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Johan Galtung

Johan Vincent Galtung (24 October 1930 – 17 February 2024) was a Norwegian sociologist and the principal founder of the discipline of peace and conflict studies. He was the main founder of the Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) in 1959 and was its first director until 1970. He also established the Journal of Peace Research in 1964.

In 1969, he was appointed to the world's first chair in peace and conflict studies, at the University of Oslo. He resigned his Oslo professorship in 1977 and thereafter held professorships at several other universities; from 1993 to 2000 he taught as Distinguished Professor of Peace Studies at the University of Hawaii. He was the Tun Mahathir Professor of Global Peace at the International Islamic University Malaysia until 2015.

Background
Galtung was born in Oslo. He earned the cand. real. degree in mathematics at the University of Oslo in 1956, and a year later completed the mag. art. (PhD) degree in sociology at the same university. Galtung received the first of thirteen honorary doctorates in 1975.

Galtung's father and paternal grandfather were both physicians. The Galtung name has its origins in Hordaland, where his paternal grandfather was born. Nevertheless, his mother, Helga Holmboe, was born in central Norway, in Trøndelag, while his father was born in Østfold, in the south. Galtung was married twice, and had two children by his first wife Ingrid Eide, Harald Galtung and Andreas Galtung, and two by his second wife Fumiko Nishimura, Irene Galtung and Fredrik Galtung.

Galtung experienced World War II in German-occupied Norway, and as a 12-year-old saw his father arrested by the Nazis. By 1951, he was already a committed peace mediator, and elected to do 18 months of social service in place of his obligatory military service. After 12 months, Galtung insisted that the remainder of his social service be spent in activities relevant to peace.

Galtung died in Stabekk Helsehus og Hospice, Baerum, Norway, on 17 February 2024, at the age of 93.

Career
Upon receiving his mag. art. degree, Galtung moved to Columbia University, in New York City, where he taught for five semesters as an assistant professor in the department of sociology. In 1959, Galtung returned to Oslo, where he founded the Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO). He was the institute's director until 1969.

In 1964, Galtung led PRIO to establish the first academic journal devoted to Peace Studies: the Journal of Peace Research. In the same year, he assisted in the founding of the International Peace Research Association. In 1969, he left PRIO for a position as professor of peace and conflict research at the University of Oslo, a position he held until 1978.

Galtung was the director general of the International University Centre in Dubrovnik and helped to found and lead the World Future Studies Federation. He has held visiting positions at other universities, including Santiago, Chile, the United Nations University in Geneva, and at Columbia, Princeton and the University of Hawaii. In 2014, he was appointed the first Tun Mahathir Professor of Global Peace at the International Islamic University Malaysia.

Economist and fellow peace researcher Kenneth Boulding has said of Galtung that his "output is so large and so varied that it is hard to believe that it comes from a human". He was a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.

In 1993, he co-founded TRANSCEND: A Peace Development Environment Network. In 1987, he was given the Right Livelihood Award.

Conflict Triangle
In Galtung's 1969 paper, "Violence, Peace and Peace Research", he presents his theory of the Conflict Triangle, a framework used in the study of peace and conflict, with the purpose of defining the three key elements of violence that form this "triangle." The theory is based on the principle that peace must be defined by widely accepted social goals, and that any state of peace is characterized by the absence of violence. When a conflict has features of all three areas of violence, the result is a more consolidated, static state of violence in a social system, which may include a conflict or a nation-state, whereas the absence of these three typologies of violence results in peace.

Structural Violence
Galtung's concept of structural violence refers to the indirect forms of violence originating from social, economic, and political structures and manifesting primarily as oppression and exploitation. These indirect forms of violence result in injustices in the distribution of political power and economic benefits.

Rather than conveying a physical image, structural violence is an avoidable impairment of fundamental human needs. Structural violence is increased in situations where low income individuals also suffer in the rank dimensions of education, health, and power. This is due to an overall consolidation of factors in the social structure, resulting in a high correlation between social class and disempowerment. Structural violence can be recognized through its relative stability, having been built into the social structure. This can make structural violence difficult to ascertain, despite its often vast consequences. This concept has been applied in a large number of cases, some of the most notable are listed below.

Akhil Gupta argued in 2012 that structural violence has been the key influence in the nature and distribution of extreme suffering in India, driven by the Indian state in its alleged corruption, overly bureaucratic standards of governance used to exclude the middle and working classes from the political system through a system of politicized poverty.

Jacklyn Cock's 1989 paper in the Review of African Political Economy applied Galtung's theory of structural violence, analysing the role of militarized society under the apartheid regime of South Africa in the development of patriarchal values that is a form of structural violence against women. Cock found that tacit misdirection of women in society by its leadership focused their energies toward the direct and indirect incorporation of the patriarchal regime in order to maintain the status quo.

Mats Utas claimed that even those youth in Liberia indirectly unaffected by direct violence in the civil war of 1989-1996 suffered from structural violence in the form of association with different blocs, leading to poverty, joblessness and marginalisation effects.

Cultural Violence
Galtung defines cultural violence as ideas, consciousness, language, art, or science that can be used to legitimize or enable direct violence or structural violence. The existence of prevailing or prominent social norms make direct and structural violence seem natural or at least acceptable, and serves to explain how prominent beliefs can become so embedded in a given culture that they function as absolute and inevitable and are reproduced uncritically across generations. Galtung expanded on the concept of cultural violence in a 1990 paper also published in the Journal of Peace Research. This concept has been applied in a limited number of cases, with most occurring after Galtung's follow up paper in 1990, some of the most notable of which are listed below.

In Ed Husain's 2007 book The Islamist, seminal extremist literature such as Sayyid Qutb's Milestones is highlighted as being particularly influential on many young Muslims in terms of defining their identity and life goals, in which the book embodies the principles outlined whereby there is a cultural imperative for violence built into the societal values or cultural values of Islam through such extremist literature.

Gregory Phillips argues in his 2003 book, Addictions and Healing in Aboriginal Country, that resistance to the Western medical sphere driven by previous atrocities committed against the Aboriginal community has led to a fierce resistance effort against modern medicine, addiction treatment and perhaps fuels a desire to seek out drugs and illicit substances as a starting point of addiction. Wide scale suspicion against medical practitioners and government representatives has become engendered in the Aboriginal community.

In Enduring Violence: Ladina Women's Lives in Guatemala, the 2011 book by Cecilia Menjívar, it is argued that the preexisting cultural conditions of mediania, or half and half, agriculture led to women facing large scale cultural violence due to high rents, low returns and high required investment with additionally harsh conditions due to the conflict in Guatemala. Given the patriarchal culture of Guatemala, any earnings would go to the partner of the working woman, leaving a large poverty gap enshrined in the demographic diversity of the country.

Direct Violence
Direct Violence is characterised as having an actor that commits the violence, and is thus able to be traced back to persons as actors. Direct violence shows less stability, given it is subject to the preference sets of individuals, and thus is more easily recognised. Direct violence is the most visible, occurring physically or verbally, and the victim and the offender can be clearly identified. Direct violence is highly interdependent with structural and cultural violence: cultural and structural violence causes direct violence which on the other hand reinforces the former ones. This concept has been applied in a large number of cases, some of which are listed below.

A 2011 paper by the International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) demonstrated the widespread nature of child marriage in South Asia. The ICRW highlighted marriage before the age of 18 as a fundamental human rights violation, one that leads to early childbearing, with significantly higher maternal mortality and morbidity rates as well as higher infant mortality rates amongst women. The paper most directly presented evidence to show that child brides are at heightened risk of violence in the home.

In Matthew Chandler's 2009 paper on so-called "non-violent" techniques utilised by Hezbollah still include forms of Direct Violence, most notably the threat of violence toward Fouad Siniora's allies after his 2008 order to dismantle the Hezbollah telecommunications network in 2008, which led to the freezing of the order. Further, Hezbollah are argued to have used their operation of social services, in lieu of government operations, as a ransom for support as well as rewarding their fighters with guaranteed healthcare and support for their families. Chandler argues this is due to opposition within the group to harming Lebanese civilians, who they view as "their own", or exacerbating conflict through civil war.

In 2005, Steven Wright made the case for Peacekeeping efforts to be regarded as violence due to increasing use of techniques such as pre-interrogation treatment, and the use of non-lethal weapons such as tear gas for crowd dispersal and plastic bullets, which he terms "torture-lite", being increasingly common in peacekeeping manuals across a number of nation-states and supranational organisations.

Reinforcing Factors
Galtung focuses a section of the paper on the means of direct and structural violence, in particular, developing groups of factors that may be included as types of such forms and methods of maintaining and reinforcing the mechanisms of such violence. In terms of reinforcing factors, Galtung identifies six key areas:

 * Linear Ranking Order
 * Systems in which there is an open and complete ranking of actors leaves no doubt as to the actor who is ranked more highly, and is thus a mechanism of structural violence due to the reinforcement of an existing power dynamic.

 * Acyclical Interaction Pattern
 * Systems in which all actors are connected via a one-way ‘correct’ path of interaction, where outcomes are structurally dependent on using this system in the intended way of its design. This makes structural systems stable, as change can only be achieved through this consolidated power-seeking and power-retaining system.

 * Rank-Centrality Correlation
 * Within the social system, actors that are higher ranked are more central within the system itself, reinforcing their importance to the status quo as well as their incentives to maintain it.

 * (4) System Congruence
 * Social systems are made up of similar components, allowing those who are ranked highly and are successful at mobilising one system shifting from a comparative advantage within one system to an absolute advantage over all systems of desired operation.

 * Rank Concordance
 * Actors that are ranked highly within one metric, such as income, are also ranked highly on other metrics such as education and health. This congruence is also present in actors ranked low within these metrics, and serves to limit mobility within the social system.

 * Interlevel High Rank Coupling
 * Collaboration amongst the highest ranks results in the system being defined in such a way that benefits the most powerful actors, usually through a sub optimally ranked representative (not the highest ranked actor), which limits allegations of system consolidation by the most powerful.

Beyond Galtung's initial paper and thesis, scholars have applied the Conflict Triangle to a broad array of conflicts, struggles and occupations since 1969, and retroactively.

Criticism of the model
Galtung's Conflict Triangle and Peace Research paper are widely cited as the foundational pieces of theory within peace and conflict studies. However, they are not without criticism. Galtung uses very broad definitions of violence, conflict and peace, and applies the terms of mean both direct and indirect, negative and positive, and violence in which one cannot distinguish actors or victims, which serves to limit the direct application of the model itself.

Galtung uses a positivist approach, in that he assumes that every rational tenet of the theory can be verified, serving to reject social processes beyond relationships and actions. This approach enforces a paradigm of clear-cut, currently testable propositions as the ‘whole’ of the system, and thus is often deemed reductionist. Galtung also wields an explicit normative orientation in the paper, in which there is a weighting toward evaluative statements that may show bias or simply opinion, or indeed a trend toward the institutions and concepts of peace in the West, which may serve to limit the applicability of the model more widely.

Peacebuilding
Galtung proposes resolving conflicts through peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peacebuilding. Peacekeeping and peacemaking primarily involve eliminating violence and bringing about immediate peace. In Galtung's view, addressing the root causes of violence requires peacebuilding which goes beyond ending direct violence to end structural violence and cultural violence.

The peacebuilding structures needed to address the root causes of conflict and support local capacity for peace management and conflict resolution. Galtung has held several significant positions in international research councils and has been an advisor to several international organisations. Since 2004, he has been a member of the Advisory Council of the Committee for a Democratic UN.

