text:
Talk:Martín Fierro

"moreno"
I'm a little unhappy with my own use of "black" to translate "moreno", but I can't think of a better choice. Also, I am at a total loss for a way to render "gaucho matrero" (Borges's words, not Hernández's) into English. A "matrero" is literally a killer, and the word suggests a thug. "Gaucho matrero" is not an uncommon turn of phrase in Argentine Spanish. We have our equivalent in the cliche western outlaw, but the word "outlaw" is wrong, with its specific implication of being a person to be freely hunted and denied the protection of the law for his past crimes. -- Jmabel 20:53, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC) -
 * Moreno y matrero:

I) Moreno: en Argentina, hasta inicios de s XX se llamaba así -era la forma amable de hacerlo- a la población de evidente origen melanoafricano (casi toda esta población había desaparecido a fines de los 70 XIX, o se había mixogenizado con los caucásicos), moreno viene de moro,moros y este del latín maurii al parecer derivado de una palabra púnica. "Morenos" era el nombre de un regimiento militar del s XIX, constituido precísamente por descendientes de melanoafricanos que habían sido traidos esclavizados a América (entiendase: el continente americano -las "Américas"-), y que en Argentina se destacaron por participar en las guerras de la independencia.  En Argentina del s XIX el moreno era muy querido y respetado por la mayoría de la población, y despreciado (por obvio racismo, entre algunos), en el caso del Martín Fierro se nota esa ambigüedad,  el gaucho Martín Fierro (sujeto quizás real) agrede inicialmente a un moreno, se baten a duelo, mata a ese moreno en duelo...y luego, el bello libro gaucho, concluye con una payada con otro moreno (hermano del asesinado) en la cual Martín Fierro reconoce su culpa.

II) Matrero: era la denominación equivalente a bandido o fuera de la ley que se les daba a los gauchos (en muchísimas ocasiones de un modo arbitrario), un "matrero" podía ó no ser tenido por "killer", se le consideraba "matrero" por el sólo hecho de "estar fuera de la ley".

 * From the online Diccionario de la Real Academia
 * 4. Argent., Bol., Chile, Perú y Urug. Fugitivo, vagabundo, que buscaba el campo para escapar de la justicia. Ú. t. c. s. Jclerman 15:48, 25 October 2005 (UTC)

Por lo demás, quizás sea bueno recordar (siempre en el idioma original) el inicio del extenso poema que es el Martín Fierro:
 * '''Aquí me pongo a cantar/

'''al compás de la vigüela/ '''que al hombre que lo desvela/ '''una pena extraordinaria/ '''como el ave solitaria/ con el cantar se consuela.

José Hernández citado por El Gaucho José.

'improv battle'?
In the Plot section. What is that? If it means "improvised", it should be spelled out, but even then, I'm not clear as to what is intended. Myles325a (talk) 10:34, 3 September 2011 (UTC)
 * It was a bad translation. Fixed. It means a singing duel, where to poets/singers improvise in a duel to see who does best. It's a 19th century South American country-side custom. The singer is called Payador (a kind of minstrel). There is an article on it in Spanish in Wikipedia: es:Payada. -- Alexf(talk) 11:14, 3 September 2011 (UTC)

Wrong Classification
It appears as a "movie" when is retreived to other pages such as Facebook. This page is about the "book". Stratogustav (talk) 00:34, 9 March 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Martín Fierro


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1987 Irish general election

The 1987 Irish general election to the 25th Dáil was held on Tuesday, 17 February, four weeks after the dissolution of the 24th Dáil on 20 January by President Patrick Hillery, on the request of Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald. A continuing crisis over public finance and a rejection of the budget had led to the Labour Party withdrawing from the Fine Gael–led coalition government. The general election took place in 41 Dáil constituencies throughout Ireland for 166 seats in Dáil Éireann, the house of representatives of the Oireachtas. There were minor amendments to constituency boundaries under the Electoral (Amendment) Act 1983.

The 25th Dáil met at Leinster House on 10 March to nominate the Taoiseach for appointment by the president and to approve the appointment of a new government of Ireland. Charles Haughey was appointed Taoiseach, forming the 20th government of Ireland, a minority single-party Fianna Fáil government.

Campaign
The 1987 general election was precipitated by the withdrawal of the Labour Party from the Fine Gael–led government on 20 January 1987. The reason was a disagreement over budget proposals. Rather than attempt to press on with the government's agenda, the Taoiseach and leader of Fine Gael, Garret FitzGerald, sought a dissolution of the Dáil. An unusually long period of four weeks was set for the campaign.

Fianna Fáil's campaign involved a refusal to make any definite commitments; however, it attempted to convince the electorate that the country would be better under Fianna Fáil. Charles Haughey's attitudes toward Northern Ireland and the Anglo-Irish Agreement were both attacked. However, the campaign was mostly fought on economic issues.

The Labour Party decided against any pre-election pact, particularly with Fine Gael. The Progressive Democrats (PD), founded only two years earlier, surpassed Labour as the third-biggest political party in the Dáil. Although the majority of the PD party consisted of Fianna Fáil defectors, it mainly took seats from Fine Gael.

Results

 * }
 * Notes:
 * Independents include Independent Fianna Fáil (7,720 votes, 1 seat) and the Tax Reform League (3,832 votes).
 * Changes in numbers of seats for each party are shown relative to the previous election in November 1982.

Although opinion polls had suggested otherwise, Fianna Fáil once again failed to win an overall majority. The Progressive Democrats did exceptionally well in their first general election, becoming the third-biggest party in the Dáil. Fine Gael lost many seats, mostly to the PDs. The Labour Party fell to its lowest share of the vote since 1933, but managed to salvage 12 seats, more than expected, including that of its leader Dick Spring, who saved his seat by just four votes.

Government formation
Fianna Fáil formed the 20th government of Ireland, a minority government, with Charles Haughey returning as Taoiseach. Haughey was nominated as Taoiseach with the votes of his own party, the support of Independent Fianna Fáil TD Neil Blaney and the abstention of Independent TD Tony Gregory. That left him with just half of votes cast. Ceann Comhairle Seán Treacy exercised his casting vote in favour of the nomination of Haughey. The Fianna Fáil government of 1987 to 1989 was the last time to date that a government composed only of members of one party has been formed in Ireland.

Dáil membership changes
The following changes took place at the election:
 * 17 outgoing TDs retired
 * 1 vacant seat at election time
 * 147 outgoing TDs stood for re-election (also Tom Fitzpatrick, the outgoing Ceann Comhairle, who was automatically returned)
 * 127 of those were re-elected
 * 20 failed to be re-elected
 * 38 successor TDs were elected
 * 32 were elected for the first time
 * 6 had previously been TDs
 * There were 6 successor female TDs, with the total remaining unchanged at 14
 * There were changes in 32 of the 41 constituencies contested

Where more than one change took place in a constituency, the concept of successor is an approximation for presentation only.

Seanad election
The Dáil election was followed by an election to the 18th Seanad.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1987 Irish general election


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The Eagle and Child

The Eagle and Child, nicknamed "the Bird and Baby", is a pub in St Giles', Oxford, England, owned by the Ellison Institute of Technology and previously operated by Mitchells & Butlers as a Nicholson's pub. The pub had been part of an endowment belonging to University College since the 17th century. It has associations with the Inklings writers' group which included J. R. R. Tolkien and C. S. Lewis. In 2005, 25 other pubs in the United Kingdom had the same name.

History

The first record of the pub's name is from 1684, and is variously said to derive from the legend of Ganymede being abducted by the eagle of Zeus, or from the crest of the Earl of Derby, with a story of a noble-born baby found in an eagle's nest. The child was called Oskatel and was found by Sir Thomas Lathom, who became father-in-law to Sir John Stanley. The pub's long-standing nickname is the Bird and Baby.

The pub had been part of an endowment belonging to University College since the 17th century. The college placed it on the market for £1.2 million in December 2003, saying that it needed to rebalance its property portfolio. It was bought by the nearby St John's College, which also owns the Lamb and Flag pub opposite. The Eagle and Child is a Grade II listed building.

The pub has remained closed since March 2020 in the early part of the COVID-19 pandemic. Planning permission has been granted to sympathetically refurbish it, with the upper floors being converted to hotel accommodation, along with the upper floors of two adjacent properties, the ground floor of the adjacent property serving as the hotel reception and the addition of a restaurant to the rear of the property. The planned changes will not affect the appearance of front of the pub, including the Rabbit Room. The business is currently owned by the Ellison Institute of Technology, who plan to reopen it as a pub, with the upper floors converted to meeting rooms.

Literary connections

The Inklings were an Oxford writers' group which included C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams, Owen Barfield, and Hugo Dyson. From late 1933, they met on Thursday evenings at Lewis's college rooms at Magdalen, where they would read and discuss various material, including their unfinished manuscripts. These meetings were accompanied with more informal lunchtime gatherings at various Oxford pubs, and coalesced into a regular meeting held on Monday or Tuesday lunchtimes at The Eagle and Child, in a private lounge at the back of the pub called the "Rabbit Room".

