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Walter Rodney

Walter Anthony Rodney (23 March 1942 – 13 June 1980) was a Guyanese historian, political activist and academic. His notable works include How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, first published in 1972. He was killed in Georgetown, Guyana, in 1980.

Early career
Walter Anthony Rodney was born in 1942 into a working-class family in Georgetown, Guyana. He attended the University College of the West Indies in 1960 and was awarded a first-class honours degree in history in 1963. He earned a PhD in African History in 1966 at the School of Oriental and African Studies in London, England, at the age of 24. His dissertation, which focused on the slave trade on the Upper Guinea Coast, was published by the Oxford University Press in 1970 under the title A History of the Upper Guinea Coast 1545–1800 and was widely acclaimed for its originality in challenging the conventional wisdom on the topic.

Rodney travelled widely and became known internationally as an activist, scholar and formidable orator. He taught at the University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania during the periods 1966–67 and 1969–1974 and in 1968 at his alma mater University of the West Indies at Mona, Jamaica. He was sharply critical of the middle class for its role in the post-independence Caribbean. He was also a strong critic of capitalism and argued that only under "the banner of Socialism and through the leadership of the working classes" could Africa break from imperialism.

On 15 October 1968, the government of Jamaica, led by prime minister Hugh Shearer, declared Rodney persona non grata. The decision to ban him from ever returning to Jamaica and his subsequent dismissal by the University of the West Indies, Mona, caused protests by students and the poor of West Kingston that escalated into a riot, known as the Rodney Riots, resulting in six deaths and causing millions of dollars in damages. The riots, which began on 16 October 1968, triggered an increase in political awareness across the Caribbean, especially among the Afrocentric Rastafarian sector of Jamaica, documented in Rodney's book The Groundings with my Brothers, published by Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications in 1969.

In 1969, Rodney returned to the University of Dar es Salaam. He was promoted to senior lecturer there in 1971 and promoted to associate professor in 1973. He worked at the university until 1974 when he returned to Guyana. He was promised a professorship at the University of Guyana in Georgetown but the Forbes Burnham government rescinded the offer when Rodney arrived in Guyana.

Rodney was close to C.L.R. James, among others, and supported the socialist government of Julius Nyerere. While his academic work contributed "to the emergence of decolonised African social sciences," Rodney worked to disseminate knowledge in Tanzanian villages, where he spoke in Kiswahili, the language of the people. He continued his pan-African activism and, analysing the causes of the continent's underdevelopment, published How Europe Underdeveloped Africa in 1972. With a view to the Pan-African Congress of 1974, he prepared a text on the "international class struggle in Africa, the Caribbean and America." In this landmark work, Rodney denounced leaders who, like Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Jean-Claude Duvalier, Idi Amin Dada and Joseph Mobutu, were turning to tribalism under the guise of "negritude."

Rodney became a prominent Pan-Africanist and Marxist, and was important in the Black Power movement in the Caribbean and North America. While living in Dar es Salaam, he was influential in developing a new centre of African learning and discussion.

Later life
In 1974, Rodney returned to Guyana from Tanzania. He was due to take up a position as a professor at the University of Guyana, but the Guyanese government prevented his appointment. Increasingly active in politics, he joined the Working People's Alliance (WPA), a party that provided the most effective and credible opposition to the People's National Congress government and aimed to "create political consciousness, replacing ethnic politics with revolutionary organisations based on class solidarity." In 1979, he was arrested and charged with arson after two government offices were burned. The trial was deferred three times and later dropped due to lack of evidence.

Death
On 13 June 1980, Rodney was killed in Georgetown, at the age of 38, by a bomb explosion in his car, a month after he returned from celebrations of independence in Zimbabwe at a time of intense political activism. He was survived by his wife, Patricia, and three children. His brother, Donald Rodney, who was injured in the explosion, said that a sergeant in the Guyana Defence Force and a member of the House of Israel, named Gregory Smith, had given Walter the bomb that killed him. After the killing, Smith fled to French Guiana, where he died in 2002.

Aftermath
It is widely believed, but not proven, that the assassination was set up by Guyana's president, Linden Forbes Burnham. Rodney believed that the various ethnic groups historically disenfranchised by the ruling colonial class should work together, a position that challenged Burnham's hold on power.

In 2014, a Commission of Inquiry (COI) was held during which a new witness, Holland Gregory Yearwood, came forward claiming to be a long-standing friend of Rodney and a former member of the WPA. Yearwood testified that Rodney presented detonators to him weeks prior to the explosion asking for assistance in assembling a bomb. Yet the same Commission of Inquiry (COI) concluded in their report that Rodney's death was a state-ordered killing, and that then Prime Minister Forbes Burnham must have had knowledge of the plot.

Donald Rodney, Walter's brother, was in the car with him during the time of the assassination, and was convicted in 1982 of possessing explosives in connection with the incident that killed his brother. On 14 April 2021, the Guyana Court of Appeals overturned this judgment and Donald's sentence, exonerating him after forty years in which he contested his conviction.

On 9 August 2021, the National Assembly of Guyana voted to adopt "Resolution No. 23" to implement the 2016 findings of "The Commission of Inquiry Appointed to Enquire and Report on the Circumstances Surrounding the Death in An Explosion of the Late Dr. Walter Rodney on Thirteenth Day of June, One Thousand, Nine Hundred and Eighty at Georgetown".

Academic influence
Walter Rodney's most influential book is How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, published in 1972 by [Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications, London, England and the Tanzanian Publishing House (TPH) Dar es Salaam Tanzania. In it Rodney described how Africa had been exploited by European imperialists, which he argued led directly to the modern underdevelopment of most of the continent. The book became influential as well as controversial: it was groundbreaking in that it was among the first to bring a new perspective to the question of underdevelopment in Africa. Rodney's analysis went far beyond the previously accepted approach in the study of Third World underdevelopment. "'Instead of being interested primarily in the interrelations of African trade and politics, as many of us were at that time, Rodney focused his attention on the agricultural basis of African communities, on the productive forces within them and on the processes of social differentiation. As a result, his research raised a fresh set of questions concerning the nature of African social institutions on the Upper Guinea coast in the sixteenth century and of the impact of the Atlantic slave trade. In doing so, he helped to open up a new dimension to the study of colonialism in Africa. Almost immediately his work stimulated further writing and research on West Africa, and he initiated a debate, which still continues and now extends across the whole range of African history.""When teaching at the Universities of Dar es Salaam and the West Indies, he launched and sustained a large number of discussion groups which swept up and embraced many who had had little or no formal education. As a writer, he reached out to contact thousands in The Groundings with my Brothers (1969) and in his influential How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (1972).' — Remarks by Professor John Richard Gray, History Today, Vol. 49, Issue 9, 1980.""'When we think of Walter Rodney as a Revolutionary Scholar we are talking about two things, Radical Scholar and his revolutionary contribution to the study of History ie. History of Africa. Walter Rodney was a pioneering scholar who provided new answers to old questions and posed new questions in relation to the study of Africa.' — Remarks by Professor Winston McGowan at the Walter Rodney Commemorative Symposium held at York College, USA, in June 2010." "'Walter Rodney was no captive intellectual playing to the gallery of local or international radicalism. He was clearly one of the most solidly ideologically situated intellectuals ever to look colonialism and its contemporary heir black opportunism and exploitation in the eye.' — Remarks by Wole Soyinka, Oduduwa Hall, University of Ife, Nigeria, Friday, 27 June 1980."

In his book "The Enduring Relevance of How Europe Underdeveloped Africa" Karim Hirji states that "Walter Rodney wrote about a continent that had been misrepresented, devalued, and denigrated for centuries. Those portrayals had justified the subjugation and exploitation of its people. So, he did not mince words when characterizing that reality. If anything, he deserves praise for breaking the silence, and jarring the conscience of his colleagues"

"The Caribbean has been deprived of a great creative mind; but Walter Rodney had achieved at an early age, the special distinction of being a permanent part of a unique tradition of intellectual leadership among Africans and people of African descent in the Americas. He belongs to the same order of importance as Marcus Garvey and W.E.B Dubois, George Padmore and C.L.R James. Products of various doctrines of imperialism, they had initiated through the work, as writers and orators of distinction, a profound reversal of values. It is not possible to have a comprehensive view of all the ramifications of Africa's encounter with Europe without reference to these men. Walter Rodney consolidated and extended that work. His scholarship was sure, but it was also a committed and partisan scholarship. He believed that history was a way of ordering knowledge which could become an active part of the consciousness of an uncertified mass of ordinary people and which could be used by all as an instrument of social change. He taught from that assumption. He wrote out of that conviction. And it seemed to have been the informing influence on his relations with the organized working people of Guyana" (George Lamming 1981)

"In many ways Walter Rodney was the best of the UWI, a brilliant young intellectual, rooted in Caribbean development discourse; A student demonstrating his extraordinary intellectual gifts in his participation in pedagogy around African and Caribbean history and translating that knowledge into community activism, representing the intersection between scholarship and social activism. Walter Rodney's moment in the 1960s represented the midpoint of the UWI's academic journey, in that he was participating in that transition that pushed the UWI away from 30 years of the colonial scaffold as it was seeking to lay the foundation for the nationalist, regional, liberational liberating university. His conception of history as concept for understanding the past and at the same time developing an empirical base for political action. What he presented was liberation history and in so doing, he connected campus to community to global liberation. The success with which he executed these projects enabled him to emerge within a short time as a phenomenal icon of academia.

Walter Rodney would have been conscious therefore of the colonial UWI at pain to give birth to a university that was rooted in the intellectual and political work of the region. His moment therefore was the highpoint in the decolonisation of the intersection between the UWI and the wider Caribbean.

