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Siegfried and Walter Günter

Siegfried Günter (8 December 1899 – 20 June 1969) and Walter Günter (8 December 1899 – 21 September 1937) were German twin brothers and pioneering aircraft designers. Walter was responsible for the world's first rocket-powered and turbojet airframes, projects funded by Nazi Germany. Siegfried was the father of the "thrust modulation theory".

Early life
Siegfried and Walter Günter were born on 8 December 1899 in Thuringia. Avid flight enthusiasts, at 16 they had developed their own propeller theories. Both served in the First World War, where they were captured by the British Army and each became a prisoner of war.

The brothers would be educated in mechanical engineering at the Institute of Technology Hannover, specializing in aircraft design and aerodynamics. It was there that Siegfried designed his first aircraft with fellow students Walter Mertens and Werner Meyer-Cassel, the glider H 6. Their talents were first recognised by Paul Bäumer who was impressed by the performance of the H 6 when he saw it being flown at Wasserkuppe. Bäumer offered the brothers, Mertens, and Meyer-Cassel jobs with his company Bäumer Aero in Berlin. There they began designing motor gliders and then increasingly fast sports planes. By 1925 Siegfried had designed first B II "Sausewind" ("Buzzing Wind") airplane for the Deutscher Rundflug 1925 competition, which featured the first elliptic design based on Prandtl's 1918 theory.

Heinkel Flugzeugwerke
On 16 January 1931, Ernst Heinkel recruited Siegfried Günter to work for his Heinkel company in Rostock, and Walter joined the company on 31 July 1931, where he was in charge of developing low and high-speed wind tunnels. There they were to design some of the most important and famous designs associated with the company, including the Heinkel He 51, He 70, He 112, He 100, and the He 111. Walter designed the first ever retractable landing gear in Germany for the He 70, an aircraft mainly designed by Siegfried.

Through their introduction of the elliptical wing-planform, their designs set officially recognized speed records. Lufthansa purchased the He 70, nicknaming it the Heinkel-Blitz (blitz means "lightning"), and instituted "blitz" air-routes between Berlin, Cologne, Hamburg, and Frankfurt comparable to today's travel time for the same routes.

During this time Walter submitted airframe designs for what would become the He 178, an experimental turbojet aircraft, and the experimental He 176 rocket plane, in coordination with Hans von Ohain.

As chief project designer by 1937, Siegfried and his team introduced the He 100D-1 on 25 May 1937.

Siegfried would later contribute to the design of the He 219, as well as other prototypes, including the He 177 and He 162.

Death of Walter
Walter was killed in a car accident on 21 September 1937.

Soviet Union
After the Second World War Siegfried worked in Berlin in the car shop of his father-in-law. He approached the Allies offering his expertise, which was refused along with his request for asylum, forcing him to return to the Soviet sector. In 1948 he was taken to the Soviet Union by USSR agents where he worked on Soviet aircraft designs.

East Germany
In July 1954 Siegfried returned to East Germany.

West Germany
In 1957 Siegfried went to West Germany, where he again joined the Heinkel works. He was involved in the construction of the EWR VJ 101, the world's first supersonic V/STOL aircraft, and the V/STOL transport aircraft VFW VC 400. Both were experimental designs and never saw serial production.

Death of Siegfried
Siegfried died in West Berlin on 20 June 1969.

title: Siegfried and Walter Günter


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Lorne Nystrom

Lorne Edmund Nystrom (born April 26, 1946) is a Canadian politician and was a member of the House of Commons of Canada from 1968 to 1993 and again from 1997 to 2004. He is a member of the New Democratic Party.

Parliamentary career
Born in Wynyard, Saskatchewan, he was first elected for Yorkton—Melville in 1968. At the age of 22 years and three months, he was the youngest MP in Canadian history, a record he held until Claude-André Lachance was elected at the age of 20 in 1974. He was reelected without serious difficulty until losing to Reform challenger Garry Breitkreuz in 1993.

In 1992, he was appointed to the Queen's Privy Council for Canada.

He returned to Parliament in 1997 in the riding of Qu'Appelle, succeeding fellow New Democrat Simon De Jong. Nystrom faced a strong challenge for re-election in the riding, renamed Regina—Qu'Appelle in 2000, after the Progressive Conservatives unexpectedly failed to nominate a candidate. However, Nystrom managed to eke out a narrow victory over Canadian Alliance challenger Don Leier.

In 2004, Nystrom lost to the Conservative candidate, future House Speaker and Leader of the Official Opposition Andrew Scheer. Scheer won by a margin of 861 votes. The NDP renominated Nystrom to challenge Scheer at the next federal election in 2005; in the 2006 election, he lost again, this time by a larger margin of 2,712 votes.

Nystrom ran for the leadership of the federal NDP three times, placing third in each. In 1975, he finished behind winner Ed Broadbent and runner-up Rosemary Brown. Twenty years later, in 1995, Nystrom ran again but placed behind Svend Robinson and winner Alexa McDonough. His final attempt to win the party's leadership was in the 2003 election that ultimately selected Jack Layton; Nystrom finished in third behind Layton and Bill Blaikie.

Career outside of Parliament
Nystrom edited a book on practical progressive economics, Just Making Change: The 100 Percent, Honest to Goodness Truth About our User Unfriendly Financial System and How to Escape It, published in hardcover in 1999 and paperback in 2000.

As of 2012, Nystrom is a board member of the Centre for Israel and Jewish Affairs (CIJA). Nystrom has also been involved with Brightenview Development International Inc. as the VP of Government Relations and CEO of Brightenvantage International Business Consulting Inc., a subsidiary of Brightenview.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lorne Nystrom


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Pierre Ducasse (politician)

Pierre Ducasse (born August 18, 1972) is a Canadian politician and New Democratic Party (NDP) activist.

He grew up in Sept-Îles, Quebec, and studied at Université Laval. A party member since age 17, he was appointed interim associate president of the federal party in 2000, and was elected to the post at the NDP convention in Winnipeg in November 2001.

2003 NDP leadership election
In January 2003, he became the first francophone Quebecer to run for the federal leadership of the party. Although he placed fifth among the six candidates, his campaign was widely acclaimed for raising the profile of the NDP in Quebec and vice versa. Ken Georgetti, president of the Canadian Labour Congress, endorsed him prior to the first ballot.

Jack Layton, the Quebec-born winner of the leadership election, appointed Ducasse to be the party's Quebec lieutenant and official spokesman in Quebec. Ducasse held the post of Quebec lieutenant through two elections until the spring of 2007 when he was replaced by Thomas Mulcair, a former Member of the National Assembly of Quebec and Quebec cabinet minister.

Federal elections
Ducasse was the NDP candidate for the riding of Manicouagan three times, first in the federal election of 1997, and then in the 2004 and 2006 federal elections. In 2008, Ducasse was the NDP candidate in the riding of Hull-Aylmer.

In 2004, Ducasse finished third in Manicouagan, in a race won by Gérard Asselin of the Bloc Québécois. In 2006, again in Manicouagan, Ducasse placed fourth, but improved his overall result to 4,657 votes or 12.8%. Ducasse received his best result to date in 2008 in Hull-Aylmer, where he placed third with 10,424 votes, for 19.83% of all votes cast in the riding. Liberal Marcel Proulx won the riding with 19,747 votes, or 37.47%, while Bloc Québécois candidate Raphaël Déry finished in second with 11 635 votes, or 22.07%.

In 2011, when he might have run again in Hull-Aylmer, Ducasse and Nycole Turmel started having discussions where he learned Turmel might be interested in running. Ducasse ultimately decided not to run "because she is a fantastic person and candidate, and I just had a baby."

On September 29, 2014 Ducasse declared his intention to seek the federal NDP nomination in Manicouagan a fourth time, challenging incumbent NDP MP Jonathan Genest-Jourdain. He withdrew his candidacy a month later when the party confirmed that the nomination meeting would be held on November 6, 2014, declining Ducasse's request that the meeting be delayed to a later date. Ducasse stated that scheduled meeting date had not allowed him enough time to recruit support.

