text:
Talk:Section sign

Czech keyboard dedicated entry
Czech keyboard has a dedicated paragraph button. Should be added, but I can't edit the page...

217.30.66.51 (talk) 13:14, 24 June 2020 (UTC)

Kalahari Bushmen
I removed all paragraph:

 * In the written language of the Kalahari Bushmen, the section sign is used to warn of nearby snakes, owing to its striking visual similarity to a pair of snakes intertwined. Snakes in Kalahari culture are associated with strong superstitious beliefs; many believe that simply reading about a snake can be fatal. Accordingly, the section sign can either indicate real snakes, or a written paragraph which mentions them.

It was unsourced, written by an anonymous user who was already warned for vandalism and it looks like nonsense. --Amir E. Aharoni 10:18, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

The Origin
I removed this sentence:

 * For an effect comparable to the contemporary use of bold type, early scribes would double stroke letters, hence the sign was developed from a double stroked letter S.

Apart from being unsourced, it is only one (and a rather uncommon) of the possible explanations for the origin of the sign. other theories include a double S referring to the latin "signum sectionis", a derivation from the letter C referring to the latin "caput", as well as various combinations of egyptian, greek and roman signs. It is an ongoing debate, and cannot be finally answered at this point. The various explanations can surely be integrated into the article, but preferably in a special section and with citation.

Meaning in Poland
In Poland, this sign means "paragraph," not "section." The Polish penal code, in turn, is organised in paragraphs. Thus, this sign shows up on the covers of books about law and on law enforcement officers' badges.

Description in this stub does not do a good job explaining that.
 * Yes and no. Indeed in Poland this sign is called "paragraph", but it is used nevertheless as a sign denoting sections. Basic unit in Polish laws is an article, not section (or paragraph). For instance the crime of ordinary homicide is in an article 148 § 1 in criminal code while homicide with the firearm in an article 148 § 2. Only very important laws use § signs (like criminal code, civil code, code of civil/administrative/criminal proceedings etc.) Other laws use so called "ustęps" instead of sections (§). IAAL. Przepla 20:38, 3 October 2007 (UTC)
 * That's not entirely true. Paragraph is actually used as a basic unit of legal text in government's regulations ("rozporządzenie", "zarządzenie", "uchwała" etc.) which are, by theirs nature, placed hierarchically lower than parliament's acts, either codes and ordinary acts, and as such could be regarded as "less important" (but in fact are the significant part of polish legal system). In the case the prevalent denoting pattern is e.g. "§ 1 ust. 1. ......." (section 1 subsection 1). Moreover, the paragraph sign is also used as an universal sign of independent piece of legal text in all kinds of written contracts, by-laws, organisational regulations and alike. Mroq (talk) 14:55, 24 July 2009 (UTC)

In Germany, Legal Codes are also organised in what is called "Paragraphs" in German. The §-sign is used. However, I can assure you that the widley accepted English translation for the German "Paragraph" is indeed section. I guess, it will be the same for the Polish word for §. 138.253.235.78 (talk) 10:43, 25 June 2010 (UTC)

Also in Slovak, this sign means paragraf, which is correctly translated as section. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.212.36.211 (talk) 20:48, 12 December 2010 (UTC)

Just to be clear, the issue here isn't the name of the character as such, it's that in German, Polish, etc., the word "paragraph" means section, while the English word "paragraph" means something completely different (namely, a grouping of sentences, unrelated to being a unit in a legal sense; the German word, for example, is "Absatz"). Consequently, calling it a "paragraph sign" in English is incorrect, because an English paragraph is something totally different. (FWIW, outside of legalese, the English "section" translates to German "Abschnitt".) — tooki (talk) 19:20, 24 July 2020 (UTC)

The instructions for typing § on MS Windows is incorrect
At least when you are using a Swedish keyboard. Nopedia 14:57, 11 November 2007 (UTC)

They're also incorrect for macOS
At least as of the latest version 10.14.6. It's now Option-5. jen729w 10:00, 21 August 2019 (Australia)

Deleted Spore from list
"Many Maxis games, from SimCity 3000 onwards, including The Sims, The Sims Online, The Sims 2 and Spore, use this symbol (with a very round loop) to represent the unit of currency in the SimNation, the simoleon." There is no reference for Spore using Simoleans as any type of currency, in fact it has been suggested that 'evolution/eco points' or something similar will be a 'currency' in said game, I am removing Spore from this list, at least until someone turns up real proof. —Preceding unsigned comment added by KitsuneDragonRA (talk • contribs) 12:43, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

 * What happened to the references to Maxis games? If they were removed for good reason, can someone link to change that led to their removal for the benefit of future editors? InsertGenericMemeHere (talk) 17:38, 27 November 2018 (UTC)

 * Apparently, in the Maxis game, Spore, the in-game currency denoted by the symbol is a "Sporebuck", in use during the Civilization and Space stages of development. Also, the sign continues in use in The Sims franchise. The question arises, however, as to whether such usage is sufficiently noteworthy to merit re-inclusion in the article. As The Sims is undeniably a prominent game series with an international audience, it may. 2600:2B00:9214:4800:248D:F65:7219:B6A5 (talk) 02:15, 14 July 2019 (UTC)

 * I agree; I think its use to stand for Simoleons count as a use of the section sign "in pop culture", and merits inclusion. 122.213.236.124 (talk) 08:45, 3 January 2020 (UTC)

Isn't this symbol called the scilicet?
Isn't the "section sign" actually called the scilicet? Calling it a "section sign" or "section symbol" is like calling the ampersand an "and sign," or the interpunct a "middle dot," or the tilda a "squiggly line." Shouldn't this entry be called the scilicet with a redirect from "Section sign"? —Preceding unsigned comment added by CShippee (talk • contribs) 02:57, 11 April 2009 (UTC)

-->I agree, I was taught in law school § was the symbol for scilicet, meaning "to wit", directing a persons attention to a particular section. --Noahsachs (talk) 13:58, 11 June 2009 (UTC)

 * As I remember from my law school this character is derived from the abbreviation "SS" and in handwriting should be written as two connected "S" one over another. In middle ages it meant something like "it is given", "it is announced". I cannot provide the proper source though (but Viz. seems to corroborate it). Mroq (talk) 15:36, 24 July 2009 (UTC)

Agreed, Viz. is explicit that the symbol is sometimes used to mean scilicet. So this text at Viz. should be removed (though that seems less preferable) or moved to this page, where it seems more appropriate anyway:
 * "In legal usage, scilicet appears abbreviated as ss. It can also appear as a section sign (§) in a caption, where it is used to provide a statement of venue, that is to say a location where an action is to take place." Joel (talk) 23:26, 10 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Viz. doesn't have a citation for that assertion and, given that it was challenged over ten years ago without response, my inclination is to delete it, period. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 00:35, 11 March 2021 (UTC)

 * Could scilicet be considered a special use of the symbol rather than its generic name? None of the following entries for scilicet mention a symbol or "§" specifically, although they do list the abbreviations "ss." and "sc."
 * Merriam-Webster
 * Merriam-Webster Word of the Day
 * American Heritage
 * Contrast this with ampersand, which is defined as "a character typically & ..." [emphasis added]. Pslide (talk) 18:10, 24 July 2009 (UTC)

I thought this was called the "stephanus symbol". anyone heard it called that? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 209.205.102.187 (talk) 07:40, 17 January 2010 (UTC)

No in the USA it is § used for designating a Part like DOT 49 CFR §172.101  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.75.255.201 (talk) 15:22, 5 March 2010 (UTC)

Why do I remember the symbol also being known as "hurricane"? (In addition to its other names.) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.155.241.230 (talk) 03:37, 4 December 2010 (UTC)

It is called the "silcrow." See below. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.207.71.1 (talk) 19:56, 28 June 2016 (UTC)

This is not the name of the symbol but means “it is permitted to know” derivation Middle English then Latin. It is a lot like viz. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2600:6C50:407F:FF66:BC65:BC9E:C203:4069 (talk) 15:48, 30 September 2018 (UTC)

''' method of adding characters, you must use the numeric keypad. Using the number row will not produce the desired effect and may accidently activate some other command(s) that may be bound to the   being typed. This should be made clear for all instances where directions specify using   to add characters that may not be available on a user's keyboard.

For evidence, try it and see what happens (or does not happen). Pressing   with a US keyboard and the en-US locale active, you should get a one-half sign: ½. Now try it gain using the number row. JamesRTwine (talk) 17:09, 17 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Thank you for the feedback and welcome to Wikipedia. If you click on the item Alt+, it takes you to the page that explains Windows Alt codes (I haven't looked, is your clarification recognised there? If not, please repeat your remarks at talk:Alt code because it should be). Per policy Wikipedia is not a manual, we don't go into detail in every article about to do things on every OS as it would rapidly become unmanageable. --𝕁𝕄𝔽 (talk) 21:53, 17 December 2023 (UTC)
 * No, it is addressed there. I never thought to try to click on the  Alt + 0167  text as it did not resemble a link to me.
 * Peace! JamesRTwine (talk) 04:34, 19 December 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 8 April 2024
add Belgian keyboard to list of keyboards who have a dedicated way to access the § sign:

Some keyboards include dedicated ways to access §: Belgian: § (key left of è) Geverin (talk) 11:51, 8 April 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅  (talk | contribs) 11:58, 8 April 2024 (UTC)
 * , is that the Belgian French or the Belgian Dutch or both? 𝕁𝕄𝔽 (talk) 12:56, 8 April 2024 (UTC)
 * It's all the Belgian keyboards
 * - Belgian (Comma)
 * - Belgian (Period)
 * - Belgian French Geverin (talk) 13:14, 8 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Section sign


text:
Toronto Metro

Toronto Metro can refer to:
 * Toronto subway, rapid transit system
 * Metropolitan Toronto, a defunct level of government

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Toronto Metro


text:
Mara (mammal)

Maras, subfamily Dolichotinae, are a group of rodents in the family Caviidae. These large relatives of guinea pigs are common in the Patagonian steppes of Argentina, but also live in Paraguay and elsewhere in South America. There are two extant species, the Patagonian mara of the genus Dolichotis and the Chacoan mara of the genus Pediolagus. Traditionally this species was also thought to belong to Dolichotis; however, a 2020 study by the American Society of Mammalogists found significant difference between the two mara species to warrant resurrecting the genus Pediolagus for it. Several extinct genera are also known.

