the chief of the Honduran armed forces, after he was forcibly removed from his post by fellow military commanders in 1984. The cables reveal that Negroponte repeatedly urged reform of the Honduran criminal code and justice system to replace arbitrary measures taken by the Honduran government after events such as the destruction of the nation's main power plant at Tegucigalpa and the abduction of the entire business establishment of San Pedro Sula, Honduras' second largest city, in 1982. Negroponte's predecessor as Ambassador, Carter appointee Jack Binns acknowledged that human rights abuses committed by the Honduran Army were supported by military assistance from the Argentine junta and the CIA during the Carter administration, and that neither the Honduran government nor the CIA kept the embassy informed of what it was doing. The scale of the carnage in Honduras was limited to less than 300 'disappearances' during the five years of the Negroponte and Binns ambassadorships as compared with 70,000 lost lives as a result of civil war and repression in El Salvador, notwithstanding that Honduras was involved in a low-level civil war punctuated at times by invasions of its territory.

In April 2005, as the Senate confirmation hearings for the National Intelligence post were held, hundreds of documents were released by the State Department in response to a FOIA request by The Washington Post. The documents, cables that Negroponte sent to Washington while serving as ambassador to Honduras, indicated that he played a more active role than previously known in managing US efforts against the leftist Sandinista government next door in Nicaragua. According to the Post, the image of Negroponte that emerges from the cables is that of an:

"exceptionally energetic, action-oriented ambassador whose anti-communist convictions led him to downplay human rights abuses in Honduras, the most reliable U.S. ally in the region. There is little in the documents the State Department has released so far to support his assertion that he used 'quiet diplomacy' to persuade the Honduran authorities to investigate the most egregious violations, including the mysterious disappearance of dozens of government opponents."

The New York Times wrote that the documents revealed: "a tough cold warrior who enthusiastically carried out President Ronald Reagan's strategy. They show he sent admiring reports to Washington about the Honduran Army chief, who was blamed for human rights violations, warned that peace talks with the Nicaraguan government might be a dangerous 'Trojan horse' and pleaded with officials in Washington to impose greater secrecy on the Honduran role in aiding the contras."

"The cables show that Mr. Negroponte worked closely with William J. Casey, then director of central intelligence, on the Reagan administration's anti-Communist offensive in Central America. He helped word a secret 1983 presidential 'finding' authorizing support for the Contras, as the Nicaraguan rebels were known, and met regularly with Honduran military officials to win and retain their backing for the covert action."

Both papers based their stories on cables obtained by a Post FOIA request. George Washington University's National Security Archive writes of:

"dozens of cables in which the Ambassador sought to undermine regional peace efforts such as the Contadora initiative that ultimately won Costa Rican president Oscar Arias a Nobel Prize, as well as multiple reports of meetings and conversations with Honduran military officers who were instrumental in providing logistical support and infrastructure for CIA covert operations in support of the contras against Nicaragua—'our special project' as Negroponte refers to the contra war in the cable traffic."

Negroponte was opposed to early drafts of peace settlements on the ground that they would have left undisturbed what he described as an enormous threat presented by expansion of the Nicaraguan armed forces with Soviet and Cuban aid. In his tenure in Honduras, Negroponte steered a middle course between State Department and journalistic critics who favored a policy of nonresistance to the militarization of the Sandinista regime to power Nicaragua and its aid to rebel movements in Honduras and El Salvador and 'hard line' persons within the Reagan administration who would have involved the United States in Central America through actions such as blockades, bombing of Nicaraguan airfields, the provision of offensive weapons, and the installation of permanent military bases. A study of American policy has noted that "the United States had a great deal to do with the preservation of Honduran stability. Had it not been for U.S. enticements and pressures elections probably would not have been held in 1980 and 1981. The perpetuation of the military dictatorship would have undermined the legitimacy of the political order, making it far more vulnerable to revolutionary turmoil. By the same token, strong North American opposition to President Suazo's attempt to remain in power in 1985 helped preserve the fragile legitimacy that had been built over the preceding five years... massive economic aid prevented the economy's collapse... without the United States, it might well have disintegrated into chaos." Following Bush-Gorbachev meetings beginning in 1986, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union ended military support for 'proxy wars', in Central America, and free elections in Nicaragua, Honduras and El Salvador followed. Senator Bill Bradley regarded the whole episode as "a minor issue--the supply of arms to the Nicaraguan contras, a policy that took on monumental proportions inside the Beltway and upon those liberals who saw another quagmire in every exercise of military power."

Assistant Secretary for Environment, Oceans and Fisheries (1985–1989)
In this posting, Negroponte together with Ambassador Richard Benedick negotiated the Montreal Protocol on Ozone, the most successful modern environmental treaty, overcoming opposition from Europe, Russia, and China and from some Reagan administration officials. (R. Benedick, Ozone Diplomacy: New Directions in Safeguarding the Planet (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard, 1998), 101) He also fostered scientific cooperation with the Soviet Union clashing with 'hard liners' like Richard Perle as well as two treaties relating to cooperation in dealing with nuclear accidents in the wake of the Chernobyl disaster.

Ambassador to Mexico (1989–1993)
During Negroponte's tour as US Ambassador to Mexico, he was instrumental in persuading the Bush administration to respond to a Mexican initiative by negotiating the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) despite initial opposition by the U.S. Office of Trade Representative. His tenure in Mexico was thus the most consequential of any modern American ambassadorship. It was observed twenty years later that "Every so often, there comes to light a document revealing the foresight of a public servant who grasped the full consequences and implications of a particular government measure or policy. Such a document was written in the spring of 1991 by the then U.S.Ambassador to Mexico, John Negroponte." Another commentator noted the subsequent proliferation of Negroponte's vision in other free trade agreements. He officiated at the block-long, fortified embassy where he liberalized visa practices.

