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Bellarmine University

Bellarmine University (BU) is a private Catholic university in Louisville, Kentucky. It opened on October 3, 1950, as Bellarmine College, established by Archbishop John A. Floersh of the Archdiocese of Louisville and named after Saint Robert Bellarmine. In 2000, it became Bellarmine University. The university is organized into seven colleges and schools and confers bachelor's and master's degrees in more than 50 academic majors, along with seven doctoral degrees; it is classified among "D/PU: Doctoral/Professional Universities".

The university has an enrollment of around 3,000 students on its main 135 acre academic and residential campus in Louisville's Belknap neighborhood.

Its athletic teams are known as the Knights. Bellarmine is a member of NCAA Division I and competes in the ASUN Conference, with exceptions in: wrestling (Southern Conference), field hockey (Mid-American Conference), and men's and women's swimming & diving (Coastal Collegiate Sports Association). Bellarmine's men's basketball team won the 2011 NCAA Men's Division II Basketball Tournament, the first athletic national championship in school history. In only its second year in Division I, the Bellarmine men's basketball team captured the ASUN Championship in 2022.

Early history
Bellarmine University has been led by four presidents: Alfred Horrigan (1950–1972), Eugene V. Petrik (1973–1990), Joseph J. McGowan (1990–2016), and Susan M. Donovan (2017–present). Horrigan, elevated to Domestic Prelate by the pope in 1955, led the school during its formative years. Petrik strengthened Bellarmine's financial footing. McGowan led the school in a massive building program, culminating in his Vision 2020 plan. Raymond J. Treece served as interim president in 1972–73, between presidents Horrigan and Petrik. John Oppelt served as acting president during McGowan's sabbatical in 1999.

The first important public announcement of the establishment of Bellarmine College was made in November 1949 by the Archbishop of Louisville, John A. Floersh. He selected Horrigan and Treece, associate editors of the Louisville Archdiocesan newspaper, The Record, to begin the school. The two designed a curriculum and the school's core philosophy, taking cues from The Catholic University of America in Washington, DC, and seeking advice from a number of Catholic institutions, including the University of Notre Dame, the University of Scranton, and the University of St. Thomas in Houston, Texas.

In 1950, The Catholic Archdiocese of Louisville founded Bellarmine College with a pioneer class of 115 freshmen. The only building, Pasteur Hall, was still without its front door on the first day of classes. Archbishop John A. Floersh called the school into existence at its first Convocation, saying, "We are looking forward to the day when the college ranks with the great colleges of our country." From its opening day under founding president Horrigan, Bellarmine welcomed people of all faiths and races. In 1953 the college added the Administration Building (now Horrigan Hall). At its first commencement in 1954, Bellarmine graduated 42 students. The Korean War interrupted or ended the educations of many in the pioneer class, but the school persevered despite rumors of closure. In December 1956, the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools formally announced Bellarmine's accreditation. Enrollment rose from the initial 115 in 1950 to 1,033 in 1959.

Expansion and growth
The 1960s was an era of growth for the university. The university added Knights Hall, Bonaventure Hall, Lenihan Hall, Newman Hall, Kennedy Hall, an addition to Pasteur Hall and a small student activities building. 1963 witnessed the arrival of students from 17 states and 2 foreign countries. In 1964 the school awarded its 1,000th diploma. By the end of the decade, enrollment exceeded 2,000 and the college installed its first computer.

In 1967, Thomas Merton designated Bellarmine as the official repository of all his manuscripts leading to the formation of Bellarmine's Catholic identity in the inclusive Merton spirit. And in 1968, Bellarmine College merged with Ursuline College, becoming coeducational and independent of the Archdiocese. The college now had its own self-perpetuating board of trustees.

In May 1971, president Horrigan issued a report describing the state of Bellarmine College, especially in light of the Second Vatican Council, noting that the school's board of trustees consisted of representatives from a number of groups, reflecting the "open, progressive, ecumenical and experimental spirit" of that papal council. Also mentioned were various distinctions Bellarmine's students had achieved, including 14 Woodrow Wilson Fellowships, 7 National Science Foundation fellowships, 3 Fulbright Scholars, and 2 Danforth Fellowships and two East-West Fellowships, achievements he attributed to Bellarmine's commitment to excellence.

The college welcomed its second president when Horrigan resigned in 1972. His vice president, Raymond J. Treece, served as interim president for one year. Enrollment had fallen sharply, to 1,306 by 1973, and several years of deficit budgets put the school at risk of closure. The board of trustees appointed Eugene V. Petrik of California to the presidency in 1973 and he quickly began to revitalize the college with new programs and directions. He added the first graduate program – the MBA in 1975 – found resources for marketing and publicity, and brought enrollment back above 2,000. The school also added women's basketball in 1973, and men's soccer and women's volleyball in 1976.

The 1980s saw another decade of growth. Enrollment rose from 2,284 to 2,660. The Brown Activities Center (named for George G. Brown), Wyatt Center for the Arts (named for Wilson W. Wyatt), Norton Fine Arts Complex (named for Jane Morton Norton), Alumni Hall (Humanities Building), and Maurice D.S. Johnson quadrangle (named for former board chair) were added during these years, along with the W. Fielding Rubel School of Business and the Donna and Allan Lansing School of Nursing and Health Sciences (1984). The subject of changing the name of the school from Bellarmine College to Bellarmine University was broached, but it was decided that the school should become a university in fact before it became one in name. More opportunities were added for women to participate in athletics, including softball, track, cross country, tennis and field hockey. A $20 million capital campaign propelled the college into the 1990s.

Recent history

Joseph J. McGowan, became Bellarmine's third president in 1990. McGowan named buildings on campus for his predecessors, Horrigan and Petrik, and oversaw the addition of Miles Hall and the W.L. Lyons Brown Library. The Annsley Frazier Thornton School of Education was added in 1998 and the college added women's soccer and women's golf. The decade also saw the beginning of Bellarmine's transition from a commuter school to a residential college. In 1995, a record 396 students lived in residence halls. In 1991, McGowan began instituting change in the form of a Five Year Strategic Plan, which later became the Master Plan. In 1994, the school began making perennial appearances in the Princeton Review and U.S. News & World Report, which both list Bellarmine among the top regional universities.

In 2000, the school's 50th anniversary, the board of trustees changed the name from Bellarmine College to Bellarmine University to reflect its status as a Masters-I university. The university's subsequent strategic plan, Vision 2020, called for tripling enrollment, doubling the number of buildings on campus, and adding schools of architecture, law, pharmacy, and veterinary medicine by 2020. In addition, the possibility of moving the remaining athletic programs to NCAA Division I (joining lacrosse) was considered. Acquisitions and renovations continued, including Our Lady of the Woods Chapel, The President's Residence in Glenview, the 2120 Building, the Norton Health Sciences Center (named in honor of Norton Healthcare support), The Siena Residence Halls complex, Owsley B. Frazier Stadium, Joseph A. and Janet P. Clayton Field, Via Cassia and Ponte Juneja, and the expansion of Miles Hall. Enrollment reached a record 2,881 students by 2009, with more than 700 in residence on the campus. Bellarmine launched many new academic programs including The School of Continuing and Professional Studies, the Institute of Media, Culture and Ethics and the School of Communication, The Center for Regional Environmental Studies and Bellarmine Farm.

Growth at the university includes 20 new academic programs, a 60% increase in full-time enrollment, and a 56% increase in the number of residential students. The 135 acre campus was expanded from 15 buildings in 1990 to 40 buildings, winning 11 architectural awards. Future plans include a new life fitness and recreation center with an Olympic pool, and Bellarmine Centro, a campus center to be anchored by an extensively remodeled Horrigan Hall connected to three new buildings.

McGowan died on March 1, 2016. Bellarmine's executive vice president, Doris Tegart, was appointed the university's interim president, with a national search planned for a new president.

In February 2017, the board of trustees unanimously selected Susan M. Donovan as the university's fourth president. She assumed the presidency on June 1, 2017, following a long career at Loyola University Maryland.

Academics
Bellarmine is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS). The Bellarmine W. Fielding Rubel School of Business is accredited by AACSB. Bellarmine offers more than 50 majors in the arts and sciences, business, communication, education, nursing and health sciences. The university comprises seven colleges and schools.

Bellarmine also offers a study abroad program.

Bellarmine College of Arts & Sciences

Bellarmine College is the home to departments that support undergraduate and graduate degrees in the fine and performing arts, the humanities, and natural and social sciences.

Annsley Frazier Thornton School of Education

In 1998, Bellarmine's department of education was dedicated as the "School of Education." Three years later in 2001 it was named the Annsley Frazier Thornton School of Education (AFTSE). The school offers 20 different programs, including a doctorate in education and social change.

