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General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

The General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was the leader of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). From 1924 until the country's dissolution in 1991, the officeholder was the recognized leader of the Soviet Union. Prior to Stalin's accession, the position was not viewed as an important role in Lenin's government and previous occupants had been responsible for technical rather than political decisions.

Officially, the General Secretary solely controlled the Communist Party directly. However, since the party had a monopoly on political power, the General Secretary de facto had executive control of the Soviet government. Because of the office's ability to direct both the foreign and domestic policies of the state and preeminence over the Soviet Communist Party, it was the de facto highest office of the Soviet Union.

History
Before the October Revolution, the job of the party secretary was largely that of a bureaucrat. Following the Bolshevik seizure of power, the Office of the Responsible Secretary was established in 1919 to perform administrative work. After the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War, the Office of General Secretary was created by Vladimir Lenin in 1922 with the intention that it serve a purely administrative and disciplinary purpose. Its primary task would be to determine the composition of party membership and to assign positions within the party. The General Secretary also oversaw the recording of party events, and was entrusted with keeping party leaders and members informed about party activities.

When assembling his cabinet, Lenin appointed Joseph Stalin to be General Secretary. Over the next few years, Stalin was able to use the principles of democratic centralism to transform his office into that of party leader, and eventually leader of the Soviet Union. Trotsky attributed his appointment to the initial recommendation of Grigory Zinoviev. This view has been supported by several historians. According to Russian historian, Vadim Rogovin, Stalin's election to the position occurred after the Eleventh Party Congress (March–April 1922), in which Lenin, due to his poor health, participated only sporadically, and only attended four of the twelve sessions of the Congress.

Some historians have regarded the premature death of prominent Bolshevik Yakov Sverdlov to have been a key factor in facilitating the elevation of Joseph Stalin to the position of leadership in the Soviet Union. In part, because Sverdlov served as the original chairman of the party secretariat and was considered a natural candidate for the position of General Secretary.

Prior to Lenin's death in 1924, Stalin's tenure as General Secretary was already being criticized. In Lenin's final months, he authored a pamphlet that called for Stalin's removal on the grounds that Stalin was becoming authoritarian and abusing his power. The pamphlet triggered a political crisis which endangered Stalin's position as General Secretary, and a vote was held to remove him from office. With the help of Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev, Stalin was able to survive the scandal and remained in his post. After Lenin's death, Stalin began to consolidate his power by using the office of General Secretary. By 1928, he had unquestionably become the de facto leader of the USSR, while the position of General Secretary became the highest office in the nation. In 1934, the 17th Party Congress refrained from formally re-electing Stalin as General Secretary. However, Stalin was re-elected to all the other positions he held, and remained leader of the party without diminution.

In the 1950s, Stalin increasingly withdrew from Secretariat business, leaving the supervision of the body to Georgy Malenkov, possibly to test his abilities as a potential successor. In October 1952, at the 19th Party Congress, Stalin restructured the party's leadership. His request, voiced through Malenkov, to be relieved of his duties in the party secretariat due to his age, was rejected by the party congress, as delegates were unsure about Stalin's intentions. In the end, the congress formally abolished Stalin's office of General Secretary, although Stalin remained one of the party secretaries and maintained ultimate control of the party. When Stalin died on 5 March 1953, Malenkov was considered to be the most important member of the Secretariat, which also included Nikita Khrushchev, among others. Under a short-lived troika consisting of Malenkov, Beria, and Molotov, Malenkov became Chairman of the Council of Ministers, but was forced to resign from the Secretariat nine days later on 14 March. This effectively left Khrushchev in control of the government, and he was elected to the new office of First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union at the Central Committee plenum on 14 September that same year. Khrushchev subsequently outmanoeuvred his rivals, who sought to challenge his political reforms. He was able to comprehensively remove Malenkov, Molotov and Lazar Kaganovich (one of Stalin's oldest and closest associates) from power in 1957, an achievement which also helped to reinforce the supremacy of the position of First Secretary.

In 1964, opposition within the Politburo and the Central Committee, which had been increasing since the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis, led to Khrushchev's removal from office. Leonid Brezhnev succeeded Khrushchev as First Secretary, but was initially obliged to govern as part of a collective leadership, forming another troika with Premier Alexei Kosygin and Chairman Nikolai Podgorny. The office was renamed to General Secretary in 1966. The collective leadership was able to limit the powers of the General Secretary during the Brezhnev Era. Brezhnev's influence grew throughout the 1970s as he was able to retain support by avoiding any radical reforms. After Brezhnev's death, Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko were able to rule the country in the same way as Brezhnev had. Mikhail Gorbachev ruled the Soviet Union as General Secretary until 1990, when the Communist Party lost its monopoly of power over the political system. The office of President of the Soviet Union was established so that Gorbachev could still retain his role as leader of the Soviet Union. Following the failed August coup of 1991, Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary. He was succeeded by his deputy, Vladimir Ivashko, who only served for five days as Acting General Secretary before Boris Yeltsin, the newly elected President of Russia, suspended all activity in the Communist Party. Following the party's ban, the Union of Communist Parties – Communist Party of the Soviet Union (UCP–CPSU) was established by Oleg Shenin in 1993, and is dedicated to reviving and restoring the CPSU. The organisation has members in all the former Soviet republics.


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Victoriano Huerta

José Victoriano Huerta Márquez (23 December 1850 – 13 January 1916) was a general in the Mexican Federal Army and 39th President of Mexico, who came to power by coup against the democratically elected government of Francisco I. Madero with the aid of other Mexican generals and the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico. His violent seizure of power set off a new wave of armed conflict in the Mexican Revolution.

After a military career under President Porfirio Díaz and Interim President Francisco León de la Barra, Huerta became a high-ranking officer during the presidency of Madero during the first phase of the Mexican Revolution (1911–13). In February 1913, Huerta joined a conspiracy against Madero, who entrusted him to control a revolt in Mexico City. The Ten Tragic Days – actually fifteen days – saw the forced resignation of Madero and his vice president and their murders. The coup was backed by the nascent German Empire as well as the United States under the Taft administration. But the succeeding Wilson administration refused to recognize the new regime which had come to power by coup. The U.S. allowed arms sales to rebel forces. Many foreign powers did recognize the regime, including Britain and Germany, but withdrew further support when revolutionary forces started to show military success against the regime; their continuing support of him threatened their own relationships with the U.S. government.

Huerta's government resisted the U.S. incursion into the port of Veracruz that violated Mexico's sovereignty. Even Huerta's opponents agreed with his stance. The Constitutionalist Army, the forces of the northern coalition opposing Huerta, defeated the Federal Army. Huerta was forced to resign in July 1914 and flee the country to Spain, only 17 months into his presidency, after the Federal Army collapsed. While attempting to intrigue with German spies in the U.S. during World War I, Huerta was arrested in 1915 and died in U.S. custody.

His supporters were known as Huertistas during the Mexican Revolution. He is still vilified as a traitor by modern-day Mexicans, who generally refer to him as El Chacal ("The Jackal") or El Usurpador ("The Usurper").

Early life
According to the records in the books of the Parish Notary of Colotlán, José Victoriano Huerta Márquez was born and baptized on Monday, December 23, 1850, in the town of Colotlán. (Other sources indicate he was born on March 23, 1845, in the Agua Gorda ranch.) His parents were Jesús Huerta Córdoba, originally from Colotlán, Jalisco and María Lázara del Refugio Márquez Villalobos, originally from El Plateado, Zacatecas. His paternal grandparents were Rafael Huerta Benítez and María Isabel de la Trinidad Córdoba, the first originally from Villanueva, Zacatecas and the second from Colotlán, Jalisco and were his maternal grandparents José María Márquez and María Soledad Villalobos. He identified himself as indigenous, and both his parents are reported to have been ethnically Huichol, although his father is said to have been Mestizo. Huerta learned to read and write at a school run by the local priest, making him one of the relatively few literate people in Colotlán. He had decided upon a military career early on as the only way of escaping the poverty of Colotlán. In 1869 he was employed by visiting Gen. Donato Guerra to serve as his personal secretary. In that role he distinguished himself and, with Gen. Guerra's support, gained admission to the Mexican National Military Academy (Heroico Colegio Militar) at Chapultepec in Mexico City in 1872. As a cadet, Huerta excelled at math, leading him to specialize in artillery and topography.

Military career
Upon graduating from the military academy in 1877, Huerta was commissioned into the Corps of Engineers. After entering the army as a lieutenant in the engineers in 1877, he was put in charge of improving the Loreto and Guadalupe forts in Puebla and the castle of Perote in Veracruz. In January 1879 he was promoted to captain and assigned to the staff of the 4th Division in Guadalajara, in charge of engineering. The commander of the 4th Division was Gen. Manuel González, a close associate of President Porfirio Díaz and former president of Mexico (1880–84). In the interim, Huerta's career prospered thanks to the patronage of González. In Mexico City, he married Emilia Águila Moya, whom he met in Veracruz, on 21 November 1880. The marriage produced 11 children. The names of his children surviving him in 1916 were Jorge, María Elisa, Victor, Luz, Elena, Dagoberto, Eva and Celia. Huerta participated in the "pacification campaigns" in Tepic and Sinaloa, where he distinguished himself in combat. He was known for ensuring that his men always got paid, often resorting to finding the money in ruthless ways. Following a complaint from the Catholic Church that Huerta had plundered a church to sell off its gold and silver to pay his men, Huerta justified his actions on the grounds that "Mexico can do without her priests, but cannot do without her soldiers". On another occasion, following a complaint from a bank that he emptied out one of its branches at gunpoint to get money to pay his men, Huerta pointed out he left a receipt and would pay back the bank what he had stolen when he received the necessary funds from Mexico City. Huerta then spent nine years of his military career undertaking topographic studies in the states of Puebla and Veracruz. He traveled extensively to all parts of Mexico in this position. French cultural influence was very strong in 19th-century Mexico, and Huerta's hero was Napoleon. He supported Gen. Díaz as the closest approximation to his Napoleonic ideal, believing that Mexico needed a "strongman" to prosper.

