text:
Victor Francis Hess

Victor Franz Hess (24 June 1883 – 17 December 1964) was an Austrian-American physicist, and Nobel laureate in physics, who discovered cosmic rays.

Biography
He was born to Vinzenz Hess and Serafine Edle von Grossbauer-Waldstätt, in Waldstein Castle, near Peggau in Styria, Austria, on 24 June 1883. His father was a royal forester in Prince Louis of Oettingen-Wallerstein's service. He attended secondary school at Graz Gymnasium from 1893 to 1901.

From 1901 to 1905, Hess was an undergraduate student at the University of Graz. In 1910, Hess received his PhD from the University of Vienna. He worked as Assistant under Stefan Meyer at the Institute for Radium Research, Viennese Academy of Sciences, from 1910 to 1920.

In 1920, he married Marie Bertha Warner Breisky.

Hess took a leave of absence in 1921 and travelled to the United States, working at the United States Radium Corporation, in New Jersey, and as consulting physicist for the US Bureau of Mines, in Washington, D.C. In 1923, he returned to the University of Graz, and was appointed the ordinary professor of experimental physics in 1925. The University of Innsbruck appointed him professor, and director of the Institute of Radiology, in 1931.

Hess relocated to the United States with his Jewish wife in 1938, in order to escape Nazi persecution. The same year Fordham University appointed him professor of physics, and he later became a naturalized United States citizen in 1944. His wife died of cancer in 1955. The same year he married Elizabeth M. Hoenke, the woman who nursed Berta at the end of her life.

He was a practicing Roman Catholic, and in 1946, he wrote on the topic of the relationship between science and religion in his article "My Faith", in which he explained why he believed in God. He retired from Fordham University in 1958 and he died on 17 December 1964, in Mount Vernon, New York from Parkinson's disease.

Cosmic rays

Between 1911 and 1913, Hess undertook the work that won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1936. For many years, scientists had been puzzled by the levels of ionizing radiation measured in the atmosphere. The assumption at the time was that the radiation would decrease as the distance from the earth, the then assumed source of the radiation, increased. The electroscopes previously used gave an approximate measurement of the radiation but indicated that at greater altitude in the atmosphere the level of radiation might actually be higher than that on the ground. Hess approached this mystery first by greatly increasing the precision of the measuring equipment, and then by personally taking the equipment aloft in a balloon. He systematically measured the radiation at altitudes up to 5.3 km during 1911–1912. The daring flights were made both by day and during the night, at significant risk to himself.

The result of Hess's meticulous work was published in the Proceedings of the Viennese Academy of Sciences, and showed the level of radiation decreased up to an altitude of about 1 km, but above that the level increased considerably, with the radiation detected at 5 km, being about twice that at sea level. His conclusion was that there was radiation penetrating the atmosphere from outer space, and his discovery was confirmed by Robert Andrews Millikan in 1925, who gave the radiation the name "cosmic rays". Hess's discovery opened the door to many new discoveries in particle and nuclear physics. In particular, both the positron and the muon were first discovered in cosmic rays by Carl David Anderson. Hess and Anderson shared the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics.

Honours and awards

 * Lieben Prize (1919)
 * Abbe Memorial Prize
 * Abbe Medal of the Carl Zeiss Institute, Jena (1932)
 * Nobel Prize in Physics (1936)
 * Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (1959)
 * A lunar crater is named after Hess

title: Victor Francis Hess


text:
Carl David Anderson

Carl David Anderson (September 3, 1905 – January 11, 1991) was an American physicist. He is best known for his discovery of the positron in 1932, an achievement for which he received the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics, and of the muon in 1936.

Biography
Anderson was born in New York City, the son of Swedish immigrants. He studied physics and engineering at Caltech (B.S., 1927; Ph.D., 1930). Under the supervision of Robert A. Millikan, he began investigations into cosmic rays during the course of which he encountered unexpected particle tracks in his (modern versions now commonly referred to as an Anderson) cloud chamber photographs that he correctly interpreted as having been created by a particle with the same mass as the electron, but with opposite electrical charge. This discovery, announced in 1932 and later confirmed by others, validated Paul Dirac's theoretical prediction of the existence of the positron. Anderson first detected the particles in cosmic rays. He then produced more conclusive proof by shooting gamma rays produced by the natural radioactive nuclide ThC '' (208Tl) into other materials, resulting in the creation of positron-electron pairs. For this work, Anderson shared the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics with Victor Hess. Fifty years later, Anderson acknowledged that his discovery was inspired by the work of his Caltech classmate Chung-Yao Chao, whose research formed the foundation from which much of Anderson's work developed but was not credited at the time.

Also in 1936, Anderson and his first graduate student, Seth Neddermeyer, discovered a muon (or 'mu-meson', as it was known for many years), a subatomic particle 207 times more massive than the electron, but with the same negative electric charge and spin 1/2 as the electron, again in cosmic rays. Anderson and Neddermeyer at first believed that they had seen a pion, a particle which Hideki Yukawa had postulated in his theory of the strong interaction. When it became clear that what Anderson had seen was not the pion, the physicist I. I. Rabi, puzzled as to how the unexpected discovery could fit into any logical scheme of particle physics, quizzically asked "Who ordered that?" (sometimes the story goes that he was dining with colleagues at a Chinese restaurant at the time). The muon was the first of a long list of subatomic particles whose discovery initially baffled theoreticians who could not make the confusing "zoo" fit into some tidy conceptual scheme. Willis Lamb, in his 1955 Nobel Prize Lecture, joked that he had heard it said that "the finder of a new elementary particle used to be rewarded by a Nobel Prize, but such a discovery now ought to be punished by a 10,000 dollar fine."

Anderson spent all of his academic and research career at Caltech. During World War II, he conducted research in rocketry there. He was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society in 1938. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1950. He received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1975. He died on January 11, 1991, and his remains were interred in the Forest Lawn, Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles, California. His wife Lorraine died in 1984.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Carl David Anderson


text:
Talk:Hamlet (disambiguation)

There is a difference between a hamlet in the US and a hamlet in the UK, namely that in the US it is merely a small place, but in the UK it is a village that is lacking a parish. If you wish to make them both the same article, please change all the links that I've just disambiguated. Francs2000 20:37, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

disambig / naming ...
I can imagine that most pages pointing to Hamlet refer to the play, but "Hamlet" isn't even the correct name of it, while ther are several other things and places which are really named "Hamlet".

I suggest, as a first step, to change the name of the current "Hamlet" (tragedy) page to a more correct name ("The Tragedy of Hamlet", or "Hamlet, Prince of Denmark", or "The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark").

The page "Hamlet" could remain a redirect to the play's page until a robot changed the links that clearly point to the play. If there's another short-named redirect page (like Hamlet (play) or Tragedy of Hamlet), it remains easy for people to refer specifically to the play if they want.

In a second step, I think that the "Hamlet" page should provide a somehow direct link to the page about the word "hamlet" (an encyclopedia should respect some minimal logic...), and to the things (persons, places,...) whose correct name is "Hamlet".

I find it regrettable that the most basic meaning of "hamlet" is rather hidden and completely ill classified in hamlet (place). — MFH:Talk 19:10, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

 * 'Hamlet' is the play's correct name, it's just not its full name.  'Hamlet' qua the name of the play is a word, and a more commonly wikilinked one than 'hamlet' the common noun. Markyour words 19:49, 28 February 2006 (UTC)
 * My 2p worth here. AndyJones 11:30, 3 March 2006 (UTC)

List of film adaptations
I removed the list of films. It seems to me that linking to Hamlet on screen can provide more complete information, without overwhelming this page with such a long list. Theoldsparkle (talk) 16:39, 24 October 2011 (UTC)
 * Agreed. No need to reiterate the same stuff here.Millertime246 (talk) 16:50, 24 October 2011 (UTC)

"Hamlet" routers (and other)
There is the "Hamlet" (Hamletcom¹) routers and other - expecially networking - computer products²) brand. ¹: see english.hamletcom.com/about-us.aspx for the company info Hamlet is a registered trademark by Riom Services Limited Registered Office: 7th Floor, Hume House, Ballsbridge, Dublin 4, Ireland Registered in Ireland: No. 266378 Start up-Capital: € 1.425,100 ²: see english.hamletcom.com/products/ for the full list of products: led lighting (220V/12V/desk lamps) tablet pc (tablet and accessories) 3D printers networking (lan card, switch, router, wireless, bluetooth, print server, powerline, networking accessories) videosurveillance connectivity (adsl/analog modem router, isdn terminal adapter, connectivity accessories) notebook accessories (pcmcia - express card, add on peripherals, mobility storage, tiramisù & accessories) storage (external HD, SSD, HD enclosure, usb memory, flash card, media reader/writers) photo & audio/video (video audio & voip, webcam, radio tv tuner) pc & server accessories (i/o card, mouse & keyboard, add on peripherals) power management (car power adapter, power adapter, smart power strip) MacOS/linux selection (networking, storage, accessories)

'' Have a nice day, Nickh ²+, 151.18.8.9  ( talk ) 22:16, 23 March 2017 (UTC). ''

Requested move 27 August 2018

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: not moved  The editor  whose username is Z0  10:33, 3 September 2018 (UTC)

