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Christian anarchism

Christian anarchism is a Christian movement in political theology that claims anarchism is inherent in Christianity and the Gospels. It is grounded in the belief that there is only one source of authority to which Christians are ultimately answerable—the authority of God as embodied in the teachings of Jesus. It therefore rejects the idea that human governments have ultimate authority over human societies. Christian anarchists denounce the state, believing it is violent, deceitful and idolatrous.

Christian anarchists hold that the "Kingdom of God" is the proper expression of the relationship between God and humanity. Under the "Kingdom of God", human relationships would be characterized by horizontal organization, servant leadership, and universal compassion—not through the traditional structures of organized religion, which most Christian anarchists consider hierarchical and/or authoritarian structures. Most Christian anarchists are also pacifists who reject war, militarism, and the use of violence.

More than any other Bible source, the Beatitudes are used as a basis for Christian anarchism. Leo Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God Is Within You is often regarded as a key text for modern Christian anarchism.

Old Testament
Jacques Ellul, a French philosopher and Christian anarchist, notes that the final verse of the Book of Judges (Judges 21:25) states that there was no king in Israel and that "everyone did as they saw fit". Subsequently, as recorded in the first Book of Samuel (1 Samuel 8) the people of Israel wanted a king "so as to be like other nations".

God declared that the people had rejected him as their king. He warned that a human king would lead to militarism, conscription and punitive taxation, and that their pleas for mercy from the king's demands would go unanswered. Samuel passed on God's warning to the Israelites but they still demanded a king, and Saul became their ruler. Much of the subsequent Old Testament chronicles the Israelites trying to live with this decision.

New Testament
More than any other Bible source, the Sermon on the Mount is used as the basis for Christian anarchism. explains that the Sermon perfectly illustrates Jesus's central teaching of love and forgiveness. Christian anarchists claim that the state, founded on violence, contravenes the Sermon and Jesus' call to love one's enemies.

The gospels tell of Jesus's temptation in the desert. For the final temptation, Jesus is taken up to a high mountain by Satan and told that if he bows down to Satan he will give him all the kingdoms of the world. Christian anarchists use this as evidence that all Earthly kingdoms and governments are ruled by Satan, otherwise they would not be Satan's to give. Jesus refuses the temptation, choosing to serve God instead, implying that Jesus is aware of the corrupting nature of Earthly power.

Christian eschatology and various Christian anarchists, such as Jacques Ellul, have identified the state and political power as the Beast in the Book of Revelation.

Friedrich Nietzsche and Frank Seaver Billings criticize Christianity and anarchism by arguing that they are the same thing.

Early Church
According to Alexandre Christoyannopoulos, several of the Church Fathers' writings suggest anarchism as God's ideal. The first Christians opposed the primacy of the state: "We must obey God as ruler rather than men" (Acts 4:19, 5:29, 1 Corinthians 6:1-6); "Stripping the governments and the authorities bare, he exhibited them in open public as conquered, leading them in a triumphal procession by means of it." (Colossians 2:15). Also, some early Christian communities appear to have practised anarchist communism, such as the Jerusalem group described in Acts, who shared their money and labour equally and fairly among the members. Roman Montero claims that using an anthropological framework, such as that of the anarchist David Graeber, one can plausibly reconstruct the communism of the early Christian communities and that the practices were widespread, long-lasting, and substantial. Christian anarchists, such as Kevin Craig, insist that the communities were centred on true love and care for one another, rather than liturgy. They also allege that the reason for the early Christians were persecuted was not that they worshipped Jesus Christ but that they refused to worship human idols claiming divine status (see Imperial cult). Since they refused to worship the Roman Emperor, they refused to swear any oath of allegiance to the Roman Empire. When requested that he swear by the emperor, Speratus, spokesperson of the Scillitan Martyrs, said in 180CE, "I recognize not the empire of this world ... because I know my Lord, the King of kings and Emperor of all nations."

In his introduction to a translation of the Sayings of the Desert Fathers, Thomas Merton describes the early monastics as "Truly in certain sense 'anarchists', and it will do no harm to think of them as such."

During the ante-Nicene period, there were several independent sects who took a radically different approach to Christianity from that of the Proto-Orthodox Church and displayed anarchist tendencies by relying on direct revelation, rather than scripture, such as:
 * Gnosticism, particularly Valentinianism (2nd to 4th centuries) – reliance on revealed knowledge from a transcendent, unknowable God, who was a distinct divinity from the Demiurge who created and oversees the material world.
 * Montanism (2nd century) – relied on prophetic revelations from the Holy Spirit.

Conversion of the Roman Empire
For Christian anarchists, the moment that epitomised the degeneration of Christianity was the conversion of Emperor Constantine after his victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312. Christianity was then legalized under the Edict of Milan in 313, which hastened the Church's transformation from a humble bottom-up sect to an authoritarian top-down organization. Christian anarchists point out that marked the beginning of the "Constantinian shift" in which Christianity gradually came to be identified with the will of the ruling elite by becoming the state church of the Roman Empire and in some cases (such as the Crusades, Inquisition, and the French Wars of Religion) a religious justification for violence.

Peasant revolts in the Post-Reformation era

Various libertarian socialist authors have identified the written work of the English Protestant social reformer Gerrard Winstanley and the social activism of his group, the Diggers, as anticipating their line of thought. For the anarchist historian George Woodcock, "Although (Pierre Joseph) Proudhon was the first writer to call himself an anarchist, at least two predecessors outlined systems that contain all the basic elements of anarchism. The first was Gerrard Winstanley (1609–1676), a linen draper who led the small movement of the Diggers during the Commonwealth. Winstanley and his followers protested in the name of a radical Christianity against the economic distress that followed the Civil War and against the inequality that the grandees of the New Model Army seemed intent on preserving.

In 1649–1650, the Diggers squatted on stretches of common land in southern England and attempted to set up communities based on work on the land and the sharing of goods. The communities failed following a crackdown by the English authorities, but a series of pamphlets by Winstanley survived, of which The New Law of Righteousness (1649) was the most important. Advocating a rational Christianity, Winstanley equated Christ with "the universal liberty" and declared the universally corrupting nature of authority. He saw "an equal privilege to share in the blessing of liberty" and detected an intimate link between the institution of property and the lack of freedom. For Murray Bookchin, "In the modern world, anarchism first appeared as a movement of the peasantry and yeomanry against declining feudal institutions. In Germany its foremost spokesman during the Peasant Wars was Thomas Müntzer; in England, Gerrard Winstanley, a leading participant in the Digger movement. The concepts held by Müntzer and Winstanley were superbly attuned to the needs of their time – a historical period when the majority of the population lived in the countryside and when the most militant revolutionary forces came from an agrarian world. It would be painfully academic to argue whether Müntzer and Winstanley could have achieved their ideals. What is of real importance is that they spoke to their time; their anarchist concepts followed naturally from the rural society that furnished the bands of the peasant armies in Germany and the New Model in England."

Modern era
The 19th-century Christian abolitionists Adin Ballou and William Lloyd Garrison were critical of all human governments and believed that they would be eventually supplanted by a new order in which individuals are guided solely by their love for God. Ballou and Garrison advocated Christian nonresistance to evil, as they saw Christ as the embodiment of "passive nonresistance", or nonviolent praxis against the state. They both condemned violence against southern slave owners and advocated instead for moral suasion or consistent rebukes against the institution of slavery in efforts to persuade racist southerns and indifferent northerners to the abolitionist' cause. At the outbreak of the Civil War, however, Garrison later embraced the armed struggle for black liberation and the Lincoln administration. Ballou remained a lifelong pacifist and condemned the Civil War for fear of the eventual retaliation by white southerns on freed black Americans.

Ballou's and Garrison's writings heavily influenced Leo Tolstoy, who was inspired by their lifelong commitment to abolitionism. Tolstoy wrote extensively on his burgeoning Christian anarchist principles in nonfiction books like The Kingdom of God is Within You, which is considered a key Christian anarchist text. Tolstoy sought to separate Russian Orthodox Christianity, which was merged with the state, from what he believed was the true message of Jesus as contained in the Gospels, specifically in the Sermon on the Mount. He took the viewpoint that all governments that wage war and churches that in turn support those governments, are an affront to the Christian principles of nonviolence. Although Tolstoy never actually used the term "Christian anarchism" in The Kingdom of God Is Within You, reviews of the book after its publication in 1894 appear to have coined the term.

