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1966 United Kingdom general election

The 1966 United Kingdom general election was held on Thursday 31 March 1966. The result was a landslide victory for the Labour Party led by incumbent Prime Minister Harold Wilson.

Wilson decided to call a snap election since his government, elected a mere 17 months previously, in 1964, had an unworkably small majority of only four MPs. The Labour government was returned following this snap election with a much larger majority of 98 seats. This was the last British general election in which the voting age was 21; Wilson's government passed an amendment to the Representation of the People Act in 1969 to include eligibility to vote at age 18, which was in place for the next general election in 1970.

This was the only election between 1945 and 1997 in which the Labour Party won a workable majority sustainable to last a full term. In the next seven general elections, the Labour Party would win a majority of seats only once (October 1974) and would lose five elections to the Conservatives. This election also noted the Labour Party achieving its third-highest vote-share (48%) and second largest total number of votes in history (the largest vote-share being the 49.7% achieved in the 1945 election).

Background
Prior to the 1966 general election, Labour had performed poorly in local elections in 1965, and lost a by-election, cutting their majority to just two. Shortly after the local elections, the leader of the Conservative Party Alec Douglas-Home was replaced by Edward Heath in the 1965 leadership election.

Despite setbacks and a small majority, Labour believed it had an advantage due to the disorientation from the change of leadership at the Conservative Party, the improvement of economic conditions under its brief government, and a victory at the 1966 Kingston upon Hull North by-election. The Conservatives had not had much time to prepare their campaign, although it was more professional than previously. There had been little time for Heath to become well known among the British public, having led the party for just eight months before the election. For the Liberal Party, money was an issue: two elections in the space of just two years had left the party in a tight financial position and had to field fewer candidates. Labour ran its campaign with the slogan "You know Labour government works" and avoided commenting on controversial issues such as European integration, trade unions, and nationalisation.

The election night was broadcast live on the BBC, was presented by Cliff Michelmore, Ian Trethowan, Robin Day, Robert McKenzie and David Butler. The election was replayed on the BBC Parliament channel on the 40th anniversary of the event, and again in 2016 to mark the 50th anniversary of the election.

Although the BBC's telecast was in black and white, a couple of colour television cameras were placed in the BBC election studio at Television Centre to allow CBS's Charles Collingwood and NBC's David Brinkley to file live reports from that studio by satellite and in colour for their respective networks' evening news programmes (which were transmitted at 11:30 pm British time, 6:30 pm Eastern Standard Time).

Timeline
The Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, announced on 28 February that Parliament would be dissolved on 10 March, for an election to be held on 31 March. The key dates were as follows:

Opinion polling

 * Research Services: 3% swing to Labour (forecast majority of 101)
 * National opinion polls: 3.5% swing to Labour (forecast majority of 115)
 * Gallup: 4.5% swing to Labour (forecast majority of 150)
 * Express (known as Harris): 7.5% swing to Labour (forecast majority of in excess of 255)

Results
The Labour Party performed very well in the election and expanded its previously slim majority against the Conservative opposition to 97 seats, accomplishing a net gain of 48 seats. It won 364 seats from 48 per cent of the vote, against 253 seats from 41.4 per cent for the Conservatives and 12 seats from 8 per cent for the Liberals. A major reason for the Labour victory was the revitalization of the party's working-class support in the 1960s. It captured its highest support yet from manual laborers at 69 per cent, as well as its best performance for non-manual laborers since 1945. The government also appealed to both the right wing of the party with its cabinet dominated by junior ministers of the Attlee ministry as well as the left wing by the presence of officials such as Prime Minister Wilson, Richard Crossman, Barbara Castle, and Frank Cousins. Although the party would go on to win more seats under Tony Blair in 1997 and 2001, Labour have never since matched the 48% of the popular vote they won in 1966.

 * + style="caption-side: bottom; font-weight:normal" |All parties shown.
 * }
 * }

Televised declarations
These declarations were covered live by the BBC where the returning officer was heard to say "duly elected".

 * The 5,117 votes polled for the "Others" in Nelson and Colne were all polled for Patrick Downey, uncle of Lesley Ann Downey, who had been murdered by the Moors Murderers. Downey advocated the return of hanging.

Manifestos

 * Action Not Words: The New Conservative Programme, 1966 Conservative Party manifesto
 * Time for Decision, 1966 Labour Party manifesto
 * For All the People: the Liberal Plan of 1966, 1966 Liberal Party manifesto

title: 1966 United Kingdom general election


text:
Talk:Yaxchilan

Comment by Infrogmation
I'm not able to find enough to straighten out the dynasty between some decade + old books in my collection and a google search; I'll check at Tulane library for better info; in the meantime, below are my rough notes on rulers. -- Infrogmation 23:27, 16 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Shield-Jaguar I
 * Bird-Jaguar I
 * Yax-Antler-Skull
 * "Ruler 5"
 * Tah-Skull I
 * Moon-Skull I
 * Bird-Jaguar II
 * Knot-Eye-Jaguar 515
 * Skull-Mahk'ina II, 526
 * Bird-Jaguar III
 * Shield-Jaguar I, 681
 * Bird-Jaguar IV 752
 * Sheild-Jaguar II
 * Mahk'ina-Skull III

Consider Revision
Consider revising the caption for Yaxchilan Lintel 25. Cf. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Quetzalcoatl Rawhead

Lead
Everything mentioned in the lead should appear in the article text - I think for example that the specific info that the lintels are describing history should be brought out more clearly in the article body. When it's all clearly there, then the lead, as a summary, can loose its citations. Hekerui (talk) 20:37, 7 July 2009 (UTC)

 * Hi Hekerui, I'll take care of the lead section once I've finished expanding the article, I still plan to do a lot of work on it. Best regards, Simon Burchell (talk) 13:33, 10 July 2009 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Yaxchilan


text:
Talk:USS Vincennes (CA-44)

Bold Words
This page appears to contain several entire sections in bold when it appears to be pointless. Should someone modify it? --Halthecomputer

 * Those are mistakes in the use of single quotes, I'll fix. Stan 15:12, 17 Nov 2003 (UTC)

I made several edits
I made several edits tonight 'correcting' some of the misleading passages regarding this great ship. Sugar coating and glorifying the U.S. Navy's worst defeat serves no purpose. The Vincennes 332 dead deserve better. And current sailors derive no benefit from glossing over the incredible incompetence demonstrated by several cruiser captains, particularly Bode and Riefkohl.

Copyright violation?
Several paragraphs appear to be word-for-word from Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, Volume 3, no? Weedwhacker128 (talk) 05:20, 11 October 2014 (UTC)
 * Sorry, my mistake. The material is public domain. Weedwhacker128 (talk)

title: Talk:USS Vincennes (CA-44)


text:
Shalmaneser V

Shalmaneser V (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: Assyrian cuneiform U12079 MesZL 748 and MesZL 749.svgAssyrian cuneiform U1202D MesZL 10.svgAssyrian cuneiform U12072 MesZL 736.svgAssyrian cuneiform U12220 MesZL 552.svgAssyrian cuneiform U12261 MesZL 112.svgAssyrian cuneiform U12047 MesZL 121 or U12226 MesZL 120 or U1244F MesZL 122.svg Salmānu-ašarēd, meaning "Salmānu is foremost"; Biblical Hebrew: Šalmanʾeser) was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from the death of his father Tiglath-Pileser III in 727 BC to his deposition and death in 722 BC. Though Shalmaneser V's brief reign is poorly known from contemporary sources, he remains known for the conquest of Samaria and the fall of the Kingdom of Israel, though the conclusion of that campaign is sometimes attributed to his successor, Sargon II, instead.

Shalmaneser V is known to have campaigned extensively in the lands west of the Assyrian heartland, warring not only against the Israelites, but also against the Phoenician city-states and against kingdoms in Anatolia. Though he successfully annexed some lands to the Assyrian Empire, his campaigns resulted in long and drawn-out sieges lasting several years, some being unresolved at the end of his reign. The circumstances of his deposition and death are not clear, though they were likely violent, and it is unlikely that Sargon II was his legitimate heir. It is possible that Sargon II was entirely unrelated, which would make Shalmaneser V the final king of the Adaside dynasty, which had ruled Assyria for almost a thousand years.

Shalmaneser V is also known under the name Ululayu (Assyrian cuneiform U12079 MesZL 748 and MesZL 749.svgAssyrian cuneiform U12317 or U1231A MesZL 20.svgAssyrian cuneiform U121A5 MesZL 815.svgAssyrian cuneiform U12000 MesZL 839.svgAssyrian cuneiform U12000 MesZL 839.svg Ulūlāyu,   meaning "one who [was born] in the month Ulūlu"), possibly his birth name, which is used instead of his regnal name Shalmaneser in some non-contemporary sources. Contemporary official documents from his reign exclusively refer to the king as Shalmaneser, not Ululayu, meaning that it is unlikely that the latter was ever used as an official regnal name.

Name
The name Shalmaneser, rendered by contemporaries as Salmānu-ašarēd in Assyria and Šulmānu-ašarēd in Babylonia, was only ever borne by Assyrian monarchs and never given to anyone other than a king. This suggests that it was exclusively a regnal name, assumed by Shalmaneser V, and by the four previous Assyrian kings to use the name, probably upon their accession to the position of crown prince and then more publicly after they rose to the throne itself. The name means "Salmānu is foremost", Salmānu (literally "friendly one") being a deity popular in the Middle Assyrian period and exclusively worshipped within Assyrian territory, possibly being a friendly manifestation of the Assyrian national deity  Ashur. Other interpretations of the meaning of Salmānu-ašarēd also exist, it could alternatively mean "likeness of Anu" or possibly "worshipper of fire". Shalmaneser V is unlikely to have taken the regnal name due to its actual etymological meaning, but rather due to its associations with his glorious ancestors and distant predecessors Shalmaneser I ((r. undefined – undefined)1274–1245 BC) and Shalmaneser III ((r. undefined – undefined)859–824 BC), well-known for their conquests in the lands west of the Assyrian heartland.

