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Invariant theory

Invariant theory is a branch of abstract algebra dealing with actions of groups on algebraic varieties, such as vector spaces, from the point of view of their effect on functions. Classically, the theory dealt with the question of explicit description of polynomial functions that do not change, or are invariant, under the transformations from a given linear group. For example, if we consider the action of the special linear group SLn on the space of n by n matrices by left multiplication, then the determinant is an invariant of this action because the determinant of A X equals the determinant of X, when A is in SLn.

Introduction
Let $$G$$ be a group, and $$V$$ a finite-dimensional vector space over a field $$k$$ (which in classical invariant theory was usually assumed to be the complex numbers). A representation of $$G$$ in $$V$$ is a group homomorphism $$\pi:G \to GL(V)$$, which induces a group action of $$G$$ on $$V$$. If $$k[V]$$ is the space of polynomial functions on $V$, then the group action of $$G$$ on $$V$$ produces an action on $$k[V]$$ by the following formula:
 * $$(g \cdot f)(x) := f(g^{-1} (x)) \qquad \forall x \in V, g \in G, f\in k[V]. $$

With this action it is natural to consider the subspace of all polynomial functions which are invariant under this group action, in other words the set of polynomials such that $$g\cdot f = f$$ for all $$g\in G$$. This space of invariant polynomials is denoted $$k[V]^G$$.

First problem of invariant theory: Is $$k[V]^G$$ a finitely generated algebra over $$k$$?

For example, if $$G=SL_n$$ and $$V=M_n$$ the space of square matrices, and the action of $$G$$ on $$V$$ is given by left multiplication, then $$k[V]^G$$ is isomorphic to a polynomial algebra in one variable, generated by the determinant. In other words, in this case, every invariant polynomial is a linear combination of powers of the determinant polynomial. So in this case, $$k[V]^G$$ is finitely generated over $$k$$.

If the answer is yes, then the next question is to find a minimal basis, and ask whether the module of polynomial relations between the basis elements (known as the syzygies) is finitely generated over $$k[V]$$.

Invariant theory of finite groups has intimate connections with Galois theory. One of the first major results was the main theorem on the symmetric functions that described the invariants of the symmetric group $$S_n$$ acting on the polynomial ring $$R[x_1, \ldots, x_n$$] by permutations of the variables. More generally, the Chevalley–Shephard–Todd theorem characterizes finite groups whose algebra of invariants is a polynomial ring. Modern research in invariant theory of finite groups emphasizes "effective" results, such as explicit bounds on the degrees of the generators. The case of positive characteristic, ideologically close to modular representation theory, is an area of active study, with links to algebraic topology.

Invariant theory of infinite groups is inextricably linked with the development of linear algebra, especially, the theories of quadratic forms and determinants. Another subject with strong mutual influence was projective geometry, where invariant theory was expected to play a major role in organizing the material. One of the highlights of this relationship is the symbolic method. Representation theory of semisimple Lie groups has its roots in invariant theory.

David Hilbert's work on the question of the finite generation of the algebra of invariants (1890) resulted in the creation of a new mathematical discipline, abstract algebra. A later paper of Hilbert (1893) dealt with the same questions in more constructive and geometric ways, but remained virtually unknown until David Mumford brought these ideas back to life in the 1960s, in a considerably more general and modern form, in his geometric invariant theory. In large measure due to the influence of Mumford, the subject of invariant theory is seen to encompass the theory of actions of linear algebraic groups on affine and projective varieties. A distinct strand of invariant theory, going back to the classical constructive and combinatorial methods of the nineteenth century, has been developed by Gian-Carlo Rota and his school. A prominent example of this circle of ideas is given by the theory of standard monomials.

Examples
Simple examples of invariant theory come from computing the invariant monomials from a group action. For example, consider the $$\mathbb{Z}/2\mathbb{Z}$$-action on $$\mathbb{C}[x,y]$$ sending

\begin{align} x\mapsto -x && y \mapsto -y \end{align} $$ Then, since $$x^2,xy,y^2$$ are the lowest degree monomials which are invariant, we have that
 * $$\mathbb{C}[x,y]^{\mathbb{Z}/2\mathbb{Z}} \cong \mathbb{C}[x^2,xy,y^2] \cong \frac{\mathbb{C}[a,b,c]}{(ac - b^2)}$$

This example forms the basis for doing many computations.

The nineteenth-century origins
Cayley first established invariant theory in his "On the Theory of Linear Transformations (1845)." In the opening of his paper, Cayley credits an 1841 paper of George Boole, "investigations were suggested to me by a very elegant paper on the same subject... by Mr Boole." (Boole's paper was Exposition of a General Theory of Linear Transformations, Cambridge Mathematical Journal.)

Classically, the term "invariant theory" refers to the study of invariant algebraic forms (equivalently, symmetric tensors) for the action of linear transformations. This was a major field of study in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Current theories relating to the symmetric group and symmetric functions, commutative algebra, moduli spaces and the representations of Lie groups are rooted in this area.

In greater detail, given a finite-dimensional vector space V of dimension n we can consider the symmetric algebra S(Sr(V)) of the polynomials of degree r over V, and the action on it of GL(V). It is actually more accurate to consider the relative invariants of GL(V), or representations of SL(V), if we are going to speak of invariants: that is because a scalar multiple of the identity will act on a tensor of rank r in S(V) through the r-th power 'weight' of the scalar. The point is then to define the subalgebra of invariants I(Sr(V)) for the action. We are, in classical language, looking at invariants of n-ary r-ics, where n is the dimension of V. (This is not the same as finding invariants of GL(V) on S(V); this is an uninteresting problem as the only such invariants are constants.) The case that was most studied was invariants of binary forms where n = 2.

Other work included that of Felix Klein in computing the invariant rings of finite group actions on $$\mathbf{C}^2$$ (the binary polyhedral groups, classified by the ADE classification); these are the coordinate rings of du Val singularities.

The work of David Hilbert, proving that I(V) was finitely presented in many cases, almost put an end to classical invariant theory for several decades, though the classical epoch in the subject  continued to the final publications of Alfred Young, more than 50 years later. Explicit calculations for particular purposes have been known in modern times (for example Shioda, with the binary octavics).

Hilbert's theorems
proved that if V is a finite-dimensional representation of the complex algebraic group G = SLn(C) then the ring of invariants of G acting on the ring of polynomials R = S(V) is finitely generated. His proof used the Reynolds operator ρ from R to RG with the properties Hilbert constructed the Reynolds operator explicitly using Cayley's omega process Ω, though now it is more common to construct ρ indirectly as follows: for compact groups G, the Reynolds operator is given by taking the average over G, and non-compact reductive groups can be reduced to the case of compact groups using Weyl's unitarian trick.
 * ρ(1) = 1
 * ρ(a + b) = ρ(a) + ρ(b)
 * ρ(ab) = a ρ(b) whenever a is an invariant.

Given the Reynolds operator, Hilbert's theorem is proved as follows. The ring R is a polynomial ring so is graded by degrees, and the ideal I is defined to be the ideal generated by the homogeneous invariants of positive degrees. By Hilbert's basis theorem the ideal I is finitely generated (as an ideal). Hence, I is finitely generated by finitely many invariants of G (because if we are given any – possibly infinite – subset S that generates a finitely generated ideal I, then I is already generated by some finite subset of S). Let i1,...,in be a finite set of invariants of G generating I (as an ideal). The key idea is to show that these generate the ring RG of invariants. Suppose that x is some homogeneous invariant of degree d > 0. Then
 * x = a1i1 + ... + anin

for some aj in the ring R because x is in the ideal I. We can assume that aj is homogeneous of degree d − deg ij for every j (otherwise, we replace aj by its homogeneous component of degree d − deg ij; if we do this for every j, the equation x = a1i1 + ... + anin will remain valid). Now, applying the Reynolds operator to x = a1i1 + ... + anin gives
 * x = ρ(a1)i1 + ... + ρ(an)in

We are now going to show that x lies in the R-algebra generated by i1,...,in.

First, let us do this in the case when the elements ρ(ak) all have degree less than d. In this case, they are all in the R-algebra generated by i1,...,in (by our induction assumption). Therefore, x is also in this R-algebra (since x = ρ(a1)i1 + ... + ρ(an)in).

In the general case, we cannot be sure that the elements ρ(ak) all have degree less than d. But we can replace each ρ(ak) by its homogeneous component of degree d − deg ij. As a result, these modified ρ(ak) are still G-invariants (because every homogeneous component of a G-invariant is a G-invariant) and have degree less than d (since deg ik > 0). The equation x = ρ(a1)i1 + ... + ρ(an)in still holds for our modified ρ(ak), so we can again conclude that x lies in the R-algebra generated by i1,...,in.

Hence, by induction on the degree, all elements of RG are in the R-algebra generated by i1,...,in.

Geometric invariant theory
The modern formulation of geometric invariant theory is due to David Mumford, and emphasizes the construction of a quotient by the group action that should capture invariant information through its coordinate ring. It is a subtle theory, in that success is obtained by excluding some 'bad' orbits and identifying others with 'good' orbits. In a separate development the symbolic method of invariant theory, an apparently heuristic combinatorial notation, has been rehabilitated.

One motivation was to construct moduli spaces in algebraic geometry as quotients of schemes parametrizing marked objects. In the 1970s and 1980s the theory developed interactions with symplectic geometry and equivariant topology, and was used to construct moduli spaces of objects in differential geometry, such as instantons and monopoles.

title: Invariant theory


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Sciurinae

Sciurinae is a subfamily of squirrels (in the family Sciuridae), uniting the flying squirrels with certain related tree squirrels. Older sources place the flying squirrels in a separate subfamily (Pteromyinae) and unite all remaining sciurids into the subfamily Sciurinae, but this has been strongly refuted by genetic studies.

