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Time complexity

In theoretical computer science, the time complexity is the computational complexity that describes the amount of computer time it takes to run an algorithm. Time complexity is commonly estimated by counting the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm, supposing that each elementary operation takes a fixed amount of time to perform. Thus, the amount of time taken and the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm are taken to be related by a constant factor.

Since an algorithm's running time may vary among different inputs of the same size, one commonly considers the worst-case time complexity, which is the maximum amount of time required for inputs of a given size. Less common, and usually specified explicitly, is the average-case complexity, which is the average of the time taken on inputs of a given size (this makes sense because there are only a finite number of possible inputs of a given size). In both cases, the time complexity is generally expressed as a function of the size of the input. Since this function is generally difficult to compute exactly, and the running time for small inputs is usually not consequential, one commonly focuses on the behavior of the complexity when the input size increases—that is, the asymptotic behavior of the complexity. Therefore, the time complexity is commonly expressed using big O notation, typically $O(n)$, $O(n\log n)$, $O(n^\alpha)$, $O(2^n)$, etc., where $n$ is the size in units of bits needed to represent the input.

Algorithmic complexities are classified according to the type of function appearing in the big O notation. For example, an algorithm with time complexity $$O(n)$$ is a linear time algorithm and an algorithm with time complexity $$O(n^\alpha)$$ for some constant $$\alpha > 1$$ is a polynomial time algorithm.

Table of common time complexities
The following table summarizes some classes of commonly encountered time complexities. In the table, poly(x) = xO(1), i.e., polynomial in x.

Constant time
An algorithm is said to be constant time (also written as $O(1)$ time) if the value of $T(n)$  (the complexity of the algorithm)  is bounded by a value that does not depend on the size of the input. For example, accessing any single element in an array takes constant time as only one operation has to be performed to locate it. In a similar manner, finding the minimal value in an array sorted in ascending order; it is the first element. However, finding the minimal value in an unordered array is not a constant time operation as scanning over each element in the array is needed in order to determine the minimal value. Hence it is a linear time operation, taking $O(n)$ time. If the number of elements is known in advance and does not change, however, such an algorithm can still be said to run in constant time.

Despite the name "constant time", the running time does not have to be independent of the problem size, but an upper bound for the running time has to be independent of the problem size. For example, the task "exchange the values of $n$ and $a$ if necessary so that $a \le b$ " is called constant time even though the time may depend on whether or not it is already true that $a \le b$. However, there is some constant $b$ such that the time required is always at most $t$.

Logarithmic time
An algorithm is said to take logarithmic time when $$T(n) = O(\log n)$$. Since $$\log_a n$$ and $$\log_b n$$ are related by a constant multiplier, and such a multiplier is irrelevant to big O classification, the standard usage for logarithmic-time algorithms is $$O(\log n)$$ regardless of the base of the logarithm appearing in the expression of $t$.

Algorithms taking logarithmic time are commonly found in operations on binary trees or when using binary search.

An $$O(\log n)$$ algorithm is considered highly efficient, as the ratio of the number of operations to the size of the input decreases and tends to zero when $T$ increases. An algorithm that must access all elements of its input cannot take logarithmic time, as the time taken for reading an input of size $n$ is of the order of $n$.

An example of logarithmic time is given by dictionary search. Consider a dictionary $O(n)$ which contains $n$ entries, sorted in alphabetical order. We suppose that, for $$1 \le k \le n$$, one may access the $n$th entry of the dictionary in a constant time. Let $$D(k)$$ denote this $k$th entry. Under these hypotheses, the test to see if a word $k$ is in the dictionary may be done in logarithmic time: consider $$D\left(\left\lfloor \frac{n}{2} \right\rfloor\right)$$, where $$\lfloor\;\rfloor$$ denotes the floor function. If $$w = D\left(\left\lfloor \frac{n}{2} \right\rfloor\right)$$--that is to say, the word $w$ is exactly in the middle of the dictionary--then we are done. Else, if $$w < D\left(\left\lfloor \frac{n}{2} \right\rfloor\right)$$--i.e., if the word $w$ comes earlier in alphabetical order than the middle word of the whole dictionary--we continue the search in the same way in the left (i.e. earlier) half of the dictionary, and then again repeatedly until the correct word is found. Otherwise, if it comes after the middle word, continue similarly with the right half of the dictionary. This algorithm is similar to the method often used to find an entry in a paper dictionary. As a result, the search space within the dictionary decreases as the algorithm gets closer to the target word.

Polylogarithmic time
An algorithm is said to run in polylogarithmic time if its time $$T(n)$$ is $$O\bigl((\log n)^k\bigr)$$ for some constant $w$. Another way to write this is $$O(\log^kn)$$.

For example, matrix chain ordering can be solved in polylogarithmic time on a parallel random-access machine, and a graph can be determined to be planar in a fully dynamic way in $$O(\log^3n)$$ time per insert/delete operation.

Sub-linear time
An algorithm is said to run in sub-linear time (often spelled sublinear time) if $$T(n)=o(n)$$. In particular this includes algorithms with the time complexities defined above.

The specific term sublinear time algorithm commonly refers to randomized algorithms that sample a small fraction of their inputs and process them efficiently to approximately infer properties of the entire instance. This type of sublinear time algorithm is closely related to property testing and statistics.

Other settings where algorithms can run in sublinear time include:

 * Parallel algorithms that have linear or greater total work (allowing them to read the entire input), but sub-linear depth.
 * Algorithms that have guaranteed assumptions on the input structure. An important example are operations on data structures, e.g. binary search in a sorted array.
 * Algorithms that search for local structure in the input, for example finding a local minimum in a 1-D array (can be solved in $$O(\log(n))$$ time using a variant of binary search).  A closely related notion is that of Local Computation Algorithms (LCA) where the algorithm receives a large input and queries to local information about some valid large output.

Linear time
An algorithm is said to take linear time, or $$O(n)$$ time, if its time complexity is $$O(n)$$. Informally, this means that the running time increases at most linearly with the size of the input. More precisely, this means that there is a constant $k$ such that the running time is at most $$cn$$ for every input of size $c$. For example, a procedure that adds up all elements of a list requires time proportional to the length of the list, if the adding time is constant, or, at least, bounded by a constant.

Linear time is the best possible time complexity in situations where the algorithm has to sequentially read its entire input. Therefore, much research has been invested into discovering algorithms exhibiting linear time or, at least, nearly linear time. This research includes both software and hardware methods. There are several hardware technologies which exploit parallelism to provide this. An example is content-addressable memory. This concept of linear time is used in string matching algorithms such as the Boyer–Moore string-search algorithm and Ukkonen's algorithm.

Quasilinear time
An algorithm is said to run in quasilinear time (also referred to as log-linear time) if $$T(n)=O(n\log^kn)$$ for some positive constant $n$; linearithmic time is the case $$k=1$$. Using soft O notation these algorithms are $$\tilde{O}(n)$$. Quasilinear time algorithms are also $$O(n^{1+\varepsilon })$$ for every constant $$\varepsilon >0$$ and thus run faster than any polynomial time algorithm whose time bound includes a term $$n^c$$ for any $$c>1$$.

Algorithms which run in quasilinear time include:
 * In-place merge sort, $$O(n\log^2n)$$
 * Quicksort, $$O(n\log n)$$, in its randomized version, has a running time that is $$O(n\log n)$$ in expectation on the worst-case input. Its non-randomized version has an $$O(n\log n)$$ running time only when considering average case complexity.
 * Heapsort, $$O(n\log n)$$, merge sort, introsort, binary tree sort, smoothsort, patience sorting, etc. in the worst case
 * Fast Fourier transforms, $$O(n\log n)$$
 * Monge array calculation, $$O(n\log n)$$

In many cases, the $$O(n\log n)$$ running time is simply the result of performing a $$\Theta (\log n)$$ operation $k$ times (for the notation, see ). For example, binary tree sort creates a binary tree by inserting each element of the $n$-sized array one by one. Since the insert operation on a self-balancing binary search tree takes $$O(\log n)$$ time, the entire algorithm takes $$O(n\log n)$$ time.

Comparison sorts require at least $$\Omega (n\log n)$$ comparisons in the worst case because $$\log (n!)=\Theta (n\log n)$$, by Stirling's approximation. They also frequently arise from the recurrence relation $T(n) = 2T\left(\frac{n}{2}\right)+O(n)$.

Sub-quadratic time
An algorithm is said to be subquadratic time if $$T(n)=o(n^2)$$.

For example, simple, comparison-based sorting algorithms are quadratic (e.g. insertion sort), but more advanced algorithms can be found that are subquadratic (e.g. shell sort). No general-purpose sorts run in linear time, but the change from quadratic to sub-quadratic is of great practical importance.

Polynomial time
An algorithm is said to be of polynomial time if its running time is upper bounded by a polynomial expression in the size of the input for the algorithm, that is, T(n) = O(nk) for some positive constant k. Problems for which a deterministic polynomial-time algorithm exists belong to the complexity class P, which is central in the field of computational complexity theory. Cobham's thesis states that polynomial time is a synonym for "tractable", "feasible", "efficient", or "fast".

