text:
Talk:Christmas pudding

Initial comments
brilliant article, I'm dribbling already. jimfbleak 08:07, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

"...once real silver coins were not available..." When would that be? I certainly remember having a sixpence in the Christmas Pudding in the Sixties and seem to remember it being normal at that time. - Jmabel 07:47, 17 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * difficult to put a date on it. The date when the Mint stopped issuing real silver coins is probably in the British coinage pages somewhere, but they didn't vanish from circulation immediately.  All the "silver" 3d pieces really were silver, and you could still find the odd one of those in the '50s (we used to save them up to put in the pudding).  Older silver 6d and 1s coins were still in circulation then, too, and some households used to save the odd silver one they found to go in the pudding (my mother used to wrap a cupro-nickel sixpence up in greaseproof paper as a compromise).  But because with inflation the real silver coins became worth much more than their face value, people took them out of circulation, and I think eventually the Mint began playing the same game.  Unfortunately we don't have an article on the 6d, which might give the detail. seglea 08:54, 17 Dec 2003 (UTC)

What is crystallized peel? Orange I presume. Rmhermen 17:27, Dec 18, 2003 (UTC)

 * mixed citrus, I think, but I'm not sure enough to do an article on it, which is certainly needed. It comes cut into cubes about .5cm.  Standard item on the UK cook's shelf but I've never seen it anywhere else (not that I've looked very hard, it's not my personal favourite).  seglea 17:39, 18 Dec 2003 (UTC).  Also called "candied peel".  seglea

"Peel" generally refers to preserved citron, orange, or lemon peel. The peel is boiled or just soaked, sometimes in a salt solution, to reduce bitterness, before being simmered in syrup to "preserve" or "candy" it. Preserved citron was the first to appear, in the late middle ages. Orange and lemon came later. Modern "fruits glacés"--whole cherries, mandarins, pineapples and such--are more of a Victorian thing, or perhaps from a bit earlier in the late 1700s. Grapefruit and lime peels are much more recent, probably twentieth century. Really old versions of these puddings do not contain any peel at all. The peel of choice in the wonderful Georgian cookbooks was citron, used in all sorts of dishes and not just these puddings; orange peel was also popular. By the time plum puddings became associated specifically with Christmas around the time of Eliza Acton, a mix of citron and orange peel seems to be standard. Modern Christmas puddings often call for orange marmalade, which for all practical purposes is shredded preserved orange peel. Lemon peel shows up only rarely in old recipes. This could all be sourced out with period cookbooks. MonteGargano (talk) 05:37, 23 November 2013 (UTC)

Restoring "the dessert" in the opening sentence. Of course it is not the only dessert ever served on Christmas day, but it is the only one that is traditionally served (which is what the article says), in the sense that anyone in England (I'm never sure about the Scots) would recognise it as the traditional thing to have, even if they hated the stuff and would never serve it themselves.

Second group of comments
10/Feb/2004

Before I altered the Christmas Pudding page, I thought I would ask here first; I own a non-profit, no banner, no requests for donations hobby site about Christmas Puddings and it includes my recipe. I was going to add a couple of my photos to the Wikipedia Christmas Pudding page, and offer a link to my site. Is the link a reasonable idea, or will people be upset? here's the link; http://pudding.denyer.net/  all constructive comments appreciated, Paul Denyer (there's a feedback form on the site, if you wish to contact me)

 * I've had a look and I think it would be a perfectly reasonable link from the article. And a picture or two would be excellent - thanks.  seglea 06:28, 10 Feb 2004 (UTC)

I've just added two images and a link, I'm very hesitant to edit someone else's work, but am quite willing to help with any information I have. Thanks, Paul denyer 11/02/2004

 * Paul, while you're here, go check out our Wikimedia Cookbook at the sister project, Wikibooks We have a recipe for a Sussex pudding at Christmas pudding, but more always could be added, either on the same page or with some other title to differentiate them, that is if you're willing to release it under the GFDL. Gentgeen 07:39, 11 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * And there's no need to be hesitant about editing anyone else's work on Wikipedia - speaking as the chief contributor to Christmas Pudding so far, I say go right ahead! (I can just change it back if I don't like it, after all). seglea 08:31, 11 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Too right! Paul everybody here edits everyone elses work mercilessly. It's how Wikipedia works. Just jump in and join the party. theresa knott 09:36, 11 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Third group of comments
What is there in Christmas pudding ? I would love to have a recipee of that famous cake, but that is unfortunate, that there is no information about this in the encyclopedia. How sad. Anthère0

 * Ah, found it, I am relieved :-) Well, it is good that a link be provided. The article could have been deleted as others were. Brrrr. Glad they were some people to provide background :-)

Isn't Christmas pudding also known as "figgy pudding", as well as plum pudding? I can not find any information on figgy pudding on Wiki beyond the lyrics of "We wish you a merry Christmas", however from looking around online, it appears at one time "figgy" and plum pudding were both tradition foods for the holiday. I don't mean to nit pick. I just think if this is correct, it would be useful information to add - I've heard many people wonder what exactly figgy pudding is.

75.111.30.152 07:39, 24 November 2006 (UTC)
 * It appears figgy pudding is something different - there is now an article on it. I didn't know either. seglea 22:32, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

Wonderful article
I did a slight rework to improve the structure and allow me to add a note about flaming/firing (when I first had a northern girlfriend I discovered it is not universal). She looked at my dad like he was a loon. Icundell 22:48, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Interesting Word Choice
"Many households have their own recipe for Christmas pudding, preferably handed down the family; it is probable that there are also regional variations."

Is it really preferable that the recipe be passed down in such a manner? Perhaps a revision should be considered. (Pygmypony 05:42, 12 April 2006 (UTC))

Given the parlous state of home cooking in the UK these days, I think it is preferable that the few remaining instances of family recipes being handed down the generations are preserved --TheBoondockTwenty 10:41, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I think I wrote the "preferably" originally. What it means is that these are the ones regarded with most pride and pleasure.  I'll put something like that in. seglea 22:20, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

The "After Christmas" section.
It seems to be original research. Someone needs to add citations. oTHErONE (Contribs) 08:17, 10 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Not really OR. It's just stuff most English people know. There is nothing there that I find even slightly surprising. Icundell 14:25, 12 November 2006 (UTC)

I've never heard or seen anyone eating christmas pud except at or near to Christmas. I vote that the stuff about eating it at other times of year be deleted. If you buy rather than make Christmas pud, then you can only buy it a few weeks leading up to Christmas anyway. 89.242.118.82 (talk) 14:51, 3 December 2008 (UTC)

 * whilst I never buy Christmas puddings you'll find that the "few weeks before Christmas" has morphed into more than four months - first seen this year on 4th September! DickyP (talk) 12:09, 17 October 2022 (UTC)

Plum puddings were most definitely consumed in all seasons before some time in the 1800s. Mrs. Raffald's cookbook (1769), for example, has a recipe for "Hunting Pudding"--to us, it's a familiar recipe for modern Christmas pudding, but the name clearly shows it was not a holiday food at all. Only after these puddings became somewhat unfashionable and stodgy, and decidedly not dishes for daily fare, did they become firmly associated with the backward-glancing and nostalgic Christmas meal. MonteGargano (talk) 05:52, 23 November 2013 (UTC)

Puritan Ban
Werent Christmas Puddings Banned by puritans? or is this just a myth

Christmas celebrations in general were banned by the rather Puritan Parliament in the 1640s, a practice continued in the English interregnum (1649-1660), which also affected some of the American colonies at the time. Parliament was successful in suppressing church services on Christmas Day and making it a regular work-day, but they were not entirely successful in stamping out celebrations and popular observance of the day. The term "Christmas pudding" does not commonly appear in print till the 19th century. However, as food historian Ivan Day has noted, the oldest known uses of the term "Christmas Pudding" are in 1649 and 1675, so it is possible that the general ban on Christmas celebrations was understood as a ban on Christmas Pudding. However, there is no substantiation of any explicit ban on the pudding itself. MonteGargano (talk) 06:04, 23 November 2013 (UTC)