His was a humanist history, a humanist political practice. He saw the entire Caribbean World as his community. He was not a nationalist, though he recognized that the Caribbean in its diversity was structured in terms of multiple nations and communities. He was able to develop both a specific practice as well as a Caribbean and global practice. Historicising then his role; at the beginning he was the energy source that sought to push the University and the Region away from the colonial scaffold to enable West Indian/Caribbean identity to emerge with its own authenticity. The loss of his mind, his energy, his personhood and his friendship, has been a tremendous tragedy for the region and for the world. We lost arguably one of the finest minds this region has ever produced" (Professor Sir Hilary Beckles, Vice Chancellor, University of the West Indies)

In a new foreword to Rodney's book, academic and political activist Angela Davis writes: "To mark time," he [Rodney] insists, "or even to move slowly while others leap ahead is virtually equivalent to going backward". In How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, Walter Rodney painstakingly argues that imperialism and the various processes that bolstered colonialism created impenetrable structural blockades to economic, and thus also, political and social progress on the continent. At the same time his argument is not meant to absolve Africans of the "ultimate responsibility for development." Davis also draws attention to the fact that Rodney did not ignore gender issues. On the contrary, he addresses the role of gender. He pointed out that under colonialism, African women's “social, religious, constitutional, and political privileges and rights disappeared while the economic exploitation continued and was often intensified".

Rodney's community-grounded approach to mass education during the 1960s and his detailed descriptions of his pedagogical approach in Groundings (1969) document his role as an important critical pedagogue and contemporary of Paulo Freire.

Honors and awards
Rodney's death was commemorated in a poem by Martin Carter entitled "For Walter Rodney," by the dub poet Linton Kwesi Johnson in "Reggae fi Radni," and by Kamau Brathwaite in his poem "Poem for Walter Rodney" (Elegguas, 2010). David Dabydeen also wrote a poem on Rodney in his 1988 collection Coolie Odyssey.

In 1977, the African Studies Centre at Boston University inaugurated the Walter Rodney Lecture Series.

In 1982, the American Historical Association posthumously awarded Walter Rodney the Albert J. Beveridge Award for A History of the Guyanese Working People, 1881-1905.

In 1984, the Centre for Caribbean Studies at the University of Warwick established the Walter Rodney Memorial Lecture in recognition of the life and work of one of the most outstanding scholar-activists of the Black Diaspora in the post-World War II era.

In 1993, the Guyanese government posthumously awarded Walter Rodney Guyana's highest honour, the Order of Excellence of Guyana. The Guyanese government also established the Walter Rodney Chair in History at the University of Guyana.

In 1998, the Institute of Caribbean Studies at the University of the West Indies inaugurated the Walter Rodney Lecture Series.

In 2004, Rodney's widow Patricia and his children donated his papers to the Robert L. Woodruff Library of the Atlanta University Center. Since 2004, an annual Walter Rodney Symposium has been held each 23 March (Rodney's birthday) at the Center under the sponsorship of the Library and the Political Science Department of Clark Atlanta University, and under the patronage of the Rodney family.

In 2005, the London Borough of Southwark erected a plaque in the Peckham Library Square in commemoration of Dr. Walter Rodney, the political activist, historian and global freedom fighter.

In 2006, an International Conference on Walter Rodney was held at the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Dar es Salaam.

In 2006, the Walter Rodney Essay Competition was established in the Department of Afro-American and African Studies at the University of Michigan.

In 2006, the Walter Rodney Foundation was established by the Rodney family. It is headquartered in Atlanta and aims to share the works and legacy of Rodney with the world.

In 2010, the Walter Rodney Commemorative Symposium was held at York College.

The Department of African American Studies at Syracuse University has established the Angela Davis/Walter Rodney Award of Academic Achievement.

The Department of Afro-American and African Studies (DAAS) at the University of Michigan established the DuBois-Mandela-Rodney Postdoctoral Fellowship Program.

In 2012, the Walter Rodney Conference celebrating the 40th anniversary of the publication of How Europe Underdeveloped Africa was held at Binghamton University.

In 2022, at the 36th Elsa Goveia Memorial Lecture, 50th Anniversary of Dr. Walter Rodney's Book: "How Europe Underdeveloped Africa", was presented by Horace G. Campbell at University of the West Indies.

Rodney is the subject of the 2010 documentary film by Clairmont Chung, W.A.R. Stories: Walter Anthony Rodney.

The Walter Rodney Close in the London Borough of Newham has been named in honour of Rodney.

Walter Rodney is listed on the Black Achievers Wall in the International Slavery Museum, Liverpool, UK.

In 2022 and 2023, SAVVY Contemporary, an independent art space in Berlin (Germany), dedicated a research, performance and exhibition project, titled to Walter Rodney, fifty years after the publication of How Europe Underdeveloped Africa.

Father-and-son filmmaking duo Arlen Harris and Daniyal Harris-Vadja directed a 2023 documentary exploring Rodney's life, Walter Rodney: What They Don’t Want You to Know.

Works

 * The Groundings with my Brothers (London: Bogle L'Ouverture Publications, 1969)
 * West Africa and the Atlantic Slave-Trade (1970)
 * A History of the Upper Guinea Coast 1545–1800 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970)
 * How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (1972)
 * World War II and the Tanzanian Economy (1976)
 * Guyanese Sugar Plantations in the Late Nineteenth Century: a Contemporary Description from the "Argosy" (Georgetown, Guyana: Release Publications, 1979)
 * Marx in the Liberation of Africa (1981)
 * A History of the Guyanese Working People, 1881–1905 (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981)
 * Walter Rodney Speaks: the Making of an African Intellectual (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1990)
 * Kofi Baadu Out of Africa (Georgetown, Guyana), children's book
 * Lakshmi Out of India (Georgetown, Guyana: The Guyana Book Foundation, 2000), children's book
 * The Russian Revolution: A View from the Third World (New York: Verso Books, 2018)
 * Decolonial Marxism: Essays from the Pan-African Revolution (New York: Verso Books, 2022)
 * "African History in the Service of the Black Liberation", lecture presented at the Congress of Black Writers, Montreal, Canada, 12 October 1968
 * "George Jackson: Black Revolutionary" in Maji Maji, (5): 4–6 (1971)
 * Street speech given in Guyana
 * "African slavery and other forms of social oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast, 1580–1650, Journal of African History, 7(3):431–43.
 * Portuguese attempts at monopoly on the Upper Guinea Coast", Journal of African History. 6(3):307-22.
 * "The impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade in West Africa", in Roland Oliver (editor), The Middle Age of African History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967.
 * "Education and Tanzanian socialism", in Resnick (editor), Tanzania: Revolution by Education, Longmans of Tanzania, Arusha, 1968.
 * "European activity and African reaction in Angola", in Terence Ranger (editor), Aspects of Central African History, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1968.
 * "The role of the university in developing Africa", Public Lecture, Makerere Students Guild, Makerere University, Kampala, October 1970.
 * "African labour under capitalism and imperialism", Cheche, University of Dar es Salaam, November 1969, 1:4–12.
 * "Ideology of the African revolution: Paper presented at the 2nd seminar of East and Central African Youth", The Nationalist (Dar es Salaam), 11 October 1969.
 * "The Colonial Economy", in A. Boahen (editor), African under colonial domination 1880–1935, Heinemann and UNESCO, California, 1985.
 * "The political economy of colonial Tanganyika 1890–1930", in M. H. Kaniki, Tanzania Under Colonial Rule, Longman, London,1980.
 * "Africa in Europe and the Americas", in Richard Gray (editor), The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 4:c.1600–c.1790, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1975.
 * "The Guinea Coast", in Richard Gray (editor), The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 4:c.1600–c.1790, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1975.
 * "Some implications of the question of disengagement from imperialism", Maji Maji, University of Dar es Salaam, January 1971, 1:3–8
 * "State formation and class formation in Tanzania", Maji Maji, 1973, 11:25–32.
 * "Slavery and underdevelopment", in M. Craton (editor), Roots and Branches: Current directions in Slave Studies, New York: Pergamon Press, 1979.
 * "Class contradictions in Tanzania", in H. Othman (editor), The State in Tanzania: Who controls it and whose interests does it serve, Dar es Salam: Dar es Salaam University Press, 1980.
 * "A Reconsideration of the Mane Invasions of Sierra Leone". In: Journal of African History, 1967a, 8/2, 219–246.
 * "Resistance and accommodation in Ovimbundu/Portuguese relations". History departmental seminar, University of Dar es Salaam (1972b)
 * "The year 1895 in southern Mozambique: African resistance to the imposition of European colonial rule", Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 1971, 5 (4): 509–35.

title: Walter Rodney


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Efferent

Efferent may refer to:

Anatomical structures
Meaning 'conveying away from a center':
 * Efferent arterioles, conveying blood away from the Bowman's capsule in the kidney
 * Efferent nerve fiber, carries nerve impulses away from the central nervous system toward the peripheral effector organs
 * Efferent lymph vessel, lymph vessels that carry lymph from a lymph node
 * Efferent ducts, connect the rete testis with the initial section of the epididymis

Other uses

 * Efferent coupling, a metric in software development

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Efferent


text:
Talk:The Spike (Broderick book)

Paperback came out in 1997 and was reviewed then. It was reprinted as a hardcover in 2001 and again as a paperback in 2002. --Uncle Ed

title: Talk:The Spike (Broderick book)


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Arnaud de Borchgrave

Arnaud Charles Paul Marie Philippe de Borchgrave (26 October 1926 – 15 February 2015) was a Belgian–American journalist who specialized in international politics. Following a long career with the news magazine Newsweek, covering 17 wars in 30 years as a foreign correspondent, he held key editorial and executive positions with The Washington Times and United Press International. Borchgrave was also a founding member of Newsmax Media.

