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Jeffersonian democracy

Jeffersonian democracy, named after its advocate Thomas Jefferson, was one of two dominant political outlooks and movements in the United States from the 1790s to the 1820s. The Jeffersonians were deeply committed to American republicanism, which meant opposition to what they considered to be artificial aristocracy, opposition to corruption, and insistence on virtue, with a priority for the "yeoman farmer", "planters", and the "plain folk". They were antagonistic to the aristocratic elitism of merchants, bankers, and manufacturers, distrusted factory workers, and strongly opposed and were on the watch for supporters of the Westminster system.

The term was commonly used to refer to the Democratic-Republican Party, formally named the "Republican Party", which Jefferson founded in opposition to the Federalist Party of Alexander Hamilton. At the beginning of the Jeffersonian era, only two states, Vermont and Kentucky, established universal white male suffrage by abolishing property requirements. But by the end of the Jeffersonian period, more than half of the states had followed suit, including virtually all of the states in the Old Northwest. States then also moved on to allowing white male popular votes for presidential elections, canvassing voters in a more modern style. Jefferson's party was then in full control of the apparatus of government – from the state legislature and city hall to the White House.

Jeffersonian democracy persisted as an element of the Democratic Party until the early 20th century, exemplified in the rise of Jacksonian democracy and the three presidential candidacies of William Jennings Bryan.

Positions
Thomas Jefferson has been called "the most democratic of the founders". The Jeffersonians advocated a narrow interpretation of the Constitution's Article I provisions granting powers to the federal government. They strenuously opposed the Federalist Party, led by Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton. President George Washington generally supported Hamilton's program for a financially strong national government. The election of Jefferson in 1800, which Jefferson labeled "the revolution of 1800", brought in the Presidency of Thomas Jefferson and the permanent eclipse of the Federalists, apart from the Supreme Court.

Jeffersonian democracy is an umbrella term and some factions favored some positions more than others. While principled, with vehemently held core beliefs, the Jeffersonians had factions that disputed the true meaning of their creed. For example, during the Anglo-American War of 1812 it became apparent that independent state militia units were inadequate for conducting a serious war against a major country. The new Secretary of War John C. Calhoun, a Jeffersonian, proposed to build up the Army. With the support of most Republicans in Congress, Calhoun got his way. However, the "Old Republican" faction, claiming to be true to the Jeffersonian Principles of '98, fought him and reduced the size of the Army after Spain sold Florida to the U.S.

Historians characterize Jeffersonian democracy as including the following core ideals:
 * The core political value of America is republicanism – citizens have a civic duty to aid the state and resist corruption, especially monarchism, and aristocracy.
 * Jeffersonian values are best expressed through an organized political party. The Jeffersonian party was officially the "Republican Party"; political scientists later called it the Democratic-Republican Party to differentiate it from the later Republican Party of Abraham Lincoln.
 * It was the duty of citizens to vote and the Jeffersonians invented many modern campaign techniques designed to get out the vote. Turnout indeed soared across the country. The work of John J. Beckley, Jefferson's agent in Pennsylvania, set new standards in the 1790s. In the 1796 presidential election, he blanketed the state with agents who passed out 30,000 hand-written tickets, naming all 15 electors (printed tickets were not allowed). Historians consider Beckley to be one of the first American professional campaign managers and his techniques were quickly adopted in other states.
 * The Federalist Party, especially its leader Alexander Hamilton, was the arch-foe because of its acceptance of aristocracy and British methods.
 * The national government is a dangerous necessity to be instituted for the common benefit, protection and security of the people, nation or community – it should be watched closely and circumscribed in its powers. Most anti-Federalists from 1787 to 1788 joined the Jeffersonians.
 * Separation of church and state is the best method to keep the government free of religious disputes and religion free from corruption by the government.
 * The federal government must not violate the rights of individuals. The Bill of Rights is a central theme.
 * The federal government must not violate the rights of the states. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798 (written secretly by Jefferson and James Madison) proclaim these principles.
 * Freedom of speech and the press are the best methods to prevent tyranny over the people by their own government. The Federalists' violation of this freedom through the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 became a major issue.
 * The yeoman farmer best exemplifies civic virtue and independence from corrupting city influences – government policy should be for his benefit. Financiers, bankers, and industrialists make cities the "cesspools of corruption" and should be avoided.
 * The United States Constitution was written in order to ensure the freedom of the people. However, as Jefferson wrote to James Madison in 1789, "no society can make a perpetual constitution or even a perpetual law. The earth belongs always to the living generation".
 * All men have the right to be informed and thus to have a say in the government. The protection and expansion of human liberty was one of the chief goals of the Jeffersonians. They also reformed their respective state systems of education. They believed that their citizens had a right to an education no matter their circumstance or status in life.
 * The judiciary should be subservient to the elected branches and the Supreme Court should not have the power to strike down laws passed by Congress. The Jeffersonians lost this battle to Chief Justice John Marshall, a Federalist, who dominated the Court from 1801 to his death in 1835.

Foreign policy
The Jeffersonians also had a distinct foreign policy:
 * Americans had a duty to spread what Jefferson called the "Empire of Liberty" to the world, but should avoid "entangling alliances".
 * Britain was the greatest threat, especially its monarchy, aristocracy, corruption, and business methods – the Jay Treaty of 1794 was much too favorable to Britain and thus threatened American values.
 * Regarding the French Revolution, its devotion to principles of Republicanism, liberty, equality, and fraternity made France the ideal European nation. According to Michael Hardt, "Jefferson's support of the French Revolution often serves in his mind as a defense of republicanism against the monarchism of the Anglophiles". On the other hand, Napoleon was the antithesis of republicanism and could not be supported.
 * Navigation rights on the Mississippi River were critical to American national interests. Control by Spain was tolerable – control by France was unacceptable. The Louisiana Purchase was an unexpected opportunity to guarantee those rights which the Jeffersonians immediately seized upon.
 * A standing army is dangerous to liberty and should be avoided – much better was to use economic coercion such as the embargo. See Embargo Act of 1807.
 * Most Jeffersonians argued an expensive high seas navy was unnecessary, since cheap locally based gunboats, floating batteries, mobile shore batteries, and coastal fortifications could defend the ports without the temptation to engage in distant wars. Jefferson himself, however, wanted a few frigates to protect American shipping against Barbary pirates in the Mediterranean.
 * The locally controlled non-professional militia was adequate to defend the nation from invasion. After the militia proved inadequate in the War of 1812, President Madison expanded the national army for the duration.

Westward expansion
Territorial expansion of the United States was a major goal of the Jeffersonians because it would produce new farm lands for yeomen farmers. The Jeffersonians wanted to integrate the Indians into American society or remove further west those tribes that refused to integrate. However, Sheehan (1974) argues that the Jeffersonians, with the best of goodwill toward the Indians, destroyed their distinctive cultures with their misguided benevolence.

The Jeffersonians took enormous pride in the bargain they reached with France in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. It opened up vast new fertile farmlands from Louisiana to Montana. Jefferson saw the West as an economic safety valve that would allow people in the crowded East to own farms. However, established New England political interests feared the growth of the West and a majority in the Federalist Party opposed the purchase. Jeffersonians thought the new territory would help maintain their vision of the ideal republican society, based on agricultural commerce, governed lightly and promoting self-reliance and virtue.

Jeffersonians' dream did not come to pass as the Louisiana Purchase was a turning point in the history of American imperialism. The farmers that Jefferson identified with conquered the West, often through violence against Native Americans. Jefferson himself sympathized with Native Americans, but that did not stop him from enacting policies that would continue the trend towards the dispossession of their lands.

Economics
Jeffersonian agrarians held that the economy of the United States should rely more on agriculture for strategic commodities than on industry. Jefferson specifically believed: "Those who labor in the earth are the chosen people of God, if He ever had a chosen people, whose breast He has made His peculiar deposit for substantial and genuine virtue". However, Jeffersonian ideals are not opposed to all manufacturing, rather he believed that all people have the right to work to provide for their own subsistence and that an economic system which undermines that right is unacceptable.

Jefferson believed the expansion of industry and trade could lead to the development of a class of wage laborers reliant on others for income and sustenance. It would result in workers who were dependent voters. This made Jefferson apprehensive that Americans were at risk of economic exploitation and political coercion. Jefferson’s solution was, as scholar Clay Jenkinson noted, "a graduated income tax that would serve as a disincentive to vast accumulations of wealth and would make funds available for some sort of benign redistribution downward" as well as tariffs on imported articles, which were mainly purchased by the wealthy. In 1811, Jefferson wrote a friend: "These revenues will be levied entirely on the rich . ... The Rich alone use imported articles, and on these alone, the whole taxes of the General Government are levied. The poor man ... pays not a farthing of tax to the General Government, but on his salt."

