text:
Timeline of Quebec history (1960–1981)

This section of the Timeline of Quebec history concerns the events between the Quiet Revolution and the patriation of the British North America Act.

1960s

 * 1960 - The Montreal Canadiens win the Stanley Cup for the fifth consecutive season. As of 2024, they are the only National Hockey League franchise to do so.
 * 1960 – Quebec general election: The election of a new Liberal Party government led by Premier Jean Lesage marks the beginning of a period of sustained change known as the Quiet Revolution.
 * 1960 – Foundation of the Rassemblement pour l'indépendance nationale. See History of the Quebec sovereigntist movement.
 * 1961 – December 14: Marie-Claire Kirkland becomes the first woman Member of the Legislative Assembly and also the first woman cabinet member.
 * 1962 – The construction of the Montreal Metro (subway) begins.
 * 1962 – The Champlain Bridge in Montreal is partly opened to traffic.
 * 1962 – Quebec general election: Liberals win.
 * 1963 – Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) members, Gabriel Hudon and Raymond Villeneuve are sentenced to 12 years in prison for manslaughter after their bomb killed Sgt. Wilfred V. O'Neill, a watchman at Montreal's Canadian Army Recruiting Centre. See Front de libération du Québec.
 * 1963 – Second wave of the nationalization of electricity. On April 30, Hydro-Québec acquires 8 private producers of hydroelectricity.
 * 1963 – July 10: Voting age lowered from 21 to 18 in Quebec elections.
 * 1964 – A ministry of education, separate from the Catholic clergy, is created by the Quebec government.
 * 1964 – Married women obtain full legal rights (to buy property without their husband's signature, and so forth).
 * 1965 – Canada adopts the maple leaf flag in February.
 * 1966 – Quebec general election: Union Nationale wins.
 * 1967 – Quebec celebrates the 100th anniversary of its joining in the creation of the nation of Canada
 * 1967 – As part of Canada's centennial celebrations, the Universal Exposition of Montreal, better known as Expo 67, opens for the summer.
 * 1967 – Completion of the construction of Saint Joseph's Oratory on Montreal's Mount Royal.
 * 1967 – Visiting President of France Charles de Gaulle shouts "Vive le Québec libre!" from the balcony of Montreal city hall. De Gaulle cancelled the rest of his official visit to Canada after Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson said: "Certain statements by President de Gaulle tend to encourage the small minority of our population whose aim is to destroy Canada: and as such, they are unacceptable to the Canadian people and its government."
 * 1967 – In October, René Lévesque leaves the Quebec Liberal Party and founds the Mouvement Souveraineté-Association.
 * 1968 – On Monday, June 24, 290 people are arrested during the lundi de la matraque civil disorder during the St-Jean-Baptiste parade.
 * 1968 – Pierre Trudeau, born in Montreal, Quebec, is elected Prime Minister of Canada. See 1968 federal election.
 * 1968 – On August 28, the Théâtre du rideau vert premieres Michel Tremblay's play Les Belles-Sœurs, which sells out its entire run in two days and revolutionizes the entertainment world by using Quebec French joual instead of "Parisian" French.
 * 1968 – On October 26, the Parti Québécois is created out of the merger of René Lévesque's Mouvement Souveraineté-Association and the Ralliement national. See History of the Quebec sovereigntist movement.
 * 1968 – The Université du Québec network is created by the government.
 * 1968 – The government-operated Radio-Québec (television station) is founded. In the 1990s it was renamed Télé-Québec.
 * 1968 – The Legislative Council, the non-elected upper house of Quebec's parliament, is abolished at the end of the year.
 * 1969 – The Parliament of Canada, under Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, passes Bill C-120 : An Act Respecting the Status of Official Languages in Canada, making both French and English the official languages of all Canada. See Official Languages Act.
 * 1969 – The Union Nationale government of Jean-Jacques Bertrand passes "Bill 63" which confirms the status quo on the language of instruction in the public schools (Parents can choose English or French).
 * 1969 – The Montreal Expos baseball franchise begins play in Montreal.
 * 1969 – FLQ paramilitary bomb the Montreal Stock Exchange.
 * 1969 – Montreal's 3,700 police and firefighters stage a wildcat strike, resulting in violence, looting, arson, and the death of two people.

1970s

 * 1970 – Formation of the "Montreal Urban Community" on January 1, consisting of the central city of Montreal and its suburbs on the island of Montreal. Replaced in 2002 by the new "megacity" of Montreal.
 * 1970 – Quebec general election: Liberals win.
 * 1970 – Terrorist activities by the Front de libération du Québec culminated with the abduction of James Cross, the British Trade Commissioner to Canada, and Pierre Laporte, a provincial minister and Vice-Premier. Martial law is declared and civil rights are suspended. See the October Crisis.
 * 1971 – Women are allowed to serve on juries.
 * 1971 – Premier Bourassa launches the James Bay hydroelectric project.
 * 1971 – Victoria Charter constitutional reform ends in failure.
 * 1973 – Quebec general election: Liberals re-elected with 54.7% of the votes and a massive majority of seats (102 of 110).
 * 1973 – The Royal Canadian Mounted Police steal the membership list of the Parti Québécois.
 * 1974 – The Liberal government adopts "Bill 22" (Official Language Act (Quebec)) language legislation (later superseded by Bill 101).
 * 1975 – The Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms is passed and comes into effect the following year.
 * 1976 – The Summer Olympic Games are held in Montreal.
 * 1976 - On September 26, the Expos play their final game at Parc Jarry.
 * 1976 – Quebec general election: On November 15, the Parti Québécois (PQ) is elected. With a participation rate of 85.27%, the highest in Quebec's history, 41% of voters give 71 seats to the PQ.
 * 1976 – Quebec-born author Saul Bellow wins the Nobel Prize for literature.
 * 1977 - On April 15, the Expos play their first game at Olympic Stadium.
 * 1977 – On August 26, the Quebec Charter of the French Language (Bill 101) becomes law.
 * 1977 – The exodus of unilingual English speaking workers and businessmen, started with the economic boom of Toronto and the West, accelerates. Over the next decade, many English-speaking Canadians leave the province. Most settled in Ontario. An equally high number of Canadians moved from other provinces to settle in Ontario, where Toronto is booming, replacing Montreal as the metropolis of Canada since the end of the second world war.
 * 1978 – "No-fault" automobile insurance comes into effect in Quebec.
 * 1978 – National Assembly debates are televised for the first time, and to suit the cameras, the walls are painted blue instead of the previous green.
 * 1979 - The Montreal Canadiens win the Stanley Cup for the fourth consecutive season and 22nd time overall.
 * 1979 – Pierre Trudeau is defeated in the 1979 Canadian election and retires (he soon changes his mind).
 * 1979 - The Quebec Nordiques join the National Hockey League after playing seven seasons in the World Hockey Association.

1980s

 * 1980 – Pierre Trudeau returns to power as Prime Minister of Canada in the 1980 Canadian election.
 * 1980 – Premier Lévesque puts sovereignty-association before the Quebec voters in a referendum. 60% of the Quebec electorate votes against it. See the Referendum of 1980.
 * 1981 – Quebec general election: Parti Québécois re-elected.
 * 1981 - The Expos defeat the Philadelphia Phillies in a best-of-five playoff to win the National League East Division. However, the Expos fall short of the World Series, losing the National League Championship Series to the Los Angeles Dodgers in five games. It would be the franchise's only postseason appearance until it moved to Washington, D.C. in 2005.
 * 1981 – November 4–5: In the "Night of the Long Knives" (French: "La Nuit des Longs Couteaux"), Pierre Trudeau makes a constitutional deal with nine anglophone provinces without Quebec.

title: Timeline of Quebec history (1960–1981)


text:
Timeline of Quebec history (1982–present)

This section of the Timeline of Quebec history concerns the events between patriation of the British North America Act and the present day.

1980s

 * 1982 - Led by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, the Canadian government moves to patriate the constitution on April 17
 * June 9 – Following a court challenge to parts of Bill 101 (the French language law of the Province of Quebec), the Supreme Court of Canada rules them unconstitutional.
 * 1982 - On July 13, Montreal's Olympic Stadium hosts the Major League Baseball All-Star Game, the first time it is held outside the United States.
 * 1984 - Deranged federalist former soldier Denis Lortie goes on a shooting spree at the National Assembly on May 8 with the intention to kill René Lévesque. The assembly is not in session; however, there are 3 deaths and 9 injured.
 * 1984 - Pierre Trudeau resigns as Prime Minister of Canada after taking a "walk in the snow" to think it over.
 * 1984 - John Turner succeeds Trudeau as Prime Minister of Canada, only to be defeated three months later by Brian Mulroney.
 * 1984 - Brian Mulroney, born in Baie-Comeau, Quebec, is elected Prime Minister of Canada.
 * 1984 - René Lévesque accepts the beau risque of constitutional negotiations with the new Mulroney government. This leads to a serious split within the Parti Québécois.
 * 1985 - Exhausted by infighting within his party, René Lévesque resigns as premier and leader of the Parti Québécois.
 * 1985 - Quebec general election: Liberals win.
 * 1987 - The Meech Lake Accord is agreed to by federal and provincial governments. However, it was never ratified.
 * 1987 - René Lévesque dies.
 * 1987 - July 14, Montreal is completely paralyzed by the heavy downpour of a series of thunderstorms during the Montreal Flood of 1987.
 * 1988 - Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement is negotiated, with broad support from both sides of the political spectrum in Quebec.
 * 1989 - A geomagnetic storm in northern Quebec causes a nine-hour blackout in parts of province on March 13. Owing to a ripple effect in the transmission lines that feed Quebec-produced energy to New York State, ultimately to New York City; and combined with a number of localised problems there and in neighbouring New Jersey and Long Island, the storm hundreds of miles away in the wilds of northern Quebec also ends up blacking out New York City for several hours.
 * 1989 - Quebec general election: Liberals are re-elected.
 * 1989 - École Polytechnique massacre on December 6.

