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Riverview, Ottawa

Riverview (also known as Riverview Park) is a neighbourhood in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. It is southeast of the downtown adjacent to the Rideau River, its location on which is its namesake. The 2021 Census population of Riverview is 13,113.

Definition
As defined by the Riverview Park Community Association, the neighbourhood is bounded on the west by the Rideau River, on the north by the CN railway tracks, on the east by St. Laurent Boulevard, and on the south by Smyth Road. Riverview is located adjacent to Old Ottawa East on the west (across the Rideau River), on the north by Eastway Gardens, on the south by Alta Vista and on the east by Sheffield Glen.

History
The area now known as Riverview was mostly farmland belonging to the Township of Gloucester until it was annexed by the city of Ottawa in 1950. During this time, the only settlement was on the northern edge of what is today Riverview, and was the village of Hurdman's Bridge. There were also some buildings along River Road (today's Riverside Drive) and the CN railway along the Rideau River. The neighbourhood was established in 1952 on a Central Mortgage and Housing Corporation plan. In the 1950s the neighbourhood was primarily built-up to serve the post-war baby boom era. Hurdman's Bridge would be eventually demolished to make way for a parkland, rail land, and the new Queensway freeway. Over the next few decades, housing for lower class and lower-middle-class people were also built in the mostly middle-class neighbourhood. This included a large number of apartment buildings lining Riverside Drive, the Alta Vista apartments, community housing on Station Boulevard and on Russell Road. Construction of low-rent housing on Station Boulevard was opposed by many of the community's residents, as well as both of the area's aldermen. After this stage of development, townhouses were built in various locations of the neighbourhood. More recent developments are mostly middle-class developments, and also for retired people. The post-war housing is very heterogeneous, but newer developments are more homogeneous in character.

 * Timeline
 * January 1, 1950: Area annexed by Ottawa from Gloucester Township
 * July 14, 1950: Mayor E. A. Bourque announces that the city had come to an agreement with the Grey Nuns of the Cross (who operated a novitiate building on the current site of Alta Vista Towers) to build a development of 1,200 homes in the Hurdman's Bridge area.
 * September 10, 1951: The sale of individual lots in the western part of the neighbourhood begins, with most being sold for $250. That same year, Alta Vista Drive is re-named from Churchill Drive.
 * November 17, 1952: First meeting of the Riverview Park Property Owners Association.
 * 1953: The Ottawa Transit Commission (OTC) began a bus line to the neighbourhood. A skating rink at the future site of Riverview Public School is approved by city council, to be operated by the community association.
 * 1954: Immaculate Heart of Mary Church is built on Alta Vista Drive.
 * 1955: Riverview Public School is built on Knox Crescent. On December 19th, a new Hurdman's Bridge is opened.
 * April 11, 1956: The Alta Vista Shopping Centre on Alta Vista Drive is opened. Its first anchor store was Clover Farm Food Market.
 * August 1956: Apartments at the corner of Dorion Avenue and Alta Vista are completed on land purchased by the Central Mortgage and Housing Corporation.
 * November 18, 1956: The Don Bosco French Catholic school on Drake Avenue is officially blessed. It would later be re-named De-la-Nativité and closed in 1980.
 * 1957: Robert Campeau began selling homes in the eastern part of the neighbourhood.
 * 1959: The first polio inoculation clinic is set up in the neighbourhood at Immaculate Heart of Mary Church. Later that year, community members opposed the construction of apartment buildings on Coronation Avenue.
 * January 17, 1961: Nativite de Notre-Seigneur-Jesus-Christ church is opened.
 * August 30, 1961: The George McIlraith Bridge is completed, connecting the neighbourhood with Old Ottawa South via Smyth Road.
 * October 15, 1961: St. Christopher Catholic School on Lindsay Street is officially blessed. It closed in 1977.
 * 1961: The National Defence Medical Centre on Alta Vista Drive is completed.
 * 1962: Ottawa High School (now Lycée Claudel) is established on Riverside Drive.
 * May 1963: The city approves a public housing development (named Blair Court) on Station Boulevard.
 * 1964: Riverview Park on Knox Crescent is dedicated.
 * 1968: Trinity Church of the Nazarene moves to its current location on Avalon Place.
 * May 1969: The first phase of Alta Vista Towers begins development on an 11 acre site on Alta Vista Drive at the site of the Grey Nuns building. The cost of the three-phase development was $6,000,000 and took 26 months to complete.
 * October 1969: The demolition of the Grey Nuns Novitiate Hurdman's Bridge begins.
 * October 2, 1970: The Canadian Medical Association Headquarters is opened on Alta Vista Drive.
 * October 5, 1970: The Canada Post Ottawa Mail Processing Plant is opened on Caledon Place (now Sir Sandford Fleming Avenue).
 * 1970: During the October Crisis, the Royal Canadian Army tank brigade sets up on the current site of the General Hospital Campus.
 * 1972: Lycée Claudel d'Ottawa opens on Riverside Drive (now Lycée Place). It was previously Ottawa High School.
 * May 17, 1974: The Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario (CHEO) opens on Smyth Road.
 * 1976: The Canadian Dental Association Head Office is opened on Alta Vista Drive.
 * 1977: Dempsey Community Centre is dedicated.
 * 1979: Resident of Abbey Road begin the first Neighbourhood Watch program in the city.
 * 1980: The Ottawa General Hospital is opened on Smyth Road.
 * 1983: The speedskating oval at Balena Park is relocated to Brewer Park in Old Ottawa South.
 * June 1983: Ottawa's Ronald McDonald House is opened.
 * 1985: Ottawa Montessori School purchases two schools.
 * July 1986: The Rotary Club of Ottawa opens a motel "Rotel" on the grounds of the General Hospital for hospital accommodation at the General and CHEO.
 * 1986: A condominium complex is built by Aselford-Martin Ltd on Riverside Drive. It is now known as the Rivieras.
 * August 31, 1987: The Canadian Blood Services building is officially opened on Alta Vista. It was known as the Canadian Red Cross until 1998.
 * 1988: The Canadian Pharmacists Association building is opened on Alta Vista.
 * 1992: The TransAlta co-generation plant begins operation.
 * 1983: The speedskating oval at Balena Park is relocated to Brewer Park in Old Ottawa South.
 * 1993: A helicopter pad is established next to CHEO.
 * 1994: The Franco Cité French Catholic high school is opened on Smyth Road. Construction of the Perley and Rideau Veterans' Health Centre begins. The Conference Board of Canada building opens on Smyth Road.
 * 1995: The "Action Committee of the Riverview Park" holds meetings to prevent Petro Canada from building a gas bar at the corner of Alta Vista and Dorion Avenue.
 * 1998: The Riverview Park Community Association adopts Alda Burt, Balena, Coronation, Dale, Hutton and Riverview parks as part of the city's adopt a park program. The Rideau Veterans Memorial Park is dedicated. The community association attempts to stop the construction of townhomes on Bathurst Avenue.
 * 2001: The first corn roast is held at Balena Park. The redevelopment and beautification of Dale Park is completed. The MD Financial Services Building on Alta Vista is opened.
 * 2003: A land swap takes place between the City of Ottawa and the National Capital Commission on Industrial Avenue between Alta Vista and Riverside. It would later become the Cancer Survivor's Park. Mosquitoes in the neighbourhood test positive for the West Nile Virus.
 * 2004: Townhouses are built at the corner of Rolland and Alta Vista as part of the "Alta Vista Crossing" development. Alta Vista Manor is opened on Peter Morand Crescent.
 * September 24, 2008: The Ottawa Cancer Survivor Park is dedicated.
 * 2009: The Oakpark Retirement Community is built on Valour Drive. The Ottawa Hospital Cancer Centre opens.
 * 2011: The Cancer Survivorship Centre at Maplesoft House opens on the site of the Cancer Survivor's Park.
 * 2013: The first phase of the "Alta Vista Ridge" development opens on Russell Road.
 * October 24, 2013: The official opening of the Maplewood Retirement Community.
 * 2014: The "Poet's Pathway" puts up an engraved plaque at Coronation Park.
 * 2015: Members of the community opposed the re-zoning of four houses on Balena Avenue into businesses. Residents are given notice of the construction of the "Hospital Link Road".
 * March 13, 2017: Local streets change names (the southern section of Botsford becomes "Botsford South"; Blair Street becomes "Neighbourhood Way").

Features
Riverview is home to a number of hospitals, thanks to its central location. These include the Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario and the Ottawa General Hospital. The Riverside Hospital is also nearby, and the neighbourhood is also home to the National Defence Medical Centre, the Ottawa Rehabilitation Centre and the Perley and Rideau Veteran's Health Centre.

Parks in Riverview include Dale Park, Hurdman Park, Balena Park, Riverview Park, Coronation Park and Hutton Park. Many of these are maintained by the Riverview Park Community Association.

Riverview is home to a diversity of schools. There is one French elementary school (Lycée Claudel), a French Catholic High School (Franco Cité), an English alternative education school (Riverview), an English public school (Vincent Massey), and a private Montessori school. There are also five churches, a fire hall, a community centre (Dempsey), two shopping areas, and a number of parks. Riverview is also served by three transitway stations: Hurdman, Lycée Claudel and Smyth. Riverview is home to one of the oldest shopping centres in Ottawa, in the Alta Vista Shopping Centre. Riverview is also home to the St-Laurent-Russell Shopping Centre. The neighbourhood is served by the Dempsey Community Centre and is home to the Ottawa Life Sciences Technology Park. The Riverview Park Community Association produced a free monthly newspaper for the neighbourhood, called Riverviews. When Riverviews stopped being published in December 2008, the "Riverview Park Review" became the community's new independent newspaper.

Sub neighbourhoods
Riverside

The Riverside neighbourhood consists of the area west of the CN Railway. Unlike the rest of Riverview, the area is part of Capital Ward, while the rest of the neighbourhood is in Alta Vista Ward. The Riverside neighbourhood is mostly all apartment buildings or condominiums, except for a few townhouses. The apartment buildings line the old alignment of Riverside Drive which was bypassed in the 1980s. The old alignment of Riverside was bifurcated in the late 2010s by the Hospital Link road, and the northern segment was renamed Lycée Place and the southern segment was renamed Frobisher Lane. The neighbourhood is home to the Lycée Claudel school and borders on the Rideau River.

The Riviera Apartment Complex located north of Riverside Drive next to Hurdman Station is a condominium complex which is home to many of Ottawa's upper class. Despite being a gated community, the complex was home to a triple homicide on June 29, 2007.

The area is home to about 1/3 of all Riverview residents. The population as of the Canada 2011 Census of this area was 4,076. This area is home to a large Arab Canadian population. Of the 4076 inhabitants of this area, 951 people live in the Riviera Condominiums.  Alta Vista (Riverview West)

This area of the neighbourhood should not be confused with the Alta Vista neighbourhood to the south. This part of the neighbourhood is located west of Station Boulevard, but does not include it. The central focal point of this area is the Alta Vista Shopping Centre, and it is also home to the Alta Vista Towers. It is home to Riverview Alternative Public School and the Ottawa Montessori School. Mostly built in the 1950s and 1960s, it has one new subdivision off Rolland Avenue. This area is home to Dale Park, which has a tennis facility in the summer and has an outdoor ice rink in the winter. Located adjacent to Riverview School is Riverview Park, which is named for the neighbourhood.