Galtung is strongly associated with the following concepts:
 * Structural violence – widely defined as the systematic ways in which a regime prevents individuals from achieving their full potential. Institutionalized racism and sexism are examples of this.
 * Negative vs. positive peace – popularized the concept that peace may be more than just the absence of overt violent conflict (negative peace), and will likely include a range of relationships up to a state where nations (or any groupings in conflict) might have collaborative and supportive relationships (positive peace). Though he did not cite them, these terms were, in fact, previously defined and discussed in a series of lectures starting in 1899 by Jane Addams (in her 1907 book she switched to calling it 'newer ideals of peace' but continued to contrast them to the term negative peace), and in 1963 in the letter from a Birmingham jail by Martin Luther King Jr.

Criticism of the United States
In 1973, Galtung criticised the "structural fascism" of the US and other Western countries that make war to secure materials and markets, stating: "Such an economic system is called capitalism, and when it's spread in this way to other countries it's called imperialism", and praised Fidel Castro's Cuba in 1972 for "break[ing] free of imperialism's iron grip". Galtung stated that the US is a "killer country" guilty of "neo-fascist state terrorism" and compared the US to Nazi Germany for bombing Kosovo during the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.

In an article published in 2004, Galtung predicted that the US empire will "decline and fall" by 2020. He expanded on this hypothesis in his 2009 book titled ''The Fall of the US Empire - and Then What? Successors, Regionalization or Globalization? US Fascism or US Blossoming?''.

Views on Communist regimes
During his career, Galtung statements and views have drawn criticism including his criticism of Western countries during and after the Cold War and what his critics perceived as a positive attitude to the Soviet Union, Cuba and Communist China. A 2007 article by Bruce Bawer published by the City Journal magazine and a subsequent article in February 2009 by Barbara Kay in the National Post criticised Galtung's opinion of China during the rule of Mao Zedong. China, according to Galtung, was "repressive in a certain liberal sense", but he insisted "the whole theory about what an 'open society' is must be rewritten, probably also the theory of 'democracy'—and it will take a long time before the West will be willing to view China as a master teacher in such subjects." Calling Galtung a "lifelong enemy of freedom", Bawer said Galtung discouraged Hungarian resistance against the Soviet invasion in 1956, and criticized his description in 1974 of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov as "persecuted elite personages".

Views on Jews and Israel
Galtung recommended that people should read The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a fabricated antisemitic text purporting to describe a Jewish plan for global domination. In defending his claims that Jews control American media companies, Galtung cited an article published by National Vanguard, a neo-Nazi organization. Galtung's rhetoric has been criticized by Terje Emberland, a historian at the Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities in Oslo, and Øystein Sørensen, a University of Oslo historian known for his scholarship on conspiracy theories. Asked by NRK about his controversial remarks, Galtung reiterated his recommendation that people should read The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Galtung rejected that he was anti-Semitic.

The Israeli newspaper Haaretz accused Galtung in May 2012 of antisemitism for (1) suggesting the possibility of a link between the 2011 Norway attacks and Israel's intelligence agency Mossad; (2) maintaining that "six Jewish companies" control 96% of world media; (3) identifying what he contends are ironic similarities between the banking firm Goldman Sachs and the conspiratorial antisemitic forgery The Protocols of the Elders of Zion; and (4) theorizing, although not justified, antisemitism in post–World War I Germany was a predictable consequence of German Jews holding influential positions. As a result of such statements, TRANSCEND International, an organisation co-founded by Galtung, released a statement in May 2012 attempting to clarify his opinions. On 8 August 2012, the World Peace Academy in Basel, Switzerland announced it was suspending Galtung from its organization, citing what it posited were his "reckless and offensive statements to questions that are specifically sensitive for Jews." Galtung said the claims were "smearing and libel".

Selected awards and recognitions

 * Dr honoris causa, University of Tampere, 1975, peace studies
 * Dr honoris causa, University of Cluj, 1976, future studies
 * Dr honoris causa, Uppsala University, 1987, Faculty of Social Sciences
 * Dr honoris causa, Soka University, Tokyo, 1990, peace/Buddhism
 * Dr honoris causa, University of Osnabrück, 1995, peace studies
 * Dr honoris causa, University of Torino, 1998, sociology of law
 * Dr honoris causa, FernUniversität Hagen, 2000, philosophy
 * Dr honoris causa, University of Alicante, 2002, sociology
 * Dr honoris causa, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, 2006, law
 * Dr honoris causa, Complutense University, Madrid, 2017, politics and sociology
 * Honorary professor, University of Alicante, Alicante, 1981
 * Honorary professor, Free University of Berlin, 1984–1993
 * Honorary professor, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 1986
 * Honorary professor, Witten/Herdecke University, Witten, 1993
 * Distinguished professor of peace studies, University of Hawaii, 1993-
 * John Perkins University Distinguished Visiting Professor, 2005-
 * Right Livelihood Award, 1987
 * First recipient of the Humanist Prize of the Norwegian Humanist Association, 1988
 * Jamnalal Bajaj International Award for Promoting Gandhian Values, 1993
 * Brage Prize, 2000
 * First Morton Deutsch Conflict Resolution Award, 2001
 * Honorary Prize of the Norwegian Sociological Association, 2001
 * Premio Hidalgo, Madrid, 2005
 * Augsburg Golden Book of Peace, 2006
 * Member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
 * Honorary member of the Green Party, 2009
 * Erik Bye Memorial Prize, 2011

Selected works
Galtung has published more than a thousand articles and over a hundred books.

 * Statistisk hypotesepröving (Statistical hypothesis testing, 1953)
 * Gandhis politiske etikk (Gandhi's political ethics, 1955, with philosopher Arne Næss)
 * Theory and Methods of Social Research (1967)
 * Violence, Peace and Peace Research (1969)
 * Members of Two Worlds (1971)
 * Fred, vold og imperialisme (Peace, violence and  imperialism, 1974)
 * Peace: Research – Education – Action (1975)
 * Learning from China? (1977, with Fumiko Nishimura)
 * Europe in the Making (1989)
 * Global Glasnost: Toward a New World Information and Communication Order? (1992, with Richard C. Vincent)
 * Global Projections of Deep-Rooted U.S Pathologies (1996)
 * Peace By Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilization (1996)
 * Johan uten land. På fredsveien gjennom verden (Johan without land. On the Peace Path Through the World, 2000, autobiography for which he won the Brage Prize)
 * 50 Years: 100 Peace and Conflict Perspectives (2008)
 * Democracy – Peace – Development (2008, with Paul D. Scott)
 * 50 Years: 25 Intellectual Landscapes Explored (2008)
 * Globalizing God: Religion, Spirituality and Peace (2008, with Graeme MacQueen)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Johan Galtung


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Galtung (noble family)

The Galtung family was a Norwegian noble family dating from the ennoblement of Lauritz Galtung in 1648. However, when he was ennobled, documents indicated the family descended from an older noble family, the Galte family. This led to both Hardanger families being referenced as Galtungs in history books.

A male-lineage connection between the two families has not been identified. A female-line bridging them was long proposed until that too was debunked in 1950, by professor Lars Hamre's discovery of the Torsnes' family lineage in Copenhagen archives. The lineage stated that the younger Galtungs were descendants of Sigurd Guttormsson at Torsnes, not Sigurd Gautsson Galte at Hatteberg as previously claimed.

The old family, Galte
The first family called Galte, belongs to what was called the uradel (i.e., undocumented as nobility by letters of patent, but widely recognized as nobility in other sources) in the Middle Ages. It is believed that the descendants living today represent the oldest surviving noble family in Norway, commonly known as clan Mel, Melsætten. The old Galte farm estates of Mel and Hatteberg were the core of the later Danish-Norwegian Barony of Rosendal.

The younger family, Galtung
The younger Galtung family male-line can be traced back to Laurits Johanneson who was born around 1519. It was his great-grandson Lauritz Galtung, Admiral of the Dano-Norwegian fleet, who later renewed the nobility of the family in 1648, changing the name from Galte to Galtung. The present family belonged to an influential circle of families in the Hardanger area, including the owners of the farms Aga and Torsnes, and had many well-known naval officers, including admirals.

In 1885, historian Henrik Jørgen Huitfeldt-Kaas said that in the period 1670-1870 the family started marrying commoners, and thus, should be considered to have lost their nobility (later it was asserted that this position was influenced by the Danish, whose nobility, to a large degree, supplanted Norwegian nobility during the Dano-Norwegian union). Early in the 18th century the remaining family lived on the old family farm of Torsnes, which is still occupied by descendants today. By the end of the 18th century, many of the family's members could be found in the cities, populating professional classes as lawyers, doctors and such.

Living descendants today include sociologist Johan Galtung, recognised for his contributions to peace research and practice of conflict-solving, the so-called transcend-method. According to Statistics Norway 100 persons have Galtung as their surname as of 2009.

Literature

 * Galtung, Johan Ellertsen: Galtungslekten i fortid og nutid, Oslo 1997.
 * Huitfeldt-Kaas, H.J.: De nulevende Adelsslægter i Norge, Christiania 1885.
 * Huitfeldt-Kaas, Henrik Jørgen m.fl.: Norske Sigiller fra Middelalderen, Oslo 1899-1950 (seals no. 928, 946, 1089 og 1308)
 * Steffens, Haagen Krog: Norske Slægter 1912, Gyldendalske Boghandel, Kristiania 1911
 * C. M. Munthe: «Norske slegtsmerker» (Norwegian family emblems), Norsk slektshistorisk tidsskrift, Vol. I, Oslo 1928, pages 32 ff and 155 ff, especially page side 188 and the illustrations no. 189-192
 * Haukanes, K. og Jon : Segl og bumerke frå Hardanger, Oslo 1944, pages 23, 101, 248, 281
 * Cappelen, Hans: Norske slektsvåpen (Norwegian family coats of arms, with a summary in English), Oslo 1969 (new edition 1976) (with a modern heraldic bookplate in color and a new drawing of the shield in a modern style)
 * Løvenskiold, Herman L.: Heraldisk nøkkel, Oslo 1978
 * A. Thiset og P.L. Wittrup: Nyt dansk Adelslexikon, København 1904
 * Achen, S. T.: Danske adelsvåbener, København 1973

title: Galtung (noble family)


text: User talk:198.60.195.11

title: User talk:198.60.195.11


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Falkland Islands wolf

The Falkland Islands wolf (Dusicyon australis), also known as the warrah ( or  ) and occasionally as the Falkland Islands dog, Falkland Islands fox, warrah fox, or Antarctic wolf, was the only native land mammal of the Falkland Islands. This endemic canid became extinct in 1876, the first known canid to have become extinct in historical times.

Traditionally, it had been supposed that the most closely related genus was Lycalopex, including the culpeo, which has been introduced to the Falkland Islands in modern times. A 2009 cladistic analysis of DNA identified the Falkland Islands wolf's closest living relative as the maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus), an unusually long-legged, fox-like South American canid, from which it separated about 6.7 million years ago. However, the Falkland Islands wolf diverged from its mainland ancestor Dusicyon avus very recently, around 16,000 years ago. Dusicyon avus persisted on the South American mainland until around 400 years ago.

The Falkland Islands wolf existed on both West and East Falkland, but Charles Darwin was uncertain if they were differentiated varieties or subspecies. Its fur had a tawny colour and the tip of the tail was white. Its diet is unknown, but due to the absence of native rodents on the Falklands, probably consisted of ground-nesting birds, such as geese and penguins, seal pups and insects, as well as seashore scavenging. It has sometimes been said that it may have lived in burrows.