Some examples of polynomial-time algorithms:
 * The selection sort sorting algorithm on n integers performs $$An^2$$ operations for some constant A. Thus it runs in time $$O(n^2)$$ and is a polynomial-time algorithm.
 * All the basic arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and comparison) can be done in polynomial time.
 * Maximum matchings in graphs can be found in polynomial time. In some contexts, especially in optimization, one differentiates between strongly polynomial time and weakly polynomial time algorithms.

These two concepts are only relevant if the inputs to the algorithms consist of integers.

Complexity classes
The concept of polynomial time leads to several complexity classes in computational complexity theory. Some important classes defined using polynomial time are the following.

 * P: The complexity class of decision problems that can be solved on a deterministic Turing machine in polynomial time
 * NP: The complexity class of decision problems that can be solved on a non-deterministic Turing machine in polynomial time
 * ZPP: The complexity class of decision problems that can be solved with zero error on a probabilistic Turing machine in polynomial time
 * RP: The complexity class of decision problems that can be solved with 1-sided error on a probabilistic Turing machine in polynomial time.
 * BPP: The complexity class of decision problems that can be solved with 2-sided error on a probabilistic Turing machine in polynomial time
 * BQP: The complexity class of decision problems that can be solved with 2-sided error on a quantum Turing machine in polynomial time

P is the smallest time-complexity class on a deterministic machine which is robust in terms of machine model changes. (For example, a change from a single-tape Turing machine to a multi-tape machine can lead to a quadratic speedup, but any algorithm that runs in polynomial time under one model also does so on the other.) Any given abstract machine will have a complexity class corresponding to the problems which can be solved in polynomial time on that machine.

Superpolynomial time
An algorithm is defined to take superpolynomial time if T(n) is not bounded above by any polynomial. Using little omega notation, it is ω(nc) time for all constants c, where n is the input parameter, typically the number of bits in the input.

For example, an algorithm that runs for 2n steps on an input of size n requires superpolynomial time (more specifically, exponential time).

An algorithm that uses exponential resources is clearly superpolynomial, but some algorithms are only very weakly superpolynomial. For example, the Adleman–Pomerance–Rumely primality test runs for nO(log log n) time on n-bit inputs; this grows faster than any polynomial for large enough n, but the input size must become impractically large before it cannot be dominated by a polynomial with small degree.

An algorithm that requires superpolynomial time lies outside the complexity class P. Cobham's thesis posits that these algorithms are impractical, and in many cases they are. Since the P versus NP problem is unresolved, it is unknown whether NP-complete problems require superpolynomial time.

Quasi-polynomial time
Quasi-polynomial time algorithms are algorithms whose running time exhibits quasi-polynomial growth, a type of behavior that may be slower than polynomial time but yet is significantly faster than exponential time. The worst case running time of a quasi-polynomial time algorithm is $$2^{O(\log^c n)}$$ for some fixed $c > 0$. When $$c=1$$ this gives polynomial time, and for $$c < 1$$ it gives sub-linear time.

There are some problems for which we know quasi-polynomial time algorithms, but no polynomial time algorithm is known. Such problems arise in approximation algorithms; a famous example is the directed Steiner tree problem, for which there is a quasi-polynomial time approximation algorithm achieving an approximation factor of $$O(\log^3 n)$$ (n being the number of vertices), but showing the existence of such a polynomial time algorithm is an open problem.

Other computational problems with quasi-polynomial time solutions but no known polynomial time solution include the planted clique problem in which the goal is to find a large clique in the union of a clique and a random graph. Although quasi-polynomially solvable, it has been conjectured that the planted clique problem has no polynomial time solution; this planted clique conjecture has been used as a computational hardness assumption to prove the difficulty of several other problems in computational game theory, property testing, and machine learning.

The complexity class QP consists of all problems that have quasi-polynomial time algorithms. It can be defined in terms of DTIME as follows.
 * $$\mbox{QP} = \bigcup_{c \in \mathbb{N}} \mbox{DTIME} \left(2^{\log^c n}\right)$$

Relation to NP-complete problems
In complexity theory, the unsolved P versus NP problem asks if all problems in NP have polynomial-time algorithms. All the best-known algorithms for NP-complete problems like 3SAT etc. take exponential time. Indeed, it is conjectured for many natural NP-complete problems that they do not have sub-exponential time algorithms. Here "sub-exponential time" is taken to mean the second definition presented below. (On the other hand, many graph problems represented in the natural way by adjacency matrices are solvable in subexponential time simply because the size of the input is the square of the number of vertices.) This conjecture (for the k-SAT problem) is known as the exponential time hypothesis. Since it is conjectured that NP-complete problems do not have quasi-polynomial time algorithms, some inapproximability results in the field of approximation algorithms make the assumption that NP-complete problems do not have quasi-polynomial time algorithms. For example, see the known inapproximability results for the set cover problem.

Sub-exponential time
The term sub-exponential time is used to express that the running time of some algorithm may grow faster than any polynomial but is still significantly smaller than an exponential. In this sense, problems that have sub-exponential time algorithms are somewhat more tractable than those that only have exponential algorithms. The precise definition of "sub-exponential" is not generally agreed upon, however the two most widely used are below.

First definition
A problem is said to be sub-exponential time solvable if it can be solved in running times whose logarithms grow smaller than any given polynomial. More precisely, a problem is in sub-exponential time if for every ε > 0 there exists an algorithm which solves the problem in time O(2n ε ). The set of all such problems is the complexity class SUBEXP which can be defined in terms of DTIME as follows.

 * $$\text{SUBEXP}=\bigcap_{\varepsilon>0} \text{DTIME}\left(2^{n^\varepsilon}\right)$$

This notion of sub-exponential is non-uniform in terms of ε in the sense that ε is not part of the input and each ε may have its own algorithm for the problem.

Second definition
Some authors define sub-exponential time as running times in $$2^{o(n)}$$. This definition allows larger running times than the first definition of sub-exponential time. An example of such a sub-exponential time algorithm is the best-known classical algorithm for integer factorization, the general number field sieve, which runs in time about $2^{\tilde{O}(n^{1/3})}$, where the length of the input is $n$. Another example was the graph isomorphism problem, which the best known algorithm from 1982 to 2016 solved in $2^{O\left(\sqrt{n \log n}\right)}$. However, at STOC 2016 a quasi-polynomial time algorithm was presented.

It makes a difference whether the algorithm is allowed to be sub-exponential in the size of the instance, the number of vertices, or the number of edges. In parameterized complexity, this difference is made explicit by considering pairs $$(L,k)$$ of decision problems and parameters k. SUBEPT is the class of all parameterized problems that run in time sub-exponential in k and polynomial in the input size n:

 * $$\text{SUBEPT}=\text{DTIME}\left(2^{o(k)} \cdot \text{poly}(n)\right).$$

More precisely, SUBEPT is the class of all parameterized problems $$(L,k)$$ for which there is a computable function $$f : \N \to \N$$ with $$f \in o(k)$$ and an algorithm that decides L in time $$2^{f(k)} \cdot \text{poly}(n)$$.

Exponential time hypothesis
The exponential time hypothesis (ETH) is that 3SAT, the satisfiability problem of Boolean formulas in conjunctive normal form with at most three literals per clause and with n variables, cannot be solved in time 2o(n). More precisely, the hypothesis is that there is some absolute constant $(−1)n$ such that 3SAT cannot be decided in time 2cn by any deterministic Turing machine. With m denoting the number of clauses, ETH is equivalent to the hypothesis that kSAT cannot be solved in time 2o(m) for any integer $O(log log N)$. The exponential time hypothesis implies P ≠ NP.

Exponential time
An algorithm is said to be exponential time, if T(n) is upper bounded by 2poly(n), where poly(n) is some polynomial in n. More formally, an algorithm is exponential time if T(n) is bounded by O(2n k ) for some constant k. Problems which admit exponential time algorithms on a deterministic Turing machine form the complexity class known as EXP.
 * $$\text{EXP} = \bigcup_{c \in \mathbb{R_+}} \text{DTIME}\left(2^{n^c}\right)$$

Sometimes, exponential time is used to refer to algorithms that have T(n) = 2O(n), where the exponent is at most a linear function of n. This gives rise to the complexity class E.
 * $$\text{E} = \bigcup_{c \in \mathbb{N}} \text{DTIME}\left(2^{cn}\right)$$

Factorial time
An algorithm is said to be factorial time if T(n) is upper bounded by the factorial function n!. Factorial time is a subset of exponential time (EXP) because $$ n! \leq n^n = 2^{n \log n}= O \left(2^{n^{1 + \epsilon}} \right)$$ for all $$\epsilon > 0$$. However, it is not a subset of E.

An example of an algorithm that runs in factorial time is bogosort, a notoriously inefficient sorting algorithm based on trial and error. Bogosort sorts a list of n items by repeatedly shuffling the list until it is found to be sorted. In the average case, each pass through the bogosort algorithm will examine one of the n! orderings of the n items. If the items are distinct, only one such ordering is sorted. Bogosort shares patrimony with the infinite monkey theorem.

