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Ijuw District

Ijuw is a district in the country of Nauru, located in the northeast of the island. The area covers 1.1 km2 and has a population of 276, making Ijuw the least populated district in the country.

Geography
Ijuw borders Anabar District to the north and Anibare District to the south. It is a part of the Anabar Constituency. Cape Ijuw is the northernmost point of Anibare Bay, and the easternmost point of Nauru. Two former villages, Ijuw and Ganokoro, are located within the district.

title: Ijuw District


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User talk:Genispp

Hi, Welcome to Wikipedia. Unfortunately, I had to delete your entry at Gósol, Lleida because it was copied from another site. Wikipedia prefers only original information. If you created the article at http://www.virtualtourist.com/m/3d67e/41161/ and are willing to release it to the GFDL license, then please let us know, and the article can be reverted. RickK 21:56, 27 Nov 2003 (UTC)

You wrote:
 * No copyright problem because: http://www.virtualtourist.com/m/3d67e/41161/ is my page too..

Okay, are you willing to release this information under GFDL? RickK 22:08, 27 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Hello, I am Genís (genispp), i have written "this info can be used for the free encyclopedia WIKIPEDIA" in my external page http://www.virtualtourist.com/m/3d67e/41161/ in my external page my nick is genispp too. If Gósol had 1423 meters of alture, is the same info in virtualtourist(my other page) that free encyclopedia. I can to write that Gósol have 1422 meters but is not true.

therefore no copyrght problem. Two pages are mine. Two pages are of my ownership

MY EXTERNAL LINKS

 * Gosol village
 * Tour photographic by Gósol
 * Surrounding area of Gósol
 * Fountains of Gósol
 * this page is not mine: A route by history of Gósol
 * Gósol in Virtualtourist

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Genispp


text:
Boe District

Boe is a district in the country of Nauru. It is the only district of Boe Constituency.

History
On September 5, 2019, the Pacific Light House Church (Born Again Christian Church) was opened in the district.

Geography
Boe is located in the southwest of the island. It borders on the districts of Aiwo, Yaren along the coastline, and Buada inland.

It covers an area of 0.5 km2, and has a population of 950. It is the smallest and most densely populated district in Nauru. The elevation above sea level is about 5 metres.

Education
Boe Infant School is in Boe. The primary and secondary schools serving all of Nauru are Yaren Primary School in Yaren District (years 1-3), Nauru Primary School in Meneng District (years 4-6), Nauru College in Denigomodu District (years 7-9), and Nauru Secondary School (years 10-12) in Yaren District.

Notable people

 * Baron D. Waqa, the former President of Nauru, is from Boe, having been elected from that constituency to serve in the Parliament of Nauru.
 * Kinza Clodumar, formerly President of Nauru, is from Boe.
 * The second Angam Baby, Bethel Enproe Adam, came from Boe.
 * Weightlifter Tyoni Batsiua was from Boe.

title: Boe District


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Bad Oldesloe

Bad Oldesloe is a town located in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein. It is the capital of the district of Stormarn.

The area has been inhabited since Mesolithic times. The flint tools found here from that era (6000–4500 BC) are clearly defined and known as the Oldesloer Stufe. For a number of years in the 18th century the Moravian Church had a congregation in Bad Oldesloe. It was called "Pilgerruh", i.e. "Pilgrims' Rest". It was given up because of difficulties with the Danish Church authorities. At that time, the Duchy of Holstein was ruled by the kings of Denmark within the Holy Roman Empire.

On 24 April 1945, the town was heavily bombed by Allied forces in the final days of the Second World War in Germany. Threehundred buildings were destroyed, and 706 people were killed as a result of the operation.

Buildings
16th century Mennokate: Memorial for Menno Simons, founder and eponym of the Mennonites, a group of anabaptists. He had some of his works printed in this building.

Transport
Bad Oldesloe station is located on the Lübeck–Hamburg and the Neumünster–Bad Oldesloe railways.

Notable people

 * Hermann Olshausen (1796–1839), theologian.
 * Otto Wilhelm Sonder (1812–1881), botanist and pharmacist
 * Theodor Mommsen (1817–1903), grew up in Bad Oldesloe; classical scholar, historian, jurist, journalist, politician, archaeologist and writer.
 * August Mommsen (1821–1913), historian.
 * Klaus Bargsten (1911–2000), captain and sole survivor of sunken U-521
 * Henning Schwarz (1928–1993), CDU politician
 * Isa Genzken (born 1948), sculptor and contemporary artist
 * Rüdiger Schmidt-Grépály (born 1952), Cultural Manager at the Klassik Stiftung Weimar
 * Katharina Fegebank (born 1977), politician (The Greens)
 * Wincent Weiss (born 1993), singer and model

Sport

 * Axel Hager (born 1969), beach volleyball player; won bronze medal at the 2000 Sydney Olympics (grew up in Bad Oldesloe)
 * Rouwen Hennings (born 1987), footballer, played over 500 pro games
 * Julia Görges (born 1988), tennis player
 * Maximilian Ahlschwede (born 1990), footballer, played 300 pro games
 * Alexander Meyer (born 1991), footballer, played 230 games
 * Dan-Patrick Poggenberg (born 1992), footballer, played 250 pro games
 * Dren Feka (born 1997), footballer, played 80 pro games

Twin towns – sister cities
Bad Oldesloe is twinned with:
 * 🇮🇱 Be'er Ya'akov, Israel
 * 🇵🇸 Jifna, Palestine
 * 🇵🇱 Kołobrzeg, Poland
 * 🇫🇷 Olivet, France

title: Bad Oldesloe


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Denigomodu District

Denigomodu is a district in the western part of the island of Nauru. It is the most populous district in Nauru.

It houses the expatriate housing compound "The Location". This makes it Nauru's largest settlement by population. , 16% of the people in Nauru (around 1,900 people) live in Denigomodu.

Geography
The district, part of the constituency of Ubenide, covers an area of 1.18 km², and has a population of 1,874, making it the most populous of the fourteen Nauruan districts.

Local features
In this district is the laborers' settlement for the phosphate mining workers of the Nauru Phosphate Corporation (NPC). Also located in Denigomodu are:

 * Republic of Nauru Hospital
 * NPC planning and construction offices
 * Eigigu Supermarket

Education
The primary and secondary schools serving all of Nauru are Yaren Primary School in Yaren District (years 1-3), Nauru Primary School in Meneng District (years 4-6), Nauru College in Denigomodu District (years 7-9), and Nauru Secondary School (years 10-12) in Yaren District.

Nauru College opened as the Denigomodu School in January 2000 as part of the Rehabilitation and Development Cooperation Agreement between Australia and Nauru, agreed in August 1993. As part of the agreement the governments decided to build Nauru College in March 1999. It was initially Nauru's third primary school, but it was transitioned into a junior high school with Form 1, as Nauruan children vie for scholarships at that educational stage. The government senior high school of the country is Nauru Secondary School in Yaren District.

The expatriate children in the Location settlement attend the Location School, years 1-8 as of April 2002; it is within the "Location" housing development. This is the only school in Nauru which is not English medium.

Economy
Denigomodu the largest city in Nauru. It is highly dependent on tourism. Despite its relative wealth and size in comparison to Yaren, Denigomodu is not considered the central capital of Nauru.

Notable people

 * Olympia Zacharias (born 1986), 100m runner
 * Angelita Detudamo (born 1986), tennis player
 * Joanne Gobure (born 1982), poet

title: Denigomodu District


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Kummer

Kummer is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Bernhard Kummer (1897–1962), German Germanist
 * Clare Kummer (1873—1958), American composer, lyricist and playwright
 * Clarence Kummer (1899–1930), American jockey
 * Christopher Kummer (born 1975), German economist
 * Corby Kummer (born 1957), American journalist
 * Dirk Kummer (born 1966), German actor, director, and screenwriter
 * Eberhard Kummer (1940–2019), Austrian concert singer, lawyer, and medieval music expert
 * Eduard Kummer, also known as the following Ernst Kummer
 * Eloise Kummer (1916–2008), American actress
 * Ernst Kummer (1810–1893), German mathematician
 * Kummer configuration, a mathematical structure discovered by Ernst Kummer
 * Kummer surface, a related geometrical structure discovered by Ernst Kummer
 * Ferdinand von Kummer (1816-1900), German general
 * Frederic Arnold Kummer (1873–1943), American author, playwright, and screenwriter
 * Friedrich August Kummer (1797–1879), German cellist and composer
 * Karl Kummer (disambiguation), more than one person
 * Kaspar Kummer, (1795–1870), German flautist and composer
 * Lilian Kummer (born 1975), Swiss skier
 * Luise Kummer (born 1993), German biathlete
 * Mario Kummer (born 1962), German cyclist
 * Nicolas Kummer (1882–1954), Luxembourgian gymnast
 * Paul Kummer (1834–1912), priest, taxonomist of Zerbst
 * Patrizia Kummer (born 1987), Swiss snowboarder
 * Samuel Kummer (1968–2024), German organist
 * Siegfried Adolf Kummer (1899–1977), German mystic and Germanic revivalist
 * Sigrud Kummer, (born ? ), German sprint canoeist
 * Thomas Kummer (born 1963), American classicist and teacher
 * Thomas John Kummer (1933–1969), American celebrity hair stylist known professionally as Jay Sebring
 * Tom Kummer (born 1963), Swiss journalist
 * Wolfgang Kummer (disambiguation), more than one person

title: Kummer


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Baitsi District

Baitsi, formerly known as Baiti and previously as Beidi, is a district in the Pacific nation of Nauru. It belongs to Ubenide Constituency.

Location
The district is located in the northwest of the island. It covers an area of 1.2 km2, 5.7% of country's area.

title: Baitsi District


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Anabar District

Anabar is a district in the Pacific country of Nauru.

Geography
It is part of the Anabar Constituency. It is located in the northeast of the island, covers an area of 1.5 km² and has a population of 565 (2021).

History
Anabar, along with neighbouring district of Ijuw, is believed to be the 3rd areas to submerged after Buada first and Anibare second about 3000+ years ago.

Its first inhabitants are Deiboe clans people, led by Deianoang, who fled to save his family of three daughters, from the raging war of Atemor's open field between Eamwit clansmen off Anuquoge village and his clan, the Deiboe people from Ganokoro.

Irutsi clan was born amongst the rocky regions of Abodeatsi where three men slaves and two slave women met during a month-long hide amidst the rocky region, who five slave people later intermarried each other to expand the population along the rocky regions of Anabar.

