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Benito Juárez, Mexico City

Benito Juárez, is a borough (demarcación territorial) in Mexico City. It is a largely residential area, located to the south of historic center of Mexico City, although there are pressures for areas to convert to commercial use. It was named after Benito Juárez, president in the 19th century.

The borough has the highest socioeconomic index in the country as it is primarily populated by the middle and upper middle classes. The borough is home to a number of landmarks such as the World Trade Center Mexico City, the Estadio Azul, the Plaza México and the Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros.

The borough
The borough is in the north center of the Mexico City, just south of the oldest section of the city. It borders the boroughs of Miguel Hidalgo, Cuauhtémoc, Coyoacán, Iztapalapa, Iztacalco and Álvaro Obregón. The borders are formed by two rivers, the La Piedad and the Churubusco, as well as the following streets: Presidente Adolfo López Mateos (Anillo Periférico), 11 de Abril, Avenida Revolución, Puente de la Morena, Viaducto Miguel Alemán, Calzada de Tlalpan, Santa Anita, Atzayacatl, Plutarco Elías Calles and Barranca del Muerto. Many of the names of the rivers, streets and neighborhoods have their origin in the pre Hispanic period.

It has a territory of 26.63 km2 (2,661.5 hectares), which is 1.8% of Mexico City, with an average altitude of 2,242 metres. It consists of 56 neighborhoods called "colonias" and three major apartment complexes (unidades habitacionales) which cover 2,210 city blocks and through which some of the most important city thoroughfares pass. The borough is nearly entirely residential with a socioeconomic level of middle class to upper middle class.

The borough is located in the southwest part of the Valley of Mexico. The land is flat with little variation and a portion of it is former lakebed of Lake Texcoco. The ground is highly elastic clay which extends down for about fifteen meters. The climate is temperate with an average annual temperature of 17C.

Most of the neighborhoods of the borough have a socioeconomic level of middle class to upper middle class. Forty two percent of the land is zoned for mixed use (residential/commercial), thirty nine percent residential, thirteen percent for storage and warehouses, four percent for open space and two percent industrial. Almost all housing and other construction consists of cement, cinderblock or brick, including both walls and roofs. The total number of housing units is 115,975, with 99.9% privately owned. The average number of people per household is 3.1. About 94% of housing is constructed in accordance to building codes. Housing units mostly consist of individual houses (27%), apartments in complexes (62%) and a housing arrangement called a "vecindad" (5%). Over 99% of residential units have running water, 99.5% have sewerage and 100% have electricity. The most important colonias are Nápoles, Del Valle, Narvarte, Mixcoac, Portales, Ciudad de los Deportes, San José Insurgentes, San Pedro de los Pinos, Xoco, Insurgentes Mixcoac, General Anaya, Noche Buena and Nativitas.

Landmarks
The World Trade Center is located in Colonia Nápoles. It was a development project conceived in 1947, in an area called Parque de la Lama. However, political opposition stalled the project until the 1960s. At this time, in preparation for the 1968 Olympics, the project moved forward with a total eleven spaces centered on the Hotel de México building. This complex includes the Polyforum, a commercial center, a Public Art school, a handcrafts market, a dinner theatre, garden areas, parking garage and a public transportation hub. Most of the complex would not be completed until the 1980s and the World Trade Center tower was inaugurated in 1994. Today the complex extends over covers an area of 81,000m2.

Next door to each other are the Estadio Azul (lit. Blue Stadium) and the Plaza México bullring, also on the west side of the borough. The two were constructed as part of a large project called the Ciudad de los Deportes (Sports City). This project was conceived in the late 1930s to cover what was formerly the San José Hacienda. The complex was to include swimming pools, a baseball field, an indoor jai alai court along with several outdoor ones, boxing and lucha libre rings, theatres, forty tennis courts, restaurants and parking for over two thousand cars. However, the developer went bankrupt with only the bullring near completion. This bullring was begun in 1944 and opened in 1946. It was built to replace the El Toreo ring in the La Roma neighborhood, which dated from 1907. The new facility was built with the express purpose of being the largest in the world. The bullring covers a surface of 1452m2 with a 43-meter diameter. The stands extend up for 35.9 meters and the sand area is twenty meters below street level. There is seating for between 45,000 and 48,000 people.

Both the bullring and the Estadio Azul stadium have playing fields which are about twenty meters below street level. This is because both were built over the firing pits for former brick making operations of the hacienda. The stadium was inaugurated in 1947 and has been the home of the Cruz Azul professional soccer team since 1996. The Ciudad de Deportes was planned so that cars can easily enter and exit the area, but over time, housing and other construction has crowded the area around these two landmarks. Since the 1940s, the complex has been owned and operated by the Cosío family.

The Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros was built to be a multipurpose forum to host cultural, political and social events. It is divided into several areas include a 500-seat theater, galleries, offices and the main forum space. The building is also a museum hosting twelve panels on the outside walls and 2,400 meters of interior painted with a mural called "The March of Humanity" by David Siqueiros. Today it remains a private institution supported by the activities it hosts and donations made to the Siqueiros Foundation. The interior mural work was originally planned for a hotel in Cuernavaca with the theme of the history of humanity. However, the concept grew to more than the hotel could host, and it was later thought to put the work in its own building in Mexico City. This eventually became the Polyforum Siqueiros with the aim of constructing the largest mural in the world, which it remains to this day.

The borough is home to a number of houses of notable persons, many of which were part of the intellectual and political life of Mexico. As of 1945, many of these homes, up to those constructed in the late 19th and early 20th century have been declared under a state of conservation. One example of this is the house in which lived Valentín Gómez Farías in what was the village of San Juan Mixcoac. It was constructed in the 17th century and still remains.

The borough has a number of public sports facilities and cultural institutions. Sports facilities include the Olympic complex of the Francisco Márquez Pool and Juan de la Barrera Gymnasium, Benito Juárez Sports Complex, Joaquín Capilla Sports Complex, Tirso Hernández Sports Complex and the Gumersindo Romero Sports Complex. The borough has thirteen "casas de cultura" or cultural centers to promote culture through artistic, social, handcrafts events as well as through the staging of plays. The borough also has an established for Desarrollo Social (Social Development), and audio library and a Casa Museo museum.

Name and symbol
The borough was created in 1970 and named after former Mexican president Benito Juárez. The current logo for the borough was adopted in 2001, which is a stylized depiction of the head of President Benito Juárez. The prior logo was a glyph of a serpent which is symbolic of Mixcoac.

Archeology
The main archeological finds of the area are Aztec/Mexica and include those in Mixcoac, Actipan, Tlacoquemécatl, Xoco, Portales, Ticomán, La Piedad, Ahuehuatlan, Barrio de San Juan, San Pedro de los Pinos Acachinaco (Nativitas) and one at the Metro Zapata station. The pyramid base as San Pedro de los Pinos is located near Mixcoac. It is the only one of its kind left in the borough, discovered in 1916 by Francisco Fernández del Castillo. It was a Mexica temple dedicated to the god Mixcoatl. The site also contains two temazcals as well as two Teotihuacan style sculpted heads. Artifacts have been found in other areas as well such as Xoco and Santa Cruz which include ceramics, stone knives and figurines. In the former village of Atoyac, a pre-Hispanic idol was found during the colonial era and destroyed by the Spanish. The Spanish village was built over a Mesoamerican one, which was dedicated to Tlahuac. The church of Santa Cruz Atoyac was built over the temple.

Colonial period
Except for small villages on the east and west side, most of the territory of the modern borough was covered by the waters of Lake Texcoco during the pre-Hispanic period. Crossing part of the east side was a causeway that linked Tenochtitlan to Iztapalapa and Tlalpan. After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, the first colonial era constructions in the area were evangelical churches built by the Franciscans such as the Church of Santa Cruz in Atoyac in 1564 and the Santo Domingo de Guzmán Church in Mixcoac in 1595. In the early colonial period, most of the area came under the jurisdiction of Hernán Cortés as part of his Coyoacán properties. As Lake Texcoco dried, the area became dotted with villages under the hacienda system and had some important roads leading south from Mexico City. The old causeway became the Calzada de Tlalpan and would eventually become the first to be paved. In the Mixcoac area, villages dotted an important colonial era road that connected the main village of Mixcoac with Tacubaya. Other important roads included that with linked San Ángel to Tacubaya, called the Atlacuihuayan, today Avenida Revolución, and the road that linked village of La Piedad with Mexico City over which bricks and pulque was transported. The Cortés family would lose their Coyoacán lands by the early 17th century but as the lake dried, the area remained a rural zone just south of Mexico City. This city would remain within its conquest-era boundaries for all of the colonial period into the 19th century, with the Spanish living in the city and the indigenous living in the rural areas outside. However, these indigenous lost control over lands they held previously. Whatever lands they still held communally would be eventually taken over by growing Spanish-held haciendas. This area not only provided agricultural goods to Mexico City but was also important for brick making. These operations would remain important through the colonial era into the mid 19th century. In the 18th century, the territory of the modern borough included the villages of Santo Domingo, Mixcoac, La Piedad, Santa Cruz Atoyac, Actipan, San Juan Maninaltongo, Santa María Nonoalco and Xoco along with the la Candelaria, Santo Tomás Tecoyotitla and Atepuxco neighborhoods and the ranches and haciendas of Los Portales, San Borja, Nalvarte (Narvarte), San Simón, Santa Cruz, La Piedad and San Andrés de las Ladrilleras.

19th century
At the beginning of the 19th century and after the Mexican War of Independence, the Federal District of Mexico was created by the 1824 Constitution. This district would border but not include what is now the Benito Juárez borough, which was still rural farmland and pasture. For much of the colonial period, one of the major industries of the area was brick making, mostly for nearby Mexico City. However, by 1855 only ten small operations were left.

