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Wikipedia:How to archive Current Events

'''This does not apply to the current events portal, but it may apply to some of the other current events pages. For archiving the current events portal, see Portal:Current events/How to archive the portal.'''

At the beginning of every month, it is customary to archive the Current events and Current sports events pages by moving them to a suitably named month (for example, June 2004 or June 2004 in sports). This makes the original pages redirects, which can then be edited to record the new month's events. Moving the original pages ensures the page history is saved with the month, and provides a fresh history each month. It also keeps the log of older versions manageably small.

For example, to archive Current events or Current sports events on July 1 2004:

 * 1) Move the current page to June 2004 or June 2004 in sports as appropriate.
 * 2) Edit the moved page and copy its entire contents to the clipboard.
 * 3) Switch the order of the days from reverse chronological order, the style for Current events, to forward chronological order, the standard for monthly archives. Be sure to repeat this process for any subsections such as the list of deaths.
 * 4) Edit Current events or Current sports events (which is now a redirect).
 * 5) Remove the redirect, and paste in the copied text. Remove the content for June 2004 - you just want the "template" for the month.
 * 6) Update the page to reflect the new month, in this case July. Typically this means updating the calendar, starting a new list of deaths, and adding June to the "Past events by month" section.
 * 7) Create a redirect from July 2004 or July 2004 in sports to Current events or Current sports events as appropriate.
 * 8) Edit last month's article, June 2004 or June 2004 in sports, to reflect the fact that it's no longer current. This means replacing the time/date with a list of the months in the year, linking to the appropriate events/sports events articles in each case. Also, change category references to   or   as appropriate. (See the policy on category sorting.)

title: Wikipedia:How to archive Current Events


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Commonwealth of Britain Bill

The Commonwealth of Britain Bill was a bill first introduced in the House of Commons in 1991 by Tony Benn, then a Labour Member of Parliament (MP). It was seconded by the future Leader of the Labour Party, Jeremy Corbyn.

The Bill proposed abolishing the British monarchy, with the United Kingdom becoming a "democratic, federal and secular Commonwealth of Britain", or in effect a republic with a codified constitution. It was introduced by Benn a number of times until Benn's retirement in 2001, but never achieved a second reading. Under the Bill:

 * The monarchy would be abolished and the constitutional status of the Crown ended;
 * The Church of England would be disestablished;
 * The head of state would be a president, elected by a joint sitting of both Houses of the Commonwealth Parliament;
 * The functions of the royal prerogative would be transferred to Parliament;
 * The Privy Council would be abolished, and replaced by a Council of State;
 * The House of Lords would be replaced by an elected House of the People, with equal representation of men and women;
 * The House of Commons would similarly have equal representation of men and women;
 * England, Scotland and Wales would have their own devolved National Parliaments with responsibility for devolved matters as agreed;
 * County Court judges and magistrates would be elected; and
 * British jurisdiction over Northern Ireland would be ended.
 * The judiciary would be reformed and a National Legal Service would be created.
 * The Constitution would be codified and an amendment process established.
 * The voting age would be lowered from 18 to 16.
 * MPs and other officials would swear oaths to the Constitution, not the Crown.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Commonwealth of Britain Bill


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Marcus Schenkenberg

Marcus Lodewijk Schenkenberg van Mierop (born 4 August 1968) is a Swedish model.

Modeling
Schenkenberg is best known for his Calvin Klein advertisements. He has also modelled for Versace, Giorgio Armani, Donna Karan and Iceberg. In the past he has been signed to Storm Model Management in London, Wilhelmina Models, Success Models in Paris, Boss Models, and D' Management Group in Milan. His present, main agency is Kuhlmann Consulting Group in Germany, holding all licences, minor Ford Models and Soul Artist Management in New York.

Television
Marcus Schenkenberg has also appeared—mostly as himself—in many episodes of different international TV shows including the Pamela Anderson vehicle V.I.P. (2001), American soap opera As the World Turns, Stacked (2005), on VH1's fourth season of The Surreal Life or One Life to Live. In Italy these were The Corlucci Cald Show, La Grande Notte del Lunedì Sera, and Never Mind the Buzzcocks (2002) as well as La Talpa (2004), the Italian version of Celebrity Mole. Further he was guest host of an Italian soccer TV program and appeared on VH1's fourth season of The Surreal Life. Schenkenberg has guested in several German TV shows such as the Bambi (2003), Heidi Klum's Germany's Next Topmodel (2006 and 2023) and took part at Stefan Raab's Wok racing (2010).

Other work
In 1997, he published a book, Marcus Schenkenberg: New Rules, which featured numerous photos and personal notes and comments on his modeling career, as well as contributions from colleagues, family members and people in the fashion and modeling business.

In 1999, he was asked by a friend to record a song, which was meant for fun but was followed by a contract with EMI. "La Chica Marita" was produced by Tony Catania and was also released on the soundtrack of the movie Flawless with Robert De Niro. Schenkenberg described the work on the song and video as good experience, but he remained more interested in acting.

Personal life
Schenkenberg lives in New York and Los Angeles and also has an apartment in Stockholm. He is fluent in five languages: Swedish, English, Dutch, French and Italian and understands German.

During the early nineties he had relationships with the models Maureen Gallegher, Catherine Hardenborg and Rosemarie Wetzel. Schenkenberg dated various prominent women during the following years, including Mariah Carey, Nicky Hilton, Niki Köhler, Victoria Silvstedt and Jessica Simpson. His relationship with Pamela Anderson between 2000 and 2001 made him more well-known to the public aside from his modelling.

title: Marcus Schenkenberg


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User:Gandalf61/sandbox

=test=

$$a^b$$ $$a^b a^b$$ $$a^b = a^b$$ $$a^b \to a^b$$ $$a^b \rightarrow a^b$$ $$a^b c^d$$ $$a^b = c^d$$ $$a^b \to c^d$$ $$a^b \rightarrow c^d$$

=Mathematics good article nominations= My nominations:

Other recent mathematics GA nominations:

=van Eck's sequence= In recreational mathematics van Eck's sequence is an integer sequence that starts with a0=0. For n>=0, if there exists an m < n such that am = an, take the largest such m and set an+1 = n-m; otherwise an+1 = 0. Thus the first occurrence of an integer in the sequence is followed by a 0, and the second and subsequence occurrences are followed by the size of the gap between the most recent two occurrences.

The first few terms of the sequence are:

 * 0, 0, 1, 0, 2, 0, 2, 2, 1, 6, 0, 5, 0, 2, 6, 5, 4, 0, 5 ...

The sequence was named by Neil Sloane after Jan Ritsema van Eck, who contributed it to the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences in 2010.

Properties
It is know that the sequence contains infinitely many zeros and that it is unbounded.

It is conjectured, but not proved, that the sequence contains every positive integer, and that every pair of non-negative integers apart from (1,1) appears as consecutive terms in the sequence.

Penrose tiling: Construction by L-system
The rhombus (P3) Penrose tiling can be drawn using the following L-system:

Here 1 means "draw forward", + means "turn left by angle", and − means "turn right by angle" (see turtle graphics). The [ means save the present position and direction to restore them when corresponding ] is executed. The symbols 6, 7, 8 and 9 do not correspond to any action; they are there only to produce the correct curve evolution.

Georgy Fedoseevich Voronoy
Born: 28 April 1868 in Zhuravka, Poltava guberniya, Russia (now Ukraine) Died: 20 Nov 1908 in Warsaw, Poland

Georgy Voronoy studied at the gymnasium in Priluki graduating in 1885. He then entered the University of St Petersburg, joining the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics.

After graduating from St Petersburg in 1889, Voronoy decided to remain there and work for his teaching qualification. He was awarded a Master's Degree in 1894 for a dissertation on the algebraic integers associated with the roots of an irreducible cubic equation.

Voronoy lectured at Warsaw University, being appointed professor of pure mathematics there. He wrote his doctoral thesis on algorithms for continued fractions which he submitted to the University of St Petersburg. In fact both Voronoy's master's thesis and his doctoral thesis were of such high quality that they were awarded the Bunyakovsky prize by the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

Later Voronoy worked on the theory of numbers, in particular he worked on algebraic numbers and the geometry of numbers. He extended work by Zolotarev and his work was the starting point for Vinogradov's investigations. His methods were also used by Hardy and Littlewood.

In 1904 Voronoy attended the Third International Congress of Mathematicians at Heidelberg. There he met Minkowski and they discovered that they were each working on similar topics.

The concept of Voronoi diagrams first appeared in works of Descartes as early as 1644. Descartes used Voronoi-like diagrams to show the disposition of matter in the solar system and its environs.

The first man who studied the Voronoi diagram as a concept was a German mathematician G. L. Dirichlet. He studied the two- and three dimensional case and that is why this concept is also known as Dirichlet tessellation. However it is much better known as a Voronoi diagram because another German mathematician M. G. Voronoi in 1908 studied the concept and defined it for a more general n-dimensional case.

Very soon after it was defined by Voronoi it was developed independently in other areas like meteorology and crystalography. Thiessen developed it in meteorology in 1911 as an aid to computing more accurate estimates of regional rainfall averages. In the field of crystalography German researchers dominated and Niggli in 1927 introduced the term Wirkungsbereich (area of influence) as a reference to a Voronoi diagram.

http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/~kristof/research/notes/voronoi/voronoi.pdf

title: User:Gandalf61/sandbox


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Optimal control

Optimal control theory is a branch of control theory that deals with finding a control for a dynamical system over a period of time such that an objective function is optimized. It has numerous applications in science, engineering and operations research. For example, the dynamical system might be a spacecraft with controls corresponding to rocket thrusters, and the objective might be to reach the Moon with minimum fuel expenditure. Or the dynamical system could be a nation's economy, with the objective to minimize unemployment; the controls in this case could be fiscal and monetary policy. A dynamical system may also be introduced to embed operations research problems within the framework of optimal control theory.

Optimal control is an extension of the calculus of variations, and is a mathematical optimization method for deriving control policies. The method is largely due to the work of Lev Pontryagin and Richard Bellman in the 1950s, after contributions to calculus of variations by Edward J. McShane. Optimal control can be seen as a control strategy in control theory.

General method
Optimal control deals with the problem of finding a control law for a given system such that a certain optimality criterion is achieved. A control problem includes a cost functional that is a function of state and control variables. An optimal control is a set of differential equations describing the paths of the control variables that minimize the cost function. The optimal control can be derived using Pontryagin's maximum principle (a necessary condition also known as Pontryagin's minimum principle or simply Pontryagin's principle), or by solving the Hamilton–Jacobi–Bellman equation (a sufficient condition).

