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Normal mapping

In 3D computer graphics, normal mapping, or Dot3 bump mapping, is a texture mapping technique used for faking the lighting of bumps and dents – an implementation of bump mapping. It is used to add details without using more polygons. A common use of this technique is to greatly enhance the appearance and details of a low polygon model by generating a normal map from a high polygon model or height map.

Normal maps are commonly stored as regular RGB images where the RGB components correspond to the X, Y, and Z coordinates, respectively, of the surface normal.

History
In 1978 Jim Blinn described how the normals of a surface could be perturbed to make geometrically flat faces have a detailed appearance. The idea of taking geometric details from a high polygon model was introduced in "Fitting Smooth Surfaces to Dense Polygon Meshes" by Krishnamurthy and Levoy, Proc. SIGGRAPH 1996, where this approach was used for creating displacement maps over nurbs. In 1998, two papers were presented with key ideas for transferring details with normal maps from high to low polygon meshes: "Appearance Preserving Simplification", by Cohen et al. SIGGRAPH 1998, and "A general method for preserving attribute values on simplified meshes" by Cignoni et al. IEEE Visualization '98. The former introduced the idea of storing surface normals directly in a texture, rather than displacements, though it required the low-detail model to be generated by a particular constrained simplification algorithm. The latter presented a simpler approach that decouples the high and low polygonal mesh and allows the recreation of any attributes of the high-detail model (color, texture coordinates, displacements, etc.) in a way that is not dependent on how the low-detail model was created. The combination of storing normals in a texture, with the more general creation process is still used by most currently available tools.

Spaces
The orientation of coordinate axes differs depending on the space  in which the normal map was encoded. A straightforward implementation encodes normals in object space so that the red, green, and blue components correspond directly with the X, Y, and Z coordinates. In object space, the coordinate system is constant.

However, object-space normal maps cannot be easily reused on multiple models, as the orientation of the surfaces differs. Since color texture maps can be reused freely, and normal maps tend to correspond with a particular texture map, it is desirable for artists that normal maps have the same property.

Normal map reuse is made possible by encoding maps in tangent space. The tangent space is a vector space, which is tangent to the model's surface. The coordinate system varies smoothly (based on the derivatives of position with respect to texture coordinates) across the surface.

Tangent space normal maps can be identified by their dominant purple color, corresponding to a vector facing directly out from the surface. See Calculation.

Calculating tangent space
Normals are used in computer graphics primarily for lighting. A normal is a vector indicating the direction a surface is facing. To know how a surface must be lit, the software must know how it is oriented, since how a surface is oriented greatly influences how light gets reflected off of it. Normals can be specified with a variety of coordinate systems. In computer graphics, it is useful to compute normals relative to the tangent plane of the surface. This is useful because surfaces in video games and other applications undergo a variety of transforms before they are finally rendered, therefore a coordinate system relative to how a surface is oriented is required. Skeletal animation on a finely detailed character is a concrete example of this. If a character's arm is bent, the normal maps must be able to reflect the new orientation without computationally expensive updates to texture data in the transform.

In order to find the perturbation in the normal the tangent space must be correctly calculated. Most often the normal is perturbed in a fragment shader after applying the model and view matrices. Typically the geometry provides a normal and tangent. The tangent is part of the tangent plane and can be transformed simply with the linear part of the matrix (the upper 3x3). However, the normal needs to be transformed by the inverse transpose. Most applications will want bitangent to match the transformed geometry (and associated UVs). So instead of enforcing the bitangent to be perpendicular to the tangent, it is generally preferable to transform the bitangent just like the tangent. Let t be tangent, b be bitangent, n be normal, M3x3 be the linear part of model matrix, and V3x3 be the linear part of the view matrix.

 * $$t' = t \times M_{3x3} \times V_{3x3}$$
 * $$b' = b \times M_{3x3} \times V_{3x3}$$
 * $$n' = n \times (M_{3x3} \times V_{3x3})^{-1T} = n \times M_{3x3}^{-1T} \times V_{3x3}^{-1T}$$

Calculation

To calculate the Lambertian (diffuse) lighting of a surface, the unit vector from the shading point to the light source is dotted with the unit vector normal to that surface, and the result is the intensity of the light on that surface. Imagine a polygonal model of a sphere - you can only approximate the shape of the surface. By using a 3-channel bitmap textured across the model, more detailed normal vector information can be encoded. Each channel in the bitmap corresponds to a spatial dimension (X, Y and Z). These spatial dimensions are relative to a constant coordinate system for object-space normal maps, or to a smoothly varying coordinate system (based on the derivatives of position with respect to texture coordinates) in the case of tangent-space normal maps. This adds much more detail to the surface of a model, especially in conjunction with advanced lighting techniques.

Unit Normal vectors corresponding to the u,v texture coordinate are mapped onto normal maps. Only vectors pointing towards the viewer (z: 0 to -1 for Left Handed Orientation) are present, since the vectors on geometries pointing away from the viewer are never shown. The mapping is as follows:

X: -1 to +1 : Red:     0 to 255 Y: -1 to +1 : Green:   0 to 255 Z: 0 to -1 :  Blue:  128 to 255

light green   light yellow dark cyan      light blue     light red dark blue      dark magenta

 * A normal pointing directly towards the viewer (0,0,-1) is mapped to (128,128,255). Hence the parts of object directly facing the viewer are light blue. The most common color in a normal map.
 * A normal pointing to top right corner of the texture (1,1,0) is mapped to (255,255,128). Hence the top-right corner of an object is usually light yellow. The brightest part of a color map.
 * A normal pointing to right of the texture (1,0,0) is mapped to (255,128,128). Hence the right edge of an object is usually light red.
 * A normal pointing to top of the texture (0,1,0) is mapped to (128,255,128). Hence the top edge of an object is usually light green.
 * A normal pointing to left of the texture (-1,0,0) is mapped to (0,128,128). Hence the left edge of an object is usually dark cyan.
 * A normal pointing to bottom of the texture (0,-1,0) is mapped to (128,0,128). Hence the bottom edge of an object is usually dark magenta.
 * A normal pointing to bottom left corner of the texture (-1,-1,0) is mapped to (0,0,128). Hence the bottom-left corner of an object is usually dark blue. The darkest part of a color map.

Since a normal will be used in the dot product calculation for the diffuse lighting computation, we can see that the {0, 0, –1} would be remapped to the {128, 128, 255} values, giving that kind of sky blue color seen in normal maps (blue (z) coordinate is perspective (deepness) coordinate and RG-xy flat coordinates on screen). {0.3, 0.4, –0.866} would be remapped to the ({0.3, 0.4, –0.866}/2+{0.5, 0.5, 0.5})*255={0.15+0.5, 0.2+0.5, -0.433+0.5}*255={0.65, 0.7, 0.067}*255={166, 179, 17} values ($$0.3^2+0.4^2+(-0.866)^2=1$$). The sign of the z-coordinate (blue channel) must be flipped to match the normal map's normal vector with that of the eye (the viewpoint or camera) or the light vector. Since negative z values mean that the vertex is in front of the camera (rather than behind the camera) this convention guarantees that the surface shines with maximum strength precisely when the light vector and normal vector are coincident.

Normal mapping in video games
Interactive normal map rendering was originally only possible on PixelFlow, a parallel rendering machine built at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. It was later possible to perform normal mapping on high-end SGI workstations using multi-pass rendering and framebuffer operations or on low end PC hardware with some tricks using paletted textures. However, with the advent of shaders in personal computers and game consoles, normal mapping became widespread in the early 2000s, with some of the first games to implement it being Evolva (2000), Giants: Citizen Kabuto, and Virtua Fighter 4 (2001). Normal mapping's popularity for real-time rendering is due to its good quality to processing requirements ratio versus other methods of producing similar effects. Much of this efficiency is made possible by distance-indexed detail scaling, a technique which selectively decreases the detail of the normal map of a given texture (cf. mipmapping), meaning that more distant surfaces require less complex lighting simulation. Many authoring pipelines use high resolution models baked into low/medium resolution in-game models augmented with normal maps.

Basic normal mapping can be implemented in any hardware that supports palettized textures. The first game console to have specialized normal mapping hardware was the Sega Dreamcast. However, Microsoft's Xbox was the first console to widely use the effect in retail games. Out of the sixth generation consoles, only the PlayStation 2's GPU lacks built-in normal mapping support, though it can be simulated using the PlayStation 2 hardware's vector units. Games for the Xbox 360 and the PlayStation 3 rely heavily on normal mapping and were the first game console generation to make use of parallax mapping. The Nintendo 3DS has been shown to support normal mapping, as demonstrated by Resident Evil: Revelations and Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater.

title: Normal mapping


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Peja Stojaković

Predrag Stojaković (Предраг Стојаковић, ; born 9 June 1977), known by his nickname Peja (Peđa, Пеђа, ), is a Serbian professional basketball executive and former player who was most recently the assistant general manager and director of player personnel and development of the Sacramento Kings of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was inducted into the Greek Basket League Hall of Fame in 2022.

Standing at 6 ft 10 (2.08 m), Stojaković played mostly at the small forward position. He won the NBA Three-Point Contest two times, All-Star Weekend competitions. Stojaković made 1,760 three-point field goals in his career which ranked 4th all-time at the point of his retirement. Stojaković currently ranks 27th in this category.

After starting in Crvena zvezda and while playing for PAOK, Stojaković was drafted fourteenth overall by the Sacramento Kings in the 1996 NBA draft. In the NBA, he had a breakthrough season in 2000–01 following two seasons on the bench, averaging 20.4 points and 5.8 rebounds while shooting .400 from three-point range in his first season as a starter. He finished second in voting for the 2001 Most Improved Player Award. A three-time All-star and a member of the 2004 All-NBA Second Team, Stojaković enjoyed success with the Kings reaching the 2002 Western Conference Finals. He also played for the Indiana Pacers, New Orleans Hornets and Toronto Raptors. Stojaković won an NBA Championship in 2011 as a member of the Dallas Mavericks.