During the 19th century, much of the farmland disappeared and many former farm workers became factory workers, especially in textiles. Instead it was part of the Tacubaya prefecture divided into five municipalities, Tacubaya, Tacuba, Santa Fe, Cuajimalpa and Mixcoac. In 1826, much of Coyoacán, along with what are now Tlalpan, Xochimilco and Mexicalzingo became part of the State of Mexico, splitting off much of the Benito Juárez territory from Hernán Cortés’ old Coyoacan lands. For most of the 19th century, most of the borough was part of the then municipality of Tacubaya, with Mixcoac and the municipal seat. Its economy was based on meeting Mexico City's needs for grains, flowers, pulque, textiles and other products although some were exported.

The wars of the 19th century affected the area. In 1847, U.S. troops fought their way through the territory on their way to conquering the center of Mexico City. These troops enacted a diversionary tactic at the Portales Hacienda, which allowed them to circle around and gain access to Chapultepec a day later. After this war, the Federal District was expanded to include this area along with areas farther to the south, but it was still considered outside the city proper. During the Reform War the San Pedro de los Pinos and Mixcoac areas were Liberal strongholds under General Santos Degollado.

By the early 20th century, old villages such as Nonoalco, Xoco, Catipan, San Simón Ticumac, Tlacoquemécatl and Nativitas had been integrated into the ranches and haciendas of the area, which still dominated the area. Some larger villages such as Mixcoac and La Piedad remained. La Piedad was connected to Mexico City via an avenue called La Quinta Monterde, today called Calzada Ermita. It was also known for its two cemeteries, one where common people were buried and the other, the Panteón Francés, for those with money. The first attempt to integrate the area with Mexico City proper came in 1867, but the locals especially of the village of La Piedad resisted. However, these villages were increasingly connected to the main urban center. In the 1870s, trolleys pulled by mules were operating in the area, with the first trolley concession operated by Jorge Luis Hemmerken that connected the Zocalo with San Angel and Mixcoac with Tacubaya.

Further integration of the area into Mexico City proper came in 1899 when prefectures such as Tacubaya, Mixcoac, and General Anaya became part of the city's direct jurisdiction. The Federal District was reorganized into thirteen municipalities in 1903, with the Tacubaya area (which then accounted for much of what is now Benito Juárez) divided into the municipalities of Mixcoac, Santa Fe, Cuajimalpa and the village of Tacubaya.

Mexican Revolution to the present
During the Mexican Revolution, the Zapatistas took control of the south of the Federal District, including parts of Benito Juárez like Mixcoac.

Residential development of the Benito Juárez area began during and after the Mexican Revolution. Between 1909 and 1910, the streets began to be paved and numbers put on the houses. Most of the new streets in the borough are named after famous men and women from the Porfirio Díaz era. These include doctors such as Nicolás San Juan, lawyers such as Artemio de Valle Arizpe and Jose Linares, and engineers such as Gabriel Mancera. However, most of these people did not live in the area. In the 1920s, there was haphazard and unregulated subdivision development over old haciendas with the initial purpose of building country homes. This is the origin of modern "colonia" neighborhoods such as Del Valle, California, Berlín, Carrera Lardizábal, La Laguna and El Zacate. However, a number of villages still remained such as Mixcoac, San Pedro de los Pinos, Actipan and Tacubaya. Later in the decade, development would be more orderly and created subdivisions in Mixcoac, Tacubaya, San Pedro de los Pinos, Actipan, Navarrete and other areas. In addition, a number of colonias were created on the east side to meet the demand for middle class housing, resulting in Moderna, Portales, Santa Cruz, Postal, Álamos, Niños Héroes and Independencia. Trolley cars were introduced to facilitate transportation. This construction, along with the construction of major thoroughfares would result in the development of the borough without any ecological reserve space or major parks. Its location next to the historical extension of Mexico City proper would also mean that it would gain all city services earlier than the rest of the Federal District. This development for upper and middle classes, along with the installation of good infrastructure such as roads, schools and hospitals would allow the borough to develop with no major areas for the poor.

In 1928, the Federal District was reorganized into a Central Department and thirteen boroughs. Most of the Benito Juárez area was part of the Central Department, with a small section belonging to the municipality of General Anaya. Another reorganization in 1941, split the Central Department into four entities, Benito Juárez along with Cuauhtémoc, Venustiano Carranza and Miguel Hidalgo. The new Benito Juárez borough also included part of the General Anaya municipality, which was split between it and Coyoacán. The final borders of the borough were established on December 29, 1970, when the former circumscription of Mexico City was abolished and the Benito Juárez borough formally incorporated.

For most of the area's history, population growth was very slow. As late as the 1850s, the municipality of Mixcoac only had 1,500 people. Urbanization began in the first half of the 20th century, but major population expansion did not occur until the 1950s when apartment buildings began to replace houses. This construction was so rapid that by 1960, the borough was considered to be completely urbanized. This was part of a process of the sudden growth of Mexico City in general, which expanded over Benito Juárez and south into Coyoacán and other southern boroughs. Benito Juárez became part of the city proper, but mostly residential, inhabited by the middle class and higher. However, the street patterns of a number of former villages can still be discerned in some areas, with many of these areas still containing older, rustic homes. This is particularly true in Mixcoac, San Juan, San Simón Ticumac, San Pedro de los Pinos, Actipan and Nonoalco.

The strongest population growth occurred between 1950 and 1960. In 1969, Plaza Universidad shopping mall opened, Mexico City's first shopping center anchored by a department store. Since 1970, the population has continued to grow but slower, today ranking between fourth and fifth place in population in Mexico City. The Mixcoac and Churubusco Rivers were encased in cement tubes where they cross the borough. This eliminated the last of the area's surface water.

The population decline in the borough since the 1980s has negatively affected the economy and tax base of the area with little new construction from then until the 2000s. There is strong economic pressure to convert residential structures and areas into commercial units mostly due to the borough centralized location and accessibility by road. This saturation has led to zoning violations and traffic congestion. Since 2000, the borough has worked to attract young families such as those who made it grow in the 1950s and 1960s. However, these are now two income families who need cars in order to commute to places like the north of the city, Santa Fe and Vallejo. From 2001 to 2007, the borough constructed 31,569 new residences; however, it did not result in an increase in population. It lost 5,000 in the same time period. The construction boom of the 2000s, resulted in a number of serious building code violations with 51% of the 1,816 buildings with 30,873 apartments judged deficient. Most of these violations are related to the number of parking spaces available as well as the amount of free space among apartments. The large number of new apartments built in that time period has put strain on city services. The building of massive apartment complexes has caused complaints in the borough as neighbors of these developments claim that crime rates go up. As of 2002, buildings of more than six stories are limited to certain neighborhoods.

The development of housing for the middle class and above from the 1920s on has meant that Benito Juárez the gap between rich and poor is less here than in other boroughs such as Miguel Hidalgo. Overall, the borough has the highest socioeconomic indicators in the country, according to the United Nations Development Programme. Its indicators are equivalent to those in Germany, Spain, Italy and New Zealand. The borough ranks highest in personal income, health indicators and education.

However, these socioeconomic indicators have not protected the borough from crime problems, especially in the past few decades. There has been a rise in crime rates, especially robbery of banks and cars. The number of crimes has increased and the borough is now ranked fourth in overall crime rates, moving up from fifth place in 2008. Most reported crime consists of robbery at 52.8% followed by assaults at 15.3%. One of the most dangerous areas is along Calzada de Tlalpan because of the heavy through traffic allowing perpetrators to disappear into the crowd. The colonia with the highest crime rate is Narvarte. Another problematic area is Colonia Álamos because of the high number of people passing through. Upper class Del Valle has begun to have problems with robberies and transients. The borough states that one of the main reasons for the high crime rates is that delinquents from other parts of the city come to the area looking for victims. Most of the crime takes place in eleven colonias including Insurgentes Mixcoac, San Pedro de los Pinos, Nápoles, la Unidad Miguel Alemán, Del Valle Norte, Narvarte Poniente, Niños Héroes, Nativitas, Portales Norte, Del Lago and Álamos.

Demographics
The borough is currently one of the most densely populated in Mexico City with 16,260 inhabitants per km2, 1.3 times the density of Mexico City as a whole. During work days, another million and a half people come into the borough to work or shop. Most of the population of the borough occurred in the mid 20th century and since then there has been a slight negative growth rate starting at −2.9% in the 1980s to -.03% in 2005, although population increased again from 2010 to 2020. The most populous neighborhoods include Narvarte Oriente, Narvarte Poniente, Del Valle Centro, Portales Norte, Del Valle Norte, El Valle del Sur, Portales Sur and Álamos.

The population of the borough is slightly older than the Mexico City average, with the highest overall standard of living. The average age in Benito Juárez is 33 years compared to the city average of 27. Most of the population is in the middle to upper middle class, with about fifty two percent white collar workers and other professionals. According to the 2005 census, 32 percent work in services, 13% as street vendors and 12% as government workers. There are 122,000 residential units with 2.9 occupants on average. 99% are literate, average schooling is 12.6 years with 117,000 people with professional level studies and 16,000 with post-graduate degrees. The borough was ranked with the highest standard of living in the country of Mexico according to the Consejo Nacional de Población.

Most of the population of the borough originates from some other part of the country with a small population of indigenous language speakers. As of 2000, 69% of the population had migrated into the borough from other parts of Mexico, especially the states of Hidalgo, Puebla, Veracruz and Oaxaca. As of 2000, there were just under 6,000 people in the borough that spoke an indigenous language, about 1.8 percent of the total, with almost all of the rest being speakers of Spanish. This ranks the borough eighth in Mexico City. Of the indigenous language speakers, just under seventy percent were women and most spoke Nahuatl at 28.5% followed by Zapotec and Otomi at 11.5 and 9.4% each.

