text:
Hazard (computer architecture)

In the domain of central processing unit (CPU) design, hazards are problems with the instruction pipeline in CPU microarchitectures when the next instruction cannot execute in the following clock cycle, and can potentially lead to incorrect computation results. Three common types of hazards are data hazards, structural hazards, and control hazards (branching hazards).

There are several methods used to deal with hazards, including pipeline stalls/pipeline bubbling, operand forwarding, and in the case of out-of-order execution, the scoreboarding method and the Tomasulo algorithm.

Background
Instructions in a pipelined processor are performed in several stages, so that at any given time several instructions are being processed in the various stages of the pipeline, such as fetch and execute. There are many different instruction pipeline microarchitectures, and instructions may be executed out-of-order. A hazard occurs when two or more of these simultaneous (possibly out of order) instructions conflict.

Data hazards
Data hazards occur when instructions that exhibit data dependence modify data in different stages of a pipeline. Ignoring potential data hazards can result in race conditions (also termed race hazards). There are three situations in which a data hazard can occur:

Read after read (RAR) is not a hazard case.
 * 1) read after write (RAW), a true dependency
 * 2) write after read (WAR), an anti-dependency
 * 3) write after write (WAW), an output dependency

Consider two instructions i1 and i2, with i1 occurring before i2 in program order.

Read after write (RAW)
(i2 tries to read a source before i1 writes to it) A read after write (RAW) data hazard refers to a situation where an instruction refers to a result that has not yet been calculated or retrieved. This can occur because even though an instruction is executed after a prior instruction, the prior instruction has been processed only partly through the pipeline.

Example
For example:

i1. R2 <- R5 + R8 i2. R4 <- R2 + R8

The first instruction is calculating a value to be saved in register R2, and the second is going to use this value to compute a result for register R4. However, in a pipeline, when operands are fetched for the 2nd operation, the results from the first have not yet been saved, and hence a data dependency occurs.

A data dependency occurs with instruction i2, as it is dependent on the completion of instruction i1.

Write after read (WAR)
(i2 tries to write a destination before it is read by i1) A write after read (WAR) data hazard represents a problem with concurrent execution.

Example
For example:

i1. R4 <- R1 + R5 i2. R5 <- R1 + R2

In any situation with a chance that i2 may finish before i1 (i.e., with concurrent execution), it must be ensured that the result of register R5 is not stored before i1 has had a chance to fetch the operands.

Write after write (WAW)
(i2 tries to write an operand before it is written by i1) A write after write (WAW) data hazard may occur in a concurrent execution environment.

Example
For example:

i1. R5 <- R4 + R7 i2. R5 <- R1 + R3

The write back (WB) of i2 must be delayed until i1 finishes executing.

Structural hazards
A structural hazard occurs when two (or more) instructions that are already in pipeline need the same resource. The result is that instruction must be executed in series rather than parallel for a portion of pipeline. Structural hazards are sometimes referred to as resource hazards.

Example: A situation in which multiple instructions are ready to enter the execute instruction phase and there is a single ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit). One solution to such resource hazard is to increase available resources, such as having multiple ports into main memory and multiple ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) units.

Control hazards (branch hazards or instruction hazards)
Control hazard occurs when the pipeline makes wrong decisions on branch prediction and therefore brings instructions into the pipeline that must subsequently be discarded. The term branch hazard also refers to a control hazard.

Pipeline bubbling
Bubbling the pipeline, also termed a pipeline break or pipeline stall, is a method to preclude data, structural, and branch hazards. As instructions are fetched, control logic determines whether a hazard could/will occur. If this is true, then the control logic inserts no operations (NOPs) into the pipeline. Thus, before the next instruction (which would cause the hazard) executes, the prior one will have had sufficient time to finish and prevent the hazard. If the number of NOPs equals the number of stages in the pipeline, the processor has been cleared of all instructions and can proceed free from hazards. All forms of stalling introduce a delay before the processor can resume execution.

Flushing the pipeline occurs when a branch instruction jumps to a new memory location, invalidating all prior stages in the pipeline. These prior stages are cleared, allowing the pipeline to continue at the new instruction indicated by the branch.

Data hazards
There are several main solutions and algorithms used to resolve data hazards:
 * insert a pipeline bubble whenever a read after write (RAW) dependency is encountered, guaranteed to increase latency, or
 * use out-of-order execution to potentially prevent the need for pipeline bubbles
 * use operand forwarding to use data from later stages in the pipeline

In the case of out-of-order execution, the algorithm used can be:

 * scoreboarding, in which case a pipeline bubble is needed only when there is no functional unit available
 * the Tomasulo algorithm, which uses register renaming, allowing continual issuing of instructions

The task of removing data dependencies can be delegated to the compiler, which can fill in an appropriate number of NOP instructions between dependent instructions to ensure correct operation, or re-order instructions where possible.

Examples

 * In the following examples, computed values are in bold, while Register numbers are not.

For example, to write the value 3 to register 1, (which already contains a 6), and then add 7 to register 1 and store the result in register 2, i.e.:

i0: R1 = 6 i1: R1 = 3 i2: R2 = R1 + 7 = 10

Following execution, register 2 should contain the value 10. However, if i1 (write 3 to register 1) does not fully exit the pipeline before i2 starts executing, it means that R1 does not contain the value 3 when i2 performs its addition. In such an event, i2 adds 7 to the old value of register 1 (6), and so register 2 contains 13 instead, i.e.:

i0: R1 = 6 i2: R2 = R1 + 7 = 13 i1: R1 = 3

This error occurs because i2 reads Register 1 before i1 has committed/stored the result of its write operation to Register 1. So when i2 is reading the contents of Register 1, register 1 still contains 6, not 3.

Forwarding (described below) helps correct such errors by depending on the fact that the output of i1 (which is 3) can be used by subsequent instructions before the value 3 is committed to/stored in Register 1.

Forwarding applied to the example means that there is no wait to commit/store the output of i1 in Register 1 (in this example, the output is 3) before making that output available to the subsequent instruction (in this case, i2). The effect is that i2 uses the correct (the more recent) value of Register 1: the commit/store was made immediately and not pipelined.

With forwarding enabled, the Instruction Decode/Execution (ID/EX) stage of the pipeline now has two inputs: the value read from the register specified (in this example, the value 6 from Register 1), and the new value of Register 1 (in this example, this value is 3) which is sent from the next stage Instruction Execute/Memory Access (EX/MEM). Added control logic is used to determine which input to use.

Control hazards (branch hazards)
To avoid control hazards microarchitectures can:

 * insert a pipeline bubble (discussed above), guaranteed to increase latency, or
 * use branch prediction and essentially make educated guesses about which instructions to insert, in which case a pipeline bubble will only be needed in the case of an incorrect prediction

In the event that a branch causes a pipeline bubble after incorrect instructions have entered the pipeline, care must be taken to prevent any of the wrongly-loaded instructions from having any effect on the processor state excluding energy wasted processing them before they were discovered to be loaded incorrectly.

Other techniques
Memory latency is another factor that designers must attend to, because the delay could reduce performance. Different types of memory have different accessing time to the memory. Thus, by choosing a suitable type of memory, designers can improve the performance of the pipelined data path.

title: Hazard (computer architecture)


text:
Gostyń

Gostyń (Gostyn, 1941-45: Gostingen) is a town in western Poland, seat of the Gostyń County and Gmina Gostyń in the Greater Poland Voivodeship (from 1975 to 1998 in Leszno Voivodship). According to 30 June 2004 data its population was 20,746.

The total area of Gostyń is 10.79 km². The town comprises 1% of the area of the county and 8% of the commune, according to Główny Urząd Statystyczny.

The main landmark of Gostyń is Basilica of Święta Góra (Holy Hill), the main Marian sanctuary of the archdiocese of Poznań and a masterpiece of Pompeo Ferrari, with the monastery of the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri.

History
Gostyń dates back to the 13th century. The town was founded by local nobleman and granted town rights in 1278 by Przemysł II. It was named after the nearby village of Gostyń, which since took the name of Stary Gostyń ("Old Gostyń"). Gostyń was a private town, administratively located in the Kościan County in the Poznań Voivodeship in the Greater Poland Province of the Polish Crown. It developed as a local centre of trade and crafts. In the 16th century Gostyń was an important regional Reformation center, and in 1565 a synod of various Protestants of Greater Poland was held there. The town suffered during the 17th-century Swedish invasions and an epidemic in the 18th century. In the 18th century one of two main routes connecting Warsaw and Dresden ran through the town and Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland often traveled that route.

In 1793 Gostyń was annexed by Prussia during the Second Partition of Poland. In 1807 regained by the Poles as part of the short-lived Duchy of Warsaw, in 1815 it was re-annexed by Prussia. Gostyń was a center of Polish resistance to Germanisation policies. In 1835 Kasyno Gostyńskie was founded, a significant local Polish organization, which under the disguise of social activity conducted economic, educational and library activities. The Prussians abolished the organization in 1846 and its library's collection was moved to Poznań. Gostyń was the site of preparations for the Greater Poland uprising (1848), and during the uprising, it was captured by the Prussians in April 1848. Many inhabitants took part in the next Greater Poland uprising (1918–19), after which Gostyń joined the re-established Polish state.

