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Frostbite

Frostbite is a skin injury that occurs when exposed to extremely low temperatures, causing the freezing of the skin or other tissues, commonly affecting the fingers, toes, nose, ears, cheeks and chin areas. Most often, frostbite occurs in the hands and feet. The initial symptoms are typically a feeling of cold and tingling or numbing. This may be followed by clumsiness with a white or bluish color to the skin. Swelling or blistering may occur following treatment. Complications may include hypothermia or compartment syndrome.

People who are exposed to low temperatures for prolonged periods, such as winter sports enthusiasts, military personnel, and homeless individuals, are at greatest risk. Other risk factors include drinking alcohol, smoking, mental health problems, certain medications, and prior injuries due to cold. The underlying mechanism involves injury from ice crystals and blood clots in small blood vessels following thawing. Diagnosis is based on symptoms. Severity may be divided into superficial (1st and 2nd degree) or deep (3rd and 4th degree). A bone scan or MRI may help in determining the extent of injury.

Prevention consists of wearing proper, fully-covering clothing, avoiding low temperatures and wind, maintaining hydration and nutrition, and sufficient physical activity to maintain core temperature without exhaustion. Treatment is by rewarming, by immersion in warm water (near body temperature) or by body contact, and should be done only when consistent temperature can be maintained so that refreezing is not a risk. Rapid heating or cooling should be avoided since it could potentially cause burning or heart stress. Rubbing or applying force to the affected areas should be avoided as it may cause further damage such as abrasions. The use of ibuprofen and tetanus toxoid is recommended for pain relief or to reduce swelling or inflammation. For severe injuries, iloprost or thrombolytics may be used. Surgery, including amputation, is sometimes necessary.

Evidence of frostbite occurring in people dates back 5,000 years. Evidence was documented in a pre-Columbian mummy discovered in the Andes. The number of cases of frostbite is unknown. Rates may be as high as 40% a year among those who mountaineer. The most common age group affected is those 30 to 50 years old. Frostbite has also played an important role in a number of military conflicts. The first formal description of the condition was in 1813 by Dominique Jean Larrey, a physician in Napoleon's army, during its invasion of Russia.

Signs and symptoms
Areas that are usually affected include cheeks, ears, nose and fingers and toes. Frostbite is often preceded by frostnip. The symptoms of frostbite progress with prolonged exposure to cold. Historically, frostbite has been classified by degrees according to skin and sensation changes, similar to burn classifications. However, the degrees do not correspond to the amount of long term damage. A simplification of this system of classification is superficial (first or second degree) or deep injury (third or fourth degree).

First degree

 * First degree frostbite is superficial, surface skin damage that is usually not permanent.
 * Early on, the primary symptom is loss of feeling in the skin. In the affected areas, the skin is numb, and possibly swollen, with a reddened border.
 * In the weeks after injury, the skin's surface may slough off.

Second degree

 * In second degree frostbite, the skin develops clear blisters early on, and the skin's surface hardens.
 * In the weeks after injury, this hardened, blistered skin dries, blackens, and peels.
 * At this stage, lasting cold sensitivity and numbness can develop.

Third degree

 * In third degree frostbite, the layers of tissue below the skin freeze.
 * Symptoms include blood blisters and "blue-grey discoloration of the skin".
 * In the weeks after injury, pain persists and a blackened crust (eschar) develops.
 * There can be longterm ulceration and damage to growth plates.

Fourth degree

 * In fourth degree frostbite, structures below the skin are involved like muscles, tendon, and bone.
 * Early symptoms include a colorless appearance of the skin, a hard texture, and painless rewarming.
 * Later, the skin becomes black and mummified. The amount of permanent damage can take one month or more to determine. Autoamputation can occur after two months. Frostbite dorsal surface feet.jpg and was unable to properly dry feet.]]Frostbite palmar surface feet.jpg

Risk factors
The major risk factor for frostbite is exposure to cold through geography, occupation and/or recreation. Inadequate clothing and shelter are major risk factors. Frostbite is more likely when the body's ability to produce or retain heat is impaired. Physical, behavioral, and environmental factors can all contribute to the development of frostbite. Immobility and physical stress (such as malnutrition or dehydration) are also risk factors. Disorders and substances that impair circulation contribute, including diabetes, Raynaud's phenomenon, tobacco and alcohol use. Homeless individuals and individuals with some mental illnesses may be at higher risk.

Freezing
In frostbite, cooling of the body causes narrowing of the blood vessels (vasoconstriction). Prolonged exposure to temperatures below -2 C may cause ice crystals to form in the tissues, and prolonged exposure to temperatures below -4 C may cause ice crystals to form in the blood. Ice crystals can damage small blood vessels at the site of injury. Typically, prolonged exposure to temperatures below -0.55 C may cause frostbite.

Rewarming
Rewarming causes tissue damage through reperfusion injury, which involves vasodilation, swelling (edema), and poor blood flow (stasis). Platelet aggregation is another possible mechanism of injury. Blisters and spasm of blood vessels (vasospasm) can develop after rewarming.

Non-freezing cold injury
The process of frostbite differs from the process of non-freezing cold injury (NFCI). In NFCI, temperature in the tissue decreases gradually. This slower temperature decrease allows the body to try to compensate through alternating cycles of closing and opening blood vessels (vasoconstriction and vasodilation). If this process continues, inflammatory mast cells act in the area. Small clots (microthrombi) form and can cut off blood to the affected area (known as ischemia) and damage nerve fibers. Rewarming causes a series of inflammatory chemicals such as prostaglandins to increase localized clotting.

Pathophysiology
The pathological mechanism by which frostbite causes body tissue injury can be characterized by four stages: Prefreeze, freeze-thaw, vascular stasis, and the late ischemic stage.

 * 1) Prefreeze phase: involves the cooling of tissues without ice crystal formation.
 * 2) Freeze-thaw phase: ice-crystals form, resulting in cellular damage and death.
 * 3) Vascular stasis phase: marked by blood coagulation or the leaking of blood out of the vessels.
 * 4) Late ischemic phase: characterized by inflammatory events, ischemia and tissue death.

Diagnosis
Frostbite is diagnosed based on signs and symptoms as described above, and by patient history. Other conditions that can have a similar appearance or occur at the same time include:
 * Frostnip is similar to frostbite, but without ice crystal formation in the skin. Whitening of the skin and numbness reverse quickly after rewarming.
 * Trench foot is damage to nerves and blood vessels that results from exposure to cold wet (non-freezing) conditions. This is reversible if treated early.
 * Pernio or chilblains are inflammation of the skin from exposure to wet, cold (non-freezing) conditions. They can appear as various types of ulcers and blisters.
 * Bullous pemphigoid is a condition that causes itchy blisters over the body that can mimic frostbite. It does not require exposure to cold to develop.
 * Levamisole toxicity is a vasculitis that can appear similar to frostbite. It is caused by contamination of cocaine by levamisole. Skin lesions can look similar those of frostbite, but do not require cold exposure to occur.

People who have hypothermia often have frostbite as well. Since hypothermia is life-threatening this should be treated first. Technetium-99 or MR scans are not required for diagnosis, but might be useful for prognostic purposes.

Prevention
The Wilderness Medical Society recommends covering the skin and scalp, taking in adequate nutrition, avoiding constrictive footwear and clothing, and remaining active without causing exhaustion. Supplemental oxygen might also be of use at high elevations. Repeated exposure to cold water makes people more susceptible to frostbite. Additional measures to prevent frostbite include:
 * Avoiding temperatures below −23 °C (-9 °F)
 * Avoiding moisture, including in the form of sweat and/or skin emollients
 * Avoiding alcohol and drugs that impair circulation or natural protective responses
 * Layering clothing
 * Using chemical or electric warming devices
 * Recognizing early signs of frostnip and frostbite

Treatment
Individuals with frostbite or potential frostbite should go to a protected environment and get warm fluids. If there is no risk of re-freezing, the extremity can be exposed and warmed in the underarm of a companion or the groin. If the area is allowed to refreeze, there can be worse tissue damage. If the area cannot be reliably kept warm, the person should be brought to a medical facility without rewarming the area. Rubbing the affected area can also increase tissue damage. Aspirin and ibuprofen can be given in the field to prevent clotting and inflammation. Ibuprofen is often preferred to aspirin because aspirin may block a subset of prostaglandins that are important in injury repair.

The first priority in people with frostbite should be to assess for hypothermia and other life-threatening complications of cold exposure. Before treating frostbite, the core temperature should be raised above 35 °C. Oral or intravenous (IV) fluids should be given.

Other considerations for standard hospital management include:
 * wound care: blisters can be drained by needle aspiration, unless they are bloody (hemorrhagic). Aloe vera gel can be applied before breathable, protective dressings or bandages are put on.
 * antibiotics: if there is trauma, skin infection (cellulitis) or severe injury
 * tetanus toxoid: should be administered according to local guidelines. Uncomplicated frostbite wounds are not known to encourage tetanus.
 * pain control: NSAIDs or opioids are recommended during the painful rewarming process.

Rewarming
If the area is still partially or fully frozen, it should be rewarmed in the hospital with a warm bath with povidone iodine or chlorhexidine antiseptic. Active rewarming seeks to warm the injured tissue as quickly as possible without burning. The faster tissue is thawed, the less tissue damage occurs. According to Handford and colleagues, "The Wilderness Medical Society and State of Alaska Cold Injury Guidelines recommend a temperature of 37–39 °C, which decreases the pain experienced by the patient whilst only slightly slowing rewarming time." Warming takes 15 minutes to 1 hour. The faucet should be left running so the water can circulate. Rewarming can be very painful, so pain management is important.

Medications
People with potential for large amputations and who present within 24 hours of injury can be given TPA with heparin. These medications should be withheld if there are any contraindications. Bone scans or CT angiography can be done to assess damage.

Blood vessel dilating medications such as iloprost may prevent blood vessel blockage. This treatment might be appropriate in grades 2–4 frostbite, when people get treatment within 48 hours. In addition to vasodilators, sympatholytic drugs can be used to counteract the detrimental peripheral vasoconstriction that occurs during frostbite.

A systematic review and metaanalysis revealed that iloprost alone or  iloprost plus recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) may decrease amputation rate in case of severe frostbite in comparison to buflomedil alone with no major adverse events reported from iloprost or iloprost plus rtPA in the included studies.

