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Pulaski Skyway

The Pulaski Skyway is a four-lane bridge-causeway in the northeastern part of the U.S. state of New Jersey, carrying a freeway designated U.S. Route 1/9 (US 1/9) for most of its length. The structure has a total length of 3.502 miles. Its longest bridge spans 550 ft. Traveling between Newark and Jersey City, the roadway crosses the Passaic and Hackensack rivers, Kearny Point, the peninsula between them, and the New Jersey Meadowlands.

Designed by Sigvald Johannesson, the General Casimir Pulaski Skyway opened in 1932 as the last part of the Route 1 Extension, one of the first freeways or "super-highways" in the United States, to provide a connection to the Holland Tunnel. One of several major projects built during the reign of Hudson County political boss Frank Hague, its construction was a source of political and labor disputes. The viaduct is listed in the state and federal registers of historic places.

Unpredictable traffic congestion and its functionally obsolete design make the Skyway one of the most unreliable roads in the United States. , the bridges handle about 74,000 crossings per day, none of which were by trucks since they had been barred from the road in 1934. The bridges have been altered little since opening. In 2007, the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) began a rehabilitation program, which it estimated would cost more than $1 billion and required intermittent closures. The Skyway was closed to eastbound traffic from 2014 to 2018.

Description
Sources differ on the length and terminal points of the skyway, which was built as part of the 13 mi long Route 1 Extension. The National Bridge Inventory identifies the Hudson County section as 4543.5 m long and the Essex County section as 1094.8 m. In a historic roadway and bridge study for NJDOT, it was described as 16000 ft long. NJDOT has indicated the overall length of the bridge structures to be 3.5 mi and identified the Hudson County section as 14900 ft long. Other sources, along with the National Register of Historic Places, The New York Times, and The Star-Ledger, describe it as being 3.5 mi long.

The four-lane skyway carries the US 1/9 concurrency for most its length, and a short section of Route 139 for the rest. While the skyway generally runs east–west between Newark and Jersey City, US 1 and US 9 are generally north–south routes. The west end of the skyway begins as US 1/9 roadway ascends and passes over Raymond Boulevard in Newark's Ironbound neighborhood. At Tonnele Circle, US 1/9 exits to grade and follows Tonnele Avenue north towards the Lincoln Tunnel and George Washington Bridge as Route 139 begins on the skyway, over the traffic circle. While the road continues to the Holland Tunnel, the skyway soon comes to its eastern end at a cut in Bergen Hill, just west of John F. Kennedy Boulevard, where Route 139 runs under the viaduct of Route 139U (the upper level). In addition to crossing the Hackensack and the Passaic, the skyway also passes over, not under, the Chaplain Washington-Harry Laderman Bridges and the New Jersey Turnpike (I-95), with which it has no interchange. Under most of the skyway in Newark is other vehicular, rail, maritime, and industrial infrastructure built on landfilled wetlands of the New Jersey Meadowlands.

Some maps, including one of Newark (1938) and one of Elizabeth (1967), labeled the US 1/9 southern approach starting north of Newark Airport as the Pulaski Skyway. An NJDOT single line diagram (2010) shows the General Pulaski Skyway starting at mile post 49.00 of U.S. 1/9, which is just north of the renamed Newark Liberty International Airport. Google Maps includes the Route 139 eastern approach.

There is limited intermediate access to the skyway: two single-lane ramps rise to the inner lanes of the elevated structure, requiring traffic to enter or exit from the left providing access at the Marion Section (southbound entrance and northbound exit only ) of Jersey City and South Kearny (northbound entrance and southbound exit only ).

Trucks have been prohibited for the "safety and welfare of the public" since 1934 because of the state's approval of a local ordinance that was championed by Frank Hague, mayor of Jersey City. They are detoured to use U.S. Route 1/9 Truck, along the route of the Lincoln Highway that carried traffic before the skyway's construction. Pedestrians and cyclists cannot use the road as there are no dedicated bicycle lanes or sidewalks. The speed limit on the skyway is 45 mph, but is generally not enforceable as there is nowhere for police to pull over speeders because of the absence of shoulders.

In 2011, the Texas Transportation Institute determined that the Skyway was the sixth-most unreliable road in the United States because of the unpredictability of traffic congestion and therefore travel times.

Design and construction
Except for crossings over Jersey City rail lines and the Hackensack and the Passaic, the main part of the skyway is a steel deck truss cantilever bridge, supported by concrete piers. Each of the two river crossings is a 1250 ft combination of a 550 ft subdivided (K-shaped) through Pratt truss between the supports and a 350 ft basic Pratt truss structure connecting each end to the deck truss part of the skyway. Spanning the rivers, they reach a clearance height of 135 ft. In Jersey City, three short Pratt through truss spans take the roadway over rail lines, the westernmost passing over the Port Authority Trans-Hudson (PATH) rapid transit line and the Conrail Passaic and Harsimus Line. The two easternmost Pratt through truss spans are in the vicinity of Marion Junction, one of which passes over the Marion Running Track, to the east of which the skyway is low enough to use simple vertical supports.

Design began in 1919 for the Holland Tunnel, the first fixed roadway connection between New Jersey and New York City; construction began in 1922, and the tunnel opened in late 1927. To provide for a continuous highway connection on the New Jersey side, the New Jersey Legislature passed a bill in 1922 authorizing the extension of Route 1 from its end at Elizabeth through Newark and Jersey City to the proposed tunnel. It was conceived as the nation's first "super-highway". State highway engineer Hugh L. Sloan appointed old acquaintance Fred Lavis, a consulting engineer who had worked on foreign rail lines and the Panama Canal and written four books on locating and designing rail lines, to design this Route 1 Extension. Sigvald Johannesson designed the Skyway portion.

Frank Hague, mayor of Jersey City and boss of the state's political machine, directed the state to avoid the open cuts that were already common where the railroads crossed Bergen Hill, and to include an access ramp in Kearny to spur industrial development. Construction of the highway, which was mostly raised on embankments and passed through Bergen Hill in a cut, began in mid-1925. The two major eastern and western sections in Jersey City and Newark—including the viaduct leading to the "covered roadway" (Route 139) and the embankments in eastern Newark—were opened on December 16, 1928, about a year after the tunnel opened. Traffic was still required to use the Lincoln Highway to cross the Hackensack and the Passaic on the since-replaced drawbridges that frequently stopped traffic to allow ships to pass.

Lavis's design for the final viaduct passageway, which would be raised on concrete piers across the Meadowlands, included two vertical-lift bridges 35 ft above the Passaic and Hackensack rivers, sufficient for the majority of ships to pass underneath. He resigned in 1928, believing his task was complete, but in January 1929 the War Department objected to the continued existence of the Lincoln Highway bridges once the skyway was complete. Since the Route 1 Extension was not intended for local traffic, and replacing the vertical-lift bridges with tunnels would have been expensive, a compromise was worked out by late 1929 to raise the river bridges to 135 ft while allowing the Lincoln Highway drawbridges to remain in place. The concrete jacketing of the steel was removed from the plans since it would make the taller fixed bridges heavier. This resulted in more maintenance.

Four companies—the American Bridge Company, McClintic-Marshall Company, Phoenix Bridge Company, and Taylor-Fichter Steel Construction Company—were awarded contracts for the so-called "Diagonal Highway", with construction to start in April 1930. The two river bridges, McClintic-Marshall's portion, were completed first, and the $21 million road was opened at 8:00 a.m. on November 24, 1932, after an official ceremony the previous day on the Kearny ramp. Owing to the Great Depression and problems with funding, Governor A. Harry Moore directed the Highway Commission on October 25, 1932 to make a formal request to the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads to charge tolls on the Diagonal Highway. It was thought that tolls would be illegal because of the use of $600,000 of federal aid to build the road, but that it might be possible to transfer this funding to other projects. A bill was introduced into the state legislature on May 1, 1933, to add tolls to the road (then known as the "sky way"), at a rate of 10 cents for cars and 20 cents for trucks. The legal obstacle to federal aid was resolved by gaining approval to transfer the funds.

During planning and construction, and for about half a year after opening, the road had no official name and was known as the Diagonal Highway, Newark–Jersey City Viaduct, or High-Level Viaduct. On May 3, 1933, the New Jersey Legislature passed a bill sponsored by Assemblyman Eugene W. Hejke of Jersey City naming the road the General Casimir Pulaski Memorial Skyway after Casimir Pulaski, the Polish military leader who helped train and lead Continental Army troops in the American Revolutionary War. An official ceremony was held on October 11, 1933, including the unveiling of signs with an abbreviated designation, Gen. Pulaski Skyway.

Surveys taken during 1932 and 1933 proved that the skyway saved time on the new and old routes. Not only was the distance shortened by 1/2 mi, but it took at least six minutes less to travel the new route during regular traffic. Trucks gained even more time, saving anywhere from five to eleven minutes. During times of previous traffic congestion on weekends on the old route, the viaduct saved around 25 minutes or more from the elimination of traffic congestion. In addition, the new route did not have the much longer delays and traffic back-ups that were caused whenever the bridges on the old highway were opened. It was found that the skyway also diverted a good deal of traffic from other routes.

Labor issues
Pulaski Skyway construction ended up causing a dispute between Mayor of Jersey City Frank Hague, who ran a statewide political machine, and Theodore M. Brandle, a "labor czar" allied with Hague. Brandle and Hague had become friends through Hague's efforts to get approval of unions. Brandle helped organize Branleygran Company, a construction bond underwriter, which Hague channeled construction projects towards. During the mid-1920s redevelopment of Journal Square, Brandle's Labor National Bank, founded in June 1926, acquired a new 15-story headquarters, the Labor Bank Building. Essentially Brandle controlled any construction projects in northern New Jersey, and any strikes he might call would be backed by Hague's police.