– DAB from Hamlet (place) which is probably primary by the 2nd criteria. There is also not a significant order of magnitude in views [|Hamlet_(place)|Hamlet_(name)|Hamlet_(band)|Hamlet_(fish)|Hamlet_(cigar)|Hamlet,_Indiana|Hamlet_(Oregon)|Hamlet,_California|Hamlet,_North_Carolina] and often incorrect links are made referring to the type of settlement which would be easy to correct as they are very different topics. It could also be moved to The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, its full name per WP:NATURALDIS.  Crouch, Swale  ( talk ) 08:32, 27 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Hamlet (disambiguation) → Hamlet
 * Hamlet → Hamlet (play)
 * Oppose. [ checks the date. ] You're not seriously going to argue that the play is not the primary topic?!? Walk up to anyone on the street and ask what "Hamlet" is, and you'll get the play (or possibly the main character, which would actually be a more plausible #2 choice for primary topic). It's the top hit on Google. In fact, the first couple of pages of google hits. It's the suggestion Siri and the other big virtual assistants gives you for the term. It's the first couple of pages of hits on JSTOR and Project MUSE. On Oxford Journals the first two hits are about a tumor-killing human milk protein that is… named after the play; and the rest are about the play. The second criteria might conceivably come into play, but the term for a small village only predates the play's 400+ year primacy by only, at most, a couple hundred years, and then only in the form "hamelet" (because it's borrowed from Old French, and the "-let" is just the dimminutive suffix on the term for a village). Meanwhile, there are entire scholarly works on the name of the play and its derivations and significance. Oh, and the "full name" of the play is actually either The Tragicall Historie of Hamlet Prince of Denmarke. By William Shake-speare. As it hath beene diuerse times acted by his Highnesse seruants in the Cittie of London: as also in the Vniuersities of Cambridge and Oxford and elsewhere. (1603, Q1), The Tragicall Historie of Hamlet Prince of Denmarke. By William Shakespeare. Newly imprinted and enlarged to almost as much againe as it was, according to the true and perect Coppie. (1604), or The Tragedie of Hamlet, Prince of Denmarke. (1623) depending on which edition you assign primacy. The Arden Shakespeare used the 1604 edition, while the last The Oxford Shakespeare used the 1623 First Folio. Then again, Arden published a second standalone edition of the 1603 and 1623 texts as a companion to their 1604 edition-based main publication. The normal name for the play now is simply "Hamlet". --Xover (talk) 11:35, 27 August 2018 (UTC)
 * I'm not disputing that this isn't the most common meaning today, I don't think it is clearly the primary meaning, there are thousands of hamlets in England alone. While most search engines will give the play I would say that on Wikipedia the type of place is also reasonably likely. My point about using "The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark" was just an alternative, I agree it is nearly always just "Hamlet" but if that is apparently its full name then that could be used as a possibility.  Crouch, Swale  ( talk ) 11:48, 27 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose, you are underestimating just how notable the play is. It also doesn't matter what the title of the article is, the primacy of the term "Hamlet" is a separate matter. —Xezbeth (talk) 19:17, 27 August 2018 (UTC)
 * I'm not disputing the high popularity and notability of the play, just that it isn't primary over the settlement type and the other articles.  Crouch, Swale  ( talk ) 19:40, 27 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Isn't the settlement just a synonym for village? Hyperbolick (talk) 19:48, 27 August 2018 (UTC)
 * No, a hamlet in England means a settlement without a church, although that has been slightly disputed. Mercury is the name of several highly notable topics, as is the case for "Hamlet", again I'm not saying the settlement type is primary, just that the play isn't.  Crouch, Swale  ( talk ) 19:52, 27 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Doubtful that distinction is rigorous. Hyperbolick (talk) 19:59, 27 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Whether or not the distinction is rigorous or not isn't particularly relevant here, and if it was then there would be a lot more notable hamlets if all villages were hamlets!  Crouch, Swale  ( talk ) 20:03, 27 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Or none, if hamlets were villages. Hyperbolick (talk) 20:06, 27 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Hyperbolick (talk) 19:28, 27 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose, thee in beforeth the snær, and will sayeth no more but break, my heart, for I must hold my tongue. Randy Kryn (talk) 21:23, 27 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Definitely Oppose. Avg daily views: Hamlet, 3771; Hamlet (place), 558. And that disparity will only increase now that school is back in session. Mr. Shakespeare’s play is clearly the leading topic named “Hamlet”. Making “Hamlet” a disambiguation page would only slow down and place a roadblock in the way of the vast majority of users who are searching “Hamlet” to find the article about the play. Markhh (talk) 02:07, 28 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Needn't guess. It's possible to see page views since the start of the year, |Hamlet_(place)|Hamlet_(disambiguation) Hyperbolick (talk) 12:32, 28 August 2018 (UTC)
 * But it would speed up navigation to all other pages and reduce incorrect links.  Crouch, Swale  ( talk ) 12:37, 28 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Clear WP:PTOPIC. Anyone supporting a move should also volunteer to repair the 5,000+ incoming links which would be broken by a move. Compare that to the 8,183 bad links to DAB pages reported today (see WP:TDD). Narky Blert (talk) 13:02, 28 August 2018 (UTC)
 * There are often incorrect links made, which has just fixed some but they are frequently made.  Crouch, Swale  ( talk )  13:21, 28 August 2018 (UTC)
 * There's a decent amount, but that's more a consequence of lesser geographical articles having extremely low traffic. It just puts it in the same category as Apple, mouse and others that require maintaining every now and again. —Xezbeth (talk) 13:27, 28 August 2018 (UTC)
 * And previously The Sun, but those meanings are the traditional meanings, Hamlet, the play isn't, the settlement type is, though its not nearly as common.  Crouch, Swale  ( talk ) 13:30, 28 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose the Shakespeare play is primary over the WP:DICTDEF; which is pretty much what Hamlet (place) is. power~enwiki ( π, ν ) 21:29, 28 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose. The play is unquestionably the primary topic. I don't fathom how once can characterize the pageviews difference as insignificant when the play is consistently the number-one-ranked article, by a margin of at least seven times the runner-up. TJRC (talk) 01:05, 29 August 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose, for the obvious reasons listed above. This proposed change not only makes no logical sense, but actually causes a lot of navigational problems. Hallward's Ghost (Kevin) (My talkpage) 21:33, 2 September 2018 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

title: Talk:Hamlet (disambiguation)


text:
Union of Democrats for the Republic

The Union for the Defence of the Republic (Union pour la défense de la République), after 1968 renamed Union of Democrats for the Republic (Union des démocrates pour la République), commonly abbreviated UDR, was a Gaullist political party of France that existed from 1967 to 1976.

The UDR was the successor to Charles de Gaulle's earlier party, the Rally of the French People, and was organised in 1958, along with the founding of the Fifth Republic as the Union for the New Republic (UNR), and in 1962 merged with the Democratic Union of Labour, a left-wing Gaullist group. In 1967 it was joined by some Christian Democrats to form the Union of Democrats for the Fifth Republic, later dropping the 'Fifth'. After the May 1968 crisis, it formed a right-wing coalition named Union for the Defense of the Republic (UDR); it was subsequently renamed Union of Democrats for the Republic, retaining the abbreviation UDR, in October 1968.

Under de Gaulle's successor Georges Pompidou it promoted the Gaullist movement. It dissolved in 1976, and its successor was the Rally for the Republic (RPR) founded by Jacques Chirac.

Secretaries-general

 * 1968–71: Robert Poujade
 * 1971–72: René Tomasini
 * 1972–73: Alain Peyrefitte
 * 1973–74: Alexandre Sanguinetti
 * 1974–75: Jacques Chirac
 * 1975–76: André Bord
 * 1976: Yves Guéna

title: Union of Democrats for the Republic


text:
Character class

In tabletop games and video games, a character class is an occupation, profession, or role assigned to a game character to highlight and differentiate their abilities and specializations.

In role-playing games (RPGs), character classes aggregate several abilities and aptitudes, and may also detail aspects of background and social standing, or impose behavior restrictions. Classes may be considered to represent archetypes, or specific careers. RPG systems that employ character classes often subdivide them into levels of accomplishment, to be attained by players during the course of the game. It is common for a character to remain in the same class for its lifetime; although some games allow characters to change class, or attain multiple classes. Some systems eschew the use of classes and levels entirely; others hybridize them with skill-based systems or emulate them with character templates.

In shooter games and other cooperative video games, classes are generally distinct roles with specific purposes, weapons, or abilities, with only tangential relation to the RPG context. Their differences may range from simple equipment changes, such as sniper classes armed with sniper rifles, to unique gameplay changes, such as medic classes that are tasked with healing and reviving injured allied players.

History
Dungeons & Dragons (D&D), the first formalized roleplaying game, introduced the use of classes, which were inspired by the units in miniature wargames such as Chainmail. Many subsequent games adopted variations of the same idea. These games are sometimes referred to as 'class-based' systems. As well as tabletop games, character classes are found in many role-playing video games and live action role-playing games. Many of the most popular role-playing games, such as D20 system and White Wolf games still use character classes in one way or another. Most games offer additional ways to systematically differentiate characters, such as race or species, skills, or affiliations.

In fantasy games and role-playing games
In fantasy games, Fighter, Mage, and Thief form a common archetypal trio of basic classes, each ones' abilities offsetting the other's weakness. The Fighter is strong and focuses on weapon-based combat, the Mage is a ranged fighter with a variety of magic, and the Thief is not physically strong but focuses on speed or stealth. Thus it is usual to find one (or more) classes that excel in combat, several classes (called spell-casters) that are able to perform magic (often different kinds of magic), and one or more classes that deal with stealth.

In its original release Dungeons & Dragons included three classes: fighting man, magic user, and cleric. Supplemental rules added the thief class. Classes were added individually or as variant subclasses in subsequent editions of the game.

In science fiction and other non-fantasy role-playing games, the role of magic user is often filled with a scientist or other intelligence-based class, while the cleric becomes a medic or similarly supportive role, and the rogue and/or ranger with an explorer or assassin. Some science fiction and supernatural-themed RPGs also use psychic powers as a stand in for magic. There are also character classes that combine features of the classes listed above and are frequently called hybrid classes. Some examples include the Bard (a cross between the Thief and Mage with an emphasis on interpersonal skills, mental and visual spells, and supportive magical abilities), or the Paladin (a cross between the Fighter and Cleric with slightly decreased combat skills relative to a fighter but various innate abilities that are used to heal or protect allies and repel and/or smite evil opponents).

Some RPGs feature another variation on the classes mechanic. For example, in Warhammer Fantasy Roleplay, players choose a career. The career works like a class with abilities (known in WFRP as skills and talents) added to the character based on the chosen career. However, as the player advances and gains more experience he or she may choose a new career according to a predefined career path or change to a completely different career. WFRP is also notable in that characters are encouraged to roll to determine their starting career which is compensated for by free XP which can be spent on more skills.

