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Talk:Imagism

older entries
On what basis is FS Flint called a pseudonym? The manifesto may have been ghosted by Pound, but Flint was a real enough person, it seems. Filiocht | Blarneyman

Moving text pre-rewrite:

Imagism was a movement in early 20th century Anglo-American poetry. It rejected romantic and sentimental Victorian traditions in favour of precision of imagery in clear, sharp language. Imagist principles were articulated by Ezra Pound, H.D., and Richard Aldington in a manifesto published in the March, 1913 issue of Poetry under the name of F.S. Flint.

The three tenets of the Imagist Manifesto:

 * 1) Direct treatment of the "thing", whether subjective or objective.
 * 2) To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation.
 * 3) As regarding rhythm: to compose in sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence of the metronome. Filiocht | Blarneyman

Revert
I reverted the heading edits because Imagist and Imagism are proper nouns so need caps in headings Filiocht | Blarneyman 07:33, Apr 14, 2005 (UTC)

A 'Further Reading' Section?
Perhaps some readers would find a 'further reading' section of interest? Suggestions: The first because it is specific to the topic of the article; the second because it is - I think - one of the best of its kind. —Stumps 07:42, 20 December 2005 (UTC)
 * William Pratt: The Imagist Poem, Modern Poetry in Miniature, 1963, expanded 2001, ISBN 1586540092
 * Julian Symons, Makers of the New: The Revolution in Literature, 1912–1939, Andre Deutsch, 1987, ISBN 0233980075
 * I'd say add this. Filiocht | The kettle's on 08:25, 20 December 2005 (UTC)
 * I've added it. Not sure about placement.  I've put it before the References because I like the uniformity of the References ... especially the online links ... coming last. and also somehow it looks better with the short 'Further Reading' going before the longer References, BUT I think the Jones book better than the Pratt, and the current arrangement seems to place emphasis the other way around. Any opinions anyone? —Stumps 08:42, 20 December 2005 (UTC)
 * You've placed it where I would have, FWIW. Filiocht | The kettle's on 08:50, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

Fantastic article
Just wanted to stop by and praise the editors who worked on this article. I read it rather nervously, because I used to be deeply into Pound and his strain of Modernism (exemplified by Hugh Kenner's Pound Era book), but I was very impressed. Well done! (I do agree with Rlevse that the article could really use some inline citations at points, however, especially for quotes and particular little-known facts.) Sdedeo (tips) 06:27, 30 December 2005 (UTC)

Process
The article is informative and in depth but it doesn't make any reference to the ambivalance with which the poets featured in various anthologies had towards the name, and to what extent it could really be considered a school. The introduction to the penguin Imagist poetry book suggests that it was to a large extent a PR exercise by Pound which was taken over by Amy Lowell whereas this article makes it seem much more solid than perhaps it was. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.148.40.144 (talk • contribs)

Imaginisim
I happened across this page: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginism, which describes a type of poetry I've never heard of, and seems to have appeared at the same time as Imigism. There's no mention of it elsewhere, so I was wondering if it isn't a mistake, or if it's a real movement, if the timeline could be better defined. 66.57.225.195 23:40, 30 May 2006 (UTC)DEL

Acmeism
It would be interesting and useful for the article to touch on the Acmeist movement happening in parallel in Russia - also reacting against Symbolism - to explore the interaction. Thanks. Spanglej (talk) 21:17, 28 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Agree. Do you have sources? Ceoil (talk) 22:22, 28 August 2010 (UTC)
 * This looks the closest source that would be useful, from a cursory scan. I Don't have it. I don't know enough on the topic to attempt an inclusion with or without this source.
 * Blythe Painter, Kirsten ( 2006) Flint on a Bright Stone: A Revolution of Precision and Restraint in American, Russian, and German Modernism. Stanford University Press.
 * Best wishes Spanglej (talk) 23:39, 28 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Here's the link on google books. It's worth looking into. I have quite a few sources floating around about Imagism - will have look at those as well. Truthkeeper88 (talk) 02:22, 29 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Thats great. This page could do with a lot of work. Ceoil (talk) 06:10, 29 August 2010 (UTC)

Chinese/Japanese Influence
It is rather appalling to me that the page as it is completely omits discussion of Chinese and Japanese poetry from which Pound drew great inspiration and derived essential elements of Imagism.

RachelXinruHua (talk) 06:30, 29 October 2019 (UTC)

FA concerns
This is a finely crafted article, but it was promoted at a time where inline citations weren't required for Featured Articles. Several inline citations were introduced in its 2007 FAR, but as it stands, I believe more inline citations are needed, such as in the Japanese influences, Pound's introduction to the group, the reflection of "Pound's interest in poems written to be sung to music", the "little popular or critical success" received by a particular book and the reasons for it, etc. RetiredDuke (talk) 11:05, 31 March 2021 (UTC)
 * To note, the article is still actively maintained. Ceoil  (talk) 10:57, 5 April 2021 (UTC)
 * That's good, I saw the nominator was inactive so I wasn't sure. The article reads very well and looks well-structured/concise, so I think it's mostly a matter of lack of citations in some paragraphs. I notice you have a lot on your plate right now (Shoom at FAC, an album at FAR and punk rock, I think?, not sure), so with the knowledge that the article is being watched and maintained, I'll mark it as "work ongoing" so it won't accidentally end up at FAR. Most of these notices don't get an answer so in my view ample time should be given to the very few that do. RetiredDuke (talk) 13:12, 5 April 2021 (UTC)
 * SandyGeorgia, I've taken care to not overwhelm any editor or project, but I've failed to notice that Ceoil was involved in this one (my mistake). I've marked the article as "improvements ongoing" so it can have all the time it needs, since it's being watched by someone who is knowledgeable and a good writer. What is your opinion? The article reads very well, if a bit undercited. RetiredDuke (talk) 13:45, 5 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks, but its fine. We already have Ezra Pound as a relatively recent and rather comprehensive FA, and a lot of the sources needed here have been established there. To an extent I'm updating this article with the work Victoria and Sarah have done, and continue to maintain, on the Pound bio, cross checking as I go. However, in the cold light of day can see some gaps in coverage, so might have dig out old books and do a bit more heaving lifting in the weeks to come. I do appreciate the latitude though, and have noticed you are very fair about these things. Ceoil  (talk) 14:40, 5 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Not surprised to see this, in fact have been expecting it. I'm trying to think where my imagism sources are, but have the Pound sources in the nearest bookshelf so can help as needed. probably has sources at hand from the recent Pound rewrite, so think this can be cleaned up if time and latitude are available.  your recent edits are a very strong start, thanks for stepping up so quickly. Victoria (tk) 14:55, 5 April 2021 (UTC)
 * , repinging (I misspelt your user name). Victoria (tk) 14:57, 5 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Hi Victoria. My feeling is that the article could be spruced up a fair bit, it doesn't really do justice to the topic. I am very interested though, and while today was mainly about maintenance, plan to spend a few days reading before moving on the actual content....while also keeping H.D. in mind.  Ceoil  (talk) 15:01, 5 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Sounds like a plan. Give me a yell if you need anything. I have Moody and a Cambridge Companion within reaching distance (that's how lazy I am these days but also shows which sources stayed close by) so am happy to look up page numbers or provide support. Victoria (tk) 15:08, 5 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Sound as always. Ceoil  (talk) 15:11, 5 April 2021 (UTC)
 * RetiredDuke, the way you have handled it at the templates is fine, and I expect this team of accomplished FA writers will finish tuning up the article as soon as time allows (but they are busy!). Please ping me when folks want me to review with an eye to marking "Satisfactory" at WP:URFA/2020. Sandy Georgia  (Talk)  15:19, 5 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Sure, let the content-experts work as they see fit. No problems w/ latitude from my end. RetiredDuke (talk) 16:05, 5 April 2021 (UTC)
 * RetiredDuke, would appreciate if you could take another look now and spot remaining gaps. You have been most helpful so far. Ceoil (talk) 07:00, 24 July 2021 (UTC)
 * Ceoil, sure. I will take a look in the coming days. RetiredDuke (talk) 17:10, 24 July 2021 (UTC)
 * Ceoil, so so very sorry for taking so long, it's been some hectic weeks for me. The article looks much better now in terms of citations, and I've made some minor fixes in the mean time. There are a couple of places that are missing citations (the last para of Legacy and " the 1917 anthology effectively marked the end of the Imagists as a movement."), but I don't think that alone merits a visit to FAR. I've taken it out of WP:FARGIVEN so it won't fall there by mistake. RetiredDuke (talk) 19:38, 21 August 2021 (UTC)
 * I'm not a native speaker of English and while I was able to follow the article without difficulty, the theme is a bit complex, so I wonder if Hog Farm, Z1720 or SandyGeorgia could help review the article with an eye to marking "Satisfactory" at WP:URFA/2020? RetiredDuke (talk) 19:48, 21 August 2021 (UTC)