World War II
During the German invasion of Poland, which started World War II, Gostyń was captured by the Wehrmacht on 6 September 1939. During the Nazi German occupation of Poland, Gostyń became the site of public executions, arrests and expulsions of Poles. First mass arrests and executions were carried out in September 1939. On 21 October 1939 some 30 citizens of the town whose names were listed in the Sonderfahndungsbuch Polen (Special Prosecution Book-Poland) prepared by local German minority, were executed by an Einsatzkommando. Among the murdered were Gostyń's mayor Hipolit Niestrawski, Polish activists, officials, craftsmen and former Greater Poland insurgents. It was one of many massacres of Poles committed by Germany on 20–23 October 1939 across the region in attempt to pacify and terrorize the Polish population. Mass expulsions began on 4 December 1939, with up to 2,000 Poles deported to General Government on the orders of SS-Standartenführer Ernst Damzog stationing in Poznań. Between spring of 1940 and 15 March 1941 additional 3,222 were deported. , Polish officer and pre-war chairman of the local football club Kania Gostyń, was murdered by the Soviets in the Katyn massacre in 1940.

Despite such circumstances, local Poles organized an underground resistance movement, which included structures of the Polish Underground State, the secret youth organization Tajny Hufiec, and the  organization, which was founded in 1940. Czarny Legion was crushed by the Germans in 1941. Several dozens of its members were arrested and then brutally tortured in a prison in Rawicz. After a Nazi show trial in Zwickau in 1942, 12 members were executed in Dresden, and several dozen were imprisoned in Nazi concentration camps, where 37 of them died. German occupation ended in 1945.

Demographics
Data for 31 December 2003:

Data for 30 June 2004:

Culture
There is a local historical museum in Gostyń (Muzeum w Gostyniu) and a private car museum (Auto-Muzeum w Gostyniu).

Sports
The local football club is. It competes in the lower leagues.

Notable people

 * Wojciech Długoraj (c. 1557-c. 1619), Polish Renaissance composer
 * Kuba Giermaziak (born 1990), Polish racing driver
 * Andrzej Juskowiak (born 1970), former Polish footballer, with 39 games played for the Poland national football team

 * Wojciech Kaczmarek (born 1983), Polish footballer
 * Sebastian Fechner (born 1983), Polish footballer
 * Paweł Piotrowski (born 1985), Polish Paralympian athlete
 * Bartosz Rymaniak (born 1989), Polish footballer

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gostyń


text:
Izzy Einstein and Moe Smith

Isidor "Izzy" Einstein (1880–1938) and Moe W. Smith (1887–1960) were United States federal police officers, agents of the U.S. Prohibition Unit, who achieved the most arrests and convictions during the first years of the alcohol prohibition era (1920–1925). They were known nationally for successfully shutting down illegal speakeasies and for using disguises in their work.

They made 4,933 arrests. In late 1925, Izzy and Moe were laid off in a reorganization of the bureau of enforcement. A report in Time magazine suggested they had attracted more publicity than wanted by the new political appointee heading the bureau, although the press and public loved the team. By 1930 both men were working as insurance salesmen.

Early lives and educations
Isidor Einstein (sometimes spelled Isadore) was born in 1880 into a Jewish family in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He grew up speaking Yiddish and likely was educated in a yeshiva; he also learned Hungarian, Polish and German, together with a smattering of other European languages. Einstein emigrated as a young man to the United States around 1901.

Moe W. Smith was born about 1887 in New York City. As a young man, he was a boxer.

Marriages and families
Around 1906, Einstein married Esther (born c. 1888, Austria/Galicia; immigrated c. 1891), an immigrant from Galicia. They had at least seven children together, but two died young before 1910. Surviving children were Joseph (c. 1910), Charles (c. 1912), Edward (c. 1914), Albert (c. 1916), and Milton (c. 1927).

Before 1920 Smith married Sadie Strauch, a Jewish native of Bohemia in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, who had immigrated to New York and was a native Yiddish speaker. In the 1920 census, Moe and Sadie Smith (born c. 1891, imm./nat. 1898 or 1900) were recorded as living with her brother, Benjamin Strauch in Brooklyn. Their daughter Estelle was born c. 1925.

Careers
Einstein had started work as a salesman and later served as a postal clerk. He struggled to support his family, including his father, on that salary. Smith first worked as a cigar salesman, and then managed a small fight club. He also owned a cigar store.

The ratification in 1919 of the amendment to establish Prohibition in the United States required federal and local police forces to recruit new members rapidly in order to enforce the law. With no background in law enforcement, but speaking several languages (Yiddish, Hungarian, German, Polish, with a little Russian, French, Spanish and Italian) in addition to English, Einstein signed up as Prohibition Agent No. 1. In a short time, he invited his friend Moe Smith to join him as a partner. (They were both Masons, and may have met in the fraternal group. Though both were personally indifferent to temperance, they felt the law must be upheld, no matter how hard it was to enforce. )

Einstein and Smith were both rather rotund and apparently disarmed many of their quarry by their unthreatening appearances. They claimed to have used more than 100 disguises and were never detected. Einstein developed what he called the "Einstein Theory of Rum Snooping". They usually did not carry weapons and made arrests while unarmed. Their disguises included appearing as "streetcar conductor, gravedigger, fisherman, iceman, opera singer" and as the state of Kentucky delegates to the Democratic National Convention of 1924 held in New York, where they found only soda being served. Several times Einstein went to a bar and identified himself as a Prohibition agent. The bouncer, thinking he was joking, laughed and let him in. One time he took bets in the joint that he was the agent whose picture was up on the wall. When the customers paid up, he arrested them.

As Prohibition Bureau agents, they were the most famous and successful, known nationally for making thousands of arrests and gaining a high rate of convictions. They made 4,932 arrests, and achieved a 95% conviction rate. They confiscated 5 million gallons of liquor, worth an estimated $15 million. As a result of their work, thousands of bartenders, bootleggers and speakeasy owners were sentenced to jail.

Einstein and Smith used the press to build support:

"They frequently scheduled their raids to suit the convenience of the reporters and the newspaper photographers, and soon learned that there was more room in the papers on Monday mornings than on any other day of the week. One Sunday, accompanied by a swarm of eager reporters, they established a record by making seventy-one raids in a little more than twelve hours."

In November 1925, the partners were among 38 men laid off from the New York office after a reorganization plan announced by General Lincoln C. Andrews of the national bureau. He and other officials in Washington, D.C. appeared to resent the favorable coverage that Einstein and Smith received, who gained far more attention than higher officials. Andrews was reported as disapproving of Prohibition agents who gained publicity, and Einstein and Smith's exploits had been well covered by the press, both tabloids and major papers such as The New York Times; their successes were sensational. As Time magazine wrote at the time,

"The public which looked upon them with as much delight as ever it looked on Robin Hood was denied their adventures — adventures as thrilling as those of Sir Launcelot, as those of Richard Cœur de Lion, as those of Don Quixote de la Mancha."

Later lives
Both men went into the insurance business and did well, despite the Great Depression. Einstein worked for the New York Life Insurance Company. He died at age 57, February 17, 1938, several days after having a leg amputated. He was buried at Mount Zion Cemetery, Queens County, New York.

Smith lived until 1960, when he died from a stroke in Yonkers, New York.

Legacy and honors

 * Einstein wrote an autobiography telling of their exploits, called Prohibition Agent No 1. It was published in 1932. It had almost a million readers.
 * At their deaths, each man was featured in an obituary in the national magazine Time, which noted their joint achievements during Prohibition as the "funniest and most effective team" of federal agents, who made more than 4,900 arrests and confiscated an estimated 5 million bottles of illegal liquor.

In popular culture

 * Einstein and Smith's achievements inspired the television film, Izzy and Moe (1985), directed by Jackie Cooper. Jackie Gleason starred as Izzy, and Art Carney as Moe. Einstein's great-grandson appears in the film.
 * The musical Nowhere to Go But Up, which recalls the exploits of Einstein and Smith, had a brief run on Broadway in 1962, playing 3 previews and 9 performances at the Winter Garden Theatre. Appearing as Einstein and Smith were Tom Bosley and Martin Balsam respectively. The show had music by Sol Berkowitz, book and lyrics by James Lipton, and was directed by Sidney Lumet.

title: Izzy Einstein and Moe Smith


text:
Rawicz

Rawicz (Rawitsch) is a town in west-central Poland with 21,398 inhabitants as of 2004. It is situated in the Greater Poland Voivodeship (since 1999); previously it was in Leszno Voivodeship (1975–1998). It is the capital of Rawicz County.

History
The town was founded by Adam Olbracht Przyjemski of Rawicz coat of arms for Protestant refugees from Silesia during the Thirty Years' War. In 1638 King Władysław IV Vasa granted Rawicz town rights and confirmed the town's coat of arms. Rawicz was built as a precisely planned town and developed at a rapid pace. It was located on the trade route connecting Poznań and Wrocław. In 1640, a cloth guild was founded. Cloth production became a leading branch of the local industry, and by the end of the 18th century Rawicz was the leading weaving town of the whole region of Greater Poland. Rawicz was a private town of Polish nobility, administratively located in the Kościan County in the Poznań Voivodeship in the Greater Poland Province of the Polish Crown.