Citation
Why on Earth has this article been tagged as not citing its references and sources? Any ideas? This looks like over-zealous tagging. —Stonefield 11:18, 16 December 2006 (UTC)

Translated to American English: Fruit Cake
This article should include a sentence which explains that Christmas Pudding is the same thing as fruit cake for the sake of clarity. (not signed)
 * I find this hard to believe. I have bought fruit cake in America, and it is fruit cake, not Christmas pudding.  The anon who wrote this should try a real Christmas pudding some time, and get a hold of the difference.
 * Christmas pudding is most definitely not the same as Christmas cake!!! --ukexpat 12:57, 11 May 2007 (UTC)
 * For similar reasons I have removed the following from the article:
 * Fruit Cake Tossing
 * In some occasions Fruit cake has been known to be thrown like a stone or a frisbee for fun or ::sport. This has mainly been observed in the south.
 * It is highly unlikely that what is being thrown here is Christmas pudding, and anyway the remark is uninterpretable - the south of what, or where? seglea 22:18, 9 May 2007 (UTC)
 * It is highly unlikely that what is being thrown here is Christmas pudding, and anyway the remark is uninterpretable - the south of what, or where? seglea 22:18, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

All year round
Is it really true that Christmas puddings are available and eaten throughout the year as it says in the introduction? In my experience, they are only found in the shops running up to Christmas and I've never seen them eaten at any other time than Christmas (which is a shame as I adore them!)Hot cross buns are a different matter - you seem to see them for sale all year round, now.
 * I have also come here to say that Christmas pud is only eaten at Xmas. Definately not at Easter. "Christmas pudding is the dessert traditionally served on Christmas day, although still available and popular throughout the year in Britain." I say that the later half of this sentance should be deleted as it is definately not true! You can only buy them leading up to Xmas for example. 89.242.118.82 (talk) 14:54, 3 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Your assertion is as accurate as your spelling! Christmas Pudding is most definitely eaten all year round - not to mention that shop-bought ones are nowhere near as good as a good home made one.  Once made they literally last for years. DickyP (talk) 12:09, 17 October 2022 (UTC)

My family has made Christmas puddings as long as I can remember and we certainly ate them at other times of the year too - usually at my parent's birthdays. While it is true that you can only seem to buy them around Christmas time, those of us who make them ourselves are certainly not limited as to when they can be eaten. Maybe the sentence can be removed for lack of independent references, but do not remove it simply because it's not what you do! Arnie Side (talk) 15:52, 6 February 2012 (UTC)

My family has been keeping one back for Easter for generations. The recipe we use comes down from my great grandmother and makes about 5 2lb puds. Not sure where she got it, but she was a cook at Lulworth Castle in the 1860s, so it may have come from there. Curiously, my Wife's family recipe is similar in proportions, and her mother remembers having it at Easter too. I have not seen them on sale after Christmas except in the reduced section, but supermarkets and manufacturers would not sell them in sufficient quantities to justify stocking them at other times of the year. 151.170.240.10 (talk) 11:08, 10 April 2013 (UTC)

As I noted above, plum puddings were most definitely consumed in all seasons before some time in the 1800s. Only in the Victorian period did they become firmly associated with the backward-glancing and nostalgic Christmas meal. MonteGargano (talk) 06:07, 23 November 2013 (UTC)

No plums in plum pudding
Could someone more competent than me please add the information that plum pudding does not actually contain plums and give the reason why? This is really missing from this article, thanks. Maikel 09:02, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

What does it taste like?
What's the texture like? Is it sweet? Does it taste heavy? I'd love to try this (but not knowing anyone English, I wouldn't know what it's supposed to taste like.) I'd love to hear someone describe the flavor, and compare it to (yuck) fruitcake.

One other thing: GREAT article (even for Wikipedia.) Someone should nominate it for one of those WP awards. Very well done. 68.36.127.193 19:19, 6 November 2007 (UTC)

 * It is like a moist and more dense version of fruitcake, with a stronger somewhat alcoholic flavour. And its hot. What have Americans got against fruitcake anyway? It is not such a great article - the stuff about eating it at other times of year is not true. 89.242.118.82 (talk) 15:03, 3 December 2008 (UTC)

 * I wouldn't say it tastes much like fruit cake. It's much more flavoursome than that. Anyway, I'm surprised there's no section on ingredients or preparation. Munci (talk) 17:57, 12 October 2011 (UTC)

The dominant flavors of plum pudding are definitely the raisins and the booze. American fruitcake has a decidedly stronger flavor of mixed spice--cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, cloves, ginger, and even cardamom--and a significantly heavier quantity of candied and dried fruits and nuts, along with molasses or similar dark syrup. I think the British call this style of cake a "Creole Cake", perhaps in reference to the Jamaican "Black Cake". The UK fruit cake is more like a pound cake studded with raisins and glacéed fruits. The texture of all these is also very different. The British cake has a higher proportion of cake batter to fruit and nuts. The American cake is far more dense with fruit and nuts, with just enough "cake" to hold it together. Plum pudding is "fluffy" and not very cohesive by comparison. MonteGargano (talk) 22:53, 26 November 2013 (UTC)

There's confusion about the similarities between Christmas Pudding and American fruitcake. The reason is probably because English people (like me) think of fruitcake as the dark stuff Christmas Cake and similar ones are made from. American fruitcake is usually pale and quite a different beast (I live in the US and am one of the few who admit to liking it). The only similarity is that they are both cakes made with fruit. e.g., of American fruitcake widely despised: https://www.claxtonfruitcake.com/ClaxtonFruitCakeHomePage-960.jpg 71.210.19.216 (talk) 20:32, 18 November 2019 (UTC)

 * Now I am thoroughly confused by the comments above:
 * "[plum pudding is] a moist and more dense version of fruitcake"
 * "The American cake is far more dense"
 * "[plum pudding has] a stronger somewhat alcoholic flavour"
 * "American fruitcake has a decidedly stronger flavor of mixed spice".
 * From the ingredients listed in the article, it sounds like PP & FC have similar flavors.

 * As for what Americans have against FC, the ones that are generally available in supermarkets are like dry, dense bricks studded with super sweet and bizarrely colored candied fruit. That they are generally brick-shaped is quite an irony. It's dreadful if you've never developed a nostalgia for it. A really good (and moist) FC, replete with alcohol, is much more expensive and difficult to find. Online specialty sites may be a shopper's only hope unless they make it themselves. As a result, most Americans know only about the awful stuff. Are commercially available PP, as found in the US, good examples or are they as dreadful as most commercially FCs? Thank you, Wordreader (talk) 07:48, 25 December 2013 (UTC)

Since you reference some of my comments, I will respond. I do not agree that Plum Pudding is more dense than fruit cake. Plum Pudding includes bread crumbs and suet, and these ingredients "loosen" the mix when it's cooked. I can't quite slice my Plum Pudding; I basically use a spoon to scoop up each serving. In contrast, fruit cake can be cut in slices. True, both these preparations have similar flavors and nearly the same ingredients. Mincemeat also has these same ingredients. Still, to my taste, they don't end up tasting the same, though admittedly, I'm basing this on the many recipes I've tried through the years. It would certainly be possible to make Plum Pudding, Fruit Cake, and Mincemeat that all tasted almost the same. But certain differences remain: the butter in the cake vs the suet in the pudding, and the eggs + flour in cake and pudding vs the lack of these in the mincemeat. I love all three of these sweets. My Fruit Cake is always a hit with Fruit-Cake haters, but I have to candy my own peel to get the right flavor; people are shocked at what Fruit Cake is supposed to taste like. MonteGargano (talk) 14:22, 2 April 2014 (UTC)

