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Rogers Commission Report

The Rogers Commission Report was written by a Presidential Commission charged with investigating the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster during its 10th mission, STS-51-L. The report, released and submitted to President Ronald Reagan on June 9, 1986, both determined the cause of the disaster that took place 73 seconds after liftoff, and urged NASA to improve and install new safety features on the shuttles and in its organizational handling of future missions.

Commission members

 * William P. Rogers, chairman and former United States Secretary of State (under Richard Nixon) and United States Attorney General (under Dwight Eisenhower)
 * Neil Armstrong (vice-chairman), retired astronaut and first human to walk on the Moon (Apollo 11)
 * David Campion Acheson, diplomat and son of former Secretary of State Dean Acheson
 * Eugene E. Covert, aeronautics expert and former Chief Scientist of the U.S. Air Force
 * Richard P. Feynman, theoretical physicist and winner of the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics
 * Robert B. Hotz, editor, Aviation Week and Space Technology
 * Donald J. Kutyna, Air Force general with experience in ICBMs and shuttle management
 * Sally K. Ride, engineer, astrophysicist and first female American astronaut in space, flew on Challenger as part of missions STS-7 and STS-41-G
 * Robert W. Rummel, Trans World Airlines executive and aviation consultant to NASA
 * Joseph F. Sutter, Boeing senior vice president and engineering program director on the Boeing 747 aircraft
 * Arthur B. C. Walker, Jr, solar physicist and Stanford University professor
 * Albert D. Wheelon, physicist and developer of Central Intelligence Agency's aerial surveillance program
 * Charles E. (Chuck) Yeager, retired Air Force general and the first person to break the sound barrier in level flight
 * Alton G. Keel, Jr., executive director of the commission

Commission witnesses
Day 1, February 6, 1986
 * Dr. William R. Graham, Acting Administrator, National Aeronautics and Space Administration
 * Jesse W. Moore, Associate Administrator for space flight, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and chairman, 51L Data Design and Analysis Test Task Force
 * Arnold D. Aldrich, Manager, National space transportation systems program, Johnson Space Center
 * Dr. Judson A. Lovingood, Deputy Manager, Shuttle Projects office, Marshall Space Flight Center
 * Robert Sieck, Director of Shuttle operations, Kennedy Space Center
 * Richard G. Smith, Director, Kennedy Space Center
 * Thomas L. Moser, Director, Engineering, Johnson Space Center
 * Richard H. Kohrs, Deputy Manager, National Space transportation systems program, Johnson Space Center

Day 2, February 7, 1986
 * Marv Jones
 * Stanley Klein, FBI
 * Jesse W. Moore, Associate Administrator for space flight, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and chairman, 51L Data Design and Analysis Test Task Force
 * Arnold Aldrich, Manager, National Space Transportation Systems Program, Johnson Space Center

Day 3, February 10, 1986

 * Mr L. Michael Weeks, Deputy Associate Administrator for Space Flight, NASA
 * Irvin Davids, Shuttle propulsion Division
 * Lawrence B. Mulloy, project manager, solid rocket boosters, Marshall Space Flight Center

Day 4, February 11, 1986
 * William R. Graham, Acting Administrator of NASA
 * Jesse W. Moore, Associate Administrator for space Flight, NASA
 * Lawrence B. Mulloy, Project Manager, Solid Rocket Boosters, Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA
 * Richard C. Cook
 * Michael B. Mann, Chief, STS Resources Analysis Branch, Office of The Comptroller, National Aeronautics and Space Administration
 * Mr. David Winterhalter, Acting Director, Shuttle Propulsion Group, National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Day 5, February 13, 1986
 * Dick Kohrs, Deputy Manager, NST Program office, Johnson Space Center
 * Charlie Stevenson, Photographic Team Analysis, Kennedy Space Center
 * William R. Lucas
 * Jesse W. Moore
 * Milton Silveira
 * Horace Lamberth
 * Jim Harrington
 * T. Jack Lee, Deputy Director, Marshall Space Flight Center, and Head, Marshall Contingency Investigative Team
 * Mr. George Hardy
 * Rick Bachtol
 * T. Moser, Head, Failure Scenario Team, Johnson Space Center

Day 6, February 14, 1986
 * Larry Mulloy
 * Jerry E. Mason, Senior Vice President, Wasatch Operations, Morton Thiokol
 * Robert Lund, Morton Thiokol, Inc.
 * Roger Boisjoly, Structures Section, Morton Thiokol, Inc.
 * Arnold Thompson, Design Engineer, Morton Thiokol, Inc.
 * Allan J. McDonald, Morton Thiokol, Inc.

Day 7, February 25, 1986
 * Allan J. McDonald, Manager, SRM Project, Morton-Thiokol, Inc.
 * Jerry E. Mason, Senior Vice President, Wasatch Division, Morton-Thiokol, Inc.
 * Roger Boisjoly, Seal Task Force, Thiokol
 * Arnie Thompson, Supervisor, Structures, Thiokol
 * Robert Lund, Vice President, Engineering, Thiokol
 * Joe Kilminster, Vice President, Shuttle Project, Huntsville
 * Brian G. Russell

Day 8, February 26, 1986
 * Larry Mulloy, Manager, Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster Program, Marshall Space Flight Center
 * George C. Hardy, Deputy Director, Science and Engineering, Marshall Space Flight Center
 * Stanley Reinarz, Manager, Marshall Shuttle projects Office
 * Dr. Judson A. Lovingood, Deputy Manager, Marshall Shuttle Projects Office
 * Charles Stevenson, Ice Team member
 * B. K. Davis, Ice Team member
 * Lieutenant Colonel Edward F. Kolczynski, Commander, Detachment 11, 2d Weather Squadron, Patrick Air Force Base

Day 9, February 27, 1986
 * Charles Stevenson
 * B.K. Davis
 * Lieutenant Colonel Edward Kolczynski
 * Rocco Petrone, President, Space Transportation Systems Division, North American Space Operations, Rockwell International
 * Al Martin, Site Director, Launch Support Operations, Kennedy Space Center, Rockwell International
 * Bob Glaysher, Vice President and Program Manager, Orbiter Operations Support, Rockwell International
 * Martin Cioffoletti, Vice President, Space Transportation Systems Integration, Rockwell International
 * Arnie Aldrich, Manager, National Space Transportation Systems, Johnson Space Center
 * William R. Lucas, Director, Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama
 * Jesse W. Moore, Associate Administrator for Space Flight, National Aeronautics and Space Administration Headquarters
 * Dick G. Smith, Director, Kennedy Space Center
 * Gene Thomas, Director, Launch and Landing Operations, Kennedy Space Center
 * Ben Powers, Engineer, Structures and Propulsion Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center

Day 10, March 7, 1986
 * Colonel Edward O'Connor Jr., USAF, Director of Operations, 6655TH ASTG, ESMC
 * Robert Lang, Shuttle Operations, Mechanical Systems Division, Kennedy Space Center
 * Carver Kennedy, Director, VAB Operations, Morton-Thiokol, Inc.
 * Bill Barsh, Engineering Manager, External Tank/Solid Rocket Booster Operations, Lockheed Space Operations Company, KSC
 * Thomas L. Moser, Deputy Associate Administrator for Space Flight, NASA
 * Dr. J. Wayne Littles, Associate Director for Engineering, Marshall Space Flight Center
 * T. Jack Lee, Deputy Director, MSFC
 * Gary Coultas, Assistant Manager, Orbiter Projects, Johnson Space Center
 * George Hopson, Director, Systems Analysis and Integration Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center

Day 11, March 21, 1986
 * James R. Thompson Jr., Vice Chairman, STS 51L, Data and Design and Analyst Task force, Cape Canaveral, Florida
 * Colonel Edward O'Connor Jr., Chairman, Search, Recovery and Reconstruction, Cape Canaveral, Florida
 * Dan M. Germany, Chairman, photo and television support team, Cape Canaveral, and Deputy Manager, Space Station Project Office, Johnson Flight Space Center, Houston, Texas
 * Charles Stevenson
 * George McDonough
 * John Erickson
 * J. Wayne Littles, Associate Director for Engineering, Marshall Space Flight Center
 * Harold N. Scofield, Chief, Control Systems Division, Marshall Space Flight Center
 * Robert S. Ryan, Chief, Structural Dynamics Division Systems Dynamics Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center
 * Garry M. Lyles, Propulsion Analysis Branch, Structures and Propulsion Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center
 * Fredrick D. Bachtel, Thermal Engineering Branch, Structures and Propulsion Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center

Day 12, April 3, 1986
 * George Abbey, Director of Flight Crew Operations
 * John Young, Chief, Astronaut Office
 * Paul J. Weitz, Deputy Chief, Astronaut Office
 * Bob Crippen, astronaut
 * Hank Hartsfield, astronuat
 * Rear Admiral Richard H. Truly, Associate Administrator for space flight
 * Arnold D. Aldrich, manager of the space transportation systems
 * Clifford E. Charlesworth, director of space operations