Coronation/Balena

This area is in the central part of the neighbourhood. It is mostly middle class, except for townhouses built in the 1980s. These are located on Pixley and Renova Privates, and on Avalon Place. The rest of the area is made up of post-war housing, except for new developments on the east side of Station Boulevard and along Avalon Place, and on Sonata Place and on the south side of Bathurst Avenue. This region is home to three churches, and two parks; Coronation and Balena Park. Balena has an outdoor swimming pool and a baseball diamond.

Blair Court (Station Boulevard)

The Blair Court area exists solely on the west side of Station Boulevard, and on Blair Street. It is home of lower-class public housing built in the 1960s and is home to many immigrants and visible minorities.

Riverview East

The eastern part of Riverview is a contrast to the rest of the neighbourhood because of its straight parallel streets. It has access on the west to Balena Park, and has new townhouses on its north side off Coronation Avenue. The Perley and Rideau Veterans' home is located on the south.

Faircrest Heights (North)

The southwest is the part of Riverview that is home to the majority of all the hospitals and the Medical Centre. It was also home to Rideau Veteran's Home until the 1990s when it was demolished. This was the only part of Riverview which existed before 1950. A new subdivision was built after 2000, and the street names have war remembrance themed names like, "Great Oak", "Valour Drive", and "Remembrance Cress". The total population of this area is 1,203. This area is also under the jurisdiction of the Faircrest Heights Community Association.

Ottawa Life Sciences Technology Park

This area was first built up in the 1990s and is located off Smyth Road. The first building was built in the 1990s, but has since expanded. Alta Vista Manor, a retirement home, was built in the early 2000s. The University of Ottawa maintains a small campus here. South of the Park is Franco-Cité, a French language high school.

Elmvale Acres (North)

This area in the southeast of Riverview can also be considered part of Elmvale Acres which is a neighbourhood to the south. It is separated from the rest of Riverview by power lines, and from Elmvale Acres by Smyth Road. Built in the 1950s, it is home to Vincent Massey Public School, Hutton Park and two churches. Across from Russell Road on the east is Dempsey Community Centre, and some apartment buildings.

Russell Heights

"Russell Heights" has significant Arabic (28,185), Chinese (12,735), Spanish (10,850) and Italian (9,440) speaking populations. This part of Riverview is located on the east side of Russell Road. Located north of this subdivision is the run-down St-Laurent-Russell Shopping Centre. St. Laurent Boulevard on the east is home to many commercial establishments and is within view of the National Museum of Science and Technology. Further north along Russell Road and Industrial Avenue is home to many industrial establishments. The total population of this area is 1,083 (2011 census).

Demographics
The RPCA boundaries for Riverview correspond to Census Tracts 5050011.03 and 5050011.04 plus Dissemination areas 35061293, 35061292, 35060961, 35061291 and	35060957. The 2011 Census for these areas shows that the Riverview neighbourhood is a very diverse neighbourhood, due to its mixed housing. 58% of inhabited dwellings are high rise apartments (5 storeys or more). 20% of dwellings are single detached homes, 15% are row houses, while 4% are small apartments. 49% of Riverview residents have English as their sole mother tongue, 16% French, 7% Arabic, 4% varieties of Chinese (including Mandarin, Cantonese, Hakka, Taiwanese, Chaochow, Fukien and Shanghainese, Chinese n.o.s as defined by Statistics Canada ), 1% Somali, 1% Persian and 1% are Spanish. 52.5% of residents are female, and the other 47.5% are male. 14.6% of residents were under 18, 38.3% were 18-39, 26.3% were 40-64 and 20.8% were over 65.

Politics
Riverview is situated in the riding of Ottawa South, both provincially and federally. Most of Riverview is within Alta Vista Ward, with small portions extending into Capital Ward.

title: Riverview, Ottawa


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List of water sports

Water sports or aquatic sports are sports activities conducted on waterbodies and can be categorized according to the degree of immersion by the participants.

On the water

 * Boat racing, the use of powerboats to participate in races
 * Boating, the use of boats for personal recreation
 * Cable skiing, similar to wake boarding but with cables for artificial maneuvering
 * Canoe polo combines boating and ball-handling skills with a contact team game, where tactics and positional play are as important as the speed and fitness of the individual athletes.
 * Canoeing is an activity which involves paddling a canoe with a single-bladed paddle. Most present-day canoeing is done as or as a part of a sport or recreational activity.
 * Dragon boat racing, teams of 20 paddlers racing the ancient dragon boat
 * Fishing, the recreation and sport of catching fish
 * Flyboard is a brand of hydroflighting device that supplies propulsion to drive the Flyboard into the air to perform a sport known as hydroflying.
 * Jet Skiing is performed with a recreational watercraft that the rider sits or stands on, rather than sits inside of, as in a boat.
 * Kayaking is the use of a kayak for moving across water
 * Kiteboating is the act of using a kite rig as a power source to propel a boat
 * Kneeboarding is an aquatic sport where the participant is towed on a buoyant, convex, and hydrodynamically shaped board at a planing speed, most often behind a motorboat.
 * Paddleboarding, where a person uses a large surfboard and paddle to surf on flat water or waves
 * Parasailing, where a person is towed behind a vehicle (usually a boat) while attached to a parachute
 * Picigin is a traditional Croatian ball game that is played on the beach. It is an amateur sport played in shallow water, consisting of players keeping a small ball from touching the water.
 * Rafting is a recreational outdoor activities that use an inflatable raft to navigate a river or other body of water
 * River trekking, a combination of trekking and climbing and sometimes swimming along the river
 * Rowing, a sport that involves propelling a boat (racing shell) on water, using oars
 * Sailing is the practice of navigating a sail-powered craft on water, ice, or land
 * Sit-down hydrofoiling is riding on the water with a hydrofoil attached to a ski.
 * Skimboarding is a sport where people use a wooden board to slide fast on water.
 * Stone skipping, is a sport where people compete for the number of times and length that they can skip a stone on the water's surface.
 * Surfing, a sport where an individual uses a board to stand up and ride on the face of a wave.
 * Wakeboarding, a sport where an individual is attached to a board via bindings and then holds a handle to be towed across the water while riding sideways.
 * Wakeskating, a sport where the rider stands on a board and is towed across the water performing maneuvers similar to those seen in skateboarding.
 * Wakesurfing, a sport where the individual surfs on the wake created by a boat without holding onto the handle.
 * Water skiing, a sport where an individual holds onto a rope and handle while being towed across the water while riding one or two water skis.
 * White water rafting, rafting on various classes of river rapids
 * Windsurfing, is a wind-propelled water sport that is a combination of sailing and surfing.
 * Windfoiling, is the hydrofoiling variant of windsurfing. It uses a hydrofoil that lifts the board above the water.
 * Wing foiling is a sport where an individual holds a lightweight wing on a surfboard with a hydrofoil.
 * Yachting is the use of recreational boats and ships called yachts, for racing or cruising

In the water

 * Aquajogging, is a cross-training and rehabilitation method using low-impact resistance training. It is a way to train without impacting joints. Participants wear a flotation device and move in a running motion in the deep end of a pool. Aside from a pool, the equipment can include a flotation belt and weights.
 * Artistic or synchronized swimming consists of swimmers performing a synchronized routine of elaborate moves in the water, accompanied by music.
 * Diving, the sport of jumping off springboards or platforms into water
 * Finswimming is a sport similar to traditional swimming using fins, monofin, snorkel, and other specific devices
 * Modern pentathlon includes épée fencing, pistol shooting, swimming, a show jumping course on horseback, and cross country running
 * Rescue swimming is swimming to rescue other swimmers
 * Swimming, including pool swimming and open water swimming
 * Synchronized diving, Two divers form a team and perform dives simultaneously. The dives are identical.
 * Triathlon, a multi-sport event involving the completion of three continuous and sequential endurance events, usually a combination of swimming, cycling, and running
 * Water aerobics is aerobics in the water.
 * Water basketball, mixes the rules of basketball and water polo, played in a swimming pool. Teams of five players must shoot at the goal with a ball within a specific time after gaining possession.
 * Water polo is a sport of two teams played in the water with a ball.
 * Water volleyball

Recreational diving

 * Cave diving
 * Deep diving
 * Freediving
 * Ice diving
 * Mermaiding
 * Spearfishing
 * Underwater archaeology, particularly activity involving wreck diving
 * Underwater photography, including underwater videography, is photography done underwater. Numerous contests worldwide are arranged every year. Digital cameras have revolutionized how many divers participate.
 * Underwater videography

Underwater sports

 * Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)
 * Finswimming, some events are practiced completely underwater
 * Freediving
 * Snorkeling is the practice of swimming at the surface (typically of the sea) being equipped with a mask, fins, and a short tube called a snorkel.
 * Spearfishing
 * Sport diving (sport)
 * Underwater football
 * Underwater hockey is a game played underwater which has some similarities to hockey. Two teams of players use short wooden curved sticks to move a heavy puck across the pool bottom to the opponents' goal.
 * Underwater ice hockey
 * Underwater orienteering
 * Underwater photography (sport)
 * Underwater rugby is a game played underwater which has some similarities to rugby football. Two teams try to score goals by sending a slightly negatively buoyant ball into the opponents' goal placed on the bottom of the pool.
 * Underwater target shooting

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of water sports


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Ladislav

Ladislav is a Czech, Slovak and Croatian variant of the Slavic name Vladislav. The female form of this name is Ladislava.

Folk etymology occasionally links Ladislav with the Slavic goddess Lada.

Spellings and variations
In Bulgarian and Russian this name is spelled in.

László is a Hungarian variation of this name.

