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List of political parties in Indonesia

Since 1999, Indonesia has had a multi-party system. In the four legislative elections since the fall of the New Order regime, no political party has won an overall majority of seats, resulting in coalition governments.

Pursuant to the Indonesian political parties act, political parties' ideologies "must not be against Pancasila" and "is an explanation of Pancasila".

Overview
The Indonesian political party system is regulated by Act No. 2 of 2008 on Political Parties. The law defines political party as "a national organisation founded by like-minded Indonesian citizens with common goals to fulfill common interests and to defend the unity of the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia as based on Pancasila and the 1945 State Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia".

Political parties must register themselves with the Ministry of Law and Human Rights to be recognised by the authority. The law dictates that political parties' registration criteria shall include a notarial act recognising the party establishment and party constitution; a document describing party symbols; address of party headquarters and prove of distribution of party local offices in provinces, and cities and regencies; and a prove of party bank account. The law also dictates minimum membership of new political parties on 50 persons, with the percentage of woman members and allocation of woman members to party offices are set on a minimum of 30%.

Electoral eligibility
The party must undergo another registration process in order to participate in national elections; the registration shall be submitted to the General Elections Commission (KPU). Several criteria are required by the KPU, namely related to the party's presence in Indonesia's regions:

• A formal leadership in all provinces of Indonesia;

• A formal leadership in at least 75 percent of all regencies and cities in each province;

• A formal leadership in at least half of districts in a regency or city in which the party has a formal leadership;

• A card-holding membership of at least 1,000 or 1/1000 of the local population in the district branches.

Political parties who have had their registration declined by the electoral commission due to failure to satisfy administrative criteria or other reasons are able to appeal their rejection to the General Election Supervisory Agency (BAWASLU). Specifically for regional political parties in Aceh, the first requirement is waived, while the second and third requirements are set at two-thirds of the regencies/cities and districts.

Party principles
Indonesian political parties should recognise the superiority of Pancasila and the national constitution, but Indonesian law tolerates the practice of other ideologies not in violation of the Pancasila and the constitution. A 1966 Provisional People's Consultative Assembly resolution still in force today, however, explicitly prohibits establishment of a communist party, and political parties are banned from adopting "Communism/Marxism-Leninism" (sic; explicitly defined in the resolution's corresponding explanatory memorandum to include "the struggle fundaments and tactics taught by ... Stalin, Mao Tse Tung et cetera") as the party ideology.

In essence, Indonesian political parties differs little on party policy and ideology. The only major difference between Indonesian parties is their position as to how major a role Islam, by far the nation's majority religion, should play in public affairs. This tendency resulting in several Indonesian political parties to brand itself as the part of nationalist-religious broad coalition in order to attract potential voters from both Muslim and secular nationalist groups.

The language of the left–right political spectrum is seldom used in Indonesia, in contrast with other countries. This tendency arose as the result of the New Order regime under Suharto which was anathema to left-wing policies after the 1965–66 Indonesian mass killings of members and supporters of the Communist Party of Indonesia. The New Order regime further stigmatised left-wing ideals as those espoused only by communists, discouraging Indonesian political parties from identifying themselves as left-wing movements lest they lose potential voters and be accused as communist. This tendency has survived even after the 1998 Reforms, partly due to the new regime's insistence on keeping anti-communist legislation in force. In addition, due to widely presidents shared power, Indonesian party cartelization differs significantly from canonical electoral alliances in Europe.

Government funding
Political parties which won seats in the national or regional parliaments are eligible for funding from the central or local governments, based on number of votes received in the relevant legislative elections. The funding amount is set for Rp 1,000 per vote received at the national level, Rp 1,200 at the provincial level, and Rp 1,500 at the city/regency level. Local government can opt to allocate more funding to political parties - Jakarta, for example, paid in 2021 Rp 5,000 per vote received. After the 2019 election, this amounted to Rp 126 billion (USD 8 million) from the central government on an annual basis.

Parties represented only in regional legislatures
These parties participates on national elections - the last was in 2019 - yet failed to attain a single seat in the House of Representatives due to failing to pass 4% parliamentary threshold. Notable failure was of Hanura, that failed to return to the DPR despite winning seats in 2014 election. Despite electoral failure in the DPR, these parties successfully gained seat in regional parliaments (DPRD). Although, these political parties, along with other extra-parliamentary parties, are sometimes referred as partai gurem.

Aceh's special autonomy statutes allowed formation of local political parties to compete only in the Aceh House of Representatives. Although the party number is serialised from the national list, Aceh local parties only appeared in ballot paper circulating in Aceh province.

Extra-parliamentary parties
These political parties have no representation in either national or regional parliaments.

The term "partai gurem" (minor party, literally "tropical fowl mite party" referring to the small size) is commonly used by Indonesian media to refer to these political parties. The term initially referred to political parties that won a very small number of parliamentary seat, but after the 2004 election, to political parties that have no chance of surpassing the parliamentary threshold (currently 4%) necessary to gain representation on the House of Representatives. These political parties are often perceived to be lacking in organisational structure, their leaders seemingly interested solely in attracting media attention.

These parties often have their attempts at registering for elections turned down by the KPU due to the parties' failure to satisfy registration criteria set by the commission, which includes completeness of party documents, a permanent physical party headquarters, minimum membership and minimum percentage of woman members. Parties that had their registration rejected often resort to appealing their rejection to the Bawaslu, with varied success.

Political party coalitions
Outside of the Suharto period, no political parties controlled a majority of the Indonesian parliament, necessitating the formation of coalitions. Coalitions may also be required to nominate candidates to executive office elections (i.e. President, Governors, Regents, Mayors and their deputies), and political parties often form coalitions for regional elections with parties which are on opposing coalitions at the national level.

Pre-independence parties
In the first decade of the 20th century as a natural outcome of the Dutch Ethical Policy, which emphasised the importance of looking after the welfare of the people of the Dutch East Indies, the Dutch were tolerant of the rise and development of Indonesian society. Through this, the Dutch allowed the creation of education societies and funded its creation. Dutch educated Intelligentsias' would establish schools and education across the Dutch East Indies. Whilst the policy attempted to raise awareness among the natives of the need to break free from the shackles of the feudal system and develop along Western lines and were concerned about the native population's social and cultural conditions, it spearheaded the spread of Indonesian National Revivalism, allowing people to silently organize and articulate their objections to colonial rule. The Budi Utomo was considered the first nationalist society (not party yet) in the Dutch East Indies, initiated the Indonesian National Awakening. Among other political organizations were the Indo Europeesch Verbond (Indo-European Alliance) and Indonesia Arab Association. Over time organizations turned into political parties, such how Budi Utomo turned into Parindra and Sarekat Islam into Indonesian Islamic Union Party. The Indische Partij is considered the first Indonesian political party. Years of campaigning by various political organizations across the Dutch East Indies eventually compelled the Dutch Government to recognize the need for concessions. As a result, on 16 December 1916, Governor-General J.P. van Limburg Stirum, in collaboration with the Dutch Minister of Colonial Affairs, Thomas Bastiaan Pleyte, sanctioned the establishment of a legislative assembly designed to represent the people of the Dutch East Indies. This assembly was named the Volksraad.

The Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies began when the Japanese invaded the Dutch East Indies through Tarakan, Kalimantan, on 8 March 1942. By the Japanese Government, parties that were based on Indonesian nationalism and wanted to fight for Indonesian Independence were dissolved and banned from political activities on 20 March 1942.

Political parties participating in 1955 and 1971 elections
The election in 1955 was the first national election held since the end of the Indonesian National Revolution, and saw over 37 million valid votes cast in over 93 thousand polling locations, with more than 30 parties participating. Due to the numerous political parties participating in the election, the result was inconclusive, with no party receiving a clear mandate. The legislature which was elected through the election would eventually be dissolved by President Sukarno in 1959, through Presidential Decree number 150. Later on, after the take over by the New Order regime, only 10 parties was allowed to participate in the 1971 legislative election.

Government parties
After his rise into power, President Suharto expressed his discontent regarding multiple political parties, arguing that the failure of Konstituante in 1955–1959 was caused by party deadlock — unacceptable in his regime. He proposed that existing political parties unite based on their ideological essence — either spiritual (religious) or materialist (secular nationalist) — in order to cripple the resulting umbrella parties with infighting. Political parties' reaction to Suharto's propositions was generally positive, with Islamic parties claiming that party fusion was in line with their last National Islamic Congress resolution agreed in 1969. A political alliance dubbed the "Democratic Development Group" was formed by the PNI, the IPKI, Parkindo, the Murba Party, and the Catholic Party to compete in 1971 election.

After 1971 election, New Order regime reiterated its call for political parties to fuse, and a MPR ordinance regulating political parties grouping issued in 1973 further pressured political parties to merge. All Islamic political parties merged to form the United Development Party (PPP) on 5 January 1973, and the remaining nationalist and non-Islamic political parties united to form the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI) on 10 January 1973. Golkar, officially a "federation of public organisations" but effectively a political party, remained dominant for the entirety of the New Order. From 1985, all political parties were required to declare national ideology Pancasila as their "one and only ideological basis".

The parties participated for the last time in the 1997 election, and the three-party system survived until the collapse of the New Order in 1998 Reformasi. Ensuing political liberalisation allowed establishment of multitudes of new political parties, with the number of political parties participating in 1999 election jumping substantially to 48 parties.

Activist parties
Prior to the end of the New Order era, there was a time where several political activists and student movements established small political parties in the early 1990s. Sensing the near fall of the New Order, the formation of these newly unregistered and unrecognized political parties was based on opposition to the New Order government and positioned themselves as the opposition and played a crucial part in the fall of the new order. The new parties then and only participated in the 1999 elections.

Whilst the New Masyumi Party predates the wave of the new opposition parties, the Indonesian Democratic Union Party (PUDI) was considered as the first genuine opposition party. As PUDI was upfront and outspoken in their political opposition as a party against the New Order regime, the first out of many. At one point, fielding both presidential and vice-presidential candidates, PUDI was considered a challenger to Suharto's rule. Emboldened by the success of PUDI, the Democratic People's Association (PRD) organisation declared itself the People's Democratic Party (also abbreviated as PRD). On 22 July 1996, the PRD was officially declared to the public and announced its political manifesto.