Anabar's pond 'Tibinor' was the deepest pond on the island. Such legends like the ones of 'Amwieob' originated in Anabar.

Like Buada, Anabar had its own dialect, a way of speaking which the natives refer to as the "Kin'nir", nothing similar to the "E'koro" language in the Arenibok village.

Notable people

 * Ludwig Scotty, President of Nauru in 2003, and from 2004 to 2007, represented Anabar in Parliament of Nauru.

title: Anabar District


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Buada District

Buada is a district in the Pacific nation of Nauru. It is the only district in Buada Constituency. It has a population of 969 (2021).

Geography
The only landlocked district in the Republic of Nauru, it is in the southwestern part of the island and covers the central Buada Lagoon. Buada is a fertile piece in Nauru and mostly wet and tropical due to the mass vegetation (compared to the rest of the island). It covers an area of 2.6 km2, which in comparison with other of Nauru's districts, makes it among the largest.

Buada has retained more vegetation than other districts, where, because of mining, much vegetation has been lost. The proximity of the Buada Lagoon has been relevant to the survival of vegetation.

Climate
Buada has a tropical rainforest climate (Af) with heavy rainfall year-round.

History
The district held the ancient name Arenibok as early as the 1500s to the late 1800s. The Germans referred to it as 'Bush Village' (1889) after agreeing to its new boundaries located by the Germans, the locals during 1890 named it Buada (ghost land) which is still referred to nowadays.

The last of the few Irutsi clans consisting of four members only, along with the largest of all clans, the Eamwit, inhabited Buada ever since it was known by its original name Arenibok. Few of the other two clans, namely the Emea and the Deiboe clans, also resided with their relatives in Buada

The 10 years Nauruan Tribal War began in this district during a wedding festival in Aujo hamlet in 1878, when a drunk white opened fire and accidentally killed the lad Giubu of the Eamwit clan, nephew of chief Teiauw of the Eaoru clan and a great-nephew of the chief Aremwa.

Arenibok (now Buada) had four main villages, namely Arenibok and Redeto, villages on the banks of the great Arenibok Sea (now Buada Lagoon) and two other villages of Noreo on the steep slopes towards the south and Aujo with its few hamlets towards inland to the north.

Notable people

 * Ruben Kun, who represented Buada in the Parliament of Nauru, served as President of Nauru from 1996 to 1997.
 * Roland Kun (son of Ruben Kun) is the current (2012) representative for Buada district to the Parliament of Nauru.

title: Buada District


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Talk:Gósol

The next info is of my externals webs of Gósol. Hello, I am Genís (genispp), i have written "this info can be used for the free encyclopedia WIKIPEDIA" in my external page http://www.virtualtourist.com/m/3d67e/41161/. In my external page my nick is genispp too.

therefore no copyrght problem. Two pages are mine. Two pages are of my ownership

-The village of Gósol is located at the northwest of the region of Berguedà in Catalonia(Spain) (The Pyrenees in Lleida province). Gósol is inside of Natural Park: Cadí-Moixer? -We arrive to Gósol by the road B-400 that leaves "El Collet" at kilometre 112,9 of road local from Abrera to Bellver de Cerdanya(Llobregat axis: old C-1411 and at the moment C-16/E-9). -Exist a road asphalted recently in the section comprised betwen Tuixèn and Gósol(C-563). -We arrive to Gósol too, coming from: St Llorenç de Morunys(by La Coma and La Pedra), by El Port del Compte(coming from Solsona) and coming from La Seu d'Urgell. By these three routes we pass unavoidably by the villages of Tuixèn and Josa del Cadí. GASTRONOMY -Chamois -Peas blacks -Corn squared -Potatoes maskeds -Garlic mayonnaise typical of pig-killing -Calf with mushroom -Wild boar OTHERS INFORMATIONS -Day 15th of August, Gósol celebrates the local festivities. There is a dance typical: El ball de les cosses. -Day 20th of July is the patron saint of Gósol: Saint Margaret. -The festivity of to reap(generally, the second saturday of August) is a tribute to works of ancestors of the village. People in the celebration uses the equipments useds at that time(at the beginning of the 20th century). -Legend says that night of Saint Silvester(31th of desember), witches are meeted in the massif of Pedraforca. -Day 31 of October is the fair of Everything Saints (there is sale and exposure of livestock). -In Pentecost people of Gósol sings Caramellas (popular songs).

Gosol's emblematic cultural symbol is the Picasso Museum, which owes its existence to the visit of the great painter Pablo Ruíz Picasso to the village in the spring of the year 1906 and which lasted until the first half of August. The artist installed himself at the only inn which then existed, Cal Tampanada, at that time the property of Josep Fontdevila. In Gósol, Picasso underwent a transformation and during this period changed his palette, his sketching style and his rhythm of composition. His models were Fernande Olivier (his partner at the time), the village, the people of the area, the cows and the horses. Year 2006: centenary of Pablo Picasso's stay in Gósol.

The doctor Agust? Pedro i Pons stayed in Gósol a long periode -Every year there is the route Gósol-Berga in mountain-bike. -Annually, one weekend of the month of July there is a popular truckload around Gósol. -Also it organize the route of reapers of Gósol(from Gósol to Bellver de Cerdanya by the mountain range of Cadí).

My externals webs of Gósol

 * My Gósol page in Virtualtourist
 * My Gósol page in geocities
 * My virtual tour photographic by Gósol
 * My photos of surrounding area of Gósol
 * My photos of fontains of Gósol
 * A page that is not mine about history of Gósol

Changes
I've wikified a lot of this, but I'm still not sure how to translate it into English. RickK 06:50, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Hi. I've just done a large-scale edit and translation into English from the Catalan wiki. I'm not quite sure, however, how the culinary section should be translated; "masked potatoes" and "squared corn" don't sound right. The entire section might be unnecessary. acomas 17:15, 23 November 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gósol


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Museum of London

The Museum of London is a museum in London, covering the history of the city from prehistoric to modern times, with a particular focus on social history. It was formed in 1976 by amalgamating collections previously held by the City Corporation at the Guildhall Museum (founded in 1826) and of the London Museum (founded in 1911). From 1976 to 2022, its main site was located in the City of London on London Wall, close to the Barbican Centre, as part of the Barbican complex of buildings created in the 1960s and '70s to redevelop a bomb-damaged area of the city. In March 2015, the museum revealed plans to move to the General Market Building at the nearby Smithfield site. Reasons for the proposed move included the claim that the current site was difficult for visitors to find, and that by expanding, from 17,000 square metres to 27,000, a greater proportion of the museum's collection could be placed on display. In December 2022, the museum permanently closed its site at London Wall in preparation for reopening in 2026 at Smithfield Market as the London Museum.

The museum has the largest urban history collection in the world, with more than six million objects. It is primarily concerned with the social history of London and its inhabitants throughout time. Its collections include archaeological material, such as flint handaxes from the prehistoric Thames Valley, marble statues from a Roman temple called the London Mithraeum, and a cache of Elizabethan and Jacobean jewellery called the Cheapside Hoard. Its modern collections include large amounts of decorative objects, clothing and costumes, paintings, prints and drawings, social history objects, and oral histories. The museum continues to collect contemporary objects, such as the Whitechapel fatberg or the Trump baby blimp.

The museum is part of a group that also includes two other locations: the Museum of London Docklands, which is based in West India Quay and remains open to the public; and the Museum of London Archaeological Archive, based at Mortimer Wheeler House. The museum is jointly controlled and funded by the City of London Corporation and the Greater London Authority. Its current director is Sharon Ament.

The Guildhall Museum (1826–1976)
One of the two museums that were merged to form the Museum of London was the Guildhall Museum, founded by the City of London Corporation in 1826 when it received the gift of a Roman mosaic from Tower Street as "a suitable place for the reception of such Antiquities as relate to the City of London and Suburbs". As the collection grew, it was given a room in the London Guildhall. The museum focussed on archaeological remains from the city, and objects linked to the corporation, and had a particularly strong collection of Roman objects. It was mostly inaccessible to the public until 1872, when work was begun on dedicated premises in Basinghall Street. During World War II, the museum closed so that the corporation could use the building for other purposes, and after the war, in 1955, it re-opened in the Royal Exchange. However, this was not seen as a long-term satisfactory solution, and in 1960 the museum seriously started to engage with the scheme to merge with the London Museum.

The London Museum (1912–1976)
The museum has its origins in, and derives much of its collection from, the London Museum, founded in 1911 by Viscount Esher and Lewis Harcourt, 1st Viscount Harcourt and originally based in the State Apartments of Kensington Palace. It first opened to the public on 8 April 1912. Harcourt became the first Commissioner of Works, and the first Keeper was Guy Francis Laking. In 1913, it became a National Museum. In 1914, it moved to Lancaster House, which had been bought by William Lever, 1st Viscount Leverhulme, soap magnate and founder of the model town of Port Sunlight, and given to the nation as a home for the London Museum. Visitors travelled through a mostly chronological route, entering the Prehistoric Room, the Roman Room, the Saxon and Early Norman Gallery, the Mediaeval Room, and finally a Jewellery Room before heading to the upper floor. Here, they would find the Tudor Room, the Early Seventeenth Century, the Late Seventeenth Century, a room with a large collection of porcelain, the Late Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Room, and finally, the Costume Gallery. The museum also contained a basement which contained come exhibits from all eras, some of which were too large for the main galleries, and which could serve as an introduction to the collections. It included a Roman boat, a carriage belonging to the Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, a parlour decorated in the Stuart style, and prison cells.

The Keeper of the London Museum from 1926 to 1944, Sir Mortimer Wheeler, proposed merging the London Museum with the Guildhall Museum as early as 1927, as the two museums had a significant overlap in their collections, but the scheme wasn't given serious thought until after both museums had been forced to close during World War II.

During the war, the museum closed, and in 1945 it vacated Lancaster House so that the government could use the space for hospitality events. The trustees considered several sites for the new museum, including Holland House and various sites on the South Bank. However, in the end, King George VI leased part of Kensington Palace for the museum to move back in. The new site opened in 1951.

