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Activated carbon

Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal, is a form of carbon commonly used to filter contaminants from water and air, among many other uses. It is processed (activated) to have small, low-volume pores that greatly increase the surface area available for adsorption  or chemical reactions that can be thought of as a microscopic "sponge" structure (adsorption, not to be confused with absorption, is a process where atoms or molecules adhere to a surface). Activation is analogous to making popcorn from dried corn kernels: popcorn is light, fluffy, and its kernels have a high surface-area-to-volume ratio. Activated is sometimes replaced by active.

Because it is so porous on a microscopic scale, one gram of activated carbon has a surface area of over 3000 m2, as determined by gas adsorption. For charcoal, the equivalent figure before activation is about 2–5 square metres. A useful activation level may be obtained solely from high surface area. Further chemical treatment often enhances adsorption properties.

Activated carbon is usually derived from waste products such as coconut husks; waste from paper mills has been studied as a source. These bulk sources are converted into charcoal before being activated. When derived from coal, it is referred to as activated coal. Activated coke is derived from coke.

Uses
Activated carbon is used in methane and hydrogen storage, air purification, capacitive deionization, supercapacitive swing adsorption, solvent recovery, decaffeination, gold purification, metal extraction, water purification, medicine, sewage treatment, air filters in respirators, filters in compressed air, teeth whitening, production of hydrogen chloride, edible electronics, and many other applications.

Industrial
One major industrial application involves use of activated carbon in metal finishing for purification of electroplating solutions. For example, it is the main purification technique for removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions. A variety of organic chemicals are added to plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness, ductility, etc. Due to passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, organic additives generate unwanted breakdown products in solution. Their excessive build up can adversely affect plating quality and physical properties of deposited metal. Activated carbon treatment removes such impurities and restores plating performance to the desired level.

Medical

Activated carbon is used to treat poisonings and overdoses following oral ingestion. Tablets or capsules of activated carbon are used in many countries as an over-the-counter drug to treat diarrhea, indigestion, and flatulence. However, activated charcoal shows no effect on intestinal gas and diarrhea, is ordinarily medically ineffective if poisoning resulted from ingestion of corrosive agents, boric acid, or petroleum products, and is particularly ineffective against poisonings of strong acids or bases, cyanide, iron, lithium, arsenic, methanol, ethanol, or ethylene glycol. Activated carbon will not prevent these chemicals from being absorbed into the human body. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.

Incorrect application (e.g. into the lungs) results in pulmonary aspiration, which can sometimes be fatal if immediate medical treatment is not initiated.

Analytical chemistry
Activated carbon, in 50% w/w combination with celite, is used as stationary phase in low-pressure chromatographic separation of carbohydrates (mono-, di-, tri-saccharides) using ethanol solutions (5–50%) as mobile phase in analytical or preparative protocols.

Activated carbon is useful for extracting the direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) such as dabigatran, apixaban, rivaroxaban and edoxaban from blood plasma samples. For this purpose it has been made into "minitablets", each containing 5 mg activated carbon for treating 1ml samples of DOAC. Since this activated carbon has no effect on blood clotting factors, heparin or most other anticoagulants this allows a plasma sample to be analyzed for abnormalities otherwise affected by the DOACs.

Environmental

Carbon adsorption has numerous applications in removing pollutants from air or water streams both in the field and in industrial processes such as:
 * Spill cleanup
 * Groundwater remediation
 * Drinking water filtration
 * Wastewater treatment
 * Air purification
 * Volatile organic compounds capture from painting, dry cleaning, gasoline dispensing operations, and other processes
 * Volatile organic compounds recovery (SRU, Solvent Recovery Unit; SRP, Solvent Recovery Plant; SRS, Solvent Recovery System) from flexible packaging, converting, coating, and other processes.

During early implementation of the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act in the US, EPA officials developed a rule that proposed requiring drinking water treatment systems to use granular activated carbon. Because of its high cost, the so-called GAC rule encountered strong opposition across the country from the water supply industry, including the largest water utilities in California. Hence, the agency set aside the rule. Activated carbon filtration is an effective water treatment method due to its multi-functional nature. There are specific types of activated carbon filtration methods and equipment that are indicated – depending upon the contaminants involved.

Activated carbon is also used for the measurement of radon concentration in air.

Agricultural
Activated carbon (charcoal) is an allowed substance used by organic farmers in both livestock production and wine making. In livestock production it is used as a pesticide, animal feed additive, processing aid, nonagricultural ingredient and disinfectant. In organic winemaking, activated carbon is allowed for use as a processing agent to adsorb brown color pigments from white grape concentrates. It is sometimes used as biochar.

Distilled alcoholic beverage purification
Activated carbon filters (AC filters) can be used to filter vodka and whiskey of organic impurities which can affect color, taste, and odor. Passing an organically impure vodka through an activated carbon filter at the proper flow rate will result in vodka with an identical alcohol content and significantly increased organic purity, as judged by odor and taste.

Fuel storage
Research is being done testing various activated carbons' ability to store natural gas and hydrogen gas. The porous material acts like a sponge for different types of gases. The gas is attracted to the carbon material via Van der Waals forces. Some carbons have been able to achieve binding energies of 5–10 kJ per mol. The gas may then be desorbed when subjected to higher temperatures and either combusted to do work or in the case of hydrogen gas extracted for use in a hydrogen fuel cell. Gas storage in activated carbons is an appealing gas storage method because the gas can be stored in a low pressure, low mass, low volume environment that would be much more feasible than bulky on-board pressure tanks in vehicles. The United States Department of Energy has specified certain goals to be achieved in the area of research and development of nano-porous carbon materials. All of the goals are yet to be satisfied but numerous institutions, including the ALL-CRAFT program, are continuing to conduct work in this field.

