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American Academy of Arts and Sciences

The American Academy of Arts and Sciences (The Academy) is one of the oldest learned societies in the United States. It was founded in 1780 during the American Revolution by John Adams, John Hancock, James Bowdoin, Andrew Oliver, and other Founding Fathers of the United States. It is headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Membership in the academy is achieved through a thorough petition, review, and election process. The academy's quarterly journal, Dædalus, is published by the MIT Press on behalf of the academy, and has been open-access since January 2021. The academy also conducts multidisciplinary public policy research.

Laurie L. Patton will become President of the Academy in January 2025.

History
The Academy was established by the Massachusetts legislature on May 4, 1780, charted in order "to cultivate every art and science which may tend to advance the interest, honor, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous people." The sixty-two incorporating fellows represented varying interests and high standing in the political, professional, and commercial sectors of the state. The first class of new members, chosen by the Academy in 1781, included Benjamin Franklin and George Washington as well as several international honorary members. The initial volume of Academy Memoirs appeared in 1785, and the Proceedings followed in 1846. In the 1950s, the Academy launched its journal Daedalus, reflecting its commitment to a broader intellectual and socially-oriented program.

Since the second half of the twentieth century, independent research has become a central focus of the Academy. In the late 1950s, arms control emerged as one of its signature concerns. The Academy also served as the catalyst in establishing the National Humanities Center in North Carolina. In the late 1990s, the Academy developed a new strategic plan, focusing on four major areas: science, technology, and global security; social policy and education; humanities and culture; and education. In 2002, the Academy established a visiting scholars program in association with Harvard University. More than 75 academic institutions from across the country have become Affiliates of the Academy to support this program and other Academy initiatives.

The Academy has sponsored a number of awards and prizes, throughout its history and has offered opportunities for fellowships and visiting scholars at the Academy.

In July 2013, the Boston Globe exposed then president Leslie Berlowitz for falsifying her credentials, faking a doctorate, and consistently mistreating her staff. Berlowitz subsequently resigned.

The Humanities Indicators
A project of the Academy that equips researchers, policymakers, universities, foundations, museums, libraries, humanities councils, and other public institutions with statistical tools for answering basic questions about primary and secondary humanities education, undergraduate and graduate education in the humanities, the humanities workforce, levels and sources of program funding, public understanding and impact of the humanities, and other areas of concern in the humanities community. It is modeled on the Science and Engineering Indicators, published biennially by the National Science Board as required by Congress.

Founding members
Charter members of the Academy were John Adams, Samuel Adams, John Bacon, James Bowdoin, Charles Chauncy, John Clarke, David Cobb, Samuel Cooper, Nathan Cushing, Thomas Cushing, William Cushing, Tristram Dalton, Francis Dana, Samuel Deane, Perez Fobes, Caleb Gannett, Henry Gardner, Benjamin Guild, John Hancock, Joseph Hawley, Edward Augustus Holyoke, Ebenezer Hunt, Jonathan Jackson, Charles Jarvis, Samuel Langdon, Levi Lincoln, Daniel Little, Elijah Lothrup, John Lowell, Samuel Mather, Samuel Moody, Andrew Oliver, Joseph Orne, Theodore Parsons, George Partridge, Robert Treat Paine, Phillips Payson, Samuel Phillips, John Pickering, Oliver Prescott, Zedekiah Sanger, Nathaniel Peaslee Sargeant, Micajah Sawyer, Theodore Sedgwick, William Sever, David Sewall, Stephen Sewall, John Sprague, Ebenezer Storer, Caleb Strong, James Sullivan, John Bernard Sweat, Nathaniel Tracy, Cotton Tufts, James Warren, Samuel West, Edward Wigglesworth, Joseph Willard, Abraham Williams, Nehemiah Williams, Samuel Williams, and James Winthrop.

Members
From the beginning, the membership, nominated and elected by peers, has included not only scientists and scholars, but also writers and artists as well as representatives from the full range of professions and public life. Throughout the Academy's history, 10,000 fellows have been elected, including such notables as John Adams, John James Audubon, Sissela Bok, Willa Cather, T. S. Eliot, Duke Ellington, Josiah Willard Gibbs, Joseph Henry, Washington Irving, Thomas Jefferson, Edward R. Murrow, Martha Nussbaum, J. Robert Oppenheimer, Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Jonas Salk and Eudora Welty.

International honorary members have included Jose Antonio Pantoja Hernandez, Albert Einstein, Leonhard Euler, Marquis de Lafayette, Alexander von Humboldt, Leopold von Ranke, Charles Darwin, Carl Friedrich Gauss, Otto Hahn, Jawaharlal Nehru, Pablo Picasso, Liu Guosong, Lucian Michael Freud, Luis Buñuel, Galina Ulanova, Werner Heisenberg, Alec Guinness, Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, Menahem Yaari, Yitzhak Apeloig, Zvi Galil, Haim Harari, and Sebastião Salgado.

Astronomer Maria Mitchell was the first woman elected to the Academy, in 1848.

The current membership encompasses over 5,700 members based across the United States and around the world. Academy members include more than 250 Nobel laureates and more than 60 Pulitzer Prize winners.

Of the Academy's 14,343 members since 1780, 1,406 are or have been affiliated with Harvard University, 611 with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 433 with Yale University, 425 with the University of California, Berkeley, and 404 with Stanford University. The following table includes those institutions affiliated with 300 or more members.

† Excludes members affiliated exclusively with associated national laboratories.

Classes and specialties
As of 2023, membership is divided into five classes and thirty specialties.

Class I – Mathematical and physical sciences
 * Section 1. Mathematics, applied mathematics, and statistics
 * Section 2. Physics
 * Section 3. Chemistry
 * Section 4. Astronomy, astrophysics, and earth sciences
 * Section 5. Engineering and technologies
 * Section 6. Computer sciences

Class II – Biological sciences
 * Section 1. Biochemistry, biophysics, and molecular biology
 * Section 2. Cellular and developmental biology
 * Section 3. Neurosciences
 * Section 4. Evolution and ecology
 * Section 5. Medical sciences

Class III – Social and behavioral sciences
 * Section 1. Psychological sciences
 * Section 2. Economics
 * Section 3. Political science
 * Section 4. Law
 * Section 5. Archaeology and anthropology
 * Section 6. Sociology, demography, and geography
 * Section 7. Education

Class IV – Arts and humanities
 * Section 1. Philosophy
 * Section 2. History
 * Section 3. Literature and language studies
 * Section 4. Literature
 * Section 5. Visual arts
 * Section 6. Performing arts
 * Section 7. Religious studies

Class V – Public affairs, business, and administration
 * Section 1. Journalism, media, and communications
 * Section 2. Business, corporate, and philanthropic leadership
 * Section 3. Educational and academic leadership
 * Section 4. Public affairs and public policy
 * Section 5. Scientific, cultural, and nonprofit leadership

Presidents, 1780–present

 * 1780–1790 James Bowdoin
 * 1791–1814 John Adams
 * 1814–1820 Edward Augustus Holyoke
 * 1820–1829 John Quincy Adams
 * 1829–1838 Nathaniel Bowditch
 * 1838–1839 James Jackson, M.D.
 * 1839–1846 John Pickering
 * 1846–1863 Jacob Bigelow
 * 1863–1873 Asa Gray
 * 1873–1880 Charles Francis Adams
 * 1880–1892 Joseph Lovering
 * 1892–1894 Josiah Parsons Cooke
 * 1894–1903 Alexander Agassiz
 * 1903–1908 William Watson Goodwin
 * 1908–1915 John Trowbridge
 * 1915–1917 Henry Pickering Walcott
 * 1917–1919 Charles Pickering Bowditch
 * 1919–1921 Theodore William Richards
 * 1921–1924 George Foot Moore
 * 1924–1927 Theodore Lyman
 * 1927–1931 Edwin Bidwell Wilson
 * 1931–1933 Jeremiah D. M. Ford
 * 1933–1935 George Howard Parker
 * 1935–1937 Roscoe Pound
 * 1937–1939 Dugald C. Jackson
 * 1939–1944 Harlow Shapley
 * 1944–1951 Howard Mumford Jones
 * 1951–1954 Edwin Herbert Land
 * 1954–1957 John Ely Burchard
 * 1957–1961 Kirtley Fletcher Mather
 * 1961–1964 Hudson Hoagland
 * 1964–1967 Paul A. Freund
 * 1967–1971 Talcott Parsons
 * 1971–1976 Harvey Brooks
 * 1976–1979 Victor Frederick Weisskopf
 * 1979–1982 Milton Katz
 * 1982–1986 Herman Feshbach
 * 1986–1989 Edward Hirsch Levi
 * 1989–1994 Leo Beranek
 * 1994–1997 Jaroslav Pelikan
 * 1997–2000 Daniel C. Tosteson
 * 2000–2001 James O. Freedman
 * 2001–2006 Patricia Meyer Spacks
 * 2006–2009 Emilio Bizzi
 * 2010–2013 Leslie C. Berlowitz
 * 2014–2018 Jonathan Fanton
 * 2019–2024 David W. Oxtoby
 * 2025–Present Laurie Patton

title: American Academy of Arts and Sciences


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Donington Park

Donington Park is a motorsport circuit located near Castle Donington in Derbyshire, England. The circuit business is now owned by Jonathan Palmer's MotorSport Vision organisation, and the surrounding Donington Park Estate, still owned by the Wheatcroft family, is currently under lease by MotorSport Vision until 2038. It has a capacity of 120,000, and is also the venue of the Download Festival.