Surgery
Various types of surgery might be indicated in frostbite injury, depending on the type and extent of damage. Debridement or amputation of necrotic tissue is usually delayed unless there is gangrene or systemic infection (sepsis). This has led to the adage "Frozen in January, amputate in July". If symptoms of compartment syndrome develop, fasciotomy can be done to attempt to preserve blood flow.

Prognosis
Tissue loss and autoamputation are potential consequences of frostbite. Permanent nerve damage including loss of feeling can occur. It can take several weeks to know what parts of the tissue will survive. Time of exposure to cold is more predictive of lasting injury than temperature the individual was exposed to. The classification system of grades, based on the tissue response to initial rewarming and other factors is designed to predict degree of longterm recovery.

Grades
Grade 1: if there is no initial lesion on the area, no amputation or lasting effects are expected

Grade 2: if there is a lesion on the distal body part, tissue and fingernails can be destroyed

Grade 3: if there is a lesion on the intermediate or near body part, auto-amputation and loss of function can occur

Grade 4: if there is a lesion very near the body (such as the carpals of the hand), the limb can be lost. Sepsis and/or other systemic problems are expected.

A number of long term sequelae can occur after frostbite. These include transient or permanent changes in sensation, paresthesia, increased sweating, cancers, and bone destruction/arthritis in the area affected.

Epidemiology
There is a lack of comprehensive statistics about the epidemiology of frostbite. In the United States, frostbite is more common in northern states. In Finland, annual incidence was 2.5 per 100,000 among civilians, compared with 3.2 per 100,000 in Montreal. Research suggests that men aged 30–49 are at highest risk, possibly due to occupational or recreational exposures to cold.

History
Frostbite has been described in military history for millennia. The Greeks encountered and discussed the problem of frostbite as early as 400 BCE. Researchers have found evidence of frostbite in humans dating back 5,000 years, in an Andean mummy. Napoleon's Army was the first documented instance of mass cold injury in the early 1800s. According to Zafren, nearly 1 million combatants fell victim to frostbite in the First and Second World Wars, and the Korean War.

Society and culture
Several notable cases of frostbite include:

 * Captain Lawrence Oates, an English army captain and Antarctic explorer who in 1912 died of complications of frostbite
 * Harold Bride, the junior wireless operator of RMS Titanic, who suffered severe frostbite on his feet as he and other survivors stood for over an hour on the back of a capsized lifeboat knee-deep in freezing water—Bride had to be carried off from the rescue vessel RMS Carpathia after it arrived in New York
 * Noted American rock climber Hugh Herr, who in 1982 lost both legs below the knee to frostbite after being stranded on Mount Washington (New Hampshire) in a blizzard
 * Beck Weathers, a survivor of the 1996 Mount Everest disaster who lost his nose and hands to frostbite
 * Scottish mountaineer Jamie Andrew, who in 1999 had all four limbs amputated due to sepsis from frostbite sustained after becoming trapped for four nights whilst climbing Les Droites in the Mont Blanc massif

Research directions
Evidence is insufficient to determine whether or not hyperbaric oxygen therapy as an adjunctive treatment can assist in tissue salvage. Cases have been reported, but no randomized control trial has been performed on humans.

Medical sympathectomy using intravenous reserpine has also been attempted with limited success. Studies have suggested that administration of tissue plasminogen activator (tPa) either intravenously or intra-arterially may decrease the likelihood of eventual need for amputation.

title: Frostbite


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Gene Bilbrew

Eugene "Gene" Bilbrew (June 29, 1923 – May 1974) was an American vocal group singer, cartoonist, and "bizarre art" pioneer. As noted in the biography, GENE BILBREW REVEALED: The Unsung Legacy of a Fetish Art Pioneer, he was "the first black career fetish artist in history." Starting in the mid-1950s, he was among the most prolific illustrators of fetish-oriented pulp book covers. In addition to signing his work under his own name, he produced art under a range of pseudonyms, including ENEG ("Gene" spelled backwards), Van Rod, and Bondy.

Early life
Born in Los Angeles in 1923, Bilbrew's first career was as a vocal group singer, performing with The Mellow Tones and the Basin Street Boys.

Pérez Seves debunked the myth that Bilbrew illustrated or produced the comic strip series named The Bronze Bomber for the African-American newspaper, Los Angeles Sentinel. In truth, Bilbrew's friend William Alexander produced the strip for the Los Angeles Tribune. One printed page, showing the Bomber cartoon from March 8, 1943, was repurposed by artist Mildred Howard as the base layer of her collage Millenials & XYZ #IV (2014), which is in the permanent collection of the Jordan Schnitzer Family Foundation. Four of the six panels are partly or wholly obscured by other elements of the collage. The upper three panels show the source and style. The Tribune began publication in 1941, but the earliest microfilm copies begin in September 1943, and the Bomber does not appear there. By early 1944, Alexander was in the Army. During 1941–1944, March 8 was a Monday only in 1943. Bilbrew was then 18 years old.

According to Pérez Seves, later that year, at age 19, Bilbrew would evade the draft due to psychiatric reasons and become a founding member of his first vocal group, The Mellow Tones.

Career
Starting in 1950, Bilbrew switched from singing to illustrative art. His first professional art job was for the hugely influential comics artist Will Eisner on The Spirit, where Bilbrew took over the back-up series Clifford—a humor page for small children—after its originator Jules Feiffer was drafted into the army. Bilbrew's Clifford was syndicated as a weekly comic strip by General Features from 1951 to 1952.

The start of Bilbrew's "bizarre art" career came in 1951 through underground artist and pioneer Eric Stanton, whom Bilbrew met while attending Cartoonists and Illustrators School. From then on, Bilbrew focused on fetish art, producing work for notable underground publishers Irving Klaw, Edward Mishkin, Stanley Malkin, and the Sturman brothers. He also notably produced many illustrations and covers for Leonard Burtman, publisher of Exotique, a fetish magazine published between 1955 and 1959.

Death
While his career waned with the coming of relaxed censorship laws of the 1960s, his substance abuse worsened in the early 1970s. According to Eric Stanton, Gene Bilbrew died in the back of a Times Square adult bookstore in May 1974.

Other
In 2019, the National Leather Association International established an award named after Bilbrew for creators of animated erotic art.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gene Bilbrew


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Morgan's Canon

Morgan's Canon, also known as Lloyd Morgan's Canon, Morgan's Canon of Interpretation or the principle or law of parsimony, is a fundamental precept of comparative (animal) psychology, coined by 19th-century British psychologist C. Lloyd Morgan. In its developed form it states that: "In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development."

Morgan's explanation illustrates the supposed fallacy in anthropomorphic approaches to animal behaviour. He believed that people should only equate the actions of animals to human states, such as emotions, intents, or conscious awareness, if a less advanced description of the behaviour cannot be posed. Alternatively, animal behaviours can be justified as complex when the animal's initiative involves procedures beyond instinctual practice (i.e. the animal is consciously aware of their own natural behaviours). This explanation can be used to understand the context under which the canon was studied, as well as its praises and criticisms. Several real world applications involving mating, competition and cognition exemplify Morgan's preference to simplify animal behaviour as it relates to these processes.

Context
Morgan's canon was derived after questioning previous interpretations of animal behaviour, specifically the anecdotal approach of George Romanes that he deemed excessively anthropomorphic. Its prestige is partly credited to Morgan's behavioural descriptions, where those initially interpreted as using higher mental processes could be better explained by simple trial-and-error learning (what is now called operant conditioning). One famous observation involves Morgan's terrier Tony, who, after many attempts, had successfully opened a garden gate. Though the final result could easily be seen as an insightful act, Lloyd Morgan had watched and recorded the approximations leading to the dog's gradual procedural learning, and could demonstrate that no insight was required to explain it.

Evaluation
The widespread study of animal cognition has required a disciplined use of Lloyd Morgan's canon. D.A. Dewsbury called Morgan's Canon "perhaps, the most quoted statement in the history of comparative psychology". Frans de Waal reiterated that it is "perhaps the most quoted statement in all of psychology" in his book The Ape and the Sushi Master. One section points to a statement that Morgan later added: "there is nothing really wrong with complex interpretations if an animal species has provided independent signs of high intelligence". It has played a critical role in the growth of the prestige of behaviourism in twentieth century academic psychology. Morgan’s contribution remains a significant framework of animal cognition and is revered as a valued understanding of behavioural execution. Various reasons for adherence to the canon have been offered, including fitness analysis, constraints of evolution and phylogeny, and physiological limitations.

With that being said, the canon has gathered substantial criticism. Many modern researchers such as Tobias Starzak suggest that it lacks operationally defined behaviour hierarchies. There is additional concern that the restriction of advanced cognitive explanations dismisses the spectrum of behavioural awareness and opportunity. Due to these problems, Morgan's own interpretation is thought to be oversimplified and ambiguous. Some animal behaviour research poses questions about favouring simplistic reasonings, especially when discussing behaviours from dispersed origins or observing rather sophisticated systems. The quantity of proposed behavioural mechanisms appears to receive less attention than their position on a cognitive scale. Several studies have taken note of this and thus maintained skepticism of Morgan's Canon as a parsimonous principle. Despite these shortcomings, several submitted alternatives, including evidentialism, aim to resolve its complications.

Mating displays
Most varieties of animals produce displays for reproductive or courtship purposes. Mating behaviour is often thought to be intentional due to the discriminatory nature of mate selection; that is, pursuit of potential partners anticipates a deliberate choice. Mating processes are frequently disputed under the nature-nurture debate. However, mating procedures may vary across circumstances. Homosexual mating displays such as those noticed in an observation of king penguins on the Kerguelen Islands appear identical to those used to attract opposite sex individuals. The ability of penguins to differentiate between members of the same and opposite sex has been debated within animal behaviour literature, some claiming the phenomenon to be irregular while others considered it more systemic. Nonetheless, environmental conditions such as sex ratios may demonstrate individual differences within the population. As the Kerguelen Island population showed no conscious discernment between individuals, instead choosing mates at random, Morgan's canon possibly presumes that their displays are genetically hardwired and show no evidence of discrimination between sexes.

