text:
Asian Art Museum (San Francisco)

The Asian Art Museum of San Francisco – Chong-Moon Lee Center for Asian Art and Culture is a museum in San Francisco, California that specializes in Asian art. It was founded by Olympian Avery Brundage in the 1960s and has more than 18,000 works of art in its permanent collection, some as much as 6,000 years old. Its logo is an upside down letter A, which also looks like a letter V with a line through it.

History
The museum origin stems from a donation to the city of San Francisco by Chicago millionaire Avery Brundage, who was a major collector of Asian art. The Society for Asian Art, incorporated in 1958, was the group that formed to gain Brundage's collection. The museum opened in 1966 as a wing of the M. H. de Young Memorial Museum in Golden Gate Park. Brundage continued to make donations to the museum, including the bequest of all his remaining personal collection of Asian art on his death in 1975. In total, Brundage donated more than 7,700 Asian art objects to San Francisco.

Despite Brundage's professed goal of creating a "bridge of understanding" between the U.S. and Asia, a deeper insight into his actions revealed that he held racist, sexist, and anti-Semitic beliefs that entirely contradicted the mission and values of the museum. In 2020, the museum removed a statue of Brundage from its lobby where it had stood for five decades, and launched a thorough re-examination of his controversial legacy. Museum director Jay Xu wrote that Brundage "espoused racist and anti-Semitic views."

The museum was awarded the Japanese Foreign Minister’s Commendation for their contributions to promotion of cultural exchange through art between Japan and the United States on December 1, 2020.

Jay Xu is the museum's director.

Relocation
Until 2003, the museum shared a space with the de Young Museum in Golden Gate Park. As the museum's collection grew, the facilities in Golden Gate Park were no longer sufficient to display or even house the collection. In 1987 Mayor Dianne Feinstein proposed a plan to revitalize Civic Center that included relocating the museum to the Main Library. In 1995, Silicon Valley entrepreneur Chong-Moon Lee made a $15 million donation to launch the funding campaign for a new building for the museum.

During its last year in the park, it was closed for the purpose of moving to its new location. It reopened on March 20, 2003, in the former San Francisco city library building opposite of the San Francisco Civic Center, which was renovated for the purpose, under the direction of Italian architect Gae Aulenti. Lord Cultural Resources, a cultural professional practice, was also commissioned to undertake a three-part sequence of planning studies for the relocation of the museum.

The old Main library was a Beaux Arts-style building designed by George Kelham in 1917. The new $160.5 million project, designed by Gae Aulenti, introduced an indoor sky-lit court to provide a dramatic central core to the museum. Removing some interior walls, Aulenti created a sense of openness to facilitate visitor movement and the display of the artwork. The new 185000 sqft museum increased the exhibition space by approximately 75 percent compared to the former Golden Gate Park location.

The renovation also brought a seismic upgrade scheme to the building involving base isolation. Bearings were placed over the foundation system below the building's current slab on grade with a new basement constructed above the bearings in the process. Furthermore, the superstructure was stiffened through the addition of concrete shear walls, allowing for a rigid lateral load path for all sections of the building.

In October 2011, the museum launched a new identity. Designed by the branding agency Wolff Olins, the logo is an upside down A, representing the idea of approaching Asian art from a new perspective.

Expansion
In March 2016, the museum announced that it would build an additional new pavilion to its San Francisco Civic Center Building. The new pavilion will sit atop an existing, lower-level wing on the museum's Hyde Street side; and it will add about 9,000 square feet of new space to the museum's first floor. The expansion is expected to open by September 2019. In January 2019, Abby Chen was appointed as the Head of Contemporary Art.

Collection
The collection has approximately 18,000 works of art and artifacts from all major Asian countries and traditions, some of which are as much as 6,000 years old. Galleries are devoted to the arts of South Asia, Iran and Central Asia, Southeast Asia, the Himalayas, China, Korea and Japan. There are more than 2,000 works on display in the museum galleries.

The museum has become a focus for special and traveling exhibitions, including: the first major Chinese exhibition to travel outside China since the end of World War II (in 1975), an archaeological exhibition which attracted 800,000 visitors over an eight-week period, and an exhibition on wisdom and compassion opened by the Dalai Lama in 1991.

Tea House
A Japanese tea house is displayed on the second exhibition floor of the museum. This teahouse was built in Kyoto, disassembled, shipped to San Francisco and reconstructed in the museum by Japanese carpenters. The name of the tea house can be seen on a wooden plaque "In the Mist" located next to the Tea House on the second floor of the museum, The calligraphy on this wooden plaque is based on the calligraphy by Yamada Sobin and commissioned by Yoshiko Kakudo, the museum's first curator of Japanese art. The Tea House was designed by architect Osamu Sato as a functioning teahouse, as well as a display case. It is a three and three-quarters (sanjo daime) mat room. It is complete with an alcove for the display of a scroll and flowers, an electric-powered sunken hearth used in winter for the hot water kettle, and a functioning preparation area (mizuya) with fresh running water and drain.

title: Asian Art Museum (San Francisco)


text:
Talk:F

Digraph
I see the digraph FH mentioned. What about PH ? Mikkalai 07:35, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Education
"in education, F is a failing grade" - can someone make this a bit more specific (certain qualification or country maybe?) Davidjamesgill 12:50, 20 January 2006 (UTC)

F in Etruscan
This article says F stood for the w sound in Etruscan, but elsewhere in Wikipedia it says F stood for the v sound. Which is right?? Georgia guy 00:21, 7 February 2006 (UTC)
 * I'm not sure, where on wikipedia does it say that? Fresheneesz 01:45, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Etruscan F is transcribed as Latin V, which was a similar if not the same sound. However, Latin V wasn't pronounced [v], but [w]. Greek F was also pronounced [w], and Etruscan had no other voiced fricatives, so it's a good bet that Etruscan F was pronounced [w] too. kwami 08:04, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

F's importance not shown in article length
For a letter thats so important F has a rather short page. I think anyone named frank would have somehting to say about that. Are they supposed to spell it "Phrank"? Thats a bit too queer for my tastes. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 124.186.128.13 (talk) 03:41, 26 January 2009 (UTC)

Written F, with a descender
In Britain children are taught to write the lower-case f with a below-line descender, rather like g or y. I came to Wikipedia to find out why this is, but it doesn't appear to be mentioned. It'd be nice if it was. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.11.175.182 (talk) 13:59, 19 March 2009 (UTC)

 * That is also the case in the U.S. Kostaki mou (talk) 20:29, 2 September 2015 (UTC)

Contested deletion
There is a Wikipedia article on every letter of the English alphabet, and the article does not meet ANY of the criteria for speedy deletion. --Sundayclose (talk) 00:29, 7 February 2016 (UTC)

 * That is obvious. I have reverted the edit that added a speedy deletion template, and I see the editor who made it has a history of doing that sort of thing. LjL (talk) 00:40, 7 February 2016 (UTC)

 * Wait, sorry, nevermind... I see you were just quicker than me in notifying them about this incident. I had assumed it was a previous incident. If it's just one, maybe it was a TW misclick. ? LjL (talk) 00:42, 7 February 2016 (UTC)

 * Yes, it was a misclick. Twinkle was recommended to me very recently, and I wasn't completely familiar with it. Sorry about that. U2fan01 (talk) 01:54, 7 February 2016 (UTC)

F for Fluorine
Shouldn't the chemical symbol for Fluorine, which is F, also be included in this article? Doesn't this article effectively serve as a disambiguation article? Although, there's a separate article for fluorine, shouldn't it be included here with a forwarding reference to the separate article for further review? Stevenmitchell (talk) 07:11, 4 May 2022 (UTC)

 * As F has so many other meanings, there isn't room for them all in the article. Instead, we list them at F (disambiguation), which is mentioned in a hatnote. Certes (talk) 11:56, 4 May 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:F


text:
Duchess Sophie Charlotte in Bavaria

Duchess Sophie Charlotte Augustine in Bavaria (23 February 1847 – 4 May 1897) was a granddaughter-in-law of King Louis Philippe of France, the favourite sister of Empress Elisabeth of Austria and fiancée of King Ludwig II of Bavaria.

Life
Sophie Charlotte was born at the Possenhofen Castle, the residence of her paternal family, the Dukes in Bavaria. She was a daughter of Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria and Princess Ludovika of Bavaria. The ninth of ten children born to her parents, she was known as Sopherl within the family.

Marriage
Upon the 1861 marriage of her elder sister Duchess Mathilde Ludovika to the Neapolitan prince Louis of the Two Sicilies, her parents looked for a suitable husband for Sophie Charlotte. Sophie then was engaged to her cousin King Ludwig II of Bavaria, and their engagement was publicised on 22 January 1867, but after having repeatedly postponed the wedding date, Ludwig finally cancelled it in October as it seemed Sophie had fallen in love with the court photographer Edgar Hanfstaengl. Other proposed husbands included the renowned homosexual Archduke Ludwig Viktor of Austria, brother of both Franz Joseph I of Austria and Maximilian I of Mexico, as well as the future Luís I of Portugal. Another candidate was Duke Philipp of Württemberg, the first cousin of her eventual husband.

She refused all the candidates, and was sent to stay with her aunt Amalie Auguste, then the Queen of Saxony as wife of King John. It was in Saxony Sophie Charlotte met Prince Ferdinand of Orléans, Duke of Alençon, the son of Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours and grandson of the late King Louis Philippe. Soon after, on 28 September 1868, she married him at Possenhofen Castle, near Starnberg.

