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Monmouthshire (historic)

Until 1974, Monmouthshire, also formerly known as the County of Monmouth (Sir Fynwy), was an administrative county in the south-east of Wales, on the border with England, and later classed as one of the thirteen historic counties of Wales. Its area now corresponds approximately to the present principal areas of Monmouthshire, Blaenau Gwent, Newport and Torfaen, and those parts of Caerphilly and Cardiff east of the Rhymney River. The eastern part of the county was mainly agricultural, while the western valleys had rich mineral resources. This led to the area becoming highly industrialised with coal mining and iron working being major employers from the 18th century to the late 20th century. Its five largest towns were Newport, Cwmbran, Pontypool, Ebbw Vale and Abergavenny.

Monmouthshire's Welsh status was ambiguous between the 16th and 20th centuries, with it considered by some to be part of England during this time; its legal inclusion in Wales was clarified by the Local Government Act 1972, the same act that changed the structure of local government within the county.

Formation
The "county or shire of Monmouth" was formed from parts of the Welsh Marches by the Laws in Wales Act 1535. According to the Act the shire consisted of all Honours, Lordships, Castles, Manors, Lands, Tenements and Hereditaments, lying or being within the Compass or Precinct of the following ''Lordships, Townships, Parishes, Commotes and Cantrefs... in the Country of Wales'':

Monmouth • Chepstow • Matherne (Mathern) • Llanvihangel (Llanfihangel Rogiet) • Magour (Magor) • Goldcliffe (Goldcliff) • Newport • Wentlooge • Llanwerne (Llanwern) • Caerlion (Caerleon) • Usk • Treleck (Trellech) • Tintern • Skenfrith • Grosmont • Witecastle (White Castle) • Raglan • Calicote (Caldicot) • Biston (Bishton) • Abergavenny • Penrose (Penrhos) • Grenefield (Maesglas) • Maghen (Machen) • Hochuyslade (possessions of Llanthony Priory)

The Act also designated Monmouth as the "Head and Shire town of the said county or shire of Monmouth", and ordered that the Sheriff's county or shire court be held alternately in Monmouth and Newport.

Boundaries and subdivisions
The county boundaries are the River Wye on the east, dividing it from Gloucestershire and the Rhymney River to the west dividing it from Glamorganshire, with the Bristol Channel to the south. The boundaries with Herefordshire to the northeast and Brecknockshire to the north were less well-defined. The parish of Welsh Bicknor, was an exclave of Monmouthshire, sandwiched between Gloucestershire and Herefordshire. The area was considered part of Monmouthshire until it was made part of Herefordshire "for all purposes" by the Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844, while the Herefordshire hamlet of Fwthog (or Ffwddog) adjoining the Honddu Valley remained an exclave within Monmouthshire until 1891.

The county was divided into six hundreds in 1542: Abergavenny, Caldicot, Raglan, Skenfrith, Usk and Wentloog.

The county contained the three boroughs of Monmouth, Newport and Usk.

Municipal reform
Monmouth and Newport were reformed as municipal boroughs with elected town councils by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. Usk continued as an unreformed borough until its final abolition in 1886.

New forms of local government were established in the urban areas of the county with the setting of local boards under the Public Health Act 1848 and Local Government Act 1858. The Public Health Act 1875 divided the rural areas into rural sanitary districts.

An administrative county of Monmouthshire, governed by an elected county council, was formed in 1889 under the terms of the Local Government Act 1888. The act directed that where urban sanitary districts straddled county boundaries they should be placed entirely in the administrative county which had the majority of the urban sanitary district's population. Along the boundary between Monmouthshire and Brecknockshire were four urban sanitary districts which straddled the county boundary: Brynmawr, Ebbw Vale, Rhymney, and Tredegar. The majority of Brynmawr's population was in Brecknockshire, and so the southern parts of Brynmawr within Monmouthshire were transferred to the administrative county of Brecknockshire. For the other three urban sanitary districts the majority of the population was in Monmouthshire, which therefore gained from Brecknockshire the Beaufort and Rassau areas of Ebbw Vale, the Dukestown area of Tredegar, and the Llechryd area of Rhymney.

The county council was based in Newport, rather than the historic county town of Monmouth. In 1891 the borough of Newport achieved county borough status and therefore left the administrative county, although the administration of the county council continued to be based at Shire Hall, Newport. In the same year the parish of Fwthog was transferred to both the administrative and geographic county of Monmouthshire.

Under the Local Government Act 1894, the administrative county was divided into urban and rural districts, based on existing sanitary districts.

In 1899 Abergavenny was incorporated as a borough. Two further urban districts were formed: Mynyddislwyn in 1903, and Bedwas and Machen in 1912. The County of Monmouth Review Order 1935 revised the number and boundaries of the urban and rural districts in the administrative county. A new Cwmbran urban district was formed by the abolition of Llanfrechfa Upper and Llantarnam UDs, Abersychan and Panteg UDs were absorbed by Pontypool urban district, and Magor and St Mellons RD was formed by a merger of two rural districts.

The county boundaries provided the basis of the boundaries of the new Diocese of Monmouth, created in October 1921 following the disestablishment of the Church in Wales from the Church of England in April 1920. The Diocese covered all of the County of Monmouthshire but also included the Parish of Cyncoed in north-east Cardiff, a situation which continues in 2023.

The last major boundary change to affect the administrative county came in 1938 when the Monmouthshire parish of Rumney was incorporated into the city and county borough of Cardiff. However, the geographical Monmouthshire/Glamorgan and England/Wales border remained the Rhymney River.

Local government reform
The administrative county of Monmouth and county borough of Newport were abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. The successor authority, with minor boundary changes, was titled Gwent. Some border parishes became part of the new Rhymney Valley district of Mid Glamorgan or the Cardiff district of South Glamorgan.

Background
Between about the 5th and 10th centuries the Welsh Kingdom of Gwent covered a variable area roughly contiguous with Monmouthshire. It then became part of Morgannwg, and was part of the unified Welsh realm of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. At the time of the Domesday Survey in 1086 the Chepstow and Monmouth areas were, for accounting purposes, reckoned as parts of the English counties of Gloucestershire and Herefordshire respectively. These areas, along with the rest of what would later become Monmouthshire, included land from Pembrokeshire to Monmouthshire which was largely in the hands of the Marcher Lords; this land, however, was not subject to English law. While the Principality of Wales (the northern part of Wales) was 'annexed' into the Kingdom of England by the Statute of Rhuddlan, enacted on 3 March 1284, the administration of the Marcher lands remained unchanged. From the 11th until the 16th centuries, the area which later became Monmouthshire (subject to some boundary revisions) comprised six Marcher lordships – Abergavenny, Caerleon, Chepstow (or Striguil), Gwynllwg (Wentloog), Monmouth and Usk. until the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1543, the land which is today called Monmouthshire was undisputedly in Wales.

The 16th to 19th centuries
The Laws in Wales Act 1535 integrated Wales directly into the English legal system and the "Lordships Marchers within the said Country or Dominion of Wales" were allocated to existing and new shires. Some lordships were annexed to existing counties in England and some were annexed to existing counties in Wales, with the remainder being divided up into new counties, one of which was Monmouthshire.

Although the original Laws in Wales Act 1535 specifically includes Monmouthshire as being in the "Country or Dominion of Wales", the Laws in Wales Act 1542 enumerates the Welsh counties as twelve in number, omitting Monmouthshire from the count. Monmouthshire was made directly responsible to the courts of Westminster rather than falling under the Court of Great Sessions in Wales. According to historian John Davies, this arrangement was the origin of the belief that the county had been annexed by England rather than remaining part of Wales. Davies disagrees, and says, "Monmouthshire was no less Welsh in language and sentiment than any other eastern county". Moreover the belief that Monmouthshire was somehow specially annexed to England is not consistent with the wording in the Act "That his said Country or Dominion of Wales shall be, stand and continue for ever from henceforth incorporated, united and annexed to and with this his Realm of England", making it clear that the whole of Wales was being "annexed" to England, not just Monmouthshire.

Despite Monmouthshire being a new county, it was given two knights of the shire in common with existing counties in England, rather than one as in the counties in Wales. The relevant section of the Act states that "one Knight shall be chosen and elected to the same Parliaments for every of the Shires of Brecknock, Radnor, Montgomery and Denbigh, and for every other Shire within the said Country of Dominion of Wales". However, it was given only one Borough member, like the other Welsh counties (apart from Pembrokeshire which had two Borough members and Merioneth which had none). In ecclesiastical terms, most of the county outside the town of Monmouth itself remained within the Diocese of Llandaff; the town of Monmouth was in the diocese of Hereford, while the parishes of Cwmyoy and Llanthony were in the diocese of St David's. In 1549 Edward VI granted a Charter to Monmouth which was described as being "in the Marches of Wales". Later writers who described Monmouthshire as being in Wales included Humphrey Llwyd (History of Cambria, 1568); Thomas Churchyard (Worthiness of Wales, 1587); and Michael Drayton (Poly-Olbion, 1613).