Day 13, May 3, 1986
 * Lawrence B. Mulloy, Manager, Solid Rocket Booster Project Office
 * Lawrence O. Wear, Manager, Solid Rocket Motor Project, Marshall Space Flight Center
 * Brian G. Russell, Program Manager, Department of solid rocket motor and Final Assembly
 * Robert Ebeling, Department of solid rocket motor igniter and Final Assembly
 * J.C. Kilminster, Vice President, Space Booster Programs
 * Roger Boisjoly, Seal Task Force, Morton Thiokol, Inc.
 * George B. Hardy, Deputy Director, Science and Engineering, former Manager, Solid Rocket Booster office
 * James E. Kingsbury, Science and Engineering
 * Robert G. Eudy, former Chief Engineer, Solid Rocket Motor, Office of Associate Director For Engineering
 * John O. Miller, Technical Assistant To Solid Rocket Motor Manager
 * William L. Ray, Solid Rocket Motor Branch, Propulsion Division, Engineering Directorate
 * L. Michael Weeks, Associate Administrator, (technical) for space flight, NASA
 * Glynn S. Lunney, former Manager, National Space Transportation Systems Program Office
 * John R. Stocker, Assistant General counsel, corporate offices, Rockwell International, corporation

Findings

The commission found that the immediate cause of the Challenger accident was a failure in the O-rings sealing the aft field joint on the right solid rocket booster, causing pressurized hot gases and eventually flame to "blow by" the O-ring and contact the adjacent external tank, causing structural failure. The failure of the O-rings was attributed to a design flaw, as their performance could be too easily compromised by factors including the low temperature on the day of launch.

"An accident rooted in history"
More broadly, the report also determined the contributing causes of the accident. Most salient was the failure of both NASA and its contractor, Morton Thiokol, to respond adequately to the design flaw. The Commission found that as early as 1977, NASA managers had not only known about the flawed O-ring, but that it had the potential for catastrophe. This led the Rogers Commission to conclude that the Challenger disaster was "an accident rooted in history".

Flawed launch decision
The report also strongly criticized the decision-making process that led to the launch of Challenger, saying that it was seriously flawed. Morton Thiokol called a meeting the night before the launch to raise concerns over the forecast temperature in regards to the O-rings. During the meeting, Morton Thiokol's engineers issued a recommendation "not to launch below 53F", the previous lowest temperature of a launch (STS-51C, a year earlier). The NASA managers challenged this and after a 30 minute offline caucus, Morton Thiokol's senior management overruled their engineers' decision and gave the launch the go-ahead. The concerns were not communicated beyond the Level III Flight Readiness Review (FRR). It is certain that even though members of higher FRR teams knew about the issues, there were plenty of members who could have stopped the launch but decided not to. This was done in large part because of the management structure at NASA and the lack of major checks and balances, which proved to be fatal in this scenario. The report concluded that:

"... failures in communication ... resulted in a decision to launch 51-L based on incomplete and sometimes misleading information, a conflict between engineering data and management judgments, and a NASA management structure that permitted internal flight safety problems to bypass key Shuttle managers."

Role of Richard Feynman
One of the commission's best-known members was theoretical physicist Richard Feynman. His style of investigating with his own direct methods rather than following the commission schedule put him at odds with Rogers, who once commented, "Feynman is becoming a real pain." During a televised hearing, Feynman famously demonstrated how the O-rings became less resilient and subject to seal failures at low temperatures by compressing a sample of the material in a clamp and immersing it in a glass of ice water. Feynman's own investigation reveals a disconnect between NASA's engineers and executives that was far more striking than he expected. His interviews of NASA's high-ranking managers revealed startling misunderstandings of elementary concepts. One such concept was the determination of a safety factor.

In one example, early tests resulted in some of the booster rocket's O-rings burning a third of the way through. These O-rings provided the gas-tight seal needed between the vertically stacked cylindrical sections that made up the solid fuel booster. NASA managers recorded this result as demonstrating that the O-rings had a "safety factor" of 3. Feynman incredulously explains the magnitude of this error: A "safety factor" refers to the practice of building an object to be capable of withstanding more force than the force to which it will conceivably be subjected. To paraphrase Feynman's example, if engineers built a bridge that could bear 3,000 pounds without any damage, even though it was never expected to bear more than 1,000 pounds in practice, the safety factor would be 3. If a 1,000-pound truck drove across the bridge and a crack appeared in a beam, even just a third of the way through a beam, the safety factor is now zero: The bridge is defective, there was no safety factor at all even though the bridge did not actually collapse.

Feynman was clearly disturbed by the fact that NASA management not only misunderstood this concept, but inverted it by using a term denoting an extra level of safety to describe a part that was actually defective and unsafe. Feynman continued to investigate the lack of communication between NASA's management and its engineers, and was struck by management's claim that the risk of catastrophic malfunction on the shuttle was 1 in 105, i.e. 1 in 100,000. Feynman immediately realized that this claim was risible on its face; as he described, this assessment of risk would entail that NASA could expect to launch a shuttle every day for the next 274 years while suffering, on average, only one accident. Investigating the claim further, Feynman discovered that the 1 in 105 figure was stating what they claimed the failure rate ought to be, given that it was a crewed vehicle, and working backward to generate the failure rate of components.

Feynman was disturbed by two aspects of this practice. First, NASA management assigned a probability of failure to each individual bolt, sometimes claiming a probability of 1 in 108, i.e. one in one hundred million. Feynman pointed out that it is impossible to calculate such a remote possibility with any scientific rigor. Secondly, Feynman was bothered not just by this sloppy science but by the fact that NASA claimed that the risk of catastrophic failure was "necessarily" 1 in 105. As the figure itself was beyond belief, Feynman questioned exactly what "necessarily" meant in this context, whether it meant that the figure followed logically from other calculations or that it reflected NASA management's desire to make the numbers fit.

Feynman suspected that the 1 in 105 figure was wildly fantastical, and made a rough estimate that the true likelihood of shuttle disaster was closer to 1 in 100. He then decided to poll the engineers themselves, asking them to write down an anonymous estimate of the odds of shuttle explosion. Feynman found that the bulk of the engineers' estimates fell between 1 in 50 and 1 in 200 (at the time of retirement, the Shuttle suffered two catastrophic failures across 135 flights, for a failure rate of 1 in 67.5). Not only did this confirm that NASA management had clearly failed to communicate with their own engineers, but the disparity engaged Feynman's emotions. When describing these wildly differing estimates, Feynman briefly lapses from his damaging but dispassionate detailing of NASA's flaws to recognize the moral failing that resulted from a scientific failing: he was upset NASA presented its fantastical figures as fact to convince a member of the public, schoolteacher Christa McAuliffe, to join the crew. Feynman was not uncomfortable with the concept of a $1/100$ risk factor, but felt strongly that the recruitment of laypeople required an honest portrayal of the true risk involved.

Feynman's investigation eventually suggested to him that the cause of the Challenger disaster was the very part to which NASA management so mistakenly assigned a safety factor. The O-rings were rubber rings designed to form a seal in the shuttle's solid rocket boosters, preventing the rockets' hot gas from escaping and damaging other parts of the vehicle. Feynman suspected that despite NASA's claims, the O-rings were unsuitable at low temperatures and lost their resilience when cold, thus failing to maintain a tight seal when rocket pressure distorted the structure of the solid fuel booster. Feynman's suspicions were corroborated by General Kutyna, also on the commission, who cunningly provided Feynman with a broad hint by asking about the effect of cold on O-ring seals after mentioning that the temperature on the day of the launch was far lower than had been the case with previous launches: below freezing at 28 to 29 °F; previously, the coldest launch had been at 53 °F. In 2013, the BBC film The Challenger revealed that the O-ring insight had in fact come to Kutyna from the astronaut and fellow commission member Sally Ride, who had secretly provided him with NASA test results showing the O-rings became stiff when they were too cold.

Feynman's investigations also revealed that there had been many serious doubts raised about the O-ring seals by engineers at Morton Thiokol, which made the solid fuel boosters, but communication failures had led to their concerns being ignored by NASA management. He found similar failures in procedure in many other areas at NASA, but singled out its software development for praise due to its rigorous and highly effective quality control procedures – then under threat from NASA management, which wished to reduce testing to save money given that the tests had always been passed.

Based on his experiences with NASA's management and engineers, Feynman concluded that the serious deficiencies in NASA management's scientific understanding, the lack of communication between the two camps, and the gross misrepresentation of the Shuttle's dangers, required that NASA take a hiatus from Shuttle launches until it could resolve its internal inconsistencies and present an honest picture of the shuttle's reliability. Feynman soon found that, while he respected the intellects of his fellow Commission members, they universally finished their criticisms of NASA with clear affirmations that the Challenger disaster should be addressed by NASA internally, but that there was no need for NASA to suspend its operations or to receive less funding. Feynman felt that the Commission's conclusions misrepresented its findings, and he could not in good conscience recommend that such a deeply flawed organization as NASA should continue without a suspension of operations and a major overhaul. His fellow commission members were alarmed by Feynman's dissent, and it was only after much petitioning that Feynman's minority report was included at all. Feynman was so critical of flaws in NASA's "safety culture" that he threatened to remove his name from the report unless it included his personal observations on the reliability of the shuttle, which appeared as Appendix F. In the appendix, he stated: "It appears that there are enormous differences of opinion as to the probability of a failure with loss of vehicle and of human life. The estimates range from roughly 1 in 100 to 1 in 100,000. The higher figures come from the working engineers, and the very low figures from management. What are the causes and consequences of this lack of agreement? Since 1 part in 100,000 would imply that one could put a Shuttle up each day for 300 years expecting to lose only one, we could properly ask 'What is the cause of management's fantastic faith in the machinery? ... It would appear that, for whatever purpose, be it for internal or external consumption, the management of NASA exaggerates the reliability of its product, to the point of fantasy."