Classification
Subfamily Sciurinae
 * Tribe Sciurini
 * Genus Microsciurus – American dwarf squirrels
 * Central American dwarf squirrel, M. alfari
 * Amazon dwarf squirrel, M. flaviventer
 * Western dwarf squirrel, M. mimulus
 * Santander dwarf squirrel, M. santanderensis
 * Genus Rheithrosciurus
 * Tufted ground squirrel, R. macrotis
 * Genus Sciurus
 * Subgenus Sciurus
 * Allen's squirrel, S. alleni
 * Arizona gray squirrel, S. arizonensis
 * Mexican gray squirrel, S. aureogaster
 * Eastern gray squirrel, S. carolinensis
 * Collie's squirrel, S. colliaei
 * Deppe's squirrel, S. deppei
 * Japanese squirrel, S. lis
 * Calabrian black squirrel, S. meridionalis
 * Mexican fox squirrel, S. nayaritensis
 * Fox squirrel, S. niger
 * Peters's squirrel, S. oculatus
 * Variegated squirrel, S. variegatoides
 * Eurasian red squirrel, S. vulgaris
 * Yucatan squirrel, S. yucatanensis
 * Subgenus Otosciurus
 * Abert's squirrel, S. aberti
 * Subgenus Guerlinguetus
 * Brazilian squirrel or Guianan squirrel, S. aestuans
 * Yellow-throated squirrel, S. gilvigularis
 * Red-tailed squirrel, S. granatensis
 * Bolivian squirrel, S. ignitus
 * Andean squirrel, S. pucheranii
 * Richmond's squirrel, S. richmondi
 * Sanborn's squirrel, S. sanborni
 * Guayaquil squirrel, S. stramineus
 * Subgenus Tenes
 * Persian squirrel, S. anomalus
 * Subgenus Hadrosciurus
 * Fiery squirrel, S. flammifer
 * Junín red squirrel, S. pyrrhinus
 * Subgenus Hesperosciurus
 * Western gray squirrel, S. griseus
 * Subgenus Urosciurus
 * Northern Amazon red squirrel, S. igniventris
 * Southern Amazon red squirrel, S. spadiceus
 * Genus Syntheosciurus
 * Bangs's mountain squirrel, S. brochus
 * Genus Tamiasciurus - pine squirrels
 * Douglas squirrel, T. douglasii
 * Southwestern red squirrel T. fremonti
 * American red squirrel, T. hudsonicus
 * Mearns's squirrel, T. mearnsi
 * Tribe Pteromyini – flying squirrels''
 * Subtribe Glaucomyina
 * Genus Eoglaucomys
 * Kashmir flying squirrel, E. fimbriatus
 * Genus Glaucomys – New World flying squirrels
 * Southern flying squirrel, G. volans
 * Northern flying squirrel, G. sabrinus
 * Humboldt's flying squirrel, G. oregonensis
 * Genus Hylopetes
 * Particolored flying squirrel, H. alboniger
 * Afghan flying squirrel, H. baberi
 * Bartel's flying squirrel, H. bartelsi
 * Gray-cheeked flying squirrel, H. lepidus
 * Palawan flying squirrel, H. nigripes
 * Indochinese flying squirrel, H. phayrei
 * Jentink's flying squirrel, H. platyurus
 * Sipora flying squirrel, H. sipora
 * Red-cheeked flying squirrel, H. spadiceus
 * Sumatran flying squirrel, H. winstoni
 * Genus Iomys
 * Javanese flying squirrel, I. horsfieldi
 * Mentawi flying squirrel, I. sipora
 * Genus Petaurillus – pygmy flying squirrels
 * Lesser pygmy flying squirrel, P. emiliae
 * Hose's pygmy flying squirrel, P. hosei
 * Selangor pygmy flying squirrel, P. kinlochii
 * Genus Petinomys
 * Basilan flying squirrel, P. crinitus
 * Travancore flying squirrel, P. fuscocapillus
 * Whiskered flying squirrel, P. genibarbis
 * Hagen's flying squirrel, P. hageni
 * Siberut flying squirrel, P. lugens
 * Mindanao flying squirrel, P. mindanensis
 * Arrow flying squirrel, P. sagitta
 * Temminck's flying squirrel, P. setosus
 * Vordermann's flying squirrel, P. vordermanni
 * Subtribe Pteromyina
 * Genus Aeretes
 * Groove-toothed flying squirrel, A. melanopterus
 * Genus Aeromys – large black flying squirrels
 * Black flying squirrel, A. tephromelas
 * Thomas's flying squirrel, A. thomasi
 * Genus Belomys
 * Hairy-footed flying squirrel, B. pearsonii
 * Genus Biswamoyopterus
 * Namdapha flying squirrel, B. biswasi
 * Laotian giant flying squirrel, B. laoensis
 * Mount Gaoligong flying squirrel, B. gaoligongensis
 * Genus Eupetaurus
 * Western woolly flying squirrel, Eupetaurus cinereus
 * Yunnan woolly flying squirrel, Eupetaurus nivamons
 * Tibetan woolly flying squirrel, Eupetaurus tibetensis
 * Genus Petaurista
 * Red and white giant flying squirrel, P. alborufus
 * Spotted giant flying squirrel, P. elegans
 * Hodgson's giant flying squirrel, P. magnificus
 * Bhutan giant flying squirrel, P. nobilis
 * Indian giant flying squirrel, P. philippensis
 * Chinese giant flying squirrel, P. xanthotis
 * Japanese giant flying squirrel, P. leucogenys
 * Red giant flying squirrel, P. petaurista
 * Genus Pteromys – Old World flying squirrel
 * Siberian flying squirrel, P. volans
 * Japanese dwarf flying squirrel, P. momonga
 * Genus Pteromyscus
 * Smoky flying squirrel, P. pulverulentus
 * Genus Trogopterus
 * Complex-toothed flying squirrel, T. xanthipes

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sciurinae


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Louis XVI and the Legislative Assembly

The French Revolution was a period in the history of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and the Catholic Church in France perforce underwent radical restructuring. This article covers the one-year period from 1 October 1791 to September 1792, during which France was governed by the Legislative Assembly, operating under the French Constitution of 1791, between the periods of the National Constituent Assembly and of the National Convention.

The composition of the Legislative Assembly
The National Constituent Assembly dissolved itself on 1 October 1791. Upon Robespierre's motion it had decreed that none of its members should be capable of sitting in the next legislature, this is known as the Self-denying Ordinance. Its legacy, the Constitution of 1791, attempted to institute a liberal constitutional monarchy. This had been envisioned as an arrangement not to be tampered with for a generation but, in the event, it did not last a year.

In the attempt to govern, the Assembly failed altogether. In the words of Montague in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, "It left behind an empty treasury, an undisciplined army and navy, and a people debauched by safe and successful riot."

In the elections of 1791, despite a limited electoral franchise, the party which desired to carry the Revolution further had a success disproportionate to its numbers, a triumph for the Jacobin Club and by its affiliated societies throughout France. The Legislative Assembly first met on 1 October 1791. It consisted of 745 members. Few were nobles, very few were clergymen, and the great body came from the middle class. The members were generally young, and, since none had sat in the previous Assembly, they largely lacked national political experience.

The Right consisted of about 165 "Feuillants". Among them were some able men, such as Mathieu Dumas, Ramond, Vaublanc, Beugnot and Bigot de Préamenau, but they were guided chiefly by persons outside the House, because incapable of re-election: Barnave, Adrien Duport, and the brothers Alexander and Charles Lameth. The Left consisted of about 330 Jacobins, a term which still included the now-emergent party afterwards known as the Girondins or Girondists, so termed because several of their leaders came from the region of the Gironde in southern France. Among the extreme Left—those who would retain the name of Jacobins—sat Cambon, Couthon, Antoine-Christophe Merlin ("Merlin de Thionville"), François Chabot, and Claude Bazire.

The Girondins could claim the most brilliant orators: Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud, Marguerite-Élie Guadet, Armand Gensonné, and Maximin Isnard (the last being from Provence). Jacques Pierre Brissot ("Brissot de Warville"), a restless pamphleteer and editor of the newspaper Patriote, exerted such great influence over the party that it has sometimes gone by his name ("Brissotins"). Also aligned with the Girondins were Condorcet, secretary of the Assembly and Pétion, barred from the Legislative Assembly because he had been in the Constitutional Assembly, but who soon became mayor of Paris.

This strong representation of the left in the Assembly was supplemented by the political clubs and the disorderly revolutionary elements in Paris and throughout France. The remainder of the Assembly, about 350 deputies (Matthews 2004), did not belong to any definite party, but voted most often with the Left.

The king's ministers
The king's ministers, named by him and excluded from the Assembly, were mostly persons of little mark. Montmorin gave up the portfolio of foreign affairs on 31 October 1791 and was succeeded by De Lessart, the previous minister of finance. Bon-Claude Cahier de Gerville was minister of the interior; Louis Hardouin Tarbé, minister of finance; and Bertrand de Molleville, minister of marine. But the only minister who influenced the course of affairs was the comte de Narbonne, minister of war.

Overtly, the king (despite his earlier attempt to escape Paris during the flight to Varennes) had embraced the newly codified constitution. It seems unlikely that he could have been satisfied with losing his previous absolute power, but he may well have been sincerely trying to make the best of what, from his point of view, was a bad situation. Marie Antoinette surely wished to shake off the impotence and humiliation of the Crown, and for this end she still clung to the hope of foreign succour and corresponded with Vienna.

The politics of the Left
The Left had three objects of enmity. First among these was the royal couple, King Louis XVI, Queen Marie Antoinette and the royal family. The Left as a whole wished to replace the monarchy with a republic, although this was not initially the public position of most of them. Second came the émigrés – now seen as a threat from abroad—and, third, the non-juring clergy.

Those émigrés who had assembled in arms on the territories of the electors of Mainz and Treves (Trier) and in the Austrian Netherlands had put themselves in the position of public enemies. Their chiefs were the king's brothers, who affected to consider Louis as a captive and his acts as therefore invalid. The count of Provence gave himself the airs of a regent and surrounded himself with a ministry. The only actual danger posed by the émigrés was symbolic: that they were only a few thousand strong; that they had no competent leader and no money; and that although they had earlier been of some diplomatic significance, they were increasingly unwelcome to the rulers whose hospitality they abused. However, Mignet claims that the threat was more substantive and their numbers growing and that "the ambassadors of the emigrants were received, while those of the French government were dismissed, ill received, or even thrown into prison, as in the case of M. Duveryer."