Thomas J. Hagerty, a Marxist Catholic priest turned oculist, was a primary author of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) Preamble ("an injury to one is an injury to all" ). IWW members included Christian anarchists like Dorothy Day and Ammon Hennacy.

Dorothy Day was a journalist turned social activist who became known for her social justice campaigns in defense of the poor. Alongside Peter Maurin, she founded the Catholic Worker Movement in 1933, which espoused nonviolence and hospitality for the impoverished and the downtrodden. Day was declared Servant of God when a cause for sainthood was opened for her by Pope John Paul II. Day's distributist economic views are very similar to Proudhon's mutualism by which she was influenced. Day also named the phrase "precarious work" based on the former anarchocommunist Léonce Crenier's embrace of poverty. Peter Maurin's vision to transform the social order consisted of establishing urban houses of hospitality to care for the destitute, rural farming communities to teach city dwellers agrarianism and encourage a movement back to the land, and roundtable discussions in community centres to clarify thought and initiate action.

Simone Weil was a French philosopher who was very early animated by a great compassion for the exploited. She was first a socialist and then an anarchist. In 1930s, she converted to "love of Christ". During her experience, she explains that she suddenly felt that Christianity was the religion of the slaves and that she, like other slaves, could not resist adhering to it. She is considered a "Christian mystic" and an "anarchist Christian".

Church authority
With some notable exceptions such as the Catholic Worker Movement, many Christian anarchists are critical of Church dogma and rituals. Christian anarchists tend to wish that Christians were less preoccupied with performing rituals and preaching dogmatic theology, and more with following Jesus' teaching and practices. Jacques Ellul and Dave Andrews claim that Jesus did not intend to be the founder of an institutional religion, while Michael Elliot believes one of Jesus' intentions was to bypass human intermediaries and do away with priests.

Pacifism and nonviolence
Christian anarchists, such as David Lipscomb, Leo Tolstoy, Ammon Hennacy, Jacques Ellul, and Dave Andrews, follow Jesus' call to not resist evil but turn the other cheek. They argue that this teaching can only imply a condemnation of the state, as the police and army hold a monopoly over the legitimate use of force. They believe freedom will only be guided by the grace of God if they show compassion to others and turn the other cheek when confronted with violence. Christian anarchists believe violence begets violence and the ends never justify the means.

Many Christian anarchists practice the principles of nonviolence, nonresistance, and turning the other cheek. To illustrate how nonresistance works in practice, Alexandre Christoyannopoulos offers the following Christian anarchist response to terrorism: "The path shown by Jesus is a difficult one that can only be trod by true martyrs. A 'martyr,' etymologically, is he who makes himself a witness to his faith. And it is the ultimate testimony to one's faith to be ready to put it to practice even when one's very life is threatened. But the life to be sacrificed, it should be noted, is not the enemy's life, but the martyr's own life — killing others is not a testimony of love, but of anger, fear, or hatred. For Tolstoy, therefore, a true martyr to Jesus' message would neither punish nor resist (or at least not use violence to resist), but would strive to act from love, however hard, whatever the likelihood of being crucified. He would patiently learn to forgive and turn the other cheek, even at the risk of death. Such would be the only way to eventually win the hearts and minds of the other camp and open up the possibilities for reconciliation in the 'war on terror.'"

Simple living
Christian anarchists such as Ammon Hennacy, Peter Maurin and Dorothy Day often advocate voluntary poverty. This can be for a variety of reasons, such as withdrawing support for government by reducing taxable income or following Jesus' teachings. Jesus appears to teach voluntary poverty when he told his disciples, "It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God" (Mark 10:25) and "You cannot serve both God and Mammon" (Luke 16:13).

State authority
The most common challenge for anarchist theologians is interpreting Paul's Epistle to the Romans 13:1–7, in which Paul demanded obedience to governing authorities and described them as God's servants exacting punishment on wrongdoers. Romans 13:1–7 holds the most explicit reference to the state in the New Testament but other parallel texts include Titus 3:1, Hebrews 13:17 and 1 Peter 2:13-17. Some theologians, such as C.E.B. Cranfield, have interpreted Romans 13:1–7 to mean the Church should support the state, as God has sanctified the state to be his main tool to preserve social order. Similarly, in the case of the state being involved in a "just war", some theologians argue that it's permissible for Christians to serve the state and wield the sword. Christian anarchists do not share these interpretations of Romans 13 but still recognize it as "a very embarrassing passage."

Christian anarchists and pacifists such as Jacques Ellul and Vernard Eller do not attempt to overthrow the state given Romans 13 and Jesus' command to turn the other cheek. As wrath and vengeance are contrary to the Christian values of kindness and forgiveness, Ellul neither supports, nor participates in, the state. Eller articulates this position by restating the passage this way: "Be clear, any of those human [authorities] are where they are only because God is allowing them to be there. They exist only at his sufferance. And if God is willing to put up with...the Roman Empire, you ought to be willing to put up with it, too. There is no indication God has called you to clear it out of the way or get it converted for him. You can't fight an Empire without becoming like the Roman Empire; so you had better leave such matters in God's hands where they belong."

Christians who interpret Romans 13 as advocating support for governing authorities are left with the difficulty of how to act under tyrants or dictators. Ernst Käsemann, in his Commentary on Romans, challenged the mainstream Christian interpretation of the passage in light of German Lutheran Churches using this passage to justify the Holocaust.

Paul's letter to Roman Christians declares "For rulers hold no terror for those who do right, but for those who do wrong." However Christian anarchists point out an inconsistency if this text were to be taken literally and in isolation as Jesus and Paul were both executed by the governing authorities or "rulers" even though they did "right." The content of Paul's letter to the Romans is also denied by Paul himself in the same letter's 12:2 verse: "Do not conform to this world's system of things, but change yourselves by using your own intellect, so that you shall understand by yourselves the good and perfect will of God." In his Epistle to the Ephesians, 6:12, Paul states: "For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this world's obscurantism".

There are also Christians anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Ammon Hennacy, who favor Jesuism and do not see the need to integrate Paul's teachings into their subversive way of life. Tolstoy believed Paul was instrumental in the church's "deviation" from Jesus' teaching and practices whilst Hennacy believed "Paul spoiled the message of Christ". In contrast to Eller, Hennacy and Ciaron O'Reilly advocate nonviolent civil disobedience to confront state oppression.

Swearing of oaths
In the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5:33-37), Jesus tells his followers to not swear oaths in the name of God or Man. Tolstoy, Adin Ballou and Petr Chelčický understand this to mean that Christians should never bind themselves to any oath as they may not be able to fulfil the will of God if they are bound to the will of a fellow-man. Tolstoy takes the view that all oaths are evil, but especially an oath of allegiance.

Tax
Some Christian anarchists resist taxes in the belief that their government is engaged in immoral, unethical or destructive activities such as war, and paying taxes inevitably funds these activities, whilst others submit to taxation. Adin Ballou wrote that if the act of resisting taxes requires physical force to withhold what a government tries to take, then it is important to submit to taxation. Ammon Hennacy, who, like Ballou also believed in nonresistance, eased his conscience by simply living below the income tax threshold.

Christian anarchists do not interpret the injunction in Matthew 22:21 to "give to Caesar what is Caesar's" as advocating support for taxes, but as further advice to free oneself from material attachment. For example, Dorothy Day said if we were to give everything to God there will be nothing left for Caesar, and Jacques Ellul believed the passage showed that Caesar may have rights over fiat money but not things that are made by God, as he explained: "'Render unto Caesar...' in no way divides the exercise of authority into two realms....They were said in response to another matter: the payment of taxes, and the coin. The mark on the coin is that of Caesar; it is the mark of his property. Therefore give Caesar this money; it is his. It is not a question of legitimizing taxes! It means that Caesar, having created money, is its master. That's all. Let us not forget that money, for Jesus, is the domain of Mammon, a satanic domain!"

Vegetarianism
Vegetarianism in the Christian tradition has a long history commencing in the first centuries of Church with the Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers who abandoned the "world of men" for intimacy with the God of Jesus Christ. Vegetarianism amongst hermits and Christian monastics in the Eastern Christian and Roman Catholic traditions remains common to this day as a means of simplifying one's life, and as a practice of asceticism. Leo Tolstoy, Ammon Hennacy, and Théodore Monod extended their belief in nonviolence and compassion to all living beings through vegetarianism.