The modern English-language rendition of the name, 'Shalmaneser', comes from how the name appears in Hebrew in the Bible, שלמנאסר (šlmnʾsr). The Hebrew rendition has its own meaning, not the same one as the original Assyrian version: 'Shalmaneser' is derived from the Hebrew words shalem (to be whole, to make complete) and 'asar (to bind, to tie up), effectively meaning something akin to "peace in chains" or "covenant of recompense".

Shalmaneser V is also known by the name Ululayu, meaning "one who (was born) in the month Ulūlu". Several non-contemporary sources, such as the Ptolemaic Canon, the Babylonian King List and the works of later Greco-Roman historians, use this name, or a variation thereof (such as the Greek Eloulaios) in place of his actual regnal name. This has historically been interpreted as Ululayu having been a second regnal name of Shalmaneser, but while the name also appears in a handful of contemporary sources, letters sent by Shalmaneser when he was the crown prince to his father Tiglath-Pileser, these are not formal documents. There is no evidence that contemporary official documents ever referred to him as Ululayu. There is also no evidence that any other Assyrian king ever used more than one regnal name in their lifetime. Nevertheless, Shalmaneser V was evidently remembered by later generations as Ululayu, which, going by the context in which it was used, might have been his birth name.

Some sources anglicise the name Shalmaneser as Salmanasser.

Shalmaneser as crown prince
Shalmaneser V was the son and heir of Tiglath-Pileser III ((r. undefined – undefined)745–727 BC). Several letters sent by Shalmaneser to his father while Shalmaneser was still the crown prince (using the name Ululayu) are known, all beginning with the standard formula "To the king, my lord: your servant Ululayu. The best of health to the king, my lord! Assyria is well, the temples are well, all the king’s forts are well. The king, my lord, can be glad indeed". This introduction served as a routine report, telling the king that all was well in the crown prince's lands. Further contents of the letters record several activities conducted by Shalmaneser while he was crown prince, such as detaining emissaries who had passed through certain cities without his permission, and the transportation of goods. Most of his responsibilities appear to have been diplomatic in nature or related to the palace household.

Though it is clear from the letters that Shalmaneser controlled lands on behalf of his father while he was crown prince, it is not entirely clear where he was located. Though his letter on detaining the emissaries specifies that the emissaries had passed through the region of Til-Barsip and Guzana (in modern Syria), it also states that they had been detained at the more eastern site of Kubaneše, meaning that Shalmaneser may have been located close to the Assyrian heartland, rather than in the western provinces. That his letters mention that "Assyria is well" could indicate that his area of responsibility was in central Assyria. The Assyriologists Keiko Yamada and Shigeo Yamada suggested in 2017 that Shalmaneser's letters were sent at a time when Tiglath-Pileser was away on campaign and the crown prince was residing at Nimrud as regent. Yamada and Yamada noted that this was speculative and that Shalmaneser, as crown prince, is also likely to have participated in his father's campaigns.

It is possible that one of Tiglath-Pileser's inscriptions records the crown prince by the name Shalmaneser (not Ululayu), possibly indicating that he had assumed that name already during his father's reign, but the text is fragmentary and it could also be a reference to the city of Til-Barsip (called Kar-Shalmaneser by the Assyrians).

Sources, artifacts, and activities
Shalmaneser appears to have become king of both Assyria and Babylonia upon his father's death without challenges. Few contemporary sources have survived from Shalmaneser's brief reign, which makes many of his activities as king poorly known and obscure.

With the exception of a handful of inscriptions on lion-shaped weights, there are no known commemorative inscriptions confidently attributable to Shalmaneser. There is an unpublished and fragmentary brick from the city of Apqu (in modern Syria) that might be referrable to Shalmaneser, indicating some building work in that city. Shalmaneser does not appear to have conducted any large construction projects in the great cities of the Assyrian heartland, such as Assur or Nimrud, and it is plausible that he spent most of his short reign waging war.

Babylonian chronicles state that Shalmaneser became king on the 25th day of the month Tebeth, following Tiglath-Pileser's death, and that he died in the month of Tebeth in his fifth year as king, with his successor Sargon II becoming king on the 12th day of that month. The Babylonian King List records him by the name Ululayu, confirms him as reigning in Babylonia for five years, and designates him as part of the "dynasty of Baltil" (Baltil being a reference to the oldest part of the city of Assur, essentially meaning that Shalmaneser was part of the "Assyrian dynasty"). There is only a single preserved contemporary source for Shalmaneser's reign in Babylonia, a legal document concerning a disputed sale of a slave, dated to his third regnal year.

Shalmaneser's coronation month, Tebeth, was very late in the year, corresponding to December–January, meaning that it is unlikely that he undertook any significant activities in 727 BC. Very little information is provided by any of the surviving sources for events of his reign. The Assyrian Eponym Chronicle, which records significant events for each year in Assyria, is fragmentary in the period covered by Shalmaneser's reign. It is plausible that the fragmentary entry for Shalmaneser's first full year, 726 BC, states that he stayed in the Assyrian capital that year, and the preposition ana (meaning "to"), preserved three times in the Chronicle for the subsequent years, suggests that he was away on military campaigns in 725, 724 and 723 BC. No information survives from 722 BC, his last year.

The lion-shaped weights preserved with inscriptions by Shalmaneser also contain the phrase "mina of the land" (a mina being an ancient Near Eastern unit of weight), possibly meaning "mina of the land (of Assyria)", which would suggest an attempt at establishing a unified national standard of weights.

Traditionally, Assyrian kings held the office of eponym (year name) in their second regnal year, a custom that had occurred regularly up to and including Tiglath-Pileser III's reign. Shalmaneser deviated from this custom, holding the office in his fourth regnal year. The kings of the Sargonid dynasty that succeeded Shalmaneser also took the office of eponym at different points in their reigns, or not at all, which implies that Shalmaneser issued some administrative reforms that were continued and respected by succeeding kings.

Rule in Babylonia
It seems that Shalmaneser was relatively unopposed as king in Babylonia, though he appears to have faced some resistance from the Chaldean tribes in the south. A 7th century BC letter written in Aramaic records deportations of captives from Bit-Amukani by Tiglath-Pileser, from Bit-Dakkuri by Shalmaneser, from Dur-Sin by Sargon, and from kšw (reading uncertain) by Sargon's successor, Sennacherib. In 1925, the Assyriologist Daniel David Luckenbill identified a fragmentary Babylonian inscription as belonging to Shalmaneser V, by identifying the last sign in the king's name in the inscription as representing ašarēd, the last portion of Shalmaneser's name (Shalmaneser V was the only king of that name to rule Babylonia). The inscription mentions restoration work in the city of Borsippa and the conclusion of some campaign directed at rebels or enemies in the south, but it is too damaged to reveal who these enemies were. The fragmentary account in this inscription reads:

Conquest of Samaria and western wars
The city of Samaria, capital of the Kingdom of Israel, was besieged and captured by the Assyrians in the 720s BC. The city's fall ended the Kingdom of Israel, which became the Assyrian province of Samerina. On the aftermath of the conquest, nearly thirty thousand people were deported and resettled across the Assyrian Empire, as per the standard Assyrian way of dealing with defeated enemy peoples through resettlement. This specific resettlement is the basis of the narrative of the Ten Lost Tribes. There exists some debate as to whether the Assyrian king who captured Samaria was Shalmaneser V or Sargon II. Both the Babylonian Chronicle and the Bible (2 Kings 17:3–6 and 18:9–11) clearly ascribe the city's conquest to Shalmaneser (the Bible records a siege lasting three years), but Sargon claims in several of his inscriptions that he was the one who conquered it. Various explanations have been proposed for the contradiction. The popular history author Susan Wise Bauer wrote in 2007 that Sargon might have finished the siege, which had been slow, inefficient and still ongoing at the time of Shalmaneser's death. Keiko Yamada and Shigeo Yamada wrote in 2017 that the explicit attribution of the city's capture to Shalmaneser by both the Babylonians and the Bible means that it is likely that the event took place in his reign. Their reconstruction of events place the beginning of the siege in 725 or 724 BC, and its resolution in 722 BC near the end of Shalmaneser's reign, and believe that Sargon's inscriptions relating to Samaria may be referencing another incident in which Sargon was forced to put down a large revolt in Syria, which involved the population of Samaria. If this hypothesis of two conquests is accepted, it is unclear which king was responsible for most of the resettlements, though it is clear from surviving inscriptions that Sargon took responsibility for it. The siege of Samaria was perceived by contemporaries as the most important event of Shalmaneser's time, as indicated by it being the only event mentioned of his reign in the Babylonian Chronicle, possibly partly because of its distance from Assyria.

In addition to his war against the Israelites, Shalmaneser is known to have undertaken other campaigns in the west. The 1st century AD Romano-Jewish historian Josephus records a campaign by the Assyrian king Eloulaios against the coastal cities of Phoenicia. The 2nd century BC Greek historian Menander of Ephesus records a five-year siege of Tyre as part of an Assyrian war in Phoenicia, probably taking place during Shalmaneser's reign. If the siege lasted for five years, it must have been unresolved by the time of Shalmaneser's death, with Sargon II possibly abandoning the hostile policy against the city after becoming king. Shalmaneser is also known to have warred against the kingdom of Tabal in Anatolia, as Sargon mentions in his inscriptions that his "predecessor" defeated and deported the Tabalian king Hullî to Assyria. It is plausible that Shalmaneser annexed certain territories between Tabal and the Assyrian heartland as part of his western wars. The lands of Samʾal (in northern Syria) and Que (in Cilicia) are recorded as tributary states in Tiglath-Pileser's reign but as integrated Assyrian provinces in Sargon's reign.

Deposition and death
Shalmaneser was deposed in 722 BC and replaced as king by Sargon II. The exact circumstances surrounding the struggle for the throne are not clear, but were likely violent. An awkward succession is clearly indicated by the fact that out of all of Sargon's numerous preserved inscriptions, only a single one mentions Shalmaneser's fate in any detail, recording him as a godless tyrant who robbed Assur, Assyria's ceremonial center, of its traditional rights and privileges:

This inscription serves more to explain Sargon's rise to the throne than to explain Shalmaneser's downfall. As attested in other inscriptions, Sargon did not see the injustices described as actually having been imposed by Shalmaneser V. Other inscriptions by Sargon state that the tax exemptions of important cities like Assur and Harran had been revoked "in ancient times" and the compulsory work described would have been conducted in the reign of Tiglath-Pileser, not Shalmaneser.