In the late 17th century, under Charles II, Monmouthshire was added to the Oxford circuit of the English assizes following which, according to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, it gradually "came to be regarded as an English county". The Modern Universal British Traveller of 1779 stated: "Monmouthshire was formerly a part of Wales, and continued so till the reign of Charles II, when it was reckoned an English county (as it has been ever since) because the judges then began to keep the assizes here in the Oxford circuit." A later traveller, George Borrow in 1862, wrote: "Monmouthshire is at present considered an English county, though certainly with little reason, for it not only stands on the western side of the Wye, but the names of almost all its parishes are Welsh, and many thousands of its population still speak the Welsh language."

Although Wales was legally integrated into England, the word "England" was still taken to exclude Wales in many contexts. The Wales and Berwick Act 1746 ensured that "in all Cases where the Kingdom of England, or that Part of Great Britain called England, hath been or shall be mentioned in any Act of Parliament, the same has been and shall from henceforth be deemed and taken to comprehend and include the Dominion of Wales and Town of Berwick upon Tweed".

The eastern part of the county is mainly agricultural, while the western valleys had rich mineral resources. This led to the area becoming highly industrialised with coal mining and iron working being major employers from the 18th century to the late 20th century.

"Wales and Monmouthshire"
The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica unambiguously described the county as part of England, but notes that "whenever an act [...] is intended to apply to [Wales] alone, then Wales is always coupled with Monmouthshire". However, most Acts of Parliament listed Monmouthshire as part of England; for example, the Local Government Act 1933 listed both the administrative county of Monmouth and county borough of Newport as part of England. In the rare event that an Act of Parliament was restricted to Wales, Monmouthshire was usually included, in the format "Wales and Monmouthshire"; for example, although the Sunday Closing (Wales) Act 1881 did not apply to Monmouthshire, the creation of the Welsh Office in 1965 and the Welsh Language Act 1967 did (although the latter had the paradoxical effect of reinforcing the legal connection of Monmouthshire with England: see next section). The Welsh Intermediate Education Act 1889 also applied to Monmouthshire. The Sunday Closing Act was also extended to Monmouthshire in 1915 under wartime legislation. In considering the Sunday Closing Act in 1921, Monmouthshire County Council resolved, with only one vote against, to request that the county should be included in Wales for all legislative purposes. Another typical example was the division of England and Wales into registration areas in the 19th century — one of which, the "Welsh Division", was defined as including "Monmouthshire, South Wales and North Wales".

According to Chris Williams of Cardiff University: "'...The problem with Monmouthshire is that it was located not on, strictly speaking, a national frontier, but within a single political formation. This had been the case since the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1543 which had extended the English system of justice, government and parliamentary representation to the principality of Wales and the March. From the mid-sixteenth century to the early nineteenth century it had not been a matter of very much importance as to whether an England/Wales border could be identified and, if so, where it ran in respect of Monmouthshire. That situation changed in the nineteenth century, as the particular cultural, linguistic and political characteristics of Welsh society emerged as both a problem (for the British state) and as a cause (particularly among Welsh Liberals and nonconformists). Once specific policies (be they considered corrective or emancipating) began to be designed for application to Wales, then the question of Monmouthshire's placement became important.'"

It has been suggested that the question of the status of Monmouthshire arose in earnest in the 19th century, when some of the local gentry such as the Dukes of Beaufort established family seats in England, and many industrialists and others moved into Monmouthshire, particularly in the eastern part of the county. Some of these, and others with "social aspirations", considered it essential to emphasise their "Englishness", and there were attempts to refine the notion that anomalies in the 16th-century legislation had made the county non-Welsh. The distinction implied in the description "Wales and Monmouthshire" was nurtured by elements of the establishment, and became increasingly accepted on the English side of the border and in central government, until the local Welsh residents more fully asserted themselves in the 20th century.

Twentieth-century debate
Following the Welsh Church Act 1914, the Church in Wales was set up in 1920, containing within it the Diocese of Llandaff which included almost all of Monmouthshire. The new Diocese of Monmouth was formed in 1921. In Anglican terms, the area thus came to be treated as part of Wales.

The question of Monmouthshire's status continued to be a matter of discussion, especially as Welsh nationalism and devolution climbed the political agenda in the 20th century. This sometimes led to heated debates in Parliament. In 1921 the Earl of Plymouth objected strongly to the inclusion of the county in legislation forcing the closing of public houses in Wales on Sundays. "I stand as strongly as I can for the privileges of Monmouthshire, to say it is a county of England." He went on to complain that Welsh representatives were imposing the ban "against the will of the people of Monmouthshire". The extension of the legislation to Monmouthshire was confirmed by Parliament despite a petition of over 77,000 names against Sunday closing.

In 1937, the Lord Lieutenant of Monmouthshire, Sir Henry Mather Jackson, stated: "Monmouthshire is not in Wales... We are in England, and I am not going to be added to Wales for any purpose whatsoever". During a debate on the Administration of Justice (Miscellaneous Provisions) Bill in 1938, Lord Raglan objected to the stipulation that the chairman of the Monmouthshire quarter sessions should be a Welsh-speaker. Raglan stated that "The County of Monmouth is an English county. I do not think that will be disputed.." and he claimed that Welsh Nationalists had attempted to convince the Lord Chief Justice to move Monmouthshire from the Oxford Circuit to the South Wales Circuit, thereby making it part of Wales in matters of court administration. He alleged that these "persons unconnected with Monmouthshire" had claimed incorrectly that the inhabitants of the county "spoke nothing but Welsh".

In 1948, Monmouthshire County Council was granted a coat of arms with the motto Utrique fidelis ("Faithful to both"), to reflect the dual loyalties of the area. Increasingly in legislation, "the state was prepared to treat Monmouthshire as if it were part of Wales, even if it was not able to concede that legally it was Welsh." In 1949, Monmouthshire was included within the remit of the Council for Wales and Monmouthshire, an appointed body established by the Government to advise on Welsh affairs and a precursor of the Welsh Office. Treating Monmouthshire as part of Wales in legislation occasionally created further anomalies. For example, the Historic Buildings and Ancient Monuments Act 1953 contained the provision that "For the purposes of this Act the administrative county of Monmouth shall be taken to be part of Wales and not part of England." This left the county borough of Newport as part of England but treated the rest of the county as part of Wales.

The Member of Parliament (MP) for Abertillery, Llywelyn Williams, campaigned to have Monmouthshire unambiguously placed in Wales. Speaking in the House of Commons in February 1957 he said "I think that it is about time we dropped this Wales and Monmouthshire business. Apart from a few cranks who search the files of the distant past for some very flimsy tokens of evidence to suggest that Monmouthshire belongs to England, no person acquainted with the county — its history, customs, place names, culture and way of life — would dream of regarding Monmouthshire people as anything but Welsh." Later in the year he asked Henry Brooke, Minister of Housing and Local Government and Welsh Affairs, "whether he will now remove from official documents and records relating to Wales the additional words 'and Monmouthshire', since Monmouthshire is included in the term Wales.". Brooke replied in the negative, as he did not think "such a course would be consistent with various statutory provisions relating to Monmouthshire."

The Local Government Commission for Wales established in 1958 included Monmouthshire within its review area, and in 1961 proposed merging the area into a new "South East Wales" county. The proposed inclusion of Monmouthshire in Wales infuriated Lord Raglan, by now Lord Lieutenant of the county. In reaction, a "Make Monmouthshire Welsh" campaign was launched in August 1961 to gain parliamentary recognition that the county was in Wales. In November 1961 it was announced that a branch of the Royal Society of St George was to be formed, emphasising the county's English identity. Another group, the "Monmouthshire is Welsh" society, was formed and was supported by local MPs Michael Foot and Leo Abse. Two years later Monmouth Borough Council made representations to the Minister of Housing and Local Government seeking the transfer of the town to Herefordshire in the event that the reforms were carried out. Signs erected by Monmouthshire County Council welcoming motorists to Wales were defaced or removed. The County Council placed a revised sign at Monmouth stating "Welcome to Wales and Monmouthshire"; first, the words "..and Monmouthshire" were painted over, and then the words "..to Wales" were also obliterated.

The Welsh Office, established in 1965, included Monmouthshire within its remit. The Wales and Berwick Act was repealed in regard to Wales in 1967 by the Welsh Language Act 1967, which however also continued to use the phrase "Wales and Monmouthshire". The Interpretation Act 1978 hence provides that in legislation passed between 1967 and 1974, "a reference to England includes Berwick upon Tweed and Monmouthshire".

Clarification of position in Wales
In 1969 George Thomas, Secretary of State for Wales proposed to fully incorporate Monmouthshire into Wales. Lord Raglan (son of the former lord lieutenant), asked the following question in the House of Lords: "To ask Her Majesty's Government why they propose to incorporate Monmouthshire into Wales without consulting Monmouthshire's inhabitants." Replying for the government, Baroness Phillips stated that "The purpose of the change is to remove the anomaly arising from the present need to refer to Monmouthshire separately from Wales in Statutes. My right honourable friend the Secretary of State believes that the proposal commands wide support in the county." In April of the following year Plaid Cymru MP Gwynfor Evans asked Thomas "when he proposes to implement his undertaking that the phrase 'Wales and Monmouthshire' " will be dropped." The Secretary of State indicated that it would be after the passing of legislation to reform local government in Wales.

