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Uphall

Uphall (Uphauch, Ubhalaidh) is a village in West Lothian, Scotland. It is a swiftly growing village in a conurbation with Broxburn to the east, Dechmont to the west and the major town of Livingston to the south west. Uphall is 30 miles from Glasgow and 14 miles from Edinburgh in the Scottish Lowlands. Uphall Station and Pumpherston are separate villages that lie to the south of Uphall.

Uphall has one primary school (Uphall primary school), several grocery stores, two cemeteries, a skatepark, football fields (King George Park), a golf course, a lawn bowls club (Middleton Hall) and a selection of public houses and hotels including the Volunteer Arms, Dovehill Arms, Oatridge Hotel and Houston House Hotel.

History
Uphall was historically a small settlement known as Wester Strathbrock (from the Gaelic "Srath Bhroc" meaning valley of the badgers), with its neighbour Broxburn being named Easter Strathbrock.

The parish was centered around Strathbrock Castle (a Motte-and-bailey castle since demolished) and St Nicholas Church which were both built in the 12th century. Until the late 18th century, Uphall was a small rural community but the industrial revolution triggered growth as local mining activity increased. The largest growth was a direct result of the discovery and exploitation of local oil shale in the area, as well as across West Lothian generally. This triggered massive growth as many people moved to the area to gain employment in the oil shale mines and associated oil works. Surrounding villages expanded rapidly as rows of miners' cottages were erected to accommodate the influx of people, who relocated from places such as the Scottish Highlands and rural Ireland. This growth continued until the oil industry went into terminal decline between the 1920s and 1960s.

Post war industrial development at Greendykes and East Mains Industrial Estates, coupled with new employment throughout the West Lothian district, the new town of Livingston and increased commuting to Edinburgh, continued to see the village grow into a larger settlement contiguous with Broxburn in the 20th century.

Transport
The A899 road is the primary road through Uphall, connecting the village with nearby Livingston to the south-east and Broxburn to the west. The A89 road and M8 Motorway lie immediately to the south of the village. The nearest railway station is Uphall railway station which lies to the south of Uphall at the smaller separate Uphall Station village.

McGill's Scotland East and Lothian Country operates multiple bus service that serve Uphall:

 * X18 - Edinburgh - Corstorphine - Broxburn - Bathgate - Armadale - Whitburn
 * N18 - Edinburgh - Corstorphine - Broxburn - Bathgate - Armadale - Whitburn (Night Service)
 * 23 - Broxburn - Pumpherston- Livingston - St. John's Hospital - Blackburn - Whitburn - Shotts
 * 72 - Kirkliston - Winchburgh - Broxburn - Uphall - St. John's Hospital - Livingston Centre

Notable buildings
St Nicholas (Strathbock) Church is a mid 12th century church with a small tower, a nave and large chancel (enlarged in the 13th century). The church is first recorded in 1270 and has been expanded over the centuries, with additional aisles added in the 17th and 19th centuries. The church was extensively restored in 1937. The church has a Romanesque 12th century doorway and some of the oldest church bells in West Lothian, with one dated to 1503.

The Oatridge hotel on the main street of Uphall was built in 1810 and is a former coaching inn (previously named the Uphall Inn) on the Airdrie to Bathgate to Edinburgh turnpike route.

Middleton Hall is an 18th-century house currently operating as a care home. The hall was built circa 1710 and reconstructed significantly in the late 19th century as the Headquarters of Scottish Oils Ltd. The adjacent streets (Westhall Gardens, Middleton Road and Middleton Avenue) were later developed in the 1920s as a small garden community (based on the Garden city movement) for workers of the Oil company.

Kirkhill House in Uphall was the principal residence of David Stewart Erskine, 11th Earl of Buchan in the latter part of the eighteenth century. The house fell into ruin when Erskine moved to Dryburgh and it has only recently been reconstructed as a private residence. Among the features were a remarkable accurate scale model of the Solar System in the gardens surrounding the house, and an accompanying astronomical pillar now located in Almondell country Park. At the centre of the model the Sun was represented by a stone globe 6 feet in diameter and the six planets known in 1776 were represented by small globes distributed around the gardens at appropriate distances. Erskine, his titles and his model are preserved in modern names such as Buchan Road, Buchan Port, Buchan Arms, Cardross Road and Globe Park.

In the west of Uphall, Houston House is a four-storey white harl covered 16th century tower house and hotel. Originally built for the local laird, the house was later purchased and expanded by John Shairp, an advocate to Mary, Queen of Scots. The house was restored by the architect Ian Lindsay in the 1940s as his home. In the 1970s, the house was purchased, refurbished and extended as a hotel.

Culture and recreation
King George's field is a 4.65 hectare public open space built as part of the King George's Fields programme.

In the west of the village, Uphall Golf Club is an 18-hole subscription/private membership golf course founded in 1895. In February 2021, the Golf Club was substantially damaged by a fire which took 12 hours to extinguish.

Middleton Hall Bowling Club is a local bowls club with 1930s origins.

Uphall previously had a public hall (built 1873) that became the local cinema house in the 1920s, before closing in the 1974 (the site is now occupied by a car showroom). The cinema archives are held by West Lothian Council.

Education
Uphall Primary School provides primary education for the community. The current school was constructed in the 1960s by Bamber Hall & Partners and has since been expanded. Before the 1960s the original primary school was located further west on a site on the corner of Strathbrock place and St.Andrews drive. This site has since been redeveloped as the Uphall Community Education Centre. The building incorporates a hall, youth room, playgroup room and coffee lounge. While there are no facilities for secondary education in Uphall itself, Broxburn Academy in Broxburn serves as the closest secondary school.