Athletes

 * Ladislav Beneš, Czechoslovak Olympic handball player
 * Ladislav Benýšek, Czech ice hockey player
 * Ladislav Čepčianský, Czechoslovak sprint canoer
 * Ladislav Dluhoš, Czechoslovak ski jumper
 * Ladislav Fouček
 * Ladislav Hecht (1909–2004), Czechoslovak/American tennis player
 * Ladislav Hrubý, cross-country skier
 * Ladislav Jurkemik, Czechoslovak/Slovak footballer and manager
 * Ladislav Kačáni, Czechoslovak footballer and coach
 * Ladislav Kohn, Czech ice hockey player
 * Ladislav Kuna, Czechoslovak footballer
 * Ladislav Lubina, Czechoslovak ice hockey player and coach
 * Ladislav Maier, Czech footballer
 * Ladislav Nagy, Slovak ice hockey player
 * Ladislav Novák, Czechoslovak footballer
 * Ladislav Pataki, Czechoslovak/American coach and sports scientist
 * Ladislav Pavlovič, Czechoslovak footballer
 * Ladislav Petráš, Czechoslovak footballer
 * Ladislav Prášil, Czech shot putter
 * Ladislav Rybánsky, Slovak footballer
 * Ladislav Rygl, Jr., Czech Nordic combined Olympic skier
 * Ladislav Rygl, Sr., Czechoslovak Nordic combined Olympic skier
 * Ladislav Ščurko, Slovak ice hockey player and confessed murderer
 * Ladislav Šimůnek, Czechoslovak footballer
 * Ladislav Škorpil, Czech football manager
 * Ladislav Šmíd, Czech ice hockey player
 * Ladislav Švanda, Czech Olympic cross country skier
 * Ladislav Troják, Czechoslovak ice hockey player
 * Ladislav Trpkoš, Czechoslovak Olympic basketball player
 * Ladislav Vácha, Czechoslovak Olympic gymnast
 * Ladislav Vízek, Czechoslovak footballer
 * Ladislav Volešák, Czech footballer

Politicians

 * Ladislav Adamec, Czechoslovak Prime Minister, Communist politician
 * Ladislav Miko, Czech politician and expert on environmental issues
 * Ladislav Pejačević, Croatian politician, Ban of Croatia

Scientists

 * Ladislav Brožek, Slovak astronomer
 * Ladislav František Čelakovský, Czech mycologist and botanist
 * Ladislav Josef Čelakovský, Czech botanist
 * Ladislav Mucina, Slovak botanist, ecologist, and vegetation expert

Writers and artists

 * Ladislav Bublík (1924-1988), Czech writer
 * Ladislav Fialka, Czechoslovak mime
 * Ladislav Fuks, Czechoslovak novelist
 * Ladislav "Ladi" Geisler, Czechoslovak musician
 * Ladislav Klíma, Czech philosopher and novelist
 * Ladislav Kralj, Croatian painter and engraver
 * Ladislav Kubík, Czechoslovak/American composer
 * Ladislav Kupkovič, Czechoslovak composer and conductor
 * Ladislav Mňačko, Czechoslovak writer and journalist
 * Ladislav Mráz, Czechoslovak opera singer
 * Ladislav Nádaši-Jégé, Slovak writer, literary critic, and doctor
 * Ladislav Šaloun, Czechoslovak sculptor
 * Ladislav Slovák, Czechoslovak conductor
 * Ladislav Smoček, Czech playwright and theater director
 * Ladislav Smoljak, Czechoslovak film and theater director
 * Ladislav Stroupežnický, Austro-Hungarian/Czech author, playwright, and director
 * Ladislav Vycpálek, Czechoslovak composer and violinist
 * Ladislav (Laco) Zrubec, Slovak author and writer

Others

 * Ladislav Hudec, Austro-Hungarian/Slovak architect
 * Ladislav Kovács, Slovak Professional Counter-Strike: Global Offensive player
 * Ladislav Prokeš, Czechoslovak chess master and composer of endgame studies
 * Ladislav Žák, Czechoslovak architect and painter
 * Ladislav Zgusta, Czechoslovak linguist, historian and theorist of lexicography

title: Ladislav


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Riduan Isamuddin

Riduan Isamuddin, also known by the nom de guerre Hambali (born April 4, 1964), is the former military leader of the Indonesian terrorist organization Jemaah Islamiyah (JI). He is now in American custody at Guantanamo Bay detainment camp in Cuba. He is currently awaiting trial in a military commission.

Hambali was often described as "the Osama bin Laden of Southeast Asia". Some media reports describe him as bin Laden's lieutenant for Southeast Asian operations. Other reports describe him as an independent peer. He was highly trusted by al-Qaeda and was the main link between the two organisations. Hambali was a close friend of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who planned Operation Bojinka and the September 11 attacks. Hambali envisioned creating a Muslim state, in the form of an Islamic superpower (a theocracy) across Southeast Asia, with himself as its leader (Caliph). His ambition was to rule Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and parts of the Philippines, Myanmar, and Thailand.

He received increasing attention in the aftermath of the 2002 Bali nightclub bombing, in which 202 people died. He was eventually apprehended in a joint operation by the CIA and Thai police in 2003. He is currently imprisoned in Guantanamo Bay detention camp in Cuba, after three years of CIA custody in a secret location.

Early life
Riduan Isamuddin was born Encep Nurjaman in the rice belt of Sukamanah, a small village in Cianjur Regency, in the province of West Java, Indonesia. He was the son of a peasant farmer, and was the second of thirteen children. He first became involved with Jemaah Islamiah as a teenager. He was a diligent student at his Islamic high school, Al-Ianah. He travelled to Afghanistan in 1983 to fight the Soviet Union during the Soviet–Afghan War. During his three years as a mujahid, from 1987 to 1990, he met Osama bin Laden. Friends and family in Indonesia say they did not know of his activities overseas.

His name has been transliterated into English text in several different ways over the years, including;
 * His name was spelled Hambali, Riduan bin Isomuddin on the Summary of Evidence memo prepared for his Combatant Status Review.
 * His name was spelled Ryuduan bin Isomuddin by Scott McClellan during a press briefing. McClellan spelled his name letter by letter.
 * His name is spelled Riduan Isamuddin in the report of the 9/11 Commission.
 * His name was spelled Nurjaman Riduan Isamuddin by the U.S. Treasury.

Jemaah Islamiah
In 1991, Nurjamin returned to Cianjur for one week, before going to Malaysia, where he met the two co-founders of JI, Abdullah Sungkar and Abubakar Bashir. The three lived in a housing compound in Kampung Sungai Manggis, Banting, Selangor. Nurjaman internationalized the terrorist group's activities and took on a new name in his permanent residence permit: Riduan Isamuddin. His nickname, Hambali, is an allusion to Hanbali, an Islamic school of jurisprudence.

The two co-founders sent their students to "study" in Afghanistan and Pakistan. The students actually fought the Soviets until the Soviets pulled out of Afghanistan. A woman named Noralwizah Lee Abdullah had gone to Malaysia for religious schooling. She secretly married Isamuddin after meeting him at the Luqmanul Hakiem School in Ulu Tiram, Johor. The school was founded by Sungkar and Bashir.

Initially, Isamuddin struggled to make a living for his family. He switched from selling kebabs to patenting medicines. He soon disappeared from his home for weeks at a time, and he received many visitors at home. He eventually came to own a red hatchback and several cell phones. Investigators say that many calls on those cell phones were made to Mohammed Jamal Khalifa, Osama bin Laden's brother in law, who had arrived back in Manila, Philippines in 1991.

After Arab visitors gave his family much money, he founded a shell company, Konsojaya, in June 1994. Ostensibly an import-export company trading in palm oil between Malaysia and Afghanistan, it was essentially a front company for terrorism. Wali Khan Amin Shah, who would become the financier of Operation Bojinka, was a director of Konsojaya. The company provided financial assistance to the project until it was discovered by investigators on a laptop computer after an apartment fire on January 6, 1995. Shah was arrested in the Philippines but escaped on a short order. Shah was arrested in Malaysia in December 1995. Both Shah and mastermind Ramzi Yousef, who escaped the Philippines but was arrested in Lahore, Pakistan, were extradited to the United States. They were both convicted and sentenced to life in prison for participating in the project.

Hambali goes underground
Hambali's company attracted attention of investigators so his dealings went quiet for a while. He decided to preach, raise money, and recruit for his cause. He went underground in 2000 and started a wave of church-bombings in Indonesia. He always had a "hands-on" technique; he met his foot soldiers and came to them "with detailed plans, plenty of cash and two of his own bombmakers." He always fled before the bombing commenced. Meanwhile, the spiritual leader of Jemaah Islamiah, Abu Bakr Bashir, was preaching jihad at his schools while denying links to Islamic militants.

Hambali planned and attended the January 2000 Al Qaeda Summit in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Among the others present were two September 11 hijackers, Khalid al-Mihdhar and Nawaf al-Hazmi. This gathering in Kuala Lumpur was observed by the CIA and Malaysian authorities, but what specifically was being said at the meetings was not picked up. Hambali also provided money and documents to Zacarias Moussaoui in October of that year. However claims by Singaporean security analyst Rohan Gunaratna that he had flown to Australia were dismissed by Australian authorities.

After the Bali nightclub bombing, in which 202 people were killed, Hambali received more attention from the United States. In the years leading up to the attack, the Indonesian government's action against Islamic militants had been minimal. Following the attack, Abu Bakr Bashir was arrested as part of a crack down on Jemaah Islamiah. He was wanted in Indonesia for the bombings of several churches in the region, and wanted for the Bali bombing and a failed plot on several targets in Singapore.

Capture
Hambali used a series of safe-houses throughout Southeast Asia, especially Thailand and Cambodia, to move around. While he was in Ayutthaya, Thailand, 75 kilometres north of Bangkok, he was planning a terrorist attack against several Thai hotels and the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation summit (APEC) in Bangkok in October 2003. Hambali had used a false Spanish passport to enter Thailand while his wife used her Malaysian passport.

Thai police found him as part of a joint operation between the Thai police and the CIA on August 11, 2003. The twenty uniformed and undercover police smashed down the door to his one bedroom apartment in Ayutthaya, and arrested him and 33-year-old Noralwizah Lee Abdullah, a Chinese Malaysian who was considered to be his wife. Hambali was wearing a pair of jeans, a T-shirt, a baseball cap, and a pair of sunglasses. Police also seized explosives and firearms in the property. It marked the end of a 20-month hunt for Hambali, who was 37 years of age when he was captured.

According to a 2010 Associated Press report, by March 2004 Hambali was being held at a CIA black site in Rabat, Morocco, and by October of that year he had been transferred to a black site in Bucharest, Romania. On September 6, 2006, President George W. Bush confirmed that Hambali was being held by the CIA and revealed that he had been transferred to Guantanamo Bay. His wife is now in Malaysian custody.

A On September 8, 2006, Indonesia formally requested access to Hambali to ensure a fair trial.

Hambali is also wanted in the Philippines for the transfer of explosives on Filipino soil in an attempt to transport them to Singapore.

Detention, Interrogation and Torture
Following his capture the USA would not confirm or deny that he was in their custody. But on September 6, 2006, President George W. Bush acknowledged the existence of covert, overseas CIA interrogation centres (colloquially known as black sites) and announced that 14 high-profile members (al Qaeda and other related groups) had been transported from those sites to Guantanamo Bay. Those 14 include Hambali and an alleged lieutenant of his called Mohammed Nazir Bin Lep alias Lillie or Li-Li.

On August 11, 2003, the United States government subjected Hambali to almost three years of isolation, interrogation and torture. Within days of his arrest, he was taken to an undisclosed secret detention facility where he was subject to "enhanced interrogation techniques" (EITs) inflicted by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for approximately three years as part of the notorious Rendition, Detention and Interrogation (RDI) program, which is now commonly known as the "Torture Program."

But a complete description of his torture as well as the locations in which it occurred remained classified by the United States government. Only limited amounts of information describing his torture have been released - first from the International Committee of the Red Cross Report on the Treatment of Fourteen 'High-Value Detainees' in CIA Custody dated February 2007 and later by the SSCI Report in 2014.