After the destruction of Rawicz by the Swedes in 1655 during the Deluge, the town was rebuilt in an impressive way, erecting new townhouses, a Baroque church and a Catholic monastery. The early 18th century was an unfavorable period in the town's history. In 1701 it suffered a fire, in 1704-1705 it was occupied by Sweden, foreign troops marched through it: Russians in 1707, Austrians in 1719, Saxons in 1733. In the following decades, rapid development took place again, the construction of the castle was completed and a new Baroque town hall was built. In the second half of the 18th century, there were two breweries, a distillery, a slaughterhouse, and a brickyard in Rawicz.

In 1793, Rawicz was annexed by Prussia as a result of the Second Partition of Poland. In 1807 the town was recovered by Poles as part of the short-lived Duchy of Warsaw and in 1815 it was again annexed by Prussia, initially as part of the autonomous Grand Duchy of Poznan. The principal industry was the manufacture of snuff and cigars. Trade involved grain, wool, cattle, hides, and timber. In 1905 it had 11,403 inhabitants. After World War I Poland regained its independence in 1918. In 1919 the Battle of Rawicz was fought as part of the Greater Poland uprising, aiming to reunite the region with the reestablished Polish state. Rawicz returned to Poland in January 1920.

On the first day of the invasion of Poland, which started World War II on September 1, 1939, the Germans entered the town, but were forced to withdraw. They entered again on September 5. In the following days the Einsatzgruppe III entered the town to commit crimes against Poles. Poles arrested during the Intelligenzaktion were imprisoned in the local prison. In October 1939 the Germans carried out the first executions of Polish residents, while first mass expulsions of over 500 Poles were carried out in December 1939. The expelled Poles were predominantly local activists and owners of better houses, which were then handed over to German colonists as part of the Lebensraum policy. Also a transit camp for Poles expelled from nearby villages was operated in the town. Despite such circumstances, the Polish resistance movement was organized in the town. In January 1945, the town was taken over by the Soviets, who imprisoned soldiers of the Polish Home Army here. Later on, the Soviet-appointed communists organized a prison here for political opponents, of which 142 died.

In 1973, Sarnowa was included within the town limits.

A large prison exists in former monastery since 1820.

A 50 billion cubic feet natural gas discovery at Rawicz in 2015 is expected to be the largest gas development in Poland for 20 years.

Sights
Among the historic sights of Rawicz are the Rynek (Market Square) with the Baroque town hall, the Baroque Church of Saint Andrew the Apostle, the Classicist Church of Saint Andrew Bobola, the Gothic Revival Church of Christ the King, the Planty Park and historic townhouses, dating back to the 18th and 19th century.

Sports
Notable local sports clubs are speedway club Kolejarz Rawicz, who race at the Florian Kapała Stadium and football team Rawia Rawicz.

Transport
A railway station is located in the town. The expressway S5 and national road 36 run near the town.

Cuisine
The officially protected traditional food originating from Rawicz is kiełbaska rawicka, a local type of kiełbasa (as designated by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Poland). Local traditions of meat production date back hundreds of years.

Notable residents

 * Heinrich Gottfried Ollendorff (1803–1865), German grammarian and language educator
 * Wolfgang Straßmann (1821–1885), politician
 * Heinrich Braun (1862–1934), surgeon
 * Maximilian Otte (1910–1944), Luftwaffe pilot
 * Robert Maćkowiak (born 1970), sprinter
 * Arthur Ruppin (1876–1943), Zionist
 * Reinhard Seiler (1909–1989), Luftwaffe officer
 * Piotr Świderski (born 1983), speedway rider
 * Anita Włodarczyk (born 1985), hammer thrower
 * Karol Świderski (born 1997), football player
 * Cesar Kaskel (1833-?), Southern Unionist

title: Rawicz


text:
Kościan

Kościan (Kosten) is a town on the Obra canal in west-central Poland, with a population of 23,952 inhabitants as of June 2014. Situated in the Greater Poland Voivodeship, it is the capital of Kościan County.

History
Kościan was founded in the 12th or 13th century, when it was part of the Duchy of Greater Poland of the fragmented Polish realm. It was granted town rights in the second half of the 13th century, which were later confirmed by King Władysław Jagiełło in 1400. From 1332 Kościan was a royal town of Poland. It was a county (powiat) seat in the Poznań Voivodeship in the Greater Poland Province. In the 15th century Kościan was famous for its cloth production. King Casimir IV Jagiellon granted Kościan cloths the first industrial trademark in the history of Poland. At the time Kościan was the second largest city within historic Greater Poland (behind Poznań).

Kościan was captured by the Swedes during the Swedish invasion of Poland (the Swedish Deluge) in 1655, but was soon recaptured by a partisan unit led by Krzysztof Żegocki. The town suffered from further Swedish and Russian invasions in the 18th century. The 2nd Polish National Cavalry Brigade was stationed in Kościan. Kościan was annexed by Prussia in the Second Partition of Poland in 1793. The Polish Greater Poland uprising of 1794 began in Kościan. After the successful Greater Poland uprising of 1806, it was regained by Poles and included with the short-lived Duchy of Warsaw. The 12th Polish Infantry Regiment was formed in Kościan in 1806. In 1815 it was reannexed by Prussia. In 1918, Poland regained independence, and shortly afterwards the Greater Poland uprising broke out, which goal was to reunite the town and region with the reborn Polish state. On 29–30 December 1918, local Polish scouts stole more than 900 machine guns, rifles and pistols from a German military warehouse and Kościan was liberated.

World War II
During the German occupation of Poland (World War II), the Polish population was subject to mass arrests, executions, expulsions, deportations to Nazi concentration camps and confiscation of property. The Einsatzgruppe VI carried out public executions of Poles in the town on October 2 and October 23, 1939 as part of the Intelligenzaktion, killing 8 and 18 people respectively, including activists, merchants, landowners, the director of the local narrow gauge railway, the chairman of the local branch of the "Sokół" Polish Gymnastic Society, principals of schools from Kościan and the nearby village of Borowo and one student. In Kościan, the Germans operated a prison for Poles from both the town and the region, many of whom were later transported to the infamous Fort VII in Poznań. On November 7 and 9, 1939, 66 Polish craftsmen, merchants, farmers, local officials and workers, previously held in the local prison were massacred in the nearby forest. Further such massacres were carried out by the Germans in December 1939 and in January and February 1940. The local high school principal was among Polish teachers and principals murdered in the Dachau concentration camp. Over 50 Poles, including local activists, intelligentsia and the families of victims of executions, were expelled in 1939, while 2,139 Poles were expelled in 1940, and their houses were then handed over to German colonists as part of the Lebensraum policy. 534 patients of the local psychiatric hospital were gassed by the Germans in January 1940, and afterwards patients from psychiatric hospitals in Germany were transported to Kościan and also gassed.

The Polish resistance movement was active, including local units of the Union of Armed Struggle/Home Army, Narodowa Organizacja Bojowa and the Pakt Czterech secret scouting organization. Two Polish underground newspapers were printed in the town. In mid-1941, the Gestapo crushed the Pakt Czterech organization and arrested its members, who were then sent to Nazi concentration camps, however, they survived. In October 1941, the Gestapo arrested the founders of the local unit of the Narodowa Organizacja Bojowa, who were then sentenced to death and executed the following year. In 1944, the Germans arrested Leon Ciszak and Franciszek Bawor, leaders of the local units of the Union of Armed Struggle and Home Army, who were then imprisoned in the notorious camp in Żabikowo and soon sent to concentration camps. Bawor died in the Mauthausen concentration camp, whereas Ciszak survived and returned to Kościan after the war. The pre-way Polish mayor of the town joined the resistance in Warsaw.

Sports
The local football club is. It competes in the lower leagues.

Notable people

 * Dezydery Chłapowski (1788–1879), general and political activist
 * Klemens Koehler (1840–1901), physician
 * Józef Surzyński (1851–1919), composer
 * Feliks Stamm (1901–1976), boxing coach
 * Izabella Zielińska (1910–2017), pianist
 * Rafał Bryndal (born 1960), satirist and journalist
 * Jarosław Jaromi Drażewski (born 1961), musician
 * Waldemar Brygier (born 1970), journalist
 * Bartosz Jurecki (born 1979), handball player
 * Michał Jurecki (born 1984), handball player
 * Krystian Klecha (born 1984), speedway rider
 * Adam Szłapka (born 1984), politician
 * Tomasz Nowak (born 1985), footballer
 * Zofia Nowakowska (born 1988), singer

Twin towns – Sister cities
Kościan is twinned with:

title: Kościan


text:
Leszno

Leszno (, Lissa, ) is a historic city in western Poland, seat of Leszno County within the Greater Poland Voivodeship. It is the seventh-largest city in the province with an estimated population of 62,200, as of 2021.