The relationship between Hague and Brandle started to go bad in late 1931, during construction of Jersey City Medical Center, an important project to Hague. Leo Brennan, a contractor approved by Hague without consulting Brandle, who was building a backup power station for the hospital, refused to work with Brandle's card-file system, by which he kept track of union members and blacklisted those whom he disliked. The annoyed Brandle called a strike, but Brennan's workers refused; the police shut down the site after a brawl, but Brennan got court approval to continue. To placate Brandle, who threatened a strike that would stop all construction work on the center, Hague paid off Brennan and hired another contractor that Brandle had approved.

For the construction of the Pulaski Skyway, which began in April 1930, Hague chose four members of the National Erectors' Association, an organization of "open shop" (non-union) steel contractors. Performance bonds were paid in cash, bypassing Branleygran, and the companies hired Foster's Industrial and Detective Bureau to guard the site against Brandle's threat to "unionize this job or else". Brandle organized picket lines of loyal union men, and the two sides frequently fought in the streets or in the work area. Brandle's sole victory was a five-day stoppage in July 1931 by 165 non-union workers, who were interested in higher pay and afraid of the ongoing fights, but decided against joining the union. During the La Follette Civil Liberties Committee hearings, it was discovered that, in order to save about $50,000 in salary, the American Bridge Company, one of the four contractors, spent almost $300,000 on keeping its "open shop".

The first casualty of the labor battle was a picketer, shot and temporarily paralyzed by a perimeter guard on November 14, 1931, for throwing stones at workers. Several months later, on February 27, 1932, a car carrying six workers to the construction site was surrounded by union men, who began to beat them with iron bars. One of the workers, William T. Harrison, was dead by the next morning; Hague broke all ties with Brandle and ordered the police to "wage relentless war against the Brandle gang-rioters". In April 1932, 21 ironworkers were indicted as suspects in the Harrison murder. The trial was held on December 6, 1932, two weeks after the completion of the skyway. Every defendant was found not guilty, since county prosecutor John Drewen was unable to place any of them at the scene of the crime, and witnesses and defendants testified that they had been forced under torture or the threat of prosecution to sign affidavits and confessions. In addition to William T. Harrison's death, 14 lives were claimed by work-related accidents during construction.

Hague refused to allow Brandle and the unions to win, and began to force unions to foreclose through his control of the courts. On the public side, Hague attacked the "labor racketeers" with words, and the local newspapers gladly went along. In 1937 and 1938, Hague turned Jersey City into a police state to fight the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which was trying to inform workers of their rights under the 1935 National Labor Relations Act. Socialist Norman Thomas was prevented from speaking in Jersey City and Newark by Hague and his friends. This and other similar cases turned the national spotlight on Hague, and he was attacked by the New Yorker and Life in early 1938. Finally, in 1947, Governor Alfred E. Driscoll cut off Hague's judicial power, and the mayor retired.

Truck and other safety issues
The slippery concrete surfacing, steep left-side ramps, center breakdown lane, and wide-open alignment built for high speeds all contributed to a high number of crashes. Jersey City Mayor Frank Hague passed an ordinance in November 1933 banning trucks from its section of the skyway, which effectively banned them from the whole road. Enforcement began on January 15, 1934, when Jersey City police began arresting truck drivers using the skyway. The New Jersey State Highway Commission approved the ban on January 23.

As a result of controversy caused by the ban, 300,000 ballots were distributed on February 6 to motorists on the skyway, asking whether trucks should be banned. Mayor Hague promised to go with the majority, which agreed with the ban. The matter was also taken to court, with one of the convicted truck drivers arguing that the ban was an unreasonable restraint of interstate commerce, and that since the federal government contributed money towards the road, Jersey City lacked the power to ban trucks. On August 14, Justice Thomas W. Trenchard of the New Jersey Supreme Court upheld the ban, stating that "the court is not at liberty to substitute its judgment for that of the municipality's as to the best and most feasible manner of curing traffic evils and traffic congestion where such regulation bears a direct relationship to public safety and is reasonable and not arbitrary." The Tonnele Circle Viaduct, a new offramp allowing westbound trucks from the Holland Tunnel to bypass Tonnele Circle to southbound US 1/9 Truck, which now also leads to Interstate 280 (I-280), opened on September 14, 1938. The Newark Bay Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike (I-78) opened in September 1956, allowing trucks to bypass the old surface road, US 1/9 Truck.

On May 21, 1952, large numbers of trucks were spotted by Jersey City police entering the city on the skyway. Upon pulling over the drivers, they were told that the exit in Newark for the truck route was closed for construction. A call to Newark police confirmed the situation. Hudson County police refused to force trucks to exit before Jersey City, since there was no state law banning trucks from the skyway. Jersey City Police Chief James McNamara gave in, and trucks were temporarily allowed to use the skyway, though only in one direction.

When the skyway first opened, it carried five lanes; the center one was intended as a breakdown lane, but was used as a "suicide lane" for passing slower traffic. By the 1950s, the skyway was seeing over 400 crashes per year; an aluminum median barrier was added in mid-1956, in addition to a new pavement coating designed to make the road less slippery.

The skyway was a constraint in the building of the New Jersey Turnpike in 1951. The turnpike had to be built low enough to provide enough clearance underneath the skyway, but high enough to then provide sufficient clearance over the nearby Passaic River. Turnpike engineers could have built over the skyway (at a much higher cost) or under the skyway's trusses; the latter option was chosen. As part of a 2005 seismic retrofit project, the New Jersey Turnpike Authority lowered the Passaic River Viaduct Bridge on its easterly alignment to increase vertical clearance and allow for full-width shoulders underneath the Pulaski Skyway. Engineers replaced the bearings and lowered the turnpike bridge by 4 ft, without shutting it to traffic.

Rehabilitation
By the 2000s, the Pulaski Skyway was considered functionally obsolete since its design did not meet highway bridge standards. In 2007, it was rated structurally deficient. The 2007 collapse of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge in Minneapolis raised concerns about the stability of the skyway, which was one of eight New Jersey bridges with similar design features. Within days of the collapse, NJDOT announced that it would start a previously planned one-year, $10-million project to make critical repairs. The work was the first phase of a planned 10-year, $200-million interim renovation project, and marked the skyway's first significant repairs since 1984.

After work began, it was determined that the repairs needed were more extensive, costly, and time-consuming than expected, and NJDOT estimated that rehabilitation could cost more than $1.2 billion. In 2009, NJDOT estimated that it would take a decade before the state could afford to rehabilitate or replace the structure. In a controversial move in 2011, Governor Chris Christie directed the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ) to divert money originally earmarked for the Access to the Region's Core rail project to highway projects. The agency agreed to pay $1.8 billion to partially fund efforts to rehabilitate the skyway and Route 139, replace Wittpenn Bridge, and extend US 1/9 Truck, all part of the larger distribution network in the Port of New York and New Jersey.

In January 2013, NJDOT announced that work on the $335 million projects for repaving and restoration of the roadway would begin at the end of 2013 by the state owned China Construction America Company. To facilitate the work, the eastbound lanes (northbound US 1/9) would close for two years after the Super Bowl XLVIII in February 2014 at the nearby Meadowlands Sports Complex. The proposal was opposed by local politicians, who contended that it did not satisfactorily address the effect on local traffic and called for more thorough investigation into alternatives. The closure date was postponed by NJDOT to more completely work out comprehensive traffic and travel options.

The roadway remained open through the use of alternate lane closures during the work until April 12, 2014, affecting the 74,000 daily crossings. The rehabilitation project, with an estimated cost of $1.2–1.5 billion, is being done in phases and spread out over ten contracts, the first of which began in 2012, and the last, for final painting of the steel structure, planned for completion in 2020. The improvements are expected to extend the life of the bridge until at least 2095.

The skyway was closed for eastbound (northbound US 1/9) traffic on April 12, 2014, for two years in order to replace the entire bridge deck. The midway access ramps in South Kearny and Jersey City were closed to regular traffic, but would be available to emergency responders. In April 2015, NJDOT said that unforeseen additional repairs would be made, extending the scheduled April 2016 completion date to sometime later that year and adding $14 million in costs. In March 2018, after several construction delays, it was announced that the Pulaski Skyway was set to be reopened to all traffic that spring. The skyway reopened to all traffic on June 30, 2018, two days earlier than NJDOT had originally announced. Auxiliary projects, such as rehabilitation of ramps onto the skyway and reconstruction of Route 139, are expected to continue at least through 2026.

Travel alternatives
NJDOT worked with New Jersey Transit (NJT) to bolster public transportation, encouraged car and van pooling, worked with local community officials, employers, truckers, local port employees, and the public to alleviate problems and address flexible working hours, and publicized alternate transportation options through television, radio, social media, news media, and its skyway website.

To ease congestion, the Turnpike Authority converted a shoulder of the Newark Bay-Hudson County Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike to a traveling lane. Temporary lane control lights on 6 mi of the extension would indicate that extra lane is open during peak hours, at which time the speed limit would be reduced. This set-up would be able to handle 1,900 vehicles an hour in addition to the slightly more than 4,000 vehicles per hour on the existing lanes during peak periods. To reduce delays, variable message signs would provide motorists with daily traffic alerts and an adaptive traffic signal system would be installed and monitored by the Meadowlands Commission to synchronize traffic lights at 15 intersections along US 1/9 Truck and Route 440 in Kearny Point and Jersey City. They are part of a larger "intelligent transportation system", the Meadowlands Adaptive Signal System, a network of traffic-controlled intersections with vehicle detectors in the Meadowlands. In anticipation of traffic overflow onto local Jersey City streets, off-duty police officers would be hired to direct traffic heading to the Holland Tunnel during rush hours.