The formal Thursday meetings ended in October 1949 when interest in the readings petered out, but the meetings at the Eagle and Child continued, and it was at one of those meetings in June 1950 that C.S. Lewis distributed the proofs for The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe.

The membership of the Inklings changed over the years. Tolkien, for example, drifted away from the meetings in the late 1950s, whereas Lewis, who had lived around Oxford since 1921, was a central figure until his death in 1963. When The Eagle and Child was modernised in 1962, with the pub being extended to the rear, the Rabbit Room's former privacy was inevitably destroyed; the group reluctantly changed its allegiance to the Lamb & Flag on the other side of St Giles'. The meetings in the Lamb & Flag were soon abandoned after Lewis's death.

In popular culture
The Eagle and Child featured in Colin Dexter's novel The Secret of Annexe 3, in which Inspector Morse and Sergeant Lewis read the wooden plaque to the Inklings in the pub's back bar. It was also used as a location in the television series Inspector Morse in the 1991 episode "Second Time Around", in which it was dressed up as "Shears Wine Bar".

The pub is the meeting place of the main characters and a 1906 suffragette planning session in Pip Williams' best-selling 2020 debut novel The Dictionary of Lost Words.

The pub is mentioned in Episode 7 of Season 1 of the Netflix series 3 Body Problem.

title: The Eagle and Child


text:
Music of Portugal

Portuguese music includes many different styles and genres, as a result of its history. These can be broadly divided into classical music, traditional/folk music and popular music and all of them have produced internationally successful acts, with the country seeing a recent expansion in musical styles, especially in popular music.

In traditional/folk music, fado had a significant impact, with Amália Rodrigues still the most recognizable Portuguese name in music, and with more recent acts, like Dulce Pontes and Mariza. The genre is one of two Portuguese music traditions in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists, with the other being Cante Alentejano. Regional folk music remains popular too, having been updated and modernized in many cases, especially in the northeastern region of Trás-os-Montes. Some more recent successful fado/folk-inspired acts include Madredeus and Deolinda, the latter being part of a folk revival that has led to a newfound interest in this type of music.

In popular music, there is a significant number of popular genres. These include rock, with popular acts including Xutos & Pontapés, The Gift (alternative rock), Fingertips (pop rock), Blasted Mechanism (experimental electro-rock), Noctivagus (gothic rock) and Wraygunn (rock, blues). Also hip-hop, with acts such as Boss AC, Da Weasel, Ithaka, Mind Da Gap and Sam the Kid. Acts such as Moonspell and Heavenwood (metal) and Buraka Som Sistema (electro/kuduro/breakbeat) have had significant international success. Other popular modern genres in Portugal include dance, house, kizomba, pimba, pop, reggae, ska and zouk.

History
Portugal has had a history of receiving different musical influences from around the Mediterranean Sea, across Europe and former colonies. In the two centuries before the Christian era, Ancient Rome brought with it Greek influences; early Christians, who had their differing versions of church music arrived during the height of the Roman Empire; the Visigoths, a Romanized Germanic people, who took control of the Iberian Peninsula following the fall of the Roman Empire; the Moors and Jews in the Middle Ages. Hence, there have been more than two thousand years of internal and external influences and developments. Its genres range from classical to popular music. Portugal's music history includes musical history from the medieval Gregorian chants through Carlos Seixas' symphonies era to the composers of the modern era. The musical history of Portugal can be divided in different ways. Portuguese music encompasses musical production of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic and Modern eras, especially from Angola with Kizomba. Portugal has very good dancing clothes making Portuguese dancing famous.

Classical music
Portuguese music gets its rich history from its privileged geographical location. These are evidenced in the music history of Portugal, which despite its firm European roots, nevertheless reflects the intercontinental cultural interactions begun in the Portuguese discoveries.

A short list of past and present Portuguese musicians with important contributions must necessarily include the names of composers Manuel Cardoso, Duarte Lobo, Filipe de Magalhães, Carlos Seixas, Pedro de Escobar, Diogo Dias Melgás, João Domingos Bomtempo, Marcos Portugal, José Vianna da Motta, Luís de Freitas Branco, António Fragoso, Joly Braga Santos, Fernando Lopes-Graça, and Emmanuel Nunes; organists such as António Carreira and Manuel Rodrigues Coelho; singers Luísa Todi, Elisabete Matos and José Carlos Xavier; pianists Maria João Pires and Sequeira Costa; violinists Elmar Oliveira and Carlos Damas; and cellists such as Guilhermina Suggia.

Fado

Fado is a musical style, which arose in Lisbon as the music of the urban poor. Fado songs are typically lyrically harsh, accompanied by a wire-strung acoustic guitar or the Portuguese Guitar. It is usually sung by solo performers, with the singer resigned to sadness, poverty, and loneliness, but remaining dignified and firmly controlled. It is claimed that fado's origins are older, going back to the 15th century, when women cried with longing for their husbands that sailed to the never-ending seas. Late in the 19th century, the city of Coimbra developed a distinctive scene. Coimbra, a literary capital for the country, is now known for being more refined and majestic. The sound has been described as "the song of those who retain and cherish their illusions, not of those who have irretrievably lost them" by Rodney Gallop in 1936. A related form is the guitarradas of the 1920s and 30s, best known for Dr. Antonio Menano and a group of virtuoso musicians he formed, including Artur Paredes and José Joaquim Cavalheiro. Student fado, performed by students at Coimbra University, has maintained a tradition since it was pioneered in the 1890s by Augusto Hilário.

Starting in 1939 with the career of Amália Rodrigues, fado was an internationally popular genre. A singer and film actress, Rodrigues made numerous stylistic innovations that have made her probably the most influential fadista of all time.

A new generation of young musicians have contributed to the social and political revival of fado music, adapting and blending it with new trends. Contemporary fado musicians like Carminho, Mariza, Mísia and Camané have introduced the music to a new public. The sensuality of Misia and other female fadistas (fado singers) like Maria Ana Bobone, Cuca Roseta, Cristina Branco, Ana Moura, Katia Guerreiro, and Mariza has walked the fine line between carrying on the tradition of Amália Rodrigues and trying to bring in a new audience. Mísia and Carlos do Carmo are also well-known fado singers.Ricardo Ribeiro and Miguel Capucho are one of the best male fado singers of the new generation.

It was included in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists in 2011.

Regional folk music
Recent events have helped keep Portuguese regional folk (rancho folclórico) traditions alive, most especially including the worldwide roots revival of the 1960s and 70s.

Cante Alentejano, from the Alentejo region, was included in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists in 2014.

The people of the Azores islands maintain some distinct musical traditions, such as the traditionally fiddle-driven chamarrita dance.

Music in Madeira is widespread and mainly uses local musical instruments such as the Machete, rajao, Brinquinho and Cavaquinho, which are used in traditional Folklore dances like the Bailinho da Madeira. One of the island's most celebrated folklorists was Maria Ascensão (1926–2001). Famous performers of contemporary music include Max, Luís Jardim and Vânia Fernandes.

Trás-os-Montes' musical heritage is closely related to the music of Galicia, Cantabria, and Asturias. Traditional bagpipes (gaita-de-fole transmontana), a cappella vocals and a unique musical scale with equal semitones have kept alive a vital tradition. (Miranda de I Douro), some artists such as Galamdum Galundaina sing in Mirandese language. Also, the Pauliteiros folk dance is popular. Some residents sing in both Portuguese and Mirandese.

Folk/traditional music acts include: Dazkarieh, Cornalusa, Gaitúlia, Strella do Dia, Fausto, Notas e Voltas, Roberto Leal, Ronda dos Quatro Caminhos, Terra a Terra, Tonicha, Cândida Branca Flor, Óióai, Janita Salomé, Uxukalhus, Frei Fado D'el Rei, Gaiteiros de Lisboa, Roncos do Diabo, Dâna, Luís Peixoto, Dulce Pontes, Sangre Cavallum, Teresa Salgueiro, Vitorino and Xaile.

Pop music
Famous artists and bands included in the past are José Afonso, Fausto Bordalo Dias, José Mário Branco, Manuel Freire, Cândida Branca Flor, Tonicha, Paco Bandeira, Clã, Paulo de Carvalho, José Cid, Linda de Suza, Madalena Iglésias, António Variações, Duo Ouro Negro, Roberto Leal (singer), Peste & Sida and Ornatos Violeta. Nowadays some of the most popular acts are Virgem Suta, HMB, Aurea, Amor Electro, GNR, Xutos & Pontapés, The Gift, David Fonseca, Diogo Piçarra, Os Quatro e Meia and Capitão Fausto. Portugal has been participating in the Eurovision Song Contest since 1964; its best result before 2017 was the 6th place achieved by Lucia Moniz's folk inspired song "O meu coração não tem cor" in 1996, penned by Pedro Vaz Osorio. Portugal gained no further Top 10 place until Salvador Sobral's first place in the 2017 contest with the song Amar Pelos Dois, which gained a record 758 points.

