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Brindisi

Brindisi is a city in the region of Apulia in southern Italy, the former capital of the province of Brindisi, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Historically, the city has played an essential role in trade and culture due to its strategic position on the Italian Peninsula and its natural port on the Adriatic Sea. The city remains a major port for trade with Balkan Peninsula, Greece and the Middle East. Its industries include agriculture, chemical works, and the generation of electricity.

From September 1943 to February 1944, Brindisi was the provisional government seat of the Kingdom of Italy.

Etymology
The name comes from the Latin Brundisium through the Greek Brentesion and Messapi Brention, meaning "head of the deer" related to Albanian bri, brî - pl. Brini zi (black horn) brirë, brinë ("horn"; "antler") [< late Proto-Albanian *brina < earlier *brena ]. The city's name appears, therefore, to refer to the shape of the port which recalls the shape of the head of the animal.

Heraldry
The emblem of the city of Brindisi relates to certain unique characteristics of the ancient city of Brindisi, some of which are still visible today. The head of the deer derives from the Messapic name of the city Brention, a name inspired by the shape of the port city, which is reminiscent of the stag antlers. The emblem also contains the so-called "terminal pillar" of the Appian Way.

Ancient times
Several traditions concern its founders; one claims it was founded by the legendary hero Diomedes. The geographer Strabo says that it was colonized from Knossos in Crete.

Brindisi was originally a Messapian settlement predating the Roman expansion. The Latin name Brundisium, through the Greek Brentesion, is a corruption of the Messapian Brention meaning "deer's head" and probably referring to the shape of the natural harbour. According to other sources, in 267 BC (245 BC), it was conquered by the Romans and became a Latin colony. The peninsula of the Punta lands, which is located in the outer harbor, has been identified as a Bronze Age village (16th century BC) where a group of huts, protected by a barrier of stones, yielded fragments of Mycenaean pottery. Herodotus spoke of the Mycenaean origin of these populations. The necropolis of Tor Pisana (south of the old town of Brindisi) returned Corinthian jars in the first half of the 7th century BC. The Brindisi Messapia certainly entertained strong business relationships with the opposite side of the Adriatic and the Greek populations of the Aegean Sea.

After the Punic Wars, it became a major center of Roman naval power and maritime trade. In the Social War, it received Roman citizenship and was made a free port by Sulla. It suffered, however, from a siege conducted by Caesar in 49 BC, part of Caesar's Civil War (Bell. Civ. i.) and was again attacked in 42 and 40 BC, with the latter giving rise to the Treaty of Brundisium between Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus in the autumn of the same year.

The poet Pacuvius was born here about 220 BC, and here the famous poet Virgil died in 19 BC. Under the Romans, Brundisium – a large city in its day with some 100,000 inhabitants – was an active port, the chief point of embarkation for Greece and the East, via Dyrrachium or Corcyra. It was connected with Rome by the Via Appia and the Via Traiana. The termination of the Via Appia, at the water's edge, was formerly flanked by two fine pillars. Only one remains, the second being misappropriated and removed to the neighbouring town of Lecce.

Middle Ages and modern times
Later, Brindisi was conquered by the Ostrogoths and reconquered by the Byzantine Empire in the 6th century AD. In 674, it was destroyed by the Lombards led by Romuald I of Benevento, but such a fine natural harbor meant that the city was soon rebuilt. In the 9th century, a Saracen settlement existed in the city's neighborhood, stormed in 836 by pirates.

In 1070, it was conquered by the Normans and became part of the Principality of Taranto and the Duchy of Apulia, and was the first rule of the Counts of Conversano. After the baronial revolt of 1132, owned by the will of Roger II of Sicily, the city recovered some of the splendor of the past during the period of the Crusades, when it regained the Episcopal See, saw the construction of the new cathedral and a castle with an essential new arsenal, and became a privileged port for the Holy Land. In 1156, a siege of Brindisi by the Byzantine Empire ended in a battle in which the believers were decisively defeated by the Sicilian Normans, ending the Byzantines' hopes of conquering Southern Italy.

It was in the cathedral of Brindisi that the wedding of Norman Prince Roger III of Sicily took place, son of King Tancred of Sicily. Emperor Frederick II, the heir to the crown of Jerusalem and Isabella of Brienne (9 November 1225) started from the port of Brindisi in 1227 for the Sixth Crusade Frederick II erected a castle, with massive round towers, to guard the inner harbour; it later became a convict prison. Like other Pugliese ports, Brindisi, for a short while, was ruled by Venice, but was soon reconquered by Spain.

A plague devastated Brindisi in 1348; it was plundered in 1352 and 1383; and an earthquake struck the city in 1456.

Brindisi fell to Austrian rule in 1707–1734 and afterward to the Bourbons.

Between September 1943 and February 1944, the city functioned as Italy's temporary government seat and hosted King Victor Emmanuel III, Pietro Badoglio, and a part of the Italian armed forces command in September 1943 after the armistice with Italy.

In the 21st century, Brindisi is the home base of the San Marco Regiment, a marine brigade originally known as the La Marina Regiment. It was renamed San Marco after its noted defense of Venice at the start of World War I.

On 19 May 2012, a bomb made of three gas cylinders, detonated in front of a vocational school in Brindisi, killing a 16-year-old female student.

Geography
Brindisi is situated on a natural harbour, that penetrates deeply into the Adriatic coast of Apulia. Within the arms of the outer harbour islands are Pedagne, a tiny archipelago, currently not open and in use for military purposes (United Nations Group Schools used it during the intervention in Bosnia). The entire municipality is part of the Brindisi Plain, characterised by high agricultural uses of its land. It is located in the northeastern part of the Salento plains, about 40 km from the Itria Valley and the low Murge. The Natural Marine Reserve of the World Wide Fund for Nature of Torre Guaceto is close to the city. The Ionian Sea is about 45 km away.

Territory
The territory of Brindisi is characterised by a wide flat area from which emerge sub-deposits of limestone and sand of marine origin, which in turn have a deeper level clay of the Pleistocene era and an even later Mesozoic carbonate composed of limestone and soils. The development of agriculture has caused an increase in the use of water resources, increasing indiscriminate use.

Climate
Brindisi experiences a Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa). Summers are hot and dry with abundant sunshine. Summer heat indexes can be regularly over 30 C and occasionally as high as 37 C during July and August. Winters are mild with moderate rainfall. Brindisi and the mostly topographically flat Salento peninsula are subject to light winds most of the year. The two main winds in Salento are the Maestral and the Scirocco. The northerly Maestral wind from the Adriatic Sea is cooling, moderating summer heat and increasing winter wind chill. The southerly Scirocco wind from the Sahara brings higher temperatures and humidity to Salento. During spring and autumn, Sirocco winds can bring thunderstorms, occasionally dropping red sand from the Sahara in the region. Snow is rare in Brindisi but occurred during the January 2017 cold spell, bringing snow and ice to much of southern Italy.

Main sights

 * The Castello Svevo or Castello Grande ("Hohenstaufen Castle" or "Large Castle"), built by Emperor Frederick II. It has a trapezoid plan with massive square towers. Under the Crown of Aragon four towers were added to the original 13th-century structure. After centuries of being abandoned, in 1813 Joachim Murat turned it into a prison; after 1909 it was used by the Italian Navy. During World War II it was briefly the residence of King Victor Emmanuel III.
 * The Aragonese Castle, best known as Forte a Mare ("Sea Fort"). It was built by King Ferdinand I of Naples in 1491 on the S. Andrea island facing the port. It is divided into two sections: the "Red Castle" (from the color of its bricks) and the more recent Fort.
 * Two ancient Roman pillars, symbols of Brindisi. They were once thought to mark the ending points of the Appian Way, instead they were used as a port reference for the antique mariners. Only one of the two, standing at 18.74 m, is still visible. The other crumbled in 1582, and the ruins were given to Lecce to hold the statue of Saint Oronzo (Lecce's patron), because Saint Oronzo was reputed to have cured the plague in Brindisi.
 * the Duomo (cathedral), built in Romanesque style in the 11th–12th centuries. What is visible today is the 18th-century reconstruction, after the original was destroyed by an earthquake on 20 February 1743. Parts of the original mosaic pavement can be seen in the interior.
 * Church of Santa Maria del Casale (late 13th century), in Gothic-Romanesque style. The façade has a geometrical pattern of gray and yellow stones, with an entrance cusp-covered portico. The interior has early-14th-century frescoes including, in the counter-façade, a Last Judgement in four sections, by Rinaldo da Taranto. They are in late-Byzantine style.
 * Church of San Benedetto, in Romanesque style. Perhaps built before the 11th century as part of a Benedictine nunnery, it has a massive bell tower with triple-mullioned windows and Lombard bands. A side portal is decorated with 11th-century motifs, while the interior has a nave covered by cross vaults, while the aisles, separated by columns with Romanesque capitals, have half-barrel vaults. The cloister (11th century) has decorated capitals.
 * Portico of the Templars (13th century). Despite the name, it was in reality the loggia of the bishop's palace. It is now the entrance to the Museo Ribezzo.
 * the Fontana Grande (Grand Fountain), built by the Romans on the Appian Way. It was restored in 1192 by Tancred of Lecce.
 * Piazza della Vittoria (Victory Square). It has a 17th-century fountain.
 * Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli (1609).
 * Church of the Sacred Heart.
 * Church of San Giovanni al Sepolcro, with circular plan, dating from the 12th century.
 * Church of the Santissima Trinità (or Santa Lucia, 14th century). It has a late 12th-century crypt.
 * the Monument to Italian Sailors

Natural areas
Within the territory of the town of Brindisi environmental protected areas are located, some newly established:
 * The Regional Natural Park of Punta della Contessa Salt: wetland of 214 acres between Capo di Torre Cavallo and Punta della Contessa
 * The Regional Nature Reserve Forest Cerano: a protected natural area that falls within the territory of Brindisi and San Pietro Vernotico;
 * The Regional Nature Reserve Bosco of Santa Teresa and Lucci: it is a protected natural area composed of two forests whose name it bears. With the EU Directive 92/43 EEC, was included in the list of Sites of Community Importance (SCI) ;
 * The Marine Nature Reserve Guaceto Tower: falling mostly in the municipality of Carovigno, are managed by a consortium which includes the municipalities of Brindisi, Carovigno and the WWF.