Competition and external signals
Competition among organisms (usually males) results from unwavering disputes over territory (for mating or general residence), food, or potential mating partners. Individuals may compete using visual signals, as is seen in various butterfly species. Two different combative signals have been recorded: one uses an aerodynamic display that results in surrender of at least one male contestant, the second requires an encounter with an immature cocoon. The latter does not exclude rivals from approaching the same cocoon, but fights can occur in the event that a female is hatched. Similar instances in other species are supported by game theory principles. However, competition between butterflies is a rare occurrence and therefore conflict settlement is not exactly understood. One study used Morgan's canon to identify a third process; the possibility that battles emerge from a mistaken attempt to court other competitors. Since butterflies cannot cause severe injury to opponents nor accurately identify another's sex, the distinction of a mate from a competitor is sometimes nonexistent. Results of several studies conclude that air combat is ideally exclusive to territorial males. Likewise, Morgan's canon justifies misguided combat as long as recorded instances of sex differentiation are limited.

Cognitive awareness
The scope of animal consciousness is not perceived equally by human standards, so obligations to animal species as a whole are unequally distributed. Concerns raised by animal rights activists partly discuss the cognitive abilities of individuals or entire species. Such issues suggest that most species are at least somewhat capable of self-acknowledgement. Dolphins are particularly regarded for bearing high intellectual capacities, and are often the subject of cognitive experiments. Though Morgan's canon usually intends to avoid assumptions based on higher order processes, psychological exceptions arise with dolphins as their perceptions do not imply intentionality on their behalf. There is evidence of both self-directed and otherwise directed states of awareness that are close to those experienced by humans. A 2004 study tested the perceptual concept of uncertainty in dolphins. Subject were acclimated to an unaltered sound clip, then were expected to use their memory to determine a change in pitch. Once a lower or higher pitch was heard, the dolphins touched an oar intended as an indicator of each pitch category. Results reference a discrimination threshold beyond which interpretations of pitch change become doubtful (about 2100 Hz). Given potential errors in distinction, a third "escape" oar was provided for use in the event of uncertainty. While individuals do make use of the "escape", they are often reluctant to do so. Dolphin subjects still chose one of the other two options despite confusion, perhaps as an insistence on their original answer. Based on this type of research, experts have widely agreed on a pattern of ingrained compulsion that further supports Morgan's lower ordered inquiries.

title: Morgan's Canon


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Michael Hagee

Michael William Hagee (born December 1, 1944) is a retired United States Marine Corps four-star general who served as the 33rd Commandant of the Marine Corps from 2003 to 2006, succeeding General James L. Jones on January 13, 2003. He stepped down as Commandant two months before the end of his four-year term, and was succeeded by General James T. Conway on November 13, 2006. On that date, Hagee had his retirement ceremony just prior to the passage of command ceremony. Hagee retired from the Marine Corps on January 1, 2007.

Early life and education
Hagee was born in Hampton, Virginia, on December 1, 1944 and raised in Fredericksburg, Texas. He graduated with distinction from the United States Naval Academy in 1968 with a Bachelor of Science degree in Engineering and was a classmate of Oliver North, Charles Bolden, Jim Webb, and Michael Mullen. He also holds a Master of Science degree in electrical engineering from the Naval Postgraduate School and a Master of Arts degree in National Security and Strategic Studies from the Naval War College. He is a graduate of the Command and Staff College and the United States Naval War College. In 2004, he was honored with the Naval War College Distinguished Graduate Leadership Award.

Personal life
His father, Robert L. Hagee, served as a United States Navy pilot in World War II and, in the summer of 2009, was awarded a plaque at the Admiral Nimitz State Historic Site, now known as the National Museum of the Pacific War (formerly Nimitz Museum) in Fredericksburg, Texas. He and his wife Silke, daughter of the German Air Force brigadier general Werner Boie, have two children.

Hagee is the President and CEO of the Admiral Nimitz Foundation. He has previously sat on the Board of Advisors for Cobam and Silicon Graphics.

title: Michael Hagee


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Buick Skylark

The Buick Skylark is a passenger car formerly produced by Buick. The model was made in six production runs, during 46 years, over which the car's design varied dramatically due to changing technology, tastes, and new standards implemented over the years. It was named for the species of bird called skylark.

The Skylark name first appeared on a limited production luxury convertible using the Buick Roadmaster's chassis for two years, then was reintroduced in 1961 as a higher luxury content alternative to the entry-level Buick Special on which the Skylark was based upon. It was then positioned as Buick's luxury performance model when the Buick GSX was offered. As GM began downsizing during the late 1970s, the Skylark became the entry-level model when the Special nameplate was used as a trim package designation, then in the 1980s was offered as a front-wheel-drive vehicle where it was both a coupe and sedan for three different generations.

1953–1954
Created to mark Buick's 50th anniversary, the Roadmaster Skylark joined the Oldsmobile 98 Fiesta and Cadillac Series 62 Eldorado as top-of-the-line, limited-production specialty convertibles introduced in 1953 by General Motors to promote its design leadership. Of the three, the Skylark's run of 1,690 units proved the most successful, and an amazing sales feat considering the car's 1953 list price of slightly in excess of US$5,000 ($0 in dollars ) was over 50% more than the well-equipped US$3,200 Roadmaster convertible on which it was based ($0 in  dollars ). It was comparable in price to the 1953 Packard Caribbean with a similar retail price.

Production ran for two years. Based on the model 76R two-door Roadmaster convertible, the 1953 Skylark (designated model 76X) had identical dimensions (except height), almost identical appearance, shared its drive train, and had all its standard equipment, plus its few remaining options, including power windows, power brakes, full carpeting, and a "Selectronic" AM radio. Only air conditioning was not offered, unnecessary in either convertible.

Importantly, the new Skylark featured Buick's new 322 in3 (5.3 L) Fireball V8 in place of the automaker's longstanding straight 8, and a 12-volt electrical system, both division firsts. It debuted full-cutout wheel openings, a styling cue that spread to the main 1954 Buick line. Accenting its lowered, notched beltline was a new "Sweepspear" running almost the entire length of the vehicle, a styling cue that was to appear in various forms on many Buick models over the years.

The 1953 Skylark was handmade in many respects. Only stampings for the hood, trunk lid, and a portion of the convertible tub were shared with the Roadmaster and Super convertibles. All Skylark tubs were finished with various amounts of lead filler. The inner doors were made by cutting the 2-door Roadmaster's in two then welding the pieces back together at an angle to produce the rakish door dip. An overall more streamlined look was reinforced by cutting the windshield almost 3 in shorter and lowering the side windows and convertible top frame proportionately. Seat frames and steering column were then dropped to provide proper headroom and driving position. Front legroom was 44.7 in. Authentic wire wheels were produced by Kelsey-Hayes, chromed everywhere except the plated and painted "Skylark" center emblem.

The Skylark returned in 1954 with radically restyled styling unique to the Buick line, which included wheel cutouts that could be painted in a contrasting color to the body's. The trunk was sloped into a semi-barrel, and tail lights moved to large chromed fins projecting atop the rear fenders.

Re-designated model 100, the car was based on the all-new shorter Century/Special series 40 chassis and not the larger series 60 Roadmaster/Super chassis, also all-new for 1954. Once again, all Skylarks were built as 2-door convertibles and carried the same luxury equipment as before, but front leg room dropped 2.4 in. While smaller and lighter, the Skylark received a performance boost by retaining the big Buicks' powertrain, an evolutionary improvement of 1953's with the highest output in the division's lineup.

The 1954 Skylark once again had unique sheet metal stampings for its elongated wheel cutouts and new semi-barrel trunk, though fabrication was done without hand labor. The hood ornament was unique, adopted the following year across the Buick product line.

Sales proved to be poor, reflecting the Skylark's continued high price of US$4,843 ($0 in dollars ) coupled with a perceived step-down from the Roadmaster/Super series using the Century's chassis, slumping far enough to cause the model's cancellation at the end of the 1954 model year, with only 836 being manufactured.

1961–1963
In the fall of 1960, General Motors introduced a trio of new compact cars for the 1961 model year that shared the same chassis, engines, and basic sheet metal: the Buick Special, Pontiac Tempest, and Oldsmobile F-85. The Special's styling was strongly influenced by the new corporate look shared with the larger LeSabre, Invicta, and Electra also introduced in 1961.

In the middle of the 1961 model year the Buick Special Skylark made its debut. Effectively a luxury trim level, it was based on a two-door sedan (also referred to as a coupe), it featured unique Skylark emblems, taillight housings, lower-body side moldings, turbine wheel covers, and a vinyl-covered roof. 1961 Skylarks featured three Ventiports on each fender. A plush "Cordaveen" all-vinyl interior was standard, with bucket seats available as an option. Instrumentation was minimal, consisting of only a speedometer and fuel gauge.

The Skylark replaced the Special's standard aluminum block 215 CID two-barrel carburetor V8 with a higher compression ratio four-barrel version that boosted power from 155 hp at 4600 rpm to 185 hp.

For the 1962 model year, the Skylark became a model in its own right. It used the previous year's basic sheet metal but was available in two new body styles: a two-door convertible coupe (shared with the Special and Special Deluxe models) and a two-door (pillarless) hardtop unique to it. Tuning of the 215-cubic-inch V8 increased power to 190 hp at 4800 rpm. In 1962, the Skylark Special was also the first American car to use a V6 engine in volume production; it earned Motor Trend's Car of the Year for 1962. This 198 cid Fireball V6 was engineered down from the 215 and used many of the same design parameters, but was cast in iron. Output was 135 hp (gross) at 4600 rpm and 205 lbft at 2400 rpm. In their test that year, Road & Track was impressed with Buick's "practical" new V6, saying it "sounds and performs exactly like the aluminum V8 in most respects."

In 1963, the Special's body was restyled and minor changes made to the interior, particularly to the dash and instrument cluster. The 1963 Special was available as a two-door pillared hardtop coupe, a four dour sedan, a convertible, and a station wagon. Engine choices were a standard 198 cid V6 with a twin-barrel carburetor and an optional 215 cid V8 with 155 hp (two-barrel) or more powerful four-barrel (190 hp in 1962, 200 hp in 1963). Transmission choices were a 'three on the tree' manual transmission, a floor shift Borg-Warner T-10 four-speed manual, or a two-speed Turbine Drive automatic. The two speed "Dual Path Turbine Drive" automatic was a Buick design and shared no common parts with the better known Chevrolet Power-Glide transmission.