According to the 2014 Senate Intelligence Committee report, Hambali was told by an interrogator that he would never go to court: "We can never let the world know what I have done to you."

Combatant Status Review
The Bush administration asserted that: the protections of the Geneva Conventions did not extend to captured prisoners who are not members of the regular Afghan armed force nor meet the criteria for prisoner of war for voluntary forces. Critics argued the Conventions obliged the U.S. to conduct competent tribunals to determine the status of prisoners. Subsequently, the U.S. Department of Defense instituted Combatant Status Review Tribunals (CSRTs), to determine whether detainees met the new definition of an "enemy combatant".

"Enemy combatant" was defined by the U.S. Department of Defense as: "an individual who was part of, or supporting, the Taliban, or al-Qaeda forces, or associated forces that are engaged in hostilities against the United States or its coalition partners. This includes any person who commits a belligerent act or has directly supported hostilities in aid of enemy armed forces."

The CSRTs are not bound by the rules of evidence that would normally apply in civilian court, and the government’s evidence is presumed to be “genuine and accurate.” From July 2004 through March 2005, CSRTs were convened to determine whether each prisoner had been correctly classified as an "enemy combatant".

Riduan Isamuddin was among the 60% of prisoners who chose to participate in tribunal hearings. A Summary of Evidence memo was prepared for the tribunal of each detainee, listing the allegations that supported their detention as an "enemy combatant".

Riduan Isamuddin's memo accused him of the following:

The Department of Defense announced on August 9, 2007 that all fourteen of the "high-value detainees" who had been transferred to Guantanamo from the CIA's black sites, had been officially classified as "enemy combatants". Although judges Peter Brownback and Keith J. Allred had ruled two months earlier that only "illegal enemy combatants" could face military commissions, the Department of Defense waived the qualifier and said that all fourteen men could now face charges before Guantanamo military commissions.

Possible transfer to Washington, D.C. for a civilian trial
According to Xinhua, the state-owned newspaper of the Chinese Communist Party, the Department of Justice was considering transferring Riduan Isamuddin to Washington, D.C. for a civilian trial.

Joint Review Task Force
When he assumed office in January 2009, President Barack Obama made a number of promises about the future of Guantanamo. He promised the use of torture would cease at the camp. He promised to institute a new review system. That new review system was composed of officials from six departments, where the OARDEC reviews were conducted entirely by the Department of Defense. When it reported back, a year later, the Joint Review Task Force classified some individuals as too dangerous to be transferred from Guantanamo, even though there was no evidence to justify laying charges against them. On April 9, 2013, that document was made public after a Freedom of Information Act request. Riduan Isamuddin was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release. Although Obama promised that those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a Periodic Review Board as less than a quarter of men have received a review. Isamuddin was denied approval for transfer on September 19, 2016.

In popular culture

 * Modernine TV : discussed Hambali on TimeLine, 30 December 2018, in "Black Magic Operations".
 * Hambali is portrayed by Indonesian actor/singer Surya Saputra in the movie Long Road to Heaven.

title: Riduan Isamuddin


text:
Pulmonary heart disease

Pulmonary heart disease, also known as cor pulmonale, is the enlargement and failure of the right ventricle of the heart as a response to increased vascular resistance (such as from pulmonic stenosis) or high blood pressure in the lungs.

Chronic pulmonary heart disease usually results in right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH), whereas acute pulmonary heart disease usually results in dilatation. Hypertrophy is an adaptive response to a long-term increase in pressure. Individual muscle cells grow larger (in thickness) and change to drive the increased contractile force required to move the blood against greater resistance. Dilatation is a stretching (in length) of the ventricle in response to acute increased pressure.

To be classified as pulmonary heart disease, the cause must originate in the pulmonary circulation system; RVH due to a systemic defect is not classified as pulmonary heart disease. Two causes are vascular changes as a result of tissue damage (e.g. disease, hypoxic injury), and chronic hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction. If left untreated, then death may result. The heart and lungs are intricately related; whenever the heart is affected by a disease, the lungs risk following and vice versa.

Signs and symptoms
The symptoms/signs of pulmonary heart disease (cor pulmonale) can be non-specific and depend on the stage of the disorder, and can include blood backing up into the systemic venous system, including the hepatic vein. As pulmonary heart disease progresses, most individuals will develop symptoms like:
 * Shortness of breath
 * Wheezing
 * Cyanosis
 * Ascites
 * Jaundice
 * Enlargement of the liver
 * Raised jugular venous pressure (JVP)
 * Third heart sound
 * Intercostal recession
 * Presence of abnormal heart sounds

Causes
The causes of pulmonary heart disease (cor pulmonale) are the following:
 * Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
 * COPD
 * Primary pulmonary hypertension
 * Blood clots in lungs
 * Kyphoscoliosis
 * Interstitial lung disease
 * Cystic fibrosis
 * Sarcoidosis
 * Obstructive sleep apnea (untreated)
 * Sickle cell anemia
 * Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (in infants)

Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of pulmonary heart disease (cor pulmonale) has always indicated that an increase in right ventricular afterload causes RV failure (pulmonary vasoconstriction, anatomic disruption/pulmonary vascular bed and increased blood viscosity are usually involved ), however most of the time, the right ventricle adjusts to an overload in chronic pressure. According to Voelkel, et al., pressure overload is the initial step for changes in RV, other factors include:
 * Ischemia
 * Inflammation
 * Oxidative damage
 * Epigenetics
 * Abnormal cardiac energetics

Diagnosis
Investigations available to determine the cause of cor pulmonale include the following:
 * Chest x-ray – right ventricular hypertrophy, right atrial dilatation, prominent pulmonary artery
 * ECG – right ventricular hypertrophy, dysrhythmia, P pulmonale (characteristic peaked P wave)
 * Thrombophilia screen- to detect chronic venous thromboembolism (proteins C and S, antithrombin III, homocysteine levels)

Differential diagnosis
The diagnosis of pulmonary heart disease is not easy as both lung and heart disease can produce similar symptoms. Therefore, the differential diagnosis (DDx) should assess:
 * Atrial myxoma
 * Congestive heart failure
 * Constrictive pericarditis
 * Infiltrative cardiomyopathies
 * Right heart failure (right ventricular infarction)
 * Ventricular septal defect

Treatment
The treatment for cor pulmonale can include the following: antibiotics, expectorants, oxygen therapy, diuretics, digitalis, vasodilators, and anticoagulants. Some studies have indicated that Shenmai injection with conventional treatment is safe and effective for cor pulmonale (chronic).

Treatment requires diuretics (to decrease strain on the heart). Oxygen is often required to resolve the shortness of breath. Additionally, oxygen to the lungs also helps relax the blood vessels and eases right heart failure. When wheezing is present, the majority of individuals require a bronchodilator. A variety of medications have been developed to relax the blood vessels in the lung, calcium channel blockers are used but only work in few cases and according to NICE are not recommended for use at all.

Anticoagulants are used when venous thromboembolism is present. Venesection is used in severe secondary polycythemia (because of hypoxia), which improves symptoms though survival rate has not been proven to increase. Finally, transplantation of single/double lung in extreme cases of cor pulmonale is also an option.

Epidemiology
The epidemiology of pulmonary heart disease (cor pulmonale) accounts for 7% of all heart disease in the U.S. According to Weitzenblum, et al., the mortality that is related to cor pulmonale is not easy to ascertain, as it is a complication of COPD.

title: Pulmonary heart disease


text:
Two-barred crossbill

The two-barred crossbill or white-winged crossbill (Loxia leucoptera) is a small passerine bird in the finch family Fringillidae. It breeds in the coniferous forests of North America and the Palearctic.

Taxonomy
The two-barred crossbill was formally described in 1789 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae. He placed it with the crossbills in the genus Loxia and coined the binomial name Loxia leucoptera. Gmelin specified the locality as Hudson Bay and New York. The specific epithet leucoptera is from Ancient Greek leukopteros meaning "white-winged" (leukos means "white" and pteron means "wing"). Gmelin based his account on the "white winged crossbill" that had been described in 1783 by the English ornithologist John Latham in his multi-volume work A General Synopsis of Birds. Latham had examined a specimen in the Leverian Museum in London.

Two subspecies are recognised:
 * L. l. bifasciata (Brehm, CL, 1827) – north Europe to east Siberia and northeast China
 * L. l. leucoptera Gmelin, JF, 1789 – Alaska, Canada and north USA

Description
The two-barred crossbill is 14.5 - 17 cm in length and weighs 25 - 40 g. It has short legs, a forked tail, a crossed bill and two prominent white wing-bars. The male of the nominate subspecies has forehead, crown, nape and upper-parts bright raspberry-red. The are black or blackish brown with pink edges. The upper tail coverts are black with white fringes. The female lacks the pink and instead has greenish-yellow head and upperparts.

The two-barred is easier to identify than other crossbills, especially in North America, where only the red crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) and this species occur. Within its Palearctic range, this species is smaller-headed and smaller-billed than the parrot crossbill and Scottish crossbill, so the main confusion between species both there and in North America is with the red or common crossbill.

The main plumage distinction from the red crossbill is the white wingbars which give this species its English and scientific names. There are also white tips to the tertials. The adult male is also a somewhat brighter (pinker) red than other male crossbills. Some red crossbills occasionally show weak white wingbars, so care is needed with the correct identification of this species. The chip call is weaker and higher than that of the red crossbill.

Another crossbill species on Hispaniola in the Caribbean was previously treated as a subspecies (Loxia leucoptera megaplaga), but is now treated as a distinct species: the Hispaniolan crossbill (Loxia megaplaga). It is associated with the Hispaniolan pine tree (Pinus occidentalis), and differs from the two-barred crossbill in darker plumage, a stouter bill, and its geographic isolation compared to other crossbill species.

Distribution and habitat
This bird breeds in the coniferous forests of Alaska, Canada, the northernmost United States and across the Palearctic extending into northeast Europe. It nests in conifers, laying 3–5 eggs.

This crossbill is mainly resident, but will irregularly irrupt south if its food source fails. The American race seems to wander more frequently than the Eurosiberian subspecies. This species will form flocks outside the breeding season, often mixed with other crossbills. It is a rare visitor to western Europe, usually arriving with an irruption of red crossbills.

Food and feeding
They are specialist feeders on conifer cones, and the unusual bill shape is an adaptation to assist the extraction of the seeds from the cone. The two-barred crossbill has a strong preference for larch (Larix), in Eurosiberia using Siberian larch (Larix sibirica) and Dahurian larch (L. gmelinii), and in North America Tamarack larch (L. laricina). It will also take rowan (Sorbus) berries, and in North America, also eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) and white spruce (Picea glauca) cones.

Breeding
The nest is placed 2 - 20 m above the ground, usually against the trunk of a conifer. The nest is built by the female and mainly consists of conifer twigs. The clutch of 3-4 eggs is incubated by the female for 14-15 days. The chicks are fed by both parents. They fledge after 22-24 days but then remain with their parents for up to 6 weeks.

