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Edwin Chadwick

Sir Edwin Chadwick KCB (24 January 1800 – 6 July 1890) was an English social reformer who is noted for his leadership in reforming the Poor Laws in England and instituting major reforms in urban sanitation and public health. A disciple of Utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham, he was most active between 1832 and 1854; after that he held minor positions, and his views were largely ignored. Chadwick pioneered the use of scientific surveys to identify all phases of a complex social problem, and pioneered the use of systematic long-term inspection programmes to make sure the reforms operated as planned.

Early life
Edwin Chadwick was born on 24 January 1800 at Longsight, Manchester, Lancashire His mother died when he was still a young child, yet to be named. His father, James Chadwick, tutored the scientist John Dalton in music and botany and was considered to be an advanced liberal politician, thus exposing young Edwin to political and social ideas. His grandfather, Andrew Chadwick, had been a close friend of the Methodist theologian John Wesley.

He began his education at a small local school and then at a boarding school in Stockport, where he studied until he was 10. When his family moved to London in 1810, Chadwick continued his education with the help of private tutors, his father and a great deal of self-teaching.

His father remarried in the early 1820s; Edwin's younger half-brother was baseball icon Henry Chadwick, born in 1824.

At 18, Chadwick decided to pursue a career in law and undertook an apprenticeship with a solicitor. In 1823, he enrolled in law school at The Temple in London. On 26 November 1830 he was called to the bar, becoming a barrister.

Called to the bar without independent means, he sought to support himself by literary work such as his work on 'Applied Science and its Place in Democracy', and his essays in the Westminster Review, mainly on different methods of applying scientific knowledge to the practice of government. He became friends with two of the leading philosophers of the day, John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. Bentham engaged him as a literary assistant and left him a large legacy. He also became acquaintanced with Thomas Southwood Smith, Neil Arnott and James Kay-Shuttleworth, all doctors.

From his exposure to social reform and under the influence of his friends, he began to devote his efforts to sanitary reform. In 1832, Chadwick began on his path to make improvements with sanitary and health conditions.

Reformer
In 1832, he was employed by the Royal Commission appointed to inquire into the operation of the Poor Law, and in 1833, he was made a full member of that commission. Chadwick and Nassau William Senior drafted the famous report of 1834, recommending the reform of the old law. Under the 1834 system, individual parishes were formed into Poor Law Unions, and each Poor Law Union was to have a union workhouse. Chadwick favoured a more centralised system of administration than the one adopted, and he felt the Poor Law reform of 1834 should have provided for the management of poor law relief by salaried officers controlled from a central board, with the boards of guardians acting merely as inspectors.

In 1834, he was appointed secretary to the Poor Law commissioners. Unwilling to administer an act of which he was largely the author in any way other than as he thought best, he found it hard to get along with his superiors. The disagreement, among others, contributed to the dissolution of the Poor Law Commission in 1847. His chief contribution to political controversy was his belief in entrusting certain departments of local affairs to trained and selected experts instead of to representatives, elected on the principle of local self-government.

Sanitation
Following a serious outbreak of typhus in 1838, Chadwick convinced the Poor Law Board that an enquiry was required, and this was initially carried out by his doctor friends Arnot and Southwood Smith, assisted by another doctor from Manchester, James Kay Shuttleworth. This was the first time in British history that doctors were employed to look at the conditions which might contribute to ill health in the population. Chadwick sent questionnaires to every Poor Law Union, and talked to surveyors, builders, prison governors, police officers and factory inspectors to obtain additional data about the lives of the poor. He edited the information himself, and prepared it for publication. His Report on The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain, begun in 1839 and published in 1842, was researched and published at his own expense, and became the best-selling publication produced by the Stationery Office to date. A supplementary report was also published in 1843.

He employed John Roe, the surveyor for the district of Holborn and Finsbury who had invented the egg-shaped sewer, to conduct experiments on the most efficient ways to construct drains, the results of which were incorporated into the report, and the summary included eight points, including the absolute necessity of better water supplies and of a drainage system to remove waste, as ways to diminish premature mortality. Evidence given by Dr Dyce Guthrie convinced Chadwick that every house should have a permanent water supply, rather than the intermittent supplies from standpipes that were often provided. The report caught the public imagination, and the government had to set up a Royal Commission on the Health of Towns to consider the issues and recommend legislation. Its chairman was the Duke of Baccleuch, and there were thirteen members, including the engineers Robert Stephenson and William Cubitt. Chadwick acted as secretary in an unofficial capacity, and seems to have dominated the proceedings.

The Commission took evidence from Robert Thom, who had designed a water supply system for Greenock, Thomas Wicksteed, who was the engineer for the East London Waterworks Company, and Thomas Hawksley from the Trent Waterworks, Nottingham. These confirmed his ideas about constant water supplies, and he developed a model which he called the "venous and arterial system." Each house would have a constant water supply, and water-closets would ensure that soil was discharged into egg-shaped sewers, to be carried away and spread on the land as manure, preventing rivers from becoming polluted. Followed the publication of the commission's report, the Health of Towns Association was formed and various city-based branches were created. Chadwick later helped to ensure that the Waterworks Clauses Act 1847 became law, to limit the profits that water supply companies could make to 10 per cent, and requiring them to comply with reasonable demands for water. This included a constant supply of wholesome water for houses, and a supply for cleansing sewers and watering streets.

Chadwick wanted to see his ideas implemented over a wide area, and set about forming a company to supply water to towns, to ensure their drainage and cleansing, and to use the refuse for agricultural production. It was to have the grandiose title "The British, Colonial and Foreign Drainage, Water Supply and Towns Improvement Company", with an initial capital of £1 million, but it was the time of the Railway Mania, and he struggled to raise the finance against such competition. The company when it was eventually registered became the more modest Towns Improvement Company. Railways continued to dominate the money market, and the company was wound up after just three years. Chadwick understood that both water supply and drainage were important, since replacing earth-closets with water closets resulted in cesspools overflowing and making sanitary conditions worse, unless there were sewers to carry the waste away. This led to a rift forming between him and Hawksley, who had initially worked closely with him but who later took on water supply projects which did not include any requirement for drainage.

Public Health Act
Chadwick's report led to the Public Health Act 1848, which was the first instance of the British government taking responsibility for the health of its citizens. It had been introduced by Lord Morpeth in 1847, with the aim or requiring every town to supply water to every house, which they could do by building their own waterworks or by liaising with water companies, and to undertake drainage, sewerage and street paving projects. Most of its grand aims were considerably watered down by the time it became law, but it established a General Board of Health, whose members were Lord Morpeth, Lord Shaftesbury, and Chadwick. They were later joined by Southwood Smith, who acted as a medical advisor. Local Boards could pay for a survey from an inspector employed by the Board, and could then proceed without the need to obtain a costly local act to authorise the work. Chadwick chose all of the inspectors himself, ensuring that they shared his views on glazed sewer pipes, constant water supply and arterial drainage. They worked enthusiastically, ensuring that districts considered comprehensive schemes for water supply, drainage and sewerage.

Ratepayers in a district could request an inspector to attend if ten per cent of them signed a petition. The Board could also hold an enquiry if the death rate of a district exceeded 23 per 1000, but gauged the level of local feeling, and formed a local Board if there was support, and withdrew tactfully if there was opposition. By 1853, they had received requests for inspections from 284 towns, and 13 combined water supply, sewerage and drainage schemes had been completed under the legislation. Relationships with engineers were not always easy, with J. M. Rendel calling Chadwick's ideas "sanitary humbug" and Robert Stephenson stating that he hated the ideas of pipes, rather than brick-built sewers. Even Joseph Bazalgette, who went on to design London's trunk sewer network, spoke out against glazed sewer pipes. As time went by, there was growing opposition to what was seen as central control by the Board. The rift between Chadwick and Hawksley had become open hostility, and Hawksley made serious complaints against Chadwick and one of the Board's inspectors to a Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1853. Opposition from engineers increased, and a "Private Enterprise Society" was formed by Hawksley and James Simpson, with the intent of bringing down the Board. Shaftsbury, Chadwick and Southwood Smith all had to resign in 1854, and the Board did not last for long afterwards. Chadwick lived to see his position vindicated when the Local Government Board was established in 1871, which led to the formation of the Ministry of Health. Since then, it has been widely acknowledged that public health is a matter of government responsibility, working through local authorities.

In 1851, Chadwick made a recommendation that a single authority should take over the nine separate water supply companies that operated in London. Although this idea was rejected by the Government, the Metropolitan Water Supply Act 1852 forced the companies to move the intakes for their water to locations above Teddington weir, to filter water before it was used for domestic supply, to cover filtered water reservoirs, and to ensure that there was a constant water supply to all users by 1857. This was not achieved until 1899, and Chadwick's recommendation for a single authority was eventually implemented in 1902, with the formation of the Metropolitan Water Board.

In 1852, Chadwick conversed with Lewis Llewelyn Dillwyn in relation to the construction of a sewerage system in Swansea.

Chadwick's efforts were acknowledged by at least one health reformer of the day: Erasmus Wilson dedicated his 1854 book Healthy Skin to Chadwick "In admiration of his strenuous and indefatigable labours in the cause of Sanitary Reform".

He corresponded with Florence Nightingale on methodology. He encouraged her to write up her research into the book Notes on Nursing. He promoted it among well placed intellectuals, making her more visible.