Early life and education
Borchgrave was born in Brussels into the De Borchgrave d'Altena family. He was the son of Belgian Count Baudouin de Borchgrave d'Altena, later head of military intelligence for the Belgian government in exile during World War II, and his British wife Audrey Dorothy Louise Townshend. His mother was the daughter of Major General Sir Charles Townshend and his French wife, Alice Cahen d'Anvers, who appeared in a notable 1881 portrait alongside her sister in Pierre-Auguste Renoir's Pink and Blue. His maternal great-grandfather was Count Louis Cahen d'Anvers, a prominent French banker. He was a descendant of George Townshend, 1st Marquess Townshend, through his second son, Lord John Townshend.

Borchgrave was educated in Belgium, at King's Canterbury in England, and in the United States.

In 1940, as Belgium fell to Nazi Germany's invasion, he and his family escaped on a freighter, and were rescued by a British destroyer after the freighter's captain had attempted to divert to Hamburg.

Royal Navy
From 1942 to 1946, during much of World War II, Borchgrave served in the British Royal Navy. He enrolled at age 15, after running away from home and convincing his grandmother to assist in falsifying his age so he could enlist. He was awarded the Maritime Medal by Belgium.

Newsweek
In 1947, Borchgrave was appointed as the Brussels bureau manager for United Press, and in 1950 he became Newsweek's bureau chief in Paris, and then its chief correspondent. In 1951, he gave up his Belgian title of nobility in 1951.

In 1953, he became a senior editor for the magazine. Osborn Elliott, former editor-in-chief of Newsweek, once said: De Borchgrave has played a role in world affairs known to no other journalist. He has been able to tap the thinking of numerous world leaders... despite his intimacy with major policymakers, he has never aligned himself with either side of a dispute.... Arnaud de Borchgrave has made significant contributions to world peace and understanding.

As a correspondent for Newsweek, Borchgrave secured several interviews with world leaders. In 1969, he interviewed both President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Prime Minister Levi Eshkol of Israel.

In October 1972, during the Vietnam War, he travelled to Hanoi to interview Prime Minister and Politburo member Pham Van Dong in North Vietnam. In that interview, Dong described a provision of a proposed peace deal as a "coalition of transition," which raised fears in South Vietnam that the deal involved a coalition government and may have played a role in South Vietnam's rejection of the deal.

In 1980, Borchgrave co-authored The Spike, a novel, with Robert Moss.

The Washington Times and UPI
In March 1985, he was appointed editor-in-chief of The Washington Times, and went on to serve in the late 1990s as CEO of a much-diminished United Press International, the successor to his early-career employer, during the latter part of the agency's ownership by a group of Saudi investors. In that role, Borchgrave orchestrated UPI's exit from its last major media niche, the broadcast news business that United Press had initiated in the 1930s.

He maintained that "what was brilliant pioneering work on the part of UPI prior to World War II, with radio news, is now a static quantity and so far as I'm concerned, certainly doesn't fit into my plans for the future." He sought to shift UPI's dwindling resources into Internet-based delivery of newsletter services, focusing more on technical and diplomatic specialties than on general news. The rump UPI thus sold their client list of its still-significant radio network and broadcast wire to its former rival, the AP.

The following year, Borchgrave played a key role in the sale of the further downsized UPI to News World Communications, the international news media company founded in 1976 by Unification Church leader Sun Myung Moon, who was also the founder of The Washington Times for which Borchgrave had worked earlier.

After his CEO turn at UPI, Borchgrave became "Editor-at-Large" of The Washington Times and UPI, writing regular columns published by either or both and retaining associations with both Unification Church-owned media outlets. He also served as Project Director for Transnational Threats and Senior Advisor at the Center for Strategic and International Studies. He was a contributor to The Globalist, a daily online magazine.

According to Flashback, a 1990 book by Morley Safer, Borchgrave testified before Senator Jeremiah Denton's subcommittee in 1981 that Pham Xuan An, a Time employee and Viet Cong spy based in Saigon, "was an agent whose mission was to disinform the Western press". An denied to Safer that he planted disinformation, saying that his Viet Cong bosses thought it would be too obvious and that they preferred he feed them information instead.

Borchgrave was a founding member of Newsmax Media. He also belonged to the Foreign Policy Association, occasionally appearing as a panelist in their videos and events.

As a journalist, Borchgrave interviewed many heads of state, heads of government, monarchs, and key figures of the world, including Mullah Omar, who he interviewed with UPI international consultant Ammar Turabi three months prior to the September 11 attacks. The interview offered insight for decision and policy makers globally and has been published in several print media multiple times since the 2001 attacks, and UPI considers the interview, the only one ever conducted with Omar, one of its best achievements, including it in UPI's 100 Years of Excellence.

Plagiarism allegations
On 17 May 2012, Erik Wemple, a blogger for The Washington Post, reported that Borchgrave's columns in The Washington Times reflected his think tank work at the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), and raised questions about the originality of some of his writing, citing similarities between elements of his columns and other published material. Wemple included Borchgrave's explanations for those, but also the doubts expressed about the similarities by some of the other organizations involved. Elsewhere, the news website Salon reported that anonymous Washington Times officials claimed that the paper had known about Borchgrave's plagiarism nearly a year before Wemple's investigation and had initially discontinued his column before resuming it without any disciplinary action.

Borchgrave denied the allegations and claimed that his column was suspended because he was on book leave. The Washington Times then announced that Borchgrave would take a hiatus to complete work on his memoirs while the paper conducted an inquiry into his work. Some of Borchgrave's latest columns were removed from the Washington Times website. CSIS conducted its own investigation of work Borchgrave had published under its name.

French Legion of Honor award
In July 2014, Borchgrave was awarded a knighthood in France's the Legion of Honour.

In media
Borchgrave has been featured on several TV and Internet shows, including Weekend World, The Bob Braun Show, The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, The McLaughlin Group, Paula Zahn Now, and James Goodale's Digital Age on WNYE-TV.

He appeared as himself in a 1984 United States Information Agency report titled Soviet Active Measures.

Personal life
In 1969, following two earlier marriages, Borchgrave married Alexandra Villard, daughter of the ambassador and author Henry Serrano Villard. She is a published author of Henry Villard, a railroad tycoon and her great-grandfather.

Death
Borchgrave died of bladder cancer in Washington, D.C. on February 15, 2015, at the age of 88. He was a member of the Metropolitan Club of Washington D.C.

Books

 * The Spike (1980), with Robert Moss. New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN 0517536242.
 * Monimbó (1963), with Robert Moss. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0671508005.

Reports

 * Cyber Threats and Information Security: Meeting the 21st Century Challenge (May 2001). Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic International Studies..

title: Arnaud de Borchgrave


text:
Dyker Heights, Brooklyn

Dyker Heights is a predominantly residential neighborhood in the southwest corner of the borough of Brooklyn in New York City. It is on a hill between Bay Ridge, Bensonhurst, Borough Park, and Gravesend Bay. The neighborhood is bounded by 7th and 14th Avenues, 65th Street, and the Belt Parkway on the west, east, north, and south, respectively.

Dyker Heights originated as a speculative luxury housing development in October 1895 when Walter Loveridge Johnson developed a portion of woodland into a suburban community. It maintained its status as a wealthy neighborhood through the 20th century. During the height of his development, the boundaries were primarily between Tenth and Thirteenth Avenues and from 79th Street to 86th Street. The finest homes of the development were situated along the top of the 110 ft hill, at about Eleventh Avenue and 82nd Street.

Dyker Heights has a suburban character with detached and semi-detached one-and two-family homes, many of which have driveways and private yards, which are uncommon in parts of New York City. The neighborhood contains tree-lined streets, and there are very few apartment buildings. Dyker Heights can be divided in roughly three sections. The southernmost section, south of 86th Street and east of 7th Avenue, contains Dyker Beach Park and Golf Course. The central section between Bay Ridge Parkway and 86th Street, and between 14th Avenue and Fort Hamilton Parkway, is more exclusive in character. The northern border of the neighborhood is more closely integrated with surrounding areas. The Dyker Heights Civic Association, founded in 1928, is a civic group that represents the community's interests. The area as a whole is known for its Christmas lighting displays, which are often elaborate. Dyker Heights is part of Brooklyn Community District 10, and its primary ZIP Code is 11228. It is patrolled by the 68th Precinct of the New York City Police Department. Politically it is represented by the New York City Council's 43rd District.

Early development
The neighborhood of Dyker Heights lies within the boundaries of the then-Dutch town of New Utrecht settled in 1657. The area that is now known as Dyker Heights was not developed in the 17th or 18th century because the land was too sloped for farming; it remained common woodland until the mid-19th century. The trees of this forest were used by the townsfolk as a source of firewood and construction material. When the agricultural industry of New Utrecht changed from the farming grains to the cultivation of market garden produce, the trees were cleared for tomatoes, cabbages, and potatoes, among other produce.

The first house built at the top of the hill (what is now 11th Avenue and 82nd Street, at about 110 ft above sea level) was built in the late 1820s by Brigadier General René Edward De Russy of the US Army. De Russy was a military engineer who built many forts in the US – from the Canada–US border and the eastern seaboard to the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific coast – including Fort Hamilton in Brooklyn. Since this was the tallest natural point in southwest Brooklyn, he built his homestead here – it afforded a clear view of the harbor and its defenses, especially Fort Hamilton which was complete by November 1831. De Russy died in 1865 and his wife, Helen, sold the property in 1888 to Jane Elisabeth Loveridge and Frederick Henry Johnson.