College of Health Professions

The College of Health Professions supports an undergraduate program in Health and Aging Services, a Master's in Health Science with emphases in health care leadership and biomedical sciences, and an online doctoral program in Health Professions Education. On November 9, 2023, Bellarmine University, and Norton Healthcare announced the nation's first fellowship in neurologic physical therapy.

Donna and Allan Lansing School of Nursing and Health Sciences

The Lansing School is home to undergraduate programs in nursing, medical laboratory science, respiratory therapy and radiation therapy, as well as online graduate programs in nursing and health sciences.

School of Movement and Rehabilitation Sciences

The School of Movement and Rehabilitation Sciences houses the academic departments of exercise science, athletic training and physical therapy.

School of Continuing and Professional Studies

Bellarmine's School of Continuing and Professional Studies offers a variety of stimulating professional development and non-credit courses, designed to provide intellectual, cultural, personal enrichment and professional development for learners of all ages.

Study abroad

Bellarmine offers study abroad options on six continents in over 50 countries around the globe, ranging from departmental programs to summer enclave programs and semester or academic year exchanges at over 150 partner universities. Study abroad is available not only for foreign language students but for all other academic areas as well, and it is accessible to all students regardless of social and economic background. More than 35% of Bellarmine's full-time students engage in an international experience during their tenure at Bellarmine.

Campus facilities

Over 40 buildings stand on the hills of Bellarmine's 135 acre campus in Louisville's Belknap neighborhood, at the western edge of the larger Highlands area.

The Owsley B. Frazier Stadium
The multi-purpose stadium serves as home to Bellarmine's soccer, field hockey, lacrosse, and track and field teams. The stadium opened on August 24, 2007, in a Bellarmine Knights women's soccer game, and was officially dedicated on August 28. Construction took approximately 18 months and cost $5.1 million. The stadium features Joseph P. and Janet A. Clayton Field, which is composed of artificial turf with permanent markings for soccer, field hockey and lacrosse games. Surrounding the field is an eight-lane, 400 meter track. The track has a dual-durometer, polyurethane poured surface provided by Beynon Sport Surfaces, a company that has installed tracks at other college facilities including Illinois, Maryland, and Purdue.

Our Lady of The Woods Chapel
The chapel was dedicated on May 11, 2001, as a place of worship for Bellarmine students. Alfred Horrigan, the original president of Bellarmine University, always dreamed of building a chapel on campus. Although the project was not completed under his presidency, his vision for the chapel was respected during construction. Construction for Our Lady of the Woods was completed under Joseph McGowan's presidency and stands in memory of Archbishop of Louisville John A. Floersh, who founded Bellarmine in 1950. Although construction was completed in 2001, Alfred Horrigan did not consider the project complete until he published the book Our Lady of the Woods Chapel just before his death in 2005. The interior building has two large stained glass windows, designed by Guy Kemper, an artist from Lexington, KY. The stained glass windows reflect different colors depending on the season and weather. On a bright day, you are more likely to see the blue and white reflections while the gray and lead are reserved for winter weather. The green and yellow of the stained glass are evident through most of the seasons with the exception of winter when the bare branches cast an illusion of intermingling with the lead. The majestic purple is always present, allowing visitors focus and peace. Stations of the Cross can be seen etched into the walls of the chapel. They depict the 14 stops that Jesus made on his way to the cross where He was crucified. Outside of the chapel is the Grotto. It is located down the steps that lead to a little nook tucked away beneath the chapel. There you'll find a wall of candles surrounding a statue of Our Lady of Lourdes. Bellarmine provides candles to give students, staff, and alumni a chance to light a candle and meditate. The surrounding community celebrates Mass in the chapel on Sundays and holy days of obligation, and uses the chapel for retreats and interfaith services. Because it does not have parish status, its use is restricted. No weddings, baptisms, or funerals are held there. There is no "Our Lady of the Woods" in Catholic tradition. The statue in the chapel is actually Our Lady of Grace. Bellarmine College's earliest administrators had a particular devotion to Mary and suggested the chapel be named for her. Because of its setting, the chapel committee chose the name "Our Lady of the Woods."

Siena Complex
The Siena Complex is composed of four residence halls: Siena Primo, Siena Secondo, Siena Terzo and Siena Quarto. The complex is modeled after the Piazza del Campo, the main town center of Siena, Italy. Bellarmine's namesake, St. Robert Bellarmine, was a native of Tuscany, where Siena is. The Siena buildings were built by F.W. Owens Co. Inc. and designed by Godsey Associates Architects Inc. They have private restrooms, wireless Internet access, kitchens, balconies, laundry facilities, group study spaces, lobby gathering areas, and a 200-seat dining hall. When completed, the four buildings will enclose a landscaped courtyard with fountains, a small amphitheater and possibly bocce courts. The Siena Housing Project is a project to have half of the school's undergraduate population live on campus. Cumulatively, the Siena Complex will house 519 students and cost $33.6 million.

University Dining Hall
In 2010 Bellarmine opened a new 540-seat, 21500 sqft dining hall. It features indoor and outdoor seating areas with a 25 ft tall panoramic window that provides natural light and view of rolling hills. It was built as part of a $7.5 million overhaul of the George G. Brown Center, which also includes a renovated and expanded School of Communication and the Amelia Brown Frazier Convocation Hall. The dining hall is managed by Sodexo Inc., which operated the previous cafeteria.

Knights Hall
Knights Hall is home to Bellarmine's volleyball team and men's wrestling team; the men's and women's basketball teams practice in Knights Hall but play in Louisville's Freedom Hall as of 2020. The arena was built in 1960 and can seat up to 2,196 fans. It is also used for high school games, graduation ceremonies, and concerts. The hall was dedicated in 1960 with a home game against the University of Louisville and has hosted matchups with rival and NAIA national champion Kentucky State, Fly Williams and his teams from Austin Peay, and the Knights women's basketball regional championship games of the 1990s. The Bellarmine men's basketball team won back-to-back NCAA Division II Midwest Regional Tournaments in 2011 and 2012 at Knights Hall, and then again in 2015 and 2017. The women's basketball team hosted the NCAA Division II Great Lakes Regional Tournament in the venue in 1986 and 1990, both of which were won by the Knights. In December 2010, Knights Hall played host to the quarterfinal, semifinal, and national championship matches of the NCAA Division II Women's Volleyball Championship. Concordia-St. Paul defeated Tampa in four sets to capture their fourth consecutive volleyball title. The arena has also hosted some very special guests including Mother Teresa, the Grateful Dead, Jimmy Buffett and Pete Rose, among others. In 2007, Knights Hall was featured on ESPN when NBA greats such as Bill Walton, Darrell Griffith, and Kenny Walker judged the McDonald's High School All-American Slam Dunk Contest. Additional speakers in the venue include Salman Rushdie (2005), Bob Woodward (2007), and Wendell Berry (2007).

The W.L. Lyons Brown Library
The campus library was completed in the fall of 1996, costing $6.5 million. Its exterior is made up of brown brick, anodized aluminum-frame windows and slate roofs. It has long spanning brick arches with vertical piers, limestone columns and banding, steep sloping roofs, and a clock tower marking the entry, establishing a focal point on campus.

The library supports 150,000 volumes and includes a print and electronic-based reference center, micro forms, media services, periodicals, general collections, and a special-collections center. It houses the campus computer center and is wired throughout to promote flexibility in computer usage.

Eddie Weber Tennis Complex & SuRF Center
The Eddie Weber Tennis Complex was dedicated on September 12, 2009, and is adjacent to the Student Recreation and Fitness Center (SuRF). The courts are named for Eddie Weber, the only man to have been a head coach for both the University of Louisville and Bellarmine. The complex houses 6 outdoor tennis courts with 3 additional indoor courts in the SuRF Center. Inside the SuRF Center are two multi-purpose basketball courts, the exercise and fitness area, locker rooms, and offices. The fitness area is supplied with treadmills, bikes, elliptical weight machines, and free weights.

Norton Health Science Center
Bellarmine's main science and research facility is the Norton Health Science Center (NHSC). NHSC was completed in 2004 and has 30,000 sqft of floor space. The floor space is divided into laboratories, faculty offices and classrooms. The facility also includes a courtyard for the science quadrangle. NHSC cost $6.5 million to build and was funded primarily by private donations.