Later life
Chadwick was a commissioner of the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers in London from 1848 to 1849. He was also a commissioner of the General Board of Health from its establishment in 1848 to its abolition in 1854, when he retired on a pension. He occupied the remainder of his life in voluntary contributions to sanitary, health and economic questions.

In January 1884, he was appointed as the first president of the Association of Public Sanitary Inspectors, now the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health. Its head office, in Waterloo, London, is named Chadwick Court, in his honour.

While he is well known for his work with the Poor Law and with sanitation, he also contributed to other areas of public policy. These included tropical hygiene, criminal justice institutions, policy regarding funerals and burials in urban areas, school architecture, utilisation of sewage, military sanitation and the education of paupers. He was involved in investigations into child labour in factories, the organisation of the police force, drunkenness, the treatment of labourers on the railways, the building and maintenance of roads, organisation of the civil service, and various aspects of education. Most of these benefitted from his use of statistical methods to collect and organise data, and of the use of anecdotal evidence to support his conclusions. He was involved in a number of organisations, including the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the Institute of Civil Engineers, the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science, the Royal Society of Arts, the Royal Statistical Society, the London Debating Society and the Political Economy Club.

In recognition of his public service, he was knighted in 1889. He served in his post until his death, at 90, in 1890, at East Sheen, Richmond on Thames. He was buried at Mortlake Cemetery.

Chadwick is remembered at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine where his name appears among the names of 23 pioneers of public health and tropical medicine chosen to be honoured when the School was built in 1929. He is also commemorated at Heriot Watt University in Edinburgh, Scotland for the engineering building.

According to Priti Joshi in 2004 the evaluation of his career has drastically changed since the 1950s:
 * The Chadwick that emerges in recent accounts could not be more different from the mid-century Chadwick. The post-war critics saw him as a visionary, an often-embattled crusader for public health whose enemies were formidable but whose vision, extending the liberal and radical tradition, ultimately prevailed. Cultural critics, on the other hand, present a Chadwick who misrepresented (if not outright oppressed) the poor and who was instrumental in developing a massive bureaucracy to police their lives. Thus, while earlier accounts highlighted Chadwick's accomplishments, the progress of public health reforms, and the details of legislative politics, more recent ones draw attention to his representations of the poor, the erasures in his text, and the growing nineteenth-century institutionalization of the poor that the Sanitary Report promotes. Chadwick, in other words, is portrayed as either a pioneer of reform or an avatar of bureaucratic oppression.

Such views are not universally held. Thus Ekelund and Price in their assessment of Chadwick's economic policies in 2012 wrote:
 * It is no exaggeration to note that Chadwick is an almost singular progenitor of public health in the UK and elsewhere. The one hundredth anniversary of his death (1990) and the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the first Public Health Act (1848) was an occasion of serious and deserved plaudits for him in the United States and abroad. His prowess in sanitation engineering has also been duly noted. These excellent works appropriately feature Chadwick's role as one of the two or three most important policy makers of nineteenth century England.

Collections
In 1898 the executor of Sir Benjamin Ward Richardson's estate presented University College London with Chadwick's archive. Richardson was Chadwick's biographer and friend. The collection spans over 190 boxes of material, around half of which is correspondence. It also documents Chadwick's involvement with Poor Law reforms and public health improvements.

title: Edwin Chadwick


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Santo Domingo, Nueva Ecija

Santo Domingo, officially the Municipality of Santo Domingo (Ili ti Santo Domingo; Bayan ng Santo Domingo), is a 3rd class municipality in the province of Nueva Ecija, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 61,092 people.

Etymology
The town got its name from Saint Dominic, which became the town's patron saint.

History
During the last quarter of the 17th century, Ilocos and Bulacan natives and Tagalogs from Cabanatuan migrated to Santo Domingo. They found in the settlement buri palms. Therefore, these people called the site, Pulong Buli. Santo Domingo de Guzman became their Patron saint. The settlement became a Municipio but was later demoted to a mere barangay of Talavera, Nueva Ecija in 1903. It was later reverted to the political status of Municipality. The Alejos, Juans, Samatras, Salamancas, Andreses, Pascuals and Tomases were the descendants of the founders of the town.

During the Japanese Occupation from 1942 to 1945, various local guerrillas and Hukbalahap communist groups fought side by side at Santo Domingo, aided by the Filipino soldiers of the Philippine Commonwealth Army units. Following the Allied liberation in 1945, over 4,500 Filipino soldiers and guerrillas had been killed or wounded, and 29,000 Japanese troops killed or captured in action.

Geography
Santo Domingo is bordered by the municipalities of Talavera to the east, Quezon to the west, Science City of Muñoz to the north, Guimba to the northwest, and Aliaga to the south.

Barangays
Santo Domingo is politically subdivided into 24 barangays. Each barangay consists of puroks and some have sitios.

 * Baloc
 * Buasao
 * Burgos
 * Cabugao
 * Casulucan
 * Comitang
 * Concepcion
 * Dolores
 * General Luna
 * Hulo
 * Mabini
 * Malasin
 * Malayantoc
 * Mambarao
 * Poblacion
 * Malaya (Pook Malaya)
 * Pulong Buli
 * Sagaba
 * San Agustin
 * San Fabian
 * San Francisco
 * San Pascual
 * Santa Rita
 * Santo Rosario

St. Dominic Parish Church
The 1896 St. Dominic Parish Church (Real St., Poblacion, Santo Domingo, 3133 Nueva Ecija) belongs to the Roman Catholic Diocese of San Jose. Most. Rev. Roberto Calara Mallari, D.D. (since 15 May 2012) is the head of the Diocese. The Church's Parish Priest is Very Rev. Mnsgr. Rolando Mabutol, Hp and its Parish Administrator is Rev. Fr. Ian Christopher D. Andal (Acting Parish Priest) (Vicariate of St. Dominic - Diocesis Sancti Josephi in Insulis Philippinis, Suffragan of Lingayen-Dagupan; created: February 16, 1984, erected July 14, 1984, comprising the City of San Jose and the Science City of Muñoz and 12 other municipalities in Northern Nueva Ecija; Titular: St. Joseph the Worker, May 1). Its Vicar Forane is Fr. Bonifacio P. Flores Saint Dominic Parish Titular: Saint Dominic de Guzman; Year of Establishment: 1929.

Founded in 1896 as part of the Manila Archdiocese, in 1929, the Church was established and in 1950, the Parish became part of the Diocese of Cabanatuan. In 1977 the Baloc Parish was severed from Santo Domingo. On July 14, 1984, the Diocese of Cabanatuan was split into 2, and the San Jose Diocese had 16 Parishes including Santo Domingo Parish. The first Parish Priest of Santo Domingo was Fr. Emilio Gutierez and the 19th, the incumbent is Fr. Edwin I. Bravo. The Parish has a population of 21,677 Catholics: 75%.

St. Jerome Parish Church
The St. Jerome Parish Church (Barangay Baloc, Santo Domingo, 3133 Nueva Ecija) belongs to the Roman Catholic Diocese of San Jose. Most. Rev. Roberto Calara Mallari, D.D. (since 15 May 2012) is the head of the Diocese (Vicariate of St. Dominic - Diocesis Sancti Josephi in Insulis Philippinis, Suffragan of Lingayen-Dagupan; created: February 16, 1984, erected July 14, 1984, comprising the City of San Jose and the Science City of Muñoz and 12 other municipalities in Northern Nueva Ecija; Titular: St. Joseph the Worker, May 1). Its Vicar Forane is Fr. Bonifacio P. Flores and its Parish Priest: Fr. Rosalito F. Cabanting. The Population is 45,049 Catholics -8%.

Iglesia Filipina Independiente, San Geronimo Church
The Iglesia Filipina Independiente, San Geronimo Church is also one of the landmark religious heritage of Santo Domingo.

Dambana ni San Geronimo
Fr. Resty Valenzuela Ahyong Baloc established his own Dambana ni San Geronimo when he transferred from the Roman Catholic Church. The people of Baloc, Santo Domingo Nueva Ecija became religious because of Him. He wrote a book about the life of St. Jerome.

Economy
As an agricultural town, Santo Domingo is famous for its scenic agricultural landscape amid its Philippine duck raising industry.

Local government
Santo Domingo, belonging to the 1st congressional district of the province of Nueva Ecija, is governed by a mayor designated as its local chief executive and by a municipal council as its legislative body in accordance with the Local Government Code. The mayor, vice mayor, and the councilors are elected directly by the people through an election which is being held every three years.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Santo Domingo, Nueva Ecija


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Nassau William Senior

Nassau William Senior (26 September 1790 – 4 June 1864), was an English lawyer known as an economist. He was also a government adviser over several decades on economic and social policy on which he wrote extensively. In his writings, he made early contributions to theories of value and monopoly.

Early life
He was born at Compton, Berkshire, the eldest son of Rev. J. R. Senior, vicar of Durnford, Wiltshire. He was educated at Eton College and Magdalen College, Oxford; at university he was a private pupil of Richard Whately, afterwards Archbishop of Dublin with whom he remained connected by ties of lifelong friendship. He took the degree of B.A. in 1811 and became a Vinerian Scholar in 1813.

Career
Senior went into the field of conveyancing, with a pupilage under Edward Burtenshaw Sugden. When Sugden rather abruptly informed his pupils in 1816 that he was concentrating on chancery work, Senior took steps to qualify as a Certified Conveyancer, which he did in 1817. With one other pupil, Aaron Hurrill, he then took over Sugden's practice. Senior was called to the bar in 1819, but problems with public speaking limited his potential career as an advocate. In 1836, during the chancellorship of Lord Cottenham, he was appointed a master in chancery.