The non-juring clergy—those who refused to take an oath under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy—although harassed by the local authorities, kept the respect and confidence of most Catholics. According to Montague (1911), "No acts of disloyalty were proved against them, and commissioners of the National Assembly reported to its successor that their flocks only desired to be let alone. But the anti-clerical bias of the Legislative Assembly was too strong for such a policy." Mignet, however, quotes the marquis de Ferrières, "Priests, and especially bishops employed all the resources of fanaticism to excite the people, in town and country, against the civil constitution of the clergy", and points out that Bishops ordered the priests no longer to perform divine service in the same church with the constitutional priests. It was increasingly unlikely that two rival Churches could co-exist. Insurrection along religious lines broke out in Calvados, Gévaudan, and the Vendée (see Revolt in the Vendée).

The king exercises his veto
From the first, relations between the king and the Legislative Assembly were less than friendly. The king refused to meet the Assembly's initial delegation in person; the Assembly voted to deprive the ceremony of the king's visit to their hall of almost all customary pomp (although the vote was rescinded the following day, and the king's address was generally well received).

On 9 November 1791 the Assembly decreed that the émigrés assembled on the frontiers should be liable to the penalties of death and confiscation if they remained so assembled on 1 January following. (The legislation was clearly directed against those who had taken up arms or engaged in diplomacy: it was reasonably indulgent towards those who simply felt safer abroad.) Louis did not love his brothers, and he detested their policy, which without rendering him any service made his liberty and even his life precarious; yet, loath to condemn them to death, he vetoed the decree. He did, however, sign a decree of 30 October, stating that his eldest brother Louis-Stanislaus-Xavier was required to return to France in two months, or at the expiration of that period he would be considered to have forfeited his rights as regent.

On 29 November 1791 the Assembly decreed that every non-juring clergyman must take within eight days the civic oath, substantially the same as the oath previously administered, on pain of losing his pension and, if any troubles broke out, of being deported. This decree Louis vetoed as a matter of conscience. In either case his resistance only served to give a weapon to his enemies in the Assembly. But foreign affairs were at this time the most critical.

A new administration in Paris
Following the same policy under which the members of the Constituent Assembly had barred themselves from the Legislative Assembly, in October, Lafayette resigned the command of the National Guard, and Bailly retired from the mayoralty of Paris. Most of those who wished to continue a constitutional monarchy (against the increasingly republican legislature) wished Lafayette to succeed Bailly as mayor. However, afraid of Lafayette as a rival to the king, the court actually favored and assisted the Girondist Pétion in the election. In the election of 4 November, Pétion received 9,708 votes in a total of 10,632 and became the new mayor.

War approaches
The armed bodies of émigrés on the territory of the Holy Roman Empire afforded matter of complaint to France. The persistence of the French in offering only money as compensation to the German princes who had claims in Alsace afforded matter of complaint to the Empire. Foreign statesmen noticed with alarm the effect of the French Revolution upon opinion in their own countries, and they resented the endeavours of French revolutionaries to make converts there.

Of these statesmen, the emperor Leopold II was the most intelligent. He had skillfully extricated himself from the embarrassments at home and abroad left by his predecessor Joseph II. He had family ties to Louis XVI, and he was obliged, as chief of the Holy Roman Empire, to protect the border princes. On the other hand, he understood the weakness of the Habsburg monarchy. He knew that the Austrian Netherlands, where he had with difficulty restored his authority, were full of friends of the Revolution and that a French army would be welcomed by many Belgians. He despised the weakness and the folly of the émigrés and excluded them from his councils. He earnestly desired to avoid a war which might endanger his sister Marie Antoinette or her husband.

In August 1791 Leopold had met Frederick William II of Prussia at Pillnitz Castle near Dresden, and the two monarchs had joined in stating in the Declaration of Pillnitz that they considered the restoration of order and of monarchy in France an object of interest to all sovereigns. They further declared that they would be ready to act for this purpose in concert with the other powers. Montague (1911) argued that this declaration appeared to have been drawn from Leopold by pressure of circumstances. Leopold well knew that concerted action of the powers was impossible, as Great Britain had firmly resolved not to meddle with French affairs. After Louis had accepted the constitution, Leopold virtually withdrew his declaration. Nevertheless, it remained a grave error of judgment and contributed to the approaching war.

In France many people desired war for various reasons. Narbonne trusted to find in it the means of restoring a certain authority to the crown and of limiting the Revolution. He contemplated a war with Austria only. The Girondins desired war in the hope that it would enable them to abolish monarchy altogether. They desired a general war because they believed that it would carry the Revolution into other countries and make it secure in France by making it universal. The extreme Left had the same objects, but it held that a war for those objects could not safely be entrusted to the king and his ministers. Victory would revive the power of the crown; defeat would be the undoing of the Revolution. Robespierre also argued against the Girondins' objective of using war as a means of exporting revolution, on the grounds that "nobody likes armed missionaries".

Hence Robespierre and those who thought with him desired peace. The French nation generally had never approved of the Austrian alliance, and regarded the Habsburgs as traditional enemies. The views of the king and queen on the matter continue to be a matter of controversy. Some historians argue that they dreaded a war with Austria; others that they wanted war because they thought France would lose and the Austrians and the other invaders would then restore the absolute monarchy.

France was in no condition to wage a serious war. The constitution was unworkable and the governing authorities were mutually hostile. The finances remained in disorder, with inflation rampant: assignats of the face value of 800,000,000 livres were issued by the Legislative Assembly after September 1790. By September 1791, the value of the assignats had depreciated by 18-20 percent. The army had been thinned by desertion and was enervated by long ill-discipline. The fortresses were in bad condition and short of supplies.

In October Leopold ordered the dispersion of the émigrés who had mustered in arms in the Austrian Netherlands. His example was followed by the electors of Treves and Mainz. At the same time they implored the emperor's protection, and the Austrian chancellor Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz informed Noailles, the French ambassador that this protection would be given if necessary. Narbonne demanded a credit of 20,000,000 livres, which the Assembly granted. He made a tour of inspection in the north of France and reported untruly to the Assembly that all was in readiness for war. On 14 January 1792 the diplomatic committee reported to the Assembly that the emperor should be required to give satisfactory assurances before 10 February. The Assembly put off the term to 1 March.

In February Leopold concluded a defensive treaty with Frederick William II. But there was no mutual confidence between the sovereigns, who were at that very time pursuing opposite policies with regard to Poland. Leopold still hesitated and still hoped to avoid war. He died on 1 March 1792, and the imperial dignity became vacant. The hereditary dominions of Austria passed to his son Francis, afterwards the emperor Francis II, a youth of small abilities and no experience. The real conduct of affairs fell, therefore, to the aged Kaunitz.

In France Narbonne failed to carry the king or his colleagues along with him. The king took courage to dismiss him on 9 March 1792, whereupon the Legislative Assembly testified its confidence in Narbonne. De Lessart having incurred its anger by the tameness of his replies to Austrian dictation, the Assembly voted his impeachment.

The Girondin ministry
The king, seeing no other course open, formed a new ministry which was chiefly Girondin. Jean-Marie Roland became minister of the interior, Étienne Clavière of finance, Pierre Marie de Grave of war, and Jean de Lacoste of marine. Far abler and more resolute than any of these men was Charles François Dumouriez, the new minister for foreign affairs. A soldier by profession, he had been employed in the secret diplomacy of Louis XV and had thus gained a wide knowledge of international politics. He stood aloof from parties and had no rigid principles, but held views closely resembling those of Narbonne. He wished for a war with Austria which should restore some influence to the crown and make himself the arbiter of France.

It is difficult today to imagine how different these men were from the previous ministers. According to Mignet, the court named this ministry "le Ministère Sans-Culotte", and the first time Roland appeared at court—with laces rather than buckles on his shoes—the master of the ceremonies initially refused to admit him.

The king bent to necessity, and on 20 April 1792 came to the Assembly with the proposal that war should be declared against Austria. It was carried by acclamation. Dumouriez intended to begin with an invasion of the Austrian Netherlands. As this would awaken English jealousy, he sent Talleyrand to London with assurances that, if victorious, the French would annex no territory.

The initial disasters of war
The French war plan envisaged invading the Netherlands at three points simultaneously. Lafayette would march against Namur, Biron against Mons, and Dillon against Tournai. But the first movement disclosed the miserable state of the army. Smitten with panic, Dillon's force fled at sight of the enemy, and Dillon, after receiving a wound from one of his own soldiers, was murdered by the mob of Lille. Biron was easily routed before Mons. On hearing of these disasters Lafayette found it necessary to retreat.

This shameful discomfiture quickened all the suspicion and jealousy fermenting in France. De Grave had to resign and was succeeded by Servan. The Austrian forces in the Netherlands were, however, so weak that they could not take the offensive. Austria demanded help from Prussia under the terms of their recent alliance, and the claim was admitted. Prussia declared war against France, and the Duke of Brunswick was chosen to command the allied forces, but various causes delayed action. Austrian and Prussian interests clashed in Poland. The Austrian government wished to preserve a harmless neighbour. The Prussian government desired another Polish partition and a large tract of Polish territory. Only after long discussion was it agreed that Prussia should be free to act in Poland, while Austria might find compensation in provinces conquered from France.

The respite thus given allowed France to improve the army. Meantime the Legislative Assembly passed three decrees: one for the deportation of non-juring priests, another to suppress the king's Constitutional Guard, and a third for the establishment of a camp of fédérés near Paris. Louis consented to sacrifice his guard, but vetoed the other decrees. Roland having addressed to him an arrogant letter of remonstrance (mainly about the matter of the non-juring priests), the king with the support of Dumouriez dismissed Roland, Servan and Clavière. Dumouriez then took the ministry of war, and the other places were filled with such men as could be had, mainly members of the already collapsing Feuillant faction. Dumouriez, who cared only for the successful prosecution of the war, urged the king to accept the decrees. As Louis was obstinate, Dumouriez felt that he could do no more. Dumouriez resigned office on 15 June 1792 and went to join the army of the north.

