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Debye model

In thermodynamics and solid-state physics, the Debye model is a method developed by Peter Debye in 1912 to estimate phonon contribution to the specific heat (heat capacity) in a solid. It treats the vibrations of the atomic lattice (heat) as phonons in a box in contrast to the Einstein photoelectron model, which treats the solid as many individual, non-interacting quantum harmonic oscillators. The Debye model correctly predicts the low-temperature dependence of the heat capacity of solids, which is proportional to $$T^3$$ – the Debye T3 law. Similarly to the Einstein photoelectron model, it recovers the Dulong–Petit law at high temperatures. Due to simplifying assumptions, its accuracy suffers at intermediate temperatures.

Derivation
The Debye model is a solid-state equivalent of Planck's law of black body radiation, which treats electromagnetic radiation as a photon gas confined in a vacuum space. Correspondingly, the Debye model treats atomic vibrations as phonons confined in the solid's volume. Most of the calculation steps are identical, as both are examples of a massless Bose gas with a linear dispersion relation.

For a cube of side-length $$L$$, the resonating modes of the sonic disturbances (considering for now only those aligned with one axis), treated as particles in a box, have wavelengths given as
 * $$\lambda_n = {2L\over n}\,,$$

where $$n$$ is an integer. The energy of a phonon is given as
 * $$E_n\ =h\nu_n\,,$$

where $$h$$ is the Planck constant and $$\nu_{n}$$ is the frequency of the phonon. Making the approximation that the frequency is inversely proportional to the wavelength,
 * $$E_n=h\nu_n={hc_{\rm s}\over\lambda_n}={hc_sn\over 2L}\,,$$

in which $$c_s$$ is the speed of sound inside the solid. In three dimensions, energy can be generalized to
 * $$E_n^2={p_n^2 c_{\rm s}^2}=\left({hc_{\rm s}\over2L}\right)^2\left(n_x^2+n_y^2+n_z^2\right)\,,$$

in which $$p_n$$ is the magnitude of the three-dimensional momentum of the phonon, and $$n_x$$, $$n_y$$, and $$n_z$$ are the components of the resonating mode along each of the three axes.

The approximation that the frequency is inversely proportional to the wavelength (giving a constant speed of sound) is good for low-energy phonons but not for high-energy phonons, which is a limitation of the Debye model. This approximation leads to incorrect results at intermediate temperatures, whereas the results are exact at the low and high temperature limits.

The total energy in the box, $$U$$, is given by
 * $$U = \sum_n E_n\,\bar{N}(E_n)\,,$$

where $$\bar{N}(E_n)$$ is the number of phonons in the box with energy $$E_n$$; the total energy is equal to the sum of energies over all energy level, and the energy at a given level is found by multiplying by the energy level by the number of phonons with that energy. In three dimensions, each combination of modes in each of the three axes corresponds to an energy level, giving the total energy as:
 * $$U = \sum_{n_x}\sum_{n_y}\sum_{n_z}E_n\,\bar{N}(E_n)\,.$$

The Debye model and Planck's law of black body radiation differ here with respect to this sum. Unlike electromagnetic photon radiation in a box, there are a finite number of phonon energy states because a phonon cannot have an arbitrarily high frequency. Its frequency is bounded by its propagation medium—the atomic lattice of the solid. The following illustration describes transverse phonons in a cubic solid at varying frequencies:

It is reasonable to assume that the minimum wavelength of a phonon is twice the atomic separation, as shown in the lowest example. With $$N$$ atoms in a cubic solid, each axis of the cube measures as being $$\sqrt[3]{N}$$ atoms long. Atomic separation is then given by $$L/\sqrt[3]{N}$$, and the minimum wavelength is
 * $$\lambda_{\rm min} = {2L \over \sqrt[3]{N}}\,,$$

making the maximum mode number $$n_{max}$$:
 * $$n_{\rm max} = \sqrt[3]{N}\,.$$

This contrasts with photons, for which the maximum mode number is infinite. This number bounds the upper limit of the triple energy sum
 * $$U = \sum_{n_x}^{\sqrt[3]{N}}\sum_{n_y}^{\sqrt[3]{N}}\sum_{n_z}^{\sqrt[3]{N}}E_n\,\bar{N}(E_n)\,.$$

If $$E_n$$ is a function that is slowly varying with respect to $$n$$, the sums can be approximated with integrals: $$U \approx\int_0^{\sqrt[3]{N}}\int_0^{\sqrt[3]{N}}\int_0^{\sqrt[3]{N}} E(n)\,\bar{N}\left(E(n)\right)\,dn_x\, dn_y\, dn_z\,.$$

To evaluate this integral, the function $$\bar{N}(E)$$, the number of phonons with energy $$E\,,$$ must also be known. Phonons obey Bose–Einstein statistics, and their distribution is given by the Bose–Einstein statistics formula:
 * $$\langle N\rangle_{BE} = {1\over e^{E/kT}-1}\,.$$

Because a phonon has three possible polarization states (one longitudinal, and two transverse, which approximately do not affect its energy) the formula above must be multiplied by 3,
 * $$\bar{N}(E) = {3\over e^{E/kT}-1}\,.$$

Considering all three polarization states together also means that an effective sonic velocity $$c_$$ must be determined and used as the value of the standard sonic velocity $$c_s.$$ The Debye temperature $$T_{\rm D}$$ defined below is proportional to $$c_$$; more precisely, $$T_{\rm D}^{-3}\propto c_^{-3}:=\frac{1}{3}c_^{-3}+\frac{2}{3}c_^{-3}$$, where longitudinal and transversal sound-wave velocities are averaged, weighted by the number of polarization states. The Debye temperature or the effective sonic velocity is a measure of the hardness of the crystal.

Substituting $$\bar{N}(E)$$ into the energy integral yields
 * $$U = \int_0^{\sqrt[3]{N}}\int_0^{\sqrt[3]{N}}\int_0^{\sqrt[3]{N}} E(n)\,{3\over e^{E(n)/kT}-1}\,dn_x\, dn_y\, dn_z\,.$$

These integrals are evaluated for photons easily because their frequency, at least semi-classically, is unbound. The same is not true for phonons, so in order to approximate this triple integral, Peter Debye used spherical coordinates,
 * $$\ (n_x,n_y,n_z)=(n\sin \theta \cos \phi,n\sin \theta \sin \phi,n\cos \theta )\,,$$

and approximated the cube with an eighth of a sphere,
 * $$U \approx\int_0^{\pi/2}\int_0^{\pi/2}\int_0^R E(n)\,{3\over e^{E(n)/kT}-1}n^2 \sin\theta\, dn\, d\theta\, d\phi\,,$$

where $$R$$ is the radius of this sphere. As the energy function does not depend on either of the angles, the equation can be simplified to
 * $$\,3 \int_0^{\pi/2}\int_0^{\pi/2}\sin\theta\, d\theta\, d\phi\,\int_0^R E(n)\,\frac{1}{e^{E(n)/kT}-1}n^2 dn\, = \frac{3\pi}{2} \int_0^R E(n)\,\frac{1}{e^{E(n)/kT}-1}n^2 dn\,$$

The number of particles in the original cube and in the eighth of a sphere should be equivalent. The volume of the cube is $$N$$ unit cell volumes,
 * $$N = {1\over8}{4\over3}\pi R^3\,,$$

such that the radius must be
 * $$R = \sqrt[3]{6N\over\pi}\,.$$

The substitution of integration over a sphere for the correct integral over a cube introduces another source of inaccuracy into the resulting model.

After making the spherical substitution and substituting in the function $$E(n)\,$$, the energy integral becomes
 * $$U = {3\pi\over2}\int_0^R \,{hc_sn\over 2L}{n^2\over e^{hc_{\rm s}n/2LkT}-1} \,dn$$.

Changing the integration variable to $$x = {hc_{\rm s}n\over 2LkT}$$,
 * $$U = {3\pi\over2} kT \left({2LkT\over hc_{\rm s}}\right)^3\int_0^{hc_{\rm s}R/2LkT} {x^3\over e^x-1}\, dx.$$

To simplify the appearance of this expression, define the Debye temperature $$T_{\rm D}$$
 * $$T_{\rm D}\ \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}\ {hc_{\rm s}R\over2Lk} = {hc_{\rm s}\over2Lk}\sqrt[3]{6N\over\pi} = {hc_{\rm s} \over 2k} \sqrt[3]$$

where $$V$$ is the volume of the cubic box of side-length $$L$$.

Some authors describe the Debye temperature as shorthand for some constants and material-dependent variables. However, $$ kT_{\rm D}$$ is roughly equal to the phonon energy of the minimum wavelength mode, and so we can interpret the Debye temperature as the temperature at which the highest-frequency mode is excited. Additionally, since all other modes are of a lower energy than the highest-frequency mode, all modes are excited at this temperature.

From the total energy, the specific internal energy can be calculated:
 * $$\frac{U}{Nk} = 9T \left({T\over T_{\rm D}}\right)^3\int_0^{T_{\rm D}/T} {x^3\over e^x-1}\, dx = 3T D_3 \left({T_{\rm D}\over T}\right)\,,$$

where $$D_3(x)$$ is the third Debye function. Differentiating this function with respect to $$T$$ produces the dimensionless heat capacity:
 * $$ \frac{C_V}{Nk} = 9 \left({T\over T_{\rm D}}\right)^3\int_0^{T_{\rm D}/T} {x^4 e^x\over\left(e^x-1\right)^2}\, dx\,.$$

These formulae treat the Debye model at all temperatures. The more elementary formulae given further down give the asymptotic behavior in the limit of low and high temperatures. The essential reason for the exactness at low and high energies is, respectively, that the Debye model gives the exact dispersion relation $$E(\nu )$$ at low frequencies, and corresponds to the exact density of states $(\int g(\nu ) \, d\nu\equiv 3N)$ at high temperatures, concerning the number of vibrations per frequency interval.

Debye's derivation
Debye derived his equation differently and more simply. Using continuum mechanics, he found that the number of vibrational states with a frequency less than a particular value was asymptotic to
 * $$ n \sim {1 \over 3} \nu^3 V F\,, $$

in which $$ V $$ is the volume and $$ F $$ is a factor that he calculated from elasticity coefficients and density. Combining this formula with the expected energy of a harmonic oscillator at temperature $$T$$ (already used by Einstein in his model) would give an energy of
 * $$U = \int_0^\infty \,{h\nu^3 V F\over e^{h\nu/kT}-1}\, d\nu\,,$$

if the vibrational frequencies continued to infinity. This form gives the $$T^3$$ behaviour which is correct at low temperatures. But Debye realized that there could not be more than $$3N$$ vibrational states for N atoms. He made the assumption that in an atomic solid, the spectrum of frequencies of the vibrational states would continue to follow the above rule, up to a maximum frequency $$\nu_m$$chosen so that the total number of states is
 * $$ 3N = {1 \over 3} \nu_m^3 V F \,.$$

Debye knew that this assumption was not really correct (the higher frequencies are more closely spaced than assumed), but it guarantees the proper behaviour at high temperature (the Dulong–Petit law). The energy is then given by
 * $$\begin{align}

U &= \int_0^{\nu_m} \,{h\nu^3 V F\over e^{h\nu/kT}-1}\, d\nu\,,\\ &= V F kT (kT/h)^3 \int_0^{T_{\rm D}/T} \,{x^3 \over e^x-1}\, dx\,. \end{align}$$ Substituting $$T_{\rm D}$$ for $$h\nu_m/k$$,
 * $$\begin{align}

U &= 9 N k T (T/T_{\rm D})^3 \int_0^{T_{\rm D}/T} \,{x^3 \over e^x-1}\, dx\,, \\ &= 3 N k T D_3(T_{\rm D}/T)\,, \end{align}$$ where $$D_3$$ is the function later given the name of third-order Debye function.

