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Implicature

In pragmatics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, an implicature is something the speaker suggests or implies with an utterance, even though it is not literally expressed. Implicatures can aid in communicating more efficiently than by explicitly saying everything we want to communicate. The philosopher H. P. Grice coined the term in 1975. Grice distinguished conversational implicatures, which arise because speakers are expected to respect general rules of conversation, and conventional ones, which are tied to certain words such as "but" or "therefore". Take for example the following exchange:

 * A (to passerby): I am out of gas.
 * B: There is a gas station 'round the corner.

Here, B does not say, but conversationally implicates, that the gas station is open, because otherwise his utterance would not be relevant in the context. Conversational implicatures are classically seen as contrasting with entailments: they are not necessary or logical consequences of what is said, but are defeasible (cancellable). So, B could continue without contradiction:

 * B: But unfortunately it's closed today.

An example of a conventional implicature is "Donovan is poor but happy", where the word "but" implicates a sense of contrast between being poor and being happy.

Later linguists introduced refined and different definitions of the term, leading to somewhat different ideas about which parts of the information conveyed by an utterance are actually implicatures and which are not.

Conversational implicature
Grice was primarily concerned with conversational implicatures. Like all implicatures, these are part of what is communicated. In other words, conclusions the addressee draws from an utterance although they were not actively conveyed by the communicator are never implicatures. According to Grice, conversational implicatures arise because communicating people are expected by their addressees to obey the maxims of conversation and the overarching cooperative principle, which basically states that people are expected to communicate in a cooperative, helpful way.

Standard implicatures
The simplest situation is where the addressee can draw conclusions from the assumption that the communicator obeys the maxims, as in the following examples. The symbol "+>" means "implicates".

 * Quality
 * It is raining. +> I believe, and have adequate evidence, that it is raining.

Moore's paradox, the observation that the sentence "It is raining, but I don't believe that it is raining" sounds contradictory although it is not from a strictly logical point of view, has been explained as a contradiction to this type of implicature. However, as implicatures can be cancelled (see below), this explanation is dubious.

A well-known class of quantity implicatures are the scalar implicatures. Prototypical examples include words specifying quantities such as "some", "few", or "many":
 * Quantity (i)
 * John ate some of the cookies. +> John didn't eat all of the cookies.

Here, the use of "some" semantically entails that more than one cookie was eaten. It does not entail, but implicates, that not every cookie was eaten, or at least that the speaker does not know whether any cookies are left. The reason for this implicature is that saying "some" when one could say "all" would be less than informative enough in most circumstances. The general idea is that the communicator is expected to make the strongest possible claim, implicating the negation of any stronger claim. Lists of expressions that give rise to scalar implicatures, sorted from strong to weak, are known as Horn scales:
 * ⟨all, many, some, few⟩
 * ⟨..., four, three, two, one⟩ (cardinal number terms)
 * ⟨always, often, sometimes⟩
 * ⟨and, or⟩
 * ⟨necessarily, possibly⟩
 * ⟨hot, warm⟩
 * etc.

Negation reverses these scales, as in this example:
 * She won't necessarily get the job. +> She will possibly get the job.

"Not possibly" is stronger than "not necessarily", and the implicature follows from the double negation "She will not [not possibly] get the job".

Here are some further implicatures that can be classified as scalar:
 * I slept on a boat yesterday. +> The boat was not mine.

This is a common construction where the indefinite article indicates that the referent is not closely associated with the speaker, because the stronger claim "I slept on my boat yesterday" is not made.

 * The flag is green. +> The flag is completely green.

If this is the strongest possible claim, it follows that the flag has no other features, because "The flag is green and some other colour" would be stronger. In other words, if it did contain other features, this utterance would not be informative enough.

The second quantity maxim seems to work in the opposite direction as the first; the communicator makes a weaker claim, from which a stronger one is implicated. Implicatures arising from this maxim enrich the information contained in the utterance:
 * Quantity (ii)
 * He drank a bottle of vodka and fell into a stupor. +> He drank a bottle of vodka and consequently fell into a stupor.
 * I lost a book yesterday. +> The book was mine.

There is extensive literature, but no consensus on the question which of the two quantity maxims is in operation in which circumstances; i.e. why "I lost a book yesterday" implicates that the book was the speaker's, while "I slept on a boat yesterday" usually implicates that the boat wasn't the speaker's.

 * Relation/relevance
 * That cake looks delicious. +> I would like a piece of that cake.

This statement taken by itself would be irrelevant in most situations, so the addressee concludes that the speaker had something more in mind.

The introductory example also belongs here:
 * A: I am out of gas.
 * B: There is a gas station 'round the corner. +> The gas station is open.

 * Manner (iv)
 * The cowboy jumped on his horse and rode into the sunset. +> The cowboy performed these two actions in this order.

Being orderly includes relating events in the order they occurred.

Clashes of maxims
Sometimes it is impossible to obey all maxims at once. Suppose that A and B are planning a holiday in France and A suggests they visit their old acquaintance Gérard:
 * A: Where does Gérard live?
 * B: Somewhere in the South of France. +> B does not know where exactly Gérard lives.

B's answer violates the first maxim of quantity as it does not contain sufficient information to plan their route. But if B does not know the exact location, she cannot obey this maxim and also the maxim of quality; hence the implicature.

Floutings
The maxims can also be blatantly disobeyed or flouted, giving rise to another kind of conversational implicature. This is possible because addressees will go to great lengths in saving their assumption that the communicator did in fact – perhaps on a deeper level – obey the maxims and the cooperative principle. Many figures of speech can be explained by this mechanism.

Saying something that is obviously false can produce irony, meiosis, hyperbole and metaphor:
 * Quality (i)
 * When she heard about the rumour, she exploded.

As it is improbable that she really exploded, and it is highly unlikely that the speaker wanted to lie or was simply mistaken, the addressee has to assume the utterance was meant to be metaphorical.

Utterances that are not informative on the surface include tautologies. They have no logical content and hence no entailments, but can still be used to convey information via implicatures:
 * Quantity (i)
 * War is war.

Damning with faint praise also works by flouting the first quantity maxim. Consider the following testimonial for a philosophy student:
 * Dear Sir, Mr. X's command of English is excellent, and his attendance at tutorials has been regular. Yours, etc.

The implicature here is that the student is no good, since the teacher has nothing better to say about him.

B's answer in the following exchange does not seem to be relevant, so A concludes that B wanted to convey something else:
 * Relation/relevance
 * A: Mrs Jenkins is an old windbag, don't you think?
 * B: Lovely weather for March, isn't it? +> Watch out, her nephew is standing right behind you! (or the like)

This utterance is much more long-winded than "Miss Singer sang an aria from Rigoletto" and therefore flouts the maxim "Be brief":
 * Manner (iii)
 * Miss Singer produced a series of sounds corresponding closely to the score of an aria from Rigoletto. +> What Miss Singer produced cannot really be described as an aria from Rigoletto.

Particularized versus generalized implicatures
Conversational implicatures that arise only in specific contexts are called particularized, while those that are not or only slightly context dependent are generalized. Many of the examples above rely on some context, making them particularized implicatures: thus, "War is war" can refer to different properties of war, or things expected to happen during war, depending on the situation in which it is uttered. Prototypical examples of generalized implicatures are the scalar implicatures. Particularized implicatures are by far the more common kind.

Properties
Grice attributed a number of properties to conversational implicatures:

They are defeasible (cancellable), meaning that the implicature may be cancelled by further information or context. Take the examples from above:
 * That cake looks delicious. +> I would like a piece of that cake.
 * versus: That cake looks delicious, but it looks too rich for me. (implicature defeated)

 * A: Did John eat some of the cookies?
 * B: He certainly did eat some of the cookies. In fact he ate them all.

They are usually non-detachable in the sense that they cannot be "detached" by rephrasing the utterance, as they are consequences of the meaning and not the wording. The obvious exception are implicatures following from the maxim of manner, which explicitly relies on the phrasing. Thus, the following utterances have the same implicature as above:
 * That fruit cake there looks appetizing.
 * The dessert you brought is really mouthwatering.

Conversational implicatures are calculable: they are supposed to be formally derivable from the literal meaning of the utterance in combination with the cooperative principle and the maxims, as well as contextual information and background knowledge.

They are non-conventional, that is, they are not part of the "conventional" (lexical and logical) meaning of a sentence.

Lastly, they can be context dependent, as mentioned above.

Opting out of the cooperative principle
The cooperative principle and the maxims of conversation are not mandatory. A communicator can choose not to be cooperative; she can opt out of the cooperative principle by giving appropriate clues such as saying "My lips are sealed", or for example during a cross-examination at court. In such situations, no conversational implicatures arise.

Modifications to Grice's maxims
Various modifications to Grice's maxims have been proposed by other linguists, the so-called neo-Griceans. Laurence Horn's approach keeps the maxims of quality and replaces the other maxims with just two principles: The Q-principle replaces the first quantity maxim ("make your contribution as informative as is required") and the first and second manner maxims ("avoid obscurity and ambiguity"), and is taken to serve the interests of the hearer, who wants as much information as possible. It thus gives rise to the classical scalar implicatures. The R-principle subsumes the second quantity maxim ("do not make your contribution more informative than is required"), the maxim of relation, and the remaining manner maxims ("be brief and orderly"), and serves the interests of the speaker, who wants to communicate with as little effort as possible. These two principles have opposite effects analogous to Grice's two maxims of quantity. To determine which of the two principles is used, Horn introduces the concept of division of pragmatic labor: unmarked (shorter, standard, more lexicalized) phrasings tend to R-implicate a standard meaning, and marked (more wordy, unusual, less lexicalized) phrasings tend to Q-implicate a nonstandard meaning:
 * Laurence Horn
 * The Q-principle: Make your contribution sufficient; say as much as you can (given the quality maxims and the R-principle).
 * The R-principle: Make your contribution necessary; say no more than you must (given the Q-principle).
 * She stopped the machine. +> She stopped the machine in the usual way. (R-implicature: a stronger, more specific claim is implicated)
 * She got the machine to stop. +> She did not stop the machine in the usual way. (Q-implicature: the stronger claim is negated, as with scalar implicatures)

Horn's account has been criticised for misrepresenting the speaker's and hearer's interests: realistically, the hearer does not want a lot of information but just the relevant information; and the speaker is more interested in being understood than in having little work to do. Furthermore, as in Grice's theory, there is often no explanation for when which of the two principles is used, i.e. why "I lost a book yesterday" has the Q-implicature, or scalar implicature, that the book was the speaker's, while "I slept on a boat yesterday" R-implicates that the boat wasn't the speaker's.