Early history
The city's unrecorded history dates to the 13th century. It was first mentioned in historical documents in 1393, when the estate was the property of a noble named Stefan Karnin-Wieniawa. The family eventually adopted the name Leszczyński (literal meaning "of Leszno"), derived from the name of their estate, as was the custom among the Polish nobility.

16th–18th centuries
In around 1516, a community of Protestants known as the Unity of the Brethren (Unitas fratrum) were expelled from the Bohemian lands by King Vladislaus II and settled in Leszno. They were invited by the Leszczyński family, imperial counts since 1473 and who had converted to Calvinism. The arrival of the Bohemian Protestants, in addition to weavers from nearby Silesia, helped the settlement to grow.

In 1547 it became a town by a privilege according to Magdeburg Law granted by King Sigismund I of Poland. Leszno was a private town, administratively located in the Wschowa County in the Poznań Voivodeship in the Greater Poland Province. Leszno became the largest printing center in Greater Poland thanks to the activity of the Protestant community. Their numbers grew with the inflow of refugees from Silesia, Bohemia, and Moravia during the Thirty Years War.

In 1631, Leszno was vested with further privileges by King Sigismund III Vasa, who made it equal with the most important cities of Poland such as Kraków, Gdańsk and Warsaw. By the 17th century, the town had a renowned Gymnasium (school), which was headed by Jan Amos Komenský (known in English as Comenius), an educator and the last bishop of the Unity of the Brethren. Johann Heermann, a German-speaking poet, lived in Leszno from 1638 until his death in 1647. Between 1636 and 1639, the town became fortified and its area increased.

The era of Leszno's prosperity and cultural prominence ended during the Second Northern War, when the town was burnt down on 28 April 1656 by Swedish forces. Quickly rebuilt afterwards, it was set on fire again during the Great Northern War by Russian forces in 1707 and was ravaged by plague in 1709.

The Leszczyński family owned the city until 1738, when King Stanislaus I Leszczynski sold it to Aleksander Józef Sułkowski following his abdication. One of two main routes connecting Warsaw and Dresden ran through Leszno in the 18th century and Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland often traveled that route.

19th–20th centuries
In the Second Partition of Poland in 1793, Leszno was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, within which it was referred to as Lissa. In 1807 it was taken by Napoleon's Grand Armee and included within the newly established but short-lived Polish Duchy of Warsaw.

Following Napoleon's defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, in 1815 the town was reannexed by Prussia, initially as part of the semi-autonomous Grand Duchy of Posen. The town was subjected to Germanisation policies. Nevertheless, Polish press was issued in the town (Przyjaciel Ludu) and in the 1840s, Polish historian, geographer and former officer Stanisław Plater published the Mała Encyklopedia Polska ("Little Polish Encyclopedia"), one of the pioneering 19th-century Polish encyclopedias, in the town. In 1871 it became part of Germany, and in 1887, it became the administrative seat of the Prussian Kreis Lissa.

After World War I, in November 1918, Poland regained independence. Shortly after the Greater Poland Uprising of 1918–19 broke out, attempting to reintegrate Greater Poland and Leszno with Poland. The first local battles of the uprising took place in the area on December 28, 1918. Afterward the city became part of the newly established Second Polish Republic under the Treaty of Versailles, with effect from 17 January 1920. The local populace had to acquire Polish citizenship. In the interbellum, Leszno was a county seat within the Polish Poznań Voivodeship. In 1924, a monument dedicated to the Polish insurgents of 1918–19 was erected.

World War II
During the joint German-Soviet invasion of Poland, which started World War II in September 1939, the town was annexed by Nazi Germany and incorporated into Reichsgau Wartheland. The Germans carried out mass arrests of Poles accused of "anti-German activities". Attending church services and having private meetings in Polish households were considered suspect activities. A prison for Poles was established in the local monastery, where more than 200 people had already been imprisoned in September 1939 during the Intelligenzaktion. The Polish population was expelled to the General Government (German-occupied central Poland).

Most of the town's Jewish population (which had included such notable rabbis as Leo Baeck and Jacob of Lissa, as well as the writer Ludwig Kalisch) and the remaining Poles were massacred by the Nazi Einsatzgruppen, which entered the town in September 1939. A notable public execution of 20 Poles, members of the "Sokół" Polish Gymnastic Society, former Polish insurgents of 1918–19, a local teacher, and a lawyer, was carried out in Leszno by the Einsatzgruppe VI on October 21, 1939. Poles who were initially imprisoned in Leszno were also murdered in nearby towns and villages of Poniec, Osieczna, Włoszakowice and Rydzyna. Poles from Leszno were also among the victims of the large Katyn massacre committed by the Russians in April–May 1940.

Already in late 1939, the Germans expelled over 1,000 Poles, including families of Poles murdered in various massacres, in addition teachers, local officials, activists, former insurgents, and owners of shops and workshops, which were then handed over to German colonists as part of the Lebensraum policy. A transit camp for Poles expelled from various nearby settlements was established in the local school. Poles were held there several days, their money, valuables and food were confiscated, and then they were either deported to Tomaszów Mazowiecki or Łódź in German-occupied central Poland or sent to local German colonists or to Germany as slave labour.

Despite such circumstances, local Poles organized an underground resistance movement, which included the Ogniwo and Świt organizations, the secret youth organization Tajna Siódemka and structures of the Polish Underground State. Polish underground press was printed in Leszno. The German occupation ended in 1945, and the town returned to Poland.

Post-war history
The pre-war monument of the Greater Poland insurgents was restored in 1957. The town underwent a period of fast development especially between 1975 and 1998 when it was a seat of a voivodeship administrative area. In 1991, a monument to the Constitution of 3 May 1791 and the heroes of the fights for Poland's independence was unveiled, and in 1995, a memorial to the victims of the Katyn massacre was unveiled. From 1975 to 1998, it was the capital of the Leszno Voivodeship. In 2000, the city was awarded "The Golden Star of Town Twinning" prize by the European Commission.

Climate
Leszno has an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb) although notably with warm summer continental characteristics (Dfb), typical of inland west and south polish.

Sport
The Leszno motorcycle club was founded on May 8, 1938. The club was re-established May 2, 1946 after World War II. On July 28, 1949 the Leszno motorcycle club changed its name to Unia Leszno Speedway Club. Some rules and regulations were revised as well. The Unia Leszno has been a very successful club that has won many awards and medals throughout the years. The Unia Leszno Speedway Club has won over 78 different medals since the formation of the club.
 * Unia Leszno speedway club

The Leszno Aero Club is the largest airfield in the Wielkopolska area. The Aero Club belongs to the Polish Aero Club central gliding school. The Aero Club in Leszno hosted the world gliding championship in 1958, 1969, and 2003. It is the only place that has done so. The Aero Club also has a pilot school called the Central Gliding school. The school has been around for over 50 years and was managed by pilot Irena Kempówna in the 1950s and 1960s.
 * Leszno Aero Club

The Klub Sportowy Polonia Leszno was formed in 1912 in Leszno. It is an indoor soccer field. The first President of the club was Marcin Giera. The club did not gain much popularity until after World War II when official teams started playing there. Prior to World War I most of the people that played there were locals.
 * KS Polonia Leszno

Primary schools

 * Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 1
 * Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 2
 * Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 3
 * Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 4
 * Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 5
 * Zespół Szkół Specjalnych Nr 6
 * Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 7
 * Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 8
 * Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 9
 * Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 10
 * Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 12
 * Szkoła Podstawowa Nr 13

Secondary schools

 * Liceum Ogólnokształcące Nr 1 (http://lo1.leszno.edu.pl/)
 * Liceum Ogólnokształcące Nr 2 (http://www.iilo.leszno.pl/)
 * Liceum Ogólnokształcące Nr 3
 * Liceum Ogólnokształcące Nr 4
 * Prywatne Liceum Ogólnokształcące
 * Pierwsze Prywatne Liceum Ogólnokształcące w Lesznie

Technical schools

 * Zespół Szkół Rolniczo-Budowlanych im. Synów Pułku
 * Zespół Szkół Ekonomicznych im. Jana Amosa Komeńskiego (http://www.zse.leszno.pl)
 * Zespół Szkół Technicznych im. 55 Poznańskiego Pułku Piechoty (http://www.zst-leszno.pl)
 * Zespół Szkół Elektroniczno-Telekomunikacyjnych
 * Zespół Szkół Ochrony Środowiska
 * Zespół Szkół Specjalnych

Colleges

 * Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa (https://web.archive.org/web/20040612150245/http://www.pwsz.edu.pl/)
 * Wyższa Szkoła Humanistyczna
 * Wyższa Szkoła Marketingu i Zarządzania (https://web.archive.org/web/20040609155530/http://www.wsmiz.edu.pl/)
 * Nauczycielskie Kolegium Języków Obcych (http://www.nkjoleszno.pl/)
 * AE w Poznaniu Ośrodek Studiów Wyższych w Lesznie

