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Ackee

The ackee (Blighia sapida), also known as acki, akee, or ackee apple, is a fruit of the Sapindaceae (soapberry) family, as are the lychee and the longan. It is native to tropical West Africa. The scientific name honours Captain William Bligh who took the fruit from Jamaica to the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew, England, in 1793. The English common name is derived from the West African Akan akye fufo.

Although having a long-held reputation as being poisonous with potential fatalities, the fruit arils are renowned as delicious when ripe, prepared properly, and cooked and are a feature of various Caribbean cuisines. Ackee is the national fruit of Jamaica and is considered a delicacy.

Botany
Ackee is an evergreen tree that grows about 10 metres tall, with a short trunk and a dense crown. The leaves are paripinnately, compound 15 – long, with 6–10 elliptical to oblong leathery leaflets. Each leaflet is 8 – long and 5 – wide. The inflorescences are fragrant, up to 20 cm long, with unisexual flowers that bloom during warm months. Each flower has five greenish-white petals, which are fragrant.

The fruit is pear-shaped and has three lobes (two to four lobes are common). When it ripens it turns from green to a bright red to yellow-orange and splits open to reveal three large, shiny black seeds, each partly surrounded by soft, creamy or spongy, white to yellow flesh — the aril having a nut-like flavor and texture of scrambled eggs. The fruit typically weighs 100 –. The tree can produce fruit throughout the year, although January–March and October–November are typically periods of fruit production.

Cultivars
There are up to as many as forty-eight cultivars of ackee, which are grouped into either "butter" or "cheese" types. The cheese type is pale yellow in color and is more robust and finds use in the canning industry. The butter type is deeper yellow in color, and is more delicate and better suited for certain cuisine.

History and culinary use

Imported to Jamaica from West Africa before 1773, the use of ackee in Jamaican cuisine is prominent. Ackee is the national fruit of Jamaica, whilst ackee and saltfish is the official national dish of Jamaica.

The ackee is allowed to open fully before picking in order to eliminate toxicity. When it has "yawned" or "smiled", the seeds are discarded and the fresh, firm arils are parboiled in salted water or milk, and may be fried in butter to create a dish. In Caribbean cooking, they may be cooked with codfish and vegetables, or may be added to stew, curry, soup or rice with seasonings.

Nutrition
Ackee contains a moderate amount of carbohydrates, protein, and fat, providing 51–58% of the dry weight of the arils as composed of fatty acids – linoleic, palmitic, and stearic acids. The raw fruit is a rich source of vitamin C.

Society and culture
The ackee is prominently featured in the Jamaican mento style folksong "Linstead Market". In the song, a market seller laments, "Carry mi ackee go a Linstead market. Not a quattie worth sell". The Beat's 1982 album Special Beat Service includes the song "Ackee 1-2-3".

Saltfish 'n Ackee is the preferred breakfast of Quarrel in the James Bond novel, Dr. No.

Toxicity

The unripened aril and the inedible portions of the fruit contain hypoglycin toxins including hypoglycin A and hypoglycin B, known as "soapberry toxins". Hypoglycin A is found in both the seeds and the arils, while hypoglycin B is found only in the seeds. Minimal quantities of the toxin are found in the ripe arils. In the unripe fruit, depending on the season and exposure to the sun, the concentrations may be up to 10 to 100 times greater.

These two molecules are converted in the body to methylenecyclopropylacetic acid (MCPA), and are toxic with potential lethality. MCPA and hypoglycin A inhibit several enzymes involved in the breakdown of acyl CoA compounds, often binding irreversibly to coenzyme A, carnitine and carnitine acyltransferase I and II, reducing their bioavailability and consequently inhibiting beta oxidation of fatty acids. Glucose stores are consequently depleted leading to hypoglycemia, and to a condition called Jamaican vomiting sickness. These effects occur only when the unripe aril (or an inedible part of the fruit) is consumed.

Though ackee is used widely in traditional dishes, research on its potential hypoglycin toxicity has been sparse and preliminary, requiring evaluation in well-designed clinical research to better understand its pharmacology, food uses, and methods for detoxification.

In 2011, it was found that as the fruit ripens, the seeds act as a sink whereby the hypoglycin A in the arils convert to hypoglycin B in the seeds. In other words, the seeds help in detoxifying the arils, bringing the concentration of hypoglycin A to a level which is generally safe for consumption.

Commercial use
Ackee canned in brine is a commodity item and is used for export by Jamaica, Haiti and Belize. If propagated by seed, trees will begin to fruit in 3–4 years. Cuttings may yield fruit in 1–2 years.

Other uses
The fruit has various uses in West Africa and in rural areas of the Caribbean Islands, including use of its "soap" properties as a laundering agent or fish poison. The fragrant flowers may be used as decoration or cologne, and the durable heartwood used for construction, pilings, oars, paddles and casks. In African traditional medicine, the ripe arils, leaves or bark were used to treat minor ailments.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ackee


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National Book Critics Circle

The National Book Critics Circle (NBCC) is an American nonprofit organization (501(c)(3)) with more than 700 members. It is the professional association of American book review editors and critics, known primarily for the National Book Critics Circle Awards, a set of literary awards presented every March.

The organization was founded in April 1974 in New York City by "John Leonard, Nona Balakian, and Ivan Sandrof intending to extend the Algonquin round table to a national conversation".

It was formally chartered in October 1974 as a New York state non-profit corporation, and the Advisory Board voted in November to establish annual literary awards.

In the first newsletter three months later, President Ivan Sandrof proclaimed the primary purpose "to improve and maintain the standards of literary criticism in an era of diminishing and deteriorating values". At that time there were 140 members, with outreach to freelance critics planned for that year.

NBCC first presented its Awards in January 1976 to books published during 1975 in four categories.

Only active review editors and reviewers may be voting members; they elect the 24 Directors who formally make nominations and alone make final selections each year.

A fifth award category for books (Autobiography/Biography) was added for 1983 and divided in two for 2005. Since 2005, there have been eight awards. Six National Book Critics Circle Awards recognize "best books" published in the United States during the preceding year in six categories: fiction, nonfiction, autobiography, biography, criticism, and poetry. Annually "the most accomplished reviewer" among its members is recognized by the Nona Balakian Citation for Excellence in Reviewing (from 1991).

The NBCC also recognizes no more than one person or organization for "exceptional contributions to books" with the Ivan Sandrof Lifetime Achievement Award (from 1981 under more than one name).All eight awards are officially dated in the preceding year.

As a professional association, NBCC also works to improve the quality of reviews and provides services to its members.

Controversies
In 2020, more than half of the 24 board members resigned over conflicting views on how to address perceived racial disparities both on the board, and within the industry they represent. This demonstrative revolt has also been attributed to breaches in confidentiality stemming from leaked emails, and the dismissive, antagonistic communication style of a long-standing board member, Carlin Romano, whom half the board members describe as a bully. Overall, the mass resignations amount to a controversy seen as part of an industry-wide reckoning concerning the lack of diversity in publishing and literary awards.

First Board of Directors (1975)
President Ivan Sandrof, The Worcester Telegram-Gazette

Vice President Digby Diehl, Los Angeles Times

Secretary Nona Balakian, The New York Times Book Review

Treasurer Susan Heath, The Saturday Review

Barbara A. Bannon, Publishers Weekly

John Barkham, John Barkham Reviews

Alvin Beam, Cleveland Plain Dealer

Alice Cromie, Freelance Critic

Martha Duffy, Time

Eliot Fremont-Smith, The Village Voice

Elizabeth Hardwick, New York Review of Books

Herbert A. Kenny, Freelance Critic

John Leonard, The New York Times Book Review

Thorpe Menn, The Kansas City Star

Stanton Peckham, Denver Post

Peter S. Prescott, Newsweek

Larry Swindell, Philadelphia Inquirer

Jonathan Yardley, Miami Herald

Presidents
1974-1976:   Ivan Sandrof, Worcester Telegram-Gazette

1976-1982:   Eliot Fremont-Smith, Village Voice

1982-1984:   Richard Locke, Vanity Fair

1984-1986:    Brigitte Weeks, The Washington Post Book World

1986-1990:    Nina King, Newsday

1990-1992:    Jack Miles, Los Angeles Times

1992-1994     Herbert Liebowitz, Parnassus

1994-1996     Carlin Romano, Philadelphia Inquirer

1996-1998      Art Winslow, The Nation

1998-2000      Barbara Hoffert, Library Journal

2001-2004      Elizabeth Taylor, Chicago Tribune

2004-2006       Rebecca T. Miller, Library Journal

2006-2008       John Freeman, Freelance Critic

2008-2011       Jane Ciabattari, Freelance Critic

2011-2013       Eric Banks, Bookforum

2013-2015       Laurie Muchnick, Bloomberg News

2015-2017       Tom Beer, Newsday

2017-2019       Kate Tuttle, Boston Globe

2019-2020       Laurie Hertzel, Minneapolis Star Tribune

2020-2020:     Jane Ciabattari, Freelance Critic (acting)

2020–2022:     David Varno, Publishers Weekly

2022-2023:     Megan Labrise, Kirkus

2023-present:  Heather Scott Partington, Freelance Critic

title: National Book Critics Circle


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National Book Critics Circle Award

The National Book Critics Circle Awards are a set of annual American literary awards by the National Book Critics Circle (NBCC) to promote "the finest books and reviews published in English". The first NBCC awards were announced and presented January 16, 1976.