Notable residents

 * The Rev Alexander MacAndrew Gillespie OBE FRSE FRCPE FSAS FRGS (d.1984) minister and physician.
 * Paul di Resta, the DTM champion 2010, and Formula One race driver in 2011–13 with the Force India F1 Team was born in Uphall on April 16, 1986.

title: Uphall


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California water wars

The California Water Wars were a series of political conflicts between the city of Los Angeles and farmers and ranchers in the Owens Valley of Eastern California over water rights.

As Los Angeles expanded during the late 19th century, it began outgrowing its water supply. Fred Eaton, mayor of Los Angeles, promoted a plan to take water from Owens Valley to Los Angeles via an aqueduct. The aqueduct construction was overseen by William Mulholland and was finished in 1913. The water rights were acquired through political fighting and, as described by one author, "chicanery, subterfuge ... and a strategy of lies".

Water from the Owens River started being diverted to Los Angeles in 1913, precipitating conflict and eventual ruin of the valley's economy. By the 1920s, so much water was diverted from the Owens Valley that agriculture became difficult. This led to the farmers trying to destroy the aqueduct in 1924. Los Angeles prevailed and kept the water flowing. By 1926, Owens Lake at the bottom of Owens Valley was completely dry due to water diversion.

The water needs of Los Angeles kept growing. In 1941, Los Angeles diverted water that previously fed Mono Lake, north of Owens Valley, into the aqueduct. Mono Lake's ecosystem for migrating birds was threatened by dropping water levels. Between 1979 and 1994, David Gaines and the Mono Lake Committee engaged in litigation with Los Angeles. The litigation forced Los Angeles to stop diverting water from around Mono Lake, which has started to rise back to a level that can support its ecosystem.

Owens Valley context
The Paiute natives were the inhabitants of the valley in the early 1800s, and used irrigation to grow crops.

In 1833, Joseph Reddeford Walker led the first known expedition into the central California area that would later be called the Owens Valley. Walker saw that the valley's soil conditions were inferior to those on the other side of the Sierra Nevada range, and that runoff from the mountains was absorbed into the arid desert ground. After the United States gained control of California in 1848, the first public land survey conducted by A.W. von Schmidt from 1855 to 1856 was an initial step in securing government control of the valley. Von Schmidt reported that the valley's soil was not good for agriculture except for the land near streams, and stated that the "Owens Valley [was] worthless to the White Man."

In 1861, Samuel Bishop and other ranchers started to raise cattle on the luxuriant grasses that grew in the Owens Valley. The ranchers came into conflict with the Paiutes over land and water use, and most of the Paiutes were driven away from the valley by the U.S. Army in 1863 during the Owens Valley Indian War.

Many settlers came to the area for the promise of riches from mining. The availability of water from the Owens River made farming and raising livestock attractive. The Homestead Act of 1862 gave pioneers five years to claim and take title of their land for a small filing fee and a charge of $1.25 per acre. The Homestead Act limited the land an individual could own to 160 acre in order to create small farms. The amount of public land settled by the late 1870s and early 1880s was still relatively small. The Desert Land Act of 1877 allowed individuals to acquire more area, up to 640 acre, in hopes of drawing more settlers by giving them enough land to make their settlement and land expenses worthwhile, but "included no residency requirements". By 1886, rapid acquisition of land had begun and by the mid-1890s, most of the land in the Owens Valley had been claimed. The large number of claims made by land speculators hindered the region's development because speculators would not participate in developing canals and ditches.

Before the Los Angeles Aqueduct, most of the 200 mi of canals and ditches that constituted the irrigation system in the Owens Valley were in the north, while the southern region of the valley was mostly inhabited by people raising livestock. The irrigation systems created by the ditch companies did not have adequate drainage and as a result oversaturated the soil to the point where crops could not be raised. The irrigation systems also significantly lowered the water level in the Owens Lake, a process that was intensified later by the diversion of water through the Los Angeles Aqueduct. At the start of the 20th century, the northern part of the Owens Valley turned to raising fruit, poultry and dairy.

Los Angeles Aqueduct
Frederick Eaton and William Mulholland were two of the more visible principals in the California water wars. They were friends, having worked together in the private Los Angeles Water Company in the 1880s. In 1886, Eaton became City Engineer and Mulholland became superintendent of the Water Company. In 1898, Eaton was elected mayor of Los Angeles and was instrumental in converting the Water Company to city control in 1902. When the company became the Los Angeles Water Department, Mulholland continued to be superintendent, due to his extensive knowledge of the water system.

Eaton and Mulholland had a vision of a Los Angeles that would become far larger than the Los Angeles of the start of the 20th century. The limiting factor of Los Angeles's growth was water supply. "If you don't get the water, you won't need it," Mulholland famously remarked. Eaton and Mulholland realized that the Owens Valley had a large amount of runoff from the Sierra Nevada, and a gravity-fed aqueduct could deliver the Owens water to Los Angeles.

Obtaining water rights 1902–1907
At the start of the 20th century, the United States Bureau of Reclamation, at the time known as the United States Reclamation Service, was planning on building an irrigation system to help the farmers of the Owens Valley, which would block Los Angeles from diverting the water.