Development by the Johnsons
According to the Brooklyn Eagle, Frederick Johnson did "much toward developing the locality in which he resided. He was the author of the original New Utrecht Improvement Bill, and an ardent advocate of the annexation of the Town to this City." The Town of New Utrecht was annexed to the City of Brooklyn on July 1, 1894. On January 1, 1898, the City of Brooklyn was annexed to the City of New York. Involved with real estate, Johnson was probably aware of the real estate pressures on and potential of the real estate in New Utrecht. With this in mind, he most likely purchased the De Russy estate with the intention of building an upscale residential neighborhood similar to Bensonhurst-by-the-Sea, built by James D. Lynch in 1880–1890 in the Bath Beach section of New Utrecht. At that time, the Real Estate Record claimed Bensonhurst-by-the-Sea was "the most perfectly developed suburb ever laid out around New York." The restrictions placed upon the property made Bensonhurst-by-the-Sea "a model settlement, where some of the most refined, intelligent and cultured of New York City and Brooklyn's citizens have built their homes."

Following Johnson's death on August 15, 1893, at the age of 52, his second son, Walter Loveridge Johnson, took over the real estate business and by October 1895 started Dyker Heights on his parents' property. Johnson named his development "Dyker Heights" after the Dyker Meadow and Beach, which his development overlooks. The meadow and beach received their name from either the Van Dykes (an original New Utrecht family) who built the dykes to drain the meadow, or for the dykes that the Van Dykes built. Johnson was able to develop this portion of New Utrecht woodland into a residential community by making necessary improvements to it. In 1890, the only roads present were Kings Highway, 86th Street, Denyse's Lane, and a small unnamed road near Tenth Avenue – none of which were paved and only 86th Street was a thoroughfare specifically planned as such. The remaining land was unimproved. Johnson continued Brooklyn's street grid south with macadam pavement, graded the properties, installed gas, water, telephone, and electricity lines, and planted sugar maple trees – seven on the avenues and twenty along the streets. This opened over two hundred more building sites between Tenth and 13th Avenues as well as between 79th and 86th Streets.

In 1895, Johnson, very much aware of the successful Bensonhurst-by-the-Sea, built three homes. His home was on the southwest corner of 11th Avenue and 82nd Street (across the Avenue from the home of his mother), Albert Edward Parfitt's home was on 82nd Street next to Johnson's, and the last, closest to Tenth Avenue, was the home of Arthur S. Tuttle who was Assistant Engineer of The Water Supply of The City Works Department of The City of Brooklyn. Parfitt was the architect of these three homes. Johnson's house burned down before 1900, Parfitt's was demolished by a developer in 1928 and replaced with seven, run-of-the-mill, fully detached, single-family homes, and Tuttle's house was remodeled over 10 years ago and clad in bright-white and sky-blue brick.

Throughout the infancy of the development, Johnson was able to use the print press to his advantage. He advertised his suburban homes heavily and stated that the high ground, magnificent ocean view, and careful restrictions made Dyker Heights the handsomest suburb in Greater New York. Based on the newspaper accounts, he was right. In 1896 Johnson built and sold thirty homes in Dyker Heights. By January 1897, the Brooklyn Eagle reported on his achievements. "Mr. Johnson has met with great success in the development of Dyker Heights and had probably done more business and made more sales during the past year than all the rest of the surrounding settlements combined." In April 1898 sales were still very strong. "Dyker Heights still holds its lead among the suburban sections in building operations, over forty houses having been erected there during the past year... and there are fully twenty more houses about to be built." One of its many advantages was the location, which according to the Brooklyn Eagle, "is one of the finest in Greater New York, commanding an extensive view of water from Sandy Hook to the New Jersey Palisades, with Staten Island and the shores of New Jersey directly in front." Still more praise in February 1899, "Dyker Heights has been one of the most successful and the most rapid in growth of any of the suburban settlements, over one hundred dwellings, costing from $5,000 to $25,000 each, having been erected there within the last two years."

Advantages of the development

In September 1899, The Wall Street Journal even reported on the advantages of the development, recommending it to "the busy man of Wall Street" because of "its magnificent transportation facilities... it can be reached via the Thirty-Ninth Street Brooklyn Ferry and Eighty-Sixth Street Nassau Line in 45 minutes." In addition, the article claimed that "the 45 minutes' trip between Dyker Heights and Wall Street by water and rail is as invigorating as the Dyker Heights climate is healthy-living. The rare opportunities afforded by Dyker Heights to the wealthy and to those in moderate circumstances are due largely to the energy, enterprise and good taste of its founder, Mr. Walter L. Johnson." A month later, The Wall Street Journal published "An Ideal Spot for a Home". From that article, one can clearly see why Dyker Heights was so successful. Its location and luxurious homes were first rate, "[Dyker Heights] is without a rival as to location, situated as it is at an elevation of [110] feet above the sea level, and is directly opposite the new Dyker Meadow Park... which will be the only seaside park in Greater New York." The article also explained the exclusiveness of the property, which can be seen in "its massive stone piers with heavy wrought-iron lamps and scrolls" that adorn the entrances. In December 1899 the Brooklyn Eagle reported that, "work has recently been commenced upon thirty high-class Houses, the demand for which runs a dead heat with the supply."

Johnson set very high standards for the community: the Wall Street Journal explained "the property is carefully restricted against all nuisances and no building can be erected upon a plot of less than 60 ft in width by 100 ft in depth, and each building must cost at least $4,000 and stand well back from the street." These regulations, which were similar to those of Bensonhurst-by-the-Sea, were active until 1915. However, the most desirable feature of the area was still the "uninterrupted view of the lower bay from The Narrows to Sandy Hook and Atlantic Ocean, [which] is one of the most magnificent in the country, and nowhere else in the consolidated city is there anything to compare it with. From here can be seen a marine panorama hard to beat." Dyker Heights was so desirous that important members of society flocked to it. The Brooklyn Eagle reported in December 1899 that this "drain" on the more established social neighborhoods such as Brooklyn Heights and those in Manhattan, "almost threatens to lower the social tone of the neighborhoods where this universal exodus is effecting a gradual change in the character of the population."

Late 19th and early 20th centuries
Property on 84th Street near 13th Avenue was made available to the International Sunshine Society in 1906 by lawyer, financier, and promoter George E. Crater, Jr. The society was able to acquire the house for $11,000, roughly half the market value, and opened the Dyker Heights Home for Blind Babies on 1 November 1906. Cynthia W. Alden, Mary C. Seward, and other society officers worked with the New York City Board of Education to establish the first public kindergarten for blind children at the home in 1907. The original building is gone, but the work begun in Dyker Heights provided a legacy of significant reforms in the public education of blind children within New York and other regions of the United States.

One of the many focal points of the neighborhood was the Dyker Heights Club, which started in October 1896. By spring of 1898 the club had a $30,000 clubhouse designed by Albert Edward Parfitt on an $8,500 lot, measuring 200×200, located on the northeast corner of 13th Avenue and 86th Street. Johnson moved his real estate office into the clubhouse and hired a full-time architect, Constantine Schubert, who was also a Dyker Heights homeowner. This grand, neo-classical building was demolished in 1929 by the Archbishop John Hughes Knights of Columbus Club, when they acquired the property for $60,000.

Early in the history of Dyker Heights, Johnson continually purchased consecutive tracts of land until the boundaries of Dyker Heights stretched from 79th Street in the north, roughly 86th Street in the south, Tenth Avenue to the west, and about 300 ft east of 13th Avenue to the east. However, the boundaries of the Neighborhood of Dyker Heights are now defined by the Dyker Heights Post Office on the northwest corner of 13th and 84th Streets; along its northeast edge runs Bay Ridge Avenue; 16th Avenue is its southeast boundary; Fort Hamilton makes its southwest border; and Interstate 278 is the northwest limit.

Demographics

Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Dyker Heights was 42,419, an increase of 3,087 (7.8%) from the 39,332 counted in 2000.

The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 70.2% White, 0.1% African American, 0.0% Native American, 27.1% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.1% from other races, and 1.0% (430) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.9% of the population.

The entirety of Community Board 13 had 142,075 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 83.1 years. This is higher than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are middle-aged adults and youth: 20% are between the ages of 0–17, 34% between 25 and 44, and 25% between 45 and 64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 7% and 15% respectively.

As of 2016, the median household income in Community District 10 was $68,679. In 2018, an estimated 19% of Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights residents lived in poverty, compared to 21% in all of Brooklyn and 20% in all of New York City. One in twelve residents (8%) were unemployed, compared to 9% in the rest of both Brooklyn and New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 49% in Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights, slightly lower than the citywide and boroughwide rates of 52% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation,, Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights are considered to be high-income relative to the rest of the city.

Cultural history
The first residents were either local government officials or wealthy professionals. For instance, I. M. De Varona was engineer of the Water Bureau, Clarence Barrow was ex-Fire Commissioner, William C. Bryant was current Fire Commissioner, George W. Dickinson was a cotton-goods merchant, W. Bennett Wardell was a retired judge, Richard Perry Chittenden was Assistant of the Corporation Counsel, Freeland Willcox was Secretary of the Cheeseborough Vaseline Company, and Eugene Boucher was longshoreman and insurance broker.