Economy
The borough's economic activity accounts for 6.2% of the total GDP of Mexico City. The largest contributing sector is construction enterprises, which make up 22.4% of the city's construction. Services, especially professional services, makes up about seventy percent of the borough's GDP, followed by construction at just over 27% and commerce at 17.4%. Up to two million people come into the borough on any given day for work, shopping or to study. The borough ranks second after Coyoacán in spaced dedicated to commerce at 274,366 m2. Avenida Insurgentes is the most important commercial area for the borough, with a large concentration of bars and restaurants from fast food to international cuisine at all price ranges. These serve the large number of offices that house architect, lawyers and other professional services.

The borough's hotel infrastructure is minimal with four out of the city's 64 five-star establishments and thirteen of its 96 four-star hotels; however, there have been recent efforts to expand tourism in the borough. Tourist attractions include the murals of the Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros, the Secretaría de Comunicaciones y Transportes and the Insurgentes Theatre along with the archeological site at Parque Hundido, Estadio Azul and the Plaza de Toros México. Three tourist routes are planned for the borough to bring visitors to the area's museums, historic sites, commercial centers, bars and restaurants via the city's Turibús. Two areas especially targeted are Narvarte and Mixcoac. This follows a recently opened permanent tourist information center established in the borough.

As most of the borough is still residential, despite recent pressures to convert to commercial, much of the borough's wealth is in the earning power of its residents. 58.9% of the total population is economically active, with an unemployment rate of under one percent. Seventy seven percent are occupied in the commerce and service sectors, most of which are jobs in retail. 20.3% are employed in industry, mostly pharmaceuticals and products for industry. Half of the population works between 33 and 48 hours per week with 29% working more than 48 hours per week. Benito Juárez is the only borough in the city ranked with high level of socioeconomic development, compared to four ranked with a medium level, ten with a low level and one with a very low level. This ranking takes into account the basic lifestyle of families here especially size and quality of housing, access to health services and education, city services, durable goods and more. Within the borough, about twenty percent of the population live in medium level conditions such as those in the Independencia, Nativitas, Portales Oriente, Residenciales and Villa de Cortés neighborhoods. However, the gap between rich and poor is significantly less than in other areas such as Cuajimalpa and Alvaro Obregon. The living standards for the borough are roughly equivalent to that of the United States.

Education
The borough has one of the highest education levels in Mexico City. 98.9% of the population is literate, a higher rate than Mexico City, with an average of 12.6 years of schooling. Three percent lack primary school education; fifteen percent lack middle school; twenty nine percent lack high school and fifty five percent have not attended higher education. Gender gap in education has narrowed from 6.9 years for women compared to 10 years for men in 1980 to 9.6 years for women and 10.5 years for men in 2000.

The borough has 488 schools and other educational campuses of which 147 are public and 341 are private. Public schools include thirty two early education centers, thirty six kindergartens, fifty six primary schools, twenty two middle schools, one preparatory high school, a vocational/technical high school and eighteen universities. Private institutions include one early education center, 109 kindergartens, 104 primary schools, fifty five middle schools and thirty nine preparatory high schools. The borough has 6.4% of all preschools in the city, 5.2% of the primary schools, 6.5% of middle schools, 4.9% of preparatory schools and ten percent of vocational/technical schools.

Colleges and universities

 * Universidad Panamericana in Mixcoac
 * Simón Bolívar University in Mixcoac

Primary and secondary schools
International schools include:
 * Colegio Suizo de México (Schweizerschule Mexiko) – Colonia del Valle

Other private schools include:
 * Colegio La Salle Simón Bolívar has two campuses in Mixcoac.
 * Escuela Sierra Nevada – Centro Educativo Nemi in Colonia del Valle
 * Escuela Mexicana del Valle / Americana in Colonia del Valle
 * Tomás Alva Edison School in Colonia del Valle
 * Instituto México Primaria in Colonia del Valle
 * Instituto México Secundaria in Xoco
 * Instituto Simón Bolívar in Xoco
 * Colegio la Florida
 * Colegio Williams Mixcoac Campus
 * Colegio Nuevo Continente – Campus Ciudad de México in Colonia del Valle
 * Instituto Víctor Hugo

Transportation
It has 102.5 km of primary roadway, making up 10.9% of that of Mexico City. As of 2003, there were 373,485 vehicles registered in the borough, with over 96% to private owners. This is about ten percent of all cars registered in the city. There are 12,448,999 meters of paved roads with 89.90 km of these as main thoroughfares and 631.1 km of secondary roads. The traffic congestion slows the pace to about ten kilometers on average and as low as 4.3 during rush hours. There are 290,346 autos registered.

A dozen major roadways that cross the borough. One system of streets that criss-cross the area is the "Eje" (Axis) roads which include Eje 4 Sur, Eje 5 Sur, Eje 6 Sur, Eje 7 Sur, Eje 7-A Sur, Eje 8 Sur, Eje 3 Poniente, Eje 2 Poniente and Eje Central. In addition, part of the Circuito Interior loop passes through parts of the borough locally known as Avenida Revolución and Río Churubusco. Other major roadways include Boulevard Adolfo López Mateos (Periférico), Viaducto Miguel Alemán, Viaducto Río Becerra and Calzada de Tlalpan.

There are eighteen Metro stations and forty-four bus routes. In 2005, the city government built the first Metrobus line on Avenida Insurgentes. Line 1 crosses the borough between Viaducto and Barranca del Muerto stops. Since then two more Metrobus lines have been built that cross the borough as well. Line 2 crosses east-west and Line three crosses along Avenida Cuauhtémoc. Several Metro lines cross the borough. Currently operating lines include Line 3, Line 9 and Line 7. Construction of a new line, Line 12, was finished in 2012. This line cuts east-west through the borough connecting Mixcoac to Tlahuac.

 * Metro stations

 * Viaducto
 * Xola
 * Villa de Cortés
 * Nativitas
 * Portales
 * Ermita
 * Etiopía / Plaza de la Transparencia
 * Eugenia
 * División del Norte
 * Zapata
 * Coyoacán
 * San Pedro de los Pinos
 * San Antonio
 * Mixcoac
 * Insurgentes Sur
 * Hospital 20 de Noviembre
 * Parque de los Venados
 * Eje Central

The borough is planning two major bike routes through the area in order to support a citywide effort to promote this form of transportation. These will be concentrated on Pilares and Adolfo Prieto streets, for east-west and north-south traffic respectively, connecting with bike paths in other boroughs.

title: Benito Juárez, Mexico City


text:
Temporalis muscle

In anatomy, the temporalis muscle, also known as the temporal muscle, is one of the muscles of mastication (chewing). It is a broad, fan-shaped convergent muscle on each side of the head that fills the temporal fossa, superior to the zygomatic arch so it covers much of the temporal bone. Temporal refers to the head's temples.

Structure
In humans, the temporalis muscle arises from the temporal fossa and the deep part of temporal fascia. This is a very broad area of attachment. It passes medial to the zygomatic arch. It forms a tendon which inserts onto the coronoid process of the mandible, with its insertion extending into the retromolar fossa posterior to the most distal mandibular molar. In other mammals, the muscle usually spans the dorsal part of the skull all the way up to the medial line. There, it may be attached to a sagittal crest, as can be seen in early hominins such as Paranthropus aethiopicus.

The temporalis muscle is covered by the temporal fascia, also known as the temporal aponeurosis. This fascia is commonly used in tympanoplasty, or surgical reconstruction of the eardrum.

The temporalis muscle is accessible on the temples, and can be seen and felt contracting while the jaw is clenching and unclenching.

Blood supply
The muscle receives its blood supply from the deep temporal arteries which anastomose with the middle temporal artery.

Nerve supply
As with the other muscles of mastication, control of the temporal muscle comes from the third (mandibular) branch of the trigeminal nerve. Specifically, the muscle is supplied by the deep temporal nerves. At least 6 smaller branches recruit muscle fibres the most when each has the maximal leverage.

Development
The temporalis muscle is derived from the first pharyngeal arch in development.

Variation
The temporalis muscle has a complex structure. Sarcomeres are a consistent length, but larger muscle fibres vary in length in the muscle and between people.

Function
The temporalis muscle is the most powerful muscle of the temporomandibular joint. The temporalis muscle can be divided into two functional parts; anterior and posterior. The anterior portion runs vertically and its contraction results in elevation of the mandible (closing the mouth). The posterior portion has fibers which run horizontally and contraction of this portion results in retrusion of the mandible. The middle portion which fibers run in an oblique direction towards inferior and anterior are used for both elevation and retraction of the mandible and in a unilateral contraction provoke lateral movement of the mandible. Motor units are recruited the most when they have the maximal leverage, maximising contractile strength.

When lower dentures are fitted, they should not extend into the retromolar fossa to prevent trauma of the mucosa due to the contraction of the temporalis muscle.

Clinical significance
The temporalis muscle is likely to be involved in jaw pain and headaches. Bruxism, the habitual grinding of teeth typically while sleeping, and clenching of the jaw while stressed can lead to overwork of the temporalis muscle and results in pain.

Seizure
A myotendinous rupture of the temporalis muscle can occur during a seizure due to extreme clenching of the jaw. During a seizure, the contralateral temporalis muscle can enter spastic paralysis, this clenching in extreme cases can lead to a rupture specifically on the myotendinous insertion at the coronoid process of the mandible.

Surgery
The temporalis muscle may be used in reconstructive surgery of the mouth.