History
The first recorded sighting was by Capt. John Strong in 1690. Captain Strong took one on his ship, but during the voyage back to Europe it became frightened by the firing of the ship's cannon and jumped overboard. Louis Antoine de Bougainville, who established the first settlement in the Falkland Islands termed it a loup-renard ("wolf-fox"). The name "warrah" is an anglicised approximation of the term aguará (meaning "fox" in Guaraní, a Native American language), because of its similarity to the maned wolf (aguará guazú). When Charles Darwin visited the islands in 1833 he found the species present in both West and East Falkland and tame. However, at the time of his visit the animal was already very rare on East Falkland, and even on West Falkland its numbers were declining rapidly. By 1865, it was no longer found on the eastern part of East Falkland. He predicted that the animal would join the dodo among the extinct within "a very few years." It was hunted for its valuable fur, and settlers regarding the wolf as a threat to their sheep, poisoned it. However, the belief that Falkland Islands wolf was a threat to sheep was probably due to the sheep mistaking the Falkland Islands wolves for dogs (especially at night), and, in terror, the sheep ran into bogs and swamps, where they became lost. There were no forests for the animal to hide in, and it had no fear of humans; it was possible to lure the animal with a chunk of meat held in one hand, and kill it with a knife or stick held in the other. However, it would defend itself occasionally if it needed to, as Admiral George Grey noted when they landed on West Falkland at Port Edgar on 17 December 1836:

"I landed in the creek and had hardly put a foot on shore, when one of the foxes of the country was chased by Pilot. I ran up as they were fighting and came to the poor dog's assistance who had nearly met his match, and a rifle ball soon settled the business, but the Pilot had received a terrible bite in the leg."

A live wolf was taken to London Zoo, England in 1868. Another "Antarctic wolf" arrived in 1870. Neither animal survived long. Only a dozen or so museum specimens exist today.

In 1880, after the animal had become extinct, Thomas Huxley classified it as related to the coyote. In 1914, Oldfield Thomas moved it to the genus Dusicyon, with the culpeo and other South American foxes. (These other canids have since been removed to Lycalopex.)

Darwin's description
Darwin writing about his 1834 visit to the Falklands in his Journal and Remarks (The Voyage of the Beagle) has the following to say of Canis antarcticus:

Darwin's comments
When organising his notes on the last stage of the Beagle expedition, Darwin wrote of his growing suspicions that the differences between the various Galápagos Islands mockingbirds and tortoises, as well as the possible dissimilarity of West Falkland and East Falkland Islands wolves, were but variants that differed depending on which island they came from:

The word "would" was added after this passage was first written, suggesting a cautious qualification from his initial bold statement. He later wrote that such facts "seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species".

Related species
A DNA analysis and a study of comparative brain anatomy suggest that the closest living relative of the Falkland Islands wolf is the South American maned wolf. Their most recent common ancestor was estimated to have lived some 6 million years ago and was close to the most recent common ancestor of all South American canids, Eucyon or a close relative. It would seem that the lineages of the maned wolf and the Falkland Islands wolf separated in North America; canids did not appear in South America until roughly 3 million years ago in a paleozoogeographical event called the Great American Biotic Interchange, in which the continents of North and South America were newly connected by the formation of the Isthmus of Panama. However, no fossil from North America can be assigned to the Falkland Islands wolf or its immediate ancestors.

Dusicyon avus, known from fossils from southern South America as recent as 400 years ago, was the closet known relative of the Falkland Islands wolf.

In terms of skull shape and feeding habits, the animal was an opportunistic predator, more like a jackal.

Biogeographical isolation on the Falklands
The route by which the Falkland Islands wolf was established in the islands was unknown for a long time, as the islands have never been connected to the mainland and there are no other native land mammals. No other oceanic island as remote as the Falklands has a native canid; the island fox of California in the US and Darwin's fox of Chile both inhabit islands much closer to a continent.

Berta and other authors suggest that it was unlikely that the wolf's ancestors could have survived the last Ice Age on the Falklands and they must therefore have arrived later, within the last ten thousand years, crossing a wide expanse of the South Atlantic. Its close relative, Dusicyon avus, did survive in South America until a few thousand years ago, but swimming such a distance or even drifting on a floating log would appear effectively impossible for the wolf. A study by a University of Maine team in 2021 reports evidence of potential visitation to the islands by indigenous South Americans before the Age of Discovery. The authors speculated that the ancestors of the wolf could have been domesticated and brought with the visitors.

The oldest known remains of Falklands Islands wolves date to approximately 3396–3752 years Before Present, found at Spring Point Farm in West Falkland, the only place in the Falkland Islands where subfossil bones of the wolf have been found. The scarcity of remains is likely due to the acidic peaty soil of most of the Falklands, which rapidly degrades bones.

Genetics
DNA of the extinct mainland relative, D. avus, analyzed in 2013 suggests that its genetic history diverged from the Falkland Islands wolf only some 16,000 years ago, during the last glacial phase. This is strong evidence that the ancestors of the wolf were isolated on the islands only since the last glacial maximum. A 2009 analysis of mitochondrial DNA from five museum specimens of the Falkland Islands wolf indicated that they had multiple mitochondrial haplotypes whose most recent common ancestor lived about 330,000 years ago, giving some idea of the genetic diversity of the founding population.

Ice Age land bridge
An Ice Age land bridge or ice connection between the Falkland Islands and South America, enabling the species' ancestors to traverse the gap, has long been suggested. There was never a true land bridge between the islands and South America, but submarine terraces have been found on the Argentine coastal shelf, formed by low sea-stands during the last glacial phase. This suggests that there was a shallow strait as narrow as 20 km, which may have frozen completely at times. It is possible that the founding population of the wolf crossed on this ice bridge during the last Ice Age. The absence of other mainland mammals on the islands might be due to the difficulty of an ice crossing.

In culture
Locations that are named after the wolf:
 * Fox Bay, a bay and settlement on West Falkland
 * Warrah River, West Falkland

title: Falkland Islands wolf


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User:Harry Doddema

Hello.

I'm one of the founders of Memory Alpha, a Star Trek oriented wiki based on MediaWiki.

title: User:Harry Doddema


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Liberal Democratic Party of Russia

LDPR — Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (ЛДПР — Либерально-демократическая партия России) is a Russian ultranationalist and right-wing populist political party in Russia. It succeeded the Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union (LDPSU) in Russia after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The party was led by Vladimir Zhirinovsky since its inception until his death in April 2022. Opposing both communism and capitalism of the 1990s, the party scored a major success in the 1993 Duma elections with almost 23% of the vote, giving it 64 seats of the 450 seats in the State Duma. In the 2021 elections, the party received 7.55% of the vote, giving it 21 seats.

Despite the party's name, it has been described as "neither liberal nor democratic nor a party". The LDPR was centred around Zhirinovsky, and is often described as populist, nationalist,  or ultranationalist. It has been described as adhering to statism and authoritarianism,   and has also been described as fascist,   though this label has been disputed. The party, as part of the "systemic opposition", is considered to be traditionally loyal to the Kremlin. Its members are generally called "zhirinovets" (Russian: жириновец, lit. 'Zhirinovsky's followers').

Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union
An effectively multi-party system emerged in the Soviet Union in the late 1980s in wake of Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms. A formal law for this purpose was introduced in October 1990. In April 1991, the Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union (LDPSU) became the second officially registered political party in the country.

Former KGB General Filipp Bobkov has stated that "in line with Zubatov's ideas," the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union "proposed creating a pseudo-party controlled by the KGB" to direct the interests and sentiments of certain social groups, however he said that he was against the idea. Former Politburo member Alexander Yakovlev described how KGB director Vladimir Kryuchkov proposed the creation of the party with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev at a meeting. He also stated that the Central Committee took over which led to the creation of the Liberal Democratic Party. Yakovlev called the creation of the party a joint effort of the Central Committee and the KGB. In the early 1990s, Mayor of Saint Petersburg, Anatoly Sobchak claimed that party leader Vladimir Zhirinovsky was a "reserve" KGB captain, and a number of key supporters in the LDPR leadership quit the party, accusing Zhirinovsky of KGB ties.

The outspoken leader of the party, Vladimir Zhirinovsky, an effective media performer, gained 8% of votes during the 1991 presidential elections. He also supported the August 1991 coup attempt.

Liberal Democratic Party of Russia
In 1992, the LDPSU broke apart into its regional offsprings and the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR) was created as its successor in Russia.

1993–1999
In the 1993 Duma elections, the pro-reform party supporting President Boris Yeltsin, Russia's Choice, received only 15% of the vote and the new Communist Party of the Russian Federation only 12.4%. The LDPR emerged as the winner with 22.9% of the popular vote. In effect, the Russian population was divided to those who supported Yeltsin's reforms and to those who did not. It is regarded that the popularity of Zhirinovsky and his party arose from the electorate's dissatisfaction with Yeltsin and their desire for a non-communist solution.

Zhirinovsky is credited with having successfully identified the problems of ordinary Russians and offering simple remedies to solve them. For example, he has suggested that all leaders of organized crime should be shot and all Chechens deported from Russia. Zhirinovsky also called for territorial expansion of Russia. Many of Zhirinovsky's views are highly controversial and the LDPR's success in the early 1990s shocked observers both inside and outside Russia.

The Duma elected in 1993 was as an interim solution and its mandate expired in 1995. During the two years, Zhirinovsky's popularity waned and his party's support was halved in the 1995 elections (11.2%). The Communists emerged as the winners, with 22.3% of the vote.

In the presidential elections of 1996, the LDPR nominated Vladimir Zhirinovsky as a candidate. Zhirinovsky gained 5.7% of the votes in the first round.

In 1999, the party participated in the elections as a "Bloc of Zhirinovsky" since the Central Election Commission initially refused to register in the election lists of LDPR, which received 6.0% of the votes. In the 3rd State Duma, Zhirinovsky took up the post of Deputy Chair of the State Duma and the post of the head of the faction occupied by his son Igor Lebedev.

2000–2009
In the presidential election of 2000, the party has again put forward Vladimir Zhirinovsky, who won 2.7% of votes.

In the parliamentary elections of 2003, the party won 11.5% of the votes and received 36 seats.

In the 2004 presidential election, the LDPR nominated Oleg Malyshkin. The party leader Vladimir Zhirinovsky was hoping to take the post of Prime Minister of Russia in case of Malyshkin's victory on elections. In the end, Malyshkin scored 2% of votes, having lost the election.

In the legislative elections in 2007, the LDPR received 5,660,823 votes (8.14%) and received 40 seats in the State Duma.

In the 2008 presidential election, Zhirinovsky was re-nominated as a candidate and scored 9.4% of the vote.

2010–2019

In the parliamentary elections of 2011, the party scored 11.7% of the vote and won 56 seats. In the 6th State Duma, Vladimir Zhirinovsky returned to the post of head of the LDPR faction and his son Igor Lebedev has held the position of Vice Chairman of the State Duma. In these elections the LDPR gained over one-fifth of votes in Russian Far East (e. g. Primorsky Krai).

In the presidential elections 2012, the party again put forward by Zhirinovsky, whose campaign slogan for 2012 was "Vote Zhirinovsky, or things will get worse". Proshka, a donkey owned by Zhirinovsky, became prominent during the presidential campaign when he was filmed in an election advertisement video. On the last episode of debates with Mikhail Prokhorov just before the elections, Zhirinovsky produced a scandal by calling those Russian celebrities which supported Prokhorov, including a pop-diva and a veteran of Russian pop scene Alla Pugacheva, "prostitutes" ("I thought you are an artful person, politician, cunning man, but you are just a clown and a psycho", replied Pugacheva. "I am what I am. And such is my charm", replied Zhirinovsky). As a result, Zhirinovsky gained 6.2% of the votes.

During the diplomatic crisis following the 2015 Russian Sukhoi Su-24 shootdown by Turkey, Zhirinovsky suggested to bomb the Bosporus with nuclear weapons.