One of my specialties is 20th-century Western stage dance; there is some overlap with this article, and some places where I might have to do additional research. Nevertheless, I've taken a look and put some notes below, and I am sorry if these questions sound dumb: Those are my thoughts. Z1720 (talk) 00:26, 22 August 2021 (UTC)
 * "It gave modernism its first start," A little confused here. Does this sentence mean that it is the first phase of modernism, or considered the start of modernism, or something else?
 * Clarified Ceoil (talk) 22:51, 3 December 2021 (UTC)
 * "René Taupin remarked that" A short descriptor should be added to state who this person is. Maybe, " René Taupin, a researcher of this period, remarked that"
 * Clarified Ceoil (talk) 22:51, 3 December 2021 (UTC)
 * "of what Ezra Pound called" who is this person?
 * Clarified Ceoil (talk) 22:51, 3 December 2021 (UTC)
 * "Pound's ideogrammic method of juxtaposing concrete instances to express an abstraction is similar to Cubism's manner of synthesizing multiple perspectives into a single image." I know what this means, because of my dance background, but I am not sure if a non-expert would understand this sentence. Can someone confirm if this sentence is fine?
 * Its fine from a technical POV, but clear as mud!!! Will take a look and put into understandable English ;) Ceoil (talk) 22:54, 3 December 2021 (UTC)
 * "On the other hand, Wallace Stevens found shortcomings" Who is this person?
 * Clarified Ceoil (talk) 22:51, 3 December 2021 (UTC)
 * In general, I think this article does a fantastic job of addressing the history of the movement, but information on its characteristics is not well explained and is scattered throughout the text. I would be in favour of having a "Characteristics" section to describe the literary qualities of Imagism poetry.
 * Z1720, I strongly agree with this, but may take time. Will ping when happy. Ceoil (talk) 22:55, 3 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Sorry I took so long to return here; I took most of the middle of the year off after socks disrupted a FAR. Please ping me when Z1720 is satisfied, so I can review towards marking Satisfactory at WP:URFA/2020. Sandy Georgia  (Talk)  22:21, 3 December 2021 (UTC)

 * Will do, Z1720's points are very helpful. Ceoil (talk) 22:57, 3 December 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Imagism


text:
Augite

Augite, also known as Augurite, is a common rock-forming pyroxene mineral with formula (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al,Ti)(Si,Al)2O6. The crystals are monoclinic and prismatic. Augite has two prominent cleavages, meeting at angles near 90 degrees.

Characteristics
Augite is a solid solution in the pyroxene group. Diopside and hedenbergite are important endmembers in augite, but augite can also contain significant aluminium, titanium, and sodium and other elements. The calcium content of augite is limited by a miscibility gap between it and pigeonite and orthopyroxene: when occurring with either of these other pyroxenes, the calcium content of augite is a function of temperature and pressure, but mostly of temperature, and so can be useful in reconstructing temperature histories of rocks. With declining temperature, augite may exsolve lamellae of pigeonite and/or orthopyroxene. There is also a miscibility gap between augite and omphacite, but this gap occurs at higher temperatures. There are no industrial or economic uses for this mineral.

Locations
Augite is an essential mineral in mafic igneous rocks; for example, gabbro and basalt and common in ultramafic rocks. It also occurs in relatively high-temperature metamorphic rocks such as mafic granulite and metamorphosed iron formations. It commonly occurs in association with orthoclase, sanidine, labradorite, olivine, leucite, amphiboles and other pyroxenes.

Occasional specimens have a shiny appearance that give rise to the mineral's name, which is from the Greek augites, meaning "brightness", although ordinary specimens have a dull (dark green, brown or black) luster. It was named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1792.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Augite


text:
Talk:Differential form

How exactly is a differential 1-form dual to a vector space?
The duality page doesn't explicitly talk about how differential forms are dual to anything, or how differential relate to duals. In fact, outside this line: "are naturally dual to vector fields on a differentiable manifold", I cannot find any other source communicating the same detail. GeraldMeyers (talk) 14:45, 12 April 2022 (UTC)

 * A differential form is a section of the cotangent bundle, and a vector field is a section of the tangent bundle. These two vector bundles are dual to each other, in the sense that each is the dual bundle of the other. In particular, this means that every fiber of the cotangent bundle is the dual vector space of the corresponding fiber of the tangent bundle. Ozob (talk) 15:08, 12 April 2022 (UTC)
 * I understand that the dual is more general than the transpose, but in simple cases the dual is the transpose, correct? E.g. the tangent space (bundle?) of a unit sphere is the collection of all tangent planes. The dual of a tangent basis is the cotangent basis, which are just transposes of each other? GeraldMeyers (talk) 15:43, 12 April 2022 (UTC)

Closed form redirect
I think that closed form should redirect here, rather than to de Rham cohomology as at present; and also should be disambiguated with respect to the 'closed form solution' meaning.

Charles Matthews 14:03, 11 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Disagree with merging closed and exact differential forms into here

 * See Talk:Closed and exact differential forms (unsigned comment by Oleg Alexandrov (talk))

A question about a calculating technics of differential forms (using abstract index notation)
In appendice B Differential Forms, Integration, and Frobiniu's Theorem of the book General Relativity written by Robert M. Wald, the book discussed the way to apply Stokes' Theorem to the embedded sub-manifold D of an n-dim (pseudo) Riemannian manifold M,

Wald gave the formula (B.2.24):
 * $${\epsilon}_{ba_1a_2...a_{n-1}}=n_b\wedge \tilde{\epsilon}_{a_1a_2...a_{n-1}}(=-n_{a_1}\wedge \tilde{\epsilon}_{ba_2...a_{n-1}})$$

then he derived (B.2.25):
 * $$v^b{\epsilon}_{ba_1a_2...a_{n-1}}=(v^bn_b)\tilde{\epsilon}_{a_1a_2...a_{n-1}}$$

where:

• $$v^a$$ is an arbitrary tangent vector field on M;

• $$n_a$$ is the normal covector of the hypersurface $$\partial D$$ (which is the boundary of the embedded sub-manifold D), and $$n_a$$ is normalized $$g^{ab}n_an_b=\epsilon =\pm 1$$;

• $${\epsilon}_{ba_1a_2...a_{n-1}}$$ is the adapted volumn element of the (pseudo) Riemannian manifold M;

• $$\tilde{\epsilon}_{a_1a_2...a_{n-1}}$$ is the adapted volumn element on $$\partial D$$ ($$\partial D$$ has an induced mtric $$h_{ab}=g_{ab}-\epsilon n_an_b$$);

So the question is: How to derive (B.2.25) from (B.2.24)?

Aphysicsstudent (talk) 08:38, 28 April 2022 (UTC)

Infix notation is fundamentally evil
As a person who just randomly cruised in with essentially zero preexisting knowledge beyond rusty elementary calculus, I'm presented with $f(x, y, z) dx ∧ dy + g(x, y, z) dz ∧ dx + h(x, y, z) dy ∧ dz$. After staring at the article, I think that's meant to be read as $(f(x, y, z) (dx ∧ dy)) + (g(x, y, z) (dz ∧ dx)) + (h(x, y, z) (dy ∧ dz))$ ... but honestly, I would most naturally read it as $(f(x, y, z) dx) ∧ (dy + g(x, y, z) dz) ∧ (dx + h(x, y, z) dy) ∧ dz$. That $∧$ thingy looks like something that should bind very loosely. Maybe it's just me. But, hey, I asked somebody else and he agreed, so that's two of us...

I know that the notation is not going to change, and obviously I'm not actually suggesting using something even more confusing... but are parentheses allowed? If not, perhaps an explanation? I don't dare add either myself because I could easily be dead wrong.

 * I wish I had a more satisfying answer, but: Wikipedia goes by the usage of reliable sources, and in all reliable sources I'm aware of, $∧$ binds more tightly than $+$. Ozob (talk) 21:02, 11 December 2022 (UTC)

 * It doesn't actually matter, because $$f (dg \wedge dh) = (f dg) \wedge dh$$ by definition, for any scalar functions $$f, g, h$$. pony in a strange land (talk) 18:47, 2 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Differential form


text:
User talk:Merovingian

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a username from a Matrix movie is so "early 2000s"
I saw your. I want to remind you that adminship is about a toolset to help our community of editors. We need admins to block vandals, protect pages, and other sundry tasks. You cannot claim to have been demoted because you were never better than the rest of us to begin with, especially not on the basis of your joke of an RfA. The editing community resents admins like you who treat "teh bit" like a trophy, which is why the community has made RfA and the rules regarding de-adminship more and more strict. Your behavior is why adminship is a big deal. It would be better for you to have pride in having served the community back in 2004, rather than complain you deserve lifetime merit on this website. Had you made your adminship about the toolset helping the community, you would still be active and contributing. That said, we do not expect that you are always available on this website forever. You have a life and you can leave this website without concerning yourself about a userright you stopped using. Chris Troutman ( talk ) 02:00, 1 February 2023 (UTC)
 * I do not respect the kind of person who would post such a comment, and am surprised it was you, Chris. I hope it made you feel really good to write it, at least, so it isn't 100% worthless. Shame on you. --Floquenbeam (talk) 17:34, 1 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Rest assured that not everyone in the editing community shares 's opinion. It's a good thing Chris is a non serviam because statements like this probably kill any chance they might have of becoming an admin themselves. I'm sympathetic to your opinion, Merovingian, but alas, I guess I'm in the minority on this issue. I think inactive admins are no big deal, except for the few whose accounts have been hacked, and, we can deal with that. – wbm1058 (talk) 18:15, 1 February 2023 (UTC)

Hey
Just wanted you let you know that there are still people who remember the old days and when Wikipedia was a less formal and more fun place. There are still good things to do here and good times to be had here, with or without sysop rights. Andre🚐 02:24, 1 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Yeah, me too. Thanks for the 18 years of contributions to the project, M. --Floquenbeam (talk) 17:38, 1 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Thanks from me as well since I didn't actually say thanks. In fact Merovingian, you supported my RFA and 2 of my RFBs. I'm sure I thanked you at the time. But I am not an admin/bureaucrat any longer and I am still editing here. Cheers. Andre🚐 17:47, 1 February 2023 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Merovingian


text:
User:MaterialsScientist

This is my user page.

title: User:MaterialsScientist


text:
George Smith (Assyriologist)

George Smith (26 March 1840 – 19 August 1876) was a pioneering English Assyriologist who first discovered and translated the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the oldest-known written works of literature.