Six awards are presented annually to books published in the U.S. during the preceding calendar year, in six categories: Fiction, Nonfiction, Poetry, Memoir/Autobiography, Biography, and Criticism. Four of them span the entire NBCC award history; Memoir/Autobiography and Biography were recognized by one "Autobiography/Biography" award for publication years 1983 to 2004, then replaced by two awards. Beginning in 2014, the NBCC also presents a special "first book" award across all six categories, named the John Leonard Award in honor of literary critic and NBCC founding member John Leonard, who died in 2008.

Books previously published in English are not eligible, such as re-issues and paperback editions. Nor does the NBC Circle consider "cookbooks, self help books (including inspirational literature), reference books, picture books or children's books". They do consider "translations, short story and essay collections, self published books, and any titles that fall under the general categories".

The judges are the volunteer directors of the NBCC who are 24 members serving rotating three-year terms, with eight elected annually by the voting members, namely "professional book review editors and book reviewers".

Winners of the awards are announced each year at the NBCC awards ceremony in conjunction with the yearly membership meeting, which takes place in March.

Award categories

 * Biography
 * Criticism
 * Fiction
 * General nonfiction
 * Ivan Sandrof Lifetime Achievement Award
 * John Leonard Prize for Best First Book
 * Memoir/Autobiography
 * Nona Balakian Citation for Excellence in Reviewing
 * Poetry

title: National Book Critics Circle Award


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Society of Antiquaries of London

The Society of Antiquaries of London (SAL) is a learned society of historians and archaeologists in the United Kingdom. It was founded in 1707, received its royal charter in 1751 and is a registered charity. It is based at Burlington House in Piccadilly, a building owned by the UK government.

The modern membership of around 3,300 fellows mostly consists of archaeologists and historians, who can use the post-nominal letters FSA after their names.

Fellowship
Fellows of the society are elected by existing members of the society and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FSA after their names. The election procedure is selective and fellowship is regarded as recognition of significant achievement in the fields of archaeology, antiquities, history or heritage. A nomination must be made by an existing fellow and endorsed by between five and twelve other fellows. A secret ballot of the membership is then held; to be successful a candidate must receive two "yes" votes for every "no" vote.

the society has a membership of around 3,300 fellows.

In June 2022, the society introduced a lower tier of "affiliate membership", open to anyone on payment of an annual subscription. Benefits include access to and borrowing rights from the society's library.

History and antecedents
A precursor organisation, the College of Antiquaries, was founded c. 1586 and functioned largely as a debating society until it was forbidden to do so by King James I in 1614.

The first informal meeting of the modern Society of Antiquaries occurred at the Bear Tavern on The Strand on 5 December 1707. This early group, conceived by John Talman, John Bagford, and Humfrey Wanley, sought a charter from Queen Anne for the study of British antiquities; its projected ventures included a series of 35 books to be issued. The proposal for the society was to be advanced by Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford, but his dismissal from government caused it to become idle. The formalisation of proceedings occurred in 1717, and the first minutes at the Mitre Tavern, Fleet Street, are dated 1 January 1718. The first secretary of the revived society was William Stukeley.

Those attending these early meetings examined objects, gave talks, and discussed theories of historical sites. Reports on the dilapidation of significant buildings were also produced. The society was also concerned with the topics of heraldry, genealogy, and historical documents. In 1751, a successful application for a charter of incorporation was sought by its long-serving vice president Joseph Ayloffe, which allowed the society to own property.

The society began to gather large collections of manuscripts, paintings, and artefacts, housing such gifts and bequests while a proper institution for them did not exist. The acquisition of a large group of important paintings in 1828 preceded the establishment of the National Portrait Gallery by some 30 years. A gift of Thomas Kerrich, which included portraits of Edward IV, Mary Tudor, and two of Richard III, reveal anti-Tudor bias in their later portrayal.

Following the London Blitz, the society organised many of the excavations of Roman and medieval ruins exposed by the bombing of the City, with annual surveys performed every year between 1946 and 1962. Among other finds, they discovered the previously unknown London citadel (arx) in the northwest corner of the London Wall. The findings were summarized in 1968 by W. F. Grimes.

In 1962, the society became the owner of the house and land of Kelmscott Manor, the former home of William Morris.

In 2007, the society celebrated its tercentennial year (recognising the first, less formal meetings) with an exhibition at the Royal Academy entitled Making History: Antiquaries in Britain 1707–2007. The tercentenary was also marked by two substantial publications: a collection of seventeen scholarly essays on the parallel themes of the history of the society itself and changing interpretations of the material relics of the past over the three centuries of its existence; and the illustrated catalogue of the exhibition, which included fifteen shorter thematic essays by various expert contributors.

The society faced controversy in 2019, when its council was unable to pass a resolution to eject fellow Hubert Chesshyre. In 2015, a trial of the facts had reached the verdict that Chesshyre had committed child sexual abuse offences, leading to a recommendation from the Honours Committee that he be stripped of honours. The council issued a statement saying that it "regrets that a majority of those present [at the vote] did not see fit to support the resolution" and that the incident showed "need to modernise the society's statutes and governance procedures".

In 2020, following comments made by David Starkey on slavery and genocide, the society announced that they were modernising their procedures for dealing with behaviour which runs contrary to their values. Starkey subsequently resigned his fellowship.

Library
The society's library is the major archaeological research library in the UK. Having acquired material since the early 18th century, the Library's present holdings number more than 100,000 books and around 800 currently received periodical titles. The catalogue include rare drawings and manuscripts, such as the inventory of all Henry VIII's possessions at the time of his death.

As the oldest archaeological library in the country, the Library holds an outstanding collection of British county histories, a fine collection of 18th- and 19th-century books on the antiquities of Britain and other countries and an exceptionally wide-ranging collection of periodical titles (British and foreign) with runs dating back to the early to mid-19th century.

Vetusta Monumenta
In 1718, the society began to publish a series of illustrated papers on ancient buildings, sites, and artefacts, mainly those of Britain and usually written by members of the society, under the title Vetusta Monumenta. The series continued to appear on an irregular basis until 1906. The papers were published in a folio format, and were notable for the inclusion of finely engraved views and reproductions of artefacts.

An engraver was employed by the society from its inception – the earliest were George Vertue, James Basire and successors – labouring to produce the copperplate used in the printing of the folio editions. The prints were often large and appealing, and were intended to satisfy popular demand for archæological subject matter; their quasi-scientific illustrations were often inset with multiple viewpoints of architectural details. A fellow of the society, Richard Gough (director 1771 to 1791), sought to expand and improve publication of the society's research, motivated by the steady dilapidation of examples of Gothic architecture.

A later series of oversize issues was used to accommodate the format of some historical works, which the society had commissioned to be reproduced by Edward Edwards and Samuel Hieronymus Grimm in water-colour in 1771; the first issues of these were mostly done by Basire. The first of these with a reproduction of a 16th-century oil painting of the historic scene at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. The paper for this series required a larger size than was available, the manufacturer James Whatman was instructed to create a sheet 31 ×; the name given to this format is "Antiquarian". The engraving of the plate, measuring 4 ft by 2 ft, required two years to complete. The standard printing for this series was 400 prints; the plates were carefully stored by the society and used occasionally to fulfil later requests; only three of the seven plates still exist.

Archaeologia
The society's first journal was Archaeologia (full title: Archaeologia; or, Miscellaneous Tracts relating to Antiquity), of which the first volume appeared, in a quarto format, in 1770. The journal mainly contained papers that had been delivered at the society's meetings: in the early years these included many delivered in previous decades that had remained unpublished. Archaeologia continued to appear on a more or less regular basis until after the Second World War, but then became increasingly irregular, some of its ground having been taken by the society's other journals. Only two volumes were published in the 1980s (vols 107 and 108), and two in the 1990s (vols 109 and 110, published in 1991 and 1992 respectively). The society's tercentennial collection of essays of 2007 was technically published as vol. 111 of Archaeologia. No print volumes have been published since.

In January 2023, Archaeologia was relaunched as an occasional digital journal, to serve as a vehicle for open access research papers of a length falling above the upper limit of c. 10,000 words for the Antiquaries Journal.

Proceedings and Antiquaries Journal
In 1843 the society took the decision to publish some of its proceedings in a second periodical in a smaller format, initially unillustrated, which could appear on a more frequent basis than Archaeologia: it was entitled Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London. The first part appeared in 1844 (containing papers delivered in 1843), and this first series continued until 1859, by which time four volumes had appeared. A second series was then begun, in which 32 volumes appeared down to 1920.

In 1921 Proceedings was superseded by a new annual journal, the Antiquaries Journal. This continues to the present day, volume 101 having been published in 2021.

