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List of Indian film actresses

This is an alphabetical list of notable Indian film actresses.

A

 * Aaditi Pohankar
 * Aahana Kumra
 * Aakanksha Singh
 * Aamna Sharif
 * Aanchal Munjal
 * Aarathi
 * Aarti Agarwal
 * Aarti Chhabria
 * Aashka Goradia
 * Abhirami
 * Adah Sharma
 * Aditi Arya
 * Aditi Ravi
 * Aditi Sharma
 * Aditi Govitrikar
 * Aditi Rao Hydari
 * Aditi Sarangdhar
 * Advani Lakshmi Devi
 * Ahaana Krishna
 * Ahsaas Channa
 * Aimee Baruah
 * Aindrita Ray
 * Aisha Sharma
 * Aishwarya
 * Aishwarya Arjun
 * Aishwarya Devan
 * Aishwarya Nag
 * Aishwarya Rai Bachchan
 * Aishwarya Rajesh
 * Aishwarya Sakhuja
 * Akanksha Juneja
 * Aksha Pardasany
 * Akshara Gowda
 * Akshara Haasan
 * Akshara Menon
 * Alia Bhatt
 * Alaya Furniturewala
 * Amala Akkineni
 * Amala Paul
 * Ambika
 * Ameeta
 * Ameesha Patel
 * Amoolya
 * Amrita Arora
 * Amrita Prakash
 * Amrita Puri
 * Amrita Rao
 * Amrita Raichand
 * Amrita Singh
 * Amrutha Iyengar
 * Amruta Khanvilkar
 * Amruta Subhash
 * Amyra Dastur
 * Amy Jackson
 * Anaika Soti
 * Ananya
 * Ananya Panday
 * Ananya Kasaravalli
 * Anaswara Kumar
 * Anaswara Rajan
 * Andrea Jeremiah
 * Andria D'Souza
 * Anindita Nayar
 * Angira Dhar
 * Annie
 * Anita Hassanandani Reddy
 * Anita Guha
 * Anita Raj
 * Anjala Zhaveri
 * Anjali
 * Anjali Devi
 * Anjali Sudhakar
 * Anjana Bhowmick
 * Anjana Sukhani
 * Anju Mahendru
 * Ankita Lokhande
 * Ann Augustine
 * Ansiba Hassan
 * Antara Mali
 * Anu Aggarwal
 * Anu Prabhakar
 * Anu Sithara
 * Anupama Parameswaran
 * Anupriya Goenka
 * Anuradha Mehta
 * Anurita Jha
 * Anusha Dandekar
 * Anushka Ranjan
 * Anushka Sen
 * Anushka Sharma
 * Anushka Shetty
 * Anuya Bhagvath
 * Anya Singh
 * Aparnaa Bajpai
 * Aparna Balamurali
 * Aparna Sen
 * Apoorva Arora
 * Archana
 * Archana Jose Kavi
 * Archana Puran Singh
 * Archana Gupta
 * Archita Sahu
 * Aruna Balraj
 * Aruna Irani
 * Aruna Shields
 * Arundathi Nag
 * Asawari Joshi
 * Asha Negi
 * Asha Bhat
 * Asha Parekh
 * Asha Saini
 * Ashima Bhalla
 * Ashnoor Kaur
 * Ashwini Bhave
 * Ashwini Kalsekar
 * Asin Thottumkal
 * Athiya Shetty
 * Athulya Ravi
 * Ayesha Jhulka
 * Ayesha Raza
 * Ayesha Takia
 * Akanksha Puri
 * Avani Modi
 * Avantika Mishra
 * Avneet Kaur
 * Auritra Ghosh

B

 * Babita
 * Barkha Bisht Sengupta
 * Barkha Singh
 * Bala Hijam
 * Barsha Priyadarshini
 * Barsha Rani Bishaya
 * Beena Banerjee
 * Bhagyashree Patwardhan
 * Bhairavi Goswami
 * Bhama
 * Bhanumathi
 * Bhanupriya
 * Bharathi Vishnuvardhan
 * Bhargavi Narayan
 * Bhavana
 * Bhavana (actress)
 * Bhavana Rao
 * Bhavani Prakash
 * Bhavya
 * Bhoomika Chawla
 * Bhumi Pednekar
 * Bijoya Ray
 * Bianca Desai
 * Bidita Bag
 * Bindu
 * Bindu Madhavi
 * Bipasha Basu
 * Bina Rai
 * Bobby Darling
 * Bruna Abdullah
 * B. V. Radha

C

 * Carol Gracias
 * Celina Jaitley
 * Chahat Khanna
 * Chandrakala
 * Chandrika
 * Charmila
 * Charmy Kaur
 * Charu Asopa
 * Chaya Singh
 * Chetana Das
 * Chetna Pande
 * Chhavi Mittal
 * Chippy
 * Chithra
 * Chitrangada Singh
 * Chitrashi Rawat
 * Catherine Tresa
 * Claudia Ciesla

D

 * Deepti Sati
 * Daisy Bopanna
 * Daisy Shah
 * Daisy Irani
 * Debashree Roy
 * Deeksha Seth
 * Deepa Sahi
 * Deepa Sannidhi
 * Deepal Shaw
 * Deepika Amin
 * Deepika Chikhalia
 * Deepika Padukone
 * Deepti Naval
 * Deepti Bhatnagar
 * Delnaaz Paul
 * Devayani
 * Devika
 * Devika Rani Roerich
 * Dharti Bhatt
 * Dia Mirza
 * Diana Hayden
 * Diana Penty
 * Digangana Suryavanshi
 * Dimple Jhangiani
 * Dimple Kapadia
 * Dipannita Sharma
 * Disha Parmar
 * Disha Patani
 * Disha Vakani
 * Divya Bharati
 * Divya Dutta
 * Divya Khosla Kumar
 * Divyanka Tripathi
 * Drashti Dhami
 * Durga Khote

E

 * Elli Avram
 * Esha Deol
 * Esha Gupta
 * Ena Saha
 * Eesha Rebba
 * Evelyn Sharma
 * Elina Samantray
 * Erica Fernandes

F

 * Farah Naaz
 * Farida Jalal
 * Fatima Sana Shaikh
 * Fatma Begum
 * Freida Pinto
 * Feryna Wazheir

G

 * Gabriela Bertante
 * Gajala
 * Gauahar Khan
 * Gauri Karnik
 * Gautami
 * Gayathri Raguram
 * Gayathrie
 * Gayatri
 * Gayatri Jayaraman
 * Gayatri Joshi
 * Gayatri Patel
 * Geeta Bali
 * Geeta Basra
 * Geeta Dutt
 * Geetanjali Thapa
 * Geetha
 * Geetu Mohandas
 * Genelia D'Souza
 * Girija
 * Girija Lokesh
 * Girija Shettar
 * Giselli Monteiro
 * Gopika
 * Gowri Pandit
 * Gowri Munjal
 * Gul Panag
 * Gunjan Malhotra

H

 * Hansika Motwani
 * Harini
 * Haripriya
 * Harshika Poonacha
 * Hasleen Kaur
 * Hazel Keech
 * Heera Rajagopal
 * Helen
 * Hema Bellur
 * Hema Prabhath
 * Hema Malini
 * Honey Rose
 * Hrishitaa Bhatt
 * Huma Qureshi
 * Humaima Malik
 * Hebah Patel
 * Hina Khan
 * Hiba Nawab

I

 * Ilene Hamann
 * Indrani Haldar
 * Iniya
 * Iravati Harshe
 * Isha Chawla
 * Isha Sharvani
 * Isha Koppikar
 * Isha Talwar
 * Ishita Chauhan
 * Ishita Dutta
 * Ishita Raj Sharma
 * Izabelle Leite
 * Ileana D'Cruz

J

 * Jacqueline Fernandez
 * Jannat Zubair Rahmani
 * Janhvi Kapoor
 * Jasmin Bhasin
 * Jayabharathi
 * Jayachitra
 * J. Jayalalithaa
 * Jaya Bachchan
 * Jaya Prada
 * Jaya Seal
 * Jayasudha
 * Jayamala
 * Jayamalini
 * Jayshree Gadkar
 * Jennifer Kotwal
 * Jennifer Winget
 * Jharana Bajracharya
 * Jhataleka Malhotra
 * Jiya Khan
 * Jugnu Ishiqui
 * Juhi Chawla
 * Juhi Babbar
 * Jyothika
 * Jonita Gandhi

K

 * Kainaat Arora
 * Kajal Aggarwal
 * Kajal Kiran
 * Kajjanbai
 * Kajol
 * Kalki Koechlin
 * Kalpana (Kannada actress)
 * Kalpana (Hindi Film actress)
 * Kalpana (Malayalam actress)
 * Kalpana Iyer
 * Kalpana Kartik
 * Kalyani Priyadarshan
 * Kamini Kaushal
 * Kamini Kadam
 * Kamalinee Mukherjee
 * Kamna Jethmalani
 * Kanaka
 * Kanakam
 * Kanchana
 * Kangana Ranaut
 * Kanika Subramaniam
 * Kareena Kapoor
 * Karishma Kapoor
 * Karishma Kotak
 * Karishma Sharma
 * Karishma Tanna
 * Karunya Ram
 * Karthika Mathew
 * Karthika Nair
 * Katrina Kaif
 * Kashmira Irani
 * Kashmira Shah
 * Kausalya
 * Kaviyoor Ponnamma
 * Kavya Madhavan
 * Keerthi Bhat
 * Keerthi Reddy
 * Keerthi Suresh
 * Kiara Advani
 * Kimi Katkar
 * Kimi Verma
 * Kim Sharma
 * Kim Yashpal
 * Kiran Rathod
 * Kirron Kher
 * Kirat Bhattal
 * Kiran Juneja
 * Kirti Kulhari
 * Kishori Shahane
 * Kishwer Merchant Rai
 * Kitu Gidwani
 * Koel Mallick
 * Koel Purie
 * Koena Mitra
 * Komal
 * Komal Jha
 * Konkona Sen Sharma
 * K. R. Vijaya
 * Krishna Kumari
 * Kriti Kharbanda
 * Kriti Sanon
 * Kritika Kamra
 * Krystle D'Souza
 * Kubbra Sait
 * Khushbu Sundar
 * Kumari
 * Kumkum
 * Kuljeet Randhawa
 * Kulraj Randhawa
 * Kyra Dutt

L

 * Laila Mehdin
 * Lalita Pawar Zayn
 * Lalitha (KPAC)
 * Lalitha
 * Lara Dutta
 * Lakshmi
 * Lakshmi Chandrashekar
 * Lakshmidevi
 * Laxmi Chhaya
 * Lakshmi Gopalaswamy
 * Lakshmi Manchu
 * Lakshmi Menon
 * Lakshmi Rai
 * Latha
 * Lauren Gottlieb
 * Lavanya Tripathi
 * Laya
 * Leela Chitnis
 * Leelavathi
 * Leena Chandavarkar
 * Leena Jumani
 * Lekha Washington
 * Lena
 * Leslie Tripathy
 * Lilette Dubey
 * Lisa Ray
 * Lisa Haydon

