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Howard University

Howard University is a private, federally chartered historically black research university in Washington, D.C., located in the Shaw neighborhood. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity" and accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education.

Established in 1867, Howard is a nonsectarian institution. It offers undergraduate, graduate and professional degrees in more than 120 programs.

19th century
Shortly after the end of the American Civil War, members of the First Congregational Society of Washington considered establishing a theological seminary for the education of black clergymen. Within a few weeks, the project expanded to include a provision for establishing a university. Within two years, the university consisted of the colleges of liberal arts and medicine. The new institution was named for General Oliver Otis Howard, a Civil War hero who was both the founder of the university and, at the time, commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau. Howard later served as president of the university from 1869 to 1874.

The U.S. Congress chartered Howard on March 2, 1867, and much of its early funding came from endowment, private benefaction and tuition. (In the 20th and 21st centuries, an annual congressional appropriation, administered by the U.S. Department of Education, funds Howard University and Howard University Hospital.)

Many improvements were made on campus. Howard Hall was renovated and made a dormitory for women.

20th century
From 1926 to 1960, preacher Mordecai Wyatt Johnson was Howard University's first African-American president.

The Great Depression years of the 1930s brought hardship to campus. Despite appeals from Eleanor Roosevelt, Howard saw its budget cut below Hoover administration levels during the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt.

In the 1930s, Howard University still had segregated student housing. Howard University played an important role in the Civil Rights Movement on a number of occasions. Alain Locke, chair of the Department of Philosophy and first African American Rhodes Scholar, authored The New Negro (1925), which helped to usher in the Harlem Renaissance. Ralph Bunche, the first Nobel Peace Prize winner of African descent, served as chair of the Department of Political Science. Beginning in 1942, Howard University students pioneered the "stool-sitting" technique of occupying stools at a local cafeteria which denied service to African Americans, blocking other customers waiting for service. This tactic was to play a prominent role in the later Civil Rights Movement. By January 1943, students had begun to organize regular sit-ins and pickets around Washington, D.C. at cigar stores and cafeterias which refused to serve them because of their race. These protests continued until the fall of 1944.

Stokely Carmichael, also known as Kwame Toure, a student in the Department of Philosophy and the Howard University School of Divinity, coined the term "Black Power" and worked in Lowndes County, Alabama as a voting rights activist. Historian Rayford Logan served as chair of the Department of History. E. Franklin Frazier served as chair of the Department of Sociology. Sterling Allen Brown served as chair of the Department of English.

The first sitting president to speak at Howard was Calvin Coolidge in 1924. His graduation speech was entitled, "The Progress of a People", and highlighted the accomplishments to date of African-Americans since the Civil War. His concluding thought was, "We can not go out from this place and occasion without refreshment of faith and renewal of confidence that in every exigency our Negro fellow citizens will render the best and fullest measure of service whereof they are capable."

In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson delivered a speech to the graduating class at Howard, where he outlined his plans for civil rights legislation and endorsed aggressive affirmative action to combat the effects of years of segregation of blacks from the nation's economic opportunities. At the time, the voting rights bill was still pending in the House of Representatives. In 1975, the historic Freedman's Hospital closed after 112 years of use as Howard University College of Medicine's primary teaching hospital. Howard University Hospital opened that same year and continues to be used as HUCM's primary teaching hospital, with service to the surrounding community.

Also in 1975, Jeanne Sinkford became the first female dean of any American dental school when she was appointed as the dean of Howard University's school of dentistry.

In 1989, Howard gained national attention when students rose up in protest against the appointment of then-Republican National Committee Chairman Lee Atwater as a new member of the university's board of trustees. Student activists disrupted Howard's 122nd-anniversary celebrations, and eventually occupied the university's administration building. Within days, both Atwater and Howard's President, James E. Cheek, resigned.

21st century
In April 2007, the head of the faculty senate called for the ouster of Howard University President H. Patrick Swygert, saying the school was in a state of crisis, and it was time to end "an intolerable condition of incompetence and dysfunction at the highest level." This came on the heels of several criticisms of Howard University and its management. The following month, Swygert announced he would retire in June 2008. The university announced in May 2008 that Sidney Ribeau of Bowling Green State University would succeed Swygert as president. Ribeau appointed a Presidential Commission on Academic Renewal to conduct a year-long self-evaluation that resulted in reducing or closing 20 out of 171 academic programs. For example, they proposed closing the undergraduate philosophy major and African studies major. Six years later, in 2013, university insiders again alleged the university was in crisis. In April, the vice chairwoman of the university's board of trustees wrote a letter to her colleagues harshly criticizing the university's president and calling for a vote of no confidence; her letter was subsequently obtained by the media where it drew national headline. Two months later, the university's Council of Deans alleged "fiscal mismanagement is doing irreparable harm," blaming the university's senior vice president for administration, chief financial officer and treasurer and asking for his dismissal. In October, the faculty voted no confidence in the university's board of trustees executive committee, two weeks after university president Sidney A. Ribeau announced he would retire at the end of the year. On October 1, the Board of Trustees named Wayne A. I. Frederick Interim President. In July 2014 Howard's Board of Trustees named Frederick as the school's 17th president. In May 2016, President Barack Obama delivered a commencement address at Howard University encouraging the graduates to become advocates for racial change and to prepare for future challenges.

In 2018, nearly 1,000 students held a sit-in demanding injunction over the administration's use of funding, after a Medium post revealed that six university employees had been fired for "double dipping" financial aid and tuition remission. The university had discovered the fraud the previous year, but had not publicly disclosed the loss; 131 individuals were involved in some form, with the top 50 recipients accounting for 90% of the total, and the five most reimbursed individuals receiving $689,375 in refunds. After the student protest ended, faculty voted "no confidence" in the university president, chief operating officer, provost, and board of trustees. The nine-day protest ended with university officials promising to meet most of their demands. It also led to an investigation by the Department of Education, which placed the university on "heightened cash monitoring", an increased form of scrutiny relating to the disbursement of student financial aid. This monitoring status was rescinded in December of the following year.

In July 2020, philanthropist MacKenzie Scott donated $40 million (~$ in ) to Howard. Her single donation is the largest in Howard's history.

In May 2021, the university announced that the newly re-established college of fine arts, led by Dean Phylicia Rashad, would be named the Chadwick A. Boseman College of Fine Arts for the actor and distinguished alum who from his days as a student in the late 1990s through his death from cancer in 2020 led protests against the 1997 absorption of the College of Fine Arts into the College of Arts & Sciences. In October 2021, a group of students protested the mold, mice, and substandard conditions in campus residential buildings in the Blackburn Takeover, demanding an improvement in the living situation and representation on the board of trustees. In 2023, Howard University issued a $300 million tax-exempt bond to tackle the housing woes, as part of a $785 million investment to renovate and construct academic centers.

In March 2022, Howard University announced that it will spend $785 million over the next four years to construct new STEM complex, academic buildings to house the Chadwick Boseman School of Fine Arts, and the Cathy Hughes School of Communications, as well as renovate other buildings on campus.

In 2023, Howard University was selected by the Department of the Air Force to lead a research center on tactical autonomy technology for military systems.

Campus
The 256 acre campus, often referred to as "The Mecca", is in northwest Washington, D. C. Major improvements, additions and changes occurred at the school in the aftermath of World War I. New buildings were built under the direction of architect Albert Cassell.

Howard University has several historic landmarks on campus, such as Andrew Rankin Memorial Chapel, Frederick Douglass Memorial Hall, and the Founders Library.

The Howard University Gallery of Art was established by Howard's board of trustees in 1928. The gallery's permanent collection has grown to over 4,000 works of art and continues to serve as an academic resource for the Howard community. Howard University has eight residence halls for students: Drew Hall (male freshmen), College Hall North (female freshmen), The Harriet Tubman Quadrangle - "Quad" (female freshmen), Cook Hall (male freshmen), Bethune Annex (co-ed, continuing students), Plaza Towers West (co-ed, continuing students), College Hall South (co-ed, continuing students), The Axis (co-ed, continuing students), Mazza Grandmarc (co-ed, continuing students), WISH-Woodley Park (co-ed, continuing students) and Plaza Towers East (co-ed, continuing students).