Stojaković helped to lead the senior FR Yugoslavian national team to gold medals in the 2001 FIBA EuroBasket and the 2002 FIBA World Championship. Often considered to be one of the greatest European basketball players ever, Stojaković was named the Euroscar Basketball Player of the Year by the Italian sports newspaper Gazzetta dello Sport and the Mister Europa Player of the Year twice by the Italian sports magazine Superbasket. HoopsHype named Stojaković one of the 75 Greatest International Players Ever in 2021.

On 19 December 2011 he announced his retirement from playing professional basketball. On 16 December 2014 the Sacramento Kings retired his number.

Early life
Predrag "Peja" Stojaković was born into an ethnic Serb family, to parents Miodrag and Branka Stojaković, in Požega, SR Croatia, SFR Yugoslavia. The Stojakovićs hail from the Papuk mountain region. However, his family later fled to Belgrade, at the start of the Yugoslav wars.

In 1993, at the age of 16, Stojaković moved to Thessaloniki, Greece. Stojaković's father stayed behind in his homeland, and fought in the Army of the Republic of Serbian Krajina, against the Croatian Army, until the fall of western Slavonia, in 1995, when he joined his son in Thessaloniki. Many of Stojaković's relatives now live in Serbia.

Red Star Belgrade (1992–1993)
At 15 years of age, Stojaković joined the Crvena zvezda (Red Star Belgrade) basketball club. With Red Star, he played in 2 senior men's level seasons (1992–93 and 1993–94 seasons). With the club, he also won a FR Yugoslav national championship, in the 1992–93 season. In the 1993–94 season, he only played in the FR Yugoslav national cup tournament. With Red Star, he played in a total of 39 games, in which he scored a total of 113 points, for a scoring average of 2.9 points per game.

PAOK Thessaloniki (1993–1998)
Stojaković moved to Greece in 1993, at the age of 16, and joined the Greek League club PAOK Thessaloniki one year later. With PAOK, he won the 1994–95 Greek Cup tournament. He also played in the European-wide secondary level FIBA European Cup (FIBA Saporta Cup)'s 1995–96 season's Final.

Stojaković scored a memorable last-second three-pointer against Olympiacos, in Piraeus, in a 1998 Greek League playoff semifinals series, which won the game for PAOK, by a score of 58–55. That victory, which ended the five-year reign of Olympiacos as Greek League champions, allowed PAOK to face Panathinaikos in the league's finals series, although the club had a disadvantage in home games, and ultimately lost the five game series (and the league's championship) 3–2. Stojaković, who was closely guarded throughout the series by his future head coach in New Orleans, Byron Scott, who was wrapping up his basketball playing career, as one of Panathinaikos' key players, did not play at his normal level.

In his final season with PAOK, Stojaković averaged 23.9 points, 4.9 rebounds, 2.5 assists, and 1.2 steals per game in the Greek League, and 20.9 points, 3.6 rebounds, and 1.5 assists per game in the European-wide top level EuroLeague's 1997–98 season.

Sacramento Kings (1998–2006)
Stojaković was selected by the Sacramento Kings in the first round (14th overall pick) of the 1996 NBA draft while playing in Greece. He continued to play there until the Kings signed him prior to the 1998–99 NBA lockout season. After two seasons on the bench with Sacramento, he had a breakthrough season in 2000–01, averaging 20.4 points and 5.8 rebounds while shooting .400 from three-point range in his first season as a starter. He finished second in voting for the 2001 Most Improved Player Award.

In 2001–02, he played in the NBA All-Star Game for the first time. His scoring average went up to 21.2 ppg, and he reached career highs in shooting percentage (.484) and three-point percentage (.416). His scoring average dropped slightly to 19.2 ppg in 2002–03, but he played again in the All-Star Game. In both seasons, he won the Three-Point Contest conducted during All-Star Weekend.

In 2003–04, Stojaković was again selected as an All-Star, and finished second in the league in scoring with a career-high 24.2 ppg. He finished fourth in MVP voting and was voted on to the All-NBA 2nd Team. He also led the NBA in free-throw percentage (.933) and three-pointers made for the season (240). In 2004–05, he missed 16 games to injury, and was somewhat hampered in several games, but still averaged 20.1 ppg. Stojaković's number 16 was retired by the Sacramento Kings on 16 December 2014.

Indiana Pacers (2006)
On 25 January 2006 Stojaković was traded to the Indiana Pacers in exchange for forward Ron Artest, ending his eight-year tenure with the Kings. However, he missed four games of their first round playoff series with the New Jersey Nets, all losses.

New Orleans Hornets (2006–2010)
During the 2006 offseason, he agreed to a deal with the then-New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets worth $64 million over five years. On 14 November 2006 Stojaković scored a career-high 42 points against the Charlotte Bobcats, and became the first player in NBA history to open the game with 20 straight points for his team. His strong start to the season was halted by injuries, as a result missing all but the first 13 games of the 2006–07 season.

Stojaković bounced back the following season, starting all 77 games he played in, and was a key contributor in helping the Hornets win a franchise-record 56 games, and their first ever division title. In the first two games of their second round match-up against the defending champion San Antonio Spurs, both wins, Stojaković averaged 23.5 points per game while shooting 63.7% from the three-point line. The Hornets ultimately lost to the Spurs in seven games, ending their run.

The Hornets core of Chris Paul, Tyson Chandler, David West and Stojaković would keep the Hornets in contention the following year, but injuries and the trade of Chandler forced New Orleans into a team rebuild, making the veteran Stojaković expendable.

Toronto Raptors (2010–2011)
On 20 November 2010 Stojaković was traded to the Toronto Raptors along with Jerryd Bayless in exchange for Jarrett Jack, Marcus Banks, and David Andersen.

After appearing in only two games, on 20 January 2011, Stojaković was released by the Raptors. He had missed 26 games due to a left knee injury.

Dallas Mavericks (2011)
On 24 January 2011 Stojaković signed a deal with the Dallas Mavericks. The Mavericks won the NBA championship that year, with Stojaković averaging 7.1 points per game during the Mavericks' playoff run. He scored more than 20 points in two different playoff games for the Mavericks.

On 19 December 2011 Stojaković announced his retirement, citing ongoing back and neck problems that hindered his play later in his career.

Post-playing career
In August 2015, Stojaković was appointed director of player personnel and development for the Sacramento Kings. In May 2018, Stojaković was announced as Assistant General Manager. In this role, he is serving as General Manager for the Stockton Kings, the Kings' NBA Development League affiliate. On 15 August 2020 the Sacramento Kings announced that Stojaković had stepped down from his position of assistant general manager.

National team career
As a member of the senior FR Yugoslavia national basketball team, Stojaković earned a bronze medal at the 1999 edition of the FIBA EuroBasket, which was held in France. He also competed at the 2000 edition of the Summer Olympic Games.

He also won gold medals at the 2001 FIBA EuroBasket, which was held in Turkey, and at the 2002 edition of the FIBA World Championship, which was held in Indianapolis, Indiana. Stojaković was named the MVP of the 2001 FIBA EuroBasket, and he was also named a member of the FIBA World Championship All-Tournament Team at Indianapolis, in 2002. Joining him on that All-Tournament Team were fellow NBA stars Manu Ginóbili, Dirk Nowitzki, and Yao Ming, as well as New Zealand's Pero Cameron.

He finished out his national team career at EuroBasket 2003 where the newly formed Serbia and Montenegro finished sixth.

Personal life
Stojaković acquired full Greek citizenship at the age of 17, while he was playing with PAOK in Greece. His name, in Greek transliteration, is Prentragk "Petza" Kinis Stogiakovits (Πρέντραγκ "Πέτζα" Κίνης Στογιάκοβιτς). Stojaković also speaks Greek.

He is married to Greek model Aleka Kamila. The couple has three children, including Andrej (born 2004), who currently plays basketball for the California Golden Bears. In 2014, the family lived in Glyfada, Greece.

Stojaković served in the Hellenic Army, a mandatory service by each male Greek citizen. He also runs the Peja Stojaković Children's Foundation, which is a charity that is designed to help improve the lives of children in the Balkan countries of Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece.

Awards and achievements

 * NBA Champion: 2011
 * All-NBA Team:
 * Second Team: 2004
 * 3× NBA All-Star: 2002, 2003, 2004
 * 2× NBA Three-Point Contest Champion: 2002, 2003
 * 4th in NBA history in career free-throw percentage at .895
 * 23rd in NBA history in 3-pointers made with 1,760
 * 9th in NBA playoff history in free-throw percentage at .900
 * 28th in NBA history in 3-pointers attempted with 4,392
 * First player in NBA history to start a game off by scoring 20 consecutive points for his team.
 * He and Steve Nash of Phoenix were the only players to rank in the top 25 in both free-throw and 3-point percentage during the '04–'05 and '05–'06 seasons.
 * FIBA EuroLeague Top Scorer: 1998
 * FIBA EuroStar: 2007
 * Greek Cup Winner: 1995
 * Greek League MVP: 1998
 * 2× Greek League All-Star: 1996 II, 1997
 * 2× Greek All-Star Game MVP: 1996 II, 1997
 * FR Yugoslav League Best Young Player: 1993
 * FIBA EuroBasket All-Tournament Team: 2001
 * FIBA EuroBasket MVP: 2001
 * Won the 2001 Euroscar, given to the best European basketball player by Italian newspaper La Gazzetta dello Sport.
 * Named Mister Europa Player of the Year in 2001 and 2002 by Italian weekly magazine Superbasket.
 * HoopsHype's 75 Greatest International Players Ever: 2021
 * Greek Basket League Hall of Fame: 2022

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Peja Stojaković


text:
Parlement of Foules

The Parlement of Foules (modernized: Parliament of Fowls), also called the Parlement of Briddes (Parliament of Birds) or the Assemble of Foules (Assembly of Fowls), is a poem by Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1340s–1400) made up of approximately 700 lines. The poem, which is in the form of a dream vision in rhyme royal stanza, contains one of the earliest references to the idea that St. Valentine's Day is a special day for lovers.

Oruch's survey of the literature finds no association between Valentine and romance prior to Chaucer. He concludes that Chaucer is likely to be "the original mythmaker in this instance."

