text:
Talk:Winamp

Online services
Moved this here:
 * MetroLyrics: is default on-line service displaying lyrics to songs played in the Winamp.

So far, Winamp "online services" have received little RS coverage. It can't be an exhaustive list, anyways, so choosing which online services to include becomes problematic, unless we have a source or two to support a limited list. Discuss? --Lexein (talk) 11:52, 5 September 2010 (UTC)

Winamp 5
As was stated in numerous places (in various degrees of officialness) at the time of its release, the reason for the version number of Winamp 5 was to stress that it combined the benefits of Winamp 2 and Winamp3, which were totally different codebases. The jokey statements currently in the history section are all very well, but they should be replaced with the real reason. I would do it myself, but it really needs a citation and I don't have time to dig one out at the moment. Quietbritishjim (talk) 03:45, 9 November 2010 (UTC)

Citations in lead paragraph
Per WP:LEADCITE, a long time ago, I moved citations (and their associated full text) out of the lead and down the article, and used the lead to merely summarize the article per MOS:LEAD. Although it's true that in the extreme, there are no rules, I and apparently most other editors of this article agreed that this lead section looks better "clean." If an editor thinks the sources they found are better than those in the article, feel free to add them in the article, not the lead, and/or discuss them here. --Lexein (talk) 00:36, 21 March 2011 (UTC)

 * Firstly this is a non-controversial issue, and doesn't require discussion. There are many many good articles that have references in lead, I somewhat agree to adding too many redundant cites, however adding three distinct reliable sources adds value to any article. But if dates and names are mentioned there should be cites with them, specially if its the start of the article. I'd say we can have additional cites in the history section, to keep the lead tidy. As a test I'd suggest you remove cites from lead sections from the Wikipedia or iTunes articles and see how that goes. I didn't find any discussions by most other editors on lead citing? I will be restoring those cites soon, unless there is consensus with your argument with other editors and they disagree with my understanding.--IncidentFlux [ TalkBack 11:39, 24 March 2011 (UTC)

 * Controversy per se is only one trigger for discussion. Avoidance of edit wars is another. WP:BRD is another.
 * Consensus: the lead cleanup occurred in March 2010, and was not disputed by several highly interested editors. If you look, you'll see that there was quite a little battle trying to save the article from a deletionist who was not interested in finding sources himself. But moving the cites down from the lead was not disputed by the other interested editors. And keeping the lead clean has only been disputed by you. So, though it was not active, discussion-based consensus, it was tacit consensus.  The article was improved by the addition of lots of citations in the body, and editing of the lead to merely summarize, sans cites.
 * See WP:BRD. Recently, the cites were boldly added to the lead, against the status quo, tact consensus, and the WP:HIDDEN to editors. So, per WP:BRD, I reverted, so now we discuss.
 * As for comparisons with other articles, a better example for comparison would be a WP:Good Article or Featured article. They tend to have clean leads which merely summarize the following article, without too much detail, leaving the citations for later.
 * Please don't add them back to the lead. Please actually refer to WP:LEADCITE
 * "...balance the desire to avoid redundant citations in the lead with the desire to aid readers in locating sources for challengeable material. Leads are usually written at a greater level of generality than the body, and information in the lead section of non-controversial subjects is less likely to be challenged and less likely to require a source"
 * and its sister section MOS:LEAD. If you feel the claims in the lead are challengeable, and it's too difficult for a reader to read the article body for the citation, or that lead does not adequately summarize the article, or is so specific so as to require citations, please consider a minor rewrite instead. Further, please, instead of plopping those cites back in the lead, just add sentences which they uniquely support in the appropriate section in the article body, and thereby improve the article.
 * I suggest the following changes. We're in discussion mode, which is why I'm not just making the following changes.
 * 1. The History section is the better place for the individual authorship and location details.
 * 2. Moving the History section up makes the verifiability easier for those details. Seems to me, though, that most software articles discuss features first for ongoing, existing software products.
 * Thoughts?--Lexein (talk) 13:20, 24 March 2011 (UTC)

Boldyrev edit warring
Boldyrev is reliably sourced as an author of Winamp, so I'm supporting the non-controversial reinsertion of that claim, with these sources.
 * 1998: Article includes short interview fragments with Boldyrev, and lists him as "one of the developers at Nullsoft" of Winamp.
 * 2000: Playmedia 1997 News item archived 2000-08-18:
 * 97.06.01: Nullsoft licenses the AMP® 0.7 Layer 3 Decoder for MP3-Playback in Winamp.  Now the world's most popular MP3 music player for the PC.
 * 97.02.01:     Dmitry Boldyrev, creator of MacAMP, becomes the first licensee of the AMP® 0.7-series MP3 decoder for the now-legendary MacAMP MP3 player for the Macintosh™ operating platform.  Shortly thereafter, Boldyrev introduces MP3 technology and the AMP® decoder itself to Justin Frankel.   Boldyrev and Frankel subsequently form Nullsoft (now a unit of AOL) with Branden Williams and others.

 * 2005:
 * 2005:
 * 2006: Boldyrev's authorship first stated in Wikipedia Winamp in 2006 (per this Wikiblame search) in this edit.

Note: There is a 2004 posting on BetaNews ("Death Knell Sounds for Nullsoft, Winamp". BetaNews. Nate Mook. November 10, 2004.) with a comment #291693861 by "mewse" who claims to be Dmitry Boldyrev. I don't consider this a reliable source, but it does contain a link to the CNN article above. The assertion in this edit summary and in the article Wikipedia has somehow become a source of this claim, is provably false. Until we get a source that definitively asserts that Boldyrev was not involved, stop deleting Boldyrev. I don't know Boldyrev or Frankel or anyone at Winamp, Nullsoft, or AOL, I just support what multiple reliable sources have stated about Boldyrev's (to me) uncontroversially sourced involvement. Yep, it was easily researched. --Lexein (talk) 23:32, 8 February 2013 (UTC)

A way to download winamp help file?
Winamp.com will not be available after 20 Dec. 2013. Is there a way to download the help file? Or at least relevant information from the site? other than copy and paste??? I have to say that I have about 5 different music players and winamp has the best sound, something I discovered only recently. ```` — Preceding unsigned comment added by 184.144.73.133 (talk) 23:53, 23 November 2013 (UTC)

 * The Wayback Machine has an extensive archive of the winamp.com site as it looked at various stages in the past, dating back to December 1998, including the help section. This means that even after the site is taken down in December 2013, researchers will still be able to see what was on the site.-- ♦Ian Ma c M♦  (talk to me) 06:45, 24 November 2013 (UTC)

 * Thank you so much!```` — Preceding unsigned comment added by 184.144.73.133 (talk) 18:00, 24 November 2013 (UTC)

 * There are also versions of Winamp at OldApps dating back to the original 0.20 version in April 1997. These links could be added to the external links section of the article after December 20.-- ♦Ian Ma c M♦  (talk to me) 09:06, 25 November 2013 (UTC)

Incorrect license type
Hello, Walter

Long time, no see! Oh, and a belated happy new year!

It's been long time since you and me disagreed on something but here we go: Template:Infobox software/doc only mentions a few "examples". There are a lot of licensing scheme that does not list, including Apache license. In fact new ones may be created every day. But please look at. It defines exactly what construes a software license.

Now, freemium fits that definition. Freemium is both a licensing model and business model. (Why, supporting business model is one of the goals of licensing model.)

Best regards, Codename Lisa (talk) 01:41, 15 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Freemium does not meet that definition. It is only a compensation model. It does not describe what sort of license the end-user accepts when they install the product. The anon was right that it's not a license type. While I agree that the infobox lists a few items, I do not believe that they are examples. Walter Görlitz (talk) 01:48, 15 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Hi. Well, the doc page itself says they are examples. The word "example" appears in there. But you can ask the original author of that section. However, a guideline like MOS:COMPUTING is more binding than a doc page that may easily go out of date. MOS:COMPUTING explicitly list freemium as a license type.

 * In any case, your proposed "Commercial proprietary" and the anon's proposal "shareware" are unquestionably wrong: Winamp has a gratis version and payment is not compulsory. Compulsory payment or delayed compulsory payment are one of the conditions of "shareware" and "commercial". Freemium best describes what it is: The basic tier of Winamp is gratis, while the Pro tier is commercial.