Parties participating only in 1999 elections
Following political liberalisation after the collapse of the New Order regime in 1998 Reformasi, registration for new political parties jumped significantly. As the result, the following 1999 election had 48 political parties competing for DPR seats,  compared to the previous 1997 election that saw only 2 political parties plus Golkar.

After the Reform, the PPP survived and continues to participate in all following elections after 1999, albeit with much of its membership having broken off from it and founded their own parties. Golkar too was made a proper party and exists to this day. The PDI failed to imitate the post-Suharto successes of the PPP and Golkar after the government intervened and unseated Chairman Megawati Soekarnoputri, causing PDI support to collapse in the 1997 election. PDI votes further eroded as support instead went to its breakaway Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), led by Megawati in the post-Suharto 1999 election, resulting in the party winning only two seats in contrast to the PDI-P's 153 seats. After poor electoral performance and failure to register for the 2004 election, PDI rebranded itself as the Indonesian Democratic Vanguard Party (PPDI) in 2003.

Several parties claimed inheritance from former political parties existing prior to the New Order era, resulting in parties sharing similar political party names, with faction names as the only characteristics that made those parties distinct from each other. Example on this case was on claimants to the heritage of the former Indonesian National Party (PNI), Indonesian Islamic Union Party (PSII), League of Supporters of Indonesian Independence (IPKI), Masyumi Party, and Murba Party.

Most of the parties failed to gain even a single seat due to lack of votes. After the new electoral law authorised the use of a parliamentary threshold to determine the division of DPR seats, those parties were forced to reorganise themselves in order to be able to register for the next 2004 election.

Below is the list of political parties participating only in the 1999 election which failed to participate in the next 2004 election.

Parties participating in 2004 and 2009 elections
After the 1999 legislative election, 150 parties were registered with the Ministry of Law and Human Rights. However, after a review by the newly formed General Election Commission, this number was reduced to 50, and then to 24. This decrease from the 48 parties that ran in the 1999 legislative election was primarily due to a new election law that allowed only parties that had won 2% of DPR seats or 3% of seats in provincial and regental legislatures in half of the provinces to run in the 2004 election. Only six parties met this criterion, and the others were forced to merge or reorganize into a new party.

In 2009, introduction of a parliamentary threshold also meant that only parties receiving more than 2.5% of the popular vote would be seated in the DPR. This threshold was raised to 3.5% in 2014, then finally to 4% in 2017 as a way to cut election costs and ensure stability. As a result small parties have no chance of surpassing the parliamentary threshold.

Below is the list of political parties participating in the 2004 and 2009 elections which failed to participate in the next 2014 election.

Political parties in post-reform era (2005 – present)
Below is the list of defunct political parties established in a period from 2005 to present.

Selected bibliography

 * Dirkse, Jan-Paul; Hüsken, Frans & Rutten, Mario, eds. (1993). Development and Social Welfare: Indonesia’s Experiences under the New Order. Leiden: Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde.
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 * Dirkse, Jan-Paul; Hüsken, Frans & Rutten, Mario, eds. (1993). Development and Social Welfare: Indonesia’s Experiences under the New Order. Leiden: Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde.
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Talk:Borel set

Countably generated
The concept of countably generated is in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countably_generated How to prove that Borel sets are countably generated? Jackzhp 20:44, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

from open sets?
A subset of X is a Borel set if and only if it can be obtained from open sets by using a countable series of the set operations union, intersection and complement.

Is this true in general? I know that for metrisable spaces, every Borel set is of the form F-sigma, G-delta, F-sigma-delta, G-delta-sigma, F-sigma-delta-sigma, etc., etc. But I don't think every Borel set is necessarily of this form in a general topological space. (Why else would metrisability be part of the hypothesis of the theorem I read?)

 * I was quite wrong here. I read the symbol for the first uncountable ordinal as the symbol for the first infinite ordinal. Whoops! Revolver 07:03, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

In any case, I'm not sure it's clear precisely what is meant by "using a countable series of the set operations union, intersection, and complement". Certainly this is meant to include the F-sigma, G-delta, F-sigma-delta, G-delta-sigma, F-sigma-delta-sigma, etc., etc., but what about taking countable unions/intersections of sets lying somewhere in this hierarchy? I'm not even sure if this gives more sets, but regardless, the way it's worded, it's not clear if this construction is intended or not. Revolver

 * I believe The article is true as it now stands with your correction. I may have been responsible for the original sloppy wording.CSTAR 13:14, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I noticed that this article is virtually identical to. Did they copy from us, or the other way around? If it's the latter, it would seem to be a violation. Revolver

Sorry...it was copied from us! We're given credit at the bottom of the page. My bad. Revolver

generation of Borel sets
I didn't mean iteration to any countable ordinal. I meant that any Borel set could be created by iteration to a countable ordinal, and that this countable ordinal may be arbitrarily large depending on the Borel set. Revolver 19:31, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * I just didn't want to give the impression that there is a Borel set whose existence requires one to iterate uncountably many times. To get the whole algebra, you must go to uncountably many times, but not for a fixed Borel set. Revolver 19:40, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Is this true? In "Probability and Measure" by P. Billingsley (3rd ed.) pages 30-32, it is shown that there are Borel sets that are not generated by any finite n compositions of complements, countable unions (and countable intersections), no matter how large n is. It is also remarked, but not proved, that this holds even for countably infinite compositions. Unless Billingsley is wrong, this appears to contradict your claim.
 * Ah, yes.--CSTAR 20:17, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Consider the revision []. I think the guy mistakenly inserted the sentence "There is a second way with which to generate the Borel algbra." since the algorithm of generating algebra was not complete before this point, ie., $$ T_{\delta\sigma}=(T_\delta)_\sigma.\, $$ is not the algebra yet. Is this talk page the right place for my remark? Matumba (talk) 16:12, 21 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Well, one may agree that the writing is not perfectly clear at that point, but the first way to generate the Borel sets is the one described in the intro of the article (by intersection). The sentence "there is a second way" could be as well moved to the beginning of the section "Generating the Borel sigma-algebra" I think. Bdmy (talk) 16:34, 21 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Hmm, I think I liked it better before, but just with the talk of the "second way" removed. It's odd to describe the description in the lede as "generating" the Borel sets.  It defines them but doesn't construct them, whereas the recursive method does.  I don't necessarily intend anything very precise by this; it's neither a mathematical nor a philosophical claim, but I think it's fairly clear what I'm talking about. --Trovatore (talk) 20:50, 21 December 2008 (UTC)

Serious mistake in article about the Borel algebra
Remark: Originally posted on Oleg Alexandrov's Talk page by anonymous user 129.70.85.106

In the article "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borel_algebra" it is claimed, the borel algebra is the

"minimal σ-algebra containing the compact sets".

This is not correct. E.g. if you take some set E equipped with the indescrete topology (i.e. the only open sets are the empty set and E itself), then all sets are compact. Thus the minimal σ-algebra containing the compact sets is the powerset, while the borel algebra only consists of E and the empty set.

Other examples are - any other non-Hausdorff space - an uncountable space equipped with the discrete topology (every subset is open) --anon (129.70.85.106)

Very correct. However, please note that the article states at the beginning that
 * By Borel algebra one means either the the minimal σ-algebra containing the open sets or the minimal σ-algebra containing the compact sets.

And below that, it says that the two structures are not in general equivalent. So, you are very correct with the example above. But there is no mistake in the article. One can mean two different things by Borel algebra. In R^n those defintions are equivalent I think, in general they are not, and the article does state that. Oleg Alexandrov 15:29, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Indeed the Borel algebra defined as generated by the compact sets is basically due to Halmos' book, Measure Theory. All differences disappear for locally compact sperable metric spaces.  Maybe we should clarify the statement and say that these are two different definitions.--CSTAR 15:49, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

 * BTW, Oleg did you answer your own question, or was this someone else's objection? --CSTAR 15:53, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

Yes, it was somebody else's objection. I agree that maybe the statement would need clarification. Oleg Alexandrov 16:08, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

Construction of a Borel isomorphism
Can someone tell me how to construct an isomorphism between such Polish spaces as the unit ball in L^2[0,1] and the real line with the natural topology? Leocat 12 Oct 2006
 * Uh oh, construct? Do I know you? :) --CSTAR 19:24, 12 October 2006 (UTC)
 * You better worry about whether you know the answer to my question.Leocat 15 Oct 2006
 * Good answer. What I do know is that Kuratowski's theorem says there exists such an isomorphism. Whether this isomorphism is constructible, I don't know. Should I worry sone more? What me, worry?...about that? --CSTAR 14:52, 15 October 2006 (UTC)
 * To Leocat: See Example 2 in Schroeder-Bernstein_theorem_for_measurable_spaces; it is simpler than what you ask, but probably you can upgrade it as needed.Boris Tsirelson (talk) 21:02, 23 August 2008 (UTC)

Simple example
I would like to see a simple example what is and what is not a Borel set. TomyDuby 19:31, 31 December 2006 (UTC)

 * I think there is a simple example of what is a Borel set.
 * Specifically, I think it is the infinite series of 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, etc. of line segments. But I'm going here on my memory from a class taught by Gian-Carlo Rota in 1971 at MIT.

 * Here is a "simple" example of a Borel set -- and please comment/discuss if I'm wrong or correct since we are talking 35 years ago:
 * It is known that the number of rational numbers in countably infinite, and that there are "more" irrational numbers. In other words, we can prove that you can number all rational numbers via a grid with the whole numbers (p) across as column headers and whole numbers as row headers (q), and the intersection being the rational number p/q
 * Furthermore the diagonal method (same article, but there must be a better source) can show that there are more irrational numbers than rational.
 * Furthermore the diagonal method (same article, but there must be a better source) can show that there are more irrational numbers than rational.

 * But a Borel set can show this graphically by taking a line segment of length 2, and putting a line segment on each rational number there. The first line segment would be length 1/2, and the second would be length length 1/4, and then 1/8, etc.  The sum of these line segments would be 1, since 1=1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + ....