Two prototypes were made for 1962, each with a unique body. One a convertible and the other a hardtop. The prototypes came directly from Buick Engineering, both had been given two 4-barrel carburetors by the engineers thus increasing the prototype's horsepower a little more than 80 hp. They had features from the '61, '62, and the '63 production models. Some features, such as the two 4-barrel carburetors, were left out of the production-line Skylarks. The prototypes were also 2 in longer, and wider than the production models. Of the two prototypes, only the hardtop still exists and resides with its owner in Michigan. It is possible the convertible prototype still exists in the Sloan Museum collection.

The 1963 Skylarks used the same chassis and wheelbase as the previous 1961 and 1962 models, but adopted new sheet metal that featured boxier styling. Length was increased by 5 in to 193 in, and the 215-cubic-inch V8 generated 200 hp at 5,000 rpm. The 1963 Skylark was available as a two-door convertible coupe or a two-door (pillarless) hardtop coupe. The 1963 Special shared most sheet metal with the Skylark, but was available as a convertible, station wagon as well as two- and four-door sedans. Engine choices included a 198 CID V6 with two-barrel carburetor, the 215 CID V8 with two-barrel or a four-barrel carburetor. Transmission choices were a "three on the tree" manual transmission, a floor-shifted Borg-Warner T-10 four-speed manual, or a two-speed automatic. The two-speed "Dual Path Turbine Drive" automatic was a Buick design and shared no common parts with the Chevrolet Power-Glide transmission. Instrument panel padding and a cigarette lighter was standard.

First generation (1964–1967)
Beginning with the 1964 model year, the Skylark trim level had enough sales to merit its own separate line. Along with the lower-priced Special from which it was derived, the model would move to a new 115 in wheelbase intermediate-size chassis shared with the Oldsmobile F-85, Pontiac Tempest, and new Chevrolet Chevelle. Both Buicks had a length of 203.5 in.

The standard 215-cubic-inch displacement, aluminum-block V8 engine was discontinued (and the associated tooling eventually sold to the British manufacturer Rover, who produced it as the Rover V8 engine until 2006).

In its place was a new 225 cuin all-cast-iron V6 with a Rochester 1-barrel carburetor that generated 155 hp at 4400 rpm. It is an enlarged version of the prior 198 cuin V6 introduced for the 1962 model year. The basic V8 option was a 300-cubic-inch, with cast-iron block, aluminum heads, and a Rochester 2-barrel carburetor that generated 210 hp at 4600 rpm. A high performance version was offered with 11:1 compression and a 4-barrel carburetor, generating 250 hp. The V6 and V8 were of similar design and shared the same bore and stroke. A long-throw Hurst shifter was available for the four-speed manual transmission. For the 1965 model, cast-iron blocks and heads were used for all engines.

For the first time, a four-door sedan was offered in addition to the two-door convertible, two-door sedan, and hardtop coupe. Specials and Special Deluxes only came in pillared coupe versions. All Skylarks would have higher levels of exterior and interior trim than the Special and Special Deluxe from which they were derived. The sedan would come with cloth-and-vinyl seats standard, with an all-vinyl "Cordaveen" interior optional. All-vinyl bucket seats were standard on the convertible and optional on the hardtop coupe. The Skylark Coupe had a lower, more road-hugging profile than the other models. Buick's traditional VentiPorts were integrated into the front half rub strip that ran the entire length of the vehicle, with later versions appearing vertically stacked as on the Buick Wildcat.

Inspired by the sales success of the 1964 Pontiac Tempest, LeMans, and GTO, a Gran Sport option became available in mid-1965, offered as a coupe, hardtop or convertible. The Gran Sport featured Buick's 401-cubic-inch V8 with a Carter 4-barrel carburetor that produced 325 hp at 4400 rpm, listed as 400 cubic inches in sales literature to elude a General Motors limit of 400 cubic inches in intermediate-sized cars. Unique Gran Sport badging, a heavy-duty radiator, and dual exhaust were also added.

In the 1966 model year, the pillared four-door sedan was replaced by a four-door hardtop. The 1966 two-door Skylark was available with the optional 340-cubic-inch "Wildcat 375", engine which produced 260 hp and 365 lbft torque with a 4-barrel Carter carb. The four-door sedan would rejoin the lineup for the 1967 model year, making a total of five Skylark body styles. The 225 V6 was standard on the two-door sedan, the 300-cubic-inch V8 on all other models, but the four-door hardtop sedan, which came with a 340-cubic-inch V8 engine using a Rochester 2-barrel carburetor and producing 220 hp at 4400 rpm.

In 1967 Skylarks included the Federally-mandated safety equipment as other U.S. market passenger cars, including a dual-circuit hydraulic brake system, energy-absorbing steering column and wheel, 4-way hazard flashers, shoulder belt mounting points for outboard front passengers, softer interior surfaces, and recessed controls on the instrument panel.

The Gran Sport became the Gran Sport 400 to reflect its engine. A Gran Sport 340 was added, using the 340-cubic-inch V8, available only as a two-door hardtop coupe.

Second generation (1968–1972)
The 1968 model year was one of significant change for the Buick Skylark. Although still using the same basic chassis, all of GM's mid-sized cars adopted a policy of using two different length wheelbases. Two-door models used a shorter wheelbase of 112 in, while four-door models used a longer wheelbase of 116 in (the Buick Sport Wagon and Oldsmobile Vista Cruiser used an even longer wheelbase of 121 in). All of GM's mid-sized cars received all-new sheet metal, incorporating a semi-fastback appearance, which was a revival of a streamlining on all GM products from 1942 until 1950 as demonstrated on the Buick Super Club Coupe (sedanette), that showed influences from the restyled Riviera. More Federally mandated safety features improved occupant protection and accident avoidance, including side marker lights, shoulder belts (on all models built after January 1, 1968), and parking lights that illuminated with headlights.

The Buick Gran Sport, previously an option package available on the Skylark, became a separate series, starting with the 340 hp/440 lbs torque 400 c.i.d. V8 1968 GS 400, using the 2 door Skylark body and chassis. In a reshuffling of models in the lineup, the Special Deluxe replaced the previous Special. The Skylark nameplate was shuffled down a notch to replace the previous Special Deluxe. The previous Skylark was replaced by a new Skylark Custom.

The basic Skylark was available as a two-door hardtop coupe or a four-door sedan. The Skylark Custom came as a two-door convertible coupe, two-door hardtop coupe, four-door hardtop sedan, or four-door sedan.

The previous V6 was discontinued and the associated tooling was sold to Kaiser Industries, which used the V6 in its Jeep trucks and sport utility vehicles. The base engine in Buick Skylarks (and Buick Special sedans) became a 250-cubic-inch 250 cuin Chevrolet I6, that produced 155 hp at 4200 rpm using a single-barrel Rochester carburetor.

Optional on the Skylark and standard on the Skylark Custom was a new 350-cubic-inch V8 derived from the 340, using a two-barrel Rochester carburetor that produced 230 hp at 4400 rpm. The Buick Special name was dropped after the 1969 model year. A locking steering column with a new, rectangular ignition key became standard on all 1969 GM cars (except Corvair), one year ahead of the Federal requirement.

For 1970, the mid-sized Buicks once again received new sheet metal and the Buick Skylark name was moved down another notch, replacing the previous entry-level Buick Special. It was available in two- and four-door sedans with the 250-cubic-inch inline-six as standard and the optional 350-cubic-inch V8 (260 horsepower at 4600 rpm). Two-door models shared their roofline with the 1970 Chevelle, distinct from that of the shared Pontiac LeMans and Oldsmobile Cutlass. The two-door sedan was unique to Buick, sharing its roofline as the hardtop but having a thick "B" pillar, with Buick's traditional "Sweepspear" feature appearing as a crease running the length of the vehicle. Chevrolet did not offer a pillared coupe for the Chevelle from 1970 to 1972; all two-doors were hardtops.

Replacing the previous Buick Skylark was the Buick Skylark 350, available as a two-door hardtop coupe or four-door sedan with the 350-cubic-inch V8 as standard equipment. This 350-cubic-inch engine was a different design than the Chevy's 350 CID engine (4.000 in × 3.48 in) the Buick design had a longer stroke and smaller bore (3.80 X 3.85 in) allowing for lower-end torque, deep-skirt block construction, higher nickel-content cast iron, 3.0 in crank main journals, and 6.5 in connecting rods, the distributor was located in front of the engine (typical of Buick), the oil pump was external and mounted in the front of the engine, the rocker arm assembly had all rocker arms mounted on a single rod and were not adjustable. The Skylark Custom continued to be available, also using the 350-cubic-inch V8 as standard equipment and still available as a two-door convertible coupe, two-door hardtop coupe, four-door hardtop sedan, and four-door sedan. Buick Gran Sport models continued to be available as a separate series. The Buick Sport Wagon name was now used on a conventional four-door station wagon that no longer featured a raised roof with glass panels over the cargo area, or a longer wheelbase, as in the past. It now used the same 116 in wheelbase as the Buick Skylark four-door sedan and the now-discontinued Buick Special four-door Station Wagon. It became, in effect, a Buick Skylark four-door station wagon in all respects but the name.

For the 1971 model year, the base Skylark was available only with the inline-6, now only putting out 145 hp due to emission control devices, but in a two-door hardtop coupe body-style (in addition to the previous two- and four-door sedans). The Skylark 350 had a V8 engine that put out only 230 hp. It was now available as a two-door sedan in addition to the previous two-door hardtop coupe and four-door sedan.

1972 was the last model year for the mid-sized Buick Skylark. During this model year many pollution controls were added to the engines, Compression was lowered, engines had to accept leaded and unleaded gas, and spark timing was retarded (no vacuum advance in lower gears) while driving in lower gears to reduce emissions. For 1972, the base Buick Skylark used the 350-cubic-inch V8 with the 2-barrel Rochester carburetor (now putting out 145 horsepower) as standard equipment. A new federally mandated system to calculate power was put into effect that year, and the actual engine performance was probably comparable but slightly lower because of pollution controls in the 1972 model year to the 230 hp that was listed for the previous year. The Skylark 350 now used a version of the same V8 engine as the base Skylark, but with a 4-barrel Rochester carburetor that generated 180 hp.

Skylark Customs were available with the same 350-cubic-inch V8 engines available in the basic Skylark and the Skylark 350. The Custom had an upgraded interior and dash with some extra chrome. Convertibles only came in the Skylark Customs and the Skylark 350s.

