text:
Balinese language

The Balinese language (basa Bali, Standard Balinese pronunciation: [basə ˈbali]; Indonesian: bahasa Bali) is an Austronesian language in the Malayo-Polynesian language branch. It is spoken on the Indonesian island of Bali, as well as Nusa Penida, Western Lombok, Eastern Java (especially Banyuwangi), Southern Sumatra, and Sulawesi. Most Balinese speakers also use Indonesian. The 2000 national census recorded 3.3 million people speakers of Balinese, however the Bali Cultural Agency estimated in 2011 that the number of people still using the Balinese language in their daily lives is under 1 million. The language has been classified as "not endangered" by Glottolog.

The higher registers of the language borrows extensively from Javanese: an old form of classical Javanese, Kawi, is used in Bali as a religious and ceremonial language. Balinese is the majority language in Tegaldlimo district of Banyuwangi, East Java and some villages in Banyuwangi. It is also widely used in urban Sumbawa.

Classification
Balinese is an Austronesian language belonging to the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the family. Within Malayo-Polynesian, it is part of the Bali–Sasak–Sumbawa subgroup. Internally, Balinese has three distinct varieties; Highland Bali, Lowland Bali, and Nusa Penida Balinese.

Demographics

According to the 2000 census, the Balinese language is spoken by 3.3 million people in Indonesia, mainly concentrated on the island of Bali and the surrounding areas.

In 2011, the Bali Cultural Agency estimated that the number of people still using the Balinese language in their daily lives on Bali Island does not exceed 1 million, as in urban areas their parents only introduce the Indonesian language or even English as a foreign language, while daily conversations in the institutions and the mass media have disappeared. The written form of the Balinese language is increasingly unfamiliar and most Balinese people use the Balinese language only as a means of oral communication, often mixing it with Indonesian in their daily speech. However, in the transmigration areas outside Bali Island, the Balinese language is extensively used and believed to play an important role in the survival of the language.

Dialects
Balinese has three main dialects which has its own characteristics, even residents between regency and villages have their own dialects of the three, Lowland Balinese or Kapara Balinese is the most commonly used dialect on the island and is also the standard language The Lowland Balinese or 'Kapara Balinese' is the most widely used dialect of the Balinese people, and is the standard form of the language. This dialect first initially developed in Klungkung and sonner later spread to other areas of Bali the majority in all regency in Bali Apart from that, it is also used on neighboring islands such as Lombok mainly used by immigrants from Karangasem who still use Balinese as their daily language and use it in especially the western part of the island they mostly came from the former kingdom of Karangasem, after the Dutch intervened in Lombok and Karangasem most Karangasemese people chose to remain there. This dialect is also widely spoken in East Java especially in the Banyuwangi area by Jembrana Buleleng migrants. in Banyuwangi this dialect is the majority in some districts and villages. Because it is the standard language and common language, this dialect is also the language for most of the Balinese other diaspora in other province in Indonesia and the whole world
 * Lowland Balinese
 * Highland Balinese

The Highland Balinese or Bali Aga dialect is a dialect used by native Balinese people, Bali Aga this dialect is the oldest dialect of Balinese which is still used ancient Austronesian words and little Sanskrit influence, this dialect is mainly used in  Kintamani, Bangli, East Buleleng and Eastern Karangasem and significant in Bangli, Klungkung, Northern Badung,Tabanan and Denpasar cpital city. This dialect is threatened because modern Bali Aga people are not confident in using this dialect and they prefer to use standard Balinese, they face discrimination from people with other Balinese dialects. The population of the Bali Aga people is approximately 63,000
 * Nusa Penida Balinese

The Nusa Penida Balinese or called 'basa nosa' by its speakers is a dialect of the Balinese language used on the main island of Nusa Penida and the small islands around it, which is administratively included in Klungkung Regency, this dialect also spoken in mainland Bali island especially in the government center of Klungkung, and other regency in Bali and the speakers also took part in the transmigration program, most of them migrated to South Sumatra and Lampung. This dialect is spoken by around 59,900 according to the 2022 census. The Nusa Penida dialect is similar to Bali Aga dialect even though there are some differences too. different from the Bali Aga dialect which can still be understood the Nusa Penida dialect considered a unique and different dialect in the Balinese language because most mainland Balinese do not understand the this dialect verbally and in writing because this dialect is very different from other dialects in Bali which can still be understood.

Vowels
The official spelling denotes both and  by. However, is usually pronounced  when it ends a word, and  occurs also in prefixes ma-, pa- and da-.

Consonants
Depending on dialect, the phoneme is realized as a voiceless alveolar or retroflex stop. This is in contrast with most other languages in western Indonesia (including Standard Indonesian), which have a dental patterning with an otherwise alveolar phoneme series.

Stress
Stress falls on the last syllable.

Registers
Even though most basic vocabulary in Balinese and Indonesian originates from Austronesian and Sanskrit, many cognates sound quite different between languages. Balinese has four different registers: low, middle , and high , the uses of which depend on the relationship and status of those speaking and those being spoken about. High Balinese is not commonly used except to speak to pedandas, so few are fluent in it. The common mutations in inherited Balinese words are:

 * r > h / #_, r > h / V_V, and r > h / _#. That is, r mutates into h at the beginning of every word, the end of every word, and between any two vowels.
 * h > ø / !_#. The phoneme h is lost everywhere except at the ends of words.

However, these mutations are not expressed in High Balinese, indicating that High Balinese contains many loanwords from Sanskrit and (Old) Javanese. These loanwords are identical in sound to their modern Javanese cognates, but reflect fifteenth-century usages from Old Javanese.

Numerals
Balinese has a decimal numeral system, but this is complicated by numerous words for intermediate quantities such as 45, 175, and 1600.

Pronouns
Kinship terms can be used as pronouns. If these pronouns are used as agents, they refer to either the speaker or the listener, depending on context. Though first and second person pronouns need no antecedent to be understood, third person pronouns do.

Time
Instead of grammatical tense, Balinese uses temporal adverbs to talk about time.

For present tense, the adverb jani ("now") can be either definite or indefinite depending on context. Its more emphatic form, jani san ("right now"), is definite. The indefinite word ajanian ("up to now") refers to any time before or during the utterance.

The word buin/bin ("again") is obligatory for puan and telun to clarify that they are not being used for their past tense meanings. Mani, manian, and puan can all be prefixed with mani to refer to the future.

Grammar
Balinese is agglutinative. Verb and noun inflectional morphology is similarly minimal to Indonesian, but derivational morphology is extensive.

Affixes
Of the two dative suffixes, -ang and -in, the latter should be used if the object is animate. The suffix -né / -é marks nouns for both definiteness and possession.

Nouns & modifiers
Nouns come before their modifiers, and are often marked with a deictic word, ento 'that' or ené 'this,'" to show that any modifiers act as modifiers instead of as verbs. The definite marker can also be attached to modifiers, especially any which conveys "an inherent property of its referent." Ajectives following possessive (and therefore definite) nouns function as  predicative, while adjectives following unmarked nouns function as attributive.

Verbs
Two types of serial verb constructions occur in Balinese. Both verbs are always fully inflected, but in the first type, the verbs have the same agent, whereas in the second, the object of the first verb is the subject of the second.

Word order & voices
The default, unmarked word order of Balinese is Patient Verb Agent. If the agent is a third person pronoun, it is attached to the verb as the clitic suffix -a.

This default word order can be reversed (Agent Verb Patient) with a nasal prefix on the verb. The nasal-marked word order cannot be an active  construction, because it is marked, nor can it be antipassive, because the patient can’t be omitted. It is considered a second type of transitive voice.

There is a true passive voice (Patient Verb Agent) borrowed from Javanese and marked by the verbal prefix ka-. It is used mostly in high registers. If the agent of this passive construction is third-person, it must be preceded by a preposition. If it is not third-person, it cannot be preceded by a preposition.

The second true passive voice (Patient Verb), marked by the verbal prefix ma-, always omits the agent. It connotes a complete event and is only available to some verbs.

Writing
Balinese has been written in two different writing systems: the Balinese script, and in modern times the Latin script.

Balinese script

The Balinese script (, ᬅᬓ᭄ᬱᬭᬩᬮᬶ), which is arranged as (ᬳᬦᬘᬭᬓ), is an abugida, ultimately derived from the Brāhmī script of India. The earliest known inscriptions date from the 9th century AD.

Few people today are familiar with the Balinese script. The Balinese script is almost the same as the Javanese script.

Latin alphabet
Schools in Bali teach a Latin alphabet known as, which formally has one diacritic, (é). This diacritic is still actively used and found in Balinese dictionaries and schools, but now is not commonly used elsewhere. The pronunciation is similar to Sasak.

Relations with other Austronesian languages
Balinese is an Austronesian language from the Malayo-Polynesian branch, just like most Austronesian languages, Balinese uses verbs first before nouns, basa Bali (Balinese language), tulis buku (notebooks), nyémak ember (Get a bucket), ngaba piring (Carrying plates), ngubuh sampi (raising cows) gumi sakti (grounded).

Balinese also still maintains close ties with other Austronesian languages, this is proven by the many words that have similarities in other Indonesian regions, Oceania, Polynesia the Philippines and even Taiwan. the word bok for hair in Balinese is the same as bok for hair in Batak language and the word irung and asu in Balinese which means nose and dog is similar to several dialects in the Philippines also has the same meaning. Bali Aga Balinese which is the oldest Balinese dialect, may have more similarities with other Austronesian languages because it does not have a strong influence from Sanskrit even the accent of the Bali Aga people sometimes sounds similar to the indigenous Taiwanese people, the Philippines and Oceania, Polynesia. Another similarity is in calculating numbers which is typical of Austronesian even though some borrow Sanskrit words 1. bésik/siki 2. dua

3. télu

4. papat

5. lima

6. eném

7. pitu

8. kutus

9. sia

10. dasa

It is still unknown why 8 is 'Kutus' in Balinese while 'Dasa' definitely comes from Sanskrit

Influence of other languages
Balinese as it is spoken today is great mixture contains many Sanskrit words, Chinese words, Parsi words, And English words, because of colonial and commercial activities, many words as sekolah, dokter, and buku have Dutch origins. Portuguese influence has produced such words as kemeja, bola, and jendela. English expressions such as "stop," botol, and tiket are heard everywhere.