Originally part of the Donington Hall estate, it was created as a racing circuit during the period between the First and Second World Wars when the German Silver Arrows were battling for the European Championship. Used as a military vehicle storage depot during the Second World War, it fell into disrepair until bought by local construction entrepreneur Tom Wheatcroft. Revived under his ownership in the 1970s, it hosted a single Formula One race in 1993, but became the favoured home of the British round of the MotoGP motorcycling championship.

Leased by Donington Ventures Leisure Ltd in 2007 the hope that Formula One racing could return to the track, the incomplete venture failed to raise sufficient financial backing during the aftermath of the 2008 global financial crisis. DVLL consequently lost the rights to the British rounds of both Formula 1 and MotoGP series, and in its bankruptcy returned the track to the Wheatcroft family in December 2009.

Under Wheatcroft's ownership, the venue underwent significant work, with the track restored to use in autumn 2010, before major upgrades in the following five years. At the end of 2010, it was announced that Donington would become home to an annual historic motorsport event, the Donington Historic Festival, with new events constantly being added. Since 2010, significant investment across the venue has seen major improvements made to its infrastructure, while the circuit has become a regular fixture for top class motorcycling in the form of the Superbike World Championship.

In January 2017, the circuit business and a long-term lease on the estate was purchased by MotorSport Vision, with the purchase cleared by authorities in August of the same year. Significant investment has seen facilities at the venue brought up to modern standards, with a new restaurant, toilet blocks, large new grandstand and new circuit offices, as well as other detail changes. As well as improving the infrastructure, MSV made additions to the race calendar, with additional major events planned for 2019 which included extra rounds of the British Superbike Championship and British GT.

Creation, Pre-War racing
Donington Park motor racing circuit was the first permanent park circuit in England, which also ended the race circuit monopoly that Brooklands had held since 1907.

Fred Craner was a former motorcycle rider who had taken part in seven Isle of Man TT races, and was by 1931 a Derby garage owner and secretary of the Derby & District Motor Club. Craner approached John Gillies Shields, the owner of the Donington Hall estate, to use the extensive roads on his land for racing.

The original track was 3.518 km in length, and based on normal width unsealed estate roads. The first motor cycle race took place on Whit Monday (25 May) 1931. For 1933 Craner obtained permission to build a permanent track, with the original layout widened and sealed at a cost of £12,000. The first car race was held on 25 March, followed by three car meetings further that year. The first Donington Park Trophy race was held on 7 October 1933, and the 20-lap invitation event was won by the Earl Howe in a Bugatti Type 51.

In 1935 the first 300 mi Donington Grand Prix was won by Richard "Mad Jack" Shuttleworth in an Alfa Romeo P3. In the 1937 Donington Grand Prix and 1938 Donington Grand Prix, the race winners were respectively Bernd Rosemeyer and Tazio Nuvolari, both in Auto Union 'Silver Arrows.'

The circuit at Donington Park was closed in 1940 due to World War II, when it was requisitioned by the Ministry of Defence and was converted into a military vehicle depot. It was "derequisitioned" in 1956 and approved for racing by local planning authorities in 1957.

Wheatcroft revival (1971–2006)
In 1971 the park was bought by business man and car collector Tom Wheatcroft, who funded the rebuilding of the track. Wheatcroft moved his collection to a museum known as the Donington Grand Prix Exhibition which opened in 1973, and had the largest collection of Grand Prix cars in the world until its closure in 2018.

Wheatcroft had to battle against Leicestershire County Council, which had refused to allow planning consent for a return to racing, but Wheatcroft successfully appealed and had laid out the track by early 1976.

The first postwar race meeting was for motorcycles held on Sunday, 15 May 1977, organised by The Pathfinders and Derby Motor Club. The motor racing circuit re-opened for cars on Saturday 28 May 1977. The first postwar car race meeting was organised by the Nottingham Sports Car Club, sponsored by local Lotus dealers, J A Else of Codnor. That first car meeting nearly did not happen, as the local ramblers tried to assert their rights to retain access to footpaths at the eleventh hour. The meeting went ahead as a "Motor Trial", a legal loophole that curtailed the use of single seater racing cars for that opening meeting. The NSCC continued to run race meetings at Donington until the Donington Racing Club was formed and a licence to run race meetings obtained.

The Melbourne Loop was built in 1985 to increase the lap distance to 2.498 mi and allow the track to host Grand Prix motorcycle races. At the previously 1.957 mi the circuit was deemed too short. The shorter layout remains as the "National" circuit, which is used for most non-Grand Prix events.

Near the end of the 20th century Donington has held meetings of MotoGP, the British Touring Car Championship and British Superbike Championship, as well as the 1993 European Grand Prix.

Other events taking place at the track include a 1000 km endurance race for the Le Mans Series in 2006, the World Series by Renault and the Great and British Motorsport Festival. On 26 August 2007, the circuit hosted the British Motocross Grand Prix, with a purpose-built motocross circuit constructed on the infield of the road circuit.

Donington Ventures Leisure (2007–2009)
In 2007, Wheatcroft via the holding company Wheatcroft & Son Ltd, sold a 150-year lease on the land on which the track and museum are located to Donington Ventures Leisure Ltd (DVLL).

In July 2008, it was announced that DVLL had won the rights to the British Grand Prix for 17 years from July 2010, with North West Leicestershire council approving plans for the required track and facility rebuilt design by Hermann Tilke to be constructed from January 2009.

On 27 and 28 September 2008, the Motocross des Nations, the biggest and longest running event in World Championship Motocross, was at Donington Park.

It soon became clear that DVLL, led by Simon Gillett, was in serious financial difficulty. Chris Sylt, a respected journalist specialising in the financial side of Formula One, questioned Simon Gillett's track record, citing an earlier failure of his company Innovation Motorsport, owing £200,000, and his apparent lack of experience.

In April 2009, Wheatcroft & Son Ltd took legal action against DVLL in Derby County Court, seeking £2.47m in rent arrears, as well as forfeiture of the lease. The legal action put the future of the British Grand Prix in doubt, with Bernie Ecclestone restating that if Donington did not meet required standards to host the event, there will be no British Grand Prix from 2010.

On 5 June 2009, it was announced that an out of court settlement had been reached between Wheatcroft & Son Ltd and DVLL.

On 24 October 2009, media sources reported that Donington had failed to raise the £135 million needed to stage a British Grand Prix. The BBC commented in its coverage that: "Donington's bid looks over, and that Ecclestone has offered the race to Silverstone." Although DVLL gave further public relations assurance that it would be able to raise the required finance and host the Grand Prix, on 29 October 2009, Ecclestone confirmed that the British Grand Prix would not be held at Donington.

On 18 November 2009, the company went into administration with debts to contractors and suppliers approaching £4 million and a secured loan of £14 million with Anglo Irish Bank, according to the Administrator's report. . Acting chairman Mr Price said: "This need not be the end of Formula One racing at Donington. It still remains a fantastic location. It needs people of vision to get the dream to the starting grid. We are certainly hopeful that a 2011 Grand Prix could take place at the site."

On 7 December 2009, Formula One Management announced that Silverstone had been awarded a 17-year contract to hold the British Grand Prix from 2010 until 2026.

On 11 December 2009, it was announced that DVLL had lost the rights to hold the British Superbike Championship race due to be held on 10–12 September 2010. These dates will now be used for a race at Croft.

Return to Wheatcroft family (2009–2017)
On 24 December 2009 it was announced that a buyer for Donington Ventures Leisure had not been found, which thus meant that the 150-year lease given by Wheatcroft & Son Ltd to Donington Ventures Leisure was terminated. The ownership immediately reverted to Wheatcroft & Son Ltd, now led by Kevin Wheatcroft in light of the death of his father in 2009. Wheatcroft vowed to re-open Donington Park as soon as possible. There were hopes to re-open the circuit in August 2010, and this was accomplished with the Donington Revival meeting.

On 26 May 2010 Wheatcroft announced that the lease for Donington Park had been sold (Subject To Contract) to Worcestershire-based Adroit Group. Adroit proceeded to resurrect the circuit, not only rebuilding the removed track sections, but also renewing infrastructure. This included the re-alignment of Foggy's bend, but not the old Dunlop Bridge due to new built MSA/FIA regulations. As a result of a series of inspections, the circuit successfully regained its ACU, MSA and FIA Grade 2 licences. However, Wheatcrofts and Adroit failed to agree terms of a final lease contract, and hence terminated their outline agreement.

The Wheatcroft-owned company Donington Park Racing took control of the circuit in late 2010, gaining events from both World Touring Cars and the World Superbikes, plus the inaugural Donington Historic Festival.

60 race days are held each year, including events from the British Touring Car Championship, British Superbikes, World Superbikes, British GT, rallying and historic festivals for both cars and motorcycles. Racing takes place on most weekends between March and October, with visits from most British racing clubs. Donington has also been host to the annual Season Launch for the BTCC since 2013, while the British Superbike Championship also holds major test days at the circuit.

The FIA Formula E Championship and its teams also constructed its headquarters at the circuit in the early years of its competition. All teams in the electric series were based at the venue, and Donington hosted several pre-season test dates before each season, some of which were open to spectators. For the 2017–18 season, the series switched their pre-season test venue to the Circuit Ricardo Tormo in Valencia, Spain.

Wheatcroft has also invested heavily to restore the circuit infrastructure to its former glories. The infield which was excavated during the late 2000s has been completely restored and raised even higher in some areas, while pit and paddock facilities have also been improved. Outside the circuit boundaries, an all terrain course has been constructed, as well as improvements to hospitality buildings and conferencing suites.