2009 municipal election
Ducasse ran the 2009 Gatineau municipal election on November 1 of that year. He ran for Gatineau City Council in the Hull–Val-Tétreau District. He lost however, to two-term incumbent Denise Laferrière. The district is centred in Downtown Hull.

Quebec provincial politics
Ducasse became the leader of record of the New Democratic Party of Quebec following its re-founding on January 30, 2014. He announced that he would not be a candidate in the leadership election to be held in January 2018.

title: Pierre Ducasse (politician)


text:
Talk:Nammu

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 16 August 2021 and 10 December 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Briirb. Peer reviewers: Iris Paige.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 04:49, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

(Nammu was the primal waters)
'''Nammu was the primal waters - the waters of birth. An is supposed to have been her mate to make Ki.

However, in other texts Ki and Nammu join to make An at the same time that An and Nammu join to make Ki. This paradox is best taken (in my opinion) as a pointer to a more ancient god - an air God that exists in so many other cultures and soon fades into a memory because it is completely unknowable by human standards. This Air God dissemminated itself into the male, female and neuter parts that are An, Ki, and Nammu. An is the male aspect of God made knowable to man and Ki is the female aspect or Goddess made knowable to man while Nammu is the ever present energy of creation - the sea of life and energy of all that is unseen around us.'''

References: Ninhursag (Ki, Ninmah, Nintu) Ki is likely to be the original name of the earth goddess, whose name more often appears as Ninhursag (queen of the mountains), Ninmah (the exalted lady), or Nintu (the lady who gave birth). (Kramer 1963 p. 122) She was born, possibly as a unified cosmic mountain with An, from Nammu and shortly thereafter, their union produced Enlil. (Kramer 1961 p. 74) In the early days, as Ki, she was separated from heaven (An) and carried off by Enlil. (Kramer 1961 pp. 37-41) It seems likely that she and An were the progenitors of most of the gods. She later unites with Enlil and with the assistance of Enki they produce the world's plant and animal life. (Kramer 1961 p. 75) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 12.242.171.175 (talk) 05:59, 9 December 2003 (UTC)

(pictogram)
Question: What would the pictogram for Nammu look like? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 61.8.41.147 (talk) 13:37, 30 November 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nammu


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Edward Blake

Dominick Edward Blake (October 13, 1833 – March 1, 1912), known as Edward Blake, was the second premier of Ontario, from 1871 to 1872 and leader of the Liberal Party of Canada from 1880 to 1887. He is one of only three federal permanent Liberal leaders never to become Prime Minister of Canada, the others being Stéphane Dion and the latter's immediate successor Michael Ignatieff. He may be said to have served in the national politics of what developed as the affairs of three nationalities: Canadian, British, and Irish. Blake was also the founder, in 1856, of the Canadian law firm now known as Blake, Cassels & Graydon LLP.

Early years
Blake was born in 1833, in Adelaide Township, Middlesex County, Upper Canada, the son of William Hume Blake and Catherine Honoria Hume, and was educated at Upper Canada College.

In 1856, after Blake was called to the bar, he entered into partnership with Stephen M. Jarvis in Toronto to practice law. When his brother Samuel Hume Blake joined soon thereafter, the firm became Blake & Blake. Today it is known as Blake, Cassels & Graydon.

As a consequence of the ruling of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Long v The Bishop of Cape Town, Blake offered a legal opinion to Benjamin Cronyn (then Bishop of the Anglican Diocese of Huron) on the legality of the convening of a Provincial Synod of the various Dioceses of the Ecclesiastical Province of Canada by Francis Fulford (then Bishop of Montreal and Metropolitan of Canada). He determined that the concurrence of all of the Dioceses of the Ecclesiastical Province would be required prior to the creation of the Provincial Synod, and therefore no such Synod could legally be convened until the entity first existed. This opinion was read into the Minutes of the seventh session of the Synod of the Diocese of Huron which convened in June 1864.

Canada
Blake was recruited into active politics by George Brown, elected Member of the Provincial Parliament (Durham West and Bruce South) became leader of the Ontario Liberal Party in 1868 and premier in 1871, but left provincial politics to run in the 1872 federal election, in which he was re-elected. The "dual mandate" rule that allowed a politician to sit simultaneously in a provincial and federal house had been abolished, and Blake chose to abandon his career in provincial politics. He played a major role in exposing the government of Sir John A. Macdonald's complicity in the Pacific Scandal forcing the government's resignation. Blake was offered the prime ministership, but turned it down due to ill health.

When the Liberals won the subsequent 1874 federal election, Blake joined the cabinet of Prime Minister Alexander Mackenzie and served as Minister of Justice and President of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada.

From 1876 to 1900, he was the chancellor of the University of Toronto.

The Liberals were defeated in the 1878 election, and Blake succeeded Mackenzie as party leader in 1880. He failed to defeat Macdonald's Conservatives in the 1882 or 1887 elections. Blake resigned as Liberal leader in 1887, recruiting Wilfrid Laurier as his successor, and left the House of Commons of Canada in 1891.

Ireland
In the 1892 election, Blake entered the British House of Commons as an Irish Nationalist Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of South Longford in the midlands of Ireland. In 1895, he was appointed to the Royal Commission on the Financial Relations between Great Britain and Ireland, which reported in 1896. He continued to serve as MP until 1907 when he resigned following a stroke and retired to Canada.

Contributions to Canadian federalism
He is perhaps best remembered for the arguments that he made to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in favour of the Provinces in interpreting the British North America Act. In 1888, he argued the case of St. Catharines Milling v. The Queen in which the federal government was claiming the right to issue timber licenses. This speech was quoted in its entirety in the 1960 report of the Quebec Royal Commission of Inquiry on Constitutional Problems, which influenced many Quebecers, including René Lévesque:

The word federal is the key which unlocks the clauses and reveals their contents. It is the glass that enables us to discern what is written. By its light the Act must be construed ...

What then was the general scheme of this Act? First of all, as I suggest, it was to create a federal as distinguished from a legislative union, but a union composed of several existing and continuing entities. It was not the intention of Parliament to mutilate, confound and destroy the provinces mentioned in the preamble, and having from their mangled remains stewed in some legislative cauldron, to evoke by some legislative incantation absolutely new provinces into an absolutely new existence ... it was the design, I say, ... by gentle and considerate terms to preserve the vital breath and continue the political existence of the old provinces. However this may be, they were being made, as has been well said, not fractions of a unit but units of a multiple. The Dominion is the multiple and each province is a unit of that multiple ...

He won the case, and the Privy Council consistently afterwards took the side of the provinces.

Family
Edward Blake married Margaret Cronyn, the daughter of Benjamin Cronyn and Margaret Ann (Bickerstaff), in 1856. She was born in 1835 and was educated at London, Ontario and in Toronto. Mrs. Blake practiced benevolent and other useful work. She was a member of the Toronto Ladies' Educational Association and served as the Honorary President of the Canadian Branch of the McAll Association in Toronto. She also frequently accompanied her husband on his political tours. The couple had seven children, four of whom survived them. Their daughter Sophia Hume Blake married George M. Wrong and was the mother of Hume Wrong.

Archives
The personal and family papers of Edward Blake can be found at the Archives of Ontario, and the majority of these records were received on indefinite loan from the University of Toronto Library in June 1952. There are also Edward Blake archives at the University of Toronto and Library and Archives Canada.

Federal
On Mr. Blake's appointment as Minister without Portfolio, 7 November 1873:

By-Election:  On Mr. Blake's appointment as Minister of Justice, 19 May 1875:

title: Edward Blake


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Magnox

Magnox is a type of nuclear power / production reactor that was designed to run on natural uranium with graphite as the moderator and carbon dioxide gas as the heat exchange coolant. It belongs to the wider class of gas-cooled reactors. The name comes from the magnesium-aluminium alloy (called Magnesium non-oxidising), used to clad the fuel rods inside the reactor. Like most other "Generation I nuclear reactors", the Magnox was designed with the dual purpose of producing electrical power and plutonium-239 for the nascent nuclear weapons programme in Britain. The name refers specifically to the United Kingdom design but is sometimes used generically to refer to any similar reactor.

