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Formosan languages

The Formosan languages are a geographic grouping comprising the languages of the indigenous peoples of Taiwan, all of which are Austronesian. They do not form a single subfamily of Austronesian but rather up to nine separate primary subfamilies. The Taiwanese indigenous peoples recognized by the government are about 2.3% of the island's population. However, only 35% speak their ancestral language, due to centuries of language shift. Of the approximately 26 languages of the Taiwanese indigenous peoples, at least ten are extinct, another four (perhaps five) are moribund, and all others are to some degree endangered.

The aboriginal languages of Taiwan have great significance in historical linguistics since, in all likelihood, Taiwan is the place of origin of the entire Austronesian language family. According to American linguist Robert Blust, the Formosan languages form nine of the ten principal branches of the family, while the one remaining principal branch, Malayo-Polynesian, contains nearly 1,200 Austronesian languages found outside Taiwan. Although some other linguists disagree with some details of Blust's analysis, a broad consensus has coalesced around the conclusion that the Austronesian languages originated in Taiwan, and the theory has been strengthened by recent studies in human population genetics.

Recent history
All Formosan languages are slowly being replaced by the culturally dominant Taiwanese Mandarin. In recent decades the Taiwan government started an aboriginal reappreciation program that included the reintroduction of Formosan first languages in Taiwanese schools. However, the results of this initiative have been disappointing.

In 2005, in order to help with the preservation of the languages of the indigenous people of Taiwan, the council established a Romanized writing system for all of Taiwan's aboriginal languages. The council has also helped with classes and language certification programs for members of the indigenous community and the non-Formosan Taiwanese to help the conservation movement.

Classification
Formosan languages form nine distinct branches of the Austronesian language family (with all other Malayo-Polynesian languages forming the tenth branch of the Austronesian).

List of languages
It is often difficult to decide where to draw the boundary between a language and a dialect, causing some minor disagreement among scholars regarding the inventory of Formosan languages. There is even more uncertainty regarding possible extinct or assimilated Formosan peoples. Frequently cited examples of Formosan languages are given below, but the list should not be considered exhaustive.

Living languages

 * Although Yami is geographically in Taiwan, it is not classified as Formosan in linguistics.

Grammar
Verbs typically are not inflected for person or number, but do inflect for tense, mood, voice and aspect. Formosan languages are unusual in their use of the symmetrical voice, in which a noun is marked with the direct case while the verb affix indicates its role in the sentence. This can be seen as a generalisation of the active and passive voices, and is considered a unique morphosyntactic alignment. Furthermore, adverbs are not a unique category of words, but are instead expressed by coverbs.

Nouns are not marked for number and do not have grammatical gender. Noun cases are typically marked by particles rather than inflecting the word itself.

In terms of word order, most Formosan languages display verb-initial word order—VSO (verb-subject-object) or VOS (verb-object-subject)—with the exception of some Northern Formosan languages, such as Thao, Saisiyat, and Pazih, possibly from influence from Chinese.

Li (1998) lists the word orders of several Formosan languages.

 * Rukai: VSO, VOS
 * Tsou: VOS
 * Bunun: VSO
 * Atayal: VSO, VOS
 * Saisiyat: VS, SVO
 * Pazih: VOS, SVO
 * Thao: VSO, SVO
 * Amis: VOS, VSO
 * Kavalan: VOS
 * Puyuma: VSO
 * Paiwan: VSO, VOS

Sound changes
Tanan Rukai is the Formosan language with the largest number of phonemes with 23 consonants and 4 vowels containing length contrast, while Kanakanavu and Saaroa have the fewest phonemes with 13 consonants and 4 vowels.

Wolff
The tables below list the Proto-Austronesian reflexes of individual languages given by Wolff (2010).

Blust
The following table lists reflexes of Proto-Austronesian *j in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:572).

The following table lists reflexes of Proto-Austronesian *ʀ in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:582).

Lenition patterns include (Blust 2009:604-605):

 * *b, *d in Proto-Austronesian
 * *b > f, *d > c, r in Tsou
 * *b > v, *d > d in Puyuma
 * *b > v, *d > d, r in Paiwan
 * *b > b, *d > r in Saisiyat
 * *b > f, *d > s in Thao
 * *b > v, *d > r in Yami (extra-Formosan)

Information
Li (2001) lists the geographical homelands for the following Formosan languages.

 * Tsou: southwestern parts of central Taiwan; Yushan (oral traditions)
 * Saisiyat and Kulon: somewhere between Tatu River and Tachia River not far from the coast
 * Thao: Choshui River
 * Qauqaut: mid-stream of Takiri River (Liwuhsi in Chinese)
 * Siraya: Chianan Plains
 * Makatau: Pingtung
 * Bunun: Hsinyi (信義鄉) in Nantou County
 * Paiwan: Ailiao River, near the foot of the mountains

title: Formosan languages


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Reform Acts

The Reform Acts (or Reform Bills, before they were passed) are legislation enacted in the United Kingdom in the 19th and 20th century to enfranchise new groups of voters and to redistribute seats in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. When short titles were introduced for these acts, they were usually Representation of the People Act.

These began with the Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1884, to increase the electorate for the House of Commons and remove certain inequalities in representation. The bill of 1832 disfranchised many boroughs which enjoyed undue representation and increased that of the large towns, at the same time extending the franchise. It was put through Parliament by the Whigs. The bill of 1867 was passed by the Conservatives under the urging of the Liberals, while that of 1882 was introduced by the Liberals and passed in 1884. These latter two bills provided for a more democratic representation.

Following the First World War, the Reform Act 1918 was enacted with cross-party unanimity. It enfranchised all men over the age of 21 and women over the age of 30. Ten years later, the Reform Act 1928, passed by the Conservatives, resulted in universal suffrage with a voting age of 21. In 1969, the United Kingdom became the first major democratic country to lower its age of franchise to 18 in the Reform Act 1969 passed by the Labour government.

Internationally, the Parliament of the United Kingdom and its Westminster system played a "vanguard role" with worldwide influence on the spread of democracy, thus it is often known as "The mother of parliaments".

Background
In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, before 1832, fewer than one adult male in ten was eligible to vote in parliamentary elections. Moreover, the franchise varied a great deal between England (which included Wales), where it was wider, and Scotland and Ireland, where it was narrower. A few boroughs gave the vote to all male householders, but many parliamentary seats were under the control of a small group or sometimes a single rich aristocrat. Reforms had been proposed in the 18th century, both by radicals such as John Wilkes and by more conservative politicians such as William Pitt the Younger. However, there was strong opposition to reform, especially after the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789–1799). The cause was continued after 1792 by the London Corresponding Society.

Eventually, the parliamentary franchise was expanded and made more uniform through a series of Reform Acts beginning with the Great Reform Act in 1832. These acts extended voting rights to previously disenfranchised citizens. Sources refer to up to six "Reform Acts",  although the earlier three in 1832, 1867/68 and 1884, are better known by this name. Some other acts related to electoral matters also became known as Reform Acts.

The following Acts of Parliament are known as Reform Acts:
 * Reform Act 1832 (often called the "Great Reform Act" or "First Reform Act"), which applied to England and Wales and gave representation to previously underrepresented urban areas and extended the qualifications for voting.
 * Scottish Reform Act 1832, a similar reform applying to Scotland.
 * Irish Reform Act 1832, a similar reform applying to Ireland.
 * Reform Act 1867 (also called the "Second Reform Act"), which widened the franchise and adjusted representation to be more equitable.
 * Representation of the People (Scotland) Act 1868, a similar reform applying to Scotland.
 * Representation of the People (Ireland) Act 1868, a similar reform applying to Ireland.
 * Ballot Act 1872 (sometimes called the "Reform Act 1872"), which introduced the secret ballot.
 * Corrupt and Illegal Practices Prevention Act 1883 (sometimes called the "Reform Act 1883"), which introduced campaign spending limits.
 * Reform Act 1884 (also called the "Third Reform Act"), which allowed people in counties to vote on the same basis as those in towns. Home ownership was the only qualification.
 * Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 (sometimes called the "Reform Act 1885"), which split most multi-member constituencies into multiple single-member ones.
 * Reform Act 1918 (also called the "Fourth Reform Act"), which abolished property qualifications for men and introduced limited female suffrage, for women over the age of 30.
 * Reform Act 1928 (also called the "Fifth Reform Act"), which widened suffrage by giving women electoral equality with men.
 * Reform Act 1969 (also called the "Sixth Reform Act"),  which lowered the minimum voting age from 21 to 18.

There are many other electoral reform Acts that changed the electoral system in the United Kingdom. Such legislation typically used "Representation of the People Act" as the short title, by which name the 1918, 1928 and other acts in the 20th century are better known. The title Representation of the People Act was adopted in other countries of, or formerly part of, the British Empire through the spread of the Westminster parliamentary system. The Parliament of the United Kingdom played a "vanguard role" with worldwide influence on the spread of democracy, thus it is often known as "the mother of parliaments".

1832 Reform Act
The 1832 Reform Act for England and Wales was the most controversial of the electoral reform acts passed by the Parliament. Similar Acts were passed the same year for Scotland, and Ireland. They were put through Parliament by the Whigs. The Acts reapportioned Parliament in a way fairer to the cities of the old industrial north, which had experienced tremendous growth. The Act also did away with most of the "rotten" and "pocket" boroughs such as Old Sarum, which with only seven voters, all controlled by the local squire, was still sending two members to Parliament. This act not only re-apportioned representation in Parliament, thus making that body more accurately represent the citizens of the country, but also gave the power of voting to those lower in the social and economic scale, for the act extended the right to vote (in the boroughs) to any long-term holders of tenements of at least £10 annual value, adding 217,000 voters to an electorate of 435,000. Annual value here refers to the income that the land could be expected to earn if let, in a year. As many as one man in five, though by some estimates still only one in seven, now had the right to vote.