M

 * Madhavi
 * Madhoo (now Madhoo Shah)
 * Madhubala
 * Madhumitha
 * Madhuri Bhattacharya
 * Madhuri Dixit
 * Madhuri Itagi
 * Madhurima Tuli
 * Madhuurima
 * Madhu Shalini
 * Madhura Naik
 * Madonna Sebastian
 * Mahasweta Ray
 * Mahalakshmi
 * Mahek Chahal
 * Mahie Gill
 * Mahika Sharma
 * Mahima Chaudhry
 * Mahira Khan
 * Mahua Roychoudhury
 * Mala Sinha
 * Malashri
 * Malavika
 * Malaika Arora
 * Malavika Avinash
 * Malvi Malhotra
 * Malavika Mohanan
 * Malavika Nair
 * Malavika Nair
 * Malavika Wales
 * Mallika Kapoor
 * Mallika Sherawat
 * Mamta Kulkarni
 * Mamta Mohandas
 * Mansi Parekh
 * Manasvi Mamgai
 * Mandakini
 * Mandana Karimi
 * Mandira Bedi
 * Manini Mishra
 * Manisha Koirala
 * Manjari Phadnis
 * Manjima Mohan
 * Manju Bhargavi
 * Manju Warrier
 * Manjula
 * Manjula Vijayakumar
 * Manorama
 * Mantra
 * Manushi Chhillar
 * Manya
 * Manya Pathak
 * Masumeh Makhija
 * Mawra Hocane
 * Mayuri Kango
 * Meena
 * Meena Kumari
 * Meenakshi
 * Meenakshi
 * Meenakshi Dixit
 * Meenakshi Seshadri
 * Meenakshi Shirodkar
 * Meera
 * Meera Chopra
 * Meera Jasmine
 * Meera Nandan
 * Meera Syal
 * Meera Vasudevan
 * Mehreen Pirzada
 * Megha Akash
 * Meghana Gaonkar
 * Meghna Naidu
 * Meghana Raj
 * Meher Vij
 * Merle Oberon
 * Mia Uyeda
 * Minissha Lamba
 * Mini Mathur
 * Mink Brar
 * Mita Vashisht
 * Mishti
 * Mithila Palkar
 * Mithra Kurian
 * Moloya Goswami
 * Momal Sheikh
 * Monalisa
 * Mona Singh
 * Monali Thakur
 * Monica
 * Monica Bedi
 * Monisha Unni
 * Moon Moon Sen
 * Mouni Roy
 * Moushumi Chatterji
 * Mrinal Dev-Kulkarni
 * Mrinalini Sharma
 * Mrunal Thakur
 * Mrunmayee Deshpande
 * Mukta Barve
 * Mumaith Khan
 * Mumtaj
 * Mumtaz
 * Mumtaz Shanti
 * Mumtaz Sorcar
 * Mugdha Godse
 * Munmun Dutta
 * Mugdha Chaphekar
 * Muskaan Mihani
 * Mynavathi

N

 * Nabha Natesh
 * Nadira
 * Nadiya Moidu
 * Nagma
 * Nalini
 * Nalini Jaywant
 * Namrata Shirodkar
 * Namrata Thapa
 * Namitha
 * Namitha Pramod
 * Nanda
 * Nandana Sen
 * Nandita Chandra
 * Nandita Swetha
 * Nandita Das
 * Nargis (Now Nargis Dutt)
 * Nargis Fakhri
 * Nathalia Kaur
 * Nauheed Cyrusi
 * Nausheen Sardar Ali
 * Navaneet Kaur
 * Navneet Kaur Dhillon
 * Navya Nair
 * Nayanthara
 * Nazriya Nazim
 * Neelam
 * Neelam Verma
 * Neelima Azeem
 * Neena Gupta
 * Neena Kulkarni
 * Neha Bamb
 * Neha Dhupia
 * Neha Hinge
 * Neha Khan
 * Neha Mahajan
 * Neha Oberoi
 * Neha Sharma
 * Neeru Bajwa
 * Neethu
 * Neetu Chandra
 * Neetu Singh
 * Nethra Raghuraman
 * Nia Sharma
 * Nicolette Bird
 * Nidhhi Agerwal
 * Nidhi Subbaiah
 * Niharika Konidela
 * Niharika Singh
 * Niharica Raizada
 * Nikesha Patel
 * Niki Aneja
 * Nikita Anand
 * Nikita J Palekar
 * Nikita Dutta
 * Nikita Thukral
 * Nikki Galrani
 * Meera Chopra (credited as Nila)
 * Nimisha Sajayan
 * Nimmi
 * Nirmala Chennappa
 * Nirupa Roy
 * Nirmalamma
 * Nirosha
 * Nisha Agarwal
 * Nisha Kothari
 * Nisha Ravikrishnan
 * Shantipriya (credited as Nishanthi)
 * Nishi
 * Nishita Goswami
 * Nithya Das
 * Nithya Menen
 * Nivedita Jain
 * Nivedita Joshi Saraf
 * Nivetha Thomas
 * Nivetha Pethuraj
 * Noor Jehan
 * Nora Fatehi
 * Nutan
 * Nimrat Kaur
 * Nushrat Bharucha
 * Nathalia Kaur
 * Nyla Usha

O

 * Oviya Helen

P

 * Padmapriya
 * Padma Khanna
 * Padma Kumta
 * Padma Lakshmi
 * Padma Vasanthi
 * Padmaja Rao
 * Padmini Kolhapure
 * Padmini
 * Padmavati Rao
 * Pallavi Joshi
 * Pallavi Kulkarni
 * Pallavi Subhash
 * Pallavi Sharda
 * Panchi Bora
 * Pandari Bai
 * Pankhuri Awasthy
 * Pakhi Tyrewala
 * Paoli Dam
 * Parineeti Chopra
 * Parminder Nagra
 * Parul Chauhan
 * Parul Gulati
 * Parul Yadav
 * Parvathy Jayaram
 * Parvathy Nair
 * Parvathy Omanakuttan
 * Parvati Melton
 * Parvathy Thiruvothu
 * Parveen Babi
 * Patience Cooper
 * Patralekha
 * Payal Rohatgi
 * Payel Sarkar
 * Payal Ghosh
 * Perizaad Zorabian
 * Pia Bajpai
 * Plabita Borthakur
 * Pooja Batra
 * Pooja Bedi
 * Pooja Bhatt
 * Pooja Chopra
 * Pooja Gandhi
 * Pooja Gor
 * Pooja Hegde
 * Pooja Kanwal
 * Pooja Lokesh
 * Pooja Sawant
 * Pooja Umashankar
 * Poonam Bajwa
 * Poonam Dhillon
 * Poonam Kaur
 * Poonam Pandey
 * Poornima Bhagyaraj
 * Prayaga Martin
 * Prachi Desai
 * Prachi Shah
 * Pramila Joshai
 * Pratibha Sinha
 * Pranitha Subhash
 * Pranutan Bahl
 * Prarthana Behere
 * Prastuti Parashar
 * Preetha Vijayakumar
 * Preeti Jhangiani
 * Preity Zinta
 * Prema
 * Prema Narayan
 * Priti Sapru
 * Priya Anand
 * Priya Bapat
 * Priya Gill
 * Priya Lal
 * Priya Raman
 * Priya Rajvansh
 * Priya Bhavani Shankar
 * Priya Wal
 * Priyamani
 * Priyanka Bassi
 * Priyanka Chopra Jonas
 * Priyanka Arul Mohan
 * Priyanka Kothari (Now Nisha Kotahri)
 * Priyanka Nair
 * Priyanka Trivedi
 * Preetika Rao
 * Puja Gupta
 * Puja Banerjee
 * Purbi Joshi

R

 * Raakhee (Now Raakhi Gulzar)
 * Radhika Apte
 * Radhika Madan
 * Radhika Sarathkumar
 * Rachana Narayanankutty
 * Rachna Banerjee
 * Radha
 * Radha Saluja
 * Radhika Chaudhari
 * Radhika Kumaraswamy
 * Radhika Pandit
 * Ragini Travancore Sisters
 * Ragini Dwivedi
 * Ragini Khanna
 * Raima Sen
 * Rajisha Vijayan
 * Rajshree
 * Rajshri Deshpande
 * Rakhi Sawant
 * Rakul Preet Singh
 * Rakshita
 * Raashi Khanna
 * Rambha
 * Rameshwari
 * Ranjeeta Kaur
 * Ranjitha
 * Rajini
 * Rani Mukerji
 * Ramya (born Divya Spandana)
 * Ramya Barna
 * Ramya Krishnan
 * Ramya Sri
 * Ramya Nambaseean
 * Rashi Khanna
 * Rashi Singh
 * Rashi Mal
 * Rashmi
 * Rashmi Desai
 * Rashmi Gautam
 * Rashmika Mandanna
 * Ratan Rajput
 * Rati Agnihotri
 * Rati Pandey
 * Ratna Pathak Shah
 * Raveena Tandon
 * Reena Roy
 * Reema Lagoo
 * Reema Sen
 * Regina Cassandra
 * Rekha
 * Rekha, also known as Josephine
 * Rekha Das
 * Rekha Rana
 * Rekha Vedavyas
 * Reenu Mathews
 * Renuka Menon
 * Renukamma Murugodu
 * Renuka Shahane
 * Revathi
 * Rhea Chakraborty
 * Richa Ahuja
 * Richa Chaddha
 * Richa Gangopadhyay
 * Richa Pallod
 * Richa Panai
 * Richa Sharma
 * Ridhi Dogra
 * Rima Kallingal
 * Rimi Sen
 * Rimi Tomy
 * Rinke Khanna
 * Rinku Rajguru
 * Rita Bhaduri
 * Ritika Singh
 * Rituparna Sengupta
 * Riya Sen
 * Rohini Hattangadi
 * Rohini
 * Roja
 * Roja Ramani
 * Roma
 * Roopa Ganguly
 * Roopa Iyer
 * Roshni Chopra
 * R.T. Rama
 * Ruby Parihar
 * Rucha Gujarathi
 * Rupini
 * Rupali Ganguly Verma
 * Ranjana Deshmukh