However, Jefferson was of the belief that a tax on income, as well as consumption, would constitute excessive taxation, writing in an 1816 letter:"... if the system be established on the basis of Income, and his just proportion on that scale has been already drawn from everyone, to step into the field of Consumption and tax special articles ... is doubly taxing the same article. For that portion of Income with which these articles are purchased, having already paid its tax as Income, to pay another tax on the thing it purchased, is paying twice for the same thing; it is an aggrievance on the citizens who use these articles in the exoneration of those who do not, contrary to the most sacred of the duties of a government, to do equal and impartial justice to all its citizens."Similarly, Jefferson had protectionist views on international trade. He believed that not only would economic dependence on Europe diminish the virtue of the republic, but that the United States had an abundance of natural resources that Americans should be able to cultivate and use to tend to their own needs. Furthermore, exporting goods by merchant ships created risks of capture by foreign pirates and armies, which would require an expensive navy for protection. Lastly, he and other Jeffersonians believed in the power of embargoes as a means to inflict punishment on hostile foreign nations. Jefferson preferred these methods of coercion to war.

Limited government
While the Federalists advocated for a strong central government, Jeffersonians argued for strong state and local governments and a weak federal government. Self-sufficiency, self-government, and individual responsibility were in the Jeffersonian worldview among the most important ideals that formed the basis of the American Revolution. In Jefferson's opinion, nothing that could feasibly be accomplished by individuals at the local level ought to be accomplished by the federal government. The federal government would concentrate its efforts solely on national and international projects. Jefferson's advocacy of limited government led to sharp disagreements with Federalist figures such as Alexander Hamilton. Jefferson felt that Hamilton favored plutocracy and the creation of a powerful aristocracy in the United States which would accumulate increasingly greater power until the political and social order of the United States became indistinguishable from those of the Old World.

After initial skepticism, Jefferson supported the ratification of the United States Constitution and especially supported its stress on checks and balances. The ratification of the United States Bill of Rights, especially the First Amendment, gave Jefferson even greater confidence in the document. Jeffersonians favored a strict construction interpretation of federal government powers described in Article I of the Constitution. For example, Jefferson once wrote a letter to Charles Willson Peale explaining that although a Smithsonian-style national museum would be a fantastic resource, he could not support the use of federal funds to construct and maintain such a project. The "strict constructionism" of today is a remote descendant of Jefferson's views.

Politics and factions
The spirit of Jeffersonian democracy dominated American politics from 1800 to 1824, the First Party System, under Jefferson and succeeding presidents James Madison and James Monroe. The Jeffersonians proved much more successful than the Federalists in building state and local party organizations that united various factions. Voters in every state formed blocs loyal to the Jeffersonian coalition.

Prominent spokesmen for Jeffersonian principles included Madison, Albert Gallatin, John Randolph of Roanoke, Nathaniel Macon, John Taylor of Caroline, and James Monroe,  John C. Calhoun, John Quincy Adams, and Henry Clay; however, Calhoun, Adams, and Clay pursued new paths after 1828.

Randolph was the Jeffersonian leader in Congress from 1801 to 1815, but he later broke with Jefferson and formed his own "Tertium Quids" faction because he thought the president no longer adhered to the true Jeffersonian principles of 1798. The Quids wanted to actively punish and discharge Federalists in the government and in the courts. Jefferson himself sided with the moderate faction exemplified by figures such as Madison, who were much more conciliatory towards Federalism.

After the Madison administration experienced serious trouble financing the War of 1812 and discovered the Army and militia were unable to make war effectively, a new generation of Republican nationalists emerged. They were supported by President James Monroe, an original Jeffersonian; and included John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. In 1824, Adams defeated Andrew Jackson, who had support from the Quids; and in a few years two successor parties had emerged, the Democratic Party, which formulated Jacksonian democracy and which still exists; and Henry Clay's Whig Party. Their competition marked the Second Party System.

After 1830, the principles were still talked about but did not form the basis of a political party, thus editor Horace Greeley in 1838 started a magazine, The Jeffersonian, that he said "would exhibit a practical regard for that cardinal principle of Jeffersonian Democracy, and the People are the sole and safe depository of all power, principles and opinions which are to direct the Government".

Jefferson and Jeffersonian principles
Jeffersonian democracy was not a one-man operation. It was a significant political party with many local and state leaders and various factions, and they did not always agree with Jefferson or with each other.

Jefferson was accused of inconsistencies by his opponents. The "Old Republicans" said that he abandoned the Principles of 1798. He believed the national security concerns were so urgent that it was necessary to purchase Louisiana without waiting for a Constitutional amendment. He enlarged federal power through the intrusively enforced Embargo Act of 1807. He idealized the "yeoman farmer" despite being a gentleman plantation owner. The disparities between Jefferson's philosophy and practice have been noted by numerous historians. Staloff proposed that it was due to his being a proto-Romantic; John Quincy Adams claimed that it was a manifestation of pure hypocrisy, or "pliability of principle"; and Bailyn asserts it simply represented a contradiction with Jefferson, that he was "simultaneously a radical utopian idealist and a hardheaded, adroit, at times cunning politician". However, Jenkinson argued that Jefferson's personal failings ought not to influence present-day thinkers to disregard Jeffersonian ideals.

Kuehnelt-Leddihn, a European nobleman who opposed democracy, argues that "Jeffersonian democracy" is a misnomer because Jefferson was not a democrat, but in fact, believed in rule by an elite: "Jefferson actually was an Agrarian Romantic who dreamt of a republic governed by an elite of character and intellect".

Historian Sean Wilentz argues that as a practical politician elected to serve the people Jefferson had to negotiate solutions, not insist on his own version of abstract positions. The result, Wilentz argues, was "flexible responses to unforeseen events ... in pursuit of ideals ranging from the enlargement of opportunities for the mass of ordinary, industrious Americans to the principled avoidance of war".

Historians have long portrayed the contest between Jefferson and Hamilton as iconic for the politics, political philosophy, economic policies and future direction of the United States. In 2010, Wilentz identified a scholarly trend in Hamilton's favor: "In recent years, Hamilton and his reputation have decidedly gained the initiative among scholars who portray him as the visionary architect of the modern liberal capitalist economy and of a dynamic federal government headed by an energetic executive. Jefferson and his allies, by contrast, have come across as naïve, dreamy idealists. At best according to many historians, the Jeffersonians were reactionary utopians who resisted the onrush of capitalist modernity in hopes of turning America into a yeoman farmers' arcadia. At worst, they were proslavery racists who wish to rid the West of Indians, expand the empire of slavery, and keep political power in local hands – all the better to expand the institution of slavery and protect slaveholders' rights to own human property." Joseph Ellis wrote that developments in urbanization and industrialization that occurred during the turn of the 20th century has largely rendered Jefferson's agrarian dream irrelevant.

Jefferson summarized his essential principles of government in his first inaugural address on March 4, 1801, when he expounded on "the essential principles of our Government, and consequently, those which ought to shape its Administration", stating: "Equal and exact justice to all men, of whatever state or persuasion, religious or political; peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none; the support of the State governments in all their rights, as the most competent administrations for our domestic concerns and the surest bulwarks against anti-republican tendencies; the preservation of the General Government in its whole constitutional vigor, as the sheet anchor of our peace at home and safety abroad; a jealous care of the right of election by the people...; absolute acquiescence in the decisions of the majority...a well-disciplined militia, our best reliance in peace and for the first moments of war till regulars may relieve them; the supremacy of the civil over the military authority; economy in the public expense, that labor may be lightly burthened; the honest payment of our debts and sacred preservation of the public faith; encouragement of agriculture, and of commerce as its handmaid; the diffusion of information and arraignment of all abuses at the bar of the public reason; freedom of religion; freedom of the press, and freedom of person under the protection of the habeas corpus, and trial by juries impartially selected."

Historiography

 * Cogliano, Francis D. ed. A Companion to Thomas Jefferson (2012), 648 pp; 34 essays by scholars focusing on how historians have handled Jefferson. online
 * Robertson, Andrew W. "Afterword: Reconceptualizing Jeffersonian Democracy," Journal of the Early Republic (2013) 33#2 pp. 317–334 on recent voting studies online

title: Jeffersonian democracy


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Zero interest-rate policy

Japan bonds.webp in 1990 Zero interest-rate policy starting in 1995 Negative interest rate policy started in 2014

]] [[File:Japan money supply and inflation.webp|thumb|300px|Japan money supply and inflation (year over year)

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Zero interest-rate policy (ZIRP) is a macroeconomic concept describing conditions with a very low nominal interest rate, such as those in contemporary Japan and in the United States from December 2008 through December 2015 and again from March 2020 until March 2022 amid the COVID-19 pandemic. ZIRP is considered to be an unconventional monetary policy instrument and can be associated with slow economic growth, deflation and deleverage.

Overview
Under ZIRP, the central bank maintains a 0% nominal interest rate. The ZIRP is an important milestone in monetary policy because the central bank is typically no longer able to reduce nominal interest rates. ZIRP is very closely related to the problem of a liquidity trap, where nominal interest rates cannot adjust downward at a time when savings exceed investment.

However, some economists—such as market monetarists—believe that unconventional monetary policy such as quantitative easing can be effective at the zero lower bound.