The agitation preceding and following the First Reform Act made many people consider fundamental issues of society and politics. The bill allowed the middle classes to share power with the upper classes; for many conservatives, this was revolutionary. Some historians argue that this transfer of power achieved in Britain and Ireland what the French Revolution of 1848 eventually achieved in France.

Charles Dickens observed these events at first hand as a shorthand Parliamentary reporter. The novel Middlemarch, by Mary Ann Evans (George Eliot) is set in the 1830s and mentions the struggle over the Reform Bills, though not as a major topic. Eliot's Felix Holt, the Radical, set in 1832, is a novel explicitly about the Great Reform Act.

1867 Reform Act
The Chartists campaigned from 1838 for a wider reform. The movement petered out in the 1850s, but achieved most of its demands in the longer run. Legislative bills were introduced by the Conservatives under the urging of the Liberals. The 1867/8 Acts for England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland extended the right to vote still further down the class ladder. In England and Wales, the reforms added just short of a million voters, including many workingmen, which doubled the electorate to almost two million.

Like the Great Reform Act before it, the Second Reform Act also created major shock waves in contemporary British culture. In works such as Matthew Arnold's Culture and Anarchy and John Ruskin's The Crown of Wild Olive, contemporary authors debated whether the shift of power would create democracy that would, in turn, destroy high culture.

1884 Reform Act
A further Reform Bill was introduced in 1882 by the Liberals. It was passed by the Conservatives in 1884 becoming the Third Reform Act. It was the first electoral reform act to apply to the United Kingdom as a whole. Only with this Act did a majority of adult males gain the right to vote in parliamentary elections. Along with the 1885 Redistribution Act, this tripled the electorate again, giving the vote to most agricultural laborers.

1918, 1928 and 1969 Reform Acts
By the end of the 19th century and in they early 20th century, voting was coming to be regarded as a right rather than the property of the privileged but the First World War delayed further reforms. After the War, women were granted voting rights with cross-party unanimity in the Act of 1918, the Fourth Reform Act, which enfranchised all men aged over 21 and women over 30. This last piece of gender discrimination was eliminated 10 years later by the Equal Franchise Act 1928, the Fifth Reform Act, passed by the Conservatives.

The voting age was lowered in 1969 by the Labour government in the Sixth Reform Act, making Britain the first major democratic nation to extend voting rights to all adults aged 18 or over.

Modern usage
The periodic redrawing of constituency boundaries is now dealt with by a permanent Boundary Commission in each part of the United Kingdom, rather than a Reform Act.

Some people in Britain, mostly associated with the Liberal Democrats political party, have called for a new "Great Reform Act" to introduce electoral changes they favour. These would include lowering the minimum voting age to 16 and introducing proportional representation, which are also supported by the Green Party of England and Wales.

title: Reform Acts


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Tincture (heraldry)

Tincture is the limited palette of colours and patterns used in heraldry. The need to define, depict, and correctly blazon the various tinctures is one of the most important aspects of heraldic art and design.

Development and history
The use of tinctures dates back to the formative period of European heraldry in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The range of tinctures and the manner of depicting and describing them has evolved over time, as new variations and practices have developed.

The basic scheme and rules of applying the heraldic tinctures dates back to the 12th century. The earliest surviving coloured heraldic illustrations, from the mid-thirteenth century, show the standardized usage of two metals, five colours, and two furs. Since that time, the great majority of heraldic art has employed these nine tinctures.

Over time, variations on these basic tinctures were developed, particularly with respect to the furs. Authorities differ as to whether these variations should be considered separate tinctures, or merely varieties of existing ones. Two additional colours appeared, and were generally accepted by heraldic writers, although they remained scarce, and were eventually termed stains, from the belief that they were used to signify some dishonour on the part of the bearer. The practice of depicting certain charges as they appear in nature, termed proper, was established in the seventeenth century. Other colours have appeared occasionally since the eighteenth century, especially in continental heraldry, but their use is infrequent, and they have never been regarded as particularly heraldic, or numbered among the tinctures that form the basis of heraldic design.

Frequency and national variants
The frequency with which different tinctures have been used over time has been much observed, but little studied. There are some general trends of note, both with respect to the passage of time, and noted preferences from one region to another.

In medieval heraldry, gules was by far the most common tincture, followed by the metals argent and or, at least one of which necessarily appeared on the majority of arms (see below). Among the colours, sable was the second most common, followed by azure. Vert, although present from the formative period of heraldic design, was relatively scarce. Over time, the popularity of azure increased above that of sable, while gules, still the most common, became less dominant. A survey of French arms granted during the seventeenth century reveals a distinct split between the trends for the arms granted to nobles and commoners. Among nobles, gules remained the most common tincture, closely followed by or, then by argent and azure at nearly equal levels; sable was a very distant fifth choice, while vert remained scarce. Among commoners, azure was easily the most common tincture, followed by or, and only then by gules, argent, and sable, which was used more by commoners than among the nobility; vert, however, was even scarcer in common arms. Purpure is so scarce in French heraldry that some authorities do not regard it as a "real heraldic tincture".

On the whole, French heraldry is known for its use of azure and or, while English heraldry is characterized by heavy use of gules and argent, and unlike French heraldry, it has always made regular use of vert, and occasional, if not extensive, use of purpure. German heraldry is known for its extensive use of or and sable. German and Nordic heraldry rarely make use of purpure or ermine, except in mantling, pavilions, and the lining of crowns and caps. In fact, furs occur infrequently in German and Nordic heraldry.

List
The colours and patterns of the heraldic palette are divided into three groups, usually known as metals, colours, and furs.

Metals
The metals are or and argent, representing gold and silver respectively, although in practice they are often depicted as yellow and white.

Or (Ger. Gelb, Gold, or golden) derives its name from the Latin aurum, "gold". It may be depicted using either yellow or metallic gold, at the artist's discretion; "yellow" has no separate existence in heraldry, and is never used to represent any tincture other than or.

Argent (Ger. Weiß, Weiss, Silber, or silbern) is similarly derived from the Latin argentum, "silver". Although sometimes depicted as metallic silver or faint grey, it is more often represented by white, in part because of the tendency for silver paint to oxidize and darken over time, and in part because of the pleasing effect of white against a contrasting colour. Notwithstanding the widespread use of white for argent, some heraldic authorities have suggested the existence of white as a distinct heraldic colour.

Colours
Five colours have been recognized since the earliest days of heraldry. These are: gules, or red; sable, or black; azure, or blue; vert, or green; and purpure, or purple.

Gules (Fr. gueules, Ger. Rot) is of uncertain derivation; outside of the heraldic context, the modern French word refers to the mouth of an animal.

Sable (Ger. Schwarz) is named for a type of marten, known for its dark, luxuriant fur.

Azure (Fr. azur or bleu, Ger. Blau) comes through the Arabic lāzaward, from the Persian lāžavard both referring to the blue mineral lapis lazuli, used to produce blue pigments.

Vert (Fr. vert or sinople, Ger. Grün) is from Latin viridis, "green". The alternative name in French, sinople, is derived from the ancient city of Sinope in Asia Minor (Turkey), which was famous for its pigments.

Purpure (Fr. purpure or pourpre, Ger. Purpur) is from Latin purpura, in turn from Greek porphyra, the dye known as Tyrian purple. This expensive dye, known from antiquity, produced a much redder purple than the modern heraldic colour; and in fact earlier depictions of purpure are far redder than recent ones. As a heraldic colour, purpure may have originated as a variation of gules.

Stains
Three more tinctures were eventually acknowledged by most heraldic authorities: sanguine, a venous-blood red, murrey, a dark red or mulberry colour; and tenné, an orange or dark yellow to brownish colour. These were termed "stains" by some of the more influential heraldic writers, and supposed to represent some sort of dishonour on the part of the bearer; but in fact there is no evidence that they were ever so employed, and they probably originated as mere variations of existing colours. Nevertheless, the belief that they represented stains upon the honour of an armiger served to prevent them receiving widespread use, and it is only in recent times that they have begun to appear on a regular basis.

Sanguine from the Latin sanguineus, "blood red", one the so-called "stains" in British armory, is a dark blood red between gules and purpure in hue. It probably originated as a mere variation of red and may in fact represent the original hue of purpure, which is now treated as a much bluer colour than when it first appeared in heraldry. It was long shunned in the belief that it represented some dishonour on the part of the bearer.

Murrey, from the Greek morum, "mulberry", it has found some use in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Murrey is also the official colour of the Order of the Bath ribbon.

Tenné or tenny or tawny, from Latin tannare, "to tan", is the third of the so-called "stains". It is most often depicted as orange, but sometimes as tawny yellow or brown. In earlier times it was occasionally used in continental heraldry, but in England largely confined to livery.

Furs
The use of heraldic furs alongside the metals and colours dates to the beginning of the art. In this earliest period, there were only two furs, ermine and vair. Ermine represents the fur of the stoat, a type of weasel, in its white winter coat, when it is called an ermine. Vair represents the winter coat of the red squirrel, which is blue-grey above and white below. These furs were commonly used to line the cloaks and robes of the nobility. Both ermine and vair give the appearance of being a combination of metal and colour, but in heraldic convention they are considered a separate class of tincture that is neither metal nor colour. Over time, several variations of ermine and vair have appeared, together with three additional furs typically encountered in continental heraldry, known as plumeté, papelonné, and kürsch, the origins of which are more mysterious, but which probably began as variations of vair.

