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Chenghua Emperor

The Chenghua Emperor (9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Xianzong of Ming, personal name Zhu Jianshen , changed to Zhu Jianru in 1457, was the ninth emperor of the Ming dynasty, who reigned from 1464 to 1487. He succeeded his father, Emperor Yingzong. "Chenghua", the era name of his reign, means "accomplished change".

Zhu Jianshen was born in 1447 as the son of Emperor Yingzong. However, when he was only two years old, his father was captured by the Mongols during the Battle of Tumu Fortress. As a result, Yingzong was deposed and his younger brother, the new Jingtai Emperor, took over the throne. Yingzong was eventually released from captivity, but was forced into seclusion and house arrest. During this time, Zhu Jianshen was named crown prince, but he was removed from this position after only three years. It wasn't until 1457, when the Jingtai Emperor was overthrown and died, that Yingzong was able to return to the throne. At this point, Zhu Jianshen, now known as Zhu Jianru, was once again named crown prince.

He ascended to the throne in February 1464 at the young age of sixteen, succeeding his father. During the initial years of his reign, he implemented a new policy that included tax cuts and a focus on strengthening the state's power. However, as time passed, the positive impact of these changes diminished. In the later years of his rule, the Forbidden City was dominated by eunuchs, particularly the notorious Wang Zhi and Liang Fang. The emperor's preference for favorites over promoting capable individuals gradually eroded the positive aspects of his rule. This resulted in widespread corruption and the enrichment of his supporters at the expense of the state treasury. Peasant uprisings erupted throughout the country and were brutally suppressed. The emperor ruled with increasing autocracy, bolstering the secret police to monitor the sentiments of the people.

Wan Zhen'er, a palace lady who was 17 years older than the Chenghua Emperor, held significant sway over the emperor and eventually became his favorite. This was especially true after she gave birth to a son in 1464, although the child died shortly after. Despite this, Lady Wan maintained her hold over the emperor and his harem. She used her loyal eunuchs to force other women to have abortions if they became pregnant with the emperor's child, and she did not hesitate to resort to poisoning mothers and their children. It wasn't until 1475 that the emperor discovered the existence of his five-year-old son, Zhu Youcheng, who had been kept hidden until then.

The Chenghua Emperor was known for his military prowess and placed great emphasis on the strength of his army. During the 1470s, the reorganized Ming troops achieved notable triumphs in their battles against the Mongols, marking the first major victories since 1449. In addition, defensive walls were constructed in Shaanxi and Shanxi, laying the groundwork for the enduring Great Wall of China. The Ming also formed an alliance with Korea and effectively waged war against the Jurchen tribes in eastern Manchuria.

The Chenghua Emperor died in 1487 after 23 years of rule, and Zhu Youcheng ascended the throne as the Hongzhi Emperor.

Early life and accession
Zhu Jianshen was born on 9 December 1447, as the eldest son of Emperor Yingzong and one of his consorts, Lady Zhou.

In 1449, his father was captured by the Mongols in the Battle of Tumu Fortress. As a result, the younger brother of the captured emperor, Zhu Qiyu, temporarily took over the government. At the same time, Zhu Jianshen was created crown prince. A few days later, Zhu Qiyu became the emperor, known as the Jingtai Emperor. In 1450, the Mongols returned the captured Yingzong to the Ming, but Jingtai put him under house arrest. Zhu Jianshen remained crown prince until 1452, when he was demoted to Prince of Yi. He lived separately from his parents in poor material conditions and began to stutter under the pressure of the situation. However, the new crown prince, the Jingtai Emperor's only son, died in 1453. The succession question remained open and Zhu Jianshen's position was uncertain until the Jingtai Emperor fell ill in late 1456. This uncertainty was exploited by Emperor Yingzong's followers, who staged a coup in February 1457 and restored Yingzong to the throne.

On 1 March 1457, Zhu Jianshen was created crown prince by his father. At the same time, he changed his name from Jianshen to Jianru, possibly because his original name, chosen by the Jingtai Emperor in 1449, was not acceptable to Yingzong.

Zhu Jianshen was often depicted by painters as robustly built, with full cheeks, sharp eyes, large earlobes, and a trimmed mustache and beard. These Central Asian features were also seen in portraits of his ancestors, going back to his great-great-grandfather. His son and successor, while also bearded, was smaller in stature, and other emperors were of a more slender, southern appearance. As a child, Zhu Jianshen was slow to react and had a stutter. This caused Emperor Yingzong to have doubts about his intelligence and ability to rule. However, the Grand Secretaries, primarily Li Xian, convinced him to maintain the succession for his eldest son.

Emperor Yingzong died on 23 February 1464. The following day, a twelve-member imperial council was appointed to discuss government policies and advise the young emperor. The council consisted of six officials: Senior Grand Secretary Li Xian, Minister of Personnel Wang Ao, Minister of Revenue Nian Fu, Grand Secretary Peng Shi , Minister of War Ma Ang (1399–1476), and Grand Secretary Chen Wen (1405–1468); four eunuchs: Liu Yongcheng , Xia Shi , Fu Gong, and Niu Yu ; and two military generals: Sun Jizong , Marquis of Huichang, and Sun Tang , Marquis of Huaining. On 28 February 1464, he ascended the throne as the Chenghua Emperor.

When he assumed control of the government, he was already being influenced by his favorite, Wan Zhen'er. Originally a servant of his grandmother, Empress Sun, Wan fulfilled her every desire. Intelligent and determined, Wan started off as his nanny and eventually became his concubine. At the time of the Chenghua Emperor's ascension to the throne, she was 34 years old, twice the age of the seventeen-year-old emperor.

Empress dowagers and empresses
Conflicts among women within the Forbidden City had a negative impact on the emperor's reputation. The first incident occurred on the day of his coronation, when a dispute arose over the title of Emperor Yingzong's widow, Empress Qian. According to regulations, the title should have been given to the empress dowager, but the emperor's own mother, Lady Zhou, also claimed the same title. Despite being only a consort of Yingzong, she now held the status of mother to the reigning emperor and thus argued for the same title as Empress Qian. Lady Zhou also emphasized her loyalty to Yingzong, for which she had suffered alongside him during their years of house arrest from 1450–1457.

In the conflict between the mother and stepmother, the emperor allowed the officials to express their opinions and secretly encouraged them to do so. However, he openly acted with apparent reluctance. Following the suggestions of Peng Shi and Li Xian, both women were given the title of empress dowager, with the addition of the characters Ciyi before it for Empress Qian. However, Lady Zhou perceived this as discrimination and consistently pushed for her equal rights. The young emperor eventually fled from the quarreling empresses and sought refuge with Lady Wan.

After ascending the throne, the Chenghua Emperor married Lady Wu as his empress. However, their relationship was short-lived as she soon clashed with Lady Wan and requested that she be punished for her disrespect. As a result, just one month after their wedding, the emperor deposed Empress Wu and stripped her of her title. She then spent the next 45 years in seclusion within the Forbidden City. In the same year, 1464, Lady Wang became the new empress. She was careful not to provoke Lady Wan and remained childless in order to protect herself from any potential misfortune.

Successor
In 1466, Lady Wan gave birth to a son for the emperor and was granted the title of "Noble Consort" (Guifei). However, their son died within a year and Lady Wan did not have any other children. In order to secure her position, she closely monitored the emperor and even forced other women to have abortions to prevent the birth of a potential rival son. A few years later, the emperor had a son with another concubine who was named as his successor in December 1471, but the child died shortly after. It is widely believed by historians that Lady Wan played a role in the death of this child.

The court and government were greatly troubled by the absence of an heir and the influence of Lady Wan. Officials expressed their concerns to the emperor in submissions, but he dismissed them as meddling in his personal matters. It was not until June 1475, when the emperor lamented his lack of an heir at the age of twenty-eight, that a eunuch present impulsively informed him of the existence of a five-year-old son being raised by the former Empress Wu.

A few years earlier, the emperor had an affair with a girl surnamed Ji from Guangxi, who was likely a captive of the Yao tribe and brought to the palace around 1467. In 1469, she met the emperor and became pregnant. Lady Wan discovered the pregnancy, but her orders for the eunuchs to give the mother an abortifacient were not followed. Instead, they hid her in the chambers of Wu's dissecting room, where she gave birth to a boy on 30 July 1470. For the next five years, the mother and child lived in secrecy with Lady Wu.

The emperor, who was very enthusiastic about his son, recognized him and named him Zhu Youcheng. He then moved the child to safety under the protection of Empress Dowager Zhou. A month later, Lady Ji died under suspicious circumstances. The emperor then moved out of the palace occupied by Lady Wan and protected his heir from her. Empress Dowager Zhou even warned the heir not to eat or drink anything when visiting Lady Wan.

Lady Wan's camaraderie
The emperor's relationship with Lady Wan changed after 1475, as he had five consorts and a total of eleven sons and six daughters between 1476 and 1487. Despite no longer living with her, the emperor remained devoted to her and may have tried to make up for his absence by supporting her activities. During the latter part of his reign, he rarely restricted her actions, even when they were illegal. Her agents were involved in various activities, such as mining for copper, silver, gold, and precious stones in Yunnan, foreign trade, pearl gathering in Guangdong, tax collection along the Yangtze River, and the salt trade. In 1483, one of her eunuchs was so arrogant while purchasing antiques in Suzhou that local officials and gentry were almost provoked to take up arms. Upon learning of his misconduct, the emperor had him executed. Her chief eunuch, Liang Fang (梁芳), was in charge of the imperial warehouse in Beijing, giving him the opportunity to sell goods at inflated prices to cover up the sale of offices organized by Lady Wan.

Despite numerous complaints, the emperor did not punish Lady Wan for her actions. In fact, he punished officials who spoke out against her abuse of power, excessive spending, and corruption. As a result, she maintained significant influence until her death in 1487.

