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Herefordshire

Herefordshire is a ceremonial county in the West Midlands region of England. It is bordered by Shropshire to the north, Worcestershire to the east, Gloucestershire to the south-east, and the Welsh counties of Monmouthshire and Powys to the west. The city of Hereford is the largest settlement and the county town.

The county is one of the most rural in England, with an area of 2180 km2 and a population of 187,034, giving a density of 88/km2 (228/sq mi). After Hereford (53,112) the largest settlements are Leominster (10,938), Ross-on-Wye (10,582), and Ledbury (8,862). For local government purposes Herefordshire is a unitary authority area.

The centre of Herefordshire is lowland which is crossed by the River Wye and its tributary, the Lugg. To the east are the Malvern Hills, a national landscape, which straddle the boundary with Worcestershire. The south of the county contains the northern part of the Wye Valley, also a national landscape, which stretches into Wales. In the west, the ground rises to the Black Mountains range; this contains the Black Mountain (Twyn Llech), which lies on the Powys border and is the highest point in the county, at 703.6 m.

The county is situated in the historic Welsh Marches. The land use is mostly agricultural, and the county is known for its fruit and cider production, and for the Hereford cattle breed.

Physical geography
The River Wye, which at 135 mi is the fourth-longest in the United Kingdom, enters the county after briefly being its border with Powys. It flows through both Hereford and Ross-on-Wye before returning to Wales. Leominster is situated on the River Lugg, a tributary of the Wye.

There are two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in the county. The Wye Valley is located in the river's valleys south of Hereford, while the Malvern Hills are in the east of the county, along its border with Worcestershire.

History

Herefordshire is one of the 39 historic counties of England. Herefordshire County Council was created in 1889.

In 1974, the administrative county formed in 1889 was merged with that of neighbouring Worcestershire to form Hereford and Worcester. Within this, Herefordshire was covered by the local government districts of South Herefordshire, Hereford, and part of Malvern Hills and Leominster districts. However, the county was dissolved in 1998, resulting in the return of Herefordshire and Worcestershire as counties.

The county and unitary authority created in 1998 has almost identical borders to the pre-1974 county; a small area at Park Wood had been transferred from Mathon to West Malvern in 1986 and so went to Worcestershire rather than Herefordshire in 1998, but otherwise the re-established border between the two counties was identical to the pre-1974 boundary.

Constitution
From 1974 to 1998, Herefordshire was part of the former non-metropolitan county of Hereford and Worcester.

Herefordshire was reconstituted both as a new district as "County of Herefordshire" and as a new county (coextensive with the area of the aforementioned district) (effective 1 April 1998) by Statutory Instrument as defined in The Hereford and Worcester (Structural, Boundary and Electoral Changes) Order 1996. This Order established Herefordshire as a unitary authority on 1 April 1998, combining county and district functions into a single council. Herefordshire is also commonly called a unitary district, but this is not official nomenclature. Herefordshire is officially known as a unitary authority for local government purposes. It is governed by Herefordshire Council which was created in 1998 with the new unitary district that absorbed the previous administrative areas of Hereford City Council, South Herefordshire District Council, most of Leominster District Council, and part of Malvern Hills District Council, all within the previous non-metropolitan county of Hereford and Worcester, whose functions the new authority inherited within its area. The remainder of Malvern Hills district absorbed the Worcestershire part of Leominster district (the area around Tenbury Wells) and continued to constitute a (smaller) district within the new two-tier county of Worcestershire.

The Lieutenancies Act 1997 made Herefordshire a ceremonial county, covering the exact area of the unitary district. For Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS 3 region (code UKG11) and is one of three counties that comprise the "Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Warwickshire" NUTS 2 region.

Demographics
In Herefordshire, the population size has increased by 2.0%, from around 183,500 in 2011 to 187,100 in 2021. This is lower than the overall increase for England (6.6%), where the population grew by nearly 3.5 million to 56,489,800.

As of the 2021 census, 91.1% of the population identified as 'White British', and 5.1% as 'White Other'. The 'White Other' group is largely made up of migrants from central and Eastern Europe who began moving into the county in the early 2000's, initially for agricultural work, but more recently to work in other sectors such as health care, catering and hospitality. Poland and Romania are the two most common non-UK countries of birth for foreign born people in Herefordshire.

Christianity is the dominant religion in Herefordshire at 54.9% of the population as of 2021 (a decline from 67.8% at the 2011 census). Muslims make up 0.4% of the population, Buddhists 0.3% and Hindus 0.2%.

Travellers
Gypsies and Travellers have historically been Herefordshire's largest minority ethnic group. They are made up of three main groups:
 * Romanichal or Romani
 * Irish Travellers
 * New Travellers or New Age Travellers

As of the 2021 census, they number 600 people, at around 0.2% of the county's population.

Romany Gypsies and Irish Travellers fall within the definition of a minority ethnic group under the Race Relations Amendment Act (2000). There were approximately 400 people (0.2%) within this minority group in the county at the 2011 Census.

Economy
Bulmers Cider in Hereford is the world's largest cider factory, and has the world's largest vat (for Strongbow), built in 1975. Painter Brothers (part of Balfour Beatty) in the north of Hereford, is the UK's largest manufacturer of electricity pylons (transmission towers), broadcasting masts, the Callender-Hamilton bridge, and rail electrification structures. Special Metals Wiggin, part of Special Metals Corporation, based at Hereford was the main producer of nickel alloys in Europe, with a large site directly north of Painter Brothers. Cargill Meats Europe (formerly Sun Valley) have a large poultry meat processing facility, processing chickens from around Herefordshire.

Cadbury (Mondelēz International) make milk chocolate crumb near Marlbrook (near Leominster). Weston's Cider is in Much Marcle, who also make Stowford Press. Wye Fruit Ltd is in the north of Ledbury on the B4214 and is a large site of Amcor, and further west is Universal Beverages (UBL), owned by Heineken since 2007 where it cans cider. The site of Ledbury Preserves of RHM made Robertson's jam, mincemeat and marmalade and closed in 2008 when production moved to Cambridgeshire. Holden Aluminium Technologies are a sports car chassis manufacturer at Linton. Kingspan Insulation is based at Pembridge. BT's Madley Communications Centre, claims to be the world's largest earth station. Tyrrells Potato Crisps are at Dilwyn west of Leominster.

This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Herefordshire at current basic prices published by the Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling.

includes hunting and forestry

includes energy and construction

includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured

Components may not sum to totals due to rounding

Many well-known cider producers are based in Herefordshire. These include Weston's cider of Much Marcle, and Bulmer's cider, from Hereford, which produces the UK market leader Strongbow.

Cities, towns and villages
The major settlements in the county include Hereford, which is the county town and Herefordshire's only city, as well as the towns of Leominster, Ledbury, Ross-on-Wye, Kington and Bromyard.

Employment
Most employment in Herefordshire is in agriculture, manufacturing and services. According to Herefordshire Council's online document "worklessness", 10% of people are unemployed in Herefordshire including out-of-work, homeless, ill and disabled and their carers. Cargill Meats and H. P. Bulmers are two of the largest private sector employers, with the Council and NHS being the largest public sector employers.

Westminster Parliamentary
There are two parliamentary constituencies in Herefordshire. , Ellie Chowns, a member of the Green Party, represents North Herefordshire and Jesse Norman, a member of the Conservative Party, represents Hereford and South Herefordshire.

Council
The council operates a cabinet-style council and has been independently controlled since 2019. The chairman is Sebastian Bowen and the leader of the council is David Hitchiner.

The cabinet leader is appointed yearly by the full council of 53 councillors. The cabinet leader then picks their deputy and up to eight other councillors to form the executive cabinet. Each cabinet member makes the decisions about the portfolio that they are allocated. Elections to the council are held every four years. Elections are conducted under the FPTP system with the 53 wards returning one councillor each. Elections have been held in 2000, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015 and 2019, with the next election due in 2023.

In the 2019 election, the Conservatives lost control of Herefordshire Council.

Education
Herefordshire has a comprehensive education system that also includes several independent schools. Most state secondary schools are for ages 11–16. Providers of further and higher education in the county include Hereford College of Arts, Hereford College of Education, Hereford Sixth Form College, Herefordshire and Ludlow College, Royal National College for the Blind, NMITE and Herefordshire and Worcestershire Group Training Association (HWGTA).

Agriculture
The agricultural economy has changed greatly in recent years within the county. The county is on the western edge of England which has been historically pastoral as opposed to the east which was more arable.

Beef
Probably Hereford's most famous export is its Hereford beef cattle. Herefords are docile but extremely hardy creatures and these attributes have led to their proliferation across the world, particularly the US, Canada, South America and Australia. The breed is so gentle that a Hereford bull was used as the mascot for Hereford United Football Club for many years, led around the club's Edgar Street ground before major matches.

Fruit
The county is famous for its apple and pear orchards, and its cider. There are many orchards around the county but not as many as there once were.

In the last few years, soft fruits such as strawberries have become a new and rapidly expanding area of the agricultural economy of the county. One of the main reasons for this was the introduction of the polytunnel or French tunnel. This allows the strawberries to be grown for a far longer season and with a higher quality (with no blemishes from the rain). The strawberries are mainly picked by Eastern European workers who come over for the season and often earn more money than they could working in their own country and with the bonus, for many of them, of learning or improving their English. The polytunnels have been a major issue in the county, as some people see them as a "blot on the landscape".

Although some polytunnel sites are illegal, Herefordshire Council has turned a blind eye in the belief that agriculture must be allowed to innovate; otherwise it will stagnate and the county will suffer.