As with other plutonium-producing reactors, conserving neutrons is a key element of the design. In magnox, the neutrons are moderated in large blocks of graphite. The efficiency of graphite as a moderator allows the Magnox to run using natural uranium fuel, in contrast with the more common commercial light-water reactor which requires slightly enriched uranium. Graphite oxidizes readily in air, so the core is cooled with CO2, which is then pumped into a heat exchanger to generate steam to drive conventional steam turbine equipment for power production. The core is open on one end, so fuel elements can be added or removed while the reactor is still running.

The "dual use" capability of the Magnox design led to the UK building up a large stockpile of fuel grade/"reactor grade" plutonium, with the aid of the B205 reprocessing facility. The low-to-interim burnup feature of the reactor design would become responsible for changes to US regulatory classifications after the US–UK "Reactor-grade" plutonium detonation test of the 1960s. Despite improvements to the design in later decades as electricity generation became the primary operational aim, magnox reactors were never capable of competing with the higher efficiency and higher fuel "burnup" of pressurised water reactors.

In total, only a few dozen reactors of this type were constructed, most of them in the UK from the 1950s to the 1970s, with very few exported to other countries. The first magnox reactor to come online was Calder Hall (at the Sellafield site) in 1956, frequently regarded as the world's first commercial nuclear power station, while the last in Britain to shut down was Reactor 1 in Wylfa (on Anglesey) in 2015. , North Korea remains the only operator to continue using Magnox style reactors, at the Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. The Magnox design was superseded by the Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor, which is similarly cooled but includes changes to improve its economic performance.

Windscale
The UK's first full-scale nuclear reactor was the Windscale Pile in Sellafield. The pile was designed for the production of plutonium-239 which was bred in multi-week reactions taking place in natural uranium fuel. Under normal conditions, natural uranium is not sensitive enough to its own neutrons to maintain a chain reaction. To improve the fuel's sensitivity to neutrons, a neutron moderator is used, in this case highly purified graphite.

The reactors consisted of a huge cube of this material (the "pile") made up of many smaller blocks and drilled through horizontally to make a large number of fuel channels. Uranium fuel was placed in aluminium canisters and pushed into the channels in the front, pushing previous fuel canisters through the channel and out the back of the reactor where they fell into a pool of water. The system was designed to work at low temperatures and power levels and was air-cooled with the help of large fans.

Graphite is flammable and presents a serious safety risk. This was demonstrated on 10 October 1957 when Unit 1 of the now two-unit site caught fire. The reactor burned for three days, and massive contamination was only avoided due to the addition of filtering systems that had previously been derided as unnecessary "follies".

Magnox
As the UK nuclear establishment began to turn its attention to nuclear power, the need for more plutonium for weapons development remained acute. This led to an effort to adapt the basic Windscale design to a power-producing version that would also produce plutonium. In order to be economically useful the plant would have to run at much higher power levels, and in order to efficiently convert that power to electricity, it would have to run at higher temperatures.

At these power levels, the fire risk is amplified and air cooling is no longer appropriate. In the case of the Magnox design, this led to the use of carbon dioxide (CO2) as the coolant. There is no facility in the reactor to adjust the gas flow through the individual channels whilst at power, but gas flow was adjusted by using flow gags attached to the support strut which located into the diagrid. These gags were used to increase flow in the centre of the core and to reduce it at the periphery. Principal control over the reaction rate was provided by a number (48 at Chapelcross and Calder Hall) of boron-steel control rods which could be raised and lowered as required in vertical channels.

At higher temperatures, aluminium is no longer structurally sound, which led to the development of the magnox alloy fuel cladding. Unfortunately, magnox is increasingly reactive with increasing temperature, and the use of this material limited the operational gas temperatures to 360 C, much lower than desirable for efficient steam generation. This limit also meant that the reactors had to be very large in order to generate any given power level, which was further amplified by the use of gas for cooling, as the low thermal capacity of the fluid required very high flow rates.

The magnox fuel elements consisted of refined uranium enclosed in a loose-fitting magnox shell and then pressurized with helium. The outside of the shell was typically finned in order to improve heat exchange with the CO2. Magnox alloy is reactive with water, which means it cannot be left in a cooling pond after extraction from the reactor for extended periods. In contrast to the Windscale layout, the Magnox design used vertical fuel channels. This required the fuel shells to lock together end-to-end, or to sit one on top the other to allow them to be pulled out of the channels from the top.

Like the Windscale designs, the later Magnox reactors allowed access to the fuel channels and could be refuelled while operating. This was a key criterion for the design because its use of natural uranium leads to low burnup ratios and the requirement for frequent refuelling. For power use, the fuel canisters were left in the reactor as long as possible, while for plutonium production they were removed earlier. The complicated refuelling equipment proved to be less reliable than the reactor systems, and perhaps not advantageous overall.

The entire reactor assembly was placed in a large pressure vessel. Due to the size of the pile, only the reactor core itself was placed within the steel pressure assembly, which was then surrounded by a concrete confinement building (or "biological shield"). As there was no water in the core, and thus no possibility of a steam explosion, the building was able to tightly wrap the pressure vessel, which helped reduce construction costs. In order to keep the size of the confinement building down, the early Magnox designs placed the heat exchanger for the CO2 gas outside the dome, connected through piping. Although there were strengths with this approach in that maintenance and access was generally more straightforward, the major weakness was the radiation 'shine' emitted particularly from the unshielded top duct.

The Magnox design was an evolution and never truly finalised, and later units differ considerably from earlier ones. As neutron fluxes increased in order to improve power densities problems with neutron embrittlement were encountered, particularly at low temperatures. Later units at Oldbury and Wylfa replaced the steel pressure vessels with prestressed concrete versions which also contained the heat exchangers and steam plant. Working pressure varies from 6.9 to 19.35bar for the steel vessels, and 24.8 and 27bar for the two concrete designs.

No British construction company at the time was large enough to build all the power stations, so various competing consortiums were involved, adding to the differences between the stations; for example, nearly every power station used a different design of Magnox fuel element. Most of the Magnox builds suffered time overruns and cost escalation.

For the initial start up of the reactor neutron sources were located within the core to provide sufficient neutrons to initiate the nuclear reaction. Other aspects of the design included the use of flux shaping or flattening bars or controls rods to even out (to some extent) the neutron flux density across the core. If not used, the flux in the centre would be very high relative to the outer areas leading to excessive central temperatures and lower power output limited by the temperature of the central areas. Each fuel channel would have several elements stacked one upon another to form a stringer. This required the presence of a latching mechanism to allow the stack to be withdrawn and handled. This caused some problems as the Nimonic springs used contained cobalt, which became irradiated giving high gamma level when removed from the reactor. Additionally, thermocouples were attached to some elements and needed to be removed on fuel discharge from the reactor.

AGR
The "dual use" nature of the Magnox design leads to design compromises that limit its economic performance. As the Magnox design was being rolled out, work was already underway on the Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR) with the explicit intention of making the system more economical. Primary among the changes was the decision to run the reactor at much higher temperatures, about 650 C, which would greatly improve the efficiency when running the power-extracting steam turbines. This was too hot for the magnox alloy, and the AGR originally intended to use a new beryllium-based cladding, but this proved too brittle. This was replaced by a stainless steel cladding, but this absorbed enough neutrons to affect criticality, and in turn required the design to operate on slightly enriched uranium rather than the Magnox's natural uranium, driving up fuel costs. Ultimately the economics of the system proved little better than Magnox. Former Treasury Economic Advisor, David Henderson, described the AGR programme as one of the two most costly British government-sponsored project errors, alongside Concorde.

Technical information
Source:

Economics
The first Magnox reactors at Calder Hall were designed principally to produce plutonium for nuclear weapons. The production of plutonium from uranium by irradiation in a pile generates large quantities of heat which must be disposed of, and so generating steam from this heat, which could be used in a turbine to generate electricity, or as process heat in the nearby Windscale works, was seen as a kind of "free" by-product of an essential process.