Folk-pop
In 2019, contemporary folk singer-songwriter Ana Mariano from Aveiro was featured on the compilation Novos Talentos FNAC 2019 (New Talents of Fnac 2019) with her Folk-pop debut single "Ordinary View", (written and performed in the English language.) In February 2020, she released her debut e.p. Everything I Touch which included the songs, "Insomnia" and "Plastic Wings" (featuring Ithaka), among others.

Electronic music
In electronica, Underground Sound of Lisbon with their 1994 progressive house remix of the 1992 Spoken word song So Get Up by Ithaka Darin Pappas (lyrics/vocals), was a musical project that brought international attention to Portuguese DJs, namely Rui da Silva (the only Portuguese musician to reach #1 on the UK charts), DJ Vibe and Pete tha Zouk.

Some other important names in the genre are Buraka Som Sistema, Branko, Conan Osiris, Micro Audio Waves and KURA, with this last one being the highest-ranked Portuguese of all time on the annual's Top 100 Dj's by Dj Mag. In Porto, the hometown of numerous talents such as Nuno Forte, Drum n' Bass styles are immensely popular, and the city has hosted various important international names in the genre such as Noisia, The Panacea and Black Sun Empire. Also, in the Psychedelic Trance genre there is a worldwide famous project: Paranormal Attack.

In February 2020, internationally recognized DJ-producer-musician, Armando Mendes, from northern Portugal released Parallel Universe on cd and a double-vinyl 12" set for Turquoise Records (one of the only full-length albums by any Portuguese electronic artist), collaborating with several worldwide vocalists/lyricists.

Experimental and avantgarde
Portuguese music has a striving experimental underground music scene since the '80s, with some exponents attaining international attention. Notable groups and musicians in this genre are Osso Exótico, Ocaso Épico, Telectu, Carlos Zíngaro, Pedro INF, Favela Discos, If Lucy Fell and Life Theory.

Heavy metal
The biggest exponent of heavy metal music in Portugal are the bands Moonspell, Ava Inferi, Ramp, Heavenwood, Corpus Christii, Reaktor, W.C. Noise, Tarantula and Attick Demons, which have achieved international recognition, and have signed record deals with some of the most important international Heavy Metal Labels such as Century Media and Napalm Records for Moonspell, Massacre Records and Listenable Records for Heavenwood, Season of Mist for Ava Inferi, Pure Steel Records for Attick Demons, Candlelight Records for Corpus Christii, Nuclear Blast Records for Reaktor and AFM Records for Tarantula.

Heavy metal made by Portuguese bands is sold in all major records / music shops in all European countries such as Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy, France, Poland and Turkey. Moonspell, Heavenwood and Attick Demons achieved markets such as East Europe / Russia, Asia, North, and South America, furthermore Attick Demons achieved recognition in Japan by being the only Portuguese heavy metal band to have a Japanese release to date, through a Japanese label.

Others bands like Miss Lava, Holocausto Canibal, Thirdsphere, Sirius, Sacred Sin, Factory of Dreams, Decayed, Filli Nigratium Infernallium, Morte Incandescente, Gwydion, Switchtense, Grog, Bizarra Locomotiva, Thee Orakle, More Than a Thousand and Oratory also achieved some international recognition.

Hip hop

Hip hop began in Portugal in the early 1990s. The first artist to sign a major record deal was General D with EMI Records. Other important artists from the Hip hop tuga genre include; Sam the Kid, Slow J, Papillon, Da Weasel, Dealema, Valete, Regula, Boss AC, Mind the Gap, Bob Da Rage Sense, Dillaz.

Jazz
People such as Mário Barreiros, Mário Laginha, Carlos Barretto, Carlos Bica, João Paulo Esteves da Silva, António Pinho Vargas and the singer Maria João have long and noteworthy careers in the field, despite experimenting, sometimes with notable success, other genres of music, and a more recent generation is following their footsteps, notable the pianist Bernardo Sassetti, Júlio Resende, Carlos Bica, João Paulo, and the singers Salvador Sobral, João Barradas, Jacinta, Vânia Fernandes and Luísa Sobral.

Latin
Although it is an Iberian country, Portugal never had clear influences from Latin America, though Portuguese musical traditions have had an influence on Latin American music, particularly in Brazil and through instruments such as the cavaquinho and its descendent instruments like the cuatro. Nonetheless, the Latin music industry sometimes includes music sung in Portuguese from Portugal. This style came to the country in the 1990s, following a Spanish and world trend. Examples of Latin music singers in Portuguese are Ana Malhoa and Mil i Maria. The Latin Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences, the organization responsible for the Latin Grammy Awards, encompasses music from Portugal and has voting members who live in the country. Carlos do Carmo became the first Portuguese artist to win a Latin Grammy award upon receiving the Lifetime Achievement Award.

Pimba
Pimba music is the Portuguese version of the euro Schlager or the Balkan Turbo-Folk. It is named after the 1995 hit Pimba Pimba, by Emanuel. Some of its biggest names are Emanuel, Ágata, Suzana, Micaela, Ruth Marlene and Quim Barreiros. This genre mixes traditional sounds with accordion, Latin beats and funny or religious (mainly kitch) lyrics.

Folk and political (Música de Intervenção)
During the Estado Novo authoritarian regime, music was widely used by the left-wing resistance as a way to say what could not be said, singing about freedom, equality, and democracy, mainly through metaphors and symbols. Many composers and singers became famous and persecuted by the political police, some of them being arrested or exiled, such as José Afonso, Paulo de Carvalho, José Mário Branco, Sérgio Godinho, Adriano Correia de Oliveira, Manuel Freire, Pedro Barroso, Fausto, Vitorino, Júlio Pereira and some others. Their music was (and remains) mostly based on Portuguese folk music and elements of European-style singer-songwriter genres.

José Afonso began performing in the 1950s; he was a popular roots-based musician that led the Portuguese roots revival. With artists like Sérgio Godinho and Luís Cília, Afonso helped form nova canção music, which, after the 1974 revolution, gained socially-aware lyrics and became canto livre. The biggest names in canto livre were Banda do Casaco and Brigada Víctor Jara, groups that seriously studied and were influenced by Portuguese regional music. The poet-singer-songwriter was also a significant contributor to the modern romance genre, can be compared to Leonard Cohen.

After the Carnation Revolution, that same music was used to support left-wing parties. Political ideas and causes, like the agrarian reform, socialism, equality, democratic elections, free education and many other were a constant presence in these songs lyrics, often written by well-known poets like José Barata-Moura, Manuel Alegre or Ary dos Santos.

Reggae and ska
More underground but very prominent are Portuguese reggae and ska. Unregarding some 2 Tone and reggae-influenced singles in the late 70s by bands like Roquivários or early 80s mod outfit Táxi, it was only in the early 1990s when the first Portuguese roots reggae band, Kussondulola reached the mainstream public.

Best known Portuguese reggae singers include Richie Campbell, Mercado Negro, Prince Wadada and Freddy Locks, while some of the more famous bands of these types include Terrakota, Primitive Reason, Sativa, One Sun Tribe, One Love Family, Arsha, Three and a Quarter, Purocracy, Chapa Dux and Souls of Fire. This music is popular among young people, with its main roots based in Lisbon and the surrounding areas.

Earlier ska bands in Portugal included Despe&Siga and Contratempos, while The Ratazanas can be considered the best known Portuguese Early reggae and Rocksteady band. They recorded for German label Grover Records and toured throughout Europe on their own right as well as backing Jamaican singers like Susan Cadogan. Skarmiento, Skalibans, and Skamioneta do Lixo are other Portuguese ska bands.

Rock
Portuguese rock was born in the 1980s, with acts like Rui Veloso and Jorge Palma. Examples of popular Portuguese rock bands, having a long history, are Xutos & Pontapés and UHF who have been playing for over 30 years and are known widely throughout Portugal, as well as Mão Morta, a unique and controversial Portuguese band with decades-long activity. Well known solo singers include Rui Veloso, Jorge Palma, and Pedro Abrunhosa. Clã (pop rock), Grupo Novo Rock (pop rock and rock), Fingertips, (pop rock), Blasted Mechanism (electro-rock and dub/reggae fusion), Suspiria Franklyn (punk-rock/new wave), Linda Martini (post/noise rock), peixe : aviao (post-rock), Ornatos Violeta (indie rock), A Book in the Shelf (grunge rock), Dream Circus (grunge rock), Decreto 77, (punk rock), or Mazgani (alternative), are other important acts.

The indie and alternative rock movements are also popular in Portugal. Some indie and alternative bands and artists from Portugal are Os Pontos Negros, Memória de Peixe, Linda Martini, The Glockenwise, Capitão Fausto, Frankie Chavez, Stereoboy, Quelle Dead Gazelle, B Fachada, Noiserv, Golden Slumbers (band) as well as the Luso-Brazilian group Banda do Mar.

Romantic
The highest exponents of this kind of music in Portugal are Tony Carreira and Marco Paulo (both, and even other performers, have a certain level of overlap with the Pimba genre, even partial or just in certain songs).