The Kensington Palace museum kept a generally chronological structure to its layout, but alongside the rooms devoted to various time periods, there were separate galleries for historical shop fronts; prints; theatre; glass; paintings, toys and games; and royal costume. The glass room included Sir Richard Garton's collection of 437 pieces of 17th-19th century table glass, including goblets, wine glasses, bowls, candlesticks and decanters. The Print Room comprised around 3,000 watercolours and drawings and 7,000 prints, including a view of Whitehall and Westminster by Hendrick Danckerts made c.1675, The Cries of London by Paul Sandby, and works by Thomas Rowlandson, Wenceslaus Hollar, and James Abbott McNeill Whistler. The Theatre room included many theatrical costumes, several on loan from the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. These included Henry Irving's costumes for Malvolio and King Lear, the dress Anna Pavlova wore as The Dying Swan, and Ivor Novello's costume from The King's Rhapsody. There was also a clown costume worn by the comedy pioneer Joseph Grimaldi, a piano belonging to W. S. Gilbert, a death mask of David Garrick, and Walter Lambert's Popularity, a painting of dozens of music hall and variety stars. By the 1970s, multiple coronation robes were on display, from 1838, 1902, 1911, and 1937. There were also other items of royal clothing belonging to Charles I, a collection of Queen Victoria's dresses, and Princess Margaret's wedding dress designed by Norman Hartnell.

In 1960, a plan was formed to merge the London Museum with the Guildhall Museum, to be funded jointly by the government, the City of London Corporation, and the Greater London Council. An Act of Parliament is passed to this effect in 1965. The City of London Corporation provided a site near what is now the Barbican Centre.

Museum of London (1976–2022)
The new site for the museum was at the corner of London Wall and Aldersgate Street, an area that had almost entirely been flattened by bombing in The Blitz. The architects appointed to oversee the construction of the new museum building were Philip Powell and Hidalgo Moya, who designed a complex with four main parts: a tower block containing offices and not open to the public; two floors of exhibition space arranged around a courtyard; a lecture theatre and education wing; and a rotunda containing a small garden and restaurant. With the museum galleries themselves, Powell and Moya adopted an innovative approach to museum design, whereby the galleries were laid out so that there was only one route through the museum – from the prehistoric period to the modern galleries. As in the previous incarnation of the museum, the galleries would be set out in a roughly chronological order. The building also incorporated a viewing window out onto one of the remaining pieces of London's city wall, originally built by the Romans around three sides of the city. Construction began in April 1971, with the foundation stone laid by the Queen Mother on 29 March 1973, and the museum was opened in December 1976 by Queen Elizabeth II as part of the Barbican Estate. As in the London Museum, visitors entered a series of rooms set out in chronological order, moving anti-clockwise around the main courtyard on the upper floor through London's history up to the Great Fire in 1666, and then descending to the lower level and moving clockwise around the courtyard up to the present day. Visitors would finish their visit by the Lord Mayor's Gold State Coach.

In November 2002, the previous The Thames In Prehistory gallery was replaced with an entirely new display titled London Before London.

A £20 million redevelopment called the "Galleries of Modern London" was completed in May 2010, the museum's biggest investment since opening in 1976. The redesign, by London-based architects Wilkinson Eyre, comprised the entire lower floor of the main galleries, covering the period from the 1670s to the present day. The Galleries of Modern London displayed a total of 7,000 objects. Star exhibits included a mummified cat, a 1928 Art Deco lift from Selfridges department store on Oxford Street, and a complete 18th century debtors' prison cell covered in graffiti.

The transformation included four new galleries. The Expanding City gallery covered the period 1670–1850. People's City addressed 1850-1940s, including a "Victorian Walk" displaying some of the museum's real office and shop frontages and interiors; objects relating to the suffragette movement; and pages of Charles Booth's 1888 "poverty map", colour-coding London's streets according to the relative wealth of their inhabitants. World City was the gallery containing objects dating from the 1950s to the present day, including 1950s suits, a Mary Quant dress from the 1960s, Biba fashion in the 1970s, outfits from London's punk scene, and a pashmina from Alexander McQueen's 2008 collection. Finally, the City Gallery featured large, street-level windows along London Wall that allowed passers-by to view the Lord Mayor's State Coach, which takes to the streets each November for the Lord Mayor's Show.

In 2014, the museum opened a new gallery displaying the cauldron from the 2012 Summer Olympics. The cauldron was made up of 204 steel stems, each tipped with a copper "petal", which could be raised or lowered to create various formations. When all the petals were raised to their full height, they together formed the shape of a cauldron. The gallery featured 97 of the original stems, wooden moulds for the copper petals, Great Britain's Paralympic petal, and footage showing the cauldron in use during the opening and closing ceremonies of the Olympiad. The room also showed interviews with some of the creators, including lead designer Thomas Heatherwick and an engineer called Gemma Webster.

Relocation to Smithfield
In 2016, the museum announced it would be closing its London Wall site and moving to a set of disused market buildings in West Smithfield in 2021. The new site will increase the museum's size from 17,000 square metres to over 27,000. Museum director Sharon Ament said that one reason for the move was "a failing building with problematic entrances and a location which is difficult to find". A competition was held to find an architectural firm to design the new building, with over 70 firms taking part. Six were shortlisted, and their initial designs released to the public in 2016. Stanton Williams and Asif Khan were chosen as the final architects.

The site at Smithfield includes part of the Thameslink train line running into Farringdon Station, and from an early point in the process, the museum expressed interest in creating a see-through section of tunnel for commuters to glimpse inside the museum and visitors to see the train go by. It also includes the River Fleet, a tributary of the Thames which has long since become buried underground due to the high volume of construction work around it. One early plan for the new museum, since scrapped, included creating a well reaching down to the Fleet, which has been completely covered since the 1870s. Another idea for the new museum is to revive the ancient St Bartholomew's Fair, which took place on the site regularly in the medieval period until being shut down by authorities in 1855. The museum will also feature spiral escalators taking visitors to the underground storage rooms which will function as the main historical galleries.

In 2019, further plans were released, which showed late-night queues outside the museum frontage and visitors perusing real items from the museum's collection. Ament announced that workers had found the remains of a Victorian café called the Temperance Cocoa Room, complete with original tiling, and that the museum intended to re-open this section as a café.

The scheme was originally set to cost £250 million and open in 2021; current estimates are that it will cost £337 million and open in 2026. Ament blamed the rising cost on the difficulty of working with an old building: "It is to do with things like waterproofing a building that hasn't needed to be water-proofed, it is to do with engineering".

In August 2022, the museum announced that a previously unknown freshwater spring had been found underneath the new site. Tests revealed that it was safe to drink, and Ament claimed that she hoped visitors would be able to "fill up their water bottles from it".

On 4 December 2022, the museum closed its site at London Wall ahead of the move. It was also announced that when the new site opened in 2026, it would be called the London Museum.

Once the museum has vacated the London wall site, it will revert to the City of London Corporation. In 2019, plans were revealed to use the site to house a London Centre For Music, a £288m concert hall for use by the London Symphony Orchestra. However, in 2022, the Corporation submitted plans to demolish the building, including the Bastion House office block above, and replace it with a 780,000 sq. ft office block, citing dangerous structural issues, poor energy performance, fire safety and limited possible uses as reasons in favour of demolition. In May 2024, demolition remained the likely option after the Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities Michael Gove decided not to intervene.

Collections
The museum holds in its collections objects covering 10,000 years of London's history, totalling around 7 million objects. It combines the original collections of both the Guildhall Museum and London Museum, plus many objects that the Museum of London has acquired since its foundation in the 1970s. In particular, since the 1970s the museum has been able to acquire more archaeological objects due to the more systematic and protected nature of modern archaeology, and a wider range of contemporary objects, such as photographs, oral histories, and video games.

In particular, the museum owns such a large collection of objects relating to London's docks that it was able to open a secondary site, the Museum of London Docklands, in 2003.

Pre-modern collections
The museum has over 13,000 objects in its prehistoric collections, of which 11,000 are made of stone, particularly flint. Many of these were found during 19th and 20th century construction in the city and date from the Lower Paleolithic era. The museum also owns the Garraway Rice Collection of Lower and Middle Palaeolithic material from Yiewsley, just west of London, and Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic material from Three Ways Wharf in Uxbridge. Neolithic items in the collection include polished axe heads and mace heads. The museum's Bronze Age and Iron Age finds mostly come from 19th and 20th century dredging of the River Thames, particularly the collections of Thomas Layton. In 2019, the museum acquired the Havering Hoard, the largest Bronze Age hoard thus discovered in London, and the third-largest of its kind in the UK. It included 453 bronze objects, such as axe heads, spearheards and knives made between 900 and 800 BCE. They had almost all been broken or damaged, and buried carefully in four separate groups around the site. The museum put on a temporary exhibition of the hoard at its Docklands site in 2020.

The Roman collection totals over 47,000 objects, mostly from the Roman-occupied areas of the City of London and Southwark, including the UK's largest collection of terra sigillata (samianware). It also includes entire wall paintings and floors such as the Bucklersbury Mosaic; metalwork such as hipposandals, cutlery, jewellery and tweezers; four leather "bikini bottoms", possibly worn by female acrobats; and a wooden ladder. In September 1954, a Roman temple to the god Mithras was discovered in the City of London. An estimated 400,000 members of the public visited the site while it was being excavated, a job which was mostly carried out by archaeology students led by the then director of the London Museum, W. F. Grimes. The building stones of the temple have been reconstructed on their original site at the London Mithraeum, while the marble carvings found inside are part of the collections of the Museum of London. The museum owns around 12,000 medieval objects, including 700 from the Saxon period. Some of these were found by mudlarks on the banks of the River Thames, as well as from cemeteries at Mitcham, Hanwell, Ewell, and the Savoy Palace. The medieval collection includes everyday objects such as spades, daggers, and belt buckles, over 1,350 pewter pilgrim badges, medieval ceramics, and floor tiles.

The museum holds over 1,500 pieces of Tudor and Stuart cutlery, mostly recovered from the Thames, and some purchased from the private collection of Hilton Price. There is also a large group of edged weapons, including some 17th-century swords made at the Hounslow Sword Factory; and Tudor and Stuart ceramics. One of the most well-known and popular groups in the museum's collection from this period is the Cheapside Hoard, a hoard of almost 500 Tudor and Jacobean pieces of jewellery found in 1912 on Cheapside in the City of London. The entire hoard went on display for the first time as a temporary exhibition at the museum in 2013. In 2017, it was announced that the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths would donate £10 million to the museum in order to secure a permanent display for the Cheapside Hoard at the new museum site in West Smithfield.