Note
In Balinese script, Sanskrit and Kawi loanwords tend use conservative orthography as standard form in Balinese script. The word for language, basa, in Balinese is a loanword from Old Javanese which came from the Sanskrit word भाषा, hence it is written according to Sanskrit and Old Javanese spelling ᬪᬵᬱᬩᬮᬶ in Balinese script. The Bali form in Balinese script is used by beginner writers. Meanwhile, diacritics are not written in the current romanization of the Balinese language. Thus, both Bali and are the standard forms.

title: Balinese language


text:
Talk:Georgios Papandreou

Untitled
Something that wasn't answered earlier...

Is "Andreas" his middle name? --Jiang

I've never seen him referred to as such, but the Greek family naming pattern suggests that it was, since his son was Andreas George and his grandson is George Andreas. It is possible however that the middle name is a recent innovation in Greek names and that he didn't have one. I'm not sure where I can check this but I will try. Adam

 * I think of people from that generation (and earlier), it was typically uncommon to have a formal middle name (e.g. on the birth certificate), but not uncommon to use the father's name as a sort of descriptive pseudo-middle-name, especially if the father was famous. This may have varied by region though, so I'm not giving it as a definitive answer. --Delirium 08:19, Nov 16, 2003 (UTC)

I think indeed his father was Andreas. In fact being a priest he was called Papa Andreas (father Andreas) thus Papandreou means "son of father Andreas". In that time they were not used to have a middle name. —Geraki 2005-05-27 T 11:29 Z Andreas was not his middle name, middle names do not exist in Greek naming tradition. Greeks usually have one first name, sometimes two. The latter is still the exception, although nowadays one sees it more often than what used to be the case. The use of a the father's first name after one's own first name is common in Greece, mostly for disambiguation purposes, where in other countries middle names (not in everyday use) or dates of birth, would be used. The father's first name is used in the genitive so Andreas Papandreou was Andreas Georgiou Papandreou, Georgiou being the genitive of Georgios. This is close to the use of the father's name with -ov at the end in Russia or other Slavic countries. However, it should be stressed that the "father's name" does NOT form part of a person's given name, it is a distinct piece of information. Andreas Papandreou was called just that, not Andreas Georgiou Papandreou. Further, Papandreou means "of Priest Andreas", another case of the genitive. It is still common in Greece to call priests by their first name preceded by Papa (meaning "priest") the equivalent of English e.g. Father Andrew. In old times it was common for the families of priests to abandon their previous surname and use instead "of Papa so-and-so" as surname. I think this was the case with Papandreou, too since I remember reading somewher that their previous surname was "Stavropoulos"

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: articles moved (alternate proposal). Dabomb87 (talk) 18:51, 4 September 2010 (UTC)

Geórgios Papandréou (senior) → Georgios Papandreou (senior) and Geórgios Papandréou → Georgios Papandreou (junior) — a) diacritics are almost never used to transliterate Greek names, and b) since there are two of the same name, both important as prime ministers, there should be disambiguation Constantine  ✍  16:36, 27 August 2010 (UTC) Following the discussion below, the alternative proposal is Geórgios Papandréou (senior) → Georgios Papandreou and Geórgios Papandréou → George Papandreou. Please indicate preference when you vote. Constantine  ✍  20:37, 1 September 2010 (UTC)

 * But there is no need for dab. I moved his grandfather's article to Georgios Papandreou (senior). The diacritics can go. Dr.K. λogosπraxis 16:46, 27 August 2010 (UTC)
 * On the other hand if for historical reasons a statement needs to be made that the name "Georgios Papandreou" should not be granted to either of these two men, because they are equally worthy of it (although that borders on OR), I am neutral, leaning on calling the grandfather "Georgios Papandreou" and the grandson "Georgios Papandreou (junior)". Dr.K. λogosπraxis 17:20, 27 August 2010 (UTC)
 * I agree that, taking the long view, the senior Papandreou may well be the more important of the two. My preference for disambiguating both is based on the fact that as the grandson is currently active as the PM, he will be more searched for than his grandpa. Constantine  ✍  18:22, 27 August 2010 (UTC)
 * How about "Georgios A. Papandreou"? (for junior) and "Georgios Papandreou" for senior (as in the Greek Wikipedia and many other foreign wikis such as the Italian, German Wikipedias etc.). See also George W. Bush. I simply don't like the "junior", "senior" dabs. Meanwhile for those who are looking for the junior and fall on senior's page we have the hatnote. Dr.K. λogosπraxis 18:39, 27 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Hmmm, Papandreou himself certainly uses that form... There are two problems however. "A." would suggest a middle name to an English-language reader, and not the abbreviation of the patronymic (tellingly, the page for the younger Papandreou was for years under "George Andreas Papandreou"). In addition, the elder Papandreou's father was also named "Andreas". I don't particularly like the senior/junior forms either, but I don't see any valid alternative, except perhaps for disambiguating by dates... Constantine  ✍  19:30, 27 August 2010 (UTC)
 * The fact remains that the old Papandreou is widely known as "Georgios Papandreou" both inside and outside Greece and he is the original "Georgios Papandreou" and does not need a middle initial. The younger one to be spared the fate of having "(junior)" attached to his name, I think it is a fair and elegant compromise to put the middle initial "A." and if by chance this confuses some readers we can explain it in the article, but I think this is a minor point and the disambiguation benefit of the middle initial far outweighs the confusion about a middle name or patronymic. We can also call him "Yorgos" similar to "Kostas" Karamanlis. Dr.K. λogosπraxis 01:15, 28 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Per common usage, the most correct form for the younger would actually be "George Papandreou" (with or without the "A."), because this is the overwhelmingly used form in English-language sources. We could then perhaps leave the grandfather at "Georgios Papandreou" and avoid the ugly junior and senior issue. A disambiguation hatnote would either way suffice for linking to each from the other's article... I am dead set against "Yorgos" however, it just looks ugly... Constantine  ✍  03:05, 29 August 2010 (UTC)

 * I agree. Let's name the younger Papandreou "George Papandreou" and the grandfather "Georgios Papandreou". I also agree with "Yorgos" not being particularly attractive but I was running out of options. Dr.K. λogosπraxis 03:12, 29 August 2010 (UTC)

 * Support second option, as nominator. Constantine  ✍  20:40, 1 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Support Second that. Dr.K. λogosπraxis 20:45, 1 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Support renaming the present incumbant to George Papandreou. That's how he refers to himself in English, and that's how the vast majority of the English-language press refers to him. Look here: http://www.primeminister.gr/english/george-papandreou/ --Damac (talk) 16:29, 3 September 2010 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Support: I agree, it sounds fine.Metsobon34 (talk) 11:05, 11 September 2010 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Georgios Papandreou


text: Talk:Index of climbing topics

title: Talk:Index of climbing topics


text:
Talk:Pollinator decline

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Untitled
Pollinator, it is a good article, well researched, with abundant documentation, definitly on an important topic...but it is not npov at all :-(

What do you suggest ? Do you prefer I try to edit it, or may I suggest to you the biggest points so you can edit them yourself ? Anthère

I read the article very carefully (hopefully :-)).

Here are part of my feelings (only part, because I do not have a lot of time right now, so will come back to it later), so I just give my general feelings first.

When I read this article, I *know* it has been written either by a beekeeper, very likely, or perhaps by an environmentalist. That makes me think it is biased. That is essentially a general feeling, though some choice of words here and there might easily explain it.

I think the article would benefit of being slightly more structured, and probably that would reducing that feeling by making the article sounds more matter of factly.

Allow me to propose another view point. In ecology, there are three directions which are studied

 * the species itself, in this case, the article on pollinators is taking of that.

 * the organized activity of this species, essentially the fact pollinators allow reproduction of many flower plants. Again, mostly in the pollinator article I think. But, studying the activity also include watching what is happening in case population (for any reason) increases, or on the contrary, decreases : if the pollinators are less numerous, all flower plants for which pollinators are needed will likely be less numerous, and this has impact not only on agroecosystems, but on all the ecosystem at the same time. This is what is studied here but should be perhaps better identified in parts 1) observation of pollinator decline 2)consequences of the decline on all the ecosystem.

 * the environment of the pollinators activity, ie the consequences of environmental changes on the pollinators themselves (and consequently on their activity). In this case, this is mostly the end of the article : which changes in the environnement could explain or do explain pollinator decline.

So, I think the article should try

First, in the introduction, just to remind what is the role of the pollinators (and put a link on pollinators as well as on pollination); indicate their numbers have recently decreased; introduce most likely reasons for the decline; indicate what consequences it should have.

Then, the article, ihmo, should be much clearly divided in section

(in the current version, introduction and content are imho a bit mixed up)

Section 1 : observations around pollinators numbers declining. With a focus on facts, numbers.

Section 2 : Consequences of the decrease. Not only human related if possible. The fact that on top of it, needs have perhaps increased.

Section 3 : possible or recognised reasons why the numbers have decreased. I do not know whether Gaucho or Regent are sold under these brand names in US ? I do not know how these are received in US, but in France, it is likely they will be banned soon. Each reason should be as much as possible supported by facts or citations. Especially the part of pesticides

Section 4 : what is possible to do to avoid the decline to proceed any further, or to favour increase, or to limit detrimental consequences

Basically, I think all this information is already there, in the article, but just mixed.

One of the best thing we can do to limit pollinator decline is to teach people where problems rely, and which one can be avoided, while other may not. The clearer it is, the most efficient it will be. Imho :-)

Tell me what you think please Pollinator.

 * Yes I am a beekeeper (retired), who specialized in pollination of agricultural crops, so this is material I have lived. This gives me some insights, I think, but as you suggest, may make me too close to the subject. And keeping bees all those years made me become an environmentalist.

