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User talk:Unifex

Hello there, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you need any questions answered about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump.

Don't worry about stepping on toes such as at Memphis, Tennessee. It's easy to do, but doesn't really mean much. As long as you don't refuse to adhere to our basic guidelines, like the NPOV policy (which you should definitely read at your first available opportunity), you can't really be kicked out or anything. Just add information on the subjects that interest you, be bold in updating pages and talk stuff out on discussion pages beforehand if it may be controversial. Any questions, feel free to leave me a message at my talk page. To get there, click on my name after this message, then click on "discuss this page". From there, click on "edit this page" and leave me a message at the bottom.

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title: User talk:Unifex


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Peggy Fleming

Peggy Gale Fleming (born July 27, 1948) is an American former figure skater. She is the 1968 Winter Olympic Champion in the ladies' singles, being the only American gold medalist at these Games, and a three-time World Champion (1966–1968) in the same event. Fleming has been a television commentator in figure skating for over 20 years, including at several Winter Olympic Games.

Career
Fleming was born in San Jose, California, the daughter of Doris Elizabeth (née Deal) and Albert Eugene Fleming, a newspaper journalist and former U.S. Marine. She began skating at age nine when her father took Peggy and her three sisters skating. In 1961, when Peggy was twelve years old, her coach William Kipp was killed in the crash of Sabena Flight 548 along with the rest of the United States figure skating team while en route to the 1961 World Figure Skating Championships. Fleming was subsequently coached by Carlo Fassi. Her unusual style led her to unprecedented success and five U.S. titles, three World titles and the gold medal at the 1968 Olympics in Grenoble, France. Philosopher Spencer Wertz called Fleming's Olympic free skating program "a watershed in the development of an artistic component of competitive skating."

Fleming's mother selected a color for her Grenoble skating costume, chartreuse, named after the liqueur of that color produced by neighboring Carthusians in their founding monastery, which also gives the name "chartreuse" to the region, thereby perhaps inspiring local French audience support for Peggy's virtually flawless performance. Her award in Grenoble was singularly important for the American athletes and the nation as a whole, for this was the only gold medal that the U.S. Olympic team won in the 1968 Winter Olympics. It signaled a return to American dominance in the sport of women's figure skating following the unprecedented tragedy of the 1961 Sabena plane crash.

Figure skating writer and historian Ellyn Kestnbaum states that although Fleming was from a working class background, she presented the image of "well-groomed, well-disciplined...upper-class femininity." Fleming's costumes were made by her mother; and as Kestnbaum puts it, "reflected the simple elegance of classic lines." Fleming also drew upon ballet conventions, displaying "graceful classical positions", as well as her use of classical music, and, encouraged by compulsory figures, an upright and a relaxed upper-body carriage. Kestnbaum recognizes, however, that Fleming's fame advanced women's visibility in the male-dominated sports world, which "paved some steps along the way to women's visibility in widening spheres of public life."

After becoming an Olympic champion, Fleming turned professional, performed on TV shows including five NBC specials of her own and toured with many skating shows, like Ice Capades. Fleming had also filmed a TV show in the USSR and skated to Butterfly Lovers' Violin Concerto in China. Since 1981, she has been a skating commentator for ABC Sports. In 1993, the Associated Press released results of a national sports study that ranked Fleming as the third most popular athlete in America, behind fellow Olympians Mary Lou Retton and Dorothy Hamill.

Personal life
On June 13, 1970, Fleming married her teenage sweetheart Greg Jenkins, a dermatologist and a former amateur figure skater. The couple have two sons, Andy (born in 1977) and Todd (born in 1988), and three grandchildren. They currently reside in Denver, Colorado.

Peggy Fleming was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1998. The cancer was detected in its early stages, and surgery was successful. She became a breast cancer activist who recommends not procrastinating and advocates for early detection.

Fleming and her husband owned and operated Fleming Jenkins Vineyards & Winery in California. The winery produced close to 2,000 cases of wine a year with names as "Choreography" a bordeaux-style blend from Napa Valley and a "Victories Rose" from the San Francisco Bay Syrah. Profits from the "Victories Rosé" went toward charities that supported research towards breast cancer. The winery closed in 2011.

In 1988, a Peggy Fleming all-porcelain doll was made by Franklin Mint Heirloom Porcelain Dolls. In 2007, Fleming appeared in the movie Blades of Glory as a judge.

In 2010, Art of the Olympians produced a 30-minute documentary about Fleming. She is also an artist with works on display with the Art of the Olympians.

Along with former Olympian Vonetta Flowers, Fleming was injured and briefly hospitalized after a traffic accident while riding in U.S. Vice President Joe Biden's motorcade at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver.

Awards and honors

 * ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year, 1967.
 * In 2003, Fleming was honored with the "Lombardi Award of Excellence" from the Vince Lombardi Cancer Foundation. The award was created to honor Coach Lombardi's legacy, and is awarded annually to an individual who exemplifies the spirit of the Coach.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Peggy Fleming


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Bulwer's petrel

Bulwer's petrel (Bulweria bulwerii) is a small petrel in the family Procellariidae that is found in tropical and subtropical regions of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is named after the English naturalist James Bulwer.

Taxonomy
Bulwer's petrel was formally described in 1828 by the naturalists Jardine and Selby who coined the binomial name Procellaria bulwerii. The specific epithet was chosen to acknowledge the artist and naturalist James Bulwer who had collected the type specimen on the island of Madeira. Bulwer's petrel is now placed in the genus Bulweria  that was introduced in 1843 by the French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte. The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.

Description
This very long-winged petrel is 25 - 29 cm in length with a 78 - 90 cm wingspan. It has mainly brown plumage and a long pointed tail. It has a buoyant twisting flight as it picks planktonic food items from the ocean surface.

Distribution and habitat
The species has a wide distribution through tropical and subtropical regions of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans, it is a year-round resident in Cabo Verde, China, French Guiana, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Mauritania, Morocco, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, Senegal and Taiwan, it breeds in the Macaronesian Islands and continental Portugal in the Atlantic; and from eastern China and the Bonin Islands, east to the Hawaiian Islands, the Marquesas Islands, the United States Minor Outlying Islands and Kiribati in the Pacific. It is marine and highly pelagic, usually found far from land except during the breeding season. This species has been sighted in Europe as a rare vagrant to Ireland, the Netherlands, France and Italy. It has also appeared as a vagrant in North America, with rare sightings far off the coast of both California and North Carolina and Australia.

Breeding
Nests are built in burrows, vegetation, cliff caves/crevices, and under man-made debris and onshore driftwood. It does not excavate these burrows.

The breeding season for Bulwer's petrel starts in April and May. When breeding, it will always return to its previous nest site and mate with its previous mate. Breeding pairs form colonies of 7,000-9,000 pairs during the breeding season.

This petrel lays a clutch of one egg, although young and inexperienced birds will occasionally lay two eggs. The egg is beige-white and usually measures 42 x. Both sexes incubate the eggs for a period of 42 to 46 days. They will also both feed the chicks.

Feeding
Bulwer's petrel is highly pelagic, and rarely found near land (except during the breeding season). Its diet mainly consists of small fish (such as sardines) and squid, with some additional crustaceans (such as crabs, krill, and shrimp) and plankton.

Threats
In the North East Atlantic, the species is predated by cats, house rats and endemic invertebrates. Feral cats are considered a major driver of the present distribution of the species. In the Azores, breeding areas are restricted to steep cliffs to avoid cat predation. In one colony on Madeira, predation of Shearwater chicks by Madeiran wall lizards has been recorded in up to 10% of nests, though it is highly unlikely to have an impact on the species on a population level. The large colony in the Desertas Islands suffers intense human exploitation for food or fish bait, which also occurs at a lower level in other North East Atlantic sites, although not in the Salvage Islands following the declaration of the islands as a nature reserve.

The Bulwer's petrel is thought to suffer a heightened risk of mortality from oil spills and other marine pollution, including light pollution at night. Tourism and recreational developments may reduce available habitat in breeding colonies.

title: Bulwer's petrel


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SMS Friedrich der Grosse

SMS Friedrich der Grosse may refer to:

 * SMS Friedrich der Grosse (1874), an armored frigate
 * SMS Friedrich der Grosse (1911), a battleship

title: SMS Friedrich der Grosse


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Talk:History of Argentina

File:Jorge Rafael Videla.jpg Nominated for Deletion
I dont understand the politics during the 18th century at all. Is it some old marxist that has written this article? 91.156.72.31 (talk) 15:22, 21 April 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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Argentina 1850-1900
Lol 188.131.48.94 (talk) 18:25, 12 January 2022 (UTC)

Historical map is misleading
The map for the year 2000 would have been the same in 1890, which is misleading. 82.37.67.151 (talk) 01:50, 8 July 2022 (UTC)

Slavery
I looked for the string 'slav' in the article today. It was not there. What kind of 'history' article editorship overlooks any mention of the African slaves who once made up nearly 50% of the population?

Britannica does not fail to mention it. Adding 'Afro-Argentines' to the See Also. Twang (talk) 01:19, 22 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:History of Argentina


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SMS Kaiser (1911)

SMS Kaiser was the lead ship of the Kaiser-class battleship of dreadnought battleships of the Imperial German Navy. Kaiser was built by the Imperial Dockyard at Kiel, launched on 22 March 1911 and commissioned on 1 August 1912. The ship was equipped with ten 30.5 cm guns in five twin turrets, and had a top speed of 23.4 kn. Kaiser was assigned to III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of World War I.

In 1913, Kaiser and her sister SMS König Albert conducted a cruise to South America and South Africa. The ship participated in most of the major fleet operations during the war. She fought at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916, during which she was hit twice and suffered negligible damage. The ship was also present during Operation Albion in the Baltic Sea in September and October 1917, and at the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in November 1917.

During peace negotiations after the end of the war in 1918, she was interned with other ships of the High Seas Fleet at Scapa Flow. On 21 June 1919 the commander of the interned fleet, Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter, ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships. The wreck was raised in 1929 and broken up in Rosyth in 1930.