Since the 1940s, Dyker Heights has had a majority Italian-American population. The Brooklyn Eagle explained a problem Johnson had with a particular Italian family in a home "which at the time was owned by Walter L. Johnson, was occupied by an Italian family, to whom Mr. Johnson paid $600 to vacate it in order that the neighborhood of Dyker Heights, which is very carefully restricted, might have no objectionable features about it." By 1940 Dyker Heights was inhabited by a majority of people of Italian descent many of whom helped establish the Roman Catholic Shrine Church of Saint Bernadette (ca. 1935) on 13th Avenue between 82nd and 83rd streets.

Dyker Heights Boulevard, also known as 13th Avenue, contains many Italian-owned businesses. Dyker Heights Boulevard is the only commercial district in Dyker Heights and is the de facto center of the neighborhood.

Around 11th Avenue between 60th and 70th Streets lies a Coptic speaking Egyptian community. St. George Coptic Orthodox Church serves the community. The church was established in 1973.

However, since the 2000s, there has been a slow growing influx of Asian residents into the neighborhood and New York City Department of City Planning released a 2020 census data showing for the first time in history, the Asian population in the neighborhood has surpassed the White population. The Asian population residents are between 30,000 and 39,999 while the remaining White population residents are between 10,000 and 19,999. The 2020 census data also showed a small, but significant Hispanic population residents of 5,000 to 9,999.

Housing

Dyker Heights' housing stock consists mostly of stately, single-family detached and semi-detached bungalows.

In December 1899, the Brooklyn Eagle wrote a very detailed description of the homes in Dyker Heights: "The typical Dyker Heights residences have five rooms each on the first and second floors and four rooms on the third. Upon entrance, the inmate or visitor is ushered into a hall twelve feet wide which runs back to the butler's pantry. To the right of this hall is the parlor and library and to the left the reception and dining rooms. The rear space is taken up by the kitchen, butler's pantry and washrooms with tiled floors. Birdseye maple is used in the finishing of the parlor and quartered oak in that of the library, one with mantles of the same wood in fancy tile finish. A large fireplace with ornamental andirons completes the mural decoration. The ceilings are ten feet high on the first floor, while nine feet is the elevation of the second and eight feet that of the third floor. Usually the dining room is fifteen feet square and finished off in quartered sycamore. Like the hall, the reception room is done off in quartered oak, but is circular in form and has a diameter of ten feet. In the kitchen is a glazed fireplace, while below stairs, speaking from a first floor level, are the cellar and laundry, with a depth of eight feet, and an asphalt double concrete floor.

Of the five rooms on the second floor, one is a sitting room and the remainder sleeping apartments, all of which are finished in quartered oak and sycamore. A large bathroom with tiled floors takes up the remaining space of the second story. Rising to the third floor we find plain cypress as the invariable finish of the apartments, which comprise two servants' rooms, a card or sitting room and a billiard parlor wainscoted on the sides and provided with seats for the players and onlookers. It may be noted further that the reception room and dining room are also wainscoted six feet high."

Of the approximately 150 homes initially built by Johnson, about half remain; while the others have been razed and replaced by large Mediterranean villas, condos, as well as semi and fully attached homes. Very few of the newer homes fit into the historic context of Dyker Heights, and in contrast to Brooklyn's contemporaneous Ditmas Park and Prospect Park South developments, many of the original surviving homes have been extensively renovated and remodeled.

Christmas decorations
Dyker Heights is now most famous for its Christmas lights and decorations erected each year by its residents. It has been called "Con Ed's warmest heartthrob", the "undisputed capital of Christmas pageantry", and the "king of the Christmas lights". Christmas lights are now the core of the Dyker Heights identity, because the whole community, not just one home or one block, participates. As such, Dyker Heights has been referred to as "an epicenter of professionally-hung Christmas lights". Most holiday decorations in the area are not erected by homeowners, but by local decorating companies, but the cost of hiring professional decorators can vary greatly, from $1,000 to $20,000 or more, depending on the scale of the display; many companies also offer additional services, including the option to take down and store decorations.

Formally, the lighting and Christmas decorations begin on the last Thursday of November (Thanksgiving) and they remain until the first days of January, with mid-December being the days most visited by tourists.

Although in which December the lights began is unclear, newspaper reports and tours of the area suggest it started sometime in the 1980s. In 1985 one Lou Singer began running tours (Singer's Brooklyn) through the most elaborately light parts of Bensonhurst, Canarsie, Bay Ridge, and Dyker Heights where one could find "designer lighting". Since those initial 1980 reports, the lights of Dyker Heights have become increasingly popular with New Yorkers as newspaper articles, news programs, documentaries, and remotes were created. In 2000, Conan O'Brien filmed a remote for Late Night with Conan O'Brien in Dyker Heights. A PBS televised documentary "Dyker Lights" was produced in 2001 as an insight into the neighborhood with stories involving the Christmas celebration lights.

Notable decorations
Early on, the two most noted homes were on 84th Street, between 11th and 12th Avenues, directly across from one another. The home of Lucy Spata with her Santa theme at 1152 84th Street and that of Alfred Polizzotto with his Nutcracker motif at 1145 84th Street.

In December 1998, the Spatas' home was covered in lights, illuminated soldiers and choirboys, and other Christmas figures. The inside is decorated with 50 motorized dolls, miniature villages and many gifts. Outside Santa, played by her nephew, greets children and others who pass by.

The white mansion, owned by Alfred Polizzotto and his family, was adorned with a pair of 29 ft high wooden soldiers which stood guard and wave their arms. The front lawn had rearing horses and a quartet of dancers. In 1988, Polizzotto was diagnosed with lymphoma, which was successfully treated the following year. To celebrate his triumph, Polizzotto mounted the display the following year and until his death. In 2001, Polizzotto died; however, his family continued the tradition in his honor for a few years, until stopping in 2020.

In 1996, the Casos, who moved to Dyker Heights in 1995 and have since relocated, had Midwood artist Carl Oliveri design Charles Dickens' "A Christmas Carol", which included 29 life-size figures on their front lawn at 1062 84th St.

Political representation
The neighborhood is part of New York's 11th congressional district, represented by Republican Nicole Malliotakis. It is also part of the 22nd State Senate district, represented by Democrat Andrew Gounardes, and the 46th and 49th State Assembly districts, represented respectively by Democrats Mathylde Frontus and Peter J. Abbate Jr.   Dyker Heights is located in New York's 43rd City Council district, represented by Justin Brannan.

Dyker Heights is served by Brooklyn Community Board 10. The Dyker Heights Civic Association is the neighborhood's unofficial civic association.

Police and crime
The NYPD's 68th Precinct is located at 333 65th Street. The 68th Precinct ranked 7th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 23 per 100,000 people, Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights' rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 168 per 100,000 people is lower than that of the city as a whole.

The 68th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 88.6% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct reported 2 murders, 16 rapes, 59 robberies, 129 felony assaults, 96 burglaries, 387 grand larcenies, and 86 grand larcenies auto in 2018.

Fire safety
The firehouse for the New York City Fire Department (FDNY)'s Engine Co. 284/Ladder Co. 149 is located at 1157 79th Street.

Health
, preterm births and births to teenage mothers are less common in Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights than in other places citywide. In Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights, there were 95 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 11.4 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights has a high population of residents who are uninsured, or who receive healthcare through Medicaid. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 15%, which is higher than the citywide rate of 12%.

The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights is 0.0074 mg/m3, lower than the citywide and boroughwide averages. Twelve percent of Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights residents are smokers, which is lower the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights, 28% of residents are obese, 15% are diabetic, and 31% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 16% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%.

Ninety-two percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is slightly higher than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 74% of residents described their health as "good", "very good", or "excellent", lower than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights, there are 21 bodegas.

The Bay Ridge/Dyker Heights/Bensonhurst area does not have any hospitals. However, the Coney Island Hospital, NYU Langone Hospital – Brooklyn, and Maimonides Medical Center are located in nearby neighborhoods. Additionally, the BRAVO Volunteer Ambulance is run by the Bay Ridge Ambulance Volunteer Organization.

Post office and ZIP Code
Dyker Heights is covered by ZIP Code 11228. The United States Post Office's Dyker Heights Station is located at 8320 13th Avenue.

Education
Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights generally has a similar ratio of college-educated residents to the rest of the city. While 46% of residents age 25 and older have a college education or higher, 19% have less than a high school education and 35% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 40% of Brooklynites and 38% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights students excelling in reading and math has been increasing, with reading achievement rising from 51 percent in 2000 to 52 percent in 2011, and math achievement rising from 49 percent to 71 percent within the same time period.

Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights' rate of elementary school student absenteeism is lower than the rest of New York City. In Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights, 8% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, compared to the citywide average of 20% of students. Additionally, 82% of high school students in Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights graduate on time, higher than the citywide average of 75% of students.

Schools

Private

 * Poly Prep Country Day School (Pre-K – 12th Grade)

Parochial

 * St. Bernadette Catholic Academy (Pre-K – 8th Grade; Roman Catholic)
 * St. Ephrem School (Pre-K – 8th Grade; Roman Catholic)

Public
 * IS 187 Christa McAuliffe (6th Grade – 8th Grade)
 * JHS 201 Madeleine Brennan (6th Grade – 8th Grade)
 * JHS 259 William McKinley (6th Grade – 8th Grade)
 * PS 127 McKinley Park (Kindergarten – 5th Grade)
 * PS-IS 229 Dyker (Pre-Kindergarten – 8th Grade)
 * PS 204 Vince Lombardi (Pre-Kindergarten – 5th Grade)
 * PS 176 The Ovington School (Kindergarten – 5th Grade)

Early childhood education

 * Lefferts Park Baptist Church Daycare (2 years old – 6 years old)

Libraries
The Brooklyn Public Library has two branches in Dyker Heights. The Dyker branch is located at 8202 13th Avenue, near 82nd Street. The one-story structure, opened in 1974, was designed by Daniel Laitin and features a blue-green glazed facade.