Another derivation
First the vibrational frequency distribution is derived from Appendix VI of Terrell L. Hill's An Introduction to Statistical Mechanics. Consider a three-dimensional isotropic elastic solid with N atoms in the shape of a rectangular parallelepiped with side-lengths $$L_x, L_y, L_z$$. The elastic wave will obey the wave equation and will be plane waves; consider the wave vector $$\mathbf{k} = (k_x, k_y, k_z)$$ and define $$l_x=\frac{k_x}{|\mathbf{k}|}, l_y=\frac{k_y}{|\mathbf{k}|}, l_z=\frac{k_z}{|\mathbf{k}|}$$, such that

Solutions to the wave equation are
 * $$ u(x,y,z,t) = \sin(2\pi\nu t)\sin\left(\frac{2\pi l_x x}{\lambda}\right)\sin\left(\frac{2\pi l_y y}{\lambda}\right)\sin\left(\frac{2\pi l_z z}{\lambda}\right) $$

and with the boundary conditions $$u=0$$ at $$x,y,z=0, x=L_x, y=L_y, z=L_z$$,

where $$n_x,n_y,n_z$$ are positive integers. Substituting ($$) into ($$) and also using the dispersion relation $$c_s=\lambda\nu$$,
 * $$ \frac{n_x^2}{(2\nu L_x/c_s)^2} + \frac{n_y^2}{(2\nu L_y/c_s)^2} + \frac{n_z^2}{(2\nu L_z/c_s)^2} = 1. $$

The above equation, for fixed frequency $$\nu$$, describes an eighth of an ellipse in "mode space" (an eighth because $$n_x,n_y,n_z$$ are positive). The number of modes with frequency less than $$\nu$$ is thus the number of integral points inside the ellipse, which, in the limit of $$L_x,L_y,L_z \to\infty$$ (i.e. for a very large parallelepiped) can be approximated to the volume of the ellipse. Hence, the number of modes $$N(\nu)$$ with frequency in the range $$[0,\nu]$$ is

where $$V=L_xL_yL_z$$ is the volume of the parallelepiped. The wave speed in the longitudinal direction is different from the transverse direction and that the waves can be polarised one way in the longitudinal direction and two ways in the transverse direction and ca be defined as $$\frac{3}{c_s^3} = \frac{1}{c_\text{long}^3} + \frac{2}{c_\text{trans}^3}$$.

Following the derivation from A First Course in Thermodynamics, an upper limit to the frequency of vibration is defined $$\nu_D$$; since there are $$N$$ atoms in the solid, there are $$3N$$ quantum harmonic oscillators (3 for each x-, y-, z- direction) oscillating over the range of frequencies $$[0,\nu_D]$$. $$ \nu_D $$ can be determined using

By defining $$\nu_{\rm D} = \frac{kT_{\rm D}}{h}$$, where k is the Boltzmann constant and h is the Planck constant, and substituting ($$) into ($$), this definition is more standard; the energy contribution for all oscillators oscillating at frequency $$\nu$$ can be found. Quantum harmonic oscillators can have energies $$E_i = (i+1/2)h\nu$$ where $$i = 0,1,2,\dotsc$$ and using Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics, the number of particles with energy $$E_i$$ is
 * $$n_i=\frac{1}{A}e^{-E_i/(kT)}=\frac{1}{A}e^{-(i+1/2)h\nu/(kT)}.$$

The energy contribution for oscillators with frequency $$\nu$$ is then

By noting that $$\sum_{i=0}^\infty n_i = dN(\nu)$$ (because there are $$dN(\nu)$$ modes oscillating with frequency $$\nu$$),
 * $$\frac{1}{A}e^{-1/2h\nu/(kT)}\sum_{i=0}^\infty e^{-ih\nu/(kT)} = \frac{1}{A}e^{-1/2h\nu/(kT)}\frac{1}{1-e^{-h\nu/(kT)}} = dN(\nu) .$$

From above, we can get an expression for 1/A; substituting it into ($$),
 * $$\begin{align}

dU &= dN(\nu)e^{1/2h\nu/(kT)}(1-e^{-h\nu/(kT)})\sum_{i=0}^\infty h\nu(i+1/2)e^{-h\nu(i+1/2)/(kT)} \\ \\ &=dN(\nu)(1-e^{-h\nu/(kT)})\sum_{i=0}^\infty h\nu(i+1/2)e^{-h\nu i/(kT)} \\ &=dN(\nu)h\nu\left(\frac{1}{2}+(1-e^{-h\nu/(kT)})\sum_{i=0}^\infty ie^{-h\nu i/(kT)}\right) \\ &=dN(\nu)h\nu\left(\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{e^{h\nu/(kT)}-1}\right). \end{align}$$

Integrating with respect to ν yields
 * $$U = \frac{9Nh^4}{k^3T_{\rm D}^3}\int_0^{\nu_D}\left(\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{e^{h\nu/(kT)}-1}\right)\nu^3 d\nu.$$

Temperature limits
The temperature of a Debye solid is said to be low if $$T \ll T_{\rm D}$$, leading to
 * $$ \frac{C_V}{Nk} \sim 9 \left({T\over T_{\rm D}}\right)^3\int_0^{\infty} {x^4 e^x\over \left(e^x-1\right)^2}\, dx.$$

This definite integral can be evaluated exactly:
 * $$ \frac{C_V}{Nk} \sim {12\pi^4\over5} \left({T\over T_{\rm D}}\right)^3.$$

In the low-temperature limit, the limitations of the Debye model mentioned above do not apply, and it gives a correct relationship between (phononic) heat capacity, temperature, the elastic coefficients, and the volume per atom (the latter quantities being contained in the Debye temperature).

The temperature of a Debye solid is said to be high if $$T \gg T_{\rm D}$$. Using $$e^x - 1\approx x$$ if $$|x| \ll 1$$ leads to
 * $$ \frac{C_V}{Nk} \sim 9 \left({T\over T_{\rm D}}\right)^3\int_0^{T_{\rm D}/T} {x^4 \over x^2}\, dx $$

which upon integration gives
 * $$\frac{C_V}{Nk} \sim 3\,.$$

This is the Dulong–Petit law, and is fairly accurate although it does not take into account anharmonicity, which causes the heat capacity to rise further. The total heat capacity of the solid, if it is a conductor or semiconductor, may also contain a non-negligible contribution from the electrons.

Debye versus Einstein

The Debye and Einstein models correspond closely to experimental data, but the Debye model is correct at low temperatures whereas the Einstein model is not. To visualize the difference between the models, one would naturally plot the two on the same set of axes, but this is not immediately possible as both the Einstein model and the Debye model provide a functional form for the heat capacity. As models, they require scales to relate them to their real-world counterparts. One can see that the scale of the Einstein model is given by $$\epsilon/k$$:
 * $$C_V = 3Nk\left({\epsilon\over k T}\right)^2{e^{\epsilon/kT}\over \left(e^{\epsilon/kT}-1\right)^2}.$$

The scale of the Debye model is $$T_{\rm D}$$, the Debye temperature. Both are usually found by fitting the models to the experimental data. (The Debye temperature can theoretically be calculated from the speed of sound and crystal dimensions.) Because the two methods approach the problem from different directions and different geometries, Einstein and Debye scales are the same, that is to say
 * $${\epsilon\over k} \ne T_{\rm D}\,,$$

which means that plotting them on the same set of axes makes no sense. They are two models of the same thing, but of different scales. If one defines the Einstein condensation temperature as
 * $$T_{\rm E} \ \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}\ {\epsilon\over k}\,,$$

then one can say
 * $$T_{\rm E} \ne T_{\rm D}\,,$$

and, to relate the two, the ratio$$\frac{T_{\rm E}}{ T_{\rm D}} \, $$ is used.

The Einstein solid is composed of single-frequency quantum harmonic oscillators, $$\epsilon = \hbar\omega = h\nu$$. That frequency, if it indeed existed, would be related to the speed of sound in the solid. If one imagines the propagation of sound as a sequence of atoms hitting one another, then the frequency of oscillation must correspond to the minimum wavelength sustainable by the atomic lattice, $$\lambda_{min}$$, where
 * $$\nu = {c_{\rm s}\over\lambda} = {c_{\rm s}\sqrt[3]{N}\over 2L} = {c_{\rm s}\over 2}\sqrt[3]{N\over V}$$,

which makes the Einstein temperature $$T_{\rm E} = {\epsilon\over k} = {h\nu\over k} = {h c_{\rm s}\over 2k}\sqrt[3]{N\over V}\,,$$ and the sought ratio is therefore
 * $${T_{\rm E}\over T_{\rm D}} = \sqrt[3]{\pi\over6}\ = 0.805995977...$$

Using the ratio, both models can be plotted on the same graph. It is the cube root of the ratio of the volume of one octant of a three-dimensional sphere to the volume of the cube that contains it, which is just the correction factor used by Debye when approximating the energy integral above. Alternatively, the ratio of the two temperatures can be seen to be the ratio of Einstein's single frequency at which all oscillators oscillate and Debye's maximum frequency. Einstein's single frequency can then be seen to be a mean of the frequencies available to the Debye model.

Debye temperature table
Even though the Debye model is not completely correct, it gives a good approximation for the low temperature heat capacity of insulating, crystalline solids where other contributions (such as highly mobile conduction electrons) are negligible. For metals, the electron contribution to the heat is proportional to $$T$$, which at low temperatures dominates the Debye $$T^3$$ result for lattice vibrations. In this case, the Debye model can only be said to approximate the lattice contribution to the specific heat. The following table lists Debye temperatures for several pure elements and sapphire:

The Debye model's fit to experimental data is often phenomenologically improved by allowing the Debye temperature to become temperature dependent; for example, the value for ice increases from about 222 K to 300 K as the temperature goes from absolute zero to about 100 K.

Extension to other quasi-particles
For other bosonic quasi-particles, e.g., magnons (quantized spin waves) in ferromagnets instead of the phonons (quantized sound waves), one can derive analogous results. In this case at low frequencies one has different dispersion relations of momentum and energy, e.g., $$E(\nu )\propto k^2$$ in the case of magnons, instead of $$E(\nu )\propto k$$ for phonons (with $$k=2\pi /\lambda $$). One also has different density of states (e.g., $$\int g(\nu ){\rm d}\nu \equiv N\,$$). As a consequence, in ferromagnets one gets a magnon contribution to the heat capacity, $$\Delta C_{\,{\rm V|\,magnon}}\,\propto T^{3/2}$$, which dominates at sufficiently low temperatures the phonon contribution, $$\,\Delta C_{\,{\rm V|\,phonon}}\propto T^3$$. In metals, in contrast, the main low-temperature contribution to the heat capacity, $$\propto T$$, comes from the electrons. It is fermionic, and is calculated by different methods going back to Sommerfeld's free electron model.

Extension to liquids
It was long thought that phonon theory is not able to explain the heat capacity of liquids, since liquids only sustain longitudinal, but not transverse phonons, which in solids are responsible for 2/3 of the heat capacity. However, Brillouin scattering experiments with neutrons and with X-rays, confirming an intuition of Yakov Frenkel, have shown that transverse phonons do exist in liquids, albeit restricted to frequencies above a threshold called the Frenkel frequency. Since most energy is contained in these high-frequency modes, a simple modification of the Debye model is sufficient to yield a good approximation to experimental heat capacities of simple liquids. More recently, it has been shown that instantaneous normal modes associated with relaxations from saddle points in the liquid energy landscape, which dominate the frequency spectrum of liquids at low frequencies, may determine the specific heat of liquids as a function of temperature over a broad range.

Debye frequency
The Debye frequency (Symbol: $$ \omega_{\rm Debye} $$ or $$ \omega_{\rm D} $$) is a parameter in the Debye model that refers to a cut-off angular frequency for waves of a harmonic chain of masses, used to describe the movement of ions in a crystal lattice and more specifically, to correctly predict that the heat capacity in such crystals is constant at high temperatures (Dulong–Petit law). The concept was first introduced by Peter Debye in 1912.

Throughout this section, periodic boundary conditions are assumed.

Definition
Assuming the dispersion relation is
 * $$ \omega = v_{\rm s} |\mathbf k| ,$$

with $$v_{\rm s}$$ the speed of sound in the crystal and k the wave vector, the value of the Debye frequency is as follows:

For a one-dimensional monatomic chain, the Debye frequency is equal to
 * $$ \omega_{\rm D} = v_{\rm s} \pi / a = v_{\rm s} \pi N / L = v_{\rm s} \pi \lambda ,$$

with $$a$$ as the distance between two neighbouring atoms in the chain when the system is in its ground state of energy, here being that none of the atoms are moving with respect to one another; $$N$$ the total number of atoms in the chain; $$L$$ the size of the system, which is the length of the chain; and $$ \lambda $$ the linear number density. For $$L$$, $$N$$, and $$a$$, the relation $$L = N a$$ holds.