 * Best regards, Codename Lisa (talk) 02:05, 15 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Unquestionably wrong? No freemium is unquestionably wrong, but I understand what you mean. I'll take it up at the documentation. Walter Görlitz (talk) 02:37, 15 January 2014 (UTC)
 * I did just add a definition of Freemium to the docs there. ViperSnake151   Talk  16:38, 16 January 2014 (UTC)

External links modified August 2015
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External links modified February 2016
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Inclusion of Webamp?
Hello all! I maintain an open source web recreation of Winamp (webamp.org) that closely reproduces the Winamp interface. Given the inclusion of XMMS and qmmp in the "See Also" section I thought my project might be worth including as well. However, I know better than to try to add it myself, so I figured I'd leave some context here and see if existing editors thought it might merit inclusion.

It has been covered in several mainstream tech press outlets:

 * Gizmodo
 * Vice
 * TechCrunch
 * Mashable

It was also called out by the W3C, the main standards organization for the web.

I've also collected a list of over 100 other articles and blog posts that have been written about it in ~25 languages. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Captbaritone (talk • contribs) 14:51, 2 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Strictly speaking, it is a web based emulation of Winamp 2. It's fun to use, but is not affiliated to the official Winamp project. Possibly suitable as an external link, but not for a mention in the main text of the article.-- ♦Ian Ma c M♦  (talk to me) 15:21, 2 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Agreed. I thought it would make sense to include as a link in the "See also" section alongside XMMS and qmmp.Captbaritone (talk) 15:49, 2 September 2020 (UTC)
 * I've added this as an external link.-- ♦Ian Ma c M♦  (talk to me) 18:17, 2 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Thanks! Captbaritone (talk) 19:25, 2 September 2020 (UTC)
 * While the site is impressive, I removed it. MOS:SEEALSO makes it clear that items in that section should be internal (on Wikipedia) and so the site doesn't meet that requirement. Wikipedia:External links, specifically, WP:ELYES states official sites, sites about the subject or that add neutral and accurate material that is relevant to an encyclopedic understanding of the subject should be listed. This site doesn't do that. I'm not sure what the copyright status of the songs are either, which may be a separate issue. Also, the UI may be copyrighted. We cannot link to copyright violations. Walter Görlitz (talk) 20:41, 2 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Thanks for taking the time to document your reasoning. That helps me understand why Audacious can be included but Webamp may not. 2600:1700:AB10:3A90:D921:441:8735:894 (talk) 07:35, 16 September 2020 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 23:03, 3 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Wine17.png

Gracenote?
According to the Gracenote article, Winamp hasn’t used Gracenote for several years, and I for one don't blame it. Though this does raise the question of what it uses instead… Mr Larrington (talk) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mr Larrington (talk • contribs) 18:49, 12 September 2021 (UTC)

Article in need of update to reflect Mar. 16 NFT announcement
On March 16, the winamp twitter account announced they were switching their direction into creating and selling NFTs. The article needs to be updated to reflect this, so I changed the banner at the top. I didn't start a new section because I wasn't sure if somebody wanted to lead the charge in adding this information. What details about this announcement should be prioritized and should a section make note that the original creators of Winamp don't have anything to do with this? Ctaetcsh (talk) 02:02, 17 March 2022 (UTC)
 * In general, the announcement does not say that Winamp 6 is cancelled. I still recommend to add a paragraph about the critics - it should be the first time that "Winamp" (whoever it currently is) received such a lot of negative comments. --Tuxman (talk) 23:01, 17 March 2022 (UTC)
 * There is something very similar happening at LimeWire. In both cases, the people doing this are not the original creators of the software, and appear to be jumping on the NFT bandwagon by using famous brand names from the past. The article needs to make this clear.-- ♦Ian Ma c M♦  (talk to me) 07:19, 18 March 2022 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion
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Separate article for online service?
The new Winamp launched today, and it's an online service instead of a new media player. Should we create a new article for this online service instead of reworking this one? WolfmanFP (talk) 16:27, 13 April 2023 (UTC)
 * IMO: No. The new one is the official successor of the old one, and while it is an entirely different (and much worse) software, it still is the software covered by this article. --Tuxman (talk) 10:28, 17 April 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm not so sure it is a successor. Since the release of the online service the original app has also had an update. Their website currently offer both versions for download.
 * I do support creating a new article for the online part when it's made clear that it isn't a successor but complementary service. Sparetys (talk) 18:57, 29 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Winamp


text:
Diane di Prima

Diane di Prima (August 6, 1934 –October 25, 2020) was an American poet, known for her association with the Beat movement. She was also an artist, prose writer, and teacher. Her magnum opus is widely considered to be Loba, a collection of poems first published in 1978 then extended in 1998.

Early life and education
Di Prima was born in Brooklyn, New York, on August 6, 1934. She was a second generation American of Italian descent. Her father Francis was a lawyer, and her mother Emma (née Mallozzi) was a teacher. Her maternal grandfather, Domenico Mallozzi, was an activist and associated with anarchists Carlo Tresca and Emma Goldman. Di Prima changed her last name from DiPrima to di Prima because she believed it better reflected her Italian ancestry.

She attended academically elite Hunter College High School where she became part of a small group of friends including classmate Audre Lorde who formed a sort of Dead Poets Society calling themselves "the Branded". They cut class to roam the city, hanging out in bookstores, sharing their own poetry and holding séances for dead poets.

Di Prima then went on to Swarthmore College before dropping out to be a poet in Manhattan. Di Prima began writing as a child and by the age of 19 was corresponding with Ezra Pound and Kenneth Patchen. Her first book of poetry, This Kind of Bird Flies Backward, was published in 1958 by Hettie Jones and LeRoi Jones' Totem Press.

Involvement with the Beats
Di Prima spent the late 1950s and early 1960s in Manhattan, where she participated in the emerging Beat movement. She spent some time in California at Stinson Beach and Topanga Canyon, returned to New York City, and eventually moved to San Francisco permanently.

She edited the newspaper The Floating Bear with Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) and was co-founder of the New York Poets Theatre and founder of the Poets Press. On several occasions she faced charges of obscenity by the United States government due to her work with the New York Poets Theatre and The Floating Bear. In 1961 she was arrested by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) for publishing two poems in The Floating Bear. According to di Prima, police persistently harassed her due to the nature of her poetry. In 1966, she spent some time at Millbrook with Timothy Leary's psychedelic community.

From 1974 to 1997, di Prima taught poetry at the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics, of the Naropa Institute in Boulder, Colorado, sharing the program with fellow Beats Allen Ginsberg and Anne Waldman (co-founders of the program), William Burroughs, Gregory Corso, and others.

Later career
In the late 1960s, di Prima moved permanently to California. There, she became involved with the Diggers and studied Buddhism, Sanskrit, Gnosticism, and alchemy. In 1966, she signed a vow of tax resistance to the Vietnam War. In the 1970s, she published the collection Revolutionary Letters, influenced by her time with the Diggers. At The Band's famous Last Waltz concert in 1976, she read aloud from Revolutionary Letters and the one-line poem "Get Yer Cut Throat Off My Knife".

She published her major work, the long poem Loba, in 1978, with an enlarged edition in 1998. From the 1960s on she worked as a photographer and a collage artist, and in the last decade or so of her life she took up watercolor painting.

From 1980 to 1987, di Prima taught Hermetic and esoteric traditions in poetry, in a short-lived but significant Masters-in-Poetics program at New College of California, which she established together with poets Robert Duncan and David Meltzer. She has also taught at the San Francisco Art Institute. She was one of the co-founders of San Francisco Institute of Magical and Healing Arts (SIMHA), where she taught Western spiritual traditions from 1983 to 1992.

In 2009, di Prima became San Francisco's poet laureate.

Activism
Di Prima was known for her activism, having been exposed early on to political consciousness by her grandfather, Domenico, as detailed in her memoir Recollections of My Life as a Woman; she also discusses this in a 2001 interview with David Hadbawnik. In her memoir, di Prima describes seeing her grandfather speak at a rally in the park, writing: "I am proud of him, and afraid, but mostly amazed. His words have awakened my full acknowledgment, consent. I hear what he says as truth, and it seems I have always known it. I feel old, self-contained, passionate with the pure passion of a child." Moments such as these sparked a dedication to social activism, especially as it concerned women's rights, that persisted throughout di Prima's life.

Death and legacy
Di Prima died on October 25, 2020, at San Francisco General Hospital. She was 86 years old. She had several health issues including Parkinson's disease and Sjögren syndrome. She was working on several books until two weeks prior to her death. Di Prima's works are held at the University of Louisville, Indiana University, Southern Illinois University, and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Diane di Prima


text:
Talk:Diane di Prima

Preserving a legacy of vandalism
Re: the vandalism subsection, I've never seen this before? Is this appropriate? It seems akin to making a brass plaque commemorating obscene graffiti, and ends up aggrandizing and memorializing slander...

