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Yamate

Yamate (山手) is the name of a historic neighbourhood in Naka-ku, Yokohama often referred to in English as The Bluff. The neighbourhood is famous as having been a foreigners' residential area in the Bakumatsu, Meiji and Taishō periods. While still dominantly residential in character, with views over downtown Yokohama, historic residential properties, ornamental gardens and public parks, the area is also a popular visitor destination.

History
When the Port of Yokohama first opened to foreign trade under the terms of the Treaty of Amity and Commerce in 1859, the foreigner's settlement was initially confined to a low-lying area known as Kannai. As commercial activity in the Kannai settlement rapidly outgrew the available space, construction on the elevated Yamate Bluff started in 1862. Initially a residential area for the foreign diplomatic community, one of the first structures to be built on the Bluff was the residence of the British Consul-General, Sir Rutherford Alcock.

British Military Garrison
From 1862 until 1875, British diplomatic and commercial interests were protected by a troop garrison stationed at Yamate at the crest of the hill overlooking the harbour, a location that now serves as Harbour View Park. After a series of attacks on the British legation at Yedo a military guard for British diplomats stationed at Yokohama was first established in 1860. In 1861 this small detachment was supplemented by Royal Marines from HMS Renard. Much larger numbers of troops of the 20th (East Devonshire) Regiment of the Foot arrived on troopship HMS Vulcan (1849) in January 1864, together with two companies of the 2nd Baloochees from the Bombay Native Infantry. A Royal Marine battalion arrived on 25 May 1864, aboard HMS Conqueror, bringing garrison troop numbers in that year to 1,700. In subsequent years these units were replaced by members of the 9th (East Norfolk),11th, 67th and the 10th (North Lincoln) Regiment of Foot.

Contemporary maps produced in 1864 indicate that officer and troop accommodation, a naval hospital, stores facilities and a large parade ground stretched from the modern park area overlooking the harbour as far as the current location of Christ Church, Yokohama. Team sports, notably cricket and rugby union, were introduced to Japan for the first time on the parade ground by British service personnel.

Conditions in the camp varied greatly; while the wooden huts of the 20th regiment afforded greater protection from the vagaries of the weather, bell tents assigned to the Marine Battalion provided little protection against the torrential rain and humidity of the Yokohama summer. Detailed Royal Navy medical records of the period reported frequent smallpox outbreaks among the troops and that a dysentery epidemic shortly after the arrival of the Marine Battalion in the summer of 1864 claimed the lives of 11 men.

During the same period the French diplomatic mission also had a smaller detachment of troops located at a site adjacent to its own consular property. A French military hospital was also established at the foot of the Yamate hill.

Historic Residential Properties
Over succeeding years during the Meiji era, many senior officers of the Kannai trading companies, oyatoi gaikokujin and the diplomatic representatives of other trading nations established homes in the neighbourhood.

Although many of the original foreign resident's accommodation and civic buildings were destroyed in the Great Kantō earthquake, a number of older Meiji and Taishō Period properties have been preserved and relocated to this neighbourhood. The buildings and their ornamental gardens are open to the public free of charge and serve as popular tourist attractions, many featuring tea rooms, art and seasonal ikebana exhibits. Current properties from the Meiji, Taishō and early Showa periods open to visitors include:

 * Diplomat's House (1910) designed for Japanese Ambassador Sadatsuchi Uchida by James McDonald Gardiner. Located adjacent to the Bluff 18 House in the Italian Garden Park.
 * The Ehrismann Residence (1927) designed by Antonin Raymond
 * Berrick Hall (1930) designed by Jay H. Morgan as the residence of a British trading merchant.
 * Former British Consul's Residence (1937) located in Harbour View Park
 * Yamate 111 House designed by Jay H. Morgan and the Yamate 234 house.

Sightseeing and local landmarks
The area features the campuses of Yokohama International School, Saint Maur International School and Ferris University. Additionally:

 * Harbour View Park
 * Yokohama Foreign General Cemetery established in 1859, contains graves and memorials to many prominent members of the Bakumatsu and Meiji Period foreign community. There is also a small museum on site with photographs and descriptions of individual community members and their contributions to the development of Yokohama.
 * Anglican, Christ Church first established in Yamashita-cho in 1863
 * Catholic, Sacred Heart Cathedral first established in Yamashita-cho in 1862
 * Protestant, Yokohama Union Church, with the first worship in 1963.
 * Kirin Park adjacent to the location of William Copeland's original Spring Valley Brewery, the first beer production facility of any notable size in Japan.
 * Yokohama Country & Athletic Club, Japan's oldest sporting and social club founded in 1868.
 * Former Negishi Racecourse. Constructed in 1866 as a replacement for the original 1862 Swamp Ground racecourse at the rear of the Kannai foreign settlement. Home to some of the earliest horse races in Japan, conducted in a recognisably European style. Horseracing came to and end at the site in 1942. Now a public park and home to a small museum of horseracing. The main grandstand designed in 1929 by American architect Jay H. Morgan is still a prominent landmark.
 * Italian Garden Park
 * Gaiety Theatre Museum, built on the site of the Gaiety Theatre established in 1866.
 * The Yokohama Cat Museum
 * The Yokohama Tin Toys Museum

The neighborhood still maintains a reputation as an exclusive residential district today, along with the Motomachi neighborhood located at the foot of the Yamate hill.

Transportation
Yamate is served by Motomachi-Chūkagai Station, the terminus of the Minatomirai Line subway. Pedestrian access to and from the station and the historic properties on the Yamate ridge road is facilitated by elevators and escalators rising directly from the station on Motomachi Shopping Street to America-yama Park.

Ishikawacho Station on the JR East Negishi Line provides alternative pedestrian access to sites such as the Italian Garden Park, Bluff 18 House and Ferris University. Yamate Station, also on the JR East Negishi Line, serves the Yokohama Country & Athletic Club and the site of the former Negishi Racecourse.

Education
The Yokohama Municipal Board of Education operates public elementary and junior high schools.

Most portions of Yamatecho are zoned to Motomachi Elementary School (元街小学校). However some portions (the following ban: 84-88, 104-176, 178, 188, and 241-245) are zoned to Kitagata Elementary School (北方小学校). The Motomachi Elementary zone and the portions of Yamatecho zoned to Kitagata Elementary are all zoned to Minato Junior High School (港中学校).

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Dongba

Dongba (Nakhi: ²dto¹mba, ) refers to both the religion and the priests of the Nakhi people of southwest China.

Role in society
Dongba is believed to have originated from the indigenous Tibetan Bon religion. According to Nakhi legend, these teachings first came to Yunnan from a Bon shaman from eastern Tibet named Dongba Shilo (丁巴什罗). The strong Tibetan influence can be seen today in the rituals and costumes of the Dongba priests, who invoke Bon spirits and are often adorned with pictures of Bon gods on their headgear.