For a two-dimensional monatomic square lattice, the Debye frequency is equal to
 * $$ \omega_{\rm D}^2 = \frac {4 \pi}{a^2} v_{\rm s}^2 = \frac {4 \pi N}{A} v_{\rm s}^2 \equiv 4 \pi \sigma v_{\rm s}^2 ,$$

with $$ A \equiv L^{2} = N a^{2} $$ is the size (area) of the surface, and $$\sigma$$ the surface number density.

For a three-dimensional monatomic primitive cubic crystal, the Debye frequency is equal to
 * $$ \omega_{\rm D}^3 = \frac {6 \pi^2}{a^3} v_{\rm s}^3 = \frac {6 \pi^2 N}{V} v_{\rm s}^3 \equiv 6 \pi^2 \rho v_{\rm s}^3 ,$$

with $$ V \equiv L^3 = N a^3 $$ the size of the system, and $$\rho$$ the volume number density.

The general formula for the Debye frequency as a function of $$n$$, the number of dimensions for a (hyper)cubic lattice is
 * $$ \omega_{\rm D}^n = 2^n \pi^{n/2} \Gamma\left(1+\tfrac{n}{2}\right) \frac {N}{L^n} v_{\rm s}^n ,$$

with $$\Gamma$$ being the gamma function.

The speed of sound in the crystal depends on the mass of the atoms, the strength of their interaction, the pressure on the system, and the polarisation of the spin wave (longitudinal or transverse), among others. For the following, the speed of sound is assumed to be the same for any polarisation, although this limits the applicability of the result.

The assumed dispersion relation is easily proven inaccurate for a one-dimensional chain of masses, but in Debye's model, this does not prove to be problematic.

Relation to Debye's temperature
The Debye temperature $$ \theta_{\rm D} $$, another parameter in Debye model, is related to the Debye frequency by the relation $$ \theta_{\rm D}=\frac{\hbar}{k_{\rm B}}\omega_{\rm D}, $$ where $$ \hbar $$ is the reduced Planck constant and $$ k_{\rm B} $$is the Boltzmann constant.

Three-dimensional crystal
In Debye's derivation of the heat capacity, he sums over all possible modes of the system, accounting for different directions and polarisations. He assumed the total number of modes per polarization to be $$N$$, the amount of masses in the system, and the total to be

 * $$\sum_{\rm modes}3=3 N,$$

with three polarizations per mode. The sum runs over all modes without differentiating between different polarizations, and then counts the total number of polarization-mode combinations. Debye made this assumption based on an assumption from classical mechanics that the number of modes per polarization in a chain of masses should always be equal to the number of masses in the chain.

The left hand side can be made explicit to show how it depends on the Debye frequency, introduced first as a cut-off frequency beyond which no frequencies exist. By relating the cut-off frequency to the maximum number of modes, an expression for the cut-off frequency can be derived.

First of all, by assuming $$L$$ to be very large ($$L$$ ≫ 1, with $$L$$ the size of the system in any of the three directions) the smallest wave vector in any direction could be approximated by: $$ d k_i = 2 \pi / L $$, with $$i = x, y, z$$. Smaller wave vectors cannot exist because of the periodic boundary conditions. Thus the summation would become
 * $$\sum_{\rm modes}3=\frac {3 V}{(2 \pi)^3} \iiint d \mathbf k,$$

where $$ \mathbf k \equiv (k_x, k_y, k_z) $$; $$ V \equiv L^3 $$ is the size of the system; and the integral is (as the summation) over all possible modes, which is assumed to be a finite region (bounded by the cut-off frequency).

The triple integral could be rewritten as a single integral over all possible values of the absolute value of $$ \mathbf k $$ (see Jacobian for spherical coordinates). The result is
 * $$\frac {3 V}{(2 \pi)^3} \iiint d \mathbf k = \frac {3 V}{2 \pi^2} \int_0^{k_{\rm D}} |\mathbf k|^2 d \mathbf k ,$$

with $$k_{\rm D}$$ the absolute value of the wave vector corresponding with the Debye frequency, so $$k_{\rm D} = \omega_{\rm D}/v_{\rm s}$$.

Since the dispersion relation is $$\omega =v_{\rm s}|\mathbf k|$$, it can be written as an integral over all possible $$ \omega $$:
 * $$ \frac {3 V}{2 \pi^2} \int_0^{k_{\rm D}} |\mathbf k|^2 d \mathbf k = \frac {3 V}{2 \pi^2 v_{\rm s}^3} \int_0^{\omega_{\rm D}} \omega^2 d \omega ,$$

After solving the integral it is again equated to $$3 N$$ to find
 * $$ \frac {V}{2 \pi^2 v_{\rm s}^3} \omega_{\rm D}^3 = 3 N .$$

It can be rearranged into
 * $$ \omega_{\rm D}^3 =\frac {6 \pi^2 N}{V} v_{\rm s}^3 .$$

One-dimensional chain in 3D space
The same derivation could be done for a one-dimensional chain of atoms. The number of modes remains unchanged, because there are still three polarizations, so
 * $$\sum_{\rm modes}3=3 N.$$

The rest of the derivation is analogous to the previous, so the left hand side is rewritten with respect to the Debye frequency:
 * $$\sum_{\rm modes}3=\frac {3 L}{2 \pi} \int_{-k_{\rm D}}^{k_{\rm D}}d k = \frac {3 L}{\pi v_{\rm s}} \int_{0}^{\omega_{\rm D}}d \omega.$$

The last step is multiplied by two is because the integrand in the first integral is even and the bounds of integration are symmetric about the origin, so the integral can be rewritten as from 0 to $$k_D$$ after scaling by a factor of 2. This is also equivalent to the statement that the volume of a one-dimensional ball is twice its radius. Applying a change a substitution of $$k=\frac{\omega}{v_s}$$, our bounds are now 0 to $$\omega_D = k_Dv_s$$, which gives us our rightmost integral. We continue;
 * $$ \frac {3 L}{\pi v_{\rm s}} \int_{0}^{\omega_{\rm D}}d \omega = \frac {3 L}{\pi v_{\rm s}} \omega_{\rm D} = 3 N .$$

Conclusion:
 * $$ \omega_{\rm D} = \frac {\pi v_{\rm s} N}{L} .$$

Two-dimensional crystal
The same derivation could be done for a two-dimensional crystal. The number of modes remains unchanged, because there are still three polarizations. The derivation is analogous to the previous two. We start with the same equation,
 * $$\sum_{\rm modes}3=3 N.$$

And then the left hand side is rewritten and equated to $$3N$$
 * $$ \sum_{\rm modes}3=\frac {3 A}{(2 \pi)^2} \iint d \mathbf k = \frac {3 A}{2 \pi v_{\rm s}^2} \int_{0}^{\omega_{\rm D}} \omega d \omega = \frac {3 A \omega_{\rm D}^2}{4 \pi v_{\rm s}^2} = 3 N ,$$

where $$ A \equiv L^2$$ is the size of the system.

It can be rewritten as
 * $$ \omega_{\rm D}^2 = \frac {4 \pi N}{A} v_{\rm s}^2 .$$

Polarization dependence
In reality, longitudinal waves often have a different wave velocity from that of transverse waves. Making the assumption that the velocities are equal simplified the final result, but reintroducing the distinction improves the accuracy of the final result.

The dispersion relation becomes $$ \omega_i = v_{s,i}|\mathbf k|$$, with $$ i = 1, 2, 3 $$, each corresponding to one of the three polarizations. The cut-off frequency $$ \omega_{\rm D} $$, however, does not depend on $$i$$. We can write the total number of modes as $$ \sum_{i}\sum_{\rm modes} 1 $$, which is again equal to $$3 N$$. Here the summation over the modes is now dependent on $$i$$.

One-dimensional chain in 3D space
The summation over the modes is rewritten
 * $$ \sum_{i}\sum_{\rm modes} 1 = \sum_i \frac {L}{\pi v_{s,i}} \int_0^{\omega_{\rm D}} d \omega_i = 3 N .$$

The result is
 * $$ \frac {L \omega_{\rm D}}{\pi} (\frac {1}{v_{s,1}} + \frac {1}{v_{s,2}} + \frac {1}{v_{s,3}}) = 3 N .$$

Thus the Debye frequency is found
 * $$ \omega_{\rm D} = \frac{ \pi N}{L} \frac{3}{\frac {1}{v_{s,1}} + \frac {1}{v_{s,2}} + \frac {1}{v_{s,3}}} = \frac {3 \pi N}{L} \frac {v_{s,1} v_{s,2} v_{s,3}}{v_{s,2} v_{s,3} + v_{s,1} v_{s,3} + v_{s,1} v_{s,2}} = \frac{\pi N}{L} v_{\mathrm{eff}}\,. $$

The calculated effective velocity $$ v_{\mathrm{eff}} $$ is the harmonic mean of the velocities for each polarization. By assuming the two transverse polarizations to have the same phase speed and frequency,
 * $$ \omega_{\rm D} = \frac {3 \pi N}{L} \frac {v_{s,t}v_{s,l}}{2v_{s,l} + v_{s,t}} .$$

Setting $$ v_{s,t} = v_{s,l} $$ recovers the expression previously derived under the assumption that velocity is the same for all polarization modes.

Two-dimensional crystal
The same derivation can be done for a two-dimensional crystal to find
 * $$ \omega_{\rm D}^2 = \frac {4 \pi N}{A} \frac{3}{\frac {1}{v_{s,1}^2} + \frac {1}{v_{s,2}^2} + \frac {1}{v_{s,3}^2}} = \frac {12 \pi N}{A} \frac {(v_{s,1} v_{s,2} v_{s,3})^2}{(v_{s,2} v_{s,3})^2 + (v_{s,1} v_{s,3})^2 + (v_{s,1} v_{s,2})^2} = \frac{4 \pi N}{A} v_{\mathrm{eff}}^2\,.$$

The calculated effective velocity $$ v_{\mathrm{eff}}$$ is the square root of the harmonic mean of the squares of velocities. By assuming the two transverse polarizations to be the same,
 * $$ \omega_{\rm D}^2 = \frac {12 \pi N}{A} \frac {(v_{s,t} v_{s,l})^2}{2 v_{s,l}^2 + v_{s,t}^2} .$$

Setting $$ v_{s,t} = v_{s,l} $$ recovers the expression previously derived under the assumption that velocity is the same for all polarization modes.

Three-dimensional crystal
The same derivation can be done for a three-dimensional crystal to find (the derivation is analogous to previous derivations)
 * $$ \omega_{\rm D}^2 = \frac{6 \pi^2 N}{V} \frac{3}{\frac {1}{v_{s,1}^3} + \frac {1}{v_{s,2}^3} + \frac {1}{v_{s,3}^3}} = \frac {18 \pi^2 N}{V} \frac {(v_{s,1} v_{s,2} v_{s,3})^3}{(v_{s,2} v_{s,3})^3 + (v_{s,1} v_{s,3})^3 + (v_{s,1} v_{s,2})^3 } = \frac{6 \pi^2 N}{V} v_{\mathrm{eff}}^3\,.$$

The calculated effective velocity $$ v_{\mathrm{eff}}$$ is the cube root of the harmonic mean of the cubes of velocities. By assuming the two transverse polarizations to be the same,
 * $$ \omega_{\rm D}^3 = \frac {18 \pi^2 N}{V} \frac {(v_{s,t} v_{s,l})^3}{2 v_{s,l}^3 + v_{s,t}^3} .$$

Setting $$ v_{s,t} = v_{s,l} $$ recovers the expression previously derived under the assumption that velocity is the same for all polarization modes.

