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Christian Zionism

Christian Zionism is a political and religious ideology that, in a Christian context, espouses the return of the Jewish people to the Holy Land. Likewise, it holds that the founding of the State of Israel in 1948 was in accordance with biblical prophecies transmitted through the Old Testament: that the re-establishment of Jewish sovereignty in the Levant—the eschatological "Gathering of Israel"—is a prerequisite for the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. The term began to be used in the mid-20th century, in place of Christian restorationism, as proponents of the ideology rallied behind Zionists in support of a Jewish national homeland.

Advocacy on the part of Christians for a Jewish restoration grew after the Protestant Reformation, and is rooted in 17th-century English Puritanism. , Contemporary Israeli historian Anita Shapira suggests that England's Zionist Evangelical Protestants "passed this notion on to Jewish circles" around the 1840s, while Jewish nationalism in the early 19th century was largely met with hostility from British Jews.

Christian pro-Zionist ideals have generally been common among Protestant Christians since the Reformation. While supporting a mass Jewish return to the Land of Israel, Christian Zionism asserts a parallel idea that the returnees ought to be encouraged to reject Judaism and adopt Christianity as a means of fulfilling biblical prophecies. Polling and academic research have suggested a trend of widespread distrust among Jews towards the motives of Evangelical Protestants, which have been promoting support for the State of Israel and evangelizing the Jews at the same time.

Origins in Calvinistic millennialism

Advocacy of the restoration of Palestine as a national homeland for the Jews was first heard among self-identified Christian groups in the 1580s following the Protestant Reformation. The first wave of Protestant leaders, including Martin Luther and John Calvin, did not mention any special eschatological views which included a return of the Jews to Palestine (converted to Christianity or otherwise). More generally, Luther had hoped that the Jews would convert to his brand of Christianity once he had broken with the Catholic Church, but later he harshly denounced Jews. Like the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, Luther and Calvin saw the Christian Church as being the "spiritual Israel" and since Jesus Christ, the covenant with God as being with faithful Christians exclusively as the "people of God", with no special privileges or role based on ancestral descent (in later times this has been called supersessionism). The Protestant focus on sola scriptura and the wider distribution of the Bible across Europe in the vernacular languages, however, allowed various radical protestants to interpret the scriptures in their own ways, in a manner which was not entirely reflective of either medieval Catholic tradition, or, the views of the early Protestant leaders themselves. Coupled with this was a general cultural Hebraising among more radical Protestants, as they saw the veneration of saints as idolatry and placed more focus on the biblical patriarchs and prophets of the Old Testament, often naming their children Abraham, Cain, Jeremiah, Zachary, Daniel, Sampson, and the like.

While Edward VI of England was the Tudor child-monarch of England, a Calvinist-leaning Regency de facto ruled. This allowed Continental Protestants such as Martin Bucer and Peter Martyr Vermigli to teach at the prestigious universities of Cambridge and Oxford. These two men forwarded a biblical exegesis which included an important role for the Jews, converted to Christianity, in the end times. Early versions of the Bible endorsed by the English monarchy and the Anglican Church included the Great Bible and the Bishops' Bible. However, a number of English Puritans and Lowland Scots Presbyterians viewed these (along with Episcopalianism and the establishment "Protestantism of the princes"), in general, as too "Romanist." In response, a number of these Puritans and Presbyterians spent some time in Geneva in the 1560s under Calvin's successor Theodore Beza and developed a translation of the Bible called the Geneva Bible, which contained footnotes in reference to the Book of Romans, specifically claiming that the Jews would be converted to Christianity in the end times and reorientating attention to Palestine as a central theatre. This view came to be taken up strongly by English Puritans (such as Francis Kett, Edmund Bunny, Thomas Draxe, Thomas Brightman, Joseph Mede, William Perkins, Richard Sibbes, Thomas Goodwin, William Strong, William Bridge, Henry Finch, John Owen and Giles Fletcher), Lowland Scots Presbyterians (such as George Gillespie, Robert Baillie and Samuel Rutherford), and even some Continental Protestants (such as Oliger Paulli, Isaac Vossius, Hugo Grotius, Gerhard Vossius and David Blondel).

During the late Tudor and early Stuart period, these Puritans remained outsiders in England and bitterly opposed the Laudian-dominated Anglican Church (though the Presbyterians, who held very similar views, had established the Church of Scotland as the largest "Kirk" in Scotland). With the English Civil War, the Puritans filled the ranks of the Parliamentarians and the New Model Army. Under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell they were victorious, executed Charles I of England and gained complete state power, establishing the Commonwealth of England between 1649 and 1660. The Philo-Semitic millennialist undercurrent came to have a direct influence on politics. A number of Cromwell's close advisors, such as John Dury, John Sadler and Hugh Peter, came into contact with Dutch-based Jews such as Menasseh ben Israel and advocated Jewish resettlement in England (they had been banned from the country since the 13th century). Sadler, Cromwell's secretary, even argued that the British were one of the Lost Tribes of Israel in his pamphlet The Rights of the Kingdom (1649) and thus kindred to the Jews, initiating British Israelism. Other Puritans such as Jeremiah Burroughs, Peter Bulkley, John Fenwicke and John Cotton, some of whom lived in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, saw Jewish re-entry to England as a step on the path to their eventual return to Palestine (all tied up within a millennialist eschatology, which would hasten the Second Coming of Jesus Christ and thus the final judgement). Johanna and Ebenezer Cartwright, two Baptists who had spent time in Amsterdam, held the same view and issued the original petition to Thomas Fairfax's Council of War in January 1649 for Jewish readmission: the petition hoped, "That this Nation of England, with the inhabitants of the Netherlands, shall be the first and the readiest to transport Israel's sons and daughters on their ships to the land promised to their forefathers, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob for an everlasting inheritance." Their de facto toleration in England was informally achieved by 1655 to 1656 and was not rolled back after the Restoration.

A prominent French-born figure Isaac La Peyrère, who was nominally a Huguenot Calvinist, but came from a Portuguese New Christian (converted Sephardic Jewish) family was also a significant 17th century progenitor, with influence on both sides of the English Channel. La Peyrère in his millennialist work Du rappel des juifs (1643) wrote about a Jewish return to Palestine, predicted the building of the Third Temple and Jerusalem playing the most powerful role in world governance: all working towards the Second Coming. La Peyrère closely followed the developments of Oliver Cromwell's Dissenter regime and dreamed of overthrowing Louis XIV of France and replacing him with the Prince of Condé (who he worked for as a secretary) as part of a millennialist proto-Zionist messianic project. After the publication of La Peyrère's book the Amsterdam-based Menasseh Ben Israel informed his friend, Petrus Serrarius (a close associate of John Dury), about the importance of the theories, showing an early interplay between 17th century Jewish and Protestant proto-Zionism. Other Continental Protestant millennialists enthused by La Peyrère's theories were the Germans Abraham von Franckenberg (a student of the Kabbalah) and Paul Felgenhauer. Menasseh Ben Israel himself would author The Hope of Israel in 1652. Serrarius ended up being the main supporter among Protestants in Amsterdam of the message that Sabbatai Zevi was the Messiah, as proclaimed by Nathan of Gaza (his followers, the Sabbateans, were based in the Ottoman Empire but he had significant support throughout the Jewish diaspora).

Although removed from power in England itself, the millennialist Puritans who had moved to New England continued to have a deeper cultural legacy in society. As well as John Cotton, Increase Mather, one of the early Presidents of Harvard College was a strong proponent of the restoration of the Jews to Palestine. An author of numerous works, his most notable in this regard was The Mystery of Israel's Salvation (1669). Roger Williams, the Puritan proponent of religious liberty (including for Jews) in the Colony of Rhode Island that he founded has been citied as a proto-Zionist in speeches by later Jewish Zionist leaders such as Stephen S. Wise, due to his comment that "I have longed after some trading with the Jews themselves, for whose hard measure I fear the nations and England have yet a score to pay." Some important 17th-century philosophers who acted a bridge between the millennialist sectarians of their day and the approaching Age of the Enlightenment with its scientific revolution either held views associated with premillennial restorationists, or moved closely in their circles: this applies particularly to Sir Isaac Newton and Baruch Spinoza. Newton especially, who held Radical Reformation views in terms of religion and also dabbled in the occult (including the Kabbalah) predicted a Jewish return to Palestine, with the rebuilding of Jerusalem in the late 19th century and the erection of the Third Temple in the 20th or 21st century, leading to the end of the world no later than 2060. Much of these private writings were embarrassing to his supporters who sought to uphold him as a man of reason and science against Leibniz and while the University of Cambridge inherited his scientific papers, they refused to take these private ones. Many of these, collected by Abraham Yahuda, now rest in the National Library of Israel since 1967. Spinoza for his part, although Jewish himself, moved in circles in the Netherlands which included Petrus Serrarius, Henry Oldenburg and was even directly influenced by La Peyrère.

Pietism, Evangelicalism, and British foreign policy
With the rise of the Hanoverians to power in Britain and the ascent of the Enlightenment, much of the 18th century mainstream elite adopted Philhellenism, looking back to the culture and philosophies of the classical world for inspiration for the Georgian age, rather than entertaining millennialist fantasies based on the Hebrew Old Testament (though Jews themselves enjoyed significant toleration in the British Empire). Although marginal at first, a religious underground was slowly growing from the 1730s which would eventually spout a second wave of Protestant Zionism and with it the birth of Evangelical Protestantism. This was precipitated in Germany by Philipp Spener's Pietism, a mystical and often millennialist take on Lutheranism, which prophesied the "conversion of the Jews and the fall of the Papacy as the prelude of the triumph of the Church." One of Spener's followers, Nicolaus Zinzendorf, spread this into the Moravian Church, linking the theory to Palestine, changing the Moravian liturgy to include a prayer "to restore the tribe of Judah in its time and bless its first fruits among us." John and Charles Wesley, early leaders in Methodism; inspired by the Pietists and Zinzendorf's Moravians; also promoted a Jewish return to Palestine with Charles Wesley even authoring a hymn dedicated to it. The Baptist, John Gill, who moved in similar circles to the Wesleys, authored works expressing similar views. By 1771, the Evangelical minister, John Eyre, founder of the Evangelical Magazine and among the original members of the London Missionary Society was promoting a more developed version of these views with his Observations upon Prophecies Relating to the Restoration of the Jews.

