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Talk:Saigō Takamori

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Saigo Takamori is one of the most interesting samuarais. He stands out head and shoulders(literally) above the others. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Twoplus2 (talk • contribs) 21:51, 14 November 2003.

Hmm... some confusion about the kanji for his name. The wiki and other sources indicate (西郷 隆盛), but a book I have here labels his picture as (西郷南洲). Can anyone shed some light on this?

Magus 03:35, Apr 27, 2004 (UTC)

 * Takamori (隆盛) is his real or formal name (Actually it was his father's). Nanshu (南洲) is his pseudonym. Hans castorp81 15:00, 27 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Samurai tended to have multiple names throughout their lives. In the 1860's and 1870's, his friends (Okubo, his brother, etc) tended to call him Kichinosuke (or something similar).

This phrase caught my eye: "The imperial palace had recruited new guards who were nothing more than glorified rice peasants and armed them with modern weapons."

Isn't there a way to say this that isn't so strident? After all, Japan was just doing what other industrialized societies (i.e. Europeans) had done centuries earlier: taking the sword (literally and figuratively) out of the hands of an elite warrior class and putting it into the hands of a conscript army drawn from the masses. I don't think the current phrasing rises to an NPOV issue, but it does sound like an editorial swipe at the modernization of Japan as typified by its army. Don't get me wrong, there's plenty of room for that, but not until the 1920's. --Monupics 19:43, 15 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * My thoughts exactly, the tone of the article snaps at that point. I think it deserves a small revision. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 69.249.81.172 (talk • contribs) 07:36, 2 August 2005.
 * This has been rectified. --MChew 02:41, 3 November 2006 (UTC)

EE
I am currently writing an Extended Essay on Saigo Takamori, dealing mainly in the historiographical debate, and although mostly accurate, the article includes little of that sort. This could be misleading, as the orthrodox and revisionist views on Saigo, as well as his image in popular culture contrast a lot. I'm unclear whether such debates such as the significance of his role in the actual rebellion, his motivation in the Korean expedition and the real reason he was ousted from the goverment, etc should be included, but at the very least I think titles with contrasting views should be mentioned in a "See also" or "Related" section. Tamamuro, for example, asserts that he planned the overthrow of the Meiji goverment as soon as his resignation, Pyle calls it "high dudgeon", while Yates and other revisionists tend to view him as content with what has happened, planning to live in retirement. Due to the support for the claims, and perhaps the lack thereof for the others, as the orthrodox view tends to see it as granted, and Pyle doesn't really invest much time on Saigo (measley 2 pages), I find the latter-most most persuasive. Nonetheless, I think it's important to note this, but putting my essay up isn't going to work, it being quite biased, nor do I know how much is enough, since it would be out of proportion if I state every point, and there are quite a few on several aspects of his life. In fact, Man Behind the Myth questions the very validity of his image in popular culture and history in general, so there is actually quite a debate. I don't really edit wikipedia, can anyone else help with it?

Mark Ravina's book is already up, but there's also Saigo Takamori: Man Behind the Myth, Saigo Takamori by Inoue Kiyoshi, and Kagoshima Kenshi for the histriography.-RoSeeker 12:14, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

The Death of Saigo
I don't have time to edit right now, but this article could benefit from the research done by Mark Ravina for his book "The Last Samurai". Saigo's head was indeed found and brought to the government forces the following morning. Ravina describes the most likely scenario of Saigo's death: Saigo was sent into shock and lost consciousness as a result of the bullet that travelled through his abdomen and hip. The motivation of his deputies for cutting off his head was in order to continue the battle. As long as the government forces did not have Saigo's head, they could not definitively say he was dead. And possession of the head by at least one of the deputies encouraged the surviving Satsuma soldiers to fight on. In the end, all were killed. Saigo's main deputies were Beppu, Kirino, and Murata. They were actually the prosecutors of the Satsuma Rebellion, with Saigo as the titular head. Westwind273 (talk) 05:07, 27 February 2008 (UTC)

Birth date
According to Japanese Wiki page, Saigo Takamor was born on lunar calendar December 7, the 10th year of Bunsei era (23 January, 1828).

Before my edit today, the birth data of his was shown as "23 Jan 1827/28" here. The reason it was "1827/28" was that the 10th year of Bunsei era was actually from the Feb of 1827 to Feb of 1828, and the original author Everyking, who made that editing on 4/24/2004, was not sure which day his birthday was, so put 1827/28 there, and it has been like that for more than 3 years. In the first paragraph, which was more interesting, it said that he was born on "Feb 7, 1827". That "Feb 7" (2/7) was obviously mistaken from "December 7" (12/7), the lunar calendar date.

There is no dispute of Saigo Takamori's birthday. The only confusion was caused by lunar calendar.

--Mongol (talk) 05:17, 6 December 2007 (UTC)

No photographs
It's probably worth noting that (according to Alan Booth) there are no photographs of Saigo known; he even purposely skipped cabinet portraits. Jpatokal (talk) 07:03, 20 November 2008 (UTC)

Death section
Ravina, Mark J. “The Apocryphal Suicide of Saigō Takamori: Samurai, Seppuku, and the Politics of Legend.” Journal of Asian Studies 69.3 (2010): 691-721. Print.

Yates, Charles L. "Saigō Takamori in the Emergence of Meiji Japan." Modern Asian Studies 28.3 (1994): 449-474. Print.

Tentative bibliography to be used to create a new section concerning Saigō Takamori's death. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Dkindley (talk • contribs) 00:25, 12 March 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Saigō Takamori


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William Mortimer Clark

Sir William Mortimer Clark (also spelled Clarke), KC (May 24, 1836 – August 10, 1915) was a Canadian lawyer and politician.

Life and career
Born in 1836 in Aberdeen, Scotland, Clark was educated at Marischal College and the University of Edinburgh. He came to Canada in 1859 and was called to the bar of Upper Canada in 1861.

A prominent social activist, he became a bank director and authored a number of articles on travel. In 1866, he married Helen Gordon.

Clarke was appointed the ninth Lieutenant Governor of Ontario in 1903. He supported education and hospitals during his mandate, and served until 1908. He was created a Knight Bachelor in 1907.

He died in 1915 in his summer home in Prouts Neck, Maine. His remains were brought back to Toronto, where he was interred in the Mount Pleasant Cemetery.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: William Mortimer Clark


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Lists of hospitals

These are links to lists of hospitals around the world. According to Cybermetrics Lab, they completed their rankings from over 16,500 hospitals worldwide in 2015.

By continent

 * Lists of hospitals in Africa
 * Lists of hospitals in Asia
 * Lists of hospitals in Europe
 * Lists of hospitals in North America
 * Lists of hospitals in Oceania
 * Lists of hospitals in South America

By size

 * List of countries by hospital beds
 * List of largest hospital campuses, a list of large hospitals ranked by bed capacity and staffing within a single campus
 * List of largest hospital networks, a list of large hospitals ranked by bed capacity and staffing within a hospital network
 * List of tallest hospitals

title: Lists of hospitals


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User:PedroPVZ

Featured article
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Tricanas de Coimbra
I wanted to put a new article on Wiki concerning tricanas de Coimbra - see my sandbox https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedysta:Andreypl/brudnopis?venotify=created but it is not accepted. Maybe you could help me ? Originally it was on my blog: http://varia-ap.blogspot.com/2013/08/tricanas.html Melhores cumprimentos da Polonia ! Andreypl

title: User:PedroPVZ


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Casimir Gzowski

Sir Casimir Stanislaus Gzowski, (born Kazimierz Stanisław Gzowski; March 5, 1813 – August 24, 1898), was a Polish-Canadian engineer who was known for his work on a wide variety of Canadian railways, as well as work on the Welland Canal. He also served as acting Lieutenant Governor of Ontario from 1896 to 1897.