By 1890 Huerta had reached the rank of Colonel of Engineers. From 1890 to 1895 Huerta lived in Mexico City, becoming a regular visitor to the presidential residence at Chapultepec Castle, and was seen as part of Díaz's "court". Through Huerta was well liked at the Chapultepec Castle, acquiring the persona of a trim, efficient officer who was stern to his subordinates while displaying a courtly, polished manner towards his superiors, he began to suffer from severe insomnia and began drinking heavily during this time. In January 1895 he commanded a battalion of infantry against a rebellion in Guerrero led by Gen. Canuto Neri. The rebellion was ended when Díaz brokered a deal with Neri, who surrendered in exchange for a promise to remove the unpopular state governor. Huerta confirmed his reputation for ruthlessness by refusing to take prisoners and continuing to attack the followers of Neri even after Díaz had signed a ceasefire. In December 1900 Huerta commanded a successful military campaign against the Yaqui in Sonora. During the near-genocidal campaign against the Yaqui, Huerta was more concerned with mapping out the terrain of Sonora, but at times he commanded forces in the field against the Yaqui. From 12 April-8 September 1901 Huerta put down a rebellion in Guerrero, completely "pacifying" the state. In May 1901 he was promoted to the rank of general. In 1901–02 he suppressed a Maya rising in Yucatán. He commanded about 500 men in his campaign against the Maya, starting in October 1901, and fought 79 different actions over the course of 39 days. Huerta was then promoted to Brigadier General and awarded the Medal of Military Merit In May 1902 he was promoted commander of federal army forces in Yucatán, and in October 1902 he reported to Díaz that he had "pacified" the Yucatán. During the campaign in Yucatán he became increasingly dependent on alcohol to continue functioning. His health began to decline, and perhaps because of his heavy drinking he complained he could not go outside in the sunshine without wearing sunglasses, and he suffered bouts of uncontrollable nervous shaking. His decaying teeth caused him much pain. In August 1903 he was appointed to head a committee tasked with reforming the uniforms of the federal army. In 1907 he retired from the army on grounds of ill health, having developed cataracts while serving in the southern jungles. He then applied his technical training by taking up the position of Head of Public Works in Monterrey and planning a new street layout for the city.

Mexican Revolution under Madero
On the eve of the 1910 Revolution against the long-established Díaz regime, Huerta was teaching mathematics in Mexico City. He applied successfully to rejoin the army with his former rank and was accepted. He did not play a major role in the early stages of the Revolution that led to the resignation of Díaz, although he commanded the military escort that gave Díaz safe conduct into exile in May 1911. During the interim presidency of Francisco León de la Barra following the resignation of Díaz and the election of Francisco I. Madero in November 1911, General Huerta carried out a campaign in Morelos, attempting to crush the rebellion led by Emilio Zapata. Huerta's forces burned villages supporting the rebellion and attacked their residents. These actions frustrated Madero's later attempts to placate those rebels. Huerta had a record of opposing revolutionaries and intrigues with Madero's enemies. Huerta's actions in Morelos forced a break between Emiliano Zapata and Madero, who was later to rebel against Madero immediately after his November 1911 election.

Despite the fact that revolutionary forces supporting Madero had forced Díaz's resignation, Madero ordered them demobilized and retained the Mexican Federal Army they had just defeated. Huerta pledged allegiance to President Madero, and carried out Madero's orders to crush anti-Madero revolts by rebel generals such as Pascual Orozco, who had helped topple Díaz and then rebelled against his regime. In the Orozco rebellion, Huerta saw the opportunity to eliminate revolutionary general Pancho Villa, who was also attempting to suppress the revolt. Accused of stealing a horse, Villa then faced execution by Huerta without trial. Only Madero's last minute intervention saved the life of one of his most effective generals.

Orozco's rebellion was a major threat to the Madero government, since he had standing as a revolutionary and commanded significant forces. Madero sent Huerta to crush the rebellion. He had at his command troops of the Mexican Federal Army and these were joined by irregulars led by Pancho Villa, at Torreón in April 1912. Huerta offered Orozco's supporters (Orozquistas) amnesty, which might have weakened their forces already suffering from lack of money and arms. Huerta's forces defeated Orozco's at Rellano in May 1912. With that victory Huerta "had suddenly become a military hero with a national reputation."

Huerta and Madero's overthrow
As Madero lost support and as internal and external groups plotted to remove him from the presidency, Huerta secretly joined the conspiracy. The coup d'état that toppled Madero in February 1913, known in Mexican history as the Ten Tragic Days, was a conspiracy of Porfirio Díaz's nephew, General Félix Díaz, General Bernardo Reyes, and General Madragón. The plotters attempted to draw in Huerta in January, but Huerta waited for a better incentive to join, since Félix Díaz expected to be the successor to Madero. The first day of the coup, February 9, General Reyes died in battle and General Lauro Villar, the commander of Madero's forces in Mexico City, was wounded. Madero appointed Huerta in his stead. According to historian Friedrich Katz, "It was a decision for which [Madero] would pay with his life." Having secured that key position, Huerta reopened negotiations with the plotters and joined them in secret. His task was to undermine Madero militarily without betraying his own complicity and began military operations that weakened Madero's forces. The United States Ambassador to Mexico, Henry Lane Wilson, was an active participant in the plot to overthrow Madero. Ambassador Wilson believed that Huerta would not have staged a coup had the United States not assured them that it would recognize the new regime. Following a confused few days of fighting in Mexico City between loyalist and rebel factions of the army, Huerta had Madero and vice-president José María Pino Suárez seized and briefly imprisoned on 18 February 1913 in the National Palace. The conspirators then met at the US Embassy to sign El Pacto de la Embajada (The Embassy Pact), which provided for the exile of Madero and Pino Suárez and Huerta's takeover of the Mexican government.

La Mano Dura: Presidency of Mexico
To give the coup the appearance of legitimacy, Huerta had foreign minister Pedro Lascuráin assume the presidency; under the 1857 Constitution of Mexico, the foreign minister stood third in line for the presidency behind the Vice President and Attorney General; Madero's attorney general had also been ousted in the coup. Lascuráin then appointed Huerta as Secretary of the Interior, making him next in line for the presidency. After less than an hour in office (some sources say as little as 15 minutes), Lascuráin resigned, handing the presidency to Huerta. At a late-night special session of Congress surrounded by Huerta's troops, the legislators endorsed his assumption of power. Four days later Madero and Pino Suárez were taken from the National Palace to prison at night and shot by officers of the rurales (federal police), who were assumed to be acting on Huerta's orders.

The Huerta government was promptly recognized by all the western European governments, but not the government of the United States. The outgoing US administration of William Howard Taft refused to recognize the new government, as a way of pressuring Mexico to end the Chamizal border dispute in favor of the US, with the plan being to trade recognition for settling the dispute on American terms. Newly inaugurated U.S. president Woodrow Wilson had a general bias in favor of liberal democracy and had distaste for Gen. Huerta, who had come to power by coup and was implicated in the murder of Madero, but was initially open to recognizing Huerta provided that he could "win" an election that would give him a democratic veneer. Félix Díaz and the rest of the conservative leaders had seen Huerta as a transitional leader and pressed for early elections, which they expected to be won by Díaz on a Catholic conservative platform, and were rudely surprised when they discovered Huerta wanted to keep the presidency for himself. Huerta moved quickly to consolidate power within Mexico with the support of state governors. Huerta sought support from Pascual Orozco, whose rebellion against Madero Huerta had been in charge of suppressing. Orozco still held the leadership of significant forces in Chihuahua and potentially in Durango, so gaining his support was important to Huerta. Orozco had rebelled against Madero and Huerta had overthrown him, so there was the possibility of gaining his support. During a meeting of representatives of Huerta's government and Orozco's forces, Orozco laid out his terms for supporting Huerta. He sought recognition of his soldiers' service to the overthrown of Madero and pay; pensions and care of soldiers' widows and orphans, agrarian reforms, government payment of Orozquista debts that financed the campaign against Madero, and employment of Orozquistas as rurales. Huerta agreed to the terms, and Orozco threw his support to Huerta on 27 February 1913. Orozco sought to persuade Emiliano Zapata to make peace with Huerta regime. Zapata had held Orozco in high esteem as a fellow revolutionary who had rejected the Madero regime. However, for Zapata, Orozco's support of Huerta was anathema, saying "Huerta represents the defection of the army. You represent the defection of the Revolution."

Huerta attempted to build further support for his government, and the urban working class in Mexico City made important gains before being suppressed. In particular, the leftist Casa del Obrero Mundial (House of the World Worker). The Casa organized demonstrations and strikes, which the Huerta regime initially tolerated. But then the government cracked down, arresting and deporting some leaders, and destroying the Casa's headquarters. Huerta also sought to diffuse agrarian agitation, which fueled the rebellion in Morelos led by Emiliano Zapata. The most vocal intellectual in favor of land reform was Andrés Molina Enríquez, whose 1909 publication Los grandes problemas nacionales (The Great National Problems) focused on inequality of land tenure. Molina Enríquez joined the Huerta government heading the Department of Labor. He had denounced the overthrow of Madero, but "initially saw in the Huerta regime the political formula he believed Mexico required: a strong military leader capable of imposing the social reforms Mexico needed to benefit the masses." However, despite internal support in the Huerta regime for reform, Huerta increasingly embraced militarization and Molina Enríquez resigned.

