text:
Talk:Fathers' rights movement

Requested move 13 May 2019

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Not moved. There are significant concerns about the scope and coherence of a more general article — Martin (MSGJ · talk) 20:23, 21 May 2019 (UTC)

Fathers' rights movement → Fathers' rights – This page move will allow a broader overall scope, and create parity with the topic Mothers' rights and the other "rights by beneficiary" listed on Rights. The main focus of the article (#Main issues) describes several concepts related to father's rights, but discussion of the "movement" is quite vague and in most cases should be attributed to specific, named organizations - not to a broad "movement". To demonstrate the potential broader scope, note that Google Scholar shows 6000+ results for "father's rights", but only 980 for "father's rights movement". That's a lot of reliable sources to be leaving out, just because this title is limiting. A general cleanup is necessary, and this move will provide a better foundation for it. -- Netoholic @ 06:31, 13 May 2019 (UTC)

 * Oppose. The concept of "fathers' rights", as understood in contemporary society, is directly linked with this specific social/advocacy organized movement. You don't have to achieve "parity" with the Mothers' rights article, because there is no contemporary corresponding mothers' rights movment similar to the father's right movement. There is also no need to "allow a broader overall scope", because there are numerous articles that deal with that (plenty of articles on child custody, family law, parental rights, and obviously the main father article). This article is far from perfect, but changing its title is not the answer to the article's problems. 2A02:2F01:53FF:FFFF:0:0:6465:5B2B (talk)
 * In several places in this article, it references the "movement" but the sources are actually pointing to statements from specific organizations. I can find nothing in this article that supports that the list of specific rights issues (#Main issues) is dependent on any cohesive "movement". Certainly, mothers have legal rights which exist independent of woman's organizations or movements, so do fathers have legal rights that are not connected such either. Frankly, if this move doesn't go thru, this article will inevitably have to split.  Perhaps if you feel strongly, since the bulk of this article is meant to be about specific rights, support this move and then make a new article at this current title which gives details about the movement itself - its origins, who runs it, or whatever other details you thi[nk are relevant - but I think what you'll find is that such content is already present in the men's rights movement article. -- Netoholic @  19:20, 13 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Support per nom, common name, brevity, and the fact that Father's rights already directs here. Removing the word 'movement' (the 1954-1968 Civil Rights Movement was a movement, this one is an advocacy concept) seems to provide a better and more encompassing descriptor. Randy Kryn (talk) 19:53, 13 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose..Contrary to the arguments made above, we do not make decisions about titles based on googlehits, most especially when one term is contained in the other. We look at the high quality sources, and the sources for topic show that the "father's rights" described in this article are made almost exclusively by members of the FRM and men's rights movement- principally in the West.  Whole books have been written about the FR movement and the rights they claim (for example, and there are also a myriad of scholarly articles on the movement and its goals. . Remember too that a Wikipedia article on the subject of "fathers' rights" would need to be global in scope, and the focus would need to be how in many countries around the world at present (and indeed historically in the West), fathers have/had more "rights" than mothers in issues such as custody, child support etc.. Slp1 (talk) 20:45, 13 May 2019 (UTC)
 * - if the men's rights movement is principally in the West as you state, then how does keeping this article at its present name allow us to present the global scope on father's rights that you are asking for? I am after the same goal you are, to allow this article to broaden past its restrictive current title. The only way to satisfy both desire you state would be to split it, in which case since the bulk of this article is "father's rights" not "movements", then this move makes sense also... so that this title can be cleared to start that separate "movements" article. Also your Google Scholar link is misleading, as you didn't use quotes around the search term - 981 results is the real total. -- Netoholic @ 20:55, 13 May 2019 (UTC)
 * I am not seeking a global article about Fathers' rights. It isn't a coherent topic: I don't know of any scholarly books or articles written on that subject. As mentioned, the books/scholarly articles that are available on the topic of "father's rights" frame them within the context of the FRM, and we should do the same. BTW I don't know why you would say that my google search was misleading.  I was not trying to show googlehits - because as I said it is very misleading way to decide on an article title -  I was demonstrating that the FRM is an important scholarly topic.  Slp1 (talk) 21:06, 13 May 2019 (UTC)
 * But the FRM is only a smaller percentage of scholarly attention to father's rights in general. Why would 5000 scholarly works mention "father's rights", but not the "father's rights movement", if what you say was true?  The truth seems to be that there there is not the strong overlap you seem to think there is. This isn't "googlehits" as you call it - these are searches within journals, papers, and books tracked by Google Scholar. -- Netoholic @  21:13, 13 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Thanks, I am aware of the difference between googlescholar and regular old google. The reason why "fathers' rights" gets more hits is, in part, because there are many synonyms that don't include the word "movement": e.g. fathers' rights groups/activists/fathers' group.  For example the first twenty articles in  the googlescholar search fathers' rights includes references to the following terms (only the first one found was counted in each article)
 * "fathers' rights movement" x 5,
 * "fathers' rights groups" x 8 ,
 * "fathers' rights activists" x4.
 * "group of divorced fathers" x 1
 * As well as one article speaks positively of fathers' rights to parental leave in in Nordic Countries, one that argues that an unwed father should not have the right to object to the adoption of his child, and one that argues that fathers have less rights to pass on US citizenship.
 * By far the most common thread are that "fathers' rights" are presented as the concern of this movement, their groups and activists. This is why using googlesearches/hits or whatever is so dangerous when naming articles. You have to read and know the literature and understand what can influence the results.Slp1 (talk) 22:38, 13 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Only looking at the first page probably isn't representative... but I think its obvious that for both fathers and mothers rights that the main "concerns" are vocalized most loudly by the activists. I just don't see how your position justifies the different handling of these parallel sets of articles. -- Netoholic @ 02:05, 14 May 2019 (UTC)

21:33, 31 March 2007 Slp1  talk contribs block   38 bytes +38   moved Fathers' rights to Fathers' rights movement over redirect and this history would of course be overwritten by the proposed move. Andrewa (talk) 18:42, 20 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Weak Oppose - for two reasons... First, I share some of Slp1's concern about whether "fathers' rights" can constitute a coherent topic (without relying entirely on sources related to the fathers' rights movement). Second, the majority of scholarly content about "fathers' rights" is related to the fathers' rights movement (as discussed above). However, this seems to be gradually changing and may be worth revisiting in the future. In general, Wikipedia is conservative with emerging topics and tends to group them under more established topics until they have demonstrated sustained attention on their own. Another example of this is transgender topics. For example, we don't have dedicated articles for "genderfluid" or "agender" (even though they both have over 1000 hits on Google Scholar). Let's revisit this one in a year or two and see where things stand. Kaldari (talk) 17:13, 14 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose – Per IPF6, Slp and Kaldari. I'm not aware of sources that discuss "father's rights" that aren't either discussing the father's rights movement, or written by the father's rights movement. Leviv ich 04:00, 16 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Support There's no coherent single father's rights movement between those who are pro-feminist and those who aren't. The proposed title covers a broader topic encompassing a broader scope. Also per Randy Kryn's points. feminist (talk) 01:57, 18 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Comment: This would reverse a previous (bold I assume) move

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Re-ordering sections
Does the current ordering of sections adhere to a guideline or is it preferable in some understanding of topic representation? I ask because I'm new to more intensive edits, but it strikes me that "demographics" of adherents, in the order of importance for understanding the topic, is below the goals advocated for ("movement") and the main issues ("main issues") discussed.

I propose a simple re-ordering of "demographics" to follow "main issues".

Spirarel (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 00:09, 24 June 2019 (UTC)

Manosphere?
The first journal is paywalled, but the second book definitely never says "fathers' rights movement" is in the manosphere. It says that about MRM (men's rights movements) and MGTOW (men going their own way) but it appears to me that the fathers' rights movement is wider than any of these and not confined to the manosphere. Elizium23 (talk) 05:36, 10 February 2020 (UTC)
 * I have added quote fields to both citations for the benefit of yourself and others who can't access the sources. Both sources support the claim. GorillaWarfare (talk) 06:07, 10 February 2020 (UTC)
 * , OK, it all checks out (of course it would) and I thank you kindly for the willingness to do the ref work to source categories, which is a rare quality around here. Elizium23 (talk) 06:17, 10 February 2020 (UTC)

"Many members did not have experience in law or politics."
"Many members did not have experience in law or politics." - Really? How many members did not have experience in law or politics? Did they not have experience in law, or politics? Did a few have a lot of experience in law, and a little experience in politics? I hope my difficulty with this sentence is apparent. 77.97.36.146 (talk) 01:21, 5 February 2022 (UTC)
 * I agree that this was worded unusually; I have re-phrased and removed this from the article. Hope this helps. —AFreshStart (talk) 13:24, 6 February 2022 (UTC)

Baskerville citations
The many citations to sources authored by Stephen Baskerville in the section create undue weight. Baskerville himself is described as a fathers' rights advocate, so he is not an independent source on what FRAs believe. His book Taken Into Custody is a polemic, not a work of scholarship. I couldn't find a website for the publisher Cumberland House, but it seems to cater to a conservative popular audience in topics like history, crime, and sports. We should instead look for reliable, independent scholarship to describe any controversial issues. —Sangdeboeuf (talk) 03:32, 7 May 2023 (UTC)

Parke & Brott (1999) is another poor source for largely similar reasons. —Sangdeboeuf (talk) 03:55, 7 May 2023 (UTC)

Requested move 20 July 2024
Fathers' rights movement → Fathers' rights – Difference in lemma between Mothers' rights and Fathers' rights movement is discriminatory. HudecEmil (talk) 12:17, 20 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Oppose. The article Mothers' rights is about the rights of mothers. Fathers' rights movement is about an activist movement. Equating the two is comparing apples and oranges. It's not discriminatory to accurately describe topics according to reliable sources, and in any case Wikipedia does not censor contents that some people happen to find objectionable for political reasons. —Sangdeboeuf (talk) —Sangdeboeuf (talk) 16:38, 20 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Fathers' rights movement


text:
Johan Edvard Lundström

Johan Edvard Lundström (1815–1888) was a Swedish industrialist and inventor who pioneered the commercial production of safety matches.

Biography
Lundström was born in 1815 in the town of Jönköping, Sweden.

In 1845 Lundström started to experiment with safety matches in a small workshop he had rented. The safety match had been invented by Gustaf Erik Pasch (1788–1862) in 1844, but was difficult to produce commercially. In 1846 his younger brother Carl Frans Lundström (1823–1917) joined his small workshop. In 1847 they were ready to set up a production plant and bought an estate on the coast of Lake Vättern where they built a large match factory. Today, their original factory is a museum.

The Lundström safety match got an award at the “World Exhibition” in Paris 1855. Alexander Lagerman (1836–1904), a Swedish engineer who was employed by the Lundström brothers, invented the first fully automatic match machine. The safety match combined with the advanced machines that the company developed themselves, soon made the company in Jönköping the largest match company in Scandinavia and one of the world's largest match production companies.