As an alternative to class-based systems, skill-based systems are designed to give the player a stronger sense of control over how their character develops. In such systems, players can often choose the direction of their characters as they play, usually by assigning points to certain skills. Classless games often provide templates for the player to work from, many of which are based on traditional character classes. Many classless games' settings or rules systems lend themselves to the creation of character following certain archetypal trends. For example, in the role-playing video game Fallout, common character archetypes include the "shooter", "survivalist", "scientist", "smooth talker" and "sneaker", unofficial terms representing various possible means of solving or avoiding conflicts and puzzles in the game. GURPS, which inspired Fallout's system, also used a classless system.

The original PlayStation 2 release of the role-playing video game Final Fantasy XII included a skill-based system in which as the player progressed, they would gain buffs and abilities (called licenses) via the game's License Board (of which each party member shared). Final Fantasy XII's re-release Final Fantasy XII International Zodiac Job System and high-definition remaster, Final Fantasy XII: The Zodiac Age changed this system by adding a class (or job) system in which classes could be changed, and they each had separate License Boards.

In shooter games
Many multiplayer shooter games use class systems to provide different tactics and styles of play and promote teamwork and cooperation. These classes may only have differences through equipment, or they may feature notable gameplay differences. Most games do not allow players to use elements of multiple classes at the same time, though they typically allow players to switch classes before or during a match through a menu. Some games have progression systems for each individual class with class-specific unlockable items.

Examples of shooter games with classes include the Battlefield series, Star Wars Battlefront II, Rising Storm 2: Vietnam, and Insurgency: Sandstorm. All of these examples include a "heavy" or "support" class, a less-mobile class armed with some sort of machine gun that is focused around suppressive fire and team support; they also include classes that are simply the standard rifleman class with additional unique equipment (such as "demolitions" classes, typically riflemen with additional explosive items).

One notable example is the 2007 team-based shooter Team Fortress 2, which features nine distinct classes divided into three categories: Offense, Defense, and Support. Offense classes (Scout, Soldier, Pyro) specialize in assaulting and overwhelming enemies to complete objectives; Defense classes (Demoman, Heavy, Engineer) specialize in defending positions and hindering enemy advances; and Support classes (Medic, Sniper, Spy) specialize in assisting their team in different ways. Each of these classes feature notable gameplay differences that are meant to suit their categories, yet do not limit them from being used for both offense and defense playstyles to varying degrees of effectiveness. They also all have strengths and weaknesses in a rock paper scissors-esque style; for example, the Spy is strong against slow or sedentary classes such as the Heavy and Sniper, with equipment that specifically counters the Engineer's constructions, but his stealth abilities are nullified by the Pyro's fire, and he is impractical against more mobile classes such as the Scout. Each class is also treated as its own character, with unique personalities, backstories, and interactions with other classes.

A derivative of these types of classes are seen in hero shooters, where each hero has distinct abilities and weapons that often combine archetypical conventional classes or are unique on their own.

title: Character class


text:
1973 Irish general election

The 1973 Irish general election to the 20th Dáil was held on Wednesday, 28 February 1973, following the dissolution of the 19th Dáil on 5 February by President Éamon de Valera on the request of Taoiseach Jack Lynch. The general election took place in 42 Dáil constituencies throughout Ireland for 144 seats in Dáil Éireann, the house of representatives of the Oireachtas.

The 20th Dáil met at Leinster House on 4 March to nominate the Taoiseach for appointment by the president and to approve the appointment of a new government of Ireland. Liam Cosgrave was appointed Taoiseach, forming the 14th government of Ireland, a coalition government of Fine Gael and the Labour Party.

Campaign
By the time the general election was called in 1973, Fianna Fáil had been in office since March 1957, just under sixteen years. During that time the party had seen three different leaders: Éamon de Valera, Seán Lemass, and since 1966, Jack Lynch. Lynch had hoped to dissolve the Dáil in December 1972; however, events did not permit this, and the election was eventually called for February 1973.

While Fine Gael and the Labour Party had pursued individual opposition policies since 1957, they agreed to a pre-election pact to fight the election together on the issues that united them. The National Coalition, as it was known, offered the electorate the first credible alternative government in many years.

While Fianna Fáil increased its percentage of the vote, it lost seats. A transfer pact between the National Coalition parties in the single transferable vote system enabled a change of government to take place.

In an interview with Brian Farrell on RTÉ, Jack Lynch became the first Taoiseach to concede defeat live on Irish television. Although the full result was not yet known, Lynch was certain that the transfers between candidates would result in Fianna Fáil losing the general election.

Challenge on voting age
The Fourth Amendment of the Constitution, approved in a referendum in December 1972 and signed into law in January 1973, had reduced the voting age from 21 to 18. However, the electoral register would not be updated until 15 April, five weeks after the election date. A 20-year-old student, represented by Seán MacBride, sought an injunction from the High Court postponing the election to vindicate his right to vote. He lost his case, although he was awarded his costs due to its "public importance".

Result

 * }

Government formation
Fine Gael and the Labour Party formed the 14th government of Ireland, dubbed the National Coalition, with Liam Cosgrave as Taoiseach and Brendan Corish as Tánaiste.

First-time TDs

 * Liam Ahern
 * Joseph Bermingham
 * Ruairí Brugha
 * Ray Burke
 * Johnny Callanan
 * Seán Calleary
 * Brendan Daly
 * John Esmonde
 * Joseph Farrell
 * Denis Gallagher
 * Brendan Griffin
 * Patrick Hegarty
 * John Kelly
 * Jimmy Leonard
 * Charles McDonald
 * Ciarán Murphy
 * Fergus O'Brien
 * John Ryan
 * Myles Staunton
 * Seán Walsh
 * James White
 * John Wilson

Retiring TD

 * Frank Aiken

Defeated TDs

 * Terence Boylan
 * Michael Hilliard
 * John O'Donovan
 * Mícheál Ó Móráin

Seanad election
The Dáil election was followed by an election to the 13th Seanad.

title: 1973 Irish general election


text:
Otto Stern

 * Otto Stern was also the pen name of German women's rights activist Louise Otto-Peters (1819–1895).

Otto Stern (17 February 1888 – 17 August 1969) was a German-American physicist and Nobel laureate in physics. He was the second most nominated physicist for a Nobel Prize, with 82 nominations in the years 1925–1945 (most times nominated is Arnold Sommerfeld with 84 nominations), ultimately winning in 1943.

Biography

Stern was born into a Jewish family in Sohrau (now Żory) in the Province of Silesia, the German Empire's Kingdom of Prussia. His father was Oskar Stern (1850–1919), a mill owner, who had been living in Breslau (now Wrocław) since 1892. His mother Eugenia née Rosenthal (1863–1907) was from Rawitsch (now Rawicz) in the Prussian Province of Posen. Otto Stern had a brother, Kurt, who became a noted botanist in Frankfurt, and three sisters. He studied in Freiburg im Breisgau, Munich and Breslau.

Stern completed his studies at the University of Breslau in 1912 with a doctoral dissertation in physical chemistry under supervision of Otto Sackur on the kinetic  theory  of  osmotic  pressure  in  concentrated  solutions. He then followed Albert Einstein to Charles University in Prague and in 1913 to ETH Zurich. Stern served in World War I doing meteorological work on the Russian front while still continuing his studies and in 1915 received his Habilitation at the University of Frankfurt. In 1921 he became a professor at the University of Rostock which he left in 1923 to become director of the newly founded Institut für Physikalische Chemie at the University of Hamburg.

In 1930, Stern received an LL.D. degree from Berkeley, where he was a frequent visiting professor during the 1930s, becoming close colleagues with members of the Berkeley faculty, including chemistry dean Gilbert Lewis, whom Stern would nominate for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1933. After resigning from his post at the University of Hamburg in 1933 because of the Nazis' Machtergreifung (seizure of power), he found refuge in the city of Pittsburgh becoming a professor of physics at the Carnegie Institute of Technology.

As an experimental physicist Stern contributed to the discovery of spin quantization in the Stern–Gerlach experiment with Walther Gerlach in February 1922 at the Physikalischer Verein in Frankfurt am Main. With his life-long collaborator Immanuel Estermann, he demonstrated of the wave nature of atoms and molecules; measurement of atomic magnetic moments; discovery of the proton's magnetic moment; and development of the molecular beam method which is utilized for the technique of molecular beam epitaxy.

He was awarded the 1943 Nobel Prize in Physics, the first to be awarded since 1939. It was awarded to Stern alone, "for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton" (not for the Stern–Gerlach experiment). The 1943 prize was actually awarded in 1944. ]

Stern was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1945 and the American Philosophical Society in 1946.

After Stern retired from the Carnegie Institute of Technology, he moved to Berkeley, California. He was a regular visitor to the physics colloquium at Berkeley. He died of a heart attack in Berkeley on 17 August 1969.

The Stern-Gerlach-Medaille of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft awarded for excellence in experimental physics is named after him and Gerlach.

His niece was the crystallographer Lieselotte Templeton.

title: Otto Stern


text:
Roden Noel

Roden Berkeley Wriothesley Noel, also known as Noël (27 August 1834 – 26 May 1894), was an English poet. He was a Cambridge Apostle.

Early life
He was the youngest son of Charles Noel, 1st Earl of Gainsborough and, his fourth wife, Lady Frances Jocelyn. His only full sibling was Lady Victoria Noel, who married Sir Fowell Buxton, 3rd Baronet, later Governor of South Australia. From his father's earlier marriages, he had several half-siblings including Charles Noel, 2nd Earl of Gainsborough (who married Lady Ida Harriet Augusta, a daughter of William Hay, 18th Earl of Erroll and Elizabeth FitzClarence, an illegitimate daughter of King William IV), Gerard James Noel, MP, Capt. Henry Lewis Noel, Lady Mary Arabella Louisa Noel (wife of Sir Andrew Agnew, 8th Baronet), and Lady Catherine Hamilton Noel (the first wife of James Carnegie, 9th Earl of Southesk).

His mother was the second daughter of Robert Jocelyn, 3rd Earl of Roden, and the former Maria Catherine Stapleton (a daughter of Thomas Stapleton, 15th Baron Despencer). His paternal grandparents were Sir Gerard Noel, 2nd Baronet and Diana Noel, 2nd Baroness Barham (who succeeded her father as second Baroness Barham in 1823).