Unless Shalmaneser somehow fled Assyria and took refuge in one of the surrounding enemy states (which there is no evidence for), it can be assumed that he was killed upon his deposition. The exact nature of his demise can not be determined. The entry for 722 BC in the Eponym Chronicle is too fragmentary to read, and the Babylonian Chronicle only describes Shalmaneser's end as "the fate", an expression that refers to death, but not through any specific (i.e. natural/violent etc.) means. It seems clear from surviving sources that Sargon's rise to throne was opposed by a significant faction of Assyrians who supported either Shalmaneser or his rightful heir-apparent. This is based on Sargon's inscriptions recording the king in his early reign as dealing with over six thousand "guilty Assyrians" through resettlement. Sargon's rule was also challenged in Babylonia, where the Chaldean chief Marduk-apla-iddina II seized the throne.

In later Assyrian king lists, Sargon was designated as the son of Tiglath-Pileser (and thus Shalmaneser's brother), but that claim does not appear in Sargon's own inscriptions, where he is instead described as being called upon and personally appointed as king by Ashur. The idea that he was Tiglath-Pileser's son is accepted by many modern historians, though treated with considerable caution, but he is not believed to have been the legitimate heir and next-in-line after Shalmaneser. Some Assyriologists, such as J. A. Brinkman, believe that Sargon, at the very least, did not belong to the direct dynastic lineage. References as late as the 670s BC, during the reign of Sargon II's grandson Esarhaddon, to the possibility that "descendants of former royalty" might try to seize the throne suggests that the Sargonid dynasty founded by Sargon was not necessarily well connected to previous Assyrian monarchs. Babylonian king lists dynastically separate Sargon and his descendants from Tiglath-Pileser and Shalmaneser V: Tiglath-Pileser and Shalmaneser are recorded as of the "dynasty of Baltil", whereas the Sargonids are recorded as of the "dynasty of Ḫanigalbat", possibly connecting them to an ancient Middle Assyrian junior branch of the Assyrian royal family who governed as viceroys in the western parts of the Assyrian Empire with the title "king of Hanigalbat". If Sargon was unrelated to Shalmaneser and a completely non-dynastic usurper, the deposition and death of Shalmaneser marked the end of the Adaside dynasty, which had ruled Assyria for nearly a thousand years, since the accession of Bel-bani in the 17th century BC.

Shalmaneser's queen
The name of Shalmaneser V's wife and queen was Banitu. Her tomb was discovered in excavations at the Northwest Palace at Nimrud in 1988–1989, alongside a tablet with a funerary inscription. Curiously, the tomb contained two female skeletons but objects in the grave are attributed to three queens: Iabâ (queen of Tiglath-Pileser III), Banitu (queen of Shalmaneser V), and Atalia (queen of Sargon II). Among the various objects, a bronze cosmetic container and a golden bowl are attributed to Banitu. The most common assumption by historians is that the two bodies in the grave are those of Iabâ and Atalia, since the funerary inscription only records the name of Iabâ (the original owner of the grave) and the latest inscribed objects are attributed to Atalia. Since the inscription also includes a curse against any who disturbed the tomb, but Atalia was buried there anyway, it is possible that Atalia and Iabâ were closely related, Atalia perhaps being Iabâ's daughter. It would then be possible that the objects inscribed with Banitu's name actually belonged to Atalia, who had inherited them from the previous queen.

In 2008, the Assyriologist Stephanie Dalley proposed the alternative idea that Iabâ and Banitu were the same person, and that the name Iabâ (based on ascribing it a West Semitic origin and translating it into "beautiful") was translated into Akkadian as "Banitu". Dalley's proposal, since accepted by several prominent Assyriologists, such as Eckhart Frahm and Sarah C. Melville, implies that Iabâ would have been relatively young at the end of Tiglath-Pileser's reign (and thus not have been Shalmaneser's mother) and would then have been married by Shalmaneser after his father's death. There is another example of two successive kings sharing a queen; in the ninth century BC, Mullissu-mukannišat-Ninua is recorded as the queen of both Ashurnasirpal II and his successor Shalmaneser III, though it is not clear if she actually married Shalmaneser III or just retained the title. The equation of Iabâ with Banitu cannot be proven with certainty, as the etymological origin (possibly Arabic rather than West-Semitic) and meaning of "Iabâ" cannot be conclusively proven, and the name Banitu could just as likely be derived from the Akkadian word bānītu ("[divine] creatress") as banītu ("beautiful"). The hypothesis of equating the two is based solely on the possible similarity in the names, with no explicit evidence having been found.

In 2013, the Assyriologist David Kertai questioned the equation of Banitu and Iabâ, on a chronological basis. Examinations of the skeletons found in the tomb revealed that both women died at the age of about 30–35 and that their deaths were separated by 20–50 years. Based on this data, and the speculation that Banitu had to have died during Shalmaneser's short reign, and that Atalia died before Sargon II built his palace at Dur-Sharrukin in 707 BC (since she is not mentioned in the reliefs there), Kertai concluded that Banitu and Iabâ were two different women and that Iabâ (then possibly Shalmaneser's mother) must have died during Tiglath-Pileser's reign. The Assyriologist Saana Svärd defended the equation in 2015, stating that it was possible that Atalia died during the reign of Sargon II's successor Sennacherib and was buried in the same grave as Banitu, 20–50 years after the prior burial. Though chronological difficulties can thus be explained away, Keiko Yamada and Shigeo Yamada questioned in 2017 if it was truly likely that the queen of Sargon II would have been buried in the same grave as the queen of Shalmaneser V, who had been deposed and killed by Sargon II.

Siblings and children
If Sargon II was also a son of Tiglath-Pileser III, and thus Shalmaneser V's brother, the two had at least one more sibling, since Sargon's royal inscriptions speak of a brother called Sin-ahu-usur, who is attested during Sargon's reign as an "equal brother" and the "great vizier". Sin-ahu-usur is also known to have participated in some of Sargon's military campaigns, attested as present on one of his wars against Urartu in the north.

The commonly accepted hypothesis that Sargon II was not the legitimate heir of Shalmaneser V implies the existence of more legitimate heirs. In 2017, Keiko Yamada and Shigeo Yamada suggested that the palace official Ashur-dain-aplu was one of Shalmaneser V's sons. Ashur-dain-aplu is identified in a letter as the "son of Shalmaneser", meaning either Shalmaneser III or Shalmaneser V (as the name was only ever used by Assyrian kings and Shalmaneser IV was childless). There are other references to a son of Shalmaneser III by this name, but they are unlikely to be the same person as Ashur-dain-aplu seems supportive of the king (whereas Shalmaneser III's son by that name was a rebel). Additionally, official correspondence of the letter's type is rare from the time of Shalmaneser III but more common from the times of later kings. The letter was found at Nineveh, not made the Assyrian capital until the reign of Sennacherib, long after Shalmaneser III's death but just a few decades after Shalmaneser V's death. If he was Shalmaneser V's son, Ashur-dain-aplu through some means survived the turmoil and chaos at the end of his father's reign and even managed to continue his political career, holding prominent palace positions possibly as late as the reign of Esarhaddon ((r. undefined – undefined)681–669 BC), Sennacherib's successor.

Titles
If Luckenbill's 1925 identification of the fragmentary Babylonian inscription representing an inscription by Shalmaneser V is correct, the king used the following titulature in that inscription:

title: Shalmaneser V


text:
Republican Labour Party

The Republican Labour Party (RLP) was a political party in Northern Ireland. It was founded in 1964, with two MPs at Stormont, Harry Diamond and Gerry Fitt. They had previously been the sole Northern Ireland representatives of the Socialist Republican Party and the Irish Labour Party respectively, so a common joke was that "two one-man parties had become one two-man party". Fitt won the West Belfast seat in the UK general election of 1966, and held it in the 1970 election.

In August 1970, Fitt founded the Social Democratic and Labour Party, and he and Senator Paddy Wilson were expelled from the RLP by a vote of 52 to 1. Paddy Kennedy was elected as the new party leader. He formally withdrew from Parliament in 1971, and adopted a more strongly Irish republican stance, agreeing to attend a conference organised by William Whitelaw only if he could bring Irish Republican Army members as part of his delegation.

The party was wiped out in both the 1973 elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly and the 1973 local elections and as a result was disbanded.

title: Republican Labour Party


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Worshipful Society of Apothecaries

The Worshipful Society of Apothecaries of London is one of the livery companies of the City of London. It is one of the largest livery companies (with over 1,600 members in 2012) and ranks 58th in their order of precedence.

The society is a member of the London Museums of Health & Medicine and its guild church is the Church of St Andrew-by-the-Wardrobe. The Society's modern roles include educational, charitable and social activities, in addition to supporting the City of London, its governance and the Lord Mayor of the City of London.

History
Prior to the foundation of the Society in 1617, London apothecaries were in the Grocers' Company (founded 1345, and whose trade was described in 1365 as the "Mistery of Grossers, Pepperers and Apothecaries"). In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Grocers, Pepperers, Spicers and Apothecaries were the trades constituting the Fraternity of St Anthony. Before that, apothecaries had been Spicer-Apothecaries or Spicers since the 12th century.

Having sought autonomy for many years, the apothecaries finally separated from the Grocers' Company on 6 December 1617 when they were granted a royal charter by James I. During the remainder of the 17th century its members (including Nicholas Culpeper) challenged the College of Physicians members' monopoly of practising medicine. In 1704, the House of Lords overturned a ruling of the Queen's Bench in the Rose case, which effectively gave apothecaries the right to practice medicine, meaning that apothecaries may be viewed as forerunners of present-day general (medical) practitioners or family physicians.

The Apothecaries Act 1815 gave the Society the power to license and regulate medical practitioners throughout England and Wales. The Society retained this role as a member of the United Examining Board until 1999; the Society could license doctors thereafter, but did so rarely since the dissolution of the United Examining Board.