Lafayette, who remained faithful to the constitution of 1791, ventured on a letter of remonstrance to the Assembly. It paid no attention, for Lafayette could no longer sway the people. Furthermore, coming as it did from a young general at the head of his army, the letter suggested to many ambition on Lafayette's part. The left now suspected Lafayette of precisely the type of ambition of which he had already been suspected by the court.

Protests of 20 June
The Jacobins tried to frighten the king into accepting the decrees and recalling his ministers. On 20 June 1792 the armed populace invaded the hall of the Assembly and the royal apartments in the Tuileries. For some hours the king and queen were in the utmost peril. With passive courage Louis refrained from making any promise to the insurgents.

The failure of the insurrection encouraged a movement in favour of the king. Some twenty thousand Parisians signed a petition expressing sympathy with Louis. Addresses of like tenor poured in from the departments and the provincial cities. Lafayette himself came to Paris in the hope of rallying the constitutional party, but the king and queen eluded his offers of assistance. They had always disliked and distrusted Lafayette and the Feuillants, and now preferred to rest their hopes of deliverance on the foreigners. Lafayette returned to his troops without having effected anything.

The Girondins made a last advance to Louis, offering to save the monarchy if he would accept them as ministers. His refusal united all the Jacobins in the project of overturning the monarchy by force.

The Day of 10 August
The ruling spirit of this new revolution was Danton, a barrister only thirty-two years old, who had not sat in either Assembly, although he had been the leader of the Cordeliers, an advanced republican club, and had a strong hold on the common people of Paris. Danton and his friends were assisted in their work by the fear of invasion, for the allied army was at length mustering on the frontier. The Assembly declared the country in danger. All the regular troops in or near Paris were sent to the front. Volunteers and fédérés were constantly arriving in Paris, and, although most went on to join the army, the Jacobins enlisted those who were suitable for their purpose, especially some 500 whom Barbaroux, a Girondin, had summoned from Marseille. At the same time the National Guard – up to now middle-class in character—was opened to those from the lower classes. Brunswick's famous declaration of 25 July 1792, announcing that the allies would enter France to restore the royal authority and would visit the Assembly and the city of Paris with military execution if any further outrage were offered to the king, heated the republican spirit to fury. It was resolved to strike the decisive blow on 10 August.

On the night of 9 August a new revolutionary Paris Commune took possession of the Hôtel de Ville, and early on the morning of 10 August the insurgents assailed the Tuileries. As the preparations of the Jacobins had been notorious, some measures of defence had been taken. Besides a few gentlemen in arms and a number of National Guards, the palace was garrisoned by the Swiss Guard, about 950 strong. The disparity of force was not so great as to make resistance altogether hopeless. But Louis let himself be persuaded into betraying his own cause and retiring with his family under the shelter of the Assembly. The National Guards either dispersed or fraternised with the assailants. The Swiss Guard stood firm, and, possibly by accident, a fusillade began. The enemy were gaining ground when the Swiss received an order from the king to cease firing and withdraw. They were mostly shot down as they were retiring, and of those who surrendered about 60 were massacred by the mob as they were being taken under escort to the Hotel de Ville.

Insurrection and constitutional crisis
The king and queen spent long hours in a reporter's box while the Legislative Assembly discussed their fate and the fate of the French monarchy. Little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins. They decreed that Louis should be suspended from his office and that a convention should be summoned to give France a new constitution. An executive council was formed by recalling Roland, Clavière and Servan to office and joining with them Danton as minister of justice, Lebrun as minister of foreign affairs, and Monge as minister of marine.

When Lafayette heard of the insurrection in Paris he tried to rally his troops in defence of the constitution, but they refused to follow him. He was driven to cross the frontier and surrender himself to the Austrians. Dumouriez was named his successor. But the new government was still beset with danger. It had no root in law and little hold on public opinion. It could not lean on the Assembly, a mere shrunken remnant, whose days were numbered. It remained dependent on the power which had set it up, the revolutionary Commune of Paris. The Commune could therefore extort what concessions it pleased. It got the custody of the king and his family, who were imprisoned in the Temple. Having obtained an indefinite power of arrest, it soon filled the prisons of Paris.

As the elections to the convention were close at hand, the Commune resolved to strike the public with terror by the slaughter of its prisoners. It found its opportunity in the progress of invasion. On 19 August 1792 Brunswick crossed the frontier. On 22 August Longwy surrendered. Verdun was invested and seemed likely to fall. On 1 September the Commune declared a state of emergency by decreeing that on the following day the tocsin should be rung, all able-bodied citizens convened in the Champ de Mars, and 60,000 volunteers enrolled for the defence of the country.

While this assembly was in progress teams of executioners were sent to the prisons and began a butchery (September Massacres) which lasted four days and consumed 1400 victims. The Commune addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France inviting them to follow this example. A number of state prisoners awaiting trial at Orléans were ordered to Paris and on the way were slaughtered at Versailles. The Assembly offered a feeble resistance to these actions. Danton can hardly be acquitted of connivance at them. Roland hinted disapproval, but did not venture more. He with many other Girondins had been marked for slaughter in the original project.

The elections to the convention were by almost universal suffrage, but indifference or intimidation reduced the voters to a small number. Many who had sat in the National Constituent Assembly and many more who had sat in the Legislative Assembly were returned. The Convention met on 20 September and became the new de facto government of France.

title: Louis XVI and the Legislative Assembly


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User:Stewartadcock/Homology modelling

Homology modelling is an approach to protein structure prediction. It is based on the reasonable assumption that two homologous proteins will share very similar structures. Given the amino acid sequence of a unknown structure and the solved structure of a homologous protein, each amino acid in the solved structure is mutated, computationally, into the corresponding amino acid from the unknown structure.

This article is a Stewart-stub.

title: User:Stewartadcock/Homology modelling


text:
User talk:Orthogonal

orthogonal is no longer a Wikipedia user; as messages left on this page will not be read by orthogonal, there's little point in leaving them.

So hopefully, you had no pressing business with me. ;)

-- orthogonal 03:11, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Just thought I'd say that while we had our disagreements, I respect you and I wish you the very best. →Raul654 04:58, Oct 8, 2004 (UTC)

 * It really unfortuanante when people leave. I never met you until reading the arb case, but I hope you  do well and consider coming back in the future. --ShaunMacPherson 07:23, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Arbitration matter of Avala is closed
1) The above findings of fact show that Avala has often worked against consensus and majority opinion. We therefore rule that Avala must follow the majority opinion of the users involved concerning any controversial edits that Avala makes. One specific consequence is that violations of the three revert rule are not permitted. This probation period will last for one month.

2) For a period of 3 months, should a serious dispute arise between Avala and other users with respect to editing of an article Avala is required to cite substantial authority supporting the position he is taking and either enter the dispute resolution process regarding the matter or drop the matter. A serious dispute is defined as one in which any party to the dispute has reverted the other 3 times or more. After Avala makes his third revert he shall cease editing the article with respect to the disputed matter until completion of the dispute resolution process. Resolution of the dispute in his favor shall require verification that the authority cited adequately supports the information he advocates including in the article. With respect to matters of taste such as size of templates he is required to defer to majority opinion.

3) Given the fact that Avala is now editing at a low rate, we reserve the right to revisit the conduct issue of this user once/if Avala starts to edit at an increased rate again and other users complain about Avala's conduct. This probation would last one year.

For principles, findings of fact, and enforcement see Requests for arbitration/Avala. --mav 21:49, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Article Licensing
Hi, I've started a drive to get users to multi-license all of their contributions that they've made to either (1) all U.S. state, county, and city articles or (2) all articles, using the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (CC-by-sa) v1.0 and v2.0 Licenses or into the public domain if they prefer. The CC-by-sa license is a true free documentation license that is similar to Wikipedia's license, the GFDL, but it allows other projects, such as WikiTravel, to use our articles. Since you are among the top 2000 Wikipedians by edits, I was wondering if you would be willing to multi-license all of your contributions or at minimum those on the geographic articles. Over 90% of people asked have agreed. For More Information:
 * Multi-Licensing FAQ - Lots of questions answered
 * Multi-Licensing Guide
 * Free the Rambot Articles Project

To allow us to track those users who muli-license their contributions, many users copy and paste the " " template into their user page, but there are other options at Template messages/User namespace. The following examples could also copied and pasted into your user page:

 * Option 1
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

OR
 * Option 2
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions to any U.S. state, county, or city article as described below:

Or if you wanted to place your work into the public domain, you could replace " " with "  ". If you only prefer using the GFDL, I would like to know that too. Please let me know what you think at my talk page. It's important to know either way so no one keeps asking. -- Ram-Man (comment| talk)

Situation of administrator abuse
Hi, I'm in a potentially awkward position with an Administrator. I have read the Wiki pages on dispute resolution but I'm still not sure how to proceed.

The Admin ContiE has a personal grudge against me for reasons I do not fully understand. He has been this way since I began frequenting wikipedia.

I have done work improving the furvert article. He has basically gone on a crusade against any edit I make. He controls every furry category article and several others ruthlessly. He is an iron fist and bans anyone he edit wars with. I had uploaded pictures and he deleted them with no talking. He seems to believe I am every person he has had an edit war against. He is always using personal attacks, calling me troll without reason. I uploaded them again and he voted them for deleted, but to his surprise the person who runs the images, thank you Nv8200p, found they were acceptable once I tagged them properly. Just recently he removed both the images without himself discussing it in the talk page (unless he was the same person who discussed only one) with the edit here  Then ContiE assumed bad faith, added his constant insult of troll in the talk page. It appears on a completed different wiki, a comedy one in all things, somebody else stole my username and I believe this was Conti himself and uploaded them. ContiE showed it as his reason. While vandalism like his, I would revert and mention it, he would ban me permanently if I undid his edit. That is why I am asking admins for help. He holds a couple of accounts on wikipedia and I think they are administrators so I have to be careful who I tell about this. Arights 06:18, 10 April 2006 (UTC)

Orphaned non-free media (Image:New-wiki-look-2.jpg)
Thanks for uploading Image:New-wiki-look-2.jpg. The media description page currently specifies that it is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, it is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the media was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that media for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).