Double exponential time
An algorithm is said to be double exponential time if T(n) is upper bounded by 22 poly(n), where poly(n) is some polynomial in n. Such algorithms belong to the complexity class 2-EXPTIME.
 * $$\mbox{2-EXPTIME} = \bigcup_{c \in \N} \mbox{DTIME}\left( 2^{2^{n^c}}\right)$$

Well-known double exponential time algorithms include:
 * Decision procedures for Presburger arithmetic
 * Computing a Gröbner basis (in the worst case )
 * Quantifier elimination on real closed fields takes at least double exponential time, and can be done in this time.

title: Time complexity


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Shirley Temple (drink)

A Shirley Temple is a non-alcoholic mixed drink traditionally made with ginger ale and a splash of grenadine, and garnished with a maraschino cherry. Modern Shirley Temple recipes may substitute lemon-lime soda or lemonade and sometimes orange juice, in part or in whole. Shirley Temples are often served as an alternative to alcoholic cocktails, as are the similar Roy Rogers and Arnold Palmer. In some regions of the Midwestern United States, the cocktail is referred to as a Kiddie Cocktail, as it is often served to children.

Origin
The cocktail may have been invented by a bartender at Chasen's, a restaurant in West Hollywood, California, to serve then-child actress Shirley Temple. However, other claims to its origin have been made. Temple herself was not a fan of the drink, as she told Scott Simon in an NPR interview in 1986:

"The saccharine sweet, icky drink? Yes, well... those were created in the probably middle 1930s by the Brown Derby Restaurant in Hollywood and I had nothing to do with it. But, all over the world, I am served that. People think it's funny. I hate them. Too sweet!"

In 1988, Temple filed a lawsuit to prevent the sale of a bottled soda version using her name.

With alcohol
Adding 1.5 US fluid ounces (44 ml) of vodka or rum produces a "Dirty Shirley". If dark rum is used, it produces a Shirley Temple Black, a homage to her married surname.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Shirley Temple (drink)


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User:Angela/Deletion

The wonderful world of deletionism

 * O goddess of deletion, I seek your wisdom. :) Fuzheado
 * If I think anything needs deleting, I just delete it. Right away. Ed Poor
 * Whenever I delete ANYTHING without going through VfD, I'm attacked as a terrible person. RickK
 * VfD seems to have become a nest of control freaks. Ec
 * Are you saying that those of us who actually believe in deleting obnoxious and ridiculous articles are somehow damaging Wikipedia? RickK
 * Whenever I have a look at VfD these days I'm horrified. KF
 * VfD is broken. It probably never worked in the first place. Anthony DiPierro
 * VfD actually works pretty well most of the time. Jimbo Wales
 * Are people so intimidated by the wrath of the VfD denizens? Ec
 * VfD...is not tyranny, it is in the vicinity of fairness. Kingturtle
 * Votes for deletion is really just the pitiful remnants of a software feature that was abandoned over a year ago. Brion Vibber
 * There is no reason for a rule which says that all articles have to be either useful or deleted. Jimbo
 * Follow Jimbo's argument ...and should ...a non-paper book on Napoleon's sex life mention DW's edits of sports pages on wikipedia? Jtdirl
 * It seems that some people here are of the opinion that we should just leave everything on Wikipedia that is written on it. Andre Engels
 * Rampant deletionism is not a good thing. There's very seldom a good reason to delete things. Jimbo
 * Deletion is not deletionism, deletion is a valuable method for improving wikipedia. Daniel Quinlan
 * Be bold in updating pages does not mean "be bold in deleting pages"! :) Brion
 * All these problems would go away if only we were to have more faith in the wiki system. GrahamN
 * I'm going to propose again what I proposed once before: a temporary moratorium on deletions. Jake Nelson
 * I propose that we simply stop deleting anything for six months. JamesDay
 * I will agree only if Wikipedians agree not to bathe, brush their teeth, or launder their clothes for six months as well. You'll get the same result on your person as with Wikipedia. -Fuzheado
 * It is quite frankly the most ludicrous of ludicrous ideas. Jtdirl
 * If Wikipedia stops all deletion, we might as well leave ...It's going to turn into a crap hole. Daniel Quinlan
 * The entire wikipedia thrown into an orgy of deletions, undeletions, re-deletions, re-undeletions, re-un-redeletions, un-re-un-redeletions . . . It is cloud cuckooland rubbish. What next? FearÉIREANN
 * Anything that fucks with the deletionists must be good. BL
 * I think that the "deletionist" viewpoint has considerable merit, and that there are in fact some very thorny questions of reliability, respectability, usefulness, etc. on which the deletionist viewpoint has much merit. Jimbo
 * Is it an out of process deletion? Yes. Does it really matter? No. Are people going to make a big fuss? Yes. Cyan
 * Keep in mind that, while "Votes for deletion" has votes in the title, it is not a formal vote. Eloquence
 * I am tired of being threatened, "You either improve this article within the week; OR, we are gonna kill it!" Lir
 * A lot of horrible articles are rewritten regularly and removed from VfD because there's pressure to delete them. That's good just like having polar bears eat cute baby seals is good. -- Daniel Quinlan
 * The process can't possibly get fixed until we agree ...on what should be deleted. Louis Kyu Won Ryu
 * Most VfD conflicts come because there's no set criteria for what should be included in Wikipedia. Axlrosen
 * Better to have rules for what to delete than silly rules for excluding users from vote. Wanwan
 * We revised the deletion policy because it put into writing what was already being done by common sense, largely by Angela herself. Fuzheado
 * Have people lost all common sense and decency? You should all be ashamed of yourselves. Brion Vibber
 * What on Earth is all the fuss about? Evercat
 * Where Angela decides to delete an article..., I rarely have cause to even question her judgement, let alone the desire to raise a fuss. Martin

title: User:Angela/Deletion


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Fat Truckers

The Fat Truckers were a British electroclash group from Sheffield, comprising Ben Rymer, Mark Hudson and Ross Orton. They toured in support of Jarvis Cocker, apparently wielding light sabres on stage and described themselves as writing songs about "cheap motorbikes, import-export business and multiplex cinemas - we're a social comment on modern living" and having a fondness of Henderson's Relish.

The band split up in 2004. Orton now works in production with Pulp's Steve Mackey, and has recently worked with M.I.A. Rymer DJs as part of Gucci Soundsystem and Hudson has his own band, Meat for a Dark Day.

Albums

 * The First Fat Truckers Album Is for Sale (2003)

Singles

 * "Superbike" (2001)
 * "Teenage Daughter" (2001)
 * "Anorexic Robot" (2003)

Remixes

 * Louie Austen featuring Peaches - "Grab My Shaft" (2003)

title: Fat Truckers


text: User talk:65.92.232.159

title: User talk:65.92.232.159


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Franz Berwald

Franz Adolf Berwald (23 July 1796 – 3 April 1868) was a Swedish Romantic composer and violinist. He made his living as an orthopedist and later as the manager of a saw mill and glass factory, and became more appreciated as a composer after his death than he had been in his lifetime.

Life and works
Berwald was born in Stockholm and came from a family with four generations of musicians; his father, a violinist in the Royal Opera Orchestra, taught Franz the violin from an early age; he soon appeared in concerts. In 1809, Karl XIII came to power and reinstated the Royal Chapel; the following year Berwald started working there, as well as playing the violin in the court orchestra and the opera, receiving lessons from Edouard du Puy, and also started composing. The summers were off-season for the orchestra, and Berwald travelled around Scandinavia, Finland and Russia. Of his works from that time, a septet and a serenade he still considered worthwhile music in his later years.

In 1818 Berwald started publishing the Musikalisk journal, later renamed Journal de musique, a periodical with easy piano pieces and songs by various composers as well as some of his own original work. In 1821, his Violin Concerto was premiered by his brother August. It was not well received; some people in the audience burst out laughing during the slow movement.

His family got into dire economic circumstances after the death of his father in 1825. Berwald tried to get several scholarships, but only got one from the King, which enabled him to study in Berlin, where he worked hard on operas despite not having any chance to put them on the stage. To make a living, Berwald started an orthopedic and physiotherapy clinic in Berlin in 1835, which turned out to be profitable. Some of the orthopedic devices he invented were still in use decades after his death.

He stopped composing during his time in Berlin, resuming only in 1841 with a move to Vienna and marriage to Mathilde Scherer. In 1842 a concert of his tone poems at the Redoutensaal at the Hofburg Imperial Palace received extremely positive reviews, and over the course of the next three years Berwald wrote four symphonies. These were not the first symphonies he had written: numerous major works from the 1820s have gone missing, and the torso of a Symphony in A's first movement remains, has been finished, and recorded.

The Symphony No. 1 in G minor, "Sérieuse", was the only one of Berwald's four symphonies that was performed in his lifetime. In 1843, it was premiered in Stockholm with his cousin Johan Frederik conducting the Royal Opera House Orchestra. At that same concert, his operetta Jag går i kloster (I enter a monastery) was also performed, but its success is credited to one of the roles having been sung by Jenny Lind. In 1846, Lind sang in one of Berwald's cantatas. Another operetta, The Modiste, had less success in 1845.

His Piano Concerto, finished in 1855, intended for his piano pupil Hilda Aurora Thegerström, who continued her studies with Antoine François Marmontel and Franz Liszt, did not see the light of day until 1904, when Berwald's granddaughter Astrid performed it at a Stockholm student concert. Particularly in its brilliant last movement it may be compared favourably to Robert Schumann or Edvard Grieg. Its three movements are played without a break.

Berwald's music was not recognised favourably in Sweden during his lifetime, even drawing hostile newspaper reviews, but fared a little better in Germany and Austria. The Mozarteum Salzburg made him an honorary member in 1847.

When Berwald returned to Sweden in 1849, he managed a glass works at Sandö in Ångermanland owned by Ludvig Petré, an amateur violinist. During that time Berwald focused his attention on producing chamber music.