Another notorious eunuch during the Chenghua era was Wang Zhi, a Yao-born man who was captured and castrated during the counterinsurgency campaigns of the 1460s. He initially served as a servant to Lady Wan, but only held minor positions until he was put in charge of the Western Depot in 1477. This secret police force was created to supplement the already-established Eastern Depot. However, Wang Zhi soon clashed with Grand Secretary Shang Lu and Minister of War Xiang Zhong, leading to their dismissal. During this time, only those who were closely aligned with Lady Wan or those who remained silent were able to keep their positions. Wang Zhi terrorized the elite of Beijing for several years before being sent to inspect border troops in 1482. In 1483, his rival from the Eastern Depot presented accusations that gained the emperor's trust, resulting in Wang Zhi being transferred to guard the imperial tombs in Nanjing.

Trade, crafts and finance
After a long period of economic depression, the economy of China and its neighboring countries began to recover in the second half of the 15th century. This was largely due to the increase in precious metal mining, which saw a slight rise in China, Southeast Asia, and West Africa, and a significant increase in Europe. As a result, there was a surge in the import of Eastern goods such as pepper, spices, and porcelain to Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. In China, the Jingdezhen porcelain factories resumed production, leading to a flourishing trade on the southeast coast. Not only did Ming pottery regain its popularity in Asian and African markets, but it also made its way to Europe in the 1480s. The products from the Chenghua era of Jingdezhen are considered some of the finest examples of Ming porcelain in terms of design and decoration. Of particular significance is the development of doucai (, literally meaning 'contrasted colors'), which was highly admired and imitated in the following century.

Trade was further bolstered by the rapid development of transportation, which was spurred by a surge in bridge construction following the devastating floods in central and southern China in 1465. This led to the growth of the silk industry in the 1470s and 1480s, with silk production shifting from urban centers to rural areas in Jiangnan. As a result, silk was woven in "every village" around Lake Tai. This resulting economic boom brought about significant changes, including the expansion of cities and commerce, particularly in the southern and southeastern regions. This was further supported by the increase in foreign trade after 1470 and the influx of Japanese silver. As a result of this economic growth, the economy became increasingly monetized.

Since the closure of the mints in the 1430s, there has been a shortage of copper coins. This created an opportunity for counterfeiters to thrive. Although there were occasional proposals to combat private coinage by resuming state minting, they were ultimately rejected. As a result, illegal mints flourished and their "new coins" began to replace the old Yongle coppers in Beijing markets. These private coins were of poorer quality, often containing tin or iron admixture that was visibly different from the genuine coins. However, due to the scarcity of the old mintages, merchants had no choice but to use these counterfeits, even though they were only worth 1/2 to 1/3 of their face value. Some merchants refused to accept Ming coins altogether, while others only accepted silver. This led to workers being paid in low-quality coins, resulting in them losing half of their real income. As a result, coins began to disappear from circulation and the government, similar to earlier banknotes, attempted to support their value by requiring payments to be made in them. Starting in 1465, it became possible to pay commercial fees in both banknotes and coins. However, the government refused to release coins from the treasury or mint new ones.

The issue of money also had a significant impact on foreign trade during this time. The Japanese missions of 1468, 1477, and 1483 were characterized by the Japanese's persistent efforts to return to the conditions of Yongle's rule, when they were able to exchange their goods for coppers at a more favorable rate than what was available in the market. However, the Ming authorities had a different goal—to minimize payments in coins and instead use silk and other goods as currency. They also tried to force the Japanese to accept the "new coins" at face value, which the Japanese viewed as theft. As a result, coins were mainly obtained in Japan through fraudulent trade.

Agriculture
Despite advancements in trade, crafts, and urbanization, agriculture in the Ming dynasty was struggling. The population was rapidly growing, but a colder climate in the late 15th century hindered the success of peasant farmers. This led to widespread famines in northern and central China, particularly in the 1460s, and soaring food prices—by the early 1470s, rice was two and a half times more expensive than it was in the 1430s. Banditry also became a major issue, even on the outskirts of the capital. In an effort to assist the population, the government implemented measures such as constructing irrigation canals and providing millet from state reserves during the famine in the Beijing area. They also offered displaced peasants the opportunity to return to their homes, potentially with temporary housing, as well as seed, livestock, and a five-year tax exemption.

During the Chenghua era, the size of the imperial estates grew from a small area to over 80 thousand hectares. By the beginning of the 16th century, they had increased sixteen times. The revenues from these estates were the personal income of the monarch. However, this personal estate of the monarch was met with disapproval from officials. One censor even objected, questioning why the emperor was competing with landowners when he already owned the entire country. These vast estates were acquired by the monarch and the empress, as well as empress dowagers, heirs to the throne, relatives of empresses, eunuchs, and various favorites. This expansion of estates, similar to the imperial estates, had negative effects on the original landowners who were forced to become tenants, as well as on the state treasury. Not only did the emperor and his entourage benefit from this, but also wealthy landowners who took advantage of the situation at the expense of small peasants. This was particularly evident in Jiangnan, where in contrast to the early Ming period, the government had previously restricted and closely monitored the growth of large landowners.

Culture
The emperor was renowned for his skill in calligraphy, as evidenced by his surviving work, a color scroll painting from 1481 depicting the mythological demon warrior Zhong Kui, titled Sui chao jia zhao. He also had a passion for theater and music, and even had his own troupe of eunuch actors. In 1478, he composed several poems, which unfortunately have been lost. In 1483, he wrote the preface for Wenhua daxun, a collection of instructions for his successor. The emperor also showed support for Buddhism, as seen in his order for the construction of five pagodas in the Indian style west of Beijing in 1473. These pagodas are believed to be the only ones of their kind in the Beijing area.

However, the majority of Confucians held a negative attitude towards Buddhism and its methods of cultivating one's personality. This was exemplified by Hu Juren, a prominent Neo-Confucian during that period. Another influential figure in the intellectual community at the time was Chen Baisha, a scholar from Guangdong who mentored many significant scholars and officials.

Relations with officials
The Chenghua Emperor was known for his generosity and lack of desire for revenge, even for the wrongs he may have experienced in his childhood. He was widely praised for his efforts to restore the reputation of those who had been unfairly treated in the past, and he also implemented measures to aid areas that were suffering from famine. However, in 1468, the emperor did order for three Hanlin academics to be beaten after they got into a dispute with Empress Dowager Zhou over the decoration of the Lantern Festival. This was a rare occurrence, as the Chenghua Emperor generally did not resort to physical punishment for dignitaries, unlike other emperors of the dynasty.

In both military and civilian affairs, he relied on the advice of the Grand Secretaries and ministers. He highly valued honest and capable officials, but unfortunately, he also allowed Lady Wan to promote unsuitable individuals. This led to a lack of decisiveness on his part, as he would briefly align himself with one side or the other during government discussions. However, his efforts to reconcile differences among factions did help to reduce conflicts, although there was still some tension between northerners and southerners, with the emperor showing slight favoritism towards the latter. Out of the three Grand Secretaries during the Chenghua Emperor's ascension to the throne, only Li Xian was from the north, while Chen Wen and Peng Shi were from Jiangxi.

After 1464, the most influential position in the government was held by Grand Secretary Li Xian, who continued to hold significant power even during the final years of Yingzong's reign. Li Xian strategically appointed capable and respected individuals to important positions within the administration. His influence was not perceived as excessive, as he prioritized open discussion when making decisions. He consistently sought input from both civil servants and military officers when making personnel decisions.

The original Grand Secretaries were gradually replaced by the brilliant scholars Liu Tingzhi (d. 1469) and Shang Lu (dismissed in 1477). However, the emperor also appointed the opportunistic and unprincipled Wan An (d. 1489) and Liu Ji (d. 1493) to the Grand Secretariat. In the later years of the Chenghua Emperor's reign, the infamous eunuchs Wang Zhi and Liang Fang held powerful positions. The camaraderie around Lady Wan also had a negative reputation. Under their influence, the emperor distanced himself from his officials, causing them to wait for years for a personal audience with him.

Growth of the eunuch bureaucracy
During the 15th century, the number of eunuchs in the imperial palace increased significantly, with a growing number of them serving in both civil and military roles, as well as in the provinces. By the end of the century, there were over 10,000 eunuchs in service, nearly equaling the number of regular civil servants. In the following century, their numbers even surpassed those of regular civil servants.

Eunuchs held a significant role in military affairs, overseeing the purchase of horses from abroad and the majority of (tributary) foreign trade, as well as the production of weapons, state production of silk, brocade, and porcelain, procurement and transportation of court supplies, management of the palace and imperial tombs. They also controlled the secret service, whose actions often gave rise to complaints. Protests against the abuses of the secret service, which caused fear of arrest and torture among officials, merchants, and ordinary citizens in the capital, were unsuccessful. On the contrary, they furthered the careers of minister Xiang Zhong and Grand Secretary Shang Lu.

The above matters were managed by the eunuch bureaucracy independently from the civilian authorities. Under the Chenghua Emperor'reign, it expanded and strengthened and its power began to be formally recognized—an example of this was the appointment of eunuchs to the imperial council formed after the death of Yingzong. An example of the growing power of the eunuchs was the system of reviewing court cases. This was carried out by the "three judicial offices", namely the Censorate, the Ministry of Justice, and the Court of Judicature and Revision. Every autumn, they reviewed death sentences and either confirmed, mitigated, or sent them back for further investigation. From the 1440s, eunuchs sometimes represented the emperor in meetings, and under the Chenghua Emperor's reign, their influence continued to increase and they did not hesitate to assert their opinions against the Grand Secretaries and officials in these meetings.

Imperial army
The Chenghua Emperor looked up to his military-minded grandfather and father, the emperors Xuande and Yingzong, as his role models. He followed an active military policy and generously rewarded his generals, appointing nine counts and one marquis for their achievements.