Brotherhood Church
The Brotherhood Church is a Christian anarchist and pacifist community. The Brotherhood Church can be traced back to 1887 when a Congregationalist minister called John Bruce Wallace started a magazine called "The Brotherhood" in Limavady, Northern Ireland. An intentional community with Quaker origins has been located at Stapleton, near Pontefract, Yorkshire, since 1921.

Catholic Worker Movement
Established by Peter Maurin and Dorothy Day in the early 1930s, the Catholic Worker Movement is a Christian movement dedicated to nonviolence, personalism and voluntary poverty. Over 130 Catholic Worker communities exist in the United States where "houses of hospitality" care for the homeless. The Joe Hill House of hospitality (which closed in 1968) in Salt Lake City, Utah featured an enormous twelve feet by fifteen foot mural of Jesus Christ and Joe Hill. Present-day Catholic Workers include Ciaron O'Reilly, an Irish-Australian civil rights and anti-war activist.

Anne Klejment, professor of history at University of St. Thomas, wrote of the Catholic Worker Movement: "The Catholic Worker considered itself a Christian anarchist movement. All authority came from God; and the state, having by choice distanced itself from Christian perfectionism, forfeited its ultimate authority over the citizen...Catholic Worker anarchism followed Christ as a model of nonviolent revolutionary behavior...He respected individual conscience. But he also preached a prophetic message, difficult for many of his contemporaries to embrace."

The Catholic Worker Movement has consistently protested against war and violence for over seven decades. Many of the leading figures in the movement have been both anarchists and pacifists, as Ammon Hennacy explains: "Christian Anarchism is based upon the answer of Jesus to the Pharisees when Jesus said that he without sin should be the first to cast the stone, and upon the Sermon on the Mount which advises the return of good for evil and the turning of the other cheek. Therefore, when we take any part in government by voting for legislative, judicial, and executive officials, we make these men our arm by which we cast a stone and deny the Sermon on the Mount.

The dictionary definition of a Christian is one who follows Christ; kind, kindly, Christ-like. Anarchism is voluntary cooperation for good, with the right of secession. A Christian anarchist is therefore one who turns the other cheek, overturns the tables of the moneychangers, and does not need a cop to tell him how to behave. A Christian anarchist does not depend upon bullets or ballots to achieve his ideal; he achieves that ideal daily by the One-Man Revolution with which he faces a decadent, confused, and dying world."

Maurin and Day were both baptized and confirmed in the Catholic Church and believed in the institution, thus showing it is possible to be a Christian anarchist and still choose to remain within a church. After her death, Day was proposed for sainthood by the Claretian Missionaries in 1983. Pope John Paul II granted the Archdiocese of New York permission to open Day's cause for sainthood in March 2000, calling her a Servant of God.

In literature, in Michael Paraskos's 2017 novel, Rabbitman, a political satire prompted by Donald Trump's presidency, the heroine, called Angela Witney, is a member of an imagined Catholic Worker commune located in the southern English village of Ditchling, where the artist Eric Gill once lived.

Online communities
Numerous Christian anarchist websites, social networking sites, forums, electronic mailing lists and blogs have emerged on the internet over the last few years. These include: The AnarchoChristian Podcast and Website, Biblical Anarchy: Obey God Rather Than Men, The Libertarian Christian Institute, started by Norman Horn, A Pinch of Salt, a 1980s Christian anarchist magazine, revived in 2006 by Keith Hebden as a blog and bi-annual magazine; Libera Catholick Union founded in 1988 and re-organized in 2019; Jesus Radicals founded by Mennonites in 2000; Lost Religion of Jesus created in 2005; Christian Anarchists created in 2006; The Mormon Worker, a blog and newspaper, founded in 2007 to promote Mormonism, anarchism and pacifism; and Academics and Students Interested in Religious Anarchism (ASIRA) founded by Alexandre Christoyannopoulos in 2008.

Criticism
Critics of Christian anarchism include both Christians and anarchists. Christians often cite Romans 13 as evidence that the State should be obeyed, while secular anarchists reject belief in any authority including God. The latter often denounce religious dogma through use of the slogan "no gods, no masters". Christian anarchists often believe Romans 13 is taken out of context, emphasizing that Revelation 13 and Isaiah 13, among other passages, are needed to fully understand the meaning of Romans 13 text.

19th century

 * Ernest Renan (1863) The Life of Jesus.
 * Leo Tolstoy (1886–94) What I Believe; and The Kingdom of God Is Within You.
 * Friedrich Engels (1894) A Contribution to the History of Primitive Christianity.

20th century

 * Elbert Hubbard (1910) Jesus Was An Anarchist (originally titled The Better Part).
 * Ammon Hennacy (1954) The Autobiography of a Catholic Anarchist (reprinted in 1965 as The Book of Ammon). ISBN 978-1608990535
 * Archie Penner (1959) The Christian, The State, and the New Testament (reprinted in 2000 as The New Testament, the Christian, and the State).
 * Ruth Gilmore (1970) The Christian Anarchists: Ruskin and Tolstoy, and a Consideration of Their Influence on Gandhi.
 * Niels Kjaer (1972) Kristendom og Anarkisme (translated as Christianity and Anarchism).
 * Mary Segers (1977) Equality and Christian Anarchism: The Political and Social Ideas of the Catholic Worker Movement.
 * Vernard Eller (1987) Christian Anarchy: Jesus' Primacy Over the Powers. ISBN 978-1579102227
 * Linda H. Damico (1987) The Anarchist Dimension of Liberation Theology. ISBN 978-1620323441
 * Jacques Ellul (1988) Anarchy and Christianity. ISBN 978-1606089712
 * Patrick Coy, et al. (1988) A Revolution of the Heart: Essays on the Catholic Worker . ISBN 978-0865712621
 * Michael C. Elliott (1990) Freedom, Justice and Christian Counter-Culture. ISBN 978-1620328576
 * George Tarleton (1993) Birth of a Christian Anarchist.
 * Dave Andrews (1999) Christi-Anarchy: Discovering a Radical Spirituality of Compassion. ISBN 978-1610978521

21st century

 * Frederick G. Boehrer (2001) Christian Anarchism and the Catholic Worker Movement: Roman Catholic Authority and Identity in the United States.
 * Jonathan Bartley (2006) Faith and Politics After Christendom: The Church as a Movement for Anarchy. ISBN 978-1842273487
 * Ted Lewis ed. (2008) Electing Not to Vote: Christian Reflections on Reasons for Not Voting ISBN 978-1556352270
 * Shane Claiborne (2008) Jesus for President: Politics for Ordinary Radicals. ISBN 978-0310278429
 * Tripp York (2009) Living on Hope While Living in Babylon: The Christian Anarchists of the 20th Century. ISBN 978-1556356858
 * David Alan Black (2009) Christian Archy. ISBN 978-1893729773
 * Alexandre Christoyannopoulos (2010) Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel. ISBN 978-1845402471
 * Ronald E. Osborn (2010) Anarchy and Apocalypse: Essays on Faith, Violence, and Theodicy. ISBN 978-1606089620
 * Keith Hebden (2011–13) Dalit Theology and Christian Anarchism. ISBN 978-1409424390 and Seeking Justice: The Radical Compassion of Jesus. ISBN 978-1-78099-688-2
 * Tom O'Golo (2011) Christ? No! Jesus? Yes!: A Radical Reappraisal of a Very Important Life. ISBN 978-0953252008
 * Jacques de Guillebon and Falk van Gaver (2012) L'anarchisme chrétien (translated as Christian anarchism). ISBN 978-2356310613
 * Mark Van Steenwyk (2012–13) That Holy Anarchist: Reflections on Christianity & Anarchism. ISBN 978-0615659817 and The Kingdom of God: Embracing the Subversive Power of Repentance. ISBN 978-0830836550
 * Noel Moules (2012) Fingerprints of Fire, Footprints of Peace: A Spiritual Manifesto from a Jesus Perspective. ISBN 978-1-84694-612-7
 * Davor Džalto (2016) Anarchism and Orthodoxy.
 * Davor Džalto (2021) Anarchy and the Kingdom of God: From Eschatology to Orthodox Political Theology and Back.
 * Montero, Roman A. 2017. All Things in Common: The Economic Practices of the Early Christians. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. ISBN 9781532607912
 * Beno Profetyk (2017) Christocrate, la logique de l'anarchisme chrétien ISBN 978-2839918466
 * Beno Profetyk (2020) Credo du Christocrate – Christocrat's creed (Bilingual French-English edition)

title: Christian anarchism


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Arthur Conley

Arthur Lee Conley (January 4, 1946 – November 17, 2003), also known in later years as Lee Roberts, was an American soul singer, best known for the 1967 hit "Sweet Soul Music".