Lundström left the match business in 1863. It was later renamed Jönköping, then in 1903 merged with other match companies to become Jönköpings Tändsticksfabriks AB, finally sold to Ivar Kreuger in 1917. Kreuger incorporated the business into the company Svenska Tändsticks AB, today known as Swedish Match.

Lundström worked at his cellulose factory, Munksjö Cellulose, in Jönköping that he had founded in 1862 together with Lars Johan Hierta. In 1869 he left the Munksjö factory and founded Katrinefors cellulose industry in Mariestad, but left that business in 1875. He then worked as a government inspector in the match industry between 1875–77 in Sweden and was to a great extent involved in the work to prevent and forbid the use of the dangerous white phosphorus.

He died in 1888 at the age of 73, having never married.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Johan Edvard Lundström


text:
Talk:Erlangen program

Google test: Searched the web for "Erlangen programme". Results 1 - 10 of about 157. Searched the web for "Erlangen program". Results 1 - 10 of about 820. Search took 0.27 seconds.

Accordingly, I'm moving the article to the more common spelling. Mkweise 13:33, 11 Nov 2003 (UTC)

I'd say this goes against the normal idea of not getting involved in British/American spelling questions on WP.

Charles Matthews 13:52, 11 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Well, it could be called Erlanger Programm, supposing that's correct German; or 'Erlangen program', or 'Erlangen programme'.

Charles Matthews 12:21, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

according to this link, Erlangen is the prevalent form, Erlanger is the german adjectival form. google results are higher for "Erlangen program" than "erlangen program" Lethe 21:55, 8 Mar 2004 (UTC)

What is it?
I have alittle problem with this article because I don't really feel like the article ever explains what it is. It talks about some of the issues involved and I think that's interesting and everything but I would like the explanation to be a little clearer. Specifically, at the top of the page it's described as a research program. If that is the case I would expect there to be some key points. I don't really see that. In other places it seems as if it were talking about a kind of mathematical object. I can see that this might be so from the discussion trying to explain the solution to the multiplicity of geometries, some kind of abstract structure which is capable of representing geometries as groups or group structures, however that is not really a research program. Basically I would like this article to be clearer about answering seperate questions seperately. Like, describing the research programm, describing the intellectual climate that gave rise to the need for a program, describing a specific field of math that came out of this program etc. As it is I feel these are all kind of smushed together and so I don't gain that much by coming to this page. It seems like it might not actually need that much, just a little more clarification from someone who really knows what they are talking about. Thanks, User:Jabot the Scrob

 * I see what you mean. However the historical setting, which is explained, would certainly assume a good working knowledge of projective geometry; Klein's audience would have been saturated in it. There is further background at Klein geometry (very formal), homogeneous space, transformation geometry; and there are many backlinks from the page. Charles Matthews 08:28, 1 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree. I came here hoping to come accross a simple explaination of the Erlangen Program, and came up wanting. Would someone please try to write this up readably?  Maybe start with a section explaining in general terms what this is, and then a section explaining formally what this is?  I've just taken a course in Modern Geometry (Geometries) and this was mentioned, but never gone into.  So, I know a good amount about Geometry, but I still couldn't understand what this page was saying at all. Thanks.  Rob 04:32, 15 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Just to check back in, this version is awesome in my opinion! Exactly what I was thinking of. Thanks!User:Jabot the Scrob

title: Talk:Erlangen program


text:
Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I

Mir Qamar-ud-din Khan Siddiqi  (11 August 1671 –1 June 1748) also known as Chin Qilich Qamaruddin Khan, Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah and Nizam I, was the first Nizam of Hyderabad. He was married to the daughter of a Syed nobleman of Gulbarga. He began his career as a favourite of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, who made him a general. Following the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, Asaf Jah refused to favour any one of Aurangzeb's warring sons and as such remained neutral. When Aurangzeb's third son Bahadur Shah ultimately emerged victorious, Asaf Jah was rotated as governor of multiple Mughal provinces until 1714, when he was created Viceroy of the Deccan with authority over six Mughal provinces in southern India from 1714 to 1719. From 1719 onwards he was involved in combating the intrigues of the Sayyid Brothers. From 1720 to 1722 he helped the new Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah eliminate the Sayyed brothers and was rewarded by being elevated to the grand viziership from 1722 to 1724.

Political intrigues compelled Asaf Jah to rebel against the emperor and in 1724 Muhammad Shah was forced to recognize Asaf Jah as the permanent Viceroy of the Deccan. Later that year Asaf Jah proclaimed himself Nizam and began the Asaf Jahi dynasty, with himself as its first ruler.

Background
Mir Qamar-ud-din Khan (also known as Nizam) was the son of Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung I and Safiya Khanum, the daughter of Sadullah Khan, the Grand vizier (1645-1656) of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. During his tenure, construction of Taj Mahal was completed. Though through his father, he is a descendant of Abu Bakr, the first caliph of Islam, his ancestry is traced from Shihab al-Din 'Umar al-Suhrawardi (1145–1234). His great-grandfather Alam Sheikh was a Sufi saint of Bukhara (in present-day Uzbekistan) he was titled as Azam ul Ulama by Imam Quli Khan (1611–1642) of Khanate of Bukhara. His grandfather Kilich Khan hailed from Samarkand in present-day Uzbekistan. In 1654, Kilich Khan came to India for the first time while on his way to the Hajj (Islamic pilgrimage) during the reign of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. After completing the pilgrimage, he migrated to India and joined erstwhile Mughal prince Aurangzeb's army in Deccan in 1657. Khan fought in the Battle of Samugarh which ended with the defeat of Aurangzeb's brother Dara Shikoh. Besides being a commander in Aurangzeb's army, he also served as governor of Zafarabad (present-day Bidar). Khan's eldest son and Nizam-ul-Mulk's father Feroze Jung migrated to India in 1669, and got employed in Aurangzeb's army, raised a General and later as governor of Gujarat.

Early life
He was born on 11 August 1671 as Mir Qamaruddin Khan to Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung I and his first wife Safia Khanum (Wazir unnisa Begum) at Agra, the name was given to him by the Mughal Emperor Aurangazeb. His grandfathers were both important Mughal courtiers namely; General Kilich Khan (Paternal) and Grand vizier Saadullah Khan (Maternal).

Mir Qamaruddin was educated privately. Due to his long residence in the Deccan, he adopted the flowing robes of the Marathas, tight in the waist, and made obeisance in the Deccan fashion. He wrote poetry in Urdu in the typical Deccani style of the age. In 1677 aged six, Mir Qumaruddin accompanied his father to the Mughal court. Aurangzeb awarded him a Mansab. Mir Qamaruddin displayed considerable skill as a warrior and in his teens he began accompanying his father into battles, for which Mir Qamaruddin Khan received a rank of 400 zaat and 100 Sowar in 1684. In 1688 aged 17 he joined his father in the successful assault on the fort of Adoni and was promoted to the rank of 2000 zaat and 500 Sowar and presented with the finest Arab steed with gold trappings and a pastille perfumed with ambergris from the Mughal court. In 1690 aged 19 he was bestowed with the title Chin Qilich Khan (boy swordsman) and was gifted with a female elephant by Aurangazeb. In 1693, the Marathas sieged the Panhala Fort. In response, Mir Qamaruddin fought and defeated the Marathas at Karad. 30 Marathas were taken as prisoners. In 1698, Aurangzeb sent Mir Qamaruddin to put down a revolt at Nagori, near Bijapur. The emperor was satisfied with his expedition and subsequently sent him to Kotha to restore order. Following his success, he was raised to a rank of 3,000 zaat and 500 Sowar. In 1699 Aurangzeb promoted him to 3,500 zaat and 3,000 Sowar. Mir Qamaruddin successfully sieged the Panhala Fort which was occupied by the Marathas. He closed all the roads as a result of which no supply could reach the inhabitants. The fort fell to his forces on 9 June 1700. Satisfied with his services, Aurangzeb made him the faujdar (garrison commander) of Bijapur and increased his rank by 400 "Sowar".

Life After Aurangzeb
The disintegration of the Mughal empire which Aurangzeb had well established, began upon Aurangzeb's death in 1707. The Sayyid brothers-(Syed Hussain Ali Khan and Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha) became highly influential in the Mughal Court after Aurangzeb's death and became king makers during the anarchy following the death of emperor Aurangzeb in 1707. They created conflict in the Mughal court by eliminating and appointing new emperor one after other. When Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712) died, his successor Jahandar Shah (1712-1713) was assassinated and his nephew Farrukhsiyar (1713–1719) became the emperor with the support of Sayyid brothers, Farrukhsiyar was later blinded, deposed and murdered and his first cousin Rafi ud-Darajat (February–June 1719) became Emperor and died of lung disease, when his elder brother Rafi ud-Daulah (June–September 1719) became Emperor who also died of lung disease, thus Muhammad Shah (1719–1748) the grandson of Bahadur Shah I from his fourth son Jahan Shah ascended the throne at the age of 17 years with Sayyid Brothers as his regents.

Later Mughals and Asaf Jah
After Aurangzeb died in 1707, Asaf Jah was appointed Governor of Oudh. After Bahadur Shah I's death in 1712 Asaf Jah opted for a private life in Delhi. His sabbatical was cut short when in 1714 Farrukhsiyar appointed Asaf Jah I as Viceroy of the Deccan—(administrator of six Mughal governorates) with the title Nizam-ul-Mulk (Administrator of the Realm) and Fateh Jung. In 1719, Asaf Jah was then called upon by Farrukhsiyar to help fight off the Sayyid Brothers, Farrukhsiyar lost his strife against the Sayyid Brothers and was killed in 1719. In due course from 1719 to 1722, Asaf Jah I was on a mission to eradicate the Sayyid brothers from the Mughal court and to make this happen he organized and promoted Central Asian nobles in the Mughal court against the Sayyid brothers, in 1720 he captured the forts of Asirgarh and Burhanpur in Deccan and killed Mir Alam Ali Khan, the adopted son of Sayyid Hussain Ali Khan, who was the Deputy Subahdar of the Deccan. Muhammad Shah with the help of Asaf Jah, got Syed Hussain Ali Khan murdered in 1720 and Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha poisoned in 1722, Muhammad Shah assumed an independent Mughal Emperor and as a reward in 1722, Asaf Jah was appointed as Grand Vazir (Prime Minister) of the Mughal Empire. As a Grand Vazir Asaf Jah's attempts to reform the court corruption created for him many enemies. In 1723, Asaf Jah's differences with the court noble increased and alarmed by his growing power, Muhammad Shah transferred him from the court of Delhi to Awadh. Nizam rebelled against the order, resigned as the Grand vizier left all imperial responsibilities and marched towards the Deccan by the end of the year 1723. Under the influence of Asaf Jah's opponents, Muhammad Shah issued a decree to Mubariz Khan-the Governor of Hyderabad, to stop Asaf Jah which resulted in the Battle of Shakar Kheda. In 1724, Asaf Jah I defeated Mubariz Khan and in response the Mughal emperor recognized him as the viceroy of the Deccan.