Stephen Levinson's approach is similar to Horn's. His Q-principle is basically the same, but its antagonist, the I-principle, only takes the place of the second quantity maxim. There is a separate M-principle more or less corresponding to the third and fourth manner maxims, as well as to Horn's division of pragmatic labor; but there is no replacement for the maxim of relation.
 * Stephen Levinson
 * The M-principle: Indicate abnormal, nonstereotypical situations by using marked expressions that contrast with those you would use to describe the corresponding normal, stereotypical situations.

Levinson subsequently developed a theory of generalized conversational implicature (GCI) based on the Q-principle. He argues that GCIs are distinct from particularized conversational implicatures in that they are inferred via a specialized set of principles and rules that are always in force, independent of the context. If a GCI does not arise in some specific situations, this is because it is blocked under certain circumstances according to Levinson.

Criticism
Apart from the mentioned problem with the two opposing quantity maxims, several issues with Grice's conversational implicatures have been raised:

While Grice described conversational implicatures as contrasting with entailments, there has since been dissent.
 * Do implicatures contrast with entailments?
 * A: Did you drive somewhere yesterday?
 * B: I drove to London.

Here, B implicates via the maxim of relation that he drove somewhere (as this is the fitting answer to A's question), but this information is also entailed by his answer.

At least some scalar and other quantity "implicatures" seem not to be implicatures at all but semantic enrichments of the utterance, what is variously described as an explicature or implic i ture in the literature. For example, Kent Bach argues that a sentence like "John ate some of the cookies" does not implicate "John didn't eat all of the cookies" because the latter is not a claim separate from the first; rather, the speaker just has a single meaning in mind, namely "John ate some [but not all] of the cookies". Likewise, Robyn Carston considers cases like "He drank a bottle of vodka and [consequently] fell into a stupor" explicatures; however, she considers the question of classical scalar implicatures ("some, few, many") to be unsettled.
 * Are quantity implicatures actually implicatures?

As experimental evidence shows, it is not necessary to evaluate the truth of an utterance's literal meaning in order to recognise a metaphor. An example of a metaphor that is also literally true is a chess player telling his opponent, in appropriate circumstances,
 * Can metaphors only arise when the first maxim of quality is flouted?
 * Your defence is an impregnable castle.

Apparent counterexamples to the maxim "be orderly" have been found, such as this:
 * Are events always related in order?
 * A: My wife wants me to remove our carpets. She is afraid she might trip and hurt herself, but I think she is just overanxious.
 * B: Well, I don't know. John broke his leg and he tripped over a doormat.

Carston observes that particularized and generalized conversational implicatures are not separate categories; rather, there is a continuum from implicatures that are highly dependent on a specific situation which is unlikely to happen twice, to ones that occur very frequently. In her view, the distinction has no theoretical value since all implicatures are derived from the same principles.
 * Are there particularized and generalized implicatures?

Take the above example about Gérard's place of residence. If B knows where Gérard lives, and A knows this, we also get an implicature, although a different one:
 * Can implicatures only arise when the communicator is cooperative?
 * A: Where does Gérard live?
 * B: Somewhere in the South of France. +> B does not want to say where exactly Gérard lives. +> B does not want to visit Gérard.

This contradicts Grice's notion that implicatures can only arise when the communicator observes the cooperative principle.

Implicature in relevance theory

In the framework known as relevance theory, implicature is defined as a counterpart to explicature. The explicatures of an utterance are the communicated assumptions that are developed from its logical form (intuitively, the literal meaning) by supplying additional information from context: by disambiguating ambiguous expressions, assigning referents to pronouns and other variables, and so on. All communicated assumptions that cannot be obtained in this way are implicatures. For example, if Peter says

 * Susan told me that her kiwis were too sour.

in the context that Susan participated in a fruit grower's contest, the hearer might arrive at the explicature

 * Susan told Peter that the kiwifruit she, Susan, grew were too sour for the judges at the fruit grower's contest.

Now assume that Peter and the hearer both have access to the contextual information that
 * Susan is ambitious. If she loses at something, she's pretty downcast.

and that Peter intended the hearer to activate this knowledge. Then this is an implicated premise. The hearer can now draw the contextual implications that
 * +> Susan needs to be cheered up.
 * +> Peter wants me to ring Susan and cheer her up.

If Peter intended the hearer to come to these implications, they are implicated conclusions. Implicated premises and conclusions are the two types of implicatures in the relevance theoretical sense.

There is no sharp cutoff between implicatures, which are part of the intentional meaning of an utterance, and unintended implications the addressee may draw. For example, there may be no consensus whether
 * ?+> Peter wants me to buy Susan some chocolate to cheer her up.

is an implicature of the above utterance. We say this assumption is only weakly implicated, while "Susan needs to be cheered up" is essential for the utterance to achieve relevance for the addressee and is therefore strongly implicated.

The principle of relevance
Both explicatures and implicatures follow from the communicative principle of relevance, which unlike Grice's cooperative principle is not optional, but is always in force whenever someone communicates – it is descriptive of, not prescriptive for, communicative acts. Consequently, implicatures can arise even if, or precisely because, the communicator is uncooperative. Relevance theory can therefore effortlessly account for the above example about Gérard: If B knows where Gérard lives, and "Somewhere in the South of France" is the most relevant answer compatible with B's preferences, it follows that B is unwilling to disclose his knowledge.

Distinction from explicatures
All pragmatically derived information, including parts of explicatures that are supplied from context, is calculable and defeasible. Therefore, different criteria are needed in relevance theory to identify implicatures.

Sperber and Wilson originally assumed that implicatures can be sufficiently defined as the communicated assumptions that are not developed from an utterance's logical form, as noted above. On this account, loose language use (saying "This steak is raw" to express that it is really undercooked) is a case of implicature, as are hyperbole and metaphor.

Carston has argued for a more formal approach, namely that an utterance's implicatures cannot entail any of its explicatures. If they did, the resulting redundancies would cause unnecessary effort on part of the addressee, which would run against the principle of relevance. An example of pragmatically derived information that has traditionally been seen as an implicature, but must be an explicature according to Carston's reasoning, has already been mentioned above: "He drank a bottle of vodka and fell into a stupor" → "He drank a bottle of vodka and consequently fell into a stupor". However, there has since been found at least one example of an implicature that does entail an explicature, showing that this test is not infallible:
 * A: Did Jim go to the party?
 * B: I don't know, but I can tell you that if anybody was there, Jim was there.
 * A: Somebody was there – this I know for sure. (I saw John going there.) +> Jim was there. (entails: Somebody was there.)

Another possible criterion is that explicatures, but not implicatures, can be embedded in negations, if clauses and other grammatical constructions. Thus, the sentences
 * Susan did not tell Peter that her kiwis were too sour.
 * If Susan has told Peter that her kiwis were too sour, she was just fishing for compliments.

are equivalent to
 * Susan did not tell Peter that the kiwifruit she, Susan, grew were too sour for the judges.
 * If Susan told Peter that the kiwifruit she, Susan, grew were too sour for the judges, she was just fishing for compliments.

respectively, showing the embedded clause to be an explicature. On the other hand, they are not equivalent to embeddings of the mentioned implicature:
 * *Susan does not need to be cheered up.
 * *If Susan needs to be cheered up, she is just fishing for compliments.

These embedding tests also show the vodka bottle example to be an explicature. However, there is still no generally accepted criterion to reliably distinguish explicatures and implicatures.

Poetic effects
Metaphors can be an efficient means to communicate a wide range of weak implicatures. For example,
 * Jane is my anchor in the storm.

can weakly implicate that Jane is reliable and stable in difficult circumstances, helpful in calming the speaker, and so on. Even if the speaker had no specific set of assumptions in mind, this information can give the addressee an idea of Jane's significance to the speaker's life.

Speaking generally, utterances convey poetic effects if they achieve all or most of their relevance through a range of weak implicatures. For example, the repetition in
 * My childhood days are gone, gone.

does not add to the utterance's explicature, prompting the addressee to search for implicatures. To do so, he has to activate contextual (background) information about childhood memories.

Irony is seen as an entirely different phenomenon in relevance theory; see Relevance theory for an explanation.

Criticism
Levinson sees relevance theory as too reductionist, as a single principle cannot account for the large variety of implicatures in his view. In particular, he argues that this theory cannot account for generalized implicatures because it is inherently a theory of context dependency. This argument is countered by Carston, as mentioned above. Also, Levinson asserts that relevance theory cannot explain how we arrive at implicated premises via creative processes.

The foundations of relevance theory have been criticised because relevance, in the technical sense it is used there, cannot be measured, so it is not possible to say what exactly is meant by "relevant enough" and "the most relevant".

Carston generally agrees with the relevance theoretic concept of implicature, but argues that Sperber and Wilson let implicatures do too much work. The mentioned embedding tests not only categorize utterances on the likes of the vodka bottle example as explicatures, but also loose use and metaphors:
 * If your steak is raw, you can send it back.
 * If Jane is your anchor in the storm, you should let her help you now.

She does not explain metaphors' wide range of effects with weak implicatures. Instead, she advocates the idea that the meaning of words and phrases can be adapted to fit specific contexts; in other words, new concepts that differ from the standard meaning can be constructed ad hoc during communication. In the above metaphor, the phrase "anchor in the storm" has many slightly different ad-hoc meanings, and no specific one is exclusively communicated. Carston also discusses the possibility that metaphors cannot be fully explained by communicated assumptions at all, be they explicatures or implicatures, but with other concepts such as evoking mental images, sensations and feelings.

Conventional implicature
Conventional implicatures, briefly introduced but never elaborated on by Grice, are independent of the cooperative principle and the four maxims. They are instead tied to the conventional meaning of certain particles and phrases such as "but, although, however, nevertheless, moreover, anyway, whereas, after all, even, yet, still, besides", verbs such as "deprive, spare", and possibly also to grammatical structures. (Such words and phrases are also said to trigger conventional implicatures. ) In addition, they are not defeasible, but have the force of entailments. An example:
 * Donovan is poor but happy.