Ambassador to the UN (2001–2004)
President George W. Bush appointed Negroponte to be U.S. ambassador to the United Nations in February 2001, and after substantial opposition from Senate Democrats the nomination was ratified by the Senate on September 15, 2001, four days after the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States. According to CBS News:

"At the United Nations, Negroponte, 64, was instrumental in winning unanimous approval of a Security Council resolution that demanded Saddam Hussein comply with U.N. mandates to disarm."

During Colin Powell's speech to the Security Council on Iraqi weapons of mass destruction, Negroponte could be seen sitting behind Powell's left shoulder. Negroponte, however, had warned the Bush administration about the adverse consequences of intervening in Iraq.

In the New York Review of Books, Stephen Kinzer reported that the messages sent by nominating Negroponte were that "the Bush administration will not be bound by diplomatic niceties as it conducts its foreign policy." A State Department official told him that "Giving him this job is a way of telling the UN: 'We hate you.'"

Ambassador to Iraq (2004–2005)

On April 19, 2004, Negroponte was nominated by U.S. President George W. Bush to be the United States Ambassador to Iraq after the June 30 transfer of sovereignty to the new Iraqi government. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on May 6, 2004, by a vote of 95 to 3, and was sworn in on June 23, 2004, replacing L. Paul Bremer as the U.S.'s highest ranking American civilian in Iraq. He advised the Bush administration that security had to precede reconstruction in Iraq, organized a peaceful election, and gave advice, equally unwelcome to Secretary Rumsfeld and Democrats in Congress, that a five-year commitment would be required.

Director of National Intelligence (2005–2007)
On February 17, 2005, President George W. Bush named Negroponte as the first Director of National Intelligence, (DNI), a cabinet-level position charged with coordinating the nation's Intelligence Community. On April 21, 2005, Negroponte was confirmed by a vote of 98 to 2 in the Senate, and subsequently sworn into the office that was called "substantially stronger" than its predecessor position, the Director of Central Intelligence. Part of its power stemmed from the ability to "determine" budgets, prompting President Bush to remark, "That's why John Negroponte is going to have a lot of influence. He will set the budgets." The budget of the Intelligence Community is estimated at $40 billion.

A memorandum in the Federal Register signed May 5, 2006. by President Bush states that Negroponte, as intelligence czar, be delegated the authority to exempt companies from accurate accounting standards, a power previously reserved for the chief executive under the 1934 Securities Exchange Act.

Reaction in the intelligence community to Negroponte's nomination was, according to Newsweek, "overwhelmingly positive" because he had "earned the respect of many intel professionals since those early days of the Reagan counterinsurgency." The Times noted, "if anyone can bring a semblance of unity to America's bewildering network of competing spy agencies, it is John Negroponte."

Congressional reaction was also positive. Sen. Jay Rockefeller (D-WV), then-vice chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee said, "I think that Ambassador Negroponte is a very sound choice. Ambassador Negroponte has served bravely and with distinction in Iraq and at the United Nations during a time of turmoil and uncertainty. He brings a record of proven leadership and strong management." Rep. Jane Harman (D-CA), then-ranking member of the House Intelligence Committee noted, "John Negroponte is a smart choice for a very important job. He's a seasoned and skilled diplomat, who has served with distinction at the United Nations and in Iraq -- and he has the full confidence of the president."

According to John MacGaffin, the CIA's former associate deputy director for clandestine operations, "This is a guy who plays hardball. He's a man who understands the whole range of counterintelligence, intelligence and covert action. They're all parts of foreign policy and protecting ourselves." "We've known for the last 40 years that what's wrong [with intelligence] is that no one's in charge," one retired CIA official told Newsweek. "For once we have a chance to do something with someone truly in charge. Negroponte's going to decide what the answer is."

As DNI, Negroponte, "embarked on an impressive array of reform efforts," with "perhaps the most transformational work... [involving] the effort to retool the creaky electronic infrastructure of the intelligence community."

According to U.S. News & World Report, one of Negroponte's first tests was on an overbudget satellite system. The $25 billion system, called the "Future Imagery Architecture," was created as the "foundation for the next generation of America's space-based surveillance efforts." The reality was quite different, as it became, "a managerial nightmare – five years behind schedule and billions over budget. Poor quality control and technical problems raised questions about whether the system would ever work properly." Negroponte "moved decisively" and jettisoned half the classified project.

Negroponte also appointed "mission managers" – intelligence professionals focused on America's hardest targets and most looming threats. The mission managers are focused on counterterrorism, counterproliferation, counterintelligence, Iran, North Korea, and Cuba and Venezuela. According to John McLaughlin, former Deputy Director of Central Intelligence (DDCI), the mission manager concept, "holds much promise for integrating analysis, collection and other intelligence activities." It has also proven beneficial during potential crises. According to a senior intelligence official quoted in U.S. News & World Report, "In the days after North Korea's recent nuclear test, the DNI put mission manager and CIA veteran Joseph DeTrani at the center of the developing crisis. Along with issuing a twice-daily intelligence summary, DeTrani served as a 'traffic cop,' coordinating analysis, briefing the White House, and tasking spies on what to target."