From 1902 to 1905, Eaton and Mulholland used underhanded methods to obtain water rights and block the Bureau of Reclamation. The regional engineer of the Bureau, Joseph Lippincott, was a close associate of Eaton; Eaton was a nominal agent for the Bureau through Lippincott, so Eaton had access to inside information about water rights and could recommend actions to the Bureau that would be beneficial to Los Angeles. In return, while Lippincott was employed by the Bureau, he also served as a paid private consultant to Eaton, advising Los Angeles on how to best obtain water rights.

To help acquire water rights in 1905, Eaton made high offers to purchase land in Owens Valley. Eaton's eagerness aroused suspicion in a few local Inyo County people. Eaton bought land as a private citizen, hoping to sell it back to Los Angeles at a tidy profit. Eaton claimed in an interview with the Los Angeles Express in 1905 that he turned over all his water rights to the City of Los Angeles without being paid for them, "except that I retained the cattle which I had been compelled to take in making the deals ... and mountain pasture land of no value except for grazing purposes". Eaton moved to the Owens Valley to become a cattle rancher on the land he purchased. Eaton always denied that he acted in a deceptive manner.

Mulholland misled Los Angeles public opinion by dramatically understating the amount of water locally available for Los Angeles's growth. Mulholland also misled residents of the Owens Valley: he indicated that Los Angeles would only use unused flows in the Owens Valley, while planning on using the full water rights to fill the aquifer of the San Fernando Valley.

By 1907, Eaton was busy acquiring key water rights and traveling to Washington to meet with advisers of Theodore Roosevelt to convince them that the water of the Owens River would do more good flowing through faucets in Los Angeles than it would if used on Owens Valley fields and orchards.

The dispute over the Owens River water became a political dispute in Washington. Los Angeles needed rights of way across federal land to build the aqueduct. California Senator Frank Flint sponsored a bill to grant the rights of way, but Congressman Sylvester Smith of Inyo County opposed the bill. Smith argued that irrigating Southern California was not more valuable than irrigating Owens Valley. While a compromise was being negotiated, Flint appealed to President Roosevelt. Roosevelt met with Flint, Secretary of the Interior Ethan A. Hitchcock, Bureau of Forests Commissioner Gifford Pinchot, and Director of the Geological Survey Charles D. Walcott. In this meeting, Roosevelt decided in favor of Los Angeles.

Several authors, such as Rolle and Libecap, argue that Los Angeles paid an unfairly low price to the farmers of Owens Valley for their land. Gary Libecap of the University of California, Santa Barbara observed that the price that Los Angeles was willing to pay to other water sources per volume of water was far higher than what the farmers received. Farmers who resisted the pressure from Los Angeles until 1930 received the highest price for their land; most farmers sold their land from 1905 to 1925, and received less than Los Angeles was actually willing to pay. However, the sale of their land brought the farmers substantially more income than if they had kept the land for farming and ranching. None of the sales were made under threat of eminent domain.

The aqueduct was sold to the citizens of Los Angeles as vital to the growth of the city. Unknown to the public, the initial water would be used to irrigate the San Fernando Valley to the north, which was not at the time a part of the city. From a hydrological point of view, the San Fernando Valley was ideal: its aquifer could serve as free water storage without evaporation. One obstacle to the irrigation was the Los Angeles City Charter, which prohibited the sale, lease, or other use of the city's water without a two-thirds approval by the voters. This charter limitation would be avoided through the annexation of a large portion of the San Fernando Valley to the city. The annexation would also raise the debt limit of Los Angeles, which allowed the financing of the aqueduct.

The San Fernando land syndicate were a group of wealthy investors who bought up large tracts of land in the San Fernando Valley with secret inside information from Eaton. The syndicate included friends of Eaton, such as Harrison Gray Otis and Henry E. Huntington. This syndicate made substantial efforts to support passage of the bond issue that funded the aqueduct. These efforts are reported to have included the dumping of water from Los Angeles reservoirs into the sewers (thereby creating a false drought) and by publishing scare articles in the Los Angeles Times, which Otis published. Remi Nadeau, a historian and author, disputed that water was dumped from reservoirs, because the sewer system may not have been connected to the reservoirs. The syndicate did unify the business community behind the aqueduct, and its purchases were public by the time the vote on the aqueduct was taken.

The building and operation of the aqueduct 1908–1928

From 1907 through 1913, Mulholland directed the building of the aqueduct. The 233 mi Los Angeles Aqueduct, inaugurated in November 1913, required more than 2,000 workers and the digging of 164 tunnels. Mulholland's granddaughter has stated that the complexity of the project was comparable to the building of the Panama Canal. Water from the Owens River reached a reservoir in the San Fernando Valley on November 5, 1913. At a ceremony that day, Mulholland spoke his famous words about this engineering feat: "There it is. Take it."

After the aqueduct was completed in 1913, the San Fernando investors demanded so much water from the Owens Valley that it started to transform from "The Switzerland of California" into a desert. Mulholland was blocked from obtaining additional water from the Colorado River, so decided to take all available water from the Owens Valley.

In 1923, farmers and ranchers formed an irrigation cooperative headed by Wilfred and Mark Watterson, owners of the Inyo County Bank. By exploiting personal bitterness of some of the farmers, Los Angeles managed to acquire some of the key water rights of the cooperative. After these water rights were secured, inflows to Owens Lake were heavily diverted, which caused the lake to dry up by 1924.