In the parliamentary elections in 2016, the party improved its result compared to the previous elections. The LDPR surpassed the center-left party A Just Russia, becoming the third largest party in the State Duma. The LDPR won 39 seats, gaining 13.1% of the vote, nearly reaching the second placed Communist Party, which won 13.3% of votes and 42 seats. Also, the party gained single-member constituencies in Russian Far East (notably in Khabarovsk Krai).

In 2015, Zhirinovsky expressed a desire to participate in the presidential elections in 2018. In the past, key figures in the LDPR other than Zhirinovsky had been discussed as potential presidential candidates, such as Zhirinovsky's son Igor Lebedev as well as his close associates Mikhail Degtyarev, Yaroslav Nilov and Alexei Didenko. After the parliamentary elections of 2016, Zhirinovsky said he would run himself.

2020–present
On 9 July 2020, the popular governor of the Khabarovsk Krai and member of the LDPR, Sergei Furgal, who defeated the candidate of Putin's United Russia party in elections two years previously, was arrested and flown to Moscow on charges of involvement in the murders of several businessmen in 2004 and 2005. He denied the allegations. Starting on 11 June, mass protests were held in Khabarovsk Krai in support of Furgal. On 20 July, President Vladimir Putin dismissed Furgal from his position of governor and appointed Moscow-based politician Mikhail Degtyarev, who is also a member of the LDPR, as acting governor. Several regional lawmakers in Khabarovsk opted to leave the LDPR in protest against Furgal's dismissal. The protests included chants of "shame on LDPR", with LDPR loyalists outraged at the party leadership's failure to rally around Furgal.

Zhirinovsky's death

In February 2022, Zhirinovsky was hospitalized in critical condition in Moscow with COVID-19. In March, he was reportedly placed in a medically induced coma, and underwent treatment for COVID-19 complications such as sepsis and respiratory failure. Zhirinovsky claimed to have been vaccinated against COVID-19 eight times.

On 25 March 2022, Zhirinovsky was reported to have died in a hospital. Despite confirmation from several sources, including his own political party, the news was quickly denied by family members. On 6 April 2022, Vyacheslav Volodin, the Speaker of the Duma, announced that Zhirinovsky had died following a long illness. He was 75.

After Zhirinovsky's death, Leonid Slutsky, the head of the State Duma Committee on International Affairs, was elected party leader.

Political positions
The LDPR seeks "a revival of Russia as a great power". It opposes both communism and neoliberal capitalism. It prefers a mixed economy with private ownership, but with a strong management role reserved for the state. In foreign policy, the party places a strong emphasis on "civilizations". It has supported the restoration of Russia with its "natural borders" (which the party believes include Transcaucasia, Central Asia, Belarus and Ukraine). The LDPR regards the United States and NATO as Russia's main external threats. The party has harshly criticised the discrimination against ethnic Russians in the Baltic states and demanded that they should be given Russian citizenship and protected against discriminatory legislation. The LDPR is also against corruption and enlargement of the European Union, identifying as a Eurosceptic party, instead preferring pan-Slavism. Professor Henry E. Hale lists the party's main policy stands as nationalism and a focus in law and order. Although it often uses radical opposition rhetoric, the LDPR frequently votes for government proposals. This has led to speculation that the party receives funding from the Kremlin. Political parties in Russia that had broken the 3% voting barrier and entered the parliament (State Duma) are officially financed by government, according to federal law. As such, all opposition parties in the State Duma are largely funded by the federal budget (e. g. in 2018, LDPR received 99.7% of its funding from the government, CPRF 90%, and A Just Russia 81%).

Zhirinovsky had stated that he wants to see a monarch titled "supreme ruler" lead Russia and had promised to shoot his political opponents if elected president.

Structure and membership
The party's organization was almost entirely centered on its former leader Vladimir Zhirinovsky, who died on 6 April 2022.

The party is in alliance with several parties in the former Soviet republics, including Armenia, Belarus, Estonia and Ukraine.

In 2003, the party claimed 600,000 members and had issued 475,000 party cards. According to a 2008 survey by Colton, Hale and McFaul, 4% of the Russian population are loyalists of the party.

title: Liberal Democratic Party of Russia


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XM29 OICW

The XM29 OICW (Objective Individual Combat Weapon) was a series of prototypes of a new type of assault rifle that fired 20 mm HE airbursting projectiles. The prototypes were developed as part of the Objective Individual Combat Weapon program in the 1990s. The term SABR (Selectable Assault Battle Rifle) was also used at certain points, but is less common.

Overview
Developed by Alliant Techsystems, with Heckler & Koch as a major subcontractor, the most commonly seen version of the XM29 consisted of a semi-automatic 20×28mm smart grenade launcher, an underslung "KE" assault carbine (derived from the HK G36 then in its late developmental stage) firing a standard 5.56×45mm NATO round, and a top-mounted computer-assisted sighting system with integrated laser rangefinder, thermal vision night vision capabilities, and up to 6× optical telescopic sight. Earlier designs used different configurations and setups.

The launcher part has been described variously as a light semi-automatic 20 mm cannon, a grenade launcher, or an airburst weapon. It poses a classification problem, in that it does not fit neatly into any one category. On one hand, it uses much smaller shells and has a much flatter trajectory than grenade launchers. On the other, while its caliber and velocity is more similar to light cannon, it does share traits with other infantry grenade launchers.

Various problems have effectively ended the program as it was originally envisioned, including weight, bulk, and lack of effectiveness of the 20×28 mm airburst round. Upon cancellation in 2004, it was split into three related programs. OICW Increment One is a program to develop a family of light kinetic energy weapons, OICW Increment Two is a program to develop the airburst grenade launcher as a standalone component, and OICW Increment Three is a program to re-integrate the two components. The XM8 was developed in an attempt to meet Increment One requirements. Instead a new program known as Lightweight Small Arms Technologies (LSAT) was begun. Meanwhile, the XM25 25×40mm airburst launcher began development to meet the Increment Two requirements. Increment Three will not be initiated until after One and Two are completed.

The OICW Increment One Request for Proposals was cancelled in October 2005, while development of the 25×40mm XM25 continued, and the 25×59mm OCSW program as well until its termination. It is not clear if LSAT is intended to meet the goals of OICW Increment One or if it is a standalone weapon system. However, for all intents and purposes, the OICW program is no longer under development.

title: XM29 OICW


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List of political parties in Australia

The politics of Australia has a mild two-party system, with two dominant political groupings in the Australian political system, the Australian Labor Party and the Liberal/National Coalition. Federally, 17 of the 151 members of the lower house (Members of Parliament, or MPs) are not members of major parties, as are 17 of the 76 members of the upper house (senators).

The Parliament of Australia has a number of distinctive features including compulsory voting, with full-preference instant-runoff voting in single-member seats to elect the lower house, the Australian House of Representatives, and the use of the single transferable vote to elect the upper house, the Australian Senate.

Other parties tend to perform better in the upper houses of the various federal and state parliaments since these typically use a form of proportional representation, except for in Tasmania where the lower house is proportionally elected and the upper house is made up of single member districts.

History
Two political groups dominate the Australian political spectrum, forming a de facto two-party system. One is the Australian Labor Party (ALP), a centre-left party which is formally linked to the Australian labour movement. Formed in 1893, it has been a major party federally since 1901, and has been one of the two major parties since the 1910 federal election. The ALP is in government in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, the Northern Territory, the Australian Capital Territory and the Federal Government of Australia.

The other group is a conservative grouping of parties that are in coalition at the federal level, as well as in New South Wales, but compete in Western Australia and South Australia. It is in government in Tasmania. The main party in this group is the centre-right Liberal Party. The Liberal Party is the modern form of a conservative group that has existed since the combination of the Protectionist Party and Free Trade Party into the Commonwealth Liberal Party in 1909. Although this group has changed its nomenclature, there has been a general continuity of MPs and structure between different forms of the party. Its modern form was founded by Robert Menzies in 1944. The party's philosophy is generally liberal conservatism.

Every elected prime minister of Australia since 1910 has been a member of either the Labor Party, the Liberal Party, or one of the Liberal Party's previous incarnations (the Commonwealth Liberal Party, the Nationalist Party of Australia, and the United Australia Party).

The Liberal Party is joined by the National Party, a party that represents rural and agricultural interests. The Nationals contest a limited number of seats and do not generally directly compete with the Liberal Party. Its ideology is generally more socially conservative than that of the Liberal Party. In 1987, the National Party made an abortive run for the office of prime minister in its own right, in the Joh for Canberra campaign. However, it has generally not aspired to become the majority party in the coalition, and it is generally understood that the prime minister of Australia will be a member of either the Labor or Liberal parties. On two occasions (involving Earle Page in 1939, and John McEwen from December 1967 to January 1968), the deputy prime minister, the leader of the National Party (then known as the Country Party), became the prime minister temporarily, upon the death of the incumbent prime minister. Arthur Fadden was the only other Country Party, prime minister. He assumed office in August 1941 after the resignation of Robert Menzies and served as prime minister until October of that year.

The Liberal and National parties have merged in Queensland and the Northern Territory/South Australia, although the resultant parties are different. The Liberal National Party of Queensland, formed in 2008, is a branch of the Liberal Party, but it is affiliated with the Nationals and members elected to federal parliament may sit as either Liberals or Nationals. The Country Liberal Party was formed in 1978 when the Northern Territory gained responsible government. It is a separate member of the federal coalition, but it is affiliated with the two major members and its president has voting rights in the National Party. The name refers to the older name of the National Party.

Federally, these parties are collectively known as the Coalition. The Coalition has existed continually (between the Nationals and their predecessors, and the Liberals and their predecessors) since 1923, with minor breaks in 1940, 1973, and 1987.

Historically, support for either the Coalition or the Labor Party was often viewed as being based on social class, with the upper and middle classes supporting the Coalition and the working class supporting Labor. This has been a less important factor since the 1970s and 1980s when the Labor Party gained a significant bloc of middle-class support and the Coalition gained a significant bloc of working-class support.

The two-party duopoly has been relatively stable, with the two groupings (Labor and Coalition) gaining at least 70% of the primary vote in every election since 1910 (including the votes of autonomous state parties). Third parties have only rarely received more than 10% of the vote for the Australian House of Representatives in a federal election, such as the Australian Democrats in the 1990 election and the Australian Greens in 2010, 2016, 2019 and 2022. Additionally, support for Independent politicians in Australia has resulted in major parties having to come to agreements to form government at times, including the 2010 Australian Federal Election.

Membership requirement
To maintain registration, parties must demonstrate that they have a certain number of members.

Federally, since 2022, unless a party has current parliamentary representation, they must demonstrate they have 1,500 members. For the state and territory elections, parties require 100 members in Tasmania and the ACT, 200 in South Australia and Northern Territory, 500 in Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia, and 750 in New South Wales.

Federal non-parliamentary parties
Parties listed in alphabetical order as of May 2024:

New South Wales
As of the New South Wales Electoral Commission:

Victoria
As of the Victorian Electoral Commission:

Queensland
As of the Queensland Electoral Commission:

Western Australia
As of the Western Australian Electoral Commission:

South Australia
As of the Electoral Commission of South Australia:

Tasmania
As of the Tasmanian Electoral Commission:

Australian Capital Territory
As listed with the ACT Electoral Commission:

Northern Territory
As of the Northern Territory Electoral Commission:

title: List of political parties in Australia


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List of political parties in Austria

This article lists political parties in Austria. Austria has a multi-party system. Of the over 1,100 registered political parties, only few are known to the larger public. Since the 1980s, four parties have consistently received enough votes to get seats in the national parliament.

The parties
[[File:Mitgliederzahl parteien Österreichs - Party membership of parties in Austria.png|thumb|Party membership of parties in Austria, since 1945.

Since 1986, the social democratic party has started a quick decline in membership.]]

