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Talk:New Haven Colony

British
British is an anachronism when discussing colonial ventures in the 17th century. I've switched in to English Wetman 19:05, 22 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Duplication to be amended
The major objection I see to the flagged section is that it basically replicates the section just above. Could not the two be merged and a more historically informed section result in which both the issues of the regicides and the possible influence on the merger be discussed both separately, on their own terms, and together, in terms of whatever causality might be imputed?

Also, some mention probably ought to be made to the fact that the regicides (Whalley and Goff, in any case) ended up further north, in the Mt. Holyoke/Amhurst/Northfield area, and are buried there, by all reports. So the complicit action in sheltering them was rather short-lived on the part of Connecticut.

A more likely (or at least equally worthy) consideration was the tendency of all the charter re-negotiations to simplify the number of smaller colonial groups for more streamlined governance, whether under the hated provincial governor Andros, or others. MA had a similar event in the giving of the Old Colony (Plymouth), which had never prospered as well financially, to the MA Bay Colony when the 1691 charter was returned.

In some ways, too, since the Hartford colony was founded by members of the MBC (from Cambridge, MA, under Rev. Hooker) and was first governed by Winthrop's son FitzJohn, putting the NHaven group under their governance was consistent with giving that line of colonial oversight predominance overall.96.237.177.133 (talk) 16:07, 3 September 2012 (UTC)

POV of 'Founding' section
Section reads more polemical than neutral ("theocracy"; "made no pretense of rule by the will of the people") with several off-the-cuff assertions of fact ("*no* farming experience"; "good port locations") needing some citation or elaboration. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.84.85.91 (talk) 09:02, 16 April 2014 (UTC)

 * Well the article still reads "New Haven's political system was confined to church members only..." which sounds like a theocracy, in any case why do you presume that the term theocracy is one of opprobrium? Historian932 (talk) 19:07, 3 April 2016 (UTC)

Conflict in dates of existence
The body states 1637-1664, but the banner on the right states 1638-1665. To the gallows with you! lol 2602:304:CDA6:51B0:ED:7FCF:42C9:4B07 (talk) 22:10, 14 May 2016 (UTC)

 * This article says the colony merged with Connecticut in 1664, but other articles say 1662. Richard75 (talk) 20:56, 28 February 2022 (UTC)

The Phantom Ship
The section relies upon Longfellow's poem as an accurate depiction of historical events. I added a note to clarify that the depiction is from a poem written 200 years later. I also added link to poem, which is in the public domain and hosted on wikisource. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.34.91.96 (talk) 08:38, 20 March 2021 (UTC)

Regicides and Judges Cave
The cave is only called Judges Cave (look up images of it; there’s a plaque), not Three Judges Cave. Only Whalley and Goffe hid there. Dixwell never joined them there (which the article vaguely suggests ). (There is however a divy inn nearby called the the Three Judges Motel, and 3 streets converging on New Haven are named for the 3 of them). 24.44.56.122 (talk) 16:04, 17 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:New Haven Colony


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Dänholm

Dänholm (literally Danes' Isle) is a small island on the German coast of the Baltic Sea. It is situated in the Strelasund just east of Stralsund. Both bridges linking Rügen with the mainland, Rügendamm and Rügenbrücke, run across it. The island was the scene of an incident between the Swedish and French armies in 1807, when it belonged to Swedish Pomerania during the Napoleonic Wars.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dänholm


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Talk:Great Eastern Islamic Raiders' Front

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Untitled
I have rated this article as a start type in Wikiproject Terrorism; because the article does not cite enough resources nor does it cover the atrocities of IBDA-C sufficiently. It should also mention how they organize in prisons. One or two photos would also help improve its quality. I have made several edits to improve the article from - what I perceived - being a stub to being a start. Evren Güldoğan (talk) 20:48, 13 July 2008 (UTC)

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Strelasund

The Strelasund or Strela Sound is a sound or lagoon of the Baltic Sea which separates Rügen from the German mainland. It is crossed by a bridge called the Strelasund Crossing from Stralsund. It runs northwest to southeast from a small shallow bay just north of Stralsund called the Kubitzer Bodden through to another such bay, the Greifswalder Bodden in the southeast. The sound is nowhere much more than 3 km wide, reaching its greatest width towards its southeast end. It is roughly 25 km long.

The only island of any size in the Strelasund is Dänholm just off Stralsund, which carries part of the Rügendamm across the sound.

On the Rügen side, the shore is in many places steep, although this is punctuated by lower shorelines with reed beds in some places. On the mainland side, however, the shores are overridingly flat.

The Strelasund has been the site of two battles. The first in 1362 and the second in 1369 both pitted Danish king Valdemar IV against the Hanseatic fleet. Differences between the two parties were settled by the Treaty of Stralsund in 1370.

title: Strelasund


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Battle of Germantown

The Battle of Germantown was a major engagement in the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War. It was fought on October 4, 1777, at Germantown, Pennsylvania, between the British Army led by Sir William Howe, and the American Continental Army under George Washington.

After defeating the Continental Army at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, and the Battle of Paoli on September 20, Howe outmaneuvered Washington, seizing Philadelphia, the capital of the United States, on September 26. Howe left a garrison of some 3,000 troops in Philadelphia, while moving the bulk of his force to Germantown, then an outlying community to the city. Learning of the division, Washington determined to engage the British. His plan called for four separate columns to converge on the British position at Germantown. The two flanking columns were composed of 3,000 militia, while the center-left, under Nathanael Greene, the center-right under John Sullivan, and the reserve under Lord Stirling were made up of regular troops. The ambition behind the plan was to surprise and destroy the British force, much in the same way as Washington had surprised and decisively defeated the Hessians at Trenton. In Germantown, Howe had his light infantry and the 40th Foot spread across his front as pickets. In the main camp, Wilhelm von Knyphausen commanded the British left, while Howe himself personally led the British right.

A heavy fog caused a great deal of confusion among the approaching Americans. After a sharp contest, Sullivan's column routed the British pickets. Unseen in the fog, around 120 men of the British 40th Foot barricaded the Chew House. When the American reserve moved forward, Washington made the decision to launch repeated assaults on the position, all of which failed with heavy casualties. Penetrating several hundred yards beyond the mansion, Sullivan's wing became dispirited, running low on ammunition and hearing cannon fire behind them. As they withdrew, Anthony Wayne's division collided with part of Greene's late-arriving wing in the fog. Mistaking each other for the enemy, they opened fire, and both units retreated. Meanwhile, Greene's left-center column threw back the British right. With Sullivan's column repulsed, the British left outflanked Greene's column. The two militia columns had only succeeded in diverting the attention of the British, and had made no progress before they withdrew.

Despite the defeat, France, already impressed by the American success at Saratoga, decided to lend greater aid to the Americans. Howe did not vigorously pursue the defeated Americans, instead turning his attention to clearing the Delaware River of obstacles at Red Bank and Fort Mifflin. After unsuccessfully attempting to draw Washington into combat at White Marsh, Howe withdrew to Philadelphia. Washington, his army intact, withdrew to Valley Forge, where he wintered and re-trained his forces.

Background
The Philadelphia campaign had begun badly for the Americans. Washington's Continental Army suffered a string of defeats at Cooch's Bridge, Brandywine, and Paoli. After inflicting a stinging defeat on Anthony Wayne's division at Paoli on September 20, the British army marched north to Valley Forge then west to the French Creek bridge. At this point, Howe's right wing faced Fatland Ford on the Schuylkill River near Valley Forge while the left wing was opposite Gordon's Ford at French Creek and the left center faced Richardson's Ford. The American army defended all these Schuylkill crossings, plus one farther downstream at Swede's Ford near Norristown. On September 22, a small British force under Sir William Erskine feinted north and another force mounted a demonstration at Gordon's Ford. Howe's moves convinced Washington that the British commander was trying to seize his supply base at Reading and turn his right flank. Washington moved north, but in the night of September 22–23, the British army reversed direction. They crossed the Schuylkill at Fatland and Richardson's Fords without opposition, and after a brief rest, headed downstream toward Swede's Ford where the American militia abandoned three cannons.

Charles Cornwallis subsequently seized Philadelphia for the British on September 26, dealing a blow to the revolutionary cause. Howe left a garrison of 3,462 men to defend the city, moving the bulk of his force north, some 9,728 men, to the outlying community of Germantown. With the campaigning season drawing to a close, Howe determined to locate and destroy the main American army. Howe established his headquarters at the Stenton Mansion, the former country home of James Logan.

Despite having suffered successive defeats, Washington saw an opportunity to entrap and decisively defeat the divided British army. He resolved to attack the Germantown garrison, as the last effort of the year before entering winter quarters. His plan called for a complex, ambitious assault; four columns of troops were to assail the British garrison from different directions, at night, with the goal of creating a double-envelopment. Washington's hope was that the British would be surprised and overwhelmed much how the Hessians were at Trenton.