Notable people

 * Stephan Born (1824–1898), German revolutionary
 * Rafał Dobrucki (born 1976), Polish speedway rider
 * Stanisław Grochowiak (1934–1976), Polish poet and dramatist
 * Ludwig Kalisch (1814–1882), German-Jewish novelist
 * Zvi Hirsch Kalischer (1795–1874); German Orthodox rabbi
 * Jan Jonston (1603–1675), Reformed teacher and scholar, physician
 * Leser Landshuth (1817–1887), German Jewish liturgiologist
 * Jacob of Lissa (1760–1832), a rabbi
 * Albert Mosse (1846–1925), German judge and legal schola
 * Carl Friedrich Richard Förster (1825–1902), German ophthalmologist
 * Otto Schultzen (1837–1875), German physician
 * Ottomar Anschütz (1846–1907), German inventor, photographer and chronophotographer
 * Paul Cinquevalli (1859–1918), German-British artist
 * Albert Moll (1862–1939) German psychiatrist
 * Leo Baeck (1873–1956), German-Jewish rabbi, scholar, and theologian
 * Rudolf Leonhard (1889–1953), German author and communist activist
 * Wolfgang Martini (1891–1963), German general
 * Ludwig Schulz (1896–1966), Luftwaffe general
 * Gerhard Weisser (1898–1989) German social scientist
 * Johannes Eisermann (1900–1976), Wehrmacht officer
 * Wolfgang Thomale (1900–1978), German general
 * Antoni Janusz (1902–2000), Polish sportsman and pilot
 * Peter Lindbergh (1944–2019), German photographer and director
 * Tomasz Parzy (born 1979), Polish footballer
 * Krzysztof Kasprzak (born 1984), Polish speedway rider
 * Alexandria Riordan (born 1990), Polish-American figure skater
 * Ilse Schwidetzky (1907–1997), German anthropologist
 * Haym Solomon (1740–1785), an important figure in the American Revolutionary War
 * Daniel Strejc-Vetterus, Reformed printer and author of the oldest Polish guidebook of Iceland (1638)
 * Carl Gottfried Woide (1725–1790), Reformed pastor, Orientalist and fellow of the British Royal Society

Twin towns – Sister cities
Leszno is twinned with:
 * 🇫🇷 Montluçon, France
 * 🇳🇱 Deurne, Netherlands
 * 🇩🇪 Suhl, Germany
 * 🇭🇺 Dunaújváros, Hungary

title: Leszno


text:
Justinus Kerner

Justinus Andreas Christian Kerner (18 September 1786, in Ludwigsburg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany – 21 February 1862, in Weinsberg, Baden-Württemberg) was a German poet, practicing physician, and medical writer. He gave the first detailed description of botulism.

Life
He was born at Ludwigsburg in Württemberg. After attending the classical schools of Ludwigsburg and Maulbronn, he was apprenticed in a cloth factory, but, in 1804, owing to the good services of Professor Karl Philipp Conz, was able to enter the University of Tübingen. He studied medicine but also had time for literary pursuits in the company of Ludwig Uhland, Gustav Schwab and others. He took his doctor's degree in 1808, spent some time travelling, and then settled as a practising physician in Wildbad.

Here he completed his Reiseschatten von dem Schattenspieler Luchs (1811), in which his own experiences are described with caustic humour. He next collaborated with Uhland and Schwab in the Poetischer Almanach for 1812, which was followed by the Deutscher Dichterwald (1813), and in these some of Kerner's best poems were published. In 1815 he obtained the official appointment of district medical officer (Oberamtsarzt) in Gaildorf, and in 1818 was transferred to Weinsberg, where he spent the rest of his life.

His house, the site of which at the foot of the historical Schloss Weibertreu was presented to him by the townspeople, became a mecca for literary pilgrims, all of whom were made welcome. Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden came with a knapsack on his back. The poets, Christian Friedrich Alexander von Württemberg and Nikolaus Lenau were constant guests, and in 1826 Friederike Hauffe (1801–1829), the daughter of a forester in Prevorst, a somnambulist and clairvoyante, arrived; she forms the subject of Kerner's famous work Die Seherin von Prevorst, Eröffnungen über das innere Leben des Menschen und über das Hineinragen einer Geisterwelt in die unsere (The Seeress of Prevorst, revelations of the human inner life and about the penetrations of the spirit world into ours, 1829; 6th ed., 1892). In 1826 he published a collection of Gedichte which were later supplemented by Der letzte Blütenstrauß (1852) and Winterblüten (1859). Among others of his well-known poems are the charming ballad Der reichste Fürst; a drinking song, Wohlauf, noch getrunken, and the pensive Wanderer in der Sägemühle.

In addition to his literary productions, Kerner wrote some popular medical books, dealing with animal magnetism, the first treatise on sebacic acid and botulism, Das Fettgift oder die Fettsäure und ihre Wirkung auf den tierischen Organismus (1822), and a description of Wildbad and its healing waters, Das Wildbad im Königreich Württemberg (1813). He also gave a vivid account of his youthful years in Bilderbuch aus meiner Knabenzeit (1859) and, in Die Bestürmung der württembergischen Stadt Weinsberg im Jahre 1525 (1820), showed considerable skill in historical narrative.

In 1851 he was compelled, owing to increasing blindness, to retire from his medical practice, but he lived, carefully tended by his daughters, at Weinsberg until his death. He was buried beside his wife, who had died in 1854, in the graveyard of Weinsberg, and the grave is marked by a stone slab with an inscription he himself had chosen: Friederike Kerner und ihr Justinus.

Association with George Rapp and the Harmony Society
In Bilderbuch aus meiner Knabenzeit, Kerner recalls George Rapp's visits to his father, the Oberamtmann at Maulbronn. Kerner's father had helped shield Rapp from religious prosecution by the authorities in Germany, and Kerner well remembered Rapp and his long black beard. George Rapp and his followers eventually left Germany in 1803, settled in the United States, and started the Harmony Society. Die Seherin von Prevorst and its tale about Kerner's relationship with Friederike Hauffe — the latter reputed to have visionary and healing powers, and who had produced a strange 'inner' language containing Hebrew-like elements — made quite an impression among the members of the Harmony Society in 1829, who saw it as confirmation of the approaching millennium and of their religious views.

Evaluations

 * "Kerner was one of the most inspired poets of the Swabian school. His poems, which largely deal with natural phenomena, are characterized by a deep melancholy and a leaning towards the supernatural, which, however, is balanced by a quaint humour, reminiscent of the Volkslied." — 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
 * "The poems and dramatic scenes of his Reiseschatten are characterized by a dreamy fancy and a peculiar fantastic humor." — New International Encyclopedia
 * "He was at times morbid, fanciful, dreamy, sensitive and poetic and endowed with a strange, fantastic humor . . ." — 1920 Encyclopedia Americana

The Saw
The Saw was translated by William Cullen Bryant and was included in Graham's Magazine in 1848.
 * In yonder mill I rested,
 * And sat me down to look
 * Upon the wheel's quick glimmer.
 * And on the flowing brook.

 * As in a dream, before me,
 * The saw, with restless play,
 * Was cleaving through a fir-tree
 * Its long and steady way.

 * The tree through all its fibres
 * With living motion stirred,
 * And, in a dirge-like murmur,
 * These solemn words I heard—

 * Oh, thou, who wanderest hither,
 * A timely guest thou art!
 * For thee this cruel engine
 * Is passing through my heart.

 * When soon, in earth's still bosom,
 * Thy hours of rest begin,
 * This wood shall form the chamber
 * Whose walls shall close thee in.

 * Four planks—I saw and shuddered—
 * Dropped in that busy mill;
 * Then, as I tried to answer,
 * At once the wheel was still.

Cultural references

 * Robert Schumann set Kerner's poems in his Opus 35, 12 Gedichte von Justinus Kerner, composed in 1840 and dedicated to “Dr. Friedrich Weber in London.” Schumann called the set a Liederreihe, or "row of songs."
 * The poet Thomas Medwin stayed with him during 1848 to 1849 and later wrote a poem in his honour, To Justinus Kerner: With a Painted Wreath of Bay-Leaves, published in London in 1854.
 * Composer Pauline Volkstein (1849-1925) used Kerner’s text for at least one of her lieder.
 * The grape variety Kerner, bred in 1929, was named in his honour.
 * Søren Kierkegaard wrote in his journal on Kerner:
 * “I cannot help being amazed that Justinus Kerner (in his Dichtungen) is able to interpret so conciliatingly the phenomenon which has always shocked me since my very first experience of it — that someone says just exactly what I say. To me the phenomenon seemed to be the most confusing, almost Punch-and-Judy, disorder: the one would begin a sentence which the other would finish, and no one could be sure who was speaking.” July 11, 1837Journals 2539
 * “Justinus Kerner has interested me so much just now because, although he is far more gifted, I see in him the same artistic barrenness I see in myself. But I also see how something can be done even though essential continuity is lacking and can be fulfilled only by continuity of mood, of which every single little idea is a blossom, a kind of novelistic aphorism, a plastic study. While his own Dichtungen are full of excellent imaginative ideas, his reports aus dem Nachtgebiete der Natur are so dry that we could almost take that to be indirect proof of their truth.” July 13, 1837Journals 5240

title: Justinus Kerner


text:
Grajewo

Grajewo is a town in north-eastern Poland with 21,499 inhabitants (2016). It is the capital of Grajewo County within the Podlaskie Voivodeship. It is located within the historic region of Masovia, near the border with Podlachia and Masuria.