Horrigan Hall
Horrigan Hall is named after the university's first president, Alfred Horrigan, and serves as the campus center. Architects Thomas J. Nolan & sons designed the facility in "modern" 1950s style and Al J. Schneider Company was the general contractor. The exterior is of rough textured brick with limestone trim. The three-story building sits atop a hill on campus featuring a six-story tower. Originally known as the Administration Building, Horrigan Hall was constructed in February 1953, costing $1 million. The facility was completely funded by private donations. Horrigan Hall has gone through a few remodeling and upgrades over the years. In December 1961 a new sound system was added, with central air following in 1970. In 1986–87 an elevator was installed and a new 2001 Newburg Road entrance was added as an alternative to the original 2000 Norris Place street entrance. Further remodeling and expansion is planned. Three new buildings have been proposed in front of and connected to the existing hall. The project is dubbed "Bellarmine Centro" and calls for the addition of more than 65,000 sqft of new space and approximately 39,000 sqft of remodeled space in the existing building. There will be space for a new Graduate School of Management, bookstore, admissions, registrar, bursar and financial aid offices. Classrooms will be added and expanded and a new space dedicated to triple the size of the Thomas Merton Center, the official repository of Merton's manuscripts, which hosts approximately 3,000 research international scholars and visitors annually. A garden and green space will be added, including a green roof accessible to students and faculty. Bellarmine Centro is estimated to cost $38 million and will be funded entirely by private sources.

Athletics
The Bellarmine athletic teams are called the Knights. The university is a member of the NCAA Division I ranks, primarily competing in the ASUN Conference for most sports since the 2020–21 academic year. The Knights previously competed in the Great Lakes Valley Conference (GLVC) of the NCAA Division II ranks from 1978–79 to 2019–20.

Bellarmine competes in 25 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, lacrosse, soccer, sprint football, swimming, tennis, track & field and wrestling; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, field hockey, golf, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, track & field, volleyball; and co-ed sports include cheerleading and dance.

 * Notes:

Overview
Bellarmine sponsors five sports that are not sponsored by the ASUN, one of which will become an ASUN sport in July 2021. The men's lacrosse team, the only NCAA Division I lacrosse team in Kentucky, is a member of the Southern Conference (SoCon) through the 2021 season, after which it will join the ASUN's relaunched men's lacrosse league. Bellarmine added men's wrestling to its SoCon membership when it joined the ASUN. Men's and women's swimming and diving joined the Coastal Collegiate Sports Association (CCSA) upon the Knights' arrival in the ASUN. The women's field hockey team was independent for its first Division I season in 2020–21, and will become a single-sport member of the Mid-American Conference (MAC) in July 2021.

Accomplishments
In 2011 the Knights won the NCAA Men's Division II Basketball Championship. In 2015, the Bellarmine University Dance Team won their first national title at the 2015 NDA collegiate championship. In 2019, the team won their second national title at the 2019 NDA collegiate championship. In 2012 Bellarmine announced the start of its swimming program. The university's newest sport is wrestling, added for the 2016–17 school year; Bellarmine effectively absorbed the wrestling program of St. Catharine College, an NAIA member that closed at the end of the 2015–16 school year. This returned NCAA wrestling to the state of Kentucky for the first time since the University of Kentucky dropped the sport in 1982. Bellarmine wrestling will continue to compete in the SoCon after most other sports move to the ASUN.

The Bellarmine Co-Ed Cheer Team also landed a national title in 2019, taking the "Intermediate Small Coed Division II" competition of the National Cheerleaders Association.

Honorary societies

 * Phi Alpha Theta (History)
 * Lambda Pi Eta (Communications)
 * Pi Sigma Alpha (Political Science)

Alumni

 * John Young Brown III, Secretary of State of Kentucky from 1996 to 2004
 * Joseph C. Burke, former president of State University of New York at Plattsburgh; former Acting Chancellor of the State University of New York
 * Susan Cameron, Reynolds American CEO; former CEO at Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corporation
 * Joseph P. Clayton, former president & CEO, DISH Network; former CEO and chairman of Sirius Satellite Radio, Inc.
 * Susan Diamond, Chief Financial Officer of Humana
 * William J. Donahue, retired lieutenant general for the United States Air Force
 * Chris Dowe (born 1991), professional basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
 * Kelly Downard, Louisville Metro Council member (16th District) (2006)
 * Shawn Evans, National Lacrosse League (NLL) player and 2013 NLL MVP
 * Dapo Fagbenle, London-based music video director and entertainer
 * Braydon Hobbs, professional basketball player
 * Jeremy Kendle, professional basketball player
 * John Lansing, President and CEO of NPR
 * Quentin Letts, journalist
 * John MacLeod, veteran NBA coach
 * Bishop William Medley, Bishop of Owensboro, Kentucky
 * Chris Morris, Master Distiller Emeritus of Woodford Reserve
 * William "Bill" Mudd, President and COO of Churchill Downs, Inc.
 * Kyle Sorensen, National Lacrosse League player
 * Frank L. Schmidt, psychologist
 * Bruce Tinsley, syndicated cartoonist and creator of the Mallard Fillmore comic strip
 * Todd Wellemeyer, Major League Baseball player
 * Brandon Pfaadt, Major League Baseball player
 * Dillon James Ward, professional lacrosse player

Faculty

 * Jerry Abramson, Former Executive-in-residence, former Mayor of Louisville Metro, former Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky, and former White House Director of Intergovernmental Affairs

Radio station
Bellarmine University has a radio station named Bellarmine Radio, catering mainly to the campus community. Initially, the radio station broadcast via a radio frequency, but, in 2005, it began to broadcast as an online radio station. Bellarmine Radio provides daily announcements about events on campus, extended coverage of Bellarmine athletics, and a variety of specialty shows.

title: Bellarmine University


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Bullseye (philately)

Bullseye, in philately, also called Socked on the nose (SON), refers to a cancellation of a postage stamp in which the postmark, typically a circle with the date and town name where mailed, has been applied centered on the stamp. The ideal bullseye has the entire postmark inside the margins, although this is not always possible, because the stamp may be too small or the postmark too large. The colloquial expression "Socked on the nose" does not seem to be used in Europe: the terms Oblitération centrale in French or luxus in German are in common usage.

Austria introduced ca 1868 a set of cancellations of small diameter (< 20 mm), so that they could be seen entirely on all stamps.

Some philatelists and collectors of cancellations have a special interest in bullseyes primarily because the date, time, and place the stamp was used, or postmarked, can be identified by the cancellation. This allows specialised collectors to collect, for example, all of the postmarks of a particular country, state, city, county, date range, etc., without collecting entire covers.

There can be some confusion with the term "Bullseye" as it can mean both the type of cancel, such as the early American concentric ring cancel (as well as other countries that used them) and to have a cancel positioned right in the center of a stamp. So while an SON cancel is always near the centre of a stamp and can be an example of a Circular Date Stamp (CDS) or a "Bullseye" cancel or other shapes that were used as cancelling devices, (Square, Oval etc.) strictly speaking a "Bullseye Cancel" literally is a cancel that looks like a "bullseye".

Because modern machine cancellations are normally arranged so that the wavy lines, slogans, or other killers are applied to the stamp, leaving the postmark clear, dealers and collectors desiring SONs will position the stamp on the cover so as to fall under the postmark.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bullseye (philately)


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User talk:Sierra~enwiki

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Renamed
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title: User talk:Sierra~enwiki


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White Buffalo Calf Woman

White Buffalo Calf Woman (Lakȟótiyapi: Ptesáŋwiŋ) or White Buffalo Maiden is a sacred woman of supernatural origin, central to the Lakota religion as the primary cultural prophet. Oral traditions relate that she brought the "Seven Sacred Rites" to the Lakota people.

Story
The traditional story is that, 19 generations ago, there was a time of famine. The chief of the Lakota sent out two scouts to hunt for food. While the young men travelled they saw a white cloud in the distance. Then, from the cloud, they saw a woman. As they approached, they saw that it was a beautiful young Native woman in white buckskin. She had dark hair, dark skin and dark eyes. One of the men was filled with lust for the woman. He approached her, telling his companion he would attempt to claim her as a wife. His companion warned him that she appeared to be a sacred woman, and to do anything sacrilegious would be dangerous and disrespectful, but his advice was ignored.

The second man watched as the first approached and embraced the woman, during which time the cloud enveloped the pair. When the cloud disappeared, only the mysterious woman and a pile of the first man's bones remained. The remaining man was frightened, and began to draw his bow. But the holy woman beckoned him forward, telling him that no harm would come to him, as she could see into his heart and he did not have the motives the first man had. As the woman spoke Lakota, the young man decided she was one of his people, and came forward.

At this time, the woman explained that she was wakȟáŋ (holy, having spiritual and supernatural powers). She further explained that if he did as she instructed, his people would rise again. The scout promised to do what she instructed, and was told to return to his encampment, call the Council, and prepare a feast for her arrival. She taught the Lakota seven sacred ceremonies to protect the Mother Earth and gave them the čhaŋnúŋpa, the sacred ceremonial pipe.