In a November 2006 cover story in U.S. News & World Report, it was noted that Negroponte and his office, "have made a promising start – and, remarkably, encountered an apparent willingness to embark on the necessary reforms." Progress made included the White House approval of more than 30 DNI recommendations on improving the flow of intelligence and terrorism data to state and local authorities; requiring intelligence agencies to accept each other's clearance; "open[ing] up the analytic process to new ideas and new people" to prevent groupthink – and the creation of an analytic ombudsman; the establishment of an Open Source center, "designed to broaden the flow of ideas to analysts"; and more "red teams" to challenge conventional thinking. Furthermore, the President's Daily Brief, the highly classified report given to the President each morning by Negroponte, once prepared solely by the Central Intelligence Agency, is now compiled from intelligence agencies across the government. "I believe what I can bring to the community is a sense of what our most important customer is interested in," Negroponte told US News about briefing the president.

In spite of his progress leading the Intelligence Community, though, there were rumors that Negroponte wanted to move back to the field in which he spent 37 years – the State Department and Foreign Service. The rumors became official on January 5, 2007, when Negroponte announced his resignation as DNI and move to the State Department to serve as Deputy Secretary of State.

Former DDCI John McLaughlin wrote after the resignation was announced, "Negroponte must be credited with bringing a reassuring and confident demeanor to a community that had been rocked by controversy." According to Newsweek, "Under Negroponte, the intel czar's office was praised by both congressional and executive-branch officials for greatly improving—via its National Counterterrorism Center—the sharing among relevant agencies of intelligence reports about terror threats."

U.S. Deputy Secretary of State (2007–2009)
Negroponte was sworn in as U.S. Deputy Secretary of State by President George W. Bush on February 27, 2007. He served in that position until the end of the Bush administration on January 20, 2009.

Later career
Ambassador Negroponte joined McLarty Associates, an international strategic advisory firm headquartered in Washington, D.C., in 2009. He serves on the Leadership Council of Concordia, a nonpartisan, nonprofit based in New York City focused on promoting effective public–private collaboration to create a more prosperous and sustainable future.

Negroponte was one of 50 signatories of a statement concerning 2016 Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump in which Trump was called "reckless" and stated that he would "put at risk our country's national security and well-being."

In 2020, Negroponte, along with over 130 other former Republican national security officials, signed a statement that asserted that President Trump was unfit to serve another term, and "To that end, we are firmly convinced that it is in the best interest of our nation that Vice President Joe Biden be elected as the next President of the United States, and we will vote for him."

Personal life
Negroponte speaks five languages (English, French, Greek, Spanish, and Vietnamese). He is the elder brother of Nicholas Negroponte, founder of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Media Lab and of the One Laptop per Child project. His brother Michel is an Emmy Award-winning filmmaker, and his other brother, George Negroponte, is an artist and was president of the Drawing Center of New York City from 2002 to 2007. Negroponte and his wife, Diana Mary Villiers (b. August 14, 1947), have five adopted children, Marina, Alexandra, John, George and Sophia, all of whom were adopted from Honduras. Negroponte and his wife were married on December 14, 1971.

Recognition

 * National Security Medal
 * State Department Secretary's Distinguished Service Award with gold service star (in lieu of second award)
 * Lifetime Achievement Award, World Affairs Councils of America
 * Raymond "Jit" Trainor Award for Distinction in the Conduct of Diplomacy, Georgetown University, Institute for the Study of Diplomacy (2005)
 * Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member President Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga of Latvia (2006)
 * George F. Kennan Award for Distinguished Public Service, National Committee on American Foreign Policy (2011)
 * Distinguished Service Award for the Advancement of Public Discourse on Foreign Policy, American Committees on Foreign Relations (2014)
 * Walter and Leonore Annenberg Award for Excellence in Diplomacy, The American Academy of Diplomacy (2019)
 * Honorary Patron of the University Philosophical Society, Trinity College, Dublin.

Favorable commentary

 * What NID Needs (Fred Kaplan for Slate, February 17, 2005)
 * Smearing Negroponte (Rich Lowry for National Review, February 22, 2005)
 * "Bush's cool cold warrior goes to UN" (Jan McGirk in the Independent) September 16, 2001

Criticism

 * We Must Not Move On (Paul Laverty for The Guardian, April 13, 2005)
 * Negroponte's Time in Honduras at Issue (Michael Dobbs for The Washington Post, March 21, 2005)
 * John Negroponte's Human Rights Record Continues to Stir Debate (May I Speak Freely Media - extensive list of links to critical commentary and news articles, etc., February 2005)
 * Bush hands key post to veteran of dirty wars (Duncan Campbell of The Guardian on Negroponte's past history, February 18, 2005)
 * From Central America to Iraq (Noam Chomsky for Khaleej Times, August 6, 2004)
 * Our man in Honduras (Stephen Kinzer for The New York Review of Books, September 20, 2001)
 * 1995 Four-Part Series on Honduras in the 80s (The Baltimore Sun, June 11, 1995 – June 18, 1995)
 * A carefully crafted deception (Ginger Thompson and Gary Cohn for The Baltimore Sun, June 18, 1995)
 * Negroponte Makes the Most of His Post as Minister Without Portfolio (Jeff Stein for Congressional Quarterly, March 3, 2006)

title: John Negroponte


text:
Liberal Party of Switzerland

The Liberal Party of Switzerland (Liberale Partei der Schweiz, Parti libéral suisse, Partito Liberale Svizzero, Partida liberala svizra) was a political party in Switzerland with economically liberal policies. It was known as a party of the upper class. On 1 January 2009 it merged with the larger Free Democratic Party (FDP/PRD) to establish FDP.The Liberals.

It was strongest in the Protestant cantons in Romandy, particularly in the cantons of Geneva, Vaud and Neuchâtel. In contrast, the ideologically similar FDP was successful nationwide. The Liberal Party was a member of Liberal International.