This sentence is logically equivalent to – that is, it has the same truth conditions as – "Donovan is poor and happy". In addition, the word "but" implicates a sense of contrast. Taken together, the sentence means approximately "Surprisingly, Donovan is happy despite being poor".

The verbs "deprive" and "spare" also have the same truth conditions but different conventional implicatures. Compare:
 * I have deprived you of my lecture. +> Attending my lecture would have been desirable (for you).
 * I have spared you my lecture. +> Attending my lecture would not have been desirable (for you).

Non-restrictive supplements such as the following adjective phrase have been argued to be grammatical structures that produce conventional implicatures:
 * Yewberry jelly, toxic in the extreme, will give you an awful stomach ache.

The implicature here is that yewberry jelly is toxic in the extreme. Other such constructions are non-restrictive appositives, relative clauses and as-parentheticals:
 * Ravel, as a Frenchman, nevertheless wrote Spanish-style music.

Criticism
Because of the mentioned differences to conversational (and relevance theoretical) implicatures, it has been argued that "conventional implicatures" are not implicatures at all but rather secondary propositions or entailments of an utterance. Under this view, the sentence about Donovan would have the primary proposition "Donovan is poor and happy" and the secondary proposition "There is a contrast between poverty and happiness". The sentence about yewberry jelly contains the two propositions "Yewberry jelly will give you an awful stomachache" and "Yewberry jelly is toxic in the extreme".

Other analyses of "but" and similar words have been proposed. Rieber takes above sentence to mean "Donovan is poor and (I suggest this contrasts) happy" and calls it a tacit (i.e. silent, implied) performative. Blakemore claims that "but" does not convey a proposition, and does not work by encoding a concept at all, but by constraining the addressee's interpretation procedure. In our example, "but" indicates that "Donovan is happy" is relevant specifically as a denial of an expectation created by "Donovan is poor", and rules out the possibility that it is relevant in any other way. This expectation must be on the lines of "Poor people are unhappy". Blakemore's idea that not only concepts but also procedures can be encoded in language has been taken up by many other researchers.

General and cited references

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title: Implicature


text:
Cyanoramphus

Cyanoramphus is a genus of parakeets native to New Zealand and islands of the southern Pacific Ocean. The New Zealand species are often called kākāriki. They are small to medium-sized parakeets with long tails and predominantly green plumage. Most species are forest dwellers, although several of the subantarctic species live in open grassland. The genus formerly had a widely disjunct distribution: while most of the genus ranged from New Caledonia to Macquarie Island, two species were found in the Society Islands, 4,100 km away from the rest. Although the islands between these two areas have yielded many bird fossils, undescribed extinct Cyanoramphus have not yet been found on any of them.

Like many other species of birds, the Cyanoramphus parakeets have suffered from changes brought about by humans. The two species from the Society Islands, the black-fronted parakeet and the Society parakeet, are now extinct, as are the taxa from Lord Howe Island and Macquarie Island, and an undescribed Campbell Island form. One species, the Malherbe's parakeet (C. malherbi), is critically endangered, while most other species are endangered or vulnerable. Habitat loss and introduced species are considered responsible for the declines and extinctions.

The genus Cyanoramphus was introduced in 1854 by the French ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte. The genus name combines the Ancient Greek kuanos meaning "dark-blue" and rhamphos meaning "bill". The type species was designated by English zoologist George Robert Gray in 1855 as what is now the extinct black-fronted parakeet (Cyanoramphus zealandicus).

Species
There are 12 recognised species, of which 4 are extinct:
 * † Black-fronted parakeet (C. zealandicus) – Tahiti, French Polynesia
 * † Raiatea parakeet (C. ulietanus) – Raiatea, French Polynesia
 * New Caledonian parakeet (C. saisseti) – New Caledonia
 * Chatham parakeet (C. forbesi), formerly considered a subspecies of C. auriceps – Chatham Islands, New Zealand
 * Norfolk parakeet (C. cookii) – Norfolk Island, Australia
 * † Lord Howe parakeet (C. subflavescens) – Lord Howe Island, Australia
 * Antipodes parakeet (C. unicolor) – Antipodes Islands, New Zealand
 * Yellow-crowned parakeet (C. auriceps) – New Zealand
 * Malherbe's parakeet or orange-fronted parakeet (C. malherbi), formerly considered a subspecies of C. auriceps – New Zealand
 * Red-crowned parakeet (C. novaezelandiae) – New Zealand
 * Reischek's parakeet (C. hochstetteri), formerly considered a subspecies of C. novaezelandiae – Antipodes Islands, New Zealand
 * † Macquarie parakeet (C. erythrotis) – Macquarie Island, Australia

There are also subfossil remains from a yet undescribed extinct species from Campbell Island.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cyanoramphus


text:
Anything Goes

Anything Goes is a musical with music and lyrics by Cole Porter. The original book was a collaborative effort by Guy Bolton and P. G. Wodehouse, revised considerably by the team of Howard Lindsay and Russel Crouse. The story concerns madcap antics aboard an ocean liner bound from New York to London. Billy Crocker is a stowaway in love with heiress Hope Harcourt, who is engaged to Lord Evelyn Oakleigh. Nightclub singer Reno Sweeney and Public Enemy Number 13, "Moonface" Martin, aid Billy in his quest to win Hope. Songs introduced that later became pop and jazz standards are "Anything Goes", "You're the Top", "All Through the Night", and "I Get a Kick Out of You".

Since its 1934 debut at the Alvin Theatre (now known as the Neil Simon Theatre) on Broadway, the musical has been revived several times in the United States and Britain and has been filmed three times. The musical has long been a popular choice for school and community productions.

History
The original idea for a musical set on board an ocean liner came from producer Vinton Freedley, who was living on a boat, having left the US to avoid his creditors. He selected the writing team, P. G. Wodehouse and Guy Bolton, and the star, Ethel Merman. The first draft of the show was called Crazy Week, which became Hard to Get, and finally Anything Goes. The original plot involved a bomb threat, a shipwreck, and human trafficking on a desert island, but, just a few weeks before the show was due to open, a fire on board the passenger ship SS Morro Castle caused the deaths of 138 passengers and crew members. According to one version, Freedley judged that to proceed with a show on a similar subject would be in dubious taste, and he insisted on changes to the script. However, theatre historian Lee Davis maintains that Freedley wanted the script changed because it was "a hopeless mess". Bolton and Wodehouse were in England at the time and were thus no longer available, so Freedley turned to his director, Howard Lindsay, to write a new book. Lindsay recruited press agent Russel Crouse as his collaborator, beginning a lifelong writing partnership. The roles of Billy Crocker and Moonface Martin were written for the well-known comedy team William Gaxton and Victor Moore, and Gaxton's talent for assuming various disguises was featured in the libretto.

Plot summary
Four versions of the libretto of Anything Goes exist: the original 1934 libretto, the 1962 off-Broadway revival libretto, the 1987 revival libretto, and the 2011 revival libretto. The story has been revised, though all involve similar romantic complications aboard the SS American and feature the same major characters. The score has been altered, with some songs cut and others reassigned to different scenes and characters, and augmented with various Porter songs from other shows. The original 1934 version played as follows:

Act I
Billy Crocker, a young Wall Street broker, has fallen in love with a beautiful girl he met at a party and spent the evening in a taxi. His boss, Elisha J. Whitney, is preparing to make a business deal and is going to travel to London aboard the SS American. Evangelist turned nightclub singer Reno Sweeney will be traveling aboard the same ship. Billy sees Reno as a friend, but she obviously has feelings for him ("I Get a Kick Out of You"). Billy goes to the dock to say farewell to his boss and Reno ("Bon Voyage"), and glimpses the mysterious girl again. He learns that she is heiress Hope Harcourt and, escorted by her mother, Mrs. Harcourt, is on her way to England with her fiancé Lord Evelyn Oakleigh, a handsome but stuffy and hapless British nobleman. Billy stows away on the ship in hopes of winning Hope's heart. "Moonface" Martin, a second-rate gangster labeled "Public Enemy 13", and his girlfriend, Bonnie, have disguised themselves as a minister and a missionary and, innocently aided by Billy, board the ship under their assumed identities, stranding the ship's real chaplain back at the port. Moonface and Bonnie mistakenly leave behind their leader, "Snake Eyes" Johnson, Public Enemy 1.

To thank him, Bonnie and Moonface let Billy have Snake Eyes Johnson's passport and ticket without telling him to whom they belong. Billy cons Evelyn into leaving him alone with Hope, by convincing him he is very ill. When he goes to get some air, Billy and Hope meet again, and it turns out she has been unable to stop thinking about him as well ("All Through the Night"). Though Hope prefers Billy, she insists she must marry Evelyn, though she gives no reason. Unbeknownst to Billy, her family's company is in financial trouble and a marriage to Evelyn would promote a merger and save it. The ship's crew gets a cable from New York saying that Public Enemy 1 is on board. Moonface admits his true identity to Billy and he and Bonnie conspire to disguise Billy as a crew member since he is now presumed to be Snake Eyes Johnson.

A quartet of lovelorn sailors comfort themselves with the thought of romance when they reach shore ("There'll Always Be a Lady Fair"). On deck, Bonnie lures the sailors to her ("Where Are the Men?"), then steals the clothes of one of the men for Billy.

Hope discusses her impending marriage with Evelyn and discovers that he is not particularly pleased with the engagement either. Billy asks Reno to help separate Evelyn and Hope, and she agrees. Billy and Reno reaffirm their friendship, ("It's Friendship"). Reno tries to charm Evelyn, she succeeds, and he invites her for a drink in his cabin. She and Moon plot that Moon should burst into the cabin and discover Reno half-naked in Evelyn's arms, providing sufficient reason for breaking off the engagement. However, when Moon breaks into the room, machine gun in tow, he instead sees Reno fully dressed and Evelyn nearly undressed. Moon tries to invent some indecent explanation for the situation, but Evelyn insists that he would be quite pleased by any rumor depicting him as a passionate lover, especially if Hope heard it. Moon admits that the plot has failed.