Salon
Since the end of 2001, the society has published a fortnightly online newsletter called Salon (Society of Antiquaries Online Newsletter).

Presidents
The following have served as Presidents of the Society: • 1717–24 Peter Le Neve (Norroy King of Arms)

• 1724–50 Algernon, Earl of Hertford

• 1750 Charles, Duke of Richmond

• 1750–54 Martin Folkes

• 1754–65 Hugh, Lord Willoughby of Parham

• 1765–68 Charles Lyttelton, Bishop of Carlisle

• 1768–84 Jeremiah Milles (Dean of Exeter)

• 1784–85 Edward King

• 1785–1811 George, Earl of Leicester

• 1811–12 Sir Henry Englefield

• 1812–46 George, 4th Earl of Aberdeen

• 1846–75 Philip, Viscount Mahon

• 1876–78 Frederic Ouvry

• 1878–85 Henry, 4th Earl of Carnarvon

• 1885–92 Sir John Evans

• 1892–97 Sir Augustus Wollaston Franks

• 1897–1904 Harold, Viscount Dillon

• 1904–08 John, Lord Avebury

• 1908–14 Sir Charles Hercules Read

• 1914–19 Sir Arthur Evans

• 1919–24 Sir Charles Hercules Read

• 1924–29 David, 27th Earl of Crawford

• 1929–34 Sir Charles Reed Peers

• 1934–39 Sir Frederic Kenyon

• 1939–44 Sir Alfred Clapham

• 1944–49 Sir Cyril Fox

• 1949–54 Sir James Mann

• 1954–59 Sir Mortimer Wheeler

• 1959–64 Dame Joan Evans

• 1964–65 Sir Ian Richmond

• 1965–70 Francis Wormald

• 1970–75 J. N. L. Myres

• 1975–78 Arnold Taylor

• 1978–81 Richard Dufty

• 1981–84 Christopher Brooke

• 1984–87 John Davies Evans

• 1987–91 Michael Robbins

• 1991–95 Sir Barry Cunliffe

• 1995–2001 Simon Jervis

• 2001–04 Rosemary Cramp

• 2004–07 Eric Fernie

• 2007–10 Geoffrey Wainwright

• 2010–14 Maurice Howard

• 2014–18 Gill Andrews

• 2018–21 Paul Drury, IHBC FSA

• 2021–present Martin Millett

title: Society of Antiquaries of London


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Society of Antiquaries

Society of Antiquaries may refer to:

 * Society of Antiquaries of London
 * Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
 * Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne
 * Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland
 * Elizabethan Society of Antiquaries, 1586–c. 1607

title: Society of Antiquaries


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Aline Chrétien

Aline Chrétien (Chaîné; May 14, 1936 –September 12, 2020) was a Canadian academic administrator who was the wife of Canada's 20th prime minister, Jean Chrétien. She previously worked as a secretary, payroll manager, and model. In her later life, she was a trained pianist with The Royal Conservatory of Music.

Early life and family
Aline Chaîné was born on May 14, 1936, in Shawinigan, Quebec, the eldest child of Yvonne (Bellemar) and Albert Chaîné. Her mother was a hairdresser; her father worked at a power plant. She left school at age 16 and never attended university but took correspondence courses while working as a secretary. She was also employed as a payroll manager and did some modelling for local clothing stores.

Chaîné married lawyer Jean Chrétien on September 10, 1957. They had two sons, Hubert and Michel Chrétien (adopted), and one daughter, France Chrétien Desmarais. After her husband was elected to Parliament, she taught herself English, Italian, and Spanish, and became fluent in those languages in addition to her native French.

Spouse of the prime minister
On November 5, 1995, an intruder, André Dallaire, broke into the prime minister's residence at 24 Sussex Drive, in Ottawa, Ontario. Awakened next to her sleeping husband, Chrétien confronted the intruder at their bedroom door. Seeing that he was armed with a large knife, she slammed the door and locked it, then woke her husband.

Jean Chrétien often sought out his wife's advice. Maclean's magazine in 1996 listed her first among his most influential advisors, saying "Never mind calling her the power behind the throne—she shares the seat of power." In the same magazine in 2000, Allan Fotheringham described Jean and Aline Chrétien as the two "most powerful" politicians in Canada, above Eddie Goldenberg and Jean Pelletier.

Jean Chrétien has publicly stated that his wife was his key advisor. He once joked that Canada was run exclusively by women: the monarch (Queen Elizabeth II), the governor general (Adrienne Clarkson), and the chief justice (Beverley McLachlin) were all women, and Madame Chrétien was pulling the strings of the prime minister. He made similar jokes often, once telling a reporter that he did not know when the next election would be because he had not yet asked Aline to set a date.

In her role as the prime minister's spouse, Chrétien went to the memorial of the victim of the W. R. Myers High School shooting in 1999, along with Alberta Premier Ralph Klein, Opposition Leader Preston Manning, and the Attorney General of Canada Anne McLellan. She was awarded her first honorary degree from Laurentian University in 2003.

Later years
Chrétien was active in a number of charitable organizations from the time that her husband was first elected to the House of Commons of Canada in 1963. In addition to her keen interest in languages, she took piano courses during her 50s and became an advocate for The Royal Conservatory of Music in Toronto. Jean Chrétien purchased a grand piano for her using the damages he was awarded in a libel case against The Globe and Mail.

On September 22, 2010, Chrétien was named as the first chancellor of Laurentian University, a bilingual educational institution in Sudbury, Ontario.

Chrétien suffered from Alzheimer's disease. She died on September 12, 2020, at her home in Lac des Piles near Shawinigan. She was 84 and had celebrated her 63rd wedding anniversary two days before. No cause of death was disclosed.

title: Aline Chrétien


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User talk:129.29.227.2

February 2012
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Please do not delete or edit legitimate talk page comments, as you did at Talk:Marty Munsch. Such edits are disruptive and appear to be vandalism. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox. Thank you. A fluffernutter is a sandwich! (talk) 16:06, 7 February 2012 (UTC)
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title: User talk:129.29.227.2


text:
Sinhala language

Sinhala (Sinhala: සිංහල,, ), sometimes called Sinhalese , is an Indo-Aryan language primarily spoken by the Sinhalese people of Sri Lanka, who make up the largest ethnic group on the island, numbering about 16 million. Sinhala is also spoken as the first language by other ethnic groups in Sri Lanka, totalling about 2 million speakers as of 2001. It is written using the Sinhala script, which is a Brahmic script closely related to the Grantha script of South India.

Sinhala is one of the official and national languages of Sri Lanka, alongside Tamil. Along with Pali, it played a major role in the development of Theravada Buddhist literature.

Early forms of the Sinhala language are attested as early as the 3rd century BCE. The language of these inscriptions, still retaining long vowels and aspirated consonants, is a Prakrit similar to Magadhi, a regional associate of the Middle Indian Prakrits that had been used during the time of the Buddha. The most closely related languages are the Vedda language (an endangered, indigenous creole still spoken by a minority of Sri Lankans, mixing Sinhala with an isolate of unknown origin and from which Old Sinhala borrowed various aspects into its main Indo-Aryan substrate), and the Maldivian language. It has two main varieties, written and spoken, and is a conspicuous example of the linguistic phenomenon known as diglossia.

Etymology
Sinhala is a Sanskrit term; the corresponding Middle Indo-Aryan (Eḷu) word is Sīhala. The name is a derivative of , the Sanskrit word for 'lion'. The name is sometimes glossed as 'abode of lions', and attributed to a supposed former abundance of lions on the island.

History
According to the chronicle Mahāvaṃsa, written in Pali, Prince Vijaya of the Vanga Kingdom and his entourage merged in Sri Lanka with later settlers from the Pandya kingdom. In the following centuries, there was substantial immigration from Eastern India, including additional migration from the Vanga Kingdom (Bengal), as well as Kalinga and Magadha. This influx led to an admixture of features of Eastern Prakrits.

Stages of historical development
The development of Sinhala is divided into four epochs:

 * Elu Prakrit (3rd c. BCE to 4th c. CE)
 * Proto-Sinhala (4th c. CE to 8th c. CE)
 * Medieval Sinhala (8th c. CE to 13th c. CE)
 * Modern Sinhala (13th c. CE to the present)

Phonetic development
The most important phonetic developments of Sinhala include:
 * the loss of aspiration as a distinction for plosive consonants (e.g. "to eat" corresponds to Sanskrit, Hindustani )
 * the loss of original vowel length distinction; long vowels in the modern language are found in loanwords (e.g. "exam" < Sanskrit ) or as a result of sandhi, either after elision of intervocalic consonants (e.g.  "to put" < ) or in originally compound words.
 * the simplification of consonant clusters and geminate consonants into geminates and single consonants respectively (e.g. Sanskrit "time" > Sinhalese Prakrit  > Modern Sinhala )
 * development of to  and/or  (e.g. / "moon" corresponds to Sanskrit ) and development of  to  (e.g.  "web" corresponds to Sanskrit )
 * development of prenasalized consonants from Sanskrit nasal + voiced stops (see )

Western vs. Eastern Prakrit features
According to Wilhelm Geiger, an example of a possible Western feature in Sinhala is the retention of initial which developed into  in the Eastern languages (e.g. Sanskrit  "twenty", Sinhala, Hindi ). This is disputed by Muhammad Shahidullah who says that Sinhala Prakrit branched off from the Eastern Prakrits prior to this change. He cites the edicts of Ashoka, no copy of which shows this sound change.