 * You can buy traditional English Christmas Pudding from some stores in the US. You eat it hot with hot custard. It's delicious. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 95.148.8.216 (talk) 08:17, 17 April 2019 (UTC)

Plums = raisins/currants?
This article states that the addition of prunes in Elizabethan times is the reason for the name "plum pudding." I've read many times that this is a common misconception, that "plums" is simply the way people used to refer to raisins or currants. Does anyone have a reliable source on this? SergioGeorgini (talk) 13:26, 25 November 2008 (UTC)

I agree that "plums" do not refer exclusively to plums/prunes as we know them today. All sorts of dried fruit came under the heading of "plum", and comfits of all sorts were called "sugar plums" in later times. I don't have the sources at hand to correct this article right now. MonteGargano (talk) 14:24, 2 April 2014 (UTC)

 * I have no reference to name, either, other than to say that I heard a discussion of this on a holiday cooking show a few years back. The chef and the food historian on the show agreed with that in Elizabethan times, all dried fruits were referred to as "plums". I do not remember why. I cannot say whether they were true authorities or not as I don't remember their names. Wordreader (talk) 23:12, 9 August 2014 (UTC)

Images
The various images placed in the The wish and other traditions section looks distracting (they look yummy, but their positioning makes it hard to read and focus on the article). Would people object if those images were placed in a gallery like this?:

londonsista Prod  09:45, 6 December 2008 (UTC)
 * I've removed numerous citation tags in the article, it made the section look messy. I replaced those with a refimprovesection tag. Also removed and/or added wikilinks to words, and I have added a reference section. I fiddled about with the above image gallery to see how it fits in with the article. But to be honest I'd really like a discussion/some sort of consensus before changing anything in case something else can be done/I piss someone off. ;) londonsista  Prod  13:59, 16 December 2008 (UTC)

Plum Puddings
I was always told that "Plum" was a corruption of "Plomb" or "Plumb" meaning heavy (like lead, plumbum (Latin)) Certainly in  my French lessons at school there were references to English puddings being Plomb.

If you read the OED you'll find that Plum was in the past a generic term for all fruits such as currents, raisins etc, when used in cooking. DickyP (talk) 12:09, 17 October 2022 (UTC)

A vegetarian version?
Do British vegetarians have an effective substitute for the suet? Thank you, Wordreader (talk) 07:50, 25 December 2013 (UTC) [EDIT: break added so the reply appears below my query.]
 * Most supermarkets sell vegetarian suet.109.158.149.79 (talk) 17:36, 9 October 2014 (UTC)

 * What is "vegetarian suet"? Do you mean margarine or coconut oil or what? Thank you, Wordreader (talk) 03:59, 15 October 2014 (UTC)

 * It's basically hard margarine containing a number of vegetable oils and fats. It doesn't taste anything like suet, but has a similar texture and cooking qualities. --Ef80 (talk) 15:28, 2 November 2014 (UTC)

 * It is a mixture of flour (either wheat or rice) and vegetable oil, that is made to look like suet. 86.186.228.112 (talk) 04:34, 13 December 2014 (UTC)

Homemade dish
The article currently gives the impression that CP is lovingly made in British homes using recipes handed down the generations. I doubt if this was ever true, even when Christmas dinners were huge Dickensian feasts with dozens of diners, and it's certainly not true today. Anybody who has made CP from scratch will know that it's a very big job for very little benefit. Almost everybody in the UK buys CP from the supermarket and cooks it in a microwave oven. --Ef80 (talk) 15:24, 2 November 2014 (UTC)
 * As below, I disagree - Making Christmas Pudding is only time consuming, NOT difficult! And the benefits are enormous - not as sweet, lighter but firmer once cooked, and much tastier.  Most important of all one NEVER, EVER cooks a CP in a microwave: it makes them go like a cannon ball. DickyP (talk) 12:09, 17 October 2022 (UTC)

 * I disagree, many people make their own Christmas pudding. Otherwise, why do you think cookery shows, cookbooks and magazines are full of recipes for Christmas pudding and supermarkets sell large volumes of the ingredients to make it? Also, it isn't "a very big job", it is much easier to make than most desserts as everything is essentially just mixed in together, it doesn't require accuracy and you can't really get it wrong. You can buy almost anything ready made, but cooking remains a normal activity for much of the population.86.186.228.112 (talk) 04:26, 13 December 2014 (UTC)

The King's Christmas
I added a couple paragraphs about the King's Christmas Pudding. O'Connor's article is really interesting because it has examples of what some of the pudding recipes and cookbooks looked like in the 1920s and 30s. This recipe really put Christmas pudding on the map and made it one of, if not the most famous dish that came of the British Empire. — Preceding unsigned comment added by IamMeggs (talk • contribs) 23:17, 7 December 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Christmas pudding


text:
List of mathematics-based methods

This is a list of mathematics-based methods.

 * Adams' method (differential equations)
 * Akra–Bazzi method (asymptotic analysis)
 * Bisection method (root finding)
 * Brent's method (root finding)
 * Condorcet method (voting systems)
 * Coombs' method (voting systems)
 * Copeland's method (voting systems)
 * Crank–Nicolson method (numerical analysis)
 * D'Hondt method (voting systems)
 * D21 – Janeček method (voting system)
 * Discrete element method (numerical analysis)
 * Domain decomposition method (numerical analysis)
 * Epidemiological methods
 * Euler's forward method
 * Explicit and implicit methods (numerical analysis)
 * Finite difference method (numerical analysis)
 * Finite element method (numerical analysis)
 * Finite volume method (numerical analysis)
 * Highest averages method (voting systems)
 * Method of exhaustion
 * Method of infinite descent (number theory)
 * Information bottleneck method
 * Inverse chain rule method (calculus)
 * Inverse transform sampling method (probability)
 * Iterative method (numerical analysis)
 * Jacobi method (linear algebra)
 * Largest remainder method (voting systems)
 * Level-set method
 * Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method (molecular orbitals)
 * Method of characteristics
 * Least squares method (optimization, statistics)
 * Maximum likelihood method (statistics)
 * Method of complements (arithmetic)
 * Method of moving frames (differential geometry)
 * Method of successive substitution (number theory)
 * Monte Carlo method (computational physics, simulation)
 * Newton's method (numerical analysis)
 * Pemdas method (order of operation)
 * Perturbation methods (functional analysis, quantum theory)
 * Probabilistic method (combinatorics)
 * Romberg's method (numerical analysis)
 * Runge–Kutta method (numerical analysis)
 * Sainte-Laguë method (voting systems)
 * Schulze method (voting systems)
 * Sequential Monte Carlo method
 * Simplex method
 * Spectral method (numerical analysis)
 * Variational methods (mathematical analysis, differential equations)
 * Welch's method

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of mathematics-based methods


text:
Talk:Method of successive substitution

[Untitled]
The math is wrong. You didn't subtract 3 from both side like you said you should.

Notice 11 is a solution.

Incorrect solution
The solution presented here is incorrect.

The multiplicative inverse of 4 (mod 12) is not 1. In fact, there is no such inverse.

Two simultaneous congruences x = r (mod a) and n = s (mod b) are only solvable when a = b (mod gcd(a,b)). The solution is unique modulo lcm(a,b). (gcd = greatest common divisor. lcm = lowest common multiple.)

The answer to the example given is x = 11 (mod 12).

multiplicative inverse
The solution for

4j ≡ 8 (mod 12)

is j ≡ 2 mod 3 (dividing all sides by the GCD(4,8,12)=4 and using the euclidean multiplicative inverse afterwards)

I have corrected the solution on the main page after receiving no comments for a couple of months

I have changed the equations at the start to get a less trivial result. The previous comments don't describe the actual example anymore.