Life and career
Gzowski was born in Saint Petersburg to a noble Polish father, Count Stanisław Gzowski, who was then serving as a captain in the Russian Imperial Guard. During the Polish November Uprising, he served as a combat engineer with the rank of podporuchik in the Polish army under the command of Józef Dwernicki against the Russians. After their defeat, he escaped to Austria, but as an unwanted political prisoner, he was deported by the Austrians to the USA. Later, his family also emigrated. He knew no English but began to study law and was admitted into practice. His father was an engineer, and as this became his primary interest, Kazimierz became involved in railway construction in the United States. Eventually, he was hired as an engineer to help in the construction of the New York and Erie Railway.

In 1841, he moved to Canada to work on the Welland Canal. He also helped finish the building of Yonge Street and did other projects for the Department of Public Works in southern Ontario. He settled in London.

In 1849, Gzowski was hired as a railway contractor by the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad. The new president of this reorganized company, Alexander Tilloch Galt, and other directors were dissatisfied with the work of the Montreal contractors. Accepting Galt's offer to be Chief Engineer, in charge of construction, Gzowski moved his family to Sherbrooke.

The purpose of the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railway, along with its American partner, the Atlantic and St. Lawrence Railway, was to provide a route for the traffic of the St. Lawrence River and Ottawa River at the port of Montreal to the ice-free Atlantic port of Portland, Maine. By 1850, however, promoters of this project learned of plans by Boston interests to build a railway from Lake Champlain to Ogdensburg, opposite Prescott, on the route of the projected Bytown & Prescott Railway.

In 1850, Galt, along with Luther Hamilton Holton, David Lewis Macpherson and other directors of the St. Lawrence and Atlantic, formed a committee which took steps to secure a charter for the building of a railway between Montreal and Kingston. Several possible routes were considered. At a public meeting held in Montreal, the committee delegated Gzowski to make a detailed survey of two routes. One ran through the Ottawa River valley, and the other was about 15 miles inland from the St. Lawrence River.

In 1851. the Montreal and Kingston Railway Committee commissioned another well-known Canadian engineer and future associate of Gzowski, Walter Shanly, to make another survey of the Montreal-Kingston route. He decided in favour of the line closely paralleling the shore of the St. Lawrence River and running through Cornwall and Prescott. This was the route adopted by the Grand Trunk Railway between Montreal, Kingston and Toronto.

The idea of a railway through the Province of Canada had been on the minds of Canadians for some time. The government proposed to build a line from Montreal to Windsor or to Sarnia. For that part of the route east of Montreal, Premier Francis Hincks turned the first sod on the Quebec Richmond Railway on January 7, 1852. The government intended to close the gap between Richmond and Montreal by using the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railway. Galt and his associates from Montreal obtained a charter for their Montreal and Kingston Railway on August 30, 1851.

Francis Hincks turned the plans for the railway scheme over to private interests in 1852, awarding contracts for the Kingston to Toronto section and Montreal to Kingston railway to the British contracting firm Peto, Brassey Jackson and Betts, a move that led to the formation of the Grand Trunk Railway. While Galt had intended to secure the funds to build the Montreal and Kingston Railway, he did not have the resources to compete with Peto, Brassey Jackson and Betts.

Galt and his partners saw great possibilities in the construction of a railway west of Toronto. In 1852, through some skillful financial manipulation, they managed to get control of most of the stock in the Toronto and Guelph Railway, chartered in 1851. Gzowski & Co. were contractors of the line between Guelph and Sarnia, as well as other sections of the GTR in Ontario and Michigan.

In 1856, Gzowski & Co. was granted the right to cut timber on the Moon River in Muskoka, likely as a source of materials for railway construction. In 1858, Gzowski was granted timber licences on the Whitefish River and on the South River in Northeastern Ontario. Some of these licence records show Gzowski and Macpherson were in partnership with another Muskoka lumberman, Walter Moberly.

As president of the Toronto Turf Club, in 1859 Gzowski was a prime factor in the creation of the Queen's Plate, the first organized Thoroughbred horse race in North America. Gzowski was instrumental in organizing the Canadian Society of Civil Engineers, where he served as its first president from 1889 until 1891, and he founded Canada's first rifle association. He was also the first Commissioner of the Niagara Parks Commission.

Gzowski was appointed an honorary aide-de-camp to the Queen in 1879 and was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1890. As a personal friend of Sir John A. Macdonald, Gzowski was linked to the Conservative Party, even acting as an interim Lieutenant Governor before Oliver Mowat took office in 1897. He died in 1898 in Toronto.

Legacy
Casimir Gzowski Park, on Toronto's waterfront, commemorates him and includes a monument with some information about his career.

On 5 March 1963, the Canadian post office issued a commemorative stamp featuring Gzowski on the 150th anniversary of his birth.

Gzowski was the great-great-grandfather of CBC radio personality Peter Gzowski.

title: Casimir Gzowski


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George Airey Kirkpatrick

Sir George Airey Kirkpatrick (September 13, 1841 – December 13, 1899) was a politician from Ontario, Canada.

Born in 1841 in Kingston, Ontario, the son of Thomas Kirkpatrick, George Kirkpatrick was educated at Trinity College Dublin.

Career
Kirkpatrick joined the Canadian Militia as a private in 1861 during the Trent Affair and later as an officer and the adjutant in the 14th Battalion of Rifles saw active service during the Fenian Raids in 1866. In 1867, he was promoted to major and joined the newly formed 47th Frontenac Battalion of Infantry and was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1872. He retired from the militia in 1890. In 1876, he would command the Canadian rifle team at Wimbledon (London), England, and he was president of the Dominion Rifle Association through the 1880s.

He was called to the bar in 1865 and served as a Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) in the House of Commons of Canada from 1870 to 1892 taking over the Frontenac seat held by his late father.

He was a supporter of Sir John A. Macdonald's National Policy but was also a friend of Liberal leader Edward Blake whom he supported on issues such as proportional representation. Kirkpatrick considered joining the Liberal Party over the Pacific Scandal but decided to remain with the Conservatives.

In 1875, Kirkpatrick contested the Governor General's right to pardon Louis Riel without the consent of the Canadian Cabinet. As a result of his arguments, the Colonial Office issued new instructions that future Governors General not act without the advice of his ministers in such matters.

Kirkpatrick also argued in favour of protection of sailors from ship-owners who went bankrupt.

Following the 1882 election, Prime Minister Macdonald nominated Kirkpatrick as Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada. He was unenthusiastic about the position, but was nevertheless considered to be the most impartial Canadian Speaker of the nineteenth century. The Conservative government was unimpressed with his lack of partisanship, and he was not renominated for the position following the 1887 election. He returned to the backbenches where he remained until 1892 when he was appointed the seventh Lieutenant Governor of Ontario by Sir John Abbott.

During his time in office, Kirkpatrick made a special effort to visit and support the rural areas of the province. He served until 1896, and was knighted the same year. Sir Mackenzie Bowell offered Kirkpatrick a position in the Cabinet, but by this time, he had lost interest in politics. He died in Toronto in 1899.

