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Nothoscordum

Nothoscordum is a genus of New World plants in the onion tribe within the Amaryllis family. It is probably paraphyletic. The genus is native to North, Central and South America, though a few species have become naturalized in various parts of the Old World.

Species
The Plant List lists 87 species, although other authorities suggest only 20.

 * 1) Nothoscordum achalense Ravenna - Córdoba in Argentina

 * 1) Nothoscordum albitractum Ravenna - Jujuy in Argentina
 * 2) Nothoscordum altillanense Ravenna & Biurrun - La Rioja in Argentina
 * 3) Nothoscordum andicola Kunth - Peru, Bolivia, northern Chile, northern Argentina
 * 4) Nothoscordum andinum (Poepp.) Kunth ex Fuentes - Mendoza + San Juan in Argentina, central Chile
 * 5) Nothoscordum aparadense Ravenna - Santa Catarina in Brazil
 * 6) Nothoscordum arenarium Herter - northern Argentina, Uruguay
 * 7) Nothoscordum auratum Ravenna - Uruguay
 * 8) Nothoscordum bahiense Ravenna - Bahia in Brazil
 * 9) Nothoscordum balaenense Ravenna - Uruguay
 * 10) Nothoscordum basalticum Ravenna - Corrientes in Argentina
 * 11) Nothoscordum bivalve (L.) Britton in N.L.Britton & A.Brown - southern half of United States from California to Virginia, Mexico, Colombia, Peru, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay
 * 12) Nothoscordum boliviense Ravenna - Bolivia, northern Argentina
 * 13) Nothoscordum bonariense (Pers.) Beauverd - northern Argentina, Uruguay, southern Brazil
 * 14) Nothoscordum × borbonicum Kunth - northern Argentina (N. entrerianum × N. gracile)
 * 15) Nothoscordum calcaense Ravenna - Peru
 * 16) Nothoscordum calderense Ravenna - Salta in Argentina
 * 17) Nothoscordum cambarense Ravenna - Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil
 * 18) Nothoscordum capivarinum Ravenna - Paraná in Brazil
 * 19) Nothoscordum carambolense Ravenna - Corrientes in Argentina
 * 20) Nothoscordum catharinense Ravenna - Santa Catarina in Brazil
 * 21) Nothoscordum clevelandicum Ravenna - Paraná in Brazil
 * 22) Nothoscordum collinum Ravenna - Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil
 * 23) Nothoscordum conostylum Ravenna - Entre Ríos in Argentina
 * 24) Nothoscordum correntinum Ravenna - Corrientes in Argentina
 * 25) Nothoscordum curvipes Ravenna - Paraná in Brazil
 * 26) Nothoscordum cuyanum Ravenna - San Juan + Mendoza in Argentina
 * 27) Nothoscordum demissum Ravenna - Cusco in Peru
 * 28) Nothoscordum dynamiandrum Ravenna - Jujuy in Argentina
 * 29) Nothoscordum empedradense Ravenna - Corrientes in Argentina
 * 30) Nothoscordum entrerianum Ravenna - Entre Ríos in Argentina
 * 31) Nothoscordum exile Ravenna - Paraná in Brazil
 * 32) Nothoscordum famatinense Ravenna - La Rioja in Argentina
 * 33) Nothoscordum gaudichaudianum Kunth - Uruguay, Entre Ríos in Argentina
 * 34) Nothoscordum glareosum Ravenna - Corrientes in Argentina
 * 35) Nothoscordum gracile (Aiton) Stearn - widespread from southern Mexico to Chile; naturalized in southeastern United States, California, and scattered locations in Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and various oceanic islands
 * 36) Nothoscordum gracilipes Ravenna - southern Brazil
 * 37) Nothoscordum ibiramense Ravenna - Santa Catarina in southern Brazil
 * 38) Nothoscordum ineanum Ravenna - Chaco in Argentina
 * 39) Nothoscordum inundatum Ravenna - Corrientes in Argentina
 * 40) Nothoscordum ipacarainum Ravenna - Paraguay
 * 41) Nothoscordum itatiense Ravenna - Corrientes in Argentina
 * 42) Nothoscordum izaguirreae Crosa - Uruguay
 * 43) Nothoscordum jaibanum Ravenna - Minas Gerais in Brazil
 * 44) Nothoscordum leptogynum Ravenna - Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil
 * 45) Nothoscordum luteomajus Ravenna - Paraná in Brazil
 * 46) Nothoscordum luteominus Ravenna - Buenos Aires Province in Argentina
 * 47) Nothoscordum macrantherum (Kuntze) Beauverd - Paraguay
 * 48) Nothoscordum mahui Traub - Santiago Region in Chile
 * 49) Nothoscordum moconense Ravenna - Misiones in Argentina
 * 50) Nothoscordum modestum Ravenna - Paraguay
 * 51) Nothoscordum montevidense Beauverd - Uruguay, northern Argentina, southern Brazil
 * 52) Nothoscordum nublense Ravenna - Biobío in Chile
 * 53) Nothoscordum nudicaule (Lehm.) Guagl. - Uruguay, Bolivia, Argentina, southern Brazil
 * 54) Nothoscordum nudum Beauverd -  Uruguay, Entre Ríos in Argentina
 * 55) Nothoscordum nutans Ravenna - Paraná in Brazil
 * 56) Nothoscordum pachyrhizum Ravenna - Uruguay
 * 57) Nothoscordum paradoxum Ravenna - Uruguay
 * 58) Nothoscordum patricium Ravenna - Corrientes in Argentina
 * 59) Nothoscordum pedersenii Ravenna - Corrientes in Argentina
 * 60) Nothoscordum pernambucanum Ravenna - eastern Brazil
 * 61) Nothoscordum planifolium Ravenna - Uruguay
 * 62) Nothoscordum portoalegrense Ravenna - Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil
 * 63) Nothoscordum pulchellum Kunth - central Brazil
 * 64) Nothoscordum punillense Ravenna - Córdoba + San Luis in Argentina
 * 65) Nothoscordum rigidiscapum Ravenna - Uruguay
 * 66) Nothoscordum saltense Ravenna - Salta + Catamarca in Argentina
 * 67) Nothoscordum scabridulum Beauverd - Uruguay
 * 68) Nothoscordum sengesianum Ravenna - Uruguay
 * 69) Nothoscordum serenense Ravenna - Coquimbo in Chile
 * 70) Nothoscordum setaceum (Baker) Ravenna - Uruguay
 * 71) Nothoscordum stenandrum Ravenna - southern Brazil
 * 72) Nothoscordum subtile Ravenna - Uruguay
 * 73) Nothoscordum tafiense Ravenna - Tucumán in Argentina
 * 74) Nothoscordum tarijanum Ravenna - Bolivia, Jujuy in Argentina
 * 75) Nothoscordum tenuifolium Ravenna - Entre Ríos in Argentina
 * 76) Nothoscordum tibaginum Ravenna - southern Brazil
 * 77) Nothoscordum tricostatum Ravenna - Jujuy in Argentina
 * 78) Nothoscordum tuyutiense Ravenna - Corrientes in Argentina
 * 79) Nothoscordum umburucuyanum Ravenna - Corrientes in Argentina
 * 80) Nothoscordum uruguaianum Ravenna - northern Argentina, southern Brazil
 * 81) Nothoscordum velazcoense Ravenna - La Rioja in Argentina
 * 82) Nothoscordum vernum Phil. - central Chile
 * 83) Nothoscordum vigilense Ravenna - Jujuy in Argentina
 * 84) Nothoscordum vittatum (Griseb.) Ravenna - Uruguay, northern Argentina, southern Brazil
 * 85) Nothoscordum yalaense Ravenna - Jujuy in Argentina
 * 86) Nothoscordum yatainum Ravenna - Corrientes in Argentina

Several species names have been coined using the nameNothoscordum referring to species now regarded as better suited to other genera (Allium Beauverdia Oziroe Tristagma). We provide links to help you find appropriate information. • Nothoscordum aureum (Kellogg) Hook.f. 1871 not (Lindl.) I.M.Johnst. & Parodi 1930 - Bloomeria crocea var. aurea
 * formerly included
 * formerly included

• Nothoscordum canescens - Beauverdia hirtella

• Nothoscordum felipponei - Beauverdia sellowiana

• Nothoscordum fictile - Oziroe acaulis

• Nothoscordum graminifolium - Tristagma graminifolium

• Nothoscordum hirtellum - Beauverdia hirtella

• Nothoscordum inodorum - Allium neapolitanum

• Nothoscordum inutile - Allium inutile

• Nothoscordum lloydiiflorum - Beauverdia vittata

• Nothoscordum lorentzii - Beauverdia lorentzii

• Nothoscordum mairei - Allium wallichii

• Nothoscordum neriniflorum - Allium neriniflorum

• Nothoscordum ostenii - Beauverdia sellowiana

• Nothoscordum sessile - Oziroe acaulis

• Nothoscordum siculum - Allium siculum

• Nothoscordum subsessile - Beauverdia hirtella

• Nothoscordum sulvia - Allium tuberosum

• Nothoscordum tubiflorum - Allium tubiflorum

• Nothoscordum uniflorum - Beauverdia vittata

title: Nothoscordum


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Noor Jehan

Noor Jehan, sometimes spelled Noorjehan (born Allah Rakhi Wasai (Punjabi / ); 21 September 1926 – 23 December 2000 ) also known by her honorific title Malika-e-Tarannum (Queen of Melody), was a Pakistani playback singer and actress who worked first in British India and then in the cinema of Pakistan. Her career spanned more than six decades. Considered to be one of the greatest and most influential singers in the Indian subcontinent, she was given the honorific title of Malika-e-Tarannum in British India. She had a command of Hindustani classical music as well as other music genres.

Along with Ahmed Rushdi, she holds the record for having given voice to the largest number of film songs in the history of Pakistani cinema. She recorded about 10,000 songs in various languages, including Urdu, Punjabi, and Sindhi. She sang a total of 2,422 songs in 1,148 Pakistani films during a career that lasted more than half a century. She is also considered to be the first female Pakistani film director.

Early life
Noor Jehan was born Allah Rakhi Wasai into a Punjabi Muslim family in Kasur, Punjab, British India and was one of the eight children of Imdad Ali and Fateh Bibi.

Career in British India
Noor Jehan began to sing at the age of six and showed a keen interest in a range of styles, including traditional folk and popular theatre. Realising her potential for singing, her father sent her to receive early training in classical singing under Ustad Ghulam Mohammad and Kajjanbai. She started her training at age 11 in Calcutta, where instructors instructed her in the traditions of the Patiala Gharana of Hindustani classical music and the classical forms of thumri, dhrupad, and khyal.

