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Robert Anderson (Civil War)

Robert Anderson (June 14, 1805 – October 26, 1871) was a United States Army officer during the American Civil War. He was the Union commander in the first battle of the American Civil War at Fort Sumter in April 1861 when the Confederates bombarded the fort and forced its surrender to start the war. Anderson was celebrated as a hero in the North and promoted to brigadier general and given command of Union forces in Kentucky. He was removed late in 1861 and reassigned to Rhode Island, before retiring from military service in 1863. In 1865, he returned to Fort Sumter to again raise the American flag that he had lowered during the 1861 surrender.

Early life and career
Anderson was born at "Soldier's Retreat," the Anderson family estate near Louisville, Kentucky. His father, Richard Clough Anderson Sr. (1750–1826), served in the Continental Army as an aide-de-camp to the Marquis de Lafayette during the American Revolutionary War, and was a charter member of the Society of the Cincinnati; his mother, Sarah Marshall (1779–1854), was a cousin of John Marshall, the fourth Chief Justice of the United States. He graduated from the United States Military Academy (West Point) in 1825, and received a commission as a second lieutenant in the 3rd Regiment of Artillery.

A few months after graduation, he became a private secretary to his older brother Richard Clough Anderson, Jr., who was serving as the US Minister to Gran Colombia. He served in the Black Hawk War of 1832 as a colonel of Illinois volunteers, where he had the distinction of twice mustering Abraham Lincoln in and once out of army service. He also was in charge of transporting Black Hawk to Jefferson Barracks after his capture, assisted by Jefferson Davis.

Returning to regular Army service as a first lieutenant in 1833, he served in the Second Seminole War as an assistant adjutant general on the staff of Winfield Scott, and was promoted to captain in October 1841.

In the Mexican–American War, he participated in the Siege of Vera Cruz, March 9–29, 1847, the Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 17–18, 1847, the Skirmish of Amazoque, May 14, 1847, and Battle of Molino del Rey on September 8, 1847. He was severely wounded at Molino del Rey while assaulting enemy fortifications, for which he received a brevet promotion to major.

Due to his wounds, Anderson was on sick leave of absence during 1847–48. He was then in garrison at Fort Preble, Maine from 1848 to 1849. He then served from 1849 to 1851 as a member of the Board of Officers to devise "A Complete System of Instruction for Siege, Garrison, Seacoast, and Mountain Artillery," which was adopted on May 10, 1851. He then returned to garrison duty at Fort Preble from 1850 to 1853.

From 1855 to 1859, in view of his precarious health and probably also due to his connections to General Winfield Scott, Anderson was assigned to the light duty of inspecting the iron beams produced in a mill in Trenton, New Jersey for Federal construction projects. (While residing in Trenton, Anderson became a Freemason and was a member of Mercer Lodge No. 50.) He eventually received a permanent promotion to major of the 1st Regiment of Artillery in the Regular Army on October 5, 1857. He was the author of Instruction for Field Artillery, Horse and Foot in 1839.

Fort Sumter
In November 1860, Anderson was assigned to command of U.S. forces in and around Charleston, South Carolina. When South Carolina seceded in December 1860, Anderson remained loyal to the Union although he was a native of Kentucky and a former slaveowner. He moved his small garrison from Fort Moultrie, which was indefensible, to the more modern and more defensible Fort Sumter, in the middle of Charleston Harbor. In February 1861, the Confederate States of America was formed and took charge. Confederate President Jefferson Davis ordered for the fort be captured. The artillery attack was commanded by Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard, who had been Anderson's student at West Point. The attack began April 12, 1861, and continued until Anderson, badly outnumbered and outgunned, surrendered the fort on April 13. The battle began the American Civil War. No one was killed in the battle on either side, but one Union soldier was killed and another was mortally wounded during a 50-gun salute to the flag just before the fort was surrendered.

Status as national hero
Anderson's actions in defense of Fort Sumter made him an immediate national hero. He was promoted to brigadier general in the Regular Army, effective May 15. Anderson took the fort's 33-star flag with him to New York City, where he participated in a Union Square patriotic rally that was the largest public gathering in North America until then.

Symbolism of the American flag
The modern meaning of the American flag, according to Harold Holzer in 2007 and Adam Goodheart in 2011, was forged by Anderson's stand at Fort Sumter. Holzer states that New York City:

"responded with a 'feast of the American flag.' Eyewitnesses estimated that as many as 100,000 flags quickly went on display across the city. To punctuate this feast of national colors, New York's graphic artists rushed out patriotic engravings and lithographs depicting avenging soldiers or gowned goddesses, bayonets upthrust, carrying 'The Flag of Our Union' into future battles that, at the time, could only be imagined. Composers dedicated songs like 'Our Country's Flag' to President Lincoln, and adorned their published sheet music with colorful images of resolute soldiers gripping the national banner."

During the war, the flag was used throughout the North to symbolize American nationalism and the rejection of secessionism. Goodheart explained that the flag was transformed into a sacred symbol of patriotism: "Before that day, the flag had served mostly as a military ensign or a convenient marking of American territory ... and displayed on special occasions like the Fourth of July. But in the weeks after Major Anderson's surprising stand, it became something different. Suddenly the Stars and Stripes flew ... from houses, from storefronts, from churches; above the village greens and college quads. ... [T]hat old flag meant something new. The abstraction of the Union cause was transfigured into a physical thing: strips of cloth that millions of people would fight for, and many thousands die for."

Assignments
Anderson then went on a highly successful recruiting tour of the North and was promoted to brigadier general as of May 15, 1861. His next assignment placed him in another sensitive political position as commander of the Department of Kentucky (subsequently renamed the Department of the Cumberland), in a border state that had officially declared neutrality between the warring parties. He started to serve in that position from May 28, 1861. Historians commonly attribute failing health as the reason for his relinquishment of command to Brigadier General William T. Sherman, on October 7, 1861, but a letter from Joshua Fry Speed, Lincoln's close friend, suggests that Lincoln preferred Anderson's removal.

Speed met with Anderson and found him reluctant to implement Lincoln's wishes to distribute rifles to Unionists in Kentucky. Anderson, Speed wrote to Lincoln on October 8, "seemed grieved that [he] had to surrender his command ... [but] agreed that it was necessary and gracefully yielded."

In 1862, Anderson was elected an honorary member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati in which his grandnephew, Ambassador Larz Anderson, was highly active.

Anderson's last military assignment was a brief period as commanding officer of Fort Adams in Newport, Rhode Island, in August 1863. Anderson officially retired from the Army on October 27, 1863 "for Disability resulting from Long and Faithful Service, and Wounds and disease contracted in the Line of Duty," but he continued to serve on the staff of the general commanding the Eastern Department, headquartered in New York City, from October 27, 1863, to January 22, 1869. On February 3, 1865, Anderson was brevetted a major general for "gallantry and meritorious service" in the defense of Fort Sumter.

Later life
After Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox and the effective conclusion of the war, at the behest of Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, Anderson returned to Charleston in uniform. Four years after lowering the 33-star flag in surrender, Anderson raised it in triumph over the recaptured but badly battered Fort Sumter. However, hours after the ceremony of April 14, 1865, John Wilkes Booth assassinated President Lincoln.

After the war, Anderson became a companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. In 1869, he discussed the future of the U.S. Army with Sylvanus Thayer. Afterward, they helped establish the Military Academy's Association of Graduates (AoG).

In 1869 Anderson was reported to have sold his library and moved to Europe, "as half pay would not support his family here". Someone questioning his need informed us that Anderson's half salary as brigadier general was $4,125.

Anderson died in Nice, France in 1871, seeking a cure for his ailments. He was interred at West Point Cemetery.

Family
Anderson's brother, Charles Anderson, served as Governor of Ohio from 1865 to 1866. A second brother, Larz Anderson II was the father of Nicholas Longworth Anderson who served as a general in the Union Army. Nicholas' son, Larz Anderson III, was a diplomat and a leading member of the Society of the Cincinnati.

Another brother, William Marshall Anderson, was a Western explorer and Ohio attorney. A zealous Catholic and Confederate sympathizer, he briefly moved to Mexico during the reign of Emperor Maximilian in hopes of establishing a Confederate colony there. W. Marshall Anderson's son, Thomas M. Anderson, was a brigadier general who fought in the Spanish–American War and Philippine–American War.

In 1845, Anderson married Eliza Bayard Clinch (1828–1905), the daughter of Duncan Lamont Clinch. They were the parents of five children: Marie (1849–1925), Sophie (1852–1934), Eliza, Robert Jr. (1859–1879) and Duncan. Anderson was the great-grandfather of actor Montgomery Clift through his daughter Maria, although this relationship has not been definitively established by genealogical sources. Allegedly, the doctor who delivered Ethel Anderson Clift told her when she was an adult that she was the illegitimate daughter of Maria Anderson and Woodbury Blair, but no documentation exists to verify the relationship. Nonetheless, the legend continues. Virtually all sources that advance this theory reference Ethel's own statements or Clift's biographies.

title: Robert Anderson (Civil War)


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Martha M. Place

Martha M. Place (September 18, 1849 – March 20, 1899) was an American murderer and the first woman to die in the electric chair. She was executed on March 20, 1899, at Sing Sing Correctional Facility for the murder of her stepdaughter Ida Place.