Family
In 1865, Kirkpatrick married Frances Macauley, and after her death, married Isabel Macpherson at Paris, France, September 26, 1883. Isabel Louise Macpherson, was the daughter of Hon. Sir D. L. Macpherson, P.C., K.C.M.G., and his wife, Elizabeth Sarah, daughter of William Molson, Esquire, of Montreal. She was born in Toronto, and educated in England. While first lady of Ontario, she secured funds for the presentation of a wedding gift to the present Prince and Princess of Wales and assisted in securing the establishment in Canada of a branch of the St. John Ambulance Association. In 1898 she was selected to present colours to the Army and Navy Veterans.

His son was General Sir George Macaulay Kirkpatrick Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath, Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India.

Legacy
Upper Canada College has a chair that once belonged to George Airey Kirkpatrick.

title: George Airey Kirkpatrick


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Time Bank

Time Bank may refer to:

 * Time Banking, the practice of reciprocal service exchange which uses units of time as currency
 * Time Bank Zimbabwe, a commercial bank in Zimbabwe
 * Times Bank, a commercial bank in India, currently a subsidiary of the HDFC Bank

title: Time Bank


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Emi Koussi

Emi Koussi (also known as Emi Koussou) is a high pyroclastic shield volcano that lies at the southeast end of the Tibesti Mountains in the central Sahara, in the northern Borkou Region of northern Chad. The highest mountain of the Sahara, the volcano is one of several in the Tibesti range, and reaches an elevation of 3415 m, rising 3 km above the surrounding sandstone plains. The volcano is 60 - 70 km wide and has a volume of 2500 km3.

Two nested calderas cap the volcano, the outer one being about 15 x in size. Within it on the southeast side is a smaller caldera known as Era Kohor, about 2 km wide and 350 m deep. Numerous lava domes, cinder cones, maars, and lava flows are found within the calderas and along the outer flanks of the shield. Era Kohor contains trona deposits, and Emi Koussi has been studied as an analogue of the Martian volcano Elysium Mons. Emi Koussi was active more than one million years ago, but some eruptions may be more recent, and there is ongoing fumarolic and hot spring activity.

Geography and geomorphology
Emi Koussi lies in Chad, Africa, and is part of the Tibesti Mountains as well as its highest peak and thus of the Sahara; many peaks of the Tibesti exceed 2000 m in height. These mountains are formed by a group of volcanoes that grew on top of a large dome of Earth's surface. Volcanism in this area is poorly studied; as the region is remote and access difficult for political reasons. Dirt roads cross the western and eastern margins of the summit caldera, and according to historical reports the Tibu people lived in its summit caldera and in artificial caves. In the Tedaga language, Emi means "mountains", "massif". The mountain has played an important role in the research and discovery history of the Tibesti.

Emi Koussi rises to a height of 3415 m on the southern side of the volcano, towering 3 km above the surrounding terrain. It is considered by some astronauts to be the most recognizable landmark on Earth, as seen from orbit. Supposedly the entire Tibesti can be seen from the northern summits.

It is a shield volcano with a diameter of 60 - 70 km or 60 - 80 km and an estimated volume of 2500 km3. The summit of Emi Koussi is formed by two overlapping calderas, which together form a 15 x wide elliptical caldera that extends from northwest to southeast. The northern caldera formed first, then the southern caldera which is about 50 m deeper below the northern one. 400 - 300 m high scarps form the inner margin of the southern caldera, with the floor at an elevation of 2970 m. Before the formation of the calderas, the volcano may have reached a height of 4000 m. Emi Koussi has been compared to a Martian volcano, Elysium Mons. The caldera rim is cut by one outlet, the Porte de Modiounga, from which gorges emanate into the caldera. The highest point of Emi Koussi lies on the southern rim of the caldera.

Nested within this combined caldera is the Era Kohor caldera, which is 300 m deep and 2 km wide, having the appearance of a giant hole. This caldera is also known as Natron Hole or Trou au Natron. Trachytic lava flows are exposed in its walls, and sodium carbonate has been deposited on its floor, which lies at an elevation of 2670 m and contains a salt lake. The floor of Era Kohor is thus deep white. Three maars and several scoria cones are also nested within the combined caldera, along with lava domes and lava flows. Debris from explosive eruptions fills the calderas.

The Kohor pumices and two sets of ignimbrites cover the flanks of Emi Koussi, which steepen as they approach the summit. Scoria cones on the slopes are accompanied by lava flows. On the upper sectors of the volcano, lavas are crisscrossed by cracks, which are known as "lappiaz". Sandstone crops out on the terrain surrounding the volcano. North of Emi Koussi lie other volcanoes, such as Tarso Ahon and Tarso Emi Chi, the former of which is connected to Emi Koussi by a narrow ridge.

Geology
Tectonic activity appears to have occurred in the Tibesti already between the Carboniferous and the Cretaceous, that is between 358.9 ± 0.4 and 66 million years ago. During the earliest stage of volcanism on Tibesti, alkali basalts formed large plateaus. Later, the central volcanoes developed on top of these plateaus. Volcanism in Tibesti has been explained with a mantle plume, as has been proposed for other African volcanoes, although recently tectonic effects of the collision between Africa and Europe and their effects at a distance have also been advanced as an explanation.

The oldest rocks below the Tibesti are Precambrian diorites, granites and schists, which are probably of Neoproterozoic age and are differentiated into two units. The volcanic rocks rest on an uplifted basement formed by Cretaceous and Paleozoic sandstone. The latter crop out at the southwestern foot of Emi Koussi, while volcanic rocks dominate north of the volcano, and the Tibesti massif is prevalent east and southeast of Emi Koussi. Older volcanic rocks are exposed in valleys.

Emi Koussi has erupted phonolite, trachyandesite and trachyte, as well as mafic rocks like basanite and tephrite. The erupted rocks define two alkaline suites. Phenocryst chemistry and content varies between the various rocks; among the minerals are alkali feldspar, amphibole, biotite, clinopyroxene, olivine, oxides and plagioclase. Alkali feldspar, apatite, clinopyroxene, olivine, magnetite, mica, nepheline, oxides, plagioclase, quartz, sodalite, titanite and zircon also form the groundmass of microliths in erupted rocks. Magma genesis mainly involved fractional crystallization processes. Rocks from Emi Koussi were used as raw material by Neolithic societies of the region.

During the early Holocene, Era Kohor was filled with a deep, circular lake. Diatom beds have been found 125 m above the floor of Era Kohor and in depressions without outlet elsewhere in the caldera, they reach thicknesses of 4 - 5 m. Farther down on the mountain, gullies start appearing at 2800 m elevation and become deep gorges by 2000 - 2500 m elevation. Elleboe wadi originates on Emi Koussi, and several streams on the western flank join into the Enneri Miski which drains southwards and disappears south of the mountains. Small pools of water are found around Emi Koussi.

Eruptive history
Emi Koussi erupted between 2.4 and 1.3 million years ago; it is considered to be of Pliocene-Quaternary age. The volcano was constructed mainly during the Miocene within about one million years. Radiometric dating has yielded ages of 2.42 ± 0.03 - 2.33 ± 0.09 million years ago for the oldest Emi Koussi stage. The third stage has yielded ages of 1.4 ± 0.3 - 1.32 ± 0.2 million years ago; formerly Era Kohor was considered to be a Holocene centre.