Engines

 * 225 in3 (3.7 L) V6 (1964–67)
 * 250 in3 (4.1 L) I6 (1968–71), supplied by Chevrolet
 * 300 in3 (4.9 L) V8 (1964–67, 1964–65 Sport Wagon)
 * 340 in3 (5.6 L) V8 (1967 Skylark 4-Door Hardtop Sedan, 1967 GS 340, 1966–67 Sport Wagon)
 * 350 in3 (5.7 L) V8 (1968–72, 1968–72 Sport Wagon, 1968–69 California Gran Sport, 1968–69 Gran Sport 350, 1970–71 Gran Sport, 1972 Gran Sport 350)
 * 400 in3 (6.6 L) V8 (1967–69 GS 400, 1968–69 Sport Wagon 400)
 * 455 in3 (7.5 L) V8 (1970–72 Gran Sport 455)

(1973–1974) Skylark Hiatus
For 1973, GM redesigned the A-body platform, but Buick dropped the Skylark nameplate and revived one of its old ones for their mid-size: the "Century". The Century Estate replaced the Buick Sport Wagon. The Century inherited the Gran Sport performance option, but the Gran Sport name was once again reduced to being an option package.

Third generation (1975–1979)
When GM's compact X-body platform was extensively restyled for the 1975 model year, Buick retained the Apollo name for their four-door sedan, while their two-doors (hatchback and sedan) were both rechristened "Skylark".

Both the Apollo and the Skylark were available in Base and S/R versions; the S/R (Sports/Rallye) being European-inspired and more upscale. The Skylark sedan was also available as a very plain, lower-priced Skylark "S" with minimal interior and exterior trim.

Gone since 1968, the "VentiPorts" design element reappeared, integrated into the front half of the rub strip that ran the length of the vehicle.

The standard engine for the Buick Skylarks was Buick's own 231-cubic-inch (3.8 L) V6 engine with a 2-barrel carburetor creating 110 hp at 4000 rpm. Buick purchased back the tooling for the engine from American Motors, which acquired them when the company purchased the Kaiser Jeep division from Kaiser Industries. The Apollo used Chevrolet's 250-cubic-inch (4.1 L) inline 6-cylinder engine. Optional engines included the Oldsmobile 260-cubic-inch (4.3 L) V8 with a two-barrel carburetor producing 110 hp at 4,000 rpm, and the Buick 350-cubic-inch (5.7 L) V8 with either a 2- or 4-barrel carburetor. In 1976, the 5.7 L V8 engines produced 140 hp at 3,200 rpm with the 2-barrel carburetor, and 155 hp at 3,400 rpm with the 4-barrel carburetor.

Beginning with the 1976 model year, the four-door sedans used the Skylark and Skylark S/R names instead of the previous Apollo badge, and came with the 3.8 L V6 engine as standard. The 260-cubic-inch (4.3 L) V8 was discontinued after the 1976 model year. For the 1977 model year, it was replaced by a pair of V8 engines. The grille was also modified lightly for 1977, without the horizontal division and with a somewhat heavier appearance.

To commemorate the Bicentennial of the United States, the standard colors available on all Buicks were Judicial Black, Liberty White, Pewter Gray, Potomac Blue, Continental Blue, Concord Green, Constitution Green, Mount Vernon Cream, Buckskin Tan, Musket Brown, Boston Red and Independence Red, with specially available colors on select models Congressional Cream, Revere Red, Colonial Yellow and Firecracker Orange.

Available as an option in 1977 was a 301-cubic-inch (4.9 L) V8 with a 2-barrel carburetor, which produced 135 hp at 4000 rpm (supplied by Pontiac). Also available was a 305-cubic-inch (5.0 L) V8 with a 2-barrel carburetor, which produced 145 hp at 3800 rpm (supplied by Chevrolet). The Buick-built 5.7 L V8 was still available, but only with the 4-barrel carburetor.

Beginning with the 1978 model year, Chevrolet's 5.7 L (350-cubic-inch) V8 with a four-barrel carburetor, which produced 170 hp at 3,800 rpm, also was available. Also in that year, the Skylark Custom replaced the Skylark S/R as the most luxurious variant. The 1978s also received some very light cosmetic changes to the corner lights and grille.

The 1979 model year saw the discontinuance of the Skylark Custom two-door hatchback coupe (the base V6 produced 10 hp more than 1978's version). The 1979 model year was short because, midway through it, the all-new 1980 models were introduced early.

Buick Skylarks in Iran
Buick Skylarks were assembled in Iran (four-door sedans only) from 1977 to 1981 and again from 1986 to 1988 under the brand name of "Buick Iran". The first generations were known as B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, from 1977 until 1981, and the second and last generation was known as the B2 and B3 from 1986 until 1988. The later models were made after GM released the kits and parts to Iran following the GM's debt to Iran General Motors. These cars were equipped with a 5.7L engine (SB 350 Chevrolet, L engine, 4BBL), and were fully equipped (power door locks, power window, power steering, automatic transmission, a/c, vinyl top). The Cadillac Seville and Chevrolet Nova were manufactured in Iran during the same period. A total of 40,000 GM cars were produced between 1977 and 1987 in Iran. These models were basically the same as those built in the U.S. from 1975 to 1979 (Islamic Revolution).

GM Iran changed its name to Pars Khodro (meaning "Pars Automobile" in Iranian, "Pars" being the ancient, original name of Persia) after 1979. The production continued from 1979 to 1987 on a part-time, occasional basis.

GM ceased the production of all vehicles in Iran in 1987.

Engines

 * 231 in3 (3.8 L) Buick V6 (1975–79)
 * 260 in3 (4.3 L) Oldsmobile V8 (1975–76)
 * 301 in3 (5.0 L) Pontiac V8 (1977–79)
 * 305 in3 (5.0 L) Chevrolet V8 (1977–79)
 * 350 in3 (5.7 L) V8 Buick (1975–79)
 * 350 in3 (5.7 L) V8 Chevrolet (1978–79)

Fourth generation (1980–1985)
The 1980–1985 Skylark was Buick's badge engineered version of GM's new X-body architecture, shared with the Chevrolet Citation, Pontiac Phoenix, and Oldsmobile Omega and would bear some resemblance to the larger G-body mid-size cars. GM's X-body would also become the basis for GM's A-body mid-size cars that would be introduced as 1982 models. The new Skylark was introduced in the spring of 1979 as an early 1980 model featuring front-wheel drive, MacPherson strut front suspension and transversely mounted engine, items that had never appeared on Buick products. The new optional 60 degree 2.8 L V6 engine was developed specifically for the X-cars. This platform became the basis for nearly all following GM front-wheel drive vehicles, but like the other X-body cars was noted for numerous reports of a tendency to lock the rear wheels upon emergency braking, potentially causing the driver to lose control and crash (1980 models only). It was the first post-World War II Buick to offer a four-cylinder engine since the Buick Four was discontinued in 1918. The Skylark was available in two- or four-door sedan bodystyles, and in base, Sport, or Limited trims. The standard 2.5 L Iron Duke 4 used a 2-barrel Rochester carburetor and produced 90 hp at 4000 rpm. The optional 2.8 L V6 also used a 2-barrel Rochester carburetor and produced 115 hp at 4800 rpm. A four-speed manual overdrive transaxle was standard with a three-speed automatic transaxle as an option.

For the 1982 model year, the base 2.5 L engine received throttle body fuel injection (TBI). The optional 2.8 L V6 was joined by a more powerful high-output version that produced 135 hp at 5400 rpm. Also for the 1982 model year, the Skylark received a mild facelift in the form of a new grille (the front parking lamps moved from outside the headlights to inside). In model year 1983, the base Skylark became the Skylark Custom. The Sport model was replaced by the T-Type, which was available only as a two-door coupe and came with the high-output version of the 2.8 L V6 engine as standard equipment.

In 1985, the last year of production, the X-body Skylark was available only as a four-door sedan in Custom or Limited trim, as the two-door coupe was replaced by Buick's new Somerset Regal coupe, built on GM's new N-body platform, shared with Pontiac's revived Grand Am and the new Oldsmobile Calais. For 1985 the grille was again redesigned, as was the rear. The taillights were wider and the license plate was moved down to the bumper, while a "Buick" plate appeared where the license plate had been on previous model years.

Production Figures

Engines

 * 1980–1985 Tech-4 2.5 L (151 in3) I4, supplied by Pontiac
 * 1980–1985 LE2 2.8 L (173 in3) V6, supplied by Chevrolet
 * 1982–1985 LH7 2.8 L (173 in3) V6, supplied by Chevrolet

Fifth generation (1985–1991)
For the 1985 model year, the two-door Skylark coupe was replaced by the Somerset Regal, built on the Oldsmobile-developed N-body platform. The "Somerset" name had previously been used as a trim package on the Regal. This generation of compact Buicks featured a more upscale and aerodynamic design than its predecessor, incorporating the long-hood/short-deck look popular at the time. The Pontiac-produced Iron Duke engine continued from the Skylark, but an Isuzu-sourced five-speed manual transmission replaced the four-speed as standard equipment. A new 181 cuin multi-port fuel-injected Buick V6, generating 125 hp at 4900 rpm, replaced the Chevrolet-designed 2.8 L V6 and was paired only with a three-speed automatic transmission. The Somerset featured an all-digital instrument cluster.

For 1986, the Skylark sedan was shifted to the N platform and redesigned to match its coupe stablemate, which dropped the "Regal" suffix from its same. It remained available in either Custom or Limited trim levels, and gained the powertrain options from the Somerset but retained conventional analog gauges.

Beginning with the 1987 model year, the four-door Skylark was available as a sporty T-Type model installed with the 3.0 L LN7 V6 engine. In mid-model year, 1987 Skylark models had door-mounted automatic seat belts.

For 1988 models, the Somerset name was dropped and Buick's two-door N-body compact would share the Skylark nameplate with its four-door counterparts. A new engine option for 1988 models was the fuel-injected, Oldsmobile-designed 2.3 L DOHC Quad-4 4-cylinder engine that produced 150 hp at 5200 rpm. An S/E package for Custom models replaced the previous T-Type trim. On 1989 models, a fuel-injected 3.3 L V6 (160 hp at 5200 rpm) replaced the previous 3.0 L V6, which was also Buick-built. A new LE package become available on four-door sedans that featured a vinyl roof that covered part of the rear side windows. The three-speed automatic transaxle became standard for 1989. For 1990, a new base Skylark was added, moving the Custom model up to replace the Limited. The S/E package was replaced by a new Gran Sport two-door sedan, reviving a name that had not been connected with the Skylark for many years. The LE ("Luxury Edition") sedan would become a full-fledged model.

