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George Lazenby

George Robert Lazenby (born 5 September 1939) is an Australian actor. He was the second actor to portray the fictional British secret agent James Bond in the Eon Productions film series, playing the character in On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969). Since he appeared in only one film, Lazenby's tenure as Bond is the shortest among the actors in the series.

Lazenby began his professional career as a model and had only acted in commercials when he was cast to replace the original Bond actor, Sean Connery. He declined to return for subsequent Bond films and instead pursued roles in Universal Soldier (1971), Who Saw Her Die? (1972), The Shrine of Ultimate Bliss (1974), The Man from Hong Kong (1975), and The Kentucky Fried Movie (1977). After his career stalled in the late 1970s, he moved into business and invested in real estate.

Lazenby later appeared in roles that parodied James Bond. In 2017, a Hulu docudrama film, Becoming Bond, featured Lazenby recounting his life story and portrayal of Bond.

Early life
George Robert Lazenby was born on 5 September 1939 in Goulburn, New South Wales, at Ovada Private Hospital, to railway worker George Edward Lazenby and Fosseys retail worker Sheila Joan Lazenby (née Bodel). He attended Goulburn Public School in his primary years and Goulburn High School until 1954. His sister Barbara was an accomplished dancer. When he was young, he spent 18 months in hospital after he underwent an operation that left him with only half a kidney.

When Lazenby was about 14, he moved with his family from Goulburn to Queanbeyan, where his father ran a store. He served in the Australian Army, then afterwards worked as a car salesman and mechanic.

Early jobs and modelling
Lazenby moved to London in 1963 to pursue a woman with whom he had fallen in love. He became a car salesman in Finchley, where he was spotted by a talent scout who persuaded him to become a model. He was soon earning £25,000 a year. He was widely known for appearing in an advertisement for Fry's chocolate bars. In 1966, he was voted Top Model of the Year.

James Bond
In 1968, after Sean Connery had left the role of James Bond, producer Albert R. Broccoli met Lazenby for the first time while they were getting their hair cut at the same barbershop. Broccoli later saw him in the Big Fry commercial and felt he could possibly portray Bond, on which basis he invited him to do a screen test.

Lazenby dressed for the part by sporting several sartorial Bond elements, such as a Rolex Submariner wristwatch and a Savile Row suit, which had been ordered, but not collected, by Connery.

Broccoli offered him an audition. During the audition, Lazenby accidentally punched a professional wrestler, who was acting as stunt coordinator, in the face, impressing Broccoli with his ability to display aggression. Director Peter R. Hunt felt that just because Lazenby starred in the movie, it did not make him an actor.

In July 1969, after making On Her Majesty's Secret Service, Lazenby returned home to Queanbeyan to see his parents. He said he had 18 films to consider, but most of them were bad, adding that he had to "wait and see". He also told the press, "I don't think I'm ready for anything like Hamlet yet but I'd love to play Ned Kelly."

Lazenby was offered the chance to portray Bond on film again, in The Man with the Golden Gun. However, prior to the release of On Her Majesty's Secret Service, Lazenby decided to leave the role of Bond after his agent, Ronan O'Rahilly, convinced him that the secret agent would be archaic in the liberated 1970s. Lazenby also felt that he had received poor treatment on the film set. Several of his co-stars felt that Lazenby had made a mistake, including Diana Rigg and Desmond Llewelyn. Lazenby acknowledged the worry but insisted that he had made the correct decision.

At the time of the release of On Her Majesty's Secret Service, Lazenby's performance received mixed reviews. Critics felt that while he was physically convincing, he delivered his lines poorly. In the years since the film was released, public perception has become more positive. Broccoli publicly defended Lazenby's performance, saying that while he was not the best actor, he was still great for the role of Bond. He did admit that he found Lazenby's post-movie attitude annoying, feeling that he did not respect the character and was arrogant.

Lazenby was considered to reprise the role of James Bond in Never Say Never Again. However, Sean Connery was chosen for the role instead.

Lazenby has appeared as James Bond in various parodies and unofficial 007 roles, including the 1983 television film The Return of the Man from U.N.C.L.E., where his character is identified only by the initials J. B., and the 1996 video game Fox Hunt, parts of which were reedited into a feature film. Additionally, he appeared in an episode of The New Alfred Hitchcock Presents called "Diamonds Aren't Forever." In 2012, Lazenby made a guest appearance on the Canadian sketch comedy series This Hour Has 22 Minutes, spoofing the 007 series in a skit called "Help, I've Skyfall en and I Can't Get Up".

Post-Bond career
Lazenby made another film a year after On Her Majesty's Secret Service – Universal Soldier (1971), which he helped write. He said the movie was "anti-guns and anti-Bond". Due to his reported poor treatment on the set of On Her Majesty's Secret Service, he sought out a director whom he would work with better and found Cy Endfield. Lazenby helped to fund the film. Lazenby admitted that after he left the role of Bond, he was unhireable. He landed few roles, to the point that his agent described him as "difficult".

Lazenby next appeared in the 1972 Italian giallo film Who Saw Her Die? opposite Anita Strindberg, a performance for which he lost 35 pounds and received positive reviews. He spent the next 15 months sailing around the world with Chrissie Townson; the trip ended when she became pregnant with their first child, prompting Lazenby to settle down and try to reactivate his career as an actor.

In February 1973, he revealed that he had spent all of the money he had earned from playing Bond, had experienced two nervous breakdowns, and had become an alcoholic. He felt that if he had continued in the role, he would have gone crazy due to the mental stress that the role brings. He later said, "I burnt some bridges behind me, and it was fun, really. I'm sort of glad I did it and I know I won't have to do it again. I can look back and laugh because I didn't hurt anyone — except myself."

Lazenby played a role in the BBC's Play for Today series in 1973, starring in Roger Smith's The Operation. He was meant to follow it with an Anglo-Italian western made in Turkey, followed by a film about rioting students in pre-Castro Cuba, but neither was made.

Hong Kong
In 1973, Lazenby said he was "flat broke" when he went to Hong Kong to meet Bruce Lee and producer Raymond Chow. They ended up offering him $10,000 ($ today) to appear in a film with Lee, which was going to be the Golden Harvest film Game of Death. However, the plan collapsed after Lee's sudden death. Lazenby was meant to meet Lee for dinner on the day Lee died.

In the end, Lazenby shot three films for Golden Harvest: The Shrine of Ultimate Bliss, The Man from Hong Kong (1975) (also known as The Dragon Flies), and A Queen's Ransom (1976).

Australia
In the mid-1970s, Lazenby appeared in a number of television movies shot in his native Australia, and an episode of the local police drama series Matlock Police. He also returned to modelling, appearing in a number of advertisements for Benson & Hedges cigarettes. A few years later, in an interview with the Australian Women's Weekly, he stated that he did not really feel like an actor as he had had very few acting roles, but added that he would embrace being an actor if he was offered more jobs.

Hollywood
In the late 1970s, Lazenby moved to Hollywood, California, where he started taking acting lessons and set about trying to obtain more acting work.

In 1978, Broccoli described casting Lazenby as his biggest mistake, claiming that the actor couldn't deal with fame and labeling him as "very arrogant". He felt that Lazenby did not understand how a film set worked and did not mesh well with the rest of the cast and crew. Sean Connery came to Lazenby's defence, saying that in the time that he knew Lazenby, he had not acted arrogant, instead applying that label to Broccoli.

Lazenby went on to add: "It hasn't been easy, trying to climb back.... I admit I acted stupidly. It went to my head, everything that was happening to me. But remember, it was my first film.... Now what I've got to do is live down my past; convince people I'm not the same person who made a fool of himself all those years ago. I know I can do it. All I need is the chance."

In 1978, he took out an advertisement in Variety, offering himself for acting work. He offered to work in any role for very little money, he later told a journalist for the Chicago Tribune. "People ask me if the Bond movie wasn't worth it if it got me into acting. It's true that it got me in, but it wasn't worth the ten years it cost me." The following year, he had a substantial supporting role in Saint Jack (1979), directed by Peter Bogdanovich. Filmink magazine called it "one of the best things – if not the best thing – Lazenby ever did outside of Bond."

Lazenby was particularly keen to obtain a role in The Thorn Birds, but that project was not made until a number of years later, and without Lazenby. He did manage to secure roles in Hawaii Five-O and Evening in Byzantium. The latter was seen by Harry Saltzman, who offered Lazenby a leading role in a proposed science fiction film, The Micronauts. According to Lazenby, Saltzman had previously claimed that the pair would never work together again.

Lazenby made a guest appearance on the television series Superboy, as Jor-El, in a two-part episode during the series' second season in 1990. He appeared with Sylvia Kristel in several new Emmanuelle films in 1993, many of which appeared on cable television. In 1993, Lazenby had a part in the film Gettysburg as Confederate General Johnston Pettigrew.

On 5 November 2013, comedian Jim Jefferies stated in an interview that Lazenby would be playing Jefferies's father in the then upcoming second season of his FX network sitcom Legit. In 2019, Lazenby starred as Dr. Jason Love in an audiobook version of James Leasor's spy novel Passport to Oblivion.

Influence on popular culture
Lazenby's single portrayal of the iconic Bond character, and his lack of standing as a favourite in the series, has resulted in his name being used as a metaphor for forgettable, non-iconic acting efforts in other entertainment franchises, and for entities that are largely ignored.

In his review of Batman & Robin, widely regarded as the weakest and least successful film in the Batman film franchise, Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle said that George Clooney "should go down in history as the George Lazenby of the series". Actor Paul McGann has described himself as "the George Lazenby of Doctor Who". McGann's only starring television role as the Eighth Doctor was in the 1996 television movie.