During the first stage, Emi Koussi erupted trachytes and trachyandesites in the form of ignimbrites and basaltic lapilli. This was followed in the second stage by trachytic, green or grey ignimbrites, trachytic and phonolitic lava domes and additional basaltic lava flows. The second stage ignimbrites can be found within the northern caldera and on the southern flank of the volcano. The third stage was dominantly phonolitic, with breccia, tuffs and ignimbrites including the Kohor ignimbrite. The various ignimbrites contain fiamme and often look like lava flows. Each stage was accompanied by the formation of a caldera, and basaltic volcanism continued through all three stages. Phreatic explosions associated with Era Kohor have deposited large blocks within the summit caldera, including beautifully coloured syenite blocks.

Quaternary volcanism gave rise to the cones on the slopes of Emi Koussi, and the three maars are the most recent vents in the combined caldera, while long lava flows have been interpreted to be the youngest volcanism at Emi Koussi. The most recent volcanic vents show little erosion. Early in the Pleistocene, erosion took place on the flanks of Emi Koussi, and carbonates were deposited in Era Kohor until recent times.

On the southern foot of the volcano, fumaroles are active such as at Yi Yerra at 850 m elevation on the southern flanks. At Yi Yerra, hot springs produce water with temperatures of 37 C. Emi Koussi is considered to be a Holocene volcano. Lava flows have buried Holocene diatoms beds in its caldera; dates of 14,790 ± 400 - 12,400 ± 400 years before present have been obtained by radiocarbon dating on diatom beds which have been penetrated or buried by lava flows.

Climate and vegetation
The Tibesti mountains feature a desert mountain climate. There are no weather stations close to Emi Koussi and the stations at lower elevations likely underestimate precipitation at higher elevations, but based on cloud cover data, a yearly precipitation of 80 - 120 mm has been estimated for Emi Koussi; in the past it was wetter than this. The climate reflects both northerly and southerly influences and is distinct from that of the surrounding deserts. There is no evidence of nivation forms on Emi Koussi and the identification of periglacial landforms is questionable, although periglacial activity likely occurred in the Pleistocene and may continue to the present-day. Even during the Pleistocene, no part of the mountain had sub-freezing temperatures through the entire year.

A number of diatom species have been identified in sediments left by the Era Kohor lake, including Cocconeis placentula, Cyclotella cyclopuncta, Cyclotella ocellata, Cymbella cistula, Cymbella leptoceros, Cymbella muelleri, Epithemia adnata, Fragilaria construens, Fragilaria pinnata, Gomphonema affine, Gomphonema parvulum, Navicula oblonga and Rhopalodia gibba. The diatom fauna appears to be unusual in comparison to other Saharan paleolakes, probably owing to the high elevation of the Emi Koussi lake. Cattail and water milfoil grew around the lake.

Generally, in the Tibesti vegetation occurs in five different belts depending on elevation. On Emi Koussi, Erica arborea is found up to elevations of 2900 m, in the past it was probably more widespread. The summit region features montane vegetation, including Artemisia-Ephedra steppes which cover large parts of the caldera floor and may have been used as pastures. The lava flows high on the mountain have characteristic environmental traits which allow the development of a particular vegetation. This vegetation encompasses Dichrocephala, Eragrostis, Erodium, Helichrysum as well as ferns, liverworts and mosses. Oldenlandia and Selaginella species grow at fumaroles. The caldera floor was used as a pasture for camels and goats.

The wood rush Luzula tibestica is endemic on Emi Koussi. The fern Asplenium quezelii was discovered on Emi Koussi and at first thought to be endemic there before it was found to be identical to Asplenium daghestanicum, a species also previously considered to be endemic to Dagestan, more than 3800 km away from Emi Koussi.

title: Emi Koussi


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Xara Flare

Xara Flare Open Vector File Format is a format that was introduced in 1997 by XARA to compete with the Macromedia Flash format. The format was open and developers could export from their products to this format, royalty free and without the need of any permission. The key characteristic and design goal was for a file format that was very compact for fast download over the internet. It supports a rich set of vector graphic primitives including a wide variety of graduated shading and graduated transparency.

The Xara Flare format was also the native file format used in the Xara X vector graphics software. In 2004, it was updated and renamed the Xar file format.

title: Xara Flare


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Samut Songkhram province

Samut Songkhram (สมุทรสงคราม, ) is one of the central provinces (changwat) of Thailand.

Neighbouring provinces are (from the south clockwise) Phetchaburi, Ratchaburi and Samut Sakhon. Local people call Samut Songkhram Mae Klong. The province is the smallest in area of all Thai provinces. Chang and Eng Bunker, the famous Siamese twins were born here on 11 May 1811.

Toponymy
The word "samut" originates from the Sanskrit word समुद्र samudra meaning 'ocean', and the word "songkhram" from Sanskrit संग्राम saṃgrāma meaning 'war'. Hence the name of the province literally means 'war ocean'. However, this province is colloquially known as "Mae Klong" after the name of the main river that flows past the area.

Geography
Samut Songkhram is at the mouth of the Mae Klong River to the Bay of Bangkok (upper Gulf of Thailand). With several canals (khlong) the water of the river is spread through the province for irrigation. At the coast are many lakes for producing sea salt. The sandbar Don Hoi Lot at the mouth of the river is famous for its endemic shell population of Solen regularis.

It covers a total area of 416.7 km2 (about 160.9 sq mi). It can be considered the smallest province in Thailand. The total forest area is 30 km² or 7.3 percent of provincial area.

This province is home to places of worship of the three major religions. There are 110 Buddhist temples, two Christian churches and one mosque.

History
Samut Songkhram or Mae Klong or Suan Nok (outside garden) was a part of Mueang Ratchaburi in the past. The old name of Mae Klong is Bang Chang which was centered at Tambon Amphawa, Samut Songkhram (from the district at present). During the transition from the Ayutthaya to the Thon Buri periods, it was separated from Ratchaburi and named Mueang Mae Klong.

Samut Songkhram was historically important during the establishment of Thon Buri as the kingdom’s capital by King Taksin the Great. When the Burmese led an army to Tambon Bang Kung, the king gathered the people to build a fort and prevent the city from capture by the Burmese troops. This was an important act against the Burmese invaders at that time.

Mueang Mae Klong (actually pronounced "Mae Glawng"), changed its name into Samut Songkhram but the actual year is not known. It is assumed it occurred in 1752 to 1756 because the name of the province first appeared in the evidence from the first Thai enacted law: Later, a decree was found,issued from the reign of King Borom Urn Baromgoate in 1756 and was identified as ordered to The Lord Rattanathibet, the Grand marshal of the Court. Apparently Kun Wisetvanish (Chean Ar Pan Teck), Kun Thip, and Meun Rukka Auksorn were daring ask to establish casinos in Samut Songkhram, Ratchaburi and Samut Prakan.

Samut Songkhram is the birthplace of many famous Thai people whether King Rama II who was born in 1767 in Amphawa District or Chang and Eng Bunker who were born in 1811.

Provincial government
The province is divided into three districts (amphoe). The districts are further divided into 38 subdistricts (tambons) and 284 villages (mubans).

Symbols
The provincial seal shows a drum over a river. The Thai word for drum is klong, thus refers to the Mae Klong River, as well as the old name of the province, Mae Klong. On both sides of the river coconut trees are displayed as one of the main products of the province.

The provincial tree is Casuarina equisetifolia. Siamese giant carp (Catlocarpio siamensis) is a provincial fish.

The provincial slogan is "City of Hoi Lot, Top Lychee, King Rama II Memorial Park, the Mae Klong River, and Luangpho Ban Laem".

Economy
Samut Songkhram is a leader in Thai salt production, with 4,535 rai worked in 2011 by 111 households to produce salt.