At the age of nine, Noor Jehan drew the attention of Punjabi musician Ghulam Ahmed Chishti, who would later introduce her to the stage in Lahore. He composed some ghazals, na`ats, and folk songs for her to perform, although she was keener on breaking into acting or playback singing. Once her vocational training finished, Jehan pursued a career in singing alongside her sister in Lahore, and would usually take part in the live song and dance performances prior to screenings of films in cinemas.

Theatre owner Diwan Sardari Lal took the small girl to Calcutta in the early 1930s, and the entire family moved to Calcutta in hopes of developing the movie careers of Allah Wasai and her older sisters, Eiden Bai and Haider Bandi. Mukhtar Begum (not to be confused with actress Sabiha Khanum) encouraged the sisters to join film companies and recommended them to various producers. She also recommended them to her husband, Agha Hashar Kashmiri, who owned a maidan theatre (a tented theatre to accommodate large audiences). It was here that Wasai received the stage name, Baby Noor Jehan. Her older sisters were offered jobs with one of the Seth Sukh Karnani companies, Indira Movietone, and they went on to be known as the Punjab Mail.

In 1935, K.D. Mehra directed the Punjabi movie Pind di Kuri, in which Noor Jehan acted along with her sisters and sang the Punjabi song "Langh aja patan chanaan da o yaar," which became her earliest hit. She then acted in a film called Missar Ka Sitara (1936) by the same company and sang in it for music composer Damodar Sharma. Jehan also played the child role of Heer in the 1937 film Heer-Sayyal. One of her popular songs from that period, "Shala Jawaniyan Maney" is from Dalsukh Pancholi's Punjabi film Gul Bakawli (1939). All these Punjabi movies were made in Calcutta. After a few years in Calcutta, Jehan returned to Lahore in 1938. In 1939, renowned music director Ghulam Haider composed songs for Jehan which led to her early popularity, and he thus became her early mentor.

In 1942, she played the main lead opposite Pran in Khandaan (1942). It was her first role as an adult, and the film was a major success. The success of Khandaan saw her shifting to Bombay, with the director Syed Shaukat Hussain Rizvi. She shared melodies with Shanta Apte in Duhai (1943). It was in this film that Jehan lent her voice for the second time, to another actress named Husn Bano. She married Rizvi later the same year. From 1945 to 1947 and her subsequent move to Pakistan, Noor Jehan was one of the biggest film actresses of the Indian Film Industry. Her films: Badi Maa, Zeenat, Gaon Ki Gori (all 1945), Anmol Ghadi (1946), Mirza Sahiban (1947) and Jugnu (1947) were the top-grossing films of the years 1945 to 1947. Mirza Sahiban was her last film released in India in which she was paired opposite Trilok Kapoor, brother of Prithviraj Kapoor. Alongside Suraiya, she was the biggest star in the country before Independence.

Acting career in Pakistan
In 1947, Rizvi and Jehan decided to move to Pakistan, upon the independence of the British Indian Empire, and had resulted in partition of India. They left Bombay and settled in Karachi with their family.

Three years after settling in Pakistan, Jehan starred in her first Pakistani film Chan Wey (1951), opposite Santosh Kumar, which was also her first Pakistani film as a heroine and playback singer. Shaukat Hussain Rizvi and Noor Jehan directed this film together, making Jehan Pakistan's first female director. It became the highest-grossing film in Pakistan in 1951. Jehan's second film in Pakistan was Dupatta (1952) which was produced by Aslam Lodhi, directed by Sibtain Fazli and assisted by A. H. Rana as production manager. Dupatta turned out to be an even bigger success than Chan Wey (1951).

During 1953 and 1954, Jehan and Rizvi had problems and got divorced due to personal differences. She kept custody of the three children from their marriage. In 1959, she married another film actor, Ejaz Durrani, nine years her junior. Durrani pressured her to give up acting, and her last film as an actress/singer was Ghalib (1961). This contributed to the strengthening of her iconic stature. She gained another audience for herself. Her rendition of Faiz Ahmed Faiz's "Mujhse Pehli Si Mohabbat Mere Mehboob Na Maang" is a unique example of tarranum, reciting poetry as a song with music of Rasheed Attre in the Pakistani film Qaidi (1962). Jehan last acted in Baaji in 1963, though not in a leading role.

Jehan bade farewell to film acting in 1963 after a career of 33 years (1930–1963). The pressure of being a mother of six children and the demands of being a wife to another fellow film actor, forced her to give up her career. Jehan made 14 films in Pakistan, ten in Urdu and four in Punjabi as a film actress.

As playback singer
After quitting acting she took up playback singing. She made her debut exclusively as a playback singer in 1960 with the film Salma. Her first initial playback singing for a Pakistani film was for the 1951 film Chann Wey, for which she was the film director herself. She received many awards, including the Pride of Performance in 1965 by the Pakistani Government. She sang a large number of duets with Ahmed Rushdi, Mehdi Hassan, Masood Rana, Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and Mujeeb Aalam.

She had an understanding and friendship with many singers of Asia, for example with Alam Lohar and many more. Jehan made great efforts to attend the "Mehfils" (live concerts) of Ustad Salamat Ali Khan, Ustad Fateh Ali Khan, Ustad Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and Roshan Ara Begum. Lata Mangeshkar commented on Jehan's vocal range, that Jehan could sing as low and as high as she wanted, and that the quality of her voice always remained the same. Singing was, for Jehan, not effortless but an emotionally and physically draining exercise. In the 1990s, Jehan also sang for then débutante actresses Neeli and Reema. For this very reason, Sabiha Khanum affectionately called her Sadabahar (evergreen). Her popularity was further boosted with her patriotic songs during the 1965 war between Pakistan and India.

In 1971 Madam Noor Jehan visited Tokyo for the World Song Festival as a representative from Pakistan.

Jehan visited India in 1982 to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of the Indian talkie movies, where she met Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in New Delhi and was received by Dilip Kumar and Lata Mangeshkar in Bombay. She met all her erstwhile heroes and costars, including Surendra, Pran, Suraiya, composer Naushad and others. The website  Women on Record stated: "Noor Jehan injected a degree of passion into her singing unmatched by anyone else. But she left for Pakistan".

In 1991, Vanessa Redgrave invited her to perform at a fundraising event to benefit the children of the Middle East held at Royal Albert Hall London. Lionel Richie, Bob Geldof, Madonna, Boy George, and Duran Duran were some of the performers at the star-studded event which was attended, amongst many others, by thespian John Gielgud, Nobel Prize-winning playwright Harold Pinter, and Oscar-winning actress Dame Peggy Ashcroft. She has also sung "Saiyan Saadey Naal", a song of well-known Pakistani folk singer, songwriter and composer Akram Rahi for the film Dam Mast Kalander/Aalmi Gunday.

Personal life
In 1941, Noor Jehan married Shaukat Hussain Rizvi of Azamgarh, Uttar Pradesh, India. In 1947, Shaukat Rizvi decided to migrate to Pakistan, and Noor Jehan moved too, ending her career in India. She next visited India only in 1982. Her marriage to Rizvi ended in 1953 with a divorce; the couple had three children, including their singer daughter Zil-e-Huma.

Noor Jehan was also in a relationship with cricketer Nazar Mohammad. She married Ejaz Durrani in 1959. The second marriage also produced three children but also ended in divorce in 1971. She also had affair with actor Yousuf Khan.

Last years and death
Jehan suffered from chest pains in 1986 on a tour of North America and was diagnosed with angina pectoris, after which she underwent bypass surgery. According to her daughter, Shazia Hassan, she was suffering from chronic kidney disease in her last years and was on dialysis. In 2000, Jehan was hospitalised at Aga Khan University Hospital, Karachi, and suffered a heart attack. On 23 December 2000 (night of 27 Ramadan), Jehan died as a result of heart failure. Her funeral took place at Jamia Masjid Sultan, Karachi and was attended by over 400,000 people. She was buried at the Gizri Graveyard in Karachi. She was given a state funeral by President of Pakistan Pervez Musharraf. He ordered her funeral be taken to Lahore from Karachi, but her daughters insisted on burying her in Karachi on the night she died. In the wake of her death, a famous Indian writer and poet, Javed Akhtar, in an interview in Mumbai, said that "In the worst conditions of our relations with Pakistan in 53 years, in a very hostile atmosphere, our cultural heritage has been a common bridge. Noor Jehan was one such durable bridge. My fear is that her death may have shaken it."

Awards and honours
Noor Jehan received more than 15 Nigar Awards for Best Female Playback Singer, eight for Best Urdu Singer Female and the rest for Punjabi Playback. She has also received the Millennium Singer Award in Pakistan.
 * In 1945, for the film Zeenat, she was awarded a gold medal by Z.A. Bukhari.
 * Noor Jehan was ranked eighth in a list of Most Influential Pakistanis.
 * Mohammad Rafi always wished to make duets with her. Asha Bhosle, a Bollywood playback singer, stated in an interview:-
 * Jehan was one of my favourite singers and when I listened to her Ghazals, I realized how unusual compositions were those, so I decided to take them to a larger audience which they deserve.
 * She added that;
 * The world will never see a singer like her. Just as people have not seen another Mohammad Rafi and Kishore Kumar there would never be another Noor Jehan.

 * British weekly newspaper Eastern Eye ranked Noor Jehan at 16th in a list of 20 Bollywood singers of all time. The entertainment editor of Eastern Eye wrote that:
 * Jehan was the first female singing star of the Indian cinema and helped to lay the foundation of playback singing as we know it. She inspired a generation of singers including Lata Mangeshkar before single-handedly kick-starting music In Pakistan and inspired subsequent generations there.