1990s

 * 1990 - The Oka Crisis.
 * 1990 - Angered by the imminent collapse of the Meech Lake Accord, Lucien Bouchard resigns as member of Parliament and cabinet minister in the Mulroney government and founds the Bloc Québécois.
 * 1990 - The Meech Lake Accord collapses as it fails to win unanimous ratification by the deadline. Support for Quebec sovereignty rises to high levels.
 * 1991 - The Canadian government introduces the unpopular Goods and Services Tax (GST).
 * 1991 - June 20: Bill 150 is passed, providing for a referendum on sovereignty in 1992; if passed by 50% plus 1 vote, it would lead to a unilateral declaration of independence. (The bill was later canceled and replaced by a referendum on the Charlottetown Accord)
 * 1992 - August 13: former Equality Party Member of the National Assembly of Quebec (MNA) Richard Holden joins the Parti Québécois
 * 1992 - October 26: Country-wide referendum on the Charlottetown Accord. The accord is rejected by the population of Canada and also specifically by the population of Quebec.
 * 1993 - Brian Mulroney resigns as Prime Minister of Canada on February 24.
 * 1993 - The Montreal Canadiens win the Stanley Cup for the 24th time, defeating the Los Angeles Kings in five games, clinching the Cup at the Forum June 9. As of 2024, it is the last time a Canadian franchise has won the Stanley Cup.
 * 1993 - Jean Chrétien, born in Shawinigan, Quebec, is sworn in as Prime Minister of Canada.
 * 1993 - The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) goes into effect.
 * 1994 - After almost 40 years of preparation the new Civil Code of Quebec comes into effect on January 1.
 * 1994 - The Montreal Expos hold Major League Baseball's best record of 74-40 when the remainder of the regular season and the entire postseason is wiped out by a players' strike which begins August 12 and will last 232 days.
 * 1994 - Quebec general election: The Parti Québécois elected to office, led by Jacques Parizeau.
 * 1995 - The Quebec Nordiques move to Denver and are renamed the Colorado Avalanche. The Nordiques played their final game at Colisee de Quebec on May 14, and are eliminated from the playoffs two nights later by the New York Rangers.
 * 1995 - October 24, the James Bay Cree hold their own referendum on whether or not their territory should remain a part of Canada. Over 96% of the Cree vote in favour of retaining the relationship with Canada.
 * 1995 - On October 30, another referendum on sovereignty is held. For the second time, the measure is rejected, this time by a slim margin of slightly more than one percent. See 1995 Quebec referendum.
 * 1995 - Following the defeat of the sovereigntist option, Jacques Parizeau resigns and is replaced by the head of the federal Bloc Québécois, Lucien Bouchard.
 * 1996 - The Montreal Canadiens play their final game at the Forum on March 11, defeating the Dallas Stars 4-1. Five days later, their new arena, the Molson Centre (now Bell Centre), opens with a 4-2 victory vs. the New York Rangers.
 * 1996 - Severe flooding in the Saguenay region from July 18–21 devastates the region and proves to be one of Canada's costliest natural disasters.
 * 1996 - Jean-Louis Roux briefly becomes Lieutenant-governor of Quebec, but resigns after less than two months due to his now-regretted antisemitic political activity during World War II.
 * 1996 - Death of Robert Bourassa on October 2.
 * 1997 - An amendment to the Constitution provides for linguistic rather than confessional (Catholic and Protestant) school boards in Quebec.
 * 1998 - A severe ice storm strikes Montreal and southwestern Quebec in early January, leaving parts of Montreal without power for up to a week; destruction of power lines and pylons leaves a "triangle of darkness" south of Montreal without power for three weeks.
 * 1998 - Quebec general election: Parti Québécois is re-elected.
 * 1999 - The Clarity Act becomes a federal law.

2000s

 * 2000 - September 28 - Pierre Elliott Trudeau dies
 * 2000 - December 5 - Beginning of the Michaud Affair.
 * 2001 - Discouraged at the lack of support for sovereignty among the population and a fractious PQ caucus, Lucien Bouchard resigns as Premier of Quebec and retires from public life on January 11.
 * 2001 - Rhéal Mathieu, who was a member of the former Front de libération du Québec is convicted of the attempted firebombing of three Second Cup coffee shops in Montreal. Quebec Second Cup cafes took the name of Les cafés Second Cup afterwards.
 * March 8 - Following the resignation of Lucien Bouchard, Bernard Landry becomes premier of Quebec.
 * 2001 - In April, Quebec City hosts the Summit of the Americas, attracting huge anti-globalization protests with activists from everywhere in the Americas. Simultaneously held is the Peoples Summit of the Americas.
 * 2002 - The merger of numerous cities and their suburbs (municipal fusions) into "megacities" goes into effect, creating the new megacities of Montreal, Longueuil, Quebec City, Lévis, Saguenay, Sherbrooke, and Gatineau among others.
 * 2002 - The Action démocratique du Québec wins four by-elections and temporarily enjoys high scores in public opinion polls.
 * 2003 - March: a court ruling legalizes same-sex marriage in Quebec.
 * 2003 - Quebec general election: April 14, Jean Charest, a strong federalist and leader of the Quebec Liberal Party, becomes premier of Quebec.
 * 2003 - In December, through an initiative by Quebec Premier, Jean Charest, the Council of the Federation is formed by the Premiers of all Canadian provinces and territories.
 * 2003 - Paul Martin becomes Prime Minister of Canada.
 * 2003 - The sponsorship scandal erupts, possibly tarnishing the Jean Chrétien legacy.
 * 2004 - Demerger referendums: Many of the cities created in 2002 are again divided. This includes many small municipalities in the western part of the island of Montreal.
 * 2004 - The Montreal Expos play their final game in Canada on September 29, and their last representing Montreal on October 3 in New York City. The franchise relocates to Washington, D.C. prior to the next season and is renamed the Washington Nationals.
 * 2005 - Bernard Landry, who resigned as leader of the Parti Québécois in June, is replaced by 39-year-old André Boisclair after the leadership election of 2005.
 * 2006 - Stephen Harper's Conservative Party of Canada form minority government. Conservatives greatly reduce Liberal domination of the federalist vote in Quebec and take 10 new seats, mostly from the Bloc in Quebec City area.
 * 2006 - Dawson College shooting
 * 2007 - The small town of Hérouxville publishes a code of conduct for immigrants, stirring up a debate on reasonable accommodation.
 * 2007 - Quebec general election, Liberals elected as a minority government. ADQ becomes official opposition. Parti Québécois reduced to third-party status. Pauline Marois becomes leader of the party in June.
 * 2007 - The Bouchard-Taylor commission is appointed to inquire into reasonable accommodation in Quebec. Hearings are held throughout the province.
 * 2007 - Régis Labeaume is elected mayor of Quebec City in a special election following the sudden death of popular mayor Andrée Boucher in August.
 * 2008 - Quebec City celebrates the 400th anniversary of its founding by Samuel de Champlain.
 * 2008 - Federal election 2008 brings in another Conservative minority government.
 * 2008 - Quebec general election, The Quebec Liberal Party narrowly forms a majority government. The Parti Québécois climbs back to become the official opposition and the ADQ falls far behind the Parti Québécois.
 * 2008 - The report of the Bouchard-Taylor commission is presented. Quebec is advised to define its secular nature to improve relations between the white, French-speaking majority and the province's ethnic minorities.
 * 2009 - In November's municipal elections, Gérald Tremblay is re-elected as mayor of Montreal, Régis Labeaume as mayor of Quebec City and Gilles Vaillancourt as mayor of Laval.