Others argue that when monetary policy is already used to the maximal extent, governments must be willing to use fiscal policy to create jobs. The fiscal multiplier of government spending is expected to be larger when nominal interest rates are zero than they would be when nominal interest rates are above zero. Keynesian economics holds that the multiplier is above one, meaning government spending effectively boosts output. In his paper on this topic, Michael Woodford finds that, in a ZIRP situation, the optimal policy for government is to spend enough in stimulus to cover the entire output gap.

Chris Modica and Warren Sulmasy find that the ZIRP policy follows from the need to refinance a high level of US public debt and from the need to recapitalize the world's banking system in the wake of the Financial crisis of 2007–2008.

Zero lower bound
The zero lower bound problem refers to a situation in which the short-term nominal interest rate is zero, or just above zero, causing a liquidity trap and limiting the capacity that the central bank has to stimulate economic growth. This problem returned to prominence with the Japan's experience during the 1990s and more recently with the American subprime crisis. The belief that monetary policy under the ZLB was effective in promoting economy growth has been critiqued by economists Paul Krugman, Gauti Eggertsson and Michael Woodford among others. Milton Friedman, on the other hand, argued that a zero nominal interest rate presents no problem for monetary policy, as a central bank can increase the monetary base only if it continues buying bonds.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Zero interest-rate policy


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Methyl violet

Methyl violet is a family of organic compounds that are mainly used as dyes. Depending on the number of attached methyl groups, the color of the dye can be altered. Its main use is as a purple dye for textiles and to give deep violet colors in paint and ink. It is also used as a hydration indicator for silica gel. Methyl violet 10B is also known as crystal violet (and many other names) and has medical uses.

Structure
The term methyl violet encompasses three compounds that differ in the number of methyl groups attached to the amine functional group. Methyl violets are mixtures of tetramethyl (2B), pentamethyl (6B) and hexamethyl (10B) pararosanilins.

They are all soluble in water, ethanol, diethylene glycol and dipropylene glycol.

Methyl violet 2B
Methyl violet 2B (IUPAC name: '4,4'-((4-Iminocyclohexa-2,5-dien-1-ylidene)methylene)bis(N,N-dimethylaniline) monohydrochloride) is a green powder which is soluble in water and ethanol but not in xylene. It appears yellow in solution of low pH (~0.15) and changes to violet with pH increasing toward 3.2.

Methyl violet 10B
Methyl violet 10B has six methyl groups. It is known in medicine as Gentian violet (or crystal violet or pyoctanin(e) ) and is the active ingredient in a Gram stain, used to classify bacteria. It is used as a pH indicator, with a range between 0 and 1.6. The protonated form (found in acidic conditions) is yellow, turning blue-violet above pH levels of 1.6.

Methyl violet 10B inhibits the growth of many Gram positive bacteria, except streptococci. When used in conjunction with nalidixic acid (which destroys gram-negative bacteria), it can be used to isolate the streptococci bacteria for the diagnosis of an infection.

Degradation
Methyl violet is a mutagen and mitotic poison, therefore concerns exist regarding the ecological impact of the release of methyl violet into the environment. Methyl violet has been used in vast quantities for textile and paper dyeing, and 15% of such dyes produced worldwide are released to environment in wastewater. Numerous methods have been developed to treat methyl violet pollution. The three most prominent are chemical bleaching, biodegradation, and photodegradation.

Chemical bleaching
Chemical bleaching is achieved by oxidation or reduction. Oxidation can destroy the dye completely, e.g. through the use of sodium hypochlorite (NaClO, common bleach) or hydrogen peroxide. Reduction of methyl violet occurs in microorganisms but can be attained chemically using sodium dithionite.

Biodegradation
Biodegradation has been well investigated because of its relevance to sewage plants with specialized microorganisms. Two microorganisms that have been studied in depth are the white rot fungus and the bacterium Nocardia Corallina.

Photodegradation
Light alone does not rapidly degrade methyl violet, but the process is accelerated upon the addition of large band-gap semiconductors, TiO2 or ZnO.

Other methods
Many other methods have been developed to treat the contamination of dyes in a solution, including electrochemical degradation, ion exchange, laser degradation, and absorption onto various solids such as activated charcoal.

title: Methyl violet


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Friedrich Torberg

Friedrich Torberg (16 September 1908, Vienna, Alsergrund – 10 November 1979, Vienna) is the pen-name of Friedrich Kantor, an Austrian writer.

Biography
He worked as a critic and journalist in Vienna and Prague until 1938, when his Jewish heritage compelled him to emigrate to France and, later, after being invited by the New York PEN-Club as one of "Ten outstanding German Anti-Nazi-Writers" (along with Heinrich Mann, Franz Werfel, Alfred Döblin, Leonhard Frank, Alfred Polgar, and others) to the United States, where he worked as a scriptwriter in Hollywood and then for Time magazine in New York City. In 1951 he returned to Vienna, where he remained for the rest of his life.

Torberg is known best for his satirical writings in fiction and nonfiction, as well as his translations into German of the stories of Ephraim Kishon, which remain the standard German language version of Kishon's work. A staunch anti-communist, Torberg used his prominence as a theater critic to boycott Bertolt Brecht's plays in most of Austria for over a decade.

Austrian Olympic swimmer and swimsuit model Hedy Bienenfeld was the inspiration for the character "Lisa" in his novel The Pupil Gerber (Der Schüler Gerber).

Honours and awards

 * Julius-Empire Award (1933)
 * Title of Professor (1958)
 * City of Vienna Prize for Journalism (1966)
 * Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (1968)
 * Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class (1968)
 * Gold Medal of the Austrian capital Vienna (1974)
 * Richard Champion Medal (1974)
 * Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (1976)
 * Grand Austrian State Prize for Literature (1979)
 * Naming of Torberggasse in Penzing (Vienna 14th District) (1981)

Selected works

 * Der Schüler Gerber hat absolviert (1930) (this semi-autobiographical novel tells the story of a grammar school student under the oppression of a tyrannical teacher); later editions bore the shortened title Der Schüler Gerber, under which the novel is now generally known.
 * … und glauben, es wäre die Liebe (1932)
 * Süsskind von Trimberg. Roman. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1972, ISBN 3-10-079002-2 (fictitious biography)
 * Die Tante Jolesch oder Der Untergang des Abendlandes in Anekdoten (1975) (a collection of amusing yet bittersweet anecdotes about Jewish life and personalities in pre-Nazi Vienna and Prague, and in the emigration), translated by Maria Poglitsch Bauer and Sonat Hart, Ariadne Press, 2008, ISBN 978-1-57241-149-4.
 * Die Erben der Tante Jolesch (1978) (the sequel to the above)

title: Friedrich Torberg


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Factor price equalization

Factor price equalization is an economic theory, by Paul A. Samuelson (1948), which states that the prices of identical factors of production, such as the wage rate or the rent of capital, will be equalized across countries as a result of international trade in commodities. The theorem assumes that there are two goods and two factors of production, for example capital and labour. Other key assumptions of the theorem are that each country faces the same commodity prices, because of free trade in commodities, uses the same technology for production, and produces both goods. Crucially these assumptions result in factor prices being equalized across countries without the need for factor mobility, such as migration of labor or capital flows.

A simple summary of this theory is when the prices of the output goods are equalized between countries as they move to free trade, then the prices of the factors (capital and labor) will also be equalized between countries.

Whichever factor receives the lowest price before two countries integrate economically and effectively become one market will therefore tend to become more expensive relative to other factors in the economy, while those with the highest price will tend to become cheaper.

In a perfectly competitive market, the return to a factor of production depends upon the value of its marginal productivity. The marginal productivity of a factor, like labor, in turn depends upon the amount of labor being used as well as the amount of capital. As the amount of labor rises in an industry, labor's marginal productivity falls. As the amount of capital rises, labor's marginal productivity rises. Finally, the value of productivity depends upon the output price commanded by the good in the market.

An often-cited example of factor price equalization is wages. When two countries enter a free trade agreement, wages for identical jobs in both countries tend to approach each other.

The result was first proven mathematically as an outcome of the Heckscher–Ohlin model assumptions.

Simply stated the theorem says that when the prices of the output goods are equalized between countries as they move to free trade, then the prices of the input factors (capital and labor) will also be equalized between countries.

This theory was independently discovered by Abba Lerner in 1933 but was published much later in 1952. The "Lerner Diagram" remains a key analytical tool in teaching international trade theory.

title: Factor price equalization


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Saturn I SA-1

Saturn-Apollo 1 (SA-1) was the first flight of the Saturn I space launch vehicle, the first in the Saturn family, and first mission of the American Apollo program. The rocket was launched on October 27, 1961, from Cape Canaveral, Florida.

Objectives
The Saturn I booster was a huge increase in size and power over anything previously launched. It was three times taller, required six times more fuel and produced ten times more thrust than the Juno I rocket that had launched the first American satellite, Explorer 1, into orbit in 1958.

At the time, NASA had decided to not use all-up testing, when an entire system is tested at once. The agency planned to test each rocket stage in separate launches, so for SA-1 the only live stage was the S-I first stage.

This first flight was designed to test the structure of the launch vehicle during a suborbital flight using the nose cone from a Jupiter rocket.