Books

 * Benkman C. W. 1992. White-winged Crossbill (Loxia leucoptera). In The Birds of North America, No. 27. (A. Poole, P. Stettenheim, and F. Gill, Eds.). Philadelphia: The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, DC: The American Ornithologists’ Union.

Thesis

 * Benkman CW. Ph.D. (1985). THE FORAGING ECOLOGY OF CROSSBILLS IN EASTERN NORTH AMERICA (AVES, BREEDING BEHAVIOR, MORPHOLOGY, CONIFERS). State University of New York at Albany, United States, New York.

Articles
-->
 * Benkman CW. (1987). Crossbill Foraging Behavior Bill Structure and Patterns of Food Profitability. Wilson Bulletin. vol 99, no 3. p. 351-368.
 * Benkman CW. (1987). Food Profitability and the Foraging Ecology of Crossbills. Ecological Monographs. vol 57, no 3. p. 251-267.
 * Benkman CW. (1989). Intake Rate Maximization and the Foraging Behavior of Crossbills. Ornis Scandinavica. vol 20, no 1. p. 65-68.
 * Benkman CW. (1990). Intake Rates and the Timing of Crossbill Reproduction. Auk. vol 107, no 2. p. 376-386.
 * Benkman CW. (1994). Comments on the ecology and status of the hispaniolan crossbill (Loxia leucoptera megaplaga), with recommendations for its conservation. Caribbean Journal of Science. vol 30, no 3-4. p. 250-254.
 * Benkman CW. (1997). Feeding behavior, flock-size dynamics, and variation in sexual selection in crossbills. Auk. vol 114, no 2. p. 163-178.
 * Coady G. (2001). First nest record of white-winged crossbill in the greater Toronto area. Ontario Birds. vol 19, no 3. p. 101-111.
 * Deviche P. (1997). Seasonal reproductive pattern of white-winged Crossbills in interior Alaska. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 68, no 4. p. 613-621.
 * Deviche P. (2000). Timing, pattern, and extent of first prebasic molt of White-winged Crossbills in Alaska. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 71, no 2. p. 217-226.
 * Deviche P & Hahn TP. (1995). SEasonal reproductive pattern of interior Alaska white-winged crossbills (Loxia leucoptera). American Association for the Advancement of Science, Arctic Division. p. Landscapes Human ecology, landscape ecology, earth system science.
 * Deviche P & Sharp PJ. (2001). Reproductive endocrinology of a free-living, opportunistically breeding passerine (White-winged Crossbill, Loxia leucoptera). General and Comparative Endocrinology. vol 123, no 3. p. 268-279.
 * Elmberg J. (1993). Song differences between North American and European White-winged Crossbills (Loxia leucoptera). The Auk. vol 110, no 2. p. 385.
 * Eykhler V & Vasyukova TT. (1981). A New Species of the Genus Docophorulus Mallophaga Philopteridae from the White-Winged Crossbill Loxia-Leucoptera-Bifasciata. Entomological Review. vol 60, no 3. p. 99-101.
 * Fischer S, Mauersberger G, Schielzeth H & Witt K. (1992). 1ST BREEDING RECORD OF 2-BARRED CROSSBILL (LOXIA-LEUCOPTERA) IN CENTRAL-EUROPE. Journal Fur Ornithologie. vol 133, no 2. p. 197-202.
 * Gallant D. (2004). White-winged crossbills obtain forage from river otter Feces. Wilson Bulletin. vol 116, no 2. p. 181-184.
 * Gordon P, Morlan J & Roberson D. (1989). First Record of the White-Winged Crossbill in California USA. Western Birds. vol 20, no 2. p. 81-88.
 * Groth JG. (1992). Further Information on the Genetics of Bill Crossing in Crossbills. The Auk. vol 109, no 2. p. 383.
 * Groth JG. (1992). White-Winged Crossbill Breeding in Southern Colorado with Notes on Juveniles Calls. Western Birds. vol 23, no 1. p. 35-38.
 * Hahn TP, Pereyra ME & Sharbaugh SM. (2003). Effects of photoperiod on brain GnRH plasticity and peripheral reproductive physiology in three species of cardueline finches. Society for Neuroscience Abstract Viewer & Itinerary Planner. p. 611.
 * Hahn TP, Pereyra ME, Sharbaugh SM & Bentley GE. (2004). Physiological responses to photoperiod in three cardueline finch species. General and Comparative Endocrinology. vol 137, no 1. p. 99-108.
 * Hahn TP, Wingfield JC, Mullen R & Deviche PJ. (1995). ENDOCRINE BASES OF SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL OPPORTUNISM IN ARCTIC-BREEDING BIRDS. American Zoologist. vol 35, no 3. p. 259-273.
 * Hobson KA & Bayne E. (2000). Breeding bird communities in boreal forest of western Canada: Consequences of "unmixing" the mixedwoods. Condor. vol 102, no 4. p. 759-769.
 * Kepler AK, Kepler CB & Dod A. (1975). FIRST NEST RECORD OF WHITE-WINGED CROSSBILL IN HISPANIOLA. Condor. vol 77, no 2. p. 220-221.
 * Koenig WD & Knops JMH. (2001). Seed-crop size and eruptions of North American boreal seed-eating birds. Journal of Animal Ecology. vol 70, no 4. p. 609-620.
 * Latta SC, Sondreal ML & Brown CR. (2000). A hierarchical analysis of nesting and foraging habitat for the conservation of the Hispaniolan White-winged crossbill (Loxia leucoptera megaplaga). Biological Conservation. vol 96, no 2. p. 139-150.
 * Latta SC, Sondreal ML & Mejia DA. (2002). Breeding behavior of the endangered Hispaniolan Crossbill (Loxia megaplaga). Ornitologia Neotropical. vol 13, no 3. p. 225-234.
 * MacDougall-Shackleton SA, Deviche PJ, Crain RD, Ball GF & Hahn TP. (2001). Seasonal changes in brain GnRH immunoreactivity and song-control nuclei volumes in an opportunistically breeding songbird. Brain Behavior and Evolution. vol 58, no 1. p. 38-48.
 * McNair DB. (1990). First Modern Record of White-Winged Crossbill in Georgia USA a Commentary. Oriole. vol 53, no 4. p. 49-50.
 * Mundinger PC. (1979). Call Learning in the Carduelinae Ethological and Systematic Considerations. Systematic Zoology. vol 28, no 3. p. 270-283.
 * Nankinov DN, Ilkov PG & Stoychev KS. (1999). White-winged crossbill (Loxia leucoptera bifasciata C. L. Brehm, 1827) in Bulgaria. Acta Zoologica Bulgarica. vol 51, no 1. p. 49-51.
 * Oberle MW. (1986). First Modern Record of White-Winged Crossbill in Georgia USA. Oriole. vol 51, no 2-3. p. 25-27.
 * Oberle MW & Hahn T. (1994). More on the White-winged crossbill in Georgia. Oriole. vol 59, no 1. p. 26-27.
 * Parchman TL & Benkman CW. (2002). Diversifying coevolution between crossbills and black spruce on Newfoundland. Evolution. vol 56, no 8. p. 1663-1672.
 * Parchman TL, Benkman CW & Britch SC. (2006). Patterns of genetic variation in the adaptive radiation of New World crossbills (Aves : Loxia). Molecular Ecology. vol 15, no 7. p. 1873-1887.
 * Pereyra ME, Sharbaugh SM & Hahn TP. (2005). Interspecific variation in photo-induced GnRH plasticity among nomadic cardueline finches. Brain Behavior and Evolution. vol 66, no 1. p. 35-49.
 * Pulliainen E. (2002). Chemical composition of the seed food of late-summer-breeding two-barred crossbills Loxia leucoptera. Aquilo Ser Zoologica. vol 30, p. 79-81.
 * Sealy SG, Sexton DA & Collins KM. (1980). Observations of a White-Winged Crossbill Loxia-Leucoptera Invasion of Southeastern Manitoba Canada. Wilson Bulletin. vol 92, no 1. p. 114-116.
 * Steinberg B & Tozer R. (2003). White-winged Crossbill predation by Blue Jay. Ontario Birds. vol 21, no 1. p. 34-37.
 * Stradi R, Rossi E, Celentano G & Bellardi B. (1996). Carotenoids in bird plumage: The pattern in three Loxia species and in Pinicola enucleator. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology B-Biochemistry & Molecular Biology. vol 113, no 2. p. 427-432.
 * West GC. (1974). ABNORMAL BILL OF A WHITE-WINGED CROSSBILL. Auk. vol 91, no 3. p. 624-626.

title: Two-barred crossbill


text: User talk:64.12.96.171

title: User talk:64.12.96.171


text:
Talk:Piegan Blackfeet

Using edit summaries
The bit about two spirited doesn't seem to be really all that informative and rather out of snyc with everything else, Was that just thrown in as some random thought? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.211.236.86 (talk) 16:20, 25 August 2010 (UTC)

It keeps getting edited back in as well, it seems like someone with a vested interest in denying male two-spirited individuals is vandalizing the page. The source is also dubious. ~\\--141.193.125.94 (talk) 23:21, 6 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Vandalism is often identified as edits by IP users who don't use an edit summary. Use one every time to avoid being reverted when it appears to be a random deletion from an article with no explanation. Fettlemap (talk) 00:47, 7 April 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 8 September 2020 and 18 December 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Mlegood.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 06:38, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Foot vs Feet
Don't mix up the Blackfoot with the Blackfeet you dumbass. The tribe, which is described here is called Blackfoot. The Blackfeet-Indians are a subtribe of the Lakota. See also [] 217.162.153.19 07:12, 16 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Thanks for pointing that out. I'll see if I can weed out the mess. - Hephaestos 07:15, 16 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * That's not really correct. There are two tribes, which are called Blackfeet. The one described in this Article are the Algonkin (sometimes also called Blackfoot). The other one is, as mentioned above, the Lakota tribe. --Napa 11:03, 31 Mar 2004 (UTC)

The federal government has decided that the Blackfoot are officially the Blackfeet, which they also use as the plural. Hyacinth 09:24, 13 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Blackfeet is preferred by the Blackfeet tribe. You should probably change the name of the other articles out of respect, regardless of whatever is official according to non-Blackfeet peoples. – ishwar  (speak)  17:36, 2005 August 17 (UTC)

 * Things get a little more complicated when you consider that the Blackfeet in the United States prefer Blackfeet, while the Canadian part of the tribe prefers Blackfoot. By the same token, the Americans prefer the spelling Piegan while the Canadians use Peigan (both derived from Pikuni or Piikuni). Yamamoto333

That, by now, is all nicely explained in the article, but further down, the article keeps using "Blackfoot" and "Blackfeet" interchangeably. Having once given the explanation, shouldn't we stick to one or the other within the article? Comparable, for instance, to using either British English or American English spelling within one article, but not switching back and forth all the time? --93.212.252.179 (talk) 07:07, 30 August 2016 (UTC)

Walter McClintock Lantern Slides
The historic photographs at Commons of the Category:Walter_McClintock_Lantern_Slides are described both as Blackfeet and Siksika Nation, from Montana. Someone familiar with the history could probably determine how to categorize them correctly. Also, many photographs appear to be from the Glacier National Park area. Someone familiar with the park could probably identify the mountains and lakes. If all this land was Blackfoot or Siksika Nation land at the time, should all the photos get those tags? Djembayz (talk) 17:57, 20 October 2011 (UTC)

"Black feet" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect Black feet. The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2021 July 17 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Shhhnotsoloud (talk) 09:25, 17 July 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Piegan Blackfeet


text:
Kepler conjecture

The Kepler conjecture, named after the 17th-century mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler, is a mathematical theorem about sphere packing in three-dimensional Euclidean space. It states that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements. The density of these arrangements is around 74.05%.