The crew discover that Billy is not a sailor, and Moon and Reno create a new disguise for him from a stolen pair of trousers, a jacket taken from a drunken passenger, and hair cut from Mrs. Harcourt's Pomeranian and made into a beard. Reno tells Billy that Evelyn has kissed her, and she is sure she will be Lady Oakleigh soon, since love moves so quickly these days ("Anything Goes"). Mrs. Harcourt, recognizing her dog's hair, angrily pulls off Billy's beard and the crew and passengers realize he must be the wanted man. As Snake Eyes Johnson, Billy is an instant celebrity.

Act II
Billy is honored by both crew and passengers as "Public Enemy Number One". He tells the Captain that Moon (who is still disguised as a minister) is helping him reform from his wicked ways. Moon is asked to lead a revival in the ship's lounge. The passengers confess their sins to the "Reverend", and Lord Evelyn admits to a one-night stand with a young Chinese woman, Plum Blossom. Hope is not impressed with Billy's charade, and to please her, he confesses to everyone that he is not really Snake Eyes Johnson. Moon attempts to compensate by revealing that he is not a minister; he is Public Enemy Number Thirteen. The captain sends them both to the brig. Reno restores the mood of the Revival ("Blow, Gabriel Blow").

Moon tries to cheer Billy up ("Be Like the Bluebird"). Billy doubts he will ever see Hope again; he and Moon cannot leave their cell until they return to America. Their card-playing Chinese cellmates Ching and Ling, imprisoned for conning all the third class passengers out of their money, will be put ashore in England. Moon and Billy challenge them to a game of strip poker, win their clothes, and disguise themselves again.

Billy, Moon, and Reno show up at the Oakleigh estate in Chinese garb. Billy and Moon tell Oakleigh's uncle that they are the parents of "Plum Blossom" and threaten to publicize Evelyn's indiscretion if he does not marry her. Oakleigh offers to buy them off and Moon gleefully accepts the cash, much to Billy and Reno's chagrin.

Billy and Reno find Hope and Evelyn, who are both unhappy with the prospect of their matrimony. Hope declares that she desperately wants to marry Billy ("The Gypsy in Me"). Billy spots Whitney and finally learns that Evelyn and Hope's planned marriage is really an awkward business merger. Billy realises that Oakleigh is manipulating them all; Hope's company is really worth millions and Billy informs Whitney of that fact. Whitney offers to buy the firm from Hope at an exorbitant price, and she accepts. The marriage is called off since a merger is now impossible. Billy and Hope get married, as do Reno and Evelyn. A cable from the U.S. government fixes Billy's passport problems and declares Moon "harmless". Moon indignantly pockets Oakleigh's check and refuses to return it.

Current Version
The 1987 show, which was revived with only minor changes in 2011, has emerged as the most consistently produced version of the musical. Its plot goes as follows.

Act I
Young Wall Street broker Billy Crocker helps his boss Elisha J. Whitney prepare for his trip to London. Eli tells Billy the next morning he's to make a huge sale of a sinking asset. Billy then runs into his friend; evangelist turned night club singer Reno Sweeney who is leaving on the same ship to London. Reno tries to convince Billy to join her, but he refuses and she laments her unrequited love for him ("I Get A Kick Out Of You"). Billy then reveals to Reno he's fallen in love with someone else and she berates him, believing he led her on before sadly reaffirming her feelings for him after he leaves ("I Get A Kick Out Of You - Reprise").

The next morning the crew of the SS American prepare to set sail ("There's No Cure Like Travel") as Reno and the other passengers board. Amongst them is debutante Hope Harcourt, joined by her wealthy English fiancé Lord Evelyn Oakleigh and her mother Evangeline, the subject of Eli's infatuation who has set her daughter up to be married in order to solve their family's recent financial struggles. Billy comes aboard to give Eli his passport and spots Hope, the woman he loves. Upon hearing that she's to be wed, he stays on the ship in order to pursue her. Also sneaking on to the American is Public Enemy #13 Moonface Martin who's disguised as a priest. He's joined by Erma, the promiscuous girlfriend of Public Enemy #1 Snake Eyes Johnson, who is nowhere to be found. Billy inadvertently helps Moonface evade the FBI, who returns the favor by giving Billy Snake Eyes' ticket as the ship leaves the dock ("Bon Voyage").

Later that night, Billy bumps into an apologetic Reno who encourages him to go after his real love. When Billy starts to express insecurities about being with Hope, Reno builds up his confidence while playfully putting herself down, and he returns the favor ("You're The Top"). Billy then scares off a seasick Evelyn so he can court Hope away from him ("So Easy To Love"). Though she returns Billy's feeling, Hope insists on maintaining her duty and marrying Evelyn. Once alone though, she repeats his romantic words ("So Easy To Love - Reprise").

Eli drunkenly sings about his excitement for the trip, reminisces on his days in Yale, and unsuccessfully invites Evangeline to spend the night with him ("The Crew Song"). In the next room over, Moonface and Erma are visited by Billy, who hides when the ship's captain comes in and reveals that Billy is believed to be Snake Eyes Johnson. The next morning a quartet of sailors sing about the joy of seeing women as they come ashore ("There'll Always Be a Lady Fair") while Erma steals another seaman's clothes to disguise Billy from the crew and his boss. Reno then encounters her old friend Moonface, shortly after which Evelyn approaches her and reveals himself to be a huge fan. Evelyn invites Reno for tea in his room, which Moonface convinces her to accept so she can seduce Evelyn, which they'll use to blackmail him and break up his engagement. Reno agrees to his plan and they sing about what great friends they are, only to descend into bickering ("Friendship").

The attempted extortion proves to be a failure, with Reno and Evelyn instead finding themselves utterly charmed by each other. Billy and Moonface then try to frame Evelyn as a mad man to Evangeline only for Hope to step in and expose Billy's identity. The crew pursues him while Reno reprimands Hope for ignoring her own happiness and chasing away the man she loves. Hope breaks into tears before Billy returns to serenade her, with her now reciprocating ("It's Delovely"). However, the next morning Hope struggles to tell her mother of her real love and shortly afterwards Billy is apprehended by the crew. The captain then releases Billy to satisfy the celebrity crazed passengers, and he basks in the fame of being a gangster whilst Moonface blows his cover to do the same. An upset Hope walks away whilst an onlooking Reno leads the ship in a tap dance and remarks that nowadays, "Anything Goes".

Act II
The whole ship has gathered to honor Billy as "Public Enemy Number One". After unsuccessfully trying to get him and Hope back together, Reno begins her performance for that night. She starts out with a sermon asking passengers to confess their sins. In his confession, Evelyn tells everyone of the time he had casual sex with a Chinese woman named Plum Blossom. Reno then performs a lively gospel number with everyone else joining in ("Blow Gabriel Blow") at which point she declares "they've seen the light". The passengers then convince Billy to make a confession and he reveals that he's not Snake Eyes Johnson and apologizes to Hope. Moonface tries and fails to defend him, and both are thrown in the brig. Reacting to this development, Evangeline moves the wedding up to the next morning on the ship and a heartbroken Hope realizes her chance at true love is over ("Goodbye Little Dream, Goodbye").

In the brig, Moonface attempts to cheer up a depressed Billy by telling him to "Be Like The Bluebird". Erma visits them to deliver a letter from Hope where she confesses her feelings for Billy, at which point they both on separate parts of the ship express their love ("All Through The Night"). Reno then meets Evelyn on the deck where he admits that he doesn't love Hope and hints that he's fallen for her instead. Despite this, his sense of honor and family code causes him to not break off the engagement. Reno then notes that his one night stand in China contradicts this. At her prodding, Evelyn reveals his Romani ancestry and the wild side he'd previously tried to keep hidden. He shows his true feelings for her, she requites them, and they have a passionate tango dance ("Gypsy In Me").

Two Chinese passengers are thrown into the brig with Billy and Moonface for gambling. Reno then comes to tell her friends that she and Evelyn have fallen in love with each other. Knowing that the Chinese passengers will be let out in an hour, the three then steal their clothes to get Billy and Moonface out in time to stop the wedding. On the deck, Erma is proposed to by all the sailors she's slept with during the cruise. She warns them if they start a relationship, she won't be easily pleased ("Buddy Beware").

The wedding starts but is interrupted when Reno, Billy, and Moonface run in wearing Chinese garb. They claim that Reno is Plum Blossom, who is actually a Chinese princess that Evelyn dishonored when he slept with her. The ruse is almost ruined when Moonface accepts Eli's bribe to leave, but Hope intervenes by saying the only way for Evelyn to right his wrong is if he offers her to Plum Blossom's relative. Evelyn goes along with this, giving Hope away to Billy, and then proposing to Reno who accepts as she unmasks herself. Evangeline is distraught over the idea of becoming poor, but Eli proposes to her, bragging that his recent Wall Street sale has made him rich. Their mutual delight is cut short when Billy unveils his identity and informs his boss that he never made the sale. Evangeline prepares to leave Eli immediately but before she can do so, a wire comes in saying that the stock that wasn't sold has gone through the roof making him even richer than he imagined. All three couples now together sing to each other as they're married and the whole ship celebrates ("Finale").