British positions
Germantown was a hamlet of stone houses, spreading from what is now known as Mount Airy on the north, to what is now Market Square in the south. Extending southwest from Market Square was Schoolhouse Lane, running 1.5 mi to the point where Wissahickon Creek emptied from a steep gorge, into the Schuylkill River. Howe had established his main camp along the high ground of Schoolhouse and Church lanes. The western wing of the camp, under the command of Hessian general Wilhelm von Knyphausen, had a picket of two Jäger battalions, positioned on the high ground above the mouth of the Wissahickon to the far left. A brigade of Hessians, and two brigades of British regulars camped along Market Square. East of the Square, two British brigades under the command of General James Grant had encamped, with two squadrons of dragoons, and the 1st battalion of Light Infantry. The Queen's Rangers, a unit of loyalist Americans recruited from New York, covered the right flank.

American advance

After dusk on October 3, the American force began the 16 mi march southward toward Germantown in complete darkness. To differentiate friend from foe in the darkness, the troops were instructed to put a piece of white paper in their hats to mark them out. The Americans remained undetected by the Jäger pickets, and the main British camp was, subsequently, unaware of the American advance. For the Americans, it seemed their attempt to repeat their victory at Trenton was on the road to success. However, the darkness made communications between the American columns extremely difficult, and progress was far slower than expected. At dawn, most of the American forces had fallen too short of their intended positions, losing the element of surprise they otherwise enjoyed.

The Pennsylvania Militia, led by Brigadier General John Armstrong Sr., advanced down the Manatawny Road (Ridge Avenue) to the confluence of the Wissahickon Creek and Schuylkill River. There on the cliffs opposite General Knyphausen's Hessian encampment, the militia set up their artillery and began a desultory fire until withdrawing back up the Manatawny road. Armstrong's Brigade played no further part in the battle. The three remaining American columns continued their advance. One column, under the command of General John Sullivan moved down Germantown Road. A column of New Jersey militia under Brigadier General William Smallwood moved down Skippack Road to Whitemarsh Church Road, and from there to Old York Road to attack the British right. General Nathanael Greene's column, consisting of Greene's, General Adam Stephen's divisions and General Alexander McDougall's brigade, moved down Limekiln Road.

Battle

A thick fog clouded the battlefield throughout the day, greatly hampering coordination. The vanguard of Sullivan's column, upon Germantown Road, opened fire upon the British pickets on Mount Airy, just after sunrise at 05:00. The British pickets fired their cannon in alarm, and resisted the American advance. Howe rode forward, thinking they were being attacked by foraging or skirmishing parties, and ordered his men to hold their ground. It took a substantial part of Sullivan's division to finally overwhelm the British pickets, and drive them back into Germantown.

Howe, still believing his men were facing only light opposition, called out; "For shame, Light Infantry! I never saw you retreat before! Form! Form! It is only a scouting party!" Just then, three American guns came into action, opening fire with grapeshot. Howe and his staff quickly withdrew out of range. Several British officers were shocked to see their own soldiers rapidly falling back before the enemy attack. One British officer later described the number of attacking Americans as "overwhelming".

Cut off from the main force, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Musgrave, of the British 40th Regiment of Foot, ordered his six companies of troops, around 120 men, to barricade and fortify the stone house of Pennsylvania Chief Justice Benjamin Chew, called Cliveden. The American troops launched a determined assault against Cliveden; however, the outnumbered defenders repulsed their attempts, inflicting heavy casualties. Washington called a council of war to decide how to deal with the fortification. Some of his subordinates favoured bypassing Clivden entirely, leaving a regiment behind to besiege it. However, Washington's artillery commander, Brigadier General Henry Knox, advised it was unwise to allow a fortified garrison to remain under enemy control in the rear of a forward advance. Washington concurred.

General William Maxwell's brigade, which had been held in reserve, was brought forward to storm Cliveden, partially led by a volunteer aide from General Washington's own staff, Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens, who had been shot through his right and therefore dominant shoulder earlier in the battle; he had continued to fight with his aide riband wrapped around his arm and his sword in his left and non-dominant hand. Knox positioned four 3-pound cannon out of musket range to bombard the mansion. However, the thick walls of Cliveden withstood the bombardment from the light field guns. The Americans launched a second wave of infantry assaults, all of which were repulsed with heavy losses. The few Americans who managed to get inside the mansion were shot or bayoneted. It was becoming clear to the Americans that Cliveden was not going to be taken easily. Among this assault was Lieutenant John Marshall of the Virginia Line, the future Chief Justice of the United States, who was wounded during the attack.

Before completely disregarding the notion of taking Cliveden, Laurens was offered the idea of burning or smoking the British out of the house. He took the idea and, according Gregory Massey's biography, he sent men to gather firewood to pile at the door. Once enough had gathered, Laurens and Marshall began to command the attack of charging to the front steps, dropping the firewood, and in groups, rushing to set fire to the wood. Laurens himself was sent forward with a torch with his companion, Major John White. The fire did not catch. While on the front steps of Cliveden, however, Laurens was under a barrage of gunfire and supposedly wounded a second time by a bayonet in his left side. Major White was shot and later pronounced dead. Both men were forced from the door and the Chevalier de Mauduit convinced Laurens to cease his fighting before he later was moved to have a surgeon see to his wounds.

Prior to Maxwell's futile attack against Cliveden, Sullivan's division advanced beyond in the fog. Sullivan deployed Brigadier General Thomas Conway's brigade to the right, and Brigadier General Anthony Wayne's brigade to the left before advancing on the British center-left. The 1st and 2nd Maryland Brigades of Sullivan's column paused frequently to fire volleys into the fog. While the tactic was effective in suppressing enemy opposition, his troops rapidly ran low on ammunition. Wayne's brigade to the left of the road moved ahead, and became precariously separated from Sullivan's main line. As the Americans launched their attack on Cliveden, Wayne's brigade heard the disquieting racket from Knox's artillery pieces to their rear. To their right, the firing from Sullivan's men died down as the Marylanders ran low on ammunition. Wayne's men began to panic in their apparent isolation, and so he ordered them to fall back. Sullivan was subsequently forced back, although the regiments fought a stubborn rear-guard action. Since the British units pursuing them were redirected to fight Greene's column, Sullivan's men fell back in good order.

Meanwhile, Nathanael Greene's column on Limekiln Road had finally caught up with the bulk of the Americans at Germantown. Greene's vanguard engaged the British pickets at Luken's Mill, driving them back after a savage skirmish. The fog that clung to the field was compounded by palls of smoke from the cannon and musket fire, throwing Greene's column into disarray and confusion. One of Greene's brigades, under Brigadier General Adam Stephen, veered off-course and began following Meetinghouse Road, instead of rendezvousing at Market Square with the rest of Greene's troops. The wayward brigade collided with Wayne's brigade, and mistook them for redcoats. The two American brigades opened fire on each other in the fog, causing both to flee. The withdrawal of Wayne's New Jersey Brigade, having suffered heavy losses attacking Cliveden, left Conway's right flank exposed.

To the north, an American column led by McDougall came under attack by the Loyalist troops of the Queen's Rangers, and the Guards of the British reserve. After a brutal contest, McDougall's brigade was forced to retreat, having suffered heavy losses. Despite the reversal in fortune, the Continentals were still convinced of a possible victory. The 9th Virginia Regiment of Greene's column launched a determined attack on the British lines as planned, managing to break through and capturing a number of prisoners. However, they were soon surrounded by two arriving British brigades under Cornwallis. Cornwallis then launched a counter-charge, cutting off the Virginians completely, forcing them to surrender. Greene, upon learning of the main army's defeat and withdrawal, realized he stood alone against Howe's entire army, and so withdrew.

The primary attacks on the British and Hessian camp had all been repulsed with heavy casualties. Washington ordered Armstrong and Smallwood's men to withdraw. Maxwell's brigade, still having failed to capture Cliveden, was forced to fall back. Howe ordered a pursuit, harrying the retreating Americans for some 9 mi, though he did not follow up on his victory. The pursuing British forces were finally forced to retire in the face of resistance from Greene's infantry, Wayne's artillery, and a detachment of dragoons, as well as the coming of the night.

On October 6, there was a brief cease-fire. A little terrier that was identified from its collar as belonging to General Howe was formally transferred from Washington's camp to Howe's under a flag of truce. The little terrier that had been found wandering on the battlefield was brought to Washington, who had the dog fed, cleaned and brushed before being returned to Howe.

Casualties

Of the 11,000 men Washington led into battle, 30 officers and 122 men were killed, and 117 officers and 404 men were wounded. According to a Hessian staff officer, some 438 had been taken prisoner by the British, including Colonel George Mathews and the entire 9th Virginia Regiment. Brigadier General Francis Nash, whose North Carolina brigade covered the American retreat, had his left leg taken off by a cannonball, and died on October 8 at the home of Adam Gotwals. His body was interred with military honors on October 9 at the Mennonite Meetinghouse in Towamencin. Major John White, who was shot at Cliveden, died on October 10. Lieutenant-Colonel William Smith, who was wounded carrying the flag of truce to Cliveden, also died from his wounds. In total, 57 Americans, over one-third of all those killed in the battle, died in the attack on Cliveden.

British casualties in the battle were 71 killed, 448 wounded and 14 missing; only 24 of whom were Hessians. British officers killed in action include Brigadier General James Agnew and Lieutenant-Colonel John Bird. Lieutenant-Colonel William Walcott of the 5th Regiment of Foot was mortally wounded, and later died.