An example of an Eastern feature is the ending for masculine nominative singular (instead of Western ) in Sinhalese Prakrit. There are several cases of vocabulary doublets, one example being the words ("fly") and  ("flea"), which both correspond to Sanskrit  but stem from two regionally different Prakrit words  (Western Prakrits) and  (as in Eastern Prakrits like Pali).

Pre-1815 Sinhalese literature
In 1815, the island of Ceylon came under British rule. During the career of Christopher Reynolds as a Sinhalese lecturer at the School of African and Oriental Studies, University of London, he extensively researched the Sinhalese language and its pre-1815 literature. The Sri Lankan government awarded him the Sri Lanka Ranjana medal for his work. He wrote the 377-page An anthology of Sinhalese literature up to 1815, selected by the UNESCO National Commission of Ceylon

Substratum influence in Sinhala
According to Wilhelm Geiger, Sinhala has features that set it apart from other Indo-Aryan languages. Some of the differences can be explained by the substrate influence of the parent stock of the Vedda language. Sinhala has many words that are only found in Sinhala, or shared between Sinhala and Vedda and not etymologically derivable from Middle or Old Indo-Aryan. Possible examples include for leaf in Sinhala and Vedda (although others suggest a Dravidian origin for this word.   ), dola for pig in Vedda and offering in Sinhala. Other common words are rera for wild duck, and gala for stones (in toponyms used throughout the island, although others have also suggested a Dravidian origin). There are also high frequency words denoting body parts in Sinhala, such as for head,  for leg,  for neck and  for thighs, that are derived from pre-Sinhalese languages of Sri Lanka. The oldest Sinhala grammar,, written in the 13th century CE, recognised a category of words that exclusively belonged to early Sinhala. The grammar lists (to see) and  (fort or harbour) as belonging to an indigenous source. is the source of the name of the commercial capital Colombo.

South Dravidian substratum influence
The consistent left branching syntax and the loss of aspirated stops in Sinhala is attributed to a probable South Dravidian substratum effect. This has been explained by a period of prior bilingualism:

"'The earliest type of contact in Sri Lanka, not considering the aboriginal Vedda languages, was that which occurred between South Dravidian and Sinhala. It seems plausible to assume prolonged contact between these two populations as well as a high degree of bilingualism. This explains why Sinhala looks deeply South Dravidian for an Indo-Aryan language. There is corroboration in genetic findings.'"

Influences from neighbouring languages
In addition to many Tamil loanwords, several phonetic and grammatical features also present in neighbouring Dravidian languages set modern spoken Sinhala apart from its Northern Indo-Aryan relatives. These features are evidence of close interactions with Dravidian speakers. Some of the features that may be traced to Dravidian influence are:
 * the loss of aspiration
 * the use of the attributive verb of kiyana "to say" as a subordinating conjunction with the meanings "that" and "if", e.g.:

European influence
As a result of centuries of colonial rule, interaction, settlement, intermarriage and assimilation, modern Sinhala contains many Portuguese, Dutch and English loanwords.

Influences on other languages
Macanese Patois or Macau Creole (known as Patuá to its speakers) is a creole language derived mainly from Malay, Sinhala, Cantonese, and Portuguese, which was originally spoken by the Macanese people of the Portuguese colony of Macau. It is now spoken by a few families in Macau and in the Macanese diaspora.

The language developed first mainly among the descendants of Portuguese settlers who often married women from Malacca and Sri Lanka rather than from neighbouring China, so the language had strong Malay and Sinhala influence from the beginning.

Accents and dialects
The Sinhala language has different types of variations which are commonly identified as 'dialects and accents'. Among those variations,  'regional variations ' are prominent. Some of the well-known regional variations of Sinhala language are:

 * 1) The Uva Province variation (Monaragala, Badulla).
 * 2) The southern variation (Matara, Galle).
 * 3) The up-country variation (Kandy, Matale).
 * 4) The Sabaragamu variation (Kegalle, Balangoda).

Uva regional variation in relation to grammar
People from Uva province also have a unique linguistic variation in relation to the pronunciation of words. In general, Sinhala singular words are pluralized by adding suffixes like O, hu, wal or waru. But when it comes to Monaragala, the situation is somewhat different as when nouns are pluralized a nasal sound is added.

Southern variation
The Kamath language (an indigenous language of paddy culture) used by the Southerners is somewhat different from the 'Kamath language' used in other parts (Uva, Kandy) of Sri Lanka as it is marked with a systematic variation; 'boya' at the end of the majority of nouns as the examples below show.

 * Crops: Kurakkan boya (bran)
 * Rambakan boya (banana)
 * Tools: Thattu boya (bucket)
 * Other words: Nivahan boya (home)

Here the particular word 'boya' means 'a little' in the Southern region and at the end of most of nouns, 'boya' is added regularly. This particular word 'boya' is added to most words by the Southern villages as a token of respect towards the things (those things can be crops, tools etc.) they are referring to.

Kandy, Kegalle and Galle people
Even though the Kandy, Kegalle and Galle people pronounce words with slight differences, the Sinhalese can understand the majority of the sentences.

Diglossia
In Sinhala there is distinctive diglossia, as in many languages of South Asia. The literary language and the spoken language differ from each other in many aspects. The written language is used for all forms of literary texts but also orally at formal occasions (public speeches, TV and radio news broadcasts, etc.), whereas the spoken language is used as the language of communication in everyday life (see also Sinhala slang and colloquialism). As a rule, the literary language uses more Sanskrit-based words.

Sinhala diglossia can also be described in terms of informal and formal varieties. The variety used for formal purposes is closer to the written/literary variety, whereas the variety used for informal purposes is closer to the spoken variety. It is also used in some modern literature (e.g. Liyanage Amarakeerthi's Kurulu Hadawatha).

The most important difference between the two varieties is the lack of inflected verb forms in the spoken language.

Sinhala also has diverse slang. Most slang words and terms were regarded as taboo, and most were frowned upon as non-scholarly. However, nowadays Sinhala slang words and terms, even the ones with sexual references, are commonly used among younger Sri Lankans.

Writing system

The Sinhala script,, is based on the ancient Brahmi script, as are most Indian scripts. The Sinhala script is closely related to South Indian Grantha script and Khmer script taken the elements from the related Kadamba script.

The writing system for Sinhala is an abugida, where the consonants are written with letters while the vowels are indicated with diacritics on those consonants, unlike alphabets like English where both consonants and vowels are full letters, or abjads like Urdu where vowels need not be written at all. Also, when a diacritic is not used, an "inherent vowel", either or, is understood, depending on the position of the consonant within the word. For example, the letter ක on its own indicates, realized as  in stressed syllables and  in unstressed syllables. The other monophthong vowels are written: කා, කැ , and කෑ (after the consonant); කි  and කී  (above the consonant); කු  and කූ  (below the consonant); කෙ  and කේ  (before the consonant); and lastly, කො  and කෝ  (surrounding the consonant). For simple without a following vowel, a vowel-cancelling diacritic called හල් කිරීම  is used, creating ක්.

There are also a few diacritics for consonants, such as in special circumstances, although the tendency now is to spell words with the full letter ර, with a  on whichever consonant has no vowel following it. One word that is still spelt with an "r" diacritic is ශ්‍රී, as in ශ්‍රී ලංකාව. The "r" diacritic is the curved line under the first letter ("ශ" → "ශ්‍ර"). A second diacritic representing the vowel sound completes the word ("ශ්‍ර" → "ශ්‍රී").

Several of these diacritics occur in two or more forms, and the form used depends on the shape of the consonant letter. Vowels also have independent letters, but these are only used at the beginning of words where there is no preceding consonant to add a diacritic to.

The complete script consists of about 60 letters, 18 for vowels and 42 for consonants. However, only 57 (16 vowels and 41 consonants) are required for writing colloquial spoken Sinhala. The rest indicate sounds that have been merged in the course of linguistic change, such as the aspirates, and are restricted to Sanskrit and Pali loan words. One letter (ඦ), representing the sound, is attested in the script, although only a few words using this letter are known (වෑංඦන, ඉඦූ).

The Sinhala script is written from left to right, and is mainly used for Sinhala. It is also used for the liturgical languages Pali and Sanskrit, which are important in Buddhism and academic works. The alphabetic sequence is similar to those of other Brahmic scripts:

Phonology

Sinhala has so-called prenasalized consonants, or 'half nasal' consonants. A short homorganic nasal occurs before a voiced stop, it is shorter than a sequence of nasal plus stop. The nasal is syllabified with the onset of the following syllable, which means that the moraic weight of the preceding syllable is left unchanged. For example, tam̆ba 'copper' contrasts with tamba 'boil'.