S

 * Sabitri Chatterjee
 * Saba Qamar
 * Saba Azad
 * Shivaleeka Oberoi
 * Sobhita Dhulipala
 * S. Varalakshmi
 * Sadha
 * Sadhana Shivdasani
 * Sagarika Ghatge
 * Sagarika Mukherjee
 * Sajal Aly
 * Sana Althaf
 * Sana Makbul
 * Sandhya
 * Sai Lokur
 * Saiyami Kher
 * Samskruthy Shenoy
 * Samyuktha Hegde
 * Sandeepa Dhar
 * Sandhya
 * Sandhya Mridul
 * Sandhya Roy
 * Sanaya Irani
 * Sanya Malhotra
 * Saniya Anklesaria
 * Sanjeeda Sheikh
 * Sakshi Shivanand
 * Sakshi Tanwar
 * Sai Pallavi
 * Sai Tamhankar
 * Saira Banu
 * Salma Agha
 * Saloni Aswani
 * Samantha Ruth Prabhu
 * Samiksha
 * Sameera Reddy
 * Samvrutha Sunil
 * Sana Amin Sheikh
 * Sana Khan
 * Sana Saeed
 * Sanchita Padukone
 * Sandeepa Dhar
 * Sangeeta Bijlani
 * Sandra Amy
 * Sanober Kabir
 * Sandali Sinha
 * Sanghavi
 * Sanjjanaa
 * Sanjana Gandhi (now Pooja Gandhi)
 * Santoshi
 * Sara Ali Khan
 * Sarah Jane Dias
 * Sara Loren
 * Saranya Mohan
 * Saranya Ponvannan
 * Sarayu (actress)
 * Sarika
 * Saritha
 * Saroja Devi
 * Satarupa Pyne
 * Sathyabhama
 * Saumya Tandon
 * Savitri
 * Sayali Bhagat
 * Sayani Gupta
 * Sayyeshaa Saigal
 * Seerat Kapoor
 * Seema Biswas
 * Seema Pahwa
 * Seema Shinde
 * Seetha
 * Shabana Azmi
 * Shalini (Baby Shalini)
 * Shamili (Baby Shamili)
 * Shahana Goswami
 * Sakshi Tanwar
 * Sharmila Mandre
 * Sharmilee
 * Shibani Dandekar
 * Shreya Narayan
 * Shakeela
 * Shalini Pandey
 * Shamita Shetty
 * Shanthamma
 * Shantipriya (also Nishanthi)
 * Sharmila Tagore
 * Shashikala
 * Shazahn Padamsee
 * Sheeba Chadha
 * Sheela
 * Sheela
 * Sheena Bajaj
 * Sheena Chohan
 * Sheena Shahabadi
 * Shenaz Treasurywala
 * Sherin
 * Sherlyn Chopra (Mona Chopra)
 * Shilpa Saklani Agnihotri
 * Shilpa Shetty
 * Shilpa Shukla
 * Shilpa Shirodkar
 * Shilpa Tulaskar
 * Shilpa Anand
 * Shilpi Sharma
 * Shivani Raghuvanshi
 * Shivangi Khedkar
 * Shivangi Joshi
 * Shreya Dhanwanthary
 * Shruti Naidu
 * Shylaja Nag
 * Shweta Basu Prasad
 * Shweta Bhardwaj
 * Shweta Menon
 * Shweta Gulati
 * Shweta Tiwari
 * Shweta Tripathi
 * Shobhana
 * Shobhna Samarth
 * Shraddha Arya
 * Shraddha Das
 * Shraddha Kapoor
 * Shraddha Srinath
 * Shruthi Haasan
 * Shruti Sodhi
 * Shruti
 * Shruti Seth
 * Shruti Sharma
 * Shritha Sivadas
 * Shriya Saran
 * Shriya Pilgaonkar
 * Shriya Sharma
 * Shubha Poonja
 * Shubha Khote
 * Shubhangi Atre Poorey
 * Shyama (Khurshid Akhtar)
 * Shylashri
 * Sihi Kahi Geetha
 * Sija Rose
 * Simi Garewal
 * Simone Singh
 * Simple Kapadia
 * Simple Kaur
 * Simran Mundi
 * Simran Bagga
 * Sindhu
 * Sindhu Tolani
 * Sindhu Menon
 * Silk Smitha
 * Sithara
 * Smita Patil
 * Smriti Irani (Smriti Malhotra)
 * Smriti Kalra
 * Sneha Ullal
 * Sneha
 * Snigdha Akolkar
 * Soha Ali Khan
 * Sonakshi Sinha
 * Sonali Bendre
 * Sonali Kulkarni
 * Sonali Raut
 * Sonalee Kulkarni
 * Sonal Chauhan
 * Sonam (actress)
 * Sonam Bajwa
 * Sonam Kapoor
 * Sonalika Joshi
 * Sonarika Bhadoria
 * Sonia Agarwal
 * Soniya Bansal
 * Sonnalli Seygall
 * Sonu
 * Sonu Walia
 * Sophia Chaudhary
 * Soundarya
 * Sowcar Janaki
 * Spruha Joshi
 * Srabanti Chatterjee
 * Sridevi (Now Sridevi Kapoor)
 * Sriti Jha
 * Sri Divya
 * Srividya
 * Sripriya
 * Subbulakshmi
 * Subhashri
 * Suchitra
 * Suchitra Krishnamurthy
 * Suchitra Pillai
 * Suchitra Sen
 * Sunitha / Vidhyasri
 * Sudha Belawadi
 * Sudha Chandran
 * Sudha Rani
 * Sudha Narasimharaju
 * Sudharani Jena
 * Sudipta Chakraborty
 * Suhasi Goradia Dhami
 * Suhasini
 * Sujatha
 * Sukirti Kandpal
 * Sukumari
 * Sulakshana Pandit
 * Sulochana Devi
 * Sulochana Latkar
 * Sumalatha
 * Suman Nagarkar
 * Suman Ranganathan
 * Sumithra
 * Sumitra Devi
 * Sunaina
 * Sunny Leone
 * Surbhi Chandna
 * Surbhi Jyoti
 * Supriya Devi
 * Supriya Pathak
 * Supriya Pilgaonkar
 * Supriya Shukla
 * Suraiya
 * Surveen Chawla
 * Suryakantham
 * Sushma Reddy
 * Sushmita Sen
 * Sumalatha
 * Suvalakshmi
 * Swati Reddy
 * Swapna
 * Swaroop Sampat
 * Swastika Mukherjee
 * Srinidhi Shetty
 * Swara Bhaskar
 * Suzanna Mukherjee

T

 * Tabu
 * Tahira Kochhar
 * Tanaaz Irani
 * Tanisha
 * Tanushree Dutta
 * Tanuja
 * Tanu Roy
 * Tanvi Azmi
 * Tamannaah Bhatia
 * Tannishtha Chatterjee
 * Taapsee Pannu
 * Tara
 * Tara Anuradha
 * Tara Deshpande
 * Tara D'Souza
 * Tara Sharma
 * Tarana Raja
 * Taruni Sachdev
 * Tejaswi Madivada
 * Tena Desae
 * Tia Bajpai
 * Tillotama Shome
 * Tina Munim (now Tina Ambani)
 * Tina Datta
 * Tisca Chopra
 * Tripti Dimri
 * Tripuramba
 * Trisha Krishnan
 * Tulip Joshi
 * Tun Tun
 * Twinkle Khanna
 * Tara Alisha Berry
 * Tara Sutaria

U

 * Udhayathara
 * Udaya Chandrika
 * Udita Goswami
 * Ujjwala Raut
 * Uma
 * Uma Padmanabhan
 * Umasashi
 * Umashree
 * Usha Chavan
 * Urmila Matondkar
 * Urmila Kanitkar
 * Urvashi
 * Urvashi Dholakia
 * Urvashi Sharma
 * Usha Kiran
 * Usha Nadkarni
 * Usha Naik
 * Ulka Gupta
 * Upasna Singh
 * Urvashi Rautela

V

 * Vaani Kapoor
 * Vanitha Vijayakumar
 * Vadivukkarasi
 * Vaidehi Parashurami
 * Vaishali Desai
 * Vaishali Kasaravalli
 * Vandana Gupte
 * Vanishree
 * Vanisri
 * Vani Bhojan
 * Vani Viswanath
 * Vanitha Vasu
 * Vaishnavi Mahant
 * Vrushika Mehta
 * Varalaxmi Sarathkumar
 * Varsha Bollamma
 * Varsha Usgaonkar
 * Vasundhara Das
 * Vedhika
 * Veda Sastry
 * Veena Malik
 * Veena Sundar
 * Veena
 * Vega Tamotia
 * Vibha Chibber
 * Vidhubala
 * Vidya Balan
 * Vithika Sheru
 * Vidya Malvade
 * Vidya Sinha
 * Vishakha Singh
 * Vijeta Pandit
 * Vijayalakshmi
 * Vijayalakshmi Singh
 * Vijayashanti
 * Vimala Raman
 * Vinaya Prasad
 * Vyjayantimala

W

 * Waheeda Rehman
 * Wamiqa Gabbi
 * Warina Hussain
 * Waluscha De Sousa

Y

 * Yagna Shetty
 * Yami Gautam
 * Yamuna (actress)
 * Yashaswini Dayama
 * Yogeeta Bali
 * Yana Gupta
 * Yukta Mookhey
 * Yuvika Chaudhary

Z

 * Zaheera
 * Zaira Wasim
 * Zarina Wahab
 * Zarine Khan
 * Zoya Afroz
 * Zoa Morani
 * Zeenat Aman
 * Zubeida
 * Zaheeda

title: List of Indian film actresses


text:
Cooper pair

In condensed matter physics, a Cooper pair or BCS pair (Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer pair) is a pair of electrons (or other fermions) bound together at low temperatures in a certain manner first described in 1956 by American physicist Leon Cooper.

Description
Cooper showed that an arbitrarily small attraction between electrons in a metal can cause a paired state of electrons to have a lower energy than the Fermi energy, which implies that the pair is bound. In conventional superconductors, this attraction is due to the electron–phonon interaction. The Cooper pair state is responsible for superconductivity, as described in the BCS theory developed by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer for which they shared the 1972 Nobel Prize.

Although Cooper pairing is a quantum effect, the reason for the pairing can be seen from a simplified classical explanation. An electron in a metal normally behaves as a free particle. The electron is repelled from other electrons due to their negative charge, but it also attracts the positive ions that make up the rigid lattice of the metal. This attraction distorts the ion lattice, moving the ions slightly toward the electron, increasing the positive charge density of the lattice in the vicinity. This positive charge can attract other electrons. At long distances, this attraction between electrons due to the displaced ions can overcome the electrons' repulsion due to their negative charge, and cause them to pair up. The rigorous quantum mechanical explanation shows that the effect is due to electron–phonon interactions, with the phonon being the collective motion of the positively-charged lattice.

The energy of the pairing interaction is quite weak, of the order of 10−3 eV, and thermal energy can easily break the pairs. So only at low temperatures, in metal and other substrates, are a significant number of the electrons bound in Cooper pairs.

The electrons in a pair are not necessarily close together; because the interaction is long range, paired electrons may still be many hundreds of nanometers apart. This distance is usually greater than the average interelectron distance so that many Cooper pairs can occupy the same space. Electrons have spin-$1/2$, so they are fermions, but the total spin of a Cooper pair is integer (0 or 1) so it is a composite boson. This means the wave functions are symmetric under particle interchange. Therefore, unlike electrons, multiple Cooper pairs are allowed to be in the same quantum state, which is responsible for the phenomenon of superconductivity.

The BCS theory is also applicable to other fermion systems, such as helium-3. Indeed, Cooper pairing is responsible for the superfluidity of helium-3 at low temperatures. In 2008 it was proposed that pairs of bosons in an optical lattice may be similar to Cooper pairs.

Relationship to superconductivity
The tendency for all the Cooper pairs in a body to "condense" into the same ground quantum state is responsible for the peculiar properties of superconductivity.

Cooper originally considered only the case of an isolated pair's formation in a metal. When one considers the more realistic state of many electronic pair formations, as is elucidated in the full BCS theory, one finds that the pairing opens a gap in the continuous spectrum of allowed energy states of the electrons, meaning that all excitations of the system must possess some minimum amount of energy. This gap to excitations leads to superconductivity, since small excitations such as scattering of electrons are forbidden. The gap appears due to many-body effects between electrons feeling the attraction.

R. A. Ogg Jr., was first to suggest that electrons might act as pairs coupled by lattice vibrations in the material. This was indicated by the isotope effect observed in superconductors. The isotope effect showed that materials with heavier ions (different nuclear isotopes) had lower superconducting transition temperatures. This can be explained by the theory of Cooper pairing: heavier ions are harder for the electrons to attract and move (how Cooper pairs are formed), which results in smaller binding energy for the pairs.

The theory of Cooper pairs is quite general and does not depend on the specific electron-phonon interaction. Condensed matter theorists have proposed pairing mechanisms based on other attractive interactions such as electron–exciton interactions or electron–plasmon interactions. Currently, none of these other pairing interactions has been observed in any material.