Noel was educated at Windlesham House School, Harrow School and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he obtained his M.A. in 1858. He then spent two years travelling in the East. From 1867 to 1871, he served as a Groom of the Privy Chamber.

Career
Roden Noel's versification was unequal and sometimes harsh, but he has a genuine feeling for nature, and the work is permeated by philosophic thought.

His other works include a drama in verse, The House of Ravensburg (1877), an epic on David Livingstone's expedition in Africa, a Life of Byron (1890, Great Writers series), an edition of Edmund Spenser's poems, a selection of Thomas Otway's plays (1888) for the Mermaid series, and critical papers on literature and philosophy.

His Collected Poems were edited (1902) by his sister, Lady Victoria Buxton, with a notice by John Addington Symonds, which had originally appeared in the Academy (January 19, 1899) as a review of The Modern Faust. The selection (1892) in the series of Canterbury Poets has an introduction by Robert Buchanan.

His poem "Sea Slumber Song" was set to music by Sir Edward Elgar as the first song of his song-cycle Sea Pictures.

Noel was a spiritualist and interested in parapsychology. He was a founding vice-president of the Society for Psychical Research.

Personal life
In 1863, he married Alice Maria Caroline de Broë, daughter of Paul de Broë, the director of the Ottoman Bank in Beirut. Their third child, Eric, who died aged five, is commemorated in Roden Noel's best-known book of verse, A Little Child's Monument (1881).

The latter part of his life was spent at Brighton, but he died in the train station of Mainz in Germany. His son Conrad Noel became a Christian Socialist, famous as the "turbulent priest of Thaxted". After his death, his widow Alice married the Rev. David MacAnally in 1895.

Publications

 * Behind the Veil, and Other Poems (1863), not included in his collected works
 * Beatrice, and Other Poems (1868)
 * The Red Flag (1872)
 * Livingstone in Africa (1874)
 * A Little Child's Monument (1881)
 * Songs of the Heights and Deeps (1885)
 * A Modern Faust, and Other Poems (1888)
 * Poor People's Christmas (1890)
 * My Sea, and Other Poems (1896).

title: Roden Noel


text:
Rudolf E. Kálmán

Rudolf Emil Kálmán (May 19, 1930 – July 2, 2016) was a Hungarian-American electrical engineer, mathematician, and inventor. He is most noted for his co-invention and development of the Kalman filter, a mathematical algorithm that is widely used in signal processing, control systems, and guidance, navigation and control. For this work, U.S. President Barack Obama awarded Kálmán the National Medal of Science on October 7, 2009.

Life and career
Rudolf Kálmán was born in Budapest, Hungary, in 1930 to Otto and Ursula Kálmán (née Grundmann). After emigrating to the United States in 1943, he earned his bachelor's degree in 1953 and his master's degree in 1954, both from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in electrical engineering. Kálmán completed his doctorate in 1957 at Columbia University in New York City.

Kálmán worked as a Research Mathematician at the Research Institute for Advanced Studies in Baltimore, Maryland, from 1958 until 1964. He was a professor at Stanford University from 1964 until 1971, and then a Graduate Research Professor and the Director of the Center for Mathematical System Theory, at the University of Florida from 1971 until 1992. He periodically returned to Fontainebleau from 1969 to 1972 at MINES ParisTech where he served as scientific advisor for Centre de recherches en automatique. Starting in 1973, he also held the chair of Mathematical System Theory at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich, Switzerland.

Kálmán died on the morning of July 2, 2016, at his home in Gainesville, Florida.

Work
Kálmán was an electrical engineer by his undergraduate and graduate education at M.I.T. and Columbia University, and he was noted for his co-invention of the Kalman filter (or Kalman-Bucy Filter), which is a mathematical technique widely used in the digital computers of control systems, navigation systems, avionics, and outer-space vehicles to extract a signal from a long sequence of noisy or incomplete measurements, usually those done by electronic and gyroscopic systems.

Kálmán's ideas on filtering were initially met with vast skepticism, so much so that he was forced to do the first publication of his results in mechanical engineering, rather than in electrical engineering or systems engineering. Kálmán had more success in presenting his ideas, however, while visiting Stanley F. Schmidt at the NASA Ames Research Center in 1960. This led to the use of Kálmán filters during the Apollo program, and furthermore, in the NASA Space Shuttle, in Navy submarines, and in unmanned aerospace vehicles and weapons, such as cruise missiles.

Kálmán published several seminal papers during the sixties, which rigorously established what is now known as the state-space representation of dynamical systems. He introduced the formal definition of a system, the notions of controllability and observability, eventually leading to the Kalman decomposition. Kálmán also gave groundbreaking contributions to the theory of optimal control and provided, in his joint work with J. E. Bertram, a comprehensive and insightful exposure of stability theory for dynamical systems. He also worked with B. L. Ho on the minimal realization problem, providing the well known Ho-Kalman algorithm.

Awards and honors
Kálmán was a foreign member of the French, Hungarian and Russian Academies of Sciences, as well as a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He has been awarded many honorary doctorates from other universities. In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society.

Kálmán received the IEEE Medal of Honor in 1974, the IEEE Centennial Medal in 1984, the Inamori foundation's Kyoto Prize in Advanced Technology in 1985, the Steele Prize of the American Mathematical Society in 1987, the Richard E. Bellman Control Heritage Award in 1997, and the National Academy of Engineering's Charles Stark Draper Prize in 2008.

Kálmán also received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 1990. and an Honorary doctorate from the Politecnico di Milano in 2012. Kalman died a few weeks before the conferment of the latter doctorate, so that his wife Dina attended the ceremony on his behalf, held in the Conference room of the Departement of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering of the Politecnico di Milano on 12 September 2016.

title: Rudolf E. Kálmán


text:
Willenhall

Willenhall is a historic market town and civil parish in the Metropolitan Borough of Walsall, and partly in Wolverhampton, in the West Midlands, England, with a population taken at the 2011 census of 28,480. It is situated between Wolverhampton and Walsall, historically in the county of Staffordshire. It lies upon the River Tame, and is part of the Black Country. The town is historically famous for the manufacture of locks and keys. As early as 1770 Willenhall contained 148 skilled locksmiths and its coat of arms reflects the importance of this industry to its growth. It was home to the National Union of Lock and Metal Workers from 1889 until 2004. Its motto is Salus Populi Suprema Lex – The welfare of the people is the highest law.

The urban district of Willenhall (established by the Local Government Act 1894) was partitioned in 1966 between the county boroughs of Walsall and Wolverhampton (since 1974 the metropolitan boroughs of Walsall and Wolverhampton).

The northern border of Willenhall has always been adjoining open land, although the extent of Willenhall's expansion has meant in the last 100 years its northern border has been moved by about two miles. This is mostly due to housing developments in the Short Heath and New Invention areas.

History
Willenhall has been described as "undoubtedly a place of great antiquity, on the evidence of its name it manifestly had its origins in an early Saxon settlement. The Anglo-Saxon form of its name Willanhale may be interpreted as 'the meadow land of Willa' – Willa being a personal name." Alternatively, the name may mean willow halh, the first element of it being the Old English wilgen 'of willows'. The Old English word halh meaning "a nook or corner of land, often used of land in a hollow or river bend."

The first record of the settlement of Willenhall is from the eighth century when a treaty was signed there by King Ethelbald of Mercia, in which Willenhall was referred to as Willenhalch. In 996 the town was referred to as Willenhale, and as Winenhale it was mentioned in the Domesday Book (1086) as a very small settlement, and it remained so until the growth of industry in the 18th century. During the 10th century, Willenhall was in the Shire of Stafford and The Hundred of Offlow (unit of a 100 villages), consisting of 30 households and a population of around 120. In the Middle Ages, Willenhall was included in the parish of St. Peter's Collegiate Church, Wolverhampton. Although there was a church in the village, people would have to travel to Wolverhampton for weddings and funerals. It was not until 1840 that Willenhall had a parish church. St. Giles was the first church to be built. The present church is the third on the site, dating from 1867. The River Tame flows through the churchyard and was until recent years one of the few places where the water surfaced.

Willenhall was a small agricultural village throughout the Middle Ages. From Tudor times, the natural mineral wealth began to be exploited with ore being sent out to charcoal furnaces in nearby Cannock Chase. The iron product was then returned to be turned into small metal goods. Nails were a common product and by the end of 17th century Willenhall had a healthy hand trade, making grid irons, curry combs, bolts, latches and coffin handles. According to the Hearth Tax Returns in 1665, Willenhall comprised 136 households and 894 persons. The population did not increase dramatically until the 18th century when iron and coal began to be fully exploited. The town grew up around the Market Place and Stafford Street with many tiny streets crammed with houses, workshops and pubs. Evidence of the town's growing prosperity is still visible today in the Dale House, once the home of the Hincks family, and 33 Market Place, the home of the Clemsons, both maltsters.

Willenhall suffered its very own great fire in 1659, when most of the town centre was devastated. Most common homes at this time were still made of wattle and daub with glassless wind-eyes (windows), properties easily razed by fire. Rebuilding where money allowed was in brick; The Bell Inn Public House being a good surviving example from 1660, although now closed for business and in the ownership of a local heritage trust (the Willenhall Townscape Heritage Initiative).

Willenhall's first workhouse opened in 1741 adjacent to what is now Upper Lichfield Street; it was in operation for 100 years before merging with Wolverhampton. By 1801, the population was 3,143.

Poor housing and lack of any proper sanitation led to a cholera epidemic in 1849 when 292 people died. Many of those who died were buried in the Cholera Burial Ground "on land at the bottom of Doctors Piece." A commemorative plaque at the site reads:"THE PARISH OF WILLENHALL WAS VISITED BY CHOLERA IN 1849.THE FIRST DEATH BY THAT DISEASE TOOK PLACE ON THE 17TH AUGUST, THE LAST ON 4TH OCTOBER. IN 49 DAYS 292 PERSONS DIED, THE CHURCHYARD OF ST GILES BEING TOO CROWDED FOR FURTHER INTERMENT, THIS GROUND, A PORTION OF THE CHURCH ESTATE WAS (WHILE YET UNCONSECRATED) FIRST USED FOR BURIALS ON THE FIRST OF SEPTEMBER. ON THREE DAYS THE BURIALS WERE 15 DAILY THE WHOLE NUMBER INTERRED HERE AND IN THE CHURCHYARD BEING 211."