The seven ceremonies are:
 * 1) Inípi (purification lodge)
 * 2) Haŋbléčheyapi (crying for vision)
 * 3) Wiwáŋyaŋg Wačhípi (Sun Dance)
 * 4) Huŋkalowaŋpi (making of relatives)
 * 5) Išnáthi Awíčhalowaŋpi (female puberty ceremony)
 * 6) Tȟápa Waŋkáyeyapi (throwing of the ball)
 * 7) Wanáǧi Yuhápi (soul keeping)

Each part of the čhaŋnúŋpa (stem, bowl, tobacco, breath, and smoke) is symbolic of the relationships of the natural world, the elements, humans and the spiritual beings that maintain the cycle of the universe.

title: White Buffalo Calf Woman


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Lamine Sidimé

Lamine Sidimé (born 1944) is a Guinean political figure who was Prime Minister of Guinea from 1999 to 2004.

Early life
Born at Mamou in 1944, Sidimé served as President of the Supreme Court from 1992, and he was appointed as Prime Minister by President Lansana Conté in March 1999, replacing Sidya Touré. After five years in office, he resigned on February 23, 2004. He then resumed the Presidency of the Supreme Court.

title: Lamine Sidimé


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Artur Sanhá

This name uses Portuguese naming customs: the first or maternal family name is Artur and the second or paternal family name is Sanhá.

António Artur Sanhá (born 1965) is a Bissau-Guinean politician. He was the Prime Minister of Guinea-Bissau from 28 September 2003 to 10 May 2004 and also served as Secretary-General of the Party for Social Renewal (PRS).

Career
Following the election of PRS leader Kumba Ialá as President, Sanhá was appointed as Minister of Internal Administration in the government named on 19 February 2000, under Prime Minister Caetano N'Tchama. In March 2001, the PRS wanted Ialá to appoint Sanhá, the Secretary-General of the PRS, as Prime Minister to replace N'Tchama, but Ialá resisted this, considering Sanhá too radical; he appointed Faustino Imbali as Prime Minister instead.

Sanhá was removed from his position as Interior Minister by Ialá in August 2001 following suspicions regarding the death of a woman, Florinda Baptista, with whom Sanhá was said to have been romantically involved, although Ialá did not give a reason for Sanhá's dismissal. Sanhá said that he did not know the woman, but her family said that people close to Sanhá had forced her into having an abortion.

After Ialá was ousted in a military coup on 14 September 2003, the military junta chose Sanhá as Prime Minister of the transitional government, although its choice of Sanhá was opposed by 15 of the 17 involved political parties because Sanhá was not a political independent; concerns also remained about the 2001 incident. Sanhá was nevertheless sworn in as Prime Minister on 28 September in Bissau. His transitional government, which was planned to govern for six months prior to a new parliamentary election, was sworn in on 3 October. Following the parliamentary election, which was held in March 2004, a report accused Sanhá of interfering in the election and thereby causing disorganization to worsen; he defended himself by saying he had gotten involved "only after things began to go wrong". A new government under PAIGC leader Carlos Gomes Júnior took office in May.

In June 2005, during protests by Ialá's supporters alleging fraud in the first round of the presidential election, in which Ialá officially took third place, police fired on the protesters and arrested Sanhá, who was leading the march and was found by police to be carrying a loaded gun.

Sanhá was angered by the failure of the PRS to place his name at the top of the party's candidate list for the November 2008 parliamentary election, and he resigned in October 2008. At a press conference on 21 October, he stated that he could "no longer endure the injustice that prevails within the PRS", arguing that it was "adrift because of some opportunists".

title: Artur Sanhá


text:
Hartland, Devon

The village of Hartland, whose parish incorporates the hamlet of Stoke to the west and the village of Meddon in the south, is the most north-westerly settlement in the county of Devon, England.

Now a large village which acts as a centre for a rural neighbourhood and has minor tourist traffic, until Tudor times Hartland was an important port. It lies close to the promontory of Hartland Point, where the coast of Devon turns from facing north into the Bristol Channel to face west into the Atlantic Ocean. There is an important lighthouse on the point. The town's harbour, Hartland Quay, is to the south of the point: the quay was originally built in the late 16th century but was swept away in 1887. The high tower of the Church of Saint Nectan in Stoke remains a significant landmark for ships in the Bristol Channel. The appropriate electoral ward is called Hartland and Bradworthy. Its population at the 2011 census was 3,019.

Communications
Hartland is a convenient centre for walking parts of the South West Coast Path, and the wild coastal scenery around the point is some of the most dramatic on the path, with views across to Lundy Island. From Hartland Point, the Lundy Company operates its helicopter service to Lundy between November and March. The 319 bus service, a council-supported infrequent route operated by Stagecoach Devon, runs from Barnstaple to Hartland and return. There is also a 519 service, which runs to Bude.

History and notable buildings
The town was in the past known as Harton and was an unreformed borough, finally abolished in 1886. In medieval times there was an important abbey at Hartland, where the shrine of St Nectan was venerated. Hartland Abbey and the parish church are located some 2 mi away in Stoke.

Hartland Abbey
Hartland Abbey was built in 1157 and consecrated by Bartholomew Iscanus in 1160 (Bartholomew was appointed Bishop of Exeter the following year). It was converted into an Augustinian abbey in 1189. In 1539 it was the last monastery to be dissolved by Henry VIII. The King gave the building to William Abbot, his Sergeant of the Wine Cellar at Hampton Court. William Abbot converted what had been the Abbot's Lodging into a mansion. The present house incorporates a few components from Tudor times but is mainly the wing added to the old house in 1705 (the north-west corner being the work of 'Mr Mathews' (according to the author of the Beauties of England and Wales). Further alterations were made in about 1860. The gardens were laid out by Gertrude Jekyll.

Churches
Saint Nectan, sometimes styled Saint Nectan of Hartland, was a 5th-century holy man who lived in Stoke. The Anglican church is St Nectan's Church, Stoke, Hartland. The Roman Catholic Church (Our Lady and St Nectan's Church, Hartland) was opened in 1964: it was also dedicated to St Nectan. The building was closed in 2010 due to no priests being available to celebrate mass there, and was demolished in 2012.

The Parish Church of St Nectan has the highest tower in Devon (128 ft), built in the late Perpendicular style. The church is large (137 ft) and was built in the mid-14th century. Notable features include the fine Norman font, the rood screen (described as the finest in north Devon) and the old wagon roofs. The monuments include an elaborate medieval tomb-chest, a small brass of 1610 and a metal-inlaid lid of a churchyard tomb from 1618.

Historic estates
Historic estates within the parish include:
 * Docton

Toponymy
The name "Hartland" presumably derives from the Old English word "heort" for a deer (compare with Swedish "hjort" and Dutch "hert"), and it is therefore surprising that it is not more common in England. The many places in other English-speaking countries called Hartland probably bear witness to the historic importance of Hartland rather than being independent derivations, since the word "hart" was largely obsolete before the European discovery of the New World. Before the discovery of America, the word Hart was common in surnames. Family names such as Hartshorne were first mentioned in the Domesday Book. The nearby Hartland Point was named "promontory of Hercules" during the Roman occupation, which could have influenced the later naming of the village and parish.

Miscellany
Twin town Plozévet, Brittany, France

Natural history The coast at Hartland is part of the North Devon Coast AONB. The British Geological Survey operates a magnetic observatory (one of three in the UK) just to the north of Hartland.

Television In early 2008, scenery and a cottage on the Hartland Abbey estate were featured in the BBC adaptation of Sense and Sensibility. Episode 2 of the BBC's 2016 adaptation of The Night Manager features Fore Street (Hartland's main street, including the Anchor Inn pub, O'Donnell's Grocers and Heard's Garage), Hartland Quay and the same Hartland Abbey cottage as featured in Sense and Sensibility.

Community magazine The Hartland Times, ‘A bi-monthly review of life in Hartland’, reported on events and village life. It was first published in 1981, taking inspiration from the Hartland Chronicle, a local newspaper written and edited by Thomas Cory Burrow from 1896 to 1940. Its editor was Tony Manley. The final edition was published in September 2014, after which Manley retired. The Times'  successor, the Hartland Post, is published quarterly, with its first issue released in the winter of 2015/16.

Notable residents

 * Mary Norton, author of the Borrowers novels, lived in Hartland towards the end of her life and is buried at the local parish church in Stoke.
 * Satish Kumar, editor of Resurgence magazine and founder of the Small School.

title: Hartland, Devon


text:
User talk:Topknot

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Tip: you can sign your name with ~

snoyes 18:54, 9 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Micromouse and A*
hi,

this is in response to your questions on: User Talk:BAxelrod

I think i was mistaken, because it looks like the Lee-Moore maze flooding is what i was refering to. This is not exactly my area of expertise, so if you know better, you can certainly change the page. However, i think that the Lee-Moore algorithm can be considered a simplified version of A*. (an examination of the external links on the A* page might make this clear). This simplified version has a very bad heuristic and a uniform path cost. It is not inconceivable that a mouse use A* especially when the locations of the start and goal states are known. This would allow a reasonable heuristic to be formed and would decrease search time. But in these competitions, search time is usually unlimited or very long so the overhead is probably not worth it. If you feel that the A* remark should be replaced with Lee-Moore, then please do so.