Description
Maras have stocky bodies, three sharp-clawed digits on the hind feet, and four digits of the fore feet. Maras have been described as resembling long-legged rabbits; while standing, they can also resemble a small ungulate. Patagonian maras can run at speeds up to 29 km/h. The Patagonian species can weigh over 11 kg in adulthood. The average weight of adult male Patagonian maras is 8.3 kg and in adult females is 7.75 kg. Meanwhile, the Chacoan mara, though still large for a rodent, is much smaller, weighing around 1 to 3 kg.

Most maras have brown heads and bodies, dark (almost black) rumps with a white fringe around the base, and white bellies.

Maras may amble, hop in a rabbit-like fashion, gallop, or bounce on all fours. They have been known to leap up to 6 ft.

Maras mate for life, and may have from one to three offspring each year. Mara young are very well-developed, and can start grazing within 24 hours. They use a crèche system, where one pair of adults keeps watch all the young in the crèche. If they spot danger, the young rush below ground into a burrow, and the adults are left to run to escape.

Genera

 * Dolichotis
 * Pediolagus
 * †Eodolichotis
 * †Pliodolichotis
 * †Propediolagus
 * †Rhodanodolichotis

Interaction with humans
Patagonian maras are often kept in zoos or as pets, and are also known as "Patagonian cavies" or "Patagonian hares". They can be quite social with humans if raised with human interaction from a young age, though they avoid people in the wild. Maras may even change their habits from coming out in day to becoming nocturnal, simply to avoid social interaction.

title: Mara (mammal)


text:
Game (disambiguation)

A game is a recreational activity with a set of rules.

Game or games may also refer to:

People with the surname

 * Abram Games (1914–1996, London), British graphic designer
 * Philip Game (1876–1961), British military leader and Governor of New South Wales, Australia
 * William Game (1853–1932), first batsman to score a century for Oxford against Cambridge

People with the stagename

 * The Game (rapper) (born 1979), or Game, an American rapper
 * Triple H (born 1969), professional wrestler who dubbed himself "The Game"

Animals

 * Game (dog), a quality of fighting dogs that are selectively bred and trained to fight
 * Game (hunting), any non-domesticated animal hunted for food or sport

Films

 * Game (1993 film), a Hindi film
 * Game (2002 film), a Tamil film
 * Game (2003 film), a Japanese film
 * Game (2006 film), a Telugu film
 * Game (2011 film), an action Hindi-language film
 * Game (2014 film), a Bengali film
 * Game (2016 film), a Kannada-language film
 * Games (film), a 1967 film starring James Caan

Literature

 * Game (play), a 2015 British play by Mike Bartlett
 * "Game", a short story by Donald Barthelme
 * Games, a 1967 novel by Hal Ellson

Groups

 * Ford & Lopatin, formerly known as Games, an American band

Albums

 * G.A.M.E., a 2006 album by Game
 * Game (KHM album)
 * Game (Perfume album)
 * Game (Flow album), 2004
 * Game (Nikolay Baskov album), 2016
 * Games (Leo Ku album), 2003
 * Games (University of Northern Iowa Jazz Band One album)
 * Game, an album by Piano Squall
 * Games, an album by Larry Fast
 * Games, an EP by Claire, or the title song

Songs

 * "Games" (Chuckii Booker song), 1992
 * "Games" (Luke Bryan song), 2015
 * "Games" (New Kids on the Block song), 1991
 * "Game", a song by BoA from the 2010 album Hurricane Venus
 * "Game", a song by Adonxs from the 2022 album Age of Adonxs
 * "Game", a song by Ayumi Hamasaki, the B-side of the single Inspire
 * "Game", a song by Doja Cat from the 2018 album Amala
 * "Game", a song by Jme from the 2015 album Integrity>
 * "Games", a song by Demi Lovato from the 2017 album Tell Me You Love Me
 * "Games", a song by The Strokes from the 2011 album Angles
 * "Games", a song by Cher from the 1982 album I Paralyze, later covered by Tina Turner
 * "Games", a song by the Jonas Brothers from Jonas Brothers
 * "Games", a song by Tessa Violet from the 2019 album Bad Ideas

Periodicals

 * Games (magazine), an American game and puzzle magazine
 * GamesTM, a magazine

Television

 * "Games" (House), a 2007 episode of House
 * "Games" (seaQuest DSV), a 1993 episode of seaQuest DSV
 * "Games", a Series G episode of the television series QI (2009)

Brands and enterprises

 * Game (retailer), a major British video game retailer
 * Game, a South African general retailer, operated by Massmart (a subsidiary of Wal-Mart)

Mathematics and science

 * Game form, a strategic interaction between individuals in game theory
 * Games, a mathematical superset of surreal numbers
 * Game, a common counterproductive social interaction in transactional analysis
 * Simulation video game, a simulation or reenactment undertaken for training, analysis, or prediction

Other uses

 * Game (grape), also known as Gamé, another name for the wine grape Blaufränkisch
 * Georgia Academy of Mathematics, Engineering and Science, an early college entrance program
 * Ludi Romani, or Roman Games, a religious festival in ancient Rome
 * Mind games, a form of covert psychological influence

title: Game (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:Subash Chandra Bose

I removed text that was copyright violation from http://www.netaji.org/ina.htm and redirected to Subhas Chandra Bose. I have no idea which of these two spellings is preferred, so I just picked the one with the most Google hits. Feel free to switch them around if I got it wrong. DJ Clayworth 19:36, 27 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Subash Chandra Bose


text:
Pitești

Pitești is a city in Romania, located on the river Argeș. The capital and largest city of Argeș County, it is an important commercial and industrial center, as well as the home of two universities. Pitești is situated in the historical region of Muntenia. It lies on the A1 freeway connecting the city directly to the national capital Bucharest, being an important railway junction, with a classification yard in nearby Bălilești. The city houses the Arpechim oil refinery, and is a marketing center for the automotive industry, in particular, Automobile Dacia.

Inhabited since prehistoric times but first mentioned in the 14th century, it developed as a trading town in northern Wallachia, serving as an informal residence for various Wallachian Princes until the 18th century. From the 19th century and until the interwar period, it was an important political center for the National Liberal Party and the main residence of the Brătianu family of politicians. During the early stages of the communist regime, it was one of the main sites of political repression, with the Pitești Prison becoming home to an experiment in brainwashing techniques.

Early history
The earliest traces of human settlements in this area relate to the Paleolithic. Coins minted by the Dacians during the 3rd century BC, copying the design of Thracian tetradrachmon issued by Lysimachus, have been discovered here. A small Roman castrum was built sometime in the 3rd century AD in the vicinity of present-day Pitești (part of a protection system for Roman Dacia and Moesia). During the Age of Migrations, the Pitești area was, according to historian Constantin C. Giurescu, the site of trading between Vlachs and Slavs, which, in his opinion, was the origin of Târgul din Deal ("The Market on the Hill"), a separate locality.

The first recorded mention of Pitești itself was on May 20, 1386, when Wallachian Prince Mircea I granted a gristmill in the area to Cozia Monastery. Pitești was subsequently one of the temporary residences of Wallachian Princes. Due to its positioning on the junction of major European routes (and its proximity to the Saxon markets in Hermannstadt, Transylvania), the city originally developed as an important commercial center. By the late 14th century, it became home to a sizable Armenian community.

At the time, the locality was only extending on the left bank of the Argeș, and gradually expanded over the river, reaching the hill slopes to the west (in the 19th century, it completely absorbed Târgul din Deal). While Pitești was commonly designated as a high-ranking town, a village of Pitești was still mentioned as late as 1528, which led some historians to conclude that the village and urban area coexisted within the same boundaries.

Early Modern period
Although princely quarters have not been uncovered, among the rulers to issue documents from Pitești were Basarab Țepeluș cel Tânăr (1477–1481), Neagoe Basarab (1512–1521), Vlad Înecatul (1530–1532), Vlad Vintilă de la Slatina (1532–1535), Michael the Brave (1593–1601), Simion Movilă (1601–1602), Matei Basarab (1632–1654) and Constantin Șerban (1654–1658). In addition, Constantin Brâncoveanu (1688–1714), who owned large sections of vineyard in the area, is reported to have spent several seasons in the town.

Under Vlad Vintilă, who allied himself with the Holy Roman Empire against his Ottoman overlords, Aloisio Gritti (governor of Ottoman Hungary) and his Wallachian boyar partisans camped in the Pitești neighborhood of Războieni, where they were attacked and defeated by the Prince. In 1600–1601, troops of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, led by Jan Zamoyski, were stationed in Pitești during their expedition against Michael the Brave (see Moldavian Magnate Wars). Around that time, fighting occurred in and around the town as the new prince Radu Șerban clashed with the Ottomans and their Crimean Khanate allies.

Constantin Șerban financed the building of the Orthodox Saint George Church, completed in 1656. His building program also included a (since-lost) palace and adjacent gardens. Around that time, the city hosted travelers of renown, such as Arab chronicler Paul of Aleppo and Swedish politician Claes Rålamb. It was during Brâncoveanu's rule that the city was home to Stolnic Constantin Cantacuzino, who was exchanging letters with English statesman William, Baron Paget. A tower and other princely houses, built by Brâncoveanu outside the town, gradually deteriorated over the 18th and 19th centuries (the last standing structure was lost in the 20th century). In 1689, Habsburg troops led by Louis William of Baden occupied the city as part of the Great Turkish War (they were repelled later that year).

18th and early 19th centuries

In November 1714, as a direct result of Swedish defeats in the Great Northern War against Imperial Russia, Swedish King Charles XII unsuccessfully sought an alliance with Sultan Ahmed III; on his way back from Istanbul, Charles and Axel Sparre passed through Pitești, and, after a three-week stay, made their way to Swedish Pomerania through Habsburg-ruled regions. During the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–1718, Habsburg troops attacked and captured the town; Pitești was again the scene of battles during the Austro-Turkish War of 1737–1739.