Design

The ship was 172.40 m long overall and displaced a maximum of 27,000 t at full load. She had a beam of 29 m and a draft of 9.10 m forward and 8.80 m aft. Kaiser was powered by three sets of Parsons turbines, supplied with steam by sixteen coal-fired water-tube boilers. The powerplant produced a top speed of 23.4 kn. She carried 3600 t of coal, which enabled a maximum range of 7900 nmi at a cruising speed of 12 kn.

Kaiser was armed with a main battery of ten 30.5 cm SK L/50 guns in five twin turrets. The ship dispensed with the inefficient hexagonal arrangement of previous German battleships; instead, three of the five turrets were mounted on the centerline, with two of them arranged in a superfiring pair aft. The other two turrets were placed en echelon amidships, so that both could fire on the broadside. The ship was also armed with a secondary battery of fourteen 15 cm SK L/45 guns in casemates amidships. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried eight 8.8 cm SK L/45 guns in casemates. The ship was also armed with four 8.8 cm L/45 anti-aircraft guns. The ship's armament was rounded out by five 50 cm torpedo tubes, all mounted in the ship's hull; one was in the bow, and the other four were on the broadside.

Her main armored belt was 350 mm thick in the central citadel, and was composed of Krupp cemented armor (KCA). Her main battery gun turrets were protected by 300 mm of KCA on the sides and faces. Kaiser's conning tower was heavily armored, with 400 mm sides.

Service history
Ordered under the contract name Ersatz Hildebrand as a replacement for the obsolete coastal defense ship SMS Hildebrand, Kaiser was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel in September 1909. The hull was completed by 22 March 1911, when the ship was launched; this date was specifically chosen, as it was the birthday of Kaiser (Emperor) Wilhelm I. His grandson, Kaiser Wilhelm II, attended the launching ceremony, where German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg gave a speech while Kaiserin (Empress) Augusta Victoria christened the ship. Fitting-out work then began, which was completed by the end of July 1912. On 1 August, the ship was commissioned for sea trials. These were concluded by 7 December; the following day Kaiser joined the fleet as the flagship of V Division. Her crew consisted largely of men who had been transferred from the recently decommissioned battleships SMS Elsass and SMS Braunschweig.

After joining the active fleet in December 1912, Kaiser was stationed in Kiel. The ship then conducted individual training. In February 1913, Kaiser was transferred to Wilhelmshaven, along with her sister ship SMS Friedrich der Grosse (1911). She then took part in several training exercises with the rest of the High Seas Fleet. These included maneuvers in the North Sea in March and April, artillery drills in the Baltic at the end of the month, and further fleet maneuvers in May. In June, Kaiser took part in the Kiel Week regatta. Kaiser Wilhelm II and Italian King Victor Emmanuel III inspected the ship. The annual summer cruise to Norway was conducted in July and August, followed immediately by the autumn maneuvers in August and September. In September 1913, Captain Adolf von Trotha became the ship's commanding officer, a post he held until January 1916.

Kaiser was selected to participate in a long-distance cruise to test the reliability of the new turbine propulsion system. The ship was joined by her sister SMS König Albert and the light cruiser SMS Strassburg in a special "Detached Division". The trio departed Germany on 9 December 1913 and proceeded to the German colonies in western Africa. The ships visited Lomé in Togoland, Duala and Victoria in Kamerun, and Swakopmund in German South-West Africa. From Africa, the ships sailed to St. Helena and then on to Rio de Janeiro, arriving on 15 February 1914. Strassburg was detached to visit Buenos Aires, Argentina before returning to meet the two battleships in Montevideo, Uruguay. The three ships sailed south around Cape Horn and then north to Valparaiso, Chile, arriving on 2 April and remaining for over a week.

On 11 April, the ships departed Valparaiso for the long journey back to Germany. On the return trip, the ships visited several more ports, including Bahía Blanca, Argentina, before returning to Rio de Janeiro. On 16 May the ships left Rio de Janeiro for the Atlantic leg of the journey; they stopped in Cape Verde, Madeira, and Vigo, Spain while en route to Germany. Kaiser, König Albert, and Strassburg arrived in Kiel on 17 June 1914. In the course of the voyage, the ships traveled some 20000 nmi. A week later, on 24 June, the Detached Division was dissolved and Kaiser returned to III Squadron. Kaiser then participated in squadron exercises in July. Kaiser joined the High Seas Fleet for its annual summer cruise to Norway in July 1914, about two weeks after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. As a result of rising international tensions, the cruise was cut short and the German fleet was back in Wilhelmshaven by 29 July. At midnight on 4 August, the United Kingdom declared war on Germany.

World War I

The High Seas Fleet, including Kaiser, conducted a number of sweeps and advances into the North Sea. The first occurred on 2–3 November 1914, though no British forces were encountered. Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl, the commander of the High Seas Fleet, adopted a strategy in which the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper's I Scouting Group raided British coastal towns to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet where they could be destroyed by the High Seas Fleet. The raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby on 15–16 December 1914 was the first such operation. On the evening of 15 December, the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts—including Kaiser and her four sisters—and eight pre-dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi of an isolated squadron of six British battleships. However, skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced Ingenohl that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet. Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily, Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battlefleet back toward Germany.

Following the loss of SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915, the Kaiser removed Ingenohl from his post on 2 February. Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet. Pohl conducted a series of fleet advances in 1915 in which Kaiser took part; in the first one on 29–30 March, the fleet steamed out to the north of Terschelling and return without incident. Another followed on 17–18 April, where Kaiser and the rest of the fleet covered a mining operation by II Scouting Group. Three days later, on 21–22 April, the High Seas Fleet advanced towards the Dogger Bank, though again failed to meet any British forces. Kaiser was in dock in Kiel for periodic maintenance during the operation on 17–18 May, but she was back with the fleet for the sortie on 29–30 May, during which the fleet advanced as far as Schiermonnikoog before being forced to turn back by inclement weather. On 10 August, the fleet steamed to the north of Helgoland to cover the return of the auxiliary cruiser SMS Meteor (auxiliary cruiser). A month later, on 11–12 September, the fleet covered another mine-laying operation off the Swarte Bank. The last operation of the year, conducted on 23–24 October, was an advance without result in the direction of Horns Reef.

On 12 January 1916, Admiral Reinhard Scheer replaced Pohl as the fleet commander. Kaiser was present during the fleet advance on 5–7 March, though this too ended without action. While in port in Kiel, the old pre-dreadnought SMS Hannover accidentally collided with Kaiser, though neither ship was seriously damaged. Scheer continued the series of fleet operations practiced by his predecessors; the fleet conducted sweeps of the North Sea on 26 March, 2–3 April, and 21–22 April. The battlecruisers conducted another raid on the English coast on 24–25 April, during which Kaiser and the rest of the fleet provided distant support. Scheer planned another raid for mid-May, but the battlecruiser SMS Seydlitz had struck a mine during the previous raid and the repair work forced the operation to be pushed back until the end of the month.

Battle of Jutland

Almost immediately after the Lowestoft raid, Scheer began planning another foray into the North Sea. He had initially intended to launch the operation in mid-May, by which time the mine damage to Seydlitz was scheduled to be repaired—Scheer was unwilling to embark on a major raid without his battlecruiser forces at full strength. On 9 May, however, several battleships developed problems with their engines, which delayed the operation further, to 23 May. On 22 May, Seydlitz was still not fully repaired, and the operation was again postponed, this time to 29 May. At noon on 29 May, the repairs to Seydlitz were finally completed, and the ship returned to I Scouting Group. The plan called for Hipper's battlecruisers to steam north to the Skagerrak, with the intention of luring out a portion of the British fleet so it could be destroyed by Scheer's waiting battleships.

Kaiser and the rest of III Battle Squadron were the leading unit of the High Seas Fleet; the four König-class battleships led the line. Kaiser, the flagship of Konteradmiral H. Nordmann, was directly astern of the four Königs. I Battle Squadron, composed of the eight Helgoland-class battleship- and Nassau-class battleships, followed III Squadron, with the six elderly pre-dreadnoughts of II Battle Squadron bringing up the rear. Hipper's five battlecruisers left the Jade estuary at 02:00 on 31 May; Scheer, with the High Seas Fleet, followed an hour and a half later.

Shortly before 16:00 CET, the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron, under the command of David Beatty. The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of HMS Indefatigable (1909), shortly after 17:00, and HMS Queen Mary, less than half an hour later. By this time, the German battlecruisers were steaming south in order to draw the British ships towards the main body of the High Seas Fleet. At 17:30, König's crew spotted both I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching. The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard, while the British ships steamed to port. At 17:45, Scheer ordered a two-point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers, and a minute later at 17:46, the order to open fire was given.

Between 17:48 and 17:52, Kaiser, Kronprinz, Friedrich der Grosse, and all eight battleships of I Squadron opened fire on several ships of the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron; Kaiser, SMS Ostfriesland, and SMS Nassau engaged HMS Southampton (1912), though only Nassau managed to score a hit on the cruiser. In the span of eight minutes, Kaiser fired eleven salvos at Southampton without success. The 2nd LCS then moved back out of range, having largely escaped unscathed. At 17:58, Scheer ordered the fleet to maximum speed; the greater speed of the Königs caused the distance between Kaiser and König to rapidly increase. At 18:05, Southampton again came into range, and Kaiser opened fire. Kaiser fired four salvos at a range of 12000 m, though again without scoring any hits. After three minutes of firing, Kaiser's guns again fell silent.

Starting at 18:10, Kaiser began firing on the 5th Battle Squadron battleship HMS Malaya; in the span of 25 minutes, Kaiser fired 27 salvos at an average range of 17300 m. The British destroyers HMS Nestor (1915) and HMS Nomad, which had been disabled earlier in the engagement, lay directly in the path of the advancing High Seas Fleet. Shortly before 18:30, Kaiser and her three sister ships opened fire on Nomad with their secondary batteries. The hail of 15-cm shells smothered the ship; a fire was started and one shell detonated the ship's forward ammunition magazine. Nomad sank stern first at 18:30. Nestor was meanwhile destroyed by the battleships of I Squadron.