The epidemic shocked the town into improving conditions, and in 1854 the Willenhall Local Board of Health was founded: to reflect a growth in civic pride, it established a library building in Clemson Street in 1866. The board was a forerunner of Willenhall Urban District Council which took over in 1894.

The clock in the Market Place was erected in 1892 by public subscription to the memory of Joseph Tonks, who was a doctor working in the town post-cholera. About the clock, Hackwood writes: "This was erected, as an inscription upon it testifies, as a memorial to the late Joseph Tonks, surgeon. 'whose generous and unsparing devotion in the cause of alleviating human suffering' was 'deemed worthy of public record.'"

Tonks brought both health and sanitation to Willenhall, but died at the age of 35.

20th century
By 1901, the population of "Willenhall, minus Short Heath" was 18,515.

Football came to Willenhall on 4 September 1905 when Spring Bank Stadium was opened in Temple Road, serving Willenhall Swifts F.C., whose first opponents in a friendly at the stadium were the Football League side Birmingham City. The club merged with Willenhall Pickwicks in 1919 to form Willenhall F.C., who achieved swift success as Birmingham and District League champions in 1922. However, the club soon fell into financial problems and went into liquidation in 1930. Spring Bank Stadium was sold and converted into a greyhound track, which remained open until 1980. It was demolished soon afterwards and replaced by housing.

Football returned to Willenhall in 1953 with the formation of Willenhall Town F.C., who played at a site on Noose Lane until 2013 and played in the local leagues until 2022. Since 2010, the Noose Lane ground has been owned by, and the home of, local league club Sporting Khalsa F.C.

Two war memorials were erected in the town after World War I to commemorate the hundreds of men from the town who lost their lives in the conflict. The memorial park was opened in 1922 in honour of those killed in that war.

The entertainment industry in Willenhall was boosted in 1914 by the opening of the town's first cinema, the Coliseum. It was followed a year later by the Picture House. A third cinema, the Dale Cinema, opened in the town in 1932. However, the closure of The Dale at the end of 1967 signalled the end of cinemas in Willenhall after 53 years. The building was later converted into a bingo hall and since December 1999 has been a J D Wetherspoon public house.

The growing population of Willenhall around the turn of the 20th century led to increased overcrowding and a need for new properties to be built. In 1920, the town's first council houses were built in Temple Road. Over the next 50 years or so, thousands of new private and council houses were built, mostly expanding on developments up to three miles north of the town centre. Willenhall Town Hall was completed in 1935 and public baths were erected in 1939.

The majority of Willenhall became part of Walsall Metropolitan Borough in 1966. However, a percentage, mainly Portobello, came under the jurisdiction of City of Wolverhampton Council, and still continues to be so.

By the late 1970s, the local industry was in decline, and by the year 2000 most of the town's lock-makers had closed or relocated. The former Yale factory was demolished in 2009 and replaced by a Morrisons supermarket which opened in January 2010.

However, the town's high street retains many of its old buildings which have been local landmarks since the turn of the 20th century or earlier.

Future
"Much of the town centre is a designated conservation area and a £2.1 million bid for the Heritage Lottery funding is being prepared ... to fund enhancements to local buildings." So, within the next few years Willenhall Town Centre is set to undergo some regeneration. Currently the outskirts of the town centre are lined with abandoned factories, although most have been demolished and will be replaced with new flats. The part currently includes a Morrisons branch along with Lidl, Tesco and Spar within its borders.

There are plans to reopen Willenhall Bilston Street railway station to passengers in 2024.

Parish churches
The town of Willenhall is the home of four different parish churches of the Church of England: St. Giles', St. Stephen's, St. Anne's, and Holy Trinity. St. Giles' did not originally have its own ecclesiastical district: before 1846 it was a Chapel of Ease to the mother church of St. Peter's, Wolverhampton. The chapel was for those who could not afford to go to Wolverhampton to worship, baptize or marry.

St. Giles' Chapel was the most ancient chapel in the town of Willenhall. It was considered a chapel of ease before 1846 and was probably built "at the commencement of the 14th century." "The medieval church was demolished in 1748" because it began to decay from old age. The new church was completed in about two years and in 1750, the new church was again open for worship. In 1848, it became a parish church of the Church of England in Willenhall. St. Stephen's and Holy Trinity were finished in 1854, and St. Anne's was built about 10 years later.

The Parish Church of St. Stephen's is named after St. Stephen the Martyr. The church register began in 1848, but it took six years to fund the building of the church. After funds were raised, it was built and then consecrated on 31 October 1854. In the second half of the 20th century, the church began to deteriorate because of dry rot, and it was demolished in 1978. Because of the deterioration of the church, work began on a new church in January 1977, and it was dedicated on 8 September 1979. Many of the statues from the original church were brought into the new one.

St Anne's Church was also built as a chapel of ease in 1858, but it became a Parish church in 1861. "In the 1970s the church interior was turned around by 90degrees, a raised dais being built on the south wall, with a new altar, the old Sanctuary becoming the Lady Chapel." However, after restoration in the 21st century, most of the lead was then stolen from its roof.

Holy Trinity Church, in Short Heath, was consecrated on 25 July 1855. The parish of Holy Trinity had been established in 1846, and services were held in rooms in the area until the church, a sandstone building designed by W. Horton, was built. It was financed mostly by Daniel Bagnall, owner of the Coltham Iron and Coal Company, Mr Barnabas and Sons, and Joseph Samuel Junior. It has a nave, aisles and a chancel, and a turret with one bell.

Industry
Willenhall is famous for the manufacture of locks, and the Locksmith's House (The Lock Museum), dating from Victorian times, demonstrates how one particular family of lockmakers lived and worked at the very beginning of the 20th century. This small museum is managed by the Black Country Living Museum and is open for pre-arranged group visits, including educational programmes for schools. The Locksmith's House is situated in New Road.

To make trading easier, the New Road (a toll road) was built before 1820, acting as an effective bypass for the main high street. Outside the town itself, settlements grew up around local industries. The area around Lane Head and Sandbeds had a thriving mining community and Portobello grew around the brickmaking industry. There was much coal mining in the Willenhall area until the 19th century when the industry came to a dramatic halt after a strike when the mines were flooded and lost forever. Lockmaking began in the area in Elizabethan times mainly in Wolverhampton, Willenhall and Bilston. Eventually it became concentrated in Willenhall, where lock making had begun as a cottage industry with many families producing locks and parts for locks in sheds or outhouses at the rear of their homes. Because long hours bending over their work tended to produce workers with humps on their backs, the town became known locally as 'Humpshire' and is still regarded as such with affection by many locals.

As late as 1956 there were still local men who had humps. Some public houses even had holes in the wall behind the wooden bench seats to allow their patrons to sit comfortably with their hump in the hole. Nearly all examples of such pubs have been lost. The Bell Inn in Market Street is an example of such a pub with curved holes in the walls to allow hump backed drinkers to sit up straight. Rushbrook's was a bakery in Market Street, Willenhall. In 1853, Rushbrook's struck their own "Rushbrook Farthing", a tradesman's token widely in use in the area. In the early 1960s the Spring Vale Tavern in St Anne's Road was renamed The Rushbrook Farthing in remembrance of this unusual practice.

Public transport
Willenhall is well served by buses. The town centre lies on the 529 Bus route, which links Walsall and Wolverhampton running every 7 to 10 minutes on average during weekdays and every 15 - 30 minutes at other times, including evening and Sundays. Other local bus routes link the town to Ashmore Park, Wednesfield, Wednesbury, Darlaston, Bilston and Bloxwich as well as the local areas of Coppice Farm, Pool Hayes, Short Heath, Lodge Farm, New Invention, Bentley, Portobello and Lane Head.

There is no central bus station, although all routes can be accessed at two main points - the 'Market Place' stops and Lower Lichfield Street stop (near the Morrisons Store). These act somewhat as interchange points.

25, 37, 41 and 529 bus routes are operated by National Express West Midlands, whilst 57, 303, 310 and 326 are operated by Diamond West Midlands.

Willenhall is poorly served by other modes of public transport. Both of the town's two railway stations (Willenhall Bilston Street railway station and Willenhall Stafford Street railway station) have been closed for over 40 years, and although plans were brought to reopen Bilston Street, this never materialised due to the withdrawal of funding for the rail line it would serve. The station at Bilston Street was set to reopen by the end of 2021 after securing funding in March 2018, and will be the first time Willenhall has had a rail connection since 1965.

Willenhall is currently not served by the West Midlands Metro light rail network, but one of the numerous expansion plans for the system is the 5 W's Route, which would link Willenhall with Wednesfield, Wolverhampton, Wednesbury and Walsall and via Darlaston, Bentley, Reedswood, Birchills, New Cross Hospital, Walsall Manor Hospital and Heath Town. Currently, there are some plans to create a line from Stourbridge to Wednesfield via Willenhall, however this is not planned to open or even start construction until at least the late 2020s, once the other 3 metro lines are open.

Road infrastructure
Willenhall is about 10 minutes drive away from Junction 10 of the M6. Many main roads run through the area including The Keyway (which runs from Willenhall to Wolverhampton/Willenhall border) and the A454, The Black Country Route.

Due to its central location, Willenhall is home to the main hubs of Poundland as well as transport companies Aspray and DX Freight. Additionally, dairy firm Müller Milk & Ingredients has a depot in the Ashmore Lake area of the town.

Location
Willenhall is located in between Wolverhampton and Walsall, near to Bilston, Darlaston, Bloxwich and Wednesfield.

Landmarks
The main landmarks include: The Locksmith's House museum in New Road; the cholera burial ground in Doctors Piece; St Giles Church; the bandstand in Willenhall Park; the Clock Tower, The Bell Inn, the malthouse (now Davey's Locker shop), and the Lock and Key sculptures in the market place; Dale House (now a restaurant) and the Dale cinema (now a Wetherspoon's pub); the Toll House (now a restaurant), and the old Town Hall (now the library) in Walsall Street.