Dairy
Previously, most farms in the county had dairy cattle. Due to the cost of investing in new equipment, long hours, BSE, foot-and-mouth disease and mainly falling milk prices, the county's milk production has drastically reduced, with only a few farms still in dairy farming.

Potatoes
The county is historically pastoral. The soils are mostly clay, meaning that large scale potato production was very difficult, as tractors were not powerful enough to pull the large machinery required to harvest the crop. Around the early 1990s new technology and more powerful machines overcame this problem. Potato production started to increase, fuelled by a few other key factors: The previously pastoral soils had not had potatoes grown in them; consequently they were not infected with eelworm (Heterodera rostochiensis and Heterodera pallida), which in the east of England had to be sprayed against weekly (a large cost). Also, the clay soil produced an unblemished potato of the highest grade.

The intensive nature of the crop meant that potatoes could be grown viably on a given field in only one of every five years. Because potato growers always needed more land than they owned, they rented extra. This demand for rental fields came at a time when the rest of the industry was struggling and in serious decline. The potato farmers' rents of £300–500 per acre (as opposed to normally £80 per acre) were very helpful to many farmers in a difficult period.

Coat of arms
Herefordshire County Council was granted a coat of arms on 28 February 1946. The arms became obsolete in 1974 on the abolition of the council, but were transferred to the present Herefordshire Council by Order in Council in 1997.

The arms are blazoned as follows:

Gules on a fesse wavy between in chief a lion passant guardant argent and in base a Herefordshire bull's head caboshed proper, a bar wavy azure; and for a Crest on a wreath of the colours a demi lion rampant gules holding in the sinister claw a fleece or; and for Supporters, on the dexter side a lion guardant or gorged with a wreath of hops fructed proper and on the sinister a talbot argent gorged with a collar or charged with three apples proper.

The red colouring ("gules") of the shield is taken from the arms of the City of Hereford. The red colour also represents the red earth of Herefordshire. The silver and blue wave across the centre of the shield represents the River Wye. The lions that form parts of the arms, crest and supporters are also taken from Hereford's arms. The agricultural produce of Herefordshire is represented by the bull's head, fleece, hops and apples. The talbot dog comes from the heraldry of the Talbot family, Marcher Lords of Shrewsbury and also from that of Viscount Hereford.

The Latin motto is: Pulchra terra Dei donum ("This fair land is the gift of God").

County flower
As part of a competition organised by the charity Plantlife to raise awareness of conservation issues, the public were asked to vote for "county flowers" that they felt best represented their county. Mistletoe was announced as the winning choice for Herefordshire in 2004. The emblem has no official status and has not been widely adopted. Herefordshire Council uses a logo consisting of a green apple.

Television
The county is covered by BBC West Midlands and ITV Central from its studios in Birmingham. Television signals are received from the Ridge Hill TV transmitter located 8.5 miles south east of Hereford.

Radio
BBC Local Radio the for county is served by BBC Hereford and Worcester which broadcast from Worcester but also has another studio in Hereford. County-wide radio stations are Free Radio Herefordshire & Worcestershire, Sunshine Radio, Radio Wyvern, Capital Mid-Counties, and Greatest Hits Radio Herefordshire & Worcestershire.

Sport
Perhaps the most famous sporting team in Herefordshire is Hereford United football club, who were members of the Football League and played at Edgar Street stadium in the city of Hereford. The club was founded in 1924 on the merger of two local teams – St Martin's and RAOC – and became members of the Birmingham Combination League. The club then made its way upwards to the Southern Football League, finally gaining election to the Football League in 1972 – the same year that the club famously defeated First Division side Newcastle United in an FA Cup tie. Two successive promotions saw the club reach the Second Division in 1978, but two successive relegations followed and saw the club side back into the Fourth Division.

Despite being situated within England, Hereford United have competed in the Welsh Cup on a number of occasions, winning the trophy in 1990. The club suffered relegation from the Football League in 1997 and fell into the Football Conference, not regaining its Football League status until 2006. The club then played in Football League Two – the fourth tier of English football – for six years before once again being relegated out of the Football League at the end of the 2011–12 season. The club was wound up in 2014. A new phoenix club, Hereford F.C. was set up competing in the Midland Football League Premier Division (9th tier) for its first season, 2015–16. The club lost to Morpeth Town at Wembley Stadium on 22 May 2016 in the final of the FA Vase.

Cricket is widely played within the county, and Herefordshire County Cricket Club compete in the Minor Counties Championship, having been elected in 1992 to take Durham's place, when that county joined the First-class structure. The leading club sides in Herefordshire are Brockhampton CC and Eastnor CC, who both compete in the Birmingham and District Premier League, the ECB accredited Premier League for cricket clubs in the West Midlands, and one of the strongest cricket leagues in England. Below that in the cricketing pyramid system 7 other leading Herefordshire clubs compete in the Worcestershire County Cricket League, with the remaining 25 or so cricket clubs within the county competing in the Marches League, or just playing Sunday or mid-week 'friendly' matches.

Places of interest

 * Abbey Dore Court [[File:HH icon.svg]]
 * Arthur's Stone [[File:EH icon.svg]]
 * Berrington Hall [[File:NTE icon.svg]] [[File:HH icon.svg]]
 * Brockhampton Estate [[File:NTE icon.svg]] [[File:HH icon.svg]]
 * Courtyard Centre for the Arts – Hereford's main theatre and art performance centre
 * Croft Castle [[File:CL icon.svg]]
 * Dore Abbey AP Icon.svg
 * Eastnor Castle [[File:HH icon.svg]]
 * Edgar Street (Football Stadium Home to Hereford F.C.)
 * Eye Manor [[File:HH icon.svg]]
 * Goodrich Castle [[File:CL icon.svg]]
 * Hampton Court [[File:HH icon.svg]]
 * Hellens Manor [[File:HH icon.svg]]
 * Hereford Cathedral AP Icon.svg
 * Kilpeck Church [[File:AP_Icon.svg]]
 * Malvern Hills [[File:UKAL icon.svg]]
 * Herefordshire Beacon
 * Priory Church, Leominster AP Icon.svg
 * Sutton Walls Hill Fort
 * Wigmore Castle [[File:HH icon.svg]]
 * Welsh Newton

Road
The M50, one of the first motorways to be built in the United Kingdom, runs through the south of the county and, with the A40 dual carriageway, forms part of the major route linking South Wales with the West Midlands and the north of England. The A49 runs north–south through the county and is a strategic route between North and South Wales as well as catering for local traffic.

Railways
The Welsh Marches Line also runs north–south with passenger trains operated by Transport for Wales offering links to Manchester as well as to North and South Wales. Hereford is the western end of the Cotswold Line which runs via Worcester with through services to Oxford and London Paddington (operated by Great Western Railway) and to Birmingham (operated by West Midlands Trains). The rural Heart of Wales Line linking Craven Arms in Shropshire to Llanelli in southwest Wales passes through the extreme north west of Herefordshire with stations at Knighton and Bucknell near the meeting point of the boundaries of Herefordshire, Shropshire and Powys. The majority of passengers between North and South Wales use the Marches line.

Former lines which are now closed were the Ledbury and Gloucester Railway; Ross & Monmouth Railway; Hereford to Hay-on-Wye; Pontrilas to Hay-on-Wye; Hay-on-Wye to Brecon; Leominster to New Radnor; Eardisley to Presteigne; and Leominster to Worcester via Bromyard. Part of the Titley Spur is opened annually by enthusiasts and a steam train is run along the track.

There has long been talk of a new station at Rotherwas, in the south of Hereford.

Air
There are no airports with scheduled air transport in Herefordshire. Birmingham Airport, Cardiff Airport and Bristol Airport are the nearest. The RailAir RailAir coach operated by First Berkshire & The Thames Valley provides connections to Heathrow Airport via Reading station or passengers can change at Reading station and then go all the way by train via Hayes & Harlington to Heathrow Airport. Shobdon Aerodrome near Leominster is a centre for general aviation and gliding. Hot air ballooning is also popular with Eastnor Castle being one of the favourite launch sites in the area.

Waterways
Historically, the rivers Wye, Teme and Lugg were navigable but the wide seasonal variations in water levels mean that few craft larger than canoes and coracles are now used. There are canoe centres at Wye Valley Canoes, Glasbury-on-Wye (in Powys, Wales), the Hereford Youth Service and Kerne Bridge in Ross-on-Wye, as well as rowing clubs in Hereford and Ross-on-Wye.

The early 19th century saw the construction of two canals, The Herefordshire & Gloucestershire Canal and The Leominster & Stourport Canal but these were never successful and there are now few remains to be seen. The Herefordshire & Gloucestershire Canal is currently the subject a restoration project, which includes the construction of a new canal basin in Hereford city centre as part of the regeneration of the Edgar Street Grid. The project, however, is being undertaken by a small voluntary group and there is no expected date for any part of the canal to re-open for boating.