In 2009, Sondre Lerche released a song called "Like Lazenby" on his album Heartbeat Radio, in which he laments squandered opportunities and wishes for a "second try". Lerche had received a videotape of the film On Her Majesty's Secret Service as a child; he sent away for a free copy of the movie, only to find he had joined a James Bond film club. He got into trouble when his mother was contacted to pay for the membership. Years later, watching the movie again on DVD (with Lazenby's interviews), he found it to be "a perfect metaphor for life's disappointments".

The title of Matthew Bauer's 2022 documentary The Other Fellow, about the lives of real men named James Bond, is inspired by Lazenby's line in the beginning of On Her Majesty's Secret Service, "This never happened to the other fellow", a reference to Sean Connery. Bauer told Filmink that he chose the title because "these are the situations that our characters face – continuously being in the shadow of this movie icon."

Personal life
While working as a car salesman at the age of 21, Lazenby fathered a daughter, Jennifer, with Maureen Powell, who was then an Australian army sergeant and a physical education and fitness instructor at Royal Military College, Duntroon.

In 1973, Lazenby married his girlfriend of three years, Christina Ross "Chrissie" Townson (later Matser), an heiress of the Gannett family. They subsequently had two children, daughter Melanie Andrea Lazenby, born on 13 September 1973, and son Zachary "Zack" Lazenby, born on 9 November 1974, at Woden Valley Hospital (now Canberra Hospital) in Garran, Canberra, ACT. Zachary was diagnosed with a malignant brain tumour when he was 11 and died at age 19 in 1994. The two divorced shortly after, in 1995. Melanie is a real estate broker in New York, working for Douglas Elliman.

In 2002, Lazenby married former tennis player Pam Shriver and they had three children, including son George Junior Lazenby, born on 12 July 2004. The family lived in Brentwood, California. In August 2008, it was reported that Shriver had filed for divorce from Lazenby, citing "irreconcilable differences". Their divorce was finalized in May 2011.

In late 2023, Lazenby was injured in a fall and was briefly hospitalized. On 18 December, he returned home.

Unmade films

 * Deakin (1970) – A western film

Roles originally offered to Lazenby

 * James Bond in Diamonds Are Forever (1971) – he turned down the offer to reprise his role due to advice given to him by his agent
 * The role played by James Coburn in Duck, You Sucker! (1971) – he turned it down
 * A part in Game of Death (1978)
 * John Cleese said he wanted to cast Lazenby as Jesus Christ in The Life of Brian.
 * James Bond in Never Say Never Again (1983) – Lazenby was considered for the role, but Sean Connery was cast instead.

title: George Lazenby


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Frieze group

In mathematics, a frieze or frieze pattern is a two-dimensional design that repeats in one direction. The term is derived from architecture and decorative arts, where such repeating patterns are often used. (See frieze.) Frieze patterns can be classified into seven types according to their symmetries. The set of symmetries of a frieze pattern is called a frieze group.

Frieze groups are two-dimensional line groups, having repetition in only one direction. They are related to the more complex wallpaper groups, which classify patterns that are repetitive in two directions, and crystallographic groups, which classify patterns that are repetitive in three directions.

General
Formally, a frieze group is a class of infinite discrete symmetry groups of patterns on a strip (infinitely wide rectangle), hence a class of groups of isometries of the plane, or of a strip. A symmetry group of a frieze group necessarily contains translations and may contain glide reflections, reflections along the long axis of the strip, reflections along the narrow axis of the strip, and 180° rotations. There are seven frieze groups, listed in the summary table. Many authors present the frieze groups in a different order.

The actual symmetry groups within a frieze group are characterized by the smallest translation distance, and, for the frieze groups with vertical line reflection or 180° rotation (groups 2, 5, 6, and 7), by a shift parameter locating the reflection axis or point of rotation. In the case of symmetry groups in the plane, additional parameters are the direction of the translation vector, and, for the frieze groups with horizontal line reflection, glide reflection, or 180° rotation (groups 3–7), the position of the reflection axis or rotation point in the direction perpendicular to the translation vector. Thus there are two degrees of freedom for group 1, three for groups 2, 3, and 4, and four for groups 5, 6, and 7.

For two of the seven frieze groups (groups 1 and 4) the symmetry groups are singly generated, for four (groups 2, 3, 5, and 6) they have a pair of generators, and for group 7 the symmetry groups require three generators. A symmetry group in frieze group 1, 2, 3, or 5 is a subgroup of a symmetry group in the last frieze group with the same translational distance. A symmetry group in frieze group 4 or 6 is a subgroup of a symmetry group in the last frieze group with half the translational distance. This last frieze group contains the symmetry groups of the simplest periodic patterns in the strip (or the plane), a row of dots. Any transformation of the plane leaving this pattern invariant can be decomposed into a translation, (x, y) ↦ (n + x, y), optionally followed by a reflection in either the horizontal axis, (x, y) ↦ (x, −y), or the vertical axis, (x, y) ↦ (−x, y), provided that this axis is chosen through or midway between two dots, or a rotation by 180°, (x, y) ↦ (−x, −y) (ditto). Therefore, in a way, this frieze group contains the "largest" symmetry groups, which consist of all such transformations.

The inclusion of the discrete condition is to exclude the group containing all translations, and groups containing arbitrarily small translations (e.g. the group of horizontal translations by rational distances). Even apart from scaling and shifting, there are infinitely many cases, e.g. by considering rational numbers of which the denominators are powers of a given prime number.

The inclusion of the infinite condition is to exclude groups that have no translations:
 * the group with the identity only (isomorphic to C1, the trivial group of order 1).
 * the group consisting of the identity and reflection in the horizontal axis (isomorphic to C2, the cyclic group of order 2).
 * the groups each consisting of the identity and reflection in a vertical axis (ditto)
 * the groups each consisting of the identity and 180° rotation about a point on the horizontal axis (ditto)
 * the groups each consisting of the identity, reflection in a vertical axis, reflection in the horizontal axis, and 180° rotation about the point of intersection (isomorphic to the Klein four-group)

Descriptions of the seven frieze groups
There are seven distinct subgroups (up to scaling and shifting of patterns) in the discrete frieze group generated by a translation, reflection (along the same axis) and a 180° rotation. Each of these subgroups is the symmetry group of a frieze pattern, and sample patterns are shown in Fig. 1. The seven different groups correspond to the 7 infinite series of axial point groups in three dimensions, with n = ∞.

They are identified in the table below using Hermann–Mauguin notation,Coxeter notation, Schönflies notation, orbifold notation, nicknames created by mathematician John H. Conway, and finally a description in terms of translation, reflections and rotations.

Of the seven frieze groups, there are only four up to isomorphism. Two are singly generated and isomorphic to $$\mathbb{Z}$$; four of them are doubly generated, among which one is abelian and three are nonabelian and isomorphic to $$D_\infty$$, the infinite dihedral group; and one of them has three generators.

Lattice types: Oblique and rectangular
The groups can be classified by their type of two-dimensional grid or lattice. The lattice being oblique means that the second direction need not be orthogonal to the direction of repeat.

Web demo and software
There exist software graphic tools that create 2D patterns using frieze groups. Usually, the entire pattern is updated automatically in response to edits of the original strip.
 * EscherSketch A free online program for drawing, saving, and exporting tessellations. Supports all wallpaper groups.
 * Kali, a free and open source software application for wallpaper, frieze and other patterns.
 * Kali, free downloadable Kali for Windows and Mac Classic.
 * Tess, a nagware tessellation program for multiple platforms, supports all wallpaper, frieze, and rosette groups, as well as Heesch tilings.
 * FriezingWorkz, a freeware Hypercard stack for the Classic Mac platform that supports all frieze groups.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Frieze group


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Talk:Maximus V Hakim

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Page has been rewritten with a link tot he external page. Im nto teribly interested in the subject myself, but felt obligated to do the rewrite. Hopefully someone else can fill in more details of the patriarchs life.

title: Talk:Maximus V Hakim


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Coin grading

Coin grading is the process of determining the grade or condition of a coin, one of the key factors in determining its collectible value. A coin's grade is generally determined by six criteria: strike, preservation, luster, color, attractiveness, and occasionally the country/state in which it was minted. Several grading systems have been developed. Certification services professionally grade coins for tiered fees.

Overview
A "grade" measures a coin's appearance. There are generally five main components which determine a coin's grade: strike, surface preservation, luster, coloration and eye appeal. Grading is subjective and even experts can disagree about the grade of a given coin.

History
U.S. coin grading has evolved over the years to a system of finer and finer grade distinctions. Originally, there were only two grades, new and used. This changed to the letter grading system beginning with the lowest grade – Basal State (also Poor (PO)), then continuing Fair (Fr), About or Almost Good (AG), Good (G), Very Good (VG), Fine (F), Very Fine (VF), Extremely Fine (EF), Almost or About Uncirculated (AU), Uncirculated (Unc) and up to Brilliant Uncirculated (BU). Gem Uncirculated was roughly equivalent in usage to BU at that time. Numerical grades from 1 to 70 now accompany the verbal grades.

Early grading systems
The quality of all coins is not equal and collectors felt the necessity of defining the quality of the coins in order to assess their value. Rim damage, nicks, polishing, cleaning, scratches and other forms of wear are considered factors in grading a coin. Whether or not a coin shows evidence of having been mounted in jewelry also affects its grade.

In the early years of coin collecting, three general terms were used to grade coins:

 * good - when circulation had worn the surface of the coin, but major details were still visible.
 * fine - when features were less worn and a bit of mint luster showed on the surface. Most major and minor detail visible
 * uncirculated - when the features of the coin were sharp and the luster approaching the state of a new coin at the mint.

Sheldon grading system
As the collector market for coins grew rapidly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it became apparent that a more precise grading standard was needed. Some coins were simply more fine than others, and some uncirculated coins showed more luster and far fewer marks than others. Terms like "gem uncirculated" and "very fine" began to see use, as more precise grading descriptions allowed for more precise pricing for the booming collector market.