 * Each line segment would have an infinite number of points. So, here you would have a mapping, that instead of one-to-one would be infinite-to-one of irrational numbers to whole numbers, and there are an infinite number of line segments that still would not be counted:  the length of it equals 1 of the length 2 line segment.

 * Perhaps someone can a) verify that what I say is true, b) find the reference for it on the web.
 * --Peter10003 (talk) 12:01, 1 February 2010 (UTC)

 * I don't think there are any simple examples of a set that is not a Borel set. Timhoooey 00:32, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Good question, here is my follow up. How unconstructive relly are non-Borel sets? I know you need quite a strong choice, almost to well-order the reals, the get any non-Lebesgue or non-Baire sets, but do non-Borel ones provably exist even in ZF? Or you need some weak, like countable or dependent, choice? Thanks! Scineram (talk) 09:59, 14 July 2008 (UTC)
 * Actually there's a very concrete example of a non-Borel set, and I'm pretty sure it doesn't use any choice at all (though I do occasionally get surprised by the violent pathologies that can pop up in the absence of countable choice). Goes like this: first, specify some simple concrete scheme for coding an arbitrary linear order on the natural numbers by a single real. (This isn't too hard -- could be something like taking the fractional part of the real in binary, and if a 1 appears in position 2n3m, that means that n is before m in the ordering. That gives a relation on the natural numbers; if the relation is not a linear order of the naturals, then you throw that real away.)
 * Now look at the set of all reals such that the linear order they code is a wellordering. This set is $$\Pi^1_1$$-complete, and therefore not Borel.
 * Which does invite two further questions: (1) Why is the set $$\Pi^1_1$$-complete, and (2) why can't a $$\Pi^1_1$$-complete set be Borel? I'm not going to try to answer those right now; if you're interested, I recommend Moschovakis's Descriptive Set Theory.
 * (Alternatively, you can short-circuit those questions by noting that every Borel set can be coded by a real, and then applying Cantor's diagonal argument to get a set that's not Borel. However that would be a much less important set than the one I described above.) --Trovatore (talk) 08:05, 18 August 2008 (UTC)

 * I've just implemented something like this, on a rather elementary level; please look:non-Borel set.Boris Tsirelson (talk) 11:14, 22 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Good. I think, this is an important point for the set theory and the computability, and hence should remain a distinct article, not to be merged with “Borel set”.

 * > though I do occasionally get surprised by the violent pathologies that can pop up in the absence of countable choice
 * Yes, it is consistent with ZF for R to be a countable union of countable sets, in which case every subset of R is Borel.
 * JumpDiscont (talk) 23:23, 30 September 2009 (UTC)

Ambiguous statement in the references section
The following statement appears in the references section but is immediately followed by a list of 4 references. An excellent exposition of the machinery of Polish topology is given in Chapter 3 of the following reference: I seriously doubt it applies to all 4. Does anyone know which one(s) its talking about? Timhoooey 00:40, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

First uncountable ordinal
Isn't that usually called $$\omega_1$$? Deepmath (talk) 07:00, 16 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes. The Ω notation is definitely attested, though (for example, Folland uses it, in this precise context).
 * Still, my preference would be to change it to ω1, on the grounds that it's the less ambiguous, more commonly used, and more generalizable notation. Anyone else want to weigh in? --Trovatore (talk) 07:40, 18 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Whoops; I didn't bother to look at the actual article before responding — it doesn't say Ω; it just says the first uncountable ordinal. We should definitely add ω1 to that, but first we should probably say a little more about just what it means to iterate the process up to an ordinal. Bringing in the notation from descriptive set theory mightn't be a bad idea. Of course this material is already treated at Borel hierarchy, and from my perspective, the best thing to do might just be to merge this article into that one. --Trovatore (talk) 07:53, 18 August 2008 (UTC)

Choice
"if m is an uncountable limit ordinal, Gm is closed under countable unions"

How is this proven without Countable Union Condition?

How is

Aleph_1 x 2^Aleph_0 = 2^Aleph_0

proven without AC? —Preceding unsigned comment added by JumpDiscont (talk • contribs) 03:39, 20 November 2009 (UTC)

 * Who said it is? Choice is the default assumption; we don't have to mention it.  If you want to discuss what can happen in models of ~AC, that might be an interesting sidelight, but it would come later in the article. --Trovatore (talk) 03:47, 20 November 2009 (UTC)

"any measure defined on open sets AND closed sets must also be defined on all Borel sets"
why is the above part of the wikipedia article true and can it be changed to ... OR ... --demus wiesbaden (talk) 14:44, 4 December 2009 (UTC)

 * Yes. — Carl (CBM · talk) 18:47, 4 December 2009 (UTC)

Cardinality
I'm not sure if the paragraph

In the construction by transfinite induction, it can be shown that, in each step, the number of sets is, at most, the power of the continuum. So, the total number of Borel sets is less than or equal to $$\aleph_1 \times 2 ^ {\aleph_0}\, = 2^{\aleph_0}\,$$.

In the example section is meant for the borel algebra on the reals. If it is, then obvious the number of Borel sets is exactly continuum, because for any real number x, the set {x} is in the borel algebra (take the countable intersection of all open intervals (x-q,x+q) for q a positive rational number), and the defines an injection from the reals to the Borel algebra. Money is tight (talk) 09:02, 12 March 2010 (UTC)
 * There are exactly $$2^{\aleph_0}$$ Borel sets of reals, yes. Every Borel set can be coded by a real, which gives you the surjection. --Trovatore (talk) 09:06, 12 March 2010 (UTC)
 * Isn't this a consequence of axiom of countable choice? (In absence of any form of axiom of choice, it is consistent that all sets of real numbers are Borel sets.) - Mike Rosoft (talk) 21:33, 16 January 2019 (UTC)
 * Um. Probably.  I'd have to think about it, but yes, really really pathological things can happen if countable choice fails.  But choice (especially countable choice) is part of the default context.  For a while it was fashionable to be careful about calling out its dependencies specifically, but that is no longer true. --Trovatore (talk) 21:39, 16 January 2019 (UTC)

Borel set
I'm not sure I'm very fond of a passage with the following structure:
 * To prove this claim, note that ... In particular, it is easy to show that ...

I'm not demanding a proof, but this is, in my opinion, worse than a totally absent proof, or a painfully detailed present proof.

What does an actual proof use b t w? Set theory version of De Morgan's laws? Some countability property of metric spaces? Open set = union of increasing sequence of closed sets is there, but what does "easy to show..." mean elsewhere? If the "proof" is to stay it needs a rewrite. YohanN7 (talk) 05:37, 16 December 2013 (UTC)

I think this may be useful: If $α_{n}$ is a sequence in $ω_{1}$, then $sup α_{n}$ is a limit an ordinal strictly less than $ω_{1}$. Put $β$ = $sup α_{n} + 1$. Then, if $B_{n}$ is a sequence of sets in the sigmas,
 * $$\cup B_n \in \Sigma^0_\beta$$

where $α_{n}$ is the ordinal such that
 * $$B_n \in \Sigma^0_{\alpha_n}.$$

YohanN7 (talk) 08:02, 16 December 2013 (UTC)

Revised ambiguous use of "Borel space"
I revised the section Standard Borel spaces and Kuratowski theorems to give an unambiguous and modern definition of "Borel space".

The previous version said that Mackey used the term "Borel space" to mean what we now call a "measurable space", but that this is a misleading usage. However, it did not clearly state whether it was adopting Mackey's definition, nor did it offer another meaning for the term "Borel space". Yet it then proceeded to use the term several times!

The usage was consistent with the "obvious" definition of "Borel space", namely a set equipped with the sigma-algebra of Borel sets (of some topology). So I made this the official definition, at the top of the paragraph.

If someone thinks this is ahistorical, or not even correct usage, then I would suggest removing Mackey's no-longer-used definition (or putting it in a footnote) and also removing all usages of "Borel space", replacing them by "measurable space" (suitably qualified), except in the fixed expression "standard Borel space".

178.38.78.40 (talk) 10:07, 3 May 2015 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Borel set


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Tribunal

A tribunal, generally, is any person or institution with authority to judge, adjudicate on, or determine claims or disputes—whether or not it is called a tribunal in its title. For example, an advocate who appears before a court with a single judge could describe that judge as "their tribunal". Many governmental bodies are titled "tribunals" to emphasize that they are not courts of normal jurisdiction. For instance, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda was a body specially constituted under international law; in Great Britain, employment tribunals are bodies set up to hear specific employment disputes.

In many but not all cases, tribunal implies a judicial or quasi-judicial body with a lesser degree of formality than a court, in which the normal rules of evidence and procedure may not apply, and whose presiding officers are frequently neither judges nor magistrates. Private judicial bodies are also often-styled tribunals. Tribunal is not conclusive of a body's function; in Great Britain, the Employment Appeal Tribunal is a superior court of record.

The term is derived from the tribunes, magistrates of the Classical Roman Republic. Tribunal originally referred to the office of the tribunes, and the term is still sometimes used in this sense in historical writings. The tribunal was the platform upon which the presiding authority sat; having a raised position physically was symbolic of their higher position regarding the adjudication of the law.

Australia
In Australia, tribunal generally implies a judicial body with a lesser degree of formality than a court, with a simplified legal procedure, often presided over by a lawyer (solicitor or barrister) who is not a judge or magistrate (often referred to as a member of the tribunal). In many cases, the lawyers who function as tribunal members do so only part-time and spend the greater part of their time carrying out other aspects of legal practice, such as representing clients. In many cases, the formal rules of evidence that apply in courts do not apply in tribunals, which enables tribunals to hear forms of evidence that courts may not be allowed to consider. Tribunals generally deal with simpler matters; while legal representation is permitted and not uncommon, self-representation is much more common in tribunals than in courts, and tribunal members and registry staff are generally more accustomed to dealing with self-represented parties than courts are. Appeal from a tribunal is to a court.

Tribunals in the Australian judicial system include the following:
 * Administrative Appeals Tribunal (under review)
 * New South Wales Civil and Administrative Tribunal
 * Queensland Civil and Administrative Tribunal
 * State Administrative Tribunal of Western Australia
 * Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal

Every state has a "supertribunal" that covers a wide range of administrative decisions and, in some cases, has civil jurisdiction. In several Australian states, tribunals function as the equivalent of a small claims court.