By the end of the 18th century, in the aftermath of the French Revolution and the National Assembly decreeing in December 1789 that non-Catholics were eligible for all civil and military positions, the Revolutionary government in France made a play for the allegiance of Jews, in competition with Britain. During the Egypt–Syria campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars, Bonaparte invited "all the Jews of Asia and Africa to gather under his flag in order to re-establish the ancient Jerusalem." Although Bonaparte himself was secular and the idea an early example of pragmatic Political Zionism, the Jacobin idea itself may have originated from Thomas Corbet (1773–1804), an Anglo-Irish Protestant émigrée who, as a member of the liberal-republican Society of United Irishmen, was an ally of the Jacobin-government, engaged in revolutionary activities against the British and served in the French Army. In February 1790, he authored a letter to the French Directory, then under the leadership of Napoleon's patron Paul Barras. In the letter he stated "I recommend you, Napoleon, to call on the Jewish people to join your conquest in the East, to your mission to conquer the land of Israel" saying, "Their riches do not console them for their hardships. They await with impatience the epoch of their re-establishment as a nation." Dr. Milka Levy-Rubin, a curator at the National Library of Israel, has attributed Corbet's motivation to a Protestant Zionism based on premillennialist themes.

In New England during the 18th century, Ezra Stiles, president of Yale College was a supporter of Jewish restoration and befriended Rabbi Raphael Chaim Yitzchak Karigal of Hebron in 1773 during his visit. Jonathan Edwards also anticipated a future return of Jews to their homeland. In 1808, Asa McFarland, a Presbyterian, voiced the opinion of many that the fall of the Ottoman Empire was imminent and would bring about Jewish restoration. One David Austin of New Haven spent his fortune building docks and inns from which the Jews could embark to the Holy Land. In 1825, Mordecai Manuel Noah, a Jew who wanted to found a national home for the Jews on Grand Island in New York as a way station on the way to the Holy Land, won widespread Christian backing for his project. Likewise, restorationist theology was among the inspirations for the first American missionary activity in the Middle East and for mapping the Holy Land.

Most early-19th-century British Restorationists, like Charles Simeon, were postmillennial in eschatology. With the rise of James Frere, James Haldane Stewart and Edward Irving a major shift in the 1820s towards premillennialism occurred, with a similar focus on advocacy for the restoration of the Jews to Israel. As the demise of the Ottoman Empire appeared to be approaching, the advocacy of restorationism increased. At the same time, the visit of John Nelson Darby to the United States catalyzed a new movement. Darby was the founder of a theological framework known as dispensationalism. This was expressed at the Niagara Bible Conference in 1878, which issued a 14-point proclamation (relying on Luke 12:35–40, 17:26–30, 18:8 Acts 15:14–17, 2 Thessalonians 2:3–8, 2 Timothy 3:1–5, and Titus 1:11–15), including: "that the Lord Jesus will come in person to introduce the millennial age, when Israel shall be restored to their own land, and the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord; and that this personal and premillennial advent is the blessed hope set before us in the Gospel for which we should be constantly looking."

The dispensationalist theology of John Nelson Darby is often claimed to be a significant awakener of American Christian Zionism. He first distinguished the hopes of the Jews and that of the church and gentiles in a series of 11 evening lectures in Geneva in 1840. His lectures were immediately published in French (L'Attente Actuelle de l'Eglise), English (1841), German and Dutch (1847) and so his teachings began their global journey. Some dispensationalists, like Arno Gabelein, whilst philo-semitic, opposed Zionism as a movement born in self-confidence and unbelief. While dispensationalism had considerable influence through the Scofield Reference Bible, Christian lobbying for the restoration of the Jews preceded the publication of the Scofield Reference Bible (first published by OUP, 1909) by over a century, and many Christian Zionists and Christian Zionist organizations such as the International Christian Embassy Jerusalem do not subscribe to dispensationalism. Many non-dispensationalist Protestants were also strong advocates of a Jewish return to their homeland, Charles Spurgeon, both Horatius and Andrew Bonar, Robert Murray M'Chyene, and J. C. Ryle were among a number of proponents of both the importance and significance of a Jewish return to Israel. However Spurgeon averred of dispensationalism: "It is a mercy that these absurdities are revealed one at a time, in order that we may be able to endure their stupidity without dying of amazement". In 1864, Spurgeon wrote: "We look forward, then, for these two things. I am not going to theorize upon which of them will come first — whether they shall be restored first, and converted afterwards — or converted first and then restored. They are to be restored and they are to be converted, too."

The crumbling of the Ottoman Empire threatened the British route to India via the Suez Canal as well as sundry French, German and American economic interests. In 1831 the Ottomans were driven from the region of Syria (including Palestine) by an expansionist Egypt, in the First Turko-Egyptian War. Although Britain forced Muhammad Ali to withdraw to Egypt, the Levant was left for a brief time without a government. The ongoing weakness of the Ottoman Empire made some in the west consider the potential of a Jewish state in the Holy Land. A number of important figures within the British government advocated such a plan, including Charles Henry Churchill. Again during the lead-up to the Crimean War (1854), there was an opportunity for political rearrangements in the Near East. In July 1853, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, who was President of the London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews, wrote to Prime Minister Aberdeen urging Jewish restoration as a means of stabilizing the region.

Late-19th-century non-messianic restorationism was largely driven by concern over the fate of the Jews of the Russian Empire, beset by poverty and by deadly, government-inspired pogroms. It was widely accepted that western nations did not wish to receive Jewish immigrants. Restorationism was a way for charitable individuals to assist oppressed Jews without actually accepting them as neighbors and fellow-citizens. In this, Restorationism was not unlike the efforts of the American Colonization Society to send blacks to Liberia and the efforts of British abolitionists to create Sierra Leone. Winston Churchill endorsed Restoration because he recognized that Jews fleeing Russian pogroms required a refuge, and preferred Palestine for sentimental reasons.

In the United States
In 1818, President John Adams wrote, "I really wish the Jews again in Judea an independent nation", and believed that they would gradually become Unitarian Christians.

In 1844, George Bush, a professor of Hebrew at New York University and the cousin of an ancestor of the Presidents Bush, published a book titled The Valley of Vision; or, The Dry Bones of Israel Revived. In it he denounced "the thralldom and oppression which has so long ground them (the Jews) to the dust," and called for "elevating" the Jews "to a rank of honorable repute among the nations of the earth" by allowing restoring the Jews to the land of Israel where the bulk would be converted to Christianity. This, according to Bush, would benefit not only the Jews, but all of mankind, forming a "link of communication" between humanity and God. "It will blaze in notoriety ...". "It will flash a splendid demonstration upon all kindreds and tongues of the truth."

Herman Melville expressed the idea in a poem, "Clarel; A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land": "the Hebrew seers announce in time the return of Judah to her prime; Some Christians deemed it then at hand Here was an object. Up and On. With seed and tillage help renew – Help reinstate the Holy Land"

The tycoon William Eugene Blackstone was inspired by the conference to publish the book Jesus is Coming, which took up the restorationist cause. His book was translated and published in Yiddish. On November 24–25, 1890, Blackstone organized the Conference on the Past, Present and Future of Israel at the First Methodist Episcopal Church in Chicago where participants included leaders of many Christian communities. Resolutions of sympathy for the oppressed Jews living in Russia were passed, but Blackstone was convinced that such resolutions—even though passed by prominent men—were insufficient. He advocated strongly for the resettlement of Jewish people in Palestine. In 1891 he lobbied President Benjamin Harrison for the restoration of the Jews, in a petition signed by 413 prominent Americans, that became known as the Blackstone Memorial. The names included the US Chief Justice, Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Chair of the House Foreign Relations Committee, and several other congressmen, Rockefeller, Morgan and famous industrialists. It read, in part: "Why shall not the powers which under the treaty of Berlin, in 1878, gave Bulgaria to the Bulgarians and Servia to the Servians now give Palestine back to the Jews? ... These provinces, as well as Romania, Montenegro, and Greece, were wrested from the Turks and given to their natural owners. Does not Palestine as rightfully belong to the Jews?"

In Great Britain
Ideas favoring the restoration of the Jews in Palestine or the Land of Israel entered the British public discourse in the 1830s, though British Reformationists had written about the restoration of the Jews as early as the 16th century, and the idea had strong support among Puritans. Not all such attitudes were favorable towards the Jews; they were shaped in part by a variety of Protestant beliefs, or by a streak of philo-Semitism among the classically educated British elite.

At the urging of Lord Shaftesbury, Britain established a consulate in Jerusalem in 1838, the first diplomatic appointment to Palestine.

In 1839, the Church of Scotland sent Andrew Bonar, Robert Murray M'Cheyne, Alexander Black and Alexander Keith on a mission to report on the condition of the Jews in Palestine. Their report was widely published. They traveled through France, Greece, and Egypt, and from Egypt, overland to Gaza. On the way home they visited Syria, the Austrian Empire and some of the German states. They sought out Jewish communities and inquired about their readiness to accept Christ, and separately, their preparedness to return to Israel as prophesied in the Bible. Alexander Keith recounted the journey in his 1844 book The Land of Israel According to the Covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob. It was also in that book that Keith used the slogan that became popular with other Christian Restorationists, a land without a people for a people without a land. In 1844 he revisited Palestine with his son, George Skene Keith (1819–1910), who was the first person to photograph the land.

An important, though often neglected, figure in British support of the restoration of the Jews was William Hechler (1845–1931), an English clergyman of German descent who was Chaplain of the British Embassy in Vienna and became a close friend of Theodor Herzl. Hechler was instrumental in aiding Herzl through his diplomatic activities, and may, in that sense, be called the founder of modern Christian Zionism. When it came to mark the twenty-fifth anniversary of Herzl's death, it was noted by the editors of the English-language memorial volume that William Hechler would prove "not only the first, but the most constant and the most indefatigable of Herzl's followers".