Background
Martha Place was born Martha "Mattie" Garretson on September 18, 1849, in Readington Township, New Jersey, to Ellen (née Wyckoff) and Isaac V. N. Garretson. Place was struck in the head by a sleigh at age 23; her brother claimed that she never completely recovered and that the accident left her mentally unstable. Before relocating to New York, Place lived in New Jersey, working as a dressmaker. She married a man named Wesley Savacool and had a son, Ross Savacool. Wesley left the relationship when Ross was three and, finding herself in hardship, Martha gave Ross up for adoption to the Ashenbach family of Newark, who had recently lost a son. They renamed him William.

In 1893 Martha went to work as a housekeeper for a man named William W. Place, at 598 Hancock Street in Brooklyn, whom she would marry later that year.

Place had a daughter named Ida from a previous marriage. William married Martha to help him raise his daughter, although it was later rumored that Martha was jealous of Ida. William called the police at least once after his wife threatened to kill Ida.

Murder
On the evening of February 7, 1898, William Place arrived at his Brooklyn, New York, home and was attacked by Martha, who was wielding an axe. William escaped and ran for help. When the police arrived, they found Martha Place in critical condition. She was lying on the floor with clothes over her head and gas from burners was escaping into the room. Upstairs they discovered the body of 17-year-old Ida Place lying on a bed, blood coming from her mouth. William was an amateur photographer, which involved the use of acid, and the murderer had thrown this acid in Ida's eyes. The evidence later indicated Ida Place died from asphyxiation. Martha Place was hospitalized and arrested.

Trial
Place proclaimed her innocence while awaiting trial. One contemporary newspaper report described the defendant in this way:

"She is rather tall and spare, with a pale, sharp face. Her nose is long and pointed, her chin sharp and prominent, her lips thin and her forehead retreating. There is something about her face that reminds one of a rat's, and the bright but changeless eyes somehow strengthen the impression."

Martha Place was found guilty of the murder of her stepdaughter Ida and sentenced to death. Her husband was a key witness against her.

Execution
The governor of the state of New York, Theodore Roosevelt, was asked to commute Place's death sentence, but he refused. Having never executed a woman in the electric chair, those responsible for carrying out the death warrant devised a new way to place the electrodes upon her, deciding to slit her dress and place the electrode on her ankle. Edwin F. Davis was the executioner. According to the reports of witnesses, she died instantly.

Martha Place was buried in the family cemetery plot in East Millstone, New Jersey, without religious observances.

Although Place was the first woman to die in the electric chair, she was the third to be sentenced to die by this method, the first two being serial killer Lizzie Halliday (1894 conviction commuted and sent to an asylum) and Maria Barbella (sentenced in 1895 and acquitted the next year).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Martha M. Place


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Alhambra (disambiguation)

The Alhambra is a palace in Granada, Spain. Al-Ḥamrāʾ means "the red one" in Arabic.

Alhambra may also refer to:

United States

 * Alhambra, Missouri, a ghost town in Stoddard County
 * Alhambra, Phoenix, an urban village in Phoenix, Arizona
 * Alhambra, California, a city in Los Angeles County
 * Alhambra, Illinois, a village in Madison County
 * Alhambra, Louisiana, an unincorporated community
 * Alhambra, Montana, a community in Jefferson County

Other places

 * Alhambra, Alberta, in Canada
 * Alhambra, Ciudad Real, a municipality in Ciudad Real, Castile-La Mancha, Spain

Europe

 * Alhambra-Maurice Chevalier, a music hall in Paris (1866–1967)
 * Alhambra (Paris), music hall in Paris, opened 2008
 * Alhambra, Blackpool, an entertainment complex in Blackpool, Lancashire, England, from 1899 to 1903
 * Alhambra Copenhagen (1855–1870), a large entertainment-complex, built in 1857 in Copenhagen, Denmark
 * Alhambra Theatre, Bradford, West Yorkshire, England, opened in 1914
 * Alhambra Theatre, Dunfermline, Scotland, opened in 1922
 * Alhambra Theatre Glasgow, opened on 19 December 1910
 * Alhambra Theatre, Manchester, in Higher Openshaw, Manchester, England, was opened in 1910
 * Alhambra Theatre of Variety, London

North America

 * Alhambra Theatre (El Paso, Texas), opened 1914
 * Alhambra Theatorium, Evansville, Indiana
 * The Harlem Alhambra, Manhattan, New York
 * Alhambra Dinner Theatre, Jacksonville, Florida
 * Alhambra Arena, sporting venue, Philadelphia
 * Alhambra Theatre (Sacramento), California
 * Alhambra Theatre (San Francisco), California

Other theatres

 * Alhambra Cinema (Israel), an Art Deco building in Jaffa, Tel Aviv, Israel

Entertainment

 * Alhambra (EP), a 1996 EP by The Tea Party
 * Alhambra (board game), a popular German board game
 * Alhambra (video game), the Xbox Live Arcade version of the aforementioned board game

People

 * Miirrha Alhambra (1890–1957), stage name of the French-born pianist Pauline Joutard
 * Alhambra Nievas (born 1983), former Spain women's rugby union international and a current rugby union referee

Other uses

 * Alhambra (1855), a British ship wrecked in 1888
 * Alhambra (solitaire), a card game
 * Alhambra Decree, a royal decree issued in 1492 ordering the expulsion or conversion of all the Jews in Spain
 * Alhambra International Guitar Competition, a classical guitar competition founded by Alhambra Guitarras
 * Alhambra Publishing, a Swedish publishing house
 * Alhambra Shopping Centre in Barnsley, England
 * Cervezas Alhambra, a Spanish brand of beer
 * SEAT Alhambra, a multi-purpose vehicle made by Spanish car maker SEAT
 * The Alhambra, original title of the book Tales of the Alhambra by Washington Irving
 * Order of Alhambra, a Catholic fraternal order
 * Alhambra, a former folly by William Chambers that stood in Kew Gardens, London

title: Alhambra (disambiguation)


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Litchfield, Connecticut

Litchfield is a town in and former county seat of Litchfield County, Connecticut, United States. The population was 8,192 at the 2020 census. The town is part of the Northwest Hills Planning Region. The boroughs of Bantam and Litchfield are located within the town. There are also three unincorporated villages: East Litchfield, Milton, and Northfield. Northfield, located in the southeastern corner of Litchfield, is home to a high percentage of the Litchfield population.

History
Originally called Bantam township, Litchfield incorporated in 1719. The town derives its name from Lichfield, in England.

In 1751 it became the county seat of Litchfield County, and at the same time the borough of Litchfield (incorporated in 1879) was laid out. From 1776 to 1780, two depots for military stores and a workshop for the Continental army were maintained, and the leaden statue of George III., erected in Bowling Green (New York City), in 1770, and torn down by citizens on July 9, 1776, was cut up and taken to Litchfield, where, in the house of Oliver Wolcott, it was melted into bullets for the American army by Wolcott's daughter and sister.

During the American Revolution, several prominent Loyalists were held prisoner in the town, including William Franklin, son of Benjamin Franklin, and David Mathews, Mayor of New York City.

In 1784, the first law school in the United States, the so-named Litchfield Law School, was established by judge and legal scholar Tapping Reeve. Prior to its establishment, Reeve had accepted several legal apprentices since he had settled there in 1773, but saw such demand for his expertise that he formally opened the one-room school within a decade. During the school's fifty-year history it would accept more than 1,100 students, including Aaron Burr, Jr., Horace Mann, and Levi Woodbury, the first justice of the US Supreme Court to attend law school.

Litchfield was also home to a pioneering institution of young women's education, the Litchfield Female Academy, founded in 1792 by Sarah Pierce.

Litchfield has a very rich history. The Litchfield Historical Society, located in the center of town, contains a wide variety of items with historical importance to the town.

Geography
Located southwest of Torrington, Litchfield also includes part of Bantam Lake. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 56.8 square miles (147.1 km2), of which 56.1 square miles (145.2 km2) is land and 0.7 square mile (1.9 km2)  (1.3%) is water.

Litchfield is about 95 mi from Central Park in New York, approximately 50 mi from the Hudson River Valley, and about 40 mi from the nearest sea coast, on Long Island Sound.

Principal communities

 * Bantam (borough)
 * East Litchfield (unincorporated village)
 * Litchfield (borough / town center)
 * Milton (unincorporated village)
 * Northfield (unincorporated village)

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 8,316 people, 3,310 households, and 2,303 families residing in the town. The population density was 148.4 PD/sqmi. There were 3,629 housing units at an average density of 64.7 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 96.99% White, 0.75% Black or African American, 0.23% Native American, 0.47% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.46% from other races, and 1.09% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.56% of the population.

There were 3,310 households, out of which 31.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.9% were married couples living together, 7.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.4% were non-families. 26.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 2.98.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.2% under the age of 18, 3.6% from 18 to 24, 25.6% from 25 to 44, 28.6% from 45 to 64, and 17.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.3 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $58,418, and the median income for a family was $70,594. Males had a median income of $50,284 versus $31,787 for females. The per capita income for the town was $30,096. About 2.8% of families and 4.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.6% of those under age 18 and 5.2% of those age 65 or over.

Government and infrastructure
The 1812 Litchfield County Jail, the town's oldest public building, is in Litchfield. While controlled by the Connecticut state government, the facility historically held inmates convicted of minor offenses. Governor of Connecticut Lowell P. Weicker Jr. ordered the facility closed for financial reasons in 1993. It was converted into the McAuliffe Manor, a substance abuse treatment center for women operated by Naugatuck Valley HELP Inc., but in 2009 the contract between Naugatuck Valley HELP Inc. and the state expired, leading to the closure of McAuliffe Manor.