Duchess of Alençon
She had a good relationship with her husband as well as with her sister-in-law Princess Marguerite Adélaïde of Orléans, wife of Prince Władysław Czartoryski. Her mother-in-law, Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, cousin of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, had died in 1857. Sophie Charlotte did not have an overly good relationship with her father-in-law, the widowed Duke of Nemours.

The year after their marriage, the ducal couple moved into Bushy House in the Teddington area of Southwest London, where Sophie Charlotte gave birth to her first child, Princess Louise of Orléans.

Later years and death
Sophie Charlotte wrote her last will and testament on 4 October 1896, seven months before her death: she died in a fire at the Bazar de la Charité in Paris on 4 May 1897, where she had been helping to raise funds for charity. She refused to be rescued, insisting that the girls, visitors and nuns working alongside her at the bazaar be saved first. A Dominican nun who had managed to escape from the fire explained that she saw the Duchess get down on her knees and start praying.

Identifying Sophie Charlotte's remains was not easy; her personal maid was unable to recognise the body, as it had been severely disfigured by the fire. The Duchess's dentist, M. Lavanport, was called in. After two hours examining various bodies, he identified Sophie Charlotte on the basis of her gold fillings. Thus she became one of the first people whose remains were identified by forensic dentistry. She was buried at the Chapelle royale de Dreux.

Issue

 * Louise Victoire Marie Amélie Sophie d'Orléans (19 July 1869 – 4 February 1952); married Prince Alfons of Bavaria and had issue. The family line ended in dynastical sense in 1990 in male line, with cognatic descendants still present.
 * Philippe Emmanuel Maximilien Marie Eudes d'Orléans, Duke of Vendôme (18 January 1872 – 1 February 1931); married Princess Henriette of Belgium and had issue. The family line ended dynastically in 1970 in male line, with cognatic descendants still present.

References and notes

title: Duchess Sophie Charlotte in Bavaria


text:
Janusz Kamiński

Janusz Zygmunt Kamiński (born June 27, 1959) is a Polish cinematographer and director of film and television. He has established a partnership with Steven Spielberg, working as a cinematographer on his films since 1993. He won the Academy Award for Best Cinematography for his work on Spielberg's holocaust drama Schindler's List and World War II epic Saving Private Ryan (1998). He has also received Academy Award nominations for Amistad (1997), The Diving Bell & the Butterfly (2007), War Horse (2011), Lincoln (2012), and West Side Story (2021). He has also received nominations for five BAFTA Awards, and six American Society of Cinematographers Awards.

In addition to his collaborations with Spielberg, he has also worked with Cameron Crowe, James L. Brooks, and Julian Schnabel. Kamiński has also moved into the field of directing, first with the horror film Lost Souls (2000), and the NBC series The Event (2011) and WE TV series The Divide (2014). In 2019, the American Society of Cinematographers included Schindler's List and Saving Private Ryan, both shot by Kamiński, on the list of the best-photographed films of the 20th century.

Early life and education
Kamiński was born in Ziębice, Poland, the son of mother, Jadwiga Celner, and father, Marian Kaminski. In 1981, he emigrated to the United States at the age of 21 after Prime Minister Jaruzelski imposed martial law. He attended Columbia College in Chicago from 1982 to 1987, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree, taking up filmmaking as a profession before attending to the AFI Conservatory, where he graduated with a Master of Fine Arts degree. He would then take his first opportunity filming and helping direct the music video for Club of Rome’s smash hit ‘Why Can't I Dance With Phil Donahue’.

Career
He worked under cinematographer Phedon Papamichael, first as a gaffer, and eventually as second unit director of photography. He shot numerous B-movies for directors Roger Corman and Katt Shea, as well as the romantic musical comedy Cool as Ice, starring Vanilla Ice.

Kamiński was first discovered by Steven Spielberg in 1991. After seeing the television film Wildflower, Spielberg hired Kamiński to shoot Class of '61, a television film in which Spielberg served as producer.

He twice won the Academy Award for Best Cinematography in the 1990s, for Schindler's List and Saving Private Ryan. He has been nominated five additional times for Amistad, The Diving Bell and the Butterfly, War Horse, Lincoln, and West Side Story. In 2010, he was awarded the Franklin J. Schaffner Alumni Medal by the AFI Conservatory.

Kamiński became a member of the American Society of Cinematographers (ASC) in 1994, but resigned in 2006.

In 2018 Kamiński worried that professional cinematographers were digitally losing control of their own images. In 2010 Kamiński abandoned the Chris Curling female fighter pilot World War II project The Night Witch, and in 2012 Kamiński discussed directing a Los Angeles-based version of the drama "XXXXXX" but nothing became of it.

Personal life
Kamiński was married to actress Holly Hunter from 1995 until 2001. In 2004, he married ABC reporter Rebecca Rankin; they divorced in 2010.

Director
Short film
 * Making a Scene (2013)

Feature film
 * Lost Souls (2000)
 * Hania (2007)
 * American Dream (2021)

Television

Cinematographer
Short film

Feature film

Television

Other credits
Second unit photography

 Additional photography

Executive Producer
 * Ukrainians in Exile (2022)

title: Janusz Kamiński


text:
Telephone desk

The telephone desk is the smallest kind of fixed desk. Its traditional role is to provide a working surface barely large enough to write notes while speaking on the telephone, and in some cases to support the telephone or hold telephone books. In early generations of telephones the phone apparatus itself had a small desk built in. This was most common in wall mounted telephones of the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century.

The illustrations show front and side views of such an antique wall phone with a small slanted desk surface fitted with two ridges to keep paper and pencil from falling to the floor.

The telephone desk has usually been a domestic piece of furniture. In an office a telephone would normally be placed on any form of desk, as close as possible to its users.

Many 20th century telephone booths or call boxes had a tiny built-in desk surface for the convenience of customers. Vandalism and a higher concern for costs has led to the gradual elimination of these minuscule desk surfaces.

title: Telephone desk


text:
Wikipedia:MediaWiki messages/Archive 1

'Bug reports' bugs me
I propose we change the largely depreciated page "Bug reports" to Contact us. Any objections? My biggest concern is that might force all cached pages to get updated... --mav 08:35, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I'd agree with that. I think a contact us link is important. Angela.

 * Good idea. -- Tarquin 10:16, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I think this is a good idea as well. Although I also would like a Bug reports page (not a link on the sidebar). I don't want to bother with sf for reporting bugs. I tried to have this conversation before, but it never materialized. I think it's important to have a place on the wikipedia to report bugs. I know that developers would prefer sf, but in reality few people know how to use it or want to bother with it. Developers should feel free to ingore anything reported on such a page (since they might well be bugs already reported on sf). However, some new bugs might get caught, and it also gives a single focal point for those who would otherwise not report a bug at all. Someone else could go through these and either report them at sf, or give a link to an already reported bug. Dori | Talk 14:07, Dec 6, 2003 (UTC)

 * If you want to report bugs, but don't mind if the developers ignore you, I recommend sandbox. Martin 05:19, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Martin, some bugs are going to be ignored regardless of the method of communication. That doesn't mean you shouldn't submit any bugs at all. -- Tim Starling 23:45, Dec 7, 2003 (UTC)

 * User:Dori I absolutly agree. Noldoaran 21:44, Dec 6, 2003 (UTC)

 * I was already planning on setting-up 'suggested MediaWiki feature requests' and 'possible MediaWiki bugs' pages on meta. The purpose of which would be to discuss the pros and cons of proposed features and refine them and make sure bug reports get well-developed. Then when those processes are complete somebody could submit the reports to sf. That way we get to do things the wiki way and the developers get fewer, and better, bug reports and feature requests. --mav

 * I agree, I've suggested this in the past. -- Mattworld 22:28, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Done. MediaWiki feature requests and bug reports --mav 00:29, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

The cache is not invalidated when you change messages. If you make any changes which you feel require immediate display, I suggest you ask a developer to change the cache epoch. -- Tim Starling 14:31, Dec 7, 2003 (UTC)

Automatically signing messages
Is there a way of adding ~ to Template:Test? Angela. 00:13, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Nope. Just write -- ~ . -- Tim Starling 00:19, Dec 8, 2003 (UTC)

 * Ok, thanks Tim. Angela. 01:33, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)~

WRONG there is a way of doign this. use my templates for vandalism To make this kind of template: If it says ` do that with shift  ☺ A  d a m 1213  ☺ | talk  06:43, 10 October 2005 (UTC)
 * 1) Go to Preferences
 * 2) enable raw nicknames
 * 3) change your nickname to ````
 * 4) add the place you want the signature --```

Test message
What is to be used for? Do we no longer delete vandalism? I am concerned that this means that pages that would previously show up as red links are now going to show up blue, and that we will get an encyclopedia full of these things. Has the usage of this been discussed anywhere? Secretlondon 14:34, Dec 10, 2003 (UTC)

 * It's only an extension of Please_do_not_bite_the_newcomers. You still delete a test, but you let the offender know in a gentle way that they're not supposed to do that. At least, that's my understanding. Dori | Talk 14:43, Dec 10, 2003 (UTC)

 * How long do we leave the messages for? Is there a way of finding all pages that contain messages? Sorry for asking lots of questions but I'm not sure how well this has been thought out. Secretlondon 14:49, Dec 10, 2003 (UTC)

 * Secret, the message is to be left on the user's talk page, not on the article itself (which should be deleted on the spot), e.g. User talk:162.40.225.41 Dori | Talk 14:56, Dec 10, 2003 (UTC)

 * Ah - I've seen them left on article pages. This is why I thought it was ridiculous. It makes perfect sense now! Secretlondon 14:57, Dec 10, 2003 (UTC)