 * Imidacloprid (Gaucho, etc) is used in North America, and beekeepers are just starting to become aware of it. The losses of this and many other pesticides are so subtile that even many beekeepers do not recognize it. They just can't understand why the bees are doing so poorly.

 * just beginning ? Curious. There have been fights going on for quite a while now between in particular Bayer and beekeepers in France; last summer, Bayer filled a lawsuite against the president of the association of bee keepers because of this (the tribunal rejected the case). Just a couple of days ago, some french local governemental agency announced a moratoire on Gaucho for a whole department. I think we are not very far from it being made illegal :-) Anthère

 * Your ideas sound good and you definitely are knowledgeable. Why don't you just "have at it" and make the changes you think appropriate. I think I'll enjoy collaborating with you, Anthere. Meanwhile I'll be thinking on your points and developing some additional material that can also be added in. I agree that some of the points made do need quotes and figures. Pollinator 03:05, 16 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Nod, I will try; perhaps slowly and not immediately because I have some stuff cooking on the fire. Huge issue with a newly banned user on fr in particular :-( and the english article on ecology that I am trying to refactor from the one I wrote in french. That is why I made some following of links yesterday and found your articles on pollination. I think this bunch would make a great example for ecology, in particular in the introduction, where I tried to explain these three directions of ecological studies. Currently, I put an example that is hardly satisfying. I think the bees would be real nice there :-)

 * I would be very happy if you had more material, quotes, facts and such. I could find some for Europe perhaps. I will try to make the physical moves to show what I meant. I usually very little refactor other people work, not a good idea to replace good english with poor one :-) But I will really be happy to collaborate here with you and bring another perspective. I know little about bees though. I offer you two pictures...Image:Tournesol(L).jpg and Image:Hymenoptere(s).jpg (if you know its name, do not hesitate). anthere

 * Melissodes is my guess, but don't bet the farm on it, as I'm not an expert on taxonomy, and I've had those who ARE experts be unwilling to try to identify from photos....good pictures, though...

 * yes, I know, they always want the animal itself :-) but I just take picture :-)

 * If I can help on any bee stuff for the ecology example, I'd be glad to do so. BTW, I know it's hard to write in a second language, but you need not worry about it too much, as you do extremely well. Spanish is my second language, but I would not dare write anything without running it by a fluent Spanish speaker.

 * Thanks :-) well, I just try to do my best. Usually I write myself, but for the ecology article, I rely on real english speaking to translate, to be sure it is proper english; Imho, that is a central article, it must be done carefully.

I made some of the changes I suggested. Mostly reorganisation, moving some information here and there. Of course, there would be need to "glue" them now, but it also shows where it would be nice to add a bit. I started by slightly improving the alternative paragraph. I also made a new introduction. Has to be reworked though, but it allows to point out to a few important articles related to the topic. We should also add somehow Pollination management in the intro.

What do you think ?

---

Hello Pollinator,

Re (monoculture)

I am a bit embarassed by the reference to monoculture being dropped quickly aside of surface increase. There are two points in my opinion
 * the surfaces have increased => increase need for pollinator. That is straight
 * monoculture is more preeminent => does not necessary imply the total number of pollinator had to increase, but rather than some types of pollinators are more necessary than others, because more appropriate for one type of crop pollination. This may indicate the needs increased, but of only one type of pollinator. This might also explain why some pollinators less required disappeared. But in both cases, I think it is a point different enough from the increase of agricultural surfaces to be mentionned separately.

Do you see what I mean ? I am not sure I am clear ?

 * Sorry, Anthere, I don't. I'm confused. Can you explain more what you mean by "surfaces." Pollinator 01:01, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I feared that :-( I meant agricultural surfaces (such as in hectares, or acres). More land cultivated than before. I will try to think of a way to change the article later.

Aside from this, we might improve some paragraphs about pesticides now :-)

PomPom

 * Yes, I'd like to see more on this, as it's a major environmental issue, but I am short of time at present, just ducking in now and then to see how things are going. I hope to have more time to spend on this after we finish moving, and get the holidays behind us.   :o)  Cheers  Pollinator 01:01, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Yes. I will soon be on holidays, so far away (NO internet connection). And in january, I have to start searching for a house myself...good luck with the move...:-)

Hive destruction> Citation for sueing after wasp sting
There's a citation needed tag for the claim that people are increasingly more likely to sue beekeepers, even if it was a wasp sting. I've found this letter to the editor in NYT but I can't find the original article. Obviously one article isn't a trend, and further, it isn't clear whether the defendant was a beekeeper. However, perhaps the sentance could comment on the NYT headline mentioning bees despite the involvement of wasps. Keepstherainoff (talk) 10:34, 26 November 2010 (UTC)

Direction for article?
Found an interesting article today so just posting this here: http://www.minnpost.com/earth-journal/2015/03/marla-spivak-grasp-our-bees-plight-and-prospects-stay-focused-food

Not quite reliable for general claims, but quotes from one of the more well known bee researchers out there could be useful. With my entomologist hat on, she covers the status of the field pretty well. Taking it off, I'd rather find the sources behind what she's discussing before editing the article or other related ones. Either way, just posting it in case anyone gets any ideas for quotes that might be useable or just for ideas to pursue.

With all this in mind, it might be time to start refocusing the suite of bee/pollinator decline type articles to mesh them up better (a lot of things in the articles don't match up with what the science says). I'm still pondering what to do in other articles, but I'm happy to discuss any ideas other folks have. Kingofaces43 (talk) 20:38, 12 March 2015 (UTC)

Another source
Came across another source I'll just leave here for now: http://bip2.beeinformed.org/geo/. It's a very primary source as a survey of a beekeepers, so we would need to be careful about not attributing facts such as X% mortality occurred when it's based on a survey along with issues related to self-reporting. Synthesizing the data from the site would seem to go beyond WP:CALC at this point, but it looks like something worthwhile to continue checking out for summaries they may put out. Kingofaces43 (talk) 15:16, 29 March 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

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External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20140722231655/http://www.masterbeekeeper.org/pdf/pollination.pdf to http://www.masterbeekeeper.org/pdf/pollination.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20140722231655/http://www.masterbeekeeper.org/pdf/pollination.pdf to http://www.masterbeekeeper.org/pdf/pollination.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060811203055/http://www.xerces.org:80/pubs_merch/PCH.htm to http://www.xerces.org/pubs_merch/PCH.htm
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20050519134119/http://rgm.fmrp.usp.br:80/beescience/arquivospdf/workshop.pdf to http://rgm.fmrp.usp.br/beescience/arquivospdf/workshop.pdf

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Grist for your mill
I don't have time right now, or the commitment to this subject, but these two articles would be well worth extracting juicy bits for inclusion in the Consequences section. They're both more recent than the other sources for that section. Do Pollinators Contribute to Nutritional Health? Contribution of Pollinator-Mediated Crops to Nutrients in the Human Food Supply Jbening (talk) 18:55, 6 August 2017 (UTC)

More Sources/Information about "Possible Explanations" ?
The section “Possible Explanations” of this article obtains a lengthy paragraph about “Pesticide use,” and it is easy to notice that most of this section pertains to it. This could be the result of the statement that the decline in pollinators is an effect of the use of pesticides and insecticides, it could be merely coincidental. However, it could also be perceived as being over-represented in contrast to the other explanations. Even though the use of pesticides is a viable explanation, so are the other ones that are mentioned. The other probable causes of pollinator decline mentioned consist of one paragraph, while “Rapid transfer of parasites and diseases of pollinator species around the world” and “Changes in seasonal behavior due to global warming” consists of two sentences. This could be a result of there being insufficient references pertaining to these topics in their relevance to pollinator decline. For the purposes of furthering the article, it would be interesting to see if there is even more information about those other "Possible Explanations" of this phenomena.

This is not to say that the editors of this page have not done so, I am just curious. I did not see much of a discussion about the lack of information on the other probable causes of pollinator decline, so I wanted to know if others have found it difficult to find that information. I could also not have enough knowledge about this subject to know if pesticides take up so much of that section because they are the leading/main cause, or not. Cmennona95 (talk) 04:24, 9 November 2017 (UTC)

Inquiry about References
For the moderate length of this article, there are many references within it, 35 to be exact. For my observation, very statistic I saw was followed by a reference, as well as every fact and statement that needed some level of expertise that I noticed was supported by a reference. I even clicked on a few of the links and was satisfied by what I saw, in terms of the reference’s credibility. However, when it comes to topics like this one, I find it hard to tell if references are specifically for explanatory purposes. For instance, are the authors of those references that pertain to the role of pesticides in the decline of pollinators just explaining a facet of this phenomena or are they trying to eradicate the use of pesticides? It is sometimes difficult to determine the motives of authors, unless there is easily detectable evidence, like if they have any connection to specific interests groups. Furthermore, I could see that the words that were discipline-oriented were made into links that were explained and defined in other Wikipedia articles, which made it easy to make myself familiar with words and concepts I had no prior knowledge of.

The article is very well documented from what I could tell, which made the read easier to follow. Cmennona95 (talk) 04:31, 9 November 2017 (UTC)

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Potential Sources to add to Article
I plan on adding to this article, and here are some of the potential sources I intend to use, comments and suggestions are welcome:

Request for graphs
If there are any studies which visually show the decline of pollinators on a graph, those would be very useful for this page. Mapmaker345 (talk) 16:45, 30 October 2019 (UTC)

Effects of global warming related wind effecting bees, add?
It was reported February 2020, a study raised concerns the effects of global warming increases in frequency of high wind speeds so that bees and other flying pollinators may struggle. X1\ (talk) 23:15, 24 February 2020 (UTC)

Info too doubtful
35% of crop production depends on bees.