In 1998, Thomas Hales, following an approach suggested by, announced that he had a proof of the Kepler conjecture. Hales' proof is a proof by exhaustion involving the checking of many individual cases using complex computer calculations. Referees said that they were "99% certain" of the correctness of Hales' proof, and the Kepler conjecture was accepted as a theorem. In 2014, the Flyspeck project team, headed by Hales, announced the completion of a formal proof of the Kepler conjecture using a combination of the Isabelle and HOL Light proof assistants. In 2017, the formal proof was accepted by the journal Forum of Mathematics, Pi.

Background
Imagine filling a large container with small equal-sized spheres: Say a porcelain gallon jug with identical marbles. The "density" of the arrangement is equal to the total volume of all the marbles, divided by the volume of the jug. To maximize the number of marbles in the jug means to create an arrangement of marbles stacked between the sides and bottom of the jug, that has the highest possible density, so that the marbles are packed together as closely as possible.

Experiment shows that dropping the marbles in randomly, with no effort to arrange them tightly, will achieve a density of around 65%. However, a higher density can be achieved by carefully arranging the marbles as follows:
 * 1) For the first layer of marbles, arrange them in a hexagonal lattice (the honeycomb pattern)
 * 2) Put the next layer of marbles in the lowest lying gaps you can find above and between the marbles in the first layer, regardless of pattern
 * 3) Continue with the same procedure of filling in the lowest gaps in the prior layer, for the third and remaining layers, until the marbles reach the top edge of the jug.

At each step there are at least two choices of how to place the next layer, so this otherwise unplanned method of stacking the spheres creates an uncountably infinite number of equally dense packings. The best known of these are called cubic close packing and hexagonal close packing. Each of these arrangements has an average density of

 * $$\frac{\pi}{3\sqrt{2}} = 0.740480489\ldots$$

The Kepler conjecture says that this is the best that can be done – no other arrangement of marbles has a higher average density: Despite there being astoundingly many different arrangements possible that follow the same procedure as steps 1–3, no packing (according to the procedure or not) can possibly fit more marbles into the same jug.

Origins
The conjecture was first stated by in his paper 'On the six-cornered snowflake'. He had started to study arrangements of spheres as a result of his correspondence with the English mathematician and astronomer Thomas Harriot in 1606. Harriot was a friend and assistant of Sir Walter Raleigh, who had asked Harriot to find formulas for counting stacked cannonballs, an assignment which in turn led Raleigh's mathematician acquaintance into wondering about what the best way to stack cannonballs was. Harriot published a study of various stacking patterns in 1591, and went on to develop an early version of atomic theory.

Nineteenth century
Kepler did not have a proof of the conjecture, and the next step was taken by, who proved that the Kepler conjecture is true if the spheres have to be arranged in a regular lattice.

This meant that any packing arrangement that disproved the Kepler conjecture would have to be an irregular one. But eliminating all possible irregular arrangements is very difficult, and this is what made the Kepler conjecture so hard to prove. In fact, there are irregular arrangements that are denser than the cubic close packing arrangement over a small enough volume, but any attempt to extend these arrangements to fill a larger volume is now known to always reduce their density.

After Gauss, no further progress was made towards proving the Kepler conjecture in the nineteenth century. In 1900 David Hilbert included it in his list of twenty three unsolved problems of mathematics—it forms part of Hilbert's eighteenth problem.

Twentieth century
The next step toward a solution was taken by László Fejes Tóth. showed that the problem of determining the maximum density of all arrangements (regular and irregular) could be reduced to a finite (but very large) number of calculations. This meant that a proof by exhaustion was, in principle, possible. As Fejes Tóth realised, a fast enough computer could turn this theoretical result into a practical approach to the problem.

Meanwhile, attempts were made to find an upper bound for the maximum density of any possible arrangement of spheres. English mathematician Claude Ambrose Rogers (see ) established an upper bound value of about 78%, and subsequent efforts by other mathematicians reduced this value slightly, but this was still much larger than the cubic close packing density of about 74%.

In 1990, Wu-Yi Hsiang claimed to have proven the Kepler conjecture. The proof was praised by Encyclopædia Britannica and Science and Hsiang was also honored at joint meetings of AMS-MAA. claimed to prove the Kepler conjecture using geometric methods. However Gábor Fejes Tóth (the son of László Fejes Tóth) stated in his review of the paper "As far as details are concerned, my opinion is that many of the key statements have no acceptable proofs." gave a detailed criticism of Hsiang's work, to which responded. The current consensus is that Hsiang's proof is incomplete.

Hales' proof
Following the approach suggested by László Fejes Tóth, Thomas Hales, then at the University of Michigan, determined that the maximum density of all arrangements could be found by minimizing a function with 150 variables. In 1992, assisted by his graduate student Samuel Ferguson, he embarked on a research program to systematically apply linear programming methods to find a lower bound on the value of this function for each one of a set of over 5,000 different configurations of spheres. If a lower bound (for the function value) could be found for every one of these configurations that was greater than the value of the function for the cubic close packing arrangement, then the Kepler conjecture would be proved. To find lower bounds for all cases involved solving about 100,000 linear programming problems.

When presenting the progress of his project in 1996, Hales said that the end was in sight, but it might take "a year or two" to complete. In August 1998 Hales announced that the proof was complete. At that stage, it consisted of 250 pages of notes and 3 gigabytes of computer programs, data and results.

Despite the unusual nature of the proof, the editors of the Annals of Mathematics agreed to publish it, provided it was accepted by a panel of twelve referees. In 2003, after four years of work, the head of the referee's panel, Gábor Fejes Tóth, reported that the panel were "99% certain" of the correctness of the proof, but they could not certify the correctness of all of the computer calculations.

published a 100-page paper describing the non-computer part of his proof in detail. and several subsequent papers described the computational portions. Hales and Ferguson received the Fulkerson Prize for outstanding papers in the area of discrete mathematics for 2009.

A formal proof
In January 2003, Hales announced the start of a collaborative project to produce a complete formal proof of the Kepler conjecture. The aim was to remove any remaining uncertainty about the validity of the proof by creating a formal proof that can be verified by automated proof checking software such as HOL Light and Isabelle. This project was called Flyspeck – an expansion of the acronym FPK standing for Formal Proof of Kepler. At the start of this project, in 2007, Hales estimated that producing a complete formal proof would take around 20 years of work. Hales published a "blueprint" for the formal proof in 2012; the completion of the project was announced on August 10, 2014. In January 2015 Hales and 21 collaborators posted a paper titled "A formal proof of the Kepler conjecture" on the arXiv, claiming to have proved the conjecture. In 2017, the formal proof was accepted by the journal Forum of Mathematics.

Related problems

 * Thue's theorem: The regular hexagonal packing is the densest circle packing in the plane (1890). The density is $\pi/√12$.
 * The 2-dimensional analog of the Kepler conjecture; the proof is elementary. Henk and Ziegler attribute this result to Lagrange, in 1773 (see references, pag. 770).
 * A simple proof by Chau and Chung from 2010 uses the Delaunay triangulation for the set of points that are centers of circles in a saturated circle packing.

 * The hexagonal honeycomb conjecture: The most efficient partition of the plane into equal areas is the regular hexagonal tiling.
 * Related to Thue's theorem.

 * Dodecahedral conjecture: The volume of the Voronoi polyhedron of a sphere in a packing of equal spheres is at least the volume of a regular dodecahedron with inradius 1. McLaughlin's proof, for which he received the 1999 Morgan Prize.
 * A related problem, whose proof uses similar techniques to Hales' proof of the Kepler conjecture. Conjecture by L. Fejes Tóth in the 1950s.

 * The Kelvin problem: What is the most efficient foam in 3 dimensions? This was conjectured to be solved by the Kelvin structure, and this was widely believed for over 100 years, until disproved in 1993 by the discovery of the Weaire–Phelan structure. The surprising discovery of the Weaire–Phelan structure and disproof of the Kelvin conjecture is one reason for the caution in accepting Hales' proof of the Kepler conjecture.

 * Sphere packing in higher dimensions: In 2016, Maryna Viazovska announced proof of the optimal sphere packing in dimension 8, which quickly led to a solution in dimension 24. However, the optimal sphere packing question in dimensions other than 1, 2, 3, 8, and 24 is still open.

 * Ulam's packing conjecture: It is unknown whether there is a convex solid whose optimal packing density is lower than that of the sphere.

Publications

 * An elementary exposition of the proof of the Kepler conjecture.
 * An elementary exposition of the proof of the Kepler conjecture.
 * An elementary exposition of the proof of the Kepler conjecture.

title: Kepler conjecture


text:
Taurini

The Taurini were a Celto-Ligurian tribe dwelling in the upper valley of the river Po, around present-day Turin, during the Iron Age and the Roman period.

Name
They are mentioned as Taurĩnoí (Ταυρῖνοί) by Polybius (2nd c. BC), Taurini by Livy (late 1st c. BC), Taurinoí (Ταυρινοί) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD), Taurinorum by Pliny (1st c. AD), and as Taurínōn (Ταυρίνων; var. Ταυρικῶν, Ταυρινῶν) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD).

The ethnic name Taurini can be translated as 'the tribe of the bull'. It is either an older form of the metathesized Celtic noun taruos ('bull'), or a non-Celtic Ligurian form.

Geography
The Taurini lived between the Dora Riparia and the upper Po river and the lower Dandrune river. Their territory was located east of the Iemerii, west of the Libicii and Iadatini. Their original capital, Taurasia, was destroyed by the Carthaginians after they opposed in vain Hannibal's march into Italy in 218 BC. It was refounded by the Romans after 25 BC as Colonia Augusta Taurinorum (modern Turin), at the confluence of the Dora and Po. The settlement was hit by a fire in 69 AD.

History
They were involved in Rome's wars against the Celts at the end of the 4th century BC.

In 218 BC, they were attacked by Hannibal, who had allied with their long-standing enemies, the Insubres. Their chief town was captured by Hannibal's forces after a three-day siege.

Culture
The ethnic identity of the Taurini is unclear. They have been variously described as Celts, Ligurians, or Celticized Ligurians.

title: Taurini


text:
Inertial electrostatic confinement

Inertial electrostatic confinement, or IEC, is a class of fusion power devices that use electric fields to confine the plasma rather than the more common approach using magnetic fields found in magnetic confinement fusion (MCF) designs. Most IEC devices directly accelerate their fuel to fusion conditions, thereby avoiding energy losses seen during the longer heating stages of MCF devices. In theory, this makes them more suitable for using alternative aneutronic fusion fuels, which offer a number of major practical benefits and makes IEC devices one of the more widely studied approaches to fusion.

