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Department of Health and Social Care

The Department of Health and Social Care (DHSC) is a ministerial department of the Government of the United Kingdom. It is responsible for government policy on health and adult social care matters in England, along with a few elements of the same matters which are not otherwise devolved to the Scottish Government, Welsh Government or Northern Ireland Executive. It oversees the English National Health Service (NHS). The department is led by the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care with three ministers of state and three parliamentary under-secretaries of state.

The department develops policies and guidelines to improve the quality of care and to meet patient expectations. It carries out some of its work through arms-length bodies (ALBs), including executive non-departmental public bodies such as NHS England and the NHS Digital, and executive agencies such as the UK Health Security Agency and the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). The DHSC also manages the work of the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR).

The expenditure, administration and policy of the department are scrutinised by the Health and Social Care Select Committee.

History
Like many others, the department with responsibility for the nation's health has had different names and has included other functions at different times.

In the 19th century, several bodies were formed for specific consultative duties and were dissolved when they were no longer required. There were two incarnations of a Board of Health, in 1805 and 1831, and from 1854 to 1858 a General Board of Health reported directly to the Privy Council. Responsibility for health issues was also in part vested in local health boards, which existed from 1848 to 1894. In 1871, the Local Government Board was created to supervise such local functions as health and sanitation and also took over the functions of the Poor Law Board, which was abolished. The Public Health Act 1875 (38 & 39 Vict. c. 55) designated sanitary districts, which by the Local Government Act 1894 became rural and urban district councils. With the emergence of modern local government, some of its supervision was done by the Local Government Act Office, part of the Home Office.

The Ministry of Health Act 1919 abolished the Local Government Board and transferred its powers and duties to a new department called the Ministry of Health, which consolidated under a single authority the medical and public health functions of central government. This took on the medical duties of the Board of Education, the duties of the Privy Council under the Midwives Acts, the powers of the Home Secretary in relation to the Children Act 1908 (8 Edw. 7. c. 67), and the duties of the Insurance Commissioners and the Welsh Insurance Commissioners. In the early part of the 20th century, medical assistance had been provided through these National Health Insurance Commissions. Most of the Local Government Board staff transferred to the new ministry.

The co-ordination of local medical services was expanded in connection with emergency and wartime services, from 1935 to 1945, and these developments culminated in the establishment of the NHS in 1948.

In 1968, the Ministry of Health was dissolved and its functions transferred (along with those of the similarly dissolved Ministry of Social Security) to the newly created Department of Health and Social Security (DHSS). Twenty years later, in 1988, these functions were split back into two government departments, forming the Department of Social Security (DSS) and the Department of Health, formally created in through The Transfer of Functions (Health and Social Security) Order 1988.

Following the 2018 British cabinet reshuffle, the department was renamed the Department of Health and Social Care.

Location
The department's headquarters and ministerial offices are at 39 Victoria Street, London. The department moved from its previous location in Richmond House, Whitehall in November 2017. Its other principal offices are Skipton House (Elephant and Castle), Wellington House near Waterloo station and Quarry House in Leeds. Wellington House is now mainly occupied by staff from the department's arms-length bodies. New King's Beam House near Blackfriars Bridge was formerly a Department of Health office prior to the expiry of its lease in October 2011. Alexander Fleming House, Hannibal House and Eileen House (all in Elephant and Castle) were previously used by the department. The archives are at Nelson, Lancashire.

Ministers
The Department of Health and Social Care's ministers are as follows, with cabinet ministers in bold:

Permanent secretary
The permanent secretary at the Department of Health and Social Care is Sir Christopher Wormald KCB, who was appointed in 2016. Previous permanent secretaries:
 * Dame Una O'Brien 2010–2016
 * Sir Hugh Taylor KCB 2006–2010
 * Sir Nigel Crisp KCB 2000–2006
 * Sir Christopher Kelly KCB 1997–2000
 * Sir Graham Hart KCB 1992–?
 * Sir Christopher France GCB (DHSS including social security: 1987–1988, DH: 1987–1992)
 * Sir Kenneth Stowe GCB CVO 1981–1987 (DHSS)

Following the resignation of Sir Nigel Crisp in March 2006, a separate post of Chief Executive of the National Health Service in England was created, held by Sir David Nicholson. Following the Health and Social Care Act 2012 and the creation of the independent NHS Commissioning Board, known as NHS England, this post has evolved into Chief Executive of the new organisation.

Chief professional officers
The department has six chief professional officers who provide it with expert knowledge and also advise the Ministers, other government departments and the Prime Minister. The Chief Medical Officer and Chief Nursing Officer are also directors of the department's board.

Arms-length bodies (ALBs)
The department acts as a 'steward' for the health and adult social care system in England and oversees fifteen arms-length bodies (ALBs):

Executive agencies
The department has two executive agencies:
 * The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency has the specialist role of assessing, licensing and regulating medicines and medical devices for use in the United Kingdom.
 * Until April 1, 2021, Public Health England was responsible for delivering public health improvement through prevention and awareness raising and protection. It was replaced by a new agency UK Health Security Agency since April 2021, and became fully operational in October 2021.

Executive non-departmental public bodies
The department has thirteen executive non-departmental public bodies:
 * United Kingdom
 * The Human Tissue Authority regulates the use of human tissue in research and therapeutic treatments across the United Kingdom.
 * The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority, which regulates and inspects in vitro fertilisation, artificial insemination and the storage of human eggs, sperm or embryos. It also regulates human embryo research.
 * England and Wales
 * NHS Blood and Transplant, which is responsible for the supply of blood, organs, tissues and stem cells; their donation, storage and transportation.
 * The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), which provides advice on treatment procedures and assesses healthcare interventions for cost-effectiveness.
 * The NHS Business Services Authority provides business support services to NHS organisations, including the administration of the NHS pension scheme.
 * England only
 * The Care Quality Commission (CQC) has the primary function of inspecting providers of health and adult social care in England, ensuring that they meet essential standards of safety and quality.
 * NHS Digital, which provides statistical information and informatics support to the health and care system in England.
 * Health Education England is responsible for ensuring enough high-quality training is available to develop the healthcare workforce.
 * NHS England oversees the NHS in England, commissions specialised healthcare services and primary care services and oversees clinical commissioning groups and as of 1 April 2019 (formalised in June 2022,) oversees NHS trusts and foundation trusts in England, due to a merger with NHS Improvement which itself was only formed in April 2016 by combining:
 * Monitor, which oversaw foundation trusts and applications from NHS trusts seeking foundation trust status. It also had the new role of examining pricing and competition in the NHS.
 * The NHS Trust Development Authority had the function of helping NHS trusts achieve successful applications for foundation trust status.
 * The Health Research Authority protects and promotes the interests of patients and the public in health research.
 * NHS Resolution, handles negligence claims and helps the NHS learn lessons from claims to improve patient and staff safety.
 * The NHS Counter Fraud Authority, tasked with leading the fight against NHS Fraud and corruption.

Introduction of user charges for NHS services
The publication of Professor Lord Darzi's review of the NHS prompted criticism of the government and the Department of Health, claiming that it paved the way for user charging, and so contradicting the NHS Plan 2000 which stated that "user charges are unfair and inequitable in they increase the proportion of funding from the unhealthy, old and poor compared with the healthy, young and wealthy". The report also introduces the concept of personal budgets.

Fragmentation of NHS services
Darzi's report splits previously integrated services into 'core', 'additional' and 'enhanced' services, which critics say will lead to abandoning the open-ended duty of care on which the NHS was founded.