During pterional craniotomy, incisions are often chosen based on the ease of reattaching the temporalis muscle after the bone fragment is replaced.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Temporalis muscle


text:
Cuajimalpa

Cuajimalpa de Morelos (more commonly known simply as Cuajimalpa) is a borough (demarcación territorial) in Mexico City. It is located on the west side of the city in the Sierra de las Cruces mountains which separate Mexico City from the State of Mexico. The borough is named after the former rural town of Cuajimalpa, which has since been absorbed by urban sprawl. The borough is home to the Desierto de los Leones National Park, the first declared in Mexico as well as the second largest annual passion play in Mexico City.

History
The proper name of the borough is Cuajimalpa de Morelos. The borough was named after the prominent community and former municipality of San Pedro Cuajimalpa which remains the seat of local government. “Cuajimalpa” is derived from the Nahuatl “Cuauhximalpan” which meant place of sawmills. The appendage of “de Morelos” was added in 1970 to honor José María Morelos, a hero of the Mexican War of Independence.

In 1342 the Tepanecas established themselves in the area, controlling the forests for about 100 years from their capital in Azcapotzalco. When the Tepanecas were overthrown by the Aztec Triple Alliance in the mid 15th century, many fled to this rugged terrain. During the Spanish conquest, Hernán Cortés subdued settlements in the area such as Santa Rosa, Santa Lucía, Cuauhximalpan, Chimalpa and Acopilco to secure the roads leading to the Toluca Valley. In 1534, Cortés took personal control of lands in the area, calling it San Pedro Cuauhximalpa and established towns such as San Lorenzo Acopilco, San Mateo Tlaltenango and San Pablo Chimalpa.

In the 17th century the Carmelites founded a hermitage and monastery called Desierto de los Leones, today a museum and national park. At this time, the indigenous population of the area recovered enough that there were efforts to reclaim lost territory and government. To this end, a type of codex called “techialoayan” was created to document the history of indigenous communities to make legal claims. One of the most important of this is the Techialoyan Codex of Cuajimalpa. It describes a solemn meeting of authorities to confirm the extension and political organization of the area. Written in Nahuatl, it remained a valid legal document until 1865, when then Emperor Maximilian I had it translated into Spanish. Today the original document is part of the Mexican Federal Archives. In 1997, the document was named as part of the “Memory of the World” by UNESCO.

From the colonial period into the 19th and early 20th centuries, the most common economic activities in the area were the harvesting of firewood and the making of charcoal, with some raising of crops and livestock for domestic consumption. The area was also important as a way station, providing lodging and food to travelers between the Valley of Mexico and the Toluca Valley. In 1884, a rail line was constructed through the same area.

In the early 19th century, the first insurgent army under Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla arrived at the area, with Hidalgo himself staying at the Mesón San Luisito. The town of Cuajimalpa was made the seat of a municipality in 1862. During the last decades of the 19th century and into the 20th modern services such as running water, paved roads and electric lighting were introduced. A number of industries related to construction supplies were also founded.

During the Mexican Revolution there were clashes in the area between forces loyal to Venustiano Carranza and Emiliano Zapata in El Contadero and San Pedro. One story from the time says that the Zapatistas cut the ears of the inhabitants of the town of Cuajimalpa to distinguish them from those loyal to Carranza.

In 1929, the area's status was changed from municipality to borough with the reorganization of the Federal District of Mexico City. Although it remained very rural until the 1930s, its main economic activities were in decline with many moving to Mexico City.

Prior to the 1950s, urbanization of the area was limited because of its terrain. In the mid 20th century, the industrialization of the Valley of Mexico began to reach the borough of Cuajimalpa. The population of the area increased over 900% from 1950 to 1980, with the highest rate of growth in the 1970s. New residential construction fueled the growth, covering former forest and agricultural areas especially in areas such as San Lorenzo Acopilco, Las Lajas, La Pila, Las Maromas, Xalpa, Cola de Pato, Atliburros, Cruz Blanca, Moneruco, Chancocoyotl, Teopazulco, Tlapeaca, Texcalco and Pito Real. These include large residential subdivisions such as El Contadero and Lomas de Vista Hermosa, as well as unregulated settlements on the sides of hills and small canyons. The pace of growth remained high in the 1980s, in part due to the 1985 earthquake, which prompted many to move away from the soft soils of the city center into the more solid rock of the west and south of the valley. However, the rapid development began to cause environmental problems, including the building over former pit mines which had later been used as landfills. In the 1990s, efforts were begun to regulate growth and protect natural areas. Much of the territory has been urbanized and contains some of the city's most expensive residential and commercial real estate, with newer developments for upper classes pushing out lower income groups.

In the 1990s and 2000s there were changes in the borough's borders due to the settlements of disputes between the Federal District and the State of Mexico.

Geography
The Cuajimalpa borough is located on the west side of the Federal District of Mexico City. To the west of it are the municipalities of Ocoyoacac and Huixquilucan de Degollado in the State of Mexico. It also borders the boroughs of Miguel Hidalgo, Alvaro Obregon and Magdalena Contreras in the Federal District. The borough covers an area of 8,905 hectares, just over five percent of the total of the Federal District.

The borough is situated on the east side of the Sierra de las Cruces, a volcanic mountain range which separates the Federal District of Mexico City from the State of Mexico and has an average elevation of 2,750 meters above sea level. The terrain is very rugged with mountain peaks mostly found in the center and south. These include La Palma (3,810 masl), San Miguel (3,800 masl), El Cochinito (3,760 masl) and El Ángel (3,330 masl). The land mostly consists of volcanic rock with small valleys and canyons that contain sedimentary deposits; however, there is no longer volcanic activity.

The area contains many fissures, natural caverns and small canyons which are the result of tectonic forces and erosion. Most of these run from north-northeast to south-southwest. There are small flat areas suitable for agriculture such as around the towns of San Pablo Chimalpa and San Lorenzo Acopilco. The canyons are formed by the channeling of rainwater along fissures. There are two types of canyons: stable ones with wide bottoms and less steep slopes (mostly in the northeast) and V-shaped ones with steep unstable slopes, which can be found in various parts of the borough. The largest canyons are the Santo Domingo, Agua Azul, Los Helechos and Hueyatlaco. The borough contains seven “mini” basins called Arroyo Agua de Leones, Arroyo Santo Desierto, Río Tacubaya, Río Becerra, Río San Joaquín, Río Barrilaco and Río Magalenas. These are currents which channel rainwater along the rugged terrain with most running southwest to northeast. Three have their beginnings in the Sierra de las Cruces with the rest in the center or north of the territory. These streams and rivers then run into several other sections of Mexico City and into the State of Mexico. Because of the many cracks in the soil and rock, the borough is an important aquifer recharge area as well as the source of water for freshwater springs.

The climate ranges from temperate to cold and its mostly humid. Average annual temperatures vary between 10C and 12C with average annual precipitation varying from between 1,200mm and 1,500mm. The canyons have microclimates which tend to be moister because prevailing winds do not reach and dry them out.

About twenty percent of the borough is classified as conservation zone with the rest urbanized; however, thirty percent of the population lives in these areas. The area contains a number of threatened species of animal in the Valley of Mexico such as carpenter birds, hummingbirds, cacomistles and several species of lizard. The highest elevations, mostly encompassed by the Desierto de los Leones National Park, are the best conserved. This forest is an important source of oxygenation for the Valley of Mexico. The greatest environmental threat is the continuation of urban sprawl, which threatens forests and other protected areas. Areas which already have high levels of deforestation suffer significant erosion. Although there are official efforts in place to control building, illegal settlements are a significant concern, especially those on the edges of the national park.

San Pedro Cuajimalpa and other communities in the borough
The former rural town of San Pedro Cuajimalpa still maintains a distinct identity although it has been fully incorporated into the urban sprawl of Mexico City. The town used the Techialoyan Codex of Cuajimalpa, written in Classical Nahuatl at the end of the 17th century, "to prove its rights to its lands, which it retained until 1865." Its main road is called Avenida Juárez, the oldest road in the borough, and connects the former town center to the old Mexico City-Toluca highway. While only very few of the old traditional houses remain (two on the corner of Avenida Juarez and Coahuila Street with a few next to Jardín Hidalgo), the historic center of the town still exists. It was named a “Barrio Mágico” in 2011.

The historic center contains a traditional Mexican market, the main plaza and the borough hall and former municipal palace. The center also contains an open-air stage called the Foro Pedro Infante. It is named after a 20th-century film star who made part of a movie called Vuelven los García on the spot. Jardín Hidalgo is next to the main plaza and the San Pedro Parish. It is a small space filled with trees and a kiosk. The borough hall contains the Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla Museum. It contains copies of the Techialoyan Codex of Cuajimalpa among other items. Originally the museum was as at a former inn called the Mesón de San Luisito, where Miguel Hidalgo stayed after the Battle of Monte de las Cruces. One modern addition to the historic center was a public skate park behind the borough offices opened in 2013.

The historic center is still dominated by the Parish of San Pedro, the oldest church in the borough. It was founded in the 16th century but the current building was begun in 1628 and completely finished in 1925. The atrium is paved and has only a few trees. The portal is Neoclassic with a frieze formed by metopes and triglyphs from ancient Greek architecture, along with a thick cornice. The main entrance has a niche on each side. A truncated arch is found above the cornice and the base has the papal seal which alludes to Saint Peter, the patron saint. The rest of the facade is covered in red tezontle stone and there are two bell towers. The interior has a single nave. On the main altar, there is an image of Saint Peter, the patron on the town, inside a cypress. The vaults and cupola of the ceiling have simple ornamentation, the side walls have various oil paintings and there are a number of images of various saints.