Balfour Declaration
On 2 November 1917, UK Home Secretary Arthur Balfour sent a letter to Lord Walter Rothschild. This letter, known as the Balfour Declaration, famously stated that "His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people." As noted by Philip Alexander, "A crucial ingredient in Balfour's Zionism [may have been] his Christian belief or, to put it a little more subtly, his Christian formation. The most persuasive advocate of this thesis is the Canadian historian Donald Lewis in his 2010 monograph, The Origins of Christian Zionism, but it has been espoused by a number of other scholars as well."

In the United States
In the decades leading up to the establishment of Israel in 1948, the most prominent and politically active American Christian supporters of Zionism were liberal and mainline Protestants whose support for the movement was often unrelated to their interpretation of the Bible. These Christian supporters of Zionism viewed Palestine as a needed safe haven for Jews who were fleeing from intensifying persecution in Europe and they frequently believed that their support of the movement was part of a broader effort at interfaith rapprochement. The Pro-Palestine Federation, a Christian pro-Zionist organization which was founded in 1930, called for the promotion of "goodwill and esteem between Jews and non-Jews" and it also called for the British government to adhere to the terms of its Mandate for Palestine, which pledged support for the establishment of a Jewish national home.

Amidst World War II and their growing awareness of the Holocaust, American Jewish Zionists helped coordinate the establishment of two non-Jewish Zionist organizations, the American Palestine Committee and the Christian Council on Palestine, which were later merged into the American Christian Palestine Committee (ACPC). The ACPC, which was composed largely of liberal and mainline Protestants, became the leading American Christian lobby in support of the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine. After the establishment of Israel in 1948, the ACPC continued its lobbying efforts. For instance, it coordinated opposition to the United Nations' efforts to internationalize the city of Jerusalem, which was divided between Israel and Transjordan in the 1948 War.

During these years, premillennialism (including its dispensationalist variety) grew in popularity among conservative American Protestants. Many premillennialists viewed the Zionist movement as at least a partial fulfillment of biblical prophecy or they viewed it as a modern fulfillment of God's covenantal promises to the Jewish people. In the 1930s, Southern Baptist missionary Jacob Gartenhaus, himself a convert from Judaism, argued that "Zionism is going to win whether anybody likes it or not...To oppose it is to oppose God's plan." But for the most part, such beliefs did not translate into political action on behalf of the movement in this era. One slight exception was J. Frank Norris, a fundamentalist Baptist who split time between pulpits in Fort Worth, Texas, and Detroit, Michigan. While Norris did not organize lobbying efforts in the way that the ACPC did, he did preach to his followers that it was their Christian duty to support the Zionist cause and wrote President Truman in support of Zionist claims to Palestine in 1947 and 1948. Norris also loosely coordinated with the ACPC, at times publishing their materials in his periodical, The Fundamentalist.

In the United States
In the decades since the establishment of Israel, and especially since the 1967 Six-Day War, the most prominent American Christian supporters of Israel have come from the evangelical wing of American Protestantism. American evangelicalism itself underwent significant changes in the years surrounding Israel's birth, as a "new" evangelicalism led by figures like Billy Graham emerged from Protestantism and came to cultural prominence. It was among these new evangelicals that the contemporary movement that most commonly associated with the term "Christian Zionism" originated.

Many new evangelicals adhered to dispensationalism or at least, they adhered to beliefs which were inspired by it—most especially, they adhered to the dispensationalist understanding that Jews remained in a special covenantal relationship with God. Most important to the development of Christian Zionism as a movement, though, was the fact that American evangelical leaders began to build relationships with American and Israeli Jews and they also began to build institutional connections with Jewish organizations and the Israeli government itself. Crucial to the building of these relationships was a motivated coterie of American evangelicals who resided in Israel, most notably, the founder of the American Institute of Holy Land Studies, G. Douglas Young. Through his institute, Young worked to convince American Christians that it was their biblical duty to support the Jewish people and the Jewish state. He also worked as a go-between for Jewish organizations and Israeli government agencies which were seeking to build relationships with American evangelicals. Such activism provided the basis for the development of Christian Zionism as a movement. Such activism, it should be noted, was in many ways distinct from the prophetic speculation about the State of Israel that exploded after the 1967 Six-Day War (even as it had somewhat common theological and hermeneutical antecedents). This activism includes the wildly popular writings of the American dispensationalist evangelical writer Hal Lindsey, which sought to fit Israel into a dispensationalist end-time narrative. In The Late Great Planet Earth, for example, Lindsey anticipated that, per, Jews would fight off a "Russian" invasion before realizing their miraculous deliverance and converting to Christianity. Their lives would be spared the great fire that God will put upon Russia and people of the "coastlands." And, per, one third of Jews alive who have converted will be spared. Lindsay has been critiqued for highly specific, failed predictions even by those who share his eschatology, like John MacArthur.

Examples of Protestant leaders who combined political conservatism with Christian Zionism are Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson, leading figures on the Christian Right in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1981, Falwell said: "To stand against Israel is to stand against God. We believe that history and scripture prove that God deals with nations in relation to how they deal with Israel." They cite part of the blessing of Isaac at, "Those who curse you will be cursed, and those who bless you will be blessed." Martin Luther King Jr. has also been cited as a Christian supporter of Israel and Zionism.

In Israel
The government of Israel has given official encouragement to Christian Zionism, allowing the establishment of the International Christian Embassy Jerusalem in 1980. The embassy has raised funds to help finance Jewish immigration to Israel from the former Soviet Union, and has assisted Zionist groups in establishing Jewish settlements in the West Bank.

The Third International Christian Zionist Congress, held in Jerusalem in February 1996, issued a proclamation which said: "God the Father, Almighty, chose the ancient nation and people of Israel, the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, to reveal His plan of redemption for the world. They remain elect of God, and without the Jewish nation His redemptive purposes for the world will not be completed.

Jesus of Nazareth is the Messiah and has promised to return to Jerusalem, to Israel and to the world.

It is reprehensible that generations of Jewish peoples have been killed and persecuted in the name of our Lord, and we challenge the Church to repent of any sins of commission or omission against them.

The modern Ingathering of the Jewish People to Eretz Israel and the rebirth of the nation of Israel are in fulfilment of biblical prophecies, as written in both Old and New Testaments.

Christian believers are instructed by Scripture to acknowledge the Hebraic roots of their faith and to actively assist and participate in the plan of God for the Ingathering of the Jewish People and the Restoration of the nation of Israel in our day."

Popular interest in Christian Zionism was given a boost around the year 2000 in the form of the Left Behind series of novels by Tim LaHaye and Jerry B. Jenkins. The novels are built around the prophetic role of Israel in the apocalyptic end times.

General
For most Christians the City of God has nothing to do with Jewish immigration to Israel and the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict; instead, it predicts the sack of Rome (410) and it is cited in the teaching of Saint Augustine of Hippo, whose rejection of millennialism was adopted by the Council of Ephesus (431). That is why neither Eastern Orthodox Christians nor traditional Catholic Christians did consider Zionism in any political form: "[T]he Eastern Orthodox Church [...] upheld a historic lack of emphasis on pilgrimage, insisting that the land of promise was not Palestine but the Kingdom of God. Thus, Patriarch Ignatius IV, head of the church in the Middle East, reiterated that the people were his concern in Jerusalem, not the stones." Not a worldly kingdom, not an earthly Jerusalem is sought after,  but the focus is on the heavenly Jerusalem, the kingdom of the triune God: "At first you will see prayer as a ladder, then as a book which you read, and finally, as you advance further and further, you will see it as the heavenly Jerusalem, the city of the King of Hosts, Who is together with His Father—with Whom He is of one Essence—and with the venerable Holy Spirit."

Catholic Church
The Catholic Church—the largest branch of Christians in the world—does not endorse the theological premises underlying millennialist Protestant Restorationism and it has generally inveighed against the prospect of Jewish governance over Holy Places in Palestine which it deems of importance to Christianity. Theodor Herzl, the secular Jewish founder of modern political Zionism, had an audience in the Vatican with Pope Pius X in 1904, arranged by the Austrian Count Berthold Dominik Lippay, seeking out the position of the Catholic Church on Herzl's prospective project for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. Pope Pius X stated "We cannot prevent the Jews from going to Jerusalem—but we could never sanction it. The soil of Jerusalem, if it was not always sacred, has been sanctified by the life of Jesus Christ. As the head of the Church I cannot tell you anything different. The Jews have not recognized our Lord, therefore we cannot recognize the Jewish people." After Herzl explained that his reasoning behind the project for the creation of a Jewish state was not a religious statement, but interest in secular land for national independence, Pope Pius X replied "Does it have to be Gerusalemme?"

While it rejected a theological basis for Zionism outright, a major concern for the Holy See was the fate of the Holy Places which were associated with Jesus Christ if they should ever fall under the governance of such a state. By the mid-19th century, relations between the Vatican and Istanbul were fairly collegial; by that time, the Muslim Ottomans permitted the Vatican to work among the Arab Catholics in Palestine and they also permitted the Vatican to access the Holy Places quite freely so the status quo was already workable for them. Following the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, the Vatican advocated the position that Jerusalem should be treated as a separate "international city", as laid out in the encyclical Redemptoris nostri cruciatus. Until the Second Vatican Council, the Catholic Church was forthright in its international lobbying against Zionism (including the Catholic Church in the United States, because the United States had become Zionism's most powerful endorser). The State of Israel and the Holy See only established full diplomatic relations in 1993 and this was a recognition of political and civic reality, not a theological statement.

Protestantism
Political Zionism, which "came down like the wolf on the fold", has also been anathematized by eminent Protestants: "[I]t is the conviction of most biblical scholars that the Old Testament contains no description of the restoration of Israel to its ancient homeland which can apply to the Jewish people of the present age." "Political Zionism and Christian Zionism are biblically anathema to the Christian faith. [...] [T]rue Israel today is neither Jews nor Israelis, but believers in the Messiah, even if they are gentiles."