"Superbugs" and PFI
Fatal outbreaks of antibiotic-resistant bacteria ("superbugs"), such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Clostridium difficile, in NHS hospitals has led to criticism in 2008 of the department's decision to outsource cleaning via private finance initiative contracts as "cutting corners on cleaning".

A "Deep Clean" initiative announced by the Department of Health was criticised by infection control experts and by the Lancet as a gimmick which failed to address the causes of in-hospital infections, by the firms doing the work as an attempt to avoid paying for regular better cleaning, and by NHS managers as ineffective.

It also attracted criticism because only a quarter of the £60m funding for the scheme went to hospitals, and because a number of hospitals missed the completion target, and as of June 2008 one in four NHS trusts was not meeting the government's standards on hygiene.

Prescribing
Its advice to primary care on prescribing drugs such as proton pump inhibitors has been criticised as wasteful.

Medical training
The DH has attracted criticism for its handling of the outcome of Modernising Medical Careers, in particular in the changes it made to the specialist training of doctors and the Medical Training Application Service (MTAS). These changes left "29,193 junior doctors from the UK and overseas... chasing 15,600 posts..." and resulted in accusations that the DH had broken the law by refusing to reveal scores to candidates. Ultimately there was a judicial review and a boycott of the system by senior doctors across the country. MTAS was eventually scrapped and Patricia Hewitt, the then Secretary of State for Health, resigned following accusations that she had lied to the House of Commons over the system. Even after the abolition of MTAS, anger among the medical profession continued, with the British Medical Association commenting of the DH response that "Not only is this response too late, it does not go far enough".

The official government inquiry into MMC recommended that the responsibility for medical training be removed from the DH.

Recurrent NHS reorganisation
Successive DH ministerial teams have been criticised for repeated reorganisations of the NHS in England, where primary care commissioning responsibility, in particular, has been allocated to four different sets of organisations in the last ten years: PCGs, small area primary care trusts (PCTs) (e.g. covering a rural local authority district or part of a city), larger-area PCTs (e.g. covering a whole county), PCT clusters (e.g. quarter of London or South of Tyne and Wear) and the currently unspecified Clinical Commissioning Groups. The tendency to introduce each reorganisation before its predecessor has had time to settle down and generate improved performance has attracted censure amongst healthcare professions in the UK and beyond, including reference to the ironic concept of 'redisorganization'.

Andrew Lansley's promise before the 2010 general election not to impose top-down reorganisation, followed by the instigation from ministerial level of one of the most fundamental NHS reorganisations yet envisaged, has generated especially widespread opprobrium, although some commentators have also suggested that this is to some extent completing the job started under the Blair administration.The NHS as of 1 April 2013 is no longer situated within the DH, as NHS England also went 'live' at the same time. Therefore, the DH has a further scrutiny role of NHS services and commissioning.

Information technology
In recent years the Department of Health and the NHS have come under considerable scrutiny for its use of IT. Since being elected to power in 1997 the Labour government had sought to modernise the NHS through the introduction of IT. Although the policy is correct in aim, many claim its execution is lacking.

In September 2008 a new leadership team was established, CIO for Health, Christine Connelly, and director of programme and system delivery Martin Bellamy. Previous CIO Richard Granger was believed to have been the most highly paid civil servant in the UK and was a controversial figure. Connelly left the DH for a position in the Cabinet Office in June 2009 and was replaced by Tim Donohoe and Carol Clarke.

Connelly's role was to "deliver the Department's overall information strategy and integrating leadership across the NHS", according to the DH's website. That strategy, known as the National Programme for IT, is intended to do nothing less than revolutionise NHS information workflow and is costed at about £12.7bn. The success or otherwise of Connelly's reign will be based on her promise to end delays of electronic medical records. She has said that if there is not clear progress by November 2009, a new plan could be hatched.

On the eve of the departure of Fujitsu as an outsourcing partner, Connelly said in April 2009 that she would open up sourcing to competition at "acute" sites in the south of England and offer toolkits by March 2010 to allow more local configuration of systems.

In January 2009, MPs criticised DH for its confidentiality agreement with key supplier CSC and in March the department was admonished by the Information Commissioner for its records management. In May 2011, Prime Minister David Cameron announced that he was considering scrapping the project.

In 2022 Sajid Javid launched the Plan for Digital Health and Social Care, which includes "regulatory levers" will be used to: "signal that digitisation is a priority, identify the non-negotiable standards of digital capability, [and] explain how we will monitor and support compliance". Integrated care systems will be required to put in place a joined-up health and social care record by March 2025 in which all clinical teams will have access to a complete view of a person's record that they can contribute to. In 2022 86% of trusts had "some form of electronic patient record" but only 45% of social care providers used a digital social care record, and 23% of care home staff cannot access the internet consistently. The NHS app is to be a "digital front door" for patients, with increasing functionality to be added and remote consultations with GPs are to be encouraged. £25 million is to be provided in 2022/23 to support the rapid digitisation of social care, including adopting Digital Social Care Records.

2010–11 staffing cuts
In response to Government spending reduction targets following the 2008-9 international financial crisis and subsequent recession, DH in common with several other Government Departments resorted to large-scale staffing reductions. In order to minimise redundancy costs, the predominant impact was upon DH staff not employed through a traditional civil service 'headcount' contract, with a resultant emphasised effect upon more recent or innovative work-streams dependent upon seconded or externally hosted staff. This has attracted criticism from several of the professional and patient communities of interest concerned, for instance as regards the impact upon Improving Access to Psychological Therapies (IAPT) and the withdrawal of the practical assistance available to the NHS and local authorities via the national support teams.

Devolution
Most health policy in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland is devolved to the department's counterparts:
 * the Scottish Government Health and Wellbeing Directorate
 * the Welsh Government
 * the Department of Health, Northern Ireland Executive

The comparability factor (the proportion of spending in this area which is devolved) was 99.5% for all three countries for 2021/22.

A number of health issues are, however, wholly or partly reserved to Westminster:

Scotland

 * regulation of the health professions
 * xenotransplantation
 * embryology, surrogacy and human genetics
 * human fertilisation
 * medicines, medical supplies and poisons

Northern Ireland

 * xenotransplantation
 * surrogacy
 * human fertilisation and embryology
 * human genetics

In Northern Ireland, abortion law is a criminal justice matter and is devolved.

Wales

 * regulation of the health professions
 * abortion
 * xenotransplantation
 * embryology, surrogacy and human genetics
 * medicines, medical supplies and poisons

title: Department of Health and Social Care


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Burton, Missouri

Burton is an unincorporated community in Howard County, in the U.S. state of Missouri.

History
A post office called Burton was established in 1873, and remained in operation until 1935. The community has the name of Prior Burton, the original owner of the site.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Burton, Missouri


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New Cross railway station

New Cross railway station serves New Cross in south-east London, England. It is 4 mi down the line from London Charing Cross and is in London fare zone 2. The platforms are lettered rather than numbered to avoid confusion with those at New Cross Gate by staff who worked at both stations before privatisation of the stations in 1997. Platform D is used exclusively by London Overground services. Ticket barriers control access to all platforms.

History

In the early Victorian railway boom two companies constructed lines through the area. The London and Croydon Railway (L&CR) built a station on the New Cross Road close to Hatcham in 1839.

On 14 October 1844 a large fire that broke out in a paint shop destroyed carriage and engine sheds and workshops adjacent to the station. The fire was witnessed by Louis Philippe I, King of France who was travelling from the station to Dover.