On the foundation of the Drummond professorship of political economy at Oxford in 1825, he was elected to fill the chair, which he occupied until 1830 and again from 1847 to 1852. In 1830, he was requested by Lord Melbourne to inquire into the state of combinations and strikes, report on the state of the law and suggest improvements.

Senior was a member of the Poor Law Inquiry Commission of 1832, and of the Royal Commission of 1837 on handloom weavers. The report of the latter, published in 1841, was drawn up by him and had the substance of the report he had prepared some years earlier, on combinations and strikes.

Later life
Senior became a good friend of Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859) whom he met in 1833 for the first time before the publishing of Democracy in America.

Senior was in the spring of 1849 legal advisor and counsellor to Jenny Lind, who then was performing in London. She intended to marry a soldier named Harris, and Senior was supposed to draw up marriage settlements. Harriet Grote in correspondence calls him Claudius Harris, a lieutenant of the Madras Cavalry; the Grote connection was that he was the brother of the wife of Joseph Grote, the brother of her husband, George. Senior accompanied Lind and Harriet Grote to Paris (amid civil strife and a cholera epidemic). The marriage failed to take place.

Senior was "indirectly responsible for the contract which Jenny Lind condescended to sign in 1850 with the American promoter P. T. Barnum".

Senior was one of the commissioners appointed in 1864 to inquire into popular education in England. He died at Kensington that year.

Writings
Senior was a contributor to the Quarterly Review, Edinburgh Review, London Review and North British Review. In their pages, he dealt with literary as well as with economic and political subjects. The London Review was a project of Senior from 1828, for a quarterly periodical. It was backed by Richard Whately and others of the Oriel Noetics, and with the help of Thomas Mayo, he found an editor in Joseph Blanco White. Early contributions from John Henry Newman, Edwin Chadwick and Senior himself (on the Waverley novels and William Jacob's views) were not enough to establish it, and it ceased publication in mid-1829.

Economics
His writings on economic theory consisted of an article in the Encyclopædia Metropolitana, afterwards separately published as An Outline of the Science of Political Economy (1836), and his lectures delivered at Oxford. Of the latter, the following were printed: Several of his lectures were translated into French by M. Arrivabne under the title of Principes Fondamentaux d'Economie Politique (1835).
 * An Introductory Lecture on Political Economy (London: John Murray, 1827).
 * Two Lectures on Population, with a correspondence between the author and Malthus (1829).
 * Three Lectures on the Transmission of the Precious Metals from Country to Country, and the Mercantile Theory of Wealth (1828).
 * Three Lectures on the Cost of obtaining Money, and on some Effects of Private and Government Paper Money (London: John Murray, 1830).
 * Three Lectures on the Rate of Wages (1830, 2nd ed. 1831).
 * A Lecture on the Production of Wealth (1847).
 * Four Introductory Lectures on Political Economy (1852).

Social questions
Senior also wrote on administrative and social questions: His contributions to the reviews were collected in volumes entitled Essays on Fiction (1864); Biographical Sketches (1865, chiefly of noted lawyers); and Historical and Philosophical Essays (1865).
 * Report on the Depressed State of the Agriculture of the United Kingdom. In: The Quarterly Review (1821), pp. 466–504
 * A Letter to Lord Howick on a Legal Provision for the Irish Poor, Commutation of Tithes and a Provision for the Irish Roman Catholic Clergy (1831, 3rd ed., 1832, with a preface containing suggestions as to the measures to be adopted in the present emergency)
 * Statement of the Provision for the Poor and of the Condition of the Laboring Classes in a considerable portion of America and Europe, being the Preface to the Foreign Communications in the Appendix to the Poor Law Report (1835)
 * On National Property, and on the Prospects of the Present Administration and of their Successors (anon.; 1835)
 * Letters on the Factory Act, as it affects the Cotton Manufacture (1837)
 * Suggestions on Popular Education (1861)
 * American Slavery (in part a reprint from the Edinburgh Review, 1862)
 * An Address on Education delivered to the Social Science Association (1863)

In 1859 appeared his Journal kept in Turkey and Greece in the Autumn of 1857 and the Beginning of 1858; and the following were edited after his death by his daughter:
 * Journals, Conversations and Essays relating to Ireland (1868)
 * Journals kept in France and Italy from 1848 to 1852, with a Sketch of the Revolution of 1848 (1871)
 * Conversations with Thiers, Guizot and other Distinguished Persons during the Second Empire (1878)
 * Conversations with Distinguished Persons during the Second Empire, from 1860 to 1863 (1880)
 * Conversations and Journals in Egypt and Malta (1882)
 * also in 1872 Correspondence and Conversations with Alexis de Tocqueville from 1834 to 1859.

Senior's tracts on practical politics, though the theses they supported were sometimes questionable, were ably written and are still worth reading but cannot be said to be of much permanent interest. His name continues to hold an honorable, though secondary, place in the history of political economy. In the later years of his life, during his visits to foreign countries, he noted the political and social phenomena that they exhibited. Several volumes of his journals were published.

Political economy
Senior regarded political economy as a deductive science, of inferences from four elementary propositions, which are not assumptions but facts. It concerns itself, however, with wealth only and can therefore give no political advice. He pointed out inconsistencies of terminology in David Ricardo's works: for example, his use of value in the sense of cost of production, high and low wages in the sense of a certain proportion of the product as dilute amount and his employment of the epithets fixed and circulating as applied to capital. He argued, too, that in some cases the premises assumed by Ricardo are false. He cited the assertions that rent depends on the difference of fertility of the different portions of land in cultivation; that the laborer always receives precisely the necessaries or what custom leads him to consider the necessaries, of life; that as wealth and population advance, agricultural labor becomes less and less proportionately productive and therefore the share of the produce taken by the landlord and the laborer must constantly increase, but that taken by the capitalist must constantly diminish. He denied the truth of all the propositions.

Besides adopting some terms, such as that of natural agents, from Jean-Baptiste Say, Senior introduced the term "abstinence" to express the conduct of the capitalist that is remunerated by interest. He added some considerations to what had been said by Adam Smith on the division of labor and distinguished between the rate of wages and the price of labor but assumed a determinate wage-fund.

Senior's 1837 Letters on the Factory Act have become notorious for the analytical mistake made in them. Nassau opposed the Child Labour Law and the proposed Ten Hours Act, on the grounds that they would make it impossible for factory owners to make profits. In Senior's analysis of factory production, capital advanced means of subsistence (wage) to the workers, who would then return the advance during the first 10$1/2$ hours of their labor, producing a profit only in the last hour. What Senior failed to realize is that the turnover of capital stock depends on the length of the working day; he assumed it constant.

In Karl Marx's first volume of Capital, Senior's analyses are subjected to a series of exacting criticisms. "If, giving credence to the out-cries of the manufacturers, he believed that the workmen spend the best part of the day in the production, i.e., the reproduction or replacement of the value of the buildings, machinery, cotton, coal, &c.," Marx writes, "then his analysis was superfluous."

Senior modified his opinions on population in the course of his career and asserted that in the absence of disturbing causes, subsistence may be expected to increase in a greater ratio than population. Charles Périn argued that he set up "egoism" as the guide of practical life. Thomas Edward Cliffe Leslie attacked the abstraction implied in the phrase "desire of wealth".

Controversy on Irish Famine
Senior reportedly said of the Great Irish Famine of 1845

"would not kill more than one million people, and that would scarcely be enough to do any good".

That is a point quoted by theorists who propose that the actions of the British government before and during the famine were tantamount to deliberate genocide, but his opinion was not government policy. Costigan argues, however, that the quote is taken out of context and reflects Senior's opinion purely from the viewpoint of the theory of political economy; in other words, even such a large reduction in the population would not solve the underlying economic, social and political problems, which would be proved correct. He argues that Senior made attempts over many years to improve the lot of the Irish people, even at considerable personal cost (in 1832, he was removed, after one year in office, from his position as Professor of Political Economy at King's College, London, for supporting the Catholic Church in Ireland). In his letter of 8 January 1836 to Lord Howick, Senior wrote,

''With respect to the ejected tenantry, the stories that are told make one's blood boil. I must own that I differ from most persons as to the meaning of the words 'legitimate influence of property'. I think that the only legitimate influence is example and advice, and that a landlord who requires a tenant to vote in opposition to the tenant's feeling of duty is the suborner of a criminal act.'

Senior's notes of his visits to Birr, County Offaly in the 1850s mention his surprise and concern that the everyday lifestyle of the Irish poor had changed so little, despite the famine disaster.

 * Though the aspect of Ireland is somewhat changed since 1852, and much since 1844, I doubt whether any great real alteration in the habits to feelings of the people has taken place. They still depend mainly on the potato. They still depend rather on the occupation of land, than on the wages of labour. They still erect for themselves the hovels in which they dwell. They are still eager to subdivide and to sublet. They are still the tools of their priests, and the priests are still ignorant of the economical laws on which the welfare of the labouring classes depends.