The issue was finally clarified in law by the Local Government Act 1972, which provided that "in every act passed on or after 1 April 1974, and in every instrument made on or after that date under any enactment (whether before, on or after that date) "Wales", subject to any alterations of boundaries..." included "the administrative county of Monmouthshire and the county borough of Newport".

Debate on the relevant amendment, Clause 256, took place late on 20 July 1972, with few local MPs present. The Minister of State, David Gibson-Watt, agreed to a question from George Thomas that "...in future the argument about Monmouthshire being part of Wales is over, and that [his] statement makes it clear that Monmouthshire is part of Wales for good and for ever?" Raymond Gower said that the statement was "quite consistent with the fact that towns with names such as Abergavenny and Llantarnam could not be anything other than Welsh"; it was opposed by Gerald Kaufman, who stated: "Am I to take it that an act of annexation of this magnitude is to be carried through a sparsely attended House of Commons on the nod at five minutes to midnight on the same basis as Europe has annexed England? I wish to voice my protest."

Legacy
The name "Monmouthshire" was revived for one of the principal areas created on further local government reorganisation in 1996. The principal area covers only part of the historic county, which also included Newport, Torfaen, most of Blaenau Gwent, and parts of Caerphilly and Cardiff.

The preserved county of Gwent, which still exists for some ceremonial purposes, is similar in extent to historic Monmouthshire with the addition of the west bank of the Rhymney Valley.

title: Monmouthshire (historic)


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Canada Water station

Canada Water is a London Underground and London Overground station located in Canada Water, in south London, England. It takes its name from Canada Water, a lake which was created from a former dock in the Port of London.

The station is located on the Jubilee line between and  stations and on the East London line between Rotherhithe and Surrey Quays stations, and provides an interchange point between the two lines. It is in Travelcard Zone 2.

London Overground services commenced on the East London line on 27 April 2010, as the replacement extension of the historic tube line.

History
Canada Water was originally intended to be a stop on the aborted Fleet line Extension to Thamesmead. The extension was never built, but Canada Water became the only projected Fleet line Extension station to be realised on the Jubilee Line Extension.

The station is a wholly new building on a derelict site formerly occupied by Albion Dock, part of the old Surrey Commercial Docks. The station was one of the first designed for the Jubilee line Extension. The contract for the station's construction was initially awarded to Wimpey in 1993 for £21.3 million and was later taken over by Tarmac. Construction began in 1995. It proved extremely challenging, requiring the excavation (by cut-and-cover) of a void 150 m long, 23 m wide and 22 m deep. The building of the East London Line station required a separate slot at right angles, 130 m long, 13 m deep and tapering in width, incorporating a Victorian railway tunnel. Construction was complicated by the high water table on the site, which is located on the Thames flood plain; extensive deep-well dewatering was required to lower the water table before the enclosure to the excavations could be built. A total of 120000 m3 of spoil had to be excavated. An additional complication was the location of the excavation site, near the foundations of two existing 22-storey tower blocks and the northern end of the former Canada Dock, now the ornamental lake Canada Water. The section of East London line running through the station was completely reconstructed, with the 19th-century brick railway tunnel being dismantled and the track relaid over a new structure bridging the Jubilee line tracks below. As the East London line had to be closed for this work, London Underground took the opportunity to carry out other remedial works such as repairs to the Thames Tunnel, a short distance to the north.

It was opened on 19 August 1999, served initially by East London line trains. The Jubilee line passenger service from the station began on 17 September that year.

In 2012, it was used as a filming location for part of the pilot episode of the BBC/Cinemax British-American spy drama, Hunted (TV series).

Canada Water was the first station to receive external sponsorship; Nestlé sponsored the station on the day of the 2015 London Marathon, and roundels in the station were edited to advertise Nestlé's Buxton Water. The one-day sponsorship was part of a plan to increase Transport for London's non-fare revenue, costing Nestlé £110,000.

Architecture
The station, which was the first to be designed in the Jubilee line Extension project, has been described by the Hong Kong MTR's chief architect Roland Paoletti as "the only station on the JLE that has been built to the strict engineering economies of the specification of a Hong Kong interchange station." Above ground, its most salient feature is a striking glass "drum" 25 m across, which covers a deep opening descending almost to the Jubilee line platforms, 22 m below the surface. This feature was designed to allow natural light to reach deep into the station, a design principle common to many of the stations on the Jubilee line Extension. The drum was designed and constructed by Buro Happold. It is notably similar to the brick drum designed by Charles Holden for station on the Piccadilly line in the 1930s, but is much more oriented towards the entry of daylight.

The drum is accompanied by a glass-roofed bus station designed by Eva Jiřičná which serves as a hub for services in the Rotherhithe and Bermondsey areas. The bus station was designed to fit in a relatively small site between the station drum, the railway's ventilation openings, a high wall and the adjoining tower blocks. Its most distinctive feature is a row of 16 m-long roof spans cantilevered from a row of central columns supporting a 100 m-long glass and aluminium canopy. This provides acoustic protection to the residential blocks and shelters passengers waiting below.

Below ground, the station is dominated by a huge concrete box, large enough to accommodate one of the Canary Wharf skyscrapers on its side. It is lined by a series of huge concrete pillars designed to take the weight of a planned nine-storey building on the surface as well as the roadway and bus station. The station has four lifts and eight escalators with an average rise of about 6.5 m to connect the lower parts of the station with street level. It is built on three levels: the ticket office and shops lie immediately below ground, the two north-south East London line platforms are situated on the second level 11 m below the ground, and the two east-west Jubilee line platforms are on the lowest level 22 m down.

The station was the winner of the Civic Trust Building of the Year Award for 2000, and the Interchange Awards' Medium Size Project of the Year award for 2001.

Connections
London Buses routes 1, 47, 188, 199, 225, 381, C10, P12 and night routes N199 and N381 serve the station and bus station.

Services
The station currently is served off peak during the day by 24 Jubilee line trains per hour, increasing to 30 in the peak, and 16 London Overground trains per hour at all times. On Friday and Saturday nights, the station receives 6 Jubilee line trains per hour and 4 London Overground trains per hour. Canada Water is the busiest two-platform National Rail station, with 25 million entries and exits to the NR platforms in 2017–18.

There is a scissors crossover to the south of the London Overground platforms to enable trains to terminate there.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Canada Water station


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Långnäs

Långnäs is a port in Lumparland on the eastern mainland of Åland, about 30 km over the road away from Åland's capital Mariehamn. Road ferries to Kumlinge (Snäckö) and Galtby via Föglö (Överö) and Kökar start here. Långnäs is an alternative to Åland's main passenger harbour, the Western Harbour in Mariehamn, for ferries between Finland and Sweden.

Ferry traffic
Långnäs has two Ålandstrafiken ferry connections. The southern line goes to Galtby (with a connection to mainland Finland) via Överö, Sottunga, Husö, Kyrkogårdsö and Kökar. The other line goes to Snackö in Kumlinge via Överö and Sottunga.

The shipping company Ab Lillgaard has connections between Långnäs and Naantali via the ferry MS Fjärdvägen. The ferry companies Viking Line and Silja Line use Långnäs as an alternative to Mariehamn as a night-time stop on the Stockholm—Turku route. The ferry operator Finnlines has a connection from Naantali to Kapellskär via Långnäs.

In 1999, European Union legislation outlawed the sale of duty-free goods on ferry services within the EU, but Åland's tax privileges provide a legal exemption for ships that call at a port in Åland. As duty-free sales are a considerable source of revenue for the ferry shipping companies, the major routes between the Stockholm region (Kapellskär and Stockholm) and southern Finland (Turku and Helsinki) include a stop there.

History
Långnäs has been used as a harbour for inter-island traffic on Åland since the 1920s.

In the early 1960s, Silja Line built a ferry terminal in Långnäs, designed by Finnish architect Bengt Lundsten. The terminal was in use 1965–1975. It was a large futuristic glass building suspended in the air by cable wires connected to two supporting arches. It gained international recognition for its architecture. Silja Line terminated its traffic to Långnäs in 1975 and the terminal fell into disuse and was eventually dismantled in 1993. A new terminal was built in 1999 to accommodate the large cruiseferries on the Stockholm—Turku route.

The company Långnäs Hamn Ab was founded in 1988 when the municipality of Lumparland bought the harbour area from Silja Line. Långnäs was the first harbour in Finland to be operated as a joint-stock company. The newly formed company had visions of an oil harbour, and a passenger harbour to serve the then booming ferry industry. The municipality's ambitions exceeded their capabilities and in 1992 the entire stock of the company was acquired by the Government of Åland. In 1993 Lillgaard Ab started traffic from Långnäs to Naantali.