Gas purification
Filters with activated carbon are usually used in compressed air and gas purification to remove oil vapors, odor, and other hydrocarbons from the air. The most common designs use a 1-stage or 2 stage filtration principle in which activated carbon is embedded inside the filter media.

Activated carbon filters are used to retain radioactive gases within the air vacuumed from a nuclear boiling water reactor turbine condenser. The large charcoal beds adsorb these gases and retain them while they rapidly decay to nonradioactive solid species. The solids are trapped in the charcoal particles, while the filtered air passes through.

Chemical purification
Activated carbon is commonly used on the laboratory scale to purify solutions of organic molecules containing unwanted colored organic impurities.

Filtration over activated carbon is used in large scale fine chemical and pharmaceutical processes for the same purpose. The carbon is either mixed with the solution then filtered off or immobilized in a filter.

Mercury scrubbing
Activated carbon, often infused with sulfur or iodine, is widely used to trap mercury emissions from coal-fired power stations, medical incinerators, and from natural gas at the wellhead. However, despite its effectiveness, activated carbon is expensive to use.

Since it is often not recycled, the mercury-laden activated carbon presents a disposal dilemma. If the activated carbon contains less than 260 ppm mercury, United States federal regulations allow it to be stabilized (for example, trapped in concrete) for landfilling. However, waste containing greater than 260 ppm is considered to be in the high-mercury subcategory and is banned from landfilling (Land-Ban Rule). This material is now accumulating in warehouses and in deep abandoned mines at an estimated rate of 100 tons per year.

The problem of disposal of mercury-laden activated carbon is not unique to the United States. In the Netherlands, this mercury is largely recovered and the activated carbon is disposed of by complete burning, forming carbon dioxide.

Food additive
Activated, food-grade charcoal became a food trend in 2016, being used as an additive to impart a "slightly smoky" taste and a dark coloring to products including hotdogs, ice cream, pizza bases, and bagels. People taking medication, including birth control pills and antidepressants, are advised to avoid novelty foods or drinks that use activated charcoal coloring since it can render the medication ineffective.

Smoking filtration
Activated charcoal is used in smoking filters as a way to reduce the tar content and other chemicals present in smoke, which is a result of combustion, wherein it has been found to reduce the toxicants from tobacco smoke, in particular the free radicals.

Structure of activated carbon
The structure of activated carbon has long been a subject of debate. In a book published in 2006, Harry Marsh and Francisco Rodríguez-Reinoso considered more than 15 models for the structure, without coming to a definite conclusion about which was correct. Recent work using aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy has suggested that activated carbons may have a structure related to that of the fullerenes, with pentagonal and heptagonal carbon rings.

Production
Activated carbon is carbon produced from carbonaceous source materials such as bamboo, coconut husk, willow peat, wood, coir, lignite, coal, and petroleum pitch. It can be produced (activated) by one of the following processes:
 * 1) Physical activation: The source material is developed into activated carbon using hot gases. Air is then introduced to burn out the gasses, creating a graded, screened and de-dusted form of activated carbon. This is generally done by using one or more of the following processes:
 * 2) * Carbonization: Material with carbon content is pyrolyzed at temperatures in the range 600–900 °C, usually in an inert atmosphere with gases such as argon or nitrogen
 * 3) * Activation/oxidation: Raw material or carbonized material is exposed to oxidizing atmospheres (oxygen or steam) at temperatures above 250 °C, usually in the temperature range of 600–1200 °C. The activation is performed by heating the sample for 1 h in a muffle furnace at 450 °C in the presence of air.
 * 4) Chemical activation: The carbon material is impregnated with certain chemicals. The chemical is typically an acid, strong base,  or a salt (phosphoric acid 25%, potassium hydroxide 5%, sodium hydroxide 5%, potassium carbonate 5%, calcium chloride 25%, and zinc chloride 25%). The carbon is then subjected to high temperatures (250–600 °C). It is believed that the temperature activates the carbon at this stage by forcing the material to open up and have more microscopic pores. Chemical activation is preferred to physical activation owing to the lower temperatures, better quality consistency, and shorter time needed for activating the material.

The Dutch company Norit NV, part of the Cabot Corporation, is the largest producer of activated carbon in the world. Haycarb, a Sri Lankan coconut shell-based company, controls 16% of the global market share.

Classification
Activated carbons are complex products which are difficult to classify on the basis of their behaviour, surface characteristics and other fundamental criteria. However, some broad classification is made for general purposes based on their size, preparation methods, and industrial applications.

Powdered activated carbon (PAC)

Normally, activated carbons (R 1) are made in particulate form as powders or fine granules less than 1.0 mm in size with an average diameter between 0.15 and 0.25 mm. Thus they present a large surface to volume ratio with a small diffusion distance. Activated carbon (R 1) is defined as the activated carbon particles retained on a 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm).