In the United States, the General Assembly of the National Council of Churches in November 2007 approved a resolution for further study which stated that the "theological stance of Christian Zionism adversely affects:

 * justice and peace in the Middle East, delaying the day when Israelis and Palestinians can live within secure borders
 * relationships with Middle Eastern Christians (see the Jerusalem Declaration on Christian Zionism)
 * relationships with Jews, since Jews are seen as mere pawns in an eschatological scheme
 * relationships with Muslims, since it treats the rights of Muslims as subordinate to the rights of Jews
 * interfaith dialogue, since it views the world in starkly dichotomous terms"

The Reformed Church in America at its 2004 General Synod found "the ideology of Christian Zionism and the extreme form of dispensationalism that undergirds it to be a distortion of the biblical message noting the impediment it represents to achieving a just peace in Israel/Palestine." The Mennonite Central Committee devoted an issue of its newsletter to Christian Zionism, describing the ongoing seizure of additional Palestinian lands by Israeli militants as illegal,  noting that in some churches under the influence of Christian Zionism the "congregations 'adopt' illegal Israeli settlements, sending funds to bolster the defense of these armed colonies." As of September 2007, churches in the US that have criticized Christian Zionism include the United Methodist Church, the Presbyterian Church (USA), and the United Church of Christ.

The film With God On Our Side, by Porter Speakman Jr. and Kevin Miller (the latter of whom also co-created the film Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed), criticizes both the underlying theology behind Christian Zionism as well as its negative influence on the church.

In the United Kingdom, the Church of Scotland, despite its Restorationist history, has recently been critical of Zionism in general, and in turn has received strong criticism over the perceived injustice of its report, "The Inheritance of Abraham: A Report on the Promised Land", which resulted in its republication in a briefer form. On 9 July 2012, the Anglican General Synod passed a motion affirming support for the Ecumenical Accompaniment Programme in Palestine and Israel (EAPPI). This was criticised by the Board of Deputies claiming the Synod 'has chosen to promote an inflammatory and partisan programme'. The advocated group was simultaneously criticised for its publication of a call for sit-ins at Israeli Embassies, the hacking of government websites to promote its message, and support for the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions campaign against Israel.

Biblical interpretations
Some Christian Zionists interpret the prophetic texts as describing inevitable future events, and these events primarily involve Israel (taken to mean the descendants of the Biblical patriarch Jacob) or Judah (taken to mean the remaining faithful adherents of Judaism). These prophecies are seen as requiring the presence of a Jewish state in the Holy Land, the central part of the lands promised to the Biblical patriarch Abraham in the Covenant of the pieces. This requirement is sometimes interpreted as being fulfilled by the contemporary state of Israel.

Other doctrines
Christian schools of doctrine which consider other teachings to counterbalance these doctrines, or which interpret them in terms of distinct eschatological theories, are less conducive to Christian Zionism. Among the many texts which address this subject in counterbalance are the words of Jesus, as for example in Matthew, "the kingdom of God will be taken away from you and given to a nation producing the fruits of it".

In Defending Christian Zionism, David Pawson, a Christian Zionist in the United Kingdom, puts forward the case that the return of the Jews to the Holy Land is a fulfilment of scriptural prophecy, and that Christians should support the existence of the Jewish State (although not unconditionally its actions) on theological grounds. He also argues that prophecies spoken about Israel relate specifically to Israel (not to the church, as in "replacement theology"). However, he criticises Dispensationalism, which he says is a largely American movement holding similar views. Pawson was spurred to write this book by the work of Stephen Sizer, an evangelical Christian who rejects Christian Zionism.

Demographics
Tens of millions of Americans belong to Evangelical churches that strongly support Israel for religious reasons, and there are tens of millions more Christians who identify as Christian Zionists outside the United States.

The largest Zionist organisation is Christians United for Israel, which has 10 million members and is led by John Hagee.

Public opinion
A 2017 LifeWay poll conducted in United States found that 80% of evangelical Christians believed that the creation of Israel in 1948 was a fulfillment of biblical prophecy that would bring about Christ's return and more than 50% of Evangelical Christians believed that they support Israel because it is important for fulfilling the prophecy.

According to the Pew Research survey in 2003, more than 60% of the Evangelical Christians and about 50% of Blacks agreed that the existence of Israel fulfilled biblical prophecy. About 55% of poll respondents said that the Bible was the biggest influence for supporting Israel which is 11 times the people who said church was the biggest influence.

title: Christian Zionism


text:
Talk:Lists of Japanese governors-general

Untitled
Governors-General of what? (I know the answer, but how many others will?) Adam 04:48, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Why not fix it, then? :) Dysprosia 04:50, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Because I'm a tease. Adam

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Kazushige Ugaki

Kazushige Ugaki (宇垣 一成) was a Japanese general in the Imperial Japanese Army and cabinet minister before World War II, the 5th principal of Takushoku University, and twice Governor-General of Korea. Nicknamed Ugaki Issei, he served as Foreign Minister of Japan in the Konoe cabinet in 1938.

Military career
Ugaki was the fifth son of an impoverished farming family in Ochi village, Bizen Province (currently the town of Seto, Okayama). He excelled in all studies, and passed a teacher recruitment examination. He worked as an elementary school teacher in his teens, moved to Tokyo, and managed to secure a position at the first class of the reformed Imperial Japanese Army Academy. He graduated in 1891 ranked 11th out of a class of 150. In 1900, he graduated from the Army Staff College, ranked 3rd out of a class of 39 and was awarded a sword of merit. He became a protege of General Kawakami Soroku as a captain and was sent as military attaché to Germany from 1902 to 1904, and again from 1906 to 1907. Ugaki also was a protege of general Tanaka Giichi, under whom he was promoted to colonel in 1910 and major general in 1915. He was chief of the 1st Bureau of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff in 1916 and was promoted to Lieutenant General in 1919. He served as commandant of the Army Staff College from 1919 to 1921 and became commander of the Himeji-based IJA 10th Division from March 1921 to May 1922. From October 1923, he served as Vice Minister of the Army.

Army Minister and Governor-General of Korea
In January 1924, Ugaki was appointed Army Minister by Prime Minister Keigo Kiyoura. He continued in this post in the Katō Takaaki and the first Reijirō Wakatsuki cabinets until April 1927. The political machinations of the Rikken Seiyukai political party and his mentor, Tanaka Giichi, were behind his appointment. Ugaki strove to protect the superior position of the Imperial Japanese Army in Japanese politics, fearing a loss of influence to the Imperial Japanese Navy, should the United States be judged "Hypothetical National Enemy No. 1". Ugaki's plans called for an Army of 50 divisions. Nevertheless, despite Ugaki's strenuous opposition, the Katō Takaaki cabinet continued with its fiscal retrenchment policy (from May 1925) and Ugaki was forced to eliminate four infantry divisions (the IJA 13th Division, IJA 15th Division, IJA 17th Division, and IJA 18th Division), which resulted in the release of approximately 2,000 commissioned officers. He was also forced to shorten the period of time conscripts served with the remaining divisions and to force many senior officers into early retirement. The fact that the monies saved by these policies were used to implement much-needed modernization of military equipment and training had little impact on Ugaki's extremely unpopularity within the Army, and in 1927 Ugaki accepted a posting as Governor-General of Korea from April 1927 rather than continue as Army Minister.

Ugaki's first term as Governor-General of Korea was only until December 1927. In 1929, Ugaki was promoted to full general. Under Prime Minister Hamaguchi Osachi, he agreed to return as Army Minister in July 1929. However, the failure of Hamaguchi's economic policies after the start of the Great Depression and his push for demilitarization with the London Naval Treaty of 1930 enraged right-wing ultranationists. In 1931, although Ugaki refused to cooperate with them, he also failed to punish the insurgents responsible for the March Incident, an attempted coup-d'etat by young officers of the Sakurakai who sought to make him Prime Minister. Having lost the support of his fellow officers, Ugaki resigned from the military in April 1931 and once again accepted a posting as Governor-General of Korea.

During his second period in Korea, from June 1931 to August 1936, Ugaki made concentrated efforts to build up the industrial base in the Korean peninsula, especially in the areas of heavy industry and munitions, which he felt would be invaluable in an upcoming war with China, which he considered unavoidable in the near future. He also promoted a policy of reconciliation which was in stark contrast to the more repressive regimes before and after his administration.

Almost Prime Minister
Recalled to Japan after the fall of the Hirota Kōki administration, Ugaki was named Prime Minister in February 1937, but was unable to form a Cabinet due to strong opposition from his political enemies within the Army. Ugaki was highly regarded by Saionji Kinmochi and was perceived as having a moderate foreign policy and being opposed to the increasingly fascistic trends within the military. The situation in Japan had become highly unstable, with increasing international isolation following the withdrawal from the League of Nations, lack of economic recovery and increasing distrust of politicians due to constant corruption scandals, and terrorist attacks by elements of the Army itself. After the February 26 Incident in 1936, the Japanese military had obtained a restoration of the requirement that the Army and Navy Ministers must be selected only from active duty officers. Ugaki, although Prime Minister-designate (and a retired full general in his own right) remained a persona non grata with the Army leadership over his previous terms as Army Minister and over the March Incident, along with his alleged ties to the zaibatsu businesses over the Korean industrialization program, so they refused to provide him with an Army Minister. As a consequence, although officially appointed, Ugaki could never assume office. The post of prime minister then went to Senjūrō Hayashi, another ex-general and member of the Tōseiha faction.

The Imperial Japanese Army's ability to control the formation of a government by means of withholding nomination of a cabinet minister was a staggering blow to the evolution of parliamentary government and democracy in Japan and unquestionably, the decisive factor in the military supremacy over civilian authority before and during World War II.