One of his few operas to be staged in his lifetime, Estrella de Soria, was heartily applauded at its premiere at the Royal Theater in April 1862, and was given four more performances in the same month. Following this success, he wrote Drottningen av Golconda (The Queen of Golconda), which would have been premiered in 1864, but was not, due to a change of directors at the Royal Opera.

In 1866, Berwald received the Swedish Order of the Polar Star, in recognition of his musical achievements. The following year, the Board of the Royal Musical Academy appointed Berwald professor of musical composition at the Stockholm Conservatory, only to have the Conservatory Board reverse the decision a few days later, and appoint another. The royal family stepped in, and Berwald got the post. At around that time he was also given many important commissions, but he did not live to fulfill them all.

Berwald died in Stockholm in 1868 of pneumonia and was interred there in the Norra begravningsplatsen (Northern Cemetery). The second movement of the Symphony No. 1 was played at his funeral.

Ten years after Berwald's death, his Symphony No. 4 in E-flat major, "Naïve", was premiered in 1878 (the originally planned 1848 premiere in Paris having been cancelled because of the political unrest of the time). This gap between composition and first performance was relatively short, however, compared to what befell the Symphony No. 2 in D major, "Capricieuse" and Symphony No. 3 in C major, "Singulière". Those two pieces were not premiered until 1914 and 1905, respectively.

The Swedish conductor and composer Ulf Björlin has recorded various works of Berwald under the EMI Classics label.

Critical assessment
Eduard Hanslick, writing in his 1869 book Geschichte des Concertwesens in Wien, opined of Berwald, "a man stimulating, witty, prone to bizarrerie, [who] as a composer lacked creative power and fantasy". On the other hand, composers Ludvig Norman, Tor Aulin, and Wilhelm Stenhammar worked hard to promote Berwald's music. However, despite these musicians' efforts, it took a while before Berwald was recognized as, to quote composer-critic Wilhelm Peterson-Berger, writing in the Stockholm newspaper Dagens Nyheter, Sweden's "most original and modern composer".

In 1911, Carl Nielsen wrote of Berwald, "Neither the media, money nor power can damage or benefit good Art. It will always find some simple, decent artists who forge ahead and produce and stand up for their works. In Sweden, you have the finest example of this: Berwald." More recently, British musicologist Robert Layton wrote in 1959 what remains the sole English-language biography of Berwald, as well as discussing Berwald's music in considerable detail elsewhere.

One of the examples given by Harold Truscott (in his analysis of Havergal Brian's Gothic Symphony) of composers prior to Brian writing "sonata movements which do not order their events on the usual plan" is Franz Berwald, "a storehouse of them ... but he never did unusual things in any way that impaired sonata style. They were always logical, though surprising, and helped, rather than hindered, the sonata shape and expression."

Of Berwald's E-flat major String Quartet, Paul Griffiths finds that the "achievement ... of a new formal shape is remarkable enough, even if the single-movement structures of Liszt or Schumann are more tightly bound."

Symphonies

 * Symphony in A (Fragment) (1820)
 * Symphony No. 1 in G minor (Sinfonie sérieuse) (1842)
 * Symphony No. 2 in D (Sinfonie capricieuse) (1842)
 * Symphony No. 3 in C (Sinfonie singulière) (1845)
 * Symphony No. 4 in E flat (Sinfonie naïve) (1845)

Concertante

 * Theme and Variations in B flat for Violin and Orchestra (1816)
 * Concerto in E for 2 Violins and Orchestra (1817)
 * Violin Concerto in C sharp minor (1820)
 * Konzertstück in F for Bassoon and Orchestra (1827)
 * Piano Concerto in D (1855)

Other orchestral works

 * Tone poems
 * Slaget vid Leipzig (The Battle of Leipzig, 1828)
 * Elfenspiel (1841)
 * Ernste und heitere Grillen (1842)
 * Erinnerung an die norwegischen Alpen (1842)
 * Bayaderen-Fest (1842)
 * Wettlauf (1842)
 * Fugue in E flat (1841)
 * Stor polonaise (Grand polonaise, 1843)

Chamber music

 * Duo for Violin and Piano in D (1857–60)
 * Duo for Cello (or Violin) and Piano in B flat (1858)
 * Duo Concertante for 2 Violins in A (1816)
 * Piano Trio in C (1845)
 * Piano Trio No. 1 in E flat (1849)
 * Piano Trio No. 2 in F minor (1851)
 * Piano Trio No. 3 in D minor (1851)
 * Piano Trio No. 4 in C (1853)
 * String Quartet No. 1 in G minor (1818)
 * String Quartet No. 2 in A minor (1849)
 * String Quartet No. 3 in E flat (1849)
 * Quartet in E flat for Piano, Clarinet, Horn and Bassoon (1819)
 * Piano Quintet No. 1 in C minor (1853)
 * Piano Quintet No. 2 in A (1850–57)
 * Septet in B flat for Clarinet, Horn, Bassoon, Violin, Viola, Cello and Double Bass (1828)
 * various piano pieces

Vocal works

 * Kantat i anledning av högtidligheterna (1821)
 * Serenade for tenor and chamber ensemble (1825)
 * Kantat författad i anledning av HKH Kronprinsessans ankomst till Sverige och höga förmälning (1823)
 * Gustaf Adolph den stores seger och död vid Lützen (1845)
 * Nordiska fantasibilder (1846)
 * Gustaf Wasas färd till Dalarna (1849)
 * Apoteos (1864)
 * other choral works and songs

Stage works

 * Leonida, opera (1829, lost)
 * Jag går i kloster, operetta (1843; first performance 1843)
 * Modehandlerskan, operetta (1843; first performance 1845)
 * Ein ländliches Verlobungsfest in Schweden, cantata (1847)
 * Estrella de Soria, opera (1841/48)
 * Drottningen av Golconda (The Queen of Golconda), opera (1864)

Work for wind orchestra

 * Revue-Marsch

title: Franz Berwald


text:
Cameroon People's Democratic Movement

The Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM; Rassemblement démocratique du Peuple Camerounais, RDPC) is the ruling political party in Cameroon. Previously known as the Cameroonian National Union, which had dominated Cameroon politics since independence in the 1960s, it was renamed in 1985. The national president of the CPDM is Paul Biya, the president of Cameroon, while the secretary-general of the party Central Committee is Jean Nkuete.

Cameroonian National Union
The Cameroonian National Union (CNU; Union nationale camérounaise, UNC) was formed in 1966 through a merger of the Cameroon Union (Union Camerounaise) and the Kamerun National Democratic Party, the major political organizations, respectively, of the state of west Cameroon and the state of east Cameroon, and four smaller parties. For the next quarter-century, the UNC/RDPC and the government were effectively one. The UNC sponsored labor, youth, and women's organizations and provided the only list of candidates for the 1973, 1978, and 1983 legislative elections.

Ahmadou Ahidjo became the first head of the UNC in 1966 and continued in that capacity after his resignation as the nation's president in 1982. Following President Paul Biya's assumption of emergency powers in August 1983, Ahidjo, then in France, resigned as party leader. Biya was subsequently elected party chief at a special party congress in September.

CPDM
In 1985, the UNC was renamed the Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM or Rassemblement Démocratique du Peuple Camerounais—RDPC). Opposition parties were legalized in 1990.

The CPDM won 88 of the 180 seats in the National Assembly of Cameroon in the March 1992 parliamentary election, and through an alliance with the Movement for the Defense of the Republic (MDR), which won six seats, it obtained a parliamentary majority. Biya subsequently won the October 1992 presidential election with about 40% of the vote, ahead of John Fru Ndi of the Social Democratic Front (SDF), who won about 36%. The CPDM gained 116 of the 180 seats in the May 1997 parliamentary election (it initially won 109 seats, but it subsequently won in the three constituencies where the election was held over again in August, gaining seven more seats ) and in the October 1997 presidential election, Biya received 92.6% of the vote amidst an opposition boycott.

Political opposition and alliances in 2000
The SDF and its allies in the Union for Change remain critical of Biya but are also critical of France, which they call an "accomplice of those in power." However, in 2000 the alliance reportedly was falling apart as the SDF sought to distance itself from the Southern Cameroon National Council (SCNC). The SCNC apparently was accusing the SDF of delaying independence for the northwest and southwest English-speaking provinces by refusing to force its English-speaking members of parliament to resign from the Francophone-dominated National Assembly. Moreover, some members of the opposition wanted their party leaders to join Biya's coalition government so they could share the spoils of office.

By 2000, Biya had shored up his government by forming a coalition with the northern-based UNDP, which had 13 Assembly seats, and with the UPC, which had one seat. Together, the ruling coalition gave Biya a four-fifth's majority in the Assembly. The coalition government enjoyed support from seven of Cameroon's 10 provinces, and thus secured former president Ahidjo's north–south alliance, which he had created in 1958.

From 2002
In the parliamentary election held on 30 June 2002, the party won 149 out of 180 seats, including 16 seats won in a revote on 15 September for constituencies where the election had been invalidated. In the presidential election held on 11 October 2004, Biya won 70.9% of the vote.

The CPDM won 140 out of the 163 initially declared seats in the July 2007 parliamentary election, and it won another 13 seats (out of 17 at stake) in constituencies where the vote was held over again in September, thus winning a total of 153 seats.