By 1924, farmers and ranchers rebelled. A series of provocations by Mulholland were, in turn, followed by corresponding threats from local farmers, and the destruction of Los Angeles property. Finally, a group of armed ranchers seized the Alabama Gates and dynamited part of the system, letting water return to the Owens River.

In August 1927, when the conflict was at its height, the Inyo County bank collapsed, which massively undermined valley resistance. An audit revealed that there were shortages in both cash in the vault and amounts shown on the books. The Watterson brothers were indicted for embezzlement, then tried and convicted on thirty-six counts. Since all local business had been transacted through their bank, the closure left merchants and customers with little more than the small amount of money they had on hand. The brothers claimed that the fraud was done for the good of the Owens Valley against Los Angeles, and this excuse was generally believed to be true in Inyo County. The collapse of the bank wiped out the lifetime savings of many people, including payments gained from the sale of homes and ranches to Los Angeles.

In the face of the collapse of resistance and of the Owens Valley economy, the attacks on the aqueduct ceased. The City of Los Angeles sponsored a series of repair and maintenance programs for aqueduct facilities that stimulated some local employment, and the Los Angeles water employees were paid a month in advance to bring some relief. But it was impossible to prevent many businesses from closing their doors.

The City of Los Angeles continued to purchase private land holdings and their water rights to meet the increasing demands. By 1928, Los Angeles owned 90 percent of the water in Owens Valley and agriculture interests in the region were effectively dead.

The second Owens Valley Aqueduct, 1970–present
In 1970, LADWP completed a second aqueduct. In 1972, the agency began to divert more surface water and pumped groundwater at the rate of several hundred thousand acre-feet a year (several cubic meters per second). Owens Valley springs and seeps dried and disappeared, and groundwater-dependent vegetation began to die.

Because LADWP had never completed an Environmental Impact Report (EIR) addressing the impacts of groundwater pumping, Inyo County sued Los Angeles under the terms of the California Environmental Quality Act. Los Angeles did not stop pumping groundwater, but submitted a short EIR in 1976 and a second one in 1979, both of which were rejected as inadequate by the courts.

In 1991, Inyo County and the city of Los Angeles signed the Inyo-Los Angeles Long Term Water Agreement, which required that groundwater pumping be managed to avoid significant impacts while providing a reliable water supply for Los Angeles. In 1997, Inyo County, Los Angeles, the Owens Valley Committee, the Sierra Club, and other concerned parties signed a Memorandum of Understanding that specified terms by which the lower Owens River would be re-watered by June 2003 as partial mitigation for damage to the Owens Valley.

In spite of the terms of the Long Term Water Agreement, studies by the Inyo County Water Department from 2003 onward showed that impacts to the valley's groundwater-dependent vegetation, such as alkali meadows, continue. Likewise, Los Angeles did not re-water the lower Owens River by the June 2003 deadline. In December, 2003, LADWP settled a lawsuit brought by California Attorney General Bill Lockyer, the Owens Valley Committee, and the Sierra Club. Under the terms of the settlement, deadlines for the Lower Owens River Project were revised and LADWP was to return water to the lower Owens River by 2005. This deadline was missed, but on December 6, 2006, a ceremony was held at the same site where William Mulholland had ceremonially opened the aqueduct which had closed the flow through the Owens River, to restart it down the 62 mi river. David Nahai, president of the L.A. Water and Power Board, countered Mulholland's words from 1913 and said, "There it is ... take it back."

Nevertheless, groundwater pumping continues at a higher rate than the rate at which water recharges the aquifer, resulting in a long-term trend of desertification in the Owens Valley.

Mono Lake
By the 1930s, the water requirements for Los Angeles continued to increase. LADWP started buying water rights in the Mono Basin (the next basin to the north of the Owens Valley). An extension to the aqueduct was built, which included such engineering feats as tunneling through the Mono Craters (an active volcanic field). By 1941, the extension was finished, and water in various creeks (such as Rush Creek) were diverted into the aqueduct. To satisfy California water law, LADWP set up a fish hatchery on Hot Creek, near Mammoth Lakes, California.

The diverted creeks had previously fed Mono Lake, an inland body of water with no outlet. Mono Lake served as a vital ecosystem link, where gulls and migratory birds would nest. Because the creeks were diverted, the water level in Mono Lake started to fall, exposing tufa formations. The water became more saline and alkaline, threatening the brine shrimp that lived in the lake. Increases in salinity decreased adult size, growth rates, and brood sizes, and increased female mortality during their reproductive cycle. Changing levels in salinity as a result of water diversion put this species at risk, as well as the birds that nested on two islands (Negit Island and Paoha Island) in the lake. Falling water levels started making a land bridge to Negit Island, which allowed predators to feed on bird eggs for the first time.

In 1974, David Gaines started to study the biology of Mono Lake. In 1975, while at Stanford, he started to get others interested in the ecosystem of Mono Lake. This led to a 1977 report on the ecosystem of Mono Lake that highlighted dangers caused by the water diversion. In 1978, the Mono Lake Committee was formed to protect Mono Lake. The committee (and the National Audubon Society) sued LADWP in 1979, arguing that the diversions violated the public trust doctrine, which states that navigable bodies of water must be managed for the benefit of all people. The litigation reached the California Supreme Court by 1983, which ruled in favor of the committee. Further litigation was initiated in 1984, which claimed that LADWP did not comply with the state fishery protection laws.