Modern collections
Demonstrating London's manufacturing prowess has been one of the museum's goals since the inception of the London Museum in 1911.To that end, the museum collects the decorative arts, such as 18th century glass, silver, jewellery and enamel. In 1943, the heirs of Sir Richard Garton donated his collection of 400 pieces of table glass, and the museum has pieces from London manufacturers like James Powell and Sons, also known as Whitefriars Glass. The museum has collected porcelain from the Chelsea, Bow and Vauxhall china factories, as well as the Martin Brothers. Donors such as Joan Evans, Catherine d'Erlanger, Mary of Teck, Jane Anne Gordon and Lady Cory have enlarged the museum's collection of jewellery, particularly mourning jewellery, chatelaines and costume jewellery. The museum's dress and textile collection spans 23,000 homemade garments and professionally-made creations from the Tudor period to the modern day, and some have been in the collection since the London Museum's inception in 1911, at a time when few museums showed interest in clothing. The London Museum was the first British museum to produce a catalogue of its costume collection, in 1933. There is a particular focus on clothing made by London dressmakers and tailors, sold in London shops, or worn by Londoners. The museum's collection includes pieces by Lucile, Hardy Amies, Norman Hartnell, Victor Stiebel, Mary Quant, Katharine Hamnett, and Vivienne Westwood. The collection also includes several pieces of royal clothing, including a shirt thought to have belonged to Charles I; many theatrical, ballet, circus, music hall, and opera costumes; and silk garments woven in Spitalfields. Outside of clothing, the museum also holds banners and sashes related to the female suffrage campaign of the early 20th century, the Kindred of the Kibbo Kift, and dockworker trade unions. The collection also includes several objects examined by fashion historian Janet Arnold in her book series Patterns of Fashion- eight dresses dating 1860-1930 from Patterns of Fashion 1, a 16th-century leather jerkin from Patterns of Fashion 3, and a shirt and two smocks from the late 16th to early 17th centuries featured in Patterns of Fashion 4.

The museum holds over 100,000 paintings, prints and drawings, either by London artists or taking London and Londoners as their subject. These include works by Wenceslaus Hollar, Paul Sandby, Canaletto, William Powell Frith, George Elgar Hicks, Walter Greaves, Henry Moore, Graham Sutherland, Thomas Rowlandson, C. R. W. Nevinson, and Spencer Gore. The museum's collection also contains portraits of London figures such as military leader and politician Oliver Cromwell and suffrage campaigner and activist Sylvia Pankhurst; and several panoramas and views of London dating back as far as c.1630. One of the most popular examples of these is the Rhinebeck Panorama, an 180° aerial view made around 1806, looking west from where Tower Bridge stands today. In 1806, there was not yet a bridge at this point in the river, and so the view imagines the viewer to be floating in a hot air balloon over the River Thames. It may have been a preparatory drawing for a larger, full-colour, 360° view, capitalising on a trend for panoramic views in the late 18th century (indeed, the word panorama was coined in 1789). It was made by three unknown artists: one who painted the main cityscape, one who painted the ships on the river, and one who painted the church spires in the distance. Little is known about the origins of the panorama, as it was discovered lining a barrel of pistols in a town called Rhinebeck in the state of New York in the United States. The drawing was acquired by the museum in 1998. The Museum of London has collected around 150,000 photographs focussing on everyday life in London. The earliest example dates from c.1845 and shows a view of the then-newly opened Hungerford Bridge taken by Henry Fox Talbot. Other photographs include views of London dating back to c.1855 by Roger Fenton; Bill Brandt's series taken inside World War II air raid shelters; scenes of the building of the first line of what is now the London Underground transport network; pictures of suffragette protests taken by pioneering female photographer Christina Broom; and works by British photographer Henry Grant. The largest work in this collection is a camera obscura print made by Vera Lutter showing Battersea Power Station, at 7 feet (2.1m) high.

The museum also collects more general social and working history objects relating to the everyday lives and trade of ordinary Londoners. This includes shop fronts, food packaging, entire vehicles, and a large collection of "penny toys"- toys costing a penny. The museum also collects objects related to London trades such as clockmaking, coopering, silk-weaving, engraving, and silversmithing. The museum holds an internationally important collection of suffragette material, largely from the archive of the suffrage group, the Women's Social and Political Union; the archives of the Whitefriars Glassworks, and papers relating to Kibbo Kift. The museum has also collected a range of telecommunications devices and equipment, including telephone kiosks.

The museum has been collecting oral histories since the 1980s, and now holds over 5,000 hours of interviews with Londoners from the 20th and 21st centuries. Particular emphasis is placed on narratives surrounding immigration and London's docks, as well as 3,000 hours of interviews made by the London History Workshop Centre.

The collections include a substantial amount of material relating to London's port and the River Thames, much of which is on display at the museum's secondary site, the Museum of London Docklands. This includes vessels such as a 1930s skiff called the Thames, cargo handling equipment. models of vessels such as the Lord Mayor of London's barge and the SS Great Eastern, and material relating to trades connected to the port, such as dock police, wheelwrights and administrative staff.

The Sainsbury Study Centre is hosted at the Museum of London Docklands, detailing the history of the supermarket chain since its foundation in 1869. This site also hosts the archives for the Port of London Authority, including the minute books and business records for many London dock companies dating back to the West India Dock Company, founded in 1799. It includes 40,000 photographs of London's docks and the River Thames, many showing various trades around the river. This archive is popular with visitors tracing their family history, who may have ancestors who worked in the docks.

Contemporary collecting
The museum continues to add to its collection, often through the acquisition of contemporary objects, including those connected to national news stories, such as the Whitechapel fatberg or the Trump baby blimp.

During the 2012 London Summer Olympics, the Museum of London collected tweets using the hashtag #citizencurators, both by the public and by a select group of 18 contributors from across the city.

In 2016, the museum attempted to buy a water-cannon truck bought by then-Mayor of London Boris Johnson. In the summer of 2014, Johnson bought three water cannon trucks from the German federal police for £218,000 in order to combat civil unrest. These were then banned for use in the UK by Home Secretary Theresa May, and could not be deployed. Johnson attempted to sell them. The museum tried to buy one, but the trucks were only available to European policing or civil protection organisations. Unable to find a buyer, the trucks were sold to a reclamation yard in 2018 for £3,675 each. The museum's director, Sharon Ament, expressed interest in collecting some of the scrap or salvage, but no part of the trucks has yet entered the museum's collection.

In 2018, the museum displayed a section of the Whitechapel fatberg, a solid lump of fat and grease that had formed in the sewer network underneath Whitechapel. After being on display for several months, the chunk was removed from the galleries and placed in a freezer, where fans could view it around the clock on a live webcam.

In 2019, the museum collected a coffee stall called "Syd's" (named for its founder, Syd Tothill) that had stood on the corner of Shoreditch High Street and Calvert Avenue since 1919. The stall closed in 2019 due to poor sales and was donated to the museum by Syd's granddaughter, Jane Tothill. The museum has announced that it will be put on display when it opens its new site in Smithfield Market.

In January 2021, the museum acquired a giant inflatable blimp depicting former US President Donald Trump as a giant baby. The 6 metre-high blimp was designed by Matt Bonner to protest Trump's visit to the UK in 2018, and has since been flown around the world in protest of the president's regime.

In 2021, the museum negotiated with The Clash bass player Paul Simonon for a long-term loan of his broken Fender bass guitar, played onstage at the New York Palladium in 1979, where Simonon smashed it onstage. The moment was captured by photographer Pennie Smith and became the album cover for the band's album, London Calling.

In June 2022, the museum bought the film Putin's Happy by Turner Prize-winning artist Jeremy Deller, documenting protests, activism and onlookers between January and March 2019 while the British government was negotiating the terms of Brexit.

In April 2020, the museum put out a call for donations of objects and oral histories connected to the global COVID-19 pandemic. As part of the Collecting Covid project, London Zoo donated a large illuminated sign showing the logo of the UK's National Health Service surrounded by hearts, which was hung outside their giraffe house during lockdown in March 2020. In July 2020, sound designers String and Tins made recordings of soundscapes in London streets that had become deserted due to pandemic lockdowns for the museum's collection. In October 2020, Arsenal football player Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang donated his shirt featuring a Black Lives Matter logo, which had been worn by him during games that season. The logo had been added to all Premier League shirts for the summer 2020 season following widespread protests against racial violence in London and around the world.

During celebrations for the Islamic festival of Ramadan, the museum collected thousands of messages from a WhatsApp group made up of five Muslim women in West London sharing their reflections on celebrating during lockdown. In January 2021, the museum announced the acquisition of thirteen tweets made by Londoners during lockdown. In February 2021, Mayor of Lambeth Philip Normal donated his chain of office, which he had made from card and t-shirt fabric while the real one was locked up in the town hall. Normal had a virtual appointment ceremony to the role in April 2020. The museum also asked volunteers to describe their "pandemic dreams" to collect oral histories of how the pandemic affected Londoners' sleep cycles.

Exhibitions

 * 1999: Pride and Prejudice: Lesbian and Gay London
 * 2006: Queer is Here
 * 2006–2007: belonging: Voices of London's Refugees
 * 2010–2011: London Futures
 * 2011–2012: Charles Dickens
 * 2012–2013: Doctors, Dissection and Resurrection Men
 * 2013: Opening The Olympics
 * 2013–2014: The Cheapside Hoard
 * 2014–2015: Sherlock Holmes: The Man Who Never Lived And Will Never Die
 * 2015–2016: The Crime Museum Uncovered
 * 2016–2017: Fire! Fire!
 * 2017–2018: The City Is Ours
 * 2017: Junk
 * 2017: (Un)Common Currency
 * 2018: London Nights
 * 2018: Fatberg!
 * 2018-2019: Disease X: London's Next Epidemic?
 * 2018–2019: Votes For Women
 * 2019–2020: Beasts of London
 * 2019–2020: The Clash: London Calling
 * 2020–2021: Dub London: Bassline of a City
 * 2022: Grime Stories: From the Corner to the Mainstream
 * 2022: Harry Kane: I Want To Play Football

Museum of London Docklands
In 2003, the museum opened the Museum in Docklands (later renamed the Museum of London Docklands) in a 19th-century grade I listed warehouse near Canary Wharf on the Isle of Dogs. The Museum of London Docklands charts the history of London as a port, beginning 2,000 years ago with the Roman trading post set up on the banks of the Thames and following London's expansion into the biggest port the world had ever known. In November 2007, it opened the capital's first permanent gallery examining London's involvement in the transatlantic slave trade, "London, Sugar & Slavery".