It should be mentioned that Cooper pairing does not involve individual electrons pairing up to form "quasi-bosons". The paired states are energetically favored, and electrons go in and out of those states preferentially. This is a fine distinction that John Bardeen makes:

 * "The idea of paired electrons, though not fully accurate, captures the sense of it."

The mathematical description of the second-order coherence involved here is given by Yang.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cooper pair


text:
Talk:Intermission

Comments
Movies have intermissions?? Not hardly!

 * I know that in the 60ies, long movies such as Ben-Hur used to have intermissions. It's not very common this days, I'm not sure why it's abandoned. It's especially strange since movies are getting longer and longer. -- User:Johan Dahlin
 * Two that I can think of (Not sure about the first), LoTR, and titanic. Just still unsure if this isn't a dictdef. Gamera2

Iceland
Here is a report of at least one theatre in Iceland that still has intermissions even if they are not built into the movie. How widespread is this? -- Beland (talk) 01:06, 3 October 2013 (UTC)

Last "mainstream" film with an intermission
First, the source provided does not mention any film (mainstream or otherwise) as the last one to have an intermission. Next, Gettysburg (1993) IMO barely qualifies as mainstream. Branagh's Hamlet (1996) was released three years later. Now I would agree that it also has problems if one wants to describe it as mainstream. My suggestion would be to remove the sentence about Gettysburg completely and just leave the reference with the info that it applies to. MarnetteD|Talk 03:42, 6 October 2014 (UTC)

Indian Cinema
The section Bollywood should be renamed as Indian Cinema because intermission is part every Indian film released whether it is Tamil or Telugu or Malayalam. Even hHere it is given "especially Bollywood" but actually every Indian cinema has interval. Bollywood means it refers to only 250 out of 1500 films released in India. Interval is common to all Indian film industries not Bollywood alone. I hope you will look into it. Thank you. (Ganeshiyer3000 (talk) 14:42, 27 June 2015 (UTC))
 * Thanks for mentioning this . IMO it is a good suggestion. Why don't you go ahead and make the change when you see this message. Cheers. MarnetteD|Talk 16:25, 27 June 2015 (UTC)

Alexander (2004)
Why does Alexander (2004) keeps being deleted after I add it at the Films section? It has an intermission. Luigi97 (talk) 01:00, 7 January 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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Indian Cinema and Intermission driven story and drama structure
I'm not sure how to do this properly, but it should be mentioned that pieces that include intermission (like indian movies or even early hollywood movies that did, and plays etc) are often specifically designed with the intermission in mind. THis is importnat to realise in the case of indian movies where even home viewings/DVD etc have the "intermission card", most indian movies, for example, seem to have been written with this break in mind, not just as a natural breaking point in the story but also with the idea that the "intermission" may represent a 15-20 minute break where the viewer returns to reality and comes back after the break. This is unlike TV Shows for example, where, while breaks (in the form of commercials) exist, and some shows may even be written to accomodate such a break, but their natural and intended structure is NOT with a break, and in fact watching without a break may not even make a difference or even make things better. OTOH, with movies that are designed around such a break, watching without that natural break may actually DIMINISH from the effect that said movie or play intended to have. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2607:FEA8:6DF:FACA:70EE:ACEA:2B34:3C16 (talk) 02:25, 22 April 2018 (UTC)

Movie list
Since the movie list was deleted, I wonder if someone who knows how to create a wikipedia category for Movies With An Intermission could create one? Then the pages for the individual movies removed from this list could be edited (by anyone who cares) to include that new category? Rjmail (talk) 23:00, 7 February 2019 (UTC)

Fallacies
The method of projection has little to nothing to do with whether an intermission is used. On a pre-1970 2000-foot changeover system, there is never any reason to have a delay between one reel of content and the next. You could show any number of features, shorts, and supplementary material 24 hours a day without the screen ever going dark, if you wanted to. It's also entirely possible to automate an intermission on 6000-foot reels, platters, or digital projection. Whether to have one is totally the choice of the people trying to maximize revenue from the schedule of films, informed by the national culture of moviegoing, and is not at all determined by the technology.

Gettysburg and Gods & Generals both had intermissions on wide relase films. Hamlet 1996 did as well though it only played on 93 screens. It was a movie that got a lot of attention but it would be hard to argue that it was "wide release."

Lawrence of Arabia has been remastered for 70mm and digital release and re-issued to theaters twice since 1989 and always plays with the intermission, as do repertory screenings of Gone with the Wind etc. The Indian movie RRR also became a major hit in the U.S. and has an intermission. Identifying the "last wide release with an intermission" is always going to be subjective based on what counts as a "release" or a "wide release" - probably the best you can do is just say the practice has severely declined, but never entirely vanished, in the U.S. Predestiprestidigitation (talk) 19:52, 7 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Intermission


text:
User:Morwen/pinkbits

This is a list of bits that were Pink on maps

Africa

 * Bechuanaland
 * British Togoland
 * Cameroon
 * Gold Coast
 * Egypt
 * Kenya
 * Nigeria
 * Northern Rhodesia
 * Sierra Leone
 * Somaliland
 * South Africa
 * Southern Rhodesia
 * South West Africa
 * Sudan
 * Tanganyika
 * Uganda

The Americas and Atlantic

 * Ascension Island
 * British Guiana
 * British Honduras
 * Canada
 * Falkland Islands
 * Newfoundland
 * West Indies
 * Anguilla
 * Antigua and Barbuda
 * Bahamas
 * Barbados
 * Bermuda
 * British Virgin Islands
 * Cayman Islands
 * Dominica
 * Grenada
 * Jamaica
 * Montserrat
 * Saint Kitts and Nevis
 * Saint Lucia
 * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
 * Trinidad and Tobago
 * Turks and Caicos Islands
 * St Helena
 * Tristan da Cunha
 * South Georgia

Antarctica

 * British Antarctic Territory

Asia

 * Aden
 * Bhutan
 * British New Guinea
 * Brunei
 * Burma
 * Ceylon
 * Hong Kong
 * India
 * Iraq
 * Kuwait
 * Malaya
 * Maldives
 * Palestine
 * Nepal
 * North Borneo
 * Oman
 * Qatar
 * Sarawak
 * Singapore
 * Transjordan
 * Trucial States

Europe

 * Cyprus
 * Gibraltar
 * Malta
 * United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

Pacific

 * Australia
 * Ellice Islands
 * Fiji
 * Gilbert Islands
 * Nauru
 * New Zealand
 * Pitcairn
 * Solomon Islands
 * Tonga

title: User:Morwen/pinkbits


text:
Pioneer 5

Pioneer 5 (also known as Pioneer P-2, and Able 4, and nicknamed the "Paddle-Wheel Satellite" ) was a spin-stabilized space probe in the NASA Pioneer program used to investigate interplanetary space between the orbits of Earth and Venus. It was launched on 11 March 1960 from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 17A at 13:00:00 UTC with an on-orbit dry mass of 43 kg. It was a 0.66 m diameter sphere with 1.4 m span across its four solar panels and achieved a solar orbit of 0.806 × 0.995 AU (121,000,000 by 149,000,000 km).

Data was received until 30 April 1960. Among other accomplishments, the probe confirmed the existence of interplanetary magnetic fields. Pioneer 5 was the most successful probe in the Pioneer/Able series.

The original mission plan was for a launch in November 1959 where Pioneer 5 would conduct a flyby of Venus, but technical issues prevented the launch from occurring until early 1960 by which time the Venus window for the year had closed. Since it was not possible to send the probe to Venus, it would instead merely investigate interplanetary space and an actual mission to the planet would have to wait another three years.

Design and instruments
The spacecraft was a 0.66 m diameter sphere with four solar panels that spanned over 1.4 m and it was equipped with four scientific instruments:
 * 1) A triple coincidence omnidirectional proportional counter telescope to detect solar particles and observe terrestrial trapped radiation. It could detect photons with E > 75 MeV and electrons with E > 13 MeV.
 * 2) A rotating search coil magnetometer to measure the magnetic field in the distant field of the Earth, near the geomagnetic boundary, and in interplanetary space.  It was capable of measuring fields from 1 microgauss to 12 milligauss. It consisted of a single search coil that was mounted on the spacecraft in such a way that it measured the magnetic field perpendicular to the spin axis of the spacecraft. It could output its measurements in both an analog and a digital format.
 * 3) A Neher-type integrating ionization chamber and an Anton 302 Geiger-Müller tube (which functioned as a cosmic ray detector) to measure cosmic radiation. It was mounted normal to the spin axis of the spacecraft.
 * 4) A micrometeorite momentum spectrometer (or micrometeorite detector) that consisted of two diaphragm and microphone combinations. It was used to measure the amount of meteoritic dust particles and the momentum of these particles.

Mission
Booster performance during launch was overall excellent considering the numerous earlier difficulties with the Thor-Able vehicle. There were some minor anomalies with the second stage flight control system that resulted in unplanned pitch and roll motions, however, they were not enough to endanger the mission.

The spacecraft returned data collected by the magnetometer on the magnetic field and it measured that the median undisturbed interplanetary field was approximately 5 γ ± 0.5 γ in magnitude. The spacecraft also measured solar flare particles, and cosmic radiation in the interplanetary region. The micrometeorite counter failed to operate as the data system saturated and failed to operate properly.

The recorded digital data were transmitted at 1, 8, and 64 bit/s, depending on the distance of the spacecraft from Earth and the size of the receiving antenna. Weight limitations on the solar cells prevented continuous operation of the telemetry transmitters. About four operations of 25 min duration were scheduled per day with occasional increases during times of special interest. A total of 138.9 h of operation was completed, and over three megabits of data were received. The major portion of the data was received by the Lovell radio telescope at Jodrell Bank Observatory and the Hawaii Tracking Station because their antennas provided grid reception. Data was received until 30 April 1960, after which telemetry noise and weak signal strength made data reception impossible. The spacecraft's signal was detected by Jodrell Bank from a record distance of 36.2 million km (22.5 million miles) on 26 June 1960, although it was much too weak by then to acquire data.

Communications
In common with Explorer 6, Pioneer 5 used the earliest known digital telemetry system used on spacecraft, codenamed "Telebit", which was a tenfold (or 10 dB) improvement in channel efficiency on previous generation "Microlock" analog systems in use since Explorer 1 and the biggest single improvement in signal encoding on western spacecraft. The spacecraft received the uplink carrier at 401.8 MHz and converted it to a 378.2 MHz signal using a 16/17 coherent oscillator circuit. The telemetry system phase modulated a 512 Hz subcarrier, which was in turn amplitude modulated at 64, 8, or 1bit/s. The spacecraft was unable to aim its antennas, and so had no high-gain dish antenna common on later spacecraft. Instead, the system could introduce a 150W amplifier into its normally 5W transmitter circuit. It was powered by a battery of 28 F-size NiCd cells recharged by the solar paddles, allowing up to eight minutes of high power communications before risking damage to the batteries. Each hour of 5W communications or five minutes of 150W communications required ten hours of recharging the batteries. Unlike later interplanetary spacecraft (Mariner 2 and beyond), this spacecraft did not use the Deep Space Network, which was not yet available, but a somewhat ad hoc Space Network called SPAN consisting of the 76m Lovell Telescope (then called Manchester Mark I), a 26-meter radio telescope in Hawaii, and a small helical array in Singapore.

title: Pioneer 5


text:
Ministry of International Trade and Industry

The Ministry of International Trade and Industry (通商産業省) was a ministry of the Government of Japan from 1949 to 2001. The MITI was one of the most powerful government agencies in Japan and, at the height of its influence, effectively ran much of Japanese industrial policy, funding research and directing investment. In 2001, MITI was merged with other agencies during the Central Government Reform to form the newly created Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI).