Education
Willenhall is home to three secondary schools. St Thomas More Catholic School is located near to the border of Bilston and Darlaston, Willenhall E-Act Academy (formerly known as Willenhall Comprehensive School, which moved from Bilston Road) and is now located on the town's Lodge Farm estate. Finally Pool Hayes Academy (formerly known as Pool Hayes Arts and Community School) is located on the town's Summer Hayes Estate. There is also Moseley Park school located on the Moseley road in Willenhall, near Portobello, and Stow Heath Primary School.

For younger students in Willenhall there are numerous primary schools, these are:
 * Fibbersley Park Academy – A recently built Super School located near Willenhall Park, made up of the merger of Clothier Street, Little London & Lakeside Primary now closed. Fibbersley Park Academy had an extension in 2016* increasing the year groups from 60 to 90 pupils.
 * Short Heath Junior School, Rosedale CofE Primary School & Lane Head Nursery School – Three federated schools located on the outskirts of the Lodge Farm Estate & Lane Head.
 * Barcroft School – The product of the recent merger of Elm Street Infants and Albion Road Juniors. Located near Willenhall Town Centre albion road and barcroft have been demolished
 * Woodlands Primary – Located in the Short Heath area of the town, very near to Lane Head.
 * Lodge Farm Primary – Located next to Willenhall School Sports College, very near the border with Bentley.
 * New Invention Junior/Infants – Two high achieving schools located next to each other in New Invention
 * Beacon Primary – A large school located in the middle of the New Invention Estate.
 * St. Giles CofE Primary School – A combined nursery, infant and primary school located next the St. Giles church on Walsall Street in the town centre
 * Pool Hayes Primary School – Located on the Summer Hayes estate. Not far from Pool Hayes Academy.

Media
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC West Midlands and ITV Central. Television signals are received from the Sutton Coldfield TV transmitter. Local radio stations are BBC Radio WM, Heart West Midlands, Capital Midlands, Smooth West Midlands, Greatest Hits Radio Black Country & Shropshire, Free Radio Black Country & Shropshire, and WCR FM, a community based station which broadcast from nearby Wolverhampton. The town is served by the local newspaper, Express & Star.

Football
The town has two football clubs.Willenhall Town F.C. who play in West Midlands (Regional) League Division One and Sporting Khalsa F.C. who play in Northern Premier League Division One Midlands, after being promoted as champions in the 2020–21 Midland Football League.

In the 2005/06 season Willenhall won the Birmingham Senior Cup with a 1–0 win over Stourbridge. Their most successful period was in the early 1980s, when they reached the first round of the FA Cup in the 1981–82 season and were FA Vase runners-up in 1981.

Sporting Kalsha won the West Midland Premier League in 2014–15 and reached the 4th Qualifying round of the FA Cup, losing 3–1 at home to F.C. United of Manchester in front of over 2,200 spectators.

Rugby
Willenhall also has its own rugby union football club, formed by some employees of Rubery Owen in 1966. They are based in nearby Essington.

Greyhound racing
Willenhall Greyhound Stadium operated from 1932 to 1980.

Neighbourhoods

 * Short Heath
 * New Invention
 * Lodge Farm
 * Poet's Estate
 * Rough Wood
 * Coppice Farm
 * Portobello
 * Fibbersley
 * Allens Rough
 * Little London
 * The Crescent
 * The Summers
 * St Anne's
 * Manor Farm
 * County Bridge
 * Summer Hayes
 * Sneyd
 * Scholars Heath
 * Rose Hill
 * Lakeside
 * Park Side
 * St Giles
 * Lane Head
 * Neachells

Recreational

 * Willenhall Memorial Park
 * Fibbersley Nature Trail and Reserve
 * Rough Wood Chase
 * The Summers
 * Coppice Farm Open Space
 * Old Bentley Canal walk
 * Short Heath Park

Twin towns
Willenhall is twinned with:
 * Drancy, France. An alliance agreement was signed by the then mayors in charge, namely Chaiman. Williams and his French counterpart Mr Nilès at the City Hall of Drancy on 29 November 1959. In 2019, a Willenhall delegation was sent over to celebrate the Alliance's 60th anniversary. A road in Willenhall was named Drancy Avenue.

title: Willenhall


text:
Mauritanian ouguiya

The ouguiya (أوقية موريتانية ; sign: UM; code: MRU), at one time spelled "ougiya", is the currency of Mauritania. Each ouguiya constitutes five khoums (meaning "one fifth").

The current ouguiya was introduced in 2018, replacing the old ouguiya at a rate of 1 new ouguiya = 10 old ouguiya, which in turn replaced the CFA franc at a rate of 1 old ouguiya = 5 francs. The name ouguiya (أوقية) is the Hassaniya Arabic pronunciation of uqiyyah أُوقِية), meaning "ounce".

Coins
In 1973, coins of $1/5$ (1 khoums), 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 ouguiya were introduced into circulation. This was the only year that the khoums was minted, as the ouguiya was worth five CFA Francs a khoums was the equivalent of the franc (which had no subdivision). The most recent issues were in 2003 (1 ouguiya) and 2004 (other denominations). Coins are minted at the Kremnica mint in Slovakia. The coinage slightly changed in 2009, with a reduced 1 ouguiya in plated composition and a bi-metallic 20 ouguiya issued. A bi-metallic 50 ouguiya was issued December 2010.

Banknotes
In 1973, notes were issued by the Central Bank of Mauritania (Banque Centrale de Mauritanie) in denominations of 100, 200 and 1,000 ouguiya. In 1974, a second series of notes was issued in the same denominations, with 500-ouguiya notes added in 1979. Banknotes have been printed by Giesecke & Devrient in Munich, starting with the second issue. New banknotes and new coins were introduced in 2004. These notes have completely new fronts and the vignettes on the backs have been redesigned to accommodate the reduction in size. The 2,000-ouguiya denomination is entirely new.

All but the 100 and 200 ouguiya notes have the denomination expressed in Arabic numerals in a holographic patch at right front. The serial numbers for all denominations now appear horizontally at upper left and lower center, and vertically at far right, all formatted with a 2-character prefix, 7-digit serial number, and 1-character suffix.

An entirely new 5,000-ouguiya denomination dated 28 November 2009 was introduced on 8 August 2010, followed by a redesigned 2,000-ouguiya note dated 28 November 2011 issued on 1 February 2012.

Second ouguiya (MRU)
On 5 December 2017, the Central Bank of Mauritania announced a redenomination of its currency at a rate of 1:10. As part of the redenomination, a new series of coins were issued in denominations of 1 khoums ($1/5$ ouguiya), 1, 5, 10 and 20 ouguiya, with the latter being struck as a tri-metallic coin and a new series of banknotes in denominations of 50, 100, 200, 500 and 1,000 ouguiya. The new ouguiya banknotes issued for the redenomination are printed entirely in polymer. As a consequence of this change, the ISO Currency Codes for the ouguiya were amended to MRU / 929 and the existing codes of MRO / 478 were retired as per ISO 4217 Amendment Number 165 dated 14 December 2017. A 2 ouguiya coin was issued into circulation in 2018, serving as an intermediate denomination for the 1 and 5 ouguiya coins already in circulation. On 28 November 2021, the Central Bank of Mauritania issued a 20 ouguiya banknote, co-circulating with the coin of the same denomination in circulation. On 15 June 2023, the Central Bank of Mauritania issued a new 50 ouguiya banknote in celebration of 50 years of the circulation of the ouguiya in Mauritania, co-circulating with the previous banknote of the same denomination.

title: Mauritanian ouguiya


text:
Culpeo

The culpeo (Lycalopex culpaeus), also known as Culpeo zorro, Andean zorro, Andean fox, Paramo wolf, Andean wolf, and colpeo fox, is a species of South American fox. Despite the name, it is not a true fox, but more closely related to wolves and jackals. Its appearance resembles that of foxes due to convergent evolution.

The culpeo's diet consists largely of rodents, rabbits, birds and lizards, and to a lesser extent, plant material and carrion. They may prey on Andean flamingos and baby vicuña. The culpeo occasionally attacks sheep and is, therefore, often hunted or poisoned. In some regions, it has become rare, but overall the species is not threatened with extinction.

The culpeo was domesticated by the Selk'nam people of Tierra del Fuego, producing the Fuegian dog which became extinct in the late 19th or early 20th century.

Description

The culpeo is a canid intermediate in size between a red fox and a coyote. It is the second-largest native canid on the continent after the maned wolf. In appearance, it bears many similarities to the widely recognized red fox. It has grey and reddish fur, a white chin, reddish legs and a stripe on its back that may be barely visible. The average weight of the male is 11.4 kg, while the typically smaller females average 8.4 kg. Overall, a weight range of 5 to 13.5 kg has been reported. Total length can range from 94 to 133 cm, including a tail of 32 to 44 cm in length. The pelt has a grizzled appearance. The neck and shoulders are often tawny to rufous in color, while the upper back is dark. The bushy tail has a black tip.

Range
The culpeo's range extends from the southern regions of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego in the south to Ecuador and Peru in the north, with some populations extending into southern Colombia. It is also found in the Sierras Grandes mountain range in Córdoba, Argentina. It is most common on the western slopes of the Andes, where it inhabits open country and deciduous forests.

Habitat
The culpeo lives in a wide variety of habitats of western South America. They are found in broadleaf Nothofagus temperate rainforest, sclerophyllous matorral, deserts, chaparrals, and plateaus, like the Altiplano, up to the tree line (4800 m).