Museum of London Archaeology
Museum of London Archaeology (MOLA) is an archaeology and built heritage practice originally that was originally part of the Museum of London, but became an independent charity in November 2011, regulated by the Charity Commission for England and Wales. It employs 310 staff and works not just in London, but across the UK and internationally. It is based at Mortimer Wheeler House in Shoreditch.

Governance
The Museum of London and Museum of London Docklands are part of the same group. Since 1 April 2008, the museum has been jointly controlled and funded by the City of London Corporation and the Greater London Authority. Prior to this, the museum had been jointly controlled by the City of London and the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. It is headed by a director.

List of directors

 * 1965–1970: Donald Harden (acting)
 * 1972–1977: Tom Hume
 * 1977–1997: Max Hebditch
 * 1997–2002: Simon Thurley
 * 2002 to 2012: Jack Lohman
 * September 2012 – present: Sharon Ament

title: Museum of London


text:
Nauru Airlines

Nauru Air Corporation, trading as Nauru Airlines (formerly trading as Our Airline and Air Nauru), is the flag carrier of the Republic of Nauru. It operates scheduled international services to other Pacific islands and Australia. Its main base is Nauru International Airport. Its head office is on the property of Nauru International Airport, Yaren District and its operations office is in Brisbane in the Australian state of Queensland. In August 2014, the airline changed its name from Our Airline to Nauru Airlines.

History
Nauru Airlines was established as Air Nauru on 17 September 1969, and started operations on 14 February 1970. Regular scheduled services commenced after the delivery in January 1972 of the airline's first Fokker F28 Fellowship twin jet, which was followed by a second. A Boeing 737-200C was added to the fleet in 1975 and a Boeing 727-100 entered service on 16 June 1976. Later in the 1970s the two Fellowships were sold and more Boeings were added to the fleet.

By 1983 the fleet included seven aircraft: two Boeing 727-100s and five Boeing 737-200s; since the entire population of Nauru at this time was about 8,000, the airline was in the position of having seating capacity equal to 10% of the Nauruan population. The airline also had a bad reputation for cancelling flights at the whim of its government owners, including using the Boeing 727s for low-level searches for Nauruan fisherman lost at sea while relatives on board were served alcohol by the flight attendants. From this high point (at least in terms of fleet numbers) the airline gradually contracted in size, leasing some aircraft and selling others. Five years later in 1988 the fleet consisted of three Boeing 737-200s with the one remaining 727-100 leased out to Trans Australia Airlines. At this time the airline was badly affected by an industrial dispute with its pilots and was operating without a set timetable, a situation that lasted for several months.

In the early 1990s, an Air Nauru 737 was chartered to operate the Auckland-Niue route of Niue Airlines, the latter company's only service.

In 1993 two of the 737-200s were replaced by Boeing 737-400s, leaving the Boeing 737-200C to soldier on for a little while longer. The airline, by now only operating a single 737-400, was corporatised in July 1996 as the Nauru Air Corporation (NAC). Mismanagement of the island's wealth and the resulting economic troubles caused the airline to lose large amounts of money, and on some occasions become insolvent. Its operations were also suspended for brief periods in the 1990s because of concerns raised by Australia over the airworthiness and safety record of its aircraft. Airline offices and equipment were also frequently repossessed by the Australian government for Nauru's repeated defaults on foreign loans. The airline became in dispute with the Export-Import Bank of the United States in 2002, and in December 2005 the High Court of Australia upheld an earlier decision to allow the bank to seize Air Nauru's only aircraft, leaving Nauru and the island nation of Kiribati without air services. The aircraft was seized by creditors at Melbourne Airport on 18 December 2005. Following the acquisition of a replacement aircraft (a Boeing 737-300) in mid-2006, the airline was rebranded as Our Airline and relaunched on 14 October 2006. Our Airline was renamed Nauru Airlines on 1 August 2014.

Nauru Airlines is now wholly owned by the state and had 65 employees in July 2012.

Destinations
Nauru Airlines serves the following destinations as of December 2023:

Historical destinations
Air Nauru once had a remarkably comprehensive network in the Asia-Pacific, with services to: • Hong Kong

• Kagoshima

• Taipei

• Okinawa

• Manila

• Singapore

• Guam

• Saipan

• Koror

• Chuuk

• Pohnpei

• Kosrae

• Majuro

• Tarawa

• Honolulu

• Honiara

• Port Vila

• Nouméa

• Apia

• Pago Pago

• Nadi

• Tonga

• Kanton Island

• Niue

• Rarotonga

• Auckland

• Melbourne

• Sydney

• Brisbane

• Kiritimati

• The average load factor throughout the network was only around 20%, with many flights carrying no or few passengers. The Nauru government subsidized the airline with profits from phosphate mining. Due to the phosphate reserves depleting in the early 1990s, along with the mismanagement of the island's mineral reserves, the airline began to cease services to unprofitable destinations.

Relaunch of services
Since relaunching services in 2006, the airline has repeatedly adjusted its route map. When the airline initially resumed services in 2006, it offered a twice-weekly service from Brisbane to Honiara, Nauru, Tarawa, and Majuro. These were quickly curtailed, with flights to Majuro eliminated. The Tarawa extension was suspended from July 2008 to November 2009 because, along with the high fuel prices of the time, operating the Tarawa flight was not profitable without a connecting destination. The Tarawa extension was suspended again in 2011 because of disputes, but it was resumed in early 2012. Meanwhile, Honiara service was suspended around the same time.

Although it had been reported in early 2007 that Our Airline would begin services between Nauru and Fiji in the very near future, the airline instead provided once weekly Tarawa to Nadi service on behalf of Air Kiribati beginning in November 2009. However, the service between Nauru and Fiji which began in 2010 ceased in December 2011 due to a dispute between the governments of Kiribati and Fiji. This was replaced with a bi-weekly service that operated from Nauru to Nadi nonstop.

As of December 2019, Nauru Airlines served four destinations from its base in Nauru: Brisbane, Majuro, Nadi, and Tarawa. However, three of these destinations have since been discontinued and the airline currently only has limited service to Brisbane. Thus, the Nauru Airlines service between Brisbane and Nauru is now the only scheduled service of any airline to Nauru.

In May 2023, Nauru Airlines applied to the US Department of Transport for permission to fly scheduled cargo and passenger flights to Guam using B737 equipment. In 2017, the airline successfully obtained a five-year foreign carrier's permit allowing such flights but due to Covid-19 and other reasons, never used the permit. The filing also said the airline was in the final stages of securing a B737-800SF which will be registered as VH-8TG (msn 33003).

Services provided to Norfolk Island
Norfolk Island's Norfolk Jet Express and Norfolk Air had chartered Our Airline to fly services between Norfolk Island and Brisbane, Newcastle, Melbourne and Sydney. Norfolk Jet Express went out of business on 4 June 2005. A government operated airline, called Norfolk Air, was then established but with no aircraft of its own, Qantas operated the flights from 11 June 2005 using Air Nauru's Boeing 737-400. This arrangement ceased later that year, when the aircraft was seized due to Air Nauru's own financial problems. Other airlines filled the gap for Norfolk Air, but Air Nauru again started providing aircraft for Norfolk Air flights in April 2009. The Norfolk government closed down Norfolk Air in March 2012, with a new agreement that Air New Zealand would take over the Norfolk Island flights, using its own aircraft.

Fleet
The Nauru Airlines fleet consists of the following aircraft (as of December 2023):

Previously operated jet aircraft:

 * Boeing 727-100
 * Boeing 737-200
 * Boeing 737-400
 * Dassault Falcon 20
 * Fokker F28-1000 Fellowship

In March 2006, the government of the Republic of China, reportedly as a reward for Nauru's diplomatic recognition of the ROC instead of the People's Republic of China, assisted Air Nauru with the purchase of a second-hand Boeing 737, which was expected to be in operation by mid-2006, after several logistical delays. This purchase was put on hold in May 2006 due to OzJet and Air Pacific having started on the routes formerly operated by Air Nauru. In October 2006 the new Boeing plane came into service. The plane was registered as VH-INU and named as 'Naoero'. In 2008, the Airline bought their second Boeing 737-300 adorned with a full Norfolk Air livery, remaining till now despite Norfolk Air's current state of closure. The plane was registered as VH-NLK. Later in March 2013, the Airline purchased a Boeing 737-300 from GECAS. The plane was painted in the 'Our Airline' livery in Melbourne, making its first visit to Brisbane Airport on 3 September 2013.

title: Nauru Airlines


text:
Hanga Roa

Hanga Roa (Haŋa Roa, Rapa Nui pronunciation: [ˈha.ŋa ˈɾo.a]) (Spanish: Bahía Larga) is the main town, harbour and seat of Easter Island, a municipality of Chile. It is located in the southern part of the island's west coast, in the lowlands between the extinct volcanoes of Terevaka and Rano Kau.

History
Hanga Roa in the native Rapa Nui language means "wide bay" or "long bay".

Upon Chile's claim of the island, the Rapa Nui were forced in Hanga Roa, and the rest of the land was leased to a sheep farm. For much of the twentieth century, the rest of the island was leased to the Compañía Explotadora de la Isla de Pascua (CEDIP) (a subsidiary of Williamson-Balfour Company) and closed to the Rapa Nui.

Some disagreements between the government of Chile and the Rapa Nui have led the locals with ancestral roots to "take over" many hotels in the city. For the locals, it is a way to draw the line between the Chilean government's policy-making in the island, and the Rapa Nui's ancestral rights on their land. In 2011, the Schiess family, owner of the Hanga Roa Hotel, donated back the land of the hotel to the Rapa Nui, but retained a 30-year management lease of the hotel. A week before, the Schiess family had personally shipped a special force squad from the Carabineros de Chile to remove the locals who squatted the hotel. A prior police intervention in August 2010 had led to 25 Rapa Nui protesters being wounded.

Geography
The island's main avenue, Avenida Atamu Tekena (formerly Avenida Policarpo Toro), is the heart of the town. Many hotels, restaurants, grocery stores and pharmacies are found alongside this road. In 1998, the road was renamed after nineteenth century Rapanui king Atamu Te Kena; it had previously been named after Captain Policarpo Toro, the Chilean Naval officer who annexed Easter Island to Chile in 1888. The island's museum, and also the Roman Catholic "Holy Cross Church", are located in the center of town. With the advent of the Internet and the expansion of communication services by the Chilean government, many internet cafes and automated teller machines (ATM) have appeared in recent years.

Population
In 1914, the population of Hanga Roa was just 250 and the rest of the island was inhabited by large populations of sheep.

