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Camille Chautemps

Camille Chautemps (1 February 1885 – 1 July 1963) was a French Radical politician of the Third Republic, three times President of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister).

He was the father-in-law of U.S. politician and statesman Howard J. Samuels.

Early life
Born into a family of Radical politicians, Camille Chautemps was a lawyer by training and a noted amateur rugby-player in his youth, playing for Tours Rugby and Stade Français. He was inducted into the Grand Orient of France (1906, master 1908), quitting the Freemasons in August 1940 as anti-masonic regulation was adopted by Pétain.

Early career
He entered local politics in the fiefdom of his parliamentarian uncle, Alphonse Chautemps, and followed a political career path typical of many Radical-Socialists: first elected town councillor for Tours (1912), then mayor (1919–25), parliamentary deputy (1919–34) and senator (1934–40). Chautemps was considered one of the chief figures of the 'right' (anti-socialist and pro-liberal) wing of the centre-left Radical-Socialist Party. Between 1924 and 1926, he served in the centre-left coalition governments of Édouard Herriot, Paul Painlevé and Aristide Briand.

Twice prime minister
Renowned as a skilful negotiator with friends from across the party divide, he was called upon on several occasions to attempt to build support for a coalition of the centre-left. He first became President of the Council for a short-lived government in 1930. After the electoral victory of the left in 1934, he served as Interior Minister and became head of government once more in November 1933. The revelations of the Stavisky Affair, a corruption scandal, tarnished two of his ministers, sparking violent protests by the far-right leagues. He resigned his posts on 27 January 1934, when the opposition press attributed Stavisky's suicide to a government cover-up.

Deputy Prime minister and last premiership
In Léon Blum's Popular Front government of 1936, Chautemps represented the Radical-Socialist Party as a Minister of State and succeeded Blum at the head of the government from June 1937 to March 1938. The franc was devalued, but government finances remained in difficulty. Pursuing the program of the Popular Front, he proceeded in the nationalisation of the railroads to create the SNCF. However, in January 1938, he formed a new government consisting solely of ministers from the nonsocialist republican centre- left. In February, he granted married women financial and legal independence (until then, wives had been dependent on their husbands to take action involving family finances) and allowed them to go to university and to open bank accounts. His government also repealed Article 213 of the code: "the husband owes protection to his wife, the wife obedience to the husband". However, the husband remained "head of the household" with "the right to choose the household’s place of residence". His government fell on 10 March.

Runup to World War II
Chautemps subsequently served from April 1938 to May 1940 as Deputy Prime Minister in the governments of Édouard Daladier and Paul Reynaud. After the latter resigned, as he was again deputy prime minister, now to Marshal Philippe Pétain.

World War II
France declared war on Germany in September 1939, and in May 1940, the German Army invaded and swept aside all opposition. With the fall of Dunkirk on 5 June and the defeat of the French Army imminent, Chautemps, dined with Paul Baudouin on the 8th, and declared that the war must be ended and that Pétain saw his position most clearly. On the 11th, during a Cabinet meeting, Chautemps suggested for Churchill to be invited back to France to discuss the hopeless situation; he attended a conference at Tours on 13 June. The Cabinet met again on the 15th and was almost evenly split on the question of an armistice with Germany. Chautemps now suggested that to break the deadlock, that they should get a neutral authority to enquire what the German terms would be, which if honourable, the Cabinet could agree to study. If not, the Cabinet would agree to fight on. The Chautemps proposal passed by 13 to 6.

On 16 June, Charles de Gaulle, now in London, telephoned Reynaud to give him the British government's offer of joint nationality for French and British in a Franco-British union. A delighted Reynaud put it to a stormy Cabinet meeting and was supported by five of his ministers. Most of the others were persuaded against him by the arguments of Pétain, Chautemps and Jean Ybarnégaray, the last two seeing the offer as a device to make France subservient to Britain as an extra dominion. Georges Mandel, who had a Jewish background, was flinging accusations of cowardice around the room, and Chautemps and others replied in kind. Reynaud clearly would not accept Chautemps's proposal and later resigned.

Later life
On 10 July 1940, Chautemps voted as a Senator in favour of granting the cabinet presided by Marshal Philippe Pétain authority to draw up a new constitution, thereby effectively ending the French Third Republic and establishing Vichy France. However, Chautemps broke with Pétain's government after he had arrived in the United States on an official mission and lived there for much of the rest of his life. After World War II, a French court convicted him in absentia for collaborating with the enemy; he was amnestied in 1954.

After his death in Washington, DC, he was laid to rest in the Rock Creek Cemetery.

Chautemps's First Ministry, 21 February – 2 March 1930

 * Camille Chautemps (Radical) – President of the Council and Minister of the Interior
 * Aristide Briand (PRS) – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * René Besnard (Radical) – Minister of War
 * Charles Dumont (AD) – Minister of Finance
 * Maurice Palmade (Radical) – Minister of Budget
 * Louis Loucheur (RI) – Minister of Labour, Hygiene, Welfare Work, and Social Security Provisions
 * Théodore Steeg (Radical) – Minister of Justice
 * Albert Sarraut (Radical) – Minister of Marine
 * Charles Daniélou (RI) – Minister of Merchant Marine
 * Laurent Eynac (RI) – Minister of Air
 * Jean Durand (Radical) – Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts
 * Claudius Gallet – Minister of Pensions
 * Henri Queuille (Radical) – Minister of Agriculture
 * Lucien Lamoureux (Radical) – Minister of Colonies
 * Édouard Daladier (Radical) – Minister of Public Works
 * Julien Durand (Radical) – Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones
 * Georges Bonnet (Radical) – Minister of Commerce and Industry

Chautemps's Second Ministry, 26 November 1933 – 30 January 1934

 * Camille Chautemps – President of the Council and Minister of the Interior – Radical Socialist Party
 * Joseph Paul-Boncour – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Édouard Daladier – Minister of War
 * Georges Bonnet – Minister of Finance
 * Paul Marchandeau – Minister of Budget
 * Lucien Lamoureux – Minister of Labour and Social Security Provisions
 * Eugène Raynaldy – Minister of Justice
 * Albert Sarraut – Minister of Marine
 * Eugène Frot – Minister of Merchant Marine
 * Pierre Cot – Minister of Air
 * Anatole de Monzie – Minister of National Education
 * Hippolyte Ducos – Minister of Pensions
 * Henri Queuille – Minister of Agriculture
 * Albert Dalimier – Minister of Colonies
 * Joseph Paganon – Minister of Public Works
 * Alexandre Israël – Minister of Public Health
 * Jean Mistler – Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones
 * Laurent Eynac – Minister of Commerce and Industry

Changes
 * 9 January 1934 – Lucien Lamoureux succeeds Dalimier as Minister of Colonies. Eugène Frot succeeds Lamoureux as Minister of Labour and Social Security Provisions.  William Bertrand succeeds Frot as Minister of Merchant Marine.