We begin with a simple example. Consider a car traveling in a straight line on a hilly road. The question is, how should the driver press the accelerator pedal in order to minimize the total traveling time? In this example, the term control law refers specifically to the way in which the driver presses the accelerator and shifts the gears. The system consists of both the car and the road, and the optimality criterion is the minimization of the total traveling time. Control problems usually include ancillary constraints. For example, the amount of available fuel might be limited, the accelerator pedal cannot be pushed through the floor of the car, speed limits, etc.

A proper cost function will be a mathematical expression giving the traveling time as a function of the speed, geometrical considerations, and initial conditions of the system. Constraints are often interchangeable with the cost function.

Another related optimal control problem may be to find the way to drive the car so as to minimize its fuel consumption, given that it must complete a given course in a time not exceeding some amount. Yet another related control problem may be to minimize the total monetary cost of completing the trip, given assumed monetary prices for time and fuel.

A more abstract framework goes as follows. Minimize the continuous-time cost functional $$J[\textbf{x}(\cdot), \textbf{u}(\cdot), t_0, t_f] := E\,[\textbf{x}(t_0),t_0,\textbf{x}(t_f),t_f] + \int_{t_0}^{t_f} F\,[\textbf{x}(t),\textbf{u}(t),t] \,\mathrm dt$$ subject to the first-order dynamic constraints (the state equation) $$ \dot{\textbf{x}}(t) = \textbf{f}\,[\,\textbf{x}(t), \textbf{u}(t), t],$$ the algebraic path constraints $$ \textbf{h}\,[\textbf{x}(t),\textbf{u}(t),t] \leq \textbf{0},$$ and the endpoint conditions $$\textbf{e}[\textbf{x}(t_0),t_0,\textbf{x}(t_f),t_f] = 0$$ where $$\textbf{x}(t)$$ is the state, $$\textbf{u}(t)$$ is the control, $$t$$ is the independent variable (generally speaking, time), $$t_0$$ is the initial time, and $$t_f$$ is the terminal time. The terms $$E$$ and $$F$$ are called the endpoint cost  and the running cost respectively. In the calculus of variations, $$E$$ and $$F$$ are referred to as the Mayer term and the Lagrangian, respectively. Furthermore, it is noted that the path constraints are in general inequality constraints and thus may not be active (i.e., equal to zero) at the optimal solution. It is also noted that the optimal control problem as stated above may have multiple solutions (i.e., the solution may not be unique). Thus, it is most often the case that any solution $$[\textbf{x}^*(t),\textbf{u}^*(t),t_0^*, t_f^*]$$ to the optimal control problem is locally minimizing.

Linear quadratic control
A special case of the general nonlinear optimal control problem given in the previous section is the linear quadratic (LQ) optimal control problem. The LQ problem is stated as follows. Minimize the quadratic continuous-time cost functional $$J=\tfrac{1}{2} \mathbf{x}^{\mathsf{T}}(t_f)\mathbf{S}_f\mathbf{x}(t_f) + \tfrac{1}{2} \int_{t_0}^{t_f} [\,\mathbf{x}^{\mathsf{T}}(t)\mathbf{Q}(t)\mathbf{x}(t) + \mathbf{u}^{\mathsf{T}}(t)\mathbf{R}(t) \mathbf{u}(t)]\, \mathrm dt$$

Subject to the linear first-order dynamic constraints $$\dot{\mathbf{x}}(t)= \mathbf{A}(t) \mathbf{x}(t) + \mathbf{B}(t) \mathbf{u}(t), $$ and the initial condition $$ \mathbf{x}(t_0) = \mathbf{x}_0$$

A particular form of the LQ problem that arises in many control system problems is that of the linear quadratic regulator (LQR) where all of the matrices (i.e., $$\mathbf{A}$$, $$\mathbf{B}$$, $$\mathbf{Q}$$, and $$\mathbf{R}$$) are constant, the initial time is arbitrarily set to zero, and the terminal time is taken in the limit $$t_f\rightarrow\infty$$ (this last assumption is what is known as infinite horizon). The LQR problem is stated as follows. Minimize the infinite horizon quadratic continuous-time cost functional $$J= \tfrac{1}{2} \int_{0}^{\infty}[\mathbf{x}^{\mathsf{T}}(t)\mathbf{Q}\mathbf{x}(t) + \mathbf{u}^{\mathsf{T}}(t)\mathbf{R}\mathbf{u}(t)]\, \mathrm dt$$

Subject to the linear time-invariant first-order dynamic constraints $$\dot{\mathbf{x}}(t) = \mathbf{A} \mathbf{x}(t) + \mathbf{B} \mathbf{u}(t), $$ and the initial condition $$ \mathbf{x}(t_0) = \mathbf{x}_0$$

In the finite-horizon case the matrices are restricted in that $$\mathbf{Q}$$ and $$\mathbf{R}$$ are positive semi-definite and positive definite, respectively. In the infinite-horizon case, however, the matrices $$\mathbf{Q}$$ and $$\mathbf{R}$$ are not only positive-semidefinite and positive-definite, respectively, but are also constant. These additional restrictions on $$\mathbf{Q}$$ and $$\mathbf{R}$$ in the infinite-horizon case are enforced to ensure that the cost functional remains positive. Furthermore, in order to ensure that the cost function is bounded, the additional restriction is imposed that the pair $$(\mathbf{A},\mathbf{B})$$ is controllable. Note that the LQ or LQR cost functional can be thought of physically as attempting to minimize the control energy (measured as a quadratic form).

The infinite horizon problem (i.e., LQR) may seem overly restrictive and essentially useless because it assumes that the operator is driving the system to zero-state and hence driving the output of the system to zero. This is indeed correct. However the problem of driving the output to a desired nonzero level can be solved after the zero output one is. In fact, it can be proved that this secondary LQR problem can be solved in a very straightforward manner. It has been shown in classical optimal control theory that the LQ (or LQR) optimal control has the feedback form $$\mathbf{u}(t) = -\mathbf{K}(t)\mathbf{x}(t)$$ where $$\mathbf{K}(t)$$ is a properly dimensioned matrix, given as $$\mathbf{K}(t) = \mathbf{R}^{-1}\mathbf{B}^{\mathsf{T}}\mathbf{S}(t),$$ and $$\mathbf{S}(t)$$ is the solution of the differential Riccati equation. The differential Riccati equation is given as $$\dot{\mathbf{S}}(t) = -\mathbf{S}(t)\mathbf{A}-\mathbf{A}^{\mathsf{T}} \mathbf{S}(t) +\mathbf{S}(t)\mathbf{B}\mathbf{R}^{-1}\mathbf{B}^{\mathsf{T}}\mathbf{S}(t) - \mathbf{Q}$$

For the finite horizon LQ problem, the Riccati equation is integrated backward in time using the terminal boundary condition $$\mathbf{S}(t_f) = \mathbf{S}_f$$

For the infinite horizon LQR problem, the differential Riccati equation is replaced with the algebraic Riccati equation (ARE) given as $$\mathbf{0} = -\mathbf{S}\mathbf{A}-\mathbf{A}^{\mathsf{T}}\mathbf{S}+\mathbf{S}\mathbf{B}\mathbf{R}^{-1}\mathbf{B}^{\mathsf{T}}\mathbf{S}-\mathbf{Q}$$

Understanding that the ARE arises from infinite horizon problem, the matrices $$\mathbf{A}$$, $$\mathbf{B}$$, $$\mathbf{Q}$$, and $$\mathbf{R}$$ are all constant. It is noted that there are in general multiple solutions to the algebraic Riccati equation and the positive definite (or positive semi-definite) solution is the one that is used to compute the feedback gain. The LQ (LQR) problem was elegantly solved by Rudolf E. Kálmán.

Numerical methods for optimal control
Optimal control problems are generally nonlinear and therefore, generally do not have analytic solutions (e.g., like the linear-quadratic optimal control problem). As a result, it is necessary to employ numerical methods to solve optimal control problems. In the early years of optimal control (c. 1950s to 1980s) the favored approach for solving optimal control problems was that of indirect methods. In an indirect method, the calculus of variations is employed to obtain the first-order optimality conditions. These conditions result in a two-point (or, in the case of a complex problem, a multi-point) boundary-value problem. This boundary-value problem actually has a special structure because it arises from taking the derivative of a Hamiltonian. Thus, the resulting dynamical system is a Hamiltonian system of the form $$\begin{align} \dot{\textbf{x}} & = \frac{\partial H}{\partial\boldsymbol{\lambda}} \\[1.2ex] \dot{\boldsymbol{\lambda}} & = -\frac{\partial H}{\partial\textbf{x}} \end{align}$$ where $$H= F +\boldsymbol{\lambda}^{\mathsf{T}}\textbf{f}- \boldsymbol{\mu}^{\mathsf{T}}\textbf{h}$$ is the augmented Hamiltonian and in an indirect method, the boundary-value problem is solved (using the appropriate boundary or transversality conditions). The beauty of using an indirect method is that the state and adjoint (i.e., $$\boldsymbol{\lambda}$$) are solved for and the resulting solution is readily verified to be an extremal trajectory. The disadvantage of indirect methods is that the boundary-value problem is often extremely difficult to solve (particularly for problems that span large time intervals or problems with interior point constraints). A well-known software program that implements indirect methods is BNDSCO.