"For a successful technology," Feynman concluded, "reality must take precedence over public relations, for nature cannot be fooled."

Feynman later wrote about the investigation in his 1988 book What Do You Care What Other People Think?. The second half of the book covers the investigation and the issues between science and politics, and includes the appendix he wrote.

Feynman later reported that, although he had believed he was making discoveries about the problems at NASA on his own, he eventually realized that either NASA or contractor personnel, in an apparent effort to anonymously focus attention on these problem areas, had carefully led him to the evidence which would support the conclusions on which he would later report.

Result
The Rogers Commission offered nine recommendations on improving safety in the space shuttle program, and NASA was directed by President Reagan to report back within thirty days as to how it planned to implement those recommendations. This is a summary of the chapter of Recommendations:  Design and Independent Oversight Shuttle Management Structure, Astronauts in Management and Shuttle Safety Panel Criticality Review and Hazard Analysis Safety Organization Improved Communications Landing Safety Launch Abort and Crew Escape Flight Rate</li> <li>Maintenance Safeguards</li> </ol>

In response to the commission's recommendation, NASA initiated a total redesign of the space shuttle's solid rocket boosters, which was watched over by an independent oversight group as stipulated by the commission. NASA's contract with Morton Thiokol, the contractor responsible for the solid rocket boosters, included a clause stating that in the event of a failure leading to "loss of life or mission," Thiokol would forfeit $10 million of its incentive fee and formally accept legal liability for the failure. After the Challenger accident, Thiokol agreed to "voluntarily accept" the monetary penalty in exchange for not being forced to accept liability.

NASA also created a new Office of Safety, Reliability and Quality Assurance, headed as the commission had specified by a NASA associate administrator who reported directly to the NASA administrator. George Rodney, formerly of Martin Marietta, was appointed to this position. Former Challenger flight director Jay Greene became chief of the Safety Division of the directorate.

The unrealistically optimistic launch schedule pursued by NASA had been criticized by the Rogers Commission as a possible contributing cause to the accident. After the accident, NASA attempted to aim at a more realistic shuttle flight rate: it added another orbiter, Endeavour, to the space shuttle fleet to replace Challenger, and it worked with the Department of Defense to put more satellites in orbit using expendable launch vehicles rather than the shuttle. In August 1986, President Reagan also announced that the shuttle would no longer carry commercial satellite payloads. After a 32-month hiatus, the next shuttle mission, STS-26, was launched on September 29, 1988.

After the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003, attention once again focused on the attitude of NASA management towards safety issues. The Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB) concluded that NASA had failed to learn many of the lessons of Challenger. In particular, the agency had not set up a truly independent office for safety oversight; the CAIB felt that in this area, "NASA's response to the Rogers Commission did not meet the Commission's intent". The CAIB believed that "the causes of the institutional failure responsible for Challenger have not been fixed," saying that the same "flawed decision-making process" that had resulted in the Challenger accident was responsible for Columbia's destruction seventeen years later.

title: Rogers Commission Report


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Highway Patrol (American TV series)

Highway Patrol is a 156-episode action crime drama series produced for syndication from 1955 to 1959. It was "one of the most popular syndicated series in television history", and it was the first American series broadcast in West Germany on that country's commercial TV channel.

Overview
Highway Patrol stars Broderick Crawford as Dan Mathews, the gruff and dedicated head of a police force in an unidentified Western state. Mathews had "no particular title — just the boss," Crawford said.

The program was "based on authentic stories from the files of highway patrol headquarters throughout the country." Episodes dealt with pursuing and arresting criminals such as smugglers, hijackers, and robbers. Two technical advisors (one a patrolman on active service and one retired) read scripts before scenes were shot and were present during filming "to speak up whenever a technical violation, however slight, occurred."

A signature shot of the series is fedora-wearing Matthews barking rapid-fire dialogues into a radio microphone as he leans against the door of his black and white patrol car. Crawford's acting style in the series was one of fast-talking, hard as nails, dedication to his job.

Ziv Television Programs produced the show. Crawford signed in April 1955.

Highway Patrol premiered October 3, 1955, with "Prison Break", an episode filmed April 11–13, 1955. Initial ratings were strong, the show running second to I Love Lucy.

Ziv Television Programs produced 156 episodes spanning four TV seasons, 1955–59. During the four years of its run, Highway Patrol would feature many actors who would later become successful stars in their own right, among them Stuart Whitman, Clint Eastwood, Robert Conrad, Larry Hagman, Barbara Eden, Paul Burke, Leonard Nimoy, and Ruta Lee.

Highway Patrol is famous for its location shooting around the San Fernando Valley and Simi Valley, then mostly rural. Other notable Los Angeles area locations include Griffith Park, as well as Bronson Canyon just above Hollywood. The show also filmed at railroad stations in Glendale, California, identified by a large sign; Alhambra, California; Santa Susana, California; and Chatsworth, California.

Officer uniforms are the CHP style of the day. In seasons one to three, the shoulder patch is essentially the CHP patch with "California" and "Eureka" (state motto) removed; the California bear and other California state seal elements are retained. In season four the show adopted a uniform patch that matches its patrol car emblem. Highway Patrol Chief Dan Mathews usually wears a suit and fedora.

Art Gilmore's narration gives Highway Patrol a documentary feel, but several details are never mentioned. While described as a state police agency, the actual state is never identified. It is said to be a western state which borders Mexico. In Season 3, Episode 13, the city where the Highway Patrol headquarters is located is identified as "Hempstead."

A key element of the show is two-way radio communication among patrol cars and headquarters, with heavy use of police code "10-4" (meaning "acknowledged").

Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry wrote five episodes, sometimes using the pseudonym "Robert Wesley". Future producer Quinn Martin was sound supervisor in the show's early years; style elements of Highway Patrol are evident in his later productions (The Untouchables, The Fugitive, Barnaby Jones, The Invaders, The FBI and The Streets of San Francisco).

When asked why the popular show ended, Crawford said, "We ran out of crimes". Crawford reportedly had had his fill of the show's hectic television schedule (two shows per week), which had caused him to drink more heavily than ever, and he had decided to leave Highway Patrol to make films in Europe. Ziv held up Crawford's 10% share of the show's gross (some $2 million) until Crawford agreed to sign for a new Ziv pilot and TV show, King of Diamonds. After returning from Europe, Crawford signed his new contract with Ziv and later starred in King of Diamonds playing diamond insurance investigator John King. King of Diamonds lasted only one season before being canceled in 1962. Like most Ziv series, Highway Patrol repeats were syndicated for many years, sometimes with name Ten-4. In 2010, ThisTV began airing the series. In 2017, it was added to the lineup on MeTV. Starting on April 1, 2024, the show will air on FETV.

Personnel
The only constant regular on Highway Patrol is star Broderick Crawford as Dan Mathews. William Boyett became a regular in the fourth season as Sgt. Ken Williams. Art Gilmore was the narrator. Vernon Clark was the producer. Jack Shoemaker and Frank Runyon were the technical advisors.

Business aspects
Ziv Productions minimized expenses in order to keep the program "fast and cheap". The theme song was a royalty-free song that had been used on Mr. District Attorney on radio. One three-minute scene that involved a robbery, a murder, and an escape was shot in one take.

The program became Ziv's most profitable production, and it was still making money for the company as reruns continued into the mid-1960s. That success led to formation of Economee Films as a subsidiary of Ziv. While the parent company sold first-run episodes to regional sponsors, Economee Films dealt with local TV stations for showing of reruns, which were titled Ten-Four to distinguish them from first-run episodes. In 1959, three stations in New York City were showing the program each week. By August 1957, more than 200 stations in the United States carried the show, and in some markets it drew a larger audience than network programs. It was also broadcast in "France, Germany, and nearly all of the Latin-American countries."

Character Merchandising of New York manufactured clothing and game items for Highway Patrol.

Recognition
The Billboard's Fourth Annual Program and Talent Awards named Highway Patrol the best syndicated film series on the market. Voters also rated the show first as best adventure series. In the same poll, Crawford was selected as best actor in a syndicated show, and he came in second as best performer in an adventure. The show was also named the top syndication first-run series in the magazine's fifth annual survey.

In other media
Comic adaptations of Highway Patrol appear in five issues of the British anthology comic.

A board game was published, also in the United Kingdom, in 1985 by Bell Toys and Games.

In popular culture
MAD Magazine spoofed Highway Patrol in its October 1960 issue (#58), with Mort Drucker providing caricatures of Crawford and other cast members.