Aside from salt Samut Songkhram is also known for the variety of fruits, especially lychee, pomelo and coconut.

Pla thu (ปลาทู, 'short mackerel') is regarded as an important commercial fish and the most famous product of the province. Mackerel of Samut Songkhram is well known as "Pla thu Mae Klong". Because the area of the province borders the Bay of Bangkok which is rich in plankton, they are regarded as the staple food of this fish species. Therefore, short mackerel of Samut Songkhram has a large body size and the meat is delicious. They can be cooked to a variety of foods such as Pla thu tom madan (ปลาทูต้มมะดัน, 'Pla thu in spicy and sour soup'), Chu chee pla thu (ฉู่ฉี่ปลาทู, 'Pla thu in red curry sauce'), Pla thu sa tia (ปลาทูซาเตี๊ยะ, Pla thu in sweet black soup), burger Pla thu, Pla thu meat, made into a burger filling which can be eaten only in Samut Songkhram. And exclusive Khao tom sam kasat (ข้าวต้มสามกษัตริย์, lit: "three kings porridge"), porridge with the main ingredients, Pla thu, prawn and fresh squid, recount that this menu has its origin from the King Rama V visiting the people at Mae Klong. He has prepared this menu based on his own original ideas until it became a legendary food.

Local traditions

 * The Celebrations of King Rama II: organized every early February, which was the birth month of King Rama II at King Rama II Memorial Park.
 * Worship and bathing Luangpho Ban Laem ceremony: organized every mid April, which falls on Songkran festival at Wat Ban Laem.
 * Mackerel festival: organized regularly at the end of the year (November or December) to promote the consumption of Pla thu at Provincial Hall.

Rail
Samut Songkhram's main station, Maeklong railway station, is on the Maeklong Railway. The railway is known for its route through the Maeklong Railway Market, nicknamed (ตลาดร่มหุบ; ), meaning the 'umbrella pulldown market'. It is one of the largest seafood markets in Thailand, and is centred on the Maeklong Railway's track. Whenever a train approaches, the awnings and shop fronts are moved back from the rails, to be replaced once the train has passed.

Road
Rama II Road is a main road of Samut Songkhram, it is a road that leads to south as well as Petchkasem Road, starting from Bangkok's Thonburi side. Its named in honour to King Rama II. Samut Songkhram is about 63 km (39 mi) from Bangkok by this road.

The famous floating market, Talat Nam Amphawa can be reached by this road.

Human achievement index 2022
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.

title: Samut Songkhram province


text:
Schwarzenau Brethren

The Schwarzenau Brethren, the German Baptist Brethren, Dunkers, Dunkard Brethren, Tunkers, or sometimes simply called the German Baptists, are an Anabaptist group that dissented from Roman Catholic, Lutheran and Reformed European state churches during the 17th and 18th centuries. German Baptist Brethren emerged in some German-speaking states in western and southwestern parts of the Holy Roman Empire as a result of the Radical Pietist revival movement of the late 17th and early 18th centuries, where people began to read and study their Bibles on their own- rather than just being told what to believe and do.

Hopeful of the imminent return of Christ and desiring to follow Jesus in their daily life, the founding Brethren abandoned State churches and officially formed a new church in 1708. They thereby attempted to translate the New Testament idea of brotherly love into concrete congregational ordinances for all the members. The Brethren rejected some Radical Pietists’ focus on emotionalism and direct revelation, and emphasized early ("Apostolic" or "primitive") New Testament Christianity as the binding standard for congregational practices. Founding and early Schwarzenau Brethren were also in fellowship with other Anabaptists such as the Mennonites and the River Brethren, and influenced by their writings.

As with many other Anabaptist traditions, the Schwarzenau Brethren are divided into Old Order groups (such as the Old Brethren German Baptist) that practice a lifestyle without certain elements of modern technology, Conservative groups (such as the Dunkard Brethren Church) that preserve traditional theological distinctives while allowing for the usage of modern conveniences, and mainline groups (such as the Church of the Brethren) that are assimilated into popular culture and society.

In German-speaking Europe, the Brethren became known as Neue Täufer New Baptists, in distinction from the older English Baptist groups with which they had no formal ties. In the United States, they became popularly known as "Dunkers", "Dunkard Brethren", or "Tunkers", terms that stem from the German verb (dunke), to dip, to immerse.

History
The Schwarzenau Brethren were first organized in 1708 under the leadership of Alexander Mack (1679–1735) in the Schwarzenau, Wittgenstein community of modern-day Bad Berleburg, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. They believed that the Roman Catholic, Lutheran and Reformed churches were taking extreme liberties with the true, pure message of Christianity as revealed in the New Testament. As they began to have the New Testament available in German and read it for themselves, they rejected the established state church liturgies and sacraments, including infant baptism and Eucharistic practices in favor of following plain New Testament practices. The founding Brethren were broadly influenced by Radical Pietism understandings of an invisible church of awakened Christians who would fellowship together in purity and love, reaching out to the lost and hurting in Jesus' name and working together as equal brethren while awaiting Christ's return.

A notable influence was Ernst Christopher Hochmann von Hochenau, a traveling Pietist minister. While living in Schriesheim, his home town, Mack invited Hochmann to come and minister there. Like others who influenced the Brethren, Hochmann considered the pure church to be spiritual, and did not believe that an organized church was necessary. By 1708, the date of the first Brethren baptisms, Mack had rejected this position in favor of forming a separate church with visible rules and ordinances—including threefold baptism of repentant adults by immersion, a Love Feast (that combined communion with feetwashing and an evening meal), anointing, and church discipline according to Matthew 18 culminating in use of the "ban" against members who fall into sin and refuse to repent.

Religious persecution drove the Brethren to take refuge in Friesland, the Netherlands. In 1719 Peter Becker brought a group to Pennsylvania. In 1720 forty Brethren families settled in Surhuisterveen in Friesland. They settled among the Mennonites and remained there until 1729, when all but a handful emigrated to America, in three separate groups from 1719 to 1733.

Peter Becker organized the first American congregation at Germantown, Pennsylvania, on December 25, 1723. In 1743 Christoph Sauer, an early pastor and a printer by trade, printed a Bible in German, the first published in a European language in North America.

Many members of the Schwarzenau Brethren came from the Southwest of Germany, the same region where the Pennsylvania German dialect originated. Because they settled in Pennsylvania among other Germans, who mainly came from the Palatinate and adjacent regions, they took part in the dialect leveling, that was the cradle of Pennsylvania German. Their language therefore was or soon became what today is called Pennsylvania Dutch or sometimes Pennsylvania German.

In 1782 the Brethren forbade slaveholding by its members. In 1871 these Brethren adopted the title German Baptist Brethren at their Annual Meeting. The group continued to expand and from Pennsylvania, they migrated chiefly westward. By 1908 they were most numerous in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, North Dakota Arkansas, and California.

Beliefs and practices
[Brethren] take the Scripture as their only guide, in matters both of faith and practice...such Christians I have never seen as they are: so averse are they to all sin, and to many things that other Christians esteem lawful, that they not only refuse to swear, go to war, etc. but are so afraid of doing any thing contrary to the commands of Christ, that no temptation would prevail upon them ever to sue any person at law, for either name, character, estate, or any debt, be it ever so just. They are industrious, sober, temperate, kind, charitable people; envying not the great, nor despising the mean, they read much, they sing and pray much, they are constant attendants upon the worship of God, their dwelling houses are all houses of prayer. They walk in the commandments and ordinances of the Lord blameless both in public and private. They bring up their children in the nurture and admonition of the Lord. No noise of rudeness, shameless mirth, loud vain laughter is heard within their doors. The law of kindness is in their mouths; no sourness or moroseness, disgraces their religion; and whatsoever they believe their Savior commands, they practice without requiring or regarding what others do.

