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France-Albert René

France-Albert René (16 November 1935 – 27 February 2019) was a Seychellois lawyer, politician and statesman who served as the second President of Seychelles from 1977 to 2004. He also served as the country's second Prime Minister from its independence in 1976 to 1977.

He was nicknamed by Seychellois government officials and fellow party members as "the Boss". His name is often given as simply Albert René or F.A. René; he was also nicknamed Ti France.

Early life
France-Albert was born to Price René, a plantation manager and administrator, and Luisa Morgan René, a seamstress, on 16 November 1935 in Victoria, on the island of Mahe, Crown Colony of Seychelles, but spent early childhood on Farquhar. The  modest  family did not belong to the upper class, despite their European origins. The family returned to Victoria, Mahé when France Albert was 5 years old and was sent to St Joseph’s Convent, and later to St Louis College. With the help of scholarships, René was able to attend secondary education at Saint Louis College of the Marist Brothers in Victoria on Mahé. In 1952, at the age of 17, René was granted a scholarship in Switzerland to study theology at the Capuchin Seminary of St Maurice in the canton Valais. After his first year, in 1954, he was transferred to study law at St. Mary's College, Southampton, England, and later completed his university education at King's College London. In 1957 he qualified as a lawyer at King’s College London, serving until 1961, and joined Middle Temple. While abroad, he became heavily involved in the politics of the Labour Party, at the time led by Clement Attlee and later Hugh Gaitskell. These experiences led him to adopt a moderate socialist ideology that favoured some state intervention in the economy and strong ties with conservative forces such as the Roman Catholic Church – René's initial career goal was to join the priesthood. Later, René denounced local church leaders who criticised his policies. From 1962 to 1964 he also studied economics at the London School of Economics. Upon returning to his homeland in 1964, young and enthusiastic René practiced law in Victoria. However, he became disappointed with the social policies of British colonialism that created massive injustice among the population. As a result, he decided to participate in the political development of his country. René also launched a newspaper, The People.

Politics
It was not until 1964 that any new political movements were created. In that year, the Seychelles People's United Party (SPUP, later Seychelles People's Progressive Front, SPPF), the forerunner to today's party United Seychelles (US), was formed. Led by France-Albert René, a founding member, they campaigned for socialism and independence from Britain. The late London-trained lawyer James Mancham's Seychelles Democratic Party (SDP), created the same year, by contrast represented conservatives, businessmen and planters and wanted closer integration with Britain. After being elected to the legislative assembly of the colony in 1965, together with his party comrades, he actively fought for granting it self-government, and then independence. Elections were held in 1966, won by the SDP. In 1970 Seychelles obtained a new constitution, universal adult suffrage, and a governing council with an elected majority.

In March 1970, colonial and political representatives of Seychelles met in London for a constitutional convention, with the Seychelles Democratic Party (SDP) of James Mancham advocating closer integration with the UK, and the Seychelles People's United Party (SPUP) of France-Albert René advocating independence. Further elections in November 1970 brought a new constitution into effect, with Mancham as Chief Minister. Further elections were held in April 1974, in which both major political parties campaigned for independence. In 1975, in the colonial government, he became Minister of Public Works and Land Development of the coalition government, which also included representatives of the Democratic Party (DP). Following the election, negotiations with the British resulted in an agreement under which the Seychelles became an independent republic within the Commonwealth on 29 June 1976. The newly knighted Sir James Mancham became the country's first President, with René as Prime Minister, following assembly elections in which the Seychelles People's United Party (SPUP) came in second place. These negotiations also restored the islands of Aldabra, Farquhar, and Des Roches, which had been transferred from Seychelles in November 1965 to form part of the new British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT), to Seychelles upon independence.

1977 coup
When Mancham told him he had been seen practicing with rifles on an uninhabited island, Rene coolly told him he had been shooting rabbits, and had a brace delivered to the president' s office.

While James Mancham was away overseas to attend the Commonwealth Heads of Government Conference in London and celebrate the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II, on 4–5 June 1977, less than a year after independence, between 60-200 partisan Tanzanian-trained supporters of René installed him as President of the Republic in an almost bloodless coup d'état. René's claim that he was not party to the coup was challenged during hearing of the Truth, Reconciliation and National Unity Commission in 2019 and 2020 when known a participant acknowledged that he had been involved in the planning and execution. The insurgents took control of strategic points on Mahé. The central police station was seized "virtually without a shot being fired." In contrast, there was an exchange of fire at the Mont Fleuri police station, where the arsenal was kept. Three men were killed and a policeman and one of the insurgents were killed in the fighting. The plotters arrested six British Armed Forces officers, who had been advising the Seychelles Police Force since 1976. The officers and their families, as well as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Aiden O'Brien Quinn, a judge from Ireland similarly on loan by his Government, were flown to Europe; the island was put under curfew.