Family
Senior married Mary Charlotte Mair of Iron Acton, Gloucestershire, in 1821. Their daughter, the memoirist Mary Charlotte Mair Simpson (1825–1907) acted as his literary executor. Their son Nassau John Senior (1822–1891), was a lawyer and married Jane Elizabeth Senior (1828–1877), an inspector of workhouses and schools.

title: Nassau William Senior


text:
Seifert–Van Kampen theorem

In mathematics, the Seifert–Van Kampen theorem of algebraic topology (named after Herbert Seifert and Egbert van Kampen), sometimes just called Van Kampen's theorem, expresses the structure of the fundamental group of a topological space $$X$$ in terms of the fundamental groups of two open, path-connected subspaces that cover $$X$$. It can therefore be used for computations of the fundamental group of spaces that are constructed out of simpler ones.

Van Kampen's theorem for fundamental groups
Let X be a topological space which is the union of two open and path connected subspaces U1, U2. Suppose U1 ∩ U2 is path connected and nonempty, and let x0 be a point in U1 ∩ U2 that will be used as the base of all fundamental groups. The inclusion maps of U1 and U2 into X induce group homomorphisms $$j_1:\pi_1(U_1,x_0)\to \pi_1(X,x_0)$$ and $$j_2:\pi_1(U_2,x_0)\to \pi_1(X,x_0)$$. Then X is path connected and $$j_1$$ and $$j_2$$ form a commutative pushout diagram:

 * [[Image:VanKampen-01.png|750px]]

The natural morphism k is an isomorphism. That is, the fundamental group of X is the free product of the fundamental groups of U1 and U2 with amalgamation of $$\pi_1(U_1\cap U_2, x_0)$$.

Usually the morphisms induced by inclusion in this theorem are not themselves injective, and the more precise version of the statement is in terms of pushouts of groups.

Van Kampen's theorem for fundamental groupoids
Unfortunately, the theorem as given above does not compute the fundamental group of the circle – which is the most important basic example in algebraic topology – because the circle cannot be realised as the union of two open sets with connected intersection. This problem can be resolved by working with the fundamental groupoid $$\pi_1(X,A)$$ on a set A of base points, chosen according to the geometry of the situation. Thus for the circle, one uses two base points.

This groupoid consists of homotopy classes relative to the end points of paths in X joining points of A ∩ X. In particular, if X is a contractible space, and A consists of two distinct points of X, then $$\pi_1(X,A)$$ is easily seen to be isomorphic to the groupoid often written $$\mathcal I$$ with two vertices and exactly one morphism between any two vertices. This groupoid plays a role in the theory of groupoids analogous to that of the group of integers in the theory of groups. The groupoid $$\mathcal I$$ also allows for groupoids a notion of homotopy: it is a unit interval object in the category of groupoids.

 * Fig6 10c.jpg

The category of groupoids admits all colimits, and in particular all pushouts.

 * Theorem. Let the topological space X be covered by the interiors of two subspaces X1, X2 and let A be a set which meets each path component of X1, X2 and X0 = X1 ∩ X2. Then A meets each path component of X and the diagram P of morphisms induced by inclusion
 * SeifertvanKampenPO.PNG
 * is a pushout diagram in the category of groupoids.

This theorem gives the transition from topology to algebra, in determining completely the fundamental groupoid $$\pi_1(X,A)$$; one then has to use algebra and combinatorics to determine a fundamental group at some basepoint.

One interpretation of the theorem is that it computes homotopy 1-types. To see its utility, one can easily find cases where X is connected but is the union of the interiors of two subspaces, each with say 402 path components and whose intersection has say 1004 path components. The interpretation of this theorem as a calculational tool for "fundamental groups" needs some development of 'combinatorial groupoid theory'. This theorem implies the calculation of the fundamental group of the circle as the group of integers, since the group of integers is obtained from the groupoid $$\mathcal I$$ by identifying, in the category of groupoids, its two vertices.

There is a version of the last theorem when X is covered by the union of the interiors of a family $$\{U_\lambda : \lambda \in \Lambda\}$$ of subsets.

The conclusion is that if A meets each path component of all 1,2,3-fold intersections of the sets $$U_\lambda$$, then A meets all path components of X and the diagram

 * $$\bigsqcup_{(\lambda,\mu) \in \Lambda^2} \pi_1(U_\lambda \cap U_\mu, A) \rightrightarrows \bigsqcup_{\lambda \in \Lambda} \pi_1(U_\lambda, A)\rightarrow \pi_1(X,A)$$

of morphisms induced by inclusions is a coequaliser in the category of groupoids.

""

Equivalent formulations
In the language of combinatorial group theory, if $$X $$ is a topological space; $$U$$ and $$V$$ are open, path connected subspaces of $$X $$; $$U\cap V$$ is nonempty and path-connected; and $$w\in U\cap V$$; then $$\pi_1(X,w)$$ is the free product with amalgamation of $$\pi_1(U,w)$$ and $$\pi_1(V,w)$$, with respect to the (not necessarily injective) homomorphisms $$I:\pi_1(U\cap V, w)\to \pi_1(U,w)$$ and $$J:\pi_1(U\cap V, w)\to \pi_1(V,w)$$. Given group presentations:

 * $$\begin{align}

\pi_1(U,w) &= \langle u_1,\dots,u_k \mid\alpha_1,\dots,\alpha_l\rangle \\ \pi_1(V,w) &= \langle v_1,\dots,v_m \mid \beta_1,\dots,\beta_n\rangle \\ \pi_1(U\cap V,w) &= \langle w_1,\dots,w_p \mid \gamma_1,\dots,\gamma_q\rangle \end{align}$$

the amalgamation can be presented as

 * $$\pi_1(X,w) = \left\langle u_1,\dots,u_k, v_1,\dots,v_m \left | \alpha_1,\dots,\alpha_l, \beta_1,\dots,\beta_n, I(w_1)J(w_1)^{-1},\dots,I(w_p)J(w_p)^{-1} \right. \right\rangle.$$

In category theory, $$\pi_1(X,w)$$ is the pushout, in the category of groups, of the diagram:

 * $$\pi_1(U,w)\gets\pi_1(U\cap V,w)\to\pi_1(V,w).$$

2-sphere
One can use Van Kampen's theorem to calculate fundamental groups for topological spaces that can be decomposed into simpler spaces. For example, consider the sphere $$S^2$$. Pick open sets $$A = S^2\setminus \{n\} $$ and $$B = S^2\setminus \{s\}$$ where n and s denote the north and south poles respectively. Then we have the property that A, B and A ∩ B are open path connected sets. Thus we can see that there is a commutative diagram including A ∩ B into A and B and then another inclusion from A and B into $$S^2$$ and that there is a corresponding diagram of homomorphisms between the fundamental groups of each subspace. Applying Van Kampen's theorem gives the result

 * $$\pi_1(S^2)=\pi_1(A)\cdot\pi_1(B)/\ker(\Phi).$$

However, A and B are both homeomorphic to R2 which is simply connected, so both A and B have trivial fundamental groups. It is clear from this that the fundamental group of $$S^2$$ is trivial.

Wedge sum of spaces
Given two pointed spaces $$(X,x)$$ and $$(Y,y)$$ we can form their wedge sum, $$(X\vee Y,p)$$, by taking the quotient of $$X \coprod Y$$ by identifying their two basepoints.

If $$x$$ admits a contractible open neighborhood $$U \subset X$$ and $$y$$ admits a contractible open neighborhood $$V \subset Y$$ (which is the case if, for instance, $$X$$ and $$Y$$ are CW complexes), then we can apply the Van Kampen theorem to $$X \vee Y$$ by taking $$X \vee V$$ and $$U \vee Y$$ as the two open sets and we conclude that the fundamental group of the wedge is the free product of the fundamental groups of the two spaces we started with:
 * $$\pi_1(X\vee Y, p)\cong \pi_1(X,x)*\pi_1(Y,y)$$.

Orientable genus-g surfaces
A more complicated example is the calculation of the fundamental group of a genus-n orientable surface S, otherwise known as the genus-n surface group. One can construct S using its standard fundamental polygon. For the first open set A, pick a disk within the center of the polygon. Pick B to be the complement in S of the center point of A. Then the intersection of A and B is an annulus, which is known to be homotopy equivalent to (and so has the same fundamental group as) a circle. Then $$\pi_1(A \cap B)=\pi_1(S^1)$$, which is the integers, and $$\pi_1(A) = \pi_1(D^2) = {1}$$. Thus the inclusion of $$\pi_1(A \cap B)$$ into $$\pi_1(A)$$ sends any generator to the trivial element. However, the inclusion of $$\pi_1(A \cap B)$$ into $$\pi_1(B)$$ is not trivial. In order to understand this, first one must calculate $$\pi_1(B)$$. This is easily done as one can deformation retract B (which is S with one point deleted) onto the edges labeled by

 * $$ A_1 B_1 A_1^{-1} B_1^{-1} A_2 B_2 A_2^{-1} B_2^{-1} \cdots A_n B_n A_n^{-1} B_n^{-1}.$$

This space is known to be the wedge sum of 2n circles (also called a bouquet of circles), which further is known to have fundamental group isomorphic to the free group with 2n generators, which in this case can be represented by the edges themselves: $$\{A_1,B_1,\dots,A_n,B_n\}$$. We now have enough information to apply Van Kampen's theorem. The generators are the loops $$\{A_1,B_1,\dots,A_n,B_n\}$$ (A is simply connected, so it contributes no generators) and there is exactly one relation:

 * $$A_1 B_1 A_1^{-1} B_1^{-1} A_2 B_2 A_2^{-1} B_2^{-1} \cdots A_n B_n A_n^{-1} B_n^{-1} = 1.$$

Using generators and relations, this group is denoted

 * $$\left \langle A_1,B_1,\dots,A_n,B_n\left | A_1B_1A_1^{-1}B_1^{-1}\cdots A_nB_nA_n^{-1}B_n^{-1}\right. \right \rangle.$$

Simple-connectedness
If X is space that can be written as the union of two open simply connected sets U and V with U ∩ V non-empty and path-connected, then X is simply connected.