Purchase by MotorSport Vision (2017–present)
In January 2017, the circuit business was taken over by MotorSport Vision, with the Donington Park Estate on a 21-year lease, until 2038. The purchase was cleared by the Competition and Markets Authority in August 2017, with work commencing almost immediately on venue improvements.

Additions over the winter period of 2017-18 included a full resurface of paddock areas and access roads, the addition of the Garage 39 Restaurant, cafe and bar, and a large new grandstand at Hollywood corner. Several old toilet blocks were also demolished to make way for more modern units. while detail changes were carried out around the venue. The circuit office was also relocated to a newer building within the paddock.

For 2019, work was completed on a new main entrance area near the existing paddock entrance, that better separates pedestrians from vehicle traffic.

In April 2021 MSV announced it had purchased the freehold of the Donington Hall Estate comprising Donington Hall itself, former office building Hastings House and the Lansdowne workshops building. The estate is set in 28 acres of grounds next to the Donington Park race circuit. MSV plans to develop the Grade II* listed Hall into a 40-bedroom hotel, scheduled to open in 2023. Hastings House will become the Donington Hall Motorhouse, a stabling facility for supercars, classic road and racing cars and motorcycles, whilst the Lansdowne workshops, will be available to let for high-end motor engineering businesses which support the preparation and maintenance of vehicles kept at the Donington Hall Motorhouse and used on the race circuit.

Motorsport at Donington
Donington Park has long been home to many prestigious motorsport events including BTCC, British F3, British Superbike Championship, WorldSBK, Superleague Formula, Truck Racing.

1993 European Grand Prix
Donington Park was the host of the 1993 European Grand Prix on 11 April 1993. The race, which was affected by rain, was notable for the dominance of Ayrton Senna where he won the race by over 1 minute from Damon Hill, having advanced from fifth to first in the opening lap.

This race was described by AtlasF1 as the 'Drive of the Decade'. There is a memorial to Senna in the grounds of the racetrack, outside the Donington Collections.

Failed 2010 British Grand Prix bid

On 4 July 2008 Bernie Ecclestone announced that Donington Park would hold the British Grand Prix from onwards in a 17-year deal, having been hosted exclusively by Silverstone since 1987. On 10 July 2008, the proposal was that the track would have a major upgrade designed by Hermann Tilke, to include an entirely new pit complex along Starkey's Straight and increasing the circuit length to 2.944 mi, by the addition of a new infield loop, to get it up to the standards required for modern day Formula One racing.

The proposal included that the racetrack would be the first to be accessed only by public transportation, with viewers' cars not being allowed to enter the facility. This was in part an answer to the lack of road access, which regularly resulted in long tailbacks, for example when 30,000 bikers exited major motorcycle events. A shuttle-bus service would run from the close by East Midlands Parkway station, on the Midland Main Line from London to Sheffield.

In light of the financial crisis and Donington's potential inability to raise the necessary funds, Bernie Ecclestone stated on 20 June 2009 that the 2010 British Grand Prix would be held at Silverstone if Donington was not ready to host it. This was a change from his previous "Donington or nothing" standpoint and he cited changes in the structure of the BRDC, meaning there was a better way of negotiating with them over future commercial rights. Furthermore, during an interview with the BBC about the Formula One Teams Association threatening to break away and form their own series, FIA president Max Mosley said it was "highly likely" the 2010 British Grand Prix would return to Silverstone.

Donington was given an extended two-week deadline to prove their financing to host the 2010 British Grand Prix. This did not work out, as fundraising attempts fell through on 22 October 2009. Consequently Bernie Ecclestone confirmed a few days after, that Donington would not be hosting the British Grand Prix.

On 18 November 2009, less than one month after it was confirmed that the Donington had lost the right to host the British Grand Prix, circuit owner Donington Ventures Leisure Limited was placed into administration. Ecclestone initially had promised potential new owners the option of reviving the deal, but in December 2009 Silverstone won the contract for the next 17 years.

Motorcycle Grands Prix (1987–2009)
Donington Park has also been the home of Grand Prix motorcycle racing. After the Isle of Man TT Races lost World Championship status, from the 1977 UK inaugural race, GP racing was held at Silverstone until 1986. For the next 23 years, Donington held the race up until 2009, but in light of the proposed Donington Formula 1 deal, Grand Prix organisers Dorna Sports agreed a five-year deal with Silverstone from 2010. Following the failed 2010 Formula 1 bid, in less than a year Donington had lost both competitions for the foreseeable future.

Donington Park was proposed to host the British Grand Prix as an alternative venue chosen for 2015, since the Circuit of Wales, having won the Dorna contract from 2015, was a failed proposal. However, in February 2015, it was announced that Donington had called off the deal, and that 2015 Grands Prix would likely remain at Silverstone.

British Touring Car Championship (BTCC)
Donington Park has been a mainstay of the BTCC calendar, since the series was created in 1987 (as a development from the previous British Saloon Car Championship). In 1999 Donington was the location of one of the standout events from the BTCC's Super Touring era. Matt Neal caused a sensation by winning a race in his Nissan Primera, the first 'Independent' to do so in the modern era. This won him a £250,000 prize from BTCC series promoter Alan Gow.

FIA World Touring Car Championship (2011)
After five years at Brands Hatch, the WTCC moved to Donington Park in 2011. The event attracted thousands of people on race day, where the two races were both won by Yvan Muller for Chevrolet. The weekend also had two races for the Auto GP series as well as the Maserati Trofeo. The 2012 WTCC season did not include a UK-based round of the competition.

DTM
Donington hosted rounds of the German DTM (Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters) series in 2002 and 2003. Former F1 driver Jean Alesi secured a clean sweep of wins across both years for AMG Mercedes.

Rallying
The Park hosted a stage of the 1989 RAC Rally. Donington is the venue for two rallies, with one of the events being a round of the MSN Circuit Rally Championship. These events do not take place exclusively on the circuit, including sections on the looser sections surrounding the track itself.

Sports Cars / GTs
Donington was one of the venues for the 2001 European Le Mans Series season. It was a series for Le Mans Prototypes (LMP) and Grand Touring (GT) race cars run by IMSA. The ill-fated series began in March 2001 and ended in October that year after only 7 races. The Donington winner was Audi Sport Team Joest with drivers Tom Kristensen and Rinaldo Capello.

Donington was also a venue for races in the FIA GT Championship from 1997 to 1999 and then 2002 to 2004.

Lap records
The unofficial all-time track record set during a race weekend is 1:10.458, set by Alain Prost in a Williams FW15C, during second (final) qualifying for the 1993 European Grand Prix. As of July 2024, the fastest official race lap records at the Donington Park Circuit are listed as:

Events

 * 2024

 * March 29–30: Britcar, British Endurance Championship
 * April 27–28: British Touring Car Championship, F4 British Championship, Porsche Carrera Cup Great Britain
 * May 4–5: Donington Historic Festival
 * May 18–21: British Superbike Championship
 * May 24–26: British GT Championship, GB4 Championship
 * June 22–23: Donington Park Summer Race Weekend
 * July 12–14: Superbike World Championship, Supersport World Championship, FIM Women's Motorcycling World Championship
 * July 20–21: Ferrari Challenge UK
 * August 3–4: Donington Historics
 * August 10–11: Britcar, British Endurance Championship
 * August 24–25: British Touring Car Championship, F4 British Championship, Porsche Carrera Cup Great Britain
 * September 6–8: British GT Championship, GB3 Championship, GB4 Championship
 * September 27–29: British Superbike Championship
 * October 19–20: Caterham Racing Festival

 * Former

 * Auto GP (1999–2004, 2011, 2013)
 * BPR Global GT Series (1995)
 * BOSS GP (1995–2004, 2007–2008, 2011)
 * Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (2002–2003)
 * Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft (1991, 1993–1995)
 * EFDA Nations Cup (1996–1997)
 * Eurocup Formula Renault 2.0 (1993, 2000, 2003–2007)
 * Eurocup Mégane Trophy (2005–2007)
 * European Formula Two Championship (1977–1979, 1981–1984)
 * European Le Mans Series
 * 6 Hours of Donington (2006, 2012)
 * European Touring Car Championship (1981–1988, 2002–2004)
 * European Truck Racing Championship (1994, 1998–1999, 2011–2012)
 * FIA European Formula 3 Championship (1977–1979, 1981–1984)
 * FIA GT Championship (1997–1999, 2002–2004)
 * FIA GT1 World Championship (2012)
 * FIA Sportscar Championship (1997–2001, 2003)
 * FIA Touring Car World Cup (1994)
 * FIM Endurance World Championship (1981–1982, 1987)
 * Formula One
 * European Grand Prix (1993)
 * Formula Renault V6 Eurocup (2003–2004)
 * Grand Prix motorcycle racing
 * British motorcycle Grand Prix (1987–2009)
 * IMSA European Le Mans Series (2001)
 * International Formula 3000 (1985, 1987, 1990, 1993)
 * Open Telefonica by Nissan (1998–2000)
 * Sidecar World Championship (1987–2001, 2008, 2014–2016, 2021–2022)
 * World Sportscar Championship (1989–1990, 1992)
 * World Touring Car Championship
 * FIA WTCC Race of UK (2011)

Other events
Beside motorsports, many other events are held at Donington. The 1975 BMF Rally was held in the grounds with period reports of 10,000 motorcycle riders attending.

Other events included music festivals such as the Download Festival, and the Donington Grand Prix Museum exhibition until it closed down in November 2018. The Donington Park Sunday Market used to be held in the grounds of the park for nearly 40 years before being closed down in September 2016, the owners citing changing shopping habits contributing to fewer traders and customers.