Transportation
U.S. Route 202 is the main east-west road connecting Bantam and Litchfield center to the city of Torrington and New Milford, Connecticut. Route 63 runs north-south through the town center. The Route 8 expressway runs along the town line with Harwinton. It can be accessed from the town center via Route 118. The town is also served by buses from the Northwestern Connecticut Transit District connecting to the city of Torrington. The Shepaug Valley Railroad opened a Litchfield terminal in 1872, but passenger service ended in 1930 and freight service in 1948.

Education
Litchfield Public Schools operates public schools. Litchfield High School is the area high school. Students may also attend Wamogo Regional Six to study agriculture, located in Litchfield, or Oliver Wolcott Technical School, located in Torrington.

Litchfield Center School hosts children in grades K–3, with a Pre-K program available. Students then move on to Litchfield Intermediate School, where they will remain through sixth grade. Students then finish their Litchfield Public School career at Litchfield High School.

Litchfield is also home to Forman School, a private boarding school for students in grades 9–12/PG with learning differences such as ADD/ADHD and dyslexia.

Notable people

 * Andrew Adams, political leader during and after the Revolutionary War
 * Josephine Cables Aldrich (1843–1917), spiritualist, Theosophist, editor, and publisher
 * Ethan Allen, one of the founders of Vermont
 * Catharine Beecher, educator
 * Henry Ward Beecher, Congregationalist clergyman
 * Lyman Beecher, Presbyterian minister
 * Mary Charlotte Ward Granniss Webster Billings, writer, evangelist, and missionary
 * Solyman Brown, creator of the first dental school
 * Adelaide Deming, painter
 * Dick Ebersol, television executive
 * Caroline Fitzgerald (1865–1911), poet
 * Eugene Fodor, travel writer
 * Jerome Fuller, chief justice of Minnesota Territorial Supreme Court, 1851–1852
 * Elizabeth Gilbert, author of Eat, Pray, Love
 * Jane Grant, writer
 * F. Norton Goddard, Republican politician
 * Benjamin Hanks (1755–1824), goldsmith and instrument maker
 * Uriel Holmes, US congressman
 * Isabella Beecher Hooker, women's suffrage activist
 * Susan Saint James, actress
 * Daniel Albion "Jumping Jack" Jones (1860–1936), professional baseball pitcher
 * Madeleine L'Engle, author
 * Thomas McKnight, painter
 * Charles B. McVay III, US naval officer
 * Phineas Miner, US congressman
 * Joseph Robert Morris, entrepreneur, investor, mayor of Houston, Texas; born and raised in Milton
 * Samuel S. Phelps, US senator from Vermont
 * Sarah Pierce, teacher, educator and founder of the Litchfield Female Academy
 * John Pierpoint, Chief Justice of the Vermont Supreme Court
 * Robert Pierpoint, Lieutenant Governor of Vermont
 * Austin M. Purves Jr., 20th century artist and educator
 * Tapping Reeve, lawyer, judge, and law educator
 * Mary Livingston Ripley, horticulturist, entomologist, and photographer
 * Richard Skinner, governor of Vermont
 * Roger Skinner, judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of New York
 * Charles Smith, Arizona lawman and friend of Wyatt Earp
 * Elihu Hubbard Smith, physician and man of letters, one of the Hartford Wits
 * Harriet Beecher Stowe, abolitionist and author
 * Benjamin Tallmadge, American military officer during the Revolutionary War
 * Frederick A. Tallmadge, lawyer and New York politician
 * Frank Livingston Underwood (1844–1918), banker, copper magnate, railroad founder
 * Emily Noyes Vanderpoel (1842–1939), painter, writer, philanthropist
 * Louis Fenn Wadsworth (1825–1908), early baseball pioneer
 * Paul Winter, saxophonist
 * Oliver Wolcott Sr., signer of the U.S. Declaration of Independence
 * Oliver Wolcott Jr., US Secretary of the Treasury, 24th governor of Connecticut
 * Oliver Wolcott Jr., US Secretary of the Treasury, 24th governor of Connecticut

On the National Register of Historic Places

 * Capt. William Bull Tavern – CT 202 (added July 30, 1983)
 * Henry B. Bissell House – 202 Maple St. (added October 7, 1990)
 * J. Howard Catlin House – 14 Knife Shop Rd. (added September 6, 1993) (Since demolished)
 * Litchfield Historic District – Roughly both sides of North and South Sts. between Gallows Lane and Prospect St. (added December 24, 1968)
 * Milton Center Historic District (added March 14, 1978)
 * Humaston Brook State Park (added May 8, 1997)
 * Oliver Wolcott House – South St. (added December 11, 1971)
 * Rye House – 122–132 Old Mount Tom Rd. (added September 10, 2000)
 * Tapping Reeve House and Law School – South St. (added November 15, 1966)
 * Topsmead – 25 and 46 Chase Rd. (added December 19, 1993)

title: Litchfield, Connecticut


text:
L'Age D'Or (record label)

L’Age d’Or was a German independent music label based in Hamburg, which has played an important role in creating the Hamburger Schule and was the parent label of Ladomat 2000.

The label was founded in 1988 by Carol von Rautenkranz and Kolossale Jugend guitarist Pascal Fuhlbrügge, who together had already been organizing concerts in the post-NDW music scene of Hamburg for some time. They were joined by Thorsten "Taucher" Weßel from the band Ostzonensuppenwürfelmachenkrebs, who later became a co-owner. Fuhlbrügge left the label in 1993. In 1994 Ladomat 2000 was launched by Charlotte Goltermann as a sublabel to also release electronic music. Both labels went out of business in 2007.

The releases on L'Age D'Or were formative for the Hamburger Schule. Ladomat 2000 reflected this scene's growing interest in rave, techno and house music. Tocotronic, Die Sterne and the house music project Whirlpool Productions reached some commercial success in the mid-nineties.

title: L'Age D'Or (record label)


text:
Talk:Gary Snyder

Possible Vandalism
Is there vandalism in footnote number 2?

Petr Kopecký, "Nature Writing in American Literature: Inspirations, Interrelations, and Impacts of California Authors on the Deep Ecology Movement" The Trumpeter, Volume 22, Number 2 (2006) ISSN 0832-6193 "[George] Sessions' numerous references to Snyder have not passed unnoticed by other scholars. He Is also a drunk. In his influential study The Idea of Wilderness (1991), Max Oelschlaeger titled the section on Snyder 'Poet Laureate of Deep Ecology.' What is even more striking is that in the footnote, Oelschlaeger confesses that 'Sessions in particular has influenced me to see and read Snyder as the poet laureate of deep ecology.'" — Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.211.206.7 (talk) 13:36, 19 September 2018 (UTC)

 * Indeed, that was vandalism. I have removed it.  Amazing that it took four years. Thanks! DoctorMatt (talk) 22:35, 8 December 2022 (UTC)

Did Gary write this?
This reads like an advertisement for Snyder. Totemtree (talk) 03:38, 16 June 2022 (UTC)

 * Gary is 92 and notably shy about public appearances. it seems incredibly unlikely he cares enough to self-promote on a wiki page. The page might not be overly critical, but author's pages rarely are and he's both a prominent figure in american poetry and has no real controversy (that i know of) surrounding him.  Charlesthe50th, '''  Talk  01:07, 25 August 2022 (UTC)

Please add the website link
Hello Doctor Matt, please add the website link to the reference information for reference #2 that we discussed on my talk page. Thanks. Red Rose 13 (talk) 02:51, 9 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Done. DoctorMatt (talk) 05:29, 9 December 2022 (UTC)

Japan and India
There is a lengthy section titled Japan and India. I’m not aware of what may have been deleted, for whatever reason. But there’s now next to nothing about India there. This seems odd, because Snyder: published an essay titled “Passage to More than India”; wrote a book (albeit a brief one) titled Passage Through India (both, of course, about the trip there with Joanne Kyger, Allen Ginsberg and Peter Orlovsly); and also has shared thoughts and various insights drawn from the trip. And, as well, Joanne Kyger in her book The Japan and India Journals 1960–1964 (republished under the title Strange Big Moon) discusses the trip. Snyder has also made references to India in some of his interviews.

Anyone have any idea what the situation with this article section is?Joel Russ (talk) 21:19, 21 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Well the section was originally just called "Japan" until 2008 (found through WikiBlame). I don't know anything about Gary Snyder; I'm only at this page due to a number of coincidences involving the "What links here" feature. . Graham87 (talk) 06:58, 13 February 2024 (UTC)

Sugesting an image addition
I'd suggest an image of the youthful Gary Snyder be inserted somewhere in the biographical sections of the article. Possibly near the middle of the Japan and India section, which extends roughly through his 25-40-year-old period.

Snyder public recognition began when it became public knowledge that, in the novel The Dharma Bums (1958), Jack Kerouac had based the protagonist (Japhy Ryder) on his new friend Gary Snyder. As well, in his writing around that time, Alan Watts mentioned Gary as an admired friend. By the early 1960s, through these things and through the publication of his poetry, Snyder had become influential in certain American circles, and to some degree notable.

From the early '60s to the mid '70s, Snyder's poetry & essays had been collected in several books, his poetry & articles had been published in numerous popular & specialized magazines, and interviews with him were showing up frequently here & there. He was awarded a Pulitzer Prize for one of his poetry books in the mid '70s.

Apart from his work as a University instructor, I'd think his greatest public visibility was probably between about 1965 and 1985. Snyder felt he'd been misguidedly identified with the "Beat Generation" writers; still, some commentators have seemed to see him mainly as a figure in movements of the '50s & '60s. I think that's a limiting view, but Snyder had already made his mark by the time he was 40.Joel Russ (talk) 19:46, 14 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gary Snyder


text:
Gomel Region

Gomel Region or Homieĺ Region, also known as Gomel Oblast or Homyel Voblasts (Гомельская вобласць; Гомельская область), is one of the regions of Belarus. Its administrative center is Gomel. The total area of the region is 40400 km2. As of 2024, it has a population of 1,338,617.