See List of most valuable crops and livestock products. Actual production is around 6%. Maybe they are talking about value? Leo Breman (talk) 10:49, 10 September 2020 (UTC)

Possible merge with Decline in insect populations
I only came across these two articles by chance and am not sure what's the best approach here, considering both articles are a couple of years old already. Could someone with more insight in this topic (and who's more familiar with the rules and guidelines in the English WP) have a look, please? Thanks! Tkarcher (talk) 08:15, 13 April 2022 (UTC)
 * I would find it doubtful a merge would be helpful. The insect article is a loose amalagam of random studies rather than an encyclopedic article still needing a lot of work, and this is about a very specific subset of insects and issues there. Often times it's already difficult to address the pollinator subject without focus, so it helps to keep it as a separate article. KoA (talk) 17:53, 13 April 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pollinator decline


text:
CPRE

CPRE, The Countryside Charity, formerly known by names such as the Council for the Preservation of Rural England and the Campaign to Protect Rural England, is a charity in England with over 40,000 members and supporters. Formed in 1926 by Patrick Abercrombie to limit urban sprawl and ribbon development, the CPRE claims to be one of the longest running environmental groups in the UK. CPRE campaigns for a "sustainable future" for the English countryside. They state it is "a vital but undervalued environmental, economic and social asset to the nation." They aim to "highlight threats and promote positive solutions." They campaign using their own research to lobby the public and all levels of government.

History
CPRE was formed following the publication of “The Preservation of Rural England” by Sir Patrick Abercrombie in 1926. Abercrombie became its Honorary Secretary. The inaugural meeting was held in December 1926 at the London offices of the Royal Institute of British Architects and was addressed by Neville Chamberlain, a future prime minister. Various groups were involved in its formation including the National Trust, the Women's Institute and the Commons Preservation Society. Molly Trevelyan was the WI representative and she served on the founding committee.

The early years

In CPRE's first years, it campaigned for rural planning, for the creation of national parks in especially beautiful areas and used for the recreation of those living in cities, for the reservation of farming belt zones around towns and cities so as to keep fresh produce close to urban markets and against urban sprawl and uncontrolled ribbon development. It also began arguing the case for protecting areas of England's most beautiful countryside, and for setting up green belts to preserve the character of towns and to give town dwellers easy access to the countryside.

In the war years, CPRE was identified as a stakeholder that government ministries were required to consult with over proposed use of land in rural areas for airfields, training camps and war industries.

1941-1960

CPRE campaigning helped lead to the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 and the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. There were also CPRE campaigns for subsidies for rural housing and for adequate publicity for planning enquiries. This period also saw the 'Best Kept Village' and 'Keep Britain Tidy' initiatives.

When England's first motorway the M1 was proposed in 1957, CPRE successfully campaigned for it to avoid the heart of Charnwood Forest in Leicestershire (the road was put into a cutting).

1961-1980

CPRE worked on the issues of indestructible plastics, loss of hedgerows, energy infrastructure and the UK coastline. When the M4 was built in 1963 CPRE successfully fought to protect the Berkshire Downs. It also began to seek for tighter control on advertising hoardings along roadsides.

1981-1990

This era saw the creation of protected Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, something CPRE had campaigned for along with others. Attention was also paid to campaigns for sustainable energy generation and the use of brownfield land for building. In 1985 in a campaign to reform the EC's Agricultural Structures Directive, CPRE stopped funding for many damaging agricultural activities and secured the first “green” farm payments. In 1988 it helped persuade the Chancellor of the Exchequer to scrap tax incentives favouring blanket conifer plantations in upland areas.

1990 onwards

In 1990 the Government's first ever Environment White Paper accepted the case for hedgerow protection, 20 years after CPRE's campaign was first launched, and in 1997 laws to protect hedgerows finally came into force.

In 1995 CPRE published “tranquillity” maps which show the diminishing areas of the countryside not disturbed by man-made noise, visual intrusion or light pollution. These were updated using a pioneering new methodology in 2006. CPRE also published similar maps focusing solely on light pollution in 2003.

In 1996, English composer John Rutter wrote the words and music for an anthem entitled "Look at the World" in celebration of the 70th anniversary of the CPRE.

In April 2006 CPRE Peak District & South Yorkshire sought to clarify its identity across its vast territory by operating under two distinct identities. Due to its long association with Peak District National Park, the organisation operates as the Friends of the Peak District in the Peak District National Park, High Peak Borough and six parishes of North East Derbyshire (Eckington, Unstone, Holmesfield, Killamarsh, Dronfield, Barlow).

In 2007 CPRE published a series of intrusion maps which are in development which highlighted areas disturbed by the presence of noise and visual intrusion from major infrastructure. The resulting maps show the extent of intrusion in the early 1960s, early 1990s and 2007. They cannot be reproduced.

Campaigns
In 2013 there was agreement to place electricity transmission lines underground in some National Parks, something CPRE is still campaigning for.

In 2018 after CPRE's 10-year campaign against drink-container litter, the Government announced that it is considering the introduction of a deposit return scheme to increase recycling rates. It is hoped by CPRE that the scheme will include all single use drink-containers, whether plastic, glass or metal.

According to the main CPRE website, campaigns in 2022 are now grouped under the broad headlines, Dark Skies, Hedgerows, What gets built where, and the Climate Emergency.

Under the Dark Skies heading, in 2013, Star Count was launched. This is a campaign to stop light pollution by involving the public in star-counting in order to map light pollution across the UK and raise awareness. A related idea is reducing the impact of light pollution, reducing carbon budgets and saving money by pushing councils to adjust street lighting.

Under the What gets built where heading, CPRE's includes influencing development plans at local, regional and national level. There is also a focus on reducing “clutter” in the form of unnecessary road signs and advertising billboards in the countryside and seeking ways to protect quiet rural roads. Tools to map tranquility in the countryside are being developed for use by local and regional planners. Effort is put into reform of the Common Agricultural Policy and the fight for farmers to be recognised for the work they do in protecting the character of the countryside. Planners are lobbied to ensure that as many new developments as possible are built on Brownfield (rather than Greenfield) land. In particular CPRE is fighting for the protection of green belts. There is emphasis on reducing litter in rural areas across England via local action and events and lobbying government.

Under the Climate emergency heading, support is given to campaigns against 'surface' or opencast mining. CPRE has challenged the government to modify HS2 rail plans to remove all planned out-of-town interchange ("parkway") stations as well as challenging the potential Oxford–Cambridge Expressway. Suggestions have been offered for a range of practical measures to be adopted by central and local government in order to support local food businesses so that they can provide fair and affordable prices. Preliminary work consisted of a five-year research – 'Mapping Local Food Webs' (2007–2012). Campaigns support farming funding that will stem loss of smaller farms and the diversity they provide (2017). There is campaigning against large-scale fracking operation in the UK, that will destroy large areas of the countryside and exacerbate the global plastic binge (2018).

A photography competition was started in 2016 to celebrate the beauty of Dorset's countryside (2016).

Structure
CPRE's national office is at 5–11, Lavington Street, Southwark, London. It also has offices in the eight other regions of England.

In addition there are CPRE branches in each of England's counties and groups in over 200 districts. All but two of the 43 CPRE branches are independent charities of their own. CPRE Durham and CPRE Northumberland are subsidiaries of national CPRE. Each CPRE branch has its own website.

Publications
Members receive a quarterly magazine entitled 'Countryside Voices', and can opt to receive 'Fieldwork' which contains details of campaigns around the UK.

The CPRE promotes a large number of rural attractions such as gardens, houses and museums, by means of its annual Members' Guide. The 2012 Members Guide was supported by the National Farmers Union.

In 2015, CPRE published the 'Warm and Green' report, which sheds new light on the scale of the energy problems and the solutions needed to tackle them. During the same year CPRE earned the Bankside Star by contributing significantly to the Together at Christmas gift collection campaign for the homeless, vulnerably housed and elderly people.

Influence
CPRE has influenced public policy relating to town and country planning in England, most notably in the formation of the National Parks and AONBs in 1949, and of green belts in 1955.

It claims some credit for the slow shift of agricultural policies across Europe away from a price-support philosophy to one of environmental stewardship, a policy shift begun in England. Campaigns against noise and light pollution have been pursued over recent years, and CPRE is now focusing on "tranquillity" as a key aspect of the countryside which CPRE wants to see protected in England's planning policies.

CPRE joined the 10:10 project in 2010 in a bid to reduce their carbon footprint. One year later they announced that they had reduced their carbon emissions (according to 10:10's criteria) by 12%.

Criticisms and countercriticisms
In the UK, there are competing demands on the use of land for biodiversity, food production, housing, recreation, health and well-being. Movements of populations and climate change exacerbate the pressure of these demands. It is thus to be expected that tensions will arise between and among food producers, residents, planners, builders, industrialists, environmentalists and others. Points of view vary significantly and CPRE thus has its critics.

Some critics characterise CPRE as being:
 * A proponent of a drawbridge mentality (i.e. "I've moved to the countryside but I don't want others to do likewise") This is sometimes characterised as betraying a NIMBY approach. CPRE counters this by saying that what is needed in rural areas is low-cost rental accommodation or genuinely affordable homes.
 * Motivated by Luddite nostalgia.
 * A supporter of exclusionary planning practices to keep low-income residents out of rural areas.

CPRE has changed its positions on issues over time. For example, in December 2008 George Monbiot of The Guardian interviewed the then CPRE head, Shaun Spiers, about the organisation's opposition to wind farms but not opencast coal mines. George Monbiot asked why he couldn't find any opposition of the CPRE to surface coal mining over the past five years, and pointed out that the negative effects that coal mines cause by removing the soil from large areas are much greater than the negative effects wind energy might have on the countryside. However, perhaps as a result of this pressure, in 2010, campaigning against inappropriate mineral extraction by opencast mining started to be featured under the 'Climate change and natural resources' section of CPRE's website.

In 2011, the CPRE argued that not enough public consultation had been done on HS2 though a 5-month public consultation was currently being run at the time.

The CPRE has been accused by some of exaggerating the threat to rural England and of being alarmist by warning that the Green Belt is in danger of being 'concreted over'. According to a right-wing think tank, the Institute for Economic Affairs, only about one-tenth of the English surface area, (rather than the Green Belt) is 'developed' in the broadest sense; about half of this 'development' consists of domestic gardens, leaving only one-twentieth which is really 'under concrete' (including roads, railways, car parks, etc.). It is nevertheless the case that in 2017/18, 8.9 km$2$ of previously undeveloped Green Belt land changed to a developed use, of which 2.9 km$2$ turned into residential use.