Subsequent career
In May 1938, Ugaki accepted the post of Foreign Minister under the first Konoe administration, simultaneously holding the portfolio of Minister of Colonial Affairs, but resigned after only four months. Ugaki had been requested by Konoe for assistance to negotiate a peace settlement with the Republic of China following the Marco Polo Bridge incident to avoid an all-out war. Ugaki enlisted the aid of British and American ambassadors to open a direct negotiation with Chinese premier H. H. Kung; however, his efforts were quickly undercut by the Japanese Army, who applied pressure onto Konoe that the military and not a civilian military should be responsible for all negotiations. Konoe wavered between positions and finally sided with the military, and Ugaki resigned in protest.

In 1944, Ugaki left politics and accepted the post of president of Takushoku University, which he held throughout the remainder of the war years. He was the center of a movement which supported a quick end to World War II, and from 1943 was active in efforts to oust Prime Minister Hideki Tojo from office.

After World War II, along with all former members of the Japanese government, Ugaki was purged from public service and arrested by the American Occupation authorities. However, he was never charged with any war crimes, and was soon released.

In 1953, Ugaki ran for public office on a national ticket and was elected to the House of Councillors in the post-war Diet of Japan with an overwhelming vote. Ugaki died in 1956 at his summer villa in Izunokuni, Shizuoka.

Decorations

 * 1902 – JPN Zuiho-sho (WW2) 5Class BAR.svg Order of the Sacred Treasure, 5th class
 * 1906 – JPN Kinshi-kunsho 4Class BAR.svg Order of the Golden Kite, 4th class
 * 1915 – JPN Kyokujitsu-sho 4Class BAR.svg Order of the Rising Sun, 4th class
 * 1918 – JPN Zuiho-sho (WW2) 3Class BAR.svg Order of the Sacred Treasure, 3rd class
 * 1920 – JPN Kyokujitsu-sho 2Class BAR.svg Order of the Rising Sun, 2nd class
 * 1924 – JPN Zuiho-sho (WW2) 1Class BAR.svg Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure
 * 1927 – JPN Kyokujitsu-sho 1Class BAR.svg Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun

title: Kazushige Ugaki


text:
Talk:Sunset High School (Beaverton, Oregon)

Location
Sunset High School is in fact in Portland, and has a Portland address, despite the fact that it is in the Beaverton School District. (Feb 8, 2004)
 * Hmm, my bad then. A good friend of mine attended Sunset, and she was from Beaverton. Between that and the fact Sunset is in the Beaverton School District, I was pretty confident in the decision to relocate. Thanks for the clarification though...

 * EDIT:I just looked on a map and it appears far nearer Beaverton than Portland. I imagine if the address says Portland it should probably remain as such, but I thought it would worth mentioning. Sarge Baldy 10:07, Feb 8, 2004 (UTC)

 * For what it's worth, I went to SHS and I lived in Portland (only a mile away from the school no less). You might say the school is in the "transition area" between Beaverton and Portland, but since it is officially in Portland (and this is a factual reference), I think it is most appropriate in Portland. ~same as topic originator (Feb 8, 2004)

Sunset is technically not in a city. It is located in unincorporated Washington County, along with most of its students. It has a street address in Portland, and is in the Beaverton School District, but is in neither Portland nor Beaverton. People who live in this area cannot vote for a mayor and don't have to pay city taxes. Portland has tried to expand into Cedar Mill in the past, to the overwhelming dismay of the locals. Beaverton has announced a plan to expand into areas that include Sunset's enrollment area, but I don't know if the school itself will fall into the new boundaries. Vranish 01:41, 4 December 2006 (UTC)
 * This has now been clarified in the article itself and I've moved the page back to Sunset High School (Beaverton, Oregon). Vranish's info. was correct, but a little out of date, because Beaverton annexed the Sunset HS property in 1999.  As strange as it sounds, in Washington County, a "Portland" street address does not mean a location is in Portland.  SHS has always has a Portland street address (although for a time BSD also had an optional P.O. box address in Beaverton for it), but for its first 40 years it was actually in unincorporated Washington County.  It has never been in Portland proper, but until 1999 all of Cedar Mill was unincorporated and all of it had–and still does have–"Portland" mailing addresses.  Only in 1999 did Beaverton begin to annex some areas in Cedar Mill, including the Sunset HS grounds, followed by another annexation in 2004, but the entire area still has "Portland" mailing addresses.  For the purpose of naming the Wikipedia article, I don't consider the street address to be irrelevant, but in this instance the school is both in the city of Beaverton and in the Beaverton School District (which is independent of the city of Beaverton), so at least two out three factors now support a "Beaverton" listing for Wikipedia's Sunset High School article. SJ Morg (talk) 11:17, 21 September 2010 (UTC)

VfD listing

 * Another reason to have each school as its own page: Suppose someone is moving to Portland, and wants to look into the schools they could live by. They want information on the specific school, not just the district. (Feb 8, 2004)
 * Delete. OliverP is out of control. I have a reason, the reason that I have for all schools and lists of schools, and I don't think I need to keep repeating it.  RickK 04:11, 23 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * I'm sorry, but you do need to repeat it because I don't know what the reason is. I cannot imagine any reason why these should be deleted. --Camembert
 * Thank you, Mr. Camembert. :) -- Oliver P. 04:38, 23 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Abstain on Sunset at present. Jamesday 04:44, 23 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Either keep, or merge and redirect with Portland, Oregon. Doesn't need deletion. Martin 17:29, 23 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * I agree with Rick that it's unnecessary to have an article on every high school. Adam Bishop 23:16, 23 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Delete. Essentially all the content now lies at Beaverton School District. --Minesweeper 06:29, Nov 24, 2003 (UTC)
 * Should it not be kept as a redirect then? Martin
 * Keep pending discussion on Wikipedia talk:Deletion policy/schools about schools and lists. There is an active discussion on schools there. Personally, if there can be a NPOV non stub on a school, why not keep it? Surely a real educational establishment is at least as important as Hogwarts, the Unseen University and the List of fictional elephants?207.189.98.44 00:00, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * We should keep in all the schools that are put up individually at VfD. (and better yet, have them all recorded on a List of schools so we can keep track of them all if our final decision means we have to delete some). That way, if we make a final decision that schools should be kept when we're deliberating on an all-Wikipedia policy that determines which schools are legitimate for Wikipedia articles and which aren't, we won't have to start from scratch all over again on all those schools people worked so hard on in order to get our coverage of schools complete. Wiwaxia 02:47, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * The entry is obviously informative and well-written. By any standard that recognizes that the goal of Wikipedia is to be comprehensive, it should stay. --The Cunctator 04:54, 26 Nov 2003 (UTC)

The "result of the debate" (read, what I decided to do) was to redirect it to Beaverton School District, which already had most of the info from here. Martin 15:07, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Organisation
Well, someone has un-redirected Sunset High School (Portland). Not me, I hasten to add, but I must say that it seems to me a sensible thing to do. Clearly, since we kept the content (at Beaverton School District) and nobody complained after that (as far as I can tell), this was always really a debate about organisation of content, not about inclusion of content. So the question is: given that we have information on Sunset High School, what is the best way to organise it? Putting it on the page about the school, or putting it on a page about the school district? Before anyone answers that question, consider the following... It seems to me more intuitive to talk in terms of schools than in terms of school districts. I didn't even know that schools were arranged into school districts until these sorts of debates started up! (Is it just an American thing? If so, the strategy used here couldn't be used in general anyway.) My general point is that, given a choice between different ways of presenting information, we should choose the way that makes most sense to the reader. -- Oliver P. 14:51, 17 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * 1) Somebody mentions their educational background to you. It turns out that they went to this school. Do they say, (a) "I went to a school in the Beaverton School District", or (b) "I went to Sunset High School"?
 * 2) You know someone who went to a school near there. Do you reply, "Oh! I knew someone who was educated in that district," or (b) "Oh! I knew someone who went to a school near there"?

Well, those are leading questions. I can think of other situations which lead the other way:

 * 1) I've moved to a new area/my kids are growing up. I wonder what school I should send my kids to?
 * 2) I want to petition schools in my area to teach creationism. Where do I send the letters?
 * 3) How well do these schools co-operate together - any examples of public-private partnership, or joined-up government?
 * 4) I'm a teacher - where should I go to teach?

I believe that they best way of presenting the current information in the article is as part of the Beaverton article. Having a seperate article that gives only an additional URL and an address is not helpful: see WhatIsTmesis (tmesis?). However, I do see your point, and I don't strongly object to a different organisation.

Btw, it's not a US thing: the UK has LEAs which group schools in similar ways. Martin 19:04, 18 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Upgrading
You may want to consider upgrading this article to conform to WikiProject Schools. Davodd 07:59, Feb 24, 2004 (UTC)

Moving
Someone moved the article to Sunset High School (Beaverton). It was copied and pasted back here, but I've now merged the histories so it's back in one piece now. The school's address does say "Portland" in it, but for what its worth, this map seems to show it being closer to the centre of Beaverton than to the centre of Portland. But see also the following conversation from Talk:Sunset High School (Beaverton). -- Oliver P. 06:36, 13 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Begin moved text

Sunset High School is in fact in Portland, and has a Portland address, despite the fact that it is in the Beaverton School District. User:128.12.90.73

 * Thanks for the clarification, Jeff. Maximus Rex 08:45, 8 Feb 2004 (UTC)

End moved text

 * No, this is wrong. As explained under "Location", elsewhere on this page, a "Portland" street address does not mean a location is in Portland. And, in 1999, the Sunset High School property (which was never in Portland, was not in any city until 1999) was annexed by Beaverton. See other discussion for more detail. SJ Morg (talk) 11:17, 21 September 2010 (UTC)

links to the high school debate:
I see that the debate continues to rage as to whether high schools should get articles. there are precedents to delete them and precedents to redirect them. this issue needs to be re-opened. read onward:

 * Deletion policy/schools
 * Are high schools encyclopedic?