Generalizations
As explained above, this theorem was extended by Ronald Brown to the non-connected case by using the fundamental groupoid $$\pi_1(X,A)$$ on a set A of base points. The theorem for arbitrary covers, with the restriction that A meets all threefold intersections of the sets of the cover, is given in the paper by Brown and Abdul Razak Salleh. The theorem and proof for the fundamental group, but using some groupoid methods, are also given in J. Peter May's book. The version that allows more than two overlapping sets but with A a singleton is also given in Allen Hatcher's book below, theorem 1.20.

Applications of the fundamental groupoid on a set of base points to the Jordan curve theorem, covering spaces, and orbit spaces are given in Ronald Brown's book. In the case of orbit spaces, it is convenient to take A to include all the fixed points of the action. An example here is the conjugation action on the circle.

References to higher-dimensional versions of the theorem which yield some information on homotopy types are given in an article on higher-dimensional group theories and groupoids. Thus a 2-dimensional Van Kampen theorem which computes nonabelian second relative homotopy groups was given by Ronald Brown and Philip J. Higgins. A full account and extensions to all dimensions are given by Brown, Higgins, and Rafael Sivera, while an extension to n-cubes of spaces is given by Ronald Brown and Jean-Louis Loday.

Fundamental groups also appear in algebraic geometry and are the main topic of Alexander Grothendieck's first Séminaire de géométrie algébrique (SGA1). A version of Van Kampen's theorem appears there, and is proved along quite different lines than in algebraic topology, namely by descent theory. A similar proof works in algebraic topology.

title: Seifert–Van Kampen theorem


text:
Streaker

Streaker may refer to:

 * Someone who engages in streaking, purposely appearing and running nude in public
 * Streaker (dinghy), a sailing dinghy
 * Streaker (video game), a 1987 computer game published by Bulldog
 * Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (tracked), a high-mobility carrier vehicle named Streaker, from the United Kingdom
 * Streaker (SpaceDev), a small launch vehicle
 * MQM-107 Streaker, a target-towing drone used by the U.S. Army and Air Force
 * The Streaker, a starship crewed by dolphins, from David Brin's Uplift Universe novels

title: Streaker


text:
Loriot (disambiguation)

Loriot was the stage name of Vicco von Bülow (1923–2011), a German humorist, graphic artist, director, actor, and writer.

It may also refer to:

Surname

 * Anne-Marie Loriot (born 1956), Olympic Athlete
 * Fernand Loriot (1870-1932), French pacifist and politician
 * Guillaume Loriot (born 1986), French footballer
 * Julien Loriot (1633–1715), French priest

Other

 * "Loriot", a British term for the game Diabolo
 * Loriot (ship), a mid-19th-century American ship
 * "Loriot", Great Western Railway telegraphic code for a machine truck

title: Loriot (disambiguation)


text:
Trafford Leigh-Mallory

Air Chief Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory, (11 July 1892 – 14 November 1944) was a senior commander in the Royal Air Force. Leigh-Mallory served as a Royal Flying Corps pilot and squadron commander during the First World War. Remaining in the newly formed RAF after the war, Leigh-Mallory served in a variety of staff and training appointments throughout the 1920s and 1930s.

At the start of the Second World War, he was Air Officer Commanding (AOC) No. 12 (Fighter) Group and during the Battle of Britain. However he has been criticised for his political machinations within the Air Ministry, particularly with Sholto Douglas, that led to the replacement of Hugh Dowding and Keith Park on 25 November 1940, less than a month after the end of the Battle of Britain. Leigh-Mallory replaced Park at No. 11 (Fighter) Group and Sholto Douglas replaced Dowding as head of RAF Fighter Command. In 1942, Leigh-Mallory became Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of Fighter Command before being selected in 1943 to be the C-in-C of the Allied Expeditionary Air Force, which made him the air commander during the Allied Invasion of Normandy.

He died in November 1944 while en route to Ceylon to take up the post of Air Commander-in-Chief South East Asia Command when his aircraft crashed in the French Alps killing all eight people on-board including his wife.

Early life
Trafford Leigh-Mallory was born in Mobberley, Cheshire, the son of Herbert Leigh Mallory, (1856–1943), Rector of Mobberley, who legally changed his surname to Leigh-Mallory in 1914. He was the younger brother of George Mallory, the noted mountaineer. Leigh-Mallory grew up in a large house with many servants including a butler, a valet and a footman as well as numerous maids and gardeners. He was educated at Haileybury and at Magdalene College, Cambridge where he was a member of a literary club and where he made the acquaintance of Arthur Tedder, the future Marshal of the Royal Air Force. He passed his Bachelor of Laws degree and had applied to the Inner Temple in London to become a barrister when, in 1914, war broke out.

First World War
Leigh-Mallory immediately volunteered to join a Territorial Force battalion of the King's (Liverpool Regiment) as a private. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 3 October 1914 and transferred to the Lancashire Fusiliers though officer training kept him in England when his battalion embarked. In the spring of 1915, he went to the front with the South Lancashire Regiment and was wounded during an attack at the Second Battle of Ypres. He was promoted to lieutenant on 21 June 1915.

After recovering from his wounds, Leigh-Mallory joined the Royal Flying Corps in January 1916 and was accepted for pilot training. On 7 July 1916, he was posted, as a lieutenant in the RFC, to No. 7 Squadron, where he flew on bombing, reconnaissance and photographic operations during the Battle of the Somme.

He was then transferred to No. 5 Squadron in July 1916 before returning to England. He was promoted to temporary captain on 2 November 1916.

Leigh-Mallory's first combat command was No. 8 Squadron in November 1917. In the period after the Battle of Cambrai, No. 8 Squadron was involved in army cooperation, directing tanks and artillery. At the Armistice, Leigh-Mallory was mentioned in despatches and awarded the Distinguished Service Order.

Interwar years
After the war, Leigh-Mallory thought of re-entering the legal profession, but with little prospect of a law career, he stayed in the recently created Royal Air Force (RAF), with promotion to major on 1 August 1919 (the rank was renamed "squadron leader" on the same date), and command of the Armistice Squadron.

Promoted to wing commander on 1 January 1925, Leigh-Mallory passed through the RAF Staff College in 1925 and received command of the School of Army Cooperation in 1927 before eventually being posted to the Army Staff College, Camberley in 1930. He was now a leading authority on army cooperation and in 1931, lectured at the Royal United Services Institute on air cooperation with mechanised forces. He spent a little over a year in the Protectorate of Uganda, arriving in the country in the late autumn of 1929 and returning to England in December of 1931.

Promoted to group captain on 1 January 1932, Leigh-Mallory received a posting to the Air Ministry in 1932 and was then assigned to the British delegation at the Disarmament Conference in Geneva under the auspices of the League of Nations, where he made many contacts. After the collapse of the conference, he returned to the Air Ministry and attended the Imperial Defence College, the most senior of the staff colleges. However, lack of senior command experience meant a spell as commander of No. 2 Flying School and station commander at RAF Digby before serving as a staff officer overseas. He was posted to the RAF in Iraq in Christmas 1935, and, having been promoted to air commodore on 1 January 1936, he returned to England to be appointed commander of No. 12 Group, Fighter Command in December 1937. He was visiting Harlaxton Manor when he received the news that he was now commander of No. 12 Group.

Battle of Britain
Leigh-Mallory took command of 12 Group and proved an energetic organiser and leader. On 1 November 1938, he was promoted to air vice-marshal, one of the younger air vice-marshals then serving in the RAF. He was greatly liked by his staff, but his relations with his airfield station commanders was strained.

No. 12 Group and the "Big Wing"
During the Battle of Britain, Leigh-Mallory quarrelled with Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park, the commander of 11 Group. Park, who was responsible for the defence of south east England and London, had stated that 12 Group was not doing enough to protect the airfields in the south-east. Leigh-Mallory had devised with Squadron Leader Douglas Bader a massed fighter formation known as the Big Wing, which they used with little success to hunt German bomber formations. Leigh-Mallory was critical of the tactics of Park and Sir Hugh Dowding, head of Fighter Command, believing that not enough was being done to allow wing-sized formations to operate successfully.

He then worked energetically in political circles to bring about the removal of Park from command of 11 Group; the false claims for the Duxford Big Wing successes played a part in this. Throughout the Battle of Britain, his lack of support for Park's 11 Group contributed materially to the damage that the Luftwaffe was able to inflict on 11 Group's airfields.

After the Battle of Britain, Air Chief Marshal Charles Portal, the new Chief of the Air Staff, who had agreed with Leigh-Mallory, removed both Park and Dowding from their posts. Leigh-Mallory took over from Park as commander of 11 Group in December 1940.

Fighter Command and D-Day
One of the reasons for Leigh-Mallory's appointment to command 11 Group was that he was seen as an offensively-minded leader in the Trenchard mould. Once appointed he soon introduced wing-sized fighter sweeps into France, known as "rodeos" (when accompanied by bombers to provoke enemy fighters, these were known as "Circus" operations).