History
In the 2003 federal election, the party had a joint slate with the Free Democratic Party. The party was the junior partner of the faction, with only 2.2% of the vote compared with the FDP's 17.3%. However, in their strongholds of the cantons of Romandy and the canton of Basel-City, they were particularly successful. Their best performance was in Geneva, where they received 16.8% of the vote. It won 4 seats (out of 200) in the Swiss National Council, but was represented in neither the second chamber nor in the Swiss Federal Council, the government's cabinet.

After the election, the Liberals and FDP founded a common caucus in the Federal Assembly. In June 2005, they strengthened their cooperation by founding the Radical and Liberal Union. They finally merged on 1 January 2009 with the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland to form the "FDP.The Liberals".

Presidents

 * 1981–1985  Lukas Burckhardt, Basel
 * 1985–1989  Gilbert Coutau, Geneva
 * 1989–1993  Claude Bonnard, Vaud
 * 1993–1997  François Jeanneret, Vaud
 * 1997–2002  Jacques-Simon Eggly, Geneva
 * 2002–2008  Claude Ruey, Vaud
 * 2008–2009  Pierre Weiss, Geneva

title: Liberal Party of Switzerland


text:
Vietnam Veterans of America

Vietnam Veterans of America, Inc. (VVA) is a national non-profit corporation founded in 1978 in the United States that is committed to serving the needs of all veterans. It is funded without any contribution from any branch of government. VVA is the only such organization chartered by the United States Congress and dedicated to Vietnam War veterans and their families. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code. Its founding principle is, "Never again will one generation of veterans abandon another."

Advocacy

VVA aims to campaign on issues important to Vietnam veterans, to create a new identity for this generation of veterans, and to improve public perception of Vietnam veterans. The organization's main efforts concern:
 * Government Relations Advocacy on veterans' issues
 * National Task Force for Homeless Veterans
 * Health care for veterans, including disabled veterans
 * Issues pertaining to women and minority veterans
 * National scholarship fund
 * Assisting veterans seeking benefits/services from the government
 * Organizes "Stand Downs" for the hard to reach homeless veteran in need of services.

VVA has organizing councils in 43 states, some 650 local chapters, and more than 85,000 individual members.

History
In January 1978, a small group of Vietnam veteran activists came to Washington, D.C., searching for allies to support the creation of an advocacy organization devoted exclusively to the needs of Vietnam veterans. VVA, initially known as the Council of Vietnam Veterans, began its work. By the summer of 1979, the Council of Vietnam Veterans had transformed into Vietnam Veterans of America, a veterans service organization made up of, and devoted to, Vietnam veterans. Bobby Muller and Stuart F. Feldman were among the organization's co-founders.

Membership grew steadily, and for the first time, VVA secured significant contributions. The combination of the public's willingness to talk about the Vietnam War and the basic issues that it raised, as well as the veterans themselves coming forward, was augmented by the nation's dedication of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in November 1982. The week-long activities rekindled a sense of brotherhood among the veterans and a feeling that they shared an experience that was too significant to ignore.

In 1983, VVA took a significant step by founding Vietnam Veterans of America Legal Services (VVALS) to provide assistance to veterans seeking benefits and services from the government. By working under the theory that a veteran representative should be an advocate for the veteran rather than simply a facilitator, VVALS quickly established itself as the most competent and aggressive legal-assistance program available to veterans. VVALS published the most comprehensive manual ever developed for veteran service representatives, and in 1985, VVALS wrote the widely acclaimed Viet Vet Survival Guide — over 150,000 copies of which are now in print.

The next several years saw VVA grow in size, stature, and prestige. VVA's professional membership services, veterans service, and advocacy work gained the respect of Congress and the veterans community. In 1986, VVA's exemplary work was formally acknowledged by the granting of a congressional charter.

Today, Vietnam Veterans of America has a national membership of nearly 90,000, with more than 650 chapters throughout the United States, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Guam. VVA state councils coordinate the activities of local chapters. VVA places great emphasis on coordinating its national activities and programs with the work of its local chapters and state councils and is organized to ensure that victories gained at the national level are implemented locally.

Presidents of VVA

 * Jack McManus, 2021–
 * John Rowan, 2005–2021
 * Thomas H. Corey, 2001–2005
 * George C. Duggins, 1997–2001
 * James L. Brazee Jr., 1991–1997
 * Mary Stout, 1987–1991
 * Bobby Muller 1983–1987; Executive Director, 1978–1983

Publications
VVA helps to provide greater public awareness of the outstanding issues surrounding Vietnam-era veterans by disseminating written information on a continual basis.

title: Vietnam Veterans of America


text:
Necessary

Necessary or necessity may refer to:

Concept of necessity

 * Need
 * An action somebody may feel they must do
 * An important task or essential thing to do at a particular time or by a particular moment
 * Necessary and sufficient condition, in logic, something that is a required condition for something else to be the case
 * Necessary proposition, in logic, a statement about facts that is either unassailably true (tautology) or obviously false (contradiction)
 * Metaphysical necessity, in philosophy, a truth which is true in all possible worlds
 * Necessity in modal logic
 * Necessity good in economics

Law

 * Doctrine of necessity, a concept in constitutional law
 * Military necessity, a concept in international law
 * Necessity (criminal law), a defence in criminal law
 * Necessity (tort), a concept in the law of tort
 * A necessity in contract law

Other uses

 * , a poem by Letitia Elizabeth Landon being part of Three Extracts from the Diary of a Week, 1837.
 * "Necessary" (song), by Every Little Thing, 1998
 * A bathroom or toilet, in some languages (in English this is an archaic usage)
 * An economic need enunciated by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt in his 1944 Second Bill of Rights
 * Necessity (novel), of 2016 by Jo Walton
 * Necessary Records, UK record label

title: Necessary


text:
Charles Jenkins Laboratories

Charles Jenkins Laboratories was founded in by Charles Francis Jenkins, developer of the Phantoscope, the first commercial tv station W3XK and the first commercial television company.