Preparation

As this was the first Saturn flight, the systems were still being developed. It was the first time that a stage had been delivered to Cape Canaveral by barge and it demonstrated this could be done for the larger stages of future Saturn rockets.

The first stage and the two dummy upper stages arrived on August 15, 1961, on the barge Compromise. It had encountered some problems on the voyage, running aground four times due to poor nautical charts. On the return trip, the barge hit a bridge, causing some minor damage.

The booster was erected at Pad 34 five days later with little trouble. Testing proceeded, albeit a little behind schedule. At this time, testing was not automated and amounted to flicking switches in the control center and observing how the rocket responded.

Flight
At 12:30 p.m. EST on October 27, 1961, the RP-1 propellant started to flow into the rocket. A slight surplus (3%) of the fuel required was put into the rocket, as it was possible to easily drain fuel. Just before launch, surplus fuel was removed from the tanks.

Liquid oxygen began flowing into its tanks at 3:00 a.m. the next day. It followed the same procedure as the RP-1 with the tanks being filled to 10 percent to check for leaks, then fast filled to 97 percent, then slowly topped off.

Despite a couple of delays due to bad weather, the rocket was launched only one hour behind schedule. The engineers had given the rocket only a 75 percent chance of lifting off and only a 30 percent chance of completing a nominal flight. Even with a nominal flight some damage was thought possible. At the Redstone Arsenal, ground testing had shattered windows 12 km away.

The sound of the launch was a disappointment for some witnesses, being described as like an Atlas rocket launch, when observers stood 1.5 miles (2.4 km) away instead of three miles (5 km) for a Saturn launch. It was later determined that the cause of the difference between the Cape and the Redstone Arsenal was atmospheric conditions damping the sound.

"'Ignition. All engines running. Launch commit, launch commit! Liftoff! (shouting) Go, go, go, go! Go man! Go! '"

The flight itself was nearly perfect. The rocket reached a height of 136.5 km and impacted 345.7 km down range from the launch site in the Atlantic Ocean. The only real problem was the rocket cut off 1.6 seconds ahead of schedule. This was traced to the fact that there was 400 kg too much liquid oxygen and 410 kg too little RP-1. For the test flight, SA-1 only carried a propellant load that was 83 percent full.

title: Saturn I SA-1


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Walpole Island First Nation

Walpole Island is an island and First Nation reserve in southwestern Ontario, Canada, on the border between Ontario and Michigan in the United States. It is located in the mouth of the Saint Clair River on Lake Saint Clair, about 121 km by road from Windsor, Ontario, and 124 km from Detroit, Michigan.

Walpole Island is given (but disputed) as the resting place of Tecumseh, a 19th-century leader of the Shawnee of much renown for his resistance against American westward expansion by forming Tecumseh's confederacy and starting Tecumseh's War.

Land area
Walpole Island is unceded territory and is inhabited by the Ojibwe, Potawatomi, and Odawa peoples of the Walpole Island First Nation, who call it Bkejwanong, meaning "where the waters divide" in Anishinaabemowin. In addition to Walpole Island, the reserve includes Squirrel Island, Saint Anne Island (surrounded by Syme and Johnson Rivers), Seaway Island (except a small US portion), Bassett Island, and Potawatomi Island. The river or creeks that separate these islands provide the area with its other commonly used name, Swejwanong or "many forks of a river."

It is independent of, but within the geographic region of, Lambton County and adjoins the municipality of Chatham-Kent and the township of Saint Clair. Across the Saint Clair River to the west are the United States towns of Algonac, Michigan, and Clay Township. Harsen's Island, also unceded Anishinaabe territory, is now on the west side of the international border line. The border was redrawn in the 19th century following disputes between the United Kingdom and the United States; their governments were oblivious to the interests and rights of the Indigenous peoples living on and using these lands. As such, the First Nation is now trying to solve their grievances with the Crown with a specific claim.

History
The name origins of Walpole are uncertain (although possibly related to surveyors Lieutenants Arthur Walpole or John Walpole).

Settlement (1600s–1800s)
In the late 1600s and early 1700s, what is now known as Walpole Island and the surrounding area was settled by people from the Ojibwe and Odawa nations. In 1844, Jesuits from nearby Sandwich built a mission at the northern point of Walpole Island at the Highbanks. This raised tensions with the Anishinaabeg as the Jesuits were not invited to build on the island and they cut down oak trees that the community did not want to be cut. The relationship between the two groups was further antagonized by the theological debate that Father Pierre Chazelle held with Chief Peterwegeschick and other chief leaders on July 31, 1844. In 1850, the Jesuits left after the mission was razed.

Deforestation of the island (1869–1883)
Due to a number of contracts for harvesting oak on the island, drawn up by non-Native resource industries, a large amount of Walpole Island was deforested. The nature of these contracts "created a lasting mistrust between the community, Indian Affairs, and non-Native resource industries".

Illegal hunting prohibitions (1884–1899)
As part of an effort to colonize the island, Indian Affairs produced an illegal prohibition on the hunting of ducks on Saint Anne's Island. The prohibition was lifted once Aboriginal Title was reaffirmed in 1899.

20th-century industrialization of Saint Clair River
By the early twentieth century, the river surrounding Walpole Island was heavily trafficked with industrial freight.

Present day
In February 2021 a University of Windsor male student unrelated to Island members was murdered near Pump House Road, and several males were charged.

Environment
The island is also home to many different environmental efforts, including the Walpole Island Land Trust and the Purple Martin Project run by Richard Carr. Walpole Island has the only self-sustaining population of northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) confirmed to exist in Ontario, and by extension, all of Canada.

Demographics
As of January 2011, the registered population of the Walpole Island First Nation is 4,315 members, of whom 2,213 live on the reserve, 22 live on another reserve, and 2,080 live off reserve.

Transportation
Walpole Island is connected to mainland Canada by the Tecumsah Road Bridge (Route 32). The Walpole-Algonac Ferry connects with the US city of Algonac, Michigan. This ferry service has been in place for over 100 years.

Education
Students completing their Walpole Island Elementary School education will continue it at nearby Wallaceburg District Secondary School. In the mid-1990s, graduation for First Nations students was about 20%, but by mid-2010s had become closer to 75%.

The Harriett Jacobs Center within WDSS houses the Walpole Island First Nation Secondary School Program, assisting 150+ students.

Sports
The island is home the Walpole Island Wild who play in the Provincial Junior Hockey League.

The Walpole Island First Nation bought the then Wallaceburg Thuderbirds in July 2022. In April 2023, the team's relocation to the Walpole Island Sports Complex was approved. The team was then rebranded as the Walpole Island Wild.

Notable people

 * Bauzhi-Geezhig-Waeshikum (?–c. 1842) – Ojibwa chief and medicine man from the Lake Saint Clair area.
 * Stephen Kiyoshk (1891–1941) – murderer executed for killing a fellow tribesman in 1939. Notable for being the only person in Canadian history to be sentenced to death twice for different crimes.
 * Sacramento Knoxx – Multidisciplinary artist (including hip hop), director, and activist.
 * Alexander McKee (1735–1799) – British Indian Department agent who founded the Walpole Island settlement.
 * Tecumseh (c. 1768 – 1813)) – prominent 19th-century chief and warrior. His remains are claimed to have been buried on Saint Anne Island, and reburied at Walpole Island in 1941.

title: Walpole Island First Nation


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Avianca Flight 410

Avianca Flight 410 was a flight that crashed at 13:17 on March 17, 1988, near Cúcuta, Colombia, which occurred shortly after takeoff when it flew into a mountain. All 143 people on board were killed. It was the deadliest aviation accident to occur in Colombia at the time.

Aircraft
The aircraft involved in the crash was a Boeing 727-21 operated by Avianca, the national airline of Colombia. Flight 410 was a regular scheduled domestic passenger flight from Cúcuta-Camilo Daza International Airport (CUC) to Cartagena de Indias-Rafael Núñez International Airport (CTG). The aircraft crashed at El Espartillo mountain shortly after takeoff from runway 33 at Cúcuta.

The aircraft registration number was HK-1716. That aeroplane had flown previously with Pan Am, as N321PA (Clipper Koln-Bonn); it was sold on September 20, 1974, to Avianca. The aircraft was built in 1966, and had 44,000 hours of airframe time.

Description
The plane took off from Cúcuta at around 13:17 from runway 33 bound for Cartagena. There was no further information from the plane until ground witnesses claimed that they saw a Boeing 727 flying too low. The plane contacted some trees and then, at 13:18, it struck the mountain head on. The 727 broke in half and disintegrated when the fuel exploded; the remains were scattered in a 60 m radius. There were no survivors among the 7 crew and 136 passengers.

Rescue operations and commissions rushed to the crash site, which was impossible to reach due to nightfall and the resulting low visibility. Area residents provided light and helped the rescuers reach the top of the mountain, where the rest of the wreckage was. The next day, the remains were transported back to Cúcuta to be identified by their family members.

Investigation
The official cause of the crash was a controlled flight into terrain at 6,343 feet. The investigation pointed to a number of probable causes, including a non-crew pilot in the cockpit, whose presence diverted the attention of the pilot and who interfered with the operation of the aircraft, and a lack of teamwork (crew resource management) between the pilot and co-pilot.

