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Acetylcysteine

Acetylcysteine, also known as N-acetylcysteine (NAC), not to be confused with N-Acetylcarnosine, which is also abbreviated "NAC," is a medication that is used to treat paracetamol overdose and to loosen thick mucus in individuals with chronic bronchopulmonary disorders like pneumonia and bronchitis. It has been used to treat lactobezoar in infants. It can be taken intravenously, by mouth, or inhaled as a mist. Some people use it as a dietary supplement.

Common side effects include nausea and vomiting when taken by mouth. The skin may occasionally become red and itchy with any route of administration. A non-immune type of anaphylaxis may also occur. It appears to be safe in pregnancy. For paracetamol overdose, it works by increasing the level of glutathione, an antioxidant that can neutralise the toxic breakdown products of paracetamol. When inhaled, it acts as a mucolytic by decreasing the thickness of mucus.

Acetylcysteine was initially patented in 1960 and came into medical use in 1968. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication.

The sulfur-containing amino acids cysteine and methionine are more easily oxidized than the other amino acids.

Paracetamol overdose
Intravenous and oral formulations of acetylcysteine are available for the treatment of paracetamol (acetaminophen) overdose. When paracetamol is taken in large quantities, a minor metabolite called N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI) accumulates within the body. It is normally conjugated by glutathione, but when taken in excess, the body's glutathione reserves are not sufficient to deactivate the toxic NAPQI. This metabolite is then free to react with key hepatic enzymes, thereby damaging liver cells. This may lead to severe liver damage and even death by acute liver failure.

In the treatment of paracetamol (acetaminophen) overdose, acetylcysteine acts to maintain or replenish depleted glutathione reserves in the liver and enhance non-toxic metabolism of acetaminophen. These actions serve to protect liver cells from NAPQI toxicity. It is most effective in preventing or lessening hepatic injury when administered within 8–10 hours after overdose. Research suggests that the rate of liver toxicity is approximately 3% when acetylcysteine is administered within 10 hours of overdose.

Although IV and oral acetylcysteine are equally effective for this indication, oral administration is generally poorly tolerated due to the higher dosing required to overcome its low oral bioavailability, its foul taste and odour, and a higher incidence of adverse effects when taken by mouth, particularly nausea and vomiting. Prior pharmacokinetic studies of acetylcysteine did not consider acetylation as a reason for the low bioavailability of acetylcysteine. Oral acetylcysteine is identical in bioavailability to cysteine precursors. However, 3% to 6% of people given intravenous acetylcysteine show a severe, anaphylaxis-like allergic reaction, which may include extreme breathing difficulty (due to bronchospasm), a decrease in blood pressure, rash, angioedema, and sometimes also nausea and vomiting. Repeated doses of intravenous acetylcysteine will cause these allergic reactions to progressively worsen in these people.

Several studies have found this anaphylaxis-like reaction to occur more often in people given intravenous acetylcysteine despite serum levels of paracetamol not high enough to be considered toxic.

Lungs
Inhaled acetylcysteine has been used for mucolytic ("mucus-dissolving") therapy in addition to other therapies in respiratory conditions with excessive and/or thick mucus production. It is also used post-operatively, as a diagnostic aid, and in tracheotomy care. It may be considered ineffective in cystic fibrosis. A 2013 Cochrane review in cystic fibrosis found no evidence of benefit.

Acetylcysteine is used in the treatment of obstructive lung disease as an adjuvant treatment.

Other uses
Acetylcysteine has been used to complex palladium, to help it dissolve in water. This helps to remove palladium from drugs or precursors synthesized by palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions. N-acetylcysteine can be used to protect the liver.

Microbiological use
Acetylcysteine can be used in Petroff's method of liquefaction and decontamination of sputum, in preparation for recovery of mycobacterium. It also displays significant antiviral activity against the influenza A viruses.

Acetylcysteine has bactericidal properties and breaks down bacterial biofilms of clinically relevant pathogens including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterobacter cloacae, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Side effects
The most commonly reported adverse effects for IV formulations of acetylcysteine are rash, urticaria, and itchiness.

Adverse effects for inhalational formulations of acetylcysteine include nausea, vomiting, stomatitis, fever, rhinorrhea, drowsiness, clamminess, chest tightness, and bronchoconstriction. Although infrequent, bronchospasm has been reported to occur unpredictably in some patients.

Adverse effects for oral formulations of acetylcysteine have been reported to include nausea, vomiting, rash, and fever.

Large doses in a mouse model showed that acetylcysteine could potentially cause damage to the heart and lungs. They found that acetylcysteine was metabolized to S-nitroso-N-acetylcysteine (SNOAC), which increased blood pressure in the lungs and right ventricle of the heart (pulmonary artery hypertension) in mice treated with acetylcysteine. The effect was similar to that observed following a 3-week exposure to an oxygen-deprived environment (chronic hypoxia). The authors also found that SNOAC induced a hypoxia-like response in the expression of several important genes both in vitro and in vivo.

The implications of these findings for long-term treatment with acetylcysteine have not yet been investigated. The dose used by Palmer and colleagues was dramatically higher than that used in humans, the equivalent of about 20 grams per day. In humans, a much lower dosages (600 mg per day) have been observed to counteract some age-related decline in the hypoxic ventilatory response as tested by inducing prolonged hypoxia.

Although N-acetylcysteine prevented liver damage in mice when taken before alcohol, when taken four hours after alcohol it made liver damage worse in a dose-dependent fashion.

Pharmacodynamics
Acetylcysteine serves as a prodrug to L -cysteine, a precursor to the biologic antioxidant glutathione. Hence administration of acetylcysteine replenishes glutathione stores.
 * Glutathione, along with oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO), have been found to bind to the glutamate recognition site of the NMDA and AMPA receptors (via their γ-glutamyl moieties), and may be endogenous neuromodulators. At millimolar concentrations, they may also modulate the redox state of the NMDA receptor complex. In addition, glutathione has been found to bind to and activate ionotropic receptors that are different from any other excitatory amino acid receptor, and which may constitute glutathione receptors, potentially making it a neurotransmitter. As such, since N-acetylcysteine is a prodrug of glutathione, it may modulate all of the aforementioned receptors as well.
 * Glutathione also modulates the NMDA receptor by acting at the redox site.

L-cysteine also serves as a precursor to cystine, which in turn serves as a substrate for the cystine-glutamate antiporter on astrocytes; hence there is increasing glutamate release into the extracellular space. This glutamate in turn acts on mGluR2/3 receptors, and at higher doses of acetylcysteine, mGluR5. Acetylcysteine may have other biological functions in the brain, such as the modulation of dopamine release and the reduction in inflammatory cytokine formation possibly via inhibiting NF-κB and modulating cytokine synthesis. These properties, along with the reduction of oxidative stress and the re‐establishment of glutamatergic balance, would lead to an increase in growth factors, such as brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and the regulation of neuronal cell death through B‐cell lymphoma 2 expression (BLC-2).

Pharmacokinetics
Acetylcysteine is extensively liver metabolized, CYP450 minimal, urine excretion is 22–30% with a half-life of 5.6 hours in adults and 11 hours in newborns.

Chemistry
Acetylcysteine is the N-acetyl derivative of the amino acid L -cysteine, and is a precursor in the formation of the antioxidant glutathione in the body. The thiol (sulfhydryl) group confers antioxidant effects and is able to reduce free radicals.

N-acetyl- L -cysteine is soluble in water and alcohol, and practically insoluble in chloroform and ether.

It is a white to white with light yellow cast powder, and has a pKa of 9.5 at 30 °C.

Society and culture
Acetylcysteine was first studied as a drug in 1963. Amazon removed acetylcysteine for sale in the US in 2021, due to claims by the FDA of it being classified as a drug rather than a supplement. In April 2022, the FDA released draft guidance on FDA's policy regarding products labeled as dietary supplements that contain N-acetyl- L -cysteine. Amazon subsequently re-listed NAC products as of August 2022.

Research
While many antioxidants have been researched to treat a large number of diseases by reducing the negative effect of oxidative stress, acetylcysteine is one of the few that has yielded promising results, and is currently already approved for the treatment of paracetamol overdose.

 * In mouse mdx models of Duchenne's muscular dystrophy, treatment with 1–2% acetylcysteine in drinking water significantly reduces muscle damage and improves strength.
 * It is being studied in conditions such as autism, where cysteine and related sulfur amino acids may be depleted due to multifactorial dysfunction of methylation pathways involved in methionine catabolism.
 * Animal studies have also demonstrated its efficacy in reducing the damage associated with moderate traumatic brain or spinal injury, and also ischaemia-induced brain injury. In particular, it has been demonstrated to reduce neuronal losses and to improve cognitive and neurological outcomes associated with these traumatic events.
 * It has been suggested that acetylcysteine may help people with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease by increasing levels of glutathione allowing faster breakdown of salicylates, although there is no evidence that it is of benefit.
 * Small studies have shown acetylcysteine to be of benefit to people with blepharitis. It has been shown to reduce ocular soreness caused by Sjögren's syndrome.
 * It has been shown that N-acetylcysteine may protect the human cochlea from subclinical hearing loss caused by loud noises such as impulse noise. In animal models, it reduced age-related hearing loss.
 * It has been shown effective in the treatment of Unverricht-Lundborg disease in an open trial in four patients. A marked decrease in myoclonus and some normalization of somatosensory evoked potentials with acetylcysteine treatment has been documented.
 * Addiction to certain addictive drugs (including cocaine, heroin, alcohol, and nicotine) is correlated with a persistent reduction in the expression of excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2) in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc); the reduced expression of EAAT2 in this region is implicated in addictive drug-seeking behavior. In particular, the long-term dysregulation of glutamate neurotransmission in the NAcc of long-term, drug-dependent users is associated with an increase in vulnerability to relapse after re-exposure to the addictive drug or its associated drug cues. Drugs that help to normalize the expression of EAAT2 in this region, such as N-acetylcysteine, have been proposed as an adjunct therapy for the treatment of addiction to cocaine, nicotine, alcohol, and other drugs.
 * It has been tested for the reduction of hangover symptoms, though the overall results indicate very limited efficacy.
 * A double-blind placebo controlled trial of 262 patients has shown NAC treatment was well-tolerated and resulted in a significant decrease in the frequency of influenza-like episodes, severity, and length of time confined to bed.

Kidney and bladder
N-acetylcysteine has been widely believed to prevent adverse effects of long term Ketamine on the bladder and kidneys, and there is growing body of evidence to support this.

Evidence for the benefit of acetylcysteine to prevent radiocontrast induced kidney disease is mixed.

Acetylcysteine has been used for cyclophosphamide-induced haemorrhagic cystitis, although mesna is generally preferred due to the ability of acetylcysteine to diminish the effectiveness of cyclophosphamide.

Psychiatry
Acetylcysteine has been studied for major psychiatric disorders, including bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, and schizophrenia.