The approach that has risen to prominence in numerical optimal control since the 1980s is that of so-called direct methods. In a direct method, the state or the control, or both, are approximated using an appropriate function approximation (e.g., polynomial approximation or piecewise constant parameterization). Simultaneously, the cost functional is approximated as a cost function. Then, the coefficients of the function approximations are treated as optimization variables and the problem is "transcribed" to a nonlinear optimization problem of the form:

Minimize $$ F(\mathbf{z})$$ subject to the algebraic constraints $$ \begin{align} \mathbf{g}(\mathbf{z}) & = \mathbf{0} \\ \mathbf{h}(\mathbf{z}) & \leq \mathbf{0} \end{align} $$

Depending upon the type of direct method employed, the size of the nonlinear optimization problem can be quite small (e.g., as in a direct shooting or quasilinearization method), moderate (e.g. pseudospectral optimal control ) or may be quite large (e.g., a direct collocation method ). In the latter case (i.e., a collocation method), the nonlinear optimization problem may be literally thousands to tens of thousands of variables and constraints. Given the size of many NLPs arising from a direct method, it may appear somewhat counter-intuitive that solving the nonlinear optimization problem is easier than solving the boundary-value problem. It is, however, the fact that the NLP is easier to solve than the boundary-value problem. The reason for the relative ease of computation, particularly of a direct collocation method, is that the NLP is sparse and many well-known software programs exist (e.g., SNOPT ) to solve large sparse NLPs. As a result, the range of problems that can be solved via direct methods (particularly direct collocation methods which are very popular these days) is significantly larger than the range of problems that can be solved via indirect methods. In fact, direct methods have become so popular these days that many people have written elaborate software programs that employ these methods. In particular, many such programs include DIRCOL, SOCS, OTIS, GESOP/ASTOS, DITAN. and PyGMO/PyKEP. In recent years, due to the advent of the MATLAB programming language, optimal control software in MATLAB has become more common. Examples of academically developed MATLAB software tools implementing direct methods include RIOTS, DIDO, DIRECT, FALCON.m, and GPOPS, while an example of an industry developed MATLAB tool is PROPT. These software tools have increased significantly the opportunity for people to explore complex optimal control problems both for academic research and industrial problems. Finally, it is noted that general-purpose MATLAB optimization environments such as TOMLAB have made coding complex optimal control problems significantly easier than was previously possible in languages such as C and FORTRAN.

Discrete-time optimal control
The examples thus far have shown continuous time systems and control solutions. In fact, as optimal control solutions are now often implemented digitally, contemporary control theory is now primarily concerned with discrete time systems and solutions. The Theory of Consistent Approximations provides conditions under which solutions to a series of increasingly accurate discretized optimal control problem converge to the solution of the original, continuous-time problem. Not all discretization methods have this property, even seemingly obvious ones. For instance, using a variable step-size routine to integrate the problem's dynamic equations may generate a gradient which does not converge to zero (or point in the right direction) as the solution is approached. The direct method RIOTS is based on the Theory of Consistent Approximation.

Examples
A common solution strategy in many optimal control problems is to solve for the costate (sometimes called the shadow price) $$\lambda(t)$$. The costate summarizes in one number the marginal value of expanding or contracting the state variable next turn. The marginal value is not only the gains accruing to it next turn but associated with the duration of the program. It is nice when $$\lambda(t)$$ can be solved analytically, but usually, the most one can do is describe it sufficiently well that the intuition can grasp the character of the solution and an equation solver can solve numerically for the values.

Having obtained $$\lambda(t)$$, the turn-t optimal value for the control can usually be solved as a differential equation conditional on knowledge of $$\lambda(t)$$. Again it is infrequent, especially in continuous-time problems, that one obtains the value of the control or the state explicitly. Usually, the strategy is to solve for thresholds and regions that characterize the optimal control and use a numerical solver to isolate the actual choice values in time.

Finite time
Consider the problem of a mine owner who must decide at what rate to extract ore from their mine. They own rights to the ore from date $$0$$ to date $$T$$. At date $$0$$ there is $$x_0$$ ore in the ground, and the time-dependent amount of ore $$x(t)$$ left in the ground declines at the rate of $$u(t)$$ that the mine owner extracts it. The mine owner extracts ore at cost $$u(t)^2/x(t)$$ (the cost of extraction increasing with the square of the extraction speed and the inverse of the amount of ore left) and sells ore at a constant price $$p$$. Any ore left in the ground at time $$T$$ cannot be sold and has no value (there is no "scrap value"). The owner chooses the rate of extraction varying with time $$u(t)$$ to maximize profits over the period of ownership with no time discounting.

title: Optimal control


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Foundation degree

A foundation degree is a combined academic and vocational qualification in higher education in the United Kingdom, equivalent to two-thirds of an honours bachelor's degree. Foundation degrees were introduced by the Department for Education and Employment in 2000. They are available in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, and offered by universities, colleges with their own foundation degree awarding powers, and colleges and employers running courses validated by universities.

Foundation degrees must include a pathway for graduates to progress to an honours degree. This may be via joining the final year of a standard three-year course or through a dedicated 'top-up' course. Students can also transfer to other institutions to take a top-up course or the final year of an honours course. It may also be possible for students to join the second year of an honours course in a different but related subject.

History
The need for intermediate higher education qualifications that combined vocational and academic elements was recognised in the Choosing to Change report in 1994 and by the Dearing Report in 1997, while the 1999 Delivering Skills for All report recommended the establishment of two-year vocational associate degrees. They were trialled in 2000, at which point the government expected 80% of the future expansion in higher education to come from foundation degrees. Foundation degrees were formally launched in 2001 and the first students enrolled at the start of the 2001/2 academic year.

Foundation degrees expanded initially, particularly taking market share from other sub-degree qualifications such as Higher National Diplomas, but overall enrollments have declined since 2009. Although the number of students studying foundation degrees at colleges has continued to increase, this has not been sufficient to offset the fall in university courses. This has been blamed on a number of factors such as the introduction, in 2009, of student number controls. This limited the number of students that universities could recruit in a year, rather than the total number on courses. The Foundation Degree Forward quango, which had been set up to promote foundation degrees, closed in 2011.

Status
Foundation degrees are not general degrees but are focused on specific professions. There are no generally-set entry conditions: commercial or industrial experience may be more important in gaining a place than formal qualifications, and experience is always taken into account. They are intended to give comprehensive knowledge in a subject to enable the holder to go on to employment or further study in that field. They are normally offered by universities and further education colleges working in partnership. They are also offered by some companies (in partnership with an awarding body) as training for employees, e.g. McDonald's in partnership with Manchester Metropolitan University.

Foundation degrees are at Level 5 in the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications, below bachelor's degrees at level 6. Courses are typically two years full-time study or longer part-time, and it is often possible to 'top up' to a bachelor's degree with a further year of study. They are at the same level as the older Higher National Diploma (HND) and Diploma of Higher Education (DipHE); however, they have a different emphasis and can only be awarded by institutions that have received research, taught or foundation degree awarding powers from the Privy Council.

According to figures from the Higher Education Statistics Agency, over half of foundation degree graduates are in further study six months after graduating, many presumably 'topping up' to a bachelor's degree, and more than 60% are in employment (there is an overlap of slightly over 20% who are both working and studying). Less than 2.5% of foundation degree holders are unemployed six months after graduating.

Further education colleges who wish to award their own foundation degrees must apply to the Office for Students for degree awarding powers.

title: Foundation degree


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Schenkenberg, Brandenburg

Schenkenberg is a municipality in the Uckermark district, in Brandenburg, Germany.

title: Schenkenberg, Brandenburg


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User:Bryce Jasmer

Bryce Jasmer, (b 1968, Springfield, Oregon)

title: User:Bryce Jasmer


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Australian Republic Movement

The Australian Republic Movement (ARM) is a non-partisan organisation campaigning for Australia to become a republic. The ARM and its supporters have promoted various models including a parliamentary republic.

ARM has branches active in all states and territories.

Foundation
The ARM was founded on 7 July 1991 and was originally known as the Australian Republican Movement. Its first chairman was novelist Thomas Keneally, with other founding members including lawyer Malcolm Turnbull (later Prime Minister), former Australian cricket captain Ian Chappell, film director Fred Schepisi, and author, journalist, and radio and television presenter Peter FitzSimons. It was formerly headed by Australian retired soccer player and human rights activist, Craig Foster, with Nova Peris. It is currently headed by arts and cultural leader Esther Anatolitis and management consultant Nathan Hansford.

1999 referendum
The Australian republic referendum, held on 6 November 1999, was a two-question referendum to amend the Constitution of Australia. For some years opinion polls had suggested that a majority of the electorate favoured a republic. Nonetheless, the republic referendum was narrowly defeated due to a range of factors, including a lack of bi-partisanship and division among republicans on the method proposed for selection of the president.

Policy
The ARM is undertaking a national consultation to seek the views of Australians about the substance of the constitutional reforms needed for Australia to have its constitutional independence from the British Monarchy. Once completed, the consultation will inform the ARM's decision about which model it should advocate to be taken forward to a referendum.

A referendum would give voters the choice between retaining the British Monarchy as the head of Australia, and Australia having its constitutional independence.

Australian Choice Model
The ARM announced their proposed model for a republic on 13 January 2022, the Australian Choice Model. The model would entail a process where the State and Territory Parliaments each nominate one candidate to be the Head of State, and the Federal Parliament nominates up to three candidates. The list of these candidates would then be put to a vote where the public would elect their preferred candidate and would serve for a five-year term. A majority of ARM members voted to support the policy, however the policy announcement raised concerns and criticisms from the Australian Monarchist League, as well as other republicans, including former Prime Minister Paul Keating and former New South Wales Premier Bob Carr. Critics such as Carr claim that a head of state who is elected by the public could cause conflict with a Prime Minister and Parliament. Past ARM Chair Peter FitzSimons dismissed these criticisms, claiming that a head of state's powers would be limited and would be unable to dismiss a Prime Minister.

Arguments
The ARM argues that Australia should replace the monarchy with an Australian as president and head of state. It contends that “the benefits of this system are a head of state that can exclusively represent Australian interests, a system that better aligns with democratic institutions, a fully independent constitution and a head of state that can represent Australian values.”

Notable supporters

 * Peter FitzSimons
 * Joe Hockey
 * Alan Joyce
 * Ted Smout
 * Malcolm Turnbull
 * Rupert Murdoch

title: Australian Republic Movement


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Talk:Parthenocarpy

Pollinator: parthenocarpic is an adjective. I think this article should be moved to parthenocarpy, the noun (as your definition more or less indicates). Any objections? - Marshman 17:34, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Sounds good to me. Pollinator 20:09, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Should watermelons be added to the list? Or are the commercial "seedless watermelons" not technically parthenocarpic ?