Its largest settlements include: Gomel, Mazyr, Zhlobin, Svyetlahorsk, Rechytsa, Kalinkavichy, Rahachow and Dobrush.

Both the Gomel Region and the Mogilev Region suffered severely from the Chernobyl disaster. The Gomel Province borders the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone in places, and parts of it have been designated as mandatory or voluntary resettlement areas as a result of the radioactive contamination.

Administrative territorial entities
Gomel Region comprises 21 districts and 2 city municipalities. The districts have 278 selsovets, and 17 cities and towns.

Districts of Gomel Region

 * Aktsyabrski District
 * Brahin District
 * Buda-Kashalyova District
 * Chachersk District
 * Dobrush District
 * Gomel District
 * Kalinkavichy District
 * Karma District
 * Khoyniki District
 * Lyelchytsy District
 * Loyew District
 * Mazyr District
 * Narowlya District
 * Pyetrykaw District
 * Rahachow District
 * Rechytsa District
 * Svyetlahorsk District
 * Vyetka District
 * Yelʹsk District
 * Zhlobin District
 * Zhytkavichy District

Geography
Pripyatsky National Park covers 2% of the territory of the region. Eleven wildlife preserves of national importance cover 2.1% of the region.

The extreme southern point of Belarus is located in Gomel Region, on the Dnieper River to the south of the urban-type settlement of Kamaryn, Brahin District.

The 3rd largest lake in Belarus, Lake Chervonoye, is located in Gomel Region, Zhytkavichy District.

Gomel Region borders Mogilev Region on the north, Brest Region on the west, Russia (Bryansk Oblast) on the east and Ukraine (Chernihiv Oblast, Kyiv Oblast and Zhytomyr Oblast) on the south and southeast.

Economy
The processing industry is represented by alcohol, alcoholic beverage, wine, beer and soft drinks, vegetable-drying and canning industries. Mazyr is home to one of Belarus' major oil refineries.

Transport
Gomel Region is a major transport hub. Major railway junctions include Gomel, Zhlobin, and Kalinkavichy. Gomel is located at the intersection of the highways 95E Odesa – Kyiv – St. Petersburg, Bakhmach – Vilnius, and M10 Bryansk – Brest. River transport is also common in the region with regular navigation on the Pripyat, Dnieper and Berezina rivers.

Tourism
The number of travel agencies in Gomel Region has grown from 21 in 2000 to 54 in 2010. Main tourist destinations of the region are Pripyatsky National Park and Gomel.

title: Gomel Region


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Academic art

Academic art, academicism, or academism, is a style of painting and sculpture produced under the influence of European academies of art. This method extended its influence throughout the Western world over several centuries, from its origins in Italy in the mid-16th century, until its dissipation in the early 20th century. It reached its apogee in the 19th century, after the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. In this period, the standards of the French Académie des Beaux-Arts were very influential, combining elements of Neoclassicism and Romanticism, with Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres a key figure in the formation of the style in painting. The success of the French model led to the founding of countless other art academies in several countries. Later painters who tried to continue the synthesis included William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Thomas Couture, and Hans Makart among many others. In sculpture, academic art is characterized by a tendency towards monumentality, as in the works of Auguste Bartholdi and Daniel Chester French.

The academies were established to replace medieval artists' guilds and aimed to systematize the teaching of art. They emphasized the emulation of established masters and the classical tradition, downplaying the importance of individual creativity, valuing instead collective, aesthetic and ethical concepts. By helping raise the professional status of artists, the academies distanced them from artisans and brought them closer to intellectuals. They also played a crucial role in organizing the art world, controlling cultural ideology, taste, criticism, the art market, as well as the exhibition and dissemination of art. They wielded significant influence due to their association with state power, often acting as conduits for the dissemination of artistic, political, and social ideals, by deciding what was considered "official art". As a result, they faced criticism and controversy from artists and others on the margins of these academic circles, and their restrictive and universalist regulations are sometimes considered a reflection of absolutism.

Overall, academicism has had a significant impact on the development of art education and artistic styles. Its artists rarely showed interest in depicting the everyday or profane. Thus, academic art is predominantly idealistic rather than realistic, aiming to create highly polished works through the mastery of color and form. Although smaller works such as portraits, landscapes and still-lifes were also produced, the movement and the contemporary public and critics most valued large history paintings showing moments from narratives that were very often taken from ancient or exotic areas of history and mythology, though less often the traditional religious narratives. Orientalist art was a major branch, with many specialist painters, as were scenes from classical antiquity and the Middle Ages. Academic art is also closely related to Beaux-Arts architecture, as well as classical music and dance, which developed simultaneously and hold to a similar classicizing ideal.

Although production of academic art continued into the 20th century, the style had become vacuous, and was strongly rejected by the artists of set of new art movements, of which Realism and Impressionism were some of the first. In this context, the style is often called "eclecticism", "art pompier" (pejoratively), and sometimes linked with "historicism" and "syncretism". By World War I, it had fallen from favor almost completely with critics and buyers, before regaining some appreciation since the end of the 20th century.

The first art academies in Renaissance Italy

The first academy of art was founded in Florence by Cosimo I de' Medici, on 13 January 1563, under the influence of the architect Giorgio Vasari, who called it the Accademia e Compagnia delle Arti del Disegno (Academy and Company for the Arts of Drawing) as it was divided in two different operative branches. While the company was a kind of corporation that every working artist in Tuscany could join, the academy comprised only the most eminent artists of Cosimo's court, and had the task of overseeing all Florentine artistic activities, including teaching, and safeguarding local cultural traditions. Among the founding members were Michelangelo, Bartolomeo Ammannati, Agnolo Bronzino and Francesco da Sangallo. In this institution, students learned the "arti del disegno" (a term coined by Vasari) and heard lectures on anatomy and geometry. The Accademia's fame spread quickly, to the point that, within just five months of its founding, important Venetian artists such as Titian, Salviati, Tintoretto and Palladio applied for admission, and in 1567, King Philip II of Spain consulted it about plans for El Escorial.

Another academy, the Accademia de i Pittori e Scultori di Roma (Academy of Painters and Sculptors of Rome), better known as the Accademia di San Luca (named after the patron saint of painters, St. Luke), was founded about a decade later in Rome. It served an educational function and was more concerned with art theory than the Florentine one, attaching great importance to attending theoretical lectures, debates and drawing classes. Twelve academics were immediately appointed as teachers, establishing a series of disciplinary measures for studies and instituting a system of awards for the most capable students.

In 1582, the painter and art instructor Annibale Carracci opened his very influential Accademia dei Desiderosi (Academy of the Desirous) in Bologna without official support; in some ways, this was more like a traditional artist's studio, but that he felt the need to label it as an "academy" demonstrates the attraction of the idea at the time.

The emergence of art academies in the 16th century was due to the need to respond to new social demands. Several states, which were moving towards absolutism, realized that it was necessary to create an art that specifically identified them and served as a symbol of civic unity, and was also capable of symbolically consolidating the status of their rulers. In this process, the Catholic Church, then the greatest political force and social unifier in Europe, began to lose some of its influence as a result of the greater secularization of societies. Sacred art, by far the largest field of artistic expression throughout the Middle Ages, came to coexist with an expanding profane art, derived from classical sources, which had been experiencing a slow revival since the 12th century, and which, by the time of the Renaissance, had been established as the most prestigious cultural reference and model of quality.

This re-emergence of classicism required artists to become more cultured, in order to competently transpose this reference to the visual arts. At the same time, the old system of artistic production, organized by guilds—class associations of an artisanal nature, linked more to mechanical crafts than to intellectual erudition—began to be seen as outdated and socially unworthy, as artists began to desire equality with the intellectual versed in the liberal arts, since art itself began to be seen not only as a technical task, as it had been for centuries, but mainly as a way of acquiring and transmitting knowledge. In this new context, painting and sculpture began to be seen as theorizable, just as other arts such as literature and especially poetry were already. However, if on the one hand the artists did rise socially, on the other they lost the security of market insertion that the guild system provided, having to live in the uncertain expectation of individual protection by some patron.

Standardization: French academicism and visual arts

If Italy was to be credited with founding this new type of institution, France was responsible for taking the model to a first stage of great order and stability. The country's first attempts to establish academies like the Italian ones also took place in the 16th century, during the reign of King Henry III, especially through the work of the poet Jean-Antoine de Baïf, who founded an academy linked to the French Crown. Like its Italian counterparts, it was primarily philological-philosophical in nature, but it also worked on concepts relating to the arts and sciences. Although it developed intense activity with regular debates and theoretical production, defending classical principles, it lacked an educational structure and had a brief existence.

The Accademia di San Luca later served as the model for the French Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture (Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture), founded in 1648 by a group of artists led by Charles Le Brun, and which later became the Académie des Beaux-Arts (Academy of Fine Arts). Its objective was similar to the Italian one, to honor artists "who were gentlemen practicing a liberal art" from craftsmen, who were engaged in manual labor. This emphasis on the intellectual component of artmaking had a considerable impact on the subjects and styles of academic art.

After an ineffective start, the Académie royale was reorganized in 1661 by King Louis XIV, whose aim was to control all the country's artistic activity, and in 1671, it came under the control of First Minister of State Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who confirmed Le Brun as director. Together, they made it the main executive arm of a program to glorify the king's absolutist monarchy, definitively establishing the school's association with the State and thereby vesting it with enormous directive power over the entire national art system, which contributed to making France the new European cultural center, displacing the hitherto Italian supremacy. But while for the Italian Renaissance, art was also a survey of the natural world, for Le Brun it was above all the product of an acquired culture, inherited forms and an established tradition.