Summary
The poem begins with the narrator reading Cicero’s Somnium Scipionis in the hope of learning some "certeyn thing". When he falls asleep, Scipio Africanus the Elder appears and guides him up through the celestial spheres to a gate promising both a "welle of grace" and a stream that "ledeth to the sorweful were/ Ther as a fissh in prison is al drye" (reminiscent of the famous grimly inscribed gates in Dante's Inferno). After some deliberation at the gate, the narrator enters and passes through Venus’s dark temple with its friezes of doomed lovers and out into the bright sunlight. Here Nature is convening a parliament at which the birds will all choose their mates. The three tercel (male) eagles make their case for the hand of a formel (female) eagle until the birds of the lower estates begin to protest and launch into a comic parliamentary debate, which Nature herself finally ends. None of the tercels wins the formel, for at her request Nature allows her to put off her decision for another year (indeed, female birds of prey often become sexually mature at one year of age, males only at two years). Nature, as the ruling figure, in allowing the formel the right to choose not to choose, is acknowledging the importance of free will, which is ultimately the foundation of a key theme in the poem, that of common profit. Nature allows the other birds, however, to pair off. The dream ends with a song welcoming the new spring. The dreamer awakes, still unsatisfied, and returns to his books, hoping still to learn the thing for which he seeks.

Manuscripts
There are fifteen manuscript sources for the poem:
 * British Library, Harley 7333
 * Cambridge University Library Gg. IV.27
 * Cambridge University Library Ff. I.6 (Findern)
 * Cambridge University Library Hh.IV.12 (incomplete)
 * Pepys 2006, Magdalene College, Cambridge
 * Trinity College, Cambridge R.3.19
 * Bodleian Library, Arch. Selden B.24
 * Bodleian Library, Laud Misc. 416
 * Bodleian Library, Fairfax 16
 * Bodleian Library, Bodley 638
 * Bodleian Library, Tanner 346
 * Bodleian Library, Digby 181
 * St. John's College, Oxford, J LVII
 * Longleat 258, Longleat House, Warminster, Wi

William Caxton's early print of 1478 is also considered authoritative, for it reproduces the text of a manuscript now considered lost. The stemma and genealogy of these authorities was studied by John Koch in 1881, and later established by Eleanor Prescott Hammond (1866–1933) in 1902, dividing them into two main groups, A and B (last five MSS), although the stemma is by no means definitive.

Concerning the author of the poem, there is no doubt that it was written by Geoffrey Chaucer, for so he tells us twice in his works.
 * The first time is in the Introduction (Prologue) to The Legend of Good Women: "He made the book that hight the Hous of Fame, / And eke the Deeth of Blaunche the Duchesse, / And the Parlement of Foules, as I gesse".
 * The second allusion is found in the Retraction to The Canterbury Tales: "the book of the Duchesse; the book of Seint Valentynes day of the Parlement of Briddes".

A more difficult question is that of date. Early criticism of the poem, as far as the first decades of the 20th century, relied mainly on the different interpretations of the text—comparing the fight for the female eagle with royal betrothals of the age—to produce a date of composition for the poem. Fred N. Robinson (Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer, 1957: 791) mentioned that "if the theories of allegory in the Parliament are rejected, the principal evidence usually relied on for dating the poem about 1381-2 disappears". Later criticism, however, is much more objective on the reasons why the poem has been dated in 1382, the main reason given in lines 117–118 of the poem itself: "As wisly as I sawe the [Venus], northe northe west / When I begane my sweuene for to write" for according to John M. Manly (1913: 279–90) Venus is never strictly in the position "north-north-west...but it can be easily thought to be so when it reaches its extreme northern point". Manly adds that this condition was met in May 1374, 1382, and 1390.

The third date is easily discarded since we know that the poem is already mentioned as composed in the Prologue to The Legend of Good Women. Derek Brewer (1960: 104) then argues that the date of 1382, as opposed to that of 1374, is much more likely for the composition of the poem since, during the same period (1373–85), Chaucer wrote many other works including The House of Fame which, in all respects, seems to have been composed earlier than The Parliament of Fowls, thus: "a very reasonable, if not certain, date for the Parlement is that it was begun in May 1382, and was ready for St. Valentine's Day, 14th February 1383" (Brewer, 1960: 104). Although much of the criticism on the interpretation of The Parliament of Foules— which would render clues for its date of composition—is contradictory, and criticism about the importance of line 117 does not agree on whether it can be taken as serious evidence for the dating of the poem, there is nowadays a general agreement among scholars as to 1381–1382 being the date of composition for The Parliament of Foules.

Artistic representations

 * The Parliament of Fowls (2008) is a one-act comic opera by American composer John Craton

Translations and Editions

 * Parlement of foules (1914). Translation, with an introduction, notes and glossary, by Charles Maxwell Drennan (1870–1935).
 * Parlement of foules. In The complete works of Geoffrey Chaucer (1937), pp. 101–110. Edited from numerous manuscripts by the Rev. Walter William Skeat (1835–1912).

title: Parlement of Foules


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Carpobrotus edulis

Carpobrotus edulis is a ground-creeping plant with succulent leaves in the genus Carpobrotus, native to South Africa. Its common names include hottentot-fig,   sour fig, ice plant, vygie or highway ice plant.

Description
Carpobrotus edulis is a creeping, mat-forming succulent species. It grows year round, with individual shoot segments growing more than 1 m (3 ft) per year. It can grow to at least 50 m (165 ft) in diameter. The leaves are a dull-green or yellow-green colour. They are only very slightly curved and have serrated sides near the tips.

The yellow flowers are produced from April to October, and range from 6.4 to 15.2 cm in diameter. Two of the calyx lobes are longer, extending further than the petals. The flowers open in the morning in bright sunlight and close at night. The receptacle is somewhat wedge-shaped, tapering down to the pedicel. The fruit is multi-chambered, ripening from green to yellow.

The species is easily confused with its close relatives, including the more diminutive and less aggressive Carpobrotus chilensis (sea fig), with which it hybridizes readily. C. edulis can, however, be distinguished from most of its relatives by the size and yellow colour of its flowers. The smaller flowers of C. chilensis, 3.8 to 6.4 cm in diameter, are deep magenta.

Chemistry
C. edulis contains rutin, neohesperidin, hyperoside, catechin and ferulic acid; these contribute to the antibacterial properties of the plant. It also contains procyanidins and propelargonidins.

Taxonomy
The species is a member of the fig-marigold family, Aizoaceae, one of about 30 species in the genus Carpobrotus. It was previously classified in Mesembryanthemum and is sometimes referred to as Mesembryanthemum edule.

Distribution and habitat
The sour fig grows on coastal and inland slopes in South Africa from Namaqualand in the Northern Cape through the Western Cape to the Eastern Cape. It is often seen as a pioneer on disturbed sites.

Ecology
The flowers are pollinated by solitary bees, honey bees, carpenter bees, and many beetle species. Leaves are eaten by tortoises. Flowers are eaten by antelopes and baboons. Fruits are eaten by baboons, rodents, porcupines, antelopes, who also disperse the seeds. The clumps provide shelter for snails, lizards, and skinks. Puff adders and other snakes, such as the Cape cobra, are often found in Carpobrotus clumps, where they ambush the small rodents attracted by the fruits.

As an invasive species
Carpobrotus edulis has naturalised in many other regions throughout the world, and is an invasive species in several parts, notably Australia, California and the Mediterranean, all of which have similar climates. The ice plant has escaped from cultivation and has become invasive, posing a serious ecological problem by forming vast monospecific zones, lowering biodiversity, and competing directly with several threatened or endangered plant species for nutrients, water, light, and space.

The success of Carpobrotus edulis as an invader can be attributed to several key adaptive mechanisms. The plant exhibits a high rate of clonal growth, a trait that is commonly associated with successful invasive species. Invasive ice plant also displays high levels of phenotypic plasticity, allowing it to best integrate into varied environmental conditions such as coastal cliff ranges as well as nutrient-rich forests. Such plasticity has raised concerns about its continual spread, especially in the face of changing climatic conditions.

Through hybridization, invasive Carpobrotus edulis gains genetic diversity and novel traits that further enhance its adaptability. The species readily engages in genetic exchanges with other Carpobrotus, such as Carpobrotus chilensis, leading to hybrid variants with unique genetic combinations that allow them to thrive and outcompete native flora. Analysis of chloroplast DNA has revealed a large amount of genetic similarities between Carpobrotus edulis and Carpobrotus chilensis, indicating that the two may share a common ancestor.

Ireland
Recorded as a garden escape from County Down, in the south and east and on the cliffs of Howth Head, County Dublin.

Mediterranean
On the Mediterranean coast, Carpobrotus has spread out rapidly and now parts of the coastline are completely covered. Moreover, another invasive species, the black rat, has been shown to enhance the spreading of the ice plant through its feces. As the ice plant represents a food resource for the rat, both benefit from each other which is referred to as invasive mutualism.

New Zealand
In New Zealand forms monocultures and has taken over vast areas of coastal sand dune ecosystem. C. edulis and its hybrids are classed as unwanted organisms and are listed on the National Pest Plant Accord.

United States
Although the ice plant may have arrived by ship as early as the 16th century, C. edulis was actively introduced in the early 1900s to stabilize dunes and soil along railroad tracks; it was later put to use by Caltrans for ground cover along freeway embankments. Thousands of acres were planted in California until the 1970s. It easily spreads by seed (hundreds per fruit) and from segmentation (any shoot segment can produce roots). Its succulent foliage, bright yellow flowers, and resistance to some harsh coastal climatic conditions (salt) have also made it a favored garden plant. The ice plant was, for several decades, widely promoted as an ornamental plant, and it is still available at some nurseries. Ice plant foliage can turn a vibrant red to yellow in color. Despite its use as a soil stabilizer, it actually exacerbates and speeds up coastal erosion. It holds great masses of water in its leaves, and its roots are very shallow. In the rainy season, the added weight on unstable sandstone slopes and dunes increases the chances of slope collapse and landslides.

The ice plant is still abundant along highways, beaches, on military bases, and in other public and private landscapes. It spreads beyond landscape plantings and has invaded foredune, dune scrub, coastal bluff scrub, coastal prairie, and, most recently, maritime chaparral communities. In California, the ice plant is found in coastal habitats from north of Eureka, south at least as far as Rosarito in Baja California. It is intolerant of frost, and is not found far inland or at elevations greater than about 500 ft (150 m).

