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Democratic Republic of Georgia

The Democratic Republic of Georgia (DRG; საქართველოს დემოკრატიული რესპუბლიკა) was the first modern establishment of a republic of Georgia, which existed from May 1918 to February 1921. Recognized by all major European powers of the time, DRG was created in the wake of the Russian Revolution of 1917, which led to the collapse of the Russian Empire and allowed territories formerly under Russia's rule to assert independence. In contrast to Bolshevik Russia, DRG was governed by a moderate, multi-party political system led by the Georgian Social Democratic Party (Mensheviks).

Initially, DRG was a protectorate of the German Empire. However, after the German defeat in World War I, the country was partially occupied by British troops, who were sent there to counter a proposed Bolshevik invasion. The British had to leave in 1920 because of the Treaty of Moscow, in which Russia recognized Georgia's independence in exchange for DRG not hosting forces hostile to Russia's interests. Now that Western European powers were no longer present in Georgia, in February 1921 the Bolshevik Red Army proceeded to invade the country, leading to DRG's defeat and collapse by March of that year, with Georgia becoming a Soviet republic. The Georgian Government, led by Prime Minister Noe Zhordania, moved to France where it continued to work in exile. The government-in-exile was recognized by France, Britain, Belgium, and Poland as the only legitimate government of Georgia until the 1930s, when growing Soviet power and political processes in Europe made it impractical to do so indefinitely.

Although short-lived, DRG continues to be an inspiration for modern day Georgia due to its legacy of democracy and pluralism. DRG was one of the first countries in Europe to grant women the right to vote as enshrined in the Georgian constitution, which was "unusual in most European constitutions at the time". Several women of varying backgrounds were elected to the Georgian parliament, as were representatives of nine ethnicities, including Germans, Russians, Armenians, Azerbaijanis, and Jews. DRG also saw the founding of Georgia's first fully fledged university, thereby realizing a longstanding goal cherished by generations of Georgian intellectuals whose efforts were, up to that point, consistently frustrated by the Imperial Russian authorities.

Background
After the February Revolution of 1917 and collapse of the tsarist administration in the Caucasus, most powers were held by the Special Transcaucasian Committee (Ozakom, short for Osobyi Zakavkazskii Komitet) of the Russian Provisional Government. All of the soviets in Georgia were firmly controlled by the Georgian Social Democratic Party, who followed the lead of the Petrograd Soviet and supported the Provisional Government. The Bolshevist October Revolution changed the situation drastically. The Caucasian Soviets refused to recognize Vladimir Lenin's regime. Threats from the increasingly Bolshevistic deserting soldiers of the former Caucasus army, ethnic clashes and anarchy in the region forced Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijani politicians to create a unified regional authority known as the Transcaucasian Commissariat (November 14, 1917) and later a legislature, the Sejm (January 23, 1918). On April 22, 1918, the Sejm – Nikolay Chkheidze was the president – declared the Transcaucasus an independent democratic federation with an executive Transcaucasian government chaired by Evgeni Gegechkori and later by Akaki Chkhenkeli.

Many Georgians, influenced by the ideas of Ilia Chavchavadze and other intellectuals from the late 19th century, insisted on national independence. A cultural national awakening was further strengthened by the restoration of the autocephaly of the Georgian Orthodox Church (March 12, 1917) and the establishment of a national university in Tbilisi (1918). In contrast, the Georgian Mensheviks regarded independence from Russia as a temporary step against the Bolshevik revolution and considered calls for Georgia's independence chauvinistic and separatist. The union of Transcaucasus was short-lived though. Undermined by increasing internal tensions and by pressure from the German and Ottoman empires, the federation collapsed on May 26, 1918, when Georgia declared independence. Two days later both Armenia and Azerbaijan declared their independence as well.

Recognition
Georgia was immediately recognized by Germany and the Ottoman Empire. The young state had to place itself under German protection in the Treaty of Poti and to cede its largely Muslim-inhabited regions (including the cities of Batumi, Ardahan, Artvin, Akhaltsikhe and Akhalkalaki) to the Ottoman government in the 4 June Treaty of Batum. However, German support enabled the Georgians to repel the Bolshevik threat from Abkhazia. German forces were almost certainly under the command of Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein. Following the German defeat in the First World War, British occupation forces arrived in the country, with the permission of the Georgian government. Relations between the British and the local population were more strained than they had been with the Germans. British-held Batumi remained out of Georgia's control until 1920. In December 1918, a British force was deployed in Tbilisi too.

Georgia's relations with its neighbors were uneasy. Territorial disputes with Armenia, Denikin's White Russian government and Azerbaijan led to armed conflicts in the first two cases. A British military mission attempted to mediate these conflicts in order to consolidate all anti-Bolshevik forces in the region. To prevent White Russian army forces from crossing into the newly established states, the British commander in the region drew a line across the Caucasus that Denikin would not be permitted to cross, giving both Georgia and Azerbaijan temporary relief. The threat of invasion by Denikin's forces, notwithstanding the British position, brought Georgia and Azerbaijan together in a mutual defense alliance on June 16, 1919.

On February 14, 1919, Georgia held parliamentary elections won by the Social Democratic Party of Georgia with 81.5% of the vote. On March 21, Noe Zhordania formed the third government, which had to deal with armed peasants' revolts incited by local Bolshevik activists and largely supported by Russia. These became more troublesome when carried out by ethnic minorities such as Abkhazians and Ossetians.

However, the land reform was finally well handled by the Georgian Social Democratic Party government and the country established a multi-party system. In 1919, reforms in the judicial system and local self-governance were carried out. Abkhazia was granted autonomy. Nevertheless, ethnic issues continued to trouble the country, especially on the part of the Ossetians, as witnessed in May 1920. Nikolay Chkheidze proposed a white mandate for Georgia, vying to protect Georgia in event of an invasion by the Red Army. Many opposed him though. It is unknown whether or not the Kingdom of Italy wanted to place Georgia under its protection as a white mandate, but they were considering it. Nevertheless, Georgia did not become a mandate, resulting in the Red Army invasion of Georgia.

Downfall
The year 1920 was marked by increased threats from the Russian SFSR. With the defeat of the White movement and the Red Armies' advance to the Caucasus frontiers, the republic's situation became extremely tense. In January, the Soviet leadership offered Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan an alliance against the White armies in South Russia and the Caucasus. The Government of the DRG refused to enter any military alliance, referring to its policy of neutrality and noninterference, but suggested negotiations towards a political settlement of the relations between two countries in the hope that this might lead to recognition of Georgia's independence by Moscow. Severe criticism of the Georgian refusal by Russian leaders was followed by several unsuccessful attempts by local communists to organize mass anti-government protests.

In April 1920, the 11th Red Army established a Soviet regime in Azerbaijan, and the Georgian Bolshevik Sergo Orjonikidze requested permission from Moscow to advance into Georgia. Though official consent was not granted by Lenin and Sovnarkom, local Bolsheviks attempted to seize the Military School of Tbilisi as a preliminary to a coup d'état on May 3, 1920, but were successfully repelled by General Kvinitadze. The Georgian government began mobilization and appointed Giorgi Kvinitadze commander-in-chief. In the meantime, in response to Georgia's alleged provision of assistance to the Azeri nationalist rebellion in Ganja, Soviet forces attempted to penetrate Georgian territory, but were repelled by Kvinitadze in brief border clashes at the Red Bridge. Within a few days, peace talks resumed in Moscow. Under the terms of the controversial Moscow Peace Treaty of May 7, Georgian independence was recognized in return for the legalization of Bolshevik organizations and a commitment not to allow foreign troops on Georgian soil.

A vote at the League of Nations on granting membership to Georgia was held on December 16, 1920, with the resolution defeated: 10 voted for it, 13 against, and 19 abstained. Georgia gained de jure recognition from the Allies on January 27, 1921. This, however, did not prevent the country from being annexed by the Red Army to Soviet Russia.

After Azerbaijan and Armenia had been Sovietized by the Red Army, Georgia found itself surrounded by hostile Soviet republics. Moreover, as the British had already evacuated the Caucasus, the country was left without any foreign support.

According to Soviet sources, relations with Georgia deteriorated over alleged violations of the peace treaty, re-arrests of Georgian Bolsheviks, obstruction of convoys passing through Georgia to Armenia, and a strong suspicion that Georgia was aiding armed rebels in the North Caucasus. For its part, Georgia accused Moscow of fomenting anti-government riots in various regions of the country, and of provoking border incidents in the Zaqatala region, disputed with the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. The Lori "neutral zone" was another challenge, as Soviet Armenia categorically demanded that Georgia withdraw the troops that had been stationed in the region since the fall of the Armenian Republic.

Government and law
The Act of Independence of Georgia, declared on May 26, 1918, in brief, outlined the main principles of the nation's future democracy. According to this act, "the Democratic Republic of Georgia equally guarantees to every citizen within her limits political rights irrespective of nationality, creed, social rank or sex". The first government, formed the same day, was led by Noe Ramishvili. In October 1918, the National Council of Georgia has renamed the Parliament and announced new elections to be held on February 14, 1919.