However, Leigh-Mallory came in for criticism as these raids over enemy territory caused heavy RAF casualties with over 500 pilots lost in 1941 alone, losing four aircraft for each German aircraft destroyed and having little effect on ground targets. Indeed, during this period the German armed forces were mobilising for Operation Barbarossa and few Luftwaffe fighters remained in western Europe. It was indeed a steep learning curve for Leigh Mallory despite the fact that the Luftwaffe had made similar mistakes during the Battle of Britain and there were few other senior RAF commanders who had understanding of this. One of his staff officers pointed out: "In my opinion we learned a hell of a lot – how to get these raids in, by deceiving radar and by counter-offensive techniques. [In the Middle East] they were still in the First World War business – they'd learned none of the deception techniques such as sending in high-level fighters and sneaking the bombers in underneath." Keeping 75 squadrons of fighters, mainly to conduct ineffective offensive operations from Britain during 1941, was also questionable while Malta and Singapore were only defended by older, obsolete types of aircraft. The RAF's best commanders and air-warfare tacticians were in the Mediterranean area around this time achieving greater success over Malta and North Africa than their counterparts back home. Leigh-Mallory was promoted to acting air marshal on 13 July 1942.

In November 1942, Leigh-Mallory replaced Sholto Douglas as head of Fighter Command and was promoted to the temporary rank of air marshal on 1 December 1942.

He was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in January 1943 and following a tour of air and army headquarters in Africa began lobbying for a unified command of the Allied air forces for the forthcoming invasion of Europe. There was considerable resistance to such a post with none of the vested air force interests – including Arthur Tedder, Arthur Harris at Bomber Command, and Carl Spaatz of the US Army Air Force – appearing interested in ceding any authority or autonomy. This was, of course, exactly why a unified commander was needed and Leigh-Mallory, with his experience with army cooperation, was a candidate for the job. In August 1943, Leigh-Mallory was appointed commander-in-chief of the Allied Expeditionary Air Force for the Normandy invasion. He was promoted to the substantive rank of air vice-marshal on 15 December 1943 and to the substantive rank of air marshal on 1 January 1944. As many of these "interdiction" bombing missions took place against transport nodes, such as towns and villages, Leigh-Mallory came under political pressure to limit the effects of attacks on French civilians. He resisted, insisting that sacrifices were unfortunate but necessary if the air plan was to have any effect. His air plan succeeded in greatly slowing the mobilisation of the German Army and his experience at army cooperation paid dividends. General Bernard Montgomery was pleased with the air support and told the War Office: "We must definitely keep Leigh-Mallory as Air Commander-in-Chief. He is the only airman who is out to win the land battle and has no jealous reactions."

Personal life
Leigh-Mallory married Doris Sawyer in 1915; the couple had two children. He was a keen sailor and cricket fan.

After one of his children survived a serious illness, Leigh-Mallory became interested in faith healing and spiritualism. He was a practising Christian and consistently donated portions of his salary to charity, which he kept private during his life, and it was only revealed after his death. In one anecdote, he suggested he had seen the ghost of Emily Langton Massingberd, the women's rights campaigner, at Gunby Hall in Lincolnshire. When the building was threatened with demolition during the Second World War to make way for an airfield, Leigh-Mallory intervened to save it. The property is now managed by the National Trust.

Death
On 16 August 1944, with the Battle of Normandy almost over, Leigh-Mallory was appointed Air Commander-in-Chief of South East Asia Command (SEAC) with the temporary rank of air chief marshal. But before he could take up his post, on 14 November, he and his wife were killed en route to Burma when their Avro York MW126, flown by Squadron Leader Charles Gordon Drake Lancaster (DFC and Bar), crashed in the French Alps, killing all on board. A court of inquiry found that the accident was a consequence of bad weather and might have been avoided if Leigh-Mallory had not insisted that the flight proceed in such poor conditions against the advice of his aircrew. His replacement at SEAC was his Battle of Britain rival Air Marshal Sir Keith Park.

He and his wife are buried, alongside eight aircrew, in Le Rivier d'Allemont, 15 miles (24 km) east-southeast of Grenoble, a short distance below the site of the air crash. To mark the 60th anniversary of the accident and Leigh-Mallory's death, the local commune opened a small museum near the crash site, dedicated to him, in 2004.

Legacy
Battle of Britain-class steam railway locomotive number 34109, built for the Southern Region of British Railways in 1950, was named Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory.

title: Trafford Leigh-Mallory


text:
Ángel Berroa

Ángel Maria Berroa Selmo (born January 27, 1977) is a Dominican professional baseball coach and former professional baseball infielder. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Kansas City Royals, Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Yankees and New York Mets. Berroa was selected as the 2003 American League Rookie of the Year.

Oakland Athletics
Berroa was signed out of the Dominican Republic by the Oakland Athletics on August 14, 1997. After spending the 1998 season with the A's Dominican Summer League affiliate, he debuted stateside in the Arizona League for the 1999 season. There, he hit .290 in 46 games and was named to the league's All-Star team. In 2000, he played for the Visalia Oaks in the California League and received an honorable mention on that year's All-Star team for recording 11 doubles and 11 stolen bases in 129 games. He also committed 54 errors that year, third most in the league.

Kansas City Royals
On January 8, 2001, Berroa was acquired by the Kansas City Royals in a three-way trade that also included the Tampa Bay Devil Rays. Kansas City acquired Berroa, relief pitcher Roberto Hernández, and backup catcher A. J. Hinch in exchange for Johnny Damon and infielder Mark Ellis. In 2001, he hit a combined .304 with 14 home runs, 67 RBI, and 25 stolen bases between the Wilmington Blue Rocks in High-A and the Wichita Wranglers in Double-A. He played for the World Team in the 2001 All-Star Futures Game. He made his major league debut on September 18 as a defensive replacement against the Cleveland Indians. Berroa made his first start on September 25 and got his first major league hit off Detroit Tigers pitcher José Lima. He hit .302 in 15 games that season.

Berroa's 2002 season was a disaster. It was discovered that he had lied about his age and was actually two years older than he originally claimed to be. Berroa was born in 1978, not 1980, making him 23 during his breakout 2001 season, not 21 like originally believed. He also missed much to a knee injury that required surgery, as well as hamstring and back issues, playing just 77 games for the Omaha Royals in Triple-A and hitting .216 with eight home runs and 35 RBI. Still, he was selected to play for the World Team in the All-Star Futures Game and also played for the Pacific Coast League in the Triple-A All-Star Game. He was called up in September and appeared in twenty games for the Royals.

Following the departure of Neifi Pérez, Berroa was made the team's starting shortstop. He started the season hitting ninth in the batting order but was moved up later in the season. After committing 19 errors in his first 63 games, he had only five errors the rest of the year. Berroa finished the season with a .287 batting average, 17 home runs, 73 RBI, and 21 stolen bases. His performance sparked a media debate over who should be the American League Rookie of the Year: Berroa, Tampa Bay's outfielder Rocco Baldelli, Cleveland's outfielder Jody Gerut, or New York Yankees outfielder Hideki Matsui, a former star in the Central League of Nippon Professional Baseball. In the end, Berroa narrowly beat out Matsui by just four points to become the fourth member of the Royals to win the Rookie of the Year award, following Lou Piniella (1969), Bob Hamelin (1994), and Carlos Beltrán (1999).

Berroa took a step back in 2004. After just 14 games, he hit the disabled list with migraine headaches. In May, the Royals signed him to a four-year, $11 million deal with an option for the 2009 season. He slashed .249/.295/.368 through August 9 and made numerous mental mistakes in the field and on the base paths before he was demoted to Double-A Wichita for two weeks. Following his return, Berroa hit .291 with three home runs and 13 RBI in 38 games to close out the season. His 28 errors in the field led the majors that year.

Berroa's numbers continued to slip in 2005. His quality of play was seen by the media as a cause for manager Tony Pena's resignation on May 10. Berroa was doubled off second base in the ninth inning of a 3–1 game against the Toronto Blue Jays. After losing a franchise-record 104 games in 2004 and getting off to an 8–25 start to the 2005 season, Pena resigned hours after the game ended. He hit .270 with 11 home runs and 55 RBI in a career-high 159 games that year. His 0.17 K/BB rate ranked second worst in the majors.

In 2006, he hit just .234 with nine home runs and 54 RBI in 132 games that year. It was the third year in a row where Berroa's on-base percentage, slugging, and steals declined. His .592 OPS ranked the worst among all qualified hitters, and his average, on-base percentage and slugging were all last among qualified batters in the American League. His 0.16 K/BB was tied for last in the majors that year. Berroa's fielding statistics included 71 errors from 2004 to 2006, which were the most in the majors during that time.

Berroa spent the offseason before the 2007 season in Kansas City to work on his hitting and agility. He went into spring training expected to compete against Alex Gonzalez and Andres Blanco for the shortstop position. He ultimately hit .263 with 14 strikeouts and no walks in 38 at-bats. It was also believed that Berroa's defensive range had deteriorated. On March 23, the Royals acquired shortstop Tony Peña Jr. from the Atlanta Braves. Berroa was optioned to Triple-A Omaha the next day and Peña was named the starting shortstop. He was recalled on May 14, but was 1–11 in nine games with the Royals before being designated for assignment on June 6. Berroa was outrighted to Triple-A and spent the rest of the season in the minors, hitting .300 in 81 games for the Omaha Royals.

He spent spring training in 2008 with the Royals, but was assigned to Triple-A on March 29. He hit .291 in 51 games with Omaha.