Howard University Hospital, opened in 1975 on the eastern end of campus, was built on the site of Griffith Stadium, in use from the 1890s to 1965 as home of the first, second and third incarnations of the MLB Senators, as well as the NFL's Washington Redskins, several college football teams (including Georgetown, GWU and Maryland) and part-time home of the Homestead Grays of the Negro National League.

Howard University is home to the commercial radio station WHUR-FM 96.3, also known as Howard University Radio. A student-run station, WHBC, operates on an HD Radio sub-channel of WHUR-FM. HUR Voices can be heard on SiriusXM Satellite Radio. Howard is also home to the public television station WHUT-TV, located on campus next to WHUR-FM.

Organization
The university is led by a board of trustees that includes a faculty trustee from the undergraduate colleges, a faculty trustee from the graduate and professional colleges serving three-year terms, two student trustees, each serving one-year terms, and three alumni-elected trustees, each serving three-year terms.

Schools and colleges

 * College of Engineering and Architecture
 * College of Nursing & Allied Health Sciences
 * College of Pharmacy
 * College of Arts and Sciences
 * Chadwick Boseman College of Fine Arts
 * Howard University College of Dentistry
 * Howard University School of Business
 * Cathy Hughes School of Communications
 * Howard University College of Medicine
 * Howard University School of Law
 * Middle School of Mathematics and Science
 * School of Divinity
 * School of Education
 * School of Social Work

Faculty
Howard faculty include member of Congress from Maryland Roscoe Bartlett, blood banking pioneer Charles Drew, Emmy-winning actor Al Freeman Jr., suffragist Elizabeth Piper Ensley, civil rights lawyer Charles Hamilton Houston, media entrepreneur Cathy Hughes, marine biologist Ernest Everett Just, professor of surgery LaSalle D. Leffall Jr., sociology professor Anaheed Al-Hardan, journalists Nikole Hannah-Jones and Ta-Nehisi Coates, political consultant Ron Walters, political activist Stacey Abrams, novelist and diplomat E. R. Braithwaite, filmmaker Haile Gerima, and psychiatrist Frances Cress Welsing.

Honors programs
Howard offers four selective honors programs for its most high-achieving undergraduate students: the College of Arts & Sciences Honors Program, the School of Education Honors Program, the Executive Leadership Honors Program in the School of Business, and the Annenberg Honors Program in the School of Communications.

Martha and Bruce Karsh STEM Scholars Program
In 2017, Howard established the Bison STEM Scholars Program to increase the number of underrepresented minorities with high-level research careers in science, engineering, technology, and mathematics. Bison STEM Scholars are given full scholarships and committed to earning a PhD or a combined MD–PhD in a STEM discipline. The highly competitive program annually accepts approximately 30 undergraduate students for each new cohort. As of 2020, the Bison STEM Scholars Program was renamed the Martha and Bruce Karsh Stem Scholars Program (KSSP) following the $10 million (~$ in ) donation from the family's foundation.

Google's Tech Exchange
In 2017, Google Inc. announced it established a pilot residency program named "Howard University West" on its campus in Mountain View, California, to help increase underrepresented minorities in the tech industry. In 2018, the program expanded from a three-month summer program to a full academic year program and the name changed to "Tech Exchange" to be inclusive of 15 other minority-serving institutions added to the program such as Florida A&M, Prairie View A&M, and Fisk. Howard students in the program learn from senior Google engineers, practice the latest coding techniques, and experience tech culture in Mountain View for course credits towards their degrees.

Disney Storyteller Fund
In July 2022, the Walt Disney Company announced it established the Disney Storytellers Fund at the Cathy Hughes School of Communications and the Chadwick A. Boseman College of Fine Arts to support creative student projects. The fund provides undergraduate students with stipends up to $60,000 and mentorship intended to help cultivate a new generation of Black storytellers. In October 2022, the fund expanded to other HBCU campuses.

Interdisciplinary Research Building
Howard's most prominent research building is the Interdisciplinary Research Building (IRB). Opened in 2016, the multi-story, 81,670 square foot, state-of-the-art research facility was completed for $70 million (~$ in ). The IRB was designed to promote more collaborative and innovative research on campus.

Moorland-Spingarn Research Center
"The Moorland-Spingarn Research Center (MSRC) is recognized as one of the world's largest and most comprehensive repositories for the documentation of the history and culture of people of African descent in Africa, the Americas, and other parts of the world. The MSRC collects, preserves, and makes available for research a wide range of resources chronicling black experiences."

NASA University Research Center (BCCSO)
The Beltsville Center for Climate System Observation (BCCSO) is a NASA University Research Center at the Beltsville, Maryland campus of Howard University. BCCSO consists of a multidisciplinary group of Howard faculty in partnership with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Earth Sciences Division, other academic institutions, and government. This group is led by three Principal Investigators, Everette Joseph, also the director of BCCSO, Demetrius Venable and Belay Demoz. BCCSO trains science and academic leaders to understand atmospheric processes through atmospheric observing systems and analytical methods.

Publications
Howard University is home to The Hilltop, the university's student newspaper. Founded in 1924 by Zora Neale Hurston, The Hilltop enjoys a long legacy at the university.

Howard University is the publisher of The Journal of Negro Education, which began publication in 1932. The Howard University Bison Yearbook is created, edited and published during the school year to provide students a year-in-review. Howard University also publishes the Capstone, the official e-newsletter for the university; and the Howard Magazine, the official magazine for the university, which is published three times a year.

Howard University Libraries

In Dec 2, 1907 Andrew Carnegie granted $50,000 to establish the first library which was located in what today is the Carnegie Building, it operated in the building until 1937.

Howard University Libraries (HUL) is the library system of Howard University and is composed by eight branches and centers:
 * The Founders Library, the main library, founded in January 1939.
 * The School of Business Library
 * The School of Divinity Library
 * The School of Social Work Library
 * The Moorland-Spingarn Research Center
 * The Channing Pollock Theatre Collection
 * The Patent and Trademark Resource Center
 * The Undergraduate Library (UGL).
 * Afro-American Studies Center

Athletics
Most of Howard's 21 NCAA Division I varsity teams compete in the Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC).

Students
Howard is one of the five largest HBCUs in the nation with around 10,000 students. The student-to-faculty ratio is 7:1. Howard is a selective institution. The incoming freshman class of fall 2021 had 29,391 applicants and 10,362 (35%) were accepted into Howard.

There are over 200 student organizations and special interest groups established on campus.

Howard produced four Rhodes Scholars between 1986 and 2017. Between 1998 and 2009, Howard University produced a Marshall Scholar, two Truman Scholars, twenty-two Fulbright Scholars and ten Pickering Fellows.

In 2020, 82% of first-year students received need-based financial aid.

Greek letter organizations
Howard University has many academic and social Greek letter organizations on campus. Howard is the founding site of the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) and five of the nine NPHC organizations. Also, Howard is one of four HBCUs with a chapter of Phi Beta Kappa which is the oldest academic honor society in the U.S.

Howard Homecoming
Howard Homecoming week is the most prominent and richest cultural tradition of the institution. Over 100,000 of alumni, students, celebrity guests, and visitors are in attendance to patronize the many events and attractions affiliated with the festive week on and near campus. While the specific calendar of events changes from year to year, the traditional homecoming events include the Homecoming Football Game and Tailgate, Pep Rally, Coronation Ball, Greek Step-Show (Howard NPHC Greeks), and Fashion Show. After a two-year hiatus, the Yardfest returned in 2016 as one of the cherished traditions.

Howard's first official homecoming was held in 1924 and it takes place every fall semester with a new theme developed by the homecoming committee.

Springfest
Springfest is an annual tradition created by the Undergraduate Student Association (UGSA) to celebrate the arrival of spring. Springfest is similar to homecoming week in the fall but on a smaller scale and with more emphasis on the student body. Springfest events traditionally include the Fashion Show, Talent Show, Vendor Fair, Poetry Showcase, Beauty Conference, Charity Basketball Game, and a major community service event. The schedule of events changes slightly each year.

Bison Ball
The Bison Ball and Excellence Awards is an annual black tie gala hosted by the Howard University Student Association (HUSA). A select number of students, faculty, organizations, and administrators from the Howard community are honored for their exceptional accomplishments. This event takes place near the end of every spring semester.

