text:
List of nicknames of presidents of the United States

Presidents of the United States have often acquired nicknames, both flattering and unflattering. This list is intended to note those nicknames that were in common use at the time they were in office or shortly thereafter.

George Washington

 * The American Cincinnatus: Like the famous Roman, he won a war, then became a private citizen instead of seeking power or riches as a reward. He became the first president general of the Society of the Cincinnati, formed by Revolutionary War officers who also "declined offers of power and position to return to his home and plough".
 * The American Fabius for his Fabian military strategy during the Revolutionary War.
 * The Father of His Country
 * His Excellency
 * Sage of Mount Vernon

John Adams

 * The Colossus of Independence for his leadership in Congress in 1776.
 * The Duke of Braintree due to residing in Braintree, Massachusetts and his strong opinions on the use of honorifics for important officers of the government.
 * Father of American Independence
 * His Rotundity for his girthy bodily figure.
 * Old Sink or Swim, for the speech in which he vowed "sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I am with my country from this day on.".

Thomas Jefferson

 * The Apostle of Democracy
 * Father of the Declaration of Independence
 * Long Tom
 * The Man of the People
 * Red Fox
 * The Sage of Monticello

James Madison

 * The Father of the Constitution
 * Little Jemmy or His Little Majesty: at only 5 ft, the shortest U.S. president.

James Monroe

 * The Era of Good Feelings President for "The Era of Good Feelings", the period following the War of 1812, during which America became less divided politically, to the extent that the only opponents of the ruling Democratic Republicans, the Federalist Party, went out of existence. It was not until resistance to Andrew Jackson's policies produced the Whig Party that oppositional politics resumed in the United States.
 * The Last Cocked Hat because he was the last U.S. president to wear a tricorne hat according to the old-fashioned style of the 18th century.

John Quincy Adams

 * The Abolitionist or Old Man Eloquent: famed for routinely bringing up the slavery issue against Congressional rules, and for his role later on in the Amistad case. He is the only American president to be elected to the House of Representatives after his presidency. The nickname gained currency as a result of his campaign against slavery waged as a congressman, and as the attorney in the Amistad case.
 * Mad Old Man From Massachusetts

Andrew Jackson

 * Andy, childhood nickname
 * The Hero of New Orleans for his military victory in the Battle of New Orleans.
 * Jackass: Andrew Jackson's critics disparaged him as a "Jackass"; however, Jackson embraced the animal, making it the unofficial symbol of the Democratic Party.
 * King Andrew for his supposedly excessive use of the veto power.
 * King Mob
 * Old Hickory, allegedly given to him by his soldiers for being as "tough as old hickory".
 * People’s President
 * Sharp Knife, for his fighting tactics

Martin Van Buren

 * The American Talleyrand
 * Blue Whiskey Van, a reference to his excessive drinking of whiskey.
 * The Careful Dutchman: Van Buren's first language was Dutch.
 * Dandy President, criticizers called him for his fancy expensive outfits
 * The Enchanter
 * The Great Manager
 * The Little Magician, given to him during his time in the state of New York, because of his smooth politics and short stature.
 * Machiavellian Bellshazzar, given to him by detractors
 * Martin Van Ruin
 * The Master Spirit
 * Matty Van from "Tippecanoe Songs of 1840"
 * The Mistletoe Politician, so called by Joseph Peyton of Tennessee, a Whig opponent, who charged that "Martin Van Buren was a mere political parasite, a branch of mistletoe, that owed its elevation, its growth--nay, its very existence, to the tall trunk of an aged hickory" (i.e. Andrew Jackson).
 * Old Kinderhook (OK), a reference to his home town.
 * Red Fox of Kinderhook, a reference to his red hair and home town.
 * The Sly Fox

William Henry Harrison

 * General Mum, as in the expression, "keep it mum," because of his avoidance of speaking out on controversial issues during his election campaign.
 * Old Granny, his opponents called him for he was the oldest person at the time to be president, his age was 68
 * Tippecanoe or also Old Tippecanoe, a reference to Harrison's victory at the 1811 Battle of Tippecanoe; used in the campaign song Tippecanoe and Tyler Too during the 1840 presidential election.
 * Washington of the West, a reference to Harrison's victories at the 1811 Battle of Tippecanoe and 1813 Battle of the Thames.

John Tyler

 * His Accidency, a nickname given by his opponents; the first president to be elevated to the presidency by the death of his predecessor, William Henry Harrison.

James K. Polk

 * First Dark Horse President, he was not well known before the 1844 United States presidential election
 * Napoleon of the Stump, for his short stature and potent oratory skills.
 * Young Hickory because he was a particular protégé of "Old Hickory", Andrew Jackson.

Zachary Taylor

 * Old Rough and Ready

Millard Fillmore

 * The American Louis Philippe
 * Last of the Whigs
 * Wool Carder President, when he was 15, he was sent to be an apprentice to a wool carder.

Franklin Pierce

 * Handsome Frank
 * Purse
 * Young Hickory of the Granite Hills: "Young Hickory" compared his military deeds (in the Mexican–American War) with those of Andrew Jackson. "The Granite Hills" were his home state of New Hampshire.

James Buchanan

 * Bachelor President, per his unmarried status.
 * Old Buck, from a shortening of his last name, used later in life.
 * Old Public Functionary, used by Buchanan in his December 1859 State of the Union address and adopted by newspapers.
 * Ten-Cent Jimmy: derogatory, as a reaction to Buchanan's campaign statement that ten cents a day was decent pay for a worker.

Abraham Lincoln

 * Abe
 * Honest Abe
 * Uncle Abe for his avuncularity in his later years.
 * The Ancient One, a nickname favored by White House insiders because of his "ancient wisdom".
 * Grand Wrestler, Abraham was great at wrestling and only had one recorded loss
 * The Great Emancipator and The Liberator for the emancipation of the slaves.
 * The Rail-Splitter
 * The Tycoon, for the energetic and ambitious conduct of his Civil War administration.

Andrew Johnson

 * Sir Veto, because of the large number of legislative vetoes he issued during his presidency; 29 in total, (the most at the time).
 * The Tennessee Tailor, for his career as a tailor before going into politics.

Ulysses S. Grant

 * The Butcher, Grant's unmatched persistence led him to win several key victories for the Union forces earning him this nickname.
 * The Great Hammerer
 * Little Beauty, a nickname mocking his good looks.
 * Ulyss, childhood nickname
 * U.S. Grant
 * Uncle Sam Grant, a name given to him by his classmates at West Point.
 * Unconditional Surrender Grant, a backronym for his uncompromising demand for unconditional surrender during the Battle of Fort Donelson in 1862, which made him a hero.
 * United States Grant, his classmates soon began to call after he got his new initials USG

Rutherford B. Hayes

 * Dark Horse President
 * His Fraudulency or Rutherfraud, because after the disputed results of the 1876 Election, many Democrats did not consider him legitimately to be president.
 * Rud, childhood nickname

James Garfield

 * Boatman Jim, referencing his work on the Ohio canals in his youth.
 * Canal Boy, also referring to his old job on Ohio canals as a boy
 * Preacher President

Chester A. Arthur

 * Chet, shortened version of his name used by publications of that era.
 * Elegant Arthur, for his style and huge wardrobe of clothes
 * Gentleman Boss, as the dapper leader of New York State's Republican party.
 * Prince Arthur and The Dude President, for his fancy attire and indulgence in extravagant luxury.
 * Walrus, because of his magnificent mustache

Grover Cleveland

 * Big Steve, as his full name was Stephen Grover Cleveland.
 * Grover the Good, for his honesty and public integrity.
 * His Obstinacy, he vetoed more bills than the first 21 presidents combined.
 * Uncle Jumbo

Benjamin Harrison

 * The Front Porch Campaigner; during the 1888 election, he gave nearly ninety speeches from his front porch to crowds gathered in the yard of his Indianapolis home; this nickname has been widely but erroneously attributed to William McKinley.
 * Grandfather’s Hat, for his grandfather William Henry Harrison was the 9th president of the United States
 * The Human Iceberg, although he could warmly engage a crowd with his speeches, he was cold and detached when speaking with people on an individual basis.
 * Kid Gloves Harrison
 * Little Ben, given to him by Democrats of his era because of his stature; this could also be a reference to his being the grandson of former president William Henry Harrison, who had served fifty years before.
 * Pious Moonlight Dude, because of his romance

William McKinley

 * Idol of Ohio
 * The Major
 * The Napoleon of Protection, referring to high tariffs such as the one he wrote in 1890.
 * Wobbly Willie, due to flip-flopping on issues such as expansionism.

Theodore Roosevelt

 * The Colonel, for his rank in the Spanish–American War.
 * The Hero of San Juan Hill for leading his Rough Riders up San Juan Hill during the Battle of Santiago de Cuba in 1898.
 * The Lion
 * Teddy: Used in The New York Times at least as early as 1900, even though he hated the nickname.
 * Telescope Teddy, because he had all his rifles fitted with a small telescope
 * Teedie, childhood nickname
 * TR for signing communications this way; perhaps the first president to be known by his initials.
 * The Trust Buster, so called as a pioneer of busting business trusts.