''Is there any precedent for memorializing slanderous wiki vandalism? '' — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:801:0:54A0:FD75:6A3A:D528:B3DC (talk) 13:38, 2 June 2023 (UTC)

 * there is ZERO precedent for "wikipedia vandalism" being made permanent on the wikipedia page itself, and the comment that it aggrandizes the slander is completely on point. this section should be removed. some idiot trying to make jokes about "fat acceptance" has no place on di prima's wikipedia page. 129.93.161.222 (talk) 20:59, 20 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Additionally, the user who added this section to di Prima's page has vandalized the Wikipedia page for another poet. See links below.
 * most recent instance of section appearing after having been removed: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diane_di_Prima&oldid=1127056851
 * talk page for the user who added the section:
 * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:2603:6011:4200:6B30:B9E3:5B55:CC4:6839 129.93.161.222 (talk) 21:52, 20 July 2023 (UTC)

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Bénifontaine

Bénifontaine is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Hauts-de-France region in northern France.

Geography
A farming village situated just 4 mi north of Lens at the junction of the N47 and D39 roads. The airport of Lens-Bénifontaine (code LFQL) is located in the commune.

History
The commune owes its name to the quality of the local water, which is used for brewing the regional Ch'Ti beer. During World War I, the village, along with many others, was completely destroyed.

Sights

 * The Castelain Ch’ti brewery.
 * The aerodrome.

title: Bénifontaine


text:
Ellora Caves

The Ellora Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra, India (now renamed to Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar district). It is one of the largest rock-cut Hindu temple cave complexes in the world, with artwork dating from the period 600–1000 CE, also including several Buddhist and Jain "caves". The complex is a leading example of Indian rock-cut architecture, and several are not strictly "caves" in that they have no roof. Cave 16 features the largest single monolithic rock excavation in the world, the Kailash temple, a chariot-shaped monument dedicated to the god Shiva. The Kailash temple excavation also features sculptures depicting various Hindu deities as well as relief panels summarizing the two major Hindu epics.

There are over 100 caves at the site, all excavated from the basalt cliffs in the Charanandri Hills, 34 of which are open to public. These consist of 17 Hindu (caves 13–29), 12 Buddhist (caves 1–12) and 5 Jain (caves 30–34) caves, each group representing deities and mythologies prevalent in the 1st millennium CE, as well as monasteries of each respective religion. They were built close to one another and illustrate the religious harmony that existed in ancient India. All of the Ellora monuments were built during the Rashtrakuta dynasty (r. 753-982 CE), which constructed part of the Hindu and Buddhist caves, and the Yadava dynasty (c. 1187–1317), which constructed a number of the Jain caves. Funding for the construction of the monuments was provided by royals, traders and the wealthy of the region.

Although the caves served as temples and a rest stop for pilgrims, the site's location on an ancient South Asian trade route also made it an important commercial centre in the Deccan region. It is 29 km north-west of Aurangabad, and about 300 km east-northeast of Mumbai. Today, the Ellora Caves, along with the nearby Ajanta Caves, are a major tourist attraction in the Marathwada region of Maharashtra and a protected monument under the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

Etymology
Ellora, also called Verul or Elura, is the short form of the ancient name Elloorpuram. The older form of the name has been found in ancient references such as the Baroda inscription of 812 CE which mentions "the greatness of this edifice" and that "this great edifice was built on a hill by Krishnaraja at Elapura, the edifice in the inscription being the Kailasa temple. In the Indian tradition, each cave is named and has a suffix Guha (Sanskrit), Lena or Leni (Marathi), meaning cave.

It is also thought to be derived from Ilvalapuram, named after the asura Ilvala who ruled this region who was vanquished by Sage Agastya.

Location
The Ellora caves are situated in state of Maharashtra about 29 km northwest of the city of Sambhaji Nagar, 300 km east-northeast of Mumbai, 235 km from Pune and about 100 km west of the Ajanta Caves, 2.3 kilometres (1.42 miles) from Grishneshwar Temple (India).

Ellora occupies a relatively flat rocky region of the Western Ghats, where ancient volcanic activity had created multilayered basalt formations, known as the Deccan Traps. The volcanic activity that formed the west-facing cliff that houses the Ellora caves occurred during the Cretaceous period. The resulting vertical face made access to many layers of rock formations easier, enabling architects to pick basalt with finer grains for more detailed sculpting.

Chronology
The construction at Ellora has been studied since British colonial rule. However, the overlapping styles between the Buddhist, Hindu and Jain caves has made it difficult to establish agreement concerning the chronology of their construction. The disputes generally concern: one, whether the Buddhist or Hindu caves were carved first and, two, the relative dating of caves within a particular tradition. The broad consensus that has emerged is based on comparing the carving styles at Ellora to other cave temples in the Deccan region that have been dated, textual records of various dynasties, and epigraphical evidence found at various archaeological sites near Ellora and elsewhere in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. Geri Hockfield Malandra and other scholars have stated that the Ellora caves had three important building periods: an early Hindu period (~550 to 600 CE), a Buddhist phase (~600 to 730 CE) and a later Hindu and Jain phase (~730 to 950 CE).

The earliest caves may have been built during the Traikutakas and Vakataka dynasties, the latter being known for sponsoring the Ajanta caves. However, it is considered likely that some of the earliest caves, such as Cave 29 (Hindu), were built by the Shiva-inspired Kalachuri dynasty, while the Buddhist caves were built by the Chalukya dynasty. The later Hindu caves and early Jain caves were built by the Rashtrakuta dynasty, while the last Jain caves were built by the Yadava dynasty, which had also sponsored other Jain cave temples.

The Hindu monuments: Caves 13–29
The Hindu caves were constructed during the Kalachuri period, from the mid-6th century to the end of the 8th century in two phases. Nine cave temples were excavated early in the 6th century, followed by a further four caves (caves 17–29). Work first started , in order, on Caves 28, 27 and 19 then Caves 29 and 21, which were excavated concurrently with Caves 20 and 26. Caves 17 and 28 were the last ones to be started.

The later caves, 14, 15 and 16, were constructed during the Rashtrakuta period, some being dated to between the 8th to 10th centuries. Work first began in Caves 14 and 15 with Cave 16, the world's largest monolith, being the last of the three to be constructed. These caves were completed in the 8th century with the support of king Krishna I.

Early Hindu temples: Dhumar Lena, Cave 29
Construction in the early Hindu caves commenced before any of the Buddhist or Jain caves. These early caves were generally dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva, although the iconography suggests that the artisans gave other gods and goddesses of Hinduism prominent and equal reverence. A common feature of these cave temples was a rock-cut linga-yoni within the core of the shrine with each being surrounded by a space for circumambulation (parikrama).

Cave 29, also called Dhumar Lena, is one of earliest excavations in Ellora and among the largest. Early Hindu temple building in the cave centred around the "Vale Ganga", a natural waterfall that was integrated into the monument. The waterfall is visible from a rock carved balcony to the south and has been described as "falling over great Shiva's brow", particularly during monsoon season. The carvings in this cave are larger than life size but, according to author Dhavalikar, they are "corpulent, stumpy with disproportionate limbs" compared to those found in other Ellora caves.

Rameshwar temple, Cave 21
Cave 21, also called Rameshwar Lena, is another early excavation whose construction has been credited to the Kalachuri dynasty. The cave was completed prior to the ascension of Rashtrakuta dynasty which went on to expand the caves at Ellora.

Although the cave features similar works to those in other Ellora caves, it also has a number of unique pieces, such as those depicting the story of goddess Parvati's pursuit of Shiva. Carvings depicting Parvati and Shiva at leisure, Parvati's wedding to Shiva, Shiva dancing and Kartikeya (Skanda) have been found in other caves. The cave also features a large display of the Sapta Matrika, the seven mother goddesses of the Shakti tradition of Hinduism, flanked on either side by Ganesha and Shiva. Inside the temple are other goddesses important to Shakti tradition, for example, the Durga. The entrance to Cave 21 is flanked by large sculptures of the goddesses Ganga and Yamuna representing the two major Himalayan rivers and their significance to the Indian culture.

The cave is laid out symmetrically according to the mandapa square principle and has embedded geometric patterns repeated throughout the cave. The Shiva linga at the sanctum sanctorum of the temple is equidistant from the major statues of goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, with all three set in an equilateral triangle. According to Carmel Berkson, this layout likely symbolizes the Brahman–Prakriti relationship, the interdependence of the masculine and the feminine energies, that is central to Hindu theology.

The Kailāśa temple: Cave 16

Cave 16, known as the Kailasa temple, is a particularly notable cave temple in India as a result of its size, architecture and having been entirely carved out of a single rock.