Derivation with the actual dispersion relation
This problem could be made more applicable by relaxing the assumption of linearity of the dispersion relation. Instead of using the dispersion relation $$ \omega = v_{\rm s} k $$, a more accurate dispersion relation can be used. In classical mechanics, it is known that for an equidistant chain of masses which interact harmonically with each other, the dispersion relation is

$$ \omega (k) = 2 \sqrt {\frac {\kappa}{m}}\left|\sin\left(\frac {k a}{2}\right)\right| ,$$

with $$ m$$ being the mass of each atom, $$ \kappa$$ the spring constant for the harmonic oscillator, and $$ a$$ still being the spacing between atoms in the ground state. After plotting this relation, Debye's estimation of the cut-off wavelength based on the linear assumption remains accurate, because for every wavenumber bigger than $$\pi / a $$ (that is, for $$ \lambda $$ is smaller than $$2 a$$), a wavenumber that is smaller than $$\pi / a$$ could be found with the same angular frequency. This means the resulting physical manifestation for the mode with the larger wavenumber is indistinguishable from the one with the smaller wavenumber. Therefore, the study of the dispersion relation can be limited to the first Brillouin zone $ k \in \left[-\frac{\pi}{a},\frac{\pi}{a}\right] $ without any loss of accuracy or information. This is possible because the system consists of discretized points, as is demonstrated in the animated picture. Dividing the dispersion relation by $$k$$ and inserting $$\pi / a$$ for $$k$$, we find the speed of a wave with $$k = \pi / a$$ to be $$ v_{\rm s}(k = \pi / a) = \frac {2 a}{\pi} \sqrt {\frac {\kappa}{m}} .$$

By simply inserting $$k = \pi/a$$ in the original dispersion relation we find $$ \omega(k = \pi / a) = 2 \sqrt {\frac {\kappa}{m}} = \omega_{\rm D} .$$

Combining these results the same result is once again found $$ \omega_{\rm D} = \frac {\pi v_{\rm s}}{a} .$$

However, for any chain with greater complexity, including diatomic chains, the associated cut-off frequency and wavelength are not very accurate, since the cut-off wavelength is twice as big and the dispersion relation consists of additional branches, two total for a diatomic chain. It is also not certain from this result whether for higher-dimensional systems the cut-off frequency was accurately predicted by Debye when taking into account the more accurate dispersion relation.

Alternative derivation

For a one-dimensional chain, the formula for the Debye frequency can also be reproduced using a theorem for describing aliasing. The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem is used for this derivation, the main difference being that in the case of a one-dimensional chain, the discretization is not in time, but in space.

The cut-off frequency can be determined from the cut-off wavelength. From the sampling theorem, we know that for wavelengths smaller than $$ 2a $$, or twice the sampling distance, every mode is a repeat of a mode with wavelength larger than $$ 2a $$, so the cut-off wavelength should be at $$ \lambda_{\rm D} = 2 a $$. This results again in $$ k_{\rm D} = \frac{2 \pi}{\lambda_D} = \pi / a $$, rendering $$ \omega_{\rm D} = \frac {\pi v_{\rm s}}{a} .$$

It does not matter which dispersion relation is used, as the same cut-off frequency would be calculated.

title: Debye model


text:
1907 in Canada

Events from the year 1907 in Canada.

Crown

 * Monarch – Edward VII

Federal government

 * Governor General – Albert Grey, 4th Earl Grey
 * Prime Minister – Wilfrid Laurier
 * Chief Justice – Charles Fitzpatrick (Quebec)
 * Parliament – 10th

Lieutenant governors

 * Lieutenant Governor of Alberta – George Hedley Vicars Bulyea
 * Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia – James Dunsmuir
 * Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba – Daniel Hunter McMillan
 * Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick – Jabez Bunting Snowball (until February 24) then Lemuel John Tweedie (from March 6)
 * Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia – Duncan Cameron Fraser
 * Lieutenant Governor of Ontario – William Mortimer Clark
 * Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island – Donald Alexander MacKinnon
 * Lieutenant Governor of Quebec – Louis-Amable Jetté
 * Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan – Amédée Forget

Premiers

 * Premier of Alberta – Alexander Cameron Rutherford
 * Premier of British Columbia – Richard McBride
 * Premier of Manitoba – Rodmond Roblin
 * Premier of New Brunswick – Lemuel John Tweedie (until March 6) then William Pugsley (March 6 to May 31) then Clifford William Robinson
 * Premier of Nova Scotia – George Henry Murray
 * Premier of Ontario – James Whitney
 * Premier of Prince Edward Island – Arthur Peters
 * Premier of Quebec – Lomer Gouin
 * Premier of Saskatchewan – Thomas Walter Scott

Commissioners

 * Commissioner of Yukon – John T. Lithgow (acting) (until June 17) then Alexander Henderson
 * Gold Commissioner of Yukon – F.X. Gosselin (from June 17)
 * Commissioner of Northwest Territories – Frederick D. White

Events

 * March 6 – William Pugsley becomes premier of New Brunswick, replacing Lemuel John Tweedie
 * May 24 – Boer War Memorial (Montreal) unveiled
 * May 30 – King Edward VII grants the Coat of Arms of Alberta
 * May 31 – Clifford Robinson becomes premier of New Brunswick, replacing William Pugsley
 * August 24 – Part of the under-construction Quebec Bridge collapses in Quebec City killing 75 construction workers and injuring 11.
 * September 7
 * An anti-Asian riot in Vancouver attacks Chinatown
 * Alexander Grant MacKay is elected leader of the Ontario Liberal Party
 * September 14 – Jasper Forest Park – later named Jasper National Park –  is established.

Full date unknown

 * The National Council for Women demands "equal pay for equal work"
 * The world's first rotary telephone came into use at Sydney Mines, Nova Scotia
 * The first Sobeys opens in Stellarton, Nova Scotia

January to June

 * January 14 – Georges-Émile Lapalme, politician (d.1985)
 * January 26 – Hans Selye, endocrinologist (d.1982)
 * February 9 – Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter, geometer (d.2003)
 * March 20 – Hugh MacLennan, author and professor of English (d.1990)

 * March 24 – Paul Sauvé, lawyer, soldier, politician and 17th Premier of Quebec (d.1960)
 * April 16 – Joseph-Armand Bombardier, inventor, businessman and founder of Bombardier Inc. (d.1964)
 * April 17 – Louis-Philippe-Antoine Bélanger, politician (d.1989)

July to December

 * July 6 – George Stanley, historian, author, soldier, teacher, public servant and designer of the current Canadian flag (d.2002)
 * August 5 – Herman Linder, rodeoist
 * August 24 – Alfred Belzile, politician and farmer
 * September 3 – Andrew Brewin, lawyer and politician (d.1983)
 * September 15 – Fay Wray, actress (d.2004)
 * October 20 – Carl Goldenberg, lawyer, arbitrator, mediator and Senator (d.1996)
 * November 19 – Frederick Thomas Armstrong, politician (d.1990)
 * November 21 – Christie Harris, children's author (d.2002)
 * December 12 – Fleurette Beauchamp-Huppé, pianist, soprano and teacher (d.2007)

Unknown

 * Edythe Shuttleworth, mezzo-soprano (d.1983)

January to June

 * January 1 – William Pearce Howland, politician (b.1811)
 * January 25 – Andrew George Blair, politician and 6th Premier of New Brunswick (b.1844)
 * January 31 – Timothy Eaton, businessman and founder of Eaton's (b.1834)
 * March 3 – Oronhyatekha, Mohawk physician and scholar (b.1841)
 * March 8 – Edward Cochrane, politician (b.1834)
 * March 20 – Louis Adolphe Billy, politician and lawyer (b.1834)
 * April 6 – William Henry Drummond, poet (b.1854)
 * June 12 – John Waldie, politician (b.1833)

July to December

 * August 10 – James Brien, politician and physician (b.1848)
 * September 26 – Alexander Gunn, politician (b.1828)
 * October 10 – Cassie Chadwick, fraudster (b.1857)
 * October 13 – Harvey William Burk, politician and farmer (b.1822)

Historical documents
Report that staff "minimize the dangers of infection" in "the defective sanitary condition" of many residential schools in Prairie Provinces

Newspaper covers "not too favorable a report" issued by Dr. Peter Bryce, concluding "vigorous action cannot be long delayed"

Missing residential school boys are forced to run back with arms tied, and church committee advises against that to avoid cruelty complaints

Fallout from September 7 riot against Asian Canadians in Vancouver

Opposition Leader Robert Borden's Vancouver speech on restricting East Asian immigration

Mackenzie King believes workers running cooperative will learn capitalists' risks and responsibilities, thus reducing labour strife

Rudyard Kipling speaks on spirit of development in Winnipeg

Photo and text: Winnipeg Beach, Lake Winnipeg, Manitoba

Speech on U.S. influence on Canadian thought, habits, literature and press

Local Saskatchewan debate on women's suffrage results in negative decision

Western boards of trade resolutions call for state-supported hospitals

Mayor of Prince Albert, Saskatchewan advocates transportation route to Hudson Bay

Stinkers, mortal terror, and common enemy: automobile issues in Nova Scotia

McGill University principal on place of classical studies in modern education

Article on inner workings of Marconi wireless telegraph station

Minister and three other rowers survive ice and huge waves in Notre Dame Bay, Newfoundland

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1907 in Canada


text:
1910 in Canada

Events from the year 1910 in Canada.

Crown

 * Monarch – Edward VII (until May 6) then George V

Federal government

 * Governor General – Albert Grey, 4th Earl Grey
 * Prime Minister – Wilfrid Laurier
 * Chief Justice – Charles Fitzpatrick (Quebec)
 * Parliament – 11th

Lieutenant governors

 * Lieutenant Governor of Alberta – George Hedley Vicars Bulyea
 * Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia – Thomas Wilson Paterson
 * Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba – Daniel Hunter McMillan
 * Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick – Lemuel John Tweedie
 * Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia – Duncan Cameron Fraser (until September 27) then James Drummond McGregor
 * Lieutenant Governor of Ontario – John Morison Gibson
 * Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island – Donald Alexander MacKinnon (until June 1) then Benjamin Rogers
 * Lieutenant Governor of Quebec – Charles Alphonse Pantaléon Pelletier
 * Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan – Amédée Forget (until October 5) then George William Brown

Premiers

 * Premier of Alberta – Alexander Cameron Rutherford (until May 26) then Arthur Sifton
 * Premier of British Columbia – Richard McBride
 * Premier of Manitoba – Rodmond Roblin
 * Premier of New Brunswick – John Douglas Hazen
 * Premier of Nova Scotia – George Henry Murray
 * Premier of Ontario – James Whitney
 * Premier of Prince Edward Island – Francis Haszard
 * Premier of Quebec – Lomer Gouin
 * Premier of Saskatchewan – Thomas Walter Scott

Commissioners

 * Commissioner of Yukon – Alexander Henderson
 * Gold Commissioner of Yukon – F.X. Gosselin
 * Commissioner of Northwest Territories – Frederick D. White

Events

 * January 3 – Happiness and contentment are found from one end of Canada to the other – headline in The Times (page 5)
 * January 10 – The Laurier government introduces the Naval Service Act creating a Canadian navy to great controversy. The bill would end up alienating most of Laurier supporters and lead to his defeat in the 1911 election.
 * January 10 – Le Devoir first published
 * January 21 – A Canadian Pacific Railway passenger train derails and crashes into a bridge over the Spanish River near Nairn in Sudbury District, Ontario. Between 43 and 70 people are killed in what was at the time the worst disaster in Canadian Pacific history, and one of the worst railway disasters in Canadian history.
 * March 5 – 65 railway maintenance workers, over half of them Japanese, are killed in an avalanche at Rogers Pass, British Columbia while trying to clear the Canadian Pacific Railway's transcontinental mainline. It is the worst disaster in Canadian Pacific history.
 * May 4 – The Royal Canadian Navy is created after the Naval Service Act passes
 * May 6 – Edward VII dies and is succeeded by George V
 * May 26 – Arthur Sifton becomes premier of Alberta, replacing Alexander Rutherford
 * July 31 – British murderer Dr. Crippen is caught in Quebec City
 * December 9 – a coal mine explosion at Bellevue, Alberta, kills 31

Sport

 * January 5/7 – Ottawa HC defeats Galt HC 15 goals to 4 to win the first Stanley Cup challenge in Ottawa's Dey's Arena
 * January 18/20 – Ottawa HC defeats Edmonton HC 21 goals to 11 to win the second Stanley Cup challenge in Ottawa's Dey's Arena
 * March 12 – Montreal Wanderers defeat Berlin Dutchmen 7 goals to 3 to win the final Stanley Cup challenge in Montreal's Jubilee Rink
 * September 13 – Regina Rugby Club (Saskatchewan Roughriders) are established
 * November 26 – The University of Toronto Varsity Blues defeat the Hamilton Tigers 16 to 7 to win the 2nd Grey Cup, played at Hamilton's A.A.A. Grounds