Governor of Bijapur
Mir Qamar-ud-din became the subahdar (governor) of Bijapur in 1702 and was awarded a steed by Emperor Aurangzeb. In the same year, he was also given the faujdari of Azamnagar and Belgaum. In 1704, he became the faujdar of Nusratabad and Mudgal. In 1705 Mir Qamar-ud-din survived the attacks during the Siege of Wagingera Fort, and led an assault in the hillock of Lal Tikri. He attacked the Marathas who were attempting to provide supplies to the besieged inhabitants at Vardhangad Fort. The Marathas were ultimately defeated. Mir Qamar-ud-din was raised to a rank of 5,000 zaat and 5,000 "Sowar" for his performance in the siege. He was also awarded with a jewelled sabre and an elephant.

Viceroy of the Deccan
On 10 January 1713, Mughal prince Farrukhsiyar defeated Mughal Emperor Jahandar Shah in the Battle of Agra and later killed him, One of Mughal general Zulfiqar Khan Nusrat Jung aided and intrigues Jahandar Shah after the death of his father Bahadur Shah I in 1712 to overcame all his brothers-(including the battle in which Azim-ush-Shan the father of Farrukhsiyar was drowned in the Ravi River) and ascended the throne of Mughal Emperor, in return, Zulfiqar Khan was made Grand vizier, "Amir-ul-Umara" and Viceroy of the Deccan all at once. Zulfiqar Khan was captured and strangled to death in 1713 AD with the orders of Farrukhsiyar.

In 1713 Farrukhsiyar appointed Mir Qamaruddin as Viceroy of the Deccan—(administrator of six Mughal governorates) and Faujdar of Carnatic region with the title Nizam-ul-Mulk (Administrator of the Realm) and Fateh Jung (Conqueror of battles). He was a competent diplomatic person and accomplished his responsibilities very well, he eventually organized the administration, augmented finances and obtained full control over the Deccan including Carnatic region, the Nizam abrogated Maratha's from collecting Chauth in the region under his control which was granted by his predecessors. Nizam had been with Aurangzeb throughout his Deccan campaign. He was aware of the territory as well as the native communities for which he avoided confrontation with the Marathas and locals, rather he reduced the growing influence of Marathas in Deccan by bringing Sambhaji II of Kolhapur to his side and appointing the rival Maratha generals (Maratha generals, Candrasen Jadhav, Sultanji Nimbalkar and Raja Ramabha Rao Bahadur) under his services. In 1715 AD, Farrukhsiyar under the influence of Sayyed brothers, call back Nizam to Delhi, and replaced Syed Hussain Ali Khan (one among the Sayyed brothers) as the viceroy of Deccan.

Governor of Malwa-challenges-restoring Emperor
The Sayyid brothers, known as the badshahgar(king-makers), became the sole authority of Mughal court reducing the status of the Turkic and the Irani noblemen. As a result, they formed a force of counter-revolution against the Sayyid brothers. The head of the Counter-Revolution was Nizam. To subdue the counter-revolution, the Sayyid brothers shifted Nizam-ul-mulk from Delhi. In 1715 AD, the Nizam was appointed as the Governor of Malwa-(central India), a lesser position than the previous post. in 1716 AD Nizam unwillingly accepted the new post so that he could reinforce his forces against the Sayyid brothers and check and halt the increasing influence of Marathas in the central India region.

In 1719, Nizam became suspicious of the machination of the Sayyed brothers and understood their intentions to take over the Mughal Empire. When two of the Mughal Emperors died simultaneously within a year due to the same ailment and Muhammad Shah the 18-year-old Mughal prince was appointed Mughal Emperor and Sayyid Brothers as regent to the Mughal Emperor, the Nizam commence full-fledged preparation to launch an armed action against them. When the Sayyid Brothers learned about the Nizam's situation, they got furious and issued an imperial order asking the Nizam to report to Delhi. Alternately they planned an attack on Nizam in case he did not report. Meanwhile, Nizam received a secret communication from the Mughal empress's mother "Resist the Sayyids, and you will find yourself a place of Honor in the history of Mughals, May Allah help you in a war of righteousness against suppression", and later a secret communication was sent by Emperor Muhammad Shah to get him relief from the atrocities of Sayyid Brothers. Nizam was convinced of the Sayyid Brothers' planning and refused to report to Delhi and decided to eliminate the Sayyid brothers.

In Delhi, the Sayyid brothers released an imperial order to attack Nizam's forces from two fronts, thus dispatched a 20,000 imperial army of Delhi led by Dilawar Khan to attack from the North and the Army of Governor of Aurangabad led by Alim Ali-(the adopted son of Syed Hussain Ali Khan) to attack from South. Nizam being a military strategist rather than marching towards Delhi decided to move southwards to the Deccan where he had many sympathizers to support. The Nizam utilizing his diplomatic manipulation occupied Asirgarh Fort from Mughals and left Ujjain towards Burhanpur. His army clashed with Dilawar Khan aided by Maratha reinforcement near Burhanpur (Khandwa) in June 1720, Dilawar Khan and Marathas were defeated and Nizam took over Burhnpur. Sayyed brothers hopeless with the battle result issued an imperial order appointing Nizam as Viceroy of Deccan.

Mughal empress's mother alarmed Nizam that "Plans are already being made to mount a strong invasion of the south, be on your guard" Meanwhile Sayyed brothers ordered Alim Ali-(Uninformed by Sayyed brothers about Nizam's appointment as Viceroy of Deccan) to march towards Nizam and stop him from reaching Aurangabad. Nizam wanted to avoid any war against a 20-year-old Alim Ali and sent his envoy, but all his efforts to avoid war went in vain when in July 1720 AD Alim Ali approached with his army, though Alim Ali fought with bravery he lost against Nizam well-equipped army. Frustrated with the defeat of Alim Ali, the Sayyed brothers now decided to attack with a much larger imperial army of 50,000 led by Emperor Muhammad Shah, they decided to move towards the south by collecting reinforcement from Rajputana. While the Mughal army was encamped in the outskirts of Delhi, a plot was devised against the Sayyid brothers and a section of Nizam's sympathizers a Turcic soldier assassinated the commander and chief of the Mughal Army Sayyid Hussain (one of Sayyed Brothers) on 9 October 1720. When Abdullah Khan was informed about the death of his brother, he became furious and marched towards Delhi from Agra to avenge his brother's murder, he led an army against the Emperor Muhammad Shah with his own puppet Emperor, Ibrahim. Muhammad Shah assigned Nizam's uncle and sympathizer Muhammad Amin Khan Turani to march towards Agara to deal with Abdullah Khan, the battle was fought near Hasanpur, and most of Abdullah Khan army deserted him, Abdullah Khan personally fought on foot following the Barha tradition and was captured in November 1720, and eventually being poisoned while in captivity. Muhammad Shah was crowned Emperor without any regent and Muhammad Amin Khan Turani was appointed as first Grand vizier. Nizam choose to continued his stay in Deccan and when Muhammad Amin Khan Turani died in 1721, he was offered to be Grand vizier of Mughal Empire.

Grand Vizier of Mughal Empire
In 1721 AD, Nizam ul-Mulk was rewarded for eliminating the Sayyid Brothers with the post of Wakil E Mutlaq Grand vizier in the court of Muhammad Shah, the 18-year-old successor. From Muhammad Shah's point of view, he expected Asaf Jah I to act as an elderly statesman and faithful servant of the emperor, but the cunning Asaf Jah proved to be more self-willed and attempted to use his influence with the emperor to increase his territorial ambitions in the Deccan. With the pretext of restoring law and order in Gujarat, he sent there an expedition and appointed his maternal uncle, the relative of Saadullah Khan named Hamid Khan, to administer Gujarat. Hamid Khan engaged Shujaat Khan Gujarati in battle and shot him with an arrow in the chest while on top of his elephant, and finally entered Ahmedabad as a conqueror. Shujaat Khan Gujarati's brother, Rustam Ali Khan, who had advanced towards Ahmedabad was also defeated with the aid of two Maratha commanders. Muhammad Shah sent Sarbuland Khan to punish Hamid Khan. As Sarbuland Khan opposed this mission, with his request Muhammad Shah released Sayyid Najmuddin Ali Khan Barha from prison to join his imperial army, with the reward of the governorship of Ajmer. Although a large number of Sarbuland Khan's men fell, in the heat of battle Shaikh Allahyar Khan delivered the victory to the imperialists. Both Hamid Khan and the Marathas suffered heavy losses. As a result, Hamid Khan departed to Aurangabad in the Deccan. Thus the Nizam failed to win the confidence of the Emperor and lost in the estimation of the nobles. For the Nizam, his desire to restore the decorum of Mughals lapsed when some courtiers, cliques of corrupt concubines and eunuchs along with harlots and jesters who were the Emperor's constant companions became Nizam's enemy and coercively built distrust in the mind of Emperor about Nizam's growing power, thou Muhammad Shah had been dependent entirely upon the policies and courage of the Nizam, he transferred him from the court of Delhi to Awadh in 1723 AD. Muhammad Shah was young and foolish and allowed his confidants to make remarks about him when he had made his obeisance in the Deccan fashion, which created a grudge between them. His efforts were misrepresented and thwarted by the nobles close to the Emperor. Nizam rebelled against the imperial order, abdicated as the Grand Vizier and marched towards the Deccan against the will of Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah. Under the influence of Nizam's opponents, Muhammad Shah issued a decree to Mubariz Khan-the Governor of Hyderabad, and a former ally of the Barha Sayyids, to stop and kill the Nizam which resulted in the Battle of Shakar Kheda. In 1724, with the help of the Marathas, Asaf Jah I defeated Mubariz Khan and in response, the Mughal emperor was forced to recognize him as the viceroy of the Deccan with the title of Asaf Jah.

Nizam of Hyderabad
On 11 October 1724, the Nizam established autonomous rule over the Deccan region and started what came to be known as the Asaf Jahi dynasty. Subsequent rulers retained the title Nizam ul-Mulk and were referred to as Asaf Jahi Nizams, or Nizams of Hyderabad. Nizam remained loyal to the Mughal Emperor, did not assume any imperial title, and continued to acknowledge Mughal suzerainty. He acquired de facto control over Deccan and thus all six Mughal viceregal governorates of Deccan became his feudatory.