To promote public transportation, NJT and PATH offered more frequent peak hour train services to Newark, Hoboken and Jersey City on the Hudson Waterfront, and Manhattan. NJT added a new bus route for peak hour service between Watchung and Newark Penn Station, along the US 22 corridor, and their bus schedules accommodated additional passengers on existing routes.

Funding controversy
On June 12, 2014, the PANYNJ acknowledged that the Securities and Exchange Commission, New York County District Attorney, and United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey were investigating its diversion of $1.8 billion to fund the Pulaski Skyway and other New Jersey roadway rehabilitation projects. These inquiries were related to how this funding, which was made at the urging of the Christie administration, was potentially misrepresented in documents related to bond sales. State laws require the PANYNJ to spend money only related to its own facilities, unless it gets approval from lawmakers in New Jersey and New York. The PANYNJ documents state that the Pulaski Skyway was designated as also providing access to the Lincoln Tunnel, even though it is miles from the tunnel and does not connect to it directly. In December 2014, United Airlines filed a complaint with the Federal Aviation Administration that claims that since 2004 the PANYNJ has diverted more than $2 billion from the metro area airports to non-airport uses and that in 2014 alone it spent $181 million to repair the Pulaski Skyway and $60 million on the Wittpenn Bridge, NJDOT-owned and -operated structures.

In popular culture
The Pulaski Skyway is the subject of The Last Three Miles, a book written by Steven Hart published in 2007. The Skyway has been used in radio, film, television, and at least one video game. In the 1938 radio drama The War of the Worlds, one of the Martian machines straddles the skyway (a scene replicated in the 2005 film wherein the first machine appears in the shadow of the bridge). It was featured in the 1979 film Hair. Alfred Hitchcock's 1943 film Shadow of a Doubt and the 1999–2007 television drama The Sopranos include shots of the bridge in the opening montages. Clutch included the track "Pulaski Skyway" on its 2005 release Robot Hive/Exodus.

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User talk:134.215.226.45

Proposed deletion of Fivers

The article Fivers has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "there is no reliable source that calls Zaydis fivers. This is a made up name. I hope it gets deleted before it spread because Zaydis actually don't only believe in five imams and that's what the name is based on. this name was never used in any reliable source the ip that has created this redirect has a history of creating articles that got deleted"

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. SharabSalam (talk) 18:36, 20 December 2018 (UTC)

Nomination of Street Tech for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Street Tech is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Street Tech until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Rathfelder (talk) 14:22, 15 October 2019 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:134.215.226.45


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Talk:Munchausen by proxy

This page should NOT be a redirect. Munchausen syndrome links here, and this page redirected back to munchausen. MbP is different from normal munchausen in several regards (most notably who is "sick") and deserves and article of its own. Unfortunately I'm obviously not the one to write it. Delete this page or make it a stub or something, but DON'T redirect it back to munchausen.

 * Unless and until anyone can find more to say on the subject than is already said at Munchausen syndrome, I see no reason for a separate article. The problem of Munchausen syndrome linking here is easily fixed - I've already removed the link. —Paul A 01:45, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

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George Forbes

George Forbes may refer to:

Australia

 * George Forbes (philanthropist) (1915–2006), Australian charity director and women's advocate
 * George Forbes (Queensland politician) (1828–1881), Member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly, Australia
 * George Forbes (New South Wales politician), member of the New South Wales Legislative Council

Ireland

 * George Forbes (footballer, born 1868) (1868–?), Irish footballer
 * George Forbes, 3rd Earl of Granard (1685–1765), Anglo-Irish naval commander and diplomatist
 * George Forbes, 4th Earl of Granard (1710–1769), MP for St Johnstown (County Longford) and Mullingar
 * George Forbes, 5th Earl of Granard (1740–1780), MP for St Johnstown (County Longford)
 * George Forbes, 6th Earl of Granard (1760–1837), Irish peer
 * George Forbes, 7th Earl of Granard (1833–1889), Irish peer and soldier
 * George Forbes, Viscount Forbes (1785–1836), MP for Longford

New Zealand

 * George Forbes (New Zealand politician) (1869–1947), Prime Minister of New Zealand

United Kingdom

 * George Forbes (businessman) (1944–2022), Scottish farmer and property developer, chairman of Newcastle United F.C.
 * George Forbes (scientist) (1849–1936), Scottish electrical engineer, astronomer, and inventor
 * George Forbes (footballer, born 1914) (1914–1964), centre half for Blackburn Rovers and Barrow
 * George Forbes, 3rd Earl of Granard (1685–1765), Anglo-Irish naval commander and diplomatist
 * George Hay Forbes (1821–1875), Scottish Episcopalian clergyman
 * George Forbes (cashier), Chief Cashier of the Bank of England from 1866 to 1873
 * George Forbes (cricketer) (1906–1984), Scottish cricketer

Others

 * George Forbes (Canadian politician) (1840–1925), merchant and political figure in Prince Edward Island
 * George W. Forbes (1864–1927), American journalist
 * George L. Forbes (born 1931), American politician from Cleveland, Ohio

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Talk:December 3

Mitchell Miller
Why is Mitchell Miller referred to as "Sexy Man"??? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.100.171.250 (talk) 22:15, 3 December 2007 (UTC)

Removed

 * 1833 - Oberlin College, first coeducational college in the United States, opens.

It did happen in 1833 but the only refs I could find to any particular date was on 'this day in history'-type webpages (very bad source). --mav 09:15, 3 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * 1896 - Hermann Hollerith creates the Tabulating Machine Company.

Could not be confirmed. Wikipedia seems to be the only real source for this date (the year seems to be right, however). --mav 09:15, 3 Dec 2003 (UTC)

I further extended the description of the Battle of Hohenlinden. Xelnanga 00:45, 3 December 2007 (UTC)

First Balkans War dates?
When looking at the First Balkan War entry for the date December 3, it states an armistice with the Ottoman Empire was signed, ending that war in 1912. The war was concluded in May 1913 and not only that, it was not a two month long war (as noted in the time-line), it was more like 8 months.. It seems the two month factor may have been mixed up with the Second Balkan War, which in itself was more like a month long war. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Tommy6860 (talk • contribs) 02:21, 4 December 2009 (UTC)

Discovery Date of the Jovian Moon Himalia
On December 3 in 1904, it states that C.D. Perrine discovered the Jovian moon Himalia. But when looking at the article of Himalia, it states Perrine discovered it on December 16 of the same year. Small error, but needs to be confirmed to which date is correct.

Tom C. 07:24, 3 December 2010 (UTC) —Preceding unsigned comment added by Tommy6860 (talk • contribs)
 * The date in the infobox was incorrect. December 3 is the right date. Winston365 (talk) 21:33, 3 December 2010 (UTC)

1912 Naval Battle of Elli
Granted that Greece was still on the Julian calendar in 1912, is it good policy to list selected anniversaries in the 20th century under their Old Style dates? A mixture of Old Style and New Style dates covering a particular conflict (First Balkan War) interferes with a basic sense of Before and After. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.193.101.113 (talk) 15:53, 3 December 2011 (UTC)

Abimael Guzmán
I changed Abimael Guzmán's description from "Peruvian activist" to "Peruvian philosopher and revolutionary, leader of the Shining Path". I based this on Guzmán's biographical article. For convenience, I'm inserting the lead section of that article here:

 * Manuel Rubén Abimael Guzmán Reynoso (born 3 December 1934), also known by the nom de guerre Comrade Gonzalo (Camarada Gonzalo), a former professor of philosophy, was the leader of the Shining Path during the Maoist insurgency known as the internal conflict in Peru. Shining Path had been active in Peru since the late 1970s and began what it called "the armed struggle" on 17 May 1980. Wanted on charges of terrorism and treason, Guzmán was captured by the Peruvian government in 1992 and sentenced to life imprisonment.

 * He is currently incarcerated at the Callao naval base, near the city of Lima, Peru. While the activity of the insurgency increased shortly after Guzmán's capture, it has declined in the years following. It has been criticized for its violence against peasants, trade union organizers, and elected officials, which were deemed by the group to be collaborating with the Peruvian state. Shining Path is on the U.S. Department of State's "Designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations" list.  The European Union, and Peru likewise describe Shining Path as a terrorist group and prohibit providing funding or other financial support.

Redsky89 changed the description to "Peruvian philosopher and academic" without leaving an edit comment. I changed it to "Peruvian philosopher and revolutionary", leaving a comment which said (in part), "...when someone's bio article defines them as a 'revolutionary', it's silly not to use the word here." Redsky89 changed it back, again without leaving an edit comment.

I started to change it back again, realized I was involved in edit warring, and decided to take the matter here. I believe the current entry to be grossly misleading, but I'm not going to edit it again. I'll leave it to others to decide what to do. --Alexbook (talk) 17:58, 16 January 2014 (UTC)

 * The word "revolutionary" does not appear in the bio. Generally, the date articles go by what is explicitly listed as the primary description in the bio article.  Academic is appropriate.  Guerrilla leader might also be appropriate.  But Guerrilla leaders are not always revolutionaries.  -- Mufka (u) (t) (c) 19:28, 16 January 2014 (UTC)

Bhopal Disaster
"Methyl isocyanate and other toxic chemicals were accidentally released from..." is misleading. The release occured either due to insufficient safety precautions (which would be "criminal negligence"), or, as UCC claims, due to a "disgruntled worker". See Causes of the Bhopal Disaster. Jose Mathew C (talk) 04:47, 7 December 2014 (UTC)

Basque language date
Hi December 3 is the date to commemorate the Basque language the oldest language still well spoken in europe. I implore you to add this content as the information is already there on Japanese wikipedia as well. 126.196.146.176 (talk) 14:17, 14 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:December 3


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ALCO Century Series locomotives

The ALCO Century Series locomotives were a line of road switcher locomotives produced by Alco, the Montreal Locomotive Works and AE Goodwin under license in Australia.