In the context of sport, "tribunal" frequently refers to the AFL Tribunal, the disciplinary body of the Australian Football League.

Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, tribunal refers to a court that serves some special purpose, of which Bangladesh has several. These have been set up to ensure speedy trial and reduce case congestion in the normal courts. Besides this, Article 117 of the Constitution of Bangladesh empowers the parliament to set up one or more administrative tribunals. No court can entertain any proceeding or make any order regarding any matter within such tribunal's jurisdiction.

Belgium
In the judicial system of Belgium, the names of the lower trial courts can be translated into English as "tribunals" (rechtbank, tribunal, gericht). In comparison, the higher appellate courts can be translated as "courts" (hof, cour, hof).

Brazil
The Judiciary of Brazil officially names "tribunal" the appeal court and the ones above it, always with more than one judge. The higher court is the Supremo Tribunal Federal (Supreme Federal Court), followed by the superior tribunals (Superior Tribunal de Justiça, Tribunal Superior Eleitoral, Tribunal Superior do Trabalho, Superior Tribunal Militar). The federal justice is divided into regions; each has its Tribunal Regional Federal (Regional Federal Court). Also, each state has its own Tribunal de Justiça (Justice Court).

Canada

 * Civil Resolution Tribunal, an online Tribunal in British Columbia (BC).
 * Landlord and Tenant Board, formerly the Ontario Rental Housing Tribunal.
 * Ontario Condominium Authority, facilitates dispute resolution between condo owners and boards regarding issues such as noise complaints.

Hong Kong
The following tribunals exist within the Judiciary of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China: Lands, Small Claims, Labour, Obscene Articles. For public inquiries, commissions are set up instead under the Commissions of Inquiry Ordinance.

India
There are tribunals for settling various administrative and tax-related disputes, including Central Administrative Tribunal, Income Tax Appellate Tribunal, Customs, Excise and Service Tax Appellate Tribunal, National Green Tribunal, Competition Appellate Tribunal and Securities Appellate Tribunal, among others.

The National Company Law Tribunal is a quasi-judicial body in India that adjudicates issues relating to Indian companies.

National Company Law Appellate Tribunal was constituted under Section 410 of the Companies Act, 2013, for hearing appeals against National Company Law Tribunal orders, effective 1 June 2016.

In several states, Food Safety Appellate Tribunals have been created to hear appeals against orders of adjudicating officers for food safety (additional deputy commissioners).

Armed Forces Tribunal is a military tribunal in India. It was established under the Armed Forces Tribunal Act, 2007.

Permanent Lok Adalat (PUS) is a law court (also known as People's Court) and special tribunal set up in some districts throughout the country. It has been established under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987.

Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, tribunal popularly refers to a public inquiry established under the Tribunals of Inquiry (Evidence) Act 1921. The main difference between a Parliamentary Inquiry (non-statutory) and a Tribunal of Inquiry in Ireland is that non-statutory inquiries are not vested with the powers, privileges, and rights of the High Court. Tribunals of Inquiry are. Tribunals are established by resolution of the Houses of the Oireachtas to enquire into matters of urgent public importance. It is not a function of Tribunals to administer justice; their work is solely inquisitorial. Tribunals are obliged to report their findings to the Oireachtas. They can enforce the attendance and examination of witnesses and produce documents relevant to the work. Tribunals can consist of one or more people. A layperson or non-lawyer may be the Sole member of a tribunal.

Netherlands
Historically, before the separation of lawmaking, law enforcement, and justice duties in the Netherlands, all sentences were delivered by a tribunal of seven schepenen, or magistrates, appointed by the local count. Such a tribunal was called a Vierschaar, so named for a rope—or cord—drawn (schaar or scheren) in a four-square dimension, wherein the judges sat on four benches. These benches were also positioned in a square, with the defendant standing in the middle. Towns had the Vierschaar privilege to hear disputes. The Vierschaar was usually located in the town hall, and many historical town halls still have such a room, usually decorated with scenes from the Judgement of Solomon.

United Kingdom
The tribunal system of the United Kingdom is part of the national system of administrative justice. Though it has grown up on an ad hoc basis since the beginning of the twentieth century, from 2007, reforms were put in place to build a unified system with recognised judicial authority, routes of appeal, and regulatory supervision.

United States
"Tribunal" is used in the U.S. generally to refer to courts or judicial bodies, as in the ABA Model Rules of Professional Conduct. The Ohio Rules of Professional Conduct, for instance, define "tribunal" as "a court, an arbitrator in a binding arbitration, or a legislative body, administrative agency, or other body acting in an adjudicative capacity."

Catholic Church
In the Catholic Church, ecclesiastical courts are called tribunals. Tribunals are distinguished by grade, while proceedings are distinguished by instance; for example, an archdiocesan tribunal may hear a cause in the first instance if the cause is first brought before the archdiocesan tribunal. Or, if the cause was first heard before the diocesan tribunal and is now appealed to the archdiocesan tribunal, the latter may hear the cause in the second instance. Only the Roman Rota can hear causes in the third instance, with limited exceptions. Other tribunals are incompetent in the third instance because of grade (ratione gradus) since they do not have the jurisdiction to judge in the third instance. Tribunals include:

 * diocesan or eparchal tribunals (including archdiocesan or archeparchal tribunals)
 * interdiocesan tribunals, that is, a tribunal erected by the Holy See for more than one diocese, either as a tribunal of the first instance or as an appellate tribunal in the second instance
 * the synod of bishops of patriarchal churches is the highest tribunal within the territory of the patriarchal church, without prejudice to the primacy of the Apostolic See
 * ordinary tribunal of the patriarchal church, distinct from the eparchial tribunal of the patriarchal church
 * ordinary tribunals of the Apostolic See
 * Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura, the highest tribunal in the canon law of the Catholic Church
 * Tribunal of the Roman Rota, the highest appellate tribunal competent in most causes in the second and third instances and some causes in the first instance
 * Apostolic Penitentiary, a tribunal for matters concerning the internal forum
 * Supreme tribunal of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith for certain more grave delicts (canonical crimes)

In health sector
Tribunals also play an integral role in health sectors within and across nations. They are often referred to as "adjunctive tribunals". These quasi-judicial bodies possess regulatory, oversight, and dispute-resolution powers to aid health decision-making and governance. At the same time, the actual effects of adjunctive tribunals on health services are disputed, as little evidence exists to evaluate their efficacy. More empirical evaluations are needed to ensure that tribunals operate in a more evidence-based, systematic manner within the health sector.

title: Tribunal


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The Lord of the Rings (1978 film)

The Lord of the Rings is a 1978 British-American animated fantasy film directed by Ralph Bakshi from a screenplay by Chris Conkling and Peter S. Beagle. It is based on the novel of the same name by J. R. R. Tolkien, adapting from the volumes The Fellowship of the Ring and The Two Towers. Set in Middle-earth, the film follows a group of fantasy races—Hobbits, Men, an Elf, a Dwarf and a wizard—who form a fellowship to destroy a magical ring made by the Dark Lord Sauron, the main antagonist.

Bakshi encountered Tolkien's writing early in his career. He had made several attempts to produce The Lord of the Rings as an animated film before producer Saul Zaentz and distributor United Artists provided funding. The film is notable for its extensive use of rotoscoping, a technique in which scenes are first shot in live-action, then traced onto animation cels. It uses a hybrid of traditional cel animation and rotoscoped live-action footage.

The Lord of the Rings was released in the United States on November 15, 1978, and in the United Kingdom on July 5, 1979. Although the film received mixed reviews from critics, and hostility from disappointed viewers who felt that it was incomplete, it was a financial success; there was no official sequel to cover the remainder of the story. However, the film has retained a cult following and was a minor inspiration for New Zealand filmmaker Peter Jackson.

Plot
Early in the Second Age of Middle-earth, Elven smiths forge nine Rings of Power for mortal Men, seven for the Dwarf-Lords, and three for the Elf-Kings. Soon after, the Dark Lord Sauron makes the One Ring, and uses it to attempt to conquer Middle-earth. After defeating Sauron, Prince Isildur takes the Ring, but after he is eventually killed by Orcs, the Ring lies at the bottom of the river Anduin for over 2,500 years. Over time, Sauron captures the Nine Rings and transforms their owners into the Ringwraiths. The One Ring is discovered by Déagol, whose kinsman, Sméagol, kills him and takes the Ring for himself. The Ring twists his body and mind, and he becomes the creature Gollum (Peter Woodthorpe) who takes it with him into the Misty Mountains. Hundreds of years later, Bilbo Baggins (Norman Bird) finds the Ring in Gollum's cave and brings it back with him to the Shire.

Decades later, during Bilbo's birthday celebration, the Wizard Gandalf (William Squire) tells him to leave the Ring for his nephew Frodo (Christopher Guard). Bilbo reluctantly agrees, and departs for Rivendell. Seventeen years pass, during which Gandalf learns that evil forces have discovered that the Ring is in the possession of a Baggins. Gandalf meets Frodo to explain the Ring's history and the danger it poses, and Frodo leaves his home, taking the Ring with him. He is accompanied by three Hobbits, his cousins, Pippin (Dominic Guard), Merry (Simon Chandler), and his gardener Sam (Michael Scholes). After a narrow escape from the Ringwraiths, the hobbits eventually come to Bree, from which Aragorn (John Hurt) leads them to Rivendell. Frodo is stabbed atop Weathertop mountain by the chief of the Ringwraiths, and becomes sickened as the journey progresses. The Ringwraiths catch up with them shortly after they meet the Elf Legolas (Anthony Daniels); and at a standoff at the ford of Rivendell, the Ringwraiths are swept away by the river.

At Rivendell, Frodo is healed by Elrond (André Morell). He meets Gandalf again, after the latter escapes the corrupt wizard Saruman (Fraser Kerr), who plans to ally with Sauron but also wants the Ring for himself. Frodo volunteers to go to Mordor, where the Ring can be destroyed. Thereafter Frodo sets off from Rivendell with eight companions: Gandalf; Aragorn; Boromir (Michael Graham Cox), son of the Steward of Gondor; Legolas; Gimli (David Buck) the Dwarf, along with Pippin, Merry, and Sam.