Tentative evidence exists for N-acetylcysteine also in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, autism, obsessive-compulsive disorder, specific drug addictions (cocaine), drug-induced neuropathy, trichotillomania, excoriation disorder, and a certain form of epilepsy (progressive myoclonic). Preliminary evidence showed efficacy in anxiety disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and mild traumatic brain injury although confirmatory studies are required. Tentative evidence also supports use in cannabis use disorder.

It is also being studied for use as a treatment of body-focused repetitive behavior.

Addiction
Evidence to date does not support the efficacy for N-acetylcysteine in treating addictions to gambling, methamphetamine, or nicotine. Based upon limited evidence, NAC appears to normalize glutamate neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens and other brain structures, in part by upregulating the expression of excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2), a.k.a. glutamate transporter 1 (GLT1), in individuals with addiction. While NAC has been demonstrated to modulate glutamate neurotransmission in adult humans who are addicted to cocaine, NAC does not appear to modulate glutamate neurotransmission in healthy adult humans. NAC has been hypothesized to exert beneficial effects through its modulation of glutamate and dopamine neurotransmission as well as its antioxidant properties.

Bipolar disorder
In bipolar disorder, N-acetylcysteine has been repurposed as an augmentation strategy for depressive episodes in light of the possible role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of mood disorders. Nonetheless, meta-analytic evidence shows that add-on N-acetylcysteine was more effective than placebo only in reducing depression scales scores (low quality evidence), without positive effects on response and remission outcomes, limiting its possible role in clinical practice to date.

COVID-19
Acetylcysteine is being considered as a possible treatment for COVID-19.

A combination of guanfacine and N-acetylcysteine has been found to lift the "brain fog" of eight patients with long COVID, according to researchers.

A combination of glycine and N-acetylcysteine is suspected to have potential to safely replenish depleted glutathione levels in COVID-19 patients.

title: Acetylcysteine


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Planisphere

In astronomy, a planisphere is a star chart analog computing instrument in the form of two adjustable disks that rotate on a common pivot. It can be adjusted to display the visible stars for any time and date. It is an instrument to assist in learning how to recognize stars and constellations. The astrolabe, an instrument that has its origins in Hellenistic astronomy, is a predecessor of the modern planisphere. The term planisphere contrasts with armillary sphere, where the celestial sphere is represented by a three-dimensional framework of rings.

Description
A planisphere consists of a circular star chart attached at its center to an opaque circular overlay that has a clear window or hole so that only a portion of the sky map will be visible in the window or hole area at any given time. The chart and overlay are mounted so that they are free to rotate about a common axis. The star chart contains the brightest stars, constellations and (possibly) deep-sky objects visible from a particular latitude on Earth. The night sky that one sees from the Earth depends on whether the observer is in the northern or southern hemispheres and the latitude. A planisphere window is designed for a particular latitude and will be accurate enough for a certain band either side of that. Planisphere makers will usually offer them in a number of versions for different latitudes. Planispheres only show the stars visible from the observer's latitude; stars below the horizon are not included.

A complete twenty-four-hour time cycle is marked on the rim of the overlay. A full twelve months of calendar dates are marked on the rim of the starchart. The window is marked to show the direction of the eastern and western horizons. The disk and overlay are adjusted so that the observer's local time of day on the overlay corresponds to that day's date on the star chart disc. The portion of the star chart visible in the window then represents (with a distortion because it is a flat surface representing a spherical volume) the distribution of stars in the sky at that moment for the planisphere's designed location. Users hold the planisphere above their head with the eastern and western horizons correctly aligned to match the chart to actual star positions.

History
The word planisphere (Latin planisphaerium) was originally used in the second century by Claudius Ptolemy to describe the representation of a spherical Earth by a map drawn in the plane. This usage continued into the Renaissance: for example Gerardus Mercator described his 1569 world map as a planisphere.

In this article the word describes the representation of the star-filled celestial sphere on the plane. The first star chart to have the name "planisphere" was made in 1624 by Jacob Bartsch. Bartsch was the son-in-law of Johannes Kepler, discoverer of Kepler's laws of planetary motion.

The star chart
Since the planisphere shows the celestial sphere in a printed flat, there is always considerable distortion. Planispheres, like all charts, are made using a certain projection method. For planispheres there are two major methods in use, leaving the choice with the designer. One such method is the polar azimuthal equidistant projection. Using this projection the sky is charted centered on one of the celestial poles (polar), while circles of equal declination (for instance 60°, 30°, 0° (the celestial equator), −30°, and −60°) lie equidistant from each other and from the poles (equidistant). The shapes of the constellations are proportionally correct in a straight line from the centre outwards, but at right angles to this direction (parallel to the declination circles) there is considerable distortion. That distortion will be worse as the distance to the pole gets greater. If we study the famous constellation of Orion in this projection and compare this to the real Orion, we can clearly see this distortion. One notable planisphere using azimuthal equidistant projection addresses this issue by printing a northern view on one side and the southern view on the other, thus reducing the distance charted from the center outward.

The stereographic projection solves this problem while introducing another. Using this projection the distances between the declination circles are enlarged in such a way that the shapes of the constellations remain correct. Naturally in this projection the constellations on the edge become too large in comparison to constellations near the celestial pole: Orion will be twice as high as it should be. (This is the same effect that makes Greenland so huge in Mercator charts.) Another disadvantage is that, with more space for constellations near the edge of the planisphere, the space for the constellations around the celestial pole in question will be less than they deserve. For observers at moderate latitudes, who can see the sky near the celestial pole of their hemisphere better than that nearer the horizon, this may be a good reason to prefer a planisphere made with the polar azimuthal equidistant projection method.

The upper disc
The upper disc contains a "horizon", that defines the visible part of the sky at any given moment, which is naturally half of the total starry sky. That horizon line is most of the time also distorted, for the same reason the constellations are distorted. The horizon line on a stereographic projection is a perfect circle. The horizon line on other projections is a kind of "collapsed" oval. The horizon is designed for a particular latitude and thus determines the area for which a planisphere is meant. Some more expensive planispheres have several upper discs that can be exchanged, or have an upper disc with more horizon-lines, for different latitudes.

When a planisphere is used in a latitude zone other than the zone for which it was designed, the user will either see stars that are not in the planisphere, or the planisphere will show stars that are not visible in that latitude zone's sky. To study the starry sky thoroughly it may be necessary to buy a planisphere particularly for the area in question.

However, most of the time the part of the sky near the horizon will not show many stars, due to hills, woods, buildings or just because of the thickness of the atmosphere we look through. The lower 5° above the horizon in particular hardly shows any stars (let alone objects) except under the very best conditions. Therefore, a planisphere can fairly accurately be used from +5° to −5° of the design latitude. For example, a planisphere for 40° north can be used between 35° and 45° north.

Coordinates
Accurate planispheres represent the celestial coordinates: right ascension and declination. The changing positions of planets, asteroids or comets in terms of these coordinates can be looked up in annual astronomical guides, and these enable planisphere users to find them in the sky.

Some planispheres use a separate pointer for the declination, using the same pivot point as the upper disc. Some planispheres have a declination feature printed on the upper disc, along the line connecting north and south on the horizon. Right ascension is represented on the edge, where the dates with which to set the planisphere are also found.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Planisphere


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Reichskommissar

Reichskommissar (, rendered as "Commissioner of the Empire", "Reich Commissioner" or "Imperial Commissioner"), in German history, was an official governatorial title used for various public offices during the period of the German Empire and Nazi Germany.

Domestic
In the unified German Empire (after 1871), Reichskommissars were appointed to oversee special tasks. For instance, there was a Reichskommissar for emigration (Reichskommissar für das Auswanderungswesen) in Hamburg.

Presumably the same title is rendered as "German Imperial Commissioner" in the case of Heligoland, a strategically located once-Danish island in the North Sea, formally handed over to Germany by the UK on 9 August 1890 (under the Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty) and on 15 December 1890 formally annexed to Germany (after 18 February 1891 part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein): 9 August 1890 – 1891 Adolf Wermuth (b. 1855 – d. 1927)

Colonial
The title of Reichskommissar was used during the German Empire for the governors of most of the Schutzgebiete (a German term literally meaning protectorate, but also applied to ordinary colonies).

In West Africa

 * in Kamerun (modern-day Cameroon) * Reichskommissare (Commissioners)
 * 14 July 1884 – 19 July 1884 Gustav Nachtigal (b. 1834 – d. 1885)
 * 19 July 1884 – 1 April 1885 Maximilian Buchner (acting) (b. 1846 – d. 1921)
 * 1 April 1885 – 4 July 1885 Eduard von Knorr (acting) (b. 1840 – d. 1920); next came a list of governors until 4 March 1916 when *
 * in Togo the Reich Reichskommissare since 5 July 1884 proclamation of the Togoland protectorate:
 * 5 July 1884 – 6 July 1884 Gustav Nachtigal (b. 1834 – d. 1885), the Reichskommissar for West Africa *
 * 6 July 1884 – 26 June 1885 Heinrich Randad, the provisional Consul
 * 26 June 1885 – May 1887 Ernst Falkenthal (b. 1858 – d. 1911)
 * July 1887 – 17 October 1888 Jesko von Puttkamer (acting) (1st time) (b. 1855 – d. 1917)
 * 17 October 1888 – 14 April 1891 Eugen von Zimmerer (b. 1843 – d. 1918)
 * 14 April 1891 – 4 June 1892 Vacant
 * 4 June 1892 – November 1893 Jesko von Puttkamer (2nd time); the same stayed on as the first of two Landeshauptleute ('Land captains'), until 13 August 1895; the second (18 November 1895 – 18 April 1898 August Köhler, b. 1858 – d. 1902) was also the first of the Governors (since 1 January 1905 as German colony of Togoland, until the British conquered it August 1914)

German South-West Africa

 * from 24 April 1884 as German South West Africa protectorate, only incumbent (7 October 1884 – May 1885) Gustav Nachtigal (b. 1834 – d. 1885; see above), staying on shortly for the status transition
 * from 30 April 1885 – 1889 under the rule of the private German South West Africa Colonial Company (Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft für Südwest-Afrika), only incumbent (May 1885 – August 1890): Heinrich Ernst Göring (acting) (b. 1839 – d. 1913)
 * again as imperial protectorate (?)
 * first the abovementioned Heinrich Ernst Göring, de facto staying on
 * August 1890 – March 1891 Louis Nels (acting) (b. 1855 – d. 1910)
 * March 1891 – November 1893 Curt von François (b. 1852 – d. 1931), who stayed on when the country was declared on 14 September 1892 the German crown colony of South West Africa, and later again as the first of two Landeshauptleute ("captains of the territory")

In East Africa

 * in Tanganyika, the area acquired on 17 February 1885 by Carl Peters for the Deutsch-Ostafrikanische Gesellschaft (DOAG, 'German East Africa Company', that was initially under an Administrator: 27 May 1885 – 8 February 1888 Karl Peters), since the proclamation of the German East African protectorate (7 May 1885 – 1 July 1890) over Witu in Kenya; contested by Britain; on 28 April 1888 Germany obtains a lease of the coastal strip from the Sultan of Zanzibar), a single Reichskommissar is appointed (8 February 1888 – 21 February 1891: Hermann von Wissmann (b. 1853 – d. 1905), after him Governors of 1 January 1891 when proclaimed German East Africa colony (Deutsch Ostafrika), ending the 'private' DOAG rule.