Production of the Century Series began in 1963 and ended in 1972. MLW and Goodwin continued to build Century locomotives after Alco ended locomotive production and shut down in early 1969. A total of 841 locomotives, in eleven variants, were produced over the ten years of production.

Background and development
During the 1950s, EMD had become the major player in the North American diesel locomotive market, with Alco relegated to second place. This was largely due to its 244 diesel engine suffering from significant reliability issues. In response to these issues a new engine design, the ALCO 251, was approved for development in 1951. This engine was put through nearly five years of testing before entering domestic production in four sizes (900 hp, 1800 hp, 2000 hp, and 2,400 hp) in a new line of locomotives.

By 1956 General Electric had launched its first Universal Series road locomotives primarily as export units. The U25B followed in 1961 and rapidly propelled GE into second place in the locomotive market, behind EMD.

Faced with this market situation, Alco in 1962 completely redesigned its road locomotive line, creating what would become the Century Series. The locomotives were designed to equal and surpass competitors' products in terms of both features and performance. To meet that end, the new locomotives included, among other features, a redesign of the air system, an improved traction control system, and improved accessibility and maintainability.

The series was first introduced on January 29, 1963, in Chicago, Illinois, consisting of three locomotives, the 2,000-horsepower B-B model C420, 2,400-horsepower B-B model C424, and the 2,400-horsepower C-C model C624, which was subsequently abandoned in favor of a more powerful model, the 2,750-horsepower C628. During speeches at the event, Alco executives promoted the new locomotives' reduced operating costs, a major effort in the design of the machines. Combined with unit reduction through higher powered locomotives, as well as liberal trade-in terms, Alco claimed operating cost could be reduced as much as 44%.

C420
The C420 was one of the first models launched, and was powered by a 2,000-horsepower, 12-cylinder, Model 251C engine. It was launched at the inaugural event for the Century series in 1963, and remained in production until 1968. A total of 131 units were built, including 22 passenger models for the Long Island Rail Road in 1963, supplemented in 1968 by an additional order of eight more with Alco's Hi-Ad trucks.

C424
The C424 was another of the initial models launched, and was powered by a 2,400-horsepower, 16-cylinder, Model 251B engine. It remained in production until 1967. A total of 190 units were built, although only 53 went to domestic customers; the remainder went to Mexican or Canadian customers.

C628
The C628 was intended as a replacement for the C624, announced at the Chicago launch event, but never produced due to being made rapidly obsolete by improvements in engine technology. The C628 was powered by a 2,750-horsepower, 16-cylinder, Model 251C engine. It was launched in 1963, and remained in production until 1968. A total of 186 units were produced, including five exported to Hamersley Iron, Australia.

C425
The C425 was launched in 1964 in response to a request from Erie-Lackawanna for a 2,500-horsepower B-B locomotive, and was powered by a 2,500-horsepower, 16-cylinder Model 251C engine. It remained in production until December 1966, just five months before the final C424 was delivered in May 1967. A total of 91 units were built.

C855
The C855 was launched in 1964 in response to a request from Union Pacific for a dual engine unit to replace up to ten first-generation locomotives. It was powered by two Model 251C 16-cylinder engines, producing 5,500 horsepower. Only three were built, all in 1964. Two of the units had control cabs and one was a booster unit. Ultimately, poor performance led to their retirement after less than eight years in service.

C630
The C630 was launched in 1965, prompted by the impending launches of locomotives by both GE and EMD of equivalent size, and was the first production locomotive to use AC technology, as DC generators were too large and complex to be used at such high powers. It was powered by a 3,000-horsepower, 16-cylinder, Model 251E engine. It was launched in 1965, and remained in production until 1967, with 77 units produced.

C630M
The C630M was the Canadian version of the C630. It was built by MLW from 1967 to 1969. A total of 56 units were produced.

C430
The C430 was a four-axle equivalent of the C630, and used the same AC equipment and engines. It was launched in 1966 as the latest update of B-B locomotives, and introduced Alco's new high-adhesion truck, offered as an option on the C630, but standard on the C430. Production ended in 1967, after 16 were produced.

C415
The C415 was launched in 1966 as a new switcher, designed for operation by a single person. It used a 1,500-horsepower, 8-cylinder, Model 251E engine, configured as a V8. It remained in production until 1968, with 26 units built.

C636
The C636 was launched in 1967 in response to the introduction of the EMD SD45, which offered more power than anything in production at the time. The C636 was powered by a 3,600-horsepower, 16-cylinder, Model 251F engine. Alco built 34 units through 1968. AE Goodwin built 31 units in Australia under licence from Alco between 1968 and 1972. Total production was 65 units.

C643DH
Alco built three hydraulic drive locomotives for Southern Pacific in 1964. These units were equipped with the Voith hydraulic drive system and a pair of 12-cylinder 251 engines producing 2,150 horsepower each for a combined total of 4,300 horsepower.

C624
The C624 was one of the original models announced at the launch event, but never went into production, its design having been eclipsed by rapid advances in engine technology. The successor to it was the C628.

C620
The C620 would have been a 2,000-horsepower, six-axle locomotive, powered by the same engine as the C420. The design was proposed to several railroads, but no orders were placed.

C428
The C428 would have been a 2,750-horsepower, four-axle locomotive, powered by the same engine as the C628. Due to the complexity of DC generators at this level of power, the AC powered C430 was developed instead.

C636P and C636F
The C636P and C636F would have been cowled (full-width enclosed carbody) units based on the C636. The C636P was a dual service design, and the C636F was Alco's response to a request by the Santa Fe Railroad for a cowled locomotive in both cab and booster form.

C650DH
This was a proposed 5,000-horsepower hydraulic-drive twin diesel-engined locomotive.

title: ALCO Century Series locomotives


text:
Pontryagin class

In mathematics, the Pontryagin classes, named after Lev Pontryagin, are certain characteristic classes of real vector bundles. The Pontryagin classes lie in cohomology groups with degrees a multiple of four.

Definition
Given a real vector bundle $$E$$ over $$M$$, its $$k$$-th Pontryagin class $$p_k(E)$$ is defined as
 * $$p_k(E) = p_k(E, \Z) = (-1)^k c_{2k}(E\otimes \Complex) \in H^{4k}(M, \Z),$$

where:
 * $$c_{2k}(E\otimes \Complex)$$ denotes the $$2k$$-th Chern class of the complexification $$E\otimes \Complex = E\oplus iE$$ of $$E$$,
 * $$H^{4k}(M, \Z)$$ is the $$4k$$-cohomology group of $$M$$ with integer coefficients.

The rational Pontryagin class $$p_k(E, \Q)$$ is defined to be the image of $$p_k(E)$$ in $$H^{4k}(M, \Q)$$, the $$4k$$-cohomology group of $$M$$ with rational coefficients.

Properties
The total Pontryagin class
 * $$p(E)=1+p_1(E)+p_2(E)+\cdots\in H^*(M,\Z),$$

is (modulo 2-torsion) multiplicative with respect to Whitney sum of vector bundles, i.e.,
 * $$2p(E\oplus F)=2p(E)\smile p(F)$$

for two vector bundles $$E$$ and $$F$$ over $$M$$. In terms of the individual Pontryagin classes $$p_k$$,
 * $$2p_1(E\oplus F)=2p_1(E)+2p_1(F),$$
 * $$2p_2(E\oplus F)=2p_2(E)+2p_1(E)\smile p_1(F)+2p_2(F)$$

and so on.

The vanishing of the Pontryagin classes and Stiefel–Whitney classes of a vector bundle does not guarantee that the vector bundle is trivial. For example, up to vector bundle isomorphism, there is a unique nontrivial rank 10 vector bundle $$E_{10}$$ over the 9-sphere. (The clutching function for $$E_{10}$$ arises from the homotopy group $$\pi_8(\mathrm{O}(10)) = \Z/2\Z$$.) The Pontryagin classes and Stiefel-Whitney classes all vanish: the Pontryagin classes don't exist in degree 9, and the Stiefel–Whitney class $$w_9$$ of $$E_{10}$$ vanishes by the Wu formula $$w_9 = w_1 w_8 + Sq^1(w_8)$$. Moreover, this vector bundle is stably nontrivial, i.e. the Whitney sum of $$E_{10}$$ with any trivial bundle remains nontrivial.

Given a $$2 k$$-dimensional vector bundle $$E$$ we have
 * $$p_k(E)=e(E)\smile e(E),$$

where $$e(E)$$ denotes the Euler class of $$E$$, and $$\smile$$ denotes the cup product of cohomology classes.

Pontryagin classes and curvature
As was shown by Shiing-Shen Chern and André Weil around 1948, the rational Pontryagin classes
 * $$p_k(E,\mathbf{Q})\in H^{4k}(M,\mathbf{Q})$$

can be presented as differential forms which depend polynomially on the curvature form of a vector bundle. This Chern–Weil theory revealed a major connection between algebraic topology and global differential geometry.

For a vector bundle $$E$$ over a $$n$$-dimensional differentiable manifold $$M$$ equipped with a connection, the total Pontryagin class is expressed as
 * $$p=\left[1-\frac{{\rm Tr}(\Omega ^2)}{8 \pi ^2}+\frac{{\rm Tr}(\Omega ^2)^2-2 {\rm Tr}(\Omega ^4)}{128 \pi ^4}-\frac{{\rm Tr}(\Omega ^2)^3-6 {\rm Tr}(\Omega ^2) {\rm Tr}(\Omega ^4)+8 {\rm Tr}(\Omega ^6)}{3072 \pi ^6}+\cdots\right]\in H^*_{dR}(M),$$

where $$\Omega$$ denotes the curvature form, and $$H^*_{dR} (M)$$ denotes the de Rham cohomology groups.

Pontryagin classes of a manifold
The Pontryagin classes of a smooth manifold are defined to be the Pontryagin classes of its tangent bundle.