History
MITI was created with the split of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry in May 1949 and given the mission for coordinating international trade policy with other groups, such as the Bank of Japan, the Economic planning Agency, and the various commerce-related cabinet ministries. At the time it was created, Japan was still recovering from the economic disaster of World War II. With inflation rising and productivity failing to keep up, the government sought a better mechanism for reviving the Japanese economy.

MITI has been responsible not only in the areas of exports and imports but also for all domestic industries and businesses not specifically covered by other ministries in the areas of investment in plant and equipment, pollution control, energy and power, some aspects of foreign economic assistance, and consumer complaints. This span has allowed MITI to integrate conflicting policies, such as those on pollution control and export competitiveness, to minimize damage to export industries.

MITI has served as an architect of industrial policy, an arbiter on industrial problems and disputes, and a regulator. A major objective of the ministry has been to strengthen the country's industrial base. It has not managed Japanese trade and industry along the lines of a centrally planned economy, but it has provided industries with administrative guidance and other direction, both formal and informal, on modernization, technology, investments in new plants and equipment, and domestic and foreign competition.

The close relationship between MITI and Japanese industry has led to foreign trade policy that often complements the ministry's efforts to strengthen domestic manufacturing interests. MITI facilitated the early development of nearly all major industries by providing protection from import competition, technological intelligence, help in licensing foreign technology, access to foreign exchange, and assistance in mergers.

These policies to promote domestic industry and to protect it from international competition were strongest in the 1950s and 1960s. As industry became stronger and as MITI lost some of its policy tools, such as control over allocation of foreign exchange, MITI's policies also changed. The success of Japanese exports and the tension it has caused in other countries led MITI to provide guidance on limiting exports of particular products to various countries. Starting in 1981, MITI presided over the establishment of voluntary restraints on automobile exports to the United States to allay criticism from American manufacturers and their unions.

Similarly, MITI was forced to liberalize import policies, despite its traditional protectionist focus. During the 1980s, the ministry helped to craft a number of market-opening and import promoting measures, including the creation of an import promotion office within the ministry. The close relationship between MITI and industry allowed the ministry to play such a role in fostering more open markets, but conflict remained between the need to open markets and the desire to continue promoting new and growing domestic industries.

As late as the 1980s, prime ministers were expected to serve a tenure as MITI minister before taking over the government. MITI worked closely with Japanese business interests, and was largely responsible for keeping the domestic market closed to most foreign companies.

MITI lost some influence when the switch was made to a floating exchange rate between the United States dollar and yen in 1971. Before that point, MITI had been able to keep the exchange rate artificially low, which benefited Japan's exporters. Later, intense lobbying from other countries, particularly the United States, pushed Japan to introduce more liberal trade laws that further lessened MITI's grip over the Japanese economy. By the mid-1980s, the ministry was helping foreign corporations set up operations in Japan.

The decline of MITI was described by Johnstone:
 * ... by the early 1980s, when Western analysts first became aware of MITI, the ministry's glory days were over. In 1979 MITI lost its primary instrument of control over Japanese firms – allocation of foreign currency. The power, that is, to decide who could – and who could not – import technologies. [For example] ... MITI bureaucrats attempted to deny fledgling Sony the $25,000 the company needed to license transistor technology from Western Electric.

However MITI still continued to benefit industry, especially in semiconductors, where, to overcome resistance to a new technology, it forced every electronic company to have at least one CMOS project going.

The influence of MITI shrank in the 1990s because of deregulation and the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble, and the creation of the World Trade Organization made it more difficult for governments to protect local companies from foreign competition. The declining significance of MITI to Japanese companies made it a less powerful agency within the bureaucracy, and by the end of the 20th century, it was folded into a larger body. In 2001, it was reorganized into the Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry (METI).

Agencies
Important MITI agencies include:
 * National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST)
 * Japan External Trade Organization (JETRO)
 * Japan Patent Office (JPO)

Administrative Vice-Ministers
Administrative Vice-Minister (事務次官) is the highest position in a ministry filled by a career bureaucrat rather than a political appointee.


text:
Pioneer 6, 7, 8, and 9

Pioneer 6, 7, 8, and 9 were space probes in the Pioneer program, launched between 1965 and 1969. They were a series of solar-orbiting, spin-stabilized, solar cell- and battery-powered satellites designed to obtain measurements on a continuing basis of interplanetary phenomena from widely separated points in space. They were also known as Pioneer A, B, C, and D. The fifth (Pioneer E) was lost in a launch accident, and therefore did not receive a numerical designation.

Purpose
Pioneers 6, 7, 8, and 9 were created to make the first detailed, comprehensive measurements of the solar wind, solar magnetic field and cosmic rays. They were designed to measure large scale magnetic phenomena and particles and fields in interplanetary space. Data from the vehicles have been used to better understand stellar processes and the structure and flow of the solar wind. The vehicles also acted as the world's first space-based solar weather network, providing practical data on solar storms which affect communications and power on Earth.

The experiments studied the positive ions (cations) and electrons in the solar wind, the interplanetary electron density (radio propagation experiment), solar and galactic cosmic rays, and the Interplanetary Magnetic Field.

The spacecraft were important collectors of heliophysics and space weather data. In conjunction with other spacecraft these, for the first time, enabled spaceborne observations to be combined with terrestrial observations on the ground and from sounding balloons. Pioneer 9 in early August 1972 recorded significant observations of one of the most potent solar storms ever recorded, and the most hazardous to human spaceflight during the Space Age.

Vehicle description
Each craft was identical. They were spin-stabilized 0.94 m diameter × 0.81 m tall cylinders with a 1.8 m long magnetometer boom and solar panels mounted around the body.

The main antenna was a high-gain directional antenna. The spacecraft were spin-stabilized at about 60 RPM, and the spin axis was perpendicular to the ecliptic plane and pointed toward the south ecliptic pole.

Instruments:

 * Solar Wind Plasma Faraday Cup (6, 7)
 * Cosmic-Ray Telescope (6, 7)
 * Electrostatic Analyzer (6, 7, 8)
 * Superior Conjunction Faraday Rotation (6, 7)
 * Spectral Broadening (6)
 * Relativity Investigation (6)
 * Uniaxial Fluxgate Magnetometer (6)
 * Cosmic-Ray Anisotropy (6, 7, 8, 9)
 * Celestial Mechanics (6, 7, 8, 9)
 * Two-Frequency Beacon Receiver (6, 7, 8, 9)
 * Single-Axis Magnetometer (7, 8)
 * Cosmic Dust Detector (8, 9)
 * Cosmic Ray Gradient Detector (8, 9)
 * Plasma Wave Detector (8)
 * Triaxial Magnetometer (9)
 * Solar Plasma Detector (9)
 * Electric Field Detector (9)

Communications
By ground command, one of five bit rates, one of four data formats, and one of four operating modes could be selected. The five-bit rates were 512, 256, 64, 16, and 8 bit/s. Three of the four data formats contained primarily scientific data and consisted of 32 seven-bit words per frame. One scientific data format was for use at the two highest bit rates. Another was for use at the three lowest bit rates. The third contained data from only the radio propagation experiment. The fourth data format contained mainly engineering data.

The four operating modes were: real-time, telemetry store, duty cycle store, and memory readout. In the real-time mode, data were sampled and transmitted directly (without storage) as specified by the data format and bit rate selected. In the telemetry store mode, data were stored and transmitted simultaneously in the format and at the bit rate selected. In the duty-cycle store mode, a single frame of scientific data was collected and stored at a rate of 512 bit/s. The time interval between the collection and storage of successive frames could be varied by ground command between 2 and 17 min to provide partial data coverage for periods up to 19 hours, as limited by the bit storage capacity. In the memory readout mode, data was read out at whatever bit rate was appropriate to the satellite distance from Earth.

Time line and current status
As stated by JPL, "The Pioneer 6–9 program has been touted as one of the least expensive of all NASA spacecraft programs in terms of scientific results per dollar spent." Although the four spacecraft have not been regularly tracked for science data return in recent years, a successful telemetry contact with Pioneer 6 was made on December 8, 2000, to celebrate 35 years of continuous operation since launch. Its original design life expectancy was only 6 months.

Although NASA described Pioneer 6 as "extant", there has been no contact since December 8, 2000. At this time Pioneer 6 had operated for 12,758 days, making it the oldest operating space probe until it was surpassed by Voyager 2 on August 13, 2012. It is also believed that contact is still possible with Pioneer 7 and 8; only Pioneer 9 is definitely not working.

Pioneer 6
December 16, 1965 Launched at 07:31:00 UTC from Cape Canaveral to a circular solar orbit with a mean distance of 0.8 AU.

December 1995 The prime Traveling-wave tube (TWT) failed sometime after December 1995.

July 1996 Spacecraft commanded to the backup TWT.

October 6, 1997 Tracked with the 70 meter Deep Space Station 43 in Australia. The MIT and ARC Plasma Analyzers, as well as the cosmic ray detector from the University of Chicago, were turned on and working.

December 8, 2000 Successful telemetry contact for about two hours.

Pioneer 7
August 17, 1966 Launched from Cape Canaveral into solar orbit with a mean distance of 1.1 AU.

March 20, 1986 Flew within 12.3 million kilometers of Halley's Comet and monitored the interaction between the cometary hydrogen tail and the solar wind. It discovered He+ plasma produced by charge exchange of solar wind He++ with neutral cometary material.

March 31, 1995 Tracked successfully. The spacecraft and one of the science instruments were still functioning.

Pioneer 8
December 13, 1967 Launched at 14:08:00 UTC from Cape Canaveral into solar orbit with a mean distance of 1.1 AU from the Sun.

August 22, 1996 The spacecraft commanded to switch to the backup TWT. Downlink signal was re-acquired, one of the science instruments again functioning.

Pioneer 9
November 8, 1968 Launched at 09:46:00 UTC from Cape Canaveral into solar orbit with a mean distance of 0.8 AU.

1983 Final contact.

1987 Contact was attempted, but failed.

Pioneer E
August 27, 1969 Launched at 21:59:00 UTC from Cape Canaveral. The launch vehicle was destroyed by range safety after hydraulics in the first stage failed.

title: Pioneer 6, 7, 8, and 9


text:
Battle of Fort Henry

The Battle of Fort Henry was fought on February 6, 1862, in Stewart County, Tennessee, during the American Civil War. It was the first important victory for the Union and Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant in the Western Theater.

On February 4 and 5, Grant landed two divisions just north of Fort Henry on the Tennessee River. (The troops serving under Grant were the nucleus of the Union's successful Army of the Tennessee, although that name was not yet in use. ) Grant's plan was to advance upon the fort on February 6 while it was being simultaneously attacked by Union gunboats commanded by Flag Officer Andrew Hull Foote. A combination of accurate and effective naval gunfire, heavy rain, and the poor siting of the fort, nearly inundated by rising river waters, caused its commander, Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman, to surrender to Foote before the Union Army arrived.

The surrender of Fort Henry opened the Tennessee River to Union traffic south of the Alabama border. In the days following the fort's surrender, from February 6 through February 12, Union raids used ironclad boats to destroy Confederate shipping and railroad bridges along the river. On February 12, Grant's army proceeded overland 12 mi to engage with Confederate troops in the Battle of Fort Donelson.