Migration
Brindisi has been the subject of extensive emigration during the 20th century, as well as all cities in the South. Emigration focused mainly on the lower strata of society who abandoned the countryside. Emigration can be traced in two great waves. The first, which was at its peak in the years immediately before and after the First World War, was almost exclusively to the Americas (and mostly to the United States, Argentina, and Brazil). The second wave of migrants from Apulia headed instead for Northern Europe after the Second World War. Attracted by the industrial development of some northern areas of the country, many Apulian migrants also settled in the Piedmont and Lombardy regions of northern Italy, and particularly in Milan. Since the 1960s, when the large petrochemical companies were joined by mechanical, naval, and aviation corporations, Brindisi was able to create employment opportunities for technicians and workers. The city experienced a small regional immigration, attracting families from neighboring provinces and regions.

Another important chapter in the demography of the town was the exodus of people from Albania in 1990–1991, which lasted almost a decade and led to the port of Brindisi receiving waves of Albanian immigrants.

Ethnic groups
The largest non-Italian ethnic community is Albanian. The number of those who decided to stay in the city, however, is negligible in light of the number of immigrants who migrated. Brindisi remains the first step towards western Europe for displaced people from the Balkans.

The large number of Americans is largely due to a U.S. Air Force station, between Brindisi and San Vito dei Normanni that operated throughout the second half of the 20th century. Although the base is no longer operational, many soldiers have decided to stay.

The British presence is the result of a recent phenomenon of families from Northern Europe, especially English and Irish, settling in the region. Many such settlers are pensioners, buying villas in the Brindisi countryside. This phenomenon is relatively recent in Apulia, known as "Salentoshire", a playful neologism along the lines of "Chiantishire" on the consolidation of British tourism in Tuscany.

Languages and dialects
The Brindisi dialect is a variant of Salentino and, although there are minor differences between the various municipalities, the root remains unchanged. It is spoken not only in Brindisi, but in some towns of the province of Taranto. The Brindisi also affects some dialects north of Lecce in the south

Religion
Brindisi, along with Ostuni, is home of the Archdiocese of Brindisi-Ostuni (Archidioecesis Brundusina-Ostunensis in Latin), home of the Catholic Church suffragan of Archdiocese of Lecce and part of the ecclesiastical region of Apulia. The diocese was erected in the 4th century, its first bishop was St. Leucio of Alexandria. In the 9th century following the destruction of the city by the Saracens, the bishops established their residence in Oria. The bishop Theodosius was successful in recovering the relics of St Leucio at the end of the 9th and keeping them in a basicila he built on top of the martyrium of the saint. It was in the 10th century that established the Diocese of Ostuni, first joined the Diocese of Conversano-Monopoli and likely heir to the ancient diocese of Egnatia.

On 30 September 1986, by decree of the Congregation for Bishops, the Archdiocese of Brindisi and Ostuni diocese were united in the Archdiocese of Brindisi-Ostuni plena. The new diocese was recognized civilly 20 October 1986, by decree of the Ministry of Interior. Brindisi contains an Eastern Orthodox Church parish, St. Nicholas of Myra Byzantine Rite. The rite of the Greek presence in Brindisi has long been established since the rule of the Byzantine Empire with a strong spread of the Basilian monks. The Jews were a small but industrious community from 53 AD until the second half of the 16th century. The new Albanian migration has led to the recurrence of some Islamic religious presence.

Traditions and folklore
Significant in Brindisi is the cult of Tarantismo that combines pagan and Christian tradition. In the past it was believed that women who showed forms of hysteria were infected by the bite of a Lycosa tarantula. The only known remedy was to dance continuously for days, so that the poison did not cause greater effect. Through music and dance was created a real exorcism in musical character. Each time a tarantato exhibited symptoms associated with Taranto, the tambourine, fiddle, mandolin, guitar and accordion players went in the house of the tarantato and began to play the pinch music with frenetic rhythms. The Brindisi pinch, as opposed to Lecce, is devoid of Christian references and a therapeutic repertoire and musical detail.

Libraries
The Provincial Library is a public library located in Commenda avenue. It has over 100,000 books and an extensive newspaper archive and participates in the National Library Service. Inside a modern auditorium, a media office and the secretariats of the university offices of Bari and Lecce operate. The Archbishop Annibale De Leo Library is a prestigious public library housed in the Seminary of Brindisi, in Piazza Duomo. Founded in 1798 by archbishop of Brindisi Annibale De Leo, with an endowment of about 6,000 volumes, today it has over 20,000 volumes, 17 incunable, over 200 16th-century manuscripts. These include some rare works, and various manuscript collections.

University
The University of Salento Brindisi has social sciences, politics and geography faculty with courses in Sociology, Social Services and Political Science. The University of Bari has courses in Business Administration, Management and Consulting, Economics, Maritime and Logistics, Information Technology, Design, Nursing and Physiotherapy.

Museums
The "F. Ribezzo" Provincial Archaeological Museum is located in Piazza Duomo and has many large rooms, providing visitors with six sections: epigraphy, sculpture, the antiquarium, prehistoric, coins, medieval, modern and bronzes of Punta del Serrone. The Giovanni Tarantini Diocesan Museum is newly established and is housed in the Palazzo del Seminario. It has a collection of paintings, statues, ornaments and vestments from the churches of the diocese. Particularly important is the silver embossed Ark that has the remains of St Theodore of Amasea and a 7th-century pitcher, in which one can recognize the wedding at Cana. The Ethnic Salento Agrilandia Museum of Civilization offers tourists the chance to see many statues in wood and stone. It also features agriculture and interesting tools with the rural culture.

Music and theatre
Over the past decade the city has developed and consolidated non-amateur theater companies, some dealing with theater for research and actor training. These companies have developed several socio-cultural projects for the promotion of the theater for people with disabilities. The same group of companies has produced six shows.

The municipal theatre is the Teatro Verdi (New Verdi Theatre). It is located in the historical center of the city, and opened in 2006. In 2022, Stefano Miceli was appointed chairman of the theatre foundation. Under his guidance, the theater debuted its resident orchestra named Orchestra del Nuovo Teatro Verdi and its first symphonic concert season. During the same year the tenor Fabio Armiliato sang at the official inauguration of the first Verdi Gala at Nuovo Teatro Verdi, and new jazz and classical music festivals and international guests artists debuted at the theatre.

Brindisini

 * Marcus Pacuvius (Brundisium, 04.29.220 b.C. – Tarentum, 02.07 130 b.C.) Roman artist, poet and dramatist, nephew of Quintus Ennius.
 * Margaritus of Brindisi (also Margarito; Italian Margaritone or Greek Megareites or Margaritoni [Μαργαριτώνη]: c. 1149–1197), called the new Neptune, was the last great ammiratus ammiratorum (Grand Admiral) of Sicily. First Count of Malta, Prince of Taranto and Duke of Durazzo.
 * St. Lawrence of Brindisi: (born Giulio Cesare Russo, Brindisi, 22 July 1559 – Santa Maria de Belém (Lisbon), 22 July 1619 ) was a priest of the Italian Order of Friars Minor Capuchin. Proclaimed a saint by Pope Leo XIII in 1881, in 1959 was ranked among the Doctors of the Church.
 * Cesare Braico (Brindisi 1816 - Rome 1887), patriot, doctor and politician
 * Cristina Conchiglia (Brindisi 1923 - Lecce 2013), trade unionist and politician
 * Giustino Durano (Brindisi 1923 – Bologna 2002), actor
 * Benita Sciarra (Brindisi 1926 – Mesagne 1993), archaeologist
 * Oscar Nuccio (Brindisi 1931–2004), historian of economics
 * Eugenio Barba (Brindisi, 1936 ), director
 * Franco Testini (Brindisi, 7 October 1966) also known as Venerable Shi Yanfan is the first Western Buddhist monk ever to be ordained at the renowned Songshan Shaolin Temple of China. He is currently the appointed Cultural Ambassador for the Songshan Shaolin Temple.
 * Antonio Benarrivo (Brindisi, 21 August 1968 ) is a former soccer player who held the role of defender, starter for italy in the 1994 World Cup final
 * Eupremio Carruezzo (Brindisi, 9 December 1969), retired footballer.
 * Stefano Miceli (Brindisi, 14 April 1975 ) pianist and conductor
 * Flavia Pennetta (Brindisi, 25 February 1982 ) is a tennis player, reached 6th place in world rankings after winning the 2015 US Open.
 * Cosimo Aldo Cannone (Brindisi, 20 March 1984) is a driver of Powerboating, 2 time world champion, in 2007 and 2008.
 * Antimo Iunco (Brindisi, 10 June 1984 ) was a former football player and had the role of attacker.
 * Daniele Vantaggiato (Brindisi, 10 October 1984 ) is a soccer player for Fasano and has the role of attacker.
 * Gianluca Di Giulio (Brindisi, 17 February 1972), former footballer

Radio
Radio station CiccioRiccioBrindisi is heard throughout Apulia, Basilicata, parts of Molise, Campania, and Calabria. Radio Dara that started in a workshop, founded in 1980, now broadcasts across the province.

Print
As for the press, the La Gazzetta del Mezzogiorno publishes the Brindisi Journal. Salento's newspaper, the Nuovo Quotidiano di Puglia also covers Brindisi. Senzacolonne, which was founded in 2004, is the only one with a central editorial office in Brindisi. "The Nautilus" national scientific magazine based in Brindisi, reports on the sea, ports, transport and recreational boating. Other newspapers that have their headquarters in the city are BrindisiSera and "Brindisi News".

Television
Brindisi is home to the television stations Teleradio Agricoltura Informazione and Puglia TV, which began broadcasts in January 1988 in Brindisi.

Cuisine
Brindisi's cuisine is simple with basic ingredients used, starting with flour or unrefined barley, which is less expensive than wheat. Vegetables, snails, and bluefish figure prominently in its cuisine. Among the recipes are "Pettole"(fried yeast dough, sweet or savory to taste stuffed maybe with cod or anchovy, with cauliflower or broccoli), "Patani tajedda rice and mussels" (rice, potatoes and mussels), soup, fish, mashed potatoes with fava beans, broad beans and mussels, and "Racana mussels".

Beverages, spirits, liquors
Almond milk: made by infusing water with the finely chopped almonds and then squeezing the same to expel the "milk". The region of Apulia has entered the milk of almonds in its list of traditional Italian food products. Limoncello: a liquor made from the peel of fresh lemons and enriched with water, sugar and alcohol.