The Kailasha temple, inspired by Mount Kailasha, is dedicated to Shiva. It is modeled along similar lines to other Hindu temples with a gateway, an assembly hall, a multi-storey main temple surrounded by numerous shrines laid out according to the square principle, an integrated space for circumambulation, a garbha-grihya (sanctum sanctorum) wherein resides the linga-yoni, and a spire-shaped like Mount Kailash – all carved from one rock. Other shrines carved from the same rock are dedicated to Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, the ten avatars of Vishnu, Vedic gods and goddesses including Indra, Agni, Vayu, Surya and Usha, as well as non-Vedic deities like Ganesha, Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu), Annapurna, Durga and others. The basement level of the temple features numerous Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakti works; a notable set of carvings include the twelve episodes from the childhood of Krishna, an important element of Vaishnavism.

The structure is a freestanding, multi-level temple complex covering an area twice the size of the Parthenon in Athens. It is estimated that the artists removed three million cubic feet of stone, weighing approximately 200,000 tonnes, to excavate the temple.

The construction of the temple has been attributed to the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (r. 756–773 CE), but elements of Pallava architecture have also been noted. The dimensions of the courtyard are 82 meters by 46 meters at the base, and 30 meters high (280 × 160 × 106 feet). The entrance features a low gopuram. The central shrine housing the lingam features a flat-roofed mandapa supported by 16 pillars, and a Dravidian shikhara. An image of Shiva's mount Nandi (the sacred bull) stands on a porch in front of the temple. Two of the walls in the main temple house rows of carvings depicting the Mahabharata, along the north side, and the Ramayana, on the south side.

The Kailasha temple is considered a highly notable example of temple construction from 1st millennium Indian history, and was called, by Carmel Berkson, "a wonder of the world" among rock-cut monuments.

The Dashavatara: Cave 15
The Dashavatara temple, or Cave 15, is another significant excavation that was completed sometime after Cave 14 (Ravan ki Khai, Hindu). Cave 15 has cells and a layout plan that are similar to Buddhist Caves 11 and 12, which suggests this cave was intended to be a Buddhist cave; however, the presence of non-Buddhist features, such as a Nrtya Mandapa (an Indian classical dance pavilion) at its entrance, indicated otherwise. According to James Harle, Hindu images have been found in Buddhist Cave 11, while many Hindu deities have been incorporated in Buddhist caves of the region. This overlap in disparate designs between Buddhist and Hindu caves may be due to the sites being worked on by the same architects and workers, or perhaps a planned Buddhist cave was adapted into a Hindu monument.

According to Geri Malandra, all the Buddhist caves at Ellora were an intrusion in a place that was already an established Brahmanical Tirtha (Hindu pilgrimage site), and not the other way around. Furthermore, given that both the Hindu and Buddhist caves were predominantly anonymous, with no donative inscriptions having been discovered for the Buddhist Ellora caves other than those of Hindu dynasties that built them, the original intent and nature of these cave temples is speculative.

The Hindu temple housed in Cave 15 has an open court with a free-standing monolithic mandapa at the middle and a two-storeyed excavated temple at the rear. Large sculptural panels between the wall columns on the upper floor illustrate a wide range of themes, including the ten avatars of Vishnu. An inscription of Dantidurga, critical to establishing the age of the temple, is on the back wall of the front mandapa. According to Coomaraswamy, the finest relief of this cave is the one depicting the death of Hiranyakashipu, where Vishnu in man-lion (Narasimha) form, emerges from a pillar to lay a fatal hand upon his shoulder. It is a Rastrakoot dynasty sculpture. Other reliefs in Cave 15 include the Gangadhara, marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Tripurantika of Shakti tradition, Markendeya, Garuda, aspects of life, Nandi in mandapa, dancing Shiva, Andhakasura, Govardhanadhari, Gajendravarada and others. The panels are arranged in dyads, which states Carmel Berkson, reinforce each other by displaying "cooperative but also antagonistic energy" with a mutuality of power transference.

Other Hindu caves
Other notable Hindu caves are the Ravan ki Khai (Cave 14) and the Nilkantha (Cave 22), both of which house numerous sculptures, Cave 25 in particular features a carving of Surya in its ceiling.

The Buddhist monuments: Caves 1–12
These caves are located on the southern side and were built either between 630 and 700 CE, or 600–730 CE. It was initially thought that the Buddhist caves were the earliest structures that were created between the fifth and eighth centuries, with caves 1–5 in the first phase (400–600) and 6–12 in the later phase (650–750), but modern scholars now consider the construction of Hindu caves to have been before the Buddhist caves. The earliest Buddhist cave is Cave 6, then 5, 2, 3, 5 (right wing), 4, 7, 8, 10 and 9, with caves 11 and 12, also known as Do Thal and Tin Thal respectively, being the last.

Eleven out of the twelve Buddhist caves consist of viharas, or monasteries with prayer halls: large, multi-storeyed buildings carved into the mountain face, including living quarters, sleeping quarters, kitchens, and other rooms. The monastery caves have shrines including carvings of Gautama Buddha, bodhisattvas and saints. In some of these caves, sculptors have endeavoured to give the stone the look of wood.

Caves 5, 10, 11 and 12 are architecturally important Buddhist caves. Cave 5 is unique among the Ellora caves as it was designed as a hall with a pair of parallel refectory benches in the centre and a Buddha statue in the rear. This cave, and Cave 11 of the Kanheri Caves, are the only two Buddhist caves in India arranged in such a way. Caves 1 through 9 are all monasteries while Cave 10, the Vīśvakarmā Cave, is a major Buddhist prayer hall.

Caves 11 and 12 are three-storied Mahayana monastery caves with idols, mandalas carved into the walls, and numerous goddesses, and Bodhisattva-related iconography, belonging to Vajrayana Buddhism. These are compelling evidence to suggest that Vajrayana and Tantra ideas of Buddhism were well established in South Asia by the 8th-century CE.

The Vishvakarma Cave
Notable among the Buddhist caves is Cave 10, a chaitya worship hall called the 'Vishvakarma cave', built around 650 CE. It is also known as the "Carpenter's Cave", because the rock has been given a finish that has the appearance of wooden beams. Beyond its multi-storeyed entry is a cathedral-like stupa hall also known as chaitya-griha (prayer house). At the heart of this cave is a 15-foot statue of Buddha seated in a preaching pose.

Cave 10 combines a vihara with a chapel-like worship hall that has eight subsidiary cells, four in the back wall and four in the right, as well as a portico in the front. It is the only dedicated chaitya griha amongst the Buddhist caves and is constructed along similar lines to Caves 19 and 26 of Ajanta. Cave 10 also features a gavaksha, or chandrashala, arched window and a side connection to Cave 9 of Ellora.

The main hall of the Visvakarma cave is apsidal in plan and is divided into a central nave and side aisles by 28 octagonal columns with plain bracket capitals. In the apsidal end of the chaitya hall is a stupa on the face of which a colossal high seated Buddha in vyakhyana mudra (teaching posture). A large Bodhi tree is carved at his back. The hall has a vaulted roof in which ribs (known as triforium) have been carved in the rock imitating the wooden ones. The friezes above the pillars are Naga queens, and the extensive relief artwork shows characters such as entertainers, dancers and musicians.

The front of the prayer hall is a rock-cut court entered via a flight of steps. The entrance of the Cave has a carved facade decorated with numerous Indian motifs including apsaras and meditating monks. On either side of the upper level are pillared porticos with small rooms in their back walls. The pillared verandah of the chaitya has a small shrine at either end and a single cell in the far end of the back wall. The corridor columns have massive squared shafts and ghata-pallava (vase and foliage) capitals. The various levels of Cave 10 also feature idols of male and female deities, such as Maitreya, Tara, Avalokitesvara (Vajradhamma), Manjusri, Bhrkuti, and Mahamayuri, carved in the Pala dynasty style found in eastern regions of India. Some southern Indian influences can also be found in various works in this cave.

The Jain monuments: Caves 30–34
At the north end of Ellora are the five Jain caves belonging to the Digambara sect, which were excavated in the ninth and early tenth centuries. These caves are smaller than the Buddhist and Hindu caves but nonetheless feature highly detailed carvings. They, and the later-era Hindu caves, were built at a similar time and both share architectural and devotional ideas such as a pillared veranda, symmetric mandapa and puja (worship). However, unlike the Hindu temples, emphasis is placed on the depiction of the twenty-four Jinas (spiritual conquerors who have gained liberation from the endless cycle of rebirths). In addition to these Jinas, the works at the Jain temples include carvings of gods and goddesses, yaksa (male nature deity), yaksi (female nature deity) and human devotees prevalent in Jain mythology of 1st millennium CE.