Powdered activated carbon (PAC) material is finer material. PAC is made up of crushed or ground carbon particles, 95–100% of which will pass through a designated mesh sieve. The ASTM classifies particles passing through an 80-mesh sieve (0.177 mm) and smaller as PAC. It is not common to use PAC in a dedicated vessel, due to the high head loss that would occur. Instead, PAC is generally added directly to other process units, such as raw water intakes, rapid mix basins, clarifiers, and gravity filters.

Granular activated carbon (GAC)

Granular activated carbon (GAC) has a relatively larger particle size compared to powdered activated carbon and consequently, presents a smaller external surface. Diffusion of the adsorbate is thus an important factor. These carbons are suitable for adsorption of gases and vapors, because gaseous substances diffuse rapidly. Granulated carbons are used for air filtration and water treatment, as well as for general deodorization and separation of components in flow systems and in rapid mix basins. GAC can be obtained in either granular or extruded form. GAC is designated by sizes such as 8×20, 20×40, or 8×30 for liquid phase applications and 4×6, 4×8 or 4×10 for vapor phase applications. A 20×40 carbon is made of particles that will pass through a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 20 sieve (0.84 mm) (generally specified as 85% passing) but be retained on a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 40 sieve (0.42 mm) (generally specified as 95% retained). AWWA (1992) B604 uses the 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm) as the minimum GAC size. The most popular aqueous-phase carbons are the 12×40 and 8×30 sizes because they have a good balance of size, surface area, and head loss characteristics.

Extruded activated carbon (EAC)
Extruded activated carbon (EAC) combines powdered activated carbon with a binder, which are fused together and extruded into a cylindrical shaped activated carbon block with diameters from 0.8 to 130 mm. These are mainly used for gas phase applications because of their low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content. Also sold as CTO filter (Chlorine, Taste, Odor).

Bead activated carbon (BAC)
Bead activated carbon (BAC) is made from petroleum pitch and supplied in diameters from approximately 0.35 to 0.80 mm. Similar to EAC, it is also noted for its low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content, but with a smaller grain size. Its spherical shape makes it preferred for fluidized bed applications such as water filtration.

Impregnated carbon
Porous carbons containing several types of inorganic impregnate such as iodine and silver. Cations such as aluminium, manganese, zinc, iron, lithium, and calcium have also been prepared for specific application in air pollution control especially in museums and galleries. Due to its antimicrobial and antiseptic properties, silver loaded activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for purification of domestic water. Drinking water can be obtained from natural water by treating the natural water with a mixture of activated carbon and aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3), a flocculating agent. Impregnated carbons are also used for the adsorption of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and thiols. Adsorption rates for H2S as high as 50% by weight have been reported.

Polymer coated carbon
This is a process by which a porous carbon can be coated with a biocompatible polymer to give a smooth and permeable coat without blocking the pores. The resulting carbon is useful for hemoperfusion. Hemoperfusion is a treatment technique in which large volumes of the patient's blood are passed over an adsorbent substance in order to remove toxic substances from the blood.

Woven carbon
There is a technology of processing technical rayon fiber into activated carbon cloth for carbon filtering. Adsorption capacity of activated cloth is greater than that of activated charcoal (BET theory) surface area: 500–1500 m2/g, pore volume: 0.3–0.8 cm3/g). Thanks to the different forms of activated material, it can be used in a wide range of applications (supercapacitors, [Odor Absorbers, CBRN-defense industry etc.).

Properties
A gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess of 500 m2, with 3000 m2 being readily achievable. Carbon aerogels, while more expensive, have even higher surface areas, and are used in special applications.

Under an electron microscope, the high surface-area structures of activated carbon are revealed. Individual particles are intensely convoluted and display various kinds of porosity; there may be many areas where flat surfaces of graphite-like material run parallel to each other, separated by only a few nanometres or so. These micropores provide superb conditions for adsorption to occur, since adsorbing material can interact with many surfaces simultaneously. Tests of adsorption behaviour are usually done with nitrogen gas at 77 K under high vacuum, but in everyday terms activated carbon is perfectly capable of producing the equivalent, by adsorption from its environment, liquid water from steam at 100 C and a pressure of 1/10,000 of an atmosphere.

James Dewar, the scientist after whom the Dewar (vacuum flask) is named, spent much time studying activated carbon and published a paper regarding its adsorption capacity with regard to gases. In this paper, he discovered that cooling the carbon to liquid nitrogen temperatures allowed it to adsorb significant quantities of numerous air gases, among others, that could then be recollected by simply allowing the carbon to warm again and that coconut-based carbon was superior for the effect. He uses oxygen as an example, wherein the activated carbon would typically adsorb the atmospheric concentration (21%) under standard conditions, but release over 80% oxygen if the carbon was first cooled to low temperatures.

Physically, activated carbon binds materials by van der Waals force or London dispersion force.

Activated carbon does not bind well to certain chemicals, including alcohols, diols, strong acids and bases, metals and most inorganics, such as lithium, sodium, iron, lead, arsenic, fluorine, and boric acid.

Activated carbon adsorbs iodine very well. The iodine capacity, mg/g, (ASTM D28 Standard Method test) may be used as an indication of total surface area.

Carbon monoxide is not well adsorbed by activated carbon. This should be of particular concern to those using the material in filters for respirators, fume hoods, or other gas control systems because the gas is undetectable to the human senses, toxic to the metabolism, and neurotoxic.

Substantial lists of the common industrial and agricultural gases adsorbed by activated carbon can be found online.