History
At one time, the area was inhabited by the Yotvingians.

Kingdom of Poland
The first settlements in the region of modern Grajewo already existed in the early 15th century. The first documented mention is from the year 1426. In the late 15th century the village was a small center of trade and crafts. In 1540 the town obtained municipal rights from Polish King Sigismund I the Old. In 1656, during the Deluge (Polish-Swedish war), the Battle of Prostki took place nearby. The town's population decreased dramatically as a result of the war. In 1692 the town came into the possession of the Wilczewski family, hailing from Wilczewo. In 1794 battles of the Polish Kościuszko Uprising were fought near Grajewo. In 1777, the town had 258 inhabitants, and in 1800 it had 218 inhabitants.

Partitions of Poland
During the retreat after the French invasion of Russia, Napoleon stopped in the town in December 1812. After the Partitions of Poland by the neighbouring empires, in 1815 Grajewo became part of Russian Congress Poland. In 1831 victorious battles of the November Uprising took place near Grajewo. In the second half of the 19th century, trade and handicrafts developed. After the massacres of Polish protesters committed by the Russians in Warsaw in 1861, Polish demonstrations and clashes with Russian soldiers took place in Grajewo. During the January Uprising, on March 12, 1864, a clash between Polish insurgents and Russian troops took place near the town, won by Poles. Due to the participation of the population in the January Uprising, the town lost its municipal rights in 1870. With the establishment of a rail link between the then-German-controlled city of Ełk and the then-Russian-controlled city of Białystok, the town's development was accelerated.

A Jewish community existed in Grajewo from the late 18th century. As a result of the discriminatory Russian regulations (Pale of Settlement), at times Jews formed a majority of the town population. In 1808, 197 Jews lived in the town, 39% of the total population. In 1827 they made up a majority, with 57% of the population. In 1857 the percentage rose to 76% and in 1897 over 4,000 Jews lived in the town. During World War I the town was occupied by Germany. During the war a large part of the town was destroyed.

Interwar Poland
Following the war, the town became part of the re-established Polish state, the Second Polish Republic, and was granted municipal rights again on July 4, 1919. Between the world wars, Grajewo was the seat of a district office and had around 9,500 inhabitants. New schools were established in Grajewo in 1919 and 1931.

Following the war, the Jewish population fell sharply. In 1921, when 2,834 Jews lived in the town, 39% of the population.

The highest Polish dignitaries visited Grajewo in the interwar period: Marshal Józef Piłsudski in 1921, President Stanisław Wojciechowski in 1925 and President Ignacy Mościcki in 1929.

World War II
The pre-war population of 9,500 included 3,000 Jews. The Germans occupied the town for three weeks from 6–7 September 1939. During the German occupation the synagogue and Bet Midrash were burned down by Germans and 300 Jewish men were deported to a forced labor camp in East Prussia. The town was then handed over to the Soviet Union. The Soviets deported many Polish inhabitants, especially the intelligentsia, military, policemen, foresters, officials, wealthier merchants, farmers and craftsmen and their families, to the Far North (Arctic Circle), Siberia and Kazakhstan.

On June 22, 1941, during Operation Barbarossa, German border guards shelled the town and then occupied it, setting up a military command post in the town. Adult Jews were employed in forced labor by the Germans. On 29 June 1941, following Sunday mass, local Polish anti-Semites carried out a pogrom killing 10 Jews and injuring dozens of others. However the next day on 30 June the Jews of the town were assembled at the market square by the German Gestapo and the Polish perpetrators of the pogrom were asked to identify communists who were then brutally beaten. 300 Jews, alleged communists, were arrested and placed in the old Synagogue. The Germans executed the survivors in August.

According to survivor testimony only some 1,600 of the 3,000 Jews of the town survived in August, and they were placed in a ghetto. On 2 November 1942 the SS surrounded the ghetto, and drove out the Jewish inhabitants to a transit camp in the village of Bogusze. From there they were sent to Treblinka extermination camp and Auschwitz concentration camp and most of them were murdered on arrival.

In July 1941, the Germans established a camp, which served both as a penal forced labour camp and a transit camp for Poles deported either to forced labour in Germany or to the Stutthof concentration camp. Around 3,500 people passed through it. In autumn of 1941, the occupiers established another transit camp for people deported from various regions to forced labour in Germany. The camp could accommodate about 1,000 people at a time. Some ill people were sent from it to the Majdanek concentration camp.

On July 15, 1943, in the Kosówka forest, the German gendarmerie in cooperation with the Gestapo murdered about 150 Poles, most of them inhabitants of Grajewo. On January 20, 1945, the Germans committed another mass murder in the Kosówka forest, killing 300 Polish inhabitants of the town. Five Polish Girl Scouts were murdered by the Germans in Grajewo.

The Red Army marched into Grajewo on January 23, 1945. According to data from 1945, 5,366 inhabitants of the Grajewo county lost their life during the war, only 163 in military operations, 5,009 as a result of the crimes of the occupiers. About 3000 of the deaths were of the town's Jewish population; only a few dozen survived. About 30% of the town was destroyed. It was restored to Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which stayed in power until the Fall of Communism in the 1980s.

Post-war period
On May 8, 1945, the anti-communist Home Army seized the buildings of the communist Public Security in Grajewo and freed over 100 prisoners.

In 1967, the Dairy Plant in Grajewo was established. Over time, as Mlekpol, it became one of the largest dairy cooperatives in Poland. In 2016, the first Milk Museum in Poland was opened in Grajewo.

From 1975 to 1998, it was administratively located in the Łomża Voivodeship. In 1990, the Independence Monument was unveiled in the city center.

In 2000, President Aleksander Kwaśniewski visited Grajewo. A few years later, in 2006, Grajewo was visited by Prime Minister Jarosław Kaczyński, whose father was born in the town.

Points of interest

 * Wooden houses from the 19th century
 * Classicist chapel of Wilczewski family from 1839 at the cemetery
 * Neo-Gothic church of the Holy Trinity from 1882
 * Church belfry from 1837
 * Tavern from mid 19th century
 * Railway station from 1873
 * Roadside chapels from mid 19th century
 * Building of a local Secondary School from 1931
 * The market square from the 18th century
 * Former officer's mess
 * Milk Museum (Muzeum Mleka)

Sports

 * Warmia Grajewo – football club
 * Płyty Grajewo – defunct basketball club, which played in the top division in 1997-98

The 2008 Tour de Pologne cycling route ran through the city.

International relations

Grajewo is twinned with:
 * 🇷🇺 Gusev, Russia
 * 🇱🇹 Varėna, Lithuania

Notable people from Grajewo

 * Eliyahu-Moshe Ganhovsky - Israeli politician and religious Zionist activist
 * Sender Jarmulowsky - Shipping agent in Hamburg and banker in New York
 * Antoni Karwowski - Polish painter and performance artist
 * Elyah Lopian - prominent rabbi
 * Maciej Makuszewski - Polish footballer
 * Eliyahu Meridor - Israeli politician who served as a member of the Knesset
 * Simon Rawidowicz - American Jewish philosopher
 * Andrzej Szczytko - Polish film director and actor
 * Jacob Sapirstein - Founder, American Greetings Corporation, greeting card manufacturer.

Notes and references

 * Grajewska Plotka (Polish)
 * grajewo24.pl (Polish)
 * e-grajewo.pl (Polish)
 * Zapasy Grajewo (Polish)
 * Ogłoszenia Grajewo (Polish)
 * This article incorporates text from the German Wikipedia article Grajewo.

title: Grajewo


text:
Zambrów

Zambrów is a town in northeastern Poland with 21,166 inhabitants (2020). It is the capital of Zambrów County. Situated in the Podlaskie Voivodeship (since 1999), previously in Łomża Voivodeship (1975–1998).

History
The name of the town comes from the term ząbr, which means a place where żubry (European bison) gather. The first mention of the town comes from 1283, during which the town was the property of the Masovian Dukes of the Piast dynasty within fragmented Poland, and it got its city laws (Chełmno law) in 1430. The greatest development of the city came during the 15th and 16th centuries. The mid-17th-century Swedish Deluge brought an end to the prosperity of the city as much of it was destroyed.

It was annexed by Prussia in the Third Partition of Poland in 1795. In 1807 it was regained by Poles and included within the short-lived Duchy of Warsaw, and after its dissolution in 1815, it fell to the Russian Partition of Poland. During both the January and November Uprising against Russia, the area was witness to battles against Russian forces. Zambrów was also the site of Polish demonstrations and clashes with Russian soldiers after the massacres of Polish protesters committed by the Russians in Warsaw in 1861. As a result of persecutions by the Tsarist regime, the city was deprived of its city rights in 1870, and two Russian regiments of infantry were stationed in the town. Throughout World War I the area again faced much destruction. The Polish 1st Legion's Infantry Regiment under the command of Edward Rydz-Śmigły was stationed in the town during 1917. After Poland regained its independence, city rights were restored in 1919. During the inter-war years the city was linked to the military: the 71st Infantry Regiment was stationed there and the town was home to a military school.

