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Ruy López de Villalobos

Ruy López de Villalobos (c. 1500 – 23 April 1546) was a Spanish explorer who led a failed attempt to colonize the Philippines in 1544, attempting to assert Spanish control there under the terms of the treaties of Tordesillas and Zaragoza. Unable to feed his men through barter, raiding, or farming and unable to request resupply from Mexico due to poor knowledge of the Pacific's winds and currents, Villalobos abandoned his mission and fled to the Portuguese-held Moluccas, where he died in prison. He is chiefly remembered for some sources crediting him with naming Leyte the "Philippine Island" in honor of the Spanish crown prince Philip (later King PhilipII). The name was later extended across the entire Philippine Archipelago and its nation. (Other sources credit the name to one of his captains, Bernardo de la Torre.)

Background
Ruy López de Villalobos was born in Málaga, Spain sometime between 1505 and 1510. He was a member of a distinguished family and his father was a close associate of the king, Ferdinand II of Aragon. He was well educated and may have studied law. At some point he became an experienced mariner and Pedro de Alvarado referred to him as "a very expert and practical gentleman in things of the sea."

Philippine expedition
Villalobos was commissioned in 1541 by Antonio de Mendoza, the viceroy of New Spain and first colonial administrator in the New World, to send an expedition to the Philippines, then known to the Spanish as the "Islands of the West" (Islas del Poniente). They lay at the far western frontier of the division of the world between Spain and Portugal established by the treaties of Tordesillas and Zaragoza—in fact they lay over the line within the Portuguese area—and there was a need to establish a larger Spanish presence there as a base for trade with the Spice Islands and China. If possible, the goal was to extend Spanish control over the Moluccas in the Portuguese East Indies. Villalobos was chosen for the command because he was related to De Mendoza by marriage.

Villalobos's fleet of six ships left Barra de Navidad, Jalisco, in New Spain (now Mexico) with 370–400 men on 1 November 1542:
 * His flagship (capitana) was the Santiago of 150–200 toneladas, formerly owned by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo. He chose Gaspar Rico as the expedition's chief pilot (piloto mayor).
 * The second ship—the fleet's almiranta—was the 120-tonelada galleon San Jorge, equipped with a cutwater (espolón) and under the command of Bernardo de la Torre and his pilot Alonso Fernández Tarifeño.
 * The third ship of 90–100 toneladas is variously referenced as the San Anton, the San Antonio, the San Felipe, and the Siete Galigos ("Seven Greyhounds"). It was captained by Francisco Merino and piloted by Francisco Ruiz.
 * The fourth ship of 70 toneladas was the San Juan de Letrán under Alonso Manrique, piloted by Ginés de Mafra, who had been a member of the 1519–1522 Magellan expedition.
 * The fifth was the galley San Cristóbal under Pedro Ortíz de Rueda, piloted by Antonio Corço and powered by sails and 20 pairs of oars.
 * The last was the fusta San Martín under Juan Martel, piloted by Cristóbal de Pareja and powered by sails and 14 pairs of oars.

The large number of passengers included a unit of soldiers and a number of gentlemen, who brought black slaves and about 40 Indian men and women as servants. Martín de Islares acted as factor and interpreter; Guido de Lavezaris, later governor of the Philippines, as treasurer; Maestre Anes ("Master Hans"), previously part of both the Magellan and Loaísa expeditions, as chief gunner; and Gerónimo de Santisteban as head of the voyage's clergy, which included 3 other Augustinian priests and 4 or 5 deacons.

The fleet first encountered the Revilla Gigedo Islands off the west coast of Mexico, among which the sighting of Roca Partida was reported for the first time. On 26 December 1542 they sighted a group of islands in the Marshalls that they called the Corals (Corales), which most probably are those of the Wotje Atoll. They thought these to be the Islands of the Kings (Los Reyes) previously charted by Álvaro de Saavedra in his 1528 expedition. They anchored at one of the islets, which they named San or Santo Esteban ("St. Stephen"). They left on 6 January 1543 and that same day they sighted several small islands on the same latitude as the Corals, which they named the Garden Islands (Los Jardines), now the Kwajalein Atoll. On 23 January 1543, the expedition found Fais in the Carolines, which they charted as the Sailors (Matelotes). On 26 January 1543, they charted some new islands as the Reefs (Los Arrecifes) which have since been identified as the Yaps, also part of the Carolines.

According to Spate, Villalobos's crew included the pilot Juan Gaetan, credited by La Perouse for the discovery of Hawaii. Gaetan's voyage was described in similar terms in 1753 with the same sequence of islands and no identification of any others known by the time of the account. In 1825, the Portuguese geographer Casado Giraldes stated that the "Sandwich Islands"—i.e. the Hawaiian Islands—were discovered by Gaetan in 1542 and did not even mention James Cook.

From 6–23 January 1543, the galley San Cristóbal—now piloted by De Mafra—was separated from the other ships after a severe storm. It eventually reached the island of Mazaua, where Magellan had anchored in 1521.

Although he was attempting to reach Cebu, Villalobos ignored the advice of his pilot to lead the ships north of Mindanao. Instead, on 2 February, the fleet reached northeastern Mindanao, exposed to the weather coming from the open ocean and separated from any Chinese or Malay traders. Stuck in place, they repaired their ships after the voyage. Bernardo de la Torre or Villalobos named Mindanao Cesarea Karoli (Caesarea Caroli) in honor of the Habsburg emperor Charles V, who was also king of Spain as Carlos I. They resorted to eating grubs, unknown plants, land crabs that sickened the crew, and a phosphorescent gray lizard which killed most of those who ate it. After several days, they reached Sarangani, where they lost six men while raiding a local village for supplies. During this period, either Bernardo de la Torre or Villalobos named Leyte and Samar the Philippines (Felipinas) in honor of Charles's son the crown prince Philip (later King PhilipII).

On 7 August a Portuguese ship arrived with a letter from Jorge de Castro, governor of the Moluccas. De Castro demanded an explanation for the presence of the Spaniards in Portuguese territory, in response to which Villalobos drafted a letter dated 9 August. His letter repeated the Spanish claims to the islands, saying they were within the Demarcation Line of the Crown of Castile under the relevant treaties.

On 27 August the San Juan left for New Spain under De la Torre, directed to explain the expedition's difficulties and request additional supplies and reinforcements. A second letter from De Castro arrived in the first week of September; Villalobos's reply dated 12 September repeated the same claims as before. The San Juan—having passed the Volcano Islands and possibly the Bonins without being able to replenish its water—returned in mid-October without completing its mission. (No attempt to cross the Pacific from west to east would be successful for another two decades.) Villalobos again attempted to depart for Cebu with the San Juan and San Cristóbal, but again failed to make headway against unfavorable winds. The natives refused to provide any supplies even for sail, fearing Portuguese retribution.

De la Torre having died, the San Juan was refitted for another attempt to reach New Spain under Yñigo Ortiz de Retez using a southerly route instead. This left on 16 May 1545 and hugged the coast of New Guinea—which Ortiz de Retez named—until 12 August, when the ship was forced to turn back once again. It reached Tidore in October. Repulsed by hunger, hostile natives, and further shipwreck, Villalobos finally abandoned the remaining goals of the expedition. He and his crew members sought refuge in the Moluccas but, quarrelling with the Portuguese, were imprisoned.

Villalobos died of a tropical fever on Good Friday 23 April 1546, in his prison cell on Ambon Island. The Portuguese described him dying "of a broken heart". Popular legend made his deathbed nurse the Jesuit missionary and later saint Francis Xavier.

Some 117 of the crew survived, including De Mafra, Juan Gaetan, and Guido de Lavezaris. Juan Gaetan's account of the Villalobos voyage was published in 1550–1559 by Giovanni Battista Ramusio, an Italian historian, in his Navigations and Travels (Navigationi et Viaggi). De Mafra produced a manuscript on Magellan's voyage and had this delivered to Spain by a friend. Thirty—including De Mafra—elected to remain instead. His manuscript remained unrecognized for many centuries until being rediscovered in the early 20th century. The survivors who had left Spain or Portugal and returned home were individually circumnavigators of the world, although the expedition itself did not accomplish that.

The inaccurate accounts of Villalobos and his men led Spain to believe that the Pacific was much smaller than it actually was for the rest of the 16th century.

title: Ruy López de Villalobos


text:
Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut

Margaret II of Avesnes (1311 – 23 June 1356) was Countess of Hainaut and Countess of Holland (as Margaret I) from 1345 to 1356. She was Holy Roman Empress and Queen of Germany by marriage to Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV the Bavarian.

Life
Margaret was the daughter of William I, Count of Hainaut, and Joan of Valois, the daughter of Charles, Count of Valois, who was the third son of King Philip III of France. She spent her childhood in Hainaut (also known as Hainault or Henegouwen) and also frequently visited France with her French mother.

On 26 February 1324, in Cologne, she married Louis of Bavaria, thereby becoming Queen of Germany. On 17 January 1328, she was crowned Holy Roman Empress alongside her spouse in Rome.

First reign
In 1345 she succeeded her brother William II, Count of Hainaut and Holland (as William IV, Count of Holland) following his death in battle with her husband Louis IV the Bavarian, Holy Roman Emperor who designated that the counties of Hainaut, Holland, Zeeland and Friesland were his wife's possessions. Emperor Louis IV gave his support to his wife Margaret because he was reportedly worried that the domains of her late brother would otherwise be lost to the empire. Due to the dangerous hostility of the House of Luxemburg, Louis increased his power base ruthlessly.

Margaret traveled to Hainaut and was recognized there in her new position as ruler, and on 26 March, she left Hainaut to visit her Northern domains of Holland and Zeeland. There were different difficulties in securing the position of Margaret in her three domains. In Holland and Zeeland, there were doubts as to whether female succession was legal, and while her gender was not a problem in Hainaut, there where still the question of her sister's claims upon the domain. Margaret granted the cities and citizens in Holland and Zeeland several economic privileges to secure her position. The claims of her sisters were also addressed.