Activated carbon can be used as a substrate for the application of various chemicals to improve the adsorptive capacity for some inorganic (and problematic organic) compounds such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), formaldehyde (HCOH), mercury (Hg) and radioactive iodine-131(131I). This property is known as chemisorption.

Iodine number
Many carbons preferentially adsorb small molecules. Iodine number is the most fundamental parameter used to characterize activated carbon performance. It is a measure of activity level (higher number indicates higher degree of activation ) often reported in mg/g (typical range 500–1200 mg/g). It is a measure of the micropore content of the activated carbon (0 to 20 Å, or up to 2 nm) by adsorption of iodine from solution. It is equivalent to surface area of carbon between 900 and 1100 m2/g. It is the standard measure for liquid-phase applications.

Iodine number is defined as the milligrams of iodine adsorbed by one gram of carbon when the iodine concentration in the residual filtrate is at a concentration of 0.02 normal (i.e. 0.02N). Basically, iodine number is a measure of the iodine adsorbed in the pores and, as such, is an indication of the pore volume available in the activated carbon of interest. Typically, water-treatment carbons have iodine numbers ranging from 600 to 1100. Frequently, this parameter is used to determine the degree of exhaustion of a carbon in use. However, this practice should be viewed with caution, as chemical interactions with the adsorbate may affect the iodine uptake, giving false results. Thus, the use of iodine number as a measure of the degree of exhaustion of a carbon bed can only be recommended if it has been shown to be free of chemical interactions with adsorbates and if an experimental correlation between iodine number and the degree of exhaustion has been determined for the particular application.

Molasses
Some carbons are more adept at adsorbing large molecules. Molasses number or molasses efficiency is a measure of the mesopore content of the activated carbon (greater than 20 Å, or larger than 2 nm) by adsorption of molasses from solution. A high molasses number indicates a high adsorption of big molecules (range 95–600). Caramel dp (decolorizing performance) is similar to molasses number. Molasses efficiency is reported as a percentage (range 40%–185%) and parallels molasses number (600 = 185%, 425 = 85%). The European molasses number (range 525–110) is inversely related to the North American molasses number.

Molasses Number is a measure of the degree of decolorization of a standard molasses solution that has been diluted and standardized against standardized activated carbon. Due to the size of color bodies, the molasses number represents the potential pore volume available for larger adsorbing species. As all of the pore volume may not be available for adsorption in a particular waste water application, and as some of the adsorbate may enter smaller pores, it is not a good measure of the worth of a particular activated carbon for a specific application. Frequently, this parameter is useful in evaluating a series of active carbons for their rates of adsorption. Given two active carbons with similar pore volumes for adsorption, the one having the higher molasses number will usually have larger feeder pores resulting in more efficient transfer of adsorbate into the adsorption space.

Tannin
Tannins are a mixture of large and medium size molecules. Carbons with a combination of macropores and mesopores adsorb tannins. The ability of a carbon to adsorb tannins is reported in parts per million concentration (range 200 ppm–362 ppm).

Methylene blue
Some carbons have a mesopore (20 Å to 50 Å, or 2 to 5 nm) structure which adsorbs medium size molecules, such as the dye methylene blue. Methylene blue adsorption is reported in g/100g (range 11–28 g/100g).

Dechlorination
Some carbons are evaluated based on the dechlorination half-life length, which measures the chlorine-removal efficiency of activated carbon. The dechlorination half-value length is the depth of carbon required to reduce the chlorine concentration by 50%. A lower half-value length indicates superior performance.

Apparent density
The solid or skeletal density of activated carbons will typically range between 2000 and 2100 kg/m3 (125–130 lbs./cubic foot). However, a large part of an activated carbon sample will consist of air space between particles, and the actual or apparent density will therefore be lower, typically 400 to 500 kg/m3 (25–31 lbs./cubic foot).

Higher density provides greater volume activity and normally indicates better-quality activated carbon. ASTM D 2854 -09 (2014) is used to determine the apparent density of activated carbon.

Hardness/abrasion number
It is a measure of the activated carbon's resistance to attrition. It is an important indicator of activated carbon to maintain its physical integrity and withstand frictional forces. There are large differences in the hardness of activated carbons, depending on the raw material and activity levels (porosity).

Ash content
Ash reduces the overall activity of activated carbon and reduces the efficiency of reactivation. The amount is exclusively dependent on the base raw material used to produce the activated carbon (e.g., coconut, wood, coal, etc.). The metal oxides (Fe2O3) can leach out of activated carbon resulting in discoloration. Acid/water-soluble ash content is more significant than total ash content. Soluble ash content can be very important for aquarists, as ferric oxide can promote algal growths. A carbon with a low soluble ash content should be used for marine, freshwater fish and reef tanks to avoid heavy metal poisoning and excess plant/algal growth. ASTM (D2866 Standard Method test) is used to determine the ash content of activated carbon.

Carbon tetrachloride activity
Measurement of the porosity of an activated carbon by the adsorption of saturated carbon tetrachloride vapour.

Particle size distribution
The finer the particle size of an activated carbon, the better the access to the surface area and the faster the rate of adsorption kinetics. In vapour phase systems this needs to be considered against pressure drop, which will affect energy cost. Careful consideration of particle size distribution can provide significant operating benefits. However, in the case of using activated carbon for adsorption of minerals such as gold, the particle size should be in the range of 3.35 - 1.4 mm. Activated carbon with particle size less than 1 mm would not be suitable for elution (the stripping of mineral from an activated carbon).