Resfest
Resfest week is a Howard tradition that involves freshmen living in residence halls on campus competing in several organized competitions (field day, academic debate, dance, stroll, step-show, etc.) for campus bragging rights. This event takes place on campus near the end of every spring semester.

Notable alumni
Distinguished alumni of Howard University include the current Vice President of the United States, several United States diplomats and United States governors, a United States Ambassador to the United Nations, foreign royals, seven foreign heads of state, 11 members of United States Congress, a Supreme Court Justice, directors and executives of Fortune 500 companies, Academy Award– and Emmy Award–winning actors, Grammy Award—winning songwriters and producers, two US Army generals, a US Air Force general and Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, and Nobel laureates including Nobel Prize for Literature winner Toni Morrison. Additional alumni include civil rights activists and pioneers in the Civil Rights Movement, a United States Secretary of Health and Human Services, a United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, a United States Secretary of Agriculture, a United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs, a United States Secretary of the Army, a United States Deputy Secretary of Commerce, 12 Mayors of American cities, and three State Attorneys General. Howard University has also produced many firsts, including Roger Arliner Young who became the first African-American woman to receive a doctorate in zoology, Benjamin O. Davis Sr. the first African-American US Army general, Frederic E. Davison the first African-American US Army Major General and the first to command a US Army Infantry Division, Johnson O. Akinleye, 12th Chancellor of North Carolina Central University, Thurgood Marshall, the first African-American Supreme Court justice, and Edward W. Brooke III who became the first African-American elected to the US Senate, among others. Howard University also counts four Rhodes Scholarship winners, 22 Pickering Fellows, 11 Truman Scholars, over 70 Fulbright Scholars, a Schwarzman Scholar, a Goldwater Scholar, and two Pulitzer Prize winners and numerous other Pulitzer Prize nominees among its alumni. To date Howard University has granted over 120,000 degrees and produces the most black doctorate recipients of any university.

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Dnyaneshwar

Sant Dnyaneshwar (Marathi pronunciation: [d̪ɲyaːn̪eʃʋəɾ]), also referred to as Dnyaneshwar, Dnyanadeva, Dnyandev or Mauli or Dnyaneshwar Vitthal Kulkarni (1275–1296), was a 13th-century Indian Marathi saint, poet, philosopher and yogi of the Nath and Varkari tradition. In his short life of 21 years, he authored Dnyaneshwari (a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita) and Amrutanubhav. These are the oldest surviving literary works in the Marathi language, and considered to be milestones in Marathi literature. Sant Dnyaneshwar's ideas reflect the non-dualistic Advaita Vedanta philosophy and an emphasis on Yoga and bhakti towards Vithoba, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. His legacy inspired saint-poets such as Eknath and Tukaram, and he is one of the founders of the Varkari (Vithoba-Krishna) Bhakti movement tradition of Hinduism in Maharashtra. Dnyaneshwar undertook samadhi at Alandi in 1296 by entombing himself in an underground chamber.

Biography
Dnyaneshwar was born in 1275 (on the auspicious day of Krishna Janmashtami) in a Marathi-speaking Deshastha Brahmin family in Apegaon village on the banks of Godavari river near Paithan in Maharashtra during the reign of the Yadava king Ramadevarava. The kingdom with its capital Devagiri enjoyed relative peace and stability, and the king was a patron of literature and arts.

Biographical details of Sant Dnyaneshwar's life are preserved in the writings of his disciples, Satyamalanath and Sachchidanand. The various traditions give conflicting accounts of details of Dnyaneshwar's life. The date of composition of his work Dnyaneshwari (1290 CE), however is undisputed. According to the more accepted tradition on Dnyaneshwar's life, he was born in 1275 CE and he attained samadhi in 1296 CE. Other sources state he was born in 1271 CE.

Life
The biographical details of Dnyaneshwar's short life of about 21 years are contested and its authenticity is in doubt. The available accounts are filled with hagiographic legends and miracles he performed, such as his ability to make a buffalo sing the Vedas and humble a yogi by riding a moving wall.

According to the accounts that have survived, Dnyaneshwar's father Vitthalapant was the kulkarni (hereditary accountant, usually Brahmin, who maintained land and tax records in villages) of a village called Apegaon on the banks of the Godavari River in Maharashtra, a profession he had inherited from his ancestors. He married Rakhumabai, the daughter of the Kulkarni of Alandi. Even as a householder, Vitthalapant longed for spiritual learning. His disillusionment with life grew as a result of the death of his father and because he had no children from his marriage. Eventually, with his wife's consent, he renounced worldly life and left for Kashi to become a sannyasin (renunciate). According to another version of these events Dnyaneshwar's father Vitthalapant came from a long line of teachers of the Nath yogi sect and being deeply religious, he went on a pilgrimage to Varanasi. There he met a guru (spiritual teacher), decided to renounce without his wife's consent.

Vitthalapant was initiated by his spiritual teacher, Ramanandacharya, who is also called Ramananda in Kashi. When Ramananda Swami visited Alan-di and met Rukminibai by chance, he blessed her saying, “May you lead a happy married life.” With tears in her eyes, Rukmini said that it was not possible since her husband had gone away to Kashi and become a sanyasin. On finding out that her husband was none other than his disciple Vitthalapant, Ramananda Swami, on returning to Kashi, reprimanded Vitthalapant and sent him back to Alandi. At Alandi, he rejoined his wife and again became a householder. After Vitthalapant returned to his wife and settled down in Alandi, Rakhumabai gave birth to four children—Nivruttinath (1273 CE), Dnyaneshwar (1275 CE), Sopan (1277 CE) and Muktabai (1279 CE).

Orthodox Brahmins of the day saw a renunciate returning to his life as a householder as heresy. Dnyaneshwar and his brothers were denied the right to have the sacred thread ceremony for the full admission to the Brahmin caste. According to Pawar, this meant excommunication from the Brahmin caste.

Vitthalapant eventually left the town for Nashik with his family. One day while performing his daily rituals, Vitthalapant came face to face with a tiger. Vitthalapant and three of his four children escaped, but Nivruttinath became separated from the family and hid in a cave. While hiding in the cave he met Gahaninath, who initiated Nivruttinath into the wisdom of the Nath yogis. Later, Vitthalapant returned to Alandi and asked the Brahmins to suggest a means of atonement for his sins; they suggested giving up his life as penance. Vitthalapant and his wife gave up their lives, within a year of each other by jumping into the Indrayani river in the hope their children might be able to lead lives free of persecution. Other sources and local folk tradition claim that the parents committed suicide by jumping in the Indrayani River. Another version of the legend states that Vitthalapant, the father threw himself into Ganges River to expiate his sin.

Dnyaneshwar and his siblings were accepted by and initiated into the Nath Hindu live tradition to which their parents already belonged, where the three brothers and the sister Muktabai all became celebrated yogis and Bhakti poets.

Travel and demise
After Dnyaneshwar had written Amrutanubhav, the siblings visited Pandharpur where they met Namdev, who became a close friend of Dnyaneshwar. Dnyaneshwar and Namadev embarked on a pilgrimage to various holy centers across India where they initiated many people into the Varkari sect; Dnyaneshwar's devotional compositions called Abhangas are believed to have been formulated during this period. On their return to Pandharpur, Dnyaneshwar and Namadev were honored with a feast in which, according to Bahirat, many contemporary saints such as "Goroba the potter, Sanvata the gardener, Chokhoba the untouchable and Parisa Bhagwat the Brahmin" participated. Some scholars accept the traditional view that Namdev and Dnyaneshwar were contemporaries; however, others such as W. B. Patwardhan, R. G. Bhandarkar and R. Bharadvaj disagree with this view and date Namdev to the late 14th century instead.