Chihuahua Gov. Abraham González refused and Huerta had him arrested and murdered in March 1913. The most important challenge from a state governor was by Venustiano Carranza, governor of Coahuila, who drafted the Plan of Guadalupe, calling for the creation of a Constitutionalist Army (evoking the 1857 Liberal Constitution) to oust the usurper Huerta and restore constitutional government. Supporters of Carranza's plan included Emiliano Zapata, who nonetheless remained loyal to his own Plan de Ayala; northern revolutionary Francisco "Pancho" Villa; and Álvaro Obregón. However, former revolutionary Gen. Pascual Orozco, whom Huerta fought when serving President Madero, now joined with Huerta as a counter-revolutionary. Four Deputies were executed over the summer of 1913 for criticizing the Huerta regime. One deputy was arrested by Mexico City police as he was delivering a speech denouncing Huerta at a rally and taken out to the countryside, where he was "shot while trying to escape". Lacking popular legitimacy, Huerta chose to turn the refusal of the US to recognize his government as an example of American "interference" in Mexico's internal affairs, organizing anti-American demonstrations in the summer of 1913 with the hope of gaining some popular support.

British historian Alan Knight wrote about Huerta: "The consistent thread which ran through the Huerta regime, from start to finish, was militarisation: the growth and reliance on the Federal Army, the military takeover of public offices, the preference for military over political solutions, the militarisation of society in general". Huerta "came very close to converting Mexico into the most completely militaristic state in the world." Huerta's stated goal was a return to the "order" of the Porfiriato, but his methods were unlike those of Diaz, who had shown a talent for compromise and diplomacy; seeking support from and playing off regional elites, using not only army officers but also technocrats, former guerrilla leaders, caciques and provincial elites to support his regime. By contrast, Huerta relied entirely upon the army for support, giving officers all of the key jobs, regardless of their talents, as Huerta sought to rule with La Mano Dura ("The Iron Hand"), believing only in military solutions to all problems. For this reason, Huerta during his short time as president was the object of far more hatred than Diaz ever was; even the Zapatistas had a certain respect for Diaz as a patriarchal leader who had enough sense to finally leave with dignity in 1911, whereas Huerta was seen as a thuggish soldier who had Madero murdered and sought to terrorize the nation into submission. Huerta disliked cabinet meetings, ordered his ministers about as if they were non-commissioned officers and displayed in general a highly autocratic style. Huerta established a harsh military dictatorship. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson became hostile to the Huerta administration, recalled ambassador Henry Lane Wilson and demanded Huerta step aside for democratic elections. In August 1913 Wilson imposed an arms embargo on Mexico, forcing Huerta to turn to Europe and Japan to buy arms.

The Federal Army Huerta took over in February 1913 on paper numbered between 45,000 and 50,000 men. Huerta continued to increase the strength of the army, issuing a decree for conscripting 150,000 men in October 1913; another decree for conscripting 200,000 men in January 1914 and one for a quarter of million men in March 1914. These figures were never achieved as many men fled to fight for the Constitutionalists rather than Huerta. Together with an increase in the number of the paramilitary rurales mounted police force and the state militias, Huerta had approximately 300,000 men, or about 4% of the population, fighting for him by early 1914. Faced with Mexicans' widespread reluctance to serve, Huerta had to resort to the leva, as vagrants, criminals, captured rebels, political prisoners and sometimes just men on the streets were rounded up to serve in the Federal Army. In Veracruz workers getting off the night shift at factories were rounded up in a leva (forced conscription), while in Mexico City poor men going to hospitals were rounded up in the leva. As Indians were felt to be particularly docile and submissive to whites, the leva was applied especially heavily in southern Mexico, where the majority of the people were indigenous. Thousands of Juchiteco and Maya were rounded up to fight a war in the north of Mexico that they felt did not concern them. A visitor to Mérida, Yucatán wrote of "heart-breaking" scenes as hundreds of Maya said goodbye to their wives as they were forced to board a train while in chains.

The men rounded up in the leva proved to be poor soldiers, prone to desertion and mutiny, since they were serving against their will and felt hatred for their commanding officers. Officers mistreated both their enlisted men and the common people. Huerta had to follow a defensive strategy of keeping the army concentrated in large towns, since his soldiers in the field would either desert or go over to the rebels. Throughout the civil war of 1913–14 the Constitutionalists fought with a ferocity and courage that the federal army never managed. In Yucatán about 70% of the army were men conscripted from the prisons, while one "volunteer" battalion consisted of captured Yaqui. In October 1913, in the town of Tlalnepantla, the army's 9th Regiment, which was said to have been "crazed with alcohol and marijuana", mutinied, murdered their officers and went over to the rebels.

To secure volunteers, Huerta attempted to use Mexican nationalism and anti-Americanism. In the fall of 1913, running spurious stories in the press warning of an imminent U.S. invasion and asking for patriotic men to step up to defend Mexico. The campaign attracted some volunteers from the lower middle class, through they were usually disillusioned when they learned that they were going to fight other Mexicans, not the Americans. In rural Mexico a sense of Mexican nationalism barely existed at this time among the campesinos. Mexico was an abstract entity that meant nothing, and most peasants were primarily loyal to their own villages, the patria chicas. Huerta's patriotic campaign was a complete failure in the countryside. The other source of volunteers was provided by allowing wealthy landlords to raise private armies under the guise of the state militias, but few peons wanted to fight, let alone die, for Gen. Huerta, since some Constitutionalists were promising land reform, although not First Chief Venustiano Carranza.

When Huerta refused to call elections, and with the situation further exacerbated by the Tampico Affair, President Wilson landed US troops to occupy Mexico's most important seaport, Veracruz.

After the Federal Army was repeatedly defeated in battle by Constitutionalist generals Alvaro Obregón and Pancho Villa, climaxing in the Battle of Zacatecas, Huerta bowed to internal and external pressure and resigned the presidency on 15 July 1914.

Exile, late life and death
Huerta went into exile, first traveling to Kingston, Jamaica, aboard the German cruiser SMS Dresden. From there he moved to the United Kingdom, then Spain, finally arriving in the United States in April 1915.

While in the US he negotiated with Capt. Franz von Rintelen of German Navy Intelligence for money to purchase weapons and arrange U-boat landings to provide support, while offering (perhaps as a bargaining chip) to make war on the US, which Germany hoped would end munitions supplies to the Allies. Their meetings, held at the Manhattan Hotel (as well as another New York hotel, "probably the Holland House" at Fifth Avenue and 30th Street), were observed by Secret Servicemen, and von Rintelen's telephone conversations were routinely intercepted and recorded.

Huerta traveled from New York by train to Newman, New Mexico (25 mi from the border), where he was to be met by Gen. Pascual Orozco and some well-armed Mexican supporters. However, a US Army colonel with 25 soldiers and two deputy US marshals intervened and arrested him as he left the train, on a charge of sedition. The German-initiated plan for Huerta to regain the Mexican presidency through a coup d'état was foiled. After some time in a US Army prison at Fort Bliss he was released on bail, but remained under house arrest due to risk of flight to Mexico. A day after, he attended a dinner at Fort Bliss. Later he was returned to jail, and while so confined died, perhaps of cirrhosis of the liver or possibly of cancer. While the main symptom was yellow jaundice, poisoning by the US was widely suspected. In The Dark Invader (published 1933), Capt. von Rintelen wrote that he had heard that Huerta was poisoned by his cook; but that he had never found out the truth.

Legacy
In the historiography of Mexico, Victoriano Huerta is the "demon" of the Mexican Revolution, against whom all others are measured. Diverse factions and interests in Mexico came together against the Huerta regime, including the Zapatistas in Morelos and the Constitutionalists in northern Mexico under Venustiano Carranza. Once Huerta was ousted, the loose coalition fell apart and Mexico was plunged into a civil war between the winners. Germany's backing of Huerta weakened their influence in Mexico while the hostility of the United States to the regime increased it. Although U.S. business interests had hoped that President Wilson would recognize the Huerta government, they realized he would not and began aligning themselves with different revolutionary factions. One historian argues that Huerta's regime was not as conservative or reactionary as portrayed, arguing that he did not attempt to "reincarnate" the Age of Díaz. "Huerta and his advisors both realized the days of Díaz were gone forever. They did not attempt to stem the new energies and forces unleashed in 1910; rather they attempted to moderate them." In general, however, his regime is seen as a repudiation of democracy and Huerta himself an iron-fisted authoritarian. Despite efforts in Mexico to redress the exclusion of Andrés Molina Enríquez from the pantheon of Mexican revolutionaries—since he is considered the intellectual father of the Article 27 of the 1917 Constitution of Mexico, which empowered the state to implement land reform and expropriate private owners of resources like oil—Molina Enríquez is usually considered by Mexican historiography as "tainted" due to his service in the Huerta government.

In popular culture
Huerta has been portrayed or referenced in any number of movies dealing with the Mexican Revolution, including The Wild Bunch, Duck, You Sucker! and And Starring Pancho Villa as Himself.

In the 1952 film Viva Zapata!, starring Marlon Brando as Emiliano Zapata, Huerta is portrayed by Frank Silvera.

In the 1968 film Villa Rides, Huerta was played by Herbert Lom.

In the novel The Friends of Pancho Villa (1996), by James Carlos Blake, Huerta is a major character.

Both Victoriano Huerta and Pancho Villa are referenced in Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008), when Indiana (Harrison Ford) is recalling events in his childhood to his yet-to-be revealed son (Shia LaBeouf): "It was a fight against Victoriano Huerta". He then spits on the ground to show disgust at the name.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Victoriano Huerta


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1923 in sports

1923 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.

American football
NFL championship College championship
 * Canton Bulldogs (11–0–1)
 * Illinois Fighting Illini – college football national championship

Association football
Bulgaria England Germany Romania Spain Turkey
 * Formation of the Bulgarian Football Union (BFU)
 * The Football League – Liverpool 60 points, Sunderland 54, Huddersfield Town 53, Newcastle United 48, Everton 47, Aston Villa 46
 * FA Cup final – Bolton Wanderers 2–0 West Ham United at Empire Stadium, Wembley, London. The match, known as the "White Horse Final", is the inaugural Wembley final.
 * The Third Division North expands from 20 to 22 clubs, bringing the total number of Football League clubs to 88. With Stalybridge Celtic expelled, the new clubs are Doncaster Rovers, New Brighton (1923–1951) and Bournemouth & Boscombe Athletic.
 * National Championship – Hamburger SV 3–0 Union Oberschöneweide at Berlin
 * Rapid București is founded under the name "Cultural and Sporting Association CFR" (in Romanian: Asociatia culturala si sportiva C.F.R.) by a group of workers at the Grivita workshops.
 * Celta de Vigo is founded after the merger of Real Vigo Sporting and Real Club Fortuna de Vigo.
 * Club Deportivo Villarreal, official founded on March 10, as predecessor for Villarreal CF.
 * Formation of the Turkish Football Federation (Türkiye Futbol Federasyonu or TFF)
 * Genclerbirligi of Ankara officially founded on March 14.