Wyck House served as a hospital during the battle.

Analysis
Washington's ambitious plan failed for several factors:
 * Washington mistakenly believed his troops were sufficiently trained and experienced to launch such a complicated, coordinated assault.
 * Success of the plan required constant communication between the many columns of his army and precise timing. Communication was lackluster because of the night march, and it was further handicapped by the fog.
 * When the British 40th Foot put up stubborn resistance, Stephen disobeyed orders and attempted to assail the Chew House. All attempts were repulsed. Stephen was later court-martialed and cashiered from military service after evidence surfaced that he was intoxicated during the battle.

Washington had intended for his attack to be a second Trenton. Had everything gone according to plan, Washington may have trapped and destroyed a second major British force. Coupled with Burgoyne's defeat at Saratoga, the defeat of Howe at Germantown could have compelled Lord North and the British government to sue for peace.

Aftermath
The battle was a victory for the British, but the long-term strategic consequences favored the Americans. Howe had, once again, failed to follow up on his success and allowed Washington to escape with his army, leading to their encampment at Valley Forge.

The battle in particular made a strong impression upon the French court that the Americans would prove worthy allies. Sir George Otto Trevelyan, in Volume IV of his History of the American Revolution, concluded that although the battle had unquestionably been a defeat for the Americans, it was of "great and enduring service to the American cause". In particular, the engagement persuaded the Comte de Vergennes to vouch for the United States against Britain. He continues:

"That the battle had been fought unsuccessfully was of small importance when weighed against the fact that it been fought at all. Eminent generals, and statesmen of sagacity, in every European Court were profoundly impressed by learning that a new army, raised within the year, and undaunted by a series of recent disasters, had assailed a victorious enemy in his own quarters, and had only been repulsed after a sharp and dubious conflict."

John Fiske, in The American Revolution (1891), wrote:

"...The genius and audacity shown by Washington, in thus planning and so nearly accomplishing the ruin of the British army only three weeks after the defeat at the Brandywine, produced a profound impression upon military critics in Europe. Frederick of Prussia saw that presently, when American soldiers should come to be disciplined veterans, they would become a very formidable instrument in the hands of their great commander; and the French court, in making up its mind that the Americans would prove efficient allies, is said to have been influenced almost as much by the battle of Germantown as by the surrender of Burgoyne."

Eight Army National Guard units (103rd Eng Bn, A/1-104th Cav, 109th FA, 111th Inf, 113th Inf, 116th Inf, 175th Inf and 198th Sig Bn ) and one active Regular Army Field Artillery battalion (1-5th FA) are derived from American units that participated in the Battle of Germantown. There are only thirty currently existing units in the U.S. Army with lineages that go back to the colonial era.

title: Battle of Germantown


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Canadian Museum of History

The Canadian Museum of History (Musée canadien de l’histoire) is a national museum on anthropology, Canadian history, cultural studies, and ethnology in Gatineau, Quebec, Canada. The purpose of the museum is to promote the heritage of Canada, as well as support related research. The museum is based in a 75,000 m2 designed by Douglas Cardinal.

The museum originated from a museum established by the Geological Survey of Canada in 1856, which later expanded to include an anthropology division in 1910. In 1927, the institution was renamed the National Museum of Canada. The national museum was later split into several separate institutions in 1968, with the anthropology and human history departments forming the National Museum of Man. The museum relocated to its present location in Gatineau in 1989 and adopted the name Canadian Museum of Civilization the following year. In 2013, the museum adopted its current name, the Canadian Museum of History, and modified its mandate to emphasize Canadian identity and history.

The museum's collection contains over three million artifacts and documents, with some on display in the museum's permanent exhibitions. The museum also hosts and organizes a number of temporary, travelling, and online exhibitions, like the Virtual Museum of New France.

Early museum (1856–1968)
The Canadian Museum of History originates from the collecting efforts of the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC), an organization established in 1842 in Montreal. In 1856 the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada passed an act that enabled the GSC to establish a museum to exhibit items found from its geological and archaeological field trips; with the museum initially established in Montreal on Great St. James Street (now Saint Jacques Street). The museum held its first ethnological exhibit from 1862 to 1863, showcasing stone implements and fragments of pottery by First Nations. In 1877, the museum mandate was formally expanded to include the study of modern fauna and flora, in addition to human history, languages, and traditions.

In 1881, the museum relocated from Montreal to downtown Ottawa to what is now referred to as Former Geological Survey of Canada Building; although space in the new facility soon proved to be inadequate, with the Royal Society of Canada petitioning the federal government to build a new building for the museum by 1896. Preliminary plans for a new building were drawn up by 1899, although work on the building did not begin until 1906. In the following year, management of the museum was handed over from the GSC to the Department of Mines, with the mandate formally expanded to include anthropological studies. The new museum building, the Victoria Memorial Museum Building, was also completed in 1910, although it was not opened to the public until 1911. Under the Department of Mines, the museum formally established an anthropology division under the direction of Edward Sapir in 1910. Another anthropologist, Marius Barbeau, was also hired by the museum in the following year to assist Sapir. The anthropology division was charged with the preservation of the cultural heritage of people in Canada and assembling objects related to these cultures. Under Sapir's direction, the institution's research initially focused on Aboriginal communities across Canada they believed were imperilled by rapid acculturation. The museum's first anthropological exhibits were organized by Sapir and his protege, Franz Boas. Since this period, the museum had become a centre for Canadian anthropology, having attracted notable anthropologists including Diamond Jenness after the Second World War.

In 1927, the museum division of the Department of Mines was renamed the National Museum of Canada. Management of the National Museum is transferred from the Department of Mines to the Department of Resources and Development in 1950. In 1965, the museum was split into two branches, one focused on natural history and another on human history. The mandate of the museum further expanded in the following decades, with the museum assuming the management of the Canadian War Museum in 1958, and its human history branch establishing a history division in 1964.

Museum of anthropology and history (1968–present)
On 1 April 1968, the branches of the National Museum of Canada were formally split into separate museums. The Canadian Museum of History originated from the human history branch of the museum, initially incorporated as the National Museum of Man. The natural history branch of the former National Museum of Canada became the National Museum of Natural Sciences (later renamed the Canadian Museum of Nature), while the science and technology branch became the National Museum of Science and Technology (later renamed the Canada Science and Technology Museum). The National Museums of Canada Corporation was formed by the federal government in order to manage these national museums, in addition to the National Gallery of Canada. Although the institutions were split, the National Museum of Man and the National Museum of Natural History continued to share the Victoria Memorial building; with the National Museum of Man occupying the western half of the building.

In April 1972, the National Museum of Man established a Communications Division in order to provide media communications regarding the museum's education and information programs. During the 1970s, the staff of the institution adopted a philosophy that stressed public access to its heritage collection. Because the Victoria Memorial Museum building had insufficient space to exhibit the museum's growing collection, the museum's collection and staff were scattered across 17 buildings, with these buildings acting as decentralized units of the museum.

In 1980, management of the National Museums of Canada Corporation is transferred to the Department of Communications. The following year in June 1981, the cabinet of Canada approved several plans concerning several national museums of Canada, including moving the National Museum of Man into a new structure. The plan was formally announced to the public in February 1982. After a study of potential locations saw four sites in Ottawa and one in Gatineau. A site acquired by the National Capital Commission (NCC) from the E.B Eddy Company in Gatineau was chosen as the site for the new museum; due to it already being public land, being linked to Confederation Boulevard, and because it was prominently visible from the Ottawa River. The site was also selected because the NCC had desired to develop Hull, and incorporate it into the design of the capital region; while officials in Gatineau had similar desires to develop the area into an urban park. On 10 February 1983, the site for the new museum was announced to the public; and Douglas Cardinal Architect Limited was named as the project's design architect, in association with Montreal-based architectural firm Tétreault, Parent, Languedoc et Associés. The design created by Cardinal was approved in 1983 by the Cabinet of Canada. In an effort to avoid stereotypes in languages, the name of the museum was changed to the Canadian Museum of Civilization in 1986. In 1988, the institution absorbed the museum operated by the department of the Minister responsible for Canada Post Corporation, although its philatelic collection was transferred to the National Archives of Canada. The museum opened its new building in Gatineau in 1989. However, the building opened with only two permanent exhibitions, Canada Hall and the exhibitions on the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, as budgetary shortfalls prevented the museum from opening the exhibitions it had originally planned for the museum.

In 1990, the Museum Act was passed by the federal government, replacing the defunct National Museums of Canada Corporation and forming several new entities to manage the national museums of Canada; with the Canadian Museum of Civilization corporation formed on 1 July 1990 to manage the Canadian Museum of Civilization, and the Canadian War Museum.

21st century
In 2007, the museum organized a temporary exhibition, Treasures from China, in partnership with the National Museum of China. The partnership saw artifacts leave China to be exhibited only at the Canadian Museum of Civilization. As a part of the agreement, the Canadian Museum of Civilization prepared Indigenous Canadian artifacts for its own exhibition, First Peoples of Canada: Masterworks from the Canadian Museum of Civilization, at the Palace Museum in Beijing.