"multiplactive"?
I have changed "multiplactive" to "multiplicative", since it seems to be an unusual spelling, rather than a technical term. -- 80.168.228.51 09:14, 26 Oct 2004 (UTC)

"relative prime moduli"
In my last example the moduli are relatively prime, and could be solved easier using the Chinese Remainder Theorem. So I am changing the example again.

Falling back to CRT?
If the moduli are coprime, the Chinese remainder theorem can be used directly.

Can't we simply adjust one of the simultaneous congruences to make the moduli coprime?

For example: The two simultaneous congruences of the form x ≡ r1 (mod m1) x ≡ r2 (mod m2) can be solved directly by first calculating gcd(m1,m2) and replacing e.g.  x ≡ r1 (mod m1) with x ≡ r3 (mod m3) where m3 = m1/gcd(m1,m2) and r3 = r1 mod m3.

Now, the remaining moduli (m2 and m3) are coprime.

problem in method 2?
I have a problem with the line:

2a + 1 = 3a + 2 (Rewrite the second congruence in terms of its modulus)

Shouldn't this be: 2a + 1 = 3b + 2

since there is no reason for both modili to have the same multiplier. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 193.254.175.5 (talk) 14:15, 4 June 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Method of successive substitution


text:
National Historic Landmark

A National Historic Landmark (NHL) is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Only some 2,500, or roughly three percent, of over 90,000 places listed on the country's National Register of Historic Places are recognized as National Historic Landmarks.

A National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed.

History
Prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. In 1935, Congress passed the Historic Sites Act, which authorized the interior secretary authority to formally record and organize historic properties, and to designate properties as having "national historical significance", and gave the National Park Service authority to administer historically significant federally owned properties. Over the following decades, surveys such as the Historic American Buildings Survey amassed information about culturally and architecturally significant properties in a program known as the Historic Sites Survey.

Most of the designations made under this legislation became National Historic Sites, although the first designation, made December 20, 1935, was for a National Memorial, the Gateway Arch National Park (then known as the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial) in St. Louis, Missouri. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17, 1938.

In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the survey data gathered under this legislation, and the National Historic Landmark program began to take more formal shape. When the National Register of Historic Places was established in 1966, the National Historic Landmark program was encompassed within it, and rules and procedures for inclusion and designation were formalized. Because listings (either on the National Register, or as an NHL) often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the listing procedures to require owner agreement to the designations.

On October 9, 1960, 92 places, properties, or districts were announced as eligible to be designated NHLs by U.S. Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton. Agreements of owners or responsible parties were subsequently obtained, but all 92 have since been considered listed on that 1960 date. The October 9, 1960, document is included in correspondence with the City of Charleston, South Carolina, whose Charleston Historic District was included in the list, as one of five historic districts named amongst the 92.

The National Archives and Records Administration currently provides at "Charleston Historic District" is very different from a regular National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) or NHL submission; it includes no NRHP or NHL forms at all. It includes correspondence relating to the designation of the Charleston Historic District as an NHL, and correspondence on later threats, further detail on some properties in the district, a nationwide study detailing the places eligible for NHL designation in 1960, a list of these locations, which was conveyed in an October 9, 1960, release from U.S. Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton and includes a nationwide list of sites eligible for inclusion. An outline of themes identified in the National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings, which the U.S. Department of the Interior was authorized to undertake in 1935 legislation. (Charleston Mayor J. Palmer Gaillard Jr. formally accepted the designation in 1961; three NHL candidate places were named as not having indicated interest to accept the designation. Two letters, in 1966 and 1970, refer to the Charleston Historic District having been designated an NHL in October 1963. However, later NPS documents including this archived 2007 list of NHLs treats the Charleston Historic District and others as having been listed as NHLs on October 9, 1960.  Includes correspondence, photos, plans, more.  347 pages.

The origins of the first National Historic Landmark was a simple cedar post, placed by the Lewis and Clark Expedition on their 1804 outbound trek to the Pacific in commemoration of the death from natural causes of Sergeant Charles Floyd. The cedar plank was later replaced by a 100 ft marble obelisk. The Sergeant Floyd Monument in Sioux City, Iowa, was officially designated on June 30, 1960.

Criteria
NHLs are designated by the United States secretary of the interior because they are:
 * Sites where events of national historical significance occurred;
 * Places where prominent persons lived or worked;
 * Icons of ideals that shaped the nation;
 * Outstanding examples of design or construction;
 * Places characterizing a way of life; or
 * Archeological sites able to yield information.

Current National Historic Landmarks
More than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States. There are NHLs in all 50 states and the national capital of Washington, D.C. Three states (Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and New York) account for nearly 25 percent of the nation's NHLs. Three cities within these states, Philadelphia, Boston, and New York City, respectively, all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states: Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and New York, the latter of which has the most NHLs of all 50 states. There are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia.

Some NHLs are in U.S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U.S. commonwealths and territories; five in U.S.-associated states such as Micronesia; and one in Morocco.

Over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs.

Approximately half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned. The National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends' group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect and promote National Historic Landmarks.

If not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation; about three percent of Register listings are NHLs.

title: National Historic Landmark


text:
Boids

Boids is an artificial life program, developed by Craig Reynolds in 1986, which simulates the flocking behaviour of birds, and related group motion. His paper on this topic was published in 1987 in the proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH conference. The name "boid" corresponds to a shortened version of "bird-oid object", which refers to a bird-like object. Reynolds' boid model is one example of a larger general concept, for which many other variations have been developed since. The closely related work of Ichiro Aoki is noteworthy because it was published in 1982 — five years before Reynolds' boids paper.

Model details
As with most artificial life simulations, Boids is an example of emergent behavior; that is, the complexity of Boids arises from the interaction of individual agents (the boids, in this case) adhering to a set of simple rules. The rules applied in the simplest Boids world are as follows:
 * separation: steer to avoid crowding local flockmates
 * alignment: steer towards the average heading of local flockmates
 * cohesion: steer to move towards the average position (center of mass) of local flockmates

More complex rules can be added, such as obstacle avoidance and goal seeking.

The basic model has been extended in several different ways since Reynolds proposed it. For instance, Delgado-Mata et al. extended the basic model to incorporate the effects of fear. Olfaction was used to transmit emotion between animals, through pheromones modelled as particles in a free expansion gas. Hartman and Benes introduced a complementary force to the alignment that they call the change of leadership. This steer defines the chance of the boid to become a leader and try to escape.

The movement of Boids can be characterized as either chaotic (splitting groups and wild behaviour) or orderly. Unexpected behaviours, such as splitting flocks and reuniting after avoiding obstacles, can be considered emergent.

The boids framework is often used in computer graphics, providing realistic-looking representations of flocks of birds and other creatures, such as schools of fish or herds of animals. It was for instance used in the 1998 video game Half-Life for the flying bird-like creatures seen at the end of the game on Xen, named "boid" in the game files.

The Boids model can be used for direct control and stabilization of teams of simple unmanned ground vehicles (UGV) or micro aerial vehicles (MAV) in swarm robotics. For stabilization of heterogeneous UAV-UGV teams, the model was adapted for using onboard relative localization by Saska et al.

At the time of proposal, Reynolds' approach represented a giant step forward compared to the traditional techniques used in computer animation for motion pictures. The first animation created with the model was Stanley and Stella in: Breaking the Ice (1987), followed by a feature film debut in Tim Burton's film Batman Returns (1992) with computer generated bat swarms and armies of penguins marching through the streets of Gotham City.

The boids model has been used for other interesting applications. It has been applied to automatically program Internet multi-channel radio stations. It has also been used for visualizing information and for optimization tasks.