The population of Easter Island was last measured at 7,750 people. The main town of Easter Island is Hanga Roa. Its population was last measured at 7,322 residents. This means that roughly that 95% of the island's population live in this city.

Tourism
The town has a number of hotels and guesthouses which cater for tourists who come to see the island's World Heritage Sites, in particular the famous moai statues. Hanga Roa and the surrounding area have a number of moai, but there are larger ones elsewhere on the island. Total capacity is about 2,500 beds as of 2022, ranging from camping sites to luxury hotels, including hotel Hanga Roa.

The Ahu Tahai archaeological complex is within a walking distance from the city's center. Every year, the city is home to the farandula cultural festival, a months-long event when the locals sculpt giant wooden statues. The celebration includes a habit where people get nude and bath in clay that covers their bodies.

Other activities
In addition to tourism, other businesses in Hanga Roa include fishing, farming and administration. Several Chilean government departments including the Chilean Navy maintain a presence on the island.

The harbour has a shipping service to Valparaíso, Chile. In April 2018, the freighter Lago Icalma, parked in the port of Hanga Roa, was struck by a barge. A fuel tank was ruptured, leaking diesel fuel in the waters of the port. The surrounding beaches were also blackened by the spread of the black liquid.

Transportation
The island's only airport, Mataveri International Airport, is served by LATAM Airlines, Chile's national carrier, which offers direct 5-hour flights from Santiago. It is the only commercial carrier that regularly serves the island.

Health
A new hospital was opened in 2013, replacing an older one donated in the 1970s by the United States. The hospital has a capacity of 16 beds, and includes a delivery ward designed to also allow the practice of folk medicine. It is the only healthcare facility on the island.

Education
Among several schools are the Colegio Lorenzo Baeza Vega, which offers primary education with a focus on teaching traditional culture and language, and Liceo Aldea Educativa, which offers qualification in the areas of humanist studies, tourism and agriculture.

Sport
Hanga Roa has a multi-use stadium, the Estadio de Hanga Roa, which is the home ground of the CF Rapa Nui, the football team representing Easter Island.

Access to food
The regular consumer brands sold in grocery stores are expensive due to the costly and time-consuming trip required to import those products. Locals informally sell fish, meat and vegetables. The tuna empanada is the city's favourite snack.

title: Hanga Roa


text:
Talk:List of toy companies

Game and board game companies
They were covered in the "see also" section. Those links: Category:Game_manufacturers Category:Board_game_publishing_companies Zephyr103 02:58, 12 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of toy companies


text:
Stuffed toy

A stuffed toy is a toy doll with an outer fabric sewn from a textile and stuffed with flexible material. They are known by many names, such as plush toys, plushies, stuffed animals, and stuffies; in Britain and Australia, they may also be called soft toys or cuddly toys. The stuffed toy originated from the Steiff company of Germany in the late 19th century and gained popularity following the creation of the teddy bear in the United States in 1903. At the same time, German toy inventor Richard Steiff designed a similar bear. In 1903, Peter Rabbit was the first fictional character to be made into a patented stuffed toy. In 1921, Christopher Robin's stuffed toy, given to him by his father, A. A. Milne, would inspire the creation of Winnie-the-Pooh. In the 1970s, London-based Hamleys, the world's oldest toy store, bought the rights to Paddington Bear stuffed toys. In the 1990s, Ty Warner created Beanie Babies, a series of animals stuffed with plastic pellets that were popular as collector's items.

Stuffed toys are made in many different forms, but most resemble real animals (sometimes with exaggerated proportions or features), mythological creatures, cartoon characters, or inanimate objects. They can be commercially or home-produced from numerous materials, most commonly pile textiles like plush for the outer material and synthetic fiber for the stuffing. Often these toys are designed for children, but stuffed toys are popular for a range of ages and uses and have been marked by fads in popular culture that sometimes affected collectors and the value of the toys.

Description
Stuffed toys are distinguishable from other toys mainly by their softness, flexibility, and resemblance to animals or fictional characters. Stuffed toys most commonly take the form of animals, especially bears (in the case of teddy bears), mammalian pets such as cats and dogs, and highly recognizable animals such as zebras, tigers, pandas, lizards, and elephants. Many fictional animal-like characters from movies, TV shows, books, or other entertainment forms often appear in stuffed toy versions, as do both real and fictional humans if the individual or character is famous enough. These toys are filled with soft plush material.

Stuffed toys come in an array of different sizes, with the smallest being thumb-sized and the largest being larger than a house. However, the largest somewhat commonly produced stuffed toys are not much bigger than a person. Most stuffed toys are designed to be an appropriate size for easy cuddling. They also come in a wide variety of colors, cloth surfaces, fur textures, and humanizing embellishments.

Stuffed toys are commonly sold in stores worldwide. Vendors are often abundant at tourist attractions, airports, carnivals, fairs, downtown parks, and general public meeting places of almost any nature, especially if there are children present.

History
Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote in 1835: "Bring’ uns, lieber Weihnachtsmann, Bring’ auch morgen, bringe Musketier und Grenadier, Zottelbär und Pantherthier, Roß und Esel, Schaf und Stier, Lauter schöne Dinge!" which can be translated as: "Dear Father Christmas, bring us musketeer and genadier, shaggy bear and panther, steed and donkey, sheep and steer: lots of lovely things."

In 1878, The Delineator, an American magazine that offered sewing patterns, offered a "Pattern for an elephant and blanket" that was intended to be a child's toy.

Two years later, the first known commercially available stuffed felt elephant originally sold as a pincushion, was made by Margarete Steiff, founder of the German Steiff company in 1880, using the Delinator pattern. Steiff used newly developed technology for manufacturing upholstery to make its stuffed toys. In 1892, the Ithaca Kitty became one of the first mass-produced stuffed animal toys in the United States, which was sold as "The Tabby Cat" printed pattern on muslin by Arnold Print Works.

The toy industry significantly expanded in the early 20th century. In 1903, Richard Steiff, nephew of Margarete, designed a soft stuffed bear that differed from earlier traditional rag dolls because it was made of plush furlike fabric. As an art student in Stuttgart he visited the zoo and sketched the bears, which became the inspiration for his first life-like toy bear, known as "55 PB". At the same time, in the US, Morris Michtom created the first teddy bear after being inspired by a drawing of President "Teddy" Roosevelt with a bear cub. In 1903, the character Peter Rabbit from English author Beatrix Potter was the first fictional character to be made into a patented stuffed toy. The following year they went on sale and were mass produced by Steiff. The popularity of stuffed toys grew, with numerous manufacturers forming in Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Many people also handmade their own stuffed toys. For instance, sock monkeys originated when parents turned old socks into toys during the Great Depression.

In 1921, A. A. Milne bought a stuffed toy from Harrods department store in London for his son Christopher Robin, a toy which would later inspire the author's creation of Winnie-the-Pooh. Stuffed toys of Paddington Bear, a character created by Michael Bond, were first produced by the family of Jeremy Clarkson in 1972, with the family eventually selling the rights to London-based Hamleys, the world's oldest toy store. More recent lines of stuffed animals have been created around unique concepts, like Uglydoll, introduced in 2001, with a number of recognizable characters and overarching style.

Modern plushies from Japan are known for kawaii styles, generally thought of as (at least globally) starting with Sanrio's Hello Kitty, with many popular characters from popular media like Pikachu and Eevee from Pokémon, and characters from stationery company San-X including Rilakkuma and the Sumikko Gurashi characters. There is also a trend of Japanese plushies being shaped like mochi.

Psychology
Children, as well as adults, can form connections with their stuffed toys, often sleeping or cuddling with them for comfort. They can be sentimental objects that reduce anxiety around separation, self-esteem, and fear of the night. In 2019 about a third of British adults reported sleeping with soft toys, and almost half had kept their childhood toys.

Production
Stuffed toys are made from a range of materials. The earliest were created from felt, velvet, or mohair and stuffed with straw, horsehair, or sawdust. Following World War II, manufacturers began to adopt more synthetic materials into production, and in 1954, the first teddy bear made from easily washable materials was produced. Modern stuffed toys are commonly constructed of outer fabrics such as plain cloth, pile textiles like plush or terrycloth, or sometimes socks. Common stuffing materials include synthetic fiber, batting, cotton, straw, wood wool, plastic pellets, and beans. Some modern toys incorporate technology to move and interact with the user.

Manufacturers sell two main types of stuffed toys: licensed, which are toys of characters or other licensed properties, or basic, which take the shape of ordinary animals or other non-licensed subjects.

Stuffed toys can also be homemade from numerous types of fabric or yarn. For instance, amigurumi is a traditional Japanese type of knitted or crocheted stuffed toy typically made with an oversized head and undersized extremities to look kawaii ('cute').

Cultural impact, marketing, and collectors
Stuffed toys are among the most popular toys, especially for children. Their uses include imaginative play, comfort objects, display or collecting, and gifts to both children and adults for occasions such as graduation, illness, condolences, Valentine's Day, Christmas, or birthdays. In 2018, the global market for stuffed toys was estimated to be US$7.98 billion, with the growth in target consumers expected to drive sales upwards.

Fads
Many stuffed toys have become fads that have boosted the industry overall. Teddy bears were an early fad that quickly grew into a cultural phenomenon. Close to 100 years later, in the 1990s, Ty Warner created Beanie Babies, a series of animals stuffed with plastic pellets. The toys became a fad through marketing strategies that increased demand and encouraged collection. Pillow Pets, which can be folded from a pillow into a stuffed animal, were another successful brand, launching in 2003 and selling more than 30 million toys between 2010 and 2016.

Other recent fads have involved toys paired with technology. Tickle Me Elmo, a laughing and shaking plush toy based on the character Elmo from the Sesame Street television show, was released in 1996 and was soon in demand, with some people buying and reselling the toy for hundreds of dollars. This popularity sparked similar fads, including the robotic talking plush toy Furby released in 1998 and ZhuZhu Pets, a line of robotic plush hamsters released in 2009.

The Internet also presented an opportunity for new stuffed toy fads. In 2005, Ganz launched its Webkinz stuffed toys, which each came with a different "Secret Code" that gave access to the Webkinz World website and a virtual version of the toy for online play. Webkinz's success inspired the creation of other stuffed toys containing codes to unlock digital content, such as the former online worlds Disney's Club Penguin and Build-A-Bearville from Build-A-Bear Workshop. In 2013, Disney launched its first collection of Disney Tsum Tsum stuffed toys based on characters from different Disney properties. Inspired by the popular app of the same name, Tsum Tsums were first released in Japan (an example of mochi shaped plushies) before expanding to the United States. More recently, in 2021, Squishmallows have made an appearance as a popular Internet fad and collector's item.

title: Stuffed toy


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User:Genispp

Hello!!