Notable people

 * Jarrod Bowen, footballer
 * Simon Carr, cyclist
 * Frank Oz, actor and voice actor, producer, director
 * Matthew Hall, writer
 * Dennis Potter, writer
 * Fred West, serial killer
 * Elizabeth Barrett Browning, poet
 * Richard Hammond, Top Gear and The Grand Tour presenter
 * Mary Duggan, cricketer
 * Noele Gordon, actress
 * Mike Oldfield, musician
 * Mick Ralphs, Mott the Hoople and Bad Company guitarist
 * Richard Ashcroft, songwriter and lead singer of The Verve
 * Thomas Britten, 19th-century footballer
 * Monty Don, BBC TV presenter
 * Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, favourite of Queen Elizabeth I
 * Conroy Maddox, artist
 * Beryl Reid, actress
 * Jessica Raine, actress
 * Sir Edward Elgar, composer
 * Sir Roy Strong, art historian
 * David Garrick, renowned actor of the 18th century
 * Lady Godiva, wife of Leofric, Earl of Mercia
 * Harold Godwinson, Earl of Hereford and last Anglo-Saxon King of England
 * Ellie Goulding, musician
 * Nell Gwynne, mistress of King Charles II of England
 * Terry Jenkins, professional darts player
 * St. John Kemble (martyr) Catholic priest
 * Francis Kilvert, 19th century diarist and Church of England clergyman
 * Mark Labbett, one of five Chasers on The Chase as well as its Australian counterpart
 * Albert Lee, guitarist
 * Peter Mandelson, politician and former resident of Foy
 * John Masefield, poet laureate
 * Sidney Nolan, Australian artist
 * John Oldcastle, Lollard leader and basis for Shakespeare's character Falstaff
 * Blanche Parry, lady-in-waiting to Queen Elizabeth I
 * Peter Scudamore, jockey
 * James Honeyman-Scott, guitarist the Pretenders
 * Pete Farndon, bass guitarist the Pretenders
 * Martin Chambers, drummer the Pretenders
 * Tom Spring, bare-knuckle boxer, champion of England in the 19th century
 * Thomas Traherne, 17th century poet
 * Alfred Watkins, pioneering archaeologist and photographer
 * Richard Johnson, jockey
 * Sir Walter Roper Lawrence, author
 * Allan Leonard Lewis, posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross, died 21 September 1918, commemorated on Vis-En-Artois Memorial, France
 * Richard Hakluyt, Elizabethan writer and geographer who recorded contemporary voyages of exploration and promoted the settlement of North America
 * Ronald Pennell, artist, engraver and sculptor
 * Geoffrey Wood, botanist
 * Lucy Letby, serial killer

title: Herefordshire


text:
Raymond Z. Gallun

Raymond Zinke Gallun (March 22, 1911 – April 2, 1994) was an American science fiction writer.

Early life
Gallun (rhymes with "balloon") was born in Beaver Dam, Wisconsin, the son of Adolph and Martha Zinke Gallun. He graduated from high school in 1928. He left college after one year and travelled in Europe, living a drifter's existence, working a multitude of jobs around the world in the years leading up to World War II.

Career
Gallun wrote his first two stories, "The Space Dwellers" and "The Crystal Ray" (both published in 1929), at age 16. He was among the stalwart group of early sci-fi pulp writers who popularized the genre. He sold many popular stories to pulp magazines in the 1930s. "Old Faithful" (1934) was his first noted story. "The Gentle Brain" was published in "Science Fiction Quarterly" under the pseudonym Arthur Allport.

His first book, People Minus X, was published in 1957 by Simon & Schuster, followed by The Planet Strappers in 1961 (Pyramid). The Ballantine collection issued in 1978, The Best of Raymond Z. Gallun, provides a selection of his early work. Gallun was honored with the I-CON Lifetime Achievement Award in 1985 at I-CON IV; the award was later renamed The Raymond Z. Gallun Award.

His pen names include Dow Elstar, E.V. Raymond, William Callahan, and Arthur Allport.

Death and posthumous work
Gallun died of a heart attack at his home in the Forest Hills neighborhood of Queens, New York, on April 2, 1994.

A posthumous autobiography, Starclimber, authored in part by Gallun and completed by Jeffrey M. Elliot, was published in September 2007. There is an extensive interview with Gallun about his life and career in Eric Leif Davin's Pioneers of Wonder.

In 2017, a mural honoring Gallun was painted in his hometown of Beaver Dam by an organization of sign and mural artists known as "Walldogs."

Novels

 * Passport to Jupiter (1951)
 * People Minus X (1957)
 * The Planet Strappers (1961)
 * The Eden Cycle (1974)
 * Skyclimber (1981)
 * Bioblast (1985)

Short fiction

 * "The Space Dwellers" (1929)
 * "The Crystal Ray" (1929)
 * "The Revolt of the Starmen" (1932)
 * "Old Faithful" (1934)
 * "Avalanche" (1935, as by Dow Elstar)
 * "The Son of Old Faithful" (1935)
 * "Child of the Stars" (1936)
 * "Seeds of the Dusk" (1938)
 * "The Machine That Thought" (1939, as by William Callahan)
 * "A Step Farther Out" (1950)
 * "Big Pill" (1952)
 * "Apollo at Go" (1963)
 * The Best of Raymond Z. Gallun (collection, 1978)

Nonfiction

 * "Editorial" (Ahoy!, March 1984)
 * "Editorial" (Ahoy!, August 1984)

 * Starclimber (1991)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Raymond Z. Gallun


text:
Maria Theresa of Spain

Maria Theresa of Spain (María Teresa de Austria; Marie-Thérèse d'Autriche; 10 September 1638 – 30 July 1683) was Queen of France from 1660 to 1683 as the wife of King Louis XIV. She was born an Infanta of Spain and Portugal as the daughter of King Philip IV and Elisabeth of France, and was also an Archduchess of Austria as a member of the Spanish branch of the House of Habsburg.

Her marriage in 1660 to King Louis XIV, her double first cousin, was arranged with the purpose of ending the lengthy war between France and Spain. Famed for her virtue and piety, she saw five of her six children die in early childhood, and is frequently viewed as an object of pity in historical accounts of her husband's reign, since she was often neglected by the court and overshadowed by the King's many mistresses.

Without any political influence in the French court or government (except briefly in 1672, when she was named regent during her husband's absence during the Franco-Dutch War), she died aged 44 due to complications from an abscess on her arm. Her grandson Philip V inherited the Spanish throne in 1700 after the death of her younger half-brother, Charles II. The resulting War of the Spanish Succession established the House of Bourbon as the new ruling dynasty of Spain, where it has reigned with some interruption until the present time.

Birth and early life
Born at the Royal Monastery of El Escorial, the Infanta Maria Theresa was the daughter of Philip IV & III and his first wife Elisabeth of France. She was named after Sainte Thérèse, who Elisabeth chose to protect her daughter. As a member of the House of Austria, Maria Theresa was entitled to use the title Archduchess of Austria. She was known in Spain as María Teresa de Austria and in France as Marie-Thérèse d'Autriche.

Maria Theresa was raised by the royal governess Luisa Magdalena de Jesus. Her religious education was first carried out by Juan de Palma. Later, Father Vasquez, a man recognised in Spain for being highly educated and of great virtue, was entrusted with the spiritual education of the young Infanta. Elisabeth of France died when Maria Theresa was six years old. The Infanta was very close to her step-mother, Mariana of Austria, who was only five years her senior.

Unlike France, Spain had no Salic Law, so it was possible for a female to assume the throne. When Maria Theresa's brother Balthasar Charles died in 1646, she became heir presumptive to the vast Spanish Empire and remained such until the birth of her brother Philip Prospero, in 1657. She was briefly heir presumptive once more between 1 and 6 November 1661, following the death of Prince Philip and until the birth of Prince Charles, who would later inherit the thrones of Spain as Charles II.

Betrothal and proxy marriage
In 1658, as war with France began to wind down, a union between the royal families of Spain and France was proposed as a means to secure peace. Maria Theresa and the French king were double first cousins: Louis XIV's father was Louis XIII, who was the brother of Maria Theresa's mother, while her father was brother to Anne of Austria, Louis XIV's mother. Spanish procrastination led to a scheme in which France's chief minister, Cardinal Mazarin, pretended to seek a marriage for his master with Margaret Yolande of Savoy. When Philip IV of Spain heard of a meeting at Lyon between the Houses of France and Savoy in November 1658, he reputedly exclaimed of the Franco-Savoyard union that "it cannot be, and will not be". Philip then sent a special envoy to the French court to open negotiations for peace and a royal marriage.

The negotiations for the marriage contract were intense. Eager to prevent a union of the two countries or crowns, especially one in which Spain would be subservient to France, the diplomats sought to include a renunciation clause that would deprive Maria Theresa and her children of any rights to the Spanish succession. A marriage contract was eventually arranged in November 1659 as one of the provisions of the Treaty of the Pyrenees. The contract specified that Maria Theresa was to renounce all claims to Spanish territory for herself and all her descendants. Mazarin and Lionne, however, made the renunciation conditional on the full payment of a Spanish dowry of 500,000 écus. As it turned out, Spain, impoverished and bankrupt after decades of war, was unable to pay such a dowry, and France never received the agreed upon sum.

On 2 June 1660, Maria Theresa was married by proxy to Louis at Fuenterrabia. Luis Méndez de Haro acted as bridegroom.

Marriage

Philip IV and the entire Spanish court accompanied the bride to the Isle of Pheasants on the border in the Bidassoa river, where Louis and his court met her in the meeting on the Isle of Pheasants on 7 June 1660, and she entered France. On 9 June the marriage took place in Saint-Jean-de-Luz at the recently rebuilt church of Saint Jean the Baptist. After the wedding, Louis wanted to consummate the marriage as quickly as possible.

Queen of France
On 26 August 1660, the newlyweds made the traditional Joyous Entry into Paris. Louis was highly affectionate and attentive to the new Queen, commanding the Grand Maréchal du Logis that "the Queen and himself were never to be set apart, no matter how small the house in which they might be lodging". However, his devotion was short-lived and he promptly began pursuing Louise de La Vallière.

Maria Theresa became pregnant for the first time in early 1661. She gave birth to the long-awaited Dauphin on 1 November 1661, fulfilling her primary duty as Queen. Louis stayed by her side during the difficult birth and exhibited immense care and support but returned to his mistress, La Valliere, shortly after.