The beliefs of the Schwarzenau Brethren include triple or trine immersion baptism, which provides that the candidate kneel in water and be immersed, face first, three times in the name of God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit; the New Testament as the infallible guide in spiritual matters; communion service celebrated in the evening, accompanied by the love feast; the ceremony of the washing of feet; the salutation of the holy kiss; prayer and anointing with oil over the sick; and nonresistance. See also The Brethren Card.

Some of the early Schwarzenau Brethren believed in universal restoration, a variant of universal salvation that foretold that after the judgment and harsh punishment described in the New Testament, God's love would one day restore all souls to God. Brethren typically kept this teaching to themselves, and it was largely abandoned by the late nineteenth century. They were among the first to take Christian universalism to America when they emigrated there.

The church leaders are ministers, teachers, and deacons, though the name of these servant positions may differ slightly in the various branches. The official role of elder, while no longer recognized in many congregations, was formerly the most respected position in the church and performed the overseeing function that other churches may call Bishop. Ministers and deacons are elected by the members of the congregation in which they hold membership. Ministers preach the Word, baptize, assist deacons in anointing, solemnize marriages, and officiate at communion. Deacons serve the church by reading Scripture, leading in song and prayer, arranging for visitation to members or their families during illness or crisis, and often function in the capacity of stewards.

Early schisms
The first schism from the general body of German Baptist Brethren occurred in 1728. There were more divisions after the American Revolution, as different groups sought their own ways. The first separatists became the Seventh Day Dunkers, whose distinctive principle was that they believed that Saturday was true Sabbath. They were founded by German immigrant Johann Conrad Beissel (1690–1768).

In 1732, Beissel led establishment of a semi-monastic community with a convent and a monastery at Ephrata in what is now Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. While celibate, the community also welcomed believing families; they lived nearby and participated in joint worship. The monastic features and celibacy were gradually abandoned after the American Revolution.

In 1745, brothers Samuel, Israel and Gabriel Eckerlin protested against Beissel's leadership after Beissel condemned them for having planted an orchard, built a mill and started a textile-manufacturing workshop in an effort to make the community economically self-sufficient. The Eckerlins and Mack left Ephrata in September to establish Mahanaim (Dunkard's Bottom, Virginia) on the New River in western Virginia.

In 1814 the Society was incorporated as the Seventh Day Baptists or Seventh Day German Baptist Church. Several branches were established, some of which still exist. A group called the Church of God or "New Dunkers" withdrew in 1848. They disbanded in August 1962.

Old Order, Conservative, and mainline Schwarzenau Brethren
The Old Order Schwarzenau Brethren opposed 19th-century Brethren adoption of innovations in the United States such as revival meetings, Sunday Schools, and foreign missionary work. Stressing church discipline, Annual Meeting authority, and the preservation of the "ancient order" of church ordinances, worship, and simple unfashionable dress, they formed the Old German Baptist Brethren (OGBB) in 1881.

In 1882 the Progressives, who stressed outreach evangelism and objected to plain, distinctive dress and strong Annual Meeting authority, formed The Brethren Church, at the time of H. R. Holsinger. The largest body continued as German Baptist Brethren until 1908, when they adopted the title Church of the Brethren. Both the Brethren Church and the Church of the Brethren would be considered as mainline Schwarzaneu Brethren fellowships today.

The Dunkard Brethren Church, a conservative Schwarzenau Brethren denomination, maintains traditional theological beliefs and practices (such as plain dress and headcovering), while widely using modern conveniences. It was formed when conservative Schwarzenau Brethren withdrew from the Church of the Brethren in 1926 and established the Dunkard Brethren Church. As such, the Dunkard Brethren Church would fall in between Old Order Brethren (such as the Old Brethren German Baptist) and mainline Brethren denominations (such as The Brethren Church).

Divisions within Old Order fellowships
In 1913 and 1915 the Old Brethren, centered in Salida, California, Dayton, Ohio and Camden, Indiana, withdrew from the Old German Baptist Brethren (OGBB). In 1921, the Old Order German Baptist Brethren, centered in Dayton, Ohio broke with the OGBB. Attempts in 1929–1930 to reunite the Old Brethren and OGBB were unsuccessful.

The Old Brethren subsequently divided into two groups, the Old Order of which took the name of Old Brethren German Baptists and was centered in Camden, Indiana and Missouri.

After 1996, a small conservative group calling themselves The German Baptist Brethren split from the OGBB. The most recent split came in 2009, with the establishment of the Old German Baptist Brethren, New Conference, parishioners who left the OGBB.

Divisions within progressives
In 1939 the "Progressive" Brethren Church experienced another schism. Those seeking an open position to the issue of eternal security maintained the name Brethren Church, with headquarters in Ashland, Ohio (the traditional Anabaptist doctrine has been conditional security). Those supporting a Calvinistic firm affirmation of eternal security became the National Fellowship of Brethren Churches, since renamed Fellowship of Grace Brethren Churches (FGBC). It is commonly called the Grace Brethren Church, and is headquartered in Winona Lake, Indiana.

In 1992, because of doctrinal disagreements within the FGBC (primarily related to the connection between water baptism and church membership), the Conservative Grace Brethren Churches, International (CGBCI) was formed. It has no centralized headquarters at this time.

Divisions within conservatives
The paradigmatic conservative Schwarzenau Brethren denomination remains the Dunkard Brethren Church, in that they have preserved the distinctives of plain dress and headcovering while widely using modern conveniences. The Dunkard Brethren Church withdrew from the Church of the Brethren in 1926 because of what some believed was a gradual drift away from apostolic standards.

In 2019, after years of disagreement over New Testament standards of personal morality, some conservative congregations who were leaving the Church of the Brethren chose to form a new denomination called the Covenant Brethren Church. This fellowship has member congregations in Africa and Guatemala as well as the US states of Indiana, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, Washington and West Virginia. Unlike the Dunkard Brethren Church that formed in 1926, the Covenant Brethren Church encourages but does not universally practice traditional Brethren distinctives such as the veiling or nonresistance (nonparticipation in the military).

Schwarzenau Brethren denominations

 * German Baptist Brethren (Schwarzenau Brethren, Dunkers), changed their name to Old German Baptist Brethren in 1881
 * Church of the Brethren, 1908-
 * Ephrata Cloister (1732–2009; known as German Seventh Day Baptist Church from 1814 then on)
 * Church of God (New Dunkers) (1848–1962)
 * Old German Baptist Brethren (1881–)
 * Old Brethren (1913–)
 * Old Brethren German Baptists (1939–)
 * Old Order German Baptist Brethren (1921–)
 * Old German Baptist Brethren, New Conference (2009–)
 * The Brethren Church (1883–)
 * Grace Brethren Church (1939–)
 * Conservative Grace Brethren Churches, International (1992–)
 * Dunkard Brethren Church (1926–): Though many churches retain the word "Dunkard" in their names, they may be congregations of more conservative "Old Order German Baptists", less conservative "Progressives", or the current "Church of the Brethren", also called in the 19th century "Fraternity of German Baptists," or simply "German Baptists", or within the community called "Dunkards".
 * Covenant Brethren Church (2019–)

Other associated churches which associate with the term German Baptist include:
 * Brethren Reformed Church

Brethren World Assembly
As of 2003, six Brethren bodies meet together in the Brethren World Assembly: Church of the Brethren, Conservative Grace Brethren Churches, International, Dunkard Brethren Church, Fellowship of Grace Brethren Churches, Old German Baptist Brethren, and The Brethren Church. The first Assembly was held in Pennsylvania in 1992. They met at Elizabethtown College and celebrated the 250th anniversary of the first known Brethren Annual Meeting in 1742. That first meeting gathered near Conestoga in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. The second Assembly met in 1998 at Bridgewater College in Bridgewater, Virginia. The third Assembly was held by Grace College in Winona Lake, Indiana, in 2003. The Assembly represents some 600,000 members around the world.