2010s

 * 2011 - The Conservative Party of Canada achieves a majority government in the May federal election. Quebec is overtaken by the orange wave under a surging New Democratic Party, which wins 59 of the 75 federal seats in a province where it had previously had only one, and reduces the Bloc Québécois from 49 seats to 4.
 * 2011 - NDP leader Jack Layton dies in August.
 * 2011 - Formation of the Coalition Avenir Québec under François Legault, bringing together some ADQ members and some disillusioned members of the Parti Québécois.
 * 2011 - Under pressure, Jean Charest creates the Charbonneau commission to investigate corruption in the management of public construction contracts.
 * 2012 - University students protest and stop a proposed tuition increase.
 * 2012 - The ADQ formally merges into the CAQ and ceases to exist as a party.
 * 2012 - The NDP choose Quebecer Thomas Mulcair as leader at a convention in March.
 * 2012 - Major student demonstrations against tuition increases widen as many non-students express general popular dissatisfaction with the Charest government.
 * 2012 - The Charbonneau commission hears its first testimony in June.
 * 2012 - Quebec general election, the Parti Québécois forms a minority government. During the victory party that night, a gunman tries to gain access to the venue and shoots two stagehands, killing one of them. Jean Charest steps down as Quebec Liberal Party leader the day after the election.
 * 2012 - Montreal mayor Gérald Tremblay and Laval mayor Gilles Vaillancourt step down in response to revelations at the Charbonneau commission.
 * 2012 - Montreal councillors elect Michael Applebaum to serve as mayor for the year that remains before the November 3, 2013 municipal elections. Laval councillors elect Alexandre Duplessis to serve as their interim mayor.
 * 2012 - Ground is broken for a major new hockey arena in Quebec City, although no NHL team has shown interest in relocating there. Quebec City last had an NHL team in 1995.
 * 2013 - Quebec City area MNA Philippe Couillard is elected head of the Quebec Liberal Party.
 * 2013 - Montreal MP Justin Trudeau is elected head of the federal Liberal Party.
 * 2013 - Michael Applebaum is arrested and indicted with 14 charges including fraud and corruption. He steps down. Montreal councillors elect Laurent Blanchard to serve as mayor for the four months remaining before the municipal elections.
 * 2013 - Laval ex-mayor Gilles Vaillancourt is charged with gangsterism. Alexandre Duplessis steps down as Laval's interim mayor after allegations he had solicited prostitutes. The new interim mayor is Martine Beaugrand.
 * 2013 - The derailment of a runaway train carrying crude oil in the centre of Lac-Mégantic, a town in eastern Quebec, kills 47 and destroys at least 30 buildings, including the town library and archives, a popular bar and live music venue, and other businesses and houses.
 * 2014 - The 41st Quebec general election was held on April 7, 2014 to elect members to the National Assembly of Quebec.
 * 2017 - Valérie Plante becomes first female mayor of Montreal.
 * 2018 – The 42nd Quebec general election was held on October 1, 2018 and elected, for the first time, a CAQ majority.
 * 2019 – The Act Respecting the Laicity of the State is passed.

2020s

 * 2020 - The COVID-19 pandemic begins and goes on to cause economic disruptions, lockdowns and curfews. Roughly 12,000 Quebecois are killed by the virus.
 * 2021 - Vaccine passports for COVID-19 are instated.
 * 2022 - The CAQ wins a huge majority in the 2022 Quebec general election.

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text:
Poetics (Aristotle)

Aristotle's Poetics (Περὶ ποιητικῆς Peri poietikês; De Poetica; ) is the earliest surviving work of Greek dramatic theory and the first extant philosophical treatise to focus on literary theory. In this text Aristotle offers an account of ποιητική, which refers to poetry and more literally "the poetic art," deriving from the term for "poet; author; maker," ποιητής. Aristotle divides the art of poetry into verse drama (comedy, tragedy, and the satyr play), lyric poetry, and epic. The genres all share the function of mimesis, or imitation of life, but differ in three ways that Aristotle describes:
 * 1) Differences in music rhythm, harmony, meter, and melody.
 * 2) Difference of goodness in the characters.
 * 3) Difference in how the narrative is presented: telling a story or acting it out.

The surviving book of Poetics is primarily concerned with drama; the analysis of tragedy constitutes the core of the discussion.

Although the text is universally acknowledged in the Western critical tradition, "almost every detail about [t]his seminal work has aroused divergent opinions." Of scholarly debates on the Poetics, four have been most prominent. These include the meanings of catharsis and hamartia, the Classical unities, and the question why Aristotle appears to contradict himself between chapters 13 and 14.

Background
Aristotle's work on aesthetics consists of the Poetics, Politics (Bk VIII), and Rhetoric. The Poetics was lost to the Western world for a long time. The text was restored to the West in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance only through a Latin translation of an Arabic version written by Averroes. The accurate Greek-Latin translation made by William of Moerbeke in 1278 was virtually ignored. At some point during antiquity, the original text of the Poetics was divided in two, each "book" written on a separate roll of papyrus. Only the first part—that which focuses on tragedy and epic (as a quasi-dramatic art, given its definition in Ch. 23)—survives. The lost second part addressed comedy. Some scholars speculate that the Tractatus coislinianus summarises the contents of the lost second book.

Overview
The table of contents page of the Poetics found in Modern Library's Basic Works of Aristotle (2001) identifies five basic parts within it.

 Preliminary discourse on tragedy, epic poetry, and comedy, as the chief forms of imitative poetry. Definition of a tragedy, and the rules for its construction. Definition and analysis into qualitative parts. Rules for the construction of a tragedy: Tragic pleasure, or catharsis experienced by fear and pity should be produced in the spectator. The characters must be four things: good, appropriate, realistic, and consistent. Discovery must occur within the plot. Narratives, stories, structures, and poetics overlap. It is important for the poet to visualize all of the scenes when creating the plot. The poet should incorporate complication and dénouement within the story, as well as combine all of the elements of tragedy. The poet must express thought through the characters' words and actions, while paying close attention to diction and how a character's spoken words express a specific idea. Aristotle believed that all of these different elements had to be present in order for the poetry to be well-done. Possible criticisms of an epic or tragedy, and the answers to them. Tragedy as artistically superior to epic poetry: Tragedy has everything that the epic has, even the epic meter being admissible. The reality of presentation is felt in the play as read, as well as in the play as acted. The tragic imitation requires less time for the attainment of its end. If it has more concentrated effect, it is more pleasurable than one with a large admixture of time to dilute it. There is less unity in the imitation of the epic poets (plurality of actions) and this is proved by the fact that an epic poem can supply enough material for several tragedies.  Aristotle also draws a famous distinction between the tragic mode of poetry and the type of history-writing practiced among the Greeks. Whereas history deals with things that took place in the past, tragedy concerns itself with what might occur, or could be imagined to happen. History deals with particulars, whose relation to one another is marked by contingency, accident, or chance. Contrariwise, poetic narratives are determined objects, unified by a plot whose logic binds up the constituent elements by necessity and probability. In this sense, he concluded, such poetry was more philosophical than history was in so far as it approximates to a knowledge of universals.

Synopsis
Aristotle distinguishes between the genres of "poetry" in three ways:
 * Matter
 * Language, rhythm, and melody, for Aristotle, make up the matter of poetic creation. Where the epic poem makes use of language alone, the playing of the lyre involves rhythm and melody. Some poetic forms include a blending of all materials; for example, Greek tragic drama included a singing chorus, and so music and language were all part of the performance. These points also convey . Recent work, though, argues that translating rhuthmos here as "rhythm" is absurd: melody already has its own inherent musical rhythm, and the Greek can mean what Plato says it means in Laws II, 665a: "(the name of) ordered body movement," or dance. This correctly conveys what dramatic musical creation, the topic of the Poetics, in ancient Greece had: music, dance, and language. Also, the musical instrument cited in Ch. 1 is not the lyre but the kithara, which was played in the drama while the kithara-player was dancing (in the chorus), even if that meant just walking in an appropriate way. Moreover, epic might have had only literary exponents, but as Plato's Ion and Aristotle's Ch. 26 of the Poetics help prove, for Plato and Aristotle at least some epic rhapsodes used all three means of mimesis: language, dance (as pantomimic gesture), and music (if only by chanting the words).

 * Subjects
 * (Also "agents" in some translations.) Aristotle differentiates between tragedy and comedy throughout the work by distinguishing between the nature of the human characters that populate either form. Aristotle finds that tragedy deals with serious, important, and virtuous people. Comedy, on the other hand, treats of less virtuous people and focuses on human "weaknesses and foibles". Aristotle introduces here the influential tripartite division of characters: superior (βελτίονας) to the audience, inferior (χείρονας), or at the same level (τοιούτους).
 * Method
 * One may imitate the agents through use of a narrator throughout, or only occasionally (using direct speech in parts and a narrator in parts, as Homer does), or only through direct speech (without a narrator), using actors to speak the lines directly. This latter is the method of tragedy (and comedy): without use of any narrator.

Having examined briefly the field of "poetry" in general, Aristotle proceeds to his definition of tragedy:

Tragedy is a representation of a serious, complete action which has magnitude, in embellished speech, with each of its elements [used] separately in the [various] parts [of the play] and [represented] by people acting and not by narration, accomplishing by means of pity and terror the catharsis of such emotions.