After the feast, Dnyaneshwar desired to go into sanjeevan samadhi, a practice to voluntarily leave one's mortal body after entering into a deep meditative state, as practiced in Ashtanga Yoga of ancient India. Preparations for the Sanjeevan Samadhi were made by Namdev's sons. Regarding Sanjeevan Samadhi, Dnyaneshwar himself had emphatically talked about the relationship between higher awareness and light or pure energy. On the 13th day of the dark half of the Kartik month of the Hindu Calendar, in Alandi, Dnyaneshwar, who was then twenty-one years old, entered into Sanjeevan samadhi. His samadhi lies in the Siddhesvara Temple complex in Alandi. Namdev and other bystanders grieved his death. According to tradition, Dnyaneshwar was brought back to life to meet Namdev when the latter prayed to Vithoba for his return. Dallmayr writes that this testifies to "the immortality of genuine friendship and companionship of noble and loving hearts". Many Varkari devotees believe that Dnyaneshwar is still alive.

Miracles
There are a few stories about miracles came to be associated with Dnyaneshwar's life, one of which was the revival of his disciple Sachchidanand's corpse. Fred Dallmyr summarizes one of these legends as follows from the hagiography by Mahipati: At age 12, Dnyaneshwar with his impoverished and outcaste siblings, went to Paithan to plead mercy from Paithan priests. There, they were insulted and ridiculed. As the children were suffering the bullying, on a nearby road was a man who was violently lashing an old buffalo, and the injured animal collapsed in tears. Dnyaneshwar asked the buffalo owner to stop out of concern for the animal. The priests ridiculed him for being more concerned about a beast and unconcerned about the teachings of the Vedas. Dnyaneshwar retorted that the Vedas themselves held all life to be sacred and a manifestation of the Brahman. The outraged priests pointed out that his logic implied that beasts should be able to learn the Vedas as well. An undeterred Dnyaneshwar then placed his hand on the buffalo's forehead and it started reciting a Vedic verse in a deep voice. According to Fred Dallmayr, one may not be concerned whether this story accurately reflects Dnyaneshwar's biography, the story does have symbolic significance in the same manner as the story about Jesus in Jerusalem in Matthew 3:9.

In another miracle, Dnyaneshwar was challenged by Changdev, an accomplished yogi who rode on a tiger with his magical powers, to replicate this feat. Dnyaneshwar humbled Changdev by riding on a moving wall. Dnyaneshwar's advice to Changdev was given in 65 verses called the Changdev Pasasthi. Changdev became a disciple of Dnyaneshwar's sister Muktabai.

Writings
According to B. P. Bahirat, Dnyaneshwar was the first known philosopher who wrote in the Marathi language. At about age 16, he composed Dnyaneshwari in the year 1290, a commentary on Bhagavad Gita which later became a fundamental text of the Varkari sect. His words were recorded by Sacchidananda, who agreed to become Dnyaneshwar's amanuensis. Dnyaneshwari was written using the Ovi; a metre, which was first used to compose women's songs in Maharashtra, of four lines where the first three or the first and third lines rhyme and the fourth line has a sharp and short ending. According to W. B. Patwardhan, a scholar on Dnyaneshwar, with Dnyaneshwar the ovi "trips, it gallops, it dances, it whirls, it ambles, it trots, it runs, it takes long leaps or short jumps, it halts or sweeps along, it evolves a hundred and one graces at the master's command". In Dnyaneshwari, at last he wrote "Pasaayadana" in which he prayed everything for others and all humanity and nothing for himself. Saint Dnyaneshwar himself believed that "The whole world has one soul- या विश्वाचा आत्मा एक आहे".

His first text Dnyanesvari was in the vernacular Marathi language, as opposed to the classical Sanskrit language. He wrote Dnyaneshwari in the Marathi language so that common people could understand philosophical aspects of life which were then understood only by those who knew Sanskrit (i.e. the higher priestly classes). Thus, this was a significant work in Indian history which simplified philosophy to the common man.

According to Bhagwat, like other Bhakti poets, Dnyaneshwar's choice of the vernacular language was an important departure from the prevailing cultural hegemony of Sanskrit and high–caste Hinduism, a trend which continued with later bhakti poets across India. Dnyaneshwar is to the Marathi literature what Dante is to the Italian, states Bhagwat.

According to tradition, Nivruttinath was not satisfied with the commentary and asked Dnyaneshwar to write an independent philosophical work. This work later came to be known as Amrutanubhava. Scholars differ on the chronology of the Dnyaneshwari and Amrutanubhav. Patwardhan has argued that Amrutanubhav is an earlier text than Dnyaneshwari because the latter is richer in use of metaphors and imagery, and displays greater familiarity with many different philosophical systems, such as Samkhya and Yoga. However, both Bahirat and Ranade disagree with this view pointing out that in Amrutanubhava, author displays familiarity with involved philosophical concepts such as Mayavada and Shunyavada, and while the text has simpler language, it reveals Dnyaneshwar's "philosophical depth".

Dnyaneshwar's devotional compositions called Abhangas are believed to have been formulated during his pilgrimage to Pandharpur and other holy places when he got initiated into the Varkari tradition.

Influences
The Mahanubhava sect and the Nath Yogi tradition were two prominent movements during Dnyaneshwar's time that influenced his works. Mahanubhavas were devotees of Krishna who disregarded the caste system, the Vedas and the worship of the deity Vitthala. Dnyaneshwar differed significantly from Mahanubhava's religious precepts. His thought was founded on the philosophy of the later Vedic texts such as the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita, and devotion to Vitthala formed the cornerstone of the egalitarian Varkari sect founded by Dnyaneshwar. However, the literary style adopted by Mahanubhava writers influenced Dnyaneshwar's works. According to R. D. Ranade, Dnyaneshwar "stands to Mahanubhavas just in the same relation which Shakespeare stood to Elizabethan writers".

Dnyaneshwar was initiated into the Nath Yogi tradition by his brother Nivruttinath, sometime after the death of their parents; Sopana and Muktabai were initiated into the tradition by Dnyaneshwar himself. Founded by Gorakshanath, the Nath Yogi sect had introduced the system of Hatha Yoga, which emphasised on yogic poses and physical fitness. Gahaninath, a disciple of Gorakshanath, had initiated Nivruttinath into the Nath Yogi tradition. Dnyaneshwar's non-dualistic philosophy, usage of a vernacular language in his writing and an emphasis on yoga and oneness of Vishnu and Shiva were his inheritances from the Nath Yogi tradition.

The values of Universal brotherhood and compassion espoused in his works came from his interactions with the devotional Vitthala sect, a tradition which was already in existence during Dnyaneshwar's time. J. N. Farquhar also notes the influence of Bhagavata Purana on Dnyaneshwar's poetry.

Ontology and epistemology
Dnyaneshwar takes up the examination of being or brahman in Amrutanubhava. He considers being to be the substratum of thought which enables thought and cognition. Since being is prior to thought and concepts, it is distinct from Kantian categories, and methods of thought such as epistemological analysis cannot be applied to it. Dnyaneshwar believes that reality is self–evident and does not require any proof. It antedates dualistic divisions into knower and known, existence and nonexistence, subject and object, knowledge and ignorance.

Dnyaneshwar highlights the limitations of the traditional epistemological methods (pramanas) used in Indian philosophy. He points out that any perception is validated only by another deeper understanding, while in establishing the rationality of reason, reason itself is transcended. Dnyaneshwar even cautions against reliance on scriptural testimony, which is accepted as a valid source of knowledge by philosophers of Vedanta and Mīmāṃsā schools of philosophy. Scriptural validity, to him, stems from its congruence with experiential truth and not vice versa.

Ethics
Dnyaneshwar's moral philosophy comes out in his exposition of the 13th of Bhagavad Gita, in his commentary on the book Dnyaneshwari. He considers humility; non–injury in action, thought and words; forbearance in the face of adversity; dispassion towards sensory pleasures; purity of heart and mind; love of solitude and devotion towards one's Guru and God as virtues; and their corresponding moral opposites as vices. A pessimistic view of one's life is considered as a necessary condition for spiritual growth in Dnyaneshwari. Dnyaneshwar writes that saints do not perceive distinctions and are humble because they identify all objects, animate or inanimate, with their own Self.

Devotion to Guru occupies an important place throughout the commentary. Many of its chapters begin with an invocation to his Guru Nivruttinath, who is eulogized by Dnyaneshwar as the person who helped him "cross the ocean of existence". The discussion on virtue and vices continues in his elucidation of the 16th chapter of Bhagavad Gita, where virtues and vices are called divine heritages and demonic heritages respectively. Divine heritage comprises fearlessness, which comes from a belief in unity of all objects; charity; sacrifice, which comes from performing one's duties and compassion in addition to virtues already enumerated; while demonic heritage consists of six vices— ignorance, anger, arrogance, hypocrisy, harshness and pride.