Modification of properties and reactivity
Acid-base, oxidation-reduction and specific adsorption characteristics are strongly dependent on the composition of the surface functional groups.

The surface of conventional activated carbon is reactive, capable of oxidation by atmospheric oxygen and oxygen plasma     steam,   and also carbon dioxide and ozone.

Oxidation in the liquid phase is caused by a wide range of reagents (HNO3, H2O2, KMnO4).

Through the formation of a large number of basic and acidic groups on the surface of oxidized carbon to sorption and other properties can differ significantly from the unmodified forms.

Activated carbon can be nitrogenated by natural products or polymers or processing of carbon with nitrogenating reagents.

Activated carbon can interact with chlorine, bromine and fluorine.

Surface of activated carbon, like other carbon materials can be fluoralkylated by treatment with (per)fluoropolyether peroxide in a liquid phase, or with wide range of fluoroorganic substances by CVD-method. Such materials combine high hydrophobicity and chemical stability with electrical and thermal conductivity and can be used as electrode material for super capacitors.

Sulfonic acid functional groups can be attached to activated carbon to give "starbons" which can be used to selectively catalyse the esterification of fatty acids. Formation of such activated carbons from halogenated precursors gives a more effective catalyst which is thought to be a result of remaining halogens improving stability. It is reported about synthesis of activated carbon with chemically grafted superacid sites –CF2SO3H.

Some of the chemical properties of activated carbon have been attributed to presence of the surface active carbon double bond.

The Polyani adsorption theory is a popular method for analyzing adsorption of various organic substances to their surface.

Heterogeneous catalysis
The most commonly encountered form of chemisorption in industry, occurs when a solid catalyst interacts with a gaseous feedstock, the reactant/s. The adsorption of reactant/s to the catalyst surface creates a chemical bond, altering the electron density around the reactant molecule and allowing it to undergo reactions that would not normally be available to it.

Reactivation and regeneration
The reactivation or the regeneration of activated carbons involves restoring the adsorptive capacity of saturated activated carbon by desorbing adsorbed contaminants on the activated carbon surface.

Thermal reactivation
The most common regeneration technique employed in industrial processes is thermal reactivation. The thermal regeneration process generally follows three steps:
 * Adsorbent drying at approximately 105 C
 * High temperature desorption and decomposition (500 - 900 C) under an inert atmosphere
 * Residual organic gasification by a non-oxidising gas (steam or carbon dioxide) at elevated temperatures (800 C)

The heat treatment stage utilises the exothermic nature of adsorption and results in desorption, partial cracking and polymerization of the adsorbed organics. The final step aims to remove charred organic residue formed in the porous structure in the previous stage and re-expose the porous carbon structure regenerating its original surface characteristics. After treatment the adsorption column can be reused. Per adsorption-thermal regeneration cycle between 5–15 wt% of the carbon bed is burnt off resulting in a loss of adsorptive capacity. Thermal regeneration is a high energy process due to the high required temperatures making it both an energetically and commercially expensive process. Plants that rely on thermal regeneration of activated carbon have to be of a certain size before it is economically viable to have regeneration facilities onsite. As a result, it is common for smaller waste treatment sites to ship their activated carbon cores to specialised facilities for regeneration.

Other regeneration techniques
Current concerns with the high energy/cost nature of thermal regeneration of activated carbon has encouraged research into alternative regeneration methods to reduce the environmental impact of such processes. Though several of the regeneration techniques cited have remained areas of purely academic research, some alternatives to thermal regeneration systems have been employed in industry. Current alternative regeneration methods are:
 * TSA (thermal swing adsorption) and/or PSA (pressure swing adsorption) processes: through convection (heat transfer) using steam, "hot" inert gas (typically heated nitrogen (150–250 °C (302–482 °F))), or vacuum (T+VSA or TVSA, combining TSA and VSA processes) in situ regeneration
 * MWR (microwave regeneration)
 * Chemical and solvent regeneration
 * Microbial regeneration
 * Electrochemical regeneration
 * Ultrasonic regeneration
 * Wet air oxidation

title: Activated carbon


text:
Ed Limato

Edward Frank Limato (July 10, 1936 – July 3, 2010) was an American talent agent and a senior vice president at the William Morris Agency, representing clients such as Michelle Pfeiffer, Nicolas Cage, Mel Gibson, Steve Martin, Diana Ross, Richard Gere, and Denzel Washington. Before coming to WMA, Limato was a partner and co-president at International Creative Management for more than a decade, from 1988 to 1999.

Life and career
Limato grew up in a working-class Italian family in Mount Vernon, New York. He worked as a disc jockey and traveled to Europe, where he got a job as assistant to Franco Zeffirelli. Zeffirelli's agent helped Limato get a mailroom job at Ashley-Famous Agency in New York. That agency eventually merged to become International Creative Management (ICM).

Limato transferred to Los Angeles, and he eventually moved to the William Morris Agency. He later returned to ICM, rising to co-president. He sued ICM in 2007 after they tried to move him to an emeritus position. Limato prevailed in the case and returned to William Morris with his clients.

Limato was on the board of directors at Abercrombie & Fitch. He also served on the boards of the Los Angeles Conservancy, American Cinematheque, and the Motion Picture and Television Fund. Limato died of emphysema complicated by pneumonia in his home in 2010, just one week short of his 74th birthday.

Legacy
Both the 2010 film Unstoppable and the 2012 film Flight include dedications to Limato.