Cheese
Brindisi cheeses are mostly from sheep, due to the significant ranching of sheep and goats. In the summer they produce ricotta, which can be eaten fresh or matured for a few months so that it has a stronger flavor. Typical of the winter season are the Pecorino, ricotta and strong ricotta (or cottage cheese). It is used to flavor spaghetti sauce or spread on bruschetta. Fresh popular cheeses are burrata, junket, Manteca cheese, mozzarella or Fior di latte.

Vegetable products, processed or unprocessed
Vegetables are the true protagonist of the traditional diet of Salento. Depending on season, are the tops of turnips, various types of cabbage, the beet greens from the thistle, peppers, eggplant and zucchini (all served sun-dried or in olive oil), and artichokes. There are also wild vegetables used in traditional cooking such as chicory, dandelion (or zangune), wild asparagus, the Wild mustard, the thistle, the lampascioni also called pampasciuni or pampasciuli, and capers. Frequent, in the Brindisi kitchen, is the use of green or white tomatoes: mainly used for tomato sauce but they are also consumed in olive oil, after a process of natural drying. Significant is also the consumption of green and black olives, crushed or in brine. Finally, legumes such as beans, peas and Vicia faba, eaten fresh or dried in the spring and during the winter season. Among the dishes prepared with fruit are quince, baked figs and dried figs (prepared with a filling of almonds), jam with orange and lemon, and fig jam.

Pasta, pastry and confectionery

Pasta and bread is made with unrefined flour, and thus takes on a dark colour. Durum wheat is mixed with traditional meal. Special local dishes include lasagna with vegetables, cavatelli, orecchiette (stacchioddi in Brindisi dialect) and ravioli stuffed with ricotta.

In breadmaking, local custom favours the use of durum wheat, bread flour and barley bread. For bread made with yeast (called criscituni) and cooked on an oven stone, Brindisi bakers use bundles of olive branches to give the bread a particular scent. One type of traditional bread is made with olives (called puccia). It is made with a much more refined wheat flour than for ordinary bread, to which are added black olives.

Also important are frisella, a sort of dehydrated hard bread which can be stored for a long time, and tarallini, also easily stored for long periods. The pucce and uliate cakes are also typical. Among local desserts the central place is occupied by almond paste, obtained by grinding shelled almonds and sugar. Another specialty is cartellate, a pastry, particularly prepared around Christmas, made of a thin strip of a dough made of flour, olive oil, and white wine that is wrapped upon itself, intentionally leaving cavities and openings, to form a sort of "rose" shape; the dough is then deep-fried, dried, and soaked in either lukewarm vincotto or honey.

Wine
In the area of Brindisi are produced Aleatico di Puglia Doc, Ostuni Doc, Brindisi Rosso DOC, Rosato Brindisi DOC and Puglia IGT. Some grape varieties grown in Brindisi include:
 * Malvasia Nera di Brindisi,
 * Negroamaro;
 * Ottavianello;
 * Sangiovese;
 * Susumaniello.

The Brindisi DOC produces both red and rose wines from grapes limited to a harvest yield of 15 tonnes/ha and must produce a wine with a minimum 12% alcohol level. The wines are usually blends made predominantly from Negaroamaro and Malvasia Nera but Sangiovese is allowed to compose up to 10% of the blend with Montepulciano allowed to compose up to another 20% (or 30% if Sangiovese is not included). If it is to be a Reserva, the wine is aged a minimum of 2 years before release and must attain a minimum alcohol level of 12.5%.

Events

 * The day of Corpus Christi.
 * The Procession to the beach of San Lorenzo and San Teodoro, on the first Saturday of September.
 * The Feast of San Teodoro: Feast with candles, food stands, music, fireworks, in the first week of September.

Roman period

From an urban point of view [58] [59], the city's earliest signs of human settlement are on the promontory of Punta Terre, a coastal area outside the port. As a Roman colony ( 244 BC ), the city experienced a major urban expansion that ensued economic and social development. According to Pliny the Elder, Brindisi was one of the most important Italian cities.

Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, Brindisi suffered a sharp decline, after it was devastated by the Goths in the 6th century; Procopius describes it as a small city without defensive walls. The town shrank to a smaller area, probably around the San Leucio temple, outside the old town. The port was abandoned for several centuries. The rebirth came with the Byzantine domination (11th century ) and especially with the Normans and the Swabians (12th and 13th century), when it became a prime port for the Crusades. The city was divided into three districts or "pittachi": Santo Stefano (in the vicinity of the columns), Eufemia (in Santa Teresa) and San Toma (in the area of Saint Lucia). Under the Aragonese and the Spanish kings, the main efforts were directed mainly around the ramparts (walls, castle and sea fort to provide relief from mostly the Greeks, Albanians and Slavs.

Modern era
Only through the reopening of the Pigott channel (1775), the city experienced a new impetus and reopened traffic with the East mainly due to the establishment of the Suez Canal at the end of the 19th century.

Contemporary era
Demographic development in the 20th century led to the modern city overlying the ancient one, at the cost of the demolition of the neighbourhoods around San Pietro degli Schiavoni, Teatro Verdi, and the Clock Tower. Today urban planning demands that settlements of significant architectural impact are built outside the city centre. The city has now expanded beyond the walls of the historic centre to form the new suburbs of Commando, Capuchins, Sant'Angelo (1950–1970 ) and St. Clare, St. Elias, and Bozzano (1980–2000).

Economy

The development of industry led to radical changes in the Brindisi economy and consequent development along the coast. Taking advantage of the location of the port, Brindisi is also a major seaport for Greece and Turkey.

Agriculture
Brindisi agriculture includes horticulture, viticulture, fruit and olives. The area that marked the territory for centuries is based on the culture of almonds, olives, tobacco, artichokes, and grain. Livestock consists of cattle, goats and sheep.

Industry
Industry in Brindisi is mainly identified with the chemical and aerospace industry.

Chemical
The chemical industry, in its various forms (food processing, energy, and pharmaceutical) is highly developed in the territory of Brindisi. The Federchimica association recognizes Brindisi as an industrial chemical center.

The various establishments of Eni, located as Polimeri Europa, Snam and EniPower are placed in the petrochemical complex of Brindisi, on the outskirts of the city, overlooking the Adriatic Sea.

Energy production
Brindisi is a leader in the production of electricity in Italy. ENEL Federico II is a power plant on 4 sections divided by polycombustible thermoelectric power of 660 MW each, came into service between 1991 and 1993. Edipower Brindisi, located in Costa Morena, in the industrial area of Brindisi. Central EniPower Brindisi is a combined cycle power plant EniPower, once completed, with an installed capacity of 1,170 megawatts, will be the most powerful among those of the Eni Company. Regasification terminal at Brindisi, the construction of a regasification terminal by the company's "Brindisi LNG SpA. will heat the area of Porto Exterior, called Capobianco. The authorization process is currently in the process of completion of the national Environmental Impact Assessment, initiated by the company in January 2008. Photovoltaic system, the largest in Europe photovoltaic park (with power of 11 MWp ), which should start operating in 2010, at the former petrochemical site.  The industry group responsible for the construction will be joined by the University of Apulia.

Aviation
The Alenia Aeronautica plants (specialized in the modification of aircraft from passenger configuration to cargo) are located in Brindisi. Avio (center for military engines) and Agusta (production of helicopter metal structures) are also located there.

Tourism
The city preserves important archaeological finds and coastline, particularly the north coast, where there are many large sand dunes and beaches. Inland agritourism, displays wine (Wine Appia) or olive oil (Collina di Brindisi oil). Brindisi Tourism, however, remains heavily dependent on the Italian tourists (74%, compared with 26% of foreign demand) and is very seasonal.

Roads
The main roads are represented by
 * Bari-Lecce expressway, connecting with Brindisi, Lecce, with Bari and the A14.
 * Adriatica SS 16 is the Brindisi bypass connecting the city to San Vito dei Normanni and Lecce * Brindisi-Taranto Brindisi with Taranto.

Railways
Rail transport is provided through Brindisi railway station, an important Apulian railway junction and an intersecting point between the Adriatic Railway and the Taranto–Brindisi railway. The station is managed by Centostazioni, and links Brindisi with all destinations served by the Adriatic and Ionian coastal railways. Brindisi Marittima railway station closed in 2006.

Seaport
The port of Brindisi has always been at the center of trade with Greece. It is one of the most important commercial and industrial seaports on the Adriatic Sea. The trade is mostly in coal, fuel oil, natural gas, and chemicals. The port consists of three parts:
 * The Outer Harbour: the limits of which are in the southern mainland, east of the Pedagne islands and west of the island from the pier in Costa
 * The port is formed by the average area of sea that is before the Pigott Channel, access to the inner harbor, the basin to the north as the Strait of Apulia.
 * The inner harbor is formed by two long wings that touch the heart of Brindisi both the north and east, they are the "bosom of the west" and "within the east."

International airport

Brindisi is home to Papola-Casale Airport located 6 km outside the city's center. The airport of Brindisi has daily connections with major Italian and European cities. The airport serves the entire province of Brindisi and partly that of Taranto. In 2017, a total of 2,321,147 passengers passed through. It has two runways, one northwest to southeast that is 3330 m long, and the other northeast to southwest that is 1950 m long. Their characteristics allow the landing of large transport aircraft such as the Antonov An-124 and Boeing 747.

This airport was originally established as a military airbase in the 1920s. As of 2008 it has officially changed its legal status into civilian airport, still maintaining the military facilities attached to it. These are identified as "Military Airport Orazio Pierozzi", named in memory of an Italian airman of the First World War.

The strategic position of the airport in the Mediterranean region, along with its natural potential for multi-modal (the port is a few kilometers away) operations, have made it a base of crucial importance for both national defense and NATO. For the same strategic reasons, in 1994 the airport was chosen as the main worldwide logistics base by the United Nations to support its peacekeeping and peace enforcement operations around the globe, which was since then hosted in Pisa Military Airport "San Giusto". In 2000, also the United Nations humanitarian supply depot moved from Pisa to Brindisi. It has since then been managed by the World Food Programme and officially known as the United Nations Humanitarian Response Depot (UNHRD). On behalf of governments, other UN agencies and NGOs, from UNHRD Brindisi humanitarian aid is directed to the most remote and devastated regions around the world.

Public transport
The Public Transport Company of Brindisi provides public transport in the city, and is the link with the other municipalities in the province. Moreover, the company provides transport service by sea into inland waters of the port of Brindisi. Brindisi is also a major ferry port, with routes to Greece and elsewhere.