Crawford makes a cameo in the 1977 episode "Hustle" of CHiPs, which is also about the California Highway Patrol. After chatting about Highway Patrol, Officer Jon Baker (Larry Wilcox) says, tongue-in-cheek, "they don't make TV shows like that anymore."

Crawford comes back with, "No, they sure don't."

To mark the 75th anniversary of the CHP in 2004, Los Angeles City Council Member Tom LaBonge, District 4 (which includes parts of Hollywood) asked his "Dollar a Year Man" Gary Goltz to come up with an idea. In response, Goltz created the 10-4 Day Parade which is held every October 4. Approximately 20 to 30 classic police cars from the CHP, LAPD, and many classic cop TV shows parade down Hollywood Boulevard stopping to pay tribute to Broderick Crawford's movie Star on the Walk of Fame. They are often joined by Erik Estrada, Kent McCord and other stars of classic cop TV shows. "The Star and the Car" a documentary about Goltz and his 1955 Broderick Crawford "Highway Patrol" Buick was released in 2018. In 2019 "Broderick Crawford Starring in Highway Patrol" a book on the series written by Goltz was released.

Show availability
All the 156 episodes are now available on DVD from the 35mm masters. The rights to all the 156 episodes are held by Ziv Television Productions' successor United Artists Television under MGM Television. In 2010 episodes began being shown on ThisTV, a network which features classic shows and movies. In 2017, it joined the line-up on MeTV. It has also appeared on MeTV's sister network Decades. Starting on April 1, 2024, the show will air on FETV. Some episodes of Highway Patrol have been provided online via Hulu.com. MGM Home Entertainment released the first season of Highway Patrol on DVD on August 11, 2010. On April 2, 2013, TGG Direct released seasons 2, 3, and 4 on DVD.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Highway Patrol (American TV series)


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Altern-8

Altern 8 is a British electronic music act, comprising Mark Archer and Chris Peat, until Peat left the group in 1994. Best known in the early 1990s, their trademark was electronic rave music with a heavy bass line. Notable Altern 8 tracks included "Activ 8", "E-Vapor-8", "Frequency", "Brutal-8-E", "Armageddon", "Move My Body", "Hypnotic St8" and "Infiltrate 202".

On stage and in music videos, (such as the music video for "E-Vapor-8"), Altern 8's members wore their signature fluorescent yellow dust masks and green MK3 chemical warfare suits. The band signed with Network Records based in Stratford House, Birmingham, England.

Nexus 21
Formed in 1989, by Mark Archer and Chris Peat, Nexus 21 was a British techno duo from Stafford, England. The group was signed to the Blue Chip record label, owned by former Wigan Casino DJ Kev Roberts, under which they released (Still) Life Keeps Moving: a vocal techno tune, and The Rhythm Of Life, an LP album strongly influenced by Detroit techno with acid house, electro and breakbeats elements.

A second album was set for release in late 1991, but due to sample clearance problems, the LP never materialised. A small edition of white labels of I Know We Can Make It / Sychologic PSP was released, which showcased a bigger hardcore influence.

When the Blue Chip label folded, the duo moved to Network Records, releasing Another Night, and The Detroit remixes.

After the release of Overload (EP), as Altern 8, the pair released the following tracks as Nexus 21: "Self Hypnosis": a deep techno contribution to the Bio Rhythm compilation, a remix of which appeared on the Progressive Logic EP, alongside "Together" (from Bio Rhythm 2) and two tunes from The Rhythm Of Life, one remixed.

The beginning of Altern 8
Altern 8 was formed in Stafford in 1990, as a side project to Nexus 21, (a name chosen because of its "futuristic house sound"), when both members were aged 21. From the outset, the band's objective was to develop their style which was influenced by the musical elements of Detroit techno artists Derrick May, Juan Atkins and Kevin Saunderson, as well as the Chicago house music sound of Phuture and early electronic pioneers such as Kraftwerk. Although in the inlay of their first album they credit Manchester-based British acid house group 808 State, by thanking them for starting the UK rave scene.

Altern 8 tunes influenced many artists, with their mixture of the sounds of the Roland TB-303, 808 and 909 with break-beats and familiar samples. At the time in the UK, outdoor rave events were legal, and Altern 8 had a reputation for turning up to play at major unofficial events. They helped to define harder house tracks relying more heavily on bass and volume. The use of more bass and eclectic noises gradually evolved Altern 8's music away from the earlier house music style. The duo, dressed in chemical warfare suits and dancing "like electrofied monkeys", took part in a large number of live performances.

In 1991, Altern 8 released their first single, "Infiltrate 202". The same year, the band did a live performance in the car park outside Shelley's night club in Longton, Stoke-on-Trent, which can be seen in the video for their second single, "Activ 8 (Come With Me)".

Full On...Mask Hysteria
The band released an album on the Network Records label in 1992, called Full On... Mask Hysteria, which featured six of their first seven singles. The same year, Peat stood as a candidate for the Stafford constituency in the General Election representing the 'Hardcore (Altern8-ive)' party. He received 158 votes and finished in fourth place.

In 1993, Archer began producing music. Billed as Slo Moshun, Archer was responsible for the hits "Bells of NY" and "Help My Friend".

In 1994, Peat and Archer parted ways. Archer continued to DJ under the name Altern 8 until Peat declined permission to use the Altern 8 name and trademarks.

Comeback - Mark Archer as Altern 8
The 2001 DJ mix album Old Skool Euphoria, part of the Euphoria series of albums, was mixed by Archer using the Altern 8 pseudonym. The album is a double album of various "old skool" acid house and rave music produced in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The album includes two Altern 8 songs.

Mark Archer carried on as Altern 8 with the original MCs and dancers from 1999 and performed at Old School Hardcore reunion events throughout the 2000s. Since 2014, Altern 8 have enjoyed a new resurgence in popularity through a series of live appearances at festivals and clubs across the UK, introducing them to a new generation of fans.

In 2013, a campaign was launched on Facebook and Twitter to get Altern 8's 1991 song "Activ 8 (Come With Me)" to number 1 in the chart for Christmas. The song ultimately ended up hitting number 33.

In 2020, Altern 8 headlined the Bang Face festival at Pontins in Southport, which was the last large-scale music event held in the UK before the government advised against gatherings of this kind during the coronavirus pandemic. In November, the first 'new' Altern 8 track since 1993 was released. Called "Hard Crew", the hardcore tune had been heard in Altern 8 sets over the past few years, but 2020 marked the first time it had been widely available (with the release coming in a number of remixes in support of the #WeAreViable campaign).

Quotation
From Andrew Harrison of Select magazine as printed in the Infiltr-8 America EP:

''Is it possible to take Altern-8 seriously? It's impossible not to. Because behind the rave pantomime and the giant robots and the mask hysteria, this is music for a different generation. These people never wasted their lives waiting for the next punk to arrive. 1988 was their Year Zero. And it's still here. All you have to do is close your eyes.''

''This is about people with Kraftwerk and Pierre, Transmat and WARP, 808, 909 and 303 encoded in their DNA. This is a live transmission of the beat you can't defeat, sampled over and over and hideously mutated. If you don't understand it, you don't deserve to. This is the phuture, right now, and THIS is the sound of Altern-8.''

DJ mix albums

 * Old Skool Euphoria (2001) (Telstar Records/BMG)

title: Altern-8


text:
The Trials of Life

The Trials of Life: A Natural History of Behaviour is a BBC nature documentary series written and presented by David Attenborough, first transmitted in the United Kingdom from 3 October 1990.

A study in animal behaviour, it was the third in a trilogy of major series (beginning with Life on Earth) that took a broad overview of nature, rather than the more specialised surveys of Attenborough's later productions. Each of the twelve 50-minute episodes features a different aspect of the journey through life, from birth to adulthood and continuation of the species through reproduction.

The series was produced in conjunction with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and Turner Broadcasting System Inc. The executive producer was Peter Jones and the music was composed by George Fenton.

Part of David Attenborough's 'Life' series, it was preceded by The Living Planet (1984) and followed by Life in the Freezer (1993).

Background
The series took over three-and-a-half years to film, during which time Attenborough travelled almost a quarter of a million miles. The production team sought to further push the boundaries of natural history film-making, following on from the advances made in The Living Planet, and were provided with several new challenges.

The sequence of chimpanzees hunting colobus monkeys was only possible through the efforts of Hedwige and Christophe Boesch, who had spent five years studying the apes in the Ivory Coast forests of West Africa.

Meanwhile, a bivouac of army ants in Panama was able to be filmed internally with the aid of a medical endoscope. Furthermore, a new type of camera lens enabled tree ants to be filmed in enlarged close-up just in front of Attenborough – with both subjects in sharp focus. This gave the illusion that the insects were much larger than their actual size.

Filming critical moments in the life of a herd of elephants necessitated the expertise of Cynthia Moss, who had devoted 25 years to researching the animals in Kenya. She was able to advise the production team on the right moments to film specific events.

The camera team had only one chance to film a 60,000-strong flock of waders flying over David Attenborough's head in Norfolk, and the RSPB was enlisted to predict their flight path. By contrast, the Florida scrub jays couldn't have been more co-operative: since the particular group being filmed had been studied closely and were used to humans, a bird could land on Attenborough's hand right on cue.