New Books

 * Anne of Avonlea – Lucy Maud Montgomery
 * Ednyfed Fychan – William Williams
 * Practical Political Economy – Stephen Leacock

January to June

 * January 4 – Arthur Villeneuve, painter (d. 1990)
 * February 2 – Andrew McKeller, astrophysicist
 * February 5 – Charles Philippe Leblond, pioneer of cell biology and stem cell research (d. 2007)
 * February 27 – Robert Bryce, civil servant (d. 1997)
 * May 4 – Arsène Gagné, Quebec politician (d. 1964)
 * May 30 – Keir Clark, Prince Edward Island politician (d. 2010)
 * June 17 – George Hees, politician and minister (d. 1996)
 * June 26 – Munroe Bourne, swimmer (d. 1992)

July to December

 * July 2 – Lorne Carr, hockey player (d. 2007)
 * July 17 – James Coyne, second Governor of the Bank of Canada
 * July 19 – Jean Wilson, speed-skater
 * July 29 – Norman Fawcett, politician (d. 1997)
 * August 13 – Gwendolyn Ringwood, playwright
 * August 18 – Robert Winters, politician and businessman (d. 1969)
 * August 26 – Jessie Gray, surgeon (d. 1978)
 * September 10 – Harry Thode, geochemist, nuclear chemist and academic administrator (d. 1997)
 * September 21 – Anne Wilkinson, poet (d. 1961)
 * October 8 – Ray Lewis, track and field athlete, Olympic bronze medallist, first Canadian-born black Olympic medallist (d. 2003)
 * October 13 – Otto Joachim, German-born composer (d. 2010)
 * October 21 – Pauline Mills McGibbon, politician and 22nd Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario (d. 2001)
 * October 27 – Jack Carson, actor (d. 1963)
 * November 14 – Michael Starr, politician and first Canadian cabinet minister of Ukrainian descent (d. 2000)

Full date unknown

 * James Cameron, writer
 * Al Clouston, storyteller, humourist and author (d. 2004)
 * Leo Landreville, politician and judge implicated in the Northern Ontario Natural Gas scandal (d. 1996)

Deaths

 * February 2 – George Murdoch, politician and 1st mayor of Calgary (b.1850)
 * February 9 – George Barnard Baker, lawyer, politician and Senator (b.1834)
 * February 15 – Joseph-Élisée Beaudet, businessman and politician (b.1834)
 * February 26 – Adelaide Hoodless, educational reformer who founded the Women's Institute (b.1857)
 * May 6 – Edward VII, King of Canada (b.1841)
 * June 7 – Goldwin Smith, historian and journalist (b.1823)
 * June 9 – Charles Braithwaite, politician and agrarian leader (b.1850)
 * September 2 – Hector Fabre, lawyer, journalist, diplomat and senator (b.1834)

Historical documents
Prime Minister Laurier says creating navy is necessary for autonomous nation

Poster: Canadian Pacific steamship fleets

At Eucharistic Congress of Montreal, Henri Bourassa defends use of French in Catholic worship

Instructions to Cowichan Indian Agency include discouraging "foolish, wasteful and demoralizing" potlatches

Grain Growers' Guide reports "tricks" and "graft" Prairie farmers encounter at grain elevators

Socialist Party leaflet quotes Alberta MLA championing railway workers

Rudyard Kipling urges people of Medicine Hat not to change city's name

Lucy Maud Montgomery answers questions about Boston, women's suffrage, and Prince Edward Island

Cartoon: Angry women chase Toronto mayor saying "Wonder who told them we didn't encourage the suffragette movement in Toronto?"

title: 1910 in Canada


text:
1914 in Canada

Events from the year 1914 in Canada.

Crown

 * Monarch – George V

Federal government

 * Governor General – Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn
 * Prime Minister – Robert Borden
 * Chief Justice – Charles Fitzpatrick (Quebec)
 * Parliament – 12th

Lieutenant governors

 * Lieutenant Governor of Alberta – George H. V. Bulyea
 * Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia – Thomas Wilson Paterson (until December 5) then Francis Stillman Barnard
 * Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba – Douglas Colin Cameron
 * Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick – Josiah Wood
 * Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia – James Drummond McGregor
 * Lieutenant Governor of Ontario – John Morison Gibson (until September 26) then John Strathearn Hendrie
 * Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island – Benjamin Rogers
 * Lieutenant Governor of Quebec – François Langelier
 * Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan – George W. Brown

Premiers

 * Premier of Alberta – Arthur Sifton
 * Premier of British Columbia – Richard McBride
 * Premier of Manitoba – Rodmond Roblin
 * Premier of New Brunswick – James Kidd Flemming (until December 17) then George Johnson Clarke
 * Premier of Nova Scotia – George Henry Murray
 * Premier of Ontario – James Whitney (until September 25) then William Hearst (from October 2)
 * Premier of Prince Edward Island – John Alexander Mathieson
 * Premier of Quebec – Lomer Gouin
 * Premier of Saskatchewan – Thomas Walter Scott

Commissioners

 * Commissioner of Yukon – George Black
 * Gold Commissioner of Yukon – George P. MacKenzie
 * Commissioner of Northwest Territories – Frederick D. White

January to June

 * March 19 – The Royal Ontario Museum opens
 * April 11 – Canadian Margaret C. MacDonald is appointed Matron-in-Chief of the Canadian Nursing service band and becomes the first woman in the British Empire to reach the rank of major.
 * May 14 – First major discovery of oil in western Canada at Turner Valley
 * May 20 – The Niagara Falls peace conference begins. Representatives from Argentina, Brazil, Chile and the United States met for diplomatic negotiations in order to avoid war between the United States and Mexico
 * May 23 – The Komagata Maru, a Japanese steamship which sailed from Japan to British Columbia carrying 376 passengers, is turned back from Canada under authority of exclusion laws prohibiting Asian immigrants. Most of the passengers returned to India.
 * May 29 – Ocean liner RMS Empress of Ireland sinks in Gulf of St. Lawrence; 1,024 lives lost.
 * June 19 – The Hillcrest mine disaster in Alberta kills 189 of 235, the worst mining disaster in Canadian history
 * June 29 – 1914 Ontario election: Sir James Whitney's Conservatives win a fourth consecutive majority

July to December

 * August 4 – World War I: United Kingdom declares war on Germany, meaning Canada, as a member of the British Empire, is in a state of war.
 * August 14 – Canada's War Measures Act is passed suspending some civil rights in Canada during a crisis.
 * September 9 – World War I: The creation of the Canadian Automobile Machine Gun Brigade, the first fully mechanized unit in the British Army
 * September 25 – James Whitney, Premier of Ontario, dies in office
 * October 1 – Edward VII Monument (Montreal) unveiled
 * October 2 – William Hearst becomes Premier of Ontario
 * October 3 – World War I: 33,000 Canadian troops depart for Europe, the largest force to ever cross the Atlantic Ocean at the time.
 * December 17 – George J. Clark becomes Premier of New Brunswick replacing the retiring James K. Flemming

Sport

 * March 19 – National Hockey Association's Toronto Hockey Club win their first and only Stanley Cup by defeating Pacific Coast Hockey Association's Victoria Aristocrats three games to none. All games were played at Toronto's Arena Gardens
 * December 5 – Toronto Argonauts win their first Grey Cup by defeating the University of Toronto Varsity Blues 14 to 2 in the 6th Grey Cup played at Toronto's Varsity Stadium

Full date unknown

 * All-time high levels of immigration are ended by the war
 * The Better Farming Train made its first tour of Saskatchewan.
 * Canada suspends the convertibility of the dollar into gold
 * Edmonton adopts a new numbered street and avenue pattern
 * Ontario passes a worker's compensation act that provides all workers with funding in case of disability

January to March

 * January 17 – Kurt Freund, physician and sexologist (d.1996)
 * February 2 – Eric Kierans, economist and politician (d.2004)
 * March 13 – W. O. Mitchell, writer (d.1998)

April to June

 * April 2 – Edwin Alonzo Boyd, criminal and leader of the Boyd Gang (d.2002)
 * April 11
 * Norman McLaren, animator and film director (d.1987)
 * Robert Stanfield, politician and 24th Premier of Nova Scotia (d.2003)
 * April 14 – Robert Bend, politician (d.1999)
 * April 18 – David Smith, veterinarian
 * May 3 – Ernest Smith, soldier and Victoria Cross recipient in 1944 (d.2005)
 * May 9 – Hank Snow, country music artist (d.1999)
 * May 15 – Angus MacLean, politician and 27th Premier of Prince Edward Island (d.2000)
 * May 16 – Eric Coy, discus thrower and shot putter (d.1985)
 * May 19 – Alex Shibicky, ice hockey player (d.2005)
 * May 27 – Hugh Le Caine, physicist, composer and instrument builder (d.1977)
 * June 16 – Lucien Rivard, criminal and prison escapee (d.2002)
 * June 21 – William Vickrey, professor of economics and Nobel Laureate (d.1996)

July to December

 * July 1 – Stephen Juba, politician and Mayor of Winnipeg (d.1993)
 * July 6 – Viola Desmond, black civil rights advocate (d. 1965)
 * July 7 – Harry Strom, politician and 9th Premier of Alberta (d.1984)
 * July 10 – Joe Shuster, comic book artist, co-creator of Superman (& nephew of Frank Shuster) (d.1992)
 * July 19 – John Kenneth Macalister, World War II hero (d.1944)
 * July 24 – Ed Mirvish, businessman, philanthropist and theatrical impresario (d.2007)
 * August 2 – Félix Leclerc, folk singer, poet, writer, actor and political activist (d.1988)
 * August 14 – Francis Lawrence Jobin, politician and Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba (d.1995)
 * September 12 – Janusz Żurakowski, fighter and test pilot, first test pilot of Avro Arrow (d.2004)
 * October 14 – Michael D. Moore, film director, second unit director and silent-era child actor (d.2013)
 * November 28 – Mud Bruneteau, professional ice hockey forward who played for the Detroit Red Wings (d.1992)
 * December 10 – Frank Thurston, engineer
 * December 25 – Charles-Noël Barbès, politician and lawyer (d.2008)
 * December 26 – Crawford Gordon, businessman (d.1967)

Full date unknown

 * Shlomo Hestrin, Canadian-born Israeli biochemist (d.1962)
 * Kay Tremblay, actress (d.2005)

Deaths

 * January 21 – Donald Alexander Smith, politician (b.1820)
 * January 27 – Daniel Woodley Prowse, lawyer, politician, judge, historian and essayist (b.1834)
 * March 1 – Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto, Governor General of Canada (b.1845)
 * March 7 – George William Ross, educator, politician and 5th Premier of Ontario (b.1841)
 * March 9 – Robert Christie, Ontario businessman and politician (b. 1826)
 * April 7 – Edith Maude Eaton, author (b.1865)
 * May 2 – John Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll, Governor General of Canada (b.1845)
 * July 9 – Henry Emmerson, lawyer, businessman, politician, philanthropist and 8th Premier of New Brunswick (b.1853)
 * July 27 – Archibald Blue, teacher, journalist, and civil servant (b.1840)
 * September 25 – James Whitney, politician and 6th Premier of Ontario (b.1843)

Historical documents
Governor General assures British government that Canadian people will make every effort and sacrifice to maintain integrity and honour "of our Empire"

British government accepts Canada's offers of expeditionary force and 1 million 98-lb. bags of flour (latter will steady prices and relieve distress)

Before shipping out, professor says that war is good for nation's health

Prime Minister Borden speaks out against German "ideals of force and violence"

Chief Justice expresses Canada's loyalty, satisfaction and trust in Empire

Nellie McClung describes "The Women's Parliament" burlesque of attitudes toward women's suffrage

"The race problem is becoming a serious one in Canada" - Many examples of menial jobs held by workers of Asian origin in B.C. (Note: racial stereotypes)

MP says civilization best in British Empire and northern Europe and "Anglo-Saxon and kindred peoples" must meet threat to it from 340,000,000 Asiatics

College president advocates saving Saskatchewan agriculture with cooperatives

Nova Scotia premier urges farmers to increase tillage and yields to feed Britain and Europe

Testimony of Katzie chief to royal commission about conditions on their Fraser River reserves near Vancouver

"Practical business and moral benefit[...]both to employers and workers" - Senate committee witness advocates federal labour bureaus

Survivor's account of escaping passenger liner Empress of Ireland as it sank in St. Lawrence River

Newsreel footage of Empress of Ireland victims being returned to Quebec City, and one family's two lone survivors - godfather and his goddaughter

Canadian militia fatally shoot duck hunter from Buffalo, N.Y. on Niagara River

Editorial on foolish chances shippers take while sailing on Great Lakes

title: 1914 in Canada


text:
1916 in Canada

Events from the year 1916 in Canada.