A parchment dated 7 September 1346 in Frankfurt, of which the seal is destroyed, announces that Louis IV of Bavaria, Emperor of the Holy Germanic Empire bestows for himself and his heirs, in the name of his spouse, the empress Margaret, to never cede, divide or bestow the counties of Hainaut, Holland, Zeeland and the palatine of Frisia, which belong to his wife Margaret II (of Avesnes), Countess of Hainaut and to her heirs, excepting the rights of her sisters and after her death, to be passed to their second son William I, Duke of Bavaria (future William III, Count of Hainaut) Duke (I) of Bavaria, and after his decease to Albert (future Albert I, Count of Hainaut). Margaret's sisters, including Philippa of Hainault who was Queen consort of King Edward III of England, disavowed their hereditary claims.

Margaret ruled her three domains directly for seven months, after which she was called back to Germany by her spouse, and then appointed her son William to rule in her absence.

When Louis IV died on 11 October 1347, he was succeeded by his six sons, and in connection to this, Margaret resigned her sovereignty in favor of her son William in exchange for an allowance. In 1349 Louis IV's sons decided to partition their possessions: Louis V, Duke of Bavaria kept Brandenburg and Tyrol, his younger brothers Louis VI the Roman and Otto V the Bavarian received Upper Bavaria. While Stephen II, William I and Albert I received Lower Bavaria, Holland and Hainaut. Louis V and Stephen were the stepsons of Margaret from her husband's first wife, and her youngest sons Albert and Otto were still minors. Her eldest son Louis VI released Holland and Hainaut for his brothers William and Albert in 1349 since he expected the Polish crown by his marriage with Cunigunde of Poland. In 1353 her son Stephen also released Holland and Hainaut to his brother William.

The Hook and Cod wars
However, a conflict soon arose between Margaret and her son William, as he refused to honor the terms in her abdication document by withholding the allowance she had demanded in turn for abdicating in his favor. Willem's opposition among the nobles of Holland asked Margaret to return to run Holland again, and in March 1350, Margaret had returned to Hainaut, where she retracted her abdication in 1 June. The Cod League was formed on 23 May 1350 by a number of supporters of William, and on 5 September of the same year, the Hook League was formed in support of Margaret. Soon afterward these factions clashed and a civil war began, known as the Hook and Cod wars.

Margaret and the war between mother and son was controversial, and her right to Holland was always considered to be of dubious legality, as this domain was at that time regarded as reserved for men, though the same thing was not raised when it came to her right to Hainaut.

After the destruction of several strongholds of Margaret and a defeat of her forces at two sea battles in 1351, Edward III of England, Margaret's brother-in-law through her sister Philippa of Hainault, came to her aid, winning a naval engagement off Veere in 1351; a few weeks later the Hooks and their English allies were defeated by William and the Cods at Vlaardingen, a defeat which ruined Margaret's cause. Edward III shortly afterwards changed sides and in 1354, Margaret saw herself compelled to come to an understanding with her son: he being recognized as count of Holland and Zeeland, and she being secured as ruling countess of Hainaut in her lifetime. Geoffroy G. Sury,  Bayern Straubing – Hennegau : la Maison de Bavière en Hainaut, XIVe – XVe s., Brussels, 2010, 2nd ed., p. 67. - Un parchemin en partie détruit et daté du 7/12/1354 à Mons, à 4 sceaux appendus brisés, énonce que Jean de Hainaut et Wallerand de Luxembourg seigneur de Ligny, agissant en qualité de personnes intermédiaires et arbitres, pour rétablir la paix entre Marguerite et son fils, le duc Guillaume de Bavière (le futur Guillaume III comte de Hainaut), font connaître les termes de l’ordonnance d’arbitrage évoquée dans les actes passés, dont ils restituent la teneur : .. En exécution de ladite ordonnance, la comtesse Marguerite (II) de Hainaut, etc. cède à son fils Guillaume duc de Bavière, les comtés de Hainaut, de Hollande, de Zélande, et la seigneurie de Frise, moyennant le paiement d’une somme de 40.000 florins de Florence et d’une pension viagère de 7.000 florins ; de son côté, ledit duc ..renonce à fair valoir ses droits sur le Hainaut tant que vivra sa mère.

A partially destroyed parchment dated 7 December 1354 at Mons, with four broken seals appended, announces that John of Hainaut and Wallerand of Luxemburg, Lord of Ligny, acting as intermediaries and arbitrators, to reestablish the peace between Margaret and her son, the Duke, William of Bavaria (the future William III, Count of Hainaut), make known the terms of the arbitration settlement stated in previous deeds, which they uphold : ''.. In execution of the said settlement, the Countess Margaret (II) of Hainaut, etc. cedes to her son William, Duke of Bavaria the counties of Hainaut, Holland, Zeeland and the lordship of Frisia, in return taking payment of 40000 Florence Florins and widow's pension of 7000 florins; for his part the said Duke waives his rights over Hainaut so long as his mother is living. - G Wymans,  Inventaire analytique du chartrier de la Trésorerie des comtes de Hainaut , the State Archives, Palais des Expos, Aux Grands Près, Mons tél. 065/400460) order number(slide) 974, Editions A.G.R., Brussels, 1985, pp. 209-210.''

Margaret ruled Hainaut for two more years, and died at Le Quesnoy Castle of infectious tuberculosis 23 June 1356, leaving William in possession of the entire Holland-Hainaut inheritance. She was buried in the Minderbroeders Abbey in Valenciennes.

Issue

In 1324 Margaret married Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor. Their children were:
 * 1) Margaret of Bavaria, Duchess of Slavonia (1325–1374), married:
 * 2) in 1351 in Buda Stephen, Duke of Slavonia (d. 1354), son of the King Charles I of Hungary,  and had issue.
 * 3) 1357/58 Gerlach von Hohenlohe.
 * 4) Anna of Bavaria, Duchess of Lower Bavaria (c. 1326 – 3 June 1361, Fontenelles), married John I, Duke of Lower Bavaria, who died young (d. 1340), they had no issue.
 * 5) Louis VI the Roman (1328–1365), was Duke of Upper Bavaria and Prince-Elector of Brandenburg. Married twice with no issue.
 * 6) Elisabeth of Bavaria, Countess of Württemberg (1329 – 2 August 1402, Stuttgart), married:
 * 7) Cangrande II della Scala, Lord of Verona (d. 1359) in Verona on 22 November 1350. No issue
 * 8) Count Ulrich of Württemberg (d. 1388) in 1362. Parents of Eberhard III of Württemberg 1364-1417.
 * 9) William of Bavaria (1330–1389), as 'William I' Duke of Lower Bavaria, as 'Wiliam V' Count of Hainaut and Holland. He married Maud of Lancaster but their only daughter died young. Mentally ill from 1358 and locked up for the remainder of his life.
 * 10) Agnes of Bavaria (Munich, 1335 – 11 November 1352, Munich). She became a nun, due to ill health and died young
 * 11) Albert of Bavaria (1336–1404), was Duke of Lower Bavaria as well as Count of Hainaut and Holland from 1358.
 * 12) Otto of Bavaria (1340–1379),  was Duke of Upper Bavaria and Elector of Brandenburg.
 * 13) Beatrice of Bavaria, Queen of Sweden (1344 – 25 December 1359), married bef. 25 October 1356 to King Eric XII of Sweden.
 * 14) Louis (October 1347 – 1348)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut


text:
Muezzin

The muezzin (مُؤَذِّن) is the person who proclaims the call to the daily prayer (ṣalāt) five times a day (Fajr prayer, Zuhr prayer, Asr prayer, Maghrib prayer and Isha prayer) at a mosque from the minaret. The muezzin plays an important role in ensuring an accurate prayer schedule for the Muslim community.

Etymology
The English word muezzin is borrowed from مُؤَذِّن, muʾadh·dhin, simplified mu'azzin, the active participle of أَذَّنَ "to call". Thus, it means "the calling one".

Roles and responsibilities
The professional muezzin is chosen for his good character, voice and skills to serve at the mosque. Muezzins are typically men. The muezzin is not considered a cleric, but in a position comparable to a Christian verger. He is responsible for keeping the mosque clean, for rolling the carpets, for cleaning the toilets and the place where people wash their hands, face and feet when they perform the Wuḍu' (Arabic: wuḍū’ وُضُوء, the "purification" of ablution) before offering the prayer. When calling to prayer, the muezzin faces the qiblah, the direction of the Ka'bah in Makkah, while reciting the adhan.

From the fourteenth century, initially in Mamluk Egypt but then spread into other parts of the Islamic world, major mosques might employ a related officer, the muwaqqit, who determined the prayer times using mathematical astronomy. Unlike the muezzin who were typically chosen for their piety and beautiful voice, the qualification of the muwaqqit required special knowledge in astronomy. Historian Sonja Brentjes speculates that the muwaqqit might have evolved from a specialised muezzin, and that there might not have been a clear delineation between the two offices. Some celebrated muwaqqits, including Shams al-Din al-Khalili and ibn al-Shatir, were known to have once been muezzins, and many individuals held both offices simultaneously. Today, with the production of electronic devices and authoritative timetables, a muezzin in a mosque can broadcast the call to prayer by consulting a table or a clock without requiring the specialised skill of a muwaqqit.

Call of the muezzin
The call of the muezzin is considered an art form, reflected in the melodious chanting of the adhan. In Turkey there is an annual competition to find the country's best muezzin.

Historically, a muezzin would have recited the call to prayer atop the minarets in order to be heard by those around the mosque. Now, mosques often have loudspeakers mounted on the top of the minaret and the muezzin will use a microphone, or a recording is played, allowing the call to prayer to be heard at great distances without climbing the minaret.

Origins
The institution of the muezzin has existed since the time of Muhammad. The first muezzin was a former slave Bilal ibn Rabah, one of the most trusted and loyal sahabah (companions) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He was born in Mecca and is considered to have been the first mu'azzin, chosen by Muhammad himself.