During its two-year history (1919–1921), the newly elected Constituent Assembly of Georgia, with Nikolay Chkheidze as president, adopted 126 laws; these included laws on citizenship, local elections, defence, the official language, agriculture, the legal system, political and administrative arrangements for ethnic minorities (including an act about the People's Council of Abkhazia), a national system of public education, and some other laws and regulations on fiscal and monetary policy, railways, and trade and domestic production. On February 21, 1921, facing the onset of Soviet aggression, the Constituent Assembly adopted a constitution of the Democratic Republic of Georgia, the first modern fundamental law in the nation's history, placing emphasis on human rights.

The country was governed as a type of decentralized unitary parliamentary republic with an executive, with the constitution stating that "the state belongs to all the people. Parliament exercises the sovereignty of the nation within the framework of this constitution." The three decentralized regions included the Abkhaz Autonomy, the Autonomy of Muslim Georgia, and the Zaqatala Region, which were granted autonomy in local affairs. The Chairman of the Government was the chief executive post, approved by the parliament for one-year terms of office (the post could not be held for more than two consecutive terms). The chairman appointed ministers and was responsible for governing the country and representing Georgia in foreign relations. However, the person in the position did not have some privileges common to dual-heads of state and heads of government, such as the ability to dissolve parliament or veto legislation. The 1919 government of Georgia adopted a law on jury trials. The right to trial by jury for serious criminal, political and print cases was incorporated into the 1921 Constitution. The highest court was the Senate, indirectly elected by the parliament. Any changes to the constitution must have first been approved by 2/3 of the legislature, and then a majority of the voting public in a referendum.

Territorial structure
During the Democratic Republic of Georgia, in accordance with the Project for dividing the territory of Georgia into new administrative units (regions), developed by the Self-Government Commission of the Constituent Assembly of the Democratic Republic of Georgia in 1920 (Publication of the Committee of the Union of the elected bodies of local self-government of Georgia No. 2, 1920 (State printing house), Tiflis. - 103 p.; National Library of the Parliament of Georgia, Archive Fund, F 7.876/4 - პროექტი საქართველოს ტერიტორიის დანაწილებისა ახალ საადმინისტრაციო ერთეულებად (ოლქებად)) the division into Governorates and Oblasts was eliminated, uezds and okrugs were preserved, renamed to regions. The names of the regions were mainly proposed by the names of their administrative centers. Minor changes were made to their borders and several former uezds and okrugs were united: Batumi and Artvin okrugs - into the Batumi region, Akhaltsikhe and Akhalkalaki uezds - into the Akhaltsikhe region, Dusheti and Tianet uezds into the Ananuri region. In addition, three autonomous entities were created: Abkhazian autonomy (Sukhumi region), Autonomy of Muslim Georgia (Batumi region) and Zagatala region.Two-level local self-government was introduced: 18 regions and equivalent to regions, the capital of Georgia - Tiflis (Tbilisi) at the regional level and 356 cities and communities at the local level. The southern part of the Ardahan district and the Olta district - if the Democratic Republic of Georgia establishes control over them, will be part of the created Artaani region.

New administrative-territorial units (regions – «olki») of the Democratic Republic of Georgia, created in accordance with the Project, on the basis of existing uezds and okrugs of the Russian Empire, (alternative names of areas are given in brackets):

1 – Tiflis region (Samokalako), capital - Tiflis

2 – Borchaly region (Kvemo Kartli), capital - Ratevani / Ekaterinenfeld (or Kveshi)

3 – Akhaltsikhe region (Samtskhe-Javakheti), capital - Akhaltsikhe

4 – Gori region (Shida Kartli), capital - Gori

5 – Ananur region (Mtiuleti), capital - Ananuri

6 – Telavi region (Shida Kakheti), capital - Telavi

7 – Sighnaghi region (Kiziki), capital - Sighnaghi

8 – Zaqatala region (Saingilo), capital – Zaqatala

9 – Kutaisi region (Kvemo Imereti), capital - Kutaisi

10 – Zestaponi region (Zemo Imereti), capital - Zestaponi / Kvirily

11 – Oni region (Racha), capital - Oni

12 – Tsageri region (Lechkhum-Svaneti), capital - Tsageri

13 – Sukhumi region (Abkhazia-Samurzakano), capital - Sukhumi

14 – Zugdidi region (Zemo Odishi), capital - Zugdidi

15 – Senaki region (Kvemo Odishi), capital - Ahal-Senaki / Novo-Senaki

16 – Ozurgeti region (Guria), capital - Ozurgeti

17 – Batumi region (Adjara-Klarjeti), capital - Batumi

18 – Artaani region (Tao-Artaani), capital - Artaani / Ardagan

19 – Tiflis (Tbilisi) – capital of the Democratic Republic of Georgia.

International recognition
Under the terms of the Moscow Peace Treaty of May 7, Georgian independence was recognized by Soviet Russia in return for the legalization of Bolshevik organizations and a commitment not to allow foreign troops on Georgian soil.

The independence of the Democratic Republic of Georgia was de jure recognized by Romania, Argentina, Germany, Turkey, Belgium, United Kingdom, France, Japan, Italy, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Siam and Estonia, among other countries.

The Government of the Democratic Republic of Georgia in Exile continued to be recognized by many European states as the only legal government of Georgia for some time after 1921. The Government of the Democratic Republic of Georgia in Exile lasted until 1954 continuing to oppose Soviet rule in Georgia.

Political geography
Georgia's 1918–1921 borders were formed through the border conflicts with its neighbors and ensuing treaties and conventions. In the north, Georgia was bordered by various Russian Civil War polities until Bolshevik power was established in the North Caucasus in the spring of 1920. The international border between Soviet Russia and Georgia was regulated by the 1920 Moscow Treaty. During the Sochi conflict with the Russian White movement, Georgia briefly controlled the Sochi district in 1918. In the southwest, the DRG's border with the Ottoman Empire changed with the course of World War I and was modified after the Ottoman defeat in the hostilities. Georgia regained control over Artvin, Ardahan, part of Batum province, Akhaltsikhe and Akhalkalaki. Batum was finally incorporated into the republic after the British evacuated the area in 1920. The Treaty of Sèvres of 1920 granted Georgia control over eastern Lazistan including Rize and Hopa. However, the Georgian government, unwilling to become embroiled in a new war with Turkish Revolutionaries, took no steps to take control of these areas.

The border disputes with the First Republic of Armenia over a part of Borchalo district led to a brief war between the two countries in December 1918. With the British intervention the Lori "neutral zone" was created, only to be reoccupied by Georgia after the fall of the Armenian Republic at the end of 1920.

In the southeast, Georgia was bordered by Azerbaijan, which claimed control of Zaqatala district, and parts of. The dispute, however, never led to hostilities and relations between the two countries were generally peaceful until the Sovietization of Azerbaijan.

The 1919 projects and the 1921 constitution of Georgia granted Abkhazia, Ajaria and Zaqatala a degree of autonomy. Article 107 of the constitution gave autonomy to Abkhazia and Zaqatala. However, due to the Red Army invasion, the exact nature of this autonomy was never determined. It did however serve as the first time in the modern era that Abkhazia was defined as a geographic entity.

The territory of the Democratic Republic of Georgia included some territories that today belong to other countries. It was circa 107,600 km2, compared to 69,700 km2 in modern Georgia. The Soviet occupation of the DRG led to significant territorial rearrangements by which Georgia lost almost a third of its territory. Artvin, Ardahan and part of Batumi provinces were ceded to Turkey, Armenia gained control of Lori, and Azerbaijan obtained Zaqatala district. A portion of the Georgian marches along the Greater Caucasus Mountains was taken by Russia.

Demographics
Forming principally on the territories of the Tiflis and Kutais governorates, as well as the Batum Oblast and Sukhumi Okrug, the Georgian Democratic Republic following the Treaty of Batum consisted of 1,607,000 Georgians, 535,000 Armenians, 200,000 Muslims, and 510,000 others, totalling 2,852,000 inhabitants.

By 1921, following the fall of the Armenian and Azerbaijani republics and Georgia's reacquisition of the Lori and Zakatal districts, the population reached 2,677,000 according to a Soviet source, with an urban population of 475,000 (17.7%). This is supported by the results of the 1926 Soviet census in Georgia some 5 years later which indicated a population of 2,667,000, indicative of the loss of the aforementioned Lori and Zakatal districts to neighbouring Armenia and Azerbaijan respectively.

Armed forces
The People's Guard was the privileged military force in the country. Founded on September 5, 1917, as the Worker's Guard, it was later renamed the Red Guard, and finally the People's Guard. It was a highly politicized military structure placed directly under the control of parliament rather than the Ministry of War. Throughout its existence (1917–1921), the Guard was under the command of the Menshevik activist Valiko Jugheli.

The DRG also formed its own regular army. The only part of it was armed in peacetime, the majority being on furlough and following their callings. If the republic had been in danger, they would have been called up by the General Staff, supplied with arms, and allotted to their places. General Giorgi Kvinitadze was commander-in-chief, two times.