William Howard Taft

 * Big Bill, for his large appearance.
 * Big Chief
 * Big Lub, his boyhood nickname.
 * Sleeping Beauty, a nickname his wife Helen Herron Taft called him because he was always falling asleep

Woodrow Wilson

 * Coiner of Weasel Words, given by former president Theodore Roosevelt in a speech
 * The Phrasemaker: as an acclaimed historian, Wilson had no need of speech-writers to supply his oratorical eloquence.
 * Professor, for his job was a college professor
 * The Schoolmaster: a bespectacled academic who lectured his visitors.

Warren G. Harding

 * Wobbly Warren, because of his flip-flopping and closeness to his Cabinet during important events, similar to McKinley.

Calvin Coolidge

 * Cal, short for Calvin
 * Cautious Cal
 * Cool Cal, since his reelection campaign used the slogan, "Keep It Cool With Coolidge".
 * Silent Cal
 * Red, because of his hair color
 * The Sphinx or Sphinx of the Potomac because he was non talkative and a man of few words

Herbert Hoover

 * The Chief, a nickname picked up at the age of 23 as a geologist surveying in the Australian Outback, that stuck for the rest of his life.
 * The Great Engineer and the Great Humanitarian: He was a civil engineer of some distinction and when the Mississippi burst its banks in 1927, engulfing thousands of acres of agricultural land, he volunteered his services and did extensive flood control work. The latter nickname would later be used facetiously in reference to his perceived indifference to the hardships faced by his constituents during the Great Depression. However, the nickname dates back to 1921, when the ARA under Hoover saved millions of Russians suffering from famine. "It was such considerations that Walter Lippmann took into account when he wrote of Hoover's Russian undertaking in the New York World in May 1922: 'probably no other living man could have done nearly so much.".

Franklin D. Roosevelt

 * FDR, abbreviation of his full name.
 * Feather-duster, boys at Groton School called him because they thought he was snobbish and a bit of a sissy.
 * Sphinx, in reference to his initial silence on whether or not he would run for a third term. Later visually depicted in a caricature sculpture commissioned by Secretary James D. Preston of the National Archives.
 * That Man in the White House, used by those who disliked Roosevelt so much that they outright avoided saying his name.

Harry S. Truman

 * Give 'Em Hell Harry (also a campaign slogan).
 * Haberdasher Harry
 * Man From Independence
 * The Senator From Pendergast, for his connection with political boss Tom Pendergast

Dwight D. Eisenhower

 * Ike, known for being in his campaign slogan "I like Ike".

John F. Kennedy

 * The American Erlander, as he was known in Sweden, due to his friendship with Prime Minister Tage Erlander and their shared interest in social welfare.

 * Jack, Kennedy was usually referred to as either "John F. Kennedy" or "Jack Kennedy". See also Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy.
 * JFK, most prominent nickname and abbreviation of his full name.
 * Little Blue Boy, he was called by his precedent Dwight D. Eisenhower
 * Rat Face, kids at his school called him for his skinny appearance

Lyndon B. Johnson

 * Bull Johnson for his reputation for boasting at Southwest Texas State Teachers College.
 * Landslide Lyndon, ironic reference to the Box 13 scandal, a hotly disputed 87-vote win that put him into the Senate in 1948, which became more appropriate in his supporters' eyes following his victory in the 1964 presidential election.
 * LBJ; he liked to be known by this abbreviation, which was used in the campaign slogan, "All the way with LBJ"; later it would be used in the Anti-Vietnam War political slogan "Hey, hey, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today?".
 * Light-Bulb Lyndon, because he hated wasting electricity, and would often storm around the White House shutting off unnecessary lights.

Richard Nixon

 * Tricky Dick, from a Democratic Party ad leading up to the 1950 U.S. Senate election in California saying "Look at 'Tricky Dick' Nixon's Republican Record".

Gerald Ford

 * Jerry
 * Junie, childhood nickname
 * Mr. Nice Guy for his clean-cut and non-partisan image.

Jimmy Carter

 * Hot, short for Hot Shot, which was a childhood nickname.
 * Jimmy, the first president to use his nickname in an official capacity, rather than his first name James.
 * Jimmy Cardigan, got the nickname after he wore a sweater instead of a suit one day
 * The Peanut Farmer, he owned a peanut farm and fostered this image in his early campaigns, as a contrast to elite Washington insiders.

Ronald Reagan

 * Dutch: shortly after his birth, his father said he looked like a "fat little Dutchman"; reinforced when he wore a Dutch boy haircut (see pageboy) as a youngster.
 * The Gipper, after his role as George "The Gipper" Gipp in the film Knute Rockne, All American. Gipp exhorted his teammates to "Win one for the Gipper".
 * The Great Communicator for his ability to communicate.
 * The Teflon President, coined by Rep. Patricia Schroeder because nothing negative "stuck to" him (like a Teflon skillet); he remained blame-free in the eyes of the American people.

George H. W. Bush

 * 41, Papa Bush, Bush 41, Bush Senior, Senior, and similar names that were used after his son George W. Bush became the 43rd president, to differentiate between the two
 * Little Pop, because he was named after a grandfather
 * Poppy, a nickname used from childhood on.

Bill Clinton

 * Bill, itself short for his first name, William.
 * Bubba, common nickname for males in the Southern U.S.
 * The Comeback Kid, coined by press after strong second place showing in 1992 New Hampshire primary, following polling slump.
 * Slick Willie, a term originally coined when he was Governor of Arkansas and popularized by newspaper Pine Bluff Commercial, whose staff disagreed with his political views.

George W. Bush

 * 43, Bush Jr., Junior, Bush 43, and similar names, used to differentiate him from his father.
 * Dubya, based on a Texas pronunciation of "W".
 * Shrub, nickname his high school classmate Molly Ivins gave to him

Barack Obama

 * Barry, short for Barack
 * Barry O’Bomber, teammates in High School called him because he was great at scoring baskets in basketball
 * Nobama, primarily by Republicans and South African protestors.
 * No Drama Obama, for his cautious and meticulous presidential campaign in 2007–2008 and for his patient, relaxed demeanor.

Donald Trump

 * 45, the 45, and similar names, referencing his being the 45th president, and his penchant for wearing monogrammed "45" apparel.
 * The Donald since his first wife Ivana Trump referred to him as such in a 1989 Spy magazine cover story.
 * Mr. Drumpf, from the ancestral German spelling of his surname, considered humorous by modern American standards. When exactly Drumpf was Anglicized as Trump in his family is unknown, but appears to have happened sometime during the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). The nickname was adopted by detractors of Trump after comedian and political commentator John Oliver highlighted the etymology in a segment on Last Week Tonight with John Oliver and encouraged his audience to "Make Donald Drumpf Again".
 * Orange Man, in reference to his prominent skin tan. Especially used in the phrase "Orange man bad", an ad hominem of poor grammar meant to mock his detractors.
 * President Snowflake and Snowflake-in-Chief  using the term "Snowflake", for his poor reactions to criticism, particularly on Twitter and regarding the Mueller probe and related investigations.

Joe Biden

 * Amtrak Joe, from his association with Amtrak trains, which he would use to commute to Washington, D.C.
 * Brandon, or Joe Brandon, and derivatives such as Dark Brandon, based on the anti-Biden political slogan "Let's Go Brandon" which is a coded way of saying "Fuck Joe Biden".
 * Scranton Joe, from his birthplace of Scranton, Pennsylvania and association with blue-collar politics.
 * Sleepy Joe, nickname used by Biden's opponent Donald Trump and his supporters, most prominently in the 2020 United States presidential election, to attack Biden as 'mentally slow'.


text:
User:Fundao

Fundao is a fanatic polytheistic religious group that is based on these three pilars:

 * TETE - the holy beverage
 * MUIE - a piece of heaven with 2 holes
 * ZEZE - "the" holy human being, has got large legs and is redhaired

although it's got about 7000 members, fundao is still a mystery, a closed group that is formed only with guys that follow some rules and sing a very cool hymn.

you can find more info about FUNDAO at www.fundaozeze.blig.com.br

Its founders were:
 * a fat guy called BALLAUM
 * an ugly guy called TOSKO
 * a black guy called MARTE

Fundao exists since 1999, when these three men gathered a lot of followers and started their journey to show the world that TETE-MUIE-ZEZE are the holy things in life.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Fundao


text:
List of public utilities

This is a list of public utilities.