/f~ɸ/ and /ʃ/ are restricted to loans, typically for English. They are commonly sometimes replaced by /p/ and /s/ respectively. Some speakers use, as in English, and some use due to its similarity to the native.

Long /əː/ is restricted to English loans. /a/ and /ə/ are allophones in Sinhala and contrast with each other in stressed and unstressed syllables respectively. In writing, /a/ and /ə/ are both spelt without a vowel sign attached to the consonant letter, so the patterns of stress in the language must be used to determine the correct pronunciation. Most Sinhala syllables are of the form CV. The first syllable of each word is stressed, with the exception of the verb කරනවා /kərənəˈwaː/ ("to do") and all of its inflected forms where the first syllable is unstressed. Syllables using long vowels are always stressed. The remainder of the syllables are unstressed if they use a short vowel, unless they are immediately followed by one of: a CCV syllable, final /j(i)/ (-යි), final /wu/ (-වු), or a final consonant without a following vowel. The sound /ha/ is always stressed in nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, and so is not pronounced /hə/ except in the word හතලිහ /ˈhat̪əlihə/ ("forty"), where the initial /ha/ is stressed and the final /hə/ is unstressed.

Nominal morphology
The main features marked on Sinhala nouns are case, number, definiteness and animacy.

Cases
Sinhala distinguishes several cases. The five primary cases are the nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and ablative. Some scholars also suggest that it has a locative and instrumental case. However, for inanimate nouns the locative and genitive, and instrumental and ablative, are identical. In addition, for animate nouns these cases formed by placing atiŋ ("with the hand") and laᵑgə ("near") directly after the nominative.

The brackets with most of the vowel length symbols indicate the optional shortening of long vowels in certain unstressed syllables.

Number marking
Forming plurals in Sinhala is unpredictable. In Sinhala animate nouns, the plural is marked with -o(ː), a long consonant plus -u, or with -la(ː). Most inanimates mark the plural through disfixation. Loanwords from English mark the singular with ekə, and do not mark the plural. This can be interpreted as a singulative number.

On the left hand side of the table, plurals are longer than singulars. On the right hand side, it is the other way round, with the exception of paːrə "street". [+Animate] lexemes are mostly in the classes on the left-hand side, while [-animate] lexemes are most often in the classes on the right hand.

Indefinite article
The indefinite article is -ek for animates and -ak for inanimates. The indefinite article exists only in the singular, where its absence marks definiteness. In the plural, (in)definiteness does not receive special marking.

Verbal morphology
Sinhala distinguishes three conjugation classes. Spoken Sinhala does not mark person, number or gender on the verb (literary Sinhala does). In other words, there is no subject–verb agreement.

Syntax

 * Left-branching language (see branching), which means that determining elements are usually put in front of what they determine (see example below).
 * An exception to this is formed by statements of quantity which usually stand behind what they define.

 * SOV (subject–object–verb) word order, common to most left-branching languages.
 * As is common in left-branching languages, it has no prepositions, only postpositions (see Adposition).

 * Sinhala has no copula. There are two existential verbs, which are used for locative predications, but these verbs are not used for predications of class-membership or property-assignment, unlike English is.

 * There are almost no conjunctions as English that or whether, but only non-finite clauses that are formed by the means of participles and verbal adjectives.

Semantics
There is a four-way deictic system (which is rare): There are four demonstrative stems (see demonstrative pronouns):
 * 1) මේ  "here, close to the speaker"
 * 2) ඕ  "there, close to the person addressed"
 * 3) අර  "there, close to a third person, visible"
 * 4) ඒ  "there, close to a third person, not visible"

Use of තුමා (thuma)
Sinhalese has an all-purpose odd suffix තුමා (thuma) which when suffixed to a pronoun creates a formal and respectful tone in reference to a person. This is usually used in referring to politicians, nobles, and priests.

e.g. oba thuma (ඔබ තුමා) - you (vocative, when addressing a minister, high-ranking official, or generally showing respect in public etc.)

Discourse
Sinhala is a pro-drop language: Arguments of a sentence can be omitted when they can be inferred from context. This is true for subject—as in Italian, for instance—but also objects and other parts of the sentence can be "dropped" in Sinhala if they can be inferred. In that sense, Sinhala can be called a "super pro-drop language", like Japanese.

title: Sinhala language


text:
Ischia

Ischia  is a volcanic island in the Tyrrhenian Sea. It lies at the northern end of the Gulf of Naples, about 30 km from the city of Naples. It is the largest of the Phlegrean Islands. Although inhabited since the Bronze Age, as a Greek emporium it was founded in the 8th or 9th century BCE, and known as Πιθηκοῦσαι, Pithekoūsai (Monkey Island).

Roughly trapezoidal in shape, it measures approximately 10 km east to west and 7 km north to south and has about 34 km of coastline and a surface area of 46.3 km2. It is almost entirely mountainous; the highest peak is Mount Epomeo, at 788 m. The island is very densely populated, with 60,000 residents (more than 1,300 inhabitants per square km). Ischia is the name of the main comune of the island. The other comuni of the island are Barano d'Ischia, Casamicciola Terme, Forio, Lacco Ameno and Serrara Fontana.

Geology and geography
The roughly trapezoidal island is formed by a complex volcano immediately southwest of the Campi Flegrei area at the western side of the Bay of Naples. The eruption of the trachytic Green Tuff Ignimbrite about 56,000 years ago was followed by the formation of a caldera comprising almost the entire island and some of the surrounding seabed. The highest point of the island, Monte Epomeo (788 m), is a volcanic horst consisting of green tuff that was submerged after its eruption and then uplifted. Volcanism on the island has been significantly affected by tectonism that formed a series of horsts and grabens; resurgent doming produced at least 800 m of uplift during the past 33,000 years. Many small monogenetic volcanoes formed around the uplifted block. Volcanism during the Holocene produced a series of pumiceous tephras, tuff rings, lava domes, and lava flows. The last eruption of Ischia, in 1302, produced a spatter cone and the Arso lava flow, which reached the NE coast.

The surrounding waters including gulfs of Gaeta, Naples and Pozzuoli are both rich and healthy, providing a habitat for around 7 species of whales and dolphins including gigantic fin and sperm whales. Special research programmes on local cetaceans have been conducted to monitor and protect this bio-diversity.

From its roughly trapezoidal shape, the island is approximately 18 nautical miles from Naples, 10 km wide from east to west, 7 km from north to south, with a coastline of 43 km and an area of approximately 46.3 km2. The highest elevation is Monte Epomeo, standing at 788 meters and located in the center of the island. This is an horst, a tectonic volcano, meaning a block of the Earth's crust that has been uplifted compared to the surrounding crust due to magmatic pressure (horst is a German term meaning "rock"). Monte Epomeo is mistakenly thought of as a volcano, although it lacks any volcanic characteristics. Island volcanism, in fact, is particularly prevalent along the fractures that border the horst, namely Monte Epomeo.

Strabo reports what the Greek historian Timeo said about a tsunami that occurred in Ischia shortly before his time. Following the volcanic activity of Epomeo, "...the sea receded for three stages; afterwards (...) it turned back again and its ebb tide submerged the island (...) those who lived on the mainland fled from the coast into the interior of Campania" (Geography V, 4, 9). Cumae, not far from that coast, in Greek means "wave". Volcanic activity on Ischia has generally been characterized by eruptions that were not very significant and occurred at great intervals. After eruptions in Greek and Roman times, the last one occurred in 1302 in the eastern sector of the island with a brief flow (known as Arso) reaching the sea.

Name
The Greeks called their colony on the island Pithekoussai (Πιθηκοῦσσαι), from which the Latin name Pithecusa was derived. The name has an uncertain etymology. According to Ovid (Metamorphoses 14.92) and the Alexandrian historian Senagora, the name would derive from pithekos, monkey, and refer to the myth of the Cercopes, inhabitants of the Phlegraean islands transformed by Zeus into monkeys. More plausible is the interpretation of Pliny the Elder (Nat. Hist. 111, 6.82), who instead derives the name from pythos, amphora, a theory supported by archaeological finds that testify to the Greek-Italic production of ceramics (and in particular of wine amphorae) on the island and in the Gulf of Naples.

It has also been proposed that the name describes a characteristic of the island, rich in pine forests. "Pitueois" (rich in pines), "pituis" (pine cone), "pissa, pitta" (resin) appear as descriptive terms from which Pithekoussai could derive, meaning "island of resin," an important substance used, among other things, to waterproof wine vessels. The name Aenaria, also used by the Latins, is linked to metallurgical workshops (from aenus, metal) located on the eastern coast, under the castle.