After minarets became customary at mosques, the office of muezzin in cities was sometimes given to a blind man, who could not see down into the inner courtyards of the citizens' houses and thus could not violate privacy.

Notable muezzins

 * Bilal ibn Ribah al-Habashi
 * Rahim Moazzen Zadeh Ardabili
 * Ali Ahmed Mulla

Online

 * Muezzin Islamic religious official, in Encyclopædia Britannica Online, by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, Gloria Lotha, Deepti Mahajan and Amy Tikkanen

title: Muezzin


text:
European greenfinch

The European greenfinch or simply the greenfinch (Chloris chloris) is a small passerine bird in the finch family Fringillidae.

This bird is widespread throughout Europe, North Africa and Southwest Asia. It is mainly resident, but some northernmost populations migrate further south. The greenfinch has also been introduced into Australia, New Zealand, Uruguay, and Argentina.

Taxonomy
The greenfinch was described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae under the binomial name Loxia chloris. The specific epithet is from khloris, the Ancient Greek name for this bird, from khloros, "green".

The finch family, Fringillidae, is divided into two subfamilies, the Carduelinae, containing around 28 genera with 141 species and the Fringillinae containing a single genus, Fringilla, with four species. The finch family are all seed-eaters with stout conical bills. They have similar skull morphologies, nine large primaries, 12 tail feathers and no crop. In all species the female bird builds the nest, incubates the eggs and broods the young. Fringilline finches raise their young almost entirely on arthropods, while the cardueline finches raise their young on regurgitated seeds.

A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2012 found that the greenfinches are not closely related to other members of the genus Carduelis. They have therefore been placed in the resurrected genus Chloris that had originally been introduced by the French naturalist Georges Cuvier in 1800, with the European greenfinch as the type species.

Subspecies
There are 10 recognised subspecies.

Description
The European greenfinch is 15 cm long with a wingspan of 24.5 to 27.5 cm. It is similar in size and shape to a house sparrow, but is mainly green, with yellow in the wings and tail. The female and young birds are duller and have brown tones on the back. The bill is thick and conical. The song contains a lot of trilling twitters interspersed with wheezes, and the male has a "butterfly" display flight. Male greenfinch birds exhibit higher degrees of fluctuating asymmetry. The development of males' bones is more subject to disruption than that of females.

Breeding
The breeding season lasts from the second half of March until June; fledging takes place in early July. Woodland edges, farmland hedges and gardens with relatively thick vegetation are favoured for breeding. The nest is placed in trees or bushes. The nest is built by the female who is accompanied by the male. The clutch consists of 4–6 eggs which are laid at daily intervals usually beginning one or two days after the completion of the nest. The eggs are greyish-white, bluish-white or beige with reddish or brownish spots or blotches concentrated at the broader end. On average the eggs measure 20.0 x and weigh 2.17 g. They are incubated by the female for 13–14 days. The male feeds her at the nest during this period. Chicks are covered with thick, long, greyish-white down at hatching. They are fed on insect larvae by both adults during the first days, and later, by a frequently regurgitated yellowish paste made of seeds. They leave the nest about 13 days later, but they are not able to fly. Usually, they fledge 16–18 days after hatching. This species produces two or three broods per year.

In Australasia, the European greenfinch's breeding season is from October to March.

Food and feeding
The European greenfinch feeds on a great variety of seeds, berries, fruit, buds, flowers and some arthropods. It forages in trees and bushes, and also on the ground.

Predators and parasites
The protozoal parasite Trichomonas gallinae was known to infect pigeons and raptors, but, beginning in Great Britain in 2005, carcasses of dead European greenfinches and common chaffinches were found to be infected with the parasite. The disease spread and in 2008, infected carcasses were found in Norway, Sweden and Finland and a year later in Germany. The spread of the disease is believed to have been mediated by common chaffinches, as large numbers of the birds breed in northern Europe and winter in Great Britain. In Great Britain, the number of infected carcasses recovered each year declined after a peak in 2006. There was a reduction in the number of European greenfinches from around 4.3 million to around 2.8 million, but no significant decline in the overall number of common chaffinches. A similar pattern occurred in Finland where, after the arrival of the disease in 2008, there was a reduction in the number of European greenfinches but only a small change in the number of common chaffinches.

In literature
The English poet William Wordsworth wrote a poem about this species entitled The Green Linnet in 1803.

title: European greenfinch


text:
Greenfinch (disambiguation)

The greenfinches make up the bird genus Chloris.

Greenfinch may also refer to:

 * Greenfinches, female personnel of the Ulster Defence Regiment
 * SS Greenfinch, a British coaster in service 1946–1966

title: Greenfinch (disambiguation)


text:
BeiDou

The BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS; ) is a satellite-based radio navigation system owned and operated by the China National Space Administration. It provides geolocation and time information to a BDS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more BDS satellites. It does not require the user to transmit any data, and operates independently of any telephonic or Internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the BDS positioning information.

The current service, BeiDou-3 (third-generation BeiDou), provides full global coverage for timing and navigation, along with Russia's GLONASS, the European Galileo, and the US's GPS. It consists of satellites in three different orbits, including 24 satellites in medium-circle orbits (covering the world), 3 satellites in inclined geosynchronous orbits (covering the Asia–Pacific region), and 3 satellites in geostationary orbits (covering China). The BeiDou-3 system was fully operational in July 2020. In 2016, BeiDou-3 reached millimeter-level accuracy with post-processing.

Predecessors included BeiDou-1 (first-generation BeiDou), consisting of three satellites in a regional satellite navigation system. Since 2000, the system has mainly provided navigation services within China. In December 2012, as the design life of BeiDou-1 expired, it stopped operating. The BeiDou-2 (second-generation BeiDou) system was also a regional satellite navigation system containing 16 satellites, including 6 geostationary satellites, 6 inclined geosynchronous orbit satellites, and 4 medium earth orbit satellites. In November 2012, BeiDou-2 began to provide users with regional positioning services in the Asia–Pacific region. Within the region, BeiDou is more accurate than GPS.

In 2015, fifteen years after the satellite system was launched, it was generating a turnover of $31.5 billion per annum for major companies such as China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation, AutoNavi, and Norinco. The industry has grown an average of over 20% in value annually to reach $64 billion in 2020.

Nomenclature
The official English name of the system is BeiDou Navigation Satellite System. It is named after the Big Dipper asterism, which is known in Chinese as. The name literally means "Northern Dipper", the name given by ancient Chinese astronomers to the seven brightest stars of the Ursa Major constellation. Historically, this set of stars was used in navigation to locate the North Star. As such, the name BeiDou also serves as a metaphor for the purpose of the satellite navigation system.

Conception and initial development
The original idea of a Chinese satellite navigation system was conceived by Chen Fangyun and his colleagues in the 1980s. The Gulf War in 1991 showcased how the GPS gave the US complete advantage on the battlefield and how satellite navigation systems can be used to conduct "space warfare". In 1993, China realised the risk of denied access to GPS during the Yinhe incident and including an alleged case in 1996 during the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis, gave impetus to the creation of its own indigenous satellite navigation system which officially began in 1994.

According to the China National Space Administration, in 2010, the development of the system would be carried out in three steps:

 * 1) 2000–2003: experimental BeiDou navigation system consisting of three satellites
 * 2) By 2012: regional BeiDou navigation system covering China and neighboring regions
 * 3) By 2020: global BeiDou navigation system

The first satellite, BeiDou-1A, was launched on 30 October 2000, followed by BeiDou-1B on 20 December 2000. The third satellite, BeiDou-1C (a backup satellite), was put into orbit on 25 May 2003. The successful launch of BeiDou-1C also meant the establishment of the BeiDou-1 navigation system.

On 2 November 2006, China announced that from 2008 BeiDou would offer an open service with an accuracy of 10 metres, timing of 0.2 microseconds, and speed of 0.2 metres/second.

In February 2007, the fourth and last satellite of the BeiDou-1 system, BeiDou-1D (sometimes called BeiDou-2A, serving as a backup satellite), was launched. It was reported that the satellite had suffered from a control system malfunction but was then fully restored.

In April 2007, the first satellite of BeiDou-2, namely Compass-M1 (to validate frequencies for the BeiDou-2 constellation) was successfully put into its working orbit. The second BeiDou-2 constellation satellite Compass-G2 was launched on 15 April 2009.

On 15 January 2010, the official website of the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System went online, and the system's third satellite (Compass-G1) was carried into its orbit by a Long March 3C rocket on 17 January 2010.

On 2 June 2010, the fourth satellite was launched successfully into orbit.

The fifth orbiter was launched into space from Xichang Satellite Launch Center by an LM-3I carrier rocket on 1 August 2010.

Three months later, on 1 November 2010, the sixth satellite was sent into orbit by LM-3C.

Another satellite, the BeiDou-2/Compass IGSO-5 (fifth inclined geosynchronous orbit) satellite, was launched from the Xichang Satellite Launch Center by a Long March 3A on 1 December 2011 (UTC).

Chinese involvement in Galileo system
In September 2003, China intended to join the European Galileo positioning system project and was to invest €230 million (US$296 million, £160 million) in Galileo over the next few years. At the time, it was believed that China's "BeiDou" navigation system would then only be used by its armed forces.

In October 2004, China officially joined the Galileo project by signing the Agreement on the Cooperation in the Galileo Program between the "Galileo Joint Undertaking" (GJU) and the "National Remote Sensing Centre of China" (NRSCC). Based on the Sino-European Cooperation Agreement on Galileo program, China Galileo Industries (CGI), the prime contractor of China's involvement in Galileo programs, was founded in December 2004. By April 2006, eleven cooperation projects within the Galileo framework had been signed between China and the EU.