Finland's entry in the European Union in 1995 and the tax exemption law for Åland caused a renovation of the harbour. A new deep quay and a simple terminal building were built so that ferries between Turku and Stockholm would have time to stop at Åland in both directions. Traffic started on 1 July 1999, on the same day when the new tax laws for intra-EU traffic came into force.

Accidents
On 28 November 1968, the passenger ships Ilmatar and Botnia collided in front of the Långnäs harbour travelling on the Stockholm—Turku route. Six people were killed in the accident and it caused almost 700 000 Finnish markka worth of damage. Because of the thick mist at the time, visibility conditions were very poor.

title: Långnäs


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Flintshire (historic)

Until 1974, Flintshire (Sir y Fflint), also known as the County of Flint, was an administrative county in the north-east of Wales, later classed as one of the thirteen historic counties of Wales.

Most of what was Flintshire was along the north-east coast of Wales, however the county was notable for having one of the few large county exclaves, the English Maelor (Maelor Saesneg), to survive the Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844.

The administrative county of Flint was abolished under the Local Government Act 1972 on 1 April 1974, and became part of the new administrative area of Clwyd. The exclaves became part of Wrexham Maelor district – other parts formed the districts of Alyn and Deeside, Delyn and Rhuddlan. A unitary authority, also named Flintshire, was formed in 1996 under the Local Government (Wales) Act 1994, consisting only of the Alyn and Deeside and Delyn districts – the Wrexham Maelor parts now form part of Wrexham County Borough, with the former Rhuddlan district forming the northernmost part of the current Denbighshire unitary authority.

Geography
The former county did not have the same boundaries as the current administrative county of Flintshire; in particular the former county included a large exclave called the English Maelor (Maelor Saesneg); it also included Prestatyn, Rhyl and St Asaph which are now administered as part of modern-day Denbighshire, as well as Bangor-on-Dee and Overton-on-Dee, which are administered as part of Wrexham County Borough. Other exclaves of the historic Flintshire included the manors of Marford and Hoseley, Abenbury Fechan and Bryn Estyn, all on the outskirts of Wrexham, and also a small part of the parish of Erbistock around the Boat Inn. These were all completely surrounded by the historic county of Denbighshire. Additionally, a small part of Flintshire, including the village of Sealand, was isolated across the River Dee when its course was changed to improve navigation.

Flintshire was a maritime county bounded to the north by the Irish Sea, to the north-east by the Dee estuary, to the east by Cheshire and to the south and southwest by Denbighshire. The Maelor Saesneg was bounded on the north-west by Denbighshire, on the north-east by Cheshire, and on the south by Shropshire. A medium height range of hills, the Clwydian Range (part of the Clwydian Range and Dee Valley Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty) ran in southeast-northwest direction along the border between the main part of Flintshire and Denbighshire, almost reaching the sea near Prestatyn. The Offa's Dyke Path ran along the crest of these hills.

The highest point in the historic county (county top) was found within these hills at Moel Famau, height 554.8 m, a notable viewpoint topped by the ruined remains of the Jubilee Tower, built in 1810 to commemorate the golden jubilee of King George III.

Flintshire was the smallest of what are now known as the historic counties in Wales. The coast along the Dee estuary was heavily developed by industry and the north coast much developed for tourism. The Clwydian Mountains occupied much of the west of the county. The highest point was Moel Famau (1,820 feet / 554 metres). The chief towns were Buckley, Connah's Quay, Flint, Hawarden, Holywell, Mold, Queensferry, and Shotton. The main rivers were the Dee (the estuary of which forms much of the coast) and the Clwyd. The main industries were manufacturing of aircraft components (Airbus), engines (Toyota), paper (Shotton Paper), steel processing (Corus), agriculture and tourism.

Places of special interest included castles in Flint, Hawarden, Rhuddlan and Ewloe, Greenfield Valley, St. Winefride's Well in Holywell and Wepre Country Park, in Connah's Quay.

Formation
The county was formed in 1284 under the terms of the Statute of Rhuddlan, following the defeat of the Principality of Wales. However, the region had been English since the 8th century, and formed part of Cheshire until it was captured by the Welsh in the late 12th century. In the 13th century, prior to its re-capture by the Normans, the region comprised:

 * Tegeingl (Mercian Englefield), a Cantref in Gwynedd
 * certain Commotes within the Cantref of Maelor, in Powys Fadog:
 * Maelor Saesneg (i.e., Saxon Maelor)
 * Yr Hob - i.e., Hopedale
 * Ystrad Alyn

Yr Hob and Ystrad Alyn, which been part of Gwynedd earlier in the century, had become sufficiently Welsh that they were regarded as another part of Welsh Maelor, rather than distinguished from it like English Maelor (Maelor Saesneg). They were not initially included in Flintshire, but instead became Marcher Lordships. Yr Hob became the Lordship of Hope, while Ystrad Alyn was split in two - the Lordships of Mold and Hawarden. Following the Laws in Wales Act (1536), these three Lordships were merged into Flintshire.

County offices
Flintshire County Council established its base at the old County Hall in Chester Street in Mold. Additional facilities acquired included a local militia barracks (originally designed by Thomas Mainwaring Penson) which was converted for use as council offices in the late 1880s. After finding, in the 1930s, that the Chester Street facilities were too cramped, county leaders decided to procure modern facilities: the site they selected formed part of the Llwynegrin Hall estate which was acquired for the purpose. The new building, known as County Hall, Mold, was completed in October 1967.

title: Flintshire (historic)


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Canning Town station

Canning Town is an interchange station located in Canning Town, London for London Underground, Docklands Light Railway (DLR) and London Buses services.

It is designed as an intermodal metro and bus station, fully opening in 1999 as part of the Jubilee Line Extension - replacing the original station site north of the A13.

On 11 November 2015, the Mayor of London announced that it would be rezoned to be on the boundary of Travelcard Zone 2 and Travelcard Zone 3.

Location
The interchange is on a north–south alignment, constrained by Bow Creek immediately to the west, Silvertown Way to the east, the A13 Canning Town Flyover (a major east–west road bridge crossing the Canning Town Roundabout at the throat of the station) to the north, and the River Thames to the south, while directly next to the River Lea.

History
The first station, originally named Barking Road, was opened on 14 June 1847 by the Eastern Counties and Thames Junction Railway on the south side of Barking Road in the Parish of West Ham. It was renamed Canning Town on 1 July 1873, and in 1888, this station was closed, being replaced by a new station on the north side of Barking Road (near Stephenson Street). The booking hall was replaced in the 1960s, and survived until 28 May 1994. The station was served by trains on the North London line to North Woolwich.

Jubilee Line Extension and Docklands Light Railway
In the late 1980s, plans for the Docklands Light Railway (DLR) extension to Beckton considered various options - either running directly east/west between Blackwall and Royal Victoria, or following the River Lea to call at Canning Town. In the early 1990s, the planned Jubilee Line Extension station on the site meant that the dedicated DLR station was not built, with a combined interchange station to be built instead. The DLR extension to Beckton began running through the future station site in March 1994.

The new station was built on the south side of the A13, designed by Troughton McAslan. The tiered design of the station placed the DLR platforms directly above the Jubilee line platforms allowing for easy interchange. A substantial bus station was also built as part of the station complex.

On 29 October 1995, the first part of the new station opened, serving the North London Line. The DLR platforms opened on 5 March 1998. With the opening of the Jubilee line platforms on 14 May 1999, the new station complex was complete and officially 'opened'.

The DLR branch to London City Airport opened on 2 December 2005. This branch diverges from the branch to Beckton 0.25 mi south of the interchange, with trains from both branches serving the current platforms.

Stratford International DLR extension
The North London Line platforms closed on 9 December 2006 as part of the closure of the to North Woolwich section of the line. On 31 August 2011 these platforms re-opened on the new Stratford International branch of the Docklands Light Railway.

In October 2019, the station was hit by Extinction Rebellion (XR) protests, causing the suspension of services at rush hour. During the protest, two XR members climbed on top of a train, one appearing to kick commuters who were attempting to remove them. The protest ended when the protesters were grabbed by their ankles, dragged onto the platform and mobbed by the crowd.

Design
Designed by Troughton McAslan, the station is connected by an underground concourse stretching the width of the site and connected to all platforms and the bus station by escalators, stairs and lifts. The station is fully accessible, with step-free access throughout.

To the west of the complex two island platforms are one above the other. The lower level island platform (platforms 5 & 6) is served by the Jubilee line and the higher level island platform (platforms 3 &4) is served by the DLR branch to/from Poplar. To the east of the Jubilee platforms on the same level, an island platform (platforms 1 & 2) is served by the Stratford International branch of the DLR. This platform was formerly served by the North London line.

Adjacent to Silvertown Way, on the eastern side of the interchange is a bus station with seven stands, with an enclosed above-ground concourse with doors to the surrounding bus bays. The bus station is fully connected to the DLR and Underground platforms via the underground concourse.