On 30 July 1849 the South Eastern Railway (SER) opened a station at North Kent Junction when the North Kent line opened linking Strood with the London and Greenwich Railway route to London Bridge. This station proved inconvenient so a new station called New Cross & Naval School was opened by the SER in October 1850 located adjacent to the New Cross Road in the heart of New Cross. In 1854 the station was renamed New Cross. Accordingly, both the South Eastern Railway (SER) and the London Brighton & South Coast Railway had stations named New Cross which caused confusion until the two companies were absorbed under the 1923 grouping into the Southern Railway and the name of the older station was changed to New Cross Gate; the ex-South Eastern station remained New Cross.

On 7 December 1869 the East London Line opened serving the LBSCR New Cross station but it was not until 1 April 1880 that services (which started at Addiscombe and worked through to Liverpool Street) started operation via New Cross SER. Freight trains also operated via the East London Line and were hauled by Great Eastern Railway locomotives through to Hither Green Goods Yards. From 30 June 1911 East London Line passenger services south of New Cross ceased.

On 31 March 1913 electric passenger services operated by the Metropolitan Railway started operation from New Cross and worked through to Kensington Addison Road via Kings Cross.

After World War II and following nationalisation on 1 January 1948, the station was part of British Railways Southern Region.

The East London Line was closed to goods traffic in 1962.

In the 1950s and 1960s, London Underground planned a new line connecting north-west and south-east London. Approval for the first stage of the Fleet line (renamed the Jubilee line in 1975) to Charing Cross was granted in 1969, with second and third stages approved in 1971 and 1972. New Cross station was to be the penultimate station of phase 3 running to Lewisham. Southbound trains were to serve one of the existing platforms and northbound trains would have served a new platform in tunnel beneath the station. Although phases 2 and 3 were not carried out due to a lack of funds, a 200 yd section of the northbound tunnel was constructed near New Cross in 1972 to test new tunnelling techniques.

The station was rebuilt in the 1970s and the original station buildings on the road bridge were replaced in 1975 by a wooden building which opened in Amersham Vale. Platforms on the down and up fast lines were closed and demolished and a new track layout was introduced at this time in connection with the wider London Bridge re-signaling scheme.

In 1985, the present buildings in Amersham Vale opened.

Until 22 December 2007 London Underground used to serve this station as the southern terminus to their East London Line. This closed for major engineering work to convert the East London Line to standard 750 V third rail electrification. The line reopened on 27 April 2010 with services now operated by London Overground using Capitalstar units.

Carriage Shed
A 6 siding carriage shed was located just north of the station. Built by the East London Railway the shed was leased by the Metropolitan Railway and continued in service until the line closed in 2007. When the line re-opened the new Capitalstar units were maintained at a new depot at New Cross Gate.

Services
Services at New Cross are operated by Southeastern and London Overground using, , , and  EMUs.

The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is:
 * 6 tph to London Cannon Street
 * 2 tph to Orpington via Grove Park
 * 2 tph to Dartford via Woolwich Arsenal
 * 2 tph to Slade Green via Bexleyheath, continuing to London Cannon Street via Woolwich Arsenal and Greenwich
 * 4 tph to Dalston Junction via Surrey Quays

Additional services, including trains to and from London Cannon Street via Sidcup call at the station during the peak hours.

Connections
London Buses routes 53, 177, 225, 453 and night routes N53 and N89 serve the station.

Accidents

 * The Spa Road Junction rail crash occurred outside the station on 8 January 1999.
 * On 10 January 2022, a passenger train ran into the buffer stop at New Cross.

title: New Cross railway station


text:
Erindale College

Erindale College may refer to:

 * Erindale College (Wanniassa, Australian Capital Territory), a secondary college
 * Erindale College, an alternate name for the University of Toronto Mississauga in Erindale, Ontario

title: Erindale College


text:
Administrative divisions of Mumbai

The city of Mumbai, Maharashtra, India, is divided into administrative divisions. Greater Mumbai is the urban agglomeration of 18 million people (the largest in India and one of the six largest in the world) which comes under the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai. The Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai employs 140,626 people. The Corporation operates an annual budgetary outlay in excess of Rs. 30,000 Crores.

The two major offices in the City Government are those of Mayor of Mumbai and the Municipal Commissioner of Mumbai. The office of the Mayor combines a functional role of chairing the Corporation meeting as well as ceremonial role associated with being the First Citizen of the premier city of India. Per the amended Municipal Corporation Act of 1888, a Deputy Mayor is appointed by the Mayor. The tenure of the Mayor and Deputy Mayor is two and a half years. The Commissioner, a key figure in the local self-government, is the executive head. He is the final administrative authority for the local self-government of Mumbai.

For administrative purposes, Greater Mumbai is divided into 7 zones, each consisting of 3 to 5 wards named alphabetically. All the information below is public domain information obtained from government sources and is accurate as of 1993, except the population statistics which are accurate.

Zone 1
Zone 1 consists of Wards A, B, C, D and E

Ward A
Areas under this ward are Fort, parts of Ballard Estate, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, P D'Mello Road, Marine Drive (Queen's Necklace), AP Marg, Carnac Road (Lokmanya Tilak Marg) and Colaba.

 * Population: 210,926 (as per 2001 census)
 * Eating houses: 414
 * Municipal hospitals: 1
 * Other hospitals: 17
 * Cemeteries: 19
 * Schools: 52

Ward B
Areas under this ward are parts of P D'Mello road, IR Road, Abdul Rehman Street, RB Marg, MA Road, JMR Marg and Carnac Road (Lokmanya Tilak Marg). Other hospitals: 4
 * Area: 2.47 km2.
 * Population: 140,480 (as per 2001 census)
 * Eating houses: 385
 * Municipal hospitals: 0
 * Cemeteries: 2
 * Schools: 23

Ward C
Areas under this ward are Chandanwadi, parts of IR Road, Abdul Rehman Street, Netaji Subhash Road, Maulana Shaukatali Road, Trimbak Parshuram St., Ardeshir Dady Jaykar St, Vitthalbhai Patel Road, Babasaheb J. Marg, Lokmanya Tilak Marg, Vasudeo Balvant Phadke Chowk, Anandilal Poddar Marg and Marine Drive.
 * Area: 1.78 km2.
 * Population: 190,670 (as per 2001 census)
 * Eating houses: 296
 * Municipal hospitals: 0
 * Other hospitals: 2
 * Cemeteries: 5
 * Schools: 44

Ward D
Areas under this ward are Grant Road, Dr.D.B.Marg, V. P. Road, Ardeshir Dadi Street, Trimbak Parshuram Street, Sukhiaji Street, Netaji Subhash Road, D. N. Purandare Marg, Walkeshwar Road, B. lndrajit Road, Breach Candy up to Haji Ali, Boman Behram Marg, Aurthur Road, Tardeo Road, Cumballa and Malabar Hills, Keshavrao Khade Marg, B. Jaikar Marg up to Bhuleshwar Naka, Crossing M. K. Road up to Seashore.
 * Area: 6.63 km2.
 * Population: 378,610 (as per 2001 census)
 * Eating houses: 2,108
 * Municipal hospitals: 0
 * Other hospitals: 0
 * Cemeteries: 3
 * Schools: 42

Ward E
Areas under this ward are Byculla, parts of Reay Road, West Sane Guruji Marg, Jahangir Boman Behram Marg, Sukhalaji Street, Dattaram Lad Marg, South Ramchandra Bhatt Marg, Wadi Bunder and Maulana Shaukataii Road.
 * Area: 7.4 km2.
 * Population: 439,390 (as per 2001 census)
 * Eating houses: 311
 * Municipal hospitals: 3
 * Other hospitals: 13
 * Cemeteries: 9
 * Schools: 73

Zone 2
Zone 2 consists of Wards F and G, comprising a population of approximately 2 million as of 1991.