Congresses
The party held its first ordinary congress, at which Biya told the party to prepare for competition as the move toward multiparty democracy was beginning, on June 28, 1990, in Yaoundé. The CPDM's first extraordinary congress was held in Yaoundé on October 7, 1995, and its second ordinary congress was held on December 17–19, 1996. The party held its second extraordinary congress on July 7, 2001 and its third extraordinary congress on July 21, 2006, in Yaoundé. Biya has been consistently re-elected as the CPDM's National President.

title: Cameroon People's Democratic Movement


text:
Rawls

Rawls is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Alphonzo Rawls, American skateboarder
 * Andre Rawls (born 1991), American sportsman
 * Anne Warfield Rawls (born 1950), American sociologist
 * Betsy Rawls (1928–2023), American golfer
 * Eugenia Rawls (1913–2000), American actress
 * Hardy Rawls (born 1952), actor
 * J. Rawls (born 1974), American musician and record producer
 * J. Lewis Rawls (1929–1994), American attorney and politician
 * Jerry S. Rawls, American CEO and President of the Finistar Corporation
 * John Rawls (disambiguation) – multiple people
 * John Rawls (1921–2002), American philosopher
 * Johnny Rawls (born 1951), American soul blues singer, guitarist, arranger, songwriter and record producer
 * Katherine Rawls (1917–1982), American swimmer
 * Lou Rawls (1933–2006), American record producer, singer, composer and actor
 * Morgan Rawls, American politician
 * Nancy V. Rawls (1926–1985), American diplomat
 * Ron Rawls (born 1983), American musician
 * Sarah Rawls, American chef
 * Thomas Rawls (born 1993), American football player
 * Wendell Rawls Jr. (born 1941), American investigative reporter and editor
 * Will Rawls, American performer
 * Wilson Rawls (1913–1984), American author

Fictional characters:
 * Reggie Rawls, Oz character
 * William Rawls, The Wire character

title: Rawls


text:
User talk:199.254.212.44

September 2017
Hello, I'm Simplexity22. An edit that you recently made to Temporary Assistance for Needy Families seemed to be a test and has been removed. If you want more practice editing, please use the sandbox. If you think a mistake was made, or if you have any questions, you can leave me a message on my talk page. Thanks! Simplexity22 (talk) 23:18, 7 September 2017 (UTC)
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Managing a conflict of interest
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In addition, you must disclose your employer, client, and affiliation with respect to any contribution for which you receive, or expect to receive, compensation (see WP:PAID).

Also please note that editing for the purpose of advertising, publicising, or promoting anyone or anything is not permitted. Thank you. ~ ToBeFree (talk) 17:25, 9 April 2018 (UTC)
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November 2018
Hello, I'm LakesideMiners. I wanted to let you know that I reverted one of your recent contributions —specifically this edit to Media manipulation— because it did not appear constructive. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox. If you have any questions, you can ask for assistance at the Help Desk. Thanks.  LakesideMiners My Talk Page 18:46, 20 November 2018 (UTC)

Please refrain from making unconstructive edits to Wikipedia, as you did at Gecko. Your edits appear to constitute vandalism and have been reverted. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox. Repeated vandalism may result in the loss of editing privileges. Telfordbuck (talk) 23:06, 20 November 2018 (UTC)
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title: User talk:199.254.212.44


text:
Patriotic Salvation Movement

The Patriotic Salvation Movement (الحركة الوطنية للإنقاذ; Mouvement patriotique du salut, MPS) is the ruling political party in Chad.

History
After Idriss Déby, an army commander who participated in an unsuccessful plot against President Hissène Habré in 1989, fled to Sudan, he and his supporters, known as the 1 April Movement, operated from Sudan with Libyan backing and carried out attacks across the border into Chad. The MPS was founded in Sudan on 10 March 1990 through the merger of the 1 April Movement with other anti-Habre groups in exile. After a successful offensive in November 1990, Déby and the MPS came to power on 2 December 1990, when their forces entered N'Djamena, the Chadian capital.

Déby was the MPS candidate in the 1996 presidential election and won in a second round. He was again the MPS candidate in the presidential election of 20 May 2001, receiving 63.2% of the vote. In the parliamentary election held on 21 April 2002, the MPS won according to IPU Parline 113 out of 155 seats. In the May 2006 presidential election, Déby was re-elected with 64.7% of the vote.

title: Patriotic Salvation Movement


text:
Province of Hesse-Nassau

The Province of Hesse-Nassau (Provinz Hessen-Nassau) was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1868 to 1918, then a province of the Free State of Prussia until 1944.

Hesse-Nassau was created as a consequence of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 by combining the previously independent Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), the Duchy of Nassau, the Free City of Frankfurt, areas gained from the Kingdom of Bavaria, and areas gained from the Grand Duchy of Hesse (including part of the former Landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg from Hesse-Darmstadt). These regions were combined to form the province Hesse-Nassau in 1868 with its capital in Kassel and redivided into two administrative regions: Kassel and Wiesbaden. The largest part of the province surrounded the province of Upper Hesse in the Grand Duchy of Hesse (People's State of Hesse from 1918).

On 1 April 1929, the Free State of Waldeck became a part of Hesse-Nassau after a popular vote, becoming part of the Kassel administrative region.

In 1935, the Nazi government de facto abolished all states, so the provinces held little meaning. Nevertheless, effective 1 July 1944, Hesse-Nassau was split into the provinces of Kurhessen (capital in Kassel) and Nassau (capital in Wiesbaden). On 19 September 1945, after the end of World War II, these two provinces were re-merged and combined with most of the neighbouring People's State of Hesse to form Greater Hesse, which became the modern state of Hesse in 1946. Parts of Nassau were also moved into the Rhineland-Palatinate.

Oberpräsidents
The Oberpräsident (or "High Commissioner") was the chief administrator of a Prussian province, appointed by the King on the advice of the Prussian Minister for the Interior. The Oberpräsident administered the province with the assistance of a Prussian government-appointed provincial council.

Insignia
The flag of Hesse-Nassau is identical to that of the Netherlands. The Dutch royal house originates from the Duchy of Nassau.

The coat of arms is split into three parts, each part showing the coats of arms for the three entities that formed Hesse-Nassau:
 * a crowned, silver/red-striped lion on a blue background (Electorate of Hesse)
 * a crowned, golden lion on a blue field strewn with billets (Duchy of Nassau)
 * a silver eagle with golden talons on a red background (Free City of Frankfurt)

title: Province of Hesse-Nassau


text:
User talk:TimeLine

Welcome to Wikipedia! I just wanted to say that I'm sorry if you were treated rudely: I hope you understand that even our more zealous editors are (usually) just well-meaning ordinary people who are trying to make sure we don't inf anyone's copyright while building a free resource. As virtually none of us are lawyers, sometimes we get too panicked over making sure things don't get stolen. Anyway, I'm sure you've been directed to these places, but Welcome, newcomers and How to edit a page are great places to learn more about contributing here. If you have questions, you can ask at the Village pump, or you can leave me a question on my talk page. Once again, welcome, and I hope you edit here often in the future! Jwrosenzweig 21:25, 17 Dec 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:TimeLine


text:
Kyril Bonfiglioli

Kyril Bonfiglioli (born Cyril Emmanuel George Bonfiglioli; 29 May 1928 – 3 March 1985) was a British art dealer, magazine editor and comic novelist. His eccentric and witty Mortdecai novels have gained a following since his death.

Biography
Bonfiglioli was born in Eastbourne on the south coast of England to an Italo-Slovene father, Emmanuel Bonfiglioli, and an English mother, Dorothy née Pallett. His mother and brother died in an air raid when he was 14. Having served in the British Army from 1947 to 1954, and being widowed, he applied to Balliol College, Oxford, where he took his degree. After his divorce from his second wife, he lived in Silverdale in Lancashire, then in Jersey and Ireland. With Keith Roberts, he edited Science Fantasy magazine for a period from 1964 to 1966, appointed by David Warburton of Roberts and Vinter Ltd.; and the successor Impulse for its first few issues in 1966 before handing the reins to Harry Harrison. He died in Jersey of cirrhosis in 1985, having had five children.

He described himself as "an accomplished fencer, a fair shot with most weapons and a serial marrier of beautiful women ... abstemious in all things except drink, food, tobacco and talking ... and loved and respected by all who knew him slightly."

Charlie Mortdecai novels
Bonfiglioli wrote four books featuring Charlie Mortdecai, three of which were published in his lifetime, and one posthumously as completed by the satirist and parodist Craig Brown. Charlie Mortdecai is the fictional art dealer anti-hero of the series. His character resembles, among other things, an amoral Bertie Wooster with occasional psychopathic tendencies. His Mortdecai comic-thriller trilogy received critical plaudits back in the 1970s and early 1980s. The dry satire and black humour of the books were favourably reviewed by The New Yorker and others. The books are still in print and have been translated into several languages. The books "attract a devoted cult following and are consistently praised by a wide variety of publications", although a writer in The Paris Review said that "readers are pretty much evenly divided between those who relish the books' unflinching, un-PC meanness, and those who are appalled".

Don't Point That Thing At Me was awarded the 1973 CWA New Blood Dagger for the best crime novel by a hitherto unpublished writer.