The inside of a termite mound proved especially challenging for Attenborough: it was so cramped that he could only face in one direction. He therefore had to slowly crawl backwards out of shot when performing re-takes.

Behaviour seen for the first time included the sequence that was eventually selected to illustrate the series' DVD cover: that of a killer whale pouncing on a colony of sea lions on a Patagonian beach and 'playing' with its young prey before consuming it. This meant some risks being taken by the cameramen, as they placed themselves in the water just feet away from the creatures in order to obtain close-ups of an attack run.

Episodes
"'The savage, rocky shores of Christmas Island, 200 miles south of Java, in the Indian Ocean. It’s November, the moon is in its third quarter, and the sun is just setting. And in a few hours from now, on this very shore, a thousand million lives will be launched.'"

1. "Arriving"
Broadcast 3 October 1990, the first episode examines the various methods by which creatures come into the world. Attenborough's opening statement alludes to the annual spawning of the Christmas Island red crab, of which there are estimated to be some 120 million. The exercise is all the more hazardous since the species is a land crab, and the eggs have to be deposited in the sea – where the most ancient animals on the planet still live and breed. One of the most prolific aquatic egg producers is the giant clam, but some land animals also lay vast quantities, and the mantis is one example. In the Western United States, Attenborough observes a wasp that digs a burrow, conceals it, and stocks it with fresh caterpillars for her emerging young. The grubs of another start life inside caterpillars, and eat the unsuspecting hosts. The problems of larger animals are illustrated by snow geese in the Arctic, which have to defend their eggs from Arctic foxes. The process of embryonic growth inside the egg, from laying to hatching, is shown in detail. The malleefowl warms its eggs with rotting leaves, and Attenborough demonstrates the care with which it regulates them by adding sand to its mound – to have it kicked back in his (Attenborough's) face. The sea louse is a crustacean that commits suicide: its grubs consume so much of the mother's energies that she dies after birth. Mammals shown giving birth to fully formed young include wildebeest, antelope, sea lions and chinchillas.

2. "Growing Up"
Broadcast 10 October 1990, this programme describes the ways that various species care for their young. Attenborough defines childhood as achieving two tasks: growing and surviving. He highlights the elephant seal as an animal that experiences a compressed childhood, being abandoned after three weeks and left for up to another eight alone, while it becomes large enough to be able to swim. For terns, there is safety in numbers as the dense population works together to drive out marauding gulls. The snow geese in the Russian Arctic show intense devotion as they escort their goslings by foot to the coast some 50 kilometres away. Scorpions carry their young on their backs, while a shrew will leave hers under a stone while she goes to feed. The eider duck is one creature that shares responsibility for its offspring: females regularly supervise the ducklings of others in a group. The mara is another that uses a crèche system, as does the bat, whose nurseries can be up to a million strong. The Florida scrub jay has a complex system of raising young known as cooperative breeding, where young stay on as helpers at the nest of their parents. Such behaviour is exhibited on a larger scale by elephants, where all females take an interest in raising a single calf. A chimpanzee's childhood is socially complicated, as an individual must learn how to behave towards others, as well as master the use of tools. Albatrosses must be accomplished fliers as soon as possible – chicks are shown being hunted by tiger sharks.

3. "Finding Food"
Broadcast 17 October 1990, the next instalment is devoted to the ways in which animals gather their sustenance. Attenborough begins in the South American rainforest, where the proliferation of animal and plant life does not necessarily make it easy to find food. Some leaves are poisonous, and so those that eat them have to be careful. Other plants use food (or nectar) as a bribe to get their pollen transported, and several species of hummingbird have developed exclusive relationships with certain of them. Fruit is also on offer, again as a means of reproduction, and creatures such as squirrel monkeys eat little else. Meanwhile, parrots and macaws take kaolin as an antidote to their diet of toxic seeds. Attenborough witnesses a 60,000 strong flock of knot and dunlin suddenly take advantage of a low tide to feed on tiny mud-dwelling molluscs. Barracuda hunt small fish, and drive shoals of them into bays to be eaten by pelicans, which are besieged by gulls that attempt to steal their catches. One species of gecko is able to differentiate between worker termites and the more dangerous soldiers. The web of the orb spider is hailed as one of the most elegant food catching devices, and the methods of two others, nephila and its kleptoparasite visitor, argyrodes, are explored in detail. Finally, tropicbirds, their crops full with food en route back to their nests, are ambushed in mid-air by a group of frigatebirds, whose aim is to make them surrender their cargo.

4. "Hunting and Escaping"
Broadcast 24 October 1990, this episode looks at those that hunt other creatures and ways of avoiding capture. Attenborough is attacked by a pair of skuas as he approaches their nest, which demonstrates this particular bird's aggressive behaviour, both when taking food and defending its young. Off the shores of Patagonia, the same group of killer whales returns each year to ambush sea lion pups, which stray out of the safer shallow waters. Having grabbed their prey, they take it back out to sea and 'play' with it for some time before killing it. Poison can be used both as a weapon and a deterrent, such as by the viper and tomato frog respectively. Some animals advertise their defensive measures in advance, in case deployment occurs too late. Among them are the skunk, which discharges an appalling smell, and some salamanders that display their toxicity by remaining stationary, with their warning markings visible. Several species of stick insect and their elaborate camouflage are shown. However, none of these methods of protection pose problems to army ants, which can subdue any of their prey, simply by virtue of their size and vast numbers. The Harris hawk is unusual, since it hunts in teams, and a group of six are shown practising their skill in the desert of New Mexico. The final sequence depicts a troop of chimpanzees displaying strategy and co-ordination as it successfully pursues colobus monkeys through a forest in the Ivory Coast.

5. "Finding the Way"
Broadcast 31 October 1990, this programme explores forms of navigation. Attenborough starts in Africa at dusk, by describing some of the species that don't rely on sight. The spotted hyena uses its acute sense of smell to guide it while it hunts nocturnally, while galagos urinate on their hands so they can completely mark their movements. Some animals use echolocation and these include swiftlets, bats and river dolphins. By contrast, electric eels use fields of electricity to sense their environment. During the hours of daylight, other methods are employed: the rufous elephant shrew, with its carefully cleared network of pathways, has a sharp mental picture of its habitat – even knowing the various shortcuts with which to evade capture. Attenborough visits the Sahara to illustrate a species that makes the longest overland journey of any insect: cataglyphis, an ant that uses the sun's position to enable it to return to its nest in a straight line. Lobsters in the Bahamas are shown marching in columns to escape stormy waters. In its search for perpetual daylight in which to fish, the Arctic tern makes a 19,000-kilometre journey from one end of the earth to the other. The albatross is highlighted as one of the most skilled navigators: it can travel up to 1300 kilometres over sea in search of food for its chicks, and still find its way back to the nest. Finally, Attenborough stands on a waterfall in Ireland to tell of the three-year, 10,000-kilometre journey made by elvers.

6. "Home Making"
Broadcast 7 November 1990, this instalment deals with how animals construct their shelters from the elements and predators. Burrows and holes can provide considerable refuge, and Attenborough inspects the home of the American prairie dog, an elaborate construction that has its own air conditioning system. Silk is such a valuable commodity that those that can't make it steal it instead. The hermit hummingbird uses it to attach its nest to the underside of a leaf, while the Indian tailorbird stitches two leaves together. However, the expert in complex nest-building is the weaverbird which makes its abode from over 1,000 strips of grass that are perfectly interwoven – and dismantling it if it fails to attract a mate. The beaver is responsible for one of the biggest animal dwellings: its wooden lodge that rises from the river bed stays in place from one generation to the next, and so requires constant maintenance. Some stingless bees use their wax and the resin of tree bark to create labyrinthine structures containing various compartments. Mud is also used by several creatures, such as the potter wasp and the cliff swallow. The termites' intricate creations allow for security, heating, air conditioning, self-contained nurseries and gardens, and sanitation systems. Attenborough hails the species as the consummate home maker, and explores a 15-foot colony in West Africa that contains 1.5 million insects: he crawls right inside to examine its method of ventilation.

7. "Living Together"
Broadcast 14 November 1990, this episode focuses on those species that co-operate and depend on (or exploit) others. Spotted deer follow langur monkeys as they travel from tree to tree, eating any leaves that get dropped from above. In return, the deer serve as a lookout when the primates are feeding on the ground. Underwater, a hermit crab is shown adding sea anemones to its shell in order to protect itself from attack by an octopus, and a goby assists a virtually blind shrimp. Fleas, lice and mites are parasites: they share no mutual partnership and instead take advantage of creatures for food or shelter. However, parasites have their predators, and an example are the finches of the Galápagos Islands that clear the resident giant tortoises of their ticks, and oxpeckers, which do the same for giraffes in Africa (and even use its fur to line their nests). Some fish regularly clean others, and wrasse and shrimp appear to specialise in this regard, as do remora, which permanently hang on to their hosts. One parasite that grows inside its host is the fluke, and one is shown gestating inside a snail, having previously been unknowingly eaten. Because it needs to transfer to a bird's gut to develop further, it causes the snail to advertise its presence to allow itself to be consumed – thus completing the circle. However, some microscopic creatures inhabit the stomachs of large herbivores in order to break down the cellulose of their diet, thereby aiding their digestion.