Background
In early 1861 the critical border state of Kentucky had declared neutrality in the American Civil War. This neutrality was first violated on September 3, when Confederate Brig. Gen. Gideon J. Pillow, acting on orders from Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk, occupied Columbus, Kentucky, which overlooked strong defensive bluffs, to defend the Mississippi from Federal offensive action and was the terminus of the Memphis & Ohio railroad, which in turn leads southwards to the extremely important Charleston & Memphis railroad. The riverside town was situated on 180 foot high bluffs that commanded the river at that point, where the Confederates installed 140 large guns, underwater mines and a heavy chain that stretched a mile across the Mississippi River to Belmont, while occupying the town with 17,000 Confederate troops, thus cutting off northern commerce to the south and beyond.

Two days later, Union Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, displaying the personal initiative that would characterize his later career, seized Paducah, Kentucky, a major transportation hub of rail and port facilities at the mouth of the Tennessee River. Henceforth, neither adversary respected Kentucky's proclaimed neutrality, and the Confederate advantage was lost. The buffer zone that Kentucky provided between the North and the South was no longer available to assist in the defense of Tennessee.

By early 1862, a single general, Albert Sidney Johnston, commanded all the Confederate forces from Arkansas to the Cumberland Gap, but his forces were spread too thinly over a wide defensive line. Johnston's left flank was Polk, in Columbus with 12,000 men; his right flank was Brig. Gen. Simon Bolivar Buckner, in Bowling Green, Kentucky, with 4,000 men; the center consisted of two forts, Forts Henry and Donelson, under the command of Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman, also with 4,000 men. Forts Henry and Donelson were the sole positions defending the important Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, respectively. If these rivers were opened to Union military traffic, two direct invasion paths would lead into western & eastern Tennessee, and the vital Memphis & SC Railroad and more.

The Union military command in the West suffered from a lack of unified command, and were organized into three separate departments: the Department of Kansas, under Maj. Gen. David Hunter; the Department of Missouri, under Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck; and the Department of the Ohio, under Brig. Gen. Don Carlos Buell. By January 1862, the disunity was apparent because they could not agree on a strategy for operations in the Western Theater. Buell, under political pressure to invade and hold pro-Union eastern Tennessee, moved slowly in the direction of Nashville. In Halleck's department, Grant moved up the Tennessee River to divert attention from Buell's intended advance, which did not occur. Halleck and the other generals in the West were coming under political pressure from President Abraham Lincoln to participate in a general offensive by Washington's birthday (February 22). Despite his tradition of caution, Halleck eventually reacted positively to Grant's proposal to move against Fort Henry. Halleck hoped that this would improve his standing in relation to his rival, Buell. Halleck and Grant were also concerned about rumors that Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard would soon arrive with 15 Confederate regiments. On January 30, 1862, Halleck authorized Grant to take Fort Henry.

Grant wasted no time, leaving Cairo, Illinois, at the confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, on February 2. His invasion force, which arrived on the Tennessee River on February 4 and 5, consisted of 15,000–17,000 men in two divisions, commanded by Brig. Gens. John A. McClernand and Charles F. Smith, supported by the Western Gunboat Flotilla, commanded by United States Navy Flag Officer Andrew Hull Foote. The flotilla included four ironclad gunboats (flagship USS Cincinnati (1861), USS Carondelet, USS St. Louis, and USS Essex) under Foote's direct command, and three timberclad gunboats (USS Conestoga, USS Tyler, and USS Lexington) under Lt. Seth Ledyard Phelps. Insufficient transport ships this early in the war to deliver all of the army troops in a single operation required two trips upriver to reach the fort. General Johnston was pressured by the confederate government to defend the Cumberland & Tennessee and the important railroads in the region, to which end he converged all his forces further south, facing Buell's forces at the Cumberland Gap passes. His subordinate Beauregard incessantly protested at his defensive strategy, urging him to advance and meet the unionist offensive, or at least reinforce the fortifications on the rivers. Johnston refused, leaving a substantial force to guard Fort Donelson. Fort Henry was considered a liability due to its poor position & engineering which made it highly susceptible to being flooded during high tide and rain, and was garrisoned by a token force of 3,000-4,000 including the crews for the heavy guns, which was considered adequate for defending against enemy naval attack, in the meantime a new fort was being constructed on better ground upriver.

Fort Henry
Fort Henry was a five-sided, open-bastioned earthen structure covering 10 acre on the eastern bank of the Tennessee River, near Kirkman's Old Landing. The site was about one mile above Panther Creek and about six miles below the mouth of the Big Sandy River and Standing Rock Creek.

In May 1861, Isham G. Harris, the governor of Tennessee, appointed the state's attorney, Daniel S. Donelson, as a brigadier general and directed him to build fortifications on the rivers of Middle Tennessee. Donelson found suitable sites, but they were within the borders of Kentucky, still a neutral state at that time. Moving upriver, just inside the Tennessee border, Donelson selected the site of the fort on the Cumberland River that would bear his name. Colonel Bushrod Johnson of the Tennessee Corps of Engineers approved of the site.

As construction of Fort Donelson began, Donelson moved 12 mi west, to the Tennessee River, and selected the site of Fort Henry, naming it after Tennessee Senator Gustavus Adolphus Henry Sr. With Fort Donelson on the west bank of the Cumberland, Donelson selected the east bank of the Tennessee for the second fort so one garrison could travel between them and defend both positions. (Donelson thought it unlikely that the two forts would be attacked simultaneously.) Unlike its counterpart on the Cumberland, Fort Henry was situated on low, swampy ground and dominated by hills across the river. This oversight developed into frequent flooding of the fort during rains or high tide, on some occasions more than half of the fort was underwater after rain, including most of its armory. To its advantage, it had an unobstructed field of fire 2 mi downriver. Donelson's surveying team—Adna Anderson, a civil engineer, and Maj. William F. Foster from the 1st Tennessee Infantry—objected strongly to the site and appealed to Colonel Johnson, who inexplicably approved it.

The fort was designed to stop traffic on the river, not to withstand large-scale infantry assaults that armies would use during the war. Construction began in mid-June, using men from the 10th Tennessee Infantry and slaves. The first cannon was test fired on July 12, 1861. After this flurry of activity, the remainder of 1861 saw little action because forts on the Mississippi River had a higher priority for receiving men and artillery. General Polk also neglected Forts Henry and Donelson in favor of defending Columbus, Kentucky. In late December, additional men from the 27th Alabama Infantry arrived along with 500 slaves to construct a small fortification across the river on Stewart's Hill, within artillery range of Fort Henry, and named it Fort Heiman. In January 1862, Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman assumed command of both Forts Henry and Donelson, with a combined force of 4,900 men. At Fort Henry, approximately 3,000–3,400 men in two brigades were commanded by Colonels Adolphus Heiman and Joseph Drake. The men were armed primarily with antique flintlock rifles from the War of 1812.

Seventeen guns were mounted in Fort Henry by the time of the battle, eleven covering the river and the other six positioned to defend against a land attack (18-pounder smoothbores). There were two heavy guns, a 10 in Columbiad and a 24-pounder rifled cannon, with the remainder being 32-pounder smoothbores. There were also two 42-pounders, but no ammunition of that caliber was available. When the river was at normal levels, the fort's walls rose 20 ft above it and were 20 ft thick at the base, sloping upward to a width of nearly 10 ft at the parapet. However, in February 1862, heavy rains caused the river to rise and most of the fort was underwater, including the powder magazine.

The Confederates deployed one additional defensive measure, which was then unique in the history of warfare: several torpedoes (in modern terminology, a naval minefield) were anchored below the surface in the main shipping channel, rigged to explode when touched by a passing ship. (This measure turned out to be ineffective, due to high water levels and leaks in the torpedoes' metal containers.)

Battle
On February 4 and 5, Grant landed his divisions in two different locations. McClernand's division was 3 mi north of the fort, on the east bank of the Tennessee River, to prevent the garrison's escape. C.F. Smith's division would seize Fort Heiman on the Kentucky side of the river and turn its artillery on Fort Henry. When heavy rains the night of February 5 slowed the progress of Union troops toward the forts, the battle turned on naval actions, which concluded before the infantry saw action.

Tilghman realized that it was only a matter of time before Fort Henry fell. Only nine guns remained above the water to mount a defense. While leaving artillery in the fort to hold off the Union gunboats, he ordered the majority of his force to march, under the command of Col. Adolphus Heiman, on the overland route to Fort Donelson, 12 miles (19 km) away. Fort Heiman was abandoned on February 4; gunfire from the gunboats on Fort Henry garrison caused 4 Confederate casualties [1 killed 3 wounded] on the afternoon of February 5. All but a part of Company B,1st Tennessee Artillery CSA [54 men] left Fort Henry on February 5. (Union cavalry pursued the retreating Confederates, but poor road conditions prevented any serious confrontation and they took few captives.) Tilghman, as was his custom, spent the night of February 5–6 on the steamer Dunbar, 1.5 mi upstream from the fort. Around midnight he sent an update on the situation to Johnston, then returned to Fort Henry just before dawn.

On the morning of February 6, Foote's seven Union gunboats arrived at Fort Henry and established their position around 12:30 p.m. They soon opened fire from a distance at 1,700 yards (around 1,554 meters), beginning an exchange of gunfire with Fort Henry that continued for over an hour. After Tilghman rejected an initial call to surrender, the fleet continued to bombard the fort. This was its first engagement using newly designed and hastily constructed ironclads. Foote deployed the four ironclad gunboats in a line abreast, followed by the three timberclads, under the command of Seth Ledyard Phelps, which were held back for long-range, but less effective fire against the fort. The high water level of the river and the low elevation of Fort Henry's guns allowed Foote's fleet to escape serious destruction. The Confederate fire was able to hit the ironclads only where their armor was strongest. During the bombardment, all four of the Union ironclads were repeatedly hit by Confederate fire. The USS Essex was seriously damaged when a 32-pound shot from Fort Henry penetrated the ironclad, hitting the middle boiler and sending scalding steam through half the ship. Thirty-two crewmen were killed or wounded, including commander William D. Porter. The ship was out of action for the remainder of the campaign.

Aftermath and the timberclad raid
After the bombardment had lasted 75 minutes, Tilghman surrendered to Foote's fleet, which had closed to within 400 yd for a close-range bombardment. Before the battle, Tilghman told his men that he would offer an hour of resistance to allow his men additional time to escape. With only one cannon still working, down to the last few rounds due to the powder magazine being underwater, and the rest of the guns destroyed or knocked out, Tilghman ordered the Confederate flag at Fort Henry lowered and a white sheet raised on the fort's flagpole. Upon seeing the white flag, the Union gunboats immediately ceased fire. The flooded state of the fort was as such that the surrendering party sailed out of the sally port of the fort in a small launch and picked up Tilghman for the surrender negotiation on Cincinnati. Twelve officers and 82 men of the garrison surrendered; other casualties from the fort's garrison were estimated to be 15 men killed and 20 wounded. The evacuating Confederate force left all of its artillery and equipment behind. Tilghman was imprisoned for many months, and exchanged in August 15.

Tilghman wrote bitterly in his report that Fort Henry was in a "wretched military position. ... The history of military engineering records no parallel to this case." Grant sent a brief dispatch to Halleck: "Fort Henry is ours. ... I shall take and destroy Fort Donelson on the 8th and return to Fort Henry." Halleck wired Washington, D.C.: "Fort Henry is ours. The flag is reestablished on the soil of Tennessee. It will never be removed."