In 1948, well-known numismatist William Herbert Sheldon attempted to standardize coin grading by proposing what is now known as the Sheldon Scale, as is detailed below. , included in his book Penny Whimsy, was originally devised for U.S. large cents but it is now applied to all series.

European grading system
European countries use various, roughly equivalent, grading systems. The main features of their systems are presented in the following table:

American Numismatic Association scale
As the hobby of numismatics evolved, the need arose for a more concrete grading system. In 1978, the American Numismatic Association published the Official A.N.A. Grading System for United States Coins. It established grading tiers of, in descending order of preservation, Mint State, About Uncirculated, Extremely Fine, Very Fine, Fine, Very Good, Good and About Good. Most numismatists, as well as third-party grading services, also use two other descriptors for the lowest grades, Fair and Poor. The higher tiers on this scale each encompass two or more "sub-grades" denoted by the appending of the corresponding Sheldon scale number, such as Very Fine-20 or Very Fine-30. This allows for the recognition of coins which exceed the standard for a given tier, but do not meet the criteria for the next. Grades are commonly abbreviated, and not all numismatists use the numerical grades, so a grade of Fine-12 may be rendered as Fine, F-12, 12 or simply F.

Factors affecting a coin grade
The following factors affect a coin's grade:

 * 1) "eye appeal" or the aesthetic interest of the coin;
 * 2) dents on the rim;
 * 3) unsightly scratches or other blemishes on the surface of the coin;
 * 4) luster;
 * 5) toning;
 * 6) level of detail retained, where a coin with full details obviously is valued higher than one with worn details.
 * 7) If the coin is judged favorably in all of these criteria, it will generally be awarded a higher grade.

Certification services
Coin certification services emerged in the 1980s as a response to the need for buyers and sellers to agree on grading. For tiered fees, certification services grade, authenticate, attribute, and encapsulate coins in clear, plastic holders. Professional Coin Grading service (PCGS), Numismatic Guaranty Corporation (NGC), Independent Coin Graders (ICG), and American Numismatic Association Certification Service (ANACS) are the most popular services. These are the only services whose coins have a special section on eBay, the largest rare coin marketplace. All four firms guarantee the grades and authenticity of their certified coins. Together they have certified over 80 million coins.

At each of the four main grading companies, a similar process is used. Each coin is graded (on a verbal and 1 to 70 numerical scale) and authenticated by two or more graders, and then assigned a final grade by a finalizer, based in part upon the recommendations of the prior graders. Depending on the company, various descriptors may be added, such as Full Bands for Mercury dimes, Full Bell Lines (FBL) for Franklin Half Dollars, or Deep Mirror Prooflike (DMPL) for Morgan dollars, and the coin's die variety may be noted. The coin is then slabbed and returned to the customer. In 2010, PCGS and NGC introduced "Plus" grading for high-end coins graded XF45 to MS68. A plus symbol (+) is added after the grade.

In 2007, the Professional Numismatists Guild (PNG), a US association of rare coin dealers, released the results of a survey of major coin dealers who gave their professional opinions about 11 certification services. PCGS and NGC were rated "Superior" overall, with ANACS and ICG deemed "Good". PCI and SEGS were listed as "Poor", while called "Unacceptable" were Accugrade (ACG), Numistrust Corporation (NTC), Hallmark Coin Grading Service (HCGS), American Coin Club Grading Service (ACCGS), and Star Grading Services (SGS).

Counterfeit NGC and PCGS holders have been reported, but significant measures have been taken by both services to remedy the problem, such as NGC's use of photographic verification for every coin certified and both services' employment of serial number verification and anti-counterfeiting features in their holders.

title: Coin grading


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Talk:Coin grading

If you notice any similarity between content on this page and on www.acoin.com, note that I am the owner of that site and have deposited this portion of the information into the public domain. - KellyCoinGuy

Inaccuracies
This article is clearly rife with inaccuracies. For example, a coin's liquidity has nothing to do with its grade. Can we pass this article around to different professional numismatic grading organizations (such as the ANA, NGC, and PCGS) for review. Personally, I think the entire thing needs to be rewritten and reformatted. For example, the "overview" section should be the "history" section and the overview should come in the beginning. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.251.145.104 (talk) 12:26, 28 May 2014 (UTC)

 * I think you mean "rife". —Tamfang (talk) 03:46, 2 October 2014 (UTC)

+1 to rewrite 1.161.72.19 (talk) — Preceding undated comment added 20:22, 4 November 2014 (UTC)

 * Done.--R&BpopROCK (talk) 23:36, 9 September 2015 (UTC)

I changed the title on this talk page. I'm not sure what is meant by liquidity above and the word is not in the article. Grade has everything to do with value. Higher grades sharply increase value. Liquidity typically refers to how quickly one might sell (especially stock or shares of company) and I am fairly sure it is easier to see a higher grade coin. 2600:1700:960:23B0:89F2:93D:DA0:CCFE (talk) 21:35, 3 November 2020 (UTC) Jim

Doesn't seem quite correct
The history could use some fine-tuning. I recall, for example, most of the numbers and letters in use and consistent prior to 1986, as witnessed by the de facto standard of A Guide Book of United States Coins. (Also, I'm pretty sure than the Guide Book had a larger share of the coin pricing guide market than PCGS had of the coin grading market, so it seems kind of silly to make PCGS sound like the uniter of grade levels rather than the Guide Book.) Also, "MS," "Unc.," and "BU" were eventually indistinguishable due to lack of standards for how "brilliant" brilliant uncirculated was. Anyway, I hope someone who's older and/or has a better grasp of grading history can fill in here. It would also be nice to put in redirects from EF, AU, MS, etc. Calbaer 01:20, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

Range of scale?
The price range was from $1 to $60, and so the grading range was made from 1 to 70?!!

Since the numbers are different, it would seem that an explanation is in order, or else this is just a typo....

--Eliyahu S Talk 15:42, 29 January 2007 (UTC)

The price range of coins doesn't go from $1 to $60. However, someone really should put the full table of grades from Poor (1) to Mint State (70) and what their corresponding numbers are on this page. Here is a page which is almost complete and seems to be accurate. If no one puts this table in this page within 90 days, I'll do it. I'd prefer not to because I'll have to figure out how to insert a table in Wikipedia and they have a strange way of formatting things. The actual typing (data) part isn't that hard. Here is another page which discusses coin grading. Mr-Encyclopedia-Man (talk) 19:10, 1 September 2011 (UTC)

Basal State
What in the world is basal state? Wikipedia has no article concerning it, and this article references it as if the reader knwos what it means. Mrendo 12:55, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

 * It seemed fairly clear to me that it was an alternate name for Poor, and the lowest grade on the scale which follows. While I don't know this for certain, I have edited the article to make that meaning more obvious, by throwing in a little more verbiage and using italics to offset each gradation name.  If I am in error, would someone please revert my edit?  Thanks.  -- Eliyahu S Talk 22:36, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

 * I remember a long time ago, some coins being rated as "cull" or "filler", only of value to fill in a spot in a collection, and not even worthy of a Poor rating. Does that still exist? I think it was more of an informal grade.--RLent (talk) 17:59, 31 August 2009 (UTC)

Non-metric scale
"Thus yet another non-decimal system was born."

That's a highly editorial comment that should be removed

 * It's also a direct quote from either the Redbook or Photograde. Nibios (talk) 03:19, 2 May 2008 (UTC)

Grading Scale
It would be nice to include a section that describes in detail what kind of visual differences there would be between MS-63 and MS-64. Perhaps a table that goes grade-by-grade describing a commonly coin, perhaps even with photos of the same coin at each grade. Just a thought. Mwbseiso (talk) 19:38, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

Grading foreign coins?
Greetings,

Every book and website discussing coin grading that I have ever come across focuses (usually exclusively so) on American Coins. Does anyone know of any source for grading foreign coins? Thank you. Gecko G (talk) 19:38, 14 July 2008 (UTC)

I know one for British 1797-1970. It does all (almost anyway) of the obverses and reverses. "The standard guide to Grading British coins" by Derek Allen, and Rotographic. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 90.193.233.49 (talk) 08:07, 6 October 2012 (UTC)

re: "Distinctions" section
Does this sentence refer to counterfeit coins or counterfeit grading? I am not familiar with any of this information... perhaps the meaning is obvious to most but for the neophyte it isn't 100% clear.

"One thing PCGS did accomplish was largely ridding the marketplace of inferior counterfeits."

64.58.178.213 (talk) 01:37, 2 September 2008 (UTC)

 * It referred to the counterfeit coins themselves. I've updated the article accordingly. Nibios (talk) 17:37, 1 October 2008 (UTC)

R.R.R.R.?
In what coin grading system is R.R.R.R. used? Шизомби (talk) 06:11, 17 January 2009 (UTC)

the limits of imagination

 * It is difficult to imagine that there will be yet finer distinctions in grading in the future, yet it's already happening.

Any objection to removing this silly sentence, or suggestions for replacing it? —Tamfang (talk) 21:10, 27 December 2011 (UTC)

 * Seeing none ... —Tamfang (talk) 08:51, 6 October 2012 (UTC)

European Grading system... the United Kingdom System
I am quite confused. The British system i use as a British collector goes straight from Fine to Fair to Poor. I always understood by observation and by book the the absurd words of Good and Very good were American. Can someone clarify?? 90.193.233.49 (talk) 08:09, 6 October 2012 (UTC)

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Clarity
There is a clarity tag, and I saw it written, "Can the article say that such scale is detailed in the below table's left column?" on January 2019. I decided to just make the change. Hopefully some authoritarian wikipedian won't blindly revert my change. 2600:1700:960:23B0:89F2:93D:DA0:CCFE (talk) 21:38, 3 November 2020 (UTC) Jim

Pricing
I would like to know whats the original price I can sale the coins 2601:547:B03:1EFC:2579:3A6A:A826:5BFE (talk) 12:27, 9 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Coin grading


text:
Ælfsige

Ælfsige (or Aelfsige, Ælfsin or Aelfsin; died 959) was Bishop of Winchester before he became Archbishop of Canterbury in 959.