Biologist Richard Dawkins references the Boids model in his 2009 book The Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution.

title: Boids


text:
NBA ShootOut

NBA ShootOut (Total NBA in Europe) is a series of basketball video games based on the NBA and released for the PlayStation and PlayStation 2. It was one of Sony's first-party sports franchises for the PlayStation, along with NHL FaceOff, NFL GameDay, NCAA GameBreaker and ESPN Extreme Games. The first two entries, released in 1996 and 1997, were developed by Sony Computer Entertainment's British in-house development team. Later entries were developed by 989 Sports, including NBA ShootOut 2000, the only game in the series to be released for Microsoft Windows.

In the games, players can choose an existing NBA franchise and play exhibition or regular season games, as well as create their own players to include in regular season team rosters. Charles Barkley, Shaquille O'Neal and Michael Jordan were represented in the game with other names (Forward, Center and Guard respectively).

NBA ShootOut 99 for the PlayStation was cancelled by 989 Sports due to its level of quality.

Reception
The first two games were well received, with the Official UK PlayStation Magazine awarding 9/10 and a Starplayer award to both. They praised the motion capture and the playability.

title: NBA ShootOut


text:
Chiyonofuji Mitsugu

Chiyonofuji Mitsugu (千代の富士 貢), born Mitsugu Akimoto (秋元 貢), was a Japanese professional sumo wrestler and the 58th yokozuna of the sport. Following his retirement as a wrestler, he was the stable master of Kokonoe stable until the time of his death.

Chiyonofuji was considered one of the greatest yokozuna of recent times, winning 31 yūshō or tournament championships, second at the time only to Taihō. He was particularly remarkable for his longevity in sumo's top rank, which he held for a period of ten years from 1981 to 1991. Promoted at the age of twenty-six after winning his second championship, his performance improved with age, winning more tournaments in his thirties than any other wrestler and dominating the sport in the second half of the 1980s. He finally retired in May 1991, just short of his thirty-sixth birthday.

During his 21-year professional career, Chiyonofuji set records for most career victories (1045) and most wins in the top makuuchi division (807), earning an entry in the Guinness World Records. Both of these records were later broken by Kaiō.

He won the Kyushu tournament, one of the six annual honbasho, a record eight consecutive years from 1981 until 1988, and also set the record for the longest postwar run of consecutive wins (53 bouts in 1988). That record stood for 22 years until Hakuhō broke it with his 54th straight win in September 2010.

In a sport where weight is often regarded as vital, Chiyonofuji was quite light at around 120 kg. He relied on superior technique and muscle to defeat opponents. He was the lightest yokozuna since Tochinoumi in the 1960s. Upon his retirement he became an elder of the Japan Sumo Association and became the Kokonoe-oyakata the following year.

Early life
He was born in Fukushima, a town in the Matsumae District of Hokkaido, northern Japan. He was a son of a fisherman. At school he excelled in athletics events, particularly running. He was scouted at the age of 15 by Kokonoe stable's head Chiyonoyama, who had served as the 41st yokozuna and was from the same Fukushima town. Chiyonoyama promised him a trip to Tokyo in an airplane, which excited the young Akimoto as he had never flown before. At the time of his debut he weighed just 71 kg. Chiyonoyama died in 1977, at which time Kitanofuji, the 52nd yokozuna and also a Hokkaido native, took over the stable.

Ring name
His shikona (ring name) surname of Chiyonofuji (千代の富士) was formed from those of the two previous yokozuna from his stable, Chiyonoyama and Kitanofuji. "thousand years" (千代) is a word used to mean forever. Fuji (富士) is the same as that in Mount Fuji (富士山). He was nicknamed "The Wolf" (ウルフ) due to his ferocity and masculine facial features.

Early career
Chiyonofuji began his career in September 1970. He reached the second highest jūryō division in November 1974, and was promoted to the top makuuchi division in September 1975. However, he lasted only one tournament before being demoted again, and recurring shoulder dislocation injuries led to him falling back to the unsalaried ranks. He finally won promotion back to the top division in January 1978. After receiving a fighting spirit prize in May, Chiyonofuji reached komusubi (the fourth-highest rank) for the first time. During his early top division career he was often compared to another lightweight wrestler popular with sumo fans, Takanohana I. Takanohana had first come across Chiyonofuji whilst on a regional tour and encouraged him to give sumo a try. Later, he also advised Chiyonofuji to give up smoking, which helped him put on some extra weight.

In 1979, due to his shoulder trouble, Chiyonofuji briefly fell to the second division, but he soon came back. Encouraged by his stablemaster, he began to rely not only on throwing techniques, which increased the risk of re-injuring his shoulders, but also on gaining ground quickly and forcing out his opponents. Showing much more consistency, he earned three kinboshi by defeating yokozuna in the March and July 1980 tournaments, where he also got technique prizes. He fought again as a komusubi in the May and September tournaments, in the latter of which he won 10 matches in the top division for the first time. Chiyonofuji reached sekiwake (the third-highest rank), and stayed at this rank for only two tournament. As a sekiwake, he scored 11–4 in November, and in January 1981 he scored 14–1, losing only one regular match to dominating yokozuna Kitanoumi, and then defeated him in the subsequent playoff to win a top makuuchi division title for the first time. This earned him promotion to ōzeki, the second-highest rank. While making this speedy rise, he won the technique prize in the three previous tournaments, and won it again in that January 1981 tournament where he also earned the outstanding performance prize. As an ōzeki he scored well in the following three tournaments up to July 1981, where he again defeated Kitanoumi and won his second title. After this victory, he was promoted to yokozuna, the 58th in sumo history.

Yokozuna
Chiyonofuji had to pull out of his first tournament as a yokozuna with an injury, but he returned to win the championship in November, defeating Asashio in a playoff. He later said that this victory was the foundation upon which he built his subsequent success as a yokozuna. He was to win the Kyushu tournament eight consecutive years from 1981 to 1988, a record dominance of any of the six specific honbasho.

As his rival Kitanoumi went into a long slump, Chiyonofuji dominated sumo in 1982, winning four of the six tournaments. However, another yokozuna, Takanosato, emerged over the next two years to challenge him, and he also suffered a number of injury problems. Chiyonofuji was restricted to just one championship in the nine tournaments held from May 1983 to September 1984. But Kitanoumi retired in January 1985, with the aging Takanosato following a year later, and Chiyonofuji resumed his dominance. In 1986 he won five out of the six tournaments held, the first time this had been done since Kitanoumi in 1978. Despite being older and lighter than nearly all his opponents, he dominated the sport throughout the 1980s.

In 1988, he went on a winning streak of 53 bouts, the third longest in sumo history, second to yokozuna Hakuhō's 63, and Futabayama's all-time record of 69. The sequence began on the 7th day of the May 1988 tournament with victory over Hananoumi and continued through the July and September 1988 tournaments, ending only on the final day of the November 1988 tournament when he was defeated by Ōnokuni. Had he won that bout, he would have been the first wrestler ever to win three consecutive tournaments with 15–0 records. Nonetheless, his winning run was the best ever in the postwar period, surpassing the 45 bouts won by Taihō in 1968 and 1969. In July 1989 he took his 28th championship in a playoff from his stablemate Hokutoumi, marking the first time ever that two yokozuna from the same stable had met in competition. In September 1989 Chiyonofuji surpassed Ōshio's record of 964 career wins and became the first sumo wrestler to receive the People's Honour Award from the Japanese Prime Minister. In March 1990, he secured his 1000th win. A 32nd tournament title would have tied the record set by Taihō in 1971, but his 31st championship in November 1990 proved to be his last.

In the opening tournament of 1991, Chiyonofuji surpassed Kitanoumi's record of 804 top division wins but injured himself on the second day and had to withdraw. He returned in May, but he lost on the opening day of the tournament to the 18-year-old rising star and future yokozuna Takanohana Kōji (then known as Takahanada). It was estimated that half of the Japanese population watched the match on TV. Coincidentally, Takahanada's father, Takanohana Kenshi, had retired in 1981 shortly after losing to Chiyonofuji. Chiyonofuji beat Itai on the next day, but this was to be his final win. After losing another match with Takatōriki on the third day, Chiyonofuji announced his own retirement, a few weeks short of his 36th birthday.