Characters

 * Reno Sweeney — a sultry evangelist turned nightclub singer and an old friend of Billy
 * Billy Crocker — a young Wall Street broker in love with Hope
 * Moonface Martin — a second-rate gangster, "Public Enemy Number 13"
 * Hope Harcourt — an American debutante
 * Lord Evelyn Oakleigh — Hope's wealthy and eccentric English fiancé
 * Bonnie/Erma — Moonface's girlfriend (1934 original), Snake Eyes' girlfriend and Moonface's friend (2011 revival)
 * Elisha J. Whitney — an Ivy League Wall Street banker, Billy's boss
 * Mrs. Evangeline Harcourt — Hope's haughty and overbearing mother
 * Captain, steward, purser on the ship
 * Ching and Ling ("Luke" and "John" in the 1987 revival and 2002 concert) — two Chinese "converts" and reformed gamblers who accompany Bishop Henry T. Dobson
 * Ritz Quartette (1934 original) / Lady Fair Quartet (1987 revival)
 * The Right Reverend Bishop Henry T. Dobson
 * Reno's Angels (Purity, Chastity, Charity and Virtue) (1934 original and 1962 revival / 2002 concert and 2011 revival) — Reno's backing singers
 * Ship's crew, passengers, reporters, photographers and F.B.I. agents

Notable casts
Notes

Act I

 * "Overture" – Orchestra
 * "I Get a Kick Out of You" (follows "Friendship" in 1962) – Reno Sweeney
 * "There's No Cure Like Travel (reinstated for 1987, 2011) / Bon Voyage" – Sailor, Girl and Ship's Crew and Company
 * "All Through the Night" (follows "Blow, Gabriel, Blow" in 1962 and "Be Like The Bluebird" in 1987, 2011) – Billy Crocker, Hope Harcourt and Men
 * "It's De-Lovely" (added in 1962, follows "Friendship" in 1987, 2011) – Billy Crocker and Hope Harcourt
 * "Easy to Love" (reinstated for 1987, 2011) – Billy Crocker
 * "Easy to Love (Reprise)" (added in 1987, 2011) - Hope Harcourt
 * "I Want to Row on the Crew (The Crew Song)" (added in 1987, 2011) – Elisha J. Whitney
 * "Sailor's Shanty (There'll Always Be A Lady Fair)" (cut in 1962, precedes "Friendship" in 1987, 2011) – The Foursome
 * "Where Are the Men?" (only in 1934) – Bonnie and Girls
 * "Heaven Hop" (only in 1962) - Bonnie and Girls
 * "You're the Top" (precedes "Bon Voyage" in 1962 while following it in 1987, 2011) – Reno Sweeney and Billy Crocker
 * "Sailor's Shanty (Reprise)" (only in 1934) - The Foursome
 * "Friendship" (added in 1962, no Billy in 1987, 2011) – Reno Sweeney, Moonface Martin, and Billy Crocker
 * "Anything Goes" – Reno Sweeney, the Foursome and Company
 * "You're the Top (Reprise)" (only in 1934) - Reno Sweeney, Moonface Martin, and Billy Crocker

Act II

 * "Entr'acte" – Orchestra
 * "Public Enemy Number One" – Captain, Purser, Company
 * "Let's Step Out" (only in 1962) – Bonnie and Company
 * "Let's Misbehave" (only in 1962) – Reno Sweeney and Lord Evelyn Oakleigh
 * "Blow, Gabriel, Blow" – Reno Sweeney and Company
 * "Goodbye, Little Dream, Goodbye" (added in 1987, 2011) – Hope Harcourt
 * "Be Like the Bluebird" – Moonface Martin
 * "All Through the Night (Reprise)" (cut in 1987, 2011) – Billy Crocker and Hope Harcourt
 * "I Get a Kick Out of You (Reprise)" (only in 1934) - Reno Sweeney
 * "The Gypsy in Me" (cut in 1962, sung by Lord Evelyn Oakleigh in 1987, 2011) – Hope Harcourt and Girls
 * "Take Me Back to Manhattan" (only in 1962) – Reno Sweeney and Angels
 * "Buddie, Beware" (reinstated for 1987, 2011) – Erma Latour and Sailors
 * "Finale (You're the Top / Anything Goes)" ("You're the Top" replaced by "I Get a Kick Out of You" in 1987 and "It's De-Lovely" in 2011) – Reno Sweeney and Ensemble

 * This chart shows all songs that were performed; placement of the songs varied. Source: Internet Broadway Database listing

Cut songs
 * "Waltz Down the Aisle" [dropped before the Boston tryout, later reworked by Porter as "Wunderbar" for Kiss Me, Kate] - Sir Evelyn and Hope Harcourt
 * "What a Joy to Be Young" [dropped before the New York opening; alternate title: "To Be in Love and Young"] - Hope Harcourt
 * "Kate the Great" [unused] - Reno Sweeney and Angels

Broadway
The official Broadway debut was at the Alvin Theatre on November 21, 1934. It ran for 420 performances, becoming the fourth longest-running musical of the 1930s, despite the impact of the Great Depression on Broadway patrons' disposable income. The opening production was directed by Howard Lindsay with choreography by Robert Alton and sets by Donald Oenslager. Today, the show remains a frequently-revived favorite.

West End
Charles B. Cochran, a British theatrical manager, had bought the London performance rights during the show's Boston run, and he produced it at the West End's Palace Theatre. The musical opened on June 14, 1935, and ran for 261 performances. The cast included Jeanne Aubert as Reno Sweeney (the name changed to Reno La Grange, to suit Aubert's French background), Jack Whiting as Billy Crocker, and Sydney Howard as Moonface Martin. P. G. Wodehouse was engaged to replace the specifically American references in the book and lyrics with references more appropriate to an English audience.

1962 Off-Broadway revival to 1987 Broadway revival
The production was revived in an Off-Broadway production in 1962, opening on May 15, 1962, at the Orpheum Theatre. It was directed by Lawrence Kasha with a cast that included Hal Linden as Billy Crocker, Kenneth Mars as Sir Evelyn, and Eileen Rodgers as Reno Sweeney. For this revival, the script was revised to incorporate several of the changes from the movie versions. Most changes revolved around the previously minor character Bonnie. This revision was also the first stage version of Anything Goes to incorporate several songs from other Porter shows: "Take Me Back to Manhattan" from The New Yorkers, 1930, "It's De-Lovely" from Red, Hot and Blue, 1934, "Friendship" from Du Barry Was a Lady, 1939, and "Let's Misbehave" from Paris, 1928.

For the 1987 Broadway revival, John Weidman and Timothy Crouse (Russel's son) updated the book and re-ordered the musical numbers, using Cole Porter songs from other Porter shows, a practice which the composer often engaged in. This revival was rescored for a 16-piece swing band playing on stage, in the style of early Benny Goodman. This production opened at the Vivian Beaumont Theater, in Lincoln Center, on October 19, 1987, and ran for 784 performances. Directed by Jerry Zaks and choreographed by Michael Smuin, it starred Patti LuPone as Reno Sweeney, Howard McGillin as Billy, Bill McCutcheon as Moonface, and Anthony Heald as Lord Evelyn; Leslie Uggams and Linda Hart were replacement Renos. It was nominated for ten Tony Awards (including nominations for McGillin, LuPone, McCutcheon, and Heald), winning for Best Revival of a Musical, Best Featured Actor (McCutcheon), and Best Choreography. The production also won the Drama Desk Awards for Outstanding Revival of a Musical and Outstanding Actress (for LuPone).

1989 West End revival and Australia
Elaine Paige, a British actress and singer, heard of the success of the 1987 Broadway production and made sure to attend a performance. After seeing the production herself, she was determined to bring it to London. To secure a place in the show's cast, Paige decided it was best she co-produced the show with her then-partner, lyricist Tim Rice. The London production opened in July 1989 at the Prince Edward Theatre. Paige starred as Reno Sweeney (she was replaced later in the run by Louise Gold). The original cast also starred Howard McGillin as Billy Crocker (who was replaced later in the show's run by John Barrowman), Bernard Cribbins as Moonface, and Kathryn Evans as Erma. The other principals included Ursula Smith, Martin Turner, and Ashleigh Sendin.

Jerry Zaks again directed the production, with scenic and costume design by Tony Walton, lighting by Paul Gallo, and sound by Tony Meola. The musical director was John Owen Edwards and the choreographer Michael Smuin.

The show transferred to Australia the same year and played in both Sydney and Melbourne, starring Geraldine Turner as Reno Sweeney, Peter Whitford as Moonface, Simon Burke as Billy Crocker, Marina Prior as Hope Harcourt, and Maggie Kirkpatrick as Evangeline Harcourt.

2002–2003 Concert, London, and West End revivals
In April 2002, a one-night-only concert performance of the show was performed at the Vivian Beaumont Theater. Patti LuPone played Reno with Howard McGillin as Billy and Boyd Gaines as Lord Evelyn Oakleigh. LuPone and Gaines would later star together in the 2008 Broadway revival of Gypsy. The performance was directed and choreographed by Robert Longbottom with music supervision by David Chase and designs by Tony Walton.

The National Theatre revived the musical, which opened at the Olivier Theatre on December 18, 2002, and closed on March 22, 2003. The production then transferred to the West End at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, running from September 26, 2003 (in previews), through August 28, 2004. Directed by Trevor Nunn, it starred Sally Ann Triplett, John Barrowman, and Yao Chin (who is now a TV reporter). A cast recording of this production is available.

2011 Broadway revival
A revival of the 1987 Broadway rewrite opened on April 7, 2011, at the Stephen Sondheim Theatre, produced by the Roundabout Theatre Company. Previews began on March 10, 2011. This production was directed and choreographed by Kathleen Marshall with musical supervision by Rob Fisher, dance arrangements by David Chase, and designs by Derek McLane, Martin Pakledinaz, and Peter Kaczorowski. This revival retained much of the 1987 orchestrations by Michael Gibson with some additions from arranger Bill Elliott.

The show's opening night cast featured Sutton Foster as Reno Sweeney, Joel Grey as Moonface Martin, Laura Osnes as Hope Harcourt, Jessica Walter as Evangeline Harcourt, Colin Donnell as Billy Crocker, Adam Godley as Sir Evelyn Oakleigh, John McMartin as Elisha Whitney, Jessica Stone as Erma, Robert Creighton as Purser, Andrew Cao as Luke, Raymond J. Lee as John, and Walter Charles as the Captain. The production was received generally very well by the critics and received a total of nine Tony Award nominations and ten Drama Desk Award nominations, including Best Actress in a Musical, Best Director of a Musical, and Best Revival of a Musical. The revival won the Drama Desk Awards and Tony Awards for Best Revival and Best Choreography, and Foster won the Drama Desk and Tony Awards for Best Actress in a Musical.

A cast recording of this production became available as a digital download on August 23, 2011, and it arrived in stores on September 20, 2011.

Stephanie J. Block took over for Sutton Foster as Reno Sweeney in a limited engagement (November 4–23, 2011) while Foster filmed a television pilot. Block permanently assumed the role on March 15, 2012, as Foster left the musical to take a role in a television series.

The production was originally scheduled to run through July 31, 2011, and was initially extended to April 29, 2012. It was extended two more times before closing on July 8, 2012, after 521 regular performances and 32 previews.