The McKinley Park branch is located at 6802 Fort Hamilton Parkway, near 68th Street. The McKinley Park location was originally a "deposit station" with a small circulating collection, which opened in 1911. The library moved to the current 7425 ft2 building in 1959, and the structure was restored in 1995.

Public transportation

The center of Dyker Heights is not served directly by the New York City Subway, but its neighboring communities are; It can range from a 15-20 minute walk to a station in Bay Ridge, Borough Park or Bensonhurst depending on where in the neighborhood you are. Bay Ridge is served by the BMT Fourth Avenue Line, with stations at Bay Ridge Avenue, 77th Street, 86th Street and 95th Street. The far south end of Borough Park is served by the BMT Sea Beach Line, with stations at Fort Hamilton Parkway and New Utrecht Avenue. Bensonhurst is served by the BMT West End Line, with stations at 79th Street, 71st Street and 62nd Street.

Several local New York City Bus routes and two express routes serve Dyker Heights; the routes are.

Dyker Heights is accessible by car via the Belt Parkway as well as the Interstate 278 (Verrazano-Narrows Bridge to Staten Island, Gowanus Expressway, and Brooklyn-Queens Expressway).

Named streets

 * Lieutenant William E. Coffey Square  – 81st Street between 7th Avenue and Fort Hamilton Parkway. In the square stands one flagpole and two upright granite stones. One stone contains a bronze plaque inscribed with "In Memory Of Those Members Of Our Armed Forces Who Gave Their Lives For Our Country These Dead Shall Not Have Died In Vain" and the other stone has an incised scene of Iwo Jima.
 * Marie Walsh Corner – southwest corner of 84th Street and 7th Avenue. Marie Walsh was a dedicated community activist being a member of the Dyker Heights Civic Association, Bay Ridge Community Council, and the Kings County Conservative Party. She also helped to establish the X28 bus. On June 10, 1996, Mayor Rudolph W. Giuliani signed the bill into law.
 * Dyker Heights Boulevard – 13th Avenue between 86th Street and Bay Ridge Avenue. On August 8, 2001, Mayor Rudolph W. Giuliani signed the bill into law.
 * Firefighter Dennis Patrick O'Berg 9/11 Memorial Way – 74th Street between 10th and 11th Avenues. Although he graduated from the State University of New York at Geneseo with a degree in accounting, O'Berg followed in his father's footsteps and became a firefighter. He was a member of Ladder 105, in the Prospect Heights section of Brooklyn. On October 20, 2003, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg signed the bill into law.
 * Robert F. Tipaldi 9/11 Memorial Way – 80th Street between 7th and 10th Avenues. Tipaldi was a 25-year-old trader with Cantor Fitzgerald on the 104th floor of World Trade Center Tower 1. On December 21, 2004, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg signed the bill into law.
 * Maria LaVache 9/11 Memorial Way – 12th Avenue between Bay Ridge Parkway and 76th Street. LaVache was a long-time receptionist for J&H's International Department but was transferred to another office on the 99th floor of the World Trade Center. On December 21, 2004, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg signed the bill into law.
 * Charles J. Mauro 9/11 Memorial Way – 72nd Street between 11th and 12th Avenues. On December 21, 2004, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg signed the bill into law.
 * Arturo Angelo Sereno 9/11 Memorial Way – 12th Avenue and 67th Street. On December 21, 2004, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg signed the bill into law. Richard M Caggiano 9-11 Memorial Way.jpg
 * Richard M. Caggiano 9/11 Memorial Way – 80th Street between 10th and 11th Avenues. Caggiano worked for Cantor Fitzgerald. On April 14, 2005, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg signed the bill into law.
 * Frederick I. Ergang Way – 12th Avenue and Bay Ridge Avenue. Having been raised in Borough Park, he was principal of P.S. 176 at 69th Street and 12th Avenue from 1973 until his retirement in 1998. At the time of his retirement he had the second longest tenure of any educator in the city of New York. On May 5, 2004, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg signed the bill into law.
 * Det. Frank P. Collins Avenue – 72nd Street and 7th Avenue. Collins was a sergeant in the United States Army, where he toured Bosnia, and an officer with New York City Police Department, working as a narcotics detective in the 63rd precinct. He died in a motorcycle accident on June 12, 2002. On May 5, 2004, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg signed the bill into law.
 * Giuseppe "Joe" Papandrea Way – 86th Street between 15th and 16th Avenues. Born in Calabria, Italy, Papandrea immigrated to Brooklyn. A leukemia survivor, he was killed by a hit and run driver on this block on January 29, 2002. On May 5, 2004, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg signed the bill into law.
 * De Russy Drive – Circular drive in front of the Dyker Beach Golf Course Club House, connecting 7th Avenue with 86th Street. From approximately 1870 to 1930, an earlier 'De Russy Street' ran within this same parcel, as the northernmost section of the golf course was 92nd Street. This street ran perpendicular to 86th Street and some 130 ft west of 11th Avenue and it was demapped when the park was expanded northward in the 1930s. Both the Dyker Heights Civic Association and the Dyker Heights Historical Society were instrumental in the naming of the street after General Rene E. De Russy. It was redesignated in July 2009.
 * Walter L. Johnson Corner – 82nd Street and 11th Avenue, southwest corner. Johnson developed Dyker Heights in about 1895 to 1905. This was the corner on which he built his house, the first at Dyker Heights. The Dyker Heights Civic Association, the Dyker Heights Historical Society, and Council Member Vincent J. Gentile, of the 43rd district, were instrumental in the naming of this corner.  On December 28, 2009, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg signed the bill into law.
 * Hank Vogt Way – at the intersection of 85th Street and 7th Avenue. In 1974, Vogt established, and became the first chair of the Bay Ridge Ambulance Volunteer Organization. He was also Parade Chairman of the Ragamuffin Parade for many years as well as chairman of Planning Board 10. Council Member Gentile helped secure the corner's redesignation. On December 28, 2009, Mayor Michael Bloomberg signed the bill into law.

Churches

 * Shrine Church of Saint Bernadette (Roman Catholic)
 * St. Rosalia-Regina Pacis Parish (Roman Catholic)
 * St. Ephrem's (Roman Catholic)
 * St. Philip's (Episcopal)
 * Lefferts Park Baptist Church (Independent Baptist)
 * St. George (Coptic Orthodox) Church of Brooklyn.

Park and golf course
Southwestern Dyker Heights contains the Dyker Beach Park and Golf Course, a public park and a municipal, 18-hole, championship golf course.

Notable residents
Notable current and former residents of Dyker Heights include:

 * Scott Baio (born 1960), actor
 * Maria Bartiromo (born 1967), television host
 * Anthony Fauci (born 1940), Director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and one of the lead members of the White House Coronavirus Task Force regarding the COVID-19 pandemic grew up in Dyker Heights, above his family's neighborhood pharmacy.
 * Arnaldo Ferraro (born 1936), politician who served in the New York State Assembly

 * Wenjian Liu (1982–2014), NYPD officer, died in a 2014 shooting of NYPD officers
 * Adam Ottavino (born 1985), baseball pitcher for the St. Louis Cardinals, Colorado Rockies, New York Yankees, Boston Red Sox and New York Mets.
 * Joe Rollino (1905-2010), an original Coney Island Strongman
 * Gregory Scarpa (1928–1994), caporegime and hitman for the Colombo crime family, who was an FBI informant
 * Rosanna Scotto (born 1958), TV news anchor, grew up in Dyker Heights.

title: Dyker Heights, Brooklyn


text:
Talk:Arnaud de Borchgrave

Untitled
Numerous critics contend that the Times, which is owned by Rev. Sun Myung Moon's Unification Church, itself spikes stories viewed as left-leaning in order to impart a right-wing bias to its news pages.

These critics include Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting, whose web site quotes DeBorchgrave's admission in a May 6, 1987 Washington Post article that the Times loses money and is subsidized by Rev. Moon. Rev. Moon also admits, even brags, that he has poured hundreds of million of dollars into the money-losing paper in order to create a newspaper that has "a distinct conservative outlook - or more correctly, [a] God-centered outlook."

Not sure where the above belongs. Is it a POV arguing that the premise of The Spike is incorrect? Is it mere tit-for-tat, saying "we're not biased but you are"? How can we make this text neutral? --Uncle Ed 19:55, 19 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Hitler Election
"Of course, William Jefferson Clinton never received more than 42 percent of the popular vote and yet everyone acknowledges that he was "elected" President of the United States." This is incorrect, in 1996 Clinton received 49.2% of the popular vote.

Copy
why is a bunch of stuff copied from http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Arnaud_de_Borchgrave ? we need to add sourcing to satisfy GFDL... Sasquatch t|c 23:54, 3 March 2006 (UTC)

Bunk
The section about how the TImes has grown influential in Washington is BS. According to this list (http://www.accessabc.com/reader/top150.htm) the times is the 114th most popular newspaper in America. Considering the fact the Washington Post is the 3rd and the Times has never turned a profit seems to indicate this article is heavily POV biased.