From March 1919 to October 1920, the Georgian army was reorganized. It consisted of 3 infantry brigades (later coalesced into one division), 1 cavalry brigade, 2 fortress regiments, 3 artillery brigades, a sapper battalion, a telegraph platoon, a motor squadron with an armored car detachment, a cavalry regiment, and a military school. A People's Guard consisted of 4 regular battalions. It could further mobilize 18 battalions, i.e., one division. Thus, in 1920, the Georgian army and People's Guard together comprised 16 infantry battalions (1 army division and an NG regiment), 1 sapper battalion, 5 field artillery divisions, 2 cavalry legions, 2 motor squadrons with 2 armored car detachments, an air detachment and 4 armored trains. Beyond staff and fortress regiments, the army totaled 27,000. Mobilization could increase this number to 87,000. The Georgian navy possessed 1 destroyer, 4 fighter aircraft, 4 torpedo boats, 4 mineboats, and 10 steamboats.

Although the republic had access to almost 200,000 veterans of World War I with skilled generals and officers, the government failed to build up an effective defense system, a factor that greatly contributed to its collapse.

Economy
When the DRG was proclaimed, the Georgian economy was not in a strong position. While economic issues were a Europe-wide issue in 1918 (owing to the First World War), as a new state Georgia faced considerably more difficulties. There were two main issues immediately facing Georgia: economic dependence on Russia, and the need to industralise a largely agrarian society. Further causing issues was a lack of direction from the Georgian government, which also tried to implement a socialist-based policy into economic matters, despite lacking the financial backing to keep the economy stable.

As part of the Russian Empire Georgia had been partially industrialised, with natural resource extraction becoming a major feature of exports from the region. However, as historian Stephen F. Jones has noted, imperial Russian policies served the metropolitan needs and imperial integration and there was no regional "strategy of economic development beyond state production of raw materials, the development of transport, military supplies and specialized crops such as tea, tobacco, and cotton." This was also seen on an ethnic scale: the overwhelming amount of traders and business-owners in Georgia were ethnic Armenian, while the administration was composed largely of ethnic Russians. Ethnic Georgians mainly remained in agriculture or took up unskilled labour positions in the cities. This division of labour between ethnic groups proved difficult to reconcile once the DRG was established, and in the aftermath of the Georgian–Armenian War in December 1918 anti-Armenian sentiment throughout Georgia made the Armenian-dominated business class reluctant to help implement needed changes to improve the economy.

Agriculture had been the dominant feature of the Georgian economy, and would remain as such throughout the existence of the DRG. Approximately 79% of the population worked on the land, though the methods used were outdated and far from efficient. This caused food shortages in the cities, and despite 81% of all arable land being used for grains, imports were also required, as was a ban on exporting food products like grain, fruits and vegetables.

The manganese industry at Chiatura was of great importance to European metallurgy, providing about 70% of the world supply of manganese in the early 20th century. Traditionally, Georgia served also as an international transportation corridor through the key Black Sea ports of Batumi and Poti. However the First World War had a devastating effect on this industry as well. The Black Sea had been blockaded throughout the war, severely limiting the amount of exports. This led to a drastic reduction in economic activity in Georgia: the workforce at Chiatura dropped from 3,500 in 1913 to 250 in 1919, with the numbers only starting to rise in 1920. Emerging markets in Brazil and India also meant that the Chiatura mines were less important on a global scale, further weakening their output.

The lack of international recognition and the government's only partially successful policy in the field hindered the economic development of the DRG and the country suffered an economic crisis. Some signs of improvement were observed towards 1920–1921.

Education, science and culture
The most important event in the country's cultural life during this turbulent period was indeed the foundation of a national university in Tbilisi (now known as the Tbilisi State University) (1918), a long-time dream of Georgians thwarted by the Imperial Russian authorities for several decades. Other educational centers included gymnasiums in Tbilisi, Batumi, Kutaisi, Ozurgeti, Poti and Gori, Tbilisi Military School, Gori Pedagogical Seminary, the Pedagogical Seminary for Women, etc. Georgia also had a number of schools for ethnic minorities.

The National Museum of Georgia, theaters in Tbilisi and Kutaisi, the Tbilisi National Opera House, and the National Academy of Art were in the vanguard of cultural life.

The newspapers Sakartvelos Respublika ("Republic of Georgia"), Sakartvelo ("Georgia"), Ertoba ("Unity"), Samshoblo ("Motherland"), Sakhalkho Sakme ("Public Affair"), The Georgian Messenger and The Georgian Mail (both published in English) led the national press.

Legacy
The 1918–1921 independence of Georgia, though short-lived, was of particular importance for the development of national feeling among Georgians, a major factor that made the country one of the most active independent forces within the Soviet Union. Leaders of the national movement of the late 1980s frequently referred to the DRG as a victory in the struggle against the Russian Empire and drew parallels with the contemporary political situation, portraying a somewhat idealized image of the Georgian First Republic.

On April 9, 1991, the independence of Georgia was restored when the Act of the Restoration of State Independence of Georgia was adopted by the Supreme Council of the Republic of Georgia. The national symbols used by the DRG were re-established as those of the newly independent nation and remained in use until 2004. May 26, the day of the establishment of the DRG, is still celebrated as a national holiday — the Independence Day of Georgia.

title: Democratic Republic of Georgia


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Flicker fusion threshold

The flicker fusion threshold, also known as critical flicker frequency or flicker fusion rate, is the frequency at which a flickering light appears steady to the average human observer. It is a concept studied in vision science, more specifically in the psychophysics of visual perception. A traditional term for "flicker fusion" is "persistence of vision", but this has also been used to describe positive afterimages or motion blur. Although flicker can be detected for many waveforms representing time-variant fluctuations of intensity, it is conventionally, and most easily, studied in terms of sinusoidal modulation of intensity.

There are seven parameters that determine the ability to detect the flicker:
 * 1) the frequency of the modulation;
 * 2) the amplitude or depth of the modulation (i.e., what is the maximum percent decrease in the illumination intensity from its peak value);
 * 3) the average (or maximum—these can be inter-converted if modulation depth is known) illumination intensity;
 * 4) the wavelength (or wavelength range) of the illumination (this parameter and the illumination intensity can be combined into a single parameter for humans or other animals for which the sensitivities of rods and cones are known as a function of wavelength using the luminous flux function);
 * 5) the position on the retina at which the stimulation occurs (due to the different distribution of photoreceptor types at different positions);
 * 6) the degree of light or dark adaptation, i.e., the duration and intensity of previous exposure to background light, which affects both the intensity sensitivity and the time resolution of vision;
 * 7) physiological factors such as age and fatigue.

Explanation
As long as the modulation frequency is kept above the fusion threshold, the perceived intensity can be changed by changing the relative periods of light and darkness. One can prolong the dark periods and thus darken the image; therefore the effective and average brightness are equal. This is known as the Talbot-Plateau law. Like all psychophysical thresholds, the flicker fusion threshold is a statistical rather than an absolute quantity. There is a range of frequencies within which flicker sometimes will be seen and sometimes will not be seen, and the threshold is the frequency at which flicker is detected on 50% of trials.

Different points in the visual system have very different critical flicker fusion rate (CFF) sensitivities; the overall threshold frequency for perception cannot exceed the slowest of these for a given modulation amplitude. Each cell type integrates signals differently. For example, rod photoreceptor cells, which are exquisitely sensitive and capable of single-photon detection, are very sluggish, with time constants in mammals of about 200 ms. Cones, in contrast, while having much lower intensity sensitivity, have much better time resolution than rods do. For both rod- and cone-mediated vision, the fusion frequency increases as a function of illumination intensity, until it reaches a plateau corresponding to the maximal time resolution for each type of vision. The maximal fusion frequency for rod-mediated vision reaches a plateau at about 15 hertz (Hz), whereas cones reach a plateau, observable only at very high illumination intensities, of about 60 Hz.

In addition to increasing with average illumination intensity, the fusion frequency also increases with the extent of modulation (the maximal relative decrease in light intensity presented); for each frequency and average illumination, there is a characteristic modulation threshold, below which the flicker cannot be detected, and for each modulation depth and average illumination, there is a characteristic frequency threshold. These values vary with the wavelength of illumination, because of the wavelength dependence of photoreceptor sensitivity, and they vary with the position of the illumination within the retina, because of the concentration of cones in central regions including the fovea and the macula, and the dominance of rods in the peripheral regions of the retina.

Display frame rate
Flicker fusion is important in all technologies for presenting moving images, nearly all of which depend on presenting a rapid succession of static images (e.g. the frames in a cinema film, TV show, or a digital video file). If the frame rate falls below the flicker fusion threshold for the given viewing conditions, flicker will be apparent to the observer, and movements of objects on the film will appear jerky. For the purposes of presenting moving images, the human flicker fusion threshold is usually taken between 60 and 90 Hz, though in certain cases it can be higher by an order of magnitude. In practice, movies since the silent era are recorded at 24 frames per second and displayed by interrupting each frame two or three times for a flicker of 48 or 72 Hz. Television typically originates at 50 or 60 frames or interlaced fields per second.