Novikov proved in 1966 that if two compact, oriented, smooth manifolds are homeomorphic then their rational Pontryagin classes $$p_k(M, \mathbf{Q})$$ in $$H^{4k}(M, \mathbf{Q})$$ are the same.

If the dimension is at least five, there are at most finitely many different smooth manifolds with given homotopy type and Pontryagin classes.

Pontryagin classes from Chern classes
The Pontryagin classes of a complex vector bundle $$\pi: E \to X$$ is completely determined by its Chern classes. This follows from the fact that $$E\otimes_{\mathbb{R}}\mathbb{C} \cong E\oplus \bar{E}$$, the Whitney sum formula, and properties of Chern classes of its complex conjugate bundle. That is, $$c_i(\bar{E}) = (-1)^ic_i(E)$$ and $$c(E\oplus\bar{E}) = c(E)c(\bar{E})$$. Then, this given the relation $$ 1 - p_1(E) + p_2(E) - \cdots + (-1)^np_n(E) = (1 + c_1(E) + \cdots + c_n(E)) \cdot (1 - c_1(E) + c_2(E) -\cdots + (-1)^nc_n(E)) $$ for example, we can apply this formula to find the Pontryagin classes of a complex vector bundle on a curve and a surface. For a curve, we have"$(1-c_1(E))(1 + c_1(E)) = 1 + c_1(E)^2$"so all of the Pontryagin classes of complex vector bundles are trivial. On a surface, we have"$(1-c_1(E) + c_2(E))(1 + c_1(E) + c_2(E)) = 1 - c_1(E)^2 + 2c_2(E)$"showing $$p_1(E) = c_1(E)^2 - 2c_2(E)$$. On line bundles this simplifies further since $$c_2(L) = 0$$ by dimension reasons.

Pontryagin classes on a Quartic K3 Surface
Recall that a quartic polynomial whose vanishing locus in $$\mathbb{CP}^3$$ is a smooth subvariety is a K3 surface. If we use the normal sequence"_X \to \mathcal{O}(4) \to 0$"we can find $$\begin{align} c(\mathcal{T}_X) &= \frac{c(\mathcal{T}_{\mathbb{CP}^3}|_X)}{c(\mathcal{O}(4))} \\ &= \frac{(1+[H])^4}{(1+4[H])} \\ &= (1 + 4[H] + 6[H]^2)\cdot(1 - 4[H] + 16[H]^2) \\ &= 1 + 6[H]^2 \end{align}$$ showing $$c_1(X) = 0$$ and $$c_2(X) = 6[H]^2$$. Since $$[H]^2$$ corresponds to four points, due to Bézout's lemma, we have the second chern number as $$24$$. Since $$p_1(X) = -2c_2(X)$$ in this case, we have

$$p_1(X) = -48$$. This number can be used to compute the third stable homotopy group of spheres.

Pontryagin numbers
Pontryagin numbers are certain topological invariants of a smooth manifold. Each Pontryagin number of a manifold $$M$$ vanishes if the dimension of $$M$$ is not divisible by 4. It is defined in terms of the Pontryagin classes of the manifold $$M$$ as follows:

Given a smooth $$4 n$$-dimensional manifold $$M$$ and a collection of natural numbers
 * $$k_1, k_2, \ldots, k_m$$ such that $$k_1+k_2+\cdots +k_m =n$$,

the Pontryagin number $$P_{k_1,k_2,\dots,k_m}$$ is defined by
 * $$P_{k_1,k_2,\dots, k_m}=p_{k_1}\smile p_{k_2}\smile \cdots\smile p_{k_m}([M])$$

where $$p_k$$ denotes the $$k$$-th Pontryagin class and $$[M]$$ the fundamental class of $$M$$.

Properties

 * 1) Pontryagin numbers are oriented cobordism invariant; and together with Stiefel-Whitney numbers they determine an oriented manifold's oriented cobordism class.
 * 2) Pontryagin numbers of closed Riemannian manifolds (as well as Pontryagin classes) can be calculated as integrals of certain polynomials from the curvature tensor of a Riemannian manifold.
 * 3) Invariants such as signature and $\hat A$-genus can be expressed through Pontryagin numbers. For the theorem describing the linear combination of Pontryagin numbers giving the signature see Hirzebruch signature theorem.

Generalizations
There is also a quaternionic Pontryagin class, for vector bundles with quaternion structure.

title: Pontryagin class


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Hierarchy of genres

A hierarchy of genres is any formalization which ranks different genres in an art form in terms of their prestige and cultural value.

In literature, the epic was considered the highest form, for the reason expressed by Samuel Johnson in his Life of John Milton: "By the general consent of criticks, the first praise of genius is due to the writer of an epick poem, as it requires an assemblage of all the powers which are singly sufficient for other compositions." Below that came lyric poetry, and comic poetry, with a similar ranking for drama. The novel took a long time to establish a firm place in the hierarchy, doing so only as belief in any systematic hierarchy of forms expired in the 19th century.

In music, settings of words were accorded a higher status than merely instrumental works, at least until the Baroque period, and opera retained a superior status for much longer. The status of works also varies with the number of players and singers involved, with those written for large forces, which are certainly more difficult to write and more expensive to perform, given higher status. Any element of comedy reduced the status of a work, though, as in other art forms, often increased its popularity.

The hierarchies in figurative art are those initially formulated for painting in 16th-century Italy, which held sway with little alteration until the early 19th century. These were formalized and promoted by the academies in Europe between the 17th century and the modern era, of which the most influential became the French Académie de peinture et de sculpture, which held a central role in Academic art. The fully developed hierarchy distinguished between:

 * History painting, including historically important, religious, mythological, or allegorical subjects
 * Portrait painting
 * Genre painting or scenes of everyday life
 * Landscape and cityscape art (landscapists were called "common footmen in the Army of Art" by the Dutch theorist Samuel van Hoogstraten)
 * Animal painting
 * Still life

The hierarchy was based on a distinction between art that made an intellectual effort to "render visible the universal essence of things" (imitare in Italian) and that which merely consisted of "mechanical copying of particular appearances" (ritrarre). Idealism was privileged over realism in line with Renaissance Neo-Platonist philosophy.

The term is mostly used within the field of painting, and from the High Renaissance onwards, by which time painting had asserted itself as the highest form of art. This had not been the case in Medieval art and the art-commissioning sectors of society took a considerable period to fully accept this view. The Raphael Cartoons are a clear example of the continuing status of tapestry, the most expensive form of art in the 16th century. In the Early Medieval period lavish pieces of metalwork had typically been the most highly regarded, and valuable materials remained an important ingredient in the appreciation of art until at least the 17th century. Until the 19th century the most extravagant objets d'art remained more expensive, both new and on the art market, than all but a few paintings. Classical writings which valued the supreme skills of individual artists were influential, as well as developments in art which allowed the Renaissance artist to demonstrate their skill and invention to a greater degree than was usually possible in the Middle Ages.

Renaissance art
The hierarchy grew out of the struggle to gain acceptance of painting as one of the liberal arts, and then controversies to establish an equal or superior status within them with architecture and sculpture. These matters were considered of great importance by artist-theorists such as Leon Battista Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci, and Giorgio Vasari. Against the sculptors, Leonardo argued that the intellectual effort necessary to create an illusion of three-dimensionality made the painters' art superior to that of the sculptor, who could do so merely by recording appearances. In his De Pictura ("About Painting") of 1441, Alberti argued that multi-figure history painting was the noblest form of art, as being the most difficult, which required mastery of all the others, because it was a visual form of history, and because it had the greatest potential to move the viewer. He placed emphasis on the ability to depict the interactions between the figures by gesture and expression.

Theorists of the Early and High Renaissance accepted the importance of representing nature closely, at least until the later writings of Michelangelo, who was strongly influenced by neoplatonism. By the time of Mannerist theorists such as Gian Paolo Lomazzo and Federico Zuccari (both also painters) this was far less of a priority. Both emphasized beauty as "something which was directly infused into the mind of man from the mind of God, and existed there independent of any sense-impressions", a view bound to further reduce the status of works depending on realism. In practice the hierarchy represented little break with either medieval and classical thought, except to place secular history painting in the same class as religious art, and to distinguish (not always clearly) between static iconic religious subjects and narrative figure scenes, giving the latter a higher status. Ideas of decorum also fed into the hierarchy; comic, sordid or merely frivolous subjects or treatment ranked lower than elevated and moral ones.

During the Renaissance landscape, genre scenes and still lifes hardly existed as established genres, so discussion of the status or importance of different types of painting was mainly concerned with history subjects as against portraits, initially small and unpretentious, and iconic portrait-type religious and mythological subjects. For most artists some commitment to realism was necessary in a portrait; few could take the high-handed approach of Michelangelo, who largely ignored the actual appearance of the Medici in his Medici Chapel sculptures, supposedly saying that in a thousand years no one would know the difference (a retort Gainsborough is also said to have used, with a shorter timeframe).

Many portraits were extremely flattering, which could be justified by an appeal to idealism as well as the sitter's vanity; the theorist Armenini claimed in 1587 that "portraits by excellent artists are considered to be painted with better style [maniera] and greater perfection than others, but more often than not they are less good likenesses". On the other hand, numbers of courtly sitters and their parents, suitors or courtiers complained that painters entirely failed to do justice to the reality of the sitter.

The question of decorum in religious art became the focus of intense effort by the Catholic Church after the decrees on art of the Council of Trent of 1563. Paintings depicting biblical events as if they were occurring in the households of wealthy contemporary Italians were attacked, and soon ceased. Until the challenge of Caravaggio at the end of the century, religious art became thoroughly ideal.