 * In 1945, she became the first woman in the subcontinent to sing Qawwali in the film Zeenat. American Queen of Pop Madonna commented that, "I can copy every singer but not Noor Jehan".
 * In 1957, she received President's Award for her acting and singing in film Intezaar. It was the same film for which Khwaja Khurshid Anwar also received President's Award for Best Music Director.
 * In 1965, she received Special Nigar Award for her wartime songs.
 * In 1965, she was awarded Pride of Performance by the President of Pakistan for her singing and acting capabilities.
 * She became the Second Pakistani Female Vocalist after Roshan Ara Begum to receive Pride of Performance.
 * In 1965, she received Tamgha-e-Imtiaz from the army for her moral support in the Indo-Pak war.
 * In 1972, she received Silver Disc Award for Best Ghazal Singer followed by Farida Khanum and Roshan Ara Begum was the first to receive the award.
 * She was the only Pakistani singer to sing with the Egyptian singer Umm Kulthum.
 * In 1981, she received Special Nigar Award for her excellence in 30 years of her career in Pakistan.
 * In 1987, she received NTM Life Time Achievement Award.
 * In 1991, she became the first Pakistani singer to sing at the Royal Albert Hall London.
 * In 1996, she received Sitara-e-Imtiaz.
 * In 1998, she received PTV Life Time Achievement Award.
 * In 1999, she received Millennium Award for her services to Pakistani cinema.
 * In January 2000, Pakistan Television PTV gave her the title of Voice of Century.
 * In 2002, she received First Lux Life Time Achievement Award.
 * In August 2014, she was declared as the Greatest Female Singer Of Pakistan of all times.
 * In August 2017, she was ranked at the top of Female Pakistani Singers.
 * She also retained the designation Cultural Ambassador of Pakistan.
 * On 21 September 2017, Google Doodle commemorated her 91st birthday.

In popular culture

 * In Pakistani film, Manto the role of Jehan was played by Saba Qamar.
 * In 2022, Pakistani television actress Ayeza Khan tribute to Jehan by adapting her look in TV drama Laapata.
 * In 2022, a commemorative tribute to Jehan featured within the 'FaceoftheMonth' series by Indian film scholar, Ashish Dwivedi, published in The Edge Magazine.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Noor Jehan


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Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS

The spread of HIV/AIDS has affected millions of people worldwide; AIDS is considered a pandemic. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that in 2016 there were 36.7 million people worldwide living with HIV/AIDS, with 1.8 million new HIV infections per year and 1 million deaths due to AIDS. Misconceptions about HIV and AIDS arise from several different sources, from simple ignorance and misunderstandings about scientific knowledge regarding HIV infections and the cause of AIDS to misinformation propagated by individuals and groups with ideological stances that deny a causative relationship between HIV infection and the development of AIDS. Below is a list and explanations of some common misconceptions and their rebuttals.

HIV is the same as AIDS
HIV is an acronym for human immunodeficiency virus, which is the virus that causes AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). Contracting HIV can lead to the development of AIDS or stage 3 HIV, which causes serious damage to the immune system. While this virus is the underlying cause of AIDS, not all HIV-positive individuals have AIDS, as HIV can remain in a latent state for many years. If undiagnosed or left untreated, HIV usually progresses to AIDS, defined as possessing a CD4+ lymphocyte count under 200 cells/μL or HIV infection plus co-infection with an AIDS-defining opportunistic infection. HIV cannot be cured, but it can be treated, and its transmission can be halted. Treating HIV can prevent new infections, which is the key to ultimately defeating AIDS.

Cure
Highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) in many cases allows the stabilization of the patient's symptoms, partial recovery of CD4+ T-cell levels, and reduction in viremia (the level of virus in the blood) to low or near-undetectable levels. Disease-specific drugs can also alleviate symptoms of AIDS and even cure specific AIDS-defining conditions in some cases. Medical treatment can reduce HIV infection in many cases to a survivable chronic condition. However, these advances do not constitute a cure, since current treatment regimens cannot eradicate latent HIV from the body.

High levels of HIV-1 (often HAART-resistant) develop if treatment is stopped, if compliance with treatment is inconsistent, or if the virus spontaneously develops resistance to an individual's regimen. Antiretroviral treatment known as post-exposure prophylaxis reduces the chance of acquiring an HIV infection when administered within 72 hours of exposure to HIV. However, an overwhelming body of clinical evidence has demonstrated the U=U rule - if someone's viral load is undetectable (<200 viral copies per mL) they are untransmissible. Essentially this means if a person living with HIV is well controlled on medications with a viral load less than 200, they cannot transmit HIV to their partners via sexual contact. The landmark study that first established this was the HPTN052 study, which looked at over 2000 couples over 10 years, where one partner was HIV positive, and the other partner was HIV negative.

Sexual intercourse with a virgin will cure AIDS
The myth that sex with a virgin will cure AIDS is prevalent in South Africa. Sex with an uninfected virgin does not cure an HIV-infected person, and such contact will expose the uninfected individual to HIV, potentially further spreading the disease. This myth has gained considerable notoriety as the perceived reason for certain sexual abuse and child molestation occurrences, including the rape of infants, in South Africa.

Sexual intercourse with an animal will avoid or cure AIDS
In 2002, the National Council of Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (NSPCA) in Johannesburg, South Africa, recorded beliefs amongst youths that sex with animals is a means to avoid AIDS or cure it if infected. As with "virgin cure" beliefs, there is no scientific evidence suggesting a sexual act can actually cure AIDS, and no plausible mechanism by which it could do so has ever been proposed. While the risk of contracting HIV via sex with animals is likely much lower than with humans due to HIV's inability to infect animals, the practice of bestiality still has the ability to infect humans with other fatal zoonotic diseases.

HIV antibody testing is unreliable
Diagnosis of infection using antibody testing is a well-established technique in medicine. HIV antibody tests exceed the performance of most other infectious disease tests in both sensitivity (the ability of the screening test to give a positive finding when the person tested truly has the disease) and specificity (the ability of the test to give a negative finding when the subjects tested are free of the disease under study). Many current HIV antibody tests have sensitivity and specificity in excess of 96% and are therefore extremely reliable. While most patients with HIV show an antibody response after six weeks, window periods vary and may occasionally be as long as three months.

Progress in testing methodology has enabled detection of viral genetic material, antigens, and the virus itself in bodily fluids and cells. While not widely used for routine testing due to high cost and requirements in laboratory equipment, these direct testing techniques have confirmed the validity of the antibody tests.

Positive HIV antibody tests are usually followed up by retests and tests for antigens, viral genetic material and the virus itself, providing confirmation of actual infection.

HIV can be spread through casual contact with an HIV infected individual
One cannot become infected with HIV through normal contact in social settings, schools, or in the workplace. Other examples of casual contact in which HIV infection will not occur include shaking someone's hand, hugging or "dry" kissing someone, using the same toilet or drinking from the same glass as an HIV-infected person, and being exposed to coughing or sneezing by an infected person. Saliva carries a negligible viral load, so even open-mouthed kissing is considered a low risk. However, if the infected partner or both of the performers have blood in their mouth due to cuts, open sores, or gum disease, the risk increases. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has only recorded one case of possible HIV transmission through kissing (involving an HIV-infected man with significant gum disease and a sexual partner also with significant gum disease), and the Terence Higgins Trust says that this is essentially a no-risk situation.

Other interactions that could theoretically result in person-to-person transmission include caring for nose bleeds and home health care procedures, yet there are very few recorded incidents of transmission occurring in these ways. A handful of cases of transmission via biting have occurred, though this is extremely rare.

HIV-positive individuals can be detected by their appearance
Due to media images of the effects of AIDS, many people believe that individuals infected with HIV always appear a certain way, or at least appear different from an uninfected, healthy person. In fact, disease progression can occur over a long period of time before the onset of symptoms, and as such, HIV infections cannot be detected based on appearance.

HIV cannot be transmitted through oral sex
Contracting HIV through oral sex is possible, but it is much less likely than from anal sex and penile–vaginal intercourse. No cases of such a transmission were observed in a sample of 8965 people performing receptive oral sex.

HIV is transmitted by mosquitoes
When mosquitoes bite a person, they do not inject the blood of a previous victim into the person they bite next. Mosquitoes do, however, inject their saliva into their victims, which may carry diseases such as dengue fever, malaria, yellow fever, or West Nile virus and can infect a bitten person with these diseases. HIV is not transmitted in this manner. On the other hand, a mosquito may have HIV-infected blood in its gut, and if swatted on the skin of a human who then scratches it, transmission is hypothetically possible, though this risk is extremely small, and no cases have yet been identified through this route.

HIV survives for only a short time outside the body
HIV can survive at room temperature outside the body for hours if dry (provided that initial concentrations are high), and for weeks if wet (in used syringes/needles). However, the amounts typically present in bodily fluids do not survive nearly as long outside the body—generally no more than a few minutes if dry.

HIV can infect only homosexual men and drug users
HIV can transmit from one person to another if an engaging partner is HIV positive. In the United States, the main route of infection is via homosexual anal sex, while for women transmission is primarily through heterosexual contact. It is true that anal sex (regardless of the sex of the receptive partner) carries a higher risk of infection than most sex acts, but most penetrative sex acts between any individuals carry some risk. Properly used condoms can reduce this risk.

An HIV-infected person cannot have children
HIV-infected women remain fertile, although in late stages of HIV disease a pregnant woman may have a higher risk of miscarriage. Normally, the risk of transmitting HIV to the unborn child is between 15 and 30%. However, this may be reduced to just 2–3% if patients carefully follow medical guidelines.

HIV cannot be the cause of AIDS because the body develops a vigorous antibody response to the virus
This reasoning ignores numerous examples of viruses other than HIV that can be pathogenic after evidence of immunity appears. Measles virus may persist for years in brain cells, eventually causing a chronic neurologic disease despite the presence of antibodies. Viruses such as Cytomegalovirus, Herpes simplex virus, and Varicella zoster may be activated after years of latency even in the presence of abundant antibodies. In other animals, viral relatives of HIV with long and variable latency periods, such as visna virus in sheep, cause central nervous system damage even after the production of antibodies.

HIV has a well-recognized capacity to mutate to evade the ongoing immune response of the host.

Only a small number of CD4+ T-cells are infected by HIV, not enough to damage the immune system
Although the fraction of CD4+ T-cells that is infected with HIV at any given time is never high (only a small subset of activated cells serve as ideal targets of infection), several groups have shown that rapid cycles of death of infected cells and infection of new target cells occur throughout the course of the disease. Macrophages and other cell types are also infected with HIV and serve as reservoirs for the virus.

Furthermore, like other viruses, HIV is able to suppress the immune system by secreting proteins that interfere with it. For example, HIV's coat protein, gp120, sheds from viral particles and binds to the CD4 receptors of otherwise healthy T-cells; this interferes with the normal function of these signalling receptors. Another HIV protein, Tat, has been demonstrated to suppress T cell activity.

Infected lymphocytes express the Fas ligand, a cell-surface protein that triggers the death of neighboring uninfected T-cells expressing the Fas receptor. This "bystander killing" effect shows that great harm can be caused to the immune system even with a limited number of infected cells.