Parties represented in Parliament or the European Parliament
There are five parties represented in the National Council. Three of the parties in the National Council are also represented in the Federal Council. Four of the five parties in the National Council are represented in the European Parliament.

Parties represented in state parliaments

 * Citizens' Forum Austria (Bürgerforum Österreich, FRITZ)
 * Communist Party of Austria (Kommunistische Partei Österreichs, KPÖ)
 * MFG – Austria People – Freedom – Fundamental Rights (MFG – Österreich Menschen – Freiheit – Grundrechte, MFG)
 * Team Carinthia (Team Kärnten, TK)

Minor parties

 * Team HC Strache – Alliance for Austria (Team HC Strache – Allianz für Österreich, HC)
 * Alliance for the Future of Austria (Bündnis Zukunft Österreich, BZÖ)
 * Black-Yellow Alliance (Schwarz-Gelbe Allianz, SGA)
 * The Beer Party (Die Bierpartei, BIER)
 * Christian Party of Austria (Christliche Partei Österreichs, CPÖ)
 * The Change (Der Wandel)
 * Enotna Lista (Unity List, EL)
 * My Vote Counts! (Meine Stimme g!lt, G!LT)
 * Neutral Free Austria Federation (Bündnis Neutrales Freies Österreich, NFÖ)
 * Party of Labour of Austria (Partei der Arbeit Österreichs, PdA)
 * Pirate Party of Austria (Piratenpartei Österreichs, PPÖ)
 * Socialist Left Party (Sozialistische LinksPartei, SLP)
 * The Social Liberals (Die Sozialliberalen, SoL)
 * Volt Austria (Volt Österreich)

Major historical parties

 * Christian Social Party (Christlichsoziale Partei, CS, 1893–1933)
 * Country League (Landbund, 1918–1934)
 * Greater German People's Party (Großdeutsche Volkspartei, GDVP, 1918–1934)
 * JETZT - Pilz List (JETZT – Liste Pilz, JETZT, 2017–2020)
 * National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, NSDAP, 1919–1945)
 * Fatherland Front (Vaterländische Front, VF, 1933–1938)
 * Federation of Independents (Verband der Unabhängigen, VdU, 1949–1955)
 * Social Democratic Workers Party of Austria (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Österreichs, SDAPÖ, 1888–1934), predecessor of today's SPÖ
 * Team Stronach (2012–2017)

Minor historical parties

 * Communist Initiative (Kommunistische Initiative, 2004–2013)
 * Communist League of Austria (Kommunistischer Bund Österreichs, KBÖ, 1976–1980)
 * Czechoslovak Social Democratic Workers Party in the Republic of Austria (Československá sociálně demokratická strana dělnická v republice Rakoúské, 1919–1934)
 * Freedom Party in Carinthia (Die Freiheitlichen in Kärnten, FPK, 2009–2013)
 * German-National Party (Deutsche Nationalpartei, 1891–1920)
 * Jewish National Party (Jüdische Nationale Partei, 1892–1930)
 * League of Democratic Socialists (Bund Demokratischer Sozialisten, BDS, 1959)
 * Liberal Forum (Liberales Forum, LiF, 1993–2014)
 * Marxist–Leninist Party of Austria (Marxistisch-Leninistische Partei Österreichs, MLPÖ, 1967–2006)
 * The Democrats (Die Demokraten, 1991–2002)
 * The Independents (Die Unabhängigen, DU, 1998–1999)
 * Union of Revolutionary Workers of Austria (Marxist-Leninist) (Vereinigung Revolutionärer Arbeiter Österreichs (Marxisten-Leninisten), VRAÖ, 1968–2005)

title: List of political parties in Austria


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List of political parties in China

The People's Republic of China is a one-party state ruled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Despite this, eight minor political parties subservient to the CCP exist.

Under the one country, two systems principle, the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau, which were previously colonies of European powers, operate under a different political system from the rest of China. Currently, both Hong Kong and Macau possess multi-party systems that were introduced just before the handover of the territories to China.

Ruling party
The Chinese Communist Party is the sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China. The Chinese constitution states that "The defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the leadership of the Communist Party of China", while the CCP constitution declares the party to be the "highest force for political leadership".

Minor parties
While only the CCP holds effective power at the national level, there are officially eight minor and non-oppositional parties that exist alongside the CCP that are officially titled "democratic parties". Founded before the proclamation of the People's Republic of China, these parties must accept the "leading role" of the CCP as a condition of their continued existence. The relationship between these parties and the CCP has officially been described as "long-term coexistence and mutual supervision, treating each other with full sincerity and sharing weal or woe" (prosperity or adversity) According to Human Rights Watch, these parties "play an advisory rather than an oppositional role".

The eight minor parties take part in "united front work" and also take part in the political system, but they have no power at a national level. The Chinese political system allows for the participation of some members of the eight minor parties and other non-CCP members in the National People's Congress (NPC), but they are vetted by the CCP. According to Aaron Friedberg, these parties' "purpose is to create the illusion of inclusiveness and representation." One of the ways the CCP controls the minor parties is through its United Front Work Department (UFWD), which vets the membership applications and controls who is the leader of these parties. UFWD also keeps the parties in check by preventing them from expanding widely in counties and villages. The cadres of the eight parties are trained at the Central Institute of Socialism. There is officially a ranking system of the parties; the ranking is based on their "contribution to the new democratic revolution".

Banned parties
The following parties formed in China are (or have previously been) banned by the government:
 * The Communist Party of China (Marxist–Leninist)  is an anti-revisionist communist party founded in 1976 by several Maoist rebel factions of the Red Guards in Wuhan, Hubei. They believed it was illegal to arrest the Gang of Four and that the new leadership of the CCP is revisionist and unlawful. They were suppressed after attempts at an armed revolt failed in Shanghai, Zhejiang, Canton and Yunnan.
 * The Communist Party of China (Workers' and Peasants' Liberation Army) is an anti-revisionist communist party founded in 1976 by a Maoist rebel faction of the Red Guards in Fujian. They used the old fortifications built during the Chinese Civil War and organized a partisan army named the "Workers' and Peasants' Liberation Army". They announced that the new leadership of the CCP is revisionist and called for uprising and reestablished the Party Central Committee. Their activities lasted until 1978.
 * The Democracy Party of China was founded by participants of the 1978 Democracy Wall movement and the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. Founded in 1998, it was declared illegal that same year.
 * The Union of Chinese Nationalists supports the ideals of the Pan-Blue Coalition in Taiwan. As such, its goals include establishing a liberal democracy in China, based on Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People. The group originated from an internet forum discussion in August 2004. The Taiwan Affairs Office of the State Council said it is an illegal organization on April 25, 2007.
 * The New Democracy Party of China was founded by Guo Quan in Nanjing at the end of 2007.
 * The Maoist Communist Party of China is an anti-revisionist communist party founded in 2008. The party seeks to initiate a "second socialist revolution" to re-establish the dictatorship of the proletariat. It has been subject to crackdowns by the Chinese government.
 * The Zhi Xian Party, also known as the Chinese Constitutionalist Party in English. Founded by the supporters of Bo Xilai in 2013 and banned in December of that year.
 * The Chinese Proletarian Revolutionary Central Committee (, abbreviated ) is an anti-revisionist communist party founded in the 2010s by Zhou Qun . The party leaders were members of a rebel faction during the Cultural Revolution, and the committee core consisted of dozens of laid-off workers  in Jiangsu. It was suppressed after the police found their "provocative" online activities.

Overseas parties

 * Shanghai National Party is a pro-democracy party which advocates for Shanghai independence, led by He Anquan, who left China after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. The party was notable for its opposition to China's COVID-19 lockdown policies. In particular, he referred to the lockdowns in Shanghai as a genocide and maintained a hunger strike outside the Chinese consulate in New York City. Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, He visited Ukraine in order to document the war.

title: List of political parties in China


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List of political parties in Costa Rica

This article lists political parties in Costa Rica. Costa Rica used to have a two-party system, which meant that there were two dominant political parties, the Social Christian Unity Party and the National Liberation Party, with extreme difficulty for anybody to achieve electoral success under the banner of any other party. After the 2002 elections and the strong showing of the brand-new Citizens' Action Party, it was considered very likely that the old two-party system was on the verge of giving way to a multi-party system. Several other parties have gained prominence since then, and the 2006 elections made it clear that Costa Rica is now a multi-party system.

Starting in the 2000s, disagreement about many of the neo-liberal policies promoted by the dominant PLN caused the traditional party system of alliances among a few parties to fracture. Although still a stable country, the shift toward many political parties and away from PUSC and PLN is a recent development. Various elected positions within the country, such as mayors and city council members, are held by many different national and local political parties.

title: List of political parties in Costa Rica


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List of political parties in the Czech Republic

This is a list of political parties in the Czech Republic. The Czech Republic has a multi-party system. Due to the electoral system used, a limited number of parties are successful in each parliamentary election.

Parliamentary parties
There are currently seven parties in the Chamber of Deputies – ANO 2011, the Civic Democratic Party (ODS), Mayors and Independents (STAN), the Christian and Democratic Union – Czechoslovak People's Party (KDU-ČSL), Freedom and Direct Democracy (SPD), TOP 09 and the Czech Pirate Party (Pirates). All of these parties except the SPD also have at least one seat in the Senate. Since the 2022 Czech Senate election, Senator 21 (SEN 21) have had four seats in the Senate, Mayors for the Liberec Region (SLK) have two Senate seats, and Svobodní have one Senate seat. None of these three parties have any seats in the Chamber of Deputies or the European Parliament. The Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (KSČM) hold no seats in the Chamber or the Senate but do have one elected member of the European Parliament and have elected representatives at the regional level.

The only party to have had members elected to every Parliament since the dissolution of Czechoslovakia is ODS.

The next legislative election will be held no later than 2025.

Note: The sum of the total seats held by each party may not amount to the total seats as a whole in the Chamber, Senate, Regions, and/or European Parliament because of independent politicians (i.e. those not members of any political party) holding the remaining seats.

Non-parliamentary parties

 * Agrarian Democratic Party (Agrární demokratická strana)
 * Alliance for the Future (Aliance pro budoucnost)
 * Alliance of National Forces (Aliance národních sil)
 * Club of Committed Non-Party Members (Klub angažovaných nestraníků)
 * Conservative Party (Konzervativní strana)
 * Czech National Social Party (Česká strana národně sociální)
 * Czech Republic in First Place! (Česká republika na 1. místě!)
 * Czech Sovereignty of Social Democracy (Česká suverenita sociální demokracie)
 * Democratic Party of Greens (Demokratická strana zelených)
 * Freeholder Party of the Czech Republic (Strana soukromníků České republiky)
 * Green Party (Strana zelených)
 * The Czech Crown (Monarchist Party of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia) (Koruna Česká (monarchistická strana Čech, Moravy a Slezska))
 * Law, Respect, Expertise (Právo Respekt Odbornost)
 * Liberal Alliance of Independent Citizens (Liberální aliance nezávislých občanů)
 * Liberal-Environmental Party (Liberálně-ekologická strana)
 * Masaryk Democratic Party (Masarykova demokratická strana)
 * The Moravians (Moravané)
 * National Democracy (Národní demokracie)
 * Party for the Open Society (Strana pro otevřenou společnost)
 * Party of Common Sense (Strana zdravého rozumu)
 * Rally for the Republic – Republican Party of Czechoslovakia (Sdružení pro republiku – Republikánská strana Československa)
 * Right Bloc (Volte Pravý Blok)
 * Severočeši.cz, cross-spectrum regional party from northern Bohemia.
 * SNK European Democrats (SNK Evropští demokraté)
 * Socialist Alternative Future (Socialistická alternativa Budoucnost)
 * Swiss Democracy (Švýcarská demokracie)
 * The Left (Levice)
 * Tricolour Citizens' Movement (Trikolóra hnutí občanů)
 * Urza.cz (Nevolte Urza.cz)
 * Voice (Hlas)
 * Volt Czech Republic (Volt)
 * Workers' Party of Social Justice (Dělnická strana sociální spravedlnosti)