During the Chenghua era, the Ming army was organized into approximately 500 guards (wei) under the weisuo system, with each guard consisting of battalions (suo) spread throughout the empire. Theoretically, these guards were supposed to have 3 million soldiers, but in reality, the number was only about half of that. These guards were overseen by Five Chief Military Commissions. Additionally, there were over 70 units of Imperial Guards stationed in and around Beijing, theoretically adding another million men to the army. However, their actual numbers were much lower, as many of their soldiers were employed as laborers and tens of thousands of supernumerary officers were appointed and paid. Unlike the guards under the Five Chief Military Commissions, the Imperial Guards were not subject to their authority. They were also exempt from the nine defense areas along the northern border, which had approximately 300,000 soldiers who were better trained and supplied than the inland units.

In the late 15th century, the military competence of hereditary officers had significantly declined and their ties to the throne had weakened compared to the beginning of the century. Instead of inexperienced second- or third titled generation descendants of once successful generals, military matters were now overseen by civilian officials and eunuchs who were committed to military careers. These armies were led by officials who were also involved in military affairs, including Han Yong (1422–1478), Wang Yue (1426–1499), Xiang Zhong (1421–1502), and Ma Wensheng (1426–1510).

Military reform
After ascending to the throne, the Chenghua Emperor implemented a new system of selecting officers through special examinations. However, in the 1470s, there was a rise in the use of military trials. Concurrently, the emperor initiated significant changes to the military training of the Beijing garrison units. Previously, soldiers from various provinces were sent to three large camps for training: wujun  for infantry, sanqian  for cavalry, and shenji  for units equipped with firearms. In May 1464, the emperor ordered the reinstatement of a unified training corps (which had previously existed from 1449 to 1457) and divided it into twelve divisions, each consisting of ten thousand soldiers. These soldiers were selected from a pool of over 300,000 individuals from the three camps, with the majority being sent back to their respective provinces.

The purpose of this measure was to train infantry, cavalry, and units armed with firearms to work together in mixed divisions. Previously, these groups had been trained separately in three different camps. Marquis Sun Jizong was in overall command of these divisions, but the military side was actually led by eunuch Liu Yongcheng, a 73-year-old veteran from the Yongle Emperor's reign. Each division also had a deputy commander, known as Jian qiang nei chen (, 'Armory-inspecting Eunuch'), who was a eunuch and in charge of firearms. The emperor's most trusted personnel were responsible for closely guarding the firearms. However, starting in the mid-1470s, the divisions were completely under the control of eunuchs, likely due to the influence of Wang Zhi.

The newly trained Beijing corps played a crucial role in successful campaigns on the northern frontier, defeating the Mongols in 1471, 1473, and 1480, as well as the Jurchens in 1467 and 1479. Their reputation as fierce and ruthless soldiers earned them the responsibility of being on alert in case of an uprising in western Shaanxi in 1478. However, on the advice of Peng Shi, they remained in Beijing, as he was concerned about the safety of the civilian population if they were deployed. Despite this, small detachments were still sent to combat the insurgent Yao tribes in Guangxi. As time went on, the corps began to weaken as it was used for both public and private labor, leading to criticism. However, during the early Chenghua era, it remained a strong and effective force.

Rebellions in the South-West frontier
The Yao rebellion in Guangxi, led by tribal leader Hou Dagou, had been brewing since the 1450s and broke out in 1464. At the same time, the Miao and Zhuang also rebelled. The center of the rebellion was in the mountainous landscape 120–160 km northwest of the seat of Xunzhou Prefecture (present-day Guiping). The rebels surprised the Chinese by bringing the fighting from the mountains to the densely populated coastal areas of Guangdong. The rebellion and troop movements also spread to southern Huguang, Guizhou, and Jiangxi. Local dignitaries hoped to placate the Yao with amnesty and donations. However, Minister of War Wang Hong decided on a forceful response. He appointed General Zhao Fu to lead the expeditionary army, but the army was actually led by his deputy Han Yong, the new Governor of Guangdong. They had 30,000 soldiers at their disposal, including a thousand of the feared Mongol mounted archers, and 160,000 local forces. In 1466, Han Yong attacked the heart of the rebel territory in two columns drawn from Huguang from the north and from Guangdong from the west, and conquered them in a series of fierce battles. The pacification of the region took several more years. Han Yong, who remained in the south until 1468, reorganized local administration by establishing a new county, strengthening coordination between the Guangdong and Guangxi authorities, and incorporating Yao chieftains into Ming administration.

Hou Dagou's rebellion was one of the strongest uprisings among the minority peoples of the southwest in the late 15th century, but it was not the only one. In the following years, the Miao and Yao also rebelled in different parts of southwestern China. General Li Zhen repeatedly defeated them on the border of Guizhou and Huguang, instilling fear and terror among the subjugated areas. In 1467 and again in 1475–1476, he and his army slaughtered thousands of Miao rebels. Another rebellion occurred on the border of Guizhou and Sichuan from 1466 to 1468, and the Minister of War, Cheng Xin, was sent to suppress it. However, the rebellion resurfaced in 1477–1480. In the 1460s and 1470s, a series of Miao rebellions erupted in southern Sichuan and were forcefully suppressed by the governor, Zhang Gang. He alternately fought against the Miao in the south of the province and the Tibetans in the northwest.

Even the Zhuangs rebelled, with their use of poisoned arrows causing fear among warriors. They were employed against the Yao during battles with Hou Dagou. However, by the end of the 15th century, the Zhuangs had rebelled twice against Ming rule.

Jingxiang rebellion
The Jingxiang rebellion of 1465–1476 was the most significant uprising in China during the 15th century. It was also considered the most significant social upheaval in the Ming state between the civil war of 1399–1402 and the Li Zicheng rebellion in the final years of the Ming dynasty. The rebellion was named after the prefectures of Jingzhou and Xiangyang, located in the northwestern region of Huguang.

During the early Ming period, the prefectures of Jingzhou and Xiangyang were largely uninhabited. However, starting in the 1430s, they began to see an influx of illegal immigrants. In the 1460s, famines repeatedly struck northern China and the lower and middle regions of the Yangtze River, leading to an increase in the number of refugees in the Jingxiang region. It is estimated that there were less than two million refugees living independently from the state. These refugees were led by Liu Tong, who united small bands of robbers and declared himself the King of Han. He then proceeded to establish his own administration and organize an army of ten thousand soldiers. In response, the government sent troops led by Zhu Yong, Duke of Bao, and Bai Gui , Minister of War. In 1465, these troops gathered from various provinces, including Li Zhen's troops from Huguang, and successfully crushed the rebellion. Liu Tong himself was captured in the summer of 1466.

The issue of weak official administration persisted, and in 1470, an additional 900,000 individuals migrated to the region due to famine, sparking a new rebellion. Xiang Zhong, the chief censor at the time, was tasked with quelling the uprising. He enlisted the assistance of Li Zhen and raised an army of 250,000 in Huguang province. Together, they successfully suppressed the rebellion, resulting in the execution of hundreds, the exile of thousands, and the return of 1.5 million individuals to their respective homelands.

However, people began to return to the region and in the summer of 1476, they rebelled once again. In response, the government sent Yuan Jie, a censor, to investigate the social and economic conditions in the area. This sparked a lively discussion in the court about potential solutions to the problem. Ultimately, the government decided to address the issues through social and organizational measures in the region and entrusted Yuan Jie with their implementation. He recognized the rights of immigrants to the land they cultivated and registered over 113,000 families with 438,000 members. As per his suggestion, several new counties were established and by the end of 1476, the new prefecture of Yunyang was formed. In the seat of the new prefecture, a defense military command was established with jurisdiction over the adjacent counties of neighboring provinces. In just one year, Yuan Jie successfully stabilized the situation and brought calm to the region through proper administration.

Foreign policy and the attempted conquest of Hami
The Ming presence beyond China's borders was merely symbolic, limited to granting titles, ranks, and trade privileges without interfering in the daily lives of those affected. States and tribes to the north and northwest of Ming China were eager to engage in trade and commerce with the Ming, resulting in an increase in the number and frequency of tribute messages. However, the Mongols were not hesitant to resort to raiding in order to expand trade and acquire more iron, grain, handicrafts, and luxury goods, much to the dismay of the Chinese. While Ming titles could lend legitimacy to the rule of the recipient and grant them the right to engage in tributary relations, the Ming government was not obligated to provide any official authority over their subjects, as they did in China. Despite this, the Chinese were still keen on expanding their influence and prestige in the northern steppes.

During the Chenghua Emperor's reign, the Ming dynasty's interests in Central Asia were limited to attempting to gain control of Hami, a Silk Road city located in present-day Xinjiang. The Uighur rulers of Hami were followers of Islam and acknowledged Ming sovereignty, receiving the title of wang (king) from the Ming emperors. However, in the early 1470s, the ruler of Hami was killed by a prince from Moghulistan who declared himself the Sultan of Turpan and immediately engaged in conflict with the "pagan" (non-Muslim) Oirats. This fighting occurred in the northwest region of his territory, specifically in the Ili Valley. In Beijing, ministers have been discussing whether to address the clashes and unrest in Hami through military action or diplomatic means (such as cutting ties).

In 1473, the Ming attempted to reinstate the previous government in Hami. A small Chinese force was dispatched, with the support of two Mongol tribes who were the largest allies of the Ming in the region between China and Hami. The Mongols, numbering 30,000, joined the Chinese in their mission. However, upon reaching Hami, they discovered that the enemy's army had already passed them, causing the Mongols to retreat and defend their own territories. The Chinese detachment was easily defeated by the Turpans. It was not until the early 1490s that the Chinese once again became involved in the situation in Hami.

Wars with the Mongols and Jurchens
In Manchuria, there were 384 Jurchen tribal chiefs who held formal Ming titles as guard commanders. In 1465 and 1479, the Chenghua Emperor launched attacks against the Jurchens, utilizing the restored Ming military power. These campaigns were aided by Korean troops and proved successful in weakening the Jianzhou Jurchens, leaving them divided until the early 17th century.