P.S. I am going to copy this discussion (your comments on my page, and my comments on your page) to the Talk page of Micromouse. Lets continue it there: Talk:Micromouse

--BAxelrod 20:48, 24 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Topknot


text:
Sam Hinds

Samuel Archibald Anthony Hinds (born 27 December 1943) is a Guyanese politician who was Prime Minister of Guyana almost continuously from 1992 to 2015. He also briefly served as President of Guyana in 1997. He was awarded Guyana's highest national award, the Order of Excellence (O.E.) in 2011.

He first became prime minister under Cheddi Jagan in 1992, following the October 1992 election, which was won by an alliance of the People's Progressive Party (PPP) and Hinds' group, Civic. When Jagan died in March 1997, Hinds became President himself, and appointed Jagan's widow Janet as prime minister. For the December 1997 general elections, the PPP/C nominated Hinds as candidate for prime minister while Janet Jagan was the candidate for the presidency. Following the election, Jagan was elected president and re-appointed Hinds as prime minister.

Prior to this, Hinds worked for Alcan as head of chemical engineering. By education, Hinds is a licensed and qualified chemical engineer, having graduated from the University of New Brunswick.

In August 1999, President Janet Jagan decided to resign, and temporarily replaced Hinds with Bharrat Jagdeo; Jagdeo thus became president upon her resignation, and he reappointed Hinds as prime minister. After the re-election of the government in the 28 August 2006 election, Hinds was sworn in as prime minister again in early September.

He was re-nominated as the 2011 prime ministerial candidate for the PPP in October 2011, although there were suggestions that he might step aside. After PPP/C candidate Donald Ramotar was elected president, Hinds was sworn in as prime minister again on 5 December 2011.

Following the opposition's victory in the May 2015 general election, Hinds was succeeded as prime minister by Moses Nagamootoo on 20 May 2015.

Sam Hinds is honored in the scientific name of a species of lizard, Kaieteurosaurus hindsi.

Hinds has served as the Guyanese Ambassador to the United States since July 2021. He presented his credentials on 7 July 2021.

title: Sam Hinds


text:
Yvon Neptune

Yvon Neptune (born 8 November 1946 in Cavaillon, Haiti) is a Haitian politician and architect who served as the Prime Minister of Haïti from 2002 to 2004. He was appointed by President Jean-Bertrand Aristide, and took office on 15 March 2002. He had previously served as President of the Senate from 2000 to 2002.

Overview of activity from 2004
On 2 March 2004, shortly after Aristide's removal, a mob attempted to arrest Neptune on corruption charges, however it was unsuccessful. The mob was reportedly organized by Guy Philippe after Neptune gave an interview to Kevin Pina of KPFA Flashpoints in California and the Black Commentator, and Andrea Nicastro of the Italian daily Corriere della Sera. In the interview Neptune claims he was not even present when interim-president Boniface Alexandre was sworn into office. He also referred to himself as a prisoner in his own office and backed Aristide's claims that he was forced out of office under duress. U.S. Marines guarding his residence killed two gunmen there. Neptune was replaced on 12 March 2004 by an unelected provisional government led by Gérard Latortue, which had been appointed three days earlier.

On 27 March 2004, the provisional government banned Neptune from leaving the country, along with 36 other senior officials of the Aristide administration, in order to more easily investigate corruption allegations. On 27 June 2004, after hearing about a warrant for his arrest on the radio, Neptune turned himself into the Haitian police and was held without charge. According to the Haitian constitution, a hearing before a judge is required within 48 hours for anyone arrested, but Neptune was not given such a hearing. On 4 May 2005, Thierry Fagart, the chief of the human rights division at the UN's Haiti mission, called Neptune's detention illegal.

On 19 February 2005, Neptune was taken into protective custody by United Nations peacekeeping forces and handed himself back to Haitian authorities after a Port-au-Prince penitentiary breakout.

On 18 April 2005, Neptune began a hunger strike, refusing hospitalization and offers of medical attention abroad. On May 5, he was reported as being "near death". On 23 June, Juan Gabriel Valdes - the UN's special envoy to Haïti - criticized the Haitian government's handling of Neptune and called for his release from prison.

On 14 September 2005, 14 months after Neptune was first imprisoned, a formal statement of charges against him appeared. He was accused of participating in the "La Scierie Massacre," an alleged attack by Lavalas supporters in the La Scierie neighborhood of St. Marc. Subsequent investigations, including by the United Nations, revealed the massacre to be a struggle between two armed groups, with casualties on both sides. The Haitian Appeals Court prosecutor found that there was no credible evidence of Neptune’s involvement. Lawyers at the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights said that the statement of charges "contain[ed] no indication that Mr. Neptune directly perpetrated the crimes alleged against him nor is there a clearly defined connection between Mr. Neptune and those who are alleged to have perpetrated the crimes...The mental and factual elements necessary to establish Mr. Neptune’s responsibility…remain entirely unclear.”

In May 2006, the Haitian prosecutor recommended dropping the charges against Neptune because there was no credible evidence to support them.

After spending two years in prison and never having been tried, he was released on 28 July 2006. The charges against him were not dropped; he was released on health and humanitarian grounds. Hundreds of other members or supporters of the deposed Aristide administration remained in custody without trial.

On 13 April 2007, the Appeals Court of Gonaives ruled that the courts had never had jurisdiction to try Neptune. Under Haiti’s Constitution, regular courts in Haiti cannot try high public officials unless the High Court of Justice has previously convicted them, a special court formed by the legislature, similar to impeachment in the United States. In September 2009, the Haitian Government served this decision on Neptune and the other parties. When the appeal period elapsed a few days later, the dismissal of all charges became official.

Inter-American System Proceedings
In April 2005, the Institute for Justice & Democracy in Haiti (IJDH), the Bureau des Avocats Internationaux and the Hastings Human Rights Project for Haiti filed a petition on Neptune's behalf with the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) in Washington. In July 2006, the Commission ruled that the Government of Haiti's treatment of Neptune violated his international human rights. The Commission referred the case to the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR), an autonomous judicial institution of the Organization of American States based in San José, Costa Rica, for further proceedings.

On 6 May 2008, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled that the State of Haiti violated 11 different provisions of the American Convention on Human Rights by illegally imprisoning former Prime Minister Yvon Neptune for two years and allowing the case to drag on in the courts for almost two more. The IACHR ordered Haiti to end what it called Mr. Neptune’s continuing “judicial insecurity” and to pay him $95,000 in damages and costs. The Court also ordered Haiti to start bringing its inhumane prisons in line with minimum international standards within two years.

“From the beginning, the State failed its obligation to protect Mr. Neptune’s right to be heard by a court competent to hear the charges against him…as well as to an effective recourse,” the IACtHR said in a 60-page judgment issued publicly on June 6. The Court denounced the State’s continued failure to bring Neptune before a qualified judge, thereby leaving him in a situation of “absolute judicial uncertainty.”

The IACtHR criticized nearly every aspect of Haiti’s prosecution of Neptune, which began in June 2004 and continues today. It found Neptune’s 25-month-long detention illegal, and the prison conditions he endured to be inhumane and degrading. Although Neptune has been out of prison since July 2006, the IACHR found that the violations of his rights continue because the case has not been dismissed, and he could be returned to prison at any time. The Court also condemned the State’s ongoing failure to provide Neptune a fair hearing. The ongoing violations amount to “an unjustifiable delay in access to justice,” the Court decided.

The IACHR found numerous other violations of Neptune’s human rights. Given the state courts’ lack of jurisdiction, Neptune’s rights against illegal imprisonment and arbitrary detention were violated. Because Neptune was jailed for 14 months before receiving a statement of the charges against him, the State violated his right to be informed within a reasonable time of the charges against him. And because the case against him has still not been resolved—more than four years after Neptune was imprisoned—the State stands in violation of Neptune’s right to be judged within a reasonable amount of time.

Haiti also violated Neptune’s rights by subjecting him to inhumane prison conditions, the IACHR found. The Court singled out the National Penitentiary’s overcrowding, squalor, and lack of general security, as well as multiple threats to Mr. Neptune’s life during his incarceration.

In total, the State violated 11 different provisions of the American Convention on Human Rights, the Court found. These are: Article 1.1, on the State’s duty to respect and ensure human rights; Articles 5.1, 5.2, and 5.4, concerning the right to humane treatment; Articles 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, and 7.5, concerning the right to personal liberty; and Article 8.1, in conjunction with Art. 25, on the right to a fair trial and the right to judicial protection.

title: Yvon Neptune


text:
Pak Pong-ju

Pak Pong-ju (born 10 April 1939) is a North Korean politician who served as the Premier of North Korea from 2003 to 2007 and again from 2013 to 2019. He was elected a member of the Presidium of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) in 2016.