Ermine
Ermine (Fr. hermine, Ger. hermelin) is normally depicted as a white field powdered with black spots, known as "ermine spots", representing the ermine's black tail. The use of white instead of silver is normal, even when silver is available, since this is how the fur naturally appears; but occasionally silver is used to depict ermine. There is considerable variation in the shape of ermine spots; in the oldest depictions, they were drawn realistically, as long, tapering points; in modern times they are typically drawn as arrowheads, usually topped by three small dots.

Vair
Vair (Ger. Feh) derives its name from Latin varius, "variegated". It is usually depicted as a series of alternating shapes, conventionally known as panes or "vair bells", of argent and azure, arranged in horizontal rows, so that the panes of one tincture form the upper part of the row, while those of the opposite tincture are on the bottom. Succeeding rows are staggered, so that the bases of the panes making up each row are opposite those of the other tincture in the rows above and below. As with ermine, the argent panes may be depicted as either white or silver; silver is used more often with vair than with ermine, but the natural fur is white.

When the pattern of vair is used with other colours, the field is termed vairé or vairy of the tinctures used. Normally vairé consists of one metal and one colour, although ermine or one of its variants is sometimes used, with an ermine spot appearing in each pane of that tincture. Vairé of four colours (Ger. Buntfeh, "gay-coloured" or "checked vair") is also known, usually consisting of two metals and two colours.

Several variant shapes exist, of which the most common is known as potent (Ger. Sturzkrückenfeh, "upside-down crutch vair"). In this form, the familiar "vair bell" is replaced by a T-shaped figure, known as a "potent" due to its resemblance to a crutch. Other furs sometimes encountered in continental heraldry, which are thought to be derived from vair, include plumeté or plumetty and papelonné or papellony. In plumeté, the panes are depicted as feathers; in papelonné they are depicted as scales, resembling those of a butterfly's wings (whence the name is derived). These can be modified with the colour, arrangement, and size variants of vair, though those variants are much less common. In German heraldry there is also a fur known as Kürsch, or "vair bellies", consisting of panes depicted hairy and brown. Here the phrase "vair bellies" may be a misnomer, as the belly of the red squirrel is always white, although its summer coat is indeed reddish brown.

Other tinctures
Several other tinctures are occasionally encountered, usually in continental heraldry:

 * Cendrée, or "ash-colour";
 * Brunâtre (Ger. Braun), or brown, occasionally used in German heraldry, in place of purpure;
 * Bleu-céleste or bleu de ciel, a sky blue colour intended to be lighter than azure;
 * Amaranth or columbine, a strong violet-red, found in at least one grant of arms to a Bohemian knight in 1701;
 * Eisen-farbe, or iron-colour, found in German heraldry
 * Carnation, often used in French heraldry as the colour of white human skin.

The heraldic scholar A. C. Fox-Davies proposed that, in some circumstances, white should be considered a heraldic colour, distinct from argent. In a number of instances, a label or collar blazoned as "white" rather than "argent" appears on a supporter blazoned argent or or. The use of "white" in place of "argent" would be consistent with the Victorian practice of heraldic blazon that discouraged repeating the name of a tincture in describing a coat of arms, but if it were merely intended as a synonym of "argent", this placement would clearly violate the rule against placing metal on metal or colour on colour (see below). This difficulty is avoided if "white" is considered a colour in this particular instance, rather than a synonym of "argent". This interpretation has neither been accepted nor refuted by any heraldic authority, but a counter-argument is that the labels are not intended to represent a heraldic tincture, but are in fact white labels proper.

Other exceptional colours have occasionally appeared during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries:

The arms of the Jewish Autonomous Region in Russia have a field of aquamarine.

The Canadian Heraldic Authority granted arms containing rose as a colour in 1997. In 2002, the Authority granted arms including copper, treated as a metal, to the municipality of Whitehorse, Yukon.

Ochre, both red and yellow, appears in South African heraldry; the national coat of arms, adopted in 2000, includes red ochre, while (possibly yellow but more likely red) ochre appears in the arms of the University of Transkei.

In the United States, heraldry is not governed by any official authority; but the United States Army, which makes extensive use of heraldry, does have its own authority, the United States Army Institute of Heraldry. The armorial designs of the Institute of Heraldry include a number of novel tinctures, including buff (employed variously as either a metal or a colour), and horizon blue. Silver gray has appeared in the heraldry of both the Army and the Air Force. Bronze appears as a colour in the arms of the Special Troops Battalion of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division. There seems to be some confusion about the colour crimson, as in some cases it is treated as a separate tincture, while in others it is used to specify the shade of gules to be employed by the artist. Similar issue exists about a blue-green colour referred to as teal  or turquoise  which is either treated separate or as a specific shade of azure or céleste. Differing from most heraldic practice, the Institute of Heraldry often specifies the exact shades to be used in depicting various arms.

Buff is also used by the Canadian Heraldic Authority, who treat it as a colour.

Proper
A charge that is coloured as it naturally appears is blazoned proper (Fr. propre), or "the colour of nature". Strictly speaking, proper is not a tincture in itself, and if, as is sometimes the case, a charge is meant to be depicted in particular colours that are not apparent from the word "proper" alone, they may be specified in whatever detail is necessary. Certain charges are considered "proper" when portrayed with particular colours, even though a range of different colours is found in nature; for instance, a popinjay proper is green, even though wild parrots occur in a variety of colours. In some cases, a charge depicted in a particular set of colours may be referred to as "proper", even though it consists entirely of heraldic tinctures; a rose proper, whether red or white, is barbed vert and seeded or.

The most extensive use of non-heraldic colours is probably associated with "landscape heraldry", a common feature of British and German armory during the latter part of the eighteenth century, and the early part of the nineteenth. Although rarely used for the field itself, landscapes were often granted as augmentations, typically depicting a fortress successfully captured or defended, or a particular ship, or a battle in which the armiger to whom the augmentation was granted was involved. Such landscapes, usually appearing on a chief, might be blazoned with great particularity as to the things portrayed and the colours used to portray them. Officially, these landscapes appeared on a field of argent, but it was common, and perhaps expected, for the artist to add further details, such as the sky and clouds, by which the field might be wholly obscured. The use of landscapes in heraldry fell out of fashion during the Victorian era, when heraldic scholars and artists began looking to earlier and simpler periods of armorial design for inspiration.

Terminology
In the English-speaking world, heraldic terminology is based largely on that of British armory, which in turn is based on Norman French. With respect to the heraldic tinctures, French heraldry, which is often cited by heraldic authors, uses similar terminology. However, German heraldry, also highly influential, uses a different vocabulary; it calls the colours by their everyday names.

In its original sense, tincture refers only to the group conventionally referred to as "colours". But as the word "colour" seems inapplicable to the heraldic furs, and no other term clearly encompasses all three classes, the word "tincture" has come to be used in this broader sense, while "colour" has acquired the more restricted sense originally given to "tincture". Thus, when consulting various heraldic authorities, care must be taken to determine which meaning each term is given.

Artistic liberties
In most heraldic tradition, the various metals and colours have no fixed appearance, hue, or shade. The heraldic artist is free to choose a lighter or darker blue or green, a deeper or brighter red; to choose between depicting or with yellow or any of various gold paints, to depict argent as white or silver. Recently the College of Arms explained, "there are no fixed shades for heraldic colours. If the official description of a coat of arms gives its tinctures as Gules (red), Azure (blue) and Argent (white or silver) then, as long as the blue is not too light and the red not too orange, purple or pink, it is up to the artists to decide which particular shades they think are appropriate."

In blazoning
Most heraldic authors do not capitalize the names of the various tinctures, although a few do (sometimes inconsistently), and some who do not capitalize the other tinctures recommend capitalizing or in order to avoid confusion with the conjunction. However, there are relatively few occasions in which the conjunction "or" would appear in the blazon of a coat of arms, and if properly worded, which meaning is intended should be readily apparent from the context. Another convention has been to capitalize only the first word or the first tincture appearing in the blazon, but no other words. In the elaborate calligraphy appearing on most grants of arms, all of the tinctures are capitalized, as indeed are the names of the charges, but this is purely a matter of decorative style, and in no way does the manner of capitalization used in the original grant affect how the arms may be described on other occasions.

A long-standing heraldic tradition has been to avoid repeating the names of tinctures multiple times in any given blazon. If it is possible to mention multiple charges of the same tincture at once, followed by the name of the tincture, then this problem is avoided, but when it is impossible to combine elements of the same tincture in this manner, more creative descriptions may be used. For example, instead of "gules, on a fess or between three chess-rooks argent, a lion passant gules, armed and langued argent", one might say, "gules, on a fess or between three chess-rooks argent, a lion passant of the field, armed and langued of the third." Similar phrases include "of the last" and "of the like". Alternately, descriptions such as "gold" and "silver" might be substituted for "or" and "argent" on a subsequent occurrence. Another rule of blazon relating to tinctures suggests the placing of a comma after each occurrence of a tincture.

In recent years, the College of Arms has regularly dispensed with many of these practices, believing them to cause confusion, and in new grants of arms, the names of tinctures are repeated on each instance that they occur. The names of all tinctures and charges are capitalized, although the word "proper", indicating the colour of nature, is not, and internal commas are entirely omitted.