In October 2012, James Moore, the minister of Canadian Heritage announced the ministry would provide $25 million to overhaul the museum and renovate Canada Hall. The government later announced plans to update and reopen the gallery in 2017, coinciding with the 150th anniversary of Canada. Approximately 24,000 people from across nine Canadian cities were surveyed about the updates to the exhibition. The museum consulted a women's history committee, an indigenous history committee, and three historic time-period committees. In December 2013, the Canadian Museum of History Act received Royal Assent, which shifted the museum's mandate from developing a collection with a "special but not exclusive reference to Canada," to one that enhanced the knowledge of Canadian history and identity; and expanding the museum's focus to include social and political history. The Act also changed the institution's name from the Canadian Museum of Civilization to the Canadian Museum of History. The Canadian Postal Museum, a department of the Canadian Museum of Civilization corporation that operated from within the institution was shut down in 2012 as a result of the museum's transition into the Canadian Museum of History.

Some have criticized the new mandate and updating of Canada Hall as a part of a wider plan by the incumbent Conservative government to redirect public historical understanding to emphasize aspects of Canadian military history and monarchism; as well as elide problematic elements of Canadian history in favour of achievements. However, the museum contended that new exhibits planned for the museum will include a range of themes and topics, and will also explore the country's "dark episodes". The updated gallery was completed at approximately $30 million and was opened on Canada Day in 2017 by Charles, Prince of Wales and Mélanie Joly, the minister of Canadian Heritage. Partisan concerns were alleviated after Canadian History Hall was unveiled to the public.

Site
The museum is situated on a 9.6 ha plot of land, formerly known as Parc Laurier. The museum site is the first Canadian national museum to be located on the Gatineau side of the National Capital Region, and the first to be located adjacent to the Ottawa River.

The site is bounded by the western access point for the Alexandra Bridge, the Ottawa River to the east, a paper production plant to the south, and Laurier Street to the west. The median of the property extends 235 m from Laurier Street to the river. From Laurier Street, the property descends towards the Ottawa River at a 5.5 per cent grade; with the portion of the property closest to Laurier Street at an elevation of 53.5 m, while the riverfront is at an elevation of 41 m. Because of the property's low elevation, the construction of the museum building was limited to the portion of the property closer to Laurier Street. The site includes a museum building with two wings. The two wings wrap around and are connected by a large hemispherical entrance plaza which contains its food services, lounge, library, and underground parking. The parkland and open space between the two wings are intended to represent the "plains over which mankind migrated" over millennia. A large staircase east of the entrance plaza descends to the museum's lower plaza and gardens adjacent to the riverside park.

A pedestrian and cycling pathway is situated on the riverfront portion of the property, with the pathways continuing north into Jacques-Cartier Park, a municipal park north of the property.

Building
The 75000 m2 structure was designed by Douglas Cardinal. The building's infrastructure includes approximately 56000 m2 of concrete, and 7,300 tonnes of steel. Cardinal sought to create form a "sculptural icon" for the country, encouraged by then-prime minister, Pierre Trudeau, to develop a symbol that "enshrined our cultures". As a result, the building was the first structure in the National Capital Region that incorporates Indigenous architectural designs. Cardinal's design for the building was largely influenced by his understanding of how geography helped shaped Canada's history and culture. The museum building has over 25000 m2 of exhibition space, more than any other museum in Canada. In addition to exhibition space, the building also contains three restaurants, a boutique store, and two live performance theatres, including a 500-seat theatre for live performances. The building also has a 295-seat 3D theatre that uses a Barco digital projector. Before the installation of the Barco projector in 2016, the 3D theatre used a IMAX projector and was branded as an IMAX theatre.

Water is drawn from the Ottawa River to heat and cool the building. The building's energy needs are met by two substations in Gatineau, with two additional backup generators also available if both substations fail.

Exterior
The building's exterior is clad with 30000 m2 of Tyndall stone; with the material being selected because of its durability and its relationship with glaciers.

Cardinal sought to build a structure that appeared to be "flowing with the contours of the land," and simple lines and forms could be used to display the idea of movement. The building's design draws upon Art Nouveau styles to illustrate Canada's geography at the end of the Last Glacial Period when the landscape was largely uniform; with certain elements of the building evoking igloos earth lodges, and longhouses.

The building includes a cantilevered northern/curatorial wing and a southern wing that houses most of the museum's public facilities, including its galleries, and theatres. The curatorial wing was designed to evoke outcroppings of the Canadian Shield, while the southern public wing with its glass-fronted Grand Hall, was intended to evoke an image of a melting glacier. The southern wing's copper roof represents vegetation's recolonization of the lands once covered by glacial till. The copper roof is nearly 11000 m2 and weighs approximately 90 tonnes. Both wings are curvaceous on their river sides to blend into their landscapes, although their street-side façade is more angular.

The NCC placed several restrictions on the building design, that the building does not obstruct the view of the Ottawa River, and that the building does not obstruct delineated "viewing cones" of Parliament Hill from the Gatineau side of the river. Because of these restrictions, the buildings were designed with a low-profile, to avoid obscuring the view for buildings across the street. From certain angles, the building appears as two separate pavilions, with an opening between these two sections providing an unobstructed view of Parliament Hill from Laurier Street. Considerations also needed to be taken to protect artifacts displayed in the building. Windows were triple-glazed and coated with a film that helps contain radiant heat and reduce solar ultraviolet rays, and the southern wing's Grand Hall was intentionally designed to face direct sunlight only in the morning.

The building was designed to create an "ever-changing pattern" of shadows across the structure's surface, with most of the building's exterior lighting kept below 30 lux to allow viewers to see deeper shadows at night.

Exhibitions
The museum hosts several permanent and temporary exhibitions on anthropology, ethnology, and history. Artifacts from the museum's collection are exhibited in these exhibitions. In addition, travelling exhibitions are occasionally held at the museum. The museum has also created several online exhibitions, like the Virtual Museum of New France.

Permanent exhibitions include First Peoples Hall, Canadian History Hall, the Canadian Children's Museum, the Canadian Stamp Collection, and two exhibitions on the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast in the building's Grand Hall. First Peoples Hall is situated on the first floor of the building, whereas the Canada Hall is situated on the third level of the building. First Peoples Hall is situated next to the Grand Hall, with its exhibitions located on the ground floor. Many of the exhibits that were designed in the 1980s for the new building were influenced by the director of the museum, George F. MacDonald, his personal admiration for Pacific Northwest Coast art and culture, and the communication theories of his mentor, Marshall McLuhan. Merging exhibits detailing the Indigenous peoples of Canada with other Canadian historical exhibits were considered by the exhibition design team when plans were being made to move the museum in the 1980s. However, it was later decided to depict both topics as separate exhibitions, resulting in both exhibitions being planned by different teams with separate budgets. This decision was later reversed in 2017 when the museum reopened the Canadian History Hall exhibition with Indigenous exhibits incorporated throughout its exhibit.

First Peoples Hall
First Peoples Hall is an exhibition opened in 2003, that explores Canada's First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples. The exhibition occupies 35000 sqft of space on the ground floor of the building. The hall contains more than 2,000 objects on display. Most of the exhibition space is devoted to changing exhibits, to keep up with contemporary views on traditional cultures and current issues. However, First Peoples Hall does have some space devoted to long-term exhibits. These long-term exhibits explore topics that are less subject to changing interpretations; like ancient history, Indigenous languages, and the history of the relationship between Indigenous and European cultures. The exhibition is organized into several sections, such as the "Ways of Knowing", "An Ancient Bond with the Land", and "The Arrival of Strangers". The exhibition was designed to "deconstruct and supersede" histories that visitors are familiar with. Exhibits were designed to address issues of stereotyping Indigenous identity, and the diversity and cultural distinctiveness between Indigenous nations; with many of the exhibits linking identity to Indigenous land claims in Canada. Additionally, exhibits were designed to portray Indigenous peoples as living peoples in the modern world. Archaeological exhibits in First Peoples Hall are themed to reinforce the fact that the Indigenous peoples of Canada have occupied the land since time immemorial, and that Canadian history has a long and complex history preceding European colonization. Additionally, many of these archaeological exhibits are designed to confront the notion of Eurasian technological supremacy at the time of first contact with the Americas. The exhibition concludes with contemporary issue exhibits, which explore recent clashes between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples in Canada over land and resources.

The curatorial model used to develop the exhibition conformed to the suggestions provided in the 1992 recommendations from the federal Task Force on Museums and First Peoples. The content and messaging of First Peoples Hall were determined in consultation with indigenous communities across Canada. Acting upon the task force's recommendation to establish partnerships with First Nation representatives whose cultures were being exhibited, an advisory committee of 15 Indigenous members was formed to help define the exhibition's thematic structure and messaging. As a result, exhibits in First Peoples Hall take a "multivocal" approach, where different perspectives can be distinguished within the exhibition; and explanatory fields like archaeology, ethnology and traditional Indigenous knowledge are juxtaposed, and contestatory with one another in some cases.