Eventually, all of the litigation was adjudicated in 1994, by the California State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB). The SWRCB hearings lasted for 44 days and were conducted by Board Vice-chair Marc Del Piero acting as the sole Hearing Officer. In that ruling (SWRCB Decision 1631), the SWRCB established significant public trust protection and eco-system restoration standards, and LADWP was required to release water into Mono Lake to raise the lake level 17.4 ft above the then-current level of 42.4 ft below the 1941 level. As of 2022, the water level in Mono Lake has risen only 4.1 ft of the required 17.4 ft. Los Angeles made up for the lost water through state-funded conservation and recycling projects.

Central Valley
In February 2014, after three consecutive years of below-normal rainfall, California faced its most severe drought emergency in decades with fish populations in the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta in unprecedented crisis due to the decades of large-scale water exports from Northern California to south of the Delta via state and federal water projects. Half a million acres of Central Valley farmland supposedly was in danger of going fallow due to drought. On 5 February 2014 the House passed a bill to increase flows from the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta to the Central Valley, the Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley Emergency Water Delivery Act (H.R. 3964; 113th Congress). This would suspend the very recent efforts to restore the San Joaquin River since 2009, won after 18 years of litigation, with increased releases from the Friant Dam east of Fresno. Democratic Senators Dianne Feinstein and Barbara Boxer proposed emergency drought legislation of $300 million aid, and to speed up environmental reviews of water projects, so state and federal officials have "operational flexibility" to move water south, from the delta to San Joaquin Valley farms.

On February 14, 2014, President Barack Obama visited near Fresno and announced $170 million worth of initiatives, with $100 million for ranchers facing livestock losses and $60 million to help food banks. Obama joked about the lengthy and incendiary history of water politics in California, saying, "I'm not going to wade into this. I want to get out alive on Valentine's Day."

Documentaries and fiction
The California water wars were among the subjects discussed in Cadillac Desert, a 1984 nonfiction book by Marc Reisner about land development and water policy in the western United States. The book was made into a four-part documentary of the same name in 1997.

The 1974 film Chinatown was inspired by the California water wars and features a fictionalized version of the conflict as a central plot element.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: California water wars


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Lists of video games

This is a list of all video game lists, sorted by varying classifications.

Acorn

 * List of Acorn Electron games

Apple

 * List of Apple II games
 * List of Apple IIGS games
 * List of iOS games
 * List of Macintosh games

Amstrad

 * List of Amstrad CPC games
 * List of Amstrad GX4000 games
 * List of Amstrad PCW games

Arcade

 * List of arcade video games

Atari

 * List of Atari 2600 games
 * List of Atari 5200 games
 * List of Atari 7800 games
 * List of Atari Jaguar games
 * List of Atari Jaguar CD games
 * List of Atari Lynx games
 * List of Atari ST games
 * List of Atari XEGS games

Bandai

 * List of Bandai RX-78 games
 * List of Bandai Super Vision 8000 games
 * List of Design Master Senshi Mangajukuu games
 * List of Playdia games
 * List of Pippin games
 * List of Terebikko games
 * List of WonderSwan games
 * List of WonderSwan Color games

Casio

 * List of Casio Loopy games
 * List of Casio PV-1000 games
 * List of Casio PV-2000 games

Commodore

 * List of Commodore PET games
 * List of Amiga games
 * List of Amiga CD32 games
 * List of Commodore 16 games
 * List of Commodore 64 games
 * List of Commodore CDTV games
 * List of VIC-20 games

Fujitsu

 * List of FM Towns games

Google

 * List of Stadia games

Leapfrog

 * List of ClickStart games
 * List of Leapfrog Didj games
 * List of Leapfrog Leapster games
 * List of Leapfrog Leapster Explorer games

Linux

 * List of Linux games

Mattel

 * List of Aquarius games
 * List of Hyperscan games
 * List of Intellivision games
 * List of Pixter games

MS-DOS and Windows

 * Index of DOS games
 * List of Windows 3.x games
 * Index of Windows games
 * List of Games for Windows titles
 * List of Games for Windows – Live titles
 * List of Windows Games on Demand
 * List of Xbox Live games on Windows 8.x
 * List of Xbox Live games on Windows 10
 * List of Xbox Live games on Windows Phone

MSX

 * List of MSX games

Xbox

 * List of Xbox games
 * List of Xbox System Link games
 * List of Xbox 360 games
 * List of Xbox 360 games (A–L)
 * List of Xbox 360 games (M–Z)
 * List of Xbox 360 System Link games
 * List of Xbox games compatible with Xbox 360
 * List of Xbox One games
 * List of Xbox One games (A–L)
 * List of Xbox One games (M–Z)
 * List of backward-compatible games for Xbox One and Series X/S
 * List of Xbox One X enhanced games
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NEC

 * List of PC-FX games
 * List of TurboGrafx-16 games

Nintendo home consoles

 * List of Nintendo Entertainment System games
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 * List of Satellaview broadcasts
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 * List of Wii games
 * List of WiiWare games
 * List of Virtual Console games for Wii (Japan)
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 * List of Wii U games
 * List of Wii games on Wii U eShop
 * List of Virtual Console games for Wii U (Japan)
 * List of Virtual Console games for Wii U (North America)
 * List of Virtual Console games for Wii U (PAL region)
 * List of Nintendo Switch games
 * List of Nintendo Switch Online games