Figures from the British YIMBY movement have criticised the CPRE, accusing it of denying the British housing crisis and significantly underestimating housing need in high-cost areas to justify the inviolability of the Greenbelt. YIMBYs have claimed that this policy denies both rural and urban communities the housing that, if planned correctly, they would want to build. The alleged success of CPRE's campaign to restrict housing on the rural-urban fringe has led John Myers, co-founder of London YIMBY, to describe it as 'the NRA of the UK' (referring to the National Rifle Association of America, rather than the unrelated British NRA). A CPRE report admits more housing is needed but challenges the government statistics on numbers, stating they are based on aspiration rather than observed need.

Criticism has also been targeted at the CPRE's emphasis on the use of brownfield sites over greenfield sites as a first choice for building, accusing it of overstating their ability to meet Britain's housing need. According to the YIMBY movement, this is a distraction from the necessary infill development in and around major urban centres, which is claimed to offer significantly more potential to meet housing need inside urban areas. In October 2020 however, a CPRE report revealed that there is enough brownfield land for 1.3 million new homes and over half a million already have planning permission.

In 2024, CPRE Hertfordshire were criticised by one Hertfordshire local authority about the accuracy of information in the charity's published analysis of a draft Local Plan. Concerns were publicly raised by the local authority that such misinformation could detrimentally affect residents’ abilities to provide a well-informed response to its Draft Local Plan as part of its ongoing consultation.

CPRE people

 * Patron: King Charles III
 * Chair: Simon Murray
 * Chief Executive: Crispin Truman

Other CPRE people
 * Neville Chamberlain – life member, spoke at the launch of CPRE in 1926
 * Sir Guy Dawber - first President 1926
 * Sir Herbert J G Griffin – General Secretary 1926–1965
 * Michael Francis Eden, 7th Baron Henley - President 1973–1977
 * Sir Colin Buchanan – President 1980–1985
 * David Puttnam, Baron Puttnam – President 1985–1992
 * Jonathan Dimbleby – President 1992–1997
 * Prunella Scales – President 1997–2002
 * Sir Max Hastings - President 2002–2007
 * Bill Bryson - President 2007–2012
 * Andrew Motion - President 2012–2016
 * Emma Bridgewater CBE - President 2016-

title: CPRE


text:
Azai Hisamasa

Azai Hisamasa (浅井 久政) was a son of Azai Sukemasa and the second head of the Azai clan. Hisamasa became the head of the clan in 1542 after his father died, but unlike his father, he was never a strong leader. Losing domains against Rokkaku clan, he instead became a Rokkaku retainer. Hisamasa's retainers had enough and, after his son Azai Nagamasa won the Battle of Norada against a force at least twice the size of his led by Rokkaku Yoshikata to win back independence, they forced Hisamasa into retirement.

Yet, this retirement was not complete and Hisamasa managed to hold some sway of the clan. This surfaced in 1570 after Oda Nobunaga - who was allied with Hisamasa's son, Azai Nagamasa - attacked Asakura Yoshikage, who had supported Hisamasa against enemies like the Rokkaku clan. Hating Nobunaga for his personality, Hisamasa demanded that the Azai clan pay back the support of the Asakura clan and forced a war by breaking the alliance. It is thought that Nagamasa opposed him and believed that the alliance could somehow be mended over time since he refused to divorce his wife, Oichi, but he failed to gain enough support to overturn Hisamasa.

In 1573, Odani Castle was besieged by Nobunaga's forces. Facing a loss, Hisamasa committed seppuku.

Family

 * Father: Azai Sukemasa (1491-1542)
 * Son: Azai Nagamasa (1545-1573)
 * Daughter: Kyōgoku Maria (1543-1618)

title: Azai Hisamasa


text:
Knot (disambiguation)

A knot is a fastening in rope or interwoven lines.

Knot or knots may also refer to:

 * Knot (unit), of speed
 * Knot (wood), a timber imperfection

Places

 * Knot, Nancowry, a village in India

Archaeology

 * Knot of Isis (tyet), symbol of welfare/life.
 * Minoan snake goddess figurines

Films

 * Knots (film), a 2004 film starring Scott Cohen and Annabeth Gish
 * Knots, a 2011 film starring Kimberly-Rose Wolter

Music

 * Rosette (music), soundhole decoration on string instruments
 * Knots (Sons of Noel and Adrian album), a 2012 album by Sons of Noel and Adrian
 * Knots (Crash of Rhinos album), a 2013 album by Crash of Rhinos
 * Knots (EP), a 2018 extended play by Moira Dela Torre and Nieman Gatus
 * "Knots", a song by Gentle Giant

Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media

 * KNOT, a radio station in Prescott, Arizona, United States
 * Knots, a 1970 book of poetry by R. D. Laing

Biology

 * Red knot, a wading bird (simply called "knot" in Europe)
 * Great knot, a wading bird
 * Trigger point or knot, a small, hard, tender spot in a muscle
 * Bulbus glandis or knot, an erectile swelling on a canid penis

Mathematics

 * Knot (mathematics), an abstract representation of an interwoven linear object
 * Knot (graph theory), an inescapable section of a directed graph
 * Knot (regression), points on a spline
 * Knot theory, the study of mathematical knots

Other uses

 * Knot (heraldry), design incorporating a knot
 * Knot (papermaking), a clump of fibres in paper pulp
 * Knot DNS, software
 * Cometary knots in planetary nebulae

title: Knot (disambiguation)


text:
Knot (mathematics)

In mathematics, a knot is an embedding of the circle ($7_{4}$) into three-dimensional Euclidean space, $S$ (also known as $R^{3}$). Often two knots are considered equivalent if they are ambient isotopic, that is, if there exists a continuous deformation of $E^{3}$ which takes one knot to the other.

A crucial difference between the standard mathematical and conventional notions of a knot is that mathematical knots are closed — there are no ends to tie or untie on a mathematical knot. Physical properties such as friction and thickness also do not apply, although there are mathematical definitions of a knot that take such properties into account. The term knot is also applied to embeddings of $R^{3}$ in $S$, especially in the case $S$. The branch of mathematics that studies knots is known as knot theory and has many relations to graph theory.

Formal definition
A knot is an embedding of the circle ($j = n − 2$) into three-dimensional Euclidean space ($S$), or the 3-sphere ($R^{3}$), since the 3-sphere is compact. Two knots are defined to be equivalent if there is an ambient isotopy between them.

Projection
A knot in $S$ (or alternatively in the 3-sphere, $R^{3}$), can be projected onto a plane $R^{3}$ (respectively a sphere $S$). This projection is almost always regular, meaning that it is injective everywhere, except at a finite number of crossing points, which are the projections of only two points of the knot, and these points are not collinear. In this case, by choosing a projection side, one can completely encode the isotopy class of the knot by its regular projection by recording a simple over/under information at these crossings. In graph theory terms, a regular projection of a knot, or knot diagram is thus a quadrivalent planar graph with over/under-decorated vertices. The local modifications of this graph which allow to go from one diagram to any other diagram of the same knot (up to ambient isotopy of the plane) are called Reidemeister moves.

Types of knots
The simplest knot, called the unknot or trivial knot, is a round circle embedded in $R^{2}$. In the ordinary sense of the word, the unknot is not "knotted" at all. The simplest nontrivial knots are the trefoil knot ($S$ in the table), the figure-eight knot ($R^{3}$) and the cinquefoil knot ($3_{1}$).

Several knots, linked or tangled together, are called links. Knots are links with a single component.

Tame vs. wild knots
A polygonal knot is a knot whose image in $4_{1}$ is the union of a finite set of line segments. A tame knot is any knot equivalent to a polygonal knot. Knots which are not tame are called wild, and can have pathological behavior. In knot theory and 3-manifold theory, often the adjective "tame" is omitted. Smooth knots, for example, are always tame.

Framed knot
A framed knot is the extension of a tame knot to an embedding of the solid torus $5_{1}$ in $R^{3}$.

The framing of the knot is the linking number of the image of the ribbon $D × S$ with the knot. A framed knot can be seen as the embedded ribbon and the framing is the (signed) number of twists. This definition generalizes to an analogous one for framed links. Framed links are said to be equivalent if their extensions to solid tori are ambient isotopic.

Framed link diagrams are link diagrams with each component marked, to indicate framing, by an integer representing a slope with respect to the meridian and preferred longitude. A standard way to view a link diagram without markings as representing a framed link is to use the blackboard framing. This framing is obtained by converting each component to a ribbon lying flat on the plane. A type I Reidemeister move clearly changes the blackboard framing (it changes the number of twists in a ribbon), but the other two moves do not. Replacing the type I move by a modified type I move gives a result for link diagrams with blackboard framing similar to the Reidemeister theorem: Link diagrams, with blackboard framing, represent equivalent framed links if and only if they are connected by a sequence of (modified) type I, II, and III moves. Given a knot, one can define infinitely many framings on it. Suppose that we are given a knot with a fixed framing. One may obtain a new framing from the existing one by cutting a ribbon and twisting it an integer multiple of 2π around the knot and then glue back again in the place we did the cut. In this way one obtains a new framing from an old one, up to the equivalence relation for framed knots„ leaving the knot fixed. The framing in this sense is associated to the number of twists the vector field performs around the knot. Knowing how many times the vector field is twisted around the knot allows one to determine the vector field up to diffeomorphism, and the equivalence class of the framing is determined completely by this integer called the framing integer.

Knot complement
Given a knot in the 3-sphere, the knot complement is all the points of the 3-sphere not contained in the knot. A major theorem of Gordon and Luecke states that at most two knots have homeomorphic complements (the original knot and its mirror reflection). This in effect turns the study of knots into the study of their complements, and in turn into 3-manifold theory.