8. "Fighting"
Broadcast 21 November 1990, this programme details how fighting – both physical and psychological – is used for food, land or to gain a mate. Territorial conflict is demonstrated by the hummingbird, and Attenborough illustrates its aggressiveness by placing a stuffed specimen nearby, only to have it speared by its opponent's bill. The midas cichlid on the other hand, has no weapons to speak of, and so uses its mouth to hold on for trials of strength. By contrast, the forelegs of a mantis shrimp are powerful enough to crack the shell of another crustacean: therefore disputes or courtship are fraught with danger. Animals that possess lethal food-gathering weapons usually don't use them against one another, as neither side wishes to risk death. For example, one venomous snake will aim to floor the other, rather than bite. Wolves and big cats largely use snarls and body posture to convey their threat. There are no holds barred between rival zebras: kicking and biting is employed until a victor emerges, whereas giraffes slam their necks against each other. Normally peaceful mountain gorillas are shown squabbling when play gets out of hand, and one of them communicates real fright by urinating uncontrollably. Large herbivores that have horns or antlers are naturally inclined to use them to assert their dominance over the females in a herd. Duelling male ibex and Alaskan bull moose undergo some of the most ferocious engagements – sometimes to the death.

9. "Friends and Rivals"
Broadcast 28 November 1990, this instalment investigates the ways in which those animals that live in social groups interact with each other. The solitary eagle is contrasted with whooper swans landing in Scotland after a 1,600-kilometre journey from Iceland. Once arrived, they must battle for territory with those already there, and pairs or families are usually victorious. Attenborough uses a group of farmyard chickens to demonstrate a pecking order. Caciques are shown cooperating to deter predators, despite their fights amongst themselves to establish a pecking order. A pride of lions is shown co-operating to subdue a buffalo. Afterwards, each animal peacefully awaits its turn at the carcass. Baboons live in troops of up to 150, and their complex dominance hierarchy is examined in detail. Vampire bats display reciprocal altruism by regurgitating blood for any neighbour that has missed out on a night's feeding. Dwarf mongooses live in family groups of around a dozen. While some look for food or sleep, others are always posted on the lookout for predators and quickly raise the alarm if necessary. Meanwhile, some of the most extreme co-operation is demonstrated by the underground naked mole-rat, whose 80-strong clusters are divided into workers (who tunnel perpetually), soldiers (who only act when danger threatens), and a single queen for breeding. Leafcutter ants are shown transporting their food deep below ground: it has to be planted in a special fungus to convert its indigestible cellulose into something edible, and each stage of the operation is carried out by a different caste of individuals.

10. "Talking to Strangers"
Broadcast 5 December 1990, this episode concentrates on animal communication. In Kenya, Attenborough accompanies a tribesman who calls to a honeyguide, which in turn answers him and leads the pair to a bees' nest. The tribesman extracts the honey, and some is left to reward the bird. African hunting dogs are shown hunting gazelles, of which the target is the individual that leaps lowest. Larks evade merlin by sending a similar message: by continuing to sing while being chased, it tells the pursuer that its prey is fit and therefore will be difficult to catch (see handicap principle). (In 80% of cases this turns out to be true.) Vervet monkeys' cries are among the most complex. Their utterances are effectively words: a vocabulary that defines each of their predators, so an alarm call is specific to a particular threat. Some creatures transmit their presence by display, and Attenborough observes thousands of fireflies illuminating the darkness. Sounds travel faster and further underwater, and over 200 species of fish use them to communicate. In turn, sea lions have become adept at sensing their proximity. However, the most visual aquatic animal is the squid, which uses colour change and posture to communicate. Finally, Attenborough swims with spotted dolphins. They converse with a series of ultrasonic clicks, and each has a family call inherited from its mother: effectively a 'surname'. They also use normal sound, body posture and touch – in short, in terms of ability to communicate, they are man's closest rival.

11. "Courting"
Broadcast 12 December 1990, this programme surveys the methods employed in attracting a mate, mainly those of birds. The Indian florican inhabits long grass, and so is difficult to see. In order to gain attention, it 'trampolines' in the same spot for up to 400 times a day. Whales sing to their prospective partners, and the female's calls can be heard by suitors for over eight kilometres. When animals send out signals of attraction, they must also ensure that they don't entice the wrong species, and so have markings that differ prominently. Attenborough highlights the booby as an example: there are around half a dozen species, all of which may occupy the same island. However, the blue-footed booby reassures its chosen mate by continually lifting its feet. Tropicbirds and marsh harriers are shown providing graceful aerobatic displays, while the sac-winged bat uses a strong perfume to lure a companion. Among those birds that produce the most spectacular visual displays are the lyrebird (which also has an elaborate song), the peacock, and the riflebird (and indeed most other birds of paradise). The bowerbird invites potential partners to inspect its bower: a specially prepared area that contains a hut or walkway augmented by strikingly coloured objects. The intricate dances performed by manakins in Trinidad are also examined. Finally, Attenborough observes the topi's display courts, whose sharply defined boundaries are jealously guarded by rival males.

12. "Continuing the Line"
Broadcast 19 December 1990, the final instalment illustrates how species fulfil their ultimate raison d'être and ensure that their genes are passed on to the next generation. It is a universal problem, but one which has given rise to a variety of solutions. Barnacles cannot move, but each has both male and female sex cells, allowing each neighbour to be a potential mate. On the other end of the scale, a female elephant undergoes a long pregnancy – 22 months – and so wishes to ensure that her calf is fathered by a strong and proven male. She is therefore very choosy about her partner. A female chinchilla is even more so, and rejects an unwanted suitor by squirting urine in its face. Mating is a dangerous business when weapons are involved, and a male tarantula approaches his intended with trepidation. Only when he succeeds in holding off her poison fangs is he able to progress any further. For some, the right moments to get together are few and far between: a male crab, for example, must wait until a female moults her shell before he is able to fertilise her. Male sea lions are shown fighting over a harem, and some use the battle to their advantage by making off with reluctant females. Attenborough observes that the monogamous relationships enjoyed by humans are rare within the animal kingdom, but he highlights the royal albatross as a "beautiful" exception. The pair of birds featured met as five-year-olds, and have been together for twenty years.

"'If you watch animals objectively for any length of time, you're driven to the conclusion that their main aim in life is to pass on their genes to the next generation. Most do so directly, by breeding. In the few examples that don't do so by design, they do it indirectly, by helping a relative with whom they share a great number of their genes. And in as much as the legacy that human beings pass on to the next generation is not only genetic but to a unique degree cultural, we do the same. So animals and ourselves, to continue the line, will endure all kinds of hardship, overcome all kinds of difficulties, and eventually the next generation appears.'"

Home media
The series is available in the UK for Regions 2 and 4 as a 4-disc DVD set (BBCDVD1428, released 27 September 2004) and as part of The Life Collection. Erroneously entitled Trials of Life, its sole extra feature is a 50-minute documentary: The Making of The Trials of Life. It was previously released in 2002 as an abridged 3-disc set, with each episode cut to 35 minutes. The series was released on Blu-ray in the UK on 12 November 2012.

The accompanying book, The Trials of Life: A Natural History of Behaviour by David Attenborough (ISBN 0-00-219912-2), was published by BBC Books on 4 October 1990 and was shortlisted for the 1991 Rhône-Poulenc Prize. In 2023, the book was given an updated rerelease (ISBN 9780008579920).

title: The Trials of Life


text:
Sergio Coggiola

Sergio Coggiola (1928-1989) was an Italian designer known primarily for his automotive work at Carrozzeria Ghia in Turin for 15 years — serving as the head of Ghia's prototype shop until 1952 — and later at his own company, Carrozzeria Coggiola, which he founded in 1966 in Orbassano, Italy, a commune of Turin.

In the 1980s, Coggiola freelanced for car manufacturers, sometimes executing third-party designs, such as Trevor Fiores' design of the concept car Citroën Karin, the Lamborghini Portofino or prototypes of the Renault Mégane. Coggiola also produced individual vehicles, special ordered by customers as one-off cars, including Bentley B2 and B3 coupés and convertibles, which Pininfarina had designed for the Sultan of Brunei — Coggiola making a total of 17 copies of this model from 1994 to 1996.

Other original work included the asymmetrically designed Coggiola Janus (1978), the Fiat Punto Surf pick-up study and the 2000 Coggiola T-Rex, an SUV that used a Hummer chassis.

Other work included the Saab Sonett III, Volvo 262C, Lancia Thema Coupé, Lancia Dunja (build only), Fiat Brava Sentiero, Pontiac CF 428 (with Paul Farago), the Copper Development Association (CDA) Exemplar I and the 1976 Honda Civic "Lady" prototype.