In Oceania

 * Nauru, since 21 October 1887 a German protectorate, was under the following Reichskommissare:
 * 1886 – 1887 Wilhelm Knappe (b. 1855 – d. 1910)
 * 1888 – 1889 Franz Leopold Sonnenschein (b. 1857 – d. 1897); next, as it was since 14 April 1888 administratively part of the (German) Marshall Islands, it had mere Bezirksamtleute (District officers; 2 October 1888 – 1906), then, being since 1 April 1906 administratively part of German New Guinea, Stationsleiter ('Station Chiefs'; from 1911, subordinated to the administrators of Ponape district) until 6 November 1914, finally the island was lost (Australian administration, first by a military Commander, then under League of Nations mandate)

Nazi Germany
The title of Reichskommissar was given by Adolf Hitler to a number of Nazi governors, mainly in several occupied countries during World War II, but also before the war to reintegrate former Prussian territory regained from France, as well as various other regions inhabited by ethnic Germans. Depending on circumstances they could be severely dictatorial and repressive, most notably Erich Koch in Ukraine.

Saar Territory
A plebiscite was held in the Territory of the Saar Basin (presently Saarland) on 13 January 1935: 90.3% of those voting wished to join Germany rather than join France. Josef Bürckel (b. 1895 – d. 1944) was appointed on 1 March 1935 as Reichskommissar für die Rückgliederung des Saarlandes, then changed his style from 17 June 1936 to Reichskommissar für das Saarland, and from 8 April 1940 to Reichskommissar für die Saarpfalz; finally from 11 March 1941, he was made Reichsstatthalter in der "Westmark" (the region's new name, meaning "Western March or Border"), until his death on 28 September 1944 when he was succeeded by Willi Stöhr (b. 1903 also NSDAP), who remained in office until 21 March 1945.

Sudetenland
After the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia was annexed by Germany on 1 October 1938, it was under a Military governor (Wilhelm Keitel; 1 October 1938 – 20 October 1938), until Konrad Henlein was appointed Reichskommissar of the territories on 21 October 1938. On 1 May 1939 a regular 'domestic' Reichsgau, Reichsgau Sudetenland was created; Henlein stayed on as Reichsstatthalter until the region was re-incorporated into Czechoslovakia on 4 May 1945.

Vienna
1 May 1939 – 1 April 1940 Josef Bürckel (b. 1895 – d. 1944) NSDAP, in fact the maintained last Austrian Premier of 15 October 1938 constituted metropolitan capital city-entity Gross-Wien (Greater Vienna), is in transitional office, then the same is made the first of two Reichsstatthalter (he until 10 August 1940), equivalent to a Gauleiter in Germany proper.

Norway
After the Norwegian king and his government fled during the German invasion of the country and the failure of a coup d'état by the fascist politician Vidkun Quisling, Hitler appointed a Reichskommissar für die besetzten Norwegischen Gebiete (Reich Commissioner for the occupied Norwegian territories) on 24 April 1940. The office had two consecutive Reichskommissars with extensive authority:
 * 24 April 1940 – 7 May 1945 – Josef Terboven, NSDAP. He took up residence in the Crown Prince's manor at Skaugum. Answerable only to Hitler, Terboven initially tried to negotiate with the Norwegian Storting to establish a civilian administration which would be willing to sign a peace treaty with Germany. After the collapse of these negotiations, Terboven on 25 September 1940 proclaimed the deposition of King Haakon VII and his cabinet-in-exile and outlawed all political parties except the Norwegian fascist party Nasjonal Samling. Terboven committed suicide during the night of 7 May 1945, just before the surrender of the German forces in Norway became effective.
 * 7 May 1945 – 8 May 1945 – Franz Böhme, commander-in-chief of German military forces in Norway, assumed Terboven's responsibilities as acting Reichskommissar until Allied forces took control and had him arrested.

Netherlands
After the German invasion of the country and the Dutch government and crown's evacuation and exile, the Netherlands was placed under the command of two successive military governors: The governorship was succeeded by a more permanent civil administration led by Reichskommissar für die besetzten niederländischen Gebiete (Reich Commissioner for the occupied Dutch territories):
 * 10 May 1940 – 20 May 1940 – Fedor von Bock
 * 20 May 1940 – 29 May 1940 – Alexander von Falkenhausen
 * 29 May 1940 – 5 May 1945 – Arthur Seyss-Inquart, NSDAP

Belgium and Northern France
Belgium was initially placed under a Militärverwaltung, headed by military governors. The country was joined administratively to "North France", i.e. the adjacent French départements Nord and Pas-de-Calais. This was done both for security reasons and geopolitical ideology of expansionism: the area was to be used as a staging ground in an expected invasion of Britain, but also in order to prepare a future "re-claim" of French Flanders in Northern France as a historic part of Germanic Flanders. The Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France had two successive governors:
 * 10 May 1940 – 1 June 1940 – Karl Rudolf Gerd von Rundstedt and Fedor von Bock
 * 1 June 1940 – 18 July 1944 – Alexander Freiherr von Falkenhausen

This situation continued until July 1944, when a Reichskommissar für Belgien-Nordfrankreich was appointed:
 * 18 July 1944 – January 1945 – Joseph Grohé NSDAP

In December 1944, when the Allies had already liberated virtually all of Belgium, its territory was split up into three Gau-type entities as integral ("Germanic") parts of the Reich: the bi-cultural Belgian capital Brussels remained directly under the German Reichskommissar as the District of Brussels, but the bulk of the country was divided ethno-linguistically and placed under collaborating Belgian fascist party leaders (on paper) as Gauleiters and with Führer-imitating titles in their national languages:

Gauleiter of Reichsgau Flandern (Flanders) supposedly including French Flanders in Allied-liberated North France, and National leader of the Flemish People (Landsleider van het Vlaamsche Volk) as well as "Head of the Flemish Liberation Committee" (Hoofd van het Vlaamsche Bevrijdingscomité):
 * 15 December 1944 – 1945 – Jef Van de Wiele (in Germany in exile; head of the Devlag party)

Gauleiter of Reichsgau Wallonien (Wallonia, and Leader of the Walloon People (Chef du Peuple Wallon):
 * 8 December 1944 – 1945 – Léon Degrelle (also remained in Germany in exile, even though German troops reconquered part of Wallonia in December 1944 – January 1945); head of the Rexist Party)

Soviet territories
Before the beginning of Operation Barbarossa (the eastern front campaign against the Soviet Union) on 22 June 1941, the Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg suggested the administrative division of conquered Soviet territory in the following Reichskommissariats, only the first two of which would become reality through military success:
 * Ostland (the Baltic countries, Belarus, and adjacent parts of Western Russia);
 * Ukraine (Ukraine and the northern parts of Southern Russia);
 * Kaukasien (the Caucasus and the southern parts of Southern Russia);
 * Moskowien (Moscow metropolitan area and the rest of nearest Russian European areas);
 * Turkestan (the Central Asian Soviet republics, ethnically mainly Turkic).

This suggested an intention to destroy Russia as a political entity, as the Nazis organised the areas adjacent to Greater Germany's eastern provinces in accordance with the geopolitical Lebensraum idea (Drang nach Osten), to benefit future "Aryan" generations. When German forces entered Soviet territory, they immediately implemented this administrative plan instating the Reichskommissariat of "Ostland" in the Baltic lands and "Ukraine" in Ukraine, headed by Hinrich Lohse and Erich Koch respectively. These administrators put in practice the intended measures during the whole of their administrative period, until 1943–44, when the Germans after the Battle of Kursk were gradually driven out by force.

Ostland
On 17 July 1941, the Reichskommissariat Ostland ("Eastland") was established, soon uniting German-occupied Lithuania, Latvia (from 1 September 1941) and Estonia (from 5 December 1941) and Belarus. Ostland was organized into four General Districts (Generalbezirke); only the (Latvian) capital city of Riga (Gebiet Riga Stadt) was directly administered by the Reichskommissar für das Ostland. The incumbents were:
 * 17 July 1941 – 26 September 1944 – Hinrich Lohse (b. 1896 – d. 1964), NSDAP
 * 26 September 1944 – 2 February 1945 – Erich Koch (b. 1896 – d. 1986), NSDAP (de facto ousted on 13 October 1944 when the Soviet Red Army took Riga, although Ostland wasn't officially dissolved until 2 February 1945)

Ukraine
The territory in Ukraine occupied by Germany since 25 June 1941 initially fell under a military governor:
 * 25 June 1941 – 31 August 1941 – Karl Rudolf Gerd von Rundstedt (b. 1875 – d. 1953)

The Reichskommissariat Ukraine was established on 20 August 1941, under a Reichskommissar für die Ukraine. The incumbents were:
 * 20 August 1941 – 6 October 1943 – Erich Koch (b. 1896 – d. 1986), NSDAP
 * 1942 – 30 September 1943 – Paul Dargel (acting for Koch) (b. 1903 – d. 19..), NSDAP
 * October 1943 – 1944 – Curt von Gottberg (b. 1896 – d. 1945), NSDAP

Moskowien
Central Russia was never brought under sufficient German control to permit its transfer to civilian administration, but a designated Reichskommissar für Moskowien was appointed on 17 July 1941:
 * Siegfried Kasche (b. 1903 – d. 1947), NSDAP

Kaukasien
The Caucasus was never brought under sufficient German control to permit its transfer to civilian administration, but a designated Reichskommissar für die Kaukasien was appointed on 17 July 1941:
 * Arno Schickedanz (b. 1892 – d. 1945), NSDAP

title: Reichskommissar


text:
Baldwin VI, Count of Flanders

Baldwin VI (c. 1030 – 17 July 1070), also known as Baldwin the Good, was Count of Hainaut from 1051 to 1070 (as Baldwin I) and Count of Flanders from 1067 to 1070.

Baldwin was the eldest son of Baldwin V of Flanders and Adela, a daughter of King Robert II of France and Constance of Arles. His father arranged his marriage, under threat of arms, to Richilde, the widow of Herman of Mons and heir of Hainaut. As Hainaut was a part of the Holy Roman Empire this enraged Emperor Henry III, who had not been consulted, causing him to wage war on the two Baldwins but was not successful. Between 1050 and 1054 Count Lambert II of Lens fought alongside the Baldwins against Henry III finding that this alliance best protected his interests.