As well as entrances onto Silvertown Way and Barking Road, an entrance facing Bow Creek allows access to London City Island via the Leamouth Lifting Footbridge, Bow Creek Ecology Park and the Limmo Peninsula. This entrance was built as part of the JLE project in the late 1990s, but opened in 2016.

Artwork
Carved into the walls of a station staircase, an artwork by Richard Kindersley commemorates the Thames Iron Works, which previously stood on the site. It was unveiled in February 1998 by then-Archbishop of Canterbury George Carey, who grew up in the local area.

London Underground
The typical off-peak London Underground service on the Jubilee line in trains per hour from Canning Town is:
 * 24 tph to Stratford
 * 4 tph to West Hampstead
 * 4 tph to Willesden Green
 * 4 tph to Wembley Park
 * 12 tph to Stanmore

Additional services call at the station during the peak hours, increasing the service to up to 30 tph in each direction.

The Jubilee line also operates a night service on Friday and Saturday nights as part of the Night Tube with a 6 tph service between Stratford and Stanmore.

DLR
The typical off-peak DLR service in trains per hour from Canning Town is:
 * 6 tph to Tower Gateway
 * 6 tph to Bank
 * 6 tph to Stratford International
 * 12 tph to Beckton
 * 12 tph to Woolwich Arsenal

Additional services call at the station during the peak hours, increasing the service to up to 16 tph to Beckton and Woolwich Arsenal and up to 8 tph to Tower Gateway, Bank and Stratford International.

Connections
London Buses routes 5, 69, 115, 147, 300, 309, 323, 330, 474 and night routes N15, N550 and N551 serve the station.

title: Canning Town station


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Denbighshire (historic)

Until 1974, Denbighshire (Sir Ddinbych), or the County of Denbigh, was an administrative county in the north of Wales, later classed as one of the thirteen historic counties of Wales. It was a maritime county, that was bounded to the north by the Irish Sea, to the east by Flintshire, Cheshire and Shropshire, to the south by Montgomeryshire and Merionethshire, and to the west by Caernarfonshire.

Under the Local Government Act 1972, the use of Denbighshire for local government and ceremonial purposes ended on 1 April 1974, with the creation of the new county of Clwyd. A different county of the same name was created on 1 April 1996, for modern local government purposes, covering a substantially different area from the historic county.

History
Denbighshire was created by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542 from areas previously in the Marches. It was formed from Cantrefi taken as follows;

From the Lordship of Denbigh:

 * Rhos
 * Rhufoniog
 * Dyffryn Clwyd

From Powys Fadog:

 * Iâl
 * Maelor Gymraeg
 * Nanheudwy
 * Cynllaith

Geography
In the south and west of what was Denbighshire, the mountains of the Clwydian Range rose from 1000 to 2500 ft high. The east was hilly. There was some level ground along the coastal strip. The highest points were Moel Sych and Cader Berwyn at 2728 ft. Pistyll-y-Rhaeader, a 240 ft waterfall, was located in the county. The chief rivers were the Clwyd and the Dee. The River Conwy ran north along its western boundary.

The main towns in the county were Rhyl, Abergele, Mochdre, Denbigh, Kinmel Bay, Llangollen, Llanrwst, Wrexham, Colwyn Bay and Ruthin. Villages such as Glan Conwy, Eglwysbach, and Llansannan had also come under Denbighshire. The most important industries were agriculture and tourism.

Places of special interest

 * Bodnant Garden, Tal-y-Cafn ;
 * Chirk Castle ; (now in Wrexham County Borough)
 * Denbigh Castle ;
 * Pillar of Eliseg ;
 * Plas Newydd, Llangollen ;
 * Valle Crucis Abbey, Llangollen.

Municipal reform
An administrative county of Denbighshire was created in 1889 by the Local Government Act 1888. The county was governed by an elected county council, who took over the functions of the Quarter Sessions courts. The county council was based at County Hall in Ruthin, a building which was designed by Walter Douglas Wiles and completed in March 1909.

The administrative county was subdivided into municipal boroughs and urban and rural districts.

 * The boroughs of Denbigh and Ruthin were reformed in 1835 by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. The county's third borough, Wrexham was incorporated in 1857. Colwyn Bay urban district was incorporated in 1934.
 * Three urban districts were formed by the Local Government Act 1894: Abergele and Pensarn (renamed Abergele in 1935), Colwyn Bay and Colwyn (renamed Colwyn Bay in 1926, and incorporated as a borough in 1934) and Llangollen, as successors to urban sanitary districts. in 1897 Llanrwst urban district was formed.
 * Eight rural districts were formed (also by the 1894 Act), based on existing rural sanitary districts: Chirk, Llangollen, Llanrwst, Llansillin, Ruthin, St Asaph (Denbigh), Uwchaled and Wrexham.

Two civil parishes: Llaneilian yn Rhos and Llansanffraid Glan Conway were administered as part of Conwy Rural District in the neighbouring county of Caernarfonshire. This area was sometimes called Glan Conway Rural District.

In 1935 the rural districts were reorganised by a County Review Order, and reduced to five in number: Aled, Ceiriog, Hiraethog, Ruthin and Wrexham.

The administrative county was abolished in 1974, with most of its territory becoming part of the new districts of Colwyn, Wrexham Maelor and Glyndŵr in Clwyd. The urban district of Llanrwst and five rural parishes were included in Gwynedd.

title: Denbighshire (historic)


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West Ham station

West Ham is a London Underground, Docklands Light Railway (DLR) and National Rail intermodal interchange station in West Ham, London, United Kingdom. The station is served by London Underground's District, Hammersmith & City and Jubilee lines, the Stratford International branch of the DLR, and c2c National Rail services.

The station was opened in 1901 by the London, Tilbury and Southend Railway on the route from Fenchurch Street to Barking. In the late 1990s, the station was rebuilt and significantly expanded as part of the Jubilee Line Extension, fully opening in 1999. The station is in London fare zone 2 and zone 3.

East to west alignment
The London, Tilbury and Southend Railway direct line from Bow to Barking was constructed east to west through the middle of the Parish of West Ham in 1858. Before this, trains took a longer route via Stratford and Forest Gate to the north. The new line opened with stations initially at Bromley, Plaistow and East Ham. In November 1897 Arnold Hills, the owner of the Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company, whose football team Thames Ironworks F.C. (which reformed in 1900 as West Ham United) played at the Memorial Grounds, secured an agreement with the London, Tilbury and Southend Railway to build a station at the intersection of Manor Road and Memorial Avenue. The company board approved this in February 1898 and Mowlem's was given the contract to build a four platform station, which allowed for the proposed quadrupling of the line with the completion of the Whitechapel and Bow Railway. The station was completed in May 1900, but did not open until 1 February 1901. The station was initially known as West Ham.

The North London Railway had run a daily service to Plaistow via the Bow-Bromley curve since 18 May 1869 and when West Ham opened it used the northern platforms. In 1905 they switched to the southern platforms, with the opening of a new bay platform at Plaistow on the southern side. The Whitechapel and Bow Railway allowed through services of the Metropolitan District Railway to operate through West Ham to Upminster from 1902. The Metropolitan District converted to electric trains in 1905 and services were cut back to East Ham. The London, Tilbury and Southend Railway trains from Fenchurch Street used the southern platforms when the Metropolitan District services began but stopping was reduced to a few a week in 1908 and to nil in 1913. Ownership of the station passed to the Midland Railway in 1912 and the London, Midland and Scottish Railway in 1923. The station was renamed West Ham (Manor Road) on 11 February 1924. When the North London Railway service to Plaistow ceased on 1 January 1916 the southern platforms were unused in normal service.

The Metropolitan District Railway was incorporated into London Transport in 1933, and became known as the District line. Hammersmith & City line services started, as part of the Metropolitan line, in 1936. The southern platforms were removed after war damage in 1940 which had completely closed the station from 7 September 1940 until 11 August 1941. After nationalisation of the railways in 1948 management of the station passed to British Railways. In 1969 ownership was transferred to the London Underground and the station was renamed back to West Ham on 1 January.

On 15 March 1976, nine people were injured here by an explosion on a train by a member of the Provisional IRA. Julius Stephen, the driver of the train, was shot dead at the scene when he attempted to pursue the fleeing bomber.

As part of the Jubilee Line Extension, the station was completely rebuilt, with reconstructed District and Hammersmith and City line platforms. In addition, platforms were re-established on the main line from Fenchurch Street, now operated by c2c. As part of the work, the existing entrance was closed, and the refurbished ticket hall became a connecting concourse to the new ticket hall and the rest of the station. Additionally, the station was made fully accessible.

The island platform for c2c services, along with the access staircases, are narrow and get easily congested. To ensure safety for passengers, staff must be present on the platforms at peak times. c2c have proposed an escalator to replace the stairs. The construction of an additional platform for westbound trains would eliminate the problem.

London 2012 Summer and Paralympic Games
The station was temporarily modified to allow it to cope with an increase in passenger numbers during the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. A footbridge was constructed to connect the station to the Greenway foot and cycle path, which connects directly to the Olympic Park in Stratford.