Early life and early career
As the son of a working-class family in Victorian England, Smith was limited in his ability to acquire a formal education. At age fourteen, he was apprenticed to the London-based publishing house of Bradbury and Evans to learn banknote engraving, at which he excelled. From his youth, he was fascinated with Assyrian culture and history. In his spare time, he read everything that was available to him on the subject. His interest was so keen that while working at the printing firm, he spent his lunch hours at the British Museum, studying publications on the cuneiform tablets that had been unearthed near Mosul in present-day Iraq by Austen Henry Layard, Henry Rawlinson, and Hormuzd Rassam, during the archaeological expeditions of 1840–1855. In 1863 Smith married Mary Clifton (1835–1883), and they had six children.

British Museum
Smith's natural talent for cuneiform studies was first noticed by Samuel Birch, Egyptologist and Director of the Department of Antiquities, who brought the young man to the attention of the renowned Assyriologist Sir Henry Rawlinson. As early as 1861, he was working evenings sorting and cleaning the mass of friable fragments of clay cylinders and tablets in the museum's storage rooms. In 1866 Smith made his first important discovery, the date of the payment of the tribute by Jehu, king of Israel, to Shalmaneser III. Sir Henry suggested to the trustees of the museum that Smith should join him in the preparation of the third and fourth volumes of The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia. Following the death of William H. Coxe in 1869 and with letters of reference from Rawlinson, Layard, William Henry Fox Talbot, and Edwin Norris, Smith was appointed Senior Assistant in the Assyriology Department early in 1870.

Discovery of inscriptions
Smith's earliest successes were the discoveries of two unique inscriptions early in 1867. The first, a total eclipse of the sun in the month of Sivan inscribed on Tablet K51, he linked to the spectacular eclipse that occurred on 15 June 763 BC, a description of which had been published 80 years earlier by French historian François Clément (1714–1793) in L'art de vérifier les dates des faits historiques. This discovery is the cornerstone of ancient Near Eastern chronology. The other was the date of an invasion of Babylonia by the Elamites in 2280 BC.

In 1871, Smith published Annals of Assur-bani-pal, transliterated and translated, and communicated to the newly founded Society of Biblical Archaeology a paper on "The Early History of Babylonia", and an account of his decipherment of the Cypriote inscriptions.

Epic of Gilgamesh and expedition to Nineveh
In 1872, Smith achieved worldwide fame by his translation of the Chaldaean account of the Great Flood, which he read before the Society of Biblical Archaeology on 3 December. The audience included the sitting prime minister, William Ewart Gladstone. According to the accounts of his coworkers in the reading room, on the day of the discovery, when Smith realized what he was reading he "began to remove articles of his clothing" and run around the room shouting in delight.

This work is better known today as the eleventh tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the oldest known works of literature, discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in 1853 on an archaeological mission for the British Museum on behalf of his colleague and mentor Austen Henry Layard. The following January, Edwin Arnold, the editor of The Daily Telegraph, arranged for Smith to go to Nineveh at the expense of that newspaper and carry out excavations with a view to finding the missing fragments of the Flood story. This journey resulted not only in the discovery of some missing tablets, but also of fragments that recorded the succession and duration of the Babylonian dynasties.

In November 1873 Smith again left England for Nineveh for a second expedition, this time at the expense of the museum, and continued his excavations at the tell of Kouyunjik (Nineveh). An account of his work is given in Assyrian Discoveries, published early in 1875. The rest of the year was spent in fixing together and translating the fragments relating to the creation, the results of which were published in The Chaldaean Account of Genesis (1880, co-written with Archibald Sayce).

Final expedition and death
In March 1876, the trustees of the British Museum sent Smith once more to excavate the rest of the Library of Ashurbanipal. At İkizce, a small village about sixty miles northeast of Aleppo, he fell ill with dysentery. He died in Aleppo on 19 August. He left a wife and several children to whom an annuity of 150 pounds was granted by the Queen.

title: George Smith (Assyriologist)


text:
Animation in the United States during the silent era

The silent age of American animation dates back to at least 1906 when Vitagraph released Humorous Phases of Funny Faces. Although early animations were rudimentary, they rapidly became more sophisticated with such classics as Gertie the Dinosaur in 1914, Felix the Cat, Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, and Koko the Clown.

Originally a novelty, some early animated silents depicted magic acts or were strongly influenced by the comic strip. Later, they were distributed along with newsreels. Early animation films, like their live-action silent cousins, would come with a musical score to be played by an organist or even an orchestra in larger theatres. Silent cartoons became almost entirely obsolete after 1928, when sound synchronized cartoons were introduced with the debut of Walt Disney's Mickey Mouse in Steamboat Willie, thus ushering in the golden age of American animation.

History
British-American filmmaker J. Stuart Blackton was possibly the first to use animation techniques in the US for film versions of his "lightning artist" routine. The Enchanted Drawing (1900) utilized the stop trick to make drawings appear to change magically. In Humorous Phases of Funny Faces (1906) he had blackboard drawings go through series of changes and used animated cutout drawings in the same style for more fluent motion. It is regarded as the oldest known theatrically released animation on standard film (lithographed film loops for home use and Charles-Émile Reynaud's Théâtre Optique films had already been popular in Europe for years).

Following the successes of Blackton and of French animator Émile Cohl (whose Fantasmagorie (1908) is regarded as the first traditional animation on standard film), many other artists began experimenting with animation. One such artist was Winsor McCay, who created detailed animation with painstaking attention to detail. Each frame was drawn on paper; which invariably required backgrounds and characters to be redrawn and animated. Among McCay's most noted films are Little Nemo (1911), Gertie the Dinosaur (1914) and The Sinking of the Lusitania (1918).

During the 1910s larger scale animation studios were becoming the industrial norm and artists such as McCay faded from the public eye. The production of animated short films, typically referred to as "cartoons", became an industry of its own during the 1910s, and cartoon shorts were produced to be shown in movie theaters.

Around 1913 Raoul Barré developed the peg system that made it easier to align drawings by perforating two holes below each drawing and placing them on two fixed pins. He also used a "slash and tear" technique to not have to draw the complete background or other motionless parts for every frame. The parts where something needed to be changed for the next frame were carefully cut away from the drawing and filled in with the required change on the sheet below. After Barré had started his career in animation at Edison Studios, he founded one of the first film studios dedicated to animation in 1914 (initially together with Bill Nolan). Barré Studio had success with the production of the adaptation of the comic strip Mutt and Jeff (1916–1926). The studio employed several animators who would have notable careers in animation, including Frank Moser, Gregory La Cava, Vernon Stallings, Tom Norton and Pat Sullivan.

In 1914, John Bray opened John Bray Studios, which revolutionized the way animation was created. Earl Hurd, one of Bray's employees patented the cel technique. This involved animating moving objects on transparent celluloid sheets. Animators photographed the sheets over a stationary background image to generate the sequence of images. This, as well as Bray's innovative use of the assembly line method, allowed John Bray Studios to create Colonel Heeza Liar, the first animated series. Many aspiring cartoonists started their careers at Bray, including Walt Disney (later of Mickey Mouse fame), Paul Terry (later of Heckle and Jeckle fame), Max Fleischer (later of Betty Boop and Popeye fame), and Walter Lantz (later of Woody Woodpecker fame). The cartoon studio operated from circa 1914 until 1928. Some of the first cartoon stars from the Bray studios were Farmer Alfalfa (by Paul Terry) and Bobby Bumps (by Earl Hurd).

In 1915, Max Fleischer applied for a patent for a technique that would become known as rotoscoping: the process of using live-action film recordings as a reference point to more easily create realistic animated movements. The technique was often used in the Out of the Inkwell series (1918-1929) for John Bray Productions (and others). The series resulted from experimental rotoscoped images of Dave Fleischer performing as a clown, evolving into a character that would become known as Ko-Ko the Clown.

Newspaper tycoon William Randolph Hearst founded International Film Service in 1916. Hearst lured away most of Barré Studio's animators, with Gregory La Cava becoming the head of the studio. They produced adaptations of many comic strips from Heart's newspapers in a rather limited fashion, giving just a little motion to the characters while mainly using the dialog balloons to deliver the story. The most notable series was Krazy Kat, with an early anthropomorphic cartoon cat character. Before the studio stopped in 1918 it had employed some new talents, including Vernon Stallings, Ben Sharpsteen, Jack King, John Foster, Grim Natwick, Burt Gillett and Isadore Klein.

The most popular cartoon series during the silent era was Australian-American film producer Pat Sullivan's Felix the Cat. Felix the Cat (Originally named Master Tom) first appeared in Feline Follies (1919) and became hugely successful throughout the 1920s. The studio later came into trouble during the advent of sound cartoons in the early 1930s when the popularity of Walt Disney's Mickey Mouse was rising above Sullivan's Felix. Sullivan tried to adapt Felix by creating Felix sound cartoons, but they failed to please audiences and Sullivan closed the studio in 1930. He died three years later due to health problems related to alcoholism.

Charles Bowers was a comedian and animator who made many bizarre films in the 1920s combining stop-motion animation and comedy. Many of them have been lost, but some have been released on DVD.

List of US animated silent films
Very incomplete list (most of the early films in general are lost, many were not documented, forgotten and/or insignificant). Listed filmmakers can be creators, directors, producers, animators or complete studios. If a series was taken over by other filmmakers, not all filmmakers will be listed.

Significant distributors of animated films: Margaret J. Winkler, Charles Mintz, Educational Pictures, Red Seal Pictures, Bijou Films

Legacy
Three films by Winsor McCay (Little Nemo, Gertie the Dinosaur, The Sinking of the Lusitania) were each inducted into the National Film Registry


text:
Barbara Hall (politician)

Barbara Hall (born 1946) is a Canadian lawyer and former politician who served as the 61st mayor of Toronto from 1994 to 1997, the last mayor of Toronto prior to amalgamation. Hall served as the chief commissioner of the Ontario Human Rights Commission from 2005 to 2015.