The first evidence of the island's current toponym dates back to the year 812, in a letter from Pope Leo III in which he informs Emperor Charlemagne of devastations that occurred in the area, calling the island Iscla maior: "Ingressi sunt ipsi nefandissimi Mauri [...] in insulam, quae dicitur Iscla maiore, non longe a Neapolitana urbe." Some scholars connect the term to the Phoenician word, and therefore Semitic i-schra, "black island." The Phoenician presence on the island is archaeologically documented from a very ancient era and, as reported by Moscati (an Italian historian), in the spread in Campania and southern Etruria, since the 8th century BC, of objects of Egyptian production or inspiration, "the Phoenician merchants settled in Ischia and then frequented the Tyrrhenian coasts" certainly played a part.

On the other hand, the modern "Island of Ischia" could derive from the Latin "insula visca" – compare the Greek noun (ϝ)ἰξός, (w)ixós, (mistletoe) and the adjective (ϝ)ἰξώδης, (w)ixṓdēs, (viscous, sticky), which as usual have lost the initial digamma. In favor of this theory could be the fact that in the same area, at the foot of Vesuvius covered with pines, the popular name of Herculaneum was "Resìna," perhaps reminiscent of an ancient market for this product, similarly to the toponym "Pizzo" in Calabria, from where the best resin, the "pece brettia" obtained from the pines of the nearby Sila, came from.

Virgil poetically referred to it as Inarime and still later as Arime. Martianus Capella followed Virgil in this allusive name, which was never in common circulation: the Romans called it Aenaria, the Greeks, Πιθηκοῦσαι, Pithekoūsai.

(In)arime and Pithekousai both appear to derive from words for "monkey" (Etruscan arimos, Ancient Greek πίθηκος, píthēkos, "monkey"). However, Pliny derives the Greek name from the local clay deposits, not from píthēkos; he explains the Latin name Aenaria as connected to a landing by Aeneas (Princeton Encyclopedia). If the island actually was, like Gibraltar, home to a population of monkeys, they were already extinct by historical times as no record of them is mentioned in ancient sources.

The current name appears for the first time in a letter from Pope Leo III to Charlemagne in 813: the name iscla mentioned there would allegedly derive from insula, though there is an argument made for a Semitic origin in I-schra, "black island".

Ancient times
An acropolis site of the Monte Vico area was inhabited from the Bronze Age, as Mycenaean and Iron Age pottery findings attest. Euboean Greeks from Eretria and Chalcis arrived in the 8th century BC to establish an emporium for trade with the Etruscans of the mainland. This settlement was home to a mixed population of Greeks, Etruscans, and Phoenicians. Because of its fine harbor and the safety from raids afforded by the sea, the settlement of Pithecusae became successful through trade in iron and with mainland Italy; in 700 BC Pithecusae was home to 5,000–10,000 people.

The ceramic Euboean artifact inscribed with a reference to "Nestor's Cup" was discovered in a grave on the island in 1953. Engraved upon the cup are a few lines written in the Greek alphabet. Dating from c. 730 BC, it is one of the most important testimonies to the early Greek alphabet, from which the Latin alphabet descended via the Etruscan alphabet. According to certain scholars the inscription also might be the oldest written reference to the Iliad.

In 474 BC, Hiero I of Syracuse came to the aid of the Cumaeans, who lived on the mainland opposite Ischia, against the Etruscans and defeated them on the sea. He occupied Ischia and the surrounding Parthenopean islands and left behind a garrison to build a fortress before the city of Ischia itself. This was still extant in the Middle Ages, but the original garrison fled before the eruptions of 470 BC and the island was taken over by Neapolitans. The Romans seized Ischia (and Naples) in 322 BC.

From 1st century AD to 16th century
In 6 AD, Augustus restored the island to Naples in exchange for Capri. Ischia suffered from the barbarian invasions, being taken first by the Heruli then by the Ostrogoths, being ultimately absorbed into the Eastern Roman Empire. The Byzantines gave the island over to Naples in 588 and by 661 it was being administered by a Count liege to the Duke of Naples. The area was devastated by the Saracens in 813 and 847; in 1004 it was occupied by Henry II of Germany; the Norman Roger II of Sicily took it in 1130 granting the island to the Norman Aldoyn de Candida created Count d’Ischia; the island was raided by the Pisans in 1135 and 1137 and subsequently fell under the Hohenstaufen and then Angevin rule. After the Sicilian Vespers in 1282, the island rebelled, recognizing Peter III of Aragon, but was retaken by the Angevins the following year. It was conquered in 1284 by the forces of Aragon and Charles II of Anjou was unable to successfully retake it until 1299.

As a consequence of the island's last eruption in 1302, the population fled to Baia where they remained for 4 years. In 1320 Robert of Anjou and his wife Sancia visited the island and were hosted by Cesare Sterlich, who had been sent by Charles II from the Holy See to govern the island in 1306 and was by this time nearly 100 years of age.

Ischia suffered greatly in the struggles between the Angevin and Durazzo dynasties. It was taken by Carlo Durazzo in 1382, retaken by Louis II of Anjou in 1385 and captured yet again by Ladislaus of Naples in 1386; it was sacked by the fleet of the Antipope John XXIII under the command of Gaspare Cossa in 1410 only to be retaken by Ladislaus the following year. In 1422 Joan II gave the island to her adoptive son Alfonso V of Aragon, though, when he fell into disgrace, she retook it with the help of Genoa in 1424. In 1438 Alfonso reoccupied the castle, kicking out all the men and proclaiming it an Aragonese colony, marrying to his garrison the wives and daughters of the expelled. He set about building a bridge linking the castle to the rest of the island and he carved out a large gallery, both of which are still to be seen today. In 1442, he gave the island to one of his favorites, Lucretia d'Alagno, who in turn entrusted the island's governance to her brother-in-law, Giovanni Torella. Upon the death of Alfonso in 1458, they returned the island to the Angevin side. Ferdinand I of Naples ordered Alessandro Sforza to chase Torella out of the castle and gave the island over, in 1462, to Garceraldo Requesens. In 1464, after a brief Torellan insurrection, Marino Caracciolo was set up as governor.

In February 1495, with the arrival of Charles VIII, Ferdinand II landed on the island and took possession of the castle, and, after having killed the disloyal castellan Giusto di Candida with his own hands, left the island under the control of Innico d'Avalos, marquis of Pescara and Vasto, who ably defended the place from the French flotilla. With him came his sister Costanza and through them they founded the D'Avalos dynasty which would last on the island into the 18th century.

16th–18th centuries
Throughout the 16th century, the island suffered the incursions of pirates and Barbary privateers from North Africa: in 1543 and 1544 Hayreddin Barbarossa laid waste to the island, taking 4,000 prisoners in the process. In 1548 and 1552, Ischia was beset by his successor Dragut Rais. With the increasing rarity and diminishing severity of the piratical attacks later in the century and the construction of better defences, the islanders began to venture out of the castle and it was then that the historic centre of the town of Ischia was begun. Even so, many inhabitants still ended up slaves to the pirates, the last known being taken in 1796. During the 1647 revolution of Masaniello, there was an attempted rebellion against the feudal landowners.

Since the 18th century
With the extinction of the D'Avalos line in 1729, the island reverted to state property. In March 1734 it was taken by the Bourbons and administered by a royal governor seated within the castle. The island participated in the short-lived Republic of Naples starting in March 1799 but by April 3 Commodore Thomas Troubridge under the command of Lord Nelson had put down the revolt on Ischia as well as on neighboring Procida. By decree of the governor, many of the rebels were hanged in a square on Procida now called Piazza dei martiri (Square of the Martyrs). Among these was Francesco Buonocore who had received the island to administer from the French Championnet in Naples. On February 13, 1806, the island was occupied by the French and on the 24th was unsuccessfully attacked by the British.

On June 21 and 22, 1809 the islands of Ischia and Procida were attacked by an Anglo-Bourbon fleet. Procida surrendered on June 24 and Ischia soon afterwards. However the British soon returned to their bases in Sicily and Malta. In the 19th century Ischia was a popular travel destination for European nobility.

On July 28, 1883, an earthquake destroyed the villages of Casamicciola Terme and Lacco Ameno.

Ischia developed into a well-known artist colony at the beginning of the 20th century. Writers and painters from all over the world were attracted. Eduard Bargheer, Hans Purrmann and Arrigo Wittler lived on the island. Rudolf Levy, Werner Gilles, Max Peiffer Watenphul with Kurt Craemer and Vincent Weber stayed in the fishing village of Sant'Angelo on the southern tip of the island shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War. In 1936 Ischia had a population of 30,418.

Spa tourism did not start again until the early 1950s. At that time, a quite remarkable artist colony of writers, composers and visual artists lived in Forio, including Ingeborg Bachmann. Elizabeth Taylor and Luchino Visconti stayed here for filming. On August 21, 2017, Ischia had an 4.2 magnitude earthquake which killed 2 people and injured 42 more.

Today, Ischia is a popular tourist destination, welcoming up to 6 million visitors per year, mainly from the Italian mainland as well as other European countries like Germany and the United Kingdom (approximately 5,000 Germans are resident on the island), although it has become an increasingly popular destination for Eastern Europeans. The  number of Russian guests rose steadily from the 2000s onwards, before the number came to an almost complete standstill due to the currency depreciation of the ruble and COVID-19 pandemic.