In 1725 AD, as a sovereign ruler, the Nizam wanted to strengthening the Deccan by controlling the growing influence of the Marathas, he confronted and defeated Maratha forces and prevented them from collecting levies in Carnatic region—(it was granted to Marathas by his predecessor Mughal Viceroy of Deccan in 1719 AD). In 1726 AD Sambhaji II of Kolhapur sought the Nizam's arbitration to settle issues with Shahu I of Satara which Shahu declined, thus in 1727 AD the Nizam armies captured Pune and appointed Sambhaji II as Chhatrapati. These valorous acts of the Nizam started an extended series of conflicts with Shahu who used a Guerrilla warfare technique led by his Peshwa Baji Rao I, which resulted in the Battle of Palkhed in 1728 AD, Sambhaji II repudiate at the last moment and the Shahu forces surrounded the Nizam, he sign the treaty with Shahu which restored him as a Chhatrapati of Marathas and the right to collect levies in the Carnatic region.

1733 AD the Nizam and Baji Rao had made a compact to support each other in times of external attacks, in 1734 The Marathas attacked and captured Bundelkhand and Malwa from the Mughal control, and in exchange for these territories the Mughal emperor gave them the right to collect levies from Deccan, to which the nizam refused and the secret compact among both was broken. in 1737 AD when Maratha forces gathered in Delhi, Nizam marched against Maraths from Deccan to stop the invasion thus Marathas withdraw from Delhi and with the help of Nawab of Bhopal, they make a counterattack on Nizam's armies which resulted in the Battle of Bhopal, later in January 1738, a peace treaty was signed between both the parties and withdraw to their regions.

The Nizam divided his newly acquired kingdom into three parts. One-third became his private estate known as the Sarf-i-Khas, one-third was allotted for the expenses of the government and was known as Diwan's territory, and the remainder was distributed to nobles (Jagirdar, Zamindars, Deshmukh), who in return paid Mazars (gifts) to the Nizam for the privilege of collecting revenue from the villages under their suzerainty. The most important of these were the Paigah estates. The House of Paigah doubled up as generals, Nawab Abu'l Fateh Khan who served as general of the nizams, the paigah's making it easy to raise an army should the Nizams Dominions come under attack. They were the equivalent to the Barmakids for the Abbasid Caliphate. Only second to the Nizam's family.

War against the Marathas
The Nizam wrote some advice for his successors in the Ma'asir-i Nizami: "It is necessary for the ruler of the Deccan who desires his safety, peace from war, and the prosperity of his country to have peace with the Marathas who are the landholders[zamindaran] of this region."

In 1725, the Marathas clashed with the Nizam, who refused to pay Chauth and Sardeshmukhi to the Marathas. The war began in August 1727 and ended in March 1728. Nizam signed a treaty named Treaty of Mungi-Shevgaon at Shevgaon near Nashik by Bajirao I, the son of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath Bhatt.

Maratha Treaty
Anxious to divert Marathas away from his Deccan strongholds, and to save himself from the Mughal emperor of North India's hostile attempts to suppress his independence, The Nizam encouraged the Marathas to invade Malwa and the northern Indian territories of the Mughal empire. The Nizam says that he could use the Marathas to his advantage in the Maasir-i Nizami: "I consider all this army (Marathas) as my own and I will get my work done through them. It is necessary to take our hands off Malwa. God willing, I will enter into an understanding with them and entrust the Mulukgiri(raiding) on that side of the Narmada to them."

Nader Shah
In 1739, from beyond the Hindu kush, Nader Shah started advancing towards Delhi through Afghanistan and the Punjab.

Nizam ul-Mulk sent his troops to Karnal, where Mughal Emperor Muhammed Shah's forces had gathered to turn back the Persian army. Influenced by suspicions of the Hindustani party, Muhammad Shah refused to give command of the army to the Nizam, which was given instead to the commander-in-chief, Khan-i Dauran. The combined forces of Muhammad Shah and the Nizam were cannon fodder for the Persian cavalry and was defeated by Nader Shah's superior weaponry and tactics. The Nizam remained inert with a third of the army during the battle, likely hoping to take the places of his rivals at court. He watched the battle passively without participation, as he believed it was futile to wage war against such a formidable foe rather than save himself and his men. He told the messenger sent by Muhammad Shah: "Whatever the king likes, he is free to speak and make orders, but he does not understand the art of warfare. The stupid fellows went to launch a campaign without order and discipline, and by their folly destroyed a force of 40,000...The king is angry with me for not carrying out his commands. The reality is they did not listen to my advice."

Nader Shah entered Delhi and stationed his troops there. Some locals of Delhi quarrelled and attacked his soldiers. After nine hundred of his soldiers were killed in a bazaar brawl, Nader Shah flew into a rage, drew out his sword from the scabbard and ordered a massacre. Muhammad Shah was unable to prevent Delhi from being destroyed. When Nader Shah ordered the massacre in Delhi, neither the helpless Mughal Emperor Muhammed Shah nor any of his Ministers dared to speak to Nader Shah and negotiate a truce. Asaf Jah came forward and risked his life by going to Nader Shah and asking him to end the bloodbath of the city. Legend has it that Asaf Jah said to Nader Shah "'You have taken the lives of thousands of people of the city, if you still wish to continue the bloodshed, then bring those dead back to life and then kill them again, for there are none left to be killed.'" These words had a tremendous impact on Nader Shah – he ended the massacre on condition and returned to Persia.

Later life
The Nizam was well suited to rule his territory. The administration was under control.

In March 1742, the British who were based in Fort St George in Madras sent a modest hamper to Nizam ul-mulk in recognition of his leadership of the most important of the Mughal successor states. Its contents included a gold throne, gold and silver threaded silk from Europe, two pairs of large painted-looking glasses, equipage for coffee cups, 163.75 yards of green and 73.5 yards of crimson velvet, brocades, Persian carpets, a gold ceremonial cloth, two Arab horses, half a dozen ornate rose-water bottles and 39.75 chests of rose water – enough to keep the Nizam and his entire Darbar fragrant for the rest of his reign. In return, the Nizam sent one horse, a piece of jewellery and a note warning the British that they had no right to mint their currency, to which they complied.

It was after Nizam ul-mulk's death that his son and grandson sought help from the British and French to win the throne. Just days before he died in 1748, Asaf Jah dictated his last will. The 17-clause document was a blueprint for governance and personal conduct that ranged from advice on how to keep the troops happy and well-fed to an apology for neglecting his wife. He then reminded his successors to remain subservient to the Mughal Emperor who had granted them their office and rank. He warned against declaring war unnecessarily, but if forced to do so to seek the help of elders and saints and follow the sayings and practices of the Prophet. Finally, he insisted to his sons that "you must not lend your ears to tittle-tattle of the backbiters and slanderers, nor suffer the riffraff to approach your presence."

Legacy
Nizam-ul-Mulk is remembered as laying the foundation for what would become one of the most important Muslim states outside the Middle East by the first half of the twentieth century. Hyderabad State survived right through the period of British rule up to the time of Indian independence in 1947, and was indeed the largest – the state covered an extensive 95,337 sq. miles, an area larger than Mysore or Gwalior and the size of Nepal and Kashmir put together (although it was the size of France when the first Nizam held reign) – and one of the most prosperous, among the princely states of the British Raj. The titles of "Nizam Ul Mulk" and "Asaf Jah" that were bestowed on him by the Mughal Emperors, carried his legacy as his descendants ruled under the title of " Nizam of Hyderabad" and the dynasty itself came to be known as the Asaf Jahi Dynasty.

In early 1710, while being as Subedar of Awadh, he was very much disturbed by the Mughal Emperor court politics and crafty cliques present inside the court, that he resigned from Subedar of Awadh and left to live a life of Fakir.

Personal life
Asaf Jah was married to Said-un-Nisa Begum, who belonged to a Sayed family from Gulbargah. From this marriage he had four children, two daughters; one of them being Khair-un-Nisa Begum and two sons; Ghazi-ud-din Feroz Jung and Nasir Jung (later nizam). From other wives he had four more sons; Salabat Jung (later Nizam), Nizam Ali Khan (later Nizam), Basalat Jung, and Mogal Ali Khan. He had two more daughters, Mukarrama Banu Begum also known as Kali Begum, who was married to Qiyam-ul-Mulk, the Qiladar of Bidar and Kalyani, and with whom she had a daughter, who married the son of Najm-ud-Daulah in 1766; and Khan Bahadur Begum, who died on 20 November 1788, and was buried in Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad.

As per the 1749 British records of Fort St. George, Nizam-ul-Mulk even thought about installing his favourite daughter Khair-un-Nisa Begum's son (i.e. Muzaffar Jung ) when he was dissatisfied with the conduct of Nasir Jung. He gave up that idea due to possible serious repercussions and reconciled with Nasir Jung. He recommended bestowing the Circars of Adoni and Raichur to Muzaffar Jung with acceptance of the Padishah.

Nasir Jung being Nizam-ul-Mulk's son (i.e. have some claim to the Deccan Subah) and Muzaffar Jung being his favourite grandson lead the succession of one of the most important Subahs of Mughal empire into a severe crisis with was well exploited first by the French and then by British.

After defeating Nasir Jung with the help of the French, Muzaffar Jung indeed became Nizam later, but for a very short period. Interestingly, Muzaffar Jung being favourite grandson of Asaf Jah I, was the only thing that hesitated Nasir Jung about executing him, when he was imprisoned during the Second Carnatic War. Unexpected sudden death of Muzaffar Jung lead his uncle Salabat Jung (i.e. younger brother of Nazir Jung) to be installed as the new Nizam who was deposed by his younger brother Nizam Ali Khan with the help of British and Marathas.

The succession feud between Nasir Jung and Muzaffar Jung was one of the most pivotal events in Indian history that led to the interference of European powers. This led to the emergence of Robert Clive and the ultimate domination of the British in the Indian peninsula in the later years. Irony was that Both Nasir Jung and Muzaffar Jung died due to the betrayal of Pathan Nawabs (i.e. Faujdars) of the circars of Kurnool, Kadapa and Savanur.

Death
Due to continuous engagement in restoring internal conflicts and resolving increasing threats of neighbouring Marathas, he was engaged in an extensive tour of his domain. During this tour, in May 1748, he arrived in Burhanpur, he caught a cold and flu that deteriorated his health. Realizing death upon him, the Nizam dictated his last testament (wasiyyatnama), spanning 17 clauses in the presence of his available family members and close confidants. He died on 1 June 1748 aged 77 at Burhanpur and was buried at mazaar of Shaikh Burhan ud-din Gharib Chisti, Khuldabad, near Aurangabad, the place where Nizam's mentor Aurangazeb is also buried.

The death of Asaf Jah I in 1748 resulted in a period of political unrest as his sons and grandson—Nasir Jung (1748–1750), Muzaffar Jang (1750-1751) and Salabat Jung (1751-1762)—contended for the throne backed by opportunistic neighbouring states and colonial foreign forces. The accession of Asaf Jah II, who reigned from 1762 to 1803, ended the instability. In 1768 he signed the Treaty of Masulipatam, surrendering the coastal region to the East India Company in return for a fixed annual rent.