Los Angeles Dodgers
On June 6, 2008, Berroa was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers for minor league infielder Juan Rivera. At the time of the trade, the Dodgers needed a temporary replacement for Rafael Furcal, who was in the disabled list with a back injury. Berroa received a surprisingly large amount of playing time, hitting .230 starting 64 games out of 84 total. Notably, he showed increased patience at the plate, drawing more walks than in any season since 2004 despite not playing a full season.

Berroa was included on the Dodgers' playoff roster as a bench player behind the recently-returned Furcal. He was used as a defensive replacement, pinch runner, and pinch hitter in five games during LA's playoff run. He got his first postseason hit in Game 2 of the National League Division Series against the Chicago Cubs. After the end of the season, the Dodgers declined Berroa's $5.5 million option for the 2009 season.

New York Yankees
On January 6, 2009, Berroa agreed to a minor league deal worth $900,000 with the New York Yankees. He was brought in to compete for a utility infielder role with Cody Ransom expected to played third base in place of the injured Alex Rodriguez. Despite hitting .371 in 29 games, Berroa did not make the opening day roster and was assigned to minor league camp on the last day of spring training. He was added to the major league roster on April 25 following following an injury to Ransom, leaving Berroa and Ramiro Pena to fill in at third base. Berroa got his first hit with the Yankees that day. After hitting .136 in 21 games, he was designated for assignment on June 24 once Ransom returned from the 60-day disabled list. He was granted his release on July 7.

New York Mets
On July 11, 2009, the New York Mets signed Berroa to a minor league contract assigned him to Triple-A Buffalo. On July 16, his contract was purchased by the major league club in order to help fill in for the injured Jose Reyes. He was designated for assignment on August 7. He finished the season having played a combined 35 games with 49 at-bats and a .391 OPS for the Yankees and the Mets.

Los Angeles Dodgers (second stint)
On December 17, 2009, Berroa was signed to a minor league contract with an invitation to spring training by the Dodgers. However, he failed to make the team and was released by the Dodgers on March 22, 2010.

San Francisco Giants
On April 28, 2010, Berroa signed a minor league contract with the San Francisco Giants. He hit .206 with four walks and 12 strikeouts in 26 games for the Fresno Grizzlies before he was placed on the disabled list on June 13. Berroa was released on June 26.

Bridgeport Bluefish
In April 2011, he signed with the Bridgeport Bluefish of the independent Atlantic League. He hit .263 with six home runs and 33 RBI in 64 games with the Bluefish.

Arizona Diamondbacks
Berroa signed a minor league contract with the Arizona Diamondbacks on July 24, 2011. He was assigned to the Triple-A Reno Aces to replace Cody Ransom, who had been called up to the majors in order to replace the injured Stephen Drew.

New Jersey Jackals
Berroa spent the 2012 season with the New Jersey Jackals of the Can-Am League, hitting .310 with a team-leading .398 OBP. On July 26, 2012, it was announced Berroa had formally retired from baseball and was seeking a job in professional soccer.

Leones de Yucatan
Berroa played for Leones de Yucatan in the Mexican League for the 2013 season. He hit .293 with 12 home runs and 62 RBI.

Pericos de Pueblo
He joined Pericos de Pueblo for the 2014 season and hit .334 with 23 home runs and 98 RBI. That year, he was an LMB All-Star.

Vaqueros Laguna
On February 6, 2015, Berroa signed with the Vaqueros Laguna in the Mexican League. He was released on June 12.

Post-playing career
Berroa has been a coach with the GCL Red Sox since the 2017 season. After four years in the Red Sox organization, he joined the Danville Otterbots of the Appalachian League as hitting coach. In 2022, he was hired as the Latin America infield coordinator for the Detroit Tigers.

Personal
Berroa is the son-in-law of former major league player and coach Luis Silverio.

title: Ángel Berroa


text:
Talk:Pizza Pizza

Untitled
So, is this what happens when SPAM meets Wikipedia?

 * Are you refering to an older version of the article - as it stands, its pretty factual and clearly not advertising - Pizza Pizza is certainly the most well known Pizza chain in Toronto if not Ontario, making it definitely noteworthy. WilyD 15:54, 7 June 2006 (UTC)
 * The original comment was posted in November 2003, when the article did kind of look like an ad. — stickguy (:^›)— home - talk - 21:35, 7 June 2006 (UTC)

WP:FOOD Tagging
This article talk page was automatically added with WikiProject Food and drink banner as it falls under Category:Restaurants or one of its subcategories. If you find this addition an error, Kindly undo the changes and update the inappropriate categories if needed. You can find the related request for tagging here -- TinucherianBot (talk) 10:47, 2 July 2008 (UTC)

Québec and gold-top coloured cans

 * The chain opened in the Montreal area in late 2007 with locations in the Montreal boroughs of Notre-Dame-de-Grâce and Pierrefonds-Roxboro, although the very first Pizza Pizza restaurant to open in Quebec was located in Gatineau, and opened its doors in March of the same year. Starting 2012, the total revenue of Pizza Pizza in this province accounts for 21% of the market, leaving place to first and second chains being Domino's and Pizza Hut with 30% and 23% respectively, but coming third well after Double Pizza, whose revenue is now only 15%, as compared to 26% in 2006 (just before Pizza Pizza was introduced).

I question this... Pizza Pizza was in Hull, Quebec behind an Ottawa number (+1-613-737-1111) in the 1990s. I recall a location with the distinctive orange signage on St. Joseph opposite "les Galeries de Hull" mall for years. It wasn't introduced in 2006.

Unfortunately, their slice pricing does get progressively worse as one gets further from Toronto.

 * Pizza Pizza's canned Coca-Cola products have a gold top instead of the more conventional silver top. This is so that it is obvious whether or not Coca-Cola products being sold by Pizza Pizza franchisees have been purchased through the Pizza Pizza commisary or not, for control purposes.

Québec uses gold tops to indicate cans on which a 5¢ deposit (dépôt) has been paid, to distinguish the cans from Ontario pop which has no container deposit payable. Automated machines in major Québec supermarkets accept the gold top container for refund but reject any can with a standard aluminium-coloured top. There's also one Coke flavour (diet caffeine-free) which uses a gold-colour can and top everywhere, purely for marketing purposes (which would fool the machine).

Should I cn both the 2006 date and the gold-top cans? K7L (talk) 22:57, 13 April 2013 (UTC)

Pizza Pizza Royalty Corp
Royalty is the owner of the trademark, not the operator of the restaurants. See: Investor page. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Notwillywanka (talk • contribs) 21:55, 2 February 2014 (UTC)

Quebec
"The chain opened in the Montreal area in late 2007 with locations in the Montreal boroughs of Notre-Dame-de-Grâce and Pierrefonds-Roxboro, although the very first Pizza Pizza restaurant to open in Quebec was located in Gatineau, and opened its doors in March of the same year."

This is incorrect. Pizza Pizza expanded to Montreal in the mid-80s, although the stores later closed. Harry the Dog WOOF  12:14, 5 May 2014 (UTC)
 * Some converted to a different banner, like the one across the street from the Snowden Metro that became "Double Pizza".--Notwillywanka (talk) 12:45, 7 May 2014 (UTC)

Advertising/fan point of view
I have just made some edits towards NPOV. Are the advertising and fan tags still justified? If so, please identify the parts of the article that justify this. If not, let's remove the tags. Ground Zero | t 13:42, 6 December 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Pizza Pizza


text:
Thomas Edward Cliffe Leslie

Thomas Edward Cliffe Leslie (21 June 1825 – 27 January 1882) was an Irish jurist and economist. He was professor of jurisprudence and political economy in Queen's College, Belfast, noted for challenging the Wages-Fund doctrine and for addressing contemporary agrarian policy questions. A critic of Ricardian orthodoxy, he said that it had sidelined consumer behaviour and demand. He developed the idea of consumer sovereignty, but insisted that the analysis of demand should be based on historical and comparative institutional work.

Early life
T. E. Cliffe Leslie was born in the county of Wexford, the second son of the Rev. Edward Leslie, prebendary of Dromore, and rector of Annahilt, in the county of Down. His family was of Scottish descent, but had been connected with Ireland since the reign of Charles I. Amongst his ancestors were John Leslie (1571–1671), bishop first of Raphoe and afterwards of Clogher, and the bishop's son Charles Leslie.

Cliffe Leslie received his elementary education from his father, who resided in England, though holding church preferment and some landed property in Ireland. His father taught him Latin, Greek and Hebrew at an unusually early age. Afterwards, for a short time he was under the care of a clergyman at Clapham, and was then sent to King William's College, in the Isle of Man.

He entered the University of Dublin, Trinity College in 1842. He was a distinguished student there, obtaining, besides other honours, a classical scholarship in 1845, and a senior moderatorship (gold medal) in mental and moral philosophy at his degree examination in 1846. He became a law student at Lincoln's Inn, was for two years a pupil in a conveyancers chambers in London, and was called to the English bar. But his attention soon turned from the pursuit of legal practice, for which he seems never to have had much inclination.

Academic career
In 1853, Cliffe Leslie was appointed to the professorship of jurisprudence and political economy in Queen's College, Belfast. The duties of this chair requiring only short visits to Ireland in certain terms of each year, he continued to reside and pursue his studies in London, and became a frequent writer on economic and social questions in the principal reviews and other periodicals.