Early career
Pak Pong-ju was born in 1939. Pak began his career in 1962 as manager of the Yongchon food factory in North Pyong'an Province. He became an alternative member of the ruling Korean Workers' Party (KWP) Central Committee in October 1980, and chief of the Namhung Youth Chemical Combine Committee in July 1983. In May 1993, he became vice director of the KWP's Light Industries Department, and in March 1994, he was the vice director of the party's Economic Policy Supervisory Department. In July of that year, Pak ranked 188th out of 273 members on the funeral committee of the late leader Kim Il Sung, indicating that he was on the periphery of the elite hierarchy. However, in September 1998, he was appointed to the chemical-industries portfolio under premier Hong Song-nam, and replaced him five years later.

First Premiership (2004–2007)
In 2005, in a plenary session of the Supreme People's Assembly Pak spoke regarding the reintroduction of the public distribution system. Pak proposed an administrative solution to food distribution and labeled it the party's position: "By all means, we must reach this year’s grain production targets by thoroughly implementing the party’s policy of agricultural revolution by fully concentrating and mobilizing the entire country’s efforts into the agricultural front".

On 11 April 2007, the Korean Central News Agency reported that during the 5th session of the 11th Supreme People's Assembly of the DPRK, Pak Pong-ju was "relieved … of premiership" and Kim Yong-il elected the new premier. He had not been seen in public since May 2006. It is rumored that he was removed from office because he misused oil funds to be used for the farming sector, or that he was too heavily focused on economic development suggestions from the People's Republic of China, instead of home-grown ideas.

As Premier, Pak Pong-ju is the head of government in the DPRK, and formed the top executive leadership of the DPRK with other executive officials. The other branch of the executive government was the National Defense Commission of North Korea, led by Chairman of the National Defence Commission Kim Jong Un. As premier, he is responsible for organizing the cabinet and appoints ministers and vice-premiers upon confirmation by the Supreme People's Assembly. Prior to becoming Premier, Pak had served as Chemical Industry Minister. He serves as part of a committee heading the executive branch of the North Korean government, along with Kim Jong Un and SPA Presidium chairman Kim Yong-nam. Each man nominally holds one-third of the powers held by a president in most presidential systems. Pak handles domestic affairs, Kim Yong-nam conducts foreign relations and Kim Jong Un commands the armed forces. On 23 August 2010, The New York Times reported that Pak Pong-ju "resurfaced at a state function in the capital, Pyongyang, on Saturday, carrying the title of first deputy director of the Central Committee of the ruling Workers’ Party of Korea, according to the North’s state-run Korean Central Television." He effectively replaced Kim Jong Il's sister Kim Kyong-hui as director of the Party Light Industry Department in 2012 (he was its vice-director from 1992–1998 and 2010–2012).

He was reputedly close to Jang Sung-taek and part of the current shifting of the government's attention to the consumer economy.

Second Premiership (2013–2019)
On 31 March 2013 he was elected to Politburo Standing Committee. On 1 April, he replaced Choe Yong-rim for a second term as Premier. On 22 April, he chaired the first full session of the cabinet which included a discussion of the "byungjin line" of co-developing the economy and nuclear weapons, as well as budgetary issues for the People's Economy in the first and second quarters of 2013. In July, it was announced that Pak's cabinet had taken full authority over economic measures by calling to "unconditionally executing the cabinet’s decisions and instructions". On 11 April 2019, Pak was replaced by Kim Jae-ryong during the first session of the 14th Supreme People's Assembly and given vice-chairmanship of the Workers' Party of Korea.

Post-Premiership
Pak Pong-ju has been seen in the Kumsusan Palace of the Sun, visiting the building on the 26th anniversary of the death of Kim Il Sung. During the 2022 celebration of the Day of the Foundation of the Republic, he participated in the central concert and banquet.

title: Pak Pong-ju


text:
Pacific Railroad Acts

The Pacific Railroad Acts of 1862 were a series of acts of Congress that promoted the construction of a "transcontinental railroad" (the Pacific Railroad) in the United States through authorizing the issuance of government bonds and the grants of land to railroad companies. In 1853, the War Department under then Secretary of War Jefferson Davis was authorized by the Congress to conduct surveys of five different potential transcontinental routes from the Mississippi ranging from north to south. It submitted a massive twelve volume report to Congress with the results in early 1855. However, no route or bill could be agreed upon and passed authorizing the Government's financial support and land grants until the secession of the southern states in 1861 removed their opposition to a central route. The Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 was the original act. Some of its provisions were subsequently modified, expanded, or repealed by four additional amending Acts: The Pacific Railroad Act of 1863, Pacific Railroad Act of 1864 , Pacific Railroad Act of 1865 , and Pacific Railroad Act of 1866.

The Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 began the practice of granting federal government owned lands directly to corporations; before that act, land grants were made to the states, for the benefit of corporations.

Act of 1862, and amended 1864–65
The original 1862 Act's long title was An Act to aid in the construction of a railroad and telegraph line from the Missouri river to the Pacific ocean, and to secure to the government the use of the same for postal, military, and other purposes. It was based largely on a proposed bill originally reported six years earlier on August 16, 1856, to the 34th Congress by the Select Committee on the Pacific Railroad and Telegraph. Signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on July 1, 1862, the 1862 Act authorized extensive land grants in the Western United States and the issuance of 30-year government bonds (at 6 percent) to the Union Pacific Railroad and Central Pacific Railroad (later the Southern Pacific Railroad) companies in order to construct a continuous transcontinental railroad between the eastern side of the Missouri River at Council Bluffs, Iowa (opposite from Omaha, Nebraska) and the navigable waters of the Sacramento River in Sacramento, California. Section 2 of the Act granted each Company contiguous rights of way for their rail lines as well as all public lands within 100 ft on either side of the track.

Section 3 granted an additional 10 square miles (26 km2) of public land for every mile of grade except where railroads ran through cities or crossed rivers. The method of apportioning these additional land grants was specified in the Act as being in the form of "five alternate sections per mile on each side of said railroad, on the line thereof, and within the limits of ten miles on each side" which thus provided the companies with a total of 6400 acre for each mile of their railroad. (The interspersed non-granted area remained as public lands under the custody and control of the United States General Land Office.) The U.S. Government Pacific Railroad Bonds were authorized by Section 5 to be issued to the companies at the rate of $16,000 per mile of tracked grade completed west of the designated base of the Sierra Nevadas and east of the designated base of the Rocky Mountains (UPRR). Section 11 of the Act provided that the issuance of bonds "shall be treble the number per mile" (to $48,000) for tracked grade completed over and within the two mountain ranges (but limited to a total of 300 mi at this rate), and doubled (to $32,000) per mile of completed grade laid between the two mountain ranges Section 12 of the Act provided that the grades and curves were not to exceed the maximum grades and curves of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.

The 30-year U.S. government bonds authorized by the act would be issued and backed by the U.S. government, which would then provide the capital raised to the railroad companies upon completion of sections of the railroads in exchange for a lien on that section. The liens covered the railroads and all their fixtures, and all the loans were repaid in full (and with interest) by the companies as and when they became due.

Section 10 of the 1864 amending Act (13 Statutes at Large, 356) additionally authorized the two charter companies to issue their own "First Mortgage Bonds" in total amounts up to (but not exceeding) that of the bonds issued by the United States, and that such company issued securities would have priority over the original Government Bonds.

The amending Act of March 3, 1865 ratified and confirmed the assignment made by Central Pacific Railroad to Western Pacific Railroad to construct the westernmost leg of the Pacific Railroad from Sacramento to San Jose and authorized Western Pacific as one of the charter companies.

From 1850 to 1871, the railroads received more than 175 million acres (71 million ha) of public land – an area more than one tenth of the whole United States and larger in area than Texas.

Railroad expansion provided new avenues of migration into the American interior. The railroads sold portions of their land to arriving settlers at a handsome profit. Lands closest to the tracks drew the highest prices, because farmers and ranchers wanted to locate near railway stations.

Act of 1863
The act of March 3, 1863 (12 Sta. 807) was:
 * AN ACT to establish the gauge of the Pacific railroad and its branches.
 * Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the gauge of the Pacific railroad and its branches throughout their whole extent, from the Pacific coast to the Missouri river, shall be, and hereby is, established at four feet eight and one-half inches.

This act set the gauge to be used by the railroads at four feet and eight and one-half inches, a gauge that had previously been used by George Stephenson in England for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway (1830) and was already popular with railroads in the Northeastern states. Due in part to the 1863 Act the gauge would come to be widely (but not universally) adopted in the United States and is known as standard gauge. A common gauge choice allowed easy transfer of cars between different railroad companies and facilitates trackage rights between companies.