Crown

 * Monarch – George V

Federal government

 * Governor General – Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (until November 11) then Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire
 * Prime Minister – Robert Borden
 * Chief Justice – Charles Fitzpatrick (Quebec)
 * Parliament – 12th

Lieutenant governors

 * Lieutenant Governor of Alberta – Robert Brett
 * Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia – Francis Stillman Barnard
 * Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba – Douglas Colin Cameron (until August 3) then James Albert Manning Aikins
 * Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick – Josiah Wood
 * Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia – David MacKeen (until November 13) then MacCallum Grant (from November 29)
 * Lieutenant Governor of Ontario – John Strathearn Hendrie
 * Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island – Augustine Colin Macdonald
 * Lieutenant Governor of Quebec – Pierre-Évariste Leblanc
 * Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan – Richard Stuart Lake

Premiers

 * Premier of Alberta – Arthur Sifton
 * Premier of British Columbia – William John Bowser (until November 23) then Harlan Brewster
 * Premier of Manitoba – Tobias Norris
 * Premier of New Brunswick – George Johnson Clarke
 * Premier of Nova Scotia – George Henry Murray
 * Premier of Ontario – William Hearst
 * Premier of Prince Edward Island – John Mathieson
 * Premier of Quebec – Lomer Gouin
 * Premier of Saskatchewan – Thomas Walter Scott (until October 20) then William Melville Martin

Commissioners

 * Commissioner of Yukon – George Black (until October 13) then George Norris Williams (acting)
 * Gold Commissioner of Yukon – George P. MacKenzie
 * Commissioner of Northwest Territories – Frederick D. White

January to June

 * January 28 – Women are given the right to vote in Manitoba, after protests by people such as Nellie McClung
 * February 3 – The Centre Block of the Parliament Buildings in Ottawa burns down
 * February 10 – An anti-German riot hits Calgary
 * March 14 – Saskatchewan women get the vote
 * April 19 – Alberta women get the vote
 * June – Rodeo's first side-delivery chute is designed and made by the Bascom brothers on their Bar-B-3 Ranch at Welling, Alberta.
 * May 7 – The Government of Canada authorizes the creation of an all black battalion that became No. 2 Construction Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force.
 * June 1 – June 13 – WWI: Canadians fight in the Battle of Mont Sorrel

July to December

 * July 1 – Prohibition of alcohol introduced in Alberta
 * July 1 – November 18 25,000 Canadians and Newfoundlanders are casualties at the Battle of the Somme
 * July 24 – Earl Bascom enters his first steer riding contest at Welling, Alberta.
 * July 29 – The Matheson Fire in the region northwest of North Bay, Ontario, begins. It eventually kills between 200 and 250 people and destroys six towns, including Matheson and Cochrane
 * August 11 – The 4th Canadian Division arrives in France
 * October 20 – William M. Martin becomes premier of Saskatchewan, replacing Walter Scott
 * November 23 – Harlan Brewster becomes premier of British Columbia, replacing William John Bowser
 * December 1 – An Order in Council authorizes an increase of troops to 500,000 in the First World War

Full date unknown

 * Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire becomes Governor General of Canada replacing Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught
 * The National Research Council of Canada is established.
 * The first Doukhobors arrive in Alberta
 * Emily Murphy became the first female magistrate in Canada, and in the British Empire.

New works

 * Lucy Maud Montgomery – The Watchman & Other Poems
 * Max Aitken – Canada in Flanders
 * Alfred Laliberté – Les petits Baigneurs

Sport

 * March 30 – The National Hockey Association's Montreal Canadiens beat the Portland Rosebuds of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association 3 games to 2  to win their first Stanley Cup. All Games were played at the Montreal Arena

January to June

 * January 22 – Bill Durnan, ice hockey player (d.1972)
 * February 4 – Pudlo Pudlat, artist (d.1992)

 * February 10 – Claude Bissell, author and educator (d.2000)
 * February 18 – Jean Drapeau, lawyer, politician and Mayor of Montreal (d.1999)
 * February 23 – Molly Kool, North America's first registered female sea captain (d.2009)
 * March 10 – Davie Fulton, politician and judge (d.2000)
 * April 18 – Ian Wahn, politician and lawyer (d.1999)
 * April 27 – Myfanwy Pavelic, artist (d.2007)
 * May 3 – Léopold Simoneau, lyric tenor (d.2006)
 * May 4 – Jane Jacobs, urbanist, writer and activist (d.2006)
 * May 30 – Jack Dennett, radio and television announcer (d.1975)
 * June 20 – Jean-Jacques Bertrand, politician and 21st Premier of Quebec (d.1973)

July to December

 * July 16 – John Gallagher, geologist and businessman (d.1998)
 * July 21 – Wilfred Cantwell Smith, professor of comparative religion (d.2000)
 * August 1 – Anne Hébert, author and poet (d.2000)
 * September 5 – Frank Shuster, comedian (d.2002)
 * September 18 – Laura Sabia, social activist and feminist (d.1996)
 * October 9 – Bill Allum, ice hockey player (d.1992)
 * October 30 – Roy Brown Jr., car design engineer (Edsel, Ford Consul, Ford Cortina) (d.2013)
 * November 17 – Martin J. Légère, businessman (d.2013)
 * November 23 – P. K. Page, poet (d.2010)
 * December 5 – Lomer Brisson, politician and lawyer (d.1981)
 * December 7 – Margaret Carse, dancer
 * December 16 – Harry Gunning, scientist and administrator (d.2002)
 * December 20 – Michel Chartrand, activist (d.2010)
 * December 23 – Ruth Dawson, artist

Full date unknown

 * John Wintermeyer, politician (d.1994)

Deaths

 * February 3 – Bowman Brown Law, politician (b.1855)
 * May 12 – Joseph-Aldric Ouimet, politician (b.1848)
 * May 29 – Louis-Alphonse Boyer, politician (b.1839)
 * June 27 – Daniel Webster Marsh, businessman and Mayor of Calgary (b.1838)
 * July 28 – Pierre-Amand Landry, lawyer, judge and politician (b.1846)
 * August 8 – Edgar Dewdney, politician, Lieutenant Governor of Northwest Territories and Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia (b.1835)
 * December 12 – Albert Lacombe, missionary (b.1827)

Full date unknown

 * Grace Annie Lockhart, first woman in the British Empire to receive a Bachelor's degree (b.1855)

Historical documents

 * "There is a big fire" - Parliamentary officer warns MPs sitting in session to get out as fatal fire begins to destroy Centre Block of Parliament buildings
 * Prime Minister Borden appeals to Canadians for service abroad and at home.
 * Prime Minister Borden fires militia minister Lt. Gen. Sam Hughes for insubordination.
 * Warning to Imperial Munitions Board head about Ross rifle's dangerous failings.
 * Charles K. Clarke calls for small hospitals to treat veterans with "intense nervous troubles" that are rapidly curable.
 * Arthur Pearson's letter praising soldier for his rapid progress adjusting to his blindness.
 * 120th City of Hamilton Battalion recruiting advertisement.
 * Cartoonist imagines soldier's vision of Christmas at home.
 * Orderly in Canadian hospital brags about its superiority over British facilities, and his bandaging technique.
 * Canadian nurse in Petrograd's Anglo-Russian Hospital enjoys much local culture.
 * Canadian nurse serving in French army hospital gives poignant description of soldier's funeral.
 * Renaming Berlin (Kitchener), Ont.: anti-change ad, and list of suggested new names.
 * Senator objects to Ontario policy restricting education in French.
 * Testimony regarding sale of Squamish land in Vancouver area.
 * Scores killed as huge forest fire destroys northern Ontario towns.
 * U.S.A. and U.K. sign agreement to conserve North American migratory birds.
 * Political cartoon warns Western Canadian drinkers that prohibition is coming in 1916.

title: 1916 in Canada


text:
1917 in Canada

Events from the year 1917 in Canada.

Crown

 * Monarch – George V

Federal government

 * Governor General – Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire
 * Prime Minister – Robert Borden
 * Chief Justice – Charles Fitzpatrick (Quebec)
 * Parliament – 12th (until 6 October)

Lieutenant governors

 * Lieutenant Governor of Alberta – Robert Brett
 * Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia – Francis Stillman Barnard
 * Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba – James Albert Manning Aikins
 * Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick – Josiah Wood (until June 29) then Gilbert Ganong (June 29 to October 31) then William Pugsley (from November 6)
 * Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia – MacCallum Grant
 * Lieutenant Governor of Ontario – John Strathearn Hendrie
 * Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island – Augustine Colin Macdonald
 * Lieutenant Governor of Quebec – Pierre-Évariste Leblanc
 * Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan – Richard Stuart Lake

Premiers

 * Premier of Alberta – Arthur Sifton (until October 30) then Charles Stewart
 * Premier of British Columbia – Harlan Brewster
 * Premier of Manitoba – Tobias Norris
 * Premier of New Brunswick – George Johnson Clarke (until February 1) then James A. Murray (February 1 to April 4) then Walter Foster
 * Premier of Nova Scotia – George Henry Murray
 * Premier of Ontario – William Hearst
 * Premier of Prince Edward Island – John Mathieson (until June 21) then Aubin Arsenault
 * Premier of Quebec – Lomer Gouin
 * Premier of Saskatchewan – William Melville Martin

Commissioners

 * Commissioner of Yukon – George Norris Williams (acting)
 * Gold Commissioner of Yukon – George P. MacKenzie
 * Commissioner of Northwest Territories – Frederick D. White

Elections
Provincial

 * June 7 – Alberta election: Arthur Sifton's Liberals win a fourth consecutive majority. Louise McKinney and Roberta MacAdams are elected to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta, the first two women elected to a legislature in the British Empire.
 * June 26 – Saskatchewan election: William Martin's Liberals win a fourth consecutive majority.

 Federal
 * December 17: Robert Borden's Conservatives win a second consecutive majority in the Federal election

January to June

 * February 1 – James Alexander Murray becomes premier of New Brunswick, replacing George Johnson Clarke
 * April 4 – Walter Foster becomes premier of New Brunswick, replacing Murray
 * April 9 – April 14 – Battle of Vimy Ridge.
 * April 17 – Leon Trotsky, en route from New York to Russia, is detained in Halifax. He will spend the next month in Amherst Internment Camp before being released.
 * June 21 – Aubin Arsenault becomes premier of Prince Edward Island, replacing John Mathieson

July to December

 * July 1: Canada celebrates its 50th Dominion Day.
 * August: The government introduces conscription triggering the Conscription Crisis of 1917
 * September 20: The Income War Tax Act receives royal assent, establishing a "temporary" tax, which remains in force to this day.
 * September 20: The Wartime Elections Act gives female relatives of servicemen the vote.
 * October 26 – November 10: Second Battle of Passchendaele.
 * October 30: Charles Stewart (1868–1946) becomes premier of Alberta, replacing Arthur Sifton
 * November 1 to 30: Swanson Bay, British Columbia, records 88 in of precipitation for the month, which remains the highest officially recorded for one calendar month in North America.
 * December 6: Halifax Explosion kills 1,900 people and injures 9,000. The largest ever man-made explosion pre-Hiroshima atomic bomb.

Arts and literature

 * Tom Thomson paints The Jack Pine, one of Canada's most widely recognized and reproduced artworks.

Sport

 * March 26 – The Pacific Coast Hockey Association's Seattle Metropolitans become the first American team to win the Stanley Cup by defeating the National Hockey Association's Montreal Canadiens 3 games to 1. The Metropolitans won their only Cup in front of their home crowd at Seattle Ice Arena
 * November 26 – The National Hockey League (NHL) is established in Montreal, with 4 teams from the National Hockey Association (Montreal Canadiens, Montreal Wanderers, Ottawa Senators, and Quebec Bulldogs) The owners would form a new team in Toronto due to a dispute Toronto Blueshirts owner Eddie Livingstone, the Toronto Hockey Club (Toronto Maple Leafs)
 * December 19 – Montreal Wanderers defeat the Toronto Arenas in the first NHL game.