Currently, the religion is deeply ingrained in Nakhi culture, with Dongba priests serving as the primary transmitters of traditional Nakhi culture, literature and the pictographic Dongba symbols. The priests also conduct a variety of rituals to propitiate the many gods and spirits which are believed to play an active part in the natural world. The core of the Dongba religion is based on the belief that both man and nature are two half-brothers born of two mothers and the same father.

Prior to Tibetan influence, it is suggested that the original Nakhi priests were female llü-bu. At that time, statues or religious images could be widely seen everywhere.

A complete annotated translation of ancient Nashi Dongba books, in 100 volumes, has been published.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dongba


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User talk:Jefflinn

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them; *How to edit a page *How to write a great article *Naming conventions *Manual of Style If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Alexandros 17:45, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

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User talk:E23~enwiki

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them; *How to edit a page *How to write a great article *Naming conventions *Manual of Style If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Alexandros 17:45, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Thank you! // E23 04:49, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC)

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Dongba symbols

The Dongba, Tomba or Tompa or Mo-so symbols are a system of pictographic glyphs used by the ²dto¹mba (Bon priests) of the Naxi people in southern China. In the Naxi language it is called ²ss ³dgyu 'wood records' or ²lv ³dgyu 'stone records'. The first artifacts with this script on them originate from approximately 30 AD.

The glyphs may be used as rebuses for abstract words which do not have glyphs. Dongba is largely a mnemonic system, and cannot by itself represent the Naxi language; different authors may use the same glyphs with different meanings, and it may be supplemented with the geba syllabary for clarification.

Origin and development
The Dongba script appears to be an independent ancient writing system, though presumably it was created in the environment of older scripts. According to Dongba religious fables, the Dongba script was created by the founder of the Bön religious tradition of Tibet, Tönpa Shenrab (Tibetan: ston pa gshen rab) or Shenrab Miwo (Tibetan: gshen rab mi bo), while traditional Naxi genealogies attribute the script to a 13th-century king named Móubǎo Āzōng. From Chinese historical documents, it is clear that dongba was used as early as the 7th century, during the early Tang dynasty. By the Song dynasty in the 10th century, dongba was widely used by the Naxi people. It continues to be used in certain areas; thus, it is the only pictographic writing system in the world still actively maintained.

Chinese historical documents referred to Naxi 納西 as Mosuo or Moso (麽些 mósuò, "tiny little"), The Dongba script was called Les Mo-So: Ethnographie des Mo-so Écriture by Jacques Bacot on 1913. Dongba means Priest. After the conclusion of the Chinese Communist Revolution in 1949, the use of Dongba was discouraged.

In 1957, the Chinese government implemented a Latin-based phonographic writing system for Naxi.

During the Cultural Revolution, thousands of manuscripts were destroyed. Paper and cloth writings were boiled into construction paste for building houses. About half of the dongba manuscripts that survive today had been taken from China to the United States, Germany and Spain.

Today Dongba is nearly extinct, and the Chinese government is trying to revive it in an attempt to preserve Naxi culture.

Usage
The script was originally used as a prompt for the recitation of ritual texts. For inventories, contracts, and letters, the geba script was used. Milnor concludes it is "unlikely that it [the Dongba script] would make the minor developmental leap to becoming a full-blown writing system. It arose a number of centuries ago to serve a particular ritual purpose. As its purpose need not expand to the realm of daily use among non-religious specialists—after all, literate Naxi today, as in the past, write in Chinese—at most it will presumably but continue to fulfill the needs of demon exorcism, amusing tourists and the like."

Tourists to southern China are likely to encounter Dongba in the Ancient City of Lijiang where many businesses are adorned with signs in three languages: Dongba, Chinese, and English.

Structure and form
Dongba is both pictographic and ideographic. There are about a thousand glyphs, but this number is fluid as new glyphs are coined. Priests drew detailed pictures to record information, and illustrations were simplified and conventionalized to represent not only material objects but also abstract ideas. Glyphs are often compounded to convey the idea of a particular word. Generally, as a mnemonic, only keywords are written; a single pictograph can be recited as different phrases or an entire sentence.

Examples of Dongba rebus include using a picture of two eyes (myə3) to represent fate (myə3), a rice bowl for both xa2 'food' and xa2 'sleep', and a picture of a goral (se3) stands in for an aspectual particle. It has two variants  (玛里玛莎文) and / (阮坷文).

Writing media and tools
The Naxi name of the script, 'wood and stone records', testifies that Dongba was once carved on stone and wood. Nowadays it is written on handmade paper, typically from the trees Daphne tangutica and D. retusa. The sheets are typically 28 by 14 cm, and are sewn together at the left edge, forming a book. The pages are ruled into four horizontal lines. Glyphs are written from left to right and top to bottom. Vertical lines are used to section off elements of the text (see image above), equivalent to sentences or paragraphs. Writing utensils include bamboo pens and black ink made from ash.

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Lijiang (disambiguation)

Lijiang is a city in China's Yunnan province.

Lijiang may also refer to:

 * Old Town of Lijiang, World Heritage Site, in downtown Lijiang
 * Li River or Lijiang (漓江), river in Guangxi
 * Lijiang, Hengnan County (栗江镇), town in Hunan
 * Lijiang, Yuanjiang County (澧江镇), town in and seat of Yuanjiang Hani, Yi and Dai Autonomous County, Yunnan
 * Lijiang pony, a pony from Lijiang, Yunnan
 * 14656 Lijiang, Main-belt asteroid

title: Lijiang (disambiguation)


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Endive

Endive is a leaf vegetable belonging to the genus Cichorium, which includes several similar bitter-leafed vegetables. Species include Cichorium endivia (also called endive), Cichorium pumilum (also called wild endive), and Cichorium intybus (also called chicory). Chicory includes types such as radicchio, puntarelle, and Belgian endive.

There is considerable confusion between Cichorium endivia and Cichorium intybus.

Cichorium endivia
There are two main varieties of cultivated C. endivia chicon:

 * Curly endive, or frisée (var. crispum). This type has narrow, green, curly outer leaves. It is sometimes called chicory in the United States and is called chicorée frisée in French. Further confusion results from the fact that frisée also refers to greens lightly wilted with oil.
 * Escarole, or broad-leaved endive (var. latifolia), has broad, pale green leaves and is less bitter than the other varieties. Varieties or names include broad-leaved Batavian endive, grumolo, scarola, and scarole. It is eaten like other greens, sauteed, chopped into soups and stews, or as part of a green salad.

Cichorium intybus
Cichorium intybus endive is popular in Europe, and is also known as leaf chicory.