Rule of tincture
The first so-called "rule" of heraldry is the rule of tincture: metal should not be placed upon metal, nor colour upon colour, for the sake of contrast.

The main duty of a heraldic device is to be recognized, and the dark colours or light metals are supposed to be too difficult to distinguish if they are placed on top of other dark or light colours, particularly in poor light. Though this is the practical genesis of the rule, the rule is technical and appearance is not used in determining whether arms conform to the rule. Another reason sometimes given to justify this rule is that it was difficult to paint enamel colours over other enamel colours, or with metal over metal.

This "rule" has at times been followed so pedantically that arms that violate it were called armes fausses "false arms" or armes à enquérir "arms of enquiry"; any violation was presumed to be intentional, to the point that one was supposed to enquire how it came to pass. One of the most famous armes à enquérir was the shield of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which had gold crosses on silver. This use of white and gold together is also seen on the arms of the King of Jerusalem, the flag and arms of the Vatican, and the bishop's mitre in the arms of Andorra. These uses of gold on silver indicate the exceptional holy and special status of these coats of arms. An example of "colour on colour" is the arms of Albania, with its sable two-headed eagle on a gules field.

The "rule of tincture" has had an influence reaching far beyond heraldry. It has been applied to the design of flags, so that the flag of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach was modified to conform to the rule.

Counterchanging
When a charge or group of charges is placed across a division line, variation, or ordinary, it may be counterchanged (Fr. contre-changé, but modern de l'un en l'autre, Ger. verwechselte Farben or verschränkte Farben), meaning that the charges are divided the same way as the field upon which they rest, with the colours reversed.

In the municipal arms of Behnsdorf, Saxony-Anhalt, seen here, the field is divided with the left half white (argent) and the right half green (vert), and the counterchanged tree is green where it lies on the white part of the field, and white where it lies on the green part.

The flag of Maryland is another example of counterchanging. The only U.S. state flag to be directly based on English heraldry, it is the arms of George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, who founded the colony of Maryland in 1632. In the 1st and 4th quarters, the field is divided into six vertical bands of gold (or) and black (sable) with a diagonal band (a bend) in which the colours are reversed (i.e., the bend is counterchanged). The 2nd and 3rd quarters are themselves quartered between white (argent) and red (gules) with a counterchanged cross bottony that is red where it lies on the white part of the field and white where it lies on the red part of the field.

Counterchanging is rare in early heraldry; early examples from German heraldry are found in the late fifteenth-century Wernigerode Armorial; it becomes more frequently applied from the seventeenth century onward, especially with the substantial number of newly created coats of arms, of which some notable examples include Baron Baltimore (1624), Nightingale baronets (1628), Barrett-Lennard baronets (1801), Verney baronets (1818), and Baron Alvingham (1929).

In Scottish heraldry, charges are sometimes blazoned as counterchanged of different colours from the field – for instance, per fess gules and azure, a sun in splendour counterchanged or and of the first. A more typical blazon for this would be per fess gules and azure, a sun in splendour per fess or and of the first.

The term countercoloured is sometimes used in place of counterchanged. The arms of the Fenwick baronets were originally blazoned as silver, a chief gules with six martlets countercoloured. In this case, three martlets argent rest on a chief gules, while three martlets gules rest on the argent field. Some heraldic authorities regard the use of this term as erroneous.

Hatching
During the first half of the seventeenth century, the proliferation of the printing press coupled with the persistence of difficulties in and expense of colour printing prompted the development of a number of systems of hatching for the purpose of depicting heraldic designs without the use of colour. Intended chiefly for printing and engraving, the system which eventually gained widespread acceptance was that of Silvestro de Petra Sancta, a Jesuit priest and heraldic scholar, originally published in 1638.

In Petra Sancta's method, illustrated in the table above, a separate hatching represents each metal and colour, while the furs are treated as combinations of metal and colour. Argent is represented by a plain field, while or is represented by a field strewn with dots. Gules is represented by vertical lines, azure by horizontal lines, and sable by a combination of horizontal and vertical lines. Diagonal lines running from dexter chief to sinister base represent vert, while purpure is the reverse, represented by diagonal lines running from sinister chief to dexter base. Sanguine is represented by diagonal lines running in each direction, while tenné is represented by a combination of horizontal lines and diagonal lines running from sinister chief to dexter base.

Nine additional hatchings, published by Marcus Vulson de la Colombière in 1639, were intended to represent other colours, although none of them correspond with regular heraldic tinctures, and they have never been used in British armory. A combination of vertical lines with diagonal lines running from dexter chief to sinister base represents brown; blood red is represented by vertical lines combined with diagonal lines running from sinister chief to dexter base; earth-colour by horizontal and vertical lines combined with diagonal lines running from dexter chief to sinister base; iron-grey by diagonal lines running in each direction (the same as sanguine in Petra Sancta's system); water-colour by broken horizontal lines; flesh-colour by broken vertical lines; ashen-grey by a combination of broken horizontal and broken diagonal lines; orange by broken vertical lines interspersed with dots; and the colour of nature by zig-zag lines running from dexter chief to sinister base.

Tricking
Before the use of hatching to depict individual heraldic tinctures, it was common to label colours in heraldic designs with abbreviations, a practice known as "tricking", when colours were unavailable. The arms would be drawn in outline, and the tinctures written in abbreviated form: O or or for or; A, ar, or arg for argent, G or gu for gules; S or sa for sable; Az or B for azure (B for "blue" being used in older trickings to avoid confusion between ar and az); Vt for vert, Purp for purpure, and Pr for proper. Although most records of the College of Arms are in colour, the practice of tricking is used in all other cases, even after the widespread adoption of hatching for printing and engraving arms.

French heraldry also uses tricking to depict heraldic tinctures, using O for or; A for argent; G for gules; S for sable; B for bleu (to avoid confusing azur with argent); V for vert (to avoid confusing sinople with sable); P for purpure or pourpre; and Pr for propre.

In German heraldry, G is used for gelb (gold); W for weiss (white); R for rot (red); S for schwarz (black); B for blau (blue); and Gr, or a shape like an upright leaf, for grün (green); German heraldry makes little use of purpure, but in its place allows Br for braun (brown). These abbreviations may be either capitalized or lowercase.

Poetic representation
Heraldry has been influenced by allegorical and astrological views, including the idea of sympathies and antipathies among stars, minerals, animals, plants, and people. Some tinctures were considered to represent astrological symbols.

The lore of sympathies originated with the Babylonians, who saw gems and rare minerals as the concentrates of cosmic powers. Later, Pliny the Elder's Natural History organized nature according to a system of sympathies and antipathies among species and other elements of the natural world. This doctrine influenced medieval medicine, pharmacy, alchemy and also heraldry. During the 1350s, the work of Bartolo de Sassoferrato (1313/1314–1357) linked Or to the sun, Azure to the element air, and Gules to the element fire. Honoré Bonet, a heraldist from Provence, declared in his work Arbre des Batailles (1387) that the metal gold (Or) is the noblest in the world because, due to its very nature, it is bright and shining and full of virtues. During the late medieval period and Renaissance, there was an occasional practice of blazoning tinctures by gemstones, or by references to the seven classical "planets" (including the sun and the moon).

The work of Bonet influenced the 15th century Burgundian heraldist Jean Courtois (d. 1436), also known as the Sicily Herald. In his work Le Blason des Couleurs (1414), Courtois developed a heraldic system consisting of the tinctures, planets and carbuncles, together with the virtues, metals, months, the zodiac, and weekdays. His main contribution was the development of a gemstone-planetary blazon that related colour to gemstone to planet: or, topaz, the sun; argent, pearl, the moon; gules, ruby, Mars; sable, diamond, Saturn; azure, sapphire, Jupiter; vert, emerald, Venus; purpure, amethyst, Mercury; tenné, jacinth, dragon's head (ascending lunar node); sanguine/murrey, sardonyx, dragon's tail (descending lunar node).

The dragon's head (also called Anabibazon in astronomy and astrology) and dragon's tail (also called Catabibazon) were in use from ancient times. In heraldry the dragon's head symbolizes a light colour (tenné), and dragon's tail symbolizes a dark colour (sanguine). In alchemy the dragon's head is the materia prima that is subjected to transmutation to produce the philosopher's stone. During the process of transmutation the light-coloured starting material is transformed to a darker and more reddish one. In astrology the dragon's head is connected to good luck, while the dragon's tail is unlucky. These links indicate that heraldry in the 15th century was strongly under the influence of magical views and alchemistic ideas, which were in turn connected to the lore of sympathies between colours, planets, gemstones, metals, virtues etc.

The work of Jean Courtois was distributed in manuscripts and later in one of the first books printed in French. During the Tudor and Stuart dynasties in England (1485–1702), it appeared in heraldry manuals. In his book Traité du blason (1465), Clément Prinsault deals with the relation of colours to the virtues, the seven planets, the 12 celestial signs, gemstones, weekdays, the three elements etc. This book is among the earliest writings on heraldry available today.

The English historian and heraldist Sir Henry Spelman (1564–1641) used the symbols of the planets to designate tinctures in his 1654 book Aspilogia. Sir John Ferne (d. 1609) enumerates 14 different methods of blazon: 1. by colours; 2. by planets; 3. by precious stones; 4. by virtues; 5. by celestial signs; 6. by the months of the year; 7. by the days of the week; 8. by the ages of man; 9. by flowers; 10. by the elements; 11. by the seasons of the year; 12. by the complexions of man; 13. by numbers; and 14. by metals.