Natural gas companies

 * 🇧🇧 Barbados - National Petroleum Corporation, Barbados National Oil Company Ltd.
 * 🇧🇷 Brazil - Comgás
 * 🇨🇦 Canada - List of Canadian natural gas companies
 * 🇨🇳 China - China Natural Gas, Towngas China
 * 🇭🇰 Hong Kong - China Resources Gas, The Hong Kong and China Gas Company
 * 🇪🇬 Egypt - EGAS
 * 🇫🇷 France - List of French natural gas companies
 * 🇯🇵 Japan - List of Japan natural gas companies
 * 🇲🇾 Malaysia - Petronas
 * 🇵🇰 Pakistan - Sui Northern Gas Pipelines Limited, Sui Southern Gas Company Limited
 * 🇪🇸 Spain - Endesa, Iberdrola, Naturgy, Repsol, TotalEnergies
 * 🇹🇼 Taiwan - CPC Corporation
 * 🇹🇭 Thailand - PTT
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom - List of British natural gas companies
 * 🇺🇸 United States - List of United States natural gas companies

Electricity companies

 * 🇦🇺 Australia - Lumo Energy, EnergyAustralia, Origin Energy, TRUenergy, SEC Victoria (fmr.), Powercor, Click Energy, AGL, Alinta, Citipower, ETSA Utilities, Western Power, Country Energy, Energex, Integral Energy, ActewAGL, Ergon Energy, Power and Water
 * 🇧🇩 Bangladesh - Summit Group, Power Grid Company of Bangladesh Ltd, Electricity Generation Company of Bangladesh Ltd
 * 🇧🇧 Barbados - Barbados Light and Power Company Ltd.
 * 🇧🇪 Belgium - Electrabel
 * 🇧🇼 Botswana - Botswana Power Corporation
 * 🇧🇷 Brazil - Eletrobrás, AES Eletropaulo, CPFL Energia, Celesc, CEMIG, CESP, Copel, Light S.A., CEEE, Energisa
 * 🇨🇦 Canada - List of Canadian electric utilities
 * 🇨🇳 China - State Grid Corporation, China Southern Power Grid
 * 🇭🇰 Hong Kong - Hongkong Electric, CLP Power
 * Macau - Companhia de Electricidade de Macau
 * 🇨🇺 Cuba - Union Electrica
 * 🇨🇿 Czech Republic - CEZ Group
 * 🇪🇬 Egypt - Egyptian Electricity Holding Company
 * 🇪🇹 Ethiopia - Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation
 * 🇫🇮 Finland - Fortum
 * 🇫🇷 France - EDF, Engie, List of French electric utilities
 * 🇩🇪 Germany - E.ON, RWE, EnBW
 * 🇬🇷 Greece - PPC (DEI) (Greek Hydro), List of electric power companies in Greece
 * 🇮🇸 Iceland - Orkuveita Reykjavíkur
 * 🇮🇳 India - List of Electricity Organizations in India, India: NTPC, Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd.(PGCIL), KPTCL, MSEB, Tata Power, BSES Rajdhani Power Ltd New Delhi, BSES Yamuna Power Ltd New Delhi
 * 🇮🇩 Indonesia - Perusahaan Listrik Negara
 * 🇮🇹 Italy - Enel, Edison, A2A, ACEA, Hera, Sorgenia
 * 🇯🇵 Japan - Kansai Electric Power, Tokyo Electric Power, Chubu Electric Power, Chugoku Electric Power, Hokuriku Electric Power, Hokkaido Electric Power, Kyushu Electric Power, Tohoku Electric Power, Shikoku Electric Power, Okinawa Electric Power, J-POWER
 * 🇱🇾 Libya - Gecol
 * 🇲🇾 Malaysia - Tenaga Nasional Berhad
 * 🇳🇿 New Zealand - Genesis Energy, Mercury Energy, Meridian Energy, Transpower
 * Norway - Statnett
 * 🇵🇭 Philippines - Meralco
 * 🇸🇬 Singapore - Singapore Power
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa - Eskom
 * 🇰🇷 South Korea - Korea Electric Power Corporation
 * 🇪🇸 Spain - Endesa, Iberdrola, Naturgy, Repsol, TotalEnergies
 * 🇸🇪 Sweden - Vattenfall
 * 🇹🇼 Taiwan - Taiwan Power Company
 * 🇹🇭 Thailand - Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand, Provincial Electricity Authority, Metropolitan Electricity Authority
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom - EDF Energy, E.ON UK, National Grid, RWE npower, ScottishPower, Scottish and Southern Energy, Drax Power and Good Energy, Ecotricity, Alkane Energy, Ovo Energy
 * 🇺🇸 United States - List of United States electric companies

Telephone companies

 * 🇦🇺 Australia - Telstra, Optus, Vodafone, Hutchison Telecom(3G network), AAPT, Primus Telecom, Nextgen Networks, Agile Communications, TransACT
 * 🇧🇧 Barbados - Liberty Latin America
 * 🇧🇼 Botswana - Botswana Telecommunications Corporation
 * 🇧🇷 Brazil - Brasil Telecom, Oi, Vivo, TIM, Telefónica Brasil
 * 🇨🇦 Canada - List of Canadian telephone companies
 * 🇨🇳 China
 * 🇭🇰 Hong Kong - PCCW Limited, New World Telephone, Hutchison Telecom
 * Macau - Companhia de Telecomunicações de Macau
 * 🇨🇺 Cuba - ETECSA
 * 🇪🇬 Egypt - telecom egypt, orange egypt, vodafone egypt, etisalat egypt
 * 🇫🇷 France - List of French telephone companies
 * 🇩🇪 Germany - Deutsche Telekom, Arcor AG, Freenet AG, T-Mobile, Vodafone Germany,1&1 Aktiengesellschaft1&1 Drillisch
 * 🇬🇷 Greece - Hellenic Telecommunication Organization
 * 🇮🇳 India - Airtel, BSNL, MTNL, Vodafone Idea, Jio
 * 🇮🇩 Indonesia - Telkom
 * 🇮🇪 Ireland - Eircom, BT Ireland, Smart Telecom, Vodafone Ireland, Hutchison 3G, O2 (Telefónica Europe)
 * 🇮🇹 Italy - List of Italian telephone companies
 * 🇯🇵 Japan - NTT, (NTT East, and NTT West)
 * 🇲🇾 Malaysia - Telekom Malaysia
 * 🇵🇰 Pakistan - Mobilink, Ufone, Telenor, Zong
 * 🇵🇭 Philippines - Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company
 * 🇸🇬 Singapore - SingTel
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa - Telkom
 * 🇪🇸 Spain - Telefónica, Orange, Vodafone, Yoigo
 * 🇹🇼 Taiwan - Chunghwa Telecom, FarEasTone, Taiwan Mobile
 * 🇹🇭 Thailand - TOT, CAT Telecom, True Corporation, DTAC, AIS, JAS Mobile
 * 🇺🇸 United States - List of United States telephone companies

Water companies

 * 🇦🇺 Australia - Unitywater, Queensland Urban Utilities
 * 🇧🇧 Barbados - Barbados Water Authority
 * 🇧🇼 Botswana - Water Utilities Corporation
 * 🇧🇷 Brazil - Sabesp, Sanepar, Copasa, Semasa
 * 🇨🇳 China
 * 🇭🇰 Hong Kong - Water Supplies Department
 * Macau - Macao Water
 * 🇪🇬 Egypt - Holding company for water and wastewater, Alexandria Water Company
 * 🇫🇷 France - SAUR, Suez Environnement, Veolia Environnement
 * 🇬🇷 Greece - EYDAP
 * 🇮🇪 Ireland - Irish Water
 * 🇮🇹 Italy - Hera, Seabo
 * 🇵🇭 Philippines - Maynilad Water Services, Manila Water Company, Inc., Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System
 * 🇪🇸 Spain - Canal de Isabel II, Grupo Agbar
 * 🇹🇼 Taiwan - Taiwan Water Corporation
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom - List of United Kingdom water companies
 * 🇺🇸 United States - List of United States water companies

Steam companies

 * Note: some of these companies are still trading, others are listed here for historical interest.

 * American District Steam Company
 * Boston Heating Company
 * Compagnie Parisienne de Chauffage Urbain
 * Detroit Thermal
 * New York Steam Company, now Con Edison Steam Operations
 * Trigen Energy Corporation

Former hydraulic power companies

 * Itaipú Binacional *🇧🇷 Brazil
 * Liverpool Hydraulic Power Company * UK
 * London Hydraulic Power Company, defunct since 1977 * UK

title: List of public utilities


text:
Lineage (video game)

Lineage (리니지), also known as Lineage: The Blood Pledge in Western markets, is a medieval fantasy, massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) released in Korea and the United States in 1998 by the South Korean computer game developer NCSoft, based on a Korean comic book series of the same name. It is the first game in the Lineage series. It is most popular in Korea and is available in Chinese, Japanese, and English. The game was designed by Jake Song, who had previously designed Nexus: The Kingdom of the Winds, another MMORPG.

Lineage features 2D isometric-overhead graphics similar to those of Ultima Online and Diablo II. Lineage II: The Chaotic Chronicle, a "prequel" set 150 years before the time of Lineage, was released in 2003. By 2006, the Lineage franchise had attracted 43 million players. Lineage W and Project TL are a planned sequels to be set after Lineage and will be the last two games in the Lineage series.

The North American servers were shut down on June 29, 2011 by NCSoft.