Shortly after 19:00, the German cruiser SMS Wiesbaden had become disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser HMS Invincible (1907); Rear Admiral Behncke in König attempted to maneuver III Squadron to cover the stricken cruiser. Simultaneously, the British 3rd and 4th Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line; while advancing to torpedo range, they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns. The eight III Squadron battleships fired on the British cruisers, but even sustained fire from the battleships' main guns failed to drive off the British cruisers. The armored cruisers HMS Defence (1907), HMS Warrior (1905), and HMS Black Prince (1904) joined in the attack on the crippled Wiesbaden. Between 19:14 and 19:17, Kaiser and several other battleships and battlecruisers opened fire on Defence and Warrior. Defence was struck by several heavy caliber shells from the German dreadnoughts. One salvo penetrated the ship's ammunition magazines and, in a massive explosion, destroyed the cruiser.

As Warrior limped away to the west, the Queen Elizabeth-class battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron joined the Grand Fleet as it entered the battle from the north. However, HMS Warspite (03) was forced to haul out of line to the south, towards the oncoming German fleet. Warspite came under intense fire from the approaching German battleships; Kaiser scored a hit on Warspite that damaged her steering gear and forced her to steam in a circle, out of control. After completing two full circles and sustaining 13 heavy hits, Warspite came back under control and rejoined the squadron. However, by 20:00 the steering gear had again failed, so the ship was forced to withdraw from the engagement.

By 20:15, the German fleet had faced the Grand Fleet for a second time and was forced to turn away; in doing so, the order of the German line was reversed. Kaiser was now the fifth ship from the rear of the German line, ahead of only the four König-class battleships. Kaiser was hit twice in quick succession by heavy-caliber shells, at 20:23 and three minutes later. The Common Pointed, Capped, shells came from the 30 cm guns of HMS Agincourt (1913). One shell penetrated the upper deck and landed in a hammock stowage compartment below the No. 7 casemate; the shell failed to explode and instead broke up on impact, starting a small fire that was quickly put out. The other shell probably exploded outside the ship.

Shortly before 21:30, Kaiser, Prinzregent Luitpold, and SMS Markgraf spotted British light forces approaching. The German ships opened fire at a range of around 7300 m with both their main and secondary armament. The light cruiser HMS Calliope (1914) was badly damaged, which forced the British ships to withdraw. At around 23:30, the German fleet reorganized into the night cruising formation. Kaiser was the twelfth ship, in the center of the 24-ship line.

After a series of night engagements between the leading battleships and British destroyers, the High Seas Fleet punched through the British light forces and reached Horns Reef by 04:00 on 1 June. The German fleet reached Wilhelmshaven a few hours later; the I Squadron battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead and Kaiser, Kaiserin, Prinzregent Luitpold, and Kronprinz stood ready just outside the entrance to Wilhelmshaven. The remainder of the battleships and battlecruisers entered Wilhelmshaven, where those that were still in fighting condition replenished their stocks of coal and ammunition. The two shell hits suffered by Kaiser had been largely ineffectual, wounding only one crewmember.

Subsequent operations
On 18 August, Admiral Scheer attempted a repeat of the 31 May operation; the two serviceable German battlecruisers—SMS Moltke and SMS Von der Tann—supported by three dreadnoughts, were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty's battlecruisers. The rest of the fleet, including Kaiser, would trail behind and provide cover. The British were aware of the German plans and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them, leading to the action of 19 August 1916. By 14:35, Admiral Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet's approach and, unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just eleven weeks after the decidedly close call at Jutland, turned his forces around and retreated to German ports.

Another fleet advance followed on 18–20 October, though it ended without encountering any British units. Two weeks later, on 4 November, Kaiser took part in an expedition to the western coast of Denmark to assist two U-boats—SMU U-20 (Germany) and SMU U-30 (Germany)—that had become stranded there. On 1 December, the High Seas Fleet was reorganized; Kaiser and her sisters were transferred to the newly created IV Battle Squadron, with Kaiser as the flagship. In 1917, the policy of unrestricted submarine warfare was reinstated; the surface units of the German navy were therefore tasked with covering the departures and arrivals of the U-boats. As a result, Kaiser spent most of the year on picket duty in the German Bight. In May 1917, Kaiser went into the dock for periodic maintenance.

Operation Albion

In early September 1917, following the German Army's conquest of the Russian port of Riga, the Navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga. The Admiralstab (the Navy High Command) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel, and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe peninsula. On 18 September, the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon islands; the primary naval component was organized into a Special Unit, which comprised the flagship, Moltke, along with IV Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet. IV Squadron was composed of V and VI Divisions. V Division included the four König-class ships, and was by this time augmented with the new battleship SMS Bayern. VI Division consisted of the five Kaiser-class battleships. Along with 9 light cruisers, 3 torpedo boat flotillas, and dozens of mine warfare ships, the entire force numbered some 300 ships, supported by over 100 aircraft and 6 zeppelins. The invasion force amounted to approximately 24,600 officers and enlisted men. Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre-dreadnoughts RUSSIAN BATTLESHIP Slava and RUSSIAN BATTLESHIP Tsesarevich, the armored cruisers RUSSIAN CRUISER Bayan, RUSSIAN CRUISER Admiral Makarov, and RUSSIAN CRUISER Diana, 26 destroyers, and several torpedo boats and gunboats. The garrison on Ösel numbered some 14,000 men.

On 24 September, Kaiser left Kiel, bound for the Putziger Wiek, where she rendezvoused with several other battleships. From there, the ship went to Libau, which she reached on 10 October. Two days later, on the morning of 12 October, Kaiser, joined by her sisters SMS Kaiserin and SMS Prinzregent Luitpold, opened fire on the Russian shore batteries at Cape Hundsort. On 14 October Kaiser engaged the Russian destroyer RUSSIAN DESTROYER Grom and disabled the ship's engine with a single hit. Grom was captured and taken in tow, but she quickly foundered. Kaiser then bombarded Russian positions on Cape Toffri on 16 October.

By 20 October, the fighting on the islands was winding down; Moon, Ösel, and Dagö were in German possession. The previous day, the Admiralstab had ordered the cessation of naval actions and the return of the dreadnoughts to the High Seas Fleet as soon as possible. On 31 October Kaiser and the rest of the Special Unit were detached from the operation and sent back to Kiel, which they reached by 2 November. Kaiser was back in the North Sea on 7 November.

Final operations
Kaiser and Kaiserin were assigned to security duty in the Bight on 17 November; they were tasked with providing support to II Scouting Group (II SG) and several minesweepers. Two British light cruisers, HMS Calypso (D61) and HMS Caledon (D53), attacked the minesweepers and II SG in the Second Battle of Helgoland Bight. Kaiser and her sister intervened and hit one of the light cruisers. The two ships briefly engaged the battlecruiser HMS Repulse (1916), but neither side scored any hits and the German commander failed to press the attack.

On 2 February 1918, the light cruiser SMS Stralsund struck a mine; Kaiser was among those ships that sortied to escort the damaged cruiser back to port. The ship was also present during the fleet advance on 23–24 April. The operation was intended to intercept a heavily escorted British convoy to Norway on 23–25 April, though the operation was canceled when the battlecruiser Moltke suffered mechanical damage. In the final months of the war, Captain Hermann Bauer took command of the ship; his period in command lasted from August to November.

Kaiser was to have taken part in a final fleet action days before the Armistice, an operation which envisioned the bulk of the High Seas Fleet sortieing from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet. In order to retain a better bargaining position for Germany, Admirals Hipper and Scheer intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy, whatever the cost to the fleet. Consequently, on 29 October 1918, the order was given to depart from Wilhelmshaven to consolidate the fleet in the Jade roadstead, with the intention of departing the following morning. However, starting on the night of 29 October, sailors on SMS Thüringen mutinied. The unrest spread to other battleships, which forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation.

Fate

Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918, most of their fleet ships were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter. Prior to the departure of the German fleet, Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships, under any conditions. The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser HMS Cardiff, which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow. The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British, American, and French warships. Once the ships were interned, their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks. The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty.

A copy of The Times informed Reuter that the Armistice was to expire at noon on 21 June 1919, the deadline by which Germany was to have signed the peace treaty. Reuter came to the conclusion that the British intended to seize the German ships after the Armistice expired. Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd, Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk. On the morning of 21 June, the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers, and at 11:20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships. Kaiser sank at 13:24; the ship was raised in 1929 and broken up for scrap in Rosyth starting in 1930.

title: SMS Kaiser (1911)


text:
Poppaea Sabina

Poppaea Sabina (30 AD – 65 AD), also known as Ollia, was a Roman empress as the second wife of the emperor Nero. She had also been wife to the future emperor Otho. The historians of antiquity describe her as a beautiful woman who used intrigues to become empress.

The large Villa Poppaea at Oplontis near Pompeii bears her name because of the archaeological finds there. It has been largely excavated and can be visited today.

Birth

Poppaea Sabina the Younger was born in Pompeii in AD 30 as the daughter of Titus Ollius and Poppaea Sabina the Elder. At birth and for most of her childhood she went by her proper patronymic nomen "Ollia", belonging to women of her father's gens, the Ollii, but at some point, probably before her first marriage, decided to start going by her mother's name instead, potentially due to her father's disgrace and suicide.

It is very likely that Poppaea's family came from Pompeii, and the common belief is that they might have been the owners of the Casa del Menandro (a house in Pompeii named for the painting of the 4th century BC playwright Menander that is found there). Most evidence suggesting Poppaea's Pompeiian origins comes from the 20th-century excavations of a town that was destroyed in the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79. For instance, legal documents found during excavations in nearby Herculaneum described her as being the owner of a brick- or tile-work business in the Pompeii area. In particular, the sumptuous Villa Poppaea at Oplontis near Herculaneum is thought to have been her main residence outside Rome.