Maria Theresa had trouble adjusting to life at the French court, often struggling to understand French pleasures and humor. She clung to her aunt, the Queen Mother, Anne of Austria, whom she affectionately referred to as “tia”. Religiously devout, Maria Theresa enjoyed long masses and the celebration of traditional Spanish fêtes. Outside of praying, she spent much of her free time playing cards and gambling. Maria Theresa played little part in political affairs, although she briefly acted as regent in 1667 while her husband was away on campaigns on the frontier.

Louis initially attempted to keep his constant infidelity hidden, but became more overt as time progressed. Maria Theresa despised her husband's prolonged infidelity with Françoise-Athénaïs, Marquise de Montespan. Louis reprimanded Madame de Montespan when her behaviour at court too flagrantly disrespected the queen's position, yet often displayed a level of indulgence toward her that surpassed his treatment of the queen.

Later, the governess of Montespan's illegitimate children by the king, Madame de Maintenon, came to supplant her mistress in the king's affections. At first she resisted the king's advances and encouraged him to bestow more attention on his long-neglected wife, a thoughtfulness which Maria Theresa repaid with warmth toward the new favourite. After the queen's death, Maintenon would become the king's second, although officially secret, wife.

There were rumours that Maria Theresa had an illegitimate daughter, Louise Marie Thérèse (The Black Nun of Moret).

Death

In July 1683, Maria Theresa developed an abscess in her armpit that gave rise to a fever. Her physician, Guy-Crescent Fagon, insisted on bleeding her despite objections. She died a painful death on 30 July 1683. Upon her death, Louis XIV said: "This is the first chagrin she has ever given me." For the grand funeral ceremony, Marc-Antoine Charpentier composed dramatic motets H.409, H.189, H.331 and Jean-Baptiste Lully his Dies irae. The funeral prayer was by Bossuet.

Issue
Maria Theresa married her double first cousin Louis XIV in 1660. The couple had six children, only one of whom survived to adulthood:

 * 1) Louis, Grand Dauphin (1 November 1661 – 14 April 1711) married Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria, had issue.
 * 2) Anne-Élisabeth (18 November 1662 – 30 December 1662); died in infancy.
 * 3) Marie-Anne (16 November 1664 – 26 December 1664); died in infancy.
 * 4) Marie Thérèse (2 January 1667 – 1 March 1672); styled as Madame Royale, died at the age of five.
 * 5) Philippe Charles (5 August 1668 – 10 July 1671); styled as Duke of Anjou, died at the age of two.
 * 6) Louis François (14 June 1672 – 4 November 1672); styled Duke of Anjou, died in infancy.

Of her six children, only one survived her, Louis, le Grand Dauphin, the oldest one, who died in 1711. One of her younger grandsons eventually inherited her claim to the Spanish throne to become King Philip V of Spain in 1700.

title: Maria Theresa of Spain


text:
Distributed shared memory

In computer science, distributed shared memory (DSM) is a form of memory architecture where physically separated memories can be addressed as a single shared address space. The term "shared" does not mean that there is a single centralized memory, but that the address space is shared—i.e., the same physical address on two processors refers to the same location in memory. Distributed global address space (DGAS), is a similar term for a wide class of software and hardware implementations, in which each node of a cluster has access to shared memory in addition to each node's private (i.e., not shared) memory.

Overview

A distributed-memory system, often called a multicomputer, consists of multiple independent processing nodes with local memory modules which is connected by a general interconnection network. Software DSM systems can be implemented in an operating system, or as a programming library and can be thought of as extensions of the underlying virtual memory architecture. When implemented in the operating system, such systems are transparent to the developer; which means that the underlying distributed memory is completely hidden from the users. In contrast, software DSM systems implemented at the library or language level are not transparent and developers usually have to program them differently. However, these systems offer a more portable approach to DSM system implementations. A DSM system implements the shared-memory model on a physically distributed memory system.

DSM can be achieved via software as well as hardware. Hardware examples include cache coherence circuits and network interface controllers. There are three ways of implementing DSM:
 * Page-based approach using virtual memory
 * Shared-variable approach using routines to access shared variables
 * Object-based approach, ideally accessing shared data through object-oriented discipline

Advantages

 * Scales well with a large number of nodes
 * Message passing is hidden
 * Can handle complex and large databases without replication or sending the data to processes
 * Generally cheaper than using a multiprocessor system
 * Provides large virtual memory space
 * Programs are more portable due to common programming interfaces
 * Shield programmers from sending or receiving primitives

Disadvantages

 * Generally slower to access than non-distributed shared memory
 * Must provide additional protection against simultaneous accesses to shared data
 * May incur a performance penalty
 * Little programmer control over actual messages being generated
 * Programmers need to understand consistency models to write correct programs

Comparison with message passing
Software DSM systems also have the flexibility to organize the shared memory region in different ways. The page based approach organizes shared memory into pages of fixed size. In contrast, the object based approach organizes the shared memory region as an abstract space for storing shareable objects of variable sizes. Another commonly seen implementation uses a tuple space, in which the unit of sharing is a tuple.

Shared memory architecture may involve separating memory into shared parts distributed amongst nodes and main memory; or distributing all memory between nodes. A coherence protocol, chosen in accordance with a consistency model, maintains memory coherence.

Directory memory coherence
Memory coherence is necessary such that the system which organizes the DSM is able to track and maintain the state of data blocks in nodes across the memories comprising the system. A directory is one such mechanism which maintains the state of cache blocks moving around the system.

States

A basic DSM will track at least three states among nodes for any given block in the directory. There will be some state to dictate the block as uncached (U), a state to dictate a block as exclusively owned or modified owned (EM), and a state to dictate a block as shared (S). As blocks come into the directory organization, they will transition from U to EM (ownership state) in the initial node. The state can transition to S when other nodes begin reading the block.

There are two primary methods for allowing the system to track where blocks are cached and in what condition across each node. Home-centric request-response uses the home to service requests and drive states, whereas requester-centric allows each node to drive and manage its own requests through the home.

Home-centric request and response
In a home-centric system, the DSM will avoid having to handle request-response races between nodes by allowing only one transaction to occur at a time until the home node has decided that the transaction is finished—usually when the home has received every responding processor's response to the request. An example of this is Intel's QPI home-source mode. The advantages of this approach are that it's simple to implement but its request-response strategy is slow and buffered due to the home node's limitations.

Requester-centric request and response
In a requester-centric system, the DSM will allow nodes to talk at will to each other through the home. This means that multiple nodes can attempt to start a transaction, but this requires additional considerations to ensure coherence. For example: when one node is processing a block, if it receives a request for that block from another node it will send a NAck (Negative Acknowledgement) to tell the initiator that the processing node can't fulfill that request right away. An example of this is Intel's QPI snoop-source mode. This approach is fast but it does not naturally prevent race conditions and generates more bus traffic.

Consistency models
The DSM must follow certain rules to maintain consistency over how read and write order is viewed among nodes, called the system's consistency model.

Suppose we have n processes and Mi memory operations for each process i, and that all the operations are executed sequentially. We can conclude that (M1 + M2 + … + Mn)!/(M1! M2!… Mn!) are possible interleavings of the operations. The issue with this conclusion is determining the correctness of the interleaved operations. Memory coherence for DSM defines which interleavings are permitted.

Replication
There are two types of replication Algorithms. Read replication and Write replication. In Read replication multiple nodes can read at the same time but only one node can write. In Write replication multiple nodes can read and write at the same time. The write requests are handled by a sequencer. Replication of shared data in general tends to: However, preserving coherence and consistency may become more challenging.
 * Reduce network traffic
 * Promote increased parallelism
 * Result in fewer page faults

Release and entry consistency

 * Release consistency: when a process exits a critical section, new values of the variables are propagated to all sites.
 * Entry consistency: when a process enters a critical section, it will automatically update the values of the shared variables.
 * View-based Consistency: it is a variant of Entry Consistency, except the shared variables of a critical section are automatically detected by the system. An implementation of view-based consistency is VODCA which has comparable performance to MPI on cluster computers.

Examples

 * Kerrighed
 * Open SSI
 * MOSIX
 * TreadMarks
 * VODCA
 * DIPC

title: Distributed shared memory


text:
Johann Reinhold Forster

Johann Reinhold Forster (22 October 1729 – 9 December 1798) was a German Reformed (Calvinist) pastor and naturalist who made contributions to the early ornithology of Europe and North America. He is best known as the naturalist on James Cook's second Pacific voyage, where he was accompanied by his son Georg Forster. These expeditions promoted the career of Johann Reinhold Forster and the findings became the bedrock of colonial professionalism and helped set the stage for the future development of anthropology and ethnology. They also laid the framework for general concern about the impact that alteration of the physical environment for European economic expansion would have on exotic societies.

Biography
Forster's family originated in the Lords Forrester in Scotland, from where his great-grandfather had emigrated after losing most of his property during the rule of Oliver Cromwell along with many other Scots. Forster himself was born in the city of Dirschau (now) Tczew, in the province of Royal Prussia, in the Crown of Poland. He studied languages and natural history at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin, theology at the University of Halle, afterwards serving as a Protestant pastor in Mokry Dwór (Nassenhuben) Pomeranian Voivodship. He married his cousin Elisabeth Nikolai. They had several children including a son, Georg Forster and a daughter  Virginia Viktoria.

In 1765 he accepted an offer made to him by the Russian government to inspect and report upon the new colonies founded on the banks of the Volga, in the province of Saratov. His irritable temper soon involved him in difficulties with the Russian government, and in the following year he went with Georg (the eldest of eight children, seven of which survived childhood) to England and became teacher of natural history at Warrington, Lancashire.