As well as the main tinctures, tricking abbreviations for other tinctures such as Proper – ppr, pp, Ermine – er etc. existed in English and some other languages during the Renaissance. To designate carnation (carnea tinctura), the zodiac sign of Leo was used in reverse. German heraldry used trefoil to designate colours other than the seven main tinctures ("qui ultimus color alibi signo trifolii ♣ pinguitur"). Spener (1717. p. 113) also linked tenné and sanguine to the zodiac sign of Leo. Rudolphi also refers to trefoil (♣) as a designation of colour vert, usually connected with Venus. He also assigned specific variants of astrological signs for dragon's head and dragon's tail (☊ ☋), derived from the sign for Leo, to the tinctures orange and carnation, respectively.

Ultimately, a system of nine tinctures was developed, with dukes, earls, and barons having their arms blazoned by gemstones, and princes, kings and emperors having arms blazoned by the planets. The Austrian troubadour and herald Peter Suchenwirt (c. 1320 – 1395) used gemstones to designate the tinctures even earlier (c. 1355) in the coat of arms of the Hungarian king Louis the Great (1342–1382). Konrad von Würzburg (c. 1230 – 1287) also mentioned coats of arms made of gemstones in his poem Turnier von Nantheiz (c. 1258), for example describing the arms of the king of England as an escutcheon covered with Arabian gold with leopards made of rubies (lines 310–320).

title: Tincture (heraldry)


text:
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland

The Free Democratic Party (Freisinnig-Demokratische Partei, FDP; Partida liberaldemocrata svizra, PLD), also called Radical Democratic Party (Parti radical-démocratique, PRD; Partito liberale-radicale svizzero, PLR)   was a liberal  political party in Switzerland. Formerly one of the major parties in Switzerland, on 1 January 2009 it merged with the Liberal Party of Switzerland to form FDP.The Liberals.

The FDP was formed in 1894 from the Radicals, who had dominated Swiss politics since the 1830s, standing in opposition to the Catholic conservatives, and who from the creation of the federal state in 1848 until 1891 formed the federal government.

The FDP remained dominant until the introduction of proportional representation in 1919. From 1945 to 1987, it alternated with the Social Democratic Party to be the largest party. In 1959, the party took two seats in the magic formula. The party declined in the 1990s and 2000s (decade), as it was put under pressure by the Swiss People's Party. In response, the party formed closer relations with the smaller Liberal Party, leading to their formal merger in 2009.

History
The elements 'liberal', 'radical' and freisinnig (an obsolete German word for 'liberal', or literally "free thinking" ) in the party's name originate from the conflicts during the period of Swiss Restoration between the Catholic-conservative cantons and the liberal cantons. This conflict led to the foundation of the Swiss federal state in 1848 after the victory of the predominantly Protestant and liberal cantons over the conservative and Catholic ones in the Sonderbund war.

From 1848 until 1891, the Federal Council was composed entirely of Radicals. The radical movement of the restoration was anti-clerical, and stood in opposition to the Catholic Conservative Party, the ancestor of the modern Christian Democratic People's Party. They were otherwise heterogeneous, including and classical liberal 'Liberals', federalist 'Radicals', and social liberal 'Democrats': placing the radical movement on the 'left' of the political spectrum. It was not until the rise of the Social Democratic Party in the early 20th century that the FDP found itself on the centre-right.

The FDP was the dominant party until the 1919 election, when the introduction of proportional representation led to a leap in the representation of the Social Democrats. In 1959, the Free Democrats joined the other major parties in agreeing the 'magic formula' to divide up the seats of the Federal Council, with the FDP permanently receiving two of the seven seats.

After the 2003 elections, lawmakers of FDP and Liberal Party formed a common parliamentary group in the Federal Assembly. In June 2005, they strengthened their cooperation by founding the Radical and Liberal Union. They merged on 1 January 2009 to form FDP. The Liberals.

Election results
In 2003, it held 36 mandates (out of 200) in the Swiss National Council (first chamber of the Swiss parliament); 14 (out of 46) in the second chamber and 2 out of 7 mandates in the Swiss Federal Council (executive body). By 2005, it held 27.2% of the seats in the Swiss Cantonal governments and 19.7% in the Swiss Cantonal parliaments (index "BADAC", weighted with the population and number of seats). At the last legislative elections, 22 October 2007, the party won 15.6% of the popular vote and 31 out of 200 seats.

title: Free Democratic Party of Switzerland


text:
Baillie Gifford Prize

The Baillie Gifford Prize for Non-Fiction, formerly the Samuel Johnson Prize, is an annual British book prize for the best non-fiction writing in the English language. It was founded in 1999 following the demise of the NCR Book Award. With its motto "All the best stories are true", the prize covers current affairs, history, politics, science, sport, travel, biography, autobiography and the arts. The competition is open to authors of any nationality whose work is published in the UK in English. The longlist, shortlist and winner is chosen by a panel of independent judges, which changes every year. Formerly named after English author and lexicographer Samuel Johnson, the award was renamed in 2015 after Baillie Gifford, an investment management firm and the primary sponsor. Since 2016, the annual dinner and awards ceremony has been sponsored by the Blavatnik Family Foundation.

The prize is governed by the Board of Directors of The Samuel Johnson Prize for Non-fiction Limited, a not-for-profit company. Since 2018, the Chair of the Board has been Sir Peter Bazalgette, who succeeded Stuart Proffitt, the chair since 1999. In 2015, Toby Mundy was appointed as the Prize's first director.

History
Prior to the establishment of the Samuel Johnson Prize, Britain's premier literary award for non-fiction was the NCR Book Award, which had been established in 1987. In 1997, the NCR Award experienced a scandal when it was revealed the judges, many of them chosen for their popularity rather than literary qualities, had used "ghost readers" and were not expected to read the books they voted on. Because of this and other problems the award ceased operations. In response, one of the previous winners of NCR Award, the historian Peter Hennessy, approached Stuart Proffitt, a Publishing Director at Penguin Press, with the idea for a new award. An anonymous benefactor was found who funded the establishment of the Prize, which was named after the English 18th-century author and lexicographer Samuel Johnson.

From its inception until 2001, the prize was independently financed by the founding benefactor. In 2002, it was taken over by the BBC and re-named the BBC Four Samuel Johnson Prize and managed by BBC Four. In 2009, the name was amended to the BBC Samuel Johnson Prize for Non-Fiction and managed by BBC Two. The new name reflected the BBC's commitment to broadcasting coverage of the Prize on the BBC2 programme, The Culture Show. In 2016, the name was changed to the Baillie Gifford Prize for Non-Fiction, after its new primary sponsor, the Edinburgh-based investment management company Baillie Gifford.

Prior to the 2009 name change, the winner received GB£30000, and each finalist received GB£2500. After 2009, the award was GB£20000 for the winner, and each finalist received GB£1000. In February 2012, the steering committee for the prize announced that a new sponsor had been found for the prize, an anonymous philanthropist, enabling the prize money to be raised to GB£25000. In 2015, funding for the prize was arranged by the Blavatnik Family Foundation, while the organisers sought new primary sponsors from 2016 onwards.

In 2016, under new sponsors Baillie Gifford, the prize money was restored to GB£30000 for the winner.

In 2019, following the announcement that Baillie Gifford will sponsor the award until at least 2026, the prize money was increased to £50,000.

It is widely recognised as the UK's most prestigious award for non-fiction authors.

25th Anniversary Winner of Winners Award
In 2023, marking the 25th anniversary of the prize, a one-off 'Winner of Winners' Award was announced. The judging panel was chaired by Jason Cowley (New Statesman editor-in-chief) and included Shahidha Bari (academic, critic and broadcaster), Sarah Churchwell (journalist, author and academic), and Frances Wilson (biographer and critic).

title: Baillie Gifford Prize


text:
Llanito

Llanito or Yanito is a form of Andalusian Spanish heavily laced with words from English and other languages, such as Ligurian; it is spoken in the British overseas territory of Gibraltar. It is commonly marked by a great deal of code switching between Andalusian Spanish and British English and by the use of Anglicisms and loanwords from other Mediterranean languages and dialects.

The English language is becoming increasingly dominant in Gibraltar, with the younger generation speaking little or no Llanito despite learning Spanish in school. It has been described as "Gibraltar's dying mother-tongue". Llanito is a Spanish word meaning "little plain". Gibraltarians also call themselves Llanitos.

Etymology
The etymology of the term Llanito is uncertain, and there are a number of theories about its origin. In Spanish, llanito means "little flatland" and one interpretation is that it refers to the "people of the flatlands". It is thought that the inhabitants of La Línea with important social and economic ties with Gibraltar, were actually the first to be referred to as Llanitos since La Línea lies in the plain and marsh land surrounding The Rock.

Another theory for the origin of the word is that it is a diminutive of the name Gianni: "gianito", pronounced in Genoese slang with the "g" as "j". During the late 18th century 34% of the male civilian population of Gibraltar came from Genoa and Gianni was a common Italian forename. To this day, nearly 20% of Gibraltarian surnames are Italian in origin. It has also been speculated that the term comes from the English name "Johnny".

It has also been hypothesized that the term originated as a reference to the language of the people, with llanito originally referring to the "plain language" spoken by ordinary Gibraltarians.

History
The most influential periods for the formation of Llanito are:
 * 1713. The Treaty of Utrecht yields Gibraltar to the United Kingdom.
 * After the Spanish War of Independence and the Peninsular War, British authorities form an education system of British inspiration.
 * During the evacuation of Gibraltar within the Second World War, the authorities realise that most of the Gibraltarians lack a sufficient command of English. Subsequently, Spanish is relegated to a foreign language subject in the education system.
 * 1969–1982. Spanish governments close "the fence" (the land border) and Spanish workers cannot cross the border into Gibraltar. This reduced the need for Spanish in the workplace and the input of Spanish nannies.

