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Theodora (wife of Theophilos)

Theodora (Greek: Θεοδώρα; c. 815 – c. 867), sometimes called Theodora the Armenian or Theodora the Blessed, was Byzantine empress as the wife of Byzantine emperor Theophilos from 830 to 842 and regent for the couple's young son Michael III, after the death of Theophilos, from 842 to 856. She is sometimes counted as an empress regnant, exercising power in her own right, rather than just a regent. Theodora is most famous for bringing an end to the second Byzantine Iconoclasm (814–843), an act for which she is recognized as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Though her reign saw the loss of most of Sicily and failure to retake Crete, Theodora's foreign policy was otherwise highly successful; by 856, the Byzantine Empire had gained the upper hand over both the Bulgarian Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate, and the Slavic tribes in the Peloponnese had been forced to pay tribute, all without decreasing the imperial gold reserve.

Possibly of Armenian descent, Theodora was born into a rural family of traders and military officials in Paphlagonia. In 830 she was selected by Euphrosyne, step-mother of the emperor Theophilos, as a candidate in a bride-show for the young emperor. After being chosen by Theophilos she was crowned empress on 5 June 830. Theophilos was an iconoclast, who opposed the veneration of icons; it is unclear how aware he was that Theodora was an iconophile. The couple had seven children and Theodora was a loyal participant in imperial affairs and ceremonies, but she continued to secretly venerate icons throughout her husband's reign. Theophilos died of dysentery on 20 January 842, probably younger than 30. On his deathbed, he named Theodora as regent for their two-year-old son Michael III and designated a selection of advisors to assist her. The most prominent of these advisors was the logothete and eunuch Theoktistos, who would become a close confidant of Theodora.

Theodora proved to be fully capable of governing the empire. Though only in her late twenties, she led well and inspired loyalty, was surrounded by experienced officials, and had no obvious rivals. The reintroduction of icon veneration was made without much issue, though the Paulician heretics in eastern Anatolia were ruthlessly suppressed on Theodora's orders. Without the need of much military action, she managed to safeguard the empire from attacks by the Bulgarian rulers Presian and Boris I through diplomacy. The Byzantine sack of the city of Anazarbus in Cilicia largely ended the Arab threat for the near future. As Michael III grew older, he feared that Theodora meant to follow in the footsteps of Empress Irene and depose him in order to rule alone. Angered by Theodora's refusal to allow him to choose his own wife, Michael recalled her brother Bardas from exile, and with him assassinated Theoktistos in November 855. Theodora was enraged at Michael and the other conspirators for several months, before Michael, who was unable to placate his mother, deposed her on 15 March 856 and became sole emperor. Theodora continued to live in the imperial palace until 857 or 858, when she was expelled and confined to a convent in Gastria alongside some of her daughters. She may have been released from the convent around 863 and allowed to take some form of ceremonial role. She died shortly after Michael III was murdered by his friend and co-emperor, Basil I.

Background and early life
Theodora was born c. 815, in Ebissa, Paphlagonia. She was the daughter of the droungarios and tourmarches Marinos, who died at some point before 830, and Theoktiste Phlorina. Theodora had five siblings: brothers Bardas and Petronas and sisters Sophia, Maria and Irene. Irene might later have married the prominent general Theophobos.

Theodora's rural Paphlagonian family is generally believed to have been of Armenian descent, although no contemporary sources describe her as being Armenian. Though a link between Theodora's family and the Armenian noble clan of the Mamikonian has been suggested in the past, there are not enough sources to prove such a connection. In any event, Theodora's family associated with certain Armenian families in the capital. She was the niece of Manuel the Armenian, a prominent Byzantine general who in 819/820 briefly commanded all five of the empire's Asian provinces. It is possible that the family was involved in trade on the Black Sea, as they owned ships used for commerce. It is not clear whether Theodora's family, with the exception of Manuel, were well connected or well established prior to her becoming empress.

Selection and marriage
In 830, Euphrosyne, the step-mother of Emperor Theophilos, held a bride-show for the young emperor, handpicking a selection of young women after having sent out officials to gather the most beautiful and well-born women of the provinces. Theophilos was born in 812/813 and had been crowned co-emperor by his father Michael II in 821, becoming the senior emperor in 829 after his father's death. He was an iconoclast (against the veneration of icons), given that the empire had returned to Iconoclasm under his father's predecessor, Leo V.

Theophilos was eager for a bride and made the affair into a spectacle, assembling the women in a newly erected and splendid hall in the imperial palace. In the end, Theophilos chose Theodora, and indicated his choice by giving her a golden apple. According to the later chronicler Symeon Logothete, Theophilos had at first been struck by the beauty of another girl, Kassia (later a prominent poet and composer), and cynically said to her that "through a woman, evils came to man" (referring to Eve). This comment, deemed by Judith Herrin to have been an "unfortunate way to engage a future wife's affections", prompted Kassia to reply "through a woman, better things began" (referring to the Virgin Mary). Taken aback by Kassia's bold retort, Theophilos passed her by and gave the apple to Theodora. According to Warren Treadgold, Theodora was "beautiful, sensible and adaptable, and suited him well; but Theophilus seems to initially not have realized that his bride, like Euphrosyne, was an iconophile". Theodora was crowned empress in the Church of St Stephen in Daphne on 5 June 830 and the couple were then married in the Hagia Sophia.

Activities as empress consort
After her coronation, Theodora donated 15 lb of gold each to the patriarch of Constantinople and the clergy, and 50 lb to the Byzantine Senate. Much of Theodora's time as empress consort was spent giving birth to and caring for her children. Theophilos and Theodora had seven children: the sons Constantine and Michael (the future emperor Michael III) and the daughters Thekla, Anna, Anastasia, Pulcheria and Maria. Constantine, briefly co-emperor, drowned in a palace cistern at the age of two. Unlike many emperors, Theophilos took great pride in his daughters. Thekla, Anna and Anastasia were the eldest children, and were all proclaimed Augustae in the late 830s and commemorated on a highly unusual issue of coins, depicting Theophilos, Theodora and Thekla on the obverse (forward facing side) and Anna and Anastasia on the reverse. Constantine was the fourth eldest, followed by Pulcheria and Maria. Michael was the couple's youngest child.

Throughout Theophilos's reign, Theodora apparently continued to secretly venerate icons despite her husband's disapproval. It is not clear to which extent she practiced these beliefs, or to what extent Theophilos was aware of them. For the most part it would have been possible for Theodora to keep the icon veneration secret given the privacy of the female quarters of the imperial palace. If he was aware, it is also not clear to what extent the differing religious convictions divided them on a personal level. At one point she succeeded in convincing her husband to release the imprisoned iconophile painter Lazarus Zographos. Relations between the emperor and empress were not always good. In 839, Theophilos was discovered to have begun an affair with one of Theodora's attendants, which the empress took badly and made public. Theophilos broke off the affair, apologized to his wife, and as part of his apologies constructed a new palace, the Karianos, for their daughters. According to a possibly invented account, the couple also had a falling out after Theophilos spotted a fine merchant ship in the harbor, asked who it belonged to, and was informed that it belonged to his wife. Deeming merchant activities to be incompatible with imperial life, Theophilos exclaimed "What! Has my wife made me, an emperor, into a merchant?" and immediately had the ship and its cargo burnt.

Theodora's icon veneration sometimes led to conflict with her husband. She often sent their daughters to the monastery where Euphrosyne had retired to after 830. There, unbeknownst to Theophilos, the daughters were taught to venerate icons. Though the older daughters were smart and kept quiet of this, the younger daughter Pulcheria, about two years old, told her father in the middle of 839 of the "beautiful dolls" kept in a box in the monastery and how they would pull them to their faces and kiss them. Furious, Theophilos forbade his daughters from seeing Euphrosyne again and might also have forced Euphrosyne to leave the monastery. In any event, Theodora's and Euphrosyne's secret iconophile teachings had already been successful; none of Theophilos's and Theodora's children grew up to become iconoclasts. Theodora celebrated various public ceremonies together with her husband. Though she had barely witnessed such ceremonies before becoming empress, there is no evidence that she ever erred in her actions, perhaps she was helped by Euphrosyne. Theodora also took part in celebrations of her husband's military achievements, appearing together with Theophilos at triumphs in 831 and 837, and hosting a special reception for the emperor and his generals at Hieria after his first military victory. After about twelve years on the throne, Theophilos died of dysentery on 20 January 842, probably younger than 30. On his deathbed, Theophilos had delivered an eloquent speech to his courtiers and officials, imploring them to defend the rights of his wife and their two-year-old son Michael III.

Rule
Just as had happened after the death of emperor Leo IV in 780, Theophilos's death in 842 meant that an iconoclast emperor was succeeded by his iconophile wife and their underage son. Unlike Leo IV's wife Irene, who later ended up deposing her son Constantine VI and ruling as empress in her own right, Theodora was not as ruthless and did not need to use as drastic methods to retain power. Though she was only in her late twenties, she had several able and loyal advisors and was a capable leader who inspired loyalty. Theodora never remarried, which allowed her to maintain her own independence and authority.