Athletics
Monaco
 * third Women's Olympiad in Monte Carlo

UK
 * First British Track & Field championships for women, London

US
 * First American Track & Field championships for women, New Jersey

Australian rules football
VFL Premiership South Australian Football League West Australian Football League
 * 13 October – Essendon wins the 27th VFL Premiership, defeating Fitzroy 8.15 (63) to 6.10 (46) at Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) in the 1923 VFL Grand Final.
 * 29 September – Norwood 9.12 (66) defeats North Adelaide 6.4 (40) to win its second successive SAFL premiership
 * Magarey Medal won by Horrie Riley (Sturt)
 * 6 October – East Perth win its fifth consecutive premiership, beating East Fremantle 9.9 (63) to 7.4 (46)
 * Sandover Medal won by "Digger" Thomas (East Perth)

Bandy
Sweden
 * Championship final – Västerås SK 2-1 IF Linnéa

Baseball
World Series Major League Baseball Negro leagues
 * 10–15 October — New York Yankees (AL) defeats New York Giants (NL) to win the 1923 World Series by 4 games to 2
 * 18 April — opening of the original Yankee Stadium in the Bronx
 * The Eastern Colored League (ECL) plays its first season with six teams: Hilldale Daisies, Brooklyn Royal Giants, Cuban Stars (East), New York Lincoln Giants, Atlantic City Bacharach Giants, and Baltimore Black Sox. Hilldale wins the first pennant. Afterward the league votes for expansion to eight teams, accepting the Harrisburg Giants and the Washington Potomacs.
 * The Negro National League completes its fourth season with the Kansas City Monarchs winning their first pennant after three years of domination by Rube Foster's Chicago American Giants. The other teams in the league are Indianapolis ABC's, Detroit Stars, St. Louis Stars, Cuban Stars (West), Toledo Tigers, and Milwaukee Bears. The Tigers and Bears disband during the season and three teams play under "associate" status for the remainder of the season: Cleveland Tate Stars, Birmingham Black Barons, and Memphis Red Sox.
 * Oscar "Heavy" Johnson wins the NNL triple crown, leading in batting average, home runs, and RBI, while Wilbur "Bullet" Rogan leads in wins and strikeouts. Raleigh "Biz" Mackey is the batting leader in the ECL with Jesse "Nip" Winters leading in most pitching categories.
 * There is no World Series between the two champions this year, owing to enmity between Rube Foster and the ECL president Ed Bolden

Boxing
Events Lineal world champions
 * 18 June — Jimmy Wilde's long reign as World Flyweight Champion ends when he is knocked out by Filipino Pancho Villa in the 7th round in New York City
 * 31 August — Harry Greb, arguably the greatest-ever middleweight, takes the world title when he defeats Johnny Wilson over 15 rounds in New York City
 * 14 September — Jack Dempsey knocks out Luis Firpo in the second round of a sensational fight at the Polo Grounds in New York City to retain his World Heavyweight Championship title.
 * World Heavyweight Championship – Jack Dempsey
 * World Light Heavyweight Championship – Battling Siki → Mike McTigue
 * World Middleweight Championship – Johnny Wilson → Harry Greb
 * World Welterweight Championship – Mickey Walker
 * World Lightweight Championship – Benny Leonard
 * World Featherweight Championship – Johnny Kilbane → Eugene Criqui → Johnny Dundee
 * World Bantamweight Championship – Joe Lynch
 * World Flyweight Championship – Jimmy Wilde → Pancho Villa

Canadian football
Grey Cup
 * 11th Grey Cup in the Canadian Football League – Queen's University 54–0 Regina Roughriders

Cricket
Events England Australia India New Zealand South Africa West Indies
 * In a cool, damp English summer, a West Indian team is on tour, winning six and losing seven first-class matches.
 * County Championship – Yorkshire
 * Minor Counties Championship – Buckinghamshire
 * Most runs – Patsy Hendren 2934 @ 77.21 (HS 200*)
 * Most wickets – Maurice Tate 219 @ 13.97 (BB 8–30)
 * Wisden Cricketers of the Year – Arthur Gilligan, Roy Kilner, George Macaulay, Cec Parkin, Maurice Tate
 * Sheffield Shield – New South Wales
 * Most runs – Percy Chapman 782 @ 65.16 (HS 134*)
 * Most wickets – Arthur Mailey 55 @ 21.58 (BB 6–45)
 * Bombay Quadrangular – Parsees
 * Plunket Shield – Canterbury
 * Currie Cup – not contested
 * Inter-Colonial Tournament – not contested

Cycling
Tour de France Giro d'Italia
 * Henri Pélissier (France) wins the 17th Tour de France
 * Costante Girardengo of Maino wins the eleventh Giro d'Italia

Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships
 * World Men's Champion – Fritz Kachler (Austria)
 * World Women's Champion – Herma Szabo (Austria)
 * World Pairs Champions – Ludowika Jakobsson-Eilers and Walter Jakobsson (Finland)

Golf
Major tournaments Other tournaments
 * British Open – Arthur Havers
 * US Open – Bobby Jones
 * USPGA Championship – Gene Sarazen
 * British Amateur – Roger Wethered
 * US Amateur – Max Marston

Horse racing
England Australia Canada France Ireland USA
 * Grand National – Sergeant Murphy
 * 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Tranquil
 * 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Ellangowan
 * The Derby – Papyrus
 * The Oaks – Brownhylda
 * St. Leger Stakes – Tranquil
 * Melbourne Cup – Bitalli
 * King's Plate – Flowerful
 * Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe – Parth
 * Irish Grand National – Be Careful
 * Irish Derby Stakes – Waygood
 * Kentucky Derby – Zev
 * Preakness Stakes – Vigil
 * Belmont Stakes – Zev

Ice hockey
Stanley Cup Sweden
 * 29–31 March — Ottawa Senators wins the Stanley Cup for the fifth time, defeating the Edmonton Eskimos by 2 games to 0 in the 1923 Stanley Cup Finals
 * Klass I, a professional ice hockey league in Sweden, as predecessor for Swedish Hockey League, first officially game held on January 23.

Multi-sport events
Far Eastern Championship Games
 * The 6th Far Eastern Championship Games is held at Osaka, Japan.

Rowing
The Boat Race
 * 24 March — Oxford wins the 75th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race

Rugby league
England Australia
 * Championship – Hull Kingston Rovers
 * Challenge Cup final – Leeds 28–3 Hull F.C. at Belle Vue, Wakefield
 * Lancashire League Championship – Wigan
 * Yorkshire League Championship – Hull
 * Lancashire County Cup – Wigan 20–2 Leigh
 * Yorkshire County Cup – York 5–0 Batley
 * NSW Premiership – Eastern Suburbs 15–12 South Sydney (grand final)

Rugby union
Five Nations Championship
 * 36th Five Nations Championship series is won by England who complete the Grand Slam.

Speed skating
Speed Skating World Championships
 * Men's All-round Champion – Clas Thunberg (Finland)

Tennis
Australia England France USA Davis Cup
 * Australian Men's Singles Championship – Pat O'Hara Wood (Australia) defeats Bert St. John (Australia) 6–1 6–1 6–3
 * Australian Women's Singles Championship – Margaret Molesworth (Australia) defeats Esna Boyd Robertson (Australia) 6–1 7–5
 * Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Bill Johnston (USA) defeats Francis Hunter (USA) 6–0 6–3 6–1
 * Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Suzanne Lenglen (France) defeats Kitty McKane Godfree (Great Britain) 6–2 6–2
 * French Men's Singles Championship – François Blanchy (France) defeats Max Decugis (France) 1–6 6–2 6–0 6–2
 * French Women's Singles Championship – Suzanne Lenglen (France) defeats Germaine Golding (France) 6–1 6–4
 * American Men's Singles Championship – Bill Tilden (USA) defeats Bill Johnston (USA) 6–4 6–1 6–4
 * American Women's Singles Championship – Helen Wills Moody (USA) defeats Molla Bjurstedt Mallory (Norway) 6–2 6–1
 * 1923 International Lawn Tennis Challenge – 4–1  at West Side Tennis Club (grass) New York City, United States

title: 1923 in sports


text:
Talk:History of the socialist movement in the United Kingdom

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 20 August 2018 and 14 December 2018. Further details are available on the course page. Peer reviewers: BrookeBallard.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 23:43, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Suggestions for improving the article
Saul Taylor 04:06, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Something about the British far-left, very few people wouldn't consider them socialist, and many, many people would find the idea that New Labour are even remotely socialist would be laughable. There are lots of good articles here abot the various far left parties but there isn't an overview. Theres no reason not to include them, Wiki is not paper.
 * The Communist Party of Great Britain did have some importance, including parlimentary representation.
 * The Scottish Socialist Party have seats in the Scottish Parliment and the RMT have affiliated to them in some regions.
 * You might not consider Trotskyism to be significant but that would be very POV
 * The Socialist Party of Great Britain is a very old political party, almost as old as the Labour Party, and that fact alone is significant
 * The SNP and Playd Cymru consider themselves Socialist don't they?
 * The SDLP are members of the Socialist International along with the Labour Party
 * Sinn Féin consider themselves socialist
 * Some mention of Anarchism

 * I've begun working on the article. I've started by trying to address the pre-1910 period.  This section, I think, still needs much more on trade unions, including the founding of the TUC, more on the Chartists, the 1832 Reform Act and the national strike of 1820.