During this period, academic doctrine reached the peak of its rigor, comprehensiveness, uniformity, formalism and explicitness, and according to art historian Moshe Barasch, at no other time in the history of art theory has the idea of perfection been more intensely cultivated as the artist's highest goal, with the production of the Italian High Renaissance as the ultimate model. Thus, Italy continued to be an invaluable reference, so much so that a branch was established in Rome in 1666, the French Academy, with Charles Errard as its first director.

At the same time, a controversy occurred among the members of the Académie, which would come to dominate artistic attitudes for the rest of the century. This "battle of styles" was a conflict over whether Peter Paul Rubens or Nicolas Poussin was a suitable model to follow. Followers of Poussin, called "poussinistes", argued that line (disegno) should dominate art, because of its appeal to the intellect, while followers of Rubens, called "rubenistes", argued that color (colore) should be the dominant feature, because of its appeal to emotion. The debate was revived in the early 19th century, under the movements of Neoclassicism typified by the art of Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, and Romanticism typified by the artwork of Eugène Delacroix. Debates also occurred over whether it was better to learn art by looking at nature, or at the artistic masters of the past.

Transformations and diffusion of the French model

At the end of Louis XIV's reign, the academic style and teachings strongly associated with his monarchy began to spread throughout Europe, accompanying the growth of the urban nobility. A series of other important academies were formed across the continent, inspired by the success of the French Académie: the Akademie der Bildenden Künste in Nuremberg (1662), the Akademie der Künste in Berlin (1696), the Akademie der bildenden Künste in Vienna (1698), the Royal Drawing Academy in Stockholm (1735), the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in Madrid (1752), the Imperial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg (1757), and the Accademia di Belle Arti di Brera in Milan (1776), to name a few. In England, this was the Royal Academy of Arts, which was founded in 1768 with a mission "to establish a school or academy of design for the use of students in the arts".

The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts in Copenhagen, founded in 1754, may be taken as a successful example in a smaller country, which achieved its aim of producing a national school and reducing the reliance on imported artists. The painters of the Danish Golden Age of roughly 1800–1850 were nearly all trained there, and drawing on Italian and Dutch Golden Age paintings as examples, many returned to teach locally. The history of Danish art is much less marked by tension between academic art and other styles than is the case in other countries.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, the model expanded to America, with the Academy of San Carlos in Mexico being founded in 1783, the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in the United States in 1805, and the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in Brazil in 1826. Meanwhile, back in Italy, another major center of irradiation appeared, Venice, launching the tradition of urban views and "capriccios", fantasy landscape scenes populated by ancient ruins, which became favorites of noble travelers on the Grand Tour.

Early challenges: the Enlightenment and Romanticism

Even with its wide spread, the academic system began to be seriously challenged through the actions of intellectuals linked to the Enlightenment. For them, academicism had become an outdated model, excessively rigid and dogmatic; they criticized the methodology, which they believed produced an art that was merely servile to ancient examples, and condemned the institutional administration, which they considered corrupt and despotic. However, an important Enlightenment figure like Diderot subscribed to much of the academic ideal, supported the hierarchy of genres (see below), and said that "the imagination creates nothing". At the end of the 18th century, following the turmoil of the French Revolution, a real campaign was mounted against the teaching of the Academy, which was identified as a symbol of the Ancien Régime. In 1793, the painter Jacques-Louis David, closely linked to the revolutionaries, took over the direction of the artistic affairs of the new republic and, after complying with the request of numerous artists dissatisfied with the institution's bureaucracy and system of privileges, dissolved the Parisian academies and all the other royal academies in the countryside. However, the extinction of the old schools was temporary, as a Committee for the Arts was subsequently organized, which led to the founding in 1795 of a new institution, the Institut de France, which included an artistic section and was responsible for reorganizing the national arts system.

The challenges to academicism in France, however, were more nominal than real. Art courses returned to operating in broadly the same way as before, the hierarchy of genres was resurrected, the awards and salons were maintained, the branch in Rome remained active, and the State continued to be the biggest sponsor of art. Quatremère de Quincy, the secretary of the new Institut, which had been born as an apparatus of revolutionary renewal, paradoxically believed that art schools served to preserve traditions, not to found new ones. The greatest innovations he introduced were the idea of reunifying the arts under an atmosphere of egalitarianism, eliminating honorary titles for members and some other privileges, and his attempt to make administration more transparent, eminently public and functional. In reinterpreting the Platonic theory that the arts are questionable because they are imperfect imitations of an abstract ideal reality, he considered this idea only in a moral sphere, politicized and republicanized it, relating the truth of the arts to that of social institutions. He also claimed that the political reality of the republic was a reflection of the republic of the arts that he sought to establish. But beyond the ideas, in practice, authoritarianism, which was one of the reasons given for the extinction of the royal academies, continued to be practiced in the republican administration.

Another attack on the academic model came from the early Romantics, at the turn of 18th to 19th centuries, who preached a practice centered on individual originality and independence. Around 1816, the painter Théodore Géricault, one of the exponents of French Romanticism, stated: "These schools keep their pupils in a state of constant emulation... I note with sadness that, since the establishment of these schools, there has been a great effect: they have given service to thousands of mediocre talents... Painters enter there too young, and therefore the traces of individuality that survive the Academy are imperceptible. One can see, with real chagrin, about ten or twelve compositions every year that are practically identical in execution, because in their quest for perfection, they lose their originality. One way of drawing, one type of color, one arrangement for all systems..."

Stylistic trends and contradictions
Since the onset of the Poussiniste-Rubeniste debate, many artists worked between the two styles. In the 19th century, in the revived form of the debate, the attention and the aims of the art world became to synthesize the line of Neoclassicism with the color of Romanticism. One artist after another was claimed by critics to have achieved the synthesis, among them Théodore Chassériau, Ary Scheffer, Francesco Hayez, Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps, and Thomas Couture. William-Adolphe Bouguereau, a later academic artist, commented that the trick to being a good painter is seeing "color and line as the same thing". Thomas Couture promoted the same idea in a book he authored on art method—arguing that whenever one said a painting had better color or better line it was nonsense, because whenever color appeared brilliant it depended on line to convey it, and vice versa; and that color was really a way to talk about the "value" of form.

Historicism

Another development during this period, called historicism, included adopting historic styles or imitating the work of historic artists and artisans in order to show the era in history that the painting depicted. In the history of art, after Neoclassicism which in the Romantic era could itself be considered a historicist movement, the 19th century included a new historicist phase characterized by an interpretation not only of Greek and Roman classicism, but also of succeeding stylistic eras, which were increasingly respected. This is best seen in the work of Baron Jan August Hendrik Leys, a later influence on James Tissot. It is also seen in the development of the Neo-Grec style. Historicism is also meant to refer to the belief and practice associated with academic art that one should incorporate and conciliate the innovations of different traditions of art from the past.

Allegory in art

The art world also grew to give increasing focus on allegory in art. Theories of the importance of both line and color asserted that through these elements an artist exerts control over the medium to create psychological effects, in which themes, emotions, and ideas can be represented. As artists attempted to synthesize these theories in practice, the attention on the artwork as an allegorical or figurative vehicle was emphasized. It was held that the representations in painting and sculpture should evoke Platonic forms, or ideals, where behind ordinary depictions one would glimpse something abstract, some eternal truth. Hence, Keats' famous musing "Beauty is truth, truth beauty". The paintings were desired to be an "idée", a full and complete idea. Bouguereau is known to have said that he would not paint "a war", but would paint "War". Many paintings by academic artists are simple nature allegories with titles like Dawn, Dusk, Seeing, and Tasting, where these ideas are personified by a single nude figure, composed in such a way as to bring out the essence of the idea.

Idealism

Stylistically, academic art cultivated the ideal of perfection and at the same time selective imitation of reality (mimesis), which had existed since Aristotle. With perfect mastery of color, light and shadow, forms were created in a quasi-photorealistic manner. Some paintings have a "polished finish" where no brushstroke can be recognized on the finished work. After the oil sketch, the artist would produce the final painting with the academic "fini", changing the painting to meet stylistic standards and attempting to idealize the images and add perfect detail. Similarly, perspective was constructed geometrically on a flat surface and was not really the product of sight.

The trend in art was also towards greater idealism, which is contrary to realism, in that the figures depicted were made simpler and more abstract—idealized—in order to be able to represent the ideals they stood in for. This would involve both generalizing forms seen in nature, and subordinating them to the unity and theme of the artwork.

Hierarchy of genres

The representation of the various emotions was codified in detail by academicism and the artistic genres themselves were subjected to a scale of prestige. Because history and mythology were considered plays or dialectics of ideas, a fertile ground for important allegory, using themes from these subjects was regarded as the most serious form of painting. This hierarchy of genres, originally created in the 17th century, was highly valued, where history painting (also known as the "grande genre")—classical, religious, mythological, literary, and allegorical subjects—was placed at the top, followed by "minor genres"—portraiture, genre painting, landscapes, and still-lifes.