JSJ decomposition
The JSJ decomposition and Thurston's hyperbolization theorem reduces the study of knots in the 3-sphere to the study of various geometric manifolds via splicing or satellite operations. In the pictured knot, the JSJ-decomposition splits the complement into the union of three manifolds: two trefoil complements and the complement of the Borromean rings. The trefoil complement has the geometry of $S$, while the Borromean rings complement has the geometry of $I × S$.

Harmonic knots
Parametric representations of knots are called harmonic knots. Aaron Trautwein compiled parametric representations for all knots up to and including those with a crossing number of 8 in his PhD thesis.

Medial graph

Another convenient representation of knot diagrams was introduced by Peter Tait in 1877.

Any knot diagram defines a plane graph whose vertices are the crossings and whose edges are paths in between successive crossings. Exactly one face of this planar graph is unbounded; each of the others is homeomorphic to a 2-dimensional disk. Color these faces black or white so that the unbounded face is black and any two faces that share a boundary edge have opposite colors. The Jordan curve theorem implies that there is exactly one such coloring.

We construct a new plane graph whose vertices are the white faces and whose edges correspond to crossings. We can label each edge in this graph as a left edge or a right edge, depending on which thread appears to go over the other as we view the corresponding crossing from one of the endpoints of the edge. Left and right edges are typically indicated by labeling left edges + and right edges –, or by drawing left edges with solid lines and right edges with dashed lines.

The original knot diagram is the medial graph of this new plane graph, with the type of each crossing determined by the sign of the corresponding edge. Changing the sign of every edge corresponds to reflecting the knot in a mirror.

Linkless and knotless embedding
In two dimensions, only the planar graphs may be embedded into the Euclidean plane without crossings, but in three dimensions, any undirected graph may be embedded into space without crossings. However, a spatial analogue of the planar graphs is provided by the graphs with linkless embeddings and knotless embeddings. A linkless embedding is an embedding of the graph with the property that any two cycles are unlinked; a knotless embedding is an embedding of the graph with the property that any single cycle is unknotted. The graphs that have linkless embeddings have a forbidden graph characterization involving the Petersen family, a set of seven graphs that are intrinsically linked: no matter how they are embedded, some two cycles will be linked with each other. A full characterization of the graphs with knotless embeddings is not known, but the complete graph $H^{2} × R$ is one of the minimal forbidden graphs for knotless embedding: no matter how $H^{3}$ is embedded, it will contain a cycle that forms a trefoil knot.

Generalization
In contemporary mathematics the term knot is sometimes used to describe a more general phenomenon related to embeddings. Given a manifold $K_{7}$ with a submanifold $K_{7}$, one sometimes says $M$ can be knotted in $N$ if there exists an embedding of $N$ in $M$ which is not isotopic to $N$. Traditional knots form the case where $M$ and $N$ or $N = S$.

The Schoenflies theorem states that the circle does not knot in the 2-sphere: every topological circle in the 2-sphere is isotopic to a geometric circle. Alexander's theorem states that the 2-sphere does not smoothly (or PL or tame topologically) knot in the 3-sphere. In the tame topological category, it's known that the $M = R^{3}$-sphere does not knot in the $M = S$-sphere for all $n$. This is a theorem of Morton Brown, Barry Mazur, and Marston Morse. The Alexander horned sphere is an example of a knotted 2-sphere in the 3-sphere which is not tame. In the smooth category, the $n + 1$-sphere is known not to knot in the $n$-sphere provided $n$. The case $n + 1$ is a long-outstanding problem closely related to the question: does the 4-ball admit an exotic smooth structure?

André Haefliger proved that there are no smooth $n ≠ 3$-dimensional knots in $n = 3$ provided $j$, and gave further examples of knotted spheres for all $S$ such that $2n − 3j − 3 > 0$. $n > j ≥ 1$ is called the codimension of the knot. An interesting aspect of Haefliger's work is that the isotopy classes of embeddings of $2n − 3j − 3 = 0$ in $n − j$ form a group, with group operation given by the connect sum, provided the co-dimension is greater than two. Haefliger based his work on Stephen Smale's h-cobordism theorem. One of Smale's theorems is that when one deals with knots in co-dimension greater than two, even inequivalent knots have diffeomorphic complements. This gives the subject a different flavour than co-dimension 2 knot theory. If one allows topological or PL-isotopies, Christopher Zeeman proved that spheres do not knot when the co-dimension is greater than 2. See a generalization to manifolds.

title: Knot (mathematics)


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Knot (unit)

The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, exactly $1.852 km/h$ (approximately $1.151 mph$ or $0.514 m/s$). The ISO standard symbol for the knot is kn. The same symbol is preferred by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), while kt is also common, especially in aviation, where it is the form recommended by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The knot is a non-SI unit. The knot is used in meteorology, and in maritime and air navigation. A vessel travelling at 1 knot along a meridian travels approximately one minute of geographic latitude in one hour.

Definitions

 * 1 international knot =
 * 1 nautical mile per hour (by definition),
 * 1 kn (exactly),
 * 1 kn (approximately),
 * 1 kn (approximately),
 * 1 kn (approximately)
 * 1 kn (approximately).

The length of the internationally agreed nautical mile is $1,852 m$. The US adopted the international definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile ($1,853.248 m$). The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having previously used the UK Admiralty nautical mile ($6,080 ft$ or $1,853.184 m$).

Usage
The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel (boat speeds and air speeds) are measured in knots. For consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids (ocean currents, tidal streams, river currents and wind speeds) are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground (SOG; ground speed (GS) in aircraft) and rate of progress towards a distant point ("velocity made good", VMG) are also given in knots.

Origin
Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log. This consisted of a wooden panel, attached by line to a reel, and weighted on one edge to float perpendicularly to the water surface and thus present substantial resistance to the water moving around it. The chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots tied at a distance of 47 feet 3 inches (14.4018 m) from each other, passed through a sailor's fingers, while another sailor used a 30-second sand-glass (28-second sand-glass is the currently accepted timing) to time the operation. The knot count would be reported and used in the sailing master's dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, or 1.85166 km/h. The difference from the modern definition is less than 0.02%.

Derivation of knots spacing:

$$1~\textrm{kn} = 1852~\textrm{m/h} = 0.5144~\textrm{m/s}$$, so in $$28$$ seconds that is $$14.40$$ metres per knot.

Modern use

Although the unit knot does not fit within the SI system, its retention for nautical and aviation use is important because the length of a nautical mile, upon which the knot is based, is closely related to the longitude/latitude geographic coordinate system. As a result, nautical miles and knots are convenient units to use when navigating an aircraft or ship.

On a standard nautical chart using Mercator projection, the horizontal (East–West) scale varies with latitude. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland. A single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Since the length of a nautical mile, for practical purposes, is equivalent to about a minute of latitude, a distance in nautical miles on a chart can easily be measured by using dividers and the latitude scales on the sides of the chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier.

Speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as "knots per hour", which would mean "nautical miles per hour per hour" and thus would refer to acceleration.

Aeronautical terms
Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for civil aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles, and speeds in miles per hour. In 1969, these standards were progressively amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles, and speeds in knots.

The following abbreviations are used to distinguish between various measurements of airspeed:
 * TAS is "knots true airspeed", the airspeed of an aircraft relative to undisturbed air
 * KIAS is "knots indicated airspeed", the speed shown on an aircraft's pitot-static airspeed indicator
 * CAS is "knots calibrated airspeed", the indicated airspeed corrected for position error and instrument error
 * EAS is "knots equivalent airspeed", the calibrated airspeed corrected for adiabatic compressible flow for the particular altitude

The indicated airspeed is close to the true airspeed only at sea level in standard conditions and at low speeds. At 11,000 m, an indicated airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions.

title: Knot (unit)


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Shima

Shima may refer to:

Shima (志摩), Japan

 * Shima Province (志摩), one of the old provinces of Japan
 * Shima, Fukuoka (志摩), a former town in Fukuoka Prefecture
 * Shima, Mie (志摩), a city in Mie Prefecture
 * Shima, Mie (town), a former town in Mie Prefecture that merged with its neighbors to become Shima City

Shima (石马镇), China

 * Shima, Dazu County, in Dazu County, Chongqing
 * Shima, Meizhou, in Xingning City, Meizhou City, Guangdong
 * Shima, Yongfeng County, in Yongfeng County, Jiangxi
 * Shima, Zibo, in Boshan District, Zibo, Shandong
 * Shima, Mianyang, in Youxian District, Mianyang, Sichuan
 * Shima, Cangxi County, in Cangxi County, Sichuan

Elsewhere

 * Shim'a, West Bank

People

 * Shima (surname), a Japanese surname
 * Shima (given name), a given name
 * Queen Shima, the queen of Kalingga kingdom, c. 674 CE, Central Java
 * Shima Iwashita (岩下 志麻)
 * Mr. Shima (stage name), the ringname for Japanese pro-wrestler Akio Sato (wrestler)

Other uses

 * Shima (film), a 2007 film from Uzbekistan
 * Shima is the Unicode name of the Coptic letter ϭ (Tshēma)

title: Shima


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Shima Province

Shima Province (志摩国) was a province of Japan which consisted of a peninsula in the southeastern part of modern Mie Prefecture. Its abbreviated name was Shishū (志州). Shima bordered on Ise Province to the west, and on Ise Bay on the north, east and south. It roughly coincides with the modern municipalities of Shima and Toba.

Shima is classified as one of the provinces of the Tōkaidō, and was the smallest of all provinces. Under the Engishiki classification system, Shima was ranked as an "inferior country" (下国) and a "near country" (近国), in terms of its distance from the capital.

History
Shima was an autonomous district of Ise Province, noted as a prosperous fishing region, and during the Nara period governors of the district were responsible for providing annual gifts of fish and abalone to the Emperor. It was separated from Ise Province during the late 7th or early 8th centuries. During the Asuka period and Nara period it was dominated by the Takahashi clan. As the arable land area of Shima Province was very small, portions of the rice lands of Ise Province, as well as Mikawa Province and Owari Province were considered as part of the taxable revenues of Shima Province for the purpose of upkeep of its provincial capital, shrines and temples.