Chemical constituents
Endive is rich in many vitamins and minerals, especially in folate and vitamins A and K, and is high in fiber. It also contains kaempferol.

title: Endive


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User:SEKIUCHI

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title: User:SEKIUCHI


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Wedding cake

A wedding cake is the traditional cake served at wedding receptions following dinner. In some parts of England, the wedding cake is served at a wedding breakfast; the 'wedding breakfast' does not mean the meal will be held in the morning, but at a time following the ceremony on the same day. In modern Western culture, the cake is usually on display and served to guests at the reception. Traditionally, wedding cakes were made to bring good luck to all guests and the couple. Nowadays, however, they are more of a centerpiece to the wedding and are not always even served to the guests. Some cakes are built with only a single edible tier for the bride and groom to share, but this is rare since the cost difference between fake and real tiers is minimal.

Basic information
Wedding cakes come in a variety of sizes, depending on the number of guests the cake will serve. Modern pastry chefs and cake designers use various ingredients and tools to create a cake that usually reflects the personalities of the couple. Marzipan, fondant, gum paste, buttercream, and chocolate are among the popular ingredients used. Cakes range in price along with size and components. Cakes are usually priced on a per-person, or per-slice, basis. Prices can range from a few dollars to a few hundred dollars per-person or slice, depending on the pastry chef who is hired to make the cake. Wedding cakes and cake decorating in general have become a certain pop culture symbol in western society. In the United States, reality television shows such as Cake Boss and Amazing Wedding Cakes have become popular and are trending in today's popular culture.

History
The first wedding cakes were probably made in ancient Greece.

The contemporary wedding cake has grown out of several different ethnic traditions. One of the first traditions began in Ancient Rome, where a cake of wheat or barley was broken over the bride's head to bring good fortune to the couple.

Early modern European wedding cakes
During the 16th century to the 17th century, the "bride's pie" was served at most weddings. Different from the modern sweet wedding cake, bride pie is savoury. Bride pie is a pie with pastry crust and filled an assortment of oysters, lamb testicles, pine kernels, and cocks' combs (from Robert May's 1685 recipe). For May's recipe, there is a compartment of bride pie which is filled with live birds or a snake for the guests to pass the time in a wedding when they cut up the pie at the table. Guests were expected to have a piece out of politeness. It was considered very rude and bad luck not to eat the bride's pie. One tradition of bride's pie was to place a glass ring in the middle of the dessert and the maiden who found it would be the next to marry, similar to the modern tradition of catching the flower bouquet.

In the 17th century, two cakes were made: one for the bride and one for the groom. The groom's cake would fall out of favour as the bride's cake became the main cake for the event. When the two cakes were served together, the groom's cake was typically the darker colored, rich fruit cake and generally much smaller than the bride's cake. The bride's cake was usually a simple pound cake with white icing because white was a sign of virginity and purity.

Wedding cake was originally a luxury item, and a sign of celebration and social status (the bigger the cake, the higher the social standing). Wedding cakes in England and early America were traditionally fruit cakes, often tiered and topped with marzipan and icing. Cutting the cake was an important part of the reception. White icing was also a symbol of money and social importance in Victorian times, so a white cake was highly desired. Today, many flavors and configurations are available in addition to the traditional all-white tiered cake.

In Medieval England cakes were stacked as high as possible for the bride and groom to kiss over. A successful kiss meant they were guaranteed a prosperous life together. From this the Croquembouche was created. The myth behind this cake tells of a pastry chef, visiting Medieval England who witnessed their tradition of piling sweet rolls between the bride and groom, which they attempted to kiss over without knocking them all down. The pastry chef then went back to France and piled sweet rolls up into a tower to make the first Croquembouche. The modern croquembouche is still very popular in France, where it is now common to place the croquembouche tower on a bed of cake and make it a top tier. This traditional French wedding cake is built from profiteroles and given a halo of spun sugar.

In 1703, Thomas Rich, a baker's apprentice from Ludgate Hill, fell in love with his employer's daughter and asked her to marry him. He wanted to make an extravagant cake, so he drew on St Bride's Church, on Fleet Street in London for inspiration.

Traditionally the bride would place a ring inside the couple's portion of the cake to symbolise acceptance of the proposal. Bride's pie would evolve into the bride's cake. At this point the dessert was no longer in the form of a pie and was sweeter than its predecessor. The bride cake was traditionally a plum or fruit cake. In the mid-18th century, double icing (covering the cake first with almond icing and then with white icing) was used on bride cake. The white-iced upper surface of the bride cake was used as a platform on which all sorts of scenes and emblems could be mounted. The decoration was often at least partially three-dimensional and colourful in appearance. However, since some decorations were made with a variety of substances, sometimes the decoration or even parts of wedding cake were inedible. The myth that eating the pie would bring good luck was still common, but the glass ring slowly fell out of favor as the flower bouquet toss replaced it.

Modern Western approach
The bride's cake would transform into the modern wedding cake we know today. In the early 19th century, sugar became easier to obtain during the time when the bride's cakes became popular. The more refined and whiter sugars were still very expensive, so only wealthy families could afford to have a very pure white frosting. This display would show the wealth and social status of the family. When Queen Victoria used white icing on her cake it gained a new title: royal icing.

The modern wedding cake as we know it now would originate at the 1882 wedding of Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany; his wedding cake was the first to actually be completely edible. Pillars between cake tiers did not begin to appear until about 20 years later. The pillars were very poorly made from broomsticks covered in icing. The tiers represented prosperity and were a status symbol because only wealthy families could afford to include them in the cake. Prince Leopold's wedding cake was created in separate layers with very dense icing. When the icing would harden the tiers could be stacked, a groundbreaking innovation for wedding cakes at the time. Modern wedding cakes still use this method, with an added form of support with dowels imbedded in the cake to help carry the load, especially of larger cakes.

Symbolism

Wedding cakes have been present at wedding ceremonies for centuries. They were not always the focus of the event and often came in different forms, like pies or bread. There has always been a lot of symbolism associated with the wedding cake. The earliest known sweet wedding cake is known as a Banbury cake, which became popular in 1655.

The white color has been attached to wedding ceremonies since the Victorian era when Queen Victoria chose to wear a white lace wedding dress at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840. Queen Victoria accentuated an existing symbol, the color white, being frequently associated with virginity and purity in Western culture. The wedding cake was originally known as the bride's cake; therefore, the color white became common because the cake needed to reflect the bride – and the expensive ingredients that the family was able to afford, such as refined white sugar.

The cutting of the cake is a task full of symbolism.

In China, the couple begins cutting a multi-tier cake from the lowest level and gives the first pieces to their parents and other ancestors as a symbolic way of honoring their place as the foundation of the family.