Due to the complex and ever-changing political landscape in Mongolia, the Chinese had only a vague understanding of the situation. In the latter half of the 15th century, the Mongols were divided into several groups: the Uriankhai in the north and northeast of the Beijing area, the Tumed Mongols in the north of Shanxi, and the Ordos Mongols in the Ordos region north of Shaanxi. The Chinese referred to the population living behind these groups as Tatars. Additionally, there were a number of small principalities along the Sino-Mongol border and the Silk Road in the northwest. Among all the Mongol groups, the Uriankhai were the most stable and had the closest relationship with the Ming dynasty.

In 1468, the Mongols rebelled in Guyuan, a border headquarters located between Xi'an and Lanzhou. The local Mongols had been settled there since the late 1460s and were under the rule of their own hereditary chiefs. In June 1468, for unknown reasons, they rose up and fortified themselves in the mountains north of the city, successfully defeating the local Ming troops. In response, the government sent an army led by Xiang Zhong and Ma Wensheng, who was then the chief censor and governor of Shaanxi. By the fall of 1468, the army had successfully eliminated the rebels within a few months, with the last of them being defeated in early 1469.

The Guyuan incident raised concerns among some Beijing dignitaries about the presence of Mongols in Chinese territory and their potential connections with Mongols across the border and even with Tibetans. In 1468 and 1469, invaders from Mongolia attacked Yulin, further emphasizing the danger to the reorganized Beijing garrison. The commanders of the garrison were eager for battle in order to test their troops and gain glory and booty. However, they faced opposition from Grand Secretaries Peng Shi and Shang Lu, who argued that the rebellion had already been defeated.

The responsibility for resolving the situation was given to Wang Yue, the most capable follower of the war party associated with eunuchs and courtiers. He was transferred to Yulin at the end of 1469. In 1470, Wang successfully defeated the Mongol invaders in a series of battles. Bai Gui, an opponent of the war party and now Minister of War, sent Yu Zijun to the area as governor (he remained in office until 1477). Together, Yu Zijun and Wang Yue were able to stabilize the situation. While Wang was defeating the Mongols in the field (in 1471 and 1473), Yu planned the construction of a defensive wall at Ordos. Despite concerns about the cost, the government eventually gave permission in 1474. Within a few months, 40,000 soldiers built a 1777 li (1000 km) long wall, standing 9 meters high and equipped with numerous towers and other supporting structures. This wall proved effective in a major attack during the summer of 1482.

Nevertheless, Mongol raids continued after that. At the end of the 15th century, the Mongol power was partly restored by Batumöngke, the Great Khan of the Mongols from 1480. Under his leadership, the Mongols renewed their attacks on Chinese territory, nullifying the Ming victories of the 1470s.

Death and legacy
The Chenghua Emperor died on 9 September 1487 and was buried in Maoling Mausoleum. He was given the posthumous name Emperor Chun and the temple name Xianzong. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Zhu Youcheng, who became known as the Hongzhi Emperor.

In both military and civil affairs, the emperor is highly regarded for his willingness to listen to the advice of capable politicians, such as Li Xian and Peng Shi. This helped to keep dissensions between regional cliques of officials at a manageable level. The Chenghua era was a time of significant political and cultural transition, marked by the increasing dominance of civil officials over the military, the growing influence of the southern region, and the shift of the cultural center from Jiangxi to the lower reaches of the Yangtze River.

However, the emperor cannot be absolved of responsibility for selling offices to the clique around Lady Wan and the eunuchs. Many of those appointed were his favorites. While the emperor's cautious and phlegmatic nature prevented him from being completely controlled by anyone, Lady Wan and some eunuchs took advantage of his favor for personal gain.

Nevertheless, despite the excesses of the eunuchs, his reign is considered one of the most prosperous periods in Ming history. The eunuchs' actions were offset by long-term benefits, the most significant being the expansion into Yao tribal territory in Guangdong and Guangxi. This allowed for control over the Xi River valley and its tributaries, providing opportunities for transportation and settlement. Additionally, military expeditions to Luzhou in 1465 successfully eliminated the threat posed by natives in Sichuan, ensuring safe passage along the Yangtze River. Military reforms were also implemented, strengthening the army but also increasing the influence of eunuchs, who often held high-ranking positions. As a result of several successful attacks, the Jurchens were weakened and posed no significant threat for the next century. In 1474, the construction of the 1000 km long Great Wall in Shanxi further fortified the defense against the Mongols in the bend of the Yellow River.

Family
Consorts and Issue:
 * Deposed Empress, of the Wu clan (廢后 吳氏; d. 1509)
 * Empress Xiaozhenchun, of the Wang clan (孝貞純皇后 王氏; d. 1518)
 * Empress Xiaomu, of the Ji clan (孝穆皇后 紀氏; 1451 – July 1475), personal name Tangmei (唐妹)
 * Zhu Youcheng, the Hongzhi Emperor (弘治帝 朱佑樘; 30 July 1470 – 9 June 1505), third son
 * Empress Xiaohui, of the Shao clan (孝惠皇后 邵氏; d. 1522)
 * Zhu Youyuan, Emperor Ruizong (睿宗 朱佑杬; 22 July 1476 – 13 July 1519), fourth son (father of the Jiajing Emperor)
 * Zhu Youlun, Prince Hui of Qi (岐惠王 朱佑棆; 12 November 1478 – 2 December 1501), fifth son
 * Zhu Youyun, Prince Jing of Yong (雍靖王 朱佑枟; 29 June 1481 – 17 January 1507), eighth son
 * Imperial Noble Consort Gongsu, of the Wan clan (恭肅皇貴妃 萬氏; 1428–1487), personal name Zhen'er (貞兒)
 * First son (14 February 1466 – November 1466)
 * Consort Duanshunxian, of the Bo clan (端順賢妃 柏氏; d. 1527)
 * Zhu Youji, Crown Prince Daogong (悼恭皇太子 朱佑極; 7 June 1469 – 5 March 1472), second son
 * Consort Zhuangjingshun, of the Wang clan (莊靖順妃 王氏; 22 April 1448 – 9 January 1495)
 * Princess Renhe (仁和公主; 1476–1544), first daughter
 * Married Qi Shimei (齊世美; d. 1503) in 1489, and had issue (five sons)
 * Consort Gonghuihe, of the Liang clan (恭惠和妃 梁氏; d. 1533)
 * Consort Duanrongzhao, of the Wang clan (端榮昭妃 王氏)
 * Consort Jingshunhui, of the Guo clan (靖順惠妃 郭氏; d. 1491)
 * Princess Yongkang (永康公主; 1478–1547), second daughter
 * Married Cui Yuan (崔元) in 1493, and had issue (two sons, two daughters)
 * Consort Zhuangyide, of the Zhang clan (莊懿德妃 張氏; d. 1497)
 * Zhu Youbin, Prince Duan of Yi (益端王 朱佑檳; 26 January 1479 – 5 October 1539), sixth son
 * Zhu Youhui, Prince Gong of Heng (衡恭王 朱佑楎; 8 December 1479 – 30 August 1538), seventh son
 * Zhu Youpeng, Prince An of Ru (汝安王 朱佑梈; 13 October 1484 – 1541), 11th son
 * Consort Duanyi'an, of the Yao clan (端懿安妃 姚氏; d. 1491)
 * Zhu Youzhi, Prince Ding of Shou (壽定王 朱佑榰; 2 December 1481 – 1545), ninth son
 * Consort Ronghuigong, of the Yang clan (榮惠恭妃 楊氏)
 * Zhu Youshun, Prince Jian of Jing (涇簡王 朱佑橓; 31 March 1485 – 10 July 1537), 12th son
 * Zhu Youkai, Prince Yi of Shen (申懿王 朱佑楷; 3 February 1487 – 20 August 1503), 14th son
 * Consort Kangshunduan, of the Pan clan (康順端妃 潘氏; d. 1538)
 * Zhu Youshu, Prince Zhuang of Rong (榮莊王 朱佑樞; 22 January 1486 – 16 February 1539), 13th son
 * Consort Gongyijing, of the Wang clan (恭懿敬妃 王氏; 1465–1510)
 * Tenth son (19 August 1483 – 8 October 1483)
 * Consort Zhaoshunli, of the Zhang clan (昭順麗妃 章氏; d. 1501)
 * Princess Deqing (德清公主; 17 August 1478 – 17 July 1549), third daughter
 * Married Lin Yue (林岳; d. 1518) in 1496, and had issue (two sons)
 * Consort Hehuijing, of the Yue clan (和惠靜妃 岳氏; 1465–1534)
 * Princess Xianyou (仙遊公主; d. 1492), sixth daughter
 * Consort Jingxirong, of the Tang clan (靖僖榮妃 唐氏; d. 1524)
 * Unknown
 * Fourth daughter
 * Princess Changtai (長泰公主; d. 1487), fifth daughter

title: Chenghua Emperor


text:
Hongzhi Emperor

The Hongzhi Emperor (30 July 1470 – 9 June 1505), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Xiaozong of Ming, personal name Zhu Youcheng , was the tenth emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1487 to 1505. He succeeded his father, the Chenghua Emperor. The Hongzhi Emperor was a wise and peaceful ruler. "Hongzhi", the era name of his reign, means "great governance".

Zhu Youcheng was born during a time in which Lady Wan, the favorite concubine of his father, the Chenghua Emperor, and her supporters were eliminating all potential heirs to the throne. Fortunately, the young emperor's son was saved by the former empress and spared from death. He did not reunite with his father until the age of five, when he was named crown prince. From a young age, he displayed exceptional intelligence and excelled in his studies, receiving a top-notch Confucian education.

After ascending the throne in 1487, the emperor's administration was guided by Confucian ideology, and he himself was known for his diligence and hard work. He closely oversaw all state affairs, implementing measures such as reducing taxes and government spending, and appointing capable officials to ministerial positions. This marked a rare period of harmonious cooperation between the emperor and his grand secretaries and ministers during the Middle Ming period. In addition, the emperor encouraged his ministers to openly express their opinions and even criticize his decisions. As a result, the power of the eunuchs was diminished and the palace intrigues that had plagued previous reigns were eliminated. This led to a more transparent government and revitalized the functioning of the authorities.