The Calder Hall reactors had low efficiency by today's standards, only 18.8%.

The British government decided in 1957 that electricity generation by nuclear power would be promoted, and that there would be a building programme to achieve 5,000 to 6,000MWe capacity by 1965, a quarter of UK's generating needs. Although Sir John Cockcroft had advised the government that electricity generated by nuclear power would be more expensive than that from coal, the government decided that nuclear power stations as alternatives to coal-fired power stations would be useful to reduce the bargaining power of the coal miners' unions, and so decided to go ahead. In 1960 a government white paper scaled back the building programme to 3,000MWe, acknowledging that coal generation was 25% cheaper. A government statement to the House of Commons in 1963 stated that nuclear generation was more than twice as expensive as coal. The "plutonium credit" which assigned a value to the plutonium produced was used to improve the economic case, although the operators of the power stations were never paid this credit.

Once removed from the reactor, the used fuel elements are stored in cooling ponds (with the exception of Wylfa which has dry stores in a carbon dioxide atmosphere) where the decay heat is transferred to the pond water, and then removed by the pond water circulation, cooling and filtration system. The fact that fuel elements can only be stored for a limited period in water before the Magnox cladding deteriorates, and must therefore inevitably be reprocessed, added to the costs of the Magnox programme.

Later reviews criticised the continuing development project by project instead of standardisation on the most economical design, and for persisting with the development of a reactor which achieved only two export orders.

A retrospective evaluation of costs, using a low 5% discount rate on capital, estimated Magnox electricity costs were nearly 50% higher than coal power stations would have provided.

Safety
The Magnox reactors were considered at the time to have a considerable degree of inherent safety because of their simple design, low power density, and gas coolant. Because of this they were not provided with secondary containment features. A safety design principle at the time was that of the "maximum credible accident", and the assumption was made that if the plant were designed to withstand that, then all other lesser but similar events would be encompassed. Loss of coolant accidents (at least those considered in the design) would not cause large-scale fuel failure as the Magnox cladding would retain the bulk of the radioactive material, assuming the reactor was rapidly shutdown (a SCRAM), because the decay heat could be removed by natural circulation of air. As the coolant is already a gas, explosive pressure buildup from boiling is not a risk, as happened in the catastrophic steam explosion at the Chernobyl accident. Failure of the reactor shutdown system to rapidly shut down the reactor, or failure of natural circulation, was not considered in the design. In 1967 Chapelcross experienced a fuel melt due to restricted gas flow in an individual channel and, although this was dealt with by the station crew without major incident, this event had not been designed or planned for, and the radioactivity released was greater than anticipated during the station design.

Despite the belief in their inherently safe design, it was decided that the Magnox stations would not be built in heavily populated areas. The positioning constraint decided upon was that any 10-degree sector would have a population less than 500 within 1.5 mi, 10,000 within 5 mi and 100,000 within 10 mi. In addition population around the site in all directions would be less than six times the 10-degree limits. Planning permission constraints would be used to prevent any large growth of population within five miles.

In the older steel pressure vessel design, boilers and gas ducting are outside the concrete biological shield. Consequently, this design emits a significant amount of direct gamma and neutron radiation, termed direct "shine", from the reactors. For example, the most exposed members of the public living near Dungeness Magnox reactor in 2002 received 0.56mSv, over half the International Commission on Radiological Protection recommended maximum radiation dose limit for the public, from direct "shine" alone. The doses from the Oldbury and Wylfa reactors, which have concrete pressure vessels which encapsulate the complete gas circuit, are much lower.

Reactors built
In all, 11 power stations totalling 26 units were built in the United Kingdom where the design originated. In addition, one was exported to Tōkai in Japan and another to Latina in Italy. North Korea also developed their own Magnox reactors, based on the UK design which was made public at an Atoms for Peace conference.

The first Magnox power station, Calder Hall, was the world's first nuclear power station to generate electrical power on an industrial scale (a power station in Obninsk, Russia started supplying the grid in very small non-commercial quantities on 1 December 1954). The first connection to the grid was on 27 August 1956, and the plant was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 17 October 1956. When the station closed on 31 March 2003, the first reactor had been in use for nearly 47 years.

The first two stations (Calder Hall and Chapelcross) were originally owned by the UKAEA and primarily used in their early life to produce weapons-grade plutonium, with two fuel loads per year. From 1964 they were mainly used on commercial fuel cycles and in April 1995 the UK Government announced that all production of plutonium for weapons purposes had ceased.

The later and larger units were owned by the CEGB and operated on commercial fuel cycles. However Hinkley Point A and two other stations were modified so that weapons-grade plutonium could be extracted for military purposes should the need arise.

Derating to reduce corrosion
In early operation it was found that there was significant oxidation of mild steel components by the high temperature carbon dioxide coolant, requiring a reduction in operating temperature and power output. For example, the Latina reactor was derated in 1969 by 24%, from 210MWe to 160MWe, by the reduction of operating temperature from 390 to 360 °C.

Last operating Magnox reactor
The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) announced on 30 December 2015 that Wylfa Unit 1 – the world's last operating Magnox reactor – was closed. The unit had generated electricity for five years longer than originally planned. Two units at Wylfa were both scheduled to shut down at the end of 2012, but the NDA decided to shut down Unit 2 in April 2012 so that Unit 1 could continue operating in order to fully utilize existing stocks of fuel, which was no longer being manufactured.

The small 5MWe experimental reactor, based on the Magnox design, at Yongbyon in North Korea, continues to operate.

Magnox alloy
Magnox is also the name of an alloy—mainly of magnesium with small amounts of aluminium and other metals—used in cladding unenriched uranium metal fuel with a non-oxidising covering to contain fission products. Magnox is short for Magnesium non-oxidising. This material has the advantage of a low neutron capture cross-section, but has two major disadvantages:
 * It limits the maximum temperature, and hence the thermal efficiency, of the plant.
 * It reacts with water, preventing long-term storage of spent fuel under water.

Magnox fuel incorporated cooling fins to provide maximum heat transfer despite low operating temperatures, making it expensive to produce. While the use of uranium metal rather than oxide made reprocessing more straightforward and therefore cheaper, the need to reprocess fuel a short time after removal from the reactor meant that the fission product hazard was severe. Expensive remote handling facilities were required to address this danger.

Magnox plants
The term magnox may also loosely refer to:
 * Three North Korean reactors, all based on the declassified blueprints of the Calder Hall Magnox reactors:
 * A small 5 MWe experimental reactor at Yongbyon, operated from 1986 to 1994, and restarted in 2003. Plutonium from this reactor's spent fuel has been used in the North Korea nuclear weapons program.
 * A 50 MWe reactor, also at Yongbyon, whose construction commenced in 1985 but was never finished in accord with the 1994 U.S.-North Korea Agreed Framework.
 * A 200 MWe reactor at Taechon, construction of which also halted in 1994.
 * Nine UNGG power reactors built in France, all now shut down. These were carbon dioxide-cooled, graphite reactors with natural uranium metal fuel, very similar in design and purpose to the British Magnox reactors except that the fuel cladding was magnesium-zirconium alloy and that the bars were disposed horizontally (instead of vertically for Magnox).

Decommissioning
The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) is responsible for the decommissioning of the UK Magnox power plants, at an estimated cost of £12.6billion. There has been debate about whether a 25 or 100-year decommissioning strategy should be adopted. After 80years short-lifetime radioactive material in the defuelled core would have decayed to the point that human access to the reactor structure would be possible, easing dismantling work. A shorter decommissioning strategy would require a robotic core dismantling technique. The current approximately 100-year decommissioning plan is called Safestore. A 130-year Deferred Safestore Strategy was also considered, with an estimated cost saving of £1.4 billion, but not selected.

In addition the Sellafield site which, amongst other activities, reprocessed spent Magnox fuel, has an estimated decommissioning cost of £31.5billion. Magnox fuel was produced at Springfields near Preston; estimated decommissioning cost is £371million. The total cost of decommissioning Magnox activities is likely to exceed £20billion, averaging about £2billion per productive reactor site.