Music festivals
Donington Park has a long history of holding rock festivals having played host to the Monsters of Rock festival from 1980 to the mid 90s, when groups such as Van Halen, Bon Jovi, AC/DC, Metallica, and Iron Maiden performed there. With a few years off the park then played host to Stereophonics' A Day At The Races event and the Rock and Blues Festival in 2001, and the Ozzfest in 2002.

In 2003, the Download Festival (owned and operated by Live Nation) began annually at the venue and continues to an increased three-day event with five stages, though as of 2008 the event is now held outside of the track boundary.

Donington Park was the venue for the biggest rave to ever take place in the United Kingdom, when music promotor Fantazia held their 'One Step Beyond' event there in 1992. 25,000 tickets were sold, but police estimated that 3000 people had entered without tickets.

Donington Grand Prix Exhibition
The Donington Grand Prix Exhibition first opened to the public in March 1973. Five halls, with over 130 exhibits, illustrated the history of motor sport from the turn of the 20th century. Cars included examples driven by such famous names as Nuvolari, Mansell, Prost, Moss, Senna, Fangio, Clark and Stewart. The Donington Grand Prix Exhibition housed a collection of McLaren and Vanwalls racing cars. Notable exhibits included the 1936 twin engined 500 bhp Alfa Romeo Bimotore which had a top speed of 200 mi/h, Jim Clark's World Championship winning Lotus 25, the 'howling' flat 12 Ferrari 312B, and Stirling Moss's Lotus, in which he defeated the Ferrari works team in the 1961 Monaco Grand Prix. The Collection also featured the World's largest collection of Driver's Helmets. There were several different type of simulators that allowed users to experience the thrills of racing at speed.

After closing briefly in 2009 following the death of Tom Wheatcroft and Donington Ventures Leisure Ltd. entering administration, the exhibition reopened on 6 January 2010 along with the cafe and race control offices. With dwindling visitor numbers, and not being part of the core MSV business plan, the museum closed permanently on 5 November 2018.

Location
Donington Park lies south west of Nottingham, south east of Derby and is situated in Leicestershire. It is a matter of a few yards/metres east of the border with Derbyshire and indeed has a Derby postcode and telephone code. The western end of the runway at East Midlands Airport is just 400 yards from the eastern end of the racing track. It is also fairly close to the M1.

East Midlands Parkway railway station and Derby Midland Station are close by and the owners have expressed their desire for spectators to use these stations and coaches to the circuit. The owners are also in support of any future light rail transport to East Midlands Airport itself.

Donington Hall was, for a time, the HQ of the airline British Midland International (later known as BMI).

Media
Donington Park has been simulated and can be driven in several racing simulations, such as Spirit of Speed 1937 (the 1937 version of the track is featured, as the name suggests). Another 1937 layout features in the popular rFactor simulation. This version is far more accurate than that of the Spirit of Speed version. The track also features in Sports Car GT, Le Mans 24 Hours, ToCA Touring Car Championship, ToCA 2 Touring Cars, ToCA Race Driver, ToCA Race Driver 2, TOCA Race Driver 3, Alfa Romeo Racing Italiano, GTR, GTR2, GT Legends, F1 Challenge '99-'02 (with a mod), Grand Prix 4 (1993 configuration, unofficial add-on track), MotoGP 3, Redline, rFactor, SBK-07, Race Driver: GRID, Need for Speed: Shift, iRacing, Assetto Corsa (as a mod), Assetto Corsa Competizione (in British GT pack DLC), Automobilista 2, and Project CARS. Donington Park also appears as a venue in the game Guitar Hero: Metallica.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Donington Park


text:
Talk:Mean center of the United States population

Alaska & Hawaii

 * The addition of Alaska and Hawaii to the union had the effect of moving the center about two miles farther south and about ten miles farther west for 1960.

Huh? Shouldn't the addition of Alaska move it north? Or is Hawaii far enough south that it balances out?

Hawaii is pretty far south. And don't forget that twice as many people live in Hawaii as Alaska.

Map
A map showing the movement over time would be really neat for all non-Americans as the names of the counties mean next to nothing to us. Lisiate 00:16, 13 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * A map has been added. —Bkell 04:04, 7 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Thanks for that, nice map. Lisiate 20:39, 7 Apr 2004 (UTC)

West Virginia
The population centers of the United States between 1820 and 1860 were never really in West Virginia, as West Virginia did not exist at the time. I have added a note at the bottom explaining this fact, because changing the tags for each of the counties would result in some confusion. I felt that it was better to explain in a note than to mess with the County tags, which are neatly arranged. Uniuni 15:27, 16 November 2006 (UTC)

Air Conditioning
Could someone explain to me how exactly is the number of air conditioners related to population growth? Seems like an explanation of the mating habits of mice through quantum physics and the number of butterflies in France... Halibutt 23:12, 3 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I think the reasoning is that the availability of air conditioning increased migration southwards. Before then many found the climate too unpleasant. Lisiate 20:28, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Yeah, I really don't think that air conditioning part belongs in this article. If there is a connection between population migration and airconditioning, the article should state so.  Also, the map shows that even with the advent of air conditioning, there was no immediate or gradual shift in population.  It should also be noted that even if airconditioning was available, it was still prohibitively expensive in the 40s.  I find it doubtful that people would base their decisions to move on the availability of air conditioning.  The East Coast is hot in the summer from Boston to Miami, and plenty of people lived in the Southeast before airconditioning.  If the author of that portion believes that there is a correlation, please expand and cite sources.  In any case, a such a theory does not belong in the opening paragraph.  I suggest that the portion be removed or at least moved to the bottom of the article.  Taco325i 01:18, 15 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Air conditioning may be related to it. However, I suspect that the civil rights movement and the impression that the South had finally stopped being a 19th-century holdover may have made a difference in persuading northerners to move south as well.  Does anyone actually know of any studies on this?RatatoskLemur 22:40, 5 April 2008 (UTC)

 * There's been lots written on the effects of air conditioning on the demographics of the south. The article on Houston, Texas mentions it (with citations) as the primary reason for their postwar boom.  Polsby mentions it in his book on the evolution of Congress (shifting of electoral votes) .  Even the "19th century holdover" could be explained by the weather.  The deep south without air conditioning is just not a good place for cities and factories.  Its not just Houston, Dallas and Phoenix...  this also includes eastern cities like Atlanta and Miami each of which have seen enormous growth in their metro areas since WWII.  Perhaps it doesn't need top billing, but its not a joke. DavidRF (talk) 04:38, 21 July 2008 (UTC)

Statistics
I would like to see this page include information explaining how mean center is calulated. (ie: formulas)

-Thanks

 * this cited source has some explaination of this, but maybe its to much yet for this small article. plus I don't know how to make formula's ;-)
 * The center of population computed by the Census Bureau is the point whose latitude (φ ) and longitude (λ ) satisfy the equations mentioned in the source.

 * Stated in less mathematical form, the latitude of the center of population was determined by multiplying the population of each unit of area by the latitude of its population center, then adding all these products and dividing this total by the total population of the United States. The result is the latitude of the population center.

 * East-west distances were measured, or computed, in substantially the same manner, but with the inclusion of a correction for latitude. For these distances, a degree of longitude at the equator was the unit of measurement. East-west distances along the equator could be measured in degrees, but any east-west degree distance north of the equator -- where all the United States is located -- had to be adjusted to recognize the convergence of meridians toward the poles. This adjustment required that each east-west distance, stated in degrees of longitude, be multiplied by the cosine of the latitude. This mathematical relationship is precise for a sphere and a very close approximation for the earth.

 * The computation required that the longitude of each of the thousands of selected points be multiplied by the cosine of the latitude of the point and by the population associated with the point. These products were added and divided by the sum of the products for the same thousands of points, each of which was obtained by multiplying the cosine of the latitude of a point by the appropriate population figure. The result was the longitude of the center of population. IsFari (talk) 17:17, 14 August 2008 (UTC)

 * Maybe we could include this statement in a simpler form. Essentially, it's a question of specifying which map projection is used in the already quoted USCB explanation.  From the info you've found, it would appear to be the sinusoidal projection.  What do you think? -- Smjg (talk) 18:26, 24 August 2008 (UTC)

Flaws in Census formula?
This article points out flaws in the Census Bureau's formula and presents a more accurate way of determining the mean. But why isn't it more widely used? 150.201.66.93 (talk) 03:28, 28 February 2008 (UTC)

Climatological center of population
Is it possible to calculate the climatological center of population - on average, what annual temperature and precipitation do Americans enjoy? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Comrade Sephiroth (talk • contribs) 17:55, 2 April 2008 (UTC)

 * If its possible, it most likely has been done, so find the source and include it, but not in this article, because it is off topic. IsFari (talk) 16:53, 14 August 2008 (UTC)

Coordinates
I included coordinates for all the calculated mean centers of US population in a tabular form, but now all these coords also seem to show at the top-right corners of the article. Anyone knows how to fix this ? IsFari (talk) 16:54, 14 August 2008 (UTC)

No Howard County in 1800
According to the Howard County, Maryland article Howard County did not exist in 1800 (depending on the exact definition of county, it is either in the 1830s or 1850s. I suggest that it be changed to Anne Arundel County, Maryland (now in Howard County, Maryland).(The bolding is to set of the proposed text, here on the talk page)Naraht (talk) 19:23, 31 December 2008 (UTC)

There are also similar problems with 1830 being Grant County, Virginia (see Grant County, West Virginia) and 1840 Upshur County, Virginia (see Upshur County, West Virginia).