Life
Ælfsige became Bishop of Winchester in 951. In 958, with the death of the previous Archbishop Oda, he was translated from the see of Winchester to become archbishop of Canterbury. He is said by Arthur Hussey to have trampled contemptuously on Oda's grave, "with reproaches for having so long kept himself out of that dignity".

Ælfsige died of cold in the Alps as he journeyed to Rome to be given his pallium by Pope John XII. In his place King Eadwig nominated Byrhthelm. Ælfsige's will survives and shows that he was married, with a son, Godwine of Worthy, who died in 1001 fighting against the Vikings.

title: Ælfsige


text:
Austin-Healey

Austin-Healey was a British sports car maker established in 1952 through a joint venture between the Austin division of the British Motor Corporation (BMC) and the Donald Healey Motor Company (Healey), a renowned automotive engineering and design firm. Leonard Lord represented BMC and Donald Healey his firm.

BMC merged with Jaguar Cars in 1966 to form British Motor Holdings (BMH). Donald Healey left BMH in 1968 when it merged into British Leyland. Healey then joined Jensen Motors, which had been making bodies for the "big Healeys" since their inception in 1952, and became their chairman in 1972. Austin-Healey cars were produced until 1972 when the 20-year agreement between Healey and Austin came to an end.

Austin-Healey 100

 * Open 2-seater (minimal weather protection)

 * 1953–55 BN1 Austin-Healey 100
 * 1955 Austin-Healey 100S (Limited production—50 race-prepared cars)
 * 1955–56 BN2 Austin-Healey 100 and 100M

Austin-Healey 100-6

 * Open 2+2-seater

 * 1956–57 BN4 Austin-Healey 100-6 (2+2 roadster)
 * 1957–59 BN4 Austin-Healey 100-6 Change to $1 3/4$-inch SU Carbs (2+2 roadster)
 * 1958–59 BN6 Austin-Healey 100-6 6-Cylinder (2-seater roadster)

Austin-Healey 3000

 * Open 2+2-seater

 * 1959–61 BN7 Mark I (2-seater roadster), BT7 Mark I (2+2 roadster)
 * 1961–62 BN7 Mark II (2-seater roadster), BT7 Mark II (2+2)

 * Convertible 2+2-seater (wind-up windows)

 * 1962–63 BJ7 Mark II (2+2 convertible)
 * 1963–67 BJ8 Mark III (2+2 convertible)

Austin-Healey Sprite

 * Open 2-seater

 * 1958–61 AN5 Mark I (UK: "Frogeye"; US: "Bugeye")
 * 1961–64 HAN6–HAN7 Mark II
 * 2-seater Roadster

 * 1964–66 HAN8 Mark III (roll-up windows)
 * 1966–69 HAN9 Mark IV
 * 1969–70 HAN10 Mark IV (UK only)
 * 1971 AAN10 Mark IV (UK only; badged as Austin rather than Austin-Healey)

Concept Cars

 * BMW Project Warwick (2001)
 * Project Tempest (render only) (2005)
 * Unnamed HFI Automotive Prototype (2006)

Racing
The Austin Healey was extensively raced by the Donald Healey Motor Company in Europe at Le Mans and at Sebring in the U.S., in classic rallies by the BMC competitions department, and was recognised from the very beginning by the Sports Car Club of America (SCCA). Healey models raced in club racing in D, E, F, G, an H production classes, winning National Championships in all five classes. The last Big Healey to win an SCCA National Championship was the class E Production Austin-Healey 100-6 driven by Alan Barker at the Daytona ARRC in 1965.

In 1953, a special streamlined Austin-Healey set several land speed records at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah, USA.

Attempts at revival
The rights to the Austin name later passed to British Aerospace and later BMW when each bought the Rover Group. In 2001, BMW revealed the “Project Warwick” concept, a retro-styled, modern interpretation of the Austin Healey built around the aluminium chassis from the BMW Z8. It is believed that Project Warwick advanced sufficiently enough to necessitate talks with the Healey family, although these talks ultimately broke down and the project was cancelled due to a lack of marque ownership rights. BMW later sold the Rover group to the Phoenix Consortium for a nominal £10, creating the MG Rover Group.

During the sale of the MG Rover group following its bankruptcy, Professor Krish Bhaskar, a bidder for the company, revealed the Austin Healey 3000 inspired “Project Tempest” in 2005. Bhaskar stated that the car would use running gear from the MG XPower SV covered with a lightweight aluminium body. Bhaskar’s bid failed however, and the project never came to fruition.

The Austin name was subsequently owned by China's Nanjing Automobile Group, which bought the assets of MG Rover Group out of bankruptcy in 2005. Nanjing signed a collaborative agreement with GB Sports Car, a company founded by former Rover officials, aiming to bring back production at the Longbridge plant under the MG, Rover and Austin-Healey marques, with the MG XPower SV being rebadged as an Austin-Healey. The idea to produce Austin-Healey branded cars was later dropped and the deal subsequently stalled.

After Donald Healey sold his original Donald Healey Motor Company, the Healey brand was registered to a new firm, Healey Automobile Consultants; the Healey family sold this successor company to British-American consortium HFI Automotive in 2005. In February 2006, HFI Automotive announced plans for a sports car “with the DNA of a Healey 3000” in coupe and convertible versions, as well as a cheaper car likened to an Austin Healey Sprite. HFI announced that deposits of £1000 were being taken, and prototypes were to be shown later that year. No prototypes were shown, but it was reported that HFI developed and tested a running prototype.

In June 2007, Nanjing and Healey Automobile Consultants / HFI Automotive signed a collaborative agreement aiming to recreate the Austin Healey and Healey marques alongside NAC's MG. No timeline was given for the Healey and Austin-Healey brands to return, although production of the MG TF restarted in August that year, and the first all-new MG-branded model in 16 years, the MG6, was launched 4 years later in 2011.

The Nanjing Automobile Group later merged with the much larger SAIC Motor, transferring many former British assets including the Austin marque to SAIC.

In 2015, British company Healy Designs revealed the 'Enigma', a Mazda MX-5 based modern interpretation of a Big Healey. The kit car features a retro style fibreglass body atop an MX-5 chassis, with either a 2.0 litre Mazda engine or a larger V8 from a Lexus or Corvette.

title: Austin-Healey


text:
Talk:Bart Berman

Second piano parts
What is a "second piano part"? --Camembert

 * A second (piano) part is the difference between solo work and a duet. Bart Berman's second parts for Clementi, Bach and Stiebelt are listed on http://www.notesonfranzschubert.com/keyboards.htm --Gidonb

 * Ah, so they're just additional parts to be played at the same time as the originals, right? (Sorry, I know it seems obvious, but it's just such an unusual thing to do I want to be sure I'm not misunderstanding.) Is that really the case with the Bach as well? I ask because the page you cite says "Right Hand Piano Part for Bach Sonatas in E Minor and E Major" which to me suggests a realisation of a figured bass rather than a second part to be played by a second person - do you happen to know if that's what it is? I'm just looking to make the article a bit clearer. --Camembert

 * He is not the only instrumentalist/composer who attempts to draw unrealised potential out of classical works, whether through completions or additional parts. If I understand correctly, in case of Bach he wrote the second hand part, rather than instrument part. The Schubert completions were at times the same, as Schubert sometimes wrote a bit more for one hand, but finally stopped writing both hands (in case of the unfinished sonatas that is). Perhaps the following pages will be helpful: http://www.notesonfranzschubert.com/composit.htm http://www.notesonfranzschubert.com/unfinished.htm http://www.notesonfranzschubert.com/completing.htm Have a nice day! --Gidonb

 * I've fiddled with the article a little bit - it seems a bit clearer to me now (I'm sure I was just me having a mental block or something really). Thanks for you help, Gidonb. --Camembert

 * You are welcome. Thanks for your questions and editing. --Gidonb

Israeli
Um, is he Israeli? If so, that should be stated in the article itself, not just implied by the category. If not, he should be removed from the category of Israeli musicians. --Woggly 07:58, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Don't know much about him, but he is listed on List of Israeli musical artists, so take it from there... IZAK 08:20, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

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Donald Healey Motor Company

Donald Healey Motor Company Limited was a British car manufacturer.

History
The business was founded in 1945 by Donald Healey, a successful car designer and rally driver. Healey discussed sports car design with Achille Sampietro, a chassis specialist for high performance cars and Ben Bowden, a body engineer, when all three worked at Humber during World War II.

Healey motorcars
Healey's new enterprise focused on producing high-quality, high-performance cars which were inevitably expensive. It was initially based in the premises of Benford Ltd (who made cement mixers and dumpers) at The Cape in Warwick, but soon moved into an old aircraft components factory on the adjacent Millers Road Industrial Estate. There Healey was joined by Roger Menadue from Armstrong Whitworth to run the experimental workshop and subsequently by his son Geoffrey, who had qualified as an engineer. On 3 July 1963 (not 1961 as is often stated) they moved again into the former Warwick Cinema at Coten End. Both these premises have now been demolished: a block of flats has been built on the cinema site, called – much to Geoff's disgust – 'Healey Court'. The cars mainly used a tuned version of the proven Riley twin-cam 2.4-litre four-cylinder engine in a light steel box-section chassis of Healey design using independent front suspension by coil springs and alloy trailing arms with Girling dampers. The rear suspension used a Riley live axle with coil springs. The suspension design allowed soft springing to be combined with excellent road holding. Lockheed hydraulic brakes were used.