San Pablo Chimalpa is one of the two oldest settlements of the borough. Its name comes from Nahuatl which means “place of the shield.” Oral tradition states it was founded in 1532 by a warrior named Chimalli and Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza when land was being redistributed.

San Mateo Tlaltenango is located high in the Sierra de las Cruces next to the Desierto de los Leones. The name Tlaltenango comes from Nahuatl and means “en the walls of the earth.” The area has been occupied since the pre-Hispanic period. The current town was founded in 1532 by Hernán Cortés, with Viceroy Enrique de Almanza taking possession in 1571.

San Lorenzo Acopilco dates to the pre Hispanic period, reorganized by the conquistadors.

El Contadero dates to at least 1753 and is located on a hill on the west side of the Chapultepec forest. It began as a single house which some historians state was the main house of a hacienda despite its small size. In the 20th century, the house served as a store, inn, and cantina serving travelers on the Mexico City-Toluca road. Today the area is a small town with a few streets.

Landmarks
The major attraction of the borough is the Desierto de los Leones, which is home to a former monastery and retreat. In 1606, the Carmelites constructed a hermitage and monastery high up in the mountains of the Sierra de las Cruces. The name literally means “Desert of the Lions.” “Desert” is what Carmelites called remote retreats. The “lions” are from the surname of two brothers over which the monks had a dispute over the land. It remained an isolated retreat until 1814. Then the site became a hospital administered by the Company of Jesus. Today the buildings of the former monastery are home to three museums, one dedicated to the site, one to the bicentennial of Mexico's Independence and one to the Mexican Revolution. The site is surrounded by the Desierto de los Leones National Park, the first such declared in Mexico in 1917 by Venustiano Carranza. The park extends over 1,500 hectares with mountain peaks and canyons forested with pine and holm oak. Services of the park include the Peteretes Ecological Center and an area with restaurants selling local specialties. The Desierto receives over 300,000 visitors per year with the busiest times being Holy Week and December.

The Rancho los Laureles Ecotourism Park is also in the borough. It has camping and areas for bonfires and picnics. It also has areas for mountain biking, paintball and a petting zoo with deer.

Festivals and events
The largest and most important annual event of the borough is the passion play and fair, the 100th edition of which was held in 2013. For the entire event, between 1.5 and 2 million people visit the town with 500,000 people for Good Friday alone. The passion play is the second largest in Mexico City after that of Iztapalapa. The passion play involves over 200 people in various speaking and non-speaking roles and locals design and make the sets. The fair occurs for the entire week, featuring local products such as handcrafts and food. During Holy Week, the sale of alcohol is banned in the borough, including nightclubs and bars.

The reenactments include events related to Jesus's entrance to Jerusalem on Palm Sunday, and the washing of feet and the Last Supper on Maundy Thursday. The two most important days are Good Friday and Holy Saturday. The Good Friday procession extends for two kilometers and ends with the scene of the crucifixion. The cross carried by the actor playing Jesus weighs about ninety kilos. The most distinctive part of Cuajimalpa's Holy Week is Holy Saturday. Four young men are chosen each year to play Judas, two over 18 and two under. They dress in red, wear a mask and carry a whip. Judas represents evil but those chosen to play the role are considered to have the greatest responsibility, watching over others in the passion play procession on Good Friday and help with coordination. Their tasks begin at 8am when they “rob” various stands related to the traditional fair although in reality the items are donated by the vendors. These usually include utensils and toys. Then those playing Roman soldiers go and look for Judas to arrest; however, locals then offer the Judas's their houses to hide and often to eat and drink. At about 2 pm the Judas's are corralled by the soldiers and brought to the parish church of San Pedro. At 3 pm the captured Judas's are “hung” from the bell tower but then people come to the atrium to donate money for their release, often receiving one of the “stolen” items from the fair in return. One last aspect is a flogging but only for the older men playing Judas. The more traditional burning of Judas also occurs on this day, but in competition with Iztapalapa, the borough has also added a fireworks show along with monumentally sized Judas figures.

Other important events related to the religious calendar is Carnival, held just before Lent, and for the Christmas season, there is a “Christmas village” set up in the historic center, completely with ice rink and toboggan slide.

The borough also hosts an annual Feria del Hongo dedicated to the gastronomy of native mushrooms in late summer at the borough hall plaza and the Desierto de los Leones. This event has been promoted in various ways, including a series of tickets by the National Lottery.

Education
The borough has various public and private institutions of higher education including the Colegio de Empresarios Excelentia Fervic, the Instituto de Hematopatología, the Instituto Nacional de Administración Pública (INAP), the Universidad del Valle de México, Campus Santa Fe and the Universidad Hebarica. In the 2000s, the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana added a Cuajimalpa campus. It offers ten undergraduate degrees and seven postgraduate degrees in three academic divisions (Sciences of Communication and Design, Natural Sciences and Engineering and Social Sciences and Humanities).

Public high schools of the Instituto de Educación Media Superior del Distrito Federal (IEMS) include:
 * Escuela Preparatoria Cuajimalpa "Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez"

Private schools:
 * Cuajimalpa campus of Peterson Schools (Lomas de Vistahermosa)
 * Westhill Institute Santa Fe campus (Santa Fe)
 * Eton School Elementary through High School campus (Santa Fe)
 * Colegio del Bosque México in Bosques de las Lomas
 * Colegio Ciudad de México Plantel Contadero
 * Colegio Monteverde (Santa Fe)
 * Colegio Franco Inglés (Vista Hermosa)
 * Colegio Vista Hermosa (Lomas de Vista Hermosa)
 * Colegio Hebreo Maguen David
 * Colegio Hebreo Sefaradí
 * Colegio Hebreo Tarbut
 * Colegio Israelita de México
 * Colegio Eugenio de Mazenod
 * Instituto Cumbres México
 * Instituto Rosedal Vista Hermosa
 * Pinecrest Institute (Santa Fe) - Preschool to secundaria
 * Comunidad Educativa Tomas Moro Plantel Maguey

Transportation
Main roads include the toll federal road connecting Mexico City and Toluca, Prolongación Paseo de la Reforma, Avenida Vasco de Quiroga and the Chamapa-La Venta highway. Because of urbanization and the thru traffic between Mexico City and Toluca, there is significant congestion. The most pressing traffic problems are those in the historic center of Cuajimalpa and traffic between the rest of Mexico City and Toluca particularly during rush hours.

The most important bus lines include routes 4, 5, 76 and 80 of the RTP system.

The El Insurgente commuter rail has a stop in Santa Fe.

Socioeconomics
There are areas of great wealth near areas populated by lower classes. Cuajimalpa is the most expensive place to buy a house or apartment in Mexico City with the average square meter costing 55% more than the average for the rest of the city. However, prices vary widely within the borough between developments for the most wealthy and areas which are still poor.

Former "Jefes Delegacionales" democratically elected

 * (2000 - 2003): Francisco de Souza Mayo
 * (2003 - 2006): Ignacio Ruiz López
 * (2006 - 2009): José Remedios Ledesma García
 * (2009 - 2012): Carlos Orvañanos Rea
 * (2012 - 2015): Adrián Ruvalcaba Suárez
 * (2015 - 2018): Miguel Ángel Salazar Martinez

title: Cuajimalpa


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Lassen Volcanic National Park


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Gary Robichaud

Gary Robichaud (September 13, 1962 – September 8, 2005) was a Canadian teacher and politician, and leader of the Island New Democrats political party in the province of Prince Edward Island.

Robichaud was born in Saint John, New Brunswick. He spent his childhood on Prince Edward Island, attending Evangeline Regional High School and then the University of Prince Edward Island.

Robichaud began teaching in rural Manitoba, where he met his wife, Jacqueline. His daughter, Julia was born in 2001. [5] In 1995, he moved back to Prince Edward Island to become a high-school teacher in Summerside. For many years, he taught at Three Oaks Senior High School, during which time he helmed Canada's only intramural Reach for the Top league.

Joining the Island New Democrats, Robichaud ran unsuccessfully in the 2000 provincial election. In 2002, he ran for the leadership of the party, and won with 62 votes over Ken Bingham with 18 and Deborah Kelly-Hawkes with 4.

He was diagnosed with inoperable lung cancer in late 2003. On June 23, 2005, he announced his resignation as New Democratic leader due to his poor health. He died on September 8, 2005, in Ross Corner.

He was replaced as New Democratic Party leader in 2006 by Dean Constable.

title: Gary Robichaud


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Cuauhtémoc, Mexico City

Cuauhtémoc, named after the former Tlahtoani, is a borough (demarcación territorial) of Mexico City. It contains the oldest parts of the entity, extending over what was the entire urban core in the 1920s.

Cuauhtémoc is the historic and cultural center of the entity, although it is not the geographical center. While it ranks only sixth in population, it generates about a third of the entire entity's GDP, mostly through commerce and services. It is home to the Mexican Stock Exchange, the important tourist attractions of the historic center and Zona Rosa, and various skyscrapers such as the Torre Mayor and the Mexican headquarters of HSBC. It also contains numerous museums, libraries, government offices, markets and other commercial centers which can bring in as many as 5 million people each day to work, shop or visit cultural sites.

This area has had problems with urban decay, especially in the historic center. Efforts to revitalize the historic center and some other areas have been ongoing since the 1990s, by both government and private entities. Such efforts have resulted in better public parks, such as the Alameda Central, which was renovated; the modification of streets such as 16 de Septiembre and Madero that have become car-free for pedestrians (zona peatonal).