By "embellished speech", I mean that which has rhythm and melody, i.e. song. By "with its elements separately", I mean that some [parts of it] are accomplished only by means of spoken verses, and others again by means of song. He then identifies the "parts" of tragedy:

 * plot (mythos)
 * Refers to the "organization of incidents". It should imitate an action that evokes pity and fear. The plot involves a change from bad towards good, or good towards bad. Complex plots have reversals and recognitions. These and suffering (or violence) evoke the tragic emotions. The most tragic plot pushes a good character towards undeserved misfortune because of a mistake (hamartia). Plots revolving around such a mistake are more tragic than plots with two sides and an opposite outcome for the good and the bad. Violent situations are most tragic if they are between friends and family. Threats can be resolved by being done in knowledge, done in ignorance and then discovered, or almost done in ignorance but discovered at the last moment.

 * Actions should follow logically from the situation created by what has happened before, and from the character of the agent. This goes for recognitions and reversals as well, as even surprises are more satisfying to the audience if they afterwards are seen as a plausible or necessary consequence.

 * character (ethos)
 * Aristotle defines a tragedy as entertaining by satisfying the moral sense and imitating actions which “excite pity and fear”. The success of a tragedy in calling forth these qualities is revealed through the moral character of the agents, which is revealed through the actions and choices of the agent. In a perfect tragedy, the character will support the plot, which means personal motivations and traits will somehow connect parts of the cause-and-effect chain of actions producing pity and fear.
 * The main character should be:
 * good— a character must be between the two extremes of morality, they must simply be good. A character should not be on either of the moral extremities. To follow a character of virtue from prosperity to adversity merely serves to shock the audience; yet to follow them from adversity to prosperity is a story of triumph which satisfies the moral sense but ignores the excitement of fear and pity altogether. To follow a villain from prosperity to adversity will undoubtedly satisfy the moral sense, but it once again ignores the tragic qualities of fear and pity. On the other hand, a villain going from adversity to prosperity possesses no tragic qualities at all, neither satisfying the moral sense nor exciting fear and pity.
 * appropriate—if a character is supposed to be wise, it is unlikely he is young (supposing wisdom is gained with age).
 * consistent—as the actions of a character should follow the Law of Probability and Necessity, they must be written to be internally consistent. When applied, the Law of Probability and Necessity defines it as necessary for a character to react and as probable for them to react in a certain way. To be truly realistic, these reactions must be true and expected for the character. As such, they must be internally consistent.
 * "consistently inconsistent"—if a character always behaves foolishly it is strange if he suddenly becomes intelligent. In this case it would be good to explain such the cause of such a change, otherwise the audience may be confused. If a character changes their opinion a lot it should be made clear that this is a trait of the character.

 * thought (dianoia)—spoken (usually) reasoning of human characters can explain the characters or story background.
 * diction (lexis)—Lexis is better translated, according to some, as "speech" or "language." Otherwise, the relevant necessary condition stemming from logos in the definition (language) has no followup: mythos (plot) could be done by dancers or pantomime artists, given chapters 1, 2, and 4, if the actions are structured (on stage, as drama was usually done), just like plot for us can be given in film or in a story-ballet with no words.
 * Refers to the quality of speech in tragedy. Speeches should reflect character: the moral qualities of those on the stage. The expression of the meaning of the words.

 * melody (melos)—"Melos" can also mean "music-dance", especially given that its primary meaning in ancient Greek is "limb" (an arm or a leg). This is arguably more sensible because then Aristotle is conveying what the chorus actually did.
 * The Chorus should be written as one of the actors. As such, It should be an integral part of the whole: taking a share in the action and contributing to the unity of the plot. It is a factor in the pleasure of the drama.

 * spectacle (opsis)
 * Refers to the visual apparatus of the play, including set, costumes, and props (anything you can see). Aristotle calls spectacle the "least artistic" element of tragedy, and the For example: if the play has "beautiful" costumes and "bad" acting and "bad" story, there is "something wrong" with it. Even though that "beauty" may save the play it is "not a nice thing".

He offers the earliest-surviving explanation for the origins of tragedy and comedy:

Anyway, arising from an improvisatory beginning (both tragedy and comedy—tragedy from the leaders of the dithyramb, and comedy from the leaders of the phallic processions which even now continue as a custom in many of our cities)...

Influence
The Arabic version of Aristotle's Poetics that influenced the Middle Ages was translated from a Greek manuscript dated to some time prior to the year 700. This manuscript, translated from Greek to Syriac, is independent of the currently-accepted 11th-century source designated Paris 1741. The Syriac-language source used for the Arabic translations departed widely in vocabulary from the original Poetics and it initiated a misinterpretation of Aristotelian thought that continued through the Middle Ages.

The scholars who published significant commentaries on Aristotle's Poetics included Avicenna, Al-Farabi, and Averroes. Many of these interpretations sought to use Aristotelian theory to impose morality on the Arabic poetic tradition. In particular, Averroes added a moral dimension to the Poetics by interpreting tragedy as the art of praise and comedy as the art of blame. Averroes' interpretation of the Poetics was accepted by the West, where it reflected the "prevailing notions of poetry" the 16th century.

Giorgio Valla's 1498 Latin translation of Aristotle's text (the first to be published) was included with the 1508 Aldine printing of the Greek original as part of an anthology of Rhetores graeci. By the early decades of the sixteenth century, vernacular versions of Aristotle's Poetics appeared, culminating in Lodovico Castelvetro's Italian editions of 1570 and 1576. Italian culture produced the great Renaissance commentators on Aristotle's Poetics, and in the baroque period Emanuele Tesauro, with his Cannocchiale aristotelico, re-presented to the world of post-Galilean physics Aristotle's poetic theories as the sole key to approaching the human sciences.

Recent scholarship has challenged whether Aristotle focuses on literary theory per se (given that not one poem exists in the treatise) or whether he focuses instead on dramatic musical theory that only has language as one of the elements.

The lost second book of Aristotle's Poetics is a core plot element in Umberto Eco's novel The Name of the Rose.

Core terms

 * Anagnorisis or "recognition", "identification"
 * Catharsis or, variously, "purgation", "purification", "clarification"
 * Dianoia or "thought", "theme"
 * Ethos or "character"
 * Hamartia or "miscalculation" (understood in Romanticism as "tragic flaw")
 * Hubris or Hybris, "pride"
 * Lexis or "diction", "speech"
 * Melos, or "melody"; also "music-dance" (melos meaning primarily "limb")
 * Mimesis or "imitation", "representation," or "expression," given that, e.g., music is a form of mimesis, and often there is no music in the real world to be "imitated" or "represented."
 * Mythos or "plot," defined in Chapter 6 explicitly as the "structure of actions."
 * Nemesis or, "retribution"
 * Opsis or "spectacle"
 * Peripeteia or "reversal"

Editions – commentaries – translations

 * Revised 2nd edition, in two volumes (1812): I & II
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title: Poetics (Aristotle)


text:
Slavery in Canada

Slavery in Canada includes historical practices of enslavement practised by both the First Nations until the latter half of the 19th century, and by colonists during the period of European colonization.

The practice of slavery in Canada by colonists effectively ended early in the 19th century, through local statutes and court decisions resulting from litigation on behalf of enslaved people seeking manumission. The courts, to varying degrees, rendered slavery unenforceable in both Lower Canada and Nova Scotia. In Lower Canada, for example, after court decisions in the late 1790s, the "slave could not be compelled to serve longer than he would, and ... might leave his master at will." Upper Canada passed the Act Against Slavery in 1793, one of the earliest anti-slavery acts in the world. These developments in Canada preceded Britain's decision to ban slavery through most of the British Empire by passing the Slavery Abolition Act 1833.

As slavery in the United States continued until the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865, black people (free and enslaved) began immigrating to Canada from the United States after the American Revolution and again after the War of 1812, and later many by way of the Underground Railroad.

Because Canada's role in the Atlantic slave trade was comparatively limited, the history of Black slavery in Canada is often overshadowed by the more tumultuous slavery practised elsewhere in the Americas.

Under Indigenous rule
Slave-owning people of what became Canada were, for example, the fishing societies such as the Yurok, that lived along the Pacific coast from Alaska to California, on what is sometimes described as the Pacific or Northern Northwest Coast. Some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, such as the Haida and Tlingit, were traditionally known as fierce warriors and slave-traders, raiding as far as California. Slavery was hereditary, the slaves being prisoners of war and their descendants were slaves. In what became British Columbia, slavery was flourishing in the 1830s, gradually declining throughout the century. In the 1870s, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Israel Wood Powell, freed slaves on their appeal to him during his trips to the west coast of Vancouver Island. Slavery had virtually ended by the 1880s and 1890s. Some nations in British Columbia continued to segregate and ostracize the descendants of slaves as late as the 1970s. Among a few Pacific Northwest nations about a quarter of the population were slaves.