The flicker fusion threshold does not prevent indirect detection of a high frame rate, such as the phantom array effect or wagon-wheel effect, as human-visible side effects of a finite frame rate were still seen on an experimental 480 Hz display.

Display refresh rate
Cathode ray tube (CRT) displays typically operated at a vertical scan rate of 60 Hz, the same as SDTV content they displayed, which resulted in noticeable flicker. The same was true of other impulsed technologies such as plasma displays. Some systems could increase refresh rate to higher values such as 72, 75, 100, or 120 Hz to ease this problem, though even if the faster refresh is an integer multiple of the source material framerate to eliminate judder, without higher framerate source material this causes the perception of duplicate images. Any flicker on sample and hold technologies such as LCD or OLED, is unrelated to refresh rate and far less conspicuous, instead coming from incidental design compromises such as fluorescent backlights, PWM dimming, or temporal dithering, all of which are eliminated on some devices that do not flicker at all. Because of the resulting display motion blur inherent to sample and hold screens, in applications where accurate motion perception is prioritized over user fatigue, the correct type of flicker can be reintroduced through techniques such as backlight strobing or black frame insertion.

Lighting
Flicker is also important in the field of domestic (alternating current) lighting, where noticeable flicker can be caused by varying electrical loads, and hence can be very disturbing to electric utility customers. Most electricity providers have maximum flicker limits that they try to meet for domestic customers.

Fluorescent lamps using conventional magnetic ballasts flicker at twice the supply frequency. Electronic ballasts do not produce light flicker since the phosphor persistence is longer than a half cycle of the higher operation frequency of 20 kHz. The 100–120 Hz flicker produced by magnetic ballasts is associated with headaches and eyestrain. Individuals with high critical flicker fusion threshold are particularly affected by light from fluorescent fixtures that have magnetic ballasts: their EEG alpha waves are markedly attenuated and they perform office tasks with greater speed and decreased accuracy. The problems are not observed with electronic ballasts. Ordinary people have better reading performance using high-frequency (20–60 kHz) electronic ballasts than magnetic ballasts, although the effect was small except at high contrast ratio.

The flicker of fluorescent lamps, even with magnetic ballasts, is so rapid that it is unlikely to present a hazard to individuals with epilepsy. Early studies suspected a relationship between the flickering of fluorescent lamps with magnetic ballasts and repetitive movement in autistic children. However, these studies had interpretive problems and have not been replicated.

LED lamps generally do not benefit from flicker attenuation through phosphor persistence, the notable exception being white LEDs. Flicker at frequencies as high as 2000 Hz (2 kHz) can be perceived by humans during saccades, and frequencies above 3000 Hz (3 kHz) have been recommended to avoid human biological effects.

Visual phenomena
In some cases, it is possible to see flicker at rates beyond 2000 Hz (2 kHz) in the case of high-speed eye movements (saccades) or object motion, via the "phantom array" effect. Fast-moving flickering objects zooming across view (either by object motion, or by eye motion such as rolling eyes), can cause a dotted or multicolored blur instead of a continuous blur, as if they were multiple objects. Stroboscopes are sometimes used to induce this effect intentionally. Some special effects, such as certain kinds of electronic glowsticks commonly seen at outdoor events, have the appearance of a solid color when motionless but produce a multicolored or dotted blur when waved about in motion. These are typically LED-based glow sticks. The variation of the duty cycle upon the LED(s), results in usage of less power while by the properties of flicker fusion having the direct effect of varying the brightness. When moved, if the frequency of duty cycle of the driven LED(s) is below the flicker fusion threshold timing differences between the on/off state of the LED(s) becomes evident, and the color(s) appear as evenly spaced points in the peripheral vision.

A related phenomenon is the rainbow effect, where different colors are displayed in different places on the screen for the same object due to fast motion.

Flicker
Flicker is the perception of visual fluctuations in intensity and unsteadiness in the presence of a light stimulus, that is seen by a static observer within a static environment. Flicker that is visible to the human eye will operate at a frequency of up to 80 Hz.

Stroboscopic effect
The stroboscopic effect is sometimes used to "stop motion" or to study small differences in repetitive motions. The stroboscopic effect refers to the phenomenon that occurs when there is a change in perception of motion, caused by a light stimulus that is seen by a static observer within a dynamic environment. The stroboscopic effect will typically occur within a frequency range between 80 and 2000 Hz, though can go well beyond to 10,000 Hz for a percentage of population.

Phantom array
Phantom array, also known as the ghosting effect, occurs when there is a change in perception of shapes and spatial positions of objects. The phenomenon is caused by a light stimulus in combination with rapid eye movements (saccades) of an observer in a static environment. Similar to the stroboscopic effect, the phantom effect will also occur at similar frequency ranges. The mouse arrow is a common example of the phantom array effect.

Non-human species
The flicker fusion threshold also varies between species. A 2014 survey of the critical fusion frequency in animals found the lowest value (6.7 Hz) in the cane toad (Bufo marinus) and the highest value (400 Hz) in the black fire beetle (Melanophila acuminate). Estimates for different species of bird vary from 40 Hz to 140 Hz, with higher values tending to be associated with faster-moving species. Many mammals have a higher proportion of rods in their retina than humans do, and it is likely that they would also have higher flicker fusion thresholds. This has been confirmed in dogs.

If artificial lighting is perceived as flickering by some animals, the aversive effect might be an issue for animal welfare and conservation. However, those animals most liable to perceive flicker tend to be diurnal species active in bright light, and thus least likely to be exposed to artificial lighting outside of captivity. Size and metabolic rate are two further factors associated with the variation in flicker fusion thresholds: small animals with a high metabolic rate tend to have high values.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Flicker fusion threshold


text:
Talk:Barbie

Top (toy sales info)
Regarding this

"In 2020, Mattel sold $1.35 billion worth of Barbie dolls and accessories, and this was their best sales growth in two decades. This is an increase from the $950 million the brand sold during 2017."

Can this be removed? The Bloomberg source cites Mattel's annual reports but I can't find where this is info is mentioned in those reports. Timur9008 (talk) 14:38, 21 August 2023 (UTC)

 * User:Paper9oll What do you think? Timur9008 (talk) 13:03, 5 September 2023 (UTC)

the doll of the judge is so important it requires a mention in the lede section
regarding this reversion: the state judiciary is incredibly relevant in the context of women’s history and at least two cast members (Ana Cruz Kayne and America Ferrera ) of the 2023 film have publicly discussed the depiction of women in the judiciary in the Barbie franchise and its relationship to the Roe v. Wade and Dobbs v. Jackson decisions. in my view, this merits a mention at the minimum. isadora of ibiza  (talk)  21:51, 14 October 2023 (UTC)

 * The WP:LEAD is a summary, it should not include things that are not discussed later on in the article.-- ♦Ian Ma c M♦  (talk to me) 07:19, 19 October 2023 (UTC)

yes, Barbie generates revenue, not Mattel
i understand the instinct behind this change. but there is a certain subtlety here: Barbie is not a single product, but a gestalt system of related products and services. it is not incorrect per-se to say Mattel generates the revenue. but it is more informative to say that Barbie generates the revenue. it is like saying iPhone generates much of its revenue from smartphone sales and app store fees. you could also say Apple generates the revenue. but why say that and not iPhone?

isadora of ibiza  (talk)  06:15, 18 October 2023 (UTC)

Re this edit: the wording is unencyclopedic. Barbie is a plastic toy doll, not a real person. Mattel is the company that makes the money.-- ♦Ian Ma c M♦  (talk to me) 07:16, 19 October 2023 (UTC)

 * i’m well aware Barbie is not a real person, and it seems you have a somewhat incorrect assumption of what i am trying to argue here. let’s replace Barbie with something less entangled in the current culture war, like Epcot. the Walt Disney Company is the company that owns Epcot. the Walt Disney Company is the company that makes all the money. but the Walt Disney Company makes money from a lot of different properties besides Epcot. it’s not really helpful to the reader to frame everything about Epcot in the context of the Walt Disney Company. and if you take a look at the article for Epcot, in the lead section it says:

 * In 2019, Epcot hosted 12.444 million guests, ranking it as the fourth-most-visited theme park in North America and the seventh-most-visited theme park in the world.

 * it does not say

 * In 2019, The Walt Disney Company hosted 12.444 million guests at Epcot, ranking it as the fourth-most-visited theme park in North America and the seventh-most-visited theme park in the world.