When it was introduced in 1948, the Elliott saloon was claimed to be the fastest production closed car in the world, timed at 104.7 mph over a mile. The aerodynamic body design was the work of Benjamin Bowden and unusually for the time it was tested in a wind tunnel to refine its efficiency. This was the start of Healey's aerodynamic styling for reduced drag, that culminated in Bowden's last UK offering, the Zethrin Rennsport. In 1949 the most sporting of all the Healeys, the Silverstone, was announced. It had a shorter chassis and stiffer springing and was capable of 107 mph. It is now a highly sought after car, and many of the other remaining Healeys have been converted into Silverstone replicas. These cars had numerous competition successes including class wins in the 1947 and 1948 Alpine rallies and the 1949 Mille Miglia.

Nash-Healey
Government planning and controls in this time period required any substantial expansion of production to be for the export market alone. So in 1950 Healey entered the North American market with the Nash-Healey, using a Nash Ambassador engine with SU carburettors and Nash gearbox. Initially the Ambassador's 3848 cc engine was used, but when in 1952 body construction was transferred from Healey to Pininfarina the larger 4138 cc engine was fitted.

Production numbers
The final Healey car of this era was the G-Type, using an Alvis TB21 engine and gearbox. This was more luxurious (and heavier) than the Riley engined models, and performance suffered.

Austin-Healey
Healey judged a cheaper sports car marketable in large numbers was needed to save the business, one that would fit between the MG and Jaguar cars then selling so well in USA. Working with his eldest son Geoffrey in the attic of the family home, Healey designed a two-seat roadster employing numerous low-cost Austin components, the Healey Hundred. Austin chief Sir Leonard Lord was so impressed when he saw it on the Healey stand at the 1952 Earls Court Motor Show he offered to make it in his own factories under the name Austin-Healey 100.

The result was a 1953 a joint venture which created the Austin-Healey marque with the British Motor Corporation manufacturing the cars and the Healey company doing the designs and running racing operations. The 100 evolved into the highly regarded and collector coveted 3-litre Austin-Healey 3000, and the diminutive 950cc Austin-Healey Sprite, known affectionately as the "frog-eye" or "Bugeye" was also manufactured.

Commenting on the 3000 after Donald Healey's death The Times observed: "The big Healey's brutally firm ride, heavy steering and engine so close it would roast a driver's feet never detracted from the superb, timeless styling and classic proportions."

Jensen-Healey
Donald Healey became a director of Jensen Motors in the late 1960s and a result of this was the Lotus-engined Jensen-Healey which appeared in 1972.

Sale
Donald Healey Motor Company was finally sold to the Hamblin Group, although Healey Automobile Consultants and the engineering parts of the company remained in the hands of Geoffrey and Donald Healey.

title: Donald Healey Motor Company


text:
Patch Adams

Hunter Doherty "Patch" Adams (born May 28, 1945) is an American physician, comedian, social activist, clown, and author. He founded the Gesundheit! Institute as a not-for-profit in 1989. Each year he also organizes volunteers from around the world to travel to various countries where they dress as clowns to bring humor to orphans, patients, and other people.

Adams is currently based in Urbana, Illinois. In collaboration with the institute, he promotes an alternative health care model not funded by insurance policies.

Early life and education
Adams was born on May 28, 1945, in Washington, D.C., the son of Anna Campbell Stewart (née Hunter) and Robert Loughridge Adams. His maternal grandfather, Thomas Lomax Hunter, was a Poet Laureate of Virginia. His father, a United States Army officer who fought in Korea, died while stationed in Germany when Adams was only 16. After his father's death, Adams returned to the United States with his mother and brother. Adams has stated that upon his return he encountered racism and segregation amongst his peers against which he stood up, and this made him a target for bullies at school. As a result, Adams was unhappy and became actively suicidal. After a third hospitalization in one year he decided "you don't kill yourself, stupid; you make revolution."

He attended Wakefield High School, where he graduated in 1963, and then completed pre-med coursework at George Washington University. He began medical school without an undergraduate degree, and earned his Doctor of Medicine degree at the Medical College of Virginia in the Virginia Commonwealth University in 1971. In the late 1960s, one of his closest friends (a man, not a woman as depicted in the film) was murdered by a deranged patient. Convinced of the powerful connection between environment and wellness, he believes the health of an individual cannot be separated from the health of the family, community, and the world.

Gesundheit! Institute
Soon after graduation, Patch, his wife Linda, and friends started to develop the ideas that eventually led to The Gesundheit! Institute. Originally as the Zanies, they ran as a communal "home" from 1971 to 1984. In 1989 Gesundheit! Institute was founded as a not-for-profit, and has continued to develop to this day. Based in Adams' rural West Virginia property, the institute has since been devoted to fundraising. The latest plan is for a 44-bed community hospital building that will offer free holistic care to "anyone who wants it", along with a teaching facility that can accommodate "120 staff, all living together in the communal ecovillage".

Fees from the 1998 movie "made it possible to build three beautiful buildings... in preparation for the big buildings we want for the hospital". These are a farmhouse, workshop and dacha that accommodate the workshops and courses offered by the institute. The educational philosophy is contained in their "School for Designing a Society (SDaS) – for people who want to change society by means of desire, design, and composition..." and includes courses on caring and workshops on clowning.

Adams was awarded the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience Award on January 29, 1997.

In 2008, Adams agreed to become honorary chair of the "International Association for the Advancement of Creative Maladjustment" or IAACM. MindFreedom International, a nonprofit coalition that Gesundheit! belongs to as a sponsor group, launched the IAACM to support "creative maladjustment" and social change.

Since the 1990s Adams has supported the Ithaca Health Alliance (IHA) in Ithaca, New York, founded as the Ithaca Health Fund (IHF) by Paul Glover. In January 2006, IHA launched the Ithaca Free Clinic, bringing to life key aspects of Adams's vision. Adams has also given strong praise to Health Democracy, Glover's book written and published the same year.

As of 2016, Adams claims to "lecture 300 days out of the year, and have done so for over 30 years in 81 countries, spreading seeds of a love revolution of enlivening community and a call to end capitalism".

In media
The 1998 film Patch Adams was based on Adams's life and his views on medicine. Adams has heavily criticized the film, saying it eschewed an accurate representation of his beliefs in favor of commercial viability. He said that out of all aspects of his life and activism, the film portrayed him merely as a funny doctor. Patch Adams also said of Robin Williams in an interview, "He made $21 million for four months of pretending to be me, in a very simplistic version, and did not give $10 to my free hospital. Patch Adams, the person, would have, if I had Robin's money, given all $21 million to a free hospital in a country where 80 million cannot get care."

In another interview, Adams clarified that he did not dislike Williams, saying, "I think Robin himself is compassionate, generous and funny. I like to think that that's who I am, and so I think he was the only actor I wanted to play me, and I think he did a fabulous job." Williams also had actively supported St. Jude Children's Research Hospital for several years.

Upon hearing of Williams' suicide, Adams released a statement that praised Williams' comedic and improvisational skills on set; noted his compassionate and caring nature; remarked upon his introverted demeanour in private, and his desire for solitude; and thanked him for "his wonderful performance".

As a speaker, Adams travels around the globe lecturing about his medicine methods.

Personal life
While working in an adolescent clinic at VCU School of Medicine, in his final year of med school, he met Linda Edquist, a fellow VCU student who volunteered in the clinic. Adams and Edquist married in 1975, and had two sons, Atomic Zagnut "Zag" Adams and Lars Zig Edquist Adams; they divorced in 1998.

In March 2021, Adams announced that his left foot had been amputated in a below-the-knee amputation due to persistent problems from an MRSA infection.

Publications

 * Patch Adams wrote forewords for books by Pamela Wible (2012), Pet Goats & Pap Smears: 101 Medical Adventures to Open Your Heart & Mind ISBN 978-0985710309 and by Diana Leafe Christian (2003), Creating a Life Together: Practical Tools to Grow Ecovillages and Intentional Communities ISBN 0-86571-471-1.
 * Patch Adams wrote forewords for books by Pamela Wible (2012), Pet Goats & Pap Smears: 101 Medical Adventures to Open Your Heart & Mind ISBN 978-0985710309 and by Diana Leafe Christian (2003), Creating a Life Together: Practical Tools to Grow Ecovillages and Intentional Communities ISBN 0-86571-471-1.
 * Patch Adams wrote forewords for books by Pamela Wible (2012), Pet Goats & Pap Smears: 101 Medical Adventures to Open Your Heart & Mind ISBN 978-0985710309 and by Diana Leafe Christian (2003), Creating a Life Together: Practical Tools to Grow Ecovillages and Intentional Communities ISBN 0-86571-471-1.

title: Patch Adams


text:
Value chain

A value chain is a progression of activities that a business or firm performs in order to deliver goods and services of value to an end customer. The concept comes from the field of business management and was first described by Michael Porter in his 1985 best-seller, Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance. "The idea of [Porter's Value Chain] is based on the process view of organizations, the idea of seeing a manufacturing (or service) organization as a system, made up of subsystems each with inputs, transformation processes and outputs. Inputs, transformation processes, and outputs involve the acquisition and consumption of resources – money, labour, materials, equipment, buildings, land, administration and management. How value chain activities are carried out determines costs and affects profits."

According to the OECD Secretary-General, the emergence of global value chains (GVCs) in the late 1990s provided a catalyst for accelerated change in the landscape of international investment and trade, with major, far-reaching consequences on governments as well as enterprises.

Role of the business unit
According to Porter, the appropriate level for constructing a value chain is the business unit within a business, not a business division or the company as a whole. Porter is concerned that analysis at the higher company levels may hide certain sources of competitive advantage only visible at the business unit level.

Products pass through a chain of activities in order, and at each activity the product gains some value. The chain of activities gives the products more added value than the sum of added values of all activities.

Primary activities
All five primary activities are essential in adding value and creating a competitive advantage and they are:

 * Inbound logistics: arranging the inbound movement of materials, parts, and/or finished inventory from suppliers to manufacturing or assembly plants, warehouses, or retail stores
 * Operations: concerned with managing the process that converts inputs (in the forms of raw materials, labor, and energy) into outputs (in the form of goods and/or services).
 * Outbound logistics: is the process related to the storage and movement of the final product and the related information flows from the end of the production line to the end user
 * Marketing and sales: selling products and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large.
 * Service: includes all the activities required to keep the product working effectively for the buyer after it is sold and delivered.