Canadian History Hall
Canadian History Hall is an exhibition that explores Canadian history. Canadian History Hall is approximately 50500 sqft, and includes over 14 projectors and 58 screens used in the exhibition. The exhibition includes three galleries and a long curved walkway that serves as the entrance to the three galleries. The entrance walkway is decorated with 101 silhouettes of Canadian cultural symbols and activities, as well as national landmarks. Canadian History Hall's galleries centre around a hub that was designed by Douglas Cardinal to resemble Chaudière Falls. The hub features a large 15.5 x 9.5 m image of Canada on the floor. The image of Canada is made up of 121 satellite photos taken by the Canadian Space Agency, that were stitched together to form a single image.

The exhibition summarizes over 15,000 years of history and is divided into three era-centric galleries, Early Canada: From Earliest Times to 1763, Colonial Canada: 1763 to 1914, and Modern Canada: 1914 to the Present Day. The first two galleries are located on the same floor, while the third gallery occupies the mezzanine above the two galleries. The galleries are designed to showcase events and "turning points" in each respective era through the multimedia presentations and the artifacts on display. Each gallery is further organized into six separate "vignettes" that are thematically different, but interconnected with one another. The vignettes are primarily organized temporally, although some are specifically focused on a specific aspect of Canadian history. The exhibition takes a largely didactic approach with its subject and is particularly focused on the country's political and economic history, as well as the experience of Indigenous peoples. According to the exhibit team's head, David Morrison, Indigenous peoples and their relationship with newcomers will serve as an important overarching theme of Canadian History Hall. Early Canada explores provides a summary of Indigenous history prior to the arrival of the Europeans as well as early Canadian colonies like New France. The gallery includes Indigenous artifacts, narrative recounts of Indigenous interactions between Norse, English and French explorers, and detailed accounts on the North American fur trade, the spread of disease within Indigenous populations, and the Beaver Wars. Colonial Canada explores Canada under British rule since the conquest of New France, as well as post-Confederation Canada to 1914. Modern Canada explores Canada's recent history, up to the arrival of Syrian refugees in the 2010s. The latter two galleries provide detailed histories on the Seven Years' War, treaties signed between various Indigenous groups and the Crown, the push for responsible government, Canadian Confederation, the world wars, the Canadian Indian residential school system, Quebec nationalism, and multiculturalism in Canada.

There are over 1,500 artifacts on display in Canadian History Hall. Historic artifacts include a 3,600 to 3,900 years old ivory carving believed to be the oldest representation of a human face found in Canada; James Wolfe coat; and handcuffs worn by Louis Riel prior to his execution; Maurice Richard's hockey jersey; Terry Fox's T-shirt; Tommy Douglas's hat; the table on which the proclamation of the Constitution Act, 1982 was signed by Queen Elizabeth II in 1982; Randy Bachman's guitar, and the sewing machine which Joan O'Malley sewed the first Maple Leaf flag. There are 40 linear films shown at the exhibition, including Origin Stories, a film that illustrates how the Anishinaabe believed the earth was formed. Origin Stories is displayed along the curved wall of the Canadian History Hall's entrance.

The modular structure of the exhibits enables the museum to swap segments easier. The number of exhibits in the galleries may also expand, with the museum having reserved enough space to allow for the addition of new exhibits in the three galleries.

Pre-2017 exhibition
Canadian History Hall's predecessor, Canada Hall, opened as an inaugural exhibit at the museum in 1989. The original exhibition was divided into 23 modules that were arranged chronologically, beginning with the Norse colonization of North America. The gallery aimed to promote Canadian multiculturalism, having portrayed a social history that depicted a "march of immigrants" from east to west, and the success of different groups in Canada. However, these modules provided little in-depth consideration for pre-colonial Indigenous cultures, which were only explored in the museum's other exhibitions prior to Canada Hall's updates in the 2010s. The original design of Canada Hall recreated historical settings with period rooms and full-scale historical buildings incorporated into the exhibition; reflecting McLuhan's theories, and innovations adopted by entertainment pavilions like Disney's Epcot.

Canada Hall was closed to the public in September 2014 to enable renovations and significant updates to the exhibition. The exhibition reopened in 2017 significantly changed from its original design. Nearly all of the life-sized dioramas were dismantled as a part of the exhibition's update. St. Onuphrius Church, an original early-20th-century Ukrainian church from the Canadian Prairies that was later relocated to the museum, is the only remaining life-sized diorama in the exhibition.

Canadian Children's Museum
The Canadian Children's Museum is Canada's largest exhibition centre designed specifically for children with over 3000 m2 of space. The museum uses more than 15,000 artifacts, props, and hands-on items for use in its exhibitions and programs. These items include art, clothing, games, photographs, and toys. The museum includes an International Village, as well as Canadian-themed attractions that were added into the exhibition in 2007.

In 2018, the museum announced it would undertake a renewal project in January 2020. The museum announced the revamp would reflect how children play and learn, and will remove more dated exhibits from the exhibition, like the post office and telephone booth. It reopened in May 2022.

Canadian Stamp Collection
The Canadian Stamp Collection is a stamp collection of more than 3,000 stamps and includes every Canadian stamp issued since 1851. The stamp collection was housed at the Canadian Postal Museum until 2012 when the postal museum closed and its stamp collection relocated to the Canadian Museum of History. The Canadian Museum of History opened a permanent exhibition for the collection in 2014 in partnership with Canada Post. Stamps that are exhibited in the exhibition are showcased with artifacts that either inspired its creation or were used to make the stamp.

Grand Hall exhibitions
Grand Hall features two permanent exhibitions on the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, First Peoples of the Northwest Coast and From Time Immemorial — Tsimshian Prehistory. The exhibits include totem poles and other artifacts. The exhibitions were developed as a collaboration between the museum's curators and Indigenous cultural specialists in the 1980s.

In 1993, a large mural titled Morning Star was added to the domed ceiling of the Grand Hall. The mural was created by Alex Janvier and is symbolic of Indigenous life and history. In addition to the two permanent exhibitions, the Grand Hall is also used to host other major events. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Grand Hall has also been used to host temporary exhibitions.

Collections
As of June 2021, the Canadian Museum of History's permanent collection includes more than three million artifacts, documents, works of art, and other specimens. This includes over one million photographs, 72,000 sound recordings and 18,000 films and videotapes. The collection takes up approximately 4 km of shelf space. Approximately 218,000 artifacts have been digitized and made accessible online by the museum.

The museum's permanent collection dates back to the collection established by the Geological Survey of Canada in the 1860s. The museum's collection of artifacts has expanded through the institution's research programs. The first collection representing Indigenous peoples was established by the Geological Survey of Canada, with other parts of the collection having been acquired by government officials and missionaries working outside Ottawa. The collection continued to expand after the anthropology department was established in 1910, and the museum began a systematic program of documenting Indigenous cultures and lineages. The museum's collection of Indigenous items is the largest in Canada and is the only major collection with a national scope in the country. The museum also possesses the world's largest collection of totem poles. The Sacred Materials Project was created by the museum to help maintain Indigenous sacred items, and facilitate the repatriation of select items to their respective communities. The project provides funds for Indigenous representatives to view the museum's collections and discuss the repatriation of identified sacred items, as well as identify other objects in the collection that require ritualistic care.

The museum's permanent collection contains several smaller collections, like the Windfield Farm Collection. The Windfield Farm Collection was acquired by the museum in 2013 and contains documents, photographs, memorabilia and trophies, including the Kentucky Derby trophy won by Northern Dancer. The museum's collection of flags is also the largest in the country. Other notable items in the museum's permanent collection includes a Contempra phone, the first telephone to be designed and manufactured in Canada; cough syrup from the 1918 influenza pandemic; the original plaster for Bill Reid's Spirit of Haida Gwaii; ten large heraldic sculptures known as The Queen's Beasts; and royal gown worn by Elizabeth II during her royal tours of Canada. The museum also contains a number of ice hockey artifacts, including game-used National Hockey League sticks, hockey cards, and the world's oldest existing ice hockey stick. The ice hockey stick dates back to the mid-1830s and was acquired by the museum in 2015 for $300,000. In addition to its permanent collection, the Canadian Museum of History also co-manages collections with other institutions. In July 1999, the museum entered an agreement with the Canadian Nursing Association (CNA), the Canadian War Museum, and the National Archives of Canada to create the Canadian Nursing History Collection. This collection includes over 9,000 photographs, 1,600 audiovisual materials, and over 35 m of textual records from the CNA, the Nursing Sisters Association of Canada, and the Helen Mussallem Collection. Approximately 950 documented artifacts from this collection are deposited at the Canadian Museum of History. Items from the collection at the Canadian Museum of History include 167 nurses' caps, dating from 1895 to 1983. In June 2005, the museum opened a temporary exhibition that focused on this collection. In 2021, the Canadian Museum of History entered into an agreement to house and maintain artifacts from Canada's Sports Hall of Fame.

Library and archives
The museum's resource centre operates a library and archives. As of 2015, the museum's library has more than 60,000 books, over 2,000 journals and magazines, and over 1,000 DVDs, CDs, and video tapes. The museum's rare and old books collection includes Paul-Émile Borduas's Refus Global (1948) and Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix's Histoire et description générale de la Nouvelle-France (1744).