Early life
Conley was born in McIntosh County, Georgia, U.S., and grew up in Atlanta. He first recorded in 1959 as the lead singer of Arthur & the Corvets. With this group, he released three singles in 1963 and 1964—"Poor Girl", "I Believe", and "Flossie Mae"—on the Atlanta-based record label, NRC Records.

Biography and career
In 1964, he moved to a new label (Baltimore's Ru-Jac Records) and released "I'm a Lonely Stranger". When Otis Redding heard this, he asked Conley to record a new version, which was released on Redding's own fledgling label Jotis Records, as only its second release. Conley met Redding in 1967. Together they rewrote the Sam Cooke song "Yeah Man" into "Sweet Soul Music", which, at Redding's insistence, was released on the Atco-distributed label Fame Records, and was recorded at FAME studios in Muscle Shoals, Alabama. It proved to be a massive hit, going to the number two position on the U.S. charts and the Top Ten across much of Europe. "Sweet Soul Music" sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc.

After several years of hit singles in the early 1970s, he relocated to England in 1975, and spent several years in Belgium, settling in Amsterdam (Netherlands) in spring 1977. At the beginning of 1980 he had some major performances as Lee Roberts and the Sweaters in the Ganzenhoef, Paradiso, De Melkweg and the Concertgebouw, and was highly successful. At the end of 1980 he moved to the Dutch town of Ruurlo legally changing his name to Lee Roberts—his middle name and his mother's maiden name. He promoted new music via his Art-Con Productions company. Among the bands he promoted was the heavy metal band Shockwave from The Hague. A live performance on January 8, 1980, featuring Lee Roberts & the Sweaters, was released as an album entitled Soulin in 1988.

Personal life
Conley was gay, and several music writers have said that his homosexuality was a bar to greater success in the United States and one of the reasons behind his move to Europe and his eventual name change. In 2014, rock historian Ed Ward wrote, "[Conley] headed to Amsterdam and changed his name to Lee Roberts. Nobody knew 'Lee Roberts,' and at last Conley was able to live in peace with a secret he had hidden—or thought he had—for his entire career: he was gay. But nobody in The Netherlands cared."

Death
Conley died at the age of 57 from intestinal cancer in Ruurlo, The Netherlands in November 2003. He was buried in Vorden.

Discography
Albums
 * Sweet Soul Music (Atlantic, 1967)
 * Shake, Rattle & Roll (Atlantic, 1967)
 * Soul Directions (1968)
 * More Sweet Soul (1969)

Singles
 * "I Believe" (1963, as Arthur & the Corvets)
 * "Flossie Mae" (1963, as Arthur & the Corvets)
 * "Poor Girl" (1963, as Arthur & the Corvets)
 * "Where He Leads Me" / "I'm A Lonely Stranger" (1965)
 * "Who's Fooling Who" / "There's A Place For Us" (1966)
 * "I Can't Stop (No, No, No)" / "In The Same Old Way" (1966)
 * "I'm Gonna Forget About You" (1966)
 * "Sweet Soul Music" / "Let's Go Steady" (1967, co-written with Otis Redding, No. 2 R&B, No. 2 pop; No. 5 CAN )
 * "Shake, Rattle & Roll" (1967, No. 31 pop, No. 20 R&B; No. 39 CAN )
 * "Whole Lotta Woman" / "Love Comes And Goes" (1967, No. 73 Pop; No. 76 CAN )
 * "Ha! Ha! Ha! Ha!" (1967)
 * "Funky Street" / "Put Our Love Together" (1968, No. 18 CAN )
 * "Aunt Dora's Love Soul Shack" (1968)
 * "People Sure Act Funny" (1968, Top 20 R&B; No. 39 CAN )
 * "Burning Fire" (1968)
 * "Is That You Love" (1968)
 * "Run On (1968)
 * "Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da" / "Otis Sleep On" (1968, No. 51 pop, No. 41 R&B, No. 50 CAN Beatles cover featuring guitar by Duane Allman)
 * "Star Review" (1969, with Tom Dowd, written by Allen Toussaint)
 * "They Call the Wind Maria" (1969)
 * "Day-O" (1969, made famous by Harry Belafonte)
 * "God Bless" (1970, Top 40 R&B, No. 84 CAN )
 * "I'm Living Good" (1971)
 * "Walking on Eggs" / "More Sweet Soul Music" (1972)
 * "Rita" (1972)
 * "It's So Nice (When It's Someone Else's Wife)" (1974)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Arthur Conley


text:
Zampogna

Zampogna is a generic term for a number of Italian double chantered bagpipes that can be found as far north as the southern part of the Marche, throughout areas in Abruzzo, Latium, Molise, Basilicata, Campania, Calabria, Apulia and Sicily. The tradition is now mostly associated with Christmas, and the most famous Italian carol, "Tu scendi dalle stelle" (You Come Down From the Stars) is derived from traditional zampogna music. However, there is an ongoing resurgence of the instrument in secular use seen with the increasing number of folk music festivals and folk music ensembles.

Construction
All chanters and drones are fixed into a single round stock that the bag is attached to. Each chanter is tuned differently, according to the tradition it represents, and there are dozens. Typically, the double-reeded versions (Marche, Abruzzo, Latium, Campania, southern Basilicata and parts of Sicily and southern Calabria) will have a soprano chanter on the right and a bass chanter on the left (called, respectively, ritta and manga—meaning 'right' and 'left'—in the tradition of Southern Latium) with an alto drone (bordone being the generic name); but as many as three drones, the other tuned above and below the basic chord can be used, or, in the case of the Marches tradition, no drones at all. The single reed versions consist of the surdullina types of the Province of Cosenza and Catanzaro, and the ciaramella or ciaramedda of Messina and Catania in Sicily, as well as in Southern Calabria. The surdullina is a very short chantered version of the instrument that is used to play tarantellas primarily, while the ciaramedda can play all of the traditional regional melodies the other types can.

The traditional reeds are made from stalks of the Giant Reed Arundo donax, called "canna marina" in Italian. The double reed versions may also be made from plastic. The single reeds are made from a single section of the cane.

Traditionally the bags are made from goat hides that are removed from the slaughtered animal in one piece, cured, turned inside out, then tied off just in front of the rear legs, one of the front legs serving to house the blow pipe with its simple leather valve (soffietto), and the other tied off. The typical round stock into which both chanters and drones are fixed goes into the neck of the skin. The hair is left on, and is contained in the inside of the bag (otre). Today, however, some pipers are substituting the traditional goat and sheep hide bags with a rubber inner tube or wintex which is covered with an artificial fleece. This practice of using the synthetic bag is particularly popular among the pipers from Scapoli in the Molise region, and those of Atina in Latium.

Musical traditions
The double reeded version of the zampogna is generally played with the piffero (called biffera in Lazio, or ciaramella or pipita in other regions; a shawm, or folk oboe), which plays the melody and the zampogna provides chord changes, "vamping" or rhythmic harmony figures or a bass line and a soprano harmony as accompaniment. This double reed tradition would include Central Italy (Latium, southern Abruzzo and Molise), that of southern Basilicata (Pollino) and nearby areas of Calabria, and some areas of Sicily (Syracuse, Palermo). Single reed versions are played solo in the Calabrian tradition of the surdullina (Cosenza), and a version with a plugged chanter called the surdullina albanese, and the Sicilian ciaramedda or ciaramella (Catania, Messina, and Reggio Calabria). The chanters and drones vary, according to the tradition, from a few inches long (surdullina) to nearly two meters in length, such as used in the cathedral of Monreale (Palermo) and nearly every size in between. The pipes are related to the Sardinian launeddas, a single reed "triple clarinet" comprising two chanters and a drone and played in the mouth by circular breathing.