Among Theodora's most prominent advisors and supporters were her brothers Bardas and Petronas, her close relative Sergios Niketiates, as well as the logothete and eunuch Theoktistos. Most of her advisors were, like her, iconophiles, though some (including Theoktistos) had been iconoclasts up until recently. Theoktistos and possibly Bardas had been appointed to assist Theodora by Theophilos shortly before his death. Theophilos also appointed Manuel, Theodora's uncle, to assist her, but he might already have been dead by this point. Theophilos may have been felt it important to appoint such experienced officials to assist Theodora due to the previous reign of Irene. There is no evidence to suggest that he did so because of Theodora's religious convictions. Shortly after becoming senior ruler, Theodora was criticized by an ascetic holy man by the name of Symeon, to whom she is said to have responded "Since you have reached this conclusion, depart from me. For as I received and learned from my spouse and husband, I will rule with a firm hand. You will see."

The extent of Theodora's power is somewhat debated in modern scholarship. The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1991) recognizes her as empress regnant 842–856 but also states that Theoktistos held effective power throughout Theodora's reign. Per J. B. Bury in A History of the Eastern Roman Empire (1912), Theodora's position was very similar to that of Irene during Constantine VI's regency and the imperial government was exercised jointly by both Theodora and the underage Michael III, with actual imperial authority "devolved upon the mother provisionally". In 1825, Charles Abraham Elton counted Theodora among the monarchs of the Byzantine Empire in his History of the Roman Emperors. Several recent scholars also maintain that Theodora ruled the empire as empress regnant, not merely as regent. According to Lynda Garland, it is difficult to determine whether Theodora or Theoktistos was primarily responsible for running the empire during Michael's minority, but that one or both should be considered "remarkably successful in government". Regardless of whether he was the effective power behind the throne, or simply an advisor, it is clear that Theoktistos, a senior government official with a long and loyal history of service, contributed to and influenced imperial policy during Theodora's reign. Theodora is recorded as handling the matters of state, appointing ministers and officials and handling diplomacy with foreign powers, sending ambassadors to Bulgaria, the Abbasid Caliphate and the Papacy. Coins issued in the first year of Theodora's reign show, significantly, Theodora (not Michael III) alone on the obverse and omit the other regents. Michael III and Thekla, the eldest daughter, are depicted on the reverse. Theodora is the only one given a title on these coins (she is titled Theodora despoina). Thus, she is clearly depicted as the senior ruler. These coins served to establish Theodora's own authority as ruler, and associate the young heirs. The coins also associate her eldest daughter (who is depicted more prominently than Michael) with imperial power, and show that Thekla was made co-empress alongside Michael. An imperial seal, also from the early years of her reign, gives not only Michael but also Theodora and Thekla the title "Emperors of the Romans". Later coins tend to depict the image of Christ Pantocrator on one side and Theodora together with Michael on the other.

Restoration of icon veneration
As she had considerable support, Theodora restored the veneration of icons in March 843 at the Council of Constantinople, just fourteen months after Theophilos's death, ending the second Byzantine Iconoclasm (814–843). In order to counteract opposition and save the legacy of her husband, Theodora claimed that Theophilos had repented of Iconoclasm on his deathbed. This story also ensured that Theophilos's iconoclasm would not adversely affect Michael's reign in the future. Though religious policy would normally have been decided in conjunction with religious officials, nearly all bishops of the empire had been forced to profess Iconoclasm. As such, Theodora instead assembled a group of officials, courtiers and clerics. The most prominent members of the assembly were Theodora herself, Theoktistos, Niketiates and Theodora's two brothers; more akin to a family affair than a large council. The group met at Theoktistos's house, where they condemned Iconoclasm through accepting the Second Council of Nicaea (which in 787 had decided against Iconoclasm).

The iconoclast Patriarch of Constantinople, John VII, was deposed and replaced with the iconophile Methodios I. The entire process was conducted in relative peace, though John at first refused to leave the patriarch's residence and showed wounds on his stomach that he claimed had been inflicted by imperial guards, though they were more likely self-inflicted. John also produced issues while in exile in a monastery by the Bosporus, ordering a servant there to poke out the eyes of an icon, which prompted Theodora to order him to whipped 200 times (though she had at first wanted to blind him). Soon after becoming patriarch, Methodios had nearly every bishop in the empire deposed due to them having gone against the Second Council of Nicaea. On 11 March 843, the restoration of the icons was celebrated in a grand procession in the Hagia Sophia. The day of Theodora's assembly and restoration of the icons has been celebrated ever since as the Feast of Orthodoxy.

One symbolic action taken to mark the restoration of the icons was the desecration of the tomb of emperor Constantine V ((r. undefined – undefined)741–775), a champion of iconoclasm. His remains were removed from his tomb in the Church of the Holy Apostles and burned, with the ashes scattered so that no site would ever be associated with his burial. His tomb in the Church of the Holy Apostles was replaced with the tomb of Empress Irene, with her remains being transferred from her previous resting place on the island of Prinkipos, finally reuniting her remains with those of her husband and placing her alongside the other rulers of the empire. It is possible that Theodora admired Irene on account of her being a previous female ruler as well as a previous restorer of the icons. Irene's grave would in later years often be commemorated as the resting place of an iconophile hero. Though ordinary iconoclasm swiftly disappeared, a larger religious threat were the Paulician heretics, concentrated in eastern Anatolia. The Paulicians were dualists and also iconoclasts (as they rejected the entire material world). Shortly after restoring the icons, Theodora ordered the army to either forcefully convert, or execute, the Paulicians of the empire. Though some converted, thousands were killed and many escaped across the imperial border and were settled by Umar al-Aqta, emir of Melitene, in the empty border lands between the Abbasid Caliphate and the empire under his protection.

Foreign policy
In order to demonstrate that Orthodoxy, just as well as Iconoclasm, could win victories for the empire, Theodora later in 853 organized an expedition to retake the island of Crete, lost some decades prior to Arab conquerors. Headed by Niketiates and Theoktistos, the expedition began as a considerable success, with the invasion force successfully landing, besieging the Arab fortresses, and setting up a Theme of Crete. However, Theoktistos became concerned when he heard rumors that Theodora intended to name a new emperor, possibly her brother Bardas, and abandoned the campaign to return to Constantinople. Though these rumors were false, and Theodora very much intended to hold onto power herself, Theoktistos was unable to return to Crete since news arrived of an invasion of Asia Minor by Umar al-Aqta of Malatya. Theoktistos was sent at the head of an army to confront him, but the resulting Battle of Mauropotamos ended in a Byzantine defeat. In 854, the Arabs on Crete counterattacked and destroyed the Byzantine invasion force and killed Niketiates. The Byzantines had lost at Mauropotamos partly due to desertions to the Arabs, which Theoktistos blamed upon Bardas, and convinced Theodora to expel her brother from the court. Perhaps worried that Bardas harbored certain ambitions of his own, Theodora did not put up much resistance to the idea of exiling him. Despite his failures, Theoktistos suffered no loss in prestige himself and remained influential at the imperial court. There was no major use of the military setbacks as propaganda by iconoclasts, and the veneration of icons endured mostly unchallenged.

Save for some minor attacks and raids in the east, and larger engagements in Sicily, the empire was mostly safe from further Arab threats throughout Theodora's reign and the empire as a whole enjoyed an extended period of relative peace. In 846, Khan Presian of Bulgaria raided Macedonia and Thrace due to the expiration of a thirty-year treaty with the empire, but he was repulsed and forced to sign a new treaty. Theodora organized an expedition in 848 to attempt to retake Sicily, but it was defeated by the Arab invaders. In the summers of 851 to 854, Ali ibn Yahya al-Armani, emir of Tarsus, raided imperial territory, perhaps viewing the empire being governed by a young widow and her child as a sign of weakness. Though Ali's raids did little damage, Theodora decided to retaliate and sent raiding parties to raid the coastline of Egypt in 853 and 854. In 853, the Byzantine raiders burnt down the Egyptian city of Damietta and in 855, a Byzantine army invaded Ali's emirate and sacked the city of Anazarbus, taking 20,000 prisoners. On Theoktistos's orders, some of the prisoners who refused to convert to Christianity were executed. According to later chroniclers, these successes, particularly the sack of Anazarbus, impressed even the Arabs. Shortly after the sack of Anazarbus, Boris I of Bulgaria began making threats towards the empire as the Bulgarian treaty was once more about to expire, however, he was convinced to renew it without the need for military action. Later chronicles, probably fancifully, claimed that Theodora had threatened Boris that she would lead the Byzantine army in person against him if he invaded the empire, and that she had stated that Boris achieving victory over a female head of state would hardly be considered a great achievement.

By the end of Theodora's reign, the empire had gained the upper hand over both Bulgaria and the Abbasid Caliphate. At some point the Slavic tribes that had settled in the Peloponnese had also successfully been forced to pay tribute. Despite continuing a policy of high wages for the soldiers, instituted by Theophilos, Theodora maintained a small surplus in the imperial budget and even modestly increased the imperial gold reserves.

Fall from power
Michael III turned fifteen in 855, bringing him near the age when he could rule in his own right. According to the tradition of Simeon Logothete, he took Eudokia Ingerina as a mistress, and later married her to his co-emperor Basil I, though this narrative is challenged. Simeon's neutrality is disputed, and other contemporary sources do not speak of this conspiracy, leading several prominent Byzantists, such as Ostrogorsky and Adontz to dismiss this narrative. Whatever the case, although Theodora's reign had been highly successful, both she and Theoktistos were dissatisfied with Michael III, who neglected matters of state in preference of chariot racing, drinking and spending time with his alleged mistress Eudokia Ingerina. In the hope that marriage could perhaps steer him on the right course, Theodora organized a bride-show for her son. Though Eudokia Ingerina was allowed to be present, Theodora and Theoktistos disqualified her on account of not being a virgin. Michael was then married to Eudokia Dekapolitissa, against his will.