Defunct parties
From 1990 to 1999.
 * Christian Democratic Party (Křesťanskodemokratická strana)
 * Civic Movement (Občanské hnutí)
 * Friends of Beer Party (Strana přátel piva)
 * Left Bloc (Levý blok)
 * Liberal Social Union (Liberálně sociální unie)
 * Movement for Autonomous Democracy–Party for Moravia and Silesia (Hnutí za samosprávnou demokracii – Společnost pro Moravu a Slezsko)
 * Party of the Democratic Left (Strana demokratické levice)

From 2000 to 2009.
 * Association of Radicals for the United States of Europe (Asociace radikálů za Spojené státy evropské)
 * Civic Democratic Alliance (Občanská demokratická aliance)
 * Democratic Union (Demokratická unie)
 * Party of Conservative Accord (Strana konzervativní smlouvy)
 * Party for Life Security (Strana za životní jistoty)

From 2010 to 2019.
 * Civic Conservative Party (Občanská konzervativní strana)
 * Freedom Union – Democratic Union (Unie svobody – Demokratická unie)
 * Dawn – National Coalition (Úsvit-Národní koalice)
 * European Democratic Party (Evropská demokratická strana)
 * Head Up – Electoral Bloc (Hlavu vzhůru – volební blok)
 * Liberal Reform Party (Liberální reformní strana)
 * National Party (Národní strana)
 * Path of Change (Cesta změny)
 * Public Affairs (Věci veřejné)
 * Realists (Realisté)
 * Workers' Party (Dělnická strana)

From 2020
 * National Socialists – Left of the 21st century (Národní socialisté)
 * Czech National Socialist Party (Česká strana národně socialistická)
 * Independence Party of the Czech Republic (Strana nezávislosti České republiky)
 * Party of Civic Rights (Strana práv občanů)


text:
List of political parties in Denmark

This article lists political parties in Denmark.

Denmark has a multi-party system, with two or three major parties complemented by several other significant parties. The government typically consists of a major party in coalition with, or supported by, a number of smaller parties. No party has won an outright majority since 1903. All governments since then have either been one-party minority governments or coalitions between two or more parties.da

The Ministry of the Interior and Housing registers and validates party names and the official party letters for all parties that participate in national elections. On ballots, the parties are sorted alphabetically by party letter.

Local parties
See List of regional and local political parties in Denmark

Formerly represented
The following lists defunct partiet that were previously represented in national parliament, in either the Folketing, Landsting or European Parliament.

Marginal parties
The following lists defunct parties that were never represented in national parliament.

title: List of political parties in Denmark


text:
List of political parties in Estonia

This article lists political parties in Estonia. Estonia has a multi-party system with numerous parties, in which no one party is likely to gain power alone, and parties must work with each other to form coalition governments.

Major parties
Parties represented in the Riigikogu or the European Parliament.

Former parties

 * Agrarian-Center Party (Estonia) (Eestimaa Talupidajate Keskliit)
 * Coalition Party and Country Union (Koonderakond ja Maarahva Ühendus)
 * Coalition Party and Country Union (Estonian Coalition Party/Estonian Country People's Union) (?)
 * Communist Party of Estonia (Eestimaa Kommunistlik Partei)
 * Communist Party (on CPSU platform) (Eestimaa Kommunistlik Partei (NLKP platvormil))
 * Conservative People's Party of Estonia (1990) (Eesti Konservatiivne Rahvaerakond)
 * Constitution Party (Konstitutsioonierakond)
 * Democratic Party (Estonia) (Eesti Demokraatlik Erakond)
 * Estonian Biodiversity Party (Elurikkuse Erakond)
 * Estonian Blue Party (Eesti Sinine Erakond)
 * Estonian Christian Democratic Party (Eesti Kristlik-Demokraatlik Erakond)
 * Estonian Christian Democratic Union (Eesti Kristlik-Demokraatlik Liit)
 * Estonian Christian Democrats (Erakond Eesti Kristlikud Demokraadid)
 * Estonian Country Union (Eesti Maaliit)
 * Estonian Democratic Justice Union (Eesti Demokraatlik Õigusliit)
 * Estonian Democratic Labour Party (Eesti Demokraatlik Tööerakond)
 * Estonian Entrepreneurs' Party (Eesti Ettevõtjate Erakond)
 * Estonian Free Party (Eesti Vabaerakond)
 * Estonian Greens (Eesti Rohelised)
 * Estonian Independence Party (Eesti Iseseisvuspartei)
 * Estonian Labour Party (Eesti Tööerakond)
 * Estonian Left Party (Eesti Vasakpartei)
 * Estonian National Independence Party (Eesti Rahvusliku Sõltumatuse Partei)
 * Estonian National Progressive Party (Eesti Rahvuslik Eduerakond)
 * Estonian Party of Pensioners and Families (Eesti Pensionäride ja Perede Erakond)
 * Estonian People's Party (Eesti Rahvaerakond)
 * Estonian Progressive People's Party (Eesti Rahvameelne Eduerakond)
 * Estonian Radical Socialist Party (Eesti Radikaal-Sotsialistlik Partei)
 * Estonian Rural League (Eesti Maarahva Liit)
 * Estonian Rural People's Union (Eesti Maarahva Liit)
 * Estonian Social Democratic Party (Eesti Sotsiaaldemokraatlik Partei)
 * Estonian Social Democratic Independence Party (Eesti Sotsiaaldemokraatlik Iseseisvuspartei)
 * Estonian Social Democratic Workers' Party (Eesti Sotsiaaldemokraatlik Tööliste Partei)
 * Farmers' Union (Põllumeeste Kogu)
 * Free Democratic Party (Estonia) (Eesti Vabad Demokraadid)
 * Free Estonia (Demokraatlik Ühendus "Vaba Eesti")
 * Independent Royalist Party of Estonia (Sõltumatud Kuningriiklased)
 * Joint Soviet of Work Collectives (?)
 * Liberal People's Party (Estonia) (Eesti Liberaalne Rahvapartei)
 * Libertas Estonia (Libertas Eesti Erakond)
 * Moderate (Social Democratic Party/Country Centre Party) (?)
 * National Coalition Party Pro Patria (Rahvuslik Koonderakond "Isamaa")
 * New Estonia (Uus Eesti), merged to People's Union of Estonia
 * Northern Estonian Citizens' Party (Põhja-Eesti Kodanike Partei)
 * Party of People's Unity (Rahva Ühtsuse Erakond)
 * Peasants' Party (Estonia) (Eesti Talurahva Erakond)
 * People's Party (Estonia) (Rahvaerakond)
 * People's Party of Republicans and Conservatives (Vabariiklaste ja Konservatiivide Rahvaerakond)
 * Popular Front of Estonia (Rahvarinne)
 * Pro Patria Union (Isamaaliit)
 * Progress Party (Estonia) (?)
 * Radical Democratic Party (Estonia) (?)
 * Republican Coalition Party (Estonian Republican Coalition Party) (Vabariiklaste Koonderakond)
 * Res Publica Party (Erakond Res Publica)
 * Safe Home (coalition)
 * TOGETHER organization points to sovereignty (KOOS organisatsioon osutab suveräänsusele)
 * The Right Wingers (People's Party of Republicans Conservatives) (?)
 * RKEI and ERSP (Pro Patria National Coalition and Estonian National Independence Party) (?)
 * Russian Social Democratic Party (Vene Sotsiaaldemokraatlik Partei Eestis)
 * Swedish People's League (Rootsi Rahvaliit)
 * Vaps Movement (Eesti Vabadussõjalaste Keskliit)
 * Russian Party in Estonia (Vene Erakond Eestis)

title: List of political parties in Estonia


text:
List of political parties in Greece

From the restoration of democracy in 1974 to the 2012 elections, the characteristic Greek political system was predominantly a two-party system. The historically dominant parties were New Democracy and the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK). Under the electoral system, a party needs to surpass a 3% threshold in the popular vote in order to enter parliament. Until 2023, the largest party used to get a 50-seat bonus (out of 300 seats), ostensibly to ensure elections returned viable governing majorities. The 2023 Greek legislative election was the first and only that was held without the 50-seat bonus rule. Although New Democracy achieved a large percentage of 40.7% and beat the opposition party by 20%, they fell short of forming a majority by 5 seats. The Hellenic Republic had a caretaker prime minister until the June 2023 Greek legislative election was held.

1915–1967
This period was mainly ruled between the right-wing and the centre.

The major parties that emerged were the People’s Party and the Liberal Party. In 1926, the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), which would later define the left for years, entered the parliament.

From 1950 to 1963, the predominant parties that won all elections in this period were the People’s Party (later Hellenic Rally) and the National Radical Union (ERE) (both from the right).

1974–2009
After the seven-year dictatorship ended, the former leader of ERE, Konstantinos Karamanlis, was called back from exile to form a new government and then created the New Democracy (ND) party. Monarchy was abolished in 1974, making the political parties the sole determinants of politics in Greece.

Further, 1974 saw the establishment of a new party, the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) under Andreas Papandreou, representing a socialist ideology. For the decades to come, PASOK and New Democracy were the two parties that dominated Greek politics, creating a formidable two-party system, with the communist party KKE coming third.

The party system during this period was characterised by strong bureaucratic clientelism.

2009–present
The global economic crisis that heavily affected Greece had an impact in reshaping the party system that had been stagnant for decades. Confidence in the traditional parties declined; this led to the end of the continuous two-party system and single-party governments. There was new movement towards the creation of coalitions and an increase in the number of parties entering parliament.

The party that rose through the crisis was the Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA). It finished second on the crucial May 2012 legislative elections and later won the 2015 elections. It was the first party from the left wing in Greece's history to win an election.

A new split in the party system ideology (created during the economic crisis) which was evident in the 2012 elections was a pro- or anti-European stance. This resulted in an unprecedented coalition between the major traditional parties New Democracy and PASOK and the minor party DIMAR. Similarly, the coalition that was created after the 2015 elections between SYRIZA, a left-wing party, and ANEL, a populist right party, was based on their common views regarding Europe.

This period of turmoil also saw the rise of the controversial far-right party Golden Dawn. It became a third party in parliament after the 2015 elections.

In 2018, the past major party PASOK merged with other centrist parties and created the Movement of Change (KINAL) formation.

The elections in 2019 saw a return to a single party government with the continuously dominant New Democracy claiming the majority in parliament.