Family
Titus Ollius was a quaestor in the reign of the Emperor Tiberius. Ollius' friendship with the infamous praetorian prefect Lucius Aelius Sejanus ruined him before gaining public office. Titus Ollius was from Picenum (modern Marche and Abruzzo, Italy) and he was an unknown minor character in imperial politics. Titus Ollius died in 31AD.

Poppaea Sabina the Elder, her mother, was a distinguished woman, whom Tacitus praises as wealthy and "the loveliest woman of her day". In 47 AD, she committed suicide as an innocent victim of the intrigues of the Roman Empress Valeria Messalina, having been charged with committing adultery with former consul Decimus Valerius Asiaticus.

The father of Poppaea Sabina the Elder was Gaius Poppaeus Sabinus. This man of humble birth was consul in 9 AD and was the governor of Moesia from 12–35 AD. Passed during his consulship was the Lex Papia Poppaea, a law meant to strengthen and encourage marriage. Sabinus received a military triumph for ending a revolt in Thrace in 26 AD. From 15 AD until his death, he served as imperial Proconsul (or governor) of Greece and in other provinces. This competent administrator enjoyed the friendship of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius. He died in late December of AD 35 from natural causes. After his death, Poppaea Sabina the Younger assumed the name of her maternal grandfather.

After Titus Ollius's death, Poppaea's mother married Publius Cornelius Lentulus Scipio the Elder, suffect consul, in 24 AD. Her siblings included stepbrother Publius Cornelius Lentulus Scipio the Younger, consul in 56 AD, and half-brother Publius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus, suffect consul in 68 AD.

First marriage to Rufrius Crispinus
Poppaea's first marriage was to Rufrius Crispinus, a man of equestrian rank. They married in 44 AD, when Poppaea was 14 years old. He was the leader of the Praetorian Guard during the first 10 years of the reign of the Emperor Claudius until 51 AD, when Claudius' new wife, Agrippina the Younger, removed him from this position. Agrippina regarded him as loyal to the deceased Messalina's memory and replaced him with Sextus Afranius Burrus. Later, under Nero, he was executed. During their marriage, Poppaea gave birth to his son, a younger Rufrius Crispinus, who, after her death, would be drowned by Nero while on a fishing trip.

Second marriage to Otho
Poppaea then married Otho, a good friend of the new Emperor Nero who was seven years younger than she was. According to Tacitus, Poppaea married Otho only to get close to Nero. Nero fell in love with Poppaea, and she became his mistress.

Poppaea later divorced Otho and focused her attentions solely on becoming Nero's new wife. Otho was ordered away to be governor of Lusitania. (A decade later, after Nero's death, Otho became emperor, in succession to Galba.) Sources differ on when Poppaea divorced Otho: Tacitus dates the divorce to 58 AD, Suetonius dates it to after 59 AD.

Marriage to Nero and Empress of Rome
Tacitus depicts Poppaea as inducing Nero to murder his mother, Agrippina in 59 AD so that she could marry him. Modern scholars, however, question the reliability of this story as Nero did not marry Poppaea until 62 AD and point to Suetonius's dating of the divorce from Otho. Some modern historians theorize that Nero's decision to kill Agrippina was prompted by her plot to set Gaius Rubellius Plautus (Nero's maternal second cousin) on the throne rather than as a result of Poppaea's scheming.

With Agrippina gone, Poppaea pressured Nero to divorce and later execute his first wife and stepsister, Claudia Octavia, in order to marry her. During his eight-year marriage to Octavia, Nero fathered no children, but in 62 AD, Poppaea became pregnant. When this happened, Nero divorced Octavia, claimed she was barren, and married Poppaea 12 days after the divorce. Octavia was initially exiled to Campania before being imprisoned on the island of Pandateria, a common sentence for members of the imperial family who fell from favor because of a charge of adultery. Poppaea bore Nero one daughter, Claudia Augusta, born on 21 January 63, who died at four months of age. At the birth of Claudia, Nero honoured mother and child with the title of Augusta.

Tacitus and Suetonius portray Poppaea as an ambitious and ruthless schemer. The Jewish historian Josephus paints a different picture. He calls Poppaea a worshipper of the God of Israel and writes that she urged Nero to show compassion to the Jewish people. In one account, Josephus shows how Poppaea advocated for the Jewish priests when an issue was brought before Nero by Herod Agrippa II, who was the Tetrarch of Jerusalem, concerning a wall that was built blocking Agrippa's view of the temple. She convinced Nero to not order the Jewish priests to tear down the wall and to leave the temple as is. However, in 64, Poppaea secured the position of procurator of Judaea for Gessius Florus, her friend's husband, who was harmful to the Jews.

Death
The cause and timing of Poppaea's death is uncertain. According to Suetonius, while she was awaiting the birth of her second child in the summer of 65, she quarrelled fiercely with Nero over him spending too much time at the races. In a fit of rage, Nero kicked her in the abdomen, causing her death. Tacitus, on the other hand, places her death after the Quinquennial Neronia (in 65 AD) and claims Nero's kick was a "casual outburst". Tacitus also mentions that some writers claimed Nero poisoned her, though Tacitus does not believe them. Cassius Dio claims Nero leapt upon her belly, but admitted that he did not know if it was intentional or accidental.

Modern historians, though, keep in mind Suetonius's, Tacitus's, and Cassius Dio's severe biases against Nero, and hence recognize that Poppaea may have died due to complications of miscarriage or childbirth. Furthermore, a Greek poem encrypted on a frayed piece of papyrus reads that a deified Poppaea "made a loving farewell speech to Nero, before [ascending] off to heaven on a chariot driven by a goddess", indicating her death was not caused by an act of violence of Nero's.

When Poppaea died in 65, Nero went into deep mourning. Per the Roman imperial tradition, Poppaea was given a state funeral. In a departure from this cultural norm, however, she was not only embalmed, but also given divine honours alongside her daughter Claudia Augusta. Tacitus writes that Poppaea was embalmed by having her body filled with various herbs and spices and was buried in the Tomb of the Julii, but her actual burial spot is unknown. Nero supposedly burned a year's worth of Arabia's incense production at her funeral.

At the beginning of 66 AD, Nero married Statilia Messalina. After that, in 67 AD, Nero castrated and married a young freedman named Sporus. According to Cassius Dio, Sporus bore an uncanny resemblance to Poppaea, and Nero even called him by his dead wife's name.

In opera
Fifteen centuries after her death, Poppaea was depicted in Claudio Monteverdi's last opera, L'incoronazione di Poppea (The coronation of Poppaea) in 1642. Her story clearly was chosen to appeal to the titillation favoured in the nascent culture of the Venetian public opera theaters, and its prologue immediately explains that it is not a drama that promotes the triumph of virtue. Poppaea is portrayed as cynically plotting to become empress of Rome by manipulating the emperor Nero into marrying her, and her machinations include the execution of Seneca the Younger, who opposes her plans, which are successful at the end of the drama.

Poppaea is a principal character also in Handel's 1709 opera Agrippina, but as a victim, not a perpetrator, of deceit and manipulation. Here the schemer is Agrippina, Nero's mother, intent on promoting her son's claim to the throne. Poppaea, the ingenue, is portrayed as the object of desire of Claudius, Nero, and Otho, each of whom served for a time as Roman Emperor, whose rivalries Agrippina attempts to leverage to her advantage. Once Poppaea sees through Agrippina's deceit, she responds in kind, but only in order to be united with Otho, portrayed as her one true love.

In film
Poppaea appears as a character in the several cinema and TV versions of Henryk Sienkiewicz's novel Quo Vadis:
 * In the 1951 film version — in which she is played by Patricia Laffan in a widely praised performance — she is strangled to death by Nero, who blames her for turning his "loyal subjects", the Roman populace, against him. (This form of murder may have been suggested to the screenwriters by Suetonius' claim that Nero made several attempts to strangle his first wife, Octavia.)
 * In the 1985 international TV miniseries, Quo vadis, Poppaea was portrayed by Cristina Raines.

 * In the 2001 adaptation, Quo Vadis, Poppaea was portrayed by Agnieszka Wagner

Another portrayal of Poppaea is featured in the 1932 film The Sign of the Cross. Daringly for the time, she is portrayed (by Claudette Colbert) as being openly bisexual, suggestively inviting a female slave to bathe with her, but lusting after Roman soldier Marcus Superbus (Fredric March).

In the 1976 BBC TV series I, Claudius, Poppaea was played by Sally Bazely.

Kara Tointon played Poppaea in 2003's Boudica, also known as Warrior Queen in the United States.

Poppaea is portrayed by Catherine McCormack in the 2006 BBC docudrama Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. In this interpretation, she is kicked to death by Nero after offhandedly and uncritically mentioning a minor glitch during his performance at the Quinquennial Neronia. Her corpse is later shown mounted on display.

Rachel Yakar performs the role of Poppea in the 1979 opera film of L'incoronazione di Poppea, directed by Jean-Pierre Ponnelle and conducted by Nikolaus Harnoncourt.

She is also a character in the 2004 drama film Nero, played by Elisa Tovati.

In Mel Brooks' 1968 film The Producers, Leo Bloom (Gene Wilder) is terrified by Max Bialystock (Zero Mostel) when the large man stands over him, and — in reference to Cassius Dio's account of Poppaea's death — screams: "You're going to jump on me. I know you're going to jump on me – like Nero jumped on Poppaea... Poppaea. She was his wife. And she was unfaithful to him. So he got mad and he jumped on her. Up and down, up and down, until he squashed her like a bug. Please don't jump on me!"

In the 2013 Polish film Imperator, done entirely in Latin, Poppaea is played by Ewa Horwich. Here, Poppaea is depicted as outliving Nero and meeting her death in Germania after reuniting with Otho.

In the 1965 Doctor Who story The Romans, Poppaea is played by Kay Patrick.