Superstitions
The wedding cake is surrounded by superstitions. In a traditional American wedding, maidens would be invited to pull ribbons that are attached to the bottom layer of the wedding cake. Out of all the ribbons, only one contains a charm or a ring, and whoever gets the charm will be the next person to marry. In other countries, the wedding cake is broken over the bride's head to ensure fertility and bring good fortune to the couple. Also, some people today think that eating the crumbs of the wedding cake would give them good luck because the wedding cake symbolizes happiness and good life to the newlywed couple.

There are also myths that bridesmaids have on dreaming of their future husbands. Hopeful bridesmaids would take a piece of cake home and place it under the pillow. Some bridesmaids would sleep with the pieces of cake in their left stocking and the rest under their pillows after passing the pieces of cake through the bride's wedding ring.

In the medieval era, wedding cakes were constructed in rolls and buns that were laid on top of each other. The groom and bride would attempt to share a kiss on top of the stack of rolls to ensure fertility and have good fortune.

Types of wedding cakes
Different types of cakes have been popular in different countries and at different times. In some countries, such as Italy, different couples choose different types of cake, according to their preferences. In others, a single type is chosen by most people. Even when a type is preferred within a culture, the preferred type may change significantly over time. For example, the traditional wedding cake in Korea was a rice cake topped with a powder made from red beans, but now guests are likely to see a sponge cake and fresh fruit.

Styles
The typical style for a modern white wedding is a decorated white layer cake. It is usually coated and decorated with frosting. The layers may be filled with frosting, pastry cream, lemon curd, or other cake fillings. It may be topped by decorations made from frosting, with edible flowers, or with other decorations. A layer cake can be a single cake, or it can be assembled to form a tiered cake.

Very tall tiered cakes are important in Indonesia. The overall height of the cake is said to predict the couple's prosperity.

In the US, three tiers has been the most common choice since at least the 1960s.

In Appalachia, a stack cake was a way for poorer people to celebrate potluck-style by spreading the expense across the community. A stack cake is made of thin cakes baked by different guests for the wedding. These cakes are stacked on top of each other, with the layers usually being filled with apple butter or cooked apples.

Among the Cajuns in the US, multiple cakes are baked at home by the bride's family, rather than having one large cake.

Flavors

In the United Kingdom and Australia, the traditional wedding cake is a rich fruitcake, which is elaborately decorated with icing and may be filled with almond paste. Fruitcake was also the traditional wedding cake in the US until the middle of the 20th century.

According to the results of one survey, in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, most wedding cakes in the US were either white or yellow cakes. In the 2000s and 2010s, there was more diversity in flavors, but most of them were white or chocolate cake.

In Greece, the traditional flavor combination was honey, sesame seed, and quince. In modern Greece, an almond torte is more common. Greek wedding cakes are elaborate and even architectural, with many tiers.

In the Philippines, the cake may be a vanilla sponge cake, but it might also be a purple ube cake.

White cake is currently the most popular wedding cake flavor in the US, but different flavors of filling can be added between layers. Chocolate, carrot, Italian Rum and Italian Cream are also popular choices.

Wedding cakes based on flavor include chocolate, vanilla, or strawberry. Many modern cakes now consist of flavors such as vanilla sponge, chocolate sponge or carrot cake.

Groom's cake
In some areas, particularly the American South, two cakes are presented at weddings. Usually, a large, white tiered cake, decorated mostly in white frosting, is called the bride's cake, and a second flavor choice is called the "groom's cake". This tradition was brought over from England by early American colonists, who considered the white-iced bride's cake too light for men's tastes. The groom's cake was usually a dark, liquor-soaked fruitcake. More recently, groom's cakes are usually chocolate or another of his favorite flavors. The groom's cake may be decorated or shaped as something significant to him, such as a hobby item, sports team or symbol of his occupation. The movie Steel Magnolias included a red velvet groom's cake in the shape of a giant armadillo.

Bermuda has a different tradition of two cakes. There, the bride's cake is a three-tiered fruitcake, and the groom's cake is a pound cake. The bride's cake is decorated with silver and represents prosperity, and the groom's cake is decorated with gold and represents his role as the head of the family. The groom's cake is topped with a live cedar tree, which represents the couple's growing love, and which the couple later plants and cares for.

When Prince William married Kate Middleton in 2011, a groom's cake was served alongside the wedding cake at the reception. The groom's cake was a chocolate biscuit cake based on a family recipe and McVitie's were asked to create it.

Decorations
Tiered cakes are often separated by flowers or columns to add visual impact and height. Separators can include jewels, shells, flowers and the like or can be completely separated by using traditional chrome stands.

Fondant is a form of frosting style that is rolled out and draped over tiers. Its smooth, firm sugar icing is often embellished with appliqués, Fondant can be cut into designs, formed into shapes, flavored or tinted. Poured fondant is used to glaze petits fours and other detailed confections.

Flowerpaste or gumpaste is a pliable dough usually made from egg whites, unflavored gelatine, and powdered sugar. There are an array of methods and ingredients around the world on how to make flowerpaste and gumpaste. The purpose of this dough is typically to create flowers and other decorations for a cake. Due to the use of gum as one of the ingredients, it can be rolled very thin.

Royal icing is made with water, sugar and egg white or meringue powder. It hardens to a firm finish that can be piped or thinned for "flood work", when larger sections need to be iced. It hardens fast and is ideal for making detailed shapes ahead of time. It can also be piped directly onto cake tiers and works beautifully for delicate detail work. There are a few things to consider when working with royal icing: You must use grease free utensils. Humidity also affects the consistency of royal icing. Joseph Lambeth, a well known British cake decorator, developed a technique where he creates layered scrolls using royal icing as a medium.

A wedding cake may be topped with fresh flowers. This is typical in the Philippines.

Wedding cake toppers are models or art pieces that sit atop the cake. In the US, the most common type of cake topper features a representation of a bride and groom in wedding attire. This custom was dominant in US weddings in the 1950s, where it represented togetherness. Wedding toppers may also be figures that indicate shared hobbies or other passions, if they are used at all. Some are humorous, or may represent the couple's hobby or occupation. In Mexico, the wedding topper and other decorations tell a story about the couple's history.

Alternatives
Instead of, or in addition to, a wedding cake, some people prefer to serve other desserts, such as pastries or cookies.

Rather than the multiple tier wedding cake, some wedding parties have stands with multiple tiers where cupcakes are placed, perhaps topped off with a small wedding cake at the top for the ceremonial cake-cutting. Being cheaper than a multi-tiered wedding cake, cupcakes also versatile in that they can have multiple flavors, colors, and designs.

Croquembouche is a complex pastry made of cream puffs and caramelized sugar. This pastry is the traditional approach to wedding cake in France.

In Norway and other Scandinavian countries, a pastry called Kransekake is the preferred approach to a wedding cake. This is often made by the family.