Chautemps's Third Ministry, 22 June 1937 – 18 January 1938

 * Camille Chautemps – President of the Council – Radical Socialist Party
 * Léon Blum – Vice President of the Council – French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO)
 * Yvon Delbos – Minister of Foreign Affairs – Radical Socialist Party
 * Édouard Daladier – Minister of National Defense and War – Radical Socialist Party
 * Marx Dormoy – Minister of the Interior – SFIO
 * Georges Bonnet – Minister of Finance – Radical Socialist Party
 * André Février – Minister of Labour – SFIO
 * Vincent Auriol – Minister of Justice – SFIO
 * César Campinchi – Minister of Marine – Radical Socialist Party
 * Pierre Cot – Minister of Air – Radical Socialist Party
 * Jean Zay – Minister of National Education – Radical Socialist Party
 * Albert Rivière – Minister of Pensions – SFIO
 * Georges Monnet – Minister of Agriculture – Radical Socialist Party
 * Marius Moutet – Minister of Colonies – SFIO
 * Henri Queuille – Minister of Public Works – Radical Socialist Party
 * Marc Rucart – Minister of Public Health – Radical Socialist Party
 * Jean-Baptiste Lebas – Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones – SFIO
 * Fernand Chapsal – Minister of Commerce
 * Paul Faure – Minister of State – SFIO
 * Maurice Viollette – Minister of State – usr
 * Albert Sarraut – Minister of State – Radical Socialist Party
 * Léo Lagrange – Under-Secretary of State for the Sports, the Leisure activities and the Physical Education -i.e. acting like Minister for the Sports- – SFIO

Chautemps's Fourth Ministry, 18 January – 13 March 1938

 * Camille Chautemps – President of the Council – Radical Socialist Party
 * Édouard Daladier – Vice President of the Council and Minister of National Defense and War
 * Yvon Delbos – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Albert Sarraut – Minister of the Interior
 * Paul Marchandeau – Minister of Finance
 * Paul Ramadier – Minister of Labour
 * César Campinchi – Minister of Justice
 * William Bertrand – Minister of Military Marine
 * Paul Elbel – Minister of Merchant Marine
 * Guy La Chambre – Minister of Air
 * Jean Zay – Minister of National Education
 * Robert Lassalle – Minister of Pensions
 * Fernand Chapsal – Minister of Agriculture
 * Théodore Steeg – Minister of Colonies
 * Henri Queuille – Minister of Public Works
 * Marc Rucart – Minister of Public Health
 * Fernand Gentin – Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones
 * Pierre Cot – Minister of Commerce
 * Georges Bonnet – Minister of State
 * Ludovic-Oscar Frossard – Minister of State in charge of the Services of the Presidency of the Council

title: Camille Chautemps


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Albert Sarraut

Albert-Pierre Sarraut (28 July 1872 – 26 November 1962) was a French Radical politician, twice Prime Minister during the Third Republic.

Biography
Sarraut was born on 28 July 1872 in Bordeaux, Gironde, France.

On 14 March 1907 Sarraut, Senator of Aude and Under-Secretary of State for the Interior, was ridiculed by Clemenceau for trying to plead the case of his electorate during the revolt of the Languedoc winegrowers. Clemenceau told Sarraut, "I know the South, it will all end with a banquet". After massive demonstrations in the winegrowing region in June 1907 Clemenceau asked Sarraut to bring the leader Ernest Ferroul to the negotiating table. Ferroul told him: "When we have three million men behind us, we do not negotiate". From 17 June 1907 the Midi was occupied by 22 regiments of infantry and 12 regiments of cavalry. The gendarmerie was ordered to imprison the leaders of the demonstrations. Sarraut refused to endorse this policy and resigned from the government.

He was Governor-General of French Indochina, from 1912 to 1914 and from 1917 to 1919. Although Sarraut was celebrated for native education reform, his motivation was an example of paternalism. He believed that the Vietnamese could not be civilized until their thinking, customs and institutions mirrored those of the French. According to Hue Tam Ho Tai, if Sarraut's argument was carried to its logical conclusion, the Vietnamese, she writes, would "deserve independence from French rule only when they no longer desired to be Vietnamese, but Frenchmen in yellow skin." Albert Sarraut supported actively the preservation and development of native arts, for instance supporting the French art scholar George Groslier in preserving Cambodian arts and cultural traditions, and funding the design and construction of the National Museum of Cambodia. On 18 January 1920 he replaced Henry Simon as Minister of the Colonies.

Acting as Minister of the Interior for the Édouard Daladier run government, Sarrault became increasingly concerned with what he considered a flood of Spanish refugees fleeing the Francoist regime during the Spanish Civil War. In April 1938 Sarrault released a statement calling for the "methodical, energetic and prompt action to rid our country of the too numerous undesirable elements".

On 10 July 1940, Sarraut voted in favour of granting the Cabinet presided over by Marshal Philippe Pétain authority to draw up a new constitution, thereby effectively ending the French Third Republic and establishing Vichy France. Thereafter Sarraut retired from politics. He took control of the family newspaper, La Dépêche de Toulouse, after the editor, his brother Maurice Sarraut, was killed by the Milice in 1943.

Sarraut died in Paris on 26 November 1962. The Lycée Albert Sarraut in Hanoi was named after him.

Sarraut's First Ministry, 26 October – 26 November 1933

 * Albert Sarraut – President of the Council and Minister of Marine
 * Albert Dalimier – Vice President of the Council and Minister of Justice
 * Joseph Paul-Boncour – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Édouard Daladier – Minister of War
 * Camille Chautemps – Minister of the Interior
 * Georges Bonnet – Minister of Finance
 * Abel Gardey – Minister of Budget
 * Eugène Frot – Minister of Labour and Social Security Provisions
 * Jacques Stern – Minister of Merchant Marine
 * Pierre Cot – Minister of Air
 * Anatole de Monzie – Minister of National Education
 * Hippolyte Ducos – Minister of Pensions
 * Henri Queuille – Minister of Agriculture
 * François Piétri – Minister of Colonies
 * Joseph Paganon – Minister of Public Works
 * Émile Lisbonne – Minister of Public Health
 * Jean Mistler – Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones
 * Laurent Eynac – Minister of Commerce and Industry

Sarraut's Second Ministry, 24 January – 4 June 1936

 * Albert Sarraut – President of the Council and Minister of the Interior
 * Pierre Étienne Flandin – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Louis Maurin – Minister of War
 * Marcel Régnier – Minister of Finance
 * Ludovic-Oscar Frossard – Minister of Labour
 * Léon Bérard – Minister of Justice
 * François Piétri – Minister of Marine
 * Louis de Chappedelaine – Minister of Merchant Marine
 * Marcel Déat – Minister of Air
 * Henri Guernut – Minister of National Education
 * René Besse – Minister of Pensions
 * Paul Thellier – Minister of Agriculture
 * Jacques Stern – Minister of Colonies
 * Camille Chautemps – Minister of Public Works
 * Louis Nicolle – Minister of Public Health and Physical Education
 * Georges Mandel – Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones
 * Georges Bonnet – Minister of Commerce and Industry
 * Joseph Paul-Boncour – Minister of State and Permanent Delegate to the League of Nations

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Albert Sarraut


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Fernand Bouisson

Fernand Bouisson (16 June 1874 – 28 December 1959) was a Socialist French politician of the Third Republic, who served as President of the Chamber of Deputies from 1927 to 1936 and briefly as Prime Minister in June 1935 following the ouster of Pierre-Étienne Flandin.

Bouisson's Ministry, 1–7 June 1935

 * Fernand Bouisson – President of the Council and Minister of the Interior
 * Georges Pernot – Vice President of the Council and Minister of Justice
 * Pierre Laval – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Louis Maurin – Minister of War
 * Joseph Caillaux – Minister of Finance
 * Ludovic-Oscar Frossard – Minister of Labour
 * François Piétri – Minister of Marine and interim Minister of Merchant Marine
 * Victor Denain – Minister of Air
 * Mario Roustan – Minister of National Education
 * Camille Perfetti – Minister of Pensions
 * Paul Jacquier – Minister of Agriculture
 * Louis Rollin – Minister of Colonies
 * Joseph Paganon – Minister of Public Works
 * Louis Lafont – Minister of Public Health and Physical Education
 * Georges Mandel – Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones
 * Laurent Eynac – Minister of Commerce and Industry
 * Édouard Herriot – Minister of State
 * Louis Marin – Minister of State
 * Philippe Pétain – Minister of State

title: Fernand Bouisson


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Monopole

Monopole may refer to:

 * Magnetic monopole, or Dirac monopole, a hypothetical particle that may be loosely described as a magnet with only one pole
 * Monopole (mathematics), a connection over a principal bundle G with a section (the Higgs field) of the associated adjoint bundle
 * Monopole, the first term in a multipole expansion
 * Monopole (wine), an appellation owned by only one winery
 * Monopole (album), a 2011 album by White Town
 * Monopole antenna, a radio antenna that replaces half of a dipole antenna with a ground plane at right-angles to the remaining half
 * Monopole, a tubular self-supporting telecommunications mast
 * The Monopole, a bar in Plattsburgh, NY
 * Établissements Monopole, a French auto parts manufacturer, racing car builder and racing team.

title: Monopole


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Pierre-Étienne Flandin

Pierre-Étienne Flandin (12 April 1889 – 13 June 1958) was a French conservative politician of the Third Republic, leader of the Democratic Republican Alliance (ARD), and Prime Minister of France from 1934 to 1935.