In music
The Gothic metal band Theatre of Tragedy wrote a song titled "Poppæa", inspired by her story, on their myth-based album Aégis.

title: Poppaea Sabina


text:
Talk:Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution

scientific relevance
How accurate or out of date are his observations on animal behaviour? Is the book still considered important in biology? It would be good to address those questions in the article, but I don't know enough to do it myself. -Matt Adams —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.95.128.247 (talk)

 * A quick googling turned up http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/classes/Anarchy/finalprojects/brooksfinal.html // Liftarn

 * there is also this: http://anarchism.pageabode.com/anarcho/mutual-aid-an-introduction-and-evaluation —Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.106.80.55 (talk) 22:07, 1 September 2008 (UTC)

In the animal world we have seen that the vast majority of species live in societies, and that they find in association the best arms for the struggle for life: understood, of course, in its wide Darwinian sense -- not as a struggle for the sheer means of existence, but as a struggle against all natural conditions unfavourable to the species. The animal species, in which individual struggle has been reduced to its narrowest limits, and the practice of mutual aid has attained the greatest development, are invariably the most numerous, the most prosperous, and the most open to further progress. The mutual protection which is obtained in this case, the possibility of attaining old age and of accumulating experience, the higher intellectual development, and the further growth of sociable habits, secure the maintenance of the species, its extension, and its further progressive evolution. The unsociable species, on the contrary, are doomed to decay.

From a scientific point of view, this is apparently outdated ideology without any relevance to biology, the subject that Kropotkin is trying to usurp. Its likeness to modern genetic altruism is shallow and coincidental - or at least reached from very different arguments. Unsociable species like moles, pikes, eagles or mooses are certainly not doomed to decay. "Old age" is a totally irrelevant factor in evolutionary progress, and so on. --Sponsianus (talk) 20:01, 9 September 2008 (UTC)

 * Your stmt makes no sense, since "scientific POV" doesn't apply onto ideology. It seems you believe there can be a neutral and objective ideology. Maybe he is "trying to usurp", which is usual in a political context, as well as neoliberalism has "usurped" the survival of the fittest for their antinomian standpoints, but there is no way in universe that science can rule out or verify ideology, since science is not about personal opinions. Kropotkin also presents a scientific reasoning, and this reasoning can be criticised according to scientific methodology and knowledge. ... said: Rursus ( m bork³ ) 12:38, 22 December 2009 (UTC)

I removed the section on "A quasi-biological work" as it is pure assertion. Stephen Jay Gould, for example, noted that Kropotkin's basic thesis was correct -- cooperation between animals ensures survival. As for mechanisms, Kropotkin's argument is that co-operative species will survive better rather than those which compete internally. This would ensure genes survived to the next generation. I assume that Darwin, also, "has little to do with the actual science of evolutionary biology. [Darwin], who was active many years before the breakthrough of genetics, has of course no mechanisms to suggest on how genes could be affected"! As for "should be seen chiefly as a commentary on human society", well, his account starts with animals and then moves onto human history. Many scientists note that his work is an early account of co-operation and mutualism in nature. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.40.192.31 (talk) 11:07, 17 September 2008 (UTC)

 * Read the quote above again and see that this is clearly a political agenda. Kropotkin was not a biologist - unlike Darwin, who was well aware that the mechanisms of genetic heritage were yet to be discovered.

 * Firstly: He was and is still considered a "naturalist", which may be considered being related to both folklore and biology. Karl Marx, who many love to hate and some other love to love, is considered being both a sociologist and a very important economist (of the capitalist economy of course), so there is no rule that say that ideologists cannot be scientists, however distasteful that might be for non neutral idiosyncratic POVs. Secondly: one doesn't need to belong to a certain science community to get ones theories accepted, counterexample is Alfred Wegener and his theory of Continental Movements. I.e. one citation does not disprove him being a biologist. ... said: Rursus ( m bork³ ) 12:38, 22 December 2009 (UTC)

 * "The unsociable species, on the contrary, are doomed to decay". This should mean that the major birds of prey - highly intelligent creatures and skilled hunters - are on their way out because they hunt alone, whereas poultry will enjoy a "higher intellectual development" as they live in flocks. This is nonsense of the worst kind and miles from what any serious biologist would agree with.

 * I have rewritten and elaborated my points but added some sentences to the effect that some of Kropotkin's ideas were precursors to modern notions of mutualism which you may be right to point out. If you want to rewrite this please do, but please sign in first. Sponsianus (talk) 10:11, 20 September 2008 (UTC)

 * "The unsociable species, on the contrary, are doomed to decay" is a counterexample. While it doesn't debunk the entirety of Kropotkins' discourse, it would be desirable to have a citation supporting criticisms of such statements. ... said: Rursus ( m bork³ ) 12:38, 22 December 2009 (UTC)

 * You should avoid your points acc2 WP:NPOV. ... said: Rursus ( m bork³ ) 12:38, 22 December 2009 (UTC)

 * I agree! ... said: Rursus ( m bork³ ) 12:38, 22 December 2009 (UTC)

 * I have removed your "A quasi-biological work" section Sponsianus. See the Wikipedia guidelines on NPOV. If you wish to put your personal view, place it in the discussion section. If you wish to refer to criticisms "that have been published by reliable sources" (as per NPOV policy) - even if it is your own published critiques - put it in a 'Criticisms' section and footnote/reference appropriately. This is not a comment on whether or not there is merit in your critique - merely an attempt to stick to a Wikipedia policy that is meant to keep entries from degenerating into free-for-all arguments between supporters and detractors of particular viewpoints. 203.220.107.27 (talk) 05:27, 21 September 2008 (UTC)

 * I have now read Gould's essay on Kropotkin and not surprisingly Gould and I have the same view on Kropotkin's actual value. "If Kropotkin overemphasized mutual aid, most Darwinians in Western Europe had exaggerated competition just as strongly". This is more or less paraphrasing what I wrote "Just like it counterparts, the works of social darwinism, Kropotkin's work attempts to use evolutionary biology to support his political stances". I have added Gould's essay as a reference.

 * You may be right that Wikipedia needs references to established writers even to state the obvious, but it would have been more constructive if you have added those references insteas of bluntly erasing my contributions. It is a very relevant question if Kropotkin's work was any good. Sponsianus (talk) 17:55, 25 September 2008 (UTC)

 * I have removed your own POV from your section but left your Gould refs intact (not having access to the Gould work I am assuming that you are referencing him accurately, albeit ungrammatically). To say that Kropotkin was an anarchist therefore his work is biased is no more sensible than saying another author was a Republican, Anglican or Rotarian, therefore their work was biased. Everyone has a perspective and it should be judged on its merits, not according to prejudices against their politics, religion or race. Presumably you are not biased however, so I look forward to seeing you make similar edits to pages on the work of Social Darwinists like Huxley.

 * And I don't think the onus is on me to provide references for your edits. 203.220.106.131 (talk) 03:18, 26 September 2008 (UTC)

 * '"Old age" is a totally irrelevant factor in evolutionary progress, and so on.'
 * If you are really a biology teacher, Sponsianus, I think you owe it to your students to read some Dawkins - especially 'The Selfish Gene'. Dawkins not only explains the importance of social transmission of data (memes) to evolution, he also shows how 'communities' of gene carriers interact to promote the spread of genes even at the expense of individual reproduction (e.g. sacrificing yourself to save several non-offspring relatives). 203.220.105.201 (talk) 03:38, 26 September 2008 (UTC)

 * I found an online copy of Gould's article and see that you have grossly misrepresented it Sponsianus. I have rewritten your section accordingly and provided a link so that readers themselves can decide whether my summation is accurate. 203.220.105.201 (talk) 04:53, 26 September 2008 (UTC)

I fear that it is actually you who have misunderstood Gould's article. Gould acknowledges that Kropotkin worked in an established tradition, that he made interesting observations which were ignored at the time and that he was not a crackpot. You mistake this praise to mean that Gould thinks that Kropotkin's ideas were generally founded on sound scientific principles which is certainly not the case. Let me quote:

"Todes’s article does not make Kropotkin more correct, but it does place his writing into a general context that demands our respect and produces substantial enlightenment. Kropotkin was part of a mainstream flowing in an unfamiliar direction, not an isolated little arroyo."

This Russian school, Gould continues, were critical of Malthus and western social darwinists. Today, these are largely obsolete issues.

I would fault Kropotkin only in two ways – one technical, the other general. He did commit a common conceptual error in failing to recognize that natural selection is an argument about advantages to individual organisms, however they may struggle. The result of struggle for existence may be cooperation rather than competition, but mutual aid must benefit individual organisms in Darwin’s world of explanation. Kropotkin sometimes speaks of mutual aid as selected for the benefit of entire populations or species – a concept foreign to classic Darwinian logic (where organisms work, albeit unconsciously, for their own benefit in terms of genes passed to future generations).

This is the gist of what I wrote: that there are no genetic mechanisms that work on a population on its whole, only through the individual.

More generally, I like to apply a somewhat cynical rule of thumb in judging arguments about nature that also have overt social implications: When such claims imbue nature with just those properties that make us feel good or fuel our prejudices, be doubly suspicious.

Which is also rather in line with what I wrote - a social work camouflaged as biology. To this, I added a rather obvious refutation of the claim that solitary animals are less advanced. Please don't try to quote Dawkins on me. I am well aware of the shift from individuals to the genetic perspective and that was not what my quote was about. What I wrote about "old age" was that it is apparently irrelevant to the "genetic advancement" that Kropotkin proposes - in itself a dubious term, all existing species are per definition advanced enough to have survived. Anyway, among the vertebrates there are sociable creatures like mice who live for months, and insociable creatures like birds of prey - or albatrosses - who survive for many decades.

It is apparent nonsense that sociable animals are more "advanced" than non-sociable ones. Gould declines to comment on these excessive statements by Kropotkin, apparently because he sees them for what they are - political rhetoric - and appreciates the virtues of his real biological observations. Much as a modern astronomer can appreciate the works of an ancient colleague who was a geocentrist, without perpetually stating that his basic world view was as wrong as it gets.