Grant and his troops arrived at Fort Henry at around 3 p.m. on February 6 to see that the garrison had already surrendered. McClernand's division arrived at the fort about 30 minutes later. In the meantime, Smith's division had reached the deserted Fort Heiman. If Grant had been cautious and delayed his departure by two days, the battle would have never occurred. By February 8, Fort Henry was completely underwater. On February 7, the Union gunboats Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Essex returned to Cairo with whistles blowing and flying Fort Henry's captured Confederate flags upside down. The Chicago Tribune proclaimed the battle as "one of the most complete and signal victories in the annals of the world's warfare."

Fort Henry's fall quickly opened the Tennessee River to Union gunboats and shipping south of the Alabama border. Immediately after the surrender, Foote sent Lieutenant Phelps with the three timberclads, Tyler, Conestoga, and Lexington, on a mission upriver to destroy installations and supplies of military value. (The flotilla's ironclads had sustained damage in the bombardment of Fort Henry and were slower and less maneuverable for the mission at hand, which included pursuit of Confederate ships.) The raid reached as far as Muscle Shoals, just past Florence, Alabama, the river's navigable limit. The Union timberclads and their raiding parties destroyed supplies and an important bridge of the Memphis and Ohio Railroad, 25 mi upriver. They also captured a variety of southern ships, including Sallie Wood, Muscle, and Eastport, an ironclad under construction. The citizens of Florence asked Phelps to spare their town and its railroad bridge. Phelps agreed, seeing no military importance to the bridge. One 19th century source described Phelps’ raid as “a perfect success. It discovered the real weakness of the Confederacy in that direction, the feasibility of marching an army into the heart of the Confederacy, and, better than all, it developed the most gratifying evidences of genuine Union feeling in Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama.” According to the same account, Phelps recruited several pro-Union Southerners to assist him during the raid. The Union gunboats returned safely to Fort Henry on February 12.

After the fall of Fort Donelson to Grant's army on February 16, the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, two major water routes in the Confederate west, became Union waterways for movement of troops and material. As Grant suspected, the Union capture of the two forts and the rivers flanked the Confederate forces at Columbus, and soon caused them to withdraw from that city and from western Kentucky.

Preservation
Although closely associated with Fort Donelson, the Fort Henry site is not managed by the U.S. National Park Service as part of the Fort Donelson National Battlefield. It is currently part of the Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area. When the Tennessee River was dammed in the 1930s, creating Kentucky Lake, the remains of Fort Henry were permanently submerged. A small navigation beacon, far from the Kentucky shoreline, marks the location of the northwest corner of the former fort. Fort Heiman was on privately owned land until October 2006, when the Calloway County, Kentucky, executive office transferred 150 acre associated with that fort to the National Park Service for management as part of the Fort Donelson National Battlefield. Some of the entrenchments are still visible.

title: Battle of Fort Henry


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Asen dynasty

The Asen dynasty (Асеневци, Asenevtsi, Asănești) founded and ruled a medieval Bulgarian state, called in modern historiography the Second Bulgarian Empire, between 1185 and 1280.

The Asen dynasty rose as the leaders of Bulgaria after a rebellion against the Byzantine Empire at the turn of the year 1185/1186 caused by the increase in the Imperial taxes.

Some members of the Asen family entered Byzantine service in the thirteenth to fourteenth centuries. The name also occurs as a family name in modern Greek, and could go back to the same name. Their origin is obscure.

Origins

The origins of the dynasty, especially the ethnic background of the three Asen brothers (Teodor I Peter IV (Teodor I Petru IV), Ivan Asen I (Ioan Asan I) and Kaloyan (Caloian)) are still a source of much controversy, debated among historians. There are three main hypotheses regarding their origins:
 * 1) Vlach origin,     a view supported by many contemporary sources and Romanian scholars who base their claims on Western Crusade chronicles, and letters between Pope Innocent III and Kaloyan.
 * 2) Cuman origin,   as some of the names in the dynasty, including Asen and Belgun, are derived from Cuman language, as well as the close ties to the Cumans, such as intermarriage (including Kaloyan's wife), immediate entourage and allies. Groups of Cumans settled and mingled with the local population in many regions of the Balkans between the 10th and 13th centuries and founded also other successive Bulgarian dynasties (Terterids and Shishmanids).
 * 3) Bulgarian origin, a view that is common among the Bulgarian historians who reckon that all native sources (from the 13th century) use predominantly the terms Bulgaria, Bulgarians and Bulgarian, the Slavic names like Ivanko (relative and murderer of Ivan Asen I), Boril and Slav, that tsar Kaloyan claimed provenance from the old Bulgarian rulers and his state from the First Bulgarian Empire and declares himself a Bulgarian avenger, adopting the moniker the Romanslayer by analogy with the emperor Basil II the Bulgar Slayer and shows cruelty to the Byzantines as revenge for the murdered and blinded Bulgarians.

In their own administrative documents and correspondence, the three rulers viewed themselves as descendants and successors of the Bulgarian Tsars Samuil, Peter I and Simeon I, and the state they founded as a continuation of the First Bulgarian Empire. However, this could be just a way to proclaim their legitimacy for the throne of the Empire.

In a correspondence, of 1199, the Pope talks about the "Roman descent" of Kaloyan. However, considering the actual text says Nos autem audito quod de nobili urbis Romae prosapia progenitores tui originem traxerint ("We heard that your forefathers come from a noble family from the city of Rome"), it is usually dismissed as simply a hidden compliment of the Pope to Kaloyan.

Pope Innocent III in his letter to the Bulgarian King Kaloyan (Calojoannes) in 1204 addressed him "King of Bulgarians and Vlachs" (rex Bulgarorum et Blachorum); in answering the Pope, John called himself imperator omnium Bulgarorum et Blachorum ("Emperor of all Bulgarians and Vlachs'), but signed himself imperator Bulgariae Calojoannes ("Emperor Kaloyan of Bulgaria"); besides, the archbishop of Veliko Tarnovo called himself totius Bulgariae et Blaciae Primas ("Primate of all Bulgaria and Vlachia").

Ivan Asen II styles himselve “Tsar and sovereign of the Bulgarians“ and “Tsar of Bulgarians and Greeks”.

The Bulgarian historiography negate, while the Romanian highlight the role of the Vlachs in the uprising. However, the scientific debate reflects the nationalistic rivality from the 19-20th century, which did not exist in the 12-13th century. Vlachs and Bulgarian Slavs jointly inhabited Bulgaria, and both groups in sufferance were united against the common cause under a leader, regardless of the leader "race". The Asen brothers were associated with the Vlach population of the mountainous regions around Trnovo, Niketas Choniates recorded Vlach shamans during revolt exhibition, but nevertheless of their ethnicity, it was a joint venture of the Bulgarians, Vlachs and Cumans.

Etymology
The name of the dynasty comes from one of the brothers, namely Asen I. The etymology is most likely of Cuman Turkic origin, derived from "esen" which meant "safe, sound, healthy" and the Belgun nickname seems to be derived from Turkic "bilgün", which meant "wise". Further support to this connection can be found in the charters of the Great Lavra of Mt. Athos from the end of the 12th century, which mention the monastery's problems with some of the Cuman stratiotes, where "Asen" is listed as the name of one of those Cumans.

Other study shows that the only name that makes sense is änish ("descent") and the word can be found almost exclusively in the languages of the Kipchak Turks

Byzantine branch
The Asens in Byzantium largely descend from Ivan Asen III, who ruled briefly as Emperor of Bulgaria before fleeing to Constantinople as Ivaylo's uprising was gaining momentum in 1280. A despotes under Michael VIII Palaiologos, Ivan Asen III had already been married to the Byzantine Emperor's eldest daughter, Irene Palaiologina. The couple's five sons and two daughters were the progenitors of one of the highest-regarded Byzantine noble families of their time, along with the Palaiologoi. Among the Byzantine Asens, three bore the title of despotes, three that of sebastokrator, two panhypersebastos, one was a megas doux and two were titled megas primikerios. In Greek, the male form of the family name is rendered as Ἀσάνης (Asanis) and the female as Ασανίνα (Asanina).

A smaller branch descends from Elena Asenina of Bulgaria, wife of Nicaean Emperor Theodore II Laskaris.

The Asens of Byzantium intermarried with other prominent noble dynasties, including the Kantakouzenos, Doukas, Laskaris, Tornikios, Raoul and Zaccaria families. Notable members of the Asen family in the Byzantine Empire include:

 * Andronikos Asen, epitropos of the Morea (1316–1322)
 * Irene Asanina, Empress Consort of John VI Kantakouzenos (1347–1354)
 * Matthew Asen Kantakouzenos, Co-Emperor of Byzantium (1353–1357)
 * Matthew Palaiologos Asen, Lord of Corinth (1454–1458)

Byzantine Asens elsewhere
From Byzantium, the Asens spread as far as Frankish Greece, the Principality of Theodoro, the Principality of Moldavia, the Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of Aragon.

 * Eudoxia Laskarina Asanina (1248–1311), Nicaean princess, Countess of Ventimiglia and Tende and nun in Aragon
 * Helena Asanina Kantakouzene, Dowager Countess of Salona (1380–1394)
 * Andronikos Asen Zaccaria, Prince of Achaea (before 1386-1401)
 * Thomas Asen Palaiologos, exile in Naples and ktetor
 * Maria Asanina Palaiologina, Princess Consort of Moldavia (1472–1477)

title: Asen dynasty


text:
Cecchetti

Cecchetti is an Italian surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Alberto Cecchetti (born 1944), politician of San Marino
 * Enrico Cecchetti (1850–1928), Italian ballet dancer and theorist, creator of the Cecchetti method
 * Silvia Cecchetti (born 1970), Italian singer

title: Cecchetti


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Bay rum

Bay rum is a type of cologne and aftershave lotion. Other uses include as under-arm deodorant and as a fragrance for shaving soap, as well as a general astringent.

Origins
It is a distillate that was originally made in Saint Thomas "and probably other West Indian islands" from rum and the leaves and/or berries of the West Indian bay tree, Pimenta racemosa.

John Maisch identified the leaf in the herbarium at the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, collected in Saint Croix, "by the late Dr. Griffith", which was identified as Myrcia acris, now transferred to the genus Pimenta. Maisch added that it was "very probable that various species are made use of for the same purpose." According to an 1889 reference, other ingredients may be citrus and spice oils, the most common being lime oil and oil of cloves. A drop of oil of cloves is added to two parts bay oil and one part pimento oil in one of two recipes for bay rum; the aromatics are steeped in alcohol and as a last step an equal part of "good rum" is added, and cinnamon.

Popularity
It was first made fashionable in New York and other American cities before it was available in Europe. This Rexall bay rum example (pictured) from the Prohibition era in the United States was labeled "for external use only", but with 58% grain alcohol it was often used as a legal, if somewhat toxic, source of beverage alcohol. A 1933 recording by Ashley & Foster references drinking bay rum purchased from the Raylass Chain department store in Gastonia, North Carolina.

Products
Proprietary bay rum lotions are produced by labs in several West Indian countries, as well as American and European fragrance companies. The original bay rum from St. Thomas by A. H. Riise continues to be produced locally in the US Virgin Islands by the West Indies Bay Company.