Under the order of the emperor, the Great Ming Code was updated and supplemented. The empire's economy was thriving, and the government sought to address the shortage of currency by resuming the production of coins that had been abolished in the 1430s. Despite facing a series of floods, the Yellow River was successfully regulated, and foreign trade with Southeast Asia flourished. The Hongzhi Emperor's foreign policy was peaceful, with the only major military campaign during his reign being the expedition to Hami in 1495. Ming troops also effectively suppressed several smaller rebellions. As a result, the people prospered under his rule. In comparison to his renowned predecessors, the Hongzhi Emperor can be considered one of the most successful rulers of the Ming dynasty, alongside emperors Hongwu and Yongle.

Early life and accession
Zhu Youcheng was born on 30 July 1470. He was the third son of the Chenghua Emperor, the eighth emperor of the Chinese Ming dynasty, and the oldest to survive. His mother was a woman surnamed Ji, who was one of the Yao women captured during the suppression of the rebellion in the southern Chinese province of Guangxi and brought into the palace. He inherited his mother's southern appearance: small stature, darker complexion; he had a bushy moustache, a sparse beard, and intelligent, bright eyes. However, he was not physically strong and often suffered from illness in his later years.

In 1469, Lady Ji formed a close relationship with the emperor. However, after becoming pregnant, she had to live secretly in the chambers of the former Empress Wu due to the danger posed by the emperor's favorite, Lady Wan. Lady Wan was known for ruthlessly eliminating any potential rivals for the emperor's favor. It wasn't until Zhu Youcheng was five years old, in June 1475, that the emperor learned of his son's existence. He enthusiastically acknowledged his son, but just a month later, Lady Ji died under suspicious circumstances. From then on, the safety of the boy was overseen by his grandmother, Empress Dowager Zhou. The death of his mother must have been a great shock to Zhu Youcheng, as he deeply respected and remembered her even in adulthood.

On 5 December 1475, Zhu Youcheng was named crown prince. The old educated eunuch Tan Ji began to teach him to read (The Four Books) and in March 1478, the young prince's formal education in Confucian philosophy began. A book about exemplary successors was written in 1481 specifically because of his education. His teachers were able to instill Confucianism in him more effectively than other emperors, and he remained faithful to its teachings even in adulthood.

Concerned about her fate after the Chenghua Emperor's death and the accession of Zhu Youcheng, Lady Wan began plotting against the successor. Her eunuch ally, Liang Fang, proposed appointing a new heir, claiming that Zhu Youcheng was unintelligent and inferior. However, another eunuch, Huai En, defended the prince and argued for the right of inheritance of the eldest son and the stability of the dynasty. As a result, he was transferred to Fengyang, the "Central Capital". Shortly after, the court received news of an earthquake on Mount Tai, which was associated with the crown prince in the beliefs of the time. Officials who supported Zhu Youcheng saw this as a warning from Heaven, displeased with the discussion of succession. Fearing the disfavor of Heaven, the Chenghua Emperor did not make a decision to change the crown prince.

In February 1487, Zhu Youcheng married Lady Zhang from Xingji, a city located on the Grand Canal, less than 200 km south of Beijing (present-day Qing County, Cangzhou prefecture). He was deeply devoted to his wife and remained monogamous, making him the only emperor in Chinese history to do so. Together, they had two sons and three daughters.

On 1 September 1487, the Chenghua Emperor fell ill and three days later, he entrusted Zhu Youcheng with overseeing the actions of the grand secretaries. He died on 9 September. On 17 September 1487, Zhu Youcheng ascended to the throne as the Hongzhi Emperor.

As soon as he took power, he named his wife as empress and his mother as Empress Dowager Xiaomu. He then commanded a hunt for his mother's relatives in Guangxi Province. Two found cousins were named officers of the Imperial Guard. However, they later got into a dispute with another alleged cousin, and in the end, all three were revealed as fraudsters. Despite this, the emperor did construct a temple in Guangxi to pay tribute to his mother's unknown ancestors and a shrine in the Forbidden City to honor her memory.

The empress and her relatives
The Hongzhi Emperor was completely devoted to his wife. However, the empress was a foolish woman who only cared about her relatives, especially her brothers. She was more concerned with living a luxurious life and trusting Taoist and Buddhist monks. As a result, the court became consumed with luxury and pleasure, something that had not been seen under previous rulers.

After their son was born in October 1491, the emperor began to favor not only his wife, but also her father, brothers—Zhang Heling and Zhang Yanling —and all other relatives. In 1490, the empress's father had already been granted the title of Count of Shouning. Then, in the spring of 1492, the Hongzhi Emperor named his young son as crown prince, further solidifying the power and influence of the Zhang family. Shortly after, the empress's father made an unprecedented request for a promotion to marquis, which was granted despite opposition from many officials. He died that same year and was posthumously elevated to Duke of Chang. The title of Marquis was then inherited by his elder son, while the younger became Count and later Marquis of Jianchang. Both brothers received numerous gifts, including land, stewardship of imperial warehouses in Beijing, and licenses to trade in salt. Even the extended family of the Zhangs were granted titles, offices, lands, and opportunities for corruption that were unparalleled compared to the relatives of other Ming empresses.

Officials frequently complained about the behavior of the empress's relatives, particularly her brothers. They were accused of corruption, embezzlement, and, in their home county south of Beijing, of seizing land from their neighbors. Despite these accusations, the empress and her mother always defended the Zhang brothers. They were also supported by a group of eunuchs and officials who had advanced their careers through their connections with the Zhang family. As a result, the emperor shielded the entire family from any punishment, even though he generally did not punish critics (according to Confucian ethics, officials should not be punished for honestly and directly pointing out mistakes).

The emperor shared a belief in Taoism with his wife, which was frowned upon by officials, especially when he appointed Taoist monks to high ranks. Towards the end of the Hongzhi Emperor's reign, similar negative patterns from the Chenghua era began to emerge, although not to the same extent. These included the establishment of imperial estates, direct appointments that bypassed the Ministry of Personnel, patronage in the salt trade, and bribery, which damaged the image of a conscientious and hard-working, yet inefficient, emperor.

Eunuchs
After ascending to the throne, the Hongzhi Emperor demoted and exiled corrupt and unpopular eunuchs, such as Liang Fang. He then appointed capable and trustworthy candidates to lead the Directorate of Ceremonial, which also informally served as the head of the eunuchs in the imperial palace. One such candidate was Huai En, who had previously retired. Despite these efforts, officials continued to criticize the eunuchs and disapprove of the emperor and his family's favor towards Buddhists and Taoists. However, the emperor's decision to limit the powers of the eunuch secret police units, known as the Western and Eastern Depots, was met with gratitude by the bureaucracy and population of the capital. The emperor also made sure to appoint honorable men to lead these units, as well as the Imperial Guard.

During the reign of the Hongzhi Emperor, only two politically significant cases related to eunuchs arose. In 1489, Jiang Cong, who had been one of the three dignitaries governing Nanjing for many years, became embroiled in a dispute with the censors over the legality of certain incomes. These incomes were apparently used to pay for the emperor's expenses. Jiang Cong blamed the censors for their inability to detect other violations of the law, while the censors accused him of wrongdoing. The emperor ultimately ruled in Jiang Cong's favor in 1490, but the attacks from officials continued until he was deposed in 1494. His downfall was due to his construction projects disrupting Nanjing's geomantic configuration. The second case involved Li Guang, who was commissioned by the emperor to raise funds through the sale of salt licenses and payments for the promotion and appointment of officials. Officials repeatedly accused him of making mistakes, but their attempts to discredit him were unsuccessful. However, on 28 October 1498, Li Guang was driven to commit suicide after it was alleged that a pavilion he had built in the imperial gardens was placed in an unsuitable location according to feng shui principles. This was believed to have caused a series of misfortunes, including the death of the emperor's eldest daughter on 1 October and a fire in one of the palaces of the Forbidden City on 26 October.

Reduction of bureaucracy, composition of the government
At the start of his reign, the emperor made efforts to reduce unnecessary spending and eliminate corrupt eunuch-run agencies. He placed great importance on the competence and integrity of his bureaucracy, and was even stricter than previous Ming emperors (with the exception of the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor) in removing incompetent and dishonest officials. Shortly after taking the throne, he conducted a thorough purge of the court, removing many flatterers who had obtained their positions through bribery rather than merit. This included dismissing two thousand extra officials and nearly a thousand Taoists, Buddhists, and lamas, whom he sent back to their homes. He also imprisoned or executed the most corrupt Buddhist and Taoist monks. Additionally, he removed the relatives of Lady Wan from their positions and disgraced Senior Grand Secretary, Wan An, who was the head of the government.

Instead, he called upon able and straightforward men who had previously retired. Among them were the eunuch Huai En and the official Wang Shu, who were appointed as the Minister of Personnel. He sought their advice in selecting the other ministers. The leading ministers in Hongzhi's government were Ma Wensheng, who successively headed the Censorate, the Ministry of War, and the Ministry of Personnel, and Liu Daxia, who served as Minister of War during the last five years of the Hongzhi Emperor's reign. The emperor frequently consulted with Liu Daxia, which was unusual in the Ming administrative system.

He also sought advice from the Grand Secretaries as a group. Of the three Grand Secretaries from the previous era, two had a bad reputation and were dismissed (Wan An and Liu Jue ). This left only Liu Ji, who was still criticized by some censors. However, the newly appointed Grand Secretaries, Liu Jian and Xu Pu, as well as those selected a few years later, Qiu Jun , Li Dongyang, and Xie Qian , were all honorable men. This led to exceptional harmony at court.