17th and 18th century art
The new genres of landscape, genre painting, animal painting and still life came into their own in the 17th century, with the virtual cessation of religious painting in Protestant countries, and the expansion of picture buying to the prosperous middle class. Although similar developments occurred in all advanced European countries, they were most evident in the enormously productive schools of Dutch Golden Age painting and Flemish Baroque painting. However no theorists emerged to champion the new genres, and the relatively small amount of Dutch theoretical writing, by Karel van Mander, Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten, Gerard de Lairesse and others, was mostly content to rehash Italian views, so that their writings can seem oddly at variance with the Dutch art actually being produced in their day.

The hierarchy was mostly accepted by artists, and even genre specialists such as Jan Steen, Karel Dujardin and Vermeer produced a few history paintings, which were better paid when commissions could be obtained, but in general far harder to sell. The unhappy history of Rembrandt's last history commission, The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis (1661) illustrates both his commitment to the form and the difficulties he had in finding an audience. In Flanders, as well as great quantities of pure genre works, there was a trend towards history paintings with a major genre element, whether animals, landscape or still life. Often the different elements were painted by different artists; Rubens and Frans Snyders often co-operated in this way.

The size of paintings, and very often the prices they realized, increasingly tended to reflect their position in the hierarchy in this period. Until the Romantic period the price and saleability of what were essentially landscapes could be increased by adding small mythological or religious figures, creating a landscape with..., a practice that went back to the beginnings of landscape painting in the Flemish world landscapes of Joachim Patinir in the early 16th century. Flemish Baroque painting was the last school to often paint the lowest genres at a large size, but usually combined with figure subjects.

An influential formulation of 1667 by André Félibien, a historiographer, architect and theoretician of French classicism became the classic statement of the theory for the 18th century:"Celui qui fait parfaitement des païsages est au-dessus d'un autre qui ne fait que des fruits, des fleurs ou des coquilles. Celui qui peint des animaux vivants est plus estimable que ceux qui ne représentent que des choses mortes & sans mouvement ; & comme la figure de l'homme est le plus parfait ouvrage de Dieu sur la Terre, il est certain aussi que celui qui se rend l'imitateur de Dieu en peignant des figures humaines, est beaucoup plus excellent que tous les autres ... un Peintre qui ne fait que des portraits, n'a pas encore cette haute perfection de l'Art, & ne peut prétendre à l'honneur que reçoivent les plus sçavans. Il faut pour cela passer d'une seule figure à la représentation de plusieurs ensemble ; il faut traiter l'histoire & la fable ; il faut représenter de grandes actions comme les historiens, ou des sujets agréables comme les Poëtes ; & montant encore plus haut, il faut par des compositions allégoriques, sçavoir couvrir sous le voile de la fable les vertus des grands hommes, & les mystères les plus relevez."

"He who produces perfect landscapes is above another who only produces fruit, flowers or seashells. He who paints living animals is more estimable than those who only represent dead things without movement, and as man is the most perfect work of God on the earth, it is also certain that he who becomes an imitator of God in representing human figures, is much more excellent than all the others ... a painter who only does portraits still does not have the highest perfection of his art, and cannot expect the honour due to the most skilled. For that he must pass from representing a single figure to several together; history and myth must be depicted; great events must be represented as by historians, or like the poets, subjects that will please, and climbing still higher, he must have the skill to cover under the veil of myth the virtues of great men in allegories, and the mysteries they reveal'."

Allegorical painting was raised above other types of history painting; together they were the grand genre, including paintings with religious, mythological, historical, literary, or allegorical subjects—they embodied some interpretation of life or conveyed a moral or intellectual message. The gods and goddesses from the ancient mythologies represented different aspects of the human psyche, figures from religions represented different ideas, and history, like the other sources, represented a dialectic or play of ideas. Subjects with several figures ranked higher than single figures. For a long time, especially during the French Revolution, history painting often focused on depiction of the heroic male nude; though this waned in the 19th century.

After history painting came, in order of decreasing worth: portraits, scenes of everyday life (called scènes de genre, or "genre painting", and also petit genre to contrast it with the grande genre), landscapes, animal painting, and finally still lifes. In his formulation, such paintings were inferior because they were merely reportorial pictures without moral force or artistic imagination. Genre paintings—neither ideal in style, nor elevated in subject—were admired for their skill, ingenuity, and even humour, but never confused with high art.

The hierarchy of genres also had a corresponding hierarchy of formats: large format for history paintings, small format for still lifes. This had occasionally been breached in the past, especially in large Flemish works, and the monumental The Young Bull of the Dutch artist Paulus Potter, as well as the larger of the two Butchers' Shop canvases of Annibale Carracci. But for the most part the relative prices obtainable for the different genres ensured the hierarchy of size also; it would not have been economic to paint a very large subject from the lower genres, except for commissioned group portraits. Rubens' largest landscapes were painted for his own houses.

The use of the pictorial elements of painting such as line and color to convey an ultimate unifying theme or idea was regarded as the highest expression of art, and an idealism was adopted in art, whereby forms seen in nature would be generalized, and in turn subordinated to the unity of the artwork. It aimed at universal truth through the imitation of nature. Later dissenting theorists, such as Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, held that this focus on allegory was faulty and based on a wrong analogy between the plastic arts and poetry rooted in the Horatian dictum ut pictura poesis ("as is painting so is poetry").

The British painter Sir Joshua Reynolds in his Discourses of the 1770s and 1780s, reiterated the argument for still life to the lowest position in the hierarchy of genres on the grounds that it interfered with the painter's access to central forms, those products of the mind's generalising powers. At the summit reigned history painting, centred on the human body: familiarity with the forms of the body permitted the mind of the painter, by comparing innumerable instances of the human form, to abstract from it those typical or central features that represented the body's essence or ideal.

Though Reynolds agreed with Félibien about the natural order of the genres, he held that an important work from any genre of painting could be produced under the hand of genius: "Whether it is the human figure, an animal, or even inanimate objects, there is nothing, however unpromising in appearance, but may be raised into dignity, convey sentiment, and produce emotion, in the hands of a painter of genius. What was said of Virgil, that he threw even the dung about the ground with an air of dignity, may be applied to Titian; whatever he touched, however naturally mean, and habitually familiar, by a kind of magic he invested with grandeur and importance."

Though European academies usually strictly insisted on this hierarchy, over their reign, many artists were able to invent new genres which raised the lower subjects to the importance of history painting. Reynolds himself achieved this by inventing the portraiture style that was called the Grand Manner, where he flattered his sitters by likening them to mythological characters. Jean-Antoine Watteau invented a genre that was called fêtes galantes, where he would show scenes of courtly amusements taking place in Arcadian settings; these often had a poetic and allegorical quality which were considered to ennoble them.

Claude Lorrain practised a genre called the ideal landscape, where a composition would be loosely based on nature and dotted with classical ruins as a setting for a biblical or historical theme. It artfully combined landscape and history painting, thereby legitimising the former. It is synonymous with the term historical landscape which received official recognition in the Académie française when a Prix de Rome for the genre was established in 1817. Finally, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin was able to create still life paintings that were considered to have the charm and beauty as to be placed alongside the best allegorical subjects. However, aware of this hierarchy, Chardin began including figures in his work in about 1730, mainly women and children.

19th century
Romanticism greatly increased the status of landscape painting, beginning in British art and more gradually that of genre painting, which began to influence history painting in the anecdotal treatments of the Style Troubadour in France and equivalent trends elsewhere. Landscapes grew in size to reflect their new importance, often matching history paintings, especially in the American Hudson River School and Russian painting. Animal paintings also increased in size and dignity, but the full-length portrait, even of royalty, became mostly reserved for large public buildings.

Until the middle of the 19th century, women were largely unable to paint history paintings as they were not allowed to participate in the final process of artistic training—that of life drawing, in order to protect their modesty. They could work from reliefs, prints, casts and from the Old Masters, but not from the nude model. Instead they were encouraged to participate in the lower painting forms such as portraiture, landscape and genre. These were considered more feminine in that they appealed to the eye rather than the mind.

Toward the end of the 19th century, painters and critics began to rebel against the many rules of the Académie française, including the status accorded to history painting, which was beginning to be bought mainly by public bodies of one sort or another, as private buyers preferred subjects from lower down the hierarchy. In Britain the Pre-Raphaelite movement tried to revitalize the history painting, with mixed success; other movements made similar efforts. Many Pre-Raphaelites ended their careers mainly painting other subjects. New artistic movements included the Realists and Impressionists, which each sought to depict the present moment and daily life as observed by the eye, and unattached from historical significance; the Realists often choosing genre painting and still life, while the Impressionists would most often focus on landscapes.

title: Hierarchy of genres


text:
André Michaux

André Michaux, also styled Andrew Michaud, (8 March 1746 – 11 October 1802) was a French botanist and explorer. He is most noted for his study of North American flora. In addition Michaux collected specimens in England, Spain, France, and even Persia. His work was part of a larger European effort to gather knowledge about the natural world. Michaux's contributions include Histoire des chênes de l'Amérique (1801; "The Oaks of North America") and Flora Boreali-Americana (1803; "The Flora of North America") which continued to be botanical references well into the 19th century. His son, François André Michaux, also became an authoritative botanist.

Biography

Michaux was born in Satory, part of Versailles, Yvelines, where his father managed farmland on the king's estate. Michaux was trained in the agricultural sciences in anticipation of his one-day assuming his father's duties, and received a basic classical 18th century education, including Latin and some Greek, until he was fourteen. In 1769, he married Cecil Claye, the daughter of a prosperous farmer; she died a year later giving birth to their son, François André. Michaux then took up the study of botany and became a student of Bernard de Jussieu. In 1779 he spent time studying botany in England, and in 1780 he explored Auvergne, the Pyrenees and northern Spain. In 1782 he was sent by the French government as secretary to the French consul on a botanical mission to Persia. His journey began unfavourably, as he was robbed of all his equipment except his books; but he gained influential support in Persia after curing the shah of a dangerous illness. After two years he returned to France with a fine herbarium, and also introduced numerous Eastern plants into the botanical gardens of France.