I am a new user. I have got externals pages=

MY EXTERNALS PAGES

 * Gosol village
 * Tour photographic by Gósol
 * Surrounding area of Gósol
 * Fountains of Gósol
 * this page is not mine: A route by history of Gósol
 * Gósol in Virtualtourist

title: User:Genispp


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Function field (scheme theory)

The sheaf of rational functions KX of a scheme X is the generalization to scheme theory of the notion of function field of an algebraic variety in classical algebraic geometry. In the case of algebraic varieties, such a sheaf associates to each open set U the ring of all rational functions on that open set; in other words, KX(U) is the set of fractions of regular functions on U. Despite its name, KX does not always give a field for a general scheme X.

Simple cases
In the simplest cases, the definition of KX is straightforward. If X is an (irreducible) affine algebraic variety, and if U is an open subset of X, then KX(U) will be the fraction field of the ring of regular functions on U. Because X is affine, the ring of regular functions on U will be a localization of the global sections of X, and consequently KX will be the constant sheaf whose value is the fraction field of the global sections of X.

If X is integral but not affine, then any non-empty affine open set will be dense in X. This means there is not enough room for a regular function to do anything interesting outside of U, and consequently the behavior of the rational functions on U should determine the behavior of the rational functions on X. In fact, the fraction fields of the rings of regular functions on any affine open set will be the same, so we define, for any U, KX(U) to be the common fraction field of any ring of regular functions on any open affine subset of X. Alternatively, one can define the function field in this case to be the local ring of the generic point.

General case
The trouble starts when X is no longer integral. Then it is possible to have zero divisors in the ring of regular functions, and consequently the fraction field no longer exists. The naive solution is to replace the fraction field by the total quotient ring, that is, to invert every element that is not a zero divisor. Unfortunately, in general, the total quotient ring does not produce a presheaf much less a sheaf. The well-known article of Kleiman, listed in the bibliography, gives such an example.

The correct solution is to proceed as follows:

 * For each open set U, let SU be the set of all elements in Γ(U, OX) that are not zero divisors in any stalk OX,x. Let KXpre be the presheaf whose sections on U are localizations SU−1Γ(U, OX) and whose restriction maps are induced from the restriction maps of OX by the universal property of localization. Then KX is the sheaf associated to the presheaf KXpre.

Further issues
Once KX is defined, it is possible to study properties of X which depend only on KX. This is the subject of birational geometry.

If X is an algebraic variety over a field k, then over each open set U we have a field extension KX(U) of k. The dimension of U will be equal to the transcendence degree of this field extension. All finite transcendence degree field extensions of k correspond to the rational function field of some variety.

In the particular case of an algebraic curve C, that is, dimension 1, it follows that any two non-constant functions F and G on C satisfy a polynomial equation P(F,G) = 0.

title: Function field (scheme theory)


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Talk:November 28

Removed

 * 1895 - First automobile race in the United States.
 * 1966 - Republic declared in Burundi.

Could not be confirmed outside of 'this day in history'-type pages (very bad source). --mav 22:32, 27 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Edit request from 99.240.120.147, 29 June 2011
Leslie Nielsen should be added to this page. He died November 28 2010.

99.240.120.147 (talk) 07:29, 29 June 2011 (UTC)
 * Yes check.svg Done Jnorton7558 (talk) 08:38, 29 June 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:November 28


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Winchester Palace

Winchester Palace was a 12th-century bishop's palace that served as the London townhouse of the Bishops of Winchester. It was located in the parish of Southwark in Surrey, on the south bank of the River Thames (opposite the City of London) on what is now Clink Street in the London Borough of Southwark, near St Saviour's Church (which later became Southwark Cathedral). Grade II listed remains of the demolished palace survive on the site today, designated a Scheduled Ancient Monument, under the care of English Heritage.

History
Southwark in the county of Surrey was formerly the largest manor in the Diocese of Winchester and the Bishop of Winchester was a major landowner in the area. He was a great power in the land, and traditionally served as the king's royal treasurer, performing the function of the modern Chancellor of the Exchequer. He thus frequently needed to attend the king both at his court in Westminster, at the Tower of London and also was required to attend Parliament with other bishops and major abbots. The city of Winchester had been the capital of the Saxon kings of England. For that purpose, Henry of Blois built the palace as his comfortable and high-status London residence. Most of the other English bishops similarly had episcopal palaces in London, most notably Lambeth Palace, residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury.

From 1682 to 1686 the palace was remodelled adding Corinthian columns and pilasters, to give a more contemporary Renaissance look the sculpture and masonry being by Edward Strong the Elder.

The palace remained in use until around 1700, when it was converted and divided into tenements and warehouses. These were mostly destroyed by fire in 1814. Part of the great hall, and the west gable end with its rose window became more visible after a 19th-century fire and 20th-century redevelopment. It is believed that the great hall was built in about 1136.

The hall was enlarged and the rose window built in the 14th century, possibly by Bishop William of Wykeham (reigned 1367–1398).

Below the hall was a richly decorated vaulted cellar with direct access to a wharf on the River Thames for bringing in supplies. Royal visitors were entertained at the palace, including King James I of Scotland on his wedding to Joan Beaufort (niece of the then bishop, Cardinal Henry Beaufort) in 1424. The palace was arranged around two courtyards. Other buildings within the site included a prison, a brewery and a butchery. The palace environs comprised a garden, a tennis court and a bowling alley.

During the Civil War Sir Thomas Ogle was imprisoned here, during which time he tried to draw Thomas Devenish, a member of John Goodwin's Independent Congregation, into a royalist plot to split the Parliamentarian Independents from the Presbyterians in order to assist Charles I's numbers in Parliament.

The Clink Liberty
Associated with the palace was the Liberty of the Clink which also lay on the south bank of the River Thames, an area free from the jurisdiction of the City of London. It therefore became an area where activities which were suppressed in the City could flourish openly. Thus gaming houses, bowling alleys, theatres and brothels abounded. It took its name from the notorious Clink prison which lay within the Liberty and gave rise to the slang expression "in the clink" (i.e. in prison). The Bishops of Winchester received rents from the numerous brothels, leading to the local prostitutes being known as "Winchester geese".

Present day
The remains of Winchester Palace are listed as a Scheduled Monument and are managed by English Heritage.

title: Winchester Palace


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London Wall

The London Wall is a defensive wall first built by the Romans around the strategically important port town of Londinium in c. AD 200, as well as the name of a modern street in the City of London, England.

Roman London was, from around 120–150, protected by a large fort, with a large garrison, that stood to its north-western side. The fort, now referred to as the Cripplegate Fort, was later incorporated into a comprehensive city-wide defence, with its strengthened northern and western sides becoming part of the Wall which was built around 200. The incorporation of the fort's walls gave the walled area its distinctive shape in the north-west part of the city.

The end of Roman rule in Britain, around 410, led to the wall falling into disrepair. It was restored in the late Anglo-Saxon period, a process generally thought to have begun under Alfred the Great after 886. Repairs and enhancements continued throughout the medieval period. The wall largely defined the boundaries of the City of London until the later Middle Ages, when population rises and the development of towns around the city blurred the perimeter.

From the 18th century onward, the expansion of the City of London saw large parts of the wall demolished, including its city gates, to improve traffic flow. Since the Second World War, conservation efforts have helped to preserve surviving sections of the city wall as scheduled monuments.

The long presence of the walls has had a profound and continuing effect on the character of the City of London, and surrounding areas. The walls constrained the growth of the city, and the location of the limited number of gates and the route of the roads through them shaped development within the walls, and more fundamentally, beyond them. With few exceptions, the modern roads heading into the former walled area are the same as those which passed through the former medieval gates.

Roman London Wall
It has origins as an initial mound wall and ditch from c. AD 100 and a fort, now called Cripplegate fort after the city gate (Cripplegate) that was subsequently built on its northern wall later on, in 120–150

The fort was later incorporated into a city-wide defence in the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD, though the reason for such a large and expensive fortification is unknown. The fort's north and west walls were thickened and doubled in height to form part of the new city wall. The incorporation of the fort's walls gave the walled area its distinctive shape in the north-west part of the city.

It continued to be developed until at least the end of the 4th century, making it among the last major building projects undertaken by the Romans before the Roman departure from Britain in 410. Reasons for its construction may have been connected to the invasion of northern Britain by Picts who overran Hadrian's Wall in the 180s. This may be linked to the political crisis that emerged in the late 2nd century when the governor of Britain Clodius Albinus was consolidating his power after claiming the right of succession as Roman emperor. After a struggle with his rival Septimius Severus, Albinus was defeated in 197 at the Battle of Lugdunum (near Lyon, France). The economic stimulus provided by the wall and Septimius's subsequent campaigns in Scotland improved Londinium's financial prosperity in the early 3rd century.

Roman London wall characteristics
The wall's gateways coincided with their alignment to the British network of Roman roads. The original gates, clockwise from Ludgate in the west to Aldgate in the east, were: Ludgate, Newgate, Cripplegate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate. Aldersgate, between Newgate and Cripplegate, was added around 350. Moorgate, initially just a postern i.e. a secondary gate, was built later still, in the medieval period.

The length and size of the wall made it one of the biggest construction projects in Roman Britain. It had gateways, towers and defensive ditches, and was built from Kentish ragstone, which was brought by barge from quarries near Maidstone. It was 2 mi long, enclosing an area of about 330 acre. It was 2.5 to 3 m wide and up to 6 m high. The ditch or fossa in front of the outer wall was 2 m deep and up to 5 m wide. There were at least 22 towers spaced about 64 m apart on the eastern section of the wall.

Roman Thamesside wall
Excavation work has traced a significant development of 300 m of timber-framed waterfronts to the east and west of the modern site of London Bridge, with a piece of wooden bridge found at the end of Fish Street Hill. The constructions advancing around 35 m into the River Thames took place between the late 1st and mid-3rd centuries, highlighting that between these periods no wall stood against the river.