Consulates
Brindisi is home to the following consulates:
 * Denmark
 * 🇫🇷 France
 * Honorary Consulate of Greece
 * Netherlands

Association football
Brindisi 1912 has played in six championship series. Their football strip colours recall those of the province, white and blue. The club plays in the stadium named after the president of the historical association on the Adriatic shore, Commander Franco Fanuzzi Stadium. ASD Appia Brindisi plays in the Regional Championship of the "First Category".

Basketball
The main basketball team in the city and in the wider region of Apulia is New Basket Brindisi, which has played for basketball championships in the top of A1 championships in League 2. Their colours are the same as that of all sports associations in the city, white and blue. The club plays their home games in the sports hall "Elio Pentassuglia".

Other clubs

 * NAFTA rugby Brindisi (C1)
 * Aces Amateur Volleyball 2006 (series B1 female).

Sports venues

 * Franco Fanuzzi Stadium: Municipal Stadium
 * PalaPentassuglia: sports hall
 * PalaMelfi: sports hall
 * Brindisi Tennis Club
 * St. Elias Sports Centre: rugby, sports hall, tennis court

Twin towns – sister cities
Brindisi is twinned with:
 * 🇦🇱 Lushnje, Albania
 * Patras, Greece
 * Corfu, Greece
 * 🇹🇷 Amasya, Turkey
 * 🇺🇸 Charlotte, United States of America

title: Brindisi


text:
List of lords justices of appeal of Northern Ireland

The Northern Ireland Court of Appeal sits in the Royal Courts of Justice in Belfast, hearing appeals on points of law in criminal and civil cases from all courts. It is the highest court in Northern Ireland, subject to review only by the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Judges who sit in this court are known as Lords Justices of Appeal.

Current Lords Justices

 * The Honourable Lord Justice Treacy, appointed November 2017
 * The Right Honourable Lord Justice McCloskey, appointed 5 September 2019
 * The Right Honourable Lord Justice Horner, appointed 5 September 2022

Living Former Lords Justices
this list is incomplete
 * The Rt Hon Lord Justice McCollum (appointed January 1997)
 * The Rt Hon Lord Justice Campbell (September 1998 -August 2008)
 * The Rt Hon Lord Justice Sheil (September 2004 -January 2007)
 * The Rt Hon Lord Justice Higgins (January 2007 -June 2014)
 * The Rt Hon Lord Justice Girvan (appointed January 2007)
 * The Rt Hon Lord Justice Coghlin (appointed September 2008)
 * The Rt Hon Lord Justice Gillen (September 2014-November 2017)
 * The Rt Hon Lord Justice Weatherup (appointed September 2015)
 * The Rt Hon Lord Justice Weir (appointed September 2015)
 * The Rt Hon Lord Justice Deeny (appointed September 2017)
 * The Rt Hon Lord Stephens of Creevyloughgare (appointed September 2017 -October 2020)
 * The Rt Hon Lord Justice Maguire (appointed 8 January 2021)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
List of High Court judges of Northern Ireland

This is a list of High Court judges of Northern Ireland, arranged by order of appointment, as of 28 July 2023:
 * 1) The Hon Mr Justice O'Hara,
 * 2) The Hon Mr Justice Colton,
 * 3) The Hon Madam Justice McBride,
 * 4) The Hon Mr Justice McAlinden,
 * 5) The Hon Mr Justice Huddleston,
 * 6) The Hon Mr Justice Scoffield,
 * 7) The Hon Mr Justice McFarland,
 * 8) The Hon Mr Justice Humphreys,
 * 9) The Hon Mr Justice Rooney,
 * 10) The Hon Mr Justice Fowler,
 * 11) The Hon Mr Justice Kinney,


text:
Soviet (disambiguation)

Soviet may refer to:

 * Soviet (council), a council
 * Soviets, informal reference to the Soviet Union and Soviet Russia
 * An adjective for something related to the Soviet Union
 * Soviet people, citizens and nationals of the Soviet Union
 * Soviet Mountain, Wrangel Island
 * Soviet (band), American synth-rock band

title: Soviet (disambiguation)


text:
John V of Alexandria

John V of Alexandria may refer to:

 * John the Merciful, Greek Patriarch of Alexandria in 610–619
 * Pope John V of Alexandria, ruled in 1147–1166

title: John V of Alexandria


text:
Middle Passage

The Middle Passage was the stage of the Atlantic slave trade in which millions of enslaved Africans were transported to the Americas as part of the triangular slave trade. Ships departed Europe for African markets with manufactured goods (first side of the triangle), which were then traded for slaves with rulers of African states and other African slave traders. Slave ships transported the slaves across the Atlantic (second side of the triangle). The proceeds from selling slaves were then used to buy products such as furs and hides, tobacco, sugar, rum, and raw materials, which would be transported back to Europe (third side of the triangle) to complete the triangle.

The First Passage was the forced march of African slaves from their inland homes, where they had often been captured by other tribes or by other members of their own tribe, to African ports where they were imprisoned until they were sold and loaded onto a ship. The Final Passage was the journey from the port of disembarkation in the Americas to the plantation or other destination where they would be put to work. The Middle Passage across the Atlantic joined these two. Voyages on the Middle Passage were large financial undertakings, generally organized by companies or groups of investors rather than individuals.

The first European slave ship transported enslaved Africans from São Tomé to New Spain in 1525. Portuguese and Dutch traders dominated the trade in the 16th and 17th centuries, though by the 18th they were supplanted by the British and French. Other European nations involved were Spain, Denmark–Norway, Sweden, Poland-Lithuania, Prussia and various Italian city states as well as traders from the United States. The enslaved Africans came mostly from the regions of Senegambia, Upper Guinea, Windward Coast, Gold Coast, Bight of Benin, Bight of Biafra, and Angola. With the growing abolitionist movement in Europe and the Americas, the transatlantic slave trade gradually declined until being fully abolished in the second-half of the 19th century.

According to modern research, roughly 12.5 million slaves were transported through the Middle Passage to the Americas. The enslaved were transported in wretched conditions, men and women separated, across the Atlantic. Mortality was high; those with strong bodies survived. Young women and girls were raped by the crew. An estimated 15% of them died during voyage, with mortality rates considerably higher in Africa itself during the process of capturing and transporting slaves to the coast. The total number of deaths directly attributable to the Middle Passage voyage is estimated at up to two million; a broader look at African deaths directly attributable to the institution of slavery from 1500 to 1900 suggests up to four million deaths. The "Middle Passage" was considered a time of in-betweenness where captive Africans forged bonds of kinship, which then created forced transatlantic communities.

Journey

The duration of the transatlantic voyage varied widely, from one to six months depending on weather conditions. The journey became more efficient over the centuries: while an average transatlantic journey of the early 16th century lasted several months, by the 19th century the crossing often required fewer than six weeks.

African kings, warlords, and private kidnappers sold captives to Europeans who held several coastal forts. The captives were usually force-marched to these ports along the western coast of Africa, where they were held for sale to the European or American slave traders in the barracoons. Typical slave ships contained several hundred slaves with about 30 crew members.

The male captives were normally chained together in pairs to save space; right leg to the next man's left leg—while the women and children may have had somewhat more room. The chains or hand and leg cuffs were known as bilboes, which were among the many tools of the slave trade, and which were always in short supply. Bilboes were mainly used on men, and they consisted of two iron shackles locked on a post and were usually fastened around the ankles of two men. At best, captives were fed beans, corn, yams, rice, and palm oil. Slaves were fed one meal a day with water, if at all. When food was scarce, slaveholders would get priority over the slaves. Sometimes captives were allowed to move around during the day, but many ships kept the shackles on throughout the arduous journey. Aboard certain French ships, the enslaved were brought on deck to periodically receive fresh air. While the enslaved females were typically permitted to be on deck more frequently, enslaved males would be watched closely to prevent revolt when above deck.

The enslaved below the decks lived for months in conditions of squalor and indescribable horror. Disease spread and ill health was one of the biggest killers. Mortality rates were high, and death made these conditions below the decks even worse. Even though the corpses were thrown overboard, many crew members avoided going into the hold. The enslaved who had already been ill were not always found immediately. Many of the living enslaved could have been shackled to someone that was dead for hours and sometimes days.

Most contemporary historians estimate that between 9.4 and 12.6 million Africans embarked for the New World. Disease and starvation due to the length of the passage were the main contributors to the death toll with amoebic dysentery and scurvy causing the majority of deaths. Additionally, outbreaks of smallpox, syphilis, measles, and other diseases spread rapidly in the close-quarter compartments.

The rate of death increased with the length of the voyage, since the incidence of dysentery and of scurvy increased with longer stints at sea as the quality and amount of food and water diminished. In addition to physical sickness, many of the enslaved became too depressed to eat or function efficiently due to loss of freedom, family, security, and their own humanity.

Sailing technologies
The need for profits in the 18th century's Atlantic market economy drove changes in ship designs and in managing human cargo, which included enslaved Africans and the mostly European crew. Improvements in air flow on board the ships helped to decrease the infamous mortality rate that these ships had become known for throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. The new designs that allowed ships to navigate faster and into rivers' mouths ensured access to many more enslaving posts along the West African coast. The monetary value of enslaved Africans on any given American auction-block during the mid-18th century ranged between $800 and $1,200, which in modern times would be equivalent to $32,000–48,000 per person ($100 then is now worth $4,000 due to inflation). Therefore, ship captains and investors sought technologies that would protect their human cargo.

Throughout the height of the Atlantic slave trade (1570–1808), ships that transported the enslaved were normally smaller than traditional cargo ships, with most ships that transported the enslaved, weighing between 150 and 250 tons. This equated to about 350 to 450 enslaved Africans on each slave ship, or 1.5 to 2.4 per ton. The English ships of the time normally fell on the larger side of this spectrum and the French on the smaller side. Ships purposely designed to be smaller and more maneuverable were meant to navigate the African coastal rivers into farther inland ports; these ships therefore increased the effects of the slave trade on Africa. Additionally, the ships' sizes increased slightly throughout the 1700s; however the number of enslaved Africans per ship remained the same. This reduction in the ratio of enslaved Africans to ship tonnage was designed to increase the amount of space per person and thus improve the survival chances of everyone on board. These ships also had temporary storage decks that were separated by an open latticework or grate bulkhead. Ship masters would presumably use these chambers to divide enslaved Africans and help prevent mutiny. Some ships developed by the turn of the 19th century even had ventilation ports built into the sides and between gun ports (with hatches to keep inclement weather out). These open deck designs increased airflow and thus helped improve survival rates, diminishing potential investment losses.