Their attempt to cross the Misty Mountains is foiled by heavy snow, and they are forced into Moria. There, they are attacked by Orcs, and Gandalf falls into an abyss while battling a Balrog. The remaining Fellowship continue through the Elf-haven Lothlórien, where they meet the Elf queen Galadriel (Annette Crosbie). Boromir tries to take the Ring from Frodo, and Frodo decides to continue his quest alone; but Sam insists on accompanying him. Boromir is killed by Orcs while trying to defend Merry and Pippin. Merry and Pippin are captured by the Orcs, who intend to take them to Isengard through the land of Rohan. The captured hobbits escape and flee into Fangorn Forest, where they meet Treebeard (John Westbrook). Aragorn, Gimli, and Legolas track Merry and Pippin into the forest, where they are reunited with Gandalf, who was reborn after destroying the Balrog.

The four then ride to Rohan's capital, Edoras, where Gandalf persuades King Théoden (Philip Stone) that his people are in danger. Aragorn, Gimli, and Legolas then travel to the Helm's Deep. Frodo and Sam discover Gollum stalking them in an attempt to reclaim the Ring, and capture him; but spare his life in return for guidance to Mount Doom. Gollum eventually begins plotting against them, and wonders if "she" might help. At Helm's Deep, Théoden's forces resist the Orcs sent by Saruman, until Gandalf arrives with the absent Riders of Rohan, destroying the Orc army.

Cast

 * Christopher Guard as Frodo
 * William Squire as Gandalf
 * Michael Scholes as Sam
 * John Hurt as Aragorn
 * Simon Chandler as Merry
 * Dominic Guard as Pippin
 * Norman Bird as Bilbo
 * Michael Graham Cox as Boromir
 * Anthony Daniels as Legolas
 * David Buck as Gimli
 * Peter Woodthorpe as Gollum
 * Fraser Kerr as Saruman
 * Philip Stone as Théoden
 * Michael Deacon as Wormtongue
 * André Morell as Elrond
 * Alan Tilvern as Innkeeper
 * Annette Crosbie as Galadriel
 * John Westbrook as Treebeard / Lord Celeborn of Lothlorien

This primary cast was supported by a large cast of animation doubles, who were not credited on screen; the matter went to guild arbitration.

Development
Director Ralph Bakshi was introduced to The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien during the mid-1950s while working as an animator for Terrytoons. In 1957, the young animator started trying to convince people that the story could be told in animation.

In 1969, the rights were passed to United Artists, where an "elegant" Peter Shaffer script was abandoned. Film producer Denis O'Dell was interested in producing a film for the Beatles, and approached directors David Lean (busy with Ryan's Daughter), Stanley Kubrick (who deemed it "unfilmable"), and Michelangelo Antonioni. John Boorman was commissioned to write a script in late 1969, but it was deemed too expensive in 1970.

Bakshi approached United Artists when he learned (from a 1974 issue of Variety) that Boorman's script was abandoned. Learning that Boorman intended to produce all three parts of The Lord of the Rings as a single film, Bakshi commented, "I thought that was madness, certainly a lack of character on Boorman's part. Why would you want to tamper with anything Tolkien did?" Bakshi began making a "yearly trek" to United Artists. Bakshi had since achieved box office success producing adult-oriented animated films such as Fritz the Cat but his recent film, Coonskin, tanked, and he later clarified that he thought The Lord of the Rings could "make some money" so as to save his studio.

In 1975, Bakshi convinced United Artists executive Mike Medavoy to produce The Lord of the Rings as two or three animated films, and a prequel to The Hobbit. Medavoy offered him Boorman's script, which Bakshi refused, saying that Boorman "didn't understand it" and that his script would have made for a cheap film like "a Roger Corman film". Medavoy accepted Bakshi's proposal to "do the books as close as we can, using Tolkien's exact dialogue and scenes".

Although he was later keen to regroup with Boorman for his script (and his surrogate project, Excalibur), Bakshi claimed Medavoy didn't want to produce his film at the time, but allowed him to shop it around if he could get another studio to pay for the expenses on Boorman's script. Bakshi attempted unsuccessfully to persuade Peter Bogdanovich to take on the project, but managed to gain the support of the then President of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Dan Melnick. Bakshi and Melnick made a deal with Mike Medavoy at United Artists to buy the Boorman script. Bakshi said later that "The Boorman script cost $3 million, so Boorman was happy by the pool, screaming and laughing and drinking, 'cause he got $3 million for his script to be thrown out." Boorman, however, was unhappy with the project going to animation after Tolkien once wrote to him, pleased that he was doing it in live-action. He never saw Bakshi's film, and after it was released, tried to remake his live-action version with Medavoy.

Work began on scripts and storyboards. When Melnick was fired from MGM in 1976, Bakshi's studio had spent between $200,000 and $600,000. The new executive Dick Shepherd hadn't read the books and, according to Bakshi, did not want to make the movie; Shepherd obliviously asked whether The Lord of the Rings was about a wedding. Bakshi then contacted Saul Zaentz (who had helped finance Fritz the Cat), asking him to produce The Lord of the Rings; Zaentz agreed.

Before production started, Bakshi met with Tolkien's daughter Priscilla to discuss how the film would be made. She showed him the room where her father did his writing and drawing. Bakshi says, "My promise to Tolkien's daughter was to be pure to the book. I wasn't going to say, 'Hey, throw out Gollum and change these two characters.' My job was to say, 'This is what the genius said.'"

Bakshi was approached by Mick Jagger, who wanted to play Frodo, but at the time the roles were already cast and recorded. David Carradine also approached Bakshi, offering to play Aragorn, and even suggested that Bakshi do it in live-action; while Bakshi's contract allowed this, he said it couldn't be done and that he'd "always seen it as animation". He said it was impossible to make it in live-action without it being "tacky".

Screenwriting
Bakshi began developing the script himself. Learning of the project, Chris Conkling got an interview with Bakshi but was initially hired to "do research, to say what the costumes should look like or what the characters would be doing at any given time". Together, they first decided how to break the films down. When they started, they contemplated a three-film structure, but "we didn't know how that middle film would work" without a beginning and an end. Conkling even started writing a treatment for one long, three-and-a-half hour feature of the entire work, but eventually settled on scripts for two 150-minute films, the first of which was titled "The Lord of the Rings, Part One: The Fellowship".

The second draft of the screenplay, written by Conkling, told the bulk of the story in flashback, from Merry Brandybuck's point of view, so as to lead into the sequel. This version included Tom Bombadil, who rescues the Hobbits from the Barrow Downs, as well as Farmer Maggot, the Old Forest, Glorfindel, Arwen, and several songs. Bakshi felt it was "a much too drastic departure from Tolkien". Conkling began writing a draft that was "more straightforward and true to the source".

Still displeased, Bakshi and Zaentz called in fantasy author Peter S. Beagle for a rewrite. Beagle's first draft eliminated the framing device and told the story beginning with Bilbo's Farewell Party, climaxing with the Battle of Helm's Deep, and ending with the cliffhanger of Gollum leading Frodo and Sam to Shelob. The revised draft includes a brief prologue to reveal the history of the Ring. Fans threatened Bakshi that "he'd better get it right" and according to the artist Mike Ploog, Bakshi constantly revised the story to include certain beasts at the behest of such fans.

Differences from the book
Of the adaptation process, Bakshi stated that some elements of the story "had to be left out but nothing in the story was really altered". The film greatly condenses Frodo's journey from Bag End to Bree. Stop-overs at Farmer Maggot's house, Frodo's supposed home in Buckland, and the house of the mysterious Tom Bombadil deep in the Old Forest are omitted. Maggot and his family, Bombadil and his wife Goldberry and the encounter with the Barrow-wight are thus all omitted, along with Fatty Bolger, a hobbit who accompanied Frodo at the beginning. According to Bakshi, the character of Tom Bombadil was dropped because "he didn't move the story along."

Directing

Bakshi said that one of the problems with the production was that the film was an epic, because "epics tend to drag. The biggest challenge was to be true to the book." When asked what he was trying to accomplish with the film, Bakshi stated "The goal was to bring as much quality as possible to the work. I wanted real illustration as opposed to cartoons." Bakshi said that descriptions of the characters were not included because they are seen in the film. He stated that the key thing was not "how a hobbit looks", since everyone has their own idea of such things, but that "the energy of Tolkien survives". In his view what mattered was whether the quality of animation was enough to make the movie work.

Bakshi was aware of the work of illustrators like the Brothers Hildebrandt, without accepting that their style had driven his approach; he stated that the film presented a clash of many styles, as in his other films.

Animation
Publicity for the film announced that Bakshi had created "the first movie painting" by utilizing "an entirely new technique in filmmaking". Much of the film used live-action footage which was then rotoscoped to produce an animated look. This saved production costs and gave the animated characters a more realistic look. In animation historian Jerry Beck's The Animated Movie Guide, reviewer Marea Boylan writes that "up to that point, animated films had not depicted extensive battle scenes with hundreds of characters. By using the rotoscope, Bakshi could trace highly complex scenes from live-action footage and transform them into animation, thereby taking advantage of the complexity live-action film could capture without incurring the exorbitant costs of producing a live-action film." Bakshi rejected the Disney approach which he thought "cartoony", arguing that his approach, while not traditional for rotoscoping, created a feeling of realism involving up to a thousand characters in a scene.

Bakshi went to England to recruit a voice cast from the BBC Drama Repertory Company, including Christopher Guard, William Squire, Michael Scholes, Anthony Daniels, and John Hurt. Daniels remembers that "The whole cast were in the same studio but we all had to leave a two second gap between the lines which made for rather stilted dialogue." For the live-action portion of the production, Bakshi and his cast and crew went to Spain, where the rotoscope models acted out their parts in costume in the open or in empty soundstages. Additional photography took place in Death Valley. Bakshi was so terrified of the horses used in the shoot that he directed those scenes from inside the caravan.

Bakshi had a difficult working relationship with producer Saul Zaentz. When Zaentz would bring potential investors to Bakshi's studio, he would always show them the same sequence, of Frodo falling off of his horse at the Ford (which was his stunt double actually falling over).