A military pilot during World War I, Flandin held a number of cabinet posts during the interwar period. He was Minister of Commerce, under the premiership of Frédéric François-Marsal, for just five days in 1924. He was Minister of Commerce and Industry in the premierships of André Tardieu in 1931 and 1932. Between those posts, he served under Pierre Laval as Finance Minister. In 1934 (6 February to 8 November), he was Minister of Public Works in the second cabinet of Gaston Doumergue. He became Prime Minister in November 1934, but his premiership lasted only until June 1935. However, a number of important pacts were negotiated during his term: the Franco-Italian Agreement of 1935, the Stresa Front and the Franco-Soviet Pact. Flandin was, at 45, the youngest prime minister in French history.

Flandin was the French Foreign Minister when Adolf Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht to reoccupy the Rhineland on 7 March 1936. He attempted to organize a strong response but was unable to without British support. Supporting appeasement during the Munich crisis hurt his career. In December 1940, Vichy Chief of State Philippe Pétain appointed Flandin Foreign Minister and Deputy Prime Minister on 13 December 1940, replacing Pierre Laval. He occupied that position for only two months.

He was ousted by François Darlan in January 1941.

A street in Avallon was named in his honour. In May 2017, it was renamed in honour of the murdered British MP, Jo Cox.

Flandin's ministry, 8 November 1934 – 1 June 1935

 * Pierre Étienne Flandin – President of the Council
 * Georges Pernot – Vice President of the Council and Minister of Justice
 * Pierre Laval – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Louis Maurin – Minister of War
 * Marcel Régnier – Minister of the Interior
 * Louis Germain-Martin – Minister of Finance
 * Paul Jacquier – Minister of Labour
 * François Piétri – Minister of Military Marine
 * William Bertrand – Minister of Merchant Marine
 * Victor Denain – Minister of Air
 * André Mallarmé – Minister of National Education
 * Georges Rivollet – Minister of Pensions
 * Émile Casset – Minister of Agriculture
 * Louis Rollin – Minister of Colonies
 * Henri Roy – Minister of Public Works
 * Henri Queuille – Minister of Public Health and Physical Education
 * Georges Mandel – Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones
 * Paul Marchandeau – Minister of Commerce and Industry
 * Édouard Herriot – Minister of State
 * Louis Marin – Minister of State

title: Pierre-Étienne Flandin


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Talk:Asiatic linsang

Untitled
sorry, I thought the disambig was needed because Poiana redirected here, but I'd forgetten I'd dealt with that another way. Disambig text now removed again. seglea 07:39, 15 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I am going to do some corrections--DSWebb 17:23, 29 January 2007 (UTC)

Image Names
I am sorry if I am doing this incorrectly, but there's something weird with this page. Asiatic linsang and Spotted linsang both contain the same image, but it has a different name on each page. Shouldn't the picture be named either Asiatic or spotted, not both?

 * Good point. Withal, an animal that is of Least Concern should have a few photos of the live animals available. Kortoso (talk) 18:19, 9 May 2017 (UTC)

Any live specimen images?
Seeing as the linsang species are listed as of least concern and widely distributed, it seems a little odd that there are seemingly only taxidermy images on any of these pages. Is there any particular reason why an image of a live specimen would be hard to source? Surely an image of a living animal would always be preferable to a taxidermy as an article header. BlackholeWA (talk) 00:40, 11 April 2020 (UTC)
 * A few camera trap images of linsangs exist indeed, but alas, not under the licenses needed for display in wikipedia. -- BhagyaMani (talk) 07:41, 11 April 2020 (UTC)
 * I'll make a note to get a camera out if I ever happen to see one in a zoo. BlackholeWA (talk) 05:35, 22 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Can't anyone find a late 1950 depiction of a linsang ? It's always better than an actual corpse if no zoo displays them... Larrayal (talk) 23:27, 26 August 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Asiatic linsang


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Gaston Doumergue

Pierre Paul Henri Gaston Doumergue (1 August 1863 in Aigues-Vives, Gard – 18 June 1937 in Aigues-Vives) was a French politician of the Third Republic. He served as President of France from 1924 to 1931, succeeding Alexandre Millerand, who had resigned.

Tasked with important ministerial portfolios, he was first appointed President of the Council of Ministers in 1913, but was forced to leave power a few months after his appointment. He was elected as President of the Senate in 1923.

At the end of his mandate as President of France, refusing to compete against his eventual successor, Doumergue retired, but chaired a government of national unity during the crisis created by the riots of 6 February 1934.

Protestant origins

Gaston Doumergue came from a Protestant family. His father, Pierre Doumergue, was a vigneron in Aigues-Vives. His mother, Françoise Pattus, raised him in the Protestant faith and the admiration of republican ideas. He was also the great-uncle of playwright Colette Audry and filmmaker Jacqueline Audry.

A brilliant student, he claimed to have belonged to the "generation of revenge, animated by a beautiful patriotic ardour", after the defeat of 1870. He studied at the boys' high school in Nîmes, the future Alphonse-Daudet high school.

Judiciary
After a license and a doctorate in law at the School of Law of Paris, he registered in 1885 at the Nîmes bar and participated in the resounding trial of deputy Numa Gilly, before entering the judiciary in 1890 as a substitute in Hanoi, French Indochina. His time there was brief because he returned to France on the death of his father in 1891.

Beginnings in Parliament (1893–1901)
In 1893, while he was a justice of the peace for the commune of Aïn El Arbaa, he returned to Aigues-Vives in France and presented his candidacy for a partial legislative election in December 1893, intended to fill the seat of Émile Jamais, a longtime friend who had just been re-elected in the August 1893 election but died suddenly on November 18, before the opening of the parliamentary session. Nothing destined him for politics and his grandfather had even refused an appointment as mayor of the village in 1836 because of the modesty of his fortune in a tax system.

Encouraged by his mother who followed his career step-by-step, Doumergue was elected as the Radical deputy for Nîmes with 10,101 votes, beating, in the second round, the mayor of Nîmes, Gaston Maruéjol, who obtained only 24 votes. He attended the banquet given in Lyon by President Sadi Carnot on 24 June 1894, during which the latter was fatally stabbed by the Italian anarchist Sante Geronimo Caserio. This event made him realize the seriousness and the danger of the use of power.

He was re-elected deputy on 8 May 1898, in the first round of the ballot, with 11,514 votes against the conservative Albert de Nesmes-Desmarets. He was very involved in France's colonial policy and, during his speeches at the podium (which were well-received on the left benches), criticized successive governments for their military interventionism and in particular the occupation of Madagascar. From 1894, he also denounced the "benevolent indifference and not the pronounced sympathy" of public opinion vis-à-vis colonial policy, which masked the looting of conquered territories and the violence of the administration.

His secular and republican convictions made him side with Alfred Dreyfus. His successive mandates were also an opportunity for him to defend small agricultural producers. His influence within the left grew. He was elected deputy for the third time on 27 April 1902, in the first round.

A freemason since 1901, he was initiated into the lodge L'Écho du Grand Orient at the Orient of Nîmes, Grand Orient de France.

Ministerial portfolios (1902–1910)
Under the presidency of Émile Loubet, he was Minister of the Colonies in the Émile Combes government from 1902 to 1905.

He was minister without interruption from 1906 to 1910, first for Trade and Industry, where he created the direction of the merchant navy, then for Public Instruction and Fine Arts from 1908, replacing Aristide Briand. In this capacity, on 4 June 1908, he delivered a speech on behalf of the government of Georges Clemenceau during the transfer of Émile Zola's ashes to the Panthéon, praising the "heroism" of the writer just as he, on 19 March the previous year, had defended the organization of the transfer ceremony on the Assembly platform, against the anti-Dreyfusards.