Kingturtle 02:29, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Votes for deletion
This page was recently nominated for deletion, and the consensus decision was to keep it. The deletion debate is archived here. ugen 64 20:11, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Does this mean all high schools are to be kept? Kingturtle 02:35, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * There is still no consensus on the general inclusion of schools. According to GRider's Schoolwatch, an average of one school per day is listed on VfD, with mixed outcomes.  *sigh*  —RaD Man (talk) 06:33, 27 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Number of high schools in Beaverton School District
The number of high schools in the BSD has changed from 7 to 8 as the International School of Beaverton has/will extend[ed] into the 9-12 grades, and is recognized as a high school by the BSD. Twigge 22:28, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

Notable Alumni
It seems prudent that this section include the date of graduation for each alumni on the list. Cloud 9 18:22, 12 May 2007 (UTC)


text:
Vincent of Beauvais

Vincent of Beauvais (Vincentius Bellovacensis or Burgundus; Vincent de Beauvais; c. 1184/1194 – c. 1264) was a Dominican friar at the Cistercian monastery of Royaumont Abbey, France. He is known mostly for his Speculum Maius (Great mirror), a major work of compilation that was widely read in the Middle Ages. Often retroactively described as an encyclopedia or as a florilegium, his text exists as a core example of brief compendiums produced in medieval Europe.

Biography
The exact dates of his birth and death are unknown, and not much detail has surfaced concerning his career. Conjectures place him first in the house of the Dominicans at Paris between 1215 and 1220, and later at the Dominican monastery founded by Louis IX of France at Beauvais in Picardy. It is more certain, however, that he held the post of "reader" at the monastery of Royaumont on the Oise, not far from Paris, also founded by Louis IX, between 1228 and 1235. Around the late 1230s, Vincent had begun working on the Great Mirror and in 1244 he had completed the first draft. The king read the books that Vincent compiled and supplied the funds for procuring copies of such authors as he required. Queen Margaret of Provence and her son-in-law, Theobald V of Champagne and Navarre, are also named among those who urged him to the composition of his "little works", especially De morali principis institutione. In the late 1240s, Vincent was working on his Opus which included On the Education of Noble Girls (De Eruditione Filiorum Nobilium). In this work he styles himself as "Vincentius Belvacensis, de ordine praedicatorum, qualiscumque lector in monasterio de Regali Monte". Though Vincent may have been summoned to Royaumont before 1240, there is no evidence that he lived there before the return of Louis IX and his wife from the Holy Land. It is possible that he left Royaumont in 1260, which is also the approximate year that he wrote Tractatus Consolatorius, which was occasioned by the death of the king's son Louis that year. Between the years 1260 and 1264 Vincent sent the first completed book of the Opus to Louis IX and Thibaut V. In 1264 he died.

Great Mirror (Speculum Maius)
What is known of Vincent and his historical importance largely depends on his compendium Speculum Maius or the Great Mirror. He worked on it for approximately 29 years (1235–1264) in the pursuit of presenting a compendium of all of the knowledge available at the time. He collected the materials for the work from Île-de-France libraries, and there is evidence to suggest even further than that. He found support for the creation of the Great Mirror from the Dominican order to which he belonged as well as King Louis IX of France. The metaphor of the title has been argued to "reflect" the microcosmic relations of Medieval knowledge. In this case, the book mirrors "both the contents and organization of the cosmos". Vincent himself stated that he chose "Speculum" for its name because his work contains "whatever is worthy of contemplation (speculatio), that is, admiration or imitation". It is by this name that the compendium is connected to the medieval genre of speculum literature.

Other works

 * Universal Work on the Royal Condition (Opus universale de statu principis) was described as a guideline to "provide instructions for the behaviors and duties of the prince, his family, and his court". It was to be a four-part treatise, although only the first, The moral instruction of a prince, and the fourth, The education of noble children, were completed.
 * The Moral Instruction of a Prince or On the Foundations of Royal Morals (De morali Principis institutione) (1260-1263), written for King Louis IX of France on the topic of kingship.
 * The Education of Noble Children (De eruditione filiorum nobilium) (1249). This pedagogical treatise has also been viewed as a sermon expanding on the biblical passage Ecclesiasticus 7:25-26: "You have sons? Train them and care for them from boyhood. You have daughters? Guard their bodies and do not show a joyful face to them." The majority of the text deals with the education of boys, with roughly one-fifth of the text devoted to the education of girls. The text is notable for being "the first medieval educational text to both systematically present a comprehensive method of instruction for lay children and to included a section devoted to girls."

 * Expositio in orationem dominicam (Exposition on the Lord’s Prayer)
 * Liber consolatorius ad Ludovicum regem de morte filii (Book to Console King Louis after the Death of His Son), (1260)
 * Liber de laudibus beatae Virginis (The Book Praising the Blessed Virgin)
 * Liber de laudibus Johannis Evangelistae (The Book Praising John the Evangelist)
 * Liber de sancta Trinitate or Tractatus de sancta trinitate (The Book of the Holy Trinity), (1259-1260)
 * Liber gratiae (The Book of Grace), (1259-1260)
 * Memoriale temporum (Chronicle of the Times)
 * Sermones manuals de tempore. (Johann Koelhoff d. Ä., Cologne c. 1482 digitized)
 * Tractatus de poenitentia (Treatise on Penance)
 * Tractatus in salutatione beatae Virginis Mariae ab angelo facta (Treastie on the Salutation to the Blessed Virgin Mary Made by the Angel)

There are manuscript copies and modern editions of De eruditione filiorum nobilium, De morali principis institutione, Liber consolatorius ad Ludovicum regem de morte filii. There are only manuscript copies of Liber de sancta Trinitate, Memoriale temporum, Tractatus de poenitentia, and Tractatus in salutatione beatae Virginis Mariae ab angelo facta.

Beyond the thirteen works that can be confidently accredited to Vincent, there is the possibility of a lost work named Tractatus de vitio detractionis (Treastise on the Sin of Omission) and the apocryphal fourth part to the Great Mirror, Speculum morale.

Along with Conradus of Altzheim, Henricus Suso, Ludolphus of Saxony, the authorship of Speculum Humanae Salvationis has been sometimes attributed to Vincent.

title: Vincent of Beauvais


text:
Office

An office is a space where the employees of an organization perform administrative work in order to support and realize the various goals of the organization. The word "office" may also denote a position within an organization with specific duties attached to it (see officer or official); the latter is an earlier usage, as "office" originally referred to the location of one's duty. In its adjective form, the term "office" may refer to business-related tasks. In law, a company or organization has offices in any place where it has an official presence, even if that presence consists of a storage silo, for example, instead of a more traditional establishment with a desk and chair. An office is also an architectural and design phenomenon, including small offices, such as a bench in the corner of a small business or a room in someone's home (see small office/home office), entire floors of buildings, and massive buildings dedicated entirely to one company. In modern terms, an office is usually the location where white-collar workers carry out their functions.

In classical antiquity, offices were often part of a palace complex or a large temple. In the High Middle Ages (1000–1300), the medieval chancery acted as a sort of office, serving as the space where records and laws were stored and copied. With the growth of large, complex organizations in the 18th century, the first purpose-built office spaces were constructed. As the Industrial Revolution intensified in the 18th and 19th centuries, the industries of banking, rail, insurance, retail, petroleum, and telegraphy grew dramatically, requiring many clerks. As a result, more office space was assigned to house their activities. The time-and-motion study, pioneered in manufacturing by F. W. Taylor (1856–1915), led to the "Modern Efficiency Desk" of 1915. Its flat top, with drawers below, was designed to allow managers an easy view of their workers. By the middle of the 20th century, it became apparent that an efficient office required additional control over privacy, and gradually the cubicle system evolved.

History
The word "office" stems from the Latin "officium" and its equivalents in various Romance languages. An officium was not necessarily a place, but often referred instead to human staff members of an organization, or even the abstract notion of a formal position like a magistrate. The elaborate Roman bureaucracy would not be equaled for centuries in the West after the fall of Rome, with areas partially reverting to illiteracy. Further east, the Byzantine Empire and varying Islamic caliphates preserved a more sophisticated administrative culture.

Offices in classical antiquity were often part of a palace complex or a large temple. There was often a room where scrolls were kept and scribes did their work. Ancient texts mentioning the work of scribes allude to the existence of such "offices". These rooms are sometimes called "libraries" by some archaeologists because of scrolls' association with literature. They were, however, closer to modern offices because the scrolls were meant for record-keeping and other management functions, not for poetry or works of fiction.

Middle Ages

The High Middle Ages (1000–1300) saw the rise of the medieval chancery, which was the place where most government letters were written and laws were copied within a kingdom. The rooms of the chancery often had walls full of pigeonholes, constructed to hold rolled-up pieces of parchment for safekeeping or ready reference. This kind of structure was a precursor to the modern bookshelf. The introduction of the printing press during the Renaissance did not impact the setup and function of these government offices significantly.

Medieval paintings and tapestries often show people in their private offices handling record-keeping books or writing on scrolls of parchment. Before the invention of the printing press and its wider distribution, there was often no clear cultural distinction between a private office and a private library; books were both read and written at the same desk or table, as were personal and professional accounts and letters.

During the 13th century, the English word "office" first began to appear when referring to a position involving specific professional duties (for example, "the office of the....") Geoffrey Chaucer appears to have first used the word in 1395 to mean a place where business is transacted in The Canterbury Tales.

As mercantilism became the dominant economic theory of the Renaissance, merchants tended to conduct their business in buildings that also sometimes housed people doing retail sales, warehousing, and clerical work. During the 15th century, the population density in many cities reached a point where merchants began to use stand-alone buildings to conduct their business. A distinction began to develop between religious, administrative/military, and commercial uses for buildings.

The emergence of the modern office
The first purpose-built office spaces were constructed in the 18th century to suit the needs of large and growing organizations such as the Royal Navy and the East India Company. The Old Admiralty (Ripley Building) was built in 1726 and was the first purpose-built office building in Great Britain. As well as offices, the building housed a board room and apartments for the Lords of the Admiralty. In the 1770s, many scattered offices for the Royal Navy were gathered into Somerset House, the first block purpose-built for office work.