In 1780, Tuscan numismatist Domenico Sestini passed through the Argeș region, and described the town as having 250 houses and 7 churches. In 1804, the citizens requested to have an upper school opened (to offer lectures in Greek, the educational language of the time); their request was denied by Prince Constantine Ypsilantis. During the 1790s, Pitești was visited by Luigi Mayer, a German pupil of Giovanni Battista Piranesi, who left etchings of the region (including the very first one of Pitești); they were published in London in 1810, with text by a T. Bowyer, whose caption for Pitești read "nothing more wild or romantic can be conceived".

The town was an important location for events relating to the last stage of the Wallachian uprising of 1821 and the first stages of the Greek War of Independence: it was here that, in late spring 1821, the Wallachian rebel leader Tudor Vladimirescu settled after retreating from Bucharest. His departure raised suspicion from his Eterist allies that he was planning to abandon the common cause. Vladimirescu was captured in the nearby locality of Băilești and executed soon after, on orders from Alexander Ypsilantis.

Late 19th and early 20th century

The city was developed further after the 1859 unification of the Danubian Principalities and the 1881 creation of the Romanian Kingdom. Around that time, and down to the late interwar, the city became a National Liberal center, largely due to the Brătianu family of politicians residing in nearby Ștefănești. Their manor, Florica, housed most major reunions of the National Liberal leaders. For a short period in 1882, Pitești was home to dramatist Ion Luca Caragiale, leading some to propose that it was the unnamed National Liberal-dominated city depicted in Caragiale's famous play O scrisoare pierdută.

By 1872, a national railway connection with the capital Bucharest and Târgoviște was built, at the same time as one linking Bucharest with Ploiești through Chitila. Overseen by the German financier Bethel Henry Strousberg, this was the second project of its kind in Romania (after the Bucharest-Giurgiu rail link of 1869). The Pitești Town Hall was completed in 1886, and currently houses an art gallery. The Argeș County Prefecture, designed by Dimitrie Maimarolu, was erected in 1898–1899 on the site previously occupied by an Orthodox hermitage; it is the present-day site of the County Museum of History and Natural Sciences. Both buildings are eclectic in style, and feature frescoes painted by Iosif Materna.

Pitești experienced urbanization and economic development with several changes in landscape and a number of regional firsts. In 1868–1869, Pitești was the first city in Romania to have a recorded Seventh-day Adventist community, formed around Michał Belina-Czechowski, a Polish preacher and former Catholic priest who had returned from the United States (the Seventh-day Adventist Church in Romania was established only after 1918). By 1906, Pitești was home to a thriving cooperative bank, Banca Populară Pitești, which was also the first-ever financial institution in the Argeș County. In 1907, factory manager Edmond Landauer performed the very first Tayloristic experiments in Romania, at Pitești Weaving Mill.

From late autumn 1916 to 1918, during the World War I battles, Pitești was occupied by the troops of the Central Powers. The city was originally abandoned by the Romanian Army and taken by the German commander August von Mackensen as the front stabilized on the Olt River, before Mackensen was able to occupy Bucharest and the entire southern Romania. During the post-war existence of Greater Romania, Pitești became a regional cultural center, notably hosting the 1928–1929 series of the magazine Kalende (published in cooperation by literary critics Vladimir Streinu, Șerban Cioculescu, Pompiliu Constantinescu, and Tudor Șoimaru).

World War II and communism

Pitești was affected in various ways by World War II and its successive regimes. After a fascist National Legionary State was proclaimed by the Iron Guard in late 1940, a bronze bust of former Premier Armand Călinescu (whom the Guard had assassinated in September 1939), was chained and dragged through the city streets. In December 1943, under the dictatorship of Conducător Ion Antonescu (a Pitești native), it saw the final chapter in a chain of deportations of Romani people to Transnistria (see Holocaust in Romania). The city was sporadically bombed by the Allies: on July 4, 1944, it was struck by a section of the US Fifteenth Air Force (see Bombing of Romania in World War II).

In the 1950s, while serving as capital of Regiunea Argeș, Pitești gained an ill notoriety, when the communist authorities used the local detention facility to subject political detainees to "reeducation", in which violence between inmates was encouraged to the point of being mandatory (see Pitești prison). The experiment was carried out by the Securitate secret police and overseen by Alexandru Nicolschi; its goal was to psychologically destroy the capacity for outside attachment and outside loyalty, creating the brainwashed New Man prototype of Leninism. The program was canceled after some five years. At a trial held in 1953–1954, twenty-two inmate-participants were sentenced, with sixteen being condemned to death for their role in the experiment. In 1957, a new trial convicted certain members of the prison staff, who received light sentences; they were later pardoned.

In parallel, Pitești underwent numerous changes in landscape, including the completion of the A1 freeway, the first road of its kind, during the 1960s, and the acceleration of industrialization with a focus on the chemical and automotive industries. Around 1950, Pitești area accommodated ELAS refugees from the Greek Civil War (some of the buildings erected for this purpose were later used to house resettled peasants). Florica was nationalized in 1948, and was later partly devastated by Romanian Communist Party activists (for a while during the 1970s, it was a residence of the communist politician Ion Dincă). The bust of Ion Brătianu, standing in front of Saint Nicholas Church, was removed and melted, and the church itself was demolished in 1962.

Geography
The city is part of the historical region of Wallachia, situated in its north and in the westernmost part of its Muntenian subregion. It lies on the right bank of the Argeș, where the river meets its tributary, Râul Doamnei.

Pitești is situated 280 m above sea level, on terraces formed by the Argeș, and belongs to the southernmost section of the Getic Plateau (an area of foothills leading up to the Southern Carpathians). The Plateau is at its narrowest in the Pitești area, where it only reaches 30 km in width, as opposed to the 70 - 80 km average. The city has access to a piedmont plain, known as Câmpia Piteștilor ("Pitești Plain") and characterized by water-meadows. To the west, it abuts the Trivale Forest, which has been partly set up as a leisure park.

Pitești is adjacent to two reservoirs on the Argeș, in its Prundu area and in nearby Bascov (the Budeasa Dam). It is situated downstream from Lake Vidraru and upstream from the reservoir in Bălilești.

Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification, the city lies within the humid continental climate (Dfb) category. Average annual temperatures range between 9 °C and 10 °C. The average January temperature is -2.4 °C, while the average July temperature is 20.8 °C.

Demographics
As of 2021 census data, 141,275 inhabitants live within the city limits, a decrease from the figure recorded at the 2011 census.

Romania's 2011 census recorded a population of 155,383 for the city. Of the individuals for whom data were available, 99.1% were ethnic Romanians and 0.6% Roma. In terms of religion, 98.4% were Romanian Orthodox; 0.3% Roman Catholic; and 0.2% each Pentecostal, Christian Evangelical, Baptist and Evangelical. A further 0.2% were atheist or non-religious. A 2016 estimate placed the population at 177,485. The 1930 census found that 88.0% of residents were Romanians, 3.0% Jews, 2.5% Hungarians, 2.2% Roma, 1.4% Germans, 0.6% Greeks and 0.3% each Russians, Bulgarians, Armenians and, grouped together, Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

The population of Pitești grew between the 1830s and the 1990s, with the most sustained period of growth occurring after the 1950s, when industrial development created jobs and attracted residents from nearby settlements. The population peaked at an estimated 187,000 in 1997, then stagnated until 2001, and has gradually decreased since that time. The drop is particularly noticeable among the male population: this segment not only has a higher mortality and lower life expectancy, but also, due to de-industrialization, emigrated in search of work in significant numbers.

Economy
Pitești is one of the most industrialized cities in Romania. It is the center of the automotive industry in the country: the Automobile Dacia automaker is situated in the nearby town of Mioveni, and several other automobile parts manufacturers are located within its urban area (Dräxlmaier Group, Lear Corporation and Valeo). The city also houses the Arpechim oil refinery, part of the Petrom group. The plant, established as a state-owned company during communism, has traditionally been the center of controversy over its air pollution records. In 2007, the Ministry of the Environment withdrew Arpechim's permit, but Petrom contested the decision in court. The plant is scheduled to gradually reduce its activity over a period of several years, pending eventual closure.

The city is surrounded by hills rich in wineries and plum orchards. The latter give one of the finest Romanian țuicas: țuica de Pitești. The Ștefănești winery, situated on the opposite bank of the Argeș River, is one of the best known in Romania.

Theatre
Pitești is home to a County Theater; established in 1948, it was named in honor of playwright Alexandru Davila a decade later. Its branches include a puppet theater (created in 1949), the Estrada section for open-air performances (1958), and a folklore section (1970). The Theater's Studio 125 was established in May 1975 by director Liviu Ciulei.

The first written record of a theatrical performance in the city dates to 1848, when Constantin Halepliu set up a troupe. Following that year's revolution, several actors, Halepliu included, were arrested, and the theatre closed until 1856. A Communal Theatre was built in 1914–1916. Since 1948, the local acting ensemble has performed both in other Romanian cities and abroad, including in Poland, Serbia, Bulgaria, Italy and Spain.

Education

The city houses two universities: the state-run University of Pitești and the private Constantin Brâncoveanu University (founded 1991, with branches in Brăila and Râmnicu Vâlcea). There are 17 secondary education institutions, including two main high schools—the Ion Brătianu National College (founded 1866) and the Zinca Golescu National College. There are also 20 primary schools, 23 kindergartens and 10 nursery schools.

A public library, named after intellectual figure Dinicu Golescu, was planned in 1869 by Paraschiva Stephu, a female member of the upper class, who drew up a will leaving 200 Austrian ducats for the purpose of creating a library. The institution became operational in 1880, and a large part of the volumes were bequeathed by historian George Ionescu-Gion immediately following his death in 1904. His donation included over a thousand books in Romanian, French and Italian. The library moved into its current headquarters in the city center in 2003.

Festivals
Each year during springtime, Pitești is host to a festival and fair known as Simfonia lalelelor (the "Tulip Symphony"). Tulips were introduced locally in 1972–1973, when around 3,000 bulbs brought from Arad and Oradea were planted in its central area, along with other flowers. Pitești consequently acquired a reputation as a tulip-growing area, and the flower-themed festival was first organized by the local authorities in 1978. Typically held in the cultural centre building (Casa Cărții), the festival also includes folk music performances, international scientific conferences, an art exhibit and youth sport competitions.

