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National September 11 Memorial & Museum

The National September 11 Memorial & Museum (also known as the 9/11 Memorial & Museum) is a memorial and museum that are part of the World Trade Center complex, in New York City, created for remembering the September 11 attacks of 2001, which killed 2,977 people, and the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, which killed six. The memorial is located at the World Trade Center site, the former location of the Twin Towers that were destroyed during the September 11 attacks. It is operated by a non-profit institution whose mission is to raise funds to program and operate the memorial and museum at the World Trade Center site.

A memorial was planned in the immediate aftermath of the attacks and destruction of the World Trade Center for the victims and those involved in rescue and recovery operations. The winner of the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition was Israeli-American architect Michael Arad of Handel Architects, a New York City and San Francisco-based firm. Arad worked with landscape-architecture firm Peter Walker and Partners on the design, creating a forest of swamp white oak trees with two square reflecting pools in the center marking where the Twin Towers stood.

In August 2006, the World Trade Center Memorial Foundation and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey began heavy construction on the memorial and museum. The design is consistent with the original master plan by Daniel Libeskind, which called for the memorial to be 30 ft below street level—originally 70 ft—in a plaza, and was the only finalist to disregard Libeskind's requirement that the buildings overhang the footprints of the Twin Towers. The World Trade Center Memorial Foundation was renamed the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in 2007.

A dedication ceremony commemorating the tenth anniversary of the attacks was held at the memorial on September 11, 2011, and it opened to the public the following day. The museum was dedicated on May 15, 2014, with remarks from Mayor of New York City Michael Bloomberg and President Barack Obama. Six days later, the museum opened to the public.

Planning
Formerly the World Trade Center Memorial Foundation, the National September 11 Memorial & Museum was formed as a 501(c)(3) non-profit corporation to raise funds and manage the memorial's planning and construction. Its board of directors met for the first time on January 4, 2005, and it reached its first-phase capital-fundraising goal ($350 million) in April 2008. This money and additional funds raised will be used to build the memorial and museum and endow the museum.

In 2003, the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation launched the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition, an international competition to design a memorial at the World Trade Center site to commemorate the lives lost on 9/11. Individuals and teams from around the world submitted design proposals. On November 19, 2003, the thirteen-member jury selected eight finalists. Reflecting Absence, designed by Michael Arad and Peter Walker, was chosen as the winning design on January 6, 2004. It consists of a field of trees interrupted by two large, recessed pools, the footprints of the Twin Towers. The deciduous trees (swamp white oaks) are arranged in rows and form informal clusters, clearings and groves. The park is at street level, above the Memorial Museum. The names of the victims of the attacks (including those from the Pentagon, American Airlines Flight 77, United Airlines Flight 93, and the 1993 World Trade Center bombing) are inscribed on the parapets surrounding the waterfalls in an arrangement of "meaningful adjacencies". On January 14, 2004, the final design for the World Trade Center site memorial was unveiled at a press conference in Federal Hall National Memorial.

As mandated by the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation (LMDC), the World Trade Center Memorial Foundation owns, operates and finances the Reflecting Absence Memorial and the Museum. John C. Whitehead, chair of the LMDC and the foundation, announced his resignation in May 2006 and was replaced at the LMDC by former president Kevin Rampe. New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg replaced Whitehead as chair of the National September 11 Memorial & Museum. Foundation executive committee chair Thomas S. Johnson said on May 9, 2006:

"The decision was made to not actively pursue new fund-raising efforts until complete clarity can be achieved with respect to the design and costs of the project. Cost concerns emerged publicly last week with the disclosure of an estimate by the construction manager, Lendlease, that the memorial and museum would cost $672 million and that it would take a total of at least $973 million to fully develop the memorial setting with a cooling plant, roadways, sidewalks, utilities and stabilized foundation walls. An estimate earlier this year put the cost of the memorial and memorial museum at $494 million."

On May 26, 2006, Gretchen Dykstra resigned as president and chief executive officer of the World Trade Center Foundation. Joseph C. Daniels was appointed as president and CEO in October 2006. The memorial projects were toned down, and the budget was cut to $530 million. Despite delays, the National September 11 Memorial & Museum was confident that it would be completed by September 11, 2011.

National tour
In September 2007, the Memorial & Museum began a four-month national awareness tour of 25 cities in 25 states, and thousands participated in tour activities. The tour began at Finlay Park in Columbia, South Carolina, ending at Steinbrenner Field in Tampa, Florida. Highlights included an exhibition of photographs, artifacts from the site, and a film with firsthand accounts from individuals who had directly experienced the attacks. At the opening ceremony in South Carolina, the students of White Knoll Middle School (who raised over $500,000 in 2001 for a new truck for the New York City Fire Department) were honored, and retired New York City police officer Marcelo Pevida presented the city with an American flag which had flown over Ground Zero. The main attractions of the 2007 national tour were steel beams, later used in the construction of the memorial, for visitors to sign.

Fundraising
The National September 11 Memorial & Museum conducts a "cobblestone campaign", in which a contributor may sponsor a cobblestone which will line the Memorial plaza. Donors are recognized on the Memorial's website. Donors are able to locate their cobblestone by entering their name at a kiosk on the Memorial plaza. In 2008 the Memorial conducted two holiday cobblestone campaigns: the first for Father's Day, and the second for the December holiday season.

On September 9, 2011, Secretary Shaun Donovan of the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development said that the department had given $329 million to the National September 11 Memorial & Museum through HUD's Community Development Block Grant program. According to CNN, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey dropped its claim that the 9/11 Memorial & Museum owed it $300 million in construction costs in return for "financial oversight of the museum and memorial".

Senator Daniel Inouye of Hawaii sponsored S.1537, the National September 11 Memorial and Museum Act of 2011, which would provide $20 million in federal funds annually toward the Memorial's operating budget (about one-third of its total budget). The legislation was presented to the U.S. Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources on October 19, 2011. In return for federal funding S.1537 would authorize the Secretary of the Interior to accept the donation by the memorial's board of directors of title to the National September 11 Memorial, contingent on agreement by the board, the governors of New York and New Jersey, the Mayor of New York and the Secretary of the Interior. On October 19, 2011, William D. Shaddox of the National Park Service voiced concerns to the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources about the agency's ability to provide the funds required by S.1537, testifying that NPS ownership of a property over which it would not have operational and administrative control (as stipulated by S.1537) was unprecedented.

Construction
On March 13, 2006, construction workers arrived at the WTC site to begin work on the Reflecting Absence design. Some relatives of the victims and other concerned citizens gathered to protest the new memorial that day, saying that it should be built above ground. The president of the memorial foundation said that family members were consulted and formed a consensus in favor of the design, and work would continue as planned. In May, estimated construction costs for the Memorial were reported to have risen to over $1 billion. In 2006, at the request of Bloomberg and Governor George Pataki, builder Frank Sciame performed a month-long analysis which included input from victims' families, the lower Manhattan business and residential communities, architects and members of the memorial-competition jury. The analysis recommended design changes which kept the memorial and museum within a $500 million budget.

In July 2008, the Survivors' Staircase was lowered to bedrock, making it the first artifact to be moved into the museum. By the end of August, the footings and foundations were completed. On September 2 construction workers raised the 7700 lb first column for the memorial, near the footprint of the North Tower. By then, about 70 percent of the construction contracts were awarded or ready to award. A total of 9100 short ton of steel were installed at the memorial site. By April 2010, the reflecting pools were fully framed in steel, and 85 percent of the concrete had been poured. By April 22, workers had begun installation of the granite coating for the reflecting pools. By June the North Pool's granite coating was completed, and workers had begun granite installation in the South Pool. In July, the first soil shipments arrived at the site, and in August workers began planting trees on the memorial plaza. The swamp white oaks can reach 60 to 80 ft at maturity, live from 300 to 350 years, and their autumn leaves are gold-colored. The "Survivor Tree" is a callery pear which survived the devastation and was kept for replanting. In September, workers reinstalled two "tridents" salvaged from the Twin Towers.

In November 2010, workers began testing the North Pool waterfall. Construction progressed through early 2011: installation of glass panels on the museum pavilion's facade began in March, and workers began testing the South Pool waterfall two months later. Most of the memorial was finished in time for the 10th anniversary of the terrorist attacks, with the museum planned for completion the following year. By September 2, 243 trees were planted at the site and eight more were planted in the days before the memorial opened. By then, both pools were completed and the waterfalls were tested daily.

On September 12, 2011, one day after the 10th anniversary of the September 11 terrorist attacks, the memorial opened to the public with a lengthy set of rules and regulations approved by the foundation's board of directors. The period from September 11, 2011, to May 25, 2014, was known as the "interim operating period", when the memorial was surrounded by construction of neighboring World Trade Center projects; the fence was taken down on May 25, 2014. Three months after its opening, the memorial had been visited by over a million people.