Phase III

 * In November 2014, BeiDou became part of the World-Wide Radionavigation System (WWRNS) at the 94th meeting of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) Maritime Safety Committee, which approved the "Navigation Safety Circular" of the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS).
 * At Beijing time 21:52, 30 March 2015, the first new-generation BeiDou Navigation satellite (and the 17th overall) was successfully set to orbit by a Long March 3C rocket.
 * On 20 April 2019, a BeiDou satellite was successfully launched. Launch occurred at 22:41 Beijing time, and the Long March 3B delivered the BeiDou navigation payload into an elliptical transfer orbit ranging between 220 kilometres and 35,787 kilometres, with an inclination of 28.5° to the equator, according to U.S. military tracking data.
 * On 23 June 2020, the final BeiDou satellite was successfully launched, the launch of the 55th satellite in the BeiDou family. The third iteration of the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System provides global coverage for timing and navigation, offering an alternative to Russia's GLONASS and the European Galileo positioning system, as well as the US's GPS.

Use outside China
In 2018, the Pakistan Armed Forces received access to BeiDou for military purposes. In 2019, the Saudi Ministry of Defense signed an agreement for military use of BeiDou. In 2020, Argentina entered into a cooperation agreement with China regarding the use of BeiDou. In 2021, the first China-Africa BeiDou System Cooperation Forum was held in Beijing. In 2022, Vladimir Putin signed an agreement for the interoperability of BeiDou and GLONASS.

BeiDou-3
The third phase of the BeiDou system (BDS-3) includes three GEO satellites, three IGSO satellites, and twenty-four MEO satellites which introduce new signal frequencies B1C/B1I/B1A (1575.42MHz), B2a/B2b (1191.79MHz), B3I/B3Q/B3A (1268.52MHz), and Bs test frequency (2492.02MHz). Interface control documents on the new open signals were published in 2017–2018.

On 23 June 2020, the BDS-3 constellation deployment was fully completed after the last satellite was successfully launched at the Xichang Satellite Launch Center. BDS-3 satellites also include SBAS (B1C, B2a, B1A - GEO sats), Precise Point Positioning (B2b - GEO sats), and search and rescue transponder (6 MEOSAR) capabilities.

Characteristics of the "I" signals on E2 and E5B are generally similar to the civilian codes of GPS (L1-CA and L2C), but Compass signals have somewhat greater power. The notation of Compass signals used in this page follows the naming of the frequency bands and agrees with the notation used in the American literature on the subject, but the notation used by the Chinese seems to be different.

There has also been an experimental S band broadcast called "Bs" at 2492.028 MHz, following similar experiments on BeiDou-1.

BeiDou-1

BeiDou-1 was an experimental regional navigation system, which consisted of four satellites (three working satellites and one backup satellite). The satellites themselves were based on the Chinese DFH-3 geostationary communications satellite and had a launch weight of 1,000 kg each.

Unlike the American GPS, Russian GLONASS, and European Galileo systems, which use medium Earth orbit satellites, BeiDou-1 used satellites in geostationary orbit. This means that the system does not require a large constellation of satellites, but it also limits the coverage to areas on Earth where the satellites are visible. The area that can be serviced is from longitude 70° E to 140° E and from latitude 5° N to 55° N. The frequency of the system is 2,491.75 MHz.

Completion
The first satellite, BeiDou-1A, was launched on 31 October 2000. The second satellite, BeiDou-1B, was successfully launched on 21 December 2000. The last operational satellite of the constellation, BeiDou-1C, was launched on 25 May 2003.

Position calculation
In 2007, the official Xinhua News Agency reported that the resolution of the BeiDou system was as low as 0.5 metre. With the existing user terminals it appears that the calibrated accuracy is 20 m (100 m, uncalibrated).

Terminals
In 2008, a BeiDou-1 ground terminal cost around CN¥20000 (US$2929), almost 10 times the price of a contemporary GPS terminal. The price of the terminals was explained as being due to the cost of imported microchips. At the China High-Tech Fair ELEXCON of November 2009 in Shenzhen, a BeiDou terminal priced at CN¥3000 was presented.

Applications

 * Over 1000 BeiDou-1 terminals were used after the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, providing information from the disaster area.
 * As of October 2009, all Chinese border guards in Yunnan were equipped with BeiDou-1 devices.

Sun Jiadong, the chief designer of the navigation system, said in 2010 that "Many organizations have been using our system for a while, and they like it very much".

Decommissioning
BeiDou-1 was decommissioned at the end of 2012, after the BeiDou-2 system became operational.

BeiDou-2

BeiDou-2 (formerly known as COMPASS) is not an extension to the older BeiDou-1, but rather supersedes it outright. The new system is a constellation of 35 satellites, which include 5 geostationary orbit satellites for backward compatibility with BeiDou-1, and 30 non-geostationary satellites (27 in medium Earth orbit and 3 in inclined geosynchronous orbit), that offer complete coverage of the globe.

The ranging signals are based on the CDMA principle and have complex structure typical of Galileo or modernized GPS. Similar to the other global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs), there are two levels of positioning service: open (public) and restricted (military). The public service is available globally to general users. When all the currently planned GNSSs are deployed, users of multi-constellation receivers will benefit from a total over 100 satellites, which will significantly improve all aspects of positioning, especially availability of the signals in so-called urban canyons. The general designer of the COMPASS navigation system is Sun Jiadong, who is also the general designer of its predecessor, the original BeiDou navigation system. All BeiDou satellites are equipped with laser retroreflector arrays for satellite laser ranging and the verification of the orbit quality.

Accuracy
There are two levels of service provided – a free service to civilians and licensed service to the Chinese government and military. The free civilian service has a 10-metre location-tracking accuracy, synchronizes clocks with an accuracy of 10 nanoseconds, and measures speeds to within 0.2 m/s. The restricted military service has a location accuracy of 10 cm, can be used for communication, and will supply information about the system status to the user. In 2019, the International GNSS Service started providing precise orbits of BeiDou satellites in experimental products.

To date, the military service has been granted only to the People's Liberation Army and to the Pakistan Armed Forces.

Frequencies
Frequencies for COMPASS are allocated in four bands: E1, E2, E5B, and E6; they overlap with Galileo. The fact of overlapping could be convenient from the point of view of the receiver design, but on the other hand raises the issues of system interference, especially within E1 and E2 bands, which are allocated for Galileo's publicly regulated service. However, under International Telecommunication Union (ITU) policies, the first nation to start broadcasting in a specific frequency will have priority to that frequency, and any subsequent users will be required to obtain permission prior to using that frequency, and otherwise ensure that their broadcasts do not interfere with the original nation's broadcasts. As of 2009, it appeared that Chinese COMPASS satellites would start transmitting in the E1, E2, E5B, and E6 bands before Europe's Galileo satellites and thus have primary rights to these frequency ranges.

Compass-M1
Compass-M1 is an experimental satellite launched for signal testing and validation and for the frequency filing on 14 April 2007. The role of Compass-M1 for Compass is similar to the role of the GIOVE satellites for the Galileo system. The orbit of Compass-M1 is nearly circular, has an altitude of 21,150 km and an inclination of 55.5°.

The investigation of the transmitted signals started immediately after the launch of Compass-M1 on 14 April 2007. Soon after in June 2007, engineers at CNES reported the spectrum and structure of the signals. A month later, researchers from Stanford University reported the complete decoding of the "I" signals components. The knowledge of the codes allowed a group of engineers at Septentrio to build the COMPASS receiver and report tracking and multipath characteristics of the "I" signals on E2 and E5B.

Operation

In December 2011, the system went into operation on a trial basis. It started providing navigation, positioning and timing data to China and the neighbouring area for free from 27 December 2011. During this trial run, Compass offered positioning accuracy to within 25 metre and the precision improved as more satellites were launched. Upon the system's official launch, it pledged to offer general users positioning information accurate to the nearest 10 m, measure speeds within 0.2 metre per second, and provide signals for clock synchronisation accurate to 0.02 microseconds.

The BeiDou-2 system began offering services for the Asia-Pacific region in December 2012. At this time, the system could provide positioning data between longitude 55° E to 180° E and from latitude 55° S to 55° N.

The new-generation BeiDou satellites support short message service.

Completion
In December 2011, Xinhua stated that "[t]he basic structure of the BeiDou system has now been established, and engineers are now conducting comprehensive system test and evaluation. The system will provide test-run services of positioning, navigation and time for China and the neighboring areas before the end of this year, according to the authorities". The system became operational in the China region that same month. The global navigation system should be finished by 2020.

As of December 2012, 16 satellites for BeiDou-2 had been launched, with 14 in service. As of December 2017, 150 million Chinese smartphones (20% of the market) were equipped to utilize BeiDou.

Constellations
The regional BeiDou-1 system was decommissioned at the end of 2012.

The first satellite of the second-generation system, Compass-M1 was launched in 2007. It was followed by further nine satellites during 2009–2011, achieving functional regional coverage. A total of 16 satellites were launched during this phase.

In 2015, the system began its transition towards global coverage with the first launch of a new-generation of satellites, and the 17th one within the new system. On 25 July 2015, the 18th and 19th satellites were successfully launched from the Xichang Satellite Launch Center, marking the first time for China to launch two satellites at once on top of a Long March 3B/Expedition 1 carrier rocket. The Expedition-1 is an independent upper stage capable of delivering one or more spacecraft into different orbits. On 29 September 2015, the 20th satellite was launched, carrying a hydrogen maser for the first time within the system.

In 2016, the 21st, 22nd and 23rd satellites were launched from Xichang Satellite Launch Center, the last two of which entered into service on 5 August and 30 November, respectively.

Orbital period: 12 hours and 53 minutes (every 13 revolutions, done in 7 sidereal days, a satellite passes over the same location).

Prohibitions
In 2018, Taiwan's National Communications Commission announced that it would be illegal to use BeiDou products in Taiwan without its approval.

title: BeiDou


text:
Brisbane Airport

Brisbane Airport is an international airport serving Brisbane, the capital of the Australian state of Queensland. The airport services 31 airlines flying to 50 domestic and 29 international destinations, total amounting to more than 22.7 million passengers who travelled through the airport in 2016. In 2016, an OAG report named Brisbane airport as the fifth-best performing large-sized airport in the world for on-time performance with 87% of arrivals and departures occurring within 15 minutes of their scheduled times, slipping from 88.31% the year before. It covers an area of 2,700 ha, making the airport the largest in land area in all of Australia.