Another major factor in "cargo protection" was the increase in knowledge of diseases and medicines (along with the inclusion of a variety of medicines on the ships). First the Dutch East India Company in the 18th century, followed by some other countries and companies in the late 18th early 19th centuries, realized that the inclusion of surgeons and other medical practitioners aboard their ships was an endeavor that proved too costly for the benefits. So instead of including medical personnel they just stocked the ships with a large variety of medicines. While this was better than no medicines, and given the fact that many crew members at least had some idea of how disease was spread, without the inclusion of medical personnel the mortality rate was still very high in the 18th century.

Treatment of enslaved people and resistance
Treatment of the enslaved was horrific due to the captured African men and women being considered less than human; to enslavers, they were "cargo", or "goods", and treated as such. Women with children were not as desirable for enslavement for they took up too much space, and toddlers were not wanted because of everyday maintenance. For example, the Zong, a British enslaver, took too many enslaved on a voyage to the New World in 1781. Overcrowding combined with malnutrition and disease killed several crew members and around 60 enslaved. Bad weather made the Zong voyage slow and lack of drinking water became a concern. The crew decided to drown some slaves at sea, to conserve water and allow the owners to collect insurance for lost cargo. About 130 slaves were killed and a number chose to kill themselves in defiance, by jumping into the water willingly. The Zong incident became fuel for the abolitionist movement and a major court case, as the insurance company refused to compensate for the loss.

While the enslaved were kept fed and supplied with drink as healthy slaves were more valuable, if resources ran low on the long, unpredictable voyages, the crew received preferential treatment. Punishment of the enslaved and torture was very common, as on the voyage the crew had to turn independent people into obedient enslaved. Pregnant women on the ships who delivered their babies aboard risked the chance of their children being killed in order for the mothers to be sold. The worst punishments were for rebelling; in one instance a captain punished a failed rebellion by killing one involved enslaved man immediately, and forcing two other slaves to eat his heart and liver.

As a way to counteract disease and suicide attempts, the crew would force the enslaved onto the deck of the ship for exercise, usually resulting in beatings because the enslaved would be unwilling to dance for them or interact. These beatings would often be severe and could result in the enslaved dying or becoming more susceptible to diseases.

Suicide
Slaves resisted in many ways. The two most common types of resistance were refusal to eat and suicide. Suicide was a frequent occurrence, often by refusal of food or medicine or jumping overboard, as well as by a variety of other opportunistic means. If an enslaved person jumped overboard, they would often be left to drown or shot from the boat. Over the centuries, some African peoples, such as the Kru, came to be understood as holding substandard value as slaves, because they developed a reputation for being too proud to be enslaved, and for attempting suicide immediately upon losing their freedom.

Both suicide and self-starving were prevented as much as possible by enslaver crews; the enslaved were often force-fed or tortured until they ate, though some still managed to starve themselves to death; the enslaved were kept away from means of suicide, and the sides of the deck were often netted. The enslaved were still successful, especially at jumping overboard. Often when an uprising failed, the mutineers would jump en masse into the sea. Slaves generally believed that if they jumped overboard, they would be returned to their family and friends in their village or to their ancestors in the afterlife.

Suicide by jumping overboard was such a problem that captains had to address it directly in many cases. They used the sharks that followed the ships as a terror weapon. One captain, who had a rash of suicides on his ship, took a woman and lowered her into the water on a rope, and pulled her out as fast as possible. When she came in view, the sharks had already killed her—and bitten off the lower half of her body.

Identity and communication
In order to interact with each other on the voyage, the enslaved created a communication system unbeknownst to Europeans: They would construct choruses on the passages using their voices, bodies, and ships themselves; the hollow design of the ships allowed  the enslaved to use them as percussive instruments and to amplify their songs. This combination of "instruments" was both a way for the enslaved to communicate as well as creating a new identity since enslavers attempted to strip them of that. Although most of the enslaved were from various regions around Africa, their situation allowed them to come together and create a new culture and identity aboard the ships with a common language and method of communication:"[C]all and response soundings allowed men and women speaking different languages to communicate about the conditions of their captivity. In fact, on board the Hubridas, what began as murmurs and morphed into song erupted before long into the shouts and cries of coordinated revolt."This communication was a direct subversion of European authority and allowed the enslaved to have a form of power and identity otherwise prohibited. Furthermore, such organization and coming together enabled revolts and uprisings to actually be coordinated and successful at times.

Uprisings
Aboard ships, the captives were not always willing to follow orders. Sometimes they reacted in violence. Slave ships were designed and operated to try to prevent the slaves from revolting. Resistance among the slaves usually ended in failure and participants in the rebellion were punished severely. About one out of ten ships experienced some sort of rebellion.

Ottobah Cugoano, who was enslaved and taken from Africa as a child, later described an uprising aboard the ship on which he was transported to the West Indies:

"When we found ourselves at last taken away, death was more preferable than life, and a plan was concerted amongst us, that we might burn and blow up the ship, and to perish all together in the flames."

The number of rebels varied widely; often the uprisings would end with the death of a few slaves and crew. Surviving rebels were punished or executed as examples to the other slaves on board.

African religion
The enslaved also resisted through certain manifestations of their religions and mythology. They would appeal to their gods for protection and vengeance upon their captors, and would also try to curse and otherwise harm the crew using idols and fetishes. One crew found fetishes in their water supply, placed by the enslaved who believed they would kill all who drank from it.

Sailors and crew
While the owners and captains of slave ships could expect vast profits, the ordinary sailors were often inadequately paid and subject to brutal discipline. Sailors often had to live and sleep without shelter on the open deck for the entirety of the Atlantic voyage as the entire space below deck was occupied by enslaved people.

A crew mortality rate of around 20% was expected during a voyage, with sailors dying as a result of disease (specifically malaria and yellow fever), flogging or slave uprisings. A high crew mortality rate on the return voyage was in the captain's interests as it reduced the number of sailors who had to be paid on reaching the home port. Crew members who survived were frequently cheated out of their wages on their return.

The sailors were often employed through coercion as they generally knew about and hated the slave trade. In port towns, recruiters and tavern owners would induce sailors to become very drunk (and indebted) and then offer to relieve their debt if they signed contracts with slave ships. If they did not, they would be imprisoned. Sailors in prison had a hard time getting jobs outside of the slave ship industry since most other maritime industries would not hire "jail-birds", so they were forced to go to the slave ships anyway.

title: Middle Passage


text:
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Nomination of Gibiane for deletion
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title: User talk:Jko~enwiki


text:
Sukhoi Su-2

The Sukhoi Su-2 (Сухой Су-2) was a Soviet reconnaissance and light bomber aircraft used in the early stages of World War II. It was the first airplane designed by Pavel Sukhoi. The basic design received an engine and armament upgrade (Su-4) and was modified for the ground-attack role (ShB).

Development
In 1936, Joseph Stalin released a requirement for a multipurpose combat aircraft. Codenamed Ivanov, the airplane had to be capable of performing reconnaissance and then attacking the targets it located. P. O. Sukhoi was working in the Tupolev OKB at the time and designed the "Ivanov" aircraft under the tutelage of Andrei Tupolev. The resulting ANT-51 flew on 25 August 1937 with M. M. Gromov at the controls. Powered by a 610 kW (820 hp) Shvetsov M-62 air-cooled radial engine, the ANT-51 reached 403 km/h (220 kn, 250 mph) at 4,700 m (15,420 ft). This was considered insufficient but since the basic design was sound, it was decided to re-test it with a more powerful engine. Equipped with a 746 kW (1,000 hp) Tumansky M-87 engine, the ANT-51 reached 468 km/h (255 kn, 290 mph) at 5,600 m (18,370 ft) and was accepted into production as BB-1 (Blizhniy Bombardirovschik; Ближний Бомбардировщик — "short-range bomber"). In 1940, the aircraft was renamed Su-2 and the unreliable M-87 engine was replaced with a Tumansky M-88. This lightened version with an M-88B engine reached 512 km/h (275 kn, 320 mph) in testing.

The Su-2 was of mixed construction. The fuselage was semi-monocoque with wood spars and a plywood skin. The wings were of duralumin and steel construction with fabric-covered rod-actuated control surfaces. The pilot and gunner were protected with 9 mm (0.35 in) of armor. The taildragger landing gear was retractable, including the tailwheel.

Operational history

Although 910 Su-2s were built by the time production was discontinued in 1942, the aircraft was obsolete and underarmed by the start of the Great Patriotic War. In combat, the Su-2 ground attack aircraft squadrons suffered heavy losses against the Germans, with some 222 aircraft destroyed. From 1942, the Su-2 was withdrawn from the frontline and replaced by Ilyushin Il-2, Petlyakov Pe-2 and Tupolev Tu-2 bombers. The Su-2 was relegated to a training and reconnaissance role. However, due to a critical shortage of aircraft in early World War II, some Su-2s were used as emergency fighters.

Loss rate comparison
Although the Su-2 has been criticized due to the number of losses it suffered, its loss rate compares favorably with other attack aircraft used by the Soviet Airforce in World War II.

Variants
Su-2
 * Two-seat light bomber and reconnaissance aircraft. Original designation BB-1.

ShB (ШБ — Штурмовик Бомбардировщик; "Attack aircraft-bomber")
 * A proposed ground-attack version with an M-88A engine, modified landing gear which rotated 90° before retracting to the rear into the wings (like the American Curtiss P-40). Bombload was increased to 600 kg (1,235 lb). Created in 1940, the aircraft did not enter production due to availability of the Ilyushin Il-2.

Su-4
 * An upgraded version, originally intended for the Urmin M-90 engine with 1,565 kW (2,100 hp), but later fitted with a Shvetsov M-82 (some Su-2s were also fitted with M-82). Due to a shortage of duralumin, the structural elements of the wings were made of wood with plywood skin. Wing armament was changed from four 7.62 mm ShKAS machine guns to two 12.7 mm Berezin UB machine guns. One prototype was built and tested, but this improved version was not placed into production.

Operators

 * Soviet Air Force
 * Soviet Air Force

title: Sukhoi Su-2


text:
José Eduardo dos Santos

José Eduardo dos Santos (28 August 1942 – 8 July 2022) was an Angolan politician and military officer who served as the president of Angola from 1979 to 2017. As president, dos Santos was also the commander-in-chief of the Angolan Armed Forces (FAA) and president of the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the party that has ruled Angola since it won independence in 1975. By the time he stepped down in 2017, he was the second-longest-serving president in Africa, surpassed only by Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo of Equatorial Guinea.