During the middle of a large shoot, union bosses called for a lunch break, and Bakshi secretly shot footage of actors in Orc costumes moving toward the craft service table, and used the footage in the film. Many of the actors who contributed voices to this production also acted out their parts for rotoscoped scenes. The actions of Bilbo Baggins and Samwise Gamgee were performed by Billy Barty, while Sharon Baird served as the performance model for Frodo Baggins. Other performers used on the rotoscoping session included John A. Neris as Gandalf, Walt Robles as Aragorn, Felix Silla as Gollum, Jeri Lea Ray as Galadriel, and Aesop Aquarian as Gimli. Although some cel animation was produced and shot for the film, very little of it appears in the final film. Most of the film's crowd and battle scenes use a different technique, in which live-action footage is solarized (per an interview with the film's cinematographer, Timothy Galfas, in the documentary Forging Through the Darkness: the Ralph Bakshi Vision for The Lord of the Rings) to produce a more three-dimensional look. In a few shots the two techniques are combined.

Bakshi claimed he "didn't start thinking about shooting the film totally in live action until I saw it really start to work so well. I learned lots of things about the process, like rippling. One scene, some figures were standing on a hill and a big gust of wind came up and the shadows moved back and forth on the clothes and it was unbelievable in animation. I don't think I could get the feeling of cold on the screen without showing snow or an icicle on some guy's nose. The characters have weight and they move correctly." After the Spanish film development lab discovered that telephone lines, helicopters, and cars could be seen in the footage Bakshi had shot, they tried to incinerate the footage, telling Bakshi's first assistant director that "if that kind of sloppy cinematography got out, no one from Hollywood would ever come back to Spain to shoot again."

Following the live-action shoot, each frame of the live footage was printed out, and placed behind an animation cel. The details of each frame were copied and painted onto the cel. Both the live-action and animated sequences were storyboarded. Of the production, Bakshi is quoted as saying,

"Making two pictures [the live action reference and the actual animated feature] in two years is crazy. Most directors when they finish editing, they are finished; we were just starting. I got more than I expected. The crew is young. The crew loves it. If the crew loves it, it's usually a great sign. They aren't older animators trying to snow me for jobs next year."

Although he continued to use rotoscoping in American Pop, Hey Good Lookin', and Fire and Ice, Bakshi later regretted his use of the technique, stating that he felt that it was a mistake to trace the source footage rather than using it as a guide.

By the time Bakshi was done animating, he had only four weeks left to cut the film from a nearly 150-minute rough cut. Restoring a piece of animation where Gandalf fights the Balrog (replaced in the finished film by a photomontage), Eddie Bakshi remarked that little of the film was left on the cutting room floor. Bakshi asked three additional months to edit the film, but was declined. After test-screenings, it was decided to re-cut the end of the picture so that Gollum would resolve leading Frodo and Sam to Shelob before cutting back to Helm's Deep, so as to not end the film on a cliffhanger.

Working on the film were Tim Burton, Disney animator Dale Baer, and Mike Ploog, who worked also on other Bakshi animations such as Wizards.

Music
The film score was composed by Leonard Rosenman. Bakshi wanted to include music by Led Zeppelin but producer Saul Zaentz insisted upon an orchestral score because he would not be able to release the band's music on his Fantasy Records label. Rosenman wanted a large score, involving a 100-piece orchestra, 100-piece mixed choir and 100-piece boy choir, but ended up with a smaller ensemble. Bakshi initially called his score "majestic", but later stated that he hated Rosenman's score, which he found to be too cliché.

In Lord of the Rings: Popular Culture in Global Context, Ernest Mathijs writes that Rosenman's score "is a middle ground between his more sonorous but dissonant earlier scores and his more traditional (and less challenging) sounding music [...] In the final analysis, Rosenman's score has little that marks it out as distinctively about Middle Earth, relying on traditions of music (including film music) more than any specific attempt to paint a musical picture of the different lands and peoples of Tolkien's imagination." The film's score was issued as a double-LP soundtrack album in 1978. The album reached number 33 in the Canadian RPM Magazine album charts on February 24, 1979.

Box office, awards and nominations
The Lord of the Rings was a financial success. Reports of the budget vary from $4 to $8 million, and as high as $12 million, while the film grossed $30.5 million at the North American box office. It thus made a profit, having kept its costs low. In the United Kingdom, the film grossed over $3.2 million. Despite this, the reaction from fans was hostile; Jerry Beck writes that they "intensely dislike[d]" the film's "cheap-looking effects and the missing ending", having been misled by the title to expect the film to cover the whole of the book.

The film was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. It was nominated for a Saturn Awards for Best Fantasy Film. Leonard Rosenman's score was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Original Motion Picture Score, and Bakshi won a Golden Gryphon award for the film at the Giffoni Film Festival.

Critical response
Critics gave mixed responses to the film, but generally considered it to be a "flawed but inspired interpretation". On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on  reviews, with an average of. The site's critical consensus reads: "Ralph Bakshi's valiant attempt at rendering Tolkien's magnum opus in rotoscope never lives up to the grandeur of its source material, with a compressed running time that flattens the sweeping story and experimental animation that is more bizarre than magical."

Frank Barrow of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that the film was "daring and unusual in concept". Joseph Gelmis of Newsday wrote that "the film's principal reward is a visual experience unlike anything that other animated features are doing at the moment." Roger Ebert called Bakshi's effort a "mixed blessing" and "an entirely respectable, occasionally impressive job ... [which] still falls far short of the charm and sweep of the original story." Vincent Canby of The New York Times called the film "both numbing and impressive".

David Denby of New York magazine felt that the film would not make sense to viewers who had not previously read the book. Denby wrote that the film was too dark and lacked humour, concluding that "The lurid, meaningless violence of this movie left me exhausted and sickened by the end." Michael Barrier, an animation historian, described The Lord of The Rings as one of two films that demonstrated "that Bakshi was utterly lacking in the artistic self-discipline that might have permitted him to outgrow his limitations."

Barry Langford, writing in the J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, noted the film's deficiencies, including the "glaringly evident" weaknesses in the rotoscoping animation. The quality of rotoscoping from filmed live action is limited by the quality of the acting, which, given the lack of rehearsal and time for retakes, was not high. The prologue was not rotoscoped, but shot as "silhouetted dumb show through red filters", revealing clumsy mime and confused voiceover, announcing that Mordor defeated Elves and Men at the Battle of Dagorlad, which Langford observes would make the rest of the action incomprehensible. The small budget led to underwhelming battle scenes, as in the Mines of Moria where the Fellowship is confronted by what looks like a very small force of Orcs. The rotoscoping varies from strongly drawn to almost absent, leading to a markedly uneven treatment through the film. The characterisation, in Langford's view, similarly leaves much to be desired.

Influence on Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings
The film has been cited as an influence on director Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, although Jackson said that "our film is stylistically very different and the design is different." Reading about attempts to make the films live-action by Boorman and the Beatles contacting Kubrick and Lean to do the same, Jackson agreed animation was the most sensible choice at the time. Jackson remembers Bakshi's film as a "brave and ambitious attempt". In another interview, Jackson stated that it had "some quaint sequences in Hobbiton, a creepy encounter with the Black Rider on the road, and a few quite good battle scenes" but "about half way through, the storytelling became very disjointed" and it became "confusing" and "incoherent". He and his screenwriter and producer Fran Walsh remarked that Bakshi's Treebeard "looked like a talking carrot". Jackson watched the film for the first time since its premiere in 1997, when Harvey Weinstein screened it to begin the story conferences.

Ahead of the films' release, Bakshi said he did not "understand it" but that he does "wish it to be a good movie". He felt bad that he wasn't contacted by Zaentz, who was involved in the project, and erroneously said they were screening his film at New Line while working on the live-action films. Nevertheless, he clarified he wished the filmmakers success. He claims Warner Brothers approached him with a proposal to make part two at the time, but he complained that they didn't involve him in the live-action film, and refused.

After the films were released Bakshi said that while, "on the creative side", he does "feel good that Peter Jackson continued," he begrudged Saul Zaentz for not notifying him of the live-action films. He said that, with his own film already made, Jackson could study it: "I'm glad Peter Jackson had a movie to look at—I never did. And certainly there's a lot to learn from watching any movie, both its mistakes and when it works. So he had a little easier time than I did, and a lot better budget."

Bakshi had never watched the films, but saw trailers and while he praised the special effects, he said that Jackson "didn't understand" Tolkien and created "special effects garbage" to sell toys, saying his film has "more heart" and that, had he a similar budget, would have made a better film. Bakshi was told the live-action film was derivative of his own, and blamed Jackson for not acknowledging this influence: "Peter Jackson did say that the first film inspired him to go on and do the series, but that happened after I was bitching and moaning to a lot of interviewers that he said at the beginning that he never saw the movie. I thought that was kind of fucked up." Bakshi then said that Jackson mentioned his influence "only once" as "PR bologny". Jackson, who took a fan photograph with Bakshi in 1993, remains puzzled about Bakshi's indignation. In 2015, Bakshi apologized for some of his remarks. Bakshi's animator Mike Ploog praised the live-action film.

In fact, Jackson did acknowledge Bakshi's film as early as 1998, when he told a worried fan that he hoped to outdo Bakshi, as well as mentioning in the behind-the-scenes features that "the black Riders galloping out of Bree was an image I remember very clearly [...] from the Ralph Bakshi film." In the audio commentary to The Fellowship of the Ring, Jackson says Bakshi's film introduced him to The Lord of the Rings and "inspired me to read the book" and in a 2001 interview, said he "enjoyed [the film] and wanted to know more". On the audio commentary for the DVD release of The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, Jackson acknowledges one shot, a low angle of a hobbit at Bilbo's birthday party shouting "Proudfeet!", as an intentional homage to Bakshi's film, which Jackson thought was "a brilliant angle".

Another influence came through one of Jackson's conceptual artists, John Howe, who unwittingly copied a scene from Bakshi's film in a painting that depicted the four Hobbits hiding under a branch from a Ringwraith. The painting was used in the 1987 J. R. R. Tolkien Calendar. Jackson turned the painting into a scene in the film.