The 2020 documentary P.S. Burn This Letter Please is based on a cache of hundreds of letters written to Limato, using his earlier radio presenter air name Reno Martin, and unearthed in a Los Angeles storage unit in 2014. The letters, dating back to the 1950s, are from some of Limato's closest friends, many of whom were drag queens in New York City. The letters represent "important written documents for drag queen history since most of these types of letters were destroyed out of fear."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ed Limato


text:
User:Hif

Ever wandered lonely nights in front of your computer, talking to strangers and wanting to feel apart of something?

Me neither.

I can be reached at hiffyness at gmail.com

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title: User:Hif


text:
Talk:Traceability

Traceability goes far beyond the definition given here. That is also for exemple, all what is done to insure that at any step of an agricultural product transformation, from the field to the mouth, it is possible to know exactly where the food stuff comes from, and what treatements were made on it. ant

Traceability
Traceability does go farther than stated here (as another reviewer had mentioned). It is used widely in many industries including agriculture, business, government and others. While it has different meanings, in the computer world it is a requirement for any Software Development LifeCycle (SDLC)used by any of the development processes (Rational, etc.) and means tracing requirements back to the design through the User Requirements, Functional Specification, and full lifecycle. In the FDA world, this is a requirement for all of the Qualifications of a manufacturing or computerized system. These Qualifications are (in order): the Design Qualification (DQ), Installation Qualification (IQ), Operational Qualification (OQ) and Performance Qualification (PQ). Traceability is fulfilled by through tracing the qualification requirements for each of these documents. Note: While this term has been used extensively in the computer world to ensure quality validation and verification, oddly enough Microsoft Word has never recognized it as a recognized word in its dictionary and will always come up as a spelling error.

Non-notable external links
There are a lot of external links on this article, some of which I think should be removed:

 * FQcode | Traceability Solutions
 * Intact Consult - Consultancy and software solutions for internal and supply chain traceability
 * Historic Futures Ltd - Specialists in complete end to end supply chain traceability in multiple product sectors
 * TraceTracker, a leader in whole-chain traceability in the food industry
 * Flexware Innovation: Traceability in manufacturing

If anyone can vouch that these are notable enough to include in this article, then I'll leave them. If not, I'll remove them in one week (16 November 2007). CoderGnome 19:31, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

 * The links have been removed CoderGnome (talk) 04:33, 18 November 2007 (UTC)

Traceability: Calibration
Traceability as related to calibration is often mistakenly thought of as only pertaining to the calibration side of the measurement process. This is not the case. The definition provided by the "International Vocabulary of Basic and General Terms in Metrology (VIM)" states "traceability [is a] property of the result of a measurement or the value of a standard...". This definition indicates that traceability extends to the measurement result and does not stop at the calibrated instrument. The subheading Calibration under the Traceability main heading promote this misunderstanding. I would recommend changing the subheading from calibration to measurement. --Bestshot (talk) 18:43, 29 March 2008 (UTC)

The VIM defintions of traceability all refer to "measurement traceability" or "traceability of measurement" and it is worth using these specific and explanatory terms to distinguish this from other traceability concepts. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.96.121.94 (talk) 20:56, 7 July 2010 (UTC)

Software
This section contains a sentence that I believe is worded incorrectly. Where is says: "refers to the ability to link product documentation requirements back to stakeholders' rationales", I believe it should say: "refers to the ability to link product requirements documentation back to stakeholders' rationales I understand that the first sentence (the one currently in the article as of 7-14-10) should be interpreted as meaning "those requirements contained in the product documentation". But that is not the only way it may be read. It may also be interpreted as meaning: "The requirements to which documentation is subjected" or in other words requirements on the documentation and not documentation of the requirements. My suggested wording would make it more clear that "requirements" are those set on the product and not on the documentation. The documentation is that which lists the product requirements. I'll leave it for someone else to make the correction. I may just make the correction myself if there is no feedback on this for a few weeks. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Alex Pascual (talk • contribs) 16:41, 14 July 2010 (UTC)

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Wiki Education assignment: Research Process and Methodology - FA23 - Sect 201 - Thu
— Assignment last updated by Jasminezapple (talk) 19:46, 1 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Traceability


text:
ICM

ICM may refer to:

Organizations

 * Irish Church Missions, an Anglican mission
 * Institut du Cerveau, the Paris Brain Institute, a research center
 * Interdisciplinary Centre for Mathematical and Computational Modelling, University of Warsaw
 * International Confederation of Midwives
 * ICM Partners, a former talent and literary agency, originally International Creative Management
 * ICM Research, a UK polling company, originally Independent Communications and Marketing
 * ICM Registry, the company that sponsors the  Internet top-level domain for adult entertainment
 * Independent Citizens Movement, a United States Virgin Islands party
 * Chartered Institute of Credit Management, a UK-based professional Institute, formerly the Institute of Credit Management
 * Institute of Commercial Management a UK-based body for commercial and business development managers
 * Intergovernmental Committee for Migration, a former name of the UN International Organization for Migration
 * Islamic Center of Murfreesboro, Tennessee, US

Science and technology

 * Image Color Management, Microsoft Windows software
 * Iterated conditional modes, an algorithm for approximate statistical inference
 * Integrated catchment management, a subset of environmental planning
 * Interim Control Module, a NASA-constructed module
 * Internal Coordinate Mechanics, a software program and algorithm
 * Intracluster medium, in astronomy
 * IBIS Interconnect Modeling Specification