Gameplay
Lineage's stat, monster, and item system was originally largely borrowed from NetHack with MMO elements added.

Players can choose one of seven character classes: Elf, Dark Elf, Knight, Prince, Magician, Dragon Knight, or Illusionist. Princes are the only class that can lead a blood pledge (which is Lineage's term for a guild or clan).

Gameplay is based primarily upon a castle siege system which allows castle owners to set tax rates in neighboring cities and collect taxes on items purchased in stores within those cities. It features classic RPG elements reminiscent of Dungeons & Dragons, such as killing monsters and completing quests for loot and experience points, levels, character attributes (charisma, strength, wisdom, etc.), and alignments (neutral, chaotic or lawful). A character's alignment affects how monsters and town guards react to the player's character, often turning hostile to chaotic players and attacking on sight.

Player versus player combat (also known as PVP) is extensive in Lineage. Players can engage in combat with other player characters at any time as long as they are not in safe zones such as cities. By joining a "bloodpledge" (an association of players similar to a clan in other games) players become eligible to engage in castle sieges or wars between bloodpledges.

Development
The title Lineage came from a series of comic books with the same title Lineage by Shin Il-sook, and the servers of Lineage are named after the characters of the comic book. It is a fantasy story where a rightful prince reclaims the throne from the hands of a usurper. When first created, the game closely resembled the original work. As developers have added new features, however, the fictional universes of the two works have gradually diverged.

Reception
NCSoft reported that Lineage had at one point more than three million subscribers, most of them in Korea. The magnitude of the number Korean subscribers compared to other countries has sparked a number of theories. A ban on some Japanese imports until 1998 has been cited for delayed growth in its video game console market.

As of April 2008, Lineage had a little under 1 million active subscriptions.

In 2011, NC Interactive, the subsidiary of NCSoft in the United States began to shut down the Lineage servers (3 at that time) because of poor subscription revenues. Various events were scheduled to take place in the weeks remaining. Players were given free subscriptions to other NCSoft titles of their choice. As of June 2011, Lineage has shut down all servers in NA, permanently.

Between the start in 1998 and August 2012, NCSoft had accumulated US$1.3 billion in sales revenue from Lineage. By November 2013, the game made US$1.8 billion.

Lineage M
Lineage M is a mobile port of Lineage developed by NCSoft. It was released in South Korea on June 21, 2017.

Reception
By June 2018, the game had generated more than US$1.2 billion in gross revenue. As of July 2020, it has grossed US$2.8 billion.

The game attracted controversy in 2021. The game issued a major balance patch in January that offered improved rates for attaining certain in-game abilities and items, but then did a rollback four days later. There were disputes over how refunds were issued; NCSoft did not return real-money purchases made during the four days of the patch, but rather refunded spent in-game currency instead. This essentially forced players - who may have bought in-game currency expecting the higher rates from the new patch - to keep the purchase at the lower rates of the old patch. One player was sued by NCSoft after they spent 160 million Korean won (approximately ~141,000 USD at 2021 exchange rate) during the period the new patch was live then angrily protested the rollback by obstructing the NCSoft office parking lot with their car.

title: Lineage (video game)


text:
Wagon train

A wagon train is a group of wagons traveling together. Before the extensive use of military vehicles, baggage trains followed an army with supplies and ammunition.

In the American West, settlers traveling across the plains and mountain passes in covered wagons banded together for mutual assistance. Although wagon trains are associated with the Old West, the Trekboers of South Africa also traveled in caravans of covered wagons.

Transit, traces and trails
Wagon trains followed several trails in the American West, nearly all originating at Independence, Missouri. Perhaps the most famous wagon train trail was the Oregon Trail which had a span of over 2,000 mi. Other paths included the Santa Fe Trail, the Chisholm Trail, the California Trail (which split southwestward from the Oregon Trail), the Mormon Trail, and the Old Spanish Trail.

Although "wagon train" suggests a line of wagons, when terrain permitted, wagons would often fan out and travel abreast to minimize the amount of dust blown onto other wagons. Travel by wagon train occurred primarily between the 1840s–1880s, diminishing after completion of the first transcontinental railroad. Some remnants of wagon ruts along the well-travelled trails are still visible today.

Organization
Originally, westward movement began in small groups, but well-funded travelers with 100 or more wagons could employ professional wagon masters (or trail masters) and ostlers.

Overland emigrants discovered smaller groups of 20 to 40 wagons were more manageable than larger ones, especially without professional wagon masters. Many operated under democratic principles, creating bylaws and electing a captain. In reality, a captain had limited authority. His role was largely confined to getting everyone moving in the morning and selecting when and where to camp at night.

Membership of wagon trains was generally fluid and wagons frequently joined or left trains depending on the needs and wishes of their owners. An accident or illness, for instance, might force someone to fall behind and wait for the next train, or an emigrant might "whip up" to overtake a forward train after a quarrel. Some might break away to settle in Colorado Territory or other territories along the way.

At night, wagon trains were often formed into a circle or square for shelter from wind or weather, and to corral the emigrants' animals in the center to prevent them from running away or being stolen by native Americans. While native Americans might attempt to raid horses under cover of darkness, they rarely attacked a train. Contrary to popular belief, wagons were seldom circled defensively.

Modern-day treks
Today, covered wagon trains are used to give an authentic experience for those desiring to explore the West as it was in the days of the pioneers and other groups traveling before modern vehicles were invented.

Baggage trains
The advent of gunpowder warfare meant that an army could no longer rely solely on foraging in the surrounding countryside, and required a regular supply of munitions. In the 18th century, organized commissary and quartermaster departments were developed to centralize delivery of supplies. The delivery took the form of "baggage trains", large groups of wagons that traveled at the rear of the main army.

In popular media
Westward-bound collective treks are reflected in numerous books, films and television programs about the journeys. Examples include: Emerson Hough's 1922 novel and James Cruze's silent film based on it, The Covered Wagon (1923); Raoul Walsh's film The Big Trail (1930); Robert N. Bradbury's film Westward Ho (1935); John Ford's Wagon Master (1950) and the television series it inspired, Wagon Train (1957–1965); William Wellman's film, Westward the Women (1951); A. B. Guthrie Jr.'s 1949 novel The Way West and Andrew V. McLaglen's 1967 film based on it; and the "Wagons West" series of 24 novels written by Noel Gerson (under the pseudonym Dana Fuller Ross) between 1979 and 1989.

title: Wagon train


text:
Talk:Georges Clemenceau

Untitled
Could someone clarify his role in the Paris Commune? For those who don't know much about French history (like me), they will be puzzled at who the "central committee" is, why the French government almost arrested him, and all of that business. ugen64 01:51, Dec 15, 2003 (UTC)

 * Done. Even if it is a few years later! Rusty2005 15:51, 21 April 2006 (UTC)

==

I believe the correct spelling is «Clemenceau», and «Clémenceau» is a common mistake. This second spelling should therefore be removed from the page, and maybe a note about this difficulty added. Other example of such a trap: Grevisse (not Grévisse).

Cleanup tag
I think this article should be divvied up into sections.-Grick(talk to me)

I agree, more like Woodrow Wilson.

 * Just added the tag. It doesn't even have a "career box," showing his positions and times in office.  Any takers?  - Darkhawk  (30 Mar, 2006 @ 0:25 EST)

I would be interested in more discussion regarding Clemenceau's behaviour regarding the execution of war resisters, deserters, pacifists, etc after 1917; while his 'total war' attitude made him popular amongst some, his record regarding dissent in the military would be a useful counterpoint Pacificbiblio 14:41, 8 June 2007 (UTC)

Article review
The author of this article tries to persuade the reader that Georges Clemenceau was a politician as well as a newspaper owner/editor who took sides in various situations. He sided with different governments before he became premier himself; he also advocated the Versailles treaty which one might say led to the rise of Nazism in Germany. But more about the implications of the treaty later. The author is trying to persuade the reader that Clemenceau was one of the main reasons for the “events that led to World War II.” The author lists a good number of Clemenceau’s political decisions and pays special attention to his publishing Zola’s letter “J’accuse.” As a matter of fact, the author does not make that much of an implicit assumption. It is somewhat explicit even: Clemenceau was the contrary of what you might call a political opportunist. If he did not like something, he resigned from office. The most convincing argument the author makes is, like I said above, one of Clemenceau as an astute political actor (if not politician himself). His influence helped some people to power as well as some people off of that position of power. Clearly the man can be a Radical, a Socialist Radical etc. He also could advise people not to vote for certain candidates, a sure sign of a powerful and influential figure. The least convincing argument is the one of Clemenceau being responsible for WWII. “Since most people believe the effects of his decision contributed to the events that lead to World War II, Clemenceau's historical reputation can be argued to have suffered as a result.” This statement seems to come out of a dark pit of knowledge. I really would like to know who these “people” are. Surely Clemenceau was not the only supporter of the Versailles treaty. About the sources, the author does not include any sources whatsoever. This seriously jeopardizes the article. Arguably, everything that I have said above (about the “people”) could have been better supported with better references. It seems unlikely though that the author somehow knew all these facts about Clemenceau, so there must be sources; it might only have been a mistake. It seems that the author is deeply convinced that supporting Dreyfus was a good thing. He says that publishing Zola’s letter was “an active and honourable part as supporter of Emile Zola and an opponent of the anti-Semitic and Nationalist campaigns.” I understand the good intentions of the author, but this makes his article highly biased. It is the view of the author himself, not the view of an anti-Dreyfusard. Even if they were anti-Semitic views, the people who considered themselves anti-Dreyfusards had the right to do so. The article only briefly mentions that after undertaking the direction of L’Aurore, Clemenceau “campaigned for the revision of the Dreyfus affair, and for the separation of Church and State.” It does not seem that obvious, but the separation of Church and State in France was an extremely important change. I would have liked learn more about Clemenceau’s implication in the process. It would seem that the lack of sources/references did not allow the author to write about this specific subject.