The East India House was built in 1729 on Leadenhall Street as the headquarters from which the East India Company administered its Indian colonial possessions. The Company developed a very complex bureaucracy for the task, necessitating thousands of office employees to process the required paperwork. The Company recognized the benefits of centralized administration and required that all workers sign in and out at the central office each day.

As the Industrial Revolution intensified in the 18th and 19th centuries, the industries of banking, rail, insurance, retail, petroleum, and telegraphy dramatically grew in size and complexity. Increasingly large number of clerks were needed to handle order processing, accounting, and document filing, and these clerks needed to be housed in increasingly specialized spaces. Most of the desks of the era were top-heavy and had a cubicle-like appearance, with paper storage bins extending above the desk-work area, offering workers some degree of privacy.

The relatively high price of land in the central core of cities led to the first multi-story buildings, which were limited to about 10 stories until the use of iron and steel allowed for higher structures. The first purpose-built office block was the Brunswick Building, built in Liverpool in 1841. The invention of the safety elevator in 1852 by Elisha Otis enabled the rapid upward escalation of buildings. By the end of the 19th century, larger office buildings frequently contained large glass atriums to allow light into the complex and improve air circulation.

20th century

By 1906, Sears, Roebuck, and Co. had opened their headquarters operation in a 3000000 sqft building in Chicago, at the time the largest building in the world. The time and motion study, pioneered in manufacturing by F. W. Taylor and later applied to the office environment by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, led to the idea that managers needed to play an active role in directing the work of subordinates to increase the efficiency of the workplace. F.W. Taylor advocated the use of large, open floor plans and desks that faced supervisors. As a result, in 1915, the Equitable Life Insurance Company in New York City introduced the "Modern Efficiency Desk" with a flat top and drawers below, designed to allow managers an easy view of the workers. This led to a demand for large square footage per floor in buildings, and a return to the open spaces that were seen in pre-industrial revolution buildings.

However, by the midpoint of the 20th century, it became apparent that an efficient office required more privacy in order to combat tedium, increase productivity, and encourage creativity. In 1964, the Herman Miller (office equipment) company contracted Robert Propst, a prolific industrial designer. Propst came up with the concept of the Action Office, which later evolved into the cubicle office furniture system.

Offices in Japan have developed unique characteristics partly as a result of the country's unique business culture. Japanese offices tend to follow open plan layouts in an 'island-style' arrangement, which promotes teamwork and top-down management. They also use uchi-awase (informal meetings) and ringi-sho (consensus systems) to encourage input on policies from as many groups throughout the office as possible.

Office spaces
The main purpose of an office environment is to support its occupants in performing their jobs—preferably at minimum cost and with maximum satisfaction. Different people performing different tasks will require different office spaces, or spaces that can handle a variety of uses. To aid decision-making in workplace and office design, one can distinguish three different types of office spaces: workspaces, meeting spaces, and support spaces. For new or developing businesses, remote satellite offices and project rooms, or serviced offices, can provide a simple solution and provide all of the former types of space.

Workspaces
Workspaces in an office are typically used for conventional office activities such as reading, writing, and computer work. There are each supporting different activities.

Study booth: an enclosed workspace for one person; suitable for short-term activities that demand concentration or confidentiality.

Work lounge: a lounge-like workspace for two to six people; suitable for short-term activities that demand collaboration and/or allow impromptu interaction.

Touch down: an open workspace for one person; suitable for short-term activities that require little concentration and low interaction.

Meeting spaces
Meeting spaces in an office typically use interactive processes, be they quick conversations or intensive brainstorming. There are each supporting different activities.

Large meeting space: an open or semi-open meeting space for five to twelve people; suitable for short, informal interaction.

Brainstorm room: an enclosed meeting space for five to twelve people; suitable for brainstorming sessions and workshops.

Meeting point: an open meeting point for two to four people; suitable for ad hoc, informal meetings.

Support spaces
Support spaces in an office are typically used for secondary activities such as filing documents or taking breaks. There are each supporting different activities.

Games room: an enclosed support space where employees can play games, such as pool or darts.

Waiting area: an open or semi-open support space where visitors can be received and wait for their appointment.

Circulation space: support space which is required for circulation on office floors, linking all major functions.

Lactation rooms are also support spaces that are legally mandatory for companies in the United States, as of the 2010 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.

Office structure

There are many different ways of arranging the space in an office. Managerial styles and the culture of specific companies are important factors in how office space will ultimately be used. One example of diverging office layout philosophies concerns how many people will work within the same room. At one extreme, each individual worker might have their own room; at the other extreme, a large open plan office might see tens or hundreds of people working in the same room. Open-plan offices put multiple workers together in the same space, and some studies have shown that they can improve short-term productivity, i.e. within a single software project. At the same time, the loss of privacy and security can increase the incidence of theft and loss of company secrets. A type of compromise between open plan and individual rooms is provided by the cubicle desk, possibly made most famous by the Dilbert cartoon series, which solves visual privacy to some extent but often fails on acoustic separation and security. Most cubicles also require the occupant to sit with their back towards anyone who might be approaching. Workers in walled offices typically try to position their normal work seats and desks so that they can see someone entering, and if that goal is not feasible, some install tiny mirrors on things such as computer monitors.

According to research, open-plan offices are associated with increased stress, a rise in electronic communication, a 70% decrease in face-to-face interactions, a 25% uptick in negative moods, and up to a 20% drop in productivity due to distractions. In contrast, post-pandemic trends are favoring private "cell-office plans," which address health precautions and have been reported to enhance productivity by up to 22%.

Office buildings

While offices can be set up in almost any location and in almost any building, some modern requirements for offices make this more difficult. These requirements can be legal (such as sufficient light levels) or technical (such as requirements for computer networking). Other needs, such as security and layout flexibility, have prompted the creation of special buildings which are dedicated primarily for use as offices. An office building, also known as an office block or business center, is a form of commercial building which contains spaces mainly designed to be used for offices.

The primary purpose of an office building is to provide a workplace and working environment primarily for administrative and managerial workers. These workers usually occupy set areas within the office building, and usually are provided with desks, PCs and other equipment they may need within their areas.

An office building may be divided into sections for different companies, or it may be dedicated to one company. In either case, each company will typically have a reception area, one or several meeting rooms, singular or open-plan offices, and service rooms such as restrooms.

Many office buildings also have kitchen facilities and a staff room, where workers can have lunch or take a short break. Some office spaces are now also serviced office spaces, allowing for those occupying a space or building to share facilities.

Office and retail rental rates
Rental rates for office and retail space are typically quoted in terms of cost per floor-area–time, usually cost per floor-area per year or month. For example, the rate for a particular property may be $29 per square-foot per year ($29/sq. ft/yr) or $290 per square-meter per year ($290/m2/yr).

In many countries, rent is typically paid monthly, even if usually discussed in terms of years.

Examples:
 * A particular 2,000 sq. ft space is priced at $15/sq. ft/yr, ultimately costing (2,000 sq. ft) × ($15/sq. ft/yr) / (12 mo/yr) = $2500 per month
 * A particular 200 m2 space is priced at $150/m2/yr, ultimately costing (200 m2) × ($150/m2/yr) / (12 mo/yr) = $2500 per month

In a gross lease, the rate quoted is an all-inclusive rate. The renter pays a set amount of rent per time and the landlord is responsible for all other expenses, including payments for utilities, taxes, insurance, maintenance, and repairs.

The triple net lease is one in which the tenant is liable for a share of various expenses such as property taxes, insurance, maintenance, utilities, climate control, repairs, janitorial services and landscaping.

Office rents in the United States are still recovering from the high vacancy rates that occurred in the wake of the 2008 depression.

Grading
The Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) classifies office space into three categories: Class A, Class B, and Class C. According to BOMA, Class A office buildings have the "most prestigious buildings competing for premier office users with rents above average for the area." BOMA states that Class A facilities have "high-quality standard finishes, state of the art systems, exceptional accessibility and a definite market presence." BOMA describes Class B office buildings as those that compete "for a wide range of users with rents in the average range for the area." BOMA states that Class B buildings have "adequate systems" and finishes that "are fair to good for the area," but that the buildings do not compete at the same price rates as Class A buildings. According to BOMA, Class C buildings are aimed towards "tenants requiring functional space at rents below the average for the area." The lack of specifics allows considerable room for pushing the boundaries of these BOMA categories. Oftentimes, they are further modified by adding the plus or minus sign to create subclasses, such as Class A+ or Class B-.

title: Office


text:
Behind the Green Door

Behind the Green Door is a 1972 American pornographic film, widely considered one of the genre's "classic" pictures and one of the films that ushered in the Golden Age of Porn (1969–1984). Featuring Marilyn Chambers, who became a mainstream celebrity, it was one of the first hardcore films widely released in the United States and the feature-length directorial debut of the Mitchell brothers.

Behind the Green Door was adapted from an anonymous short story of the same title, which was circulated by means of numerous carbon copies. The story's title references the 1956 hit song "Green Door", whose lyrics describe being denied entry to a raucous nightclub with a green door. Though she plays the central character, Chambers does not have a single word of dialogue. The film is possibly the first feature-length American heterosexual hardcore feature to include an interracial sex scene.

Plot
The manager of a diner asks two of his regular customers to tell him a supposedly true story that they had previously mentioned to him, involving a "green door". The rest of the movie appears to be a dramatization of the story's events, although no off-screen narration is heard.

After arriving at a North Beach hotel for an apparent vacation, a wealthy San Francisco socialite, Gloria Saunders (Chambers), is taken against her will to an elite sex club and loved "as she's never been loved before". She engages in sexual activity with a group of six women, all dressed in black, after being brought out wearing a white dress on stage through the green door.

The silent, largely masked audience become increasingly aroused as her white dress is removed and she is stroked, kissed and receives cunnilingus by the women. Her first heterosexual sex is with the African-American boxer Johnnie Keyes, accompanied by a funk soundtrack. He gives her more cunnilingus, and then they have sexual intercourse, while Gloria continues to be stroked by the other women. When she has an orgasm, the sex stops, and he is not shown to ejaculate.