The bay laurel, the "bay leaves" in common culinary use, are from a completely unrelated species, Laurus nobilis, and not the West Indian bay tree. Bay laurel can be used to produce a similar, although not identical, product.

title: Bay rum


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Talk:Logical and evidential arguments from evil

Should the paragraph criticizing Alvin Plantinga defence belong in this article? It seems to violate NPOV and seems more approprate as a counter-point in the Free will and the problem of evil section that discusses Plantinga’s argument.

OracleofTroy


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Joseph Gillott

Joseph Gillott (11 October 1799 – 5 January 1872) was an English pen-manufacturer and patron of the arts based in Birmingham.

Pen manufacturing
After a brief period of schooling, Gillott began working in the cutlery trade in his home town of Sheffield. In 1821 he moved to Birmingham, where he found employment in the steel toy trade, the technical name for the manufacture of steel buckles, chains and light ornamental steel-work generally.

About 1830 he turned his attention to the manufacture of steel dip pens by machinery. His company rapidly became successful and Gillott was soon a very wealthy man. It was rumoured locally that he buried some of his money in his cellar so that it did not become known that he had acquired so much. He certainly spread his cash across a number of bank accounts in Birmingham. In 1840 he opened his Victoria Works; the business employed mainly girls. Gillott also invested in the new railway companies and especially in property and land – not only in Birmingham, where he bought a large estate in Edgbaston, but also in London and Wales. The family home for many years was "The Grove" on Westbourne Road in Edgbaston.

Gillott was an often secretive man, both in business and in art collecting. He socialised with a small group of friends at the Hen and Chickens Hotel and the Theatre Royal (which he part-owned) in New Street, Birmingham.

Art interests
Gillott was an art collector – at first he exchanged pens for paintings – and one of the first to recognise the merits of J. M. W. Turner. He also collected paintings by Richard Wilson, Richard Parkes Bonington, Thomas Gainsborough and John Constable. He recognized the work of John Linnell and was the first to give him a good price. His collection of pictures, sold after his death, realised £170,000.

Death and legacy
Gillott died in Birmingham and was buried in Key Hill Cemetery.

A white marble bust of Gillott stands in the main foyer of Birmingham Council House.

In later years, Gillott's son, Joseph Gillott junior, purchased a considerable estate in the village of Catherine-de-Barnes, Solihull on which he built New Berry Hall, a large gothic mansion with North and South Lodges. He also built the school in the village.

A collection of Gillott's letters are held at the Cadbury Research Library, University of Birmingham.

title: Joseph Gillott


text:
The Chosen (Potok novel)

The Chosen is a novel written by Chaim Potok. It was first published in 1967. It follows the narrator, Reuven Malter, and his friend Daniel Saunders, as they grow up in the Williamsburg neighborhood in Brooklyn, New York, in the 1940s. A sequel featuring Reuven's young adult years, The Promise, was published in 1969.

Plot
In 1944 Brooklyn, fifteen-year-old Reuven Malter prepares to play a baseball game: his own Modern Orthodox school against a team from an ultra-orthodox Hasidic yeshiva. It becomes apparent that the only good player on the opposing team is Danny Saunders, the son of nearby Hasidic Rabbi Reb Saunders. The game becomes something of a war between the two teams, seemingly symbolic of their differing ideologies. In the last inning, with Reuven's team in the lead, Reuven is put in as pitcher. When Danny gets up to the plate, he hits a line drive straight at Reuven's head, which breaks his glasses and drives a small piece of glass into his eye. Reuven's team loses and Reuven is rushed to the hospital.

Danny comes to the hospital in an attempt to apologize, but Reuven is still livid at Danny and rejects his attempts, which angers Reuven's father, who reminds Reuven it is important to listen to someone who asks to be heard. When Danny returns the next day, Reuven forgives him and they quickly become friends.

Reuven learns that Danny possesses a photographic memory, enabling him to study an astonishing amount of Talmud per day (set by his father), yet still leaving him time to pursue other subjects. Danny tells Reuven that he goes to the library to read books on science and literature, and that a man at the library has been recommending books for him to read. Danny knows that he is expected to someday take over his father's position as the rabbi for his community, but wishes he did not have to and that instead, he could pursue psychology. Reuven would like to become a rabbi, though his father would like him to pursue academia. Reuven learns that his father, a teacher of Talmud, is the man who has been recommending books to Danny at the library.

When Reuven is released from the hospital, his father discusses the history of Hasidism with him. He then explains that only once in a generation a mind like Danny's is born, and that Danny cannot help his need for knowledge, but that Danny is also a lonely boy who needs a friend.

The next day, Reuven goes to Danny's family synagogue where he witnesses a discussion between Danny and his father which spans over the entire Talmud. After the Sabbath has ended, Danny reveals to Reuven that his father only speaks to him when they study Talmud together. The two boys also discover that they will be attending the same university, much to Reuven's delight. That Sunday, Danny and Reuven meet at the library, where Danny reveals his fascination with the human mind and his desire to study the works of Sigmund Freud, for which he is teaching himself German.

The next week, Reuven goes to the Saunders house again to study Talmud with Danny and his father. When Danny leaves the room to prepare tea, Rebbe Saunders reveals to Reuven that he knows about Danny's visits to the library and wants to know what Danny is reading. He adds that he knows he cannot prevent Danny from pursuing knowledge, but that he fears his son will lose his Orthodox faith. Reuven immediately tells Danny about the talk, and later, Reuven's father discerns that Reb Saunders used his conversation with Reuven to communicate with Danny indirectly.

The coming year is dominated by the Allied victory in World War Two, and the death of Franklin Roosevelt, which brings grief to the Malters. In addition, news of the Holocaust reaches American soil, which sends all the characters, especially Rabbi Saunders, into a state of depression. During the summer of that year, Reuven's father suffers a heart attack, and Reuven goes to stay in the Saunders home. At one meal, Reuven mentions that some feel it is time to establish a Jewish state, which sends Rabbi Saunders into a fierce tirade against Zionism: for the ultra-orthodox, a secular Jewish state established by man without the coming of the Messiah is against God's will.

The next year Danny and Reuven enter college at the Samson Raphael Hirsch College and Seminary. Danny is miserable because the psychology department at the university is only experimental psychology and not analytical. Eventually, Danny's psychology professor tells him that he should go into clinical psychology.

Later in the year, Reuven's father gives a speech at a Zionist rally, which is covered by the Orthodox press, and leads Rabbi Saunders to forbid Danny to have any contact with Reuven. Reuven does not cope well without his best friend and his grades begin to suffer. Soon afterward Reuven's father has a second heart attack followed by a lengthy hospitalization. Reuven copes with his father's absence by studying the Talmud with greater intensity, eventually mastering a very complicated section of the Talmud.

After two years, just as the violence in Palestine comes to an end (the 1948-49 Arab-Israeli war) and Reuven's father has recovered from his heart attack, Danny is allowed to resume his friendship with Reuven because the Jewish state is now a fact, and no longer a point of dissension.

As the years pass, Danny's father continues to remain silent with Danny. Danny reveals to Reuven that he will not take his father's place. Instead, he will apply to graduate school and pursue a doctorate in clinical psychology, and his younger brother, Levi, will assume the tzaddikate. Danny applies to Harvard, Columbia, and Berkeley. He is accepted into all three universities, but cannot understand why his father does not speak to him about it, because the acceptance letters came by mail and were surely seen.

On the first day of Passover in Danny and Reuven's senior year of college, Reb Saunders invites Reuven to their home to talk with him and Danny. Reb Saunders tells Reuven that he knows that Danny will not be assuming the rabbinate, that he has known for a long time, and he accepts it. He then explains why he raised Danny in silence: he feared that Danny's phenomenal intelligence would lead him to lack compassion for others. Therefore, he raised Danny in silence so that he could learn what it is to suffer, and therefore, have a soul. He also relates Danny to his older brother, who ran away from his homeland in Russia, became a secular professor and was murdered in Auschwitz.

Reb Saunders expresses his gratitude to Reuven and his father for helping Danny at the point where he was ready to rebel, to help Danny remain a part of the Orthodox Jewish tradition, even if he cannot assume the rabbi role. To his father's questions, Danny indicates that he will remove some of the visible indicators of Hasidism (his full beard and earlocks) but will remain an observer of the commandments. Reb Saunders says that Passover is the holiday of freedom and that he must let Danny be free.

That September, on his way to graduate school at Columbia, Danny comes for a brief visit without his beard and earlocks. He says that he and his father now talk.

Main characters
Reuven (Robert or Bobby) Malter: a Modern Orthodox Jew, and a teenage boy. He is smart, popular in his community, and has a head for mathematics and logic. His father wants him to be a mathematician when he grows up, but he desires to become a rabbi.

Daniel (Danny) Saunders: a Hasidic Jew, who is also a teenager. Brilliant with a photographic memory, he is interested in psychology (particularly Freudian psychoanalysis) but is lacking in aptitude for mathematics. He wants to become a psychologist, but he feels trapped by the Hasidic tradition which forces him into the role as next in line to succeed his father as Rabbi and tzaddik. This fact is a prominent personal conflict for Danny throughout the book.

David Malter (Reuven's father): a Talmudic scholar, writer, schoolteacher at his son's yeshiva, motivational speaker on acts of Zionism and a Zionist himself. He is considered a heretic by the Hasidim. David supports the creation of the state of Israel because of his belief in the Messianic Age, rather than a literal Messiah.

Rabbi Isaac Saunders (Reb Saunders): Rabbinic sage and tzaddik. He is Danny's father. Rabbi (spiritual leader/teacher) of a Hasidic group, whose role is dynastic (passed on from father to son). He moved his congregation from Russia to the United States before the October Revolution. He is against a secular Jewish nation-state because he believes this supersedes God's will. He is also against all who identify as Zionists and follow the belief of a Messianic Age and wish for a secular Jewish nation-state.

Literary themes
Literary themes within the book include widespread references to senses (especially sight), the pursuit of truth in a gray world, the strength of friendship, and the importance of father-son bonds. Many themes common to Potok's works prevail such as weak women and children, strong father figures, intellectual characters, and the strength and validity of faith in a modern secular world. Potok accentuates the importance of silence, and its role as a medium of communication. Throughout the book, there are numerous instances where Danny and Reuven both receive and process information in a non-verbal form. Potok explicitly introduces this topic by alluding to the relationship between Danny and his father, where there is no verbal communication between them, except during religious study. The two-year-long silence between Danny and Reuven, imposed by Reb Saunders, is also rich in communicative interactions between the two friends; however, it effectively shows the constraints that silence can impose between individuals.

Another important theme is the contrast of tradition to modernity. Reb Saunders insulates and isolates himself from the modern world, including Modern Orthodoxy, in everything from the method used to study Talmud to the creation of the state of Israel. This struggle between holding on to the traditions of one's culture in an ever-changing world and taking on the culture of the adopted home country was also faced by Danny and Reuven, both of whom were raised in a different environment from their parents and have found themselves in such a situation. It reflects the struggle that many immigrants and their children experience after arriving in America.

Film, TV or theatrical adaptations
The Chosen was made into a movie in 1981, and a short-lived off-Broadway musical was produced in 1988. It closed after a week of performances. The book was adapted into a stage play by Potok and Aaron Posner and premiered at the Arden Theater in 1999. Potok wrote a sequel titled The Promise.

Release information

 * 1967, USA, Simon & Schuster (ISBN 0-671-13674-7), pub date 28 April 1967, hardback (first edition)
 * 1967, UK, Heinemann (ISBN ?), pub date ? ? 1967, hardback

title: The Chosen (Potok novel)