Dos Santos joined the MPLA, then an anti-colonial movement, while still in school, and earned degrees in petroleum engineering and radar communications while studying in the Soviet Union. Following the Angolan War of Independence, Angola was constituted in 1975 as a Marxist–Leninist one-party state led by the MPLA. Dos Santos held several positions including Minister of Foreign Affairs in the government of independent Angola's first president, Agostinho Neto.

After Neto's death in 1979, dos Santos was elected by the MPLA as the country's new president, supported by the Soviet Union and inheriting a civil war against Western-backed anti-communist rebels, most notably UNITA. By 1991, his government agreed with rebels to introduce a multi-party system, while changing the MPLA's ideology from communism to social democracy. He was elected president in the 1992 Angolan general election over UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi, and presided over free-market economic liberalization and the development of Angola's oil sector. In 1997, he contributed to a rebel invasion of neighboring Zaire during the First Congo War, leading to the overthrow of Congolese UNITA ally Mobutu Sese Seko and the installation of Laurent-Désiré Kabila as President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo later that year. During the Second Congo War from 1998 to 2003 he supported Kabila's government and later that of his son Joseph against several rebel groups loosely allied with UNITA. The MPLA achieved victory in the civil war by 2002 following Savimbi's death. After winning a second presidential term in the 2012 election, he retired from the presidency in 2017, succeeded by party-mate João Lourenço as president.

A controversial figure, dos Santos received many international awards for his commitment to anti-colonialism and promotion of peace negotiation with rebels to end wars, and was praised for attracting significant foreign investment to Angola's economy. He was criticized as having been a dictator and was accused of creating one of the most corrupt regimes in Africa, with a deeply-entrenched patronage network.

Early life and education
José Eduardo dos Santos was born on 28 August 1942 in what is today the district of Sambizanga in Luanda, His parents, Avelino Eduardo dos Santos and Jacinta José Paulino, had moved to Portuguese Angola from the then-colony of Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe. His mother was a maid, while his father was a builder and construction worker. His eldest sister, Isabel Eduardo dos Santos raised Manuel Vicente, under Dos Santos later Vice President of Angola. Dos Santos cousin Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos was prime minister of Angola from 2002 to 2008.

He attended primary school in Luanda, and received his secondary education at the Liceu Salvador Correia, today called Mutu ya Kevela.

While in school, dos Santos joined the MPLA, which marked the beginning of his political career. Due to repression by the colonial government, dos Santos went into exile in neighbouring Congo-Brazzaville in 1961. From there he collaborated with the MPLA and soon became an official member of the party.

To continue with his education he moved to Azerbaijan, which was Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic within the Soviet Union, where, by 1969, he received degrees in petroleum engineering and radar communications from the Azerbaijan Oil and Chemistry Institute in Baku.

Career
In 1970, dos Santos returned to Angola, which was still a Portuguese territory known as the Overseas Province of Angola. He served for three years in the MPLA's EPLA guerrilla force (Exército Para a Libertação de Angola), later known as the People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA), the military wing of the MPLA, becoming a radio transmitter in the second political-military region of the MPLA in Cabinda Province. In 1974, he was promoted to sub-commander of the telecoms service of the second region. He was the MPLA representative to Yugoslavia, Zaire, and the People's Republic of China before he was elected to the Central Committee and Politburo of the MPLA in Moxico in September 1974.

Early political positions, 1975-1979
In June 1975, dos Santos became coordinator of the MPLA's Department of Foreign Affairs and of the MPLA's Department of Health. Upon Angolan independence in November 1975, the MPLA held power in Luanda, but the new MPLA government faced a civil war with the other political formations, the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA). The same year, dos Santos was appointed as Angola's first Minister of Foreign Affairs upon independence, and in this capacity he played a key role in obtaining diplomatic recognition for the MPLA government in 1975–1976. At the MPLA's First Congress in December 1977, dos Santos was re-elected to the Central Committee and Politburo. In December 1978, he was moved from the post of First Deputy Prime Minister in the government to that of Minister of Planning.

After the natural death of Angola's first president, Agostinho Neto, on 10 September 1979, dos Santos was elected president of the MPLA on 20 September 1979, and took office as President of Angola and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces on 21 September. In the first Angolan parliamentary election on 9 November 1980 he was elected President of the People's Assembly of Angola as a one-party state.

Peace process, 1980-2002
The biggest issue dos Santos had to cope with was the ongoing conflict with the main rival liberation movement, the National Union for the Total Integration of Angola (UNITA). UNITA, led by Jonas Savimbi and supported by South Africa and the United States, never fully recognized the legitimacy of MPLA as the ruling government of Angola and triggered several armed conflicts over the years to express its opposition. The war was also marked by intense foreign intervention, since the Soviet Union and Cuba backed the MPLA government and the U.S. and South Africa supported UNITA as a way to limit the expansion of Soviet influence in Africa. From 1989 until 1991, the United Nations Angola Verification Mission I and from 1991 until 1995, the United Nations Angola Verification Mission II took place.

On 29 and 30 September 1992, after 16 years of fighting that killed up to 300,000 people, general elections were held in Angola, under United Nations supervision. Dos Santos led the field in the first round with 49%; his main rival, Jonas Savimbi, won 40%. Under a constitution adopted earlier that year, since dos Santos finished just short of an outright majority, he would need to win a runoff election against Savimbi to become Angola's first constitutional president. This second round never took place, as UNITA declared it did not recognize the election.

A three-day war ensued, during which the Halloween Massacre occurred, when MPLA forces killed tens of thousands of UNITA protestors nationwide. Savimbi then decided to give up on the elections, alleging voting fraud, and immediately resumed the civil war. Meanwhile, dos Santos remained in office.

In 1993, while Savimbi and UNITA refused to give up territory won through battle, the United States, involved in settling peace talks between the two rival parties and leaders in order to work out a power sharing arrangement, decided to withdraw its support from UNITA and officially recognize dos Santos and the MPLA government as the official ruling body in Angola.

The death of UNITA's leader Jonas Savimbi in February 2002 enabled the resumption of the peace process. On 4 April 2002, the Angolan Army and the rebels agreed to a ceasefire and peace was officially declared on 2 August 2002. While recognized as an official political party by the Angolan government, UNITA agreed to demobilize its armed forces, made up of 50,000 fighters, and agreed for them to be integrated into the national security forces. Following that decision, the UN Security Council reopened United Nations offices in Angola and established the United Nations Mission in Angola (UNMA), aimed at consolidating peace in the country.

Governance issues after end of civil war 2001-2016
In 2001, dos Santos announced that he would step down at the next presidential election. In December 2003 he was reelected as head of the MPLA and no further presidential election took place, despite their announcements for 2006, then 2007, and finally 2009. In August 2006, he obtained a MoU with the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda.

After the 2008 Angolan parliamentary election the ruling MPLA won a landslide victory, and it started working on a new constitution which was introduced early in 2010. Under the terms of the new constitution, the president is elected by first-past-the-post double simultaneous vote for the same term as the assembly, and may serve a maximum of two terms. Each participating party nominates a presidential candidate as top of its list, who must be clearly identified on the ballot paper. The top candidate of the party receiving the most votes is elected president. Dos Santos reportedly escaped an assassination attempt on 24 October 2010, when a vehicle tried to intercept his car as he was returning from the beach with his family. His escort opened fire, killing two passengers in the vehicle, and weapons were found on board. This incident has not been confirmed by any other source. In February–March 2011, and then again in September 2011, demonstrations against dos Santos were organized in Luanda by young Angolans, mostly via the Internet.

In the 2012 legislative election, his party, the MPLA, won more than two-thirds of the vote. As dos Santos had been the top candidate of the party, he automatically became president, in line with the constitution adopted in 2010.

In September 2014, dos Santos announced the end of the coupling of the position of provincial governor with provincial first secretary of the MPLA. This measure aimed to improve the operation of the provincial administration and the municipal administrations, as a way to adjust the governance model to a new context and bigger demand for public services.

Economy
Once a Marxist-Leninist, dos Santos allowed a partial market economy to emerge as the collapse of the Soviet Union was in progress. Dos Santos subsequently abandoned Marxism-Leninism completely and allowed Western firms to invest in Angola's major oil fields. Angola became Africa's second-largest oil producer and third-largest diamond producer during dos Santos' tenure in office. In November 2006, dos Santos co-founded the African Countries Diamond Producers Association, an organization of approximately 20 African nations founded to promote market cooperation and foreign investment in the African diamond industry.

Despite the country's natural resources, most Angolans remained in poverty: At the time of dos Santos' death in 2022, a few years after he left office, more than half of the more than 30 million Angolans subsisted on less than US$1.90 a day. Dos Santos oversaw a kleptocracy with vast amounts of wealth diverted to the dos Santos family; In 2020, dos Santos's successor, João Lourenço, estimated that more than $24 billion was stolen or misappropriated under dos Santos, allegedly through diversion of oil revenue, patronage, and government contracts.

Succession, 2016-2017
Dos Santos announced on 11 March 2016 that he planned to retire in 2018. This timetable would mean that he would leave office after the next election, scheduled for 2017. In December 2016, the MPLA chose João Lourenço, the Minister of Defense and Vice-President of the MPLA, as the party's top candidate and therefore its presidential candidate for the 2017 legislative election, indicating that dos Santos would step aside prior to 2018. Dos Santos stated on 3 February 2017 that he would leave office following the election later in 2017, with Lourenço slated to succeed him. He remained President of the MPLA and was therefore expected to continue playing a key role at the top of Angolan politics through the leadership of the ruling party. His children Isabel dos Santos and José Filomeno dos Santos held key economic posts at Sonangol and the Fundo Soberano de Angola, respectively, suggesting their father retained considerable influence.

Controversial issues
Dos Santos led one of the most corrupt regimes in Africa by ignoring the economic and social needs of Angola and focusing his efforts on amassing wealth for his family and silencing his opposition, while nearly 70% of the population lived on less than $2 a day. Dos Santos became wealthy when he first took power, and began amassing larger assets during and after the Angolan civil wars. When the ceasefire occurred and large portions of the economy were partially privatized, he took several emerging companies and industries. He helped arrange similar takeovers of several other natural resource industries. According to Transparency International, Angola had a reputation as one of the world's most corrupt countries by the end of Dos Santos' reign.