Retirement from the ring
In September 1989 while Chiyonofuji was still active, the Japan Sumo Association decided to proffer the special status of ichidai-toshiyori (one-generation sumo-elder using his ring name as his elder name) to him, but he declined it because he intended to inherit another elder name. Following his retirement from the ring in May 1991, Chiyonofuji inherited the elder name of Jinmaku; then in 1992 he purchased the Kokonoe stable from Kitanofuji and the two exchanged their elder names (Jinmaku and Kokonoe). The purchase price of the stable was reported as being around 50 million yen, below the market rate for a stable. Under his leadership, the stable produced several top wrestlers including former ōzeki Chiyotaikai, former komusubi Chiyotenzan and former maegashira Chiyohakuhō. At the time of his death in 2016, Kokonoe stable was one of the most successful stables in sumo in terms of quantity of sekitori, with four men (Chiyotairyū, Chiyomaru, Chiyonokuni, and Chiyootori) in the top division and two (Chiyoshoma and Chiyonoō) in jūryō. He also served for some years as a ringside judge.

In February 2008, he joined the board of directors of the Japan Sumo Association, where he was responsible for organising the regional tours or jungyō, but he had to resign in April 2011 after his wrestler Chiyohakuhō admitted involvement in match-fixing and retired from sumo. He returned in the January 2012 elections as the Operations director (the second most senior position in the Association's hierarchy), but was unseated two years later. He chose not to run for a board position in the 2016 elections, citing a lack of support.

On May 31, 2015, he marked his 60th birthday by performing the kanreki dohyō-iri at the Ryōgoku Kokugikan, becoming the tenth former yokozuna to do so. Two active yokozuna were his attendants, with Hakuhō the tachimochi and Harumafuji acting as tsuyuharai.

Family
Chiyonofuji announced his engagement shortly after his fifth tournament championship in May 1982. He had a son and three daughters. His second daughter, Kozue Akimoto, born in 1987, is a fashion model. His youngest daughter Ai died at the age of four months, shortly before the July tournament of 1989.

Death
Chiyonofuji had surgery for pancreatic cancer in July 2015, and was noticeably weak when speaking to reporters at the Aki basho in September of that year. Having reportedly told associates that the cancer had spread to his heart and lungs, he had been hospitalized since the fourth day of the Nagoya tournament in 2016. He died in Tokyo on July 31, 2016, at the age of 61. The chairman of the Japan Sumo Association, former yokozuna Hokutoumi who was a stablemate and protégé of Chiyonofuji, was too grief-stricken to speak to the press in the immediate aftermath of Chiyonofuji's death. His former stablemaster, ex-yokozuna Kitanofuji, said that he was "blessed with a wonderful disciple." Another former yokozuna, Takanohana, who hastened Chiyonofuji's retirement by defeating him in 1991, recalled his fear of Chiyonofuji's "metal body" when training with him. On August 2 the Sumo Association announced that a farewell ceremony for Chiyonofuji would be held at the entrance of the Ryōgoku Kokugikan on October 1.

Fighting style
Throughout his career, Chiyonofuji's trademark kimarite or technique was uwatenage, or overarm throw. He preferred a migi-yotsu, or left hand outside, right hand inside grip on his opponent's mawashi. His left hand outer grip was so effective that some commentators referred to it as his "death grip." Uwatenage was his second most common winning technique at sekitori level after yorikiri, or force out. He was also well known for tsuridashi, or lift out. He had knowledge of a wide range of other techniques as well, employing 41 different kimarite in his career. In January 1987, he won with the very rare amiuchi, or fisherman's net casting throw, and joked to the press afterwards that it was appropriate for him as he was the son of a fisherman. Chiyonofuji's muscular physique, athleticism and dramatic throws made him the most successful and one of the most popular wrestlers of his day.

Honours

 * People's Honour Award (1989)
 * Order of the Rising Sun, 3rd Class, Gold Rays with Neck Ribbon (2016, posthumous)
 * Junior Fourth Rank (2016, posthumous)

title: Chiyonofuji Mitsugu


text:
Louis, Duke of Orléans (1703–1752)

Louis, Duke of Orléans (4 August 1703 – 4 February 1752) was a member of the House of Bourbon, and as such was a prince du sang. At his father's death, he became the First Prince of the Blood (Premier Prince du Sang) and Duke of Orléans. Known as Louis le Pieux and also as Louis le Génovéfain, Louis was a pious, charitable and cultured prince, who took very little part in the politics of the time.

Early years
Louis d'Orléans was born at the Palace of Versailles in 1703 to Philippe II, Duke of Orléans and his wife, Françoise Marie de Bourbon, the youngest legitimised daughter of Louis XIV and of his mistress Madame de Montespan. He was the only son of eight children, and at his birth, he was given the courtesy title of Duke of Chartres as the heir to the Orléans fortune and titles. His maternal grandfather, King Louis XIV of France, in addition gave him the allowance reserved for the First Prince of the Blood, a rank he was not yet eligible to hold.

He was brought up by his mother and his grandmother, Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate, and tutored by Nicolas-Hubert Mongault, the illegitimate son of Jean-Baptiste Colbert de Saint-Pouange, a cousin of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Louis XIV's minister. He was very close to his mother, the two remaining close until her death in 1749.

Louis was very close to his younger sister Louise Élisabeth d'Orléans, who was to become queen consort of Spain for seven months in 1724. He was not, however, close to his elder sister, Charlotte Aglaé d'Orléans, the wife of Francesco d'Este, Duke of Modena. They were in frequent conflict during her many return visits to the French court from Modena.

Regency
Upon the death of his maternal grandfather Louis XIV in 1715, his father, the former king's nephew, was selected to be the regent of the country for the five-year-old new king, Louis XV. The court was moved to Paris so his father could govern the country with the young king close by his side. Louis XV was installed in the Palais des Tuileries, opposite of the Palais-Royal, the Paris home of the Orléans family. During the regency, Orléans was seen as the "third personage of the kingdom" immediately after Louis XV and his own father, the regent. He was formally admitted to the Conseil de Régence on 30 January 1718. Despite his father's wishes, though, the Orléans household was never to play an overly public or political role in France. The following year, he was made the governor of the Dauphiné. He was not forced to move there in order to fulfill his new duties. Later, he resigned.

In 1720, he became Grand Master of the Order of Saint-Lazare and Jerusalem. In 1721, under his father's influence, he was named Colonel général de l'Infanterie, and post he held until 1730.

Duke of Orléans

Upon the death of his father on 2 December 1723, the twenty-year-old Louis assumed the hereditary title of Duke of Orléans and became the head of the House of Orléans. He also became the next in line to the throne of France until the birth of Louis XV's first-born son in 1729. This was because King Philip V of Spain, the second son of the Grand Dauphin and uncle of the young king, had renounced his rights to the French throne for himself and his descendants upon his accession to the throne of Spain in 1700. Although the regent had hoped that his son would assume a prominent role in the government as he had, the post of prime minister went to Louis' elder cousin, Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon, when the regent died. Constantly trying to consolidate and maintain his power at court, the Duke of Bourbon was always suspicious of Louis' motivations and was frequently opposed to him.

In 1723, the Orléans household was conspicuous for his hostility to the former prime minister, Cardinal Dubois. The Orléans also worked with Claude le Blanc and Nicolas Prosper Bauyn d'Angervilliers in the post of Secretary of State for War; Louis himself worked in this position from 1723 to 1730.