Sport
The major football club in the city is FC Argeș Pitești, which has generally played in Liga I, and has the Nicolae Dobrin Stadium as its home ground. In addition, the city was home to a Liga II football club, Internațional Pitești (located on Stadionul Ștrand), and has a school which doubles as a junior team, Sporting Pitești. Pitești hosts basketball team BCM U Pitești, as well as a women's volleyball team, Argeș Volei Pitești.

Pitești is home to an Olympic size swimming pool, the home ground for CSM Pitești, and a public outdoor swimming pool in the Tudor Vladimirescu area. Nearby Bascov also has a public swimming place, on grounds adjacent to the Budeasa Dam. The national canoe racing also trains at the Budeasa Dam sports base, and the location is also used for recreational fishing. A tennis challenger tournament (Turneul challenger feminin Pitești) takes place each year, on grounds in Bascov.

Notable people

 * Ion Antonescu
 * Ilie Bărbulescu
 * Mauriciu Blank
 * Alexandru Bogdan-Pitești
 * Dimitrie Brătianu
 * Ion Brătianu
 * Armand Călinescu
 * Corneliu Calotescu
 * Nicolae Comănescu
 * Nicolae Dică
 * Nicolae Dobrin
 * Ruxandra Dragomir
 * Haralamb H. Georgescu
 * Al. Gherghel
 * Gheorghe Ionescu-Gion
 * Alexandru Kirițescu
 * Cristian Minculescu
 * Adrian Neaga
 * Marian Oprea
 * Constance Pascal
 * Sebastian Papaiani
 * Mircea Pârligras
 * Nicolae Penescu
 * Costin Petrescu
 * Rudolf Schweitzer-Cumpăna
 * Ioan Sion
 * Smiley
 * Lavinia Stan
 * Bogdan Stancu
 * Cristian Tănase
 * Tudor Teodorescu-Braniște
 * Teo Trandafir
 * Ion Trivale
 * Lucian Turcescu
 * Robert Turcescu
 * Adrian Ungur
 * Zavaidoc

Twin towns – sister cities
Pitești is twinned with:

 * 🇵🇸 Beit Jala, Palestine
 * 🇸🇪 Borlänge, Sweden
 * 🇵🇱 Bydgoszcz, Poland
 * 🇮🇹 Caserta, Italy
 * 🇨🇳 Chongqing, China
 * 🇦🇲 Gyumri, Armenia
 * 🇷🇸 Kragujevac, Serbia
 * 🇵🇭 Muntinlupa, Philippines
 * 🇬🇷 Nafplio, Greece
 * Ourém, Portugal
 * 🇺🇸 Springfield, Ohio, United States
 * Tynaarlo, Netherlands

title: Pitești


text:
Lyric Opera of Chicago

Lyric Opera of Chicago is one of the leading opera companies in the United States. It was founded in Chicago in 1954, under the name 'Lyric Theatre of Chicago' by Carol Fox, Nicola Rescigno and Lawrence Kelly, with a season that included Maria Callas's American debut in Norma. The company was re-organized by Fox in 1956 under its present name and, after her 1981 departure, it has continued to be of one of the major opera companies in the United States. The Lyric is housed in a theater and related spaces in the Civic Opera Building. These spaces are now owned by the Lyric.

Opera in Chicago 1850–1954
The first opera to be performed in Chicago was Bellini's La sonnambula, presented by a traveling opera company on 29 July 1850. Chicago's first opera house opened in 1865 but was destroyed in the Great Fire of Chicago in 1871. The second opera house, the Chicago Auditorium, opened in 1889.

In 1929 the current Civic Opera House on 20 North Wacker Drive was opened, though the Chicago Civic Opera Company itself collapsed in the Great Depression. The old Auditorium continued to produce stage shows and musicals until it closed in 1941.

Resident opera companies began in Chicago in 1910 with the Chicago Grand Opera Company being formed from the remains of the Manhattan Opera Company, which had been founded by Oscar Hammerstein I, and had been squeezed out by the more financially sound Metropolitan Opera. Chicago had this first company for four seasons, then, after no season in 1914/15, it was re-formed as the Chicago Opera Association. This lasted through 1921/22, when it became the Chicago Civic Opera from 1922 until 1932. After no season in 1932/33, the company was re-formed and again named the Chicago Grand Opera Company from 1933 to 1935. From 1936 to 1939, the company was called Chicago City Opera Company, and finally from 1940 to 1946 opera was presented by the Chicago Opera Company. There were no seasons from 1947 until 1953, so opera was presented by other companies on tour. Lyric Opera was formed in 1954 and has continued uninterrupted except for 1967.

Lyric Opera, 1954 to 1980
Carol Fox, America's first female opera impresario at the age of 28, began her first season in 1954 by bringing Maria Callas for her American debut in the title role of Norma, the first of many electrifying Callas performances in Chicago. However, this first eight-opera season in 1954 was not the result of a long apprenticeship in opera production; Carol Fox, fluent in Italian and French, had studied opera singing for many years, culminating in two years of intensive work in Italy. However, when she realized that performance was not to be in her future, she decided that it lay in bringing the performances of the world's finest artists to her home town of Chicago. Her success can be measured in one statistic regarding the filling of the Lyric's Civic Opera House: in 1954, the season ran for three weeks; in 2007/08 the Lyric had an almost six-month season.

Fox also used her formidable persuasive powers on artists other than singers: she was able to bring Rudolf Nureyev to make his debut on an American opera stage at the Lyric; Vera Zorina, Alicia Markova, Erik Bruhn and Maria Tallchief also danced at the Lyric, and George Balanchine created choreography for the Lyric. The Italian composer Pino Donati was her artistic director. Bruno Bartoletti was principal conductor, but other conductors included Tullio Serafin, Dimitri Mitropoulos and Artur Rodziński. Christoph von Dohnányi and Sir Georg Solti chose the Lyric for their American operatic debuts. Franco Zeffirelli staged operas as did Harold Prince. After retiring from dancing, Tallchief moved to Chicago where she served as director of ballet for the Lyric from 1973 to 1979. In 1974, she founded Lyric Opera's ballet school, where she taught the Balanchine technique.

Because of Fox's illnesses and her refusal to lower her artistic standards despite the Lyric's dire financial state in 1980, her resignation was sought and given. She died a few months later, survived by a daughter, Victoria.

It was of the Lyric's founder that Saul Bellow wrote in 1979 "Miss Fox will be remembered, together with Jane Addams of Hull House and Harriet Monroe of Poetry magazine, as one of Chicago's greatest women."

Throughout the many years at the Lyric, Carol Fox developed the confidence and authority to bring world-famous artists to the Lyric: Luciano Pavarotti (56 performances in 7 roles), Tito Gobbi, Eleanor Steber, Jussi Björling, Birgit Nilsson, Renata Tebaldi, Giuseppe Di Stefano, Giulietta Simionato, Richard Tucker, Boris Christoff, Eileen Farrell, Dorothy Kirsten, Leonie Rysanek, Leontyne Price, Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Geraint Evans, Mirella Freni, Nicolai Ghiaurov, Alfredo Kraus, Renata Scotto, Robert Merrill, Joan Sutherland, Christa Ludwig, Jon Vickers, Marilyn Horne, Grace Bumbry, Montserrat Caballé, Tatiana Troyanos, Sherrill Milnes, Plácido Domingo, Felicia Weathers, Vyacheslav Polozov and José Carreras. Anna Moffo also chose the Lyric for her American debut.

The Lyric Opera of Chicago is one of the most prestigious opera companies in the world. Lyric has consistently distinguished itself by presenting the best worldwide singers, conductors, directors, and designers in classic and lesser-known operatic repertory, as well as world-premiere productions, since its inception in 1954.

Later administrations
Carol Fox was succeeded at the Lyric by her longtime assistant manager, Ardis Krainik (1981–1996), after whom the opera house was later named, and then by William Mason (1997–2011). Anthony Freud took over in October 2011. His tenure was extended through 2026.

From 1964 to 1974, Bruno Bartoletti, served as co-artistic director and principal conductor, and became sole director and principal from 1974 to 2000. Sir Andrew Davis was Lyric's music director and principal conductor, a post he occupied beginning in September 2000. Davis retired in June 2021 and passed the baton to Enrique Mazzola, Lyric Opera's current music director and principal conductor.

Danny Newman was the company's long-time press agent from 1954 until his retirement in the 2001/02 season; Newman is largely credited as the founder of subscription-based arts marketing, the standard economic model for not-for-profit arts organizations in the US. Philip David Morehead was head of music staff until his retirement in 2015.

In September 2020, Lyric announced the election of Sylvia Neil as chair of Lyric’s board of directors, the first woman board chair in Lyric’s history.

Production history
In addition to the standard operatic repertoire, Lyric also presents contemporary works. Recent productions have included Harbison's The Great Gatsby (2000–2001), Weill's Street Scene (2001–2002), Floyd's Susannah, Sondheim's Sweeney Todd (2002–2003), and John Adams' Doctor Atomic directed by Peter Sellars.

Composer William Bolcom wrote his most recent opera for Lyric, A Wedding, based on the 1978 film of the same name directed by Robert Altman. It premiered during Lyric's 50th-anniversary season. During the 2015/16 season, the company premiered its latest commission, Bel Canto by Peruvian composer Jimmy López with a libretto by Nilo Cruz based on the novel by Ann Patchett.

The Lyric Opera productions were broadcast and nationally syndicated by WFMT Radio Network, from 1971 until 2001. The broadcasts ceased then because of a loss of sponsorship. The issue was resolved at the 11th hour for the October 21, 2006 premiere of Richard Strauss's opera Salome starring Deborah Voigt. Syndicated broadcast of the Lyric Opera resumed in May 2007 on the WFMT network, which was included on XM Satellite Radio before it merged and became SiriusXM Radio.

Civic Opera House
The company's permanent home is the Civic Opera House, sections of the building which it rented from 1954 until after the 1993 renovations, when it bought those facilities. It is a 1929 structure with an Art Deco interior. Its 3,563-seat capacity makes it the second-largest opera auditorium in North America after the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City. The interior was named The Ardis Krainik Theatre in 1996 in honor of Ardis Krainik, the former General Director, who was responsible for its renovation from 1993 onwards.