Annoyed by not being able to choose his own wife, Michael resolved to overthrow his mother and the regents. Michael was also concerned about unfounded rumors that Theodora planned to remarry, perhaps to Theoktistos, or marry one of Michael's sisters off to some suitable noble. These rumors, started by Bardas, further detailed that Theodora planned to retain power, elevate someone else to the throne and blind and depose Michael, following in Irene's footsteps. After years in exile, Bardas was summoned back to the capital by Michael and together they had Theoktistos assassinated in November 855. The conspiracy, which was also supported by Kalomaria (one of Theodora's sisters) and Theophanes (the chief of the wardrobe), may not originally have been intended to kill Theoktistos, and instead just to humiliate him and force him into exile. At a critical moment, however, Michael cried out to his guards to kill Theoktistos. According to the later writings of Joseph Genesius, Theodora learned of what was happening and rushed to save Theoktistos, but was scared away by one of the conspirators. Distraught at the loss of her friend and confidant, Theodora was enraged at Michael and the other conspirators for several months. She is recorded to have berated him for killing the man who had "acted as a second father to him". Unable to placate his mother, Michael proclaimed himself sole emperor on 15 March 856, formally deposing her as empress and stripping her of the rank of Augusta. The final catalyst for Theodora's deposition may have been her possibly being a part of a plot to assassinate Bardas. It is also possible that some senators wished to restore her to power, but Theodora refused. Theodora accepted the deposition, refraining from causing any of the damage that would result from a struggle for power, and retired in peace.

Later life and legacy
Theodora continued to live in the imperial palace until 857 or 858, when she and Michael's sisters were expelled and confined to a convent in Gastria, despite Patriarch Ignatios refusing to tonsure them since they were not becoming nuns willingly. Later sources record that while in exile, Theodora took pity on a number of men who came to her for protection for various reasons and helped them. It is possible that she was released around 863 and was allowed by Michael to play a ceremonial role. Perhaps she was restored as Augusta. Theodora continued to resent Bardas, who reached high offices under Michael. Around 866, she sent him a tunic that was intentionally too short for him and had a golden partridge on it, interpreted by Bardas as a sign of deceit.

Towards the end of both of their lives, Theodora and Michael reconciled. In the autumn of 867, Theodora invited Michael to a dinner on 25 September and both seemed to be taking measures to ensure that it would be an agreeable occasion. Their dinner never took place since Michael was murdered by his friend and co-emperor Basil I after a dinner on the day before. Theodora had long mistrusted Basil but had been powerless to act against him. She died c. 867, at some point after Michael's murder. The last time she is attested was at Michael's burial, when she and her daughters are recorded as having been present and weeping over his body. She was buried in the convent in Gastria.

Theodora was highly regarded by later generations and she was remembered as a formidable leader, both because of her bringing an end to Iconoclasm and her successful dealings with foreign powers. Theodora is recognized as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, commemorated on 11 February for her role in the restoration of the icons. Lynda Garland assessed Theodora as "a woman of character, who was able to exclude her brother from power without difficulty, who was not afraid to speak her mind when necessary, and who was fully capable of governing the empire".

In 2022, the Episcopal Church officially added Theodora to its liturgical calendar after four years of preliminary trial use.

title: Theodora (wife of Theophilos)


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Tricameralism

Tricameralism is the practice of having three legislative or parliamentary chambers. It is contrasted with unicameralism and bicameralism, which are both far more common.

Varieties of tricameralism
A disputed type of tricameralism is one where there are two legislative bodies, elected or appointed separately, and a third consisting of all members of the two, meeting together. In cases where this is considered tricameralism, such as the Manx Tynwald, the Indonesian People's Consultative Assembly, and the Icelandic Althing (from 1874 to 1991), there is generally an explicit, routine role for the unified house, which distinguishes it from bicameral systems where a joint sitting of the two bodies is used to resolve deadlocks or for special sessions, which is true in several parliaments including Australia, Switzerland and India. Arguments over whether tricameralism should be construed to include this or not are primarily semantic.

Less ambiguous examples in which three bodies each are chosen separately and meet and debate separately have also existed. The word could describe the Ancien Régime era French Estates-General, though similar semantic arguments are applied since it sometimes met in joint session. The South African Parliament established under the apartheid regime's 1983 constitution was tricameral, as was the Chinese 1947 Constitution and Simón Bolívar's model state. A common feature in these bodies, which also casts some doubt on the appropriateness of the name, is that in several cases one of the three legislatures is not principally concerned with legislating.

No national government is currently organized along tricameral lines.

Icelandic tricameralism
After the Icelandic Parliament was restored by royal decree in 1844, it operated unicamerally from 1845 to 1874 when it became principally bicameral with an additional third chamber, known as Unified Parliament. The third chamber consisted of the union of the other two and deliberated as a single body, which makes some scholars classify it as only a bicameral system. However, the third chamber did have its own speaker distinct from the speakers for the other two chambers:

 * Neðri deild, the Lower Chamber, was coequal to the upper chamber. Its members were elected by the electorate.
 * Efri deild, the Upper Chamber, was coequal to the lower chamber. Half its members were originally appointed by the King of Denmark and had veto power until 1915 when all its members were elected democratically.
 * Sameinað Alþingi, Unified Parliament. Its members were those of the lower and upper chambers. The third chamber originally only dealt with contentious matters but soon established its own standing committees, and starting in 1934, the third chamber had an exclusive role in amending and passing the annual budget bill. As the decades passed the third chamber took over many of the responsibilities of the lower and upper chambers.

The Icelandic Parliament followed the legislatures of Denmark and Sweden and became unicameral once more in 1991.

Indonesian tricameralism
Following amendments to the Constitution of Indonesia in the late 1990s and early 2000s, which became effective in 2004, the parliament of Indonesia has three institutions (of which one consists of the members of the other two), similar to Icelandic and Isle of Man tricameralism:

 * Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR-RI; literally People's Representative Council; officially House of Representatives), the lower house, which exercises most legislative power;
 * Dewan Perwakilan Daerah (DPD-RI; Regional Representative Council), the upper house, a consultative body responsible for laws concerning regional government, but without its own direct lawmaking powers;
 * Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (MPR-RI; People's Consultative Assembly). Its members are those of the DPR and DPD. Its only responsibilities are to amend the Constitution, to swear in the President and Vice President, to impeach the President and Vice President, and to fill Presidential and Vice Presidential vacancies between elections.

Like the Icelandic Unified Parliament, the Indonesian People's Consultative Assembly has its own speaker and deputy speakers distinct from those of the DPR and DPD.

South African tricameralism
In 1983, South Africa's apartheid government put forward a constitution providing for a tricameral legislature. On 2 November, around seventy percent of the country's White minority voted in favour of the changes – Black, Coloured and Indian South Africans were not consulted.

The South African tricameral parliament consisted of three race-based chambers:

 * House of Assembly – 178 members, reserved for White people
 * House of Representatives – 85 members, reserved for Coloured, or mixed-race, people
 * House of Delegates – 45 members, reserved for Indian people

Black South Africans, who made up a majority of the population, were considered citizens of the bantustans and received no representation.

The creation of the tricameral parliament was controversial on two fronts. On the one hand, many White conservatives disliked the idea of non-Whites participating in Parliament at all. The dispute was a factor in the creation of the Conservative Party, a breakaway from the dominant National Party. On the other hand, many Coloured and Indian people rejected the system as a sham, saying that the chambers reserved for them were powerless.

The tricameral parliament was not particularly strong. The 1983 constitution significantly weakened the powers of parliament and abolished the position of Prime Minister. Most authorities were transferred to the State President, including the power to appoint the Cabinet. This was seen by many as an attempt to limit the power of Coloureds and Indians – not only were the non-White houses less powerful than the White one, but parliament itself was subordinate to a State President who was White.

Bolívar's tricameralism
Simón Bolívar, the South American revolutionary leader, included a tricameral legislature as part of his proposals for a model government. Bolívar described the three houses as follows:

 * Chamber of Tribunes, holding powers relating to government finance, foreign affairs, and war. The tribunes would, unlike the other two houses, be popularly elected.
 * Senate, an apolitical body holding powers to enact law, supervise the judiciary, and appoint regional officials. Bolívar believed that the senate should be hereditary, saying that this was the only way to ensure its neutrality. There are parallels between Bolívar's Senate and other chambers such as the British House of Lords.
 * Censors, a group who would act as a check against the powers of the other two. Bolívar described them as "prosecuting attorneys against the government in defense of the Constitution and popular rights". He also said that they should ensure that the executive was functioning satisfactorily, perhaps having powers of impeachment.

Bolívar intended his model government to function as a parliamentary system, and so the tricameral parliament was expected to govern through the active administration of the cabinet ministers who would be accountable to it. Bolívar was explicit in many of his writings, particularly in his Message to the Congress of Angostura on how his proposed system was meant to reflect the way the British parliamentary system works. His proposal for Censors was not for them to act as legislators but rather to act as an office similar to an Ombudsman. As such, some opinions differ on whether his system could truly be classified as a tricameral parliament, considering that the Censors were not true legislators, but seemed to represent a separate branch of government altogether.