Marriage
The fifth child and only son out of eight children, he was still not married at the death of his father. In 1721, the ambassador of France to Russia suggested a marriage between him and one of the two unmarried daughters of Peter I of Russia: the Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna (known for her fluency in French) or her younger sister, Grand Duchess Yelizaveta Petrovna. But the idea of a marriage with a Russian Grand Duchess had to be abandoned as there soon arose difficulties relative to religion and order of precedence. Louis was a great-grandson of the king of France and as such was entitled to the style of Serene Highness. A Russian Grand Duchess, however, as a daughter of the tsar, was entitled to the style of Imperial Highness. Anna Petrovna later married the Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp.

Another possible bride that was considered for him was his first cousin Élisabeth Alexandrine de Bourbon. She was the youngest daughter of his mother's elder sister, Louise Françoise de Bourbon. Élisabeth Alexandrine was also the younger sister of his main rival, the Duke of Bourbon.

In 1723, a German princess was suggested. She was Auguste of Baden-Baden, the daughter of Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden and his wife Sibylle Auguste of Saxe-Lauenburg. The marriage was agreed upon by his mother, and the bride's small dowry set at 80,000 livres. The marriage by proxy took place on 18 June 1724 at Rastatt, in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, then on 13 July in the town of Sarry (Marne), in France. It was at Sarry that the couple first met. They fell in love at first sight. At the French court, the new Duchess of Orléans was known as Auguste de Bade.

The ducal couple had two children, but only one survived infancy.

Later life
On 5 September 1725, the court celebrated the marriage of Louis XV to the Polish princess Marie Leszczyńska at Fontainebleau. Earlier, the Orléans had represented Louis XV at the proxy marriage ceremony, which had taken place the previous 15 August at Strasbourg. The young queen would later have a lot of sympathy for the quiet and pious Duke.

The following year, on 8 August 1726, the duke's young wife died three days after the birth of her second child, Louise Marie, at the Palais-Royal in Paris. After the early death of his wife, and until his own death in 1752, Louis lived by strict rules.

His aunt, Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans, Duchess of Lorraine, proposed her two daughters Élisabeth Thérèse de Lorraine and Anne Charlotte de Lorraine as possible wives; Louis refused outright.

In 1730, Cardinal Fleury secured the duke's dismissal from the position of colonel-general of the infantry, a post he had held for nine years. Afterwards, he became increasingly religious. Around 1740, he ordered the employment of a priest at the Palais Royal to stay with him during ill health. He later decided to retire at the Abbaye Sainte-Geneviève de Paris. From then on, he became known as Louis le Génovéfain. As he retired into private life, Louis spent his time translating the Psalms and the Pauline epistles, protecting men of science and managing his wealth. Like his cousin, the Duke of Penthièvre, he was praised for his charitable works. After the birth of his son, Orléans was often preoccupied with the education of his son.

His son, Louis Philippe, would have liked to have married Madame Henriette, the second daughter of Louis XV, but Louis XV refused. The king did not want the House of Orléans to be as powerful as it had been during the regency of his Orléans' father. In 1737 he, along with his aunt, the Dowager Duchess of Bourbon, were asked to be godparents of the king's son, Louis de France, Dauphin of France.

On 17 December 1743, his son married Louise Henriette de Bourbon, the daughter of Louis Armand, Prince of Conti and his wife, Louise Élisabeth de Bourbon. The Condé and Orléans families had been at odds since the Orléans had assumed the rank of First Prince of the Blood in 1709, and it was hoped that the marriage would settle their mésentente. Although passionate at first, the marriage soon proved unhappy because of the young bride's débaucherie.

Louis Philippe d'Orléans would see the birth of his grandchildren Louis Philippe and Bathilde, who, during the French Revolution of 1789, would be known respectively as Philippe Égalité and Citoyenne Vérité. Because of the scandalous behaviour of their mother, he refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of his grandchildren.

In 1749, his mother died; he soon died in 1752, at the age of forty-eight, at the Abbaye de Sainte Geneviève, having lost most of his sanity. On his deathbed, on suspicion of Jansenist views, he was refused communion by the Abbé Bouettin of the Saint-Étienne-du-Mont church, but was given the last rites by his own chaplain. Louis d'Orléans had outlived all his siblings apart from Charlotte Aglaé, the Duchess of Modena and Reggio.

He was buried at the Val-de-Grâce in Paris.

Legacy
Louis was praised as a very charitable man; in Versailles, the now destroyed College d'Orléans, was named after him due to his generous patronage of the college's construction. He also remodelled the gardens at the Palais-Royal as well as the Orléans country residence, the Château de Saint-Cloud (c. 1735). Louis was also praised for giving generous financial aid to victims of floods in the Loire in 1731, and again in 1740.

title: Louis, Duke of Orléans (1703–1752)


text:
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force

Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF; ) was the headquarters of the Commander of Allied forces in northwest Europe, from late 1943 until the end of World War II. US General Dwight D. Eisenhower was the commander in SHAEF throughout its existence. The position itself shares a common lineage with Supreme Allied Commander Europe and Atlantic, but they are different titles.

History
Eisenhower transferred from command of the Mediterranean Theater of Operations to command SHAEF, which was formed in Camp Griffiss, Bushy Park, Teddington, London, from December 1943; an adjacent street named Shaef Way, and a gate into the park called Shaef Gate, remain to this day. Southwick House was used as an alternative headquarters near Portsmouth. Its staff took the outline plan for Operation Overlord created by Lieutenant General Sir Frederick E. Morgan, Chief of Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander (Designate) (COSSAC), and Major General Ray Barker. Morgan, who had been appointed chief of staff to the Supreme Allied Commander (designate) in mid-March 1943 began planning for the invasion of Europe before Eisenhower's appointment and moulded the plan into the final version, which was executed on 6 June 1944. That process was shaped by Eisenhower and the land forces commander, General Sir Bernard Law Montgomery, for the initial part of the invasion.

SHAEF remained in the United Kingdom until sufficient forces were ashore to justify its transfer to France. At that point, Montgomery ceased to command all land forces but continued as Commander in Chief of the British 21st Army Group (21 AG) on the eastern wing of the Normandy bridgehead. The US 12th Army Group (12 AG) commanded by Lieutenant General Omar Bradley was created as the western wing of the bridgehead. As the breakout from Normandy took place, the Allies launched the invasion of southern France on 15 August 1944 with the US 6th Army Group (6 AG) under the command of Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers. During the invasion of southern France, the 6 AG was under the command of the Allied Forces Headquarters (AFHQ) of the Mediterranean Theatre of Operations, but after one month command passed to SHAEF. By this time, the three Army Groups had taken up the positions on the Western Front in which they would remain until the end of the war—the British 21 AG to the North, the American 12 AG in the middle and the 6 AG to the South. By December 1944, SHAEF had established itself in the Trianon Palace Hotel in Versailles, France. In February 1945, it moved to Reims and on 26 May 1945, to Frankfurt.

Order of battle
SHAEF commanded the largest number of formations ever committed to one operation on the Western Front, with American, Free French, British and Canadian forces. It commanded all Allied airborne forces as an airborne army, as well as three army groups that controlled a total of eight field armies;

 * First Allied Airborne Army.svg First Allied Airborne Army
 * all Allied airborne divisions, brigades and paratrooper transport wings
 * 21st army group badge large.svg British 21st Army Group
 * First Canadian Army formation patch.svg First Canadian Army
 * 2nd british army badge large.png Second British Army
 * 12th Army Group.svg US 12th Army Group
 * US Army 1st Army SSI Prior to 1950.png First United States Army
 * United States Army Central CSIB.svg Third United States Army
 * US Ninth Army patch.svg Ninth United States Army
 * 15th US Army SSI.svg Fifteenth United States Army
 * US 6th Army Group.svg US 6th Army Group
 * Insigne Rhin et Danube-1èrearmée.jpg French First Army
 * US Seventh Army SSI.svg Seventh United States Army

SHAEF also controlled substantial naval forces during Operation Neptune, the assault phase of Overlord, and two tactical air forces: the US Ninth Air Force and the RAF Second Tactical Air Force. Allied strategic bomber forces in the UK also came under its command during Operation Neptune.