A fervent supporter of secular schools, he unleashed the most violent school war in the history of France by filing two "secular defense" projects in June 1908 aimed at punishing families who prevented their children from following an education, even an anti-Catholic one. For this, he received the nickname of "escapee from St. Bartholomew" from the polemicist Édouard Drumont. In the field of education, Doumergue also pleaded in favour of the teaching of Arabic in French Algeria.

He also became vice-president of the Chamber of Deputies for a year, from February 1905 to March 1906, between his two ministries. In 1910, he was elected senator for Gard, after the death of Frédéric Desmons. Doumergue was re-elected in 1912 and 1921.

First government (1913–1914)
From 9 December 1913 to 8 June 1914 he was President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs at the request of President Raymond Poincaré, who sought in Doumergue a conciliator capable of forming a cabinet of "republican harmony". From then on, Doumergue strove to reconcile the demands of the Radical party and the interests of the country, in an international horizon that was becoming darker: the statesman took precedence over the partisan. Doumergue needed to defend the law on three-year military service, which he voted through, not without scrutiny, in August 1913: "None of you is expecting us to reopen the debate: that's the law." The proposal to create an income tax by the finance minister, Joseph Caillaux, triggered a controversy among the conservatives, but was finally voted on in July 1914 by a Senate which had been hostile to it for five years. The "Calmette affair", which led to the resignation of the minister, put the government in a difficult position as the tenth legislature ended and a delicate electoral campaign began. Doumergue had, however, warned that he "would in no case stay after the elections".

It was time for a policy of rearmament and closer alliances, which Poincaré and Doumergue carried out successfully. However, Doumergue did not lose sight of the international situation, and the chancelleries were constantly kept on alert. The Radical party easily came out on top in the 1914 French legislative election and this left-wing majority, elected on the theme of peace, caused the President great difficulty in constituting a cabinet that could succeed Doumergue. The latter took advantage of the end of his functions to undertake a trip to Upper Austria.

On 3 August 1914, the day of Germany's declaration of war on France, marking the start of World War I, the new President of the Council, René Viviani, called on Doumergue to replace him at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, during the composition of his short-lived first government. Then, he was Minister of the Colonies in the successive governments from 26 August 1914 to 19 March 1917. During this mandate, in the middle of the war, he ensured the security of French possessions and set up a secret agreement with Tsar Nicholas II of Russia which defined the demands that France and Russia would make in future peace negotiations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. However, this treaty became null and void following the October Revolution.

In February 1923, he was elected President of the Senate, replacing Léon Bourgeois.

Election to the presidency

His career culminated with his election as President of the Republic on 13 June 1924, for a seven-year term. This accession to the head of state was the result of several successive political events. The preceding 11 and 25 May saw the victory of the Cartel des Gauches in the legislative elections, despite a higher number of votes for the right and thanks to an electoral law granting a bonus to alliances. Raymond Poincaré, the President of the Council since 1922, having been disavowed, submitted his resignation to President Alexandre Millerand. The cartelists claimed power in the "smallest cogs of the administration". Paul Painlevé was brought to the head of the Chamber thanks to the votes of the Cartel also led by Léon Blum, Édouard Herriot, and Aristide Briand against the candidate of the right, André Maginot. The appointment of Frédéric François-Marsal was taken as a provocation and his government lasted only two days.

Thus, the left, which forced Alexandre Millerand to resign, then believed it could bring Painlevé to the presidency, but the moderates thwarted his ambitions by massively turning to Gaston Doumergue, who already benefitted from some of the votes on the left. He received 515 votes out of 815 voters, against 309 for Painlevé and 21 for Zéphyrin Camélinat, the first communist candidate in a presidential election.

Domestic policy
He appointed the mayor of Lyon, Édouard Herriot, as head of government and charged him with establishing a policy of symbolic change to satisfy the electorate. The cartel state was installed, with its members holding a majority of the presidencies of parliamentary committees, as well as the major positions in the administration. The scandal of irregularities at the Bank of France overthrew the government and Doumergue resolved to appoint Paul Painlevé as President of the Council in order to unite Radical and socialist voices, playing with designations according to the parliamentary pendulum.

On 5 July 1924 Gaston Doumergue proclaimed the official opening of the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris during the opening ceremony held at the Stade olympique de Colombes in the presence of the President of the International Olympic Committee, Pierre de Coubertin, the members of the IOC, the President of the French Olympic Committee, Justinien Clary, the members of the FOC, as well as the 44 participating delegations.

Doumergue's seven-year term was marked by the prosperity of France during the interwar period and the Années folles, but also by significant ministerial instability and financial difficulties caused by the fall of the franc. Called to the Ministry of Finance in July 1926, Poincaré instituted a policy of austerity by bringing the franc back to its real value through a sharp devaluation. He also restored confidence and managed to boost a flagging economy. This neo-liberal policy also generated a period of economic and financial prosperity, at a time when the United States was hit hard by the stock market crash of 1929. Progress in technical industry, particularly in the steel industry and automobiles, contributed to the country's growth. Production capacity thus increased by 45% over the 1920s. To support this development, Doumergue reinforced a centrist policy and instituted workers' social insurance.

In May 1930, he went to the departments of Algeria, to the lands he had known in the first years of his career, for the commemorations of the centenary of French Algeria, accompanied by a delegation of eight ministers and of several dozen deputies. The following year, a few weeks before the end of his mandate, he commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of the French protectorate of Tunisia.

Foreign policy

In foreign policy, he declared himself in favour of a policy of firmness vis-à-vis Germany in the face of resurgent nationalism in parts of Europe, but also in France. He ran into difficulties: the Allies were unable to agree on Germany. Forced to evacuate the Ruhr, Saarland, and the Rhineland between 1925 and 1930, Doumergue's France was also duped by the German Chancellor Gustav Stresemann despite the signing of the Locarno Treaties.

Disagreements with his foreign minister, Aristide Briand, only aggravated the colonial crises in Syria and the Rif. After failed attempts at consultation by the prefect in place in Morocco, Doumergue decided to send Marshall Philippe Pétain, who quickly won the Rif War. At the same time, he participated in the inauguration of the Grand Mosque of Paris, with the Moroccan sultan Moulay Youssef, who was on an official visit to France. On this occasion, he became the first French president to quote a hadith: "the best Muslim is the one whose believers have neither hand nor tongue to fear". In French Indochina in the 1920s, the Vietnamese nationalists of the VNQDĐ maintained an independence agitation (assassination of Alfred François Bazin, Yên Bái mutiny, etc.) that colonial authorities repressed with rifle shots and guillotines.

In South America, he helped Marcel Bouilloux-Lafont, the director of the Compagnie générale aéropostale, obtain the postal contracts and flyover rights from Brazil and Argentina necessary for the operation of an air transport line.

Particularities of his presidency

Within such an unstable political world, Doumergue strove to support the management of public affairs in leftist values and a conservative guideline. An affable and courteous man, he seduced since the beginning of his political career with his good nature and his accent. After his election to the presidency of the Republic, his simplicity continued to earn him popularity in the public opinion, which is reflected in particular by his nickname of "Gastounet".

Moreover, Doumergue's accession to the presidency of the Republic made him the only Protestant head of state known to France since the abjuration of Henry IV, on 25 July 1593. He was also the second unmarried President of the French Republic when he took office, after Napoleon III. Although an "old bachelor", he was nonetheless, according to historian Adrien Dansette, "sensitive to feminine charm", but his frequent passing liaisons were only the "Parisian manners of politicians". He maintained a long-term liaison with Jeanne Gaussal, an associate professor of the University. During his presidential mandate, he had breakfast with her at his former home at 73 Avenue de Wagram every morning, where he went on foot from the Élysée Palace. On 1 June 1931, twelve days before the end of his mandate, he married Gaussal in front of the mayor of the 8th arrondissement of Paris, Gaston Drucker, who had come specially to the Élysée, with the secretary-general of the presidency, Jules Michel, as his witness. Doumergue thus became the first President of the Republic to marry during his mandate.