Despite Bolívar's huge influence in South America, no country in the region employs his tricameral parliament. Early attempts to implement the model, such as in Bolivia, were not successful, although the chaos of the period was likely a factor in this outcome. As a result of not adopting Bolívar's British-inspired parliamentary system, numerous celebrated political scientists like the late Juan Linz and many others have observed that the decision of many Latin American countries to model their systems of government on the presidential system of the United States has led to numerous examples of political instability and subsequent descent into dictatorship or chaos.

Monarchism
Some historians view the French States-General as an example of a tricameral legislature. The States-General gradually evolved as an advisory group for the King (including giving advice on legislation). The three States were simply labeled First (clergy), Second (nobility), and Third (commoners).

There are two distinct problems with regarding the States-General as a tricameral legislature. The States-General never had formal lawmaking powers, although it sometimes had a major role in the King's legislative activity. In addition, the tripartite arrangement was inconsistently applied, in that they would deliberate separately or jointly at various times.

Consulate
The French Consulate (and later First French Empire, when the lower two chambers had no power) had a tricameral legislature, consisting of:

 * the Sénat conservateur (Conservative Senate), the highest chamber, whose duty was to guard the Constitution, and upon the Consul's proposal, enact special laws known as sénatus-consultes;
 * the Corps législatif (Legislative Body), successor to the Directoire's Conseil des Anciens (upper house), which was to vote on laws without discussing them (after 1804, with only a strictly curtailed discussion); and
 * the Tribunat (Tribunate), successor of the Directoire's Conseil des Cinq Cents (lower house), which was to discuss laws and only vote on whether to “recommend” them to the Corps législatif.

Whether the Sénat was part of legislature, however, is open to doubt, for Sieyès (the main instigator of the Consulate's Constitution and later president of this Senate) described it as belonging to an altogether different power beyond the executive, legislative and judiciary: the conservative power. In effect, Napoléon made the Sénat a political élite to back his power as Consul and later Emperor, while the other two chambers were bent into submission. In 1807, the Tribunat was definitively abolished.

Chinese tricameralism
The 1947 Constitution of the Republic of China has three chambers of parliament that are elected. Governmental organs of the constitution follow the outline proposed by Sun Yat-sen and supported by the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party), while incorporating opinions of the federalism supporting Communist Party in the 1940s. The separation of powers was designed by Carsun Chang, a founding member of the China Democratic League.

 * National Assembly (國民大會) – Directly elected by a county. It represented the entire nation and exercised the political rights thereof. It elected the President and has the power to amend the constitution, but its legislative functions were considered “reserve powers” to be exercised only on an ad hoc basis.
 * Legislative Yuan (立法院) – Directly elected by a province. It is the principal and standing legislative body. It approves the Premier and supervises the Executive Yuan (the Cabinet).
 * Control Yuan (監察院) – Indirectly elected by provincial legislatures. It is the government performance auditing body and approves grand justices of the Judicial Yuan (the Constitutional court) and commissioners of the Examination Yuan (the Civil service commission).

As the mechanism is significantly different from the Western trias politica, the grand justices has an interpretation which ruled that these three organs all bear characteristics equivalent to a "parliament".

However, the government of the Republic of China lost the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and retreated to Taiwan. A set of temporary provisions were passed by the National Assembly to gather more powers to the President and limit the functions of the tricameral parliament. Members of the tricameral parliament elected in China in 1947 and 1948 continued serving on Taiwan without reelection until 1991.

After a series of constitutional amendments in the 1990s in Taiwan, a new set of temporary and separate Additional Articles of the Constitution changed the Legislative Yuan to a unicameral parliament, although the tricameral parliament still nominally exists. The Control Yuan was separated as a branch of government when the National Assembly was entirely shut down in June 2005.

European Union
The European Union is sometimes considered tricameral, comprising the European Parliament, the European Council, and the European Commission. However, the chambers' powers differ and the Commission arguably functions as an executive branch, making it more of a bicameral system.

Roman Republic
The Roman Republic had three legislative assemblies that worked with the Roman Senate of the patrician class. These include:

The Senate and the assemblies worked together to appoint magistrates, enact laws, and territorial holdings issues.
 * Centuriate Assembly (soldiers)
 * Plebeian Council (plebeians)
 * Tribal Assembly (patricians and plebeians)

Former Yugoslavia
The Socialist Republic of Croatia and all other federal units of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, as per the 1974 Constitution, had three houses of the Sabor Socijalističke republike Hrvatske (now the Hrvatski sabor): the Socio-Political Council (Društveno-političko vijeće); the Council of Municipalities (Vijeće općina); and the Council of Associated Labor (Vijeće udruženog rada).

This was abolished by the new constitution as Croatia gained independence in 1990.

Isle of Man
The parliament of the Isle of Man, Tynwald, is sometimes called tricameral, but this description is not universally accepted. The two branches of Tynwald are the House of Keys and the Legislative Council. The Tynwald Court consists of the members of both houses meeting together regularly, as in the Icelandic and Indonesian systems.

Some argue the Court is a third house, while those who disagree cite there are no members of the Court who are not also part of the other two houses, and thus the Court is not a separate body. Similarly, in Australia, India, and Switzerland, deadlocks between two houses can be resolved by a joint sitting. It is thus a matter of semantics whether or not such arrangements can be called “tricameral”.

In the literal sense, Tynwald is “tricameral” as it meets in three separate chambers (rooms) for its sessions.

Church of England
The General Synod of the Church of England is sometimes described as tricameral. It is divided into the House of Bishops, the House of Clergy and the House of Laity.

As the Church of England is the state church of England, the Parliament of the United Kingdom has given the General Synod power (subject to veto) to make laws concerning the Church.

Medieval Ireland
In the fifteenth century, secular clergy of each diocese sent two proctors to the Parliament of Ireland, who met separately from the House of Commons and the House of Lords. In 1537, their right to membership was revoked after they opposed the Reformation in Ireland.

Labor unions
Tricameral meeting arrangements are a growing trend in labor unions where some members will always be working on one of three shifts. Under such arrangements, each shift will have its own meeting, but the action of one meeting will have to be adopted by the other two.

Queen's University
The governing authority of Queen's University at Kingston principally follows a bicameral structure, split primarily between a Board of Trustees and a Senate, each of which has exclusive authority over non-academic and academic matters. Such arrangement is also common in several other Canadian universities, such as the University of Waterloo.

Queen's University additionally has a University Council with advisory and ceremonial functions, including appointing of the university Chancellor (a purely ceremonial role). Although the Council has no real power to govern the university, it has exclusive rights to determine its own composition and select its members, meaning it is not subordinate to the Board and/or Senate. The Council was made by the Parliament of Canada, which is thus the only body that can also dissolve it.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tricameralism


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White Light/White Heat

White Light/White Heat is the second studio album by the American rock band the Velvet Underground. Released on January 30, 1968, by Verve Records, it was the band's last studio album with multi-instrumentalist and founding member John Cale. Recorded after band leader Lou Reed fired Andy Warhol, who had produced their debut album The Velvet Underground & Nico, they hired Steve Sesnick as a manager and hired producer Tom Wilson, who had worked on the band's debut. White Light/White Heat was engineered by Gary Kellgren.

The album includes lyrically transgressive themes like their debut, exploring topics such as sex, amphetamines, and drag queens. Reed was inspired by a variety of authors, including William S. Burroughs and Alice Bailey, and the lyrics create a cast of characters, such as in "The Gift" and those named in "Sister Ray". Musically, he took influence from jazz music and players such as saxophonist Ornette Coleman. Warhol conceived the album's cover art, although he is officially uncredited.

White Light/White Heat was recorded quickly and modeled after the band's live sound and techniques of improvisation, since they often played loud with new equipment from an endorsement deal with Vox. However, the final product was compressed and distorted—most members were dissatisfied with the final product and it was followed with the less experimental The Velvet Underground the following year; Cale would leave the band later in 1968. The distortion level became a prototype for punk rock, shoegaze and noise rock. The 17-minute "Sister Ray" is widely considered the standout track by critics and fans.

White Light/White Heat sold fewer copies than The Velvet Underground & Nico, and peaked at 199 on the Billboard Top LPs chart. The album's only single, "White Light/White Heat", failed to chart, which the band blamed on airplay bans and lack of promotion from Verve. The album was dismissed by many contemporary mainstream music critics, although underground newspapers took notice. Ultimately, White Light/White Heat had a significant impact on early forms of punk rock and no wave and has appeared on several lists of the greatest albums of all time, including being placed at number 272 on Rolling Stone's list of the "500 Greatest Albums of all Time" in 2020.

Background
After the disappointing sales of the Velvet Underground's first album, The Velvet Underground & Nico (1967), their relationship with Andy Warhol deteriorated. They toured throughout most of 1967, and many of their live performances featured noisy improvisations that became key elements on White Light/White Heat. The band fired Warhol, parted ways with Nico (which she would describe as being fired), and recorded their second album with Tom Wilson credited as producer. Jack Donohue, writing for Tech, the student newspaper of MIT, would be one of the first to announce that the band were working on a follow-up. The band had access to new electronics through an endorsement deal with Vox. The sound of the album was designed from the beginning to be against the Summer of Love in San Francisco and also to capture their live sound.