Etymology
The word zampogna derives from the Latin symphonia. It is etymologically related to the Greek sumphōnía (συμφωνία), meaning "concord or unison of sound" (from σῠν- syn-, "with, together" + φωνή phōnḗ, "sound") and applied later to a type of bagpipe. It is a cognate of Greek tsampouna, the word for the Greek island bagpipe (itself a reborrowing of zampogna); Romanian cimpoi, which means "symphony" or "many sounds played together"; Georgian čiboni; and Spanish zampoña, which refers to Andean pan pipes.

History

 * There is a bagpipe museum, the Museo della Zampogna in Scapoli, Molise.
 * In 2010 a feature-length documentary about the zampogna was published entitled, Zampogna: The Soul of Southern Italy

title: Zampogna


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Latino sine flexione

Latino sine flexione ("Latin without inflections"), Interlingua de Academia pro Interlingua (IL de ApI) or Peano's Interlingua (abbreviated as IL) is an international auxiliary language compiled by the Academia pro Interlingua under the chairmanship of the Italian mathematician Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932) from 1887 until 1914. It is a simplified version of Latin, and retains its vocabulary. Interlingua-IL was published in the journal Revue de Mathématiques in an article of 1903 entitled De Latino Sine Flexione, Lingua Auxiliare Internationale (meaning On Latin Without Inflection, International Auxiliary Language), which explained the reason for its creation. The article argued that other auxiliary languages were unnecessary, since Latin was already established as the world's international language. The article was written in classical Latin, but it gradually dropped its inflections until there were none.

Language codes ISO 639: ISO 639-2 and -1 were requested on 23 July 2017 at the Library of Congress (proposed: IL and ILA); ISO-639-3 was requested on 10 August 2017 at SIL (proposed: ILC) and was rejected on 23 January 2018.

History
In 1903, Peano published the article De Latino Sine Flexione to introduce his language. In this work, Peano quoted a series of suggestions by Leibniz about a simplified form of Latin. The article appeared to be a serious development of the idea, and Peano subsequently gained a reputation among the auxiliary language movement.

In 1904, Peano undertook an essay about the way to obtain the minimal grammar of an eventual minimal Latin (Latino minimo), with a minimal vocabulary purely international.

Peano and some colleagues published articles in Latino sine flexione for several years at the Revue de Mathématiques. Because of his desire to prove that this was indeed an international language, Peano boldly published the final edition of his famous Formulario mathematico in Latino sine flexione. However, as Hubert Kennedy notes, most mathematicians were put off by the artificial appearance of the language, and made no attempt to read it.

In October 1907, Peano was at the Collège de France in Paris to take part in the Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language. Having declared for Latino sine flexione to be adopted, he eventually could not participate in the final voting, because of labour affairs at Turin.

On 26 December 1908, Peano was elected member and director of the Akademi internasional de lingu universal still using Idiom Neutral, which was refounded one year later under the name Academia pro Interlingua. Every academician might use their favourite form of Interlingua, the term being initially used in a general sense as a synonym for international language, yet it soon began to be specially used to denote a reformed Latino sine flexione based on the common rules the academicians were reaching by frequent votings. Thus, the name Interlingua soon began to denote the language evolving from the Academia Pro Interlingua, with the corresponding abbreviation IL.

However, every member was free to write in their own personal style, and indeed some members were proposing radical reforms which eventually might end up as independent languages (like Michaux's Romanal or De Wahl's Interlingue). For this reason, the name Peano's Interlingua or Interlingua (IL) might be regarded as the most accurate for the particular standard by Peano. (As found in "Interglossa and its predecessors". )

The discussions to reach a standard Interlingua may be seen on the pages of Discussiones, the official journal of the Academia pro Interlingua from 1909 to 1913. This and subsequent journals of the academy have been recently published in a CD-Rom by the mathematics department of the University of Turin, the place where Peano developed his teaching and research.

Since De Latino Sine Flexione had set the principle to take Latin nouns either in the ablative or nominative form (nomen was preferred to nomine), in 1909 Peano published a vocabulary in order to assist in selecting the proper form of every noun, yet an essential value of Peano's Interlingua was that the lexicon might be found straightforward in any Latin dictionary (by getting the thematic vowel of the stem from the genitive ending, that is: -a -o -e -u -e from -ae -i -is -us -ei). Finally, a large vocabulary with 14,000 words was published in 1915.

A reformed Interlingua was presented in 1951 by Alexander Gode as the last director of the International Auxiliary Language Association. It was claimed to be independent from Peano's Interlingua, because it had developed a new method to detect the most recent common prototypes. But that method usually leads to the Latin ablative, so most vocabulary of Peano's Interlingua would be kept. Accordingly, the very name Interlingua was kept, yet a distinct abbreviation was adopted: IA instead of IL.

Alphabet and pronunciation
According to Peano's guide to the language in 1931, "most Interlinguists are in favour of the old Latin pronunciation." This gives the pronunciation of vowels as follows:

 * a—as in father:
 * e—as in they:
 * i—as in feet:
 * o—as in tone:
 * u—as in rule:
 * y—as French u:
 * j—as in yes:
 * ae—as in eye:
 * oe—as in boy:

Consonants are pronounced largely as in English, with the following clarifications:

 * b—like English b, but like p if followed by s or t:
 * g—like g in go, get:
 * h—silent in rh otherwise like English h:
 * qu—as qu in quarrel:
 * r—as in correct (trilled):
 * v—like English w.:
 * x—as ks.:
 * ch, ph, th—as c, p, t in can, pan, tan:
 * c—like k always, as in scan, scat: (not aspirated)
 * p—as in span
 * t—as in stand

Not all consonants and vowels are pronounced distinctively by all people. The following variant pronunciations are allowed:

 * y as $\langlei\rangle$
 * ae and oe as $\langlee\rangle$
 * h silent
 * ch, ph, th as $\langlec, p, t\rangle$
 * ph as $\langlef\rangle$
 * v like English v,
 * w like English v

The stress is based on the classical Latin rule:

A secondary accent may be placed when necessary as the speaker deems appropriate.
 * Words with two syllables have the stress on the penult.
 * Words with three or more syllables have the stress on the penult only if it is heavy (closed or had a long vowel in Classical Latin), otherwise on the antepenult (p. xii).

Parts of speech
Though Peano removed the inflections of Latin from nouns and adjectives, he did not entirely remove grammatical gender, permitting the option of a feminine ending for occupations. The gender of animals is immutable. All forms of nouns end with a vowel and are taken from the ablative case, but as this was not listed in most Latin dictionaries, he gave the rule for its derivation from the genitive case. The plural is not required when not necessary, such as when a number has been specified, the plural can be read from the context, and so on; however, Peano gives the option of using the suffix -s to indicate it when needed. Verbs have few inflections of conjugation; tenses and moods are instead indicated by verb adjuncts. The result is a change to a positional language.

Particles
Particles that have no inflection in classical Latin are used in their natural form:

 * Supra, infra, intra, extra... (but superiore, inferiore, interiore, exteriore from superior, -oris and so on.)
 * Super, subter, inter, praeter, semper... (but nostro, vestro, dextro... from noster, -tra, -trum and so on.)
 * Tres, quattuor, quinque, sex, septem, octo, novem, decem... (but uno from unus, -a, -um; duo from duo, -ae, -o; nullo from nullus, -a, -um; multo from multus, -a, -um, etc.)

Nouns
The form of nouns depends on the Latin declensions.

Those proper nouns written with the Roman alphabet are kept as close to the original as possible. The following are examples: München, New York, Roma, Giovanni.

Pronouns

 * Personal

 * Demonstrative: illo (that, as in "that book"), isto (this, as in "this book"), ipso (itself); for conjunction: que (me vide que illo es rapide = I see that it is fast)
 * Possessive: meo, tuo, suo, nostro, vestro, (suo)
 * Relative and conjunctive: qui (who, that human), quod (which, that thing)
 * Reflexive: se
 * Indefinitive: un, uno (One tells...), ullo (any), omne or omni (all, each, every), aliquo (anyone), nullo (nothing), nemo (no one)

Verbs
Verbs are formed from the Latin by dropping the final -re of the infinitive. Tense, mood, etc., are indicated by particles, auxiliary verbs, or adverbs, but none is required if the sense is clear from the context. If needed, the past may be indicated by preceding the verb with e, and the future with i.