Calder Hall was opened in 1956 as the world's first commercial nuclear power station, and is a significant part of the UK's industrial heritage. The NDA is considering whether to preserve Calder Hall Reactor 1 as a museum site.

All the UK's Magnox reactor sites (apart from Calder Hall) are operated by Magnox Ltd, a subsidiary of the NDA.

Reactor Sites Management Company (RSMC), a NDA Site Licence Company (SLC), originally held the contract to manage Magnox Ltd on behalf of the NDA. In 2007, RSMC was acquired by American nuclear fuel cycle service provider EnergySolutions from British Nuclear Fuels.

On 1 October 2008, Magnox Electric Ltd separated into two nuclear licensed companies, Magnox North Ltd and Magnox South Ltd.

Magnox North sites
 * Chapelcross
 * Hunterston A
 * Oldbury
 * Trawsfynydd
 * Wylfa

Magnox South sites
 * Berkeley
 * Bradwell
 * Dungeness A
 * Hinkley Point A

In January 2011 Magnox North Ltd and Magnox South Ltd recombined as Magnox Ltd. Following procurement and management issues with the contract, Magnox Ltd will become a subsidiary of the NDA in September 2019.

title: Magnox


text:
Kazuo Matsui

Kazuo Matsui (松井 稼頭央) is a Japanese former professional baseball player who played as a shortstop and is the current manager of the Saitama Seibu Lions. He is a switch-hitter.

Matsui signed with the New York Mets on December 17, 2003, becoming the first Japanese infielder to sign with a Major League Baseball team.

Early life
He graduated from the PL Academy Senior High School in Osaka, a school nationally renowned for its baseball program. The only appearance Matsui made at the National High School Baseball Championship Tournament was in his second year at PL Academy. Though Matsui was considered to be the PL Academy's ace starting pitcher, injuries limited him to playing only in the quarter-final game, where he allowed two runs during 2$2⁄3$ innings.

Seibu Lions
Matsui was chosen third overall by the Seibu Lions of Nippon Professional Baseball's Pacific League in the 1994 Japanese League Draft, where he would wear number 32. In 1996, his third season, he became a regular starter as a shortstop and finished the season second in stolen bases (50). Prior to the 1997 season, he would change his number to 7. The 1997 season saw him reach a .300 batting average for the first time and lead the league in stolen bases (62) to help his team win the Pacific League Title. During the 1997 All-Star Game he set a new All-Star Game record by stealing four bases and was chosen the game MVP. Matsui would lead the Pacific League in stolen bases for two more consecutive seasons.

Prior to joining MLB, Matsui would only play for the Seibu Lions, playing there from 1995 to 2003. He enjoyed success as a seven-time Best Nine award winner (1997–2003). One of his best years was 2002, when he had a .332 batting average with 36 home runs, 87 RBI, 193 hits, 119 runs, 46 doubles, 6 triples and 33 stolen bases. He received four Gold Glove awards while in Japan (equivalent of Rawlings Gold Glove Award in MLB) during the 1997, 1998, 2002 and 2003 seasons. He also won a Nippon Professional Baseball MVP award in Japan during the 1998 season. Although Matsui experienced winning the Pacific League Title a total of four times (1994, 1997, 1998, 2002), his team never won the Japanese Series.

New York Mets
With the Mets, Matsui hit home runs in his first plate appearance in each of the 2004, 2005, and 2006 seasons. According to the Elias Sports Bureau, he is the only Major League player to hit a home run in his first plate appearance of his first three seasons. The only other player to hit a home run in even his first at-bat of three consecutive seasons was Ken Griffey Jr. In 2004, Matsui homered on the first pitch from Russ Ortiz of the Atlanta Braves leading off the first inning, in 2005, on the sixth pitch from Paul Wilson of the Cincinnati Reds with one out in the first inning, and in 2006, on the fourth pitch from Jake Peavy of the San Diego Padres with no outs in the top of the third. The third home run is notable for being an inside-the-park home run. He slid into home as his former Met teammate Mike Piazza was blocking the plate.

Matsui played 114 games in 2004 (the most games he has played so far in his MLB career). He hit .272 with 125 hits, 32 doubles, 2 triples, 7 home runs, 44 RBI, 65 runs, 14 stolen bases, 5 sacrifice hits, 40 walks and 182 total bases. His hits, doubles, home runs, RBI, walks, and total bases currently remain career highs.

Based on his performance in Japan, Matsui was expected to excel defensively as a shortstop with the Mets. However, in 2004, Matsui committed many errors and misjudgments at the position, and was made the second baseman for 2005. He was also plagued by injuries, which were not a problem for him in Japan. His offensive production was also much lower than anticipated. By mid-2005, he was no longer an everyday player, sharing time at second base with Miguel Cairo and Marlon Anderson. Matsui finished the season batting .255 with three home runs and 24 RBI.

Matsui began the 2006 season by hitting .200 (26-for-130) with 10 runs, six doubles, one home run and seven RBI. The one home run came on an inside-the-park home run against the San Diego Padres on April 20, 2006. Matsui became the first player since 1975 to hit an inside-the-park home run as his first home run of the season.

Colorado Rockies
On June 9, 2006, Matsui was traded to the Colorado Rockies for Eli Marrero. Colorado asked Matsui to waive certain clauses in his contract to which he agreed. Once complete, Matsui was sent down to play with the Rockies' Triple-A affiliate, the Colorado Springs Sky Sox for about two and a half months. Matsui made his Rockies debut against the Milwaukee Brewers on August 23, 2006, starting at shortstop in place of Clint Barmes. Matsui would soon shift to second base. Through 2006 he improved from .200/.235/.269 (AVG/OBP/SLG) in his 130 at bats as a Met, to hitting .345/.392/.504 in 113 at bats as a member of the Rockies.

His stint in New York was punctuated with pronounced booing from Mets fans in response to his failure to validate high expectations gleaned from his (positionally) prodigious Japanese numbers.

Matsui re-signed with the Colorado Rockies for a one-year, $1.5M contract for 2007 and changed his number to 7, a number he wore in Japan.

Matsui's performance improved during the 2007 season with the Rockies, as he hit .288, which was higher than his career average. He had career highs in runs (84), triples (6), stolen bases (32) and sacrifice hits (8) in 2007. Matsui was also first in the majors in scoring percentage (47%) when reaching base.

Matsui and the Rockies clinched the 2007 National League wild card game by winning a one-game regular season playoff matchup against the San Diego Padres, propelling Colorado into their second playoff appearance in club history.

Matsui hit his first career grand slam during the second game of the NLDS against the Philadelphia Phillies. It came with the Rockies down 3–2 with two outs in the top of the 4th inning. The grand slam gave the Rockies a lead in which they would never relinquish. Colorado won the game, 10–5. Matsui became only the third player in MLB history to have his first career grand slam occur in the postseason rather than the regular season. He also became the first Japanese player to hit a grand slam in the postseason. Along with the grand slam, Matsui hit a triple and a double during game two of the NLDS, falling a single short of becoming the only player in history to hit a cycle during the postseason. However, Matsui did become only the second player ever (Lou Brock in game four of the 1968 World Series was the first) to hit a double, triple and home run in a postseason game.

Houston Astros
On December 1, 2007, Matsui signed a three-year, $16.5-million deal with the Houston Astros.

Prior to Opening Day, Matsui underwent surgery to repair an anal fissure. He missed the first $2 1/2$ weeks of the season. Matsui made his 2008 debut for the Astros on April 18. He posted a .293 batting average and a .354 on-base percentage with 20 stolen bases on the season.

Matsui still had injury problems but managed to keep the 2nd baseman starting position. Matsui joined the exclusive list of baseball players with 2,000 hits or more lifetime. He has hit safely over 2,000 times in his Japanese career and in the MLB combined.

In 2009, he led all major league starting second basemen in range factor, at 5.33.