Singers of Portuguese descent
There are several popular musicians of Portuguese descent. Luso-francofonic artists include Linda de Suza (Portuguese born and later an immigrant in France) and Marie Myriam, winner of the Eurovision Song Contest in 1977. Nelly Furtado reflected some of her Portuguese origins, especially in lesser-known songs in her first albums (songs like "Scared" sung by Furtado in English and Portuguese, "Nas Horas do Dia" and "Força"). Portugal-born Nuno Bettencourt's heritage is also reflected in the title of Extreme's 2008 album Saudades de Rock. Steve Perry, former lead singer of rock group Journey is American of Portuguese ancestry, as is Aerosmith's Joe Perry (both their original paternal family names being Pereira). The lead singer from Jamiroquai, Jay Kay has Portuguese descent through his father. Ana da Silva, a founding member of the cult post-punk band The Raincoats is also of Portuguese origin. Also Mia Rose, which has collaborations with Portuguese artists and even songs in the Portuguese language, was a juror at The Voice Portugal. Others include Katy Perry, Shawn Mendes, Mishlawi and DEV and Carlos Melo.

title: Music of Portugal


text:
Foster care

Foster care is a system in which a minor has been placed into a ward, group home (residential child care community, treatment center, etc.), or private home of a state-certified caregiver, referred to as a "foster parent", or with a family member approved by the state. The placement of a "foster child" is normally arranged through the government or a social service agency. The institution, group home, or foster parent is compensated for expenses unless with a family member.

The state, via the family court and child protective services agency, stand in loco parentis to the minor, making all legal decisions while the foster parent is responsible for the day-to-day care of the minor.

Scholars and activists are concerned about the efficacy of the foster care services provided by NGOs. Specifically, this pertains to poor retention rates of social workers. Poor retention rates are attributed to being overworked in an emotionally draining field that offers minimal monetary compensation. The lack of professionals pursuing a degree in social work coupled with poor retention rates in the field has led to a shortage of social workers and created large caseloads for those who choose to work and stay in the field. The efficacy of caseworker retention also affects the overall ability to care for clients. Low staffing leads to data limitations that infringe on caseworkers' ability to adequately serve clients and their families.

Foster care is correlated with a range of negative outcomes compared to the general population. Children in foster care have a high rate of ill health, particularly psychiatric conditions such as anxiety, depression, and eating disorders. One third of foster children in a US study reported abuse from a foster parent or other adult in the foster home. Nearly half of foster children in the US become homeless when they reach the age of 18, and the poverty rate is three times higher among foster care alumni than in the general population.

Australia
In Australia foster care was known as "boarding-out". Foster care had its early stages in South Australia in 1867 and stretched to the second half of the 19th century. It is said that the system was mostly run by women until the early 20th century. Then the control was centered in many state children's departments. "Although boarding-out was also implemented by non-government[al] child rescue organizations, many large institutions remained. These institutions assumed an increasing importance from the late 1920s when the system went into decline." The system was re-energized in the postwar era, and in the 1970s. The system is still the main structure for "out-of-home care". The system took care of both local and foreign children. "The first adoption legislation was passed in Western Australia in 1896, but the remaining states did not act until the 1920s, introducing the beginnings of the closed adoption that reached it peak in the period 1940–1975. New baby adoption dropped dramatically from the mid-1970s, with the greater tolerance of and support for single mothers".

Cambodia
Foster care in Cambodia is relatively new as an official practice within the government. However, despite a later start, the practice is currently making great strides within the country. Left with a large number of official and unofficial orphanages from the 1990s, the Cambodian government conducted several research projects in 2006 and 2008, pointing to the overuse of orphanages as a solution for caring for vulnerable children within the country. Most notably, the studies found that the percentage of children within orphanages that had parents approached 80%. At the same time, local NGOs like "Children In Families" began offering limited foster care services within the country. In the subsequent years, the Cambodian government began implementing policies that required the closure of some orphanages and the implementation of minimum standards for residential care institutions. These actions lead to an increase in the number of NGOs providing foster care placements and helped to set the course for care reform around the country. As of 2015, the Cambodian government is working with UNICEF, USAID, several governments, and many local NGOs in continuing to build the capacity for child protection and foster care within the Kingdom.

Canada
Foster children in Canada are known as permanent wards (crown wards in Ontario). A ward is someone, in this case a child, placed under protection of a legal guardian and are the legal responsibility of the government. Census data from 2011 counted children in foster care for the first time, counting 47,885 children in care. The majority of foster children – 29,590, or about 62 per cent – were aged 14 and under. The wards remain under the care of the government until they "age out of care". All ties are severed from the government and there is no longer any legal responsibility toward the youth. This age is different depending on the province.

Israel
In December 2013, the Israeli Knesset approved a bill co-drafted by the Israel National Council for the Child to regulate the rights and obligations of participants in the foster care system in Israel.

Japan
The idea of foster care or taking in abandoned children actually came about around 1392–1490s in Japan. The foster care system in Japan is similar to the Orphan Trains because Brace thought the children would be better off on farms. The people in Japan thought the children would do better on farms rather than living in the "dusty city". The families would often send their children to a farm family outside the village and only keep their oldest son. The farm families served as the foster parents and they were financially rewarded for taking in the younger siblings. "It was considered an honor to be chosen as foster parents, and selection greatly depended on the family's reputation and status within the village". Around 1895 the foster care program became more like the system used in the United States because the Tokyo Metropolitan Police sent children to a hospital where they would be "settled". Problems emerged in this system, such as child abuse, so the government started phasing it out and "began increasing institutional facilities". In 1948 the Child Welfare Law was passed, increasing official oversight, and creating better conditions for the children to grow up in.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, foster care and adoption has always been an option, "in the sense of taking other people's children into their homes and looking after them on a permanent or temporary basis." Although, nothing about it had a legal foundation, until the 20th century. The UK had "wardship", the family taking in the child had custody by the Chancery Court. Wardship was not used very often because it did not give the guardian "parental rights". In the 19th century came a "series of baby farming scandals". At the end of the 19th century they started calling it "boarding-out" like they did in Australia. They started placing the children in orphanages and workhouses as well. "The First World War saw an increase in organized adoption through adoption societies and child rescue organizations, and pressure grew for adoption to be given legal status." The first laws based on adoption and foster care were passed in 1926. "The peak number of adoptions was in 1968, since then there has been an enormous decline in adoption in the United Kingdom. The main reasons for children being adopted in the United Kingdom had been unmarried mothers giving up their children for adoption and stepparents adopting their new partner's children".

United States
In the United States, foster care started as a result of the efforts of Charles Loring Brace. "In the mid 19th Century, some 30,000 homeless or neglected children lived in the New York City streets and slums." Brace took these children off the streets and placed them with families in most states in the country. Brace believed the children would do best with a Christian farm family. He did this to save them from "a lifetime of suffering" He sent these children to families by train, which gave the name The Orphan Train Movement. "This lasted from 1853 to the early 1890s and transported more than 120,000 250,000? children to new lives." When Brace died in 1890, his sons took over his work of the Children's Aid Society until they retired. The Children's Aid Society created "a foster care approach that became the basis for the federal Adoption and Safe Families Act of 1997" called Concurrent Planning. This greatly impacted the foster care system.

From August 1999 to August 2019, 9,073,607 American children have been removed from their families and placed in foster homes according to the federal government Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System.

As last reported in August 2019, 437,238 children nationally were removed from their families and placed in foster homes according to the federal government Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System.

- 24% of foster children are between the ages of 0 and 2

- 18% of foster children are between the ages of 3 and 5

- 28% of foster children are between the ages of 6 and 12

- 40% of foster children are between the ages of 13 and 21

- Average # of birthdays a child spends in foster care: 2

- 22% of children had three or more placements during a length of 20 months in foster care.

- 91% of foster children under the age of 2 are adopted.

France
In France, foster families are called familles d'accueil (literally "welcome families"). Foster homes must obtain an official approval from the government in order to welcome a minor or an elderly person. In order to receive this approval they must follow a training and their home is inspected to be sure it is safe and healthy. In 2017, 344 000 minors and 15000 elderly persons were welcomed in foster homes.

Placement
Family-based foster care is generally preferred to other forms of out of home care. Foster care is intended to be a short-term solution until a permanent placement can be made. In most states, the primary objective is to reconcile children with the biological parents. However, if the parents are unable or unwilling to care for the child, or if the child is an orphan, then the first choice of adoptive parents is a relative such as an aunt, uncle or grandparent, known as kinship care. Most kinship care is done informally, without the involvement of a court or public organization. However, in the United States, formal kinship care is increasingly common. In 2012, a quarter of all children in formal foster care were placed with relatives instead of being placed into the system.

If no related family member is willing or able to adopt, the next preference is for the child to be adopted by the foster parents or by someone else involved in the child's life (such as a teacher or coach). This is to maintain continuity in the child's life. If neither above option are available, the child may be adopted by someone who is a stranger to the child.

If none of these options are viable, the plan for the minor may be to enter OPPLA (Other Planned Permanent Living Arrangement). This option allows the child to stay in custody of the state and the child can stay placed in a foster home, with a relative or a long-term care facility, such as a residential child care community or, for children with development disabilities, physical disabilities or mental disabilities, a treatment center.