There are specific endings to create the infinitive and participles:

 * Basic form: ama (loves)
 * Infinitive: amare (to love)
 * Passive participle: amato (loved)
 * Active participle: amante (loving)

Collateral endings

 * Imperfectum (past): amaba (loved), legeba (read)
 * Future: amara (will/shall love), legera (will/shall read)
 * Conditional: amare (would love), legere (would read)

The endings -ra and -re are stressed in future and conditional verb forms, respectively.

Compound tenses
Composite tenses can be expressed with auxiliary words:

 * Praeteritum: habe amato (have loved)
 * Future: debe amare / vol amare / habe ad amare (must love / will love / have to love)
 * Continuous tenses: me es scribente (I am writing)

Adjectives and adverbs
Adjectives are formed as follows:

 * If the nominative neuter ends with -e, the Latino form is unchanged.
 * If the nominative neuter ends with -um, the Latino form is changed to -o: novum > novo (new).
 * In all other cases, adjectives are formed with the ablative case from the genitive, as is the case with nouns.

Adjectives can be used as adverbs if the context is clear, or cum mente or in modo can be used:

 * Diligente (diligent): Cum mente diligente, cum diligente mente, in modo diligente, in diligente modo = diligently.

Comparative and superlative

 * Positive: illo es tam habile quam te (he is as handy as you)
 * Comparative: illo es magis habile quam te or illo es plus habile quam te (he is handier than you) and illo es minus habile quam te (he is less handy than you)
 * Superlative: maxim de... and minim de...

Irregularities

 * Bono: meliore: optimo
 * Malo: pejore: pessimo
 * Magno: majore: maximo
 * Parvo: minore: minimo

Articles
As with Latin, neither the definite nor the indefinite article exists in Latino sine flexione. When necessary they may be translated with pronouns or words such as illo (it, that), isto or hoc (this), or uno (one):

 * Da ad me libro = give me (the) book
 * Da ad me hoc (isto) libro = give me this book
 * Da ad me illo libro = give me that book
 * Da ad me uno libro = give me a book
 * Da ad me illo meo libro = give me that book of mine
 * Da ad me uno meo libro = give me a book of mine

Numerals

 * Cardinals: 1 uno, 2 duo, 3 tres, 4 quatuor, 5 quinque 6 sex, 7 septem, 8 octo, 9 novem, 10 decem, 20 viginti, 30 triginta, 40 quadraginta, 50 quinquaginta, 60 sexaginta, 70 septuaginta, 80 octoginta, 90 nonaginta, 100 centum, 1,000 mille, 1,000,000 millione
 * Cardinals (cont.): 11 decem-uno, 12 decem-duo, 19 decem-novem, 21 viginti-uno, 101 centum (et) uno, 102 centum (et) duo, 200 duo cento, 300 tres cento
 * Ordinals: 1° primo, 2° secundo, 3° tertio, 4° quarto, 5° quinto, 6° sexto, 7° septimo, 8° octavo, 9° nono, 10° decimo, 20° vigesimo, 30° trigesimo, 40° quadragesimo, 50° quinquagesimo, 60° sexagesimo, 70° septuagesimo, 80° octogesimo, 90° nonagesimo, 100° centesimo, 1,000° millesimo, 1,000,000 millionesimo
 * Ordinals (cont.): 45° quadragesimo quinto or quadraginta quinto, 58° quinquagesimo octavo or quinquaginta octavo, 345° tres cento quadraginta quinto
 * Multiplicatives: uno vice (once), duo vice (twice), tres vice (three times)

Criticism
Peano formally defended the maxim that the best grammar is no grammar, bearing in mind the example of Chinese. (In modern linguistics, counter to popular and Peano's usage, grammar does not refer to morphological structures alone, but also to syntax and phonology, for example, which both Latino sine flexione and Chinese still have. In this sense, "languages without grammar" cannot exist. ) According to Lancelot Hogben, Peano's Interlingua still shares a major flaw with many other auxiliary languages, having "either too much grammar of the wrong sort, or not enough of the right". (p. 10) Hogben argues that at least nouns and verbs should be easily distinguished by characteristic endings so that one can easily get an initial understanding of the sentence. Thus, in Peano's Interlingua, the verbs might be given some specific, standardized verbal form, such as the infinitive, which is sufficient in the Latin indirect speech. Instead, the raw imperative is proposed in De Latino Sine Flexione:

According to Hogben, another handicap is the lack of a pure article, which might clearly indicate the nouns. Nevertheless, Peano occasionally suggested that illo (that) and uno (one) might be used as articles.

Once more according to Hogben, the syntax of Peano's Interlingua remained conservative:

Reviewing the list of more widely known Latin titles, one might conclude that the sequence noun-adjective is the norm in Latin, yet the inverted sequence is also current. The ratio is over 2 to 1 in a list of Latin titles commented by Stroh. E.g. "Principia Mathematica". As for a sequence nominative-genitive, it may be the norm in Latin in a similar ratio. E.g. "Systema Naturae". Indeed, the sequence nominative-genitive must always be the norm in Peano's Interlingua, since the preposition de must introduce the genitive. Thus, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica would turn into Principio Mathematico de Philosophia Naturale. Since the function of both the adjective and the genitive is often the same, one might infer that the sequence noun-adjective might always be the norm.

title: Latino sine flexione


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Talk:Lunisolar calendar

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With some more citations it could be a B.

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—Yamara ✉  22:10, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

Discussion
How dow you know when is the year has 12 months or 13 months

 * That depends on the actual intercalation rules of the respective calendar. As a rule of thumb: the 13th month is inserted when the date of the the beginning of spring (vernal equinox) is more then 30 days earlier then its last possible date. andy

The 19-year cycle (235 synodic months, including 7 embolismic months) is the classic Metonic cycle, which is used in most arithmetical lunisolar calendars. It is a combination of the 8- and 11-year period, and whenever the error of the 19-year approximation has built up to a full day, a cycle can be truncated to 8 or 11 years, after which 19-year cycles can start anew.

A full day? 61.131.122.70 (talk) 03:05, 19 February 2011 (UTC)

Truncating a 19-year cycle to only 11 years (skipping 8 years including 3 embolismic months) is the appropriate correction after the error has accumulated to 1/19 of a lunar cycle, provided that the target mean is any equinoctial or solstitial year or the mean tropical year, all of which have a shorter mean year than the mean year of the metonic cycle. Alternatively, one could truncate when the error has accumulated to 1/2 of 1/19 = 1/38 of a lunar cycle. Truncation to 11 years always shifts the calendar earlier by 1/19 of a lunar cycle, so in that alternative case the error would swing from 1/38 of a lunar cycle late to 1/38 of a lunar cycle early.

Truncating to only 8 years (skipping 11 years including 4 embolismic months) will make the drift worse for any calendar where the target mean year is shorter than that of the 19-year cycle, but would be valid if the target is longer than the mean year of the 19-year cycle, as would be the case for a sidereal calendar. What is the size of the step adjustment that truncation to only 8 years causes? Kalendis (talk) 03:52, 9 May 2011 (UTC)

Having now calculated to confirm, I answer my own question: truncation of a 19-year cycle to only 8 years shifts the calendar later by 1/19 of a lunar cycle. Kalendis (talk) 04:40, 9 May 2011 (UTC)

Merging "Calendrical implications" from Month
I updated this article (which looked rather dilapidated) by merging information that didn't fit nicely in Month. However I didn't know what to do with the following section, so I've put it here:

A representative sequence of common and leap years is ccLccLcLccLccLccLcL, which is the classic nineteen-year Metonic cycle. The Hebrew and Buddhist calendars restrict the leap month to a single month of the year, so the number of common months between leap months is usually 36 months but occasionally only 24 months elapse. The Chinese and Hindu lunisolar calendars allow the leap month to occur after or before (respectively) any month but use the true motion of the sun, so their leap months do not usually occur within a couple of months of perihelion, when the apparent speed of the sun along the ecliptic is fastest (now about 3 January). This increases the usual number of common months between leap months to roughly 34 months when a doublet of common years occurs while reducing the number to about 29 months when only a common singleton occurs.