One slave narrative was composed by an Englishman, John R. Jewitt. He had been taken alive when his ship was captured in 1802 by the Nuu-chah-nulth people due to the ship's captain having insulted their chief, Maquinna, and other slights inflicted against their people by other American and European captains. Jewitt's memoir provides a detailed look at life as a slave.

Under European colonization
The historian Marcel Trudel estimates that there were fewer than 4,200 slaves in the area of Canada (New France) and later the Canadas between 1671 and 1831. Around two-thirds of these slaves were of Indigenous ancestry (2,700 typically called panis, from the French term for Pawnee) and one third were of African descent (1,443). They were house servants and farm workers. The number of Black slaves increased during British rule, especially with the arrival of United Empire Loyalists after 1783. The Maritimes saw 1,200 to 2,000 slaves arrive prior to abolition, with 300 accounted for in Lower Canada, and between 500 and 700 in Upper Canada. A small portion of Black Canadians today are descended from these slaves.

People of African descent were forcibly captured by local chiefs and kings as chattel slaves and sold to traders bound for southern areas of the Americas. Those in what is now called Canada typically came from the American colonies, as no shiploads of human chattel went to Canada directly from Africa. There were no large plantations in Canada, and therefore no demand for a large slave work force of the sort that existed in most European colonies in the Americas. Nevertheless, slaves in Canada were subjected to the same physical, psychological, and sexual violence and punishments as their American counterparts.

Under French rule
Under French rule, enslaved First Nations people outnumbered enslaved individuals of African descent. According to Afua Cooper, author of "The Hanging of Angélique: The Untold Story of Canadian Slavery and the Burning of Old Montréal", this was due to the relative ease with which New France could acquire First Nations slaves. She noted that the mortality of slaves was high, with the average age of First Nations slaves only 17, and the average age of slaves of African descent, 25. One of the first recorded Black slaves in Canada was brought by a British convoy to New France in 1628. Olivier le Jeune was the name given to the boy, originally from Madagascar.

By 1688, New France's population was 11,562 people, made up primarily of fur traders, missionaries, and farmers settled in the St. Lawrence Valley. To help overcome its severe shortage of servants and labourers, King Louis XIV granted New France's petition to import Black slaves from West Africa. Though no shipments ever arrived from Africa, colonists did acquire some Black slaves from other French and British colonies. From the late 1600s, they also acquired Indigenous slaves, mostly from what is now the U.S. Midwestern states, through their western fur-trade networks. Slaves of Indigenous origin were called "Panis," but few came from the Pawnee tribe. More commonly, they were of Fox, Dakota, Iowa, and Apache origin, captives taken in war by Indigenous allies and trading partners of the French.

While slavery was prohibited in France, it was permitted in its colonies as a means of providing the massive labour force needed to clear land, construct buildings and (in the Caribbean colonies) work on sugar, indigo and tobacco plantations. The 1685 Code Noir set the pattern for policing slavery in the West Indies. It required that all slaves be instructed as Catholics and not as Protestants. It concentrated on defining the condition of slavery, and established harsh controls. Slaves had virtually no rights, though the Code did enjoin masters to take care of the sick and old. The Code noir does not seem to have applied to Canada and so, in 1709, the intendant Jacques Raudot issued an ordinance officially recognizing slavery in New France; slavery existed before that date, but only as of 1709 was it instituted in law.

One slave is well-recorded in the history of Montreal: Marie-Joseph Angélique was held in slavery by a rich widow in that city. In 1734, after learning that she was going to be sold and separated from her lover, Angélique set fire to her owner's house and escaped. The fire raged out of control, destroying forty-six buildings. Captured two months later, Angélique was paraded through the city, then tortured until she confessed her crime. In the afternoon of the day of execution, Angélique was taken through the streets of Montreal and, after the stop at the church for her amende honorable, made to climb a scaffold facing the ruins of the buildings destroyed by the fire. There she was hanged until dead, with her body flung into the fire and the ashes scattered in the wind.

Historian Marcel Trudel recorded approximately 4,000 slaves by the end of New France in 1759, of which 2,472 were Aboriginal people, and 1,132 Blacks. After the Conquest of New France by the British, slave ownership remained dominated by the French. Trudel identified 1,509 slave owners, of which only 181 were English. Trudel also noted 31 marriages took place between French colonists and Aboriginal slaves.

Under British rule
First Nations owned or traded in slaves, an institution that had existed for centuries or longer among certain groups. Shawnee, Potawatomi, and other western tribes imported slaves from Ohio and Kentucky and sold or gifted them to allies and Canadian settlers. Mohawk Chief Thayendenaga (Joseph Brant) used black people he had captured during the American Revolution to build Brant House at Burlington Beach and a second home near Brantford. In all, Brant owned about forty black slaves.

Black slaves lived in the British regions of Canada in the 18th century—104 were listed in a 1767 census of Nova Scotia, but their numbers were small until the United Empire Loyalist influx after 1783. As white Loyalists fled the new American Republic, they took with them about 2,000 black slaves: 1,200 to the Maritimes (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island), 300 to Lower Canada (Quebec), and 500 to Upper Canada (Ontario). In Ontario, the Imperial Act of 1790 assured prospective immigrants that their slaves would remain their property. As under French rule, Loyalist slaves were held in small numbers and were used as domestic servants, farm hands, and skilled artisans.

Following the Battle of the Plains of Abraham and the British conquest of New France, the subject of slavery in Canada is unmentioned—neither banned nor permitted—in both the Treaty of Paris of 1763 and the Quebec Act of 1774 or the Treaty of Paris of 1783.

The system of gang labour, and its consequent institutions of control and brutality, did not develop in Canada as it did in the USA. Because they did not appear to pose a threat to their masters, slaves were permitted to learn to read and write, Christian conversion was encouraged, and their marriages were recognized by law. Death rates among slaves were nevertheless high, confirming the brutal nature of the slave regime.

The Quebec Gazette of 12 July 1787 had an advertisement: "For sale, a robust Negress, active and with good hearing, about 18 years old, who has had small-pox, has been accustomed to household duties, understands the kitchen, knows how to wash, iron, sew, and very used to caring for children. She can adapt itself equally to an English, French or German family, she speaks all three languages."

Lower Canada (Quebec)
In Lower Canada, Sir James Monk, the Chief Justice, rendered a series of decisions in the late 1790s that undermined the ability to compel slaves to serve their masters; while "not technically abolishing slavery, [they] rendered it innocuous. The slave could not be compelled to serve longer than he would, and ... might leave his master at will." After declaring from the bench that slavery had 'unsupported in law,' he thereafter 'systematically dismissed all suits by owners against runaway slaves.' Although the legislature was petitioned several times to enact legislation clarifying the property rights of slaveholders and their protection (i.e. imprisonment of slaves), there was insufficient appetite to either abolish slavery outright or enforce slavery. "As Lower Canada passed no legislation on the matter, the extradition of fugitives was made impossible and Canada became therefore an asylum for the oppressed." As a result, slaves began to flee their masters within the province, but also from other provinces and from the United States. This occurred several years before the legislature acted in Upper Canada to limit slavery. While the decision was founded upon a technicality (the extant law allowing committal of slaves not to jails, but only to houses of correction, of which there were none in the province), Monk went on to say that "slavery did not exist in the province and to warn owners that he would apply this interpretation of the law to all subsequent cases." In subsequent decisions, and in the absence of specific legislation, Monk's interpretation held (even once there had been houses of correction established). In a later test of this interpretation, the administrator of Lower Canada, Sir James Kempt, refused in 1829 a request from the U.S. government to return an escaped slave, informing that fugitives might be given up only when the crime in question was also a crime in Lower Canada: "The state of slavery is not recognized by the Law of Canada. ... Every Slave therefore who comes into the Province is immediately free whether he has been brought in by violence or has entered it of his own accord."

Nova Scotia

While many black people who arrived in Nova Scotia during the American Revolution were free, others were not. Some blacks arrived in Nova Scotia as the property of white American Loyalists. In 1772, prior to the American Revolution, Britain outlawed the slave trade in the British Isles followed by the Knight v. Wedderburn decision in Scotland in 1778. This decision, in turn, influenced the colony of Nova Scotia. In 1788, abolitionist James Drummond MacGregor from Pictou published the first anti-slavery literature in Canada and began purchasing slaves' freedom and chastising his colleagues in the Presbyterian church who owned slaves. Historian Alan Wilson describes the document as "a landmark on the road to personal freedom in province and country". Historian Robin Winks writes it is "the sharpest attack to come from a Canadian pen even into the 1840s; he had also brought about a public debate which soon reached the courts". (Abolitionist lawyer Benjamin Kent was buried in Halifax in 1788.) In 1790 John Burbidge freed his slaves. Led by Richard John Uniacke, in 1787, 1789 and again on 11 January 1808 the Nova Scotian legislature refused to legalize slavery. Two chief justices, Thomas Andrew Lumisden Strange (1790–1796) and Sampson Salter Blowers (1797–1832), were instrumental in freeing slaves from their owners in Nova Scotia. They were held in high regard in the colony. Justice Alexander Croke (1801–1815) also impounded American slave ships during this time period (the most famous being the Liverpool Packet). During the war, Nova Scotian Sir William Winniett served as a crew on board HMS Tonnant in the effort to free slaves from America. (As the Governor of the Gold Coast, Winniett would later also work to end the slave trade in Western Africa.) By the end of the War of 1812 and the arrival of the Black Refugees, there were few slaves left in Nova Scotia. (The Slave Trade Act outlawed the slave trade in the British Empire in 1807 and the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 outlawed slavery altogether.)