If you have uploaded other unlicensed media, please check whether they're used in any articles or not. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that all non-free media not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. BJBot (talk) 05:20, 18 September 2008 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:54, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Orthogonal


text:
User:Stewartadcock/Protein threading

Protein threading is an approach to protein structure prediction.

This article is a Stewart-stub.

title: User:Stewartadcock/Protein threading


text:
Monaural sound

Monaural sound or monophonic sound (often shortened to mono) is sound intended to be heard as if it were emanating from one position. This contrasts with stereophonic sound or stereo, which uses two separate audio channels to reproduce sound from two microphones on the right and left side, which is reproduced with two separate loudspeakers to give a sense of the direction of sound sources. In mono, only one loudspeaker is necessary, but, when played through multiple loudspeakers or headphones, identical signals are fed to each speaker, resulting in the perception of one-channel sound "imaging" in one sonic space between the speakers (provided that the speakers are set up in a proper symmetrical critical-listening placement). Monaural recordings, like stereo ones, typically use multiple microphones fed into multiple channels on a recording console, but each channel is "panned" to the center. In the final stage, the various center-panned signal paths are usually mixed down to two identical tracks, which, because they are identical, are perceived upon playback as representing a single unified signal at a single place in the soundstage. In some cases, multitrack sources are mixed to a one-track tape, thus becoming one signal. In the mastering stage, particularly in the days of mono records, the one- or two-track mono master tape was then transferred to a one-track lathe used to produce a master disc intended to be used in the pressing of a monophonic record. Today, however, monaural recordings are usually mastered to be played on stereo and multi-track formats, yet retain their center-panned mono soundstage characteristics.

Monaural sound has largely been replaced by stereo sound in most entertainment applications, but remains the standard for radiotelephone communications, telephone networks, and audio induction loops for use with hearing aids. FM radio stations broadcast in stereo, while most AM radio stations broadcast in mono. (Although an AM stereo broadcast standard exists, few AM stations are equipped to use it.) A few FM stations—notably talk-radio stations—choose to broadcast in monaural because of the slight advantage in signal strength and bandwidth the standard affords over a stereophonic signal of the same power.

History
While some experiments were made with stereophonic recording and reproduction from the early days of the phonograph in the late-19th century, monaural was the rule for almost all audio recording until the second half of the 20th century.

Monaural sound is normal on:
 * Phonograph cylinders
 * Gramophone records made before 1958, such as those made for playing at 78 rpm and earlier $16 2/3$, $33 1/3$ and 45 rpm microgroove records
 * AM broadcasting
 * Some FM radio stations that broadcast only spoken-word or talk-radio content (in order to maximize their coverage area)
 * Subcarrier signals for FM radio, which carry leased content such as background music for businesses or a radio reading service
 * Background music services such as Seeburg 1000; satellite broadcasts by Muzak, and some public address systems

Incompatible standards exist for:
 * Later vinyl records (although monophonic records—which had almost disappeared in the United States by the end of 1967—could be played with a stereo cartridge)
 * Reel-to-reel audio tape recording (depending on track alignment)

Compatible monaural and stereophonic standards exist for:
 * MiniDisc
 * Compact audio cassette
 * FM (and, in rare circumstances, AM) radio broadcasting
 * VCR formats
 * TV
 * Digital audio files on many computers in many formats (WAV, MP3, etc.)

No native monaural standards exist for: In those formats, the mono-source material is presented as two identical channels, thus being technically stereo.
 * 8-track tape
 * Compact disc

At various times artists have preferred to work in mono, either in recognition of the technical limitations of the equipment of the era or because of simple preference (this can be seen as analogous to filmmakers working in black and white). An example is John Mellencamp's 2010 album No Better Than This, recorded in mono to emulate mid-20th century blues and folk records. Some early recordings such as The Beatles' first four albums (Please Please Me, With the Beatles, A Hard Day's Night, Beatles for Sale) were re-released in the CD era as monophonic in recognition of the fact that the source tapes for the earliest recordings were two-track, with vocals on one track and instruments on the other (even though this was only true on the first two albums, while the latter two had been recorded on four-track). This was actually intended to provide flexibility in producing a final mono mix, not to provide a stereo recording, although because of demand this was done anyway, and the early material was available on vinyl in both mono and stereo formats. In the 1960s and 1970s, it was common in the pop world for stereophonic versions of mono tracks to be generated electronically using filtering techniques to attempt to pick out various instruments and vocals; but these were often considered unsatisfactory, owing to the artifacts of the conversion process.

Directors Stanley Kubrick and Woody Allen, among others, preferred to record their films' sound tracks in mono.

Monaural LP records were eventually phased out and no longer manufactured after the early 1970s, with a few exceptions. For example, Decca UK had a few double issues until the end of 1970 – the last one being Tom Jones's "I Who Have Nothing"; in Brazil records were released in both mono and stereo as late as 1972. During the 1960s it was common for albums to be released as both mono and stereo LPs, occasionally with slight differences between the two (again, detailed information of The Beatles' recordings provides a good example of the differences). This was because many people owned mono record players that were incapable of playing stereo records, as well as the prevalence of AM radio. Because of the limited quantities pressed and alternative mixes of several tracks, the monaural versions of these albums are often valued more highly than their stereo LP counterparts in record-collecting circles today.

On 9 September 2009, The Beatles re-released a remastered box set of their mono output spanning the Please Please Me album to The Beatles (commonly called "The White Album"). The set, simply called The Beatles in Mono, also includes a two-disc summary of the mono singles, B-sides and EP tracks released throughout their career. Also included were five tracks originally mixed for an unissued mono Yellow Submarine EP. Bob Dylan followed suit on 19 October 2010 with The Original Mono Recordings, a box set featuring the mono releases from Bob Dylan (1962) to John Wesley Harding (1967). On 21 November 2011, The Kinks' mono recordings were issued as The Kinks in Mono box set, featuring the releases of the band's albums from Kinks (1964) to Arthur (1969), with three additional CDs of non-album tracks that appeared as singles or EP tracks. When the initial run of the box set sold out, no more were pressed, unlike the Beatles and Dylan sets.

Compatibility between mono and stereo sound
Sometimes mono sound or monaural can simply refer to a merged pair of stereo channels - also known as "collapsed stereo" or "folded-down stereo". Over time some devices have used mono sound amplification circuitry with two or more speakers since it can cut the cost of the hardware. Some consumer electronics with stereo RCA outputs have a microswitch in the red RCA output (i.e., the right stereo channel) that disables merging of stereo sound into the white (left stereo channel) RCA output. Common devices with this are VCRs, DVD/Blu-ray players, information appliances, set-top boxes, and the like. Video game consoles sometimes have male RCA ends of cables with a proprietary multi-A/V plug on the other end, which prevents automatic stereo merging unless adapters are used.

Disadvantages of merged stereo involve phase cancellations that may have the effect of muffling the final sound output. If channels are merged after being sent through a power amplifier but before being connected to a loudspeaker, it places more stress on the loudspeaker. It has usually been the practice in recording studios to make separate mixes for mono recordings (rather than folded-down stereo-to-mono), so that the final mono master will avoid the pitfalls of collapsed stereo. In video games, merging stereo to mono sound prevents player from discerning what direction distant SFX are coming from, and reverse stereo has a similar setback too. Having an array of loudspeakers connected to their own amplifier outputs can mitigate issues with the electrical load for a single loudspeaker coil and allow the listener to perceive an "image" of sound in the free space between the speakers.

Mirrored mono
Mirrored mono sound is the opposite of merged stereo, since it can be a case where media with mono sound that stereo playback devices automatically mirror it with are played on both channels of the receiver. It can also mean having a mono input mixed down to stereo amplification circuitry, or a mono system with a headphone output compatible with stereo headphones. An example of an application where both merged stereo and mirror mono apply is when a compact audio cassette respectively plays back "summed" stereo channels on a mono reading head, and when a compact cassette recorded with mono sound is played back with a stereo tape head.

Other instances of "mirrored mono" also include using the right stereo channel in lieu of a "left" one (or vice versa) where both channels are wired to mirror only one.

Both
Instances of both "merged stereo" and "mirrored mono" can occur when the stereo channels are merged to a mono system with stereo headphone compatibility or when a mono system has "twin speakers" (or "pseudo-stereo").

Other applications that involve mirrored mono with merged stereo occur when MONO is available as an internal feature of a device that can toggle between STEREO and MONO, for instance many FM radios are capable of toggling between MONO and STEREO in a way where stereo can both MERGE into mono, and then MIRROR between both stereo speakers. This tactic can also be used on other devices, of which computer software and some video games will have a feature that will allow STEREO or MONO for the soundtrack, in which sometimes this can facilitate MERGING stereo internally to spare one from using a Y adapter with LEFT and RIGHT RCA plugs when using mono equipment, such as guitar amplifiers.

Native stereo equipment with mono-only features
Some TV/VCR combo decks on the market had stereo TV functionality with "twin speakers", whereas the VCR feature was only mono, which is typical of "consumer-grade VCRs" from decades ago. Some of these devices even had front RCA inputs for composite video (yellow), and mono audio (white) in which many of these devices didn't even have a right-channel RCA plug (red) even if it was just for "merging" stereo into mono for mono soundtracks to be recorded onto videotapes. This is odd since one would think that a "right channel" would be included for A/V in on a TV which had MTS stereo TV sound on its tuner.

Some stereo receivers will also include mono microphone inputs.

title: Monaural sound


text:
User talk:80.213.35.85

play somewhere else, or I'll block you for vandalism jimfbleak 20:02, 11 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:80.213.35.85


text:
Anomalure

The Anomaluridae are a family of rodents found in central Africa. They are known as anomalures or scaly-tailed squirrels or [African] flying squirrels. The six extant species are classified into two genera.

All anomalurids have membranes between their front and hind legs like those of the boreal flying squirrels, but they are not closely related to those, flying squirrels that form the separate tribe Petauristini of the family Sciuridae. They are distinguished by two rows of pointed, raised scales on the undersides of their tails. The anatomy of their heads is quite different from that of the sciurid flying squirrels.