Regarding Versailles - I think Clemenceau could be described as an unreconstructed Nationalist; I do not think his actions were opportunist but clearly vengeful nationalism which clearly helped lead to the rise of Hitler and WWII. He was not alone at Versailles regarding either his Nationalism nor his responsibility for later events.

I agree entirely with the view of Clemenceau as an unreconstructed nationalist. He may have been determined to punish those who had committed crimes against France, but he was silent on the crimes France had committed against other countries for almost 400 years, the most recent and devastating being the Napoleonic Wars. Others will include the constant attempts to aggrandize France under Louis XIII and XIV, the entry of France in the Thirty Years' War, and so on. The treatment of France at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 contrasts favourably with Clemenceau's treatment of Germany at Versailles. In addition, the Congress system held the peace for many years, the Treaty of Versailles did not. T A Francis (talk) 17:19, 23 August 2011 (UTC)

T A Francis you say: "The treatment of France at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 contrasts favourably with Clemenceau's treatment of Germany at Versailles." That may be true, but perhaps you conveniently forget the Carthaginian peace the German Empire exacted on Russia with the treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which happened just before Germany was defeated by France and her allies on the Western Front. If Brest-Litovsk was any indication of what terms the Kaiser may have sought from France and Britain, and it is the best indication as it was virtually contemporary, I can only assume that it would have been quite harsh indeed (understatement).

Clemenceau was hardly the only politician pushing for harsh peace terms. French strategists argued that an invasion of Germany was necessary. When they were denied that possibility, by objections from the US and UK, they were then forced to try and exact a comensurate monetary punishment for the terror unleashed on her populace for four miserable years. Many seem to overlook this viewpoint. Some have argued that an invasion of Germany would have deprived Hitler and others of the "stab in the back" myth, that somehow Germany could have carried on the war successfully after 1918, but were betrayed by wealthy Jewish politicians, etc. The fact is - the German Army was soundly defeated, but the populace of Germany never even saw a battle up close. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 94.110.209.150 (talk) 22:22, 14 March 2012 (UTC)

Please amplify the "Wilson scandal"
I have found the following at another web site on the Wilson scandal:

"Meanwhile, Daniel Wilson, the son-in-law of President Grévy, was discovered to have trafficked in medals of the Legion of Honor, and the so-called Wilson scandal forced Grévy from office (Dec. 2, 1887)"

I think that inclusion of this information in some form would help the article on Clemenceau. The article mentions this scandal, but I imagine that very, very many people have no idea about what it was, and some will associate it with Woodrow Wilson, even though he was still a college professor in 1887.

 * It was a minor scandal. Daniel Wilson was his son-of-law, as you just mentionned, so why confuse him with Woodrow? Not every Wilson, even scandalous, leads to him! Tazmaniacs 00:16, 28 July 2006 (UTC)

Other information section
I think that the "Other information" section of this article should be removed. The Aircraft carrier and street thing should be moved into a legacy section, other things into the chronicle biography and the pointless anecdotes should be deleted. Any thoughts? Carl Logan 21:20, 30 July 2007 (UTC)

I got rid of the more pointless anecdotes and someone should reform the section into 'things that are named after Clemenceau' or something like that LGF1992UK (talk) 15:22, 28 July 2008 (UTC), Wikipedia Trivua Cleanup Team

Belgium Invaded Germany?
Please don't make fun of me for excessive nerdo-ness. There's an old story about what "future" historians will say about responsibility for World War I. I have seen a quote attributed both to Briand and Clemenceau, that while no one could be sure exactly what historians would say, Briand/Clemenceau was sure they would not say Belgium invaded Germany.

Could a Clemenceau commando clear this up for me?

I remain both thankful & too lazy to find it for myself. Bill Abendroth (talk) 21:07, 22 July 2009 (UTC)

WikiProject Military history/Assessment/Tag & Assess 2008
Article reassessed and graded as start class. Referencing and appropriate inline citation guidelines not met. With proper inline citations, this article would easily qualify as B if not GA  --dashiellx (talk) 13:27, 5 May 2008 (UTC)

Why Jean de Lattre de Tassigny is from "Peruvian history"? Vandalism?

And what does mean "Ainsworthian"? also vandalism?

Entire page is confusing
So who was Prime Minister between the two Clemenceau terms? What was he doing and saying when WWI broke out? WHY was he brought back?

I've been reading through a lot of French political articles this week, and this one is the least well edited. Who served before, between and after him - can this information be placed in one section so that it is easy to find, as it is on most of the other wiki-articles about politicians?--Levalley (talk) 18:17, 19 May 2009 (UTC)

Amazingly after reading this article I still do not know how he died?--DrusMAX (talk) 1:34, 14 Nov 2009

What About What Happened after 1920?
There is no mention anyplace of anything he may have or may have not accomplished after 1920. There's more information on sports figures than there is on what is arguable one of the great figures of the 20th century. — Preceding unsigned comment added by WarLord (talk • contribs) 20:31, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

Early years
At the end of this section there appears this extraordinary non sequitur of a sentence, "He was also believed to study in the Bauhaus school of thought, as during the later weimar years, there was a cultural boom, as a shining beacon of hope for Germans". Is this vandalism or am I missing something? Everybody got to be somewhere! (talk) 23:45, 12 January 2015 (UTC)

Request for Comments
There is an RfC on the question of using "Religion: None" vs. "Religion: None (atheist)" in the infobox on this and other similar pages.

The RfC is at Template talk:Infobox person.

Please help us determine consensus on this issue. --Guy Macon (talk) 22:20, 24 April 2015 (UTC)

Mary Plummer
On the article Mary Plummer (Clemenceau's wife), I added three citations; previously there weren't any. However, I have a few issues: (1) Are these sources reliable? (IMO, an unreliable source is better than no source at all, at least in this case.) (2) I'll need citations for the rest of the factoids in the article. (3) All three citations have the words, in red, “ External link in |website= ”, which looks ugly. What's the best way to fix that? (4) One of these sources says she was born on 18 March, 1849; rather than 1848.--Solomonfromfinland (talk) 00:06, 4 March 2016 (UTC)

Pronunciation of surname
I note that the name Clemenceau has no acute accent on the first "E"... it therefore seems unlikely to me that his name was pronounced "klaymenceau" (sorry, I don't know how to write it in IPA). At the moment the IPA for the name suggests "klaymenceau". Any authoratative sources about this? I suspect most French people can settle this in one second. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.3.218.201 (talk) 20:07, 13 August 2016 (UTC)
 * Hi, it is pronounced CLÉMENCEAU, although there is no acute accent...--Gabriel HM (talk) 21:57, 13 August 2016 (UTC)
 * French WP has this to say about all that:
 * À l'état civil, son nom est « Georges Benjamin Clémenceau », avec un accent aigu sur le premier « e ».

 * Lors de sa naissance et dans sa jeunesse, l'écriture de son nom de famille est variable, avec ou sans accent, ce qui était courant pour les noms propres dont l'orthographe n'était pas stabilisée jusqu'à la seconde moitié du xɪxe siècle. D'après l'historien Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, c'est Georges Clemenceau lui-même qui a imposé en mars 1884, dans les colonnes de son journal La Justice, l'écriture « Clemenceau », sans qu'il puisse donner une explication précise à cette attention soudainement portée à l'orthographe de son nom. La prononciation [klemãso:] (« Clémenceau ») est toutefois préférée à [kləmãso:] (« Clemenceau »). Les deux orthographes se retrouvent pour le nom des membres de sa famille.

 * So, going by official state records, his last name was "Clémenceau", but he (and some, but not all, members of his family) chose to write it "Clemenceau", but either way, it is pronounced /kle.mɑ̃.so/. French WP has even taken the unusual step of including this IPA script in the Georges Clemenceau article, something that it seldom does with any article with a French name. Kelisi (talk) 01:40, 26 July 2021 (UTC)

Religion in the infobox
This comment is regarding the following unexplained revert:

There have been several RfCs on religion in the infobox

15 June 2015 RfC: RfC: Religion infobox entries for individuals that have no religion.

This RfC had a clear consensus for removing the religion parameter from the infobox for individuals (living, deceased, and fictional), groups, schools, institutions, and political parties that have no religion, but that RfC was determined by the closing administrator to not apply to nations.