Canceled sequels
The film was originally intended to be distributed as The Lord of the Rings Part I. Initially a trilogy was planned, but this was revised to two planned films because of the limited budget. Arthur Krim resigned from United Artists and was replaced by Andy Albeck. According to Bakshi, when he completed the film, United Artists executives told him that they were planning to release the film without indicating that a sequel would follow, because they felt that audiences would not pay to see half of a film. Bakshi stated that he strongly opposed this, and agreed with the shocked viewers who complained that the film was unfinished. In his view, "Had it said 'Part One,' I think everyone would have respected it."

Although UA found that the film, while financially successful, "failed to overwhelm audiences", Bakshi began working on a sequel, and even had some B-roll footage shot. The Film Book of J.R.R. Tolkien's the Lord of the Rings, published by Ballantine Books on October 12, 1978, still referred to the sequel in the book's inside cover jacket. Indeed, in interviews Bakshi talked about doing "a part two film picking up where this leaves off", and even boasted that the second film could "pick up on sequences that we missed in the first book". Zaentz went so far as to try to stop the Rankin/Bass's The Return of the King TV special (which was already storyboarded before Bakshi's film came out) from airing, so as to not clash with Bakshi's sequel.

Bakshi was aware of Rankin/Bass's The Hobbit TV special, and angrily commented that "Lord of the Rings is not going to have any song for the sake of a record album." During the lawsuit, he commented that "They're not going to stop us from doing The Lord of the Rings and they won't stop us from doing The Hobbit. Anyone who saw their version of The Hobbit know it has nothing to do with the quality and style of our feature. My life isn't going to be altered by what Rankin-Bass chooses to do badly." Years later, he called their film "an awful, rip-off version of The Hobbit."

Bakshi found the two years spent on Rings immensely stressful, and the fan reaction scathing. He took comfort in talking to Priscilla Tolkien, who said she loved it, but got into an argument with Zaentz and refused to do Part Two. Reports vary as to whether the argument had to do with the dropping of the "Part One" subtitle or Bakshi's fee for the sequel.

Bakshi said he was "proud to have made part one" and that his work was "there for anyone who would make part two". In interviews leading up to the year 2000, he still toyed with the idea of making the sequel. For his part, Zaentz said he kept in touch with Bakshi, but confided to John Boorman that making the film was the worst experience of his life, which made him protective of the property. Indeed, he commented that the film "wasn't as good as we should have made" and later remarked that an "animated [film] couldn't do it. It was just too complex for animated to handle it, with the emotion that was needed and the size and scope."

During development of the live-action films, Bakshi said he was approached by Warner Bros. to make the second part, but refused as he was angry of not being notified about the live-action film. He did use the renewed interest in his film to restore it to DVD, and had the final line redubbed to bolster the film's sense of finality. After the live-action films found success, Bakshi stated that he would never have made the film if he had known what would happen during the production. He is quoted as saying that the reason he made the film was "to save it for Tolkien, because I loved the Rings very much". He concluded that the film made him realize that he was not interested in adapting another writer's story.

Legacy
The film was adapted into comic book form with artwork by Spanish artist Luis Bermejo, under licence from Tolkien Enterprises. Three issues were published for the European market, starting in 1979, and were not published in the United States or translated into English due to copyright problems.

Warner Bros. (the rights holder to the post-September 1974 Rankin/Bass library and the Saul Zaentz theatrical library) first released the film on DVD and re-released on VHS in 2001 through the Warner Bros. Family Entertainment label. While the VHS version ends with the narrator saying "Here ends the first part of the history of the War of the Ring.", the DVD version has an alternate narration: "The forces of darkness were driven forever from the face of Middle-Earth by the valiant friends of Frodo. As their gallant battle ended, so, too, ends the first great tale of The Lord of the Rings." Later, The Lord of the Rings was released in a deluxe edition on Blu-ray and DVD on April 6, 2010. The Lord of the Rings was selected as the 36th greatest animated film by Time Out magazine, and ranked as the 90th greatest animated film of all time by the Online Film Critics Society.

title: The Lord of the Rings (1978 film)


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User:Tda

Tda (The Doom Addict)
"Tda" is the online pseudonym for Chris Jones.

The origns of "The Doom Addict" came about from the PC game Doom, which Chris was addicted to.

Profession
Producer and co-founder for video game company Strangelite working on the game-of-the-film Starship Troopers

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title: User:Tda


text:
Leon Cooper

Leon N. Cooper  (born February 28, 1930) is an American physicist and Nobel Prize laureate who, with John Bardeen and John Robert Schrieffer, developed the BCS theory of superconductivity. His name is also associated with the Cooper pair and the BCM theory of synaptic plasticity.

Biography and career
Cooper's mother was Jewish. Cooper graduated from the Bronx High School of Science in 1947 and received a BA in 1951, MA in 1953, and PhD in 1954 from Columbia University. He spent a year at the Institute for Advanced Study and taught at the University of Illinois and Ohio State University before coming to Brown University in 1958. He has been the Thomas J. Watson Sr. Professor of Science at Brown since 1974, and director of the Institute for Brain and Neural Systems which he founded in 1973. Along with colleague Charles Elbaum, he founded the tech company Nestor, dedicated to finding commercial applications for artificial neural networks. Nestor, along with Intel, developed the Ni1000 neural network computer chip in 1994.

In 1969 Cooper married Kay Allard. They have two children.

He has carried out research at various institutions including the Institute for Advanced Study and the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Geneva, Switzerland.

The character Sheldon Cooper, featured in the CBS comedy The Big Bang Theory, is named in part after Leon Cooper.

Memberships and honors

 * Fellow of the American Physical Society
 * Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 * Member of the National Academy of Sciences
 * Member of the American Philosophical Society
 * Member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
 * Associate member of the Neuroscience Research Program
 * Research fellow of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation (1959–1966)
 * Fellow of the Guggenheim Institute (1965–66)
 * Nobel Prize Recipient for Physics (1972)
 * Co-winner (with Dr. Schrieffer) of the Comstock Prize in Physics of the National Academy of Sciences (1968)
 * Received the Award of Excellence, Graduate Faculties Alumni of Columbia University
 * Received the Descartes Medal, Academie de Paris, Université René Descartes.
 * Received the John Jay Award of Columbia College (1985)
 * Recipient of seven honorary doctorates

Publications
Cooper was the author of Science and Human Experience – a collection of essays, including previously unpublished material, on issues such as consciousness and the structure of space. (Cambridge University Press, 2014).

Cooper was the author of an unconventional liberal-arts physics textbook, originally An Introduction to the Meaning and Structure of Physics (Harper and Row, 1968) and still in print in a somewhat condensed form as Physics: Structure and Meaning (Lebanon: New Hampshire, University Press of New England, 1992).

 * Cooper, L. N. & J. Rainwater. "Theory of Multiple Coulomb Scattering from Extended Nuclei", Nevis Cyclotron Laboratories at Columbia University, Office of Naval Research (ONR), United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (August 1954).
 * Cooper, L. N., Lee, H. J., Schwartz, B. B. & W. Silvert. "Theory of the Knight Shift and Flux Quantization in Superconductors", Brown University, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (May 1962).
 * Cooper, L. N. & Feldman, D. "BCS: 50 years", World Scientific Publishing Co., (November 2010).
 * Cooper, L. N., Lee, H. J., Schwartz, B. B. & W. Silvert. "Theory of the Knight Shift and Flux Quantization in Superconductors", Brown University, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), (May 1962).
 * Cooper, L. N. & Feldman, D. "BCS: 50 years", World Scientific Publishing Co., (November 2010).
 * Cooper, L. N. & Feldman, D. "BCS: 50 years", World Scientific Publishing Co., (November 2010).

title: Leon Cooper


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Yu Suzuki

Yu Suzuki (鈴木 裕) is a Japanese game designer, producer, programmer, and engineer, who headed Sega's AM2 team for 18 years. Considered one of the first auteurs of video games, he has been responsible for a number of Sega's arcade hits, including three-dimensional sprite-scaling games that used "taikan" motion simulator arcade cabinets, such as Hang-On, Space Harrier, Out Run and After Burner, and pioneering polygonal 3D games such as Virtua Racing and Virtua Fighter, which are some of the games besides others from rival companies during that era credited with popularizing 3D graphics in video games; as well as the critically acclaimed  Shenmue series. As a hardware engineer, he led the development of various arcade system boards, including the Sega Space Harrier, Model 1, Model 2 and Model 3, and was involved in the technical development of the Dreamcast console and its corresponding NAOMI arcade hardware.

In 2003, Suzuki became the sixth person to be inducted into the Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences' Hall of Fame. IGN listed him at #9 in their Top 100 Game Creators of All Time list. In 2011, he received the Pioneer Award at the Game Developers Choice Awards.

Career
While studying at university, Yu Suzuki had written an undergraduate thesis on the subject of 3D computer graphics in video games.

Sega AM2
Suzuki joined Sega in 1983 as a programmer. In his first year, he created a 2D boxing game called Champion Boxing for Sega's first home game console, the SG-1000. According to Suzuki, the executive staff at Sega found the game so impressive that they released it in arcades as-is by simply installing an SG-1000 into an arcade cabinet. He was promoted to project leader while still in his first year at the company. Then, Suzuki began working on another arcade game which would prove to be the big stepping-off point of his career. "To develop this game," Suzuki told G4TV, "I rode on motorcycles a lot. When we came up with the prototype (for the arcades), I would ride on that prototype bike for hours and hours every day." His efforts culminated into the game Hang-On, released in 1985. Hang-On was a success as it broke new ground in arcade technology. It did not feature any traditional controls, as the movement of the on-screen avatar was dictated by the movements the player made with their body on the motorcycle cabinet. This began the "Taikan" trend, the use of motion-controlled hydraulic simulator arcade cabinets in many arcade games of the late 1980s, two decades before motion controls became popular on video game consoles. The three-dimensional sprite/tile scaling was handled in a similar manner to textures in later texture-mapped polygonal 3D games of the 1990s. Suzuki stated that his "designs were always 3D from the beginning. All the calculations in the system were 3D, even from Hang-On. I calculated the position, scale, and zoom rate in 3D and converted it backwards to 2D. So I was always thinking in 3D."