Finally, if the pages of Social Darwinism does not include criticism of its contamination of biology with political ideas, this is certainly not good. I will look up the matter. Sponsianus (talk) 14:01, 26 September 2008 (UTC)

 * "This is the gist of what I wrote: that there are no genetic mechanisms that work on a population on its whole, only through the individual."

 * You are quite incorrect and again I refer you to Dawkins. While it is true that Darwinian natural selection does not postulate a mechanism whereby evolution acts upon populations as a whole, its is fairly obvious that, for example, a genetic predisposition to self sacrifice at the expense of reproduction can result in more surviving copies of groups of genes than pure self preservation (e.g. sacrificing yourself to preserve two other individual who each share more than 50% of your own genetic makeup). It would be more technically correct, albeit just as narrowly reductionist, to say that genetic mechanisms do not work through an individual but only at a cellular level. In fact the literal truth is that they work only in conjunction with other genes and the organelles. But to insist that natural selection works only on individuals is to ignore bisexual reproduction, among many other things - something that even those as ignorant of genes as Kropotkin and Darwin would have been aware of.

 * I will refrain from commenting on your POV regarding the Gould article beyond saying that your assumptions regarding my opinion of it are unfounded. My edit includes the link and is free of the editorialising that characterised your version, so I think interested readers are perfectly able to make up their own minds should they so wish.

 * Regarding your apparent outrage at Kropotkin's alleged lack of scientific rigour, you might take note of the philosophy heading on the page and the big circle-A (which, in case you are unaware, is a political symbol). Are you also going to attack it for not being a cookbook and an aircraft maintenance manual? 203.220.106.53 (talk) 09:24, 28 September 2008 (UTC)

 * Your discussion of genetic mechanisms in a modern light (correct though they are) have little to do with Kropotkin or what I meant to say about him, and you have ceased to even motivate your claims that I have misinterpreted Gould's article.

 * Regarding your last paragraph: no. If Kropotkin's work is one of anarchistic philosophy - and not biology, which is seemingly the subject of "Mutual Aid", then its scientific merits - such as they are - should be pointed out. Is this a philosophical book, or does it contain valid biological observations? This was lacking in the article before, and I have tried to amend that. I am not outraged at anything, I merely want to emphasise that "Mutual Aid" is a portmanteau and this should be explained in the article. When I have time I will rewrite the section once more. Sponsianus (talk) 07:57, 29 September 2008 (UTC)

Added a few quotes from actual scientists who show that Kropotkin's views were, and still are, scientifically respectable. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.40.192.31 (talk) 13:57, 17 October 2008 (UTC)

 * I have two wishes based from the above discussion: First Sir 203.220.106.53! (and other IP guys). You are obviously very proficient in writing neutrally and knowledgeable in Wikipedias policies, is it possible from your employment conditions and such considerations to get a wikipedia account and use this, so that we can see who is who? Secondly Sir Sponsianus! We have now readily perceived that you from a competition-ideological standpoint detest Kropotkin, and such a standpoint is valuable for finding various kinds of sources criticism, while at the very least I am very sympathetical towards Kropotkin's standpoint and Frans de Waal's modern counterparts, which might be usable for producing a discourse about Mutual Aid itself. When adhering to WP:NPOV, could you imagine us collaborating in producing a neutral article, and in some little degree try to tone down the subjectivity in the phrasing about the article contents, so to instead collaborate to the goal to let the facts speak for themselves (WP:DECISION)? ... said: Rursus ( m bork³ ) 12:38, 22 December 2009 (UTC)

New scientifical research by the University of York (2018) shows that healthcare was allready existing in the Neanderthal period and that it was probably crucial for the survival of human species. Maybe Kropotkin wasn't so wrong in his ideas. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.86.90.39 (talk) 20:16, 2 November 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution


text:
Landsat program

The Landsat program is the longest-running enterprise for acquisition of satellite imagery of Earth. It is a joint NASA / USGS program. On 23 July 1972, the Earth Resources Technology Satellite was launched. This was eventually renamed to Landsat 1 in 1975. The most recent, Landsat 9, was launched on 27 September 2021.

The instruments on the Landsat satellites have acquired millions of images. The images, archived in the United States and at Landsat receiving stations around the world, are a unique resource for global change research and applications in agriculture, cartography, geology, forestry, regional planning, surveillance and education, and can be viewed through the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) "EarthExplorer" website. Landsat 7 data has eight spectral bands with spatial resolutions ranging from 15 to 60 m; the temporal resolution is 16 days. Landsat images are usually divided into scenes for easy downloading. Each Landsat scene is about 115 miles long and 115 miles wide (or 100 nautical miles long and 100 nautical miles wide, or 185 kilometers long and 185 kilometers wide).

History
In 1965, William T. Pecora, the then director of the United States Geological Survey, proposed the idea of a remote sensing satellite program to gather facts about the natural resources of our planet. Pecora stated that the program was "conceived in 1966 largely as a direct result of the demonstrated utility of the Mercury and Gemini orbital photography to Earth resource studies." While weather satellites had been monitoring Earth's atmosphere since 1960 and were largely considered useful, there was no appreciation of terrain data from space until the mid-1960s. So, when Landsat 1 was proposed, it met with intense opposition from the Bureau of Budget and those who argued high-altitude aircraft would be the fiscally responsible choice for Earth remote sensing. Concurrently, the Department of Defense feared that a civilian program such as Landsat would compromise the secrecy of their reconnaissance missions. Additionally, there were geopolitical concerns about photographing foreign countries without permission. In 1965, NASA began methodical investigations of Earth remote sensing using instruments mounted on planes. In 1966, the USGS convinced the Secretary of the Interior, Stewart Udall, to announce that the Department of the Interior (DOI) was going to proceed with its own Earth-observing satellite program. This savvy political stunt coerced NASA to expedite the building of Landsat. But budgetary constraints and sensor disagreements between application agencies (notably the Department of Agriculture and DOI) again stymied the satellite construction process. Finally, by 1970 NASA had a green light to build a satellite. Remarkably, within only two years, Landsat 1 was launched, heralding a new age of remote sensing of land from space.

The Hughes Aircraft Company from Santa Barbara Research Center initiated, designed, and fabricated the first three Multispectral Scanners (MSS) in 1969. The first MSS prototype, designed by Virginia Norwood, was completed within nine months, in the fall of 1970. It was tested by scanning Half Dome at Yosemite National Park. For this design work Norwood was called "The Mother of Landsat".

Working at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, Valerie L. Thomas managed the development of early Landsat image processing software systems and became the resident expert on the Computer Compatible Tapes, or CCTs, that were used to store early Landsat imagery. Thomas was one of the image processing specialists who facilitated the ambitious Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment, known as LACIE — a project that showed for the first time that global crop monitoring could be done with Landsat satellite imagery.

The program was initially called the Earth Resources Technology Satellites Program, which was used from 1966 to 1975. In 1975, the name was changed to Landsat. In 1979, President of the United States Jimmy Carter's Presidential Directive 54 transferred Landsat operations from NASA to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), recommended development of a long term operational system with four additional satellites beyond Landsat 3, and recommended transition to private sector operation of Landsat. This occurred in 1985 when the Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT), a partnership of Hughes Aircraft Company and RCA, was selected by NOAA to operate the Landsat system with a ten-year contract. EOSAT operated Landsat 4 and Landsat 5, had exclusive rights to market Landsat data, and was to build Landsats 6 and 7.

In 1989, this transition had not been fully completed when NOAA's funding for the Landsat program was due to run out (NOAA had not requested any funding, and U.S. Congress had appropriated only six months of funding for the fiscal year) and NOAA directed that Landsat 4 and Landsat 5 be shut down.

The head of the newly formed National Space Council, Vice President Dan Quayle, noted the situation and arranged emergency funding that allowed the program to continue with the data archives intact.

Again in 1990 and 1991, Congress provided only half of the year's funding to NOAA, requesting that agencies that used Landsat data provide the funding for the other six months of the upcoming year.

In 1992, various efforts were made to procure funding for follow on Landsats and continued operations, but by the end of the year EOSAT ceased processing Landsat data. Landsat 6 was finally launched on 5 October 1993, but was lost in a launch failure. Processing of Landsat 4 and 5 data was resumed by EOSAT in 1994. NASA finally launched Landsat 7 on 15 April 1999.

The value of the Landsat program was recognized by Congress in October 1992 when it passed the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act (Public Law 102-555) authorizing the procurement of Landsat 7 and assuring the continued availability of Landsat digital data and images, at the lowest possible cost, to traditional and new users of the data.

Satellite chronology

 * Timeline

Spatial and spectral resolution
Landsat 1 through 5 carried the Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS). Landsat 4 and 5 carried both the MSS and Thematic Mapper (TM) instruments. Landsat 7 uses the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) scanner. Landsat 8 uses two instruments, the Operational Land Imager (OLI) for optical bands and the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) for thermal bands. The band designations, bandpasses, and pixel sizes for the Landsat instruments are: * Original MSS pixel size was 79 x 57 meters; production systems now resample the data to 60 meters. * TM Band 6 was acquired at 120-meter resolution, but products are resampled to 30-meter pixels. * ETM+ Band 6 is acquired at 60-meter resolution, but products are resampled to 30-meter pixels.

* TIRS bands are acquired at 100 meter resolution, but are resampled to 30 meter in delivered data product.

An advantage of Landsat imagery, and remote sensing in general, is that it provides data at a synoptic global level that is impossible to replicate with in situ measurements. However, there are tradeoffs between the local detail of the measurements (radiometric resolution, number of spectral bands) and the spatial scale of the area being measured. Landsat imagery is coarse in spatial resolution compared to using other remote sensing methods, such as imagery from airplanes. Compared to other satellites, Landsat's spatial resolution is relatively high, yet revisit time is relatively less frequent.