671,000 children were served by the foster care system in the United States in 2015. "After declining more than 20 percent between FY 2006 and FY 2012 to a low of 397,000, the number of children in foster care on the last day of the fiscal year increased to 428,000 in FY 2015, with a slightly higher percent change from 2014 to 2015 (3.3%) than observed from 2013 to 2014 (3.2%)." Since FY 2012, the number of children in foster care at the end of each FY has steadily increased.

The median amount of time a child spent in foster care in the U.S. in 2015 was 13.5 months. That year, 74% of children spent less than two years in foster care, while 13% were in care for three or more years. Of the estimated 427,910 children in foster care on September 30, 2015: 43 percent were White, 24 percent were African-American, 21 percent were Hispanic (of any race), 10 percent were other races or multiracial, and 2 percent were unknown or unable to be determined.

Children may enter foster care voluntarily or involuntarily. Voluntary placement may occur when a biological parent or lawful guardian is unable to care for a child. Involuntary placement occurs when a child is removed from their biological parent or lawful guardian due to the risk or actual occurrence of physical or psychological harm, or if the child has been orphaned. In the US, most children enter foster care due to neglect. If a biological parent or legal guardian is unwilling to care for a child, the child is deemed to be dependent and is placed under the care of the child protection agency. The policies regarding foster care as well as the criteria to be met in order to become a foster parent vary according to legal jurisdiction.

Especially egregious failures of child protective services often serve as a catalyst for increased removal of children from the homes of biological parents. An example is the brutal torture and murder of 17-month-old Peter Connelly, a British toddler who died in London Borough of Haringey, North London after suffering more than 50 severe injuries over an eight-month period, including eight broken ribs and a broken back. Throughout the period of time in which he was being tortured, he was repeatedly seen by Haringey Children's services and NHS health professionals. Haringey Children's services already failed ten years earlier in the case of Victoria Climbié. In the time since his death, in 2007, cases have reached a record rate in England surpassing 10,000 in the reporting year ending in March 2012.

Abuse and negligence
Children in foster care experience higher rates of child abuse, emotional deprivation, and physical neglect. In one study in the United Kingdom "foster children were 7–8 times, and children in residential care 6 times more likely to be assessed by a pediatrician for abuse than a child in the general population". A study of foster children in Oregon and Washington State found that nearly one third reported being abused by a foster parent or another adult in a foster home.

Development
As of 2019, in the US, the majority of children in the foster care system were under eight years of age. These early years are quite important for the physical and mental development of children. More specifically, these early years are most important for brain development. Stressful and traumatic experiences have been found to have long-term negative consequences for the brain development in children whereas talking, singing, and playing can help encourage brain growth. Since the majority of children are removed from their homes due to neglect, this means that many of these children did not experience stable and stimulating environments to help promote this necessary growth. In a research study conducted at the University of Minnesota, researchers found that children placed in non-parental homes, such as foster homes, showed significant behavior problems and higher levels of internalizing problems in comparison to children in traditional families and even children who were mistreated by caregivers. According to an article written by Elizabeth Curry titled "The five things you should know about how orphanage life affects children", a child who has lived in an orphanage or a home for multiple children will have learned survival skills but lack family skills due to them never understanding permanency.

Medical and psychiatric disorders
A higher prevalence of physical, psychological, cognitive and epigenetic disorders for children in foster care has been established in studies in various countries. The Casey Family Programs Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study was a fairly extensive study of various aspects of children who had been in foster care. Individuals who were in foster care experience higher rates of physical and psychiatric morbidity than the general population and suffer from not being able to trust and that can lead to placements breaking down.

In the Casey study of foster children in Oregon and Washington state, they were found to have double the incidence of depression, 20% as compared to 10% and were found to have a higher rate of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than combat veterans with 25% of those studied having PTSD. Children in foster care have a higher probability of having attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and deficits in executive functioning, anxiety as well as other developmental problems.

These children experience higher degrees of incarceration, poverty, homelessness, and suicide. Studies in the U.S. have suggested that some foster care placements may be more detrimental to children than remaining in a troubled home, but a more recent study suggested that these findings may have been affected by selection bias, and that foster care has little effect on behavioral problems.

Neurodevelopment
Foster children have elevated levels of cortisol, a stress hormone, in comparison to children raised by their biological parents. Elevated cortisol levels can compromise the immune system. (Harden BJ, 2004). Most of the processes involved in typical neurodevelopment are predicated upon the establishment of close nurturing relationships and environmental stimulation. Negative environmental influences during this critical period of brain development can have lifelong consequences.

Post-traumatic stress disorder
Children in foster care have a higher incidence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In one study, 60% of children in foster care who had experienced sexual abuse had PTSD, and 42% of those who had been physically abused met the PTSD criteria. PTSD was also found in 18% of the children who were not abused. These children may have developed PTSD due to witnessing violence in the home. (Marsenich, 2002).

In order to figure out if a child has developed PTSD, there is a PTSD module, the 'anxiety disorder interview'. This is considered a reliable resource for establishing if a child has developed post traumatic stress disorder due to physical, sexual, or mental abuse.

In a study conducted in Oregon and Washington state, the rate of PTSD in adults who were in foster care for one year between the ages of 14 and 18 was found to be higher than that of combat veterans, with 25% of those in the study meeting the diagnostic criteria as compared to 12–13% of Iraq war veterans and 15% of Vietnam war veterans, and a rate of 4% in the general population. The recovery rate for foster home alumni was 28.2% as opposed to 47% in the general population.

"More than half the study participants reported clinical levels of mental illness, compared to less than a quarter of the general population".

Eating disorders
Foster children are at increased risk for a variety of eating disorders in comparison to the general population. In a study done in the United Kingdom, 35% of foster children experienced an increase in Body Mass Index (BMI) once in care. Food Maintenance Syndrome is characterized by a set of aberrant eating behaviors of children in foster care. It is "a pattern of excessive eating and food acquisition and maintenance behaviors without concurrent obesity"; it resembles "the behavioral correlates of Hyperphagic Short Stature". It is hypothesized that this syndrome is triggered by the stress and maltreatment foster children are subjected to, it was prevalent amongst 25 percent of the study group in New Zealand. Bulimia nervosa is seven times more prevalent among former foster children than in the general population.

Poverty and homelessness
Nearly half of foster children in the U.S. become homeless when they turn 18. One of every 10 foster children stays in foster care longer than seven years, and each year about 15,000 reach the age of majority and leave foster care without a permanent family—many to join the ranks of the homeless or to commit crimes and be imprisoned.

Three out of 10 of the United States homeless are former foster children. According to the results of the Casey Family Study of Foster Care Alumni, up to 80 percent are doing poorly—with a quarter to a third of former foster children at or below the poverty line, three times the national poverty rate. Very frequently, people who are homeless had multiple placements as children: some were in foster care, but others experienced "unofficial" placements in the homes of family or friends.

Individuals with a history of foster care tend to become homeless at an earlier age than those who were not in foster care. The length of time a person remains homeless is longer in individuals who were in foster care.

Suicide-death rate
Children in foster care are at a greater risk of suicide. The increased risk of suicide is still prevalent after leaving foster care. In a small study of twenty-two Texan youths who aged out of the system, 23 percent had a history of suicide attempts.

A Swedish study utilizing the data of almost one million people including 22,305 former foster children who had been in care prior to their teens, concluded: "Former child welfare clients were in year of birth and sex standardised risk ratios (RRs) four to five times more likely than peers in the general population to have been hospitalised for suicide attempts....Individuals who had been in long-term foster care tended to have the most dismal outcome...former child welfare/protection clients should be considered a high-risk group for suicide attempts and severe psychiatric morbidity."

Death rate
Children in foster care have an overall higher mortality rate than children in the general population. A study conducted in Finland among current and former foster children up to age 24 found a higher mortality rate due to substance abuse, accidents, suicide and illness. The deaths due to illness were attributed to an increased incidence of acute and chronic medical conditions and developmental delays among children in foster care.

Georgia Senator Nancy Schaefer published a report "The Corrupt Business of Child Protective Services" stating:

"The National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect in 1998 reported that six times as many children died in foster care than in the general public and that once removed to official 'safety', these children are far more likely to suffer abuse, including sexual molestation than in the general population."

Academic prospects
Educational outcomes of ex-foster children in the Northwest Alumni Study:
 * 56% completed high school compared to 82% of the general population, although an additional 29% of former foster children received a G.E.D. compared to an additional 5% of the general population.
 * 42.7% completed some education beyond high school.
 * 20.6% completed any degree or certificate beyond high school
 * 16.1% completed a vocational degree; 21.9% for those over 25.
 * 1.8% complete a bachelor's degree, 2.7% for over 25, the completion rate for the general population in the same age group is 24%, a sizable difference.

The study reviewed case records for 659 foster care alumni in Northwest USA, and interviewed 479 of them between September 2000 and January 2002.