Design
In January 2004, Reflecting Absence, by architect Michael Arad of Handel Architects and landscape architect Peter Walker, was selected from 5,201 entries from 63 countries as the winner of the LMDC's design competition. Two 1 acre pools with the largest man-made waterfalls in the United States comprise the footprints of the Twin Towers, symbolizing the loss of life and the physical void left by the attacks. The waterfalls are intended to mute the sounds of the city, making the site a contemplative sanctuary. Landscape architect Peter Walker planted many parts of the memorial with white oaks. More than 400 swamp white oak trees fill the Memorial plaza, enhancing the site's reflective nature.

Pedestrian simulations tested the memorial's design. The pedestrian-modeling program Legion was used to simulate visitor utilization of the space, and its design was tweaked to prevent bottlenecks. The fountain was engineered by Delta Fountains.

WSP Cantor Seinuk was the structural engineer, Jaros, Baum & Bolles provided MEP engineering, and Lend Lease served as construction manager.

Arrangement of the victims' names

The names of 2,983 victims are inscribed on 152 bronze parapets on the memorial pools: 2,977 killed in the September 11 attacks and six killed in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. The names are arranged according to an algorithm, creating "meaningful adjacencies" based on relationships—proximity at the time of the attacks, company or organization affiliations (for those working at the World Trade Center or the Pentagon) and in response to about 1,200 requests from family members. Software made by Local Projects implemented the arrangement. All names are written in Optima typeface, using small capitals, for a "balanced appearance".

The names of the employees and visitors in the North Tower (WTC 1), the passengers and crew of American Airlines Flight 11 (which struck the North Tower), and the employees and a visitor of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing are around the perimeter of the North Pool. The names of the employees and visitors in the South Tower (WTC 2), the passengers and crew of United Airlines Flight 175 (which struck the South Tower), the employees, visitors, and bystanders in the immediate vicinity of the North and South Towers, the first responders who died during rescue operations, the passengers and crew of United Airlines Flight 93 (which crashed near Shanksville, Pennsylvania) and American Airlines Flight 77 (which struck the Pentagon), and the employees at the Pentagon are around the perimeter of the South Pool. Company names are not included, but company employees and visitors are listed together. Passengers on the four flights are listed under their flight numbers, and first responders with their units.

The process for arranging the names was finalized in a 2006 agreement, replacing an earlier plan to arrange the names randomly. According to Edith Lutnick (executive director of the Cantor Fitzgerald Relief Fund), "Your loved ones' names are surrounded by the names of those they sat with, those they worked with, those they lived with and, very possibly, those they died with."

The six adult victims of the 1993 bombing are memorialized on Panel N-73 at the North Pool. The phrase "and her unborn child" follows the names of ten pregnant women who died on 9/11 and one who died in the 1993 attack.

The Survivor Tree

A callery pear tree recovered from the rubble at the World Trade Center site in October 2001 was later called the "Survivor Tree". When the 8 ft-tall tree was recovered, it was badly burned and had one living branch. The tree had been planted during the 1970s near buildings four and five, in the vicinity of Church Street. Then-Memorial president Joe Daniels described it as "a key element of the memorial plaza's landscape".

In November 2001, the tree was moved by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation to the Arthur Ross Nursery in Van Cortlandt Park in the Bronx for care. It was then replanted in the Bronx on November 11, 2001. The tree was not expected to survive, but it showed signs of new growth the following spring. Although the memorial planning team intended to include the Survivor Tree, its permanent location was unknown at the time.

Still under the care of the Bronx nursery, the tree was replanted without significant damage in March 2010 after it was uprooted by a storm. After the replanting, Mayor Michael Bloomberg said: "Again, we and the tree refused to throw in the towel. We replanted the tree, and it bounced back immediately." Also a few cuttings were taken from the original tree, which have become new trees themselves.

The Survivor Tree has become a symbol of hope and rebirth; according to Arthur Ross Nursery manager Richie Cabo, "It represents all of us." In an August 29, 2011 Port Authority press release (after Hurricane Irene), Daniels said: "True to its name, the Survivor Tree is standing tall at the Memorial." Keating Crown (a survivor of the attacks) said, "It reminds us all of the capacity of the human spirit to persevere." A Place of Remembrance: Official Book of the National September 11 Memorial describes the tree as "a reminder of the thousands of survivors who persevered after the attacks".

In December 2010, the tree, then 30 ft tall, was returned to the World Trade Center site in a ceremony attended by Bloomberg, city officials (including Parks and Recreation Commissioner Adrian Benepe and Port Authority executive director Chris Ward), survivors and rescue and recovery workers. Although the tree is a prominent part of the memorial, six other "survivor trees" have been planted near New York City Hall and the Manhattan end of the Brooklyn Bridge. Of these survivor trees, three are callery pears and three are little-leaf lindens.

Memorial Glade

In May 2018, plans were revealed for a path through a "memorial glade" at the National September 11 Memorial. The glade and path honors first responders who later got sick or died after inhaling toxins at the World Trade Center site. According to 9/11 Memorial & Museum president Alice Greenwald and former Daily Show host Jon Stewart, the path was to be located on the southwest side of the memorial plaza, at the approximate site of a temporary ramp that first responders used during the cleanup effort. The path includes six large battered stones that, in the words of Michael Arad, "appear to jut up and out of the plaza as if violently displaced, and convey strength and resistance". Several pieces of debris from the original World Trade Center were also placed along the path. The glade opened on May 24, 2019.

The Sphere

The Sphere, a monumental cast bronze sculpture by German artist Fritz Koenig, was commissioned for the old World Trade Center and completed in 1971. It stood on the Austin J. Tobin Plaza until the September 11 attacks. The sculpture was damaged but survived the attacks and was relocated to Liberty Park, adjacent to the Memorial, in 2017.

Mohammad Salman Hamdani
Although victims'-family groups agreed that names would be grouped by workplace or other affiliation, NYPD cadet Mohammad Salman Hamdani was not included with the other first responders or the other victims whose remains were found in the wreckage of the North Tower. His name appears on the memorial's panel S-66 for World Trade Center victims (next to a blank space along the South Tower perimeter), with those who did not fit into the groups created by the memorial committee or who had a loose connection to the World Trade Center. Hamdani's mother, Talat, has campaigned for the Memorial to acknowledge her son as a police cadet and first responder. Hamdani received a full police-department funeral after his body was found (months after the attacks), and 204th Street in Bayside, Queens, the street on which he lived was renamed in his honor.

Arabic-language brochures
Although the memorial's brochures were initially translated into at least ten languages, these languages did not include Arabic. The American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee (ADC) questioned this decision in letters to memorial directors, and ADC director of communications and advocacy Raed Jarrar said: "Our fear is that there is a political intention behind the exclusion". A memorial representative told the New York Post, "As Arabic-speaking visitors currently represent our 25th-largest group, Arabic translations are not yet among the initial foreign-language editions."

In 2015, the ADC made an official complaint with the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, which had given hundreds of millions of dollars in grants to the September 11 Memorial through block grants to the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation. The committee stated that the Memorial's decision to not publish Arabic-language brochures violated HUD's Limited English Proficiency rules for grantees. In December 2017, the ADC announced that the Memorial had signed a settlement agreement whereby its commemorative guide would be translated into Arabic and made available.

Museum

The September 11 Museum was dedicated on May 15, 2014,  and opened to the public on May 21. Its collection includes more than 40,000 images, 14,000 artifacts, more than 3,500 oral recordings, and over 500 hours of video.

History
The underground museum has artifacts from September 11, 2001, including steel from the Twin Towers (such as the Last Column, the last piece of steel to leave Ground Zero in May 2002). In December 2011, museum construction halted temporarily due to disputes between the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and the National September 11 Memorial and Museum Foundation over responsibility for infrastructure costs. On March 13, 2012, talks on the issue began, and construction resumed on September 10, 2012. After a number of false opening reports, it was announced that the museum would open to the public on May 21, 2014.

The museum was dedicated on May 15, 2014. In attendance were a range of dignitaries, from President Barack Obama, former President Bill Clinton, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and New York Governor Andrew Cuomo to former mayors David Dinkins, Rudy Giuliani and Michael Bloomberg and then-mayor Bill de Blasio. During the hour-long ceremony LaChanze sang "Amazing Grace", which she dedicated to her husband Calvin Gooding, who was killed in the World Trade Center attack. During the five days between its dedication and the public opening, over 42,000 first responders and family members of 9/11 victims visited the museum.

An opening ceremony for the museum was held on May 21, during which 24 police officers and firefighters unfurled the restored 30 ft national 9/11 flag before it was brought into the museum for permanent display. The gates surrounding the museum were then taken down, marking their first removal since the attacks. Opening day tickets quickly sold out. Despite the museum's design to evoke memories without additional distress, counselors were available during its opening due to the large number of visitors.