His presidential mandate ended on 13 June 1931, and he retired from political life to his wife's home in Tournefeuille, in Haute-Garonne.

Return to Council Presidency (1934)
Still popular, he was recalled as President of the Council after the bloody events of 6 February 1934, to form a government of national unity where André Tardieu and Édouard Herriot rubbed shoulders. After having positioned himself at the centre-left of the political spectrum during his first mandate, he gradually neared the centre-right Independent Radicals during his presidency.

His goal was to reform institutions to reduce ministerial instability. This attempt did not succeed; in poor health, it was difficult for him to arbitrate within one of those cabinets in which the greatest hopes are generally placed because they symbolize the unity of the nation, but which are actually made up of ministers from all sides of the political spectrum who do not get along. There was, however, an upturn in public finances, which allowed the price of government bonds to gain ten to twelve points between March and June. He was also weakened by the assassination of Louis Barthou on 9 October, and preferred to resign soon after, on November 8. René Viviani, who died in 1925, said of him: "In a well-organized democracy, Doumergue would be a justice of the peace in the provinces."

Death and state funeral
Doumergue died on 18 June 1937 at his house in Aigues-Vives, at the age of 73.

The government organized a state funeral for him, which took place in Nîmes. His grave is located in the small cemetery of Aigues-Vives, where his wife Jeanne (Gaussal) was buried alongside him in 1963.

A bust of Gaston Doumergue is exhibited in the room of the Presidents of the Republic in the Musée de la Révolution française, recalling that he was the first president to be hosted in this former presidential summer residence.

Doumergue's First Ministry, 9 December 1913 – 9 June 1914

 * Gaston Doumergue – President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Joseph Noulens – Minister of War
 * René Renoult – Minister of the Interior
 * Joseph Caillaux – Minister of Finance
 * Albert Métin – Minister of Labour and Social Security Provisions
 * Jean-Baptiste Bienvenu-Martin – Minister of Justice
 * Ernest Monis – Minister of the Navy
 * René Viviani – Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts
 * Maurice Raynaud (politician) – Minister of Agriculture
 * Albert Lebrun – Minister of Colonies
 * Fernand David – Minister of Public Works
 * Louis Malvy – Minister of Commerce, Industry, Posts, and Telegraphs

Changes

 * 17 March 1914 – René Renoult succeeds Caillaux as Finance Minister. Louis Malvy succeeds Renoult as Minister of the Interior. Raoul Péret succeeds Malvy as Minister of Commerce, Industry, Posts, and Telegraphs.
 * 20 March 1914 – Armand Gauthier succeeds Monis as Minister of the Navy.

Doumergue's Second Ministry, 9 February – 8 November 1934

 * Gaston Doumergue – President of the Council
 * Louis Barthou – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Philippe Pétain – Minister of War
 * Albert Sarraut – Minister of the Interior
 * Louis Germain-Martin – Minister of Finance
 * Adrien Marquet – Minister of Labour
 * Henry Chéron – Minister of Justice
 * François Piétri – Minister of Military Marine
 * William Bertrand – Minister of Merchant Marine
 * Victor Denain – Minister of Air
 * Adrien Berthod – Minister of National Education
 * Georges Rivollet (politician) – Minister of Pensions
 * Henri Queuille – Minister of Agriculture
 * Pierre Laval – Minister of Colonies
 * Pierre-Étienne Flandin – Minister of Public Works
 * Louis Marin – Minister of Public Health and Physical Education
 * André Mallarmé – Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones
 * Lucien Lamoureux – Minister of Commerce and Industry
 * Édouard Herriot – Minister of State
 * André Tardieu – Minister of State

Changes
 * 13 October 1934 – Pierre Laval succeeds Barthou (assassinated 9 October) as Minister of Foreign Affairs. Paul Marchandeau succeeds Sarraut as Minister of the Interior. Louis Rollin succeeds Laval as Minister of Colonies.
 * 15 October 1934 – Henry Lémery succeeds Chéron as Minister of Justice.

Honours

 * MCO Order of Saint-Charles - Grand Cross BAR.svg Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Charles, 1914
 * Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 1924, by right as Grand Master of the Order
 * POL Order Orła Białego BAR (1921-1990).svg Order of the White Eagle, 4 December 1924
 * Order of the Royal House of Chakri (Thailand) ribbon.svg Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 30 January 1925
 * EST Cross of Liberty III division ribbon.svg Division III, 1st Class of the Cross of Liberty (VR III/1), 29 April 1925
 * Order of the Golden Fleece ribbon bar.svg Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, 1926
 * SMR Order of Saint Marinus - Grand Cross BAR.png Knight Grand Cross of the Equestrian Order of San Marino, 16 September 1926
 * Order of the Elephant Ribbon bar.svg Knight of the Order of the Elephant, 12 March 1927
 * LVA Order of the Three Stars - Commander BAR.png Commander Grand Cross (with Chain) of the Order of the Three Stars (1st class), 6 July 1927
 * Order of the Seraphim - Ribbon bar.svg Knight of the Order of the Seraphim, 1 August 1927

title: Gaston Doumergue


text:
Joseph Paul-Boncour

Augustin Alfred Joseph Paul-Boncour (4 August 1873 – 28 March 1972) was a French politician and diplomat of the Third Republic. He was a member of the Republican-Socialist Party (PRS) and served as Prime Minister of France from December 1932 to January 1933. He also served in a number of other government positions during the 1930s and as a Permanent Delegate to the League of Nations in 1936 during his tenure as Minister of State.

Career
Born in Saint-Aignan, Loir-et-Cher, Paul-Boncour received a law degree from the University of Paris and became active in the labor movement, organizing the legal council of the Bourses du Travail (workers' associations). He was private secretary to Premier Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau from 1898 to 1902. Elected to the Chamber of Deputies as a Radical in 1909, he held his seat until 1914, briefly serving as Minister of Labour from March to June 1911. After serving in the military during World War I, he returned to the French National Assembly.

Turning to Socialism, he joined the SFIO in 1916. Paul-Boncour left the socialist party in 1931 because he considered imperative, in face of the League of Nations progressive powerlessness, to reinforce national defence, something the socialists opposed. After his resignation from the SFIO in 1931 he joined the Republican-Socialist Party (PRS), which in 1935 merged with the French Socialist Party (PSF) and the Socialist Party of France-Jean Jaurès Union PSdF) to form the Socialist Republican Union (USR). Also in 1931, Paul-Boncour was elected to the Senate, and served in that capacity until the establishment of the Vichy régime in 1940 (during World War II).

During his time as a Senator, Paul-Boncour served in a variety of cabinet and diplomatic posts. He was the Permanent Delegate to the League of Nations from 1932 to 1936, Minister of War in 1932, Premier from December 1932 to January 1933, and Foreign Minister on two occasions (December 1932 to January 1934 and March–April 1938).

Paul-Boncour was opposed to the formation of the Vichy government, and recommended continuing the fight against Nazi Germany after the fall of France, from Algiers. As a member of the Consultative Assembly from 1944, he led the French delegation to the United Nations conference in San Francisco and signed the United Nations Charter on behalf of France. He once again served as a senator from 1946 to 1948.

He died in Paris on 28 March 1972 at the age of 98.