Steve Sesnick was chosen as the replacement manager for the band, and he was accepted by all band members except bassist John Cale; drummer Moe Tucker even considered him a fifth member of the group. Singer Lou Reed influenced the album with his obsession with astrology, especially his interest in the Virgo-Pisces astrological opposition. Rehearsal was similar to the band's debut, with the band's best pieces being reworked mostly in the studio. However, Cale would state that no one in the band "had the patience to rehearse" the album, even after numerous attempts to do so.

Recording
The album was recorded in a short time frame, and with a noticeably different style from that of The Velvet Underground & Nico. Decades after its release, John Cale (in the liner notes of Peel Slowly and See) described White Light/White Heat as "a very rabid record... The first one had some gentility, some beauty. The second one was consciously anti-beauty." Sterling Morrison, the lead guitarist, said: "We were all pulling in the same direction. We may have been dragging each other off a cliff, but we were all definitely going in the same direction." Tucker would estimate that the album took two weeks to record, with about seven recording sessions. It was "almost" recorded in one day—the band would not "accommodate what [they] were trying to do due to the limitations of the studio", according to Morrison. They were well prepared, and the tension between Cale and Reed wasn't apparent in the studio.

White Light/White Heat was recorded in September 1967 at Mayfair Sound Studios at Seventh Avenue in Manhattan, with work to form its songs being done in the previous summer. The band specifically passed on songs that sounded gentler—though Cale also said that the band simply didn't have enough songs prepared for recording, which led to a reduced track list. White Light/White Heat would have far more involvement from Wilson, who originally only produced "Sunday Morning" on The Velvet Underground & Nico; however, he would not participate heavily, as he would talk to his girlfriends for most of the time.

Reed purposefully wanted to go "as high and as hard as we could". At the time, Reed played a 12-string guitar, Gibson, and Epiphone guitars; he also used Vox amplifiers. The band also used Vox distortion pedals to the fullest extent; recording engineer Gary Kellgren reportedly said "you can't do it – all the needles are on red" during the recording sessions. To get the sound of a character receiving a blade through their skull in "The Gift", Reed stabbed or smashed a cantaloupe, at the request of Frank Zappa, who was recording in the same studio. For "Sister Ray", the band worked individually instead of coordinating together–the drums were drowned out due to the level of noise. The song was intentionally recorded in one take to prevent constant shifting of the sound of it, which was what happened with "Heroin" on the previous record. Tucker was disappointed with the final product, as Wilson forgot to turn on some of her drum microphones while recording. According to Reed, Kellgren walked out during the recording of "Sister Ray".

"I Heard Her Call My Name" was remixed by Reed after the recording process to boost his vocals, which Tucker said ruined the sound of the song. Morrison considered the album a technical failure, additionally citing "I Hear Her Call My Name"; Morrison would quit the band for a couple of days in response. While mixing the album, Reed discovered how the sound of it was distorted since the band played too loudly, and the band couldn't resolve the issue as they had limited studio time. Cale said the band neglected how playing loud would affect the technical quality of the record, and Morrison concluded that it was "doomed" due to its level of distortion and compression. Before its release, Wilson resigned from MGM Records, the owner of the band's label at the time, and would never work with the band again.

Content
White Light/White Heat has been described as experimental rock, noise rock, proto-punk and art rock. Record Mirror called it a "menacing set of acid-rock tunes." "White Heat", at the time, was a slang term for the speed rush from amphetamine. The record's lyrics vary from themes of drug use to sexual references (such as fellatio and orgies), such as the title track "White Light/White Heat", which implies intravenous use of methamphetamine. "Here She Comes Now" is built around a double-entendre. On the album's last track, "Sister Ray", Reed tells a tale of debauchery involving drag queens having a failed orgy. Reed eventually commented on how "Sister Ray" was ahead of its time, particularly its early form of heavy metal.

Side one
The record opens with "White Light/White Heat" which details the physical effects of amphetamine usage. It consists of a simple two-chord progression of G5 and D5, and contains elements of both heavy metal and doo-wop. It is one of the album's songs that has more traditional rock'n'roll elements, and while discussing amphetamine it is also equally influenced by one of Reed's favorite books, Alice Bailey's A Treatise on White Magic, which inspired the phrase "White Light". Reed was interviewed by a radio station in Oregon, which Richie Unterberger summarizes:

"[Reed]'s recently been investigating a Japanese form of healing in Los Angeles that's 'a way of giving off white light... I've been involved and interested in what they call white light for a long time.' He briefly discusses Alice Bailey and her occult book A Treatise On White Magic... 'It costs like ten dollars, unfortunately,' he notes apologetically."

"The Gift" is a spoken word track whose lyrics and musical backing are separated by left and right stereo channels, described by Wilson as the band having "stereo prefrontal lobes". The story is derived from another story Reed wrote for Shelley Albin, his middle school girlfriend. The song itself is derived from a story Reed penned at Syracuse University. It discusses two characters, Marsha and Waldo, over guitar feedback in the form of a blues-rock instrumental. This would be Cale's first vocal performance for the band, and it showed the group's improvisational roots.

"Lady Godiva's Operation" contains a lyrical style influenced by William S. Burroughs. Partially inspired by his teenage experience with electroshock treatments, the track is another of Reed's short stories set to music, but is more instrumentally advanced than "The Gift". Cale adds backing vocals, which are "sung" rather than spoken, and he shuddered and imitated the sounds of an oxygen machine while recording the track. What type of operation Lady Godiva is undertaking is unclear, though it seems to be about a transsexual and related to sex change; Reed sings about gender-altering surgery, as seen in the lines "Doctor arrives with knife and baggage / sees the growth as just so much cabbage".

The title of "Here She Comes Now" is a double entendre. The song was written to be sung by Nico, before the band fell out with her. A folk rock song, it is the only track on the album that resembles contemporary rock. It is also the only song that would be jointly credited to Reed, Cale, and Morrison.

Side two
"I Heard Her Call My Name" is a love song for a dead girl. Reed's guitar playing was inspired by Jimi Hendrix, and the song has been described as free jazz with "banshee-like guitar breaks" by Unterberger. It has elements of garage-rock, while the guitar solo was influenced by jazz saxophonist Ornette Coleman. Reed biographer Howard Sounes summarized the track as "[Tucker] maintaining a frantic beat as [Reed] delivered a speed rap ending with a mind-splitting guitar solo".

Reed said in a Rolling Stone interview that "Sister Ray" was included at the suggestion of Warhol, who asked that he "gotta make sure that you do the 'sucking on my ding-dong' song". The track was written on a train home from a poor performance in Connecticut. Reed explained the song as "a bunch of drag queens taking some sailors home with them, shooting up on smack and having this orgy when the police appear". The title is named after a drag queen. The song also has free jazz influences from Reed's interest in Coleman and Cecil Taylor; it is mostly improvisation. Wilson produced Taylor's album Jazz Advance earlier in 1956. The song tells this story through a cast of characters, which Soumes noted is reminiscent of Reed's general songwriting style: it is "a semi-abstract story with use of repetition and drug slang, also playing with the sounds of words, stuttering and jamming words together". Soumes also noted that it contains similar themes to Reed's favorite and most influential books, Hubert Selby Jr.'s Last Exit to Brooklyn (1964) and John Rechy's City of Night (1963). The instrumental jam was spontaneous, as Reed desired, and it also has no bass guitar. The guitars in the track created a "dense musical backdrop" to its lyrics before a distorted electric organ, played by Cale, joined in. Tucker would state that it was more than just noise, as everyone playing still followed Tucker's beat. The third verse contains explicit sexual references, which was rare for Reed, particularly in the line "She's just suckin' on my ding dong/I'm searchin' for my mainline". Reed called the song "Sister Ray" in a nod to Ray Davies of the British band the Kinks.

Release
The title track "White Light/White Heat" was released as a single in November 1967 but failed commercially. The B-side was "Here She Comes Now"; these tracks are the two shortest tracks on the album. The band claimed that it was banned in San Francisco—Reed said that this was because of the former's references to drugs and the latter's references to sex.

The album was released on January 30, 1968. The original pressing of the record incorrectly listed the track "Here She Comes Now" as "There She Comes Now". Initially, the band had a high ego after its release, but were nevertheless disappointed by its lack of promotion from MGM. Like the band's debut, it was banned on radio, and was a commercial disappointment. It peaked at position 199 on the Billboard Top LPs chart, which was lower than their debut. Although the band was disappointed by Verve and MGM's lack of promotion, Verve nevertheless ran a full-page ad in Rolling Stone and ran other ads in underground newspapers, including a full-page one in Hullabaloo, a teen magazine. Verve also ran radio ads advertising "The Gift" and also used the band's history with Warhol as a selling point. MGM included songs from the album as a part of a promotional set of interviews and songs—the set includes an interview with the band members. Bockris, another biographer of Reed's, said that the reaction to it was "even harsher... than the first", with particular criticism directed towards its transgressive lyrics. The band had difficulties distributing the single "White Light/White Heat" and received the most revenue through touring. They also had difficulties attracting larger audiences, even after promotion after appearing at Warhol's Exploding Plastic Inevitable. Ultimately, tension between Reed and Cale led to Cale being fired in a meeting called by Reed.