More messages!
Not all of the items on the old Boilerplate text page have been entered as custom messages, for instance the variant VfD notices. Would it be practical to allow automatic insertion of those as well, using  , etc? -Smack 05:55, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I like this idea. —Noldoaran (Talk) 06:36, Dec 13, 2003 (UTC)

 * Too many messages might slow down the server. I can't seem to find it now, but I think Tim had a post to that effect. I would hold off for a bit, before adding too many messages that are not as necessary. Dori | Talk 14:14, Dec 13, 2003 (UTC)

 * Well, the software starts off with about 500 messages, so you can probably assume that a couple of hundred extra won't have much adverse effect. My warning about extra messages is now at MediaWiki namespace -- I said we should probably keep the total size of the namespace under a few hundred KB. However since I wrote that, I've been thinking that if some need develops for large messages, this could be dealt with by tweaking the code to make it more efficient, rather than allowing for inclusion from other namespaces. -- Tim Starling 02:41, Dec 14, 2003 (UTC)

 * Doesn't Wikipedia already use messages from other namespaces? example: Wikipedia:Recentchanges
 * —Noldoaran (Talk) 03:21, Dec 14, 2003 (UTC)

 * Recentchanges, Booksources, etc. are just one-off hacks, special cases. Recentchanges could theoretically be deleted now, the software would automatically fall back on MediaWiki:Recentchangestext. -- Tim Starling 23:26, Dec 14, 2003 (UTC)

The performance limitations of having many large messages have now been removed. Go for your life. -- Tim Starling 00:29, Dec 16, 2003 (UTC)

Protected page
Considering that the link in the sidebar that says "Edit this page" is replaced with plaintext "Protected page", it must be possible to have "Edit this page" be replaced with a link Protected page. --Ed Cormany 04:38 17 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * As soon as the caches update that won't be plain text. It was changed to a link yesterday, but you don't get to see this until the page is edited. It should work now on the main page, which has been edited since the feature was implemented. Currently, the link points to Protection policy, but it has been suggested that something more suitable for non-sysops being linked to instead so I am writing something at This page is protected which will be linked to from all protected pages once the cache updates. Angela. 20:31, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Out of curiosity, how does it look to sysops? Noldoaran (Talk) 20:33, Dec 8, 2003 (UTC)

 * Sysops see the normal "Edit this page" link. I've changed it now, so it will point to This page is protected which is hopefully a bit more useful for non-sysops than just a piece of text saying protected page. Angela. 20:43, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I dislike the new "Remove page protection" text. Was this discusses? Can we change it back to "unprotect this page"? Martin
 * This is also being discussed at MediaWiki talk:Unprotectthispage

Protecting MediWiki messages

 * Suggestions for which messages do not need to be protected can be made here

I think we need to have a discussion on which, if any, messages should be unprotected. Personally I feel that none of them should be unprotected (not talking about custom here) as they are part of the interface. Although they could quickly be reverted, they are much more visible, and as soon as vandals learn about them, they will look mighty tasty. I don't see why a regular user could not just leave a message on the talk page, which anyone should do anyway before a change, and then an admin could make the actual change. If no admins are around to see tha talk message, then they wouldn't have been around to see any vandalisms either. Dori | Talk 14:52, Dec 13, 2003 (UTC)
 * Agreement -- Timwi 14:55, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Should custom messages be protected

Is there any reason to protect the ones listed here? As long as people use rather than , they will be able to check the text as soon as the page is saved and it won't change later if someone does vandalise the message. I suggest that all custom messages be unprotected. Which of the non-custom ones need protecting can be discussed at Wikipedia talk:MediaWiki namespace text. Angela. 06:39, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * The important thing is encouraging use of SUBST, which is less mnemonic. At least we should make SUBST the suggested text on the pages these texts are listed on, like NPOV dispute. --Pakaran 06:44, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Why is this page protected, come to that? Unprotecting... Martin 04:44, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

If we leave unprotected pages in the mediawiki namespace, can they be used to DoS the pedia by pasting hundreds of megs of text into them, since pages are locked in memory? -- Pakaran 06:35, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * They could use up large amounts of memory whether the pages are protected or not, since they can just create new pages. Memcached has a memory limit in the hundreds of MB and drops least recently used items when it hits it. Single items can be up to 1MB. It probably wouldn't cause DoS, it would probably just slow things down a bit. However, it's important that all of the messages required for reverting a message are protected. -- Tim Starling

 * Ok thanks. Administrators says that only sysops may edit in MediaWiki namespace, which I took as meaning that only sysops could create new articles.  I'd guess that if someone uploads tens of megs in order to slow the wiki down by HDD seek times (tens of ms at most) they're not a particularly imaginitive vandal.  -- Pakaran 03:18, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Talk Pages - Backward link request
Is there any chance of adding a backward link from a talk page to the page it is talking about? It's a little annoying to have to step back four or five pages to return to the page after an edit (or more if you've been browsing the talk history, for example!).

I would suggest making the second part of the heading (after Talk:) into a link back to the main page.

HappyDog 17:27, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

By 'main page' I of course meant the article the Talk page refers to. HappyDog 17:28, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure I understand your question completely, but there is a link to the article page from that article's talk page: 1. down the bottom "View article", and in the sidepanel "This page">"View article". --snoyes 17:33, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * There already is on the links to the left (i.e. for a Talk: there is a View article, for a User talk, there is a View user page; for a Wikipedia talk: there is a View meta page, etc.). Is that good enough? (through conflict edit) Dori | Talk 17:36, Dec 10, 2003 (UTC)

I see it now - it's not very clear, and importantly there is no equivalent link at the top of the page. I feel it would be a little more intuitive to make the second part of the page header (after Talk:) into a link back as well. Seriously, I double checked before writing this that there wasn't anything I'd missed, and I still didn't spot it! HappyDog 17:39, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Actually, can be hard to find quickly, even knowing where it is... Might be better if the link on the left was < View article instead of just  . (And also < View meta page instead of just   .) Κσυπ Cyp   20:17, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

What do people (that means you) prefer, this:

 * E|Edit this page
 * P|Post a comment
 * S|Stop watching
 * M|Move this page
 * < View article
 * P|Page history
 * W|What links here
 * R|Related changes

or how it already is?:

 * E|Edit this page
 * P|Post a comment
 * S|Stop watching

 * M|Move this page
 * View article
 * P|Page history
 * W|What links here
 * R|Related changes Κσυπ Cyp  20:17, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

We're is this list? I can't find it? HappyDog 20:56, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

OK - I've been playing around with my settings, and I now have the nav bar you describe. I'm not sure what caused it to appear, as I changed several settings at the same time.

The nav bar makes things a bit better, and easier to navigate. If the bar is there, my original request for a top-of-page link is no longer a necessity. However I still think it's desirable. It's the natural place for a backward link (it's the first place I looked), and given the wiki-philosophy of massively linking pages (e.g. every single date!) this does seem like a bit of an oversight, and an easy one to rectify. This is particularly true for people who haven't discovered how to turn on the menu (or don't even know that they can!). HappyDog 21:04, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I've played with Cyp's suggestion, sysops can edit the links in the MediaWiki namespace.—Eloquence

 * Why are you making the lt a HMTL &lt; rather than a "real" lt, 0x3c?  Just idly curious.  -- Pakaran 01:50, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Just to avoid any possible display issues, should we add a > near to it. I tend to always escape for that reason (see, that would have become an invisible tag if Wikipedia didn't use a tag whitelist for regular editing.—Eloquence 01:53, Dec 11, 2003 (UTC)

SUBST vs MSG
Copied from User talk:Eloquence Hi, I wondered why you made this edit suggesting that msg was preferred over subst. I think it is dangerous to be able to add a message which can then change in every article. I was arguing that the MediaWiki messages be unprotected on the basis that if people are using subst, not msg, then they will instantly see what message that have left on a page, and this message will be permanent. If people are encouraged to use msg, there is a huge risk someone will vandalise the MediaWiki message and invoke a change in potentially thousands of other pages. I can see the benefit in that if someone wants to change the disambiguation message it would be reflected on other pages, but I think the disadvantages of vandalism would far outweigh this. I want to know what messages I leave on a page without the risk that these will change later and make it look like I added something to a page which I didn't. Angela. 23:06, 9 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * My main concern is easy updating of messages on all pages that use them. Otherwise texts like the disambiguation notice or stub notice effectively become set in stone and very difficult to update without running a script on the database (I don't think MySQL's UPDATE supports this kind of search & replace operation). This might however become necessary quite frequently, for example if we add software support for disambiguation, change our policy on stubs etc. I don't think the MediaWiki: pages should be unprotected -- if changes need to be made on any of the messages, these changes should be suggested on the talk page and then a sysop will make them.—Eloquence 02:42, Dec 10, 2003 (UTC)

 * My instinct is to go with the positivist approach of Eloquence. We shouldn't restrict ourselves for fear of vandalism. If someone is sufficiently aquianted with how Wikipedia that they know about substs: and msgs:, but are still have vandalist tendencies then they are going to be a serious problem user and liable for a banning. And besides if someone did change a msg it would be reverted very quickly. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 14:25, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I was thinking about this earlier and I came to the same conclusion: that MSG should be used most of the time because all the messages can be changes at once if need be. —Noldoaran (Talk) 05:23, Dec 12, 2003 (UTC)

Discussion from the Village pump

Is there general agreement on when one should use vs. ? I notice that on MediaWiki custom messages, it shows but. Is this an intentional indication of preferred usage? --Anthropos 14:00, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * See the talk page - I prefer msg because it's easy to update messages, others prefer subst because they feel using msg would make it possible to cause lots of damage by editing a single page. In other words, what I see as an advantage, they see as a disadvantage. A vote is probably in order.—Eloquence 14:02, Dec 11, 2003 (UTC)