By extending their limbs, anomalures transform themselves into a gliding platform that they control by manipulating the membranes and tail. Like North American flying squirrels, these species have a cartilaginous rod that aids them in maintaining the extension of the patagium when in flight; unlike flying squirrels, their cartilage originates at the elbow joint rather than at the wrist.

Most anomalurid species roost during the day in hollow trees, with up to several dozen animals per tree. They are primarily herbivorous, and may travel up to 6 km from their roosting tree in search of leaves, flowers, or fruit, although they also eat a small amount of insects. They give birth to litters up to three young, which are born already furred and active.

Anomalurids represent one of several independent evolutions of gliding ability in mammals, having evolved from climbing animals. The others include the "true" or sciurid flying squirrels of boreal Eurasia and North America, the colugos or "flying lemurs" of Southeast Asia, and marsupial gliding possums of Australia.

Taxonomy
Taxonomy follows.

 * Family Anomaluridae
 * Genus Anomalurus
 * Beecroft's flying squirrel, Anomalurus beecrofti
 * Lord Derby's scaly-tailed flying squirrel, Anomalurus derbianus
 * Pel's flying squirrel, Anomalurus pelii
 * Dwarf scaly-tailed squirrel, Anomalurus pusillus
 * Genus Idiurus
 * Long-eared flying mouse, Idiurus macrotis
 * Pygmy scaly-tailed flying squirrel, Idiurus zenkeri

Fossil genera
Several fossil genera are also known:

 * Genus †Argouburus
 * Genus †Kabirmys
 * Genus †Oromys
 * Genus †Paranomalurus
 * Genus †Pondaungimys
 * Genus †Prozenkerella
 * Genus †Shazurus

title: Anomalure


text:
Maria Bueno

Maria Esther Andion Bueno (11 October 1939 – 8 June 2018) was a Brazilian professional tennis player. During her 11-year career in the 1950s and 1960s, she won 19 major titles (seven in women's singles, 11 in women's doubles, and one in mixed doubles), making her the most successful South American tennis player in history, and the only one to ever win Wimbledon. Bueno was the year-end No. 1 female player in 1959 and 1960 and was known for her graceful style of play.

In 1960, Bueno became the first woman to win the Grand Slam in doubles (all four majors in a year), three of them partnering Darlene Hard and one with Christine Truman.

Tennis career
Bueno was born in São Paulo. Her father, a businessman, was a keen club tennis player. Her elder brother Pedro was also a tennis player. She began playing tennis aged six at the Clube de Regatas Tiete in São Paulo and, without having received any formal training, won her first tournament at age 12. She was 15 when she won her country's women's singles championship. She first went abroad in 1957 at age 17 and won the Orange Bowl juniors tournament in Florida, USA.

Joining the international circuit in 1958, Bueno won the singles title at the Italian Championships. The same year she gained the first of her Grand Slam titles, winning the women's doubles at Wimbledon with Althea Gibson. The following year, Bueno won her first singles title at Wimbledon, defeating Darlene Hard in the final. She also won the singles title at the U.S. Championships after a straight-sets victory in the final against Christine Truman, earning the World No. 1 ranking for 1959 and the Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year award. Bueno was the first non-North-American woman to win both Wimbledon and the U.S. Championships in the same calendar year. In her native Brazil, she returned as a national heroine, honored by the country's president and given a ticker-tape parade on the streets of São Paulo.

According to Lance Tingay of the Daily Telegraph and the Daily Mail and Bud Collins, Bueno was ranked in the world top ten from 1958 through 1960 and from 1962 through 1968, reaching a career high of World No. 1 in those rankings in 1959 and 1960. The International Tennis Hall of Fame also lists her as the top ranked player in 1964 (after losing the final at the French Championships and winning both Wimbledon and the U.S. Championships) and 1966.

Bueno won the singles title at Wimbledon three times and at the U.S. Championships four times. She was a singles finalist at the Australian Championships and the French Championships, losing both finals to Margaret Smith. Bueno reached at least the quarterfinals in each of the first 26 Grand Slam singles tournaments she played. This streak ended at Wimbledon in 1967 when she lost in the fourth round because of an arm injury.

As a doubles player, Bueno won twelve Grand Slam championships with six different partners. In 1960, she became the first woman to win the women's doubles title at all four Grand Slam tournaments in the same calendar year, partnered with Christine Truman at the Australian Championships and Hard at the French Championships, Wimbledon, and the U.S. Championships.

Her playing career was affected by various arm and leg injuries. She played only intermittently after 1968; her final tournament win was the Japan Open in 1974, her only professional win. She retired from playing in 1977.

Her playing style was described as bold and aggressive; she had a hard serve, was a strong volleyer, and often came into the net. Bud Collins described her as "incomparably balletic and flamboyant". She did not use a coach, and attributed her speed on the court to training with men. The American player Billie Jean King acknowledged her as an influence. She was also known for her on-court style, wearing tennis dresses designed by Ted Tinling.

Later career
Bueno worked as a commentator for SporTV, a Brazilian cable television sports channel.

Death
Bueno died on 8 June 2018, aged 78, at a hospital in São Paulo, Brazil, where she had been admitted for mouth cancer. She was diagnosed in 2016 with virulent Merkel-cell carcinoma, a rare and highly aggressive skin cancer. A minute's applause in honour of Bueno was held as a tribute before the Women's Singles final at the 2018 French Open the day after her death.

Honours
In 1959 Correios do Brasil issued a postal stamp honouring her title at the Wimbledon Ladies Singles Championships. That same year the Associated Press voted her Female Athlete of the Year. In 1978, Bueno was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in Newport, Rhode Island.

Bueno was awarded the International Club's prestigious Jean Borotra Sportsmanship Award in 2003.

The Seniors World Team Championships for the women's 50 age category is named "Maria Esther Bueno Cup" by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) in her honour. In 2015 the centre court of the Olympic Tennis Centre in Rio de Janeiro was named after her.

In October 2018, Maria Esther Bueno received the Medal of Sporting Merit from the Chamber of Councilors of São Paulo, according to the Resolution 03/2014. The award is instituted within the scope of the Municipality of São Paulo, to be awarded annually to the entity or citizen of São Paulo in recognition of the relevance of services rendered in favor of sport in the Municipality of São Paulo, or that, in any case, have contributed to the aggrandizement of the sport or significantly encourage its practice, whether through personal goals achieved or activity with society.

Grand Slam finals
Bueno won 19 and Loss 16 of her Grand Slam finals. This represents a success rate of 54%.

Grand Slam singles tournament timeline
Note: The Australian Open was held twice in 1977, in January and December.

title: Maria Bueno


text:
User:Stewartadcock/Levinthal paradox

This article is a Stewart-stub.

title: User:Stewartadcock/Levinthal paradox


text:
Talk:Brookside (TV series)

It's All Over
Brookside Closed *sniff*

Just goes to show how bad Channel 4 is now.

THIS PAGE IS NOT A FAN FOUROM. i sugest you leave this at the profeisonals from now o. Ðem Lusty, Lusty Roars!!!! † Speak your beautiful, atrocious mind!!!! 01:57, 25 October 2010 (UTC) my bad ot

"professional" wikipedia contributors can spell. please leave it to them, lusty, or learn to spell-check. duncanrmi (talk) 15:57, 19 November 2013 (UTC)

Timings
Could someone answer my question? At what times did Brookside regularly air its episodes?
 * In the good old days, wasn't it 8:30? I think it started Mon/Tues, then Mon/Wed/Fri. It changed days a few times, tho, even before they started really playing musical schedules with it. The JPS 01:24, 31 December 2005 (UTC)

The show used to be on Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Fridays at 8:30pm in the good old days. They started to schedule lots of one hour episodes on Fridays however dropping the Wednesday episode to accomodate these. Eventually the show moved to Saturdays taking up it's usual omnibus edition slot, before being moved to late night on Tuesdays. (WalfordQueen 07:58, 10 January 2006 (UTC))

Is it now easy to view the set?

Not really no, there's still a security barrier there, the houses are currently being renovated so that people can live in them. They had holes in the walls etc to allow for the cameras and lighting so they were pretty much inhabitable. I know someone who has sneaked there though and managed to get onto the close and even inside one of the houses which was left open. (WalfordQueen 08:00, 10 January 2006 (UTC))

Carl Fenton
I have removed the following quote: "In children's soap Grange Hill, Number 5's interior was used as the home to the character Carl Fenton, although curiously the exterior was a carefully chosen house that matched the inside situated elsewhere." The character of Carl did not feature in Grange Hill after the show moved to Liverpool and as such this is not a true statement. It is possible the character you could mean is Taylor Mitchell, whose home appeared in the 2004 series of Grange Hill. bidefax 16:46, 27 March 2008

YouTube links
This article is one of [ thousands] on Wikipedia that have a link to YouTube in it. Based on the External links policy, most of these should probably be removed. I'm putting this message on the talk page, to request the regular editors take a look at the link and make sure it doesn't violate policy. In short: 1. 99% of the time YouTube should not be used as a source. 2. We must not link to material violating someone's copyright. If you are not sure whether the link on this article should be removed or if you would like to help spread this message, contact us on User talk:J.smith/YouTube Linklist. Thanks, ---J.S (t|c) 01:00, 12 November 2006 (UTC)

Cleanup needed
This article is in dire need of cleanup. Some suggestions: The JPS talk to me  19:00, 28 September 2007 (UTC)
 * use inline citations for references. Rather than a list of references at the end, use
 * avoid hyperbole and point of view.
 * the article has been treat like a scrap book: bits thrown in with little cohesion.
 * Take a look at EastEnders -- it's a pretty good article, and you should use it as a model.
 * I've been through and removed as much of the fannish hyperbole as I could. I've also tagged the more glaring facts requiring citations. El Staplador (talk) 15:20, 2 December 2008 (UTC)

I've tidied up some of the text, corrected a few errors, and removed the "Brookside Stabbing" section that appeared to be copied directly from somewhere and served no purpose. And the categories are now showing! Still some more work to be done, particularly as there doesn't seem to be much anywhere online about Brookside that's comprehensive or easy to read. I was a dedicated viewer between 1985-1990 so if anyone else can help out with other years events, characters etc - we need your help :) Niki2006 (talk) 19:14, 20 July 2008 (UTC)

I don't know if it happened during the clean-up, but there used to be (either on the main page, or linked from it) a list of everyone who ever worked on the show. whilst this wasn't an essential part of the article by any means, it was the only place on the entire internet where this information could be seen (imDB is woefully incomplete). any idea what happened to it or who originally entered it? can't find the details in the edit history...

duncanrmi (talk) 16:03, 19 November 2013 (UTC)

Return?
Dean Sullivan{Jimmy Corkhill}said on his radio show City Talk that he has heard from the horses mouth that Brookside is coming back.