This section is pretty technical, and I feel it doesn't "fit". I suggest including it in the articles of the mentioned calendars, or adding an external link to a site by a calendar expert. squell 00:20, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

The list of fractions are continued fractions. I've added 136/11; I've also added how these fractions relate to "real world" cycles; I have removed 4131/334; at that accuracy, this figure starts getting sensitive to the exact choice of tropical year (Besselian? vernal equinox? etc). squell 00:36, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I don't see a good reason for excluding the deleted section, although I am partial to it because I wrote it. Being technical should not exclude anything from any Wikipedia article. It does 'fit' because it discusses leap months in lunisolar calendars. — Joe Kress 06:16, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

But so does the merged section from Month. Simply including both does the reader a disservice because it mentions the same topic twice, with possible contradictions. Perhaps I should have said "doesn't fit in the article as it is now." Regarding the technicality; being technical is not a criteria for exclusion from Wikipedia, but the quoted paragraph very quickly dives into complex territory (true motion of the sun) and adds article-jargon (compare doublet, singleton).

I get the impression your paragraph is more about the average interval between leap months (unrelated to a calendar being arithmetic or not) while the section I added (expanding on Tom Peters' work) is only about their overall frequency (with a inclination towards arithmetic calendars). I will probably attempt to merge the two sections later, keeping this in mind. squell 17:05, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

It is not appropriate to use the so-called "mean tropical year" (MTY) for any calendar, as it cannot be observationally verified -- no related equinox or solstice -- and because the MTY is in the wrong time units. Calendars must use mean solar days, but the MTY is comprised of days measured by atomic time. The mean year of the lunisolar Gregorian Easter computus is the same as the mean year of the Gregorian calendar, of course, but it was intended to match the mean spring equinox year for the northern hemisphere, which currently is 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes and a fraction of a second, or almost 12 seconds shorter than the Gregorian calendar mean year. By contrast, the mean year of the Hebrew calendar is more than 6 minutes and 25 seconds too long. I hesitate to apply an edit in this regard, because many changes would be necessary, and because it could also be valid for such a general discussion of lunisolar calendars to choose the mean summer solstice year for the northern hemisphere, which would endure for much longer relative to the actual astronomy. Kalendis (talk) 02:18, 6 May 2011 (UTC)

External Link section
I'm not sure why the external links section was deemed to have too many to the same site since the site is not straight-forward to navigate, but I have reverted this simple deletion and believe the section is now in compliance with External_links Kind regards, --Greatwalk 00:41, 18 March 2007 (UTC)
 * It is a shame you have still not read the appropriate guidelines. Please see Important points to remember, point 3: "Try to avoid linking to multiple pages from the same website". --Pak21 08:23, 19 March 2007 (UTC)

Further Examples section
Is there anything at all notable about the content in the Further Examples section? It looks like self-aggrandizement to me. QVanillaQ 19:35, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

I've removed the section, since the external links point to the same information anyway. QVanillaQ 15:24, 23 June 2007 (UTC)

Solilunar vs. lunisolar
Solilunar is the correct term for calendars which are both lunar and solar but more successful in tracking the lunar cycle than the solar. Lunisolar means calendars which are both lunar and solar but more successful in tracking the solar cycle than the lunar. Lunisolar calendars actually aren't possible at all if it's better on tracking the solar cycle than the lunar, and most of the so-called 'lunisolar' calendars are actually solilunar. There's no such thing as lunisolar! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 172.216.110.42 (talk) 17:56, 23 November 2007 (UTC)

 * I've reverted your change for several reasons. It was within what appears to be a direct quote which must written as it appears without any changes. Although I understand your argument, solilunar is non-standard. Lunisolar is standard in all sources. Furthermore, the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary does not support your distinction. It says that both lunisolar and soli-lunar or solunar (or sol-lunar) mean of or pertaining to both the sun and moon (although probably a coincidence, "sun" is listed before "moon" in all three definitions). — Joe Kress (talk) 23:51, 23 November 2007 (UTC)

You're right, there's no such thing as solilunar. That was what Peter Meyer said.

Calculation of the exact mean year for a lunisolar calendar
This can be tricky, and is explained at http://www.sym454.org/leap/, use your web browser to find the places where the term "lunisolar" is mentioned. It seems to me worthwhile to add such a section to this Wikipedia page, but I hesitate to follow a similar verbose equation format. Kalendis (talk) 20:08, 16 May 2011 (UTC)

It would be helpful to state exactly where in http://www.sym454.org/leap/ this working out of the mean year for a lunisolar calendar is. Karl (talk) 12:08, 18 May 2011 (UTC)

It's spread in several places there, as the focus there is not limited to lunisolar calendars, that's why it is necessary to use the web browser to search for the term lunisolar, and it is also why I didn't think it was appropriate to add an external link, and suggest that the pertinent equations be gathered and posted here. What's there assumes that the mean month fixes also the mean year, but if there is a rule that regulates the insertion of a leap month relative to some kind of solar reckoning then the mean year equals the mean solar year. Kalendis (talk) 13:49, 19 May 2011 (UTC)

 * So the issue is how often to insert a leap month. This is the fractional part of the mean year expressed in mean months. For mean year between 365.2416 and 365.2428 days and mean month between 29.53057 and 29.53060 days, this ranges between 36.824% and 36.830%. Within this range are the fractions 109/296, 116/315, 123/334, 130/353, 137/372, 144/391 and 151/410. Karl (talk) 08:48, 20 May 2011 (UTC)

There already is the section "Calculating a leap month" for that discussion, although that could be expanded. I'm saying that regardless of the leap month insertion scheme, the arithmetic for exactly evaluating the calendar mean year would be useful to outline after that section. Kalendis (talk) 04:56, 24 May 2011 (UTC)

 * I don't understand exactly what Kalendis wants here. For example, one could work out the mean year for a given mean month and proportion of years that have leap months. Is this what is wanted? If not, what is it? Karl (talk) 10:48, 24 May 2011 (UTC)

Why this section should be removed
Determining leap months

A rough idea of the frequency of the intercalary or leap month in all lunisolar calendars can be obtained by the following calculation, using approximate lengths of months and years in days:
 * Tropical year: 365.2422 (Y), Synodic month: 29.5306 (M)
 * Y/M = 12.36826: 12 months per common year or 13 months per leap year
 * Y - (M × 12) = 10.875 days per year (the epact)
 * 1/0.36826 = M/10.875 = 2.7155 (L): 1 leap month per 3 or 2 years, ccL or cL (average interval (in years) between intercalations).
 * 1L = 2.7155: 1(st) leap month in 3 years or in year 3 ccL
 * 2L = 5.4309: 2 leap months in 6 years ccLccL
 * 3L = 8.1464: 3 leap months in 9 years ccLccLccL
 * 4L = 10.8618: 4 leap months in 11 years ccLccLccLcL
 * 5L = 13.5772: 5 leap months in 14 years ccLccLccLcLccL
 * 6L = 16.2927: 6 leap months in 17 years ccLccLccLcLccLccL
 * 7L = 19.0082: 7 leap months in 19 years ccLccLccLcLccLccLcL
 * 19-year cycle: ccLccLccLcLccLccLcL (3 + 3 + 3 + 2) + (3 + 3 + 2) = 11 + 8 = 19 = 8 + 11 = (3 + 3 + 2) + (3 + 3 + 3 + 2) ccLccLcLccLccLccLcL
 * The year 2017 is a leap year in the traditional Chinese calendar: 2017 mod 19 = 3, ccLccLccLcLccLccLcL

Intercalation of leap months is frequently controlled by the "epact", which is the difference between the lunar and solar years (approximately 11 days). The Metonic cycle, used in the Hebrew calendar and the Julian and Gregorian ecclesiastical calendars, adds seven months every nineteen years. The classic Metonic cycle can be reproduced by assigning an initial epact value of 1 to the last year of the cycle and incrementing by 11 each year. Between the last year of one cycle and the first year of the next the increment is 12. This adjustment, the saltus lunae, causes the epacts to repeat every 19 years. When the epact goes above 29 an intercalary month is added and 30 is subtracted. The intercalary years are numbers 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17 and 19. Both the Hebrew calendar and the Julian calendar use this sequence. ... — Preceding unsigned comment added by 27.154.63.66 (talk) 04:42, 20 January 2017 (UTC)

 * Your argument, which is based on original research, does not make clear why 3, 8 or 19 years make useful luni-solar calendars, while other years don't, nor does the traditional Chinese calendar follow a strict Metonic rule. AstroLynx (talk) 11:06, 20 January 2017 (UTC)