Nintendo handheld consoles

 * List of Game & Watch games
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 * List of multiplayer Game Boy games
 * List of Super Game Boy games
 * List of Game Boy Color games
 * List of Game Boy Advance games
 * List of Pokémon Mini games
 * List of Nintendo DS games
 * List of DSiWare games and applications
 * List of Nintendo 3DS games
 * List of Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS (Japan)
 * List of Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS (North America)
 * List of Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS (PAL region)
 * List of Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS (South Korea)
 * List of Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS (Taiwan and Hong Kong)

Phillips

 * List of CD-i games
 * List of Magnavox Odyssey² games
 * List of VG5000 games

Sega

 * List of SG-1000 games
 * List of Master System games
 * List of TecToy Master System 131 games
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 * List of 32X games
 * List of Sega CD games
 * List of Game Gear games
 * List of Sega Pico games
 * List of Advanced Pico Beena games
 * List of Sega Saturn games
 * List of Dreamcast games

Sinclair

 * List of ZX Spectrum games

SNK

 * List of Neo Geo games
 * List of Neo Geo Pocket Color games

Sony

 * List of PlayStation games
 * List of PlayStation games (A–L)
 * List of PlayStation games (M–Z)
 * Lists of PS one Classics
 * List of PlayStation 2 games
 * List of PlayStation 2 games (A–K)
 * List of PlayStation 2 games (L–Z)
 * List of PlayStation 3 games
 * List of PlayStation 3 games (A–C)
 * List of PlayStation 3 games (D–I)
 * List of PlayStation 3 games (J–P)
 * List of PlayStation 3 games (Q–Z)
 * List of PlayStation 2 Classics for PlayStation 3
 * List of PlayStation 4 games
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 * List of PlayStation 4 games (M–Z)
 * List of PlayStation 4 free-to-play games
 * List of PlayStation 2 games for PlayStation 4
 * List of PlayStation VR games
 * List of PlayStation 5 games
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 * List of downloadable PlayStation Portable games
 * List of PlayStation minis
 * Lists of PlayStation Vita games
 * List of PlayStation Vita games (A–D)
 * List of PlayStation Vita games (E–H)
 * List of PlayStation Vita games (I–L)
 * List of PlayStation Vita games (M–O)
 * List of PlayStation Vita games (P–R)
 * List of PlayStation Vita games (S)
 * List of PlayStation Vita games (T–V)
 * List of PlayStation Vita games (W–Z)
 * Lists of PlayStation Store games
 * List of PlayStation Store TurboGrafx-16 games
 * List of Sony Pictures mobile games

Tandy

 * List of TRS-80 games

VTech

 * List of VTech CreatiVision games
 * List of VTech Socrates games
 * List of VTech V.Flash games
 * List of VTech V.Smile games
 * List of VTech V.Smile Baby games

Other platforms

 * List of 3DO Interactive Multiplayer games
 * List of 1292 Advanced Programmable Video System
 * * List of Interton VC 4000 games
 * List of Action Max games
 * List of APF Imagination Machine games
 * List of Arcadia 2001 games
 * List of Bally Astrocade games
 * List of BBC Bridge Companion games
 * List of browser games
 * List of Cassette Vision games
 * List of ColecoVision games
 * List of Coleco Adam games
 * List of Creatronic Mega Duck games
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title: Lists of video games


text:
Dye laser

A dye laser is a laser that uses an organic dye as the lasing medium, usually as a liquid solution. Compared to gases and most solid state lasing media, a dye can usually be used for a much wider range of wavelengths, often spanning 50 to 100 nanometers or more. The wide bandwidth makes them particularly suitable for tunable lasers and pulsed lasers. The dye rhodamine 6G, for example, can be tuned from 635 nm (orangish-red) to 560 nm (greenish-yellow), and produce pulses as short as 16 femtoseconds. Moreover, the dye can be replaced by another type in order to generate an even broader range of wavelengths with the same laser, from the near-infrared to the near-ultraviolet, although this usually requires replacing other optical components in the laser as well, such as dielectric mirrors or pump lasers.

Dye lasers were independently discovered by P. P. Sorokin and F. P. Schäfer (and colleagues) in 1966.

In addition to the usual liquid state, dye lasers are also available as solid state dye lasers (SSDL). These SSDL lasers use dye-doped organic matrices as gain medium.

Construction

A dye laser uses a gain medium consisting of an organic dye, which is a carbon-based, soluble stain that is often fluorescent, such as the dye in a highlighter pen. The dye is mixed with a compatible solvent, allowing the molecules to diffuse evenly throughout the liquid. The dye solution may be circulated through a dye cell, or streamed through open air using a dye jet. A high energy source of light is needed to 'pump' the liquid beyond its lasing threshold. A fast discharge flashtube or an external laser is usually used for this purpose. Mirrors are also needed to oscillate the light produced by the dye's fluorescence, which is amplified with each pass through the liquid. The output mirror is normally around 80% reflective, while all other mirrors are usually more than 99.9% reflective. The dye solution is usually circulated at high speeds, to help avoid triplet absorption and to decrease degradation of the dye. A prism or diffraction grating is usually mounted in the beam path, to allow tuning of the beam.

Because the liquid medium of a dye laser can fit any shape, there are a multitude of different configurations that can be used. A Fabry–Pérot laser cavity is usually used for flashtube pumped lasers, which consists of two mirrors, which may be flat or curved, mounted parallel to each other with the laser medium in between. The dye cell is often a thin tube approximately equal in length to the flashtube, with both windows and an inlet/outlet for the liquid on each end. The dye cell is usually side-pumped, with one or more flashtubes running parallel to the dye cell in a reflector cavity. The reflector cavity is often water cooled, to prevent thermal shock in the dye caused by the large amounts of near-infrared radiation which the flashtube produces. Axial pumped lasers have a hollow, annular-shaped flashtube that surrounds the dye cell, which has lower inductance for a shorter flash, and improved transfer efficiency. Coaxial pumped lasers have an annular dye cell that surrounds the flashtube, for even better transfer efficiency, but have a lower gain due to diffraction losses. Flash pumped lasers can be used only for pulsed output applications.