Kanom sam kloe is a fried pastry served at Thai weddings. Three balls of dough, made from coconuts and sesame seeds, are fried together. There are superstitions about whether the pieces of dough stay together; if they do, then this is said to portend a successful marriage and at least one child.

After the wedding
In Europe in the 19th century, the cakes baked to serve at the christening of an infant were similar to wedding cakes. Eventually, since the wedding cakes were generally made of fruitcake, which would store well, and because the first baby often arrived within a year or so of the wedding, it became traditional to save the top part of the wedding cake to eat in celebration of the couple's first child. More recently, some people freeze part of the cake and save it until the couple's first wedding anniversary.

title: Wedding cake


text:
User talk:Chaiad

Hello "Chaiad" and welcome to Wikipedia. A few tips for you:

 * Peruse Welcome, newcomers and associated pages.
 * You can experiment in the Sandbox.
 * Sign talk page entries with ~, which is automatically converted to a name and date.
 * Ask questions on Village pump.
 * Happy wikipediaing, -- Infrogmation 18:05, 6 Dec 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Chaiad


text:
Venda

Venda or Tswetla, officially the Republic of Venda (Riphabuliki ya Venḓa; Republiek van Venda), was a Bantustan in northern South Africa. It was fairly close to the South African border with Zimbabwe to the north, while, to the south and east, it shared a long border with another black homeland, Gazankulu. It is now part of the Limpopo province. Venda was founded by the South African government as a homeland for the Venda people, speakers of the Venda language. The United Nations and international community refused to recognise Venda (or any other Bantustan) as an independent state.

History
Venda was declared self-governing on 1 February 1973, with elections held later in the year. Further elections were held in July 1978. The territory was declared independent by the South African government on 13 September 1979, and its residents lost their South African citizenship. In common with the other Bantustans, its independence was not recognised by the international community.

Venda was initially a series of non-contiguous territories in the Transvaal, with one main part and one main exclave. Its capital, formerly at Sibasa, was moved to Thohoyandou (which included the old Sibasa administrative district) when Venda was declared independent in 1979. Prior to independence, it was expanded to form one contiguous territory, with a total land area of 6,807 km2 (2628 sq. mi.). In the 1984 elections, the ruling Venda National Party retained its position as ruling party, beating the perpetual opposition Venda Independent People's Party (VIPP).

At independence in 1979, the population of Venda stood at about 200,000 people. The state was cut off from neighbouring Zimbabwe by the Madimbo corridor, patrolled by South African troops, to the north, and from nearby Mozambique by the Kruger National Park.

The first President of Venda, Patrick Mphephu, was also a Paramount Chief of the Vhavenda people; he was born and lived in Dzanani in Limpopo. His successor, Frank Ravele, was overthrown in a military coup by the Venda Defence Force in 1990. Afterwards, the territory was ruled by the Council of National Unity, a military junta chaired by General Gabriel Ramushwana. Venda was re-incorporated into South Africa on 27 April 1994.

Institutions of education
In 1982, the University of Venda, known as Univen, was established as an institution of higher learning for the Vhavenda people.

Districts in 1991
Districts of the province and population at the 1991 census.
 * Dzanani: 123,035
 * Mutale: 244,532
 * Thohoyandou: 136,089
 * Vuwani: 55,141

Security forces
The Venda National Force was established with Venda's independence in 1979 and included defence and other services such as police and prisons. Strangely enough, traffic policing was part of this national force, but, by 1981, it was transferred to the Department of Justice. The Fire Brigade was, however, still part of the Venda National Force, although there were plans to transfer this to the civilian government.

title: Venda


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Global Village (Dubai)

Global Village is a shopping, dining, and entertainment attraction located on Sheikh Mohammed Bin Zayed Road (E 311 road) in Dubai, United Arab Emirates.

Many international artists such as Jason Derulo, Liam Payne, Now United, Shahrukh Khan, Rahat Fateh Ali Khan, Samira Said, Elissa, Neha Kakkar, Guru Randhawa, Atif Aslam etc. have performed here.

History
Global Village started out in the form of a number of kiosks in January 1997 located on the Creek Side opposite to Dubai Municipality. It then later shifted to the Oud Metha Area near Wafi City for 5 years. Today, Global Village has 6 million visitors at its current location on exit of Sheikh Zayed Exit 37 in Wadi Al Safa 4.

Sections
There are four main sections in the Village. These sections consist of events and concerts, carnivals, food, and shopping. The food aisle will have food from all over the world. Concerts, carnivals, and shopping are the same.

Pavilions
Dubai Global Village includes pavilions, decorated in style of different countries and cultures.

List of countries at Global Village:
 * 🇰🇷 Korea
 * 🇧🇭 Bahrain
 * 🇰🇼 Kuwait
 * Palestine
 * 🇴🇲 Oman
 * 🇶🇦 Qatar
 * 🇮🇷 Iran
 * Syria
 * 🇱🇧 Lebanon
 * 🇷🇺 Russia
 * 🇸🇦 Saudi Arabia
 * 🇹🇭 Thailand
 * 🇾🇪 Yemen
 * 🇪🇬 Egypt
 * 🇲🇦 Morocco
 * 🇦🇫 Afghanistan
 * 🇹🇷 Turkey
 * 🇯🇵 Japan
 * United Arab Emirates
 * 🇨🇳 China
 * 🇵🇰 Pakistan
 * 🇮🇳 India

Continents:
 * Africa
 * Americas
 * Europe

Other pavilions:
 * Al Sana'a pavilion
 * Khalifa Foundation

Parking
Dubai Global Village has one of the largest capacity parking in Dubai with a total capacity of 18300 vehicles. The parking is divided into two main categories. One is general parking which is free of cost while the other is paid parking known as VIP Parking. There is valet parking available as well. The parking has a free train and shuttle bus to and from the park.

2018 Session
The 23rd session of Dubai Global village started on 30 October 2018. This season remained open until 13 April 2019. Over 90 countries and 27 pavilion are established in this season. Overall, 23 concerts will be held during this season.

2019 Session
The 24th session started on 29 October 2019. It was scheduled to close its gates for visitors on 4 April 2020 for the session, but due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and as instructed from Dubai Culture and Arts Authority, the session was suspended early, in line with ongoing efforts to safeguard public health due to pandemic. Owing to the early closure of the park all the scheduled concerts were canceled too.

2020 Session (Silver Jubilee Season)
This was the 25th anniversary, or silver jubilee, of the park, and in keeping with the theme, the new season of Global Village launched on 25 October and ran for 25 weeks, concluding on 18 April 2021. Another change for this season was that the opening hours on Saturday have been extended. The park was open from 2 pm until 11 pm (it was previously open from 4 pm until midnight). Some accommodations were made in recognition of the continuing Covid pandemic.