As the negatively charged electrons and positively charged ions in the plasma move in different directions in an electric field, the field has to be arranged in some fashion so that the two particles remain close together. Most IEC designs achieve this by pulling the electrons or ions across a potential well, beyond which the potential drops and the particles continue to move due to their inertia. Fusion occurs in this lower-potential area when ions moving in different directions collide. Because the motion provided by the field creates the energy levels needed for fusion, not random collisions with the rest of the fuel, the bulk of the plasma does not have to be hot and the systems as a whole work at much lower temperatures and energy levels than MCF devices.

One of the simpler IEC devices is the fusor, which consists of two concentric metal wire spherical grids. When the grids are charged to a high voltage, the fuel gas ionizes. The field between the two then accelerates the fuel inward, and when it passes the inner grid the field drops and the ions continue inward toward the center. If they impact with another ion they may undergo fusion. If they do not, they travel out of the reaction area into the charged area again, where they are re-accelerated inward. Overall the physical process is similar to the colliding beam fusion, although beam devices are linear instead of spherical. Other IEC designs, like the polywell, differ largely in the arrangement of the fields used to create the potential well.

A number of detailed theoretical studies have pointed out that the IEC approach is subject to a number of energy loss mechanisms that are not present if the fuel is evenly heated, or "Maxwellian". These loss mechanisms appear to be greater than the rate of fusion in such devices, meaning they can never reach fusion breakeven and thus be used for power production. These mechanisms are more powerful when the atomic mass of the fuel increases, which suggests IEC also does not have any advantage with aneutronic fuels. Whether these critiques apply to specific IEC devices remains highly contentious.

Mechanism
For every volt that an ion is accelerated across, its kinetic energy gain corresponds to an increase of temperature of 11,604 kelvins (K). For example, a typical magnetic confinement fusion plasma is 15 keV, which corresponds to 170 megakelvin (MK). An ion with a charge of one can reach this temperature by being accelerated across a 15,000 V drop. This sort of voltage is easily achieved in common electrical devices; a typical cathode-ray tube operates in this range.

In fusors, the voltage drop is made with a wire cage. However high conduction losses occur in fusors because most ions fall into the cage before fusion can occur. This prevents current fusors from ever producing net power.

1930s
Mark Oliphant adapts Cockcroft and Walton's particle accelerator at the Cavendish Laboratory to create tritium and helium-3 by nuclear fusion.

1950s

Three researchers at LANL including Jim Tuck first explored the idea, theoretically, in a 1959 paper. The idea had been proposed by a colleague. The concept was to capture electrons inside a positive cage. The electrons would accelerate the ions to fusion conditions.

Other concepts were being developed which would later merge into the IEC field. These include the publication of the Lawson criterion by John D. Lawson in 1957 in England. This puts on minimum criteria on power plant designs which do fusion using hot Maxwellian plasma clouds. Also, work exploring how electrons behave inside the biconic cusp, done by Harold Grad group at the Courant Institute in 1957. A biconic cusp is a device with two alike magnetic poles facing one another (i.e. north-north). Electrons and ions can be trapped between these.

1960s

In his work with vacuum tubes, Philo Farnsworth observed that electric charge would accumulate in regions of the tube. Today, this effect is known as the multipactor effect. Farnsworth reasoned that if ions were concentrated high enough they could collide, and fuse. In 1962, he filed a patent on a design using a positive inner cage to concentrate plasma, in order to achieve nuclear fusion. During this time, Robert L. Hirsch joined the Farnsworth Television labs and began work on what became the fusor. Hirsch patented the design in 1966 and published the design in 1967. The Hirsch machine was a 17.8 cm diameter machine with 150 kV voltage drop across it and used ion beams to help inject material.

Simultaneously, a key plasma physics text was published by Lyman Spitzer at Princeton in 1963. Spitzer took the ideal gas laws and adapted them to an ionized plasma, developing many of the fundamental equations used to model a plasma. Meanwhile, magnetic mirror theory and direct energy conversion were developed by Richard F. Post's group at LLNL. A magnetic mirror or magnetic bottle is similar to a biconic cusp except that the poles are reversed.

1980s
In 1980 Robert W. Bussard developed a cross between a fusor and magnetic mirror, the polywell. The idea was to confine a non-neutral plasma using magnetic fields. This would, in turn, attract ions. This idea had been published previously, notably by Oleg Lavrentiev in Russia. Bussard patented the design and received funding from Defense Threat Reduction Agency, DARPA and the US Navy to develop the idea.

1990s
Bussard and Nicholas Krall published theory and experimental results in the early nineties. In response, Todd Rider at MIT, under Lawrence Lidsky developed general models of the device. Rider argued that the device was fundamentally limited. That same year, 1995, William Nevins at LLNL published a criticism of the polywell. Nevins argued that the particles would build up angular momentum, causing the dense core to degrade.

In the mid-nineties, Bussard publications prompted the development of fusors at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. Madison's machine was first built in 1995. George H. Miley's team at Illinois built a 25 cm fusor which has produced 107 neutrons using deuterium gas and discovered the "star mode" of fusor operation in 1994. The following year, the first "US-Japan Workshop on IEC Fusion" was conducted. This is now the premier conference for IEC researchers. At this time in Europe, an IEC device was developed as a commercial neutron source by Daimler-Chrysler Aerospace under the name FusionStar. In the late nineties, hobbyist Richard Hull began building amateur fusors in his home. In March 1999, he achieved a neutron rate of 105 neutrons per second. Hull and Paul Schatzkin started fusor.net in 1998. Through this open forum, a community of amateur fusioneers have done nuclear fusion using homemade fusors.

2000s
Despite demonstration in 2000 of 7200 hours of operation without degradation at high input power as a sealed reaction chamber with automated control the FusionStar project was canceled and the company NSD Ltd was founded. The spherical FusionStar technology was then further developed as a linear geometry system with improved efficiency and higher neutron output by NSD Ltd. which became NSD-Fusion GmbH in 2005.

In early 2000, Alex Klein developed a cross between a polywell and ion beams. Using Gabor lensing, Dr. Klein attempted to focus plasma into non-neutral clouds for fusion. He founded FP generation, which in April 2009 raised $3 million in financing from two venture funds. The company developed the MIX and Marble machine, but ran into technical challenges and closed.

In response to Riders' criticisms, researchers at LANL reasoned that a plasma oscillating could be at local thermodynamic equilibrium; this prompted the POPS and Penning trap machines. At this time, MIT researchers became interested in fusors for space propulsion and powering space vehicles. Specifically, researchers developed fusors with multiple inner cages. In 2005, Greg Piefer founded Phoenix Nuclear Labs to develop the fusor into a neutron source for the mass production of medical isotopes.

Robert Bussard began speaking openly about the Polywell in 2006. He attempted to generate interest in the research, before passing away from multiple myeloma in 2007. His company was able to raise over ten million in funding from the US Navy in 2008 and 2009.

2010s
Bussard's publications prompted the University of Sydney to start research into electron trapping in polywells in 2010. The group has explored theory, modeled devices, built devices, measured trapping and simulated trapping. These machines were all low power and cost and all had a small beta ratio. In 2010, Carl Greninger founded the northwest nuclear consortium, an organization which teaches nuclear engineering principles to high school students, using a 60 kvolt fusor. In 2012, Mark Suppes received attention, for a fusor. Suppes also measured electron trapping inside a polywell. In 2013, the first IEC textbook was published by George H. Miley.

2020s
Avalanche Energy is a start-up with about $51 million in venture/DOD funding that is working on small (tens of centimetres), modular, fusion batteries producing 5kWe. They are targeting 600 kV for their device to achieve certain design goals. Their Orbitron concept electrostatically (magnetron-augmented) confines ions orbiting around a high voltage (100s of kVs) cathode in a high vacuum environment (p< 10 −8 Torr) surrounded by one or two anode shells separated by a dielectric. Concerns include breakdown of the vacuum/dielectric and insulator surface flashover. Permanent magnet/electromagnet magnetic field generators are arranged coaxially around the anode. The magnetic field strength is targeted to exceed a Hull cut-off condition, ranging from 50-4,000 kV. Candidate ions include protons (m/z=1), deuterium (m/z=2), tritium (m/z=3), lithium-6 (m/z=6), and boron-11 (m/z=11). Recent progress includes successful testing of a 300 kV bushing.

Fusor
The best known IEC device is the fusor. This device typically consists of two wire cages inside a vacuum chamber. These cages are referred to as grids. The inner cage is held at a negative voltage against the outer cage. A small amount of fusion fuel is introduced (deuterium gas being the most common). The voltage between the grids causes the fuel to ionize. The positive ions fall down the voltage drop toward the negative inner cage. As they accelerate, the electric field does work on the ions, accelerating them to fusion conditions. If these ions collide, they can fuse. Fusors can also use ion guns rather than electric grids. Fusors are popular with amateurs, because they can easily be constructed, can regularly produce fusion and are a practical way to study nuclear physics. Fusors have also been used as a commercial neutron generator for industrial applications.

No fusor has come close to producing a significant amount of fusion power. They can be dangerous if proper care is not taken because they require high voltages and can produce harmful radiation (neutrons and X-rays). Often, ions collide with the cages or wall. This conducts energy away from the device limiting its performance. In addition, collisions heat the grids, which limits high-power devices. Collisions also spray high-mass ions into the reaction chamber, pollute the plasma, and cool the fuel.

POPS
In examining nonthermal plasma, workers at LANL realized that scattering was more likely than fusion. This was due to the coulomb scattering cross section being larger than the fusion cross section. In response they built POPS, a machine with a wire cage, where ions are moving at steady-state, or oscillating around. Such plasma can be at local thermodynamic equilibrium.99.999%) are required for successful operation of the POPS concept. To this end S. Krupakar Murali et al., suggested that carbon nanotubes can be used to construct the cathode grids. This is also the first (suggested) application of carbon nanotubes directly in any fusion reactor.

Designs with fields
Several schemes attempt to combine magnetic confinement and electrostatic fields with IEC. The goal is to eliminate the inner wire cage of the fusor, and the resulting problems.

Polywell
The polywell uses a magnetic field to trap electrons. When electrons or ions move into a dense field, they can be reflected by the magnetic mirror effect. A polywell is designed to trap electrons in the center, with a dense magnetic field surrounding them. This is typically done using six electromagnets in a box. Each magnet is positioned so their poles face inward, creating a null point in the center. The electrons trapped in the center form a "virtual electrode" Ideally, this electron cloud accelerates ions to fusion conditions.

Penning trap
A Penning trap uses both an electric and a magnetic field to trap particles, a magnetic field to confine particles radially and a quadrupole electric field to confine the particles axially.