Aftermath
The crash of Flight 410 was the deadliest aviation accident to occur in Colombia until December 20, 1995, when American Airlines Flight 965 crashed into a mountain near Buga, Valle del Cauca, killing 159 people. The cause was determined to be pilot error.

title: Avianca Flight 410


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Asiatic linsang

The Asiatic linsang (Prionodon) is a genus comprising two species native to Southeast Asia: the banded linsang (Prionodon linsang) and the spotted linsang (Prionodon pardicolor). Prionodon is considered a sister taxon of the Felidae.

Characteristics
The coat pattern of the Asiatic linsang is distinct, consisting of large spots that sometimes coalesce into broad bands on the sides of the body; the tail is banded transversely. It is small in size with a head and body length ranging from 14.4 to 16.75 in and a 12 to 16 in long tail. The tail is nearly as long as the head and body, and about five or six times as long as the hind foot. The head is elongated with a narrow muzzle, rhinarium evenly convex above, with wide internarial septum, shallow infranarial portion, and philtrum narrow and grooved, the groove extending only about to the level of the lower edge of the nostrils. The delicate skull is long, low, and narrow with a well defined occipital and a strong crest, but there is no complete sagittal crest. The teeth also are more highly specialized, and show an approach to those of Felidae, although more primitive. The dental formula is. The incisors form a transverse, not a curved, line; the first three upper and the four lower pre-molars are compressed and trenchant with a high, sharp, median cusp and small subsidiary cusps in front and behind it. The upper carnassial has a small inner lobe set far forwards, a small cusp in front of the main compressed, high, pointed cusp, and a compressed, blade-like posterior cusp; the upper molar is triangular, transversely set, much smaller than the upper carnassial, and much wider than it is long, so that the upper carnassial is nearly at the posterior end of the upper cheek-teeth as in Felidae.

With Viverridae (morphological)
Prionodon was denominated and first described by Thomas Horsfield in 1822, based on a linsang from Java. He had placed the linsang under ‘section Prionodontidae’ of the genus Felis, because of similarities to both genera Viverra and Felis. In 1864, John Edward Gray placed the genera Prionodon and Poiana in the tribe Prionodontina, as part of Viverridae. Reginald Innes Pocock initially followed Gray's classification, but the existence of scent glands in Poiana induced him provisionally to regard the latter as a specialized form of Genetta, its likeness to Prionodon being possibly adaptive. Furthermore, the skeletal anatomy of Asiatic linsangs are said to be a mosaic of features of other viverrine-like mammals, as linsangs share cranial, postcranial and dental similarities with falanoucs, African palm civet, and oyans respectively.

With Felidae (molecular)
DNA analysis based on 29 species of Carnivora, comprising 13 species of Viverrinae and three species representing Paradoxurus, Paguma and Hemigalinae, confirmed Pocock's assumption that the African linsang Poiana represents the sister-group of the genus Genetta. The placement of Prionodon as the sister-group of the family Felidae is strongly supported, and it was proposed that the Asiatic linsangs be placed in the monogeneric family Prionodontidae. There is a physical synapomorphy shared between felids and Prionodon in the presence of the specialized fused sacral vertebrae.

The phylogenetic relationships of Asiatic linsangs is shown in the following cladogram:

title: Asiatic linsang


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Chase Bank

JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., doing business as Chase, is an American national bank headquartered in New York City that constitutes the consumer and commercial banking subsidiary of the U.S. multinational banking and financial services holding company, JPMorgan Chase. The bank was known as Chase Manhattan Bank until it merged with J.P. Morgan & Co. in 2000. Chase Manhattan Bank was formed by the merger of the Chase National Bank and the Manhattan Company in 1955. The bank merged with Chemical Bank New York in 1996 and later merged with Bank One Corporation in 2004 and in 2008 acquired the deposits and most assets of Washington Mutual. In May 2023, it acquired the assets of First Republic Bank.

Chase offers more than 5,100 branches and 17,000 ATMs nationwide and has 18.5 million checking accounts and 25 million debit card users as of 2023. JPMorgan Chase & Co. has 250,355 employees (as of 2016) and operates in more than 100 countries. JPMorgan Chase & Co. had assets of $3.31 trillion in 2022 which makes it the largest bank in the United States as well as the bank with the most branches in the United States and the only bank with a presence in all of the contiguous United States. JPMorgan Chase, through its Chase subsidiary, is one of the Big Four banks of the United States.

History
The Bank of The Manhattan Company (New York) was founded on September 1, 1799, and continued under that name until 1955, when it merged with the Chase National Bank, which was founded in 1877; the merged bank was called The Chase Manhattan Bank.

The Manhattan Company
Chase traces its history back to the founding of The Manhattan Company by Aaron Burr on September 1, 1799, in a house at 40 Wall Street:

"After an epidemic of yellow fever in 1798, during which coffins had been sold by itinerant vendors on street corners, Aaron Burr established the Manhattan Company, with the ostensible aim of bringing clean water to the city from the Bronx River but in fact, designed as a front for the creation of New York's second bank, rivaling Alexander Hamilton's Bank of New York."

In 2006, the modern-day Chase bought the retail banking division of the Bank of New York, which then only months later merged with Pittsburgh-based Mellon Financial to form the present-day BNY Mellon.

Chase National Bank
Chase National Bank was formed in 1877 by John Thompson. It was named after former United States Treasury Secretary and Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase, although Chase (having died four years earlier) did not have a connection with the bank.

The Chase National Bank acquired a number of smaller banks in the 1920s through its Chase Securities Corporation. In 1926, for instance, it acquired Mechanics and Metals National Bank.

However, its most significant acquisition was that of the Equitable Trust Company of New York in 1930, the largest stockholder of which was John D. Rockefeller Jr. This made Chase the largest bank in the US and the world.

Chase was primarily a wholesale bank dealing with other prominent financial institutions and major corporate clients such as General Electric, which had, through its RCA subsidiary, leased prominent space and become a crucial first tenant of Rockefeller Center. They rescued that major project in 1930. The bank is also closely associated with and has financed the oil industry, having longstanding connections with its board of directors to the successor companies of Standard Oil, especially ExxonMobil, which are also part of Rockefeller holdings.

Merger as Chase Manhattan Bank
In 1955, Chase National Bank and The Manhattan Company merged to create the Chase Manhattan Bank. As Chase was a much larger bank, it was first intended that Chase acquire the "Bank of Manhattan", as it was nicknamed, but it transpired that Burr's original charter for the Manhattan Company had not only included the clause allowing it to start a bank with surplus funds, but another requiring unanimous consent of shareholders for the bank to be taken over. The deal was therefore structured as an acquisition by the Bank of the Manhattan Company of Chase National, with John J. McCloy becoming chairman of the merged entity. This avoided the need for unanimous consent by shareholders.

For Chase Manhattan Bank's new logo, Chermayeff & Geismar designed a stylized octagon in 1961, which remains part of the bank's logo today. It has been reported that the Chase logo was a stylized representation of the primitive water pipes laid by the Manhattan Company, but this story was refuted in 2007 by Ivan Chermayeff himself. According to Chermayeff, the Chase logo was merely intended to be distinctive and geometric, and was not intended at all to resemble a cross-section of a wooden water pipe. According to Chase, the sides of the octagon represent forward motion, while the blank space in the middle suggests progress originates from the center; and is a single unit made up of separate parts, like the bank. The bank included an asset management business called the Chase Investors Management Corporation. Under McCloy's successor, George Champion, the bank relinquished its antiquated 1799 state charter for a modern one. In 1969, under the leadership of David Rockefeller, the bank reorganized as a bank holding company, the Chase Manhattan Corporation.

The mergers and acquisitions during this period allowed Chase Manhattan to expand its influence over many non-financial corporations. A 1979 study titled "The Significance of Bank Control over Large Corporations" found that: "The Rockefeller-controlled Chase Manhattan Bank tops the list, controlling 16 companies." In 1985, Chase Manhattan expanded into Arizona by acquiring Continental Bank. In 1991, Chase Manhattan expanded into Connecticut by acquiring two insolvent banks.

Mergers with Chemical, J.P. Morgan

In August 1995, Chemical Bank of New York and Chase Manhattan Bank announced plans to merge. The merger was completed in August 1996. Chemical's previous acquisitions included Manufacturers Hanover Corporation, in 1991, and Texas Commerce Bank, in 1987. Although Chemical was the nominal survivor, the merged company retained the Chase name since not only was it better known (particularly outside the United States), but also the original charter of Chase required that the name be retained in any future business ventures. Hence, even today, it is known as JPMorgan Chase.

In December 2000, the combined Chase Manhattan completed the acquisition of J.P. Morgan & Co. in one of the largest banking mergers to date. The combined company was renamed JPMorgan Chase. In 2004, the bank acquired Bank One, making Chase the largest credit card issuer in the United States. JPMorgan Chase added Bear Stearns and Washington Mutual to its acquisitions in 2008 and 2009 respectively. After closing nearly 400 overlapping branches of the combined company, less than 10% of its total, Chase will have approximately 5,410 branches in 23 states as of the closing date of the acquisition. According to data from SNL Financial (data as of June 30, 2008), this places Chase third behind Wells Fargo and Bank of America in terms of total U.S. retail bank branches.