 * Personally, I prefer to know what I'm writing without the danger of this changing automatically as a result of someone vandalising or otherwise changing the message, so I always use subst. In some cases, when I've used subst:test, what I've added to the message afterwards would make no sense now that the wording of "test" has changed. It depends a lot on whether they message is protected or unprotected, but there is still no agreement on whether they should be. Angela. 14:28, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I can see Eloquence's point, but I agree with Angela. If I post something, I'd like to know what it is, and I wouldn't want someone else to change my wording afterwards, especially if I sign the message. Dori | Talk 14:41, Dec 11, 2003 (UTC)

 * That makes sense in some contexts, but I think we should agree to standardize stuff like stub notices, VfD notices, disambiguation notices etc.—Eloquence 14:47, Dec 11, 2003 (UTC)

 * Angela is right on one thing: It depends heavily on whether the message is protected. There are really two issues here (I guess that's why two methods are provided):
 * Some standard messages should (stub, dissambig, copyright notice...) are more a part of the user interface than a part of articles themselves - their wording is really a meta subject. These should be used with MSG. They should probably be protected, which shoudn't be such a big issue - anyone can change MSG to SUBST, save and edit at will.
 * Chunks of text that are commonly used and are good starting points for further work. These should obviously be inserted with SUBST, and probably should not be protected - as long as we trust ourselves to read the message after SUBSTing it, to make sure nobody has vandalised the message in the meantime. Zocky 15:01, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Good points, Zocky. I think maybe we are worrying too much about vandalism... a casual user is not going to vandalize the MSGs.. it would have to be someone more acquainted with how wikipedia works. Maybe we should use MSGs and SUBSTs as Zocky suggests but leave both types unprotected and see how often reversion is required. If it becomes a problem, we protect. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 15:15, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Another thing which seems to get ignored here around: if the text contains wikilinks, subst correctly create backlinks (what links here?) while msg doesn't. It makes pretty impossible to find stubs or other marked articles if people start using msg instead of subst. Maybe on en: this is already beyond control (too many stubs) but on smaller Wikipedias for example msg:stub should be avoided in my opinion. --grin 20:19, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Last time I checked, that worked also for MSG. The problem with Special:Whatlinkshere/Wikipedia:Find_or_fix_a_stub is that it just displays the first 500 articles. Read Find_or_fix_a_stub for the workaround.
 * BTW the initial MSG, i.e. Recentchanges seems to work well. -- User:Docu

 * Well it's easier to show than to debate, so please see MediaWiki:BackLinkTest, and try to find the article using it. If you do, please share the method. If you don't, please correct yourself. --grin

 * Found it: User:Grin/touched. :) I cheated. It isn't finadable through the what links here, which seems a very good reason not to use for stubs or accuracy disputes. Angela. 21:03, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * ...which is logical anyway, database-wise, since there is no way to optimally create backlinks to dynamically modified articles. Thanks. This reason should be icluded in the article. --grin

 * It seems to work. What are you guys talking about. See . I included a in my Sandbox and it is clearly linked. We don't know what links to MediaWiki:BackLinkTest, but why should we need to as long as the message contains a link to the stub article. Dori | Talk 21:18, Dec 14, 2003 (UTC)

 * It works at least for finding that it's being used on Sandbox2 and if you edit User:Grin/touched after the msg. -- User:Docu

 * Thanks for ruining my test. :-( You completely lost my point: if you change the text of the WikiMedia text you have to go and edit every articles containing that msg to update the links! You going to edit every stubd everytime someone changes the message? Got the point? --grin

 * Dori, the point is that we need to know which pages contain the text and there is no way of finding that if you use msg. For example, the Find and fix a stub page lets you find stub by clicking what links here. If people add a stub note using msg, that stub page won't be shown on that list, so no-one will be able to find and fix it. Angela. 21:24, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * You can find Grin's test with Special:Whatlinkshere/User:Grin/work or Search: msg+BackLinkTest, isn't this sufficient? -- User:Docu

 * But Angela, as long as the stub message contains a link to stub, you can find the stub pages by doing a what links here on that page. There is no need to do it on the Template:Stub page. Dori | Talk 21:34, Dec 14, 2003 (UTC)

 * (Note: Grin creates a page User:Grin/tmp with msg:BackLinkTest, then updates MediaWiki:BackLinkTest to link to User:Grin/touched instead of User:Grin/work -- User:Docu)

 * Yes, it is the same if you include the msg:stub in 65535 article, then change the stub message to link to a (probably different) page. The result is that article will show a link to newlink, but whatlinkshere/newlink won't show the article; whatlinkshere/oldlink will show the article instead even if it's not linked to anymore. This is the effect of changing the msg after it has been included to articles. --grin

 * Please, Dori, check what happened. Docu actually CHANGED the article containing the msg!! (And thus ruined the test! manually updated the backlink reference.) So, now, people, stay away from changing my userspace.

 * So... now, go on, Dori, and try to find who references user:grin/touched. Don't CHANGE anything. Just find it. (Yep, I know that it's on grin/tmp, since I have put it there, but you can't find it. Right? --grin

 * Sorry Grin, I still see grin/tmp listed from Special:Whatlinkshere/User:Grin/work. Dori | Talk 22:12, Dec 14, 2003 (UTC)

 * Dori, did you read what I told you? try to find who references user:grin/touched! Not tmp or work. See Special:Whatlinkshere/User:Grin/touched, whether it shows you. (You should see grin/tmp/.) --grin

If the page isn't edited it doesn't work. Special:Whatlinkshere/User:Grin/touched does not list User:Grin/tmp, even though User:Grin/tmp does have a link to the touched article. Angela. 21:49, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * and you probably cannot expect every stub getting edited after every change of msg:stub... --grin

 * With SUBST, it wouldn't work either .. For most messages, it wouldn't be much of a problem.
 * For stubs the non-updating could even help. You could change the message once a week to allow the following to add links:
 * Special:Whatlinkshere/Wikipedia_utilities/find_or_fix_a_stub
 * Special:Whatlinkshere/Stub_article
 * Special:Whatlinkshere/Stub
 * Special:Whatlinkshere/Stubs
 * Special:Whatlinkshere/Wikipedia:Stub
 * Special:Whatlinkshere/WP:STUB
 * -- User:Docu

 * Exactly! Using subst:stub does not bring any advantage to using msg:stub. Either you see the stubs in Whatlinkshere with both, or with neither. Dori | Talk 22:12, Dec 14, 2003 (UTC)

 * False. --grin

 * I don't understand the latter. The first part is easy: if you use subs, then it is obvious where the article points to, since it's the same as you see. If you use msg, it "remembers" the point in time when msg was inserted while the text of the article reflects the newest version. So What You See Is Not What You Get. --grin
 * (Note: this message was moved by Docu from above (Dori's message of 22:12, Dec 14, 2003) to below this message as it had been posted afterwards. --User:Docu)

 * The limit of 500 stubs being shown with Whatlinkshere can be avoided by using different redirects to the stub page. --User:Docu

 * I see. Thanks.

 * I included the summary in the article. It's the general case, not about stubs on en: in particular. Thanks for Angela, Docu and Dori to make me see the light. --grin

 * Well, you just convinced me that might not be a good idea. -- User:Docu

I have posted a proposal on the bottom of MediaWiki feature request and bug report discussion on a way to get the desired functionality of msg: without the backlink problems, plus get some other useful things, while actually decreasing the load on servers. Please read and comment. Zocky 18:04, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Recommendations
I've developed some recommendations for subst vs. msg -- please let me know if you have any counter suggestions.—Eloquence 09:20, Dec 12, 2003 (UTC)
 * I agree with what you've written. In light of this, should we be recommending that CompactTOC be a MSG candidate, which is your recommendation for stuff which is going to stick around forever.

 * I can also see an advantage to using MSG for CompactTOC (and similar) in that if the page is to be copied+translated to another WikiPedia, the equivalent custom message will automagically be included in the new article in the appropriate form. Phil 12:43, Dec 12, 2003 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure how people use these TOCs, but if there's a need to edit them to match the page content (add numbers, remove letters etc.) they would have to use SUBST.—Eloquence 12:50, Dec 12, 2003 (UTC)

 * One of us is misunderstanding. I am under the impression that the MediaWiki namespace is not shared between the various languages wikis, but appears within each one. So for each different language wiki there will be a customised Template:CompactTOC. So if we use MSG the translated article will automagically refer to the CompactTOC in the new language. ISRTBCTM. Phil 13:29, Dec 12, 2003 (UTC)

 * I've been thinking and I might have misunderstood what you were saying. in which case my reply would be: the whole idea of this mechanism is to standardise messages. If we need a CompactTOC with numbers added, someone should produce a MediaWiki:CompactTOCwithNumbers. I am definitely against removing letters from a CompactTOC simply because there isn't an entry there right now. HTH. Phil 14:09, Dec 12, 2003 (UTC)

 * There won't be any automagic translations unless someone writes them -- CompactTOC is a custom message, it's not part of the standard MediaWiki distribution. So someone on fr:, for example, would have to manually create a page with the same title, Template:CompactTOC, to write a translation that could be used transparently. Other than that, you are correct. My argument is that CompactTOCs are more an element of the article than an element about the article, and therefore may need to be edited, for whatever reason, and for that, SUBST would be appropriate.—Eloquence 14:20, Dec 12, 2003 (UTC)

subst:stub vs msg:stub
Why is the stub message instead of  ? If it's to ensure consistency if the stubnote is changed, then what about the previous countless stubs which do not use in any case? Should it be changed back to ? Dysprosia 11:09, 18 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I'd rather change the existing ones to msg. For example, I am somewhat opposed to the "perfect stub article" link (because it's misleadingly placed), but updating this would be a pain without msg. In the long run, I'm sure we can get all the old footers converted.—Eloquence

 * Yes, can we please settle this question once and for all. Erik makes a good point, but I am not sure whether there is still an issue with What links here (see above discussion if you can make anything out of it). Dori | Talk 14:50, Dec 18, 2003 (UTC)

 * Ok, rather than try to handle everything under one heading, let's try taking things one item at a time.