In 2014, Cawthra Square Park in Toronto's Church and Wellesley neighbourhood was renamed Barbara Hall Park in her honour. She was inducted as a Member of the Order of Canada in 2015.

Background
Hall attended the University of Victoria in British Columbia but left without a bachelor's degree. She then became a community activist, moving to Nova Scotia to work with black families in rural areas. Hall worked as one of the first members of the Company of Young Canadians in the small community of Three Mile Plains, Nova Scotia.

In 1967, at the age of 20, she worked for Toronto youth programs and co-founded an alternative school. She served for a time as a probation officer in Cleveland, Ohio. She returned to Canada and studied law at Osgoode Hall Law School of York University and in 1980 was admitted to the Law Society of Upper Canada.

To earn money during her studies, Hall waited table at the Second City.

Provincial
Hall campaigned for the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in the 1985 provincial election as a candidate of the New Democratic Party in St. David. She finished third against Liberal Attorney-General Ian Scott.

Municipal
She was elected to Toronto City Council in the 1985 municipal election. That election marked a change in the structure of city council; prior to 1985, each ward elected two representatives to city council, and the one who had garnered more votes would also serve on Metro Toronto Council, but in the 1985 election each ward now directly elected a single representative to each body. Hall succeeded David Reville, who had departed municipal politics after winning a seat in the provincial election, and Joanne Campbell, who had run for and won election to the Metro Council.

Mayor of Toronto
Hall was elected Mayor of Toronto in 1994, defeating incumbent June Rowlands. Although she ran as an independent and was backed by supporters from different parties, she was widely regarded as an unofficial candidate of the New Democratic Party (NDP). Hall's victory was considered an upset, given the low popularity of Bob Rae's provincial NDP government at the time. She was the first mayor of Toronto to be a member of the NDP since William Dennison. As mayor, she presided over a period of economic growth for the city, represented by large construction projects like The Air Canada Centre and improvements to downtown residential neighbourhoods such as Cabbagetown and Church-Wellesley. She was the first Toronto Mayor to march in the city's Pride Parade, supported affordable housing initiatives, and helped introduce violence against women as a national political issue in Canada.

In 1997, a new provincial government under Mike Harris amalgamated the City of Toronto with Scarborough, York, East York, North York, and Etobicoke. The new "megacity" was also called Toronto. Hall opposed the amalgamation, but nonetheless ran for mayor of the new municipality. Although she won the majority of the vote in old Toronto, York and East York, she lost to outgoing North York mayor Mel Lastman, who had a very strong base of support in North York as well as in Etobicoke and Scarborough. Hall started the campaign well behind Lastman in public opinion polls, but she improved her support enough to place a close second.

2003 mayoral candidacy and subsequent work
Hall ran for mayor again in 2003 and on this occasion was strongly backed by supporters of the Ontario Liberal Party. She was widely considered an unofficial Liberal candidate while David Miller, an NDP city councillor, was considered an unofficial NDP candidate and John Tory was an unofficial Progressive Conservative candidate. Despite being the front-runner at the campaign's start and garnering strong support from the city's ethnic press, Hall wound up a distant third behind the winner, Miller, and runner-up John Tory.

Provincial appointee
Hall subsequently served on the Ontario government's "Health Results Team" as lead of community relations. Hall was appointed to this position by Health Minister George Smitherman, who had worked in Hall's office while she was mayor.

Chief Commissioner of the Ontario Human Rights Commission
In November 2005, Hall was appointed the Chief Commissioner of the Ontario Human Rights Commission (OHRC).

In December 2007, the OHRC released a preliminary report looking into bullying of Canadian-Asians fishing illegally on Lake Simcoe. Hall wrote that violence and harassment of Canadian-Asian anglers "remind us that racism and racial discrimination exist in Ontario." Hall added that "We're looking for communities across Ontario to have an open dialogue and take action on racism. Although this is often hard to do, it is necessary to make communities welcoming and safe for all."

Complaint against Maclean's
In April 2008, the OHRC dismissed a complaint by the Canadian Islamic Congress against Maclean's, but issued a statement denouncing the magazine. In an interview, Hall stated that "When the media writes, it should exercise great caution that it's not promoting stereotypes that will adversely impact on identifiable groups. I think one needs to be very careful when one speaks in generalities, that in fact one is speaking factually about all the people in a particular group."

The editors of Maclean's denounced Hall and her staff for what they called the "zealous condemnation of their journalism" and stated that "[Hall] cited no evidence, considered no counter-arguments, and appointed herself prosecutor, judge and jury in one fell swoop." Maclean's also accused every human rights commission in the country of "morphing out of their conciliatory roles to become crusaders working to reshape journalistic discourse in Canada." Maclean's wrote that Ms. Hall's press release was "a drive-by smear," and "perhaps the greatest disappointment in this whole saga." Mark Steyn, who wrote the excerpt in Maclean's that the complaint was based on, also sharply criticized Hall and the OHRC, commenting that "Even though they (the OHRC) don't have the guts to hear the case, they might as well find us guilty."

At a meeting of the Canadian Arab Federation on the day after the British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal heard the complaint, Hall served on a panel along with Khurrum Awan, one of the student lawyers who helped file the complaint who testified at the BC Human Rights Tribunal against Maclean's, and Haroon Siddiqui, editor emeritus of the Toronto Star. Hall joked to the audience that she could finally speak freely with her co-panellist Awan about his complaint. Awan praised Hall's condemnation of Maclean's, stating that he had difficulty developing support until Hall called Maclean's Islamophobic, and then "everyone wanted to be our uncle."

Proposal for a National Press Council
In February 2009, in a report to the Canadian Human Rights Commission, Hall in her capacity as OHRC Commissioner, recommended the creation of a National Press Council that would serve as a national media watchdog. Unlike current press councils in Canada, membership to this new council would be required by all publishers, webmasters and radio and television producers. Hall stated that such a council was necessary to protect human rights but insisted that such a body would not result in censorship of the media. Hall explained that the national press council would have the power to accept complaints of discrimination, in particular from "vulnerable groups" and although the council would have no power to censor media outlets, it could force them to carry the council's decisions, including counterarguments made by complainants.

Mary Agnes Welch, president of the Canadian Association of Journalists, stated that the current provincial press councils are "the only real place that readers can go to complain about stories short of the courts" but that they "are largely toothless and ineffective." However, she argued against a mandatory national press council, stating that:

"The provincial ones don't even work, so how could we have a national one? And I know a lot of journalists who would take umbrage at essentially being in a federally regulated profession.... If on the crazy off-chance that there is some momentum behind this idea of a national press council, it won't be coming from journalists."

The National Post strongly opposed Hall's proposal, arguing that a mandatory national press council "is merely the first step toward letting the Barbara Halls of the world decide what you get to hear, see and read." The Post also stated that Hall is a "pompous purveyor of social concern" who believes she "has the ability to judge which speech should be free and which not." Barbara Kay also strongly opposed Hall's suggestion, stating that her experience with the Quebec Press Council (QPC) was evidence that press councils are abused by those wishing to suppress the discussion of sensitive or controversial issues.

Toronto District School Board review
On March 16, 2015, Hall was appointed by the provincial government to chair a seven-member panel that will conduct public consultations to review the governance of the Toronto District School Board in an effort to "restore public confidence" in the institution after a series of controversies.

#TorontoStrong Fund administrator
After the Toronto van attack in April 2018, Hall was appointed as administrator by the volunteer steering committee of the #TorontoStrong Fund on June 13, 2018. She is tasked with distributing the approximately $3.4 million to the 26 victims and survivors of the attack by September 28, 2018.

Advocate against Cabbagetown DayCare
The former Ontario Human Rights Commission Head has been an outspoken opponent of a local daycare for young children in her home area of Cabbagetown in Toronto. "It just seems like a massive change for the neighborhood" Hall was quoted in a Dec. 12, 2018 National Post article by Chris Selley.

title: Barbara Hall (politician)


text:
User talk:LibertarianAnarchist

Thank you for your note on my talk page -- I appreciate it. I also just wanted to add my note about editing the article here as well: I am in the process of reviewing (I would not'' characterize it as "investigating") 2002 Gujarat violence, the edit history of the article and its talk page, the various comments linked to this page, and the email traffic here, here, here, here, and here (and a few other threads) on the mailing list related to it. Even though the page is unprotected, I would ask all parties involved to hold off editing this article voluntarily until I can offer a few suggestions, which I will do within a few hours.'' Thanks for your forbearance, BCorr ¤ Брайен 14:31, 11 Nov 2003 (UTC)

NOTE: See bottom of page for mediation proposal

User:LibertarianAnarchist
User:LibertarianAnarchist alias User:Democrate2003 keeps reverting 2002 Gujarat violence to a blatantly POV version, which for example alleges that India's English-language media is "largely Marxist" and that Justice Krishna Iyer is a "Marxist" (which Iyer denies) - and then he has the nerve to describe this as an NPOVing. In fact, the original version by User:Boud is perfectly NPOV, giving all the differing views about the events. --Wik 19:21, Oct 23, 2003 (UTC)

Still active at the moment. Martin 23:42, 11 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Over the past three weeks, various users have had to revert extremes made by LibertarianAnarchist on the following Websites:
 * 1) Babri Mosque (3 to 4 times)
 * 2) 2002 Gujarat violence (5 times)
 * 3) Bharatiya Janata Party (6 times)
 * 4) Racism (6 times)
 * 5) Genocide (4 times)
 * 6) V. R. Krishna Iyer (8 times)

LibertarianAnarchist is probably also 128.107.253.42.