Companies can harness a competitive advantage at any one of the five activities in the value chain. For example, by creating outbound logistics that are highly efficient or by reducing a company's shipping costs, it allows to either realize more profits or pass the savings to the consumer by way of lower prices.

Support activities
Using support activities helps make primary activities more effective. Increasing any of the four support activities helps at least one primary activity to work more efficiently.
 * Infrastructure: consists of activities such as accounting, legal, finance, control, public relations, quality assurance and general (strategic) management.
 * Technological development: pertains to the equipment, hardware, software, procedures and technical knowledge brought to bear in the firm's transformation of inputs(Raw materials) into outputs (finished goods).
 * Human resources management: consists of all activities involved in recruiting, hiring, training, developing, compensating and (if necessary) dismissing or laying off personnel.
 * Procurement: the acquisition of goods, services or works from an outside external source. In this field company also makes decisions of purchases.

Virtual value chain
The virtual value chain, created by John Sviokla and Jeffrey Rayport, is a business model describing the dissemination of value-generating information services throughout an Extended Enterprise. This value chain begins with the content supplied by the provider, which is then distributed and supported by the information infrastructure; thereupon the context provider supplies actual customer interaction. It supports the physical value chain of procurement, manufacturing, distribution and sales of traditional companies.

Industry-level
An industry value-chain is a physical representation of the various processes involved in producing goods (and services), starting with raw materials and ending with the delivered product (also known as the supply chain). It is based on the notion of value-added at the link (read: stage of production) level. The sum total of link-level value-added yields total value. The French Physiocrats' Tableau économique is one of the earliest examples of a value chain. Wassily Leontief's input-output tables, published in the 1950s, provide estimates of the relative importance of each individual link in industry-level value-chains for the U.S. economy.

Cross border / cross region value chains
Often multinational enterprises (MNEs) developed global value chains, investing abroad and establishing affiliates that provided critical support to remaining activities at home. To enhance efficiency and to optimize profits, multinational enterprises locate "research, development, design, assembly, production of parts, marketing and branding" activities in different countries around the globe. MNEs offshore labour-intensive activities to China and Mexico, for example, where the cost of labor is the lowest. The emergence of global value chains (GVCs) in the late 1990s provided a catalyst for accelerated change in the landscape of international investment and trade, with major, far-reaching consequences on governments as well as enterprises.

Global value chains in development
Through global value chains, there has been a growth in interconnectedness as MNEs play an increasingly larger role in the internationalisation of business. In response, governments have cut corporate income tax rates or introduced new incentives for research and development to compete in this changing geopolitical landscape.

In an (industrial) development context, the concepts of global value chain analysis were first introduced in the 1990s (Gereffi et al.) and have gradually been integrated into development policy by the World Bank, Unctad, the OECD and others.

Value chain analysis has also been employed in the development sector as a means of identifying poverty reduction strategies by upgrading along the value chain. Although commonly associated with export-oriented trade, development practitioners have begun to highlight the importance of developing national and intra-regional chains in addition to international ones.

For example, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) has investigated strengthening the value chain for sweet sorghum as a biofuel crop in India. Its aim in doing so was to provide a sustainable means of making ethanol that would increase the incomes of the rural poor, without sacrificing food and fodder security, while protecting the environment.

Significance
The value chain framework quickly made its way to the forefront of management thought as a powerful analysis tool for strategic planning. The simpler concept of value stream mapping, a cross-functional process which was developed over the next decade, had some success in the early 1990s.

The value-chain concept has been extended beyond individual firms. It can apply to whole supply chains and distribution networks. The delivery of a mix of products (goods and services) to the end customer will mobilize different economic factors, each managing its own value chain. The industry wide synchronized interactions of those local value chains create an extended value chain, sometimes global in extent. Porter terms this larger interconnected system of value chains the "value system". A value system includes the value chains of a firm's supplier (and their suppliers all the way back), the firm itself, the firm distribution channels, and the firm's buyers (and presumably extended to the buyers of their products, and so on).

Capturing the value generated along the chain is the new approach taken by many management strategists. For example, a manufacturer might require its parts suppliers to be located nearby its assembly plant to minimize the cost of transportation. By exploiting the upstream and downstream information flowing along the value chain, the firms may try to bypass the intermediaries creating new business models, or in other ways create improvements in its value system.

SCOR
The Supply-Chain Council, a global trade consortium in operation with over 700 member companies, governmental, academic, and consulting groups participating in the last 10 years, manages the Supply-Chain Operations Reference (SCOR), the de facto universal reference model for Supply Chain including Planning, Procurement, Manufacturing, Order Management, Logistics, Returns, and Retail; Product and Service Design including Design Planning, Research, Prototyping, Integration, Launch and Revision, and Sales including CRM, Service Support, Sales, and Contract Management which are congruent to the Porter framework. The SCOR framework has been adopted by hundreds of companies as well as national entities as a standard for business excellence, and the U.S. Department of Defense has adopted the newly launched Design-Chain Operations Reference (DCOR) framework for product design as a standard to use for managing their development processes. In addition to process elements, these reference frameworks also maintain a vast database of standard process metrics aligned to the Porter model, as well as a large and constantly researched database of prescriptive universal best practices for process execution.

title: Value chain


text:
Strand tube station

Strand tube station may refer to two different London Underground stations:

 * Aldwych tube station, a disused Piccadilly line station, originally known as Strand until 1915
 * Charing Cross tube station; the Northern line part of this station, known as Strand from 1915 to 1973

title: Strand tube station


text:
Talk:Type inference

Question
This is a quote from the article The ability to infer types automatically makes many programming tasks easier, leaving the programmer free to omit type annotations while maintaining some level of type safety

Why does it say "SOME" and not "A COMPLETE LEVEL OF SAFETY"? Are there downsides that someone would like to discuss? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.73.67.254 (talk) 18:16, 4 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Type inference protects against errors such as using a Double as a Char, but cannot usually detect the difference between runtime values of the same type. More advanced dependent type systems can embed more kinds of safety in the type system, such as static array index bounds checking, but these systems do not have complete type inference and may require annotations or even interactive theorem proving.  Of course getting more out of type systems and type inference is ongoing cutting-edge research, but there are also genuinely undecidable questions.  --Ørjan (talk) 07:02, 5 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I've just changed this, because I agree with the original unsigned comment. Generally speaking, if you've got a language with type inference, you'll get the same amount of type-safety as the underlying type system gives you. I think a more compelling argument in favor of the original wording would be if you wanted a type that was more specific than what would be inferred: e.g. if you wanted foo to be only int -> int instead of  'a->'a , you could view that as a decrease in type safety. EvanED (talk) 03:33, 6 April 2010 (UTC)

 * I've changed the last sentence of the opening paragraph for reasons suggested in earlier in this conversation: because type inference and type safety are effectively unrelated. The degree of type safety of a type system dictates the degree to which the language guarantees that a well-typed program cannot throw a run-time type error; type inference is a language feature that permits the programmer to omit type annotations while still providing type checking.  OCaml could require all static expressions be annotated with their types by the programmer, skipping type inference altogether, but it would still be just as strongly type-safe; type inference really just makes it easier to write OCaml code.  I think it's easy to conflate the two because type inference is most commonly found in statically typed languages with strong type safety guarantees; they'd probably be completely unusable without them.  But saying "...leaving the programmer free to omit type annotations while maintaining roughly the same amount of type safety as would be provided with explicit type annotations." suggests that type inference has an impact on type safety at all, which it doesn't.
 * Clegoues —Preceding undated comment added 03:29, 2 February 2011 (UTC).

 * But type annotations can add safety even to a language with mostly inferred types. In ghc Haskell it is often the case that you can get more refined type checking if you are willing to add some annotations for things that are unfeasible to infer completely.  A simple restriction such as Int -> Int is just the beginning of it, there are also such things as phantom types, polymorphic recursion, higher rank types... the Haskell people seem dedicated to finding out how to do as much checking statically as possible, while still keeping the resulting system mostly inferred.  In my understanding the extended Haskell type system is designed such that you often don't need type annotations when you use functions with advanced types, even if you need some to define them. --Ørjan (talk) 03:25, 3 February 2011 (UTC)

 * I see your point, but stand by my edit. While annotations can increase the precision of inferred types and thus cause the type checker to enforce stricter rules, they don't cause the language in and of itself to be any more or less type-safe.  Type safety/checking/type inference are always discussed interchangeably, so it's tricky to settle on firm definitions, but type safety in my mind is a function of the types of errors that can be prevented by the type system/checker for a programming language, not a feature of a particular program written in that language. Clegoues (talk) 04:49, 5 February 2011 (UTC)

 * There's some confusion here, but the edit stands also IMHO. The original statement argued that requiring all type annotations (by giving up type inference) can increase type safety, but that is confusing, especially in the introduction. That's because existing languages without any type inference do not support advanced typing features. The article might and should later discuss the tradeoff between complete type-inference (as in ML) and partial type-inference (as in Haskell with extensions or Scala).
 * A type system is safe wrt. a class of runtime errors if typechecking statically prevents those errors: e.g. a typechecker rejects 1 + "hello", but accepts head []. In this technical sense, a type annotation cannot increase type-safety: if you give type int -> int to the function foo x = x, it's not for type safety reasons - you can't introduce any error prevented by type-safety, and any other error was not statically prevented before. It could well be for abstraction reasons: you might want to change the function to e.g. foo x = x + 1. But that's not about safety. It's about choosing which are your interface, and hiding the fact that your current implementation of foo also works on strings.
 * Many Haskell extensions allow instead typing more programs: for instance, a program using polymorphic recursion might contain no runtime errors ever, but it will still be refused by a ML compiler. Haskell allows you to write this program and type it, but has to give up type inference. The alternative is to use a language without static type-checking (Lisp, Scheme, Python, Ruby...). If you want to use subtyping and type inference, some problems also arise, depending on the supported type of subtyping.
 * However, a programmer can prevent additional runtime/logical errors by relying on the type systems. For that, a different data representation might be needed, and it might require advanced type features. For instance, you might want a datatype which can only represent perfect trees, where all leaves have the same depth, because in your program other trees would be logically invalid. To do so you need so-called nested types, where you allow polymorphic recursion within a type:
 * data PTree a = PLeaf a | PNode (PTree (a,a))
 * But that's again about specifying your interfaces, not about type-safety in the technical sense. While type-safety is often used in a broader sense, that sense is not defined. Similarly, Pierce explained that there is no clear definition of e.g. strongly- or weakly-typed language. --Blaisorblade (talk) 12:16, 6 May 2011 (UTC)

Scope
Type inference is historically linked to funbctional language but I don't think it is limited to them.