Eventually the Angolan Parliament made it illegal for the president to have financial holdings in companies and organizations. In response to this, dos Santos supposedly began arranging for his daughter to receive the financial kickbacks and assets from these companies. Dos Santos then began using the government to take direct control of stakes in companies offered as kickbacks which he indirectly controlled and reaped the benefits of and managed to retain large corporate assets through proxies.

In what has become known as the Luanda Leaks, a vast network of more than 400 banks, companies, and consultants was revealed to have engaged in money-laundering for the dos Santos family. Among others, these include firms such as Banco BIC, founded by dos Santos family billionaire associate Américo Amorim, Boston Consulting Group, McKinsey & Company,PwC, Eurobic, and a shell company called Athol Limited. According to Angolan media reports, Brave Ventures, a firm run by Swiss art dealer Yves Bouvier, was also implicated in money-laundering activities in its role as a subcontractor for a French consulting firm tasked by dos Santos to oversee the development of the public health system.

Along with this, the government budget had grown over a decade to 69 billion dollars in 2012 through oil revenues. The International Monetary Fund reported that 32 billion in oil revenue went missing from the government's ledger before it was found spent on "quasi-fiscal activities".

Personal life and death
Dos Santos, apart from Portuguese, also fluent in Spanish, French, and Russian, amassed a significant personal fortune.

Marriages and relationships, the dos Santos clan
José Eduardo dos Santos was married at least twice, and possibly as many as four marriages, depending on the source. He had at least six children from his wives, and one born out of wedlock.

His first wife was the Russian-born geologist Tatiana Kukanova, whom he met while studying in the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (present-day Azerbaijan). Dos Santos and Kukanova had one daughter, Isabel dos Santos (b. 1973), who was at one time the richest woman in Africa. Their marriage ended in divorce.

His next two marriages (or long-term relationships, depending on the source) also ended in divorce or separation as well. With his second wife, Filomena Sousa, he had one child, José Filomeno dos Santos, known as "Zenú" (b. 1978), who served as chairman of Fundo Soberano de Angola.

His third wife was Maria Luísa Abrantes Perdigão. Abrantes' and dos Santos' two children were daughter, Welwitschia "Tchize" dos Santos (b. 1978), and a son, the Angolan artist Coréon Dú (b. 1984). Maria Luísa Abrantes served as Minister of Finance from June 1990 to April 1992.

In 1991, dos Santos married his fourth and final wife, Ana Paula de Lemos, a former flight attendant and model. They had three children: Eduane Danilo (b. 1991), Joseana (b. 1995), and Eduardo (b. 1998). The couple remained married until his death in 2022. As of 2017, Eduane Danilo was a partner in an Angolan financial institution named Banco Postal, holding stock in a private holding company called ‘Deana Day Spa’ and was entrusted with the privatization of Angola Telecom.

Later life
In mid-2017, dos Santos twice traveled to Barcelona, Spain, on weeks-long visits that were rumored to be related to a medical problem. The government acknowledged that the first visit was related to his health. No official explanation was given for his second visit, from 3 to 19 July. Dos Santos had cancer for several years prior to his death. He was in critical condition after suffering cardiorespiratory arrest on 23 June 2022 and also tested positive for COVID-19. He died on 8 July 2022, at Teknon Medical Centre in Barcelona, at the age of 79.

He was held a state funeral in the Angolan capital Luanda with several African leaders and Portugal's president present on 28 August 2022.

Awards and recognitions

 * 🇦🇴 Angola:
 * ANG_Order_of_Agostinho_Neto.svg Dr António Agostinho Neto Order

 * 🇨🇺 Cuba:
 * Ribbon_jose_marti.png Order of José Martí

 * 🇵🇹 Portugal:
 * PRT_Order_of_Saint_James_of_the_Sword_-_Grand_Collar_BAR.png Grand Collar of the Military Order of Saint James of the Sword
 * PRT_Order_of_Prince_Henry_-_Grand_Collar_BAR.png Grand Collar of the Order of Prince Henry

 * 🇷🇺 Russia:
 * [[File:Orden_of_Friendship.png]] Order of Friendship
 * [[File:Orden_of_Honour.png]] Order of Honour

 * 🇷🇸 Serbia:
 * Orden_Republike_Srbije_2.gif Order of the Republic of Serbia, 2nd class

 * 🇿🇦 South Africa:
 * Order_of_the_Companions_of_O.R._Tambo_(ribbon_bar).gif Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo

Dos Santos was praised for the major role he played in favour of the country's independence and his commitment to the promotion of peace and democracy in the country, through negotiations with opposition movements designed to put a definite end to the civil war. He received the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo in 2010. He also received an honorary diploma of the National Commission on Racial Justice of the Unified Church of Christ (USA).

Dos Santos was named "Man of the Year 2014" by Africa World. According to the newspaper, the choice of the Angolan leader was due to his contribution to the great process of economic and democratic recovery of Angola since the end of the war.

A University of Namibia Engineering and Information Technology campus in Ongwediva is named after dos Santos, who was himself an engineer by profession, for assisting Namibia with attaining her freedom from oppression. Portugal awarded dos Santos the Grand Collar of the Order of Prince Henry in 1988 and the Grand Collar of the Military Order of Saint James of the Sword in 1996.

title: José Eduardo dos Santos


text:
Sharpeville

Sharpeville (also spelled Sharpville) is a township situated between two large industrial cities, Vanderbijlpark and Vereeniging, in southern Gauteng, South Africa. Sharpeville is one of the oldest of six townships in the Vaal Triangle. It was named after John Lillie Sharpe who came to South Africa from Glasgow, Scotland, as secretary of Stewarts & Lloyds. Sharpe was elected to the Vereeniging City Council in 1932 and held the position of mayor from 1934 to 1937.

The main reason for the establishment of Sharpeville was the relocation of people from "Top Location" to an area away from Vereeniging because it was felt black people were too close to Vereeniging for comfort. Because the project was intended only to relocate residents of "Top Location", and not to house additional people, it did not alleviate the housing shortage. What was planned as a five-year resettlement project beginning in 1935, in fact, took 20 years. In 1941, 16,000 people lived in "Top Location". The building of the houses only started in 1942. A sub-economic housing scheme was used for Sharpeville. Water was free but 14 houses shared one tap and there were two bathing complexes in the township. By 1946 some of the houses had their own taps and bathrooms. The township was first called "Sharpe Native Township" but it changed to Sharpeville in the 1950s.

Place in South African history
With the implementation of the apartheid government's Group Areas Act 21 of 1950, it was estimated that over 3.5 million South Africans were forcibly removed from 1960 to 1982. Of the "Top Location" residents, Blacks were moved to Sharpeville, Coloureds to Rus-ter-vaal and Indians to Roshnee. The Indians were the last ethnic group to leave "Top Location", the last residents being moved to Roshnee in 1974. In 2004, the people of Top Location were compensated for the loss of their properties and land, and an amount of R60,000 per house was paid to all former residents or dependants.

On 21 March 1960 the Sharpeville massacre occurred when the PAC (Pan Africanist Congress) organized a protest in which black Africans attempted to hand in to police their Apartheid-required pass books which restricted them from going in certain areas. Although the crowd was peaceful throughout the day, over 70 white officers and men of the South African Police (SAP), thirteen of them armed with sub machine guns, fired at point blank range (a distance of three to five meters at most )according to police testimony). They had been ordered to fire by the Officer in Charge. According to official figures released at the time by Prime Minister Henrik Verwoerd's government, 69 Africans were killed and 180 wounded by the police. All of these people were long term residents of Sharpeville. None were "migrant workers."

A new book published in 2024 and based on extensive research in police documents held by the South African National Archives in Pretoria has now demonstrated that the "69 killed and 180 injured" was a severe undercount and was in fact a police lie. Using these police documents that were initially created in 1960, 1961, and 1962, the two authors now show that the number of killed on 21 March 1960 was at least 91 and probably more, and that the number injured, many of them crippled for life, was at least 238. These same records also contain at least 250 witness statements collected from Sharpville residents in 1961 and 1962, all of them given under oath and attested to by the police at the time. The names and ages of all the victims are recorded in this new book by Nancy L. Clark and William H. Worger.

Sharpeville was also the site of a murder in 1984 which led to the arrest, trial, and controversial death sentences (later commuted) of the Sharpeville Six.

Symbolically, Nelson Mandela signed the South African Constitution in Sharpeville on 10 December 1996. He also opened "The Sharpeville Memorial" to honour the victims of the Sharpeville massacre of 1960. 21 March is now celebrated as Human Rights Day.

Neighbouring townships
Neighbouring townships include Evaton, Orange Farm, Bophelong, Small Farms, Golden Gardens, and Sebokeng.

title: Sharpeville


text:
Fabian

Fabian may refer to:

People

 * Fabian (name), including a list of people with the given name or surname
 * Pope Fabian (died 250), Catholic saint
 * Fabian Forte (born 1943), 1950s American teen idol, singer and actor, known by the mononym Fabian
 * Fabian Monge (born 2001), Australian footballer
 * Fabian (footballer), Brazilian footballer Fabian Maria Lago Vilela de Abreu (born 1997)
 * Fabulous Fabian (born 1970), former ring name of professional wrestler Marcus Alexander Bagwell

Arts and entertainment

 * Fabian (Roman) or Fabian, the Story of a Moralist, a novel by German author Erich Kästner
 * Fabian (film), a 1980 adaptation of Kästner's novel
 * Fabian – Going to the Dogs, a 2021 film adaptation of Kästner's novel

Characters

 * Fabian Cortez, a Marvel Comics villain, enemy of the X-Men
 * Fabian Prewett in the Harry Potter universe, maternal uncle to Ron Weasley
 * Fabian Rutter, from the Nickelodeon television show House of Anubis
 * Robert Fabian, protagonist of Fabian of the Yard, a British 1950s television series
 * Fabian, in Shakespeare's play Twelfth Night
 * Fabian, a cat in the cartoon series Boonie Bears

Other uses

 * Fabian (grape), another name for the wine grape Chasselas
 * Fabian Society, a socialist society in the UK
 * Tropical Storm Fabian, a typhoon, various storms, and a cyclone

title: Fabian


text:
Abbé Prévost

Antoine François Prévost d'Exiles (, , ; 1 April 1697 – 25 November 1763), usually known simply as the Abbé Prévost, was a French priest, author, and novelist.