He spent three years teaching at the Dissenting Warrington Academy, succeeding Joseph Priestley. Compelled by his violent temper to resign this appointment, Forster then moved with his son to London, where they earned a precarious living by doing translations. In 1771, he published A Catalogue of the Animals of North America, which listed the region's mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, insects, arachnids, and crustaceans, and led to his election to the Royal Society of London in 1772.

When Joseph Banks withdrew at the last moment as naturalist on Cook's second voyage, Forster and his son were appointed to fill the vacant position. In July 1772 they set sail on the Resolution, returning to England in July 1775. During a stop in Cape Town, Forster engaged Anders Sparrman to act as his assistant.

Both the Forsters kept detailed diaries of everything they saw on the voyage, and made extensive collections of both natural history specimens and artefacts. The first publication after the voyage was Characteres generum plantarum, a book on the botany of the South Pacific. Based on his father's journals, Georg published A Voyage Round the World in 1777. Reinhold Forster published Observations Made during a Voyage round the World (1778). However the income from the book was insufficient to clear his debts, and the bulk of Georg's drawings from the voyage had to be sold to Joseph Banks. During the next few years Forster undertook a variety of writing work, including a German translation of Thomas Pennant's Arctic Zoology.

Johann Reinhold's "Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World" (1778) and Georg's "A Voyage Round the World" (1777), mark a key moment in the beginnings of modern racism. "Employing the English word "race" as a synonym for human variety, they interpret the multiplicity of Polynesian culture in terms of a linear hierarchy that naturally ascends towards the white European ideal."

In November 1779 Forster was appointed Professor of Natural history and Mineralogy at the University of Halle, and director of the Botanische Garten der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, where he remained until his death. His Descriptiones animalium, completed within a month of returning to England with Cook, was eventually edited by Hinrich Lichtenstein and published in 1844.

Forster's contributions to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (1772–73) on zoology, ornithology, and ichthyology established him as one of the earliest authorities on North American zoology.

Forster was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1793.

Taxon described by him

 * See Category:Taxa named by Johann Reinhold Forster

Taxon named in his honor

 * The black-side hawkfish (Paracirrhites forsteri), freckled hawkfish or Forster's hawkfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a hawkfish belonging to the family Cirrhitidae. It is from the Indo-Pacific.

 * Forster's tern (Sterna forsteri) is a species of tern, primarily from the Americas.

title: Johann Reinhold Forster


text:
Wikipedia talk:Historical archive/Refreshing brilliant prose - Science

 * Who is the moron who have seen to that every article listing has both a Keep and a Remove vote? We'll come nowhere. -- Sverdrup (talk) 12:22, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * I am sorry. Obviously I am wrong. I just misinterpreted the voting style and confused it with that of requests for adminship and other conventionalia. –- Sverdrup (talk) 14:28, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * That doesn't seem to be true. I think that the Refreshing brilliant prose pages are more important than VfD. Agrees? r3m0t 12:39, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Let's see, I count 38 articles on which the votes are unanimous so far. I honestly don't know what you are blathering about. -- Jussi-Ville Heiskanen 12:50, Dec 13, 2003 (UTC)


text:
1969 Irish general election

The 1969 Irish general election to the 19th Dáil was held on Wednesday, 18 June, following the dissolution of the 18th Dáil on 22 May by President Éamon de Valera on the request of Taoiseach Jack Lynch. The general election took place in 42 Dáil constituencies throughout Ireland for 144 seats in Dáil Éireann, the house of representatives of the Oireachtas, with boundary changes under the Electoral (Amendment) Act 1969. The governing Fianna Fáil won its fourth successive election.

The 19th Dáil met at Leinster House on 21 April to nominate the Taoiseach for appointment by the president and to approve the appointment of a new government of Ireland. Lynch was re-appointed Taoiseach, forming the 13th government of Ireland, a single-party minority Fianna Fáil government.

Campaign
The general election of 1969 saw two new leaders of the two main parties fight their first general election. Jack Lynch of Fianna Fáil had become Taoiseach in 1966 and was attempting to win his first election. Liam Cosgrave had taken charge of Fine Gael in 1965 and now leading his party into his first election. Brendan Corish was fighting his third general election as leader of the Labour Party.

Fianna Fáil had been in office since 1957, and in spite of media predictions the party was still very popular with the voters. Its leader Jack Lynch proved to be the party's biggest electoral asset. His quiet, easy-going and reassuring style, coupled with the catchy slogan "Let's back Jack!", attracted many new voters to Fianna Fáil. The party had introduced many innovative pieces of legislation during the 1960s and was now looking for a fresh mandate. Fianna Fáil were also helped by a deeply divided opposition.

Fine Gael had internal divisions. There was tension between the older conservative members, who wanted to keep the party as it was, and the younger deputies who wanted to move the party to the left. One of the party's policies proposed to abolish compulsory Irish for State examinations and civil service jobs.

The Labour Party on the other hand were predicted to make gains after firmly ruling out a pre-election pact with Fine Gael. The party fielded a number of new, high-profile candidates, including Justin Keating, Conor Cruise O'Brien, David Thornley and Noël Browne. The slogan "The Seventies will be Socialist" was popular with Labour supporters; however, Fianna Fáil played the "red card", linking the Labour Party with communism. The tactic worked successfully.

Result

 * }

 * Notes
 * Independents include Gluaiseacht Chearta Sibhialta na Gaeltachta (1,522 votes).

The result marked a third successive victory for Fianna Fáil, led by Jack Lynch. Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael each lost votes, yet gained seats. Labour gained votes, yet lost seats. It was the last election for thirty-three years at which a government was returned to office—until the Fianna Fáil–Progressive Democrats government was returned with an increased majority in the 2002 general election.

Government formation
Fianna Fáil formed the 13th government of Ireland, a majority government, led by Jack Lynch as Taoiseach.

First time TDs
A total of 37 TDs were elected for the first time:

 * Peter Barry
 * Michael Begley
 * Seán Brosnan
 * John Bruton
 * Liam Burke
 * Richard Burke
 * Hugh Byrne
 * Edward Collins
 * John Conlan
 * Ger Connolly
 * Gerard Cott
 * Bernard Cowen
 * Kieran Crotty
 * Conor Cruise O'Brien
 * Noel Davern
 * Barry Desmond
 * Tom Enright
 * Martin Finn
 * Garret FitzGerald
 * Paddy Forde
 * Billy Fox
 * Michael Herbert
 * Thomas Hussey
 * Liam Kavanagh
 * Justin Keating
 * Bill Loughnane
 * Gerard Lynch
 * Ray MacSharry
 * Tom McEllistrim
 * Michael J. Noonan
 * Michael O'Kennedy
 * John O'Sullivan
 * Paddy Power
 * Michael Smith
 * Frank Taylor
 * David Thornley
 * Jim Tunney

Re-elected TDs

 * Eugene Timmons

Retiring TDs

 * Lionel Booth
 * Paddy Clohessy
 * John A. Costello
 * Edward Cotter
 * James Dillon
 * Nicholas Egan
 * John Fanning
 * Denis Larkin
 * Seán Lemass
 * Seán MacEntee
 * Patrick Tierney

Defeated TDs

 * Seán Collins
 * Patrick McAuliffe
 * Michael O'Higgins

Seanad election
The Dáil election was followed by an election to the 12th Seanad.

title: 1969 Irish general election


text:
Thomas Mayo Brewer

Thomas Mayo Brewer (November 21, 1814 – January 24, 1880) was an American naturalist, specializing in ornithology and oology.

Biography
Thomas Mayo Brewer was born in Boston, the younger brother of noted Boston merchant Gardner Brewer. He graduated from Harvard College in 1835 and from Harvard Medical School three years later. His interest in ornithology was such that he was elected a member of the Boston Society of Natural History in 1835.

He abandoned his career as a doctor after a few years to concentrate on ornithology, writing and politics, later becoming editor of the Boston Atlas in 1840. He was a friend of John James Audubon in that ornithologist's later life. In 1849, Brewer was placed in charge of the oological department for the Boston Society of Natural History.

Brewer continued working as a publisher while working as an ornithologist. He joined the publishing firm of Hickling, Swan & Brown, which became Hickling, Swan & Brewer when he became a partner in 1857; this firm subsequently became Swan, Brewer & Tileston. As an editor, he published Alexander Wilson's "Birds of America".

In 1857, Brewer completed his first of several volumes of North American Oology. However, Brewer is best known as a joint author, with Spencer Fullerton Baird and Robert Ridgway, of A History of North American Birds (3 volumes, 1874), which was the first attempt since John James Audubon's (thirty years prior) to complete the study of American ornithology.

Brewer also contributed to a number of ornithological publications, including John James Audubon's Ornithological Biography. Brewer was a companion to Audubon, who gave Brewer's name to a duck, a blackbird, and a mole found in Martha's vineyard.

In his last decade of life, Brewer sparred with Elliott Coues over the fate of the House Sparrow, a recently introduced bird that was multiplying far faster than expected. While Coues and most ornithologists were in favor of killing many of them off, Brewer tried to defend them. This ornithological event is known as "The Sparrow War."

Brewer died in Boston on January 24, 1880, while the fate of the sparrow was still being debated.

Personal life
Brewer married Sally Coffin in 1849. They had two children.