The 1991 Skylark was a continuation of the 1990 lineup, with virtually no change made to the outward appearance of the car. There were minor mechanical changes made to the Skylark's optional 3.3 L V6 power plant, including a one piece rear main bearing seal to replace the rope type previously used, and a redesigned camshaft flange.

Production Figures

Engines

 * 1986–1991 2.5 L L68 I4, supplied by Pontiac
 * 1988–1991 2.3 L LD2 I4, supplied by Oldsmobile
 * 1986–1988 3.0 L LN7 V6
 * 1989–1991 3.3 L LG7 V6

Sixth generation (1992–1998)
Buick presented the Bolero concept in 1990, previewing numerous styling elements used in the 1992 Skylark, including its wedge-shape, chromed feature line rising along each body side and wrapping around the rear, along with a prominent pointed grille — reminiscent of 1930s Buick Special. The Skylark's bodwork achieved a 0.319 coefficient of drag, compared to 0.374 for the previous version. The pointed grille had been used by Buick during the mid-1960s.

It was initially offered in two- and four-door body styles and in base and Gran Sport versions. The base engine was the 2.3 L Quad OHC, which produced 120 hp at 5200 rpm. The optional 3.3 L V6 (standard on the GS) produced 160 hp at 5200 rpm. All Skylarks came with the three-speed automatic transaxle.

For the 1993 model year, the base model was replaced by Custom and Limited trims. For 1994, a new 3.1 L V6 (160 hp at 5200 rpm) replaced the previous 3.3 L V6 as standard on the GS and optional on the others. The Limited coupe was dropped for 1994, but returned for 1995.

Mechanical changes for the 1995 model year included the upgrading of the standard 2.3 L Quad 4 engine from a SOHC design to a DOHC design, increasing power to 150 hp at 6000 rpm. The three-speed automatic transaxle continued to be standard with the base four-cylinder engine, but a new four-speed automatic (electronically controlled 4T60-E) was optional with the 4-cylinder engine and standard with the V6. Skylark received a facelift for the 1996 model year in the form of a more conventional-looking grille. The previous 2.3 L I4 was replaced by a new 2.4 L DOHC I4 that produced 150 hp at 6000 rpm. The previous three-speed automatic transaxle was discontinued and the four-speed automatic became standard on all Skylarks. An on-board diagnostic system (OBD II) was standard. Buick offered an "Olympic Gold" edition of the 1996 Skylark to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Olympic Games (also available on Regal). It featured gold USA/5-ring badging on the fenders, gold "Skylark" badges, gold-accented wheel covers, and gold accent trim.

There were only minor changes to the lineup for the 1997 model year, which was the last year that it would be available to the public in showrooms. A single-model 1998 Skylark sedan was produced for fleet-only sales, mostly to auto rental companies. Most of these 1998 models, the last year that Buick used the Skylark name, were eventually resold to the general public as used cars. After the Skylark's discontinuation, Buick did not produce another compact car until 2012 Buick Verano.

Production ended on December 4, 1997.

The Skylark production line in Lansing was retooled to build the 2000–2003 Chevrolet Malibu.

Production Figures: * Production figures for 1998 were not provided

title: Buick Skylark


text:
Talk:Gene Bilbrew

Untitled
http://americanfetish.net/ has Robert Bienvenu's PhD dissertation on it -- I haven't had a chance to read it, but it should have a full bibliography. This might be useful for these articles. -- Karada 00:17, 24 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Gay pulp work
Bilbrew illustrated a lot of gay pulp covers for Unique and other publishers - books like Male Madame, Queen of the Road, and The Gay Rebels. His signature's on the covers but I can't find any third party reference to this part of his work (which I suspect was done near the end of his life). Does anyone know of one? --NellieBly (talk) 07:46, 7 August 2009 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Gene Bilbrew. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20070614021558/http://genebilbrew.com:80/ to http://genebilbrew.com

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Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 08:25, 28 February 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gene Bilbrew


text:
British Islands

The British Islands is a term within the law of the United Kingdom which refers collectively to the following four polities:
 * the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland;
 * the Bailiwick of Guernsey (including the jurisdictions of Alderney, Guernsey and Sark);
 * the Bailiwick of Jersey;
 * the Isle of Man.

The Isle of Man and the Bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey are Crown Dependencies and are not a part of the United Kingdom. The Parliament of the United Kingdom on occasions introduces legislation that is extended to the islands, normally by the use of Orders in Council. For this reason it has been found useful to have a collective term for the combined territories. A statutory definition can be found in Schedule 1 of the Interpretation Act 1978.

The term The United Kingdom and the Islands is used in the Immigration Act 1971.

Statutory definition
Section 5 of the Interpretation Act 1978 provides that "in any Act, unless the contrary intention appears" the expression "British Islands" is to be construed according to Schedule 1 of that Act, which contains the following paragraph:

""British Islands" means the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man."

Subject to paragraph 4(2) of Schedule 2, that paragraph of Schedule 1 applies, so far as applicable, to Acts passed after the year 1889.

Paragraph 4(2) provides: "The definition of "British Islands", in its application to Acts passed after the establishment of the Irish Free State but before the commencement of this Act, includes the Republic of Ireland."

The Irish Free State was established on 6 December 1922 and the Interpretation Act 1978 came into force on 1 January 1979.

The Interpretation Act 1978 applies to itself and to any act passed after the commencement of that act and, to the extent specified in part I of schedule 2, to acts passed before the commencement of that act.

This definition of "British Islands" does not include the British Overseas Territories.

History
The expression "British Islands" was formerly defined by section 18(1) of the Interpretation Act 1889. This definition applied to the Interpretation Act 1889 itself, and to every act passed after the commencement of that act on 1 January 1890.

Section 19 of the Lloyd's Signal Stations Act 1888 contained a definition of "British Islands". The Lloyd's Signal Stations Act 1888 was repealed by the Lloyd's Act 1982.

Colonial statutes

Section 5(2) of the Interpretation Ordinance, 1891 of British Guiana contained a definition of "British Islands".

Section 2 of the Interpretation Ordinance (c 2) (1953) of British Honduras contained a definition of "British Islands".

Section 28(ii) of the Interpretation and Common Form Ordinance, 1903 of the Seychelles contained a definition of "British Islands".

Law
Section 13(3) of the Foreign and Colonial Parcel Post Warrant 1897 (SR&O 1897/721) and section 6(2) of the Foreign and Colonial Post (Insured Boxes) Warrant 1908 (SR&O 1908/1313) refer to "the law of the British Islands".

Inland postal packets
Section 62(16) of the Inland Post Warrant 1936 (SR&O 1936/618) defined the expression "Inland" in terms of the British Islands.

Inland bills
The definition of "inland bill" in section 4(1) of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882 refers to the British Islands.

Defence
Section 26(1)(a) of the Freedom of Information Act 2000 states:

"Information is exempt information if its disclosure under this Act would, or would be likely to, prejudice the defence of the British Islands."

Fisheries
The exclusive fishery limits of the British Islands were defined by section 28 of the Sea Fisheries Act 1883. This definition was repealed by Schedule 2 to the Fishery Limits Act 1964.

The fishery limits of the British Islands were defined by section 1(1) of the Fishery Limits Act 1964. This provision was repealed by the Fishery Limits Act 1976.

Extradition
Francis Taylor Piggott said the effect of section 37 of the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 was to make of the British Islands one coherent whole for the purposes of that Act. That Act was repealed by Schedule 2 to the Fugitive Offenders Act 1967.

Passports
The expression "British Islands" has been included on the covers of passports of the Isle of Man, passports of Guernsey and passports of Jersey.

title: British Islands


text:
User talk:Pauljs75~enwiki

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title: User talk:Pauljs75~enwiki


text:
Talk:Clyde Tombaugh

Untitled
The caption under the photo of Tombaugh is not at Lowell. It's likely his home in Kansas. The telescope pictured is the first successful one he made and it helped get him the job at Lowell. -Liam McDaid — Preceding unsigned comment added by 165.196.0.13 (talk) 20:39, 12 September 2011 (UTC)

Untitled
The latest edit has changed "...discovered Pluto..." to "discovered the dwarf planet Pluto..." While it's true that Pluto has been demoted, it could be understood as meaning it was always considered a dwarf planet. I think it's cleaner to just say "discovered Pluto." Let the Pluto article deal with its travails from 'unidentified thing' to 'planet' to 'dwarf planet.' Boxjam 00:36, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

I like the article, but can you include more about family life???

reliable source?
The article says:

 * "I have seen three objects in the last seven years which defied any explanation of known phenomenon, such as Venus, atmospheric optic, meteors or planes. I am a professional, highly skilled, professional astronomer. In addition I have seen three green fireballs which were unusual in behavior from normal green fireballs...I think that several reputable scientists are being unscientific in refusing to entertain the possibility of extraterrestrial origin and nature."