For 1830, there *never* was a Grant County, Virginia (it was created in 1866 by the State Government of *West* Virginia) and Upshur county was created in 1851 from three different counties. Research will be needed to find out which of the three counties that Upshur was formed from included the mean center point in 1840 and what county included the 1830 midpoint.Naraht (talk) 19:36, 31 December 2008 (UTC)

OK, I've checked with the Upshur County library and the Upshur County Historical Society. According to the head of the Upshur County Historical Society, the Geographical Center is in the unincorporated community of Lorentz and that Lorentz was part of Lewis County, West Virginia prior to the formation of Upshur County. (along with 95% of the rest of Upshur County.) This information is also available in a published source "At Every Crossroad: A Study Of Upshur County Communities" by Noel W. Tenney.

And Grant County, Virginia was entirely formed out of Hardy County, Virginia, (see http://www.familyhistory101.com/maps/va_cm.html for an animated map of the history of counties in Virginia, in addition to the Grant County, West Virginia article.

So Hardy County, West Virginia (now in Grant County, West Virginia) for 1830 and Lewis County, West Virginia (now in Upshur County, West Virginia) for 1840? Naraht (talk) 20:17, 31 December 2008 (UTC)

Slaves
Before the 1870 census, how were slaves counted for the purpose of waiting? Three-fifths, same weighting, or not counted at all? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 152.131.10.128 (talk) 19:14, 12 January 2010 (UTC)

2010
How long is it until the statiscs for that decade is churned through. BTW Any rumours to where the centrepoint will end up? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.134.28.194 (talk) 08:15, 16 July 2010 (UTC) 2010 Calculated —Preceding unsigned comment added by 63.115.57.2 (talk) 18:36, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
 * The center for the 200 census was released in April of 2001 so we should not expect a result from the 2010 census before early 2011. Eluchil404 (talk) 04:05, 2 August 2010 (UTC)

Article on wikipedian who did the 2010 calculation
The St. Louis Post-Dispatch today interviews the person who claims to have behind the December 21 edit that named Plato the center. The edit was added anonymously but the i.p. address goes back to his home county in New Jersey.Americasroof (talk) 16:24, 3 April 2011 (UTC)

Distances?
I was wondering whether someone could pretty please calculate the distance the centre point "moved" from time to time. I mean, the great-circle distance between the 1790 and the 1800 point, then 1800 to 1810, and so on. In a sense, this would be a measure of how much people moved around in that decade. 189.27.2.213 (talk) 07:43, 18 April 2011 (UTC)

Median
It would seem reasonable to mention that the median center of population would be where you can divide the population in half, rather than the mean center, which would give more weight to farther away populations on the west coast or farther, dragging the point west of where the median is 24.84.57.132 (talk) 17:44, 26 May 2011 (UTC)

Meaningless citation
There were two citations in the article whose full content was "Alex Zakrewsky, Principal Planner, Middlesex County New Jersey Office of Planning." If this refers to a published document of some kind, it is not at all obvious. Apparently this has something to do with the following newspaper article: "How a N.J. man put Plato, Mo., on the map before the census bureau. Todd C. Frankel. Knight-Ridder/Tribune Business News, 2011-04-03." Anyone is invited to figure out whether there is a WP:RS here that should be cited in the article. (Pinging as well.) --JBL (talk) 15:40, 27 July 2021 (UTC)
 * This is probably the same article as the St. Louis Post-Dispatch article mentioned above. --JBL (talk) 15:42, 27 July 2021 (UTC)
 * I've Googled "mean population center 2020", and the only thing I was able to find was this map from the University of Virginia. It's a projected result and not the actual result. It seems to be roughly similar to what's in the article, but it's not at all precise.
 * The article you gave says that Alex Zakrewsky calculated the 2010 mean population center early using incomplete data, which his colleague then put on Wikipedia. It's possible that they've done this again for 2020. I'm sure that's against the original research policy though. Saucy[talk – contribs] 08:20, 28 July 2021 (UTC)
 * I agree. --JBL (talk) 11:57, 28 July 2021 (UTC)

I am hereby appealing to the editors of this page to allow for the publication of my 2020 estimated US population centroid (center) calculation. My contention is that, since the source of my estimation is a conceptually simple calculation involving only the basic arithmetic functions of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, it should be allowed under Wikipedia's "Routine Calculations" "Basic Arithmetic" clause, thereby exempting it from Wikipedia's "Original Research" prohibition.

I believe that my annual estimated and projected centroid cacluations have added significant value to this Wikipedia page over the last decade. These calculations have offered a unique real-time summary of the changing settlement patterns in the United States over the years, and have gained acceptance from various researchers. The veracity of my method was first confirmed by comparison of my 2010 predicted centroid to the US Census Bureau's official centroid calculation in 2010. I believe it will almost certainly be re-confirmed once the Bureau releases its centroid calculation for 2020 in coming weeks.

With this message I hope to elicit support from the editors of this page to allow for the publication of my 2020 US population centroid calculated estimate, as well as subsequent annual calculated estimates and projections.

Thank you for your consideration of this matter! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Alex.zakrewsky (talk • contribs) 23:11, September 18, 2021 (UTC)

 * The calculation does not strike me as being either routine or basic. This is not the "adding numbers, converting units, or calculating a person's age" referred to in WP:CALC.

 * I'm certain you're confident in your ability to project this; but Wikipedia is not the correct forum in which material like this is published for the first time. If you are ever published elsewhere, in a WP:RS, we could always add it with a citation to that source. TJRC (talk) 00:06, 19 September 2021 (UTC)

Here's a report about my 2020 centroid estimation: https://www.newsweek.com/missouri-town-82-residents-no-longer-us-population-center-after-2020-census-1649365100.1.177.64 (talk) 01:45, 16 November 2021 (UTC)

Distance Calculation
Some (or all?) of the listed distances between centroids are too long when compared to published US Census data and also lat/long distance calculators available on the internet. Can someone please look into this issue and correct erroneous entries? Thanks! Alex.zakrewsky (talk) 14:32, 27 September 2021 (UTC)

Imminent US Census Bureau Release: 2020 US Population Centroid
I'm excited to know that the US Census Bureau is about to release its 2020 US Population Centroid location.

I believe that this data release will be notable because it will show an historic slowdown in centroid movement, probably the slowest since the 1910-1920 period as an aging population, ongoing economic difficulties, and the impact of the pandemic work to reduce the means and reason for Americans to move.

Using a method validated in predicting the location of the 2010 US population center, my estimation for the location of the 2020 centroid is: 37.410844 N; 92.364605 W.

This position is 12.83 miles/20.65 kilometers southwest of the 2010 centroid.

This spot is located in Wright County, MO, about 10 miles southwest of Plato, MO and 13.63 miles northeast of Hartville, MO. It remains closer to Plato than Hartville, but I’m thinking that the Bureau may opt to name Hartville the center given its symbolic name. We’ll see.

Judging from past performance, this estimate should be within a mile or two of the official position (that’s the best I can do because I’m working with state-level data). I’ll let you know exactly how far off once the Census calculation is released.

Best,

Alex.zakrewsky (talk) 17:15, 29 September 2021 (UTC)


text:
77 (number)

77 (seventy-seven) is the natural number following 76 and preceding 78. Seventy-seven is the smallest positive integer requiring five syllables in English.

In mathematics
77 is:

 * the 22nd discrete semiprime and the first of the (7.q) family, where q is a higher prime.
 * with a prime aliquot sum of 19 within an aliquot sequence (77, 19, 1, 0) to the Prime in the 19-aliquot tree. 77 is the second composite member of the 19-aliquot tree with 65
 * a Blum integer since both 7 and 11 are Gaussian primes.
 * the sum of three consecutive squares, 42 + 52 + 62.
 * the sum of the first eight prime numbers.
 * the number of integer partitions of the number 12.
 * the largest number that cannot be written as a sum of distinct numbers whose reciprocals sum to 1.
 * the number of digits of the 12th perfect number.

It is possible for a sudoku puzzle to have as many as 77 givens, yet lack a unique solution.

It and 49 are the only 2-digit numbers whose home primes (in base 10) have not been calculated.

In science

 * The atomic number of iridium
 * The boiling point of nitrogen (in kelvins)
 * The temperature, in Fahrenheit, some characteristics of semiconductors are specifically given in a datasheet (77 °F = 25 °C).

In history
During World War II in Sweden at the border with Norway, "77" was used as a shibboleth (password), because the tricky pronunciation in Swedish made it easy to instantly discern whether the speaker was native Swedish, Norwegian, or German.

In religion
In the Islamic tradition, "77" figures prominently. Muhammad is reported to have explained, "Faith has sixty-odd, or seventy-odd branches, the highest and best of which is to declare and believe that there is no god but Allah without any equals or highers and anyone worthy of worship, and the lowest of which is to remove something harmful from a road. Shyness, too, is a branch of faith." While some scholars refrain from clarifying "sixty-odd or seventy-odd", various numbers have been suggested, 77 being the most common. Some have gone so far as to delineate these branches.

The Gospel of Luke lists 77 generations from Adam to Jesus. In the Gospel of Matthew Peter asks, "How many times shall I forgive my brother?". Jesus replies, "Seventy-seven times." However this was not intended as literal quantitative instruction. Additionally, depending on the manuscript used for a given New Testament eclectic translation, the result is 77 or 490 (70*7) as it is seen in the King James Version.

In the Book of Genesis, Chapter 4, Lamech says to his wives, "hear my voice ... hearken unto my speech; for I have slain a man for wounding me, and a young man for bruising me; If Cain shall be avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy and sevenfold."

In religious numerology
In certain numerological systems based on the English alphabet, the number 77 is associated with Jesus Christ. CHRIST is C = 3, H = 8, R = 18, I = 9, S = 19, T = 20, which added together equal 77.