In October 2010, Chase was named in two lawsuits alleging manipulation of the silver market. The suits allege that by managing giant positions in silver futures and options, the banks influenced the prices of silver on the New York Stock Exchange's Comex Exchange since early 2008.

The following is an illustration of the company's major mergers and acquisitions and historical predecessors to 1995 (this is not a comprehensive list):

Bank One Corporation
In 2004, JPMorgan Chase merged with Chicago-based Bank One Corp., bringing on board its current chairman and CEO Jamie Dimon as president and COO and designating him as CEO William B. Harrison Jr.'s successor. Dimon's pay was pegged at 90% of Harrison's. Dimon quickly made his influence felt by embarking on a cost-cutting strategy and replaced former JPMorgan Chase executives in key positions with Bank One executives—many of whom were with Dimon at Citigroup. Dimon became CEO in January 2006 and chairman in December 2006 after Harrison's resignation.

Bank One Corporation was formed upon the 1998 merger between Banc One of Columbus, Ohio and First Chicago NBD. These two large banking companies were themselves created through the merger of many banks. JPMorgan Chase completed the acquisition of Bank One in Q3 2004. The merger between Bank One and JPMorgan Chase meant that corporate headquarters were now in New York City while the retail bank operations of Chase were consolidated in Chicago.

The following is an illustration of Bank One's major mergers and acquisitions and historical predecessors (this is not a comprehensive list):

Washington Mutual
On September 25, 2008, JPMorgan Chase bought most banking operations of Washington Mutual from the receivership of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC). That night, the Office of Thrift Supervision, in what was by far the largest bank failure in American history, seized Washington Mutual Bank and placed it into receivership. The FDIC sold the bank's assets, secured debt obligations and deposits to JPMorgan Chase Bank, NA for $1.888 billion, which re-opened the bank the following day. As a result of the takeover, Washington Mutual shareholders lost all their equity. Through the acquisition, JPMorgan became owner of the former accounts of Providian Financial, a credit card issuer WaMu acquired in 2005. The company completed the rebranding of Washington Mutual branches to Chase in late 2009.

Other recent acquisitions and expansions
In the first quarter of 2006, Chase purchased Collegiate Funding Services, a portfolio company of private equity firm Lightyear Capital, for $663 million. CFS was used as the foundation for the Chase Student Loans, previously known as Chase Education Finance. In April of that same year, Chase acquired the Bank of New York Co.'s retail and small business banking network. This gave Chase access to 338 additional branches and 700,000 new customers in New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Indiana.

In 2019, Chase began opening retail branches in Pittsburgh and other areas within Western Pennsylvania; this coincided with Bank of America starting a similar expansion within the area the previous year. Even though Chase entered the market organically as opposed to a merger & acquisition, they still had to receive approval from the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency to open branches due to Chase's size as a whole. Before Chase and Bank of America expanded its retail presence into the market, Pittsburgh had been one of the largest U.S. cities without a retail presence from any of the "Big Four", with locally based PNC Financial Services (no. 6 nationally) having a commanding market share in the area. Chase had previously considered buying National City branches from PNC that were required for divesture following that bank's acquisition of National City in 2009, but were instead sold to First Niagara Bank (since absorbed into KeyBank); it had been speculated that PNC intentionally sold the branches to a much smaller competitor due to not wanting to compete with a "Big Four" bank in its home market.

In August 2021, Chase announced that it was the first bank to have a retail presence in all 48 of the contiguous United States. The last state in the US to have a Chase branch was Montana, with the branch in Billings the first branch in the state.

Expansion outside the US
In September 2021, JPMorgan Chase entered the United Kingdom retail banking market by launching an app-based current account and Deposit account under the Chase brand. This is the company's first retail banking operation outside of the United States.

Purchase of Nazi Germany's Reichsmarks
A press release from the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) in 2004 announced that many of the new Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) files had become declassified. This declassification enabled the discovery that before and during the early years of World War II, the German government sold a special kind of Reichsmark, known as Rückwanderer [returnee] Marks, to American citizens of German descent. Chase National Bank, along with other businesses, were involved in these transactions. Through Chase, this allowed Nazi sympathizers to purchase Marks with dollars at a discounted rate. Specifically, "The financial houses understood that the German government paid the commissions (to its agents, including Chase) through the sale of discounted, blocked Marks that came mainly from Jews who had fled Germany." In other words, Nazi Germany was able to offer these Marks below face-value because they had been stolen from émigrés fleeing the Nazi regime. Between 1936 and 1941, the Nazis amassed over $20 million, and the businesses enabling these transactions earned $1.2 million in commissions. Of these commissions, over $500,000 went to Chase National Bank and its subagents.

These facts were discovered when the FBI began its investigation in October 1940. The purpose of the investigation was to follow German-Americans who had bought the Marks. However, Chase National Bank's executives were never federally prosecuted because Chase's lead attorney threatened to reveal FBI, Army, and Navy "sources and methods" in court. Publicly naming the sources and methods could have posed security risks and threatened future intelligence gathering. To avoid such revelations, the executives' violations of the Johnson Act, the Espionage Act, and the Foreign Agents Registration Act were never prosecuted.

Release of funds for Nazi Germany
Besides the controversial Rückwanderer Mark Scheme, NARA records also revealed another controversy during the occupation of France by the Nazis. From the late 1930s until June 14, 1941, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) issued an Executive Order freezing German assets, Chase National Bank worked with the Nazi government. The order blocking any access to French accounts in the U.S. by anyone, but especially by the Nazis was issued by Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Morgenthau Jr., with the approval of FDR. Within hours of the order, Chase unblocked the accounts and the funds were transferred through South America to Nazi Germany.

Refusal to release funds belonging to Jews in occupied France
U.S. Treasury officials wanted an investigation of French subsidiaries of American banks, including: Chase Bank, J.P. Morgan & Co, National City Corporation, Guaranty Bank, Bankers Trust, and American Express. Of these banks, only Chase and Morgan remained open in France during the Nazi occupation. The Chase branch chief in Paris, France, Carlos Niedermann, told his supervisor in New York that there had been an "expansion of deposits". Also, Niedermann was, "very vigorous in enforcing restrictions against Jewish property, even going so far as to refuse to release funds belonging to Jews in anticipation that a decree with retroactive provisions prohibiting such release might be published in the near future by the occupying Nazi authorities".

In 1998, Chase general counsel William McDavid said that Chase did not have control over Niedermann. Whether that claim was true or not, Chase Manhattan Bank acknowledged seizing about 100 accounts during the Vichy regime. Kenneth McCallion, a partner in the New York firm Goodkind Labaton Rudoff & Sucharow, led a lawsuit against Barclays Bank for the illegal seizure of assets during World War Two and has since turned his attention toward Chase. The World Jewish Congress (WJC), entered into discussions with Chase and a spokesperson for the WJC said, "Nobody at Chase today is guilty. They were not involved in whatever happened, but they do accept that they have an institutional responsibility." A Chase spokesman said, "This is a moral issue that we take very seriously." Chase general counsel McDavid added, "that Chase intends to compensate Jewish account holders whose assets were illegally plundered". In 1999, the French government formed a commission to report findings to Prime Minister Lionel Jospin. Claire Andrieu, a commission member and history professor at the Sorbonne, said that under the Vichy regime, French banks received visits from Nazi officials but U.S. banks did not. At that time, they did not have to report Jewish accounts, but they did just as the French banks did. She goes on to say that an American ambassador protected the U.S. subsidiaries.

Related legal action
In May 1999, Chase Manhattan reached a settlement with 20 plaintiffs who filed an asset reparations lawsuit, such as the Claims Conference, a Jewish restitution organization, and the WJC. The settlement subjected Chase to an independent probe of its conduct of activity which occurred from the company's offices in Paris and Châteauneuf-sur-Cher, in southern France, during the World War II-era. The settlement also made possible the company having to eventually a pay modest but symbolically important, payouts to former Chase customers after the probe was completed. It was determined that Chase only owned a sum that was well under $1 million in asset reparations by this point in time. The settlement made Chase Manhattan the first bank to reach a settlement over Holocaust-related claims.

Public acknowledgement from Chase Manhattan
In February 2000, more than fifty years after information regarding the ties between Chase and Nazi Germany was revealed during Congressional hearings, Chase Manhattan publicly acknowledged the deal its predecessor Chase National Bank made with Nazi Germany which helped the German government exchange marks and which also likely originated from the forced sale of assets by Jewish refugees.

Recent controversies
JPMorgan Chase has paid $16 billion in fines, settlements, and other litigation expenses from 2011 to 2013. Of the $16 billion JPMorgan Chase has paid, about $8.5 billion were for fines and settlements resulting from illegal actions taken by bank executives, according to Richard Eskow at the Campaign for America's Future, who cited a new report from Joshua Rosner of Graham Fisher & Co.