Flowering occurs almost year-round, beginning in February in southern California and continuing until the autumn in northern California, with flowers present for at least a few months in any given population.

Removal of plants
Control of ice plants can be attempted by pulling out individual plants by hand, or with the use of earth-moving machinery such as a skid-steer or tractor, though it is necessary to remove buried stems, and mulch the soil to prevent re-establishment. For chemical control, glyphosate herbicides are used. Because of the high water content of shoot tissues, burning of live or dead plants is not a useful method of control or disposal.

Uses
The fruit is edible (as with some other members of the family Aizoaceae), as are its leaves. In South Africa the sour fig's ripe fruit are gathered and either eaten fresh or made into a very tart jam.

The different parts of C. edulis are used in different forms in traditional medicine, mainly in South Africa. Mostly, the fruits and flowers are eaten raw or cooked for fungal and bacterial infections. The leaves can be ingested orally for digestive problems or the juice can be sucked out to help a sore throat. The juice can also be mixed into a lotion base and used for external issues such as ringworm, bruises, sunburns, and cracked lips.

title: Carpobrotus edulis


text:
Talk:2003 in Canadian politics

please keep this page!!!

I created it as a central linking point for all the stuff that happened in 2003, and I currently use it each time I login to find all the different provincial elections. - Pellaken

 * Did anybody threaten to remove it? Bearcat 17:03, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

nope, but I just wanted to make sure. now that I have my footing here, it wouldent really matter, but I do think that it should be noted. this is the first time, to my knoweldge, that 80% of the provinces, and 66% of the territories have had elecitons (100% if nunavut went to the polls) and if not (the first time) then it is the first time it's happened along with so much other change. Pellaken 08:31, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I thought the Yukon elections were last year User:Earl Andrew 20:58 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:2003 in Canadian politics


text:
Myristicin

Myristicin is a naturally occurring compound found in common herbs and spices, such as nutmeg. It is an insecticide, and has been shown to enhance the effectiveness of other insecticides.

When ingested, myristicin may produce hallucinogenic effects, and can be converted to MMDMA in controlled chemical synthesis. It interacts with many enzymes and signaling pathways in the body, and may have dose-dependent cytotoxicity in living cells. Myristicin is listed in the Hazardous Substances Data Bank.

Uses
Isolated myristicin has proven an effective insecticide against many agricultural pests, including Aedes aegypti mosquito larvae, Spilosoma obliqua (hairy caterpillars), Epilachna varivestis (Mexican bean beetles), Acyrthosiphon pisum (pea aphids), mites, and Drosophila melanogaster (fruit flies). Myristicin was shown to be an effective repellent, and to cause mortality via direct and systemic exposure. It also displayed a synergistic effect when administered to insects in combination with existing insecticides.

The structure of myristicin closely resembles that of amphetamine compounds, and it is capable of producing psychotropic effects similar to MDMA compounds. Because of this, it can be used in synthetic synthesis to create amphetamine derivatives, and create designer drugs like MMDMA that are similar in structure and effect to MDMA. Out of the common spices that contain myristicin, nutmeg has a high relative concentration of the compound, and therefore is used to exploit the effects of myristicin.

Furthermore, myristicin interferes with multiple signaling pathways and enzyme processes in the body.

Sources of myristicin
Myristicin can be found in the essential oil of nutmeg, black pepper, kawakawa, and many members of the Umbelliferae family, including anise, carrots, parsley, celery, dill, and parsnip.

Trace amounts have also been isolated from a variety of plant species including Ridolfia segetum (harvest fennel), species of the Oenanthe genus (water dropworts), species of the Lamiaceae family (mint, sage, or deadnettle families), Cinnamomum glanduliferum (Nepal camphor tree), and Piper mullesua ("Hill Pepper").

Depending on the conditions of growth and storage of the plant, a high quality nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) seed can contain up to 13 mg of myristicin per 1 gram.

Psychoactive effects
At a minimum dose of about 5 g of nutmeg powder, symptoms of nutmeg intoxication can begin to emerge. Nutmeg intoxication may produce dizziness, drowsiness, and confusion, although in higher amounts, it may have effects similar to other deliriants due to its hallucinogenic effects.

Pharmacology
Myristicin is additionally known to be a weak inhibitor of monoamine oxidase (MAO), an enzyme in humans that metabolizes neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin, dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine). It lacks the basic nitrogen atom that is typical of MAO inhibitors (MAOIs), potentially explaining a weaker inhibitory effect.

While smaller concentrations of MAOIs may not cause problems, there are additional warnings regarding drug interactions. Those taking antidepressants that are MAOIs (such as phenelzine, isocarboxazid, tranylcypromine or selegiline ) or taking selective serotonin re-uptake inhibiting (SSRI) antidepressants should avoid essential oils rich in myristicin, such as that of nutmeg or anise.

Metabolites
Metabolism of myristicin yields 3-methoxycatechol and enzymatically forms 5-allyl-1-methoxy-2,3-dihydroxybenzene (oxidation of the methylenedioxy group). Myristicin is also formed into demethylenylmyristicin, dihydroxymyristicin, and elemicin is formed into O-demethylelemicin, O-demethyldihydroxyelemicin, and safrole.

Chemistry
With a chemical structure resembling amphetamines and other precursors, myristicin can also be used to synthesize illicit hallucinogenic drugs. Under controlled conditions, myristicin isolated from nutmeg oil can be converted into MMDMA, a synthetic "designer drug" amphetamine derivative that is less potent than MDMA but produces comparable stimulant and hallucinogenic effects.

Myristicin is insoluble in water, and soluble in ethanol, ether, and benzene.

Toxicity
In laboratory studies, myristicin is cytotoxic. Specifically, it stimulates cytochrome c release, which activates caspase cascades and induces early apoptosis in the cells. Myristicin has also been shown to inhibit cytochrome P450 enzymes, which are responsible for metabolizing a variety of substrates including hormones and toxins, allowing these substrates to accumulate.

The effects of nutmeg consumed in large doses are attributed mostly to myristicin: 1–7 hours following ingestion, symptoms include disorientation, giddiness, stupor, and stimulation of the central nervous system leading to euphoria. Also occurring are mild to intense hallucinations (similar to those induced by deliriants: walls and ceiling glitching or breathing), disorientation to time and surroundings, dissociation, feelings of levitation, loss of consciousness, tachycardia, weak pulse, anxiety, and hypertension. Symptoms of nutmeg intoxication further include nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting, minor to severe muscle spasms (severe in extreme overdose), headache, dryness of mouth, mydriasis or miosis, hypotension, shock, and potentially death.

Myristicin poisoning can be detected by testing levels of myristicin in the blood. There are no known antidotes for myristicin poisoning, and treatment focuses on symptom management and potential sedation in cases of extreme delirium or aggravation.

title: Myristicin


text:
Restoration Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints

The Restoration Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints is a denomination of the Latter Day Saint movement headquartered in Independence, Missouri. The church was formally organized on April 6, 1991, by members of the Community of Christ who had grown disaffected with the church when it began ordaining women and introduced other innovations in the late-20th century.

The early history of the church was heavily influenced by M. Norman Page, a Seventy in the Community of Christ who claimed to receive two revelations calling for a reorganization of the church. In 1993, Marcus Juby was named as the first president of the church, a position which he held until his resignation in 2001. Mark Evans was chosen as president shortly after Juby's resignation.

In early 2007 President Mark Evans resigned for personal reasons. His counselor in the First Presidency, Woodrow ("Woody") Howell, became acting president. Howell was elected by the April 2009 General Conference of the Restoration Church as Prophet-President of the Church in his own right, and was set apart to that office on 11 April 2009. President Howell and Andrew Gross serve in the presidency, currently.

Sacred texts

 * The Inspired Version of the Bible, as 'translated' by Latter Day Saint movement founder Joseph Smith.
 * The Book of Mormon, considered to be a record of the Nephites.
 * Doctrine and Covenants up to and including Section 144 of the Community of Christ edition.
 * The Restoration Revelations, authorized by the 1995 General Assembly, consists of inspired revelations presented to, and accepted by, the General Assemblies of the Church as the mind and will of God. As of April 2003, it contains 36 such documents.

Baptism
The ordinance of baptism is performed by immersion for those aged 8 or older. According to Restoration Revelations 24:11-12 (published in April, 1998), only the priesthood of the Restoration Church has the authority from God to perform baptisms. All baptisms in other Latter Day Saint groups, and in all other Christian churches, are invalid and have no efficacy. "When those who were baptized outside the authority of my church seek membership, they must be rebaptized by those who have authority." (RR 24:11)


text:
Aizoaceae

The Aizoaceae, or fig-marigold family, is a large family of dicotyledonous flowering plants containing 135 genera and about 1800 species. Several genera are commonly known as ' ice plants ' or ' carpet weeds '. The Aizoaceae are also referred to as vygies in South Africa and New Zealand. Some of the unusual Southern African genera—such as Conophytum, Lithops, Titanopsis and Pleiospilos (among others)—resemble gemstones, rocks or pebbles, and are sometimes referred to as ' living stones ' or 'mesembs ' (short for mesembryanthemums).

Description
The family Aizoaceae is widely recognised by taxonomists. It once went by the botanical name "Ficoidaceae", now disallowed. The APG II system of 2003 (unchanged from the APG system of 1998) also recognizes the family, and assigns it to the order Caryophyllales in the clade core eudicots. The APG II system also classes the former families Mesembryanthemaceae Fenzl, Sesuviaceae Horan. and Tetragoniaceae Link under the family Aizoaceae.

The common Afrikaans name "vygie" meaning "small fig" refers to the fruiting capsule, which resembles the true fig. Glistening epidermal bladder cells give the family its common name "ice plants".

Most species (96%, 1782 species in 132 genera) in this family are endemic to arid or semiarid parts of Southern Africa in the Succulent Karoo. Much of the Aizoaceae's diversity is found in the Greater Cape Floristic Region, which is the most plant-diverse temperate region in the world. A few species are found in Australia and the Central Pacific area.