Ward F North
Areas under this ward are Matunga, parts of Thane Creek and Mankikar Marg.
 * Area: 12.98 km2.
 * Population: 5,29,034 (as per 2011 census)
 * Eating houses: 169
 * Municipal hospitals: 1
 * Other hospitals: 3
 * Cemeteries: 9
 * Schools: 69

Ward F South
Parel comes under this area.
 * Area: 14 km2.
 * Population: 417,551 (per 1991 census)
 * Eating houses: 333
 * Municipal hospitals: 2
 * Other hospitals: 3
 * Cemeteries: 5
 * Schools: 103

Ward G North
Dadar comes under this area.
 * Area: 9.07 km2.
 * Population: 537,032 (per 1991 census)
 * Eating houses: 398
 * Municipal hospitals: 1
 * Other hospitals: 5
 * Cemeteries: 8
 * Schools: 64

Ward G South
N. M. Joshi Marg and Worli comes under this area.
 * Area: 10 km2.
 * Population: 516,552 (per 1991 census)
 * Eating houses: 247
 * Municipal hospitals: 0
 * Other hospitals: 5
 * Cemeteries: 5
 * Schools: 104

Zone 3
This zone consists of wards H and K.

Ward H East
Areas under this ward are Eastern parts of Bandra, Khar, Santacruz, parts of CST Road, Vile Parle, Mahim and Dharavi.
 * Area: 18.53 km2.
 * Population: 478,413 (per 1991 census)
 * Eating houses: 159
 * Municipal hospitals: 1
 * Other hospitals: 1
 * Cemeteries: 6
 * Schools: 63 + 2 for intellectually challenged children

Ward H West
Areas under this ward are Bandra, parts of Khar and Santacruz.
 * Area: 11.55 km2.
 * Population: 322,141 (per 1991 census)
 * Eating houses: 217
 * Municipal hospitals: 1
 * Other hospitals: 4
 * Cemeteries: 8
 * Schools: 44

Ward K East
Andheri (East) Vile Parle (East) Jogeshwari (East)

Ward K West
Areas under this ward are Andheri (West) and Oshiwara.
 * Area: 23.39 km2.
 * Population: 691,000 (per 2001 census)
 * Eating houses: 283
 * Municipal hospitals: 1
 * Cemeteries: 17
 * Schools: 542

Zone 4
This zone consists of wards P and R.

Ward P North
Malad comes under this ward.
 * Area: 19.13 km2.
 * Population: 559,283 (per 1991 census)
 * Eating houses: 216
 * Municipal hospitals: 2
 * Cemeteries: 24
 * Schools: 13

Ward P South
Areas under this ward are Goregaon, parts of Malad and Oshiwara.
 * Area: 24.44 km2.
 * Population: 364,469 (per 1991 census)
 * Eating houses: 187
 * Municipal hospitals: 1
 * Other hospitals: 44
 * Cemeteries: 2
 * Schools: 51

Ward R Central
Areas under this ward are bhandup Sanjay Gandhi National Park (National Park), Gorai, Kulvem Village (Devidas Lane) N.D. Zone to Link Road from Devidas lane to N.C. Phadke fly over bridge and Daulat Nagar, Cemetery River to Nancy Colony 44'-0 wide Road, Chogale Nagar, Borivali (E). Khatao Estate, Bhor Industries 90'-0 wide D.P. Road, Railway subway Poisar Depot, 90'-0 Borsapada Road. Mahavir Nagar RDP-4, Charkop up to Creek.
 * Area : 50sq.km.
 * Population: 6,81,377

Ward R North
Dahisar comes under this ward.

Ward R South
Kandivali comes under this ward Thakur complex, Thakur Village, Lokhandwala Township, MG Road Kandivali (West), Patel Nagar, Mathuradas Road etc.

Zone 5
This zone consists of wards L and M comprising a total population of approximately 1.4 million.

Ward L
Areas under this ward are Kurla, Chandivali, Saki Naka, Tunga village, parts of Powai.
 * Area: 13.46 km2.
 * Population: 8,92,278 (per 2011 census)
 * Eating houses: 256
 * Municipal hospitals: 1
 * Other hospitals: 0
 * Cemeteries: 2
 * Schools: 85

Full Address - BMC SG Barve Marg,Ambedkar Nagar,kurla West,Mumbai Maharashtra 400070

Ward M East
Govandi and few area of Chembur comes under this ward. (Pin code - 400088, 400043 & Half area of 400074)
 * Area: 32.5 km2.
 * Population: 8,06,433 (per 2011 census)
 * Eating houses: 2270
 * Municipal hospitals: 1
 * Other hospitals: 55
 * Cemeteries: 4
 * Schools: 202

Ward M West
G.M. Link Road to Suman Nagar Junction and from Mahul to Somayya Nallah (Pin code - 400089, 400071 & half area of 400074)
 * Area: 19.37 km2.
 * Population: 4,13,727 (per 2011 census)
 * Municipal hospitals: 1
 * Other hospitals: 60
 * Cemeteries: 3
 * Police Stations: 4

Zone 6
This zone consists of wards N, S and T.

Ward N
Ghatkopar comes under this ward.
 * Area: 39 km2.
 * Population: 510,708 (per 1991 census)
 * Eating houses: 209
 * Municipal hospitals: 3
 * Other hospitals: 80
 * Cemeteries: 6
 * Schools: 102

Ward S
Bhandup comes under this ward.
 * Area: 250 km2.
 * Population: 743,783 (per 1991 census)
 * Eating houses: 159

Ward T
Mulund comes under this ward.
 * Area: 45.41 km2.
 * Population: 288,158 (per 1991 census)
 * Eating houses: 179
 * Municipal hospitals: 2
 * Other hospitals: 20
 * Cemeteries: 3
 * Schools: 49

title: Administrative divisions of Mumbai


text:
Castleton

Castleton may refer to:

Canada

 * Castleton, Ontario

Jamaica

 * Castleton Gardens, a botanical garden near Kingston

England

 * Castleton, Derbyshire
 * Castleton, Dorset
 * Castleton, Greater Manchester
 * Castleton, North Yorkshire

Scotland

 * Castleton, Scottish Borders (Roxburghshire)
 * Castleton, Angus, a village

Wales

 * Castleton, Newport

United States

 * Castleton, Indiana, a neighborhood (formerly a separate small town) in Indianapolis
 * Castleton Square, a large mall in Castleton, Indiana
 * Castleton, Kansas
 * Castleton, Maryland
 * Castleton Township, Michigan
 * Castleton, Staten Island, in New York City
 * Castleton-on-Hudson, New York, in Rensselaer County
 * Castleton, Utah, a ghost town
 * Castleton Tower, Moab, Utah
 * Castleton, Vermont
 * Castleton (village), Vermont, in the town of Castleton
 * Castleton University
 * Castleton, Virginia

Surname

 * Roy Castleton
 * Gavin Castleton
 * Castleton baronets, a title in the Baronetage of England

Other

 * Castleton station (disambiguation), stations of the name
 * Castleton China, a line of fine china and tableware produced by Shenango China, based in New Castle, Pennsylvania

title: Castleton


text:
Talk:Günter Wand

Untitled
It's very nice to see that an article on Wand has been added, but now I'm confused about the correct spelling of his first name. I'm pretty sure there ought to be an umlaut over the "u", but now I have no idea if the second syllable should be "ter" or "ther". - Dmetric

 * The Penguin Dictionary of Music gives him without an H, so I've taken it out the article (didn't notice it was there before). --Camembert

website
The link at the bottom for his website is now defunct.--72.94.172.49 (talk) 07:09, 20 December 2014 (UTC)

Positions
The box does not cite Wand as having occupied a formal position either at the Gürzenich or Cologne Radio Symphony. Is that right?