History of HIV/AIDS
The current consensus is that HIV was introduced to North America by a Haitian immigrant who contracted it while working in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the early 1960s, or from another person who worked there during that time. In 1981 on June 5, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published a Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) describing cases of a rare lung infection, Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), in five healthy gay men in Los Angeles. This edition would later become MMWR's first official reporting of the AIDS epidemic in North America. By year-end, a cumulative total of 337 cases of severe immune deficiency had been reported, and 130 out of the 337 reported cases had died. On September 24, 1982, the CDC used the term "AIDS" (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) for the first time, and released the first case definition of AIDS: "a disease at least moderately predictive of a defect in cell-mediated immunity, occurring in a person with no known case for diminished resistance to that disease." The March 4, 1983 edition of the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) noted that most cases of AIDS had been reported among homosexual men with multiple sexual partners, injection drug users, Haitians, and hemophiliacs. The report suggested that AIDS may be caused by an infectious agent that is transmitted sexually or through exposure to blood or blood products, and issued recommendations for preventing transmission. Although most cases of HIV/AIDS were discovered in gay men, on January 7, 1983, the CDC reported cases of AIDS in female sexual partners of males with AIDS. In 1984, scientists identified the virus that causes AIDS, which was first named after the T-cells affected by the strain and is now called HIV or human immunodeficiency virus.

Origin of AIDS through human–monkey sexual intercourse
While HIV is most likely a mutated form of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), a disease present only in chimpanzees and African monkeys, highly plausible explanations for the transfer of the disease between species (zoonosis) exist not involving sexual intercourse. In particular, the African chimpanzees and monkeys which carry SIV are often hunted for food, and epidemiologists theorize that the disease may have appeared in humans after hunters came into blood-contact with monkeys infected with SIV that they had killed. The first known instance of HIV in a human was found in a person who died in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1959, and a recent study dates the last common ancestor of HIV and SIV to between 1884 and 1914 by using a molecular clock approach.

Tennessee State Senator Stacey Campfield was the subject of controversy in 2012 after stating that AIDS was the result of a human having sexual intercourse with a monkey.

Gaëtan Dugas as "patient zero"
The Canadian flight attendant Gaëtan Dugas has been referred to as "patient zero" of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, meaning the first case of HIV/AIDS in the United States. In fact, the "patient zero" moniker originated from a misinterpretation of a 1984 study that referred to Dugas as "patient O", where the O stood for "out of California". A 2016 study published in Nature found "neither biological nor historical evidence that [Dugas] was the primary case in the US or for subtype B as a whole."

There is no AIDS in Africa, as AIDS is nothing more than a new name for old diseases
The diseases that have come to be associated with AIDS in Africa, such as cachexia, diarrheal diseases and tuberculosis have long been severe burdens there. However, high rates of mortality from these diseases, formerly confined to the elderly and malnourished, are now common among HIV-infected young and middle-aged people, including well-educated members of the middle class.

For example, in a study in Côte d'Ivoire, HIV-seropositive individuals with pulmonary tuberculosis were 17 times more likely to die within six months than HIV-seronegative individuals with pulmonary tuberculosis. In Malawi, mortality over three years among children who had received recommended childhood immunizations and who survived the first year of life was 9.5 times higher among HIV-seropositive children than among HIV-seronegative children. The leading causes of death were wasting and respiratory conditions. Elsewhere in Africa, findings are similar.

HIV is not the cause of AIDS
There is broad scientific consensus that HIV is the cause of AIDS, but some individuals reject this consensus, including biologist Peter Duesberg, biochemist David Rasnick, journalist/activist Celia Farber, conservative writer Tom Bethell, and intelligent design advocate Phillip E. Johnson. (Some one-time skeptics have since rejected AIDS denialism, including physiologist Robert Root-Bernstein, and physician and AIDS researcher Joseph Sonnabend.)

A great deal is known about the pathogenesis of HIV disease, even though important details remain to be elucidated. However, a complete understanding of the pathogenesis of a disease is not a prerequisite to knowing its cause. Most infectious agents have been associated with the disease they cause long before their pathogenic mechanisms have been discovered. Because research in pathogenesis is difficult when precise animal models are unavailable, the disease-causing mechanisms in many diseases, including tuberculosis and hepatitis B, are poorly understood, but the pathogens responsible are very well established.

AZT and other antiretroviral drugs, not HIV, cause AIDS
The vast majority of people with AIDS never received antiretroviral drugs, including those in developed countries prior to the licensure of AZT in 1987. Even today, very few individuals in developing countries have access to these medications.

In the 1980s, clinical trials enrolling patients with AIDS found that AZT given as single-drug therapy conferred a survival advantage compared to placebo, albeit modest and short-lived. Among HIV-infected patients who had not yet developed AIDS, placebo-controlled trials found that AZT given as a single-drug therapy delayed, for a year or two, the onset of AIDS-related illnesses. The lack of excess AIDS cases and death in the AZT arms of these placebo-controlled trials effectively counters the argument that AZT causes AIDS.

Subsequent clinical trials found that patients receiving two-drug combinations had up to 50% increases in time to progression to AIDS and in survival when compared to people receiving single-drug therapy. In more recent years, three-drug combination therapies have produced another 50–80% improvements in progression to AIDS and in survival when compared to two-drug regimens in clinical trials. Use of potent anti-HIV combination therapies has contributed to dramatic reductions in the incidence of AIDS and AIDS-related deaths in populations where these drugs are widely available, an effect which would be unlikely if antiretroviral drugs caused AIDS.

Behavioral factors such as recreational drug use and multiple sexual partners—not HIV—account for AIDS
The proposed behavioral causes of AIDS, such as multiple sexual partners and long-term recreational drug use, have existed for many years. The epidemic of AIDS, characterized by the occurrence of formerly rare opportunistic infections such as Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), did not occur in the United States until a previously unknown human retrovirus—HIV—spread through certain communities.

Compelling evidence against the hypothesis that behavioral factors cause AIDS comes from recent studies that have followed cohorts of homosexual men for long periods of time and found that only HIV-seropositive men develop AIDS. For example, in a prospectively studied cohort in Vancouver, British Columbia, 715 homosexual men were followed for a median of 8.6 years. Among 365 HIV-positive individuals, 136 developed AIDS. No AIDS-defining illnesses occurred among 350 seronegative men, despite the fact that these men reported appreciable use of nitrite inhalants ("poppers") and other recreational drugs, and frequent receptive anal intercourse (Schechter et al., 1993).

Other studies show that among homosexual men and injection-drug users, the specific immune deficit that leads to AIDS—a progressive and sustained loss of CD4+ T-cells—is extremely rare in the absence of other immunosuppressive conditions. For example, in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study, more than 22,000 T-cell determinations in 2,713 HIV-seronegative homosexual men revealed only one individual with a CD4+ T-cell count persistently lower than 300 cells/μL of blood, and this individual was receiving immunosuppressive therapy.

In a survey of 229 HIV-seronegative injection-drug users in New York City, mean CD4+ T-cell counts of the group were consistently more than 1000 cells/μL of blood. Only two individuals had two CD4+ T-cell measurements of less than 300/μL of blood, one of whom died with cardiac disease and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma listed as the cause of death.

AIDS among transfusion recipients is due to underlying diseases that necessitated the transfusion, rather than to HIV
This notion is contradicted by a report by the Transfusion Safety Study Group (TSSG), which compared HIV-negative and HIV-positive blood recipients who had been given blood transfusions for similar diseases. Approximately 3 years following blood transfusion, the mean CD4+ T-cell count in 64 HIV-negative recipients was 850/μL of blood, while 111 HIV-seropositive individuals had average CD4+ T-cell counts of 375/μL of blood. By 1993, there were 37 cases of AIDS in the HIV-infected group, but not a single AIDS-defining illness in the HIV-seronegative transfusion recipients.

High usage of clotting factor concentrate, not HIV, leads to CD4+ T-cell depletion and AIDS in hemophiliacs
This view is contradicted by many studies. For example, among HIV-seronegative patients with hemophilia A enrolled in the Transfusion Safety Study, no significant differences in CD4+ T-cell counts were noted between 79 patients with no or minimal factor treatment and 52 with the largest amount of lifetime treatments. Patients in both groups had CD4+ T-cell-counts within the normal range. In another report from the Transfusion Safety Study, no instances of AIDS-defining illnesses were seen among 402 HIV-seronegative hemophiliacs who had received factortherapy.

In a cohort in the United Kingdom, researchers matched 17 HIV-seropositive hemophiliacs with 17 HIV-seronegative hemophiliacs with regard to clotting factor concentrate usage over a ten-year period. During this time, 16 AIDS-defining clinical events occurred in 9 patients, all of whom were HIV-seropositive. No AIDS-defining illnesses occurred among the HIV-negative patients. In each pair, the mean CD4+ T-cell count during follow-up was, on average, 500 cells/μL lower in the HIV-seropositive patient.

Among HIV-infected hemophiliacs, Transfusion Safety Study investigators found that neither the purity nor the amount of factor VIII therapy had a deleterious effect on CD4+ T-cell counts. Similarly, the Multicenter Hemophilia Cohort Study found no association between the cumulative dose of plasma concentrate and incidence of AIDS among HIV-infected hemophiliacs.

The distribution of AIDS cases casts doubt on HIV as the cause. Viruses are not gender-specific, yet only a small proportion of AIDS cases are among women
The distribution of AIDS cases, whether in the United States or elsewhere in the world, invariably mirrors the prevalence of HIV in a population. In the United States, HIV first appeared in populations of injection-drug users (a majority of whom are male) and gay men. HIV is spread primarily through unprotected sex, the exchange of HIV-contaminated needles, or cross-contamination of the drug solution and infected blood during intravenous drug use. Because these behaviors show a gender skew—Western men are more likely to take illegal drugs intravenously than Western women, and men are more likely to report higher levels of the riskiest sexual behaviors, such as unprotected anal intercourse—it is not surprising that a majority of U.S. AIDS cases have occurred in men.

Women in the United States, however, are increasingly becoming HIV-infected, usually through the exchange of HIV-contaminated needles or sex with an HIV-infected male. The CDC estimates that 30 percent of new HIV infections in the United States in 1998 were in women. As the number of HIV-infected women has risen, so too has the number of female AIDS patients in the United States. Approximately 23% of U.S. adult/adolescent AIDS cases reported to the CDC in 1998 were among women. In 1998, AIDS was the fifth leading cause of death among women aged 25 to 44 in the United States, and the third leading cause of death among African-American women in that age group.

In Africa, HIV was first recognized in sexually active heterosexuals, and AIDS cases in Africa have occurred at least as frequently in women as in men. Overall, the worldwide distribution of HIV infection and AIDS between men and women is approximately 1 to 1. In sub-Saharan Africa, 57% of adults with HIV are women, and young women aged 15 to 24 are more than three times as likely to be infected as young men.