Brisbane Airport is the primary hub for Virgin Australia, a major hub for Qantas, and a secondary hub for Qantas' low cost subsidiary Jetstar. Brisbane has the third highest number of domestic connections in Australia following Sydney and Melbourne. It is also home to Qantas' Airbus A330 and Boeing 737 heavy maintenance facilities. Virgin Australia has a smaller maintenance facility at the airport, where line-maintenance on the airline's 737 fleet is performed. Alliance Airlines and QantasLink also conduct maintenance at the airport. The airport has international and domestic passenger terminals, a cargo terminal, a general aviation terminal and apron as well as two runways. JetGo also operated from Brisbane Airport until its demise in 2018.

The Royal Flying Doctor Service has one of its nine Queensland bases at Brisbane Airport.

Eagle Farm Airport
Brisbane's first airport was Eagle Farm Airport that was built in 1925 on former agricultural land in the suburb of Eagle Farm located 6 km north-east of the Brisbane central business district, 5 km south-west of Brisbane Airport's Domestic Terminal. Although Qantas started operations there in 1926, most of the flights in Brisbane operated at the Archerfield Airport, which contained a superior landing surface. While in operation, Charles Kingsford Smith landed at Eagle Farm on 9 June 1928, after completing the first trans-pacific flight in his Fokker F.VII, the Southern Cross. There is now a museum containing the original aircraft, along with a memorial located within the Brisbane Airport precinct.

During World War II, Brisbane was the headquarters of the Supreme Commander of Allied forces in the South West Pacific Area, General Douglas MacArthur. The United States Armed Forces upgraded the airfield (Eagle Farm Airport) to cater for military flights, bringing it to such a standard that it became the main civilian airport for the city.

By the 1960s, the facilities at Eagle Farm Airport were inadequate for a city of Brisbane's size and anticipated growth. Many long-haul international services to Asia were required to make an en route stop (e.g., at Darwin), disadvantaging the city to lure prospective carriers and business opportunities.

Some of the infrastructure at Eagle Farm Airport was incorporated into today's Brisbane Airport. For example, the north-east end of the main runway (04/22) survives as taxiway Papa of the present airport, while the Eagle Farm international terminal is now the Brisbane Airport cargo terminal. The final flight from the Eagle Farm Airport departed on 20 March 1988.

1988 opening
The Federal Government announced the construction of Brisbane Airport to be built immediately north east of Eagle Farm Airport. Construction commenced in June 1980. The new airport was built by Leighton Contractors at a cost of $400 million and opened on 19 March 1988, with a new domestic terminal and two runways. The opening was hosted by Prime Minister Bob Hawke. The new airport was built on the former Brisbane residential suburb of Cribb Island that was demolished to make way for the airport. Large amounts of sand were pumped from nearby Moreton Bay to raise the swamp land above the tidal range.

The 1988 facilities included: a domestic terminal; state-of-the-art maintenance facilities; freight apron at the existing passenger terminal; two runways (3500. m and 1700. m ) with parallel taxiway systems (cater for Code F+ aircraft); access roads; parking facilities and a 75 m tall air traffic control tower.

In September 1995, the international terminal was inaugurated by Prime Minister Paul Keating, and it has been expanded since that time.

Privatisation
In 1997, as part of the privatisation of numerous Australian airports, the airport was acquired for $1.4 billion from the Federal Airports Corporation by Brisbane Airport Corporation (BAC) under a 50-year lease (with an option to renew for a further 49 years). The original BAC shareholders were Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, Brisbane City Council, Commonwealth Bank and Port of Brisbane Corporation. Since that time, BAC has assumed ultimate responsibility for the operations of Brisbane Airport including all airport infrastructure investment with no government funding. As at January 2024, the major shareholders were Queensland Investment Corporation (29%), Igneo Infrastructure Partners (27%), Amsterdam Airport Schiphol (20%) and IFM Investors (20%). Brisbane Airport is categorised as a Leased Federal Airport.

On 30 March 2020, runway 14/32 was decommissioned early as part of Brisbane's new runway 'Operational Readiness & Testing' phase so that the newly decommissioned cross runway could be used for aircraft parking.

In May 2020, construction of a new runway was completed. Its first flight was operated by Virgin Australia, flight VA781 to Cairns, on 12 July 2020.

Terminals
Brisbane Airport has two passenger terminals.

International terminal
The international terminal was built in 1995 and has 14 bays with aerobridges, four of these are capable of handling A380s. There are also four layover bays. The terminal has four levels: level 1 houses most airline offices and baggage handlers, level 2 handles arrivals, level 3 houses the departure lounge (airside) and other offices (landside), and level 4 houses departure check-in.

The airport contains an Emirates lounge, the first outside Dubai that has direct access to the A380 aerobridges, and also has Air New Zealand, Qantas, Singapore Airlines, Aspire and Plaza Premium lounges.

There is also a five-storey long term carpark and a smaller short term carpark in close proximity to the terminal.

The international terminal redevelopment began in February 2014. The $45 million redevelopment is designed by Brisbane architectural practices Richards and Spence and Arkhefield. Queensland artists, Sebastian Moody and Mirdidingkingathi Juwarnda Sally Gabori, were commissioned for the artworks.

Domestic terminal
Brisbane Airport's domestic terminal is a two-storey curved building with three complete satellite arms extending beyond the building providing additional passenger lounge and gate facilities for airlines.

The domestic terminal has three distinct areas serving Qantas and QantasLink at the northern end of the building and Virgin Australia at the southern end of the building with other carriers such as Jetstar located in the central area of the terminal.

The Qantas concourse has nine bays served by aerobridges including one served by a dual bridge. It has three lounges – The Qantas Club, Business Class and Chairman's Lounge. Virgin Australia occupies what was the former Ansett Australia end of the terminal. Its concourse has 11 parking bays, nine of which are served by aerobridges including two served by a dual bridge. It has two lounges – the Virgin Australia Lounge which is located in the former Golden Wing Club opposite Gate 41 and the Beyond Lounge.

Remote bays are located to the north and south of the building (serving non-jet aircraft), and in the central area (serving jet aircraft).

On 27 February 2014, Qantas announced it had disposed of its long-term lease (signed in 1987) at the domestic terminal which was due to expire on 30 December 2018. Under the new arrangements, Qantas retains exclusive use and operational control over much of the northern end of the terminal until the end of 2018 while securing rights to key infrastructure beyond this period.

In addition, BAC plans to make a significant investment in upgrading and improving facilities and services within the terminal, such as lounges and will assume control of the retail space of this part of the terminal.

AVCAIR FBO & VIP Lounge and Brisbane Jet Base
Brisbane has two FBO Lounge and Operation Facilities, located on the North Apron (Brisbane Jet Base) and South Logistics Apron (AVCAIR FBO) of Brisbane Airport. The AVCAIR facility handles VIP and FIFO (fly-in fly-out) movements including Ad hoc Military, Medical and Charter flights and offers direct airside access for VIP movements.

Other tenants
There are several operators of emergency medical retrieval and rescue services based at the airport, including LifeFlight Australia, the Royal Flying Doctor Service and AVCAIR.

Private car
Brisbane Airport has four car-parks, all operating 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. There are 2 multi-level undercover car parks, the international, providing short and long term services, and the domestic also provides long and short term parking. Qantas and Virgin Australia also offer Valet Parking at the domestic terminal only. Total car spaces number 9,000.

Rail
The airport has two railway stations as part of a privately owned airport rail line. The International Airport railway station is elevated and located next to the international terminal, as is the Domestic Airport railway station. Both stations are privately owned and operated by the Airtrain Citylink consortium. As a result, fares are more expensive than a regular suburban ticket however less than half the taxi fare. The Airtrain Citylink travels via the Queensland Rail network to Fortitude Valley and the Brisbane CBD, with most trains continuing to the Gold Coast via South Bank.

Public bus
There is a free inter-terminal bus connecting the two terminals and the nearby Skygate shopping precinct, DFO and adjacent Novotel Brisbane Airport hotel.

From the Skygate shopping precinct, Translink bus route 590 connects to the rest of Brisbane's public transport system.

New parallel runway
On 18 September 2007, the federal government granted approval for the construction of a new parallel runway. The proposed $1.3 billion, 3300 m runway was expected to take approximately eight years to construct and was constructed on swamp land 2 km west of the existing terminal area and parallel to the existing main runway. The long construction period was due to the settling period of the 13000000 m3 of sand fill dredged from Moreton Bay. In early December 2014 the delivery of 11000000 m3 of sand to the site was completed. In 2019, asphalting of the second runway had begun and was completed by late 2019, while mid February 2020 saw the start of the line-marking of the runway. The runway was completed on 30 April 2020 after over eight years of construction at a cost of over $1 billion. It opened officially on 12 July 2020 with a Virgin Australia flight to Cairns was the first to take off from the new runway.

Road infrastructure
To help relieve congestion between Brisbane and the airport, the Queensland Government, Brisbane City Council, and a Thiess/John Holland/Macquarie Bank consortium (BrisConnections) built the Airport Link project. It included the longest tunnel in Australia at the time of construction (over 8 km; 6 lanes) from the interchange between the Inner City Bypass and Clem Jones Tunnel (the 2nd longest tunnel in Australia when the Airport Link opened) to the Airport Flyover over an improved Southern Cross Way Overpass which leads on to Airport Drive, cutting 16 sets of traffic lights. It was completed in mid-2012.

The Northern Access Road project, completed in December 2009, significantly reduces traffic congestion on Airport Drive. Moreton Drive, the 5 km, multi-lane road network, linking Gateway Motorway with the airport terminals, provides airport users with a second major access route to terminals and on-airport businesses.

Cycling Network
Brisbane Airport has cycling and pedestrian connections connecting to the Moreton Bay Bikeway network.