Research
The museum's collection is used to support research in anthropology, archaeology, Indigenous people in Canada, linguistics, material culture, multicultural communities, social and political history and museology in Canada. The museum also publishes its own academic journal, the Mercury Series; on history, archaeology, and anthropology. The journal has been published in partnership with the University of Ottawa Press since 2012. The museum has also published the academic journal Material Culture Review in partnership with the Canada Science and Technology Museum since the 1970s. The journal provides a forum for research on historical artifacts collected by Canadian museums.

Management
The Canadian Museum of History is managed by a federal Crown corporation of the same name under the Department of Canadian Heritage's portfolio. The museum is one of two national museums managed by the corporation, the other being the Canadian War Museum. The corporation also administers the Virtual Museum of New France, a virtual museum and online exhibition of the Canadian Museum of History; and the Virtual Museum of Canada, an administrative program that supports the development of online projects for museums and heritage organizations across Canada. The Virtual Museum of Canada was an online portal for virtual exhibits in Canada until 2020, when the Virtual Museum of Canada's website was decommissioned, and the project was reoriented into a support program.

Management of the corporation is conducted through an 11-member board of trustees. Trustees are appointed by the Minister of Canadian Heritage, with approval from the Governor-in-Council. In turn, the board appoints the corporation's president and chief executive officer. The corporation reports to the Parliament of Canada through the Minister of Canadian Heritage. The corporation's mandate is defined under the Museums Act.

The corporation was established as the Canadian Museum of Civilization in June 1990 through the Museums Act; an Act that was later amended in 2014. The corporation adopted its current name in 2013. The Crown corporation was one of several that succeeded the defunct National Museums of Canada Corporation, a Crown corporation that managed most of the country's national museums until its dissolution in 1988.

title: Canadian Museum of History


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Sound collage

In music, montage (literally "putting together") or sound collage ("gluing together") is a technique where newly branded sound objects or compositions, including songs, are created from collage, also known as Musique concrète. This is often done through the use of sampling, while some sound collages are produced by gluing together sectors of different vinyl records. Like its visual cousin, sound collage works may have a completely different effect than that of the component parts, even if the original parts are recognizable or from a single source. Audio collage was a feature of the audio art of John Cage, Fluxus, postmodern hip-hop and postconceptual digital art.

History
The origin of sound collage can be traced back to the works of Biber's programmatic sonata Battalia (1673) and Mozart's Don Giovanni (1789), and certain passages in Mahler symphonies as collage, but the first fully developed collages occur in a few works by Charles Ives, whose piece Central Park in the Dark (1906) creates the feeling of a walk in the city by layering several distinct melodies and quotations on top of each other.

Earlier traditional forms and procedures such as the quodlibet, medley, potpourri, and centonization differ from collage in that the various elements in them are made to fit smoothly together, whereas in a collage clashes of key, timbre, texture, meter, tempo, or other discrepancies are important in helping to preserve the individuality of the constituent elements and to convey the impression of a heterogeneous assemblage. What made their technique true collage, however, was the juxtaposition of quotations and unrelated melodies, either by layering them or by moving between them in quick succession.

A first documented instance of sound collage created as electronic music is Wochenende (in English, Weekend), a collage of words, music and sounds created by film-maker and media artist Walter Ruttmann in 1928. Later, in 1948, Pierre Schaeffer used the techniques of sound collage to create the first piece of musique concrète, Étude aux chemins de fer, which was assembled from recordings of trains. Schaeffer created this piece by recording sounds of trains onto several vinyl records, some of which had lock grooves allowing them to play in a continuous loop. He then set up multiple turntables in his studio, allowing him to trigger and mix together the various train sounds as needed.

According to music theorist Cristina Losada, the third movement of Luciano Berio's Sinfonia is often considered "the prototype of a musical collage." In an essay written in 1937, John Cage expressed an interest in using extra-musical sound materials and came to distinguish between found sounds, which he called noise, and musical sounds, examples of which included: rain, static between radio channels, and "a truck at fifty miles per hour". Cage began in 1939 to create a series of found sounds works that explored his stated aims, the first being Imaginary Landscape #1 for instruments including two variable speed turntables with frequency recordings.

Important modern sound collage pieces were created by Pierre Schaeffer and the Groupe de Recherches Musicales. In 1950s and early-1960s Schaeffer, Pierre Henry, Olivier Messiaen, Pierre Boulez, Jean Barraqué, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Edgard Varèse, Iannis Xenakis, Michel Philippot, and Arthur Honegger all worked with sound collage. Examples are Étude I (1951) and Étude II (1951) by Boulez, Timbres-durées (1952) by Messiaen, Étude aux mille collants (1952) by Stockhausen, Le microphone bien tempéré (1952) and La voile d'Orphée (1953) by Henry, Étude I (1953) by Philippot, Étude (1953) by Barraqué, the mixed pieces Toute la lyre (1951) and Orphée 53 (1953) by Schaeffer/Henry, and the film music Masquerage (1952) by Schaeffer and Astrologie (1953) by Henry. In 1954 Varèse and Honegger created Déserts and La rivière endormie". John Cage created his influential collage piece Williams Mix in 1952. More recently, George Rochberg used collage in Contra Mortem et Tempus and Symphony No. 3. In the 1980s Minóy made many palimpsest-like multi-tracked soundscape compositions that use sound collage.

Micromontage
Micromontage is the use of montage on the time scale of microsounds. Its primary proponent is composer Horacio Vaggione in works such as Octuor (1982), Thema (1985, Wergo 2026-2), and Schall (1995, Mnémosyne Musique Média LDC 278–1102). The technique may include the extraction and arrangement of sound particles from a sample or the creation and exact placement of each particle to create complex sound patterns or singular particles (transients). It may be accomplished through graphic editing, a script, or automated through a computer program. Granular synthesis incorporates many of the techniques of micromontage, though granular synthesis is inevitably automated while micromontage may be realized directly, point by point. "It therefore demands unusual patience" and may be compared to the pointillistic paintings of Georges Seurat.

Popular music
Freak Out!, the 1966 debut album by the Mothers of Invention made use of avant-garde sound collage, particularly the closing track The Return of the Son of Monster Magnet. The Beatles incorporated sound collage on their 1968 self-titled double album (also known as the White Album) with the track Revolution 9. Uncut wrote that Requia by John Fahey made use of meditative guitar soli with tape collage experimentation on Requiem for Molly.

title: Sound collage


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La Catedral

La Catedral was a personal prison overlooking the city of Medellín, in Colombia. The prison was built to specifications ordered by Medellín Cartel leader Pablo Escobar, under a 1991 agreement with the Colombian government in which Escobar would surrender to authorities and serve a maximum term of five full years and the Colombian government would not extradite him to the United States. The prison now is administered as a monastery by Catholic monks of the Benedictine Order.

Construction and occupation by Escobar
In addition to the facility being built to Escobar's specifications, Escobar was also given the right to choose who would guard him and it was believed he chose guards loyal only to him. Moreover, the prison was believed to have been designed more to keep out Escobar's enemies and protect him from assassination attempts, than to keep Escobar inside.

The finished prison was often called "Hotel Escobar" or "Club Medellín" because of its amenities. La Catedral featured a football pitch, giant doll house, bar, jacuzzi and waterfall. Escobar also had a telescope installed that allowed him to look down onto the city of Medellín to his family's residence while talking on the phone with them.

PBS reports that although the government was willing to turn a blind eye to Escobar continuing his drug smuggling, the arrangement fell apart when it was reported Escobar had four of his lieutenants tortured and murdered within La Catedral. The Colombian government decided it had to move Escobar to a standard prison, an order Escobar refused. On 22 July 1992, after serving one year and one month, Escobar again went on the run. With the Colombian National Army surrounding La Catedral's facility, Escobar fled through an escape route that he had built into the facility during its construction. A section of the wall had been mortared with weak concrete that could be easily kicked open, allowing Escobar to walk out. The ensuing manhunt employed a 600-man unit force, specially trained by the United States Delta Force, named Search Bloc and led by Colonel Hugo Martínez.

Location advantage
Fog comes over after six o'clock in the evening and returns at dawn, making air assault difficult. The location's steep topography also prevented the military or rival cartels from attacking La Catedral easily. In addition, Pablo Escobar had a large magazine stocked with arms that ensured his safety in the prison.

Present day
La Catedral remained deserted for several years. In 2007, a group of Benedictine monks from the Benedictina Fraternidad Monastica Santa Gertrudis arrived at the site and transformed it. They built a chapel, a library, a cafeteria, a guest-house for religious pilgrimages, workshops and a memorial to victims of the cartel in the prison. In addition, the monks hired laid-off people to help with the daily running of La Catedral. Considering their efforts of reconstructing the prison, the city Envigado then ceded the entire prison to these monks.

title: La Catedral


text:
Remembrance days in Slovakia

Remembrance Days in Slovakia are working days.