Amongst the notable people who qualified in medicine as a Licentiate of the Society (LSA) were the poet John Keats (1816), Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (1865, thereby becoming the first openly female recipient of a UK medical qualification) and Nobel Prize winner Sir Ronald Ross (1881).

The Society throughout its history has been a pioneer in the nurturing of medical specialist knowledge, including for general medical practice, obstetrics, occupational medicine, public health medicine, legal & forensic medicine and GU medicine, through its qualifications and educational programmes.

The Apothecaries' Garden, established in 1673 by the Society to grow plants to be used as medicines, still exists as the Chelsea Physic Garden.

Motto and arms

The society was granted Arms by William Camden (Clarenceux) on 12 December 1617, less than a week after receiving its royal charter; the efficiency possibly indicating some planning of the break from the Grocers' Company. The society was not as speedy in settling its bill from the College of Arms however, as payment for the grant was not directed by the court until April 1620. Described in the blazon of the society's grant of arms of 1617 as "the inventor of physic" (i.e. medicine), Apollo is depicted in the coat of arms with his head radiant, overcoming pestilence which is represented pictorially by a wyvern (a "serpent" in the blazon). Apollo was the father of Asclepius and therefore grandfather of Hygeia (goddess of health, cleanliness, and sanitation), Panacea (goddess of universal health), Iaso (goddess of recuperation from illness), Aceso (goddess of the healing process) and Aglaea (the goddess of beauty, splendor, glory, magnificence and adornment). His usual attributes are a bow and arrow.

The society motto – which, unusually, is specified in the blazon of the Grant of Arms and is therefore immutable – is Opiferque Per Orbem Dicor, a Latin part-quotation from Ovid referring to the Greek deity Apollo, meaning: "and throughout the world [I am] called [the bringer of] help". The full quotation, from the first book of Metamorphoses (Daphne and Apollo), which describes what Apollo says when he and Daphne are struck by Cupid's arrows but Daphne flees from him (Cupid – whose power had been doubted by Apollo – shot a golden arrow at Apollo but a leaden one at Daphne). This puts the motto in context and makes it particularly relevant to apothecaries:

The society's supporters are golden unicorns, and its crest is a rhinoceros. The unicorns may have been a compliment to James I, and the horns of unicorns and of the rhinoceros are reputed to be of medical use. The illustration of the crest in the Grant is based on Dürer's 1515 depiction of a rhinoceros, an animal which he had never seen but which he drew from a description, the dorsal horn may have been intended to be on the dorsum of its nose, rather than on the animal's back.

The illustration in the original grant of arms accords the society the helmet of a peer (noble), and the text specifies the red/white mantling usually associated with a peer. This is specific and unusual, although it is not unique (peers' helmets are also borne with some apparent authority by the Fishmongers', Goldsmiths' and Clockmakers' companies).

The use of the term society rather than the usual company is purely traditional, though – the charter and grant themselves use both terms, as do grants to other City companies (including the Bowyers, Framework Knitters and Fanmakers).

Apothecaries' Hall

The Society is based at Apothecaries' Hall in Blackfriars, London. The building, originally part of the Dominican priory of Black Friars, was called Cobham House prior to its purchase by the society in 1632.

Much of the original building was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666, including the Friary guesthouse, which constituted most of it, although part of the 13th-century buildings remain, including a 9 m portion of the walls, now incorporated into the north range of the hall courtyard. A new hall was built on the same site and completed in 1672 to the design of Edward Jerman; an "elaboratory" was included at this time for the first-ever large-scale manufacture of drugs. From then until 1922, the society manufactured medicinal and pharmaceutical products at their hall, and sold some of their products from a retail outlet opening onto Water Lane (now Blackfriars Lane). Many were to supply clients who included the navy, army, the East India Company and the Crown Colonies.

A major restoration and building programme was carried out in the 1780s, which included the stucco facing in the courtyard and new west and south ranges. The Hall's appearance has altered little since even though it saw renovation in the 1980s.

The hall is the oldest standing livery hall of the city, with the first-floor structure and arrangement of the Great Hall, Court Room and Parlour remaining as rebuilt between 1668 and 1670.

Education, history, and qualifications
In addition to providing qualifications in, and regulation of, the trade of the apothecary and dispensing, the Apothecaries' Society offered primary medical qualifications until 1999. This began after the Apothecaries Act 1815 (55 Geo. 3. c. 194), followed by further acts of Parliament. The title of the original licence was Licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries (LSA).

When the General Medical Council was established by statute in 1858, the LSA became a registrable qualification. From 1885, the examination included surgery, obstetrics and gynaecology, which were required by law following the Medical Act 1886 (49 & 50 Vict. c. 48), and in 1907 the title was altered by act of Parliament to LMSSA to reflect this. The society ceased to be recognised by the General Medical Council as a provider of primary medical qualifications in 2008, although it had rarely issued any licences since 1999, the year the United Examining Board was abolished.

Notable people who qualified in medicine as a Licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries (LSA) include the poet John Keats (1816), Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (1865, thereby becoming the first openly female recipient of a UK medical qualification) and Nobel Prize winner Sir Ronald Ross KCB FRS (1881).

Between the Apothecaries Act 1815 and 1998, the society also set the qualifying examination for Apothecaries' Assistants or Dispensers. Agatha Christie sat this exam in 1917, studying for which is likely to have served her well in her description of more than 80 poisonings in her books.

Since 1928, when the society instituted the first postgraduate qualification in Midwifery (the Mastery of Midwifery, MMSA), the Apothecaries have pioneered 15 further such diplomas in specialist subjects not offered by the universities, medical royal colleges or any other medical body. This includes the diploma in the Forensic and Clinical Aspects of Sexual Assault (2009–14), the administration of which was taken up by the Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine in 2014.

Thus, the society's innovation may be seen to have nurtured the recognition and establishment in the UK of pharmacy and medical specialisms (and the subsequent founding of their specialist royal colleges and faculties) including for General Practice, Obstetrics & Gynaecology, Occupational Medicine, Public Health Medicine, and Forensic & Legal Medicine.

The Society currently awards postgraduate diplomas in the following fields (with year of establishment):

 * Medical jurisprudence (1962)
 * History of medicine (1970)
 * GenitoUrinary medicine (1973)
 * Philosophy of medicine (1978)
 * Medical care of catastrophes (1994)
 * Forensic medical sciences (1998)
 * HIV medicine (2002)
 * Tropical Medicine & Hygiene (2024)

In addition to this professional qualifications role, the present-day Society also sponsors students and lecturers at UK Medical and Pharmacy Schools, and organises courses and public lectures through two faculties: the Faculty of the History and Philosophy of Medicine and Pharmacy and the Faculty of Conflict and Catastrophe Medicine.

Events and lectures

The Apothecaries have active event calendars for members, friends and the public. The Apothecaries' building is open each year to the public during Open House Day. The Apothecaries host lectures and dinners organised for the Society or for the Faculties. The Faculty of Conflict and Catastrophe Medicine hold two lectures each year which are open to the public: the Audrey Few Lecture and the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Lecture. The Faculty of the History and Philosophy of Medicine and Pharmacy hosts several eponymous lectures throughout the year. The lectures in this series are named after persons significant to the Apothecaries' Society and medicine in general: Monckton Copeman, Geoffrey Flavell, John Locke, Osler, Sydenham, Sir Hans Sloane, and Gideon de Laune. The Livery Committee organises regular events for members of the Society.

Archive
The Society of Apothecaries operates an Archive which is referred to as 'The Collection' on their website. In 2002, the Archive received Heritage Lottery funding. Today the Archive is active with a "Friends of the Archives" group and a number of events throughout the year. Many people use it to make enquiries regarding family history, the history of the Apothecaries' Society and other historical activities.

Due to its historical holdings, the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries is a member of The London Museums of Health & Medicine group.

Members and structure

At least 80% of the membership of the Society are required to be medical practitioners, and at least 85% must be medically qualified or registered pharmacists. In fact, the membership is predominantly made up of prominent physicians (rather than surgeons who, for historical reasons, are more likely to be members of the Barbers' Company).

The members of the Society are (in descending rank):

 * The Master
 * Two Wardens (The "Senior Warden" and "Junior Warden")
 * 21 Assistants (and a small number of Assistants emeriti)
 * Liverymen (Full members of the Society, all of whom are Freemen of the City of London. Liverymen are in two classes, "guardant" and "couchant".)
 * Freemen (most of whom are "Yeomen")
 * Apprentices (not technically members of the Society)

The Master, Wardens and Assistants together constitute the "Court" which is the governing body of the Society.

Members of the Court wear dark-blue gowns with gold facings. The Master and Wardens have chains of office and particular traditional robes – the Master's trimmed with musquash, the wardens' trimmed with fitch. Liverymen are "clothed" upon attaining that rank (modernly with a solicitor's-type black robe and a blue/cream epitoge). The Society's only truly academic dress were:

 * for the Master of Midwifery qualification (MMSA – ceased in 1963), a light-blue lambskin-faced robe with a blue/white epitoge
 * a dark-blue gown with blue/gold facings for the Licentiate (LMSSA)

The chief operating officer of the Society is its Clerk and the hall is managed by the Beadle. The Clerk wears a black solicitor's gown trimmed with blue ribbons, and the Beadle's robe is decorated with miniature hanging rosettes.

Other roles in the society include the Dean (a senior member who oversees the educational functions), the Registrar (who directs the examinations' department), the Curator, and the Presidents of the Faculties.

Chelsea Physic Garden

The Society of Apothecaries is perhaps best known generally for its foundation in 1673 of the Chelsea Physic Garden, London, one of Europe's oldest botanical gardens and the second oldest in Britain. After Sir Hans Sloane granted the society rights to the manor of Chelsea, the four-acre (16,000 m²) garden became the richest collection of medicinal plants in Europe under the direction of Philip Miller. Its seed exchange programme, originally initiated with the Leiden Botanical Garden, led to cotton being planted for the first time in the Colony of Georgia.

Jealously guarded during the Society's tenure, in 1983 the garden became a charity and opened to the public for the first time.