Titles

 * 1685 : Khan
 * 1691 : Khan Bahadur
 * 1697 : Chin Qilich Khan (by Emperor Aurangazeb )
 * 9 December 1707 : Khan-i-Dauran Bahadur
 * 1712 : Ghazi ud-din Khan Bahadur and Firuz Jang
 * 12 January 1713 : Khan-i-Khanan, Nizam ul-Mulk and Fateh Jang (by Emperor Farrukhsiyar )
 * 12 July 1737 : Asaf Jah (by Emperor Muhammad Shah )
 * 26 February 1739 : Amir ul-Umara and Bakshi ul-Mamalik (Paymaster-General)
 * Final : Chin Fateh Khan, Chin Qilich Khan, Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah, Khan-i-Dauran Bahadur, Khan-i-Khana, Fateh Jung, Firuz Jang, Ghazi-ud-din Bahadur, Amir-ul-Umara, Bakhshi-ul-Mumalik

In popular culture

 * In the Hindi-language TV series Peshwa Bajirao, Yuri Suri portrays Qamr-ud-din Khan.
 * In the 2015 Bollywood movie Bajirao Mastani, Raza Murad appears in a cameo as Asaf Jah I.

Positions

 * 1701–1705: Faujdar of the Carnatic and Talikota
 * 1705–1706: Faujdar of the Bijapur, Azam Nagar and Belgaum
 * 1706–1707: Faujdar of Raichur, Talikota, Sakhar and Badkal
 * 1707: Faujdar of Firozabad and Balakot
 * 9 December 1707 – 6 February 1711: Subedar of Oudh and Faujdar of Gorakhpur
 * 12 January 1713 – April 1715: Subedar of the Deccan and Faujdar of the Carnatic
 * April 1717-7 January 1719: Faujdar of Moradabad
 * 7 February – 15 March 1719: Subedar of Patna
 * 15 March 1719 – 1724: Subedar of Malwa
 * 1722–1724: Subedar of Gujarat

Military promotions

 * Commander of 400-foot and 100 horse, 1684 (roughly equivalent to a modern battalion commander or lieutenant-colonel)
 * 400-foot and 500-horse, 1691
 * 400-foot and 900-horse, 1698
 * 3,000-foot and 500 horse, 1698 (roughly equivalent to a modern regimental commander or colonel)
 * 3,500-foot and 3,000 horse, 1698 (roughly equivalent to a modern brigade commander or brigadier)
 * 4,000-foot and 3,000 horse, 1699,
 * 4,000-foot and 3,600-horse, 1700
 * 4,000-foot and 4,000 horse, 1702 (roughly equivalent to a modern division commander or major-general)
 * 5,000-foot and 5,000 horse, 1705
 * 6,000-foot and 6,000 horse, 9 December 1707
 * 7,000-foot and 7,000 horse, 27 January 1708
 * 8,000-foot and 8,000 horse, 12 January 1713
 * 9,000-foot and 9,000 horse, 8 February 1722

title: Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I


text:
Max Havelaar

Max Havelaar; or, The Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company (Max Havelaar; of, De koffi-veilingen der Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappy) is an 1860 novel by Multatuli (the pen name of Eduard Douwes Dekker), which played a key role in shaping and modifying Dutch colonial policy in the Dutch East Indies in the nineteenth and early twentieth century. In the novel, the protagonist, Max Havelaar, tries to battle against a corrupt government system in Java, which was then a Dutch colony. The novel's opening line is famous: "Ik ben makelaar in koffie, en woon op de Lauriergracht, Nº 37." ("I am a coffee broker, and live on the Lauriergracht, Nº 37.").

Background
By the mid-nineteenth century, the colonial control of the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia) had passed from the Dutch East India Company (VOC) to the Dutch government due to the economic failure of the VOC. In order to increase revenue, the Dutch colonial government implemented a series of policies termed the Cultivation System (Dutch: cultuurstelsel), which mandated Indonesian farmers to grow a quota of commercial crops such as sugar and coffee, instead of growing staple foods such as rice. At the same time, the colonial government also implemented a tax collection system in which the collecting agents were paid by commission. The combination of these two strategies caused widespread abuse of colonial power, especially on the islands of Java and Sumatra, resulting in abject poverty and widespread starvation of the farmers. The colony was governed with a minimum of soldiers and government officials. The former rulers maintained their absolute power and control over the natives: a quite common strategy used by many colonising countries. In addition, the Dutch state earned a fortune with the sale of opium to the natives, a practice begun centuries earlier under VOC rule. At that time, opium was the only known effective pain killer, and a considerable percentage of the natives were addicted to it, being kept poor in this way. This was called the "opium-regime". To distinguish between smuggled and legal opium, a simple reagent was added. After discovery the smuggler could count on a severe punishment.

Multatuli wrote Max Havelaar in protest against these colonial policies, but another goal was to seek rehabilitation for his resignation from governmental service. Despite its terse writing style, it raised the awareness of Europeans living in Europe at the time that the wealth that they enjoyed was the result of suffering in other parts of the world. This awareness eventually formed the motivation for the new Ethical Policy by which the Dutch colonial government attempted to "repay" their debt to their colonial subjects by providing education to some classes of natives, generally members of the elite loyal to the colonial government.

Indonesian novelist Pramoedya Ananta Toer argued that by triggering these educational reforms, Max Havelaar was in turn responsible for the nationalist movement that ended Dutch colonialism in Indonesia after 1945, and which was instrumental in the call for decolonization in Africa and elsewhere in the world. Thus, according to Pramoedya, Max Havelaar is "the book that killed colonialism".

In the last chapter the author announces that he will translate the book "into the few languages I know, and into the many languages I can learn." In fact, Max Havelaar has been translated into thirty-four languages. It was first translated into English in 1868. In Indonesia, the novel was cited as an inspiration by Sukarno and other early nationalist leaders, such as the author's Indo (Eurasian) descendant Ernest Douwes Dekker, who had read it in its original Dutch. It was not translated into Indonesian until 1972.

In the novel, the story of Max Havelaar, a Dutch colonial administrator, is told by two diametrically opposed characters: the hypocritical coffee merchant Batavus Droogstoppel, who intends to use Havelaar's manuscripts to write about the coffee trade, and the romantic German apprentice Stern, who takes over when Droogstoppel loses interest in the story. The opening chapter of the book nicely sets the tone of the satirical nature of what is to follow, with Droogstoppel articulating his pompous and mercenary world-view at length. At the very end of the novel Multatuli himself takes the pen and the book culminates in a denunciation of Dutch colonial policies and a plea to king William III of the Netherlands to intervene on behalf of his Indonesian subjects.

Plot
(This summary seems to be based on the film adaptation, not the book as originally published) By the 1860, lived a small boy from a farmer's family in Parang Koedjang, Lebak Regency in the Dutch East Indies (present day Indonesia) named Säidjah. He is playing with his kerbau (farming buffalo) in sawah when his father and elder brother is farming with a small group of farmers. Suddenly, a Javan tiger attacks his kerbau, yet his kerbau managed to survive, and even kills the Javan tiger. The farmers names his kerbau as "Pantang" (Malay word for "tough"). Not long after that, the group of the Demang (chief district) of Parang Koedjang, Raden Wira Koesoema, came to them on horseback. He warns them to pay tribute to the Regent (Boepati) because the Regent is displeased. But the farmers do not have money to be collected as tribute, so Demang then seized "Pantang" from them. Säidjah's elder brother tries to fight against the Demang, but he is shot dead by a KNIL soldier. His lifeless body is left lying down with nobody caring for the deceased brother. Contrary with Amsterdam in the same year, a Christmas night service is held at the church and the Priest preaches about the wealth and prosperity in Java, the Dutch colony, without knowing there is abuses and oppressions in that colony. That sermon is attended by Max Havelaar, an ex-Assistant Resident of Manado and Lebak who resigned from this official charges and becomes unemployed in Amsterdam. Havelaar then meets Batavus Droogstoppel, his childhood friend who becomes coffee broker and also owning coffee trading company, Last & Co. Havelaar offers Droogstoppel some help, with him writing a book about coffee trading from Havelaar's essays which was collected when he was in service as Assistant Resident. Droogstoppel helps him forcefully and tries to read it. Then, Droogstoppel accidentally reads one of Havelaar's essay called "On the Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company" (Dutch title: Op de Koffi-veilingen der Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappij). And the Havelaar's story of colonialism injustice and corruption is just began in Lebak by the 1855.

In 1855, Christiaan Ernst Pierre (C.E.P.) Carolus a.k.a. Slotering, the Assistant Resident of Lebak, is poisoned to death by the Regent of Lebak, Raden Adipati Karta Nata Negara, after attending at the night house banquet invitation by the Regent. The reason is unclear, probably because Slotering has secret papers about the Regent's crimes and abuses in Lebak. But the doctor reports his death cause due to lever acute, so that Slotering's death seems to be already known and kept secret by the Resident of Bantam, C.P. Brest van Kempen a.k.a. Slijmering, which has involved in a conspiracy to Slotering's murder with the Regent. But nobody knows about this scandal, including the Gouverneur-Generaal of the Dutch East Indies. The Gouverneur-Generaal is recommended by his aide to install Max Havelaar, the Assistant-Resident of Manado, as the successor of Slotering. His aide is Havelaar's brother-in-law. The Gouverneur-Generaal agrees with his aide's recommendation. Havelaar is inaugurated in Gouverneur-Generaal's palace in Buitenzorg and departs to Lebak in the next day with his controller names Verbrugge. As formally usual, Havelaar is greeted warmly by the Regent and his Demangs. In the next day, he is ceremonially taken oath by Slijmering in the Regency royal house. Everything goes well in the few days after that ceremony, until Djaksa (local police chief) tells him about Slotering's secret papers which has been saved by Djaksa. At first, Havelaar tries to ignore what is happened in the past, yet he keeps to maintain his feudal relationship with the Regent, Raden Adipati, as the highest local ruler in Lebak. Havelaar visits the Regency to make a speech which essentially states that he wants everything goes fine and no violation under during his term of office. The Regent requests an advance of remaining tax extra payments from Assistant Residents. Havelaar grants his request even though there is no budget to that payment. Havelaar's wife names Tine a.k.a. "Pussy" (Dutch: Poesje) feels objected to Havelaar's decision, but Havelaar convinces Poesje that he will pay the Regent from his personal savings. Havelaar believes, if the Regent has no lack of money, the Regent will stop robbing his people. But Havelaar's hope is in vain. He caught the Regent was doing abuse, from a simple thing to the serious violation. He finds some sawahs abandoned because all men in some villages are forcedly working to pull the grass and clean the Regent's houseyard. In another day, he also finds some men is working to build aloen-aloen without paid in preparation for welcoming the Regent's royal guests, the Regent of Bandoeng and Tjändjoer.