Commanders and senior staff
Additionally
 * Secretary, General Staff: Colonel Ford Trimble
 * G-1 (Personnel): Major General Ray Barker
 * G-2 (Intelligence): Major General John Whiteley, then Major General Kenneth Strong
 * G-3 (Operations) : Major General Harold Bull
 * G-4 (Logistics): Major General Robert Crawford
 * G-5: (Civil/Military Operations) Major General Sir Roger Lumley then Lieutenant General Arthur Edward Grasett
 * Services of Supply/Communications Zone: Lieutenant General John C. H. Lee

 * Political officers
 * Ambassador William Phillips (US)
 * Mr. Charles Peake (UK)
 * Mr. Christopher Steel (UK)
 * Mr. Samuel Reber (US)
 * Ambassador Robert Daniel Murphy (US)

Post-World War II successors
After the surrender of Germany, SHAEF was dissolved on 14 July 1945.

American
With respect to the U.S. forces, it was replaced by U.S. Forces, European Theater (USFET). USFET was reorganized as EUCOM (European Command, not to be confused with the present-day United States European Command) on 15 March 1947.

1948–1951: Western Union
The 1948–1951 Western Union Defence Organization's (WUDO) command structure was largely patterned on SHAEF's structure.

1951–present: Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe/Allied Command Operations
Starting in April 1951 when the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) cannibalised WUDO, it was put under the command of Supreme Allied Commander Europe Dwight D. Eisenhower in Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE; Allied Command Europe [ACE]), comprising many of the same allies that were part of SHAEF. WUDO, followed by SHAPE, were in many respects the successors to SHAEF.

SHAPE is currently the headquarters of NATO's Allied Command Operations (ACO). Since 1967 it has been located at Casteau, north of the Belgian city of Mons, but it had previously been located, from 1953, at Rocquencourt, next to Versailles, France.

From 1951 to 2003, SHAPE was the headquarters of Allied Command Europe (ACE). Since 2003 it has been the headquarters of ACO, controlling all NATO operations worldwide.

2017–present: Military Planning and Conduct Capability
The European Union has established a Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC), which is due to gain more tasks and may rival SHAPE's dominance as the primary forum for multinational European missions.


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Hansom cab

The hansom cab is a kind of horse-drawn carriage designed and patented in 1834 by Joseph Hansom, an architect from York. The vehicle was developed and tested by Hansom in Hinckley, Leicestershire, England. Originally called the Hansom safety cab, it was designed to combine speed with safety, with a low centre of gravity for safe cornering. Hansom's original design was modified by John Chapman and several others to improve its practicability, but retained Hansom's name.

Cab is a shortening of cabriolet, reflecting the design of the carriage. It replaced the hackney carriage as a vehicle for hire; with the introduction of clockwork mechanical taximeters to measure fares, the name became taxicab.

Hansom cabs enjoyed immense popularity as they were fast, light enough to be pulled by a single horse (making the journey cheaper than travelling in a larger four-wheel coach) and were agile enough to steer around horse-drawn vehicles in the notorious traffic jams of nineteenth-century London. There were up to 7500 hansom cabs in use at the height of their popularity and they quickly spread to other cities in the United Kingdom (including Ireland), as well as continental European cities, particularly Paris, Berlin, and St Petersburg. The cab was introduced to other British Empire cities and to the United States during the late 19th century, being most commonly used in New York City.

Design
The cab, a type of fly, sat two passengers (three if they squeezed in) and a driver who sat on a sprung seat behind the vehicle. The passengers could give their instructions to the driver through a trap door near the rear of the roof. They could pay the driver through the hatch, and he would then operate a lever to release the doors so that they could alight. In some cabs, the driver could operate a device that balanced the cab and reduced strain on the horse. The passengers were protected from the elements by the cab and by folding wooden doors that enclosed their feet and legs and thus protected their clothes from splashing mud. Later versions also had an up-and-over glass window above the doors to complete the enclosure of the passengers. Additionally, a curved fender mounted forward of the doors protected passengers from the stones thrown up by the hooves of the horse.

"Its main features were low-slung bodywork, high wheels and a rearward driving seat — the latter not at first evident. The purpose of its design was to combine speed with safety, having a low centre of gravity, essential for safe cornering and overtaking. Wheels were originally 7'6' in diameter, later becoming much smaller although still large in proportion. The dashboard was curved at the rear of the shafts, bringing the hind-quarters of the horse fairly near the vehicle, for better control. There would be room for two passengers facing forward, on a single cross-seat, their legs protected by knee flaps."

Other vehicles similar to the Hansom cab include the American light trade cart for deliveries such as bread, the bow-fronted hansom which was fully enclosed and entered through a side door, and the Brougham Hansom which was entered from the rear and driven from a seat on the fore-part of the roof.

Hansom Cab Company
The Hansom Cab Company was established in May 1869 to provide transportation in New York City and Brooklyn. The business was located at 133 Water Street, Brooklyn; Duncan, Sherman & Company handled the books of subscription (initial offers of stock to capitalize a new company). The enterprise was organized by Ed W. Brandon who became its president. Two orders for a fleet of cabs were sent to carriage makers in New York City. Fares were to be charged either by distance or time: $0.30 for a single person per mile, or portion thereof, and $0.40 for two people. By time, $0.75 for one person for an hour or portion thereof, $1.00 for two persons.

United Kingdom

Two English peers who owned cab companies, Lord Shrewsbury and Lord Lonsdale, raised the standards of all Hansom cabs in London when they purchased upgraded cabs made by Forder, complete with brass fittings, quiet-running rubber tires, and luxuriously fitted interiors. Their horses were thoroughbreds in polished harnesses. These flashier Hansoms were sometimes referred to as "Gondolas of London" or "gondolas of the streets".

The cabs were widely used in the United Kingdom until 1908 when Taximeter Cars (petrol cabs) started to be introduced and were rapidly accepted; by the early 1920s horse-drawn cabs had largely been superseded by motor vehicles. The last licence for a horse-drawn cab in London was relinquished in 1947.

Museums
A restored hansom cab once owned by Alfred Gwynne Vanderbilt is on display at the Remington Carriage Museum in Cardston, Alberta, Canada. There is another surviving example, owned and operated by the Sherlock Holmes Museum in London; in common with other horse-drawn vehicles it is not permitted to enter any of the Royal Parks. Hinckley and Bosworth Borough Council, Leicestershire also have a restored Hansom cab.

In popular culture

 * In Black Beauty by Anna Sewell, the central section has an evocative account of life as a Hansom cab driver in Victorian London, even though it is written from the point of view of the horse.
 * "The Adventure of the Hansom Cab" is the third and final story in Robert Louis Stevenson's The Suicide Club cycle (1878). Retired British soldier Lieutenant Brackenbury Rich is beckoned into the back of an elegantly appointed hansom by a mysterious cabman who whisks him off to a party.
 * In 1886, Fergus Hume published his novel The Mystery of a Hansom Cab, set in post-Gold Rush era Melbourne, Australia. The story was filmed in Australia in 1911, under the same title. A movie was made for TV in 2012.
 * The 1889 film Leisurely Pedestrians, Open Topped Buses and Hansom Cabs with Trotting Horses, photographed by William Friese-Greene, shows Londoners walking along Apsley Gate, Hyde Park, with horse-drawn conveyances passing by.
 * The book Farewell Victoria (1933) by T. H. White has the protagonist ending his days as a hansom cab operator in its fading years, which is part of the sustained metaphor brought out in the title.

title: Hansom cab