Actors Stephen Fry and Hugh Laurie are among those who are fans of his work. Hugh Laurie praised "the excellent Kyril Bonfigliolo" [sic] in the afternotes of his book The Gun Seller.

The three original books, published out of chronological order:
 * Don't Point That Thing At Me (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1972), Book One
 * Reissued (Penguin, 2015 ISBN 978-0-241-97267-0) as film tie-in under title Mortdecai

 * After You With The Pistol (Secker and Warburg, 1979), Book Two
 * Something Nasty In The Woodshed (Macmillan, 1976), Book Three

Anthologised in:
 * The Mortdecai Trilogy (Black Spring Press, 1991)

An historical prequel about one of Charlie's Dutch ancestors:
 * All the Tea in China (Secker and Warburg, 1978)

The posthumously completed sequel:
 * The Great Mortdecai Moustache Mystery completed by Craig Brown (Black Spring Press, 1999)

Bonfiglioli's second wife Margaret wrote and compiled a posthumous anthology of works and anecdotes, called The Mortdecai ABC (London: Penguin / Viking, 2001), ISBN 0-670-91084-8.

2015 film
Mortdecai, a film based on the books directed by David Koepp and starring Johnny Depp in the title role, was released in January 2015. The film was a box office bomb, and received overwhelmingly negative reviews. The Rotten Tomatoes aggregated rating for the movie stands at just 12%.

title: Kyril Bonfiglioli


text:
Bructeri

The Bructeri (from Latin; Greek: Βρούκτεροι, Broukteroi, or Βουσάκτεροι, Bousakteroi; Old English: Boruhtware) were a Germanic tribe in Roman imperial times, located in northwestern Germany, in present-day North Rhine-Westphalia. Their territory included both sides of the upper Ems (Latin Amisia) and Lippe (Latin Luppia) rivers. At its greatest extent, their territory apparently stretched between the vicinities of the Rhine in the west and the Teutoburg Forest and Weser river in the east. In late Roman times they moved south to settle upon the east bank of the Rhine facing Cologne, an area later associated with the Ripuarian Franks.

Role in history
The Bructeri formed an alliance with the Cherusci, the Marsi, the Chatti, Sicambri, and the Chauci, under the leadership of Arminius, that defeated the Roman General Varus and annihilated his three legions at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD.

Six years later, one of the generals serving under Germanicus, Lucius Stertinius defeated the Bructeri near the Ems and devastated their lands. Among the booty captured by Stertinius was the eagle standard of Legio XIX that had been lost at Teutoburg Forest. "The troops were then marched to the furthest frontier of the Bructeri, and all the country between the rivers Amisia and Luppia was ravaged, not far from the forest of Teutoburgium, where the remains of Varus and his legions were said to lie unburied." Scholars consider the Bructeri among the most dangerous Germanic enemies of Rome.

The Bructeri in 69-70 participated in the Batavian rebellion. The best known of the Bructeri was their wise virgin Veleda, the spiritual leader of the Batavi rising, regarded as a goddess. She foretold the success of the Germans against the Roman legions during the Batavian revolt. A Roman Munius Lupercus was sent to offer her gifts but was murdered on the road. The inhabitants of Cologne, the Ubii, asked for her as an arbiter; "they were not, however, allowed to approach or address Veleda herself. In order to inspire them with more respect they were prevented from seeing her. She dwelt in a lofty tower, and one of her relatives, chosen for the purpose, conveyed, like the messenger of a divinity, the questions and answers."

In his Germania, Tacitus reported that the Chamavi and Angrivarii had moved to the territories of the Bructeri, after having driven them out and totally annihilated them, in alliance with other nearby populations, whom the Latin writer thanks for "offering delight to Roman eyes", without Rome having to intervene. More than 60,000 of the Bructeri fell.

"'May the tribes, I pray, ever retain if not love for us [Romans], at least hatred for each other; for while [...], fortune can give no greater boon than discord among our foes.'"

Geography
The Bructeri were sometimes divided into major and minor divisions. Strabo (64/63 BC – c. 24 AD) describes the Lippe river running through the territory of the lesser Bructeri (Βουσάκτεροι), about 600 stadia from the Rhine. Ptolemy (c. AD 90 – c. AD 168) says that lesser Bructeri and the Sicambri occupied the area just to the north of the Rhine. Both authors agree that the greater Bructeri in their time lived between the Ems and the Weser, to the south of a part of the Chauci. Tacitus (56 AD – 117 AD) on the other hand, states that the Bructeri had been forced from their territory, which he describes as having been north of the Tencteri who were on the Rhine at the time, between Cologne and the Chatti. This was done by the Chamavi and Angrivarii, who neighbored the Bructeri upon their north, along with other neighboring tribes. More than sixty thousand fell in this conflict, which the Romans had been able to observe with satisfaction. Pliny the Younger (died 113) mentioned in a letter (2.7) that in his time "a triumphal Statue was decreed by the Senate to Vestricius Spurinna", at the Motion of the Emperor, because he "had brought the King of the Bructeri into his Realm by force of War; and even subdu'd that rugged Nation, by the Sight and Terror of it, the most honourable kind of Victory".

Later history
The Bructeri eventually disappear from historical records, apparently absorbed into the Frankish communities of the early Middle Ages. The final mentions of their name seem to indicate this, and also that they had moved south from their old position north of the Lippe.

In 307–308, after having spent the year before fighting Franci raiding along the Rhine and the executions of instigators Ascaric and Merogais, emperor Constantine led a punitive expedition against the Bructeri over the Rhine and built a bridge at Cologne.

In 392 AD, according to a citation by Gregory of Tours, Sulpicius Alexander reported that Arbogast crossed the Rhine to punish the Franks for incursions into Gaul. He first devastated the territory of the Bricteri, near the bank of the Rhine, then the Chamavi, apparently their neighbours. Both tribes did not confront him. The Ampsivarii and the Chatti however were under military leadership of the Frankish princes Marcomer and Sunno and they appeared "on the ridges of distant hills". At this time the Bructeri apparently lived near Cologne. (Note that the Chamavi and the Ampsivarii are the two peoples that Tacitus had long before noted as having conquered the Bructeri from their north.)

In the Peutinger map, the Bructeri also appear as a distinct entity on the opposite side of the Rhine to Cologne and Bonn, the Burcturi, with Franks to their north, and Suevi to their south. This has been interpreted to mean that the Bructeri had moved into the area previously inhabited by the Tencteri and Usipetes, which had in the time of Caesar been inhabited by the Ubii (who had in turn crossed the Rhine to inhabit Cologne as Roman citizens during imperial times). In the description of Claudius Ptolemy, the Bructeri and Sicambri are apparently close to their old positions, but with Suevi having inserted themselves upon the Rhine and the Tencteri and Usipetes much further south, near the Black Forest. This document is however suspected of resulting from confused use of primary sources.

Sidonius Apollinaris, in his Poems, VII, lists the Bructeri among the allies who crossed the Rhine into Gaul under Attila in 451, leading to the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields. (After them are listed the Franks living along the Neckar River.) But it is possible, according for example to E. A. Thompson that Sidonius included names of historical tribes, for effect.

The name of the Arboruchoi (Αρβόρυχοι), a people described by Procopius (550s) as living in Gaul next to the Franks who lived along the lower Rhine during the time of Clovis I (c. 490), have also been proposed to be Bructeri. According to Procopius, they were Roman foederati who warred with the Franks before joining and merging with them, although they retained some of the customs from their Roman service down to Procopius' time. Not all scholars accept their identification with the Bructeri, however, which depends on a misspelling by Procopius (Arboruchoi for Arboruchtoi).

By 690 Bructeri were found in Thuringia, after the Saxons had conquered their homeland; their name is preserved in the names Großbrüchter and Kleinbrüchter, in the municipality Helbedündorf. Under the Carolingians the name of the Bructeri was still being used for a gau in the region near where they had originally lived, the so-called Brukterergau (or Borahtra, Botheresgau, Botheresge, Pagus Boroctra). This was however now south of the Lippe, and north of the Ruhr river, in the area classically inhabited by the Sicambri. This area is today the well-known and heavily populated Ruhr region of Germany.

At the beginning of the eighth century, Bede in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People lists among the peoples "from whom the Angles and Saxons who now live in Britain derive their origin" the Boruhtware (original Latin Bede Boructuari, Old English Bede Boructuare). In the same passage Bede also lists the Frisians, Rugians, Danes, Huns and continental Saxons. This name is usually identified with that of the Bructeri. According to Walter Pohl, the mention of the Bructeri (or Boructuarii, as he calls them) may be a classical allusion designed to establish continuity between the barbarian present and past. Ian Wood, noting that the Bricteri of Gregory of Tours are usually considered either a Saxon or Frankish group, suggests that the Boructuarii represent the Frankish component in the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain. Gregory also reported that Saint Suitbert tried to convert these Boroctuarii to Christianity in the late 7th century, when he was bishop of the Frisians, but that during this period they were attacked by the Saxons.