A ring laser design is often chosen for continuous operation, although a Fabry–Pérot design is sometimes used. In a ring laser, the mirrors of the laser are positioned to allow the beam to travel in a circular path. The dye cell, or cuvette, is usually very small. Sometimes a dye jet is used to help avoid reflection losses. The dye is usually pumped with an external laser, such as a nitrogen, excimer, or frequency doubled YAG laser. The liquid is circulated at very high speeds, to prevent triplet absorption from cutting off the beam. Unlike Fabry–Pérot cavities, a ring laser does not generate standing waves which cause spatial hole burning, a phenomenon where energy becomes trapped in unused portions of the medium between the crests of the wave. This leads to a better gain from the lasing medium.

Operation
The dyes used in these lasers contain rather large organic molecules which fluoresce. Most dyes have a very short time between the absorption and emission of light, referred to as the fluorescence lifetime, which is often on the order of a few nanoseconds. (In comparison, most solid-state lasers have a fluorescence lifetime ranging from hundreds of microseconds to a few milliseconds.) Under standard laser-pumping conditions, the molecules emit their energy before a population inversion can properly build up, so dyes require rather specialized means of pumping. Liquid dyes have an extremely high lasing threshold. In addition, the large molecules are subject to complex excited state transitions during which the spin can be "flipped", quickly changing from the useful, fast-emitting "singlet" state to the slower "triplet" state.

The incoming light excites the dye molecules into the state of being ready to emit stimulated radiation; the singlet state. In this state, the molecules emit light via fluorescence, and the dye is transparent to the lasing wavelength. Within a microsecond or less, the molecules will change to their triplet state. In the triplet state, light is emitted via phosphorescence, and the molecules absorb the lasing wavelength, making the dye partially opaque. Flashlamp-pumped lasers need a flash with an extremely short duration, to deliver the large amounts of energy necessary to bring the dye past threshold before triplet absorption overcomes singlet emission. Dye lasers with an external pump-laser can direct enough energy of the proper wavelength into the dye with a relatively small amount of input energy, but the dye must be circulated at high speeds to keep the triplet molecules out of the beam path. Due to their high absorption, the pumping energy may often be concentrated into a rather small volume of liquid.

Since organic dyes tend to decompose under the influence of light, the dye solution is normally circulated from a large reservoir. The dye solution can be flowing through a cuvette, i.e., a glass container, or be as a dye jet, i.e., as a sheet-like stream in open air from a specially-shaped nozzle. With a dye jet, one avoids reflection losses from the glass surfaces and contamination of the walls of the cuvette. These advantages come at the cost of a more-complicated alignment.

Liquid dyes have very high gain as laser media. The beam needs to make only a few passes through the liquid to reach full design power, and hence, the high transmittance of the output coupler. The high gain also leads to high losses, because reflections from the dye-cell walls or flashlamp reflector cause parasitic oscillations, dramatically reducing the amount of energy available to the beam. Pump cavities are often coated, anodized, or otherwise made of a material that will not reflect at the lasing wavelength while reflecting at the pump wavelength.

A benefit of organic dyes is their high fluorescence efficiency. The greatest losses in many lasers and other fluorescence devices is not from the transfer efficiency (absorbed versus reflected/transmitted energy) or quantum yield (emitted number of photons per absorbed number), but from the losses when high-energy photons are absorbed and reemitted as photons of longer wavelengths. Because the energy of a photon is determined by its wavelength, the emitted photons will be of lower energy; a phenomenon called the Stokes shift. The absorption centers of many dyes are very close to the emission centers. Sometimes the two are close enough that the absorption profile slightly overlaps the emission profile. As a result, most dyes exhibit very small Stokes shifts and consequently allow for lower energy losses than many other laser types due to this phenomenon. The wide absorption profiles make them particularly suited to broadband pumping, such as from a flashtube. It also allows a wide range of pump lasers to be used for any certain dye and, conversely, many different dyes can be used with a single pump laser.

CW dye lasers
Continuous-wave (CW) dye lasers often use a dye jet. CW dye-lasers can have a linear or a ring cavity, and provided the foundation for the development of femtosecond lasers.

Narrow linewidth dye lasers

Dye lasers' emission is inherently broad. However, tunable narrow linewidth emission has been central to the success of the dye laser. In order to produce narrow bandwidth tuning these lasers use many types of cavities and resonators which include gratings, prisms, multiple-prism grating arrangements, and etalons.

The first narrow linewidth dye laser, introduced by Hänsch, used a Galilean telescope as beam expander to illuminate the diffraction grating. Next were the grazing-incidence grating designs and the multiple-prism grating configurations. The various resonators and oscillator designs developed for dye lasers have been successfully adapted to other laser types such as the diode laser. The physics of narrow-linewidth multiple-prism grating lasers was explained by Duarte and Piper.