Is there a verifyable and reliable source for this? Bubba73 (talk), 01:54, 31 December 2005 (UTC)

 * It's also in the Michael Swords article on Tombaugh in the external references. Dr Fil 11 January 2006

 * Which one is the Michael Swords one? Bubba73 (talk), 19:08, 11 January 2006 (UTC)

 * The one that says "Academic paper..." Dr Fil 13 January 2006

Biography
A biography of someone reported as leaving a widow ought to include a mention of a marriage. 94.30.84.71 (talk) 18:53, 9 November 2011 (UTC)

Confusing dates and tone of paragraph
in the section Interest in UFOs, it states "In 1949, Tombaugh had also told the Naval missile director at White Sands Missile Range, Commander Robert McLaughlin, that he had seen a bright flash on Mars in August 1941, which he now attributed to an atomic blast." From the tone of the paragraph, it apparently says that Tombaugh dismisses the flash on Mars as a reflection of an atomic blast. This would be difficult as the first terrestrial atomic detonation didn't occur until 1944. BruceWiley (talk) 16:04, 9 August 2012 (UTC)

 * It is confusing. It is not clear to me whether he thought the atomic blast was on Earth or on Mars.  It so happens that a few days ago I ordered the biography of Tombaugh, and I'll see if that clears it up.  Bubba73 You talkin' to me? 17:02, 9 August 2012 (UTC)

 * Well, I got his biography and there is no mention that I can find of this, nor UFOs, nor green fireballs. Bubba73 You talkin' to me? 04:57, 13 August 2012 (UTC)

Interred vs. interned
In the paragraph on Tombaugh's death, I removed the "sic" from the transcription of the message on the canister of his ashes attached to the New Horizons space probe. The canister states "Interned herein are the remains..." This is, in fact, the word that was intended; not "interred." From the Latin terra,"interred" means to be buried in the Earth. This makes no sense in the context of space. "Interned," on the other hand, can mean "to confine," as in an internment camp. The usage on the probe is correct; "sic" is unnecessary. Feline Nursery (talk) 03:57, 14 July 2015 (UTC)

I've removed the "sic" which has since reappeared. Feline Nursery's reason's for deleting it are good. Peter Ells (talk) 23:51, 15 July 2015 (UTC)

One of the links doesn't work properly
2nd hyperlink at this reference [23] which is obtained by clicking on "the original" in the pop up box is in error - http://virtuallystrange.net/ufo/updates/2004/sep/m20-022.shtml, translated with google translate it has no internal search for Clyde Tombaugh Saparonia (talk) 22:01, 31 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Thanks. I have changed the reference to suppress the out of date link. Grafen (talk) 09:03, 2 January 2017 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Clyde Tombaugh


text:
Casasimarro

Casasimarro is a municipality in the Province of Cuenca, in the autonomous community of Castile-La Mancha, Spain.

The area has an elevation of 750 m and a continental climate, 40 C in summer and -10 C in winter. , the municipality had a population of just over 3,000. The area of Casasimarro is about 50 km.[2]

The local economy is based on agriculture and cattle raising, with the main produce being mushrooms, cereals, wine and olive oil. Industries include guitar- and carpet-making.

Casasimarro is a relatively new municipality. The oldest document that acknowledges it, is Felipe II's "Relación Topográfica" in 1598. This document states the foundation of a village of the "House of the Simarros" ("Casa de los Simarro") in 1470.

title: Casasimarro


text:
C. Lloyd Morgan

Conwy Lloyd Morgan, FRS (6 February 1852 – 6 March 1936) was a British ethologist and psychologist. He is remembered for his theory of emergent evolution, and for the experimental approach to animal psychology now known as Morgan's Canon, a principle that played a major role in behaviourism, insisting that higher mental faculties should only be considered as explanations if lower faculties could not explain a behaviour.

Life
Conwy Lloyd Morgan was born in London and studied at the Royal School of Mines and subsequently under T. H. Huxley. He taught in Cape Town, but in 1884 joined the staff of the then University College, Bristol as Professor of Geology and Zoology, and carried out some research of local interest in those fields. However, he quickly became interested in the field he called "mental evolution", the borderland between intelligence and instinct, and in 1901 moved to become the college's first Professor of Psychology and Education. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1899, and gave the Croonian Lecture in 1901, titled Studies in visual sensation.

In addition to his scientific work, Lloyd Morgan was active in academic administration. He became Principal of the University College, Bristol, in 1891 and played a central role in the campaign to secure it full university status. In 1909, when, with the award of a Royal Charter, the college became the University of Bristol, he was appointed as its first Vice-Chancellor, an office he held for a year before deciding to become Professor of Psychology and Ethics until his retirement in 1919. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1926 to 1927.

Following his retirement, Morgan delivered a series of Gifford Lectures at St. Andrews in 1921 and 1922 in which he discussed the concept of emergent evolution. He died in Hastings.

Morgan's Canon
Morgan's Canon played a critical role in the growth of behaviourism in twentieth century academic psychology. The canon states: In no case may we interpret an action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher mental faculty, if it can be interpreted as the exercise of one which stands lower in the psychological scale. For example, Morgan considered that an entity should only be considered conscious if there is no other explanation for its behaviour.

W.H. Thorpe commented as follows:

"The importance of this was enormous... [but] to the modern ethologist dealing with higher animals and faced as he is with ever-increasing evidence for the complexity of perceptual organisation... the very reverse of Morgan's canon often proves to be the best strategy."

The development of Morgan's Canon derived partly from his observations of behaviour. This provided cases where behaviour that seemed to imply higher mental processes could be explained by simple trial and error learning (what we would now call operant conditioning). An example is the skilful way in which his terrier Tony opened the garden gate, easily imagined as an insightful act by someone seeing the final behaviour. Lloyd Morgan, however, had watched and recorded the series of approximations by which the dog had gradually learned the response, and could demonstrate that no insight was required to explain it.

Instinct versus learning
Morgan carried out extensive research to separate, as far as possible, inherited behaviour from learnt behaviour. Eggs of chicks, ducklings and moorhens were raised in an incubator, and the hatchlings kept from adult birds. Their behaviour after hatching was recorded in detail. Lastly, the behaviour was interpreted as simply as possible. Morgan was not the first to work on these questions. Douglas Spalding in the 1870s had done some remarkable work on inherited behaviour in birds. His early death in 1877 led to his work being largely forgotten until the 1950s, but Morgan cited Spalding's observations in his own work.

Quotations

 * Given two different minds and the same facts, how different are the products! – Animal Life and Intelligence (1891), page 335

Books

 * The springs of conduct: an essay in evolution. (1885). Kegan Paul, London.
 * Animal biology. (1887). Rivington, London.
 * Animal sketches. [1891]. Arnold, London.
 * Animal life and intelligence. (1891). Arnold, London.
 * Introduction to comparative psychology. (1894). Routledgethoemmes, London.
 * Psychology for teachers. (1894). Arnold, London.
 * Habit and instinct. (1896). Arnold, London.
 * Animal behaviour. (1900). Arnold, London.
 * The interpretation of nature. (1906).
 * Instinct and experience. (1912). Methuen, London.
 * Spencer's Philosophy of Science. (1919). Oxford University Press.
 * Emergent evolution. (1923). Henry Holt.
 * Life, mind, and spirit. (1925). Henry Holt.
 * Creation by evolution. (1928). The Macmillan Company, New York.
 * Mind at the crossways. (1929).
 * Animal Mind. (1930). Arnold, London
 * The emergence of novelty. (1933).

title: C. Lloyd Morgan


text:
Frans de Waal

Franciscus Bernardus Maria de Waal (29 October 1948 – 14 March 2024) was a Dutch-American primatologist and ethologist. He was the Charles Howard Candler Professor of Primate Behavior in the Department of Psychology at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, director of the Living Links Center at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center at Emory, and author of numerous books including Chimpanzee Politics (1982) and Our Inner Ape (2005). His research centered on primate social behavior, including conflict resolution, cooperation, inequity aversion, and food-sharing. He was a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences and the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Early life and education
De Waal was born in 's-Hertogenbosch on 29 October 1948, to Jo and Cis de Waal. He grew up with five brothers in Waalwijk.

He studied at Radboud University Nijmegen, University of Groningen, and Utrecht University in the Netherlands. In 1977, De Waal received his doctorate in biology from Utrecht University after training as a zoologist and ethologist with professor Jan van Hooff, a well-known expert of emotional facial expression in primates. His dissertation, titled "Agonistic interactions and relations among Java-monkeys", concerned aggressive behavior and alliance formation in macaques. Fellow Dutch ethologist Niko Tinbergen was an inspiration to de Waal.

Career
In 1975, De Waal began a six-year project on the world's largest captive colony of chimpanzees at the Arnhem Zoo. The study resulted in many scientific papers, and resulted in the publication of his first book, Chimpanzee Politics, in 1982. This book offered the first description of primate behavior explicitly in terms of planned social strategies. De Waal was the first to introduce the thinking of Machiavelli to primatology, leading to the label "Machiavellian intelligence" that later became associated with it. In the mid 1990’s the book was put on a reading list for Republican House freshmen. In his writings, De Waal never shied away from attributing emotions and intentions to his primates, and as such his work inspired the field of primate cognition.

De Waal's early work drew attention to deception and conflict resolution among primates, both of which became major areas of research. At first, his research was highly controversial and the label "reconciliation", which De Waal introduced for reunions after fights, was initially questioned, but came to be fully accepted with respect to animal behavior. De Waal's later work emphasized non-human animal empathy and the origins of morality. His most widely cited paper, written with his former student Stephanie Preston, concerns the evolutionary origin and neuroscience of empathy, not just in primates, but in mammals in general.

In the 1990s, there was resistance from editors against De Waal's desire to publish his work on bonobos, which included potentially controversial work about bonobo sex. However, he published an article in Scientific American in 1995 and the book Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape in 1997. De Waal made bonobos popular and gave them a "make love – not war" reputation.

De Waal's larger goal was understanding what binds primate societies together rather than how competition structures them. However, competition is not ignored in his work: the original focus of de Waal's research was aggressive behavior and social dominance. Whereas his research focused on the behavior of nonhuman primates (mostly chimpanzees, bonobos, macaques, and capuchin monkeys), his popular books gave de Waal worldwide visibility by relating the insights he has gained from monkey and ape behavior to human society. With his students, he also worked on elephants, which were increasingly featured in his writings.

De Waal's research into the innate capacity for empathy among primates led him to the conclusion that non-human great apes and humans are simply different types of apes, and that empathic and cooperative tendencies are continuous between these species. His belief is illustrated in the following quote from The Age of Empathy: "We start out postulating sharp boundaries, such as between humans and apes, or between apes and monkeys, but are in fact dealing with sand castles that lose much of their structure when the sea of knowledge washes over them. They turn into hills, leveled ever more, until we are back to where evolutionary theory always leads us: a gently sloping beach."