The exact location of the provincial capital is not known, but is traditionally believed to have been in Ago, currently part of the city of Shima where the ruins of the Kokubun-ji of Shima Province have been discovered. The Ichinomiya of the province is the Izawa-no-miya (伊雑宮), one of the subsidiary shrines within the Ise Grand Shrine complex.

During the Kamakura period Shima came under the control of Hōjō clan, followed by the Kitabatake clan for much of the Muromachi period, although the Kuki clan, originally pirates in Ise Bay based at Toba Castle dominated much of the coastal areas by the end of the Sengoku period. Ohama Kagetaka was also a pirate operating in the Ise Bay area of Shima Province during the 16th century.

With the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate, Kuki Moritaka was confirmed as daimyō of Toba, initially with revenues of 35,000 koku, growing to 55,000 koku under his son Kuki Hisataka, who was transferred to Sanda Domain in Settsu Province.

The Kuki were replaced by the tozama Naitō clan, which ruled Toba to 1680. The domain then reverted to tenryō status under the direct control of the Shogunate for one year. It then came under the control of the Doi clan (1681–1691), Ogyu-Matsudaira clan (1691–1710), Itakura clan (1710–1717), and Toda-Matsudaira clan (1717–1725) before finally coming under the Inagaki clan (1725–1871), where it remained until the Meiji Restoration.

During the Boshin War, Inagaki Nagayuki remained loyal to the Shogunate, and as a result was fined heavily by the Meiji government and forced into retirement. His son, Inagaki Nagahiro became domain governor, and after the abolition of the han system in July 1871, Toba Domain became "Toba Prefecture", which merged with the short lived "Watarai Prefecture" of former Ise Province in November 1871, which later became part of Mie Prefecture.

Historical districts

 * Mie Prefecture
 * Ago District (英虞郡) - merged with Tōshi District to become Shima District (志摩郡) on March 29, 1896
 * Tōshi District (答志郡) - merged with Ago District to become Shima District on March 29, 1896

title: Shima Province


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Shimonoseki campaign

The Shimonoseki campaign (下関戦争/馬関戦争) was a series of military engagements in 1863 and 1864, fought to control the Shimonoseki Straits of Japan by joint naval forces from the United Kingdom, France, the Netherlands, and the United States, against the Japanese feudal domain of Chōshū, which took place off and on the coast of Shimonoseki, Japan.

Background
Despite efforts of appeasement by the Tokugawa shogunate to establish an atmosphere of peaceful solidarity, many feudal daimyōs remained bitterly resentful of the shogunate's open-door policy to foreign trade. Belligerent opposition to European and American influence erupted into open conflict when the Emperor Kōmei, breaking with centuries of imperial tradition, began to take an active role in matters of state and issued on March 11 and April 11, 1863, his "Order to expel barbarians" (攘夷実行の勅命 – Jōi jikkō no chokumei).

The Chōshū clan, under the daimyō Mōri Takachika, began to take action to expel all foreigners after the deadline of the 10th day of the 5th month, according to the traditional Japanese calendar. Openly defying the shogunate, Mōri ordered his forces to fire without warning on all foreign ships traversing Shimonoseki Strait. This strategic but treacherous 600-meter waterway separates the islands of Honshū and Kyūshū and provides a passage connecting the Inland Sea with the Sea of Japan.

Even before tensions escalated in Shimonoseki Strait, foreign diplomats and military experts, notably U.S. Minister to Japan Robert Pruyn and U.S. Navy Captain David McDougal had been aware of the precarious state of affairs in Japan. McDougal wrote a letter to the Secretary of the Navy, Gideon Welles, dated June 12, 1863, stating, "General opinion is that the government of Japan is on the eve of revolution, the principal object of which is the expulsion of foreigners."

"Revere the Emperor and expel the barbarians!"
The Chōshū clan was equipped with mostly antiquated cannons firing cannonballs, but also some modern armament, such as five 8 in Dahlgren guns, which had been presented to Japan by the United States, and three steam warships of American construction: the bark Daniel Webster of six guns, the brig Lanrick, or Kosei, with ten guns, and the steamer Lancefield, or Koshin, of four guns.

The first attack occurred on June 25, 1863, soon after the Imperial "Order to expel barbarians" came into effect. The U.S. merchant steamer SS Pembroke, under Captain Simon Cooper, was riding at anchor outside Shimonoseki Strait when it was intercepted and fired upon by two European-built warships belonging to the rebel forces.

The crew of one enemy vessel taunted the frantic American seamen with a loud and unnerving cry: "Revere the Emperor and expel the barbarians!" (尊皇攘夷 sonnō jōi). Under incessant cannon fire, Pembroke managed to get underway and escape through the adjacent Bungo Strait with only slight damage and no casualties.

Upon arrival in Shanghai, Cooper filed a report of the attack and dispatched it to the U.S. Consulate in Yokohama, Japan. The next day, the French naval dispatch steamer Kien Chan was also riding at anchor outside the strait, when rebel Japanese artillery atop the bluffs surrounding Shimonoseki opened fire on her. Kien Chan sustained damage to its engine and suffered four casualties before escaping to the open ocean.

On July 11, despite warnings from the crew of the Kien Chan, the 16-gun Dutch warship Medusa cruised into Shimonoseki Strait. Her skipper, Captain François de Casembroot, was convinced that Lord Mōri Takachika would not dare fire on his vessel due to the strength of his ship and longstanding relations between the Netherlands and Japan.

However, Mōri did just that, pounding Medusa with more than thirty shells and killing or wounding nine seamen. De Casembroot returned fire and ran the rebel gauntlet at full speed, fearful of endangering the life of the Dutch Consul General, who was on board. Within a short time, the Japanese warlord had managed to fire on the flags of most of the nations with consulates in Japan.

Battle of Shimonoseki Straits

In the morning of July 16, 1863, under sanction by Minister Pruyn, in an apparent swift response to the attack on the Pembroke, the U.S. frigate USS Wyoming, under Captain McDougal, sailed into the strait and single-handedly engaged the U.S.-built but poorly manned local fleet for almost two hours before withdrawing. McDougal sank two enemy vessels and severely damaged another one, along with inflicting some forty Japanese casualties. The Wyoming suffered a significant amount of damage, with four crew dead and seven wounded, one later dying of his injuries. The two Japanese steamers sunk by the Wyoming were raised again by Chōshū in 1864 and attached to the harbor of Hagi.

First battle, July 20, 1863
On the heels of McDougal's engagement, on July 20, the French Navy retaliated for the attack on their merchant ship. The French force consisted of marines and two warships, the aviso Tancrède and the Admiral's flagship, Sémiramis. With 250 men, under Captain Benjamin Jaurès, they swept into Shimonoseki and destroyed a small town, together with at least one artillery emplacement.

The intervention was supported by the French plenipotentiary in Japan, Gustave Duchesne de Bellecourt, but the French government, once informed, strongly criticized their representatives in Japan for taking such bellicose steps, for the reason that France had much more important military commitments to honour in other parts of the world, and could not afford a conflict in Japan. Duchesne de Bellecourt would be relieved from his position in 1864.

Jaurès was also congratulated by the shogunate for taking such decisive steps against anti-foreign forces, and was awarded a special banner.

Diplomatic negotiations
Meanwhile, the Americans, French, British and Dutch feverishly opened diplomatic channels to negotiate the reopening of the passage to the Inland Sea. Months dragged by with no end in sight to the growing dilemma. By May 1864, various bellicose Japanese factions had destroyed thousands of dollars in foreign property, including homes, churches and shipping. This wanton destruction included the U.S. Legation in Edo, which housed Minister Robert Pruyn. Throughout the first half of 1864, as Shimonoseki Strait remained closed to foreign shipping, threats and rumors of war hung in the air, while diplomatic efforts remained deadlocked. Then the British Minister to Japan, Sir Rutherford Alcock, discussed with his treaty counterparts such as American Minister Robert Pruyn and Dutch Minister Dirk de Graeff van Polsbroek, the feasibility of a joint military strike against Mōri.

They were soon making preparations for a combined show of force. Under the wary eyes of the Japanese, fifteen British warships rode anchor alongside four Dutch vessels, while a British regiment from Hong Kong augmented their display of military might. The French maintained a minimal naval presence, with the bulk of their forces in Mexico trying to bolster Emperor Maximilian's unstable regime.

The U.S., engaged in its Civil War, limited itself to demonstrate diplomatic and minimal military support for the allies. In the meantime, Mōri procrastinated in negotiations by requesting additional time to respond to the Allied demands, a response unacceptable to the treaty powers. The allies decided that the time for united action had arrived.

Despite retaliatory action from the treaty powers, another attack occurred in July 1864 when the rebel forces fired upon the U.S. steamer Monitor after she entered a harbor for coal and water. This provoked further outrage, even after a British squadron delivered a multi-national ultimatum to Mōri, threatening military force if the strait was not opened.

Final battle, September 5–6, 1864
On August 17, 1864, a squadron consisting of nine British (HMS Euryalus (1853), Conqueror, Tartar, Leopard, Barrosa, Perseus, Argus, Coquette, and Bouncer), four Dutch (Djambi, Metalen-Kruis, Medusa, and Amsterdam), and three French warships (Tancrède, Sémiramis, and Dupleix), together with 2,000 soldiers, marines and sailors, all under the command of Admiral Sir Augustus Leopold Kuper of the Royal Navy, steamed out of Yokohama to open Shimonoseki Strait.

The U.S. chartered steamer USS Ta-Kiang (1862) accompanied the operation in a token show of support. The two-day battle that followed on September 5 and 6 did what the previous operations could not; it destroyed the Chōshū Domain's ability to wage war on the Western powers. Unable to match the firepower of the international fleet, and amid mounting casualties, Takasugi Shinsaku negotiated peace with the four Western powers and Chōshū forces finally surrendered two days later on September 8, 1864.