From Ischia, various destinations such as Naples, Vesuvius, Amalfi Coast, Capri, Herculaneum, Paestum and the neighboring island Procida can be booked. Ischia is easily reached by ferry from Naples. The number of thermal spas on the islands makes it particularly popular with tourists seeking "wellness" holidays. A regular visitor was Angela Merkel, the former German chancellor.

Events
The island is home to the Ischia Film Festival, an international cinema competition celebrated in June or July, dedicated to all the works that have promoted the value of the local territory.

Notable guests and works

 * The Italian politician Giuseppe Garibaldi, one of the most important figures of Italian unification, stayed on the island for healing himself from a serious injury and finding relief in the peaceful area of Casamicciola Terme (at the Manzi Hotel).
 * The Russian revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin, stayed in Ischia between July 1866 and June 1867, from where he wrote political letters to Alexander Herzen and Nikolai Ogarev.
 * In May 1948 W. H. Auden wrote his poem "In Praise of Limestone" here, the first poem he wrote in Italy.
 * In 1949, British classical composer William Walton settled in Ischia. In 1956, he sold his London house and took up full-time residence on Ischia; he built a hilltop house at Forio, called it La Mortella, and Susana Walton created a magnificent garden there. Walton lived on the island for the remainder of his life and died there in 1983.
 * German composer Hans Werner Henze lived on the island from 1953 to 1956 and wrote his Quattro Poemi (1955) there.
 * Samuel Taylor's Broadway play Avanti! (1968) takes place on the island.
 * Hergé's series of comic albums, The Adventures of Tintin (1907–1983), ends in Ischia, which serves as the location of Endaddine Akass' villa in the unfinished 24th and final book, Tintin and Alph-Art.
 * French novelist Pascal Quignard set much of his novel Villa Amalia (2006) on the island.
 * In Elena Ferrante's series of Neapolitan Novels, the island serves as the setting of several summer holidays of the main characters.

Film setting
In addition to the works noted above, multiple media works have been set or filmed on the island. For example:
 * The American swashbuckler film The Crimson Pirate (1952) was filmed on and around the island during the summer of 1951.
 * Part of Purple Noon ("Plein Soleil", 1959), directed by René Clément starring Alain Delon and Marie Laforêt
 * Avanti! (1972), starring Jack Lemon and Juliet Mills.
 * Part of Cleopatra (1963), starring Elizabeth Taylor, was filmed on the island.
 * Ischia Ponte stood in for "Mongibello" in the Hollywood film of The Talented Mr. Ripley (1999).
 * The American film And While We Were Here (2012), starring Kate Bosworth, was filmed on the island.
 * Castello Aragonese was used as the 'Riva's Fortified Fortress' island in Men in Black: International (2019).

Wines
The island of Ischia is home to the eponymous Denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) that produces both red and white wines though white wines account for nearly 80% of the island's wine production. Vineyards planted within the 179 ha boundaries of the DOC tend to be on volcanic soils with high pumice, phosphorus and potassium content.

The white wines of the island are composed primarily of Forastera (at least 65% according to DOC regulation) and Biancolella (up to 20%) with up to 15% of other local grape varieties such as Arilla and San Lunardo. Grapes are limited to a harvest yield of no more than 10 tonnes/ha with a finished minimum alcohol level of at least 11%. For wines labeled as Bianco Superiore, the yield is further restricted to a maximum of 8 tonnes/ha with a minimum alcohol level of 12%. Only certain subareas of the Ischia DOC can produce Bianco Superiore with the blend needing to contain 50% Forastera, 40% Biancolella and 10% San Lunardo.

Red wines produced under the Ischia DOC are composed of 50% Guarnaccia, 40% Piedirosso (known under the local synonym of Per'e Palummo) and 10% Barbera. Like the white wines, red grapes destined for DOC production are limited to a harvest yield of no more than 10 tonnes/ha though the minimum finished alcohol level is higher at 11.5% ABV.

Aragonese Castle
The Aragonese Castle (Castello Aragonese, Ischia Ponte) was built on a rock near the island in 474 BC, by Hiero I of Syracuse. At the same time, two towers were built to control enemy fleets' movements. The rock was then occupied by Parthenopeans (the ancient inhabitants of Naples). In 326 BC the fortress was captured by Romans, and then again by the Parthenopeans. In 1441 Alfonso V of Aragon connected the rock to the island with a stone bridge instead of the prior wood bridge, and fortified the walls to defend the inhabitants against the raids of pirates. Around 1700, about 2000 families lived on the islet, including a Poor Clares convent, an abbey of Basilian monks (of the Greek Orthodox Church), the bishop and the seminar, and the prince, with a military garrison. There were also thirteen churches. In 1912, the castle was sold to a private owner. Today the castle is the most visited monument of the island. It is accessed through a tunnel with large openings which let the light enter. Along the tunnel there is a small chapel consecrated to Saint John Joseph of the Cross (San Giovan Giuseppe della Croce), the patron saint of the island. A more comfortable access is also possible with a modern lift. After arriving outside, it is possible to visit the Church of the Immacolata and the Cathedral of Assunta. The first was built in 1737 on the location of a smaller chapel dedicated to Saint Francis, and closed after the suppression of convents in 1806, as well as the Poor Clares convent.

Gardens of La Mortella
The gardens, located in Forio-San Francesco, were originally the property of English composer William Walton. Walton lived in the villa next to the gardens with his Argentine wife Susana. When the composer arrived on the island in 1946, he immediately called Russell Page from England to lay out the garden. Wonderful tropical and Mediterranean plants were planted and some have now reached amazing proportions. The gardens include wonderful views over the city and harbour of Forio. A museum dedicated to the life and work of William Walton now comprises part of the garden complex. There's also a recital room where renowned musical artists perform on a regular schedule.

Villa La Colombaia
Villa La Colombaia is located in Lacco Ameno and Forio territories. Surrounded by a park, the villa (called "The Dovecote") was made by Luigi Patalano, a famous local socialist and journalist. It is now the seat of a cultural institution and museum dedicated to Luchino Visconti. The institution promotes cultural activities such as music, cinema, theatre, art exhibitions, workshops and cinema reviews. The villa and the park are open to the public.

Others

 * Sant'Angelo (Sant'Angelo, in the comune of Serrara Fontana)
 * Maronti Beach (Barano d'Ischia)
 * Church of the Soccorso' (Forio)
 * Piazza S.Restituta, with the best luxury boutiques (Lacco Ameno)
 * Bay of Sorgeto, with hot thermal springs (Panza)
 * Poseidon Gardens – spa with several thermal pools (Panza)
 * Citara Beach (Panza)
 * English's Beach (Ischia)
 * Pitthekoussai Archaeological museum
 * The Angelo Rizzoli museum

Voluntary associations
Committees and associations work to promote tourism on the island, and provide services and activities for residents. Among these are:
 * Il coniglio di Rocco Alfarano, associazione per la protezione del quadrupede sull’isola
 * Accaparlante Società Cooperativa Sociale, Via Sant'Alessandro
 * Associazione Donatori Volontari di Sangue, Via Iasolino, 1
 * Associazione Nemo per la Diffusione della Cultura del Mare, via Regina Elena, 75 Cellulare: 366–1270197
 * Associazione Progetto Emmaus, Via Acquedotto, 65
 * A.V.I. Associazione Volontariato e Protezione Civile Isola D'Ischia, Via Delle Terme, 88
 * Cooperativa Sociale Arkè onlus, Via delle Terme, 76/R Telefono: 081–981342
 * Cooperativa Sociale Asat Ischia onlus, Via delle Terme, 76/R Telefono: 081–3334228
 * Cooperativa Sociale kairòs onlus, Via delle Terme, 76/R
 * Kalimera Società Cooperativa Sociale, Via Fondo Bosso, 20
 * Pan Assoverdi Salvanatura, Via Delle Terme, 53/C
 * Prima Ischia – Onlus, Via Iasolino, 102

Town twinning

 * 🇺🇸 Los Angeles, US (2006)
 * 🇺🇸 Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA (2006)
 * 🇷🇺 Maloyaroslavets, Russia

Environmental problems
The sharp increase of the population between 1950 and 1980 and the growing inflow of tourists (in 2010 over 4 million tourists visited the island for at least one day) have increased the anthropic pressure on the island. Significant acreage of land previously used for agriculture has been developed for the construction of houses and residential structures. Most of this development has taken place without any planning and building permission. As at the end of 2011, the island lacked the most basic system for sewage treatment; sewage is sent directly to the sea. In 2004 one of the five communities of the island commenced civil works to build a sewage treatment plant but since then the construction has not been completed and it is currently stopped.

On June 14, 2007, there was a breakage in one of the four high-voltage underwater cables forming the power line maintained by Enel S.p.A. — although never authorized by Italian authorities – between Cuma on the Campania coast and Lacco Ameno on the island of Ischia. Inside each cable there is an 18 mm‑diameter channel filled with oil under high pressure. The breakage of the Enel cable resulted in the spillage of oil into the sea and into other environmental matrices – with the consequent pollution by polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs, the use of which was banned by the Italian authorities as long ago as 1984), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and linear alkyl benzenes (aromatic hydrocarbons) — in the ‘Regno di Nettuno’, a marine protected area, and the largest ecosystem in the Mediterranean Sea, designated as a ‘priority habitat’ in Annex I to the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) and comprising oceanic posidonia beds.