The Brewer family has been prominent in Massachusetts for 200 years, including James Brewer (1742–1806), an early American patriot leader and businessman, Gen. Wilmon Blackmar, a Civil War medal of honor winner, and Wilmon Brewer, a poet, biographer, and philanthropist.

title: Thomas Mayo Brewer


text:
1965 Irish general election

The 1965 Irish general election to the 18th Dáil was held on Wednesday, 7 April, following the dissolution of the 17th Dáil on 18 March by President Éamon de Valera on the request of Taoiseach Seán Lemass. The general election took place in 38 Dáil constituencies throughout Ireland for 144 seats in Dáil Éireann, the house of representatives of the Oireachtas. The governing Fianna Fáil saw a slight increase, though did not obtain a majority.

The 18th Dáil met at Leinster House on 21 April to nominate the Taoiseach for appointment by the president and to approve the appointment of a new government of Ireland. Lemass was re-appointed Taoiseach, forming the 11th government of Ireland, a single-party minority Fianna Fáil government.

Campaign
The general election of 1965 followed the failure of the governing Fianna Fáil to gain a seat in a by-election on 10 March 1965. The success of Eileen Desmond of the Labour Party in Cork Mid in holding a seat previously held by her husband Dan Desmond, led to an unacceptable mathematical situation with regard to the government's majority. On 18 March, the Taoiseach, Seán Lemass dissolved the Dáil and the campaign began in earnest.

Fianna Fáil ran its campaign on its record in government. Over the last number of years, the economy had seen a huge improvement and the party played up on its record in government. The party also played up heavily on the personality of the party leader with the slogan "Let Lemass Lead On". Fine Gael put forward a comprehensive manifesto, which included the establishment of a government department concerned with economic planning. However, the older, conservative members of the party did not warm to the new turn the party was taking.

Television and radio
This was the first Irish general election to be covered on television by state broadcaster RTÉ, which had formed on 31 December 1961. Election Newsroom was broadcast live on Telefís Éireann from their Donnybrook studios in Dublin, presented by John O'Donoghue with analysis provided by John Healy (The Irish Times), John O'Sullivan (The Cork Examiner), Garret FitzGerald and Professor Basil Chubb. Cameras were present in four count centres: Bolton Street (Dublin), Wexford, Cork and Monaghan. The GPO provided direct links as results were announced. Raidió Éireann provided special coverage from 3 pm on the day of the count due to the coverage on Telefís Éireann. It was a new approach to election coverage on the state's radio service, which began broadcasting in 1926.

Result

 * }

Government formation and aftermath
Fianna Fáil formed the 11th Government of Ireland, a single-party government led by Seán Lemass as Taoiseach. Lemass had been in office since 1959.

James Dillon resigned as leader of Fine Gael immediately after the result was announced.

In November 1966, Lemass resigned as Fianna Fáil leader and Taoiseach, and was succeeded in both positions by Jack Lynch, who formed the 12th Government of Ireland.

First time TDs

 * David Andrews
 * Luke Belton
 * Ben Briscoe
 * Flor Crowley
 * Tom Fitzpatrick (Cavan)
 * Tom Fitzpatrick (Dublin)
 * James Kennedy
 * Patrick Lenihan
 * Gerry L'Estrange
 * Michael Lyons
 * Bobby Molloy
 * John O'Connell
 * Michael O'Leary
 * Pearse Wyse

Re-elected TDs

 * Gus Healy
 * Denis Larkin

Outgoing TDs

 * Gerald Bartley
 * Robert Briscoe
 * Dan Breen
 * Joseph Blowick
 * James Ryan

Defeated TDs

 * Seán Brady
 * John Moher
 * Denis J. O'Sullivan
 * Eugene Timmons

Seanad election
The Dáil election was followed by an election to the 11th Seanad.

title: 1965 Irish general election


text:
Ivo Sanader

Ivo Sanader (born 8 June 1953) is a Croatian former politician who served as Prime Minister of Croatia from 2003 to 2009. He is currently serving a 18-year prison sentence for corruption in Lipovica prison.

Sanader is to date the second longest-serving prime minister since Croatia's independence, holding the office for over five and a half years before resigning in July 2009. He is one of only two Croatian prime ministers (along with Andrej Plenković) who have served more than one term, winning the general elections in 2003 and 2007. He is also, along with Ivica Račan and Plenković, one of the three prime ministers who have been at the head of more than one government cabinet, chairing his first cabinet from 23 December 2003 until 12 January 2008, and his second cabinet from 12 January 2008 until his resignation on 6 July 2009.

Sanader obtained his education in comparative literature in Austria, where he also worked as a journalist, in marketing, publishing, and as an entrepreneur. In the 1990s, he was briefly the intendant of the Croatian National Theatre in Split before becoming Minister for Science and Technology as a member of the ruling Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) in the cabinet of Hrvoje Šarinić in 1992. In 1993, he moved into diplomacy and served two terms as Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs.

Following the death of Franjo Tuđman, Sanader was elected president of the HDZ in 2000, and again in 2002, and led the party to victory in the 2003, and 2007 elections, becoming Croatia's Prime Minister. In June 2009, he abruptly resigned his post, leaving scarce explanation for his actions and disappearing from public life for a while. In January 2010, he tried to stage a political comeback within the HDZ, but was ejected from party membership.

In December 2010, Croatian authorities indicted Sanader in two high-profile corruption cases. He fled the country but was apprehended in Austria and extradited to Croatia in July 2011. In November 2012, he was sentenced to 10 years in prison in a first instance verdict, later reduced to $8 1/2$ years, for funneling 10.4 million euros in public money to the Fimi Media company. However, his sentence was annulled by Croatia's Constitutional Court in 2015. With the exception of numerous Croatian officials who were sentenced to imprisonment during the existence of the socialist Yugoslavia, he is the first Croatian head of government and highest ranking state official to be tried and sentenced to a jail term. In October 2018, Sanader was sentenced to two and a half years in prison for war profiteering and ordered to return $570,000 in kickbacks from Hypo Bank. In November 2020, he was sentenced to eight years in jail for his role in a retrial of the Fimi Media case. Some Croatian journalists evaluate Sanader's leadership of Croatia as a "kleptocratic-clientelistic era".

Early life
Sanader was born in Split to a poor, religious, working-class family originating from Dugobabe, a village in the Split hinterland. He was one of five children so, as his family was financially unable to support their education, his mother asked the rector of the Archbishopric Classical Gymnasium to accept Ivo as a student. At the gymnasium, Sanader distinguished himself as one of the top students, excelling in history and languages. After completing high school, Sanader spent one year in Rome studying philosophy. Following his return from Rome he met Mirjana Šarić, whom he married in 1978.

After their wedding, Ivo and Mirjana, and Ivo's younger brother Miro left Split for Innsbruck, Austria. His wife studied archaeology, while Ivo studied comparative literature and Romance languages at the University of Innsbruck. During that time, Sanader worked as a correspondent for the Zagreb sport newspaper Sportske novosti.

In 1982, Sanader received his PhD degree, and returned to Croatia (then Yugoslavia) with his wife. He found a job in the marketing department of Dalmacijaturist (Dalmatia Tourist), for a brief period, followed by a lengthy period at the publishing house Logos from 1983, initially as a program editor. In 1988 he became a chief editor, at one time working on the magazine Mogućnosti (Possibilities). His career at the publishing house was later terminated. At that time, his wife also received a notice of termination from her workplace.

In 1987, Sanader decided to return to Austria with his family, where he co-founded two businesses, one in 1989 which was liquidated by a court in 1992, while the other existed between 1986 and 2001. Failure of his businesses prompted Sanader to enter politics in the 1990s.

Apart from his native Croatian, he is fluent in English, German, French, and Italian.

Beginnings (1990s–2000)
Unlike many Croatian political figures of Sanader's generation, he was not actively involved in politics in his younger years – neither as a member of the League of Communists of Croatia (Croatia's party which formed the single bloc which governed Yugoslavia), nor as a dissident in exile.

In October 1990, after multi-party system had returned to Yugoslavia, he founded the Tirol branch of the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) in Austria, and established contact with Franjo Tuđman. Sanader's organizational skills, erudition, and fluency in German left a favorable impression on HDZ members with whom he collaborated in Austria. He decided to return to Split, over the objections of his wife who saw war in Croatia looming. His first public office was intendant of the Croatian National Theatre in Split. Shortly after taking the office, he was joined by his wife, who got a job in the University Library in Split.

In 1992 he was elected as an HDZ deputy to the lower house of the Croatian parliament, and became Minister of Science and Technology (1992–1993). From 1993 to 1995 and 1996 to 2000, he was a Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs, overseeing the termination of required visas for Croatian citizens who traveled to Greece. He also used his negotiation skills to bring people to the Croatian Democratic Union from other Croatian parliamentary parties.

At the end of November 1995, he became Chief of Staff of the President of Croatia's office and General Secretary of the Croatian National Security and Defense Council (VONS) after Hrvoje Šarinić and Goran Drozdek were released from their duties. In January 1996 he became a member of the Council for Cooperation between Croatia and the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

During his second term as Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs he worked to bring Croatia and Israel together. Himself, Hrvoje Šarinić and Eytan Bentsur, Vice Minister for Foreign Affairs in the Israeli government, met in Budapest in 1997, at which point diplomatic relations between Croatia and Israel were established.

Leader of Opposition (2000–03)
In 2000, following Tuđman's death, HDZ suffered defeat in a parliamentary election. Furthermore, their candidate Mate Granić also failed to enter the second round of the presidential election. Granić then left to form the Democratic Centre party hoping to attract moderates from the HDZ. Inner-party election within the HDZ ensued in April that year and Sanader emerged victorious as a compromise candidate.

Initially, Sanader criticized the unpopular International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) indictments against Croatian Army generals. In 2001, he took part in a massive rally protesting a war crimes indictment against general Mirko Norac. Sanader also criticised Ivica Račan and his cabinet's stance towards the ICTY. He gradually began to distance the party and himself from the protests, softening his criticism towards the government.