Work began in January 2011, with the construction of temporary stairs and a walkway from the eastern end of the District line platforms, over the eastbound track and running back parallel to the platform ending at Manor Road. The footbridge was demolished in mid-October 2012, following the end of the 2012 Summer Paralympics. The foundations of the temporary footbridge have been left for possible use in future expansion of the station. A double-ended centre siding east of West Ham was constructed to compensate for lost reversing capacity caused by the rebuilding of Whitechapel station as part of Crossrail work. This was commissioned on 17 January 2011.

North to south alignment
The Eastern Counties and Thames Junction Railway was constructed north to south through West Ham, linking Stratford with Canning Town in 1846. Platforms were constructed on the line at West Ham and opened on 14 May 1979 when the Crosstown Linkline service began between Camden Road and North Woolwich. The Crosstown Linkline was replaced with the electric North London Line service between Richmond and North Woolwich on 13 May 1985. In the 1990s, the station was comprehensively rebuilt as part of the Jubilee Line Extension, designed by van Heyningen and Haward Architects. A new bridge crosses four rail lines and a main road, to connect the Jubilee line and North London line platforms with the new ticket hall and the rest of the station. Jubilee line services began on 14 May 1999. North London Line services at the station ceased on 9 December 2006, when the line from Stratford to North Woolwich was closed, to allow for the line to be converted for the Docklands Light Railway. The platforms reopened on 31 August 2011 as part of the extension to Stratford International.

New entrance
As part of the TwelveTrees development on the former Parcelforce distribution depot, a new station entrance is being built to connect to the upper Jubilee line concourse. As well as this, two new pedestrian bridges over the railway will be built.

Design and architecture
The station was rebuilt as part of the Jubilee Line Extension in the 1990s. The design by van Heyningen and Haward Architects was considered to evoke work by Charles Holden in the 1930s, with use of brick and glass blocks, as well as a clock tower. The station was designed in 27 weeks, and was the cheapest of the new stations to be built. Critics called the station "effortlessly elegant" and an "impressive architectural essay in brick, concrete and glass". It was later awarded a Royal Fine Art Commission Trust Award.

The station consists of four sets of island platforms, two on an elevated east–west alignment and another perpendicular pair at street level, giving a total of eight platform faces. The existing entrance was closed, with the old ticket hall refurbished to become a connecting concourse to the District and Hammersmith & City line platforms and the (new) c2c platforms. A new ticket hall - facing onto Manor Road - connects this concourse to the Jubilee line and North London line platforms via a high level bridge that spans four rail lines and a main road. The station building and connecting passageways are finished in a mixture of red brick, concrete and glass, inspired by Charles Holden. The station was built at a fraction of the cost of other Jubilee Line Extension stations, just £10.5m compared to over £100m at stations like Canary Wharf.

At the upper level, the northern island platform (Platform 1 and 2) are used by District line and Hammersmith & City line trains, and the southern island platform (Platforms 7 and 8) are used by c2c trains. At the lower level, the western island platform (Platforms 5 and 6) are used by Jubilee line trains, with the eastern island platform (Platforms 3 and 4) - formerly the North London line platforms - are now used by Docklands Light Railway trains.

Jubilee line trains can terminate here to enter into the nearby Stratford Market Depot. This is regularly used during peak times/at the end of the working day. Secondly, there is a crossover to the south of the DLR platforms so that trains can reverse early and head back south. Additionally there is a siding that opened in 2011 east of the sub-surface line platforms so that trains from both directions can terminate.

Incidents
On 15 March 1976, seven people were injured by a Provisional IRA bomb on a Metropolitan line train. The terrorist then shot and killed the train's driver Julius Stephen.

Location
The station is located at the corner of Durban Road and Manor Road, in the London Borough of Newham. The station is named after the former parish and borough of West Ham within which it was located to the west of the centre. The neighbourhood of West Ham is located some distance to the north-east. Since West Ham United Football Club moved to the Boleyn Ground in 1904, the station is no longer located near their home ground. East London Rugby Football Club is situated nearby on Holland Road, which is also home to Kings Cross Steelers RFC and Phantoms RFC.

Services

Services at West Ham are operated by c2c, Docklands Light Railway and London Underground on the District, Hammersmith & City and Jubilee lines.

The typical off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is:

The station also served by a night service on Friday and Saturday nights as part of the Night Tube. The station is served by Jubilee line trains every 10 minutes in each direction between Stratford and Stanmore.

Connections
London Bus route 276 serves the station.

title: West Ham station


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Stratford station

Stratford is a major multi-level interchange station serving the town of Stratford and the mixed-use development known as Stratford City, in the London Borough of Newham, East London for London Underground, London Overground, Docklands Light Railway (DLR) and Elizabeth line services. National Rail services also operate on the West Anglia Main Line and the Great Eastern Main Line, 4 mi from Liverpool Street.

It is the fifth busiest railway station in Britain, the busiest station in London outside the London station group, and is the busiest station on the London Underground network outside Travelcard Zone 1.

On the London Underground, it is on the Central line between and  stations. It is also the eastern terminus of the Jubilee line. On the DLR, it is a terminus for some trains and for others it is a through-station between and Stratford International. On the Overground, it is the terminus of the North London Line; on the main line it is served by Elizabeth line stopping services between Paddington and Shenfield and by medium- and longer-distance services operated by Greater Anglia to and from numerous destinations in the East of England. There are also limited off-peak services operated by c2c connecting to the London, Tilbury and Southend line to Shoeburyness.

The station was opened in 1839 by the Eastern Counties Railway. Today it is owned by Network Rail and is in Travelcard zone 2/3. To distinguish it from Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire it is sometimes referred to as Stratford (London), or as Stratford Regional to differentiate it from Stratford International, which is some 370 m to the north. Stratford served as a key travel hub for the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games held in London.

Early days: 1839–62
Stratford station was opened on 20 June 1839 by the Eastern Counties Railway (ECR) with the first station building being located on Angel Lane which crossed the line on an over-bridge to the east of the station. The Northern and Eastern Railway opened a section of its authorised line from Broxbourne to join the ECR at Stratford on 15 September 1840. As well as a station, a railway works was built adjacent to the line to Broxbourne. This and the engine shed later expanded into the area to the west of the station which is now occupied by a shopping centre and Stratford International station.

The ECR tracks were originally set to a gauge of on the recommendation of engineer John Braithwaite. At this time there was no legislation dictating the choice of gauge and indeed the directors favoured the Great Western Railway's broad gauge. Braithwaite persuaded the directors otherwise on the grounds of additional cost but recommended the gauge in an effort to reduce wear on locomotive parts. This choice meant that the Northern & Eastern Railway who were planning to share the ECR line between Stratford and Bishopsgate were forced to adopt the same gauge.

With the extension of the ECR in the early 1840s it became apparent that standard gauge was a more realistic choice and subsequently between September and October 1844 the gauge conversion was carried out. At the same time the associated Northern & Eastern Railway was also converted.

New station buildings were built in 1847 replacing the original structure on Angel Road. These were located in the V between the Cambridge and Colchester lines and access was via Station Road.

The line through the low level platforms first opened in 1846 as a goods only branch as far as Thames Wharf. The bridge under the main line was too low for many locomotives, so a number of engines were equipped with hinged chimneys in order they could operate the line. On opening there was also a line that linked what is now known as the Great Eastern Main Line directly to the docks enabling through running from Colchester to Thames Wharf. The docks and associated railway networks expanded with passenger services to North Woolwich starting in 1847.

There was an accident at Stratford station on 18 July 1846 when an up goods train ran into the back of a passenger train from Ipswich. There were 10 passengers seriously injured one of whom later died.

In 1854 the newly opened London Tilbury and Southend Railway served Stratford joining the main line at Forest Gate Junction a few miles north. Their services generally served Fenchurch Street and were routed via the Bow Road route (although that station was not opened at this time) although some carriages were detached at Stratford for onward working to Bishopsgate. This practice was discontinued in 1856 as passengers preferred the more conveniently sited (for the city) Fenchurch Street.

In connection with the introduction of the new LTSR services a third line was built from Stratford to Bow Junction which was used by down Fenchurch Street services and a new platform face opened.

It soon became apparent that congestion was a problem at Stratford and by 1856 permission was sought to build a line from Barking to Gas Factory Junction (Bow) which was opened in 1858. After that LTSR trains were no longer routed via Stratford.

By 1855 there were links from both the low and high-level stations to the North London Line as well as a spur that enabled trains from Liverpool Street to North Woolwich to avoid Stratford altogether (although this served Stratford Market station) which was a short distance away. Services from the North London line normally started from Victoria Park and ran through to Stratford Market. This service operated from 1866 until 1874 and was operated by the GER and North London Railway in alternate years up until 31 October 1874.

The North London Railway was also running through Stratford high level with two return trains per day from Hampstead Road (later renamed Chalk Farm) via Victoria Park and Forest Gate Junctions to Tilbury which commenced on 1 July 1855 and finished 30 September.