The following sentence needs a reference or some examples: "Plants moved from one area of the world to another may not always be accompanied by their pollinating partner and the lack of pollinators has spurred human cultivation of parthenocarpic varieties." A lot of parthenocarpic cultivars require no pollination to start with so the statement may not be accurate. Plantguy 22:16, 19 July 2006 (UTC)

I have found a ref that show how Auxin and Glibberin can induce parthenocarpy. But it doesnt said that it is commercialy used. It's a laboratory technique. It was used long time ago but nowdays it's not commercialy used.--Basile gp (talk) 17:27, 16 September 2014 (UTC) Autors : Juan C. Serrani, Mariano Fos, Alejandro Atarés, José L. García-Martínez, Title : Effect of Gibberellin and Auxin on Parthenocarpic Fruit Growth Induction in the cv Micro-Tom of Tomato. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, September 2007, Volume 26, Issue 3, pp 211-221 Url : http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00344-007-9014-7

Parthenocarpy in Cannabis
See https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343988256_'Cannabis'_ontologies_I_Conceptual_issues_with_Cannabis_and_cannabinoids_terminology. Jojalozzo (talk) 23:04, 1 June 2021 (UTC)

strange (incomplete?) sentence
in 'Commercial importance', at the end of the first paragraph: "It has been suggested that Cannabis could explain the difference in the plant's yields in active compounds.[5]" is a quite unclear sentence - seems like parts are missing? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2A02:3033:D:4604:1:2:C5A0:1CFD (talk) 18:46, 7 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Parthenocarpy


text:
Talk:Constructive proof

Untitled
Alan Kay and other computer scientists use the term "Existence Proof" to mean proof by example, e.g. demonstrating a red car is proof that some cars are red. I think this article should add this second connotation. --Mcandre

It seems to me that this, existence theorem and nonconstructive proof all cover the same ground. It would be better to merge all three, I think, and get one substantive article.

Charles Matthews 17:37, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

A good section on Boyer-Moore theory and the Boyer-Moore theorem prover would help here. There's a whole area of sucessful constructive mathematics that needs to be covered.

One big problem with constructive proofs is that they tend to require case analysis and become bulky. With machine assistance, this is less of a problem.

John Nagle 13:37, 21 Feb 2006 (PST)

Why is the proof based on uncountability nonconstructive?
The statement that the set of algebraic numbers is countable is equivalent to the statement that there exists an algorithm that enumerates them all with increasing precision, i.e. it outputs the decimal approximation of each consecutive number with precision growing by 1 in each turn. We can now use diagonalization to construct a decimal expansion of a real number where each digit is different from the respective digit of the respective algebraic number in the enumerating sequence. This procedure produces a transitive number and it is well-defined: it can produce any digit of the decimal expansion upon request. That allows us to compare the number to any rational number and to create a Dedekind section out of it. What is nonconstructive here?

 * Well, sure, but that's a diagonal argument, and it is not the same as the proof based on uncountability. As the article says:
 * We may distinguish three different problems. The first is that of proving the existence of transcendental numbers (without necessarily providing a specimen). The second is that of giving an example of a transcendental number by a construction specially designed for the purpose. The third, which is much more difficult, is that of proving that some number given independently ... is transcendental.
 * So "algebraics are countable, reals are uncountable, therefore transcendentals exist" is a (non-constructive) solution to the first, your proof is a solution to the second (we could include it in the article as such), and a proof that pi is transcendental is a solution to the third. On the other hand, perhaps we should just find a better example. 192.75.48.150 15:12, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

The anon has a good point here. While you might argue that the countability proof is nonconstructive as it stands, if it can trivially be made constructive, then there is not much to its nonconstructivity.

Indeed, constructive treatments of analysis (like that by Errett Bishop) will prove (constructively) that the set of real numbers is uncountable in a strong sense: that given any countable set A of real numbers, there exists a real number which is distinct from every element of A; this is what Cantor's diagonal argument naturally shows. In that case, once you've proved the countability of the algebraic numbers (which has no surprises), then it's obvious that a transcendental number exists.

To be sure, you could sabotage Cantor's proof of the uncountability of the reals to produce a weaker result: the mere fact that the set of real numbers cannot be countable. In that case, the proof that there exists a transcendental number is not constructive; it only proves that there can't not be a transcendental number. But to a constructivist, this interpretation is perverse; the word "uncountable" naturally takes the stronger meaning.

This sort of example is commonly used by nonconstructive mathematicians that (in my opinion) don't really understand costructivism (and so can't appreciate the finer points of the nonconstructivity of proofs). Constructive mathematicians themselves often use the example in Nonconstructive proof, a proof that the irrational numbers aren't closed under exponentiation. But that example is less satisfying (especially since even the example in the nonconstructive proof can easily be decided: (√2)√2 is irrational by the Gelfond–Schneider theorem).

—Toby Bartels (talk) 02:13, 19 November 2007 (UTC)

Non Constructive Proofs
The article should be rewritten completely because the approach used in this article is academic. The concept of non-constructive proof is different from constructive proof and it (non constructive proof) should have a separate article. arsalan... (talk) 19:20, 22 December 2009 (UTC)
 * I completely agree Habiliscus (talk) 18:21, 4 May 2024 (UTC)
 * I disagree, unless if there is an evidence that a non-constructive proof is not the same as a proof thatis not constructive. D.Lazard (talk) 19:38, 4 May 2024 (UTC)

Consistent with
I don't understand the sentence "Since intuitionistic logic is consistent with classical logic, it is impossible to disprove non-constructive statements that are classically valid." What does it mean for for some logic to be 'consistent with' another? I have only heard consistency used with respect to a particular logic. I.e. in a consistent logic you cannot derive a contradiction (e.g. 0 = 1). Should it instead say that adding a classical principe (say excluded middle) is a 'conservative extension' of intuitionistic logic? Meaning that by adding excluded middle we would only get a system in which all classical theorems hold but nothing more, i.e. we don't end up with something inconsistent. Please correct me if I am wrong. 88.196.63.146 (talk) 18:05, 9 July 2010 (UTC)

 * We say that a theory S extending a theory T is a conservative extension of T if everything that is in the language of T and provable in S is already provable in T. So classical logic is not a conservative extension of intuitionistic logic.

 * However, there are problems with the wording of that section. Some constructive systems do assume principles that are false in classical mathematics. For example, these systems may assume that every function from ω to ω is computable, or assume every function from R to R is continuous. Not every constructive system assumes such things; some constructive systems are consistent with classical mathematics.

 * In any case, I reworded the section to avoid this issue and avoid the "consistent with" terminology. — Carl (CBM · talk) 19:58, 9 July 2010 (UTC)

Is Gelfond constructive?
The page states that "It turns out that $$\sqrt{2}^{\sqrt2}$$ is irrational because of the Gelfond–Schneider theorem, but this fact is irrelevant to the correctness of the non-constructive proof". Does anyone know whether the theorem is valid in a constructive framework? Tkuvho (talk) 15:06, 27 February 2012 (UTC)

Brouwerian weak counterexamples
I just changed in section Constructive proof the sentence "Such counterexamples do not disprove a statement, however; they only show that, at present, the statement has no constructive proof" into "... at present, no constructive proof of the statement is known". On second thought, I don't understand either version of the sentence: A mathematical proof cannot yield a result about the current state of knowledge of the human scientific community, can it?

In the Goldbach example, it could be possible that the thinking along the lines of defining f etc. just leads to the proof (or disproof) of Goldbach's conjecture. So the sentence "Because no such proof [of Goldbach's conjecture] is known, the quoted statement [about f] must also not have a known constructive proof" is wrong imho; instead, a constructive proof of the quoted statement about f could well be found and, in turn, would lead to a proof of Goldbach's conjecture.

(Of cource, I don't expect a Goldbach proof to be found this simplistic way; this is just a thought experiment.) I wonder what Brouwer and/or Troelstra originally said about this, but I can't get access to Troelstra's book and don't even have a reference for Brouwer (the article should provide one). The SEP page externally linked seems to suggest that Brouwer considered mathematical truth to be changing in time (and from person to person), according to current knowledge, but doesn't elaborate on that. - Jochen Burghardt (talk) 11:50, 12 October 2013 (UTC)

 * Yeah, this article could be clearer. I may fix it myself, but don't hold your breath. Briefly:
 * Of course such things are templates, if one problem is solved one simply substitutes the next unsolved problem.
 * I'm sure Brouwer had this template in mind. Although he predates Church's thesis and the terms "co-c.e." or "Pi_1", he knew (and the article misses this point) that there is an effective procedure which terminates if and only if Goldbach's conjecture is false. (I seem to remember also "999999999 does not appear in the decimal expansion of pi", also Pi_1.)
 * As for mathematical truth changing in time and all that, Brouwer and others take that view. But it is not necessary for constructivism. If you assume Church's thesis (constructive mathematics), and substitute the halting problem for Goldbach's conjecture, then you've actually disproved the law of the excluded middle. Church's Thesis is a (Pi_2) conservative extension of arithmetic, and even of set theory (while the law of the excluded middle is conservative over arithmetic but not over set theory).
 * --74.216.224.3 (talk) 16:11, 9 February 2015 (UTC)

Mistake in section Examples/Non-constructive proofs ?
I think the part 'all of its prime factors are greater than n' should instead be 'some of its prime factors are greater than n'. Am I mistaken? Notrium (talk) 20:54, 11 April 2015 (UTC)
 * The statement holds as written. However, I fail to see why this proof is inconstructive, given that you can take the smallest factor as before.  Yecril (talk) 21:48, 26 April 2015 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 01:55, 5 May 2016 (UTC)

Definition by cases
Right now, the article says: "Define a function f of a natural number x as follows:
 * $$f(x) = \begin{cases} 0 & \mbox{if Goldbach's conjecture is false} \\ 1 & \mbox{if Goldbach's conjecture is true}\end{cases}$$

Although this is a definition by cases, it is still an admissible definition in constructive mathematics."

Is it? I think usually this sort of example is given by something like f(n)=0 if 2n is the sum of two primes or n is 0 or 1 and f(n)=1 otherwise. This second definition by cases uses a decidable criterion and so demonstrably yields a computable function. If definitions by cases are generally allowed to take the form the article suggests, however, that would seem to imply the existence of noncomputable functions (at least if there are no restrictions on what sorts of cases we can use), which at least some constructive theories outright deny.

I suppose we could, in a constructive theory, postulate the existence of a function such that f(x)=0 for all x if Golbach's conjecture is false and f(x)=1 for all x if it is true and reason about such a function's properties, but it's not even obvious to me that most constructive theories would be able to prove that two such functions are equal (without either proving or disproving Goldbach's conjecture)107.77.211.108 (talk) 19:52, 4 January 2017 (UTC)

 * That example was indeed unclear - thank you for pointing it out. Although something was defined, it would not be possible to prove constructively that f was even a function. I changed the example to a more classical one involving the limit of a Cauchy sequence, with a reference to the SEP. — Carl (CBM · talk) 21:15, 4 January 2017 (UTC)

 * I'm glad to have helped. I also edited your definition to include the condition that the counterexample is even in the second case, which I believe is necessary unless I'm having a really bad day for thinking clearly. 107.77.212.225 (talk) 18:17, 6 January 2017 (UTC)

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Unrelated sentences
"Some non-constructive proofs show that if a certain proposition is false, a contradiction ensues; consequently the proposition must be true (proof by contradiction). However, the principle of explosion (ex falso quodlibet) has been accepted in some varieties of constructive mathematics, including intuitionism."