Design
Designed by Davis Brody Bond, the museum is about 70 ft below ground and accessible through a pavilion designed by Snøhetta. The National September 11 Memorial Museum encloses 110,000 sqft of publicly accessible space. The pavilion has a deconstructivist design, resembling a partially collapsed building (mirroring the attacks), and houses two "tridents" from the Twin Towers. One of the museum's walls is an exposed side of the slurry wall retaining the Hudson River, which remained intact through the September 11 attacks. About half of what Daniel Libeskind originally wanted to preserve of the wall is visible in the museum.

Other Ground Zero artifacts include wrecked emergency vehicles (including a fire engine deformed from the collapse), pieces of metal from all seven World Trade Center buildings, recordings of survivors and first responders (including 911 calls, pictures of all victims, photographs from the wreckage, and other media detailing the destruction [including the crashes, collapse, fires, those who jumped, and the cleanup]). The Waterford Crystal "Hope for Healing" panels from the Times Square Ball for New Year's Eve 2002—which were inscribed with the names of emergency organizations and countries that had taken casualties in the attacks—were also donated to the museum's collection.

The museum is designed to evoke memories without additional distress, particularly to first responders and the victims’ families.

The Huffington Post wrote that "walking through the museum is like being transported back to the turmoil, destruction and anguish of 9/11. Exhibits express the disbelief and heartache of New York and the nation."

Little Syria
A neighborhood that was once called Little Syria, a center of Christian Arab immigrant life in the United States beginning in the 1880s, once existed just south of the site of the World Trade Center. The cornerstone of St. Joseph's Lebanese Maronite Church was found under the rubble, next to St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church at 157 Cedar Street. Both congregations were founded by Christians who had fled Ottoman oppression in the Middle East. Activists lobbied for the Museum to include a permanent exhibit about the neighborhood to "help the thousands of tourists who visit the site to understand that immigrants from Ottoman lands have played a patriotic role in the country's history," arguing that it was important to memorialize the multiethnic character of "Little Syria." The old Christian Syrian neighborhood was demolished in the 1940s due to the construction of the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel.

Museum operation
General admission tickets to the museum are $33, a price which has raised concerns. Michael Bloomberg agreed, encouraging people to "write your congressman" for more federal funding.

When the museum opened to victim families and first responders on May 15, 2014, anger by some that it was profiting from souvenirs considered in poor taste was widely covered. Souvenir proceeds would fund the museum and memorial. On May 29, 2014, a U.S.-shaped cheese platter was among items removed for sale, and it was announced that all items sold would be reviewed by victim families for suitability.

Families were further angered after a May 20, 2014 black-tie, VIP cocktail party for donors at the museum. Among the 60 attendees were former mayor Michael Bloomberg and representatives of Condé Nast. Family members objected to a party near unidentified remains; the sister of victim Robert Shay, Jr. tweeted, "Did you enjoy having drinks on top of my brother's grave last night?" Shay and dozens of other visitors were angered that first responders were turned away from the museum the previous day while staff prepared for the party. She said, "I am outraged that I can't visit my brother's final resting place without an appointment but people like Mike Bloomberg can wine and dine there whenever they want. This memorial and museum is sacred ground and last night it was desecrated." A retired FDNY fire marshal said, "You don't have cocktail parties at a cemetery." A mid-2014 proposal to open a Danny Meyer cafe in the museum's atrium was criticized.

Placement of unidentified remains
In an early-morning ceremony on May 10, 2014, the long-unidentified remains of 1,115 victims were transferred from the city medical examiner to Ground Zero, where they would be placed in a space in the bedrock 70 ft below ground as part of the 9/11 Memorial Museum. Reaction from the victims' families to the move was divided, with some supporting the decision and others calling the location inappropriate. Among the latter was FDNY Lt. James McCaffrey, the brother-in-law of 9/11 victim and firefighter Orio Palmer, who called a ground-level tomb a more dignified location: "The decision to put the human remains of the 9/11 dead in this basement is inherently disrespectful and totally offensive." McCaffrey said that the remains deserved a prominence equal to that of the Memorial's trees and pools, and that the ceremony was held early in the morning because of opposition to the decision.

Withdrawn proposals
Two centers were proposed and withdrawn from the World Trade Center Memorial plan in 2005: Plans called for the Freedom Center to share space with the Drawing Center in a building known as the Cultural Center. Of the dispute over the proposed centers, one New York Times editorial argued that the IFC's opponents made trivial and unconvincing suggestions that both the IFC and the "cultural component" of architect Daniel Libeskind's plans would somehow diminish the scope of the Memorial Museum, and noted that the proposal for reducing the size of one of the centers had failed to consider the emotional impact of the space.
 * The International Freedom Center – a think tank intended to draw attention to battles for freedom throughout history. World Trade Center Memorial Foundation member Deborah Burlingame wrote in The Wall Street Journal that the center would have a mission with no direct connection to the events of September 11 and might criticize American policy. Right-wing blogs and commentators heavily criticized the center until Governor George Pataki withdrew support for it.
 * The Drawing Center Art Gallery at the World Trade Center – an art gallery that was in SoHo at the time.

Other 9/11 memorials
In addition to the one at Ground Zero, a number of other memorials have been built by communities across the United States. Many are built around remnants of steel from the Twin Towers which have been donated by a Port Authority of New York and New Jersey program; over 1,000 pieces of World Trade Center steel have been distributed.

title: National September 11 Memorial & Museum


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Medal of Honor (video game series)

Medal of Honor is a series of first-person shooter video games created by American film director and producer Steven Spielberg. The first game was developed by DreamWorks Interactive and published by Electronic Arts for the PlayStation in 1999. Medal of Honor spawned a series of follow-up games including multiple expansions spanning various console platforms and personal computers.

The first twelve installments take place during World War II. The main characters are usually elite members of Office of Strategic Services (OSS), while later games focus on modern warfare. The concept, story, and executive production of the first three games was made by Spielberg, who later sold the franchise for Electronic Arts in February 2000. The music in the franchise was composed by Michael Giacchino, Christopher Lennertz and Ramin Djawadi.

Development history
The series began in 1999 with Medal of Honor. The game was developed by DreamWorks Interactive, when at the time the studio and series were jointly owned by DreamWorks SKG and Microsoft Games, with the game concept and story created by filmmaker Steven Spielberg. The game was released for the PlayStation on October 31, 1999. Spielberg's inspiration for the series emerged while directing and producing the World War II film Saving Private Ryan to create a game that can concurrently be an educational and entertaining experience.

In 2000, Medal of Honor: Underground, the sequel, was released for the PlayStation and Game Boy Advance. Medal of Honor: Allied Assault, the third game, was developed by 2015, Inc. and released for the PC, Mac OS X and Linux in January 2002. Allied Assault has expansion packs titled Spearhead (2002) and Breakthrough (2003). Fourth entry Medal of Honor: Frontline was developed and released for the PlayStation 2 in May 2002 and the GameCube and Xbox in November 2002. It was later remastered in high-definition and released in 2010 with the PlayStation 3 version of Medal of Honor (2010), the first game in the rebooted series. Medal of Honor: Rising Sun, the fifth game, was released for PlayStation 2, Xbox and GameCube in 2003 (a planned sequel was cancelled due to the game's mixed reviews). The sixth game, Medal of Honor: Infiltrator, was released for the Game Boy Advance in 2003. Medal of Honor: Pacific Assault, the seventh entry, was released for the PC, Mac OS X and Linux in 2004. It was followed by Medal of Honor: European Assault, the eighth game, which was released for PlayStation 2, Xbox and GameCube in 2005. Medal of Honor: Heroes, a spin-off and the ninth game in the series, was developed and released for the PlayStation Portable in 2006. Medal of Honor: Vanguard, the tenth entry, was released for the PlayStation 2 and Wii in 2007. It was the first Medal of Honor game to be released on the Wii console. Medal of Honor: Airborne, the eleventh game in the series, was developed and released for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and PC September 4, 2007; it was the first game in the series to be nonlinear. Twelfth entry Medal of Honor: Heroes 2 was released for the Wii and PlayStation Portable on November 13, 2007. It was a sequel of the first game in spin-off Heroes series.

The thirteenth game in the series, Medal of Honor (2010), was announced in 2008 as Medal of Honor: Operation Anaconda. The game was developed by Danger Close Games, a video game development team formerly known as EA Los Angeles merged in 2008. Medal of Honor (2010) was released for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and PC on October 12, 2010. Its multiplayer component was developed by the creators of the Battlefield franchise. It is the first Medal of Honor game to be set in the modern day rather than during World War II. Medal of Honor received generally positive reviews from critics and was a commercial success. Medal of Honor: Warfighter, the fourteenth installment in the series and the direct sequel to the 2010 game, was released for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and PC on October 23, 2012. The game's storyline was written by real U.S. Tier 1 Operators, inspired by actual events. It is the first game in the series to run on EA Digital Illusions CE's Frostbite 2 game engine. Warfighter was both a critical and commercial failure. In January 2013, COO Peter Moore of Electronic Arts announced that the Medal of Honor series was taken out of rotation due to the poor reception and sales of Medal of Honor: Warfighter. On September 25, 2019, Respawn Entertainment announced Medal of Honor: Above and Beyond for Oculus VR titled at the Oculus Connect 6 conference.