Services to Loughton commenced on 22 August 1856 and used the Lea Valley platforms, leaving the main line at Loughton Branch Junction half a mile north of Stratford. Initially nine trains per day operated to Fenchurch Street (Bishopsgate on Sundays) on this route.

By the 1860s the railways in East Anglia were in financial trouble, and most were leased to the ECR; they wished to amalgamate formally, but could not obtain government agreement for this until 1862, when the Great Eastern Railway was formed by amalgamation. Thus Stratford became a GER station in 1862.

Great Eastern Railway: 1862–1923
The Loughton branch was extended to Ongar on 24 April 1865 and by 1874 there were a total of 40 trains each day (10 terminating at Loughton, 18 at Epping and 12 at Ongar) with most serving the newly opened Liverpool Street although a few peak hour services continued to serve Fenchurch Street.

Even after LTSR services were routed away from Stratford in 1858 working remained intense. Following an accident in 1866 the accident report noted that "Stratford needs complete re-arranging, extending and fitting with modern improvements for working points and signals, as in its present state it appears to be quite insufficient for the traffic that passes through it". Although one of the signal boxes had interlocking fitted soon after, the poor state of GER finances saw little further work until 1877 when a significant rebuilding of Stratford took place.

Another short-lived North London Railway service operated in September and October 1866, linking Chalk Farm with Barking (again routed via Victoria Park and Forest Gate Junctions). This service was withdrawn due to congestion, and one of the services was involved in a collision on 10 September 1866 with 20 passengers being injured.

The 1877 rebuilding saw a number of changes made, which were:
 * A fourth line was added from Bow Junction to Stratford;
 * Western Junction (where a spur to towards the Woolwich line existed along with various crossovers) was moved further west;
 * New Goods lines added on the down (north) side of the line between Western Junction and the Cambridge line platforms – changes made at Central Junction to accommodate these;
 * New Goods lines between Western Junction and Maryland Point signal box (west of the current 2015 Maryland station);
 * Eastern curve (which allowed up goods trains from the main line to directly access the low level line towards the docks) was re-aligned; and
 * New signal boxes at Eastern, Central and Western Junctions.

Between 1886 and 1887, improvements were made to the station buildings and the canopies extended.

On 26 December 1886, a train was derailed at Stratford station as facing points had not been properly locked into position. Fortunately there was no loss of life.

By 1889, traffic on the GER had grown to such an extent, that quadrupling the section from Bethnal Green to Bow Junction and from Maryland Point-Romford was proposed. Once again significant changes which were implemented between 1891 and 1893 and included:
 * Two additional lines from Bow Junction resulting in six tracks in total (named Up and Down Local, Up and Down Through and Up and Down Fenchurch Street);
 * To accommodate these the Up and Down Fenchurch Street lines were slewed to the south of the formation;
 * The 1877 signal boxes at Western, Central and Eastern Junctions were all replaced between 1891 and 1893; and
 * Carpenters Road curve added at this time (Western Junction to Carpenters Road Junction)

In 1896, the low-level line was lowered under the main line so locomotives no longer required hinged chimneys.

By July 1897, it was apparent that the decision not to include platforms on both Through lines was causing some operational difficulty. To address this a new platform serving the Up Through line was opened in 1900.

The Fairlop Loop opened on 1 May 1903 and services generally ran as an out and back circle from either Liverpool Street or Fenchurch Street. The routing of these services was Liverpool Street – Stratford – Ilford – Fairlop Loop – Woodford – Stratford – Liverpool Street) and Liverpool Street – Stratford – Woodford – Fairlop Loop – Ilford – Stratford – Liverpool Street in the reverse direction.

On 1 January 1923, the GER became part of the London & North Eastern Railway.

London and North Eastern Railway: 1923–47
By the 1930s electric tramways were taking a lot of traffic from the railway and proposals were drawn up to electrify the lines from Liverpool Street to Shenfield using the 1500 V DC system. By 1938 the major contracts were let and work started. Despite the commencement of the Second World War in 1939, work was initially continued on the scheme, however, the scheme was postponed in late 1940. In February 1946, the LNER announced work would recommence. On 5 October 1946, the new interchange platforms with the Central line (see below) were opened.

London Underground Central line services started on 4 December 1946, extended from Liverpool Street station in new tunnels after being delayed due to the Second World War. The line was further extended to on 5 May 1947 and then to the former Great Eastern Railway branch lines to,  and  progressively until 1957. Prior to this date trains to and from Epping and Ongar had used the currently numbered platforms 11 and 12 and diverged from the Broxbourne line about half a mile north of the station. Trains for the Hainault loop used either these platforms or the currently numbered platform 5 (up) or 8 (down) diverging from the Great Eastern Main Line at a junction between Ilford and Seven Kings which has since been redeveloped as part of the Ilford Carriage sheds.

British Railways: 1948–96
The nationalisation of Britain's railways saw the operation of Stratford station pass to British Railways Eastern Region. A new station building was designed by Thomas Bennett and opened in 1948.

Progress on electrification that had been halted by the Second World War resumed after the end of hostilities. The line between Liverpool Street and Stratford was electrified from 3 December 1946, and the full electrification of the Shenfield line at 1500 V DC was completed in September 1949. The electric service between Liverpool Street to Shenfield was inaugurated on 26 September 1949 but services were run to steam timings with a number of steam trains still operating. The full electric service officially commenced on 7 November 1949 (although a full dummy run had taken place the previous day). Two days earlier services to Fenchurch Street via Bow Road were withdrawn.

On 8 April 1953, 12 people were killed and 46 were injured as a result of a rear-end collision in a tunnel just to the east of Stratford station, caused by driver error after a signal failure.

Between 1960 and 1961, the 1,500 V DC electrification to Shenfield line which had been extended to Southend and Chelmsford was converted to 6.25kV ac.

In the autumn of 1980, conversion of the overhead electrification from 6.25kV ac to the standard supply of 25kV ac of the Liverpool St. to Shenfield line.

The Docklands Light Railway (DLR) opened on 31 August 1987 reusing redundant rail routes through the Bow and Poplar areas to reach the new Docklands developments on the Isle of Dogs. Initially the line used one of the south facing bays which had been built for the Fenchurch street via Bow Road service (but never used).

Privatisation era: 1996–present
In the 1990s, the low-level station was substantially rebuilt as part of the Jubilee Line Extension works. This work included three additional surface platforms and a train crew building (designed by Troughton McAslan) and a large steel and glass building that encloses much of the low-level station, providing a new ticket hall (designed by Wilkinson Eyre). The old ticket hall, at the eastern end of the station and connected via a subway, has since been demolished. The Jubilee line opened to passengers on 14 May 1999 as far as station, and to  and  in November 1999.

In preparation for the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games, the capacity of the station was tripled at a cost of around £200m, with construction work funded by the Olympic Delivery Authority (£125m) and Westfield. It was estimated that around 120,000 people would use the station at peak periods during the Games.

Construction took place between 2005 and 2011, and work included:

 * New high level DLR platforms, allowing three-car trains to use the station. These platforms were designed by Will Alsop, and opened in December 2007.
 * Expansion, reopening and refurbishment of interchange subways
 * Provision of step free access to all platforms, including 14 new lifts
 * Widened and lengthened platforms
 * New mezzanine entrance on the south side of the station, connecting to a unpaid pedestrian link bridge over the railway funded by Westfield
 * New platforms for London Overground (newly built high-level platforms 1 & 2, moving from the original low-level platforms 1 & 2). These opened in spring 2009.
 * Additional Spanish solution westbound platform for the Central line. This opened in September 2010.
 * New northern ticket hall built as part of the Westfield Stratford City development, adjacent to Stratford City bus station
 * An extension of the DLR to Stratford International station using the old North London line route from Canning Town, using the platforms vacated by the North London Line. This opened in August 2011.

Since the turn of the millennium, "passenger movements" have risen from around 40 million a year in 2006 to 128 million in 2019, making it one of Britain's major rail interchanges.

From 6 November 2022, Elizabeth line services enter the central tunnel built as part of the Crossrail project, allowing direct trains to Heathrow and Reading via Paddington. All trains, save for some early morning, late night and peak hour services, go via Whitechapel.

Work started in 2023 to add a new entrance to the station at its southwestern corner, adjacent to the Jubilee line concourse, allowing access to the Carpenters Estate. This will reducing walking time for local residents by up to 20 minutes. The new entrance opened on 10 July 2024.