Sincerely, Kingturtle 23:14, 13 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * I've had to revert Genocide, Babri Mosque and Mount Everest several times today. He is very tiring and accuses people in the summary boxes and on his user page of being racist and/or communist. He has a Hindu nationalist POV. Secretlondon 00:01, Nov 14, 2003 (UTC)
 * Be careful, if you revert him often enough you will be accused of "getting into edit wars" and such, and people will tell you to find a "compromise" with him. --Wik 00:06, Nov 14, 2003 (UTC)
 * User:LibertarianAnarchist just left this unsigned comment at Talk:Mount Everest in response to reversions of his statement that a Bengali surveyor discovered Mount Everest in the mid-1800s: "okay, what about Columbus "discovering" America? This is getting out of hand. You guys are clearly RACIST. I don't have to appeal to White skinned racists to "recognize" any fact. You are clearly ignorant fools if you did not know it. AmeriKKKan stupidity perhaps?" I thought it was relevant to this page.  If not, revert me. :-) Jwrosenzweig 00:21, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * What is the process to ban this user? Kingturtle 00:28, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * He'll be banned if there's enough of a consensus for it. Please discuss. --Modemac 00:36, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Under the new name HistoryBuff, LA posted this in Mount Everest's talk page -- "VerilyVerily commented that he finds it hard to believe what I wrote about Sikdar! His knowledge base being clearly inferior, he had heard of Sikdar for the first time. I am sure he did a Google search and posted the information which was as far away from mine but unfortunately for the bigot, even he couldn't completely remove the reference to Sikdar. -- LibertarianAnarchist". I believe that this kind of paranoid slander of VeryVerily is exactly the kind of thing we need to eradicate.  LA has done nothing but spread anger and rapid reversion where he/she goes -- I think it is time for a ban.  I understand Modemac's desire for discussion, but I personally feel LA's comments speak for themselves loudly enough to make the discussion a brief one. Jwrosenzweig 00:49, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * To add to above: in his Mount Everest edit he said my "India hating White skinned racism is showing itself" because of an edit where I moved (and slightly edited) the note about Sikdar measuring the mountain's peak from the intro to the Measurement section. This seems like quite a conclusion to jump to.  At least I'm apparently not a Communist (CPI(M)) propagandist anymore.  I don't know much about the banning process, but it looks like it may have to come to that. -- VV 01:05, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Strongly support banning. Has created a new username (in addition to existing three) even after being asked not to in the mailing list. Practically every edit involves calling someone a communist, and very frequent accusations of racism as well. For many days I was doing nothing on wikipedia except reverting LA's edits, and I think others wasted a huge amount of time too. Several attempts to reason with LA were made on the mailing list, but were all met with vitriolic personal attacks. All this is apart from the main issue of having an extreme POV and complete unwillingness to collaborate.  -- Arvindn 11:00, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

It is true he was inactive for a while, but he's back (including from IP 67.121.94.160). Some users proposed banning, and perhaps now we should consider continuing on that process. -- VV 21:14, 22 Nov 2003 (UTC)

He's back
Look's like he's back, and monkeying around with Jawaharlal Nehru under a series of IPs. --Calton | Talk 01:50, 5 Jun 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:LibertarianAnarchist


text:
J. B. Jeyaretnam

Joshua Benjamin Jeyaretnam (ஜோசுவா பெஞ்சமின் ஜெயரத்தினம்; 5 January 1926 – 30 September 2008), better known as J. B. Jeyaretnam or by his initials JBJ, was a Singaporean politician and lawyer. A former member of the opposition Workers' Party, he served as the party's secretary-general between 1971 and 2001. He was also the de facto Leader of the Opposition between 1981 and 1986 when he won a by-election in Anson SMC and served as a Member of Parliament between 1981 and 1986. He was also a Non-constituency Member of Parliament between 1997 and 2001.

Born in Jaffna in 1926, Jeyaretnam grew up in Malaya and Singapore before he read law in London and qualified as a barrister in 1951. Upon returning to Singapore, he worked in the legal service from 1952 to 1963 before setting up his own law firm in 1968. He entered politics in 1971 and became the secretary-general of the opposition Workers' Party. Thereafter, he contested in the 1972, 1976, 1980 general election, 1977 and 1979 by-elections, but lost to the governing People's Action Party (PAP) in all of them.

Jeyaretnam had his first electoral victory in the 1981 by-election in Anson SMC when he won 51.93% of the vote against the PAP's Pang Kim Hin and United People's Front's Harbans Singh, becoming the first opposition politician to be elected into Parliament since Singapore gained independence in 1965. He contested in the 1984 general election in Anson SMC again and won with 56.81% of the vote against the PAP's Ng Pock Too.

In 1986, following convictions for making false statements about the Workers' Party's accounts, Jeyaretnam was not only fined and imprisoned for a month, but also lost his parliamentary seat. After he was disqualified from practising law in 1987, he appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which reversed his disbarment in 1988 and called his conviction "a grievous injustice". Jeyaretnam appealed to Wee Kim Wee, the President of Singapore, for his convictions to be removed so that he could return to Parliament, but was denied.

During the 1997 general election, Jeyaretnam joined a five-member Workers' Party team to contest in Cheng San GRC, but they lost 45.18% of the vote against the PAP team. Since the Workers' Party team in Cheng San GRC were the "best losers" in an election in which there were fewer than six elected opposition Members of Parliament, they were offered one parliamentary seat as a Non-Constituency Member of Parliament (NCMP), which Jeyaretnam took up. However, Jeyaretnam lost his NCMP seat and left the Workers' Party in 2001 when he was declared bankrupt after failing to keep up with damages from a series of defamation suits against him.

After his discharge from bankruptcy in 2007, Jeyaretnam founded the Reform Party in June 2008. He died of heart failure on 30 September that year.

Early life and education
An Anglican Christian of Sri Lankan Tamil descent, Jeyaretnam was born in Chankanai, Jaffna while his parents were on leave from Malaya. His father, Victor Lord Joshua, moved to Malaya and took up a position with the Public Works Department.

Jeyaretnam grew up in Johor and started his formal education in Muar in a French convent where his eldest sister was a student. When his education at English College Johore Bahru was disrupted by the Japanese occupation of Malaya, Jeyaretnam learned Japanese to make himself more employable, and began working in the census department, then as an interpreter in the Japanese Transport Department. In Jeyaretnam's oral interviews, he said it was a means to avoid being pressed into building the Burma Railway, which was called the "Death Railway" due to the high fatality rate during its construction.

After the war, Jeyaretnam moved to Singapore, where he continued his education at St. Andrew's School. In 1948, he left for England to read law at University College London and graduated with a Bachelor of Laws (Honours) in 1951.

Legal career
After being called to the bar as a barrister at Gray's Inn on 27 November 1951, Jeyaretnam joined the Singapore Legal Service in 1952. In the following 11 years, Jeyaretnam held various positions, including magistrate, district judge, crown counsel, deputy public prosecutor and registrar of the Supreme Court. He was also Singapore's first criminal district judge. In his memoir, Jeyaretnam revealed that he had crossed swords with Lee Kuan Yew when the latter was still a practising lawyer, at times when Jeyaretnam was the deputy public prosecutor and later the presiding court judge. He left the legal service in 1963 for private practice and eventually set up his own law firm in 1968.

In February 1970, a month after the abolition of jury trials in Singapore, Jeyaretnam represented Teo Cheng Leong, who had been found guilty of shooting at a police officer with intent to cause harm and was the first person to be sentenced to death in Singapore by a non-jury trial court with two judges. Before the trial, Jeyaretnam sought to have Teo tried by a jury since his case took place in March 1969, ten months before the abolition of jury trials, so the case should be conferred for a jury trial. Jeyaretnam's request was overruled and Teo was eventually hanged in May 1971.

In 1983, Jeyaretnam defended Tan Mui Choo, one of the three perpetrators of the 1981 Toa Payoh ritual murders.

Elections between 1971 and 1980
In June 1971, Jeyaretnam joined the opposition Workers' Party and became the party's secretary-general. He made his electoral debut in the 1972 general election when he contested in Farrer Park SMC against Lee Chiaw Meng of the governing People's Action Party (PAP) and S. A. Latiff of the opposition United People's Front (UPF). He lost with 23.11% of the vote against Lee's 73.82%, but did better than Latiff's 3.07%.

During the 1976 general election, Jeyaretnam contested in Kampong Chai Chee SMC against PAP candidate Andrew Fong, but lost after garnering 40.08% of the vote against Fong's 59.92%. The following year, he contested in the by-election in Radin Mas SMC against the PAP's Bernard Chen, but lost with 29.41% of the vote against Chen's 70.59%. In 1979, he contested in a by-election in Telok Blangah SMC against Rohan Kamis of the PAP, but lost with 38.78% of the vote against Rohan's 61.22%. During the 1980 general election, he contested in Telok Blangah SMC against Rohan and lost again after garnering 46.98% of the vote against his opponent's 53.02%.

First opposition Member of Parliament since 1965
Jeyaretnam contested in a three-cornered fight during the 1981 by-election in Anson SMC against Pang Kim Hin of the PAP and Harbans Singh of the United People's Front. He won with 51.93% of the vote against Pang's 47.1% and Singh's 0.97%, becoming the first opposition politician to be elected to Parliament since Singapore gained independence in 1965. In the same year, Jeyaretnam represented Chiam See Tong, founder of the opposition Singapore Democratic Party, in filing a writ in the High Court seeking damages from Defence Minister Howe Yoon Chong and Foreign Affairs Minister S. Dhanabalan for slandering him during the speeches they made in 1980. Chiam eventually dropped the lawsuits against Howe and Dhanabalan after they publicly apologised to him.

In 1982, a complaint against Jeyaretnam was referred to the Singapore Parliament's Committee of Privileges, which looks into allegations of breaches of parliamentary privilege. He received a reprimand for not declaring a conflict of interest in an issue he brought up in Parliament which involved a person whom he was representing as a lawyer.