Allied casualties included 72 killed or wounded; although Ernest Satow describes only 8 killed and 30 wounded for the British and two damaged British ships. A full account of the battle is contained in Ernest Satow's A Diplomat in Japan. Satow was present as a young interpreter for the British admiral, Augustus Kuper on the British flagship HMS Euryalus, commanded by Captain J. H. I. Alexander. It was also the action at which Duncan Gordon Boyes won his Victoria Cross (VC) at the age of seventeen. Satow described Boyes as receiving the award "for conduct very plucky in one so young." Another VC winner at Shimonoseki was Thomas Pride, and the third was the first American to win the medal, William Seeley. De Casembroot wrote his account of the events in De Medusa in de wateren van Japan, in 1863 en 1864.

The stringent accord, drawn up in the wake of the ceasefire and negotiated by U.S. Minister Pruyn, included an indemnity of $3,000,000 from the Japanese, an amount equivalent to the cost of about 30 steamships at that time. The Tokugawa shogunate proved unable to pay such an amount, and this failure became the basis of further foreign pressure to open Japanese ports; Japan was forced to choose between paying compensation of three million piastres and opening another port on the Inland Sea. The harbor of Hyōgo was opened to foreign trade, and customs tariffs were lowered uniformly to 5%. In 1883, twenty years after the first battle to reopen the strait, the United States quietly returned $750,000 to Japan, which represented its share of the reparation payment.

Aftermath
Right after the foreign interventions, the Shogunal government also launched its own preparations for a punitive expedition against Chōshū, the First Chōshū expedition. The expedition was aimed at punishing the 1864 Kinmon incident in which Chōshū forces attacked Shogunal forces in Kyoto. The expedition was however cancelled after a compromise was brokered, involving the beheading of the leaders of the rebellion.

At the same time as this campaign, the British Royal Navy engaged Satsuma samurai at the Bombardment of Kagoshima, one of the several engagements of the Japanese conflict of 1863 and 1864.

Historical significance
Closely resembling the series of little conflicts fought by the European powers in Asia, Africa and elsewhere during the nineteenth century, the troubles in Japan seemed to exemplify their gunboat diplomacy, a prevalent tool in imperialism. Bitter resentment against foreign influence made the Chōshū clan feel justified in engaging in acts of military provocation in defiance of their own government.

While it was bitterly embroiled in the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln's government was carefully watched by the world for signs of weakness and indecision. The actions of USS Wyoming made it the first foreign warship to offensively uphold treaty rights with Japan; this fact coupled with the possibility that the events would mire the U.S. in a foreign war made the battle of Shimonoseki a significant engagement.

While the battles of Shimonoseki Strait were mere footnotes in the histories of the European powers, an interesting aspect of the affair was the resourcefulness displayed by the Japanese. The feudal Japanese had not set eyes on a steam-powered ship until Commodore Perry's arrival only a decade before USS Wyoming's battle. Yet they had rapidly advanced in such a short period of time.

The Shimonoseki city government in 2004, in recognition of the importance of the bombardment in Japanese history, placed several life-size replicas of the guns used by Chōshū. The replicas are made of hollow steel and include coin-operated sound effects and smoke from the barrels.

title: Shimonoseki campaign


text:
Azai Nagamasa

Azai Nagamasa (浅井 長政) was a Japanese daimyō of the Sengoku period known as the brother-in-law and enemy of Oda Nobunaga. Nagamasa was head of the Azai clan seated at Odani Castle in northern Ōmi Province and married Nobunaga's sister Oichi in 1564, fathering her three daughters – Yodo-dono, Ohatsu, and Oeyo – who became prominent figures in their own right.

Nagamasa became one of Nobunaga's enemies in 1570 due to the Azai alliance with the Asakura clan, and fought against Nobunaga at major battles including the Battle of Anegawa. Nagamasa and his clan were destroyed by Nobunaga in August 1573, and he committed seppuku during the siege of Odani Castle.

Early life
Azai Nagamasa was the son of Azai Hisamasa, from whom he inherited clan leadership in 1560. Hisamasa had been compelled to step down by many of his retainers in favor of his son, Nagamasa. Hisamasa retired, and would later commit suicide along with his son in August 1573. Nagamasa successfully battled both Rokkaku Yoshikata and Saitō Tatsuoki between 1560 and 1565. He is remembered as being a capable commander of troops on the battlefield.

He married Oda Nobunaga's sister Oichi in 1564. Nobunaga desired peaceful relations with the Azai clan because of their strategic position in between Oda clan land's and the capital, Kyoto.

Conflict with Oda Nobunaga
In 1570, Oda Nobunaga declared war on the Asakura family of Echizen and besieged Kanegasaki castle. The Asakura and Azai had been allies since the time of Nagamasa's grandfather. This sudden war between two Azai clan allies is reported to have divided the clan. Many retainers wished to honor the alliance with the Asakura, while Nagamasa himself is reported to have favoured staying neutral, essentially siding with Nobunaga. In the end, the Azai clan chose to honor the generations-old alliance with the Asakura and came to their aid. Initially, this decision caused Nobunaga's army, which was marching upon the Asakura's lands, to retreat back to Kyoto. However, within a few months the forces of Nobunaga were again on the march, but this time they marched on Azai lands.

Battle of Anegawa
In the summer of 1570, Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu brought an army estimated between 20,000-30,000 men into Northern Omi. The Azai called upon their allies, the Asakura, for assistance. The Asakura responded by sending troops. In either June or July, the two sides met at the battle of Anegawa. The combined Azai and Asakura force numbered between 15,000-20,000 men. The outcome is recorded elsewhere, but briefly: The battle was strongly contested by both sides. Nobunaga is recorded as having decided that his force should directly confront the numerically inferior Azai clan force, while Ieyasu would engage the Asakura. While the Oda were being held at bay, and perhaps even slowly losing ground to the Azai - who had fought against numerically superior forces in the past - Ieyasu's force was apparently quickly gaining the advantage against the Asakura. Ieyasu, or perhaps one of his battle commanders, decided to send part of the Tokugawa force into the Azai flank, forcing the Azai to retreat, and guaranteeing victory. However, the battle was strategically indecisive because the Oda shortly withdrew.

Death
Over the course of the next two years, with the exception of occasional interventions by the Shogun, Azai Nagamasa was under constant threat of Nobunaga aggression into Omi. Often these threats manifested into sieges of the Azai capital of Odani. During this period the Azai are seen as being loosely aligned with numerous anti-Oda forces, including the Asakura, the Miyoshi, the Rokkaku, and several religious complexes.

Siege of Odani Castle
In 1573, Nobunaga laid siege to Odani Castle. Although the Asakura sent a relief force, Nobunaga defeated this force and chased the Asakura into their lands. Shortly thereafter, the Asakura were destroyed. Nobunaga then returned south to prosecute the siege of Odani Castle.

Nagamasa had no hope of winning, and chose to commit seppuku. Before dying, he entrusted his wife Oichi and their three daughters to Nobunaga.

Nobunaga later convinced Oichi to tell him where she had sent her infant son and Nagamasa's male heir, Manpukumaru, saying that he wanted the boy to live with and raise him. However, Nobunaga had Hideyoshi execute Manpukumaru, and the head was displayed on a stake. Nobunaga ensured that his sister, Oichi, was uninformed of this but she eventually came to that suspicion. There are reports that Nobunaga bore a strong grudge against Nagamasa for his perceived betrayal of their alliance even though it was he who broke the agreement first. It has also been reported that Nobunaga had the skulls of Nagamasa, Hisamasa, and the Asakura leader lacquered so that they could be used as cups, but whether this is historically accurate or merely fabricated to heighten Nobunaga's reputation is debatable.

Family

 * Father: Azai Hisamasa (1526–1573)
 * Mother: Ono-dono (1527–1573)
 * Wives:
 * daughter of Hirai Sadatake
 * Oichi
 * Concubine: Yae no Kata
 * Sisters:
 * Akuhime (1538–1585)
 * Ōmi no Kata
 * Kyōgoku Maria (1543–1618)
 * Wife: Oichi (1547–1583)
 * Children:
 * Chacha, or Yodo-dono (1569–1615), also known as Daiko'in, concubine of Toyotomi Hideyoshi and mother of Hideyoshi's heir Hideyori
 * Hatsu (1570–1633), wife of the sengoku daimyō Kyōgoku Takatsugu
 * Oeyo (1573–1626), or Sūgen'in, wife of the second Tokugawa shogun Hidetada and mother of his successor and elder son Iemitsu.
 * Manpukumaru (c. 1563 – 1573) Killed by Nobunaga.
 * Manjumaru
 * Shichiro later Azai Nagaakira, born by Yae no Kata
 * Enjumaru later Azai Seiji
 * Kusu no Tsubone later Hokoin, Toyotomi Hideyoshi's concubine
 * Gyobukyo no Tsubone (1570–1661), Senhime's nanny

In popular culture

 * Azai Nagamasa is an antagonist in the Action/RPG PS4/PC game Nioh 2, with a whole region being based about him and his battles against Oda Nobunaga.
 * Nagamasa makes appearances as a general in the Main Campaign and in various Historical Battles and Historical Campaigns in the PC game Shogun: Total War. Additionally, Nagamasa returns as an Heir to the Azai Clan in the fan created Samurai Warlords Mod (aka the Shogun Mod) for the PC game Medieval Total War.
 * Nagamasa is a playable character in the video game series Samurai Warriors, where he is depicted as an extremely honourable man who will stop at nothing to enforce his notions of justice. As in real life, Nagamasa is allied with the Asakura against Nobunaga at Anegawa; his expression of love for Oichi is however more dramatised, showing him as caring deeply for her welfare. He is depicted with his traditional kabuto helmet and uses a lance as his weapon. This version of Nagamasa also appears in the spin-off series Warriors Orochi as an unlockable character for the Cao Wei storyline.
 * Nagamasa is an NPC in Sengoku Basara 2, along with Oichi, but becomes playable in the expansion Sengoku Basara 2: Heroes. He wields a long sword and carries a shield with him and is portrayed as a justice loving man, whose words and actions invokes a lot of the tokusatsu genre. He returns as a playable character in Sengoku Basara 4.
 * Nagamasa serves as the basis for the protagonist character in the video game Pokémon Conquest.

title: Azai Nagamasa