Baldwin VI died on 17 July 1070. Baldwin had constructed the church of St. Peter's of Hasnon, placed monks there and designated it as his burial place. His early death left Flanders and Hainaut in the hands of his young son, Arnulf III, with Richilde as regent. Arnulf III was killed at the Battle of Cassel in 1071. Baldwin VI's younger son, Count Baldwin II of Hainaut, could not claim Flanders from Baldwin VI's brother, Robert I.

title: Baldwin VI, Count of Flanders


text:
Papa Charlie Jackson

William Henry "Papa Charlie" Jackson (November 10, 1887 – May 7, 1938) was an early American bluesman and songster who accompanied himself with a banjo guitar, a guitar, or a ukulele. His recording career began in 1924. Much of his life remains a mystery, but his draft card lists his birthplace as New Orleans, Louisiana, and his death certificate states that he died in Chicago, Illinois, on May 7, 1938.

Career
Jackson began his career playing in minstrel shows and medicine shows. From the early 1920s into the 1930s, he played frequent club dates in Chicago and was noted for busking at Chicago's Maxwell Street Market. In August 1924, he recorded the commercially successful "Airy Man Blues" and "Papa's Lawdy Lawdy Blues" for Paramount Records. In April 1925, Jackson released his version of "Shave 'Em Dry". One of his subsequent tracks, "Salty Dog Blues", became his most famous song. Among his recordings are several in which he accompanied classic female blues singers, such as Ida Cox, Hattie McDaniel, and Ma Rainey.

According to the blues writer Bruce Eder, Jackson achieved "a musical peak of sorts in September of 1929 when he got to record with his longtime idol, Blind Arthur Blake, often known as the king of ragtime guitar during this period. 'Papa Charlie and Blind Blake Talk About It' parts one and two are among the most unusual sides of the late '20s, containing elements of blues jam session, hokum recording, and ragtime." A few more recordings for the Paramount label followed in 1929 and 1930. In 1934, Jackson recorded for Okeh Records, and the following year he recorded with Big Bill Broonzy. Altogether, Jackson recorded 66 sides during his career.

Recordings

 * "Airy Man Blues" 1924
 * "Shake that Thing" 1925
 * "All I Want is a Spoonful" 1925
 * "Bad Luck Woman" 1926
 * "Let's Get Along" 1926
 * "Baby, Don't You Be So Mean" 1927
 * "Ash Tray Blues" 1928
 * "Baby Papa Needs His Loving" 1929
 * "Baby Please Loan Me Your Heart" 1929

Legacy
Jackson was an influential figure in blues music. He was the first self-accompanied blues musician to make records. He was one of the first musicians of the hokum genre, which uses comic, often sexually suggestive lyrics and lively, danceable rhythms. He wrote or was the first to record several songs that became blues standards, including "All I Want Is a Spoonful" and "Salty Dog". Nonetheless, he has received little attention from blues historians.

Jackson's "Shake That Thing" was covered by Mother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions in 1964. "Loan Me Your Heart" appeared on the Wildpary Sheiks' eponymous album in 2002. The Carolina Chocolate Drops recorded "Your Baby Ain't Sweet Like Mine" on their Grammy Award–winning 2010 album, Genuine Negro Jig, and often played the song in interviews after its release.

A brief selection from "Shake That Thing" was used in the television series Sanford and Son, in the 1973 episode entitled "The Blind Mellow Jelly Collection", in which Fred Sanford, played by Redd Foxx, danced and sang along with it.

title: Papa Charlie Jackson


text:
Bicol

Bikol or Bicol usually refers to:
 * Bicol Region, the administrative region in the Philippines

Bikol or Bicol may also refer to:

Languages and people

 * Bikol languages, the languages spoken in the Bicol region in the Philippines
 * Albay Bikol language, a language of Bicol
 * Central Bikol language, a language of Bicol
 * Pandan Bikol language, a language of Bicol
 * Rinconada Bikol language, a language of Bicol
 * Bicolano people, the ethnic group

Political parties

 * Ako Bicol, a political party in the Philippines

Food

 * Bicol express, a popular Filipino dish

Hubs of transportation

 * Bicol International Airport, an airport in Albay province
 * Bicol Isarog Transport System, a Philippine bus company

Water bodies

 * Bicol River, the eighth largest river in the Philippines

Newspaper

 * Bicol Standard, a newspaper in Bicol Region

Educational institution

 * Central Bicol State University of Agriculture, the regional center for higher learning in agriculture in the Bicol Region
 * Bicol University, a regional state and research university in Bicol Region, the Philippines
 * Polytechnic State University of Bicol, a state university in the Philippines

Sports

 * Bicol Volcanoes, a basketball team

Park

 * Bicol Natural Park, a protected area of the Philippines located in the Bicol Region

title: Bicol


text:
KMFDM

KMFDM (originally Kein Mehrheit Für Die Mitleid, loosely translated by the band as "no pity for the majority") is a multinational industrial rock band from Hamburg led by Sascha Konietzko, who founded the band in 1984 as a performance art project.

The band's earliest incarnation included German drummer En Esch and British vocalist Raymond Watts, the latter of whom left and rejoined the group several times over its history. The trio recorded the band's earliest albums in Germany before Konietzko and Esch moved to the United States, where they found much greater success with seminal industrial record label Wax Trax!. German guitarist Günter Schulz joined in 1990; both he and Esch continued with the band until KMFDM broke up in 1999. Konietzko resurrected KMFDM in 2002 (Esch and Schulz declined to rejoin) on Metropolis Records, and by 2005 he had assembled a consistent line-up that included American singer Lucia Cifarelli, British guitarists Jules Hodgson and Steve White, and British drummer Andy Selway. Konietzko and Cifarelli moved back to Germany in 2007, while the rest of the band stayed in the U.S. Hodgson and White moved on to other pursuits between 2015 and 2017, leaving the band a working trio unofficially. In addition to these core members, dozens of other musicians have worked with the group across its twenty-two studio albums and over two dozen singles, with sales totaling in excess of two million records worldwide.

Critics consider KMFDM one of the first bands to bring industrial music to mainstream audiences, though Konietzko refers to the band's music as "The Ultra-Heavy Beat". The band incorporates heavy metal guitar riffs, electronic music, samples, and both male and female vocals in its music, which encompasses a variety of styles including industrial rock and electronic body music. The band is fiercely political, with many of its lyrics taking stands against violence, war, and oppression. KMFDM normally tours at least once after every major release, and band members are known for their accessibility to and interaction with fans, both online and at concerts. Members, independently or working together and with other musicians, have recorded under many other names, primarily Watts' Pig, Konietzko's Excessive Force, and Esch and Schulz's Slick Idiot.

 Origin (1984)
KMFDM was officially founded in Paris, France, on February 29, 1984, as a performance art project between Sascha Konietzko and German painter and multimedia artist Udo Sturm at the opening of an exhibition of young European artists at the Grand Palais. The first show consisted of Sturm playing an ARP 2600 synthesizer, Konietzko playing bass guitars with their amplifiers spread throughout the building, and four Polish coal miners (whom Konietzko had met at a bordello) pounding on the foundations of the Grand Palais.

Name

KMFDM is an initialism for the nonsensical and grammatically incorrect German phrase Kein Mehrheit Für Die Mitleid, which, keeping the same word order, literally translates as "no majority for the pity", but is typically given the loose translation of "no pity for the majority". In the original phrase, the articles preceding the nouns Mehrheit and Mitleid are inflected for the wrong gender, as the proper declension would be Keine Mehrheit für das Mitleid. Swapping the two nouns yields the grammatically correct Kein Mitleid für die Mehrheit, which translates directly as "no pity for the majority". In a 2003 interview, Konietzko explained the origins of the phrase:

"'On the morning of February 29th, 1984 I woke up and went down to breakfast at a hotel in Paris. We had a show that night opening for an exhibition for young European artists. ... we needed a motto for the night so that we could make up some fliers and post them around. There was a German newspaper on the table and so I started cutting out words and threw them all into a cap. We picked a few of them out and it read 'Kein Mehrheit Für Die Mitleid'. It's kinda improper German in regards to its translation but in the DA-DA-esque [sic] mindset of the early morning it made perfect sense. So when I was on my way back to Hamburg I'd mentioned it to Raymond [Watts]. He liked it but he was having difficulty pronouncing it correctly. So finally he said, 'Why don't you just call it KMFDM?' So that was it. We were KMFDM.'"

The initialism has jokingly been said to stand for "Kill Mother-Fucking Depeche Mode", coined by the band on their first U.S. tour and used as recently as Kunst.

Early years in Germany (1984–89)
Sturm left early on, but Konietzko continued performing, at one point having twenty people in his troupe, which by then was engaged in antics such as fire eating and throwing entrails at audiences. Konietzko then returned to Hamburg, where he joined up with Peter Missing in his new band Missing Foundation. Drummer Nicklaus Schandelmaier, who had recently moved to Hamburg from Frankfurt, joined the group, and took the stage name En Esch. Although the group did some live performances, Konietzko and Esch dropped out of Missing Foundation before any recordings were made and went back to work as KMFDM, collaborating with Hamburg-based studio owner Raymond Watts.

Cassette copies of the band's demo album, Opium, began circulating through the underground clubs and bars of Hamburg in 1984. KMFDM released its debut album, What Do You Know, Deutschland?, in December 1986. It was recorded from 1983 to 1986, with some of the songs recorded by Konietzko and Watts before Esch was a member of the band, and indeed, before the band officially existed. Skysaw Records gave the album a second UK release in 1987 and introduced the band to visual artist Aidan Hughes, usually credited as Brute!. Hughes redesigned the album's cover, and went on to design almost every KMFDM album cover.

Watts left the group after working on just three songs on 1988's Don't Blow Your Top to start his own project, Pig. After working the Hamburg underground music scene and releasing albums on European labels, the band began its long-standing relationship with Wax Trax! Records when Don't Blow Your Top was licensed to the label for US distribution. The album was produced by Adrian Sherwood, and was described by AllMusic critic Dave Thompson as "[highlighting] the producer as much as the band".

Success in the US (1990–94)
KMFDM recorded and released its third album, UAIOE, in early 1989 for distribution in both the U.S. and Europe, arrived in America for the first time on December 16, and commenced touring the U.S. with Ministry. During KMFDM's first US tour, band members started using the phrase "Kill Motherfucking Depeche Mode" for the initialism to tease journalists who did not understand German. The band signed directly to Wax Trax! to distribute its fourth album, Naïve, which was recorded in Europe and featured the debut of guitarist Günter Schulz, known at the time as Svetlana Ambrosius. A remix of the album's title track was the group's first hit, reaching No. 21 on Billboard's Dance/Club Play Songs Chart in March 1991.

Konietzko moved to Chicago in 1991, and Esch followed a year later. KMFDM quickly became a part of the Chicago industrial music scene that included Ministry, My Life with the Thrill Kill Kult, and Revolting Cocks. Konietzko later remarked, "We came from Germany and we all had to have day jobs and work our asses off to afford to be KMFDM and all of a sudden we're in the states and we're selling thousands of thousands of [sic] fucking records!"