 * because Epcot is a business of sufficient complexity to be the subject of an article in its own right, and not just as a venture of the Walt Disney Company. you can observe similar wording in other systems of products, like iPhone. does this make sense?
 * isadora of ibiza  (talk)  03:49, 20 October 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 9 November 2023
Ok I would like to up date the barbie BobqwertQWERT BOB (talk) 22:42, 9 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Cannolis (talk) 23:00, 9 November 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Research Process and Methodology - FA23 - Sect 202 - Thu
— Assignment last updated by Wobuaichifan (talk) 02:03, 10 November 2023 (UTC)

Just in Time
Barbie is given as an example of "Just in Time" manufacturing in the book The Box by Marc Levinson in chapter 14. * MountVic127 (talk) 07:28, 4 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Barbie


text:
Ethan Allen-class submarine

The Ethan Allen class of fleet ballistic missile submarine was an evolutionary development from the George Washington class. The Ethan Allen, together with the George Washington-class submarine, Lafayette-class submarine, James Madison-class submarine, and Benjamin Franklin-class submarine classes comprised the "41 for Freedom" that were the Navy's main contribution to the nuclear deterrent force through the late 1980s.

Design
Rather than being designed as Skipjack-class submarine attack submarines with a missile compartment added, the Ethan Allens were the first submarines designed "from the keel up" as Fleet Ballistic Missile (FBM) submarines carrying the Polaris A-2 missile. They were functionally similar to the George Washingtons, but longer and more streamlined and with torpedo tubes reduced to four. In the early and mid-1970s, they were upgraded to Polaris A3s. Because their missile tubes could not be modified to carry the larger diameter Poseidon missile, they were not further upgraded.

Conversions
To comply with SALT II treaty limitations as the Ohio-class submarine ballistic missile submarines entered service, in the early 1980s the Ethan Allens were refitted and officially designated SSNs (fast attack submarines), but often referred to as a "slow approach". Their missile fire control systems were removed and the missile tubes were filled with concrete. Sam Houston and John Marshall were further converted to carry SEALs or other Special Operations Forces, accommodating 67 troops each with dry deck shelters to accommodate SEAL Delivery Vehicles or other equipment. The Ethan Allen-class submarines were decommissioned between 1983 and 1992. All were disposed of through the nuclear Ship-Submarine Recycling Program 1992–1999.

Boats in class
Submarines of the Ethan Allen class:

title: Ethan Allen-class submarine


text:
Cheap Trick at Budokan

Cheap Trick at Budokan (or simply At Budokan) is the first live album by American rock band Cheap Trick, and their best-selling recording. Recorded at the Nippon Budokan in Tokyo, the album was first released in Japan on October 8, 1978, and later released in the United States in February 1979, through Epic Records. After several years of constant touring but only middling exposure for the band, At Budokan steadily grew off radio play and word-of-mouth to become a high-selling success, kickstarting the band's popularity and becoming acclaimed as one of the greatest live rock albums of all time and a classic of the power pop genre.

It was ranked number 426 in the 2003 edition of Rolling Stone magazine's list of "the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". In 2019, the album was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Recording Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". An album featuring leftover tracks from the band's 1978 Budokan set, plus additional material from their 1979 tour of Japan, was released in 1994 as Budokan II, and a two-disc reconstruction of the complete original Budokan performances, titled At Budokan: The Complete Concert, was released to commemorate its twentieth anniversary in 1998.

Overview
Cheap Trick found early success in Japan, and capitalized on this popularity by recording Cheap Trick at Budokan at the Nippon Budokan in Tokyo on April 28 and 30, 1978, with an audience of 12,000 screaming Japanese fans nearly drowning out the band at times. The album was intended for release only in Japan but with strong airplay of the promotional album From Tokyo to You, an estimated 30,000 import copies were sold in the United States and the album was released domestically in February 1979. The album also introduced two previously unreleased original songs, "Lookout" and "Need Your Love". As stated by producer Jack Douglas, the audio from Live at Budokan is actually not from the Budokan, but from Osaka, which was a smaller show. The recording of the Budokan show was deemed unsuitable for release.

An unusual aspect of the album release in the UK was the use of coloured vinyl, then primarily restricted to singles and EP's, and soon replaced as a marketing gimmick by so-called "picture discs". A prominently displayed sticker on the sleeve of Live at Budokan announced that it had been released on "kamikaze yellow vinyl", and, unlike most coloured discs, which were usually as opaque as the conventional black vinyl records, the disc in the album is translucent.

When Cheap Trick at Budokan was first released on compact disc in the U.S., the first pressing contained a slightly different, possibly unpolished mix of the concert. Notably the guitar trade-offs of "Ain't That a Shame" were different from the vinyl release.

Reception
In the U.S., the album peaked at number four on the Billboard 200 and became the group's best selling album with over three million copies sold. It also ranked number 13 on Billboard's Top Pop Albums of 1979 year-end chart. The single "I Want You to Want Me" reached number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The second single, a cover of Fats Domino's "Ain't That a Shame" also charted, reaching number 35. Cheap Trick at Budokan was certified triple Platinum in 1986 by the RIAA.

In Canada, it went to number one, hitting the top of the RPM 100 Albums chart on August 11 of the same year. By November 1979, it had achieved quintuple platinum status (500,000 units) in that country.

The album received mostly positive contemporary reviews. In the UK, Sandy Robertson from Sounds, while critical of Jack Douglas' production, concluded that "Cheap Trick are melodic enough to please pop-obscurity fans, heavy enough to net the Aerosmith mob, wacky enough to be eye-catching and good enough to take on the world. Possibly the best hard rock band in the USA." Nick Kent in NME was more muted in his praise, writing that "Though it doesn't match up to In Colour as the best Cheap Trick initiation, Budokan is no disgrace. A live album of the old school – like The Kinks Live At Kelvin Hall or Got Live If You Want It – it's nothing essential or ground-breaking; just a fair approximation of the band in a live context." In the US, Billboard, marking the album as a Top Album Pick, wrote that "With the fans behind them, the members of Cheap Trick put out its best, playing good hard and steady rock. Unlike so many current live LPs, the audience is always there, giving it more of a sense of space. The slight echo doesn't hurt the music."

Impact and legacy
In its official press release upon the album's entry into the National Recording Registry, the Library of Congress stated that, along with its success in the Japanese market, Cheap Trick at Budokan "proved to be the making of the band in their home country, as well as a loud and welcomed alternative to disco and soft rock and a decisive comeback for rock and roll." Allmusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine has also stated that with this album, "Cheap Trick unwittingly paved the way for much of the hard rock of the next decade, as well as a surprising amount of alternative rock of the 1990s." In Pitchfork, Stuart Berman wrote on the album's success and influence, respectively, that "At Budokan, is not just one of rock's greatest live albums, but also one of its most triumphant underdog tales, an exemplar of pre-internet viral phenomena," and that "for the Foo Fighters, Weezer, Smashing Pumpkins, Ted Leo, the Raconteurs—basically any band that's ever tried to weld a Beatlesque melody to a power chord—all roads lead back to Budokan." Further invoking comparison to the Beatles, Nwaka Onwusa, director of curatorial affairs at the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame, spoke with 1A on the parallels between Beatlemania in the United States and Cheap Trick's reception in Japan:

"Sure we have the story about the Beatles...how Beatlemania hit the United States, but to have Cheap Trick then go overseas and do that same very thing...in Tokyo. The girls, the screaming, throwing flowers at the plane. That’s total ‘Trickmania,’ for sure...it’s actually a beautiful story that [doesn’t] get a lot of shine or recognition because it didn’t happen here, but we have an American band...that created such tidal waves that then boomeranged back here in the United States."

The album was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.

Track listing
All songs by Rick Nielsen, except where noted.

Cheap Trick

 * Robin Zander – lead vocals, rhythm guitar
 * Rick Nielsen – lead guitar, backing vocals
 * Tom Petersson – bass, backing vocals
 * Bun E. Carlos – drums

Technical

 * Cheap Trick – producers
 * Tomoo Suzuki – recording engineer
 * Jay Messina – Mixing engineer
 * Jack Douglas - mixing supervision
 * Gary Ladinsky, Mike Beiriger – master mix
 * Ken Adamany - production supervision
 * Kirk Dyer - road manager
 * Ken Harris - director of security
 * Matthew Perrin - production manager and lighting designer
 * John Muzzarelli - stage manager
 * Dave Wilmer - guitars (Nielsen)
 * Buddy Miller - guitars and basses (Zander, Petersson)
 * Hal Sherburne - staging
 * David Lewis - sound technician
 * Lois Marino - publicist
 * Noriko Kobayashi - interpreter
 * Jeff Messenger - logistics (office)
 * Tokyo Sound - sound reinforcement
 * Koh Hasebe, Kenji Miura - photography
 * Masaru Kawahara - design

Sequel and re-issues
Budokan II was released in February 1994 as a sequel of the first album, consisting of the remaining tracks from the concert not included on the original album and the tracks "Stiff Competition", "On Top of the World", and "How Are You?", recorded in 1979 during their follow-up tour.

An expanded version of the original album was released in 1998 as At Budokan: The Complete Concert, remastered and fully restored to include all the concert tracks left off the original album. This version of the album was performed in full at the Metro in Chicago on April 30, 1998, to coincide with the Complete Concert CD release.