Life and works
He was born at Hesdin, Artois, and first appears with the full name of Prévost d'Exiles, in a letter to the booksellers of Amsterdam in 1731. His father, Lievin Prévost, was a lawyer, and several members of the family had embraced the ecclesiastical estate. His happy childhood ended abruptly, when he lost his mother and his younger favorite sister at the age of 14. Prévost was educated at the Jesuit school of Hesdin, and in 1713 became a novice of the order in Paris, pursuing his studies at the same time at the college in La Flèche.

At the end of 1716 he left the Jesuits to join the army, but soon tired of military life, and returned to Paris in 1719, apparently with the idea of resuming his novitiate. He is said to have travelled in the Netherlands about this time; in any case he returned to the army, this time with a commission. Some biographers have assumed that he suffered some of the misfortunes assigned to his hero Des Grieux. Whatever the truth, he joined the learned community of the Benedictines of St Maur, with whom he found refuge, he himself says, after the unlucky termination of a love affair. He took his vows at Jumièges in 1721 after a year's novitiate, and in 1726 took priest's orders at St Germer de Flaix. He spent seven years in various houses of the order, teaching, preaching and studying. In 1728 he was sent to the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, Paris, where he contributed to the Gallia Christiana, a work of historiographic documentation undertaken communally by the monks in continuation of the works of Denys de Sainte-Marthe, who had been a member of their order. His restless spirit made him seek from the Pope a transfer to the easier rule of Cluny; but he left the abbey without leave (1728), and, learning that his superiors had obtained a lettre de cachet against him, fled to England.

In London he acquired a wide knowledge of English history and literature, as can be seen in his writings. Before leaving the Benedictines Prévost had begun perhaps his most famous novel, Mémoires et aventures d'un homme de qualité qui s'est retiré du monde, the first four volumes of which were published in Paris in 1728, and two years later at Amsterdam. In 1729 he left England for the Netherlands, where he began to publish (Utrecht, 1731) a novel, the material of which, at least, had been gathered in London, Le Philosophe anglais, ou Histoire de Monsieur Cleveland, fils naturel de Cromwell, écrite par lui-même, et traduite de l'anglais par l'auteur des Mémoires d'un homme de qualité (1731–1739, 8 vols., Amsterdam and Paris). A spurious fifth volume (Utrecht, 1734) contained attacks on the Jesuits; an English translation the same year ends with this volume.

Meanwhile, during his residence at the Hague, he engaged on a translation of De Thou's Historia, and, relying on the popularity of his first book, published at Amsterdam a Suite in three volumes, forming volumes v, vi, and vii of the original Mémoires et aventures d'un homme de qualité. The seventh volume contained the famous Manon Lescaut, separately published in Paris in 1731 as Histoire du Chevalier des Grieux et de Manon Lescaut. The book was eagerly read, chiefly in pirated copies, being forbidden in France. In 1733 he left the Hague for London in company of a lady whose character, according to Prévost's enemies, was doubtful. In London he edited a weekly gazette on the model of Joseph Addison's Spectator, Le Pour et contre, which he continued to produce in collaboration with the playwright Charles-Hugues Le Febvre de Saint-Marc, with short intervals, until 1740.

In the autumn of 1734 Prévost was reconciled with the Benedictines, and, returning to France, was received in the Benedictine monastery of La Croix-Saint-Leufroy in the diocese of Évreux to pass through a new, though brief, novitiate. In 1735 he was dispensed from residence in a monastery by becoming almoner to the Prince de Conti, and in 1754 obtained the priory of St Georges de Gesnes. He continued to produce novels and translations from the English, and, with the exception of a brief exile (1741–1742) spent in Brussels and Frankfurt, he resided for the most part at Chantilly until his death, which took place suddenly while he was walking in the neighbouring woods. The cause of his death, the rupture of an aneurysm, is all that is definitely known. Stories of crime and disaster were related of Prévost by his enemies, and diligently repeated, but appear to be apocryphal.

Prévost's other works include:

 * Le Doyen de Killerine, Killerine, histoire morale composée sur les mémoires d'une illustre famille d'Irlande (Paris, 1735; 2nd part, the Hague, 1739, 3rd, 4th and 5th parts, 1740)
 * Tout pour l'amour (1735), a translation of Dryden's tragedy
 * Histoire d'une Grecque moderne (Amsterdam [Paris] 2 vols., 1740)
 * Histoire de Marguerite d'Anjou (Amsterdam [Paris] 2 vols., 1740)
 * Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire de Malte (Amsterdam, 1741)
 * Campagnes philosophiques, ou mémoires ... contenant l'histoire de la guerre d'Irlande (Amsterdam, 1741)
 * Histoire de Guillaume le Conquérant (Paris, 1742)
 * Voyages du capitaine Robert Lade en differentes parties de l'Afrique, de l'Asie, et de l'Amerique (Paris, 1744), a fictional travel journal
 * Histoire générale des voyages (15 vols., Paris, 1746–1759), continued by other writers
 * Manuel Lexique (Paris, 1750), continued by other writers
 * Translations (somewhat compacted) from Samuel Richardson: Pamela ou la Vertu récompensée (1741), Lettres anglaises ou Histoire de Miss Clarisse Harlovie (1751), from Richardson's Clarissa, and Nouvelles lettres anglaises, ou Histoire du chevalier Grandisson (Sir Charles Grandison, 1755).
 * Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire de la vertu (1762), from Mrs Sheridan's Memoires of Miss Sidney Bidulph
 * Histoire de la maison de Stuart (3 vols., 1740) from Hume's History of England to 1688
 * Le Monde moral, ou Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire du cœur humain (2 vols., Geneva, 1760)

Modern editions

 * The standard edition of Prévost's works is Œuvres, dir. Jean Sgard, Presses Universitaires de Grenoble, 8 vols., 1977–1986.
 * There have been many editions of Manon Lescaut of which the most recent are by Jean Sgard (Paris: GF-Flammarion, 1995) and Jean Goulemot (Livre de Poche, 2005). The modern English translation by Helen Waddell (Heritage Press, 1945 - with illustrations by Pierre Brissaud), is quite possibly, the most commonly seen English-language edition on the market.
 * Mémoires et aventures d'un homme de qualité, Jean Sgard (ed.), Paris: Desjonquères, 1995.
 * There is also a separate edition of Cleveland (i. e., Le Philosophe anglais) by Jean Sgard and Philip Stewart, Paris: Desjonquères, 2003.
 * The only complete English translation of Cleveland, entitled The English Philosopher, or History of Mr. Cleveland, natural son of Cromwell, by Philip Stewart (2016)is available in open access on line: http://hdl.handle.net/10161/13014
 * Histoire d'une Grecque moderne, ed. Jean Sgard, Presses Universitaires de Grenoble, 1989 (ISBN 2706103345).
 * The Greek Girl's Story, ed. and trans. Alan J. Singerman, University Park: Penn State UP, 2014.

In the works of others
In Hubert Monteilhet's novel Murder at the Frankfurt Book Fair, the protagonist plagiarizes Histoire d'une Grecque moderne as a practical joke on his obnoxious publisher.

title: Abbé Prévost


text:
Talk:Lucius Aelius Caesar

Untitled
Only old sources like Gibbon seem to add the "Verus", probably confusing with his son, so I'm following OCD in going with "Lucius Aelius" (the "Caesar" being a title and not part of personal name). Stan 20:15, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Stan is right; the cognomen Verus was never attested for this L. Ceionius Commodus outside the Historia Augusta. The correct form of his name, from birth to adoption, is Lucius Ceionius Commodus; from his adoption by Hadrian, he was called Lucius Aelius Caesar. The Loeb edition has extensive footnoting on the confusion, some of which I'll include here: "[The cognomen Verus] seems to have arisen through a confusion with his son, adopted by Antoninus Pius and, after his accession to the throne, called L. Aurelius Verus (HA, Had. XXII.11, n.1).
 * It should be added that former to his adoption by Pius, this boy was called Lucius Ceionius Commodus (presumably 'the younger') and on his adoption was properly called L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. It was not until Pius died and he ruled jointly with Marcus Annius Verus (known in the HA and sources as Marcus Antoninus) that he took the cognomen Verus. Alyelle (talk) 02:33, 4 September 2011 (UTC)

The reference to the Dutch page is wrong. This page refers to Lucius Aelius Verus, who became the co-emperor of Marcus Aurelius. Goodies 0:08, 1 Nov 2008 (UTC)

Era style
If you must add era tags, please keep the neutral "BCE" and "CE". I would prefer it in this form. Lupus Bellator (talk) 17:51, 4 December 2012 (UTC)

 * Personal preference isn't a sufficient reason to change from one convention to the other, per WP:ERA.Cúchullain t/ c 19:29, 4 December 2012 (UTC)

 * The Plotinus example at WP:ERA permits the use of an era designation when one may be helpful to the reader. It should be up to those contributing content to decide which era style to use. Cynwolfe (talk) 22:20, 4 December 2012 (UTC)
 * NO. We follow the Wiki guideline in this matter. 50.111.49.173 (talk) 03:25, 25 February 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lucius Aelius Caesar


text:
Pietro Ziani

Pietro Ziani (died in Venice, 13 March 1230) was the 42nd Doge of Venice from 15 August 1205 to 1229, succeeding Enrico Dandolo. He was the son of Doge Sebastian Ziani of the very rich noble family. He was married to Maria Baseggio and Constance of Sicily.

In his youth a sailor, he commanded a flotilla escorting the emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1177, took also part in the Fourth Crusade and sacking of Constantinople. After his election, Ziani is said to consider the transfer of the capital of the Republic to Constantinople, but eventually the Council decided against it. Instead, he organized the Venetian acquisitions in the territory of the Latin Empire: Crete, Corfu, other islands and the substantial part of Constantinople itself, demanding an oath from the Venetian colony in the city. Ziani established also commercial ties with the post-Byzantine states, signing in 1210 a treaty with the despotate of Epirus under Michael I Komnenos Doukas.

According to the Cronaca Altinate, he strove to maintain peace with Padua after an incident at a festival in Treviso so that Venice could concentrate on its new Greek territories. He was forced to fend off a Paduan invasion in the War of the Castle of Love (1215).

Ziani abdicated in February 1229. He was succeeded by his brother-in-law, Jacopo Tiepolo, but Ziani refused to meet him and died a year later. He is buried in the church of San Giorgio Maggiore.

title: Pietro Ziani