Brisbane Centre
The Brisbane FIR consists of New South Wales north of Sydney, all of Queensland, most of the Northern Territory and the northern half of Western Australia. It also contains the Australian Tasman Sea airspace. Brisbane Centre is located adjacent to Brisbane Tower at Brisbane Airport. It also contains Brisbane Approach.

Due to the nature of the airspace it controls, most international flights in and out of Australia (except Indian Ocean flights) come under the Brisbane FIR's jurisdiction, as well as domestic flights operating to and from airports within the zone. From Brisbane Centre, Airservices Australia manages the airspace over the northern half of Australia, representing 5 per cent of the world's total airspace. As only two of eight capitals are located in the Brisbane FIR, it handles a lesser volume of traffic than Melbourne Centre. However, Sydney is on the border of the two FIRs, and thus Brisbane Centre has control of flights arriving or departing in Sydney from the North.

Traffic and statistics
Brisbane Airport's annual passenger numbers were 23.1 million in 2017 and is expected to grow to around 50 million by 2035

Awards

Brisbane Airport has won a number of awards; including being rated as Australia's No. 1 airport for quality of service 10 years in a row (2005–2014 inclusive) in a survey by the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission, and being ranked as 3rd Best Airport in the world (for airports servicing between 20 and 30 million passengers per year). In 2015, it was reported as the fourth-best medium-sized airport for on-time arrivals and departures. The international terminal won the Queensland architecture award. In 2005 Brisbane Airport was awarded the IATA Eagle Award, the second of only two Australian airports to receive such an award.

Accidents and incidents

 * On 15 February 2012, a Toll Aviation Fairchild Metro III freighter came to rest on its fuselage at about 2:30 am. Neither of the two pilots were injured. The landing gear on the light plane failed to go down during testing after maintenance.
 * On 18 July 2018, a Malaysian Airlines Airbus A330 took off from Brisbane with pitot tube covers still in place, resulting in unreliable airspeed indications and the aircraft diverting back to Brisbane. Airport ground staff had placed covers on the pitot tubes to prevent mud wasps nesting in them (a common hazard at Brisbane Airport), and the pilots, engineers and ground staff failed to check the covers were removed prior to departure.
 * On 1 July 2022, an Emirates Airbus A380 performing Flight 430 from Dubai landed at Brisbane Airport with a hole on the left side of its fuselage. A missing bolt and cap was found on the aircraft's nose landing gear after it parked. Damage allegedly occurred on takeoff and the pilots reported a blown tire before landing, but investigation is ongoing.

Notable people

 * Julieanne Alroe, chief executive officer of Brisbane Airport Corporation July 2009 – June 2018

title: Brisbane Airport


text:
Talk:José Rizal

reversion re Bob Couttie
This edit caught my eye. I've reverted it without much thought or research, hoping for some WP:BRD discussion here, even though I'm currently busy outside of WP and may not be able to participate. The edit removed "Constantino's analysis has been criticised [...]" from the article, saying:. Well, yes. However, the scribd essay says only that Constantino's "Veneration Without Understanding" has been unchallenged for decades, until now [, but] Bob Couttie has put it in a new and disturbing light]" -- that is, neither the essay nor scribd take a POV position other than to cast Couttie in the light of a source deserving of consideration based on credentials they summarize. The essay says that Couttie "puts Constantino under the microscope" but, unfortunately, does not cite a source where the details of Couttie's microscopic analysis can be examined. Can we trust scribd not to blow Coutties bonafides out of proportion and not to misrepresent its assertion that Couttie has looked through that miscroscope and, in some undisclosed forum, reported what he thinks he saw there? If the answer to that is yes, it seems to me that this ought to stay in or (better) be replaced with an assertion which cites a supporting source which discusses what Couttie sees through his microscope.

OTOH, I see that Bob Couttie is a redlink. Perhaps Couttie doesn't meet WP:GNG and his writings don't meet WP:DUE. (written in a rush) Wtmitchell (talk) (earlier Boracay Bill) 17:50, 9 December 2019 (UTC)

 * what are you going stunt 158.62.50.107 (talk) 13:31, 6 July 2023 (UTC)

Introduction
In the introduction it says he is 'tagged as the national hero of the filipino people'. I'm guessing this was written/translated by someone without english as the first language but either way as written the wording feels clumsy.

I think it is.Khamer Jun Manalo (chat) 07:45, 4 April 2021 (UTC)

Done. Khamer Jun Manalo (chat) 07:48, 4 April 2021 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 16 January 2021
Please Change "A plaque marks the Heidelberg building where he trained with Professor Becker while in Wilhemsfeld. There is a small Rizal Park in that city where a bronze statue of Rizal stands. The street where he lived was also renamed after him. A sandstone fountain in Pastor Ullmer's house garden where Rizal lived in Wilhelmsfeld, was given to the Philippine government and is now located at Rizal Park in Manila"

to "A plaque marks the Heidelberg building where he trained with Professor Becker while in Wilhemsfeld. There is a small Rizal Park in that city where a bronze statue of Rizal stands. The street where he lived was also renamed after him. A sandstone fountain in Pastor Ullmer's house garden where Rizal lived in Wilhelmsfeld, was given to the Philippine government and is now located at Rizal Park in Manila. In Addition, one of the banks of the Neckar river in Heidelberg is named Rizal Bank. A memorial stone was placed there in 2014." " 2003:C9:7F0D:3154:F4CB:75BF:A750:6A09 (talk) 22:17, 16 January 2021 (UTC)
 * ✅ ◢  Ganbaruby!   (Say hi!) 06:22, 19 January 2021 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 3 February 2021
On the picture -Execution of Filipino insurgents. May I request to change the word INSURGENT? This is a defamatory word to our countrymen who fought for our freedom. Use words like Filipino patriots, and the like, instead. Thank you. Maestro2333 (talk) 13:01, 3 February 2021 (UTC)

 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: "Filipino patriots" would almost certainly be a violation of WP:NPOV. I don't think "insurgent" is a particularly morally loaded word (let alone one that would be "defamatory" in this case) so I personally don't see a problem with it, but if you still see an issue you are welcome to discuss it on this talk page and establish consensus for a change. Given however it is language accepted at the page for the Philippine Revolution I don't think this will be likely. Volteer1 (talk) 13:38, 3 February 2021 (UTC)

Edit
Jose Rizal is NOT considered as The Philippine National Hero, no law, executive order, or declaration that he is the national hero Dogelol (talk) 12:01, 27 June 2021 (UTC)

 * Kindly have a look at this section of the article, please. ᜋᜊᜆ᜔ (talk) 22:53, 30 January 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 23 September 2022
I would suggest that you add a mention of a statue of José Rizal in Cådiz, Spain. This could go in the section: Sikheang (talk) 16:32, 23 September 2022 (UTC) "Monuments erected in his honor can be found in Madrid;[141] Tokyo;[142] Wilhelmsfeld, Germany; Jinjiang, Fujian, China; Chicago;[143] Jersey City; Cherry Hill Township, New Jersey; Honolulu;[144] San Diego;[145] Los Angeles including the suburbs Carson and West Covina (both near Seafood City, Mexico City, Mexico;[146] Lima, Peru;[147] Litomerice, Czech Republic;[148] Toronto;[149] Markham;[150] and Montreal, Quebec, Canada.[151]"

The statue of Rizal in Cádiz is in the Parque Alameda Apodaca. I visited it in November 2021 and have a photo which I can provide you with. [I don't think I can attach it to this message, but if I can, please let me know.]

As a source about this statue, you can go to: https://www.philembassymadrid.com/rizal-bust-inaugurated-cadiz-commemorate-11th-philippines-spain-friendship-day

Sikheang (talk) 16:32, 23 September 2022 (UTC)
 * ✅ --Pinchme123 (talk) 02:10, 6 October 2022 (UTC)

Mathematics
I want pa solb Nako Ang issigment ni ma'am please help us you now 210.185.176.151 (talk) 10:22, 3 January 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 13 March 2024
change bierbrauerie to bierbrauerei 41.116.228.35 (talk) 17:53, 13 March 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅ Sincerely, Guessitsavis (she/they) (Talk) 13:38, 15 March 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 17 April 2024
Fix this link for "Calamba, Laguna" in the infobox per MOS:GEOLINK. 188.27.245.209 (talk) 13:55, 17 April 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅  (talk | contribs) 13:59, 17 April 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 15 May 2024
In 2022 The Dutch composer Lowell Dykstra wrote a cantata for mixed choir, soloists and wind quintet, based on José Rizal's poem "Song of the wanderer" Oerkommeling (talk) 17:30, 15 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. Jamedeus (talk) 17:44, 15 May 2024 (UTC)

All about Jose rizal
Talambuhay ni Jose Rizal 2001:FD8:2108:6DFF:ED80:AB62:F942:790E (talk) 05:23, 19 May 2024 (UTC)

Full name
Where does this name come from? There is no academic source for it, and there is no record of him ever writing that name himself. His baptismal certificate simply lists him as "Jose Rizal Mercado". Does it come from his birth certificate, and, if so, where is it? Should this name be there or should we just put 'Jose Rizal Mercado'? — V ORTEX  3427 (Talk!) 13:55, 17 June 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 16 July 2024
In "Agnostiko ORIGINS" it is heavily implied that the man in the prison cell reading the journal is José Rizal. Mr. Plague is planning to break him out of his cell to use in his experiment, the events of that game happened a few days before his execution. Videogameresearcherfact (talk) 04:59, 16 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Charliehdb (talk) 07:05, 17 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:José Rizal


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User:Michael Shields

This is a stub page.

Michael Shields

title: User:Michael Shields


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Perote, Veracruz

Perote is a city and municipality in the Mexican state of Veracruz. The city serves as the seat of government for the surrounding municipality of the same name, with a population 42,451 inhabitants as 2020, while the municipality population is of 77,432. Perote borders the municipalitys of Las Vigas de Ramírez, Acajete, Xico and Tlalnelhuayocan, and the state of Puebla. It is on Federal Highway 140.