Governing style
The Hongzhi Emperor wholeheartedly embraced the teachings of Confucianism, surpassing even the Ming and other Chinese emperors in his sincerity. He diligently fulfilled both the ritual and political duties of a monarch, striving to live and rule according to Confucian ideals. He listened to his ministers and prioritized the welfare of his people. Despite his conscientious efforts to govern and address the empire's problems, he lacked grand plans or a clear vision.

Unlike the Chenghua Emperor, who had not met with his ministers since 1469, the Hongzhi Emperor changed this attitude and resumed regular audiences in 1497. His government was dominated by civil officials who held more influence than the eunuchs and led military campaigns. He refrained from using harsh punishments against officials. Some Confucian historians have even compared his reign, particularly the early years, to the golden age of the sage rulers of antiquity. He actively worked to heal and streamline the state administration, presiding over daily morning audiences as one of his primary duties as emperor. However, his frail health often made it difficult for him to fulfill his duties.

He consistently followed the advice of the Grand Secretaries, only making decisions on a few personal matters and stubbornly maintaining his independence in those matters. However, as time went on and he was influenced by the empress and her family, he began to make more decisions independently. These decisions included supporting certain Buddhists and Taoists, as well as promoting and giving gifts to a select few individuals. This did not diminish the political power of the Grand Secretariat or the government's high morale.

During the Hongzhi era, two important works were compiled to supplement the Ming Code: Da-Ming huidian and Wenxing tiaoli. These works, which contained 297 articles, were completed in March 1500. However, the editors of the first work were criticized for not addressing the role of eunuchs and regulating their rights, which allowed for their illegal activities to continue. These compilations were the result of years of effort by officials who were dissatisfied with the state of the legal system, with the goal of making slight improvements.

The Hongzhi Emperor's devotion to Confucianism was unprecedented and unusual; even as emperor, he took his studies seriously and organized debates on political issues based on classical precedents. He also did not neglect the artistic aspect of education, as he was a skilled painter and calligrapher. Despite his mistakes, officials who were faithful to Confucian ideology overlooked and excused them due to his approach.

Economy, culture
During the Hongzhi era, China experienced numerous natural disasters, particularly towards the end of the 1490s. In the 1480s, a severe drought struck the empire, followed by floods in northern China in the early 1490s, with one particularly devastating flood in 1492. As a result, the emperor granted tax forgiveness on 3.5 million liters of wheat. The floods on the Yellow River, which had been ongoing since the late 1480s, caused the dam in Shandong to collapse, resulting in widespread destruction. In 1493, an expert named Liu Daxia was finally given the task of finding a solution to the problem. He enlisted the help of local experts and successfully regulated the river from Kaifeng, redirecting the main flow southeast to Suzhou in northern Jiangsu and then through the river bed of the Huai River, effectively preventing future floods in Shandong. The project involved 120,000 men and took two years to complete. Liu's success earned him a place in history and the favor of the emperor, leading to his promotion to the position of Minister of War (1501–1506). He became a trusted confidant of the emperor during the final years of the Hongzhi Emperor's reign.

Despite the challenges of drought, floods, and crop failures, the economy thrived under the Hongzhi Emperor's rule. However, there was a growing concentration of land in the hands of the powerful, particularly in both metropolitan areas, which began in the mid-15th century. While the emperor reduced tributary relations with Southeast Asia, private foreign trade with the region flourished due to the lack of government enforcement. In Suzhou, wealthy families began to rival the nobility in their patronage of the arts, leading to the flourishing of the Wu School of painting, which included renowned artists such as Shen Zhou, Wen Zhengming, Tang Yin, and Qiu Ying. Grand Secretary Li Dongyang held great influence in matters of painting, calligraphy, and poetry, and the emperor himself was a patron of Shen Du and other court painters, such as Lü Ji.

Tea trade
Due to conflicts with the Turpan over Hami, the army was in need of horses. As a solution, the emperor agreed to revive the state's practice of exchanging tea for horses, in order to combat the illegal private sale of tea to Tibetan and Mongolian tribes in the northeast. The plan involved licensed traders transporting tea from Sichuan to Gansu border towns, with 40% of the tea (400,000 jin, approximately 240 tons) being handed over to the authorities and the rest being sold by the traders themselves. The government's goal was to obtain 4,000 horses through this exchange, but the merchants would often take the inferior quality tea and keep the higher quality tea for themselves, resulting in the officials receiving subpar horses from the Tibetans in exchange.

In 1494, after a famine in Shaanxi, the emperor offered 2 million jin (around 1,200 tons) of tea from state reserves to merchants in exchange for rice to be sent to the affected regions. In the following years, the practice of exchanging tea for horses was discontinued and instead, merchants were offered 4 million jin of tea. In 1501, the emperor ordered 4–5 million jin of tea to be sold for silver, which was then used by the authorities to purchase grain for Shaanxi. However, this decision hindered the exchange of tea for horses, leading the emperor to ban the exchange of tea for grain in 1502. Despite these efforts, the government struggled to obtain high-quality tea to exchange for high-quality horses, and as a result, merchants continued to independently export tea across the border, bypassing the state's control.

Money
Since the closure of the mints in the 1430s, there has been a worsening shortage of coins and coppers over time. In the early 16th century, privately produced coins replaced the state-issued coins from the early Ming and the remaining Tang and Song dynasties.

By the end of the 15th century, copper coins were mainly in circulation in the north, while silver had replaced them in the south. A revenue record of 1481 mentions that coins were only used in North and South Zhili, Henan and Shandong, which are all located along the Grand Canal. Similarly, a record of 1503 states that coins were used in the same areas, but not in Fujian, Guangdong (although they were still in use at the time of the record; private and highly valued Song coins were used), Yunnan, Guizhou, and other inland regions. In Jiangxi and Huguang, rice, grain, silver, and cloth were used as currency, while in the more underdeveloped northwest (in Shaanxi and Shanxi), skin was used and in the southwest (Yunnan), cowrie shells were used.

Merchants also exported Ming private coins abroad. However, paradoxically, while these coins were accepted as currency and recognized officially abroad, the Ming government stubbornly refused to acknowledge them in China. In the early 16th century, the Ming government discovered that proper state coins had disappeared from the market and resumed minting in 1503. The main purpose of this measure was to push the private coins out of Jiangnan, where they were particularly widespread. The government attempted to support its own coinage by issuing a decree that halved the value of coins from previous dynasties and reiterating the ban on private coinage. Despite these efforts and the significant amount of production, state coins failed to gain dominance in the market. Furthermore, the technical process of producing copper coins was problematic as their casting was expensive and officials did not have access to qualified experts, leading them to even use detained counterfeiters.

Army reforms
The Hongzhi Emperor was likely the first Ming emperor who did not seek military glory or strive to match the accomplishments of his predecessors. He saw himself as a Confucian ruler who should gain superiority over neighboring nations through the power of virtue rather than weapons, and thus he generally avoided aggressive actions. The only notable military campaigns during his reign were the expedition to Hami in 1495 and the suppression of several minor rebellions. He did consider a potential expedition to the northern frontier, but was ultimately dissuaded by his ministers and grand secretaries.

In contrast to the late Chenghua Emperor's reign, where the Beijing garrison, including the twelve training divisions, was controlled by eunuchs, the Hongzhi Emperor handed command over to civil officials in 1487 and overall command to Ma Wensheng, an official with considerable experience in leading troops on the northern frontier.

Instead of relying solely on hereditary soldiers from the weisuo system, the army increasingly turned to hiring mercenaries for pay. These mercenaries were known as "local soldiers" (tubing) on the border and "people's stalwarts" (minzhuang) inland. In 1494, the emperor officially adjusted the rules for recruiting these soldiers, which had previously been done informally since 1449. In 1502, 300,000 Minzhuang soldiers were incorporated into the Weisuo units to strengthen them. In 1464, special examinations were introduced for selecting officers, but it wasn't until the 1470s that this became more widespread. However, the emperor was dissatisfied with the results of these examinations as they did not reveal officers with exceptional talent. In 1496, he called on local officials to find such men, but this effort proved unsuccessful.

Unrest in the southwest and south
During the reign of the Hongzhi Emperor, unrest continued to plague the southwest region of the Ming dynasty. One of the most significant disturbances during the late 15th century was the rebellion led by a woman named Mi-lu from the Lolo tribe, which took place on the border of Guizhou and Yunnan from 1499 to 1502. The suppression of this rebellion required the mobilization of troops from four provinces and 80,000 members of local tribes.

The Li rebellion in Hainan from 1500 to 1503 was a significant event. It was sparked by the overreach of Chinese officials and led by tribal leaders, resulting in rebels from the inland mountains attacking Chinese residents in the coastal plains. As the government debated the best course of action, Feng Yu, a secretary in the Ministry of Revennue who was a Han Chinese native of Hainan, suggested placing local administration under the control of hereditary Li chiefs instead of Chinese authorities, which had been the norm until the Chenghua era. Although the proposal was approved, the rebellion was ultimately quelled through military force, resulting in heavy losses for both Chinese and Mongol troops.

Central Asia
In the previous reign, the Hongzhi Emperor's ministers inherited enmity with the Sultan of Turpan, who had captured Hami, an important city on the Silk Road west of China, much to their displeasure. In 1489, Ming diplomacy began to organize anti-Turpan actions, and in 1495, the Ming intervened militarily. A Sino-Mongol army conquered Hami and installed a Uighur prince on the throne. However, the Turpans were able to recapture the city before the end of the same year. In response, the Ming government completely halted trade along the Silk Road, forcing the Turpans to yield. In 1499, the Uyghur prince was once again installed in Hami. This success was likely due to the influence of the experienced military minister Ma Wensheng, who had served in the northwest in his youth and had a better understanding of the situations beyond the Great Wall than other Beijing statesmen. However, the Uyghur prince's incompetence caused tension among his subjects, leading to continued instability.

The Ming government continued to interfere in Hami affairs in the first decade of the 16th century, but their influence gradually weakened.