He soon followed with the 3D-esque third-person shooter game Space Harrier later that year. Showing his interest in Ferraris, Suzuki created the driving simulator Out Run, which was released in 1986. Although it didn't officially feature a Ferrari, the player controlled a car that looked almost exactly like one. Out Run offered players a wide variety of driving paths and routes to complete the game, adding elements of nonlinear gameplay and increasing replay value. It also featured a radio with three songs to choose from as players drove through the wide variety of landscapes. At the Golden Joystick Awards, Out Run was awarded the Game of the Year award. Suzuki had been interested in 3D technology since his days in college. Space Harrier and Out Run had graphics similar to 3D, but could not fully utilize the capabilities.

Suzuki's later hits included the jet fighting After Burner series in the late 1980s and the roller coaster kart racer Power Drift in 1988. Improving on the "Super Scaler" technology and road scrolling effects of Hang-On and Out Run, Power Drift created "all of its track layouts with flat bitmaps" to simulate a "wholly 3D space using strictly 2D technology."

In 1990, Suzuki brought out a spiritual sequel to After Burner called G-LOC. It featured the R360, a gyroscopic motion cabinet that rotated 360 degrees to give players the realistic illusion of flying a fighter jet.

Yu Suzuki introduced and spearheaded the Model series of arcade hardware which would help lay the foundation for 3D arcade games for AM2 but other arcade departments at Sega as well In 1992, they released the 3D Formula 1 racer Virtua Racing, which was considered one of, if not the most, realistic-looking arcade games on the market at that time. GameSpot listed it as one of the 15 most influential video games of all time, commenting: "It wasn't the first fully polygonal game on the market ... but along with Virtua Fighter, Sega's 1993 release on the same hardware, it was one of the games alongside several others from different rival company developers that popularized polygonals to the masses."

In 1993, Suzuki created Virtua Fighter, the first 3D fighting game, which became enormously popular and spawned a series of sequels and spinoffs. It inspired many 3D fighting games such as the Tekken and Soul Calibur series. Some of the Sony Computer Entertainment (SCE) staff involved in the creation of the original PlayStation console credit Virtua Fighter as inspiration for the PlayStation's 3D graphics hardware. According to SCE's former producer Ryoji Akagawa and chairman Shigeo Maruyama, the PlayStation was originally being considered as a 2D focused hardware, and it wasn't until the success of Virtua Fighter in the arcades that they decided to design the PlayStation as a 3D focused hardware. 1UP listed Virtua Fighter as one of the 50 most important games of all time. They credited it for creating the 3D fighting game genre, and more generally, demonstrating the potential of 3D polygon human characters (as the first to implement them in a useful way), showing the potential of realistic gameplay (introducing a character physics system and realistic character animations for the time), and introducing fighting game concepts such as the ring-out and the block button.

After developing the Sega Model 1, he worked on the development of the Sega Model 2. He acquired Lockheed Martin's military texture mapping technology that cost millions and managed to engineer it down to $50 per chip, which he used to introduce texture-mapped 3D characters with Virtua Fighter 2. The game industry gained mass-produced texture mapping as a result. Virtua Fighter 2 (1994) also introduced the use of motion capture animation technology, which was previously limited to the health industry. He then led the development of the Sega Model 3, which debuted with Virtua Fighter 3. In 1996, Computer and Video Games described Virtua Fighter 3 as "the most astounding display of video game graphic muscle ever in the history of this industry." The Virtua Fighter series was recognized by the Smithsonian Institution, as an application which made great contributions to society in the field of art and entertainment. Suzuki also oversaw most of the home console conversions of AM2's arcade games.

As a producer, he worked on games such as Daytona USA, which featured texture filtering in 1993, and Virtua Cop, which in 1994 introduced 3D polygons to light gun shooters, and influenced the seminal 1997 first-person shooter GoldenEye 007. Listing him in their "75 Most Important People in the Games Industry of 1995", Next Generation summarized that "Nobody has pushed arcade gaming as far as Yu Suzuki, and Suzuki just keeps on pushing."

Suzuki's Shenmue for the Dreamcast gave rise to a new style of adventure games, bending it away from the typical mold most games of its nature seem to fit into, with Suzuki's own concept denoted as "FREE" ("Full Reactive Eyes Entertainment"). Shenmue was the most expensive game to be developed until Grand Theft Auto IV in 2008, with the whole project costing US$70 million, equivalent to US$93 million in 2011. Shenmue was a major step forward for 3D open world, nonlinear gameplay, touted as offering an unparalleled level of player freedom, giving them full reign to explore an expansive sandbox city with its own day-night cycles, changing weather, and fully voiced non-player characters going about their daily routines. The game's large interactive environments, level of detail and the scope of its urban sandbox exploration has been compared to later sandbox games like Grand Theft Auto III and its sequels, Sega's own Yakuza series, Fallout 3 and Deadly Premonition. The game also revived the quick time event mechanic and coined a name for it, "QTE". The mechanic has since appeared in many later titles, including popular action games such as Resident Evil 4, God of War, Tomb Raider: Legend, Heavenly Sword and Robert Ludlum's The Bourne Conspiracy.

Suzuki's arcade game Ferrari F355 Challenge was a racing simulator created upon a strong partnership with Ferrari. Rubens Barrichello of the F1 Team Ferrari was quoted by Suzuki to "have considered to purchase one for practicing." The game was considered the most accurate racing simulation of the Ferrari F355 possible up until that time.

After Shenmue II, he served as a producer for three last games, OutRun 2 and Virtua Cop 3 in 2003 and Sega Race TV in 2008. Hiroshi Kataoka succeeded him as head of AM2 department.

Departure from Sega
After his departure from AM2, Yu Suzuki was involved in three ill-fated projects as a director. PsyPhi was a touchscreen fighting arcade game, that initially had concepts of curved screens which never got past the concept stage. The game was however successfully completed with standard touchscreens, but was never shipped as it performed poorly at location testing. Players' fingers heated up from the friction of moving over the screen, making the game painful to play. Another problem was the viability of the machine in a modern arcade environment due to arcade operators preferring cheaper cabinets with more standard inputs. Shenmue Online was part of Sega's initiative to penetrate the rising Asian MMO RPG markets. With the withdrawal of Sega's online division in China, development of Shenmue Online was quietly cancelled. The development of Shenmue Online cost Sega and JCEntertainment almost $26 million. Another MMO called Pure Breed never got past the concept stage. It involved a western surrealist art style, and revolved around pet and human relationships.

In the spring of 2009, rumors surfaced that Yu Suzuki would step down from Sega after 26 years of employment. However, an article written by Brendan Sinclair, a reporter for the American video game journalism website GameSpot, stated the rumors to be false and that an anonymous representative for Sega of America revealed that Suzuki was in fact not retiring, but staying "in a much more diminished capacity" than in the past. Suzuki planned to officially leave Sega in September 2011 to concentrate on his own development studio Ys Net, while retaining an advisory role within Sega. His last position at Sega was Creative Officer along with Toshihiro Nagoshi and Hiroshi Kataoka. As of 2019, Suzuki remains as a consult for Sega, and suggested that he might return to the Virtua Fighter franchise.

Ys Net
In the fall of 2010, Suzuki returned with Shenmue City, developed by Sunsoft and Ys Net (Yu Suzuki's new studio) for Yahoo Games. In December 2010, 1UP posted an interview with Yu Suzuki. It was his first English interview in several years. It was also a career retrospective conducted by former 1UP Editor in Chief James Mielke with Tak Hirai (both employees at Tetsuya Mizuguchi's Q Entertainment). In March 2011, Yu Suzuki was at GDC to receive a pioneer award for his body of work. Prior to the award ceremony, he participated in an open panel career retrospective hosted by Mark Cerny. Also at GDC he participated with MEGA64 to record his voice for a parody video on "how Shenmue was meant to end". In December 2011, Yu Suzuki flew to TGS (Toulouse Game Show) in France and participated in an open panel career retrospective. He also participated in an open with Tekken producer Katsuhiro Harada. They talked about their games and fought each other in both of their respected fighting franchises. In 2012, Suzuki designed a mobile game for the Virtua Fighter series, titled Cool Champ. In 2013, Suzuki designed a new shooting game, titled Shooting Wars with Premium Agency; this was Ys Net's first original game unrelated to any of Suzuki's previous Sega franchises.

In July 2013, Suzuki traveled to Monaco to attend the Monaco Animé Game Show. On March 19, 2014, Yu Suzuki held a Shenmue postmortem at the Game Developers Conference 2014, with Suzuki discussing the development of Shenmue. In June the same year, Yu Suzuki received a "Legend Award" in Barcelona, Spain during Gamelab Barcelona 2014.

On June 16, 2015, Shenmue III was revealed at E3 as a Kickstarter crowdfunding campaign. It became the fastest game ever to reach the one million dollar funding mark on the Kickstarter platform, ultimately raising 6.33 million dollars. Suzuki began his work as director of Shenmue III's development immediately following the successful funding campaign in July 2015. On February 27, 2016, Suzuki appeared as a guest presenter at the annual Monaco Anime Games International Conferences (MAGIC), where he showed images and video clips of the development progress for Shenmue III to conference attendees.

On June 22nd 2022, YS-Net released Air Twister exclusively to Apple Arcade. YS Net has continued to support the game with regular updates and expanded content.

Personal life
Suzuki said in an interview that while he greatly enjoys creating games, he has relatively little interest in playing them and prefers to spend his free time watching movies and visiting theme parks.

Canceled games

 * Propeller Arena – Producer
 * Pure Breed – Concept
 * Psy-Phi – Director, producer
 * Shenmue Online – Director

On top of games, Yu Suzuki led the creation of a technical demo "Tower of Babel" prepared for the Dreamcast showcase at Tokyo New Otani Hotel on May 1, 1998.

Hardware developed

 * Sega Space Harrier (1985)
 * Sega Model 1 (1992)
 * Sega Model 2 (1993)
 * Sega Model 3 (1996)
 * Dreamcast (1998)
 * Sega NAOMI (1998)

title: Yu Suzuki