Its climate is cold and dry with an annual average temperature of 12 degrees Celsius.

Perote's fortress of San Carlos once served as a prison. Guadalupe Victoria died there.

Also in Perote is the Cofre de Perote shield-shaped volcano (the Nahuatl name of which was "Naucampatepetl," which means "four times lord").

This town is the home of a sizable Spanish community which immigrated here in the 1930s. Because of this, it is known for Spanish-style cured meats and sausage such as jamón serrano (serrano ham), botifarra (Catalán sausage), and Spanish chorizo sausage.

title: Perote, Veracruz


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Bohemian Grove

The Bohemian Grove is a restricted 2,700-acre (1,100 ha) campground in Monte Rio, California. Founded in 1878, it belongs to a private gentlemen's club known as the Bohemian Club. In mid-July each year, the Bohemian Grove hosts a more than two-week encampment of some of the most prominent men in the world.

History
The tradition of a summer encampment was established six years after the Bohemian Club was formed in 1872. Henry "Harry" Edwards, a stage actor and founding member, announced that he was relocating to New York City to further his career. On June 29, 1878, somewhat fewer than 100 Bohemians gathered in the Redwoods in Marin County near Taylorville (present-day Samuel P. Taylor State Park) for an evening sendoff party in Edwards' honor. Freely flowing liquor and some Japanese lanterns put a glow on the festivities, and club members retired at a late hour to the modest comfort of blankets laid on the dense mat of Redwood needles. This festive gathering was repeated the next year without Edwards, and became the club's yearly encampment. By 1882 the members of the Club camped together at various locations in both Marin and Sonoma County, including the present-day Muir Woods and a redwood grove that once stood near Duncans Mills, several miles down the Russian River from the current location. From 1893 Bohemians rented the current location, and in 1899 purchased it from Melvin Cyrus Meeker who had developed a successful logging operation in the area. Gradually over the next decades, members of the Club purchased land surrounding the original location to the perimeter of the basin in which it resides.

Writer and journalist William Henry Irwin said of the Grove, "You come upon it suddenly. One step and its glory is over you. There is no perspective; you cannot get far enough away from one of the trees to see it as a whole. There they stand, a world of height above you, their pinnacles hidden by their topmost fringes of branches or lost in the sky."

Not long after the club's establishment by newspaper journalists, it was commandeered by prominent San Francisco-based businessmen, who provided the financial resources necessary to acquire further land and facilities at the Grove. However, they still retained the "bohemians"—the artists and musicians—who continued to entertain international members and guests.

The Grove is particularly famous for a Manhattan Project planning meeting that took place there in September 1942, which subsequently led to the atomic bomb. Those attending this meeting included Ernest Lawrence, J. Robert Oppenheimer, the S-1 Executive Committee heads, such as the presidents of Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, along with representatives of Standard Oil and General Electric as well as various military officials. At the time, Oppenheimer was not an S-1 member, although Lawrence and Oppenheimer hosted the meeting. Grove members take particular pride in this event and often relate the story to new attendees.

Former U.S. president Herbert Hoover was inducted into the Old Guard on March 4, 1953; he had joined the club exactly 40 years prior, which is the requirement for the status. Redwood branches from the Grove were flown to the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York City, where they were used to decorate a banquet room for the celebration. In his acceptance speech, Hoover compared the honor of the "Old Guard" status to his frequent role as veteran counselor to later presidents.

Other behavior at the campground has led to numerous claims and even some parody in popular culture. One example was President Richard Nixon's comments from a May 13, 1971, tape recording talking about upper-class San Franciscans: "The Bohemian Grove, which I attend from time to time—it is the most faggy goddamned thing you could ever imagine, with that San Francisco crowd."

In 2019, the Sonoma County Board of Supervisors informed the club that after that year, the county would no longer provide law enforcement security.

Despite the high levels of security always present, there have been numerous high-profile successful infiltrations of the Bohemian Grove:

 * In the summer of 1980, Rick Clogher gained entrance to the Grove with the help of an employee and posed as a worker during two weekends of the annual encampment. His efforts, the first magazine reporting from inside the Grove, were published in the August 1981 issue of Mother Jones. Around the same time, ABC Evening News aired a special report on the Bohemian Grove.
 * In the summer of 1989, Spy magazine writer Philip Weiss spent seven days in the camp posing as a guest, which led to his November 1989 article "Inside the Bohemian Grove". He was eventually discovered and arrested for trespassing.
 * On July 15, 2000, Alex Jones and his cameraman Mike Hanson clandestinely entered the Bohemian Grove and shot footage of the Cremation of Care ceremony. Jones claimed it was a "ritual sacrifice". From this footage, documentary filmmaker Jon Ronson produced the episode "The Satanic Shadowy Elite?", in which he characterizes the proceedings as an "overgrown frat party", while Jones produced "Dark Secrets Inside Bohemian Grove", describing what he said were Satanic rituals.
 * On January 19, 2002, 37-year-old Richard McCaslin was arrested after his nighttime infiltration of the Bohemian Grove, where he set several fires. He was heavily armed and wearing a skull mask and outfit with "Phantom Patriot" written across the chest.

Membership and operation
The Bohemian Club is a private club; only active members and their guests may visit. Guests have been known to include politicians and notable figures from other countries. Particularly during the midsummer encampment, the number of guests is strictly limited due to the small size of the facilities.

The Bohemian Club's all-male membership includes artists and musicians, as well as many prominent business leaders, government officials, former U.S. presidents, senior media executives, and people of power. Members may invite guests to the Grove. Guests may be invited to the Grove for either the "Spring Jinks" in June or the main July encampment. Bohemian Club members can schedule private day-use events at the Grove any time it is not being used for Club-wide purposes, and they are allowed at these times to bring spouses, family, and friends, although female and minor guests must be off the property by 9 or 10 pm.

After 40 years of membership, the men earn "Old Guard" status, giving them reserved seating at the Grove's daily talks, as well as other perks.

The Club motto is "Weaving Spiders Come Not Here," which implies that outside concerns and business deals (networking) are to be left outside. When gathered in groups, Bohemians usually adhere to the injunction, although discussion of business often occurs between pairs of members. Important political and business deals have been developed at the Grove.

Facilities
The main encampment area consists of 160 acre of old-growth redwood trees over 1,000 years old, some over 300 ft tall.

Sleeping quarters, or "camps", are also scattered throughout the grove. There were 118 as of 2007. These camps, which are frequently patrilineal, are the principal means through which high-level business and political contacts and friendships are formed.

The preeminent camps are:
 * Hill Billies
 * Mandalay
 * Cave Man
 * Stowaway
 * Uplifters
 * Owls Nest
 * Hideaway
 * Isle of Aves
 * Lost Angels
 * Silverado Squatters
 * Sempervirens
 * Hillside
 * Idlewild

The Grove features the following gathering places:
 * Grove Stage – an amphitheater with seating for 2,000, used primarily for the Grove Play production, on the last weekend of the midsummer encampment. The stage extends up the hillside.
 * Field Circle – a bowl-shaped amphitheater used for the mid-encampment "Low Jinks" musical comedy, for "Spring Jinks" in early June and for a variety of other performances.
 * Campfire Circle – has a campfire pit in the center of the circle, surrounded by carved redwood log benches. Used for smaller performances in a more intimate setting.
 * Museum Stage – a semi-outdoor venue with a covered stage. Lectures and small ensemble performances.
 * Dining Circle – seating approximately 1,500 diners simultaneously.
 * Clubhouse – designed by Bernard Maybeck in 1903, completed in 1904 on a bluff overlooking the Russian River; a multi-purpose dining, drinking and entertainment building; the site of the Manhattan Project planning meeting held in 1942.
 * The Owl Shrine and the Lake – an artificial lake in the interior of the Grove, used for the noon-time concerts and also the venue of the Cremation of Care, which takes place on the first Saturday of the encampment. It is also the location of the 12:30 p.m. daily "Lakeside Talks." These significant informal talks (many on public policy issues) have been given over the years by entertainers, professors, astronauts, business leaders, cabinet officers, Central Intelligence Agency directors, future presidents and former presidents.

Camp valets
Camp valets are responsible for the operation of the individual camps. The head valets are akin to general managers at a resort, club, restaurant, or hotel. Service staff include female workers whose presence at the Grove is limited to daylight hours and central areas close to the main gate. Male workers may be housed at the Grove within the boundaries of the camp to which they are assigned or in peripheral service areas. High-status workers stay in small private quarters, but most are housed in rustic bunkhouses.

Security
The Bohemian Grove is protected by a sophisticated security team year-round. The Bohemian Club employs ex-military personnel to help secure the area. They use high-end security equipment, including thermal/night vision cameras, motion detectors, and vibration sensing alarm systems. The level of security is particularly heightened during the time periods that members are on-site. During these times, the local Sheriff's office, California Highway Patrol, and, if warranted by the guest-list, the United States Secret Service help to secure the areas and roads surrounding the encampment.

Women
Although no woman has ever been given full membership in the Bohemian Club, the four female honorary members were hostess Margaret Bowman, poet Ina Coolbrith (who served as librarian for the club), actress Elizabeth Crocker Bowers, and writer Sara Jane Lippincott. Since Coolbrith's death in 1928, no other woman has been made a member. These honorary members and other female guests have been allowed into the Bohemian "City Club" building and as daytime guests of the Grove, but not to the upper floors of the City Club nor as guests to the main summer encampment at the Grove. Annual "Ladies' Jinks" were held at the Club especially for spouses and invited guests.

In 2019, Sonoma County Board of Supervisors member Lynda Hopkins, who was elected to the district encompassing the Grove, wrote an open letter criticizing the role the Bohemian Club had in making it difficult for women to get into politics, their lack of investment in the community despite members' personal wealth, and the anachronistic and hegemonic attitudes she felt described the Grove.

Symbols
The club's patron saint is John of Nepomuk, who, according to legend, died at the hands of a Bohemian monarch rather than disclose the confessional secrets of the queen. A large wood carving of St. John in cleric robes with his index finger over his lips stands at the shore of the lake in the Grove, symbolizing the secrecy kept by the Grove's attendees throughout its long history.