Death and legacy
On 1 June 1505, the Hongzhi Emperor fell ill and died a few days later, on 8 June. He was given the temple name Xiaozong, meaning 'Filial Ancestor', in recognition of his dedication to Confucian virtues, and the posthumous name Emperor Jing ('Respectful Emperor'). He was buried in the Tailing Mausoleum in the Ming tombs near Beijing.

His thirteen-year-old son, the Zhengde Emperor, succeeded him on 19 June 1505. Despite his father's love and early appointment as successor in 1492, the son held opposing views on many issues. In comparison to his son's rejection of Confucian values, the Hongzhi Emperor was remembered by Chinese intellectuals as an ideal ruler.

The official History of Ming has recognized him as one of the commendable rulers, as out of the sixteen Ming emperors, only Hongxi, Xuande, and Hongzhi were deemed worthy of recognition besides Hongwu and Yongle. During his reign, border defenses were strengthened, tax administration was improved, and a spirit of openness and cooperation was fostered within the government.

The Hongzhi Emperor's rule is traditionally viewed as a time of harmonious relations between the emperor and the government. Confucian scholars praised him as a model ruler and downplayed his flaws, particularly his favoritism towards the empress and her unworthy relatives. The emperor actively advised officials, leading to improved relations with them. However, no changes were made to the structure of the highest offices, allowing for a swift rise in the abuse of eunuch power under the subsequent emperors, Zhengde and Jiajing.

Family
In contrast to almost all of his predecessors, who had many consorts and concubines and fathered many children, the Hongzhi Emperor had only one empress, Empress Zhang. His empress gave birth to two sons, but the second one died at a young age. The Hongzhi Emperor showed a lot of love to his first son, which he himself lacked in his childhood. However, the boy seemed to rebel against the emperor's teachings in his heart, if not openly. According to the official History of Ming, on his deathbed, the Hongzhi Emperor summoned his officials and entrusted them with the care of his son, who was only thirteen at the time. He was described as intelligent, but too inclined towards entertainment and pleasure.

Consort and Issue:
 * Empress Xiaochengjing, of the Zhang clan (孝成敬皇后 張氏; 1471–1541)
 * Zhu Houzhao, the Zhengde Emperor (正德帝 朱厚㷖; 27 October 1491 – 20 April 1521), first son
 * Princess Taikang (太康公主; 1494 – 1 October 1498), personal name Xiurong (秀榮), first daughter
 * Zhu Houwei, Prince Dao of Wei (蔚悼王 朱厚煒; 1 January 1495 – 9 March 1496), second son

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hongzhi Emperor


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Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff

Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff or Seckendorf (December 20, 1626 – December 18, 1692), German statesman and scholar, was a member of the House of Seckendorff, a noble family which took its name from the village of Seckendorf between Nuremberg and Langenzenn. The family was divided into eleven distinct lines, widely distributed throughout Prussia, Württemberg, and Bavaria.

Biography
Seckendorf, a son of Joachim Ludwig von Seckendorf, was born at Herzogenaurach, near Erlangen. In 1639, the reigning Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Ernest the Pious, made him his protégé, and he was educated at the Ernestine Gymnasium, Gotha. His father, was actively engaged in the Thirty Years' War and was executed at Salzwedel in 1642 for his dealings with the Imperialists of the Holy Roman Empire. Entering the University of Strasbourg in 1642, the means for Seckendorf's higher education came from Swedish officers who were former comrades of his father. He devoted himself to history and jurisprudence, and at the end of his university years Duke Ernest gave him a position as hofjunker in his court at Gotha, where Seckendorf laid the foundation of his great collection of historical materials and mastered the principal modern languages.

In 1652, Seckendorf was appointed to judicial positions and also sent on foreign missions. In 1656, he was made a judge in the ducal court at Jena and took the leading part in the numerous beneficent reforms of the duke. In 1664, Duke Ernest made him his chancellor, but soon afterwards he resigned his offices at Jena, while remaining on excellent terms with its Duke, and entered the service of Duke Maurice of Zeitz (Altenburg), with the intention of lightening his official duties.

After the death of Maurice in 1681, Seckendorf retired to his estate, Meuselwitz in Altenburg, resigning nearly all his public offices. Although living in retirement, he kept up a correspondence with the principal learned men of the day. He was especially interested in the endeavours of the pietist Philipp Jakob Spener to effect a practical reform of the German church, although he was hardly himself a pietist. In 1692, he was appointed chancellor of the new University of Halle, but he died a few weeks afterwards.

Seckendorf's principal works were the following:
 * Teutscher Fürstenstaat (1656 and 1678), a handbook of German public law
 * Der Christen Stat (1685), partly an apology for Christianity and partly suggestions for the reformation of the church, founded on Pascal's Pensées and embodying the fundamental ideas of Spener
 * Commentarius Historicus et apologeticus de Lutheranismo sive de Reformatione (3 vols., Leipzig, 1692), occasioned by the Jesuit Maimbourg's Histoire du Luthéranisme (Paris, 1680), his most important work, and still indispensable to the historian of the Reformation as a rich storehouse of authentic materials.

Economic writings
Seckendorff is widely regarded as the "founder" of early economics in Germany of Cameralism. Having survived the horrors of the Thirty Years' War and the resulting economic, political and moral breakdown of society, Seckendorff conceived of a holistic science of public administration fit to reconstruct the more than 300 independent German principalities recognized by the Peace of Westphalia. The science he envisioned was both theoretical and practical, covering all the needs of a small principality. The same union of active and contemplative characterizes Seckendorff's own life, as he devoted himself both to administrating the Court of Gotha and the University of Halle, both to write an "owner's handbook" (Teutscher Fürstenstaat, "The German Principality") to small principalities and one of the most celebrated defenses of Lutheranism.

Thought
In his principal work, Teutsche Fürsten Staaten, a handbook of civil administration, Seckendorff created what is considered the seminal work of German Cameralism. In it, he described the situation of the country, the government institutions, and Seckendorff's recommended way to manage the prince's holdings, including his demesne and monopolies, so as to maximize state revenues. Seckendorff held a paternalistic view of the economy, advocating state involvement in population growth, education, usury prevention, trade regulation, contract law, and resource allocation.

Seckendorff is termed a "quasi-absolutist" by Albion Small, in the sense that he did not believe the old view that the will of the prince was the will of God, but he did believe God was the only power authorized to discipline the prince. With view to economics, Small terms Seckendorff "the Adam Smith of cameralism."

In Seckendorff, government consists in maintenance of the common advantage of things spiritual and material, with the final end of human actions being the glory of God, with the authorities serving as "God's deputies." This includes the religious duties of the prince, restored by the Reformation.

To Seckendorff, the four chief duties of the prince are: (1) establish power as a means of suppressing disorder, (2) establish good laws and ordinances to promote righteousness and peace, (3) serve as supreme adjudicator, (4) use all means necessary in the establishment of institutions to protect the foregoing activities from foreign and domestic enemies.

According to Seckendorff, subjects are not slaves of the ruler or the state; rather, they are under the government of (divinely-appointed) authorities so that their welfare and souls are protected according to both natural and imperial law. The government is to "cherish" its subjects. Nevertheless, the dignity of government is treated as an end in itself.

title: Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff


text:
Zhengde Emperor

The Zhengde Emperor (26 October 1491 – 20 April 1521), personal name Zhu Houzhao (朱厚㷖), was the 11th emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1505 to 1521. He was the Hongzhi Emperor's eldest son. Zhu Houzhao took the throne at only 14 with the era name "Zhengde", meaning "right virtue" or "rectification of virtue".

In the 1510s, Zhengde led an expedition against the Northern Yuan and squashed rebellions by Prince Anhua and Prince Ning. Infamous for his childlike behavior, the emperor was also known for favoring eunuchs such as Liu Jin who took advantage of his position in the court to squander vast sums of money. The emperor was also involved with several correspondences with the Malaccan government about their mutual distrust against the Portuguese, whom the Ming fought several conflicts with. He eventually died at age 29 from an illness he contracted after drunkenly falling off a boat into the Yellow River. He left behind no sons and was succeeded by his first cousin Zhu Houcong.

Early years
Zhu Houzhao was made crown prince at a very early age and because his father did not take up any other concubines, Zhu did not have to contend with other princes for the throne. (His younger brother died in infancy.) The prince was thoroughly educated in Confucian literature and he excelled in his studies. Many of the Hongzhi Emperor's ministers expected that Zhu Houzhao would become a benevolent and brilliant emperor like his father.

Reign as emperor
Zhu Houzhao ascended the throne as the Zhengde Emperor and was married to his Empress at the age of 14. Unlike his father, the Zhengde Emperor was not interested in ruling or his Empress and disregarded most state affairs. His actions have been considered reckless, foolish or pointless. There are many instances where he showed a lack of responsibility.

The Zhengde Emperor took up a luxurious and prodigal lifestyle and indulged himself in women. It was said that he liked to frequent brothels and even created palaces called "Bao Fang" (豹房; literally "The Leopards' Chamber") outside the Forbidden City in Beijing initially to house exotic animals such as tigers and leopards for his amusement and then later used to house beautiful women for his personal enjoyment. He also met Wang Mantang, one of his favorite consorts at a Bao Fang. On one occasion he was badly mauled while hunting tigers, and could not appear in court audiences for a month. On another occasion he burned down his palace by storing gunpowder in the courtyards during the lantern festival. His harem was so overfilled that many women starved to death due to lack of supplies.

For months at a time he would live outside the Forbidden City or travel around the country with heavy expenditures being paid from the Ming government's coffers. While being urged to return to the palace and attend to governmental matters, the Zhengde Emperor would refuse to receive all his ministers and ignored all their petitions. He also sanctioned the rise of eunuchs around him. One particular Liu Jin, leader of the Eight Tigers, was notorious for taking advantage of the young emperor and squandered immense amount of silver and valuables. The diverted funds were about 36 million pounds of gold and silver. There was even rumor of a plot that Liu Jin had intended to murder the emperor and place his own grandnephew on the throne. Liu Jin's plot was ultimately discovered, and he was executed in 1510. However, the rise of corrupt enunchs continued throughout the Zhengde Emperor's reign. There was also an uprising led by the Prince of Anhua and another uprising led by the Prince of Ning. The Prince of Anhua was the Zhengde Emperor's great-granduncle, while the Prince of Ning was his granduncle.