The Sierra Leone Company was established to relocate groups of formerly enslaved Africans, nearly 1,200 black Nova Scotians, most of whom had escaped enslavement in the United States. Given the coastal environment of Nova Scotia, many had died from the harsh winters. They created a settlement in the existing colony in Sierra Leone (already established to make a home for the "poor blacks" of London) at Freetown in 1792. Many of the "black poor" included other African and Asian inhabitants of London. The Freetown settlement was joined, particularly after 1834, by other groups of freed Africans and became the first African American haven in Africa for formerly enslaved Africans.

Upper Canada (Ontario)
By 1790, the abolition movement was gaining credence in Canada and the ill intent of slavery was evidenced by an incident involving a slave woman being violently abused by her slave owner on her way to being sold in the United States. In 1793, Chloe Cooley, in an act of defiance yelled out screams of resistance. The abuse committed by her slave owner and her violent resistance was witnessed by Peter Martin and William Grisely. Peter Martin, a former slave, brought the incident to the attention of Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe. Under the auspices of Simcoe, the Act Against Slavery of 1793 was legislated. The elected members of the executive council, many of whom were merchants or farmers who depended on slave labour, saw no need for emancipation. Attorney-General John White later wrote that there was "much opposition but little argument" to his measure. Finally the Assembly passed the Act Against Slavery that legislated the gradual abolition of slavery: no slaves could be imported; slaves already in the province would remain enslaved until death, no new slaves could be brought into Upper Canada, and children born to female slaves would be slaves but must be freed at age 25. To discourage manumission, the Act required the master to provide security that the former slave would not become a public charge. The compromise Act Against Slavery stands as the only attempt by any Ontario legislature to act against slavery. This legal rule ensured the eventual end of slavery in Upper Canada, although as it diminished the sale value of slaves within the province it also resulted in slaves being sold to the United States. In 1798 there was an attempt by lobby groups to rectify the legislation and import more slaves. Slaves discovered they could gain freedom by escaping to Ohio and Michigan in the United States.

By 1800, the other provinces of British North America had effectively limited slavery through court decisions requiring the strictest proof of ownership, which was rarely available. In 1819, John Robinson, Attorney General of Upper Canada, declared that by residing in Canada, black residents were set free, and that Canadian courts would protect their freedom. Slavery remained legal, however, until the British Parliament's Slavery Abolition Act finally abolished slavery in most parts of the British Empire effective 1 August 1834.

Underground Railroad
During the early to mid-19th century, the Underground Railroad network was established in the United States to free slaves, by bringing them to locations where the slaves would be free from being re-captured. British North America, now known as Canada, was a major destination of the Underground Railroad after 1850, with between 30,000 and 100,000 slaves finding refuge.

In Nova Scotia, former slave Richard Preston established the African Abolition Society in the fight to end slavery in America. Preston was trained as a minister in England and met many of the leading voices in the abolitionist movement that helped to get the Slavery Abolition Act passed by the British Parliament in 1833. When Preston returned to Nova Scotia, he became the president of the Abolitionist movement in Halifax. Preston stated:

"The time will come when slavery will be just one of our many travails. Our children and their children’s children will mature to become indifferent toward climate and indifferent toward race. Then we will desire ... Nay!, we will demand and we will be able to obtain our fair share of wealth, status and prestige, including political power. Our time will have come, and we will be ready ... we must be."

There are slave cemeteries in parts of Canada, in various states of condition, some neglected and abandoned. They include cemeteries in St-Armand, Quebec; Shelburne, Nova Scotia; and Priceville and Dresden in Ontario.

Modern slavery
The ratifying of the Slavery Convention by Canada in 1953 began the country's international commitments to address modern slavery. Human trafficking in Canada is a legal and political issue, and Canadian legislators have been criticized for having failed to deal with the problem in a more systematic way. British Columbia's Office to Combat Trafficking in Persons formed in 2007, making British Columbia the first province of Canada to address human trafficking in a formal manner. The biggest human trafficking case in Canadian history surrounded the dismantling of the Domotor-Kolompar criminal organization. On June 6, 2012, the Government of Canada established the National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking in order to oppose human trafficking. The Human Trafficking Taskforce was established in June 2012 to replace the Interdepartmental Working Group on Trafficking in Persons as the body responsible for the development of public policy related to human trafficking in Canada.

One current and highly publicized instance is the vast disappearances of Aboriginal women which has been linked to human trafficking by some sources. Former Prime Minister Stephen Harper had been reluctant to tackle the issue on the grounds that it is not a "sociological issue" and declined to create a national inquiry into the issue counter to United Nations and Inter-American Commission on Human Rights' opinions that the issue is significant and in need of higher inquiry.

title: Slavery in Canada


text:
User:Barce

Barce codice scriptor est. Habitat in Terris, San Francisco, California. Arabica, Latinaque studet.

 * http://twitter.com/barce

Vasa Sunt Coepi
Poetics (Aristotle) • species (metaphysics) • Ion (Plato) • Dogster • Technoromanticism (book)

Quid Ego Vigilabo
DJI (company) • GoPro • Unmanned aerial vehicle • San Francisco fog

title: User:Barce


text:
Adewale Ayuba

Adewale Ayuba (born 6 May 1966, commonly known as Mr. Johnson) is a Nigerian singer known for singing Fuji music.

Early life and education
Ayuba was born on 6 May 1966 in Ikenne Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria. He grew up as a child singer, and by the age of eight he had started singing at local musical competitions and fiestas in Ikenne. This led to him pursuing music as a career after his secondary school education at Remo Secondary School, Sagamu, Ogun State.

Although he had gained admission to study Architecture at the Ogun State Polytechnic in Abeokuta, his music career took center stage. Ayuba released his first album Ibere (Beginning) at the age of 17 and as a result he rose rapidly in the Fuji music scene. In early 1990, Ayuba signed with Sony Music (Nigerian) to record an album, Bubble, which was released in 1991 and brought Ayuba into international prominence. Bubble marked the first time in history that a Fuji Music album gained widespread recognition, topping music charts for six consecutive months and winning multiple awards at the Nigerian Music Awards (NMA). It also won Ayuba the coveted Artist of the Year Awards, including the Album of the Year Award, Song of the Year Award, and Best Fuji Album of the Year Award—four in all. With the success of Bubble, Ayuba hit the pinnacle of his career in Nigeria.

Ayuba's high-tech instrumentation and distinct voice changed the face of Fuji Music. For the first time in History, the Nigerian Elite, who until then had ignored Fuji Music, embraced it. After the success of Bubble, Ayuba released a follow-up album, Mr. Johnson Play For Me (also on the Sony Music Nigeria label), which also became an instant success in 1992. In 1993, Ayuba was signed to Premier Music (Nigeria) before embarking on his first West Africa coast tour, performing in several African countries. The success of this tour led to his first US tour, also in 1993, during which Ayuba performed in over ten states. He also successfully performed at the world-renowned New Orleans Jazz Festival. In addition, he was awarded the Key to the City of Providence, Rhode Island by its mayor after two successful concerts there. His Los Angeles debut was also a success, and C.C. Smith of Los Angeles Weekly Magazine wrote that "Ayuba bases his Fuji on two elemental forces—rhythm, and the human voice—to create compelling, enchanting and powerful sound. Expect frenzied dancing style and colorful costumes, exultant fans and enough talking drums and percussion to remedy even a terminal case of sensory deprivation."

After his return in 1993, Ayuba released another chart-topping album, Buggle D, on the Premier Music (Nigeria) label. It gained even more recognition than Bubble and won multiple awards at the Fame Music Awards, topping the music chart for several months. In 1994, Ayuba took a bold step with a vision to "[internationalize] Fuji Music" and toured the UK and the US with his band. He recorded while in America in 1995, and he performed at various international concerts including the 1996 Summer State Concerts in New York, the African Mondo Concerts of 1996 and 1997, the New Orleans Jazz Festival of 1997, the 1997 International Festival in Houston, Texas, and the Black Entertainment Television Jazz USA Concert. Ayuba was signed by US-based Q-disc Record Company for a year contract and released Fuji Time on the company's label in 1996. In 1997, he released Fuji Dub on the Agogo Music Label in London.