The band's next club hit was "Split", which was released in June 1991 and reached No. 46 on Billboard's Dance/Club Play Songs Chart in July. During 1991, Konietzko collaborated with Buzz McCoy of My Life With the Thrill Kill Kult to record an album under the name Excessive Force titled Conquer Your World. Konietzko and Esch then began work on their halves of the intended fifth album, Apart, which was eventually released as two separate albums. Esch's half became his solo album, Cheesy, while the official KMFDM album used Konietzko's material and was renamed Money. This album spawned two more club hits in 1992: "Vogue", which reached No. 19 on the Billboard Dance/Club Play Songs Chart in April, and the title track, which reached No. 36 on that same chart in July.

After touring in 1992 with drummer Chris Vrenna, the then-core of KMFDM (Konietzko, Esch, Schulz, and second guitarist Mark Durante) returned to Chicago and found that Wax Trax! had filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy to begin corporate reorganization in November 1992. The band went into the studio in 1993 as a group to record its sixth album, Angst, which sold more than 100,000 copies over the next two years. Esch said after the album's release, "I like this album way more. Money was done in a hurry, and I was doing a major Pigface tour, so I didn't have much influence on the album. I really like Angst. I'm totally down with it. We've tried to involve guitar players, we tried to be like a real band, especially in the creative kind of aspect." After the release of Angst, Wax Trax!/TVT Records launched a promotion in which fans were encouraged to devise as many alternate meanings for KMFDM as possible, with more than a thousand submissions resulting.

Konietzko released a second album under the Excessive Force moniker in 1993 titled Gentle Death. KMFDM received its first exposure to the mainstream with its single "A Drug Against War". Despite the band's anti-MTV stance, the video of "A Drug Against War" received airplay on MTV and was shown on the MTV cartoon Beavis and Butt-head. The track "Light" reached No. 31 on the Billboard Dance/Club Play Songs Chart in May 1994.

The song "Liebeslied" from Naïve originally contained an unlicensed sample of "O Fortuna" from Carl Orff's Carmina Burana. Orff's publisher threatened the band with legal action, and the album was withdrawn from production in 1993. A new version of the album, titled Naïve/Hell to Go, was released the following year. It contained new mixes of several songs, including a version of "Liebeslied" with the offending sample removed.

Wax Trax! was saved from bankruptcy by an infusion of funds from TVT Records, and in March 1994 announced plans to release the compilation set Black Box – Wax Trax! Records: The First 13 Years, which includes the KMFDM songs "Virus" and "Godlike", two songs which Thompson called "defining".

Peak popularity (1994–99)
The mid-to-late 1990s were KMFDM's most successful years in terms of album sales and mainstream awareness. Konietzko moved to Seattle in 1994, while Esch moved to New Orleans. Watts rejoined the band to work on its seventh album, Nihil, which peaked at No. 16 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart and sold 209,000 copies, making it the band's best-selling album. It marked the first contributions by drummer Bill Rieflin, who worked with the band on its next five albums. Nihil featured KMFDM's most widely known song, "Juke Joint Jezebel", versions of which appeared on both the Bad Boys and Mortal Kombat soundtracks, the latter of which peaked at No. 10 on the Billboard 200 and sold over 1.8 million copies. Their song "Ultra" was used in the English version of Street Fighter II: The Animated Movie.

Commenting on the rotating cast of musicians shortly after Nihil's release, Konietzko said, "It's as if En and I are the suns and the other musicians at the time come and revolve around us." Regarding the duo's dynamic, Konietzko said, "En Esch and myself have always been the cornerstone of KMFDM's existence. And we are diametrically opposed as writers. The angsty stuff generally comes from him. The poppy, hard stuff comes from me." Esch commented in 1994, "Sascha and myself are different, of course. But that's why we can still make things happen. Our best and worst qualities are contrary. To put it simply, he's more organized and stable, I'm more complicated and abstract."

In late 1995, close friend and president of Chicago's Wax Trax! Jim Nash died of an illness complicated by AIDS, and Seattle became the official headquarters of KMFDM. Watts toured with KMFDM throughout 1995 in support of Nihil, but then left the group to return to recording under the Pig moniker. Esch separated from the group, and Xtort was created in 1996 almost entirely without his input. Konietzko instead brought in a number of other industrial artists such as Chris Connelly to assist with the album. Xtort was the first KMFDM album to chart on the Billboard 200 and the highest-charting album in the band's history, reaching No. 92 and selling more than 200,000 copies. "Power", the album's first single, was the most heavily promoted song in the band's history, with almost 100,000 copies included in a free Wax Trax! sampler album in mid-1996. Konietzko later said Xtort was his favorite album of the 1990s.

Esch returned for the Symbols album, which was released in 1997 and featured Abby Travis and Skinny Puppy's Nivek Ogre. Symbols reached No. 137 on the Billboard 200. Its first track, "Megalomaniac", was featured in the film Mortal Kombat Annihilation, and was the first song from its soundtrack to receive radio airplay. Tim Skold, formerly of the band Shotgun Messiah, made his first appearance as a band member, writing lyrics and performing vocals on "Anarchy". Looking back on Symbols in 2002, Konietzko said, "I listened to the Symbols album and heard exactly why KMFDM broke up in the first place. It told me the story of what went wrong. There were maybe two (good) songs on that album and the others were just a bunch of compromising tug-of-wars. That was something I was not going to do again."

The band released a pair of compilation albums in 1998. The first, Retro, was a greatest hits compilation which included most of the singles released up until Xtort. The second, Agogo, was a collection of rarities and previously unreleased tracks, including a cover of U2's "Mysterious Ways".

Adios (1999) and the Columbine High School massacre
The album Adios was written and performed almost exclusively by Konietzko and Skold. Ogre again provided vocals, as did German musician Nina Hagen. Originally the fulfillment of the band's ten record contract with Wax Trax!/TVT, Adios later signaled the breakup of the band itself, which Esch's and Schulz's limited participation foreshadowed.

KMFDM disbanded, albeit temporarily, on January 22, 1999, with only Konietzko and Skold remaining together. Konietzko said the split was due to "lots of stress and pressure, as well as differences in vision and drive". Esch said "There was a lot of negative energy between Sascha and Günter Schulz and myself and we all decided on the phone to call the band quits." Adios was released three months later, and reached No. 189 on the Billboard 200. Its title track was called "a bitter goodbye".

In the wake of the Columbine High School massacre, it was revealed that lyrics to KMFDM songs ("Son of a Gun", "Stray Bullet", "Waste") were posted on the website of shooter Eric Harris, and that the date of the massacre, April 20, coincided with both the release date of the album Adios and the birthday of Adolf Hitler. Some journalists were quick to jump on the possibility that the actions of Harris and the other shooter, Dylan Klebold, were inspired by the violent entertainment and Nazism, though one wrote, "Lyrically, the band has written some songs that could easily be misconstrued by anyone lacking an ear for irony and looking for an excuse to commit violence." In response, Konietzko issued a statement:

 * "First and foremost, KMFDM would like to express their deep and heartfelt sympathy for the parents, families and friends of the murdered and injured children in Littleton. We are sick and appalled, as is the rest of the nation, by what took place in Colorado yesterday.''

 * "KMFDM are an art form—not a political party. From the beginning, our music has been a statement against war, oppression, fascism and violence against others. While some of the former band members are German as reported in the media, none of us condone any Nazi beliefs whatsoever."

MDFMK, Slick Idiot, and reformation (2000–02)
After the group disbanded, Schulz and Esch formed the band Slick Idiot, while Konietzko and Skold regrouped as MDFMK, adding singer Lucia Cifarelli to form a trio. MDFMK released one self-titled album with Republic/Universal Records, and toured North America. After being released from his contract with Universal due to a disagreement over who would produce the next album, Konietzko said he called Metropolis Records and asked if they'd be interested in signing KMFDM. The label agreed, although at the time only Konietzko himself was certain to participate.

Konietzko announced the return of KMFDM in early 2001, due to "public demand", with Skold, Cifarelli, and former collaborators Watts and Rieflin joining him in the studio; he said at the time, "I talked with the usual KMFDM suspects to see if they were interested, and what we came up with was something better than what we had before." Recalled Esch in 2009, "I was happy about my new creative freedom at that time and so I refused the concept of a fast reunion of the original KMFDM." Konietzko said of the reformed band, "Not only is it fun again, but it's devoid of all the personal confrontations due to egos and fractions that were once a part of the band," but said, "I really miss En Esch," in 2003. KMFDM released its first album in three years, Attak, in March 2002. The album was on the Billboard Independent Albums Chart for four weeks, peaking at No. 11.

New line-up (2003–07)
Skold left after Attak to join Marilyn Manson. Over the next few years, Watts' bandmates from Pig joined KMFDM one by one. Jules Hodgson had already done guitar work for 2002's Attak. Andy Selway first played drums for KMFDM on WWIII in 2003, and Steve White contributed to 2005's Hau Ruck after touring with the band. All three, along with Watts and Cifarelli, were mentioned as band members on "Intro", the final track on WWIII, although that was to be the last album on which Watts performed. WWIII was on Billboard's Dance/Electronic Albums Chart for seven weeks, and peaked at No. 3.

Opium was re-released in 2002 as KMFDM001 on the band's new label, KMFDM Records, and a collection of songs recorded between 1984 and 1986 was released in 2004. Shortly after the release of WWIII, Konietzko began work on the soundtrack for 2004's Spider-Man 2 video game. Hau Ruck performed about as well as WWIII, appearing on Billboard's Dance/Electronic Albums Chart for eight weeks but only hitting No. 5. Unlike WWIII, Hau Ruck showed up on the Billboard Independent Albums chart for a single week at No. 48. A companion EP, Ruck Zuck, was released in 2006.

Konietzko took a new approach for Tohuvabohu, released in 2007. "Principally in the past, there used to be 2 people that would start songs: me and Jules. On this record I said to the other 2 guys, Andy (Selway) and Steve (White), 'Why don't you guys come up with something?'" Tohuvabohu was on Billboard's Dance/Electronic Albums Chart for just three weeks and peaked at No. 4. It appeared on the Independent Albums Chart for one week at No. 29. Tohuvabohu had a companion, Brimborium, a full length remix album released in 2008 that barely made it onto Billboard's Dance/Electronic Albums Chart, hitting No. 20 for a single week.

Metropolis Records announced in mid-2006 it would reissue KMFDM's entire Wax Trax!-era studio album back catalog, which had been out of print since the early 2000s. The albums were released in chronological order in groups of two or three from September 2006 to May 2007. Konietzko said the remastering was done over concerns about losing the rights to the back catalog after TVT defaulted on a loan, explaining, "The original agreement was that the catalog would have reverted back to me in 2008, anyway, but TVT and Rykodisc were thinking of just making a KMFDM compilation, which would have eliminated my catalog, and I didn't want that." Konietzko commented in 2006 that the current line-up was the best he had worked with, and said in a separate interview that his former bandmates were "looking at me for handouts". Konietzko announced in October 2007 that he was packing up and moving back to Germany in the next three months.