'Liber 77' is the gematrian name for Liber OZ- a brief but popular publication by Aleister Crowley. The word 'oz', which means 'strength', is composed of two Hebrew letters- ayin and zayin, which have gematrian values of 70 and 7 respectively, thus adding up to 77.

In other fields
Seventy-seven is also:
 * 10-77, the New York City Fire Department's (FDNY) 10 code for high-rise, multiple-dwelling fire
 * Shortening of a 1950s–1960s TV series, 77 Sunset Strip
 * Group of 77, a group of developing nations at the United Nations
 * Talking Heads: 77, Talking Heads' debut album, released in 1977
 * American Airlines Flight 77, one of the planes hijacked during the September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001
 * The 77s, an American Rock band

title: 77 (number)


text:
79 (number)

79 (seventy-nine) is the natural number following 78 and preceding 80.

In mathematics
79 is:

 * An odd number.
 * The smallest number that can not be represented as a sum of fewer than 19 fourth powers.
 * The 22nd prime number (between and )
 * An isolated prime without a twin prime, as 77 and 81 are composite.
 * The smallest prime number p for which the real quadratic field Q[√p] has class number greater than 1 (namely 3).
 * A cousin prime with 83.
 * An emirp in base 10, because the reverse of 79, 97, is also a prime.
 * A Fortunate prime.
 * A circular prime.
 * A prime number that is also a Gaussian prime (since it is of the form 4n + 3).
 * A happy prime.
 * A Higgs prime.
 * A lucky prime.
 * A permutable prime, with ninety-seven.
 * A Pillai prime, because 23! + 1 is divisible by 79, but 79 is not one more than a multiple of 23.
 * A regular prime.
 * A right-truncatable prime, because when the last digit (9) is removed, the remaining number (7) is still prime.
 * A sexy prime (with 73).
 * The n value of the Wagstaff prime 201487636602438195784363.
 * Similarly to how the decimal expansion of 1/89 gives Fibonacci numbers, 1/79 gives Pell numbers, that is, $$\frac{1}{79}=\sum_{n=1}^\infty{P(n)\times 10^{-(n+1)}}=0.0126582278\dots\ .$$
 * A Leyland number of the second kind.

In science

 * The atomic number of the chemical element gold (Au) is 79.

In astronomy

 * Messier object 79 (M79), a magnitude 8.5 globular cluster in the constellation Lepus
 * New General Catalogue object 79 (NGC 79), a galaxy in the constellation Andromeda

In other fields

 * Live Seventy Nine, an album by Hawkwind
 * The years 79 BC, AD 79 or 1979
 * The number of the French department Deux-Sèvres
 * The ASCII code of the capital letter O

title: 79 (number)


text:
African Americans in the United States Congress

From the first United States Congress in 1789 through the 116th Congress in 2020, 162 African Americans served in Congress. Meanwhile, the total number of all individuals who have served in Congress over that period is 12,348. Between 1789 and 2020, 152 have served in the House of Representatives, 9 have served in the Senate, and 1 has served in both chambers. Voting members have totaled 156, with 6 serving as delegates. Party membership has been 131 Democrats and 31 Republicans. While 13 members founded the Congressional Black Caucus in 1971 during the 92nd Congress, in the 116th Congress (2019-2020), 56 served, with 54 Democrats and 2 Republicans (total seats are 535, plus 6 delegates).

By the time of the first edition of the House sponsored book, Black Americans in Congress, in the bicentennial year of 1976, 45 African Americans had served in Congress throughout history; that rose to 66 by the second edition in 1990, and there were further sustained increases in both the 2008 and 2018 editions. The first African American to serve was Senator Hiram Revels in 1870. The first African American to chair a congressional committee was Representative William L. Dawson in 1949. The first African-American woman was Representative Shirley Chisholm in 1968, and the first African American to become Dean of the House was John Conyers in 2015. The first African American to become party leader in either chamber of congress was Hakeem Jeffries in 2023. One member, then Senator Barack Obama, went from the Senate to President of the United States in 2009. The first African Americans to serve in the Congress were Republicans elected during the Reconstruction Era. After the 13th and 14th Amendments granted freedom and citizenship to enslaved people, freedmen gained political representation in the Southern United States for the first time. In response to the growing numbers of black statesmen and politicians, white Democrats turned to violence and intimidation to regain their political power.

By the presidential election of 1876, only three state legislatures were not controlled by whites. The Compromise of 1877 completed the period of Redemption by white Southerners, with the withdrawal of federal troops from the South. State legislatures began to pass Jim Crow laws to establish racial segregation and restrict labor rights, movement, and organizing by black people. They passed some laws to restrict voter registration, aimed at suppressing the black vote. From 1890 to 1908, state legislatures in the South essentially disfranchised most black people and many poor white people from voting by passing new constitutions or amendments or other laws related to more restrictive electoral and voter registration and electoral rules. As a result of the Civil Rights Movement, the U.S. Congress passed laws in the mid-1960s to end segregation and enforce constitutional civil rights and voting rights.

As Republicans accommodated the end of Reconstruction becoming more ambiguous on civil rights and with the rise of the Republican lily-white movement, African Americans began shifting away from the Republican Party. During two waves of massive migration within the United States in the first half of the 20th century, more than six million African Americans moved from the South to Northeastern, Midwestern, and Western industrial cities, with five million migrating from 1940 to 1970. Some were elected to federal political office from these new locations, and most were elected as Democrats. During the Great Depression, many black voters switched allegiances from the Republican Party to the Democratic Party, in support of the New Deal economic, social network and work policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration. This trend continued through the 1960s civil rights legislation, when voting rights returned to the South, to present.

Reconstruction and Redemption
The right of black people to vote and to serve in the United States Congress was established after the Civil War by amendments to the Constitution. The Thirteenth Amendment (ratified December 6, 1865), abolished slavery. The Fourteenth Amendment (ratified July 9, 1868) made all people born or naturalized in the United States citizens. The Fifteenth Amendment (ratified February 3, 1870) forbade the denial or abridgment of the right to vote on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude, and gave Congress the power to enforce the law by appropriate legislation.

The first black person to address Congress was Henry Highland Garnet, in 1865, on occasion of the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment.

In 1866, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act and the four Reconstruction Acts, which dissolved all governments in the former Confederate states with the exception of Tennessee. It divided the South into five military districts, where the military through the Freedmen's Bureau helped protect the rights and safety of newly freed black people. The act required that the former Confederate states ratify their constitutions conferring citizenship rights on black people or forfeit their representation in Congress.

As a result of these measures, black people acquired the right to vote across the Southern states. In several states (notably Mississippi and South Carolina), black people were the majority of the population. By forming coalitions with pro-Union white people, Republicans took control of the state legislatures. At the time, state legislatures elected the members of the U.S. Senate. During Reconstruction, only the state legislature of Mississippi elected any black senators. On February 25, 1870, Hiram Rhodes Revels was seated as the first black member of the Senate, while Blanche Bruce, also of Mississippi, seated in 1875, was the second. Revels was the first black member of the Congress overall.

Black people were a majority of the population in many congressional districts across the South. In 1870, Joseph Rainey of South Carolina was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, becoming the first directly elected black member of Congress to be seated. Black people were elected to national office also from Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Texas and Virginia.

All of these Reconstruction era black senators and representatives were members of the Republican Party. The Republicans represented the party of Abraham Lincoln and of emancipation. The Democrats represented the party of planters, slavery and secession.

From 1868, Southern elections were accompanied by increasing violence, especially in Louisiana, Mississippi and the Carolinas, in an effort by Democrats to suppress black voting and regain power. In the mid-1870s, paramilitary groups such as the White League and Red Shirts worked openly to turn Republicans out of office and intimidate black people from voting. This followed the earlier years of secret vigilante action by the Ku Klux Klan against freedmen and allied white people.

After the disputed Presidential election of 1876 between Democratic Samuel J. Tilden, governor of New York, and Republican Rutherford B. Hayes, governor of Ohio, a national agreement between Democratic and Republican factions was negotiated, resulting in the Compromise of 1877. Under the compromise, Democrats conceded the election to Hayes and promised to acknowledge the political rights of black people; Republicans agreed to withdraw federal troops from the South and promised to appropriate a portion of federal monies toward Southern projects.

Disenfranchisement
With the Southern states "redeemed", Democrats gradually regained control of Southern legislatures. They proceeded to restrict the rights of the majority of black people and many poor white people to vote by imposing new requirements for poll taxes, subjective literacy tests, more strict residency requirements and other elements difficult for laborers to satisfy.

By the 1880s, legislators increased restrictions on black voters through voter registration and election rules. In 1888 John Mercer Langston, president of Virginia State University at Petersburg, was elected to the U.S. Congress as the first African American from Virginia. He would also be the last for nearly a century, as the state passed a disenfranchising constitution at the turn of the century that excluded black people from politics for decades.

Starting with the Florida Constitution of 1885, white Democrats passed new constitutions in ten Southern states with provisions that restricted voter registration and forced hundreds of thousands of people from registration rolls. These changes effectively prevented most black people and many poor white people from voting. Many white people who were also illiterate were exempted from such requirements as literacy tests by such strategies as the grandfather clause, basing eligibility on an ancestor's voting status as of 1866, for instance.

Southern state and local legislatures also passed Jim Crow laws that segregated transportation, public facilities, and daily life. Finally, racial violence in the form of lynchings and race riots increased in frequency, reaching a peak in the last decade of the 19th century.