Higher Education
Approximately 10% of foster youth make it to college and of those 10%, only about 3% actually graduate and obtain a 4-year degree. Although the number of foster youth who are starting at a 4-year university after high school has increased over the years, the number of youth who graduate from college continues to remain stable. A study of 712 youth in California, the results revealed that foster care youth are fives times less likely to attend college than youth who do not go through foster care. There are different resources that offer both financial and emotional support for foster youth to continue their education. Simultaneously, there are also many barriers that make getting to a college or university difficult.

Borton describes some of the barriers youth face in her article, Barriers to Post-Secondary Enrollment for Former Foster Youth. A few of those barriers include financial hurdles, navigating through the application process with little to no support, and lack of housing.

Many studies have shown that there are a few factors that have seemingly played a role in the success of foster youth making it to and graduating from a college or university. While having financial resources for foster youth is a huge help, there are other components to look at. Beginning with having support for these youth at the high school level. In order for foster youth to obtain a college degree, they must enroll at a university first.

Out of the different factors that play in increasing college enrollment such as youth participating in extended foster care, reading ability, etc., youth who received assistance or had supportive relationships from adults, were more likely than youth who did not have supportive relationships, to enroll at a university.

At colleges across the nation, there are programs that are specifically put in place to help youth who have aged out of the foster care system and continued into higher education. These programs often help youth financially by giving them supplemental funds and providing support through peer mentor programs or academic counseling services. While funding is an important key in helping get through college, it has not been found as the only crucial component in aiding a youth's success.

A study done by Jay and colleagues provides insight on what youth view as important in helping them thrive on a college campus. The study, which had a sample of 51 foster youth, used Conceptual Mapping to break down the different components of support that may be important for youth to receive on a college campus. It is important to take in the different factors that can be helpful for youth at a university and to look beyond providing financial support.

Psychotropic medication use
Studies have revealed that youth in foster care covered by Medicaid insurance receive psychotropic medication at a rate that was 3 times higher than that of Medicaid-insured youth who qualify by low family income. In a review (September 2003 to August 2004) of the medical records of 32,135 Texas foster care 0–19 years old, 12,189 were prescribed psychotropic medication, resulting in an annual prevalence of 37.9% of these children being prescribed medication. 41.3% received 3 different classes of these drugs during July 2004, and 15.9% received 4 different classes. The most frequently used medications were antidepressants (56.8%), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder drugs (55.9%), and antipsychotic agents (53.2%). The study also showed that youth in foster care are frequently treated with concomitant psychotropic medication, for which sufficient evidence regarding safety and effectiveness is not available.

The use of expensive, brand name, patent protected medication was prevalent. In the case of SSRIs the use of the most expensive medications was noted to be 74%; in the general market only 28% are for brand name SSRI's vs generics. The average out-of-pocket expense per prescription was $34.75 for generics and $90.17 for branded products, a $55.42, difference.

Therapeutic intervention
Children in the child welfare system have often experienced significant and repeated traumas and having a background in foster homes—especially in instances of sexual abuse—can be the precipitating factor in a wide variety of psychological and cognitive deficits it may also serve to obfuscate the true cause of underlying issues. The foster care experience may have nothing to do with the symptoms, or on the other hand, a disorder may be exacerbated by having a history of foster care and attendant abuses. The human brain however has been shown to have a fair degree of neuroplasticity. and adult neurogenesis has been shown to be an ongoing process.

Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care (MTFC), also referred to as Treatment Foster Care Oregon (TFCO) and Treatment Foster Care (TFC) is a community-based intervention that was created in 1983 by Dr. Patricia Chamberlain and her associated colleagues with the initial design intended to offer a replacement for group facilities. MTFC has differing approaches for different age groups. Preschoolers receive “a behavior-management approach and intensively trains, supervises, and supports foster caregivers to provide positive adult support and consistent limit setting” coupled with “coordinated interventions with the child’s biological parents.” MTFC for adolescence consists of individual placement with an intensely trained foster family providing “coordinated interventions in the home, with peers, [and] in educational settings.” MTFC has been shown to provide better results than group facilities and proves to be more cost effective. Reports show that Multidimensional treatment has effective results in reducing depression, arrest rates, deviant peer affiliations, placement disruption, and pregnancy rates while having positive replication trials. It is one method that attempts to incorporate trauma informed care into its design.

Researchers have faced difficulty when it comes to accurately assessing what makes MTFC and other similar programs that involve multiple levels of intervention successful. It seems to remain in a "black box" scenario where it is unsure what aspect of the treatment plan is actually producing positive effects. Multiple peer-reviewed research articles on foster care programs point out a lack of research effectively evaluating the outcomes of specific foster care programs, calling for more complete assessments to be conducted in order to properly compare outcomes between treatment plans and evaluate what practices in MTFC are most effective. Ethical concerns have also been raised by Therese Åström and other associated researchers when conducting a systematic review on behalf of the Swedish Agency for Health Technology Assessment and Assessment of Social Services in 2018, noting that on the one hand MTFC is evaluated as effective, however, it tends to be implemented in a way that diminishes the child's agency.

Cross-cultural adoption policies
George Shanti, Nico Van Oudenhoven, and Rekha Wazir, co-authors of Foster Care Beyond the Crossroads: Lessons from an International Comparative Analysis, say that there are four types of Government foster care systems. The first one is that of developing countries. These countries do not have policies implemented to take care of the basic needs of these children and these children mostly receive assistance from relatives. The second system is that of former socialist governments. The historical context of these states has not allowed for the evolution of their foster care system. NGO's have urged them to evolve; however the traditional system of institutionalizing these children is still in place. Thirdly, liberal democracies do not have the support from its political system in order to take care of these children, even though they have the resources. Finally, social democracies are the most advanced governments in regards to their foster care system. These governments have a massive infrastructure, funding, and support system in order to help foster care children.

Adoption
Foster care adoption is a type of domestic adoption where the child is initially placed into a foster care system and is subsequently placed for adoption.

Children may be placed into foster care for a variety of reasons; including, removal from the home by a governmental agency because of maltreatment. In some jurisdictions, adoptive parents are licensed as and technically considered foster parents while the adoption is being finalized. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Children's Bureau, there were approximately 408,425 children in foster care in 2010. Of those children, twenty-five percent had a goal of adoption. In 2015, 243,060 children exited foster care and twenty-two percent were adopted. Nationwide, there are more than one hundred thousand children in the U.S. foster care system waiting for permanent families.

Adoptive parenting can have an impact on children, recent research has shown that warm adoptive parenting reduces internalizing and externalizing problems of the adoptive children over time.

Outcomes
Youth who are aging out of foster care often face difficulties in transitioning into adulthood, especially in terms of finding stable housing, employment, finances, and educational opportunities. The suspected reason for these difficulties involves a lack of stability experienced while in the foster care system, and the reported abuse and/or neglect in their childhood, which may affect their ability to cope with significant life changes. In the United States, there are independent living programs designed with the intent to serve the needs of transitioning foster youth. However, youth aging out of foster care have indicated that these programs are failing to fully address the needs of young adults without familial assistance.

In a study conducted by Gypen et al. (2017), involving a cross-database analysis of research articles relevant to the outcomes of former foster youth, they found that the educational, mental health, employment, income, stable housing, criminal involvement and substance abuse issues outcomes for youth who have aged out of the foster care system are substantially poorer than their peers. For example, Gypen et al. (2017), indicated that only 45% of former foster youth received a high school diploma, which is 23% lower than the general population. There are also significantly poorer outcomes for children who were formerly in foster care than children from low-income households. Children who are eventually adopted by their placement family show greater outcomes, in terms of finding stable housing, employment, finances and education opportunities, than those who aged out of the foster care system without a permanent placement.

It has also been reported that former foster youth have a higher chance of ending up in prostitution, and even fall prey to sex trafficking. This has also been called the "foster care to prostitution pipeline". a 2012 study in Los Angeles found that 59% of juveniles arrested for prostitution were or had been in foster care, but the generalizability of these findings has been disputed.

title: Foster care


text:
Talk:Language policy

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Japanese and Chinese characters
In Japan the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (originally just called the Ministry of Education) regulates which Chinese characters are taught in schools, and which characters can be registered with the government in names. An in China the government decreed that the characters were to be simplified, and so the mainland characters are different from the characters used in Hong Kong and Taiwan (and in Japan, which itself simplifed characters in a different way). I'm not sure if this is "language regulation."

Early unsectioned discussion
Why is Vermont listed among the countries? Is this vandalism, or does Vermont have some kind of special state policy? If it belongs here, I think it needs to be clarified. joye 22:13, 24 March 2006 (UTC)

Why was this page created? It provides nothing except make it appear that language laws are common without showing examples. They are not. Angelique 21:03, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * We meet again. The majority of States have language policies. The reason the page is still empty is because I am in discussion with a linguist on how to include some of the data of his copyrighted site. The site in question is:

 * http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/monde/index_politique-lng.htm

This site is a goldmine. It presents the situation of languages in all parts of the world. Also very good on the same subject, and in english this time:

 * World Congress on Language Policies
 * International Network on Cultural Policy
 * Terralingua
 * Ethnologue, Languages of the World

Have fun reading! Mathieugp 22:49, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

USA supremacy over English??
"An internationalization policy is one whereby a State exercises supremacy on the linguistic code beyond its borders."