These two statements are not related to each other. This appears to be an act of vandalism or a mistaken edit, removing some important context relating the two sentences. Comiscuous (talk) 01:31, 11 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Constructive proof


text:
Postgraduate training in education

Postgraduate training in education may refer to:

 * Postgraduate Certificate in Education (United Kingdom)
 * Postgraduate Diploma in Education
 * Postgraduate education
 * Postgraduate diploma
 * School of education
 * Teacher education

title: Postgraduate training in education


text:
Hercules (constellation)

Hercules is a constellation named after Hercules, the Roman mythological hero adapted from the Greek hero Heracles. Hercules was one of the 48 constellations listed by the second-century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations today. It is the fifth-largest of the modern constellations and is the largest of the 50 which have no stars brighter than apparent magnitude +2.5.

Characteristics
Hercules is bordered by Draco to the north; Boötes, Corona Borealis, and Serpens Caput to the east; Ophiuchus to the south; Aquila to the southwest; and Sagitta, Vulpecula, and Lyra to the west. Covering 1225.1 square degrees and 2.970% of the night sky, it ranks fifth among the 88 constellations in size. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is 'Her'. The official constellation boundaries, as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 32 segments (illustrated in infobox). In the equatorial coordinate system, epoch 2000, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 16:00:26.64 and 18:57:49.50, while the declination coordinates are between +3.67° and +51.32°. In mid-northern latitudes, Hercules is best observed from mid-spring until early autumn, culminating at midnight on June 13.

The solar apex is the direction of the Sun's motion with respect to the Local Standard of Rest. This is located within the constellation of Hercules, around coordinates right ascension 18:00:0 and declination 30°00′. The north pole of the supergalactic coordinate system is located within this constellation at right ascension 18:55:01 and declination +15°42′32″.

Stars
Hercules has no first or second magnitude stars. However, it does have several stars above magnitude 4. Alpha Herculis, traditionally called Rasalgethi, is a triple star system, partly resolvable in small amateur telescopes, 359 light-years from Earth. Its common name means "the kneeler's head". The primary is an irregular variable star; it is a bright giant with a minimum magnitude of 4 and a maximum magnitude of 3. It has a diameter of roughly 400 solar diameters. The secondary, a spectroscopic binary that orbits the primary every 3600 years, is a blue-green hued star of magnitude 5.6. Beta Herculis, also called Kornephoros, is the brightest star in Hercules. It is a yellow giant of magnitude 2.8, 148 light-years from Earth; kornephoros means club-bearer. Delta Herculis A is a double star divisible in small amateur telescopes. The primary is a blue-white star of magnitude 3.1, and is 78 light-years from Earth. The optical companion is of magnitude 8.2. Gamma Herculis is also a double star divisible in small amateur telescopes. The primary is a white giant of magnitude 3.8, 195 light-years from Earth. The optical companion, widely separated, is 10th magnitude. Zeta Herculis is a binary star that is becoming divisible in medium-aperture amateur telescopes, as the components widen to their peak in 2025. The system, 35 light-years from Earth, has a period of 34.5 years. The primary is a yellow-tinged star of magnitude 2.9 and the secondary is an orange star of magnitude 5.7.

Hercules hosts further quite bright double stars and binary stars. Kappa Herculis is a double star divisible in small amateur telescopes. The primary is a yellow giant of magnitude 5.0, 388 light-years from Earth; the secondary is an orange giant of magnitude 6.3, 470 light-years from Earth. Rho Herculis is a binary star 402 light-years from Earth, divisible in small amateur telescopes. Both components are blue-green giant stars; the primary is magnitude 4.5 and the secondary is magnitude 5.5. 95 Herculis is a binary star divisible in small telescopes, 470 light-years from Earth. The primary is a silvery giant of magnitude 4.9, and the secondary is an old, reddish giant star of magnitude 5.2. The star HD164669 near the primary may be an optical double. 100 Herculis is a double star easily divisible in small amateur telescopes. Both components are magnitude 5.8 blue-white stars; they are 165 and 230 light-years from Earth.

There are several dimmer variable stars in Hercules. 30 Herculis, also called g Herculis, is a semiregular red giant with a period of 3 months. 361 light-years from Earth, it has a minimum magnitude of 6.3 and a maximum magnitude of 4.3. 68 Herculis, also called u Herculis, is a Beta Lyrae-type eclipsing binary star. 865 light-years from Earth, it has a period of 2 days; its minimum magnitude is 5.4 and its maximum magnitude is 4.7.

Mu Herculis is 27.4 light-years from Earth. The solar apex, i.e., the point on the sky which marks the direction that the Sun is moving in its orbit around the center of the Milky Way, narrowly figures in Hercules, between his more outstretched foot (Omicron Herculis) and Vega (in neighboring Lyra).

Planetary systems
Fifteen stars in Hercules are known to be orbited by extrasolar planets.
 * 14 Herculis has two planets. The planet 14 Herculis b had the longest period (4.9 years) and widest orbit (2.8 AU) at the time of discovery. The planet 14 Herculis c orbits much further out with very low eccentricity. It was discovered in 2005 but was only confirmed in 2021.
 * HD 149026 has a transiting hot Jupiter planet.
 * HD 154345 has the planet HD 154345 b, a long period (9.095 years) and wide orbit (4.18 AU).
 * HD 164922 has the first long period Saturn-like planet discovered. The mass is 0.36 MJ and semimajor axis of 2.11 AU. More planets have been discovered since.
 * HD 147506 has the most massive transiting planet HAT-P-2b at the time of discovery. The mass is 8.65 MJ.
 * HD 155358 has two planets around the lowest metallicity planet-harboring star (21% Sun). Both planets orbit in mild eccentricities.
 * GSC 03089-00929 has a short transiting planet TrES-3b. The period was 31 hours.
 * Gliese 649 has a saturnian planet around the red dwarf star.
 * HD 156668 has an Earth mass planet with a minimum mass of four Earth masses.
 * HD 164595 is a G-type star with one known planet, HD 164595 b.
 * TOI-561 has four, or possibly five planets. The innermost of which, TOI-561 b, is notable because it is an ultra-short period planet.

Deep-sky objects
Hercules contains two bright globular clusters: M13, the brightest globular cluster in the northern hemisphere, and M92. It also contains the nearly spherical planetary nebula Abell 39. M13 lies between the stars η Her and ζ Her; it is dim, but may be detected by the unaided eye on a very clear night.

M13, visible to both the naked eye and binoculars, is a globular cluster of the 6th magnitude that contains more than 300,000 stars and is 25,200 light-years from Earth. It is also very large, with an apparent diameter of over 0.25 degrees, half the size of the full moon; its physical diameter is more than 100 light-years. Individual stars in M13 are resolvable in a small amateur telescope.

M92 is a globular cluster of magnitude 6.4, 26,000 light-years from earth. It is a Shapley class IV cluster, indicating that it is quite concentrated at the center; it has a very clear nucleus. M92 is visible as a fuzzy star in binoculars, like M13; it is denser and smaller than the more celebrated cluster. The oldest globular cluster known at 14 billion years, its stars are resolvable in a medium-aperture amateur telescope.

NGC 6229 is a dimmer globular cluster, with a magnitude of 9.4, it is the third-brightest globular in the constellation. 100,000 light-years from Earth, it is a Shapley class IV cluster, meaning that it is fairly rich in the center and quite concentrated at the nucleus.

NGC 6210 is a planetary nebula of the 9th magnitude, 4000 light-years from Earth visible as a blue-green elliptical disk in amateur telescopes larger than 75 mm in aperture.

AT2018cow, a large astronomical explosion detected on 16 June 2018. As of 22 June 2018, this astronomical event has generated a very large amount of interest among astronomers throughout the world and may be, as of 22 June 2018, considered a supernova tentatively named Supernova 2018cow.

The Hercules Cluster (Abell 2151) is a cluster of galaxies in Hercules.

The brightest radio source in the constellation is Hercules A, an elliptical galaxy located 2.1 billion light years away with a supermassive black hole with a mass of 2.5-billion-solar-mass that has radio jets that extend for one-and-a-half million light-years. Another bright radio source in Hercules is the quasar 3C 345 which has a jet that appears to move faster than the speed of light.

The Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, the largest structure in the universe, is in Hercules.

Traditional
The traditional visualization imagines α Herculis as Hercules's head; its name, Rasalgethi, literally means "head of the kneeling one". Hercules's left hand then points toward Lyra from his shoulder (δ Herculis), and β Herculis, or Kornephoros ("club-bearer") forms his other shoulder. His narrow waist is formed by ε Herculis and ζ Herculis. His right leg is kneeling. Finally, his left leg (with θ Herculis as the knee and ι Herculis the foot) is stepping on Draco's head, the dragon/snake whom Hercules has vanquished and perpetually gloats over for eternities.

Keystone asterism
A common form found in modern star charts uses the quadrangle formed by π Her, η Her, ζ Her and ε Her (known as the "Keystone" asterism) as the lower half (abdomen) of Hercules's torso.

H.A. Rey
H. A. Rey has suggested an alternative visualization in which the "Keystone" becomes Hercules's head. This quadrangle lies between two very bright stars: Vega in the constellation Lyra and α CrB (Alphecca) in the constellation Corona Borealis. The hero's right leg contains two bright stars of the third magnitude: α Her (Rasalgethi) and δ Her (Sarin). The latter is the right knee. The hero's left leg contains dimmer stars of the fourth magnitude which do not have Bayer designations but which do have Flamsteed numbers. The star β Her belongs to the hero's outstretched right hand, and is also called Kornephoros.

History
According to Gavin White, the Greek constellation of Hercules is a distorted version of the Babylonian constellation known as the "Standing Gods" (MUL.DINGIR.GUB.BA.MESH). White argues that this figure was, like the similarly named "Sitting Gods", depicted as a man with a serpent's body instead of legs (the serpent element now being represented on the Greek star map by the figure of Draco that Hercules crushes beneath his feet). He further argues that the original name of Hercules – the 'Kneeler' (see below) – is a conflation of the two Babylonian constellations of the Sitting and Standing Gods.