Carrozzeria Coggiola declined quickly after founder and owner Sergio Coggiola died suddenly. The other Turin design houses, including IDEA and Ital Design, declined offers to take over.

title: Sergio Coggiola


text:
The Blue Planet

The Blue Planet is a British nature documentary series created and co-produced by the BBC and Discovery Channel. It premiered on 12 September 2001 in the United Kingdom. It is narrated by David Attenborough.

Described as "the first ever comprehensive series on the natural history of the world's oceans", each of the eight 50-minute episodes examines a different aspect of marine life. The underwater photography included creatures and behaviour that had previously never been filmed.

The series won a number of Emmy and BAFTA TV awards for its music and cinematography. The executive producer was Alastair Fothergill and the music was composed by George Fenton. Attenborough narrated this series before presenting the next in his 'Life' series of programmes, The Life of Mammals (2002), and the same production team created Planet Earth (2006).

A sequel series, Blue Planet II was aired on BBC One in 2017.

Background
The series took almost five years to make, involving nearly 200 filming locations. The fact that most of the ocean environment remains a mystery presented the production team with many challenges. Besides witnessing some animal behaviours for the first time, the crew also observed some that were new to science. The producers were helped by marine scientists all over the world with state-of-the-art equipment.

Blue whales – whose migration routes were previously unknown – were located by air, after some of the animals had been given temporary radio tags. The camera team spent three years on standby, using a microlight to land on the water nearby when they finally caught up with the creatures in the Gulf of California. The open ocean proved more difficult and over 400 days were spent in often unsuccessful filming trips. After six weeks, the crew chanced upon a school of spinner dolphins, which in turn led them to a shoal of tuna. Off Mexico, the behaviour of a flock of frigatebirds guided the cameramen to a group of sailfish and marlin: the fastest inhabitants of the sea. Near the coast of Natal in South Africa, the team spent two seasons attempting to film the annual sardine run, a huge congregation of predators such as sharks and dolphins, that assembles to feast on the migrating fish by corralling them into "bait balls". Meanwhile, in Monterey Bay, orca were documented attacking gray whales and killing a calf. Filming in the deep ocean required the use of special submersibles. One of them enabled the crew to dive over a mile into the San Diego trench, where the carcass of a 40-ton gray whale had been placed to attract a large variety of scavengers.

When first transmitted on BBC One, over 12 million people watched the series and it regularly achieved an audience share of over 30%.

In 2018 a newly-discovered species of phytoplankton (Syracosphaera azureaplaneta) was named by scientists in honour of the programme, and in recognition of David Attenborough's contribution to promoting wider understanding and awareness of the oceanic environment.

Episodes
"'Our planet is a blue planet: over seventy per cent of it is covered by the sea. The Pacific Ocean alone covers half the globe. You can fly across it non-stop for twelve hours and still see nothing more than a speck of land. This series will reveal the complete natural history of our ocean planet, from its familiar shores to the mysteries of its deepest seas.'"

DVD and Blu-ray
The series was available as a 3-disc DVD set (BBCDVD1089, released 3 December 2001 and re-released in 2003), including interviews with the production team, a photo gallery and three additional programmes:
 * Making Waves: the making of The Blue Planet (50 mins)
 * Deep Trouble: an ecological documentary (50 mins)
 * Blue: a five-minute theatrical short

The first DVD has now been superseded by a 4-disc Special Edition (BBCDVD1792, released 3 October 2005), which has three extra programmes:
 * The Abyss
 * Dive to Shark Volcano
 * Amazon Abyss

In the US, there is a 4-disc Collector's Set edition (Released 2002), including 8 featurettes, interviews, photo galleries and one additional programmes:
 * Deep Trouble: an ecological documentary (50 mins)

In the US, there is also a 5-disc Special Edition (BBC040754, released 6 May 2008). It contains the same features as the US 4-disc versions, but includes a fifth disk containing four special presentations:
 * Amazon Abyss: discover an array of creatures living in the Amazon
 * Dive to Shark Volcano: venture to Cocoa Island, an underwater volcano
 * Beneath the Tides: explore an estuary in winter
 * Antarctica

BBC released a 3-disc The Blue Planet: Seas of Life on Blu-ray on 9 April 2013. It contains the featured presentations as well as a third disk containing interviews, behind-the-scenes footage and five special presentations:
 * Amazon Abyss
 * Dive to Shark Volcano
 * Beneath the Tides
 * Antarctica
 * Deep Trouble.

Books
The accompanying book, The Blue Planet: A Natural History of the Oceans by Andrew Byatt, Alastair Fothergill and Martha Holmes (with a foreword by David Attenborough), was published by BBC Worldwide on 27 September 2001 (ISBN 0-563-38498-0).

The companion volume for the US market of the same book was published by Dorling Kindersley (DK) and released in 2002 (ISBN 0-789-48265-7).

Film
Deep Blue is a 2003 nature documentary film that is a theatrical version of The Blue Planet. Alastair Fothergill and Andy Byatt are credited as directors, and six cinematographers are also credited. The film was premiered at the San Sebastian Film Festival in Spain on 20 September 2003. It screened in more than 20 territories from 2003 to 2005 and grossed over $30 million at the box office.

Live concert tour
The Blue Planet was turned into a theatrical presentation entitled The Blue Planet Live! which toured the UK from 2006 to 2008. The UK live shows were presented by World Class Service Ltd. George Fenton conducted the Manchester Camerata Orchestra in Manchester, Newcastle and Nottingham during December 2006, in three critically acclaimed shows. The tour continued in April 2007, again conducted by Fenton, in London, Cardiff, Birmingham and returning to Manchester and Nottingham.

For the show, some of the most spectacular sequences from the series have been edited together and are displayed on a huge screen (18 metres wide and 3 storeys high). The presentation is introduced by a special guest.

The tour continued in April 2008 with dates at Wembley Arena, Nottingham Arena, Manchester Central, Cardiff St. David's and Birmingham Symphony Hall.

The Blue Planet Live! continues to be staged:
 * on 7 May 2010 at the Morsani Hall of the Straz Center for the Performing Arts in Tampa, Florida performed by the Florida Orchestra and conducted by Ward Stare.
 * in July 2011 in the Mann Center for the Performing Arts in Philadelphia performed by the Russian National Orchestra, narrator Jane Pauley
 * in June 2012 in Singapore performed by the Singapore Symphony Orchestra
 * in December 2014 in Abu Dhabi at Corniche performed by the National Symphony Orchestra
 * on 22 January 2015 in London at Royal Festival Hall, as a part of the Philharmonia at the Movies series.

Sequel
In February 2017, the BBC announced a seven-part sequel had been commissioned, titled Blue Planet II, with Sir David Attenborough returning as narrator and presenter. The sequel debuted on BBC One, BBC One HD and BBC Earth channel on 29 October 2017.

Overseas
The series was sold to over 50 countries. In the United States, it was shown as The Blue Planet: Seas of Life with the episodes in a different order, the first one being retitled "Ocean World". The series was shown on the Discovery Channel and was narrated by Pierce Brosnan.

Criticism
The series attracted some criticism when it was revealed that some of the footage was filmed at an aquarium in Wales. The series producer, Alastair Fothergill, said that around 2% of the whole series was filmed in tanks at aquariums. A BBC spokesman argued that it would've been unethical to actually disturb the breeding process of wild lobsters for one of the scenes, which was why they made the decision to use the aquarium footage.

title: The Blue Planet


text:
Life in the Freezer

Life in the Freezer is a BBC nature documentary series written and presented by David Attenborough, first transmitted in the United Kingdom from 18 November 1993.

A study of the seasonal cycle of Antarctica, it was the first of Attenborough's more specialised surveys following his major trilogy that began with Life on Earth. Each of the six 30-minute episodes (except the last) examines how species cope with life on the Antarctic continent during the year.

The series was produced in conjunction with The National Geographic Society and Lionheart International, Inc. The producer was Alastair Fothergill and the music was composed by George Fenton.

Part of David Attenborough's 'Life' series of programmes, it was preceded by The Trials of Life (1990) and followed by The Private Life of Plants (1995).

Background
Over the course of the series, the seasonal effect on the continent is explored, from one of the harshest winters on the planet to the arrival of spring, which welcomes a population of ocean travellers returning to breed. Then, in the summer, creatures such as seals and penguins struggle to raise their young before winter once again sets in. At this point, the ice sheet doubles and animals must leave to find food.

David Attenborough accompanied a 20-strong crew to Antarctica and spent three years filming the series. They had to contend with monolithic glaciers and extreme weather conditions, including mountainous seas, 160 km/h blizzards and harsh temperatures.

Once again, following on from The Trials of Life, the team used the latest camera technology and techniques, and had to travel into territory that had been previously inaccessible to filmmakers. For example, to photograph the wildlife of the sea, boats, divers, suspended capsules and remotely controlled cameras mounted on inflatables were used. Particularly dangerous to divers were leopard seals and other predators, so some underwater sequences necessitated the use of cages for safety. The team also used a small, steel-hulled yacht, the Damien II. It had a retractable keel, which enabled the vessel to venture into shallow bays and land camera crews on to remote islands, where they could remain in contact via radio. A steadicam was used to obtain close-ups of fighting fur seals, with another person carrying a pair of wooden poles close by, in case one of the creatures attacked the human visitors.