Chemicals used

Some of the laser dyes are rhodamine (orange, 540–680 nm), fluorescein (green, 530–560 nm), coumarin (blue 490–620 nm), stilbene (violet 410–480 nm), umbelliferone (blue, 450–470 nm), tetracene, malachite green, and others. While some dyes are actually used in food coloring, most dyes are very toxic, and often carcinogenic. Many dyes, such as rhodamine 6G, (in its chloride form), can be very corrosive to all metals except stainless steel. Although dyes have very broad fluorescence spectra, the dye's absorption and emission will tend to center on a certain wavelength and taper off to each side, forming a tunability curve, with the absorption center being of a shorter wavelength than the emission center. Rhodamine 6G, for example, has its highest output around 590 nm, and the conversion efficiency lowers as the laser is tuned to either side of this wavelength.

A wide variety of solvents can be used, although most dyes will dissolve better in some solvents than in others. Some of the solvents used are water, glycol, ethanol, methanol, hexane, cyclohexane, cyclodextrin, and many others. Solvents can be highly toxic, and can sometimes be absorbed directly through the skin, or through inhaled vapors. Many solvents are also extremely flammable. The various solvents can also have an effect on the specific color of the dye solution, the lifetime of the singlet state, either enhancing or quenching the triplet state, and, thus, on the lasing bandwidth and power obtainable with a particular laser-pumping source.

Adamantane is added to some dyes to prolong their life.

Cycloheptatriene and cyclooctatetraene (COT) can be added as triplet quenchers for rhodamine G, increasing the laser output power. Output power of 1.4 kilowatt at 585 nm was achieved using Rhodamine 6G with COT in methanol-water solution.

Excitation lasers
Flashlamps and several types of lasers can be used to optically pump dye lasers. A partial list of excitation lasers include:

 * Copper vapor lasers
 * Diode lasers
 * Excimer lasers
 * YAG lasers (mainly second and third harmonics)
 * Nitrogen lasers
 * Ruby lasers
 * Argon ion lasers in the CW regime
 * Krypton ion lasers in the CW regime

Ultra-short optical pulses
R. L. Fork, B. I. Greene, and C. V. Shank demonstrated, in 1981, the generation of ultra-short laser pulse using a ring-dye laser (or dye laser exploiting colliding pulse mode-locking). This kind of laser is capable of generating laser pulses of ~ 0.1 ps duration.

The introduction of grating techniques and intra-cavity prismatic pulse compressors eventually resulted in the routine emission of femtosecond dye laser pulses.

Applications

Dye lasers are very versatile. In addition to their recognized wavelength agility these lasers can offer very large pulsed energies or very high average powers. Flashlamp-pumped dye lasers have been shown to yield hundreds of Joules per pulse and copper-laser-pumped dye lasers are known to yield average powers in the kilowatt regime.

Dye lasers are used in many applications including:

 * astronomy (as laser guide stars),
 * atomic vapor laser isotope separation
 * manufacturing
 * medicine
 * spectroscopy

In laser medicine these lasers are applied in several areas, including dermatology where they are used to make skin tone more even. The wide range of wavelengths possible allows very close matching to the absorption lines of certain tissues, such as melanin or hemoglobin, while the narrow bandwidth obtainable helps reduce the possibility of damage to the surrounding tissue. They are used to treat port-wine stains and other blood vessel disorders, scars and kidney stones. They can be matched to a variety of inks for tattoo removal, as well as a number of other applications.

In spectroscopy, dye lasers can be used to study the absorption and emission spectra of various materials. Their tunability, (from the near-infrared to the near-ultraviolet), narrow bandwidth, and high intensity allows a much greater diversity than other light sources. The variety of pulse widths, from ultra-short, femtosecond pulses to continuous-wave operation, makes them suitable for a wide range of applications, from the study of fluorescent lifetimes and semiconductor properties to lunar laser ranging experiments.

Tunable lasers are used in swept-frequency metrology to enable measurement of absolute distances with very high accuracy. A two axis interferometer is set up and by sweeping the frequency, the frequency of the light returning from the fixed arm is slightly different from the frequency returning from the distance measuring arm. This produces a beat frequency which can be detected and used to determine the absolute difference between the lengths of the two arms.

title: Dye laser


text:
Tylers Green

Tylers Green is a village in the civil parish of Chepping Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, England.

The village is adjoined on one side by Hazlemere and on the other by Penn. "Penn and Tylers Green" are often referred to as one. Tylers Green centres on a village green where an annual fête is held. In one corner of the green is a duck pond.

History
Artefacts have been found suggesting habitation in Penn and Tylers Green since the Stone Age. In the 12th century, the village was known as Garretts Green. By the 14th century, the name was changed to Tiler End Green as it became known for well-organized commercial tile workshops.

In 2006, Thames Valley Police cordoned off the woodland between Tylers Green, Totteridge, Micklefield and High Wycombe (Kingswood) for a fingertip search for evidence linked to the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot. The woodland remained cordoned off for four months before being reopened in November 2006.

Geography
The village is in the Chiltern Hills and from here there are many walks through beech woodland which once supplied the furniture industry in High Wycombe.

Amenities
The Church of England parish church of St Margaret was built in 1854 of flint and stone and is Grade II listed. The wooden bell-turret was added in 1891. The ashes of Arthur Whitten Brown, the navigator of the 1919 Transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown, the first non-stop crossing of the Atlantic, are buried in St Margaret's churchyard.

The village has two schools, Tylers Green First School for children aged 4 – 7 and Tylers Green Middle School for children aged 7 – 11.

It has its own football club, Penn & Tylers Green F. C, which was established in 1905.

title: Tylers Green