 * For the post-1910 period, I think Saul Taylor's points are good, and I also hope to cover Red Clydeside, the Suffragette movement, the CPGB split with Moscow, attitudes to WWI and WWII, the later trade union movement, Militant, the 1984 Miners Strike (honestly, an article on socialism in Britain which doesn't even mention it!), the SDP, the Poll Tax, the 2003 Iraq War and the "anti-globalisation" movement. Warofdreams 17:47, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * I've now covered every subject in the article, with the exceptions of the 1832 Reform Act and the Irish topics (many of which have little bearing on British socialism). Warofdreams 22:00, 23 Mar 2004 (UTC)

(Re Origins:) Am reading E.P. Thompson, /Making of the English Working Class/ at present (--- should perh go in a further reading section?): but something about Thomas Paine and Thomas Spence as forebears of Owen might not go amiss. Thoughts? Omicron18 07:33, 15 August 2007 (UTC)

Arguments for socialism by Tony Benn has a chapter on the history of the labour movement and socialism in Britain. It contains a lot of useful references - especially the chrisitan socialist interation, which he suggests is fundamental and particularly distinctive. Kathybramley (talk) 11:58, 28 March 2011 (UTC)

Neutrality
Is anybody still disputing the neutrality of this article, or should the header be removed G-Man 19:53, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

bourgeois revolutions
I changed the link to just revolution as there is no padge for bourgeois revolution, the revolution padge is a mess and doesn't even mention the Marxist concept of Bour'revo's but, at mo, nothing better to link to. Some one should have a go sort out revo page. --JK the unwise 12:02, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Article division
I have divided the article into centuries; I think the 20th century should be further divided into pre-WWII and post-WWII (in the main outline and not as sub-divisions).

Maybe someone could write an introduction for each century (19+20), summarising the important points, these are:
 * The 19th century
 * Peterloo massacre.
 * Legalization of unions.
 * Chartist's movement.
 * International Workingmen's Association (This also should be added to the article ).
 * The rise of the trade unions.
 * The 20th century
 * Political representation.
 * The general strike.
 * The Attlee government and the welfare state.
 * The rise of reformism (right-wing labour leaders).

I also added a section about the Chartist movement; an article with the title "History of British socialism" without a section about the Chartists is not worth its name.

Doesn't Unitarianism belong in the section Ethical socialism? I don't really know much about the movement, only that Elizabeth Gaskell was married to a Unitarian minister.

Also in the section Trade unions it's not clear that before 1824 combinations (unions) were illegal, there is also no mention of the (Peterloo) massacre in Manchaster.

The section Lib-Labs and the ILP, I believe, does not belong in this article; it's about the origin of the political representation of labour and not British socialism per se. The Liberals were never socialists, why talk about them? Instead of talking about the liberals the article needs a section about the growth of the trade unions in the 1880's and 1890's espicially in the ranks of the unskilled workers (dockers, women, etc.).

The Origins section, also, needs a lot of work. The Reformation did not occure later in Britain than mainland Europe, and even if that's true I don't see the point of this remark in this article. Socialism is not a religion, but it might express itself through religion. This section should cover the following points: The part about the English revolution and how Marxists view it has no place in this article; it should be moved to an article that discusses the revolution and not socialism. There is a difference between class struggle and socialism, a history of socialism should not be about class struggle, otherwise we'll have to start with the Romans; the revolution was the culmination of the struggle between two classes, nobles and bourgeois. (For source material, about the points above, see: Cromwell and Communism by Eduard Bernstein) — Preceding unsigned comment added by User: (talk • contribs)
 * The Levellers
 * The Diggers.
 * The Quakers.
 * John Bellers.
 * Social and economic change.

I agree with the above suggestions about points to cover, they were on my mind as i wrote my quick dip into 'improvements' section above (had to answer the door). I will dig Tony Benn's Arguments for socialism out at some point. I wrote a review of the book on Amazon if anyone is interested. Benn sent me my copy for free when I was at school, so I hope it isn't construed as advertising, I am trying to establish consensus on good sources by referring you to it. The part on historical development is the best part of the book [[[User:Kathybramley|Kathybramley]] (talk) 16:20, 28 March 2011 (UTC)

"anti-working class legislation"
I removed the statement that privatisation was "anti-working class legislation" because it's a POV comment and not neutral at all. - Johnbull 19:34, 16 September 2005 (UTC)

 * The legislation is clearly anti-working class, whether that is good for the overall economy or not is a matter of POV! I think the statement should be re-inserted. --DelftUser 18:37, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

 * It isn't anti-working class, many workers purchased shares in privatised utilities and many working-class people benefited from the move from state owned council housing to private home-ownership. They would not have won elections if they didn't have working class votes. Any statement that privatisation is 'anti-working class' is clearly POV and not neutral.-Johnbull 19:09, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

 * "many workers purchased shares in privatised utilities", oh really, name one! Maybe the legislation lifted an insignificant percentage of workers on the social ladder, but then they aren't workers and no longer belong to the working class! As to "private home-ownership" workers don't own their homes the bank does, workers pay the mortgage! I still claim that the legislation is anti-working class by it's nature, whether that is good or not is POV. --DelftUser 19:23, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

(In case you think I haven't worked on this article I want to point out that I am the one who divided the article into centuries and wrote the big comment, above, about that.--DelftUser 19:27, 19 December 2005 (UTC))

 * They do eventually do get to own their home. More skilled workers in 1983 and 1987 voted Tory than Labour . I don't think these working-class people would vote for a party that passed "anti-working class legislation". The claim that privatisation is anti-working class is POV and represents a Socialist viewpoint and is therefore against Wiki policy.Johnbull 19:42, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

UK/Britain
This article doesn't cover Ireland, and I don't believe it would make sense to include it. Britain and Ireland have had quite distinct socialist movements, although both have agreed that a united Ireland is desirable, so those socialist groups operating in Northern Ireland are the same as those in the Republic. As a result, I plan to move this article back to history of socialism in Britain. Warofdreams talk 17:27, 9 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I see! Perhaps you could consider Great Britain for the name? Talrias (t | e | c) 17:30, 9 December 2005 (UTC)

Christian Socialists
Would it be worthwhile to make more of the mention of the Christian Socialists in the 19th Century section? Despite their brief period of activism, they did have some influence, particularly over the ILP in the early days. It could also be argued that British socialism has had a fairly consistent thread of Christian socialism running through it, and at present it isn't mentioned in any depth. MrTrev 19:15, 3 February 2006 (UTC)
 * We are a bit short on material on Christian socialism. Feel free to improve the article! Warofdreams talk 14:32, 6 February 2006 (UTC)

 * I've added a wee bit, but I need to think before I can show a thread running through the history. MrTrev 19:43, 6 February 2006 (UTC)
 * I would suggest, rather than trying to show a thread running through history, it would better to provide plenty of examples and refer to existing theories of this thread, in order to comply with the "no original research" policy. Warofdreams talk 00:23, 7 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Indeed. I mean I'm trying to figure out the best places to insert these.  Unfortunately, while I am aware some of the leading figures in British socialism believe their Christianity has focussed and/or been a part of their socialism, it's not a view I subscribe to in general, so I'm struggling a bit here.  I just felt that with socialists such as Benn (who has had a significant effect on socialism in the UK) stating its importance to them, it needs to be covered. MrTrev 08:51, 7 February 2006 (UTC)

Socialism and nationalism
I just removed this sentence: "More radically, some members of the socialist group Red Action became Provisional IRA bombers in the early 1990s." It's not that it's false (it's true, although I might word it slightly differently) but it seems pretty marginal to the history of socialism in Gt Britain. What do others think? BobFromBrockley 11:54, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

Ending
At the end of the article I found this "Many socialists have abandoned the Labour Party, with few exceptions such as the Socialist Appeal group." I would say the wording is not correct and up for dispute. The Socialist Appeal group may be Socialist but more openly Marxist but, as we know there is more than one form of Socialism you could argue that many Communists have left or been expelled rather than Socialists. There is no evidence that the Labour party has no Socialist members some people may say that most members of the Labour Party are socialist just some are allocated to different more soft variants. --Joeb20122012 (talk) 09:52, 23 March 2014 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:History of the socialist movement in the United States which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 20:58, 26 March 2014 (UTC)


text:
Talk:General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

Old talk
I think this should be a list of them but am going to do some research Secretlondon 18:19, Nov 7, 2003 (UTC)

 * We have a list, linked to from Leonid Brezhnev etc. It would be cool for this article to explain why this post was the most powerful, relationship to other top jobs in the SU, etc. I was surprised not to find anything specific, considering how much is in WP about the US president. Stan 19:07, 7 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Expansion
There's way too little on how Stalin used the few powers the office gave him initially to turn it into so much more. One might think the powers of this position came from nowhere. VolatileChemical 02:37, 11 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Many westerns would LOVE for people to think Stalin was some brute that was sneaky, etc, etc. The usual propaganda. Now, by the end of the Russian civil war, Stalin was Commissar of Nationalities, which he dealt with the affairs of 65 million people out of 140. He proposed the new Union of Socialist Soviet Republics as a substitute for the existing federation. He was also Commissar of the Workers’ and Peasants Inspectorate which gave him control over thousands of bureaucrats and thus the entire machinery of government. As well as a member of the Politburo, where his job was the day-to-day management of the party, permanent liaison officer between the Politburo and the Orgburo which made decisions about organizational work in the USSR. He also became the General Secretary of the party’s Central Committee where he prepared agenda for the Politburo. With holding so many key positions, Stalin had an ENORMOUS advantage in attaining power. For people who are reading this, PLEASE look past the German propaganda, then Western propaganda then the propaganda of a rotting USSR to bolster its own image of the "Stalinist" era. I implore you to look at other resources than what you are given with no viable refrences.