Why is the USA under this category? What language policies in the USA lead to its being placed here?

I saw the same thing and had the same response. The US doesn't even have an official body regulating how to speak English within the US, let alone beyond its borders. Deepblue9000 (talk) 10:35, 30 August 2009 (UTC)

 * I don't know why the US is here, there's no official Academy of American English, or anything, and as far as I know, the only language promotion the Feds do is funding ESL classes for recent immigrants. Katana0182 (talk) 16:43, 12 September 2009 (UTC)
 * As such, I'm going to tag the assertion as needing references.Katana0182 (talk) 16:44, 12 September 2009 (UTC)

 * I have discussed the question of the United States in this talk page already, below, under the section titled "United States".

 * First, the source for placing the United States under this category is here: http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/monde/polinternationalisation.htm

 * The same site has a full section on the USA here: http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/amnord/usaacc.htm

 * I still very much regret that no equivalent English-language source appears to be online at the moment (to my knowledge). Since the interrogation this time concerns the internationalization of English, I will summarize what the article says on this, under section 6 of the page on the federal language policies:

 * Section 6 states the fact that the USA does not have a formal written policy concerning the promotion of English world wide, contrary to France or Portugal. The USA's policy is nevertheless observable and pursued likewise by federal and state government agencies, universities, scientific committees, and American multinationals. Under pressure of the US federal State, English was promoted as an official language in all airports of the world through the International Civil Aviation Organization shortly after its creation in December 1944. English was promoted as an international language in several international and European organizations and after it was achieved, the Americans, often with the help of the British, worked to make the other official languages nothing more than languages of translation from English. In the 1960s, English was promoted as the sole language of scientific articles. The section mentions several other areas where English only is promoted world wide, such as new technologies, the military, bi-lateral cooperation programs, etc., and gives examples of propaganda in the media. The section invites people to read more on this topic in the special article on the Sociolinguistic History of the United States: http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/amnord/usa_6-8histoire.htm

 * If people are interested, I can translate these two articles fully to English. -- Mathieugp (talk) 23:15, 12 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Je parle un peu de Français. J'ai lu les articles et le site web. I appreciate your perspective, and I thank you for responding to this question, but I'm having a little trouble with this article.
 * Here's the thing: I think that your source fails to distinguish between official policy and the expression of individual opinions; it fails to distinguish between the operation of the phenomenon of supply and demand and government mandates. "Universities, scientific committees, and American multinationals" are not the US Government, they are private entities, they don't make official policy. US states have the right to declare English their official language, but it really doesn't have much of a meaning, beyond, well, making them look unwelcoming to foreigners, which isn't polite. I don't see any attempts by the US Federal Government to promote English as a language aside from the ICAO episode mentioned above (which was due to air safety, which takes precedence over linguistic nationalism, e.g. it's better to have planes not crash than air traffic controllers attempt to speak the language of the pilot flying the plane), or the requirement that contractors for the American government submit documents in English, or that US troops in other countries have TV provided for them by the US military in English and are given US newspapers rather than foreign language newspapers.
 * I do see that the British Council - a body funded by the United Kingdom, not the United States - promotes the use of English abroad - but the US isn't Great Britain.
 * Further, the cartoons of Uncle Sam gripping the globe with a megalomaniacal grin locked on his face and statements from the source like "De toute façon, les Américains ne les liront pas!" (In any case, the Americans do not read!) suggests that the source may be less than completely reliable.
 * What's your perspective? Katana0182 (talk) 04:18, 14 September 2009 (UTC)
 * The article (and in fact several other articles in the site), despite its relying on solid sources (texts of laws, statistics, scholarly works) contains some assertions that are purely matters of opinion and also items that I personally consider anecdotal and almost irrelevant. The author is a French-speaking linguist apparently writing for a public already convinced of what he is writing about. This in my opinion is unfortunate because it doesn't really add anything (it's not even funny) and is surely not necessary to the otherwise good description of the situation of languages in the USA. However, that being said, beyond the sometimes unencyclopedic tone of the author's comments, there is the good bibliography on which he relies, the full list of language legislations of the USA being analyzed, and as far as I can tell an accurate account of the language demographics of the country. Therefore, I do consider it to be a reliable source.
 * That the US federal state has no officially written policy concerning language is not a matter of opinion: it is a fact. A fact that is stated very clearly at the beginning of the article. Is also stated the fact that in practice, English is as much the official language of the US federal State as French is the official language of the French Republic: all major public documents are written in that language (Congress, courts, administration, etc.) and have been so for centuries. Documents written in other languages are few and are invariably just translations from English.
 * Lack of an explicit language policy is in fact a policy, the policy to chose to let the current state of affairs subsist, to let the social movement pursue its course. This is made abundantly clear in the analysis of the language policies of several countries that you can read in the site.
 * Concerning the promotion of English abroad, the author relies on Robert Phillipson, David Crystal and others (mostly French linguists) to assert that the USA has deliberately favoured the expansion of English after WWII. Because it was the Cold War, because France and Germany were left rather weak, the countries of the West have complacently let it happened or even collaborated to it.
 * I have a copy of Robert Phillipson's book Linguistic Imperialism which mentions American initiatives and US-British collaboration. This is in chapter 6, p. 137-172. -- Mathieugp (talk) 05:52, 14 September 2009 (UTC)

The Big Master Plan
I propose that each of the country/state link in Language policy be gradually turned into a link to 'Language policy/ies in (country/state name)'. We are already working on Language policies in Canada.

If you know anything about the language policy of your home country/state, let yourself loose. If you read French, then visit 'L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde' at http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/, you will surely find all you need there. -- Mathieugp 14:09, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)

misclassification of Belgium
Belgium is, imho, misclassified; despite what the legal texts may say, the rights are actually territorialized, as the communities have territorial limits to their competences. Only the territory of the Brussels region-State is shared between Dutch-speaking and French-speaking policies with linguistic rights being personal, but outside of Brussels the rule is for unilingual territorial policies (even if some places at the borders may have complex rules with more or less recognition of a second language).

 * Indeed, the site L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde classifies the policy of the federal state of Belgium as territorialized and the policy that applies to Brussels as one based on personal and non-territorialized rights. I haven't touched this article for some time. I just noticed I hadn't even finished adding states in the last three categories! -- Mathieugp 03:07, 27 Dec 2004 (UTC)

United States
The United States (i.e., the federal government) does not belong under any of these classifications. It has never formally adopted any language standards (though some individual states have done so). There is a current movement called "U.S. English" (not to be confused with American English) that seeks to adopt English as the official national language, but its political support is unclear. Funnyhat 21:02, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

English is the de facto language used by the federal state
Indeed, English was never made the official language of the USA in the constitution, but constitutional officialization is not the only way to promote the usage of a language. However, with over 80% of the people of the USA speaking English and often exclusively English, English is the de facto language of the USA.

The webpage at this address ( http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/amnord/usa_2pol-federale.htm ) details the policy of the federal state regarding language since the adoption of the American constitution. As this page is in French only, it would be very good to find an equivalent or better online source in English. In any case, here is what can be read on the site of the Laval University:

...linguiste D. F. Marshall déclarait, en 1986, dans un article du International Journal of the Sociology of Language, ce qui suit:

"Il ressort de notre analyse de l'histoire américaine que le fait de ne pas avoir de langue officielle n'est pas dû à un oubli de la part des auteurs de la Constitution, mais résulte d'une volonté délibérée de planification linguistique. ''

Which translates to:

''...linguist D. F. Marshall stated, in 1986, in an article of the International Journal of the Sociology of Language, what follows:

"It comes out of our analysis of American history that the fact that we do not have an official language is not due to a lapse of memory on behalf of the authors of the Constitution, but is the result of a deliberate will of linguistic planning."

In point 1, the article goes on to explain that the federal state has always used English only in the administration, at the Congress and the in the justice system etc. with only very few exceptions. According to a report of the General Accounting Office, from 1990 to 1994 less than 1% of the documents of the federal government were produced in languges other than English.

In point 2, a description of the rare uses of languages other than English by the federal government is given.

Point 3 gives a report of language policies passed by the federal state, including laws regarding bilingual schools.

Point 4 deals with language policies regarding Native Americans

Point 5 speaks of the currently ongoing efforts to officialize English as the de jure language of the USA.

Point 6 speaks of the internalization of English.

-- Mathieugp 18:28, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Catalonia and the Basque Countries
Shouldn't Catalonia and the (Spanish) Basque countries be included in the list of jurisdictions with "differentiated legal status policies" ?