Also the sentence "In 1974, he left Cologne to conduct the WDR" looks weird to me since the WDR (West German Radio) is based in Cologne. S.Camus 08:26, 21 April 2007 (UTC)

The sentence in the article 'In 1948, he also started teaching conducting at a music school in Cologne.' could be simplified to 'In 1948 he taught conducting in Cologne.'≈≈≈≈ — Preceding unsigned comment added by Richard Wynne-Jones (talk • contribs) 04:12, 12 April 2020 (UTC)

The opening sentence 'In February 1924, aged 12, Wand attended a performance of Der Zigeunerbaron at the Thalia Theatre in Wuppertal-Elberfeld, and was so entranced he decided to become a conductor.' could be re-written thus; 'At the age of 12, in February 1924, Wand attended a performance of Der Zigeunerbaron at the Thalia Theatre in Wuppertal-Elberfeld. He was so entranced by this experience he decided to become an orchestral conductor'Richard Wynne-Jones (talk) 04:46, 12 April 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Günter Wand


text:
Talk:First Intifada

Requested move 13 May 2021

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Not moved  (t · c)  buidhe  06:55, 27 May 2021 (UTC)

First Intifada → First Palestinian Intifada – Rename per WP:CONCISE there have been multiple events named Intifada in the Arab World over the past century. Specifically, the first events named Intifada were the 1952 Egyptian revolution and parallel Iraqi Intifada (1952). Later those were followed by Bahraini March Intifada in 1960s, the Sahrawi Zemla Intifada in 1970s, LEbanese February 6 Intifada in early 1980s (all being essentially "First Intifada"s) and only later in 1987 was the first Palestinian Intifada. Some sources which utilize the term "First Intifada" deal specifically with the Israeli-Palestinian event in retrospective and hence drop "Palestinian" from the term, while during the event itself it was rather branded "the Palestinian Intifada", the the "87 Intifada" - same as sources dealing with World War I referred to it as "the World War". It is certainly not the "First Intifada", but rather only in the Palestinian context. GreyShark (dibra) 09:23, 13 May 2021 (UTC) —Relisting. ~ Aseleste  (t, e | c, l) 02:47, 21 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Comment - note that the Second Palestinian Intifada article is now at Al-Aqsa Intifada renamed to this title in 2019, now proposed for another title discussion.GreyShark (dibra) 09:29, 13 May 2021 (UTC)
 * It isn't now. – wbm1058 (talk) 14:57, 25 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Support It is true there have been others, so First is not very precise. It's an aka anyway.Selfstudier (talk) 09:59, 13 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Oppose - The full term "First Palestinian Intifada" is not very common. I don't believe the extra disambiguation is necessary: the first couple of pages of a Google Scholar search for "first intifada" all refer to the Palestinian intifada and not any other. Rublov (talk) 12:18, 13 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Oppose. I concur with Rublov. This seems like a case for disambiguation, but only as a hatnote on this article. — Goszei (talk) 17:45, 17 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Oppose per WP:COMMONNAME and WP:CONCISE. Rreagan007 (talk) 03:24, 21 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Second Palestinian Intifada redirects to Second Intifada. – wbm1058 (talk) 14:57, 25 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Oppose by far the primary topic for this, I'm unaware of a single other thing called the first intifada except for the first time by a user on this talk page. That somebody thinks some other event is essentially a "First Intifada", what matters is that sources nearly uniformly refer to the First Intifada as the First Intifada.  nableezy  - 15:12, 25 May 2021 (UTC)

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 20 December 2022
Please change "The impact on the Israeli services sector, including the important Israeli tourist industry, was notably negative." to "While filled with suffering and terror, the First Intifada became beneficial to the Palestinians. It solidified a clear and focused national consciousness for Palestine and the peoples need for statehood. The First Intifada brought a negative light to Israel on the world stage as many witnessed the horrors the Israeli Forces were capable of in trying to maintain their political legitimacy. The conflict also cost Israel hundreds of millions of dollars in lost tourism and imports." Stitch2016 (talk) 04:15, 20 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: This language seems to violate WP:NPOV. ScottishFinnishRadish (talk) 17:25, 20 December 2022 (UTC)

Casus belli
In the introduction it is written "an Israeli Defense Forces' (IDF) truck collided with a civilian car, killing four Palestinian workers", but I don't see any reference that says that the truck was indeed one of the IDF. If it was an IDF's truck indeed, a reference saying so is, in my opinion, much needed. Otherwise, it would be good to edit this part out. Thank you Nausicaasbel (talk) 14:03, 24 October 2023 (UTC)

 * Changed to Israeli truck driver per sources. Selfstudier (talk) 11:27, 9 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:First Intifada


text:
Motte-and-bailey castle

A motte-and-bailey castle is a European fortification with a wooden or stone keep situated on a raised area of ground called a motte, accompanied by a walled courtyard, or bailey, surrounded by a protective ditch and palisade. Relatively easy to build with unskilled labour, but still militarily formidable, these castles were built across northern Europe from the 10th century onwards, spreading from Normandy and Anjou in France, into the Holy Roman Empire, as well as the Low Countries it controlled, in the 11th century, when these castles were popularized in the area that became the Netherlands. The Normans introduced the design into England and Wales. Motte-and-bailey castles were adopted in Scotland, Ireland, and Denmark in the 12th and 13th centuries. By the end of the 13th century, the design was largely superseded by alternative forms of fortification, but the earthworks remain a prominent feature in many countries.

Structures
A motte-and-bailey castle was made up of two structures: a motte (a type of mound – often artificial – topped with a wooden or stone structure known as a keep); and at least one bailey (a fortified enclosure built next to the motte). The constructive elements themselves are ancient, but the term motte-and-bailey is a relatively modern one and is not medieval in origin. The word motte is the French version of the Latin mota, and in France, the word motte, generally used for a clump of turf, came to refer to a turf bank, and by the 12th century was used to refer to the castle design itself. The word "bailey" comes from the Norman-French baille, or basse-cour, referring to a low yard. In medieval sources, the Latin term castellum was used to describe the bailey complex within these castles.

One contemporary account of these structures comes from Jean de Colmieu around 1130, describing the Calais region in northern France. De Colmieu described how the nobles would build "a mound of earth as high as they can and dig a ditch about it as wide and deep as possible. The space on top of the mound is enclosed by a palisade of very strong hewn logs, strengthened at intervals by as many towers as their means can provide. Inside the enclosure is a citadel, or keep, which commands the whole circuit of the defences. The entrance to the fortress is by means of a bridge, which, rising from the outer side of the moat and supported on posts as it ascends, reaches to the top of the mound". At Durham Castle, contemporaries described how the motte-and-bailey superstructure arose from the "tumulus of rising earth" with a keep rising "into thin air, strong within and without" with a "stalwart house...glittering with beauty in every part".

Motte
Mottes were made out of earth and flattened on top, and it can be very hard to determine whether a mound is artificial or natural without excavation. Some were also built over older artificial structures, such as Bronze Age barrows. The size of mottes varied considerably, with these mounds being 3 metres to 30 metres in height (10–100 feet), and from 30 to 90 m in diameter. This minimum height of 3 m for mottes is usually intended to exclude smaller mounds which often had non-military purposes. In England and Wales, only 7% of mottes were taller than 10 m high; 24% were between 10 and 5 m, and 69% were less than 5 m tall. A motte was protected by a ditch around it, which would typically have also been a source of the earth and soil for constructing the mound itself.