Since the founding of the club, the Bohemian Grove's mascot has been an owl, symbolizing wisdom. A 30 ft hollow owl statue made of concrete over steel supports stands at the head of the lake in the Grove. This statue was designed by sculptor and two-time club president Haig Patigian. It was constructed in the late 1920s. Since 1929, the Owl Shrine has served as the backdrop of the yearly Cremation of Care ceremony.

Cremation of Care

The Cremation of Care ceremony is a theatrical production in which some of the club's members participate as actors. It was first conducted in 1881. The production was devised by James F. Bowman with George T. Bromley playing the High Priest. It was originally set up within the plot of the serious "High Jinks" dramatic performance on the first weekend of the summer encampment, after which the spirit of "Care", slain by the Jinks hero, was solemnly cremated. The ceremony served as a catharsis for pent-up high spirits, and "to present symbolically the salvation of the trees by the club ..." The Cremation of Care was separated from the other Grove Plays in 1913 and moved to the first night to become "an exorcising of the Demon to ensure the success of the ensuing two weeks." The Grove Play was moved to the last weekend of the encampment.

The ceremony takes place in front of the Owl Shrine. The moss- and lichen-covered statue simulates a natural rock formation, yet holds electrical and audio equipment within it. For many years, a recording of the voice of club member Walter Cronkite was used as the voice of The Owl during the ceremony.

Grove Play
Each year, a Grove Play is performed for one night during the final weekend of the summer encampment. The play is a large-scale musical theatrical production, written and composed by club members, involving some 300 people, including chorus, cast, stage crew and orchestra. The first Grove Play was performed in 1902; for three years during World War II (1943–45) the stage was dark. In 1975, an observer estimated that the Grove Play cost between $20,000 and $30,000, an amount that would be as high as $0 in today's dollars.

Women's employment
In 1978, the Bohemian Club was charged with discrimination by the California Department of Fair Employment and Housing over its refusal to hire female employees. In January 1981, an administrative law judge issued a decision supporting the practices of the club, noting that club members at the Grove "urinate in the open without even the use of rudimentary toilet facilities" and that the presence of females would alter club members' behavior. However, the judge's decision was overruled by the State Fair Employment and Housing Commission, which on October 17, 1981, ordered the club to begin recruiting and hiring women as employees.

The Bohemian Club then filed a petition in California Superior Court, which ruled in favor of the club, finding "the male gender [to be] a bona fide occupational qualification." It was revealed that the trial judge had previously participated in club activities, yet the request that he be disqualified was denied. The Fair Employment and Housing Commission appealed to the California Court of Appeal which reversed the lower court's decision, holding that the Bohemian Club's private status did not shield it from the "same rules which govern all California employers." The Supreme Court of California denied review in 1987, effectively forcing the club to begin hiring female workers during the summer encampment at the Grove in Monte Rio. This ruling became quoted as a legal precedent and was discussed during the 1995–96 floor debate surrounding California Senate Bill SB 2110, a proposed law concerning whether tax-exempt organizations (including fraternal clubs) should be exempt from the Unruh Civil Rights Act.

Logging
Outside the central camp area, which is the site of the old-growth grove, but within the 2712 acre owned by the Bohemian Club, logging activities have been underway since 1984. Approximately 11,000,000 board feet of lumber equivalents were removed from the surrounding redwood and Douglas fir forest from 1984 to 2007. The club's forester, Edward Tunheim, resigned his post in 2006 over club pressure to increase logging. Tunheim was concerned that excessive logging would encourage more brushy undergrowth and thus increase the fire danger.

In 2007, the Bohemian Club board filed an application for a nonindustrial logging permit available to landowners with less than 2500 acre of timberland, which would allow them to steadily increase their logging in the second-growth stands from 800000 board feet per year to 1700000 board feet over the course of the 50-year permit. The board had been advised by Tom Bonnicksen, a retired forestry professor, that they should conduct group selection logging to reduce the risk of fire burning through the dense second-growth stands, damaging the old-growth forest the Club wants to protect.

The Club stated that an expansion of logging activities was needed to prevent fires, and that money made from the sale of the lumber would be used to stabilize access roads and to clear fire-promoting species such as tanoaks and underbrush. The California Department of Fish and Wildlife instead recommended single-tree logging to preserve the habitats of murrelets and spotted owls in senescent trees. Philip Rundel, a University of California, Berkeley professor of biology, said that redwoods are not very flammable and "This is clearly a logging project, not a project to reduce fire hazard". Reed F. Noss, a professor at the University of California, Davis, has written that fires within redwood forests do not need to be prevented, that young redwoods are adapted to regenerate well in the destruction left behind by the fires typical of the climate.

After controversy raised by opponents of the harvesting plan, the Club moved to establish their qualification for the permit by offering 163 acre to the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation in Missoula, Montana, for a conservation easement. A further 56.75 acre were written off as not being available for commercial logging, bringing the total to 2316 acre and thereby qualifying for the permit. Opponents and their lawyers interpreted the relevant law as counting all timberland and not just the portion subject to the logging permit. They stated that if the total of timberland is counted, 2535.75 acre are owned by the Club, so the permit should not be granted.

On March 10, 2011, Judge René A. Chouteau rejected the Non-Industrial Timber Management Plan (NTMP) that the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection had approved. The suit, brought by the Sierra Club and the Bohemian Redwood Rescue Club, sought to have the NTMP annulled. The ruling called on the Bohemian Club to draft a new NTMP offering alternatives to its proposed rate of logging. At present the Bohemian Club is not allowed to log any of its property.

title: Bohemian Grove


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Redpoll

The redpolls (genus Acanthis) (in Great Britain also historically known as redpoles) are a group of small passerine birds in the finch family Fringillidae, which have characteristic red markings on their heads. They are placed in the genus Acanthis. The genus name Acanthis is from the Ancient Greek akanthis, a name for a small now unidentifiable bird.

All redpolls are northern breeding woodland species, associated with birch trees (although there are introduced populations in the southern hemisphere, New Zealand, and nearby subantarctic islands). They are small birds, brown or grey-brown above and with a red forehead patch. The adult male's breast is washed in red, but in females and young birds, the buff breast and white belly are streaked with brown. The bill is small and yellow. Some birds, particularly young ones, are difficult to assign to species.

They are primarily seed-eaters, and often feed acrobatically like a tit; their diet may include some insects in summer. They have a dry reeling song and a metallic call. They lay four to seven eggs in a nest in a tree or, in the case of the Arctic redpoll, a large bush. They can form large flocks outside the breeding season, sometimes mixed with other finches.

Taxonomy
The taxonomy of redpolls is unsettled, with several different very closely related forms of redpolls which have been considered as anything from one to five species. Some studies favour three species, but this is certainly not definite. Global lists currently support either two species (the common and hoary redpoll) or a single species (the common redpoll). Most recently, genome-wide analyses found differences in gene expression but no genetic divergence, suggesting that plumage forms have originated recently, within a single interbreeding lineage, and do not represent species boundaries.

Species
The species are:

title: Redpoll


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Hector Rason

Sir Cornthwaite Hector William James Rason (18 June 1858 – 15 March 1927), better known as Hector Rason, was the seventh Premier of Western Australia.

Early life
Rason was born in Cleeve, Somerset, in England on 18 June 1858. He was the son of Cornthwaite Hector Rason (Snr), a Royal Navy surgeon who was the medical officer at York, Western Australia, in 1866 and 1867. Rason (Jnr) was educated at private schools in Eastbourne, Brighton and Reading, and worked as a railway clerk.

Business career
In October 1880, Rason emigrated to Perth, Australia, but returned to England after eighteen months. In February 1883, he married Mary E. Terry, and shortly afterwards returned to Western Australia with his wife and her brother, W. R. Terry. Rason and Terry set up business as storekeepers at Toodyay and Guildford, but after a few years Terry returned to England. Rason then went into partnership with a Mr Webster, and attempted to benefit from the gold rushes in the Kimberley and Goldfields regions. Rason also spent some time in Coolgardie trading as a mining engineer and auctioneer. He retired from business in 1891, but was affected by the firm's bankruptcy in 1892. From 1893 to 1895 he was a mining agent and auctioneer in Coolgardie, and in 1896 he moved to Mount Magnet. From 1897 to 1898, Rason was Mayor of the Municipality of Guildford.

Politics
In January 1889, Rason was elected to the Western Australian Legislative Council for the Swan district. He was a strong supporter of responsible government, and left the Council in October 1890 after responsible government had been established. In 1897 he was elected to the Western Australian Legislative Assembly seat of South Murchison, sitting as a supporter of Sir John Forrest's government. In 1898, he was appointed president of the royal commission on mining. The seat of South Murchison was abolished in 1901, and Rason won the Legislative Assembly seat of Guildford in the general elections of April 1901. When George Leake formed his second government in December 1901, Rason was appointed minister for works, holding responsibility for administration of the Coolgardie Water Scheme. Under Walter James' premiership from July 1902 until August 1904, he was minister for works and railways, and was also treasurer for a few months from April 1904. After Labor took office in August 1904, he became Leader of the Opposition.

Rason became Premier, Treasurer and Minister for Justice on 25 August 1905, after Henry Daglish's Labor government was defeated. Like Daglish, Rason did not have a majority of support, but he was granted an early dissolution in October, and easily won the subsequent general election. Later that year he headed the royal commission on immigration.

Later life
Rason did not provide firm leadership as premier, and was dogged by family and financial worries. In May 1906 he appointed himself as Agent General for Western Australia in London before resigning as premier to take up the post, an action which drew strong criticism. He held the post until 1911, after which he pursued a business career in Britain. He also became Chairman of the Bode Rubber Estates (1914) Ltd., a company which cultivated natural rubber in British North Borneo. He was made Knight Bachelor in 1909. He died at Beckenham, Kent, in England on 15 March 1927.

title: Hector Rason