MultiSpectral Scanner (MSS)
The Landsat program incorporated the Multispectral Scanner (MSS) from its first mission up to its fifth. The MSS, gave the United States an advantage in satellite imaging, facilitating the launch of Landsat ahead of the French SPOT satellite.

The MSS was unique in its design. Rather than a static camera, it employed a moving mirror, capturing Earth's images in four distinct spectral bands. This capability allowed the MSS to record variations in sunlight reflected from the Earth. Notably, Landsat 3's MSS was further advanced, with an added capability to detect heat radiation.

One of the prominent features of the MSS was its consistent imaging. Each captured frame represented an area on the Earth's surface approximately 83 meters in length and 68 meters in width. Additionally, the system was designed to ensure a continuous image sweep across a swath equivalent to 185 km on the Earth's surface. The MSS's design also emphasized precision; by precisely timing the mirror's movements, it ensured that consecutive images did not overlap.

However, by the 1980s, the cost dynamics shifted. Accessing Landsat's imagery became substantially more expensive, making the French SPOT satellite's images a more cost-effective alternative for many users. The rise in Landsat's prices can be attributed to U.S. policy shifts, initiated under President Carter's leadership and finalized during President Reagan's administration.

Uses of Landsat imagery
Landsat data provides information that allows scientists to predict the distribution of species, as well as detecting both naturally occurring and human-generated changes over a greater scale than traditional data from field work. The different spectral bands used on satellites in the Landsat program provide many applications, ranging from ecology to geopolitical matters. Land cover determination is a common use of Landsat imagery around the world.

Landsat imagery provides one of the longest uninterrupted time series available from any single remote sensing program, spanning from 1972 to present. Looking to the future, the successful launch of Landsat-9 in 2021 shows that this time series will be continued forward.

In 2015, the Landsat Advisory Group of the National Geospatial Advisory Committee reported that the top 16 applications of Landsat imagery produced savings of approximately 350 million to over 436 million dollars each year for federal and state governments, NGO's, and the private sector. That estimate did not include further savings from other uses beyond the top sixteen categories. The top 16 categories for Landsat imagery use, listed in order of estimated annual savings for users, are:
 * 1) U.S. Department of Agriculture risk management
 * 2) U.S. Government mapping
 * 3) Agricultural water use monitoring
 * 4) Global security monitoring
 * 5) Support for fire management
 * 6) Detection of forest fragmentation
 * 7) Detection of forest change
 * 8) World agriculture supply and demand estimates
 * 9) Vineyard management and water conservation
 * 10) Flood mitigation mapping
 * 11) Agricultural commodities mapping
 * 12) Waterfowl habitat mapping and monitoring
 * 13) Coastal change analysis
 * 14) Forest health monitoring
 * 15) National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency global shoreline mapping
 * 16) Wildfire risk assessment

Further uses of Landsat imagery include, but are not limited to: fisheries, forestry, shrinking inland water bodies, fire damage, glacier retreat, urban development, and discovery of new species. A few specific examples are explained below.

Fisheries
In 1975, one potential application for the new satellite-generated imagery was to find high yield fishery areas. Through the Landsat Menhaden and Thread Investigation, some satellite data of the eastern portion of the Mississippi sound and another area off the coast of the Louisiana coast data was run through classification algorithms to rate the areas as high and low probability fishing zones, these algorithms yielded a classification that was proven with in situ measurements – to be over 80% accurate and found that water color, as seen from space, and turbidity significantly correlate with the distribution of menhaden – while surface temperature and salinity do not appear to be significant factors. Water color – measured with the multispectral scanners four spectral bands, was used to infer Chlorophyll, turbidity, and possibly fish distribution.

Forestry
An ecological study used 16 ortho-rectified Landsat images to generate a land cover map of Mozambique's mangrove forest. The main objective was to measure the mangrove cover and above ground biomass on this zone that until now could only be estimated, the cover was found with 93% accuracy to be 2909 square kilometers (27% lower than previous estimates). Additionally, the study helped confirm that geological setting has a greater influence on biomass distribution than latitude alone - the mangrove area is spread across 16° of latitude but it the biomass volume of it was affected more strongly by geographic conditions.

Shrinking of the Aral Sea
The shrinking of the Aral Sea has been described as "One of the planet's worst environmental disasters". Landsat imagery has been used as a record to quantify the amount of water loss and the changes to the shoreline. Satellite visual images have a greater impact on people than just words, and this shows the importance of Landsat imagery and satellite images in general.

Fires in Yellowstone National Park
The Yellowstone fires of 1988 were the worst in the recorded history of the national park. They lasted from 14 June to 11 September 1988, when rain and snow helped halt the spread of the fires. The area affected by the fire was estimated to be 3,213 square kilometers – 36% of the park. Landsat imagery was used for the area estimation, and it also helped determine the reasons why the fire spread so quickly. Historic drought and a significant number of lightning strikes were some of the factors that created conditions for the massive fire, but anthropogenic actions amplified the disaster. On images generated previous to the fire, there is an evident difference between lands that display preservation practices and the lands that display clear cut activities for timber production. These two type of lands reacted differently to the stress of fires, and it is believed that that was an important factor on the behavior of the wildfire. Landsat imagery, and satellite imagery in general, have contributed to understanding fire science; fire danger, wildfire behavior and the effects of wildfire on certain areas. It has helped understanding of how different features and vegetation fuel fires, change temperature, and affect the spreading speed.

Glacier retreat
The serial nature of Landsat missions and the fact that is the longest-running satellite program gives it a unique perspective to generate information of Earth. Glacier retreat in a big scale can be traced back to previous Landsat missions, and this information can be used to generate climate change knowledge. The Columbia glacier retreat for example, can be observed in false-composite images since Landsat 4 in 1986.

Urban development
Landsat imagery gives a time-lapse like series of images of development. Human development specifically, can be measured by the size a city grows over time. Further than just population estimates and energy consumption, Landsat imagery gives an insight of the type of urban development, and study aspects of social and political change through visible change. In Beijing for example, a series of ring roads started to develop in 1980s following the economic reform of 1970, and the change in development rate and construction rate was accelerated in these time periods.

Discovery of new species
In 2005, Landsat imagery assisted in the discovery of new species. Conservation scientist Julian Bayliss wanted to find areas that could potentially become conservation forests using Landsat generated satellite images. Bayliss saw a patch in Mozambique that until then had no detailed information. On a reconnaissance trip, he found great diversity of wildlife as well as three new species of butterflies and a new snake species. Following his discovery, he continued to study this forest and was able to map and determine the forest extent.

Recent and future Landsat satellites

Landsat 8 launched on 11 February 2013. It was launched on an Atlas V 401 from Vandenberg Air Force Base by the Launch Services Program. It will continue to obtain valuable data and imagery to be used in agriculture, education, business, science, and government. The new satellite was assembled in Arizona by Orbital Sciences Corporation.

Landsat 9 launched on September 27, 2021. During FY2014 financial planning "appropriators chided NASA for unrealistic expectations that a Landsat 9 would cost US$1 billion, and capped spending at US$650 million" according to a report by the Congressional Research Service. United States Senate appropriators advised NASA to plan for a launch no later than 2020. In April 2015, NASA and the USGS announced that work on Landsat 9 had commenced, with funding allocated for the satellite in the president's FY2016 budget, for a planned launch in 2023. Funding for the development of a low-cost thermal infrared (TIR) free-flying satellite for launch in 2019 was also proposed, to ensure data continuity by flying in formation with Landsat 8.

In the future, there may also be more collaboration between Landsat satellites and other satellites with similar spatial and spectral resolution, such as the ESA's Sentinel-2 constellation.

Landsat Next is planned to launch in late 2030/early 2031 and will measure 26 spectral bands; current Landsat's 8 and 9 measure 11 each.

title: Landsat program


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Paul Okalik

Paul Okalik (ᐹᓪ ᐅᑲᓕᖅ, ; born May 26, 1964) is a Canadian politician. He is the first Inuk to have been called to the Nunavut Bar. He was also the first premier of Nunavut.

On November 4, 2010, he was elected Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut. Okalik represented the electoral district of Iqaluit West in the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut until April 6, 2011 when he announced he would be resigning in order to run for the Liberal Party of Canada in the riding of Nunavut in the 2011 Canadian federal election. He returned to the Legislative Assembly in 2013 until being defeated in the 2017 general election.

Early life
Okalik was born on May 26, 1964, in Pangnirtung, Northwest Territories (now Nunavut), the youngest of ten children born to Auyaluk and Annie Okalik. He was sent to residential school in Frobisher Bay, now Iqaluit, at 15, returning to Pangnirtung after one year. He began a series of temporary jobs and pursuits including time as an apprentice underground at the Nanisivik Mine in northern Baffin Island. In the early 1980s, he became interested in the political development of Inuit communities and began to work for the Tunngavik Federation of Nunavut, the predecessor of Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated, as a deputy negotiator on the Inuit land claim, the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement. That claim, the largest in Canadian history, was signed in 1993 after decades of negotiations between Canada and the Inuit of Nunavut and would lead to the creation of Nunavut that he was to lead as premier through its first decade.

Okalik continued his claims work, and began University as a mature student, serving as a representative on the Nunavut Implementation Panel. Okalik has been overt in acknowledging the role alcohol played in his earlier years and his commitment during his university years to stop drinking altogether. He went on to obtain a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) in Political Science at Carleton University in Ottawa, and a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) from the University of Ottawa.

In 1998 he returned to Iqaluit to article at Crawford Law Office, working briefly in Yellowknife and with the Maliganik Tukisiniakvik legal aid clinic. In 1999 he was called to the Northwest Territories Bar, becoming the first Inuk lawyer in NWT/Nunavut history. His dream was to help his people in their dealings with the Canadian justice system.

Political life
At the first Nunavut election held February 15, 1999, Okalik was elected to represent Iqaluit West in the first Legislative Assembly of Nunavut, defeating Ben Ell and Matthew Spence, with 51% of ballots cast. The First Nunavut Assembly met prior to the official creation of the territory in order to elect the territory's first premier and ministers. There are no political parties in Nunavut. Instead, all members of the Assembly are elected as independents, with the Assembly then recommending a ministry from among its elected members via a consensus model. The Commissioner of Nunavut then formally appoints them to office.