A 30th Anniversary Edition, Budokan! was released on November 11, 2008, as a four-disc set. In addition to the two-disc "Complete Concert", it includes a DVD and CD version of the concert from April 28, 1978. The filmed concert had originally been shown on Japanese TV, and was not previously commercially available. The original vinyl album is also to be reissued in conjunction with the 30th anniversary.

Budokan II track listing

 * 1) "ELO Kiddies" (Nielsen) – 5:41
 * 2) "High Roller" (Nielsen, Petersson, Robin Zander) – 5:58
 * 3) "Southern Girls" (Nielsen, Petersson) – 5:35
 * 4) "Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Peace" (Terry Reid) – 4:34
 * 5) "California Man" (Roy Wood) – 5:45
 * 6) "Downed" (Nielsen) – 6:51
 * 7) "Stiff Competition" (Nielsen) – 4:02 (from 1979 tour)
 * 8) "How Are You?" (Nielsen, Petersson) – 4:14 (from 1979 tour)
 * 9) "On Top of the World" (Nielsen) – 4:02 (from 1979 tour)
 * 10) "Can't Hold On" (Nielsen) – 5:55
 * 11) "Oh Caroline" (Nielsen) – 2:59
 * 12) "Auf Wiedersehen" (Nielsen, Petersson) – 3:41

Disc one

 * 1) "Hello There"
 * 2) "Come On, Come On"
 * 3) "ELO Kiddies"
 * 4) "Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Peace"
 * 5) "Big Eyes"
 * 6) "Lookout"
 * 7) "Downed"
 * 8) "Can't Hold On"
 * 9) "Oh Caroline"
 * 10) "Surrender"
 * 11) "Auf Wiedersehen"

Disc two

 * 1) "Need Your Love"
 * 2) "High Roller"
 * 3) "Southern Girls"
 * 4) "I Want You to Want Me"
 * 5) "California Man"
 * 6) "Goodnight"
 * 7) "Ain't That a Shame"
 * 8) "Clock Strikes Ten"

DVD

 * 1) "Hello There"
 * 2) "ELO Kiddies"
 * 3) "Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Peace"
 * 4) "Look Out"
 * 5) "Downed"
 * 6) "Can't Hold On"
 * 7) "Oh Caroline"
 * 8) "Surrender"
 * 9) "Auf Wiedersehen"
 * 10) "Southern Girls"
 * 11) "I Want You to Want Me"
 * 12) "California Man"
 * 13) "Goodnight"
 * 14) "Ain't That a Shame"
 * 15) "Clock Strikes Ten"

Bonus tracks

 * 1) "Come On, Come On" (1978 performance)
 * 2) "Voices" (2008 performance)"
 * 3) "If You Want My Love" (2008 performance)
 * 4) "Looking Back" – 2008 interviews

CD

 * 1) "Hello There"
 * 2) "Come On, Come On"
 * 3) "ELO Kiddies"
 * 4) "Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Peace"
 * 5) "Big Eyes"
 * 6) "Look Out"
 * 7) "Downed"
 * 8) "Can't Hold On"
 * 9) "Oh Caroline"
 * 10) "Surrender"
 * 11) "Auf Wiedersehen"
 * 12) "Need Your Love"
 * 13) "High Roller"
 * 14) "Southern Girls"
 * 15) "I Want You to Want Me"
 * 16) "California Man"
 * 17) "Goodnight"
 * 18) "Ain't That a Shame"
 * 19) "Clock Strikes Ten"

title: Cheap Trick at Budokan


text:
Taraf de Haïdouks

Taraful Haiducilor ("Taraf of Haiduks") are a Romanian-Romani taraf (a troupe of lăutari, traditional musicians) from Clejani, Romania, and one of the most prominent such groups in post-Communist era Romania. In the Western world they have become known by the name given to them in French-speaking areas, where they are known as Taraf de Haïdouks.

History
The lăutari originating in the village of Clejani have long been known for their musical skills. The first recordings by ethnomusicologists in the village were made in the interwar period. Speranța Rădulescu, a Romanian folklorist also made recordings in Clejani in 1983 for the archive of the romanian Bucharest based Institute for Ethnography and Folklore of the Romanian Academy. The recordings were made in various configurations. During the Communist era, many lăutari from Clejani were also employed in the national ensembles that played Romanian popular music.

Early contacts in the West included Swiss ethnomusicologist Laurent Aubert and Belgian musicians Stéphane Karo and Michel Winter, two fans who were so taken by the band's music that they turned into managers, brought the newly-named "Taraf de Haïdouks" to Western Europe and helped launch their international career.

Since the release of its first album back in 1991, Taraf de Haïdouks has been considered the epitome of Romany music's vitality. Their polyphonic sound incorporates instruments such as the violin, double drum, accordion, flute, cimbalom, double bass and some wind instruments. The group has toured worldwide, released acclaimed albums and a DVD (see below), and counts among its fans the late Yehudi Menuhin, the Kronos Quartet (with whom it has recorded and performed), actor Johnny Depp (alongside whom the group appeared in the film The Man Who Cried), fashion designer Yohji Yamamoto (who invited the band to be models-cum-musicians for his Paris and Tokyo shows), composer Danny Elfman (who hired them to play for his 50th birthday party), and many more. Meanwhile, the band members seem to have been relatively unaffected by all this, maintaining their way of life (they still reside in Clejani, in the Wallachian countryside).

In 2007, the band released their album, Maskarada, in which they reinterpret and "re-gypsify" pieces by 20th-century classical composers (such as Bartók, Khachaturian and Kodály) who drew inspiration from national folklore and often borrowed from Roma styles.

Members
Some of the core members of the group:
 * Nicolae Neacșu ("Culai"): violin, vocals; born 1924; died September 2002 (age 78)
 * Dumitru Baicu ("Cacurică"): cimbalom, vocals; born 1931; died September 2007 (age 76)
 * Ilie Iorga: vocals; actually from Mârșă, near Clejani; born 1928; died June 2012 (age 84)
 * Ion Manole ("Șaică" or "Boșorogu"): violin, vocals; born 1920; died May 2002 (age 82)
 * Gheorghe Anghel ("Caliu"): violin
 * Gheorghe Fălcaru ("Fluierici"): flute, double bass; born 1954; died September 2016 (age 62)
 * Ionică Tănase: cimbalom
 * Constantin Sandu ("Dinu"): cimbalom, vocals
 * Florea Pârvan: double bass
 * Marin Sandu ("Țagoe"): accordion
 * Paul Guiclea ("Pașalan"): voice, violin; born 28 January 1932; died 13 September 2018 (age 86)
 * Marin Manole ("Marius"): accordion
 * Constantin Lăutaru ("Costică Boieru"): violin, voice; born 26 September 1956; died 7 December 2021 (age 65)
 * Viorel Vlad: double bass
 * Robert Gheorghe: violin

Commercially released

 * Musiques de Tziganes de Roumanie (Crammed Discs, 1991)
 * Honourable Brigands, Magic Horses and Evil Eye (Crammed Discs, 1994)
 * Dumbala Dumba (Crammed Discs, 1998)
 * Taraf de Haïdouks (compilation released on Nonesuch Records, 1999)
 * Band of Gypsies (Crammed Discs,2001)
 * The Continuing Adventures Of Taraf de Haïdouks - Live at Union Chapel (CD+DVD, Crammed Discs, 2006)
 * Maškaradă (Crammed Discs, 2007)
 * Band of Gypsies 2, with Kočani Orkestar (Crammed Discs, 2011)
 * Of Lovers, Gamblers and Parachute Skirts (Crammed Discs, 2015)

Non-commercially released
Before the Haïdouks organized themselves as a group, many of them were recorded on an ethnomusicological album:
 * Musique des Tsiganes de Valachie; les lăutari de Clejani (1988) [OCORA 3149025011190]

The following albums were produced by Fundaţia Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcas in Bucharest, in association with Euroart, the cultural fund of the Department for European Integration of the Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs of Romania.
 * The End of the Millenium [sic] in the Romanian Village / Fin de Millénaire dans le Village Roumain / Sfârșit de mileniu în satul Românesc, a collection of recordings from 1989–97, released in 2000, with liner notes in English, French, and Romanian. Only some of the musicians on these recordings are affiliated with the taraf, but several, some from other villages, have toured with them.
 * Outlaws of Yore / Les 'Haïdouks' d'Autrefois, two volumes (labeled "I" and "II"), recorded at the Museum of the Romanian Peasant, Bucharest, March 1991, released in 2001, with liner notes in English and French.

Contributing artist

 * The Rough Guide to the Music of Eastern Europe (1999, World Music Network)

Film
Two performances by the group featured in the 1993 French film Latcho Drom by Tony Gatlif. In 2001 the Taraf appeared in Sally Potter's film The Man Who Cried alongside friend and fan Johnny Depp, Christina Ricci, Cate Blanchett and John Turturro. They were one of the five Romani bands to feature in the movie When the Road Bends… Tales of a Gypsy Caravan (2006).

title: Taraf de Haïdouks


text:
P. J. Hogan

Paul John Hogan (born 30 November 1962) is an Australian film director and screenwriter. He is best known for directing Muriel's Wedding (1994), My Best Friend's Wedding (1997), Peter Pan (2003) and Confessions of a Shopaholic (2009).