17 June 2015 RfC: RfC: Religion in infoboxes of nations.

This RfC had a clear consensus for removing the religion parameter for countries, nations, states, regions, etc., all of which were determined to not have religions.

31 December 2015 RfC: RfC: Religion in infoboxes.

This RfC was a response to certain individuals insisting that the previous RfCs did not apply to their favorite pages (schools, political parties, sports teams, computer operating systems, organized crime gangs...) and had a clear consensus that in all all infoboxes in all Wikipedia articles, without exception, nonreligions should not be listed in the "Religion=" parameter of the infobox.

11 April 2016 RfC: RfC: Religion in biographical infoboxes.

In this RfC, there was a clear consensus to remove the "religion=" and "denomination=" parameters from all infoboxes, not just the ones that call atheism/agnosticism a religion.

There have been four RfCs on this, and all four showed the same overwhelming consensus. --Guy Macon (talk) 09:22, 15 June 2017 (UTC)

Jailed in 1914?
Commander Ladoux, chief of French Intelligence in WWI, had a memoir come out three years after he died in 1933. In it, he has this to say about an American he calls ‘R.’ on Clemanceau’s staff:

“I cannot, as yet, assume the responsibility of giving details as to the second mission which I confided to R. at the end of 1914. All I can say is, it was of a peculiarly delicate nature, as Clemenceau, to whom it was transmitted, was actually imprisoned as a result of the attitude he took toward it.”

What is this? I never heard this had happened to him in 1914. More research on this point would improve the article. 31.94.12.240 (talk) 19:15, 26 December 2023 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on Georges Clemenceau. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070928125610/http://www.ville-larochesuryon.fr/IMG/pdf/discours_clemenceau.pdf to http://www.ville-larochesuryon.fr/IMG/pdf/discours_clemenceau.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060805200435/http://www.musee-clemenceau.fr/en/index.html to http://musee-clemenceau.fr/en/index.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 08:04, 14 October 2017 (UTC)

== Contradiction in 1918: Crackdown

title: Talk:Georges Clemenceau


text:
Multistage rocket

A multistage rocket or step rocket is a launch vehicle that uses two or more rocket stages, each of which contains its own engines and propellant. A tandem or serial stage is mounted on top of another stage; a parallel stage is attached alongside another stage. The result is effectively two or more rockets stacked on top of or attached next to each other. Two-stage rockets are quite common, but rockets with as many as five separate stages have been successfully launched.

By jettisoning stages when they run out of propellant, the mass of the remaining rocket is decreased. Each successive stage can also be optimized for its specific operating conditions, such as decreased atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes. This staging allows the thrust of the remaining stages to more easily accelerate the rocket to its final speed and height.

In serial or tandem staging schemes, the first stage is at the bottom and is usually the largest, the second stage and subsequent upper stages are above it, usually decreasing in size. In parallel staging schemes solid or liquid rocket boosters are used to assist with launch. These are sometimes referred to as "stage 0". In the typical case, the first-stage and booster engines fire to propel the entire rocket upwards. When the boosters run out of fuel, they are detached from the rest of the rocket (usually with some kind of small explosive charge or explosive bolts) and fall away. The first stage then burns to completion and falls off. This leaves a smaller rocket, with the second stage on the bottom, which then fires. Known in rocketry circles as staging, this process is repeated until the desired final velocity is achieved. In some cases with serial staging, the upper stage ignites before the separation—the interstage ring is designed with this in mind, and the thrust is used to help positively separate the two vehicles.

A multistage rocket is required to reach orbital speed. Single-stage-to-orbit designs are sought, but have not yet been demonstrated.

Performance
The reason multi-stage rockets are required is the limitation the laws of physics place on the maximum velocity achievable by a rocket of given fueled-to-dry mass ratio. This relation is given by the classical rocket equation:
 * $$\Delta v = v_\text{e} \ln \left(\frac {m_0} {m_f}\right)$$

where:
 * $$\Delta v\ $$ is delta-v of the vehicle (change of velocity plus losses due to gravity and atmospheric drag);
 * $$m_0$$ is the initial total (wet) mass, equal to final (dry) mass plus propellant;
 * $$m_f$$ is the final (dry) mass, after the propellant is expended;
 * $$v_\text{e}$$ is the effective exhaust velocity (determined by propellant, engine design and throttle condition);
 * $$\ln$$ is the natural logarithm function.

The delta v required to reach low Earth orbit (or the required velocity of a sufficiently heavy suborbital payload) requires a wet to dry mass ratio larger than can realistically be achieved in a single rocket stage. The multistage rocket overcomes this limit by splitting the delta-v into fractions. As each lower stage drops off and the succeeding stage fires, the rest of the rocket is still traveling near the burnout speed. Each lower stage's dry mass includes the propellant in the upper stages, and each succeeding upper stage has reduced its dry mass by discarding the useless dry mass of the spent lower stages.

A further advantage is that each stage can use a different type of rocket engine, each tuned for its particular operating conditions. Thus the lower-stage engines are designed for use at atmospheric pressure, while the upper stages can use engines suited to near vacuum conditions. Lower stages tend to require more structure than upper as they need to bear their own weight plus that of the stages above them. Optimizing the structure of each stage decreases the weight of the total vehicle and provides further advantage.

The advantage of staging comes at the cost of the lower stages lifting engines which are not yet being used, as well as making the entire rocket more complex and harder to build than a single stage. In addition, each staging event is a possible point of launch failure, due to separation failure, ignition failure, or stage collision. Nevertheless, the savings are so great that every rocket ever used to deliver a payload into orbit has had staging of some sort.

One of the most common measures of rocket efficiency is its specific impulse, which is defined as the thrust per flow rate (per second) of propellant consumption:
 * $$I_\mathrm{sp} $$ = $$\ \frac{T}{\frac{dm}{dt} g_\mathrm{0}} $$

When rearranging the equation such that thrust is calculated as a result of the other factors, we have:
 * $$ T = I_\mathrm{sp}g_\mathrm{0} \frac{dm}{dt}$$

These equations show that a higher specific impulse means a more efficient rocket engine, capable of burning for longer periods of time. In terms of staging, the initial rocket stages usually have a lower specific impulse rating, trading efficiency for superior thrust in order to quickly push the rocket into higher altitudes. Later stages of the rocket usually have a higher specific impulse rating because the vehicle is further outside the atmosphere and the exhaust gas does not need to expand against as much atmospheric pressure.

When selecting the ideal rocket engine to use as an initial stage for a launch vehicle, a useful performance metric to examine is the thrust-to-weight ratio, and is calculated by the equation:
 * $$ TWR = \frac{T}{mg_\mathrm{0}}$$

The common thrust-to-weight ratio of a launch vehicle is within the range of 1.3 to 2.0. Another performance metric to keep in mind when designing each rocket stage in a mission is the burn time, which is the amount of time the rocket engine will last before it has exhausted all of its propellant. For most non-final stages, thrust and specific impulse can be assumed constant, which allows the equation for burn time to be written as:
 * $$ \Delta{t} = \frac{I_\mathrm{sp}g_\mathrm{0}}{T} \times (m_\mathrm{0} - m_\mathrm{f}) $$

Where $$m_\mathrm{0}$$ and $$m_\mathrm{f}$$ are the initial and final masses of the rocket stage respectively. In conjunction with the burnout time, the burnout height and velocity are obtained using the same values, and are found by these two equations:
 * $$ h_\mathrm{bo} = \frac{I_\mathrm{sp}g_\mathrm{0}}{m_\mathrm{e}} \times ( m_\mathrm{f} ~ \mathrm{ln} (m_\mathrm{f}/m_\mathrm{0}) + m_\mathrm{0} - m_\mathrm{f}) $$
 * $$ v_\mathrm{bo} = I_\mathrm{sp} g_\mathrm{0} \ln(\frac{ m_\mathrm{0}} {m_\mathrm{f}}) - g_\mathrm{0} \frac{m_\mathrm{0} - m_\mathrm{f}}{\frac{\operatorname{d}\!m}{\operatorname{d}\!t}}+v_\mathrm{0} $$

When dealing with the problem of calculating the total burnout velocity or time for the entire rocket system, the general procedure for doing so is as follows: The burnout time does not define the end of the rocket stage's motion, as the vehicle will still have a velocity that will allow it to coast upward for a brief amount of time until the acceleration of the planet's gravity gradually changes it to a downward direction. The velocity and altitude of the rocket after burnout can be easily modeled using the basic physics equations of motion.
 * 1) Partition the problem calculations into however many stages the rocket system comprises.
 * 2) Calculate the initial and final mass for each individual stage.
 * 3) Calculate the burnout velocity, and sum it with the initial velocity for each individual stage. Assuming each stage occurs immediately after the previous, the burnout velocity becomes the initial velocity for the following stage.
 * 4) Repeat the previous two steps until the burnout time and/or velocity has been calculated for the final stage.