The borough
Cuauhtémoc is centered on the Zócalo or main square which contains the Aztec ruins of the Templo Mayor, the Metropolitan Cathedral and the National Palace of Mexico. The borough covers 32.44 km2, divided into 34 colonias, 2,627 city blocks, 1,267,000 m2 of green areas, 1,500 buildings classified as national monuments, 2 archeological zones (Tlatelolco and Templo Mayor), 1,290 private buildings with official historic value (valor patrimonial de propiedad privada), 210 public buildings with official historic value, 120 government buildings, and two major planned-housing complexes (Unidad Habitacional Nonoalco-Tlatelolco and Centro Urbano Benito Juárez). In addition, the borough contains 43 museums, 23 clock towers, 150 public and private libraries, 24 centers for infant development, 6 cultural centers sponsored by the borough, 38 publicly sponsored markets with 14,434 vendors, 25 stage theaters, 123 movie theaters and 9 public sports complexes.

The sports facilities include Deportivo Cuauhtémoc in Colonia Buenavista, Deportivo José María Morelos y Pavón in Colonia Morelos, Deportivo Peñoles in Colonia Valle Gómez, Deportivo Guelatao in Colonia Centro, Deportivo Tepito in Colonia Morelos, Deportivo Antonio Caso in Tlatelolco, Deportivo Francisco Javier Mina in Colonia Guerrero, Deportivo Estado de Tabasco in Colonia Exhipódromo de Peralvillo and Deportivo 5 de Mayo in Tlatelolco. A new center called the Deportivo Bicentennario has been started in Colonia Buenos Aires. There are 264 public and private preschools, 116 middle schools, 102 technical and regular high schools and 13 teachers' colleges.

Because it is the oldest part of Mexico City, with buildings which are centuries old, deterioration is an ongoing concern. Currently, at least 789 inhabited buildings in twelve colonias have been listed as in danger of condemnation, due to structural damage caused by sinking into muddy soil of the former lakebed. These are mostly located in the historic center and the colonias immediately surrounding it. Some of these have been classified as having historic or artistic value by the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes or Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. This has been a problem for the area for centuries and has involved famous structures such as the Metropolitan Cathedral, which had major foundation work done to stop the damage caused by uneven sinking.

A large part of this borough is divided between commercial zones and historic and cultural sites. While the borough does not have the highest crime rate in the city, with 13.9% of all Mexico City crime committed here, it is considered to be fairly dangerous because of its urbanization and the fact that most of the people found in the borough are there only to work or visit. In some older neighborhoods, people live and raise children along with street vending, squatting, and takeover of public spaces by drug addicts, drug dealers, and prostitutes. Seven of the borough's 34 colonias have been ranked in the Top 10 most lawless in the city by the Secretary of Public Safety of Mexico City, with a few, such as Tepito, are infamous for being so. Some of these run down areas are lower class colonias such as Colonia Guerrero and Colonia Morelos, but similar problems are also found upper middle class colonias such as the northern part of Colonia Roma. The most common crimes are muggings with 1.47 reports per day, robbery of businesses with .78 reports per day, and car theft with .71 reports per day.

Most of the 5 million who come into this borough each day are there to work, visit the area's markets, shops and cultural attractions or are tourists. The borough is the most visited area of the city by tourists, who mostly come to see the historic center and Zona Rosa. People from other parts of the city come to visit the museums and large public markets such as La Lagunilla, Mixcalco, Hidalgo, Medellín and San Juan. The influx brings in 800,000 vehicles to circulate its streets each day, with traffic jams, especially in and near the historic center nearly a daily occurrence.

Demographics
While it is the most important borough economically, bringing millions of people into its territory on any given day, its population of 545,884 in 2020 ranks only sixth out of the city's 16 boroughs. This population has been steadily decreasing even as the population of the rest of the city has remained static, although there was a slight increase in the last 10 years. A fairly large percentage of the population is either over 60 years of age and over half of the residents are either single or living with a partner. The borough contains only seven percent of all housing units in the city.

Those who do live here are mostly employed in services (57.5%) and commerce (23.4%).

Government
The borough was first established on December 30, 1970, after the circumscription of Mexico City was split in 4 boroughs. Before the political reforms of 2016, it was governed by a borough chief (jefe delegacional)) and a cabinet consisting of a Secretaria Particular, Coordinacion de Asesores, Dirección Interinstitucional y de Fomento Economico, Subdirección Técnica, Subdirección de Comunicación Social and Subdirección de Unidades Habitacionales. After becoming an alcaldía, the head of government became a mayor.

The seat of the borough government is located in Colonia Buenavista.

Colonias
These are the colonias and neighborhoods in Cuauhtémoc:

Colonia Centro • Colonia Doctores • Colonia Obrera • Tepito • Colonia Algarín • Colonia Ampliación Asturias • Colonia Asturias • Colonia Atlampa • Colonia Buenavista • Colonia Buenos Aires • Centro Urbano Benito Juárez • Colonia Condesa • Colonia Cuauhtémoc • Colonia Esperanza • Colonia Exhipódromo de Peralvillo • Colonia Felipe Pescador • Colonia Guerrero • Colonia Hipódromo • Colonia Hipódromo Condesa • Colonia Juárez • Colonia Maza • Colonia Morelos • Colonia Paulino Navarro • Colonia Peralvillo • Colonia Roma • Colonia San Rafael • Colonia San Simón Tolnahuac • Colonia Santa María Insurgentes • Colonia Santa María la Ribera • Unidad Habitacional Nonoalco-Tlatelolco • Colonia Tabacalera • Colonia Tránsito • Colonia Valle Gómez • Colonia Vista Alegre • Zona Rosa

Tenochtitlan
The early history of the delegation coincides with the history of Aztec Tenochtitlan and colonial Mexico City. Tenochitlan was founded on a marshy island in Lake Texcoco. It was divided into four capuillis or neighborhoods centering on the Templo Mayor. This temple's ruins are located very close to the modern main square or Zocalo today.

Spanish rule
When the Spanish conquered Tenochtitlan in 1521, they destroyed most of the old Aztec public buildings but kept the basic layout of the city, which roughly extends over what is now known as the historic center or Colonia Centro. The Cathedral was built over a portion of the sacred precinct (teocalli) of the destroyed Templo Mayor, the National Palace was built over Moctezuma's New Palace and the Zocalo was built over what was an open space near the sacred temple space. Over the early colonial period, European-style construction would replace Aztec ones over the entire island city, with the most important public buildings concentrated on the blocks adjoining the Zocalo.

As the center of New Spain, the city held the greatest prestige, prompting those who had made their fortunes through conquest, mining, commerce and other means to have homes in the city, as close to the Zocalo as possible. The city soon became filled with mansions, large churches and monasteries and monumental public buildings which would eventually earn it the nickname of "City of Palaces."

At the beginning of the 19th century, this city remained mostly within what is now called the historic center although various drainage projects had been enlarging the island. The city proper contained 397 streets and alleys, 12 bridges, 78 plazas, 14 parish churches, 41 monasteries, 10 colleges, 7 hospitals, a poorhouse, a cigar factory, 19 restaurants, 2 inns, 28 corrals for horses and 2 official neighborhoods.

Independence era
After Mexico gained its Independence in 1824, Mexico City was designated as the capital of the new country, and the city and its surrounding area (11.5 km2) were incorporated as a "Federal District," separate from the other states. By the late, 19th century, the city began to break its traditional confines with the construction of new neighborhoods, called colonias, in the still drying lakebed. This was especially true in the areas west of the historic area, with the creation of "modern" colonias for the wealthy along the Paseo de la Reforma, built earlier by Maximilian I. These colonias include Colonia Juárez, Colonia Roma, Colonia Cuauhtémoc and Colonia San Rafael. Colonias for poorer and working-class people were built mostly north and south of the city such as Colonia Morelos, and Colonia Doctores.

20th century
In 1928, President Álvaro Obregón divided the rapidly growing Federal District area into thirteen boroughs (delegaciones), with what was then the city proper designated as the Cuauhtémoc borough. While the borough still remained the center of city's commerce, politics, academia and culture during the first half of the 20th century, this historic center began going into decline as the wealthy moved out into the new western colonias as early as the end of 19th century. By the 1950s, the country's main university UNAM moved almost all of its facilities out of the borough and into the newly built Ciudad Universitaria in the south of the city. In the 1940s, the city government froze rents in the borough and by the late 1990s, when this was finally repealed, many tenants were paying the same prices they were in the 1950s.With no financial incentive to keep up their properties, landlords let their buildings disintegrate. Most of this occurred in the historic center, but this phenomenon also presented itself in other areas such as Colonia San Rafael and the Centro Urbano Benito Juárez as well.

Since the 1950s, the city has received the highest number of migrants from other parts of Mexico. Most of these come from very rural areas of the country and a significant percentage speak an indigenous language with Spanish as a second language, or do not speak Spanish at all. As of 2005, seven percent of the borough's population is made up of these migrants. These migrants have put strains on services such as education.

1985 Earthquake
The borough was the hardest hit by the 1985 earthquake with 258 buildings completely crumbled, 143 partially collapsed and 181 were seriously damaged. The result was the loss of 100,000 residents, just in the historic center. Another area with major damage was Colonia Roma with a number of buildings collapsing completely. Even areas that did not suffer significant damage, such as Colonia San Rafael, were affected when homeless from other parts of the borough moved in, or Colonia Condesa, when wealthier residents moved out. Because of the rent situation, most of the damaged structures were never fixed or rebuilt, leading to slums or garbage-strewn vacant lots. As late as the 2000s, buildings damaged from the event have collapsed. In 2003, the city government expropriated sixty four properties thought to be in danger of sudden collapse due to damage suffered nearly 20 years earlier after a collapse of an apartment building in Colonia Vista Alegre, but in 2010 an apartment building partially collapsed in Colonia San Rafael, due to the same cause. Since the quake, the borough has invested in its own early warning system, which was created for it by UNAM.