History
Charles Francis Jenkins in 1890 moved to Washington D.C. to work as an Steganographer, then he experimented with motion pictures and in 1890 developed a movie projector called the Phantoscope, the laboratory was created years after it.

Transmission of Pictures over Wireless
In March 13, 1922 Charles Jenkins filed the U.S. patent No. 1,544,156 for Transmition of Pictures over Wireless, it was granted on June 30, 1925.

W3XK, the first commercial TV station in the US
In 1928 Charles Jenkins was granted the first commercial television license in the United States and In July 2, 1928 Jenkins Television Corporation started to operate W3XK, the first TV station. first aired from Jenkins Labs in Washington and from 1929 on from Wheaton, Maryland, five nights a week. At first, the station could only send silhouette images due to its narrow bandwidth, but that was soon rectified and real black-and-white images were transmitted.

Jenkins Television Corporation
In December 1928, Charles Jenkins founded in New Jersey the Jenkins Television Corporation to produce and manufacture Radiovisors. In March 1932, Jenkins Television Corporation was liquidated and its assets acquired by Lee de Forest Radio Corporation. Within months, the De Forest company went bankrupt and the assets were bought by RCA stopping all work on electromechanical television.

W2XCR
The Laboratories also operated experimental station W2XCR, it operated a Jenkins mechanical scanner through the experimental transmitter, W2XCR. The station broadcast using both 48-line, 15 frame/s, and 60-line, 20 frame/s standards during 1931.

Closure
Charles Jenkins Laboratories closed after Mr. Jenkins died in 1934.

title: Charles Jenkins Laboratories


text:
Freedom Party of Switzerland

The Freedom Party of Switzerland (FPS) (Freiheits-Partei der Schweiz; Parti suisse de la liberté / PSL) is a minor right-wing populist political party in Switzerland. Its president and leading representative is Jürg Scherrer, formerly the head of the security department in the city government of Biel/Bienne until 2008. The party is against much government involvement in the economy, especially environmental regulations, but is for strict controls on immigration and strict punishments for selling drugs. The party opposes Swiss EU membership.

History
The FPS was founded 1984 in Zürich by Dr. Michael E. Dreher and other right-wing politicians as Autopartei (Automobile Party). It was intended to counter the then upsurging Green Party of Switzerland and the contemporary concerns about forest dieback due to acid rain. Focusing initially on personal mobility issues, one of its more well-known slogans was "Freie Fahrt für freie Bürger" (A free road for free citizens).

The party enjoyed success in the cantonal parliaments, particularly in St. Gallen, Thurgau and Schaffhausen. The height of its power was reached in the 1991 National Council elections, when it captured 8 out of 200 seats and 4% of the national vote. Afterwards, the party's fortunes started to decline as many leading figures left the party in the course of internal disputes, mainly for the more mainstream Swiss People's Party.

Despite renaming itself to "Freedom Party" in 1994, the FPS lost all national mandates in the 1999 elections and, as of 2006, retains but a very few parliamentary seats in some cantonal and municipal parliaments. Most of its members, and even entire sections have joined the Swiss People's Party which has incorporated most of the party's agenda.

Agenda
The FPS campaigns on a pronounced right-wing agenda, advocating strict asylum and immigration laws, as well as a law and order approach to crime and drugs and strong Armed Forces. It opposes Swiss membership in international organisations such as the European Union and the United Nations (however it favors EFTA and even NAFTA membership), but favors a laissez-faire economic policy, deregulation, tax cuts and a reduction of state spending.

The party and its exponents are also noted for their aggressive anti-communist rhetoric, at least compared to that of mainstream Swiss parties. Its leader Jürg Scherrer has been (unsuccessfully) sued several times under Swiss anti-discrimination laws on account of his disparaging statements about Africans and foreigners in general. The following excerpts from a statement of Scherrer's, posted on the party's website in 2006, may serve to illustrate the party's take on current issues:

title: Freedom Party of Switzerland


text:
Guide star

In astronomy, a guide star is a reference star used to accurately maintain the tracking by a telescope of a celestial body, whose apparent motion through the sky is primarily due to Earth's rotation.

Accurate telescope pointing and tracking is critical for obtaining good astronomical images and astrophotographs. However, because Earth rotates, the sky appears to be in a constant state of motion relative to Earth. Although this movement appears to be relatively slow when viewed with the naked eye, with the high magnification and consequently smaller field of view provided by even a small telescope, this motion becomes apparent on timescales of the order of seconds.

Though space telescopes are not mounted on a spinning planet, they still use guide stars including those listed in the HST Guide Star Catalog.

Computer-controlled electric motors are commonly employed to allow the telescope to move in sync with the apparent motion of the sky, according to a pre-computed pointing model. However, there is usually a significant non-zero error associated with the model, which is an approximation to the true motion of the sky.

Most modern professional telescopes use a guide star. An autoguider is pointed to a sufficiently luminous star that lies near the object being observed and, if the pointing begins to drift, the error can be detected and the movement corrected. This is most accurate when the corrections are applied by a computer, but amateur telescopes often have manual correction (requiring the observer to continuously follow the star by eye for the exposure period, which may be a significant length of time).