Biology and medicine

 * Insertable cardiac monitor, a small device
 * Inner cell mass, a structure in the early development of an embryo
 * Iodinated contrast medium, an intravenous radiocontrast agent
 * Intensive care medicine, a medical specialty
 * Ischemic cardiomyopathy, a type of cardiomyopathy

Events

 * International Congress of Mathematicians, the largest mathematics conference, hosted by the International Mathematical Union

Military and government

 * Iraq Campaign Medal, of the US Armed Forces
 * Improved conventional munition, an artillery
 * Intelligence Commendation Medal, awarded by the US CIA

Other uses

 * Integrated coastal management, a coastal management process
 * Idealized cognitive model, in linguistics
 * Independent Chip Model, in poker
 * Indian classical music
 * Intentional camera movement, used in creative photography
 * Interactive contract manufacturing, a business model
 * Internationales Congress Center München, Munich, Germany
 * NS Intercity Materieel, an electric train operated by Dutch Railways

title: ICM


text:
User:Sebb~enwiki

I'm a 17 years old student and my interests are in computer science and espacialy Open Source developpement.

My mother tongue is French, but I try to learn English the best I can. I live in Quebec, Canada.

My favorite Open Source projects are the following:

 * Linux (My favorite distro. is Fedora Linux)
 * The Python programming language
 * Plone
 * Abiword
 * Mozilla (I like Firefox)
 * The GIMP
 * Gnome
 * GTK
 * Ximian products

... and many others. You can see that I'm the Gnome, RPM, GTK+ type of boy!

My idols are:

 * Richard Stallman
 * Linus Torvalds
 * Eric Raymond

The following are the Web sites that I visit very often:

 * LXer
 * Slashdot
 * OSNews
 * Freshmeat

What I dislike:

 * Proprietary software
 * People that talk against Linux while they haven't only tried it.
 * Stupid, arrogant, violent and insensitive people.

Later, I want to be an Hacker and work for a company like Ximian, IBM, Red Hat, Novell, Sun Microsystems, Google or any other company that promote Open Source and Linux. It would also be cool to work at a University or in a developpement Lab. To accomplish that, I need to stop writting about myself and go back to my learning process.

title: User:Sebb~enwiki


text:
ICM Partners

ICM Partners was a talent and literary agency with offices in Los Angeles, New York City, Washington, D.C., and London. The company represented clients in the fields of motion pictures, television, music, publishing, live performance, branded entertainment and new media. Its corporate headquarters were in Constellation Place in Century City, Los Angeles. In 2022, ICM became part of Creative Artists Agency.

Formation and growth
International Creative Management was formed in 1975 through the merger of Marvin Josephson's International Famous Agency and Freddie Fields' Creative Management Associates (CMA). ICM's first president was Freddie Fields, although he didn't last long in the role. Other important figures in the merger were Sam Cohn and Guy McElwaine of CMA.

In 1985, ICM acquired London-based talent agency Duncan Heath Associates, which in 1991 merged with ICM London, with Heath became chairman of the merged company.

"In 1992, Josephson passed control of ICM onto Jeff Berg, Sam Cohn, and Jim Wiatt, though Josephson maintained a leadership role and continued to represent personal clients."

In 2005, the company raised a financing round of $75 million from Rizvi Traverse.

In 2006, ICM acquired the literary agency Broder Webb Chervin Silbermann.

ICM Partners
In 2012, the agency completed a management buyout and formed a partnership with the new name, ICM Partners.

In March 2018, ICM acquired the Just For Laughs comedy festival, as part of a partnership with Howie Mandel. A 51% majority was later sold to Bell Media and Groupe CH to maintain a primarily-Canadian ownership. In June that year, ICM formed a partnership with esports-focused talent agency Evolved.

In December 2019, ICM Partners sold a one-third equity stake in the company to Crestview Partners, with the expressed goal to grow the company within the representation business with an emphasis on International growth.

In March 2020, ICM partnered with Primary Talent International, a London-based music touring agency with over 700 touring clients. In August, they bought a significant minority interest in Albatros, a literary agency based in Stockholm and moved partner Pete Stone to Sweden to run ICM Europe. In October, the agency purchased Stellar Group, the largest football/soccer agency in the world and rebranded it ICM Stellar Sports. (Stellar Group CEO Jonathan Barnett was listed by Forbes as the No. 1 sports agent in the world by Forbes magazine in 2019.)

In July 2021, ICM Partners and ICM Stellar Sports purchased one of the leading NFL representation agencies, Select Sports Group, a Texas based company headed up by Jeff Nalley and Erik Burkhardt.

Acquisition by CAA
In September 2021, it was announced that ICM would be acquired by Creative Artists Agency (CAA). The deal closed in June 2022 at a value of $750 million. Following the acquisition, 105 positions from ICM were set to be eliminated, with about 425 staffers and agents joining CAA.

Television and movies
ICM Partners' television and motion picture departments represented film actors, actresses, directors and writers. The departments also featured a division dedicated to production professionals such as cinematographers, editors, second unit directors, composers, production designers, costume designers and visual effects supervisors. The television department also represented on-air and creative talent.