According to Jose Pereira, the five caves were actually 23 distinct excavations, over different periods. A 13 of these are in Indra Sabha, 6 in Jagannatha Sabha and rest in the Chhota Kailash. Pareira used numerous sources to conclude that the Jain caves at Ellora likely began in the late 8th century, with construction and excavation activity extending beyond the 10th century and into the 13th century before coming to a halt with the invasion of the region by the Delhi Sultanate. This is evidenced by votive inscriptions dated to 1235 CE, where the donor states to have "converted Charanadri into a holy tirtha" for Jains by gifting the excavation of lordly Jinas.

Particularly important Jain shrines are the Chhota Kailash (cave 30, 4 excavations), the Indra Sabha (cave 32, 13 excavations) and the Jagannath Sabha (cave 33, 4 excavations); cave 31 is an unfinished four-pillared hall, and shrine. Cave 34 is a small cave, which can be accessed through an opening in the left side of Cave 33.

The Jain caves contain some of the earliest Samavasarana images among its devotional carvings. The Samavasarana is of particular importance to Jains being the hall where the Tirthankara preaches after attaining Kevala Jnana (liberating omniscience). Another interesting feature found in these caves is the pairing of sacred figures in Jainism, specifically Parsvanatha and Bahubali, which appear 19 times. Other artworks of significance include those of deities Sarasvati, Sri, Saudharmendra, Sarvanubhuti, Gomukha, Ambika, Cakresvari, Padmavati, Ksetrapala and Hanuman.

Chhota Kailasha: Cave 30
The Chhota Kailasha, or the little Kailasha, is so named due to the similarity of the carvings to those in the Kailasha temple. This temple was likely built in the early 9th century, concurrent with the construction of the lower level of the Indra Sabha, some decades after the completion of the Kailasha Temple. It features two larger-than-life size reliefs of dancing Indra, one with eight arms and another with twelve, both adorned with ornaments and a crown; Indra's arms are shown in various mudra reminiscent of the dancing Shiva artworks found in nearby Hindu caves. However, the iconography has several differences that indicate this cave shows a dancing Indra and not a dancing Shiva. The Indra panels at the entrance also feature other deities, celestials, musicians and dancers.

Art historian Lisa Owen has raised questions concerning whether music and dance were part of 9th-century Jainism, given that Jain theology focuses on meditative asceticism. Rajan, for example, has proposed that Cave 30 May have originally been a Hindu monument that was later converted into a Jain temple. However, Owen suggests that the celebration-filled artwork in this temple is better understood as part of the Samavasarana doctrine in Jainism.

The overlap between Jain and Hindu mythologies has caused confusion, given Book Three of the Hindu Mahabharata describes Indra's abode as one filled with a variety of heroes, courtesans, and artisans, within a paradise-like setting. This imagery is repeated throughout Cave 30, similar to the Hindu caves, setting the context of the temple. However, the symbolism closer to the centre of the temple is more aligned with the core ideas of Jainism; a greater prevalence of meditating images and Jinas – the place where the Jain devotee would perform his or her ritual abhisheka (worship).

Cave 31
Cave 31, consisting of four pillars, a small shrine a number of carvings, was not completed. Carvings of Parshvanatha, guarded by yaksha Dharanendra with his 7 hoods, and Gommateshvara were made into the left and right walls of the hall, respectively, while within the shrine resides an idol of Vardhamana Mahavir Swami. The idol is seated in a padmasan position on a lion-throne and a chakra is seen in the middle panel of the throne. The figure of yaksha Matanga on an elephant is on the left side of shrine while one of yakshi Siddhaiki, seated in savya-lalitasana on a lion with a child on her lap, is on the right.

The Indra Sabha: Cave 32

The Indra Sabha (Cave 32), excavated in the 9th century, is a two-storey cave with a monolithic shrine in its court. 19th-century historians confused the Jain Yaksas for alternate images of Indra that were found in Buddhist and Hindu artworks, thus leading to the temple being given the misnomer "Indra Sabha". Indra is an important deity in all three major religions, but is of particular importance in Jainism as not only is he one of 64 deities who reign over the heavens, he is, specifically, the king of the first Jain heaven, Saudharmakalpa, and the chief architect of the celestial assembly hall according to the Adipurana, a Jain holy text.

The Indra Sabha Jain temple is historically significant as it contains evidence, in the form of layered deposits and textual records, of active worship inside by the Jain community. In particular, rituals were known to have been held in the upper level, where the artwork may have played a central role.

As with many caves in Ellora, numerous carvings adorn the temple, such as those of the lotus flower on the ceiling. On the upper level of the shrine, excavated at the rear of the court, is an image of Ambika, the yakshini of Neminath, seated on her lion under a mango tree, laden with fruit. The centre of the shrine presents Sarvatobhadra, where four Tirthankaras of Jainism – Rshibha (1st), Neminatha (22nd), Parsvanatha (23rd) and Mahavira (24th) are aligned to the cardinal directions, forming a place of worship for devotees.

The Jagannatha Sabha: Cave 33

The Jagannatha Sabha (Cave 33) is the second-largest Jain cave at Ellora and dates to the 9th century according to the inscriptions on the pillars. It is a two-storeyed cave with twelve massive pillars and elephant heads projecting towards a porch, all carved from a single rock. The hall has two heavy square pillars in front, four in the middle area, and a pillared interior square principal hall with fluted shafts, all intricately carved with capitals, ridges and brackets. Inside the major idols are of Parshvanatha and Mahavira, the last two Tirthankaras in Jainism.

Cave 34

Certain inscriptions in Cave 34, or J26 according to historian José Pereira, are not deciphered as yet but were likely to have been executed between 800 and 850 CE. Other inscriptions, such as the one by Sri Nagavarma, are thought to date from the 9th or 10th century.

This cave features a large seated Parshvanatha Jina with four camara attendants, two of whom hold fly-whisks and seemingly emerge from the back of the Jina's throne. As with many other Jain excavations, a large pair of yaksa-yaksi is also found in this cave near the Jina. In the back of the cave is a bearded figure with a bowl containing round sacrificial offerings, which have shapes reminiscent of pindas (rice balls) or laddus (sweetmeat). This suggests the scene may be related to Jain devotional worship, possibly a shraddha ceremony. The Parshvanatha in the cave is paired with a standing Gommateshvara, and accompanied by other carvings showing musicians playing a variety of instruments such as horns, drums, conchs, trumpets, and cymbals. A particularly notable feature of the cave is a giant, open lotus carving on its ceiling and rooftop, which is found in only one other Jain excavation and one Hindu Cave 25 in all of Ellora. The placement of the lotus on the cave rather than a sculpture symbolizes that the temple is a divine place.

Rock carved image of Lord Parshvanath

On the hill to the northeast of the main complex of caves is a Jain temple containing a 16 ft rock-carved image of Lord Parshvanath from the Rashtrakuta period with an inscription dated 1234 A.D. The well-preserved image is flanked by Dharaıendra and Padmavati. The inscription mentions the site as Charana Hill, a holy site. It is still in active worship and thus not protected by the ASI. Six hundred steps must be climbed to reach it. It is managed by a Jain Gurukul in the village.

Visitors, desecration and damage
There have been several records written in the centuries following their completion indicating that these caves were visited regularly, particularly as it was within sight of a trade route; for example, Ellora was known to have been frequented by Buddhist monks in the 9th and 10th centuries. It is mistakenly referred to by the 10th-century Baghdad resident Al-Mas‘udi as "Aladra", site of a great temple, a place of Indian pilgrimage and one with thousands of cells where devotees live; in 1352 CE, the records of Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah mention him camping at the site. Other records were written by Firishta, Thevenot (1633–67), Niccolao Manucci (1653–1708), Charles Warre Malet (1794), and Seely (1824). Some accounts acknowledge the importance of Ellora but make inaccurate statements regarding its construction; for example, a description of the caves by Venetian traveller Niccolao Manucci, whose Mughal history was well received in France, wrote that the Ellora caves "...were executed by the ancient Chinese" based on his assessment of the workmanship and what he had been told. Ellora was a well-known site in Mughal times: the emperor Aurangzeb used to picnic there with his family, as did other Mughal nobles. Mustaid Khan, a courtier of Aurangzeb, stated that people visited the area in all seasons but especially during the monsoon. He also spoke of "many kinds of images with lifelike forms" carved on all the ceilings and walls, but noted that the monuments themselves were in a state of "desolation in spite of its strong foundations."

The Lilacharitra, a Marathi text dated to the late 13th century CE, is the first report stating that active use of Ellora ceased in the 13th century. Islamic court records indicated that Deogiri, the capital of the Yadava dynasty, and about 10 kilometres from Ellora, had come under sustained attack during this period and subsequently fell to the Delhi Sultanate in 1294 CE. According to José Pereira, there is evidence that work in the Jain caves at Ellora had flourished under Singhana, who ruled the Yadava dynasty between ~1200 and 1247 CE, and these caves were in use by Jain visitors and worshippers into the 13th century. However, Jain religious activity ceased after the region came under Islamic rule in the late 13th century.

The Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain monuments at Ellora show substantial damage, particularly to the idols, whereas intricate carvings on the pillars, and of natural objects on the walls, remain intact. The desecration of idols and images was traced to the 15th to 17th centuries when this region of the Deccan peninsula was subjected to iconoclasm by Muslim armies. According to Geri Malandra, such devastation by Muslims stemmed from the perceived offense caused by "the graphic, anthropomorphic imagery of Hindu and Buddhist shrines". Muslim historians of the Islamic Sultanate period mention Ellora in their descriptions of the widespread damage and fanatical destruction of idols and artwork of the region, with some Muslims of this era being known to have expressed concern regarding the wanton damage and "deplored it as a violation of beauty", according to Carl Ernst.

Ellora inscriptions
Several inscriptions at Ellora date from the 6th century onwards, the best known of which is an inscription by Rashtrakuta Dantidurga (c. 753–757 CE) on the back wall of the front mandapa of Cave 15 stating that he had offered prayers at that temple. Jagannatha Sabha, Jain cave 33, has 3 inscriptions that give the names of monks and donors, while a Parshvanath temple on the hill has a 1247 CE inscription that gives the name of a donor from Vardhanapura.

The Great Kailasa temple (Cave 16) is attributed to Krishna I (c. 757–783 CE), the successor and uncle of Dantidurga. A copper plate inscription found in Baroda, Gujarat, states that a great edifice was built on a hill by Krishnaraja at Elapura (Ellora):

"...was caused to be constructed a temple on the hill at Elapura, of wonderful structure, on seeing which the best of immortals who move in celestial cars, struck with astonishment, say 'This temple of Shiva is self-existent; in a thing made by art such beauty is not seen (...). The architect builder of which (...) was himself suddenly struck with astonishment, saying 'Oh, how was it that I built it!'"

Painted carvings and paintings
The carvings at Ellora were at one time profusely painted. The rock was covered with a lime plaster which was painted. The plaster and the paint has survived in places.

In popular culture
The famous Bengali filmmaker (and author) Satyajit Ray wrote the crime thriller novel Kailashey Kelenkari in 1974, featuring fictional detective Feluda. In the novel, Feluda travels to the Ellora caves to uncover a smuggling racket involving illegal trade of historical artifacts from Indian temples, including the largest cave at Ellora, the Kailasa Temple. Satyajit's son Sandip Ray adapted the novel into a movie of the same name in 2007.

In Art and Literature
Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1832 contains a plate of 'Skeletal Group in the Ramedwur, Caves of Ellora, supposed to represent the nuptials of Siva and Parvati' by George Cattermole, engraved by W. Kelsall, accompanied by a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon paraphrased from a translation from the Siva-Pooraun. This is from cave 21.

title: Ellora Caves


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Bertincourt

Bertincourt is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Hauts-de-France region in northern France.

Geography
Bertincourt is a farming village located 22 miles (36 km) southeast of Arras at the junction of the D7, D18 and D19 roads.

Sights

 * The church of Notre-Dame, rebuilt, like most of the village, after the ravages of World War I.
 * The World War I cemetery.

title: Bertincourt


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Rajdhani Express

The Rajdhani Express (lit. 'Capital Express') is a series of passenger train services in India operated by Indian Railways connecting the national capital New Delhi with the capitals or the largest cities of various states. Rajdhani, derived from the Sanskrit means "capital". Introduced in 1969, the trains are amongst the premium services operated by Indian Railways and regularly get a higher priority on the railway network.

History
In 1960, the Railway Board of India commissioned a study to increase the speed of its trains, which was restricted to 96 km/h on the existent broad gauge lines. A target of 160 km/h with an intermediate stage of 120 km/h was set for passenger trains. Research Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO) started work on the same in 1962 with field trials commencing in 1967. The coaches were manufactured by the Integral Coach Factory at Madras and hauled by diesel locomotives.

On 19 February 1969, the Government of India introduced a new express train capable of reaching speeds of up to 120 km/h as announced in the railway budget. On 1 March 1969, the first Rajdhani Express with nine coaches was flagged off from New Delhi to Howrah with the return journey commencing on 3 March. The train completed the 1450 km trip in 17 hours 20 minutes and was the only such train in operation till 1972, when the second Rajdhani was introduced from Mumbai.

Rajdhani, derived from the Sanskrit means "capital" and later, with subsequent up-gradation of the tracks, new Rajdhani expresses were introduced connecting major cities with the capital New Delhi.

Rake
Rajdhani trains have fully air-conditioned coaches that have to be reserved in advance. While the trains initially had chair car coaches, now the trains exclusively have sleeper coaches in three configurations: first class, two-tier and three-tier. The first class has dedicated coupes, two-tier with open bays containing six berths per bay (four berths in two tiers and two on the side of the aisle) with curtains and three-tier with open bays containing eight berths per bay (six berths in two tiers and two berths on the side of the aisle). The coaches were exclusively manufactured by Integral Coach Factory at Chennai till 2006, when LHB coaches manufactured by Rail Coach Factory, Kapurthala were introduced. , each train-set costs inr 750000000. While the trains are capable of running at higher speeds, the maximum speed is often limited to 130 km/h with the fastest Rajdhani permitted to reach a maximum speed of 130 km/h and average speeds being much lesser due to traffic congestion and lack of supporting tracks. The Rajdhani express trains are usually hauled by WAP-7 electric locomotives.

Tejas-Rajdhani express
In July 2021, Indian railways started upgrading the coaches of Rajdhani express to new Tejas coaches with enhanced features. These coaches are equipped with newer air suspensions, bio-toilets, Wi-Fi, fire alarms, CCTVs, reading lights, dedicated power sockets, automatic doors, passenger information system, improved interior and designed exterior. The trains which are equipped with all new coaches are known as "Tejas Rajdhani" express. Indian Railways plans to introduce Tejas coaches across all Rajdhani trains in a phased manner.

Services
The trains are amongst the premium services operated by Indian Railways and regularly gets a higher priority on the railway network. Passengers are served optional meals by Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC), the menu of which could include morning tea, breakfast, lunch, high tea and dinner depending on the duration and timing. These trains have fewer halts than other express trains with stoppages only at prominent stations. Dynamic pricing is applicable on fares across all Rajdhani trains.

Operational trains
There are currently 25 operational pairs of Rajdhani express including seven with Tejas coaches:

Accidents and incidents

 * On 9 September 2002, At least 140 people were killed when the Sealdah-New Delhi Rajdhani derailed near Rafiganj, Bihar due to sabotage by Naxalites.
 * On 27 October 2009, Bhubaneswar Rajdhani Express was hijacked by hundreds of armed activists of the Maoist-backed People's Committee against Police Atrocities (PCPA) who forced the train to stop at Banshtala near Jhargram in West Midnapore district of West Bengal and demanded the release of Chhatradhar Mahato. The Maoists fled on the arrival of Central Reserve Police Force and all passengers were rescued without any casualties.
 * On 18 April 2011, three coaches of Mumbai Rajdhani Express caught fire, including the pantry car 2:20 hrs at Thuriya near Ratlam in Madhya Pradesh. Three coaches were written off but there were no casualties.
 * On 25 June 2014, at least four passengers were killed and eight injured when the Dibrugarh Rajdhani Express derailed at Goldin Ganj near Chhapra, Bihar in suspected sabotage by Maoists.
 * On 7 September 2017, Ranchi Rajdhani Express derailed at New Delhi railway station and no one was injured in the incident.
 * On 14 September 2017, Jammu Tawi Rajdhani Express derailed at the New Delhi railway station when entering the platform and no one was injured.
 * On 18 October 2018, two coaches of Thiruvananthapuram Rajdhani Express derailed at the staffed level crossing near Ratlam in Madhya Pradesh when a speeding truck collided with train due to brake failure. There were no injuries to the passengers in the train but the truck driver was killed due to the collision and the train continued the journey after delay of seven hours.
 * On 3 April 2019, two coaches of Bhubaneswar Rajdhani Express uncoupled on the Kathajodi river bridge near Cuttack in Odisha. The train was halted and there was no casualties.
 * On 11 May 2019, a fire broke out at the generator car of Bhubaneswar Rajdhani near Balasore in Odisha. There were no casualties and the train continued its journey after a delay of two hours.