Parties during the reign of King Otto (1833–1862)

 * English Party (Αγγλικό Κόμμα) (liberal, pro-English) (1824–1863)
 * French Party (Γαλλικό Κόμμα) (liberal, pro-French) (1824–1863)
 * Russian Party (Ρώσικο Κόμμα) (conservative, pro-Russian) (1825–1863)
 * Party of Radicals (Κόμμα των Ριζοσπαστών) (radical, pro-union) (1848–1864) in the United States of the Ionian Islands

Parties during the reign of King George I (1863–1913)

 * Liberal Party (Κόμμα Φιλελευθέρων) (Liberal) (1910–1961)
 * Nationalist Party (Κόμμα Εθνικόφρονων, K.E.) – Komma Ethnikofronon, KE (conservative, nationalist) (1865–1909)
 * Modernist Party (Νεωτεριστικόν Κομμα, Ν.Κ.) – Neoteristikon Komma, ΝΚ (Liberal, Liberal Nationalist) (1875–1910)

Parties during the reign of King Constantine I - Alexander – George II (1913–1924)

 * Freethinkers' Party (Κόμμα των Ελευθερόφρονων K.E.) – Komma Eleftherofronon (Nationalist, Royalist) (1922–1936)
 * Liberal Party (Κόμμα Φιλελευθέρων) (Liberal, Liberal Nationalist) (1910–1961)
 * People's Party (Λαϊκόν Κόμμα Λ.Κ.) – Laiko Komma, LK (Conservative, Royalist) (1920–1958)

Parties during the Second Hellenic Republic (1924–1935)

 * Agrarian Party (Άγροτικό Κόμμα, A.K.) – Agrotikon Komma, AK (1926–1956)
 * Conservative Democratic Party (Συντιριτικό Δημοκρατικόν Κόμμα, Σ.Δ.Κ.) – Syntiritiko Demokratikon Komma, SDK (1932–1936)
 * Democratic Union (Δημοκρατική Ένωσις, Δ.E.) – Demokratiki Enosis (Liberal) (1926–?)
 * Democratic Socialist Party of Greece (Δημοκρατικό Σοσιαλιστικό Κόμμα Ελλάδος, ΔΣΚ) – Demokratiko Sosialistiko Komma Ellados, DSK (Democratic Socialist) (1935–1950)
 * Farmers' and Workers' Party (Άγροτικόν και Έργατικόν Κόμμα, Α.Ε.Κ.) – Agrotikon kai Ergatikon Komma/Agrotergatiko Komma, AEK (Rural radical) (1932–1936)
 * General People's Radical Union (Γενική Λαïκή Ριζοσπαστική Ένωση, Γ.Λ.Ρ.Ε) – Geniki Laiki Rizospastiki Enosis, GLRE (1932–1936)
 * Liberal Party (Κόμμα Φιλελευθέρων) – Komma Fileleutheron (Liberal, Liberal Nationalist) (1910–1961)
 * Greek National Socialist Party (Ελληνικό Εθνικό Σοσιαλιστικό Κόμμα) – Elliniko Ethniko Sosialistiko Komma (National Socialist) (1932)
 * Jewish Political Union (Εβραϊκή Πολιτική Ένωση) – Evraiki Politiki Enosi (1926–1932)
 * Macedonian Union (Μακεδονική Ένωση) – Makedoniki Enosi (Conservative) (1935)
 * National Radical Party (Εθνική Ριζοσπαστική Κόμμα, E.Ρ.K.) – Ethnikon Rizospastikon Komma, ERK (Conservative) (1932–1936)
 * National Unionist Party (Εθνικόν Ενωτικόν Κόμμα, Ε.Ε.Κ.) – Ethnikon Enotikon Komma, EEK (1935–1950)
 * People's Party (Λαϊκόν Κόμμα, Λ.Κ.) – Laiko Komma, LK (Conservative, Royalist) (1920–1958)
 * Progressive Party (Προοδευτικόν Κόμμα, Π.Κ.) – Proodeftikon Komma, PK (1928–1964, 1981)
 * Refugees' Liberal Party (Φιλελευθέρων Προσφιγικόν Κόμμα, Φ.Π.Κ.) – Fileleftheron Prosfijikon Komma, FPK (1926–?)
 * Socialist Party of Greece (Σοσιαλιστικό Κόμμα Ελλάδας, ΣΚΕ) – Socialistikó Kómma Elládas, SKE (Socialist, Svolist) (1920–1953)
 * Union of Royalists (Ένωσις Βασιλικών, EB) – Enosis Vasilikon (Monarchist-Conservative) (1935)

Parties during the restoration of King George II (1936–1946)

 * Agrarian Party (Άγροτικό Κόμμα, A.K.) – Agrotikon Komma, AK (1926–1956)
 * Conservative Democratic Party (Συντιριτικό Δημοκρατικόν Κόμμα, Σ.Δ.Κ.) – Syntiritiko Demokratikon Komma, SDK (1932–1936)
 * Democratic Socialist Party of Greece (Δημοκρατικό Σοσιαλιστικό Κόμμα Ελλάδος, ΔΣΚ) – Demokratiko Sosialistiko Komma Ellados, DSK (Democratic Socialist) (1935–1950)
 * Democratic Union (Δημοκρατική Ένωσις, Δ.E.) – Demokratiki Enosis (Liberal) (1926–?)
 * Farmers' and Workers' Party (Άγροτικόν και Έργατικόν Κόμμα, Α.Ε.Κ.) – Agrotikon kai Ergatikon Komma/Agrotergatiko Komma, AEK (Rural radical) (1932–1936)
 * General People's Radical Union (Γενική Λαïκή Ριζοσπαστική Ένωση, Γ.Λ.Ρ.Ε) – Geniki Laiki Rizospastiki Enosis, GLRE (??) (1932–1936)
 * Liberal Party (Κόμμα Φιλελευθέρων) – Komma Fileleutheron (Liberal, Liberal Nationalist) (1910–1961)
 * National Party of Greece (Εθνικόν Κόμμα 'Ελλάδος, E.Κ.E.) – Ethnikon Komma Ellados, E.K.E. (Monarchist, Conservative) (1946–1967)
 * National People's Party (Εθνικόν Λαϊκόν Κόμμα, E.Λ.Κ.) – Ethniko Laiko Komma, E.L.K. (1936)
 * National Political Union (Εθνική Πολιτική Ένωσις, Ε.Π.Ε.) – Ethniki Politiki Enosis, E.P.E. (Liberal) (1946)
 * National Radical Party (Εθνική Ριζοσπαστική Κόμμα, E.Ρ.K.) – Ethnikon Rizospastikon Komma, ERK (Conservative) (1932–1936)
 * National Unionist Party (Εθνικόν Ενωτικόν Κόμμα, Ε.Ε.Κ.)– Ethnikon Enotikon Komma, EEK (1935–1950)
 * People's Party (Λαϊκόν Κόμμα, Λ.Κ.) – Laiko Komma, LK (Conservative, Royalist) (1920–1958)
 * Progressive Party (Προοδευτικόν Κόμμα, Π.Κ.) – Proodeftikon Komma, PK (1928–1964, 1981)
 * Reform Party (Μεταρρυθμιστικόν Κόμμα, M.K.) – Metarrythmistikon Komma, MK (1936)
 * Union of Agrarian Parties (Ένωσις Άγροτικόν Κομμάτων, Ε.Α.Κ.) – Enosis Agrotikon Kommaton, EAK (Agrarian) (1946)
 * Union of the Nationally Minded (Ένωσις Εθνικοφρόνων, Ε.Ε.) – Enosis Ethnikofronon, ΕΕ (Monarchist, Conservative) (1946)
 * United Order of Patriot-Thinkers (Ηνωμένη Παράταξις Εθνικοφρόνων, Η.Π.Ε.) – Inomeni Parataxis Ethnikofronon, I.P.E. (Conservative) (1946)

Parties during the reigns of Kings Paul and Constantine II (1946–1973)

 * 4th of August Party (Κόμμα 4ης Αυγούστου) – Kómma 4is Avgoústou, Κ4Α (Nationalist) (1965–1977)
 * Center Union (Ένωση Κέντρου) – Enosi Kentrou, E.K. (Liberal) (1961–1967)
 * Christian Democracy (Χριστιανική Δημοκρατία) – Christianikē Dēmokratia (socialist) (1963)
 * Communist Party of Greece (Interior) (Κομμουνιστικό Κόμμα Ελλάδας Εσωτερικού) – KKE Esoterikou (Eurocommunism) (1968–1986)
 * Democratic Socialist Party of Greece (Δημοκρατικό Σοσιαλιστικό Κόμμα Ελλάδος, ΔΣΚ) – Demokratiko Sosialistiko Komma Ellados, DSK (Democratic Socialist) (1935–1950)
 * Greek Rally (Ελληνικός Συναγερμός, Ε.Σ.) – Ellinikos Synagermos, E.S. (Conservative, Royalist) (1951–1956)
 * Politically Independent Alignment (Πολιτική Ανεξάρτητός Παράταξις, Π.Α.Π.) – Politiki Anexartitos Parataxis, PAP (Metaxist) (1950–?)
 * Left Liberals (Αριστεροί Φιλελεύθεροι, Α.Φ.) – Aristeroi Fileleutheroi, AF (communist) (1950–?)
 * Liberal Democratic Center (Φιλελεύθερον Δημοκρατικόν Κέντρον, Φ.Δ.Κ.) – Filelefthero Dimokratiko Kentro, FDK (Liberal) (1965–1966)
 * Liberal Democratic Union (Φιλελεύθερη Δημοκρατική Ένωση, Φ.Δ.Ε.) (1956–1957)
 * Liberal Party (Κόμμα Φιλελευθέρων) (Liberal, Liberal Nationalist) (1910–1961)
 * Movement for Democracy and Socialism (Κίνημα Δημοκρατίας και Σοσιαλισμού) – (socialist) (1963)
 * National Party of Greece (Εθνικόν Κόμμα 'Ελλάδος, E.Κ.E.) – Ethnikon Komma Ellados, E.K.E. (Monarchist-Conservative) (1946–1967)
 * National Progressive Center Union (Εθνική Προοδευτική Ένωσις Κέντρου, E.Π.Ε.Κ.) – Ethniki Proodeutiki Enosi Kentrou, EPEK (1952)
 * National Progressive Party (Δημοκρατικό Προοδευτικό Κόμμα, Δ.Π.Κ.) – Dimokratiko Proodeutiko Komma, DPK (1950–?)
 * National Radical Union (Εθνική Ριζοσπαστική Ένωσις, E.Ρ.E.) – Ethniki Rizospastiki Enosis, E.R.E. (Conservative, Royalist) (1955–1967)
 * New Party (Νέο Κόμμα, N.K.) – Neo Komma, NK (conservative) (1947–1951)
 * Pandemocratic Agrarian Front (Πανδημοκρατικόν Αγροτικόν Μέτωπον) – Pandimokratikon Agrotikon Metopon (Socialist) (1961)
 * Party of Christian Democracy (1956)
 * Party of I. Sofianopoulos (Κόμμα του Ι. Σοφιανόπουλου) – Komma tou I. Sofianopoulou (communist) (1950–?)
 * Party of Progressive Liberals (Κόμμα των Προοδευτικών Φιλελευθέρων) – Komma ton Prodethikon Fileleutheron (liberal) (1950–?)
 * People's Social Party (Λαϊκόν Κοινωνικόν Κόμμα, Λ.Κ.Κ.) – Laikon Koinonikon Komma, LKK (1955)
 * Progressive Party (Προοδευτικόν Κόμμα, Π.Κ.) – Proodeftikon Komma, PK (1928–1964, 1981)
 * Progressive Rural Democratic Union (1958)
 * Rally of Farmers and Workers (Parataxis Agroton kai Ergazomenon) – ?? (Agrarian) (1951–1952)
 * Socialist Party-Democratic Popular Union (Σοσιαλιστικό Κόμμα-Ένωση Λαïκής Δημοκρατίας, Σ.Κ.-Ε.Λ.Δ.) – Sosialistiko Komma-Enosi Laikis Dimokratias, SK-ELD (Socialist) (1950–1952)
 * Union of the People's Party (1958)
 * United Democratic Left (Ενιαία Δημοκρατική Αριστερά, Ε.Δ.Α. – Eniaia Dimokratiki Aristera, EDA (Communist) (1951–1977)

Parties during the Third Hellenic Republic (1974–present)