Jeyaretnam contested in Anson SMC again during the 1984 general election and won with 56.81% of the vote against the PAP candidate Ng Pock Too's 43.19%. The 1984 general election also saw Chiam winning the election in Potong Pasir SMC with 60.28% against the PAP candidate Mah Bow Tan. Jeyaretnam and Chiam were the only two elected opposition Members of Parliament in the Sixth Parliament.

Parliamentary fines and loss of parliamentary seat
In March 1986, Jeyaretnam was referred to the Committee of Privileges again for making an unsubstantiated allegation in Parliament about the wrongful arrest of a citizen and failing to declare a conflict of interest in an issue he brought up in Parliament. He received two fines amounting to S$2,000.

Jeyaretnam was also fined S$1,000 by the committee for alleging that the Cabinet had interfered with the Subordinate Courts. After he sent letters to Anson SMC residents about the committee's conduct during his hearing, he was fined a total of S$25,000 for making a distorted report of the hearing in his letters.

On 10 November 1986, Jeyaretnam lost his parliamentary seat following his convictions for making false statements.

Jeyaretnam was fined S$10,000 in 1987 on a complaint that he, as the editor of the Workers' Party's newsletter "The Hammer", had allowed the publication of a distorted report on the committee in December 1986. The Workers' Party's executive council was also fined S$5,000.

Presidential elections
In 1993, Jeyaretnam submitted an application for a certificate of eligibility to contest the presidential election but his application was rejected.

1997 general election
During the 1997 general election, Jeyaretnam joined a five-member Workers' Party team to contest in Cheng San GRC against a PAP team led by Education Minister Lee Yock Suan. However, the Workers' Party team lost after garnering 45.18% of the vote against the PAP team's 54.82%. Since the Workers' Party team in Cheng San GRC were the "best losers" in an election in which there were fewer than six elected opposition Members of Parliament, they were offered one parliamentary seat as a Non-constituency Member of Parliament (NCMP). The Workers' Party selected Jeyaretnam to be the NCMP, which he accepted. He lost his NCMP seat after being declared bankrupt in July 2001 because undischarged bankrupts are barred from serving in Parliament and running for parliamentary elections.

Leaving the Workers' Party
In October 2001, Jeyaretnam left the Workers' Party after he felt ostracised by his fellow party members and after he accused the party's leaders of not offering to help him with his debt payments.

Founding the Reform Party
Following his discharge from bankruptcy in May 2007, Jeyaretnam announced his intention in April 2008 to challenge the PAP government again by forming a new political party, the Reform Party. On 17 June 2008, the Registry of Societies approved the Reform Party's application, making it an officially registered society in Singapore. Jeyaretnam served as the interim secretary-general of the party, which had only the legal minimum of ten members at the time of its creation.

1977–1979: Defamation suit from Lee Kuan Yew
After the 1976 general election, Lee Kuan Yew demanded an unconditional apology from Jeyaretnam for making the following remarks in a speech during the lead-up to the election: ""Mr Lee Kuan Yew has managed his fortune very well. He is the Prime Minister of Singapore. His wife is the senior partner of Lee & Lee and his brother is the director of several companies, including Tat Lee Bank in Market Street; the bank which was given a permit with alacrity, [a] banking permit licence, when other banks were having difficulties getting their licence.""

Lee filed a defamation suit against Jeyaretnam in court when the latter refused to apologise. Lee and Jeyaretnam were represented in court by Queen's Counsels Robert Alexander and John Mortimer respectively, with the latter defending Jeyaretnam pro bono. A five-day trial took place in November 1978 and made headlines in The Straits Times. During the trial, Michael Wong Pakshong, the managing director of the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS), claimed that the law firm Lee & Lee (run by Lee's wife Kwa Geok Choo) and Lee's brother Lee Kim Yew (a director of Tat Lee Bank) had no influence on the MAS's decision to grant a banking licence to Tat Lee Bank. Mortimer, while defending Jeyaretnam, said that Jeyaretnam held no responsibility for all the insinuations inferred from his words.

In January 1979, Jeyaretnam lost the case and was ordered by High Court judge Frederick Arthur Chua to pay Lee S$130,000 in damages and costs. He appealed to the Court Appeal and Judicial Committee of the Privy Council but lost both appeals and incurred up to S$500,000 in damages and costs. As a result, he had to sell his bungalow to pay the damages and costs, and move into a rental apartment.

1983–1986: Convictions for making false statements
In December 1983, Jeyaretnam and Workers' Party chairman Wong Hong Toy were charged with falsely declaring the party's accounts. They were also accused of defrauding Tay Boon Too, a PAP Member of Parliament whom the Workers' Party had unsuccessfully sued for defamation in 1972. The suit had been dismissed by High Court judge Frederick Arthur Chua, who had also ordered the Workers' Party to pay Tay's legal costs amounting to S$14,000.

In early 1984, senior district judge Michael Khoo found Jeyaretnam and Wong guilty of one of the four charges they faced but acquitted them of the other three. After both the defendants and the prosecution appealed against the judgement, the case was heard in May 1984 by Chief Justice Wee Chong Jin. In April 1985, Wee found Jeyaretnam and Wong guilty of two of the three charges they had been acquitted of earlier, and fined them S$2,000 each. He also ordered a retrial for the offence of making a false declaration.

On 25 September 1985, Jeyaretnam and Wong were found guilty by a district court and each sentenced to three months' imprisonment, but they appealed against the judgement. In November 1986, High Court judge Lai Kew Chai dismissed their appeals but reduced their sentences to one month's imprisonment and fined them S$5,000 each. Under the Singapore Constitution, a Member of Parliament has to vacate his/her seat if he/she is fined S$2,000 or more, or sentenced to a jail term of 12 months or more, so on 10 December 1986, Jeyaretnam lost his parliamentary seat.

1987–1988: Disbarment and reversal
After Jeyaretnam completed serving his one-month jail term on 10 December 1986, the Law Society of Singapore, acting on a complaint by Attorney-General Tan Boon Teik, commenced proceedings against him under the Legal Profession Act on the grounds that he was no longer fit to practise law because of his convictions. In October 1987, a panel of three judges, including Chief Justice Wee Chong Jin, struck Jeyaretnam off the roll of advocates and solicitors of the Supreme Court, barring him from practising law in Singapore.

In October 1988, following an appeal from Jeyaretnam, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) reversed his disbarment, noting in their judgement: "Their Lordships have to record their deep disquiet that by a series of misjudgements, the appellant and his co-accused Wong, have suffered a grievous injustice. They have been fined, imprisoned and publicly disgraced for offences of which they are not guilty. The appellant, in addition, has been deprived of his seat in Parliament and disqualified for a year from practising his profession. Their Lordships order restores him to the roll of advocates and solicitors of the Supreme Court of Singapore, but, because of the course taken by the criminal proceedings, their Lordships have no power to right the other wrongs which the appellant and Wong have suffered. Their only prospect of redress, their Lordships understand, will be by way of petition for pardon to the President of the Republic of Singapore."

After the JCPC's judgement, Jeyaretnam requested President Wee Kim Wee to remove his convictions. However, the President, constitutionally bound to act in accordance with the Cabinet's advice, denied the request, so Jeyaretnam remained disqualified from participating in parliamentary elections until 1991.

1988–1990: Defamation suit from Lee Kuan Yew
Although Jeyaretnam was barred from contesting in the 1988 general election due to his convictions in 1986, he still participated in the Workers' Party's rallies during the campaigning period. In one rally speech, he questioned if the PAP government had carried out an inquiry into the death of former National Development Minister Teh Cheang Wan, who had committed suicide in December 1986 by overdosing while he was being investigated for corruption. Jeyaretnam asked how Teh had obtained the tablets he used to commit suicide, and if Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew had responded to a letter from Teh written before his suicide.

After the election, Lee sued Jeyaretnam for slander, alleging that Jeyaretnam implied that he had abetted Teh's suicide and covered up corruption. In August 1990, High Court judge Lai Kew Chai ruled against Jeyaretnam and ordered him to pay Lee damages of S$260,000 with interest on the amount and costs. After Jeyaretnam lost his appeal to the Court of Appeal, he attempted to appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) again. However, the law had been amended since the 1988 JCPC ruling in Jeyaretnam's favour. Under the new rules, for civil cases, an appeal to the JCPC would be allowed only if all parties involved consented to it. Lee did not give his consent so Jeyaretnam could not appeal to the JCPC. All remaining appeals to the JCPC were eventually abolished from 8 April 1994 onwards.

1995–2001: Defamation suits from Tamil PAP MPs and others
In November 1995, Jeyaretnam and the Workers' Party's central executive committee faced two defamation suits. The first was from five PAP Members of Parliament of Tamil origin, including Foreign Affairs Minister S. Jayakumar. The second was from Indra Krishnan and members of the organising committee of the Tamil Language Week. The lawsuits came after an article published in the Workers' Party's newsletter "The Hammer" implied that the plaintiffs' efforts to promote the Tamil language in Singapore had not been sincere enough.

In September 1997, Jeyaretnam and the Workers' Party agreed to pay S$200,000 in damages and costs to the five PAP Members of Parliament by six instalments. Three instalments amounting to S$100,000 were paid by February 1998.

On 30 November 1998, the High Court ordered Jeyaretnam and the Workers' Party to pay S$265,000 in damages and costs to ten plaintiffs in the second lawsuit. The Workers' Party appealed against the judgement but lost the appeal on 21 April 1999. At the time, the total sum had increased to almost S$500,000, including legal costs. Eight of the plaintiffs initiated bankruptcy proceedings against him and he was declared bankrupt in January 2001. In July 2001, Jeyaretnam appealed against his bankruptcy order and his case was heard in the Court of Appeal on 23 July 2001.