In 1998, he came back to Nigeria and released another successful album, Acceleration, on the Corporate Music label. In 2000, he released another album, Turn Me On, which broke music records in Nigeria and emerged as the Best Fuji Album of the Year at the Awards for Musical Excellence in Nigeria and as the Best Song of The Year at the Nigerian Song Festival 2000. In the same year, he toured several European countries including England, Ireland, the Netherlands and Belgium. He was awarded as a Distinguished Son of Ikenne Remo, his birthplace, in 2001 in a colorful ceremony at the Ikenne Local Government in Ogun State. In 2001, Ayuba had a spectacular performance at the Eko Le Meridien Hotel Banquet hall, Lagos, in a concert tagged "The Return of Ayuba". This concert made history in Nigeria, as the Executive Governors of Lagos and Ogun state, Federal and State Legislators, and several commissioners were in attendance, among other dignitaries. Following this concert, the media proclaiming Ayuba as the most corporate Fuji musician ever.

Ayuba and his band also toured Austria in 2001, performing in Graz and Vienna. In 2002, he once again toured Europe for four months, performing in England, France, Belgium, Austria and the Netherlands. While on this tour, Ayuba recorded another album, Formula, which in 2002 emerged as the Best Fuji Album of the Year at the Awards for Musical Excellence in Nigeria. In 2002, the Music Advertisers Association of Nigeria named Ayuba the Best Artiste of the Millennium. In 2003, Ayuba again toured Europe, performing in Cologne, Hamburg, Berlin, Essen, Krefeld, Paris, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Bologna, Naples, Turin, and Genoa. While on this tour, he recorded a joint album, Fuji Satisfaction, with German-based Afro-centric Music group Bantu, which won two Awards—The Best Group in West Africa and The Best Group in Africa at the Kora Music Awards in Durban, South Africa.

Ayuba was awarded the Millennium Voice of Nigerian Music (home and abroad) in Düsseldorf, (Germany) by Pan-Yoruba Group, Omo Oduduwa Association, in recognition of his valuable contributions to the growth of the music industry. In 2004, Ayuba released Ijo Fuji (Fuji Dance) in Nigeria, and was also given the Entertainer of the Year Award by the Nigerian American Community Association in the same year. Ijo Fuji won the Best Fuji Album of the Year Award at the Awards for Musical Excellence in Nigeria in July 2005.

In 2004, the Ikenne Development Association in Chicago gave him its Ogo-irawo award in recognition of his contribution to the development of Ikenne Remo, his birthplace. Ayuba's album, Mellow, which became a success after release, won the Best Fuji Vocal Performance at the (AMEN) 2007 Awards, which topped Nigeria's contemporary African charts. Mr Johnson also holds a Doctorate of Arts in Music at Bradley University.

Music career
Ayuba began singing as a child. His father was an amateur singer but reinforced the value of education, making his son agree to focus on his education during the week and allowing him to practice his music on Saturday.

Since signing his first record deal in the 1980s, he has released 15 albums in Nigeria and four internationally.

Public image
Ayuba has been crowned as the King of Bonsue Fuji, as he was the original artiste who coined the musical genre as a subgenre of Fuji Music.

Awards and honors
Ayuba won two Kora Awards in 2005.

Ayuba is a member of the Nigerian Red Cross and was dubbed "Prince Of Peace" in 2012.

Family
Ayuba is the last child of his parents, and he is married with seven children. Ayuba met his wife Azukaego Kwentoh at a cafeteria in Queens Borough Community College where he studied, and they got married in 1989. Kwentoh is from Onitsha-Oke, Anambra State in southeastern Nigeria. In 2015, Ayuba Adewale who was born a Muslim converted to the Christian faith.

Filmography
Ayuba acted as a journalist in the movie Mystery of Unity, which was produced by Ebun Oloyede.

Artistry
Ayuba writes all his songs and works for productions and performances hand-in-hand with his fifteen-man band, Ayuba and the Bonsue Fuji Band, of which Ayuba is the lead singer. He grew up with his band as a part of his musical career and his success. His signature sound in his music is the Yoruba talking drum and sometimes American percussion.

Legacy
Ayuba aims to take fuji music to the whole world, just as Bob Marley had taken reggae to the whole world.

Fashion lines
In 2013, Ayuba signed on his long time diligent stylist and fashion designer to introduce Bonsue Wears, which boosted awareness of his style around the world. Ayuba had always loved traditional Yoruba outfits, such as the Shokoto and bubba outfit. He was comfortable performing in the clothes he wore onstage, and they have since defined his signature look. The couture consists of a two-piece attire: a shirt-like top with free opening sleeves, and a pair of matching pants which gather at the knees. The bonsue fashion line blends traditional Yoruba styles with the urban touch.

Other ventures
Ayuba supports his music trade as a businessman, using the Diploma in Financial Accounting he received at the Queens Borough Community College, New York.

title: Adewale Ayuba


text:
Talk:Pancreas transplantation

I'm a pancreas transplant surgeon and just saw this page for the first time. It really needs some work. Most of the material is more or less correct, but I would by no means recommend it as a source of any but the most superficial information. Maybe I'll fix it up a bit when I get some time. 147.206.4.254 (talk) 13:26, 18 April 2009 (UTC)David Bruce, M.D. - Ochsner Clinic, New Orleans.

Having
Having just undergone a kidney/pancreas transplant, I can attest that the transplant does not involve replacing the existing pancreas. Instead, the existing pancreas is left in place, and the new one added at another point on the intestine.

In my case, the pancreas transplant was performed to cure Type I diabetes. It may be that some transplants are done so as to replace the existing pancreas. We need to check some facts.

BTW, the same was true of the kidney. My original two kidneys were left in place, and the transplanted kidney was added in my front abdomin -- just below and to the left of my naval (the pancreas just below and to the right of my navel).
 * -Anthropos 06:09, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

This page does need further clarification. While a new pancreas replaces functions of a diseased pancreas, the organ itself is not removed -- the donated cadaver organ is inserted into the patient, but does not replace it. The diseased duodenum is also not removed.

A pancrectomy is the surgery that removes a pancreas. Transplants do not and this is also true for all three types of transplants noted in the article. Also, pancreatic transplants are not performed mostly on persons with end-stage renal disease. This may be true for persons receiving a KP transplant, but lack of hypoglycemia awareness coupled with severe brittle diabetes are the main reasons for receiving a pancreas transplant alone.

For more information about this procedure I refer you to the following outside links:

http://www.shands.org/find/service/transplant/pancreas/faq.htm#7

http://www.unos.org/

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003007.htm

I am hesitant to alter someone elses' medical information, but the information in the article is not complete and not entirely accurate. I run a diabetes support site and often refer visitors to Wikiepedia. It would be great to see this article updated so that I can refer others with confidence.

--Islets of Hope 22:44, 12 March 2006 (UTC)

6/21/08 I am at the University of Indianapolis at the moment with my nephew who has just had a pancreas transplant for enzyme defeciency and diabetes. His own pancreas was removed a year ago so that he could undergo a islet cell transplant. It is possible to not have the native organ and to receive a pancreas transplant. My nephew is a living example of this.

External links modified
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Sam Browne

General Sir Samuel James Browne, (3 October 1824 – 14 March 1901) was a British Indian Army cavalry officer, known best as the creator of the Sam Browne belt. He was a recipient of the Victoria Cross, the most prestigious award for gallantry in combat that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.

Early life
He was born in Barrackpore, India, the son of Dr. John Browne, a surgeon of the Bengal Medical Service and his wife Charlotte (née Swinton). Educated in England, Browne returned to India in 1840 and joined the 46th Bengal Native Infantry as an ensign. During the Second Anglo-Sikh War, he participated in actions at Ramnuggar, Sadulpur, Chillianwalla and Gujrat. In 1849 he was made a lieutenant and tasked with raising a cavalry force, to be designated the 2nd Punjab Irregular Cavalry and later incorporated into the regular force. From 1851 to 1863 he was adjutant and then commanding officer of this unit. Later (1904) the unit would be re-designated as the 22nd Sam Browne's Cavalry (Frontier Force) in his honour.

Indian Mutiny
Browne commanded the 2nd Punjab in several engagements, and was decorated for action during the Bozdar Expedition of 1857, being promoted to captain.

Browne was awarded the Victoria Cross for actions on 31 August 1858 at Seerporah, Rohilkhand, Uttar Pradesh, India. His citation reads: For having at Seerporah, in an engagement with the Rebel Forces under Khan Allie Khan, on 31 August 1858, whilst advancing upon the Enemy's position, at day break, pushed on with one orderly Sowar upon a nine-pounder gun that was commanding one of the approaches to the enemy's position, and attacked the gunners, thereby preventing them from re-loading, and firing upon the Infantry, who were advancing to the attack. In doing this, a personal conflict ensued, in which Captain, now Lieutenant -Colonel, Samuel James Browne, Commandant of the 2nd Punjab Cavalry, received a severe sword-cut wound on the left knee, and shortly afterwards another sword-cut wound, which severed the left arm at the shoulder, not, however, before Lieutenant-Colonel Browne had succeeded in cutting down one of his assailants. The gun was prevented from being re-loaded, and was eventually captured by the Infantry, and the gunner slain.