The 25th anniversary season was extended to 2 May so families might enjoy Ramadan in Global Village.

The Global Village in Dubai has continued for the seasons after the 25th anniversary.

Accidents
A fire broke out in the China pavilion on 25 June 2018 during a demolition process. No injuries were reported as it was during the off-season.

title: Global Village (Dubai)


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Talk:Silverchair

Name
They did not get their name from a nirvana song. They made this up, as clearly stated in this interview. They actually got it from the CS Lewis novel. I tried to put this into the article, referencing the interview, with clear proof, yet it still got deleted. Nomae (talk) 09:49, 23 September 2008 (UTC)
 * YouTube is not considered a reliable source. Does this interview appear anywhere else—is it verifiable in any other reliable sources? Giggy (talk) 10:01, 23 September 2008 (UTC)
 * Just watched the interview, looked through some sources, and the stuff Chris says in it is indeed backed up. Edited as such. If we can find something definitive either way that'd be good. (Do you know the source, or anything like that, of the interview on youtube?) Giggy (talk) 10:16, 23 September 2008 (UTC)
 * And yet I clearly remember Daniel Johns stating in an early Triple J interview that this was NOT the case. He claimed that the name was thought up when they wrote down two songs to request on Triple J's Super Request show - Nirvana's `Sliver' and You Am I's `Berlin Chair', and the two words sounded good together.

The current format, simply listing the different theories that have been expounded over the years (including by band members) is OK, but it would be better with sources. 220.233.12.16 (talk) 22:50, 20 November 2009 (UTC)

There was a sentence insisting that the band name be spelled with a lowercase s, but the only source was a personal page hosted on tripod. Whether the statement is factual or not, caution should be taken with self-published sources, so I changed the sentence unless a more reliable source can be found. Lusanaherandraton (talk) 06:28, 11 September 2011 (UTC)

Can you add punk song 2 by silverchair  JIBBZSHUGZ (talk) 02:01, 28 September 2019 (UTC)

Grunge in the lede
What is the reason for removing the link to grunge from the first sentence? It is essential. Dartslilly (talk) 09:02, 14 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Thanks for bringing this here. 3 reasons: 1 - there is a policy specifically related to this (but I'll be damned if I can find it now, been searching for ages. If another editor doesn't come along soon to remind me and you insist, I will find it!) that states we should keep the opening line as simple as possible and use a generalized description of the genre's. Given that rock is all encompassing of the 3 genre's, it gives that general description. 2 - Grunge is sourced lower down in the musical style section and specifically states they incorporated in their earlier work, hence the "early" text in the infobox next to the genre. 3 - Grunge is possibly not even the most prolific genre they are known for. One could just as well open the article with "Silverchair were an Australian Alternative rock band"... What about "Silverchair were an Australian Alternative Art rock Grunge band"... I'm sure you get my point. I realize you want to link a featured article to the opening sentence but that, in my opinion then corrodes at the quality of this featured article.  Rob van  vee  12:20, 14 July 2019 (UTC)
 * You make some good points, I agree that Silverchair could fit within multiple genres including alternative. Perhaps improving the rock music article would be a better approach to improving the quality of those articles that are linked prominently. Dartslilly (talk) 12:41, 14 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Thank you for being so understanding Dartslilly. Yes I guess that would make more sense. Once I find that link for the policy I mentioned I'll share it to your talk page. Happy editing!  Rob van  vee  12:46, 14 July 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Silverchair


text:
Hazerswoude

Hazerswoude is a former municipality in the Dutch province of South Holland. It contained the towns of Hazerswoude-Dorp and Hazerswoude-Rijndijk, and the villages of Groenendijk and Bent.

Hazerswoude was a separate municipality until 1991, when it became part of Rijneveld.

Rijneveld, in 1993 changed in Rijnwoude, has been a part of Alphen aan den Rijn since 2014.

title: Hazerswoude


text:
George W. Randolph

George Wythe Randolph (March 10, 1818 – April 3, 1867) was a Virginia lawyer, planter, politician and Confederate general. After representing the City of Richmond during the Virginia Secession Convention in 1861, during eight months in 1862 he was the Confederate States Secretary of War during the American Civil War, then served in the Virginia Senate representing the City of Richmond until the war's end.

Early and family life
Born in 1818 at Monticello near Charlottesville, Virginia, to Martha Jefferson Randolph, the daughter of U.S. President Thomas Jefferson, and her husband (and future Virginia governor) Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr., the couple's youngest son could trace his descent to Pocahontas and had many relations among the First Families of Virginia. His name honored George Wythe, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, law professor of his grandfather Thomas Jefferson, and Virginia judge who opposed slavery (which position likely caused his murder). Randolph's relations also included Edmund Randolph (Virginia's second governor after statehood as well as the first Attorney General of the United States), colonist William Randolph, Isham Randolph of Dungeness, Richard Randolph and Thomas Randolph of Tuckahoe.

Following a private education appropriate for his class, Randolph briefly attended preparatory schools in Cambridge, Massachusetts (under the direction of his brother in law Joseph Coolidge) and Washington, D.C., where his mother sent him to give him distance from Virginia politics and family troubles. His father had incurred much debt, and creditors foreclosed after his term as Virginia's 21st governor ended. However, his elder brother Thomas Jefferson Randolph managed to buy the family's Edgehill plantation at a foreclosure auction in 1826. Meanwhile, G.W. Randolph became a midshipman in the United States Navy from 1831 to 1839, sailing on the USS John Adams and USS Constitution in the Mediterranean Sea as well as training at the Naval School in Norfolk, Virginia. Randolph also began attending the University of Virginia in Charlottesville near his home during his naval service in 1837, perhaps while recovering from tuberculosis contracted during his naval voyages (which went into a very long remission but which ultimately proved fatal).

Randolph read the law with an established lawyer, probably in part guided by George Tucker, who was a professor of moral philosophy at the University of Virginia (at which his eldest brother Thomas Jefferson Randolph was rector) and also wrote the first widely read biography of Thomas Jefferson (in 1837) and various treatises about economics and slavery before retiring from the faculty and moving to Philadelphia in 1845.

Marriage and family
On April 10, 1852, George W. Randolph married the young widow Mary Elizabeth (Adams) Pope (1830–1871). Like Randolph, she descended from the First Families of Virginia. However, they had no children. His wife Mary Randolph later became active in the Richmond Ladies Association, which organized welfare and relief for the Confederate war effort.

Slaveholdings
Several of the Randolphs, like Jefferson's teacher George Wythe, opposed slavery and freed slaves either during their lifetimes or in their wills. Following Nat Turner's Rebellion, his brother Thomas Jefferson Randolph introduced a gradual emancipation plan as a bill in the Virginia House of Delegates but it was soundly defeated. In the 1860 federal census, George Wythe Randolph owned one slave, a 78-year-old woman. However, like other plantations in Virginia, Edgehill plantation used enslaved labor.