High-level platforms
The high-level platforms run at right angles to the low-level, roughly east–west. The Docklands Light Railway serving platforms 16 and 17 passes beneath the high-level station. Except for platforms 4A and 4B, access from the main station entrance is via subways, one of which links the Jubilee line platforms directly to platforms 3 and 5 to 10. Another subway, which had served the old entrance to the station, was re-opened in September 2010.
 * Platforms 1 and 2 are used by the London Overground's North London Line. They comprise an island platform with a step-free link to platform 12 and the subways linking to platforms 3 to 11. The platforms can accommodate trains with up to six carriages, though at present, due to short platforms elsewhere, shorter trains are used.
 * Platforms 3, 3A and 6 are used by the London Underground Central line, which rise from their tunnels onto the overground here and then immediately descend back underground upon departure from Stratford. Platforms 3 and 6 are island platforms providing cross-platform interchange with the Elizabeth line and weekend c2c services operating from platforms 5 and 8 respectively, while platform 3A has a direct step-free connection at mezzanine level, facilitating easier interchange with Jubilee line trains on platforms 13 to 15 and DLR trains on platforms 4A and 4B. Westbound Central line trains travelling towards central London open doors on both sides so that passengers can alight and board trains from either platform, reducing dwell times and peak-hour congestion in the passageways.
 * Platforms 4 and 7 are disused. When the main line to Shenfield was electrified in the 1940s there was an intention to run a shuttle service from Fenchurch Street to Stratford, calling at Stepney East (now Limehouse) and Bow Road, which would have terminated at these bay platforms. However, this service was never introduced (despite all the works required being carried out). From the 1980s platform 4 was used as the terminus of the DLR while platform 7 remained abandoned. In 2007, platform 4 was abandoned again as the DLR moved to two new platforms to the south of platform 4, though these are signposted as "platform 4" within the station.
 * Platforms 4A and 4B (signposted as "platform 4") are used by the DLR for services to Poplar, Canary Wharf, and . They are formed of an island platform, and are not accessed by the subways but through a separate entrance on the upper level of the main concourse.
 * Platforms 5 and 8 are used by Elizabeth line stopping services on the electric line between Paddington and Shenfield. They may also be used by some Greater Anglia-operated main line trains to and from Southend Victoria. Weekend c2c trains call on the way to or from Liverpool Street connecting to or from the London, Tilbury and Southend line via . Cross-platform interchange is available with the Central line running from platforms 3 and 6 respectively.
 * Platforms 9, 10 and 10A are used by Greater Anglia services on the main line out of Liverpool Street towards Norwich and intermediate stations and branch lines. Originally there were only two platforms here, but in the 1990s the station buildings on platform 9 were demolished to make an island platform with faces on both sides. The new face became number 9, the former 9 became 10, and the previous platform 10 became 10A.
 * Platforms 11 and 12 are used for the Greater Anglia services to Bishop's Stortford that start from Stratford. There is currently a half-hourly service Mondays to Saturdays, with additional services to and from Hertford East, Harlow Town, Broxbourne or Cambridge in the peak hours with a half-hourly service to Hertford East on Sundays. In 2021 these platforms were additionally used for London Overground's North London Line.

Low-level platforms
These platforms are at ground level and run north–south. Platforms 13 to 16 are served by a footbridge (with lifts and escalators) from the main station entrance, while platform 17 adjoins directly onto the main station concourse.
 * Platforms 13 to 15 were built in the late 1990s to serve the Jubilee line when it was extended to Stratford in 1999. All three are bay platforms. A footbridge joins the platforms at the southern end, away from the main station building. Since 2018, almost all trains use platforms 14 and 15 (an island platform), with platform 13 only seeing a few trains at either end of the day (including Night Tube services).
 * Platforms 16 and 17 (known as platforms 1 and 2 until 2009) originally served trains from Palace Gates in north London to North Woolwich, but this service has since been discontinued. In the 1980s, North London Line trains from to Broad Street were diverted to run via these platforms to North Woolwich. Following the closure of the line to North Woolwich in 2006, these effectively became terminus platforms, with trains departing westbound only towards Richmond. Following the North London Line trains moving to new platforms 1 and 2 on the high level, they were converted in 2011 for use by DLR services: platform 16 is for northbound trains to  and platform 17 is for southbound trains via  to . The new platforms have also been built with a reversing siding immediately to the south, accessible from both running lines. This enables trains from Stratford International to terminate at Stratford and trains from Canning Town to also terminate here. There is also a crossover immediately to the north, allowing trains from the southbound platform to reverse onto the northbound line back to Stratford International.

Services
Stratford is a major rail hub with services operated by Greater Anglia, London Overground, the Elizabeth line and London Underground on the Central and Jubilee Lines. The typical off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is:

Electrification
All lines at Stratford are electrified, although a few passenger and freight services which pass through this station are hauled by diesel locomotives. At one time there were four different systems of electrification in use, a record for any station in London. However, since the diversion of the North London Line from the low-level to the new high-level platforms these trains have changed the electrical system they use while at this station. The remaining systems used are:
 * 25 kV 50 Hz  overhead on Network Rail lines (high level)
 * 630 V DC fourth rail on London Underground Central and Jubilee lines
 * 750 V DC bottom-contact conductor rail on Docklands Light Railway
 * Since April 2009, 750 V DC third rail is no longer used at this station. This was used for the London Overground (low level) North London Line services.

In 1949, the Great Eastern Main Line through Stratford was electrified at 1,500VDC overhead before being converted to 6.25kV AC 50Hz overhead in 1960 and converted again to 25kV in about 1976.

Channelsea River
The Channelsea River is a culverted major tidal stream that is one of the Bow Back Rivers that flow into the Bow Creek part of the River Lea. It flows under Stratford station and rises along the Jubilee line platforms to the south. It was diverted in the 19th century by the Great Eastern Railway and again during construction of the Jubilee Line platforms in the 1990s.

Goods facilities
There were three primary goods facilities in the Stratford area in the steam age, although the nearby Stratford Works and engine shed generated their own traffic. A short distance to the north of Stratford station (on the line to Cambridge) there were marshalling yards at Temple Mills. There was a small goods yard north of the station on the east side of the line which occupied a constrained site. The mainstay of traffic was domestic coal although shortly before closure in the 1960s the site was used as a reception point for concrete components for the building of tower blocks in Newham.

There was a small depot at Carpenters Road about a quarter of a mile south of Stratford station. Opened in 1900, the depot consisted of four long sidings and primarily dealt with coal and building materials. It was closed on 7 December 1964.

There was a large depot at Stratford Market railway station. All of these three facilities were operated by the Great Eastern Railway up until 1923 before being taken over by the London & North Eastern Railway until nationalisation in 1948 when they became part of British Railways Eastern Region.

There was also a goods terminal at Bow operated by the Midland Railway which is still open today mostly for building materials. This yard operated as the terminal for building materials for the adjacent Olympics site.

Between Stratford and Maryland stations Windmill Lane cattle pens existed on the down side of the line whilst four private sidings belonging to Young & Martens were located on the up side.

During the 1960s part of the Stratford Works site was converted to the London International Freight Terminal (LIFT) which opened in 1967 and there was a freight liner terminal that operated on the far side of the Stratford railway complex (on the Channelsea Loop line) between 1967 and 1994. The former site is now occupied by the international station and shopping centre.

Stratford International
The nearby Stratford International station opened on 30 November 2009 (for preview services only). Since 13 December 2009 Southeastern began its full domestic high-speed service between London St Pancras, directly to Ebbsfleet International and Ashford in Kent. The Docklands Light Railway 'Stratford International' extension has provided a link between the two stations since 31 August 2011. There is also a walking route between the two stations passing through Westfield Stratford City Shopping Centre.

Despite Stratford International's name, no international trains call there, and Eurostar (currently the only international operator) has no plans to do so. Passengers instead interconnect on high-speed trains travelling to either London St Pancras or Ebbsfleet in Kent, there are a number of other potential operators that may use the station for international services. These include Deutsche Bahn's proposed London-Frankfurt/Amsterdam service.

Stratford City
In preparation for the Olympics and the Stratford City development, a new north-facing exit and ticket hall has been built. Both existing passenger subways have been extended north to connect with the ticket hall, and the abandoned subway at the eastern end of the station, which formed part of the old station complex, has been reopened and refurbished to allow interchange between platforms 3–12 and the new high-level platforms 1 & 2. A new pedestrian bridge has also been built to connect Stratford shopping centre with the Stratford City development. This also connects the mezzanine-level ticket hall with the northern one. The northern ticket hall and the footbridge opened along with Westfield Stratford City on 13 September 2011.

Bus stations
Stratford bus station is to the south of the station and Stratford City bus station is to the north. Both are served by bus services right across London and to the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park.

Future proposals
Stansted Express may call at Stratford in the future via the West Anglia Main Line, reconnecting the two to each other.

The Hall Farm Curve link could be reinstated allowing a Liverpool Street to Chingford service via Stratford. Designs for new services have been suggested to reduce journey times between Chingford and Stratford to 20 minutes, and high-frequency journeys between Walthamstow Central and Stratford to 12 minutes from the current duration of about 35 minutes.

Rebuild of station
In the 2020s, work is underway planning a rebuild of the station. "Passenger movements" have grown by 90 million in 13 years, and this is predicted to rise by 60% by 2041, leading to overcrowding. Three different plans have been outlined, ranging from "modest changes to a major redevelopment of the station". Redevelopment would also include transit-oriented development including new homes and offices.

title: Stratford station