Most fig-marigolds are herbaceous, rarely somewhat woody, with sympodial growth and stems either erect or prostrate. Leaves are simple, opposite or alternate, and more or less succulent with entire (or rarely toothed) margins. Flowers are perfect in most species (but unisexual in some), actinomorphic, and appear singularly or in few-flowered cymes developing from the leaf axils. Sepals are typically five (3–8) and more or less connate (fused) below. True petals are absent. However, some species have numerous linear petals derived from staminodes. The seed capsules have one to numerous seeds per cell and are often hygrochastic, dispersing seeds by "jet action" when wet.

Evolution
The radiation of the Aizoaceae, specifically the subfamily Ruschioideae, was one of the most recent among the angiosperms, occurring 1.13–6.49 Mya. It is also one of the fastest radiations ever described in the angiosperms, with a diversification rate of about 4.4 species per million years. This diversification was roughly contemporaneous with major radiations in two other succulent lineages, Cactaceae and Agave.

The family includes many species that use crassulacean acid metabolism as pathway for carbon fixation. Some species in the subfamily Sesuvioideae instead use carbon fixation, which might have evolved multiple times in the group.

Taxonomy
Because of the hyperdiversity of the Aizoaceae and the young age of the clade, many generic and species boundaries are uncertain.

Subfamily Acrosanthoideae
Genera:
 * Acrosanthes Eckl. & Zeyh.

Subfamily Aizooideae
Genera:
 * Aizoanthemopsis Klak
 * Aizoanthemum Dinter ex Friedrich
 * Aizoon L.
 * Gunniopsis Pax
 * Tetragonia L.

Subfamily Mesembryanthemoideae
Genera:

Subfamily Ruschioideae
Genera:
 * Tribe Ruschieae

 * Acrodon N.E.Br
 * Aloinopsis Schwantes
 * Amphibolia L.Bolus ex A.G.J.Herre
 * Antegibbaeum Schwantes ex C.Weber
 * Antimima N.E.Br
 * Arenifera Herre, synonym of Mesembryanthemum
 * Argyroderma N.E.Br
 * Astridia Dinter
 * Bergeranthus Schwantes
 * Bijlia N.E.Br, synonym of Pleiospilos
 * Braunsia Schwantes
 * Brianhuntleya Chess. et al.
 * Carpobrotus N.E.Br
 * × Carruanthophyllum G.D.Rowley (Carruanthus × Machairophyllum)
 * Carruanthus (Schwantes) Schwantes
 * Cephalophyllum N.E.Br
 * Cerochlamys N.E.Br
 * Chasmatophyllum Dinter & Schwantes
 * Cheiridopsis N.E.Br
 * Circandra N.E.Br
 * Conophytum N.E.Br
 * Corpuscularia Schwantes, synonym of Delosperma
 * Cylindrophyllum Schwantes
 * Delosperma N.E.Br
 * Dicrocaulon N.E.Br
 * Didymaotus N.E.Br
 * Dinteranthus Schwantes
 * Diplosoma Schwantes
 * Disphyma N.E.Br
 * Dracophilus (Schwantes) Dinter & Schwantes
 * Drosanthemum Schwantes
 * Eberlanzia Schwantes
 * Ebracteola Dinter & Schwantes
 * Ectotropis N.E.Br, synonym of Delosperma
 * Enarganthe N.E.Br
 * Erepsia N.E.Br
 * Esterhuysenia L.Bolus
 * Faucaria Schwantes
 * Fenestraria N.E.Br
 * Frithia N.E.Br
 * Gibbaeum Haw. ex N.E.Br
 * Glottiphyllum Haw. ex N.E.Br
 * Hallianthus H.E.K.Hartmann
 * Hereroa (Schwantes) Dinter & Schwantes
 * Ihlenfeldtia H.E.K.Hartmann, synonym of Cheiridopsis
 * Imitaria N.E.Br, synonym of Gibbaeum
 * Jacobsenia L.Bolus & Schwantes
 * Jensenobotrya A.G.J.Herre
 * Jordaaniella H.E.K.Hartmann
 * Juttadinteria Schwantes
 * Khadia N.E.Br
 * Lampranthus N.E.Br
 * Lapidaria (Dinter & Schwantes) N.E.Br.
 * Leipoldtia L.Bolus
 * Lemonanthemum Klak
 * Lithops N.E.Br
 * Machairophyllum Schwantes
 * Malephora N.E.Br
 * Malotigena Niederle
 * Marlothistella Schwantes
 * Mestoklema N.E.Br. ex Glen
 * Meyerophytum Schwantes
 * Mitrophyllum Schwantes
 * Monilaria (Schwantes) Schwantes
 * Mossia N.E.Br
 * Muiria N.E.Br
 * Namaquanthus L.Bolus
 * Namibia (Schwantes) Schwantes
 * Nananthus N.E.Br
 * Nelia Schwantes
 * Neohenricia L.Bolus
 * Octopoma N.E.Br
 * Odontophorus N.E.Br, synonym of Cheiridopsis
 * Oophytum N.E.Br
 * Orthopterum L.Bolus
 * Oscularia Schwantes
 * Ottosonderia L.Bolus
 * Phiambolia Klak
 * Pleiospilos N.E.Br
 * Polymita N.E.Br, synonym of Schlechteranthus
 * Psammophora Dinter & Schwantes
 * Rabiea N.E.Br
 * Rhinephyllum N.E.Br
 * Rhombophyllum (Schwantes) Schwantes
 * Roosia van Jaarsv.
 * Ruschia Schwantes
 * Ruschianthemum Friedrich, synonym of Stoeberia
 * Ruschianthus L.Bolus
 * Sarcozona J.M.Black
 * Schlechteranthus Schwantes
 * Schwantesia Dinter
 * Scopelogena L.Bolus
 * Smicrostigma N.E.Br
 * Stayneria L.Bolus
 * Stoeberia Dinter & Schwantes
 * Stomatium Schwantes
 * Tanquana H.E.K.Hartmann & Liede
 * Titanopsis Schwantes
 * Trichodiadema Schwantes
 * Vanheerdea L.Bolus ex H.E.K.Hartmann
 * Vanzijlia L.Bolus
 * Vlokia S.A.Hammer
 * Wooleya L.Bolus
 * Zeuktophyllum N.E.Br

Subfamily Sesuvioideae
This subfamily includes a number of species.

Genera:
 * Anisostigma Schinz, synonym of Tetragonia
 * Sesuvium L.
 * Trianthema L.
 * Tribulocarpus S.Moore
 * Zaleya Burm.f.

Unplaced genera
Include;
 * Hammeria Burgoyne
 * Peersia L.Bolus

Uses
Several genera are cultivated. Lithops, or "living stones", are popular as novelty house plants because of their stone-like appearance.

Some species are edible, including:
 * Carpobrotus edulis (Hottentot fig, highway ice plant) has edible leaves and fruit.
 * Mesembryanthemum crystallinum has edible leaves.
 * Tetragonia tetragonoides ("New Zealand spinach") is grown as a garden plant in somewhat dry climates and used as an alternative to spinach in upscale salads.

C. edulis was introduced to California in the early 1900s to stabilize soil along railroad tracks and has become invasive. In southern California, ice plants are sometimes used as firewalls; however, they do burn if not carefully maintained.

title: Aizoaceae


text:
Talk:Black Kettle

Untitled
I was under the impression that since 2002, American Indian, has replaced Native American, as being more politically correct. I was told that the "Native" in Native American implied "savage." Can I hear any other views on this subject? If I am right, we should probably move Native American to American Indian. Any thoughts on this subject will be appreciated. Greenmountainboy 00:02, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I haven't heard. To me "Native" means 'here first'.

Native, means that they are originally from that place. From that point of view, all non-inmigrant americans are native.

But is still a much better term than "American Indian" since the word "indian" comes from the early belief that America was indeed, India.

I would keep the term Native American, since they are an american-born civilization.

i.e.-"ABORIGINAL implies having no known race preceding in occupancy of the region ." (http://www.m-w.com/)

Please sign your comments. As far as I'm concerned, political correctness is overrated and the most appropriate term is the person's actual tribe. 66.229.160.94 08:39, 3 August 2006 (UTC)

There is a Black Kettle Museum but the link at the bottom of the page is no good. Oklahoma Historical Society does not appear to have a page on it; I haven't found an official page. ;Bear (talk) 23:05, 26 November 2008 (UTC)

However POV
In 'Medicine Lodge treaty' it states that the relationship between the warring Dog Soldiers and Black Kettle is unclear, but it clearly implies one, by using the conjugation 'however' plus an unsubstantiated association implies that Black Kettles peace agreement was disingenuous. This should read something like "Though, a band (or bands) of Dog Soldiers continued to..." As it stands, it plants a seed, that it shouldn't. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.109.98.246 (talk) 09:40, 28 November 2008 (UTC)

Washita
Doesn't mention the women and children killed by the Americans, nor the 1000 horses slaughtered. Doesn't seem to link to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Washita_River 88.109.98.246 (talk) 09:50, 28 November 2008 (UTC)

There wasn't a battle there was a massacre that Black Kettle and his wife were murdered in. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.123.31.102 (talk) 23:18, 15 February 2013 (UTC)

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Suggestions for improvement
Coming back to this article after years of absence, I have noted a couple of points that merit correction IMHO:

1.)	„In 1861, he and the Arapaho surrendered to the commander of Fort Lyon under the Treaty of Fort Wise, believing he could gain protection for his people. The treaty was highly unfavorable to the Southern Cheyenne.“	As there was no state of war, between the Cheyennes and the US, this was obviously not a „surrender“. The treaty was conducted with the then acting Commissionary of Indian affairs. Black Kettle and his peace faction had been pressing for a treaty for years with the aim of getting land guarantees since the 1851 treaty was being violated by then. The treaty was only signed by a few chiefs and got never sanctioned by the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribal authorities. It is also necessary to stress that all the Indian signatories later stressed that they had only acted on behalf of their bands and had neither been authorized nor willing to cede lands on behalf of their respective nations. US authorities acknowledged this and tried to induce additional chiefs to sign the treaty. When that failed in 1863, Governour Evans concluded that war was „inevitable“.