Diet
The culpeo is an opportunistic predator that will take any variety of prey. It mainly feeds on rodents (including common degus) and lagomorphs (especially the introduced European rabbit and European hare); however, it occasionally feeds on domestic livestock and young guanacos. They will also feed on insects, birds, lizards, fruit, and carrion of llamas and vicuñas. Culpeos are considered beneficial because they are significant predators of the rabbits introduced in 1915; such introduced rabbit populations are believed to have allowed culpeos to spread from the Andean foothills across the Patagonian plain. They sometimes take young lambs up to 1 week old. In limited studies, the larger culpeo appears to dominate potential competitors, including South American gray foxes, Geoffroy's cats, pampas cats, grisons and various raptorial birds. In the southeastern Argentine Patagonia region, culpeos generally tend to consume more of the introduced European hare than the South American gray fox does year-round, while the gray fox tends to consume more rodents. However, during colder seasons, the culpeo's diet overlaps more with the gray fox due to a lack of variety in prey, thus causing prey partitioning as the culpeos use their size advantage to exclude the gray fox from areas with higher concentrations of prey. Its range also overlaps that of the much larger puma, but the size difference ensures that the two species have limited competition. They are known to eat the carcasses of vicuñas. Culpeos have also been observed preying upon introduced beavers in Tierra del Fuego. During a period of drought in central Chile's scrublands lagomorphs, coati, goats, and cattle make up a large amount of their diet.

Reproduction
The typical mating period is between August and October. After a gestation period of 55–60 days, the female gives birth usually to between two and five pups.

Taxonomy
The taxonomy of the culpeo has been the topic of debate due to their high phenetic variability and the scarcity of research, among other things. Over the past three decades, they have been placed variably in the genera Dusicyon (Clutton-Brock, et al., 1976; Wozencraft, 1989), Canis (Langguth, 1975; Van Gelder, 1978), Pseudalopex (Berta, 1987; Wozencraft, 1993; Tedford et al., 1995) and Lycalopex (Zunino, 1995; Wozencraft, 2005).

This canid, like other South American foxes, is still sometimes classified as a member of the genus Pseudalopex. As Pseudalopex and Lycalopex have largely come to describe the same genus, either classification is acceptable, although the modern practice is to give Lycalopex prominence.

title: Culpeo


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International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants

The International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN or ICNafp) is the set of rules and recommendations dealing with the formal botanical names that are given to plants, fungi and a few other groups of organisms, all those "traditionally treated as algae, fungi, or plants". It was formerly called the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN); the name was changed at the International Botanical Congress in Melbourne in July 2011 as part of the Melbourne Code which replaced the Vienna Code of 2005.

The current version of the code is the Shenzhen Code adopted by the International Botanical Congress held in Shenzhen, China, in July 2017. As with previous codes, it took effect as soon as it was ratified by the congress (on 29 July 2017), but the documentation of the code in its final form was not published until 26 June 2018. For fungi the Code was revised by the San Juan Chapter F in 2018.

The name of the Code is partly capitalized and partly not. The lower-case for "algae, fungi, and plants" indicates that these terms are not formal names of clades, but indicate groups of organisms that were historically known by these names and traditionally studied by phycologists, mycologists, and botanists. This includes blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria); fungi, including chytrids, oomycetes, and slime moulds; photosynthetic protists and taxonomically related non-photosynthetic groups. There are special provisions in the ICN for some of these groups, as there are for fossils.

The ICN can only be changed by an International Botanical Congress (IBC), with the International Association for Plant Taxonomy providing the supporting infrastructure. Each new edition supersedes the earlier editions and is retroactive back to 1753, except where different starting dates are specified.

For the naming of cultivated plants there is a separate code, the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, which gives rules and recommendations that supplement the ICN.

Principles

 * Botanical nomenclature is independent of zoological, bacteriological, and viral nomenclature (see Nomenclature codes).
 * A botanical name is fixed to a taxon by a type. This is almost invariably dried plant material and is usually deposited and preserved in a herbarium, although it may also be an image or a preserved culture. Some type collections can be viewed online at the websites of the herbaria in question.
 * A guiding principle in botanical nomenclature is priority, the first publication of a name for a taxon. The formal starting date for purposes of priority is 1 May 1753, the publication of Species Plantarum by Linnaeus. However, to avoid undesirable (destabilizing) effects of strict enforcement of priority, conservation of family, genus, and species names is possible.
 * The intent of the Code is that each taxonomic group ("taxon", plural "taxa") of plants has only one correct name that is accepted worldwide, provided that it has the same circumscription, position and rank. The value of a scientific name is that it is an identifier; it is not necessarily of descriptive value.
 * Names of taxa are treated as Latin.
 * The rules of nomenclature are retroactive unless there is an explicit statement that this does not apply.

History
The rules governing botanical nomenclature have a long and tumultuous history, dating back to dissatisfaction with rules that were established in 1843 to govern zoological nomenclature. The first set of international rules was the Lois de la nomenclature botanique ("Laws of botanical nomenclature") that was adopted as the "best guide to follow for botanical nomenclature" at an "International Botanical Congress" convened in Paris in 1867. Unlike modern Codes, it contained recommendations for naming to serve as the basis for discussions on the controversial points of nomenclature, rather than obligatory rules for validly published and legitimate names within the Code. It was organized as six sections with 68 articles in total.

Multiple attempts to bring more "expedient" or more equitable practice to botanical nomenclature resulted in several competing codes, which finally reached a compromise with the 1930 congress. In the meantime, the second edition of the international rules followed the Vienna congress in 1905. These rules were published as the Règles internationales de la Nomenclature botanique adoptées par le Congrès International de Botanique de Vienne 1905 (or in English, International rules of Botanical Nomenclature adopted by the International Botanical Conference of Vienna 1905). Informally they are referred to as the Vienna Rules (not to be confused with the Vienna Code of 2006).

Some but not all subsequent meetings of the International Botanical Congress have produced revised versions of these Rules, later called the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, and then International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.

The Nomenclature Section of the 18th International Botanical Congress in Melbourne, Australia (2011) made major changes:
 * The Code now permits electronic-only publication of names of new taxa; no longer will it be a requirement to deposit some paper copies in libraries.
 * The requirement for a Latin validating diagnosis or description was changed to allow either English or Latin for these essential components of the publication of a new name (Article 39).
 * "One fungus, one name" and "one fossil, one name" are important changes; the concepts of anamorph and teleomorph (for fungi) and morphotaxa (for fossils) have been eliminated.
 * As an experiment with "registration of names", new fungal descriptions require the use of an identifier from "a recognized repository"; there are two recognized repositories so far, Index Fungorum and MycoBank.

Versions
All the versions are listed below.


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Dusicyon

Dusicyon is an extinct genus of South American canids.

Taxonomy
The type species is Dusicyon australis, the Falkland Islands wolf. In 1914, Oldfield Thomas established this genus, in which he included the culpeo and other South American foxes. These other canids were removed to Lycalopex by Langguth in 1975. There is still much debate about the classification of Dusicyon cultridens. It has been suggested that this species be placed in the genera Canis or Lycalopex. This debate makes D. cultridens poorly researched.

Extinctions
Dusicyon avus, widely distributed in the late Pleistocene from Uruguay through Buenos Aires Province to southernmost Chile, is the closest known relative of the Falkland Islands wolf; the two lineages split only about 16,000 years ago. It died out in the late Holocene, earlier estimates suggested about 2,980 years ago on the island of Tierra del Fuego and almost 1,700 years ago in the continent. More recent research confirms much later extinction dates, with the latest confirmed records in the Pampean Region being 700 BP (1232–1397 AD) and southernmost Patagonia at 400 years BP (1454–1626 AD).

title: Dusicyon


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Percy Williams Bridgman

Percy Williams Bridgman (April 21, 1882 – August 20, 1961) was an American physicist who received the 1946 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the physics of high pressures. He also wrote extensively on the scientific method and on other aspects of the philosophy of science. The Bridgman effect, the Bridgman–Stockbarger technique, and the high-pressure mineral bridgmanite are named after him.

Early life
Bridgman was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and grew up in nearby Auburndale.

Bridgman's parents were both born in New England. His father, Raymond Landon Bridgman, was "profoundly religious and idealistic" and worked as a newspaper reporter assigned to state politics. His mother, Mary Ann Maria Williams, was described as "more conventional, sprightly, and competitive".

Bridgman attended both elementary and high school in Auburndale, where he excelled at competitions in the classroom, on the playground, and while playing chess. Described as both shy and proud, his home life consisted of family music, card games, and domestic and garden chores. The family was deeply religious; reading the Bible each morning and attending a Congregational Church. However, Bridgman later became an atheist.

Education and professional life
Bridgman entered Harvard University in 1900, and studied physics through to his PhD. From 1910 until his retirement, he taught at Harvard, becoming a full professor in 1919. In 1905, he began investigating the properties of matter under high pressure. A machinery malfunction led him to modify his pressure apparatus; the result was a new device enabling him to create pressures eventually exceeding 100,000 kgf/cm2 (10 GPa; 100,000 atmospheres). This was a huge improvement over previous machinery, which could achieve pressures of only 3,000 kgf/cm2 (0.3 GPa). This new apparatus led to an abundance of new findings, including a study of the compressibility, electric and thermal conductivity, tensile strength and viscosity of more than 100 different compounds. Bridgman is also known for his studies of electrical conduction in metals and properties of crystals. He developed the Bridgman seal and is the eponym for Bridgman's thermodynamic equations.

Bridgman made many improvements to his high-pressure apparatus over the years, and unsuccessfully attempted the synthesis of diamond many times.

His philosophy of science book The Logic of Modern Physics (1927) advocated operationalism and coined the term operational definition. In 1938 he participated in the International Committee composed to organise the International Congresses for the Unity of Science. He was also one of the 11 signatories to the Russell–Einstein Manifesto.

J. Robert Oppenheimer, the director of the Manhattan Project, was an undergraduate student of Bridgman's. Of his teaching abilities, Oppenheimer said that, “I found Bridgman a wonderful teacher because he never really was quite reconciled to things being the way they were and he always thought them out.”

Home life and death
Bridgman married Olive Ware (1882-1972), of Hartford, Connecticut, in 1912. Ware's father, Edmund Asa Ware, was the founder and first president of Atlanta University. The couple had two children and were married for nearly 50 years, living most of that time in Cambridge. The family also had a summer home in Randolph, New Hampshire, where Bridgman was known as a skilled mountain climber.