Literature

 * Ralf G. Jahn: Der römisch-germanische Krieg (9-16 n. Chr.). Inaugural-Dissertation, Bonn 2001.
 * Günter Neumann, Harald von Petrikovits, Rafael von Uslar: Brukterer. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde. Bd. 3, S. 581ff.

title: Bructeri


text:
Volhynia

Volhynia (also spelled Volynia) (Волинь, Wołyń, Волынь, װאָלין) is a historic region in Central and Eastern Europe, between southeastern Poland, southwestern Belarus, and western Ukraine. The borders of the region are not clearly defined, but the territory that still carries the name is Volyn Oblast, in western Ukraine. Volhynia has changed hands numerous times throughout history and been divided among competing powers. For centuries it was part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. After the Russian annexation during the Partitions of Poland, all of Volhynia was made part of the Pale of Settlement on the southwestern border of the Russian Empire. Important cities include Rivne, Lutsk, Zviahel, and Volodymyr.

Names and etymology

 * Волинь;
 * Wołyń;
 * Voluinė or Volynė;
 * Volyňa;
 * Volyň;
 * Volhînia;
 * Volhínia;
 * Wolhynien or Wolynien (both ); Volhynian German: Wolhynien, Wolhinien, Wolynien or Wolinien (all );
 * װאָהלין.

The alternative name for the region is Lodomeria after the city of Volodymyr, which was once a political capital of the medieval Volhynian Principality.

According to some historians, the region is named after a semi-legendary city of Volin or Velin, said to have been located on the Southern Bug River, whose name may come from the Proto-Slavic root *vol/vel- 'wet'. In other versions, the city was located over 20 km to the west of Volodymyr near the mouth of the Huczwa River, a tributary of the Western Bug.

Geography
Geographically it occupies northern areas of the Volhynian-Podolian Upland and western areas of Polesian Lowland along the Pripyat valley as part of the vast East European Plain, between the Western Bug in the west and upper streams of Uzh and Teteriv rivers. Before the partitions of Poland, the eastern edge stretched a little west along the right-banks of the Sluch River or just east of it. Within the territory of Volhynia is located Little Polisie, a lowland that actually divides the Volhynian-Podolian Upland into separate Volhynian Upland and northern outskirts of Podolian Upland, the so-called Kremenets Hills. Volhynia is located in the basins of the Western Bug and Pripyat, therefore most of its rivers flow either in a northern or a western direction.

Relative to other historical regions, it is northeast of Galicia, east of Lesser Poland and northwest of Podolia. The borders of the region are not clearly defined, and it is often considered to overlap a number of other regions, among which are Polesia and Podlasie.

The territories of historical Volhynia are now part of the Volyn, Rivne and parts of the Zhytomyr, Ternopil and Khmelnytskyi oblsts of Ukraine, as well as parts of Poland (see Chełm). Major cities include Lutsk, Rivne, Kovel, Volodymyr, Kremenets (Ternopil Oblast) and Starokostiantyniv (Khmelnytskyi Oblast). Before World War II, many Jewish shtetls (small towns), such as Trochenbrod and Lozisht, were an integral part of the region. At one time all of Volhynia was part of the Pale of Settlement designated by Imperial Russia on its southwesternmost border.

History
The first records can be traced to the Ruthenian chronicles, such as the Primary Chronicle, which mentions tribes of the Dulebes, Buzhans and Volhynians. The land was mentioned in the works of Al-Masudi and Abraham ben Jacob that in ancient times the Walitābā and king Mājik, which some read as Walīnānā and identified with the Volhynians, were "the original, pure-blooded Saqaliba, the most highly honoured" and dominated the rest of the Slavic tribes, but due to "dissent" their "original organization was destroyed" and "the people divided into factions, each of them ruled by their own king", implying existence of a Slavic federation which perished after the attack of the Pannonian Avars.

Volhynia may have been included in (or was in the sphere of influence of) the Grand Duchy of Kiev (Ruthenia) as early as the tenth century. At that time Princess Olga sent a punitive raid against the Drevlians to avenge the death of her husband Grand Prince Igor (Ingvar Röreksson); she later established pogosts along the Luha River. In the opinion of the Ukrainian historian Yuriy Dyba, the chronicle phrase «и оустави по мьстѣ. погосты и дань. и по лузѣ погосты и дань и ѡброкы» (and established in place pogosts and tribute along Luha), the path of pogosts and tribute reflects the actual route of Olga's raid against the Drevlians further to the west, up to the Western Bug's right tributary Luha River.

As early as 983, Vladimir the Great appointed his son Vsevolod as the ruler of the Volhynian principality. In 988, he established the city of Volodymer (Володимѣръ).

Volhynia's early history coincides with that of the duchies or principalities of Galicia and Volhynia. These two successor states of the Kievan Rus formed Galicia–Volhynia between the 12th and the 14th centuries.

After the disintegration of the Galicia–Volhynia circa 1340, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania divided the region between them, Poland taking Western Volhynia and Lithuania taking Eastern Volhynia (1352–1366). After 1569, Volhynia was organized as a province of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. During this period many Poles and Jews settled in the area. The Roman and Greek Catholic churches became established in the province. In 1375, a Roman Catholic Diocese of Lodomeria was established, but it was suppressed in 1425. Many Orthodox churches joined the latter organization in order to benefit from a more attractive legal status. Records of the first agricultural colonies of Mennonites, Protestants from Germany, date from 1783.

After the Third partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795, Volhynia was annexed as the Volhynian Governorate of the Russian Empire. It covered an area of 71,852.7 square kilometres. Following this annexation, the Russian government greatly changed the religious make-up of the area: it forcibly liquidated the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, transferring all of its buildings to the ownership and control of the Russian Orthodox Church. Many Roman Catholic church buildings were also given to the Russian Church. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Lutsk was suppressed by order of Empress Catherine II.

In 1897, the population amounted to 2,989,482 people (41.7 per square kilometre). It consisted of 73.7 percent East Slavs (predominantly Ukrainians), 13.2 percent--400,000 Jews, 6.2 percent Poles, and 5.7 percent Germans. Most of the German settlers had immigrated from Congress Poland. A small number of Czech settlers also had migrated here. Although economically the area was developing rather quickly, upon the eve of the First World War it was still the most rural province in Western Russia.

Ukrainian People's Republic
After the February Revolution and the formation of the Russian Provisional Government, Ukrainian nationalists declared the autonomous Ukrainian People's Republic. The territory of Volhynia was split in half by a frontline just west of the city of Lutsk. Due to an invasion of the Bolsheviks, the government of Ukraine was forced to retreat to Volhynia after the sack of Kyiv. Military aid from the Central Powers as a result of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk brought peace in the region and some degree of stability. Until the end of the war, the area saw a revival of Ukrainian culture after years of Russian oppression and the denial of Ukrainian traditions. After German troops were withdrawn, the whole region was engulfed by a new wave of military actions by Poles and Russians competing for control of the territory. The Ukrainian People's Army was forced to fight on three fronts: Bolsheviks, Poles and a Volunteer Army of Imperial Russia.

Interwar period
In 1921, after the end of the Polish–Soviet War, the treaty known as the Peace of Riga divided the Volhynian Governorate between Poland and the Soviet Union. Poland took the larger part and established Volhynian Voivodeship.

Most of eastern Volhynian Governorate became part of the Ukrainian SSR, eventually being split into smaller districts. During that period, a number of national districts were formed within the Soviet Ukraine as part of cultural liberalization. The policies of Polonization in Poland led to formations of various resistance movements in West Ukraine and West Belarus, including Volhynia. In 1931, the Vatican of the Roman Catholic Church established a Ukrainian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Volhynia, Polesia and Pidliashia (Wolhynien, Polissia und Pidliashia in German), where the congregation practiced the Byzantine Rite in Ukrainian language.

From 1935 to 1938, the government of the Soviet Union deported numerous nationals from Volhynia in a population transfer to Siberia and Central Asia, as part of the dekulakization, an effort to suppress peasant farmers in the region. These people included Poles of Eastern Volhynia (see Population transfer in the Soviet Union).

World War II
Following the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in 1939, and the subsequent invasion and division of Polish territories between the Reich and the USSR, the Soviet Union invaded and occupied the Polish part of Volhynia. In the course of the Nazi–Soviet population transfers which followed this (temporary) German-Soviet alliance, most of the ethnic German-minority population of Volhynia were transferred to those Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany. Following the mass deportations and arrests carried out by the NKVD, and repressive actions against Poles taken by Germany, including deportation to the Reich to forced labour camps, arrests, detention in camps and mass executions, by 1943 ethnic Poles constituted only 10–12% of the entire population of Volhynia.

During the German invasion,the Jewish population in Volhynia was approximately 460,000. About 400,000–450,000 Jews and 100,000 Poles (men, women and children) in Volhynia were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army and Ukraine collaborators. The Jews were shot and thousands buried in large pits. The main massacre took place between August and October 1942. It is estimated that about 1.5% survived the Holocaust. The number of Ukrainian victims of Polish retaliatory attacks until the spring of 1945 is estimated at approx. 2,000−3,000 in Volhynia. In 1945, Soviet Ukraine expelled ethnic Germans from Volhynia following the end of the war, claiming that Nazi Germany had used ethnic Germans in eastern Europe as part of its Generalplan Ost. The expulsion of Germans from eastern Europe was part of broader mass population transfers after the war.

The Soviet Union annexed Volhynia to Ukraine after the end of World War II. In 1944, the communists in Volyhnia suppressed the Ukrainian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate. Most of the remaining ethnic Polish population were expelled to Poland in 1945. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the 1990s, Volhynia has been an integral part of Ukraine.