Brazil: assimilationist policy or a policy that favors the official language ?
I believe the second category would be more appropriate than the first one to describe Brazil's language policy. Of course, a policy that favors the official language, especially one that requires its compulsory use in public schools, is necessarily simultaneously assimilationist in nature. Mbruno 15:00, 19 June 2006 (UTC)

Greece and Cyprus
I've removed Greece and Cyprus from the first section. The names of these two countries were originally added long ago in an effort to add material in that section. However, the inclusion of these two states is wrong, since both of them have functioning laws that protect minority languages: there are schools teaching Turkish in Western Thrace, for the local Muslim minority, as well as current efforts for the establishment of schools teaching Pomak (for a part of the same minority); also, magazines published in Bulgarian, Slavic are not uncommon. With money from the Greek state, turkish is also taught in the minority schools of the Dodecanese (see Turks of the Dodecanese). In [[Cyprus, where Turkish is co-official, is freely used by the Turkish Cypriots who have remained in the south. In addition, the Armenian and Maronite communities of the Republic, maintain their own schools, where Armenian and Arabic is taught. The Armenian community of Greece (as well as the Jewish) also have schools and magazines and newspapers in Armenian and Ladino are freely published. Thus, these two states do not belong in that section. Hectorian 19:35, 6 January 2007 (UTC)

Quebec
Opening a big can of worms here, but despite the original Université Laval (incidently in Quebec) text wikified here, is Quebec properly categorized?

The "Assimilation policy" mentions goals of "downsizing of one or more linguistic minority group(s)". Whether this is a goal of Bill 101 or not is HIGHLY debatable, but it has been an effect. Furthermore:

The ultimate goal of such policies is to foster national unity inside a state (based on the idea that a single language in the country will favor that end)

pretty much fits to a T the motivation behind La Charte. The final sentence applies too:

It is based on the belief that every person in a given society should be able to function in the dominant language regardless of which language that person speaks.

whereas La Charte insists on French as the only acceptable language of business in the province, for communication and documentation.

On the other hand, the current categorization of Quebc under "Differentiated legal status policies" makes some sense too:

the majority has all its linguistic rights secured and sometimes promoted while the minority or minorities are given special protection for their language.

There are indeed some provisions to defend rights of English speakers: Laws are published in English and French, a court may be addressed in English or French, court judgements can be in either language, and 'la Charte'' does not apply in Indian Reserves.

In essence, I'm rightly confused. Quebec seems to fit in both, but would perhaps be more accurately placed in the Assimilation category, if only for the protectionist attitude of Bill 101, and the focus on national unity. It's open for debate, and again, it's a can of worms. My appologies, it had to be open.

Arasaka 17:28, 9 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Its good that you ask here. Here is my answer.

 * First, the Charter of the French language exists because inside Canada, the inadequate measures of the federal language policy (and historical lack of a policy) encourages the assimilation of all language groups towards English. The Charter of the French language is an instrument that fights the assimilation of the majority of Quebecers to English. The Charter therefore aims to accomplish what is naturally happening in Ontario, Alberta, BC, i.e, that those who do not speak the language of the majority in these provinces become bilingual because these societies function primarily in that language. An assimilation policy does not aim to have people who do not speak the official language merely become bilingual, it aims to downsize other linguistic groups, typically not immigrant groups (who tend to want to assimilate unless they are refugees and generally people who did not wish to move out of their country but were forced to it by circumstances, often political) but national minorities.

 * To let Quebec be as French-speaking as it wants to be (no more and no less than Ontario is English-speaking) all the while giving the out-of-Quebec French-Canadian minorities and the Acadian people the same kind of legal protection which English speakers have always had in Quebec was the central objective of the plan that came out of the B & B commission. The commissioners André Laurendeau and Davidson Dunton believed that only this could resolve the national crisis in the Dominion and quell separatism in Quebec.

 * If you can hear French, you can verify the truthfulness (and not the truthiness ;-) of my assertion concerning the B & B commission directly from the mouth of Davidson Dunton on Radio-Canada: http://archives.radio-canada.ca/IDC-0-17-592-3077/politique_economie/bilinguisme_biculturalisme/clip8

 * The Trudeau government ignored the conclusion of the report on the language issues and specifically rejected the territoriality principle. The failure of Ottawa to understand that of the two official language communities in Canada, only one is a real linguistic minority has had dramatic effects and lead Quebec to adopt its own legislation in 1977.

 * If Canada had a differentiated legal status policies, whereby it would be understood 1) that Canada is made of two main language communities and 2) that Quebec being the sole province with a majority of speakers of French, the language of two national minorities inside Canada (Franco-Quebecers and Acadians) globally, than it would be easy to have all citizens of Canada accept that French, and not English, is the language of Quebec. The result would be that those who do not speak French would willingly become bilingual and contribute to create the environment which would allow French to be secured, once and for all, in one corner of North America.

 * Right now, competition between English and French rages on in Montreal, and French is disadvantaged, even with a strong provincial legislation favouring French in many sectors of public life.

 * All these considerations are of course excepting the Aboriginal groups who suffered long-lasting assimilation from both English speakers and French speakers and of all people on Earth are the ones who need less to be made more bilingual than they already are if we care to see their languages continue to live (for those that are still spoken as mother tongue). That is why the Charter of the French language does not apply to the 11 aboriginal nations officially recognized by the Quebec Parliament. Needless to say that justice for the majority only or one or more minorities only is not justice, it is the definition of oppression.

 * So, in conclusion, it is important to understand that Quebec's language policy tries to restore a balance between the majority and the minority, but only because the majority-minority balance is offset by the inequality of the English and French languages inside Canada.

 * If Quebec was not inside Canada and therefore if French was not a minority language but a real majority language and if the Charter did not provide legal protections to what would become a real English-speaking minority and instead aimed to downsize it by taking away its institutions or trying to prevent their development and proportional growth, then Quebec's language policy would be assimilationist. But then Canada would be Quebec and Quebec Canada. The roles would be reversed and people would rightfully be decrying Quebec's language policy. I would be the first to do it.

 * -- Mathieugp 22:50, 9 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Thanks, good points, if I may say so. Still, Canada might not be as evil now as it was before. All federal publications must be in both languages, all product packaging is in both languages, instructions too. Sure, if a francophone was arrested in the middle of BC for speeding, good luck getting that ticket in French! But the general rule and policy today, as far as I know, in Canada, is not towards assimilation into English. Arasaka 02:52, 10 June 2007 (UTC)
 * You are right. The public policy does not say this. It says it wants to promote knowledge of both official languages. But the facts are that outside Quebec, language shifts go to English in the same manner than in the USA. Inside Quebec, language shifts are split between English and French. In BC, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario, the rate of assimilation of francophone minorities has accelerated since the adoption of the Official Languages Act. In New Brunswick, it seems that the Acadian population has recently been stabilized and they are no longer being downsized. But that's more the result of the provincial laws and the invincible spirit of the Acadians that the federal policy. As for Canadians being more bilingual English-French (or French-English), well other than in Quebec it is no happening. Quantity of parents sent their children to French immersion in Alberta, BC etc. They learned basic French. Once school was over, they had nobody to speak French to in their environment. That is the personal story of a colleague of mine. She is far from being the only one. -- Mathieugp 14:02, 10 June 2007 (UTC)

Romania
Romania is currently listed both under Differentiated legal status policies and Valorization of the official language policies. This is quite confusing, I think a choice should be made for either one or the other. My guess is Romanian legislation is more in the lines of Differentiated legal status policies with the Romanian majority having all its linguistic rights secured and sometimes promoted. Minority languages can be used both in administrative and judicial affairs in jurisdictions where more than 20% of the population is of a certain ethnicity. Further more, state funded education in minority languages exists on all levels (although complaints have been made about insufficient or inadequate university level education in Hungarian). On the other hand Romanian is the official language. Plinul cel tanar 09:27, 22 August 2007 (UTC)

Philippines
Transferred Philippines from Differentiated legal status policies to Valorization of the official language policies since it fits better the Philippine description, as can be seen in Sec. 6 - 9 of the 1987 Constitution. --Bentong Isles 08:16, 31 October 2007 (UTC)

Yet another source?

 * http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/540/polintro/polintro.html --Bentong Isles 08:49, 31 October 2007 (UTC)

Valorisation
I assume that the word "valorisation" arose from a straightforward Anglicisation of that word in the French report. Moreover, it seems to be Quebecois rather than French French, which makes it hard to find a translation. (In French French it seems to have the same crudely economic sense as Wiktionary gives it in English). In context it seems that "promotion" is probably the best translation, and I will be bold and substitute on that basis. HenryAyoola (talk) 21:02, 22 August 2009 (UTC)

 * "To give value or prestige to something" is the intended meaning. While the word is at least in one English dictionary, it probably is quite rarely used. I have no objection to replacing it with the word "promotion" if it can make things clearer. :-) -- Mathieugp (talk) 14:40, 31 August 2009 (UTC)

Slovakia
I think Slovakia promotes the official language (they call it the "state language") and should be colored yellow on the map. See Language law of Slovakia. Qorilla (talk) 18:47, 4 September 2009 (UTC)

Language laws
I came here looking for that which trumps man-made language laws and Google helped me find it: Language change. I'm adding it as "see also." --Pawyilee (talk) 05:14, 16 November 2011 (UTC)
 * PS I was really looking for Grimm's law, but language laws redirected me here. --Pawyilee (talk) 05:39, 16 November 2011 (UTC)

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