Thurman Act
An act of Congress (May 7, 1878, 20 Stat. 56), which became known as the Thurman Act, was an amendment to solve disputes over the railroad subsidies, revenues, and loan repayments consequential to the original act.

Related primary source documents (external links)

 * Full annotated texts of all Acts and Resolves passed by the Congress of the United States relating to the Pacific Railroad (1862–1874) Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum
 * REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON THE PACIFIC RAILROAD AND TELEGRAPH Including a Minority Report & Proposed Pacific Railroad Acts, 34th Congress, 1st Session, House Report #358 (1856) Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum
 * FIRST MORTGAGE BONDS OF THE CENTRAL PACIFIC RAILROAD Business Prospects and Operations of the Company, and Exhibit of Earnings, &c., for Quarter Ending Sept. 30, 1867. Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum
 * The General Railroad Law of California. (May 20, 1861); Act to Aid in Carrying Out the Pacific Railroad and Telegraph Act of Congress. (April 4, 1864) Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum
 * Abstract from the 1862 Annual Report of the Commissioner of the General Land Office to the Secretary of the Interior relating to Government Land Grants under the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862, Western Mineral Lands, and Surveying Estimates. Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum
 * The Official "Date of Completion" of the Transcontinental Railroad under the Provisions of the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862, et seq., as Established by the Supreme Court of the United States to be November 6, 1869. (99 U.S. 402) 1879 Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum
 * ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF RAILROADS, made to the Secretary of the Interior, for the year ending June 30, 1883. Appendix 1. Transcontinental Railroads. History of Construction. RAILROAD GRANT ACTS. Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum
 * Legislative History of the First Transcontinental Railroad Congressional Globe (1850–1873) Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum

title: Pacific Railroad Acts


text:
Themba Dlamini

Absalom Themba Dlamini (born 1 December 1950) was the Prime Minister of Eswatini from November 2003 to September 2008. He is the managing director of Tibiyo Taka Ngwane.

Biography
Dlamini graduated from the University of Botswana and Swaziland in 1978 with a bachelor's degree. In 1987, he earned a master's degree from the University of Nairobi. He gained experience in many different fields since his apprenticeship; he held manager positions with the Eswatini National Provident Fund, the Central Bank of Eswatini and the Eswatini Industrial Development Company. In addition, Dlamini served as a director in many Swazi companies. From 1991 he was the director and chairman of Tibiyo TakaNgwane, a national organization for the preservation of the culture of Eswatini and the development of economic strategies.

Dlamini was appointed Prime Minister on 14 November 2003. King Mswati III honored him with the "Royal Medal of the Supreme Advisor to the Royal Decree of King Sobhuza II." He remained in office until 18 September 2008 when Bheki Dlamini was appointed acting Prime Minister. On 16 October 2008, he was succeeded by former Prime Minister Barnabas Sibusiso Dlamini.

title: Themba Dlamini


text:
Through the Keyhole

Through the Keyhole is a British comedy panel game show created by the TV producer Kevin Sim and originally presented by Sir David Frost in the studio and Loyd Grossman on location. The location presenter goes around celebrities' houses and a panel of other celebrities in the studio try to guess who the famous homeowner is.

The show was originally produced by Yorkshire Television and was broadcast on ITV from 3 April 1987 to 1 May 1995, then on Sky One from 22 February to 23 December 1996 before moving to BBC One from 5 May 1998 to 2004 and its sister channel BBC Two from 26 February 2006 to 4 June 2008.

In 2013, the show was revived for ITV with Leigh Francis as the host. In February 2020, it was reported that the programme had been cancelled after six series.

Original series
Through the Keyhole originally started as a segment on TV-am, first being broadcast on its launch day on 1 February 1983. The idea was created by Kevin Sim as a chance to look around some of the most influential homes with Grossman at the helm as the tour presenter. Grossman was mistakenly given the job after someone had confused him with another journalist. It became a regular feature of TV-am throughout 1983 Until May 1985.

In Spring 1986 Frost transferred the concept to Yorkshire Television who picked up format, to produced a full half-hour programme for ITV, where a celebrity panel tries to guess whose house is being looked at From 1987. It ran in primetime on Friday nights for eight years on ITV and was rarely out of the top ten entertainment programmes on TV. The executive producers were Kevin Sim and Chantal Rickards. From 1996, it was produced by Frost's own production company, Paradine Productions, at Yorkshire Television. That same year, the show also moved to Sky One for one series. It then moved to BBC One Daytime in 1998 until 2004. The final three series aired on BBC Two from 2006 to 2008, when it was finally cancelled by the BBC. However, a special aired in March 2011 for Red Nose Day 2011 as part of marathon panel show 24 Hour Panel People.

Revival
In 2013, the programme returned on its original broadcast channel ITV with Leigh Francis (in character as Keith Lemon) taking up the dual roles of studio presenter and house detective. The new series was filmed at Pinewood Studios until 2018, with series 6 filmed at the BBC Elstree Centre's Studio D in the latter half of the year. Dave Berry is a regular panellist. He appeared in all the episodes of the first series and has also made numerous appearances in subsequent series. Celebrity guests on the show are a closely guarded secret until transmission. The first episode of the revived series aired on the same day that former host Sir David Frost died, although the news did not break until the following morning.

Before his death in August 2013, Frost gave his backing to ITV's remake, saying "I am delighted that the Keyhole format is now entering its fourth decade on TV. I know the pilot show went down very well with the studio audience and I wish Keith and his team the very best of luck for the series."

Format
At the start of each episode, Frost introduces a panel of three celebrities with the catchphrase "And what a panel they are ..." and some gently humorous or mocking descriptions. He then hands over to the location presenter who gives the panellists a guided tour of a property, noting particular items, though there is typically a large amount of misdirection involved as the items pointed out by the presenter are not necessarily the most pertinent clues to the person's identity. Items not specifically mentioned may provide much more useful clues. Once completed, Frost reveals the identity of the guest to the audience and the panel are given turns at guessing their identity. The audience participate with varying degrees of applause according to the accuracy of the panellists' guesswork.

The panellists are either successful at identifying the guest or Frost reveals their identity, after which they are interviewed and given a key-shaped trophy as a memento. Starting during Loyd Grossman's reign as location presenter, the geographic spread was extended with one of the properties on each episode being located in the US and one in Europe. When Stefanie Powers joined in 2007, she was based in the US and conducted the US property tours, whilst in the UK Lisa Snowdon conducted the European part.

Series 1

 * Note: Episode 7 was a Christmas special.

Series 2

 * Note: Episode 8 was a Christmas special

Series 3

 * Note: Episode 8 was a Christmas special.

Series 4
A fourth series began airing on 7 January 2017, with a Christmas episode airing two weeks previously, on 24 December. Eight episodes were recorded at Pinewood Studios in July 2016.

 * Note: Episode 1 was a Christmas special.

Series 5
A fifth series began airing on 13 January 2018. Prior to this, an I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! special aired in December 2017 instead of a Christmas episode.

 * Note: Episode 1 was an I'm a Celebrity special.

Series 6
A sixth series began airing on 12 January 2019. Prior to this, a Christmas special aired on 14 December 2018.

 * Note: Episode 1 was a Christmas special.

International broadcast
In 2015, the Dutch SBS6 channel broadcast the Dutch version, called Met de deur in huis, hosted by Kees Tol. In this show, comedian Tineke Schouten visits the houses of Dutch celebrities. The panel (Maik de Boer, Patty Brard and Ruben van der Meer) have to guess whose house she is in. In 2016, a second series aired on SBS6.

title: Through the Keyhole


text:
Goh Kun

Goh Kun (, born 2 January 1938) is a South Korean politician who served as the Prime Minister of South Korea from 1997 to 1998 and again from 2003 to 2004. He was also the acting President of South Korea at the time of Roh Moo-hyun's suspension in 2004 and a former Mayor of Seoul.

Early life and education
Goh Kun was born on 2 January 1938 in modern day Seoul, South Korea and attended Kyunggi High School from 1953 to 1956. In 1960, Goh earned a Bachelor of Science degree in political science from Seoul National University, where he was President of the Student Council. He returned to the university in 1968 and graduated with a master's degree in 1971, majoring in urban planning.

Career
Goh began his career in civil service in the 1960s, when he joined the Ministry of Home Affairs as a probationary officer. He was promoted through various positions, including the Governor of South Jeolla from 1975 to 1979, the Minister of Transportation from 1980 to 1981 and Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries from 1981 to 1982.

In 1985, Goh was elected as a Member of the National Assembly, before being appointed the mayor of Seoul in 1988. When he refused to approve a questionable development proposal in 1990, he was removed from office. However, he returned to the position in 1998, this time by election, and served until 2002. During his tenure, he initiated a “10 million trees of life” program in the Seoul and sought more aggressive emissions standards, which led to a significant greening of the city.