Gloria then mounts a trapeze contraption suspended from the ceiling and then engages in vaginal intercourse with one man as she performs oral sex on another and manual sex on two others. The audience become further aroused and begin having sex with each other in what becomes an orgy. In a psychedelic key sequence, an ejaculation is shown with semen flying through the air for almost seven minutes. The film features several multicolored, optically printed, slow-motion close-ups of money shots. This is the only ejaculation sequence in the film. The narrator then runs from the audience, onto the stage, and carries Gloria off, through the green door. The film ends with him and Gloria making love alone.

Impact
Several years after Andy Warhol seminal Blue Movie in 1969, and along with Deep Throat, also released in 1972, Behind the Green Door helped launch the "Golden Age of Porn" (1969–1984),  and somewhat later, the "porno chic" boom. Along with Deep Throat, it was one of the first hardcore porn film to reach a mass mixed-sex audience. Prior to Behind the Green Door, most of the Mitchell Brothers' 200 or so films had only been shown in their O'Farrell Theater. Made with a budget of $60,000, it achieved a nationwide theatrical release which earned more than $1 million. The movie ultimately grossed more than $50 million including its video release, which was controlled exclusively by the Mitchells out of their headquarters in the O'Farrell Theatre, San Francisco. It was one of the biggest box office pornographic successes of the 1970s, alongside Deep Throat and The Devil in Miss Jones. It was even screened at the Cannes Film Festival. After its release, organized crime figures used extortion in an attempt to obtain the rights to the film.

Chambers was relatively unknown at the time; however, the film made her a star. Immediately prior to the movie's release she had been the "Ivory soap girl", modeling for the Ivory Snow soap and detergent packaging holding a baby. The Mitchell brothers appropriated the brand's slogan "99 and 44/100% pure" to describe Chambers in press releases. After the release of the movie, the advertising industry was scandalized, and Procter & Gamble recalled all products and advertising materials featuring Chambers, unintentionally adding to the movie's hype. Procter & Gamble subsequently required of all of their advertising agencies that they thoroughly screen the background of any female model employed for print advertisements or commercials. That Chambers's image was so well known from Ivory Snow boosted the film's ticket sales, and led to several jokes on television talk shows.

Critical reception
Upon its release, the film received some positive reviews in mainstream media. Roger Ebert of The Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a negative review, writing that despite Chambers's beauty the film's lack of character development and the focus on "proving how dirty it was" were major detractions.

According to writer Peter Michelson, there is "a relatively small corpus of pornographic films – e.g., Deep Throat, The Devil in Miss Jones, and Behind the Green Door – that have a minimal but still sufficient artistic interest to distinguish themselves from the rest of the genre", and the film is "more artful than most smut films". It was the second film to be inducted into the XRCO Hall of Fame, following Deep Throat.

Legal troubles
The Supreme Court's 1973 Miller v. California decision adversely affected the mainstream release of porn films, including Behind the Green Door. The Miller decision redefined obscenity from that of “utterly without socially redeeming value” to that which lacks "serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value" and substituted contemporary community standards for national standards, as some prior tests required. Miller continued to hold that obscenity was not protected by the First Amendment, which gave leeway to local judges to seize and destroy prints of films adjudged to violate local community standards. When Behind the Green Door opened in Suffolk County, New York in 1973, it – along with the porn film The New Comers – was successfully prosecuted. In addition to New York, Behind the Green Door was banned in California, Colorado, and Georgia.

Later films
In 1986, the Mitchells made a sequel, Behind the Green Door: the Sequel, directed by cabaret singer Sharon McNight. The movie featured no famous performers, and starred Elisa Florez, billed as Missy Manners. (Florez was Artie Mitchell's girlfriend at the time, and she reportedly demanded the role from him.) It was one of the first "safe sex"-themed porn films, following the onset of the AIDS epidemic in the 1980s, with the performers using condoms and other protection. It was a critical and commercial disaster, and the Mitchells lost hundreds of thousands of dollars. The O'Farrell Theatre contains a "Green Door Room" which is named for the two movies and was the principal set of the sequel.

In 2012, adult film company Vivid Entertainment produced a loose remake titled New Behind the Green Door. This film stars Brooklyn Lee as the main character Hope, a wealthy young woman drawn into a seedy underworld while on an erotic journey to find her birth mother. The movie includes footage of the original Behind the Green Door, as Hope describes a sexual fantasy that recalls the plot of the 1972 film. Other cast members include Dana DeArmond, Penny Pax, Bailey Blue, Steven St. Croix, and James Deen, with appearances by original cast member Johnnie Keyes and Marilyn Chambers' daughter McKenna Taylor.

In popular culture

 * In the 1981 road-race comedy The Cannonball Run, the driver of the Japanese team (played by Jackie Chan) attempts to watch a VHS tape of Behind the Green Door on an in-dash monitor while driving on a rural highway. After several near-collisions due to his distracted driving, his partner in the back seat wakes up and forces him to shut it off.
 * The production of the movie is dramatized in the 2000 film Rated X, starring brothers Charlie Sheen and Emilio Estevez as Artie and Jim Mitchell.
 * Actor Idris Elba's choice to name his production company Green Door Productions (because "I like doors and green is my favorite color") was questioned because of the association of the phrase with this film. He was intrigued to learn that it was one of the first porn films to feature interracial sex, and that it featured a seven-minute ejaculation sequence, which only made him want the name more, so that he could say that he'd chosen the name "Because it took a long time to come."
 * In 2024, when promoting Ricky Stanicky, John Cena cited Behind the Green Door as his favorite guilty pleasure movie of all time.

title: Behind the Green Door


text:
Irish Georgian Society

The Irish Georgian Society is an architectural heritage and preservation organisation which promotes and aims to encourage an interest in the conservation of distinguished examples of architecture and the allied arts of all periods across Ireland, and records and publishes relevant material. The aims of this membership organisation are pursued by documenting, education, fundraising, grant issuance, planning process participation, lobbying, and member activities; in its first decades, it also conducted considerable hands-on restoration activities.

History
An earlier Georgian Society had been set up in part by John Pentland Mahaffy and functioned from 1908 to 1913; it had no direct connection with the current body although the society deems it to be its predecessor.

The initial catalyst for the establishment of the modern society was the demolition by the Irish government's Office of Public Works of Georgian houses at numbers 2 and 3 Kildare Place in central Dublin, ostensibly to provide rear access to Government Buildings. While the campaign to save the buildings was ultimately unsuccessful, it did help to highlight the plight of other notable buildings in decline and at risk and ignited the spark which motivated like-minded individuals to found the society. In an open letter to the Irish Times in 1957 Desmond Guinness lamented the lapsing of the older Georgian Society and asked whether anyone would object to him restarting it.

The modern society was hence founded in 1958 by Desmond Guinness and his wife Mariga and since that time, a number of buildings of architectural merit have been saved through their work and the work of members and supporters. Among the first structures restored by the society was Conolly's Folly in County Kildare, the image of which is used as the organisation's emblem.

After Desmond Guinness, the next president of the society was Desmond FitzGerald, Knight of Glin, who died in 2011, followed by Patrick Guinness. Other founding members included Percy Le Clerc, the inspector of Irish National Monuments.

In 2006 the Hon. Desmond Guinness was awarded a Europa Nostra prize for the society's preservation activities.

An illustrated book by Robert O'Byrne on the society's first 50 years was published in 2008.

Membership and funding
The society is a membership organisation of about 2,000 members whose purpose is to promote awareness and the protection of Ireland's architectural heritage and decorative arts. The society's work within ireland was managed by the Irish-registered Irish Georgian Society (IGS), registered as a charity in 1970.

In a major change, in 2008 a new entity called the Irish Georgian Foundation was given charge of the financial and charitable aspects, leaving the IGS as an unincorporated membership body. The boards of both were merged in 2013 for reasons of governance, and the IGF is now the operating legal entity, while the IGS name and logo are retained for emotive purposes, and IGS members support the work of the IGF but have no formal role in its governance or property ownership; they do have a limited role in choosing a nominal head.

There are headquarters in Dublin, and for the US branch, in Chicago.

The conservation efforts are funded by the members' participation in the society's events programme, fundraising at central and chapter level, by donations and bequests and by sales from the society's online book and gift shop. A large proportion of the society's income comes from supporters outside Ireland. In the US, the organisation has been registered as a charity since 1968 as the Irish Georgian Society Inc. In the UK, the organisation fundraises as the "Irish Georgian Trust".

Chapters
The society has semi-autonomous chapters in a number of locations, including Cork (founded 2003), Limerick (founded 1996), Birr (founded 1993, covering Ireland's midlands since 2015), London (founded 1971), and in Boston, New York and Palm Beach, Florida in the US.

Activities
The activities of the Irish Georgian Society have included the saving of threatened great buildings such as Castletown House, County Kildare; Damer House, County Tipperary; Doneraile Court, County Cork; Roundwood, County Laois; the Tailors' Hall, Dublin and 13 Henrietta Street, Dublin, and the restoration of mid-eighteenth-century panelled rooms at Ledwithstown, County Longford; these were led by the first president, Desmond Guinness, and in the early years, his wife also.

Guinness retired from leadership in 1990. Projects since then include the repair of the early nineteenth-century south tower roof at Barmeath Castle, County Louth; the restoration of the pavilion cupolas of Kilshannig, County Cork, built in the 1760s to the designs of the Italian architect Davis Ducart; and, in association with the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government, the World Monuments Fund and the Headfort Trust, the restoration of the superb Robert Adam decorative schemes at Headfort House, County Meath.

Another major project, which started in 2008, was the restoration of Dublin's 1760s City Assembly House in South William Street, the first purpose-built public exhibition gallery in Britain or Ireland. From 1809 it was the debating chamber of Dublin Corporation for nearly a century, and was the scene of many famous speeches by Daniel O'Connell.

The society has also compiled and makes available a list of craftworkers skilled in the maintenance of historic buildings.

The society also publishes a yearly journal Irish Architectural and Decorative Studies.

Events
The society runs a range of events, educational, exploratory, instructional (for example for property owners), some for members, some open.

title: Irish Georgian Society