Guide stars are also employed in adaptive optics. In this application, the star is not used to correct for the rotation of the Earth, but to correct for turbulence in the Earth's atmosphere. By measuring the observed motion of the guide star, and making minute distortions to the primary mirror, the telescope can produce images with much greater sharpness than is possible without adaptive optics. However, only about 1 percent of the night sky is close enough to a natural guide star to use adaptive optics, so various methods to create artificial laser guide stars have been developed, including the sodium laser system developed by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and used by the University of California's Lick and Keck observatories.

title: Guide star


text:
Talk:HAL/S

Relevant Links

 * http://www.aclevercookie.com/nasa-spaceshuttle-programming-language-exposed/
 * http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/computers/Appendix-II.html
 * http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=872726.807007
 * http://csdl2.computer.org/persagen/DLAbsToc.jsp?resourcePath=/dl/mags/co/&toc=comp/mags/co/1985/03/mco03toc.xml&DOI=10.1109/MC.1985.1662827
 * http://history.nasa.gov/sts25th/pages/computer.html

Discussions
Put sum examples on here!

 * You mean examples of addition?

What in blazes is "problem domain knowledge"? This is the sort of prose that makes me glad I don't work for a defense contractor anymore. —Anville 17:50, 7 Feb 2005 (UTC)

It would be much cooler if the name was a reference to HAL 9000... —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.248.175.112 (talk) 21:15, 6 November 2007 (UTC)

HAL does not stand for 'High-order Assembly Language'. I worked on the compiler project with Intermetrics for a number of years, and the following is from Fred Martin, a founding member of the HAL group in Cambridge:

OK, the answer is quite simple. HAL is not an acronym. In fact the origin is right on the Preface page of the HAL/S Specification, IR-61-5, signed off by NASA Nov. 22, 1974. It says, "....Intermetrics wishes to acknowledge the fundamental contribution to the concept .....made by Dr. J. Halcombe Laning of the MIT's Draper Laboratory." "HAL" was suggested as the name of the new language by Ed Copps, a founding director of Intermetrics, to honor Hal Laning, a colleague at MIT.

 * I'm inclined to believe so, but it will be hard to convince me that people didn't even gossiped about it being called so because of HAL 9000...--NIC1138 (talk) 02:17, 20 December 2007 (UTC)

GOTO
According to the documents @ [] it most definitely has a "GOTO" although they seem to discourage it's use.

The only other flow control statement in HAL/S is GO TO. The experience of a number of large HAL/S programming projects has shown that the GOTO statement is not necessary. It is provided chiefly for mechanical translations from other languages.

That is from "Programming in HAL/S" pp82.

I may take a stab at rewording it

--Oregonerik (talk) 23:41, 14 June 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 6 external links on HAL/S. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://klabs.org/richcontent/software_content/hal_s/hal-s_language_specification.pdf
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://klabs.org/richcontent/software_content/hal_s/hal-s_language_specification.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090226213557/http://klabs.org/richcontent/software_content/hal_s/hal-s_language_specification.pdf to http://klabs.org/richcontent/software_content/hal_s/hal-s_language_specification.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080512082825/http://www.klabs.org/richcontent/software_content/hal_s/hal-s_compiler_system_specification.pdf to http://klabs.org/richcontent/software_content/hal_s/hal-s_compiler_system_specification.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080512083402/http://www.klabs.org/richcontent/software_content/hal_s/hal-s_programmers_guide.pdf to http://klabs.org/richcontent/software_content/hal_s/hal-s_programmers_guide.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080512081848/http://www.klabs.org/richcontent/software_content/hal_s/hal-s-fc_users_manual.pdf to http://klabs.org/richcontent/software_content/hal_s/hal-s-fc_users_manual.pdf

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Acronym is wrong
My HAL/S manual is now at the Smithsonian Institution/National Air and Space Museum (SI/NASM). It has been scanned at the Computer History Museum as well. One of the compiler guys noted the wrong name. 98.6.1.174 (talk) 05:18, 16 November 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:HAL/S


text:
The Exegesis of Philip K. Dick

The Exegesis of Philip K. Dick is a 2011 non-fiction book containing the published selections of a journal kept by the science fiction writer Philip K. Dick, in which he documented and explored his religious and visionary experiences. Dick's wealth of knowledge on the subjects of philosophy, religion, and science inform the work throughout.

Background to the journals
Dick started the journal after his visionary experiences in February and March 1974, which he called "2-3-74." These visions began shortly after Dick had two impacted wisdom teeth removed. When a delivery person from the pharmacy brought his pain medication, he noticed the ichthys necklace she wore and asked her what it meant. She responded that it was a symbol used by the early Christians, and in that moment Dick's religious experiences began:

In that instant, as I stared at the gleaming fish sign and heard her words, I suddenly experienced what I later learned is called anamnesis—a Greek word meaning, literally, "loss of forgetfulness." I remembered who I was and where I was. In an instant, in the twinkling of an eye, it all came back to me. And not only could I remember it but I could see it. The girl was a secret Christian and so was I. We lived in fear of detection by the Romans. We had to communicate with cryptic signs. She had just told me all this, and it was true.

For a short time, as hard as this is to believe or explain, I saw fading into view the black, prisonlike contours of hateful Rome. But, of much more importance, I remembered Jesus, who had just recently been with us, and had gone temporarily away, and would very soon return. My emotion was one of joy. We were secretly preparing to welcome Him back. It would not be long. And the Romans did not know. They thought He was dead, forever dead. That was our great secret, our joyous knowledge. Despite all appearances, Christ was going to return, and our delight and anticipation were boundless.