 * I would like to propose that the stub text be inserted using the form, and that the content of the corresponding MediaWiki page be protected and only changed by consensus. As a corollary, efforts should be made to change all existing stub notices to conform to this method. -Anthropos 15:09, 18 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Well, I would object to that proposal unless we can be sure that the "what links here" option will continue to work. After all, one of the main purposes of the stub message is to be able to track stubs. Dori | Talk 15:15, Dec 18, 2003 (UTC)

 * As best as I can tell the "what links here" will work with the msg form, except that if after you place a msg that includes a link, you then change the MediaWiki namespace definition so that the msg text has a differnt link, those pages with the msg in it will not be updated (WRT what links here) until edited.

 * Ok, that's about as clear as granite. Let's use an example. Right now, if you use the syntax, there are two links included: one to The perfect stub article and one to Find or fix a stub. The software is smart enough to actually remember those links, even though the text with the links is not saved with the article. Now, let's say you put  into the article Humpaluphagus, then change the text at Template:stub so that instead of linking to Find or fix a stub, it links to Votes for deletion. When a user looks at Humpaluphagus, they will then see and use the updated stub text, and could then link to vfd. However, if you went to "what links here" on vfd, it would not show Humpaluphagus, until someone edited Humpaluphagus. Note that any edit will do, so long as it changes the page in some way. (hmmm...that may be as clear as, say, sandstone)

 * In summary, will work, and "what links here" will work, until and unless we change the Template:stub definition in such a way that it links somewhere different, at which point any pages with the  syntax will need to be updated in some way in order for "what links here" to properly show those pages.

 * Note that we can change the Template:stub any way we want with no ill effect, so long as we don't change the links. If we were to decide to do that (keep the links unchanged), then will work fine.

 * Personally, I think the advantages of using the msg format far outweigh the disadvantages. And it's likely that, at some point in the future, if it becomes a major issue, a special piece of software could be written to update the recorded links associated with msg's.

 * -Anthropos 02:58, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * By the way, who protected Template:stub and other messages? It's not writen neither in Protected page nor in talk page. And it's not monitored in hostory.

 * As I think there is no problem with leaving system pages unprotected. But if there will be problems this is some possible solution: create a feature of 'Attention' page, such that the event of change will appear in a special list (or simply displayed bold and colored in Recent Changes) and everybody will notice. Then changes of this pages may have timeout before they are really applied. I think 1 hour is enough. During that period, everybody can veto. Veto means that page will remain in its present form (both, edit and veto, should be traced in history). I think such conservative method is what we need for messages. --Ilya 05:45, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Improvement: let's simply add possibility to watch message pages. When somebody creates a page with and checks 'Watch' he automatically starts watching Template:Stub. Then I, for example, track all changes in my watch list. I check it every hour. If there are always about 10 me at the same time, we all check it every 6 minutes :) so we can set timeout 20 minutes. That's all --Ilya 05:45, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Ilya, the MediaWiki messages are protected by default.
 * Thank you. It is not that i critisize making pages protected. Here I asked for some procedural question -- like judge asking what are the identities of witnesses. --Ilya 15:28, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * I think they should be protected because they're part of the interface. As for the custom messages, that's up to those who create them. As for stub, as was mentioned above all it would take is for one vandal to change the link, and everything is messed up. How could we leave it unprotected? If someone wants a change made, they should discuss it anyway. All they have to do is leave a message here, and if it's reasonable, an admin will make the change. It's not a big deal. Regular editors can't edit the main page either because of the same visibility issue, but it doesn't mean there is anything wrong with it.Dori | Talk 07:32, Dec 19, 2003 (UTC)

 * I could go along with using msg if it is decided that the link should not be changed and that the page stays protected. Otherwise, I'm going to continue to use subst. Dori | Talk 07:32, Dec 19, 2003 (UTC)

 * There's no need for a "the link should not be changed" dogma. It should be relatively simple to do a scripted refresh in case it is changed. In any case, please follow whatever is decided to be community policy to avoid edit wars. I do agree that the page, like most MediaWiki pages, should be protected.—Eloquence

 * Althoiugh I don't think we really need this protection - because of reasons discussed above - let it be so. At least for messages I do not object. Still, I think that for other pages, the mechanism of timeouts is more appropriate. --Ilya 15:28, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Let's Make A Decision!
Can we try to come to some sort of consensus on whether to use or ? The alternate is to have at least three different methods all being used. I'm not a sysop, so I don't know if I can call an official vote, but at least as a staw poll (sign below the option you prefer)

Use, Template:stub unprotected

Use, mediaWiki:stub protected

Use, Template:stub unprotected

Use, Template:stub protected Some other option
 * 1) Anthropos
 * 2) —Eloquence
 * 3) Dori (as long as a permanent, innocuous link to Template:stub is included)
 * 4) Evil saltine
 * 5) Zocky, in the current setup, see below for additional comment
 * 6) Angela
 * 7) Timwi
 * 8) Ilya
 * 9) Phil 14:48, Dec 23, 2003 (UTC) (then use my search suggestion to find them all)

Thanks! -Anthropos 21:46, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure if there's any dissent, but this vote should clear that up.—Eloquence

 * By the way Anthropos, sysops do not have any more say on an issue than a regular editor. They just have some more priviledges listed here. Dori | Talk 22:26, Dec 19, 2003 (UTC)

Zocky's feature proposal/request and associated comments moved to Message substitution

title: Wikipedia:MediaWiki messages/Archive 1


text:
William Allison

William Allison may refer to:

 * William Allison (Wisconsin politician) (1827–1882), member of the Wisconsin State Assembly
 * William B. Allison (1829–1908), early leader of the Iowa Republican Party
 * William D. Allison (1861–1923), American lawman
 * William Henry Allison (1838–1934), Canadian politician and school lands commissioner
 * William Outis Allison (1849–1924), mayor of Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
 * A. M. Williamson (1858–1933), who wrote under the pen name William Allison
 * William Race Allison (1812–1865), Australian politician and landowner

title: William Allison


text:
Jehol

Jehol, an irregular romanization of Chinese (熱河兒), Mongolian, or Manchu, may refer to:
 * Jehol Province
 * Jehol (city), a former name of the city now known as Chengde
 * Jehol Mountains, now usually known as the Yin Mountains
 * Roman Catholic Diocese of Jehol

title: Jehol


text:
Conductivity

Conductivity may refer to:

 * Electrical conductivity, a measure of a material's ability to conduct an electric current
 * Conductivity (electrolytic), the electrical conductivity of an electrolyte in solution
 * Ionic conductivity (solid state), electrical conductivity due to ions moving position in a crystal lattice
 * Hydraulic conductivity, a property of a porous material's ability to transmit water
 * Thermal conductivity, an intensive property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct heat

title: Conductivity


text:
Mediterranean short-toed lark

The Mediterranean short-toed lark (Alaudala rufescens) is a small passerine bird found in and around the Mediterranean Basin. It is a common bird with a very wide range from Canary Islands north to the Iberian Peninsula and east throughout North Africa to parts of the Middle East. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being of "least concern".

Its range was also previously thought to include parts of Central Asia, and with the Mediterranean and Central Asian clades combined the species was referred to as the lesser short-toed lark. However, a 2020 study split these two populations into distinct species, with A. rufescens being the Mediterranean clade and A. heinei being the Central Asian clade. Confusingly, Hume's short-toed lark is also sometimes called the lesser short-toed lark.

Taxonomy and systematics
The Mediterranean short-toed lark was originally described as belonging to the genus Alauda. The genus name Alaudala is a diminutive of Alauda, and the specific rufescens is Latin for "reddish", from rufus "red". Alternate names for the lesser short-toed lark include the common short-toed lark, grey lark, rufous short-toed lark and short-toed lark. Formerly or presently, some authorities considered the Athi short-toed lark, Asian short-toed lark and/or the Somali short-toed lark to be subspecies of the lesser short-toed lark.

A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2020 compared the nuclear and mitochondrial DNA from the sand, Asian short-toed, and Mediterranean short-toed larks. The study analysed samples from 130 individuals that represented 16 of the 18 recognised subspecies. The resulting phylogenetic tree indicated that neither the Asian short-toed lark, nor the Mediterranean short-toed lark as currently defined are monophyletic. Most of the subspecies were also found to be non-monophyletic. The authors refrained from proposing a revised taxonomy until additional studies had been completed comparing the vocalizations, sexual behaviour and ecology.

Another 2020 study found that the Mediterranean and the Central & West Asian populations of A. rufescens represented two different species, the Mediterranean short-toed lark (A. rufescens) and the Turkestan short-toed lark (A. heinei). A. heinei was lifted to species status by some authorities such as the International Ornithological Congress, and 4 other subspecies originally assigned to rufescens were assigned to it instead.