The $16 billion total does not include a recent settlement that calls for JPMorgan Chase to pay $100 million to waive $417 million in claims it had made against clients of the firm MF Global.

The U.S. Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control found that JPMorgan had illegally aided dictatorships in Cuba, Sudan, Liberia and Iran, including transferring 32,000 ounces of gold bullion (valued at approximately $20,560,000) to the benefit of a bank in Iran. JPMorgan did not voluntarily self-disclose the Iranian matter to OFAC.

Among its other transgressions, JPMorgan has been found to have:
 * Misled investors
 * Engaged in fictitious trades
 * Collected illegal flood insurance commissions
 * Wrongfully foreclosed on soldiers; charged veterans hidden fees for refinancing
 * Violated the Federal Trade Commission Act by making false statements to people seeking automobile loans
 * Illegally increased their collection of overdraft fees by processing large transactions before smaller ones
 * Helped drive Jefferson County, Alabama, into bankruptcy by switching its fixed-rate debt to variable
 * Violated antitrust provision of the Sherman Act relating to bid rigging
 * Stole and auctioned items from deposit boxes of private individuals & governments.

Targeted account closures
During 2013 and 2014, Chase and other banks received media attention for the practice of cancelling the personal and business accounts of hundreds of legal sex workers, citing in some instances the "morality clause" of their account agreement. Later it was discovered that this practice included mortgage accounts and business loans. Chase canceled the mortgage refinancing process for one individual, that the bank had initiated, whose production company made soft core films like those broadcast on Cinemax. This resulted in a lawsuit which cited evasive dealings and misleading statements by several Chase executives including Securities Vice President Adam Gelcich, Legal Fair Lending Department Vice President Deb Vincent, and an unnamed executive director and assistant general counsel.

In addition to closing accounts for sex workers, the bank has also been using its "morality clause" to disassociate from other types of businesses. Some of these other businesses include medical marijuana dispensaries and any that are "gun related". Another was a woman-owned condom manufacturing company called Lovability Condoms. Company founder Tiffany Gaines was rejected by Chase Paymentech services "as processing sales for adult-oriented products is a prohibited vertical" and was told that it was a "reputational risk" to process payment for condoms. Gaines then started a petition to ask Chase to review and change its policy of classifying condoms as an "adult oriented product". The bank later reversed its decision and invited Gaines to submit an application citing that was already doing business with a "wide variety of merchants, including grocers and drug stores, that sell similar products".

In 2019, the bank faced growing criticism for its alleged practice of arbitrarily targeting the personal accounts of outspoken online personalities such as Martina Markota and Proud Boys chairman Enrique Tarrio. Although the specific motives behind the closures were not officially disclosed the assumption among many on the right was that they were political in nature.

Dakota Access Pipeline
Financial documents from Energy Transfer Partners, the pipeline builder for the Dakota Access Pipeline, lists a number of large banking institutions that have provided credit for the project, including JP Morgan Chase. Because of these financial ties, Chase and other banks were a target of the Dakota Access Pipeline protests during 2016 and 2017.

Parental leave policy
JPMorgan Chase agreed to pay $5 million to compensate their male employees who did not receive the same paid parental leave as women from 2011 to 2017. In December 2017, the bank "clarified its policy to ensure equal access to men and women looking to be their new child's main caregiver". According to the involved attorneys, this is the biggest recorded settlement in a U.S. parental leave discrimination case. JPMorgan agreed to train and monitor to ensure equal parental leave benefits and stated that "its policy was always intended to be gender-neutral".

Fossil fuel investment
Chase has faced criticism and protests over its high rate of investment in various fossil fuel industries such as coal, oil, and gas. A study released in October 2019 indicated that Chase invests more ($75 billion) in fossil fuels than any other bank.

Unequal lending practices
An analysis of home purchases in Chicago from 2012 to 2018 by City Bureau and WBEZ Chicago showed that JP Morgan Chase, "loaned 41 times more in Chicago’s white neighborhoods than it did in the city’s black neighborhoods." The report prompted protests at Chicago Chase branches in June 2020. At a reopening of a remodeled Chase branch in Chicago's South Shore, Dimon said via video, "we have targets now to do $600 million (over the next five years) in new mortgages for Blacks and new homeowners in Chicago neighborhoods."

Facilitation of sex trafficking
The U.S. government sued JP Morgan Chase Bank in 2022, alleging that JP Morgan "facilitated, sustained, and concealed the human trafficking network operated by Jeffrey Epstein."

title: Chase Bank


text:
Al Nipper

Albert Samuel Nipper (born April 2, 1959) is an American former professional baseball player and coach. A right-handed pitcher, he appeared in 144 Major League games over seven seasons for the Boston Red Sox, Chicago Cubs and Cleveland Indians. He was listed as 6 ft tall and 188 lb.

Major League Baseball playing career
Born in San Diego, Nipper grew up in Missouri, where he graduated from Hazelwood West High School and Truman State University in Kirkville (formerly Northeast Missouri State University). He was the Red Sox' eighth selection in the 1980 Major League Baseball draft.

Nipper pitched for the Red Sox from to. He was included with the league's top players in the ballot for Rookie of the Year in. But then a succession of injuries limited his success. He started 26 games for the 1986 Red Sox, posting a mediocre 10–12 win–loss record and 5.38 earned run average as Boston won the American League East Division title. He did not appear in the ALCS against the California Angels, but made two appearances on the mound for the Red Sox in the 1986 World Series against the New York Mets. Nipper started Game 4 on October 22 at Fenway Park and held the Mets scoreless through three innings, but in the fourth, he surrendered three runs, two on a home run by Gary Carter. Nipper righted himself after that inning and pitched through the sixth, but the three runs he allowed held up as the winning margin in a 6–2 New York victory. Then, in the winner-take-all Game 7 at Shea Stadium October 27, Nipper was called upon in relief as Boston's fifth pitcher of the contest. Entering in the eighth inning with the Mets leading 6–5, Nipper was ineffective. He retired only one batter and allowed three hits, including a lead-off home run to Darryl Strawberry and a run-scoring single to opposing pitcher Jesse Orosco, enabling the Mets to pad their lead to an insurmountable 8–5; they won the world championship one inning later.

Nipper was traded to the Cubs in a deal for closer Lee Smith after the 1987 season. He pitched in 22 games, 12 as a starter, for the Cubs in 1988, then missed the entire 1989 season recovering from elbow and knee injuries. On June 27, 1988, Nipper recorded the only save of his MLB career, retiring the final out of the game to preserve a 2-1 Cubs victory over the Phillies.

He signed as a free agent with Cleveland in 1990; in a season spent mostly with the Triple-A Colorado Springs Sky Sox, Nipper won his final two MLB games in mid-season.

He then signed a minor league contract with his hometown St. Louis Cardinals in 1991, but was not called up from Triple-A. It was his final season as a pitcher.

In his 144 total major league regular-season games played (124 as a starting pitcher), he finished with a career record of 46–50 and a 4.52 earned run average in 797 $2⁄3$ innings pitched, with 381 strikeouts and 21 complete games. He allowed 846 hits and 303 bases on balls. In his only postseason action, in the 1986 World Series, Nipper posted an 0–1 (7.11) record, allowing five runs, ten hits and two bases on balls in two games and 6 $1⁄3$ innings of work.

Coaching career
After his pitching career, Nipper became a major and minor league pitching coach and scout. He returned to the Red Sox in 1992 and served in a succession of coaching roles at the minor league level (1992 through mid-1995, and 1997) and as pitching coach on the big league staff under Kevin Kennedy from mid-1995 through mid-1996. He became the roving minor league pitching instructor for the Texas Rangers, serving for three years (1998–2000), then joined the Kansas City Royals as MLB pitching coach in 2001 and 2002. Returning to the Red Sox as pitching coach of Class A Sarasota (2003–04) and then minor league pitching coordinator (2005), he was promoted to MLB bullpen coach in 2006, although he spent much of that season as the Red Sox' interim pitching coach because of the surgery-induced absence of Dave Wallace. Then, from 2007 to 2011, he was a special assignment scout for the Red Sox, specializing in evaluating pitchers.

In 2012–13, Nipper was the minor league pitching coordinator of the Detroit Tigers and he spent 2014 as pitching coach of the Triple-A Toledo Mud Hens in the Tigers' system. In 2015, he returned to the Royals' organization as the pitching coach of the Omaha Storm Chasers, their Triple-A affiliate.

title: Al Nipper


text:
Talk:Honorificabilitudinitatibus

Thanks
Thanks a lot. I had to abruptly cut off, having pressing business to attend to. - Arthur George Carrick 02:09, 2 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Nice entry on this word, missing one thing ... what does it mean? - David Gerard 10:32, Feb 17, 2004 (UTC)

and how do you pronounce it

Incorrect use of "hapax legomenon"
"Only appearing once in Shakespeare's works, it is a hapax legomenon." According to the Wikipedia entry for hapax legomenon, this usage is in fact incorrect. Is it acceptable to use it in this looser sense?