 * The discussion in this proposed section is purely hypothetical and fails to discusss the intercalation cycles that were actually used in specific historical calendars. Furthermore, it fails to provide citations of sources to document those uses.  As such it fails both WP:OR  and WP:VERIFY.
 * There is an extensive literature in the history of calendars and the history of astronomy to document the various luni-solar calendars. I recommend that editors do proper research in the scholarly literature before restoring this section. --SteveMcCluskey (talk) 14:47, 20 January 2017 (UTC)

Routine calculations do not count as original research, provided there is consensus among editors that the result of the calculation is obvious, correct, and a meaningful reflection of the sources.Here the calculations are based on mean lengths of tropical year and synodic month and the Metonic cycle. where is the original research? the results of the calculations are not obvious or correct? Q5968661 61.131.75.3 (talk) 15:16, 20 January 2017 (UTC)

 * It isn't enough that calculations be routine and correct; they must be important enough to bother including in the article. A sequence that can't be proved through reliable sources to have been actually used in some important calendar isn't worth mentioning. Jc3s5h (talk) 15:24, 20 January 2017 (UTC)

The sequence just is the Metonic cycle. you don't agree the cycle? Whithout the section, how could you tell readers why the cycle has 19 years and 7 leap months in years 3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 17, and 19 or 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17 and 19 and which years are leap ones? Q5968661 61.131.75.3 (talk) 15:46, 20 January 2017 (UTC)

 * According to Urban & Seidelmann in the Glossary to Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac:

"Metonic cycle: a 69400 6940-day cycle closely approximating 19 tropical years or 235 synodic months. [Italics indicate terms that are in the glossary.]"

 * So there is no particular sequence of leap months associated with the Metonic cycle; it could be implemented with many different sequences. Jc3s5h (talk) 17:23, 20 January 2017 (UTC) Typo corrected 15:39, 21 January 2015 UTC

"Metonic cycle: a 69400-day cycle"? 69400≠6940. Where is the source for "So there is no particular sequence of leap months associated with the Metonic cycle; it could be implemented with many different sequences." ? The table you removed can tell you all about it. More calculations for you: Don't tell me you need the sources for these calculations again. Now a question for you, what does it mean by 123L=334.0013?
 * 235M-19Y=6939.691-6939.6018=0.0892 day, 1/0.0892=11.2108 cycles, 11.2108×19=213.0045 years, that is a full day difference between them.
 * 19-year cycle in Chinese calendar Q5968661 27.154.63.66 (talk) 04:06, 21 January 2017 (UTC)

 * Your point on 6940 days is correct. Other than that, you are putting the obligation to provide sources backwards.  Opponents of an addition are not obliged to provide sources to rebut it; advocates of an addition are obliged to support it.  In particular, advocates of proposing this particular sequence of intercalary and ordinary years as an implementation of the Metonic cycle are obliged
 * to show that this particular sequence of intercalary and ordinary years follows from their calculations,
 * to show where this particular sequence was used, and
 * to discuss whether and if so, when and where, other sequences have been used.
 * To do this, as I stated above, requires further research in the historical literature.--SteveMcCluskey (talk) 14:14, 21 January 2017 (UTC)

"A rough idea of the frequency of the intercalary or leap month in all lunisolar calendars can be obtained by the following calculation, using approximate lengths of months and years in days", someone said. That is, all lunisolar calendars must have it or they are not a lunisolar calendar. It does not require any research at all because it is very simple and can be verified by arithmetic calculations.
 * ccLcLccLccLcLccLccLccLcLccLccLcLccLccLccLcLccLccLcLccLccL, there are 57 years or 3 cycles in the sequence which can start from any years. Q5968661 61.131.75.3 (talk) 15:42, 21 January 2017 (UTC)

 * This discussion implies that all luni-solar calendars must adhere to contemporary concepts of mathematical precision. This is not the case.  Different cultures have different criteria which can lead to subtly different patterns of common and intercalary years.
 * Furthermore, this presentation seems to imply there is something special about three Metonic cycles. That is not apparent from your analysis nor have I ever seen this claimed in the literature; the only multiple of the Metonic cycle of which I'm aware is the 76 year Callippic cycle, which consists of four Metonic cycles, integrating the leap year cycle (every 4 years) with the Metonic cycle.
 * The closer I look at this presentation, the more I see it as pushing the limits of original research.--SteveMcCluskey (talk) 04:11, 22 January 2017 (UTC)

You simply misunderstood it. The more discussing, the more it appears that you had no knowledge of lunisolar calendars. Q5968661 59.57.223.8 (talk) 08:59, 22 January 2017 (UTC)

 * It is not helpful to indulge in ad hominiem comments like the above that I "have no knowledge of lunisolar calendars". For general historical background on lunar calendars you might want to consider:
 * , which I reviewed in the Journal for the History of Astronomy, 44 (2013): 485-487.
 * Normally I wouldn't mention my own work, but given your comments, let me also recommend these works on luni-solar calendars:
 * , which deals primarily with their observational luni-solar calendar.
 * . Chapter five deals with the Easter computus and the luni-solar calendar.
 * --SteveMcCluskey (talk) 22:29, 22 January 2017 (UTC)

I am sorry for that and thanks for your recommendation. In this case, all we need is the mean lengths of tropical years and synodic months because lunisolar calendars or the Metonic cycle depend on them. Most of sources only tell what it is but not why it is. Let me recommend these calculations again: Please think about them twice and twice, thanks! If you are clear about them, you will clearly understand the law for lunisolar calendars. Q5968661 27.154.63.66 (talk) 03:53, 23 January 2017 (UTC)
 * Tropical year: 365.2422 (Y), Synodic month: 29.5306 (M)
 * Y/M = 12.36826
 * 1/0.36826 = 2.7155 (L)
 * 7×L = 19.0082

OMG, you are the author of the books! Why didn't you accept the results of the calculations in the section? Maybe it is that you didn't believe it is so simple for all of them. Maybe it is all my fault because of my poor English and if so, sorry again! Q5968661 27.154.63.66 (talk) 05:56, 23 January 2017 (UTC)

 * I noticed from your user page and talk page that there have been recurring comments about your additions of calculated results, without any further support by reliable sources, or even by reasoned discussion, to a range of articles concerning the calendar.
 * It seems that you believe that a mathematical calculation provides a self-evident demonstration of truth. This is not so.  The development and presentation of ideas may use mathematics as a tool to support a presentation, but the mathematics must be supported by clear discussions and (in Wikipedia) by the citation of other sources that use similar mathematical analyses.
 * I hope this helps.--SteveMcCluskey (talk) 14:13, 23 January 2017 (UTC)

Thanks, I have decided to remove the edits I made in WP. Q5968661 (talk) 14:33, 23 January 2017 (UTC)

This article in its current state can be deleted too because there is nothing important in it. It has been destroyed by people like AstroLynx and Jc3s5h who seem to protect it. Q5986661 27.154.63.66 (talk) 02:43, 24 January 2017 (UTC)

Second opinion requested at 'Epact'
Would someone look at talk:Epact, please, to confirm or deny my belief that there is a serious error in need of correction. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 10:43, 7 October 2021 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 17:23, 8 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Five Phases and Four Seasons Calendar.png

Determining leap months
At present, the section Determining leap months in the article begins A tropical year is longer than 12 lunar months and shorter than 13 of them. and continues with The arithmetical equation 12 × 12 + 7 × 13 = 235 allows it to be seen that a combination of 12 'short' years (12 months) and 7 'long' years (13 months) will be equal to 19 solar years. which has a clarify tag that says Because 253 lunar months is as long as 19 solar years? If so, that needs to be shown. The arithemetic is not difficult, the only question is how to express it succinctly – and it is critical that the words "year" and "month" be disambiguated.

(FWIW, I suggest that opening paragraph of the section needs to be rewritten in English because at present it is self-indulgent waffle. But one issue at a time.)

So how about:
 * A combination of 12 'short' lunar years (12 lunar months) and 7 'long' lunar years (13 lunar months) (or 12 × 12 + 7 × 13 = 235 ) will be almost equal to 19 solar years. This is because an average lunar month lasts about 29.53059 days and so 235 × 29.53059 = 6,939.68865 days. An average solar year is 365.2422 days thus 19 × 365.2422 = 6,939.6018 days. So this simple algorithm is accurate to 0.08 days a year or a little less than one day a century.

Any advance on that? 𝕁𝕄𝔽 (talk) 11:28, 11 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lunisolar calendar