His Victoria Cross is displayed at the National Army Museum.

Sam Browne belt
Sometime after this incident he began to wear the accoutrement which now bears his name, as compensation for the difficulty his disability caused with wearing his officer's sword. A Sam Browne belt is a wide belt, usually leather, supported by a narrower strap passing diagonally over the right shoulder; the diagonal strap stabilizes the scabbard of a sword if worn. Later such a belt would be adopted by other officers who knew Browne in India, but it was not to become used commonly by the British Army until after his retirement. Browne's original "Sam Browne" belt is possessed presently by the National Army Museum in Chelsea.

Later career and retirement
After the Indian Mutiny, Browne remained in the Indian Army and was promoted major-general in February 1870. In 1876 he was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India (KCSI), and became a lieutenant-general on 1 October 1877.

During the Second Anglo-Afghan War in 1878–9, Browne commanded the Peshawar Valley Field Force. After entering Afghanistan via the Khyber Pass, and defeating the Afghan army at the battle of Ali Masjid on 21 November 1878, he occupied Jalalabad on 20 December. However, further advance towards Kabul in the new year was slowed by transport difficulties. After the end of the first phase of the war in May 1879, Browne's force returned to India. Although criticised by the viceroy Lord Lytton for the slow pace of his advance, Browne was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) and received the thanks of both Parliament and the government of India for his Afghan service. He retired from active service in 1884, was promoted general on 1 December 1888 and made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) in 1891.

In retirement Browne lived in Ryde on the Isle of Wight, England, and died there in 1901 at the age of 76. His remains were cremated but there is a memorial marker dedicated to Browne in the Ryde New Cemetery, as well as plaques at St Paul's Cathedral in London and Lahore Cathedral in Pakistan. His grave was restored in 2010.

title: Sam Browne


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Sam Browne belt

The Sam Browne belt is a leather belt with a supporting strap that passes over the right shoulder, worn by military and police officers. It is named after Sir Samuel J. Browne (1824–1901), the British Indian Army general who invented it.

Origins

General Sir Samuel James Browne was a 19th-century British Indian Army officer who lost his left arm to a sword cut during the Sepoy Rebellion; the lack of a left hand to steady his scabbard made it difficult for him to draw his sword.

Browne devised a supplementary belt that hooked into a waist belt with D-rings and went over his right shoulder to steady the scabbard. The waist belt also securely carried a pistol in a flap-holster on his right hip and included a binocular case with a neck-strap. Other officers began wearing a similar rig and eventually it became part of the standard uniform. During the Boer War, it was copied by other troops and eventually became standard issue.

Infantry officers wore a variant that used two suspender-like straps instead of the cross-belt. It was supposedly invented in 1878 by Lieutenant Basil Templer Graham-Montgomery, of the 60th King's Royal Rifle Corps, while serving in India.

Military
Due to its former use as equipment for carrying a sword, it was traditionally only worn by those to whom a sword would historically have been issued, namely commissioned officers and warrant officers.

Finland
In the Finnish Army (as well as in Finnish Air Force) the Sam Browne belt, officially known as a "command belt" or "officer belt", has been used by officers and senior NCOs as well as officer cadets when wearing service, dress or parade uniforms. Currently it is mainly used by high-ranking officers during parades and other ceremonies, as it is only worn with dress uniform M58 and service uniform M83; while most Army and Air Force personnel, excluding cadets studying in the National Defence College as well as soldiers on ceremonial duties, use the camouflage uniform M05 as their service uniform, and the use of the "command belt" with any camouflage uniform except M62 (already phased out of service) is strictly forbidden.

Germany
The Sam Browne belt featured prominently in many uniforms used by the Nazi Party in Nazi Germany, again in imitation of earlier European uniforms. It was popular with Adolf Hitler and other leading Nazi officials.

Greece
The Sam Browne belt was used concurrently with British-style uniforms from 1937 till 1970 by the Hellenic Army and the Hellenic Gendarmerie.

Ireland
The Irish Citizen Army, Irish Volunteers and Irish Republican Army (IRA) made extensive use of Sam Browne belts during the Irish revolutionary period (1916–23). This included women serving with the Irish Citizen Army, among them Constance Markievicz. The folk song "The Broad Black Brimmer" also mentions the Sam Browne belt. They were later used by the Garda Síochána and the National Army.

Sweden
The Swedish Armed Forces used Sam Browne belts as part of their uniform for officers and NCOs from 1923 until 1958.

United Kingdom and the Commonwealth
In the 20th century it was a mainstay in the British Army officer corps, being adopted service-wide in 1900 during the Second Boer War after limited use in India and later becoming popular with military forces throughout the Commonwealth.

After World War II the Sam Browne belt saw a decline in use in the Commonwealth. It was dropped from the standard officer's uniform in 1943 and replaced by the cloth 1937 pattern and 1944 Pattern webbing gear. However officers and warrant officers class I of the British Army and Royal Marines still wear it in service (No. 2) dress and in non-ceremonial versions of No. 1 dress.

It was phased out by the Canadian military beginning with the unification of the armed services in 1968.

In Australia all officers and warrant officers class I are entitled to wear the belt in ceremonial dress. Within the corps of the Australian Army there is some variation, with members of the Royal Australian Armoured Corps, Royal Australian Army Nursing Corps and Australian Army Aviation Corps wearing black Sam Browne belts.

In the Indian Army the Sam Browne belt was worn by officers and Junior Commissioned Officers until the early 1980s, after which its use was phased out. However it is still part of the uniform of officers in the Indian police forces.

United States
During World War I, the Sam Browne Belt was approved by General Pershing, commander of the AEF, for wear by American officers as a rank distinction. However, the Army as a whole did not immediately approve its use. MPs were positioned at stateside docks and confiscated them from returning officers. The United States Army mandated the Sam Browne belt for overseas soldiers in 1918 under the name "Liberty belt" and for all service members in 1921, this time under the internationally accepted name "Sam Browne belt". It was a standard part of the uniform between World War I and World War II. It was limited in use in 1940 when the Army abandoned sabers and replaced with a cloth waistbelt that was sewn to the officer's jacket.

During World War I the Marine Corps adopted a brown leather Sam Browne Belt. It was later changed to black, the official color of Navy and Marine Corps leather gear. It is worn as part of the dress Blue A & B, Blue-white dress, and service A uniform by sword-bearing commissioned and warrant officers.

After the First World War, Sam Browne belts "become almost universal among American police". The belts led to the slang terms Harness Bull or Harness Cop for a uniformed police officer. The utility belts worn today by American police usually lack the cross-strap and the attachments for them. The belt fastens in the same way, with the bar of the buckle engaging a pair of hooks and the end of the belt retained by a post and keeper loop. They are also frequently fully lined, as opposed to the old-style half-linings, to support equipment the length of the belt.

Police
The Sam Browne belt is largely obsolete (except in dress uniforms) in police and security use due to risk of strangulation by potential opponents. It has sometimes been referred to as a Suicide Belt by personnel. It had enjoyed some popularity with civilian police agencies worldwide and was probably most widely worn in this context during the 1940s and 1950s. This use has gradually faded out due to field safety concerns.

Despite these safety concerns New Jersey State Police Troopers always wear their sidearm on a full Sam Browne belt. The full Sam Browne belt was adopted by for New Jersey State Police use by New Jersey State Police Col. Norman Schwarzkopf Sr., as the belt gave the wearer a proper "brace" (known by General of the Armies John Pershing as the "West Point Brace)".

It is part of the ceremonial dress uniform of many agencies, most notably the Red Serge worn by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. RCMP NCOs and other ranks wear a thin cross-belt over the left shoulder to support the pistol worn on the right side. Non-commissioned members who are left-handed wear the same cross strap over the right shoulder to support the pistol worn on the left side. RCMP commissioned officers wear a wider cross strap over the right shoulder due to the need to support a sword when wearing the red serge ceremonial uniform. This difference of wearing different cross straps over different shoulders for commissioned and non-commissioned members is maintained when wearing the stripped Sam Browne belt (no pistol or sword).

Civilian
During the interwar period, the belt became fashionable among some American and European women. Eleanor Roosevelt, the first lady of the United States at the time, openly spoke out against the practice. In the United States, the belts also became a symbol of civilian authority by "everybody from bus drivers to volunteer schoolboy traffic cops". The belt's use by American junior safety patrol members is archetypal. High visibility, Sam Browne-style belts are a popular safety device among cyclists for increasing their visibility, and a bright orange version is often worn by school crossing guards in junior safety patrols. The Sam Browne belt has been proposed as a solution to occupational safety and health concerns about injury due to the weight of equipment on police officers' belts. However, others have expressed concern that the vertical design of the belt could enable others to gain physical control of law enforcement officers in an altercation.

title: Sam Browne belt