Gameplay
The gameplay originally focuses on the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), an American espionage organization during World War II, placing emphasis on using false papers and silenced pistols, but as the series and the technology has progressed, it has shifted emphasis towards front-line combat. Since the release of Medal of Honor: Rising Sun the series has focused on providing a more open-ended element to the games, allowing the player to have more options in each level instead of a linear path. The violence, up to Medal of Honor: Rising Sun is bloodless and simple, usually consisting of elaborate animations, while the violence in Medal of Honor: Pacific Assault and onward contains the occasional sprays of blood.

Compilations

 * Medal of Honor: Allied Assault Deluxe Edition, released on 2003 for Windows and Macintosh includes the Medal of Honor: Allied Assault main game, the Medal of Honor: Allied Assault Spearhead expansion pack, two strategy guides, a music CD soundtrack from Medal of Honor: Allied Assault and a preview of Medal of Honor: Pacific Assault.
 * Medal of Honor Allied Assault: War Chest, released on 2004 for Windows and Macintosh includes the Medal of Honor: Allied Assault main game and the Medal of Honor: Allied Assault Spearhead and Medal of Honor: Allied Assault Breakthrough expansion packs.
 * Medal of Honor Collection, released on March 6, 2007 for the PlayStation 2, is a set of three games: Medal of Honor: Frontline, Medal of Honor: Rising Sun and Medal of Honor: European Assault.
 * Medal of Honor 10th Anniversary Bundle, released on September 22, 2008 for PC, consists of Medal of Honor: Allied Assault, with its respective expansion packs Spearhead and Breakthrough, Medal of Honor: Pacific Assault Director's Edition, and Medal of Honor: Airborne. The pack includes the 10th Anniversary Medal of Honor Soundtrack, by Michael Giacchino.

Reception
The games have received negative, mixed, and positive reviews, with the most acclaimed title in the series being Medal of Honor (1999). As of 2016, the series sold over 39 million copies, making it one of the best-selling video game franchises of all time.

Awards
Guinness World Records awarded the Medal of Honor series with a world record for Best-selling FPS franchise in the Guinness World Records: Gamer's Edition 2008.

Colette, a short documentary included in the gallery mode for Medal of Honor: Above and Beyond, won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Short Subject at the 93rd Academy Awards. Though not mentioned by name in the Academy citation, Medal of Honor is arguably the first video game series ever to receive an Oscar for its content.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Medal of Honor (video game series)


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Banyan VINES

Banyan VINES is a discontinued network operating system developed by Banyan Systems for computers running AT&T's UNIX System V.

VINES is an acronym for Virtual Integrated NEtwork Service. Like Novell NetWare, VINES's network services are based on the Xerox XNS stack.

James Allchin, who later worked as Group Vice President for Platforms at Microsoft until his retirement on January 30, 2007, was the chief architect of Banyan VINES.

VINES technology
VINES ran on a low-level protocol known as VIP—the VINES Internetwork Protocol—that was essentially identical to the lower layers of the Xerox Network Systems (XNS) protocols. Addresses consist of a 32-bit address and a 16-bit subnet that map to the 48-bit Ethernet address to route to machines. This means that, like other XNS-based systems, VINES can only support a two-level internet.

A set of routing algorithms, however, set VINES apart from other XNS systems at this level. The key differentiator, ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), allowed VINES clients to automatically set up their own network addresses. When a client first boots up, it broadcast a request on the subnet asking for servers, which responds with suggested addresses. The client used the first to respond, although the servers could hand off "better" routing instructions to the client if the network changed. The overall concept resembled AppleTalk's AARP system, with the exception that VINES required at least one server, whereas AARP functioned as peer-to-peer. Like AARP, VINES required an inherently "chatty" network, sending updates about the status of clients to other servers on the internetwork.

Rounding out its lower-level system, VINES used RTP (the Routing Table Protocol), a low-overhead message system for passing around information about changes to the routing, and ARP to determine the address of other nodes on the system. These closely resembled the similar systems used in other XNS-based protocols. VINES also included ICP (the Internet Control Protocol), which it used to pass error-messages and metrics.

At the middle layer level, VINES used fairly standard software. The unreliable datagram service and data-stream service operated essentially identically to UDP and TCP on top of IP. VINES added a reliable message service as well, a hybrid of the two that offered guaranteed delivery of single packets.

Banyan offered customers TCP/IP as an extra cost option for owners of standard Vines servers. This extra charge for TCP/IP on VINES servers continued long after TCP/IP server availability had become commoditized.

At the topmost layer, VINES provided the standard file and print services, as well as the unique StreetTalk, a globally consistent name service. Banyan has a version of StreetTalk that ran natively on an NT server. Using a globally distributed, partially replicated database, StreetTalk could meld multiple widely separated networks into a single network that allowed seamless resource-sharing. It accomplished this through its rigidly hierarchical naming-scheme; entries in the directory took the form item@group@organization (similar to the naming format used in the XNS Clearinghouse directory service:  item:group:organization). This applied to user accounts as well as to resources like printers and file servers.

VINES client software
VINES client software ran on most earlier PC-based operating systems, including MS-DOS and earlier versions of Microsoft Windows. It was lightweight on the client, and hence remained in use during the latter half of the 1990s on many older machines that could not run other networking stacks. This occurred on the server side as well, as VINES generally offered good performance, even from mediocre hardware.

Initial market release
With StreetTalk's inherent low bandwidth requirements, global companies and governments that grasped the advantages of worldwide directory services seamlessly spanning multiple time zones recognized VINE's technological edge. Users included gas and oil companies, power companies, public utilities—and U.S. Government agencies including the State Department, Treasury Department, Department of Agriculture, Department of Health and Human Services and Department of Defense.

The U.S. State Department was an early adopter of the VINES technology. Able to take advantage of the then high-speed 56k modems for telephonic connectivity of the developed world to the limited telephone modem speeds of 300 baud over bad analog telephone systems in developing countries, VINES linked embassies around the world. VINES also features built-in point-to-point and group chat capability that was useful for basic communication over secure lines.

Defense Department adoption
By the late 1980s, the US Marine Corps was searching for simple, off-the-shelf worldwide network connectivity with rich built-in email, file, and print features. By 1988, the Marine Corps had standardized on VINES as both its garrison (base) and forward-deployed ground-based battlefield email-centric network operating system.

Using both ground-based secure radio channels and satellite and military tactical phone switches, the Marine Corps was ready for its first big test of VINES: the 1990-1991 Gulf War. Units were able to seamlessly coordinate ground, naval, and air strikes across military boundaries by using the chat function to pass target lists and adjust naval gun fire on the fly. Ground fire support coordination agencies used VINES up and down command channels—from Battalion-to-Regiment through Division-to-Corps and Squadron-to-Group to Aircraft Wing-to-Corps, as well as in peer-to-peer unit communication.

VINES competitors
3Com's journey into network operating system development began in the late 1970s. In 1979, they introduced their first network operating system, called 3+Share. It allowed multiple users to access files and resources on a shared server. However, it wasn't until 1982 that 3Com released 3Server, which was a significant step forward.

3Server was designed to work with 3Com's Ethernet hardware and was aimed at creating local area networks (LANs). It provided file and print sharing capabilities, enabling multiple computers to access common resources like printers and files. It operated on the XNS (Xerox Network Systems) protocol suite.

Over the years, 3Com continued to refine and improve its network operating systems. In 1985, they introduced 3+Open, which added support for third-party hardware. 3+Open was a significant advancement in 3Com's network operating system lineup. Introduced in 1985, it expanded on the capabilities of their previous offerings by providing support for third-party hardware and software. This allowed 3+Open to work with a wider range of network devices and systems, increasing its compatibility and appeal to a broader audience.

3Com's contribution to Microsoft's network and server software capabilities is closely tied to their collaboration on the development of LAN Manager. LAN Manager was Microsoft's networking software that aimed to provide file and print services for PCs connected in a network. In the late 1980s, Microsoft partnered with 3Com to integrate 3+Open's networking capabilities into LAN Manager.

This collaboration led to the creation of LAN Manager 2.0, which was released in 1989. This version of LAN Manager incorporated technologies from both Microsoft and 3Com, resulting in improved networking capabilities and compatibility. It enabled Microsoft to strengthen its networking offerings, making it a more competitive player in the network operating system space.

Microsoft's experience with LAN Manager laid the foundation for their subsequent development of Windows NT and Windows Server operating systems. The knowledge and technologies gained from working with 3Com's networking solutions contributed to the evolution of Microsoft's network and server software capabilities, helping them become a dominant force in the networking and server industry.

For a decade, Banyan's OS competitors, Novell and Microsoft, dismissed the utility of directory services. Consequently, VINES dominated what came to be called the "directory services" space from 1985 to 1995. While seeming to ignore VINES, Novell and eventually Microsoft—companies with a flat server or domain-based network model—came to realize the strategic value of directory services. With little warning, Novell went from playing down the value of directory services to announcing its own: NetWare Directory Services (NDS). Eventually, Novell changed NDS to mean Novell Directory Services, and then renamed that to eDirectory.