~G

But it's important to realize too that Stalin was given those positions by Lenin, who knew their worth, as a means of using Stalin to counterbalance Trotsky. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.70.69.148 (talk) 07:06, 17 May 2010 (UTC)

Title mistranslated?
Isn't the current title a mistranslation? It seems to me that the correct translation is "Secretary General of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union" (rather than "General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union"), similar to "Secretary General of the United Nations", "Attorney General", etc. 130.126.108.129 (talk) 13:17, 12 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Nope, its a common fault however, but no...... --TIAYN (talk) 13:29, 12 March 2012 (UTC)
 * And why not, exactly? Semantically, the phrase "General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union" conveys incorrect or at least misleading meaning to an English speaker. It suggests the same meaning as in "general contractor" or "general knowledge", whereas the actual Russian word used in the title ("Генеральный") is the same word as that is used in Russian military titles, such as Major-general or Prosecutor General. In fact, Wikipedia has an article Prosecutor General of Russia which translates (in my opinion, correctly), the Russian title "Генеральный Прокурор Российской Федерации". 130.126.108.129 (talk) 14:11, 12 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Because General Secretary is whats commonly used by academic material + Russian wikipedia uses "General Secretary" not "Secretary General" --TIAYN (talk) 16:41, 12 March 2012 (UTC)
 * General Secretary is a position in political parties and trade unions, and doesn't seem to be the same thing as the position of Secretary General in quasi-governmental organisations like the UN and NATO.--109.152.242.28 (talk) 01:17, 25 July 2012 (UTC)
 * It can be Secretary General to, for instance, Saddam Hussein was Secretary General of the National Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party (Iraq-based). --TIAYN (talk) 06:34, 25 July 2012 (UTC)

Malenkov
Was Malenkov ever elected/appointed as the Fist Secretary of CPSU? My understand is that the position of First Secretary was instituted in Sept 1953 and that Khruschev was the first person to hold it. Does anyone have any references for the supposed March 1953 service by Malenkov as First Secretary? Nsk92 (talk) 18:19, 24 February 2010 (UTC)
 * No, he wasn't he has no business being in that list which is not for the more ambiguous "party leadership" but for the clearly defined position of General/First Secretary. Str1977 (talk) 16:45, 11 June 2010 (UTC)
 * Do you have a source for that? I have a world history book which lists Malenkov as General-Secretary, and unless someone can find a more definitive source in a week or two I am going to add him. Richard75 (talk) 23:46, 27 September 2010 (UTC)
 * No objections, so added with a source. Since this article is tagged as lacking in references, please do not revert or undo without citing a reliable source demonstrating that Malenkov does not belong on this list. Richard75 (talk) 14:45, 9 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Malenkov never had the official title of First Secretary - in fact the position of First Secretary was not officially created until Sept 1953 and Khruschev was the first one to hold it. Western sources are notoriously bad in understanding the Soviet party/power hierarchy and often use various terms like First Secretary, President, Premier etc in a careless and informal way. Russian sources are much more accurate and careful in this regard. There are no Russian sources that list Malenkov as First Secretary and all Russian sources simply describe his position as Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, e.g. here, . A more careful look at the sources shows that on March 5, 1953 Malenkov's name was listed first in the list of five Secretaries of the Central Committee of CPSU (but he did not have the formal title of First Secretary) and that on March 14, 1953 he resigned (or was removed from the post) as a Secretary of the Central Committee of CPSU. But being the first in the list of Secretaries is not at all the same as holding the position of First Secretary. Therefore I am removing Malenkov from this article - he does not belong here. Nsk92 (talk) 15:02, 9 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Then why is Stalin on this list? If as you say Khruschev was the first one to hold the title, then it should start with him. It's inconsistent to have Stalin but not Malenkov. Stalin himself only ever signed documents as "Secretary of the Central Committee." Also, the third source you cite says that Malenkov was first secretary: "On March 14, 1953, Malenkov was forced to relinquish his position as first secretary of the CPSU Central Committee." Richard75 (talk) 15:58, 9 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Stalin had the official (not just informal) title of General Secretary and it is generally accepted that the titles/positions of General Secretary/First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU were essentially equivalent. In case of Malenkov calling him first secretary is a informal and unofficial designation. His correct titles, as reflected by all Russian sources, were Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. Nsk92 (talk) 15:59, 9 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Then you may wish to edit the Georgy Malenkov accordingly. Richard75 (talk) 13:35, 10 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Good point, I have corrected the info there as well. Nsk92 (talk) 13:57, 10 October 2010 (UTC)

Malenkov was neither General nor First Secretary. Turning a list of General Secretaries into a "List of Secretaries" is not feasible as then we would have to include all the other secretaries of the CC, making the list much larger and also missing what the list actually tried to inform us about. Str1977 (talk) 13:30, 6 November 2010 (UTC)

Most sources mention that Malenkov was General/First Secretary as well as Premier from shortly after Stalin's death until September 1953 (when the Politburo forced him to choose between party and ministerial posts, and he chose to retain the premiership), but he doesn't feature in the list here at all.--109.152.242.28 (talk) 01:07, 25 July 2012 (UTC)
 * He was a Secretary of the Secretariat, and since he was the leading secretary he was the unofficial First Secretary (the leading secretary held the post of General Secretary, but that post was abolished in 1952, so thats why he is not part of the lst). --TIAYN (talk) 07:23, 25 July 2012 (UTC)

So called "Ridiculous"

 * Ridiculous is to write what's contradictory to scientific historical and other quite reliable sources? Well, then I should consider that the Earth revolves around the Sun, all the Jews should be killed since they "killed" Jesus, and the Earth is flat, so on. I'm not a bigot, I base my edits on concrete sources. I like uncyclopedia, and when I can, I edit there, but I think this is not Uncyclopedia, though you think it is. Urgup-tur (talk) 01:08, 23 September 2015 (UTC)
 * It looks ridiculous because it looks ugly.. Secondly, why on earth should the article mention their birthplace? Their birthplace had nothing to do with the fact that they were appointed General Secretary in the first place.. --TIAYN (talk) 08:17, 23 September 2015 (UTC)
 * Urgup-tur, your reply makes no sense - literally, zero sense - and seems to indicate that you may not be competent to edit here. If you're just spouting off random accusations because you're upset, then pull yourself together and stop it.  Yes, by all means, please edit on Uncyclopedia.  But if you choose to edit here, then follow our norms, or you will be blocked from editing. I don't care whether the information you wanted to add to the article's table is added or not, but putting it before the introduction was silly.  That material is disputed, so you need to get consensus here before re-adding it.  If you and TIAYN do not agree or compromise, then seek a 3rd opinion or other dispute resolution method.  If you do not want to do it this way, then go somewhere else. --Floquenbeam (talk) 14:37, 23 September 2015 (UTC)

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Stalin retained his positions.
At the 17th Party Congress in 1934, Stalin was not formally re-elected as General Secretary and the office was rarely mentioned after that but Stalin retained his positions and all of his power. There is no citation for this last bit: Stalin retained his positions. What positions are we talking about?--Jack Upland (talk) 04:44, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

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In regards to Stalin's tenure
This article refers to the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party and its equivalent positions and its officeholders. It does not necessarily refer to paramount leaders of the Soviet Union. This is why I do not believe it is accurate to place Stalin's tenure as General Secretary to end up on his death, rather than when he actually abolished and relinquished the position in 1952. He still retained power over the party, but not through the position of General Secretary, and hence that is why I changed the end of Stalin's tenure from 5 March 1953 to 16 October 1952. The Joseph Stalin article also follows this. Kalivyah (talk) 21:15, 25 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
User:Igor Pavlov

http://www.7-zip.org/

title: User:Igor Pavlov


text:
Churro

A churro is a type of fried dough from Spanish and Portuguese cuisine, made with choux pastry dough piped into hot oil with a piping bag and large closed star tip or similar shape. They are also found in Latin American cuisine, Philippine cuisine, and in other areas that have received immigration from Spanish and Portuguese-speaking countries, especially in France and the Southwestern United States.

In Spain, churros can either be thin (and sometimes knotted) or long and thick, where they are known as porras (or jeringos in some regions). They are normally eaten for breakfast dipped in coffee, or in hot chocolate for afternoon snack.

There are also two slightly different snacks in Portugal, called porra and fartura, which are filled with jelly instead of the doce de leite traditional to Brazilian churros.

History
The origin of churros is unclear. One theory suggests the concept was brought to Europe from China by the Portuguese. The Portuguese sailed for the Orient and as they returned from Ming-dynasty China to Portugal, they brought along with them new culinary techniques, including altering dough for youtiao, also known as yóuzháguǐ in southern China, which bears a resemblance to the churro. The new pastry was soon introduced to Spain, where it was modified to have the dough extruded through a star-shaped nozzle (compare a piping bag) rather than pulled.

Another theory is that the churro was made by Spanish shepherds to substitute for fresh baked goods. Churro paste was easy to make and fry in an open fire in the mountains, where shepherds spend most of their time.

According to food historian Michael Krondl, "today’s churro is not that different from a recipe for a flour and water fritter that you find in Apicius, a Roman cookbook dating from the 1st Century AD. And there are recipes from the Ancient Greeks, but it’s probably even older than that. In the Mediterranean basin it’s basically been around forever".

Etymology
According to the Diccionario de la lengua española, churro is onomatopoeic, ultimately imitative of the sound of frying.

Preparation
Churros are fried until they become crunchy, and may be sprinkled with sugar. The surface of a churro is ridged due to having been piped from a churrera, a syringe-like tool with a star-shaped nozzle. Churros are generally prisms in shape, and may be straight, curled or spirally twisted.

Like pretzels, churros are sold by street vendors, who may fry them freshly on the street stand and sell them hot. In Spain and much of Latin America, churros are available in cafes for breakfast, although they may be eaten throughout the day as a snack. Specialized churrerías, in the form of a shop or a trailer, can be found during the holiday period. In addition, countries like Colombia, Peru, Spain, and Venezuela have churrerías throughout their streets. In Portugal, they are commonly eaten at carnivals, fairs and other celebrations, where they are made freshly at street stands.