2012 U.S. national tour
A national tour in the United States began in October 2012 at the Playhouse Square in Cleveland, Ohio, which was played more than 25 other major cities. Rachel York played Reno Sweeney. Other cast-members included Fred Applegate as Moonface Martin, Erich Bergen as Billy Crocker, Jeff Brooks as Purser, Joyce Chittick as Erma, Alex Finke as Hope Harcourt, Dennis Kelly as Elisha Whitney, Vincent Rodriguez III as Luke, Marcus Shane as John, Sandra Shipley as Mrs. Evangeline Harcourt, Edward Staudenmayer as Sir Evelyn Oakleigh, and Chuck Wagner as the Captain.

2015 U.K. tour
The critically acclaimed Sheffield Theatres production directed by Daniel Evans began a UK and Ireland tour at the New Wimbledon Theatre on January 29, 2015, and was scheduled to visit 32 venues in its nine-month run. The production starred Debbie Kurup as Reno Sweeney and Matt Rawle as Billy Crocker with Hugh Sachs as Moonface Martin and Jane Wymark as Evangeline Harcourt until April 4, 2015, followed by Shaun Williamson and Kate Anthony, respectively, from April 6, 2015. The tour was cut short and ended at the Grand Opera House, Belfast on May 30, 2015.

2015 Australian revival
An Australian revival was announced in September 2014 with the cast led by Caroline O'Connor as Reno Sweeney and featuring Todd McKenney, Alex Rathgeber, Claire Lyon, Wayne Scott Kermond, and Alan Jones. Jones was replaced in the role of the Captain by Gerry Connolly in Melbourne and Brisbane. The revival, directed by Dean Bryant, played in Melbourne, Brisbane, and Sydney, sequentially, running from June until November.

2021 London revival and tour
A revival directed and choreographed by Kathleen Marshall, based on the 2011 Broadway production, opened for a limited season at the Barbican Theatre in London on August 4, 2021. The production repurposed the previous Broadway set designs by Derek McLane, sound design by Simon Baker, lighting design by Neil Austin and musical direction/supervision by Stephen Ridley. Previews began on July 23 and, following two extensions, the show closed on November 6, 2021.

Originally set to star Megan Mullally until she withdrew due to injury, Sutton Foster took over as Reno Sweeney in her London theatre debut. It also starred Robert Lindsay as Moonface Martin, Gary Wilmot as Eli Whitney and Felicity Kendal as Mrs. Harcourt. Foster and Kendal departed the production in October, and were replaced by Rachel York and Haydn Gwynne, respectively. The production received rave critical reviews, broke box office records at the Barbican, and received 9 Olivier Award nominations including Best Musical Revival the following year. During its run, the show was recorded for cinema distribution. This version was eventually shown on the Great Performances US television series on May 13, 2022.

After concluding its run at the Barbican, a UK and Ireland tour from April 2022 and a limited return to the Barbican from July 2022 were announced. The new cast featured Kerry Ellis as Reno Sweeney, Denis Lawson as Moonface Martin, Simon Callow as Eli Whitney, and Bonnie Langford as Mrs. Harcourt. Nicole-Lily Baisden, Samuel Edwards, Carly Mercedes Dyer and Hadyn Oakley reprised their performances from the London run.

Regional revivals
A high-profile co-production between Gateway Playhouse (Bellport, New York) and Ogunquit Playhouse starred Andrea McArdle as Reno Sweeney and Sally Struthers as Mrs. Harcourt. The production, which ran in May to June 4, 2016, featured the Derek McLane sets and Martin Pakledinaz costumes that were created for the 2011 Broadway revival, which was produced by the Roundabout Theatre Company. The production was directed by Jayme McDaniel and choreographed by Jason Wise.

In August 2024, there is set to be a revival at The Muny. It's set to star Jeanna de Waal as Reno, Jay Armstrong Johnson as Billy, Kevin Chamberlin as Martin, George Abud as Lord Evelyn, Kimberly Immanuel as Hope, Adrianna Hicks as Erma, Ann Harada as Evangeline, Lara Teeter as Elisha, and Eric Jordan Young as the Captain. Marcia Milgrom Dodge will direct with choreography by Jared Grimes.

Film versions
In 1936, Paramount Pictures turned Anything Goes into a movie musical. It starred Ethel Merman (the original Reno), with Bing Crosby in the role of Billy Crocker. Other cast members included Ida Lupino, Charles Ruggles, Arthur Treacher, and Grace Bradley. The director was Lewis Milestone. Among those contributing new songs were Hoagy Carmichael, Richard A. Whiting, Leo Robin, and Friedrich Hollaender.

The book was drastically rewritten for a second film version, also by Paramount, released in 1956. This movie again starred Crosby (whose character was renamed), and Donald O'Connor. The female leads were Zizi Jeanmaire and Mitzi Gaynor. The script departed significantly from the original story and was written by Sidney Sheldon. The lesser-known Porter songs were cut, and new songs, written by Jimmy Van Heusen and Sammy Cahn, were substituted.

A third version, directed by Ross MacGibbon	and Kathleen Marshall, filmed live on stage during a performance of the 2021 London revival, follows the 2011 Broadway revival. This version was eventually shown on US television on PBS' Great Performances on May 13, 2022.

Television version
In 1954, Ethel Merman, at the age of forty-six, reprised her role as Reno in a specially adapted live television version of the musical, co-starring Frank Sinatra as the hero, now renamed Harry Dane; Merman's good friend Bert Lahr (who had co-starred with her on Broadway in DuBarry Was a Lady) as Moonface Martin; and Sheree North. This version was broadcast live on February 28, 1954, as an episode of The Colgate Comedy Hour, and has been preserved on kinescope. It used five of the original songs plus several other Porter numbers and retained the shipboard setting, but it had a somewhat different plot. It has been reported that Merman and Sinatra did not get along well. This version was released on DVD in 2011.

Financial data
In 1934, the average ticket price for a Broadway performance was between $2.50 and $4.50 (averaging $3.30, ). Weekly gross data was not recorded, but certain figures help assess probable totals.

Opening performances were held from November 21, 1934, to September 28, 1935, at the Alvin Theater in New York City, containing 1,362 seats. The show was then relocated to the nearby 46th Street Theatre (known now as Richard Rodgers Theatre), which supports 1,380 seats. Performances at this new location ran from September 30, 1935, to November 16 during the same year. There were typically eight performances each week.

With this information, it can be concluded that, at 100% capacity, the gross revenue for all performances would total $1,351,152. If the capacity were at 80%, anticipated gross revenue would total $1,081,256 and at 40%, the total would be $540,628.

During the revival of the musical from 2011 to 2012, total revenue was $47,288,859 — slightly over 4% of Broadway's entire gross revenue over the same time period. The total number of attendees for Anything Goes was 515,954.

For contextual purposes, the average yearly salary for all returns in the United States was $3,125.42 in 1934 and $42,979.61 in 2011.

Recordings
There are many popular cast recordings of the show, including:
 * 1935 Original London cast
 * 1936 Studio cast
 * 1950 Studio recording with Mary Martin
 * 1953 Studio cast
 * 1954 Television cast
 * 1956 Film cast
 * 1962 Off Broadway revival cast Hal Linden
 * 1969 London revival cast Marion Montgomery
 * 1987 Broadway revival cast with Patti LuPone and Howard McGillin
 * 1988 Studio cast with Kim Criswell conducted by John McGlinn
 * 1989 Australian revival cast
 * 1989 London revival cast with Elaine Paige
 * 1995 Studio cast with Louise Gold
 * 2003 London revival cast
 * 2011 Broadway revival cast with Sutton Foster

In popular culture

 * For more information about the title song and references to it in popular culture, see Anything Goes (Cole Porter song)

 * Title song was used for PBS' American Experience documentary of President Franklin D. Roosevelt because of the last verse of the song.
 * In the 1972 film What's Up, Doc?, the song "You're the Top" is sung for the opening and closing credits by Barbra Streisand. Ryan O'Neal joins her for the closing credits, and this marks his only on-screen singing in a movie. The movie uses at least two other tunes from this musical as background music: "Anything Goes" and "I Get a Kick Out of You" are heard during the first hotel-lobby scene.
 * In the 1974 Mel Brooks film Blazing Saddles, "I Get a Kick Out of You" is performed in a comedic manner by Cleavon Little and the other actors portraying black railroad workers, complete with a full harmony arrangement.
 * "You're The Top" was used in the film Evil Under the Sun, performed by Diana Rigg.
 * In the 1984 Steven Spielberg film Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, Kate Capshaw performs the title song in Mandarin. The tune appears again later in the scene.
 * In the Family Guy episode "Saving Private Brian", the Sergeant trainer claims Anything Goes to be one of his most favorite shows. Also, in "Brian: Portrait of a Dog", Lois wants to sing showtunes in the car. She begins to sing "Anything Goes".
 * In an episode of Summer Heights High, Mr G cancels a production of Anything Goes one week before opening.
 * In the play Dancing at Lughnasa by Irish playwright Brian Friel, the song "Anything Goes" is played on the radio and sung by Gerry Evans to Aggie and Chris. The song basically sums up the entire concept of the play: times changing and people changing with them.
 * In an episode of Gilmore Girls, "You're the Top" is sung with slight lyrical changes.
 * The song "Anything Goes" is played on Galaxy News Radio, a fictional radio station, in the post-apocalyptic video game Fallout 3, as well as the next installment, Fallout 4.
 * During the latter half of BioShock, "You're The Top" can be heard playing from a Rapture radio.
 * John Barrowman, who starred as Billy Crocker in 1989, 2002, and 2003, titled his 2008 autobiography Anything Goes.
 * In an episode of Married... with Children called "Can't Dance, Don't Ask Me", Steve teaches Kelly to tap dance to "Anything Goes".
 * In the Mission: Impossible episode "The Fortune" (from the 1988 revival series), the movie was the favorite film of Luis Barazon—one of the targets. Further, the segment of the movie where the title song is performed is "the part he likes the best". Also, the phrase "Anything Goes" was the second level password needed to access Barazon's financial records so that the money the Barazons stole from their country's treasury could be returned.
 * "Anything Goes" was used in a mash-up with "Anything You Can Do" (from Annie Get Your Gun) in the third-season premiere of the Fox musical television series Glee.
 * Anything Went was a parody of Anything Goes, partly shown on Mathnet, the rest being left to the viewer's imagination. This episode featured veteran Broadway performer Tammy Grimes portraying fictional hammy veteran Broadway performer Lauren Bacchanal.
 * In an episode of The Dick Van Dyke Show, Richie sings "You're the Top", replacing the words "Mona Lisa" with "Mommy Lisa".
 * A cover of the title song was released as a duet by Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga in July 2014.
 * In the film Passed Away, the minister sings "You're the Top".
 * In the 1999 romantic comedy Trick, drag performer Coco Peru references the song "Blow, Gabriel, Blow".
 * In 2017, the title song was used in a Toyota RAV4 commercial.
 * In The Man in the High Castle episode "Hitler Has Only Got One Ball", Okami listens to "Anything Goes" on a record player.
 * In Disney's Sing Along Songs Volume 11: Friend Like Me, Wayne Allwine, Bill Farmer, and Tony Anselmo (the voices of Mickey, Goofy, and Donald, respectively) perform the song "Friendship."