Between the flight of wealthier residents from the historic center and the colonias that immediately surround it and the damage from the 1985 earthquake, parts of the borough became deserted at night. Former mansions had been converted into tenements for the poor, and the sidewalks and streets were taken over by pickpockets and street vendors, especially in the historic center. This made the area unpalatable for tourists. As the historic center is the city's main tourist attraction, the city lost its standing as a destination for international visitors, instead becoming an airport connection for other areas of the country. Until recently, many of the restaurants of the area, even the best, would close early to allow employees time to get home because the area was not particularly safe at night.

Contemporary events
Starting in the late 1990s, the city and federal governments, along with some private associations have worked to revitalize the borough, especially the historic center. Starting in the early 2000s, the government infused 500 million pesos (US$55 million) into the Historic Center Trust and entered into a partnership with a business group led by Carlos Slim, to buy dozens of centuries-old buildings and other real estate to rehabilitate. Work has concentrated on renovating historic buildings, repaving streets, and improving water, lighting and other infrastructure. A number of the oldest streets near the Zocalo have been made into pedestrian only and most street vendors have been forced to move out of the historic center. This paved the way for the opening of upscale eateries, bars and fashionable stores. Also, young people are moving into downtown lofts. To attract more tourists, there are new red double-decker buses. There have been other efforts in other parts of the borough such as in Colonia Juarez and Colonia Obrera but with mixed results.

However, this has not resolved all of the borough's problems. Many of the problems with urban decay (abandoned buildings, squatters, uncontrolled street vending, crime, etc.) continue. The continued migration of people into the area from rural parts of Mexico has increased illiteracy rates, in addition to poorer areas where dropout rates are high. The borough government has been accused of corruption by the Cámara de Comercio, Servicios y Turismo (Chamber of Commerce, Services and Tourism), especially in the issuance of business permits with exorbitant fee and fines. Most of the problem is with small torilla operations, paper stores and small grocery stores which operate completely at the discretion of borough agents.

Economy
Cuauhtémoc alone accounts for 35.1% of Mexico City's entire GDP, and by itself, has the seventh largest economy in Mexico. Most of the borough's economy is based on commerce (52.2%), followed by services (39.4%). The borough is home to a large number of federal and city government buildings, especially in the historic center, Colonia Tabacalera and Colonia Doctores.

Paseo de la Reforma, especially the section which divides Colonia Juárez from Colonia Cuauhtémoc, is the most modern and constantly developing part of the borough. It is home to the Mexican Stock Exchange, the headquarters of HSBC in Mexico and Mexico City's tallest skyscrapers, Torre Reforma, Chapultepec Uno, Torre BBVA México and Torre Mayor.

Construction of office buildings and high rise apartments continue in the area, causing it to become a distinctive neighborhood of its own: the high-rises that face the avenue are very distinct from the older ones behind them, mostly used for more traditional housing and small businesses. One of the newest major projects in the mid-2000s was Reforma 222, two towers combining office space with residential units. In the rest of the borough, commerce is more traditional with numerous public markets, informal markets called tianguis and street peddling. Public markets are buildings constructed and maintained by a city or municipal government, which rents stands to private vendors. The largest is La Lagunilla Market, with nearly 2,000 vendors divided among three large warehouse type buildings. It is known for its large furniture and shoe market but most of the vendors sell food and everyday items. Designed to "modernize" the tradition of tianguis or street markets, some were even promoted through art, such as the Abelardo L. Rodriguez Market. Tianguis still survive and can be found in most parts of the borough as well as in much of the rest of Mexico. In the borough, the best known tianguis is located in Tepito in which 12,000 people do business on the streets.

Tourism plays a major role in the borough's economy. It contains some of the best-known landmarks of Mexico City, so it has become the most visited area of the city by tourists. The most popular areas are the historic center, Alameda Central/Bellas Artes, Reforma, and Zona Rosa. The borough also has the most developed hotel infrastructure, with 389 hotels out of the 6,464 in the city. About half of all four and five-star hotels are located here.

Government is also one of the main employers: the National Government Palace, the Senate of the Republic and Mexico City administrative buildings are located in the borough.

Within Cuauhtémoc, Aeroméxico and HSBC Mexico have their headquarters in Colonia Cuauhtémoc. Cablemás and Magnicharters have their headquarters in Colonia Juárez.

Roads
The borough has 14 million meters of roadways with 314 main intersections. The vast majority of these are current and former residential streets, but there are also three expressways and various axis roads (ejes viales) for through traffic.

The three main arteries are the Circuito Interior, Viaducto Miguel Alemán and San Antonio Abad, which were built for traffic passing through the center of the city. The Circuito Interior is a circular bypass and it is the second most important roadway in the city after the Anillo Periférico.

The ejes viales are a series of north-south and west-east roads built by Carlos Hank González in the 1980s to make Mexico City more automobile-friendly. The largest of these is the Eje Central which runs north south and divides the historic center in half. Due to the large number of people who enter and leave this borough each day, up to 800,000 vehicles circulate the streets each day, making traffic jams, especially in the historic center, a frequent occurrence.

Bicitaxis
The cycle rickshaw, known in Mexico as bicitaxi (from the English "bike taxi"), is a popular means of transport in the historic center.

Public transportation
The borough has the largest number of Metro lines running through it. These include Line 1, Line 2, Line 3, Line 5, Line 8, Line 9 and Line B. There are also trolleybus lines running north-south and east-west, Lines 1 and 3 of the Metrobus as well as numerous bus routes. Another important public transportation service is the Tren Suburbano commuter railway, which has its southern terminal in Colonia Buenavista with service north as far as Cuautitlán in the State of Mexico.

 * Metro stations

 * Chapultepec
 * Sevilla
 * Insurgentes
 * Cuauhtémoc
 * Balderas
 * Salto del Agua
 * Isabel La Católica
 * Pino Suárez

 * San Cosme
 * Revolución
 * Hidalgo
 * Bellas Artes
 * Allende
 * Zócalo
 * San Antonio Abad
 * Chabacano

 * Tlatelolco
 * Guerrero
 * Juárez
 * Niños Héroes
 * Hospital General
 * Centro Médico
 * Misterios
 * Garibaldi / Lagunilla

 * San Juan de Letrán
 * Doctores
 * Obrera
 * Patriotismo
 * Chilpancingo
 * Lázaro Cárdenas
 * Tepito
 * Lagunilla
 * Buenavista

 * Tren Suburbano stations

 * Buenavista [[Image:FS1.png|16px|link=Tren Suburbano]]

 * Metrobús stations

 * Circuito Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg
 * San Simón Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg
 * Manuel González Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg
 * Buenavista Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg [[Image:Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg|16px|link=Mexico City Metrobús Line 3]] [[Image:Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg|16px|link=Mexico City Metrobús Line 4]]
 * El Chopo Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg
 * Revolución Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg
 * Plaza de la República Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Reforma Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg (connected through both Reforma Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg and París Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg)
 * Hamburgo Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg
 * Glorieta de los Insurgentes Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg
 * Durango Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg
 * Álvaro Obregón Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg
 * Sonora Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg
 * Campeche Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg
 * Chilpancingo Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg
 * Nuevo León Mexico City Metrobús Line 1 icon.svg Mexico City Metrobús Line 2 icon.svg
 * Viaducto Mexico City Metrobús Line 2 icon.svg
 * De La Salle Mexico City Metrobús Line 2 icon.svg
 * Tolnáhuac Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg
 * Tlatelolco Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg
 * Ricardo Flores Magón Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg
 * Guerrero Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg
 * Mina Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg
 * Hidalgo Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg
 * El Caballito Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg (connected through Hidalgo Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg)
 * Juárez Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Balderas Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg
 * Cuauhtémoc Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg
 * Jardín Pushkin Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg
 * Hospital General Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg
 * Dr. Márquez Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg
 * Centro Médico Mexico City Metrobús Line 3 icon.svg
 * Delegación Cuauhtémoc	Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Puente de Alvarado Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg

 * Museo San Carlos Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Bellas Artes Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Teatro Blanquita Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * República de Chile Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * República de Argentina Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Mercado Abelardo L. Rodríguez Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Mixcalco Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Plaza de la República	Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Glorieta de Colón Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg
 * Expo Reforma Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * República de Argentina Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Mercado Abelardo L. Rodríguez Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Plaza de la República	Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Glorieta de Colón Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg
 * Expo Reforma Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Vocacional 5 Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Plaza San Juan Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg

 * Eje Central Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * El Salvador Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Isabel la Católica Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Museo de la Ciudad Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Pino Suárez Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Las Cruces Norte Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Las Cruces Sur Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Mercado Ampudia Mexico City Metrobús Line 4 icon.svg
 * Chapultepec Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg
 * La Diana Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg
 * El Ángel Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg
 * La Palma Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg
 * Glorieta Violeta Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg
 * Garibaldi Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg
 * Glorieta Cuitláhuac Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg
 * Tres Culturas Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg
 * Mercado Beethoven Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg
 * Misterios Mexico City Metrobús Line 7 icon.svg

Education
In the 2007–2008 school year, there were 22,651 K-12 students, about 6.36% of Mexico City's total. 70.64% attend public schools and 29.14% attend private schools. There are 264 public and private preschools, 116 middle schools, 102 technical and regular high schools, and 13 teachers’ colleges. The borough has the lowest level of illiteracy and the highest percentage of students who have finished primary and middle schools, in part because there is a higher than average percentage of private schools, which tend to have better results. The dropout rate, at 7.54%, is better than average.

In 2009, there were 1,737 students receiving special education full or part-time accounting for 4.66% of all special education students in Mexico City. Over 97% of these students get their services from public institutions. However, the borough has limited facilities for adult education, especially for those who do not speak Spanish as their first language or are undereducated. This is problematic due to the influx of indigenous people from rural parts of Mexico.