The garden is a member of the London Museums of Health & Medicine. It is also Grade I listed in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England by English Heritage.

title: Worshipful Society of Apothecaries


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EMG

EMG may refer to:

Medicine and science

 * Electromyography, a technique for evaluating and recording electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles
 * Exponentially modified Gaussian distribution, in probability theory
 * Ɱ, or emg, a symbol used to transcribe a specific sound in the International Phonetic Alphabet

Organisations

 * East Mediterranean Gas Company, an Egyptian pipeline company
 * EMG, Inc., an American guitar pickup manufacturer
 * E.M.G. Hand-Made Gramophones, a British gramophone manufacturer
 * Escape Media Group, Inc., owner of Grooveshark
 * Essential Media Group, former name of EQ Media Group
 * Euclid Media Group, an American media company
 * Executive Music Group, an American record label

Other

 * Eastern Mewahang language
 * European Masters Games

title: EMG


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Édouard Estaunié

Édouard Estaunié (4 February 1862 in Dijon – 2 April 1942 in Paris) was a French novelist. Estaunié trained as a scientist and engineer, working at the Post and Telegraph service and training further in Holland, before turning to the novel in 1891. In 1904, he devised the word "telecommunication" in his Traité pratique de télécommunication électrique. He was elected to the Académie française in 1923. He was also a reviewer, critic, and homme de lettres as well as a novelist.

Biography
Estaunié was born on 4 February 1862 in Dijon. His first novels, Un simple and Bonne Dame, published in 1891, were naturalistic works about provincial mores. Many of his works were set in the provinces, especially in Burgundy. His next novel, L'Empreinte (1896), a satire of life at a Jesuit college, was based on his own education and reflected Estaunié's anticlerical views.

After his first three works, Estaunié's novels began to focus on everything that is silenced and unspoken in his characters' lives. In this period, spiritual phenomena, such as "the soul, the 'secret life', and solitude", were "the dominating realities in Estaunié's universe"

In 1908, his novel La Vie secrète won the Prix Femina.

He was elected to the Académie française on 15 November 1923, taking the chair formerly occupied by Alfred Capus. He was also the president of the Société des gens de lettres between 1926 and 1929.

Estaunié died on 1 April 1942, in Paris, two months after his 80th birthday.

Novels

 * Un simple (1891)
 * Bonne Dame (1891)
 * L'Empreinte (1896)
 * Le Ferment (1899)
 * L'Épave (1891)
 * La Vie secrète (prix Femina, 1908)
 * Les choses voient (1913)
 * Solitudes (stories, 1917)
 * L'ascension de M. Baslèvre (1920)
 * L'appel de la route (1921). Translated by Ezra Pound in 1923 as The Call of the Road
 * L'infirme aux mains de lumière (1923)
 * Tels qu'ils furent (1927)
 * Madame Clapain (1932)

Scientific works

 * Les sources de l'énergie électrique (1895)
 * Traité pratique de télécommunication électrique (télégraphie, téléphonie) (1904)

Works about Estaunié

 * Daniel-Rops: Édouard Estaunié, Librairie Félix Alcar, 1931.
 * John Charpentier et Francis Ambrière, Estaunié, Paris, Firmin Didot, coll. « Visages Contemporains » ( no 4), 1932.
 * Camille Cé, Regards sur l’œuvre d'Édouard Estaunié, Genève, Droz, 1977.
 * Georges Cesbron, Edouard Estaunié, romancier de l'être, Paris, Droz, 1977.
 * Ruth Eunice Carter Hok, Édouard Estaunié : The Perplexed Positivist, N.Y., King's Crown Press, 1949.

title: Édouard Estaunié


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Cooper Industries

Cooper Industries was an American worldwide electrical products manufacturer headquartered in Houston, Texas. Founded in 1833, the company had seven operating divisions including Bussmann electrical and electronic fuses; Crouse-Hinds and CEAG explosion-proof electrical equipment; Halo and Metalux lighting fixtures; and Kyle and McGraw-Edison power systems products.

In 2011, 59% of total sales were to customers in the industrial and utility end-markets and 40% of total sales were to customers outside the United States. Cooper has manufacturing facilities in 23 countries as of 2011.

On November 26, 2012, it was announced that the company will be replaced in the S&P 500 index, since its takeover by Eaton Corporation.

History
Cooper Industries was founded in 1833 by brothers Charles and Elias Cooper. The company started as a foundry located in Mt. Vernon, Ohio, and was initially called the C&E Cooper Company. Cooper's initial product offerings included plows, hog troughs, kettles and stoves. By the mid-nineteenth century the company was concentrating on steam engines.

As the use of steam power declined in the late 1800s, Cooper again shifted its focus, this time to gas engine technology. By the time the 20th century arrived, Cooper Industries had become the American leader in pipeline compression engines, products that enabled the development of the growing oil and gas industry. This period was also highlighted by a merger with Bessemer Gas Engine Company, yielding Cooper-Bessemer.

In the 1940s, Cooper-Bessemer played a role in the U.S. World War II effort, supplying engine components that powered almost all of the ships in the Navy's minesweeper fleet, as well as the famous Liberty Ships, which carried 75% of the cargo used by Allied armed forces. After the war, Cooper-Bessemer again embarked on an effort to diversify itself in a changing world economy.

As the company looked to increase its product portfolio, Cooper expanded its offering into electrical products, electrical power equipment, automotive products, tools and hardware. A detailed history of the expansion in the 1950s through early 1980s is given in Keller 1983, a history commissioned by the company for its 150th anniversary. Acquisitions in the 1980s included Crouse-Hinds (1981) and McGraw-Edison (1985).

In the last decade of the 20th century, Cooper underwent a period of portfolio rationalization, reducing its exposure to more cyclical industries such as automotive and petroleum. Ultimately, Cooper emerged focused on the two business segments that remain in the portfolio today – Electrical Products Group and Energy and Safety Solutions. On May 23, 2002, Cooper Industries Inc had completed reincorporation in Bermuda from Ohio.

In February 2008, Cooper Industries announced its acquisition of MTL Instruments Group. On November 30, 2012, Eaton announced its completion of acquisition of Cooper Industries.

In March 2020, Eaton announced the sale of its lighting business to Signify N.V., the company that was formed from the spin-off of Philips' lighting division

Divisions
Cooper Industries was acquired by Eaton Corporation in 2012. The divisions are undergoing name changes as a result.

Cooper Lighting Solutions
Cooper Lighting Solutions manufactures lighting fixtures and related products to worldwide commercial, industrial, residential and utility markets. This includes track and recessed lighting (LED, fluorescent, H.I.D.), exit and emergency, vandal-resistant, landscape and complex environment lighting. Cooper Lighting Solutions manufactures lighting fixtures under several brands, many of which were the result of acquisitions. These brands include:
 * Corelite
 * Fail-Safe
 * Halo
 * IRiS
 * Lumark
 * McGraw-Edison
 * Metalux
 * Neo-Ray
 * Portfolio
 * RSA
 * Sure-Lites
 * Shaper
 * Streetworks

Eaton's B-line Business
Eaton's B-Line Business (formerly Cooper B-Line) is a global provider of support systems and enclosure solutions for engineered facility subsystem applications in various markets: commercial, industrial, utility and OEM.

Eaton's Bussmann Business
Eaton's Bussmann Business (formerly Cooper Bussmann) manufactures and markets a wide variety of North American and European-styled fuses for the electrical, electronics and transportation industries. The company also produces industrial and mobile wireless solutions, plus inductors and transformers for power quality in electronics applications. Bussmann's main industrial manufacturing facilities are located in the United States (Black Mountain and Goldsboro NC, Chicago IL, Ellisville MO, Boca Raton FL), in Mexico (Juarez and Mexico City), in UK (Workington and Burton-on-the-Wolds), in Hungary (Győr), Xi’an (China), India (Pondicherry), Costa Rica (San Jose), Brazil (Itu).

Business Units
 * Electrical - Serving infrastructure, automation, renewable energy and transportation/high reliability
 * Electronics - Serving renewable energy, automation and transportation/high reliability, computers, communications and consumer
 * Transportation - Serving hybrid/electric vehicles, traction
 * Wireless - Serving transportation, heavy duty/off-road, and industrial
 * Consumer - Serving automotive aftermarket and hardware/home center

Eaton's Cooper Safety Business
Eaton's Cooper Safety Business (formerly Cooper Safety) specializes in notification, alarm and safety systems. This includes emergency lighting, fire detection and alarm systems, hazardous area communications, life safety notifications, mains lighting and security systems. Cooper notification acquired Wheelock inc. In 2006.

Eaton's Cooper Wiring Devices Business
Eaton's Cooper Wiring Devices Business (formerly Cooper Wiring Devices) works closely with Eaton's Cooper Lighting Business. The company has acquired well known brands like Eagle Electric, Arrow Hart, ArrowLink, RhinoBox, Aspire, Aspire RF, and MediaSync. The companies products include cable assemblies, data connectors for military, home and commercial, lighting switches, outlets, receptacles, subsea wiring and communications ports.

Eaton's Cooper Power Systems Business
Eaton's Cooper Power Systems Business (formerly Cooper Power Systems) a subsidiary of Cooper Industries is a global manufacturer and provider of power delivery apparatus for the utility, commercial, and industrial markets in the medium voltage and high voltage ranges.

The company provides products and services required to transform, protect, connect, and build out an electric power system backbone. Reliability and grid-point solutions include: Integrated Volt/Var Control (IVVC), feeder, and substation automation systems. Endpoint solutions include: Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) and Demand Response (DR). Additionally the company provides engineering optimization and modeling tools.

Eaton's Crouse-Hinds Business
Eaton's Crouse-Hinds Business (formerly Cooper Crouse-Hinds) specializes in explosion proof and hazardous environments

Apex Tool Group
Apex Tool Group was formed in July 2010 as a joint venture of two manufacturers, Danaher Tool Group and the Cooper Hand Tools division of Cooper Industries. The two businesses offer industrial, commercial, and do-it-yourself customers a selection of over 30 leading brands, including Crescent, GearWrench, Armstrong, and Weller.

In October 2012, Danaher Corporation and Cooper Industries sold the Apex Tool Group to Bain Capital for a fee of around $1.6 billion.