The Brethren's Card
Brethren are noncreedal, but have summarized their beliefs in a variety of ways for the purpose of evangelical outreach. One such statement, developed and distributed during the late nineteenth century was the Brethren's Card. A later version was endorsed for general distribution by the 1923 Church of the Brethren Annual Conference. Variations on the Card were used by both the Old German Baptist Brethren and the Church of the Brethren. This is an early version that was widely circulated:

Be it known unto all men,
 * 1) That there is a people who, as little children, accept the Word of the New Testament as a message from heaven (Hebrews 1:1–2), and teach it in full (2 Timothy 4:1–2, Matthew 28:20).
 * 2) They baptize believers by trine immersion (Matthew 28:19), with a forward action, and for the remission of sins (Acts 2:38), and lay hands on those baptized, asking upon them the gift of God's Spirit (Acts 19:5–).
 * 3) They follow the command and example of washing one another's feet.
 * 4) They take the Lord's Supper at night, at one and the same time, tarrying one for another.
 * 5) They greet one another with a holy kiss.
 * 6) They take the communion at night, after supper, as did the Lord.
 * 7) They teach all the doctrines of Christ, peace, love (1 Corinthians 13), unity (Ephesians 4), both faith and works following (, Ephesians 2:8–10).
 * 8) They labor for nonconformity to the world in its vain and wicked customs (Romans 12:2).
 * 9) They advocate nonswearing (Matthew 5:34, 37), anti-secretism (2 Corinthians 6:14, 17), opposition to hatred, violence and war (Matthew 5:21–25 and 5:43–48, ), doing good unto all men (Matthew 5:44, 46).
 * 10) They anoint and lay hands on the sick.
 * 11) They give the Bread of Life, the message of the common salvation offered unto all mankind without money or price.
 * 12) Dear reader, for the above we contend earnestly, and you, with all men, are entreated to hear, to examine and accept it as the word, which began to be spoken by the Lord, and the faith once delivered to the saints.

The 1923 version, influenced by both increasing formalism and by the Fundamentalist-modernist controversy of the 1910s differed in both tone and content:

 * 1) This body of Christians known as Brethren originated early in the eighteenth century: the church being a natural outgrowth of the Pietistic movement following the Reformation.
 * 2) Firmly accepts and teaches the fundamental evangelical doctrines of the inspiration of the Bible, the personality of the Holy Spirit, the virgin birth, the deity of Christ, the sin-pardoning value of his atonement, his resurrection from the tomb, ascension and personal and visible return; and the resurrection, both of the just and unjust.
 * 3) Observes the following New Testament rites: Baptism of repentant believers by trine immersion for the remission of sins (Matthew 28:19, Acts 2:38); feet-washing ; love feast ; communion ; the holy Christian greeting or salutation ; proper modest appearance in worship ; the anointing with oil for healing in the name of the Lord ; laying on of hands . These rites are representative of spiritual facts which obtain in the lives of true believers, and as such are essential factors in the development of the Christian life.
 * 4) Emphasizes: daily devotion for the individual, and family worship for the home ; stewardship of time, talents and money ; taking care of the fatherless, widows, poor, sick and aged.
 * 5) Opposes on Scriptural grounds: War and the taking of human life (the Antithesis of the Law;, ); violence in personal and industrial controversy (Matthew 7:12, ); intemperance in all things ; going to law, especially against our Christian brethren ; divorce and remarriage, (, , 1 Corinthians 7); every form of oath (Matthew 5:33–37, ); membership in secret societies (2 Corinthians 6:14–); games of chance and sinful amusements ; extravagant and immodest dress.
 * 6) Labors earnestly, in harmony with the Great Commission, for the evangelization of the world; for the conversion of men to Jesus Christ; and for the realization of the life and love of Jesus Christ living in every true believer (Matthew 28:18–20,, ).
 * 7) Maintains the New Testament as its only creed, in harmony with which the above brief doctrinal statement is made.

This version was officially circulated by the Church of the Brethren in its publications until the middle part of the twentieth century, and it continues to be issued through the efforts of Brethren Revival Fellowship.

The teachings of some other groups are similar to this, but can differ widely in emphasis and scope. For example, the Grace Brethren are varied on the requirement of trine immersion, do not practice the Christian salutation, do not oppose war, and do not formally adhere to plain dress or modesty. Only the Conservative Grace Brethren Churches have retained a published use of the motto, "The Bible, the whole Bible, and nothing but the Bible".

In the progressive and liberal Church of the Brethren, significant emphasis is placed on social action issues. In the Brethren (Ashland) and Grace Brethren groups, significant emphasis is placed on exegesis of the Bible. Several of the groups maintain a larger "Doctrinal Statement" or treatise, but only for the purpose of clarifying their Biblical position.

Most Brethren groups maintain that the Bible is the sole authority and will revise their statement of faith if they perceive any difference between it and sound Biblical doctrine. Some of the Old Order groups incorporate church authority as a mechanism for unifying the interpretation and application of Biblical teachings.

Unrelated groups
There are several religious groups named Brethren that are not related to the Schwarzenau Brethren movement. The Moravian Brethren, Hutterian Brethren and Swiss Brethren are not related to the Schwarzenau Brethren, except as inspirational examples. The Plymouth Brethren arose in England and Ireland early in the 19th century. The United Brethren originated in 18th-century Pennsylvania with William Otterbein and Martin Boehm. The River Brethren movement adopted the view of trine immersion and most other Anabaptist beliefs and practices from the Schwarzenau Brethren. Today, the Old Order River Brethren are very similar to the Old Brethren—both being part of the Anabaptist tradition.

The Apostolic United Brethren is a group within the Latter Day Saint movement and is not related to the Schwarzenau Brethren.

Schwarzenau Brethren (German Baptists), an Anabaptist tradition, are not to be confused with non-Anabaptist groups such as Primitive, Separate, Southern, Particular, who are categorized as Baptists. Although both Anabaptists and Baptists agree on rudimentary doctrines such as believer's baptism and separation of church and state, they would have conflicting views in other areas, such as non-resistance, separation from worldly entertainment, literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount, etc. In addition, Schwarzenau Brethren are not to be confused with a recent, small, renewal movement of "Plain," or "Covered" Baptists, who share many comparable beliefs and practices with the historic German Baptists, but are of different origins.

title: Schwarzenau Brethren


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Hanna Holborn Gray

Hanna Holborn Gray (born October 25, 1930) is an American historian of Renaissance and Reformation political thought and Professor of History Emerita at the University of Chicago. She served as president of the University of Chicago, from 1978 to 1993, having earlier served as president pro tempore of Yale University in 1977–1978. At both schools, she was the first woman to hold their highest executive office. When named to the post in Chicago, she became one of the first women in the United States to hold the full presidency of a major university.