HIV is not the cause of AIDS because many individuals with HIV have not developed AIDS
HIV infections have a prolonged and variable course. The median period of time between infection with HIV and the onset of clinically apparent disease is approximately 10 years in industrialized countries, according to prospective studies of homosexual men in which dates of seroconversion are known. Similar estimates of asymptomatic periods have been made for HIV-infected blood-transfusion recipients, injection-drug users and adult hemophiliacs.

As with many diseases, a number of factors can influence the course of HIV disease. Factors such as age or genetic differences between individuals, the level of virulence of the individual strain of virus, as well as exogenous influences such as co-infection with other microbes may determine the rate and severity of HIV disease expression. Similarly, some people infected with hepatitis B, for example, show no symptoms or only jaundice and clear their infection, while others suffer disease ranging from chronic liver inflammation to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Co-factors probably also determine why some smokers develop lung cancer while others do not.

HIV is not the cause of AIDS because some people have symptoms associated with AIDS but are not infected with HIV
Most AIDS symptoms result from the development of opportunistic infections and cancers associated with severe immunosuppression secondary to HIV.

However, immunosuppression has many other potential causes. Individuals who take glucocorticoids or immunosuppressive drugs to prevent transplant rejection or to treat autoimmune diseases can have increased susceptibility to unusual infections, as do individuals with certain genetic conditions, severe malnutrition and certain kinds of cancers. There is no evidence suggesting that the numbers of such cases have risen, while abundant epidemiologic evidence shows a very large rise in cases of immunosuppression among individuals who share one characteristic: HIV infection.

The spectrum of AIDS-related infections seen in different populations proves that AIDS is actually many diseases not caused by HIV
The diseases associated with AIDS, such as Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PCP) and Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC), are not caused by HIV, but rather result from the immunosuppression caused by HIV disease. As the immune system of an HIV-infected individual weakens, he or she becomes susceptible to the particular viral, fungal, and bacterial infections common in the community. For example, HIV-infected people in the Midwestern United States are much more likely than people in New York City to develop histoplasmosis, which is caused by a fungus. A person in Africa is exposed to pathogens different from individuals in an American city. Children may be exposed to different infectious agents compared to adults.

HIV is the underlying cause of the condition named AIDS, but the additional conditions that may affect an AIDS patient are dependent upon the endemic pathogens to which the patient may be exposed.

AIDS can be prevented with complementary or alternative medicine
Many HIV-infected people turn to complementary and alternative medicine, such as traditional medicine, especially in areas where conventional therapies are less widespread. However, the overwhelming majority of scientifically rigorous research indicates little or negative effect on patient outcomes such as HIV-symptom severity and disease duration, and mixed outcomes on psychological well-being. It is important that patients notify their healthcare provider prior to beginning any treatment, as certain alternative therapies may interfere with conventional treatment.

title: Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS


text:
Jacobite Relics

Jacobite Relics is a two volume collection of songs related to the Jacobite risings, compiled by the Scottish poet and novelist James Hogg on commission from the Highland Society of London in 1817. Most of the songs in the collection are Jacobite, and a minority are Whig. A number of the songs were written or adapted by Robert Burns and scholars speculate as to how many of them were authored or at least substantially altered by Hogg himself. The first volume was published in 1819 under the title The Jacobite Relics of Scotland; Being the Songs, Airs, and Legends, of the Adherents to the House of Stuart. The second volume was published in 1821. An edited version of the work was published in 2002 (Volume 1) and 2003 (Volume 2) by Edinburgh University Press as Volumes 10 and 12 of the Stirling/South Carolina Research Edition of The Complete Works of James Hogg. The editor was Murray G. H. Pittock. After being revived by Ewan MacColl, several of the songs included gained new popularity in the 20th century through performances by musicians such as The Corries, Steeleye Span and Eddi Reader, among others – most notably Ye Jacobites (#34), Cam Ye O'er Frae France (#53) and Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation (#36).

The numbered songs (with music)

 * 1 - The King shall enjoy his own again
 * 2 - The Haughs of Cromdale
 * 3 - Lesley's March to Scotland
 * 4 - Lesley's March to Longmaston Moor
 * 5 - The Restoration
 * 6 - The Royal Oak Tree
 * 7 - Tree of Friendship
 * 8 - The Drowning of Care
 * 9 - Hey, then, up go we
 * 10 - You're welcome, Whigs, from Bothwell Brigs
 * 11 - Cakes o' Crowdy
 * 12 - There cam' a Fiddler out o' Fife
 * 13 - Ne'er to return
 * 14 - King William's March
 * 15 - It was a' for our rightfu' King
 * 16 - Three good Fellows ayont you Glen
 * 17 - The Battle of Killicrankie
 * 18 - Prælium Gilliecrankianum
 * 19 - Killicrankie
 * 20 - The Devil o'er Stirling
 * 21 - Willie the Wag
 * 22 - The Cameronian Cat
 * 23 - Come, an the King come
 * 24 - Willie Winkie's Testament
 * 25 - The Act of Succession
 * 26 - Would you know what a Whig is
 * 27 - When the King comes o'er the Water
 * 28 - Freedom's Farewell
 * 29 - Come, fill your Bowls
 * 30 - The King shall enjoy his own
 * 31 - Here's a Health to them that's away
 * 32 - Over the Seas and far awa
 * 33 - I hae nae Kith, I hae nae Kin
 * 34 - Ye Jacobites by Name (Roud 5517)
 * 35 - My Love he was a Highland Lad
 * 36 - Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation
 * 37 - This is no my ain House
 * 38 - There'll never be Peace till Jamie comes hame
 * 39 - The Awkward Squad
 * 40 - The Union
 * 41 - The Thistle and the Rose
 * 42 - Queen Anne; or, The Auld Gray Mare
 * 43 - Bishop Burnet's Descent into Hell
 * 44 - A wicked old Peer
 * 45 - Sarum's Dirge
 * 46 - Awa, Whigs awa
 * 47 - The Broad Swords of Scotland
 * 48 - There was a Man came from the Moon
 * 49 - At Auchindown
 * 50 - The Riding Mare
 * 51 - The wee wee German Lairdie
 * 52 - The Ringing o't
 * 53 - Come ye o'er frae France
 * 54 - Let our great James come over
 * 55 - The Sow's Tail to Geordie
 * 56 - Plain Truth
 * 57 - The Pilfering Brood
 * 58 - Kirn-milk Geordie
 * 59 - Come, let us drink a Health, Boys
 * 60 - Donald Macgillavry
 * 61 - Jamie, the Rover
 * 62 - The Curses
 * 63 - Perfidious Britain
 * 64 - The Thistle of Scotland
 * 65 - Frae the Friend, and Land I love
 * 66 - Here's to the King, Sir
 * 67 - The Cuckoo
 * 68 - The Rebellious Crew
 * 69 - My Laddie
 * 70 - Geordie Whelps' Testament
 * 71 - O, royal James
 * 72 - The auld Stuarts back again
 * 73 - Down among the Dead Men
 * 74 - Robin John Clark
 * 75 - Both Sides the Tweed
 * 76 - The Fifth of November
 * 77 - The Bonny Moorhen
 * 78 - The Waes o' Scotland
 * 79 - Lochmaben Gate
 * 80 - Hame, Hame, Hame
 * 81 - Our ain Country
 * 82 - Marilla
 * 83 - A South-Sea Ballad
 * 84 - O, beautiful Britannia
 * 85 - Nobody can deny
 * 86 - James, come kiss me now
 * 87 - What Murrain now has ta'en the Whigs
 * 88 - True Blue
 * 89 - Will ye go to Sheriffmuir (Aikendrum) (Roud 2571)
 * 90 - The Chevalier's Muster-Roll

Jacobite songs listed in the appendix (without music)

 * A Tory in a Whig's Coat
 * John Hielandman's Visit to the Quarter Session
 * Albany
 * The Cannons now are at a Stand
 * The Removal of the Parliament from London to Oxford
 * Donald Cowper
 * Information
 * The Present State of England
 * Titus Telltroth
 * Ignoramus
 * The Man of Fashion
 * The Loyal Health
 * A Narrative of the old Plot; being a new Song
 * Jack Presbyter's Wish
 * The Pot-Companions
 * The Protestant Flail
 * The Royal Litany
 * The Loyal Conqast
 * Whig upon Whig
 * Eustace Comines, the Irish Evidence, his Farewell to England
 * Dagon's Fall
 * Lament for the Apprehending of Sir Thomas Armstrong
 * Pluto, the Prince of Darkness, &c
 * The Whigs exposed
 * An excellent new Song, &c
 * The Royal Admiral
 * The Happy Return of the Old Dutch Miller
 * There's none so happy as we
 * Patience Ward
 * Hail to the Prince of the Plot
 * Honest Redcoat
 * The Western Rebel
 * The Loyal Irishman
 * The Plot is rent and torn
 * A new Litany
 * The Constitution restored in 1711

Whig songs listed in the appendix (without music)
Hogg states that he believed that these were all of English origin

 * Fifth of November
 * Song on the Thirtieth of January 1696
 * A Health
 * King William's Birth-Day
 * Haste over, Hanover, fast as you can over
 * Loyalty displayed, &c
 * The French King's Thanks and Advice, &c
 * The Age of Wonders
 * Tantivy Tory
 * Nothing but Truth
 * God prosper long this freeborn Isle
 * The Truth at last
 * If now at last we must give up Spain
 * George at last shall war the Crown
 * The Merchant a-la-Mode
 * A Litany
 * Hey, Boys, up go we
 * The First Psalm
 * Advice to Britons
 * The High-Church Alarm
 * The Raree Show
 * Raree Show
 * First of August
 * First of August
 * First of August
 * First of August
 * No Popery here shall thrive
 * Tories' Lamentation
 * Vile Tricksters and Greggsters
 * Advice to the Tories
 * King George's Birth-Day
 * Now, now is come the glorious Year
 * Brunswick Mum
 * That Protestants with Protestants
 * On his Majesty's Coronation
 * Here's a Health to the King
 * No more the Danger of the Church
 * Rue and Tyme
 * On the Breaking out of the Rebellion
 * The High-Church shall never make Perkin a King
 * The Pretender's Army

title: Jacobite Relics


text:
Theodore Wright

 * This is about the British soldier; for others, see Theodore Wright (disambiguation).

Captain Theodore Wright, VC (15 May 1883 – 14 September 1914) was a British Army officer and an English recipient of the Victoria Cross (VC), the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.

Details
Wright was born in May 1883 in Brighton, and received his education from Clifton College and the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich. He was commissioned into the Royal Engineers as a second lieutenant on 1 October 1902 and promoted to captain in October 1913.