Matsui was released by the Houston Astros on May 19, 2010. In 71 at bats, Matsui managed only a .141 batting average with 1 RBI and 1 stolen base.

Colorado Rockies
Following his release he signed a minor league deal with the Colorado Rockies. He remained in the Rockies' minor league system for the remainder of the season.

Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles
After the 2010 season, Matsui signed with the Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles of Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB).

Matsui would win the 2013 Japan Series with the Eagles organization.

Saitama Seibu Lions
On November 17, 2017, Matsui signed with the Saitama Seibu Lions of Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB).

On September 27, 2018, he announced his retirement at completion of the season.

Coaching career
On October 13, 2022, Matsui was hired as the manager of the Saitama Seibu Lions, filling the role that was left vacant after Hatsuhiko Tsuji stepped down from the position.

International career
He was selected to the Japan national baseball team at the 2003 Asian Baseball Championship and 2013 World Baseball Classic.

title: Kazuo Matsui


text:
International waters

The terms international waters or transboundary waters apply where any of the following types of bodies of water (or their drainage basins) transcend international boundaries: oceans, large marine ecosystems, enclosed or semi-enclosed regional seas and estuaries, rivers, lakes, groundwater systems (aquifers), and wetlands.

"International waters" is not a defined term in international law. It is an informal term, which sometimes refers to waters beyond the "territorial sea" of any country. In other words, "international waters" is sometimes used as an informal synonym for the more formal term "high seas", which under the doctrine of mare liberum (Latin for "freedom of the seas"), do not belong to any state's jurisdiction. As such, states have the right to fishing, navigation, overflight, laying cables and pipelines, as well as scientific research.

The Convention on the High Seas, signed in 1958, which has 63 signatories, defined "high seas" to mean "all parts of the sea that are not included in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State" and where "no State may validly purport to subject any part of them to its sovereignty." The Convention on the High Seas was used as a foundation for the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), signed in 1982, which recognized exclusive economic zones extending 200 nmi from the baseline, where coastal states have sovereign rights to the water column and sea floor as well as the natural resources found there.

The high seas make up 50% of the surface area of the planet and cover over two-thirds of the ocean.

Ships sailing the high seas are generally under the jurisdiction of the flag state (if there is one); however, when a ship is involved in certain criminal acts, such as piracy, any nation can exercise jurisdiction under the doctrine of universal jurisdiction. International waters can be contrasted with internal waters, territorial waters and exclusive economic zones.

UNCLOS also contains, in its part XII, special provisions for the protection of the marine environment, which, in certain cases, allow port States to exercise extraterritorial jurisdiction over foreign ships on the high seas if they violate international environmental rules (adopted by the IMO), such as the MARPOL Convention.

International waterways

Several international treaties have established freedom of navigation on semi-enclosed seas.

 * The Copenhagen Convention of 1857 opened access to the Baltic Sea by abolishing the Sound Dues and making the Danish straits an international waterway free to all commercial shipping. Separately, the Royal Ordinance of 1999 regulates the access of foreign warships to Danish waters.
 * Several conventions have opened the Bosphorus and Dardanelles to shipping. The latest, the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits, maintains the straits' status as an international waterway.

Other international treaties have opened up rivers, which are not traditionally international waterways.

 * The Río de la Plata basin, including the rivers Paraná, Uruguay and Paraguay, is legally open for all international commercial ships without restriction, it notably gives sea access to landlocked Paraguay and Bolivia.
 * The Danube River is an international waterway so that Germany and Croatia, as well as landlocked Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Serbia and Moldova can have secure access to the Black Sea.

Disputes over international waters

Current unresolved disputes over whether particular waters are "International waters" include:
 * Arctic Ocean: While Canada, Denmark, Russia and Norway all regard parts of the Arctic seas as national waters or internal waters, most European Union countries and the United States officially regard the whole region as international waters. The Northwest Passage through the Arctic Archipelago is one of the more prominent examples, with Canada claiming it as internal waters, while the United States and the European Union considers it an international strait.
 * Southern Ocean: Australian claim to an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in Antarctica is challenged by Japan.
 * Okinotorishima: Japanese claim to an EEZ around Okinotorishima is challenged by China, South Korea, and Taiwan.
 * South China Sea: Disputes exist between Brunei, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam.

International waters agreements
{{legend|#90ff90|full national jurisdiction and sovereignty}} {{legend|yellow|restrictions on national jurisdiction and sovereignty}} {{legend|#ff9090|international jurisdiction per common heritage of mankind}}

Global agreements

 * International Freshwater Treaties Database (freshwater only).
 * The Yearbook of International Cooperation on Environment and Development profiles agreements regarding the Marine Environment, Marine Living Resources and Freshwater Resources.
 * 1972 London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention 1972).
 * 1973 London International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 MARPOL
 * 1982 United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea, United Nations; especially parts XII–XIV).
 * 1997 United Nations Convention on the Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (CIW) – not ratified.
 * Transboundary Groundwater Treaty, Bellagio Draft – proposed, but not signed.
 * Other global conventions and treaties with implications for International Waters:
 * 1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
 * 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity.

Regional agreements

At least ten conventions are included within the Regional Seas Program of UNEP, including:
 * 1) the Atlantic Coast of West and Central Africa
 * 2) the North-East Pacific (Antigua Convention)
 * 3) the Mediterranean (Barcelona Convention)
 * 4) the wider Caribbean (Cartagena Convention)
 * 5) the South-East Pacific
 * 6) the South Pacific (Nouméa Convention)
 * 7) the East African seaboard
 * 8) the Kuwait region (Kuwait Convention)
 * 9) the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden (Jeddah Convention)

Addressing regional freshwater issues is the 1992 Helsinki Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (UNECE/Helsinki Water Convention)

Water-body-specific agreements

 * Baltic Sea (Helsinki Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, 1992)
 * Black Sea (Bucharest Convention)
 * Caspian Sea (Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea)
 * Lake Tanganyika (Convention for the Sustainable Management of Lake Tanganyika)

Freshwater institutions

 * The UNESCO International Hydrological Programme (IHP)
 * The International Joint Commission between Canada and United States (IJC-CMI)
 * The International Network of Basin Organizations (INBO)
 * The International Shared Aquifer Resource Management project
 * The International Water Boundary Commission (US Section) between Mexico and United States
 * The International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
 * The IUCN Water and Nature Initiative (WANI)

Marine institutions

 * The International Maritime Organization (IMO)
 * The International Seabed Authority
 * The International Whaling Commission
 * The UNEP Regional Seas Programme
 * The UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC)
 * The International Ocean Institute
 * The IUCN Global Marine and Polar Programme (GMPP)

title: International waters


text:
User:A-research~enwiki

Hello. Welcome to my page.

I'm Japanese.

Joined Wikipedia on December 8, 2003

My main interests are business, accounting, sports, music, motorcycles and foreign countries.

title: User:A-research~enwiki


text:
Talk:Ops

Untitled

 * Which date for the Opalia, December 9 (Wikipedia), or December 19?

By Pip Wilson, Wilson's Almanac http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com

William Smith http://www.ku.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Opalia.html says December 19:

“OPA´LIA, a Roman festival in honour of Opis, which was celebrated on the 14th day before the Calends of January (Dec. 19th), being the third day of the Saturnalia, which was also originally celebrated on the same day, when only one day was devoted to the latter festival. It was believed that Opis was the wife of Saturnus, and for this reason the festivals were celebrated at the same time (Macrob. Sat. i.10 ; Varr. de Ling. Lat. vi.22, ed. Müller; Festus, s.v. Opalia). The worshippers of Opis paid their vows sitting, and touched the earth on purpose, of which she was the goddess (Macrob. l.c.).”

as does Roman Religion and Mythology http://sights.seindal.dk/sight/314_Opalia.html:

“Ops was an ancient god of the Sabines, from where she passed to the Romans. She was associated with Saturn, and often identified with the Greek goddess Rhea. The goddess Juno was sometimes associated with Ops as Juno Opigena. As Ops Consiva, Ops the Sower, she protected the sowing of crops. She was also called Ops Opifera, the bringer of help. Ops had an ancient sanctuary in the Regia in the Forum Romanum, and there was a Temple of Ops on the Capitoline Hill. She was celebrated at the Opalia on December 19, and at the Opiconsivia on August 25.”