The dough is a mixture of flour, water and salt. Some versions are made of potato dough. Depending on the recipe, it may not be vegan, they can contain butter, milk or eggs.

Variations
In Seville (Andalusia), the name "calientes" (meaning hot) or "calentitos de rueda" is sometimes used instead of the word churro. These tend to refer to the thicker variant, called porra. Calientes are usually fried in the shape of a continuous spiral and cut into portions afterwards. The center of the spiral is thicker and softer, and for many a delicacy in itself. The standard "churro" is also sold under the name "calentitos de papas", the name referring to the softer mashed potato–like texture.

In parts of Eastern Andalusia, a much thinner dough is used, which does not allow for the typical ridges to be formed on the surface of the churro. The final result therefore has a smooth surface, and is more pliable and of a slightly thinner diameter than standard Spanish churros. Another difference is that sugar is never sprinkled on them, because the flavour is not considered suitable.

Filled, straight churros are found in Cuba (with fruit, such as guava), Brazil (with chocolate, doce de leite, among others), and in Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, Chile and Mexico (usually filled with dulce de leche or cajeta but also with chocolate and vanilla).

In Colombia and Venezuela, churros are round like doughnuts sprinkled with sugar and filled with bocadillo (membrillo or guava paste), arequipe and sweetened condensed milk. In Spain, a considerably wider diameter is used to accommodate the filling. In Uruguay, churros can also come in a savoury version, filled with melted cheese.

In the Philippines, churros are typically straight, or bent into U-shapes or circular shapes dusted with white sugar and are popular during Christmas.

Churros in American theme parks and street fairs are most often rolled in cinnamon sugar or other flavored sugars.

Similar dishes
In the Middle East, a churro-like fried dough-based sweet is known as Karabeej Halab.

title: Churro


text:
User talk:Arslan ibn Da'ud

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

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If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Angela 18:33, Nov 7, 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Arslan ibn Da'ud


text:
User talk:Cogibyte

Hello Cogibyte, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

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Angela 18:35, Nov 7, 2003 (UTC)

Nomination of Zapp Brannigan for deletion
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title: User talk:Cogibyte


text:
User talk:Gandalf61

Nomination of Polydivisible number for deletion
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Penrose tiling
Penrose tiling, an article that you or your project may be interested in, has been nominated for a community good article reassessment. If you are interested in the discussion, please participate by adding your comments to the reassessment page. If concerns are not addressed during the review period, the good article status may be removed from the article. AIRcorn (talk) 06:43, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

Padovan sequence source for sum product identity
Hello. It looks like your 24 July 2005 edit to the Padovan sequence page added several identities, including

$$\sum_{m=0}^n P(m)P(m+2)=P(n+2)P(n+3)-1.$$

Can you tell me where you found that, or did you come up with it? I'd like to give an accurate citation in something I'm putting together.

Billionare Boys Club (talk) 18:16, 26 March 2020 (UTC)

PS Please excuse the odd username; it must have been made by someone else using my common email address.

 * I have no idea where I got those identities from. They are not difficult to derive. For example
 * $$P(m+3)P(m+2) - P(m+2)P(m+1) = \left( P(m+3)-P(m+1) \right) P(m+2)=P(m)P(m+2)$$
 * $$\Rightarrow \sum_{m=0}^n P(m)P(m+2) = \sum_{m=0}^n \left( P(m+3)P(m+2) - P(m+2)P(m+1) \right) = P(n+3)P(n+2) - P(1)P(0) = P(n+3)P(n+2) - 1$$

 * Gandalf61 (talk) 14:26, 24 April 2020 (UTC)

Guideline on Medical Advice
You have been a significant contributor to Reference desk/Guidelines. A subordinate set of guidelines is Reference desk/Guidelines/Medical advice. On 9 April 2020 a User took action to demote the Medical Advice document from a guideline to an essay. See the diff. The matter is now under discussion at Wikipedia talk:Reference desk/Guidelines/Medical advice. You may wish to contribute to the discussion. Dolphin ( t ) 13:18, 10 August 2020 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Van Eck's sequence

The article Van Eck's sequence has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "Relies entirely on primary sources. Not notable; mathematical importance is unclear."

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Nomination of Van Eck's sequence for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Van Eck's sequence is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Van Eck's sequence until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

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Proposed deletion of Language of mathematics

The article Language of mathematics has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "POV, essay, original synthesis; see talk:Language of mathematics"

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Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. D.Lazard (talk) 15:22, 21 June 2022 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Language of mathematics

The article Language of mathematics has been proposed for deletion. The proposed deletion notice added to the article should explain why.

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Ten Pound Hammer • (What did I screw up now?) 16:14, 21 June 2022 (UTC)

Request bibliographic reference
Hello Gandalf61,

I would like to know a bibliographic reference for a math formula. I found this formula on Wikipedia, but no reference is given.

It's the 2nd formula ($$A(n,k)$$ is an Eulerian number):

 * $$\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}(-1)^k \frac{A(n,k)}{\binom{n-1}{k}}=0, \text{ for  }n > 1$$

in the chapter entitled "Formulas involving alternating sums" on the Wikipedia page:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eulerian_number

I've looked at lots of (very complicated...) articles, but there's nothing obvious about this formula. Handbooks of Mathematics, etc. nothing, nothing, nothing...!

I saw that you were one of the contributors to this page. Can you provide a reference?

Thank you. RoyBetthe (talk) 10:12, 14 April 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Gandalf61


text:
User talk:Igor Pavlov

Hello Igor, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them;

 * How to edit a page
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If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here but do remember that Wikipedia is not a vehicle for advertising. Angela 18:40, Nov 7, 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Igor Pavlov


text:
Gioconda Belli

Gioconda Belli (born December 9, 1948) is a Nicaraguan-born novelist and poet known for her contributions to Nicaraguan literature.

Early life
Gioconda Belli grew up in a wealthy family in Managua. Her father is Humberto Belli Zapata and her brother is Humberto Belli.

She attended boarding school in Spain, graduated from the Royal School of Santa Isabel in Madrid, and studied advertising and journalism at the Charles Morris Price School of Advertising and Journalism in Philadelphia. She married and had her first daughter at 19 when she returned to Nicaragua.

Career
Belli began her career at Pepsi-Cola as liaison to the company's advertising agency, Publisa, which then hired her as an account executive.

Through one of her colleagues at the advertising agency, Belli met Camilo Ortega, who introduced her to the Sandinistas and asked her to join the group.

In 1970, Belli joined the struggle against the Somoza dictatorship, sworn into the movement by Leana Ortega, Camilo Ortega's wife. Belli's work for the movement led to her being forced into exile in Mexico in 1975. Returning in 1979 just before the Sandinista victory, she became FSLN's international press liaison in 1982 and the director of State Communications in 1984. During that time she met Charles Castaldi, an American NPR journalist, whom she married in 1987. After 1990 she split her time between Managua and Los Angeles. She has since left the FSLN and became a major critic of the Ortega government. She lives in exile in Madrid.

Writing
In 1970, Belli published her first poems in the literary supplement of Nicaraguan newspaper La Prensa. In 1972, she won the Premio de Poesía Mariano Fiallos Gil award from the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua.

1988, Belli's book La Mujer Habitada (The Inhabited Woman), a semi-autobiographical novel that raised gender issues for the first time in the Nicaraguan revolutionary narratives, brought her increased attention; this book has been published in several languages and was on the reading list at four universities in the United States. The novel follows two parallel stories: the indigenous resistance to the Spanish and modern insurgency in Central America with various points in common: women's emancipation, passion, and a commitment to liberation. In 2000, she published her autobiography, emphasizing her involvement in the revolutionary movement, El país bajo mi piel, published under the name The Country Under My Skin in the United States; it was a finalist for the Los Angeles Times Book Prize in 2003. Belli continues publishing and maintains that poetry is her most important work. Belli was the recipient of the Premio Casa de las Américas in 1978. In 2008 Belli received the Premio Biblioteca Breve for her book El infinito en la palma de la mano (Infinity in the Palm of The Hand), an allegory about Adam and Eve in paradise.

Belli's books have been published in numerous languages.

Her 2010 book was submitted with the title "Crónicas de la Izquierda Erótica", but had to be changed to "El País de las Mujeres", since the previous title was too similar to that of a 1973 book by Ana María Rodas: Poemas de la Izquierda Erótica. The book tells the story of a world governed by women. In the novel, she portrays a group of women that take power by means of a Political Party named "Partido de la Izquierda Erótica". This is the same name as a movement formed by women during the 80s, to which Belli belonged, which had been named as a tribute to Rodas´ work. Her novel El intenso calor de la luna was released in August in Latin America, and in September 2014 in Spain.

Political activity
Belli opposed the dictatorship of Anastasio Somoza Debayle. From 1970, when she began writing her poems and like many intellectuals of her generation, she joined the ranks of the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN), at that time a clandestine and persecuted organization whose aim was the overthrow of the Somoza regime. She was a clandestine courier, transported weapons, travelled around Europe and Latin America obtaining resources and spreading the word about the Sandinista struggle. She became a member of the FSLN's Political-Diplomatic Commission.

In 2018, Belli took a stand against the government of Daniel Ortega, which emerged from the 2016 elections, and became an active member of the Sandinista renewal movement.

In February 2023, the Ortega government stripped Nicaraguan citizenship from Belli. On February 23, 2023, Belli accepted Chilean citizenship after the Chilean Government offered nationality and asylum to all the Nicaraguans banished by Ortega.