Early life
Hogan was born in Brisbane, Queensland. As a teenager, he lived on the North Coast of New South Wales and attended Mt St Patrick's College. He was said to have had a difficult time in high school as he was a victim of bullying. His film Mental is based upon his difficult adolescent years.

Career
Hogan's directorial debut was the short film Getting Wet, made in 1984. This film won him an AACTA Award for Best Short Fiction Film. He then went on to direct minor films. In 1991, he was the assistant director of the Australian film Proof. In the early 1990s, he wrote for several television series, including The Flying Doctors in 1991 and for Lift Off in 1992.

Hogan's first big hit was the 1994 Australian film Muriel's Wedding, which helped launch the careers of actors Toni Collette and Rachel Griffiths. He both wrote and directed this film, and was nominated for Best Director at the AACTA Awards. The success of the film also led him to be chosen by Julia Roberts to direct his 1997 American debut My Best Friend's Wedding, which also starred Cameron Diaz and Dermot Mulroney.

Hogan followed this with the comedy Unconditional Love (which was filmed in 1999 but not released until 2003), and 2003's big budget adaptation of Peter Pan, starring Jason Isaacs as Captain Hook, Jeremy Sumpter as Peter Pan and Rachel Hurd-Wood as Wendy. Despite positive reviews, the 2003 Peter Pan film failed at the box office. The following year he directed a pilot for a remake of the cult soap opera Dark Shadows, which was not picked up for broadcast, and created the story for the 2008 musical film The American Mall. He then directed Confessions of a Shopaholic (starring Isla Fisher), an adaptation of the novel The Secret Dreamworld of a Shopaholic. In 1999, both Hogan and Moorhouse through Hogan Moorhouse Pictures signed a first look deal with Sony.

In 2012, he reunited with Muriel star Collette for the comedy Mental. Hogan will direct an adaptation of Blue Balliett's book Chasing Vermeer.

Personal life
Hogan is married to film director Jocelyn Moorhouse. They have four children, two of whom are autistic.

In April 2019, Moorhouse spoke on the ABC Television program Australian Story about how their relationship had developed and how having the children had affected their personal and professional lives, including a move back to Australia from the US.

title: P. J. Hogan


text:
Pengshui Miao and Tujia Autonomous County

Pengshui Miao and Tujia Autonomous County is an autonomous county for the Miao and Tujia people located in southeastern Chongqing, China, bordering Guizhou province to the south and southwest and Hubei province to the northeast. It is 270 km away from downtown Chongqing.

The county spans an area of 3903 km2, and has a population of 545,094 as of 2010. The county's government is located in.

History
During the Shang and Zhou dynasties, the region of contemporary Pengshui belonged to the State of Ba. During the Warring States period, the area belonged to the Qianzhong Commandery, which would later be incorporated into Qin dynasty China.

During the Han dynasty, the area would be reorganized as Fuling County.

Under the Sui dynasty, in 593 CE, the area was organized as Pengshui County. Pengshui means "Peng River", which was the old name for the Yu River. During the Tang dynasty, Pengshui County was put under the administration of and. Under the Song dynasty, Pengshui was administered by. Under the Yuan dynasty, it was administered by. By 1645 during the Qing dynasty, it was part of Chongqing Prefecture. In 1913 (Republic of China), it was part of Dongchuan Circuit. In 1927, it was reassigned to the Changgong Bureau of Sichuan Province. And in 1935, of the Eighth Administrative Inspection Area of Sichuan.

On November 16, 1949, Pengshui was captured by the communists. In January 1950, it was put under the jurisdiction of, under the Chuandong administrative territory. In September 1952, Fuling Special District was transferred to Sichuan, and was changed to a prefecture in June 1968.

On November 14, 1983 Pengshui was approved as an autonomous county. The official status began November 10 of the following year. In 1987, it was assigned to. In June 1997, it fell under the administration of Chongqing, which it remains today.

Geography
Pengshui Miao and Tujia Autonomous County is located in the Sichuan Basin along the Wu River, in the mountainous region of Wuling. A total of 54.2% of Pengshui is covered by forest. Geographic coordinates: 28°57′ – 29° 51′ North, 107°48′ – 108°36′ East. Altitude of the seat: 245 m.

The county is home to three peaks over 1000 m above sea level: Qiliangzi at 1434 m, Baila Mountain  at 1393 m, and Fenghuang Mountain  at 1048 m.

Neighbours:
 * North: Shizhu Tujia Autonomous County
 * Northeast: Lichuan City, Enshi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Hubei
 * East: Qianjiang District
 * Southeast: Youyang Tujia and Miao Autonomous County
 * South: Yanhe Tujia Autonomous County, Guizhou; Wuchuan Gelao and Miao Autonomous County
 * Southwest: Daozhen Gelao and Miao Autonomous County, Guizhou
 * West: Wulong County
 * Northwest: Fengdu County

Climate
The county's average annual temperature is 17.6 °C, and the average annual precipitation is 1235 mm.

Demographics
As of the 2010 Chinese Census, the county had a population 545,094, down from the 590,228 reported in the 2000 Chinese Census. In 1996, the county had an estimated population of 587,000.

59.5% of Pengshui residents are members of the following 11 ethnic minorities: Miao, Tujia, Mongols, Hui, Gelao, Dong, Tibetans, Manchus, Zhuang, Yi, and Hani. There are 270,000 Miao and 90,000 Tujia in Pengshui.

Subdivisions
The county administers 3 subdistricts, 18 towns, and 18 townships.

Economy
Mineral deposits in the county include coal, barite, marble, fluorite, and calcite.

Transportation
The Chongqing–Huaihua railway runs through the county. Major expressways which pass through the county include the G65 Baotou–Maoming Expressway and National Highway 319.


text:
Talk:List of Olympic Games scandals and controversies

1910
I removed the whole 1910 section for obvious reasons (scandal, yes; Olympic Games in 1910, no, so it's off-topic then, I should say). More checking to be done. --Wernher 04:03, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Not scandals
I have removed the boycott information, as boycotts are not scandals and in any case the subjects are better handled elsewhere. I have also removed the information about the 1996 bombing, as that too was not a scandal. Tragic, yes. Scandal, no. Prince of Canadat 05:41, 16 August 2008 (UTC)

Name change
What was the purpose of the name change? The page title seem to fit just fine.--DanteAgusta (talk) 07:54, 27 August 2008 (UTC)

1998 Winter Olympics
Wasn't there some sort of scandal involving ice dancing at the 1998 Winter Olympics? See the following source: OLYMPICS: FIGURE SKATING; Ice Dancers Struggle To Prove Legitimacy. At the link, The New York Times states: "In ice dancing, concerns about fairness are nothing new. At the 1998 Winter Games in Nagano, Japan, a judge in the dance event tape-recorded another judge trying to preordain the results. Dick Pound, a prominent International Olympic Committee official, said soon afterward that ice dancing should be stripped of its status as an Olympic event unless it could clean up the perception that its judging is corrupt." I am not that familiar with this topic, so if anyone wants to add this, please do so. Thanks. (64.252.124.238 (talk) 04:37, 13 November 2009 (UTC))

Location location location
This article could be made tremendously more readable if each section gave a location. 1912 Summer Olympics? Hell if I know where that took place without clicking. A lot of the time it is relevant to the scandals anyway (boycotts because of mother country participation in some nastiness, et cetera). Just paste a location on the end of each section. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Elecbullet (talk • contribs) 06:04, 12 July 2012 (UTC)

Sri Lanka
Didn't Sri Lanka withdraw from the parade of nations once? AmericanLeMans (talk) 17:20, 27 July 2012 (UTC)

Proposal to remove assault on construction worker.
I propose to remove the following paragraph from the article:

 * In July 2013, it was reported that a construction worker who'd been hired to construct housing in the run-up to the 2014 Winter Olympics was accused by his supervisor of stealing wiring. The worker, Martiros Demerchyan, denied the allegations and offered a search of his house to support his claim. The supervisor relented, saying “Come by and pick up your pay.” But when Demerchyan arrived, he was met by several police officers who viciously beat him and sodomized him with a crow bar.[60] Records obtained from the medical center that treated the victim say that he arrived with “intestinal injuries obtained from penetration by a foreign object.”

Although this is obviously an unfortunate incident, which has some tertiary connection to the Olympic games, I do not think it rises to the level of being an Olympic Games scandal or controversy. It has no bearing on the athletic competition, nor any apparent international consequences. bd2412 T 13:20, 14 August 2013 (UTC)
 * I see that this has now been removed. Cheers! bd2412  T 17:11, 6 September 2013 (UTC)

Freedom of expression is a demand of Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Olympic Games no exception
Too long? User:Cwmacdougall removed my edits as too long:  No valid reasons for deletion were expressed: WP:DELETE Language is not in my opinion a valid reason for deletion. Please feel free to correct language if needed. I make this shorter.