January to June

 * January 6 – Sydney Banks, broadcaster and producer (d.2006)
 * January 11 – John Robarts, lawyer, politician and 17th Premier of Ontario (d.1982)
 * April 11 – Danny Gallivan, radio and television broadcaster and sportscaster (d. 1993)
 * April 25 – George R. Gardiner, businessman, philanthropist and co-founder of the Gardiner Museum (d.1997)
 * May 12 – Frank Clair, Canadian Football League coach (d.2005)
 * May 19 – Robert Gordon Robertson, civil servant and 7th Commissioner of the Northwest Territories (d.2013)
 * May 21 – Raymond Burr, actor (d.1993)
 * May 22 – Lude Check, ice hockey player (d.2009)
 * May 24 – Ross Thatcher, politician and 9th Premier of Saskatchewan (d.1971)
 * June 17 – Dufferin Roblin, businessman, politician and 14th Premier of Manitoba (d.2010)
 * June 18 – Arthur Tremblay, politician and Senator (d.1996)
 * June 29 – Archie Green, folklorist and musicologist (d.2009)

July to December

 * July 17 – John Hayes, harness racing driver, trainer and owner (d. 1998)
 * September 12 – Pierre Sévigny, soldier, author, politician and academic (d. 2004)
 * September 15 – Alf Pike, ice hockey player and coach (d. 2009)
 * September 26 – Réal Caouette, politician (d. 1976)
 * November 2 – Ann Rutherford, actress (Gone with the Wind, The Secret Life of Walter Mitty). (d. 2012)
 * November 11 – Abram Hoffer, orthomolecular psychiatrist (d. 2009)
 * November 28 – Jacob Froese, politician (d. 2003)
 * December 6 – Irv Robbins, Canadian-American entrepreneur (d. 2008)

Full date unknown

 * Kent Rowley, labour activist and union organizer (d. 2013)
 * Jack Singer, businessman and philanthropist (d. 2013)

January to June

 * January 8 – Ward Bowlby, lawyer and politician, reeve of Berlin, Ontario (born 1834)
 * January 14 – Alexander Cameron, physician and politician (b.1834)
 * February 17 – Ralph Smith, coal miner, labour leader and politician (b.1858)
 * February 26 – George Johnson Clarke, lawyer, journalist, politician and 14th Premier of New Brunswick (b.1857)
 * April 21 – George Thomas Baird, politician, Senator for Victoria, New Brunswick (b. 1847)
 * June 13 – Louis-Philippe Hébert, sculptor (b.1850)

July to December

 * July 5 – Percival Molson, athlete and soldier (b.1880)
 * July 8 – Tom Thomson, artist (b.1877)
 * July 15 – Lemuel John Tweedie, politician and 9th premier of New Brunswick (b.1849)
 * August 6 – Richard McBride, politician and Premier of British Columbia (b.1870)
 * August 29 – Albert Grey, 4th Earl Grey, 9th governor general of Canada (b.1851)
 * October 31 – Gilbert Ganong, businessman, politician and Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick (b.1851)
 * November 10 – Thomas Simpson Sproule, politician and Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada (b.1843)
 * October 30 – Talbot Papineau, lawyer and soldier (b.1883)
 * December 10 – Mackenzie Bowell, politician and 5th prime minister of Canada (b.1823)

Historical documents
Army chaplain explains why Canadians should reject peace offers at this time

Woman recalls being six-year-old in family caught in Halifax Explosion

Victoria Cross citation for Ukrainian-Canadian soldier's bravery in battle

Battle of Vimy Ridge described by Canadian signalman observing battlefront

Amputee says horrors of Somme fighting worse than losing his arm there

Recuperating Canadian soldier describes birdsong, currant and hawthorn blossoms and other beauties of spring in England

Frontline doctor treats (and changes mind of) German prisoner of war

Letter of thanks from soldier receiving socks, saying all intend to see war won

Letter of thanks from soldier receiving socks, describing Christmas dinner

International planning consultant advises against special programs to set up returning soldiers in agriculture

Profile of Medicine Hat, Alta. branch of Great War Veterans Association

"That woman suffrage will help the cause of Temperance is shown by the following facts"

In inaugural address, President Wilson says U.S.A. cannot be independent of war, but is not part of it

American upset over Canadian hostility to U.S. non-participation in World War I

Poster for U.S. vs Canada charity baseball game in London, U.K.

Prosecution's opening statement in trial of Inuk for murder on Coppermine River

Modern conveniences would save farm women from lifting tons of water a day

"The increase of fibre decreases digestibilty" - Ontario Agricultural College researcher on limited usefulness of whole-wheat flour

Calgary mayor agrees that door-to-door distribution of flyers for birth control play should be prohibited

title: 1917 in Canada


text:
1918 in Canada

Events from the year 1918 in Canada.

Crown

 * Monarch – George V

Federal government

 * Governor General – Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire
 * Prime Minister – Robert Borden
 * Chief Justice – Charles Fitzpatrick (Quebec) (until 21 October) then Louis Henry Davies (Prince Edward Island) (from 23 October)
 * Parliament – 13th (from 16 March)

Lieutenant governors

 * Lieutenant Governor of Alberta – Robert Brett
 * Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia – Francis Stillman Barnard
 * Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba – James Albert Manning Aikins
 * Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick – William Pugsley
 * Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia – MacCallum Grant
 * Lieutenant Governor of Ontario – John Strathearn Hendrie
 * Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island – Augustine Colin Macdonald
 * Lieutenant Governor of Quebec – Pierre-Évariste Leblanc (until October 18) then Charles Fitzpatrick (from October 21)
 * Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan – Richard Stuart Lake

Premiers

 * Premier of Alberta – Charles Stewart
 * Premier of British Columbia – Harlan Brewster (until March 1) then John Oliver (from March 6)
 * Premier of Manitoba – Tobias Norris
 * Premier of New Brunswick – Walter Foster
 * Premier of Nova Scotia – George Henry Murray
 * Premier of Ontario – William Hearst
 * Premier of Prince Edward Island – Aubin Arsenault
 * Premier of Quebec – Lomer Gouin
 * Premier of Saskatchewan – William Melville Martin

Commissioners

 * Commissioner of Yukon – George Norris Williams (acting) (until April 1)
 * Gold Commissioner of Yukon – George P. MacKenzie (from April 1)
 * Commissioner of Northwest Territories – Frederick D. White (until September 27) then William Wallace Cory

Events

 * March 1 – Harlan Brewster, premier of British Columbia, dies in office
 * March 6 – John Oliver becomes premier of British Columbia
 * March 28 – April 1 – In the Easter Riots in Quebec City, the Militia suppress anti-conscription protesters. Four civilians are killed.
 * March 30 – C Squadron of Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians) conducts a cavalry charge against the Germans at Moreuil Wood. The squadron suffers atrocious casualties, but the action is one of the keys of halting the German advance in Operation Michael. Lieutenant Gordon Flowerdew will be awarded the Victoria Cross posthumously.
 * April 21 – Canadian Captain Roy Brown (209 Squadron, RAF) supposedly shoots down the famed Red Baron. More accepted theories credit either Sergeant Cedric Popkin (Australian 24th Machine Gun Company), Gunner Snowy Evans or Gunner Robert Buie (both of 53rd Battery, 14th Field Artillery Brigade, RAA) with the kill.
 * May 24 – Canadian women (except status Indians) obtain the right to vote in federal elections (even if they did not yet have the right to vote in provincial elections); some limited women's suffrage had been granted the year earlier. Status Indians gained federal suffrage in 1960.
 * August 2 – The Vancouver general strike, the first general strike in Canada, triggered by the killing of Ginger Goodwin by police.
 * August 8 – World War I: At the Battle of Amiens superior Canadian gunners assist a great allied breakthrough (also called Canada's 100 Days)
 * August 26 – September 3 – Battle of Arras, 1918
 * September – Canadian forces arrive in northern Russia to assist the White movement against the Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War
 * September 2–3 – Battle of Drocourt-Quéant Line
 * September 9–12 – Battle of the Hindenburg Line
 * September 27 – October 2 – Battle of Canal du Nord
 * October 8–9 – Battle of Cambrai (1918)
 * October 10 – Two squadrons of the Canadian Light Horse charge the enemy at Iwuy, northeast of Cambrai. This was the last combat charge in the history of Canadian cavalry.
 * October 26 – The Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force arrives in Vladivostok to aid the White movement in the Russian Civil War
 * November 1–2 – Battle of Valenciennes
 * November 11 – The Armistice goes into effect, ending combat on the Western Front. Over 600 000 Canadians fought in Europe: 70 000 were killed and 173 000 were wounded.
 * December 4 – The lead elements of the Canadian Corps enter Germany.
 * December 13 – The Canadian Corps parades across bridges over the Rhine, the 1st Division at South Bridge (Cologne) and the 2nd Division at Bonn. The Canadians participate in the Occupation of the Rhineland until gradually withdrawn starting in January 1919.

Full date unknown

 * The Statistics Act is passed, creating the Dominion Bureau of Statistics
 * Canada demands and receives – over the initial opposition of Britain, France and the USA – the right to participate in the Versailles Peace Conference and in the League of Nations.

Sport

 * March 30 – The Toronto Hockey Club win their first and only Stanley Cup by defeating the Vancouver Millionaires 3 game to 2. All games were played at Toronto's Arena Gardens

January to June

 * January 12 – Mike Laffin, politician and dentist (d. 2019)
 * February 6 – Louis Dudek, poet, literary critic and publisher (d.2001)
 * February 13 – Ross Whicher, politician and businessman (d.2002)
 * February 22 – Sid Abel, ice hockey player and coach (d.2000)
 * February 27 – Marcel Bourbonnais, politician (d.1996)
 * March 15 – William McIntyre, Canadian Puisne Justice (d. 2009)
 * April 2 – Marion Bryden, politician (d.2013)
 * April 16 – Murray Westgate, actor (d. 2018)
 * April 23 – Margaret Avison, poet (d.2007)
 * May 1 – Raymond Mailloux, politician (d. 1995)
 * May 15 – Saul Laskin, politician and 1st Mayor of Thunder Bay (d.2008)
 * May 15 – Joseph Wiseman, actor (d. 2009)
 * May 28 – Johnny Wayne, comedian and comedy writer (d.1990)
 * June 10 – Barry Morse, actor (d.2008)
 * June 23 – Madeleine Parent, labour activist, feminist, aboriginal rights activist (d. 2012)

July to December

 * July 15 – Bertram Brockhouse, physicist, shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1994 (d.2003)
 * July 18 – Nelson Mandela, one of only two honorary Canadian citizens
 * August 5 – Betty Oliphant, ballet mistress, co-founder of the National Ballet School of Canada (d.2004)
 * October 19 – Toddy Kehoe, politician and disability rights activist (d.2024)
 * October 25 – Bobby Gimby, orchestra leader, trumpeter and singer-songwriter (d.1998)
 * October 27 – Gérard Tremblay, Canadian Roman Catholic bishop (d.2019)
 * November 13 – George Grant, philosopher, teacher and political commentator (d.1988)
 * November 17 – Prosper Boulanger, politician and businessman (d.2002)
 * November 19 – Lloyd Crouse, businessman, politician and Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia (d.2007)
 * December 20 – Jean Marchand, trade unionist and politician (d.1988)
 * December 30 – Al Purdy, poet (d.2000)

Deaths

 * January 1 – Anson Dodge, lumber dealer and politician (b.1834)
 * January 28 – John McCrae, poet, physician, author, artist and soldier (b.1872)
 * March 1 – Harlan Carey Brewster, politician and Premier of British Columbia (b.1870)
 * March 21 – Henry Joseph Walker, politician and merchant (b.1849)
 * April 9 – Charles Fleetford Sise, businessman (b.1834)
 * August 18 – Henry Norwest, sniper in World War I (b.1884)
 * September 21 — Emily Julian McManus poet, author, and educator (b.1865)
 * October 11 – Wallace Lloyd Algie, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1891)
 * October 18 – Pierre-Évariste Leblanc, politician and Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (b.1853)
 * November 11 – George Lawrence Price, last Commonwealth casualty of World War I (b.1898)