Cameraman Michael deGruy gave an account of what it was like to film beneath the ice during a blizzard: "I jumped into a seal hole, pushing the ice away as I entered, and they handed me my camera. Surprisingly, I wasn't too cold, except around where my mouth held on to my regulator, and that instantly froze and became numb. Suddenly everything was quiet and I found myself looking at easily one of the most extraordinary scenes I had ever, ever experienced. When I dropped down through a hole in the ice, I was completely surrounded by ice: a tunnel maybe twenty feet across. Everything above me on the land was roaring with wind and down there, there was absolutely no sound except for the distant trills of Weddell seals."

The last episode looks at the race by humans to be the first to reach the South Pole, and its second half describes how the series was made.

Episodes
"I am at the very centre of the great white continent, Antarctica. The South Pole is about half a mile away. For a thousand miles in all directions, there is nothing but ice. And, in the whole of this continent, which is about one-and-a-half times the size of the United States and larger than Europe, there is a year-round population of no more than 800 people. This is the loneliest and coldest place on Earth, the place that is most hostile to life. And yet, in one or two places, it is astonishingly rich."

1. "The Bountiful Sea"
Broadcast 18 November 1993, the first episode introduces the continent of Antarctica and the surrounding sea and islands, its glaciers and the icebergs that form from it. It describes how the continent changes throughout the seasons, as it effectively doubles in size in winter when the surrounding sea freezes over, "the greatest seasonal change that takes place on this planet." Penguins, whales and seals are shown feeding in the Southern Ocean. Many of them eat the abundant krill (which in turn feed on phytoplankton and ice-algae). Humpback whales are shown catching krill through sophisticated co-operation: they create spiralling curtains of air bubbles that drive it into their centre, where the whales can then catch them by surging upwards in the middle of the spiral. Also shown are the various seabirds which feed in the Antarctic sea, especially albatrosses, whose impressive wingspans are possible because they utilise the updraft generated by the huge waves in the stormy southern waters. Because of the patchiness of krill, albatrosses can travel for many hundreds or indeed thousands of miles on a single trip in search of it. All birds scavenge, and a group (including giant petrels) is shown taking the remains of a whale, left by orca. Many birds (including penguins) lay their eggs and feed their chicks on the islands surrounding the Antarctic continent, especially South Georgia where both albatross and king penguins have their nesting sites throughout the year.

2. "The Ice Retreats"
Broadcast 25 November 1993, the second programme examines what happens during spring on Antarctica. The sea ice extends for hundreds of miles around the continent, but there are a few subantarctic islands that escape it. Such places are highly valued, for as the sea never freezes, animals can always get ashore. Elephant seals are the first creatures to return to the beaches. They form large breeding colonies, where the males fight fierce battles to gain and retain permanent access to a great number of females and mate with them as soon as they are receptive again. Millions of macaroni penguins occupy huge territories on the islands to breed, as do thousands of albatrosses. The Antarctic peninsula is one of the few regions of the continent inhabited by animals, even in summer. Gentoo penguins build their nests on bare rock and humpback whales seek krill along the coast, while Adelie penguins nest even further south. Crabeater seals, one of the most numerous mammals on Earth, live and reproduce in the pack ice zone around Antarctica. Snow petrels fly many miles into the island to find rock on which to lay their eggs.

3. "The Race to Breed"
Broadcast 2 December 1993, this instalment looks at the summer, when almost all life in the region breeds. A South Georgian colony of fur seals is shown: the pups grow fast on the rich, fatty milk provided by their mothers and double their weight in just sixty days. As the females become sexually available, the mating season begins – males try to claim territory and mate with females. Chinstrap penguins form large groups on Deception Island, climbing up its steep slopes to find mountain ridges free of snow. Returning birds find their partners by recognising their voice (performing a brief greeting ritual when they find them), which is why the colonies are very noisy during the breeding season. Males and females take turns in catching food, some of which they later regurgitate for their chicks. The summer also thaws some of the ice on the continent's shores. The fresh water allows moss and other plants to grow, which in turn provide food for mites that are adapted to the cold climate – they can survive temperatures up to minus 30 °C because they contain a kind of antifreeze. They become active as soon as the ice melts, and reproduce whenever they get an opportunity to do so. Lichens grow even further south than moss, and algae populate some of the snow. In the ocean, life is much more diverse, and blue-eyed shags dive for fish near the peninsula. More than 300,000 petrels come to breed to the Scullin Monolith, one of the few areas of open rock.

4. "The Door Closes"
Broadcast 9 December 1993, this episode describes the migration of most animals northwards (some from the Antarctic continent, others from the few islands surrounding it) as the continent and surrounding sea freeze over at the end of summer. At Cape Royds, the most southernly colony of Adelie penguins is virtually emptied as adults lead their newly feathered young to the sea. Young penguins often fall prey to leopard seals as they try to make their way across the already partially frozen water – and their stripped remains become food for isopods and meter-long nemerteans. However, before going to the sea, the adult penguins must moult their coats. The freezing sea ice usually does not reach South Georgia, and seal pups are still fed there by their mothers in autumn to be ready for the winter. They use their remaining time for play and mock fights in the ocean. Those who do not survive become food for the predator birds – the skuas and the giant petrels. Elephant seals also undergo moulting while on the island. Albatrosses nesting on South Georgia continue to feed and mate, but the ever harsher weather forces most animals further northwards.

5. "The Big Freeze"
Broadcast 16 December 1993, this programme deals with those who stay during the coldest weather. As almost all animal inhabitants of Antarctica are forced to migrate, the sea underneath the ice still provides a home to many specially adapted fish whose cells are protected from freezing through an inherent "antifreeze". Many feed on the faeces of other animals. Perhaps the most notable larger creature that does not journey north is the Weddell seal, which can be found as close as 1300 kilometres to the pole. Groups of seals tear holes into the ice to dive for food and come up to breathe. The females come back to the ice to give birth. Also described is primitive plant life such as lichen, which can still be found on the continent in winter, even in the extremely dry and permanently frozen valleys – conditions under which dead animals can lie frozen for many centuries without decomposing. Attenborough observes that the Antarctic plateau is so "forbidding, hostile and desolate" that human life there seems not only insignificant, but also "totally irrelevant". Also explored is the life of the emperor penguin, "the only birds to lay their eggs directly on ice". While others retreat, emperors migrate not just to the ice, but into Antarctica itself. The newly laid egg is quickly transferred from female to male. They then incubate the eggs under the harshest conditions on Earth (huddling closely together in temperatures of minus 70 °C), while their partners return to the sea.

6. "Footsteps in the Snow"
Broadcast 23 December 1993, the final instalment discusses human exploration of Antarctica, in particular the mission led by Captain Robert Falcon Scott, whose team died on the way back from the South Pole. Attenborough visits the hut at Cape Evans where Scott and his team spent the winter of 1911. It shows their well-equipped laboratory and the darkroom where the group's photographer, Herbert Ponting, developed his films. Attenborough contrasts the transportation used by Scott (initially motor sledge, ponies and dogs before ending up on foot) with today's helicopters. The episode also details the scientific work in the modern human bases in Antarctica, especially Mawson Station and its observation of Adelie penguins (partially through tracking devices). The film concludes that although working in Antarctica is now much easier than during the early days of exploration, human footsteps on the continent are still exceedingly rare – in part because of international treaties prohibiting industrial exploitation.

"At a time when it's possible for thirty people to stand on the top of Everest in one day, Antarctica still remains a remote, lonely and desolate continent. A place where it's possible to see the splendours and immensities of the natural world at its most dramatic and, what's more, witness them almost exactly as they were, long, long before human beings ever arrived on the surface of this planet. Long may it remain so."

A. N. Wilson controversy
After Life in the Freezer was broadcast, A. N. Wilson, then a television reviewer for The Independent, wrote a column accusing the production team of staging a harrowing sequence in which a leopard seal killed and dismembered a young penguin. He claimed that the chances of filming natural behaviour like this were far too low, and that the crew must have thrown baby penguins to the seal until they got the shot they wanted.

Alastair Fothergill responded by threatening to sue. In a private settlement, Wilson was forced to publish an apology and retraction acknowledging that there had been no basis for his claims. The Independent also paid an undisclosed sum of money, which Fothergill and Attenborough donated to a fund for the penguins of the Falkland Islands.

Wilson had previously made similar claims about Attenborough's previous series, The Trials of Life, regarding the filming of the malleefowl, and had been forced to retract those as well.

DVD, book and videogame
The series is available in the UK for Regions 2 and 4 as a single DVD (BBCDVD1106, released 16 September 2002) and as part of The Life Collection. There are no extra features.

The accompanying book, Life in the Freezer: A Natural History of the Antarctic by Alastair Fothergill with a foreword by David Attenborough (ISBN 0-563-36431-9 ), was published by BBC Books on 4 November 1993. It is currently out of print.

BBC Multimedia released videogame playable on Windows 3.1, Windows 95, Windows 98 platforms titled 'Attenborough's Antarctic: An Exploration of Life in the Freezer' in 1997.

title: Life in the Freezer