Paul-Boncour's Ministry, 18 December 1932 – 31 January 1933

 * Joseph Paul-Boncour – President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Édouard Daladier – Minister of War
 * Camille Chautemps – Minister of the Interior
 * Henri Chéron – Minister of Finance
 * Albert Dalimier – Minister of Labour and Social Security Provisions
 * Abel Gardey – Minister of Justice
 * Georges Leygues – Minister of Marine
 * Léon Meyer – Minister of Merchant Marine
 * Paul Painlevé – Minister of Air
 * Anatole de Monzie – Minister of National Education
 * Edmond Miellet – Minister of Pensions
 * Henri Queuille – Minister of Agriculture
 * Albert Sarraut – Minister of Colonies
 * Georges Bonnet – Minister of Public Works
 * Charles Daniélou – Minister of Public Health
 * Laurent Eynac – Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones
 * Julien Durand – Minister of Commerce and Industry

title: Joseph Paul-Boncour


text:
Damon

Damon may refer to:

Places in the United States

 * Damon, Illinois, an unincorporated community
 * Damon, Missouri, a ghost town
 * Damon, Texas, a census-designated place
 * Damon, Virginia, an unincorporated community
 * Lake Damon, Florida
 * Damon Marsh, Oakland, California
 * Potsdam Municipal Airport, Potsdam, New York, also known as Damon Field

People and fictional characters

 * Damon (given name), a list of people and fictional characters
 * Damon (surname)

Other uses

 * Damon (TV series), a sitcom starring Damon Wayans
 * Damon Records, a record label
 * Damon (arachnid), a genus of whip spiders
 * Damon Prison, an Israeli prison near Haifa

title: Damon


text:
Édouard Herriot

Édouard Marie Herriot (5 July 1872 – 26 March 1957) was a French Radical politician of the Third Republic who served three times as Prime Minister (1924–1925; 1926; 1932) and twice as President of the Chamber of Deputies. He led the first Cartel des Gauches. Under the Fourth Republic, he served as President of the National Assembly until 1954. A historian by occupation, Herriot was elected to the Académie Française's eighth seat in 1946. He served as Mayor of Lyon for more than 45 years, from 1905 until his death, except for a brief period from 1940 to 1945, when he was exiled to Germany for opposing the Vichy regime.

Life
Hérriot was born at Troyes, France on 5 July 1872. As Mayor of Lyon, Herriot improved relations between municipal government and local unions, increased public assistance funds, and began an urban renewal programme, amongst other measures. He died in Lyon on 26 March 1957. He went through a Deathbed conversion to Catholicism with Cardinal Pierre-Marie Gerlier, and was buried at the Loyasse Cemetery "with church ritual".

Herriot's First Ministry, 14 June 1924 – 17 April 1925

 * Édouard Herriot - President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Charles Nollet - Minister of War
 * Camille Chautemps - Minister of the Interior
 * Étienne Clémentel - Minister of Finance
 * Justin Godart - Minister of Labour, Hygiene, Welfare Work, and Social Security Provisions
 * René Renoult - Minister of Justice
 * Jacques-Louis Dumesnil - Minister of Marine
 * François Albert - Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts
 * Édouard Amédée Bovier-Lapierre - Minister of Pensions
 * Henri Queuille - Minister of Agriculture
 * Édouard Daladier - Minister of Colonies
 * Victor Peytral - Minister of Public Works
 * Eugène Raynaldy - Minister of Commerce and Industry
 * Victor Dalbiez - Minister of Liberated Regions

Changes
 * 3 April 1925 - Anatole de Monzie succeeds Clémentel as Minister of Finance.

Herriot's Second Ministry, 19–23 July 1926

 * Édouard Herriot - President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Paul Painlevé - Minister of War
 * Camille Chautemps - Minister of the Interior
 * Anatole de Monzie - Minister of Finance
 * Louis Pasquet - Minister of Labour, Hygiene, Welfare Work, and Social Security Provisions
 * Maurice Colrat - Minister of Justice
 * René Renoult - Minister of Marine
 * Édouard Daladier - Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts
 * Georges Bonnet - Minister of Pensions
 * Henri Queuille - Minister of Agriculture
 * Adrien Dariac - Minister of Colonies
 * Orly André-Hesse - Minister of Public Works
 * Louis Loucheur - Minister of Commerce and Industry

Herriot's Third Ministry, 3 June – 18 December 1932

 * Édouard Herriot - President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Joseph Paul-Boncour - Minister of War
 * Camille Chautemps - Minister of the Interior
 * Louis Germain-Martin - Minister of Finance
 * Maurice Palmade - Minister of Budget
 * Albert Dalimier - Minister of Labour and Social Security Provisions
 * René Renoult - Minister of Justice
 * Georges Leygues - Minister of Marine
 * Léon Meyer - Minister of Merchant Marine
 * Paul Painlevé - Minister of Air
 * Anatole de Monzie - Minister of National Education
 * Aimé Berthod - Minister of Pensions
 * Abel Gardey - Minister of Agriculture
 * Albert Sarraut - Minister of Colonies
 * Édouard Daladier - Minister of Public Works
 * Justin Godart - Minister of Public Health
 * Henri Queuille - Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones
 * Julien Durand - Minister of Commerce and Industry

Denial of the Holodomor
The height of denial of the Holodomor was reached during a visit to Ukraine carried out between 26 August and 9 September 1933 by Herriot, who had recently left the French Prime Ministry. Herriot denied accounts of the famine and said that Soviet Ukraine was "like a garden in full bloom".

Furthermore, he announced to the press that there was no famine in Ukraine, that he did not see any trace of hunger, and that the allegations of starving millions were being spread by adversaries of the Soviet Union. "When one believes that the Ukraine is devastated by famine, allow me to shrug my shoulders", he declared. The 13 September 1933 issue of Pravda was able to write that Herriot "categorically contradicted the lies of the bourgeoisie press in connection with a famine in the USSR."

Political career
Governmental functions

Président of the Council of Ministers : 1924–1925 / 19–21 July 1926 / June–December 1932.

Minister of Transport, Public Works and Supply : 1916–1917.

Minister of Education and Fine Arts : 1926–1928.

Minister of Foreign Affairs : 1924–1925 / 19–21 July 1926 / June–December 1932.

Minister of State : 1934–1936.

Electoral mandates

National Assembly of France

President of the National Assembly of France : 1947–1954.

Member of the National Assembly of France for Rhône (department) : 1946–1957 (He died in 1957). Elected in 1946, reelected in 1951, 1956.

Constitutional Assembly

Member of the Constitutional Assembly for Rhône (department) : 1945–1946. Elected in 1945, reelected in June 1946.

Chamber of Deputies of France

President of the Chamber of Deputies of France : 1925–1926 / 1936–1940.

Member of the Chamber of Deputies of France for Rhône (department) : 1919–1942 (Dissolution of Parliament by Philippe Petain in 1942). Elected in 1919, reelected in 1924, 1928, 1932, 1936.

Senate of France

Senator of Rhône : 1912–1919. Elected in 1911.

General council

General councillor of Rhône (department) : 1945–1951.

Municipal Council

Mayor of Lyon : 1905–1940 (Deposition by Vichy regime in 1940) / 1945–1957 (He died in 1957). Reelected in 1908, 1912, 1919, 1925, 1929, 1935, 1945, 1947, 1953.

Municipal councillor of Lyon : 1904–1940 (Deposition by the Vichy regime in 1940) / 1945–1957 (He died in 1957). Reelected in 1908, 1912, 1919, 1925, 1929, 1935, 1945, 1947, 1953.

Political functions

President of the Radical Party (France) : 1919–1926 / 1931–1936 / 1948–1953 / 1955–1957.

Legacy
Herriot was declared an honorary citizen of the city of Veliki Bečkerek (today Zrenjanin) in 1933. There is also a street with his name in Zrenjanin.

His visit to a church in Kyiv, where a fake religious service was organized for the occasion, is described in "The Mechanical Lions", one of the stories in A Tomb for Boris Davidovich by Danilo Kiš.

title: Édouard Herriot


text:
Théodore Steeg

Théodore Steeg (19 December 1868 – 19 December 1950) was a lawyer and professor of philosophy who became Prime Minister of France.

Steeg entered French politics in 1904 as a radical socialist, although his views were generally moderate. He was a Deputy of the Seine from 1904 to 1914 and Senator from 1914 to 1944. At different times he was Minister of Higher Education, Interior, Justice and Colonies. In the 1920s he was in charge of the colonial administrations first of Algeria and then of Morocco. He encouraged irrigation projects to provide land for French colons at a time of growing demands for political and economic rights from the indigenous people, accompanied by growing unrest. Steeg was briefly prime minister in 1930–1931.

Early years
Jules Joseph Théodore Steeg was born in Libourne, Gironde on 19 December 1868. He was of German descent, and his political opponents would later attack him for this fact. His father, Jules Steeg (1836–1898), was a Protestant pastor who became a journalist and then a radical deputy in the National Assembly. Théodore's mother was Anne-Marie Zoé Tuyès, born in 1840 in Orthez, Basses-Pyrénées.