Joffrey Ballet
In 2017, Lyric Opera of Chicago as house manager of the theater announced that the Joffrey Ballet planned to move from its longtime performance venue at the Auditorium Theatre to the opera house in 2020. The announcement coincided with the Lyric's presentation of a new production of Gluck's Orfeo ed Euridice by choreographer John Neumeier; the production fused the musical and ballet elements of the opera and featured the Joffrey Ballet.

Patrick G. and Shirley W. Ryan Opera Center
The Patrick G. and Shirley W. Ryan Opera Center (formerly, 1981–2006), established in 1974 as the Lyric Opera School by Carol Fox, is the professional artist-development program for Lyric Opera of Chicago.

The Ryan Opera Center is considered one of the most prestigious vocal programs in America, and has produced notable singers, including:

 * Harolyn Blackwell
 * Nicole Cabell
 * Mark S. Doss
 * Elizabeth Futral
 * Cecelia Hall
 * Joseph Kaiser
 * Quinn Kelsey
 * Gary Lehman
 * Emily Magee
 * Susanna Phillips
 * Matthew Polenzani
 * Erin Wall
 * Guang Yang
 * Kathleen Kuhlmann

Approximately a dozen young singers are selected from the near 400 who audition annually, and they are in residence for twelve months. Over the course of the year they receive advanced instruction in numerous aspects of operatic performance, including voice lessons and coachings, language and acting training, and master classes with some of opera's most renowned artists. The singers gain valuable performing experience by participating in recitals and concerts at many Chicago-area venues. During Lyric Opera's mainstage season, they perform and understudy roles at all levels. The singers work with the world's greatest opera singers, conductors, and directors, thus advancing the young artists’ professionalism. In 2005, author William Murray wrote a book about a year in the life of an entering class at the Ryan Opera Center.

The first director of the Ryan Opera Center during its beginning years from 1974-1981, when it was renamed the Lyric Opera Center Center, and continuing until 1991, when he retired, was Lee Schaenen. Andrew Földi succeeded him as director of the Ryan Opera Center from 1991 to 1995. He was succeeded by Richard Pearlman, who was director of the program from 1995 until his death in 2006. Renowned soprano Gianna Rolandi, who had been the Ryan Opera Center's director of vocal studies and principal instructor since 2002, was appointed director of the program in 2006. The program is now administered by Dan Novak, director; Craig Terry, music director; Julia Faulkner, director of vocal studies, and Renée Fleming, advisor.

title: Lyric Opera of Chicago


text:
Talk:Sacagawea

Her name had the sound of the country her father founded “Boston” we as a people usually give our children multiple names including a middle name. Jean Baptiste DuSable her father married her mother in 1788 the year she was born. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 141.154.13.95 (talk) 14:51, 29 August 2022 (UTC)

Children's Musical
sang a song, solo, about longing for the family she was stolen away from. and a sweet reunion with her bro Cmeowait, The Burley Crew, by Arlene Ydstie. Popplars Pub., Grand Forks ND Issacson (talk) 16:51, 20 December 2023 (UTC)

Lewis and Clark
She was part of the Lewis and Clark expedition 2601:48:4301:D5C0:81E4:3BC6:4A9D:453B (talk) 11:07, 3 April 2024 (UTC)

Don’t know the date of death
We do not know when she died 2601:48:4301:D5C0:81E4:3BC6:4A9D:453B (talk) 11:11, 3 April 2024 (UTC)

 * Wow 2601:48:4301:D5C0:81E4:3BC6:4A9D:453B (talk) 11:12, 3 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sacagawea


text:
Serbian Armed Forces

The Serbian Armed Forces (Војска Србије) is the military of Serbia.

The President of the Republic acts as commander-in-chief of the armed forces, while administration and defence policy is carried out by the Government through the Ministry of Defence. The highest operational authority, in-charge of the deployment and preparation of the armed forces in peace and war, is the General Staff.

Military service is voluntary, though conscription may occur in wartime. As of 2024, Serbia is ranked 56 out of 145 countries considered for the annual GFP review.

The Serbian Armed Forces consists of two branches: Serbian Army and Serbian Air Force and Air Defence.

History
Serbia has a long military tradition dating to early medieval period. The modern Serbian military dates back to the Serbian Revolution which started in 1804 with the First Serbian Uprising against the Ottoman occupation of Serbia. The victories in the battles of Ivankovac (1805), Mišar (August 1806), Deligrad (December 1806) and Belgrade (November–December 1806), led to the establishment of the Principality of Serbia in 1817. The subsequent Second Serbian Uprising of 1815–1817 led to full independence and recognition of the Kingdom of Serbia and weakened the Ottoman dominance in the Balkans. In November 1885 the Serbo-Bulgarian War occurred following Bulgarian unification and resulted in a Bulgarian victory. In 1912 the First Balkan War (1912–1913) erupted between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan League (Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria). Balkan League victories in the Battle of Kumanovo (October 1912), the Battle of Prilep (November 1912), the Battle of Monastir (November 1912), the Battle of Adrianople (November 1912 to March 1913), and the Siege of Scutari (October 1912 to April 1913) resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, which lost most of its remaining Balkan territories per the Treaty of London (May 1913). Shortly after, the Second Balkan War (June to August, 1913) broke out when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with the division of territory, declared war against its former allies, Serbia and Greece. Following a string of defeats, Bulgaria requested an armistice and signed the 1913 Treaty of Bucharest, formally ending the war.

Serbia's independence and growing influence threatened neighboring Austria-Hungary which led to the Bosnian crisis of 1908–09. Consequently, from 1901, all Serbian males between the ages of 21 and 46 became liable for general mobilization. Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in June 1914, Austria-Hungary implicated Serbians and declared war on Serbia (July 1914), which marked the beginning of the First World War of 1914–1918. Serbian forces repelled three consecutive invasions by Austria in 1914, securing the first major victories of the war for the Allies, but were eventually overwhelmed by the combined forces of the Central Powers (October–November 1915) and forced to retreat through Albania (1915–1916) to the Greek island of Corfu (1915–1916).

Serbian military activity after World War I took place in the context of various Yugoslav armies until the break-up of Yugoslavia in the 1990s and the restoration of Serbia as an independent state in 2006.

Organization
The Serbian Armed Forces are commanded by the General Staff corp of senior officers. The general staff is led by the Chief of the General Staff. The President who is the Commander-in-Chief appoints the Chief of the General Staff on the suggestion of the minister of defense. The current Chief of the General Staff is General Milan Mojsilović.

Service branches
The armed forces consist of the following service branches:
 * Kov vs.PNG Serbian Army
 * Serbian Air Force and Air Defence coat of arms.svg Serbian Air Force and Air Defence

Serbian Army
The Serbian Army (Kopnena vojska Srbije - KoV) is the land-based and the largest component of the armed forces consisting of: infantry, armoured, artillery, engineering units as well as River Flotilla. It is responsible for defending the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Serbia; participating in peacekeeping operations; and providing humanitarian aid and disaster relief.

Serbian Air Force and Air Defence
The Serbian Air Force and Air Defence (Ratno vazduhoplovstvo i protivvazduhoplovna odbrana Vojske Srbije - RViPVO) is the aviation and anti-aircraft defence based component of the armed forces consisting of: aviation, anti-aircraft, surveillance and reconnaissance units. Its mission is to guard and protect the sovereignty of Serbian airspace, and jointly with the Army, to protect territorial integrity.

Command structure
Command structure of the Serbian Armed Forces is centered around General Staff as the highest command authority, and three separate commands: one for each of the branches (Army Command and Air Force and Air Defence Command) and one responsible for training (Training Command).

General Staff
The Serbian General Staff (Generalštab Vojske Srbije) makes strategic and tactical preparations and procedures for use during peacetime and war. Special forces (63rd Parachute Brigade and 72nd Brigade for Special Operations) are under direct command of the Chief of the General Staff. Organizational units of the Armed Forces subordinated to the General Staff are: Guard, Signal Brigade, Central Logistics Base, 224th Center for Electronic Action, Technical Testing Center, Peacekeeping Operations Center, as well as the Directorate of Military Police (which includes Criminal Investigative Group and Detachment of the Military Police for Special Operations "Cobras").

Army Command
Army Command (Komanda Kopnene vojske) is responsible for unitary, administrative and operational control of the Army. Army Command headquarters is in Niš.

Air Force and Air Defence Command
Air Force and Air Defence Command (Komanda Ratnog vazduhoplovstva i protivvazduhoplovne odbrane) is responsible for unitary, administrative and operational control of the Air Force and Air Defence. Its headquarters is in Zemun.

Training Command
The Training Command (Komanda za obuku) is responsible for providing basic and specialist training for soldiers, non-commissioned officers and officers of Serbian Armed Forces as well the members of foreign armies. It also serves the role of maintaining the reserve regional brigade structure of the Serbian Armed Forces.

Equipment
The Serbian Armed Forces has a wide variety of equipment, mix of older Yugoslav and Soviet products (dating back to the 1980s and even 1970s) and new equipment, either domestically-produced from Serbian defence contractors or acquired from foreign producers (main suppliers being Russia, France, China, and to a lesser extent Germany).

Inventory of Serbian Army includes: 242 tanks (30 Russian T-72 B1MS and 212 Yugoslav-made M-84), 90 self-propelled howitzers (18 domestically-produced Nora B-52 and 72 Soviet-made Gvozdika), 60 Yugoslav-made M-77 Oganj MRLs, 320 Yugoslav-made BVP M-80 infantry fighting vehicles, 37 domestically-produced Lazar armoured personnel carriers, over 100 MRAPs and other armoured vehicles (including 43 domestically-produced Miloš) as well as 18 pieces of domestically-produced PASARS-16 short-range air-defence missile system (armed with total of 50 French Mistral 3 missiles).

Serbian Air Force and Air Defense has in operational use the following equipment: 13 Soviet-made MiG-29 fighter aircraft (10 of which are modernized to SM standard and armed with R-77 missiles), 13 Yugoslav-made J-22 attack aircraft, 2 Spanish C-295 transport aircraft, 15 Russian Mi-35 attack helicopter (armed with Ataka missiles), 13 Russian Mi-17 utility helicopters, 6 (and 9 more on order) German H145M utility helicopters, 6 Chinese CH-92 combat drones, 4 batteries of Chinese HQ-22 long-range air-defence missile system, one battery (and 2 more on order) of Russian Pantsir medium-range air-defence missile system.