Former federal MP Jack Anawak had been widely touted as the future Premier. However, Anawak was seen as Ottawa's choice, while Okalik was a dark horse and perceived as his own man. On March 5, 1999 after an extensive Leadership Forum question and answer period in the Assembly, Okalik was elected the first Premier of Nunavut. His mandate as premier became effective on April 1, 1999, the day Nunavut territory came into existence.

He stood for reelection in the 2004 general election, and was returned to the Legislative Assembly. On March 5, 2004, the Legislative Assembly again selected him premier over challenger Tagak Curley. By 2007, Okalik was the longest-serving sitting premier in Canada.

In the 2008 Nunavut General Election he won his third election and ran for a third term as Premier. On November 14, 2008, Okalik was defeated by Eva Aariak for the premiership. Okalik declined a nomination to cabinet and subsequently sat as a regular member in the Nunavut Assembly.

One of Okalik's primary goals as premier of Nunavut was to make the territory economically self-sufficient, as currently 90% of their budget comes from the federal government. Despite this, Okalik continues to have high hopes for the territory and believes that Nunavut has great economic potential. He cites resources such as diamonds, and also Inuit art and tourism as potential sources of income for the territory.

On November 4, 2010, Okalik was elected the Speaker of the Nunavut Legislative Assembly, replacing James Arreak who had resigned to become a cabinet minister.

He announced on April 6, 2011 that he would resign from the Legislative Assembly in order to run for the Liberal Party of Canada in the federal riding of Nunavut in the 2011 Canadian federal election. He finished second in the election behind Conservative incumbent Leona Aglukkaq.

Okalik returned to the legislature at the 2013 Nunavut general election as the member for Iqaluit-Sinaa, which includes much of his old riding. Soon afterward, he returned to cabinet as Justice Minister. However, in 2016, Okalik resigned from cabinet because of his opposition to a proposed liquor store in Iqaluit and the lack of addictions support. Okalik told the Assembly that as a recovering alcoholic who had his last drink in 1991, he could not support a liquor store in the territorial capital without improved facilities for recovering alcoholics.

During the 2015 Canadian federal election, Okalik protested a 2014 incident in which Aglukkaq read a newspaper during Question Period while opposition parties asked about exorbitant food prices in the North by reading a newspaper whenever Aglukkaq spoke at the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation election forum in Iqaluit.

Accomplishments as Premier
The first two terms (1999–04, 2004–08) of the Nunavut Government were defining for the Nunavut territory. The creation of a new government in a territory where no prior government structures existed was an accomplishment achieved by the hard work, idealism and commitment of many individuals, including Ministers, MLAs, public servants, Inuit organizations and municipal leaders – but the period is likely to be viewed as the Okalik legacy.

The First Assembly set out its goals in the mandate statement, with priorities on education and housing. The Second Assembly released its mandate statement, with priorities on Inuit culture and economic growth. In the Nunavut consensus system, where assembly members are elected on personal and individual platforms, the mandate statement represents the collective assertion of goals and political will and values for each Assembly.

Immediately in 1999 the new Nunavut government recommenced the construction of public housing, which the NWT had abandoned, taking the first steps to address the massive overcrowding and severe housing deficit facing all Nunavut communities, as well as developing innovations in assisting home ownership and first time purchasers. The monies spent on housing increased steadily over this period and persistent efforts eventually secured $300M in federal dollars for a huge construction program, the "Nunavut Housing Trust".

The construction of schools was a massive annual commitment during this decade, with almost every Nunavut community getting upgraded, new and impressive community schools at some point during the decade. Nunavut developed enhanced training for teachers, created a Nunavut program for registered nurses and supported the very successful Akitsiraq Law School, built Nunavut's first trades school in Rankin Inlet, put in place the process and approvals for a Nunavut Cultural School slated for Clyde River, improved levels of post-secondary student financial assistance, and funded Inuit and Inuktitut/Inuinnaqtun curriculum development. The decade saw a steady rise in Grade 12 graduations for Nunavummiut youth across the territory, although still falling short of Canadian national rates.

Long overdue health facilities were constructed in the regional centres of Iqaluit, Rankin Inlet and Cambridge Bay, infant and child inoculation rates were expanded, more physicians took up residence in the territory, the first Inuit certified midwives graduated and a series of elder-care facilities were planned and constructed. None of these measures narrowed the huge health and wellness gaps between Nunavummiut and other Canadians. Of particular concern was the huge impact of youth suicides, eventually leading to Nunavut's support for The Nunavut Suicide Prevention Project.

The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement requires that governments work towards a public service representative of the public it serves. In the first ten years of Nunavut, Inuit employment rates far exceeded those in the former Northwest Territories and showed stead improvement since 1999; however, these rates were still highest in the lowest education and pay categories, skilled positions remained unfilled in many communities, and the classic issues around minority employment efforts became part of the Nunavut public agenda.

He lost re-election in the 2017 general election.

Legislation
The Legislative legacy of the first two Nunavut Assemblies is substantial and fundamental in impact. Okalik introduced the first Nunavut Human Rights Act, which had never been done in the former NWT, and took a principled stand on its need to cover homosexuals. New structures for energy generation and regulation were created with the Qulliq Energy Corporation Act (dividing the assets of the joint Nunavut/NWT Crown Energy utility and creating its Nunavut successor) and the Utilities Rates Review Council Act. Regional Education and Health Boards were abolished and these functions and employees were moved into the departments of Education and Health and Social Services (respectively). These changes and Acts were original creations, scoped for the modest scale and limited capacity of Nunavut.

The consultative process of the Wildlife Act, which implemented and supported the hunting rights set out in the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement, was an extensive piece of work, frequently attempted but never accomplished in the former Northwest Territories. It took two attempts to gain a consensus on an original, some might say courageous and revolutionary Education Act which was so comprehensive it is still being implemented, and the linguistic, legal and cultural pitfalls of the Official Languages Act and the Inuit Language Protection Act guarantee that these pieces of legislation will be formative documents for many years to come.

Innovative and strong controls on purchasing and youth access were instituted by the Tobacco Control Act and a unique set of timely and accessible remedies was delivered into the hands of Justice of the Peace and community member through the terms of the Family Abuse Intervention Act.

Controversy
Nunavut managed to create its first political crisis on the issue of time zones in 1999, with Okalik and most of Cabinet supporting a unified time zone across the three current time zones and Nunavut regions. Most municipalities – despite originally supporting time zone unification at their annual meetings – responded to the government initiative with overt resistance, leading to a stand-off where Hamlets ran clocks at their preferred time and schools and airports frequently operated on another. Ultimately Okalik and the government backed down and the historic three time zones, Eastern Time Zone for the Qikiqtaaluk, Central Time Zone for the Kivalliq and Mountain Time Zone for the Kitikmeot have continued in effect.

The consolidation of the Health and Education Boards was accomplished in the first year of the first Assembly, when the value of common institutions was generally accepted. The corresponding change has been frequently recommended but not yet implemented in the NWT. While the Health Boards are not generally lamented the loss of the Divisional Boards of Education is seen in some quarters as leading to a less nimble and more encumbered Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun curriculum.

The issue of "decentralization" or the location of territorial- and headquarters-level government functions in one or more of the 10 "decentralized" Nunavut communities was an integral part of the planning of Nunavut from the time of the Nunavut Implementation Commission, and the Office of the Interim Commissioner. Practical adjustments were made to the locations recommended by the Office of the Interim Commissioner for many functions in 1999 and 2000, but many other positions were assigned to communities on a community development rather than a functional basis. There remain serious contentions around the effectiveness of specific functions and the over-all value of the decentralization initiative, but Okalik remained committed to the principle, and to seeing jobs delivered to communities outside the major centres.

The Okalik terms were remarkable for a general lack of corruption. Okalik along with colleagues Ed Picco and Hunter Tootoo and Rebekah Williams refused to accept a supplementary pension for members created by the Assembly which he deemed "excessive". Okalik was a modest spender by most accounts, and financial and political decisions taken were largely policy driven. During those years, Ministers who were perceived as not performing, were charged with criminal offences or found in a conflict of interest, lost their portfolios and/or resigned promptly, and in one instance were removed by the Assembly after being created Minister Without Portfolio.

Okalik was perceived as strategic, intelligent, a very quick and thorough study in his work, while his adversaries characterized him as short-tempered and aggressive, especially in his second term. During his almost ten years in office he was a reliable advocate for Nunavut among Canadian First Ministers, leading a public challenge to Prime Minister Jean Chrétien on the terms of access to medical care for Nunavut, revitalizing the Northern Premiers Forums, and being a founding member of the Council of the Federation.

During the last week of June 2007, Okalik reportedly made derogatory comments to Iqaluit mayor Elisapee Sheutiapik about Lynda Gunn, an executive from the Nunavut Association of Municipalities, allegedly calling her a "fucking bitch". Although Okalik apologized, both publicly and in private, the apology was refused. On September 17, 2007, MLAs voted to censure Okalik. Okalik himself abstained from voting, but asked his fellow MLAs to censure him as a formal recognition of his mistake. Sheutiapik subsequently challenged Okalik for the Iqaluit West seat in the 2008 election. Okalik was re-elected.

In November 2009, a report by the Integrity Commissioner declared that Okalik violated the territory's Integrity Act by soliciting campaign donations from deputy ministers, whom premiers appoint, and that Okalik should apologize.

Personal life
On June 18, 2005, Carleton University conferred on Okalik an honorary doctorate in law.

On November 24, 2008, Okalik was the sole recipient at the 16th Annual National Aboriginal Achievement Awards, now the Indspire Awards, in the category of Politics.

Okalik has three children, Shasta, Jordan and Béatrice, and at least one grandchild.

title: Paul Okalik