A keep and a protective wall would usually be built on top of the motte. Some walls would be large enough to have a wall-walk around them, and the outer walls of the motte and the wall-walk could be strengthened by filling in the gap between the wooden walls with earth and stones, allowing it to carry more weight; this was called a garillum. Smaller mottes could support only simple towers with room for a few soldiers, whilst larger mottes could be equipped with a much grander building. Many wooden keeps were designed with bretèches, or brattices, small balconies that projected from the upper floors of the building, allowing defenders to cover the base of the fortification wall. The early 12th-century chronicler Lambert of Ardres described the wooden keep on top of the motte at the castle of Ardres, where the "first storey was on the surface of the ground, where were cellars and granaries, and great boxes, tuns, casks, and other domestic utensils. In the storey above were the dwelling and common living rooms of the residents in which were the larders, the rooms of the bakers and butlers, and the great chamber in which the lord and his wife slept ... In the upper storey of the house were garret rooms ... In this storey also the watchmen and the servants appointed to keep the house took their sleep". Wooden structures on mottes could be protected by skins and hides to prevent their being easily set alight during a siege.

Bailey
The bailey was an enclosed courtyard overlooked by the high motte and surrounded by a wooden fence called a palisade and another ditch. The bailey was often kidney-shaped to fit against a circular motte but could be made in other shapes according to the terrain. The bailey would contain a wide number of buildings, including a hall, kitchens, a chapel, barracks, stores, stables, forges or workshops, and was the centre of the castle's economic activity. The bailey was connected to the motte by a bridge, or, as often seen in England, by steps cut into the motte. Typically the ditch of the motte and the bailey joined, forming a figure of eight around the castle. Wherever possible, nearby streams and rivers would be dammed or diverted, creating water-filled moats, artificial lakes and other forms of water defences.

In practice, there was a wide number of variations to this common design. A castle could have more than one bailey: at Warkworth Castle an inner and an outer bailey was constructed, or alternatively, several baileys could flank the motte, as at Windsor Castle. Some baileys had two mottes, such as those at Lincoln. Some mottes could be square instead of round, such as at Cabal Tump (Herefordshire). Instead of single ditches, occasionally double-ditch defences were built, as seen at Berkhamsted. Local geography and the intent of the builder produced many unique designs.

Construction and maintenance
Various methods were used to build mottes. Where a natural hill could be used, scarping could produce a motte without the need to create an artificial mound, but more commonly much of the motte would have to be constructed by hand. Four methods existed for building a mound and a tower: the mound could either be built first, and a tower placed on top of it; the tower could alternatively be built on the original ground surface and then buried within the mound; the tower could potentially be built on the original ground surface and then partially buried within the mound, the buried part forming a cellar beneath; or the tower could be built first, and the mound added later.

Regardless of the sequencing, artificial mottes had to be built by piling up earth; this work was undertaken by hand, using wooden shovels and hand-barrows, possibly with picks as well in the later periods. Larger mottes took disproportionately more effort to build than their smaller equivalents, because of the volumes of earth involved. The largest mottes in England, such as that of Thetford Castle, are estimated to have required up to 24,000 man-days of work; smaller ones required perhaps as little as 1,000. Contemporary accounts talk of some mottes being built in a matter of days, although these low figures have led to suggestions by historians that either these figures were an underestimate, or that they refer to the construction of a smaller design than that later seen on the sites concerned. Taking into account estimates of the likely available manpower during the period, historians estimate that the larger mottes might have taken between four and nine months to build. This contrasted favourably with stone keeps of the period, which typically took up to ten years to build. Very little skilled labour was required to build motte and bailey castles, which made them very attractive propositions if forced peasant labour was available, as was the case after the Norman invasion of England. Where the local workforce had to be paid – such as at Clones in Ireland, built in 1211 using imported labourers – the costs would rise quickly, in this case reaching £20.

The type of soil would make a difference to the design of the motte, as clay soils could support a steeper motte, whilst sandier soils meant that a motte would need a more gentle incline. Where available, layers of different sorts of earth, such as clay, gravel and chalk, would be used alternatively to build in strength to the design. Layers of turf could also be added to stabilise the motte as it was built up, or a core of stones placed as the heart of the structure to provide strength. Similar issues applied to the defensive ditches, where designers found that the wider the ditch was dug, the deeper and steeper the sides of the scarp could be, making it more defensive. Although militarily a motte was, as Norman Pounds describes it, "almost indestructible", they required frequent maintenance. Soil wash was a problem, particularly with steeper mounds, and mottes could be clad with wood or stone slabs to protect them. Over time, some mottes suffered from subsidence or damage from flooding, requiring repairs and stabilisation work.

Although motte-and-bailey castles are the best-known castle design, they were not always the most numerous in any given area. A popular alternative was the ringwork castle, involving a palisade being built on top of a raised earth rampart, protected by a ditch. The choice of motte and bailey or ringwork was partially driven by terrain, as mottes were typically built on low ground, and on deeper clay and alluvial soils. Another factor may have been speed, as ringworks were faster to build than mottes. Some ringwork castles were later converted into motte-and-bailey designs, by filling in the centre of the ringwork to produce a flat-topped motte. The reasons for why this decision was taken are unclear; motte-and-bailey castles may have been felt to be more prestigious, or easier to defend; another theory is that like the terpen in the Netherlands, or Vorburg and Hauptburg in Lower Rhineland, raising the height of the castle was done to create a drier site.

Emergence of the design
The motte-and-bailey castle is a particularly western and northern European phenomenon, most numerous in France and Britain, but also seen in Denmark, Germany, Southern Italy and occasionally beyond. European castles first emerged between the Loire river and the Rhine in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes and local territories became threatened by the Magyars and the Norse. Against this background, various explanations have been put forward to explain the origins and spread of the motte-and-bailey design across western and northern Europe; there is often a tension among the academic community between explanations that stress military and social reasons for the rise of this design. One suggestion is that these castles were built particularly in order to protect against external attack – the Angevins, it is argued, began to build them to protect against the Viking raids, and the design spread to deal with the attacks along the Slav and Hungarian frontiers. Another argument is that, given the links between this style of castle and the Norman style, who were of Viking descent, it was in fact originally a Viking design, transported to Normandy and Anjou. The motte-and-bailey castle was certainly effective against assault, although as historian André Debord suggests, the historical and archaeological record of the military operation of motte-and-bailey castles remains relatively limited.

An alternative approach focuses on the links between this form of castle and what can be termed a feudal mode of society. The spread of motte-and-bailey castles was usually closely tied to the creation of local fiefdoms and feudal landowners, and areas without this method of governance rarely built these castles. Yet another theory suggests that the design emerged as a result of the pressures of space on ringworks and that the earliest motte-and-baileys were converted ringworks. Finally, there may be a link between the local geography and the building of motte-and-bailey castles, which are usually built on low-lying areas, in many cases subject to regular flooding. Regardless of the reasons behind the initial popularity of the motte-and-bailey design, however, there is widespread agreement that the castles were first widely adopted in Normandy and Angevin territory in the 10th and 11th centuries.

Initial development, 10th and 11th centuries
The earliest purely documentary evidence for motte-and-bailey castles in Normandy and Angers comes from between 1020 and 1040, but a combination of documentary and archaeological evidence pushes the date for the first motte and bailey castle, at Vincy, back to 979. The castles were built by the more powerful lords of Anjou in the late 10th and 11th centuries, in particular Fulk III and his son, Geoffrey II, who built a great number of them between 987 and 1060. Many of these earliest castles would have appeared quite crude and rustic by later standards, belying the power and prestige of their builders. William the Conqueror, as the Duke of Normandy, is believed to have adopted the motte-and-bailey design from neighbouring Anjou. Duke William went on to prohibit the building of castles without his consent through the Consuetudines et Justicie, with his legal definition of castles centring on the classic motte-and-bailey features of ditching, banking and palisading.