The constellation is also sometimes associated with Gilgamesh, a Sumerian mythological hero. Phoenician tradition is said to have associated this constellation with their sun god, who slew a dragon (Draco).

The earliest Greek references to the constellation do not refer to it as Hercules. Aratus describes it as follows: "Right there in its [Draco's] orbit wheels a Phantom form, like to a man that strives at a task. That sign no man knows how to read clearly, nor what task he is bent, but men simply call him On His Knees. [Ἐγγόνασιν 'the Kneeler']."

"Now that Phantom, that toils on his knees, seems to sit on bended knee, and from both his shoulders his hands are upraised and stretch, one this way, one that, a fathom's length. Over the middle of the head of the crooked Dragon, he has the tip of his right foot. Here too that Crown [Corona], which glorious Dionysus set to be memorial of the dead Ariadne, wheels beneath the back of the toil-spent Phantom. To the Phantom's back the Crown is near, but by his head mark near at hand the head of Ophiuchus [...] Yonder, too, is the tiny Tortoise, which, while still beside his cradle, Hermes pierced for strings and bade it be called the Lyre [Lyra]: and he brought it into heaven and set it in front of the unknown Phantom. That Croucher on his Knees comes near the Lyre with his left knee, but the top of the Bird's head wheels on the other side, and between the Bird's head and the Phantom's knee is enstarred the Lyre."

The constellation is connected with Hercules in De astronomia (probably 1st century BCE/CE, and attributed to Hyginus), which describes several different myths about the constellation:
 * Eratosthenes (3rd century BCE) is said to have described it as Hercules, placed above Draco (representing the dragon of the Hesperides) and preparing to fight it, holding his lion's skin in his left hand, and a club in his right (this can be found in the Epitome Catasterismorum ).
 * Panyassis' Heracleia (5th century BCE) reportedly said Jupiter was impressed by this fight, and made it a constellation, with Hercules kneeling on his right knee, and trying to crush Draco's head with his left foot, while striking with his right hand and holding the lion skin in his left.
 * Araethus (3rd/4th century BCE) is said to have described the constellation as depicting Ceteus son of Lycaon, imploring the gods to restore his daughter Megisto who had been transformed into a bear.
 * Hegesianax (2nd/3rd century BCE), who it says describes it as Theseus lifting the stone at Troezen.
 * Anacreon of Alexandria, who it claims also supports the idea that it depicts Theseus, saying that the constellation Lyra (said to be Theseus' lyre in other sources) is near Theseus.
 * Thamyris blinded by the Muses, kneeling in supplication.
 * Orpheus killed by the women of Thracia for seeing the sacred rituals of Liber (Dionysus).
 * Aeschylus' lost play Prometheus Unbound (5th century BCE), which recounted that when Hercules drives the cattle of Geryon through Liguria (northern Italy), the Ligurians will join forces and attack him, attempting to steal the cattle. Hercules fights until his weapons break, before falling to his knees, wounded. Jupiter, taking pity on his son, provides many stones on the ground, which Hercules uses to fight off the Ligurians. In commemoration of this, Jupiter makes a constellation depicting Hercules in his fighting form. (A quote from this section of the play is preserved in Dionysius of Halicarnassus' Roman Antiquities: "And thou shalt come to Liguria's dauntless host, Where no fault shalt thou find, bold though thou art, With the fray: 'tis fated thy missiles all shall fail." )
 * Ixion with his arms bound for trying to attack Juno.
 * Prometheus bound on Mount Caucasus.

The Scholia to Aratus mention three more mythical figures in connection with this constellation: Sisyphus or Tantalus, who suffered in Tartarus for having offended the gods, or Salmoneus, who was struck down by Zeus for his hubris. Another classical author associated the constellation with Atlas.

Equivalents
In Chinese astronomy, the stars that correspond to Hercules are located in two areas: the Purple Forbidden enclosure (紫微垣, Zǐ Wēi Yuán) and the Heavenly Market enclosure (天市垣, Tiān Shì Yuán).

Arab translators of Ptolemy named it in الرقيس (not to be confused with الراقص), the name for the star Mu Draconis. Hence its Swahili name Rakisi.

title: Hercules (constellation)


text:
Donald Campbell (disambiguation)

Donald Campbell (1921–1967) was a British car and motorboat racer.

Donald Campbell may also refer to:

Religious figures

 * Donald Campbell (abbot) (died 1562), Scottish noble and churchman
 * Donald Campbell (bishop) (1894–1963), Roman Catholic Archbishop of Glasgow

Sportspeople

 * Donald Campbell (Australian cricketer) (1851–1887), Australian cricketer
 * Donald Campbell (Zimbabwean cricketer) (born 1974), Zimbabwean cricketer
 * Donald Campbell (rugby union) (1919–1944), Chilean rugby union player
 * Donald Campbell (athlete) (1926–2017), American former sprinter
 * Don Campbell (American football) (1916–1991), American football player
 * Don Campbell (ice hockey) (1925–2012), Canadian ice hockey player
 * Don Campbell (dancer) (1951–2020), American dancer who invented locking
 * Don Campbell (footballer) (1932–2016), English footballer
 * Don Campbell (cyclist) (born 1975), Caymanian former cyclist

Politicians

 * Sir Donald Campbell, 1st Baronet (1800–1850), British politician and Lieutenant-Governor Prince Edward Island
 * Donald Campbell (Texas politician) (1830–1871), lieutenant governor of Texas and Texas senator
 * Donald Campbell (Australian politician) (1866–1945), member of the South Australian House of Assembly
 * Donald A. Campbell (1922–1992), New York politician
 * Donald James Campbell (1932–1984), politician in British Columbia, Canada
 * Donald Wilfred Campbell, former (1993–1997) Canadian ambassador to Japan

Military figures

 * Donald M. Campbell Jr. (born 1955), American army general
 * Donald Campbell (British Army officer) (died 1763), British officer killed in Pontiac's Rebellion
 * Donald Campbell (Royal Navy officer) (1788–1856), British admiral

Others

 * Donald Campbell (engineer), British railway engineer
 * Donald Campbell (traveller) (1751–1804), Scottish traveller in India and the Middle East
 * Donald B. Campbell, Australian-born astronomer
 * Donald K. Campbell, former (1986–1994) president of Dallas Theological Seminary
 * Donald L. Campbell (1904–2002), American chemical engineer
 * Donald T. Campbell (1916–1996), American social scientist, noted for his work in methodology
 * Sir Donald Campbell, 1st Baronet, of Ardnamurchan and Airds (died 1651), Scottish nobleman
 * Don Campbell (musician), British reggae singer
 * Don "Magic" Juan (born 1950), American 'spiritual advisor' to Snoop Dogg
 * Donald Campbell (priest) (1886–1930), Anglican priest
 * Donald Campbell (anaesthetist) (1930–2004), dean of the Royal College of Anaesthetists

title: Donald Campbell (disambiguation)


text:
Phil Cleary

Philip Ronald Cleary (born 8 December 1952) is an Australian political and sport commentator. He is a former Australian rules footballer who played 205 games at the Coburg Football Club, before serving as the member for Wills in the House of Representatives from 1992 until 1996.

Football career
Cleary began his playing career at the Coburg Amateurs Football Club in the Victorian Amateur Football Association (VAFA) in the early 1970s.

He first came to notice as a prominent player and coach in Victoria's second-level Australian rules football competition, the Victorian Football Association (VFA), for the Coburg Football Club.

He debuted with the club in 1975, playing 205 games—second only to Dave Starbuck in Coburg club history—and kicking 317 goals. He was a member of the 1979 premiership side and losing 1980 side. He coached the club between 1984 and 1992 (captain coach between 1984 and 1987, upon which he retired as a player), before leading them to back-to-back premierships in 1988–89. In the 1986 VFA grand final against Williamstown, he was sensationally ordered off, only to be found not guilty at the tribunal. He coached the VFA representative side on five occasions without losing a game. He was one of the most well-known players in the VFA in his era, and was instantly recognisable from the thick beard he wore throughout his career.

He has had various coaching and mentoring roles in the Essendon District Football League, including at the West Coburg Football Club, where he coached the under-16s team to a premiership in 2008 and the under-18s team to a premiership in 2010. The latter side included future AFL players Brandon Ellis and Adam Saad.

Political career
At the Wills by-election of 11 April 1992, caused by the resignation of former Prime Minister Bob Hawke, Phil Cleary was elected as an independent to the Australian House of Representatives from a field of 22 candidates, becoming the only non-Labor member to have ever held the seat. However, his election was successfully challenged in the High Court and declared void on 25 November, as Cleary was on unpaid leave from the Victorian Education Department, and the Section 44 of the Constitution of Australia forbids people employed by the Crown from standing for election. A second by-election was not held, as a general election was expected within a few months. At the 1993 Australian federal election, Cleary again stood as a candidate and was elected for a second time.

Cleary lost the seat to Labor at the 1996 federal election. Wills had undergone a redistribution, by adding territory to the division, which weakened Cleary's notional position against Labor. Cleary's vote of 22.7% was a decrease of 6.7% from the 29.4% he polled in 1993, on different boundaries.

While advocating an Australian Republic, he broke with the Australian Republican Movement (ARM) over disagreement about how the President of Australia should be chosen, forming a group called "Real Republic", which advocated direct election of the President as opposed to the model advocated by Malcolm Turnbull of the ARM, under which the President would be chosen by a joint sitting of the Parliament, and which was the model proposed in the 1999 referendum.

Post-parliament
Cleary was a part of the ABC’s telecast of VFA/VFL football as a match-day commentator from 1987 until the ABC lost the rights in 2014, juggling coaching and commentary duties for the first five seasons. He conducted interviews and acted as a boundary rider for the match of the day, writes a weekly column for the football magazine Inside Football, and regularly appears in the media on a range of social and political issues. He has campaigned to stop male violence against women since his sister was murdered by her former partner in 1987. He is a freelance journalist and public speaker and is the author of three books: Cleary Independent, Just Another Little Murder, and Getting Away with Murder.

Cleary contested the seat of Brunswick at the 2010 Victorian state election as an independent.