What exactly does this involve? A revival or just reruns of the old eps? Did he give any details? --Dominar_Rygel_XVI (talk) 18:20, 10 December 2008 (UTC)

If anything one final DVD should be made and all the old episodes show even if on More4 or something digital would be better than the chunks off youtube Mohammed patel (talk) 21:05, 3 May 2009 (UTC)

"Unprecedented" storyline leak to the tabloids
I have edited this reference, as in the sentence after the practice is described as unprecedented, two previous examples (or indeed precedents!) are given. Smurfmeister (talk) 14:25, 18 August 2009 (UTC)

Not sure I would agree with this
''Brookside's most famous storyline happened in 1993, with the story of wife beater and child abuser Trevor Jordache (Bryan Murray). ''

Perhaps this was the most famous. It was certainly one of the most famous. Not sure it was particularly more famous than the rape of Sheila Grant, the murder of Damon Grant, the Sue Sullivan incident on the scaffolding, the Beth Jordache lesbian affair, the Terry Sullivan religious cult bomb plot were all about as famous. No objections if I reword it a little? Mtaylor848 (talk) 08:41, 28 July 2010 (UTC)
 * No objetions, I suppose 'most famous' would need some sort of verification to back it up, but I do agree with the statement. When the general public at large think Brookside I'll bet most would say 'body under the patio'. Along those same lines I think you're also right that the rest would think 'lesbian kiss' - it's probably the most overplayed clip of the show's history. The other storylines, although massive would only be remembered by fans of the show in my opinion. Ooh, Fruity    Ooh, Chatty  11:44, 28 July 2010 (UTC)

often affectionately referred to as brookie?
i never heard this before and i think it would be WRONG to include such a bold statement in the fist sentence brackets especially if i turns out which it will that is it an outwrite LIE. can it be asertaned? otherwise i delete it, no. Ðem Lusty, Lusty Roars!!!! † Speak your beautiful, atrocious mind!!!! 01:27, 11 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Two more references added now for your pleasure, the BBC one alone is sufficient enough. As a side note, just because you've not heard of it doesn't mean it's wrong, and if something isn't referenced it's not your job to prompt others to do it when you could easily do it yourself. Ooh, Fruity    Ooh, Chatty  16:46, 11 October 2010 (UTC)

 * I don't know where lusty roars was when Brookside airs because everyone I know said "Brookie is on" or "did you watch brookie last night"... and User fruity certainly proved it. RAIN..the..ONE  HOTLINE 17:09, 11 October 2010 (UTC)

I never watch USAmerican shows OR USAmerican-influenced shows and i believe i was still in my mother's womb while bookside ran so why would that brookie? anyway it hardly seems befitting a WIKIPEDIA ARTICLE to have such a GROSS COLLOQUAILISM in the opening paraphrase, never mind first sentence! None the less I deffer to your superoir knowledge of ridiculous old tv shows and bid you a fond faredoo. Ðem Lusty, Lusty Roars!!!! † Speak your beautiful, atrocious mind!!!! 20:11, 15 October 2010 (UTC)

Don't know about citations. My mam and I never watched Brookside, always Brookie. Maybe it was an abreviation only used in Yorkshire. Similarly nobody watches Coronation Street, always Corrar. Mtaylor848 (talk) 00:01, 31 October 2010 (UTC) By the way, you must be young if you were still in your mothers womb when Brookie was axed, it is only seven years next month (I was though for some of it, I was born the month Damon was killed). Mtaylor848 (talk) 00:02, 31 October 2010 (UTC)

Corrar? Damon? what on EARTH are you talking about? and DONT talk about my MOTHER you HYPOCRITE!!!!!!! who said anything about me being young?? All i SED was I was IN MY MOTHER'S WOMB. its a famous pub? Ðem Lusty, Lusty Roars!!!! † Speak your beautiful, atrocious mind!!!! 04:58, 8 November 2010 (UTC)

There's no response to that! Mtaylor848 (talk) 01:12, 7 December 2010 (UTC)

 * I live in the south and always called it Brookie. Anemone  Projectors  01:41, 7 December 2010 (UTC)

Petition
Can we remove the part about the petition to bring back the show or something that "may have an effect"? I removed it but somebody put it back in. Petitions like these rarely do anything and just amounts to the fact that many fans want it back. This is far from notable. Kansan (talk) 18:14, 16 December 2010 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified
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Brookside WAS a British soap, like other shows that were previously on TV but aren't anymore.
There's some idiot admin called https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Arjayay who doesn't know the difference between is and was. 3 different people recently (including me) have correctly changed: "Brookside is a British soap opera" to "Brookside was a British soap opera" As it's no longer on TV and hasn't been since 2003. Yet Arjayay insists he's right and is going around threatening people with block threats when they change it https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:81.130.150.51 — Preceding unsigned comment added by Danstarr69 (talk • contribs) 03:46, 4 April 2018 (UTC)
 * See MOS:TVNOW. Television shows are referred to in the present tense here whether or not they are still being produced or broadcast. And I strongly suggest you refrain from referring to other editors as "idiots"; see WP:CIVIL.  General Ization  Talk  03:48, 4 April 2018 (UTC)
 * some idiot admin who doesn't know the difference between is and was... Um, you're doing "is" and "was" wrong. Statement: "Brookside was a soap." Response: "So what is it now if it is no longer a soap..?" Er, it's still a soap, albeit one that is currently off air. Neil S. Walker (talk) 10:11, 26 April 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Brookside (TV series)


text:
LMC (British band)

LMC are an English dance group consisting of producers Lee Monteverde, Matt Cadman and Cris Nuttall. They have performed remixes for Scooter, Erasure, Dannii Minogue, Lasgo, Flip & Fill, Robert Palmer and Shania Twain. LMC is best known for the track "Take Me to the Clouds Above" which features an interpolation of Whitney Houston's "How Will I Know" and a sample of U2's "With or Without You" which topped the UK Singles Chart in early 2004, as well as going top 5 in Ireland and top 10 in Australia.

Chart success
A promo-only track "Everything U Need" reached the top ten of the UK club chart in 2003. The song "Take Me to the Clouds Above" featured lyrics from "How Will I Know" from Whitney Houston's self-titled album set to a sample from "With or Without You" from U2's The Joshua Tree album.

The track was sung by Rachel McFarlane, who had previously been a vocalist for UK outfits Loveland and N-Trance. In the late 1990s, McFarlane had a solo record deal and her song "Lover" was a UK hit in 1998. This song was bootlegged as "Found an Angel" by placing "Lover" over Paul van Dyk's "For an Angel", which became a club hit.

All of the members of U2 had to clear the track. Bassist Adam Clayton said: "It's a good beat and you can dance to it. I especially like the bassline".

The track was released in the UK on 26 January 2004 as "Take Me to the Clouds Above" by LMC vs U2. The track became the most played track on UK radio and debuted at number one in February 2004, selling 300,000 copies. Due to the success, it was released in other territories, going top five in Ireland, top ten in Australia and New Zealand, top 20 in Germany, Holland, Poland and Norway. It was released in the U.S. on 6 April 2004, where it went top twenty in the Billboard dance chart.

In 2005, they collaborated with mashup artists Trick Babies (Si Edwards and Shaun Lever) who had previously built up a name making bootlegs for Galaxy FM and MTV to produce a cover version of Annie Lennox's "Little Bird", eventually being issued as a 12" single only.

Retaining the collaboration with Trick Babies, a remake of "You Get What You Give" sampling The New Radicals was issued. eventually charting at number 30 but with a fresh vocal from Rachel McFarlane.

In 2008, LMC covered Marvin Gaye's "I Heard It Through the Grapevine".

Remixes and productions

 * "You Get What You Give" - New Radicals (2006)
 * "Breathe" - Erasure (2005)
 * "Party for Two" - Shania Twain (2004)
 * "Oh L'amour" - Erasure (2003)
 * "Alone" - Lasgo (2002)
 * "Relax" - Frankie Goes to Hollywood (2009)
 * "I Could Fall in Love with You" - Erasure (2008)
 * "Surrender" - Lasgo (2004)
 * "Pray" - Lasgo (2003)
 * "So Under Pressure" - Dannii Minogue (2006)
 * "My Feelings for You" - Avicii & Sebastien Drums (2010)
 * "Kill It in the Name" - Jamelia (2011)
 * "Still Crying" - NightCrawlers featuring Taio Cruz (2011)
 * "Therese" - Put Em High (2009)
 * "This Time I Know It's for Real" - Kelly Llorenna (2004)
 * "Lover" - Rachel MacFarlane (2005)
 * "You Never Know" - Morjac featuring Marly (2005)
 * "Be Without You" - Wi-Fi featuring Melanie M (2009)
 * "Addicted to Love" - Robert Palmer (2003)
 * "Seek Bromance" - XNRG featuring Francesca Swarbrick (2010)
 * "Louder (Put Your Hands Up)" - Chris Willis (2011)
 * "Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood" - Verde featuring Francesca Swarbrick (2011)
 * "If You Were Mine" - Alex K (2009)
 * "Last Night" - Wi-Fi featuring Siobhan (2008)
 * "You and Me" - Blue Ray featuring Jimmy Somerville (2009)
 * "Tracy" - DJ Ironic (2010)

title: LMC (British band)


text:
America First Party

The America First Party is the name of two US political parties:

 * America First Party (1943), an isolationist political party founded in 1943
 * America First Party, another name for the Populist Party (United States, 1984)

title: America First Party


text:
Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)

In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (also known as the Quorum of the Twelve, the Council of the Twelve Apostles, or simply the Twelve) is one of the governing bodies in the church hierarchy. Members of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles are apostles, with the calling to be prophets, seers, and revelators, evangelical ambassadors, and special witnesses of Jesus Christ.