In last several years Serbia has embarked on ambitious programme of equipment modernisation and acquisition. Whenever possible, the Serbian Ministry of Defence favors products that are manufactured in Serbia such as: Lazar armoured personnel carriers, Miloš light armored infantry vehicles, Nora B-52 artillery systems, Lasta 95 training aircraft. Largest procurement of foreign equipment recently included: Chinese HQ-22 air-defence missile system, Airbus H145M utility helicopters, Russian Mi-35 attack helicopters as well as various missile and radar acquisitions (French Ground Master 400 and Ground Master 200 long- and medium-range radar systems, French surface-to-air Mistral for PASARS vehicles; Russian R-77 air-to-air BVR missiles for MiG-29 fighter aircraft, Ataka air-to-surface missiles for Mi-35 attack helicopters and Kornet man-portable anti-tank guided missiles).

Significant acquisitions of military equipment are also planned in the near future. Recently it was announced the intention of purchase of 12 new French Rafale multirole fighter aircraft with the aim of replacing MiG-29 which will be in service until the end of the 2020s.

Personnel
The Serbian Armed Forces are composed entirely of professionals and volunteers following the suspension of mandatory military service in 2011.

Active personnel
There are 22,500 active members: 4,200 officers, 6,500 non-commissioned officers, 8,200 active-duty soldiers and 3,500 civilians in volunteer military service. It breaks down as follows:
 * General Staff (including attached units: special forces brigades, Guard, Signal Brigade, Logistics, etc.): 4,300
 * Army Command: 13,200
 * Air Force and Air Defence Command: 3,000
 * Training Command: 2,300

Reserve force
The reserve force is composed of an active reserve and passive (i.e. war-time) reserve. The active reserve forces have 2,000 members and they are generally required to perform 45 days of military service per year. They are assigned to one of four reserve territorial brigades (Banat Brigade, Belgrade Brigade, Timok Brigade and Rasina Brigade), each having active HQ, command company and logistics company predicted for rapid deployment in case of war. The passive reserve totals about 600,000 citizens of age 18–49 with past military training or experience and is activated only in the events of war.

Motto
Motto of the Serbian Armed Forces is "For Freedom and Honour of the Fatherland" (Za slobodu i čast Otadžbine) and is found on uniforms as well as on brigade flags.

Armed Forces Day
Serbian Armed Forces Day (Dan Vojske Srbije) is marked on 23 April, the anniversary of the Second Serbian Uprising. On that day in 1815, in Takovo, prominent elders met and decided to start the fight for liberation of Serbia from the Turkish authorities, which eventually led to the free and independent Serbia.

Patron Saint
The patron saint (krsna slava) of the Serbian Armed Forces is Saint Stefan Visoki. The first celebration was held in 2023; earlier that year, the Holy Council of Bishops of the Serbian Orthodox Church decided that the patron saint of the Serbian Armed Forces should be Saint Stefan Visoki, 15th-century Serbian ruler and saint, remembered as a wise statesman and a successful military leader.

Marches
The Serbian military was the first to pioneer the high-step as a military step. It is similar to the goose step, with the difference being that the knee is bent at the top of the arc. It was used by the Royal Yugoslav Army and at the time was called the "male step". The Yugoslav People's Army abandoned it after World War II, being in use for over two decades before being replaced by high-stepping in the 1975 Victory Day Parade, to assert itself as independent from Soviet influence. High-stepping is still used today by Serbian Armed Forces, and is also utilized by the militaries of North Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.

March Music
There are several marches in use in Serbian Armed Forces. The standard one is Parade March (Paradni marš), while the Guard uses its own Guard March (Gardijski marš) as standard march music. Also frequently used and the most popular and recognizable by the general public in Serbia is famous March on the Drina (Marš na Drinu). Other frequently used march is Vojvoda Stepa Stepanović March (Marš vojvode Stepe Stepanovića).

Deployments
The Serbian Armed Forces actively take part in numerous multinational peacekeeping missions.

title: Serbian Armed Forces


text:
William Bolcom

William Elden Bolcom (born May 26, 1938) is an American composer and pianist. He has received the Pulitzer Prize, the National Medal of Arts, a Grammy Award, the Detroit Music Award and was named 2007 Composer of the Year by Musical America. He taught composition at the University of Michigan from 1973 until 2008. He is married to mezzo-soprano Joan Morris.

Early life and education
Bolcom was born in Seattle, Washington. At age 11, he entered the University of Washington to study composition privately with George Frederick McKay and John Verrall and piano with Madame Berthe Poncy Jacobson. "He later studied with Darius Milhaud at Mills College while working on his Master of Arts degree, with Leland Smith at Stanford University while working on his D.M.A., and with Olivier Messiaen at the Paris Conservatoire, where he received the 2ème Prix de Composition".

Career
Bolcom was awarded Guggenheim Fellowships in 1964 and 1968 for Music Composition. He won the Pulitzer Prize for music in 1988 for 12 New Etudes for Piano. In the fall of 1994, he was named the Ross Lee Finney Distinguished University Professor of Composition at the University of Michigan. In 2006, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts. Notable students include Gabriela Lena Frank, Carter Pann, Elena Ruehr, Derek Bermel, Joel Puckett, and David T. Little.

As a pianist, Bolcom has performed and recorded frequently in collaboration with Joan Morris, whom he married in 1975. They have recorded more than two dozen albums together, beginning with the Grammy-nominated After the Ball, a collection of popular songs from around the turn of the 20th century. Their primary specialties in both concerts and recordings are show tunes, parlor, and popular songs from the late 19th and early 20th century by Henry Russell, Henry Clay Work and others, and cabaret songs.

As a soloist, Bolcom has recorded his own compositions, as well as music by George Gershwin, Darius Milhaud and several of the classic ragtime composers. His compositions have been recognized and highlighted at Michigan State University in their Michigan Writers Series.

Works
Bolcom's earliest compositions were written when he was around eleven years old; his early influences include Roy Harris and Béla Bartók. His compositions from around 1960 employed a modified serial technique, under the influence of Pierre Boulez, Karlheinz Stockhausen, and Luciano Berio, whose music he particularly admired. In the 1960s he gradually began to embrace an eclectic use of a wider variety of musical styles. His goal has been to erase boundaries between popular music and art music.

He has composed four major operas. Three of them, McTeague, A View from the Bridge, and A Wedding were commissioned and premiered by the Lyric Opera of Chicago and conducted by Dennis Russell Davies. All of these were composed with librettist Arnold Weinstein, sometimes in collaboration with other writers. McTeague, based on the 1899 novel by Frank Norris, with libretto by Weinstein, was premiered on October 31, 1992. A View from the Bridge, with libretto by Weinstein and Arthur Miller, was premiered October 9, 1999. A Wedding, based on the 1978 motion picture by Robert Altman and John Considine, with libretto by Weinstein and Altman, was premiered on December 11, 2004. His fourth opera, Dinner at Eight, composed with librettist Mark Campbell, based on the George S. Kaufman and Edna Ferber play of the same name, was premiered March 11, 2017, by the commissioning organization, Minnesota Opera.

He has also composed concertos such as Lyric Concerto for Flute and Orchestra for James Galway, the Concerto in D for Violin and Orchestra for Sergiu Luca, the Concerto for Clarinet and Orchestra for Stanley Drucker, and Concert Suite for alto saxophone and band, composed for University of Michigan professor Donald Sinta in 1998. He composed his concerto Gaea for two pianos (left hand) and orchestra for Gary Graffman and Leon Fleisher, both of whom have suffered from debilitating problems with their right hands. It received its first performance on April 11, 1996 by the Baltimore Symphony conducted by David Zinman. The concerto is constructed so that it can be performed in one of three ways, with either piano part alone with reduced orchestra, or with both piano parts and the two reduced orchestras combined into a full orchestra.

Bolcom's other works include nine symphonies, twelve string quartets, four violin sonatas, a number of piano rags (one written in collaboration with William Albright), four volumes of Gospel Preludes for organ, four volumes of cabaret songs, three musical theater works (Casino Paradise, Dynamite Tonite, and Greatshot; all with Weinstein), and a one-act chamber opera, Lucrezia, with librettist Mark Campbell. William Bolcom was also commissioned to write Recuerdos for two pianos by The Dranoff International Two Piano Foundation.

Song cycles
Bolcom has written a number of song cycles. A very large portion of these song cycles were cabarets with lyrics by librettist/lyricist Arnold Weinstein and meant to be sung by mezzo-soprano Joan Morris, William Bolcom's wife. These 24 cabarets were released in four volumes from the 1970s to the 1990s and were released all together on CD. From the Diary of Sally Hemings, a song cycle for voice and piano, is a collaboration with playwright/librettist Sandra Seaton. Among Bolcom's other song cycles, the most well-known is his setting of William Blake's Songs of Innocence and of Experience. The recording of this massive work was estimated at $375,000 USD and its length stands at about two and a half hours..

Songs of Innocence and of Experience
Bolcom's setting of William Blake's Songs of Innocence and of Experience, a three-hour work for soloists, choruses, and orchestra, was a culmination of 25 years of work on the piece.

 * Inspiration
 * At the age of seventeen, William Bolcom wanted to set the complete poems of Songs of Innocence and of Experience by William Blake to music. As he comprehended the huge diversity of the artistic ideas and the technical styles presented in the poems, he realized that he needed more musical vocabulary of different styles in order to complete his music. This realization also bolstered his ideas that genres of music should not be placed in a hierarchy and that there was no distinction between "serious" music and "popular" music.

 * Style and instrumentation
 * Bolcom incorporated a variety of different musical styles and genres in the music, including modern classical style using pentatonic scales, tonal classical style, bluegrass, country, soul, folk vaudeville, rock musical, and reggae. Bolcom has used instruments that are not usually used in a traditional orchestra but are used in the genres that he chose: saxophones, guitar, electric guitar, bass guitar, harmonica, electric violin, and "country, rock, and folk singers".

 * Premiere and performances
 * According to Naxos Records, the premiere of the Songs at the Stuttgart Opera in 1984 was followed by performances in Ann Arbor, Grant Park in Chicago, Illinois, the Brooklyn Academy of Music, St. Louis, Carnegie Hall, and London's Royal Festival Hall, the latter performed by the BBC Symphony Orchestra under the direction of Leonard Slatkin.