As does Biblioteca Arcana http://www.cs.utk.edu/~mclennan/BA/SF/WinSol.html#consopalia “Consualia and Opalia (Rom., Dec. 15 & 19; ancient: XVIII & XIV Kal. Jan.) These festivals are essentially the same as the summer Consualia and Opiconsivia (Aug. 21 & 25, q.v.). We see here a pattern: a festival for Consus (God of the Storage-bin) followed in four days by a festival for Ops (Goddess of Plenty). Between these, there was, in the summer on Aug. 23, another festival for Ops (the wife of Saturn) corresponding to the Saturnalia on Dec. 17. [SFR 177-81, 205]”

and also Roman Calendar http://www.clubs.psu.edu/up/aegsa/rome/dec16.htm#dec19:

“This day is sacred to Ops (Cybele or Rhea), the mother goddess. She was the wife of Cronus and the mother of Zeus. her priests were called the Corybantes.”

____________________________________________________________

tag explanation
This article contains good info and is written with more sophistication and understanding than many other articles on Roman deities. But here are some things that struck me:

Thanks. Cynwolfe (talk) 14:09, 26 February 2010 (UTC)
 * The introduction is too short and scant.
 * More secondary sources are needed; these are abundant for this goddess.
 * Inline citations are needed.
 * The article needs to be divided into sections; for instance, her mythological genealogy in one, and her real-world cult worship in another. The Saturnalia is not mentioned; her festival was a significant date. She is of far greater importance in religion than in myth (of which there is very little other than her familial connections); she has little if any narrative (which is what myth is), and is known primarily because she was an active part of cult and ritual.
 * If she was of Sabine origin (she appears on Varro's list of Sabine deities with altars in Rome), I wonder whether it's correct to call her a personification in the same sense as Pietas and similar abstractions.

Describing gods as Sabine
There is a discussion at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Classical Greece and Rome which relates to recent edits here and in other articles. NebY (talk) 18:29, 29 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ops


text:
Ajit Jogi

Ajit Pramod Kumar Jogi (29 April 1946 – 29 May 2020) was an Indian politician, who has served as the 1st Chief Minister of Chhattisgarh from 2000 to 2003 and a member of the Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly from Marwahi from 2018 to 2020 and from 2001 to 2013. He also served as a member of Lok Sabha from Mahasamund from 2004 to 2008 and from Raigarh from 1998 to 1999 and member of Rajya Sabha from Madhya Pradesh from 1986 to 1998 and district collector of Raipur in Office from 1978 to 1981. He was a member of Indian National Congress till 2016 and the founder of the political party named Janta Congress Chhattisgarh and the 1st President of the party from 2016 till he died in 2020.

Education
Jogi studied Mechanical Engineering at Maulana Azad College of Technology (MACT), Bhopal. He was college topper and hence won the University Gold Medal in 1968. He studied law at the Faculty of Law, University of Delhi. After having worked briefly as a lecturer at the National Institute of Technology, Raipur, he was selected for two of the most coveted civil services of India; the Indian Police Service and the Indian Administrative Service. He was selected for the Indian Police Service aged 22. Two years later he was selected for Indian Administrative Service (IAS). He was posted in his home state, Madhya Pradesh as an IAS officer.

Personal life
He was born on April 29, 1946, at Gaurela in Marwahi district of Chhattisgarh in a Christian Family. He is survived by wife Renu Jogi who is MLA from Kota constituency and son Amit Jogi who is a former MLA. He was a gold medalist in Mechanical Engineering. He began his professional career as a lecturer in one of the engineering colleges of Raipur city. After completion of his IAS training he was deputed at Raipur as District Magistrate. He was chosen by then Chief Minister Prakash Chandra Sethi to be collector for Sidhi district. He later served as the collector of Shahdol, Raipur and Indore districts. He was considered a bright officer in his role as an IAS officer. He grasped the issues quickly which enabled him to guide his political seniors correctly, as he had a good knowledge on rules and regulations. He was known for having good memory. He could quote the sections from acts at appropriate moments. Even his juniors in court work used to emulate his work. In year 2000 his daughter Anusha committed suicide. In year 2004, he met with a car crash while campaigning for the Lok Sabha elections in Mahasamund, which left him paralysed from waist downwards. However he kept himself physically active for close to 16 years and remained active in politics. During his last days he was working on his autobiography.

Political career
In the course of his professional work in Sidhi district, he was introduced to Arjun Singh, a prominent politician from Madhya Pradesh, who later became his mentor in politics. When Arjun Singh became Chief Minister in 1980, he appointed Ajit Jogi as the collector for Raipur and later that of Indore. Ajit Jogi was introduced couple of times by Arjun Singh to Rajiv Gandhi, who was President of Congress Party, who took special interest in him and a guiding factor for him to quit professional service to enter politics. He quit the civil services in 1986 and joined Indian National Congress party. Later he became member of Rajya Sabha aged 40. He was nominated for the second time too for Rajya Sabha in year 1992, during Prime Ministership of Late P. V. Narasimha Rao. However, he rose to prominence after creation of state Chhattisgarh from the state of Madhya Pradesh in November 2000, when he was chosen to be its first Chief Minister. However BJP won the state's maiden elections held in December 2003, and Ajit Jogi's Congress government was unseated. Though BJP retained power by winning elections in year 2008 and 2013, Ajit Jogi retained his prominence in State Congress party. In 1998, he contested the Lok Sabha elections from Raigarh, a constituency reserve for members of Scheduled Tribe and won. However, he lost the Lok Sabha elections in year 1999 from Shahdol. In year 2000, Chhattisgarh was carved out of Madhya Pradesh, and Sonia Gandhi as President of Congress, chose him as Chief Minister of the newly carved state. Though he did not have political experience which was considered a limitation, his immense experience as Government servant and intelligence made him comfortable in the role and adjust easily. As Chief Minister he had complete grip on state affairs. Ajit Jogi was a unique person who combined politics in administration and administration in politics in his role of governing the state. As the decision making was centralised with him, ministers had little work. His bureaucrats used to take important decisions regarding affairs of the state. However the elections in November 2003 proved disappointing for him. He had an immense popularity in Satnami Community, a powerful Scheduled Caste group in Chhattisgarh. In 2016, he floated the Janata Congress Chhattisgarh (JCC), after appealing to the Congress high command. In 2018, his party tied up with the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), for the Assembly elections. He is known to have a new form of politics, one that invoked Chhattisgarh pride and sub-nationalism. Even after near-fatal accident in a car crash in 2004 while campaigning for Lok sabha elections from Mahasamund which made him paralysed from waist downwards, Jogi contested assembly election and won against his ex-party colleague Vidya Charan Shukla from BJP.

2014 Lok Sabha election campaign
During the run-up to the 2014 Lok Sabha elections for the Mahasamund seat, eleven independent candidates filed their nominations in the name of Chandu Lal Sahu. Ajit Jogi was representing Indian National Congress, his main contender was Chandu Lal Sahu from the BJP. Sahu ultimately won the election for the Mahasamund seat but only by small margin of 133 votes and Jogi was accused of creating 11 namesakes similar to his BJP rival, as independents, to confuse voters.

Own party
The Janta Congress Chhattisgarh political party was founded by Jogi, after he and his son Amit were expelled from the Indian National Congress due to anti-party activities as well as sabotaging Antagarh by-poll elections. Amit was expelled for six years.

Jogi launched a party in Thathapur village of Kawardha district and directly challenged Chief Minister of Chhattisgarh Raman Singh.

In February 2018, Jogi announced that he would contest the election from Rajnandgaon, and after some time he also announced that he would contest the election from Marwahi. On 29 April Jogi gathered more than 72000 people for rally on his birthday.