In time, the Zhengde Emperor became notorious for his childish behaviour as well as abusing his power as emperor. For instance, he set up a staged commercial district inside his palace and ordered all his ministers, eunuchs, soldiers and servants of the palace to dress up and act as merchants or street vendors while he walked through the scene pretending to be a commoner. Any unwilling participants, especially the ministers (who viewed it as degrading and an insult), would be punished or removed from their post.

Then in 1517, the Zhengde Emperor gave himself an alter ego named Zhu Shou (朱壽) so he could relinquish his imperial duties and send himself off on an expedition to the north to repel raiding expeditions several tens of thousands strong led by Dayan Khan. He met the enemy outside the city of Yingzhou and defeated them in a major battle by surrounding them. For a long period of time after this battle, the Mongols did not launch a raiding expedition into Ming territory. Then again in 1519, the Zhengde Emperor led another expedition to Jiangxi province to the south to quell the Prince of Ning rebellion by a powerful prince known as Zhu Chenhao who had bribed many people in the emperor's cabinet. He arrived only to discover that the revolt had already been put down by Wang Yangming, a local administrative officer. Frustrated at not being able to lead his troops to victory, the Zhengde Emperor's advisor suggested they release the prince in order to capture him again. In January 1521, the Zhengde Emperor had the rebel Prince of Ning executed in Tongzhou, an event that was recorded even by the Portuguese embassy to China.

Relations with Muslims

The Zhengde Emperor was fascinated by foreigners and invited many Muslims to serve as advisors, eunuchs, and envoys at his court. Works of art such as porcelain from his court contained Islamic inscriptions in Arabic or Persian.

Khataynameh, a travelogue written by the Central Asian merchant ʿAli Akbar Khata'i, records that there was a grand mosque in Beijing and the Emperor used to visit and pray.

According to Bret Hinsch in the book Passions of the cut sleeve: the male homosexual tradition in China, the Zhengde Emperor had an alleged homosexual relationship with a Muslim leader from Hami, named Sayyid Husain, who served as the overseer in Hami during the Ming-Turpan border wars, although no evidence supporting this claim exists in Chinese sources.

Dark Affliction
Prior to the death of the Zhengde Emperor in early 1521, rumours about a mysterious group of creatures collectively called Dark Afflictions circulated the capital. Their attacks caused much unrest, because they randomly attacked people at night, causing wounds with their claws. The Minister for War asked the emperor to write an imperial edict proclaiming local security troops would arrest all those who frightened other people. The threat brought a sudden end to the spread of the stories.

Contact with Europe
"During the reign of Chingtih (Zhengde) (1506), foreigners from the west called Fah-lan-ki (or Franks), who said they had tribute, abruptly entered the Bogue, and by their tremendously loud guns shook the place far and near. This was reported at court, and an order returned to drive them away immediately, and stop the trade."

The first direct European contacts with China occurred during the reign of the Zhengde Emperor. In several initial missions commissioned by Afonso de Albuquerque of Portuguese Malacca, the Portuguese explorers Jorge Álvares and Rafael Perestrello landed in southern China and traded with the Chinese merchants of Tuen Mun and Guangzhou. In 1513 their king, Manuel I of Portugal, sent Fernão Pires de Andrade and Tomé Pires to formally open relations between the main court at Beijing and Lisbon, capital of Portugal. Although the Zhengde Emperor gave the Portuguese ambassador his blessing while touring Nanjing in May 1520, he died soon after and the Portuguese (who were rumored to be troublemakers in Canton and supposedly even cannibalized kidnapped Chinese children), were ejected by Chinese authorities under the new Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe. Although illegal trade continued thereafter, official relations between the Portuguese and the Ming court would not improve until the 1540s, culminating in the Ming court's consent in 1557 to Portugal establishing Macau as their trading base in China.

Sino-Malay alliance against Portugal
The Malay Malacca Sultanate was a tributary state and ally to Ming China. When Portugal conquered Malacca in 1511 and committed atrocities against the Malay Sultanate, the Ming responded with violent force against Portugal.

Due to the complaint that the Malaccan Sultan, Mahmud Shah, had lodged with the Zhengde emperor against the Portuguese invasion, the Portuguese were greeted with hostility from the Chinese when they arrived in China. The Malaccan Sultan, based in Bintan after fleeing Malacca, sent a message to the Ming, which combined with Portuguese raids and piracy in China, led the Ming authorities to arrest and execute 23 of the Portuguese and torture the rest. After the Portuguese set up posts for trading in China and committed piratical activities and raids in China, the Ming responded with the complete extermination of the Portuguese in Ningbo and Quanzhou. The Ming government imprisoned, tortured and executed multiple Portuguese envoys in Guangzhou, after the Malaccans informed the Chinese of the Portuguese seizure of Malacca, to which the Chinese responded with hostility toward the Portuguese. The Malaccans told the Chinese of the Portuguese deception in disguising plans for conquering Malacca as mere trading activities, and told of all the atrocities committed by the Portuguese. Tomé Pires, a Portuguese trade envoy, was accused of spying and was among those who died in the Chinese dungeons. The Ming effectively held the Portuguese ambassador hostage, using them as a bargaining chip in demanding that the Portuguese restore the deposed Malaccan Sultan to his throne.

The Ming defeated a Portuguese fleet in 1521 at the Battle of Tunmen, killing and capturing so many Portuguese that the Portuguese had to abandon their junks and retreat with only three ships, only escaping back to Malacca because a wind scattered the Chinese ships as they launched a final attack.

The Ming proceeded to execute several Portuguese by beating and strangling them, and torturing the rest. The other Portuguese prisoners were put into iron chains and kept in prison. The Chinese confiscated all of the Portuguese property and goods in the Pires embassy's possession.

In 1522 Martim Afonso de Merlo Coutinho was appointed commander of another Portuguese fleet sent to establish diplomatic relations. The Chinese defeated the Portuguese ships led by Coutinho at the Battle of Shancaowan. A large number of Portuguese were captured and ships destroyed during the battle. The Portuguese were forced to retreat to Malacca.

The Ming forced Pires to write letters for them, demanding that the Portuguese restore the deposed Malaccan Sultan back to his throne. The Malay ambassador to China was to deliver the letter.

The Ming sent a message to the deposed Sultan Mahmud Shah concerning the fate of the Portuguese ambassador, whom the Chinese held prisoner. When they received his reply, the Chinese officials then proceeded to execute the Portuguese ambassador, slicing their bodies into multiple pieces. Their genitalia were inserted into their mouths. These executions were deliberately conducted in multiple public areas in Guangzhou, to show that the Portuguese were "petty sea robbers" in the eyes of the Chinese. When more Portuguese ships landed, the Ming also had them seized, and subsequently executed them, as well as cutting off their genitalia, beheading the bodies and forcing their fellow Portuguese to wear the body parts, while the Chinese celebrated with music. The genitalia and heads were displayed, strung up for the public to see, after which they were discarded.

Death
The Zhengde Emperor died in 1521 at age 29, 31 according to the Chinese age reckoning used at the time. It was said that he was drunk while boating on a lake one day in the fall of 1520, fell off, and almost drowned. He died after contracting illnesses from the Grand Canal waters. Since none of his several children had survived childhood, he was succeeded by his cousin Zhu Houcong, who became known as the Jiajing Emperor. His tomb is located at Kangling of the Ming tombs.

Legacy
By the accounts of some historians, although bred to be a successful ruler, the Zhengde Emperor thoroughly neglected his duties, beginning a dangerous trend that would plague future Ming emperors. The abandonment of official duties to pursue personal gratification would slowly lead to the rise of powerful eunuchs who would dominate and eventually ruin the Ming dynasty. The Ming scholar Tan Qian argued that: "The Emperor was smart and playful... He also did not harm officials who argued against him. [He enjoyed] the support of the minister and the efficient works of the clerks. [He worked until] midnight to issue edicts that punished [the criminals] like Liu Jin and Qian Ning (Zhengde's own adoptive son)."

Some modern historians have come to view his reign in a new light and debate that his actions along with that of his successors such as the Wanli Emperor were a direct reaction to the bureaucratic gridlock that affected the Ming dynasty in its later half. The emperors were very limited in their policy decision and could not really implement any sort of lasting effective reforms despite the obvious need, while they were faced with constant pressure and were expected to be responsible for all the troubles the dynasty faced. As a result, the ministers became increasingly frustrated and disillusioned about their posts, and protested in different forms of what was essentially an imperial strike. Thus emperors such as the Zhengde Emperor sneaked out of the palace while emperors such as the Jiajing and Wanli emperors simply did not show up in the imperial court. Other authors state that Zhengde was a ruler with a strong will, who dealt decisively with Liu Jin, Prince Ning, Prince Anhua and the Mongol threat, acted competently in crises caused by natural disasters and plagues and collected taxes in a benevolent manner. Although his reign's achievements were in large parts the contributions of his very talented officials, they also reflected on the capability of the ruler.

Family
Consorts:
 * Empress Xiaojingyi, of the Xia clan (孝靜毅皇后 夏氏; 1492–1535)
 * Consort Shuhuide, of the Wu clan (淑惠德妃 吳氏; d. 1539)
 * Consort Rongshuxian, of the Shen clan (榮淑賢妃 沈氏; 1492–1542)
 * Consort, of the Wang clan (妃 王氏)
 * Beauty, of the Liu clan (美人 劉氏)
 * Wang Mantang (王满堂); 1471–1541)
 * Lady, of the Ma clan (馬氏)
 * Lady, of the Dai clan (戴氏)
 * Lady, of the Du clan (杜氏)

title: Zhengde Emperor