The doctrine of Karma Yoga in the Bhagavad Gita is resurrected in Dnyaneshwari and its utility as a means of achieving actionlessness through action and in establishing harmony between the two is examined. In the fourth chapter, the ideal karma yogi's actions are compared to the apparent movement of the Sun, which while appearing to rise and set is actually stationary; similarly, a karma yogi, though appears to act, doesn't really act. Performance of one's duties, acting without egoism, renunciation of the fruits of one's actions and offering one's actions to God are four ways which, according to Dnyaneshwar, result in actionlessness and Self–realisation. Dnyaneshwar's metaphysical conclusion that the world is a manifestation of the divine, and not an illusion, also creates an ethical framework which rejects renunciation and recommends performing one's duties and actions in the spirit of worship.

Traditional Indian scriptures see Ṛta, a Hindu theological term similar to dharma, as a natural law that governs both the cosmos and human society. Performance of one's duties to uphold social institutions, such as marriage and family, thus becomes imperative, and duty overrides individual freedom. Dnyaneshwar is in agreement with tradition; he believes that divine order and moral order are one and the same and are inherent in the universe itself. He, therefore, recommends that all social institutions be protected and preserved in their totality. However, when it comes to the institution of caste, his approach becomes more humanitarian and he advocates spiritual egalitarianism.

Reception and legacy
Elements of Dnyaneshwar's life and writings, such as his criticism of parochialism of the priestly elite, a celebration of the family life and spiritual egalitarianism, would shape the culture of the Varkari movement. According to Dallmayr, Dnyaneshwar's life and writings have "developed into primary exemplars of genuine religiosity for the Varkari movement, as well as crucial sources and focal points of bhakti devotion".

Devotees of the Varkari sect in the Hindu Shaka month of Ashadh join an annual pilgrimage called the Wari with symbolic Sandals (called Paduka in Marathi) of Dynaneshwar carried in a palkhi from Dnyaneshwar's shrine in Alandi to the Vitthala temple in Pandharpur. The Padukas (sandals) of Dnyaneshwar are carried in a Palkhi (palanquin) for the Dnyaneshwar inspired works of later poet-saints of the Varkari movement.

His philosophy of chidvilas was adapted by Varkari writers, such as Namdev and Eknath, to their own works. Amrutanubhava's influence is visible in Eknath's Hastamalak and Swatmsukha. Tukaram's works imbibe and explain Dnyaneshwar's philosophical concepts such as the refutation of Mayavada.

In popular culture
A 1940 Marathi film, Sant Dnyaneshwar, directed by Vishnupant Govind Damle and Sheikh Fattelal, was a biopic on Sant Dnyaneshwar's life. Since 2021, a Marathi language TV serial named 'Dnyaneshwar Mauli' is airing on the Sony Marathi channel.

Works
Undisputed authorship
 * Dnyaneshwari or Bhavarthdipika (1290 CE)
 * Amrutanubhava or Anubhavamrita (1292 CE)
 * Changdev Pasashti (1294 CE)
 * Haripath
 * Abhangas

Works attributed to Dnyaneshwar
 * Commentary on Yoga Vasistha
 * Pavana-Vijaya
 * Pancikarana

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dnyaneshwar


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Neue Deutsche Welle

Neue Deutsche Welle (NDW,, "New German Wave") is a genre of West German rock music originally derived from post-punk and new wave music with electronic influences. The term was first coined by Dutch radio DJ Frits Spits on the popular nationwide radio station Hilversum 3, which was very popular among German listeners. Soon after that, the term was used in a record-shop advertisement by Burkhardt Seiler in an August 1979 issue of the West German magazine Sounds. It was then used by journalist Alfred Hilsberg in an article about the movement titled Neue Deutsche Welle — Aus grauer Städte Mauern ("New German Wave — From Grey Cities' Walls") in Sounds in October 1979.

History
The history of the Neue Deutsche Welle consists of two major parts. From its beginnings to 1981, the genre was mostly an underground movement with roots in British punk and new wave music. It quickly developed into an original and distinct style, influenced in no small part by the different sound and rhythm of the German language, which many of the bands had adapted from early on. Whilst some of the lyrics of artists like Nena and Ideal epitomized the zeitgeist of urban West Germany during the Cold War, others used the language in a surreal way, merely playing with its sound or graphic quality rather than using it to express meaning, as done by bands and artists such as Spliff, Joachim Witt and Trio.

The main centers of the NDW movement during these years were West Berlin, Düsseldorf, Hamburg, Hanover and Hagen, as well as, to a lesser extent, the Frankfurt Rhein-Main Region, Limburg an der Lahn and Vienna.

From about 1980 on, the music industry began noticing the Neue Deutsche Welle; however, because of the idiosyncratic nature of the music, focus shifted to creating new bands more compatible with the mainstream rather than promoting existing bands. Many one-hit wonders and short-lived bands appeared and were forgotten again in rapid succession. The overly broad application of the NDW label to these bands, as well as to almost any German musicians not using English lyrics, even if their music was apparently not influenced at all by the original NDW sound (including pure rock bands like BAP or even Udo Lindenberg), quickly led to the decay of the entire genre when many of the original musicians turned their backs in frustration.

A revival of interest in the style in the Anglophone world occurred in 2003, with the release of DJ Hell's compilation New Deutsch. The NDW has come to be acknowledged as a forerunner to later developments in dance-punk, electronic body music and electroclash.

In the 2000s, the term was used by the Berlin-based rap label Aggro Berlin to describe a supposed new German rap movement of which they claimed to be a part. This was the subject of Aggro artist Fler's 2005 single NDW 2005. The band Wir sind Helden was also influenced by the Neue Deutsche Welle.

title: Neue Deutsche Welle


text:
Chrysler 300 letter series

The Chrysler 300 "letter series" are high-performance personal luxury cars that were built by Chrysler in the U.S. from 1955 to 1965 and were a sub-model from the Chrysler New Yorker. After the initial year, which was named C-300 for its standard 300 hp 331 CID FirePower V8, the 1956 cars were designated 300B. Successive model years were given the next letter of the alphabet as a suffix (skipping "i"), reaching the 300L by 1965, after which the model sequence was discontinued while the "300" remained. At its introduction it was advertised as "America's Most Powerful Car".

The 300 "letter series" cars were among the vehicles built by Chrysler after World War II that focused on performance, and thus can be considered the beginning of the muscle car, though full-sized and more expensive. Chrysler had a long history of producing race car products going back to the Chrysler Six that was entered in the 1925 24 Hours of Le Mans, 1928 24 Hours of Le Mans, 1929 24 Hours of Le Mans, and the Chrysler Imperial Eight roadster in the 1931 24 Hours of Le Mans. The 1955 C-300 and the 1956 300B were raced with very little modification at NASCAR races to include Watkins Glen International where it won races multiple times.

The automaker reintroduced the 300 designations again for performance-luxury sedans in 1999, using the 300M nameplate from 1999 to 2004, and expanding the 300 series with a reintroduction of a new Hemi-engineered V8 installed in the 300C, the top model of a new Chrysler 300 line, a new rear-wheel drive car launched in 2004 for the 2005 model year.

1955 C-300
This first of the letter series cars did not bear a letter, but can retroactively be considered the '300A'. The 'C-' designation was applied to all Chrysler models and the coupe was built on the C-68 New Yorker Series. For marketing purposes the car was called the "300" in order to further reinforce the 300 hp engine installed. The C-300 was a racecar aimed at the NASCAR circuits that was sold for private ownership to qualify for homologation purposes, with Chrysler's most powerful engine, the OHV 331 CID FirePower "Hemi" V8, due to the hemispheric shape of the cylinder head, fitted with dual four barrel carburetors, two overhead valves per cylinder with solid valve lifters, a race-profiled camshaft installed inside the engine cylinder block, stiffer front and rear suspension, and a low restriction performance exhaust system. This engine was exclusive to the 300, the New Yorker and the all-new Imperial Newport. By 1956, this would be the first American production car to top 355 hp, and the letter series was for many years the most powerful car produced in the United States. The engine and transmission were shared with the French automaker Facel Vega in the Facel Vega Excellence and the Cunningham C-4R which was entered at the 1954 24 Hours of Le Mans and finished the race. With the growing popularity of European sports cars during the late 1940s, Chrysler sought to create a "drivers car" with sports car performance but with greater attention to comfort. in the growing post-WWII tradition of grand tourers.