Théodore Steeg attended the college at Libourne and then studied at the Lycée Henri-IV in Paris. He was admitted to the University of Paris and the Faculty of Law, coming first there in 1887. He obtained the degrees of Bachelor of Laws and Bachelor of Arts in 1890. He then began studies for the agrégation in Philosophy, in which he won first place in 1895. On 25 October 1892 he married Ewaldine Bonet-Maury (born on 14 June 1872 in Dordrecht, Netherlands). She was the daughter of Gaston Bonet-Maury, a correspondent member of the Institute and a knight of the Legion of Honor, and the sister in law of the government architect Lecoeur. They were to have three daughters. The eldest, Juliette Isabelle, was born on 14 April 1894. She became a doctor and married a doctor.

Théodore Steeg taught at the Alsatian school from 1892 to 1894, then was appointed professor of philosophy at the College of Vannes, and next taught at the College of Niort. In 1897, he co-founded the "People's Union" with Ferdinand Buisson, Maurice Bouchor, Émile Duclaux and Pauline Kergomard, and was secretary of the union for two years. After returning to Paris he taught philosophy at the Alsatian school and at the Lycée Charlemagne until 1904.

Deputy (1904–1914)
Théodore Steeg was elected a deputy of the Seine in 1904. He was aged 35. He ran as a radical socialist in a by-election to replace Émile Dubois, who had died on 7 May 1904. Steeg was elected in the second round on 24 July 1904 for the second riding of the 14th arrondissement of Paris. As a new deputy, Steeg threw himself into a campaign for the protection and education of children. Steeg became a lawyer in Paris in 1905. He was re-elected with growing majorities in 1906 and 1910. In 1906 he was elected to the Budget Committee, responsible for Posts and Telegraphs. In 1907 he was appointed the rapporteur on the Public Education budget.

Théodore Steeg was appointed Minister of Public Instruction and Beaux-Arts in Ernest Monis's cabinet on 2 March 1911. The Mona Lisa was stolen from the Louvre on 21 August 1911, and Steeg was forced to start an administrative inquiry into how such an important painting could have been stolen from such a major museum. Steeg was a supporter of the Nouvelle Sorbonne movement with its insistence on basic republican principles. He rejected a petition to revise the Sorbonne reforms of 1902, to which the government was committed.

On 14 January 1912 Steeg became Minister of Interior in Raymond Poincaré's government. That year a Tunis congress of Alienists and Neurologists pointed out the lack of facilities for treating the insane in the colonies. Steeg worked with the Algerian governor-general, Charles Lutaud, to set up a planning commission to improve psychiatric care in the colony. The committee filed its report in 1914. It recommended building an asylum at Blida, but World War I delayed implementation. On 21 January 1913 Steeg briefly resumed the post of Minister of Public Instruction and Beaux-Arts in Aristide Briand's third and fourth cabinets, holding office until 21 March 1913. He then resumed his seat in the Assembly, where he worked with Maurice Viollette to introduce humanitarian improvements to the Civil Code regarding illegitimate children.

Senator (1914–1921)
On 12 March 1914 Théodore Steeg ran in a Senate election in the Seine department to replace Athanase Bassinet, who had died on 12 February 1914. He was elected on the second ballot. Steeg joined the Democratic Left. World War I (1914–1918) started in July 1914. In 1915 Steeg served on the Finance Committee and many special commissions. On 20 March 1917 he joined Alexandre Ribot's fifth cabinet as Minister of Public Instruction and Beaux-Arts, where he adopted the law of Wards of the Nation. Paul Painlevé succeeded Ribot on 12 September 1917, at a time when France was struggling for survival. Steeg was briefly Minister of the Interior in Painlevé's cabinet, leaving on 16 November 1917.

In 1918 and 1919 Steeg returned to the ranks. He ran for re-election to the Senate on 11 January 1920 and won the first ballot. On 20 January 1920 Steeg was appointed Minister of Interior in Alexandre Millerand cabinet. The right had won the election and the appointment of a Radical Socialist to this sensitive position was controversial. Léon Daudet attacked Steeg, trying unsuccessfully to get Millerand to abandon Steeg's nomination. However, Millerand had appointed his friend in part to demonstrate his independence, in part due to his desire to form a "republican union" that rose above party lines, and stood firm.

Steeg had to deal with a general strike launched by the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT) on 1 May 1920 that first called out transport workers, then miners, seamen, dockers, metalworkers and other trades. The government moved forcibly to end the strike. On 20 May 1920 Steeg said the government considered that deliberately trying to throw the country's economy into chaos was a criminal act. The strike was unsuccessful, and ended with the last workers returning on 28 May 1920. Steeg retained his position as Minister of Interior in Georges Leygues's cabinet of 24 September 1920. When Aristide Briand formed his cabinet on 16 January 1921, Steeg left the Ministry. He was elected president of the new committee on general administration, departmental and communal.

Algeria (1921–1925)
Steeg was appointed governor-general of Algeria on 28 July 1921 at a time when the colony was in crisis. Muslim Algerians had fought for France in the trenches and now expected political rights. The Jonnart Law of 4 February 1919 had granted less than the Muslims wanted, but more than the French colons could readily accept. In April 1922 President Alexandre Millerand visited Algeria to calm the fears of the French colons about the growth in numbers of Muslim electors, and to assure them that France would continue to protect their interests. The prefect of Algiers did not want the influential Emir Khalid ibn Hashim (1875–1936) to present his position, but Steeg overrode him. Khaled told Millerand, "The inhabitants of Algeria without racial or religious distinction are equally children of France ... We come to solicit representation in the French Parliament."

Steeg was able to reduce the tensions and initiate a stable period of economic growth. As a Radical, Steeg was committed to benevolent civilian administrations in the colonies. However, Steeg inherited a system in Algeria where the local settler assemblies dominated by wealthy landowners controlled taxation and spending. There was a tendency to favor spending that boosted the economy over spending on social projects. When Steeg resubmitted the 1914 plan for an asylum at Blida, the assembly delayed approval of funding. Steeg was able to initiate major irrigation projects to improve agricultural productivity, a policy he would later repeat in Morocco. He became known as the "water governor".

Steeg supported cooperation between Algerian and French West African (AOF) forces in combating rezzous (Tuareg raids) in the western Sahara, a constant source of insecurity that prevented development of north-south transport routes. In February 1923 he met in Algiers with his counterparts Marshal Hubert Lyautey of Morocco and Lucien Saint of Tunisia to discuss common problems. They agreed that the western Sahara must be treated as a whole, ignoring arbitrary boundaries. Nomadic migration across borders would be allowed but smuggling would not. A joint Algerian-Moroccan police force would operate from a base at Forthassa Rharbia.

On 17 April 1925 Steeg was unexpectedly called back to France to become Minister of Justice in Painlevé's second cabinet. Painlevé needed left-wing politicians such as Steeg, Briand, Caillaux, Monzie and Laval in his cabinet so he could gain support for his program, which was essentially conservative. Steeg was succeeded in Algeria by Viollette.

Morocco (1925–1928)
In April 1925 Abd-el-Krim proclaimed the independent Rif Republic in the Rif region of Spanish Morocco. He advanced south into French Morocco, defeating French forces and threatening the capital, Fes. The resident-general, Hubert Lyautey, was replaced as military commander by Philippe Pétain on 3 September 1925. On 11 October 1925 Steeg replaced Lyautey as resident-general with the mandate of restoring peace and making the transition from military to civilian government. Lyautey received very little recognition for his achievement in securing Morocco as a colony. Steeg would have been willing to give autonomy to the people of the Rif, but was overruled by the army. Abd-el-Krim surrendered to Pétain on 26 May 1926 and was deported to Réunion in the Indian Ocean, where he was held until 1947. Steeg said he wanted Abd el Krim to be "neither exalted nor humiliated, but in time forgotten."