The historical genre, the most appreciated, included works that conveyed themes of an inspirational and ennobling nature, essentially with an ethical background, consistent with the tradition founded by masters such as Michelangelo, Raphael and Leonardo da Vinci. Paul Delaroche is a typifying example of French history painting and Benjamin West of the British-American vogue for painting scenes from recent history. Paintings by Hans Makart are often larger than life historical dramas, and he combined this with a historicism in decoration to dominate the style of 19th-century Vienna culture. Portraits included large-format depictions of people, suitable for their public glorification, but also smaller pieces for private use. Everyday scenes, also known as genre scenes, portrayed common life in a symbolic manner, landscapes offered perspectives of idealized virgin nature or city panoramas, and still-lifes consisted of groupings of diverse objects in formal compositions.

The justification for this hierarchization lay in the idea that each genre had an inherent and specific moral force. Thus, an artist could convey a moral principle with much more power and ease through a historical scene than, for example, through a still-life. Furthermore, following Greek concepts, it was believed that the highest form of art was the ideal representation of the human body, hence landscapes and still-lifes, in which man did not appear, had little prestige. Finally, with a primarily social and didactic function, academic art favored large works and large-format portraits, more suitable for viewing by large groups of spectators and better suited to decorating public spaces.

All of these trends were influenced by the theories of the German philosopher Hegel, who held that history was a dialectic of competing ideas, which eventually resolved in synthesis.

Maturation: an increasingly bourgeois art form

Napoleon was the "swan song" of the concept of art as a vehicle of moral values and a mirror of virtue. He actively patronized and employed artists to portray his personal glory, that of his Empire and of his political and military conquests. After him, the fragmentation and weakening of ideals began to become visible and irreversible. With the cooling of the libertarian ardor of the first Romantics, with the final failure of Napoleon's imperialist project, and with the popularization of an eclectic style that blended Romanticism and Neoclassicism, adapting them to the purposes of the bourgeoisie, which became one of the greatest sponsors of the arts, the emergence of a general feeling of resignation appeared, as well as a growing prevalence of individual bourgeois taste against idealistic collective systems. Soon the preferences of this social class, now so influential, penetrated higher education and became worthy objects of representation, changing the hierarchy of genres and proliferating portraits and all the so-called minor genres, such as everyday scenes and still-lifes, which became more pronounced as the century progressed.

The bourgeoisie's support for academies was a way of demonstrating education and acquiring social prestige, bringing them closer to the cultural and political elites. Finally, Neo-Gothic revivalism, the development of a taste for the picturesque as an autonomous aesthetic criterion, the revival of Hellenistic eclecticism, the progress of medievalist, orientalist and folkloric studies, the growing participation of women in art production, the valorisation of handicrafts and applied arts, opened up other fronts of appreciation for the visual arts, finding other truths worthy of appreciation that had previously been neglected and relegated to the margins of official culture. As a result of this great cultural transformation, the academic educational model, in order to survive, had to incorporate some of these innovations, but it broadly maintained the established tradition, and managed to become even more influential, continuing to inspire not only Europe, but also America and other countries colonized by Europeans, throughout the 19th century.

Another factor in this academic revival, even in the face of a profoundly changing scenario, was the reiteration of the idea of art as an instrument of political affirmation by nationalist movements in several countries.

Apotheosis: Parisian salons and further influence

The 19th century was the heyday of the academies, in the sense that their output became extremely well accepted among a much wider—but often less cultured and less demanding—public, giving academic art a popularity as great as that enjoyed today by cinema, and with an equally popular theme, covering everything from traditional historical subjects to comic vignettes, from sweet and sentimental portraits to medievalist or picturesque scenes from exotic Eastern countries, something unthinkable during the Ancien Régime.

By the second half of the 19th century, academic art had saturated European society. Exhibitions were held often, with the most popular exhibition being the Paris Salon, and beginning in 1903, the Salon d'Automne. These salons were large scale events that attracted crowds of visitors, both native and foreign. As much a social affair as an artistic one, 50,000 people might visit on a single Sunday, and as many as 500,000 could see the exhibition during its two-month run. Thousands of paintings were displayed, hung from just below eye level all the way up to the ceiling in a manner now known as "Salon style". A successful showing at the salon was a seal of approval for an artist, making his work saleable to the growing ranks of private collectors. Bouguereau, Alexandre Cabanel and Jean-Léon Gérôme were leading figures of this art world.

During the reign of academic art, the paintings of the Rococo era, previously held in low favor, were revived to popularity, and themes often used in Rococo art such as Eros and Psyche were popular again. The academic art world also admired Raphael, for the idealism of his work, in fact preferring him over Michelangelo.

England
In England, the influence of the Royal Academy grew as its association with the State consolidated. In the first half of the 19th century, the Royal Academy already exercised direct or indirect control over a vast network of galleries, museums, exhibitions and other artistic societies, and over a complex of administrative agencies that included the Crown, parliament and other state departments, which found their cultural expression through their relations with the academic institution. The Royal Academy Summer Exhibition gained momentum at the time and has been staged annually without interruption to the present day.

As the century progressed, challenges to this primacy began to emerge, demanding that its relations with the government be clarified, and the institution began to pay more attention to market aspects in a society that was becoming more heterogeneous and cultivating multiple aesthetic tendencies. Subsidiary schools were also opened in various cities to meet regional demands. By the middle of the 19th century, the Royal Academy had already lost control over British artistic production, faced with the multiplication of independent creators and associations, but continued, facing internal tensions, to try to preserve it. Around 1860, it was again stabilized through new strategies of monopolizing power, incorporating new trends into its orbit, such as promoting the previously ignored technique of watercolor, which had become vastly popular, accepting the admission of women, requiring new members in an enlarged membership to renounce their affiliation to other societies and reforming its administrative structure to appear as a private institution, but imbued with a civic purpose and a public character. In this way, it managed to administer a significant part of the British artistic universe throughout the 19th century, and despite the opposition of societies and groups of artists such as the Pre-Raphaelites, it managed to remain a disciplinary, educational and consecrating agency of the greatest importance, able to largely accompany the progress of modernism, contradicting a common view that academies are invariably reactionary.

Germany

In Germany, the academic spirit initially encountered some resistance to its full implementation. Already at the end of the 18th century, theorists such as Baumgarten, Schiller and Kant had promoted the autonomy of Aesthetics through the concept of "art for art's sake", and had emphasized the importance of the artist's self-education, against the massification imposed by civilization and its institutions, seeing the collectivizing structure and impersonal nature of academia as a threat to their desires for creative freedom, individualistic inspiration, and absolute originality. In this vein, art criticism began to take on distinctly sociological colors.

Part of this reaction was due to the activity of the Nazarenes, a group of painters who sought a return to a Renaissance style and medieval practices in a spirit of austerity and fraternity. Under their influence, masterclasses were introduced—paradoxically within the academies themselves—which sought to group promising students around a master, who was responsible for their instruction, but with much more concentrated attention and care than in the more generalist French system, based on the assumption that such more individualized treatment could provide a stronger and deeper education. This method was first instituted at the Dusseldorf Academy and progressed slowly, but over the course of the 19th century, it became common to all German academies, and was also imitated in other northern European countries. Interesting results of the masterclasses were the beginning of a tradition of large-scale mural painting and the steering of the local avant-garde along less iconoclastic lines than the Parisian ones.

United States
The influence of the Royal Academy extended across the ocean and strongly determined the foundation and direction of American art from the end of the 18th century until the middle of the 19th century, when the country began to establish its cultural independence. Some of the leading local artists studied in London under the guidance of the Royal Academy and others, who settled in England, continued to exert influence in their home country through regular submissions of works of art. This was the case with John Singleton Copley, the dominant influence in his country until the beginning of the 19th century, and also with Benjamin West, who became one of the leaders of the English neoclassical-romantic movement and one of the main European names of his generation in the field of history painting. He made a number of fellow disciples, such as Charles Willson Peale, Gilbert Stuart and John Trumbull, and his influence was similar to that of Copley on American painting.

The first academy to be created in the United States was the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, founded in 1805 and still active today. The initiative came from the painter Charles Peale and the sculptor William Rush, along with other artists and traders. Its progress was slow, and its peak was only reached at the end of the 19th century, when it began to receive significant financial support, opened a gallery and formed its own collection, becoming an anti-modernist bastion. The most decisive step toward the formation of an American academic culture was taken when the National Academy of Design was founded in 1826 by Samuel F. B. Morse, Asher B. Durand, Thomas Cole, and other artists dissatisfied with the orientation of the Pennsylvania Academy. It soon became the most respected artistic institution in the country. Its method followed the traditional academic model, focusing on drawing from classical and live models, in addition to offering lectures on anatomy, perspective, history and mythology, among other subjects. Cole and Durand were also the founders of the Hudson River School, an aesthetic movement that began a great painting tradition, lasting for three generations, with a remarkable unity of principles, and which presented the national landscape in an epic, idealistic and sometimes fanciful light. Its members included Albert Bierstadt and Frederic Edwin Church, the most celebrated landscape painters of their generation.

In the field of sculpture, however, the greatest influence came from the Italian academies, especially through the example of Antonio Canova, who was the main figure of European neoclassicism, educated in part at the Venice Academy and in Rome. Italy offered a historical and cultural backdrop of irresistible interest to sculptors, with priceless monuments, ruins and collections, and working conditions were infinitely superior to those of the New World, where there was a shortage of both marble and capable assistants to help the artist in the complex and laborious art of stone carving and bronze casting. Horatio Greenough was just the first in a large wave of Americans to settle between Rome and Florence. The most notable of these was William Wetmore Story, who after 1857 assumed leadership of the American colony that had been created in Rome, becoming a reference for all newcomers. Despite their stay in Italy, the group continued to be celebrated in their country, and their artistic achievements received continuous press coverage until the neoclassical vogue dissipated in North America from the 1870s onwards. By this time, the United States had already established its culture and created the general conditions to promote consistent and high-level local sculptural production, adopting an eclectic synthesis of styles. These sculptors also strongly absorbed the influence of the French Académie, several of them were educated there, and their production populated most public spaces and the facades of major American buildings, with works of strong civic and great formalism that became icons of local culture, such as the statue of Abraham Lincoln by Daniel Chester French and the memorial to Robert Gould Shaw by Augustus Saint-Gaudens.