 * I point out that the purpose of all International cooperation including the Olympic Games is to promote peace and understanding between different nations. Any sort of violence does not in my opinion provide sustainable peace. Violence is worldwide disapproved. The conflicting interests should be negotiated and give the freedom of expression for everybody. As I understand Wikipedia promote the freedom of expression. I aimed to include critics showing that freedom of expression is a demand of Universal Declaration of Human Rights. According to experts these apply equally in every country and the Olympic Games do not make here any exception. Watti Renew (talk) 16:19, 30 December 2013 (UTC)

Critics removal
New User:174.7.244.79 welcome to Wiki. I sent you wikilinks. Missing critics makes the page in my opinion nonneutral. Therefore it is better to have too much critics than to keep silent. Wiki trusts on readers to make their own judgement between the potentially conflicting views or stated points of views. For this reason I return your removal. Here key points are the five pilars WP:5. Watti Renew (talk) 17:24, 22 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Removal concerned the Olympic Games controversies in general common to all games. This chapter was missing. Watti Renew (talk) 17:31, 22 January 2014 (UTC)

problem with 1968 olympics figures
The section on the 68 Mexican massacre states "more than two thousand protesters were shot by government forces" which is at odds with the separate article on the massacre which reports 44 killed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.38.150.18 (talk) 14:53, 23 January 2014 (UTC)

Not a contradiction. Not everyone who gets shot dies. Silverpie (talk) 19:16, 13 February 2018 (UTC)

What about the ongoing cost controversy?
Could someone add some info about the ongoing controversy regarding the cost of hosting the games? It's all over the news right now, and cost concerns were all over the news during the London, Vancouver and Athens games. -- Gordon Ecker, WikiSloth (talk) 06:43, 8 February 2014 (UTC)

 * Disappointed in the Article because I was looking for the Olympic scandals outside of the sports. This topic in the Talk page seems to be the only place where it is even touched. Right now there is a major controversy in Japan about bribery around the 2020 Olympics involving official sponsorship status. Apparently some of the official sponsors bought the privilege through a committee member. However there have been MANY reports of such scandals in recent years and I came to Wikipedia in search of information about when and where those scandals started. Shanen (talk) 22:49, 23 September 2022 (UTC)

Doping scandals
I think it would be important to add everything about the doping scandals.. Including Rick DeMont (using drugs approved by IOC, then having his medals stripped because he took those approved medications), the East Germans (who denied doping, then the athletes successfully sued the state for the effects of forced doping, but their medals were never redistributed?) and the banning of a large number from the Russian team in 2016 for a state-sponsored cover up. Not clear why Ryan Lochte isn't mentioned in the Rio scandal, when he was the main perpetrator. There more scandal to talk about! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.5.103.33 (talk) 00:07, 20 August 2016 (UTC)

Generally modified
I removed mentions of individual doping offences as they are described in a detailed way here: Doping at the Olympic Games. Besides, I improved and extended some other paragraphs and removed mentions of "judging controversy" at the 2010 Olympics as no protest has been ever filed. Speaking of Lochtegate, it is mentioned twice in the 2016 Olympics section:

 * Ryan Lochte Rio controversy

 * Four U.S. swimmers, Ryan Lochte, Jimmy Feigen, Gunnar Bentz, and Jack Conger, allegedly vandalized a gas station bathroom, and were forced to pay for the damage by two security men who brandished a gun at the swimmers before a translator arrived. The swimmers later claimed to have been pulled over and robbed by a gunman or gunmen wearing police uniforms. The Federal Police of Brazil detained Feigen, Bentz, and Conger (Lochte having already left the country) after it was determined that the swimmers had made false reports to the police of being robbed. All of the swimmers involved would receive various punishments and suspensions relating to their conduct during the incident.

Over linking and there things...
I'm worked through most of the article removing a great many links to the same major global countries - such as China, Russia or the United States. These really don't need to be linked at all - per WP:OLINK. I've also removed repetitive links to things like the IOC and tried to work on flow and removing tautologies and so on. There are some clear cases where there has been POV introduced that I've tried to work through as well, and other cases where there's way too much detail. There are probably some countries that could use linking on their first mention, but they can always be added back in. If anyone would like to take a look... Blue Square Thing (talk) 20:34, 2 August 2021 (UTC)


text:
USS Sam Houston (SSBN-609)

USS Sam Houston (SSBN-609/SSN-609), an Ethan Allen-class submarine, was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named after Sam Houston (1793–1863), president of the Republic of Texas (1836–1838, 1841–1844). Sam Houston was the US Navy's seventh ballistic missile submarine.

Ship's history
Her keel was laid down on 28 December 1959 by the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company of Newport News, Virginia. She was launched on 2 February 1961 sponsored by Texas First Lady Idanell Brill (Nellie ) Connally, wife of Governor John Connally and commissioned on 6 March 1962 with Captain W. P. Willis, Jr. commanding the Blue Crew and Commander Jack H. Hawkins commanding the Gold Crew.

Following sea trials, Sam Houston's Blue Crew fired her first Polaris missile on 25 April 1962 off Cape Canaveral, Florida. The Gold Crew then took over, completed its first missile firing on 11 May 1962, and then departed from Cape Canaveral for its own shakedown training.

On her first patrol, Sam Houston, manned by the Blue Crew, operated continuously submerged for 48 days and two hours, then moored alongside the submarine tender USS Proteus (AS-19) in Holy Loch, Scotland. Following upkeep, the Gold Crew commenced its first patrol on 25 December 1962, returning to Holy Loch in February 1963. The crews were again alternated, and Sam Houston departed on her third patrol in March 1963. On this patrol, she was the first fleet ballistic missile submarine to enter the Mediterranean Sea, where she joined North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) forces. With the two crews alternating every 90 days, Sam Houston completed six successful deterrent patrols by the end of 1963.

By the end of 1964, Sam Houston had completed ten patrols. During 1965, she completed four additional deterrent patrols. During 1966, she completed three more patrols, including her longest, which lasted 71 days. On 10 August 1966, she returned to the United States for the first time since her deployment to Holy Loch in 1962 and commenced a major overhaul at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard at Kittery, Maine. On 30 October 1967, she got underway for sea trials, and, a month later, her Blue Crew began shakedown training. In January 1968, the Gold Crew conducted shakedown operations. Following further tests, she got under way for her 18th deterrent patrol, and put into Holy Loch on 25 May 1968. By the end of 1968, she was on her 21st patrol. During 1969, Sam Houston completed her 22nd through 24th patrols. In 1970, she continued to operate with Submarine Squadron 14 until shifting to the Mediterranean on 9 August 1970 to join Submarine Squadron 16.

She operated out of her advanced base at Rota, Spain, until October 1972. On 27 November, she entered Charleston Naval Shipyard and began an extended in-port period, which included regular overhaul and the updating of her weapons and propulsion systems. As of May 1974, Sam Houston was still in port at Charleston, South Carolina.

In February 1975 USS Sam Houston completed sea trials and overhaul at Charleston NSY. Change of Command ceremonies were held on the USS Hunley at Weapons Station Charleston SC and the blue crew assumed command of the ship. After both crews completed post overhaul inspections Sam Houston headed for her Pacific assignment in late July 1975. Gold crew under the command of J.P Wiekert transited the Panama Canal in August 1975 with stops in San Diego, Weapons Station Bremerton arriving at Pearl Harbor in early October 1975. Blue crew assumed command at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii and performed Sam Houston's first Pacific deterrent patrol No. 37 transiting the boat to Guam. Sam Houston performed 14 patrols, No. 37 – No. 50, between 1975 and 1979 operating out of Guam. During these patrols Sam Houston made mid-patrol stops in South Korea and Hawaii.

In 1981, in compliance with the SALT I treaty, Sam Houston's ballistic missile section was deactivated. Concrete blocks were placed in the missile tubes and the missile fire-control system was removed, as was one of her inertial navigation systems. Sam Houston was reclassified as an attack submarine with hull number SSN-609 on 10 November 1980 and retained primarily for training, antisubmarine warfare exercises, and other secondary duties.

From September 1982 to September 1985, Sam Houston, along with her sister ship USS John Marshall (SSBN-611), was modified at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard at Bremerton, Washington, as an amphibious transport to carry frogmen or commandos. This included the installation of additional troop berthing, the removal of some ballistic missile tube bases, and the conversion of other ballistic missile tubes into air locks and stowage for equipment. She was fitted with two dry deck shelters (DDSs) abaft her sail. These, which housed United States Navy SEAL team Swimmer Delivery Vehicles, allowed her to act as a SEAL mother ship.

On 29 April 1988, Sam Houston ran aground on Fox Island, Washington.

Deactivated on 1 March 1991 while still in commission, Sam Houston began the Nuclear Powered Ship and Submarine Recycling Program at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard the same day. She was formally decommissioned and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 6 September 1991 and finished the recycling program on 3 February 1992, when she was officially listed as scrapped.

title: USS Sam Houston (SSBN-609)