By the 11th century, castles were built throughout the Holy Roman Empire, which then spanned central Europe. They now typically took the form of an enclosure on a hilltop, or, on lower ground, a tall, free-standing tower (German Bergfried). The largest castles had well-defined inner and outer courts, but no mottes. The motte-and-bailey design began to spread into Alsace and the northern Alps from France during the first half of the 11th century, spreading further into Bohemia and Austria in the subsequent years. This form of castle was closely associated with the colonisation of newly cultivated areas within the Empire, as new lords were granted lands by the emperor and built castles close to the local gród, or town. motte-and-bailey castle building substantially enhanced the prestige of local nobles, and it has been suggested that their early adoption was because they were a cheaper way of imitating the more prestigious Höhenburgen built on high ground, but this is usually regarded as unlikely. In many cases, bergfrieds were converted into motte and bailey designs by burying existing castle towers within the mounds.

In England, William invaded from Normandy in 1066, resulting in three phases of castle building in England, around 80% of which were in the motte-and-bailey pattern. The first of these was the establishment by the new king of royal castles in key strategic locations, including many towns. These urban castles could make use of the existing town's walls and fortification, but typically required the demolition of local houses to make space for them. This could cause extensive damage: records suggest that in Lincoln 166 houses were destroyed in the construction of Lincoln Castle, and that 113 were destroyed for the castle in Norwich and 27 for the castle in Cambridge. The second and third waves of castle building in the late-11th century were led by the major magnates and then the more junior knights on their new estates. Some regional patterns in castle building can be seen – relatively few castles were built in East Anglia compared to the west of England or the Marches, for example; this was probably due to the relatively settled and prosperous nature of the east of England and reflected a shortage of unfree labour for constructing mottes. In Wales, the first wave of the Norman castles was again predominantly made of wood in a mixture of motte-and-bailey and ringwork designs. The Norman invaders spread up the valleys, using this form of castle to occupy their new territories. After the Norman conquest of England and Wales, the building of motte-and-bailey castles in Normandy accelerated as well, resulting in a broad swath of these castles across the Norman territories, around 741 motte-and-bailey castles in England and Wales alone.

Further expansion, 12th and 13th centuries
Having become well established in Normandy, Germany and Britain, motte-and-bailey castles began to be adopted elsewhere, mainly in northern Europe, during the 12th and 13th centuries. Conflict through the Low Countries encouraged castle building in a number of regions from the late 12th century to the 14th century. In Flanders, the first motte and bailey castles began relatively early at the end of the 11th century. The rural motte-and-bailey castles followed the traditional design, but the urban castles often lacked the traditional baileys, using parts of the town to fulfil this role instead. Motte-and-bailey castles in Flanders were particularly numerous in the south along the Lower Rhine, a fiercely contested border. Further along the coast in Friesland, the relatively decentralised, egalitarian society initially discouraged the building of motte and bailey castles, although terpen, raised "dwelling mounds" which lacked towers and were usually lower in height than a typical motte, were created instead. By the end of the medieval period, however, the terpen gave way to hege wieren, non-residential defensive towers, often on motte-like mounds, owned by the increasingly powerful nobles and landowners. On Zeeland the local lords had a high degree of independence during the 12th and 13th centuries, owing to the wider conflict for power between neighbouring Flanders and Friesland. The Zeeland lords had also built terpen mounds, but these gave way to larger werven constructions–effectively mottes–which were later termed bergen. Sometimes both terpen and werven are called vliedburg, or "refuge castles". During the 12th and 13th centuries a number of terpen mounds were turned into werven mottes, and some new werven mottes were built from scratch. Around 323 known or probable motte and bailey castles of this design are believed to have been built within the borders of the modern Netherlands.

In neighbouring Denmark, motte-and-bailey castles appeared somewhat later in the 12th and 13th centuries and in more limited numbers than elsewhere, due to the less feudal society. Except for a handful of mote and bailey castles in Norway, built in the first half of the 11th century and including the royal residence in Oslo, the design did not play a role further north in Scandinavia.

The Norman expansion into Wales slowed in the 12th century but remained an ongoing threat to the remaining native rulers. In response, the Welsh princes and lords began to build their own castles, frequently motte-and-bailey designs, usually in wood. There are indications that this may have begun from 1111 onwards under Prince Cadwgan ap Bleddyn, with the first documentary evidence of a native Welsh castle being at Cymmer in 1116. These timber castles, including Tomen y Rhodywdd, Tomen y Faerdre, Gaer Penrhôs, were of equivalent quality to the equivalent Norman fortifications in the area, and it can prove difficult to distinguish the builders of some sites from the archaeological evidence alone. Motte-and-bailey castles in Scotland emerged as a consequence of the centralising of royal authority in the 12th century. David I encouraged Norman and French nobles to settle in Scotland, introducing a feudal mode of landholding and the use of castles as a way of controlling the contested lowlands. The quasi-independent polity of Galloway, which had resisted the rule of David and his predecessors, was a particular focus for this colonisation. The size of these Scottish castles, primarily wooden motte and bailey constructions, varied considerably, from larger designs such as the Bass of Inverurie to smaller castles like Balmaclellan.

Motte-and-bailey castles were introduced to Ireland following the Norman invasion of Ireland that began between 1166 and 1171 under first Richard de Clare and then Henry II of England, with the occupation of southern and eastern Ireland by a number of Anglo-Norman barons. The rapid Norman success depended on key economic and military advantages; their cavalry enabled Norman successes in battles, and castles enabled them to control the newly conquered territories. The new lords rapidly built castles to protect their possessions; most of these were motte-and-bailey constructions, many of them strongly defended. Unlike Wales, the indigenous Irish lords do not appear to have constructed their own castles in any significant number during the period. Between 350 and 450 motte-and-bailey castles are believed to remain today, although the identification of these earthwork remains can be contentious.

A small number of motte-and-bailey castles were built outside of northern Europe. In the late-12th century, the Normans invaded southern Italy and Sicily; although they had the technology to build more modern designs, in many cases wooden motte-and-bailey castles were built instead for reasons of speed. The Italians came to refer to a range of different castle types as motta, however, and there may not have been as many genuine motte-and-bailey castles in southern Italy as was once thought on the basis of the documentary evidence alone. In addition, there is evidence of the Norman crusaders building a motte and bailey using sand and wood in Egypt in 1221 during the Fifth Crusade.

Conversion and decline, 13th–14th centuries
Motte-and-bailey castles became a less popular design in the mid-medieval period. In France, they were not built after the start of the 12th century, and mottes ceased to be built in most of England after around 1170, although they continued to be erected in Wales and along the Marches. Many motte-and-bailey castles were occupied relatively briefly; in England, many had been abandoned or allowed to lapse into disrepair by the 12th century. In the Low Countries and Germany, a similar transition occurred in the 13th and 14th centuries.

One factor was the introduction of stone into castle buildings. The earliest stone castles had emerged in the 10th century, with stone keeps being built on mottes along the Catalonia frontier and several, including Château de Langeais, in Angers. Although wood was a more powerful defensive material than was once thought, stone became increasingly popular for military and symbolic reasons. Some existing motte-and-bailey castles were converted to stone, with the keep and the gatehouse usually the first parts to be upgraded. Shell keeps were built on many mottes, circular stone shells running around the top of the motte, sometimes protected by a further chemise, or low protective wall, around the base. By the 14th century, a number of motte and bailey castles had been converted into powerful stone fortresses.