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Philipp Lenard

Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard (Lénárd Fülöp Eduárd Antal; 7 June 1862 – 20 May 1947) was a Hungarian-born German physicist and the winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1905 for his work on cathode rays and the discovery of many of their properties. One of his most important contributions was the experimental realization of the photoelectric effect. He discovered that the energy (speed) of the electrons ejected from a cathode depends only on the frequency, and not the intensity, of the incident light.

Lenard was a nationalist and anti-Semite; as an active proponent of the Nazi ideology, he supported Adolf Hitler in the 1920s and was an important role model for the "Deutsche Physik" movement during the Nazi period. Notably, he labeled Albert Einstein's contributions to science as Jewish physics.

Early life and work
Philipp Lenard was born in Pressburg (Pozsony, today's Bratislava), on 7 June 1862 in the Kingdom of Hungary. The Lenard family had originally come from Tyrol in the 17th century, while his mother's family originated from Baden, the parents were German-speaking. His father, Philipp von Lenard (1812–1896), was a wine-merchant in Pressburg. His mother was Antonie Baumann (1831–1865). Among his mostly Germanic ancestors he also had Magyar ones. The young Lenard studied at the Pozsonyi Királyi Katolikus Főgymnasium (today Gamča), and as he records in his autobiography, this made a big impression on him (especially the personality of his teacher, Virgil Klatt). In 1880, he studied physics and chemistry in Vienna and in Budapest. In 1882, Lenard left Budapest and returned to Pressburg, but in 1883, he moved to Heidelberg after his tender for an assistant's position in the University of Budapest was refused. In Heidelberg, he studied under the illustrious Robert Bunsen, interrupted by one semester in Berlin with Hermann von Helmholtz, and he obtained a doctoral degree in 1886. In 1887 he worked again in Budapest under Loránd Eötvös as a demonstrator. After posts at Aachen, Bonn, Breslau, Heidelberg (1896–1898), and Kiel (1898–1907), he returned finally to the University of Heidelberg in 1907 as the head of the Philipp Lenard Institute. In 1905, Lenard became a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in 1907, of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.

His early work included studies of phosphorescence and luminescence and the conductivity of flames.

Photoelectric investigations
As a physicist, Lenard's major contributions were in the study of cathode rays, which he began in 1888. Prior to his work, cathode rays were produced in primitive, partially evacuated glass tubes that had metallic electrodes in them, across which a high voltage could be placed. Cathode rays were difficult to study using this arrangement, because they were inside sealed glass tubes, difficult to access, and because the rays were in the presence of air molecules. Lenard overcame these problems by devising a method of making small metallic windows in the glass that were thick enough to be able to withstand the pressure differences, but thin enough to allow passage of the rays. Having made a window for the rays, he could pass them out into the laboratory, or, alternatively, into another chamber that was completely evacuated. These windows have come to be known as Lenard windows. He was able to conveniently detect the rays and measure their intensity by means of paper sheets coated with phosphorescent materials.

Lenard observed that the absorption of cathode rays was, to first order, proportional to the density of the material they were made to pass through. This appeared to contradict the idea that they were some sort of electromagnetic radiation. He also showed that the rays could pass through some inches of air of a normal density, and appeared to be scattered by it, implying that they must be particles that were even smaller than the molecules in air. He confirmed some of J. J. Thomson's work, which eventually arrived at the understanding that cathode rays were streams of negatively charged energetic particles. He called them quanta of electricity or for short quanta, after Helmholtz, while Thomson proposed the name corpuscles, but eventually electrons became the everyday term. In conjunction with his and other earlier experiments on the absorption of the rays in metals, the general realization that electrons were constituent parts of the atom enabled Lenard to claim correctly that for the most part atoms consist of empty space. He proposed that every atom consists of empty space and electrically neutral corpuscules called "dynamids", each consisting of an electron and an equal positive charge.

As a result of his Crookes tube investigations, he showed that the rays produced by irradiating metals in a vacuum with ultraviolet light were similar in many respects to cathode rays. His most important observation was that the energy of the rays in the photoelectric effect was independent of the light intensity.

These latter observations were explained by Albert Einstein as a quantum effect. This theory predicted that the plot of the cathode ray energy versus the frequency would be a straight line with a slope equal to Planck's constant, h. This was shown to be the case some years later. The photo-electric quantum theory was the work cited when Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. Suspicious of the general adulation of Einstein, Lenard became a prominent skeptic of relativity and of Einstein's theories generally; he did not, however, dispute Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect. Lenard grew extremely resentful of the credit accorded to Wilhelm Röntgen, who received the first Nobel Prize in physics in 1901, for the discovery of the X-ray, despite the fact that Röntgen was German and a non-Jew. Lenard wrote that he, not Roentgen, was the "mother of the X-rays," since he had invented the apparatus used to produce them. Lenard likened Röntgen's role to that of a "midwife" who merely assists with the birth.

Lenard received the 1905 Nobel Prize for Physics in recognition of this work.

Meteorological contributions
Lenard was the first person to study what has been termed the Lenard effect in 1892. This is the separation of electric charges accompanying the aerodynamic breakup of water drops. It is also known as spray electrification or the waterfall effect.

He conducted studies on the size and shape distributions of raindrops and constructed a novel wind tunnel in which water droplets of various sizes could be held stationary for a few seconds. He was the first to recognize that large raindrops are not tear-shaped, but are rather shaped something like a hamburger bun.

Deutsche Physik
Lenard is remembered today as a strong German nationalist who despised "English physics", which he considered to have stolen its ideas from Germany. During the Nazi regime, he was the outspoken proponent of the idea that Germany should rely on "Deutsche Physik" and ignore what he considered the fallacious and deliberately misleading ideas of "Jewish physics", by which he meant chiefly the theories of Albert Einstein, including "the Jewish fraud" of relativity (see also criticism of the theory of relativity). Lenard became Chief of Aryan Physics under the Nazis.

Lenard's book, Great Men in Science, A History of Scientific Progress, first published in English in 1933, claimed these men were all "Aryan scientists". The individual scientists selected for inclusion by Lenard do not include Einstein or Marie Curie, nor any other twentieth-century scientist. The publisher included what now appears to be a remarkable understatement on page xix of the 1954 English edition: "While Professor Lenard's studies of the men of science who preceded him showed not only profound knowledge but also admirable balance, when it came to men of his own time he was apt to let his own strong views on contemporary matters sway his judgment. In his lifetime he would not consent to certain modifications that were proposed in the last study of the series".

Later life
Lenard retired from Heidelberg University as professor of theoretical physics in 1931. He achieved emeritus status there, but he was expelled from his post by Allied occupation forces in 1945 when he was 83. The Helmholtz-Gymnasium Heidelberg had been named the Philipp Lenard Schule from 1927 until 1945. As part of the elimination of Nazi street names and monuments it was renamed in September 1945 by order of the military government. Lenard died in 1947 in Messelhausen, Germany.

Honours and awards

 * Royal Society: Rumford Medal, 1896
 * Italian Society of Sciences: Matteucci Medal, 1896
 * French Academy of Sciences: Prix La Caze, 1897
 * Franklin Institute: Franklin Medal, 1932
 * Nobel Prize for Physics, 1905
 * A crater near the north pole of the Moon was named in his honor from 2005 (approved in 2008) until 2020. When the International Astronomical Union learned of Lenard's Nazi connection, they decided to drop the name.

Cultural references

 * Lenard's criticism of the theory of relativity and his crusade against Einstein and his theories was covered in an episode of Dark Matters: Twisted But True, in a segment entitled "Einstein's Revenge".
 * The life of Lenard and the interrelationship between his work and that of Albert Einstein is the subject of the book The Man Who Stalked Einstein: How Nazi Scientist Philipp Lenard Changed the Course of History by Bruce J. Hillman, Birgit Ertl-Wagner and Bernd C. Wagner.
 * Lenard was portrayed by actor Michael McElhatton in the 2017 National Geographic anthology period drama television series Genius.
 * Lenard featured as the villain in the seventh episode of Super Science Friends.

title: Philipp Lenard


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Talk:Trinomial nomenclature

I am not sure that without an identification for a taxon a subspecies can be assumed. It looks wrong to me.. (GerardM)

It is all right - this is absolutely standard usage, at least where vertebrate animals are concerned. I don't know about plants or invertebrates, let alone protists etc, and it may be that subsp. needs to be specified for them. In animals, the lower subspecific taxa are rarely (never?) used. If you look in any bird book - or zoological learned journal -- you'll see trinomials done as genus species subspecies without qualification. seglea 22:43, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC)

When a species becomes geographically seperated, both populations may evolve and differ from the original species over time. I would think that crossbreeding prevents divergence but when this does not happen, the traits that ensure the best survival will become dominant. When circumstances differ in two areas both populations will evolve. This is why I would not speak about the "regional population" that evolves but rather about the species.. (GerardM)

I wonder why it is "better" to say Genus species var. subspecies. the totallity is the name of the plant. IPNI has a new way of putting this information on its website. The reason THEY have for using different styling is imho that they have much condensed information on their pages and this helps the readability of their information. GerardM 06:35, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)

This page needs some heavy editing - trinomial nomenclature really only applies to zoology / animals. With plants, there are several different levels of infraspecific rank, so you can have tetranomials (or even, though I've never come across one in use) pentanomials (e.g. Genus species subsp. subspecies var. variety f. forma) as well as trinomials (which is why the rank has to be stated); for this reason the term 'trinomial nomenclature' isn't used in botany. I've put a brief summary at Binomial nomenclature. - MPF 16:03, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)

homo loco
I moved the following text from the page to here:

 * Such examples of the use of trimonial nomenclatures are few, although highly relevant to humans. There has been debate as to whether the human species should receive the trinomial homo loco sapiens or homo sapien sapiens. The former, indicating the language of the human species (loco deriving from the Latin "I speak") has only recently been explored. The nomenclature homo sapien sapiens is being more accepted, as it reflects the higher level of intelligence acquired by humans as a species.