Cover artwork
The original album cover for White Light/White Heat is a faint image of a tattoo of a skull. The tattoo was that of Joe Spencer, who played the lead role in Warhol's 1967 film Bike Boy. Spencer starred as a hustler in a motorcycle gang and is seen taking a shower in the movie. Although he was not credited for the cover design as with their debut, it was Warhol's idea to use a black-on-black picture of the tattoo. Reed selected the image from the negatives from the film, and it was enlarged and distorted by Billy Name, one of the members of the Factory. Morrison, however, states that the cover was picked by him. On the physical version of the album, this can only be seen when viewing the cover from a certain angle. On the back of the album is a photo of the band members at the Boston Tea Party, a concert venue. Morrison chose the photo and liked it, while Tucker thought that both she and Reed looked terrible on it.

There also exists a unique MGM Records UK cover, made in 1971, featuring a white background and abstract toy soldiers. The UK cover was not authorized by the band members. In 1974, the album was reissued by MGM under the title Archetypes. The cover of this version features two men wearing helmets standing in front of a Woolworth's.

Reception
Like other releases by the group, the lyrical themes and avant-garde instrumentation of White Light/White Heat did not resonate with mainstream audiences at the time. For example, Rolling Stone refused to review the record. Though Billboard predicted that the album would become a hot-seller for record stores catering to underground acts, it only briefly appeared on the Billboard Top LPs chart. For Record Mirror, Peter Jones and Norman Jopling called it "a hippy must", with repetitive, "growling" blues-style instrumentation and deadpan vocals. The reviewers singled out "Sister Ray" as "behemoth" while comparing "The Gift" to Dylan Thomas' 1940s radio drama Under Milk Wood. A reviewer for Billboard called the lyrics "interesting" and the narrative-heavy songs such as "The Gift" joyful, albeit drowned out by the "pulsating instrumentation". Melody Maker, on the other hand, wrote off the album as "utterly pretentious, unbelievably monotonous". Peter Reilly of HiFi/Stereo Review, while erroneously describing the album's release as headed by Warhol, assigned the album ratings of "fair" for recording, "distinct" for stereo quality, and "not so good" for performance.

Wayne McGuire, writing for The Boston Sound, praised Cale's bass playing, particularly on "White Light/White Heat", calling him one of the best contemporary bass players. McGuire also considered the album a symbol of progression for the band. Sandy Pearlman, writing for Crawdaddy, noted its technological and "mechanical" sound while questioning why Warhol wasn't credited for contributing to its cover. The Listener's Tim Souster praised "Sister Ray", saying the track shows "pop is at last making decisive steps in a direction with far-reaching implications for the creative development not only of pop itself but of 'serious' music too". Internationally, Dutch magazine HitWeek gave the album a positive review, while noting its poor sound quality. British magazine NME noted its short track list and called it "weirdo stuff". Disc found it to be "staggering". A detailed review by Gene Youngblood in the underground newspaper Los Angeles Free Press praised the album, declaring it unique and ahead of its time like the band's debut. Lenny Kaye of New Times said the cover artwork could be juxtaposed with that of The Velvet Underground & Nico.

Legacy
Retrospective reviews have been much more positive, and White Light/White Heat eventually sold over half a million copies internationally before Reed's death in 2013.

David Fricke of Rolling Stone, in a 1985 review of the first three records of the band, said it stood out even compared with contemporary songs, stating that no wave and hardcore songs didn't meet its "sheer industrial discord and locomotive propulsion". Reviewing the deluxe edition of the record, Douglas Walk of Pitchfork labeled it a "best new issue". Walk called the album "mysterious" and “a relentless, screeching, thudding, scoffing assault on the pop sensibilities of its time". Thomas Hobbs, in a review for Crack, praised its production but was divided on its lyrics, saying they “make it a record that's a lot harder to love; perhaps that was the aim all along".

Other reviews praised the album's abrasive production. Mark Deming of AllMusic considered it "easily the least accessible" of the band's albums, saying: "anyone wanting to hear their guitar-mauling tribal frenzy straight with no chaser will love it, and those benighted souls who think of the Velvets as some sort of folk-rock band are advised to crank their stereo up to ten and give side two a spin." Greg Kot of Chicago Tribune described the album as "Loud, abrasive, chilling-the perfect antidote for the Age of Aquarius." The Guardian singled out the track "Sister Ray," saying the only appropriate sound to follow the "brutal improvisational workout... is silence". Record Collector contended that it "was as near as the VU ever got to sounding trippily à la mode in 1967-68, even if it remains as streaked with street dirt as a discarded pie." Unterberger said the album was perhaps the "loudest... of all time."

White Light/White Heat contains a distorted, feedback-driven, and roughly recorded sound, which is regarded as influential; it foreshadowed the start of punk rock and the no wave genre. The Social Distortion album White Light, White Heat, White Trash would be named after White Light/White Heat. Oregano Rathbone of uDiscoverMusic said the record signalled a significant turn in rock music and for the band; similarly, Mike Boehm of the Los Angeles Times considered it a "raw, brutal milestone in the development of what would become punk rock". Joe Viglione of AllMusic called it a grunge classic. Tracks from the record were covered by underground and contemporary artists. British rock band Buzzcocks were formed by Pete Shelley and Howard Devoto out of a shared interest in "Sister Ray". A live cover of "Sister Ray" by British rock band Joy Division, recorded at the Moonlight Club in London on April 2, 1980, was included on the band's 1981 compilation album Still. Jonathan Richman made the song "Roadrunner" with inspiration from "Sister Ray"; the single was influential in its own right and was ranked on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. David Bowie performed the album's title track routinely after May 1973, and Nirvana covered "Here She Comes Now" in 1990. Reed later boasted that "no group in the world can touch what we did" on the album.

Rankings
White Light/White Heat has been included in several lists by music publications as one of the greatest albums of the 1960s decade and of all time. It was listed at number 292 on Rolling Stone magazine's 2003 list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, with the ranking slipping to number 293 in the 2012 revision and climbing to number 272 in the 2020 reboot of the list. It was voted number 309 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums (2000). Pitchfork ranked it number 26 on its list of the best albums of the 1960s, behind Stand! by Sly and the Family Stone. NME ranked it number 89 in its inaugural 1974 list of the top 100 albums of all time, eventually listing it as number 352 on its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, behind Sweetheart of the Rodeo by the Byrds. The album has been listed in unranked "best of" lists, such as Ultimate Classic Rock 's top 100 albums of the 1960s. NME additionally included it on its "101 Albums To Hear Before You Die". Internationally, French magazine Rock & Folk listed it in its 555 albums from 1954–2014, and Italian magazine Ondarock listed it as a rock milestone.

Robert Dimery included the album in the 2018 edition of his book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.

Reissues
The album was reissued under the title Archetypes by MGM in 1974, though the reason for this is unknown. It was out of print in the United States until 1985, when it received a reissue, along with the group's first three albums. These reissues were unexpectedly successful, which led to further releases under PolyGram such as Another View. The album was included in the box set Peel Slowly and See, and was later reissued as a Super Deluxe edition for its 45th anniversary, including mono versions of tracks, demos, and live performances.

Personnel
Derived from journalist David Fricke and the album's back cover.

The Velvet Underground
 * Lou Reed – vocals, lead guitar, piano
 * John Cale – vocals, electric viola, Vox Continental organ, bass guitar, medical sound effects (3)
 * Sterling Morrison – guitar, bass guitar, vocals, medical sound effects (3)
 * Maureen Tucker – percussion, drums (6)

Technical personnel
 * Gary Kellgren – recording engineer
 * Bob Ludwig – mastering
 * Val Valentin – director of engineering
 * Tom Wilson – production

title: White Light/White Heat


text:
List of historically black colleges and universities

This list of historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) includes institutions of higher education in the United States that were established before 1964 with the intention of primarily serving the Black American community.

Alabama leads the nation with the number of HBCUs, followed by North Carolina, then Georgia. Most are located in the Southern United States, where state laws generally required educational segregation until the 1950s and 1960s.

The list of closed colleges includes many that, because of state laws, were racially segregated. In other words, those colleges are not just "historically" black, they were entirely black for as long as they existed.

Current institutions

 * Notes:

Defunct institutions

 * Notes:


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Loaded (The Velvet Underground album)

Loaded is the fourth studio album by the American rock band the Velvet Underground, released in November 1970 by Atlantic Records subsidiary Cotillion. It was the final album recorded featuring the band’s remaining original members, including the lead singer and primary songwriter Lou Reed, who left the band shortly before the album's release, and the guitarist Sterling Morrison, who left the band in 1971 along with the drummer Maureen Tucker. For this reason, it is often considered by fans to be the last "true" Velvet Underground album. The multi-instrumentalist Doug Yule remained and released the album Squeeze in 1973 before the band's dissolution the same year.

Despite having a number of singles originate from it, Loaded itself failed to chart. It has retrospectively gained critical acclaim; Loaded was ranked number 110 in 2012, and number 242 in 2020, on Rolling Stone's list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time".

Background
Loaded was a commercial effort aimed at radio play, and the album's title refers to Atlantic's request that the band produce an album "loaded with hits", with a double meaning about the word "loaded", that can also mean "full of drugs" or "really high on drugs". Singer and multi-instrumentalist Doug Yule said, "On Loaded there was a big push to produce a hit single, there was that mentality, which one of these is a single, how does it sound when we cut it down to 3.5 minutes, so that was a major topic for the group at that point. And I think that the third album to a great extent shows a lot of that in that a lot of those songs were designed as singles and if you listen to them you can hear the derivation, like this is sort of a Phil Spector-ish kind of song, or this is that type of person song."