For Public holidays in Slovakia see National holidays in Slovakia.

title: Remembrance days in Slovakia


text:
Talk:Education in Germany

Untitled
Archive 1

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 27 September 2018 and 15 December 2018. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Gmoney1997.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 20:11, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

The passage on foreign language education is unclear
''English is compulsory throughout the state in secondary schools, but it is not always the first foreign language; pupils at Gymnasium are often required to learn Latin as their first foreign language. In some states, foreign language education starts in the Grundschule (primary school). For example, in North Rhine-Westphalia, English is started in the third year; Brandenburg starts with either English or Polish, and Baden-Württemberg starts English in the first year.''

I'm a bit unclear on the sentence starting "For example,". Convention requires this to offer examples related to the immediately preceding sentence (foreign language education in Grundschule (primary or elementary school)), but after reading it I started wondering whether these were actually examples relating to the preceding sentence (i.e. English not always being the first foreign language). Ricklaman (talk) 00:03, 31 May 2011 (UTC)

 * I think "third year" and "first year" (which are part of primary school) indicate that the conventional meaning is intended (since the preceding sentence refers to secondary school), but that might not be obvious to the average reader. --Boson (talk) 00:22, 31 May 2011 (UTC)

 * Gymnasiasten (german word for pupils at Gymnasium) learn English at the 5th grade, Latin at the 6th Grade. Sometimes they learning at the 10th grade French too. In the Grundschule pupils learn playfully basics like "My name is xxx" and the spelling. Education in Germany is tricky, in parts the education winnows from school to school so it's difficult to generalize it. --188.194.48.88 (talk) 03:18, 12 July 2011 (UTC) Miliko Discussion
 * Education in Germany is not tricky but very varied ;). E.g. I, as a german, don't know a single school where you learn English at the 5th grade, Latin at the 6th Grade and at the 10th grade French. All schools I know start foreign languages at 5th, 7th and sometimes 9th grade with Latin being very rare these days. --Echosmoke (talk) 21:40, 31 August 2011 (UTC)
 * I only know the situation in Bavaria :) --188.194.223.123 (talk) 00:38, 5 September 2011 (UTC)

 * Please don't mix the general term first foreign language with the legal term. Pupils can start with English in 3rd grade and then attend Latin as "first foreign language" (legal term) from 5th grade! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:16B8:2AD2:100:B928:C445:89E9:C1A5 (talk) 21:09, 5 April 2018 (UTC)

 * Though, in fact, the English you learn in the 3rd and 4th grade with 2 lessons per week is negligible; as the subject was specifically designed to exclude any approach to really learning the language (the technical term is "playful" or what). Now, in the 5th year, at least at the Gymnasium and to (I guess) a (very) slightly lesser extent the Realschule - not so sure about the Hauptschule -, you really do learn the language, so it is even justifiable to call it the 1st foreign language, even though it may be Latin and you may have had two years of singing Baa baa black sheep have you any wool and the like before that.--88.217.180.69 (talk) 01:23, 15 February 2019 (UTC)

10a/10b
"There are two types of grade 10: one is the higher level called type 10b and the lower level is called type 10a; only the higher level type 10b can lead to the Realschule and this finishes with the final examination Mittlere Reife after grade 10b." That's false. In Hauptschule are 2 branches: the normal branch and the M-Zweig branch (Mittlere Reife Zug). It starts after Grade 6 (7 - 10) On M-Zweig at the 10th grade Realschul subject material is educated, from 7-9 it's the same like Hauptschule. Reason: career changer are to be abled to change. I think thats the meaning of this sentences. Sometimes the Realschulabschluss made on Hauptschule will not be accepted from employers. --188.194.48.88 (talk) 03:40, 12 July 2011 (UTC) Miliko - Discussion where is that? never heard of that — Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.188.56.161 (talk) 22:11, 12 March 2017 (UTC)

Secondary Education Organisation ... Universities?
The School Organization subsection in the Secondary Education section lists facts that apply to secondary education (partially to primary education, as well) -- and among the last few list items, suddenly states facts about universities, such as "Larger universities often have a local student-run radio station, however." This probably belongs into the tertiary education section. Possibly, the whole school organization subsection should either be split/duplicated, so there's such a section for each primary, secondary and tertiary education, or the whole subsection should be moved so it's not associated with either of these education stages any more.

In general, schools found in primary and secondary education probably are very much alike in many aspects, while both are very different from universities. Fachhochschule and Berufsakademie etc. are somewhere in between. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.69.215.56 (talk) 07:23, 28 March 2012 (UTC)

PISA updates needed
Hi, the section on international comparison is rather outdated, as the German scores at PISA and other studies improved considerably since 2003/06. Someone should update that. Cheers, Horst-schlaemma (talk) 08:43, 17 November 2014 (UTC)

Student visa - possible extensions
Hi, I created the following section for Immigration to Germany. I'm sure we can implement some information here, but as there already is some of the information included, let's have a look at what makes sense. Cheers! -- Horst-schlaemma (talk) 20:06, 4 June 2015 (UTC)

In Germany, there are student applicant visas and student visas. The former can be applied for when the admission to a university is not yet completed, and lasts for three months, which can be extended up to six months. When a student visa is granted, the application for an extended residence permit should follow at the respective university office. This is relevant for non-EU citizens and all students who intend to stay longer than 90 days.
 * Student visa

In general, public German universities don't charge tuition fees. This usually also applies to foreign students. The German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) provides support for international students and academic cooperation in Germany.

After graduating, citizens of the EU or the European Economic Area (EEA) have free access to the German job market. Graduates from other countries can extend their residence permit for up to 18 months to look for employment. While many employers prefer proper German-language skills, there is also a great variety of English-language and globalised jobs in Germany, especially in multinational companies, many startups and in research fields. According to a study of the Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF), around 54 percent of foreign students in Germany decide to stay after graduation.

 * Refs

---

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Translation Problems
So i have to agree on most topics here and the structure of the Education system in Germany is more or less complete and much better months ago. Thanks to all those wiki-members or editors.

But we have a small problem with the translation. Some of the words and concepts of the german school system are not to translate into the English language. And of course there are several differences between the british and german school system. If some was an exchange student in Germany or vice versa knows that so many suggestions here are contraproductive. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 141.90.9.62 (talk) 08:45, 3 March 2016 (UTC)

Free higher education?
Are you kidding? The 60 euros mentioned go directly to the state, some other 100 euros to the university and this does not include those high living costs around popular cities that don't even have enough space for local inhabitants, public transport and using the cafeteria, which adds some more 600 euros per month. --2.245.116.133 (talk) 19:38, 20 June 2016 (UTC)

 * Those are not student "fees" (Studiengebühren), but normal living expenses that you have to pay no matter whether you go to university or not. Public transportation is also usually included in the Sozial-/Semesterbeitrag. Nakonana (talk) 17:50, 23 August 2023 (UTC)

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outdated
The article is quite outdated, it fails to show the misery of the reforms(not saying that the reforms are bad but the federalistic nature of having over 16 different schools is..) what could be mentioned is a Stadtteilschule/regionalschule/whatever secondary school is called in other states) in most states except the south different cutoff dates(in NRW kids go to school at 5 years old) mandatory preschool for kids not meeting language/behaviour marks by 4.5 yo (for example in Hamburg) Different lengths of primary school g8/g9 in different states Gebundene Ganztagsschulen vs offene Ganztagsschule (with the difference that former have lessons spread through out the day vs the OGS which are glorfied daycares (only classes in the morning and activities/homework in the afternoon). Playschool(kita and kiga) being mixed age (1=3, 3-6 and 1-6) different fees(like in Hamburg where 5 hours/day are free to anyone with a 3+ year old child) 77.188.56.161 (talk) 22:19, 12 March 2017 (UTC)

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International students in Germany from Africa
Do students form Africa really need their own subsection? By the cited source they only make up about 4.5% of all foreign students and the text does not distinguish them from students of different origin. Part of it also reads like instructions and the part about scholarships feels redundant to what is already written under the "Tutition Fees" section. I think it should be rewritten to fit all international students or removed altogether. Fxmg (talk) 11:32, 25 August 2020 (UTC)

 * As no one has disagreed with the points you've raised, I have edited the section accordingly. In addition to what you've stated, there is no clear need to include a section on "International students from Africa" when there is not even a section on "International students" more generally. Further, I agree with you that the section text read more like promotional material for prospective international students and thereby was in breach of WP:MOS, WP:NPOV, and WP:PROMOTION. Mongrelmusings (talk) 03:02, 25 January 2024 (UTC)

Syntactic problem
In section 1.7, one of the bullet points states: "bilingual education is now a mandatory English lessons in Grundschule." I tried to rewrite this into a proper English sentence, but was unable to conclude its intended meaning. I looked up related information via Google, but could not find any evidence that lessons taught in English (only) had been made mandatory at the Grundschule/primary school level. Please redact. Zszabo (talk) 04:57, 20 February 2021 (UTC)

Term length
There is this sentence in the article: "but secondary schools in particular have switched to 90-minute lessons (Block) which count as two 'traditional' lessons" This is definitly not true as general as it is forumlated, e.g. I'm from Bavaria and I know a couple secondary schools have 45 min terms, that are only merged to 90 min terms in some rare occasions (typically only for sports and Art). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.182.53.8 (talk) 23:20, 22 February 2022 (UTC)