For Windows 2000 however, Microsoft included Active Directory, an LDAP directory service based on the directory from its Exchange mail server. While VINES is limited to a three-part name, user.company.org, like Novell's NDS structure, Active Directory is not bound by such a naming convention. Active Directory features an additional capability that both NDS and VINES lack, its "forest and trees" organizational model. The combination of better architecture and with marketing from a company the size of Microsoft doomed StreetTalk, VINES as an OS, and finally Banyan itself.

Decline
By the late 1990s, VINES's once-touted StreetTalk Services's non-flat, non-domain model had lost ground to newer technology, despite its built-in messaging, efficiency and onetime performance edge. Banyan was unable to market its product far beyond its initial base of multi-national and government entities.

The company lost ground in the networking market, and VINES sales dropped. Banyan increasingly turned to StreetTalk as a differentiator, eventually porting it to NT as a stand-alone product and offering it as an interface to LDAP systems.

Banyan continued to operate a closed OS. This required hardware manufacturers to submit hardware and driver requirements so that Banyan could write drivers for each peripheral. When more open systems with published APIs began to appear, Banyan did not alter their model. This made it difficult for client-side support to handle the explosive growth in, for example, printers. As competitors began to adopt some of VINES's outstanding wide area networking protocols and services, manufacturers were less inclined to send a unit to Banyan for VINES specific drivers when competitors allowed them to write their own.

Dropping the Banyan brand for ePresence in 1999, as a general Internet services company, the firm sold its services division to Unisys in late 2003 and liquidated its remaining holdings in its Switchboard.com subsidiary.

Version history

 * 1984: Banyan VINES 1.0
 * 1989: Banyan VINES 2.1
 * 1990: Banyan VINES 3.0
 * 1991: Banyan VINES 4.11
 * 1992: Banyan VINES 5.0
 * 1994: Banyan VINES 5.50
 * 1997: Banyan VINES 7.0

Resource

 * Banyan VINES at Bamertal Publishing
 * Banyan VINES at Coldtail.com

title: Banyan VINES


text:
72 (number)

72 (seventy-two) is the natural number following 71 and preceding 73. It is half a gross or six dozen (i.e., 60 in duodecimal).

In mathematics
Seventy-two is a pronic number, as it is the product of 8 and 9. It is the smallest Achilles number, as it's a powerful number that is not itself a power.

72 is an abundant number. With exactly twelve positive divisors, including 12 (one of only two sublime numbers), 72 is also the twelfth member in the sequence of refactorable numbers. 72 has a Euler totient of 24, which makes it a highly totient number, as there are 17 solutions to the equation φ(x) = 72, more than any integer under 72. It is equal to the sum of its preceding smaller highly totient numbers 24 and 48, and contains the first 6|six highly totient numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, 12 and 24 as a subset of its proper divisors. 144, or twice 72, is also highly totient, as is 576, the square of 24. While 17 different integers have a totient value of 72, the sum of Euler's totient function φ(x) over the first 15 integers is 72. It also is a perfect indexed Harshad number in decimal (twenty-eighth), as it is divisible by the sum of its digits (9).

72 plays a role in the Rule of 72 in economics when approximating annual compounding of interest rates of a round 6% to 10%, due in part to its high number of divisors.

Inside $$\mathrm E_{n}$$ Lie algebras:

 * 72 is the number of vertices of the six-dimensional 122 polytope, which also contains as facets 720 edges, 702 polychoral 4-faces, of which 270 are four-dimensional 16-cells, and two sets of 27 demipenteract 5-faces. These 72 vertices are the root vectors of the simple Lie group $\mathrm E_{6}$, which as a honeycomb under 222 forms the $\mathrm E_{6}$ lattice. 122 is part of a family of k22 polytopes whose first member is the fourth-dimensional 3-3 duoprism, of symmetry order 72 and made of six triangular prisms. On the other hand, 321 ∈ k21 is the only semiregular polytope in the seventh dimension, also featuring a total of 702 6-faces of which 576 are 6-simplexes and 126 are 6-orthoplexes that contain 60 edges and 12 vertices, or collectively 72 one-dimensional and two-dimensional elements; with 126 the number of root vectors in $$\mathrm E_{7}$$, which are contained in the vertices of 231 ∈ k31, also with 576 or 242 6-simplexes like 321. The triangular prism is the root polytope in the k21 family of polytopes, which is the simplest semiregular polytope, with k31 rooted in the analogous four-dimensional tetrahedral prism that has four triangular prisms alongside two tetrahedra as cells.
 * The complex Hessian polyhedron in $\mathbb{C}^3$ contains 72 regular complex triangular edges, as well as 27 polygonal Möbius–Kantor faces and 27 vertices. It is notable for being the vertex figure of the complex Witting polytope, which shares 240 vertices with the eight-dimensional semiregular 421 polytope whose vertices in turn represent the root vectors of the simple Lie group $\mathrm E_{8}$.

There are 72 compact and paracompact Coxeter groups of ranks four through ten: 14 of these are compact finite representations in only three-dimensional and four-dimensional spaces, with the remaining 58 paracompact or noncompact infinite representations in dimensions three through nine. These terminate with three paracompact groups in the ninth dimension, of which the most important is $$\tilde {T}_{9}$$: it contains the final semiregular hyperbolic honeycomb 621 made of only regular facets and the 521 Euclidean honeycomb as its vertex figure, which is the geometric representation of the $\mathrm E_{8}$ lattice. Furthermore, $$\tilde {T}_{9}$$ shares the same fundamental symmetries with the Coxeter-Dynkin over-extended form $$\mathrm E_{8}$$++ equivalent to the tenth-dimensional symmetries of Lie algebra $$\mathrm E_{10}$$.

72 lies between the 8th pair of twin primes (71, 73), where 71 is the largest supersingular prime that is a factor of the largest sporadic group (the friendly giant $$\mathbb {F_{1}}$$), and 73 the largest indexed member of a definite quadratic integer matrix representative of all prime numbers that is also the number of distinct orders (without multiplicity) inside all 194 conjugacy classes of $$\mathbb {F_{1}}$$. Sporadic groups are a family of twenty-six finite simple groups, where $$\mathrm E_{6}$$, $$\mathrm E_{7}$$, and $$\mathrm E_{8}$$ are associated exceptional groups that are part of sixteen finite Lie groups that are also simple, or non-trivial groups whose only normal subgroups are the trivial group and the groups themselves.

In science

 * The atomic number of hafnium

In astronomy

 * Messier object M72, a magnitude 10.0 globular cluster in the constellation Aquarius.
 * The New General Catalogue object NGC 72, a magnitude 13.5 barred spiral galaxy in the constellation Andromeda.
 * The precession of equinoxes traces out a pair of cones joined at their apices in a cycle of approximately 26,000 years, that is 1 degree every 72 years (approximation to the nearmost integer).

In religion

 * The number of languages spoken at the Tower of Babylon, according to later tradition.
 * The conventional number of scholars translating the Septuagint, according to the legendary account in the "Letter of Aristeas".
 * The number of companions of Zoroaster who were killed
 * The conventional number of disciples sent forth by Jesus in Luke 10 in some manuscripts (seventy in others).
 * The number of names of God, according to Kabbalah (see names of God in Judaism).
 * The Shemhamphorasch related to the number of the names of God.
 * The total number of books in the Bible in the Catholic version if the Book of Lamentations is considered part of the Book of Jeremiah.
 * The current distribution of the Book of Revelation is 22 chapters, adopted since the 13th century, but the oldest known division of the text is that of the Greek commentator Andrew of Cesary (6th century) in 72 chapters.
 * The number of people killed along with Imam Hussain at the Battle of Karbala.
 * The degrees of the Jacob's Ladder were to the number of 72, according to the Zohar.
 * The 72 disciples of Confucius who mastered his teachings (also given as 77).
 * Mahavira, the twenty-fourth and last tirthankara of Jainism, is said to have attained nirvana after his physical death at the age of 72.
 * Thoth, in an Egyptian creation myth, wins a 72nd of each day of the year from the Moon in a game of draughts, as a favour to Nut, the Sky Goddess. He uses these portions to make the five intercalary days on which the remaining Gods and Goddesses are born.
 * The god Osiris was enclosed in a coffin by 72 evil disciples and accomplices of Set.
 * At the age of the puberty, the young Parsee received the investiture of the sacred cord Kucti made of 72 linens in symbol of the community.
 * In Cao Đài, the number of planets between hell and heaven.
 * There are 72 stupas which comprise Borobudur, the world's largest Buddhist temple.
 * 72 major temples have been found at Angkor, seat of the ancient Khmer Empire.
 * In Islam, 72 is the number of sects or denominations that are doomed to Hell, according to Hadith (sayings of Muhammad).
 * The number of demons sealed away by King Solomon with The Lesser Key of Solomon.
 * In Islam 72 is the number of beautiful wives that are promised to martyrs in paradise, according to Hadith (sayings of Muhammad).