 * Centre Union - New Forces (Ένωσις Κέντρου-Νέες Δυνάμεις) – Enosi Kentrou-Nees Dynameis (Social Democratic, Liberal) (1974–1977)
 * Coalition of Left, of Movements and Ecology (Συνασπισμός της Αριστεράς,των Κινημάτων και της Οικολογίας, ΣΥΝ.) – Synaspismos tis Aristeras, ton Kinimaton kai tis Oikologias, SYN (Eurocommunism, Democratic socialism) (1991–2013)
 * Democratic Alignment (Δημοκρατική Παράταξη, Δ.Π.) – Dimokratiki Parataxi, DP (1977)
 * Democratic Alliance (Δημοκρατική Συμμαχία, ΔΗ.ΣΥ.) – Dimokratiki Symmahia, DS (Centrist, Neoliberal) (2010–2012)
 * Democratic Left (Δημοκρατική Αριστερά, ΔΗΜ.ΑΡ.) – Dimokratiki Aristera, DA (Social Democratic, Democratic Socialist) (2010–2022)
 * Democratic Renewal (Δημοκρατική Ανανέωση, DH.ANA) – Dimokratiki Ananeosi, DIANA (Conservative) (1985–1994)
 * Democratic Responsibility (Δημοκρατική Ευθύνη, DHM.E. – Dimokratiki Efthini, DE (Patriotism, Social liberalism, Economic Liberalism, Pro-Europeanism, Syncretic politics) (2016–2022)
 * Democratic Revival Δημοκρατική Αναγέννηση DIMAN - ΔΗΜ.ΑΝ. Greek nationalism Christian democracy
 * Drassi (Δράση) (Liberalism, Classical liberalism, Postnationalism, Decentralization, Economic liberalism) (2009–2019)
 * Drachmi Greek Democratic Movement Five Stars (Patriotic Socialism, Eurosceptic, Single-issue politics, Populism) (2013–2015)
 * Greek Left (Ελληνική Αριστερά) (Eurocommunism, Radicalism, (Democratic Socialist) (1987–1992)
 * Hellenic Front (Ελληνικό Μέτωπο) – Elliniko Metopo (Nationalist, Rightist) (1994–2004)
 * Hellenic Women's Political Party (Κόμμα Ελληνίδων Γυναικών) – Komma Ellinidon Ginaikon (Feminist) (?–?)
 * Left Radical Movement (Αριστερή Ριζοσπαστική Κίνηση) – Aristeri Rizospastiki Kinisi, A.R.K. (Socialism) (2015–2021)
 * Liberal Alliance (Φιλελεύθερη Συμμαχία) –, FI.SY), Fileleftheri Summaxia, FS (Neoliberalism, Progressivism) (2007-2023)
 * Liberal Democratic Union-Socialist Party (Φιλελεύθερη Δημοκρατική Ένωση-Σοσιαλιστικό Κόμμα, Φ.Δ.Ε.-Σ.Κ.) (1974)
 * Liberal Party (Κόμμα Φιλελευθέρων) (1980–2012)
 * The Liberals (Οι Φιλελεύθεροι) – Oi Fileleftheroi (Liberal) (1999–2004)
 * Movement of Free Citizens (Κίνημα Ελευθέρων Πολιτών, Κ.Ε.Π.) – Kinima Eleftheron Politon, K.E.P. (Liberal, Liberal Conservative) (2001–2002)
 * Movement for a United Communist Party of Greece (Κίνηση για Ενιαίο, ΚΚΕ) (Communist) (1993–1996)
 * National Alignment (Εθνική Παράταξις, Ε.Π.)- Ethniki Parataxis, E.P. (Nationalist, Royalist) (1977–1981)
 * National Creation (Εθνική Δημιουργία- Ethniki Dhmiourgia, (Rightist, Nationalist) (2022–2023)
 * National Democratic Union (Εθνική Δημοκρατική Ένωσις) – Ethniki Dimokratiki Enosis (Rightist) (1974)
 * National Political Union (Εθνική Πολιτική Ένωσις, Ε.Π.ΕΝ.) – Ethniki Politiki Enosis, E.P.EN. (Rightist, Nationalist) (1984–1996)
 * National Popular Consciousness (Eθνική Λαϊκή Συνείδηση, Ε.ΛΑ.ΣΥΝ.) - Ethniki Laiki Syneidisi, E.LA.SYN. (Far Right,Greek Nationalism,Anti - immigration,National Conservatism,Euroscepticism) (2019-2023)
 * New Reformist Radical Reconstruction (Νέα Μεταρρυθμιστική Ριζοσπαστική Ανασυγκρότηση, ΝΕΑ ΜΕ.Ρ.Α.) (National Conservative, Liberal Conservative) (2014–2015)
 * Organisation of Communists Marxists-Leninists of Greece (Οργάνωση Κομμουνιστών Μαρξιστών-Λενινιστών Ελλάδας, ΟΚΜΛΕ) (Communist, Maoist) (1982–1993)
 * Panhellenic Macedonian Front (Πανελλήνιο Μακεδονικό Μέτωπο, ΠΑ.Μ.ΜΕ.) (2009)
 * Party of Democratic Socialism (Κόμμα του Δημοκρατικού Σοσιαλισμού, ΚΟΔΗΣΟ) – Komma tou Dimokratikou Sosialismou, KODISO (social democratic, democratic socialist) (1979–1989)
 * Party of Hellenism (Κόμμα Ελληνισμού) – Komma Ellinismou (Nationalist, Populist) (1984–2004)
 * Party of New Liberals (Kόμμα των Nεοφιλελευθέρων, K.N.) – Komma ton Neofileftheron, KN (Liberal, Liberal Conservative) (1977–1978)
 * Patriotic Alliance (Greek: Πατριωτική Συμμαχία) – Patriotiki Symmachia, PATRI.S. (Nationalist, Far Right) (2004–2007)
 * Peoples Democratic Unity – LDE (1977)
 * Political Spring (Πολιτική Άνοιξη) – POL.AN (Conservative, Nationalist) (1993–2004)
 * Popular Union of Bipartisan Social Groups (Λαϊκές Ενώσεις Υπερκομματικών Κοινωνικών Ομάδων) – LEFKO (Populist) (1989–?)
 * Progress and Left Forces Alliance (Συμμαχία Προοδευτικών και Αριστερών Δυνάμεων) (Democratic socialism, Christian socialism, Eurocommunism, Radicalism) (1977–1981)
 * Progressive Party (Προοδευτικόν Κόμμα, Π.Κ.) – Proodeftikon Komma, PK (1928–1964, 1981)
 * Front Line (Πρώτη Γραμμή) – Proti Grammi (Nationalist) (1999–?)
 * Radical Left Front (Μέτωπο Ριζοσπαστικής Αριστεράς) – ME.R.A. (Radical Left) (1999–2009)
 * Radical Movement of Social Democratic Alliance (Ριζοσπαστική Κίνηση Σοσιαλδημοκρατικής Συμμαχίας) – RIKSSY (Social democracy) (2012–2013)
 * Radical National Rally (Ριζοσπαστικός Εθνικός Συναγερμός) – Rizospastikós Ethnikós Synagermós, RIZ.ES (National conservatism) (2015-2018)
 * Renewing Communist Ecological Left (Ανανεωτική Κομμουνιστική Οικολογική Αριστερά) – AKOA (Eurocommunism, environmentalism) (1987–2013)
 * Reformers for Democracy and Development (Μεταρρυθμιστές της Αριστεράς για τη Δημοκρατία και την Ανάπτυξη) (2014–?)
 * Republican Union (Δημοκρατική Ένωσις, Δ.Ε.) – Dimokratiki Enosis, DE
 * Revolutionary Communist Party of Greece (Επαναστατικό Κουμουνιστικό Κόμμα 'Ελλάδος) – Epanastatiko Koumounistiko Komma Ellados, EKKE (Communist) (1974–?)
 * Society – Political Party of the Successors of Kapodistrias (Κοινωνία - Πολιτική παράταξη συνεχιστών του Καποδίστρια) – Koinonía - Politikí parátaxi synechistón tou Kapodístria, KOINONIA (kapodistrism) (2008-2020)
 * Union for the Homeland and the People (Ένωση για την Πατρίδα και τον Λαό) – Enosi gia tin Patrida kai ton Lao, EPAL (Christian Democracy) (2014–2015)
 * Teleia (Τελεία) – Teleia (Liberalism) (2014–2017)
 * The River (Το Ποτάμι) – To Potami (Social Liberalism, Social democracy) (2014–2019)
 * Unitary Front (Ενωτική Κίνηση) – Enotiki Kinisi, (Democratic socialism) (2011–2013)
 * United Democratic Left (Ενιαία Δημοκρατική Αριστερά) – Eniaia Dimokratiki Aristera (Democratic socialism, Communism, Pacifism) (1951–1977)
 * United Left (Ενωμένη Αριστερά) (Communism, Democratic socialism, Eurocommunism) (1974–1977)
 * United Nationalist Movement (Ενιαίο Εθνικιστικό Κίνημα, ΕΝ.Ε.Κ.) – Eniaio Ethnikistiko Kinima, ENEK (Extreme Right, Nationalist) (1979–1989)
 * United Socialist Alignment of Greece (Ενιαία Σοσιαλιστική Παράταξη Ελλάδας, Ε.Σ.Π.Ε.) – Eniaia Sosialistiki Parataxi Elladas (Socialist) (1984–1989)
 * Golden Dawn (Λαϊκός Σύνδεσμος – Χρυσή Αυγή) – Laïkós Sýndesmos – Chrysí Avgí (Ultranationalism) (1993–2020, banned)

title: List of political parties in Greece


text:
List of political parties in Hungary

This article lists political parties in Hungary. Hungary has a multi-party system since it gained independence following the Revolutions of 1989. Currently, the political landscape of Hungary is dominated by the Fidesz – Hungarian Civic Alliance, which has a supermajority, while the largest party of the opposition is the Tisza Party (in the EP) while the Democratic Coalition is the biggest opposition party in the National Assembly.

Between the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and the Ausgleich (1867)
After the Revolution of 1848 three different political directions were created - '47ers, '48ers and '49ers.

title: List of political parties in Hungary


text:
List of political parties in Iceland

Iceland has a multi-party system with many political parties, in which often no one party has a chance of gaining power alone, and parties must work with each other to form coalition governments.

Parliamentary representation from September 2021
Eight parties were elected at the September 2021 election. The box below shows the distribution of seats in the incumbent parliament.

Defunct parties

 * Alliance of Social Democrats
 * Best Party (Besti flokkurinn)
 * Bright Future (Björt framtið)
 * Citizens' Movement (Borgarahreyfingin)
 * Citizen's Party (Borgaraflokkurinn)
 * Communist Party (Kommúnistaflokkurinn)
 * Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist) (Kommúnistaflokkurinn (m-l))
 * Democracy Movement (Lýðræðishreyfingin)
 * Dawn (Dögun)
 * Home Rule Party (Heimastjórnarflokkurinn)
 * Households Party (Flokkur Heimilanna)
 * Iceland Democratic Party (Lýðræðisvaktin)
 * Icelandic Movement – Living Land (Íslandshreyfingin – lifandi land)
 * Liberal Party (Frjálslyndi flokkurinn)
 * National Awakening (Þjóðvaki)
 * Nationalist Party (Flokkur Þjóðernissinna)
 * National Preservation Party (Þjóðvarnarflokkurinn)
 * New Force (Nýtt afl)
 * Old Independence Party (Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn eldri)
 * People's Alliance (Alþýðubandalagið)
 * People's Unity Party – Socialist Party (Sameiningarflokkur alþýðu - Sósíalistaflokkurinn)
 * Rainbow (Regnboginn)
 * Right-Green People's Party (Hægri grænir, flokkur fólksins)
 * Rural Party (Landsbyggðarflokkurinn)
 * Social Democratic Party (Alþýðuflokkurinn)
 * Solidarity (Samstaða)
 * The Movement (Hreyfingin)
 * Union of Liberals and Leftists (Samtök frjálslyndra og vinstri manna)
 * Women's List (Kvennalistinn)

title: List of political parties in Iceland