Language
Andalusian Spanish, from the surrounding Campo de Gibraltar, is the main constituent of Llanito. However, Llanito is also heavily influenced by British English. Furthermore, it has borrowed words and expressions from many other languages: for example, it contains over 500 words from the medieval Genoese dialect of Ligurian, as well as some words of Hebrew origin via Judaeo-Spanish. Its other main language constituents are Maltese, Portuguese, Menorcan Catalan and Darija Arabic. Caló borrowings were once present but have since been lost.

Llanito often involves code-switching (using different languages for different sentences) and code mixing (using different languages for different words in the same sentence) from Spanish to English. Some Llanito words are also widely used in the neighbouring Spanish town of La Línea de la Concepción (due to the influx of people from La Línea working in Gibraltar over many years).

It is unwritten and thus has no official orthography.

One feature of the language is the pronunciation of Anglicisms with an Andalusian flavour. For example, "bacon" is pronounced beki, "cake" is pronounced keki (although these particular words are not prevalent today), and porridge is called quecaró (a hispanicisation of the brand Quaker Oats). Most Gibraltarians, especially those with higher education, also speak standard Spanish with Andalusian pronunciations and standard English of a British English variety.

Like other Andalusian varieties, Llanito is marked by high rates of final velarisation, neutralisation and elision of pre-consonantal and word-final  and, and reduction of final. One difference from surrounding dialects is that Gibraltarians tend to maintain this high rate of reduction of final consonants even in very elevated registers, whereas Andalusians would try to adopt a more neutral pronunciation. Llanito has undergone some degree of lexical restructuring as a result of its reduction of final consonants and the unofficial status of Spanish. For example, túnel 'tunnel' is often pronounced, and its plural form may be pronounced as instead of.

According to Italian scholar Giulio Vignoli, Llanito originally contained many Genoese words, which were later replaced by mainly Spanish and some English words.

Llanito has significant Jewish influence, because of a long-standing Jewish population in Gibraltar. They introduced words and expressions from Haketia, a largely extinct Judeo-Spanish language spoken by the Sephardic communities of Northern Morocco such as in Tetuan and Tangiers, and the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla in North Africa.

Although Llanito is seldom written, a Llanito dictionary, Diccionario Yanito, was published in 1978 by Manuel Cavilla. In 2001, Tito Vallejo published ''The Yanito Dictionary. Including Place Names and Yanito Anecdotes''.

Core elements of Llanito vocabulary
Although Llanito is largely based on the colloquial Spanish spoken in the Campo de Gibraltar, there are numerous elements beyond code-switching to English which make it unique. These are as follows.

Anglicisms
They may be false friends or involve an informal playfulness.
 * Echegarai: "watchman" or "guard". From English "Check Gate" influenced by the Basque surname Echegaray.
 * Focona: Gibraltar border with Spain. From English "Four Corners".
 * darle una apología: "to give him an apology" instead of pedirle perdón. In standard Spanish, apología is a "defence speech".

Calques from English to Spanish
Llanito frequently uses verbal expressions with para atrás, or p'atrás, mirroring use of English phrasal verbs ending in "back". These expressions are meaningless in standard Spanish. Usage of p'atrás expressions is also widespread in US Spanish, including in Isleño Spanish. P'atrás expressions are unique as a calque of an English verbal particle, since other phrasal verbs are almost never calqued into Spanish. Because of this, and because p'atrás expressions are both consistent with Spanish structure and distinctly structured to their English equivalents, they are likely a result of a conceptual, not linguistic loan.
 * Te llamo p'atrás: Literal translation into Spanish of English phrase "I'll call you back". In standard Spanish, one would normally say "I'll return your call" (Te devuelvo la llamada, Te devolveré la llamada).
 * dar p'atrás: "To give back".
 * venir p'atrás: "To come back".
 * hablar p'atrás: "To talk back".
 * pagar p'atrás: "To pay back".

The word liqueribá in Llanito means regaliz ("liquorice") in Spanish, stemming from the English "liquorice bar".

Calques from Spanish to English

 * Don't give me the tin: Literal translation of Spanish expression No me des la lata, meaning "stop annoying me".
 * What a cachonfinger!: This is a humorous expression based on the Spanish word cachondeo which means "piss-take" in British English. The end of the word, deo, is how the word dedo (finger) is pronounced in colloquial Andalusian Spanish, thus cachonfinger.

Local expressions

 * ¿Tú quién te crees que eres? ¿El hijo del Melbil? Literally, "Who do you think you are? The son of the Melbil?", as used when someone is acting with excessive self-importance. Melbil is a Spanish approximation of the pronunciation of the British name Melville, and the expression is an allusion to Lord Melville, a British statesman prominent in the early 19-century, and his son. The elder Lord Melville was Secretary at War (1794–1801), and First Lord of the Admiralty (1804–1805); the younger Melville was also First Lord of the Admiralty from 1812 to 1827.

Llanito words introduced into Spain
Many Llanito terms have been introduced into the Andalusian Spanish dialect of the bordering city La Línea de la Concepción, where the resulting dialect is known as Linense. However, according to Gibraltarian linguist Tito Vallejo, a few words common throughout Spain may be of Llanito origin, notably chachi meaning "cool" or "brilliant" (from Winston Churchill) and napia meaning "big nose" from the Governor Robert Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala. Churchill was associated with foreign imports from the United Kingdom which were highly prized in Gibraltar and, according to Vallejo, Lord Napier had a particularly big nose.

However, linguists also propose chachi to be a contraction of the Caló term chachipén meaning "truth", since this language is the source of a significant proportion of Spanish slang.

Linguistic research
Laura Wright, an English professor at the University of Cambridge, and Sophie Macdonald, a Gibraltarian undergraduate she was supervising, began researching the language in 2022. Wright sought a research grant from the Gibraltarian government without success, but induced a minister to put saving Llanito into his election manifesto. She is assisted by local writer M. G. Sanchez.

Broadcasting
The Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation has broadcast some programmes in Llanito, including Talk About Town, a discussion series in which three presenters discuss local affairs, from the need to replace a street sign to important political affairs.

Pepe's Pot was a cookery programme which also used Llanito.

Film
A documentary film, People of the Rock: The Llanitos of Gibraltar (2011), discusses Llanito speech characteristics, history and culture. Notable interviews include Pepe Palmero (of GBC's Pepe's Pot), Kaiane Aldorino (Miss World 2009), and Tito Vallejo (author of The Llanito Dictionary).

title: Llanito


text:
Patrick Boyer

J. Patrick Boyer (born March 4, 1945) is a Canadian journalist, author, and book publisher, was a Progressive Conservative Member of Parliament from 1984 to 1993.

He holds an honours degree in economics and political science from Carleton University, a Master's degree in Canadian history from University of Toronto and a Doctor of Laws degree, also from University of Toronto. Boyer studied French-Canadian literature at University of Montreal, and international law at the Academy of the International Court of Justice in The Hague.

He was a partner in the Toronto firm law firm Fraser & Beatty, specializing in communications and electoral law, and also practised law in the Western Arctic as a member of the Northwest Territories Bar. He was a founder and contributing columnist of Lawyer's Weekly newspaper. He wrote six legal texts on Canadian election law at federal, provincial, territorial, band council, and municipal levels.

Politics
Patrick Boyer worked on Parliament Hill in the 1960s for Quebec MP Heward Grafftey and for Opposition Leader Robert Stanfield. In the early 1970s he was executive assistant to Ontario Attorney General Arthur Wishart. In 1983, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau named him executive director of the federal Task Force on Conflict of Interest, which produced the 1984 report Ethical Conduct in the Public Sector.

That year he was elected to Parliament, representing Toronto's Etobicoke—Lakeshore riding as a Progressive Conservative. He chaired parliamentary committees on election law reform, equality rights, and the status of disabled persons. In 1989, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney appointed him parliamentary secretary to External Affairs Minister Joe Clark. In 1991, he became parliamentary secretary to Minister of National Defence Marcel Masse.

In 1993, Boyer ran unsuccessfully for the leadership of the Progressive Conservatives, following Mulroney's announced retirement. He published his policies in the book Hands-On Democracy, in French La democratie pour tous. In the 1993 general election, when just two Progressive Conservatives in all Canada were elected, Boyer was not one of them.

In 2001, he unsuccessfully sought the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario provincial nomination in the riding of Parry Sound—Muskoka for a by-election to replace retiring MPP Ernie Eves.

In March 2007, Boyer was again nominated as the Conservative Party of Canada candidate for the riding of Etobicoke—Lakeshore. He ran in the 2008 federal election but lost to Michael Ignatieff by 5,783 votes.

During the 2007 Ontario electoral reform referendum, Patrick Boyer was a leading member, along with Senators Hugh Segal and Nancy Ruth, Hon. Janet Ecker, and Rick Anderson, of Conservatives for the proposed reform of Ontario's electoral system from "first-past-the-post" to "mixed-member proportional."

Academics
Following Boyer's departure from politics, he taught "The Law of Canadian Democracy" at the University of Toronto. In 1999 and 2000 he taught courses in Canadian Constitutional Law at Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario. As a faculty member in the Department of Political Science at University of Guelph, Ontario, he also taught courses on politics, accountability, democracy, and ethics. He also was executive director of the university's Centre for Leadership Studies.