Cooper Industries CEOs

 * Charles Cooper 1833-1895 (chairman from 1895 incorporation to his death in 1901)
 * Frank L. Fairchild 1895-1912
 * Charles Gray "C.G." Cooper 1912-1919 (chairman to 1922)
 * Desault B. Kirk 1919-1920
 * Beatty B. Williams 1920-1940 and 1941-1943 (chairman 1940-1956)
 * Charles B. Jahnke 1940-1941
 * Gordon Lefebvre 1943-1955
 * Lawrence F. Williams 1955-1957 (chairman 1956-1959)
 * Eugene L. Miller 1957-1975 (chairman 1971-1983)
 * Robert Cizik 1975-1995 (chairman 1983-1996)
 * H. John Riley Jr. 1995-2005 (chairman 1996-2006)
 * Kirk S. Hachigian 2005- 2012

title: Cooper Industries


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Rothesay

Rothesay (Baile Bhòid ) is the principal town on the Isle of Bute, in the council area of Argyll and Bute, Scotland. It lies along the coast of the Firth of Clyde. It can be reached by ferry from Wemyss Bay, which offers an onward rail link to Glasgow. At the centre of the town is the 13th-century ruin Rothesay Castle, unique in Scotland for its circular plan.

Etymology
In modern Scottish Gaelic, Rothesay is known as Baile Bhòid, meaning 'town of Bute'. The English-language name, which was written as Rothersay in 1321, Rosay around 1400, and Rothissaye around 1500, originally referred to the castle. Since the castle was surrounded by a moat connected to the sea, the name may have originally meant 'Rother's Isle' (the Old Norse suffix -ey means "isle"), or it may be an alteration of the Gaelic word rath, meaning 'fort'.

History
The old town centred on Rothesay Castle, which was built in the 13th century. The castle has long stood in ruins, but it is nevertheless picturesque, and was a focal point for tourists as soon the town began developing into a seaside resort.

Rothesay was the county town in the civil parish of Rothesay, which was located in the former county of Bute. The county historically included the islands of Great Cumbrae, Little Cumbrae and Arran. Rothesay Town Hall and County Buildings overlooks the castle.

During the Victorian era, Rothesay became a popular tourist destination. In particular, it was hugely popular with Glaswegians going "doon the watter" (literally “down the water” – a reference to the waters of the Firth of Clyde). Its wooden pier was busy with steamer traffic. It was home to one of Scotland's many hydropathic establishments, which were in vogue at the time. It also had an electric tramway, the Rothesay and Ettrick Bay Light Railway, which ran across the whole island of Bute and carried passengers to one of the island's largest beaches (the tramway closed in the mid-1930s).

A war memorial designed by Pilkington Jackson was erected in 1922. The Winter Gardens building, erected in 1923, was a centre of many activities in Rothesay in the mid-20th century, hosting some of the best-known music hall entertainers of the day. Rothesay Pavilion, opened in 1938, was another popular attraction. It was an example of International Modernist style architecture, and was designed by the Ayr architect, James Andrew Carrick. Although it later fell into disrepair, it remains a major landmark on the seafront today, and is currently undergoing a complete restoration.

During World War II, Rothesay Bay was the home port of HMS Cyclops (F31), which was the depot ship for the 7th Submarine Flotilla and the training facility for virtually all the British submariners who served during the war. In 1941 and 1942, the Officer Concentration Station Rothesay was also located here.

By the 1960s, Rothesay's heyday as a tourist mecca had largely ended. Inexpensive foreign package holidays had become more popular with UK residents. The Winter Gardens building was closed and lay in disuse for decades. However, it was redeveloped in the 1990s, and is now open as a tourist information and exhibition centre.

Duke of Rothesay
The heir to the British throne (currently William, Prince of Wales) is known in Scotland as the Duke of Rothesay. This practice was begun in the late 14th century by Robert III of Scotland, who regularly resided at Rothesay Castle, and first granted the title to his son David in 1398. At that time, the name Rothesay referred to the whole island of Bute, rather than to the town (which was known as Bute-town). The island of Bute (along with the island of Arran) was under the control of Robert III because he had inherited it from his Stewart ancestors. They had owned it ever since King Alexander III of Scotland (having received it from Norway under the Treaty of Perth of 1266) assigned it to Robert III's great-grandfather, Alexander Stewart. The two islands were privately owned by the Stewart family until Robert II (Alexander Stewart's grandson and Robert III's father) inherited the throne from his mother, after which the islands became the property of the Crown.

Once Robert III had conferred this title on his son, the title continued to be given to every heir of the Scottish throne thereafter. Following the Union of the Crowns in 1603, the heir to the British throne was always also formally considered “heir to the Scottish throne” and so acquired the title.

Unlike the title's English equivalent (Duke of Cornwall), the title Duke of Rothesay does not come with any land attached to it in the form of a Duchy. That is because control of the land was instead given to Robert III's half-brother and to the latter's descendants, who acquired the title Marquess of Bute in the 18th century. The current marquess remains the main landlord of the island; his principal seat, Mount Stuart, lies a few miles to the south of Rothesay Castle.

Modern times
Rothesay was granted a multimillion-pound harbour development project just in time for the arrival of the next generation of lower-firth ferries MV Argyle and MV Bute.

In August 2018, the Donald Campbell Bluebird hydroplane held trials on Loch Fad. It was the first time the vehicle had been in the water since it was recovered from Coniston Water in the Lake District after the 1967 accident in which Campbell was killed.

Culture
Rothesay has hosted the National Mòd twice: in 1908 and 1952.

Sport
The most successful sporting club on the island is the Bute Shinty Club, which has competed at the highest level of the sport (the Marine Harvest Premier League). The Bute club was promoted to the Premier League in 2006 by winning the South Division One competition. It is also a multiple-time winner of the Balliemore Cup.

The town has an amateur football club, Rothesay Brandane A.F.C. (nicknamed "The Danes". ) It was founded in 1946. They played in the Scottish Amateur Football League starting in 1947, reached the semi-final of the Scottish Amateur Cup in 1948–49, and won the league in both the 1963–64 and 2000–01 seasons. In 2004, they transferred into the Caledonian Amateur Football League Division 2, and, having won promotion after the 2007–08 season, they currently play in Division 1. They also had a youth team for ages 15 and under, called the Rothesay Brandane Rovers. (In the 19th century, the town had a different football club called the Bute Rangers F.C., which competed for the Scottish Cup.)

The Bute County Cricket Club plays in the Western District Cricket Union Championship.

The island has three golf courses: the 18-hole Rothesay Golf Club is on the outskirts of the town; the 9-hole Bute Golf Course is near the sands of Stravannan Bay on the west coast of the island; and the rather unusual 13-hole Port Bannatyne Golf Club sits on the hills behind the town. There are also two putting greens on the town's seafront.

The town hosts the High School of Glasgow rugby camp every summer.

For bowling enthusiasts, Bute boasts four greens: Ardbeg, Craigmore, Kingarth and Rothesay. The oldest of them, the Rothesay Bowling Club, was established in the 1860s. The Bute Bowling Association runs many local club competitions. It also runs an open tournament each August, in which both ladies and gentlemen may compete; as of 2014, that tournament was in its 57th year.

Education
Rothesay currently has three primary schools: St Andrews Primary School, Rothesay Primary School, and North Bute Primary School. It has one secondary school, Rothesay Academy. In 2007, a Rothesay Primary and Rothesay Academy formed a joint campus school, and the building that previously housed Rothesay Academy was closed.

Notable people

 * Prof Eleanor Campbell FRSE FRS FRSC FInstP: scientist (physical chemistry)
 * Nathanael Chalmers: explorer
 * Johnny Dumfries: former Formula One racing driver and Marquess of Bute
 * Andrew Blain Baird : Aviation pioneer
 * Thomas Gillies: New Zealand lawyer, judge and politician
 * Angela Haggerty: journalist and social commentator
 * George Leslie: colourist painter
 * Ian Jenkins: politician
 * Ashley Lilley: actor (Ali in Mamma Mia)
 * Sir William Macewen: pioneer in brain surgery
 * Sheina Marshall: zoologist
 * Troy Kennedy Martin: writer of Z-Cars
 * Jim McAlister: footballer (Greenock Morton F.C., Dundee F.C. and Blackpool F.C.)
 * John McIndoe: printer
 * Billy McIsaac: keyboardist for Slik, PVC2, and the Zones
 * Peter Monie: civil servant
 * Jane Ross: Scottish international footballer; reserve forward for Team GB's squad at the London 2012 Olympic Games
 * Prof Martin Smellie FRSE (1927-1988): biochemist
 * John Tiffin Stewart: civil engineer
 * Matthew Stewart: mathematician
 * John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute: First Scottish Prime Minister of Great Britain (buried in St Mary's Chapel, Rothesay).
 * John McLean Thompson: botanist
 * Sir Graham Watson: Liberal Democrat politician; member of the European Parliament
 * Lena Zavaroni: singer; child star

Climate
Like the rest of Scotland — and the British Isles in general - Rothesay has a maritime climate, with cool summers and mild winters. Because of its island location, the risk of severe frost is mitigated by the surrounding waters. Temperatures can range from as high as 28.5 C (recorded in August 1975), to as low as -8.4 C (recorded in January 1982).

title: Rothesay


text:
Prix des Deux Magots

The Prix des Deux Magots is a major French literary prize. It is presented to new works, and is generally awarded to works that are more off-beat and less conventional than those that receive the more mainstream Prix Goncourt.

The name derives from the extant Parisian café "Les Deux Magots", which began as a drapery store in 1813, taking its name from a popular play of the time, "The two figurines of China". It housed a wine merchant in the 19th century, and was refurbished in 1914 into a café.