Important relics

 * Peresopnytsia Gospel

Famous personalities

 * Dov Ber of Mezeritch, rabbi
 * Hayim Nahman Bialik, literary figure
 * Shlomo Flam, rabbi
 * Moisey Kasyanik, weightlifter
 * Sergei Korolev (1907–1966), Soviet rocket engineer and spacecraft designer.
 * Malbim, rabbi

Literature

 * Andriyashev, Alexander (1887). Очерк истории Волынской земли [Essay on the History of Volyn land] at Runivers.ru in Djvu and PDF formats. Kyiv: Imperial University of Saint Vladimir.
 * Merten, Ulrich (2015). Voices from the Gulag: Oppression of the German Minority in the Soviet Union. Lincoln, NE: American Historical Society of Germans from Russia. ISBN 9780692603376
 * Potocki, Jan (1805). Histoire anciènne du gouvernement de Volhynie: pour servir de suite à l'histoire primitive des peuples de la Russie at Polona. Saint Petersburg: Imperial Academy of Sciences.
 * Merten, Ulrich (2015). Voices from the Gulag: Oppression of the German Minority in the Soviet Union. Lincoln, NE: American Historical Society of Germans from Russia. ISBN 9780692603376
 * Potocki, Jan (1805). Histoire anciènne du gouvernement de Volhynie: pour servir de suite à l'histoire primitive des peuples de la Russie at Polona. Saint Petersburg: Imperial Academy of Sciences.

title: Volhynia


text:
User talk:Scythian99

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

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snoyes 21:33, 17 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Hello, would you please explain your changes to Albanian language on its talk page? I am reverting them for now because I do not believe they are all correct. I am a native speaker of the language, but I do not know the SAMPA guide. Someone else did that, but I wanted to make sure that you are sure of those changes. thanks, Dori | Talk 05:08, Dec 18, 2003 (UTC)

 * Replied at my talk page. Dori | Talk 07:44, Dec 19, 2003 (UTC)

 * Replied again at my talk page. Let me know if you're following the discussion there, so I don't have to cross-post here as well :) Dori | Talk 17:20, Dec 19, 2003 (UTC)

Please write at minimum a stub article if you wish to create a new article. Anything less may be removed. Thanks Dysprosia 09:19, 22 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Hi again. Will you please reply at Talk:Albania where you got the coat of arms image, and also it would be nice if you stated what the copyright status is of the image at its description page. Dori | Talk 04:49, Jan 19, 2004 (UTC)

 * I got the coat of arms from the Albanian Ministry of Information: http://mininf.gov.al/ This is the official coat of arms as mentioned in the constitution of Albania.  I added the info on the image link.  Also, a nation's flag and coat of arms is public domain.  Scythian99 | Talk

Deletion war brewing
I have noticed that you keep trying to take out material relating to Aleksandr Lukashenko that criticizes some of the policies that the west has adopted towards his regime. Can you please comment about my note on the talk page there about that dispute. You keep taking material out and user:172 keeps putting it back. Some kind of resolution to this kind of activity has to be reached. Are you willing to discuss this rationally? Please note that if this dispute cannot be resolved amicably I will be following the Conflict resolution process in this matter. Thank you. [[User:Alex756|— Alex756 | talk]] 12:35, 25 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Juniper
Hi Scythian - the Kew checklist & bibliography of conifers (generally regarded as the best authority on conifers) treats Sargent's Juniper as Juniperus chinensis var. sargentii; my experience of the taxon supports that, too, it only differs from typical J. chinensis in habit (a low shrub, not a tree), not in foliage, cones, etc - MPF 09:35, 6 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Hi Scythian - "Does your source use DNA analysis or simply morphology?" - yep, both! - MPF 20:01, 11 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Image:Skitts22.PNG
From where do you have this image?

Unverified images
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P.S. You can help tag other images at User:Yann/Untagged_Images. Thanks again.

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Unverified images
Hi! Thanks for uploading the following images:

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I notice it currently doesn't have an image copyright tag. Could you add one to let us know its copyright status? (You can use if you release it under the GNU Free Documentation License,  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know at my talk page where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Thanks so much. [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk, automation script)]] 04:05, Dec 11, 2004 (UTC)

P.S. You can help tag other images at User:Yann/Untagged_Images. Thanks again.

More images to tag
Image:Sudanarms24.PNG Image:Sudanarms23.PNG

I have added an unverified tag, please add the appropriate copyright tags. Thanks, Duk 06:29, 27 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Ifd notice
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title: User talk:Scythian99


text:
Cockade

A cockade is a knot of ribbons, or other circular- or oval-shaped symbol of distinctive colours which is usually worn on a hat or cap.

The word cockade derives from the French cocarde, from Old French coquarde, feminine of coquard (vain, arrogant), from coc (cock), of imitative origin. The earliest documented use was in 1709.

Eighteenth century
In the 18th and 19th centuries, coloured cockades were used in Europe to show the allegiance of their wearers to some political faction, or to show their rank or to indicate a servant's livery. Because individual armies might wear a variety of differing regimental uniforms, cockades were used as an effective and economical means of national identification.

A cockade was pinned on the side of a man's tricorne or cocked hat, or on his lapel. Women could also wear it on their hat or in their hair.

In pre-revolutionary France, the cockade of the Bourbon dynasty was all white. In the Kingdom of Great Britain supporters of a Jacobite restoration wore white cockades, while the recently established Hanoverian monarchy used a black cockade. The Hanoverians also accorded the right to all German nobility to wear the black cockade in the United Kingdom.

During the 1780 Gordon Riots in London, the blue cockade became a symbol of anti-government feelings and was worn by most of the rioters.

During the American Revolution, the Continental Army initially wore cockades of various colors as an ad hoc form of rank insignia, as General George Washington wrote:

"As the Continental Army has unfortunately no uniforms, and consequently many inconveniences must arise from not being able to distinguish the commissioned officers from the privates, it is desired that some badge of distinction be immediately provided; for instance that the field officers may have red or pink colored cockades in their hats, the captains yellow or buff, and the subalterns green."

Before long however, the Continental Army reverted to wearing the black cockade they inherited from the British. Later, when France became an ally of the United States, the Continental Army pinned the white cockade of the French Ancien Régime onto their old black cockade; the French reciprocally pinned the black cockade onto their white cockade, as a mark of the French-American alliance. The black-and-white cockade thus became known as the "Union Cockade".

In the Storming of the Bastille, Camille Desmoulins initially encouraged the revolutionary crowd to wear green. This colour was later rejected as it was associated with the Count of Artois. Instead, revolutionaries would wear cockades with the traditional colours of the arms of Paris: red and blue. Later, the Bourbon white was added to this cockade, thus producing the original cockade of France. Later, distinctive colours and styles of cockade would indicate the wearer's faction; although the meanings of the various styles were not entirely consistent, and they varied somewhat by region and period.

European military
From the 15th century, various European monarchy realms used cockades to denote the nationalities of their militaries. Their origin reverts to the distinctive colored band or ribbon worn by late medieval armies or jousting knights on their arms or headgear to distinguish friend from foe in the field of battle. Ribbon-style cockades were worn later upon helmets and brimmed hats or tricornes and bicornes just as the French did, and also on cocked hats and shakoes. Coloured metal cockades were worn at the right side of helmets; while small button-type cockades were worn at the front of kepis and peaked caps. In addition to the significance of these symbols in denoting loyalty to a particular monarch, the coloured cockade served to provide a common and economical field sign at a time when the colours of uniform coats might vary widely between regiments in a single army. During the Napoleonic wars, the armies of France and Russia, had the imperial French cockade or the larger cockade of St. George pinned on the front of their shakos.

The Second German Empire (1870–1918) used two cockades on each army headgear: one (black-white-red) for the empire; the other for one of the monarchies the empire was composed of, which had used their own colors long before. The only exceptions were the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Württemberg, having preserved the right to keep their own armed forces which were not integrated in the Imperial Army. Their only cockades were either white-blue-white (Bavaria) or black-red-black (Württemberg).

The Weimar Republic (1919–1933) removed these, as they might promote separatism which would lead to the dissolution of the German nation-state into regional countries again. When the Nazis came to power, they rejected the democratic German colours of black-red-gold used by the Weimar Republic. Nazis reintroduced the imperial colours (in German: die kaiserlichen Farben or Reichsfarben) of black on the outside, white next, and a red center. The Nazi government used black-white-red on all army caps. These colours represented the biggest and the smallest countries of the Reich: large Prussia (black and white) and the tiny Hanseatic League city states of Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck (white and red).

France began the first Air Service in 1909 and soon picked the traditional French cockade as the first national emblem, now usually termed a roundel, on military aircraft. During World War I, other countries adopted national cockades and used these coloured emblems as roundels on their military aircraft. These designs often bear an additional central device or emblem to further identify national aircraft, those from the French navy bearing a black anchor within the French cockade.

Hungarian revolutionaries wore cockades during the Hungarian revolution of 1848 and during the 1956 revolution. Because of this, Hungarians traditionally wear cockades on 15 March.

Confederate States
Echoing their use when Americans rebelled against Britain, cockades – usually made with blue ribbons and worn on clothing or hats – were widespread tokens of Southern support for secession preceding the American Civil War of 1861–1865.

List of national cockades

Below is a list of national cockades (colors listed from center to ring):

Component states of the German Empire (1871–1918)
The German Empire had, besides the national cockade, also cockades for several of its states, seen in the following table:

title: Cockade