The last black congressman elected from the South in the 19th century was George Henry White of North Carolina, elected in 1896 and re-elected in 1898. His term expired in 1901, the same year that William McKinley, who was the last president to have fought in the Civil War, died. No black people served in Congress for the next 28 years, and none represented any Southern state for the next 72 years.

The modern era
From 1910 to 1940, the Great Migration of black people from the rural South to Northern cities such as New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Detroit and Cleveland began to produce black-majority Congressional districts in the North. In the North, black people could exercise their right to vote. In the two waves of the Great Migration through 1970, more than six and a half million black people moved north and west and became highly urbanized.

In 1928, Oscar De Priest won the 1st Congressional District of Illinois (the South Side of Chicago) as a Republican, becoming the first black congressman of the modern era. Arthur Wergs Mitchell became the first African-American Democrat elected to Congress, part of the New Deal Coalition, when he replaced De Priest in 1935 after having defeated him in the prior year's general election. De Priest, Mitchell and their eventual successor, William Dawson, were the only African Americans in Congress up to the mid-1940s, when additional black Democrats began to be elected in Northern cities. In 1949, Dawson became the first African American in history to chair a congressional committee. De Priest was the last African-American Republican elected to the House for 58 years, until Gary Franks was elected to represent Connecticut's 5th in 1990. Franks was joined by J.C. Watts in 1994 but lost his bid for reelection two years later. After Watts retired in 2003, the House had no black Republicans until 2011, with the 2010 elections of Allen West in Florida's 22nd and Tim Scott in South Carolina's 1st. West lost his reelection bid in 2012, while Scott resigned in January 2013 to accept appointment to the U.S. Senate. Two new black Republicans, Will Hurd of Texas's 23rd district and Mia Love of Utah's 4th district, were elected in 2014, with Love being the first ever black Republican woman to be elected to Congress. She lost reelection in 2018, leaving Hurd as the only black Republican member of the U.S. House.

The election of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932 led to a shift of black voting loyalties from Republican to Democrat, as Roosevelt's New Deal programs offered economic relief to people suffering from the Great Depression. From 1940 to 1970, nearly five million black Americans moved north and also west, especially to California, in the second wave of the Great Migration. By the mid-1960s, an overwhelming majority of black voters were Democrats, and most were voting in states outside the former Confederacy.

It was not until after passage by Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the result of years of effort on the part of African Americans and allies in the Civil Rights Movement, that black people within the Southern states recovered their ability to exercise their rights to vote and to live with full civil rights. While legal segregation ended, accomplishing voter registration and redistricting to implement the sense of the law took more time.

On January 3, 1969, Shirley Chisholm was sworn as the nation's first African-American congresswoman. Two years later, she became one of the 13 founding members of the Congressional Black Caucus.

Until 1992, most black House members were elected from inner-city districts in the North and West: New York City, Newark, New Jersey, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, St. Louis and Los Angeles all elected at least one black member. Following the 1990 census, Congressional districts needed to be redrawn due to the population shifts of the country. Various federal court decisions resulted in states' creating districts to provide for some where the majority of the population were African Americans, rather than gerrymandering to exclude black majorities.

Both parties have used gerrymandering to gain political advantage by drawing districts to favor their own party. Some districts were created to link widely separated black communities. As a result, several black Democratic members of the House were elected from new districts in Alabama, Florida, rural Georgia, rural Louisiana, North Carolina, South Carolina and Virginia for the first time since Reconstruction. Additional black-majority districts were also created in this way in California, Maryland and Texas, thus increasing the number of black-majority districts.

The creation of black-majority districts was a process supported by both parties. The Democrats saw it as a means of providing social justice, as well as connecting easily to black voters who had been voting Democratic for decades. The Republicans believed they gained by the change, as many of the Democratic voters were moved out of historically Republican-majority districts. By 2000, other demographic and cultural changes resulted in the Republican Party holding a majority of white-majority House districts.

Since the 1940s, when decades of the Great Migration resulted in millions of African Americans having migrated from the South, no state has had a majority of African-American residents. Nine African Americans have served in the Senate since the 1940s: Edward W. Brooke, a Republican from Massachusetts; Carol Moseley Braun, Barack Obama and Roland Burris (appointed to fill a vacancy), all Democrats from Illinois; Tim Scott (initially appointed to fill a vacancy, but later elected), a Republican from South Carolina; Mo Cowan (appointed to fill a vacancy), a Democrat from Massachusetts; Cory Booker, a Democrat from New Jersey; Kamala Harris, a Democrat from California; and Raphael Warnock, a Democrat from Georgia.


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User:Tell~enwiki

My sandbox

Hi I'm Tell.

Not hard to say by Londoners, but most others seem to stuff it up.

In acceptable, SE London, English, the double ell, as in Tell, is negatively stressed to sound something like the 'aw' in BBC English 'awkward'. ‘Tell’ is therefore more correctly pronounced as 'Tell all', only said as one word and with none of the ells sounded – i.e. the tongue takes the rest of the day off after ‘T’

Come on you lot out there - help me! Someone must be able to do better than I have at this.

IPA symbols don't seem to help a lot though.

=Interests:= Most things; apart from trains, cars, collecting, sitting on beaches and packing to go camping.

=Qualifications:=
 * Age.
 * Use of my ability to read.
 * The ability to disregard the teachings of academics.

title: User:Tell~enwiki


text:
Nomenclature

Nomenclature  is a system of names or terms, or the rules for forming these terms in a particular field of arts or sciences. The principles of naming vary from the relatively informal conventions of everyday speech to the internationally agreed principles, rules and recommendations that govern the formation and use of the specialist terminology used in scientific and any other disciplines.

Naming "things" is a part of general human communication using words and language: it is an aspect of everyday taxonomy as people distinguish the objects of their experience, together with their similarities and differences, which observers identify, name and classify. The use of names, as the many different kinds of nouns embedded in different languages, connects nomenclature to theoretical linguistics, while the way humans mentally structure the world in relation to word meanings and experience relates to the philosophy of language.

Onomastics, the study of proper names and their origins, includes: anthroponymy (concerned with human names, including personal names, surnames and nicknames); toponymy (the study of place names); and etymology (the derivation, history and use of names) as revealed through comparative and descriptive linguistics.

The scientific need for simple, stable and internationally accepted systems for naming objects of the natural world has generated many formal nomenclatural systems. Probably the best known of these nomenclatural systems are the five codes of biological nomenclature that govern the Latinized scientific names of organisms.

Etymology
The word nomenclature is derived from the Latin nomen ('name'), and calare ('to call'). The Latin term nomenclatura refers to a list of names, as does the word nomenclator, which can also indicate a provider or announcer of names.

Onomastics and nomenclature
The study of proper names is known as onomastics, which has a wide-ranging scope that encompasses all names, languages, and geographical regions, as well as cultural areas.

The distinction between onomastics and nomenclature is not readily clear: onomastics is an unfamiliar discipline to most people, and the use of nomenclature in an academic sense is also not commonly known. Although the two fields integrate, nomenclature concerns itself more with the rules and conventions that are used for the formation of names.

Influence of social, political, religious factors
Due to social, political, religious, and cultural motivations, things that are the same may be given different names, while different things may be given the same name; closely related similar things may be considered separate, while on the other hand significantly different things might be considered the same.

For example, Hindi and Urdu are both closely related, mutually intelligible Hindustani languages (one being sanskritised and the other arabised). However, they are favored as separate languages by Hindus and Muslims respectively, as seen in the context of Hindu-Muslim conflict resulting in the violence of the 1947 Partition of India. In contrast, mutually unintelligible dialects that differ considerably in structure, such as Moroccan Arabic, Yemeni Arabic, and Lebanese Arabic, are considered to be the same language due to the pan-Islamism religious identity.

Cultural nomenclature
Names provide us with a way of structuring and mapping the world in our minds so, in some way, they mirror or represent the objects of our experience.

Names, words, language, meaning
Elucidating the connections between language (especially names and nouns), meaning, and the way we perceive the world has provided a rich field of study for philosophers and linguists. Relevant areas of study include: the distinction between proper names and proper nouns; as well as the relationship between names, their referents, meanings (semantics), and the structure of language.

Folk taxonomy
Modern scientific taxonomy has been described as "basically a Renaissance codification of folk taxonomic principles." Formal systems of scientific nomenclature and classification are exemplified by biological classification. All classification systems are established for a purpose. The scientific classification system anchors each organism within the nested hierarchy of internationally accepted classification categories. Maintenance of this system involves formal rules of nomenclature and periodic international meetings of review. This modern system evolved from the folk taxonomy of prehistory.

Folk taxonomy can be illustrated through the Western tradition of horticulture and gardening. Unlike scientific taxonomy, folk taxonomies serve many purposes. Examples in horticulture would be the grouping of plants, and naming of these groups, according to their properties and uses:

 * annuals, biennials and perennials (nature of life cycle);
 * vegetables, fruits, culinary herbs and spices (culinary use);
 * herbs, trees and shrubs (growth habit);
 * wild and cultivated plants (whether they are managed or not); and
 * weeds (whether they are considered to be a nuisance or not), etc.

Folk Taxonomy is generally associated with the way rural or indigenous peoples use language to make sense of and organise the objects around them. Ethnobiology frames this interpretation through either "utilitarianists" like Bronislaw Malinowski who maintain that names and classifications reflect mainly material concerns, and "intellectualists" like Claude Lévi-Strauss who hold that they spring from innate mental processes. The literature of ethnobiological classifications was reviewed in 2006. Folk classification is defined by the way in which members of a language community name and categorize plants and animals whereas ethnotaxonomy refers to the hierarchical structure, organic content, and cultural function of biological classification that ethnobiologists find in every society around the world.