Winners

 * 1933: Raymond Queneau Le Chiendent
 * 1934: Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes Monsieur Jean ou l'Amour absolu
 * 1935: Jacques Baron Charbon de Mer
 * 1936: Michel Matveev Étrange Famille
 * 1937: Georges Pillement Plaisir d'Amour
 * 1938: Pierre Jean Launay Léonie la Bienheureuse
 * 1941: J. M. Aimot Nos mitrailleuses n'ont pas tiré
 * 1942: Olivier Séchan Les Corps ont soif
 * 1944: Jean Milo L'Esprit de famille
 * 1946: Jean Loubes Le Regret de Paris
 * 1947: Paule Malardot L'Amour aux deux visages
 * 1948: Yves Malartic Au Pays du Bon Dieu
 * 1949: Christian Coffinet Autour de Chérubine
 * 1950: Antoine Blondin L'Europe buissonnière
 * 1951: Jean Masarès Le Pélican dans le désert
 * 1952: René-Jean Clot Le Poil de la Bête
 * 1953: Albert Simonin Touchez pas au grisbi
 * 1954: Claude Cariguel S
 * 1955: Pauline Réage Histoire d'O
 * 1956: René Hardy Amère Victoire
 * 1957: Willy de Spens Grain de Beauté
 * 1958: Michel Cournot Le Premier Spectateur
 * 1959: Henri-François Rey La Fête Espagnole
 * 1960: Bernard-G. Landry Aide-mémoire pour Cécile
 * 1961: Bernard Jourdan Saint-Picoussin
 * 1962: Loys Masson Le notaire des noirs
 * 1963: Jean Gilbert (writer) L'Enfant et le Harnais
 * 1964: Clément Lépidis La Rose de Büyükada
 * 1965: Fernand Pouillon Les Pierres sauvages
 * 1966: Michel Bataille Une Pyramide sur la mer
 * 1967: Solange Fasquelle L'Air de Venise
 * 1968: Guy Sajer Le soldat oublié
 * 1969: Elvire de Brissac A Pleur-Joie
 * 1970: Roland Topor Joko fête son anniversaire
 * 1971: Bernard Frank Un siècle débordé
 * 1972: Alain Chedanne Shit, Man
 * 1973: Michel del Castillo Le Vent de la nuit
 * 1974: André Hardellet Les Chasseurs Deux
 * 1975: Geneviève Dormann Le Bateau du courrier
 * 1976: François Coupry Mille pattes sans tête
 * 1977: Inès Cagnati Génie la folle
 * 1978: Sébastien Japrisot L'Eté meurtrier
 * 1979: Catherine Rihoit  Le bal des débutantes
 * 1980: Roger Garaudy L'appel des vivants
 * 1981: Raymond Abellio Sol Invictus
 * 1982: François Weyergans Macaire le Copte
 * 1983: Michel Haas La dernière mise à mort
 * 1984: Jean Vautrin Patchwork
 * 1985: Arthur Silent Mémoires minuscules
 * 1986: Éric Deschodt Eugénie les larmes aux yeux and Michel Breitman Témoin de poussière
 * 1987: Gilles Lapouge La bataille de Wagram
 * 1988: Henri Anger  La mille et unième rue
 * 1989: Marc Lambron L'impromptu de Madrid
 * 1990: Olivier Frébourg, Roger Nimier
 * 1991: Jean-Jacques Pauvert, Sade
 * 1992: Bruno Racine, Au péril de la mer
 * 1993: Christian Bobin, Le Très-Bas
 * 1994: Christophe Bataille, Annam
 * 1995: Pierre Charras, Monsieur Henry
 * 1996: Éric Neuhoff, Barbe à Papa
 * 1997: Ève de Castro, Nous serons comme des Dieux
 * 1998: Daniel Rondeau, Alexandrie and Éric Faye Je suis le gardien du phare
 * 1999: Marc Dugain, La Chambre des officiers
 * 2000: Philippe Hermann, La vraie joie
 * 2001: François Bizot, Le Portail
 * 2002: Jean-Luc Coatalem, Je suis dans les mers du Sud
 * 2003: Michka Assayas, Exhibition
 * 2004: Adrien Goetz, La Dormeuse de Naples
 * 2005: Gérard Oberlé, Retour à Zornhof
 * 2006: Jean-Claude Pirotte, Une adolescence en Gueldre
 * 2007: Stéphane Audeguy, Fils unique
 * 2008: Dominique Barbéris, Quelque chose à cacher
 * 2009: Bruno de Cessole, L'heure de la fermeture dans les jardins d'Occident
 * 2010: Bernard Chapuis, Le Rêve entouré d'eau
 * 2011: Anthony Palou, Fruits & légumes
 * 2012: Michel Crépu, Le Souvenir du monde
 * 2013: Pauline Dreyfus, Immortel, enfin
 * 2014: Étienne de Montety, La Route du salut
 * 2015: Serge Joncour, L'Écrivain national
 * 2016: Pierre Adrian, La Piste Pasolini
 * 2017: Kéthévane Davrichewy, L'Autre Joseph
 * 2018: Julie Wolkenstein, Les vacances
 * 2019: Emmanuel de Waresquiel, Le Temps de s'en apercevoir
 * 2020: Jérôme Garcin, Le Dernier Hiver du Cid
 * 2021: Emmanuel Ruben, Sabre
 * 2022: Louis-Henri de La Rochefoucauld, Châteaux de Sable

title: Prix des Deux Magots


text:
Michael Lau

Michael Lau (born 1970) is an artist from Hong Kong who is known for his painting, sculpture and designer toy figures. Lau is widely credited as the founder of the urban vinyl style within the designer toy movement. His work has had a significant effect on toy manufacturers, as well as street culture, including artists and musicians, throughout the world. His style is particularly influential to Asian and American hip-hop and skateboarding culture. Lau has won several awards for his work, including four from the Hong Kong-based Philippe Charriol Foundation.

Career
Known as the “Godfather of the Designer Toys”, Michael Lau Kin-man 劉建文 (b.1970) is an acclaimed Hong Kong artist born in the 1970s when the city was at the peak of industrialization and exported various kinds of toys to leading chain stores around the world. Every toy was a rare treasure to young Michael and played a key role in his childhood. His growing passion for toys eventually led him to a career in toy design where he conceived as a form of art.

After graduating from the First Institute of Art and Design in Hong Kong in 1992, Michael held his first solo painting exhibition at the Pao Galleries of the Hong Kong Arts Centre in the following year. In 1999, Lau merged his creativity and passion in art, toy and action figure and created the “Gardener” series that juxtaposed his favorite G.I. Joe action figures and street culture. A total of 99 12-inch action figures was featured in his solo exhibition held at the Hong Kong Arts Centre. His unique artistic expression in action figures and remarkable achievements garnered global attention and brought him the opportunity to showcase his works in different cities in Japan, the Museum of Contemporary Art in Taipei, London and Paris, leading the global trend of collectible designer toys as an independent artist.

Additionally, Michael Lau has been seen as the godfather of urban vinyl, being largely recognized as the pioneer who launched the trend in the 90s. He was prominently featured in the article “20 Trends Sweeping the Globe” by Forbes Magazine in the January 2008 issue.

In recent years, Michael Lau has returned to his roots in painting. In 2016, his painting Wall of Jordan was presented by Christie's and was auctioned off for charity for a total sum of HKD$1,375,000. Michael's practice focuses not on one particular media but rather, utilizes diverse styles and techniques that he has experimented with over the years.

At Lau's exhibition titled 'Collect them All!' at Christie's Hong Kong in 2018, with over 20 years in the creative field and as someone named as Godfather of the Designer and Art toy movement, Michael Lau has declared "All art are toys, all toys are art." As Michael believes that a meaningful collection should not be assessed based on its monetary value, but should more importantly evoke feelings of nostalgia and sentiment. A prized collection allows one to delve into memories of the past, provides consolation in times of emptiness, and enriches and elevates the spirit. Michael believes that in the eyes of the collector objects – whether they be paintings, jewelry, watches, sneakers, or furniture – have an ability to provide emotional value, in the same way that toys can provoke wonder and curiosity. Lau's further his exploration on the notion with his second 'Collect them All!' exhibition at Christie's Shanghai in 2019 following the success from the Hong Kong show.

title: Michael Lau


text:
Raymond Abellio

Georges Soulès (11 November 1907 – 26 August 1986), known by his pen name Raymond Abellio, was a French writer.

Life
Abellio went to the École Polytechnique and then took part in the X-Crise Group. He advocated far-left ideas, but like many other technocrats, he joined the Vichy regime during the Second World War and became in 1942 secretary general of Eugène Deloncle's far-right Mouvement Social Révolutionnaire (MSR) party. He then participated in Marcel Déat's attempt of creating a unified Collaborationist party. In April and September 1943 he participated in the Days of the Mont-Dore, an assembly of collaborationist personalities under the patronage of Philippe Pétain. After the Liberation, he was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment in absentia for Collaborationism, and escaped to Switzerland. However, he was pardoned in 1952 and went on to start a literary career.

Besides his literary career, under the influence of Pierre de Combas, he developed an interest in esoterism, and especially astrology. He was also interested in the possibility of a secret numerical code in the Bible, a subject that he developed in La Bible, document chiffré in 1950, and later in Introduction à une théorie des nombres bibliques, in 1984. He proposed in particular that the number of the beast, 666, was the key number of life, a manifestation of the holy trinity on all possible levels, material, animist and spiritual. He has also written on the philosophy of rugby football.

Beginning in 1974 he edited the Recherches avancées book series for Fayard.

Works

 * with André Mahé La Fin du nihilisme - 1943 (signed under his actual name, Georges Soulès)
 * Heureux les pacifiques - 1946
 * Les yeux d'Ézéchiel sont ouverts - 1949
 * Vers un nouveau prophétisme : essai sur le rôle politique du sacré et la situation de Lucifer dans le monde moderne - 1950
 * La Bible, document chiffré : essai sur la restitution des clefs de la science numérale secrète. Tome 1. Clefs générales - 1950
 * La Bible, document chiffré : essai sur la restitution des clefs de la science numérale secrète. Tome 2. Les Séphiroth et les 5 premiers versets de la Genèse - 1950
 * Assomption de l'Europe -1954
 * with Paul Sérant Au seuil de l'ésotérisme : précédé de : l'Esprit moderne et la tradition - 1955
 * La fosse de Babel - 1962
 * La Structure absolue - 1965
 * Hommages à Robert Brasillach - 1965
 * Guénon, oui. Mais... in Planète n°15, April 1970
 * La Fin de l'Ésotérisme - 1973
 * Sol Invictus - 1981 (winner of the Prix des Deux-Magots)
 * Montségur - 1982
 * Visages immobiles - 1983
 * Introduction à une théorie des nombres bibliques - 1984
 * Manifeste de la nouvelle Gnose - 1989 (edited by Marie-Thérèse de Brosses and Charles Hirsch)
 * Fondements d'éthique - 1994

title: Raymond Abellio


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Space Missions/Sandbox

''This is the sandbox to try different styles for WikiProject Space Missions. Feel free to mess around a little, but please make sure to let us know what you did and why in the summary of changes.''