The car's "100-Million Dollar Look" styling can be attributed as much to the Chrysler parts bin as designer Virgil Exner. The front clip, including the grille, was taken from the Imperial of the same year, but the rest of the car did not look like an Imperial. The midsection was from a New Yorker hardtop, with a Windsor rear quarter. Exner also included base-model Chrysler bumpers and removed many exterior elements such as back-up lights, hood ornament, side trim, and exterior mirrors. An electric clock and two-speed windshield wipers were standard. There were few options available including selection of three exterior colors of Black, Tango Red or Platinum White and only one color of tan leather interior. Power windows and power front seat adjustment were available but air conditioning was not available in 1955.

Measured at 127.58 mph in the Flying Mile, and doing well in NASCAR, the C-300 aroused interest that was not reflected in its modest sales figure of 1,725, and the listed retail price of US$4,100 ($0 in dollars ).

When the C-300 competed in NASCAR, it was painted to advertise that it was the "world's fastest stock car". In February 1954 the Mercedes-Benz 300 SL was introduced and sold in North America and was labeled the fastest production car of its time. The Chrysler C-300 was also introduced at the same time the BMW 503 was introduced and sold in North America. The Bentley Continental with a similar approach to driving experience was introduced in 1952.

1956 300B
The 1956 300B was fairly similar externally, distinguished by a new tailfin treatment, but with larger engines, and a choice of two versions of the 354 CID Hemi V8 producing either 340 or 355 hp, with a 10:1 compression ratio used to achieve the higher horsepower rating. A companion of this generation was introduced as the DeSoto Adventurer and the Dodge D-500 that were less luxurious, while still sharing much of the mechanicals, giving DeSoto and Dodge a performance enhanced model, while the 354 CID engine was exclusive to the 300, New Yorker and Imperials. The TorqueFlite transmission controls were to the left of the steering wheel and a total of 1,102 were sold. Performance was better than the previous year's by its top speed at almost 140 mph at the Daytona Flying Mile. A 6.17 ratio rear differential was also added to the options. Front leg room was 44.6 inches. New was the Highway Hi-Fi phonograph player. This was the last year that coil springs were used for the front suspension.

With the optional 10:1 compression ratio, brake horsepower became 355 hp from the same 354 CID engine, and the 300B became the first American car to produce 1 horsepower per cubic inch, besting Chevrolet with their fuel-injected 283 CID by one year. Colors were updated to Regimental Red, Cloud White and Black while the tan leather interior remained.

NASCAR team owner Carl Kiekhaefer's raced the 300B, among other cars, and won 22 out of 41 races, including 16 races consecutively; One of his racers was famous racer Buck Baker, who drove 300B's. Kiekhaefer would purchase cars from Chrysler and modify a few appearance features but essentially raced the cars as they were, with leather interior and other standard features, on the racetrack. The listed retail price was $4,242 ($0 in dollars ).

1957 300C
The 1957 model year 300C was corporately shared with an all new appearance for Chrysler products called the "Forward Look" and featuring a "yawning" wide trapezoid-shaped front grille which was unique to the 300C, "Vista-Dome" windshield, dual headlights, and gradually rising tailfins starting from the doors similar to Chrysler-branded products. The wheel diameter changed from 15 in to 14 in while continuing to use drum brakes for all wheels, and to keep the front brakes cool a cooling duct was installed with the air intake located just below the headlights that fed air directly to the front brakes. The exterior color list was expanded to offer Jet Black, Parade Green metallic, Copper Brown metallic, Gauguin Red and Cloud White while the interior was tan leather standard and optional interior choices were available from the New Yorker list of which the 300 was based.

The Hemi engine was upgraded to 392 CID with 375 hp, or as a limited edition 390 hp version (18 built). The 392 CID engine was exclusive to the 300, New Yorker and Imperials, while the dual four barrel carburetors was standard on the 300C and continued with an improved air induction system that gave each carburetor its own air cleaner to improve efficiency. A convertible model was available for the first time and was listed at US$5,359 ($0 in dollars ) while the two-door hardtop was listed at US$4,929 ($0 in  dollars ). In comparison, a 1957 Imperial Crown Convertible was listed at US$5,598 ($0 in dollars ). GM's Pontiac Division introduced the Pontiac Bonneville as a convertible only, offering fuel injection and a similar price tag but offered lower luxury content and a reduced price for 1958, and Mercury offered the Mercury Turnpike Cruiser for 1957 with the optional 430 cuin Super Marauder V8.

The car introduced red, white, and blue '300C' circular medallions on the sides, hood, trunk, and interior and was the first model to use the color scheme, and despite the late-1950s design trends that added ever increasing amounts of chrome, styling flourishes, intricate grilles and interior appearance features the styling of the 300C and subsequent generations remained minimal. A total of 1,918 coupes and 484 convertibles were built. All Chrysler products introduced the all-new torsion bar front suspension, called Torsion-Aire, which replaced the previous coil spring front suspension and the new Airtemp air-conditioner, a $495 option, was offered ($0 in dollars ).

1958 300D
The 1958 model year was to be the last use of the FirePower Hemi in the 300. The engine was still 392 CID, but tuned to 380 hp as standard, while the 392 CID engine was exclusive to the 300 and Imperials. Thirty-five cars were built with an extremely rare option called the Bendix "Electrojector" fuel injection, with which the 392 CID V8 was rated at 390 bhp. Due to reliability problems with the primitive onboard computer which controlled the injection system, however, vehicles installed with the fuel injection option were recalled and retrofitted with dual four barrel carburetors. Cars that were originally installed with the fuel injection had a special "300D" badge attached to the rear fender with additional "fuel injection" script included.

Due to the 300D continuing to be a sub-model of the New Yorker, luxury amenities were included. Standard items were leather upholstery, power assist steering, power assist brakes, power window lifts, dual remote adjustable side view mirrors, power adjustable driver seat, "Air-Temp" air-conditioning, power deploying radio antenna, tinted glass, rear window defroster, windshield washer, Limited-slip differential, Hi-Fi Phonograph, and "Auto-Pilot" cruise control. The exterior color list was updated to offer Raven Black, Aztec Turquoise, Mesa Tan, Tahitian Coral, Matador Red and Ermine White while the interior was tan leather standard and optional interior choices were available from the New Yorker list of which the 300 was based.

A 300D was driven to 156.387 mph at the Bonneville Salt Flats that year, and another was driven at the Daytona Flying Mile, producing a quarter-mile time of 16 seconds at 94 mph. A total of 618 hardtops and 191 convertibles were produced, in part due to a recession, competition from the Ford Thunderbird and the listed retail price of US$5,173 ($0 in dollars ) for the hardtop and US$5,603 ($0 in  dollars ) for the convertible. The 300D saw a new luxurious competitor from Mercury called the Park Lane.

1959 300E
The 1959 model year saw the Hemi engines replaced by Chrysler's new Golden Lion wedge-head V8 at 413 CID displacement (which Chrysler called "lion-hearted"), and remained exclusive to the 300 and Imperials. Power output remained about the same at 380 hp while the engine weight dropped by 103 lb and production costs were reduced. This model was the last year of body on frame chassis. Total sales included 522 coupes and 125 convertibles and the front grille and exterior styling retained the previous years appearance instead of adopting the corporate Chrysler appearance shared with Imperial for 1959. A small "300" badge was installed on the left side of the grille perpendicular to the headlights, while the grille was updated to narrow horizontal red bars highlighted by four chrome bars in place of the previous eggcrate grille and only appeared for 1959. New for 1959 was the installation of Goodyear Blue Streak bias-ply tires on 14 in wheels which are now classified as Vintage Racing tires.