The quorum was first organized in 1835 and designated as a body of "traveling councilors" with jurisdiction outside areas where the church was formally organized, equal in authority to the First Presidency, the Seventy, the standing Presiding High Council, and the high councils of the various stakes. The jurisdiction of the Twelve was originally limited to areas of the world outside Zion or its stakes. After the apostles returned from their missions to England, Joseph Smith altered the responsibilities of the quorum: it was given charge of the affairs of the church, under direction of the First Presidency.

Role of the quorum
The Quorum of the Twelve Apostles claims a leadership role second only to that of the First Presidency. At the time of the death of Joseph Smith, the President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles was Brigham Young. Young emphasized what he said was Smith's authorization that the Quorum of the Twelve should be the central governing body of the church after Smith's death. In 1847, the Twelve reorganized the First Presidency with Young as church president, and the Twelve took on a supporting role within a chain of command under the First Presidency, a role that continues to the present.

The Quorum of the Twelve Apostles in the LDS Church has some general similarities to the College of Cardinals of the Catholic Church, primarily in its duty to choose a successor upon the death of a church president. There are differences, due in part to the President and the Twelve having life tenure, which may lead to an older or infirm President of the Church, but also provides considerable training of apostles to take over the office of the Presidency: Church policy decisions are made unanimously, with consultation among the First Presidency, the Quorum of the Twelve, and where appropriate, the Seventy, each of which has its own responsibility. Effort is made to ensure that the organizations are united in purpose and policy.

Each member of the quorum is accepted by the church as an apostle, as well as a "prophet, seer, and revelator." Thus, each apostle is considered to hold the "keys of the priesthood", "the rights of presidency, or the power given to man by God to direct, control, and govern God's priesthood on earth." Individually and collectively, the Twelve Apostles hold the keys and have conferred the authority to exercise all of the keys upon the President of the Church. Thus, as outlined in the Doctrine and Covenants, only the President of the Church is entitled to receive revelation or dictate policy for the church.

A major role of the Twelve is to appoint a successor when the President of the Church dies. Shortly after this occurs, the apostles meet in a room of the Salt Lake Temple to appoint a successor. Invariably the successor has been the most senior member of the Twelve, with seniority determined by the longest continuous duration of service. The apostles lay their hands on his head and ordain him and set him apart as President of the Church. The president then chooses two counselors in the First Presidency, who are high priests (usually apostles). The second most senior surviving apostle becomes the President of the Quorum of the Twelve. In cases when the President of the Quorum is simultaneously called to be a counselor in the First Presidency, or is unable to serve due to health considerations, an Acting President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles is called to fill the position. This has invariably been the most senior member of the quorum who is not a member of the First Presidency.

As vacancies arise within the quorum, the Twelve and counselors in the First Presidency are invited to meet and counsel together in prayer in order to recommend to the President of the Church whom will be called to fill the vacancy. The final decision rests with the President of the Church, but is formally voted on by the Twelve and the counselors in the First Presidency. The chosen man is generally ordained an apostle by the President of the Church, a counselor in the First Presidency, or the President of the Twelve. Depending on circumstances, this may occur before or after a sustaining vote is held at a church general conference. Any Melchizedek priesthood holder is eligible to be called as an apostle. Generally, new apostles have considerable experience in church government and have served faithfully as bishops, stake presidents, mission presidents, or seventies.

As a matter of policy, apostles are generally asked to retire from their professional careers and devote themselves to full-time church service, including memberships of boards and professional organizations. Some apostles receive assignments to become members of boards of church-owned for-profit corporations and trustees of the church's educational institutions. (Some exceptions have been made to this rule, as when quorum member Ezra Taft Benson was permitted to serve as United States Secretary of Agriculture from 1953 to 1961 and when quorum member Reed Smoot was permitted to serve in the United States Senate from 1903 to 1933.) The calling of an apostle is typically a lifetime calling.

Current members
As of December 2023, the current members of the quorum are:


text:
SMC

SMC may refer to:

Organisations

 * IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Society
 * Special Metals Corporation, an alloy manufacturer
 * Supreme Muslim Council, former organization in Mandatory Palestine
 * San Miguel Corporation, a Philippine conglomerate
 * Samsung Medical Center, a hospital in South Korea
 * Salmaniya Medical Complex, a hospital in Bahrain
 * SMC Corporation, a Japanese industrial automation company
 * Social Marketing Company, a Bangladeshi non-profit organisation
 * Suzuki Motor Corporation, a Japanese multinational corporation
 * Swathanthra Malayalam Computing, a software collective in India
 * Scottish Mountaineering Club
 * Sufi Muslim Council, UK
 * Singapore Mediation Centre
 * Satyrs Motorcycle Club
 * The Singing Machine Company, a karaoke equipment provider

Education

 * St. Michael's College, Iligan City, Philippines
 * Santa Monica College, California, US
 * Sargodha Medical College, Punjab, Pakistan
 * Senior Military College, any of six US colleges that offer ROTC programs
 * Southwestern Michigan College, US
 * Spartanburg Methodist College, South Carolina, US
 * Stanley Medical College, Chennai, India
 * Stewart's Melville College, Edinburgh, Scotland
 * Swiss Management Center, a university in Switzerland

Government and politics

 * Science Media Centre, UK press office
 * Space and Missile Systems Center, the research and development command of the United States Space Force
 * Surat Municipal Corporation, Gujarat, India
 * Supreme Military Council (Ghana), ruling Ghana from 1975–1979
 * Modern Centre Party (Stranka modernega centra), a Slovenian political party

Music

 * Seattle Men's Chorus, Washington, US
 * SMC Recordings, San Francisco, California, US

Television

 * Shaw Multicultural Channel, a cable television channel in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
 * Southern Media Corporation, a Cantonese television network in Guangdong, China

Other entertainment

 * Secret Maryo Chronicles, a video game

Science and technology

 * Seasonal malaria chemoprevention
 * Sheet moulding compound or sheet moulding composite, a reinforced polyester material
 * Small Magellanic Cloud, a galaxy near the Milky Way
 * SMC protein (Structural Maintenance of Chromosomes)
 * Supplementary motor cortex, a part of the sensorimotor cortex
 * Smooth muscle cell, a cell of involuntary non-striated muscle
 * Symmetric monoidal category, a mathematical structure involving serial and parallel composition

Computing and electronics

 * Sound and music computing
 * Apple SMC, a video codec
 * Secure multi-party computation, a cryptography problem
 * Sequential Monte Carlo method, a set of algorithms
 * Self-modifying code, code which modifies itself at load or runtime
 * Sliding mode control, in control theory
 * SMC connector, used in radio-frequency circuits
 * Surface-mount component, in electronics
 * .smc, a file format used for Super Nintendo Entertainment System ROM images
 * System Management Controller, on Apple computers
 * DO-214AB, a variant of DO-214 semiconductor package

Other uses

 * Semarang Poncol railway station, Semarang, Indonesia (station code: SMC)
 * Senior Mathematical Challenge, for students run by the United Kingdom Mathematics Trust
 * Single-member constituency
 * Speak Mandarin Campaign, Singapore
 * Stade Malherbe Caen, a French football club

title: SMC


text:
Stereopticon

A stereopticon is a slide projector or relatively powerful "magic lantern", which has two lenses, usually one above the other, and has mainly been used to project photographic images. These devices date back to the mid 19th century, and were a popular form of entertainment and education before the advent of moving pictures.

Magic lanterns originally used rather weak light sources, like candles or oil lamps, that produced projections that were just large and strong enough to entertain small groups of people. During the 19th century stronger light sources, like limelight, became available.

For the "dissolving views" lantern shows that were popularized by Henry Langdon Childe since the late 1830s, lanternists needed to be able to project two aligned pictures in the same spot on a screen, gradually dimming a first picture while revealing a second one. This could be done with two lanterns, but soon biunial lanterns (with two objectives placed one above the other) became common.

William and Frederick Langenheim from Philadelphia introduced a photographic glass slide technology at the Crystal Palace Exhibition in London in 1851. For circa two centuries magic lanterns had been used to project painted images from glass slides, but the Langenheim brothers seem to have been the firsts to incorporate the relatively new medium of photography (introduced in 1839). To enjoy the details of photographic slides optimally, the stronger lanterns were needed.

By 1860 Massachusetts chemist and businessman John Fallon improved a large biunial lantern, imported from England, and named it 'stereopticon'.

For a usual fee of ten cents, people could view realistic images of nature, history, and science themes. The two lenses are used to dissolve between images when projected. This "visual storytelling" with technology directly preceded the development of the first moving pictures.

The term stereopticon has been widely misused to name a stereoscope. The stereopticon has not commonly been used for three-dimensional images.

title: Stereopticon


text:
Hermann von der Hardt

Hermann von der Hardt (November 15, 1660 – February 28, 1746) was a German historian and orientalist.

He was born at Melle, in Westphalia (now in Lower Saxony). He studied oriental languages at the universities of Jena and Leipzig, and in 1690 he was called to the chair of oriental languages at Helmstedt. He resigned his position in 1727, but lived at Helmstedt until his death.

Among his numerous writings the following deserve mention: Hardt left in manuscript a history of the Reformation which is preserved in the Helmstedt Juleum.
 * Autographa Lutheri aliorumque celebrium virorum, ab anno 1517 ad annum 1546, Reformationis aetatem et historiam egregie iliustrantia (1690–1691)
 * Magnum oecumenicum Constantiense concilium (1697–1700)
 * Hebraeae linguae fundamenta (1694)
 * Syriacae linguae fundamenta (1694)
 * Elementa Chaldaica (1693)
 * Historia litteraria reformationis (1717)
 * Enigmata prisci orbis (1723)

title: Hermann von der Hardt