Career
After admission to the bar in 1840, Randolph practiced law in Charlottesville, Virginia, and he and Mary lived at the family's Edgehill plantation. They moved to the capital of Richmond between 1849 and 1851. Randolph became active in the community as well as continued a law practice. He founded the Richmond Mechanics' Institute and was an officer in the Virginia Historical Society.

Following John Brown's raid at Harper's Ferry, rumors arose that abolitionist raiders would raid the jail at Charles Town to free him. Randolph responded by organizing the Richmond Howitzers, which were among the troops that Virginia Governor Henry A. Wise sent to secure the town until Brown's execution. On their return, they received the naval howitzers that gave their unit their name, and first paraded in Richmond on July 4, 1860. Late in 1860, they received the designation, Company H of the First Regiment of Volunteers in the Virginia militia.

As the Confederacy formed after southern states began seceding from the Union following the election of Abraham Lincoln as president, the United States divided into two hostile camps and the sections moved toward open conflict. Richmond voters elected Randolph and fellow attorneys William H. McFarland and Marmaduke Johnson (Lawyer and Soldier) as their representatives to the Virginia Secession Convention of 1861. Despite Randolph's speech in favor of secession, the first secession vote failed (Randolph among the ayes, McFarland and Johnson among the nays). Randolph's brother Thomas Jefferson Randolph was one of the Albemarle County delegates. A special delegation, composed of G.W. Randolph, William B. Preston and Alexander H.H. Stuart, traveled to Washington, D.C. where they met newly inaugurated President Abraham Lincoln on April 12, 1861, the same day that South Carolina artillery militia fired at Fort Sumter. Finding the President firm in his resolve to hold the Federal forts in the South, the three men returned to Richmond on April 15. On April 18, the day after President Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to suppress the Confederate show of force, the Convention approved a secession resolution, which was sent for voter approval at a referendum the following month.

On April 21 Governor Wise called the Richmond Howitzers into state service and sent them down the James River to stop the USS Pawnee, allegedly en route to shell Richmond. They were then sent to barracks established at Richmond Baptist College under Col. John B. Magruder, who had fought as an artillery officer in the Mexican War and who requested ten cadets from the Virginia Military Institute as drill instructors. When enlistments proved heavy, the unit expanded into a battalion at the suggestion of Col. Edward Porter Alexander (who would later become CSA General Longstreet's artillery commander). On May 1, 1861, Randolph accepted a commission as major and command of the Richmond Howitzers, with three companies designated (a fourth company was started in July but disbanded in August when recruitment lagged). He sent Lt. John Thomson Brown with several militiamen to Gloucester Point, where on May 7 they fired on the USS Yankee, thus the first hostile shot fired in that conflict in Virginia. On May 13, the battalion left the college and encamped on the Mechanicsville Turnpike for a while until moving to Chimborazo Hill, where they posted their guns overlooking the James River at Rockett's Landing, where many slaves disembarked. Later in the month, First Company was sent to Manassas Junction (and returned for the battle below, but were then sent to Fairfax Court House where they were involved in a friendly fire incident on July 4, and were not actually called into action at the First Battle of Manassas, only experienced hostile fire); Second Company to Yorktown (where they joined General Magruder's forces on May 27 and did not return, being reassigned) and Third Company to the lower Peninsula, where Randolph became General Magruder's artillery commander and designed fortifications to secure Yorktown and the Hampton Roads area. On June 10 Randolph's Howitzers fought the Battle of Big Bethel near Yorktown, their only engagement as a battalion during the war, and in which three men were wounded. His defenses anticipated Union General George McClellan's campaign of the following spring.

On September 13, 1861, General Magruder organized ten artillery companies (including the Richmond Howitzers) into a regiment, with Major Randolph promoted to colonel. It was initially called the 2nd Regiment Virginia Artillery but by January 1862 became the 1st Regiment Virginia Artillery. He was promoted to brigadier general on February 12, 1862, but saw no combat as such, initially assigned to plan the defense of Suffolk. He was officially mustered out on December 18, 1864. Confederate President Jefferson Davis appointed Randolph as Secretary of War on March 18, 1862, and he took office on March 24, 1862. Randolph helped reform the department, improving procurement and writing a conscription law similar to one he had created for Virginia. He strengthened the Confederacy's western and southern defenses, but came into conflict with Jefferson Davis. He also was involved in a controversy over the use of hidden shells, which Union troops found upon capturing Yorktown; Randolph argued the explosive devices contravened the laws of civilized warfare but were acceptable if left on a parapet of a fort to prevent its capture or allow defenders to retreat more safely. With weakening health due to tuberculosis (TB), he resigned on November 17, 1862.

However, Randolph did accept election as Richmond's state senator, and served in the Virginia Senate during the remainder of the conflict.

Post-Civil War
In 1864, Randolph ran the U.S. naval blockade and took his family to Europe, receiving medical treatment in England and southern France. He took the oath of allegiance to the United States in April 1866 in Pau, France. The Randolphs then returned to Virginia. Randolph died of tuberculosis on April 3, 1867, at Edgehill. He is buried at Monticello in the Jefferson family graveyard.

Legacy and honors

 * Randolph was portrayed on the $100 bill printed by the Confederate States of America.

title: George W. Randolph


text:
Benthuizen

Benthuizen is a village in the Dutch province of South Holland. It is a part of the municipality of Alphen aan den Rijn and lies about 1 km east of Zoetermeer.

History
Benthuizen was described between 1280 and 1287. Benthuizen developed as a peat excavation settlement in the Late Middle Ages.

The Dutch Reformed church is a T-shaped aisleless church which was built between 1796 and 1797. The tower dates from 1672. The church was restored and extended on the north side between 1937 and 1938.

Until 1991 Benthuizen was an independent municipality in that year the municipality became part of the larger municipality Rijneveld. In 1993 the name was changed to Rijnwoude, and in 2014 it became part of Alphen aan den Rijn.

The HSL-Zuid being constructed passes Benthuizen on the eastern side. Also the new Bentwoud (forest) is planted to the east of Benthuizen.

Benthuizen has several buildings that are officially designated monuments. One of these is the historic windmill known as 'De Haas' ('The Hare'). The grist mill dates from 1772. In 1924, an electro motor was installed. Demolition of the windmill was considered several times, but in 1983 restoration began and the windmill was back in service in 1985. The windmill grinds both for human consumption and fodder.

title: Benthuizen


text:
Martha's Vineyard Sign Language

Martha's Vineyard Sign Language (MVSL) was a village sign-language that was once widely used on the island of Martha's Vineyard from the early 18th century to 1952. It was used by both deaf and hearing people in the community; consequently, deafness was not a barrier to participation in public life. Deaf people who signed Martha's Vineyard Sign Language were extremely independent.