Public policy
Boyer is a past president of the Couchiching Institute on Public Affairs, past chair of Pugwash Thinkers' Lodge in Nova Scotia, and a member of Canadian Pugwash Group, the Canadian Civil Liberties Association, The Writers' Union of Canada, and the Canadian Association of Former Parliamentarians.

An advocate of proportional representation, Boyer is a member of the National Advisory Board of Fair Vote Canada. Also an advocate for women's wellbeing, he founded the Corinne Boyer Fund for Ovarian Cancer Research and Treatment, which continues today as Ovarian Cancer Canada.

With strong interest in democracy, he is founding president of Breakout Educational Network, a not-for-profit public policy organization addressing Canadian fiscal and foreign policy from the perspective of citizens though television documentaries, books, public forums, and classroom teaching. Boyer has worked overseas on democratic development projects in Cambodia, Iraq, Vietnam, Thailand, Ukraine, and Bulgaria.

Writer and publisher
J. Patrick Boyer is author of more than twenty books, dozens of feature articles, and hundreds of newspaper columns.

Boyer also owns and operates publishing houses "Muskoka Books" and "Blue Butterfly Books." In 2010 he consolidated Blue Butterfly's publishing operations with those of Dundurn Press.

Personal life
Patrick Boyer married Corinne Mudde of The Netherlands on August 15, 1970. She had worked in the foreign service of The Netherlands. She was an ardent advocate for women's rights, endangered species, and the environment. She was an investigator in the Ontario Ombudsman's Office, and chaired the Parliamentary Spouses Committee on Soviet Jewry. In 1995, Corinne Boyer succumbed to ovarian cancer, after surviving two prior battles with cancer, a malignant melanoma in 1979 and a breast tumor in 1991. In the years before she died, and largely because of her own experiences with cancers afflicting females, she fought for increased funding for women's health research. In 1997, Patrick Boyer founded the Corinne Boyer Fund which was dedicated to advancing research into ovarian cancer, improving detection and treatment, and raising awareness of the disease in Canada. In 1998, the Corinne Boyer Fund and the University of Ottawa established the Corinne Boyer Chair in Ovarian Cancer Research and Treatment, within the Faculty of Medicine. In 1999, the organization's name was changed to National Ovarian Cancer Association, now Ovarian Cancer Canada. In June 2014, at a ceremony in Vancouver, Patrick received the Virginia Greene Award for Leadership on Ovarian Cancer.

On March 15, 2013, Patrick eloped with Elise Marie Bélanger in Vancouver. From Timmins, Ontario, Elise had been Ontario Hydro's first female forester. She owns and operates the VERANDA furniture and furnishings retail operations in Muskoka. She is also an officer of Muskoka Books in charge of book retailing.

Works

 * Muskokans Fight the Great War / Striking Back for the Empire 1914-1918 (Muskoka Books, 2019)
 * Forcing Choice: The Risky Reward of Referendums (Toronto: Dundurn, 2017)
 * Foreign Voices in the House: A Century of Addresses to Canada's Parliament by World Leaders (Toronto: Dundurn, 2017)
 * The Big Blue Machine: How Tory Campaign Backrooms Changed Canadian Politics Forever (Toronto: Dundurn, 2015)
 * Our Scandalous Senate (Toronto: Dundurn, 2014)
 * Another Country, Another Life: Calumny, Love, and the Secrets of Isaac Jelfs (Toronto: Dundurn, 2013)
 * Raw Life: Cameos of 1890s Justice from a Magistrate's Bench Book (Toronto: Dundurn, 2012)
 * Solitary Courage: Mona Winberg and the Triumph over Disability (Toronto: Blue Butterfly Books, 2010)
 * Local Library, Global Passport: The Evolution of a Carnegie Library (Toronto: Blue Butterfly Books, 2008)
 * A Passion for Justice: How 'Vinegar Jim' McRuer Became Canada's Greatest Law Reformer [revised paperback edition] (Toronto: Blue Butterfly Books, 2008)
 * A Man & His Words (Toronto: Canadian Shield Communications & Dundurn, 2003)
 * Leading in an Upside-Down World [contributing editor] (Toronto: University of Guelph & Dundurn, 2003)
 * "Just Trust Us": The Erosion of Accountability in Canada (Toronto: Breakout Educational Network & Dundurn, 2003)
 * The Leadership Challenge in the 21st Century [contributing editor] (Guelph: University of Guelph, 2002)
 * Accountability and Canadian Government (Guelph: University of Guelph, 2000)
 * Boyer's Ontario Election Law (Toronto: Carswell Publishing, 1996)
 * A Passion for Justice: The Life and Legacy of J.C. McRuer [hardcover edition] (Toronto: University of Toronto Press & Osgoode Society, 1994)
 * Direct Democracy in Canada: The History and Future of Referendums (Toronto: Dundurn, 1992)
 * The People's Mandate: Referendums and a More Democratic Canada (Toronto: Dundurn, 1992)
 * Hands-On Democracy: How You Can Take Part in Canada's Renewal (Toronto: Stoddart, 1993)
 * La Democratie pour tous: Le citoyen…artisan du renouveau Canadien (Toronto: Stoddart, 1993)
 * Local Elections in Canada: The Law Governing Elections of Municipal Councils, School Boards and Other Local Authorities (Toronto: Butterworths, 1988)
 * Election Law in Canada: The Law and Procedure of Federal, Provincial and Territorial Elections – Vol. I (Toronto: Butterworths, 1987)
 * Election Law in Canada: The Law and Procedure of Federal, Provincial and Territorial Elections – Vol. II (Toronto: Butterworths, 1987)
 * Money and Message: The Law Governing Election Financing, Advertising, Broadcasting and Campaigning in Canada (Toronto: Butterworths, 1983)
 * Lawmaking by the People: Referendums and Plebiscites in Canada (Toronto: Butterworths, 1981)
 * The Egalitarian Option: Perspectives on Canadian Education [contributing author] (Toronto: Compass Books, 1975)

title: Patrick Boyer


text:
ESF

ESF may refer to:

Education

 * Écoles Sans Frontières, a French educational charity
 * Education Without Borders (Spanish organization) (Spanish: Educación Sin Fronteras), a Spanish educational charity
 * Emmanuel Schools Foundation, a British educational charity
 * English Schools Foundation, an organization of twenty two international schools in Hong Kong
 * Esperantic Studies Foundation, a Canadian Esperanto organization
 * European School, Frankfurt am Main, in Germany
 * Evans Scholars Foundation, an American scholarship program
 * State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, in Syracuse, New York, United States

Science and technology

 * European Science Foundation, a research organization
 * European Studbook Foundation, studbooks of reptiles and amphibians in captivity
 * Electro sinter forging
 * Extended superframe
 * Exatron Stringy Floppy, an 8-bit computer peripheral
 * Explosion Suppressant Foam, used to protect from fire in aircraft wings

Other uses

 * East Sea Fleet, of the Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy
 * Empowering Spirits Foundation, an American LGBT rights organization
 * English Stone Forum, a British conservation organization
 * Entertainment Sports and Fun Camps (ESF), network of day camps
 * Esler Airfield, in Louisiana, United States
 * Estafeta Carga Aérea, a Mexican airline
 * European Services Forum, a lobby group
 * European Social Forum, a conference series
 * European Social Fund of the European Union, currently European Social Fund Plus
 * European Softball Federation
 * European Ski Federation
 * European Squash Federation
 * Exchange Stabilization Fund, of the United States Treasury Department
 * Expeditionary strike group in the United States Navy

title: ESF


text:
List of rivers of Sweden

This is a list of the rivers of Sweden.

Baltic Sea
From south to north
 * Helgeå
 * Ljungbyån
 * Ronnebyån
 * Motala ström with Svartån

Bothnian Sea

 * Dalälven
 * Ljusnan
 * Ljungan
 * Indalsälven
 * Ångermanälven
 * Ume älv

Bothnian Bay

 * Skellefte älv
 * Pite älv
 * Lule älv
 * Kalix älv
 * Torne älv

Kattegat

 * Lagan
 * Nissan
 * Ätran
 * Viskan
 * Göta älv - Klarälven (via Lake Vänern)

A-Z
A-Z of Swedish rivers. The lengths in kilometers are also given:

title: List of rivers of Sweden


text:
Prix Femina

The Prix Femina is a French literary prize created in 1904 by 22 writers for the magazine La Vie heureuse (today known as Femina). The prize is decided each year by an exclusively female jury. They reward French-language works written in prose or verse, by both women and men. The winner is announced on the first Wednesday of November each year.

Prix Femina–Vie Heureuse
After the Great War, in 1919 Librairie Hachette proposed to the allied countries to create a similar prize. Great Britain accepted, and the first meeting of its jury was held on 20 June 1920. The prize was called the Prix Femina–Vie Heureuse, and it was awarded to English writers, from 1920 to 1939. Among the winners were E. M. Forster in 1925 and Virginia Woolf in 1928.

Similarly, in 1920 Lady Northcliffe, wife of Alfred Harmsworth, proposed to create a prize for French writers called the Northcliffe prize. Among the winners were Joseph Kessel in 1924, Julien Green in 1928, and Jean Giono in 1931. The last meeting of the jury for this prize was held on 10 April 1940, before the Nazis occupied France during World War II.

The archives of the English Committee are held by Cambridge University Library.