The statement that de Borchgrave caused the Times to become "more influential" in Washington politics is vague, unsourced, and quite honestly not true. Even if the circulation has barely increased, that says nothing of causation, especially for a paper that has never come out of the red. The Times is a marginal paper with a anemic readership. While I suggest that someone put in a section comparing the Time's circulation to other papers in smaller markets (San Antonio Express News, Sacramento Bee, Fort Worth Star Telegram ect) at the very least I am taking out the part about it "increasing in influence." Cfoster05 04:05, 30 August 2006 (UTC) cfoster05

quotes removed
I cut this out of the article:

 * In 1978 he told a Covert Action Information Bulletin editor:

 * … he considered his "key, best sources of information" in the world the heads of "intelligence services in Washington, London, Tel Aviv, and Pretoria, each of which I stay in close contact with." Despite such open reliance on close intelligence ties, de Borchgrave claims coyly nowadays that he spurned two CIA recruitment approaches.
 * —Louis Wolf, Fred Clarkson, op. cit. p. 35.

 * Asked whether the United States engages in disinformation, de Borchgrave said that present and former U.S. officials trying "in a free society… to put the best face possible" on what they are doing or did in government is not disinformation "That is called management of the news."
 * —Louis Wolf, Fred Clarkson, op. cit. p. 35.

I am not sure what the point of these quotes is. If something is being said about de Borchgrave it needs to be made more clear and sourced. Thanks. Steve Dufour 14:56, 16 June 2007 (UTC)
 * I removed these refs as well, CovertAction is not the best of sources: *William Preston, Jr. and Ellen Ray, "Disinformation and Mass Deception: Democracy as a Cover Story," Covert Action Information Bulletin, Spring-Summer 1983, No. 19, pp. 3–12 (contains photo of Borchgrave in "Rhodesian army gear, one of his favorite outfits").

 * Louis Wolf and Fred Clarkson, "Arnaud de Borchgrave Boards Moon's Ship," Covert Information Information Bulletin, Summer 1985, No. 24, pp. 34-35.
 * Intangible2.0 23:52, 28 September 2007 (UTC)

UPI in 1947?
The article says, "In 1947, he was appointed Brussels bureau chief for United Press International." UPI didn't exist yet at that time. Presumably he was working for one of its predecessors, United Press or International News Service. I don't know which one. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Pha telegrapher (talk • contribs) 02:29, 21 December 2007 (UTC)

 * UPI has been around since 1907, or so they say. GrizzledOldMan (talk) 23:24, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

BLP violations removed
These edits are clearly WP:BLP violations - WP:WEIGHT, WP:COATRACK, WP:RS, WP:NPOV, etc, etc. "Bogus" is a defamatory and potentially libelous word to use in a BLP.

Please read WP:BLP guidelines before making edits to BLPs. GrizzledOldMan (talk) 22:07, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

Not sure if this is worth including
Probably not, as I doubt Counterpunch is a reliable enough source for allegations about BLPs, but for the record, I've just discovered this article:. It alleges that de Borchgrave, essentially, distorted the truth in the runup to the beginning of the Iraq war in 2003. Robofish (talk) 21:55, 1 July 2011 (UTC)

Sources for plagiarism allegations
For reference and possible inclusion: Thoughts? MastCell Talk 20:00, 24 May 2012 (UTC)

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Weak references
A bunch of citations go to a speakers' bureau site, which is hardly reliable. BeenAroundAWhile (talk) 02:15, 2 December 2016 (UTC)

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Genealogy section
There is an omission somewhere in the description of A d B's parents or grandparents. RichardBond (talk) 19:36, 23 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Arnaud de Borchgrave


text:
Genrikh Altshuller

Genrikh Saulovich Altshuller (Ге́нрих Сау́лович Альтшу́ллер, ; 15 October 1926 – 24 September 1998) was a Soviet engineer, inventor, and writer. He is most notable for creating the Theory of Inventive Problem Solving, better known by its Russian acronym TRIZ. He founded the Azerbaijan Public Institute for Inventive Creation and was the first President of the TRIZ Association. He also wrote science fiction under the penname Genrikh Altov.

Early life
Working as a clerk in a patent office, Altshuller embarked on finding some generic rules that would explain the creation of new, inventive, patentable ideas. He eventually created the Teoriya Resheniya Izobreatatelskikh Zadach (Theory of Inventive Problem Solving or TRIZ)).

Arrest and imprisonment
During Joseph Stalin's political purges of members of the Communist Party in 1950, he was imprisoned for political reasons and continued his studies with his fellow inmates while in a labor camp. After his release in 1954, Altshuller settled in Baku, Azerbaijan.

The spread of TRIZ in the Soviet Union
A full-fledged TRIZ movement developed among Soviet engineers and other technically inclined people by the 1970s, and Altshuller played the role of its intellectual leader. He lectured at TRIZ congresses, published articles and books and corresponded with various TRIZ practitioners. He became the founding member and president of the Russian TRIZ Association. A number of his close friends and students have become the most prominent thinkers and teachers of the movement, popularizing TRIZ in Russia and abroad.

For a long time he published articles on TRIZ, with examples and exercises, in the Soviet popular science magazine Izobretatel i Ratsionalizator (Inventor and Innovator).

After the Soviet collapse
Altshuller left Baku in the early 1990s amidst post-Soviet-breakup violence in the area. He settled in Petrozavodsk (Karelia in north-western Russia) with his wife and granddaughter. As a result, Petrozavodsk became the center of the TRIZ Association.

He die from complications of Parkinson's disease in 1998.

Science fiction
Following his release from prison camp in the 1950s, he earned a living as a science fiction writer, under the pseudonym Genrikh Altov (Генрих Альтов), often in collaboration with his wife, Valentina Zhuravleva.

Science fiction published as Genrich Altov

 * Икар и Дедал 1958 (Icarus and Daedalus)
 * Легенды о звездных капитанах 1961 (Legends of Starship Captains)
 * Опаляющий разум 1968 (Scorching Mind)
 * Создан для бури 1970 (Made for the Storm)
 * Летящие по Вселенной 2002, with Valentina Zhuravleva (They Who Fly Through Space)

title: Genrikh Altshuller


text:
Seaplane tender

A seaplane tender is a boat or ship that supports the operation of seaplanes. Some of these vessels, known as seaplane carriers, could not only carry seaplanes but also provided all the facilities needed for their operation; these ships are regarded by some as the first aircraft carriers and appeared just before the First World War.

Terminology
In maritime parlance a tender is a vessel that is used to support the operation of other vessels.

In British usage, the term tender was used for small craft, with the term depot ship being used for large seagoing vessels. Flying boats and float planes even when based at home in ports and harbour had a need for small support vessels to operate.

British tenders were small craft of launch to pinnace size. These were used to ferry crews, stores and supplies between shore and the aircraft, to maintain the buoys used to mark out "taxiways" and "runways" and to keep these clear of debris to prevent foreign object damage, and in the case of emergency to act as rescue craft and airport crash tenders. All those functions that on land would require wheeled ground support equipment had a need for a watercraft equivalent.

When deploying flying boat squadrons, bases could rapidly be established in areas lacking infrastructure by sending flying boat depot ships in addition to small craft tenders. These ships could carry out the function of barracks, workshops and control towers, i.e. those functions which in a land based airfield would be fulfilled by buildings.

History
The first seaplane carrier appeared in 1911 with the French Navy La Foudre, following the invention of the seaplane in 1910 with the French Fabre Hydravion. La Foudre carried float-equipped planes under hangars on the main deck, from where they were lowered on the sea with a crane. La Foudre was further modified in November 1913 with a 10 m-long flat deck to launch her seaplanes. Another early seaplane carrier was HMS Hermes (1898), an old cruiser converted and commissioned with a flying-off deck in mid-1913. However, HMS Ark Royal was the first ship in history designed and built as a seaplane carrier in 1914.

First World War

In the Battle of Tsingtao, from 5 September 1914, the Imperial Japanese Navy seaplane carrier JAPANESE SEAPLANE CARRIER Wakamiya conducted the world's first naval-launched air raids from Kiaochow Bay. The four Maurice Farman seaplanes bombarded German-held land targets (communication centers and command centers) and damaged a German minelayer in the Tsingtao peninsula from September 6 November 1914, to when the Germans surrendered.

On Christmas Day 1914, the British carried out the Cuxhaven Raid; seaplanes carried within range of their targets attacked German naval targets in the Heligoland Bight.

These carriers had hangars for storing and maintaining the aircraft, but no flight deck as in a true aircraft carrier. Instead, they used cranes to lower the aircraft into the sea for takeoff and to recover them after landing. The ships were normally converted merchant vessels rather than specially constructed for the task. As aircraft improved, the problems of using seaplanes became more of a handicap. The aircraft could only be operated in a smooth sea and the ship had to stop for launching or recovery, both of which took around 20 minutes. The tender was often stationed 10 mi or so in front of the main battle fleet with the cruiser screen so that it would not fall significantly behind when it launched its aircraft. Seaplanes also had poorer performance than other aircraft because of the drag and weight of the floats. Seaplane tenders had largely been superseded by aircraft carriers in the battle fleet by the end of the First World War, although aircraft were still of minor importance compared to the firepower of naval artillery.

The British HMS Ark Royal (1914) was a seaplane tender with a flying-off deck. Seaplanes could be recovered while the ship was under way through the "Hein Mat" – a sheet towed behind the vessel, once the aircraft was on the mat it was effectively stationary with respect to the ship and could be hoisted aboard.

In the inter-war years, it was common for cruisers and battleships to be equipped with catapult-launched reconnaissance seaplanes. A few navies – especially those without true aircraft carriers – also acquired catapult-equipped seaplane carriers for fleet reconnaissance.

World War II
During the Second World War, both the American and the Japanese Navies built a number of seaplane tenders to supplement their aircraft carrier fleets. However, these ships often had their catapults removed, and were used as support vessels that operated seaplanes from harbours rather than in a seaway. These aircraft were generally for long-range reconnaissance patrols. The tenders allowed the aircraft to be rapidly deployed to new bases because their runways did not have to be constructed, and support facilities were mobile much like supply ships for submarines or destroyers.

Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine, in the Second World War, did not operate any seaplane tenders. However, the Luftwaffe had nineteen seaplane tenders. These ships were mostly converted from existing civilian seaplane tenders, and were capable of carrying 1–3 seaplanes. The French and Italian Navies also had seaplane tenders.

Seaplane carriers became obsolete at the end of the Second World War. A few remained in service after the war but by the late 1950s most had been scrapped or converted to other uses such as helicopter repair ships.

List of examples
Examples of seaplane tenders include:

 * HMAS Albatross (1928) (Australia, 1928)
 * Akitsushima (Japan, served from 1942 until sunken in 1944)
 * La Foudre (France, converted into the world's first seaplane tender in 1911–13)
 * JAPANESE AIRCRAFT CARRIER Chitose (Japan, 1936; she and sister ship JAPANESE AIRCRAFT CARRIER Chiyoda converted to conventional aircraft carriers in 1943–1944)
 * FRENCH SEAPLANE CARRIER Commandant Teste (France, 1932)
 * Giuseppe Miraglia (Italy, converted from merchant vessel Citta de Messina in 1927)
 * SPANISH SEAPLANE CARRIER Dédalo (Spain, converted from the German merchant vessel Neuenfels in 1922)
 * HMS Ark Royal (1914) (UK, 1914, renamed Pegasus in 1934)
 * HMS Ben-my-Chree (UK, a ferry converted in 1915 used in WWI)
 * HMS Engadine (1911) (UK, 1911, another converted ferry; present at the Battle of Jutland)
 * HMS Campania (1914) (UK)
 * HMS Riviera (UK, sister ship of Engadine)
 * USS Langley (CV-1) (USA's first aircraft carrier; converted into a seaplane tender in 1937)
 * USS Mississippi (BB-23) (USA, a battleship used as a seaplane tender in 1914)
 * USS Curtiss (AV-4) (USA WWII Pearl Harbor to Okinawa)
 * USS Currituck (AV-7) and USS Pine Island (AV-12) (USA WWII-era seaplane tenders, both later participated in Operation Highjump, a 1947 mission to Antarctica)
 * USS Norton Sound (AVM-1) (Began service as Currituck-class seaplane tender AV-11, later converted to AVM-1 – first US guided-missile ship)
 * HMAFV Adastral, ex HMS Fife Ness, a Fort ship, converted to a seaplane depot ship, and operated by the RAF between 1947 and 1953
 * USS Tangier (AV-8) (USA, a cargo ship converted to a seaplane tender in 1940)
 * USS Timbalier (AVP-54) (tended Martin PBM Mariner flying boats until 1954)

title: Seaplane tender


text:
Motor nerve

A motor nerve, or efferent nerve, is a nerve that contains exclusively efferent nerve fibers and transmits motor signals from the central nervous system (CNS) to the muscles of the body. This is different from the motor neuron, which includes a cell body and branching of dendrites, while the nerve is made up of a bundle of axons. Motor nerves act as efferent nerves which carry information out from the CNS to muscles, as opposed to afferent nerves (also called sensory nerves), which transfer signals from sensory receptors in the periphery to the CNS. Efferent nerves can also connect to glands or other organs/issues instead of muscles (and so motor nerves are not equivalent to efferent nerves). The vast majority of nerves contain both sensory and motor fibers and are therefore called mixed nerves.

Structure and function
Motor nerve fibers transduce signals from the CNS to peripheral neurons of proximal muscle tissue. Motor nerve axon terminals innervate skeletal and smooth muscle, as they are heavily involved in muscle control. Motor nerves tend to be rich in acetylcholine vesicles because the motor nerve, a bundle of motor nerve axons that deliver motor signals and signal for movement and motor control. Calcium vesicles reside in the axon terminals of the motor nerve bundles. The high calcium concentration outside of presynaptic motor nerves increases the size of end-plate potentials (EPPs).

Protective tissues
Within motor nerves, each axon is wrapped by the endoneurium, which is a layer of connective tissue that surrounds the myelin sheath. Bundles of axons are called fascicles, which are wrapped in perineurium. All of the fascicles wrapped in the perineurium are wound together and wrapped by a final layer of connective tissue known as the epineurium. These protective tissues defend nerves from injury, pathogens and help to maintain nerve function. Layers of connective tissue maintain the rate at which nerves conduct action potentials.

Spinal cord exit
Most motor pathways originate in the motor cortex of the brain. Signals run down the brainstem and spinal cord ipsilaterally, on the same side, and exit the spinal cord at the ventral horn of the spinal cord on either side. Motor nerves communicate with the muscle cells they innervate through motor neurons once they exit the spinal cord.

Motor nerve types
Motor nerves can vary based on the subtype of motor neuron they are associate with.

Alpha
Alpha motor neurons target extrafusal muscle fibers. The motor nerves associated with these neurons innervate extrafusal fibers and are responsible for muscle contraction. These nerve fibers have the largest diameter of the motor neurons and require the highest conduction velocity of the three types.

Beta
Beta motor neurons innervate intrafusal fibers of muscle spindles. These nerves are responsible for signaling slow twitch muscle fibers.

Gamma
Gamma motor neurons, unlike alpha motor neurons, are not directly involved in muscle contraction. The nerves associated with these neurons do not send signals that directly adjust the shortening or lengthening of muscle fibers. However, these nerves are important in keeping muscle spindles taut.

Neurodegeneration
Motor neural degeneration is the progressive weakening of neural tissues and connections in the nervous system. Muscles begin to weaken as there are no longer any motor nerves or pathways that allows for muscle innervation. Motor neuron diseases can be viral, genetic or be a result of environmental factors. The exact causes remain unclear, however many experts believe that toxic and environmental factors play a large role.

Neuroregeneration
There are problems with neuroregeneration due to many sources, both internal and external. There is a weak regenerative ability of nerves and new nerve cells cannot simply be made. The outside environment can also play a role in nerve regeneration. Neural stem cells (NSCs), however, are able to differentiate into many different types of nerve cells. This is one way that nerves can "repair" themselves. NSC transplant into damaged areas usually leads to the cells differentiating into astrocytes which assists the surrounding neurons. Schwann cells have the ability to regenerate, but the capacity that these cells can repair nerve cells declines as time goes on as well as distance the Schwann cells are from site of damage.

title: Motor nerve


text:
Kathy Tyers

Kathy Tyers is an American science fiction author.

Tyers, born in Long Beach, California, is a microbiology graduate and a certified K-12 teacher. She began her writing career in the early 1980s, publishing her first novel, Firebird, in 1986. She continued to write successful science fiction novels, including The Truce at Bakura, which reached the New York Times bestseller list. After taking a sabbatical from writing, Tyers returned to the field, targeting the Christian Booksellers Association. The rewritten versions of Firebird and Fusion Fire, along with a third novel, Crown of Fire, were marketed as Christian fiction. Tyers continued to contribute to the Star Wars universe with additional novels and short stories. After her husband's death in 2004, she took another sabbatical, during which she worked on an autobiography and earned a Master of Christian Studies degree. The Firebird Saga was completed with two more novels, and Tyers remarried in 2014.

Biography
Kathy Tyers Gillin (née Moore) was born and raised in Long Beach, California. She obtained a degree in microbiology from Montana State University, where she met her first husband, Mark Tyers. After their marriage, she returned to school and became certified to teach grades K-12. When their church opened a private school, she took over teaching the lower grades. In 1979, she retired from teaching to start a family; her son Matthew was born in 1981, and she began writing in earnest two years later.

Tyers published her first novel, Firebird, with Bantam Spectra in 1986. She subsequently published Fusion Fire (1988; a sequel to Firebird), Crystal Witness (1989) and Shivering World (1991). During this period she also authored a nonfiction travel book and, with her husband, released two CDs of folk music, Leave Her, Johnny and The Very Best Dreams on which she played flute and Irish harp. In 1991, while working on another speculative fiction novel, she was approached with an opportunity to write a novel in the Star Wars Expanded Universe. Her novel, The Truce at Bakura (1993), reached the New York Times bestseller list.

Despite her success, after the sale of her novel, One Mind's Eye, Tyers took a complete sabbatical from writing from 1994 to 1997. She eventually returned to writing, specifically targeting the Christian Booksellers Association in an attempt to sell Christian science fiction, and Bethany House Publishers published rewritten versions of Firebird and Fusion Fire.

The rewritten versions, published in 1999 and 2000 along with a third novel, Crown of Fire, were much more spiritual in nature and, in most markets, were marketed as Christian fiction instead of science fiction. They were published as a single volume edition in 2004. During the same period, Tyers was approached for the Star Wars market again and authored another novel, Balance Point, in addition to short stories for four Star Wars anthologies. Shivering World was revised and re-released in early 2004.

Tyers' husband, Mark, died from alcoholism in 2004. She took another sabbatical from fiction writing, working with guitarist Christopher Parkening on his autobiography Grace Like a River. In 2006, she entered Regent College in Vancouver, British Columbia, and after earning a Master of Christian Studies degree, she lived in Bellingham, Washington for a year before returning to Montana.

The three Firebird novels were re-released in an annotated version by Marcher Lord Press in 2011, followed by two additional series novels: Wind and Shadow in 2011 and Daystar in 2012, completing the Firebird Saga.

Tyers remarried in 2014 and is active in the Presbyterian (PCA) church.

Discography

 * Leave Her, Johnny (1986)
 * The Very Best Dreams (1988)

title: Kathy Tyers