He was thirty one years old, and a captain in the 57th Field Company, Corps of Royal Engineers, British Army during the First World War when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the VC.

On 23 August 1914 at Jemappes, Mons, Belgium, a company of the Royal Scots Fusiliers were holding a barricade at the north end of a bridge over the Mons-Condé canal. By this time the firing on the position had become so violent and the casualties were so numerous that a retirement had been decided on. Lance-Corporal Charles Jarvis, of the Royal Engineers was then called upon to destroy the bridge but was without the exploder and leads. It was then that he met Captain Theodore Wright, who had been wounded in the head, who told him to go back to the bridge and he would bring the necessary equipment.

It was whilst attempting to connect the leads under the bridge to blow it that Theodore Wright earned his Victoria Cross. Time and again he tried to get at the end of the leads but each time he raised his head above the level of the towpath he was fired upon from about thirty yards off. Eventually he gave up the attempt and in swinging himself back under the girder of the bridge he lost his grip and owing to exhaustion fell into the canal, and was pulled out by a Sergeant Smith. (Corporal Alfred Jarvis was also awarded the Victoria Cross for this same action).

At Vailly, Aube, on 14 September 1914, Theodore Wright assisted the passage of the 5th Cavalry Brigade over a pontoon bridge, and was mortally wounded whilst assisting wounded men into shelter. An officer of the Scots Greys wrote in a letter later "We got across the river the day before yesterday a bit before our time and we had to go back over a pontoon bridge considerably quicker than was pleasant, under a very heavy fire too. At the end of the bridge was an Engineer officer repairing bits blown off and putting down straw as cool as a cucumber – the finest thing I ever saw. The poor fellow was killed just after my troops got across. No man earned a better Victoria Cross."

Wright is buried at the Vailly British Cemetery, France.

The medal
His medals are displayed at the Royal Engineers Museum in Gillingham, Kent.

title: Theodore Wright


text:
Wikipedia talk:Historical archive/Logs/Protection log/Archive 1

I guess it's possible to auto-generate a Currently protected pages page either by analysing this page or by querying the database. This page is not that readable from that perspective. This page would be more accurate than the hand-created list at Protected page. Not a high priority perhaps, but would certainly feature on the "nice to have, and wouldn't wallop the db too much" section of the feature wishlist. Pete 16:02, 16 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * This is something that can be done using SQL but it is fairly database intensive so shouldn't be overused. Personally, I prefer the hand-created at Protected page because there you get a reason for something having been protected. Without that, you don't know whether the protection was just accidental, and how long you should wait before unprotecting it. I ran such a query recently and found 39 articles not listed on Protected page. Without any way of knowing whether they supposed to be protected, I unprotected them, and Martin did the same with the 15 sysop pages that had no reason presented. Angela 18:23, 16 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the info, Angela. I appreciate that SQL queries should be used sparingly. I guess what I was thinking out loud was that if this log gets auto-updated everytime someone (un)protects something, as appears to happen, the same could happen for a protected page list page.. i.e. on a sysop hitting "protect page" a line gets added to the end of this page (and a message from the protecting-sysop added to the page, as here, which would go a good way to addressing your second concern). On a sysop hitting "unprotect page", the page gets parsed and the newly-unprotected page removed. Keeping the page continuously up-to-date in this way is not database-intensive... the only remotely time-consuming operation is to search a list of protected pages for a particular protected page. This would be quick compared with your SQL query which was probably something like FROM (ALL_ARTICLES) SELECT (PROTECTED_FLAG=1) which involves running over all articles in the database and being slow. Pete 19:17, 16 Nov 2003 (UTC) (who doesn't know about databases, so this could be a wasted discussion!). Pete 19:17, 16 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * I'm sure that's possible, in the same way the the Special:Ipblocklist lists reasons for blocking people, but I'm not a developer so I don't know how easy that would be to implement. Angela 19:42, 16 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Whoopsie-doodle, accidentally protected Luna. The "protect this page" link is right next to "discuss this page", and there's no confirmation page in between clicking there and engaging protection. Perhaps there should be. :) Bryan 07:08, 4 Mar 2004 (UTC)

"Are you sure you want to protect this page?"
Judging from the log, three times in the past few hours, experienced admins accidentally protected pages. The button lies right between the delete and discuss buttons. Wouldn't it be helpful to ask us "Are you sure you want to protect this page?" Kingturtle 03:32, 26 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Already submitted as a feature request. Angela. 03:44, Mar 29, 2004 (UTC)

 * I've just become one of those admins, having accidentally protected Image:Barnstar.png and then unprotected the protection log (or did I? it seems protected again) in my furious attempt to correct the slip. Ack! Chris Roy 21:29, 31 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I think log pages are self protecting. Angela. 21:32, Mar 31, 2004 (UTC)


text:
Sub-provincial division

A sub-provincial division in China is a prefecture-level city governed by a province promoted by half-a-level. Thus, it is half-a-level under the provincial level, and half-a-level above the prefecture-level, hence the name "sub-provincial".

The promotion applies to all its subdivisions, administrative institutions, and political parties. For example, the mayor of a sub-provincial division is equal in status to a vice-governor of a province.

A sub-provincial division is still administratively governed by a province, just like prefecture-level divisions. However, five of them are also cities specifically designated in the state plan, which enjoy the provincial level authority over economic issues—governmental finance, customs, economic strategy planning, economic policy, foreign economic affairs, banking, etc.

Sub-provincial divisions, similar to prefectural-level divisions, are administrative units comprising, typically, a main central urban area (the core city) surrounded by rural area, which together are divided into districts, and some surrounding counties or county-level cities (all promoted to sub-prefecture level) governed by the sub-provincial division on behalf of the province, which all have their own urban areas surrounded by their own rural areas.

Sub-provincial municipalities
The original 16 municipalities were renamed as the sub-provincial municipalities on 25 February 1994 by the Central Organization Committee out of the prefecture-level municipalities. They are mostly the capitals of the provinces in which they are located.

Currently, there are 15 sub-provincial municipalities after Chongqing was designated direct-control:

Chongqing was formerly a sub-provincial municipality of Sichuan until 14 March 1997, when it was made an independent municipality by splitting it out of Sichuan altogether. The Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps also has the powers of a sub-provincial division.

Chengdu is the largest sub-provincial municipality. It has a population exceeding that of the independent municipality of Tianjin while both Harbin and Chengdu have a bigger land area than Tianjin.

In total, there are five sub-provincial municipalities that are not themselves provincial capitals. These five municipalities have been designated as the "Municipalities with Independent Planning Status".

Sub-provincial new areas
Additionally, the head of Pudong New Area of Shanghai and Binhai New Area of Tianjin, which is a county-level district, is given sub-provincial powers.

Sub-provincial autonomous prefecture
Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture has the two prefectures of Altai and Tacheng and 11 directly-controlled county-level administrative divisions under its jurisdiction. It itself is legally only a prefecture-level division, which is a special case in China's administrative divisions. It is not accurate to regard Ili Kazakh Autonomous Region as a sub-provincial administrative division, which has no legal basis. Up until 2001, the Autonomous Prefecture had a 3rd prefecture as well. The directly controlled subdivisions were administered as part of Ili Prefecture (伊犁地区)

Sub-provincial Municipal Conference
The National Joint Conference of Sub-provincial City People's Congress Standing Committee Chairpersons (全国副省级城市人大常委会主任联席会议) are attended by the chairpersons and vice-chairpersons of all sub-provincial cities. It was proposed by the Guangzhou Municipal People's Congress in 1985. The conferences:
 * 1) Guangzhou (26 February – 4 March 1985)
 * 2) Harbin (27–31 August 1985)
 * 3) Wuhan (20–24 May 1986)
 * 4) Dalian (10–14 August 1987)
 * 5) Xi'an (9–13 September 1988)
 * 6) Shenyang (13–17 August 1990)
 * 7) Chongqing (22–26 November 1991)
 * 8) Qingdao (3–7 May 1992)
 * 9) Shenzhen (25–28 October 1993)
 * 10) Nanjing (1–4 November 1994)
 * 11) Changchun (21–24 May 1995)
 * 12) Hangzhou (20–24 October 1996)
 * 13) Jinan (19–25 October 1997)
 * 14) Xiamen (12–16 October 1998)
 * 15) Ningbo (17–20 October 1999)
 * 16) Chengdu (10–13 October 2000)
 * 17) Guangzhou (30 October – 3 November 2001)
 * 18) Harbin (23–26 July 2002)
 * 19) Wuhan (8–12 October 2003)
 * 20) Shenyang (31 August – 6 September 2004)
 * 21) Qingdao (6–8 September 2005)
 * 22) Shenzhen (20–23 October 2006)
 * 23) Dalian (14–16 August 2007)
 * 24) Xi'an (13–16 April 2009)
 * 25) Nanjing (18–20 October 2010)
 * 26) Changchun (22–25 August 2011)

title: Sub-provincial division


text:
Triteleia

Triteleia is a genus of monocotyledon flowering plants also known as triplet lilies. The 16 species are native to western North America, from British Columbia south to California and east to Wyoming and Arizona, with one species in northwestern Mexico. However, they are most common in California. They are perennial plants growing from a fibrous corm roughly spherical in shape. They get their name from the fact that all parts of their flowers come in threes.

Taxonomy and systematics
The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group's 2009 revision placed the genus in family Asparagaceae, subfamily Brodiaeoideae (having previously placed treated Brodiaeoideae as a separate family Themidaceae). Other modern authors place it in the family Alliaceae. Both these families are in the order Asparagales.

There are currently 16 recognized species in Triteleia. One species, Triteleia ixioides, has five well-defined subspecies. Varieties and subspecies have been proposed within several other Triteleia species, but these are no longer widely accepted. Some common species that are now placed in genus Triteleia were formerly placed in genus Brodiaea, and as a consequence the word "brodiaea" has been incorporated into some of their common names.

 * Triteleia × versicolor – Pinto triplet lily – a sterile hybrid believed to be T. hyacinthina × T. ixioides, recorded only from the type specimen collected in 1935 at Whaler's Knoll in Point Lobos State Park, Monterey County

A 2002 phylogenetic review of related genera found four clades within Triteleia that were all supported with 100 percent jackknife resampling values:
 * Triteleia montana and Triteleia lemmoniae
 * Triteleia peduncularis, Triteleia laxa, and Triteleia bridgesii
 * Triteleia hyacinthina and Triteleia ixioides
 * Triteleia grandiflora, Triteleia crocea, and Triteleia hendersonii

title: Triteleia


text:
Tulbaghia

Tulbaghia (wild garlic or society garlic) is a genus of monocotyledonous herbaceous perennial bulbs native to Africa, belonging to the amaryllis family. It is one of only two known genera in the society garlic tribe within the onion subfamily. The genus was named for Ryk Tulbagh (1699–1771), one time governor of The Cape of Good Hope.