 * Awards and reception
 * In 2004, Naxos Records produced a recording of the Songs on location at Hill Auditorium, featuring the University of Michigan School of Music, Theatre & Dance Symphony Orchestra, the student choirs from the same university, University Musical Society Choral Union, Michigan State University Children's Choir, and a variety of solo instrumentalists and singers (who also included Joan Morris, wife of Bolcom). In 2006, it won four Grammy Awards for Best Choral Performance, Best Classical Contemporary Composition, Best Classical Album, and Best Producer of the Year, Classical.

 * Composer and critic Robert Carl has stated that Bolcom wrote seemingly disparate genres of music with "sincerity," without irony, "as equal partners," and with "love for and mastery of popular music".

Festivals
VocalEssence celebrated the music of William Bolcom with a two-week festival in Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota in April 2007. Nine different performances and a number of master classes were part of the festival. The spotlight performance was of Bolcom's setting of William Blake's Songs of Innocence and of Experience, performed in Orchestra Hall in Minneapolis with over 400 musicians performing under projections of Blake's accompanying artwork by Wendell K. Harrington.

Eastern Michigan University Celebrated its 16th Biennial Contemporary Music Festival by featuring William Bolcom as a guest composer. The three-day festival showcased a range of Bolcom's compositions as well as a discussion on "Musical Grass-Roots" led by Bolcom himself.

Le Piano Ouvert celebrated Bolcom's 75th birthday with a week of concerts and masterclasses in Paris in March 2014. William Bolcom and Joan Morris both performed, and were featured on France Musique in a series of live performances and interviews. The festival was directed by Guy Livingston, Anne de Fornel, and David Levi. Concerts were held at the Mona Bismarck American Center in Paris, and at the Hôtel Talleyrand on Place de la Concorde.

In April 2022, as part of the international Heidelberger Frühling Music Festival, William Bolcom's second piano concerto was premiered by Igor Levit and the Mahler Chamber Orchestra conducted by Elim Chan in the auditorium of the Neue Universität Heidelberg.

Ragtime/piano discography
See Joan Morris page for Bolcom and Morris discography
 * Heliotrope Bouquet: Piano Rags 1900–1970, Nonesuch Records, 1971
 * Bolcom Plays His Own Rags, Jazzology, 1972
 * Piano Music By George Gershwin, Nonesuch Records, 1973
 * Pastimes and Piano Rags, Nonesuch Records, 1974
 * Ragtime Back To Back (with William Albright), U of M School of Music, 1976
 * Euphonic Sounds, Omega Classics, 1988 (Reissued in 2019 as Scott Joplin: Ragtime Piano Gems)

title: William Bolcom


text:
Tulcea

Tulcea (also known by alternative names) is a city in Northern Dobruja, Romania. It is the administrative center of Tulcea County, and had a population of 65,624. One village, Tudor Vladimirescu, is administered by the city. It is one of six Romanian county seats lying on the Danube river.

Names
The city is known in Bulgarian, Russian and Ukrainian as Тулча, romanized: Tulcha; in Greek as Αιγισσός, romanized: Aigissós; in Hungarian as Tulcsa; and in Turkish as Tulça.

Ancient History

Tulcea was founded in the 7th century BC under the name of Aegyssus, mentioned by Procopius. Ovid recorded a local tradition that ascribed its name to a mythical founder, Aegisos the Caspian.

Aegyssus was built on a high hill, a strategic location for guarding the Danube particularly under the Romans. The amphorae discovered from 1st century BC to 1st century AD suggest the town was an important trading centre of the period.

After the Getic raids from 12–15 AD the Romans conquered the town and soon after built a new city.

After Trajan's Dacian Wars at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the city was included in the Moesian Limes defensive frontier system as a military fort and port for a detachment of the Classis Flavia Moesica.

The baths were built at the end of the 1st century AD and used until the beginning of the 5th century after several reconstruction phases, in the third of which a large palaestra was added on the north side.

In the second half of the 3rd century AD, the cohors II Flavia Brittonum (from Britain) was garrisoned here, and in the next century the vexillatio Aegyssensis of Legio I Iovia. During the 4th-5th centuries, the city still preserved its military statute (headquarters of cuneus equitum armigerorum, praefectus ripae legionis primae ariae cohortium quinque pedaturae inferioris). It was destroyed during the Hun's invasions in the 5th century and rebuilt under Justinian I along with the monumental reconstruction of the Danubian limes.

Middle Ages
The town was abandoned by the first half of the 7th century after the Avars-Slavs' attacks and the downfall of Danubian limes. The town is mentioned in Notitia Episcopatuum and De Thematibus on the list of the bishoprics of Dobrudja.

Inhabitation was restored in the second half of the 10th century, as the Byzantines built a fort on the spot after reconquering the region. The fort was soon destroyed in 1064 by an attack of the Uzes, however some inhabitation continued. A settlement, larger than the one in the 11th century, is archaeologically attested beginning with the 14th century. The Ottoman rule was imposed around 1420, and would last for the following four centuries.

Later History
The town was first documented under its modern name in 1506 in the Ottoman customs records, described as an "important centre for the transit trade".

Around 1848, it was still a small shipyard city, being awarded city status in 1860, when it became a province capital. It became a sanjak centre in Silistre Eyaleti in 1860 and Tuna Vilayeti in 1864.

In 1853, The Times of London noted that "Toultcha" was "the last fortified place held by the Turks on the Danube, and which has a garrison of 1,200 men."

During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, Northern Dobruja and specially Tulcea would be the sites of massacres and conflicts between Muslim Circassians and Christian Bulgarians, Russians, and Ukrainians. The Circassians of Dobruja had settled there in 1864 after the Circassian genocide, and through their raids to other peoples of the region and handing over part of their gains to the Ottoman authorities, they would end up indirectly financing the construction of buildings that still stand in Tulcea today: the modern Tulcea Art Museum and the Azizyie Mosque. The Dobrujan Circassians were expelled from the region after the end of the war.

In 1878, after the end of the war, Tulcea was awarded to Romania, together with the rest of Northern Dobruja (see Congress of Berlin). Tulcea was occupied by the Central Powers between 1916–1918 during World War I, and became part of their condominium following the Treaty of Bucharest in May 1918 (until November 1918). During that time, the statue of Mircea the Elder was taken down by Bulgarian troops, since it was during his reign that Dobruja was incorporated into Wallachia.

Climate
Tulcea's climate is transitional between continental and temperate (Köppen: Dfa/Cfa), with cold winters and hot summers. Daily minimum temperatures drop below 0 C for roughly 79.5 days per year from October to April, with 17.2 days where the daily maximum temperature is also below 0 C. Snow cover, on average, is observed for 27.6 days per year.

Demographics
At the 2021 census Tulcea had a population of 65,624 with a majority of Romanians (74.83%) with minorities of Lipovans (1.9%), Roma (1.57%), Turks (0.67%), Ukrainians (0.42%), Greeks (0.27%), Bulgarians (0.03%), others (0.38%) and unknown (19.93%).

At the 2011 census Tulcea had a population of 73,707 with a majority of Romanians (83.37%) with minorities of Lipovans (2.36%), Roma (1.29%), Turks (1.11%), Ukrainians (0.51%), Greeks (0.28%), Bulgarians (0.02%), others (0.53%) and unknown (10.53%).

Most of the indigenous Bulgarians left the city after the Treaty of Craiova.

Culture
Tulcea is the site of the "George Georgescu Contest", a music competition created by teachers at the Tulcea Arts High School and held annually since 1992. Named in honor of the conductor George Georgescu (1887–1964), an important figure in the development of Romanian classical music who was born in the Tulcea county, the contest was at first open only to Romanian music school and high school students but began admitting international students in 1995. Organizers include the Romanian Ministry of Education and Youth, the Education Board of Tulcea County, the Tulcea County Council, the Tulcea Mayoralty, and surviving members of Georgescu's family. The Monument of Independence represents one of the main attractions of the city, because of its placement and of the panoramic view that it offers. It is located on the same hill as the ruins of Aegyssus and the history museum. The monument itself is represented by an obelisk with a statue of an eagle on one side and the statue of a soldier on the other. The monument was erected to commemorate the War of Independence that made Dobruja part of Romania. Construction began on 17 October 1879, in the presence of Prince Carol I of Romania. The main high school is the Spiru Haret Dobrujan College.

Notable people

 * Crin Antonescu (born 1959), former President of the Senate of Romania and acting President of Romania in 2012
 * Georges Boulanger (1893–1958), violinist
 * Alexandru Ciucurencu (1903–1977), painter
 * Stefan Karadzha (1840–1868), Bulgarian revolutionary, studied in Tulcea and is associated with the town
 * Grigore Moisil (1906–1973), mathematician
 * Dimitar Petkov (1858–1907), Bulgarian Prime Minister
 * Mirela Roznoveanu (born 1947), literary critic, writer, and journalist
 * Valentin Serbu (1934–1994), writer
 * Tora Vasilescu (born 1951), actress

Twin towns – sister cities
Tulcea is twinned with:

 * Aalborg, Denmark
 * Altena, Netherlands
 * 🇹🇷 Amasya, Turkey
 * 🇮🇹 Aprilia, Italy
 * 🇮🇹 Fratta Polesine, Italy
 * 🇬🇷 Ilion, Greece
 * 🇺🇦 Izmail, Ukraine
 * 🇨🇾 Larnaca, Cyprus
 * 🇹🇷 Mudanya, Turkey
 * 🇮🇹 Rovigo, Italy
 * 🇧🇬 Shumen, Bulgaria

title: Tulcea


text:
User talk:24.221.130.189

Why do you continue replacing the Leif Ericsson article by your, shorter version? Is there something in the current version that you dislike? Andre Engels 20:06, 27 Nov 2003 (UTC)

October 2021
Hello, I'm Politanvm. I noticed that you added or changed content in an article, Day Dreamin' Davey, but you didn't provide a reliable source. It's been removed and archived in the page history for now, but if you'd like to include a citation and re-add it, please do so. You can have a look at referencing for beginners. If you think I made a mistake, you can leave me a message on my talk page. Thank you. Politanvm talk 04:52, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:24.221.130.189


text:
2C-I

2C-I (2,5-Dimethoxy-4-iodophenethylamine) is a phenethylamine of the 2C family with psychedelic properties, primarily used as a recreational drug. 2C-I substance has been first synthesized by Alexander Shulgin, and is described in Shulgin's book PiHKAL (1991). The substance is consumed as a recreational drug, and is circulated in the illicit market in a powder or liquid form. 2C-I is sometimes confused with other related chemical substances such as 25I-NBOMe (2C-I-NBOMe), nicknamed "Smiles," and "N-bomb" in the media.