2.)	„Many Cheyenne warriors, including the Dog Soldiers, did not accept the treaty and began to attack white settlers.“ That’s not just massively POV but even factually wrong. There were some Cheyenne reprisals in 1855/56further north after the Army had killed several Cheyenne men, followed by a large Army punitive expedition which culminated in the battle of Solomon’s fork and the destruction of a 180 lodges village by the Army. The Cheyennes didn’t attack white settlers in Coloado prior to the 1864 Colorado war.

3.)	„Whether Black Kettle opposed these actions, tolerated them, or encouraged them remains controversial among historians.“ A questionable sentence as there is no source which would support ther claim that BK encouraged raids. What is also crucially missing here is BK’s July 1864 peace mission which was rebuffed by Cpt. Parmetar, Commander of Fort Larned.

4.)	„By the summer of 1864, the situation had reached a boiling point. Southern Cheyenne hardliners, along with allied Kiowa and Arapaho bands, raided American settlements for livestock and supplies.“ Shouldn’t we add to the picture that before that the Colorado 1st Cavalry had attacked no less than four Cheyenne camps and murdered Peace Chief Lean Bear when he had approached the troops for a parlay? Why is BK’s courageous act of preventing the massacre of the troops after the murder of Lean Bear missing as well?

5.)	„Sometimes they took captives, generally only women and children, to adopt into their tribes as replacements for lost members.“ That’s straight from the Leatherstocking Tales and demonstrable nonsense. Cheyennes didn’t kidnap white women and children to turn them into Cheyennes.

6.)	„On July 11, 1864, Indians killed a family of settlers, an attack which the whites called the Hungate massacre after the family. Pro-war whites displayed the scalped bodies in Denver. Colorado governor John Evans believed tribal chiefs had ordered the attack and were intent on a full-scale war.“ That was the first time the Indians killed settlers in this war, fully 8 weeks after the first Army attack on one of their villages. It should be clarified how this incident was instrumentalized. And, when we’re at it, let’s add the September ‚64 Buffalo Springs massacre of two Cheyenne families for the sake of „fair and balanced“.

7.)	„Black Kettle decided to accept Evans' offer and entered negotiations.“ This requires that a preceding negotiation effort in July by BK had been rebuffed.

8.)	„On September 28, he concluded a peace settlement at Fort Weld outside Denver.“ Careful! He initiated the talks by mentioning white prisoners and suggesting a prisoner exchange. Wynkoop had to coak Evans into even holding the talks as Evans didn’t want to enter into any settlement before the „Bloodless Thirdsters“ had killed a sizable number of Indians. The result of the talks was ambiguous, the Whites would later stress that no formal peace had been concluded at the talks.

9.)	„The agreement assigned the Southern Cheyenne to the Sand Creek reservation and required them to report to Fort Lyon, formerly Fort Wise.“ Chivington had demanded that the Indians lay down their arms and submit to white authority in order to get peace. To his surprise, the chiefs agreed and took him by his word.

10.)	„At dawn on November 29, Chivington attacked the Sand Creek reservation; the event became known as the Sand Creek massacre.“ He didn’t attack a reservation, he attacked a village.

11.)	„Most of the warriors were out hunting.“ A popular meme and not borne out by any primary source. That ought to be deleted.

12.)	„Roman Nose and his Dog Soldiers took a prevailing hard line and continued warfare.“ Nonsense. Roman Nose was NOT even a member of the Dog Soldiers.

13.)	„The Dog Soldiers continued their raids and ambushes across Kansas, Texas, and Colorado.“ Unduly tendentious. The Dog Soldiers simply didn’t submit to ethnic cleansing and clung to their hunting lands. They attacked intruders, that’s all.

14.)	„The relationship between the two groups is a subject of historical dispute. According to Little Rock, second-in-command of Black Kettle's village, most of the warriors came back to Black Kettle's camp after their attacks.“ That’s not what the Little Rock Interview says. He says that warrior from all camps, including that of BK, went north in August 1867 and, upon discovering fresh white settlements on their last hunting grounds, attacked them.

15.)	„White prisoners, including children, were held within his encampment.“ Sensationlist exageration. We’re talking about one white woman (Clara Blinn) and hre son Willy. They were found dead in a deserted Kiowa camp after the Washita attack, miles away from BK’s Cheyenne village.

16.)	„By this time Black Kettle's influence was waning, and it is unclear whether he could have stopped the younger warriors' actions.“ As a peace Chief he was unable to do so. Policing powers rested with the warrior societies. BK was a council chief, not a warrior society headman.

17.)	„In response to the continued raids and massacres, General Philip Sheridan devised a plan of punitive reprisals.“ As Prof. John Monnet has demonstrated in the December 2015 issue of Wild West magazine („The bloody ground“), the Saline and Solomon raids were chiefly executed by white whiskey peddlers and their mixed gang of customers. General Sully investigated the raids and summarized his findings in a letter to Sherman. Sherman filed the letter away, only to be redicovered in the 2010s and blamed the Cheyennes because he wanted to destroy them.

18.)	„Custer's troops killed more than 100 Native Americans, mostly Southern Cheyenne.“ Custer claimed to have killed 103 Cheyenne men (he mentioned killed women and children but didn’t bother to clarify their numbers). A body count was never done by his troops. Cheyenne survivors claimed about 35 villagers killed.

I think there is some work to do! ;)

Lookoo (talk) 21:44, 16 January 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Black Kettle


text:
Clinton Hill, Brooklyn

Clinton Hill is a neighborhood in north-central Brooklyn, a borough of New York City. It is bordered by the Brooklyn Navy Yard and Flushing Avenue to the north, Williamsburg to the northeast, Nostrand Avenue and Bedford–Stuyvesant to the east, St Marks Avenue and Prospect Heights to the south and southwest and Carlton Avenue and Fort Greene to the west.

"The Hill", as the general area was known – with a maximum elevation of 95 ft, the highest in the area – was believed to have health benefits because many people believed that disease was more prevalent in low-lying areas. The area is named after Clinton Avenue, which in turn was named in honor of New York Governor DeWitt Clinton (1769–1828). The main thoroughfare is DeKalb Avenue. The affluent neighborhood's mixture of apartment buildings, mansions, brownstone and brick rowhouses, and the Pratt Institute and St. Joseph's College, built at various times in a number of different styles, is a great part of its charm.

Clinton Hill is part of Brooklyn Community District 2, and its primary ZIP Codes are 11205 and 11238. It is patrolled by the 88th Precinct of the New York City Police Department.

History

The area’s European history began in the 1640s, when Dutch colonists laid tobacco plantations near Wallabout Bay. Bedford Corners, situated just southeast of Clinton Hill, was incorporated in 1663, and the settlers (both Dutch and French Huguenot) purchased surrounding lands from the native Lenape in 1670.

On August 27, 1776, the "Road to Jamaica" (approximately Atlantic Avenue, the southern edge of today’s neighborhood) was used by the British army in a surprise overnight march to outflank the American army, which was forced to retreat toward Gowanus Creek, and two nights later, to Manhattan. After the war, the Dutch continued to build on the land, which sloped toward the East River and offered great views of the water and of Manhattan.

The tree-lined Clinton Avenue was laid out as a boulevard along the crest of the hill in 1832, and by the 1840s, Clinton Hill and neighboring Fort Greene had become fashionable neighborhoods for the wealthy of Brooklyn, who could commute to Manhattan by way of stagecoach to the Fulton Ferry. The area was originally devised as a rural get-away for those "determined to escape from the closeness of city life", as Walt Whitman, editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, put it in 1846. George Washington Pine had bought up the land in the area and broke it into lots, selling them to those who wanted to lead a quiet life not too far from the conveniences of the Navy Yard. Whitman, a 28-year resident of Brooklyn, had lived for less than a year in the area in 1855, where he completed his masterpiece Leaves of Grass. The 1995 New Yorker article "Walt Whitman’s Ghost” identified the address as 99 Ryerson Street, which still stands.

In the 1860s, after the Civil War, Clinton Hill was developed with row houses, which dominated the street scene by the 1880s. These attracted affluent professionals.

The area's development continued after Charles Pratt, an oil executive, built a mansion at 232 Clinton Avenue, which is now part of the Brooklyn campus of St. Joseph's College's. Pratt also built houses there for his sons, which he gave to them as wedding gifts; other mansions followed, part of the general migration of merchants from New York City (Manhattan) to Brooklyn, and the area became known as Brooklyn's "Gold Coast". Pratt founded the Pratt Institute in 1887, and its campus remains a focus of the neighborhood.

After the late 1870s, Clinton Hill was one of the stops on the Brooklyn, Flatbush and Coney Island Railway (BF&CI, now part of the Brighton subway line), an excursion line which would bring families from the neighborhood to Brighton Beach for a day of recreation, and allow them to be home "at a reasonable hour". Entire families would use the BF&CI to relocate to the newly built Brighton Beach Hotel – owned by the same men who built the railroad – for the summer months, while the paterfamilias commuted to New York via ferry to work.

By 1900, apartment buildings were being built on Clinton Avenue, which replaced the mansions there and on Washington Avenue by the 1920s and 40s. In addition some of the remaining mansions were converted into rooming houses in the following decades, and urban renewal, part of Robert Moses' relentless rebuilding of the city, cleared five blocks south of the Pratt Institute, destroying the brownstones there. This was followed in the 1970s by the brownstone revival, in which many of the remaining brownstones were restored. In the 2000s, the neighborhood became somewhat gentrified, with generally wealthier people moving into the area. New construction included an apartment building of passive house design at 283 Greene Avenue.

Demographics
Based on data from the 2020 United States census, the population of Clinton Hill was 28,647, an increase of 19.3% from 24,014 for the same area in 2010.

The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 44.8% White, 26.4% Black, 9.5% Asian, 5.7% from two or more races, and 1.5% from other races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12.1% of the population.

Residents include many "artists, architects, photographers, and craftspeople". In the 21st century, the neighborhood has experienced a significant increase in population, with increased gentrification and a growing upper-middle-class population.

As according to the 2020 census data from New York City Department of City Planning, there were between 10,000 to 19,999 White residents and 5,000 to 9,999 Black residents, meanwhile each the Hispanic and Asian populations were each less than 5,000 residents.