In 1860 he collected a number of his essays, adding several new ones, into a volume entitled Land Systems and Industrial Economy of Ireland, England and Continental Countries. JS Mill gave a full account of the contents of this work in a paper in the Fortnightly Review, in which he pronounced Leslie to be one of the best living writers on applied political economy. Mill had sought his acquaintance on reading his first article in Macmillan's Magazine; he admired his talents, took pleasure in his society, and treated him with a respect and kindness which Leslie always gratefully acknowledged.

In the frequent visits which Leslie made to the continent, especially to Belgium and some of the less-known districts of France and Germany, he occupied himself much in economic and social observation. He studied the effects of the institutions and system of life which prevailed in each region, on the material and moral condition of its inhabitants. In this way he gained an extensive and accurate acquaintance with continental rural economy, of which he made excellent use in studying parallel phenomena at home. The accounts he gave of the results of his observations were among his happiest efforts; no one, said Mill, was able to write narratives of foreign visits at once so instructive and so interesting. In these excursions he made the acquaintance of several distinguished persons, amongst others of M. Lonce de Lavergne and M. Émile de Laveleye. To the memory of the former of these he afterwards paid a graceful tribute in a biographical sketch (Fortnightly Review, February 1881); and to the close of his life there existed between him and M. de Laveleye relations of mutual esteem and cordial intimacy.

Writings

Leslie's work falls into two categories: applied political economy and the discussion of the philosophical method of the science. The Land Systems and Industrial Economy of Ireland, England and Continental Countries belonged principally to the former division. Two essays of Leslie's appeared in volumes published under the auspices of the Cobden Club. The Land System of France (2nd ed., 1870), contained an earnest defence of la petite culture and still more of la petite propriété. Financial Reform (1871), set forth the impediments to production and commerce arising from indirect taxation. Many other articles were contributed by him to reviews between 1875 and 1879, including several discussions of the history of prices and the movements of wages in Europe, and a sketch of life in Auvergne in his best manner. The most important of them, however, related to the philosophical method of political economy, notably a memorable one which appeared in the Dublin University periodical, Hermathena.

In 1879 the provost and senior fellows of Trinity College published for him a volume in which a number of these articles were collected under the title of Essays in Political and Moral Philosophy. These and some later essays, together with the earlier volume on Land Systems, form the essential contribution of Leslie to economic literature. He had long contemplated, and had in part written, a work on English economic and legal history, which would have been his magnum opus, a more substantial fruit of his genius and his labours than anything he has left. But the manuscript of this treatise, after much pains had already been spent on it, was unaccountably lost at Nancy in 1872; and, though he hoped to be able speedily to reproduce the missing portion and finish the work, no material was left in a state fit for publication. What the nature of it would have been may be gathered from an essay on the History and Future of Profit in the Fortnightly Review for November 1881, which is believed to have been in substance an extract from it.

That he was able to do so much may well be a subject of wonder when it is known that his labours had long been impeded by a painful and depressing malady, from which he suffered severely at intervals, whilst he never felt secure from its recurring attacks. To this disease he in the end succumbed at Belfast, on 27 January 1882.

Cliffe Leslie emphasised the land question as a central issue for the social welfare of both Ireland and England. This volume has both a breadth of view and a rich variety of illustrative detail. His general purpose was to show that the territorial systems of both countries were so encumbered with historical elements of a feudal origin as to be altogether unfit to serve the purposes of a modern industrial society. The policy he recommended is summed up in the following:"Had there been in England a simple jurisprudence relating to land, a law of equal intestate succession, a prohibition of entail, a legal security for tenants' improvements, an open registration of title and transfer, a considerable number of peasant properties, the rural economy of England would long since have created unanswerable objections to the Irish land system in the public mind.—The Land Systems, ed. 1870, p. 2"

Much of Cliffe Leslie's work concerned the problems of Ireland. He rejected Home Rule as a solution, preferring land reform in favour of small proprietorship.

Method
Cliffe Leslie defended the inductive method in political economy, against the attempt to deduce the economic phenomena of a society from the so-called universal principle of the desire of wealth. English empiricism has a long tradition, dating from David Hume and Francis Bacon. Leslie was of this empirical tendency of British economic thought. He said that"[Economics'] fundamental laws ought to be obtained by careful induction, that assumptions from which an unreal order of things and unreal uniformities are deduced cannot be regarded as final or adequate ; and that facts, instead of being irrelevant to the economist's reasoning, are the phenomena from which he must infer his general principles, and by which he ought constantly to verify his deductions."

Further, he spoke of the"...necessity of studying every economic problem in conformity with the universal canons of the logic of science – of accepting no assumptions as finally established without proof, none as adequate from which conclusions untrue as matters of fact are found to result, and no chains of deduction from hypothetical premises as possessing more than hypothetical truth, until verified by observation."

The first influence which impelled Cliffe Leslie in the direction of the historical and comparative institutional methods was that of Sir Henry Maine, himself a student of historical jurisprudence as represented by Savigny. Maine's Ancient Law (1861) is famous for the thesis that law and society developed "from status to contract". Maine's personal teaching of jurisprudence, as well as the example of his writings, led Cliffe Leslie to look at the present economic structure and state of society as the result of a long evolution. Of the German economists who represent similar tendencies, only perhaps Roscher was an influence. And the writings of Comte, whom he admired though critically, must have powerfully co-operated to form in him the habit of regarding economic science as only a single branch of sociology.

The earliest writing in which Leslie's revolt against the so-called orthodox school distinctly appears is his Essay on Wages, first published in 1868 and reproduced as an appendix to the volume on Land Systems. In this, after criticism of the Wages-Fund doctrine and the lack of agreement between its results and the observed phenomena, he concludes by declaring that political economy must be an inductive, instead of a purely deductive science. By this change, it will gain in utility, interest and real truth far more than a full compensation for the forfeiture of a fictitious title to mathematical exactness and certainty. But it is in the essays collected in the volume of 1879 that his attitude in relation to the question of method is most decisively marked. In one of these, on the political economy of Adam Smith, he exhibits in a very interesting way the co-existence in The Wealth of Nations of historical-inductive investigation in the manner of Montesquieu with a priori speculation founded on theologico-metaphysical bases, and points out the error of ignoring the former element, which is the really characteristic feature of Smith's social philosophy, and places him in strong contrast with the school of Ricardo.

The essay, however, which contains the most brilliant polemic against the orthodox school, as well as the most luminous account and the most powerful vindication of the new direction, was that of which we have above spoken as having first appeared in Hermathena. It may be recommended as supplying the best extant presentation of one of the two contending views of economic method. On this essay mainly rests the claim of Leslie to be regarded as the founder and first head of the English historical school of political economy. Those who share his views on the philosophical constitution of the science regard the work he did, notwithstanding its unsystematic character, as in reality the most important done by any English economists in the latter half of the 19th century. But even the warmest partisans of the older school acknowledge that he did excellent service by insisting on a kind of inquiry, previously too much neglected, which was of the highest interest and value, in whatever relation it might be supposed to stand to the establishment of economic truth. The members of both groups alike recognised his great learning, his patient and conscientious habits of investigation and the large social spirit in which he treated the problems of his science.

Cliffe Leslie insisted on an inductive, historical and institutional approach, which was in vogue in the late-Nineteenth Century. Even so, a recent assessment views his work in applied economics as complementary to contemporary theoretical work.

Works

 * The Military Systems of Europe Economically Considered (1856)
 * "Political Economy and the Rate of Wages", Fraser's Magazine (15 July 1868);   Reprinted in Land Systems... (1870) pp. 357–379. On line.
 * Land Systems and Industrial Economy of Ireland, England and Continental Countries, London, Longmans, Green (1860); new edition, (1870) ISBN 0-678-00346-7
 * The Love of Money (1862) Reprinted in Essays in Political Economy, cited below, p. 189.
 * "The Political Economy of Adam Smith", Fortnightly Review (1 November 1870)
 * Financial Reform, Cobden Club Essays, 2nd Series (1871)
 * "The History of German Political Economy", Fortnightly Review (1 July 1875)
 * "On the Philosophical Method of Political Economy", Hermathena, Dublin University (1876)
 * The Land System of France, Cobden Club Essays (1876)
 * "Political Economy and Sociology", Fortnightly Review (1 January 1879)
 * Essays in Political and Moral Philosophy, Dublin and London, Hodges, Foster & Figgis and Longmans, Green (1879)
 * Essays in Political Economy, Dublin, Hodges, Figgis & Co. (1879, 1888)
 * "Political Economy in the United States", Fortnightly Review (1 October 1880)
 * "The Irish Land Question", Appleton's Journal (1881)
 * "History and Future of Profit", Fortnightly Review (November 1881)

title: Thomas Edward Cliffe Leslie


text:
Moleskin

Moleskin is a heavy cotton fabric, woven and then shorn to create a short, soft pile on one side. The feel and appearance of its nap is suede-like, less plush than velour and more like felt or chamois. The word is also used for clothing made from this fabric. Clothing made from moleskin is noted for its softness and durability. Some variants of the cloth are so densely woven as to be windproof.

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Military
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Military snipers occasionally wrap the stocks of their rifles in moleskin to absorb sweat and prevent slippage.

Workwear
Trousers made from moleskin were popular with British workers during the end of the nineteenth century due to the insulating and windproof qualities of the fabric.

Variations
Cotton sateen is a variant of moleskin. It utilises cheaper short-strand cotton to create a softer feeling fabric that is relatively fragile and wears quickly.

title: Moleskin