Patterns of use
In the early 2000s, 2C-I was sold in Dutch smart shops as a recreational drug after the drug 2C-B was banned.

According to the US Drug Enforcement Administration, 2C-I is taken orally or snorted in a powder form.

European Union
In December 2003, the European Council issued a binding order compelling all European Union member states to ban 2C-I within three months.

Canada
As of October 31, 2016, 2C-I is a controlled substance (Schedule III) in Canada.

Australia
2C-I is a schedule 9 prohibited substance in Australia under the Poisons Standard (October 2015). A schedule 9 drug is outlined in the Poisons Act 1964 as "Substances which may be abused or misused, the manufacture, possession, sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research, or for analytical, teaching or training purposes with approval of the CEO".

Sweden
Sveriges riksdag added 2C-I to schedule I ("substances, plant materials and fungi which normally do not have medical use") as a narcotic on March 16, 2004, published by the Medical Products Agency in their regulation LVFS 2004:3.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, 2C-I is controlled as a Class A substance.

United States
As of July 9, 2012, in the United States 2C-I is a Schedule I substance under the Synthetic Drug Abuse Prevention Act of 2012, making possession, distribution and manufacture illegal. A previous bill, introduced in March 2011, that would have done the same passed the House of Representatives, but was not passed by the Senate.

Analogues and derivatives
DOI

title: 2C-I


text:
Phenethylamine

Phenethylamine (PEA) is an organic compound, natural monoamine alkaloid, and trace amine, which acts as a central nervous system stimulant in humans. In the brain, phenethylamine regulates monoamine neurotransmission by binding to trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) and inhibiting vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) in monoamine neurons. To a lesser extent, it also acts as a neurotransmitter in the human central nervous system. In mammals, phenethylamine is produced from the amino acid L-phenylalanine by the enzyme aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase via enzymatic decarboxylation. In addition to its presence in mammals, phenethylamine is found in many other organisms and foods, such as chocolate, especially after microbial fermentation.

Phenethylamine is sold as a dietary supplement for purported mood and weight loss-related therapeutic benefits; however, in orally ingested phenethylamine, a significant amount is metabolized in the small intestine by monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) and then aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH), which converts it to phenylacetic acid. This means that for significant concentrations to reach the brain, the dosage must be higher than for other methods of administration. Some authors postulated its role in people's falling-in-love without substantiating it with any direct evidence.

Phenethylamines, or more properly, substituted phenethylamines, are the group of phenethylamine derivatives that contain phenethylamine as a "backbone"; in other words, this chemical class includes derivative compounds that are formed by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in the phenethylamine core structure with substituents. The class of substituted phenethylamines includes all substituted amphetamines, and substituted methylenedioxyphenethylamines (MDxx), and contains many drugs which act as empathogens, stimulants, psychedelics, anorectics, bronchodilators, decongestants, and/or antidepressants, among others.

Natural occurrence
Phenethylamine is produced by a wide range of species throughout the plant and animal kingdoms, including humans; it is also produced by certain fungi and bacteria (genera: Lactobacillus, Clostridium, Pseudomonas and the family Enterobacteriaceae) and acts as a potent antimicrobial against certain pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli (e.g., the O157:H7 strain) at sufficient concentrations.

Chemistry
Phenethylamine is a primary amine, the amino-group being attached to a benzene ring through a two-carbon, or ethyl group. It is a colourless liquid at room temperature that has a fishy odor, and is soluble in water, ethanol and ether. Its density is 0.964 g/ml and its boiling point is 195 °C. Upon exposure to air, it combines with carbon dioxide to form a solid carbonate salt. Phenethylamine is strongly basic, pKb = 4.17 (or pKa = 9.83), as measured using the HCl salt, and forms a stable crystalline hydrochloride salt with a melting point of 217 °C.

Substituted derivatives
Substituted phenethylamines are a chemical class of organic compounds based upon the phenethylamine structure; the class is composed of all the derivative compounds of phenethylamine which can be formed by replacing, or substituting, one or more hydrogen atoms in the phenethylamine core structure with substituents.

Many substituted phenethylamines are psychoactive drugs, which belong to a variety of different drug classes, including central nervous system stimulants (e.g., amphetamine), hallucinogens (e.g., 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine), entactogens (e.g., 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine), appetite suppressants (e.g. phentermine), nasal decongestants and bronchodilators (e.g., pseudoephedrine), antidepressants (e.g. bupropion), antiparkinson agents (e.g., selegiline), and vasopressors (e.g., ephedrine), among others. Many of these psychoactive compounds exert their pharmacological effects primarily by modulating monoamine neurotransmitter systems; however, there is no mechanism of action or biological target that is common to all members of this subclass.

Numerous endogenous compounds – including hormones, monoamine neurotransmitters, and many trace amines (e.g., dopamine, norepinephrine, adrenaline, tyramine, and others) – are substituted phenethylamines. Dopamine is simply phenethylamine with a hydroxyl group attached to the 3 and 4 position of the benzene ring. Several notable recreational drugs, such as MDMA (ecstasy), methamphetamine, and cathinones, are also members of the class. All of the substituted amphetamines are phenethylamines, as well.

Pharmaceutical drugs that are substituted phenethylamines include phenelzine, phenformin, and fanetizole, among many others.

Synthesis
One method for preparing β-phenethylamine, set forth in J. C. Robinson and H. R. Snyder's Organic Syntheses (published 1955), involves the reduction of benzyl cyanide with hydrogen in liquid ammonia, in the presence of a Raney-Nickel catalyst, at a temperature of 130 °C and a pressure of 13.8 MPa. Alternative syntheses are outlined in the footnotes to this preparation.

A much more convenient method for the synthesis of β-phenethylamine is the reduction of ω-nitrostyrene by lithium aluminium hydride in ether, whose successful execution was first reported by R. F. Nystrom and W. G. Brown in 1948.

Phenethylamine can also be produced via the cathodic reduction of benzyl cyanide in a divided cell.

Assembling phenethylamine structures for synthesis of compounds such as epinephrine, amphetamines, tyrosine, and dopamine by adding the beta-aminoethyl side chain to the phenyl ring is possible. This can be done via Friedel-Crafts acylation with N-protected acyl chlorides when the arene is activated, or by Heck reaction of the phenyl with N-vinyloxazolone, followed by hydrogenation, or by cross-coupling with beta-amino organozinc reagents, or reacting a brominated arene with beta-aminoethyl organolithium reagents, or by Suzuki cross-coupling.

Detection in body fluids
Reviews that cover attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and phenethylamine indicate that several studies have found abnormally low urinary phenethylamine concentrations in ADHD individuals when compared with controls. In treatment-responsive individuals, amphetamine and methylphenidate greatly increase urinary phenethylamine concentration. An ADHD biomarker review also indicated that urinary phenethylamine levels could be a diagnostic biomarker for ADHD.

Thirty minutes of moderate- to high-intensity physical exercise has been shown to induce an increase in urinary phenylacetic acid, the primary metabolite of phenethylamine. Two reviews noted a study where the mean 24 hour urinary phenylacetic acid concentration following just 30 minutes of intense exercise rose 77% above its base level;  the reviews suggest that phenethylamine synthesis sharply increases during physical exercise during which it is rapidly metabolized due to its short half-life of roughly 30 seconds. In a resting state, phenethylamine is synthesized in catecholamine neurons from -phenylalanine by aromatic amino acid decarboxylase at approximately the same rate as dopamine is produced. Monoamine oxidase deaminates primary and secondary amines that are free in the neuronal cytoplasm but not those bound in storage vesicles of the sympathetic neurone. Similarly, β-PEA would not be deaminated in the gut as it is a selective substrate for MAO-B, which is not found in the gut. Brain levels of endogenous trace amines are several hundred-fold below those for the classical neurotransmitters noradrenaline, dopamine, and serotonin, but their rates of synthesis are equivalent to those of noradrenaline and dopamine and they have a very rapid turnover rate. Endogenous extracellular tissue levels of trace amines measured in the brain are in the low nanomolar range. These low concentrations arise because of their very short half-life. Because of the pharmacological relationship between phenethylamine and amphetamine, the original paper and both reviews suggest that phenethylamine plays a prominent role in mediating the mood-enhancing euphoric effects of a runner's high, as both phenethylamine and amphetamine are potent euphoriants.

Skydiving has also been shown to induce a marked increase in urinary phenethylamine concentrations.

Pharmacodynamics
Phenethylamine, being similar to amphetamine in its action at their common biomolecular targets, releases norepinephrine and dopamine. Phenethylamine also appears to induce acetylcholine release via a glutamate-mediated mechanism.

Phenethylamine has been shown to bind to human trace amine-associated receptor 1 (hTAAR1) as an agonist. β-PEA is also an odorant binding TAAR4 in mice thought to mediate predator avoidance.

Pharmacokinetics
By oral route, phenethylamine's half-life is 5–10 minutes; endogenously produced PEA in catecholamine neurons has a half-life of roughly 30 seconds. In humans, PEA is metabolized by phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT),  monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B),   the semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidases (SSAOs) AOC2 and AOC3, flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 (FMO3),  and aralkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT). N-Methylphenethylamine, an isomer of amphetamine, is produced in humans via the metabolism of phenethylamine by PNMT. β-Phenylacetic acid is the primary urinary metabolite of phenethylamine and is produced via monoamine oxidase metabolism and subsequent aldehyde dehydrogenase metabolism. Phenylacetaldehyde is the intermediate product which is produced by monoamine oxidase and then further metabolized into β-phenylacetic acid by aldehyde dehydrogenase.

When the initial phenylethylamine concentration in the brain is low, brain levels can be increased 1000-fold when taking a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), particularly a MAO-B inhibitor, and by 3–4 times when the initial concentration is high.

title: Phenethylamine