Subspecies
Five subspecies are recognized: 4 other subspecies (A. r. heinei, A. r. pseudobaetica, A. r. aharonii, A. r. persica) were transferred to A. heinei when that species was split.
 * A. r. rufescens - (Vieillot, 1819) : Found on Tenerife (west-central Canary Islands)
 * A. r. polatzeki - (Hartert, 1904) : Found in eastern Canary Islands
 * A. r. apetzii - (Brehm, AE, 1857) : Found in eastern and southern Iberian Peninsula
 * A. r. minor - (Cabanis, 1851) : Found from Morocco to north-western Egypt and southern Turkey to the Sinai Peninsula and eastern Iraq
 * A. r. nicolli - (Hartert, 1909) : Found in the Nile Delta (northern Egypt)

Description
The Mediterranean short-toed lark is similar in size and appearance to the greater short-toed lark but is generally a duller-looking bird with a more streaked breast. It grows to a length of from 13 to 14 cm and the sexes are similar. As with the greater short-toed lark, the colour varies across the broad range and is not a good distinguishing feature. It is dark-streaked greyish-brown above, and white below. It has a pale supercilium, and a short stubby bill.

Care must be taken to distinguish this species from the Calandrella larks. This species lacks the dark neck patches of the greater, and has fine streaking across the breast. The bill and head shape also differ, this species having a shorter, less-conical bill and a more-rounded, smaller head. The song is richer, more varied and imitative than that of its relative.

Distribution and habitat
The Mediterranean short-toed lark breeds in Spain, north Africa, also including Turkey eastwards across the semi-deserts of central Asia to Mongolia and China. Many populations, including the Spanish and African breeders, are sedentary (non-migratory), but some Asian birds from the north of the breeding range migrate south in winter. This species is a very rare wanderer to northern and western Europe.

Behaviour and ecology
This is a bird of dry open country, preferring even drier and barer soils than the greater short-toed lark. It nests on the ground, laying two or three eggs. Its food is seeds and insects, the latter especially in the breeding season.

title: Mediterranean short-toed lark


text:
Glossary of the French Revolution

This glossary of the French Revolution generally does not explicate names of individual people or their political associations; those can be found in List of people associated with the French Revolution.

The terminology routinely used in discussing the French Revolution can be confusing. The same political faction may be referred to by different historians (or by the same historian in different contexts) by different names. During much of the revolutionary period, the French used a newly invented calendar that fell into complete disuse after the revolutionary era. Different legislative bodies had rather similar names, not always translated uniformly into English.

The three estates
The estates of the realm in ancien régime France were:
 * First Estate (Premièr État, le clergé ) – The clergy, both high (generally siding with the nobility, and it often was recruited amongst its younger sons) and low.
 * Second Estate (Second État, la noblesse ) – The nobility. Technically, but not usually of much relevance, the Second Estate also included the Royal Family.
 * Third Estate (Tiers État) – Everyone not included in the First or Second Estate. At times this term refers specifically to the bourgeoisie, the middle class, but the Third Estate also included the sans-culottes, the labouring class. Also included in the Third Estate were lawyers, merchants, and government officials.

Fourth Estate is a term with two relevant meanings: on the one hand, the generally unrepresented poor, nominally part of the Third Estate; on the other, the press, as a fourth powerful entity in addition to the three estates of the realm.

Social classes

 * Royalty – House of Bourbon. Later House of Bonaparte after the Empire was established.
 * Nobility (noblesse) – Those with explicit noble title. These are traditionally divided into
 * noblesse d'épée ("nobility of the sword"), the hereditary gentry and nobility who originally had to perform military service in exchange for their titles.
 * noblesse de robe ("nobility of the gown"), the magisterial class that administered royal justice and civil government, often referring to those who earned a title of nobility through generations of long periods of public service (bureaucrats and civil servants) or bought it (rich merchants).
 * noblesse de cloche ("nobility of the bell"), mayors and aldermen of certain cities under royal charter were considered gentry. Some mayors and aldermen held a noble title for life after a long period of service in office.
 * Noblesse de race, ("Nobility through breeding"), The "old" nobility, who inherited their titles from time immemorial.
 * Noblesse d’extraction, Nobility of seize-quartiers ("sixteen Quarterings"); having pure noble or gentle ancestry for four generations.
 * Noblesse de lettres ("Nobility through letters patent"), The "new" nobility, from after circa 1400 AD.
 * Ci-devant nobility (literally "from before"): nobility of the ancien régime (the Bourbon kingdom) after it had lost its titles and privileges.
 * Bourgeoisie (literally "Suburbanites") – Roughly, the non-noble wealthy and the middle classes: typically merchants, investors, and professionals such as doctors and lawyers. The dwellers in the small bourgs ("walled towns and communities") outside the city.

Constitutions

 * Liberal monarchical constitution – Adopted 6 October 1789, accepted by the King 14 July 1790.
 * The Constitution of 1791 or Constitution of 3 September 1791 – Establishes a limited monarchy and the Legislative Assembly.
 * The Constitution of 1793, Constitution of 24 June 1793 (Acte constitutionnel du 24 juin 1793, or Montagnard Constitution (Constitution montagnarde) – Ratified, but never applied, due to the suspension of all ordinary legality 10 October 1793.
 * The Constitution of the Year III, Constitution of 22 August 1795, Constitution of the Year III, or Constitution of 5 Fructidor – Establishes the Directory.
 * The Constitution of the Year VIII – Adopted 24 December 1799, establishes the Consulate.
 * The Constitution of the Year X – Establishes a revised Consulate, with Napoleon as First Consul for Life.
 * The Constitution of the Year XII – Establishes Bonaparte's First Empire.

Governmental structures
In roughly chronological order:
 * The ancien régime – The absolute monarchy under the Bourbon kings, generally considered to end some time between the meeting of the Estates-General on 5 May 1789, and the liberal monarchical constitution of 6 October 1789.
 * Parlements – Royal Law courts in Paris and most provinces under the ancien régime.
 * The Estates-General, also known as States-General (Etats-Généraux) – The traditional tricameral legislature of the ancien régime, which had fallen into disuse since 1614. The convention of the Estates-General of 1789 is one of the events that led to the French Revolution. The Estates General, as such, met 5–6 May 1789, but reached an impasse because the Third Estate refused to continue to participate in this structure. The other two estates continued to meet in this form for several more weeks.
 * The Communes – The body formed 11 May 1789, by the Third Estate after seceding from the Estates General. On 12 June 1789, the Communes invited the other orders to join them: some clergy did so the following day.
 * The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) – Declared 17 June 1789, by the Communes. The clergy joined them June 19. This was soon reconstituted as...
 * The National Constituent Assembly (Assemblée nationale constituante); also loosely referred to as the National Assembly – From 9 July 1789 to 30 September 1791, this was both the governing and the constitution–drafting body of France. It dissolved itself in favour of:
 * The Legislative Assembly (Assemblée Legislative) – From 1 October 1791, to September 1792, the Legislative Assembly, elected by voters with property qualifications, governed France under a constitutional monarchy, but with the removal of the king's veto power on 11 July 1792, was a republic in all but name, and became even more so after the subsequent arrest of the Royal Family.
 * The Paris Commune – During the waning days of the Legislative Assembly and the fall of the Monarchy, the municipal government of Paris functioned, at times, in the capacity of a national government, as a rival, a goad, or a bully to the Legislative Assembly.
 * Further, the Sections were directly democratic mass assemblies in Paris during the first four years of the Revolution.
 * The Provisional Executive Committee – Headed by Georges Danton, this also functioned in August–September 1792 as a rival claimant to national power.
 * The National Convention, or simply The convention – First met 20 September 1792; two days later, declared a republic. The National Convention after the fall of the Montagnards (27 July 1794) is sometimes referred to as the "Thermidorian Convention". Three committees of the National Convention are particularly worthy of note:
 * The Committee of Public Safety (Comité de salut public) – During the Reign of Terror, this committee was effectively the government of France. After the fall of the Montagnards, the committee continued, but with reduced powers.
 * The Committee of General Security (Comité de sûreté générale) – Coordinated the War effort.
 * The Committee of Education (Comité de l'instruction)
 * The Revolutionary Tribunal (Tribunal révolutionaire) instituted in March–October 1793 to prosecute all threats to the revolutionary republic, was the effective agent of the Comité de Salut Public's reign of terror in Paris until its dissolution on 31 May 1795.
 * The Directory (Directoire) – From 22 August 1795, the convention was replaced by the Directory, a bicameral legislature that more or less institutionalized the dominance of the bourgeoisie while also enacting a major land reform that was henceforward to place the peasants firmly on the political right. The rightward move was so strong that monarchists actually won the election of 1797 but were stopped from taking power by the coup of 18 Fructidor (4 September 1797), the first time Napoleon played a direct role in government. The Directory continued (politically quite far to the left of its earlier self) until Napoleon took power in his own right, 9 November 1799 (or 18 Brumaire), the date that is generally counted as the end of the French Revolution. The Directory itself was the highest executive organ, comprising five Directors, chosen by the Ancients out of a list elected by the Five Hundred; its legislative was bicameral, consisting of:
 * The Council of Five Hundred (Conseil des Cinq-Cents), or simply the Five Hundred.
 * The Council of Ancients (Conseil des Anciens), or simply the Ancients or the Senate.
 * The Consulate (Consulat) – The period of the consulate (December 1799 – December 1804) is only ambiguously part of the revolutionary era. The government was led by three individuals known as Consuls. From the start, Napoleon Bonaparte served as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the Republic. In May 1802, a plebiscite made Bonaparte First Consul for Life. In May 1804 the Empire was declared, bringing the Revolutionary era to a yet more definitive end.
 * The tribunat was one of the legislative chambers instituted by the Constitution of year VIII, composed of 100 members nominated by the Senate to discuss the legislative initiatives defended by the government's Orateurs in the presence of the Corps législatif; abolished in 1807