He served as Prime Minister of South Korea from 1997 to 1998 and from 2003 to 2004.

He assumed the role of interim President following President Roh Moo-Hyun's impeachment, from 12 March 2004 until 14 May 2004, when the South Korean Constitutional Court overturned the impeachment decision and restored Roh's powers as President. He resigned from the office of Prime Minister on 24 May 2004 after refusing to comply with the President's request to replace cabinet members. He was succeeded in the office by Lee Hae-chan, who was approved on 30 June. Along with Goh, three other cabinet members were also replaced.

In June 2006, Goh announced his candidacy for the presidential race.

On 16 January 2007, he announced that he would no longer be a candidate for the presidential elections and that he would retire from political life. Despite his retirement, he was named head of social unity council by President Lee Myung-bak on 21 December 2009.

title: Goh Kun


text:
Gmane

Gmane (pronounced "mane") is an e-mail to news gateway. It allows users to access electronic mailing lists as if they were Usenet newsgroups, and also through a variety of web interfaces. Since Gmane is a bidirectional gateway, it can also be used to post on the mailing lists. Gmane is an archive; it never expires messages (unless explicitly requested by users). Gmane also supports importing list postings made prior to a list's inclusion on the service.

The project was initiated in 2001 by Lars Magne Ingebrigtsen, one of the authors of Gnus, a newsreader for Emacs. It began operating publicly on 11 February 2002 after a one-month test period.

, Gmane's homepage stated that it included 129,592,482 messages in its archives, from a total of 20,070 mailing lists.

In July 2016, Ingebrigtsen announced that he was considering shutting Gmane down, and the web interface was taken offline. In August 2016 Gmane was acquired by Yomura Holdings. Only the message spool was transferred, with the software behind the site having to be redeveloped. On the 6 September 2016, it was announced that the Gmane web interface would be coming online again. However, by February 2018 a LWN.net article observed that the web interface did "never [...] return, breaking thousands of links across the net. The front page still says 'some things are very broken' and links to a blog page that was last updated in September 2016."

In January 2020, the server hosting the e-mail to news service, still operated by Ingebrigtsen, needed to be moved following the sale of a company Ingebrigtsen had co-founded. Due to failure of the current owners of gmane.org to update a DNS entry—resulting in the unavailability of news.gmane.org—Ingebrigtsen obtained a replacement domain,, and migrated the 15,000 mailing lists to a new server at the new address using a combination of automation, volunteer labor, and manual processes. It is currently available only by newsreader as the website formerly operated by Yomura has not been recreated.

Example
is an electronic mailing list for discussion concerning the English-language Wikipedia. Via the standard email interface, users post messages by emailing them to, and these are forwarded by email to everyone who subscribes to the list.

Gmane permits users to access this mailing list as if it were a Usenet newsgroup instead, by using the news server  and group name. Messages posted to the list by email will appear in the Gmane newsgroup, and vice versa.

Spam protection
Incoming mail is checked by SpamAssassin and anti-virus software so that spam and viruses are hidden or deleted. Outgoing mail is checked by TMDA to make sure that no spam will be posted to the lists using Gmane.

Other list-archiving services
Other services which can archive mailing lists include The Mail Archive, Nabble, MarkMail, MARC, MailBrowse, the old Google Groups user interface (the interface which was standard until 2012), Gossamer Threads, and OpenSubscriber.

title: Gmane


text:
Democratic Representative Caucus

The Democratic Representative Caucus, also called the Democratic Representative Association, was a parliamentary group in the 37th Canadian Parliament consisting of Members of Parliament who left the Canadian Alliance in 2001 in protest against the leadership of Stockwell Day.

Formation
Following the Alliance's disappointing performance in the 2000 election, Day came under severe criticism from his own party, and several high-profile Alliance MPs began publicly calling for him to step down. Through the spring of 2001, several members of the Alliance resigned their shadow cabinet seats, the most high-profile resignation being that of deputy leader Deborah Grey.

On May 2, Art Hanger was the first Alliance MP formally suspended from caucus for criticizing Day. Over the next two months, 11 other Alliance MPs were either suspended from caucus or resigned. On May 16, Hanger was followed by Chuck Strahl, Gary Lunn, Jim Pankiw, Val Meredith, Grant McNally, Jay Hill and Jim Gouk. In late June, they were joined by Monte Solberg, Andy Burton and Brian Fitzpatrick, and in the first week of July by Grey and Inky Mark.

At this time Day attempted to solve the crisis by offering to take a temporary leave of absence from the leadership if the dissidents returned to the party, but he withdrew the offer after the dissident MPs refused his conditions. Through the summer, the MPs sat as "Independent Alliance Caucus", and were jokingly dubbed the "Rebel Alliance" by political commentators.

In early September, a new offer was made to the MPs in which they would be readmitted to the Alliance caucus if they promised to refrain from criticizing Day's leadership. The MPs surveyed their constituents, and the offer was accepted by Hanger, Gouk, Solberg, Fitzpatrick and Burton. The remaining seven MPs refused, and formed the Democratic Representative Caucus on September 12, with Strahl as its parliamentary leader and Grey as deputy leader. This was not intended as a new political party, but simply as a group caucus. The MPs immediately entered a coalition agreement with the Progressive Conservatives.

Coalition with the Progressive Conservatives
The PC-DRC Coalition was intended to be PC leader Joe Clark's framework for proving that the two parties could be united on his terms rather than Day's. To that end, Clark and Strahl tried to propose common policies that would appeal to both PC and Alliance members. Clark remained the leader of the coalition caucus, with Strahl as deputy leader and Grey as caucus chairwoman.

Two weeks later, on September 24, the "Progressive Conservative - Democratic Reform Coalition Caucus" made their formal debut in the House of Commons of Canada. Speaker Peter Milliken ruled that the arrangement would be recognized as a coalition, but would not gain all of the parliamentary privileges of being a unified party; for example, although the coalition caucus now had more MPs than the New Democratic Party, Milliken ruled that the coalition would not outrank the NDP in party precedence matters, such as speaking order or seating.

While the DRC members insisted that they remained loyal to the Canadian Alliance despite their opposition to Day's leadership, the group founded the Democratic Representative Association (DRA) to support their re-election campaigns as DRC Members of Parliament.

On November 19, Lunn left the DRC to rejoin the Alliance shortly after Day agreed to hold a new Alliance leadership race, although the party forced him to issue a public apology for his role in the schism before readmitting him to the caucus. The remaining DRC members were formally expelled as members of the Canadian Alliance in December.

End of the coalition
In March 2002, Day lost that leadership race to Stephen Harper. In April five of the seven DRC members returned to the Alliance caucus, terminating their coalition agreement with the PCs. Pankiw's request for readmission to the Alliance caucus was denied, as he was embroiled in a political controversy involving a violent confrontation with a First Nations constituent. Mark chose not to return to the Alliance caucus, instead sitting as an Independent Conservative, then joining the PC caucus in August.

Conservative Party of Canada
Clark's successor, Peter MacKay, negotiated a merger with the CA in late 2003, and he, along with Mark and most of the PC caucus, joined with the CA caucus to form the Conservative Party of Canada, fulfilling the DRC's main goal of a unified centre-right. Clark and a few other prominent PC MPs and senators refused to join the new party, whilst Pankiw was again refused admission along with another Saskatchewan CA MP, Larry Spencer.

title: Democratic Representative Caucus


text:
Church of Jesus Christ in Zion

The Church of Jesus Christ in Zion is a small church in the Latter Day Saint movement based on the teachings of "latter day prophet" Ken Asay. The church is based on early teachings of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

The Church of Jesus Christ in Zion was established in 1984. According to Church doctrines, there was not to be a formal Church organization but rather individual families were to be the organizational units, presided over by a father or a family patriarch. The Church of Jesus Christ does not consider itself to be a Church organization as is the conventional model of our day. Rather, the Church claims to be a concept or a life plan by which individual families may find encouragement and support in their religious practice.

The Church adopted all of the teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith, including the teaching that any person who can "bear testimony of Jesus Christ by the power of the Holy Ghost" is a prophet.

title: Church of Jesus Christ in Zion


text:
Jules Ajodhia

Jules Rattankoemar Ajodhia (27 January 1945 – 29 March 2024) was a Surinamese politician. He was a member of the Progressive Reform Party. From 1988 to 1990, he was Minister of Justice and Police. He was also twice vice president of Suriname.

Life and career
Jules Rattankoemar Ajodhia was born in Wanica District on 27 January 1945.

The first term as vice president was from 16 September 1991 to 15 September 1996. The second term started on 12 August 2000 and ended on 12 August 2005.

Ajodhia died at the St. Vincentius Hospital in Paramaribo, on 29 March 2024, at the age of 79.

title: Jules Ajodhia