Ethnographic studies of the naming and classification of animals and plants in non-Western societies have revealed some general principles that suggest pre-scientific man's conceptual and linguistic method of organising the biological world in a hierarchical way. Such studies indicate that the urge to classify is a basic human instinct.

 * in all languages natural groups of organisms are distinguished (present-day taxa)
 * these groups are arranged into more inclusive groups or ethnobiological categories
 * in all languages there are about five or six ethnobiological categories of graded inclusiveness
 * these groups (ethnobiological categories) are arranged hierarchically, generally into mutually exclusive ranks
 * the ranks at which particular organisms are named and classified is often similar in different cultures

The levels, moving from the most to least inclusive, are:

 * 1) "unique beginner" — e.g. plant or animal. A single all-inclusive name rarely used in folk taxonomies but loosely equivalent to an original living thing, a "common ancestor"
 * 2) "life form" — e.g. tree, bird, grass and fish. These are usually primary lexemes (basic linguistic units) loosely equivalent to a phylum or major biological division.
 * 3) "generic name" — e.g. oak, pine, robin, catfish. This is the most numerous and basic building block of all folk taxonomies, the most frequently referred to, the most important psychologically, and among the first learned by children. These names can usually be associated directly with a second level group. Like life-form names these are primary lexemes.
 * 4) "specific name" — e.g. white fir, post oak. More or less equivalent to species. A secondary lexeme and generally less frequent than generic names.
 * 5) "varietal name" — e.g. baby lima bean, butter lima bean.

In almost all cultures objects are named using one or two words equivalent to 'kind' (genus) and 'particular kind' (species). When made up of two words (a binomial) the name usually consists of a noun (like salt, dog or star) and an adjectival second word that helps describe the first, and therefore makes the name, as a whole, more "specific", for example, lap dog, sea salt, or film star. The meaning of the noun used for a common name may have been lost or forgotten (whelk, elm, lion, shark, pig) but when the common name is extended to two or more words much more is conveyed about the organism's use, appearance or other special properties (sting ray, poison apple, giant stinking hogweed, hammerhead shark). These noun-adjective binomials are just like our own names with a family or surname like Simpson and another adjectival Christian or forename name that specifies which Simpson, say Homer Simpson. It seems reasonable to assume that the form of scientific names we call binomial nomenclature is derived from this simple and practical way of constructing common names—but with the use of Latin as a universal language.

In keeping with the utilitarian view other authors maintain that ethnotaxonomies resemble more a "complex web of resemblances" than a neat hierarchy. Likewise, a recent study has suggested that some folk taxonomies display more than six ethnobiological categories. Others go further and even doubt the reality of such categories, especially those above the generic name level.

Names and nouns
A name is a label for any noun: names can identify a class or category of things; or a single thing, either uniquely or within a given context. Names are given, for example, to humans or any other organisms, places, products—as in brand names—and even to ideas or concepts. It is names as nouns that are the building blocks of nomenclature.

The word name is possibly derived from the Proto-Indo-European language hypothesised word nomn. The distinction between names and nouns, if made at all, is extremely subtle, although clearly noun refers to names as lexical categories and their function within the context of language, rather that as "labels" for objects and properties.

Personal names
Human personal names, also referred to as prosoponyms, are presented, used and categorised in many ways depending on the language and culture. In most cultures (Indonesia is one exception) it is customary for individuals to be given at least two names. In Western culture, the first name is given at birth or shortly thereafter and is referred to as the given name, the forename, the baptismal name (if given then), or simply the first name. In England prior to the Norman invasion of 1066, small communities of Celts, Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians generally used single names: each person was identified by a single name as either a personal name or nickname. As the population increased, it gradually became necessary to identify people further—giving rise to names like John the butcher, Henry from Sutton, and Roger son of Richard...which naturally evolved into John Butcher, Henry Sutton, and Roger Richardson. We now know this additional name variously as the second name, last name, family name, surname or occasionally the byname, and this natural tendency was accelerated by the Norman tradition of using surnames that were fixed and hereditary within individual families. In combination these two names are now known as the personal name or, simply, the name. There are many exceptions to this general rule: Westerners often insert a third or more names between the given and surnames; Chinese and Hungarian names have the family name preceding the given name; females now often retain their maiden names (their family surname) or combine, using a hyphen, their maiden name and the surname of their husband; some East Slavic nations insert the patronym (a name derived from the given name of the father) between the given and the family name; in Iceland the given name is used with the patronym, or matronym (a name derived from the given name of the mother), and surnames are rarely used. Nicknames (sometimes called hypocoristic names) are informal names used mostly between friends.

Common names and proper names
The distinction between proper names and common names is that proper names denote a unique entity e.g. London Bridge, while common names are used in a more general sense in reference to a class of objects e.g. bridge. Many proper names are obscure in meaning as they lack any apparent meaning in the way that ordinary words mean, probably for the practical reason that when they consist of Collective nouns, they refer to groups, even when they are inflected for the singular e.g. "committee". Concrete nouns like "cabbage" refer to physical bodies that can be observed by at least one of the senses while abstract nouns, like "love" and "hate" refer to abstract objects. In English, many abstract nouns are formed by adding noun-forming suffixes ('-ness', '-ity', '-tion') to adjectives or verbs e.g. "happiness", "serenity", "concentration." Pronouns like "he", "it", "which", and "those" stand in place of nouns in noun phrases.

The capitalization of nouns varies with language and even the particular context: journals often have their own house styles for common names.

-onym nouns
Distinctions may be made between particular kinds of names simply by using the suffix -onym, from the Greek ónoma (ὄνομα, 'name'). So we have, for example, hydronyms name bodies of water, synonyms are names with the same meaning, and so on. The entire field could be described as chrematonymy—the names of things.

Toponyms
Toponyms are proper names given to various geographical features (geonyms), and also to cosmic features (cosmonyms). This could include names of mountains, rivers, seas, villages, towns, cities, countries, planets, stars etc. Toponymy can be further divided into specialist branches, like: choronymy, the study of proper names of regions and countries; econymy, the study of proper names of villages, towns and citties; hodonymy, the study of proper names of streets and roads; hydronymy, the study of proper names of water bodies; oronymy, the study of proper names of mountains and hills, etc.

Toponymy has popular appeal because of its socio-cultural and historical interest and significance for cartography. However, work on the etymology of toponyms has found that many place names are descriptive, honorific or commemorative but frequently they have no meaning, or the meaning is obscure or lost. Also, the many categories of names are frequently interrelated. For example, many place-names are derived from personal names (Victoria), many names of planets and stars are derived from the names of mythological characters (Venus, Neptune), and many personal names are derived from place-names, names of nations and the like (Wood, Bridge).

Nomenclature, classification, identification
In a strictly scientific sense, nomenclature is regarded as a part of taxonomy (though distinct from it). Moreover, the precision demanded by science in the accurate naming of objects in the natural world has resulted in a variety of codes of nomenclature (worldwide-accepted sets of rules on biological classification).

Taxonomy can be defined as the study of classification including its principles, procedures and rules, while classification itself is the ordering of taxa (the objects of classification) into groups based on similarities or differences. Doing taxonomy entails identifying, describing, and naming taxa; therefore, in the scientific sense, nomenclature is the branch of taxonomy concerned with the application of scientific names to taxa, based on a particular classification scheme, in accordance with agreed international rules and conventions.

Identification determines whether a particular organism matches a taxon that has already been classified and named – so classification must precede identification. This procedure is sometimes referred to as determination.

Biology
Although Linnaeus' system of binomial nomenclature was rapidly adopted after the publication of his Species Plantarum and Systema Naturae in 1753 and 1758 respectively, it was a long time before there was international consensus concerning the more general rules governing biological nomenclature. The first botanical code was produced in 1905, the zoological code in 1889 and cultivated plant code in 1953. Agreement on the nomenclature and symbols for genes emerged in 1979.

 * International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants
 * International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes
 * International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants
 * International Code of Zoological Nomenclature
 * Virus nomenclature – used in Virus classification
 * Enzyme nomenclature
 * PhyloCode (the International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature) – a recent code of biological nomenclature that took effect in 2020 (see also Phylogenetic nomenclature).
 * Terminologia Anatomica – international standard on human anatomic terminology
 * Gene nomenclature
 * Red Cell Nomenclature
 * Global Medical Device Nomenclature (GMDN) – used in medical devices.

Astronomy
Over the last few hundred years, the number of identified astronomical objects has risen from hundreds to over a billion, and more are discovered every year. Astronomers need universal systematic designations to unambiguously identify all of these objects using astronomical naming conventions, while assigning names to the most interesting objects and, where relevant, naming important or interesting features of those objects.

 * Planetary nomenclature
 * Meteorite nomenclature
 * International Astronomical Union

Chemistry
The IUPAC nomenclature is a system of naming chemical compounds and for describing the science of chemistry in general. It is maintained by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.

 * the Blue Book and the Red Book: the two publications containing the rules for naming organic and inorganic compounds.
 * the Green Book, contains recommendations for the use of symbols for physical quantities (in association with the IUPAP)
 * the Gold Book, defines a large number of technical terms used in chemistry.

Similar compendia exist for biochemistry (in association with the IUBMB), analytical chemistry and macromolecular chemistry. These books are supplemented by shorter recommendations for specific circumstances which are published from time to time in the journal Pure and Applied Chemistry. These systems can be accessed through the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).

Other sciences

 * Metallurgy: the classic English translation of De re metallica includes an appendix (Appendix C) detailing problems of nomenclature in weights and measures.
 * Physics: symbols, units and nomenclature.
 * Archaeology: typology and archaeological record

title: Nomenclature