Jury
, the jury of the Femina consists of eleven female members:

 * Josyane Savigneau (president)
 * Evelyne Bloch-Dano
 * Claire Gallois
 * Anne-Marie Garat
 * Paula Jacques
 * Christine Jordis
 * Mona Ozouf
 * Danièle Sallenave
 * Nathalie Azoulai
 * Scholastique Mukasonga
 * Patricia Reznikov

List of winners
There are currently four categories: Prix Femina, Prix Femina essai, Prix Femina étranger (foreign novels), and Prix Femina des lycéens.

Femina–Vie Heureuse
The following awards were made during the lifetime of the award.

title: Prix Femina


text:
George Frederick Phillips

George Frederick Phillips, (March 8, 1862 – June 4, 1904) was a U.S. Navy Machinist First Class who received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Spanish–American War in 1899.

Background
Phillips was born to Andrew and Elizabeth Ross Phillips, both natives of Ireland. He began his professional life as a mechanic for the Intercolonial Railway in Moncton. Phillips later worked on liners for the Mallory Steamship Company between New York and Texas.

U.S. military service in the Spanish American War
Phillips went to Galveston, Texas, where he joined the United States Navy in March 1898.

During the Spanish–American War he was aboard a ship that made its way to the entrance to the harbor at Santiago de Cuba. There, the USS Merrimac (1898), a 3362-ton collier, was supplying coal to U.S. warships. On June 3, 1898, in a daring attempt to bottle up the Spanish cruiser squadron, the Merrimac was scuttled inside the entrance of Santiago Harbor in an attempt to block the passage of the Spanish fleet headed by Admiral Cervera. Under heavy fire from the Spanish shore batteries, Machinist First Class Phillips displayed extraordinary heroism throughout this operation. He and seven of his fellow sailors were captured as prisoners of war and were released a month later with American victory.

In recognition of his valor, on November 2, 1899, he was awarded the Medal of Honor, the highest United States military decoration.

Discharge and death
Phillips was discharged from the Navy in August 1903, and died in 1904 at the age of 42 in Cambridge, Massachusetts; his body was returned home to Canada where he was interred in the Fernhill Cemetery in his hometown of Saint John, New Brunswick.

Medal of Honor citation
Rank and organization: Machinist First Class, U.S. Navy. Born: March 9, 1864, Coles Island, New Brunswick, Canada. Accredited to: New York. G.O. No.: 529, November 2, 1899.

Citation:

"In connection with the sinking of the U.S.S. Merrimac at the entrance to the harbor of Santiago de Cuba 2 June 1898. Despite heavy fire from the Spanish shore batteries, Phillips displayed extraordinary heroism throughout this operation."

title: George Frederick Phillips


text:
John Robert Mortimer

John Robert Mortimer (15 June 1825 – 19 August 1911) was an English corn-merchant and archaeologist who lived in Driffield, East Riding of Yorkshire.

He was responsible for the excavation of many of the notable barrows in the Yorkshire Wolds, including Duggleby Howe, recorded in the work Forty Years Researches in British and Saxon Burial Mounds of East Yorkshire.

He established a dedicated museum of archaeology at Driffield, one of the first of its kind. His excavations represent early examples of the application of scientific methods to the study of burial mounds; his written work and excavated finds remain a valuable resource in British archaeology.

Biography
John Robert Mortimer was born at Fimber in the Yorkshire Wolds on 15 June 1825, the eldest of three children of a local farmer; he received a village school education at Fridaythorpe. In adult life he operated as a corn merchant, moving to the nearby larger town of Driffield in 1869; in the same year marrying Matilda née Mitchell, daughter of the vicar of Sancton and of Holme on the Wolds. His business included trade in seed, manure and fertiliser, and included malt kilns and a brewery as assets.

Mortimer's interest was stimulated by visits to the 1851 Great Exhibition, and the geological and archaeological exhibits in the British Museum, and by the private collection of Edward Tindall of Bridlington. Together with his brother Robert, Mortimer assembled a small collection of fossil and antiquarian specimens; they also trained and instructed many local farm workers to collect any likely specimens they found; locally such artefacts became known colloquially as 'Mortmers'. During the latter part of the 19th century the area became a magnet for collectors, in part due to publicity from his collection; most sought ancient stone, flint and bronze weapons. Competition arose for these artefacts, causing a rise in their monetary value. Through their contacts with local agricultural workers the Mortimers were able to collect a great many thousands of specimens.

In the late 1850s, Mortimer began recording the linear earthworks of the local area. In the 1860s, he began to excavate barrows; his first excavation was 4 May 1863 at High Towthorpe. Many of his excavations took place between 1863 and 1879, and were self-financed from his own business; in 1878 Mortimer opened a purpose built museum in Driffield.

After the 1870s, an agricultural depression caused the price of grain to decrease (see Repeal of the 1846 Corn Laws), he became bankrupt in 1887 owing £1,800; the expenditure on the museum, and on excavation both contributing significantly. Mortimer continued to excavate, but often under the financial backing of other persons.

Over his archaeological career he excavated over 300 such mounds, the bulk of his work was recorded in his magnum opus "Forty Years' Researches in British and Saxon Burial Mounds of East Yorkshire" (1905). He also excavated the Iron Age graveyard known as Danes Graves, or Danesdale. Mortimer sometimes worked with his brother Robert, and also worked with the antiquarians Canon William Greenwell and Thomas Boynton.

John Robert Mortimer died at home in Driffield on 19 August 1911. He had six children, five of whom survived him.

Scientific method and legacy
Mortimer's fieldwork and recording compares favourably with his contemporaries. His investigations include the recording of crop marks, and made plaster casts of post holes on site. He made stratigraphic observations, but these often lacked detail, some of his reporting has been shown to contain errors by later investigations. Mortimer made good records of his work, he was aided in Forty Years' Researches.. by his daughter Agnes Mortimer, an artist, who when she was still a teenager did the sketches of her father's antiquities later published in the book. Mortimer credits Agnes in the preface to his volume: "For the sketches of the specimens figured in this book, and for numerous illustrations used elsewhere, I am solely indebted to my daughter Agnes, who from the time she was thirteen years of age until she was nineteen, devoted many of her leisure hours to the completion of this, which at her age, must have been a tedious and irksome task.”

Mortimer applied the scientific method to his work in an attempt to infer the past, rather than being a pure collector of curiosities. Though initially driven by curiosity he was also motivated a desire to gain and preserve knowledge of ancient inhabitants of the land; he was concerned that much evidence was being increasingly rapidly destroyed by changes in farming methods, such as intensive ploughing. comments that "[Mortimer] can be regarded as one of the earliest rescue archaeologists".

In 1913, the Mortimer collection was acquired by Colonel G.H. Clarke and given to the City of Hull. From 1929, the collection was displayed in the Victoria Galleries (part of Hull City Hall), as the Mortimer Museum. It was transferred to the Transport and Archaeology Museum on High Street in 1956. It now forms an important part of the collection of the Hull and East Riding Museum, and remains an important contribution to British prehistoric archaeology. The Mortimer collection contains over 66,000 provenanced pieces from barrows, and a further several thousands of un-provenanced surface finds.

Mortimer's Driffield museum was an early example of a purpose built museum, it later functioned as a Masonic Lodge, and is now known as the 'Masonic Hall'. It became a listed building in 1996.

Works

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 * Memoirs

 * , unpublished until 1978

title: John Robert Mortimer


text:
Never Say Die

Never Say Die may refer to:

Other uses

 * Never Say Die (memoir), a 1961 memoir by Jack Hawkins
 * Never Say Die (novel), a 2017 novel in the Alex Rider series by Anthony Horowitz

Film and television

 * Never Say Die (1920 film), British film by Walter Forde
 * Never Say Die (1924 film), a film featuring Douglas MacLean
 * Never Say Die (1939 film), a romantic comedy starring Bob Hope and Martha Raye
 * Never Say Die (1950 film), or Don't Say Die, British comedy film
 * Never Say Die (1988 film), a New Zealand action film
 * Never Say Die (2017 film), a Chinese film
 * Never Say Die (TV series), a 1970 British comedy television series produced by Yorkshire Television
 * "Never Say Die", an episode of the TV series Diagnosis: Murder

Music

 * Never Say Die! Tour, a 1978 tour by Black Sabbath
 * Impericon Never Say Die! Tour, an annual European metalcore musical tour

Albums

 * Never Say Die!, a 1978 album by Black Sabbath
 * Never Say Die (Petra album), 1981
 * Never Say Die: Live, a 2000 album by Waylon Jennings & The Waymore Blues Band, or the title song
 * Never Say Die, an album by The Undead, or the title song (see below)
 * Never Say Die (video), a 1986 video by Black Sabbath
 * Never Say Die: The Final Concert, a 2000 concert film featuring Waylon Jennings
 * Never Say Die, a 2021 album by Wig Wam

Songs

 * "Never Say Die" (Black Sabbath song), 1978
 * "Never Say Die" (Chvrches song). 2018
 * "Never Say Die" (Jon Bon Jovi song), 1991
 * "Never Say Die" (The Undead song), 1985
 * "Never Say Die" (The 69 Eyes song), 2007
 * "It's All Too Much"/"Never Say Die", a 2009 single by Yui
 * "Never Say Die", a song by Wig Wam from Never Say Die
 * "Never Say Die", a song by Europe from Out of This World
 * "Never Say Die", a song by Marianas Trench from Astoria
 * "Never Say Die", a song by the Monkey Hangerz on the single "Poolie Pride"
 * "Never Say Die", a song by Sleigh Bells from Reign of Terror
 * "Never Say Die (Give a Little Bit More)", a 1983 song by Cliff Richard from Silver

Other

 * Never Say Die (horse) (1951–1975), Thoroughbred racehorse

title: Never Say Die