Reed was critical of the album's final mix. He left the Velvet Underground on August 23, 1970, but Loaded was not released until November. After its release, Reed maintained in interviews that it had been re-edited and resequenced without his consent.

One of Reed's sore points resulting from that unauthorized re-editing was that the "heavenly wine and roses" section was cut out of "Sweet Jane." In the original recording, this part was intended to provide a perfectly flowing bridge to a full-fledged plagal cadence two-chord version of the chorus (earlier choruses in the song have a 4-chord riff). In Reed's initial solo performances, he would include the verse (see for instance American Poet), until 1973, when he would routinely leave it out, as the bridge fits less well in a more hard rock version (as heard for instance on Rock 'n' Roll Animal). However, the post-Reed, Yule-led band always performed the song with the verse included. A career-spanning retrospective of Reed's recordings with the Velvet Underground and as a solo artist, NYC Man (The Ultimate Collection 1967–2003), which Reed compiled himself, uses the shorter version. When asked about the shortened versions of "Sweet Jane" and "New Age" and Reed's long-standing claims that they were re-edited without his consent, Yule claimed that Reed had in fact edited the songs himself. "He edited it. You have to understand at the time, the motivation was... Lou was, and all of us were, intent on one thing and that was to be successful and what you had to do to be successful in music, was you had to have a hit, and a hit had to be uptempo, short, and with no digressions, straight ahead basically, you wanted a hook and something to feed the hook and that was it. 'Sweet Jane' was arranged just exactly the way it is on the original Loaded release exactly for that reason—to be a hit! 'Who Loves The Sun' was done exactly that way for that reason—to be a hit."

Reed also felt snubbed by being listed third in the credits on the album; and by the large photo of Yule playing piano; and by all the songwriting credits improperly going to the band, rather than Reed himself. Newer releases have satisfied many of Reed's concerns: he is now properly acknowledged as the main songwriter for the album; he is listed at the top of the band line-up and, since the 1995 box set Peel Slowly and See, another mix is available, restoring "Sweet Jane," "Rock & Roll" and "New Age" to the full-length versions Reed had originally penned.

Although she is credited on the sleeve, the album does not feature Velvet Underground stalwart drummer Maureen Tucker, as she was pregnant at the time. Drumming duties were performed mainly by bassist Doug Yule, recording engineer Adrian Barber, session musician Tommy Castanero and Yule's brother Billy. Reed commented that "Loaded didn't have Maureen on it, and that's a lot of people's favorite Velvet Underground record, so we can't get too lost in the mystique of the Velvet Underground... It's still called a Velvet Underground record. But what it really is is something else."

Sterling Morrison had strong feelings about Yule's increased presence on Loaded, saying: "The album came out okay, as far as production it's the best, but it would have been better if it had real good Lou vocals on all the tracks." While Morrison contributed guitar tracks to the album, he was also attending City College of New York and juggling his time between the sessions and classes, leaving most of the creative input to Reed and Yule. Yule claimed that "Lou leaned on me a lot in terms of musical support and vocal arrangements. I did a lot on Loaded. It sort of devolved down to the Lou and Doug recreational recording". Of the ten songs that make up Loaded, Yule's lead vocals were featured on four songs: "Who Loves the Sun", which opens the album, "New Age," "Lonesome Cowboy Bill," and "Oh! Sweet Nuthin'." In addition to his lead vocal parts, Yule handled all of the bass, piano and organ duties, and also recorded several lead guitar tracks. The guitar solos on "Rock and Roll," "Cool it Down," "Head Held High" and "Oh! Sweet Nuthin'" were all played by Yule.

Original copies of the album have no silence in between the first two songs, "Who Loves the Sun" and "Sweet Jane", with the first note of the latter being heard at the precise moment the former completely fades. Some later pressings break the segue with the insertion of a few seconds of silence. All CDs of Loaded retain the original segue without the silence.

The artwork for the album, by Stanislaw Zagorski, features a drawing of the Times Square–42nd Street subway station entrance, with "downtown" misspelled as "dowtown".

Reception and legacy
Reviewing Loaded in Rolling Stone, Lenny Kaye wrote that "though the Velvet Underground on Loaded are more loose and straightforward than we've yet seen them, there is an undercurrent to the album that makes it more than any mere collection of good-time cuts". In The Village Voice, Robert Christgau said the music was genuinely rock and roll but also "really intellectual and ironic", with Reed's singing embodying the paradox.

According to independent scholar Doyle Greene, Loaded was "straightforward rock and roll" that completely eschewed the avant-garde and experimental music leanings of the Velvet Underground's previous albums, while the songs "Sweet Jane" and "Rock & Roll" distinguished the band as a "seminal proto-punk" act. "The trifecta of 'Who Loves the Sun,' 'Sweet Jane' and 'Rock & Roll' is among the best three-song openings on any rock and roll record", wrote Paste contributor Jeff Gonick. In Routledge's Encyclopedia of Music in the 20th Century (2014), music journalist Michael R. Ross regarded the album as "a near-perfect rock album", while Eric Klinger from PopMatters called it a "great" pop album.

The album was covered live in its entirety by rock band Phish as their "Halloween musical costume" concert on October 31, 1998. That concert was released on compact disc as Live Phish Volume 16 in 2002.

Loaded is often ranked among notable albums: voted number 295 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums in 2000, ranked at number 109 on Rolling Stone's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time in 2003, re-ranked at number 110 in the 2012 revision, then dropped to number 242 in the 2020 reboot.

Loaded had sold 250,000 copies as of 2013, according to Nielsen Soundscan.

The television series Loki used "Oh! Sweet Nuthin’" in the episode "Science/Fiction" in 2023.

Track listing
All songs written by Lou Reed.

 * Note: track lengths listed above are taken from the original LP label and jacket, which also reflect the "Full Length" versions; the original LP actually had shorter versions of certain tracks, but these changes were made after the labels were printed.

Reissues
The album was officially released on CD on July 7, 1987, by Warner Special Products. Some of the running times located on the back of the CD case are incorrect. For instance, "Sweet Jane" is marked 3:55 while it is in fact about 3:18; "New Age" is marked 5:20 while it is closer to 4:39.

Peel Slowly and See
Loaded was compiled on the fifth disc of the comprehensive, five-year-spanning box set Peel Slowly and See, which was released on September 26, 1995, by Polydor Records. The disc features longer running versions of "Sweet Jane", "Rock & Roll", and "New Age" as well as demos, outtakes and live performances.

Fully Loaded
Rhino Records released Fully Loaded, a two-CD reissue of Loaded, on February 18, 1997. It contains numerous alternate takes, alternate mixes, and demo versions of Loaded songs and outtakes, including performances by Maureen Tucker (the outtake "I'm Sticking with You", vocals, and the demo "I Found a Reason", drums). There is also an "orchestral" alternate-take recording of "Ocean" for which the liner notes erroneously credit John Cale on organ. Doug Yule, who played organ on the recording, said in a 1995 interview that the strings used on the track were two cellos and double bass provided by session musicians who followed Yule's musical chart and instructions. Yule added that he couldn't recall Cale ever coming to the sessions.

Music journalist David Fricke contributed extensive liner notes to Fully Loaded.

Loaded: Re-Loaded 45th Anniversary Reissue
A six-CD reissue of the album released in October 2015.

Disc 1
 * 1) "Who Loves the Sun"
 * 2) "Sweet Jane" (Full Length Version)
 * 3) "Rock and Roll" (Full Length Version)
 * 4) "Cool It Down"
 * 5) "New Age" (Full Length Version)
 * 6) "Head Held High"
 * 7) "Lonesome Cowboy Bill"
 * 8) "I Found a Reason"
 * 9) "Train Round the Bend"
 * 10) "Oh! Sweet Nuthin'"
 * 11) "I'm Sticking With You" (Session Outtake)
 * 12) "Ocean" (Session Outtake)
 * 13) "I Love You" (Session Outtake)
 * 14) "Ride into the Sun" (Session Outtake)

Disc 2 – Promotional Mono Version
 * 1) "Who Loves the Sun" (Mono)
 * 2) "Sweet Jane" (Mono)
 * 3) "Rock & Roll" (Mono)
 * 4) "Cool It Down" (Mono)
 * 5) "New Age" (Mono)
 * 6) "Head Held High" (Mono)
 * 7) "Lonesome Cowboy Bill" (Mono)
 * 8) "I Found a Reason" (Mono)
 * 9) "Train Round the Bend" (Mono)
 * 10) "Oh! Sweet Nuthin'" (Mono)
 * 11) "Who Loves the Sun" (Mono Single Version)
 * 12) "Oh! Sweet Nuthin'" (Mono Single Version)
 * 13) "Rock & Roll" (Mono Single Version)
 * 14) "Lonesome Cowboy Bill" (Mono Unissued Single)