Defamation incident
In a much-published defamation case in 2010, it was alleged that, in his 2005 book Getting Away with Murder, Cleary had accused barrister Dyson Hore-Lacy of helping a man who killed his own wife to manufacture a provocation defence. Hore-Lacy won the case and was awarded $630,000 in damages.

title: Phil Cleary


text:
Indium tin oxide

Indium tin oxide (ITO) is a ternary composition of indium, tin and oxygen in varying proportions. Depending on the oxygen content, it can be described as either a ceramic or an alloy. Indium tin oxide is typically encountered as an oxygen-saturated composition with a formulation of 74% In, 8% Sn, and 18% O by weight. Oxygen-saturated compositions are so typical that unsaturated compositions are termed oxygen-deficient ITO. It is transparent and colorless in thin layers, while in bulk form it is yellowish to gray. In the infrared region of the spectrum it acts as a metal-like mirror.

Indium tin oxide is one of the most widely used transparent conducting oxides, not just for its electrical conductivity and optical transparency, but also for the ease with which it can be deposited as a thin film, as well as its chemical resistance to moisture. As with all transparent conducting films, a compromise must be made between conductivity and transparency, since increasing the thickness and increasing the concentration of charge carriers increases the film's conductivity, but decreases its transparency.

Thin films of indium tin oxide are most commonly deposited on surfaces by physical vapor deposition. Often used is electron beam evaporation, or a range of sputter deposition techniques.

Material and properties
ITO is a mixed oxide of indium and tin with a melting point in the range 1526–1926 °C (1800–2200 K, 2800–3500 °F), depending on composition. The most commonly used material is an oxide of a composition of ca. In4Sn. The material is a n-type semiconductor with a large bandgap of around 4 eV. ITO is both transparent to visible light and relatively conductive. It has a low electrical resistivity of ~10−4 Ω·cm, and a thin film can have an optical transmittance of greater than 80%. These properties are utilized to great advantage in touch-screen applications such as mobile phones.

Common uses
Indium tin oxide (ITO) is an optoelectronic material that is applied widely in both research and industry. ITO can be used for many applications, such as flat-panel displays, smart windows, polymer-based electronics, thin film photovoltaics, glass doors of supermarket freezers, and architectural windows. Moreover, ITO thin films for glass substrates can be helpful for glass windows to conserve energy.

ITO green tapes are utilized for the production of lamps that are electroluminescent, functional, and fully flexible. Also, ITO thin films are used primarily to serve as coatings that are anti-reflective and for liquid crystal displays (LCDs) and electroluminescence, where the thin films are used as conducting, transparent electrodes.

ITO is often used to make transparent conductive coating for displays such as liquid crystal displays, OLED displays, plasma displays, touch panels, and electronic ink applications. Thin films of ITO are also used in organic light-emitting diodes, solar cells, antistatic coatings and EMI shieldings. In organic light-emitting diodes, ITO is used as the anode (hole injection layer).

ITO films deposited on windshields are used for defrosting aircraft windshields. The heat is generated by applying a voltage across the film. ITO is also used to reflect electromagnetic radiation. The F-22 Raptor's canopy has an ITO coating that reflects radar waves, enhancing its stealth capabilities and giving it a distinctive gold tint.

ITO is also used for various optical coatings, most notably infrared-reflecting coatings (hot mirrors) for automotive, and sodium vapor lamp glasses. Other uses include gas sensors, antireflection coatings, electrowetting on dielectrics, and Bragg reflectors for VCSEL lasers. ITO is also used as the IR reflector for low-e window panes. ITO was also used as a sensor coating in the later Kodak DCS cameras, starting with the Kodak DCS 520, as a means of increasing blue channel response.

ITO thin film strain gauges can operate at temperatures up to 1400 °C and can be used in harsh environments, such as gas turbines, jet engines, and rocket engines.

Silver nanoparticle–ITO hybrid
ITO has been popularly used as a high-quality flexible substrate to produce flexible electronics. However, this substrate's flexibility decreases as its conductivity improves. Previous research have indicated that the mechanical properties of ITO can be improved through increasing the degree of crystallinity. Doping with silver (Ag) can improve this property, but results in a loss of transparency. An improved method that embeds Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) instead of homogeneously to create a hybrid ITO has proven to be effective in compensating for the decrease in transparency. The hybrid ITO consists of domains in one orientation grown on the AgNPs and a matrix of the other orientation. The domains are stronger than the matrix and function as barriers to crack propagation, significantly increasing the flexibility. The change in resistivity with increased bending significantly decreases in the hybrid ITO compared with homogeneous ITO.

Alternative synthesis methods
ITO is typically deposited through expensive and energy-intensive processes that deal with physical vapor deposition (PVD). Such processes include sputtering, which results in the formation of brittle layers. Because of the cost and energy of physical vapor deposition, with the required vacuum processing, alternative methods of preparing ITO are being investigated.

Tape casting process
An alternative process that uses a particle-based technique, is known as the tape casting process. Because it is a particle-based technique, the ITO nano-particles are dispersed first, then placed in organic solvents for stability. Benzyl phthalate plasticizer and polyvinyl butyral binder have been shown to be helpful in preparing nanoparticle slurries. Once the tape casting process has been carried out, the characterization of the green ITO tapes showed that optimal transmission went up to about 75%, with a lower bound on the electrical resistance of 2 Ω·cm.

Laser sintering
Using ITO nanoparticles imposes a limit on the choice of substrate, owing to the high temperature required for sintering. As an alternative starting material, In-Sn alloy nanoparticles allow for a more diverse range of possible substrates. A continuous conductive In-Sn alloy film is formed firstly, followed by oxidation to bring transparency. This two step process involves thermal annealing, which requires special atmosphere control and increased processing time. Because metal nanoparticles can be converted easily into a conductive metal film under the treatment of laser, laser sintering is applied to achieve products' homogeneous morphology. Laser sintering is also easy and less costly to use since it can be performed in air.

Ambient gas conditions
For example, using conventional methods but varying the ambient gas conditions to improve the optoelectronic properties as, for example, oxygen plays a major role in the properties of ITO.

Chemical shaving for very thin films
There has been numerical modeling of plasmonic metallic nanostructures have shown great potential as a method of light management in thin-film nanodisc-patterned hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) solar photovoltaic (PV) cells. A problem that arises for plasmonic-enhanced PV devices is the requirement for 'ultra-thin' transparent conducting oxides (TCOs) with high transmittance and low enough resistivity to be used as device top contacts/electrodes. Unfortunately, most work on TCOs is on relatively thick layers and the few reported cases of thin TCO showed a marked decrease in conductivity. To overcome this it is possible to first grow a thick layer and then chemically shave it down to obtain a thin layer that is whole and highly conductive.

Constraints and trade-offs
A major concern with ITO is its cost. ITO costs several times more than aluminium zinc oxide (AZO). AZO is a common choice of transparent conducting oxide (TCO) because of its lower cost and relatively good optical transmission performance in the solar spectrum. However, ITO is superior to AZO in many other important performance categories including chemical resistance to moisture. ITO is not affected by moisture, and is stable as part of copper indium gallium selenide solar cell for 25–30 years on a rooftop.

While the sputtering target or evaporative material that is used to deposit the ITO is significantly more costly than AZO, the amount of material placed on each cell is quite small. Therefore, the cost penalty per cell is quite small, too.

Benefits
The primary advantage of ITO compared to AZO as a transparent conductor for LCDs is that ITO can be precisely etched into fine patterns. AZO cannot be etched as precisely: It is so sensitive to acid that it tends to get over-etched by an acid treatment.

Another benefit of ITO compared to AZO is that if moisture does penetrate, ITO will degrade less than AZO.

The role of ITO glass as a cell culture substrate can be extended easily, which opens up new opportunities for studies on growing cells involving electron microscopy and correlative light.

Research examples
ITO can be used in nanotechnology to provide a path to a new generation of solar cells. Solar cells made with these devices have the potential to provide low-cost, ultra-lightweight, and flexible cells with a wide range of applications. Because of the nanoscale dimensions of the nanorods, quantum-size effects influence their optical properties. By tailoring the size of the rods, they can be made to absorb light within a specific narrow band of colors. By stacking several cells with different sized rods, a broad range of wavelengths across the solar spectrum can be collected and converted to energy. Moreover, the nanoscale volume of the rods leads to a significant reduction in the amount of semiconductor material needed compared to a conventional cell. Recent studies demonstrated that nanostructured ITO can behave as a miniaturized photocapacitor, combining in a unique material the absorption and storage of light energy.

Health and safety
Inhalation of indium tin oxide may cause mild irritation to the respiratory tracts and should be avoided. If exposure is long-term, symptoms may become chronic and result in benign pneumoconiosis. Studies with animals indicate that indium tin oxide is toxic when ingested, along with negative effects on the kidney, lung, and heart.

During the process of mining, production and reclamation, workers are potentially exposed to indium, especially in countries such as China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and Canada and face the possibility of pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, pulmonary fibrosis, emphysema, and granulomas. Workers in the US, China, and Japan have been diagnosed with cholesterol clefts under indium exposure. Silver nanoparticles existed in improved ITOs have been found in vitro to penetrate through both intact and breached skin into the epidermal layer. Un-sintered ITOs are suspected of induce T-cell-mediated sensitization: on an intradermal exposure study, a concentration of 5% uITO resulted in lymphocyte proliferation in mice including the number increase of cells through a 10-day period.

A new occupational problem called indium lung disease was developed through contact with indium-containing dusts. The first patient is a worker associated with wet surface grinding of ITO who suffered from interstitial pneumonia: his lung was filled with ITO related particles. These particles can also induce cytokine production and macrophage dysfunction. Sintered ITOs particles alone can cause phagocytic dysfunction but not cytokine release in macrophage cells; however, they can intrigue a pro-inflammatory cytokine response in pulmonary epithelial cells. Unlike uITO, they can also bring endotoxin to workers handling the wet process if in contact with endotoxin-containing liquids. This can be attributed to the fact that sITOs have larger diameter and smaller surface area, and that this change after the sintering process can cause cytotoxicity.

Because of these issues, alternatives to ITO have been found.

Recycling
The etching water used in the process of sintering ITO can only be used for a limited numbers of times before it has to be disposed. After degradation, the waste water should still contain valuable metals such as In and Cu as a secondary resource as well as Mo, Cu, Al, Sn and In, which can pose a health hazard to human beings.

Alternative materials
Because of high cost and limited supply of indium, the fragility and lack of flexibility of ITO layers, and the costly layer deposition requiring vacuum, alternative materials are being investigated. Promising alternatives based on zinc oxide doped with various elements.

Doped compounds
Promising alternatives based on zinc oxide doped with various elements.