Political groupings

 * Royalists or Monarchists – Generally refers specifically to supporters of the Bourbon monarchy and can include both supporters of absolute and constitutional monarchy. See Reactionary.
 * Jacobins – strictly, a member of the Jacobin club, but more broadly any revolutionary, particularly the more radical bourgeois elements.
 * Feuillants – Members of the Club des Feuillants, result of a split within the Jacobins, who favoured a constitutional monarchy over a republic.
 * Republicans – Advocates of a system without a monarch.
 * The Gironde – Technically, a group of twelve republican deputies more moderate in their tactics than the Montagnards, though arguably many were no less radical in their beliefs; the term is often applied more broadly to others of similar politics. Members and adherents of the Gironde are variously referred to as "Girondists" ("Girondins") or "Brissotins"
 * The Mountain (Montagne) – The radical republican grouping in power during the Reign of Terror; its adherents are typically referred to as "Montagnards".
 * Septembriseurs – The Mountain and others (such as Georges Danton) who were on the rise in the period of the September Massacres
 * Thermidorians or Thermidoreans – The more moderate (some would say reactionary) grouping that came to power after the fall of the Mountain.
 * Society of the Panthéon, also known as Conspiracy of the Equals, and as the Secret Directory – faction centered around François-Noël Babeuf, who continued to hold up a radical Jacobin viewpoint during the period of the Thermidorian reaction.
 * Bonapartists – Supporters of Napoleon Bonaparte, especially those who supported his taking on the role of Emperor.
 * Émigrés – This term usually refers to those conservatives and members of the elite who left France in the period of increasingly radical revolutionary ascendancy, usually under implied or explicit threat from the Terror. (Generically, it can refer to those who left at other times or for other reasons.) Besides the émigrés having their property taken by the State, relatives of émigrés were also persecuted.

Ancien régime taxes

 * Corvée – A royal or seigneurial tax, taken in the form of forced labour. It came in many forms, including compulsory military service and compulsory tillage of fields. Most commonly, the term refers to a royal corvée requiring peasants to maintain the king's roads.
 * Gabelle – A tax on salt.
 * Taille – A royal tax, in principle pro capita, whose amount was fixed before collecting.
 * Tithe – A tax to church.
 * Aide – A tax on wine.
 * Vingtième – 5 percent direct tax levied on income.
 * Capitation – A poll tax.

Months of the French Revolutionary Calendar

 * Vendémiaire
 * Brumaire
 * Frimaire
 * Nivôse
 * Pluviôse
 * Ventôse
 * Germinal
 * Floréal
 * Prairial
 * Messidor
 * Thermidor
 * Fructidor

Under this calendar, the Year I or "Year 1" began 22 September 1792 (the date of the official abolition of the monarchy and the nobility).

Events commonly known by their Gregorian dates

 * 14 July – The storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789. The flashpoint of the revolution.
 * 4th of August – The National Constituent Assembly voted to abolish feudalism on 4 August 1789.
 * 10th of August – The storming of the Tuileries Palace, 10 August 1792. The effective end of the French monarchy.

Events commonly known by their Revolutionary dates

 * 22 Prairial Year II – Passage of a law greatly expanding the power of the Revolutionary Tribunals.
 * 9 Thermidor Year II – The fall of the Mountain and the execution of Robespierre and others, 27 July 1794.
 * 13 Vendémiaire Year IV – Failed coup and incidence of Napoleon's "whiff of grapeshot", 5 October 1795
 * 18 Fructidor Year V – The coup against the monarchist restorationists, 4 September 1797.
 * 22 Floréal Year VI – Coup in which 106 left–wing deputies were deprived of their seats, (11 May 1798).
 * 30 Prairial Year VII – Coup backed militarily by General Joubert, under which four directors were forced to resign (18 June 1799).
 * 18 Brumaire Year VIII – The coup that brought Napoleon to power, establishing the Consulate (9 November 1799).

War

 * The First Coalition – the opponents of France 1793 – 1797: Austria, England, Prussia, Sardinia, The Netherlands, and Spain.
 * The Second Coalition – the opponents of France 1798 – 1800: Austria, England, Russia, and Turkey.
 * The Vendée – Province where peasants revolted against the Revolutionary government in 1793. Fighting continued until 1796.

Symbols

 * Tricolour – the flag of the Republic, consisting of three vertical stripes, blue, white, and red.
 * Fleur-de-lys – the lily, emblem of the Bourbon monarchy.
 * Phrygian cap – symbol of liberty and citizenhood
 * The "Marseillaise" – the republican anthem.
 * The "Ça ira" – the militant sans–culottes anthem

Cockades
Cockades (cocardes) were rosettes or ribbons worn as a badge, typically on a hat.
 * Tricolour cockade – The symbol of the Revolution (from shortly after the Bastille fell) and later of the republic. Originally formed as a combination of blue and red—the colours of Paris—with the royal white.
 * Green cockade – As the "colour of hope", the symbol of the Revolution in its early days, before the adoption of the tricolour.
 * White cockade – Bourbon monarchy and French army.
 * Black cockade – Primarily, the cockade of the anti–revolutionary aristocracy. Also, earlier, the cockade of the American Revolution.

Other countries and armies at this time typically had their own cockades.

Religion

 * Civil Constitution of the Clergy (Constitution civile du clergé) – 1790, confiscated Church lands and turned the Catholic clergy into state employees; those who refused out of loyalty to Rome and tradition were persecuted; those who obeyed were excommunicated; partially reversed by Napoleon's Concordat of 1801.
 * Cult of Reason, La Culte de la raison – Official religion at the height of radical Jacobinism in 1793–4.
 * "Juror" ("jureur"), Constitutional priest ("constitutionnel") – a priest or other member of the clergy who took the oath required under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
 * "Non–juror", "refractory priest" ("réfractaire"), "insermenté" – a priest or other member of the clergy who refused to take the oath.

Other terms

 * Assignats – notes, bills, and bonds issued as currency 1790–1796, based on the noble lands appropriated by the state.
 * Cahier – petition, especially Cahiers de doléances, petition of grievances (literally "of sorrow").
 * Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen – 1789; in summary, defined these rights as "liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression."
 * Flight to Varennes – The Royal Family's attempt to flee France June 20–21, 1791.
 * The "Great Fear" – Refers to the period of July and August 1789, when peasants sacked the castles of the nobles and burned the documents that recorded their feudal obligations.
 * guillotine – name, originating during this period, of an execution-by-decapitation machine.
 * Lettre de cachet – Under the ancien régime, a private, sealed royal document that could imprison or exile an individual without recourse to courts of law.
 * "Left" and right" – These political terms originated in this era and derived from the seating arrangements in the legislative bodies. The use of the terms is loose and inconsistent, but in this period "right" tends to mean support for monarchical and aristocratic interests and the Roman Catholic religion, or (at the height of revolutionary fervor) for the interests of the bourgeoisie against the masses, while "left" tends to imply opposition to the same, proto-laissez faire free marketeers and proto-communists.
 * Terror – in this period, "terror" usually (but not always) refers to State violence, especially the so–called Reign of Terror.
 * Reactionary – coined during the revolutionary era to refer to those who opposed the revolution and its principles and sought a Restoration of the monarchy.
 * September Massacres – the September 1792 massacres of prisoners perceived to be counter–revolutionary, a disorderly precursor of the Reign of Terror.
 * Tricoteuse ("Knitter") - The term for the old ladies who would knit while watching the guillotine executions of enemies of the state. They were spies for the sans-culottes and often whipped up the crowds into a fervor.

title: Glossary of the French Revolution


text:
Algebraic equation

In mathematics, an algebraic equation or polynomial equation is an equation of the form $$P = 0$$, where P is a polynomial with coefficients in some field, often the field of the rational numbers. For example, $$x^5-3x+1=0$$ is an algebraic equation with integer coefficients and
 * $$y^4 + \frac{xy}{2} - \frac{x^3}{3} + xy^2 + y^2 + \frac{1}{7} = 0$$

is a multivariate polynomial equation over the rationals. For many authors, the term algebraic equation refers only to the univariate case, that is polynomial equations that involve only one variable. On the other hand, a polynomial equation may involve several variables (the multivariate case), in which case the term polynomial equation is usually preferred.

Some but not all polynomial equations with rational coefficients have a solution that is an algebraic expression that can be found using a finite number of operations that involve only those same types of coefficients (that is, can be solved algebraically). This can be done for all such equations of degree one, two, three, or four; but for degree five or more it can only be done for some equations, not all. A large amount of research has been devoted to compute efficiently accurate approximations of the real or complex solutions of a univariate algebraic equation (see Root-finding algorithm) and of the common solutions of several multivariate polynomial equations (see System of polynomial equations).

Terminology
The term "algebraic equation" dates from the time when the main problem of algebra was to solve univariate polynomial equations. This problem was completely solved during the 19th century; see Fundamental theorem of algebra, Abel–Ruffini theorem and Galois theory.

Since then, the scope of algebra has been dramatically enlarged. In particular, it includes the study of equations that involve $n$th roots and, more generally, algebraic expressions. This makes the term algebraic equation ambiguous outside the context of the old problem. So the term polynomial equation is generally preferred when this ambiguity may occur, specially when considering multivariate equations.

History
The study of algebraic equations is probably as old as mathematics: the Babylonian mathematicians, as early as 2000 BC could solve some kinds of quadratic equations (displayed on Old Babylonian clay tablets).