When comparing one rocket with another, it is impractical to directly compare the rocket's certain trait with the same trait of another because their individual attributes are often not independent of one another. For this reason, dimensionless ratios have been designed to enable a more meaningful comparison between rockets. The first is the initial to final mass ratio, which is the ratio between the rocket stage's full initial mass and the rocket stage's final mass once all of its fuel has been consumed. The equation for this ratio is:
 * $$ \eta = \frac{m_\mathrm{E} + m_\mathrm{p} + m_\mathrm{PL}}{m_\mathrm{E} + m_\mathrm{PL}} $$

Where $$ m_\mathrm{E} $$ is the empty mass of the stage, $$ m_\mathrm{p} $$ is the mass of the propellant, and $$ m_\mathrm{PL} $$ is the mass of the payload. The second dimensionless performance quantity is the structural ratio, which is the ratio between the empty mass of the stage, and the combined empty mass and propellant mass as shown in this equation:
 * $$ \epsilon = \frac{m_\mathrm{E}}{m_\mathrm{E}+m_\mathrm{P}} $$

The last major dimensionless performance quantity is the payload ratio, which is the ratio between the payload mass and the combined mass of the empty rocket stage and the propellant:
 * $$ \lambda = \frac{m_\mathrm{PL}}{m_\mathrm{E} + m_\mathrm{P}} $$

After comparing the three equations for the dimensionless quantities, it is easy to see that they are not independent of each other, and in fact, the initial to final mass ratio can be rewritten in terms of structural ratio and payload ratio:
 * $$ \eta = \frac{1 + \lambda}{\epsilon + \lambda} $$

These performance ratios can also be used as references for how efficient a rocket system will be when performing optimizations and comparing varying configurations for a mission.

Component selection and sizing
For initial sizing, the rocket equations can be used to derive the amount of propellant needed for the rocket based on the specific impulse of the engine and the total impulse required in N·s. The equation is:
 * $$ m_\text{p} = I_\text{tot} / gI_\text{sp} $$

where g is the gravity constant of Earth. This also enables the volume of storage required for the fuel to be calculated if the density of the fuel is known, which is almost always the case when designing the rocket stage. The volume is yielded when dividing the mass of the propellant by its density. Asides from the fuel required, the mass of the rocket structure itself must also be determined, which requires taking into account the mass of the required thrusters, electronics, instruments, power equipment, etc. These are known quantities for typical off the shelf hardware that should be considered in the mid to late stages of the design, but for preliminary and conceptual design, a simpler approach can be taken. Assuming one engine for a rocket stage provides all of the total impulse for that particular segment, a mass fraction can be used to determine the mass of the system. The mass of the stage transfer hardware such as initiators and safe-and-arm devices are very small by comparison and can be considered negligible.

For modern day solid rocket motors, it is a safe and reasonable assumption to say that 91 to 94 percent of the total mass is fuel. It is also important to note there is a small percentage of "residual" propellant that will be left stuck and unusable inside the tank, and should also be taken into consideration when determining amount of fuel for the rocket. A common initial estimate for this residual propellant is five percent. With this ratio and the mass of the propellant calculated, the mass of the empty rocket weight can be determined. Sizing rockets using a liquid bipropellant requires a slightly more involved approach because there are two separate tanks that are required: one for the fuel, and one for the oxidizer. The ratio of these two quantities is known as the mixture ratio, and is defined by the equation:
 * $$ O/F = m_\mathrm{ox}/m_\mathrm{fuel} $$

Where $$ m_\mathrm{ox} $$ is the mass of the oxidizer and $$ m_\mathrm{fuel} $$ is the mass of the fuel. This mixture ratio not only governs the size of each tank, but also the specific impulse of the rocket. Determining the ideal mixture ratio is a balance of compromises between various aspects of the rocket being designed, and can vary depending on the type of fuel and oxidizer combination being used. For example, a mixture ratio of a bipropellant could be adjusted such that it may not have the optimal specific impulse, but will result in fuel tanks of equal size. This would yield simpler and cheaper manufacturing, packing, configuring, and integrating of the fuel systems with the rest of the rocket, and can become a benefit that could outweigh the drawbacks of a less efficient specific impulse rating. But suppose the defining constraint for the launch system is volume, and a low density fuel is required such as hydrogen. This example would be solved by using an oxidizer-rich mixture ratio, reducing efficiency and specific impulse rating, but will meet a smaller tank volume requirement.

Optimal
The ultimate goal of optimal staging is to maximize the payload ratio (see ratios under performance), meaning the largest amount of payload is carried up to the required burnout velocity using the least amount of non-payload mass, which comprises everything else. This goal assumes that the cost of a rocket launch is proportional to the total liftoff mass of the rocket, which is a rule of thumb in rocket engineering. Here are a few quick rules and guidelines to follow in order to reach optimal staging: The payload ratio can be calculated for each individual stage, and when multiplied together in sequence, will yield the overall payload ratio of the entire system. It is important to note that when computing payload ratio for individual stages, the payload includes the mass of all the stages after the current one. The overall payload ratio is:
 * 1)  Initial stages should have lower $$I_{sp}$$, and later/final stages should have higher $$I_{sp}$$.
 * 2)  The stages with the lower $$I_{sp}$$ should contribute less ΔV.
 * 3) The next stage is always a smaller size than the previous stage.
 * 4)  Similar stages should provide similar ΔV.
 * $$\lambda = \prod_{i = 1}^n \lambda_i$$

Where n is the number of stages the rocket system comprises. Similar stages yielding the same payload ratio simplify this equation, however that is seldom the ideal solution for maximizing payload ratio, and ΔV requirements may have to be partitioned unevenly as suggested in guideline tips 1 and 2 from above. Two common methods of determining this perfect ΔV partition between stages are either a technical algorithm that generates an analytical solution that can be implemented by a program, or simple trial and error. For the trial and error approach, it is best to begin with the final stage, calculating the initial mass which becomes the payload for the previous stage. From there it is easy to progress all the way down to the initial stage in the same manner, sizing all the stages of the rocket system.

Restricted
Restricted rocket staging is based on the simplified assumption that each of the stages of the rocket system have the same specific impulse, structural ratio, and payload ratio, the only difference being the total mass of each increasing stage is less than that of the previous stage. Although this assumption may not be the ideal approach to yielding an efficient or optimal system, it greatly simplifies the equations for determining the burnout velocities, burnout times, burnout altitudes, and mass of each stage. This would make for a better approach to a conceptual design in a situation where a basic understanding of the system behavior is preferential to a detailed, accurate design. One important concept to understand when undergoing restricted rocket staging, is how the burnout velocity is affected by the number of stages that split up the rocket system. Increasing the number of stages for a rocket while keeping the specific impulse, payload ratios and structural ratios constant will always yield a higher burnout velocity than the same systems that use fewer stages. However, the law of diminishing returns is evident in that each increment in number of stages gives less of an improvement in burnout velocity than the previous increment. The burnout velocity gradually converges towards an asymptotic value as the number of stages increases towards a very high number. In addition to diminishing returns in burnout velocity improvement, the main reason why real world rockets seldom use more than three stages is because of increase of weight and complexity in the system for each added stage, ultimately yielding a higher cost for deployment.

Hot-staging
Hot-staging is a type of rocket staging in which the next stage fires its engines before separation instead of after. During hot-staging, the earlier stage throttles down its engines. Hot-staging may reduce the complexity of stage separation, and gives a small extra payload capacity to the booster. It also eliminates the need for ullage motors, as the acceleration from the nearly spent stage keeps the propellants settled at the bottom of the tanks. Hot-staging is used on Soviet-era Russian rockets such as Soyuz and Proton-M. The N1 rocket was designed to use hot staging, however none of the test flights lasted long enough for this to occur. Starting with the Titan II, the Titan family of rockets used hot staging. SpaceX retrofitted their Starship rocket to use hot staging after its first flight, making it the largest rocket ever to do so, as well as the first reusable vehicle to utilize hot staging.

Tandem vs parallel staging design
A rocket system that implements tandem staging means that each individual stage runs in order one after the other. The rocket breaks free from the previous stage, then begins burning through the next stage in straight succession. On the other hand, a rocket that implements parallel staging has two or more different stages that are active at the same time. For example, the Space Shuttle has two Solid Rocket Boosters that burn simultaneously. Upon launch, the boosters ignite, and at the end of the stage, the two boosters are discarded while the external fuel tank is kept for another stage. Most quantitative approaches to the design of the rocket system's performance are focused on tandem staging, but the approach can be easily modified to include parallel staging. To begin with, the different stages of the rocket should be clearly defined. Continuing with the previous example, the end of the first stage which is sometimes referred to as 'stage 0', can be defined as when the side boosters separate from the main rocket. From there, the final mass of stage one can be considered the sum of the empty mass of stage one, the mass of stage two (the main rocket and the remaining unburned fuel) and the mass of the payload.