Landmarks
The Clinton Hill Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985. The district includes the mansions of Clinton Avenue, built in the 1870s and 1880s. The most prominent of these are linked to Charles Pratt, who built a mansion for himself at 232 Clinton Avenue in 1874, the year his Charles Pratt & Company was acquired by Standard Oil, and one each as wedding presents for three of his four sons. These four mansions can be seen on Clinton Avenue between DeKalb and Willoughby. The rest of the historic district is noted for its prominent Italianate and Beaux-Arts rowhouses. The Clinton Hill South Historic District was listed in 1986. James William Elwell built the wood-framed Italianate villa at 70 Lefferts Place that is in the Clinton Hill district. The house is one of the two oldest houses on Lefferts Place and became designated a landmark by the Landmarks Preservation Commission on December 12, 2006.

St. Mary's Episcopal Church at 220 Classon Avenue in Clinton Hill, built c. 1859, and the Mechanics Temple, which was built at 67 Putnam Avenue as the Lincoln Club in 1889, are both part of the historic district. Other buildings in the Historic District include a Gothic Revival wooden house at 284 Clinton Avenue, built c.1854; an Italianate brick and stone villa dating from c. 1850 at 447 Clinton Avenue, intact runs of mid-19th century rowhouses on Grand Avenue, St. James Place and Cambridge Place as well as on DeKalb Avenue and Waverly Avenue; mansions from the "Gold Coast" era in the 200 to 400 blocks of Clinton Avenue; and at 367 Washington Avenue; and apartment houses on Clinton Avenue.

On Lafayette Avenue are both the Emmanuel Baptist Church, completed in 1887, and the Joseph Steele or Steele-Skinner House of 1812. Clinton Avenue contains the Church of St. Luke and St. Matthew, completed in 1891, and the Royal Castle Apartments, completed in 1912. All are individually landmarked.

Many of the buildings of the Pratt Institute are landmarked, or of architectural interest, and St. Joseph's College utilizes several of the former Pratt family mansions on Clinton Avenue.

The brick building at 275 Park Avenue was built in the 1890s as a chocolate factory that produced and distributed Tootsie Rolls throughout the United States. In 2002, the building was converted into loft apartments.

Institutions
Pratt Institute, founded by Charles Pratt in 1887, is in Clinton Hill. Pratt began as an engineering school, designed to train immigrants in then-novel sciences. Today the school has programs in architecture, graphic design, interior design, and industrial design.

The Brooklyn campus of St. Joseph's College is in Clinton Hill.

By 2021 the interim location of the German School of Brooklyn (GSB) was the former Coop School in the Bedford Stuyvesant and Clinton Hill area. In 2021 the school moved all levels to its permanent site at 9 Hanover Place in Downtown Brooklyn.

Library
The Brooklyn Public Library (BPL)'s Clinton Hill branch is located at 380 Washington Avenue near Lafayette Avenue. It opened in 1973.

Transportation
Clinton Hill is served by the New York City Subway's IND Fulton Street Line, with a stop at Clinton–Washington Avenues station, as well as the IND Crosstown Line , with stops at Classon Avenue and Clinton–Washington Avenues. Several New York City Transit local bus routes provide service to the neighborhood, including the. Starting in the 1880s, the Myrtle Avenue and Lexington Avenue elevated lines served the area. The Lexington Avenue line followed Grand Avenue south from Myrtle. The last train on the Lexington Avenue line ran on October 13, 1950; dismantling of the elevated tracks began on November 1.

Clinton Hill is served by NYC Ferry's Astoria route, which stops at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. The Brooklyn Navy Yard stop opened on May 20, 2019.

Notable residents
Notable residents over the years have included:
 * Asa Akira (born 1986), pornographic actress and adult film director
 * Ted Allen (born 1965), writer and television personality
 * Lester Bowie (1941–1999), avant-garde jazz (trumpet) musician owned Victorian-style home at 207 Washington Avenue for 20 years until his death in 1999
 * Jay Critch (born 1997), rapper
 * Charles F. Erhart (1821–1891), businessman who co-founded Chas. Pfizer & Co., Inc.
 * James William Elwell (1820–1899), shipping merchant and philanthropist who founded James W. Elwell & Co., and built the historic house at 70 Lefferts Place.
 * KOTA the Friend (born 1992), hip hop artist and producer who mentions Clinton Hill in some of his songs
 * Adrian Grenier (born 1976), actor
 * Lev Grossman (born 1969), novelist and journalist
 * Heems (stage name of Himanshu Suri), rapper
 * Tehching Hsieh (born 1950), performance artist
 * Talib Kweli (born 1975), rapper
 * Mos Def (born 1973), rapper/actor
 * The Notorious B.I.G. (1972–1997), rapper, grew up on 226 St. James Place, near the Bedford–Stuyvesant border; the address was then regarded as part of Bedford–Stuyvesant
 * David Paterson (born 1954), former New York Governor
 * Rosie Perez (born 1964), actress
 * Mary Pinkett (c. 1931–2003), first black New York City councilwoman, she served 28 years from 1974 until 2001 when she was term-limited out of office
 * Letitia James (born 1958), incumbent Attorney General of New York
 * Antoni Porowski (born 1984), chef, actor, and television personality, lived in a studio with former partner, Joey Krietemeyer, that has been featured in interior design magazines
 * Susan Sarandon (born 1946), actress, lives in a home described as "aesthetically ironic"
 * Danny Simmons, artist
 * Patti Smith and Robert Mapplethorpe shared an apartment on Hall Street in 1967, after they first met
 * Barbara Stanwyck (1907–1990), actress, model and dancer, was born at 246 Classon Avenue
 * Jason Sudeikis (born 1975), actor and comedian
 * Conrad Tillard (born 1964), politician, Baptist minister, radio host, author, and civil rights activist
 * John Thomas Underwood (1857–1937), entrepreneur and inventor who founded the Underwood Typewriter Company
 * Walt Whitman (1819–1892), poet and editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle from 1846 to 1848, formerly lived at 99 Ryerson Street while working on Leaves of Grass
 * Olivia Wilde (born 1984), actress. Lived in Clinton Hill from 2014 to 2019.
 * Jessica Williams (born 1989), actress and comedian
 * Jeffrey Wright (born 1965), actor
 * Bowen Yang (born 1990), comedian on Saturday Night Live
 * Malik Yoba (born 1967), actor

title: Clinton Hill, Brooklyn


text:
White movement

The White movement (pre–1918 Бѣлое движеніе / post–1918 Белое движение), also known as the Whites (Бѣлые / Белые, Beliye), was a loose confederation of anti-communist forces that fought the communist Bolsheviks, also known as the Reds, in the Russian Civil War (1917–1923) and that to a lesser extent continued operating as militarized associations of rebels both outside and within Russian borders in Siberia until roughly World War II (1939–1945). The movement's military arm was the White Army (Бѣлая армія / Белая армия, Belaya armiya), also known as the White Guard (Бѣлая гвардія / Белая гвардия, Belaya gvardiya) or White Guardsmen (Бѣлогвардейцы / Белогвардейцы, Belogvardeytsi).

During the Russian Civil War, the White movement functioned as a big-tent political movement representing an array of political opinions in Russia united in their opposition to the Bolsheviks—from the republican-minded liberals and Kerenskyite social democrats on the left through monarchists and supporters of a united multinational Russia to the ultra-nationalist Black Hundreds on the right.

Following the military defeat of the Whites, remnants and continuations of the movement remained in several organizations, some of which only had narrow support, enduring within the wider White émigré overseas community until after the fall of the European communist states in the Eastern European Revolutions of 1989 and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1990–1991. This community-in-exile of anti-communists often divided into liberal and the more conservative segments, with some still hoping for the restoration of the Romanov dynasty.

Structure and ideology
In the Russian context after 1917, "White" had three main connotations which were:
 * 1) Political contra-distinction to "the Reds", whose Red Army supported the Bolshevik government.
 * 2) Historical reference to absolute monarchy, specifically recalling Russia's first Tsar, Ivan III (reigned 1462–1505), at a period when some styled the ruler of Muscovy Albus Rex ("the White King").
 * 3) The white uniforms of Imperial Russia worn by some White Army soldiers.

Ideology
Above all, the White movement emerged as opponents of the Red Army. The White Army had the stated aim to reverse the October Revolution and remove the Bolsheviks from power before a constituent assembly (dissolved by the Bolsheviks in January 1918) could be convened. They worked to remove Soviet organizations and functionaries in White-controlled territory.

Overall, the White Army was nationalistic and rejected ethnic particularism and separatism. The White Army generally believed in a united multinational Russia and opposed separatists who wanted to create nation-states.

The propaganda service of the Volunteer Army, the Osvag (ОСВАГ (ОСВедомительное АГентство)), made the claim that "the Jews must pay for everything: for the February and October revolutions, for Bolshevism and for the peasants who took their land from the owners". The organization also reissued the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Although Denikin's troops committed only 17.2% of the pogroms (most of which were carried out by Ukrainian nationalists or by rebel armies not affiliated with any side), "white" officers praise soldiers who commit anti-Semitic crimes, some of whom even receive bonuses.

British parliamentary influential leader Winston Churchill (1874–1965) personally warned General Anton Denikin (1872–1947), formerly of the Imperial Army and later a major White military leader, whose forces effected pogroms and persecutions against the Jews:

"[M]y task in winning support in Parliament for the Russian Nationalist cause will be infinitely harder if well-authenticated complaints continue to be received from Jews in the zone of the Volunteer Armies."However, Denikin did not dare to confront his officers and remained content with vague formal condemnations. Aside from being anti-Bolshevik and anti-communist and patriotic, the Whites had no set ideology or main leader. The White Armies did acknowledge a single provisional head of state in a Supreme Governor of Russia in a Provisional All-Russian Government, but this post was prominent only under the leadership in the war campaigns during 1918–1920 of Admiral Alexander Kolchak, formerly of the previous Russian Imperial Navy.