Univariate algebraic equations over the rationals (i.e., with rational coefficients) have a very long history. Ancient mathematicians wanted the solutions in the form of radical expressions, like $$x=\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2}$$ for the positive solution of $$x^2-x-1=0$$. The ancient Egyptians knew how to solve equations of degree 2 in this manner. The Indian mathematician Brahmagupta (597–668 AD) explicitly described the quadratic formula in his treatise Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta published in 628 AD, but written in words instead of symbols. In the 9th century Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi and other Islamic mathematicians derived the quadratic formula, the general solution of equations of degree 2, and recognized the importance of the discriminant. During the Renaissance in 1545, Gerolamo Cardano published the solution of Scipione del Ferro and Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia to equations of degree 3 and that of  Lodovico Ferrari for equations of degree 4. Finally Niels Henrik Abel proved, in 1824, that equations of degree 5 and higher do not have general solutions using radicals. Galois theory, named after Évariste Galois, showed that some equations of at least degree 5 do not even have an idiosyncratic solution in radicals, and gave criteria for deciding if an equation is in fact solvable using radicals.

Areas of study
The algebraic equations are the basis of a number of areas of modern mathematics: Algebraic number theory is the study of (univariate) algebraic equations over the rationals (that is, with rational coefficients). Galois theory was introduced by Évariste Galois to specify criteria for deciding if an algebraic equation may be solved in terms of radicals. In field theory, an algebraic extension is an extension such that every element is a root of an algebraic equation over the base field. Transcendental number theory is the study of the real numbers which are not solutions to an algebraic equation over the rationals. A Diophantine equation is a (usually multivariate) polynomial equation with integer coefficients for which one is interested in the integer solutions. Algebraic geometry is the study of the solutions in an algebraically closed field of multivariate polynomial equations.

Two equations are equivalent if they have the same set of solutions. In particular the equation $$P = Q$$ is equivalent to $$P-Q = 0$$. It follows that the study of algebraic equations is equivalent to the study of polynomials.

A polynomial equation over the rationals can always be converted to an equivalent one in which the coefficients are integers. For example, multiplying through by 42 = 2·3·7 and grouping its terms in the first member, the previously mentioned polynomial equation $$y^4+\frac{xy}{2}=\frac{x^3}{3}-xy^2+y^2-\frac{1}{7}$$ becomes
 * $$42y^4+21xy-14x^3+42xy^2-42y^2+6=0.$$

Because sine, exponentiation, and 1/T are not polynomial functions,
 * $$e^T x^2+\frac{1}{T}xy+\sin(T)z -2 =0$$

is not a polynomial equation in the four variables x, y, z, and T over the rational numbers. However, it is a polynomial equation in the three variables x, y, and z over the field of the elementary functions in the variable T.

Polynomials
Given an equation in unknown $x$
 * $$(\mathrm E) \qquad a_n x^n + a_{n - 1} x^{n - 1} + \dots + a_1 x + a_0 = 0$$,

with coefficients in a field $K$, one can equivalently say that the solutions of (E) in $K$ are the roots in $K$ of the polynomial
 * $$P = a_n X^n + a_{n - 1} X^{n - 1} + \dots + a_1 X + a_0 \quad \in K[X]$$.

It can be shown that a polynomial of degree $n$ in a field has at most $n$ roots. The equation (E) therefore has at most $n$ solutions.

If $K'$ is a field extension of $K$, one may consider (E) to be an equation with coefficients in $K$ and the solutions of (E) in $K$ are also solutions in $K'$ (the converse does not hold in general). It is always possible to find a field extension of $K$ known as the rupture field of the polynomial $P$, in which (E) has at least one solution.

Existence of solutions to real and complex equations
The fundamental theorem of algebra states that the field of the complex numbers is closed algebraically, that is, all polynomial equations with complex coefficients and degree at least one have a solution.

It follows that all polynomial equations of degree 1 or more with real coefficients have a complex solution. On the other hand, an equation such as $$x^2 + 1 = 0 $$ does not have a solution in $$\R $$ (the solutions are the imaginary units $i$ and $–i$).

While the real solutions of real equations are intuitive (they are the $x$-coordinates of the points where the curve $y = P(x)$ intersects the $x$-axis), the existence of complex solutions to real equations can be surprising and less easy to visualize.

However, a monic polynomial of odd degree must necessarily have a real root. The associated polynomial function in $x$ is continuous, and it approaches $$-\infty$$ as $x$ approaches $$-\infty$$ and $$+\infty$$ as $x$ approaches $$+\infty$$. By the intermediate value theorem, it must therefore assume the value zero at some real $x$, which is then a solution of the polynomial equation.

Connection to Galois theory
There exist formulas giving the solutions of real or complex polynomials of degree less than or equal to four as a function of their coefficients. Abel showed that it is not possible to find such a formula in general (using only the four arithmetic operations and taking roots) for equations of degree five or higher. Galois theory provides a criterion which allows one to determine whether the solution to a given polynomial equation can be expressed using radicals.

Approach
The explicit solution of a real or complex equation of degree 1 is trivial. Solving an equation of higher degree $n$ reduces to factoring the associated polynomial, that is, rewriting (E) in the form
 * $$a_n(x-z_1)\dots(x-z_n)=0$$,

where the solutions are then the $$z_1, \dots, z_n$$. The problem is then to express the $$z_i$$ in terms of the $$a_i$$.

This approach applies more generally if the coefficients and solutions belong to an integral domain.

Factoring
If an equation $P(x) = 0$ of degree $n$ has a rational root $α$, the associated polynomial can be factored to give the form $P(X) = (X – α)Q(X)$ (by dividing $P(X)$ by $X – α$ or by writing $P(X) – P(α)$ as a linear combination of terms of the form $X^{k} – α^{k}$, and factoring out $X – α$. Solving $P(x) = 0$ thus reduces to solving the degree $n – 1$ equation $Q(x) = 0$.  See for example the case $n = 3$.

Elimination of the sub-dominant term
To solve an equation of degree $n$,
 * $$(\mathrm E) \qquad a_n x^n + a_{n - 1} x^{n - 1} + \dots + a_1 x + a_0 = 0$$,

a common preliminary step is to eliminate the degree-$n - 1$ term: by setting $$x = y-\frac{a_{n-1}}{n\,a_n}$$, equation (E) becomes
 * $$a_ny^n + b_{n -2}y^{n -2} + \dots +b_1 y +b_0 = 0$$.

Leonhard Euler developed this technique for the case $n = 3$ but it is also applicable to the case $n = 4$, for example.

Quadratic equations
To solve a quadratic equation of the form $$ax^2 + bx + c = 0$$ one calculates the discriminant Δ defined by $$\Delta = b^2 - 4ac$$.

If the polynomial has real coefficients, it has:
 * two distinct real roots if $$\Delta > 0$$ ;
 * one real double root if $$\Delta = 0$$ ;
 * no real root if $$\Delta < 0$$, but two complex conjugate roots.

Cubic equations
The best-known method for solving cubic equations, by writing roots in terms of radicals, is Cardano's formula.

Quartic equations
For detailed discussions of some solution methods see:
 * Tschirnhaus transformation (general method, not guaranteed to succeed);
 * Bezout method (general method, not guaranteed to succeed);
 * Ferrari method (solutions for degree 4);
 * Euler method (solutions for degree 4);
 * Lagrange method (solutions for degree 4);
 * Descartes method (solutions for degree 2 or 4);

A quartic equation $$ax^4+bx^3+cx^2+dx+e=0$$ with $$a\ne0$$ may be reduced to a quadratic equation by a change of variable provided it is either biquadratic ($b = d = 0$) or quasi-palindromic ($e = a, d = b$).

Some cubic and quartic equations can be solved using trigonometry or hyperbolic functions.

Higher-degree equations
Évariste Galois and Niels Henrik Abel showed independently that in general a polynomial of degree 5 or higher is not solvable using radicals. Some particular equations do have solutions, such as those associated with the cyclotomic polynomials of degrees 5 and 17.

Charles Hermite, on the other hand, showed that polynomials of degree 5 are solvable using elliptical functions.

Otherwise, one may find numerical approximations to the roots using root-finding algorithms, such as Newton's method.

title: Algebraic equation


text:
Allen County Courthouse (Indiana)

The Allen County Courthouse is located at the block surrounded by Clinton/Calhoun/Main/Berry Streets in downtown Fort Wayne, Indiana, the county seat of Allen County. Built between 1897 and 1902, it is a nationally significant example of Beaux-Arts architecture. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976 and was designated a National Historic Landmark on July 31, 2003.

History
Designed by Brentwood S. Tolan, construction began in 1897, the cornerstone was laid November 17, 1897. The building was dedicated September 23, 1902, with a final cost of $817,553.59 ($250 million today). Present at its dedication were Mayor Henry C. Berghoff and Governor Winfield T. Durbin. President Theodore Roosevelt was scheduled to attend, however, he ultimately was not present. On September 23, 2002, the building was re-dedicated on its centennial after a seven-year restoration effort, which cost $8.6 million.

Architectural details
The Beaux-Arts architecture-style structure includes such features as four 25 x murals by Charles Holloway, twenty-eight different kinds of scagliola covering 15000 sqft, bas-reliefs and art glass. Each of the five court rooms has its own color scheme.

Atop the building is a 255 ft-high copper-clad domed rotunda, itself topped by a 14 ft statue wind vane of Lady Liberty. The larger than life statue has feet that would wear a woman's shoe size of 28.

The building materials include Bedford Limestone and Vermont granite with Italian marble details. A tunnel was constructed to connect the Courthouse with the City-County Building located across the street. The Courthouse also houses a fallout shelter underground. The skylights originally built into the building were covered during World War II and replaced with artificial light.

The 2001 National Historic Landmark Nomination says in its opening paragraph: "An elaborate combination of Greek, Roman, and Renaissance influences, the massive courthouse reflects the exuberant ambition of late nineteenth century America."

title: Allen County Courthouse (Indiana)