 * According to the hapax legomenon as of 2007-01-15, the use would in fact be appropriate, being a word that occurs once and only once in the works of an author. All works currently attributed to to Shakespeare being the corpus, "Honorificabilitudinitatibus" does indeed occur only once.  Thus, it would be sufficient to fit the criteron established for a hapax legomenon of Shakespeare.  (Of course, not more diversely as in the corpus of all modern English work, or even Latin.) --Puellanivis 00:10, 16 January 2007 (UTC)

Where does the word appear?
Where in Love's Labour's Lost do we find honorificabilitudinitatibus? Can anyone give a quote?--Siva 21:44, 25 May 2005 (UTC)

Right here...
"Shakespeare’s wondrous creation appears in Act 5, Scene 1: I marvel thy master hath not eaten thee for a word; for thou art not so long by the head as honorificabilitudinitatibus: thou art easier swallowed than a flap-dragon."

It means 'with honour'.

[]

Sorry for the unorthodox method of interjection, but I am otherwise incapable. could somebody include the number of letters (27) in the last line of the main section? I am unable to. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 146.201.164.233 (talk) 23:10, 31 March 2008 (UTC)

Other anagrams for honorificabilitudinitatibus
According to Doctor Crypton, there were several other anagrams for "honorificabilitudinitatibus" that credit bacon. They include "Abi. Invit F. Bacon. Histrio Ludit" ("Begone. F. bacon has entered. The actor is playing."), "Fair Vision, Bacon built it, hid it." and "But thus I told Franiiiiii Bacon" (The six "i"'s are presumably Roman numerals for 6, thus making "Fran-Six"). Also, isn't "honorificabilitudinitatibus" an anagram for the Italian phrase for "Wherever an italian is, there honor is paid to Dante."? Orville Eastland (talk) 02:32, 22 April 2008 (UTC)

hoolly moly —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.103.181.145 (talk) 14:11, 7 May 2008 (UTC)

Talk PURPLESEMEN (talk) 05:55, 12 April 2022 (UTC)

Use it in a sentence
Could someone use this word correctly in a sentence? I've looked around and the only place it's ever used is in the Shakespeare excerpt. I would love to see an example sentence in the text of the article as well if we can agree on one. Broooooooce (talk) 05:44, 20 June 2008 (UTC)

The word appears falsely "translated", a short analysis
I think "the state of being able to achieve honours" should be just honoricaficability, analyzed as:
 * honours - should be clear
 * honorify - the act of giving honours
 * honorificable - able to be honorified
 * honorificability - "ability", that is, the state of being able, to receive honours.

The rest of the morphemes in the word:
 * Honorificabilitude - not so self-evident anymore (to me at least)
 * compare: alto, high -> altitude, height; similar -> similitude, "similarness"
 * this would make honorificable -> honorificabilitude, "honorificableness", that is, the property of being in the state of being able to receive honours
 * Honorificabilitudine - this is something I'm not very familiar with
 * There is, or course, a plethora of worlds ending with -ine: canis, dog -> canine; feles, cat -> feline; mundus, world -> mundane, material; masculus, male -> masculine; and so on.
 * this would imply (by my limited empirical induction) that honorificabilitude -> honorificabilitudine, either (adj.) being able to receive honours, or (noun) something or someone in the state of being able to receive honours
 * obviously my examples used this morpheme to turn an unfamiliar feeling Latin word into a more comfortable English one. Hence, Shakespeare's use of this morpheme can, in my humble opinion, be regarded as a brutal mistake showing his lack of professionality in the use of the English language (:
 * Honorificabilitudinitate - starts to feel slightly contrived, even to me
 * compare: facile, easy -> facilitate, "make easy"; nihil, nothing -> annihilate, "turn something into nothingness"
 * thus, honorificabilitudine -> honorificabilitudinitate, turning things into something in the state of being able to receive honours, or shorter: enable receiving honours
 * Honorificabilitudinitatibus - useless ):
 * can't think of many words ending with -bus /:
 * omnibus, "for all"
 * Antabus, Pluribus
 * has something to do with Latin adjective conjugation. Honorificabilitudinitate, however, is a verb.
 * context gives no hint; Shakespeare obviously just wants to put a long word on display, nothing more

So, who am I to criticize Shakespeare's use of English? Well, nobody really, but on adding morphemes to words I might be better (:  My native language being Finnish, I read words like Chomsky's constitutionalization without even thinking twice what it means. --Sigmundur (talk) 14:50, 28 February 2009 (UTC)

Aww, scrap that, the translation was not from English, but from Latin. Ok, not going to wise-ass around on that area :) --Sigmundur (talk) 14:54, 28 February 2009 (UTC)

Sentence?
Can we get a possible sentence with the word? -- Iliada 16:41, 20 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Here it is in James Joyce' Ulysses: "Like John o'Gaunt his name is dear to him, as dear as the coat and crest he toadied for, on a bend sable a spear or steeled argent, honorificabilitudinitatibus, dearer than his glory of greatest shakescene in the country."Smatprt (talk) 07:50, 20 November 2009 (UTC)

The Latin Construction
The following shows the augmentation of Latin endings to the Latin root word to result in the word of interest.
 * 1) Honos, honoris (N): Honor

 * 1) Honorifico, honorificare, honorificavi, honorificatum (V): Honorify, do honor to, to confer honor. The added -ficare ending is derived from facio, facere, feci, factum - to make or do.

 * 1) Honorificabilis (ADJ): Honorificable, able/worthy to be honorified/receive honor. The added -abilis ending creates the adjective of having the ability or worthiness of the stem word. In this case, the stem is the fourth principle part of the verb in 2., honorificatum, the perfect passive participle which translates to "honorified, having been done honor to."

 * 1) Honorificabilitudo, honorificabilitudinis (N): The quality of being able/worthy to be honorified/done honor to. The added -tudo, tudinis ending denotes a quality or condition. In English, this is the -tude ending, as in "plenitude."

 * 1) Honorificabilitudinitas, honorificabilitudinitatis (N): The quality of the quality of being able/worthy to be honorified. The -tas, tatis suffix also denotes a quality. In English this is the -ty ending, as in "sanity."

Since it is a 3rd declension noun, the ablative plural form of the noun honorificabilitudinitas in 5. is honorificabilitudinitatibus.

The use of the ablative case here is the ablative of manner, so honorificabilitudinitatibus literally translates to "with the quality of the quality of being able/worthy to be honorified."

Note: Latin nouns are shown with their nominative and genitive singular forms; suffixes are typically added to the stem of the genitive in Latin. Verbs are shown with the four principle parts.

--ShyamBhakta (talk) 10:14, 28 December 2011 (UTC)

Longest Word in English?
According to the Wikipedia Article Longest English words, Honorificabilitudinitatibus is the longest Shakespearean word, and is the longest word in English featuring alternating vowels and consonants. It is not the longest word in English, unlike what the article suggests. Pianone (talk) 14:19, 9 June 2013 (UTC)

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German article
Herrad Spilling: Schreibkünste des späten Mittelalters. In: Codices manuscripti 4 (1978) 97-119, esp. 107 --2001:16B8:1319:F00:4CDF:6D5E:A90F:A8DD (talk) 19:57, 12 September 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Honorificabilitudinitatibus


text:
Piła Voivodeship

Piła Voivodeship (Województwo pilskie) was a voivodeship (unit of administrative division and local government) in Poland from 1975 to 1998. It was superseded by the Greater Poland Voivodeship. The Voivodeship's capital city was Piła.

Major cities and towns (population in 1995)

 * Piła (75,700)
 * Wałcz (27,000)
 * Wągrowiec (24,100)
 * Chodzież (20,400)

title: Piła Voivodeship


text:
Konin Voivodeship

Konin Voivodeship (województwo konińskie) - a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from 1975 to 1998, superseded by Greater Poland Voivodeship. Its capital city was Konin.

Major cities and towns (population in 1995)

 * Konin (82,700)
 * Turek (30,700)
 * Koło (23,900)

title: Konin Voivodeship


text:
Kalisz Voivodeship

Kalisz Voivodeship may also refer to:

 * Kalisz Voivodeship (1314–1793)
 * Kalisz Voivodeship (1816–1837)
 * Kalisz Voivodeship (1975–1998)

title: Kalisz Voivodeship


text:
Leszno Voivodeship

Leszno Voivodeship (województwo leszczyńskie) was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from 1975 to 1998, superseded by Greater Poland Voivodeship. Its capital city was Leszno.

Major cities and towns (population in 1995)

 * Leszno (61,300)
 * Kościan (24,600)
 * Rawicz (21,500)
 * Gostyń (20,600)

title: Leszno Voivodeship


text:
Genet

Genet or Genêt may refer to:

Aircraft

 * Armstrong Siddeley Genet, aircraft engine
 * Armstrong Siddeley Genet Major, aircraft engine

Animals and plants

 * Genet (biology), a colony of plants, fungi or bacteria that come from a single genetic source
 * Genet (animal), a small predatory Old World carnivore related to the civet

People

 * Genet (surname)
 * Genêt, pen name of the New Yorker's Paris correspondent Janet Flanner

Places

 * Genet, Ethiopia, a town in southern Ethiopia

title: Genet