Disc 3 – Demos, Early Versions and Alternate Mixes
 * 1) "Rock & Roll" (Demo)
 * 2) "Sad Song" (Demo)
 * 3) "Satellite of Love" (Demo)
 * 4) "Walk and Talk" (Demo)
 * 5) "Oh Gin" (Demo)
 * 6) "Ocean" (Demo)
 * 7) "I Love You" (Demo)
 * 8) "Love Makes You Feel Ten Feet Tall" (Demo Remix)
 * 9) "I Found a Reason" (Demo)
 * 10) "Cool It Down" (Early Version Remix)
 * 11) "Sweet Jane" (Early Version Remix)
 * 12) "Lonesome Cowboy Bill" (Early Version Remix)
 * 13) "Head Held High" (Early Version Remix)
 * 14) "Oh! Sweet Nuthin'" (Early Version Remix)
 * 15) "Who Loves the Sun" (Alternate Mix)
 * 16) "Sweet Jane" (Alternate Mix)
 * 17) "Cool It Down" (Alternate Mix)
 * 18) "Lonesome Cowboy Bill" (Alternate Mix)
 * 19) "Train Round the Bend" (Alternate Mix)
 * 20) "Head Held High" (Alternate Mix)
 * 21) "Rock & Roll" (Alternate Mix)

Disc 4 – Live at Max's Kansas City, August 23, 1970
 * 1) "I'm Waiting for the Man"
 * 2) "White Light White Heat"
 * 3) "I'm Set Free"
 * 4) "Sweet Jane"
 * 5) "Lonesome Cowboy Bill"
 * 6) "New Age"
 * 7) "Beginning to See The Light"
 * 8) "I'll Be Your Mirror"
 * 9) "Pale Blue Eyes"
 * 10) "Candy Says"
 * 11) "Sunday Morning"
 * 12) "After Hours"
 * 13) "Femme Fatale"
 * 14) "Some Kinda Love"
 * 15) "Lonesome Cowboy Bill" (Version 2)

Disc 5 – Live at Second Fret, Philadelphia, May 9, 1970

 * 1) "I'm Waiting for the Man"
 * 2) "What Goes On"
 * 3) "Cool It Down"
 * 4) "Sweet Jane"
 * 5) "Rock & Roll"
 * 6) "Some Kinda Love"
 * 7) "New Age"
 * 8) "Candy Says"
 * 9) "Head Held High"
 * 10) "Train Round the Bend"
 * 11) "Oh! Sweet Nuthin'"

Disc 6 – DVD Audio

 * 1) "Who Loves the Sun" (5.1 Surround Sound Remix)
 * 2) "Sweet Jane" (5.1 Surround Sound Remix)
 * 3) "Rock & Roll" (5.1 Surround Sound Remix)
 * 4) "Cool It Down" (5.1 Surround Sound Remix)
 * 5) "New Age" (5.1 Surround Sound Remix)
 * 6) "Lonesome Cowboy Bill" (5.1 Surround Sound Remix)
 * 7) "I Found a Reason" (5.1 Surround Sound Remix)
 * 8) "Head Held High" (5.1 Surround Sound Remix)
 * 9) "Train Round the Bend" (5.1 Surround Sound Remix)
 * 10) "Oh! Sweet Nothing" (5.1 Surround Sound Remix)
 * 11) "Who Loves the Sun" (5.1 Surround Sound to Stereo Downmixes)
 * 12) "Sweet Jane" (5.1 Surround Sound to Stereo Downmixes)
 * 13) "Rock & Roll" (5.1 Surround Sound to Stereo Downmixes)
 * 14) "Cool It Down" (5.1 Surround Sound to Stereo Downmixes)
 * 15) "New Age" (5.1 Surround Sound to Stereo Downmixes)
 * 16) "Lonesome Cowboy Bill" (5.1 Surround Sound to Stereo Downmixes)
 * 17) "I Found a Reason" (5.1 Surround Sound to Stereo Downmixes)
 * 18) "Head Held High" (5.1 Surround Sound to Stereo Downmixes)
 * 19) "Train Round the Bend" (5.1 Surround Sound to Stereo Downmixes)
 * 20) "Oh! Sweet Nuthin'" (5.1 Surround Sound to Stereo Downmixes)
 * 21) "Who Loves The Sun" (Stereo Album)
 * 22) "Sweet Jane" (Full Length Version, Stereo Album)
 * 23) "Rock & Roll" (Full Length Version, Stereo Album)
 * 24) "Cool It Down" (Stereo Album)
 * 25) "New Age" (Full Length Version, Stereo Album)
 * 26) "Head Held High" (Stereo Album)
 * 27) "Lonesome Cowboy Bill" (Stereo Album)
 * 28) "I Found a Reason" (Stereo Album)
 * 29) "Train Round the Bend" (Stereo Album)
 * 30) "Oh! Sweet Nuthin'" (Stereo Album)

Personnel

 * The Velvet Underground
 * Lou Reed – vocals, rhythm guitar, piano
 * Doug Yule – bass guitar, piano, organ, lead guitar, acoustic guitar, drums, percussion, backing vocals, lead vocals on "Who Loves the Sun", "New Age", "Lonesome Cowboy Bill", "Oh! Sweet Nuthin'", and "Ride Into The Sun (Session Outtake)"
 * Sterling Morrison – lead and rhythm guitars, possible backing vocals
 * Maureen Tucker – drums: credited, but does not appear due to maternity leave; on the Fully Loaded edition, does appear singing on the outtake "I'm Sticking With You" and playing drums on the demo of "I Found a Reason"

 * Additional musicians
 * Adrian Barber – drums on "Who Loves the Sun"
 * Tommy Castagnaro – drums on "Cool It Down" and "Head Held High"
 * Billy Yule – drums on "Lonesome Cowboy Bill" and "Oh! Sweet Nuthin'"

 * Technical staff
 * Adrian Barber – engineer
 * Geoff Haslam, Shel Kagan and the Velvet Underground – producers

title: Loaded (The Velvet Underground album)


text:
User:Trollaxor

Subpages

 * Darwin Release Correspondence Table
 * FreeBSD/Darwin Correspondence Table
 * QNX release history
 * QNX/NetBSD Correspondence Table

title: User:Trollaxor


text:
House of Delegates

House of Delegates may refer to:

Current

 * Maryland House of Delegates
 * House of Delegates of Palau
 * Virginia House of Delegates
 * West Virginia House of Delegates

Former

 * House of Delegates (South Africa), the legislative chamber for the Indian population of South Africa from 1984 to 1994
 * Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico between 1900 and 1917

title: House of Delegates


text:
Theodor von Heuglin

Martin Theodor von Heuglin (20 March 1824, Hirschlanden, Württemberg – 5 November 1876), was a German explorer and ornithologist.

Biography
Heuglin was born in Hirschlanden (now part of Ditzingen) in Württemberg. His father was a Protestant pastor, and he was trained to be a mining engineer. He was ambitious, however, to become a scientific investigator of unknown regions, and with that object studied the natural sciences, especially zoology.

In 1850 he went to Egypt where he learnt Arabic, and visited the Red Sea and Sinai. In 1852 he accompanied Dr. Christian Reitz, Austrian consul at Khartoum, on a journey to Ethiopia, and after Reitz's death was appointed his successor in the consulate. While he held this post he travelled in Ethiopia and Kordofan, making a valuable collection of natural history specimens. In 1857 he journeyed through the coast lands of the African side of the Red Sea, and along the Somali coast.

In 1860 he was chosen as leader of an expedition to search for Eduard Vogel, his companions including Werner Munzinger, Gottlob Kinzelbach, and Hermann Steudner. In June 1861 the party landed at Massawa, having instructions to go direct to Khartoum and then to Ouaddai, where Vogel was thought to be detained. Heuglin, accompanied by Hermann Steudner, made a wide detour through Abyssinia and the Galla country, and in consequence the leadership of the expedition was taken from him. He and Steudner reached Khartoum in 1862 and there joined the party organized by Alexine Tinne and her mother Henriette Tinne-van Capellen, who then had just returned from a White Nile journey to Gondokoro. With both women and on their own account they explored a great part of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, where Steudner died of fever on 10 April 1863 and Alexine's mother on 20 July.

After having reached Cairo with Alexine Tinne, Heuglin returned to Europe in February 1864. In 1870 and 1871 he made a valuable series of explorations in Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya; but 1875 found him again in north-east Africa, in the country of the Beni, Amer and northern Abyssinia. He was preparing for an exploration of the island of Socotra, when he died in Stuttgart. It is principally by his zoological, and more especially his ornithological, labours that Heuglin has taken rank as an independent authority.

Works

 * Systematische Übersicht der Vögel Nordost-Afrikas (Systematic Review of Northeastern-African Birds) (1855)
 * Reisen in Nordost-Afrika, 1852–1853 (Travels in Northeast Africa, 1852–1853) (Gotha, 1857)
 * Syst. Übersicht der Säugetiere Nordost-Afrikas (Systematic Review of Mammals of Northeast Africa) (Vienna, 1867)
 * Reise nach Abessinien, den Gala-Ländern, &c., 1861–1862 (Trip to Abyssinia, the ??, etc., 1861–1862) (Jena, 1868)
 * Reise in das Gebiet des Weissen Nil, &c. 1862–1864 (Trip to the White Nile and Environs, 1862–1864) (Leipzig, 1869)
 * Reisen nach dem Nordpolarmeer, 1870–1871 (Trip to the Arctic Ocean, 1870–1871) (Brunswick, 1872–1874)
 * Ornithologie von Nordost-Afrika (Ornithology of Northeast Africa) (Cassel, 1869–1875)
 * Reise in Nordost-Afrika (A trip in Northeast Africa) (Brunswick, 1877, 2 vols).

title: Theodor von Heuglin