In the following weeks, Dick experienced further visions, including a hallucinatory slideshow of abstract patterns and an information-rich beam of pink light. In the Exegesis, he theorized as to the origins and meaning of these experiences, frequently concluding that they were religious in nature. The being that originated the experiences is referred to by several names, including Zebra, God, and the Vast Active Living Intelligence System. From 1974 until his death in 1982, Dick wrote the Exegesis by hand in late-night writing sessions, sometimes composing as many as 150 pages in a sitting. In total, it consists of approximately 8,000 pages of notes, only a small portion of which have been published.

Besides the Exegesis, Dick described his visions and faith in numerous other works, including VALIS, Radio Free Albemuth, The Divine Invasion, The Transmigration of Timothy Archer, one brief passage in A Scanner Darkly, and the uncompleted The Owl in Daylight, as well as many essays and personal letters. In Pursuit of Valis: Selections from the Exegesis was published in 1991.

Further volumes
In April 2010, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt announced plans to publish further excerpts from the Exegesis in two volumes. The first, 1056 pages long, would have been released in 2011, and the second (a volume of the same length) in 2012. Editor Jonathan Lethem described the upcoming publications as "absolutely stultifying, brilliant, repetitive, and contradictory. It just might contain the secret of the universe." The plan was changed to publish the Exegesis as one large book. The Exegesis of Philip K. Dick was ultimately published November 2011.

title: The Exegesis of Philip K. Dick


text:
Thunder Seven

Thunder Seven is the seventh studio album by Canadian hard rock band Triumph, released in November 1984. Three songs on the second half of the album follow a concept based on time-related themes.

The album was certified gold in the US by the RIAA, with sales of over 500,000 copies, on April 21, 2003, almost nineteen years after its initial release.

"Follow Your Heart" was the band's highest charting single of the time, reaching #88 in both the UK and the US. "Spellbound" was also released as a single, though it didn't prove as successful, only charting in Canada and barely scraping the top 100.

Thunder Seven was the last Triumph album that did not feature any outside writers. All prior Triumph albums, with the exception of 1977's Rock & Roll Machine, were written entirely by the band members.

Artwork
The album cover is illustrated by artist Dean Motter and is a mechanized version of the Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci.

Track listing
All tracks written by Gil Moore, Mike Levine and Rik Emmett, except where noted.

Side one

 * 1) "Spellbound" – 5:11 (lead vocals: Gil Moore)
 * 2) "Rock Out, Roll On" – 5:18 (lead vocals: Rik Emmett)
 * 3) "Cool Down" – 4:51 (lead vocals: Rik Emmett)
 * 4) "Follow Your Heart" – 3:27 (lead vocals: Gil Moore & Rik Emmett)

Side two

 * 1) "Time Goes By" – 6:02 (lead vocals: Rik Emmett)
 * 2) "Midsummer's Daydream" (Rik Emmett) – 1:41 (instrumental)
 * 3) "Time Canon" – 1:31 (lead vocals: Rik Emmett)
 * 4) "Killing Time" – 4:14 (lead vocals: Rik Emmett & Gil Moore)
 * 5) "Stranger in a Strange Land" – 5:15 (lead vocals: Rik Emmett)
 * 6) "Little Boy Blues" – 3:43 (instrumental)

Singles

 * "Follow Your Heart"/"Stranger in a Strange Land" - MCA 52540; released December 1984 (Canada) ; released February 1985 (US)
 * "Spellbound"/"Cool Down" - MCA-52520; released January 1985 (Canada and US)
 * "Killing Time"/"Rock Out Roll On" - MCA 52635; Promo; December 1985 (US and Canada)

Personnel

 * Rik Emmett – vocals, guitars, bass guitar, music sequencer, Prophet 5 synthesizer, Roland Jupiter 8, Synclavier, Fairlight CMI Series III, Clavinet, bass pedals
 * Gil Moore – drums, percussion, vocals
 * Michael Levine – bass guitar, keyboards, Prophet 5 synthesizer, Synclavier, organ, Clavinet, bass pedals

with

 * Lou Pomanti – synthesizer, keyboards, programming, producer
 * Al Rogers – background vocals
 * Sandee Bathgate – background vocals
 * Dave Dickson – background vocals
 * Herb Moore – background vocals
 * Andy Holland – background vocals

Production

 * Eddie Kramer – producer, mixer
 * Ed Stone – engineer
 * Hugh Cooper – mixing
 * Noel Golden – assistant engineer
 * Yoshiro Kuzumaki – mastering on original LP
 * Bob Ludwig – mastering on CD issues
 * Brett Zilahi – re-mastering on 2004 re-issue
 * Dean Motter – art direction, illustration, design

title: Thunder Seven


text:
Talk:Revolutions of 1848

Move
I moved this page to Revolutions (plural) - obviously there was more than one revolution. --Alex S 01:34, 2 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Introduction's list of causes
I think the words "the regrouping of established government forces" should be removed from the list of causes found in the second intro paragraph. These words refer more to the ultimate success of counter-revolutionary efforts to reverse and suppress the revolutions, rather than to the forces causing the revolutions in the first place. I have found from firsthand experience working with high school students that the inclusion of these words in this list of causes just confuses things. Thadfan (talk) 00:58, 4 November 2023 (UTC)

Initial event of 1848 revolutions
The article points to the French February revolution as the initial spark of the revolutions of 1848. This is inaccurate. It is commonly recognized that Palermo's uprising was the initial spark that inspired later events.