Steeg moved quickly to resolve the most acute social problems. Steeg appointed men who had worked with him in Algeria to key posts, and brought many more Frenchmen into the administration. There were 66,000 Europeans in Morocco when he arrived, most of them citizens of France. Steeg favored bringing more French settlers into the country. In his first three years he introduced almost as many colonists to Morocco as his predecessor had in thirteen. Steeg issued a decree of 4 January 1927 that created a fund for large scale irrigation projects such as the El Kansera dam on the Beth and the N'fis dam, both of which were started that year. Through his "grands barrages" projects he planned to bring year-round irrigation to 250000 ha of land. Irrigation would make new land available for French settlers, and would allow for denser settlement.

Steeg temporarily banned the Ha-Olam journal of the World Zionist Organization, but generally allowed publication of pro-Zionist newspapers and permitted Zionist activity. At a meeting of the French League for Human Rights in 1926 he said that the Jews were progressing faster than Muslims. Educated Moroccan Jews should be able to apply to become French citizens.

Some observers were disturbed by the shift from Lyautey's sympathy for the Moroccans and respect for their customs to Steeg's policy of land expropriation and French colonization, which seemed sure to create mounting hostility between the two peoples. Steeg favored assimilation of the indigenous cadres into the French administration to avoid competition between the two, which he felt would weaken the government's authority. In contrast to Lyautey, Steeg spent little time with the Sultan and other members of the Moroccan elite. His selection of Sidi Mohammed Ben Youssef as the new Sultan in 1927 may have been due to a desire for an inexperienced young ruler who would conform to his wishes.

The effect of Steeg's policies was for the traditional elite to lose power as pastoralists and subsistence farmers left the land to work for wages in the city. Many of the new colons came from Algeria, and were intolerant to the "natives", seeing them as no more than unskilled laborers. Racial tensions increased. There was growing demand for Moroccan labor, and labor shortages emerging in some areas. Steeg was pressed by socialists to pass social laws to give workers the same protection as in France, and to create organizations for the protection of labor. He responded that because of the many foreign workers, and an indigenous population not yet ready to benefit from such measures, he could do no more than study the possibility. Various "seditious" organizations emerged with communist or pan-Islamic goals, or both, including the Egypt-based Union Maghrébine and El Mountadda el Abaddi. In a report to the Foreign Ministry of 27 December 1927, Steeg said the Union Maghrébine had 1,500 supporters in the cities of Fez, Casablanca and Tangiers. The Sûreté kept these groups under observation, routinely arresting and imprisoning leaders and seizing material.

A fourth North African conference was held in Algiers in May 1927. Steeg participated for Morocco, Maurice Viollette for Algeria and Lucien Saint for Tunisia. General Jules Carde of French West Africa was represented by Albert Duchêne, the Director of Political Affairs at the Ministry of Colonies. Steeg was asked to act more decisively to suppress dissidence in the region to the south of the Atlas Mountains. However, Moroccan forces were still tied up in what was proving to be a slow campaign to eliminate resistance in the north of the High Atlas. It was agreed that troops from Algeria and Mauritania could enter Moroccan territory, up to defined boundaries, but without prejudice to Morocco's later taking part in pacifying the western Sahara.

In 1927 Steeg was re-elected to the Senate. When the Pujols, Gironde, cantonal elections of 1928 were held, Steeg was unable to retain his position as General Counsel of Gironde while also sitting as Senator for the Seine and holding office in Morocco. Steeg left the Residence of Morocco in January 1929 and was replaced by Lucien Saint.

Later career (1929–1950)
From 1929 to 1935 Steeg was a member of the Committee on Colonies, and became president of the committee. He also belonged to the Foreign Affairs Committee, the Committee of Algeria and the Education committee. Steeg was Minister of Justice in Camille Chautemps's short-lived government (21 February – 1 March 1930) replacing Lucien Hubert. He was succeeded in this position by Raoul Péret.

The government of André Tardieu was defeated by a Senate vote at the start of December 1930, and after several days of negotiation a new government was formed, headed by Steeg, much further to the left than any recent governments. He accepted the position of President of the Council, and simultaneously Minister of Colonies, on 13 December 1930. The right-wing Action Française launched violent attacks on the new government. It called the Minister of Defense, Louis Barthou, "mad, vicious, corrupt". Steeg, the son and grandson of Prussians, was clearly a traitor. Although he had the support of the Senate, he could not get a stable majority in the House for his moderate policies, and was thrown out of office on 22 January 1931 when he lost a vote on agricultural policy and wheat speculation.

Steeg was elected to the Senate again on 14 January 1936. He remained chairman of the committee on the Colonies and member of the committees on Foreign Affairs, Algeria and Education. Under the first government of Léon Blum (in office 4 June 1936 – 22 June 1937) Steeg was appointed head of a commission to study socio-economic conditions in the French colonial empire. The North African sub-committee included leading figures such as Paul Reynaud, Henry Bérenger, Charles-André Julien and Paul Rivet. Meeting on 8 July 1937, this sub-committee decided to focus on labor conditions in the Maghreb. They were too late to prevent the escalation of widespread and violent labor unrest in the region, which was violently suppressed. Steeg was briefly Minister of Colonies in Camille Chautemps's fifth cabinet, from 18 January to 13 March 1938. He replaced Marius Moutet, a supporter of a plan to settle Jewish refugees in Madagascar. Steeg was hostile to this plan. He said that the urbanized Jewish settlers would not have the skills needed to work the land, but would engage in small-scale commerce "at the expense of the local economy and the natives." He also said the plan would be too expensive, and would be widely criticized in the press. Steeg recommended that Jews should look for help to the Jewish Colonization Association rather than to his ministry.

Steeg was Minister of State in Léon Blum's second cabinet (13 March 1938 – 10 April 1938). World War II broke out in September 1939. After the armistice with Germany, at the Congress of Vichy on 10 July 1940 Steeg voluntarily abstained during the vote on transferring constitutional powers to Marshal Philippe Pétain. Théodore Steeg died on 19 December 1950 in the 14th arrondissement of Paris on his 82nd birthday.

Steeg's Cabinet, 13 December 1930 – 27 January 1931

 * Théodore Steeg – President of the Council and Minister of Colonies
 * Aristide Briand – Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Louis Barthou – Minister of Defense
 * Georges Leygues – Minister of the Interior
 * Louis Germain-Martin – Minister of Finance
 * Louis Loucheur – Minister of National Economy, Commerce, and Industry
 * Maurice Palmade – Minister of Budget
 * Édouard Grinda – Minister of Labour and Social Security Provisions
 * Henri Chéron – Minister of Justice
 * Albert Sarraut – Minister of Military Marine
 * Charles Daniélou – Minister of Merchant Marine
 * Paul Painlevé – Minister of Air
 * Camille Chautemps – Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts
 * Robert Thoumyre – Minister of Pensions
 * Victor Boret – Minister of Agriculture
 * Édouard Daladier – Minister of Public Works
 * Henri Queuille – Minister of Public Health
 * Georges Bonnet – Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones

Changes
 * 23 December 1930 – Maurice Dormann succeeds Thoumyre as Minister of Pensions.

title: Théodore Steeg


text:
Minami-ku

Minami ku (南区) is the name of several wards located in various cities in Japan. The name literally translated to Southern District, and hence it is a very common ward name.

 * Sapporo: see Minami-ku, Sapporo
 * Niigata: see Minami-ku, Niigata
 * Saitama: see Minami-ku, Saitama
 * Yokohama: see Minami-ku, Yokohama
 * Sagamihara: see Minami-ku, Sagamihara
 * Hamamatsu:see Minami-ku, Hamamatsu
 * Nagoya: see Minami-ku, Nagoya
 * Kyoto: see Minami-ku, Kyoto
 * Sakai: see Minami-ku, Sakai
 * Okayama:see Minami-ku, Okayama
 * Hiroshima: see Minami-ku, Hiroshima
 * Fukuoka: see Minami-ku, Fukuoka
 * Kumamoto: see Minami-ku, Kumamoto
 * Minami-ku of Osaka merged with Higashi ward and is now part of the ward Chūō-ku

title: Minami-ku