Upper stages
High-altitude and space-bound upper stages are designed to operate with little or no atmospheric pressure. This allows the use of lower pressure combustion chambers and engine nozzles with optimal vacuum expansion ratios. Some upper stages, especially those using hypergolic propellants like Delta-K or Ariane 5 ES second stage, are pressure fed, which eliminates the need for complex turbopumps. Other upper stages, such as the Centaur or DCSS, use liquid hydrogen expander cycle engines, or gas generator cycle engines like the Ariane 5 ECA's HM7B or the S-IVB's J-2. These stages are usually tasked with completing orbital injection and accelerating payloads into higher energy orbits such as GTO or to escape velocity. Upper stages, such as Fregat, used primarily to bring payloads from low Earth orbit to GTO or beyond are sometimes referred to as space tugs.

Assembly
Each individual stage is generally assembled at its manufacturing site and shipped to the launch site; the term vehicle assembly refers to the mating of all rocket stage(s) and the spacecraft payload into a single assembly known as a space vehicle. Single-stage vehicles (suborbital), and multistage vehicles on the smaller end of the size range, can usually be assembled directly on the launch pad by lifting the stage(s) and spacecraft vertically in place by means of a crane.

This is generally not practical for larger space vehicles, which are assembled off the pad and moved into place on the launch site by various methods. NASA's Apollo/Saturn V crewed Moon landing vehicle, and Space Shuttle, were assembled vertically onto mobile launcher platforms with attached launch umbilical towers, in a Vehicle Assembly Building, and then a special crawler-transporter moved the entire vehicle stack to the launch pad in an upright position. In contrast, vehicles such as the Russian Soyuz rocket and the SpaceX Falcon 9 are assembled horizontally in a processing hangar, transported horizontally, and then brought upright at the pad.

Passivation and space debris
Spent upper stages of launch vehicles are a significant source of space debris remaining in orbit in a non-operational state for many years after use, and occasionally, large debris fields created from the breakup of a single upper stage while in orbit.

After the 1990s, spent upper stages are generally passivated after their use as a launch vehicle is complete in order to minimize risks while the stage remains derelict in orbit. Passivation means removing any sources of stored energy remaining on the vehicle, as by dumping fuel or discharging batteries.

Many early upper stages, in both the Soviet and U.S. space programs, were not passivated after mission completion. During the initial attempts to characterize the space debris problem, it became evident that a good proportion of all debris was due to the breaking up of rocket upper stages, particularly unpassivated upper-stage propulsion units.

History and development
An illustration and description in the 14th century Chinese Huolongjing by Jiao Yu and Liu Bowen shows the oldest known multistage rocket; this was the "fire-dragon issuing from the water" (火龙出水, huǒ lóng chū shuǐ), which was used mostly by the Chinese navy. It was a two-stage rocket that had booster rockets that would eventually burn out, yet before they did they automatically ignited a number of smaller rocket arrows that were shot out of the front end of the missile, which was shaped like a dragon's head with an open mouth. The British scientist and historian Joseph Needham points out that the written material and depicted illustration of this rocket come from the oldest stratum of the Huolongjing, which can be dated roughly 1300–1350 AD (from the book's part 1, chapter 3, page 23).

Another example of an early multistaged rocket is the Juhwa (走火) of Korean development. It was proposed by medieval Korean engineer, scientist and inventor Ch'oe Mu-sŏn and developed by the Firearms Bureau (火㷁道監) during the 14th century. The rocket had the length of 15 cm and 13 cm; the diameter was 2.2 cm. It was attached to an arrow 110 cm long; experimental records show that the first results were around 200m in range. There are records that show Korea kept developing this technology until it came to produce the Singijeon, or 'magical machine arrows' in the 16th century. The earliest experiments with multistage rockets in Europe were made in 1551 by Austrian Conrad Haas (1509–1576), the arsenal master of the town of Hermannstadt, Transylvania (now Sibiu/Hermannstadt, Romania). This concept was developed independently by at least five individuals:
 * Polish–Lithuanian Kazimieras Simonavičius (1600–1651)
 * Russian Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935)
 * American Robert Goddard (1882–1945)
 * German Hermann Oberth (1894–1989)
 * French Louis Damblanc (1889–1969)

The first high-speed multistage rockets were the RTV-G-4 Bumper rockets tested at the White Sands Proving Ground and later at Cape Canaveral from 1948 to 1950. These consisted of a V-2 rocket and a WAC Corporal sounding rocket. The greatest altitude ever reached was 393 km, attained on February 24, 1949, at White Sands.

In 1947, the Soviet rocket engineer and scientist Mikhail Tikhonravov developed a theory of parallel stages, which he called "packet rockets". In his scheme, three parallel stages were fired from liftoff, but all three engines were fueled from the outer two stages, until they are empty and could be ejected. This is more efficient than sequential staging, because the second-stage engine is never just dead weight. In 1951, Soviet engineer and scientist Dmitry Okhotsimsky carried out a pioneering engineering study of general sequential and parallel staging, with and without the pumping of fuel between stages. The design of the R-7 Semyorka emerged from that study. The trio of rocket engines used in the first stage of the American Atlas I and Atlas II launch vehicles, arranged in a row, used parallel staging in a similar way: the outer pair of booster engines existed as a jettisonable pair which would, after they shut down, drop away with the lowermost outer skirt structure, leaving the central sustainer engine to complete the first stage's engine burn towards apogee or orbit.

Separation events
Separation of each portion of a multistage rocket introduces additional risk into the success of the launch mission. Reducing the number of separation events results in a reduction in complexity. Separation events occur when stages or strap-on boosters separate after use, when the payload fairing separates prior to orbital insertion, or when used, a launch escape system which separates after the early phase of a launch. Pyrotechnic fasteners, or in some cases pneumatic systems like on the Falcon 9 Full Thrust, are typically used to separate rocket stages.

Two-stage-to-orbit
A two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) or two-stage rocket launch vehicle is a spacecraft in which two distinct stages provide propulsion consecutively in order to achieve orbital velocity. It is intermediate between a three-stage-to-orbit launcher and a hypothetical single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) launcher.

Three-stage-to-orbit
The three-stage-to-orbit launch system is a commonly used rocket system to attain Earth orbit. The spacecraft uses three distinct stages to provide propulsion consecutively in order to achieve orbital velocity. It is intermediate between a four-stage-to-orbit launcher and a two-stage-to-orbit launcher.

Examples of three-stage-to-orbit systems

 * Saturn V
 * Vanguard
 * Ariane 4 (optional boosters)
 * Ariane 2
 * Ariane 1 (four stages)
 * GSLV (three stages and boosters)
 * PSLV (four stages)
 * Proton (optional fourth stage)
 * Long March 5 (optional boosters and optional third stage)
 * Long March 1, Long March 1D
 * Zenit-3SL
 * Unha-3
 * KSLV-2 "Nuri"

Examples of two stages with boosters
Other designs (in fact, most modern medium- to heavy-lift designs) do not have all three stages inline on the main stack, instead having strap-on boosters for the "stage-0" with two core stages. In these designs, the boosters and first stage fire simultaneously instead of consecutively, providing extra initial thrust to lift the full launcher weight and overcome gravity losses and atmospheric drag. The boosters are jettisoned a few minutes into flight to reduce weight.

 * US Space Shuttle — SRB first stage ; External Tank + SSME second stage ; OMS on internal tanks third stage ;
 * Angara A5
 * Ariane 5
 * Atlas V 551
 * Delta II third stage)
 * Delta III
 * Delta IV-Medium+ and -Heavy
 * Falcon Heavy
 * Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk III (However, like the Titan IIIC, the GSLV MkIII is launched solely by the side boosters. The main core only ignites a few minutes into flight, shortly before the boosters are jettisoned.)
 * H-IIA, H-IIB
 * Soyuz
 * Space Launch System
 * Titan IV
 * Long March 2E, Long March 2F, Long March 3B

Four-stage-to-orbit
The four-stage-to-orbit launch system is a rocket system used to attain Earth orbit. The spacecraft uses four distinct stages to provide propulsion consecutively in order to achieve orbital velocity. It is intermediate between a five-stage-to-orbit launcher and a three-stage-to-orbit launcher, most often used with solid-propellant launch systems.

Examples of four-stage-to-orbit systems

 * Ariane 1
 * PSLV
 * Minotaur IV
 * Proton (optional fourth stage)
 * Minotaur V (five stages)
 * ASLV (five stages)

Examples of three stages with boosters
Other designs do not have all four stages inline on the main stack, instead having strap-on boosters for the "stage-0" with three core stages. In these designs, the boosters and first stage fire simultaneously instead of consecutively, providing extra initial thrust to lift the full launcher weight and overcome gravity losses and atmospheric drag. The boosters are jettisoned a few minutes into flight to reduce weight.

 * Long March 5 (optional boosters and optional third stage)

Extraterrestrial Rockets

 * NASA-ESA Mars Ascent Vehicle(MAV) (A 2-stage rocket, planned launch from Mars in 2028)

title: Multistage rocket