Sanader focused his efforts on transforming the HDZ into a modern pro-European right-of-center party. However, his course was challenged by the more conservative wing of the party led by Ivić Pašalić. The ensuing leadership struggle culminated at the 2002 party convention. Sanader, who was supported by Vladimir Šeks and Branimir Glavaš, managed to win his second mandate. Pašalić left the party to form his Croatian Bloc, but failed to draw many of his former supporters from the HDZ.

Sanader was later accused by Ivan Drmić, a former member of the Croatian Democratic Union, for rigging the presidential election at the 5th convention of the Croatian Democratic Union. Spokesman for the Croatian Democratic Union Ratko Maček said such accusations "belong in the anthology of political stupidity."

Sanader was able to concentrate on defeating Ivica Račan and his left-of-centre coalition at the 2003 parliamentary elections. HDZ won the election, but did not win an absolute majority in Sabor.

First term (2003–2008)

After the victory of his Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) the President of the Republic named Sanader the Prime Minister-designate on 9 December 2003. In the post-election negotiations Sanader ensured the support of ethnic minority representatives, nominally left-wing Croatian Party of Pensioners and the Independent Democratic Serb Party. When the Croatian Parliament subsequently gave its consent by 88 votes (out of 152) on 23 December 2003, Sanader was formally appointed.

The Sanader government's main foreign goal was Croatia's entry into the European Union and NATO. As a result of the successful implementation of the Association Agreement – signed with the European Union in 2001 – Croatia did become an official candidate for entry into the EU. Sanader's HDZ also sought to establish better relations with minority parties and to promote minority rights. Amongst other factors contributing to the positive opinion of the European Commission and the European Council regarding Croatia's bid to become an EU member were Croatia's cooperation with the ICTY, continued economic growth and the country's compliance with political and economic criteria established by the 1993 Copenhagen European Council.

Sanader was the last statesman to visit Pope John Paul II in Vatican City, in February 2005, a few weeks before his death on 2 April 2005.

In October 2005, following the formal start of EU accession negotiations, opinion polls showed Sanader to be the most popular Croatian politician.

Škare Ožbolt reported that Sanader possessed a collection of wrist watches worth in excess of €150,000 which he had not declared as assets. Former Minister of Justice Vesna Škare-Ožbolt in the Sanader government was the one who reported Sanader to a resolution council for conflict of interests.

As Prime Minister, Sanader had close relations with other moderate conservative politicians in Europe: including former Austrian Chancellor Wolfgang Schüssel, former Bavarian Prime Minister Edmund Stoiber, Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel, and Irish prime minister Bertie Ahern. The cabinet saw some changes during Sanader's term, notably the departure of the foreign minister Miomir Žužul who was accused of conflict of interest. His government was challenged by the rising tide of Euroscepticism in the country.

In July 2006, Sanader was named in the "Verona Affair", accused by the opposition in the Croatian parliament for fixing the sale of pharmaceutical company Pliva to Barr Pharmaceuticals from the US. The accusations were denied and never proved. Nacional, an independent political weekly, reported Sanader was a part of two bankrupt businesses in Austria, and received bribes in 1995 and 1996 from a tycoon amounting to 800,000 DEM.

Second term (2008–2009)

After the closely contested 2007 parliamentary election, and the first ever situation of ambiguity on who gets the mandate to form a government, Sanader emerged as the winner when President Stjepan Mesić gave him his second mandate, though this time in a coalition with the HSS and the HSLS.

Owing in part to the global recession that set in during Sanader's term, Croatia's economic growth stalled and foreign direct investments slowed down. While displaying symptoms of economic decline shared by larger nations, Croatia's decline during Sanader's term was amplified in comparison with the fortunes of Serbia and next door Montenegro – who gained greater investments due to major reforms. Under Sanader, judicial reforms in Croatia stopped and the land registry issue was not resolved. Over 1.3 million court cases (in a country of 4.1 million people) were yet to be resolved in 2009.

Croatia was expected to complete negotiations with the EU in 2009. However, the negotiations were stalled for 10 months due to Slovenia's blockade of Croatia's EU accession in December 2008. On 1 July 2009, Sanader announced his resignation as the Prime Minister and Leader of the HDZ, as well as his complete withdrawal from all active politics, adding that he does not intend to return. At his press conference in Zagreb, Sanader remarked: "There is always a time in life for a new beginning. Such a moment has come and now it is time for others to take over." According to BBC News, the announcement "came as a surprise", as Croatian media had quite recently named Sanader as a potential candidate for the 2010 presidential election. He announced that his prime minister-designate would be deputy Prime Minister Jadranka Kosor.

The Croatian Parliament accepted his resignation on 2 July 2009 and informed the President. Sanader was elected Honorary President of the HDZ for life.

Departure and return to politics (2009–2010)

At the September 2009 Global Creative Economic Summit, Sanader discussed Croatia's shift from a heavily controlled economy to a bustling "knowledge-based" economy. According to Sanader, fostering the "competitiveness in everyday life" played an important role in this process.

On 3 January 2010, contrary to his earlier statements (1 July 2009), Sanader announced he would be returning to a more active role in politics, stating that his decision to withdraw was a mistake, and that the HDZ is a "winning party and not a party that wins 12% of the vote", a remark made in connection with the first round of the presidential election held one week before. He was supported by a dozen HDZ MPs, including Luka Bebić, but none of the members of the Government. Several of those MPs later disclaimed any association with Sanader and claimed they were misled.

On 4 January 2010, following an entire day of meetings of HDZ leadership, Ivo Sanader was expelled from the Croatian Democratic Union. Of 22 members of the party presidency, 16 voted for expulsion, three were against (Luka Bebić, Mario Zubović and Damir Polančec) and two abstained (Bianca Matković and Petar Selem). Sanader himself was not present at the meeting.

In October 2010, Sanader reactivated his parliamentary seat and regained parliamentary immunity.

Arrest in Austria
On 9 December 2010, he was spotted crossing the border into Slovenia, driven by his younger daughter Bruna shortly before the Croatian parliament voted to remove his immunity from prosecution by the Croatian Bureau for Combating Corruption and Organized Crime (USKOK). The next day the Croatian police issued an arrest warrant and applied to Interpol requesting his arrest to face charges of corruption. He was arrested near Salzburg, Austria on 10 December 2010. Croatian authorities froze his assets and bank accounts, and formally applied for extradition on 13 December.

Austrian authorities, including a Carinthian parliamentary committee inquiring into the more recent Hypo Alpe-Adria-Bank International scandal, have questioned Sanader while in custody, while USKOK expanded its investigation of Sanader to include alleged bribes by the Hypo Bank in the 1990s.

Sanader is alleged to have received nearly $695,000 (£432,000) for arranging a loan from the Austrian Hypo Bank in 1995, launching accusations of war profiteering, and of receiving 10 million euros in bribes from the CEO of the Hungarian oil company MOL, Zsolt Hernádi, to secure MOL a dominant position in the Croatian oil company INA.

Extradition, trials and imprisonment (2011–present)
Sanader was extradited by Austria on 18 July 2011. He was transferred to Remetinec prison in Zagreb.

At his first court hearing on 28 October, he complained of heart problems, and he stated that he did not even know he was being taken to court. After hearing this, the judge decided to reschedule, and Sanader was taken to the hospital. His rescheduled court hearing took place in December 2011 and he was released on bail of $2.2 million on 16 December 2011. In January 2012, it was announced that Sanader was facing a new set of corruption charges. USKOK included Sanader in its investigation into Croatia's state-owned electric company HEP's financial irregularities, including losses of $100 million, based on a witness statement that Sanader accepted a bribe to ensure lower electricity prices.

In May 2012, it was announced that Sanader could be indicted again on corruption offences. It was alleged that he could be charged for his involvement in arranging the sale of electricity to Croatian petrochemical company Dioki Group at prices below market, which damaged the state electricity company HEP by several million Kunas. The former CEO and owner of Dioki, Ivan Mravak and Robert Jezic could also face charges.

In September 2012, A fifth indictment was filed against Ivo Sanader for damaging the state budget by 26 million kuna (3.6 million euro). Prosecutors claimed that the damage was done by selling a building built by Fiolic's firm to the Ministry of Regional Development for more than twice the price that the building was actually worth.

According to calculations of Croatian news site Politika Plus from 2012, total damage done to the budget due to corruption scandals involving Sanader counts at least 207,2 million kuna. He was indicted five times in total; in Fimi Media, Planinska, INA-MOL, Hypo and HEP cases.

On 20 November 2012 Sanader was sentenced to 10 years in prison in a first-degree verdict for Hypo and INA-MOL cases. He was the highest official in Croatia to be convicted of corruption. Sanader denied wrongdoing and stated that his trial was politically motivated. The judge, Ivan Turudić, said that Sanader had disgraced Croatia, adding that he had used his office for his own personal enrichment and not for the common good. Sanader was transferred from the court to the Remetinec prison.

In June 2014 the Supreme Court of Croatia confirmed the 2012 verdict, but reduced Sanader's prison sentence to $8 1/2$ years. On that occasion, president Ivo Josipović described Sanader's involvement in MOL's acquisition of INA as "high treason". In 2015, the verdict was quashed by the Constitutional Court based on procedural errors made during the trial. He was released after spending nearly 5 years both in custody and prison. He was set to stand a retrial.

In 2017, he was sentenced to $4 1/2$ years in Planinska case. In April 2019 this conviction was confirmed by Supreme Court and sentence raised to 6 years. Since then, Sanader is in prison.