In popular culture
Being one of the most popular trains in India, the train's name featured as a title of a Bollywood movie, Rajdhani Express.

title: Rajdhani Express


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Billy-Berclau

Billy-Berclau (Bili-Bérclo) is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Hauts-de-France region in northern France.

Geography
A small town 10 mi east of Béthune and 12 mi southwest of Lille, at the junction of the D163 and N47 roads. It is situated at the junction of the Canal de la Deûle and the Canal d'Aire. Light industry and a little farming have replaced the coal mining of the past.

History
The town was completely destroyed during World War I. On 27 March 2003, an explosion at the dynamite factory killed four people.

Sights

 * The church of Notre-Dame, rebuilt, as was most of the town, after World War I
 * The remains of a Prévôté building (once belonging to an abbey)
 * The Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery
 * A German World War I cemetery

title: Billy-Berclau


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Polish–Russian War of 1792

The Polish–Russian War of 1792 (also, War of the Second Partition, and in Polish sources, War in Defence of the Constitution ) was fought between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth on one side, and the Targowica Confederation (conservative nobility of the Commonwealth opposed to the new Constitution of 3 May 1791) and the Russian Empire under Catherine the Great on the other.

The war took place in two theaters: a northern in Lithuania and a southern in what is now Ukraine. In both, the Polish forces retreated before the numerically superior Russian forces, though they offered significantly more resistance in the south, thanks to the effective leadership of Polish commanders Prince Józef Poniatowski and Tadeusz Kościuszko. During the three-month-long struggle several battles were fought, but no side scored a decisive victory. The largest success of the Polish forces was the defeat of one of the Russian formations at the Battle of Zieleńce on 18 June; in the aftermath of the battle the Polish highest military award, Virtuti Militari, was established. The Russians' greatest success in this war was the Battle of Mir on 11 June (O.S. 31 May). The war ended when the Polish King Stanisław August Poniatowski decided to seek a diplomatic solution, asked for a ceasefire with the Russians and joined the Targowica Confederation, as demanded by the Russian Empire.

Decline of the Commonwealth
By the early 18th century, the magnates of Poland and Lithuania controlled the state – or rather, they managed to ensure that no reforms would be carried out that might weaken their privileged status (the "Golden Freedoms"). Through the abuse of the liberum veto rule which enabled any deputy to paralyze the Sejm (Commonwealth's parliament) proceedings, deputies bribed by magnates or foreign powers or those simply content to believe they were living in an unprecedented "Golden Age", paralysed the Commonwealth's government for over a century.

The idea of reforming the Commonwealth gained traction from the mid-17th century; it was however viewed with suspicion not only by its magnates but also by neighboring countries, which had been content with the deterioration of the Commonwealth and abhorred the thought of a resurgent and democratic power on their borders. With the Commonwealth Army reduced to around 16,000, it was easy for its neighbors to intervene directly (The Imperial Russian Army numbered 300,000 troops overall; The Prussian Army and Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Empire, 200,000 each).

Attempts at reform
A major opportunity for reform presented itself during the "Great Sejm" of 1788–92. Poland's neighbors were preoccupied with wars and unable to intervene forcibly in Polish affairs. The Russian Empire and Archduchy of Austria were engaged in hostilities with the Ottoman Empire (the Russo-Turkish War, 1787–1792 and the Austro-Turkish War, 1787–1791); the Russians also found themselves simultaneously fighting in the Russo-Swedish War, 1788–1790. A new alliance between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Prussia seeming to provide security against Russian intervention, and on 3 May 1791 the new constitution was read and adopted to overwhelming popular support.

With the wars between Turkey and Russia and Sweden and Russia having ended, Tsarina Catherine was furious over the adoption of the document, which she believed threatened Russian influence in Poland. Russia had viewed Poland as a de facto protectorate. "The worst possible news have arrived from Warsaw: the Polish king has become almost sovereign" was the reaction of one of Russia's chief foreign policy authors, Alexander Bezborodko, when he learned of the new constitution. The Kingdom of Prussia was also strongly opposed to the new Polish constitution, and Polish diplomats received a note that the new constitution changed the Polish state so much that Prussia did not consider its obligations binding. Just like Russia, Prussia was concerned that the newly strengthened Polish state could become a threat and the Prussian Foreign Minister, Friedrich Wilhelm von Schulenburg-Kehnert, clearly and with rare candor told Poles that Prussia did not support the constitution and refused to help the Commonwealth in any form, even as a mediator, as it was not in Prussia's interest to see the Commonwealth strengthened so that it could threaten Prussia in some future. The Prussian statesman Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg expressed the fears of European conservatives: "The Poles have given the coup de grâce to the Prussian monarchy by voting a constitution", elaborating that a strong Commonwealth would likely demand the return of the lands Prussia acquired in the First Partition.

The Constitution was not adopted without dissent in the Commonwealth itself, either. Magnates who had opposed the constitution draft from the start, namely Franciszek Ksawery Branicki, Stanisław Szczęsny Potocki, Seweryn Rzewuski, and Szymon and Józef Kossakowski, asked Tsarina Catherine to intervene and restore their privileges such as the Russian-guaranteed Cardinal Laws abolished under the new statute. To that end these magnates formed the Targowica Confederation. The Confederation's proclamation, prepared in Saint Petersburg in January 1792, criticized the constitution for contributing to, in their own words, "contagion of democratic ideas" following "the fatal examples set in Paris". It asserted that "The parliament ... has broken all fundamental laws, swept away all liberties of the gentry and on the third of May 1791 turned into a revolution and a conspiracy." The Confederates declared an intention to overcome this revolution. We "can do nothing but turn trustingly to Tsarina Catherine, a distinguished and fair empress, our neighboring friend and ally", who "respects the nation's need for well-being and always offers it a helping hand", they wrote. The Confederates aligned with Tsarina Catherine and asked her for military intervention. On 18 May 1792, the Russian ambassador to Poland, Yakov Bulgakov, delivered a declaration of war to the Polish Foreign Minister Joachim Chreptowicz. Russian armies entered Poland and Lithuania on the same day, starting the war.

Opposing forces
The Russian army numbered nearly 98,000. It was commanded by generals-in-chief Mikhail Krechetnikov and Mikhail Kakhovsky. The Russians also had an advantage in combat experience. The Russian plan called for Kakhovsky to advance through Ukraine, taking Kamieniec Podolski, Chełm and Lublin, and approach Polish capital of Warsaw from the south. Krechetnikov was to advance through Minsk, Wilno, Brześć Litewski and Białystok, and approach Warsaw from the north, where he was to link with Kakhovsky. Whereas the Russians had good intelligence network in Poland, and were mostly aware of Polish army distribution and strength; the Poles had much less intelligence, receiving contradictory and often erroneous reports, and unsure whether the war would even start up to the point the Russian troops crossed the border.

Stanisław August Poniatowski, King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was the commander-in-chief of the Polish forces, but in practice he delegated this position to his nephew, Prince Józef Poniatowski. Poniatowski had in theory at his disposal a 48,000 strong Crown army and the Lithuanian army more than half that size to confront them. In practice, Polish forces, still forming following the reforms of the Constitution of 3 May (which specified an army size of 100,000) numbered only 37,000. The army was reorganizing, with key documents on unit numbers and composition passed as recently as in April; it was also short on equipment and experienced personnel.

In the southeast corner of the country – the Ukrainian lands – the Polish forces were initially concentrated separately in three regions of the expected front, under Tadeusz Kościuszko, Michał Wielhorski and Prince Poniatowski herself. The Polish Crown army in Ukraine, led by Prince Poniatowski, and supported by Kościuszko, was about 17,000, 21,000 or 24,000 strong (Derdej distinguishes between the primary force of 17,000 and Prince Michał Lubomirski's reserve division, of 4,500 ). In the southeastern war theater, they faced a nearly four times larger enemy army under General Mikhail Kakhovsky, who had about 64,000 men under his command. Kakhovsky's forces were divided into four corps: 1st, 18,000 strong, under the command of General Mikhail Golenishchev-Kutuzov, 2nd, under General Ivan Dunin, 3rd, under General Wilhelm Derfelden, and 4th, under General Andrei Levanidov. The Targowica Confederates did not represent any real strength; and their attempts to gather popular support in Poland upon crossing borders failed miserably, with only few dozens joining at first; later the number would grow but not significantly, and even the Russians saw them as not having any military value, keeping them from the frontlines.

In Lithuania, the Commonwealth Lithuanian Army numbered about 15,000, with an additional Crown detachment of about 3,000. They were commanded by Duke Louis of Württemberg. Württemberg made no plans for the war, and the troops were not readied for action by the time the war started. The Russian army in that theatre under General Mikhail Krechetnikov was 33,700 strong or 38,000 strong. The Russian army was also divided into four corps: 1st under one of Targowica Confederate leaders, Szymon Kossakowski 7,300 strong, 2nd under General Boris Mellin, 7,000 strong, 3rd under General Yuri Dolgorukov, 15,400 strong, and 4th under General Ivan Fersen, 8,300 strong.