 * Quite right. It's actually just part of lambda calculus, which isn't even mentioned here. That it happens to find good use in programming languages is nice, but not the most important thing. However, properly rewriting this article takes more time than I have available—sorry, Wikipedia. --131.155.69.144 12:21, 8 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * You make me sad. So be it.
 * But what I want to know is whether the adumbrated algorithm is also used in dynamic typing systems. --Maru (talk) Contribs 01:06, 14 November 2005 (UTC)
 * So-called 'dynamic typing systems' are not actually type systems per-se (in the classical theoretical sense), but are rather a method for 'tagging' (sometimes primitive) memory-resident data structures in such a way as to influence their runtime evaluation (e.g., execute nominally or throw an error if something 'bad' is done with the structure). Type inference and the unification algorithm are not used here.  There are some systems which propose to combine elements from static type system with these dynamic tagging approaches to achieve some sort of hybrid system though, and in those cases you may see some elements from static type inference arise. 70.36.29.121 08:23, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

 * And the statement that "Duck typing [is] an analogous concept in languages with dynamic or weak typing" grates on me like nails on a blackboard. It's just wrong on so many levels, including not being typing. However, I do appreciate the sentiment, and will try to write up something not so completely bogus that preserves it. cjs@cynic.net. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.36.35.145 (talk) 10:09, 6 September 2009 (UTC)  (Later:) No, I just took it out. One might be able to make the claim that something like Haskell's type classes combined with type inference can look, textually, like Ruby code using duck typing, but that's about as far as I would ever go; on any real semantic level, the two are very different things.

 * I've added a little more to the article and corrected the statement regarding type inference only being used in functional languages. However, there's a whole lot that needs to be fleshed out to make things clearer than they are now.  In particular, it would be good to explain more thoroughly the role type inference plays in programming languages by providing reference to the process of program compilation by describing the  process of creating an AST, annotating it through type inference, possibly performing type erasure, then converting to an IR for optimization, translation to the target platform, etc.  For now, I just mentioned all of that as "compiler," and although it's not technically incorrect, and it's easier to understand without all the additional information, it's not strictly the most accurate account. 70.36.29.121 12:16, 17 December 2005 (UTC)

External link
There's a thread in the archive of the Haskell mailing list with contributions by Philip Wadler and others explaining the history of the Hindley-Milner algorithm, but I'm not sure if this is important enough to be incorporated into the article as long as the article doesn't explain the algorithm itself. The tread also contains detailed references to the original publications of Curry, Feys, Hindley, Milner and Damas. --Tobias Bergemann 08:12, 2004 Nov 16 (UTC)

what has operator overloading to do with this?
Since there are no ad-hoc polymorphic subfunctions in the function definition, we can declare the function to be parametric polymorphic. I followed the links trying to understand this sentence but it didn't work. Could somebody explain it? --euyyn 22:52, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

 * It is simply wrong, as is the current example even with the comment removed, because the length definition given is ad hoc overloaded, as in Haskell, 0, 1 and + are all affiliated not with Int, but with the overloaded type class Num (which includes Ints, unbounded Integers, floats, and even complex numbers). The standard length definition in Haskell is given an explicit type annotation to avoid this overloading.  There is a genericLength function, but even that is explicitly restricted to a subclass, Integral, thus disallowing floating numbers.
 * If we wish to avoid the complication of ad-hoc overloading in the example, but still retain correct Haskell, I think we need to avoid using numerical expressions at all. I will try to use the map function instead.  An alternative might be to use a language without numerical overloading, such as Ocaml. --Ørjan 21:03, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Well, we have no Haskell lessons here in ULPGC.... I havent understood a word (nearly). --euyyn 17:24, 18 December 2006 (UTC)

 * That was sort of the point: The Haskell type system is quite advanced/complicated, so to get an example of type inference in it that is simple enough for the article, we need to be a bit careful and avoid the type classes. --Ørjan 01:26, 20 December 2006 (UTC)

80.7.195.184 Yes but computer Reals are not Real Reals, Real Reals would have Length INFINITY, the Reals are rational and what does that make the complex but imagined?

Could we call this Run Time Binding or Real Time Binding?

Also is it because atomics are not objects that we can type inference? i.e. An Object must be made of something, another object Or something which is part of an object (eg an atomic)

Something must be mass or else its energy? So 3 is energy, t=3 means t is an integer, but could become a simulated real, either way we don't mean t as in the letter between s & u, for that we would say t="t" or t='t'

so its syntax and how to chew it

too technical
Is it just me, does this article dive right into the deep end with technical jargon and mark-up? Perhaps at least some pointers to articles which might explain some of the notation as well as terminology would be in order...?

(P.S., isn't there a template to mark an article as too technical?) —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 71.70.210.188 (talk) 04:49, 11 December 2006 (UTC).

 * 27-Oct-2007: The article was expanded with a non-technical explanation (on 22-Feb-2007), showing a simple coding example. In October 2007, I expanded the example to also show what won't work for type inference. I think that is enough simplification, because the detailed technical issues are numerous and deserve more space in the article to encourage a full treatment of the subject. We must balance a novice view, against the right of technical readers to present and read full details.  I have removed tag "{ {technical}}" and suggested writing a more detailed analysis if the article still seems troublesome. -Wikid77 18:49, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

bad description
This article states that "Type inference is a feature present in some strongly statically typed programming languages." However, python implements type inference but is dynamically typed. The opening statement should be clarified that type inference is not only a feature of "strongly statically typed programming languages." mbecker 13:57, 23 August 2007 (UTC)

Python definitely does not implement any sort of type inferencing. Python is interpreted, not compiled. Type inferencing is something you do at compile time to assert all objects are correctly typed. Dynamically typed languages like Python only do runtime type checking, and thus, type errors can only be caught when executing the code. Tac-Tics 07:13, 9 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Nevertheless note that PyPy uses type inference for RPython source code which is a subset of the Python language. 77.8.158.253 (talk) 17:34, 20 April 2008 (UTC)

 * That would make RPython a statically typed language, would it not? IMHO, doing type inference (and therefore compile-time type annotation) is, by definition a feature only of statically typed programming languages (by the definition of "statically typed" that types are annotated at compile-time). I'd just drop the word "strongly", as it is irrelevant to the discussion and there is disagreement over what "strong" means. —EatMyShortz (talk) 16:35, 19 August 2008 (UTC)

 * RPython is exactly a statically-typed language, and is very restricted compared to Python: the restrictions are chosen to allow type inference, which would be impossible for full Python. However, the usage of an interpreter is totally irrelevant here. Python is compiled down to bytecode before execution, and it could be type-checked at that point, and then the bytecode is interpreted usually (or JITted with PyPy). OTOH Haskell, OcaML, Java, Scala feature type checking and they also have interpreters, which perform type checking, compile code down to bytecode, and then execute it. Haskell and OcaML also have fully-static compilers, but that's irrelevant here.
 * What is true is that pure interpreters (say for BASIC, or for the shell) read the source code line-by-line instead of parsing it, so a program could stop during execution for a syntax error. Maybe that's even true for Ruby/Perl, where the main implementation has no parser; but Python is definitely analyzed before execution. --Blaisorblade (talk) 12:34, 6 May 2011 (UTC)

 * I think what you're referring to is duck typing. — Fatal Error 07:22, 14 March 2009 (UTC)

c++ generic functions
is it possible to say that c++ implements static type inferencing for functions ? ie give given a templated method definition template< class T> void func( T &v) then depending on the use context (caller type of argument) an appropriate version of func will be inststantiated; what is it that distinguishses this sort of behavoir from ml or ocaml type infererncing. note i am not arguing for c++ inclusion as representative example in the article but am interested to know the distinction. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 213.56.155.247 (talk) 20:05, 5 July 2008 (UTC)
 * No, that isn't type inference, just polymorphism/specialization. Type inference is where you don't specify the type, yet there is a "correct" type for that variable, and type inference works it out for you. (eg. it must be a string here — no other type will fit, type inference might infer that). Whereas templates in C++ is where you don't specify the type, indicating that all types are allowed there (there is no "correct" type). When the caller passes a specific typed argument and the appropriate version of the function is instantiated, that is called specialization. So the two are actually very different concepts. Type inference is just about figuring out types that the programmer was too lazy to write themselves :) —EatMyShortz (talk) 16:39, 19 August 2008 (UTC)
 * I know that this was posted a really long time ago, but actually C++ templates have rather more to do with type inference than your comment here states. The whole argument-dependent lookup algorithm (or whatever it is called) really is a form of type inference. In fact, templates can and are used for exactly what you say -- "figuring out types that the programmer was too lazy to write themselves." For instance, the STL contains a make_pair function which takes two arguments of any type and returns a pair of those two values. However, this function is entirely redundant except in one respect, because the pair constructor itself performs the same task. The only reason it's provided is so that you don't have to explicitly specify the resulting type. EvanED (talk) 03:15, 6 April 2010 (UTC)

 * That isn't type inference, which determines the types of expressions from the operations used to compose them. There is currently no type inference in C++. -- 98.108.202.144 (talk) 07:15, 14 September 2010 (UTC)
 * I disagree. Type arguments are in fact inferred in C++ and Java, and at least for Java the specification talks about type inference - the definition of type inference you give describes in fact how type-checking determines 1+2 to have type Int. Yet, the allowed inference is severely limited, compared to what C++0x allows. System Fomega is a canonical example of lambda-calculus where type inference is impossible, and type arguments are allowed - and there not even the type arguments are inferred. --Blaisorblade (talk) 12:49, 6 May 2011 (UTC)

Milner independent of Hindley?
In 1978 Robin Milner, independently of Hindley's work, provided an equivalent algorithm I think this tells the truth, but not the whole truth.