Most species are native to the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. As is common to many members of the Allioideae, when their leaves are bruised they produce a distinct garlic smell, hence its common name. The flowers are borne in an umbel. Each flower has six narrow tepals. A characteristic of the genus is that there is a "corona" – a raised crown-like structure – at the centre of the flower. This may be small and scale-like or may be larger, somewhat like the trumpet of a small narcissus.

 * Species

 * 1) Tulbaghia acutiloba Harv. – Botswana, Lesotho, Eswatini, South Africa
 * 2) Tulbaghia aequinoctialis Welw. ex Baker – Angola
 * 3) Tulbaghia alliacea L.f., syn. Tulbaghia affinis – Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia, South Africa
 * 4) Tulbaghia calcarea Engl. & Krause – Namibia
 * 5) Tulbaghia cameronii Baker – Cameroon, Zaire, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia
 * 6) Tulbaghia capensis L. – Cape Province
 * 7) Tulbaghia cernua Fisch. – Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa
 * 8) Tulbaghia coddii Vosa & R.B.Burb. – Mpumalanga
 * 9) Tulbaghia cominsii Vosa – Cape Province
 * 10) Tulbaghia dregeana Kunth – Cape Province
 * 11) Tulbaghia friesii Suess. – Nyanga Mountains of Mozambique + Zimbabwe
 * 12) Tulbaghia galpinii Schltr. – Cape Province
 * 13) Tulbaghia leucantha Baker – Botswana, Lesotho, Eswatini, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia
 * 14) Tulbaghia ludwigiana Harv. – Eswatini, South Africa
 * 15) Tulbaghia luebbertiana Engl. & Krause – Namibia
 * 16) Tulbaghia macrocarpa Vosa – Zimbabwe
 * 17) Tulbaghia montana Vosa – Cape Province
 * 18) Tulbaghia natalensis Baker – Cape Province, KwaZulu-Natal
 * 19) Tulbaghia nutans Vosa – Mpumalanga
 * 20) Tulbaghia pretoriensis Vosa & Condy – Gauteng
 * 21) Tulbaghia rhodesica R.E.Fr. – Tanzania, Zambia
 * 22) Tulbaghia simmleri Beauverd – Northern Province
 * 23) Tulbaghia tenuior K.Krause & Dinter – Cape Province, Namibia
 * 24) Tulbaghia transvaalensis Vosa – Limpopo, KwaZulu-Natal
 * 25) Tulbaghia verdoornia Vosa & R.B.Burb. – Cape Province
 * 26) Tulbaghia violacea Harv.  – Society garlic – Cape Province, KwaZulu-Natal; naturalized in Tanzania + Mexico

A few names have been coined using the name Tulbaghia, but applied to species now considered better suited to the genus Agapanthus.
 * formerly included
 * Tulbaghia africana – Agapanthus africanus
 * Tulbaghia heisteri – Agapanthus africanus
 * Tulbaghia minor – Agapanthus africanus
 * Tulbaghia praecox – Agapanthus praecox

title: Tulbaghia


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Jahanara Begum

Jahanara Begum (23 March 1614 – 16 September 1681) was a princess of the Mughal Empire. She was the second and the eldest surviving child of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal.

After Mumtaz Mahal's untimely death in 1631, the 17-year-old Jahanara was entrusted with the charge of the royal seal and conferred the title of Padshah Begum (First lady) of the Mughal Empire, despite the fact that her father had three surviving wives. She was Shah Jahan's favorite daughter and she wielded major political influence during her father's reign, and has been described as "the most powerful woman in the empire" at the time.

Jahanara was an ardent partisan of her brother, Dara Shikoh, and supported him as her father's chosen successor. During the war of succession which took place after Shah Jahan's illness in 1657, Jahanara sided with the heir-apparent Dara and joined her father in Agra Fort, where he had been placed under house arrest by Aurangzeb. A devoted daughter, she took care of Shah Jahan till his death in 1666. Later, Jahanara reconciled with Aurangzeb who gave her the title 'Empress of Princesses' and replaced her younger sister, Princess Roshanara Begum, as the First Lady. Jahanara died during Aurangzeb's reign. She is known for her written works as well, which continues to be a primary way in which her presence in Sufism survives into today. She is well known for a biography of Sheikh Mu’in ad’-Din Chishti, ‘Munis al arwah’ who she believed to have been the highest of the Sufi saints in India and her master, despite his life being four centuries before hers.

Early life and education
Jahanara's early education was entrusted to Sati al-Nisa Khanam, the sister to Jahangir's poet laureate, Talib Amuli. Sati al-Nisa was known for her knowledge of the Qur'an and Persian literature, as well as for her knowledge of etiquette, housekeeping, and medicine. She also served as principal lady-in-waiting to her mother, Mumtaz Mahal.

Many of the women in the imperial household were accomplished at reading, writing poetry and painting. They also played chess, polo and hunted outdoors. The women had access to the late Emperor Akbar's library, full of books on world religions, and Persian, Turkish and Indian literature. Jahanara was no exception.

From a carefree girl, she was pushed into government politics, overseeing domestic and international trade, and even mediating courtiers and foreigners to communicate with the emperor, and was involved in the tasks of resolving family disputes. Upon the death of Mumtaz Mahal in 1631, Jahanara, aged 17, took the place of her mother as First Lady of the Empire, despite her father having three other wives. In addition to caring for her younger brothers and sisters, she was also a good caretaker of her father.

One of her tasks after the death of her mother was to oversee, with the help of Sati al-Nisa, the betrothal and wedding of her brother, Dara Shikoh to Nadira Banu Begum, which was originally planned by Mumtaz Mahal, but postponed by her death.

Her father frequently took her advice and entrusted her with the charge of the Imperial Seal. Having the right to issue farmans and nishans, she was given the greatest and highest rank in the harem. She also attended councils and discussed important aspects of state and governance from behind her curtained sitting place, and the state nobles and kings or foreign ambassadors, whether commercial or political, sought her intervention before the emperor in their favor, her word became so powerful that it could change the fortunes of people. As French traveller and physician François Bernier writes in his memoirs,Travels in the Mogul Empire,"'Shah Jahan reposed unbounded confidence in his favourite child; she watched over his safety, and so cautiously observant, that no dish was permitted to appear upon the royal table which had not been prepared under her superintendence.'"In 1644, when Aurangzeb angered his father, the Badshah, Jahanara interceded on her brother's behalf and convinced Shah Jahan to pardon him and restore his rank. Shah Jahan's fondness for his daughter was reflected in the multiple titles that he bestowed upon her, which included: Sahibat al-Zamani (Lady of the Age), Padishah Begum (Lady Emperor), and Begum Sahib (Princess of Princesses). Her power was such that, unlike the other imperial princesses, she was allowed to live in her own palace, outside the confines of the Agra Fort and formed her own court where she entertained nobles, ministers, officers, clerics and ambassadors and discussed government affairs or their requests. Foreign trade was even known to be an aspect of the empire which felt her influence, it is even recorded that the Dutch embassy at the time in attempting to get permission for trade, after having failed to do so previously, they had taken note of the importance of making attempts to gain Jahanara’s approval as she would be able to sway her father Shah Jahan. In addition to this, she much went on self-solicited trips away from the capital, and she accepted many beggars and petitioners from the people and issued Hukm or Farman to meet the needs of society.

In March 1644, just days after her thirtieth birthday, Jahanara suffered serious burns on her body and almost died of her injuries. Shah Jahan ordered that vast sums of alms be given to the poor, prisoners be released, and prayers offered for the recovery of the princess. Aurangzeb, Murad, and Shaista Khan returned to Delhi to see her. Accounts differ as to what happened. Some say Jahanara's garments, doused in fragrant perfume oils, caught fire. Other accounts assert that the princess' favorite dancing woman's dress caught fire and the princess, coming to her aid, burnt herself on the chest.

During her illness, Shah Jahan was so concerned about the welfare of his favourite daughter, that he made only brief appearances at his daily durbar in the Diwan-i-Am. Royal physicians failed to heal Jahanara's burns. A Persian doctor came to treat her, and her condition improved for a number of months, but then, there was no further improvement until a royal page named Arif Chela mixed an ointment that, after two more months, finally caused the wounds to close. A year after the accident, Jahanara fully recovered.

After the accident, the princess went on a pilgrimage to Moinuddin Chishti's shrine in Ajmer.

After her recovery, Shah Jahan gave Jahanara rare gems and jewellery, and bestowed upon her the revenues of the port of Surat. She later visited Ajmer, following the example set by her great-grandfather Akbar.

Wealth and charity
In honor of his coronation, on 6 February 1628, Shah Jahan awarded his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, Jahanara's mother, the title of Padshah Begum and 200,000 ashrafis (Persian gold coins worth two Mohurs), 600,000 rupees and an annual privy purse of one million rupees. Moreover, Shah Jahan presented Mumtaz with jewels worth five million rupees. Jahanara was given the title of Begum Sahiba and received 100,000 ashrafis, 400,000 rupees and an annual grant of 600,000 and she was also awarded jewels worth two million and five hundred thousand rupees. Upon Mumtaz Mahal's death, her personal fortune was divided by Shah Jahan between Jahanara Begum (who received half) and the rest of Mumtaz Mahal's surviving children.

Jahanara was allotted income from a number of villages and owned several gardens including, Bagh-i-Jahanara, Bagh-i-Nur and Bagh-i-Safa. "Her jagir included the villages of Achchol, Farjahara and the Sarkars of Bachchol, Safapur and Doharah. The pargana of Panipat was also granted to her." As mentioned above, she was also given the prosperous city of Surat.

Her great-grandmother, Mariam-uz-Zamani established an international trading business in the Mughal Empire and owned several ships for the trading purpose like Rahīmī and Ganj-I-Sawai, which dealt between Surat and the Red Sea for the trade of silk, indigo and several other spices. Nur Jahan continued the business, trading in indigo and cloth. Later, Jahanara continued the tradition. She owned a number of ships and maintained trade relations with the English and the Dutch.

Jahanara was known for her active participation in looking after the poor and financing the building of mosques. When her ship, the Sahibi was to set sail for its first journey (on 29 October 1643), she ordered that the ship make its voyage to Mecca and Medina and, "... that every year, fifty koni (One Koni was 4 Muns or 151 pounds) of rice should be sent by the ship for distribution among the destitute and needy of Mecca."