1997–2001: Defamation suits from Goh Chok Tong and others
Following the 1997 general election, Jeyaretnam faced nine defamation suits from 11 Cabinet ministers and Members of Parliament from the PAP for speaking up in support of Workers' Party candidate Tang Liang Hong, who himself also faced 13 defamation suits. The plaintiffs included Senior Minister Lee Kuan Yew, Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong, and Deputy Prime Ministers Lee Hsien Loong and Tony Tan. The lawsuits came after Tang had accused the plaintiffs of lying when they labelled him as "anti-Christian" and "Chinese chauvinist" during the campaigning period. Jeyaretnam had also said during a rally speech, ""Finally, Mr Tang Liang Hong has just placed before me two reports he has made to the police against, you know, Mr Goh Chok Tong and his people.""

During the trial, which started on 18 August 1997, Jeyaretnam and Goh were represented by Queen's Counsels George Carman and Thomas Shields respectively. On 20 August 1997, Carman accused Goh of lying and challenged his assertions that Singapore was a democracy. During cross-examination by Carman, Goh likened Jeyaretnam's statement to throwing a Molotov cocktail. However, on further questioning, Goh also stated that "it has been a good year" for him and his standing as a leader had not been injured. The trial generated much public interest, with representatives from the International Commission of Jurists and Amnesty International in attendance as observers.

High Court judge S. Rajendran, who heard the case, delivered his judgement on 29 September 1997. He found Jeyaretnam's words were non-intentional yet defamatory, but not to the extent which Goh claimed, and ordered Jeyaretnam to pay Goh damages of S$20,000 (10% of what Goh claimed) and 60% of Goh's legal costs. The judge also said Goh should pay 40% as the case was "overstated" and criticised the other plaintiffs' lawyers for not consolidating their lawsuits to reduce legal costs. Goh appealed against the judgement and the damages were subsequently increased to S$100,000 plus legal costs.

The Amnesty International representatives who observed the trials said that the lawsuits were politically motivated. Goh commenced bankruptcy proceedings against Jeyaretnam after he failed to pay an instalment, but discontinued them later with S$31,000 still outstanding.

In December 2000, Lee Kuan Yew and the other plaintiffs resumed the 1997 defamation suits against Jeyaretnam which had not been heard in court yet. Jeyaretnam attempted to have those lawsuits dismissed, but his application was turned down so he appealed to the Court of Appeal, which heard the case on 25 July 2001.

Leaking of the police reports to the press
On 25 April 2019, former SPH journalist Bertha Henson revealed in a blog post that the police reports which Tang Liang Hong made in 1997 had been unofficially forwarded by the Singapore Police Force to The New Paper, which published them. After Tang and Jeyaretnam were sued for defamation, Henson and The New Paper editor P. N. Balji realised that they had inadvertently spread the allegedly defamatory words to more people, meaning that the plaintiffs could have sought more damages if they had won the lawsuits.

The following day, Kenneth Jeyaretnam called Henson's confession "brave" and said that it "provided prima facie evidence of corruption" in the 1997 lawsuits against his father. He also said that the unauthorised leaks had allowed the plaintiffs to claim aggravated damages, and that his father's lawyer George Carman could have used the unauthorised leaks in his defence.

2001–2007: Bankruptcy
On 23 and 25 July 2001, the Court of Appeal dismissed two bankruptcy appeals from Jeyaretnam after he failed to pay instalments on time for the damages arising from the earlier defamation lawsuits. As undischarged bankrupts are barred from serving in Parliament, Jeyaretnam lost his seat as a Non-constituency Member of Parliament on 25 July 2001. He was also disbarred.

To pay off his debts, Jeyaretnam went onto the streets to sell copies of two books he wrote: Make It Right for Singapore and The Hatchet Man of Singapore. The first book contains the texts of some of his parliamentary speeches from 1997 to 1999, while the second describes his trials. In 2003, he told the Associated Press that he had managed to sell as many as 10 copies of The Hatchet Man of Singapore each time he went out, and that the first 2,000 copies had been almost sold out.

In May 2007, Jeyaretnam was discharged from bankruptcy after he paid the remaining sum of S$233,255.78 owed to his creditors.

J B Jeyaretnam Foundation
On 5 January 2021, a charity tentatively named "J B Jeyaretnam Foundation" was set up to focus on poverty relief among marginalised groups.

Personal life
Jeyaretnam met his wife, Margaret Cynthia Walker, while they were both studying law in London. Walker joined Jeyaretnam in Singapore in 1956 and they married in February 1957. She died of cancer in 1980. They had two sons, Kenneth Jeyaretnam and Philip Jeyaretnam. Kenneth Jeyaretnam, a former hedge fund manager, has been the secretary-general of the Reform Party since 2009. Philip Jeyaretnam, a Senior Counsel, has been a judge of the Supreme Court since 2021 and was the president of the Law Society from 2004 to 2007.

Death
Jeyaretnam was rushed to Tan Tock Seng Hospital in the early morning of 30 September 2008 after he complained that he had difficulties breathing. The doctors were unable to revive him and he died of heart failure at the age of 82.

In media
In 2001, three lecturers from Ngee Ann Polytechnic made a 15-minute documentary about Jeyaretnam after they met him while he was selling books on the streets. At the time, they did not know that he was a prominent opposition politician, and had not obtained official approval from Ngee Ann Polytechnic to make the documentary. The film was going to be screened at the Singapore International Film Festival in April 2002. However, the documentary was in violation of the Films Act, which bans the making, distribution and showing of films containing "wholly or partly either partisan or biased references to or comments on any political matter." As a result, it was withdrawn from the film festival and the three lecturers apologised.

title: J. B. Jeyaretnam


text:
Turhan Përmeti

Turhan Përmeti (19 December 1846 – 18 February 1927) was an Albanian politician and statesman who served as the second prime minister of Albania, serving from March 1914 to September 1914 and from December 1918 to January 1920. He was also in service of the Ottoman state and held the title of Pasha of the Ottoman Empire.

Among the Ottoman posts he occupied were Governor of Crete 1895 and 1896, and ambassador in Saint Petersburg. He was a fluent Greek speaker and considered a capable though rather indecisive administrator. His governorship of Crete ended with the insurrection of May 24, 1896 that eventually led to the loss of the island by the Ottoman Empire. Përmeti represented the Ottoman Empire as its delegate at the Second Hague Peace Conference of 1907.

On 17 March 1914, he was appointed as Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs by Prince Wied, in the so-called Definitive Government. He became Albania's second prime minister succeeding Ismail Qemali. Përmeti remained foreign minister until May 28, 1914, then replaced by Prenk Bib Doda, who himself was succeeded by Mehmed Konica in July. Përmeti's contemporaries argued that, because he had lacked affiliation with the Albanian national cause, he was not familiar with the needs of Albanians. His premiership was interrupted by Albanian discontent twice. He was overthrown by Essad Toptani in 1914, and then by the Congress of Lushnjë in 1920.

Political career
Përmeti served as the second prime minister of Albania from 14 March 1914 to 3 September 1914 and on a second term from 25 December 1918 to 29 January 1920.

The composition of government was proposed since the first session of the meetings. Përmeti's government of the Principality of Albania (25 December 1918 – 29 January 1920) included Prenk Bib Doda, Mufid Libohova, Luigj Bumçi, Mustafa Merlika-Kruja, Mihal Turtulli, Mehmed Konica, Sami Vrioni, Mid'hat Frashëri, Luigj Gurakuqi, Lef Nosi, Fejzi Alizoti and also Petro Poga.

title: Turhan Përmeti


text:
St Mary's Isle

St Mary's Isle (also known as Conister Rock or the Tower of Refuge, Manx: Kione y Sker or Creg Voirrey ) is a partially submerged reef in Douglas Bay on the Isle of Man. Prior to 1832 the rock was the property of the Quane family until John Quane, Attorney General of the Isle of Man, presented the rock to Sir William Hillary, in his capacity as President of the Isle of Man District of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution to build the Tower of Refuge. Since then the custody of St Mary's Isle has been held by each president of the local lifeboat association.

The reef is not far from the ferry terminal. Its eastern part, the Conister Shoals, had to be blasted away when a new harbour breakwater was built in the early 1980s. The rocks are only fully submerged at spring high tides; they can be accessed very briefly on foot at low spring tides.

Etymology
Conister is a corruption of the Manx Kione y sker meaning the 'head of the reef'.

St George rescue
On Friday 19 November 1830, under the command of Lieutenant John Tudor R.N., the packet steamer St George arrived in Douglas from Liverpool with mail and passengers.

The St George belonged to the Saint George Steam Packet Company of Liverpool and at that time was engaged in competition with the newly established Isle of Man Steam Packet Company.

Once her passengers and mail were unloaded, the St George proceeded to take her anchorage in the vicinity of Conister Rock using the fixed chain cable which had been secured for the task. The night was stormy, with strong gusts of wind from the southwest which increased in ferocity as the wind backed to the southeast on the morning of November 20. At 05:00hrs the chain cable holding the St George began to give way and she began to drive in between the Pollock and Conister rocks.

Steam had been kept up during the night, with the crew at their stations, but the force of the sea together with the ship's proximity to the Conister Rock meant she struck the rock before any attempt to back her out could prove successful. The St George struck the rock violently, immediately filled and settled down forward, with her head to the land and lying almost broadside to the most rugged part of the rock.

Lieutenant Tudor immediately ordered distress signals to be made as well as the foremast to be cut away with a view to forming a raft so as that when the dawn came they might be rescued by boats from the lee side of the vessel, but this was found to be impractical. From his home at the Fort Anne Sir William Hillary observed the disaster taking place and immediately made for the pier in order to initiate a rescue. Together with Lt Robinson (RN), William Corlett (agent for the St George Steamship Company), Issac Vondy his coxswain, and a volunteer crew of 14 Sir William set out to render assistance.