In other fields
Seventy-two is also:
 * In dots per inch (dpi), the default screen resolution for an image or graphic on an Apple Macintosh screen.
 * In typography, a point is 1/72 inch.
 * The number of the French department Sarthe.
 * The registry of the U.S. Navy's nuclear aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72), named after U.S. President Abraham Lincoln.
 * The designation of the Soviet T-72 tank.
 * The Rule of 72 in finance.
 * Book: 72 Hour Hold by Bebe Moore Campbell
 * CD: Seventy Two & Sunny by Uncle Kracker
 * Jill Clayburgh and LeVar Burton starred in Firestorm: 72 Hours in Oakland (1993)
 * Alternative music band The Delta 72
 * The Persian classical santur, a hammered dulcimer, has 72 strings in 24 triple-stringed courses.
 * The Turin Brakes song, also known as Emergency 72
 * The number of members in National Senate of Argentina.
 * A Civil Air Patrol unit in Laramie, WY, RMR-WY-072.
 * There are 72 demons and other spirits in the goetia The Lesser Key of Solomon.
 * A common limit for characters per line in computing
 * 72 equal temperament is a tuning used in Byzantine music and by some modern composers.
 * The number of microseasons in the traditional Japanese calendar
 * The number of microseasons in the traditional Japanese calendar

In sports and games

 * The usual par for an 18-hole golf course, especially those in tournament play.
 * The number of spaces in a game of Parcheesi, from start space to "home".

title: 72 (number)


text:
Dong Zhuo

Dong Zhuo (c. 140s – 22 May 192), courtesy name Zhongying, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty. At the end of the reign of the Eastern Han, Dong Zhuo was a general and powerful minister of the imperial government. Originally from Liang Province, Dong Zhuo seized control of the imperial capital Luoyang in 189 when it entered a state of turmoil following the death of Emperor Ling of Han and a massacre of the eunuch faction by the court officials led by General-in-Chief He Jin.

Dong Zhuo subsequently deposed Liu Bian (Emperor Shao) and replaced him with his half-brother, the puppet Emperor Xian to make him become the de facto ruler of China in the boy-emperor's name. The Eastern Han dynasty regime survived in name only. Dong Zhuo's rule was brief and characterized by cruelty and tyranny. In the following year, a coalition of regional officials (cishi) and warlords launched a campaign against him. Failing to stop the coalition forces, Dong Zhuo sacked Luoyang and relocated further west to the former Western Han capital at Chang'an (modern Xi'an, Shaanxi province). He was assassinated soon after in May 192 by his subordinate Lü Bu in a plot orchestrated by Interior Minister Wang Yun.

Early life
Dong Zhuo was born in Lintao, Longxi Commandery in the early 140s and was said to be a chivalrous youth who was physically strong and excelled in horseback archery. He travelled around the Qiang and Xiongnu regions and befriended many people.

Around 165, Dong Zhuo became a member of the Yulin corps (羽林郎, branch of the Imperial Guard) in the capital. Dong served under Zhang Huan's northern campaign to suppress an uprising of the Qiang. He eventually became a county magistrate in the Yanmen Commandery, a divisional commandant in the Shu Commandery, the Wu and Ji colonel in the Western Regions, inspector of Bing Province, and administrator of the Hedong Commandery.

At some point in the 170s, he was employed as a minor official in an unnamed commandery, supervising captured thieves and robbers. Due to the many raids by non-Han minorities, the then-Inspector of Liangzhou, Cheng Jiu (成就), promoted Dong to serve under him. Under Cheng, Dong led troops to repel these raids and achieved much success. As such, the then-Inspector of Bingzhou, Duan Jiong (段颎), recommended Dong to the Three Excellencies of the time; then-Situ Yuan Wei (袁隗) hired Dong to serve under him.

At the outbreak of the Yellow Turban Rebellion in the summer of 184, Dong Zhuo was sent to take over command from Lu Zhi in preparation of the offense on Zhang Jue in Julu. Although his efforts during the rebellion were initially unsuccessful, with the arrival of Huangfu Song, victory was achieved in the winter against the peasants.

During the Liang Province Rebellion, the barbarians rebelled with local gentries Han Sui and Bian Zhang. Dong was reinstated and sent to suppress the rebels. While suppressing this rebellion, Dong Zhuo had several tactical and strategic disagreements with Huangfu Song; after Huangfu managed to achieve victory despite Dong's disagreements, Dong became resentful and fearful of him.

Dong Zhuo was given the title "General Who Smashes the Caitiffs" in 185, and "General of the Vanguard" in 188. He was promoted to be the governor of Bing Province, but he refused to take up his new post as he was unwilling to leave his men.

During the turbulent situation, the power of the Eastern Han dynasty was waning. Dong Zhuo then settled in Liang Province and built up his power.

Rise to power
Following the death of Emperor Ling of Han in May 189, General-in-Chief He Jin ordered Dong Zhuo to lead troops into Luoyang to aid him in eliminating the powerful eunuch faction known as the Ten Attendants. Before Dong could arrive, He Jin was assassinated by the eunuchs in September that year and the capital city fell into a state of turmoil. The eunuchs took Liu Bian (Emperor Shao) hostage and fled from Luoyang. Dong Zhuo's army intercepted the eunuchs and brought the emperor back to the palace.

After He Jin's death, He Jin's step-brother, General of Chariots and Cavalry He Miao (何苗), was killed by He Jin's subordinate Wu Kuang (吳匡) and Dong Zhuo's brother Dong Min, for sympathizing with the eunuch faction who assassinated He Jin.

After arriving in Luoyang, Dong Zhuo realized that his 3000 men were unequal to the numerous troops guarding the capital. Dong ordered some of his army to march out at night and re-enter the city at dawn, thus making it appear that he was receiving reinforcements. Dong then took command of the leaderless forces of He Jin and He Miao, convinced Lü Bu to join his ranks, and made himself Excellency of Works.

In 189, Dong deposed Emperor Shao and replaced him with Liu Xie (Emperor Xian). Dong declared himself chancellor, and became the head of the imperial court in Luoyang. However, in the words of Rafe de Crespigny, Dong Zhuo's "conduct towards the court and the imperial officials was bullying, oppressive and frequently bloody." This prompted Yuan Shao to form a coalition army with other regional officials in opposition to Dong Zhuo's military authority.

Dong Zhuo retreats to Chang'an

In the same year, regional officials and warlords around the country formed a coalition force and launched a punitive campaign against Dong Zhuo. In response, he sent a detachment to intercept the coalition vanguard led by Sun Jian, and ordered his son-in-law, Niu Fu, to supply the fortress of Mei with 30 years' worth of rations. After his subordinates Hua Xiong, Hu Zhen, and Lu Bu were defeated by Sun Jian at Yangren, Dong Zhuo sent Li Jue to propose a marriage between Sun's son and Dong's daughter, and split the empire between the two families. Sun Jian refused and prepared to attack Luoyang.

Dong evacuated everyone in Luoyang and moved them to Chang'an in the west. Before the relocation, Dong ordered his troops to ransack the tombs of the late Han emperors for treasures, seize valuables from the wealthy residents in Luoyang, and burn down the palaces and anything that might be useful to the coalition.

Then the chancellor assembled his forces in the city and personally led them to ambush the approaching army. Dong's ambush failed and he was driven back by Sun Jian. He ordered Lu Bu to lead a cavalry force back to the city to halt Sun's progress before he took flight for Mianchi. Sun Jian broke through one of the eastern gates and defeated Lu Bu, taking the city.

Defeat of the coalition
Despite taking Luoyang, the city was so heavily damaged that Sun Jian chose to retreat rather than to try to hold it.

Dong Zhuo then sent his generals Li Jue, Guo Si, and Zhang Ji to the frontline against the eastern warlords. By this time the coalition had already fallen into disarray and internal bickering. The only ones who actively opposed Dong were the senior imperial officer, Zhu Jun and his old friend, Tao Qian. Tao, despite having a general alliance with Dong, sent 3,000 elite troops from Danyang to aid Zhu in the battle with Dong's forces at Zhongmu. Zhu was defeated. Li Jue and his comrades then raided the surrounding area around Chenliu and Yingchuan for slaves. Morale among the allied soldiers were low due to news of the ways in which Dong Zhuo would torture captives. Apparently he would have them tied up with fat-soaked clothes and start a fire from their foot. He left their heads unbound so he could enjoy their screams and watch their expressions while being tortured.

Rule of terror
Two months after he moved the capital, Dong Zhuo revived the title of Grand Master, an antiquated title once reinvigorated by Wang Mang, but scrapped in the Eastern Han. He appointed his younger brother Dong Min as General of the Left and gave official posts to several of his kin.