The movement had no set foreign policy. Whites differed on policies toward the German Empire in its extended occupation of western Russia, the Baltic states, Poland and Ukraine on the Eastern Front in the closing days of the World War, debating whether or not to ally with it. The Whites wanted to keep from alienating any potential supporters and allies and thus saw an exclusively monarchist position as a detriment to their cause and recruitment. White-movement leaders, such as Anton Denikin, advocated for Russians to create their own government, claiming the military could not decide in Russians' steads. Admiral Alexander Kolchak succeeded in creating a temporary wartime government in Omsk, acknowledged by most other White leaders, but it ultimately disintegrated after Bolshevik military advances.

Some warlords who were aligned with the White movement, such as Grigory Semyonov and Roman Ungern von Sternberg, did not acknowledge any authority but their own. Consequently, the White movement had no unifying political convictions, as members could be monarchists, republicans, rightists, or Kadets. Among White Army leaders, neither General Lavr Kornilov nor General Anton Denikin were monarchists, yet General Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel was a monarchist willing to fight for a republican Russian government. Moreover, other political parties supported the anti-Bolshevik White Army, among them the Socialist Revolutionary Party, and others who opposed Lenin's Bolshevik coup in October 1917. Depending on the time and place, those White Army supporters might also exchange right-wing allegiance for allegiance to the Red Army.

Unlike the Bolsheviks, the White Armies did not share a single ideology, methodology, or political goal. They were led by conservative generals with different agendas and methods, and for the most part they operated quite independently of each other, with little coordination or cohesion. The composition and command structure of White armies also varied, some containing hardened veterans of World War I, others more recent volunteers. These differences and divisions, along with their inability to offer an alternative government and win popular support, prevented the White armies from winning the Civil War.

White Army
The Volunteer Army in South Russia became the most prominent and the largest of the various and disparate White forces. Starting off as a small and well-organized military in January 1918, the Volunteer Army soon grew. The Kuban Cossacks joined the White Army and conscription of both peasants and Cossacks began. In late February 1918, 4,000 soldiers under the command of General Aleksei Kaledin were forced to retreat from Rostov-on-Don due to the advance of the Red Army. In what became known as the Ice March, they traveled to Kuban in order to unite with the Kuban Cossacks, most of whom did not support the Volunteer Army. In March, 3,000 men under the command of General Viktor Pokrovsky joined the Volunteer Army, increasing its membership to 6,000, and by June to 9,000. In 1919 the Don Cossacks joined the Army. In that year between May and October, the Volunteer Army grew from 64,000 to 150,000 soldiers and was better supplied than its Red counterpart. The White Army's rank-and-file comprised active anti-Bolsheviks, such as Cossacks, nobles, and peasants, as conscripts and as volunteers.

The White movement had access to various naval forces, both seagoing and riverine, especially the Black Sea Fleet.

Aerial forces available to the Whites included the Slavo-British Aviation Corps (S.B.A.C.). The Russian ace Alexander Kazakov operated within this unit.

Administration
The White movement's leaders and first members came mainly from the ranks of military officers. Many came from outside the nobility, such as generals Mikhail Alekseyev and Anton Denikin, who originated in serf families, or General Lavr Kornilov, a Cossack.

The White generals never mastered administration; they often utilized "prerevolutionary functionaries" or "military officers with monarchististic inclinations" for administering White-controlled regions.

The White Armies were often lawless and disordered. Also, White-controlled territories had multiple different and varying currencies with unstable exchange-rates. The chief currency, the Volunteer Army's ruble, had no gold backing.

Theatres of operation
The Whites and the Reds fought the Russian Civil War from November 1917 until 1921, and isolated battles continued in the Far East until June 1923. The White Army—aided by the Allied forces (Triple Entente) from countries such as Japan, the United Kingdom, France, Greece, Italy and the United States and (sometimes) the Central Powers forces such as Germany and Austria-Hungary—fought in Siberia, Ukraine, and in Crimea. They were defeated by the Red Army due to military and ideological disunity, as well as the determination and increasing unity of the Red Army.

The White Army operated in three main theatres:

Southern front
White organising in the South started on 15 November 1917, (Old Style) under General Mikhail Alekseyev. In December 1917, General Lavr Kornilov took over the military command of the newly named Volunteer Army until his death in April 1918, after which General Anton Denikin took over, becoming head of the "Armed Forces of the South of Russia" in January 1919.

The Southern Front featured massive-scale operations and posed the most dangerous threat to the Bolshevik Government. At first it depended entirely upon volunteers in Russia proper, mostly the Cossacks, among the first to oppose the Bolshevik Government. On 23 June 1918, the Volunteer Army (8,000–9,000 men) began its so-called Second Kuban Campaign with support from Pyotr Krasnov. By September, the Volunteer Army comprised 30,000 to 35,000 members, thanks to mobilization of the Kuban Cossacks gathered in the North Caucasus. Thus, the Volunteer Army took the name of the Caucasus Volunteer Army. On 23 January 1919, the Volunteer Army under Denikin oversaw the defeat of the 11th Soviet Army and then captured the North Caucasus region. After capturing the Donbas, Tsaritsyn and Kharkiv in June, Denikin's forces launched an attack towards Moscow on 3 July, (N.S.). Plans envisaged 40,000 fighters under the command of General Vladimir May-Mayevsky storming the city.

After General Denikin's attack upon Moscow failed in 1919, the Armed Forces of the South of Russia retreated. On 26 and 27 March 1920, the remnants of the Volunteer Army evacuated from Novorossiysk to the Crimea, where they merged with the army of Pyotr Wrangel.

Eastern (Siberian) front
The Eastern Front started in spring 1918 as a secret movement among army officers and right-wing socialist forces. In that front, they launched an attack in collaboration with the Czechoslovak Legions, who were then stranded in Siberia by the Bolshevik Government, who had barred them from leaving Russia, and with the Japanese, who also intervened to help the Whites in the east. Admiral Alexander Kolchak headed the eastern White Army and a provisional Russian government. Despite some significant success in 1919, the Whites were defeated being forced back to Far Eastern Russia, where they continued fighting until October 1922. When the Japanese withdrew, the Soviet army of the Far Eastern Republic retook the territory. The Civil War was officially declared over at this point, although Anatoly Pepelyayev still controlled the Ayano-Maysky District at that time. Pepelyayev's Yakut revolt, which concluded on 16 June 1923, represented the last military action in Russia by a White Army. It ended with the defeat of the final anti-communist enclave in the country, signalling the end of all military hostilities relating to the Russian Civil War.

Northern and Northwestern fronts
Headed by Nikolai Yudenich, Evgeni Miller, and Anatoly Lieven, the White forces in the North demonstrated less co-ordination than General Denikin's Army of Southern Russia. The Northwestern Army allied itself with Estonia, while Lieven's West Russian Volunteer Army sided with the Baltic nobility. Authoritarian support led by Pavel Bermondt-Avalov and Stanisław Bułak-Bałachowicz played a role as well. The most notable operation on this front, Operation White Sword, saw an unsuccessful advance towards the Russian capital of Petrograd in the autumn of 1919.

Post-Civil War
The defeated anti-Bolshevik Russians went into exile, congregating in Belgrade, Berlin, Paris, Harbin, Istanbul, and Shanghai. They established military and cultural networks that lasted through World War II (1939–1945), e.g. the Harbin and Shanghai Russians. Afterward, the White Russians' anti-Communist activists established a home base in the United States, to which numerous refugees emigrated.

Moreover, in the 1920s and the 1930s the White Movement established organisations outside Russia, which were meant to depose the Soviet Government with guerrilla warfare, e.g., the Russian All-Military Union, the Brotherhood of Russian Truth, and the National Alliance of Russian Solidarists, a far-right anticommunist organization founded in 1930 by a group of young White emigres in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. Some White émigrés adopted pro-Soviet sympathies and were termed "Soviet patriots". These people formed organizations such as the Mladorossi, the Eurasianists, and the Smenovekhovtsy. A Russian cadet corps was established to prepare the next generation of anti-Communists for the "spring campaign"—a hopeful term denoting a renewed military campaign to reclaim Russia from the Soviet Government. In any event, many cadets volunteered to fight for the Russian Protective Corps during World War II, when some White Russians participated in the Russian Liberation Movement.

After the war, active anti-Soviet combat was almost exclusively continued by the National Alliance of Russian Solidarists. Other organizations either dissolved, or began concentrating exclusively on self-preservation and/or educating the youth. Various youth organizations, such as the Russian Scouts-in-Exteris, promoted providing children with a background in pre-Soviet Russian culture and heritage. Some supported Zog I of Albania during the 1920s and a few independently served with the Nationalists during the Spanish Civil War. White Russians also served alongside the Soviet Red Army during the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang and the Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang in 1937.

Prominent people

 * Mikhail Alekseyev
 * Vladimir Antonov
 * Nicholas Savich Bakulin
 * Pavel Bermondt-Avalov
 * Stanisław Bułak-Bałachowicz
 * Anton Denikin
 * Mikhail Diterikhs
 * Mikhail Drozdovsky
 * Alexander Dutov
 * Dmitrii Fedotoff-White
 * Ivan Ilyin
 * Nikolay Iudovich Ivanov
 * Alexey Kaledin
 * Vladimir Kantakuzen
 * Vladimir Kappel
 * Alexander Kolchak
 * Lavr Kornilov
 * Pyotr Krasnov
 * Mikhail Kvetsinsky
 * Alexander Kutepov
 * Anatoly Lieven
 * Konstantin Mamontov
 * Sergey Markov
 * Vladimir May-Mayevsky
 * Evgeny Miller
 * Konstantin Petrovich Nechaev
 * Viktor Pokrovsky
 * Leonid Punin
 * Aleksandr Rodzyanko
 * Grigory Semyonov
 * Andrei Shkuro
 * Roman von Ungern-Sternberg
 * Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel
 * Sergei Wojciechowski
 * Nikolai Yudenich

Related movements
After the February Revolution, in western Russia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania declared themselves independent, but they had substantial Communist or Russian military presence. Civil wars followed, wherein the anti-communist side may be referred to as White Armies, e.g. the White Guard-led, partially conscripted army in Finland (valkoinen armeija) who fought against Soviet Russia-sponsored Red Guards. However, since they were nationalists, their aims were substantially different from the Russian White Army proper; for instance, Russian White generals never explicitly supported Finnish independence. The defeat of the Russian White Army made the point moot in this dispute. The countries remained independent and governed by non-Communist governments.

title: White movement