Awards

 * XXVIII "City of Melilla" International Poetry Award
 * "Mariano Fiallos Gil de Poesía" award, Nicaragua 1972
 * "Casa de las Américas" award, Cuba, Poesía 1978
 * Award of the "Fundación de Libreros, Bibliotecarios" and "Editores Alemanes de la Fundación Friederich Ebhert" in 1989 for La Mujer Habitada, the "best political novel of the year"
 * "Anna Seghers de la Academia de Artes de Alemania" award, 1989
 * "Luchs del Semanario Die Zeit a su libro" award for El Taller de las Mariposas, 1992
 * Medal of recognition of the National Theater of Nicaragua for 25 years of cultural labor
 * "Internacional de Poesía Generación del 27" award, 2002
 * "Pluma de Plata" award, Bilbao, 2005
 * "Biblioteca Breve Award", 2008
 * "Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz Award" for "best novel", International Book Fair in Guadalajara, 2008
 * "Oxfam Novib/PEN Award" 2019, Winternachten festival in the Hague (with Palestinian poet Dareen Tatour)
 * Honourary Doctorate from the University of Edinburgh, 2024

title: Gioconda Belli


text:
1927 in sports

1927 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.

American football

 * NFL championship – New York Giants (11–1–1)
 * Rose Bowl (1926 season):
 * The Stanford Indians tie 7–7 with the Alabama Crimson Tide to split the national championship
 * College football national championship – Illinois Fighting Illini

Association football
Colombia England Germany Italy Mexico Ukraine
 * America de Cali was founded on February 13.
 * The Football League – Newcastle United 56 points, Huddersfield Town 51, Sunderland 49, Bolton Wanderers 48, Burnley 47, West Ham United 46
 * FA Cup final – Cardiff City 1–0 Arsenal at Empire Stadium, Wembley, London
 * Cardiff City's FA Cup victory remains the only time the competition has been won by a club outside England.
 * National Championship – 1. FC Nürnberg 2–0 Hertha BSC at Berlin. It is the first match to be broadcast in full on German radio.
 * AS Roma is founded by Italo Foschi, who initiates the merger of three older Italian Football Championship clubs from the city of Rome: Roman FC, SS Alba-Audace and Fortitudo-Pro Roma SGS.
 * Formation of the Mexican Football Federation (Federación Mexicana de Fútbol Asociación or FMF). It is also known as Femexfut.
 * FC Dynamo Kyiv founded in former part of Soviet Union

Australian rules football
VFL Premiership Brownlow Medal
 * Collingwood wins the 31st VFL Premiership, beating 2.13 (25) to 1.7 (13) in the 1927 VFL Grand Final
 * The low scores, caused by a torrential fall of rain on the day before and during the match, set many records:
 * 1) The lowest winning score since 1901 when Collingwood beat  3.6 (24) to 2.7 (19)
 * 2) Richmond's score is the equal fourth lowest since 1915 and their second lowest score ever, behind 0.8 (8) against St. Kilda in 1961.
 * 3) The aggregate score of 3.20 (38) is the lowest since 1900
 * 4) It is the only time since 1908 a team has won scoring only two goals
 * The annual Brownlow Medal is awarded to Syd Coventry (Collingwood)

Bandy
Sweden
 * Championship final – IK Göta 5-1 Västerås SK

Baseball
World Series Major League Baseball Negro leagues
 * 5–8 October — New York Yankees (AL) defeats Pittsburgh Pirates (NL) to win the 1927 World Series by 4 games to 0
 * Babe Ruth hits 60 home runs, setting a major league record
 * For the second straight year, the Chicago American Giants (NNL) defeats the Bacharach Giants of Atlantic City, New Jersey (ECL), 5 games to 3, in the Negro World Series

Basketball
Events ABL Championship Greece
 * January 7 – American exhibition basketball team Harlem Globetrotters, founded by Abe Saperstein in 1926, played their first road game in Hinckley, Illinois
 * Brooklyn Celtics over Cleveland Rosenblums (3–0)
 * A first game for professional league of Greece, Panhellenic Basketball League, as predecessor for Greek Basket League held. G.S. Iraklis B.C.

Boxing
Events Lineal world champions
 * In one of the most famous fights in boxing history, Gene Tunney successfully defends his World Heavyweight Championship in a return bout with Jack Dempsey at Soldier Field, Chicago. Tunney wins in 10 rounds but the fight is remembered as The Battle Of The Long Count after Tunney was knocked down for 13 seconds in the 7th round, the count being delayed because Dempsey did not retire to a neutral corner.
 * World Heavyweight Championship – Gene Tunney
 * World Light Heavyweight Championship – Jack Delaney → vacant → Tommy Loughran
 * World Middleweight Championship – Mickey Walker
 * World Welterweight Championship – Pete Latzo → Joe Dundee
 * World Lightweight Championship – Sammy Mandell
 * World Featherweight Championship – vacant
 * World Bantamweight Championship – Charley Phil Rosenberg → vacant
 * World Flyweight Championship – vacant

Canadian football
Grey Cup
 * 15th Grey Cup – Toronto Balmy Beach 9–6 Hamilton Tigers

Cricket
Events England Australia India New Zealand South Africa West Indies
 * New Zealand tours England with a team containing many players who will later play Test cricket for New Zealand. However, this tour does not include any Test matches and the 1927 English cricket season is the last, apart from the Second World War years and the cancelled South African tour of 1970, in which there has been no Test cricket in England.
 * County Championship – Lancashire
 * Minor Counties Championship – Staffordshire
 * Most runs – Wally Hammond 2969 @ 69.04 (HS 197)
 * Most wickets – Charlie Parker 193 @ 19.94 (BB 9–46)
 * Wisden Cricketers of the Year – Roger Blunt, Charlie Hallows, Wally Hammond, Douglas Jardine, Vallance Jupp
 * Sheffield Shield – South Australia
 * Most runs – Bill Ponsford 1229 @ 122.90 (HS 352)
 * Most wickets – Norman Williams 35 @ 32.02 (BB 6–88)
 * Bombay Quadrangular – Hindus
 * Plunket Shield – Auckland
 * Currie Cup – Western Province
 * Inter-Colonial Tournament – Barbados

Cycling
Tour de France
 * Nicolas Frantz (Luxembourg) wins the 21st Tour de France

Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships
 * World Women's Champion – Sonja Henie (Norway)
 * World Men's Champion – Willi Böckel (Austria)
 * World Pairs Champions – Herma Szabo and Ludwig Wrede (Austria)

Golf
Major tournaments Ryder Cup Other tournaments
 * British Open – Bobby Jones
 * US Open – Tommy Armour
 * USPGA Championship – Walter Hagen
 * Inaugural Ryder Cup is held at Worcester, Massachusetts: United States defeats Great Britain by $9 1/2$ to $2 1/2$.
 * British Amateur – William Tweddell
 * US Amateur – Bobby Jones

Horse racing
Events England Australia Canada France Ireland USA
 * The inaugural Champion Hurdle is run as part of the Cheltenham Festival.
 * Champion Hurdle – Blaris
 * Cheltenham Gold Cup – Thrown In
 * Grand National – Sprig
 * 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Cresta Run
 * 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Adam's Apple
 * The Derby – Call Boy
 * The Oaks – Beam
 * St. Leger Stakes – Book Law
 * Melbourne Cup – Trivalve
 * King's Plate – Troutlet
 * Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe – Mon Talisman
 * Irish Grand National – Jerpoint
 * Irish Derby Stakes – Knight of the Grail
 * Kentucky Derby – Whiskery
 * Preakness Stakes – Bostonian
 * Belmont Stakes – Chance Shot

Ice hockey
Stanley Cup Events
 * 4–13 April — Ottawa Senators defeats Boston Bruins in the 1927 Stanley Cup Finals by 2 games to 0
 * Memorial Cup – Owen Sound Greys defeats Port Arthur West End Juniors
 * Allan Cup – University of Toronto Grads defeats Fort William Thundering Herd at Vancouver, British Columbia
 * 14 February – Conn Smythe purchases the Toronto St. Patricks of the NHL and changes the name to the Toronto Maple Leafs.

Multi-sport events
Far Eastern Championship Games
 * 8th Far Eastern Championship Games is held at Shanghai, Republic of China

Nordic skiing
FIS Nordic World Ski Championships
 * 3rd FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1927 are held at Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy

Rowing
The Boat Race
 * 2 April — Cambridge wins the 79th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race

Rugby league
England Australia
 * Championship – Swinton
 * Challenge Cup final – Oldham 26–7 Swinton at Central Park, Wigan
 * Lancashire League Championship – St Helens Recs
 * Yorkshire League Championship – Hull
 * Lancashire County Cup – St. Helens 10–2 St Helens Recs
 * Yorkshire County Cup – Huddersfield 10–3 Wakefield Trinity
 * NSW Premiership – South Sydney 20–11 St George (grand final)

Rugby union
Five Nations Championship
 * 40th Five Nations Championship series is shared by Ireland and Scotland

Snooker
World Championship
 * Inaugural World Snooker Championship is won by Joe Davis who defeats Tom Dennis 20–11

Speed skating
Speed Skating World Championships
 * Men's All-round Champion – Bernt Evensen (Norway)

Tennis
Australia England France USA Davis Cup
 * Australian Men's Singles Championship – Gerald Patterson (Australia) defeats John Hawkes (Australia) 3–6 6–4 3–6 18–16 6–3
 * Australian Women's Singles Championship – Esna Boyd Robertson (Australia) defeats Sylvia Lance Harper (Australia) 5–7 6–1 6–2
 * Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Henri Cochet (France) defeats Jean Borotra (France) 4–6 4–6 6–3 6–4 7–5
 * Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Helen Wills Moody (USA) defeats Lilí de Álvarez (Spain) 6–2 6–4
 * French Men's Singles Championship – René Lacoste (France) defeats Bill Tilden (USA) 6–4 4–6 5–7 6–3 11–9
 * French Women's Singles Championship – Kea Bouman (Netherlands) defeats Irene Bowder Peacock (South Africa) 6–2 6–4
 * American Men's Singles Championship – René Lacoste (France) defeats Bill Tilden (USA) 11–9 6–3 11–9
 * American Women's Singles Championship – Helen Wills Moody (USA) defeats Betty Nuthall Shoemaker (Great Britain) 6–1 6–4
 * 1927 International Lawn Tennis Challenge – 3–2  at Germantown Cricket Club (grass) Philadelphia, United States

title: 1927 in sports