On approaching the St George the lifeboat's anchor was let go to the windward, and by veering down upon the wreck an attempt was made to take off the people from the weather quarter, but the surf would not enable this to be carried out. The lifeboat was then backed between the St George and the rocks, and despite warnings from Lt Tudor of the dangers this would present to the lifeboat, the crew of the lifeboat persevered and were initially successful. The lifeboat had now got into a situation where the rolling sea was causing it to become swamped and began to sustain damage with the rudder being disabled and six out of the ten oars either broken or lost. Coupled to this, Sir William, Corlett and two boatmen had been washed overboard. Corlett and the two boatmen were swiftly got back into the boat, but Sir William, unable to swim, seized a rope which was hung from the vessel's side by which he was able to support himself until Lt Tudor assisted by Lt Robinson managed to get a badly injured Sir William aboard. From the disabled state of the boat and the loss of the oars it became impossible to take off the people and proceed windward by hauling up her anchor, as was originally intended. Any route to the leeward was blocked by the rigging of the mast which had been cut away and this left the lifeboat hemmed in between the wreck, the Conister Rock and by a point of rock which ran out beyond it.

The situation of the crews of the St George and the lifeboat remained perilous for two hours, a critical situation, but after time the rigging of the fallen mast was cut away with knives and an axe which were fortunately in the boat. The size of the swell increased as the tide rose and now swept the decks of the St George nearly burying the lifeboat, and one last effort was made to extricate themselves from a situation which at any time could have proved fatal.

The crew of the St George consisted of 22 and the lifeboat 18. They finally all managed to get into the lifeboat, by now taking a large quantity of water which had to be constantly bailed out by the use of buckets which had been taken from the St George. With the use of the remaining oars the lifeboat was cast off and the cable cast away, but she struck violently on the low ridge of the rock, filled, and striking again was washed over, leaving her occupants holding on by ropes. The cable was then cut, and the sea coming round the bow of the St George drove the lifeboat broadside on, upon the sheltered side of the Conister Rock thus avoiding the potential catastrophe, and they were then able to proceed towards the shore a quarter of a mile away.

They were met by two boats which had put out from the pier and proceeded through the sound to approach them under the shelter of the lee of the rock. Some of the St George's crew were transferred into the first boat, and the other boat, commanded by Lt Sleigh R.N. was able to get a line to the lifeboat and thus take it successfully in tow to the beach. None of the forty men involved were lost.

A memorial depicting the rescue can now be seen in the sunken garden on Loch Promenade, Douglas.

Crew of the Douglas lifeboat

 * Sir William Hillary
 * Lieut. Robert Robinson (RN)
 * William Corlett (agent to the St. George's Company)
 * Issac Vondy (coxswain)
 * William Connor
 * John Inch
 * Thomas Carran
 * Thomas Cannell
 * William Gill
 * George Thompson
 * Henry Clague
 * Robert Kewley
 * Richard Harvey
 * Philip Cottier
 * John Callow
 * Richard Cowell
 * Unnamed person

Crew of SS St. George

 * Lieut. John Tudor (RN) (Commander)
 * Joseph Owen (Second Officer)
 * 20 other crew members

A subsequent financial gift of £50 was given to Sir William by the owners of the St George in 1833 to be distributed amongst the lifeboat's crew.

The Tower of Refuge
The structure was built upon the reef on the orders of Sir William Hillary (who helped to found the Royal National Lifeboat Institution) in 1832. After several shipwrecks upon the semi-submerged rock, he wanted a refuge for survivors until help could arrive. Sir William, who personally contributed a high proportion of the costs, secured a substantial number of public contributions for funding the building. The owner of the private islet was persuaded to give their permission for the refuge. After its construction, the building was stocked with provisions such as bread and fresh water for any shipwrecked persons. The tower originally housed a bell for summoning of help.

The refuge, which was built to look like a castle, was designed by local architect John Welch who was also responsible for the design of other landmark buildings in the Isle of Man.

The tower was the subject of a poem by Wordsworth: COMPOSED OR SUGGESTED DURING A TOUR IN THE SUMMER OF 1833 XV ON ENTERING DOUGLAS BAY, ISLE OF MAN
 * "Dignum laude virum Musa vetat mori."

 * THE feudal Keep, the bastions of Cohorn,
 * Even when they rose to check or to repel
 * Tides of aggressive war, oft served as well
 * Greedy ambition, armed to treat with scorn
 * Just limits; but yon Tower, whose smiles adorn
 * This perilous bay, stands clear of all offence;
 * Blest work it is of love and innocence,
 * A Tower of refuge built for the else forlorn.
 * Spare it, ye waves, and lift the mariner,
 * Struggling for life, into its saving arms!
 * Spare, too, the human helpers! Do they stir
 * 'Mid your fierce shock like men afraid to die?
 * No; their dread service nerves the heart it warms,
 * And they are led by noble HILLARY.

NOTE

14 'And they are led by noble Hillary.'

The TOWER OF REFUGE, an ornament to Douglas Bay, was erected chiefly through the humanity and zeal of Sir William Hillary; and he also was the founder of the lifeboat establishment at that place; by which, under his superintendence, and often by his exertions at the imminent hazard of his own life, many seamen and passengers have been saved.

Other uses
Conister Trust, a local Manx financial services institution, has been named after Conister Rock since its founding in 1935.

title: St Mary's Isle


text:
Colombeau algebra

In mathematics, a Colombeau algebra is an algebra of a certain kind containing the space of Schwartz distributions. While in classical distribution theory a general multiplication of distributions is not possible, Colombeau algebras provide a rigorous framework for this.

Such a multiplication of distributions has long been believed to be impossible because of L. Schwartz' impossibility result, which basically states that there cannot be a differential algebra containing the space of distributions and preserving the product of continuous functions. However, if one only wants to preserve the product of smooth functions instead such a construction becomes possible, as demonstrated first by Colombeau.

As a mathematical tool, Colombeau algebras can be said to combine a treatment of singularities, differentiation and nonlinear operations in one framework, lifting the limitations of distribution theory. These algebras have found numerous applications in the fields of partial differential equations, geophysics, microlocal analysis and general relativity so far.

Colombeau algebras are named after French mathematician Jean François Colombeau.

Schwartz' impossibility result
Attempting to embed the space $$\mathcal{D}'(\mathbb{R})$$ of distributions on $$\mathbb{R}$$ into an associative algebra $$(A(\mathbb{R}), \circ, +)$$, the following requirements seem to be natural:

 * 1) $$\mathcal{D}'(\mathbb{R})$$ is linearly embedded into $$A(\mathbb{R})$$ such that the constant function $$1$$ becomes the unity in $$A(\mathbb{R})$$,
 * 2) There is a partial derivative operator $$\partial$$ on $$A(\mathbb{R})$$ which is linear and satisfies the Leibniz rule,
 * 3) the restriction of $$\partial$$ to $$\mathcal{D}'(\mathbb{R})$$ coincides with the usual partial derivative,
 * 4) the restriction of $$\circ$$ to $$C(\mathbb{R}) \times C(\mathbb{R})$$ coincides with the pointwise product.

However, L. Schwartz' result implies that these requirements cannot hold simultaneously. The same is true even if, in 4., one replaces $$C(\mathbb{R})$$ by $$C^k(\mathbb{R})$$, the space of $$k$$ times continuously differentiable functions. While this result has often been interpreted as saying that a general multiplication of distributions is not possible, in fact it only states that one cannot unrestrictedly combine differentiation, multiplication of continuous functions and the presence of singular objects like the Dirac delta.

Colombeau algebras are constructed to satisfy conditions 1.–3. and a condition like 4., but with $$C(\mathbb{R}) \times C(\mathbb{R})$$ replaced by $$C^\infty(\mathbb{R}) \times C^\infty(\mathbb{R})$$, i.e., they preserve the product of smooth (infinitely differentiable) functions only.

Basic idea
The Colombeau Algebra is defined as the quotient algebra

 * $$C^\infty_M(\mathbb{R}^n)/C^\infty_N(\mathbb{R}^n).$$

Here the algebra of moderate functions $$C^\infty_M(\mathbb{R}^n)$$ on $$\mathbb{R}^n$$ is the algebra of families of smooth regularisations (fε)

 * $${f:} \mathbb{R}_+ \to C^\infty(\mathbb{R}^n)$$

of smooth functions on $$\mathbb{R}^n$$ (where R+ = (0,∞) is the "regularization" parameter ε), such that for all compact subsets K of $$\mathbb{R}^n$$ and all multiindices α, there is an N > 0 such that

 * $$\sup_{x\in K}\left|\frac{\partial^{|\alpha|}}{(\partial x_1)^{\alpha_1}\cdots(\partial x_n)^{\alpha_n}}f_\varepsilon(x)\right| = O(\varepsilon^{-N})\qquad(\varepsilon\to 0).$$

The ideal $$C^\infty_N(\mathbb{R}^n)$$ of negligible functions is defined in the same way but with the partial derivatives instead bounded by O(ε+N) for all N > 0.

Embedding of distributions
The space(s) of Schwartz distributions can be embedded into the simplified algebra by (component-wise) convolution with any element of the algebra having as representative a δ-net, i.e. a family of smooth functions $$\varphi_\varepsilon$$ such that $$\varphi_\varepsilon\to\delta$$ in  D'  as ε → 0.

This embedding is non-canonical, because it depends on the choice of the δ-net. However, there are versions of Colombeau algebras (so called full algebras) which allow for canonical embeddings of distributions. A well known full version is obtained by adding the mollifiers as second indexing set.

title: Colombeau algebra