Attention to detail was evident in the standard features included. The instrument cluster continued the tradition of easy-to- read gauges with two large circular gauges with a engine turned, sometimes also called perlée appearance. The left cluster contained the odometer and a speedometer that went to 150 mph, while the right side contained an ammeter, fuel gauge, oil pressure indicator, and water temperature gauges. A clock with a sweeping second hand is installed between the two directly centered to the steering column. Power adjustable swivel seats were standard but were synchronized to the opening of the door while accommodating a traditional six-way power adjustable split front bench seat, with a new "Natural Tan" leather upholstery feature called "Living Leather" that used a basket-weave pattern to promote air circulation in warm weather, while optional interior choices were available from the New Yorker list of which the 300 was based. The exterior color list was updated to offer Formal Black, Turquoise Grey metallic, Cameo Tan metallic, Copper Spice metallic, Radiant Red and Ivory White. The listed retail price continued to climb to US$5,319 ($0 in dollars ) for the hardtop and US$5,749 ($0 in  dollars ) for the convertible.

1960 300F
The 1960 model offered a 375 hp "Cross-Ram" version of the 413 CID Wedge Head V8 introduced in 1959. To boost power at lower and mid rpms, a special intake manifold was derived. Instead of the normal V8 central intake manifold with carburetor(s) on top, the cross-ram consisted of two pairs of 30 in long tuned pipes that criss-crossed so that each set fed the opposite side of the engine. The carburetors and air cleaners hung off the sides of the engine over the fender wells. These long tubes were tuned so that resonances in the column of air helped force air into the cylinders at those engine speeds.

A special 400 hp "short ram" version optimized for higher engine speeds was produced for competition. The overall tube length remained at 30", but the tuned portion of the stacks was only 15 in, favoring high RPMs. Only 15 "short ram" cars were produced; these were also fitted with the exotic but often troublesome French manufactured Pont-a-Mousson 4-speed manual transmissions developed for the Chrysler-powered Facel Vega. Approximately 4 of these "Special Gran Turismo" are known to exist, including one convertible and one with air conditioning; it is believed that 15 were originally produced.

Also new were four individual, leather bucket seats for front and rear passengers with a full-length console from dash to rear seatback which had previously been introduced on the Chrysler Norseman concept car of 1956. The rear passenger electric window switches were installed in the center console within easy reach, and bench seats for front and rear passengers were no longer available. The rear bucket seats were also offered on the New Yorker Custom coupe. Swiveling front seats were fitted as standard equipment but were modified to mechanical operation only initiated by the driver and not synchronized to the door when opened. The AstraDome instrument cluster was introduced on all Chrysler products only and featured "Panelescent Lighting" and a tachometer was installed in the center console below the radio due to the complexity of the three dimensional instrument cluster. The exterior color list was shortened to Formal Black, Toreador Red metallic, Alaskan White, and Terra Cotta metallic while the standard interior color remained as tan leather.

The dash had been designed with Chrysler's push-button controls for the TorqueFlite automatic in mind, with the "AstraDome" instrument cluster covering the part of the steering column a column shifter would come out from under then-standard practice, so manual cars used a floor shifter. Due to the installation of the "AstraDome" instrument cluster extending outward towards the steering wheel, the traditional installation of the turn signal lever was relocated to the dashboard underneath the "TorqueFlite" pushbutton gear selectors and was installed as a sliding lever that would return to center as the steering wheel returned to the center position. To the right of the steering wheel but left of the radio were pushbutton controls for the ventilation and air conditioning while retaining the use of a lever for temperature control.

The bodywork was also redone for 1960, using Chrysler's new lightweight unibody construction and given sharper-edged styling with outward-tilting fins that were visually separated from sides, while the front grille adopted the corporate look used by all Chrysler-branded products, ending a tradition where the 300 had unique styling not shared with other Chrysler branded vehicles. A controversial "Continental"-style trunk lid appeared, shared with the Imperial and was gone for 1961.

Sales increased to 969 coupes and 248 convertibles with a suggested retail price of US$5,411 ($0 in dollars ) for the hardtop coupe and US$5,841 ($0 in  dollars ) for the convertible.

1961 300G
The 1961 model saw another restyle. The grille, formerly wider at the bottom than the top, was inverted; the quad headlights, formerly side-by-side, were canted inward at the bottom, in a manner reminiscent of 1958-1960 Lincolns and 1959 Buicks. Small parking lamps below the headlights were likewise slanted and V-shaped, and the front bumper was canted up at each end, scoop-like. At the rear, the taillights were moved from the fins to the tail below them, and the fins were made sharper-pointed. Power windows were standard. The standard equipment rear bucket seats continued with a full-length console from the dashboard along the tunnel containing the driveshaft, and were also offered on the New Yorker Custom coupe.

Mechanically, the cross-ram "short ram" and "long ram" engines remained the same with the dual four barrel carburetors, although the exotic French manual transmission was dropped, and replaced by an exclusive Chrysler-sourced heavy-duty manual transmission (referred to as 'option code 281'). A 300G would post the highest speed of 143 mph in the Daytona Flying Mile, and in 1961 speed trials were moved off the beach at Daytona.

The "AstraDome" instrument cluster which was sometimes called the "gumball" or "jukebox" due to its appearance continued to be installed on all Chrysler products for 1961. The exterior color list was updated to Formal Black, Mardi Gras Red, Alaskan White, and Cinnamon metallic while the standard interior color continued as tan leather. To aide in brake cooling, the hubcaps and pressed steel wheels were introduced with slots to allow airflow across the drum brakes. Suggested retail prices continued to climb at US$5,441 ($0 in dollars ) for the coupe and US$5,841 ($0 in  dollars ) for the convertible.

1962 300H
From 1962s models, the fins were gone from all Chrysler products, as was the letter series' unique place in the Chrysler lineup; there was now the new Chrysler 300 Sport Series which came as a two-door hardtop, replacing the cancelled Chrysler Windsor, while the convertible remained with the letter series along with a two-door hardtop 300H. Externally there was little difference between the 300H and the 300 Sport Series except for a "300H" badge on the traditional location on the rear fenders, and many of the 300H's standard features could be ordered as options on the Sport Series. The Mercury competitor was the all-new Mercury S-55 with the same approach to luxury and performance in a coupe or convertible and the Buick Wildcat.

Inside, the 300 Sport Series hardtop coupe was installed with standard bench seats front and rear, similar to the Newport, while the 300H had standard bucket seats front and rear with the full length center console, and were also offered on the New Yorker Custom coupe. This was also the last year for the AstraDome Instrument cluster for all Chrysler branded vehicles and the dashboard color now matched the leather upholstery and carpet. The exterior color list was updated to Formal Black, Festival Red, Oyster White, and Caramel while the standard interior color continued as tan leather.

Under the hood of the 300H the cross ram engine became an option, and there was a return to the inline dual 4-barrel carburetor setup of the 300E as the base powerplant. With a slight power boost and a 300 lb lighter body, due to the 300H being shared with the Chrysler Newport/Dodge Custom 880 122-inch wheelbase which reduced overall weight, the 300H was faster than the 300G, but the loss of exclusivity coupled with high prices made this the slowest-selling letter series year yet, with only 435 coupes and 135 convertibles sold. The 300 Sport Series hardtop sedan used a 383 CID B engine. Suggested retail prices showed a reduction from the past at US$5,090 ($0 in dollars ) for the coupe and US$5,461 ($0 in  dollars ) for the convertible.

1963 300J
A more formal, angular, so-called "crisp, new custom look" appeared for 1963, ushering in the Chrysler C platform architecture. To avoid confusion with the number one, the letter "I" was skipped over and the first iteration became the "300J". Shared with the 300 Sport Series, Newport and New Yorker series, this body design featured wide C-pillars, minimized bright trim and was the last one styled during Virgil Exner's term as Chrysler's styling chief. Medallions featuring CHRYSLER THREE HUNDRED lettering surrounding a large J were mounted on the C-pillars and the rear deck. The standard leather-upholstered interior did away with the swivel feature for the front bucket seats while the previous full-length center console was now limited to the front with the rear compartment reverting to a bench seat. To address quality and reliability concerns, Chrysler in 1963 introduced a five-year/50,000-mile warranty, a business practice that was unheard of by its competitors in the 1960s

The only available engine was the 413 CID ram-induction V8, with an increase of 10 hp from 1962; this temporarily re-established the practice of the top-spec engine being standard on the letter series. The redesigned, otherwise low-key interior featured an oddly squared steering wheel, shared with all Chrysler products for that year. The 300J was faster than the standard 300H of the year before, with a 142 mph top speed, 8.0 seconds 0-60 mph, and a standing quarter mile time of 15.8 seconds with a terminal velocity of 89 mph. Sales were especially poor, with only 400 cars produced, while the retail price was listed at US$5,184 ($0 in dollars ). The exterior color list was updated to Formal Black, Claret Red, Oyster White, Alabaster, and Madison Grey metallic while the standard (and only) interior was Claret Red leather.