One day, Havelaar meets Säidjah and his father walking nearby the sawahs. Havelaar asks him where he was going and why he was not ploughing in sawah. Säidjah's father answered that he is going to barter his heirloom kris dagger with a new kerbau. Havelaar then asks when his kerbau death, before or after his speech to the chiefs of Lebak. Säidjah's father answered dishonestly that his kerbau is just dead. Havelaar thinks it is just normal. But in the few weeks when he makes a visit to Säidjah's village, he finds the Demang of Parang Koedjang with his group was collecting kerbaus. Havelaar suspects the Demang is plundering the kerbaus to be served as the banquet for the Regent's royal guests visit, the Regent of Bandoeng and Tjändjoer. The Demang tries to convince Havelaar that he buys kerbaus from the villagers, not to plunder. Havelaar then interrogates Säidjah's father to confront it with the Demang, and wonders why he sold his kerbau while he were barter his heirloom kris to get a new kerbau. Säidjah's father keeps silent because he is afraid of the Demang. Havelaar becomes upset to realize that the people were more afraid of the Demang than himself as Assistant Resident. He immediately left the village back home to write a report about this situation to the Resident of Bantam. Otherwise, the Demang is angry with the villagers and takes away all the kerbaus. The Demang also burns the only Säidjah and his father's clothes so that they are cold at night. Säidjah's father falls in fever at night and dies. Säidjah with an angry feeling comes before the Djaksa. They visit Havelaar's house together to report what really happens. Säidjah brings his kerbau's head as the evidence of kerbau looting by the Regent. Havelaar prepares to collect witnesses about the allegations of the Regent's criminal act. Havelaar attempts to bring this allegations to the court. But Säidjah refuses it because he doubts the court and feels that every colonial high-rank officials are the same as the Regent. Although Havelaar tries to convince Säidjah, Säidjah insists to run away to Lampong joining with the rebels there.

At the aftermath, Säidjah is dead in Lampong killed by KNIL army in a rebellion battle. Havelaar's indictment to the criminal court is blocked by the Resident, Slijmering. Slijmering warns Havelaar that if Havelaar keeps to blow up this incident, Slijmering threatened to revoke Havelaar from his position as Assistant Resident. When Havelaar finds out that he is not supported by the Resident, Havelaar decides to propose the indictment against the Regent by himself. But the court finally wins the Regent, the judge sentenced the Regent to be innocent and there was not enough evidence that he was guilty. The court even decided that Havelaar is "promoted" to serve as the Assistant Resident of Ngawi. Havelaar sees the justice in colonial is corrupted, and he finally resigns from his position as Assistant Resident. He also tries to discuss this case personally to the Gouverneur-Generaal. He brings Poesje and his son to Buitenzorg, and come to visit the Gouverneur-Generaal's palace. When he arrived there, his brother-in-law, who served as the Gouverneur-Generaal's aide, locks Havelaar in a room and told him to be silent and go home to the Netherlands. At last, Havelaar is full angry with the corruption of the Dutch colonial system, and shouting a wall-picture of the King William III that the King must take responsibility of this immoral corruption in his colonial system.

Film version
A film adaptation of the novel was released in 1976, directed by Fons Rademakers as part of a Dutch-Indonesian partnership. The film Max Havelaar was not allowed to be shown in Indonesia until 1987.

Editions
The edition history of the book "Max Havelaar" began in the 1860s with a publication titled "Max Havelaar, of De koffi-veilingen der Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappy". During his life Dekker published six press-editions of Max Havelaar in the Netherlands, with three different publishers. In addition, Dekker made a significant contribution to the first translation of the book into English. After Dekker's death, the book was reprinted many times. The text and reprints that are found in bookstores today is sometimes based on the 4th edition from 1875, sometimes on the handwritten manuscript (also called the 0th edition), and increasingly on the fifth edition of 1881, the last to be revised by the author.
 * 17 May 1860: the first edition: publishing house J. de Ruyter in Amsterdam. Three days earlier, on 14 May, the book had already been made available. This edition of 1300 copies was on large octavo printed by Munster and sons. There were two parts, of 212 and 185 pages. The books were sold for four guilders, a large amount for the time.

 * 1860: second edition: J. de Ruyter, Amsterdam. The appearance of the book and typography did not differ from the first edition. The page layout and all lines were identical, so it seemed that it was printed from the same type used for the first edition. The book appeared again in two parts: the first part on 8 November 1860, the second part on 22 November. The exact size of the edition is unknown, but was probably between 700 and 1200 copies. The price for both parts was again four guilders.

 * Double edition of the second edition: J. de Ruyter, Amsterdam The printing history of this book is complicated: In 1985 Annemarie Kets-Vree discovered a secret edition of this book. Appearance and typography of the book are identical and the title page still mentions 'Second Edition'. The book, however, was completely set anew by hand, and printed for the third time. The double printing could be identified with a printer's error in line 5 of the first chapter: "lieve lezers" (dear readers) instead of "lieve lezer" (Dear reader):

[....] dat gij, lieve lezers, zoo even ter hand hebt genomen, en dat [....]".

The reason for this covert edition is unknown, but it is speculated it was done by De Ruyter to avoid having to pay royalties to Dekker. The number of copies is unknown.

 * February 1868: English translation: Max Havelaar or the Coffee auctions of the Dutch Trading Company by Multatuli. Translated from the original manuscript by Baron Alphonse Nahuÿs, Edinburgh, Edmonston & Douglas, Price: 12 shillings. From 12 March 1868 the book was on sale in Netherlands. This was the first edition made in cooperation with the author. Nahuys mentioned he used the original manuscript, but this manuscript was still with the editor of the first edition, De Ruyter.

 * December 1871 - 20 January 1872: Third edition, Karel Hermanus Schadd, 296 pages, 5000 copies (small octavo 18,5 × 13 cm) price ƒ 2.90 + 100 copies of the luxe edition. price: ƒ 7.50 (large octavo 24 × 17 cm)  In 1870 De Ruyter had sold his copyright for 2000 guilders. The text-source for this edition was the double-edition of the second-edition: The mistake in that edition remains: lieve lezers  Both editions were printed in the same type, only the page size differed. There was a cheaper edition of the book available, but Douwes Dekker had no part in its sales and did not receive any income from it. He also could not correct or modify any of the text. In early 1873, Schadd sold his rights in the book for ƒ 2500 to the firm v/d Heuvell & Van Santen in Leiden.

 * 4th edition: G.L.Funke, Amsterdam, 19 October 1875, 388 pages, small octavo, 5000 copies. This is the first edition done in cooperation with the author. In it many mistakes and alterations from the first edition could be corrected. Dekker added also numerous comments to the text to explain his intentions.

 * 5th edition: Uitgevers Maatschappij Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1 November 1881, small octavo, ƒ 1,90 bound in paper ƒ 2,40 for copies in a hard cover. Second (and last) edition in cooperation with the author. Of this edition there have been four variants found, in the type at the press some changes were made, on both sides of the leaf. The papers that had already been printed earlier were not discarded, but were still used. Combining two different leaves makes four combinations possible. Copies of all four combinations have been identified.

 * Multatuli, Max Havelaar of De koffiveilingen der Nederlandsche Handelmaatschappy. Critical edition, edited by Annemarie Kets-Vree. Monumenta Literaria Neerlandica VI, 1 and VI, 2. Assen/Maastricht, 1992.

 * The manuscript remained untraceable for a long time. During the preparations for the celebration of 50 years Max Havelaar in 1910, a general appeal was made to make available, lend or donate documents, letters and other multatuliana to the association Het Multatuli Museum under construction. A descendant of J. de Ruyter, mr. C.H.E. Reelfs, found the original in his closet, among his stepfather's papers, and donated it to the Multatuli Museum. A copy thereof was published in 2007. The manuscript from 1860 is a newly transcribed version of an earlier draft, with all the corrections by Jacob van Lennep. Van Lennep first reduces the number of chapters in the manuscript to seventeen. The final number of chapters in print is slightly larger, namely twenty. Van Lennep also changed a large number of things during the correction of the type.

Online text sources

 * , trans. by Alphonse Nahuijs, 1868
 * (Dutch)
 * (Dutch)
 * Multatuli, Volledige werken. 25 vols. Van Oorschot, Amsterdam, 1951–1995.
 * Multatuli, digital sources on dbnl.nl :digital text source "Work of Multatuli" at dbn.nl
 * Multatuli, Max Havelaar of de koffiveilingen der Nederlandsche Handelmaatschappy. Historisch-kritische uitgave, by A. Kets-Vree. 2 vols, Van Gorcum, Assen / Maastricht, 1992. ISBN 90 232 2690 9 dbnl.nl digital text source of "Historical-critical edition"
 * A.L. Sötemann, De structuur van Max Havelaar. 2 delen. Wolters Noordhoff, Groningen, 1966. dbnl.nl digital text source of "The structure of Max Havelaar"
 * E.M. Beekman, Paradijzen van weleer. Koloniale literatuur uit Nederlands–Indië 1600-1950. Prometheus, Amsterdam, 1998. ISBN 90 5333 593 5, dbnl.nl digital text source of "Paradises of former times"

title: Max Havelaar


text:
User:Anthere/Ecology

Origine des crises écologiques
Une crise écologique peut avoir une ou plusieurs origines.

il peut s'agir d'un environnement dont la qualité se dégrade par rapport aux besoins de l'espèce, suite à une évolution des facteurs écologiques abiotiques. Par exemple, une augmentation de la température hivernale moyenne locale pourra entraîner la disparition d'une espèce nécessitant une vernalisation, i.e. un besoin de températures fraîches pendant une certaine durée pour permettre la floraison (ce pourrait par exemple être le cas de la mirabelle en Lorraine). De même, une diminution de la luminosité faisant par exemple suite à de multiples éruptions volcaniques ou à une chute météoritique, peut limiter considérablement la biomasse végétale, en raison de la diminution de l'efficacité de l'activité photosynthétique (voir les hypothèses sur l'extinction crétacé tertiaire).

Il peut aussi s'agir d'un environnement qui devient défavorable à la survie de l'espèce (ou d'une population) suite à une augmentation du nombre de ses prédateurs. Par exemple, l'éléphant africain est classé espèce en danger suite à sa chasse (hunting) intensive pour l'ivoire de ses défenses. Au début du XXI siècle, le nombre de poissons dans les océans est en diminution en raison de la pêche intensive pratiquée par les bateaux industriels.