In 2020, he was convicted and sentenced to 8 years in prison as the result of retrial in Fimi Media case. That same year, he was convicted and sentenced to 6 years in prison for INA-MOL case. Both of these verdicts were confirmed by Supreme Court in 2021, with sentence in Fimi Media case being reduced to 7 years. His acquittal verdict in HEP case was confirmed that same year.

In 2022, he was acquitted in Hypo case, and it is yet to be confirmed by Supreme Court. In 2023, his three sentences stemming from three convictions were merged into one sentence of 18 years and 8 months, later reduced to 18 years by Supreme Court.

As of 2024, he is serving his sentence at Lipovica prison.

Revoked
On 15 July 2014, President Ivo Josipović revoked all of Sanader's national decorations following the final judgment by the Supreme Court by which he was sentenced to imprisonment for a term of 8 years and 6 months due to his corruption while he served as Prime Minister.
 * Ribbon of the Order of Duke Trpimir.png Order of Duke Trpimir
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title: Ivo Sanader


text:
1961 Irish general election

The 1961 Irish general election to the 17th Dáil was held on Wednesday, 4 October, following the dissolution of the 16th Dáil on 15 September by President Éamon de Valera on the request of Taoiseach Seán Lemass. The general election took place in 38 Dáil constituencies throughout Ireland for 144 seats in Dáil Éireann, the house of representatives of the Oireachtas, which had been reduced in size by three seats from the previous election by the Electoral (Amendment) Act 1961. Fianna Fáil lost its majority but remained the dominant party.

The 17th Dáil met at Leinster House on 11 October to nominate the Taoiseach for appointment by the president and to approve the appointment of a new government of Ireland. Lemass was re-appointed Taoiseach, forming the 10th government of Ireland, a single-party minority Fianna Fáil government.

Campaign
At the general election of 1961, the three main parties were led by new leaders: Seán Lemass had taken charge of Fianna Fáil in 1959, making this the first time Fianna Fáil faced a general election campaign without Éamon de Valera (who had become President of Ireland in 1959). James Dillon had taken over at Fine Gael in 1959 also, while the Labour Party was now under the leadership of Brendan Corish.

Lemass announced the date of the election on 8 September, with the dissolution to take place a week later on 15 September. It was the shortest period between the dissolution and the election permitted in law.

While the election was caused by the "crisis" surrounding Ireland's application for membership of the European Economic Community and various other international affairs, little attention was paid to these matters during the campaign; the 1961 general election has become known as the dullest campaign on record, with the most important issue being the teaching of the Irish language in schools. Fianna Fáil fought the election on its record in government and a reforming theme; Fine Gael presented itself as the party of free enterprise. The Labour Party campaigned strongly against the "conservative" Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael parties. It also favoured major expansion in the public sector. It was the first and only general election contested by the National Progressive Democrats led by Noël Browne.

Result

 * }

Government formation
The 17th Dáil met on 11 October 1961. Fianna Fáil were short of a majority, with 70 of the 144 seats in the Dáil, but were able to form a new single-party government, the 10th Government of Ireland, with the support of Independent TDs.

First-time TDs

 * Lorcan Allen
 * Mark Clinton
 * George Colley
 * Patrick Connor
 * Paddy Harte
 * Brian Lenihan
 * Tom O'Donnell
 * Séamus Pattison
 * Eugene Timmons
 * Seán Treacy

Re-elected TDs

 * Seán Collins

Retiring TDs

 * Patrick Giles
 * Peadar Maher
 * Richard Mulcahy
 * Oscar Traynor

Defeated TDs

 * Batt Donegan
 * Gus Healy
 * Denis Larkin
 * Frank Loughman
 * James O'Toole

Seanad election
The Dáil election was followed by an election to the 10th Seanad.

title: 1961 Irish general election


text:
1957 Irish general election

The 1957 Irish general election to the 16th Dáil was held on Tuesday, 5 March, following a dissolution of the 15th Dáil on 12 February by President Seán T. O'Kelly on the request of Taoiseach John A. Costello on 4 February. It was the longest election campaign in the history of the state, spanning 30 days. The general election took place in 40 Dáil constituencies throughout Ireland for 147 seats in Dáil Éireann, the house of representatives of the Oireachtas.

The 16th Dáil met at Leinster House on 20 March to nominate the Taoiseach for appointment by the president and to approve the appointment of a new government of Ireland. Costello lost office, and Éamon de Valera was appointed Taoiseach, forming the 8th government of Ireland, a single-party majority Fianna Fáil government.

Campaign
The 1957 general election was precipitated by the crisis in the trade balance and the government's reaction to it. As a result of this crisis, Fianna Fáil tabled a motion of no confidence in the inter-party government of Fine Gael, Labour and Clann na Talmhan. The Dáil has been scheduled to resume on 13 February. Rather than face defeat in the vote, on 4 February the Taoiseach John A. Costello, sought a dissolution of the Dáil for 12 February. The campaign was fought largely over economic issues and the situation in Northern Ireland. In the North, the IRA had launched Operation Harvest which drew much popular support in the south. Sinn Féin had been re-built and re-organized as a party by Paddy McLogan and was fielding abstentionist candidates.

Fianna Fáil had produced a major policy document in January, criticising many of its own policies in regard to the economy. While they did not know an election was imminent this became the backbone of their manifesto. The importance of free trade was played up by Fianna Fáil in a clear rejection of the protectionist policies they had advocated in the past. The architect of many of these new policies was the spokesperson for Industry and Commerce and the heir-apparent of the party, Seán Lemass. At 75 years of age Éamon de Valera was fighting his last general election as leader of the party. In spite of his age, he carried out a vigorous campaign, often being accompanied by brass bands and torch-lit processions. The Fianna Fáil message was simple: coalition governments were unstable.

The other parties, most of them having enjoyed a stint in government over the previous three years, fought the election on their record in office, Fine Gael in particular. Clann na Talmhan failed to broaden their appeal and remained the voice of the farmers. Clann na Poblachta under Seán MacBride had agreed not to stand in constituencies where Sinn Féin were fielding candidates and lost two of its three seats. Sinn Féin, fighting one of its first post-war elections on an abstentionist ticket won 4 seats.

Result

 * }

Government formation
Fianna Fáil majority government formed. Éamon de Valera became Taoiseach for the last time.

First time TDs

 * Kevin Boland (Appointed Minister for Defence on his first day in the Dáil)
 * Lionel Booth
 * Seán Browne
 * Batt Donegan
 * Paddy Clohessy
 * Patrick Dooley
 * Pádraig Faulkner
 * Jim Gibbons
 * Charles Haughey
 * Gus Healy
 * Brigid Hogan
 * John Joe McGirl
 * Jack Murphy
 * Ruairí Ó Brádaigh
 * Eighneachán Ó hAnnluain
 * James O'Toole
 * John Joe Rice
 * Patrick Tierney

Re-elected TDs

 * Frank Loughman

Retiring TDs

 * Peadar Doyle
 * Brendan Glynn

Outgoing TDs

 * Patrick Crowe
 * Seán Collins
 * James Hession
 * Edward Kelly
 * Joseph Roddy

Seanad election
The Dáil election was followed by an election to the 9th Seanad.

title: 1957 Irish general election


text:
1954 Irish general election

The 1954 Irish general election to elect the 15th Dáil was held on Tuesday, 18 May, following the dissolution of the 14th Dáil on 24 April by President Seán T. O'Kelly on the request of Taoiseach Éamon de Valera. The general election took place in 40 Dáil constituencies throughout Ireland for 147 seats in Dáil Éireann, the house of representatives of the Oireachtas.

The 15th Dáil met at Leinster House on 2 June to nominate the Taoiseach for appointment by the president and to approve the appointment of a new government of Ireland. De Valera failed to secure a majority, and John A. Costello was appointed Taoiseach, forming the second inter-party government, a minority coalition of Fine Gael, the Labour Party and Clann na Talmhan.

Campaign
After the 1951 general election, Fianna Fáil had formed a minority single-party government. Shortly after the Minister for Finance, Seán McEntee, had delivered the 1954 budget, Éamon de Valera called a general election.

Fianna Fáil had the most to lose, their campaign concentrated on providing political stability for the next five years. They also put forward strong arguments against coalition governments. However, this would not suffice when the country's economy was worsening and unemployment and emigration were increasing.

The opposition parties of Fine Gael, the Labour Party and the other minor parties offered the electorate an alternative to three years of Fianna Fáil rule.

Result

 * }

Government formation
Fine Gael, the Labour Party and Clann na Talmhan formed the second inter-party government, a minority government, dependent on the support of Clann na Poblachta.

First time TDs

 * Paudge Brennan
 * James Burke
 * Johnny Connor
 * Fintan Coogan Snr
 * Edward Cotter
 * Paddy Donegan
 * Nicholas Egan
 * Johnny Geoghegan
 * Brendan Glynn
 * Richard Gogan
 * Edward Kelly
 * Henry Kenny
 * Denis Larkin
 * Patrick Lindsay
 * Celia Lynch
 * John Moher
 * Maureen O'Carroll
 * John O'Donovan
 * Donogh O'Malley
 * James Tully

Retiring TDs

 * Patrick Boland
 * Peadar Duignan
 * Patrick Little
 * Patrick Maguire

Defeated TDs

 * Patrick Browne
 * Patrick Cawley
 * Michael ffrench-O'Carroll
 * Patrick O'Gorman
 * Matthew O'Reilly
 * James Reidy
 * Laurence Walsh

Seanad election
The Dáil election was followed by an election to the 8th Seanad.

title: 1954 Irish general election