Historical documents
Federal vote goes to women who are British subjects (by birth or marriage) and not disqualified by "race, blood or original nationality"

British prime minister Lloyd George details British war aims, including liberation and self-determination of nations

What Quebec wants is respect from "Anglo-Canadians" for French language, Roman Catholicism and French traditions and ideals (like love of Canada)

Ontario women recruited for summer work in food production

Saskatchewan Victoria Cross winner Hugh Cairns cited for "most conspicuous bravery

His brother describes presentation of Victoria Cross to George Pearkes, "looking a very fine soldier indeed"

Account of Canadian cavalry action resulting in Victoria Cross award for Gordon Flowerdew

Shot-down pilot describes jumping from his falling plane despite bullet wounds and burns

Canadian soldier describes his psychological strain

Folksy Canadian enjoys leave in Paris, despite street crime

Soldier appreciates "toothsomeness" of Christmas treats after living on hardtack and bully beef

U.S. soldier newspaper salutes Canadian forces, but confuses Victoria Day and Dominion Day

Saint John Housewives' League and War Gardens Association exhibit their prowess and patriotism in competitive exhibitions

Rundown of Canada's war effort in military manpower and materiel, food and fuel control, volunteer and women's roles, and veteran rehabilitation

Photos: Saanich-based Muggins the Red Cross Dog poses with military personnel in his fundraising campaign that brought in thousands of dollars

Ontario health board's tips and myths regarding influenza

Various Montreal community groups aid fight against influenza

Death notice for Mi'kmaq grand chief John Denny Jr. and inauguration of new grand chief Gabriel Sylliboy on Cape Breton Island

United Farm Women of Ontario get their male counterparts to work with them

United Farmers of Ontario protest undemocratic wartime government practices

Basic English manual is aimed at foreign-born adults of "industrial class"

Labour lawyer comments at length on deteriorating worker-management relations in Winnipeg

Journalist says people in central Canada have no more influence on government than Westerners do (and perhaps less)

Vilhjalmur Stefansson speaks on difficulties of his Arctic explorations, and overcoming them

University of Manitoba convocation speaker addresses optimism

Wilfrid Laurier comments on Louis Hémon's novel Maria Chapdelaine

title: 1918 in Canada


text:
1920 in Canada

Events from the year 1920 in Canada.

Crown

 * Monarch – George V

Federal government

 * Governor General – Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire
 * Prime Minister – Robert Borden (until July 10) then Arthur Meighen
 * Chief Justice – Louis Henry Davies (Prince Edward Island)
 * Parliament – 13th

Lieutenant governors

 * Lieutenant Governor of Alberta – Robert Brett
 * Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia – Edward Gawler Prior (until December 12) then Walter Cameron Nichol (from December 24)
 * Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba – James Albert Manning Aikins
 * Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick – William Pugsley
 * Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia – MacCallum Grant
 * Lieutenant Governor of Ontario – Lionel Herbert Clarke
 * Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island – Murdock MacKinnon
 * Lieutenant Governor of Quebec – Charles Fitzpatrick
 * Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan – Richard Stuart Lake

Premiers

 * Premier of Alberta – Charles Stewart
 * Premier of British Columbia – John Oliver
 * Premier of Manitoba – Tobias Norris
 * Premier of New Brunswick – Walter Foster
 * Premier of Nova Scotia – George Henry Murray
 * Premier of Ontario – Ernest Drury
 * Premier of Prince Edward Island – John Howatt Bell
 * Premier of Quebec – Lomer Gouin (until July 9) then Louis-Alexandre Taschereau
 * Premier of Saskatchewan – William Melville Martin

Commissioners

 * Gold Commissioner of Yukon – George P. MacKenzie
 * Commissioner of Northwest Territories – William Wallace Cory

Events

 * January 10 – Canada is a founding member of the League of Nations, effectively ending the declaration of war.
 * February 1 – The Royal North-West Mounted Police and the Dominion Police are amalgamated and renamed the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
 * February 14 – Université de Montréal founded.
 * February 26 – The Indian Act is amended to give Canadian aboriginal peoples the right to vote in band elections.
 * March 12 – The first Lions Club outside the United States is founded in Windsor, Ontario.
 * May 14 – Canadian Forum magazine founded.
 * June – The Catholic Women's League is formed in Montreal.
 * June 24 – Dollard des Ormeaux Monument unveiled.
 * July 1 – Under the Dominion Elections Act, uniform franchise is established and the right for women to be elected to parliament is made permanent.
 * July 9 – Louis-Alexandre Taschereau becomes premier of Quebec, replacing Sir Lomer Gouin.
 * July 10 – Arthur Meighen becomes prime minister, replacing Sir Robert Borden.
 * July 11 – Charles Stephens, a barber and daredevil from Bristol, England, dies attempting to go over Niagara Falls.
 * October 17 – The first airplane to fly across Canada arrives in Richmond from Halifax.
 * December 25 – Walter Cameron Nichol becomes the 12th Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia.

Date unknown

 * Esther Marjorie Hill (1895–1985) becomes the first female architect in Canada when she graduates from the University of Toronto.

Arts and literature

 * May 7 – The first exhibit of art by the Group of Seven opens in Toronto.
 * November 8 – The Capitol Cinema opens in Ottawa, the capital's only true movie palace.
 * Undated – A group of artists, educators, and art patrons formed the British Columbia Art League to lobby the provincial and city governments for a school.

Sport
1920 Olympics
 * January 10 – The Montreal Canadiens and Toronto St. Patricks combine for 21 goals to set an NHL record for most goals in a single game.
 * March 23–25 – The Ontario Hockey Association's Toronto Canoe Club win their first Memorial Cup by defeating Saskatchewan Amateur Hockey Association's Selkirk Fishermen 15 to 5 in a 2-game aggregate played at Arena Gardens in Toronto
 * April 1 – The NHL's Ottawa Senators win their ninth Stanley Cup by defeating the Pacific Coast Hockey Association's Seattle Metropolitans 3 games to 2. The deciding game was played at Toronto's Arena Gardens
 * December 4 – The University of Toronto Varsity Blues win their fourth and final Grey Cup by defeating the Toronto Argonauts 16 to 3 in the 8th Grey Cup played at Toronto's Varsity Stadium
 * April 26 – The Winnipeg Falcons representing Canada beat Sweden 12–1 to win the gold medal for ice hockey at the 1920 Olympics in Antwerp.
 * August 18 – Earl Thomson wins a gold medal in Men's 110 m Hurdles at the Athletics
 * August 23 – Bert Schneider wins a gold medal for Canada in the Boxing Welterweight at the 1920 Olympics in Antwerp.

January to March

 * January 4 – James William Baskin, politician and businessman (d. 1999)
 * January 6 – Henry Corden, Canadian-born American actor, voice actor and singer (d. 2005)
 * January 7 – Margaret W. Thompson, geneticist (d. 2014)
 * January 12 – Bill Reid, artist (d. 1998)
 * February 22 – Ralph Raymond Loffmark, politician. (d. 2012)
 * February 23 – Paul Gérin-Lajoie, lawyer, philanthropist, politician and Minister (d. 2018)
 * February 25
 * Merrill Edwin Barrington, politician, accountant and insurance broker (d. 1965)
 * Gérard Bessette, author and educator (d. 2005)
 * March 3 – James Doohan, actor (d. 2005)
 * March 9 – Erwin Schild, rabbi and author (d. 2024)
 * March 19
 * Cyril Lloyd Francis, politician and Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada (d. 2007)
 * Laurent Noël, Roman Catholic bishop (d. 2022)
 * March 24 – Bill Irwin, Olympic skier (d. 2013)

April to June

 * April 2 – Gerald Bouey, 4th Governor of the Bank of Canada (d. 2004)
 * May 1 – Louis Siminovitch, molecular biologist (d. 2021)
 * May 2 – William Hutt, actor (d. 2007)
 * May 5 – Bill Hunter, ice hockey player, general manager and coach (d. 2002)
 * May 8
 * Barbara Howard, sprinter (d. 2017)
 * Harry Rankin, lawyer and politician (d. 2002)
 * May 9 – Helen Nicol, baseball player (d. 2021)
 * May 25 – Maria Gomori, Hungarian-born psychologist (d. 2021)
 * May 27 – Peter Dmytruk, World War II military hero (d. 1943)
 * June 4 – Lynda Adams, diver (d. 1997)
 * June 6 – Jan Rubeš, opera singer and actor (d. 2009)
 * June 11 – Qapik Attagutsiak, Inuit elder (d. 2023)
 * June 14 – Stanley Waters, Senator (d. 1991)
 * June 15 – Sam Sniderman, founder of the Sam the Record Man chain (d. 2012)
 * June 24 – Joe Greene, politician (d. 1978)
 * June 26 – Jean-Pierre Roy, Major League Baseball pitcher (d. 2014)

July to December

 * July 12
 * Pierre Berton, author, television personality and journalist (d. 2004)
 * Bob Fillion, ice hockey player (d. 2015)
 * August 2 – Marcel Adams, businessman (d. 2020)
 * August 3 – Lucien Lamoureux, politician and Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada (d. 1998)
 * August 12 – Aidan Maloney, politician and executive (d. 2018)
 * August 19 – Agnes Benidickson, first female chancellor of Queen's University at Kingston, Ontario (d.2007)
 * August 24 – Alex Colville, painter (d. 2013)
 * September 4 – Catherine Bennett, baseball player
 * September 6 – Helen Hunley, politician (d. 2010)
 * September 9 – Joan Neiman, senator (d. 2022)
 * September 11 – Dalton Camp, journalist, politician, political strategist and commentator (d. 2002)
 * September 26 – Edmund Tobin Asselin, politician (d. 1999)
 * October 1 – Charles Daudelin, sculptor and painter (d. 2001)
 * October 13 – Evelyn Dick, murderer
 * October 29 – Bill Juzda, ice hockey player (d. 2008)
 * November 11 – John Ferguson Browne, politician (d. 2014)
 * November 17 – George Dunning, Canadian-born cartoon director, animator (d. 1979)
 * November 18 – George Johnson, politician and Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba (d. 1995)

January to June

 * February 12 – Aurore Gagnon, murder victim (b. 1909)
 * February 16 – Augustus F. Goodridge, politician and Premier of Newfoundland (b. 1839)
 * April 25 – Alexander Grant MacKay, teacher, lawyer and politician (b. 1860)
 * June 6 – James Dunsmuir, industrialist, politician and Premier of British Columbia (b. 1851)
 * June 18 – John Macoun, naturalist (b. 1831)
 * June 27 – Adolphe-Basile Routhier, judge, author and lyricist (b. 1839)

July to December

 * September 5 – Agnes Macdonald, 1st Baroness Macdonald of Earnscliffe, second wife of John A. Macdonald, first Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1836)
 * September 7 – Simon-Napoléon Parent, politician and Premier of Quebec (b. 1855)
 * September 18 – Robert Beaven, businessman, politician and 6th Premier of British Columbia (b. 1836)
 * September 30 – William Wilfred Sullivan, journalist, jurist, politician and Premier of Prince Edward Island (b. 1843)
 * November 19 – Byron Moffatt Britton, politician, lawyer and lecturer (b. 1833)
 * December 12 – Edward Gawler Prior, mining engineer, politician and Premier of British Columbia (b. 1854)

Historical documents
Guide to improving your community by understanding its needs and resources

Funding is "not sufficient to meet our needs in buying food," and Indian residential school lacks enough garden space to make up for it

TB patient must follow sanatorium stay with home treatment and lifestyle change, including "winter living out of doors"

Anti-vaccination group seeks "judicial recognition [that] every freeman owns his own body"

Professor calls for better obstetrics training to lower high rate of injury to mothers

School improvements in Nova Scotia include hot lunches, stove polish and pencil sharpeners

Advocacy magazine says present civil servant compensation amounts to economic slavery

Wood Gundy co-founder insists on Christianity in global business

Nellie McClung wants newspaper articles about "heroism, generosity, neighborly kindness" more than crime stories

Stepmother of murdered child is sentenced to death

Disposition, care and management of general purpose Canadian horse breed known for its endurance

Witness before Senate committee on Hudson Bay envisions 50 million domestic reindeer on northern pasture, and muskox ranching too

Lawrence Lambe finds Hadrosaur fossil "Edmontosaurus" in good condition near Red Deer River, Alberta

title: 1920 in Canada