Vostok 1

Vostok 1 was the first manned space mission. Launched on April 12, 1961, Vostok 1 took Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into space, the first time anyone had ever journeyed beyond the Earth's atmosphere and the first time anyone went into orbit.

Gagarin orbited the Earth one time in 108 minutes and returned unharmed, ejecting from the Vostok capsule 7 km above the ground and parachuting separately to the ground (the capsule's parachute landing was too rough for cosmonauts to risk it at the time).

The re-entry capsule is now on display at the RKK Energia Museum in Kaluga.

Vostok is Russian for East.

Apollo 16

Apollo 16 was the tenth manned mission in the Apollo program and the fifth mission to land on the moon.

The crew members: John W. Young, commander; Ken Mattingly, command module pilot; and Charles Duke, lunar module pilot. It was a J-class mission, featuring Lunar Rover. It brought back 94.7 kg of lunar samples. It included three lunar EVA: 7.2 hours, 7.4 hours, 5.7 hours and one trans-earth EVA of 1.4. This was the only the second trans-earth EVA ever and was used to bring in film from exterior cameras and open an experiment on microbial survival.

Soyuz TMA-2

Soyuz TMA-2 (Russian Союз ТМА-2, Alliance TMA-2) is a Russian spaceflight mission to the International Space Station, the second flight for the TMA modification of the Soyuz spacecraft, and the 6th Soyuz to fly to the ISS.

The commander is Yuri Ivanovich Malenchenko (Russia), and flight engineer Edward Tsang Lu (USA), and after docking with the ISS they exchanged with the resident crew on ISS and became the seventh station crew, called "ISS Expedition Seven". As backup crew Alexander Kaleri and Michael Foale stood by.

Originally the Soyuz missions to the ISS were all planned to be only taxi mission to deliver a new Soyuz spacecraft as the station's lifeboat every six month with a visiting crew, but not for crew exchange. Until the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster the same was planned for Soyuz TMA-2, a visiting crew consisting of commander Gennadi Padalka and ESA-astronaut Pedro Duque were to spend about one week at the station and then return with the previous Soyuz TMA-1 spacecraft. The third seat might have gone to the Chilean Klaus von Storch as a space tourist, but even before the Columbia disaster it looked like his flight would not happen, and the seat would go to the Russian cosmonaut Oleg Kotov or to deliver freight to the station.

During his stay on the station, Malenchenko became the first person to get married in space. His bride was in Texas where long distance marriages are legal.

The spacecraft returned to Earth on October 28, with both the "Expedition 7" crew as well as Pedro Duque on board. Duque was launched with Soyuz TMA-3 and spend only one week on board of the ISS.


text:
Free association (psychology)

Free association is the expression (as by speaking or writing) of the content of consciousness without censorship as an aid in gaining access to unconscious processes. The technique is used in psychoanalysis (and also in psychodynamic theory) which was originally devised by Sigmund Freud out of the hypnotic method of his mentor and colleague, Josef Breuer.

Freud described it as such: "The importance of free association is that the patients spoke for themselves, rather than repeating the ideas of the analyst; they work through their own material, rather than parroting another's suggestions".

Origins
Freud developed the technique as an alternative to hypnosis, because he perceived the latter as subjected to more fallibility, and because patients could recover and comprehend crucial memories while fully conscious. However, Freud felt that despite a subject's effort to remember, a certain resistance kept him or her from the most painful and important memories. He eventually came to the view that certain items were completely repressed, cordoned off and relegated only to the unconscious realm of the mind. The new technique was also encouraged by his experiences with "Miss Elisabeth", one of his early clients who protested against interruptions of her flow of thought, that was described by his official biographer Ernest Jones as "one of the countless examples of a patient's furthering the physician's work".

"There can be no exact date for the discovery of the 'free association' method... it developed very gradually between 1892 and 1895, becoming steadily refined and purified from the adjutants - hypnosis, suggestion, pressing, and questioning - that accompanied it at its inception".

Subsequently, in The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud cites as a precursor of free association a letter from Schiller, the letter maintaining that, "where there is a creative mind, Reason - so it seems to me - relaxes its watch upon the gates, and the ideas rush in pell-mell". Freud would later also mention as a possible influence an essay by Ludwig Börne, suggesting that to foster creativity you "write down, without any falsification or hypocrisy, everything that comes into your head".

Other potential influences in the development of this technique include Husserl's version of epoche and the work of Sir Francis Galton. It has been argued that Galton is the progenitor of free association, and that Freud adopted the technique from Galton's reports published in the journal Brain, of which Freud was a subscriber. Free association also shares some features with the idea of stream of consciousness, employed by writers such as Virginia Woolf and Marcel Proust: "all stream-of-consciousness fiction is greatly dependent on the principles of free association".

Freud called free association "this fundamental technical rule of analysis... We instruct the patient to put himself into a state of quiet, unreflecting self-observation, and to report to us whatever internal observations he is able to make" - taking care not to "exclude any of them, whether on the ground that it is too disagreeable or too indiscreet to say, or that it is too unimportant or irrelevant, or that it is nonsensical and need not be said".

The psychoanalyst James Strachey (1887-1967) considered free association as 'the first instrument for the scientific examination of the human mind'.

Characteristics
In free association, psychoanalytic patients are invited to relate whatever comes into their minds during the analytic session, and not to censor their thoughts. This technique is intended to help the patient learn more about what he or she thinks and feels, in an atmosphere of non-judgmental curiosity and acceptance. Psychoanalysis assumes that people are often conflicted between their need to learn about themselves, and their (conscious or unconscious) fears of and defenses against change and self-exposure. The method of free association has no linear or preplanned agenda, but works by intuitive leaps and linkages which may lead to new personal insights and meanings: 'the logic of association is a form of unconscious thinking'.

When used in this spirit, free association is a technique in which neither therapist nor patient knows in advance exactly where the conversation will lead, but it tends to lead to material that matters very much to the patient. 'In spite of the seeming confusion and lack of connection...meanings and connections begin to appear out of the disordered skein of thoughts...some central themes'.

The goal of free association is not to unearth specific answers or memories, but to instigate a journey of co-discovery which can enhance the patient's integration of thought, feeling, agency, and selfhood.

Free association is contrasted with Freud's "Fundamental Rule" of psychoanalysis. Whereas free association is one of many techniques (along with dream interpretation and analysis of parapraxis), the fundamental rule is a pledge undertaken by the client. Freud used the following analogy to describe free association to his clients: "Act as though, for instance, you were a traveler sitting next to the window of a railway carriage and describing to someone inside the carriage the changing views which you see outside." The fundamental rule is something the client agrees to at the beginning of analysis, and it is an underlying oath that is intended to continue throughout analysis: the client must promise to be honest in every respect. The pledge to the fundamental rule was articulated by Freud: "Finally, never forget that you have promised to be absolutely honest, and never leave anything out because, for some reason or other, it is unpleasant to tell it."

Freudian approach
Freud's eventual practice of psychoanalysis focused not so much on the recall of these memories as on the internal mental conflicts which kept them buried deep within the mind. However, the technique of free association still plays a role today in therapeutic practice and in the study of the mind.

The use of free association was intended to help discover notions that a patient had developed, initially, at an unconscious level, including:
 * Transference - unwittingly transferring feelings about one person to become applied to another person;
 * Projection - projecting internal feelings or motives, instead ascribing them to other things or people;
 * Resistance - holding a mental block against remembering or accepting some events or ideas.

The mental conflicts were analyzed from the viewpoint that the patients, initially, did not understand how such feelings were occurring at a subconscious level, hidden inside their minds. 'It is free association within language that is the key to representing the prohibited and forbidden desire...to access unconscious affective memory'.

Jung
Jung and his Zurich colleagues 'devised some ingenious association tests which confirmed Freud's conclusions about the way in which emotional factors may interfere with recollection': they were published in 1906. As Freud himself put it, 'in this manner Bleuler and Jung built the first bridge from experimental psychology to psychoanalysis'.

Ferenczi
Freud, at least initially, saw free association as a relatively accessible method for patients. Ferenczi disagreed, with the famous aphorism: 'The patient is not cured by free-associating, he is cured when he can free-associate'.

Lacan
Lacan took up the point. 'Free association is really a labour - so much so that some have gone so far as to say that it requires an apprenticeship, even to the point of seeing in such an apprenticeship its true formative value'.

20th century
By the late twentieth century, 'analysts today don't expect the free-association process to take hold until well into the analysis; in fact, some regard the appearance of true free association as a signal to terminate the analysis'.

As time went on, other psychologists created tests that exemplified Freud's idea of free association including Rorschach's Inkblot Test and The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) by Christina Morgan and Henry of Harvard University. Although Rorschach's test has been met with significant criticism over the years, the TAT is still used today, especially with children.

Robert Langs helped to bring Freud's earliest work back to the forefront, which depended on free association and insight rather than decoding by the psychotherapist.

Criticism
As object relations theory came to place more emphasis on the patient/analyst relationship, and less on the reconstruction of the past, so too did the criticism emerge that Freud never quite freed himself from some use of pressure. For example, 'he still advocated the "fundamental rule" of free association...[which] could have the effect of bullying the patient, as if to say: "If you do not associate freely - we have ways of making you"'.

A further problem may be that, 'through overproduction, the freedom it offers sometimes becomes a form of resistance to any form of interpretation'.

Some studies suggest a lack of relevance or validity of this method.

Coda
Adam Phillips suggests that 'the radical nature of Freud's project is clear if one imagines what it would be like to live in a world in which everyone was able - had the capacity - to free-associate, to say whatever came into their mind at any given moment...like a collage'.

title: Free association (psychology)