André Michaux was appointed by Louis XVI as Royal botanist under the General Director of the Bâtiments du Roi and sent to the United States in 1785 with an annual salary of 2000 livres, to make the first organized investigation of plants that could be of value in French building and carpentry, medicine and agriculture. He traveled with his son François André Michaux (1770–1855) through Canada and the United States. In 1786, Michaux attempted to establish a horticultural garden of thirty acres in Bergen's Wood on the Hudson Palisades near Hackensack, New Jersey. The garden, overseen by Pierre-Paul Saunier from the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, who had emigrated with Michaux, failed because of the harsh winters. In 1787, Michaux established and maintained for a decade a botanical garden of 111 acres near what is now Aviation Avenue in North Charleston, South Carolina, from which he made many expeditions to various parts of North America. Michaux described and named many North American species during this time. Between 1785 and 1791 he shipped ninety cases of plants and many seeds to France. At the same time he introduced many species to America from various parts of the world, including Camellia, tea-olive, and crepe myrtle.

After the collapse of the French monarchy, André Michaux, who was a royal botanist, lost his source of income. He actively lobbied the American Philosophical Society to support his next exploration. His efforts paid off and, in early 1793, Thomas Jefferson asked him to undertake an expedition of westward exploration, similar to the Lewis and Clark Expedition, the Corps of Discovery, conducted by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark a decade later. At the time of the planned Michaux expedition, Lewis was an 18-year-old protégé of Jefferson who asked to be included in the expedition, and was turned down by Jefferson.

Before Michaux set out, however, he volunteered to assist the French Minister to America, Edmond-Charles Genet. Genet was promoting American support for France's wars with Britain and Spain, aggravating relations between all four nations. George Rogers Clark offered to organize and lead a militia force to capture Louisiana from the Spanish. Michaux's mission was to evaluate Clark's plan and coordinate between Clark's actions and Genet's. Michaux went to Kentucky, but, without adequate funds, Clark was unable to raise the militia and the plan eventually folded. It is not true, as sometimes reported, that Thomas Jefferson ordered Michaux to leave the United States after he learned of his involvement with Genet. Though Jefferson did not support Genet's actions, he was aware of Genet's instructions for Michaux and even provided Michaux with letters of introduction to the Governor of Kentucky.

On his return to France in 1796 he was shipwrecked, however most of his specimens survived. His two American gardens declined. Saunier, his salary unpaid, cultivated potatoes and hay and paid taxes on the New Jersey property, which is now still remembered as "The Frenchman's Garden", part of Machpelah Cemetery in North Bergen.

In 1800, Michaux sailed with Nicolas Baudin's expedition to Australia, but left the ship in Mauritius. During the expedition, Michaux was accompanied by an African slave he owned named Merlot. Michaux then went to Madagascar to investigate the flora of that island. Michaux died at Tamatave in Madagascar of a tropical fever at around 9 a.m. on 11 October 1802. His work as a botanist was chiefly done in the field, and he added largely to what was previously known of the botany of the East and of America.

In 1800, on his visit to the United States, Pierre Samuel Du Pont de Nemours, concerned about the abandoned botanical gardens, wrote to the Institut de France, who sent over Michaux's son François André Michaux to sell the properties. He sold the garden near Charleston, but the concern expressed by Du Pont and his son Eleuthère Irénée du Pont preserved the New Jersey garden in Saunier's care and continued to support it. Saunier continued to send seeds to France for the rest of his life, and is credited with introducing into gardens the chinquapin (Castanea pumila) and the smoking bean tree (Catalpa bignonioides).

Aaron Burr recorded meeting Michaux in Paris on September 17, 1810, but this was apparently Francois Andre Michaux, the son. According to Burr he went "to Michaux's, the botanist, who was many years in the United States, and has written a valuable little book of his travels. He is now publishing his account of our trees, which will be extremely interesting. It demonstrates that we (not the whole continent, but the United States alone) have three times the number of useful trees that Europe can boast..." Burr's cited quote would apply equally to both Michaux', father and son, and perhaps more to the son, who had been in America a total of some 6 years, and had recently (1804) written about his travels in America, and was subsequently working on his later opus on American trees.

Legacy

 * Carolina lily (Lilium michauxii), Michaux's saxifrage (Saxifraga michauxii), and several other plants are named for him.
 * Michaux State Forest in Pennsylvania (U.S.), which protects over 344 square kilometers (over 85,000 acres), is named for him.
 * André-Michaux Ecological Reserve in Quebec, Canada, which protects 450 hectares, is named for him.
 * His son François André Michaux published an Histoire des arbres forestiers de l'Amérique septentrionale (3 vols., 1810–1813), with 156 plates, of which an English translation appeared in 1817-1819 as The North American Sylva.
 * Michaux Stone — Michaux brought a boundary stone or kudurru back from his Near Eastern trip. It was originally found by a French physician living in Baghdad, near the site of a 12th-century BCE Babylonian town named Bak-da-du. On a small part of an embankment on the Tigris—near the Al-Karkh end of the Baab El-Maudham Bridge—is another archeological site attributed to the second Babylonian period, circa 600 BCE.  Michaux sold the kudurru to the "Institute Constituting the Commission for Scientific Travel and the Custodians of the Museum of Antiquities in France in 1800, for 1200 francs.  The 'Michaux stone' or Caillou Michaux was then placed in the Cabinet des Médailles of the Bibliothèque Nationale at that time.

Writings

 * Michaux wrote two valuable works on North American plants: the Histoire des chênes de l'Amérique septentrionale (1801), with 36 plates, and the Flora Boreali-Americana (2 vols., 1803), with 51 plates. Although this 1803 work appeared to be the work of the father, François claimed some 15 years later that the work had been completed after his father's death and published posthumously by himself and another botanist.

title: André Michaux


text:
SCR

SCR, or scr, may refer to:

Organizations

 * Sacred Congregation of Rites, a former Congregation of the Roman Curia
 * Senior common room, of a higher education institution
 * South Coast Repertory, theatre located in Costa Mesa, California
 * BBC Southern Counties Radio, a former radio service
 * Sport Club do Recife, a Brazilian soccer team
 * Success case replication, a methodology claiming to identify, verify, and multiply successful enterprises
 * Supreme Court Reports (Canada)
 * Supreme Court Reports (India)

Science and technology

 * Satellite channel router
 * Screener (promotional), a movie piracy rip, a motion picture film transfer process identifier
 * Selective catalytic reduction, a technology for control of NOX emissions in furnace flue gas and internal combustion engine exhaust
 * Self-consistent renormalization, a theory for magnetic materials also used in high-temperature superconductivity
 * Semi-closed circuit rebreather, a type of rebreather breathing apparatus for scuba diving
 * Short circuit ratio (disambiguation), multiple values used in electrical engineering
 * Signal Corps Radio or Set, Complete, Radio, U.S. Army Signal Corps designation
 * Silicon controlled rectifier, a type of thyristor
 * Skin conductance response
 * Space charge region, of a semiconductor device
 * Steel catenary riser, a type of pipe used in offshore oil rigs
 * Studio control room, also known as production control room or gallery that manages television studio productions
 * Summary Care Record, a UK NHS electronic patient record
 * Supply chain resilience
 * Sustainable cell rate, a parameter of a traffic contract
 * .scr, a file extension used for Microsoft Windows screensavers
 * .scr, a file extension used for script files by EAGLE

Transport

 * Ruf SCR, a sports car manufactured by German automobile manufacturer Ruf Automobile
 * Scandinavian Mountains Airport (IATA: SCR), Dalarna, Sweden
 * Siler City Municipal Airport (FAA LID: SCR), Siler City, North Carolina
 * Smyrna Cassaba Railway, an Ottoman railway
 * South Central Railway in India
 * South Coast Rail, a future MBTA Commuter Rail line
 * South Cross Route, the designation for the southern section of Ringway 1, the innermost circuit of the London Ringways network
 * St Columb Road railway station (National Rail code: SCR), Cornwall, UK
 * Suez Canal Route, an international ocean trade route
 * Sydney Coal Railway, a Canadian short-line railway operating in the eastern part of Cape Breton County, Nova Scotia

Other uses

 * Salford City Reds, former name of Salford Red Devils, an English Rugby League team
 * Science and Consciousness Review, a website presenting publicly accessible summaries of scientific studies of consciousness and related issues
 * Seabird Colony Register, a British database of birds
 * Senate concurrent resolution
 * Seychellois rupee (ISO 4217 code), the currency of Seychelles
 * Simcoe County Rovers FC, a Canadian soccer team
 * Slot car racing a hobby which involves electric model car racing on tracks
 * Solvency Capital Requirement, in Solvency II
 * Supreme Court Review, a peer-edited law review in the US.
 * FightLite SCR, a firearm whose lower receiver is generally compatible with AR-15 upper receivers

title: SCR


text:
Chardin

Chardin is a French surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, (1699–1779), French painter noted for his still life works
 * Jean Chardin, (1643–1713), French jeweller and traveller, author of The Travels of Sir John Chardin
 * Louis-Armand Chardin (1755–1793), baritone and composer

Chardin is a component of the surname Teilhard de Chardin:

 * Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, (1881–1955), French Jesuit, philosopher and paleontologist

title: Chardin


text:
Talk:MacWrite

Untitled
Macwrite is not the first such program that was widely available to the public to offer WYSIWYG operation.

That was Lisawrite published 1983 with Apple Lisa.