Return to Germany (2007–2016)
Following the Finnish school shootings of 2007 and 2008, media reports again attempted to draw a connection between the shooters and KMFDM, and noted that both listed the band among their favorites. In an interview with Norwegian broadcaster NRK shortly after the 2008 incident, Konietzko responded to these claims by saying the recent shootings were a by-product of the copycat mentality and the Finnish shooters' desire to emulate the lifestyles and actions of the Columbine shooters. "One of my biggest concerns immediately following this incident [the Columbine shooting] was that there would be copycats repeating such things in the future, as there often are when people commit heinous crimes and acts of violence. I was, unfortunately, right."

KMFDM re-released all of its old singles and hard-to-find tracks from before the 1999 breakup in a series of three double albums called Extra—Vol. 1, Vol. 2, and Vol. 3—in mid-2008. KMFDM Records released Skold vs. KMFDM in early 2009, which was a collaboration that Skold and Konietzko conducted over the Internet while on separate continents from June to October 2008. A follow-up is planned, but is not a high priority.

KMFDM's sixteenth studio album, Blitz, released in March 2009, showcased further collaboration with Skold, but less input from the band members not living in Germany. It reached No. 4 on Billboard's Dance/Electronic Albums Chart, and was on the chart for four weeks. Its companion remix album, Krieg, was released in early 2010. Two compilation albums, Würst and Greatest Shit, were released in September that same year.

On December 14, 2010, the official KMFDM website was changed to include a single image with the text "All Systems Have Been Ripped. The Internet Has Been Shut Down." A new song titled "Rebels in Control" became available for listening and download on the site, posted in support of Julian Assange with regards to the controversy over WikiLeaks.

Former band members Durante, Esch, Schulz, and Watts appeared with Mona Mur at the April 2011 Wax Trax! Retrospectacle in Chicago, a charity event celebrating the industrial music label. The group performed KMFDM songs from the Wax Trax! era, including "Juke Joint Jezebel", "Godlike, "Brute", and "Don't Blow Your Top". Konietzko expressed a desire to perform with the current band line-up, but was turned down by event organizers.

KMFDM released WTF?! in April 2011, featuring what Konietzko called "a slew of guest musicians" including Rieflin, Koichi Fukuda, Free Dominguez, and William Wilson. The album's first single, "Krank", charted in both Germany and the United States. WTF?! was on Billboard's Dance/Electronic Albums Chart for one week at No. 8.

Work on KMFDM's eighteenth album began in February 2012. Titled Kunst, it was released on February 26, 2013. The band toured the United States in March and Europe in April 2013, as well as a second leg across the SW, CA and PNW parts of the US in the fall of 2013 entitled "We Are KMFDM" (subsequently filmed for a commemorative release), with direct support from Texas's own primal 2-drummer band CHANT, performing a 30 year career-spanning set. KMFDM reissued Opium and WWIII in October 2013.

On May 24, 2014, Konietzko announced on the band's Facebook page that a new album, titled Our Time Will Come, would be released on October 14, 2014. A new live album titled We Are KMFDM and a single called "Genau (The German in You)" were also announced. Our Time Will Come was released on October 14, 2014, on both CD and vinyl. The "Genau" single was not released, with a single for "Salvation" from the same album coming out instead in 2015. Another run of the US on the 'Salvation Tour' commenced in the summer of 2015.

Another line-up shift (2017–present)

In April 2017, KMFDM revealed a new EP titled Yeah!; an album called Hell Yeah was released in August, with a U.S. tour planned in support of the releases for October. On June 23, Yeah! was released, followed by the release of Hell Yeah on August 18. Guitarists White and Hodgson were unavailable, so Konietzko recruited Chris Harms from Lord of the Lost to record the guitar parts. Harms, along with Lord of the Lost bandmates Pi (guitar) and Gared Dirge (keyboards), had been slated to perform as the live band for KMFDM's late 2017 tour. Lord of the Lost were unable to secure work visas to enter the U.S., so Andee Blacksugar was tapped to handle guitar tasks instead. Various highlights of the tour were captured live and can be heard on their fourth live album 'Live in the USSA', released the following year in 2018. The album sonically presents the band in a more stripped-down, drum laden heavy metal style containing their obligatory cutting guitar riffs, melded with the traditional keys, samples, programming and additional percussion courtesy of band mainstay Sascha Konietzko. The new quartet of Konietzko, Cifarelli, Selway, and Blacksugar announced the album, Paradise, for release on September 27, 2019. The band features a variety of guest appearances, including KMFDM co-founder Raymond Watts for the first time since 2003. In July 2022, the band announced a brand new album, Hyëna was released on September 9. The title track was revealed as a promotional single at the end of August.

A new album commemorating KMFDM's 40 year anniversary (having formed on February 29, 1984) was released on February 2, 2024, entitled Let Go.

Musical style, influences, and lyrical content

KMFDM's earliest output was performance art, as Konietzko incorporated not only visuals such as burning beds and exploding televisions, but also non-musical devices used as instruments, e.g. vacuum cleaners. The 1980s albums featured heavy use of sampling and studio manipulations, and the primary instruments used were synthesizers and drum machines. Konietzko has cited T. Rex, David Bowie, and Frank Zappa as inspiration in the early stages of KMFDM. Before forming the band, he listened to punk music like GBH and "true industrial" bands such as Throbbing Gristle.

The band's music has been described as industrial, industrial rock, electro-industrial, industrial metal, and techno-industrial. While recognized along with Ministry, Nine Inch Nails, and Skinny Puppy as pioneers in introducing industrial music to mainstream audiences, KMFDM describes its sound as "The Ultra-Heavy Beat". Konietzko once stated, "If I was to give myself a label it would be industrial-alternative-electronic-crossover-rock and danceabilly."

The band has made heavy use of guitars since its inception, and pioneered their use during the band's early days in Germany. Although not a metal fan, Konietzko said his "infatuation with ripping off metal licks" stemmed from his experiments with E-mu's Emax sampler in late 1986, adding, "What I always hated most about heavy metal was that the best riffs came only once and were never repeated. So the fascination, actually, was to sample a great riff, loop it, and play it over and over again." While the album Don't Blow Your Top was more sparse in content, due to the influence of producer Sherwood, it was the exception rather than the rule. Ministry founder and frontman Al Jourgensen, on tour with the band in 1989, described KMFDM as "a battalion of guitars marching through Europe."

KMFDM's music has since been a fusion of electronic and heavy metal, with occasional elements of dub, as well as orchestral samples and live horns. Many songs feature prominent backing vocals by female singers such as Dorona Alberti, Travis, and Cifarelli. Many of the musicians who have played in the band are multi-instrumentalists, so there is a degree of versatility and freedom in the music.

Many albums feature one or more songs in which the band lampoons itself, notably in the lyrics to "Sucks" and "Inane". The band's "cynical detachment" has been compared to Steely Dan. Lyrics often express political concerns and call for the rejection of and resistance to terrorism, violence, oppression, censorship, and war. In the 1995 song "Terror", Konietzko specifically warns, "Fundamentalist forces are undermining the integrity of liberal and democratic political structures". Samples of news broadcasts and speeches by political leaders are sometimes featured in songs. Konietzko has said that while the 2003 album WWIII is critical of then-president George W. Bush, who was sampled extensively for the album, "It's not an anti-Bush record per se, it's an anti-stupidity record", and, "If we had a message, it would be: Think for Yourself and Don't Believe the Bullshit."

Reception
As of July 2007, KMFDM had sold approximately two million records worldwide. Critics have been widely positive of KMFDM, though less enthusiastic about the band's earliest work. What Do You Know, Deutschland? was called "less energetic" and Don't Blow Your Top was called "a little flimsy" in comparison to later albums by AllMusic critics Andy Hinds and Vincent Jeffries, respectively. UAIOE, when the band's sound began to develop, was called "more assured" by Hinds and "more representative of KMFDM's true motives" by Thompson, who added that KMFDM's guitar-heavy sound inspired Ministry's own embrace of the instrument after the bands toured together in 1990. The first major breakthrough in the band's critical reception was 1990's Naïve, called "one of their strongest releases" by Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic, "brilliant" by fellow AllMusic critic Ned Raggett, "superb" by Hinds, and "the most fun 'industrial dance' album ever" by Spin critic Chuck Eddy. The subsequent albums released in the 1990s were described as some of the band's strongest by AllMusic critic Greg Prato, with their metal guitars, industrial beats, and dance floor sensibilities praised by Ira Robbins and CMJ New Music Monthly critic Heidi MacDonald. Michael Saunders of the Boston Globe said of the band: "It's a small field, but KMFDM is tops in it: makers of dense, danceable, post-industrial torrents of noise. The German band specializes in fabricating aural assaults that can be intimidating to the uninitiated." MacDonald said in 1996, "With Ministry gone grindcore, Skinny Puppy just gone, and Nine Inch Nails a brand name, KMFDM is now the standard bearer of industrial", though Erlewine and Hinds felt the band was losing some steam towards the end of the decade.

Greg Rule declared in 1999, after its temporary disbandment, that KMFDM had "produced nine high-impact records that have earned them a large, loyal fanbase strewn across the planet." Erlewine called the band "one of Wax Trax's first industrial superstars", "an underground sensation", and "one of the major industrial bands of the '90s." Most of the band's albums released in the 21st century have been well-received, although Prato has commented on the sameness from one album to the next. Recent albums Blitz and WTF?! have been described as moving in an electronic, less guitar-focused direction by Trey Spencer of Sputnikmusic and AllMusic's David Jeffries.

Touring and fanbase
KMFDM has released on average an album every year and a half, and usually tours at least once in support of each album. At most concert venues, KMFDM mingles with the fans before and after the show to sign autographs, pose for photos, and answer questions. Konietzko, who keeps in contact with fans via e-mail and the band's website, and band representatives have experimented with ways for fans to interact more directly. KMFDM launched "Horde" in 2002, an exclusive fan club which gave members the opportunity to attend a private meet-and-greet with the band before every show, and allowed access to members-only music and footage online. A featurette on the Horde fan club appears on the WWIII Live 2003 DVD.

In the 2004 Fankam project, an audience member was selected at each concert to record that night's show, as well as some back-stage antics, with a hand-held digital video camera. The resulting footage was incorporated into the following year's 20th Anniversary World Tour DVD, which included fan photos submitted to the KMFDM official website. KMFDM encouraged fans to call a special "FanPhone" and leave a voice message in March 2007. The song "Superpower" from 2007's Tohuvabohu includes sound-clips from these messages. The band used the Fankam project again for its 2011 "Kein Mitleid" tour in the United States.

List of tours
All tours featured KMFDM headlining, except where noted.

Album artwork

KMFDM has a long-standing relationship with commercial artist Aidan "Brute!" Hughes, who creates the artwork adorning almost all of the band's albums and singles, which has been called "one of rock music's most memorable cover art collections". Hughes' artwork is featured in KMFDM's music videos for "A Drug Against War" and "Son of a Gun", and on the band's promotional T shirts. Art critic Brian Sherwin said Hughes is probably best known for the collection of KMFDM artwork he has created.