As the de facto Primary Queen of the Mughal empire, Jahanara was responsible for charitable donations. She organized almsgiving on important state and religious days, supported famine relief and pilgrimages to Mecca.

Jahanara made important financial contributions in the support of learning and arts. She supported the publication of a series of works on Islamic mysticism, including commentaries on Rumi's Mathnavi, a very popular mystical work in Mughal India.

Sufism
Along with her brother Dara Shikoh, she was a disciple of Mullah Shah Badakhshi, who initiated her into the Qadiriyya Sufi order in 1641. Jahanara Begum made such progress on the Sufi path that Mullah Shah would have named her his successor in the Qadiriyya, but the rules of the order did not allow this.

She wrote a biography of Moinuddin Chishti, the founder of the Chishti Order in India, titled Mu'nis al-Arwāḥ, as well as a biography of Mullah Shah, titled Risālah-i Ṣāḥibīyah, in which she also described her initiation by him. Her biography of Moinuddin Chishti is highly regarded for its judgment and literary quality. In it, she regarded him as having initiated her spiritually four centuries after his death, described her pilgrimage to Ajmer, and spoke of herself as a faqīrah to signify her vocation as a Sufi woman.

An aspect of her Sufi work also included an autobiographical narrative account of detailings her thoughts and experiences of her personal life titled Sahibiya(The Lady’s Treatise), and contained the information pertaining to her spiritual experience searching for her Sufi master and transitioning to the Qadiri order in Lahore. A transition which she admits within this piece was a complicated decision to make, saying “It occurred to me that I was a disciple of the Chishti order, but now that I was entering the Qadiri order, would there be conflict in me?”

Jahanara Begum stated that she and her brother Dārā were the only descendants of Timur to embrace Sufism. However, Aurangzeb was spiritually trained as a follower of Sufism as well. As a patron of Sufi literature, she commissioned translations of and commentaries on many works of classical literature.

War of Succession

Shah Jahan fell seriously ill in 1657. A war of succession broke out among his four sons, Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad Baksh.

During the war of succession, Jahanara supported her brother Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan. When Dara Shikoh's generals sustained a defeat at Dharmat (1658) at the hands of Aurangzeb, Jahanara wrote a letter to Aurangzeb and advised him not to disobey his father and fight with his brother. She was unsuccessful. Dara was badly defeated in the Battle of Samugarh (29 May 1658), and fled towards Delhi.

Shah Jahan did everything he could, to stop the planned invasion of Agra. He asked Jahanara to use her feminine diplomacy to convince Murad and Shuja not to throw their weight on the side of Aurangzeb.

In June 1658, Aurangzeb besieged his father Shah Jahan in the Agra Fort, forcing him to surrender unconditionally, by cutting off the water supply. Jahanara came to Aurangzeb on 10 June, proposing a partition of the empire. Dara Shikoh would be given the Punjab and adjoining territories, Shuja would get Bengal, Murad would get Gujarat, Aurangzeb's son Sultan Muhammad would get the Deccan, and the rest of the empire would go to Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb refused Jahanara's proposition on the grounds that Dara Shikoh was an infidel.

On Aurangzeb's ascent to the throne, Jahanara joined her father in imprisonment at the Agra Fort, where she devoted herself to his care till his death in 1666. Her rival and younger sister, Roshanara, was replaced by her as Padshah Begum and Begum Sahib, and took over the control of the imperial family and palace due to the various assistances she had rendered to Aurangzeb during the succession war.

After the death of their father, Jahanara and Aurangzeb reconciled. He restored her former titles to her; Padshah Begum (Lady Emperor or Grand Empress), and Begum Sahib (Princess of Princesses), and also he gave her the new title, Shahzadi Sahib (Empress of Princesses). He again the control of the Khāndān-e-Shahi (royal family) and the Zenana (harem) was entrusted to her. Jahanara replaced Roshanara as the First Lady. Jahanara as the first lady of his court, her annual allowance was raised from Rs 1 million rupees (during the reign of Shah Jahan) to Rs 1.7 million, in addition, Aurangzeb again gave her the revenue of the port of Surat and also she was given a grand mansion in Delhi where Aurangzeb would spend hours conversing with her. Aurangzeb respected her and sought her counsel in dilemma matters of state and public welfare; she never shied from arguing with the Emperor in order to prove her point, especially when it concerned his enforced austerity measures or his practice of religious intolerance.

Jahanara was soon powerful and secure enough in her position to occasionally argue with Aurangzeb and she re-entered politics and was influential in various important matters and have certain special privileges which other women did not possess; An independent life with a private palace of her own, the power to issue Hukm or Farman (an imperial order that was only the emperor's right), to attending the council (shura or diwan) with freedom of speech, and to receive audiences in her palace, and to mediate between officers, politicians, and foreign kings with the emperor. She also argued against Aurangzeb's strict regulation of public life in accordance with his conservative religious beliefs and his decision in 1679 to restore the poll tax on non-Muslims, which she believed would alienate his Hindu subjects, and she publicly quarreled with him on these issues and blamed him for his policy.

Relationship with Shah Jahan
Jahanara’s influence in Mughal administration resulted in several rumors and accusations of an incestual relationship with her father, Shah Jahan. Such accusations have been dismissed by modern historians as gossip, as no witness of an incident have been mentioned.

Historian K. S. Lal also dismisses such claims as rumors propagated by the courtiers and mullahs. He cites Aurangzeb's confining of Jahanara in the Agra Fort with the Royal prisoner and the talk of the low people magnifying a rumor.

Several contemporary travelers have mentioned such accessions. Francois Bernier, a French physician, mentions rumors of an incestuous relationship being propagated in the Mughal Court. However, Bernier did not mention witnessing such a relationship. Niccolao Manucci, a Venetian traveler, dismisses such accusations by Bernier as gossip and "The talk of the Low People".

Burial
Jahanara had her tomb built during her lifetime. It is constructed entirely of white marble with a screen of trellis work, open to the sky.

Upon her death, Aurangzeb gave her the posthumous title, Sahibat-uz-Zamani (Mistress of the Age). Jahanara is buried in a tomb in the Nizamuddin Dargah complex in New Delhi, which is considered "remarkable for its simplicity". The inscription on the tomb reads as follows:

Allah is the Living, the Sustaining.

Let no one cover my grave except with greenery,

For this very grass suffices as a tomb cover for the poor. The mortal simplistic Princess Jahanara,

Disciple of the Khwaja Moin-ud-Din Chishti,

Daughter of Shah Jahan the Conqueror

May Allah illuminate his proof.

1092 [1681 AD]

Architectural legacy
Jahanara Begum's caravanserai that formed the original Chandni Chowk, from Sir Thomas Theophilus Metcalf's 1843 album.

In Agra, she is best known for sponsoring the building of the Jami Masjid or Friday Mosque in 1648, in the heart of the old city. The Mosque was funded entirely by Jahanara, using her personal allowance. In addition to this mosque, she also financed the construction of the Mulla Shah mosque which is located in Srinagar. She founded a madrasa, which was attached to the Jama Masjid, for the promotion of education. She also funded the making of a garden in Kashmir, she was a benefactor of the people.

She also made a significant impact on the landscape of the capital city of Shahjahanabad. Of the eighteen buildings in the city of Shahjahanabad commissioned by women, Jahanara commissioned five. All of Jahanara's building projects were completed around the year 1650, inside the city walls of Shahjahanabad. The best known of her projects was Chandni Chowk, the main street in the walled city of Old Delhi.

She constructed an elegant caravanserai on the East side of the street with gardens in the back. Herbert Charles Fanshawe, in 1902, mentions about the serai:

 * "Proceeding up the Chandni Chowk and passing many shops of the principal dealers in jewels, embroideries, and other products of Delhi handicrafts, the Northbrook Clock Tower and the principal entrance to the Queen's Gardens are reached. The former is situated at the site of the Karavan Sarai of the Princess Jahanara Begum (p. 239), known by the title of Shah Begum. The Sarai, the square in front of which projected across the street, was considered by Bernier one of the finest buildings in Delhi, and was compared by him with the Palais Royal, because of its arcades below and rooms with a gallery in front above."

The serai was later replaced by a building, now known as the Town Hall, and the pool in the middle of the square was replaced by a grand clock tower (Ghantaghar).

In popular culture

 * Indian filmmaker F. R. Irani made Jahanara (1935), an early talkie film about her.
 * Her early life is depicted in The Royal Diaries book series as Jahanara: Princess of Princesses, India - 1627 by Kathryn Lasky.
 * Jahanara is the protagonist of the novel Beneath a Marble Sky (2013) by John Shors.
 * She is the main character in the novel Shadow Princess (2010) written by Indu Sundaresan.
 * Jahanara is also the main character in Jean Bothwell's An Omen for a Princess (1963).
 * She is also the protagonist in Ruchir Gupta's historical novel Mistress of the Throne (2014).
 * Madhubala, Mala Sinha and Manisha Koirala have portrayed the role of Jahanara in their respective films, namely Mumtaz Mahal (1944), Jahan Ara (1964) and Taj Mahal: An Eternal Love Story (2005).
 * Jahanara is a main character of the 2017 alternate history novel 1636: Mission To The Mughals  and the 2021 follow up novel 1637: The Peacock Throne from the Ring of Fire Book series.
 * Jahan Ara, a character inspired from the historical figure, is the main character of the 2022 Pakistani historical drama series "Badshah Begum (TV series)" played by Zara Noor Abbas, produced by Momina Duraid and Rafay Rashidi under the banner of MD Productions, HumTv.

title: Jahanara Begum


text:
Spitamen Bank

Spitamen Bank is a bank operating nationwide in Tajikistan under license from National Bank of Tajikistan.

History
The Spitamen Bank started its Microcredit Deposit Organization in the country as Spitamen Capital in 2008 leading to a banking license from the National Bank of Tajikistan by 2014. The company holds the license for banking operations in both local and foreign currency; reportedly, the company gained this license due to the launch of Spitamen Capital micro financial organization. As of 2014, there are 17 acting banks in Tajikistan.

The company's logo consists of two semicircles combined in one ring to symbolize "endless business process". The up arrow is used to symbolize "growth prospects" and development of the bank and uses gold and silver colors similar to the bank name's color scheme. The bank name has been derived from a Sogdian warlord who was the leader of rebellion in Sogdiana and Bactria against Alexander the Great.

In 2013, at Frankfurt, the Closed Joint Stock Microcredit Deposit Organisation 'Spitamen Capital' received an International Arch of Europe Award, a vanity award.

title: Spitamen Bank