Publishing
ICM Partners represented writers and editors including Patricia Cornwell, Thomas Friedman, Anna Quindlen, E.L. Doctorow, Walter Isaacson, Carl Hiaasen, Tom Bissell, Anthony Swofford, Chris Cleave, Candace Bushnell, John Feinstein, Ann Patchett, Carol Higgins Clark and Steve Martin. In addition, the agency represents the estates of Theodor Geisel (Dr. Seuss), Arthur Miller, E.B. White, and Tennessee Williams, among others.

Music, comedy, and lectures
ICM Partners' concert and live appearances department represented artists in music and comedy as well as lecturers. ICM Partners acquired New York City speakers agency Royce Carlton, Inc. in 2017. From the acquisition until late 2019, the lecture division still went by the Royce Carlton name. On October 16, 2019, the division rebranded to ICM Speakers and relocated to the Washington, D.C., office. ICM Speakers' division services included the management and representation of professional public speakers. A few notable clients included author Mitch Albom, author Jon Meacham, TV host Karamo Brown, and activist Nadia Murad.

Branded entertainment
ICM Partners' global branded entertainment division's services ranged from celebrity endorsements, product placement, and music tour sponsorship to brand integration, such as the creation and packaging of original branded films and television shows. The agency's celebrity endorsements department serviced all ICM Partners' film and television talent for on-camera, print and voiceover commercial work as well as for paid media campaigns.

title: ICM Partners


text:
Talk:Church of the Nazarene

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Is this oranganization is good? Or it's working under the law of Nazarene... Allwyn26 (talk) 13:03, 15 January 2018 (UTC)

In India some Nazarene church is not working per the law of Nazarene...the eligibility of Bishop is not bother here...no seniority is get Bishop post...what going on this Nazarene...A retired man how can he get Bishop job after his retirement?? Allwyn26 (talk) 13:08, 15 January 2018 (UTC)

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External Link - Not Found
Hello! I am still adjusting in the Wikipedia community. I came across a reference on the page that is not found when I try to access the link/webpage:

[140] - "NTS hosts Nazarene Global Consortium of Graduate Schools of Theology – Nazarene Communications Network". Nazarene Communications Network. https://www.thefoundrypublishing.com/nphweb/html/ncn/article.jsp?id=10011626

I am also unable to find the archive version. How would the community recommend to handle in this situation? Thank you, --Trukoh (talk) 06:59, 20 August 2022 (UTC)

"Llay Community Church of the Nazarene" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Llay Community Church of the Nazarene and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 October 26 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Hog Farm Talk 21:24, 26 October 2022 (UTC)

Col 3:12-21
There the angel of the LORD* appeared to him as fire flaming out of a bush.a When he looked, although the bush was on fire, it was not being consumed. 3 So Moses decided, “I must turn aside to look at this remarkable sight. Why does the bush not burn up?” 4 When the LORD saw that he had turned aside to look, God called out to him from the bush: Moses! Moses! He answered, “Here I am.” 5 God said: Do not come near! Remove your sandals from your feet, for the place where you stand is holy ground.b 6 I am the God of your father,* he continued, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.c Moses hid his face, for he was afraid to look at God.

The Call and Commission of Moses. 7 But the LORD said: I have witnessed the affliction of my people in Egypt and have heard their cry against their taskmasters, so I know well what they are suffering. 8 Therefore I have come down* to rescue them from the power of the Egyptians and lead them up from that land into a good and spacious land, a land flowing with milk and honey, the country of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Perizzites, the Girgashites, the Hivites and the Jebusites.d 9 Now indeed the outcry of the Israelites has reached me, and I have seen how the Egyptians are oppressing them. 143.59.36.99 (talk) 14:28, 30 December 2022 (UTC)

Inconsistency
Article currently reads The first of these meetings was in Chicago, Illinois followed by Pilot Point, Texas, in 1908 and 1907 respectively.

So, the Illinois meeting in 1908 occurred before the Texas one in 1907? Really? Andrewa (talk) 09:18, 2 April 2024 (UTC)

 * List of Church of the Nazarene conventions seems to resolve it... the dates are accurate, the phrasing not. Andrewa (talk) 09:50, 2 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Church of the Nazarene


text:
Common Public License

In computing, the Common Public License (CPL) is a free software / open-source software license published by IBM. The Free Software Foundation and Open Source Initiative have approved the license terms of the CPL.

Definition
The CPL has the stated aims of supporting and encouraging collaborative open-source development while still retaining the ability to use the CPL'd content with software licensed under other licenses, including many proprietary licenses. The Eclipse Public License (EPL) consists of a slightly modified version of the CPL.

The CPL has some terms that resemble those of the GNU General Public License (GPL), but some key differences exist. A similarity relates to distribution of a modified computer program: under either license (CPL or GPL), one must make the source code of a modified program available to others.

CPL, like the GNU Lesser General Public License, allows non-CPL-licensed software to link to a library under CPL without requiring the linked source code to be made available to the licensee.

CPL lacks compatibility with both versions of the GPL because it has a "choice of law" section in section 7, which restricts legal disputes to a certain court. Another source of incompatibility is the differing copyleft requirements.

To reduce the number of open source licenses, IBM and Eclipse Foundation agreed upon using solely the Eclipse Public License in the future. Open Source Initiative therefore lists the Common Public License as deprecated and superseded by EPL.

Projects using the Common Public License

 * Microsoft has released its Windows Installer XML (WiX) developer tool, Windows Template Library (WTL) and the FlexWiki engine under the CPL as SourceForge projects.
 * Some projects of the COIN-OR Foundation use the CPL.

title: Common Public License