All of his work, which has been called "striking", shares a distinct visual style inspired by Golden Age comic artists, Russian Constructivists, Italian Futurists, and woodcut artists. In an interview with Sherwin, Hughes stated, "KMFDM have cornered the market in industrial post-modern angst and so my work reflects that." Hughes said that initially he based his work on the music, which caused "artistic block". Konietzko gave him more freedom to use whatever themes he wished, resulting in the cover to Money, which Hughes said "was based upon my disillusionment with the street lifestyle I was experiencing at the time, and the art carries with it the implication that no matter what temptation lies in your path, you still gotta pay!"

The only studio album covers not designed by Hughes are Opium, which consists of a black-and-white photo, and Nihil, which was designed by Francesca Sundsten, wife of drummer Rieflin.

Members
Current line-up
 * Sascha Konietzko – vocals, guitars, bass, programming, keyboards, synthesizer, percussion, drums (1984–present)
 * Lucia Cifarelli – vocals, keyboards (2000–present)
 * Andy Selway – drums, programming (2003–present)
 * Andee Blacksugar – guitars, backing vocals (2017–present)

Key former members
 * Raymond Watts – vocals, programming (1984–1988, 1994–1995, 1997, 2002–2004)
 * En Esch – vocals, drums, guitars, programming, percussion (1985–1999)
 * Rudolph Naomi – drums (1985–1986, 1988–1991)
 * Günter Schulz – guitars, programming (1989–1999)
 * Mark Durante – guitars (1992–1997)
 * Jennifer Ginsberg – vocals (1994–1996)
 * Bill Rieflin – drums, programming, percussion, bass (1995–1999, 2002–2003; died 2020 )
 * Tim Sköld – vocals, guitars, bass, drums, programming (1997–2002, 2009)
 * Jules Hodgson – guitars, bass, keyboards, programming (2002–2016)
 * Steve White – guitars, programming (2003–2015)

Discography

 * Opium (1984)
 * What Do You Know, Deutschland? (1986)
 * Don't Blow Your Top (1988)
 * UAIOE (1989)
 * Naïve (1990)
 * Money (1992)
 * Angst (1993)
 * Nihil (1995)
 * Xtort (1996)
 * Symbols (1997)
 * Adios (1999)
 * Attak (2002)
 * WWIII (2003)
 * Hau Ruck (2005)
 * Tohuvabohu (2007)
 * Blitz (2009)
 * WTF?! (2011)
 * Kunst (2013)
 * Our Time Will Come (2014)
 * Hell Yeah (2017)
 * Paradise (2019)
 * Hyëna (2022)
 * Let Go (2024)

title: KMFDM


text:
Lady Mary Victoria Douglas-Hamilton

Lady Mary Victoria Douglas-Hamilton, also known as Mary Victoria Hamilton (11 December 1850 – 14 May 1922), was a Scottish noblewoman who was the Hereditary Princess of Monaco by marriage to Albert, Hereditary Prince of Monaco.

Life
Lady Mary was born as the youngest child and the only daughter of William Hamilton, 11th Duke of Hamilton and of his wife, Princess Marie Amelie of Baden.

Hereditary Princess of Monaco
Lady Mary's first marriage, on 21 September 1869 at Château de Marchais, was to Prince Albert, only child and heir apparent of Charles III, Prince of Monaco. The marriage was arranged upon the wish of the Monegasque princely house, as it had long been an ambition of his mother and grandmother to marry him to a member of the British royal house. While Queen Victoria refused a match between Albert and one of her closer family members, Lady Mary was suggested as a suitable replacement. However, Lady Mary and Albert's marriage was annulled on 3 January 1880 and civilly dissolved on 28 July 1880 by order of Charles III. Lady Mary supposedly hated the heat of the Mediterranean area.

Lady Mary and Albert had a single son, Louis, who would take the throne of Monaco with the regnal name Louis II upon his father's death. Via Louis II, Lady Mary is the great-great-grandmother of the current Sovereign Prince of Monaco, Albert II.

Life in Hungary
Lady Mary’s second marriage, on 2 June 1880, was to Count Tassilo Festetics de Tolna. The couple had four children, Countess Mária Matild Georgina (1881–1953), who married Prince Karl Emil von Fürstenberg; Prince György (1882–1941); Countess Alexandra Olga Eugénia (1884–1963), who married Prince Karl von Windisch-Graetz; and Countess Karola Friderika Mária (1888—1951), who married Oskar Gautsch Freiherr von Frankenthurn.

During her 40-year marriage to Count, later Prince, Tassilo Festetics de Tolna, Lady Mary oversaw the enlargement and improvement of the main family seat, Festetics Palace, and its gardens, in Keszthely, western Hungary.

On numerous occasions, she and her husband entertained her brother the Duke of Hamilton and his great friend the Prince of Wales. There are still portraits hanging in the Palace of numerous members of her family, including one of her father in full Highland dress. Outside the palace, on either side of the main entrance, there are the armorial bearings of both Lady Mary and her husband.

The Helikon Library at the Palace contains many works that were brought to Keszthely by Lady Mary from her father’s and brother's collections at Hamilton Palace.

The Palace grounds, on the shores of Lake Balaton, contains a Festetics family Mausoleum which is the final resting place of Lady Mary and her husband.

title: Lady Mary Victoria Douglas-Hamilton


text:
Robert I, Count of Flanders

Robert I (c. 1035 – 13 October 1093), known as Robert the Frisian, was count of Flanders from 1071 until his death in 1093. He was a son of Baldwin V, Count of Flanders, and the younger brother of Baldwin VI, Count of Flanders. He usurped the countship after defeating his nephew Arnulf III and his allies, which included King Philip I of France, Count Eustace of Boulogne and the counts of Saint-Pol and Ardres at the Battle of Cassel. He subsequently made peace with Philip, who became his stepson-in-law, but remained hostile to his sister Matilda and her husband William the Conqueror, who was king of England and duke of Normandy.

Early life
Robert was the younger son of Baldwin V of Flanders and Adela, a daughter of King Robert II of France. His elder brother, Baldwin VI, succeeded their father as count of Flanders in 1067, and his sister Matilda had married William the Conqueror, then duke of Normandy and later king of England in 1051/2.

Regent of Holland
Robert's marriage to Gertrude of Saxony, dowager countess of Holland, in 1063 was not arranged by his father but nonetheless agreed to. His nickname 'the Frisian' was obtained, apparently, when he acted as regent for his stepson, Count Dirk V of Holland Robert and Gertrude had six children: Robert, who became count of Flanders, Adela († 1115), who became queen of Denmark, Gertrude, who became duchess of Lorraine, Philip, Ogiva, who became abbess of Messines, and Baldwin († bef. 1080).

Robert twice swore a renunciation to his claims to Flanders. The first was at Audenarde (between 1063 and 1067), in presence of his father Baldwin V. He received a significant monetary compensation. The second was made at Bruges (1069/70) in presence of his brother Baldwin VI.

On his deathbed in 1070, Baldwin VI left Flanders and Hainaut to his elder son, Arnulf III, while Richilde, Arnulf's mother, was to be regent until Arnulf came of age.

Count of Flanders
Despite the oath, Robert disputed the succession of his nephew Arnulf III upon Baldwin VI's death. He recruited supporters in the Maritime Flanders and Ghent, and finally entered the latter with the intent of taking Flanders for himself. Richilde appealed to King Philip I of France who summoned Robert to appear before him. Robert refused and continued his war with Richilde at which point Philip I amassed an army which he brought to Flanders. Among his allies were the counts of Boulogne, Saint-Pol and Ardres. His army was also accompanied by Norman troops, probably sent by Robert's sister, Queen Matilda, and led by William FitzOsborn.

Both forces did battle on Cassel on 22 February 1071. King Philip fled together with Godfrey, bishop of Paris, both Robert and Richilde were captured but Robert was ultimately victorious. Among the dead were Arnulf III (according to some sources killed by Gerbod the Fleming, 1st Earl of Chester ) and William FitzOsborn. As a result of the battle Robert claimed the countship of Flanders, and Richilde's son Baldwin became count of Hainaut, where he continued to instigate hostilities against Robert.

King Philip gathered some forces at Montreuil-sur-Mer, invaded Flanders and burned the town of Saint-Omer. However, Count Robert eventually negotiated a peace agreement, later consolidated by the marriage of his stepdaughter Bertha of Holland to the king. As a part of their negotiations Corbie, an important trade center, which had been ceded by Arnulf III in order to secure the king's help, was returned to royal control. From then on, and until the repudiation of Bertha in 1092 (in order for King Philip I to marry Bertrade of Montfort), Flanders and France remained in very friendly terms, both of them having the new Anglo-Norman realm as a main enemy.

After the battle of Cassel, Richilde and Baldwin continued the war against Robert. To obtain funds, they enfeoffed Hainaut to the bishopric of Liege and counted with the support of Godfrey IV, Duke of Lower Lorraine. Close to forest of Broqueroye, Robert inflicted heavy losses on the forces of Hainaut. Later, Baldwin obtained a victory at Wavrechain. After this, the war with Hainaut ended, with Robert as the unchallenged ruler of Flanders.

Flanders became a refuge for William the Conqueror's enemies, including Edgar Ætheling in 1075 and his rebellious son Robert Curthose in 1078/79. In 1075, Robert let the Danish fleet of king Sweyn II of Denmark use Flanders harbors in their intended expedition against England. In 1080, Robert married his daughter Adela to Canute IV of Denmark on his accession to the throne. In 1085 Robert and Canute planned a massive naval attack on England. The threat was big enough for William to hire mercenaries and lay waste to some coastal districts in order to difficult the supplying of an invading army. However, the rebellion of Canute's brother Olaf delayed the expedition, and finally Canute's assassination put a definitive end to the plan.

Even before becoming count of Flanders, Robert was engaged in continued hostilities in Holland, defending the rights of his stepson Dirk V against Godfrey IV and William I, bishop of Utrecht. In 1076, the deaths of Godfrey at Vlaardingen and later of William, allowed Robert and Dirk to go on the offensive. They won an important battle at Yselmond, even capturing the new bishop, Conrad. The victory changed the course of the hostilities, allowing Dirk and future counts to reconquer the territories of the county of Holland they had lost in the past.

Relationship with the Church
The relationship between Robert and Pope Gregory VII was marked by the conflict between the latter and the bishops of Therouanne. Since Robert did not take action against bishop Drogo, he was excommunicated (around 1077) by bishop Raynard of Langres and papal legate Hubert. Gregory was not pleased with the excommunication, since he could not afford another enemy in his conflict with Henry IV. He instructed his legate Hugh of Die to investigate the matter and lift the excommunication if it had been not canonical. The excommunication was probably lifted at some point after September 1079. Trouble continued under Drogo's successors, Hubert and Lambert, as Robert refused to intervene against them. Gregory threatened Robert with a new excommunication, but the threat was not carried out.