Several transition metal dopants in indium oxide, particularly molybdenum, give much higher electron mobility and conductivity than obtained with tin. Doped binary compounds such as aluminum-doped zinc oxide (AZO) and indium-doped cadmium oxide have been proposed as alternative materials. Other inorganic alternatives include aluminum, gallium or indium-doped zinc oxide (AZO, GZO or IZO).

Carbon nanotubes
Carbon nanotube conductive coatings are a prospective replacement.

Graphene
As another carbon-based alternative, films of graphene are flexible and have been shown to allow 90% transparency with a lower electrical resistance than standard ITO. Thin metal films are also seen as a potential replacement material. A hybrid material alternative currently being tested is an electrode made of silver nanowires and covered with graphene. The advantages to such materials include maintaining transparency while simultaneously being electrically conductive and flexible.

Conductive polymers
Inherently conductive polymers (ICPs) are also being developed for some ITO applications. Typically the conductivity is lower for conducting polymers, such as polyaniline and PEDOT:PSS, than for inorganic materials, but they are more flexible, less expensive and more environmentally friendly in processing and manufacture.

Amorphous indium–zinc oxide
In order to reduce indium content, decrease processing difficulty, and improve electrical homogeneity, amorphous transparent conducting oxides have been developed. One such material, amorphous indium-zinc-oxide maintains short-range order even though crystallization is disrupted by the difference in the ratio of oxygen to metal atoms between In2O3 and ZnO. Indium-zinc-oxide has some comparable properties to ITO. The amorphous structure remains stable even up to 500 °C, which allows for important processing steps common in organic solar cells. The improvement in homogeneity significantly enhances the usability of the material in the case of organic solar cells. Areas of poor electrode performance in organic solar cells render a percentage of the cell's area unusable.

title: Indium tin oxide


text:
Talk:Abortion in the United States

With regards about Florida
Can anyone please change and update Florida to the six week ban colour?

BlackSun3988 (talk) 04:58, 1 May 2024 (UTC)

Wiki Assignment: Abortion and Ethnicity (WGST 2239)
This article may be improved if it expanded on the subsection of “Abortion and Ethnicity.” The statistics themselves do not provide much information on the racial disparities surrounding abortion in the United States. While the purpose of this section seems merely to be providing stats, it could be beneficial to include at least a link to a separate Wikipedia page that explores the reasons for the differences noted in the “Abortion and Ethnicity” section and the significance of such differences. For example, it is valuable to note that Black people have higher rates of abortion largely due to higher rates of unintended pregnancy. Black people have higher rates of unintended pregnancy primarily on account of systemic barriers that limit their access to healthcare and contraceptives. These barriers include economic disparities, less access to consistent and quality education, and fewer opportunities for steady employment, which all together impact their ability to afford and consistently and effectively use contraception. In addition, healthcare provider shortages in predominantly Black communities further limit the availability of reproductive health services. Structural inequalities and discrimination within the healthcare system further aggravate these issues.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2835625/ Wellsew (talk) 10:32, 5 July 2024 (UTC)

With regards about Iowa
Can someone please change and update Iowa to the six week cutoff? (red color) The heartbeat bill has now been enforced. https://sbaprolife.org/newsroom/press-releases/win-ia-supreme-court-allows-heartbeat-law-to-go-into-effect 69.21.251.222 (talk) 20:35, 7 July 2024 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Introduction to Policy Analysis - Summer Session24
— Assignment last updated by A1iciaF (talk) 16:34, 16 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Abortion in the United States


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Poa pratensis

Poa pratensis, commonly known as Kentucky bluegrass (or blue grass), smooth meadow-grass, or common meadow-grass, is a perennial species of grass native to practically all of Europe, North Asia and the mountains of Algeria and Morocco. It is a common and incredibly popular lawn grass in North America with the species being spread over all of the cool, humid parts of the United States, despite the fact that it is not native to North America. The Spanish Empire brought the seeds of Kentucky bluegrass to the New World in mixtures with other grasses. In its native range, Poa pratensis forms a valuable pasture plant, characteristic of well-drained, fertile soil. It is also used for making lawns in parks and gardens and has established itself as a common invasive weed across cool moist temperate climates like the Pacific Northwest and the Northeastern United States. When found on native grasslands in Canada, for example, it is considered an unwelcome exotic plant, and is indicative of a disturbed and degraded landscape.

Taxonomy
Poa pratensis was one of the many species described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark work Species Plantarum in 1753. is Greek for fodder and pratensis is derived from pratum, the Latin for meadow. The name Kentucky bluegrass derives from its flower heads, which are blue when the plant is allowed to grow to its natural height of 2 to 3 ft.

Poa pratensis is the type species of the grass family Poaceae.

There are two ill-defined subspecies:
 * Poa pratensis subsp. pratensis – temperate regions
 * Poa pratensis subsp. colpodea – Arctic

Description
Poa pratensis is a herbaceous perennial plant 30 – tall. The leaves have boat-shaped tips, narrowly linear, up to 20 cm long and 3 – broad, smooth or slightly roughened, with a rounded to truncate ligule 1 – long. The conical panicle is 5 – long, with 3 to 5 branches in the basal whorls; the oval spikelets are 3 – long with 2 to 5 florets, and are purplish-green or grey. They are in flower from May to July, compared to annual meadowgrass (Poa annua) which is in flower for eight months of the year. Poa pratensis has a fairly prominent mid-vein (center of the blade).

The ligule is extremely short and square-ended, making a contrast with annual meadowgrass (Poa annua) and rough meadowgrass (Poa trivialis) in which it is silvery and pointed. The Kentucky bluegrass is a dark green/blue compared to the apple-green color of Poa annua and Poa trivialis.

The rootstock is creeping, with runners (rhizomes). The broad, blunt leaves tend to spread at the base, forming close mats.

Ecology
Poa pratensis is among the food plants of the caterpillars of the meadow brown (Maniola jurtina), gatekeeper (Pyronia tithonus), and pepper-and-salt skipper butterflies; the common sun beetle (Amara aenea) (adults feed on the developing seeds), Eupelix cuspidata of the leafhopper family, and Myrmus miriformis, a grassbug (feeds on young blades and developing seeds).

Poa pratensis is host to a number of fungi, including Claviceps purpurea, which causes ergotism when consumed, Drechslera poae, Epichloë typhina, Phaeoseptoria poae, Puccinia brachypodii var. poae-nemoralis, Stagonospora montagnei, Stagonospora nodorum and Wojnowicia hirta.

Cultivation and production
The Central Kentucky Blue Grass Seed Company Building is on the National Register of Historic Places. Since the 1950s and early 1960s, 90% of Kentucky bluegrass seed in the United States has been produced on specialist farms in Idaho, Oregon and Washington.

During the 1990s botanists began experimenting with hybrids of Poa pratensis and Texas bluegrass (P. arachnifera), with the goal of creating a drought and heat-resistant lawn grass. In warm climates, such hybrids may remain green year-round.

Bella Bluegrass is a brand-named dwarf variant of Poa pratentis developed by the University of Nebraska. It has relatively deep roots and propagates relatively rapidly horizontally from its root system but grows to only 2 - 5 in in above-ground height, basically eliminating the need for mowing lawns that use it. It cannot be reproduced by seed and thus depends on sod plugs or sprigging for its production.

==NFL playing surfaces ==
 * Soldier Field in Chicago, IL
 * Cleveland Browns Stadium in Cleveland, OH
 * Empower Field at Mile High in Denver, CO
 * Acrisure Stadium in Pittsburgh, PA

==MLB playing surfaces ==

 * Yankee Stadium in Bronx, NY
 * Oriole Park at Camden Yards in Baltimore, MD
 * Progressive Field in Cleveland, OH
 * Angel Stadium in Anaheim, CA
 * Busch Stadium in St. Louis, MO
 * Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia, PA
 * American Family Field in Milwaukee, WI
 * Nationals Park in Washington, D.C.
 * Citi Field in Queens, NY
 * Comerica Park in Detroit, MI
 * Guaranteed Rate Field in Chicago, IL
 * Target Field in Minneapolis, MN
 * PNC Park in Pittsburgh, PA
 * Fenway Park in Boston, MA
 * Oakland Coliseum in Oakland, CA
 * Coors Field in Denver, CO (Kentucky Bluegrass/Perennial Ryegrass Blend)
 * T-Mobile Park in Seattle, Wa (Kentucky Bluegrass/Perennial Ryegrass Blend)
 * Great American Ball Park in Cincinnati, OH (Kentucky Bluegrass Blend)
 * Wrigley Field in Chicago, IL (Kentucky Bluegrass/Clover Blend)
 * Kauffman Stadium in Kansas City, MO (Kentucky Bluegrass/Perennial Ryegrass Blend)

title: Poa pratensis


text:
Talk:Coriander (plant)

Merge suggestion
Coriander (plant) and Coriander (spice) could be combined, there is a lot of overlap ( 18:08, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Agree 82.82.126.128 18:10, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Good enough for me - done ( 18:33, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Um, I created Coriander (spice) specifically because the Coriander (plant) article was concerned too much with botany. My plan was to eventually port the Coriander (spice) article over to the wikibook cookbook site when it finally gets going. People who look up Coriander or Cilantro in a cooking context don't need to be bothered with this stuff to do with the plant, although they should be able to click on the plant link, should they want further information. The Coriander (spice) article could have been expanded even further, and perhaps the (plant) article could have been expanded in the future as well. I think this direction is better, and since there is only one person who seemed to want this, User:(, I don't think merging them is totally justified right now. The Coriander (spice) article WILL move to the wikibook cookbook that is for sure.  The real question is whether or not to have some redundant info in the Coriander (plant) article about cooking, etc..  dave 21:13, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * I hadn't heard of wikibook cookbook, so thanks for pointing it out. However I don't think the merged Coriander article contains anything out of place for Wikipedia, so can be left as that, regardless of the status of Coriander (spice). ( 21:19, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Ok, I think the Coriander article redundancy is ok. But some parts need to be clarified a bit.  For example in the history section it is sometimes unclear if it is just talking about coriander in general (the plant) or the spice.  AFAIK, all the history (which I found on the internet) refers to the use of the dried fruits as a spice of some sort.  And we should also link to Coriander (spice) for more spice info (this article will have more later, links to curry recipes, a picture of the spice in both forms, etc..) and also link to Cilantro (spice) which I will eventually write.  I'm sort of writing one new spice article every week.  I think I've just done three so far.  My end goal is to get this on the wikibook cookbook, but that project seems a bit stalled at the moment.  dave 23:10, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Coriander (plant)