 * I'm not sure that the Lisa really counts as widely available. It was unpopular and sold poorly, and was aimed at business users anyhow. As far as widely available, the Mac fits the bill. --Dcclark 03:19, 11 May 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:MacWrite


text:
Talk:Modernist poetry in English

featured???
How can this article be featured? It has no criticism section? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 138.163.0.44 (talk) 18:20, 23 January 2008 (UTC)

 * It was featured in November 2004. Standards have risen since then. --Halcatalyst (talk) 03:32, 27 September 2008 (UTC)

References?
I noticed this article has a template stating it is lacking references, and that it's also a featured article. Aren't those two things mutually exclusive? --Impaciente 19:12, 5 November 2006 (UTC)

He'p me! I dislocated my 'I'

 * the dislocation of the 'I' of the poet.

I've got a vague inkling of what this means to express. But I tend to think it could be stated more clearer or concretely; and if it can't I wonder if it should remain. -- Smerdis of Tlön 23:43, 7 Mar 2004 (UTC)

One of the central meanings of Modernism in poetry: cannot be removed. Filiocht 11:34, 5 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Harrumph
My own fault for not responding to the call sooner, but there is a ton I really would like to add. It's just that I need to research like mad. Ok, Paul Valery saying "We must take eloquence by the throat and wring its neck." Someone (got to find out who) saying, "No beautiful poems can be written until the age allows beauty."

Then Futurism and the proto-fascist (literally proto-fascist, not proto-Nazi) movements that celebrate the machine and the New World Order of the New Man who will be without sentiment and love the beauty of machines.

Then Dadaism, Cubism, and Surrealism -- each responding to a different stimulus, but two of them responding to Freud and the idea that we may not be who we think we are, that the "I" of a poem may not be the determinant, that we may all be dreaming or controlled by the savage within, while Cubism develops into a celebration of the mechanical.

The biggest gap is Symbolism. Arthur Symmonds, junky dolt that he was, ended up being responsible for a ton of poetry, thanks to Pound and TSE. The Symbolist folk are also interested in the subconscious in various complicated ways. The biggest thing being that the Old Order had let everyone down. WW1 was a huge thing. Not only did 1/3rd of the young men of Europe die, but the nations at war were the most "civilized" and educated, so education and civilization did not lead one, as Hegel had promised, to a world of harmonious peace and art. If all the old institutions were lies, then the art that had been "civilizing" people was not right. Some fled to the orderliness of Marxism, some to fascism, some to private spiritualism.

I'm rambling, but this (rambling, having a ton of stuff in the bag but no way to pull it out in order) is why I didn't jump in to help earlier. Geogre 16:21, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Giving them too much credit

 * Modernist poetry is a mode of writing characterised by technical innovation in the versification (sometimes referred to as free verse) and by the dislocation of the 'I' of the poet as a means of subverting the notion of an unproblematic poetic 'self

Except that the technical innovation was Walt Whitman's, and the conscious subversion of the poet's ego was Browning's innovation (as he painstakingly explains in his Essay on Shelley, where he distinguishes between the subjective poet and the objective poet). (Pound even admitted that Browning was his model.) Yeats, who had taken note of Browning's relationship to Shelley, also worked out several theories on the problematic nature of the poet's self (most notably, the doctrine of the Mask) before the end of the 19th century. I think this article makes the usual error of crediting the Modernists with inventing things were in truth adopted from Victorian-era poets. It also goes to far in taking the modernists at their word when they said they were breaking sharply with the Victorians. 68.118.61.219 00:52, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * It's fair, though, to talk of Modernism as a set of traits, rather than a group of people, and to say that, in fact, Browning had many Modernist developments, as did Whitman. On the other hand, the Modernists absolutely pushed these innovations from occasional and theoretical observations to a thorough habit.  It was theirs to create New Criticism (which is as much a comment on their poetry as on how one should read poetry).  Every movement flows from one to another.  The Romantics didn't do anything that hadn't been done in the 20 years prior to them, after all, but declaring oneself new does, in a way, make one new, as there was a coherence to those folks we call "Romantics" that wasn't present before, and there is a coherence to the "Modern poets" that wasn't there before.  (Personally, I think the decision to drop a belief in progress is one of the defining characteristics, along with a general abandonment of the pastoral, as well as a newfound hatred of heroism (and consequently the epic).)  Geogre 17:24, 27 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Modernism template
I've added a template feel free to add new articles to it. Stirling Newberry 00:33, 3 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Objectivism
The snippet on the objectivists is pretty inaccurate. The term for the school was actually coined by Zukofsky for the introduction to the special issue of Poetry (I believe Harriet Monroe asked him to edit an issue of "new poetry"), and he included a bunch of people not normally associated with the name (Pound, Williams, Rexroth, etc.). The Objectivist Press is really the only instance of a working relationship, and that didn't include Rakosi, Niedecker or Bunting. Oddly enough, Zukofsky own introduction to the special issue would indicate that only Reznikoff's poetry consistently met all of the criteria for "Objectivism."

Anyway, I'll try to spend some time on this, but I wanted to start here in case anyone wants to help. L Glidewell 22:05, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: Not moved. Jafeluv (talk) 11:42, 15 June 2010 (UTC)

Modernist poetry in English → English language modernist poetry — The topic of this article is the subset of modernist poetry that was/is composed in the English language; the proposed title demarcates this better than the existing one, which suggests that translated works for instance would fall under its scope. Note that this article is not part of a WP:SERIES (Modernist poetry in Russian et al. have yet to be written), and so this requested move affects this page only. Relisted.   A rbitrarily 0   ( talk ) 20:12, 8 June 2010 (UTC) 86.41.64.98 (talk) 14:06, 30 May 2010 (UTC)
 * You probably meant "English-language modernist poetry" (with a hyphen), but the current title looks clear and unambiguous to me (and well, why two successive adjectives when you need only one?). Cavila (talk) 15:07, 30 May 2010 (UTC)
 * Regarding the hyphen, I was unsure as we use both formulations: compare Special:Prefixindex/English language and Special:Prefixindex/English-language. As I've said, "in English" is ambiguous (in English translation?) in a way that "English-language" is not – the latter stresses the origins of the subject (modernist poetry) where the former stresses the current state (in English). Best, 86.41.64.98 (talk) 15:41, 30 May 2010 (UTC)
 * Oppose: this is the sort of thing that causes WP:AT to warn against unnecessary precision. We should include English translations which are themselves modernist poems worth mentioning; to do otherwise is to exclude much Pound (and some McDiarmid) pointlessly. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 02:40, 9 June 2010 (UTC)
 * Oppose. For the same reasons as PMAnderson, plus "English-language modernist poetry", with or without the hyphen, is just plain ugly. --Akhilleus (talk) 16:45, 9 June 2010 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Stein not identified
Article discusses a Stein in Paris several times. I assume this is Gertrude but this should be clarified and a cross-reference added. I am just going to make the change. It must be Gertrude with the Vichy supporter comment that was already there. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Erikm67 (talk • contribs) 18:33, 5 September 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Modernist poetry in English


text:
Maryon Pearson

Maryon Elspeth Pearson (née Moody; December 13, 1901 – December 26, 1989) was the wife of Lester B. Pearson, the 14th Prime Minister of Canada.

Life
Maryon Elspeth Moody was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, on December 13, 1901. Her father was a doctor and her mother was superintendent of nurses at a hospital.

Maryon and Lester Pearson met at the University of Toronto, where he was a teacher and she was a student. The two married on August 22, 1925.

They had one son, Geoffrey, and one daughter, Patricia. Geoffrey was married to former Canadian Senator Landon Pearson. Geoffrey and Landon's daughter is USA Today journalist Patricia Pearson (not to be confused with her aunt, of the same name, who did not maintain a public career).

Reputation
Maryon Pearson was best known for her sharp-tongued wit, developing a reputation as an outspoken figure who freely spoke her mind and had little use for the demure and quiet image fostered by many wives of previous prime ministers.

It was reportedly also at Maryon Pearson's behest that the practice of curtseying to the Governor General and his consort was discontinued—apparently because Pearson refused to act deferentially toward her longtime friend Norah Michener.

Among her most famous quotations: "Behind every successful man, there stands a surprised woman."

"We lost everything. We even won our own constituency."

"The big problem is to find suitable hats. I don't care for them all that much, but you have to wear them in politics."

On the retired former prime minister's greater time at home: "I married him for better or worse. I didn't marry him for lunch."

On being asked during an election campaign by a reporter, "Is there anything you'd like to bring up, Mrs. Pearson?": "Yes, three doughnuts and six cups of coffee."

On being asked for her opinion of a speech given by Lester: "You missed several opportunities to sit down."

title: Maryon Pearson


text:
Grinner's Food Systems

Grinner's Food Systems, Ltd. is an Eastern Canadian company that franchises the restaurant chains Greco Pizza and Captain Submarine, and frozen yoghurt chain Frozu!. It is based in Truro, Nova Scotia. The company is owned by Trucorp Investments Inc. of Dieppe, New Brunswick.

William Hay is the chairman of Trucorp, which also owns Bonte Foods, Ltd., Frank and Gino's restaurant, and Chris Brothers food products. The company ranked 77th out of 101 top companies in Atlantic Canada in 2004. The Grinner's division earned a revenue of $30.4 million in 2008.

Greco Pizza and Captain Submarine
Greco Pizza was established in Moncton, New Brunswick in 1977, and has since grown to one of Atlantic Canada's largest pizza chains. Menu items include pizza, donair, salad, and the restaurant's proprietary dipping sauces.

Captain Submarine was acquired by Grinner's in 2002, with nine locations (twenty-one fewer than there were in the 1980s). The purchase raised the number of Grinner's franchised restaurants from 111 to 120.

Both Greco Pizza and Captain Submarine are quick-service restaurant chains, which are often co-branded. There are over 170 Greco Pizza locations across Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland.

Frank and Gino's
Frank and Gino's is a restaurant in Truro, Nova Scotia owned by Grinner's. The menu includes pizza, pasta, seafood and beef entrees.

title: Grinner's Food Systems