Biography
Holborn was born in Heidelberg, Germany, the daughter of Hajo Holborn, a professor of European history at Yale who fled to America from Nazi Germany, and Annemarie Bettmann, a philologist. Her older brother, Frederick, became a White House aide and professor of foreign policy at Johns Hopkins' School of Advanced International Studies.

Gray attended The Foote School in New Haven, Connecticut (graduated 1943), Sidwell Friends School in Washington, D.C., then Bryn Mawr College in suburban Philadelphia, from which she graduated in 1950. She traveled to Oxford as a Fulbright Scholar. She earned a PhD from Harvard University in 1957, and taught there, becoming an assistant professor in 1959. At Harvard, her experiences were circumscribed by her "outsider status" as a woman. Although technically coeducational in some graduate programs by the 1950s, women were mostly relegated to the "separate, but not equal" Radcliffe College. When Gray became the first and only woman tutor in history and literature, she was reluctantly allowed into the tutor's dining society but was distinctly unwelcome by the other tutors. Similarly, when Gray advanced to instructor, as a woman, she was forbidden in the main faculty hall and was required to enter through the side door, although she decided to just go in the front door, anyway. (She took her cue from Harvard professor, Helen Maud Cam, who earlier in the decade became the first woman to attend faculty morning services in the over 300 years of the institution just by showing up every day and sitting down).

Gray moved to Chicago when her husband was appointed to a position at the University of Chicago. She spent her first year as a research fellow at the Newberry Library, and then began teaching history at Chicago earning tenure in 1964. From 1966 to 1970, she was co-editor of the Journal of Modern History with her husband. Gray was named dean of the College of Arts and Sciences at Northwestern University in 1972 and became professor of history and provost at Yale University in 1974. She served as acting president of Yale for fourteen months after President Kingman Brewster unexpectedly accepted an appointment as United States Ambassador to the Court of St. James's.

Gray then returned to the University of Chicago, serving as president from 1978 to 1993, the first female (full) president of a major university in the United States. In 1991, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. She retired in June 1993 but remains Harry Pratt Judson Distinguished Service Professor Emerita.

Gray has also served as a director, board member or trustee of the Harvard Corporation, the Yale Corporation, the Smithsonian Institution, JP Morgan Chase, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the Marlboro School of Music, the Council on Foreign Relations, the Concord Coalition, the Mayo Clinic, the Brookings Institution, and Bryn Mawr College. Gray has received honorary degrees from more than sixty institutions, including the University of Chicago, The College of William and Mary, Harvard, Oxford, Yale, Brown, Columbia, Princeton, and Duke. She served as chairman of the board of the second largest foundation in America, the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, until 2010. The portrait of Gray that hangs at the University of Chicago has been "stolen" (and returned) on more than one occasion as a student prank. Gray published a memoir, An Academic Life, in 2018.

Honors

 * Medal of Liberty
 * Presidential Medal of Freedom
 * Francis Boyer Award
 * Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement
 * member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1973)
 * member, American Philosophical Society (1981)

Chronology

 * Teaching Fellow, Harvard University, 1955–1957
 * Instructor, Harvard University, 1957–1959
 * Assistant Professor, Harvard University, 1959–1960
 * Assistant Professor of History at the University of Chicago 1961–1964
 * Associate Professor of History at the University of Chicago 1964–1972
 * Professor and Dean, Northwestern University 1972–1974
 * Professor and Provost at Yale University 1974–1978
 * Acting President of Yale University 1977–1978
 * Professor of History at the University of Chicago 1978–present
 * President of the University of Chicago 1978–1993
 * Member of the Harvard Corporation, 1997-2005

Works and publications

 * Hanna Holborn Gray, "Some Reflections on the Second Generation." The Second Generation. Émigrés from Nazi Germany as Historians, ed. Andreas Daum, Harmut Lehmann, and James J. Sheehan. New York: Berghahn Books, 2016, ISBN 978-1-78238-985-9, 102–113.

title: Hanna Holborn Gray


text:
Lists of hospitals in the United States

This article contains links to lists of hospitals in the United States, including U.S. States, the national capital of Washington, D.C., insular areas, and outlying islands. Links to more detailed state lists are shown.

U.S. states
As of 2020, there were 5,250 acute care and critical access hospitals in the United States. In the decade from 2010 to 2020, dozens of hospitals have closed in rural areas of the United States, particularly in the southeast. Of the 3,143 county-equivalents in the United States, there were 700 counties in the United States with no hospitals as of 2020. The following list contains links to the lists and the number of articles in the main category for each state. There may be additional psychiatric, county, and teaching hospitals not included in the main category.

Insular areas
Lists or actual hospitals in insular areas of the United States include:
 * List of hospitals in American Samoa (total: 1)
 * List of hospitals in Guam (total: 3)
 * List of hospitals in the Northern Mariana Islands (total: 1)
 * List of hospitals in Puerto Rico (notable: 0)
 * List of hospitals in the United States Virgin Islands (total: 2)

Freely associated states:
 * List of hospitals in the Federated States of Micronesia (total: 5)
 * List of hospitals in the Marshall Islands (total: 3)
 * List of hospitals in Palau (total: 1)

Outlying islands
Lists of hospitals in outlying islands of the United States include:
 * Baker Island, none currently, uninhabited
 * Howland Island, none currently, uninhabited
 * Jarvis Island, none currently, uninhabited
 * Johnston Atoll, none currently, underground hospital during World War II (19391941)
 * Kingman Reef, none currently, uninhabited
 * Midway Atoll, none currently
 * Navassa Island, none currently, uninhabited
 * Palmyra Atoll, none currently, unoccupied
 * Wake Island, none currently, field hospitals during the Vietnam War to assist refugees

Lists of New York City hospitals

 * List of hospitals in New York City
 * List of hospitals in the Bronx
 * List of hospitals in Brooklyn
 * List of hospitals in Manhattan
 * List of hospitals in Queens
 * List of hospitals on Staten Island

title: Lists of hospitals in the United States


text:
Gainsborough

Gainsborough or Gainsboro may refer to:

Places

 * Gainsborough, Ipswich, Suffolk, England
 * Gainsborough Ward, Ipswich
 * Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, a town in England
 * Gainsborough (UK Parliament constituency)
 * Gainsborough, Saskatchewan, Canada
 * Gainsboro, Roanoke, Virginia
 * Gainesboro, Tennessee
 * Gainesboro, Virginia

People

 * Aerith Gainsborough, a fictional character from Final Fantasy VII
 * Earl of Gainsborough, a title in the peerage of England and the peerage of the United Kingdom
 * Humphrey Gainsborough (1718–1776), English minister and engineer
 * Thomas Gainsborough (1727–1788), English painter
 * William Gainsborough (died 1307), Bishop of Winchester

Other

 * Gainsborough (crater), on the planet Mercury
 * Gainsborough (horse), the 1918 Triple Crown Champion of English Thoroughbred Racing
 * HMS Gainsborough, two ships of the Royal Navy
 * Gainsborough Pictures, a London-based film studio, active between 1924 and 1951
 * Gainsborough melodramas, a group of films made by the studio
 * Gainsborough chair, a type of chair made in 18th century England
 * Gainsborough hat, a hat in the style of those in Thomas Gainsborough's paintings
 * Gainsboro, a color in the X11 color scheme
 * a mullein (plants in the genus Verbascum) cultivar

title: Gainsborough