Positions held

 * Jogi served as a District collector of Indore during 1981–85
 * 1986–87 Member, All India Congress Committee (AICC) on welfare of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
 * 1986–1998 Member, Rajya Sabha (two terms)
 * 1987–1989 General secretary, Pradesh-Congress Committee, Madhya Pradesh and also, member of committees on Public Undertakings, Industries, and Railways.
 * 1989 Central Observer of the Indian National Congress for elections to Lok Sabha from constituencies in Manipur.
 * 1995 Central Observer of the Indian National Congress for elections to Sikkim Assembly.
 * 1995-96 Chairman of Committees on Science and Technology and Environment and Forests
 * 1996 Member, Core group, AICC Parliamentary elections (Lok Sabha)
 * 1996 Indian Delegation to the United Nations for the 50th Anniversary Celebrations, New York.
 * 1997 Observer, Delhi Pradesh Congress Committee Elections. Member, AICC. Member of committees on Transport and Tourism, Rural and Urban Development, Consultative Committee, Ministry of Coal, Consultative Committee, Ministry of Energy, Public Accounts Committee, Convenor, Sub-Committee on Indirect Taxes, Panel of vice-chairmen, Rajya Sabha
 * 1997 Indian Delegation to 98th IPU Conference, Cairo
 * 1998 Elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) to the 12th Lok Sabha for the Raigarh constituency in Chhattisgarh
 * 1998–2000 Spokesman, AICC, Whip, Congress Parliamentary Party, Working President, Madhya Pradesh Congress Committee
 * 1998–99 Member, Committee on Human Resource Development and its Sub-Committee-II on Medical Education, Committee on Coal, Consultative Committee, Ministry of Coal
 * 2000–2003 Chief Minister of Chhattisgarh
 * 2004–2008 MP in the 14th Lok Sabha for Mahasamund, Chhattisgarh
 * 2008– Member of the Legislative Assembly of Chhattisgarh, representing the Marwahi constituency

Controversies
In June 2007, Jogi and his son were arrested in connection with the murder of Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) treasurer Ram Avtar Jaggi, who was shot dead in June 2003. However, after five years of the registering of a case against him, Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) based on an opinion of then Additional Solicitor General of India (ASG) Gopal Subramanian said that Jogi could not be prosecuted under any law. However the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) alleged that the Congress led UPA government misused the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) to protect Jogi.

On 6 June 2016, Jogi announced he was breaking his affiliation with Indian National Congress at a political gathering in Chhattisgarh.

In August 2019, a high-level judicial committee dismissed Jogi's claim of belonging to a Scheduled Tribe (ST) and cancelled all his caste certificates. Jogi was booked under Indian Penal Code sections 420 (cheating), 467 (forgery of valuable security), 468 (forgery for purpose of cheating) and 471 (using as genuine a forged document or electronic record). Additionally, Jogi was accused of cheating and forgery in connection with the declaration in a poll affidavit submitted by him during the 2013 Assembly elections. Facing a first information report (FIR) and arrests in the fake caste certificate case, Jogi was admitted to a private hospital in Delhi-NCR after he complained of breathing problem.

Death
Jogi died in the afternoon of Friday, 29 May 2020, aged 74. His son, Amit Jogi, confirmed the news on his official Twitter page. Jogi was admitted to hospital after a heart attack, which was caused by a tamarind seed stuck in his throat. Since he was a Christian, he was laid to rest at a cemetery at Jyotipur area in Gaurela town of GPM district in Chhattisgarh.

title: Ajit Jogi


text:
Heinrich Hertel

Heinrich Hertel (13 November 1901 in Düsseldorf – 5 December 1982) was a German aeronautical engineer.

After graduating as an engineer from Technische Hochschule München (now Technical University Munich), he joined the Junkers company in 1926. In 1932, he was recruited by Ernst Heinkel and two years later was made the Technical Director of the Heinkel company — within which Siegfried and Walter Günter were already well-established as top engineers — where he oversaw many projects including the Heinkel He 100 and He 111.

In May 1939 he returned to the board of directors at Junkers where he was closely connected with the development of the Junkers Ju 288 and Ju 248. In February 1945, he also worked on a project of the Dornier Do 635, one of the twin boom fighter aircraft developed from Dornier Do 335 but the project was cancelled in 1945.

After World War II, Hertel worked in France before returning to Germany in 1950 to teach aeronautics in Berlin. From 1959 until his retirement in 1977 he worked as a technical consultant for Focke-Wulf in Bremen.

title: Heinrich Hertel


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Wangdue Phodrang District

Wangdue Phodrang District (Dzongkha: དབང་འདུས་ཕོ་བྲང་རྫོང་ཁག་; Wylie: Dbang-'dus Pho-brang rdzong-khag; previously spelled "Wangdi Phodrang") is a Thromde and dzongkhag (district) of central Bhutan. This is also the name of the dzong (built in 1638) which dominates the district. The name is said to have been given by the Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal who was searching for the best location for a dzong to prevent incursions from the south. The word "wangdue" means unification of Country, and "Phodrang" means Palace in Dzongkha.

Wangdue Phodrang is the largest dzongkhag in Bhutan by area and is bordered by Dagana and Tsirang dzongkhags to the south, Tongsa dzongkhag to the east, Thimphu and Punakha dzongkhag to the west, and Gasa dzongkhag and a small section of border with Tibet to the north. It is listed as a tentative site in Bhutan's Tentative List for UNESCO inclusion.

Wangdue Phodrang Dzong
An historic dzong built by Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal in 1638 was located at Wangdue Phodrang. The dzong was burnt down by a fire in June 2012. However, as the dzong was being renovated at the time of the fire, most of the historic relics had been put into storage and so were saved from destruction.

Languages
The dominant language in Wangdue Phodrang is Dzongkha, the national language, spoken in the western two-thirds of the district. Communities along the border with Bumthang District in the northeast speak Lakha. Along the same border, in central Wangdue Phodrang, inhabitants speak Nyenkha. In southeast Wangdue Phodrang, remnants of the autochthonous 'Olekha (Black Mountain Monpa) speaking community barely survive.

Transport
There are three paved roads in Wangdue Phodrang dzongkhag. The Lateral Road enters from the west at Dochu La Pass, crosses the Sankosh (Puna Tsang Chhu) at Wangdue Phodrang dzong, and continues east to Tongsa. One spur road heads north from Wangdue Phodrang to the dzong at Punakha and slightly beyond. This road eventually becomes the trail to Gasa. A second spur departs the Lateral Road near the Pele La pass halfway between Wangdue and Tongsa, traveling south a short distance to Gangteng Monastery and the Phobjika valley where the rare black-necked cranes (grus nigricollis) may be found.

Administrative divisions
Wangdue Phodrang District is divided into 15 village blocks (or gewogs):

 * Athang Gewog
 * Bjena Gewog
 * Daga Gewog
 * Dangchu Gewog
 * Gangte Gewog
 * Gasetsho Gom Gewog
 * Gasetsho Om Gewog
 * Kazhi Gewog
 * Nahi Gewog
 * Nyisho Gewog
 * Phangyuel Gewog
 * Phobji Gewog
 * Ruepisa Gewog
 * Sephu Gewog
 * Thedtsho Gewog

Environment
Most of Wangdue Phodrang District is environmentally protected. The northern half of the district (the gewogs of Kazhi, Dangchu and Sephu) falls within Wangchuck Centennial Park, with northwestern pockets (the gewog of Kazhi) belonging to Jigme Dorji National Park. Southeastern Wangdue (the gewogs of Athang and Phobji) is part of Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park. Also protected are the biological corridors crisscrossing the district that connect Bhutan's extensive national park system.

The environmentally precious and vulnerable lands of Phobjika Valley are not protected by the government, but are maintained by the first and only Bhutanese private conservation group, the Royal Society for the Protection of Nature (RSPN). Chartered as a public benefit nonprofit organization (PBO), the RSPN focuses on education, sustainable agriculture, ecotourism, and improving living standards in ecologically responsible ways.

Tourist attractions

 * Phobjikha Valley
 * Wangdue Phodrang Dzong
 * Adha Tsho
 * Gangtey Monastery

title: Wangdue Phodrang District