This is quite opposite to the view of some economists and anthropologists, who postulate the differences between humans and other animals. However, recent work on prosocial tendencies in apes and monkeys supports de Waal's position. See, for example, the research of Felix Warneken, a psychologist at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany. In 2011, de Waal and his co-workers were the first to report that chimpanzees given a free choice between helping only themselves or helping themselves plus a partner, prefer the latter. In fact, de Waal does not believe these tendencies to be restricted to humans and apes, but views empathy and sympathy as universal mammalian characteristics, a view that over the past decade has gained support from studies on rodents and other mammals, such as dogs. He and his students have extensively worked on such cooperation and fairness in animals. In 2011 de Waal gave a TED Talk entitled "Moral behavior in animals". Part of the talk dealt with inequity aversion among capuchin monkeys, and a video extract of this went viral. It showed the furious reaction of one monkey given a less desirable treat than another. The most recent work in this area was the first demonstration that given a chance to play the ultimatum game, chimpanzees respond in the same way as children and human adults by preferring the equitable outcome.

In 1981, de Waal moved to the United States for a position at the Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, and in 1991 took a position at Emory University, in Atlanta, Georgia. He was C.H. Candler Professor in the Psychology Department at Emory University and director of the Living Links Center at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center at Emory. He became an American citizen in 2008.

In 2005 he coined the term Veneer theory. His 2013 book The Bonobo and the Atheist examines human behavior through the eyes of a primatologist, and explores to what extent God and religion are needed for human morality. The main conclusion is that morality comes from within, and is part of human nature. The role of religion is secondary.

De Waal also wrote a column for Psychologie Magazine, a popular Dutch monthly.

From 1 September 2013, de Waal was a distinguished professor (universiteitshoogleraar) at Utrecht University. This was a part-time appointment whilst he remained in his position at Emory University, in Atlanta.

In October 2016, de Waal was the guest on the BBC Radio Four program The Life Scientific.

In June 2018, de Waal was awarded the NAT Award, established by the Museum of Natural Sciences of Barcelona. It was awarded to de Waal "for his vision regarding the evolution of animal behaviour in establishing a parallel between primate and human behaviour in aspects such as politics, empathy, morality and justice."

Two of de Waal’s last books, “Are We Smart Enough to Know How Smart Animals Are?” (2016) and “Mama’s Last Hug: Animal Emotions and What They Tell Us About Ourselves” (2019), were best sellers.

De Waal died of stomach cancer on 14 March 2024 in Stone Mountain, Georgia. He was 75.

Awards

 * 2021 Doctor Honoris Causa, Université Jean-Monnet-Saint-Étienne (France)
 * 2020 PEN / EO Wilson Literary Science Writing Award (US)
 * 2018 Doctor Honoris Causa, Yale University (US)
 * 2018 NAT Award for the Dissemination of Natural Science, Barcelona (Spain)
 * 2017 Doctor Honoris Causa, Radboud University (Netherlands)
 * 2015 ASP Distinguished Primatologist (American Society of Primatologists)
 * 2015 Eugène Dubois Chair, Maastricht University (Netherlands)
 * 2014 Galileo Prize (Premio Letterario Galileo), Padua (Italy)
 * 2013 Edward O. Wilson Biodiversity Technology Pioneer Award
 * 2013 Foreign Member, Royal Holland Society of Sciences and Humanities
 * 2013 Doctor Honoris Causa, Utrecht University (Netherlands)
 * 2012 Ig Nobel Prize winner, in the Anatomy category
 * 2011	Discover magazine's "47 (all time) Great Minds of Science"
 * 2011 Doctor Honoris Causa, Colgate University (US)
 * 2010 Knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
 * 2009	Medal, Società di Medicina & Scienze Naturali, Parma (Italy)
 * 2009	Ariëns Kappers Medal, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
 * 2009	Doctor Honoris Causa, University for Humanistics (Netherlands)
 * 2008	Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (AAAS)
 * 2007 Time 100 world's most influential people
 * 2005	Member of the American Philosophical Society (APS)
 * 2005	Arthur W. Staats Award, American Psychological Foundation
 * 2004	Member of the (US) National Academy of Sciences (NAS)
 * 1993 Corresponding member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW)
 * 1989 Los Angeles Times Book Award for Peacemaking among Primates

Books

 * Primates and Philosophers: How Morality Evolved, 2006. ISBN 0-691-12447-7
 * Our Inner Ape. New York: Riverhead Books, 2005. ISBN 1-57322-312-3
 * Animal Social Complexity: Intelligence, Culture, and Individualized Societies, Edited with Peter L. Tyack. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003.  ISBN 0-674-00929-0.
 * My Family Album, Thirty Years of Primate Photography 2003.
 * Tree of Origin: What Primate Behavior Can Tell Us about Human Social Evolution, Harvard University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-674-00460-4.
 * The Ape and the Sushi Master, Cultural reflections by a primatologist. New York: Basic Books, 2001.  ISBN 0-465-04175-2
 * Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex Among Apes (25th Anniversary ed.). Baltimore, MD: JHU Press; 2007. ISBN 978-0-8018-8656-0.
 * Natural Conflict Resolution. 2000 (with Filippo Aureli)
 * Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. ISBN 0-520-20535-9 (with Frans Lanting)
 * Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996.  ISBN 0-674-35660-8
 * Chimpanzee Cultures, Edited with Richard Wrangham, W.C. McGrew, and Paul Heltne. Foreword by Jane Goodall. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-674-11662-3.
 * Peacemaking Among Primates. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989.  ISBN 0-674-65920-1
 * Natural Conflict Resolution. 2000 (with Filippo Aureli)
 * Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. ISBN 0-520-20535-9 (with Frans Lanting)
 * Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996.  ISBN 0-674-35660-8
 * Chimpanzee Cultures, Edited with Richard Wrangham, W.C. McGrew, and Paul Heltne. Foreword by Jane Goodall. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-674-11662-3.
 * Peacemaking Among Primates. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989.  ISBN 0-674-65920-1

Articles

 * 2022 de Waal, Frans B.M. and K. Andrews. "The question of animal emotions." Science 375 (6587): 1351–1352. 25 March 2022.
 * 2015 Opinion piece about the discovery of Homo naledi in The New York Times
 * 2013 Opinion piece about animal intelligence in The Wall Street Journal
 * 2010 Opinion piece about God and morality in The New York Times
 * 2010
 * 2009,
 * 2008
 * 2007, "Bonobos, Left & Right" Skeptic, (8 August 2007).
 * 2006,
 * 2005, "The empathic ape", New Scientist, 8 October 2005
 * 2001, "Do Humans Alone 'Feel Your Pain'?" (Chronicle.com, 26 October 2001)
 * 1999,
 * 1995,

title: Frans de Waal


text:
Talk:Anaphora (rhetoric)

The quoted examples are not representative of anaphora. Better examples can be found. Wetman 00:37, 24 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Which example are you referring to? The monkey/banana one appears to contain three anaphoric references. Bovlb 16:53, 2004 Mar 31 (UTC)

According to the Oxford Companion to the English Language, the first sense given here (repetition) is also known as epanaphora. In the same book, I can find no reference to either endophora or exophora; it does, however, use the term "intertextual reference". Bovlb 16:53, 2004 Mar 31 (UTC)

Liturgical use
I'm splitting off the liturgical sense of the word into its own stub article. There's much that can possibly be said about the development and form of the ligurgical anaphora, but it would be clearly inappropriate here. In any event, the liturgical term is not a sub-meaning of the rhetorical. See Csernica 6 July 2005 22:54 (UTC) Yes it so and it is used in the catholic elementary church. okay.

If these are not good examples, can you give some? LT marching flute 22:35, 10 September 2007 (UTC)

Anaphor
"Anaphor" which is a grammatical term for the words "herself" "himself" "itself" and others, probably should not be directed to "anaphora", despite the similarity in spelling. I would do it myself, but I have absolutely no clue how. Sorry! Elle121 03:49, 25 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Wherever you find this, correct the link to anaphor(a) ᛭ LokiClock (talk) 19:19, 26 April 2010 (UTC)

Additional examples
Would it be appropriate to add more examples? "Charge of the Light Brigade", especially "cannon to the left of them, cannon to the right of them" would be excellent. Mathwhiz90601 (talk) 20:34, 26 February 2008 (UTC)

There are a lot of great examples, from very respectable poets, writers, and public speakers. There is no reason to include a mediocre example from a movie that has been out for about thirty minutes. The other examples are by undisputed sources. It is an example of anaphora, but that doesn't mean it belongs on the list. Diewelt (talk) 01:08, 9 February 2010 (UTC)

Diewelt, surely you must be joking?! You should take a sabbatical from your wiki editing duties and enroll in Lit Studies 100 at your local community college.

"I needed a drink, I needed a lot of life insurance, I needed a vacation, I needed a home in the country. What I had was a coat, a hat and a gun." (Raymond Chandler, Farewell, My Lovely)

Never gonna give you up, Never gonna let you down, Never gonna run around and desert you. Never gonna make you cry, Never gonna say goodbye, Never gonna tell a lie and hurt you. -- Rick Astley and/or Stock, Aitken, Waterman NoseyNick (talk) 01:09, 5 November 2021 (UTC)

"I don't like you sucking around, bothering our citizens, Lebowski. I don't like your jerk-off name. I don't like your jerk-off face. I don't like your jerk-off behavior, and I don't like you, jerk-off." (Policeman in The Big Lebowski) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.233.105.174 (talk) 19:59, 19 March 2011 (UTC)

The Tyger
WHAT the hammer? WHAT the chain? In what furnace was thy brain? WHAT the anvil? WHAT dread grasp Dare its deadly terrors clasp?

...WHAT does that mean? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.234.112.5 (talk) 05:33, 29 April 2009 (UTC) ...WHAT a good question! (Just let it flow over you, just love it.) Rumiton (talk) 14:18, 12 December 2010 (UTC)

Possible Barack Obama usage?
I am trying to find where this quote from Obama belongs, whether here in Anaphora, or in Epanalepsis, or a different speech structure.

“One voice can change a room, and if one voice can change a room, then it can change a city, and if it can change a city, it can change a state, and if it change a state, it can change a nation, and if it can change a nation, it can change the world. Your voice can change the world.” — Preceding unsigned comment added by 108.51.167.44 (talk) 02:37, 17 April 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Anaphora (rhetoric)


text:
The Ape and the Sushi Master

The Ape and the Sushi Master is a popular science book by Frans de Waal. It is an overview of animal behavior and psychology, with an emphasis on primates.

It places a special emphasis on the anthropomorphological traits of primates of several different species. It also includes a short history of anthropomorphology and some of that field's pioneers. The title is meant to reflect an analogy between how primates learn and the cultural process of how sushi-making skills are passed down from master to apprentice.

title: The Ape and the Sushi Master