Additional Polish forces, about 8,000 strong, were to concentrate in Warsaw under the command of King Poniatowski as a reserve.

Tadeusz Kościuszko proposed a plan where the entire Polish army would be concentrated and would engage one of the Russian armies, to assure numerical parity and to boost the morale of mostly inexperienced Polish forces with a quick victory; this plan was however rejected by Prince Poniatowski. (Only a few months before, however, both commanders had the opposite idea – Poniatowski wanted the troops concentrated, and Kościuszko, dispersed). Poniatowski also planned to avoid serious engagements in the first phase of the war, hoping to receive the expected Prussian reinforcements of 30,000 which would bring parity to the two sides.

Southern theater
The first Russian forces crossed the border in Ukraine on the night of 18/19 May 1792. The Russians in that theater would encounter significantly more resistance than they expected, as Commonwealth's top commanders, Prince Poniatowski and Kościuszko were stationed there. Kościuszko joined Prince Poniatowski near Janów on 29 May. The Crown Army was judged too weak to oppose the four columns of enemy armies advancing into West Ukraine and began a fighting withdrawal to the western side of the Southern Bug River, towards Lubar and Połonne, with Kośiuszko commanding the rear guard. Poniatowski, in the face of significant numerical inferiority of his forces, and promised reinforcements by King Poniatowski, decided to abandon Ukraine and move to Volhynia, where Połonne was to be fortified as a major defensive point, and where Lubomirski was tasked with gathering supplies.

On 14 June Wielhorski's unit was defeated at the Battle of Boruszkowce. On 17 June Poniatowski finally received awaited reinforcements, about 2,000 troops led by Michał Lubomirski. Next day the Poles, led by Prince Poniatowski, defeated one of the Russian formations of general Irakly Morkov at the Battle of Zieleńce on 18 June. The victory was celebrated by King Poniatowski, who sent the new Virtuti Militari medals for the campaign leaders and soldiers, as "the first since John III Sobieski".

The Russian forces, however, kept advancing. Under the command of Józef Poniatowski, the Polish army retreated in good order, yielding to the more powerful enemy as necessary to avoid annihilation. In early July, near Dubno, Prince Poniatowski and Kościuszko were betrayed by Michał Lubomirski, who was tasked with King Poniatowski with resupplying the troops; instead Lubomirski joined the Russian side and either hid the supplies for the Polish army, or outright passed them to the Russians. Lubomirski, however, was a powerful magnate, and it took until late May for the King officially to relieve him of his command. Within about a month of the Russian invasion, the Poles had mostly retreated from Ukraine. On 7 July Kościuszko's forces fought a delaying battle with the Russians at Volodymyr-Volynskyi (Battle of Włodzimierz). Meanwhile, Poniatowski's army retreated to the Bug River, where Kościuszko's units on 18 July fought the Battle of Dubienka, which was a draw. With about 5,300 troops Kościuszko defeated the attack of 25,000 Russians under General Mikhail Kakhovsky. Kośicuszko then had to retreat from Dubienka, as the Russians begun flanking his positions crossing the nearby Austrian border. Although the Poles had to retreat from the Bug River line, they were not defeated so far, and a decisive battle or battles at more favorable locations closer to Warsaw were expected.

Northern theater
In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania the Russians crossed the Commonwealth border four days later than in the south, on 22 May. Poland's ally, the Kingdom of Prussia, broke its alliance with Poland and the Prussian commander of the Lithuanian army, Duke Württemberg, betrayed the Polish-Lithuanian cause by refusing to fight the Russians. He never reached the frontlines, feigned illness in Wołczyn, and issued contradictory orders to his troops.

Thus the Army of Lithuania did little to oppose the advancing Russians, and kept withdrawing before their advance. Minsk was abandoned, after some skirmishes, on 31 May. Only after a change of commander on 4 June, did the Army, now under General Józef Judycki, try to stand and fight the Russians. The Russians however defeated Judycki at the Battle of Mir on 11 June and kept advancing through the Grand Duchy. The Commonwealth army retreated towards Grodno. On 14 June the Russians took Wilno, after only a small skirmish with local garrison; on 19 June, incompetently defended Nieśwież; and on 20 June, Kaunas, this time without any opposition. Judycki, disgraced, was replaced by Michał Zabiełło on 23 June. Nonetheless, since Mir, no decisive engagements occurred in the northern theater, as Polish army withdrew in relative order towards Warsaw, after minor defeat at Zelva, eventually taking defensive positions along the Bug river near Brest. Russians took Grodno on 5 July and Białystok on 17 July. On 23 July the Russians took Brest, defeating the local garrison, but on 24 they were defeated near Krzemień-Wieś; this last battle was the first significant Commonwealth victory on the northern front.

War ends
While Prince Poniatowski and Kościuszko considered the outcome of the war still open and were planning to use the combined Polish-Lithuanian forces to defeat the still separate Russian forces, King Poniatowski, with the consent of the Guardians of the Laws (cabinet of ministers) decided to ask for a ceasefire. Tsarina Catherine demanded that King Poniatowski join the pro-Russian aristocratic faction, the Targowica Confederation; with his cabinet split, he gave in to her demand around 22–23 July, which effectively forced Prince Poniatowski to terminate military resistance. The last military confrontation of the war was fought on 26 July at Markuszów in Lublin province, where an enemy attack was repelled by Polish cavalry led by Poniatowski.

At the time King Poniatowski decided to sue for peace, the Polish army was still in a good fighting condition not having suffered from any major defeat nor lack of supplies. King Poniatowski thought that due to Russian numerical superiority defeat was nonetheless imminent, and more could be gained through negotiations with the Russians, with whom he hoped a new alliance could be formed. Although subsequent events would prove him wrong, the question of whether this could have been foreseen, and prevented through continued military resistance, has been subject to much debate among historians.

The Polish military was widely dissatisfied with the ceasefire; Kościuszko, Prince Poniatowski and many others would criticize the King's decision and many, including Kościuszko, would resign their commission in the coming weeks. Prince Poniatowski even considered rebelling against his uncle's orders, and even issued orders to bring the King to the army's camp by force if necessary, as was postulated by the more radical faction. Ultimately he decided not to continue fighting against his uncle's will, and the order was rescinded at the last moment before the departure of the group charged with capturing the King.

Aftermath
Most Polish historians agree that the Polish capitulation was a mistake both from the military perspective, and the political one. In the realm of military, the Poles had reasonable chances to defend the Vistula river line, and exhaust the Russian invading forces. From the political one, showing a willingness to fight could have persuaded the partitioning powers that their plan was too costly.

King Poniatowski's hopes that the capitulation would allow an acceptable diplomatic solution to be worked out were soon dashed. With new deputies bribed or intimidated by the Russian troops, a new session of parliament, known as the Grodno Sejm, took place in fall 1793. On 23 November 1793, it concluded its deliberations under duress, annulling the constitution and acceding to the Second Partition. Russia took 250000 km2 of the Commonwealth's territory, while Prussia took 58000 km2. This event reduced Poland's population to a third of what it was before the First Partition. The rump state was garrisoned by Russian troops and its independence was strongly curtailed.

This outcome came as a surprise to most of the Targowica Confederates, who had wished only to restore the status quo ante bellum (Commonwealth magnate-favoring Golden Freedoms) and had expected that the overthrow of the 3 May Constitution would achieve that end, and nothing more. The last bid to restore the reformed Commonwealth came with the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794. The uprising failed and resulted in the Third Partition in 1795, in which the country lost all its remaining territories and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

title: Polish–Russian War of 1792


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Billy-Montigny

Billy-Montigny (Bili-Montini) is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Hauts-de-France region in northern France.

Geography
An ex-coalmining industrial town situated just 4 mi east of the centre of Lens at the junction of the N43 and D46 roads. The coal lasted just over 100 years, the last pits closing in the 1960s.

Sights

 * The church of St. Martin, dating from the nineteenth century.
 * The Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery.

History
The history of the area remains marked by the Courrières mine disaster which resulted in 1,099 casualties on 10 March 1906 in the area of the communes of Billy-Montigny, Méricourt and Sallaumines.

Personalities

 * Georges Lech and Bernard Lech, footballers
 * ZywOo, professional Counter-Strike player

International relations
The commune is twinned with:
 * 🇵🇱 Trzebinia, Poland
 * 🇮🇹 Reggello, Italy
 * 🇩🇪 Bonen, Germany

title: Billy-Montigny