The language was able to thrive because of the unusually high percentage of deaf islanders and because deafness was a recessive trait, which meant that almost anyone might have both deaf and hearing siblings. In 1854, when the island's deaf population peaked, an average of one person in 155 was deaf, while the United States national average was one in about 5,730. In the town of Chilmark, which had the highest concentration of deaf people on the island, the average was 1 in 25; at one point, in a section of Chilmark called Squibnocket, as much as 1 in 4 of the population of 60 was deaf.

Sign language on the island declined when the population migrated to the mainland. There are no fluent signers of MVSL today. Katie West, the last deaf person born into the island's sign-language tradition, died in 1952, though there were a few elderly residents still able to recall MVSL when researchers started examining the language in the 1980s. Linguists are working to save the language, but their task is difficult because they cannot experience MVSL firsthand.

Origins
Hereditary deafness had appeared on Martha's Vineyard by 1714. The ancestry of most of the deaf population of Martha's Vineyard can be traced to a forested area in the south of England known as the Weald—specifically the part of the Weald in the county of Kent. Martha's Vineyard Sign Language (MVSL) may be descended from a hypothesized sign language of that area in the 16th century, now referred to as Old Kent Sign Language. Families from a Puritan community in the Kentish Weald emigrated to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in British America in the early 17th century, and many of their descendants later settled on Martha's Vineyard. The first deaf person known to have settled there was Jonathan Lambert, a carpenter and farmer, who moved there with his wife—who was not deaf—in 1694. By 1710, the migration had virtually ceased, and the endogamous community that was created contained a high incidence of hereditary deafness that persisted for over 200 years.

In the town of Chilmark, which had the highest concentration of deaf people on the island, the average was 1 in 25; at one point, in a section of Chilmark called Squibnocket, as much as 1 in 4 of the population of 60 was deaf. By the 18th century there was a distinct Chilmark Sign Language. In the 19th century, this was influenced by French Sign Language, and evolved into MVSL in the 19th and 20th centuries. From the late 18th to the early 20th century, virtually everybody on Martha's Vineyard possessed some degree of fluency in the language.

Deaf migration to the mainland
In the early 19th century, a new educational philosophy began to emerge on the mainland, and the country's first school for the deaf opened in 1817 in Hartford, Connecticut (now called the American School for the Deaf). Many of the deaf children of Martha's Vineyard enrolled there, taking their sign language with them. The language of the teachers was French Sign Language, and many of the other deaf students used their own home-sign systems. This school became known as the birthplace of the deaf community in the United States, and the different sign systems used there, including MVSL, merged to become American Sign Language or ASL—now one of the largest community languages in the country.

As more deaf people remained on the mainland, and others who returned brought with them deaf spouses they met there (whose hearing loss may not have been due to the same hereditary cause), the line of hereditary deafness began to diminish. At the outset of the 20th century, the previously isolated community of fishers and farmers began to see an influx of tourists that would become a mainstay in the island's economy. Jobs in tourism were not as deaf-friendly as fishing and farming had been, and as intermarriage and migration joined the people of Martha's Vineyard to the mainland, the island community grew to resemble the wider community there more and more.

The last deaf person born into the island's sign-language tradition, Katie West, died in 1952. A few elderly residents were able to recall MVSL as recently as the 1980s when research into the language began. Indeed, when Oliver Sacks subsequently visited the island after reading a book on the subject, he noted that a group of elderly islanders talking together dropped briefly into sign language then back into speech.

Life as a deaf person on Martha's Vineyard
Although the people who were dependent on MVSL were different, they still did the same activities as the typical Martha's Vineyard resident would. Deaf people would work both complex and simple jobs, attend island events, and participate within the community. In contrast to some other deaf communities around the world, they were treated as typical people. Deaf people living in rural Mexico have a similar community, but few hearing people live there permanently. Other deaf communities are often isolated from the hearing population; the Martha's Vineyard deaf community of that period is exceptional in its integration into the general population.

Deaf MVSL users were not excluded by the rest of society at Martha's Vineyard, but they certainly faced challenges due to their deafness. Marriage between a deaf person and a hearing person was extremely difficult to maintain, even though both could use MVSL. For this reason, the deaf usually married the deaf, raising the degree of inbreeding even beyond that of the general population of Martha's Vineyard. This high rate of deaf-deaf marriages increased the deaf population within the community over time, as all offspring of such couples inherited their parents' shared recessive deafness trait and were also congenitally deaf. The MVSL users often associated closely, helping and working with each other to overcome other issues caused by deafness. They entertained at community events, teaching hearing youngsters more MVSL. The sign language was spoken and taught to hearing children as early as their first years to help them communicate with the many deaf people they would encounter in school. Non-manual markers, such as lip movement and facial expressions as well as hand gestures and mannerisms were all studied. There were even separate schools specifically for learning MVSL. Hearing people sometimes signed even when there were no deaf people present. For example, children signed behind a schoolteacher's back, adults signed to one another during church sermons, farmers signed to their children across a wide field, and fishermen signed to each other from their boats across the water where the spoken word would not carry.

Decline
Martha's Vineyard Sign Language declined after the opening of the American School for the Deaf. Although students from Martha's Vineyard influenced the creation of American Sign Language with contributions from MVSL when they returned home, they brought ASL usage back with them, and MVSL faded. Additionally, as transportation became easier in the 19th century, the influx of hearing people meant that more genetic diversity was introduced, and hereditary deafness was no longer commonplace. The last person in the line of hereditary deafness of Martha's Vineyard was Katie West, who died in 1952. Following her death, Oliver Sacks noted in the 1980s that some elderly hearing residents of the island could remember a few signs, but the language truly died out after this point.

Resurgence of Sign Language on Martha's Vineyard
In recent years there has been a push to reintroduce American sign language into the Island's culture. A Martha's Vineyard resident, Lynn Thorp, began her mission to revive ASL in the early 2000s with the ultimate goal of reinstating ASL as a second language. After studying the language through references such as Everyone Here Spoke Sign Language by Ellen Groce, and a series of 1989 teachings called "Interax", Thorp began meeting with fellow Vineyard residents every week to practice sign language together. About a decade later, Thorp began teaching classes regularly at local community centers. Recently, the Edgartown Elementary School has adopted ASL into their regular curriculum, and other Martha's Vineyard Public Schools are soon to follow.

In popular culture
Show Me a Sign by Ann Clare LeZotte is a middle grade novel about the thriving deaf community living on Martha's Vineyard in the early part of the 19th century. In the novel deaf and hearing characters successfully use Martha's Vineyard Sign Language to communicate with each other.

title: Martha's Vineyard Sign Language