Dong Zhuo threw lavish banquets during which he would torture captured enemies by severing limbs, removing tongues and eyeballs, or burning them alive. His audience was said to have experienced a high degree of discomfort.

For Yuan Shao's role as leader of the coalition against him, Dong Zhuo had the entire Yuan clan in Luoyang wiped out. Within two years, thousands of public servants were wrongly accused and executed, and numerous commoners were kidnapped or killed. In order to purchase materials for further development of the Mei citadel, he had bells and bronze statues, among which were nine of the Twelve Metal Colossi, melted and recast into coins. However, the coins did not weigh the same, resulting in all copper cash being devalued.

Downfall and death
Dong Zhuo kept Lü Bu as a personal bodyguard and swore an oath as father and son. However, after an argument, Dong threw a hand-axe at Lü Bu, who dodged the weapon. Lü Bu's relationship with Dong Zhuo further deteriorated when Lü had an affair with a woman in Dong's harem.

In 192, with encouragement from Interior Minister Wang Yun, Lü Bu made his decision to kill Dong Zhuo. On the morning of May 22, 192, Lü greeted Dong at the palace gate with a dozen trusted men led by Cavalry Captain Li Su, who had pretended to stand guard at the gate alongside Wang Yun. Li stepped forward and tried to stab Dong with a ji, but Dong's body armour saved him. Dong cried out for Lü Bu to save him, but Lü merely answered, "This is an imperial order," after which he delivered a fatal blow to Dong.

It was recorded that Dong's corpse was left on the streets with a lit wick placed on his navel. The wick burned for several days on the fat of the corpse. It was said that the light from the flame could last for days. A special order stated that anyone who went forth to collect the body would be killed. However, three officials, including Cai Yong, still challenged the order and were executed. Meanwhile, all affiliates of the Dong clan, including Dong's 90-year-old mother, were put to death.

Legacy
After Dong Zhuo's death, several of his loyalists, such as Li Jue, Guo Si, Zhang Ji and Fan Chou, escaped on the belief that their allegiance to him would be considered treason. Wang Yun, who had taken control of the government, heard their appeal for pardon and said, "Of all those who should be forgiven, they are the exceptions." The four then planned to relinquish their positions and go into hiding. However, an advisor named Jia Xu suggested they should take this opportunity to launch a strike at Chang'an since the Liang faction was practically unscathed. The four then roused several-thousand core followers to attack Chang'an. Wang sent Xu Rong and Hu Zhen (former members of the Liang faction) to fight the Liang force en route, but Xu was killed in the first encounter and Hu joined the rebels, inflating the size of their army to 100,000 when they surrounded the capital. Lü Bu attempted to break the siege, but was defeated outside the city gate, and thus Chang'an fell into the hands of Dong Zhuo's followers. Emperor Xian was taken hostage and power in the court fell into the hands of the Liang faction once again.

Family

 * Father: Dong Junya (died 181)
 * Mother: Lady Dong (103–192), titled Lady of Chiyang, executed
 * Younger brother: Dong Min (died 192) – After Dong Zhuo backed Emperor Xian, Dong Min was appointed to the rank of Left General. After Lü Bu killed Dong Zhuo, Dong Min was labeled an accomplice and executed, and his head was put on public display
 * Nephew: Dong Huang (died 192) – born in Lintao County, Gansu, fathered by Dong Zhuó (董擢, note different character than his own) elder brother of Dong Zhuo, executed
 * Sons: Dong Zhuo had some infant sons who were enfeoffed and later presumably executed, and at least one son of his was born 171 but died earlier than 190
 * Granddaughter: Dong Bai (董白), born after 178, titled Lady of Weiyang. She was given her passage to adulthood ceremony and a grand title and lands at an unceremoniously young age despite a 50-year-old Zhu Jun's protests. For the grand ceremony, a platform was built to be five to six che – about 116 cm (3'10") or 139 cm (4'7") in modern conversions – and she rode in a blue-covered golden carriage as thousands of soldiers marched behind her. Dong Huang was said to have given her the seal personally. Dong Bai was presumably executed.
 * Grandson: born 186, executed
 * Daughter: married Niu Fu
 * Foster Son: Lü Bu

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a 14th-century historical novel by Luo Guanzhong, was a romanticization of the events that occurred before and during the Three Kingdoms era. Because the real-life Dong Zhuo was already much of a cruel and treacherous character, the novel probably could do little more to accentuate that treachery and cruelty. It did, however, on two occasions deviate from the history.

Dong Zhuo and the three sworn brothers
Dong Zhuo first appeared as early as late in Chapter 1. Being sent to quell the Yellow Turban Rebellion, Dong Zhuo was defeated by the rebel leader Zhang Jiao and the battle was turning into a rout.

The three newly sworn brothers, Liu Bei, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei, happened to be nearby. They then led their forces out to Dong Zhuo's rescue. Suddenly met with this new opposition, the rebels were swept off their feet and had to retreat.

After returning to camp, Dong Zhuo asked the three brothers what offices they currently held. And they replied that they held none. Dong Zhuo harrumphed and then ignored them. This angered Zhang Fei so much that he grabbed his sword and wanted to kill Dong Zhuo. He was however stopped by his two brothers, who suggested taking their service elsewhere. Thus was Dong Zhuo's life spared and the three brothers went their own way.

Dong Zhuo and Diaochan
Perhaps the most popular story about Dong Zhuo was the fictional love triangle involving Dong Zhuo, Lü Bu and Diaochan, which eventually led to the death of Dong Zhuo at the hands of his own adoptive son, Lü Bu.

After Dong Zhuo moved the capital to the more strategically sound Chang'an, Interior Minister Wang Yun started to contemplate a plot to assassinate the tyrant by using the petite Diaochan, a young singer who was brought up in his household but whom he had been treating like his own daughter, to plant the seed of dissension between Dong Zhuo and Lü Bu.

Inviting Lü Bu over one night, Wang Yun asked Diaochan to serve wine to the guest. Lü Bu was immediately seized by the girl's beauty. Well aware of this, Wang Yun then promised to marry Diaochan to the mighty warrior.

A few days later, however, Wang Yun laid a feast for Dong Zhuo and repeated the feat. Like Lü Bu, Dong Zhuo could not lift his eyes off Diaochan, who also displayed her prowess in song and dance. Dong Zhuo then brought Diaochan home and made her his concubine.

When Lü Bu heard about this early the next morning, he headed for Dong Zhuo's bedroom and peeped in through the window. There he saw Diaochan sitting up grooming her hair while Dong Zhuo was still asleep. Aware of Lü Bu's presence, Diaochan put up a sorrowful expression and pretended to wipe tears off her eyes with a handkerchief.

A similar incident recurred about a month later, but this time Dong Zhuo woke up in time to see Lü Bu staring fixedly at Diaochan. Lü Bu was then thrown out and forbidden from entering the house.

Then one day, while Dong Zhuo was holding a conversation with Emperor Xian, Lü Bu sneaked to his foster father's residence and met with Diaochan in the Fengyi Pavilion (鳳儀亭). Weeping, Diaochan pleaded with Lü Bu to rescue her from Dong Zhuo. Placing his halberd aside, Lü Bu held Diaochan in his arms and comforted her with words.

Right then, Dong Zhuo returned to find the duo in the pavilion. The startled Lü Bu turned to flee. Dong Zhuo grabbed the halberd and gave chase. Being too slow, Dong Zhuo could not catch up with the agile Lü Bu. He then hurled the halberd at Lü Bu but the latter fended it off and got away.

After the incident, Lü Bu became increasingly displeased with Dong Zhuo. The displeasure was further inflamed by Wang Yun, who suggested subtly that Lü Bu kill Dong Zhuo. Lü Bu was eventually persuaded.

The conspirators sent Li Su to fetch Dong Zhuo from his castle in Meiwu (郿塢) under the pretense that the emperor intended to abdicate the throne to the warlord. The overjoyed Dong Zhuo then came to the palace gate, where his troops were barred from entering. As Dong Zhuo's carriage neared the palace building, soldiers loyal to Wang Yun escorted Dong Zhuo to the trap they set. Then suddenly a general stabbed Dong Zhuo.

Injured only in the arms, Dong Zhuo then cried out for Lü Bu to save him. Lü Bu walked over and impaled Dong Zhuo's throat with his halberd, proclaiming, "I have an imperial decree to slay the rebel!"

Animation

 * The character Toutaku Chuuei (Dong Zhuo Zhongying written in onyomi) of the anime short series, Ikki Tousen, is based roughly on Dong Zhuo.

Comics

 * Dong Zhuo appears as a character in the Hong Kong manhua The Ravages of Time illustrated by Chan Mou.
 * Dong Zhuo appears as a major antagonist in the manga series Sōten Kōro, which is loosely based on Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Games

 * Dong Zhuo is featured as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series.
 * In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering there is a card named Dong Zhou, the Tyrant, in the Portal: Three Kingdoms set.
 * Dong Zhuo is a major faction leader in the strategy game Total War: Three Kingdoms.

title: Dong Zhuo


text:
Coprocessor

A coprocessor is a computer processor used to supplement the functions of the primary processor (the CPU). Operations performed by the coprocessor may be floating-point arithmetic, graphics, signal processing, string processing, cryptography or I/O interfacing with peripheral devices. By offloading processor-intensive tasks from the main processor, coprocessors can accelerate system performance. Coprocessors allow a line of computers to be customized, so that customers who do not need the extra performance do not need to pay for it.