The reference "such examples" is missing an antecedent, trinomens aren't very rare, there are no sources, nomenclature depends on priority not what name is "best", and, in any event, this would belong on a page like Homo (genus) rather than here even if it did belong in Wikipedia. Kingdon 17:39, 24 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Good edit, Kingdon. Many of these nomenclature articles probably need read and edited for content and references, now that it's a bit safe to do so.  KP Botany 17:51, 24 July 2007 (UTC)
 * (If "homo loco" was a joke, sorry for the lack of a sense of humor, and do take it to ). Kingdon 22:36, 24 July 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Trinomial nomenclature


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Angelo Sodano

Angelo Raffaele Sodano, GCC (23 November 1927 – 27 May 2022) was an Italian Catholic prelate and from 1991 onward a cardinal. He was the Dean of the College of Cardinals from 2005 to 2019 and Cardinal Secretary of State from 1991 to 2006; Sodano was the first person since 1828 to serve simultaneously as Dean and Secretary of State.

On 22 June 2006, Pope Benedict XVI accepted Sodano's resignation as Secretary of State, effective on 15 September 2006. He had served in the diplomatic corps of the Holy See since 1959, including a decade as nuncio to Chile from 1978 to 1988.

On 21 December 2019, it was reported that Sodano shielded sexually abusive clergy in the Legion of Christ. On the same day, Pope Francis accepted Sodano's resignation as Dean of the College of Cardinals.

Early life
The second of six children, Sodano was born on 23 November 1927 in Isola d'Asti, Piedmont, to Giovanni and Delfina Sodano. His father (1901–1991) was a Christian Democrat deputy in the Italian Parliament for three terms from 1948 until 1963. After studying philosophy and theology at the seminary of Asti, Sodano was ordained a priest by Bishop Umberto Rossi on 23 September 1950, and then did pastoral work and taught dogmatic theology at the Asti seminary.

Sodano studied in Rome, obtaining a doctorate in theology from the Pontifical Gregorian University and a doctorate in canon law at the Pontifical Lateran University. To prepare for a diplomatic career, he entered the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy in 1959. Upon joining the diplomatic service of the Holy See, he served as secretary in nunciatures in Latin America. In 1968 he was assigned to the Council for the Public Affairs of the Church in the Vatican.

Apostolic nuncio
On 30 November 1977, Sodano, who spoke English, German, Spanish, French, and Italian, was appointed titular archbishop of Nova Caesaris and apostolic nuncio to Chile, one of the countries where he had served as nunciature secretary. He was consecrated in his native Asti by Cardinal Antonio Samoré on 15 January 1978. He arrived at a difficult moment, with Chile on the brink of war with Argentina over the Beagle Channel and Augusto Pinochet in power. In 1980, together with Cardinal Raúl Silva Henríquez, he tried without success to get Pinochet to allow the return of certain political exiles, and in 1984 he obtained, at the cost of a dispute between the Holy See and the military government of Chile, safe conduct for four members of the Revolutionary Left Movement, who had sought diplomatic asylum in the nunciature, to leave for Ecuador.

In 1987, when Pope John Paul II visited Chile, Sodano arranged for him to meet in the nunciature the leaders of the opposition to the Pinochet government. The following year, the Pope appointed Sodano Secretary for Relations with States, a post corresponding to that of a foreign minister, and on 1 December 1990 named him Pro-Secretary of State, creating him Cardinal-Priest of S. Maria Nuova on 28 June 1991.

Secretary of State
On 29 June 1991, Sodano became Cardinal Secretary of State, succeeding Cardinal Agostino Casaroli, who had retired on 1 December 1990. On 10 January 1994, Pope John Paul II named Sodano Cardinal Bishop of the suburbicarian see of Albano. Sodano retained his relationship to the church of Santa Maria Nuova no longer as titular but in commendam, that is, in trust or his custody.

On 27 December 1998, Sodano wrote, at the request of the democratic government of Chile, an official letter to the British Prime Minister Tony Blair stating that "the Chilean Government considers it an offense to its territorial sovereignty as a nation the fact of being deprived of the power to judge its citizens" through the detention of Pinochet in Britain. When in 2002 he turned 75, John Paul invited him to stay on as Secretary of State, though this is the customary retirement age for heads of major Vatican departments. On 30 November 2002, exactly twenty-five years after he was first appointed a bishop, he was elected vice-dean of the College of Cardinals, succeeding Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, who became dean. In 2003, as the pope's legate to the celebration of the 500th anniversary of the election of the Renaissance Pope Julius II, he praised him for his vigorous defense of the Holy See in an age when its temporal role was still critical. Sodano participated as an elector in the 2005 papal conclave that elected Pope Benedict XVI. He was not generally considered a likely candidate himself, though he reportedly received a few votes. During the conclave, because Cardinal Ratzinger, the pope-elect, was the dean, Sodano as the sub-dean exercised the dean's duties, asking the pope-elect if he accepted his election and by what name he would be called. At the papal inauguration, Sodano presented Pope Benedict XVI with the Ring of the Fisherman, and he was one of those who made the public profession of obedience to the new pope.

Sodano's position as Secretary of State expired upon the death of John Paul II. Benedict XVI reappointed him to the position on 21 April 2005, even though he was past the customary retirement age. On 30 April Benedict ratified Sodano's election to the position of Dean of the College of Cardinals by the suburbicarian cardinal bishops, adding as was customary the suburbicarian see of Ostia to his honorary titles.

On 22 June 2006, Benedict XVI accepted Sodano's resignation as Secretary of State, effective 15 September 2006. On 18 September 2012, Sodano was named by Pope Benedict as one of the Synod Fathers of the 13th Ordinary General Assembly of the Catholic Synod of Bishops. When Pope Benedict resigned, Sodano as Dean of the College of Cardinals summoned the cardinals for the conclave during the sede vacante and was the principal concelebrant of the Pro eligendo Pontifice mass on the morning the conclave opened. He was not eligible to participate in the conclave, which elected Pope Francis. At the inauguration of the new pope, Sodano, as Dean of the college, presented the Ring of the Fisherman to Francis.

On 21 December 2019, Pope Francis accepted Sodano's resignation as Dean of the College of Cardinals, following the Pope's annual Christmas meeting with officials of the Curia which opens with a greeting by the Dean.

Sex abuse cases
Former Irish minister for foreign affairs Dermot Ahern revealed in 2018 that Sodano pressured him in 2004 to "indemnify the Catholic Church against legal actions for compensation by clerical child sexual abuse survivors" in Ireland, which Ahern refused.

Jason Berry writes that Sodano, as John Paul II's secretary of state, "pressured Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, then the head of Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and who would become Pope Benedict, to stop investigations into two notorious sex abuse cases," the Hans Hermann Groër case and the Marcial Maciel case. In his address as Dean of the College of Cardinals to Pope Benedict XVI at Easter 2010, Sodano told him: "The people of God are with you and do not allow themselves to be impressed by the petty gossip of the moment, by the trials that sometimes assail the community of believers." Victims of clerical sex abuse misinterpreted the "petty gossip" remark as a highly inappropriate reference to their complaints.

On 8 May 2010, the Austrian Catholic news agency Kathpress published remarks made by Cardinal Christoph Schönborn, in what was supposed to be a private conversation with newspaper editors. The Austrian cardinal criticized Sodano's "petty gossip" comment and indicated that Sodano had blocked the actions of then-Cardinal Ratzinger, who was serving as head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, and was intending to investigate accusations against Schönborn's predecessor Cardinal Hans Hermann Groër. Schönborn added: "The days of cover-up are over. For a long while the Church's principle of forgiveness was falsely interpreted and was in favour of those responsible and not the victims."

Sodano is one of many Catholic bishops and cardinals who are accused in an August 2018 letter by former Apostolic Nuncio to the United States Archbishop Carlo Maria Viganò of failing to act on reports of sexual misconduct by former cardinal Theodore McCarrick. According to Viganò, his predecessors in the nuncio position attempted to warn the Holy See about McCarrick, but McCarrick was shielded from discipline by a series of secretaries of state, including Sodano.

On 21 December 2019, the Legion of Christ identified 33 of its priests and 71 of its seminarians as sexually abusing 175 children for decades and singled out Sodano as the leader of efforts to cover up the reports of abuse when he was serving as Secretary of State. Sodano was accused of seeking a deal to bury documents detailing abuse. A third of the sex abuse cases that Sodano was accused of covering up involved Legion of Christ founder and notorious predator priest Marcial Maciel. The same day, Pope Francis accepted Sodano's resignation as Dean of the College of Cardinals. The Holy See Press Office announcement of his resignation provided no reason for it.

Death
Sodano died of complications from COVID-19 and pneumonia on 27 May 2022, at the age of 94. Pope Francis paid tribute to Sodano, "I recall his diligent work alongside so many of my predecessors, who entrusted him with important responsibilities in Vatican diplomacy, up to the delicate office of Secretary of State. In the Roman Curia, he carried out his mission with exemplary dedication. I, too, was able to benefit from his gifts of mind and heart, especially when he exercised the office of Dean of the College of Cardinals. In every assignment, he showed himself to be an ecclesial disciplined man, an amiable pastor, animated by a desire to spread the leaven of the Gospel everywhere."

By his wishes, Sodano was interred in the crypt of the cathedral in Asti.

Awards

 * International Vittorino Colombo Prize, 2004.

title: Angelo Sodano