World War II
In 1939 the population of the town was over 7,000 people, over half of them Jews - many of whom had populated the town in the late 19th century from neighboring Jewish communities in the Łomża gubernya, such as Jablonka Koscielna. Between the 10 and 13 September the area was the fighting ground of the Polish 18th Infantry Division commanded by Colonel Stefan Kossecki and German XIX Panzer Corps under the command of General Guderian.

Polish soldiers from the 33rd, 71st, and 42nd Infantry regiments were taken prisoner. They were then taken from the square to the city barracks which were used for exercises. On September 13, 1939 the number of Polish PoWs was about 4,000. In the corners of the square machine guns were put on cars, and behind them horses were kept that belonged to the Polish unit. During the night, light reflectors were beamed upon the square. On the nights of the 13th and 14 September when Polish prisoners started to lie down to sleep, the German captors informed them that anybody that on that night who tried to rise or move from his place would be shot on the spot. After that information horses stormed the square, trampling the sleeping soldiers on the ground. In panic many Poles tried to escape, but the Germans immediately opened fire with machine guns into the crowd: this lasted over 10 minutes and ended only when some German soldiers were wounded by mistake. When the shooting stopped, the Germans again informed the Polish POWs that no movement was allowed. Throughout the night, the wounded and dying were crying for help, but no medical assistance was given. In the morning there were 200 dead and 100 wounded. This event came to be known as the Zambrów massacre. According to the witness reports the horses were either driven by the Germans or blinded by the reflector lights.

Afterwards, the town was handed over by Germany to the Soviet Union in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. It was under Soviet occupation until 1941. The Soviets destroyed a pre-war monument to the fallen Polish insurgents of the January Uprising.

The town passed under German occupation following the Operation Barbarossa. During the occupation a ghetto was established for the Zambrów Jews by German authorities. At that time the Germans killed 800 Jews in the city, including community dignitaries, at the Glmbokih forest nearby. Jews were transferred to the city's ghetto from Moisokh Mazowiecki. At the beginning of September 1941 hundreds of Jews found "unfit for work", including the elderly and pregnant women, were killed at the nearby Rothke-Koski woods. In the second half of 1942 the city's ghetto accepted Jews from Czyżew, and they were employed as forced labour. In early November 1942 all the residents of the ghetto were transferred to an abandoned military camp, where some 14,000 to 17,000 Jews from the environment were concentrated in very harsh living conditions. In January 1943, all of them were sent to Auschwitz death camp, while 500 to 800 Jews were murdered during the action, and the rest were murdered in the gas chambers.

In 1941, the Germans also established a forced labour camp for local Poles in Zambrów. The camp housed around 60 people at a time, and a total of around 2,000 people passed through it, before it was dissolved in August 1944.

When the war ended the population of the town was 4,130 out of 7,620. According to rough estimates, war destruction reached 43%. In 1944, the town was restored to Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which stayed in power until the Fall of Communism in the 1980s. In 1993, the pre-war monument to the fallen Polish insurgents of the January Uprising of 1863–1864 was rebuilt.

Sports
The local football club is Olimpia Zambrów. It competes in the lower leagues.

Notable residents

 * Shlomo Goren (1917–94), head of the Military Rabbinate of the Israel Defense Forces, and Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel
 * Józef Michalik (born in 1941), Roman Catholic archbishop and the President of the Polish Episcopal Conference

Twin towns — Sister cities
Zambrów is twinned with:
 * 🇱🇹 Visaginas, Lithuania

title: Zambrów


text:
NOP (code)

In computer science, a NOP, no-op, or NOOP (pronounced "no op"; short for no operation) is a machine language instruction and its assembly language mnemonic, programming language statement, or computer protocol command that does nothing.

Machine language instructions
Some computer instruction sets include an instruction whose explicit purpose is to not change the state of any of the programmer-accessible registers, status flags, or memory. It often takes a well-defined number of clock cycles to execute. In other instruction sets, there is no explicit NOP instruction, but the assembly language mnemonic NOP represents an instruction which acts as a NOP; e.g., on the SPARC,.

A NOP must not access memory, as that could cause a memory fault or page fault.

A NOP is most commonly used for timing purposes, to force memory alignment, to prevent hazards, to occupy a branch delay slot, to render void an existing instruction such as a jump, as a target of an execute instruction, or as a place-holder to be replaced by active instructions later on in program development (or to replace removed instructions when reorganizing would be problematic or time-consuming). In some cases, a NOP can have minor side effects; for example, on the Motorola 68000 series of processors, the NOP opcode causes a synchronization of the pipeline.

Listed below are the NOP instruction for some CPU architectures:

From a hardware design point of view, unmapped areas of a bus are often designed to return zeroes; since the NOP slide behavior is often desirable, it gives a bias to coding it with the all-zeroes opcode.

Code
A function or a sequence of programming language statements is a NOP or null statement if it has no effect. Null statements may be required by the syntax of some languages in certain contexts.

Ada
In Ada, the  statement serves as a NOP. As the syntax forbids that control statements or functions be empty, the  statement must be used to specify that no action is required. (Thus, if the programmer forgets to write a sequence of statements, the program will fail to compile.)

C and derivatives
The simplest NOP statement in C is the null statement, which is just a semi-colon in a context requiring a statement.

Be aware that your C-compiler is going to ignore null statements, which has historical and performance reasons. ; An empty block (compound statement) is also a NOP, and may be more legible, but will still be ignored by the compiler.: {} In some cases, such as the body of a function, a block must be used, but this can be empty. In C, statements cannot be empty—simple statements must end with a ; (semicolon) while compound statements are enclosed in {} (braces), which does not itself need a following semicolon. Thus in contexts where a statement is grammatically required, some such null statement can be used.

The null statement is useless by itself, but it can have a syntactic use in a wider context, e.g., within the context of a loop: alternatively, or more tersely: (note that the last form may be confusing, and as such generates a warning with some compilers or compiler options, as semicolon usually indicates an end of function call instruction when placed after a parenthesis on the end of line).

The above code continues calling the function getchar until it returns a \n (newline) character, essentially fast-forwarding the current reading location of standard input to the beginning of next line.

Fortran
In Fortran, the  statement is used in some contexts such as the last statement in a DO loop, although it can be used anywhere, and does not have any functionality.

JavaScript
The JavaScript language does not have a built-in NOP statement. Many implementations are possible: Alternatives, in situations where a function is required, are:
 * Use the  empty statement or the   empty block statement the same way as in the C and derivatives examples;
 * Use the  or the   expression as a complete statement (an expression statement) when the previous methods are not allowed by the syntax.
 * Use the  built-in function, that accepts any arguments and returns  ;
 * Use a NOP function available in a third-party library —see below;
 * Define a custom NOP function, as in the following example (using the ES6 arrow function syntax):

AngularJS
The AngularJS framework provides angular.noop function that performs no operations.

jQuery
The jQuery library provides a function, which does nothing.

Lodash
The Lodash library provides a function, which returns undefined and does nothing.

Pascal
As with C, the ; used by itself can be used as a null statement in Pascal. In fact, due to the specification of the language, in a BEGIN / END block, the semicolon is optional before the END statement, thus a semicolon used there is superfluous.

Also, a block consisting of  may be used as a placeholder to indicate no action, even if placed inside another BEGIN / END block.

Python
The Python programming language has a  statement which has no effect when executed and thus serves as a NOP. It is primarily used to ensure correct syntax due to Python's indentation-sensitive syntax; for example the syntax for definition of a class requires an indented block with the class logic, which has to be expressed as  when it should be empty.

Shell scripting (bash, zsh, etc.)
The ' ' [colon] command is a shell builtin that has similar effect to a "NOP" (a do-nothing operation). It is not technically an NOP, as it changes the special parameter $? (exit status of last command) to 0. It may be considered a synonym for the shell builtin 'true', and its exit status is true (0).

TeX macro language (ConTeXt, LaTeX, etc.)
The TeX typographical system's macro language has the  command. It does nothing by itself, but may be used to prevent the immediately preceding command from parsing any subsequent tokens.

NOP protocol commands
Many computer protocols, such as telnet, include a NOP command that a client can issue to request a response from the server without requesting any other actions. Such a command can be used to ensure the connection is still alive or that the server is responsive. A NOOP command is part of the following protocols (this is a partial list):
 * telnet
 * FTP
 * SMTP
 * X11
 * POP3
 * NNTP
 * finger
 * IMAP4
 * BitTorrent

Note that unlike the other protocols listed, the IMAP4 NOOP command has a specific purpose—it allows the server to send any pending notifications to the client.

While most telnet or FTP servers respond to a NOOP command with "OK" or "+OK", some programmers have added quirky responses to the client. For example, the  daemon of MINIX responds to NOOP with the message: 200 NOOP to you too!