Functionality
Coprocessors vary in their degree of autonomy. Some (such as FPUs) rely on direct control via coprocessor instructions, embedded in the CPU's instruction stream. Others are independent processors in their own right, capable of working asynchronously; they are still not optimized for general-purpose code, or they are incapable of it due to a limited instruction set focused on accelerating specific tasks. It is common for these to be driven by direct memory access (DMA), with the host processor (a CPU) building a command list. The PlayStation 2's Emotion Engine contained an unusual DSP-like SIMD vector unit capable of both modes of operation.

History
To make the best use of mainframe computer processor time, input/output tasks were delegated to separate systems called Channel I/O. The mainframe would not require any I/O processing at all, instead would just set parameters for an input or output operation and then signal the channel processor to carry out the whole of the operation. By dedicating relatively simple sub-processors to handle time-consuming I/O formatting and processing, overall system performance was improved.

Coprocessors for floating-point arithmetic first appeared in desktop computers in the 1970s and became common throughout the 1980s and into the early 1990s. Early 8-bit and 16-bit processors used software to carry out floating-point arithmetic operations. Where a coprocessor was supported, floating-point calculations could be carried out many times faster. Math coprocessors were popular purchases for users of computer-aided design (CAD) software and scientific and engineering calculations. Some floating-point units, such as the AMD 9511, Intel 8231/8232 and Weitek FPUs were treated as peripheral devices, while others such as the Intel 8087, Motorola 68881 and National 32081 were more closely integrated with the CPU.

Another form of coprocessor was a video display coprocessor, as used in the Atari 8-bit computers, TI-99/4A, and MSX home computers, which were called "Video Display Controllers". The Amiga custom chipset includes such a unit known as the Copper, as well as a blitter for accelerating bitmap manipulation in memory.

As microprocessors developed, the cost of integrating the floating-point arithmetic functions into the processor declined. High processor speeds also made a closely integrated coprocessor difficult to implement. Separately packaged mathematics coprocessors are now uncommon in desktop computers. The demand for a dedicated graphics coprocessor has grown, however, particularly due to the increasing demand for realistic 3D graphics in computer games.

Intel

The original IBM PC included a socket for the Intel 8087 floating-point coprocessor (aka FPU) which was a popular option for people using the PC for computer-aided design or mathematics-intensive calculations. In that architecture, the coprocessor speeds up floating-point arithmetic on the order of fiftyfold. Users that only used the PC for word processing, for example, saved the high cost of the coprocessor, which would not have accelerated performance of text manipulation operations.

The 8087 was tightly integrated with the 8086/8088 and responded to floating-point machine code operation codes inserted in the 8088 instruction stream. An 8088 processor without an 8087 could not interpret these instructions, requiring separate versions of programs for FPU and non-FPU systems, or at least a test at run time to detect the FPU and select appropriate mathematical library functions. Another coprocessor for the 8086/8088 central processor was the 8089 input/output coprocessor. It used the same programming technique as 8087 for input/output operations, such as transfer of data from memory to a peripheral device, and so reducing the load on the CPU. But IBM did not use it in IBM PC design and Intel stopped development of this type of coprocessor.

The Intel 80386 microprocessor used an optional "math" coprocessor (the 80387) to perform floating-point operations directly in hardware. The Intel 80486DX processor included floating-point hardware on the chip. Intel released a cost-reduced processor, the 80486SX, that had no floating-point hardware, and also sold an 80487SX coprocessor that essentially disabled the main processor when installed, since the 80487SX was a complete 80486DX with a different set of pin connections.

Intel processors later than the 80486 integrated floating-point hardware on the main processor chip; the advances in integration eliminated the cost advantage of selling the floating-point processor as an optional element. It would be very difficult to adapt circuit-board techniques adequate at 75 MHz processor speed to meet the time-delay, power consumption, and radio-frequency interference standards required at gigahertz-range clock speeds. These on-chip floating-point processors are still referred to as coprocessors because they operate in parallel with the main CPU.

During the era of 8- and 16-bit desktop computers another common source of floating-point coprocessors was Weitek. These coprocessors had a different instruction set from the Intel coprocessors, and used a different socket, which not all motherboards supported. The Weitek processors did not provide transcendental mathematics functions (for example, trigonometric functions) like the Intel x87 family, and required specific software libraries to support their functions.

Motorola
The Motorola 68000 family had the 68881/68882 coprocessors which provided similar floating-point speed acceleration as for the Intel processors. Computers using the 68000 family but not equipped with the hardware floating-point processor could trap and emulate the floating-point instructions in software, which, although slower, allowed one binary version of the program to be distributed for both cases. The 68451 memory-management coprocessor was designed to work with the 68020 processor.

Modern coprocessors
, dedicated Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) in the form of graphics cards are commonplace. Certain models of sound cards have been fitted with dedicated processors providing digital multichannel mixing and real-time DSP effects as early as 1990 to 1994 (the Gravis Ultrasound and Sound Blaster AWE32 being typical examples), while the Sound Blaster Audigy and the Sound Blaster X-Fi are more recent examples.

In 2006, AGEIA announced an add-in card for computers that it called the PhysX PPU. PhysX was designed to perform complex physics computations so that the CPU and GPU do not have to perform these time-consuming calculations. It was designed for video games, although other mathematical uses could theoretically be developed for it. In 2008, Nvidia purchased the company and phased out the PhysX card line; the functionality was added through software allowing their GPUs to render PhysX on cores normally used for graphics processing, using their Nvidia PhysX engine software.

In 2006, BigFoot Systems unveiled a PCI add-in card they christened the KillerNIC which ran its own special Linux kernel on a FreeScale PowerQUICC running at 400 MHz, calling the FreeScale chip a Network Processing Unit or NPU.

The SpursEngine is a media-oriented add-in card with a coprocessor based on the Cell microarchitecture. The SPUs are themselves vector coprocessors.

In 2008, Khronos Group released the OpenCL with the aim to support general-purpose CPUs, ATI/AMD and Nvidia GPUs (and other accelerators) with a single common language for compute kernels.

In 2010s, some mobile computation devices had implemented the sensor hub as a coprocessor. Examples of coprocessors used for handling sensor integration in mobile devices include the Apple M7 and M8 motion coprocessors, the Qualcomm Snapdragon Sensor Core and Qualcomm Hexagon, and the Holographic Processing Unit for the Microsoft HoloLens.

In 2012, Intel announced the Intel Xeon Phi coprocessor.

, various companies are developing coprocessors aimed at accelerating artificial neural networks for vision and other cognitive tasks (e.g. vision processing units, TrueNorth, and Zeroth), and as of 2018, such AI chips are in smartphones such as from Apple, and several Android phone vendors.

Other coprocessors

 * The MIPS architecture supports up to four coprocessor units, used for memory management, floating-point arithmetic, and two undefined coprocessors for other tasks such as graphics accelerators.
 * Using FPGA (field-programmable gate arrays), custom coprocessors can be created for acceleration of particular processing tasks such as digital signal processing (e.g. Zynq, combines ARM cores with FPGA on a single die).
 * TLS/SSL accelerators, used on servers; such accelerators used to be cards, but in modern times are instructions for crypto in mainstream CPUs.
 * Some multi-core chips can be programmed so that one of their processors is the primary processor, and the other processors are supporting coprocessors.
 * China's Matrix 2000 128 core PCI-e coprocessor is a proprietary accelerator that requires a CPU to run it, and has been employed in an upgrade of the 17,792 node Tianhe-2 supercomputer (2 Intel Knights Bridge+ 2 Matrix 2000 each), now dubbed 2A, roughly doubling its speed at 95 petaflops, exceeding the world's fastest supercomputer.
 * A range of coprocessors were available for Acorn BBC Micro computers. Rather than special-purpose graphics or arithmetic devices, these were general-purpose CPUs (such as 8086, Zilog Z80, or 6502) to which particular types of task were assigned by the operating system, off-loading them from the computer's main CPU and resulting in acceleration. In addition, a BBC Micro fitted with a coprocessor was able to run machine code software designed for other systems, such as CP/M and DOS which are written for 8086 processors.

Trends
Over time CPUs have tended to grow to absorb the functionality of the most popular coprocessors. FPUs are now considered an integral part of a processors' main pipeline; SIMD units gave multimedia its acceleration, taking over the role of various DSP accelerator cards; and even GPUs have become integrated on CPU dies. Nonetheless, specialized units remain popular away from desktop machines, and for additional power, and allow continued evolution independently of the main processor product lines.

title: Coprocessor