In 1875, the Art Students League took over as the leading American art academy, founded by students inspired by the model of the French Académie, establishing the guidelines for national art education until World War II, while also opening its classes to women. Offering better working conditions than its Parisian model, the League was created by artists who saw in the French academic environment an appeal to culture and civilization and believed that this model would discipline the national democratic impulse, transcending regionalisms and social differences, refine the taste of capitalists and contribute to elevating society and improving its culture.

Other countries
Academic art not only held influence in Western Europe and the United States, but also extended its influence to other countries. The artistic environment of Greece, for instance, was dominated by techniques from Western academies from the 17th century onward: this was first evident in the activities of the Ionian School, and later became especially pronounced with the dawn of the Munich School. This was also true for Latin American nations, which, because their revolutions were modeled on the French Revolution, sought to emulate French culture. An example of a Latin American academic artist is Ángel Zárraga of Mexico. Academic art in Poland flourished under Jan Matejko, who established the Kraków Academy of Fine Arts. Many of these works can be seen in the Gallery of 19th-Century Polish Art at Sukiennice in Kraków.

Teaching principles and cursus
The academies had as a basic assumption the idea that art could be taught through its systematization into a fully communicable body of theory and practice, minimizing the importance of creativity as an entirely original and individual contribution. Instead, they valued the emulation of established masters, venerating the classical tradition, and adopted collectively formulated concepts that had not only an aesthetic character, but also an ethical origin and purpose.

Young artists spent four years in rigorous training. In France, only students who passed an exam and carried a letter of reference from a noted professor of art were accepted at the academy's school, the École des Beaux-Arts (School of Fine Arts). Drawings and paintings of the nude, called "académies", were the basic building blocks of academic art and the procedure for learning to make them was clearly defined. First, students copied prints after classical sculptures, becoming familiar with the principles of contour, light, and shade. The copy was believed crucial to the academic education; from copying works of past artists one would assimilate their methods of artmaking. To advance to the next step, and every successive one, students presented drawings for evaluation.

If approved, they would then draw from plaster casts of famous classical sculptures. Only after acquiring these skills were artists permitted entrance to classes in which a live model posed. Painting was not taught at the École des Beaux-Arts until after 1863. To learn to paint with a brush, the student first had to demonstrate proficiency in drawing, which was considered the foundation of academic painting. Only then could the pupil join the studio of an academician and learn how to paint. Throughout the entire process, competitions with a predetermined subject and a specific allotted period of time measured each student's progress.

The most famous art competition for students was the Prix de Rome, whose winner was awarded a fellowship to study at the Académie française's school at the Villa Medici in Rome for up to five years. To compete, an artist had to be of French nationality, male, under 30 years of age, and single. He had to have met the entrance requirements of the École des Beaux-Arts and have the support of a well-known art teacher. The competition was grueling, involving several stages before the final one, in which 10 competitors were sequestered in studios for 72 days to paint their final history paintings. The winner was essentially assured a successful professional career.

As noted, a successful showing at the Salon, the exhibition of work founded by the École des Beaux-Arts, was a seal of approval for an artist. Artists petitioned the hanging committee for optimal placement "on the line", or at eye level. After the exhibition opened, artists complained if their works were "skyed", or hung too high. The ultimate achievement for the professional artist was election to membership in the Académie française and the right to be known as an academician. This depended on his consistency in exhibitions at the salons and the permanence of his production at a level of excellence.

Women artists

One effect of the move to academies was to make training more difficult for women artists, who were excluded from most academies until the last half of the 19th century. This was partly because of concerns over the perceived impropriety presented by nudity during training. In France, for example, the powerful École des Beaux-Arts had 450 members between the 17th century and the French Revolution, of which only 15 were women. Of those, most were daughters or wives of members. In the late 18th century, the French Academy resolved not to admit any women at all. As a result, there are no extant large-scale history paintings by women from this period, though some women like Marie-Denise Villers and Constance Mayer made their name in other genres such as portraiture.

In spite of this, there were important steps forward for female artists. In Paris, the Salon became open to non-Academic painters in 1791, allowing women to showcase their work in the prestigious annual exhibition. Additionally, women were more frequently being accepted as students by famous artists such as Jacques-Louis David and Jean-Baptiste Greuze.

The emphasis in academic art on studies of the nude remained a considerable barrier for women studying art until the 20th century, both in terms of actual access to the classes and in terms of family and social attitudes to middle-class women becoming artists.

Decline and the rise of modernism
Academic art was first criticized for its use of idealism, by Realist artists such as Gustave Courbet, as being based on idealistic clichés and representing mythical and legendary motives while contemporary social concerns were being ignored. Another criticism by Realists was the "false surface" of paintings—the objects depicted looked smooth, slick, and idealized—showing no real texture. The Realist Théodule Ribot worked against this by experimenting with rough, unfinished textures in his painting.

Stylistically, the Impressionists, who advocated quickly painting outdoors exactly what the eye sees and the hand puts down, criticized the finished and idealized painting style. Although academic painters began a painting by first making drawings and then painting oil sketches of their subject, the high polish they gave to their drawings seemed to the Impressionists tantamount to a lie, who disavowed the devotion to mechanical techniques.

Realists and Impressionists also defied the placement of still-life and landscape at the bottom of the hierarchy of genres. Most Realists and Impressionists and others among the early avant-garde who rebelled against academism were originally students in academic ateliers. Claude Monet, Gustave Courbet, Édouard Manet, and even Henri Matisse were students under academic artists. Other artists, such as the Symbolist painters and some of the Surrealists, were kinder to the tradition. As painters who sought to bring imaginary vistas to life, these artists were more willing to learn from a strongly representational tradition. Once the tradition had come to be looked on as old-fashioned, the allegorical nudes and theatrically posed figures struck some viewers as bizarre and dreamlike.

As modern art and its avant-garde gained more power, academic art was further denigrated, and seen as sentimental, clichéd, conservative, non-innovative, bourgeois, and "styleless". The French referred derisively to the style of academic art as L'art pompier (pompier means "fireman") alluding to the paintings of Jacques-Louis David (who was held in esteem by the academy), which often depicted soldiers wearing fireman-like helmets. It also suggests half-puns in French with pompéien ("from Pompeii") and pompeux ("pompous"). The paintings were called "grandes machines", which were said to have manufactured false emotion through contrivances and tricks.

Faced with the dissatisfaction of a growing number of artists excluded from the official salons of the French Academy, in 1863 Emperor Napoleon III established the Salon des Refusés (Salon of the Refused), which is considered one of the initial milestones of modernism. Even with this concession, the public reaction was negative, and an anonymous review published at the time summarizes the general attitude: "This exhibition is sad and grotesque... save for one or two questionable exceptions, there is not a single work that deserves the honor of being shown in the official galleries. There is even something cruel about this exhibition, people laugh as if everything was nothing more than a farce."

Following the example of Courbet, who in 1855 had opened a solo exhibition he called the Pavillon du Réalisme (Pavilion of Realism), in 1867 Manet, rejected from the official Salon, exhibited independently, and six years later a group of Impressionists founded the Salon des Indépendants (Salon of Independents). As a result of these initiatives, the art market began to open up to alternative schools, while dealers for new creators and private societies began aggressive campaigns to publicize their own artists, opening up various exhibition spaces to capture the interest of the bourgeois consumer public. Independent critics and literati also played an important role in shifting the economic and social center of gravity of the art system, protecting and promoting various non-academic artists and providing a kind of informal public education through the publication of articles in the press, which became a major forum for artistic debate, and one with a wide reach. In this process, the official institution of the Academy, by then renamed the École des Beaux-Arts and having severed its connection with the government, began to lose ground rapidly, beginning its decline as a consecrating and educational institution.

Complete denigration and fall into obscurity

British art critic Clive Bell, linked to the Bloomsbury Group of English modernism, stated in 1914 that, by the middle of the 19th century, art had "died", losing all its aesthetic interest, and even tradition had ceased to exist. This denigration of academic art reached its peak through the writings of American art critic Clement Greenberg who stated in 1939 that all academic art is "kitsch", in the sense of banal, commercialist, and tried to associate academicism with the problems of industrial capitalism, in addition to linking a new concept of "good taste" with the ethics of left-wing, anti-bourgeois political radicalism. For him, the avant-garde was positive because it was an affective expression of a libertarian social conscience, and was therefore truer and freer, which was repeated ad infinitum afterwards, following the logic: academic = reactionary = bad, versus avant-garde = radical = good.

Several other influential critics, such as Herbert Read and Ernst Gombrich, devoted great efforts to breaking away from traditional academic standards. In all matters of teaching, not just in art teaching, great importance was given to creativity as the starting point for the learning process, preaching the abandonment of rules and formalisms, and aligning themselves with the proposals of educators and educational philosophers such as Maria Montessori and Jean-Ovide Decroly. Even several of the most important modern artists, such as Kandinsky, Klee, Malevich and Moholy-Nagy, dedicated themselves to creating schools and formulating new theories for art education based on these ideas, most notably the Bauhaus, founded in Weimar, Germany, in 1919 by Walter Gropius. For modernists, creativity was an innate faculty of perception and imagination, possessed by all people, and the less it was influenced by theories and norms, the richer and more fertile it would be. In this context, art education simply aimed to provide the means for this free creativity, guided by feelings and emotions, to be expressed materially as a work of art, a unique and original form that had its own syntax and did not depend on previous references.