Newer castle designs placed less emphasis on mottes. Square Norman keeps built in stone became popular following the first such construction in Langeais in 994. Several were built in England and Wales after the conquest; by 1216 there were around 100 in the country. These massive keeps could be either erected on top of settled, well-established mottes or could have mottes built around them – so-called "buried" keeps. The ability of mottes, especially newly built mottes, to support the heavier stone structures, was limited, and many needed to be built on fresh ground. Concentric castles, relying on several lines of baileys and defensive walls, made increasingly little use of keeps or mottes at all.

Across Europe, motte-and-bailey construction came to an end. At the end of the 12th century, the Welsh rulers began to build castles in stone, primarily in the principality of North Wales and usually along the higher peaks where mottes were unnecessary. In Flanders, a decline came in the 13th century as feudal society changed. In the Netherlands, cheap brick started to be used in castles from the 13th century onwards in place of earthworks, and many mottes were levelled, to help develop the surrounding, low-lying fields; these "levelled mottes" are a particularly Dutch phenomenon. In Denmark, motte and baileys gave way in the 14th century to a castrum-curia model, where the castle was built with a fortified bailey and a fortified mound, somewhat smaller than the typical motte. By the 12th century, the castles in Western Germany began to thin in number, due to changes in land ownership, and various mottes were abandoned. In Germany and Denmark, motte-and-bailey castles also provided the model for the later wasserburg, or "water castle", a stronghold and bailey construction surrounded by water, and widely built in the late medieval period.

Today
In England, motte-and-bailey earthworks were put to various uses over later years; in some cases, mottes were turned into garden features in the 18th century, or reused as military defences during the Second World War. Today, almost no mottes of motte-and-bailey castles remain in regular use in Europe, with one of the few exceptions being that at Windsor Castle, converted for the storage of royal documents. Another example is Durham Castle in northern England, where the round tower is used for student accommodation. The landscape of northern Europe remains scattered with their earthworks, and many form popular tourist attractions.

title: Motte-and-bailey castle


text:
Booster (rocketry)

A booster is a rocket (or rocket engine) used either in the first stage of a multistage launch vehicle or in parallel with longer-burning sustainer rockets to augment the space vehicle's takeoff thrust and payload capability. Boosters are traditionally necessary to launch spacecraft into low Earth orbit (absent a single-stage-to-orbit design), and are especially important for a space vehicle to go beyond Earth orbit. The booster is dropped to fall back to Earth once its fuel is expended, a point known as booster engine cut-off (BECO).

Following booster separation, the rest of the launch vehicle continues flight with its core or upper-stage engines. The booster may be recovered, refurbished and reused, as was the case of the steel casings used for the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters.

Drop-away engines
The SM-65 Atlas rocket used three engines, one of which was fixed to the fuel tank, and two of which were mounted on a skirt which dropped away at BECO. This was used as an Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM); to launch the crewed Project Mercury capsule into orbit; and as the first stage of the Atlas-Agena and Atlas-Centaur launch vehicles.

Strap-on
Several launch vehicles, including GSLV Mark III and Titan IV, employ strap-on boosters. NASA's Space Shuttle was the first crewed vehicle to use strap-on boosters. Launch vehicles like Delta IV Heavy and Falcon Heavy employ strap-on liquid rocket boosters.

Recoverable
The booster casings for the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters were recovered and refurbished for reuse from 1981 to 2011 as part of the Space Shuttle program.

In a new development program initiated in 2011, SpaceX developed reusable first stages of their Falcon 9 rocket. After launching the second stage and the payload, the booster returns to launch site or flies to a drone ship and lands vertically. After landing multiple boosters both on land and on drone ships in 2015–2016, a landed stage was first reflown in March 2017: Rocket core B1021 that had been used to launch a re-supply mission to the ISS when new in April 2016 was subsequently used to launch the satellite SES-10 in March 2017. The program was intended to reduce launch prices significantly, and by 2018, SpaceX had reduced launch prices on a flight-proven boosters to US$50 million, the lowest price in the industry for medium-lift launch services.

By August 2019, the recovery and reuse of Falcon 9 boosters had become routine, with booster landings/recovery being attempted on more than 90 percent of all SpaceX flights, and successful landings and recoveries occurring 65 times out of 75 attempts. In total 25 recovered boosters have been refurbished and subsequently flown a second time by late 2020, with several having been flown a third time as well.

In late 2020, Rocket Lab guided the booster of their Electron rocket for a splashdown in the Pacific Ocean with a parafoil after launching the Return to Sender mission, as part of a program to catch the booster with a helicopter and reuse it on later missions.

Use in aviation
Rocket boosters used on aircraft are known as jet-assisted take-off (JATO) rockets.

Various missiles also use solid rocket boosters. Examples are:
 * 2K11 (SA-4) which uses SRBs as a first stage, and then a ramjet.
 * S-200 (SA-5) which uses SRBs as the first stage, followed by a liquid fuel rocket.
 * Surface and submarine launched versions of the turbojet-powered Boeing Harpoon and many other cruise missiles use an SRB.

title: Booster (rocketry)


text:
Talk:Road traffic safety

GrdnAngel
Thank you for the contribution, however, I have deleted your latest entry because of insufficient encyclopedic content and information relating to the main article. Please don't get discouraged, but I would suggest that you may first commence an article of your own, reference it, polish it as close to perfection as possible, (share it with the community for opinion on where the article should reside) and then publish it. Please also keep in mind that Wikipedia is more about Quality, not quantity. Best regards --Lperez:00, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

Road safety
Significations of road safety 106.211.111.131 (talk) 06:22, 9 September 2022 (UTC)

Social
The role of citizens in preventing the road accidents 103.149.16.186 (talk) 14:51, 20 October 2022 (UTC)

Indicators
The use of deaths per billion vehicle kilometers as an indicator is not the usual -worldwide- indicator, WHO (World Health Organization) publishes the data in relation to 100.000 persons see Global status report on road safety 2018.

it is suggested to move the article to the common -worldwide- indicator. Milton (talk) 09:45, 1 April 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Road traffic safety


text:
Talk:List of Chinese Americans

An Rong Xu recently added
The entry for An Rong Xu recently added is not well sourced. There is no Wikipedia page for Xu, the sources seem to be a pointer to article which has a photo bylined by Xu, and to a page of his photographs. However a little searching persuades me that Xu might be a notable Chinese-American worthy of a Wikipedia page. So maybe, instead of flagging that entry, somebody can work on creating such a page? would this be something you would work on? M.boli (talk) 21:45, 27 November 2016 (UTC)
 * Actually, if one looks carefully (deep) within the non-New York Times source cited, there is an indication of Xu being Chinese American. The New York Times source quotes Xu as the photographer, which in itself lends an element of notability. I believe Xu is highly notable for photography work as a Chinese American, and I agree with you that it is a shame that there is not yet a separate Wikipedia article for Xu. Unfortunately, I do not have the time to put a notable article together yet at the moment. But if someone could just start a stub article for now, that would be helpful. Best, Castncoot (talk) 15:46, 28 November 2016 (UTC)

Can we get some photos?
Can we get some photos? Alexysun (talk) 05:45, 30 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of Chinese Americans


text: Talk:Music of Estonia

title: Talk:Music of Estonia


text:
Talk:24th century

"2305 AD" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has asked for a discussion to address the redirect 2305 AD. Please participate in the redirect discussion if you wish to do so. TheAwesome Hwyh  22:44, 28 March 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:24th century