 * It is different from school to school, no general rule possible, but I guess 45 min is still the standard, the block-modell still the exception. Andreas von Stackelberg (talk) 22:00, 16 December 2022 (UTC)

Kulturhoheit - the lack of understanding of the German non-concept of 16 different states with at least as many different school systems
In general: The complete article tries to generalize what German education system is like - but in most cases is not refering to the differences Germany has between one state ("Bundesland") and the other. The problem starts in the second sentence of the article - and goes on until the very end. "Optional Kindergarden (nursery school) education is provided for all children between one and six years old, after which school attendance is compulsory". In some states that might possibly be correct - in Bavaria for example the term "Kindergarten" is reserved for preschool for the children from three years old up to five / six years old (depending on the entry age for school). The two years before Kindergarten are called "Krippe". "Grundschule" might mean (for example in Bavaria) the first four years of school, in other states it might mean the years one to six. The two types of secondary school (lower / higher or more frequently called Sekundarstufe I / Sekundarstufe II) are - for example - not existing in Bavaria. "From 2005 to 2018 a school reform known as G8 provided the Abitur in 8 school years". Just nope. In Thuringia and Saxony they started G8 in 1949 and kept it to the day. In many other states they started around 2005 and kept the system, in other states they started later, in some they stopped G8 and came back to G9, in others they did not. "Only a few Gymnasiums stay with the G8 model." That is as far as I know only the case in Bavaria. "Other than this, there is the Gesamtschule, which combines the Hauptschule, Realschule and Gymnasium." Every fifth pupil in Sek 1 attends a "integrierte Gesamtschule" (the "usual" type of Gesamtschule in 9 of 16 states). Languages: In most states pupils "really" start in grade 5 with their first "foreign" language, this is true for almost all pupils in almost all schools. There might be some songs or a course how to say "hello" or introduce yourself in English in "Grundschule" - but usually it is just a playful introduction to the language. The vast majority of schools start with English, but there are local differences (in Saarland it is often French, in some states in the east some schools still start with Russian or Polish language, in some states a few specialized schools start with Latin). The second foreign language starts in some states in grade 7 in others in grade 6 - but many schools don't have a second foreign language. In some schools you can have a third language, this might possibly start in grade 8, 9, 10 or 11 - depending on state, system, school and choices the parents made before the beginning of the third language.

I see no real possibility to solve this chaos, because the chaos in this article is the result of the chaos of our German school system(s). Andreas von Stackelberg (talk) 21:56, 16 December 2022 (UTC)

Suggested reading

 * Bavaria Lektüreempfehlungen https://www.lesen.bayern.de/lektuereempfehlungen/ Xx236 (talk) 06:53, 31 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Hessen https://kultusministerium.hessen.de/sites/kultusministerium.hessen.de/files/2022-09/lektuereempfehlungen_sekundarstufe_i.pdf !!!!
 * Sachsen-Anhalt https://lisa.sachsen-anhalt.de/fileadmin/Bibliothek/Politik_und_Verwaltung/MK/LISA/Unterricht/Lehrplaene/Gym/Anpassung_2022/Lektuereempfehlungen_Deu_01082022.pdf Xx236 (talk) 06:56, 31 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Education in Germany


text:
User:Ly

de:Benutzer:Ly Hello & welcome. Glad you turned up. :-)

title: User:Ly


text:
Dutchtown

Dutchtown and Dutch Town may refer to a place in the United States:

 * Dutchtown, Colorado, a ghost town listed on the NRHP in Colorado
 * Dutchtown, Louisiana, an unincorporated community
 * Dutchtown, Missouri, a village in Cape Girardeau County
 * Dutchtown, Atlantic County, New Jersey, an unincorporated community
 * Dutchtown, Somerset County, New Jersey, an unincorporated community
 * Dutchtown, New York, a hamlet in Erie County
 * Dutch Town, West Virginia
 * Dutchtown, St. Louis, Missouri, a neighborhood
 * Dutchtown, Iowa, an unincorporated community

title: Dutchtown


text:
Indiantown

Indiantown or Indian Town can refer to the following places in the United States:

 * Indiantown, Florida, a village
 * Indian Town, Alger County, Michigan, an unincorporated community
 * Indiantown, Menominee County, Michigan, an unincorporated community
 * Robin Glen-Indiantown, Michigan, a census-designated place
 * Indiantown, South Carolina, an unincorporated community
 * Indiantown Township, Bureau County, Illinois

title: Indiantown


text:
Worshipful Company of Farmers

The Worshipful Company of Farmers is one of the Livery Companies of the City of London.

The Company became a Livery Company in 1952, with the support of HM King George VI, and was granted a Royal Charter three years later by HM Queen Elizabeth II in 1955. The Farmers' Company supports farming students and promotes education in agriculture.

HRH Princess Anne, Princess Royal was Master of the Company for 2001-02. HM King Charles III was conferred as Honorary Liveryman of the Company in 1980.

The Farmers' Company ranks eightieth in the order of precedence for Livery Companies. Its motto is Give Us Our Daily Bread.

title: Worshipful Company of Farmers


text:
User talk:Irismeister

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title: User talk:Irismeister


text:
Talk:List of historic houses in Massachusetts

[Untitled]
Balch House and Fairbanks House both seem to have been claimed to be the oldest wood-frame house in America. Does anyone have a way of finding out which actually is?

AJD 19:49, 22 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Indeed, why is Balch House not on the list?

AJD 01:16, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

...Oh, that's why. Vandalism. Fixed.

AJD 01:18, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

Worcester County
Need to add listings for Worcester County. I'll start to update. Anyone have an opinion if I remove the "Eastern / Western", etc. designations and just list counties alphabetically? --CPAScott 14:50, 2 February 2007 (UTC)

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Update to page
Hey all...many, many, years ago I was a more active editor on Wikipedia and built a few template pages. I recently went back to the one I built for historic homes in Massachusetts, and spent the better part of a weekend updating it. You can find it at User:CPAScott/Template03. I've expanded the list of MA historic houses by quite a lot, and changed the format to a sortable table. Before I update this page, I wanted to gather your thoughts.

Two additional considerations: 1. Historic buildings that are not residences -- there are many of them as well that probably deserve their own list, or perhaps changing this article to "List of historic properties in Massachusetts" and sectioning it. 2. Because of the plethora of homes of significant age, I think these types of pages need some rules regarding notability. Any house that is operated as a museum should be included, but what of private homes? I might suggest either a) they be excluded or b) they only be included when notability can be determined -- that notability being more than being listed on the National Register, as there is already a listing page for that.

So -- what do you think? CPAScott (talk) 18:06, 16 November 2020 (UTC)


text:
Honourable Company of Air Pilots

The Honourable Company of Air Pilots, formerly the Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators (GAPAN), is one of the Livery Companies of the City of London. The Company was founded in 1929, and became a Livery Company in 1956. Elizabeth II granted Honourable status to the company in February 2014. Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, formally presented the royal charter to the master of the company, Tudor Owen, at a banquet held at the London Guildhall on 19 February 2014.

The company ranks eighty-first in the order of precedence of livery companies and fourth in the order of precedence of the modern livery companies. It is unique amongst City Livery Companies in having active regional committees in Australia, Hong Kong, New Zealand and North America.

The Company's motto is  'Per Cælum Via Nostra', 'Our Way Is By The Heavens'.

Objectives of the Company
The objectives of the company are:
 * To establish and maintain the highest standards of air safety through the promotion of good airmanship among pilots and navigators.
 * To maintain a liaison with all authorities connected with licensing, training and legislation affecting pilot or navigator whether private, professional, civil or military.
 * To constitute a body of experienced airmen available for advice and consultation and to facilitate the exchange of information.
 * To strive to enhance the status of air pilots and air navigators.
 * To assist air pilots and air navigators in need through the Benevolent Fund.

The Court of the Company
Note: This information may not be up to date.

title: Honourable Company of Air Pilots


text:
Frenchtown

Frenchtown may refer to:

In the United States:
 * Frenchtown, California (disambiguation)
 * Frenchtown, El Dorado County, California
 * Frenchtown, Yuba County, California
 * Frenchtown (Tallahassee), a section of the city of Tallahassee, Florida
 * Frenchtown, Indiana
 * Frenchtown, Maryland (disambiguation)
 * Frenchtown, Cecil County, Maryland
 * Frenchtown (Perryville, Maryland)
 * Frenchtown-Rumbly, Maryland
 * Frenchtown Charter Township, Michigan
 * Battle of Frenchtown, 1813
 * French Town, Missouri
 * Frenchtown, Montana
 * Frenchtown Township, Antelope County, Nebraska
 * Frenchtown, New Jersey
 * Frenchtown, Darke County, Ohio
 * Frenchtown, Seneca County, Ohio
 * Frenchtown, Pennsylvania
 * Frenchtown, a section of the Fifth Ward in Houston, Texas
 * Frenchtown, United States Virgin Islands
 * A distinct neighborhood in Tomahawk, Wisconsin
 * Frenchtown, Washington

title: Frenchtown