Mannerist, Baroque, Rococo and neoclassical academic production managed to pass relatively unscathed by modernist criticism and secure its place in history, but eclectic academic trends of the second half of the 19th century were ridiculed and devalued to the point that, throughout the 20th century, most of these works were discarded from private collections, saw their market prices plummet and were removed from display in museums, relegated to oblivion in their storerooms. By the 1950s, all the last practitioners of the old academicism had been cast into obscurity. More than that, pure opposition to academicism had become one of the main cohesive forces of the modern movement, and the only thing that interested critics linked to the avant-garde was the avant-garde itself.

Critical recovery
Despite the widespread discredit into which academicism fell, several researchers throughout the 20th century undertook the study of the academic phenomenon. Art historian Paul Barlow stated that despite the wide dissemination of modernism at the beginning of the 20th century, the theoretical bases of its rejection of academicism were surprisingly little explored by its proponents, forming above all a kind of "anti-academic myth", more than a consistent critique. Of all those engaged in this study, Nikolaus Pevsner was perhaps the most important, describing in the 1940s the history of academies on an epic scale, but focusing on the institutional and organizational aspects, disconnecting them from the aesthetic and geographical ones.

Many authors agree that the birth of modernism can be described as the end of collective values and the denial of art as essentially a vehicle for moral principles. It is true that moralizing and historical works continued to be produced throughout the 20th century, but with a completely different impact, when in the Victorian period morality had come to mean above all chastity. Modernism has also been described as responsible for a process of pulverizing hierarchies and for the beginning of the reign of individualism and subjectivity in art, in a much deeper way than had already been suggested by the Romantics or even by the Mannerists much earlier, creating a multiplicity of personal aesthetics that were not consolidated into a common and uniform language, with little or no concern for inserting production into an organized system or creating socially engaged art. They are even accused of having practiced their own version of the elitist dictatorship that they condemned in academicism.

With the goals of Postmodernism in giving a fuller, more sociological and pluralistic account of history, academic art has been brought back into history books and discussion. Since the early 1990s, the creation of academic art has even experienced a limited resurgence through the Classical Realist atelier movement. In museums and art galleries, L'art pompier (a term supporters mostly avoid) has also enjoyed something of a critical revival, partly caused by the Musée d'Orsay in Paris, where it is displayed on more equal terms with the Impressionists and Realist painters of the period. The opening of this museum in 1986 did not go without heated debate in France, as it was seen by some critics as a rehabilitation of academicism, or even "revisionism". The art historian André Chastel, however, considered as early as 1973 that there were "nothing but advantages in replacing a global judgment of disapproval, the legacy of old battles, with a quiet and objective curiosity." Some other institutional agents of this rescue are the Dahesh Museum of Art in the United States, which specializes in academic art of the 19th and 20th centuries, as well as the Art Renewal Center, also based in the United States and dedicated to promoting academicism as a basis for the qualified training of future masters. Additionally, the art is gaining a broader appreciation by the public at large, and whereas academic paintings once would only fetch a few hundreds of dollars in auctions, some now fetch millions.

Major artists
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Austria

 * Hans Canon (1829–1885), painter
 * Hans Makart (1840–1884), painter
 * Viktor Tilgner (1844–1896), sculptor

Belgium

 * Georges Croegaert (1848–1923), painter
 * Jacob Jacobs (1812–1879), painter
 * Jan August Hendrik Leys (1815–1869), painter
 * Karel Ooms (1845–1900), painter
 * Eugène Siberdt (1851–1931), painter
 * Alfred Stevens (1823–1906), painter
 * Gustave Wappers (1803–1874), painter

Brazil

 * Victor Meirelles (1832–1903), painter
 * Pedro Américo (1843–1905), painter
 * Rodolfo Amoedo (1857-1941), painter

Canada

 * William Brymner (1855–1925), painter
 * Robert Harris (1849–1919), painter
 * Paul Kane (1810–1871), painter
 * Cornelius Krieghoff (1815–1872), painter
 * Paul Peel (1860–1892), painter
 * Suzor-Coté (1869–1937), painter and sculptor

Croatia

 * Vlaho Bukovac (1855–1922), painter
 * Robert Frangeš-Mihanović (1872–1940), sculptor
 * Oton Iveković (1869–1939), painter
 * Mato Celestin Medović (1857–1920), painter
 * Ivan Meštrović (1883–1962), sculptor
 * Ivan Rendić (1849–1932), sculptor

Czech Republic

 * Václav Brožík (1851–1901), painter
 * Vojtěch Hynais (1854–1925), painter

Estonia

 * Johann Köler (1826–1899), painter
 * August Weizenberg (1837–1921), sculptor
 * Amandus Adamson (1855–1929), sculptor

Finland

 * Akseli Gallen-Kallela (1865–1931), painter

France

 * Alfred Agache (1843–1915), painter
 * Louis-Ernest Barrias (1841–1905), sculptor
 * Paul Baudry (1828–1886), painter
 * Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse (1824–1887), sculptor
 * Leon Bonnat (1833–1922), painter
 * William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825–1905), painter
 * Gustave Boulanger (1824–1888), painter
 * Louis René Boulanger (1860–1917), painter
 * Charles Edward Boutibonne (1816–1897), painter
 * Charles Joshua Chaplin (1825–1891), painter
 * Pierre Auguste Cot (1837–1883), painter
 * Thomas Couture (1815–1879), painter
 * Alexandre Cabanel (1823–1889), painter
 * Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps (1803–1860), painter
 * Paul Delaroche (1797–1856), painter
 * Delphin Enjolras (1857–1945), painter
 * Alexandre Falguière (1831–1900), sculptor
 * Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824-1904), painter and sculptor
 * Jean-Jacques Henner (1829–1905), painter
 * Auguste Alexandre Hirsch (1833–1912), painter and lithographer
 * Paul Jamin (1853–1903), painter
 * Armand Laroche (1826–1903), painter
 * Jean-Paul Laurens (1838–1921), painter and sculptor
 * Jules Joseph Lefebvre (1836–1911), painter
 * Marius Jean Antonin Mercie (1845-1916), sculptor
 * Hugues Merle (1822–1881), painter
 * Emile Munier (1840–1895), painter
 * Léon Bazile Perrault (1832–1908), painter
 * Georges Rochegrosse (1859–1938), painter
 * Lionel-Noël Royer (1852–1926), painter
 * Louis-Frederic Schützenberger (1825–1903), painter
 * Guillaume Seignac (1870–1924), painter
 * Joseph-Noël Sylvestre (1847–1926), painter
 * Auguste Toulmouche (1829–1890), painter

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Germany

 * Anselm Feuerbach (1829–1880), painter
 * Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1805–1874), painter
 * Franz von Lenbach (1836–1904), painter
 * Karl von Piloty, painter
 * Anton von Werner, painter

Hungary

 * Károly Lotz (1833–1904), painter
 * Gyula Benczúr, painter

India

 * Raja Ravi Varma, painter
 * M. V. Dhurandhar, painter and educator
 * Archibald Herman Müller, painter
 * Hemendranath Majumdar (1894–1948), painter

Ireland

 * Albert Power (1881–1945), sculptor

Italy

 * Eugene de Blaas (1843–1931), painter
 * Francesco Hayez (1791–1882), painter
 * Domenico Morelli (1823–1901), painter

Latvia

 * Janis Rozentāls (1866–1917), painter
 * Vilhelms Purvītis (1872–1945), painter

Netherlands

 * Ary Scheffer, painter

Peru

 * Carlos Baca-Flor (1869–1941), painter
 * Federico del Campo (1837–1923), painter
 * Daniel Hernández Morillo (1856–1932), painter
 * Francisco Laso (1823–1869), painter
 * Juan Lepiani (1864–1932), painter
 * Albert Lynch (1860–1950), painter
 * Ignacio Merino (1817–1876), painter

Poland

 * Władysław Czachórski (1850–1911), painter
 * Jan Matejko, painter
 * Henryk Siemiradzki, painter
 * Pantaleon Szyndler, painter

Russia

 * Karl Briullov, painter
 * Fyodor Bruni, painter
 * Alexander Ivanov, painter
 * Boris Kustodiev, painter
 * Konstantin Makovsky, painter
 * Carl Timoleon von Neff, painter

Serbia

 * Uroš Predić, painter
 * Paja Jovanović (1859–1857), painter

Slovenia

 * Ivana Kobilca (1861–1926), painter

Spain

 * Mariano Fortuny y Marsal, painter
 * Tomás Povedano, painter

Sweden

 * Julius Kronberg, painter
 * Georg von Rosen, painter

Switzerland

 * Charles Gleyre, painter
 * Fritz Zuber-Buhler (1822–1896), painter

United Kingdom

 * Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, painter
 * Sir Charles Lock Eastlake, painter
 * Sir Alfred Gilbert, sculptor
 * John William Godward, painter
 * Frederick Goodall, painter
 * Edwin Henry Landseer, painter and sculptor
 * Frederic Leighton, 1st Baron Leighton, painter and sculptor
 * Albert Moore, painter
 * Sir Alfred Munnings, painter
 * Sir Edward John Poynter, painter
 * Sir Frank Dicksee, painter and illustrator
 * Alfred Stevens, sculptor
 * George Frederic Watts (1817–1904), painter

Uruguay

 * Juan Manuel Blanes (1830–1901), painter
 * }

title: Academic art


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