To reduce pollution due to cars, Ischia has been the place of the first complete sustainable mobility project applied to an urban center, created in 2017 with Enel in collaboration with Aldo Arcangioli, one the main Italian experts of green mobility, under the name of "Green Island".

title: Ischia


text:
Portal talk:Current events/October 2003

From October 31:

FBI statistics confirm that New York is now one of the safest big cities in the USA.

Ok, speaking as a New Yorker, so what? "One of"? This sentence is largely uninformative. If it's the safest, this should say so, if not, I see no reason to have the entry at all. --Charles A. L. 16:21, Nov 14, 2003 (UTC)

 * Tend to agree. Why not just delete it? -- Viajero 20:26, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * 'Cause I'm not bold. It's gone now. --Charles A. L. 21:04, Nov 14, 2003 (UTC)

Unprotect?
This page is protected for over two weeks. Maybe it's time to unprotect? uriber 12:45, 27 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Chaos!?
A recent Slashdot article linked to a site that showed this as the third-most contested article, after Jesus and Hitler. Strange though it is--are we sure this should be unprotected?
 * Look at the history. I think they must have bad data. Alexa411 18:30, 21 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Are you sure? Just because it doesn't fit our expectations doesn't mean it's wrong... 142.103.250.40heeeraldo
 * I see what has happened -- this page has the history of what used to be Current Events before it was changed into a transcluded template page. So it has edits going back to 22 December 2001. It probably only has about 250 edits since the whole way Current Events was run changed. Evil Monkey - Hello 21:54, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 64 one external links on October 2003. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
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When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 20:38, 25 August 2015 (UTC)

title: Portal talk:Current events/October 2003


text:
Walter Trohan

Walter Trohan (July 4, 1903 – October 30, 2003) was a 20th-century American journalist, known as a long-time Chicago Tribune reporter (1929–1971) and its bureau chief in Washington, D.C. (1949–1968).

Background
Trohan was born on July 4, 1903, in Mount Carmel, Pennsylvania. In 1920, he family moved to the South Side of Chicago, where his father was a wholesale grocer. He attended Bowen High School, reported for a bit at the Daily Calumet, and in 1926 graduated from the University of Notre Dame.

Career
After college, Trohan went to New York City to work but "didn't like it" and returned to Chicago. In 1927, Trohan went to work at the for the City News Bureau of Chicago (1927–1929).

On February 29, 1929, he received an offer to jon the Chicago Tribune newspaper. As a young reporter, he was first on the scene of the infamous St. Valentine's Day Massacre, when Al Capone's gang gunned down several members of the rival Bugs Moran gang.

In 1934, the Tribinue transferred Trohan as assistant correspondent to Washington, DC, when Franklin Roosevelt was president. In spite of the Tribune's hostility to Roosevelt's policies, Trohan and the president "maintained cordial relations." (Later, Trohan said that Roosevelt had "charisma in spades" but was "the worst snob I ever ran across.") In 1936, Trohan called FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover a "Keystone cop," but eventually, they became friends.

Harry Truman
Trohan recalled that he did not know Harry Truman well initially because he did not cover Capitol Hill much. However, he met him and noted that US Senator Burton K. Wheeler had gotten Truman a seat on the Senate's Interstate Commerce Committee. He said that he received a lot of advice from Wheeler and Lewis B. Schwellenbach. On the committee, Truman proved himself "quite and expert investigator." That said, he did not think Truman had enough experience to run for vice president and believed that Roosevelt chose Truman simply to avoid running again with Henry A. Wallace.

Anticommunist and Alger Hiss
On December 26, 1946, the Tribune had a front-page story by Trohan, "New Congress' Pink 'Advisors' Face G.O.P. Ax."

In 1947, Trohan became "executive director" of the Tribune's Washington bureau through 1949.

On September 26, 1948, he reported that Alger Hiss was about to flee the country, rather than file a libel suit against Whittaker Chambers. Hiss filed the suit the very next day. Overall, Trohan was critical of Truman's handling of the Hiss Case: "Like the time he fronted for Alger Hiss. He wasn't fronting for Alger Hiss, per se, he thought they were attacking him through Hiss. Roosevelt would have sacrificed Hiss at the snap of the finger. He would have sacrificed anybody, but Mr. Truman figured that that was a fight on him, so he supported Hiss whom he didn't really like; thought he was a terrible fellow."

Douglas MacArthur
In 1949, Trohan became Washington bureau chief (or "director") until 1969. In 1951, Trohan was known for ferreting out the fact that Truman planned to fire General Douglas MacArthur, the commander of UN forces in Korea. When Truman found out that Trohan knew about his plan, he publicly announced his decision via General Omar Bradley and robbed Trohan of the scoop. He experienced censorship during World War II as well.

"Washington Report"
From 1951 to 1968, Trohan also filed a radio broadcast, "Washington Report." In 1959, he accompanied US President Dwight Eisenhower on a three-continent tour.

In 1969, he retired from his position as Washington bureau chief and, on December 31, 1971, from his radio and column.

Richard Nixon
Trohan was a long-time "intimate journalist friend" of Richard Nixon. In 1953, he wrote Nixon (then the vice president) a letter that warned him against U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy.

Personal
Around 1929, Trohan married Carol Rowland. They had two daughters and a son.

Trohan was president of the White House Correspondents' Association in 1937-1938 and the Gridiron Club in 1967.

Trohan was anti-Semitic. For instance, in 1950, he wrote an article that accused US Senator Herbert H. Lehman, Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, and US Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau Jr. were part of an alleged "secret super-Government of Jews in Washington."

Trohan and his wife lived in County Clare, Ireland, from 1971 to 1978 and then returned to live in Columbia, Maryland.

Death
Trohan died at 100 on October 28, 2003, in a hospital in Bethesda, Maryland.

Legacy
Trohan is the source for much unique information about Franklin Roosevelt's health that turned up in various publications and FBI documents. He was the source for much of a controversial article published by Dr. Karl C. Wold in Look Magazine in 1947. He also collaborated with James A. Farley in ghost writing his memoirs. Trohan's papers are housed at the Herbert Hoover Library, near Cedar Rapids, Iowa.

Work
In 1975 Trohan wrote his memoirs and titled the book Political Animals. In the book, he recalled how when he arrived in Washington in 1934 as an assistant correspondent in the Tribune's Washington Bureau. He could remember freely wandering Roosevelt's White House and interviewing cabinet members and other staff. Due to tightened security measures, this freedom no longer exists.

 * Political Animals: Memoirs of a Sentimental Cynic (New York: Doubleday, 1975)

External sources

 * CIA: Letter November 20, 1947, thanking Walter Trohan for candidate

title: Walter Trohan


text:
Cock

Cock or cocks most commonly refers to:
 * Cock (bird) or rooster, a male of any bird species
 * Cock (slang), a vulgar slang term for the penis

Cock or cocks may also refer to:

Names

 * Cock (surname)
 * Cocks (surname)

Places

 * Cocks Glacier, Ross Dependency, Antarctica
 * Mount Cocks, Victoria Land, Antarctica
 * Cock Bridge (Ljubljana), a footbridge in Ljubljana, Slovenia
 * Cock Marsh, Berkshire, England, UK
 * Cocks, Cornwall, a hamlet in England, UK
 * Cock Beck, a stream in Yorkshire, England, UK

Pubs and bars

 * The Cock, a gay bar in New York City
 * The Cock, Broom, a Grade II listed public house in Broom, Bedfordshire
 * The Cock, Fulham, a historic public house in London
 * The Cock, St Albans, a public house in St Albans, Hertfordshire, England
 * Cock Tavern Theatre, a pub theatre in Kilburn, London
 * The Cock sign, a pub sign in Sutton, London

Vehicles

 * Antonov An-22 or Cock, a heavy military transport aircraft
 * Colditz Cock, a glider built by British Second World War prisoners of war in Colditz Castle for an escape attempt

Other uses

 * .co.ck, a second-level domain of the Cook Islands
 * Cock, a colloquial term for a small valve or spigot
 * Cock (play), a 2009 play by Mike Bartlett
 * Cock ale, an ale popular in 17th and 18th-century England
 * Cocks baronets, two baronetcies, one extinct and one extant
 * Cock Lane, a street in London
 * Riihimäki Cocks, a handball team

title: Cock


text:
Ray Point, Texas

Ray Point is a small rural unincorporated community in Live Oak County, Texas, United States. It is a German farming community typical for much of Texas. The most prominent remaining structures are the Ray Point community center and the Ray Point Mercantile (closed). Nearby is the Ray Point cemetery. The nearest city is Three Rivers.

Demographics
In 1990, there were 75 people living in the community, according to the Handbook of Texas Online.

title: Ray Point, Texas