Il peut aussi s’agir d’un environnement qui devient défavorable suite à une augmentation de la compétition interspécifique (entre deux espèces) ou intraspécifique (entre deux races d’une même espèce) pour l’espace ou les sources de nourriture. Par exemple, des espèces invasives, telles que Caulerpa taxifolia en mer méditerranée entraîne progressivement la disparition des espèces locales. Chez les êtres humains, des situations de compétition extrème peuvent aboutir au génocide de certaines populations, tels que les Tutsis au Rwanda. (Rwandan Genocide). Un autre exemple pouvant être cité est ce qui a été appelé l'écocide au Vietnam. Lors du conflit armé entre les Etats-Unis et le Viêt-Nam du Nord, les américains utilisèrent un défoliant, l'agent orange (contenant de la dioxine), dans l'objectif de détruire, la forêt dans laquelle se cachaient les combattants, ou les rizières qui les nourrissaient. La dioxine déversée à l'époque s'est accumulée dans les chaines trophiques et est encore responsable 40 ans plus tard, de la naissance d'enfants anormaux, sans membres, voire sans crane ou sans cerveau. Les herbicides utilisés auraient également détruit 2 millions d'hectares de forêts et 500 000 hectares de mangroves, remplacés par des savanes.

http://www.monde-solidaire.org/spip/article.php3?id_article=2295

http://www.stopusa.be/scripts/texte.php?section=CL&langue3&id=24471

Enfin, il peut aussi s'agir d'une situation qui devient défavorable à la qualité de vie de l'espèce (ou de la population) suite à une trop forte augmentation du nombre d'individus, ce qui impose une forte pression sur son environnement de vie.

 * Stratégie de l’espèce humaine.

Les crises écologiques peuvent être plus ou moins rapides

 * comparaison extinction massive des espèces de la xx extinction, à comparer avec le rythme actuel de disparition des espèces.

Elles peuvent être aussi être d'origines anthropiques ou naturelles.

Elles peuvent ne concerner qu’une seule ou un petit nombre d’espèces, ou au contraire un très grand nombre d’entre elles (voir la 6ème extinction : 99% des espèces ont a l’époque disparues).

Quelque soit son origine initiale, la disparition d’une ou de plusieurs espèces va souvent entraîner une rupture d’équilibre.

Crises locales et crises globales
boum chick ou a oua chick oua Une crise écologique locale touche une certaine zone géographique, de taille réduite, tel qu’un fleuve, une mer, une île, une écorégion. Elle a des conséquences négatives pour une partie ou la totalité des espèces vivant dans cette région. Un exemple de crise locale peut être une marée noire, telle que celle due au naufrage de l’Erika, ou un incident dans une usine chimique, telle que

Une crise écologique globale touche l’ensemble de la biosphère, et potentiellement l’ensemble des espèces. Parmi les exemples les plus cités est celui relatif au risque de réchauffement global lié à l'effet de serre, celui du trou de la couche d'ozone lié aux émissions de CFC ou les pluiesacides liées aux émissions de soufre.

Le phénomène de crise globale n’est pas nouveau, cependant il était auparavant uniquement lié aux modifications de facteurs écologiques abiotiques (par exemple, la diminution de la température moyenne au cours des ages glaciaires du quaternaire).

Ce qui est plus récent toutefois, est l’impact du à une seule et unique espèce sur la biosphère : l’espèce humaine. L'homme, prédateur omnivore, a longtemps été un simple élément parmi les autres au sein des écosystèmes naturels. Grâce à ses acquisitions technologiques et à un fort accroissement démographique, l'homme est la seule espèce dont l'activité a une influence majeure sur son milieu de vie. Le début de cette influence date des débuts de l'agriculture, au néolithique. Alors qu'il a longtemps été négligé par les écologistes, l'écologie humaine considère à présent l'homme comme un facteur écologique nouveau et étudie l'impact de son activité sur son environnement de vie.

L'espèce humaine se différencie des autres espèces vivantes à différent titres :

 * l'espèce a migré et colonisé pratiquement tous les continents. A de rares exceptions près (milieux extrêmement froids ou très arides), l'homme s'est répandu sur la totalité de la surface terrestre.

 * l'homme modifie son environnement de vie volontairement et consciemment (avec l'agriculture, l'homme modifie le paysage, fait reculer durablement la forêt pour construire des villes à la place; il remplace certaines communautés de végétaux par des écosystèmes artificiels, les champs, ou les pré).

 * l'homme perturbe les équilibres de la biosphère et de la biodiversité par le biais de son activité agricole et industrielle (par exemple en libérant de grandes quantités de phosphates, sous forme d’engrais ou de lessives, phosphates responsables de l’eutrophisation de certains milieux aquatiques);

 * l'homme est la seule espèce dont l'activité en un point du globe peut avoir des conséquences en un point complètement différent (par exemple, l'émission des gaz à effet de serre par les pays développés est jugé responsable d’une certaine partie du réchauffement climatique, qui pourrait lui-même aboutir à la disparition du Bangladesh ; voir aussi le passage du nuage radioactif provenant de l’explosion de la centrale de Tchernobyl au dessus d’une bonne partie de l’Europe).

Si l’activité anthropique est aujourd’hui jugée majoritairement responsable de ce qu’il est devenu courant d’appeler « la crise écologique globale», l’espèce humaine est aussi la seule espèce qui agisse consciemment et délibérément pour essayer de restaurer certains équilibres globaux (par exemple, par le biais de protocoles internationaux, tels que le protocole de Kyoto). Pour de nombreux spécialistes, le maintien de la biodiversité est la condition sine qua non pour la survie de la biosphère, d'où la multiplication de conférences relatives à la biodiversité.

Elles peuvent être locales ou globales. Dans le cas d’une crise locale, seul un écosystème va être touché. Si l’espèce est endémique, la crise écologique pourra entraîner sa disparition. C’est par exemple le cas de plusieurs hominidés, comme le grand singe, dont il ne reste plus que quelques exemplaires.

Les conséquences des crises écologiques
Certaines espèces ont colonisé la totalité (ou presque) du globe terrestre, par exemple, l’espèce humaine, la fourmi, le moustique. D’autres espèces ne vivent pas sur la totalité du globe terrestre mais sont cependant représentées par un grand nombre de populations disséminées dans des écosystèmes similaires; c’est le cas du chêne qui existe dans pratiquement toutes les zones tempérées. Un nombre important d’espèces ne sont représentées que par un petit nombre de populations, en raison d’exigences climatiques assez fortes; c’est le cas par exemple du phoque (pour rappel, la population est un ensemble d’individus appartenant tous à la même espèce, et vivant au même endroit au même moment). Enfin, l’espèce dite endémique (une espèce endémique à un lieu est une espèce qui ne vit qu’à cet endroit) n’est représentée par une seule et unique population. La disparition de cette population (par exemple, suite à la destruction de son unique milieu de vie) entraînera la disparition de l’espèce. La destruction d’une région à endémisme élevée (comportant un grand nombre d’espèces endémiques) provoquera l’extinction d’un nombre significatif d’espèces et est donc particulièrement importante pour la conservation.

Une crise écologique locale peut avoir pour conséquence la mort de nombreux individus, la disparition d’une population, voire même d’une espèce si celle-ci était endémique. Selon l’espèce et son rôle dans l’écosystème, cette disparition peut entraîner une rupture plus ou moins importante dans la chaîne alimentaire et avoir un impact variable sur la survie des autres êtres vivants.

Dans le cas d’une crise globale, les conséquences peuvent être beaucoup plus importantes, puisque certaines extinctions ont vu la disparition de plus de 90% des espèces. Cependant, il faut noter que la disparition de certaines espèces, telles que les dinosaures, en libérant une niche écologique, ont permis le développement et la diversification des mammifères. Une crise écologique a donc paradoxalement favorisé la biodiversité.

Parfois, une crise écologique peut être un phénomène ponctuel et réversible à l’échelle d’un écosystème. Mais plus généralement, les crises écologique ont un impact majeur à plus long terme. En effet, il s’agit plutôt une succession d’évènements qui s’induisent les uns les autres, jusqu’à un certain point de rupture. A partir de ce stade, qui peut correspondre à la mort de nombreux individus et à l’extinction d’une ou plusieurs espèces, le retour en arrière au précédent état de stabilité n’est plus possible, et un nouvel état se mettra progressivement en place (on parle aussi d’homéorhésie).

Si une crise écologique peut être à l’origine d’extinction, elle peut aussi réduire la qualité de vie des individus restant en vie. Ainsi, même si la diversité de la population humaine est parfois considérée menacée (voir en particulier peuples indigènes), peu s’accordent à envisager la disparition de l’espèce humaine à court terme. Cependant, les maladies épidémiques, les famines, l’impact sur la santé de la dégradation de la qualité de l’air, les crises alimentaires (voir aussi biosûreté), la disparition des milieux de vie (voir écorefugiés), l’accumulation des déchets toxiques ou non dégradables, les menaces de disparitions d’espèces phares (telles les grand singes, le panda, la baleine) etc…sont aussi des facteurs impactant également le bien-être des gens (voir aussi éthique).

Quelques exemples
Les crises écologiques ne sont pas un phénomène récent. Les géologues ont mis en évidence l’occurrence de multiples crises globales ayant abouti à des extinctions massives d’espèces. Des hypothèses variées pourraient expliquer ces crises, la chute de météores, des modifications de l’activité solaire, recrudescence de l’activité volcanique, dérive des continents, etc…

Plus récente, la crise écologique européenne du XIVè siècle aboutit à une réduction considérable de la population humaine. Cette crise se produit alors que l'Europe était arrivée à la saturation de sa capacité de charge, compte tenu des techniques agraires connues (l'araire, le brûlis, la vaine pature) et compte tenu des prélèvements par les seigneurs inactif de l'époque (féodalisme). Dans cette situation de limitation des ressources alimentaires nécessaires à une population en pleine expansion, l'arrivée de la Grande Peste vers 1346, a entrainé la disparition de plus des deux tiers de la population européenne. La diffusion du microbe de la peste fut favorisé par les échanges maritimes, et le développement urbain de l'époque. A la suite de la diminution de la population, la capacité de charge européenne est redevenue suffisante, et la crise a modifié les techniques de production de l'époque, avec l'usage de la charrue en fer, et la polyculture élevage (pour laquelle le déchet d'une activité -la bouse- devient l'intrant d'une autre - l'engrais).

Au début du XIXè siècle, de nombreux spécialistes estiment qu’une crise écologique majeure est en train de se produire. Les arguments avancés sont :

Un des problèmes les plus cités est celui relatif au risque de réchauffement global lié à l'effet de serre, causé par la forte augmentation du dioxyde de carbone et du méthane dans l’atmosphère. Un réchauffement global pourrait entraîner l’inondation des deltas asiatiques (voir aussi écoréfugiés), la multiplication de phénomènes climatiques extrêmes et l’évolution de la nature et de la quantité des ressources alimentaires à la suite des impacts sur l’activité agricole.
 * Les évolutions atmosphériques

Parmi les autres problèmes globaux, on peut citer le trou de la couche d'ozone (ayant aboutit à l’interdiction de l’usage des chlorofluorocarbones CFC et autres gaz halogènes utilisés dans les sprays aérosol et les systèmes de réfrigération) ou les pluies acides liées aux émissions de soufre.