Private schools:
 * Plantel Azahares of the Sistema Educativo Justo Sierra
 * Colegio Amado Nervo in Colonia Roma Sur
 * Colegio Liceo Mexicano, a private elementary school (Colonia Roma)

Colegio Alemán Alexander von Humboldt previously had a campus at 43 Benjamin G. Hill in Hipódromo Condesa, in what is now a part of Universidad La Salle.

Foreign government operations
The U.S. Embassy, the British Embassy and Japan Embassy is in Colonia Cuauhtémoc, Cuauhtémoc.

Sister boroughs

 * 🇰🇷 Seocho (2020)

title: Cuauhtémoc, Mexico City


text:
Picos de Europa

The Picos de Europa ("Peaks of Europe", also the Picos) are a mountain range extending for about 20 km, forming part of the Cantabrian Mountains in  northern  Spain. The range is situated in the Autonomous Communities of Asturias, Cantabria and Castile and León. The highest peak is Torre de Cerredo, at an elevation of $2,650 m$ (8,690 ft).

Name
A widely accepted origin for the name is that they were the first sight of Europe for ships arriving from the Americas. The name can be traced to Lucio Marineo Sículo, who mentioned the  Rupes Europae in 1530. Ambrosio Morales, chronist of Felipe II of Spain, mentions the Montañas de Europa in 1572. Prudencio de Sandoval calls them the Peñas o Sierras de Europa in 1601.

The origin of the name can be also traced back to ancient times when this mountainous region was inhabited by various peoples, including the Cantabri, an ancient Celtic tribe. The Cantabri were known for their resistance against Roman invasions and their rugged way of life in the mountains.

Geography
The range consists of three major massifs: Central (also known as Urrieles), Eastern (Ándara) and Western (also known as the Picos de Cornión). The Central and Western massifs are separated by the 1.5 km deep Cares Gorge (Garganta del Cares), with the village of Caín at its head. The waters in the Cares mostly arise from cave resurgences. Some of the water in the Cares river is diverted through a hydroelectric scheme, with a canal running in the northern wall of the gorge to Camarmeña.

Almost all of the rock in the Picos is limestone, and glacial action has contributed to create an impressive area of alpine karst. The highest peak is Torre de Cerredo, with an altitude of 2,650 metres at 43.1975°N, -4.85167°W. Many other peaks reach altitudes of over 2,600 m. The area is popular with mountaineers, climbers and mountain walkers. There is a good network of well-established mountain refuges. The best-known climbing site is the Naranjo de Bulnes or Picu Urriellu, in the Urrieles massif which can be considered the most famous climb in Spain.

Vega de Liordes, an enclave in the León sector of Picos de Europa belonging to the municipality of Posada de Valdeón registered -35.8 C on January 7, 2021.

Nature
Cantabrian brown bears (Ursus arctos pyrenaicus) and wolves (Canis lupus signatus) live in the more remote regions. Rebeccos (Cantabrian chamois - Rupicapra pyrenaica parva) are fairly frequently seen (according to a 2006 Ministry of the Environment report, there were around 8,000 sightings that year); choughs and buzzards are common, various eagles and vultures are frequently seen, and there is a diverse butterfly population in the park.

Most of the region is now protected as a single Picos de Europa National Park in Cantabria, Asturias and León provinces of Spain; the Asturian part was Spain's first National Park. Access is via minor roads to each of the three massifs from the north and from the south to the aerial tramway at Fuente Dé and to Caín at the head of the Cares Canyon.

Caves
The Picos de Europa contain many of world's deepest caves, including Torca del Cerro (−1589 m), Sima de la Cornisa (−1507 m), Torca los Rebecos (−1255 m) and Pozo del Madejuno (−1252 m). Discovery of new caves and their exploration still continues.

Gastronomy
The Picos support a dwindling group of shepherds who move up from the valleys in the summer with their sheep, goats, cows, and an occasional pig. The area is famed for its piquant blue cheeses, such as Cabrales cheese and Picón Tresviso Bejes.

title: Picos de Europa


text:
Victoria Park

Victoria Park may refer to:

Australia

 * Victoria Park Nature Reserve, a protected area in Northern Rivers region, New South Wales
 * Victoria Park, Adelaide, a park and racecourse
 * Victoria Park, Brisbane, a public park and former golf course
 * Victoria Park, Melbourne, a football ground
 * Victoria Park railway station, Melbourne
 * Victoria Park, Western Australia, a suburb of Perth
 * Electoral district of Victoria Park
 * Town of Victoria Park local government area
 * Victoria Park railway station, Perth
 * Victoria Park Racecourse, Sydney
 * Victoria Park, Sydney, a park

Canada

 * Victoria Park, Calgary, Alberta
 * Victoria Park (Edmonton), Alberta
 * Victoria Park, New Brunswick, a park in Moncton, New Brunswick
 * Victoria Park, St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador
 * Victoria Park, Halifax, Nova Scotia
 * Victoria Park, Truro, Nova Scotia
 * Victoria Park, Kitchener, Ontario
 * Victoria Park, London, Ontario
 * Victoria Park Avenue, Toronto, Ontario
 * Victoria Park station (Toronto)
 * Victoria Park Collegiate Institute
 * Victoria Park, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island
 * Parc Victoria, Quebec
 * Victoria Park, Regina, Saskatchewan
 * Victoria Park, (Woodstock), Ontario

New Zealand

 * Victoria Park, Auckland, a park
 * Victoria Park, Christchurch, a park
 * Victoria Park, Whanganui, a cricket ground

South Africa

 * Victoria Park, Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape
 * Victoria Park, Queenstown, Eastern Cape
 * Victoria Park, Worcester, Western Cape

Sri Lanka

 * Viharamahadevi Park, formerly Victoria Park, Colombo
 * Victoria Park, Nuwara Eliya, a park

United Kingdom

 * Victoria Park, Aberdeen, a park
 * Royal Victoria Park, Bath, a park
 * Victoria Park, Belfast, a park
 * Victoria Park, Bideford, a park
 * Victoria Park, Dorset
 * Victoria Park Football Ground, Bournemouth, a football ground
 * Victoria Park, Bristol, a park
 * Victoria Park, Buckie, a football ground
 * Victoria Park, Burscough, a football stadium
 * Victoria Park, Cardiff, a park
 * Victoria Park, Dingwall, a football ground
 * Victoria Park, Edinburgh, a park and neighbourhood
 * Victoria Park, Glasgow, a park
 * Victoria Park (Hartlepool), a football ground
 * Victoria Park, Leamington Spa, a park
 * Victoria Park, Leicester, a park
 * Victoria Park, London, a park in Tower Hamlets
 * Victoria Park, Barnet, London, a park
 * Victoria Park, Manchester, a district and a park
 * Victoria Park, Newbury, a park
 * Victoria Park, Plymouth, a park
 * Victoria Park, Portsmouth, a park
 * Victoria Park, Southport, a park
 * Victoria Park, St Helens
 * Victoria Park, Swansea, a park
 * Victoria Park, Swinton, a park
 * Victoria Park, Tipton, a park
 * Victoria Park, Tunstall, a park in Stoke-on-Trent
 * Victoria Park, Warrington
 * Victoria Park, Widnes

Other countries

 * Victoria Park, Hamilton, Bermuda, a park
 * Victoria Park (Kingstown), a football stadium in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
 * Victoria Park (Hong Kong), a park
 * Victoria Park, Wolvega, a horse racing venue in The Netherlands
 * Victoria Park, Los Angeles, California, U.S.
 * Bahadur Shah Park, formerly Victoria Park, a park in Dhaka, Bangladesh
 * Victoria Park, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, U.S.

Other uses

 * Victoria Park (album), by Aaron Powell, 2015
 * Victoria Park (horse), a Canadian thoroughbred racehorse
 * Victoria Park, home football ground of Nelson F.C.
 * Victoria Park Football Club, 1934–1935, now Perth Football Club

title: Victoria Park


text:
User talk:Daniel Quinlan/redirects6b

I added the section heads "Working Point" and "End of working block" to make life a little easier, finding the section I was working on and editing (frequently). I added "The list" and "End of the List" (or whatever I called it) to force a Table of Contents. Is there a way to force a TOC if there are only 1 or 2 sections?

 * -Anthropos 05:10, 9 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I think that I've corrected all the avant gard redirects (and the avantgarde, Avant Garde, etc.). There are an awful lot of avant garde links that need to be changed (the article is at Avant-garde). Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 17:05, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * OK, I've done all the avant garde redirects too (except those on User & Talk pages. I think that it's clean now. Mel Etitis ( Μελ Ετητης ) 00:00, 19 Feb 2005 (UTC)

"Astra" Redirect
What sense of "Astra" were you considering? (see Astra) Courtland 19:07, 2005 Mar 20 (UTC)

I think I inadvertently helped you out
Hi, I was touching up a stub article I did on Billina, when I noticed that one of the pages it linked to was this one - after I figured out what you were trying to do, I realized that I just fixed the problem with billing, though not in the way one would normally suspect...anyway, I'm bored and I'm easily amused right now. Maybe once I get comfortable with redirects I'll do this on occaision. :) StopTheFiling June 30, 2005 06:11 (UTC)

Beverly_Sills - Beverly_Skills
--Jerzy•t 01:47, 14 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Beverly_Sills is a highly notable opera singer & administrator
 * Beverly_Skills appears to be an entirely separate & n-n singer, with a 2-digit Web presence. I killed her LoPbN-tree entry, leaving your page her only rd-lk. Whoops, this makes two!

title: User talk:Daniel Quinlan/redirects6b