During the papacy of Urban II the Flemish clergy complained about the exactions imposed by Robert at a provincial council in Rheims (around 1092). A delegation composed of Arnulf (provost of Saint Omer), Jean (abbot of Saint Bertin), Gerard (abbot of Ham) and Bernard (provost of Watten) threatened Robert with an interdict in case the exactions did not end. Robert complied and returned the goods he had confiscated.

Later years and pilgrimage to Jerusalem
Taking a considerable armed escort Robert the Frisian made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1086 and on the return trip home spent time assisting the Byzantine Emperor (Alexios I Komnenos) against the Seljuq Turks. In one battle Robert and three of his companions rode ahead of the main army charging the forces under the command of Kerbogha, whose forces the Christians scattered completely. Robert died 13 October 1093.

title: Robert I, Count of Flanders


text:
Ragnar Skancke

Ragnar Sigvald Skancke (9 November 1890 – 28 August 1948) was the Norwegian Minister for Church and Educational Affairs in Vidkun Quisling's Nasjonal Samling government during World War II. Shot for treason in the legal purges following the war, he remains the last person executed in Norway.

Before the war, Skancke was a highly respected professor of electrical engineering at the Norwegian Institute of Technology in Trondheim and a member of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters.

Pre-war life
Skancke was born in Ås, Norway, the son of bank director Johan Skancke and Kari Busvold. In 1908 he became a student, and in 1913 gained a Bachelor of Engineering in Karlsruhe, Germany.

Skancke worked as a docent at the Norwegian Institute of Technology in Trondheim from 1913 to 1918, and then spent the next five years as an supervising engineer at the telecommunication company Elektrisk Bureau. From 1923 onwards, Skancke was a professor at the Norwegian Institute of Technology. He married Ingrid Aas (born 1888) in 1927.

April 1940 "coup" government
The first political position given to Professor Skancke was that of Minister of Labour in Vidkun Quisling's April 1940 "coup" government, the latter's attempt at seizing power in Norway following the German invasion of 9 April. Skancke was in Trondheim at the time, and only heard of his appointment when it was announced on the radio. He reacted with opposition to Quisling's attempt to form a government, refusing to assume the ministry allotted to him.

Terboven council and NS government
Reichskommissar Josef Terboven, the leading civilian German leader in occupied Norway, on 25 September 1940 appointed a council of Norwegian ministers to assist him in governing Norway. Skancke was appointed as Councillor of State for Church and Educational Affairs, and was given the title Minister for Church and Educational Affairs exactly a year later.

Acts during war
During his collaborationist work in occupied Norway Skancke mostly acted in passive ways, but did not hesitate to enact countermeasures if he met opposition to his work. Although not taking a leading part in the attempted nazification of the Norwegian Church and school system, he did take full responsibility for the sacking of bishops, priests and teachers opposed to National socialist teachings. He also ordered Norwegian teachers and school children to attend a Hitler Youth exhibition in Oslo in February 1941, which led to the first school strike of the occupation, and ordered the confiscation of books by authors opposed to Quisling. Skancke, however, was completely opposed to the deportation to Finnmark of teachers who would not institute the new teaching programmes. In one instance of refusal to cooperate fully with the German authorities, Skancke delayed acting on an order from Reichskommissar Terboven issued on 5 July 1941 that all Norwegian church bells were to be sent to Germany for smelting and use in the war industry. The case dragged out until it was handed over to minister of trade Eivind Blehr in 1942. Blehr refused to release the bells, leading to several confrontations with Terboven until the Germans were later persuaded to drop the demands, saving all the bells.

Trials
Following the May 1945 German capitulation in Norway and the rest of Europe, Skancke was put on trial for treason. He was convicted and sentenced to death in 1946. In March 1947, the Norwegian Supreme Court rejected Skancke's appeals and confirmed the sentence. In response to the confirmation of his sentence, Skancke attempted to get a retrial, presenting new evidence and witness testimonies. During this process, the mood in Norway largely changed with many calls for clemency for the former collaborationist minister.

Execution
As all calls for clemency were rejected Skancke was executed by firing squad at Akershus Fortress on 28 August 1948, the last person to be executed in Norway, which has since abolished capital punishment for all crimes, including war crimes and treason. Before his execution, the Norwegian High Court had received letters from 668 priests who asked for mercy on Skancke's behalf. Ragnar Skancke was one of only three Norwegian Nazi leaders to be executed for political crimes in the post-war legal purge, the others being Quisling and Internal affairs minister Albert Viljam Hagelin, all the 34 other Norwegians and Germans executed in the post war process having been convicted of murder, torture or systematic informing.

Published works
In addition to professional works on electrical engineering in the 1930s, Skancke also wrote a book on Vidkun Quisling.

 * Theorie der Wechselstrommaschinen mit e. Einl. in d. Theorie d. stationären Wechselströme nach O. S. Bragstad, J. Springer, Berlin 1932
 * Über ultraakustische Schwingungen in zylindrischen Stäben, Brun, Trondheim 1935
 * Boken om Vidkun Quisling, Blix, Oslo 1941
 * Ein Buch über Vidkun Quisling, Blix, Oslo 1941 (German translation)

title: Ragnar Skancke


text:
Robert II, Count of Flanders

Robert II, Count of Flanders (c. 1065 – 5 October 1111) was Count of Flanders from 1093 to 1111. He became known as Robert of Jerusalem (Robertus Hierosolimitanus) or Robert the Crusader after his exploits in the First Crusade.

Early life
Robert was the eldest son of Robert I of Flanders (also known as Robert the Frisian) and Gertrude of Saxony. His father, hoping to place the cadet branch (or "Baldwinite" branch) of Flanders over the county, began to associate him with his rule around 1086. From 1085 to 1091 he was regent of the county while his father was away on pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Robert II became count in 1093 and supported the restoration of the diocese of Arras in order to limit the influence of the Holy Roman Empire in his dominion. With the approval of Pope Urban II, the diocese was split of from the diocese of Cambrai in 1093/94 and Lambert of Guines elected as its first bishop.

First Crusade
In 1095, Robert joined the First Crusade, launched by Pope Urban II. He made his wife, Clementia of Burgundy, regent in Flanders, and formed the army of Robert the Crusader that followed the retinue of his kinsman Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine. After reaching Constantinople, the crusaders were obliged to swear an oath of fealty to Byzantine emperor Alexius I Komnenus and promise to return to the Byzantine Empire any land they might capture. Robert, whose father had already served Alexius during his pilgrimage in the 1080s, had no problem swearing this oath, but some of the other leaders did and there was some delay in leaving the city.

Robert then participated in the Siege of Nicaea, after which the army was split into two groups. Robert marched with Stephen of Blois, Bohemond of Taranto, Robert Curthose, and the Byzantine guides, one day ahead of the rest of the crusaders. This army was surrounded by the Seljuk sultan Kilij Arslan at the Battle of Dorylaeum on 30 June 1097. The next day, the second army, led by Raymond IV of Toulouse, Godfrey of Bouillon, and Hugh of Vermandois, arrived and broke the encirclement; the two armies joined, with Robert and Raymond forming the centre. The Turks were defeated and the crusaders continued their march.

At the end of 1097 the crusaders arrived at Antioch. The Siege of Antioch lasted many months; in December, Robert and Bohemund briefly left the army to raid the surrounding territory for food, and on 30 December they defeated an army sent to relieve Antioch, led by Duqaq, ruler of Damascus. Antioch was eventually betrayed to Bohemund by an Armenian guard, and Robert was among the first to enter the city, but only a few days later they were themselves besieged by Kerbogha. atabeg of Mosul. On 28 June 1098, the crusaders marched out to meet him in battle. Robert and Hugh of Vermandois led the first of six divisions. Kerbogha was defeated and the Muslim-held citadel finally surrendered to the crusaders. Robert, along with Bohemond, Raymond, and Godfrey, occupied the citadel, but Bohemund soon claimed the city for himself. Raymond also claimed it, but Robert supported Bohemund in this dispute.

The dispute delayed the crusade even further. Raymond left Antioch to attack Ma'arrat al-Numan, which was captured. Robert took part in this siege as well. Raymond then tried to bribe Robert and the other leaders to follow him instead of Bohemund; Robert was offered six thousand sous, but each attempted bribe was ignored. Raymond continued south to Jerusalem in January, 1099, but Robert and Godfrey remained behind in Antioch until February. They rejoined Raymond's army at the Siege of Arqa. In June, Robert and Gaston IV of Bearn led the vanguard which arrived at Ramla, and with Tancred, he led an expedition into Samaria to find wood in order to construct siege engines for the Siege of Jerusalem. When Jerusalem was captured on 15 July, Robert supported Godfrey's claim over that of Raymond, and on August 9 marched out with him to meet the Fatimid army under al-Afdal Shahanshah which was coming to relieve Jerusalem. Robert formed part of the centre wing in the ensuing Battle of Ascalon, which resulted in a crusader victory. However, Godfrey and Raymond quarrelled over possession of Ascalon, and even Robert could not support Godfrey in this dispute; the city remained uncaptured, although the victory allowed for the establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

At the end of August, Robert returned home with Robert Curthose and Raymond. On the way back they captured Latakia, which was returned to the Byzantine emperor, as promised years before. Raymond remained there but both Roberts continued home by way of Constantinople, after declining Alexius' request to stay there in his service. Robert brought back with him a precious relic, the arm of Saint George, a gift from Alexius. The relic was placed in the church of Anchin Abbey in Flanders. After he returned, Robert built the monastery of St. Andrew in Sevenkerke (now Zevenkerke, near Bruges. Because of his crusade and the spoils he brought home, he was nicknamed Robert of Jerusalem.

Later life
During his absence, Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV had tried to seize imperial Flanders. Robert responded by supporting the revolt of the Commune of Cambrai against the emperor and his supporter, Bishop Gaulcher, and seized a number of castles. Peace was restored in 1102 and homage paid to the emperor for imperial Flanders, but after 1105, the new emperor, Henry V, marched on Flanders, with the aid of Count Baldwin III of Hainaut and an army from Holland. Robert stopped them outside of Douai and a new peace was signed, in which the emperor recognized Robert's claim to Douai and Cambrai.

Like his wife Clementia, Robert was a promoter of the Cluniac reform movement, supporting the reformers of the Abbey of Saint Bertin and assisting progressive ecclesiastic actors in general.

In 1103 he made an alliance with Henry I of England, offering 1000 cavalry in exchange for an annual tribute. When Henry refused to pay, Robert allied with his nominal overlord, Louis VI of France, and attacked Normandy. With the king diverted, Theobald IV of Blois led a revolt of the French barons. Robert led an army against Meaux. During the battle he fell off his horse and was trampled to death on 5 October 1111.

Family
He married Clementia of Burgundy, sister of Pope Callistus II and daughter of William I, Count of Burgundy. They had three children, but only the oldest survived to adulthood. He succeeded Robert as Baldwin VII of Flanders.

title: Robert II, Count of Flanders