Dans de nombreuses contrées, la nature originelle a été remplacée par un milieu modifié par l'homme. Ainsi, en Europe, la majeure partie des forêts hercynienne a été défrichée et remplacée par des cultures intensives, des lacs artificiels aménagés, des landes plantées.
 * la dégradation, voir la disparition de certains habitats

Dans d'autres pays à sol fragile, telle que l'Amazonie, la déforestation de la forêt Amazonienne à fin de culture, aboutit fréquemment à des situations de désertification. En effet, les sols amazoniens sont assez pauvres et régulièrement abandonnés 3 à 4 ans après le défrichage.

Des marais salants ont été éliminés dans le cadre de la lutte contre les moustiques et pour le développement touristique.

La catastrophe de Tchernobyl en 1986 fut à l'origine de l'abandon de grandes surfaces arables, de déplacement massifs des populations, de cancers plus nombreux dans les populations locales et de la mort de très nombreux animaux. Enfin, des catastrophes maritimes récurrentes aboutissent à la pollution du milieu marin et des littoraux lors des dégazages ou largages d'hydrocarbures (voir Amoco cadiz par exemple).

Parmi les questions les plus pressantes figurent celles portant sur la disponibilité en eau et plus particulièrement en eau potable. La démographie galopante est à l'origine, localement, de surpopulation, elle entraîne d'une part des besoins croissants en eau (également lié à une augmentation de la qualité de la vie) et d'autre part des difficultés croissantes à gérer les pollutions de l'eau qui ne peuvent plus être prises en compte par le milieu naturel.
 * L’évolution de la disponibilité et qualité de l’eau

De façon similaire se pose le problème croissant de la gestion des déchets, en particulier dans les pays industriels. Les dernières décennies du Xxè siècle ont vu l’augmentation du nombre de déchets, dont en particulier les déchets toxiques (tel que la dioxine), les déchets ultimes de l’industrie nucléaire ou plus simplement de grandes quantités de déchets non-biodégradables. Ces déchets peuvent être à l’origine de cancers dans les populations. Dans certains pays, des décharges publiques gigantesques se sont développées.
 * L’évolution de la production de déchets

Une autre conséquence du développement de la présence humaine sur le globe est l'influence de l'introduction d'espèces exotiques, entrant en compétition avec les espèces locales (telles que la petite tortue de Floride offerte aux enfants, ensuite relachée dans la nature, ou l'algue caulerpa taxifolia en Méditerranée, ou encore l'invasion des lapins en Australie). Ces introductions furent souvent involontaires, disséminées par des bateaux ou avions. Certains craignent également l'influence que pourrait avoir la mise en culture de plantes génétiquement modifiées.
 * Modification des compétitions entre espèces

 * la multiplication de crises plus ou moins locales relatives à la biosûreté

vache folle, marées noires, sida

Au delà de la constatation de l’évolution des caractéristiques de la biosphère, les experts estiment que la disparition d’espèces se produit actuellement à un rythme très élevé. La destruction de ces milieux naturels, accompagnés de la dégradation des sols ont eu un impact sur la biodiversité (flore et faune), entraînant la disparition ou la raréfaction de nombreuses espèces, telles que le loup, l'ours brun, le bison, le lynx. Cependant, d'autres espèces ont pu prospérer dans les nouvelles niches écologiques.
 * le rythme élevé de disparition des espèces

Le développement des villes a réduit les aires de répartition des espèces, mais a pu en favoriser d'autres (présence de parcs et jardins)). Certaines espèces animales ont mis à profit l'existence des gares, des églises, des souterrains. Cependant, de nombreux animaux disparaissent écrasés sur les autoroutes, noyés dans les canaux, ou assommés contre des vitres.

Les causes de la crise écologique actuelle semblent être le produit du développement de plusieurs facteurs, dont il est difficile d’établir et de dater les causes. Il est cependant acquis que l’activité de l’espèce humaine en soit la première explication. L’impact aurait fortement augmenté, d’une part en raison de l’augmentation de la population totale (voir aussi transition démographique), d’autre part en raison du développement économique et industriels des dernières décennies du Xxè siècle (voir aussi développement durable).

Écologie humaine

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Les apiculteurs locaux disparaissant avec les abeilles, tandis que de plus en plus, le miel vient d'Asie. En cause : le Gaucho. Or, « Le jour où l’abeille disparaîtra, les jours de l’homme seront comptés » prédisait Albert Einstein cf par exemple http://www.bretagne-online.com/telegram/htdocs/archive/2001/20010214/24_HEURES/article/art_010A0B0000_2308330.htm (sur une seule ligne) JL

Jeudi 20 novembre 2003, 21h00

Toxicité du Gaucho: la filière apicole refuse les zones d'observation PARIS (AFP) - L'ensemble des partenaires de la filière apicole ont annoncé jeudi qu'ils refusaient de participer à la création des zones d'observation régionales des ruchers pour démontrer ou non la toxicité de pesticides comme le Gaucho ou le Régent. "Ils constatent que cette mise en place ne concerne pas toutes les cultures susceptibles d'être traitées avec le Gaucho et le Régent, recréant ainsi les conditions d'expérimentation de 1988 qui ne permettent en aucune façon l'émergence de conclusions irréfutables", écrivent six organisations de la filière agricole dans un communiqué publié par le Syndicat national d'apiculture (SNA). Une première zone où devaient être pratiquées des observations sur les abeilles dans le cadre d'un protocole mis au point sur l'utilisation de ces pesticides avait été annoncée le 12 novembre par le ministère de l'Agriculture. Située en Vendée et comptant plusieurs communes, cette zone doit être l'objet d'observations pendant une durée de deux ans, avait précisé le ministère. En janvier, le ministre de l'Agriculture Hervé Gaymard avait décidé de compléter l'étude multifactorielle visant à faire la lumière sur les causes de mortalité d'abeilles. Le ministre avait décidé de créer des zones d'observations régionales des ruchers réparties dans quatre régions de grandes cultures (Midi- Pyrénées, Bourgogne, Poitou-Charentes et Pays de la Loire) pour suivre l'évolution des populations d'abeilles dans des zones où sont utilisés les produits incriminés en comparaison avec des lieux où ces produits ne sont pas employés. Les apiculteurs accusent ces pesticides et ceux contenant la même molécule d'être la cause de la disparition des abeilles.

title: User:Anthere/Ecology


text:
Introsort

Introsort or introspective sort is a hybrid sorting algorithm that provides both fast average performance and (asymptotically) optimal worst-case performance. It begins with quicksort, it switches to heapsort when the recursion depth exceeds a level based on (the logarithm of) the number of elements being sorted and it switches to insertion sort when the number of elements is below some threshold. This combines the good parts of the three algorithms, with practical performance comparable to quicksort on typical data sets and worst-case O(n log n) runtime due to the heap sort. Since the three algorithms it uses are comparison sorts, it is also a comparison sort.

Introsort was invented by David Musser in, in which he also introduced introselect, a hybrid selection algorithm based on quickselect (a variant of quicksort), which falls back to median of medians and thus provides worst-case linear complexity, which is optimal. Both algorithms were introduced with the purpose of providing generic algorithms for the C++ Standard Library which had both fast average performance and optimal worst-case performance, thus allowing the performance requirements to be tightened. Introsort is in-place and a non-stable algorithm.

Pseudocode
If a heapsort implementation and partitioning functions of the type discussed in the quicksort article are available, the introsort can be described succinctly as

procedure sort(A : array): maxdepth ← ⌊log2(length(A))⌋ × 2 introsort(A, maxdepth) procedure introsort(A, maxdepth): n ← length(A) if n < 16: insertionsort(A) else if maxdepth = 0: heapsort(A) else: p ← partition(A) // assume this function does pivot selection, p is the final position of the pivot introsort(A[1:p-1], maxdepth - 1) introsort(A[p+1:n], maxdepth - 1)

The factor 2 in the maximum depth is arbitrary; it can be tuned for practical performance. $A[i:j]$ denotes the array slice of items $i$ to $j$ including both $A[i]$ and $A[j]$. The indices are assumed to start with 1 (the first element of the A array is A[1]).

Analysis
In quicksort, one of the critical operations is choosing the pivot: the element around which the list is partitioned. The simplest pivot selection algorithm is to take the first or the last element of the list as the pivot, causing poor behavior for the case of sorted or nearly sorted input. Niklaus Wirth's variant uses the middle element to prevent these occurrences, degenerating to O(n2) for contrived sequences. The median-of-3 pivot selection algorithm takes the median of the first, middle, and last elements of the list; however, even though this performs well on many real-world inputs, it is still possible to contrive a median-of-3 killer list that will cause dramatic slowdown of a quicksort based on this pivot selection technique.

Musser reported that on a median-of-3 killer sequence of 100,000 elements, introsort's running time was 1/200 that of median-of-3 quicksort. Musser also considered the effect on caches of Sedgewick's delayed small sorting, where small ranges are sorted at the end in a single pass of insertion sort. He reported that it could double the number of cache misses, but that its performance with double-ended queues was significantly better and should be retained for template libraries, in part because the gain in other cases from doing the sorts immediately was not great.

Implementations
Introsort or some variant is used in a number of standard library sort functions, including some C++ sort implementations.

The June 2000 SGI C++ Standard Template Library stl_algo.h implementation of unstable sort uses the Musser introsort approach with the recursion depth to switch to heapsort passed as a parameter, median-of-3 pivot selection and the Knuth final insertion sort pass for partitions smaller than 16.

The GNU Standard C++ library is similar: uses introsort with a maximum depth of 2×log2 n, followed by an insertion sort on partitions smaller than 16.

LLVM libc++ also uses introsort with a maximum depth of 2×log2 n, however the size limit for insertion sort is different for different data types (30 if swaps are trivial, 6 otherwise). Also, arrays with sizes up to 5 are handled separately. Kutenin (2022) provides an overview for some changes made by LLVM, with a focus on the 2022 fix for quadraticness.

The Microsoft .NET Framework Class Library, starting from version 4.5 (2012), uses introsort instead of simple quicksort.

Go uses a modification of introsort: for slices of 12 or less elements it uses insertion sort, and for larger slices it uses pattern-defeating quicksort and more advanced median of three medians for pivot selection. Prior to version 1.19 it used shell sort for small slices.

Java, starting from version 14 (2020), uses a hybrid sorting algorithm that uses merge sort for highly structured arrays (arrays that are composed of a small number of sorted subarrays) and introsort otherwise to sort arrays of ints, longs, floats and doubles.

pdqsort
Pattern-defeating quicksort (pdqsort) is a variant of introsort incorporating the following improvements:
 * Median-of-three pivoting,
 * "BlockQuicksort" partitioning technique to mitigate branch misprediction penalities,
 * Linear time performance for certain input patterns (adaptive sort),
 * Use element shuffling on bad cases before trying the slower heapsort.

pdqsort is used by Rust, GAP, and the C++ library Boost.

General

 * Niklaus Wirth. Algorithms and Data Structures. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985. ISBN 0-13-022005-1.
 * Niklaus Wirth. Algorithms and Data Structures. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985. ISBN 0-13-022005-1.

title: Introsort