The 300 convertible was now demoted to the Sport Series, and was the official pace car for the 1963 Indianapolis 500-Mile Race, and the car could be provided with exterior markings on commercially sold cars, where it was marketed as the 300 Pacesetter, an approach previously used on the 1956 DeSoto Fireflite Pacesetter. Power steering was standard and an addition was made to the TorqueFlite control panel where a "Park" lever was added alongside the control buttons so that when the transmission was placed in neutral the park lever was moved to the bottom to engage the function.

1964 300K
The convertible returned for the 1964 300K, but the "cross-ram" engine became an extra-cost option available on the 300K only. A 413 CID Wedge with a single Carter AFB 3614S 4-barrel carburetor, a regular intake manifold, and 360 hp was the new standard engine, shared with the Imperial. Leather upholstery was no longer standard, a US$94 option ($0 in dollars ), while the list of available exterior colors expanded extensively with contrasting interior color choices in vinyl. The colors available were Formal Black, Wedgewood Blue, Nassau Blue metallic, Monarch Blue metallic, Pine Mist metallic, Sequoia Green metallic, Silver Turquoise metallic, Royal Turquoise metallic, Madison Grey, Rosewood metallic, Royal Ruby metallic, Roman Red, Embassy Gold, Persian White, Dune Beige, Sable Tan metallic, and Silver Mist metallic A mid-year special trim package was the 300K Silver Edition. It was offered only as a 2-door hardtop in Silver Mist metallic paint, a vinyl half-roof that gave a targa top appearance and bucket front seats with a reclining passenger seat. The bucket seats in all cars were redesigned with the result being a thicker, more substantial look.

Previous generations starting in 1955 earned the 300 the reputation of being "the banker's hotrod", but the marketing focus changed due to the 300 Sport Series, and this reduced the baseline price of the 300K by over a thousand dollars, and sales responded with the largest total ever; 3,022 coupes and 625 convertibles, with the coupe available at US$4,228 ($0 in dollars ) and the convertible at US$4,694 ($0 in  dollars ). A center console was standard and distinguished it from the 300 Sport Series coupe. Later in 1964, the Plymouth Barracuda was introduced on the Chrysler A platform which was sold at Chrysler-Plymouth dealerships next to the Chrysler 300K. A visual distinction can be made between the years by the rear tail lights; the 300J has round units while the 300K has trapezoid shaped units. The TorqueFlite pushbutton controls that were installed to the left of the steering wheel were removed and instead a console mounted transmission selector was introduced, while a manual transmission was also available.

1965 300L
The 1965 300L was the eleventh and final model in the traditional letter series. Like every other 1965 Chrysler, it featured a completely restyled body with the crisp lines, slab sides and a tall greenhouse passenger compartment that were introduced by Elwood Engel, successor of Virgil Exner as Chrysler's head of styling. It was a linear look and the panoramic windshield that had been used since 1957 was abandoned. The car had grown two inches in wheelbase and three inches in overall length. Both 2-door hardtop (with crease lines in the roof sheetmetal for the then-popular "convertible look") and 2-door convertible body styles were available. The cross-ram 390 hp engine had been discontinued, leaving the 413 CID engine with regular inlet manifold, single 4-barrel carburetion, unsilenced air cleaner, special camshaft and dual exhaust as the only engine option. With the introduction of the Chrysler B platform Dodge Coronet and the Plymouth Satellite, the performance coupe tradition was handed off from the 300 and the subsequent letter series model naming convention was discontinued.

Engine output was 360 hp, as in the previous year. The buyer could choose between the standard 3-speed TorqueFlite automatic and the no-cost option 4-speed manual with Hurst shift linkage. Every feature on the 300L could be ordered as an option on the regular 300; thus, the only difference was the 300L-exclusive ornamentation. This consisted of round "300L" medallions at the center of the die-cast grille star and in the middle of the textured aluminum applique between the taillights, a red-paint-filled full-length beltline molding, and a rectangular die-cast "300" badge on rear fenders.

Tested by car magazine Motor Trend, a TorqueFlite-equipped 300L 2-door Hardtop accelerated from 0 to 60 mph in 8.8 seconds, and covered the quarter mile in 17.3 seconds with a terminal speed of 82 mph. A total of 2,405 300L hardtops and 440 convertibles were produced.

1966 300M
Intending to return the 300 letter series to its roots, Chrysler proposed the 1966 300M as a clay mockup in October 1963. The exterior was similar to the 300L, except the 300M had spinner-type knock off wheel covers with a "300M" medallion in the center, as well as another "300M" medallion on the trunk lid. The front running lights were moved to the center grille bar and the front turn signals were widened. The 300M also had paint stripes along the lower body line instead of the chrome molding found on the non-letter series 300s, "300M" medallions on the sides, script "Three Hundred" badges and unique tail lights and bezels. Three-spoke headlight ornaments were planned, but dropped due to legal issues in some states. The interior was identical to the non-letter series 300 except for the "300M" medallions. The 300M was planned to be powered by the 426 Wedge engine rated at 365 hp. This first 300M proposal was cancelled in November 1964 "to reduce scheduling and plant complexity". But in 1965 the 300M was revived, this time powered by the 425 hp, 426 Hemi engine and a planned production run of 4298, of which 500 were to have the Hemi engine, a $1250 option. The Hemi cars would also feature a dual-faced "7-Liter Hemi" medallion. This proposal was also cancelled as the letter series 300s had lost their prestige and exclusivity as they were simply non-letter series 300s with letter badges. The 300M name would not be used again until 1999.

1970 Hurst 300
The 1970 Hurst 300 lacks the single-letter suffix of its forebears and appeared five years after the last Letter Series Chrysler, the 300L. Many automobile historians do not include the Hurst 300 as a Letter Series model. The concept of the car, however, does fit with the Letter Series cars, as it was a high-performance variant of the luxury 300, built with the input of aftermarket parts manufacturer Hurst Performance. Only 485 units are believed to have been built.

The Hurst 300s were all 2-door and shared a Spinnaker White and gold paint scheme similar to the Oldsmobile Hurst/Olds, Pontiac GTO and Pontiac Grand Prix Hurst models of mid-1960s to early 1970s. The scooped hood and trunk lid (with a molded spoiler) are both fiberglass. All Hurst 300s had satin tan leather interiors that were straight out of the Imperial and could be had with column- or console-mounted 727 automatics. All came with the 375 hp 440 CID 4-barrel TNT V8 engine. The suggested retail price was US$5,939 ($0 in dollars ).

Of the 501 units sold, one convertible is documented having been used as a Hurst promotional car and another is believed to have been dealer equipped with a 426 CID Hemi, also, a convertible.

Collectibility
All original letter series cars are considered collectible, but the early years are much more desirable. The C-300 and 300B, especially red/maroon examples, are increasingly becoming some of the most valuable models of all 1950s performance cars due to their exquisite styling, high performance, and rarity. The 300C through 300G convertibles are the most desirable price-wise due to their scarcity and low survival rates; the coming of the regular 300 series cars in 1962 makes the subsequent letter series seem less special and less desirable to collectors.

At an auction at the Robson Estate in Gainesville, Georgia on November 13, 2010, the sole 1960 300F convertible equipped with the factory 400 hp engine and the Pont-a-Mousson 4-speed sold for $437,250.

There was one concept vehicle called the Chrysler 300, created in 1991. It featured a sports car body and a Viper engine. It was never produced.

The 300 letter series name was resurrected in 1999 on the Chrysler 300M; but it is the 2005 300C that is closest to the original with its rear-wheel drive, and V8 engine once again bearing the "Hemi" name.

title: Chrysler 300 letter series