Cracking
NOPs are often involved when cracking software that checks for serial numbers, specific hardware or software requirements, presence or absence of hardware dongles, etc. in the form of a NOP slide. This process is accomplished by altering functions and subroutines to bypass security checks and instead simply return the expected value being checked for. Because most of the instructions in the security check routine will be unused, these would be replaced with NOPs, thus removing the software's security functionality without altering the positioning of everything which follows in the binary.

Security exploits
The NOP opcode can be used to form a NOP slide, which allows code to execute when the exact value of the instruction pointer is indeterminate (e.g., when a buffer overflow causes a function's return address on the stack to be overwritten).

title: NOP (code)


text:
Nikolaus Lenau

Nikolaus Lenau was the pen name of Nikolaus Franz Niembsch Edler von Strehlenau (13 August 1802 – 22 August 1850), a German-language Austrian poet.

Biography
He was born at Csatád (Schadat), Kingdom of Hungary, now Lenauheim, Banat, then part of the Habsburg monarchy, now in Romania. His father, a Habsburg government official, died in 1807 in Budapest, leaving his children in the care of their mother, who remarried in 1811. In 1819 Nikolaus went to the University of Vienna; he subsequently studied Hungarian law at Pozsony (Bratislava) and then spent the next four years qualifying himself in medicine. Unable to settle down to any profession, he began writing verse. The disposition to sentimental melancholy inherited from his mother, stimulated by disappointments in love and by the prevailing fashion of the romantic school of poetry, descended into gloom after his mother's death in 1829.

Soon afterwards, however, a legacy from his grandmother enabled him to devote himself wholly to poetry. His first published poems appeared in 1827, in Johann Gabriel Seidl's Aurora. In 1831 he moved to Stuttgart, where he published a volume of Gedichte (1832) dedicated to the Swabian poet, Gustav Schwab. He also made the acquaintance of Ludwig Uhland, Justinus Kerner, Karl Mayer and others. His restless spirit longed for change, and he determined to seek peace and freedom in America.

In October 1832 he landed at Baltimore and settled on a homestead in Ohio. He also lived six months in New Harmony, Indiana, with a group called the Harmony Society. Life in the primeval forest fell lamentably short of the ideal he had pictured. He disliked Americans with their eternal English lisping of dollars (englisches Talergelispel), and in 1833 returned to Germany. The appreciation of his first volume of poems revived his spirits.

From then on he lived partly in Stuttgart and partly in Vienna. In 1836 his Faust appeared, in which he laid bare his own soul to the world; in 1837, Savonarola, an epic in which freedom from political and intellectual tyranny as an essential component of Christianity was stated. In 1838 his Neuere Gedichte proved that Savonarola had been the result of a passing exaltation. Of these new poems, some of the finest were inspired by his hopeless passion for Sophie von Löwenthal, the wife of a friend. In 1842 appeared Die Albigenser, and in 1844 he began writing his Don Juan, a fragment of which was published after his death.

Soon afterwards he developed signs of mental ill-health. In October 1844, he jumped from a window one morning and ran down a street shouting "Revolt! Freedom! Help! Fire!". He was placed in an asylum, under restraint, for the remainder of his life. He died in the asylum at Oberdöbling near Vienna and was buried in the cemetery of Weidling, near Klosterneuburg. On his grave is the replica of an open book with an extract from one of his poems (An Frau Kleyle) inscribed on the left-hand page, while on the right-hand page there is the final stanza from his poem Vergangenheit. The city of Stockerau in Lower Austria has proclaimed itself "Lenau City", because Nikolaus Lenau went on extensive walks in the alluvial forests next to Stockerau and the Danube and was inspired to write one of his most famous lyric poems, "Schilflieder", during this time. He has various streets and squares in Vienna and the surrounding area named after him.

His political poems, such as "By the Grave of a Minister," reveal Lenau's liberal sympathies with their attacks on the despotism of Metternich's reactionary system and the alleged corruption of the Catholic Church. Lenau's fame rests mainly upon his shorter poems; even his epics are essentially lyric in quality. His excellent poem, "Herbst", expresses the sadness and melancholy he felt after his sojourn in the United States and his strenuous travels across the Atlantic to return to Europe. In it, he mourns the loss of youth, the passing of time and his own sense of futility. The poem is archetypal of Lenau's style and culminates with the speaker dreaming of death as a final escape from emptiness. He is the greatest modern lyric poet of Austria, and the typical representative in German literature of that pessimistic Weltschmerz which, beginning with Lord Byron, reached its culmination in the poetry of Giacomo Leopardi.

Lenau's Sämtliche Werke were first published in 4 vols. by Anastasius Grün in 1855, but there are several more modern editions, as those by Max Koch in Joseph Kürschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur of 1888 (vols. 154 and 155), and E. Castle (2 vols., 1900).

Legacy

 * Composer Marie Schauff (fl. 1799-1844) set Lenau’s poems to music in her “Gedichte von Lenau” opus 3.
 * Robert Schumann, whom Lenau met in 1829, set six of his poems in the Sechs Gedichte und Requiem, Op. 90. The cycle was composed in 1850; Lenau died on the day of its premiere at Dresden.
 * “Die Nacht” and “Die Sennin,” songs by Sophie Seipt (1812-1889) are based on poems by Lenau.
 * Lieders by composer Pauline Volkstein (1849-1925) use text by Lenau.
 * Notturno, a 1933 song cycle by Othmar Schoeck includes settings of nine poems by Lenau.
 * The composer Heinz Holliger has written a song cycle, Lunea (2013), using Lenau texts, and an opera, also called Lunea, based on the song cycle.

title: Nikolaus Lenau


text:
Democratic Party (South Africa)

The Democratic Party  (DP) was the name of the South African political party now called the Democratic Alliance. Although the Democratic Party name dates from 1989, the party existed under other labels throughout the apartheid years, when it was the Parliamentary opposition to the ruling National Party's policies.

Background
The Progressive Federal Party had formed the main parliamentary opposition to the Apartheid regime in the whites-only House of Assembly since 1977. But the party was ousted as the official opposition in the 1987 election and pushed into third place behind the far-right Conservative Party, which opposed even the limited reforms the NP had recently implemented. This led to great disillusionment amongst South Africa's white liberal community, and some questioned the merit of continuing to serve in the apartheid parliament. By 1989, they had regrouped, however, and aimed to strengthen the white parliamentary resistance to apartheid; the Progressive Federal Party merged with two smaller reform-minded parties, the Independent Party and the National Democratic Movement (NDM), to become the Democratic Party. The new party had three co-leaders from each of the parties that had entered the merger: Zach de Beer, Denis Worrall and Wynand Malan. De Beer, from the dominant PFP-faction, eventually became the sole leader, however.

History
The DP showed its political strength by winning a local by-election in the mostly Afrikaner Linden suburb in Johannesburg, described as a "shock upset" that showed the NP that voters were ready for change. It went on to win 34 seats in the 1989 election, up from 20 before the vote.

In 1990, the NP shifted its race policies towards the centre. President F. W. de Klerk released Nelson Mandela and announced the unbanning of struggle organisations such as the African National Congress, while embracing liberal democracy and opening up its membership to all races. This shift narrowed the political space available to the DP, and the party saw itself further marginalized during the Codesa negotiations which were dominated by the ANC and NP. In the 1994 election, the party won a disappointing 7 seats in the democratic parliament.

Post-1994
Following the 1994 election, Tony Leon became the party's sole leader.

Under Leon's leadership, the DP would become the most active and influential opposition party in the National Assembly, despite its small size. A mid-term review in 1997 found that the party's seven members of parliament had asked 50% as many parliamentary questions as the members of the National Party, despite being more than ten times smaller. In 1998, political columnist Howard Barrell wrote that "Seven DP MPs make their National Party counterparts look like 80 feather dusters". The DP won its first local by-election in a traditional NP constituency in March 1997, and this was followed by several others.

1998 to 2000
By 1998, the party was growing its support base significantly, and after the 1999 election, the DP, under the leadership of Leon, became Official Opposition to the ANC-led government, winning 38 seats. In the Western Cape province, it achieved kingmaker status and became the junior partner in a governing coalition with the renamed New National Party (NNP).

This electoral success came at a price, however. The party's new supporters largely came from the National Party and consisted overwhelmingly of ethnic minorities, mainly whites. The DP had contested the 1999 election with a highly negative campaign under the controversial slogan "Fight Back", and many, such as ANC President Thabo Mbeki, were of the view that it was "the transformation of the DP into a right wing political party" that allowed it to capture these voters. Leon and other party leaders dismissed this, however, maintaining that the new supporters would not lead the DP to change its principles. Instead, he said the new recruits would have to ascribe to the liberal-democratic values to which the DP had historically adhered.

Formation of the Democratic Alliance
To unify national opposition against the ANC government, the DP and the NNP began planning a merger of the two parties. Accordingly, they formed the Democratic Alliance (DA) in June 2000. The merger agreement was short-lived, with the NNP leaving the alliance in 2001, but the DA closed ranks and retained the new creation, establishing it at all levels of government from 2003 onwards.

title: Democratic Party (South Africa)