From Milner "A Theory of Type Polymorphism in Programming" (1978): After doing this work we became aware of Hindley's method for deriving the "principal type scheme" (which is what we call a polymorphic type) for a term in combinatory logic. Hindley appears to have been the first to notice that the Unification Algorithm of Robinson is appropriate to this problem. Our work can be regarded as an extension of Hindley’s method to programming languages with local declarations, and as a semantic justification of the method. Looks like it was independent, but immediately acknowledged and Milner prefers to see his work as a "semantic justification" of Hindley's method. —EatMyShortz (talk) 16:44, 19 August 2008 (UTC)

Implicit Typing
I removed the mention of implicit typing, since afaik that is a more general term. ie, type inference is a kind of implicit typing, but we would say "dynamic" languages like python use implicit typing but not type inference. Does this sound right? If not, we should probably point the redirect at implicit typing somewhere else. And if so, latent typing has problems. ErikHaugen (talk) 22:38, 23 August 2010 (UTC)

 * You were definitely right to remove the mention of implicit typing in that context, because "implicit typing" is a property of programming languages, but "type inference" is the act of reconstructing type information – thus, though connected, those don't mean the same thing.
 * Regarding the definiton of "implicit typing": I think there's no agreement in the literature; for example, Luca Cardelli uses the term "typing" only for statically typed languages, whereas he calls dynamic languages like Python "dynamically checked" (link). – Adrian Willenbücher (talk) 06:39, 27 August 2010 (UTC)

List of languages with type inference
The opening paragraph contains a sentence starting with "Some languages that include type inference are [...]", followed by a list of languages with type inference. Please note the word "some" – this is not supposed to be an exhaustive list, and I think only the most important languages ("important" in relation to type inference) ought to actually be listed there. Someone keeps adding Vala to the list; I would like to know why Vala is important enough to be on this list? – Adrian Willenbücher (talk) 10:19, 31 August 2010 (UTC)

Article Quality (Algorithm W)
The body of the section on Algorithm W (Hindley–Milner type inference algorithm) purporting to outline it, presents only an unrelated type checking (not type inference!) algorithm. This would be acceptable, if the section would be continued to present the real one. But since the section is unfinished, it harms more but it helps. Algorithm W uses unification in a very different manner. Right now, the section misleads completely.

If no expert is available to summarize Algorithm W, the quality of the article could be improved by removing everything from this section but the introduction. The section itself should be kept, since Hindley-Milner is the type inference method for languages dealing with functions and expressions.

In a way, removing the body of the section would help much to re-balance the article. IMO, it would be better to devote a separate article to Algorithm W and only mention it here.

 * I'm probably sufficiently "expert" to give a crack at a reasonable Algorithm W explanation...I'm therefore working on a fairly comprehensive revision that I expect to finish within a couple of days. It's true that it's a bit long with a proper explanation of Algorithm W, but as the algorithm really is the type inference algorithm it's perhaps a bit redundant to separate the two.  Clegoues (talk) 04:42, 5 February 2011 (UTC)

As today, the problem has not been dealt with.Clegoues, who promised to help above, did not yet made any modification beside adding a reference to a greek Wikipedia page. To reiterate, the section titled "Hindley–Milner type inference algorithm" has nothing to do with Hindley-Milner's, but something unrelated, perhaps some introduction to System F (which does type-checking and is undecidable), is summarized. The author of the section got it all wrong, so it is misleading at best. Please see for more technical details. In particular, HM is so outstanding because it does not need any type-annotation at all, as wrongly added in the claimed summary: $$e \, ::= E \mid v \mid (\lambda v:\tau. e) \mid (e\, e)$$. There, in the abstraction "$$v:\tau$$" defines $$\tau$$ to be the type of the parameter $$x$$. Additionally, a point of HM is LET-polymorphism, which is also not present in the purported summary. Variations and extensions aside the expression in HM's is $$e ::= x \mid e_1 e_2 \mid \lambda x.e \mid \textbf{let}\, x = e_0\, \textbf{in}\, e_1\, \textbf{end}$$.
 * Principal type-schemes for functional programs.
 * A proof of correctness for the Hindley-Milner type inference algorithm
 * A Theory of Type Polymorphism in Programming

A proper summary could be shaped along the following lines The later would have to deal with recursive expressions and type functions.
 * syntax of types, schemes, expression, environment
 * type subsumption
 * free variables in types, schemes, environments
 * declarative rule system
 * syntax driven rule system
 * algorithm W
 * extensions

I agree it is neither simple to understand nor to summarize HM's, but presenting something very different is not helpful in any way. Since the matter is not dealt with since 2009, i suggest to remove the section in question. Instead a reference to a new HM's and/or Algorithm W page could be added leaving space to describe the particular method. If one wants to summarize HM's briefly, only the syntax could be described, stated that HM finds the most general type and that it extends easily for recursion and type functions. -- 87.174.224.10 (talk) 19:52, 31 July 2011 (UTC)

ANNOUNCE: New Article on "Hindley-Milner"
The new article on Hindley-Milner is now on-line. This should close the above mentioned issue.

Please let me know about related concerns or suggestions.

-- Cobalt pen (talk) 17:04, 10 September 2011 (UTC)

Definition and examples are wrong
I believe this article is almost entirely wrong.

Type inference is a system whereby the types of variables, expressions and functions are computed from their use. A restricted form of this, where types of expressions are calculated from their subterms, it called type deduction.

Technically, deduction is a simple recursive descent, S-attributed or bottom up calculation which ALL compilers with static type systems can do. For example in C++98

int x = 1;

the compiler can deduce the type x should have from the initialising expression, and check it is compatible with the declared type. In C++11 you can write:

auto x = 1;

Now you don't need to state the type of the variable, but the type calculation is the same. There is no type inference in either case. Here is type inference in Ocaml:

let f x = x + 1

The compiler infers x is of type int, because the function + has been applied to it. This is inference not deduction, because the type is calculated from the way the variable is used later. And here:

let f x = g x in f 1

the argument to f is taken to be int because f is applied to an int later, and thus the argument of g must also be int. Again, this is type inference.

As a result of the wrong definition in this article a lot of languages are claiming to have inferencing type systems, including Rust and Go, which cannot do type inference. As a general guide any language with overloading is unlikely to also have any kind of inference, since the two features are very hard to mix. [Actually C# has overloading and a limited kind of inference, and there are research papers which demonstrate systems with both features and discuss the restrictions which arise as a result]

I think I must add the interesting note that in fact C++ can do type inference, not quite the kind you'd expect. C++ can infer the type of function template type parameters from function arguments. This calculation requires unification, and is not S-attributed, so technically it qualifies as type inference (despite the fact the Standard actually describes this as deduction :)

Skaller (talk) 15:25, 29 May 2013 (UTC)

Contradiction in text
In Type inference: The opposite operation of type inference is called type erasure.

In Type erasure: The opposite of type erasure is called reification.

And yet there is no mention of reification in Type inference, or mentioning of type inferencing in Reification (computer science). --Voidvector (talk) 05:05, 24 November 2014 (UTC)

Visual Basic type inference
Visual Basic 6.0 supported defining variables with the type "Any". However, I'm not sure if this means that Visual Basic 6.0 supports type inference. Does anyone have any ideas? Lcaa9 (talk) 10:43, 31 January 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Type inference


text:
Worshipful Company of Wheelwrights

The Worshipful Company of Wheelwrights is one of the Livery Companies of the City of London, England. An organisation of Wheelwrights and Coachmakers petitioned for incorporation in 1630. The petition was granted forty years later, in 1670, when a Royal Charter was granted to the Wheelwrights. (The Coachmakers were separately incorporated in 1677.) The Wheelwrights' Company was granted the status of a Livery Company in 1763. Over the years, wheel making has largely changed from being hand-made by craftsmen to being made by machines. Whilst there are a number of working wheelwrights still practising the ancient craft, which the company actively supports through its apprenticeship scheme, the company is no longer a trade association for wheelwrights. Instead, it functions largely as a charitable body focusing on mobility.

The Wheelwrights' Company ranks sixty-eighth in the order of precedence for Livery Companies. Its motto is God Grant Unity.

title: Worshipful Company of Wheelwrights


text:
Worshipful Company of Coachmakers and Coach Harness Makers

The Worshipful Company of Coachmakers and Coach Harness Makers is one of the Livery Companies of the City of London. An organisation of Coachmakers and Wheelwrights petitioned for incorporation in 1630. The petition was granted almost fifty years later, in 1677, when a Royal Charter was granted to the Coachmakers. (The Wheelwrights were separately incorporated in 1670.) As coaches have been replaced by cars, the Coachmakers' and Coach Harness Makers' Company has lost its role as a body responsible for controlling the quality of coaches. Instead, it promotes the automobile industry, and also supports various charities.

The Coachmakers' and Coach Harness Makers' Company ranks seventy-second in the order of precedence for Livery Companies. Its motto is Surgit Post Nubila Phœbus, Latin for The Sun Rises After The Clouds.