After Londinium was raided on several occasions by Saxon pirates in the late 3rd century, construction of an additional riverside wall, built in phases, began in 280 and was repaired c. 390. The existence of this riverside section was long doubted due to a lack of evidence, but excavations at the Tower of London in 1977 showed that the section of the inner curtain wall between the Lanthorne and Wakefield Towers, to the south of the White Tower, was originally the eastern part of the Roman riverside wall that was built or rebuilt in the late 4th century. The riverside wall may have limited access to the Thames, both commercial and otherwise, so it may have reflected a diminished level of activity within the city.

It is not clear how long the riverside wall survived, but there are references to a part of it near the dock of Queenhithe, in two charters of 889 and 898. There is currently no evidence of post-Roman restoration, so surviving sections are not likely to have been part, or an important part, of defences much after the Roman period.

Post-Roman disrepair
The end of Roman rule in Britain in c. 410 resulted in the wall slowly falling into disrepair, though the survival of Romano-British culture in the area is indicated by the settlement in the nearby St Martin-in-the-Fields area of Westminster, which persisted until around 450.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle notes that the Romano-British retreated back to London after their bloody defeat at the Battle of Crecganford (Crayford, Kent) at the hands of Hengist and Horsa, leaders of the Saxon invaders, in 457. This suggests that London's walls retained some military value, although the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was written many centuries after the Battle of Crayford took place, if it took place at all.

Anglo-Saxon city revival
From c. 500, an Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed in the same area slightly to the west of the abandoned Roman city, in the vicinity of the Strand.

In 886 the King of Wessex, Alfred the Great, formally agreed to the terms of the Danish warlord, Guthrum, concerning the area of political and geographical control that had been acquired by the incursion of the Vikings. Within the eastern and northern part of England, with its boundary roughly stretching from London to Chester, the Scandinavians would establish Danelaw.

Anglo-Saxon London Wall restoration
In the same year, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that London was "refounded" by Alfred. Archaeological research shows that this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the old Roman walls. This was part Alfred's policy of building an in-depth defence of the Kingdom of Wessex against the Vikings as well as creating an offensive strategy against the Vikings who controlled Mercia. The burh of Southwark was also created on the south bank of the River Thames during this time.

The city walls of London were repaired as the city slowly grew until about 950 when urban activity increased dramatically. A large Viking army that attacked the London burgh was defeated in 994.

Medieval London Wall
By the 11th century, London was beyond all comparison the largest town in England. Old St Paul's Cathedral, rebuilt in the Romanesque style by King William the Conqueror and his successors, was on its completion one of the longest churches in Europe. Winchester had previously been the capital of Anglo-Saxon England, but from this time on, London was the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war. In the view of Frank Stenton: "It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self-consciousness appropriate to a national capital."

Medieval London Wall restoration
The size and importance of London led to the redevelopment of the city's defences. During the early medieval period – following the Norman Conquest of England – the walls underwent substantial work that included crenellations, additional gates and further towers and bastions. Aside from the seven City Wall gates and the four bars, there are the 13 water-gates on the Thames where goods were unloaded from ships. These include Billingsgate and Bridge Gate. Additionally there were pedestrian-only gates such as the Tower Hill Postern at Tower Hill.

A further medieval defensive feature was the restoration of the defensive ditch immediately adjacent to the outside of the wall. The street name Houndsditch recalls a part of this former feature. This seems to have been re-cut in 1213, with the restored ditch being V-cut to a depth of 6 feet and a width of between 9 and 15 feet.

The re-cut of the ditch may have diverted some of the waters of the Walbrook which would otherwise have flowed through the city, and the wall itself does appear to have acted like a dam, partially obstructing the Walbrook and leading to the marshy conditions at the open space of Moorfields, just north of the wall.

As London continued to grow throughout the medieval period, urban development grew beyond the city walls. This expansion led to the suffix words "Without" and "Within" which denote whether an area of the City – and usually applied to the wards – fell outside or within the London Wall, though only Farringdon and (formerly) Bridge were split into separate wards this way (Bridge Without falling beyond the gates on London Bridge). Some wards – Aldersgate, Bishopsgate and Cripplegate – cover an area that was both within and outside the wall; although not split into separate wards, often the part (or "division") within the Wall is denoted (on maps, in documents, etc.) as being "within" and the part outside the Wall as being "without". Archaically infra (within) and extra (without) were also used and the terms "intramural" and "extramural" are also used to describe being within or outside the walled part of the city.

The suffix is applied to some churches and parishes near the city gateways, such as St Audoen within Newgate and St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate.

Blackfriars extension
Edward I gave the Dominican Friars (or Black Friars) permission to demolish and re-route the section of City wall between Ludgate and the Thames. They did this in stages between 1284 and 1320, extending the walled area as far as the River Fleet so that it enclosed their precinct. The westward extension is likely to have improved the defensibility of Ludgate.

The Wall and the developed area
In the medieval period the developed area of the city was largely confined to the City Wall, but there was extramural development, especially in the large western ward of Farringdon Without. The wall provided security but was a constraint to accessibility and growth. The extent of the city's jurisdiction has changed little from 1000 to the modern day; but the extramural parts were long home to only a few people. A notable late change to the boundary appears to be that Stow's Survey of London suggests that the part of Moorfields next to the wall was still, in 1603, outside the city's jurisdiction.

The boundary of the city's jurisdiction was marked by "city bars", toll gates which were situated just beyond the old walled area; Holborn Bar, Temple Bar, West Smithfield Bar, and Whitechapel Bar. These were the important entrances to the city and their control was vital in maintaining the city's special privileges over certain trades.

Great Fire of London
During the Great Fire of London in September 1666, almost all of the medieval City of London inside the wall was destroyed, but the wall and gates survived.

Demolition
The seven gates to the City of London, with many repairs and rebuilding over the years, stood until they were all demolished between 1760 and 1767. Work to demolish the walls continued into the 19th century; however, large sections of the wall were incorporated into other structures.

London Blitz
The Blitz during the Second World War, through the sheer scale of bombing and destruction of buildings and the surrounding landscape, revealed numerous parts of the London Wall.

At 00:15 on 28 August 1940, during the pre-wave of bombing before the Blitz, buildings and parts of the wall were destroyed between Fore Street and St. Alphage's churchyard gardens around Cripplegate. This revealed parts of the wall unseen for over 300 years as the rubble of buildings destroyed around it were removed.

On 29 December 1940, heavy bombing led to conditions known as the Second Great Fire of London. Bomb damage revealed a section of wall at Noble Street, near the Museum of London.

Post-war loss
In 1957, a 64-metre section of the wall was uncovered during works on the London Wall road; the section was then destroyed to accommodate the road changes and to make way for a new car park. An 11-metre section has been preserved.

Conservation and heritage efforts
In 1984, the Museum of London set up a Wall Walk from the Tower of London to the museum, using 23 tiled panels. A number of these have been destroyed in subsequent years. At Noble Street, the panels were replaced by etched glass panels. These were intended as a prototype for new panels along the entire walk, but no further replacements have been made. One of the largest and most readily accessed fragments of the wall stands just outside Tower Hill tube station, with a replica statue of the Emperor Trajan standing in front of it. There is a further surviving section preserved in the basement of the One America Square building. There are further remains in the basement of the Old Bailey.

Impact on current city
The layout of the Roman and medieval walls have had a profound effect on the development of London, even down to the present day. The walls constrained the growth of the city, and the location of the limited number of gates and the route of the roads through them shaped development within the walls, and in a much more fundamental way, beyond them. With a few exceptions, the parts of the modern road network heading into the former walled area are the same as those which passed through the former medieval gates.

Part of the route originally taken by the northern wall is commemorated, although now only loosely followed, by the road also named London Wall. The modern road starts in the west with the Rotunda junction at Aldersgate, then runs east past Moorgate, from which point it runs parallel to the line of the City Wall, and eventually becomes Wormwood Street before it reaches Bishopsgate. This alignment, however, is the result of rebuilding between 1957 and 1976. Before this, London Wall was narrower, and ran behind the line of the City Wall for its entire length, from Wormwood Street to Wood Street. The western section is now St Alphage Garden.

Tower of London
The eastern section of the wall starts in what is now the Tower of London. Within the grounds of the Tower remains of the eastern most wall can still be seen along with a line in the paths heading North within the Tower grounds to outline where it used to run before most of it was demolished to expand the fortification of the Tower. This followed on with a junction at the Tower of London's moat to the Tower Hill Postern, Gate 1, a medieval fortified entrance. The foundation to this entrance can still be seen today within the Tower Hill pedestrian subway. Other large sections of the wall can also be seen further ahead within the Tower Hill gardens.

Aldgate
The wall from Tower Hill then runs east of Walbrook toward the second historic gate, Aldgate – Gate 2. These would have led onto the Roman road network toward Essex and East Anglia via Stratford and Colchester. In present times the roads Leadenhall Street and Fenchurch Street lead into Aldgate High Street, where the gate's foundations are buried roughly where the Jewry Street intersects. Following the wall north, it runs between what is now The Aldgate School and Aldgate Square.

Bishopsgate
From Aldgate, the wall then ran North-West toward Gate 3, Bishopsgate. The road through this would have led onto the Roman road network toward leading to Lincoln and York. The current road, the A10 going north, now goes over the foundations of this gate.

Moorgate
From Bishopsgate going along the northern section of wall leads to Gate 4; Moorgate. Until 1415 this was a small postern leading into the marshy Moorfields area of Finsbury. The wet conditions were probably caused by the wall partially obstructing the flow of the Walbrook. Moorgate remained ill-connected with no direct approach road from the south until 1846, some time after the wall had been demolished. London Wall, the modern road following this section of the wall, now crosses this gate's foundations. Leading north from here are routes into Finsbury.

Cripplegate
Route to the London Charterhouse, Clerkenwell and Islington.

Aldersgate
With direct access to more local routes.

Newgate
High Holborn and Oxford Street, with access via the Devil's Highway to Silchester and Bath, and Watling Street to St Albans and the west midlands. These roads leading over the River Fleet.

Ludgate
Fleet Street and the Strand

Bastions

The bastions, towers built against the face of the city wall, are scattered irregularly across its perimeter. Not bonded to the city wall itself, they are considered to be added after the construction of the wall and even later after by post-Roman builders.

21 bastions are currently known about (more may be undiscovered). They can be grouped into:
 * an eastern section from the Tower of London to Bishopsgate (B1–10),
 * a single bastion west of Bishopsgate (B11), and
 * a western section (B12–21). Between the eastern and western section, a gap of 731 metres (2400 feet or 800 yards) along the northern section of the city wall has no recorded bastions.

title: London Wall