See, for example:

https://www.britannica.com/event/Revolutions-of-1848

https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/The-Revolutions-of-1848

https://academic.oup.com/book/25693/chapter-abstract/193161929?redirectedFrom=fulltext

https://www.historytoday.com/archive/year-european-revolutions

I recommend amending the text. Skater00 (talk) 21:27, 15 November 2023 (UTC)

The Netherlands
At one point in the article, it is mentioned that the revolutions were significant in the Netherlands. It is later stated that the Netherlands was not affected by the revolutions. Which is correct? MangoBenjamin361 (talk) 06:13, 19 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Revolutions of 1848


text:
Charles Francis Jenkins

Charles Francis Jenkins (August 22, 1867 – June 6, 1934) was an American engineer who was a pioneer of early cinema and one of the inventors of television, though he used mechanical rather than electronic technologies. His businesses included Charles Jenkins Laboratories and Jenkins Television Corporation (the corporation being founded in 1928, the year the Laboratories were granted the first commercial television license in the United States). Over 400 patents were issued to Jenkins, many for his inventions related to motion pictures and television.

Jenkins was born in Dayton, Ohio, grew up near Richmond, Indiana, where he went to school and went to Washington, D.C. in 1890, where he worked as a stenographer.

Motion pictures
Jenkins started experimenting with motion pictures in 1891, and eventually quit his job and concentrated fully on the development of his own movie projector, the Phantoscope.

As the Richmond Telegram reported on June 6, 1894, about his endeavors to show his parents, friends, and newsmen a gadget he had been working on for two years: a "motion picture projecting box". They gathered at Jenkins' cousin's jewelry store in downtown Richmond and viewed what may have been the first live-action film screening in front of an audience. The motion picture was of vaudeville dancer Annabelle doing a butterfly dance, which Jenkins had filmed himself in the backyard of his Washington boarding house. According to later accounts, each film frame was painstakingly colored by hand.

A July 1894 article in the Photographic Times noted how the Phantoscope had several advantages over Edison's Kinetograph; it was small (5 x 5 x 8 inches), portable and cheap. Although Jenkins had written that he intended to make a nickel-in-the-slot device (comparable to Anschütz's Electrotachyscope and the Kinetoscope), the machine could project its images "upon any size screen" with a magic lantern (comparable to the Zoopraxiscope that Muybridge used to project traced contours of his chronophotographic pictures). The magazine published a selection of 15 circular frames of the 50 frames movie of a man putting a shot. Jenkins also planned to synchronize the movies to sound recordings with a phonograph (as previously suggested by Wordsworth Donisthorpe, Muybridge and others since very soon after the introduction of Edison's device in 1877).

At the Bliss Electrical School, in Washington, D.C., Jenkins met his classmate Thomas Armat, and together they improved the design. They did a public screening at Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta in 1895 and subsequently broke up quarreling over patent issues. This modified Phantoscope of Jenkins and Armat was patented July 20, 1897. Jenkins eventually sold his interest in the projector to Armat. Armat subsequently sold the rights to Thomas Edison, who marketed the projector under the name Vitascope. It was with this projector that Edison began public showings in vaudeville theaters of filmed motion pictures, with paid admission.

In 1898, Jenkins published Animated Pictures, an early overview of the historical development and explanations of the methods and machines.

Television

Jenkins moved on to work on television. He published an article on "Motion Pictures by Wireless" in 1913, but it was not until December 1923 that he transmitted moving silhouette images for witnesses, and it was June 13, 1925, that he publicly demonstrated synchronized transmission of pictures and sound. He was granted the U.S. patent No. 1,544,156 (Transmitting Pictures over Wireless) on June 30, 1925 (filed on March 13, 1922).

His mechanical technologies (also pioneered by John Logie Baird) were later overtaken by electronic television such as devised by Vladimir Zworykin and Philo Farnsworth.

In 1928, the Jenkins Television Corporation opened the first television broadcasting station in the U.S., named W3XK, which went on air on July 2 and first sent from the Jenkins Labs in Washington and from 1929 on from Wheaton, Maryland, five nights a week. At first, the station could only send silhouette images due to its narrow bandwidth, but that was soon rectified and real black-and-white images were transmitted.

In March 1932, Jenkins Television Corporation was liquidated and its assets acquired by Lee de Forest Radio Corporation. Within months, the De Forest company went bankrupt and the assets were bought by RCA stopping all work on electromechanical television.

Other endeavors and personal life
Jenkins also dabbled in automobiles with Jenkins Automobile Company. In 1898, he invented the first automobile with an engine in the front of the car. In 1901 he constructed the smallest car for the 26-inch tall Cuban performer Chiquita

Jenkins married Grace Love in 1902.

Achievements, awards

Jenkins was awarded the prestigious Elliott Cresson Gold Medal for scientific achievement in 1897 and the Scott Medal in 1913 by the Franklin Institute & Science Museum-Philadelphia. He was the founder and first president of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers (now includes television, SMPTE).

Jenkins wrote several books including Vision By Radio, Radio Photographs, Radio Photograms and The Boyhood of an Inventor, as well as many articles that focused on his inventions, which were published in a variety of national magazines.

He received an honorary doctor of science degree from Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana, his alma mater, in June 1929.

The Academy of Television Arts & Sciences, best known for the annual Emmy Awards, commemorates the contributions of Jenkins to the television industry by naming one of the academy's most prestigious awards after him: the Charles F. Jenkins Lifetime Achievement Award is a special engineering honor to an individual whose contributions over time have significantly affected the state of television technology and engineering.

Jenkins was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2011.

Charles Francis Jenkins died at age 66 in Washington, D.C. He is interred in Rock Creek Cemetery.

The World War II Liberty Ship SS C. Francis Jenkins was named in his honor.

title: Charles Francis Jenkins