Bridgman was a "penetrating analytical thinker" with a "fertile mechanical imagination" and exceptional manual dexterity. He was a skilled plumber and carpenter, known to shun the assistance of professionals in these matters. He was also fond of music and played the piano, and took pride in his flower and vegetable gardens.

Bridgman committed suicide by gunshot after suffering from metastatic cancer for some time. His suicide note was a mere two sentences; "It isn't decent for society to make a man do this thing himself. Probably this is the last day I will be able to do it myself." Bridgman's words have been quoted by many in the assisted suicide debate.

Honors and awards
Bridgman received Doctors, honoris causa from Stevens Institute (1934), Harvard (1939), Brooklyn Polytechnic (1941), Princeton (1950), Paris (1950), and Yale (1951). He received the Bingham Medal (1951) from the Society of Rheology, the Rumford Prize from the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1919), the Elliott Cresson Medal (1932) from the Franklin Institute, the Gold Medal from Bakhuys Roozeboom Fund (founder Hendrik Willem Bakhuis Roozeboom) (1933) from the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Comstock Prize (1933) of the National Academy of Sciences.

Bridgman was a member of the American Physical Society and was its president in 1942. He was also a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and the National Academy of Sciences. He was a Foreign Member of the Royal Society and Honorary Fellow of the Physical Society of London.

The Percy W. Bridgman House, in Massachusetts, is a U.S. National Historic Landmark designated in 1975.

In 2014, the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification of the International Mineralogical Association approved the name bridgmanite for perovskite-structured (Mg,Fe)SiO3, the Earth's most abundant mineral, in honor of his high-pressure research.

title: Percy Williams Bridgman


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HVAC control system

HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning) equipment needs a control system to regulate the operation of a heating and/or air conditioning system. Usually a sensing device is used to compare the actual state (e.g. temperature) with a target state. Then the control system draws a conclusion what action has to be taken (e.g. start the blower).

Direct digital control
Central controllers and most terminal unit controllers are programmable, meaning the direct digital control program code may be customized for the intended use. The program features include time schedules, set points, controllers, logic, timers, trend logs, and alarms. The unit controllers typically have analog and digital inputs that allow measurement of the variable (temperature, humidity, or pressure) and analog and digital outputs for control of the transport medium (hot/cold water and/or steam). Digital inputs are typically (dry) contacts from a control device, and analog inputs are typically a voltage or current measurement from a variable (temperature, humidity, velocity, or pressure) sensing device. Digital outputs are typically relay contacts used to start and stop equipment, and analog outputs are typically voltage or current signals to control the movement of the medium (air/water/steam) control devices such as valves, dampers, and motors.

Groups of DDC controllers, networked or not, form a layer of systems themselves. This "subsystem" is vital to the performance and basic operation of the overall HVAC system. The DDC system is the "brain" of the HVAC system. It dictates the position of every damper and valve in a system. It determines which fans, pumps, and chiller run and at what speed or capacity. With this configurable intelligence in this "brain", we are moving to the concept of building automation.

Building automation system
More complex HVAC systems can interface to Building Automation System (BAS) to allow the building owners to have more control over the heating or cooling units. The building owner can monitor the system and respond to alarms generated by the system from local or remote locations. The system can be scheduled for occupancy or the configuration can be changed from the BAS. Sometimes the BAS is directly controlling the HVAC components. Depending on the BAS different interfaces can be used.

Today, there are also dedicated gateways that connect advanced VRV / VRF and Split HVAC Systems with Home Automation and BMS (Building Management Systems) controllers for centralized control and monitoring, obviating the need to purchase more complex and expensive HVAC systems. In addition, such gateway solutions are capable of providing remote control operation of all HVAC indoor units over the internet incorporating a simple and friendly user interface.

Cost and efficiency
Many people do not have a Heating, Ventilation, and Air Condition (HVAC) system in their homes because it is too expensive. However according to this article Save Money Through Energy Efficiency, HVAC is not as expensive as one may think it is.

This article Save Money Through Energy Efficiency tells us that the main thing to look for when shopping for a HVAC system is to make sure it runs efficiently. One thing to always look for when in the market of a new HVAC system is the energy guide sticker on the machine.

Although many might choose to not believe that sticker and that it is just there to help with the sales, history shows that many of the newer HVAC systems with the yellow energy guide stickers help save customers hundreds to thousands of dollars depending on how much they use their HVAC system.

On the yellow energy guide sticker on many of the newer systems, it displays the average cost to run that machine. Once a customer has found the perfect HVAC system, the customer should run it monthly if it is only put into use during specific times of year. It is recommended that if an HVAC system is not being used each month, that it should be turned on and left running for ten to fifteen minutes.

On the other hand if the customer is somebody who runs their HVAC system frequently, it is really important to maintain it. Maintenance on an HVAC system includes changing out the air filter, inspecting the areas where air intake takes place, and check for leaks.

Doing these three steps are super essential and is the key to keeping an HVAC system running for a long time. A customer should do these three steps every couple of months or when it is suspected problem with the HVAC system.

Some signs that could lead to a potential problem is if the HVAC system does not provide air cool enough.

That could be due to a leakage in the cooling fluids. Another sign that could mean that the HVAC system is not running perfectly fine is if there is a bad smell to the air that it is providing. That often means that the air filters need to be replaced. Changing the air filters on an HVAC system is really important because they are exposed to a lot of dust depending on where your HVAC system is and it could build up dust from simply just sitting in one's home.

Goals HVAC system installation
Source

Goal 1: Keep HVAC equipment and materials dry during construction and provide temperature and humidity control as required during the close-in phase of construction. HVAC System Installation

Goal 2: Install HVAC systems to effectively implement moisture control as specified in the design drawings and specifications. HVAC System Installation

Goal 3: Prepare operation and maintenance materials for continued performance of HVAC system moisture control.

Design, modeling, and marketing
Most HVAC systems are used for the same purpose but designed differently.

All HVAC systems have an intake, air filter, and air conditioning liquid. However, when designing HVAC systems, many engineers design it for a specific setting and/or purpose. When engineers are designing an HVAC system, they try their best to make it compact while still being able to perform at the highest level and experiment with different ways to make HVAC systems as efficient as possible.

History
The first HVAC controllers utilized pneumatic controls since engineers understood fluid control. Thus, the properties of steam and air were used to control the flow of heated or cooled air via mechanically controlled logic.

After the control of air flow and temperature was standardized, the use of electromechanical relays in ladder logic to switch dampers became standardized. Eventually, the relays became electronic switches, as transistors eventually could handle greater current loads. By 1985, pneumatic controls could no longer compete with this new technology although pneumatic control systems (sometimes decades old) are still common in many older buildings.

By the year 2000, computerized controllers were common. Today, some of these controllers can even be accessed by web browsers, which need no longer be in the same building as the HVAC equipment. This allows some economies of scale, as a single operations center can easily monitor multiple buildings.

title: HVAC control system


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Simulation (computer science)

In theoretical computer science a simulation is a relation between state transition systems associating systems that behave in the same way in the sense that one system simulates the other.

Intuitively, a system simulates another system if it can match all of its moves.

The basic definition relates states within one transition system, but this is easily adapted to relate two separate transition systems by building a system consisting of the disjoint union of the corresponding components.

Formal definition
Given a labelled state transition system ($$S$$, $$\Lambda$$, →), where $$S$$ is a set of states, $$\Lambda$$ is a set of labels and → is a set of labelled transitions (i.e., a subset of $$S \times \Lambda \times S$$), a relation $$R \subseteq S \times S$$ is a simulation if and only if for every pair of states $$(p,q)$$ in $$R$$ and all labels λ in $$\Lambda$$:

 * if $$p \overset{\lambda}{\rightarrow} p'$$, then there is $$q \overset{\lambda}{\rightarrow} q'$$ such that $$(p',q') \in R$$

Equivalently, in terms of relational composition:
 * $$R^{-1}\,;\, \overset{\lambda}{\rightarrow}\quad {\subseteq}\quad \overset{\lambda}{\rightarrow}\,;\, R^{-1}$$

Given two states $$p$$ and $$q$$ in $$S$$, $$p$$ can be simulated by $$q$$, written $$p \, \leq \, q$$, if and only if there is a simulation $$R$$ such that $$(p, q) \in R$$. The relation $$\leq$$ is called the simulation preorder, and it is the union of all simulations: $$(p,q) \in\,\leq\,$$ precisely when $$(p, q) \in R$$ for some simulation $$R$$.

The set of simulations is closed under union; therefore, the simulation preorder is itself a simulation. Since it is the union of all simulations, it is the unique largest simulation. Simulations are also closed under reflexive and transitive closure; therefore, the largest simulation must be reflexive and transitive. From this follows that the largest simulation—the simulation preorder—is indeed a preorder relation. Note that there can be more than one relation that is both a simulation and a preorder; the term simulation preorder refers to the largest one of them (which is a superset of all the others).

Two states $$p$$ and $$q$$ are said to be similar, written $$p \leq\geq q$$, if and only if $$p$$ can be simulated by $$q$$ and $$q$$ can be simulated by $$p$$. Similarity is thus the maximal symmetric subset of the simulation preorder, which means it is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive; hence an equivalence relation. However, it is not necessarily a simulation, and precisely in those cases when it is not a simulation, it is strictly coarser than bisimilarity (meaning it is a superset of bisimilarity). To witness, consider a similarity that is a simulation. Since it is symmetric, it is a bisimulation. It must then be a subset of bisimilarity, which is the union of all bisimulations. Yet it is easy to see that similarity is always a superset of bisimilarity. From this follows that if similarity is a simulation, it equals bisimilarity. And if it equals bisimilarity, it is naturally a simulation (since bisimilarity is a simulation). Therefore, similarity is a simulation if and only if it equals bisimilarity. If it does not, it must be its strict superset; hence a strictly coarser equivalence relation.

Similarity of separate transition systems
When comparing two different transition systems (S', Λ', →') and (S", Λ", →"), the basic notions of simulation and similarity can be used by forming the disjoint composition of the two machines, (S, Λ, →) with S = S' ∐ S", Λ = Λ' ∪ Λ" and → = →' ∪ →", where ∐ is the disjoint union operator between sets.

title: Simulation (computer science)