In a Penning trap fusion reactor, first the magnetic and electric fields are turned on. Then, electrons are emitted into the trap, caught and measured. The electrons form a virtual electrode similar to that in a polywell, described above. These electrons are intended to then attract ions, accelerating them to fusion conditions.

In the 1990s, researchers at LANL built a Penning trap to do fusion experiments. Their device (PFX) was a small (millimeters) and low power (one fifth of a tesla, less than ten thousand volts) machine.

Marble
MARBLE (multiple ambipolar recirculating beam line experiment) was a device which moved electrons and ions back and forth in a line. Particle beams were reflected using electrostatic optics. These optics made static voltage surfaces in free space. Such surfaces reflect only particles with a specific kinetic energy, while higher-energy particles can traverse these surfaces unimpeded, although not unaffected. Electron trapping and plasma behavior was measured by Langmuir probe. Marble kept ions on orbits that do not intersect grid wires—the latter also improves the space charge limitations by multiple nesting of ion beams at several energies. Researchers encountered problems with ion losses at the reflection points. Ions slowed down when turning, spending much time there, leading to high conduction losses.

MIX
The multipole ion-beam experiment (MIX) accelerated ions and electrons into a negatively charged electromagnet. Ions were focused using Gabor lensing. Researcher had problems with a very thin ion-turning region very close to a solid surface where ions could be conducted away.

Magnetically insulated
Devices have been proposed where the negative cage is magnetically insulated from the incoming plasmas.

General criticism
In 1995, Todd Rider critiqued all fusion power schemes using plasma systems not at thermodynamic equilibrium. Rider assumed that plasma clouds at equilibrium had the following properties:
 * They were quasineutral, where the positives and negatives are equally mixed together.
 * They had evenly mixed fuel.
 * They were isotropic, meaning that its behavior was the same in any given direction.
 * The plasma had a uniform energy and temperature throughout the cloud.
 * The plasma was an unstructured Gaussian sphere.

Rider argued that if such system was sufficiently heated, it could not be expected to produce net power, due to high X-ray losses.

Other fusion researchers such as Nicholas Krall, Robert W. Bussard, Norman Rostoker, and Monkhorst disagreed with this assessment. They argue that the plasma conditions inside IEC machines are not quasineutral and have non-thermal energy distributions. Because the electron has a mass and diameter much smaller than the ion, the electron temperature can be several orders of magnitude different than the ions. This may allow the plasma to be optimized, whereby cold electrons would reduce radiation losses and hot ions would raise fusion rates.

Thermalization

The primary problem that Rider has raised is the thermalization of ions. Rider argued that, in a quasineutral plasma where all the positives and negatives are distributed equally, the ions will interact. As they do, they exchange energy, causing their energy to spread out (in a Wiener process) heading to a bell curve (or Gaussian function) of energy. Rider focused his arguments within the ion population and did not address electron-to-ion energy exchange or non-thermal plasmas.

This spreading of energy causes several problems. One problem is making more and more cold ions, which are too cold to fuse. This would lower output power. Another problem is higher energy ions which have so much energy that they can escape the machine. This lowers fusion rates while raising conduction losses, because as the ions leave, energy is carried away with them.

Radiation
Rider estimated that once the plasma is thermalized the radiation losses would outpace any amount of fusion energy generated. He focused on a specific type of radiation: X-ray radiation. A particle in a plasma will radiate light anytime it speeds up or slows down. This can be estimated using the Larmor formula. Rider estimated this for D–T (deuterium–tritium fusion), D–D (deuterium fusion), and D–He3 (deuterium–helium 3 fusion), and that breakeven operation with any fuel except D–T is difficult.

Core focus
In 1995, Nevins argued that such machines would need to expend a great deal of energy maintaining ion focus in the center. The ions need to be focused so that they can find one another, collide, and fuse. Over time the positive ions and negative electrons would naturally intermix because of electrostatic attraction. This causes the focus to be lost. This is core degradation. Nevins argued mathematically, that the fusion gain (ratio of fusion power produced to the power required to maintain the non-equilibrium ion distribution function) is limited to 0.1 assuming that the device is fueled with a mixture of deuterium and tritium.

The core focus problem was also identified in fusors by Tim Thorson at the University of Wisconsin–Madison during his 1996 doctoral work. Charged ions would have some motion before they started accelerating in the center. This motion could be a twisting motion, where the ion had angular momentum, or simply a tangential velocity. This initial motion causes the cloud in the center of the fusor to be unfocused.

Brillouin limit
In 1945, Columbia University professor Léon Brillouin, suggested that there was a limit to how many electrons one could pack into a given volume. This limit is commonly referred to as the Brillouin limit or Brillouin density, this is shown below.
 * $$N=\frac{B^2}{2\mu_{0}mc^2}$$

Where B is the magnetic field, $$\mu_{0}$$ the permeability of free space, m the mass of confined particles, and c the speed of light. This may limit the charge density inside IEC devices.

Commercial applications
Since fusion reactions generates neutrons, the fusor has been developed into a family of compact sealed reaction chamber neutron generators for a wide range of applications that need moderate neutron output rates at a moderate price. Very high output neutron sources may be used to make products such as molybdenum-99 and nitrogen-13, medical isotopes used for PET scans.

Government and commercial

 * Los Alamos National Laboratory Researchers developed POPS and Penning trap
 * Turkish Atomic Energy Authority In 2013 this team built a $30 cm$ fusor at the Saraykoy Nuclear Research and Training center in Turkey. This fusor can reach $85 kV$ and do deuterium fusion, producing $24,000$ neutrons per second.
 * ITT Corporation Hirschs original machine was a 17.$8 cm$ diameter machine with $150 kV$ voltage drop across it. This machine used ion beams.
 * Phoenix Nuclear Labs has developed a commercial neutron source based on a fusor, achieving $300,000,000,000$ neutrons per second with the deuterium-deuterium fusion reaction for 132 hours of continuous operation.
 * Energy Matter Conversion Inc Is a company in Santa Fe which has developed large high powered polywell devices for the US Navy.
 * NSD-Gradel-Fusion sealed IEC neutron generators for DD (2.5 MeV) or DT (14 MeV) with a range of maximum outputs are manufactured by Gradel sárl in Luxembourg.
 * Atomic Energy Organization of Iran Researchers at Shahid Beheshti University in Iran have built a $60 cm$ diameter fusor which can produce $20,000,000$ neutrons per second at 80 kilovolts using deuterium gas.
 * Avalanche Energy has received $5 million in venture capital to build their prototype.
 * CPP-IPR in India, has achieved a significant milestone by pioneering the development of India's first Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) neutron source. The device is capable of reaching an energy potential of -92kV. It can generate an neutron yield of up to 107 neutrons per second by deuterium fusion. The primary objective of this program is to propel the advancement of portable and handheld neutron sources, characterized by both linear and spherical geometries.

Universities

 * Tokyo Institute of Technology has four IEC devices of different shapes: a spherical machine, a cylindrical device, a co-axial double cylinder and a magnetically assisted device.
 * University of Wisconsin–Madison – A group at Wisconsin–Madison has several large devices, since 1995.
 * University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign – The fusion studies laboratory has built a ~25 cm fusor which has produced neutrons using deuterium gas.
 * Massachusetts Institute of Technology – For his doctoral thesis in 2007, Carl Dietrich built a fusor and studied its potential use in spacecraft propulsion. Also, Thomas McGuire studied multiple well fusors for applications in spaceflight.
 * University of Sydney has built several IEC devices and also low power, low beta ratio polywells. The first was constructed of Teflon rings and was about the size of a coffee cup. The second has ~12" diameter full casing, metal rings.
 * Eindhoven Technical University
 * Amirkabir University of Technology and Atomic Energy Organization of Iran have investigated the effect of strong pulsed magnetic fields on the neutron production rate of IEC device. Their study showed that by 1-2 Tesla magnetic field it is possible to increase the discharge current and neutron production rate more than ten times with respect to the ordinary operation.
 * The Institute of Space Systems at the University of Stuttgart, is developing IEC devices for plasma physics research and also as an electric propulsion device, the IECT (Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Thruster).

Patents

 * P.T. Farnsworth,, June 1966 (Electric discharge — Nuclear interaction)
 * P.T. Farnsworth, . June 1968 (Method and apparatus)
 * Hirsch, Robert, . September 1970 (Apparatus)
 * Hirsch, Robert, . September 1970 (Generating apparatus — Hirsch/Meeks)
 * Hirsch, Robert, . October 1970 (Lithium-Ion source)
 * Hirsch, Robert, . April 1972 (Reduce plasma leakage)
 * Hirsch, Robert, . May 1972 (Electrostatic containment)
 * R.W. Bussard, "Method and apparatus for controlling charged particles",, May 1989 (Method and apparatus — Magnetic grid fields)
 * R.W. Bussard, "Method and apparatus for creating and controlling nuclear fusion reactions",, November 1992 (Method and apparatus — Ion acoustic waves)
 * S.T. Brookes, "Nuclear fusion reactor", UK patent GB2461267, May 2012
 * T.V. Stanko, "Nuclear fusion device", UK patent GB2545882, July 2017

title: Inertial electrostatic confinement


text:
Sihasapa

The Sihásapa or Blackfoot Sioux are a division of the Lakota people, Titonwan, or Teton.

Sihásapa is the Lakota word for "Blackfoot", whereas Siksiká has the same meaning in the Nitsitapi language, and, together with the Kainah and the Piikani forms the Nitsitapi Confederacy. As a result, the Sihásapa have the same English name as the Blackfoot Confederacy (correctly: Nitsitapi Confederacy), and the nations are sometimes confused with one another.

The Sihásapa lived in the western Dakotas on the Great Plains, and consequently are among the Plains Indians. Their official residence today is the Standing Rock Reservation in North and South Dakota and the Cheyenne River Reservation in South Dakota, home also to the Itazipco (No Bows), the Minneconjou (People Who Live Near Water) and Oohenumpa (Two Kettle), all bands of the Lakota.

Historic Sihásapa thiyóšpaye or Bands
In 1880, John Grass provided a list of the bands (tiyóšpaye) of the Sihasapa:

 * Sihasapa-Hkcha or Sihasapa qtca (“Real Blackfoot”)
 * Kangi-shun Pegnake or Kanxicu pegnake (“Crow Feather Hair Ornaments” or “Wear raven feathers in their hair”)
 * Glaglahecha or Glagla heca (“Slovenly”, “untidy” or “Too lazy to tie their moccasins”)
 * Wazhazha or Wajaje (“Osage”), Kill Eagle’s Band
 * Hohe (“Rebels, i.e. Assiniboine”)
 * Wamnuga Owin or Wamnugaoin (“Cowrie-Shell Earrings” or “Shell ear ornaments or Pendants”)

Famous Sihásapa

 * Cante Peta 'Fire Heart'
 * Mahto Eennahpa 'White Bear'
 * Magashapa 'Goose'
 * Pezi 'Grass'
 * Mahto Wakouah 'Charging Bear' alias Okihe Pezi 'Young Grass' alias 'John Grass'
 * Wambli Kte 'Kill Eagle'
 * Hohay

title: Sihasapa