When approached by the insurgents, René was said to have accepted the Presidency on three conditions: that the safety of political individuals be guaranteed, that international agreements remain in force, and that elections be planned for 1978 (they were eventually held in 1979). René, who denied knowing of the plan, was then sworn in as President and formed a new government. After coming to power, René declared that he was not a Soviet-style Communist, but rather an "Indian Ocean socialist" and "socialist pan-Africanist". Early on he opposed the Anglo-American military installation on the Indian Ocean atoll of Diego Garcia because of the possible storage of nuclear weapons. René discouraged over-dependence on tourism and declared that he wanted "to keep the Seychelles for the Seychellois".

Domestic policies

René's party, renamed the Seychelles People's Progressive Front (SPPF) in 1978, was the sole legal party from 1979 to 1991, largely financed from Tanzania, Algeria, Libya and the GDR. The newly reformed system of one-party socialism featured a directly elected president, as well as the original plurality system of legislative representation. All political activity took place under the rule of the Seychelles People's Progressive Front, and the President was voted for on a yes-no basis by any Seychelles citizen 17 or older. The President enjoyed almost unchecked executive power, and appointed his own cabinet as well as his own chair of the National Assembly. The legislature itself was unable to rule independently, and instead only enacted the bills proposed by the executive. Criticism of René or any aspect of his government was not tolerated. This allowed him to be the only presidential candidate for elections in 1979, 1984, and 1989, which he won with over 90% of the vote. Multiparty democracy commenced around 1994, but René continued to win in 1993, and in 1998 and in 2001, when he defeated the opposition leader Wavel Ramkalawan, the candidate of Seychelles National Party. In addition to presidency, he held several cabinet posts simultaneously including Minister of Foreign Affairs (1977-1979) and Minister of Finance (1981-1989), Minister of Finance and Industry (1984-1989), Minister of Planning and External Relations (1986–93), Minister of Interior and Defence, Minister of Industry (since 1998). In 1988 he added Tourism. The last addition was ironic, as he grudgingly acknowledged in private that he would be happier if no foreigners ever visited. In 1978-84 Chairman, and since June 1984 Secretary General of the SPPF. In 1979, a planned invasion of Seychelles by supporters of Sir James Mancham with the assistance of American diplomatic staff in Kenya and Seychelles was discovered before it could be carried out. An official investigation also implicated France with involvement in the coup.

The SPPF instituted a number of reforms, including universal access to education and healthcare, as well as environmental reforms. Compared to the rest of Africa, the Seychelles scored well in terms of child mortality, literacy rate, median income and standard of living. During this period, the Seychelles developed rapidly, to the point that it became the most developed country in Africa on the Human Development Index. The situation for Seychellois Creole people, who constitute the majority of the nation's population, also improved significantly due to domestic policies implemented by President René aimed at racial equity. However, the white minority (mainly Franco-Seychellois) still occupied most important posts (ministerial and parliamentary) in the state administration and dominated the ranks of the party leadership. Like his predecessor Mancham, he focused on expanding tourism. In order to finance social spending, René also promoted the settlement of international banks and established an offshore financial center. Despite the occasional coup attempts, his regime was considered stable due to the balancing of interests between socialism and capitalism.

Foreign policy
Diplomatic relations with People's Republic of China were established on 30 June 1976. China began providing Seychelles with diplomatic aid in 1977, including things such as constructing a poly-technical school and developing housing project in Les Mamelles. In 2002, China exported US$1.48 million worth of goods, while importing only $100,000 from Seychelles.

Diplomatic ties with India have existed since Seychelles gained independence in 1976. A resident high commissioner of India has been in Victoria since 1987 while Seychelles opened its resident mission in New Delhi in 2008. Relations between the two countries have been warm and cordial with regular high level exchange visits between the countries. From India, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Presidents R Venkataraman and Pratibha Patil have visited the Seychelles, while Rene, Michel and Faure of Seychelles have paid state visits to India.

In 1986, Seychelles brought around U$600,000 Malaysian products directly but purchased U$7 million through indirect trade with Singapore, thus the country are looking for a direct trade with Malaysia to get Malaysian products without using Singapore ports. In 1988, an agreement to promote co-operation in the fields of culture, education, sports and information was signed.

During the rule of René, the socialist and non-aligned government of Seychelles – a small African Indian Ocean island nation – maintained close relations with the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, commonly known as North Korea. The country received significant North Korean developmental aid. Much of the cooperation was military. Uniformed North Korean soldiers were present in the country in 1980. Another example of military cooperation was the 1983 deployment of fifty-five North Korean instructors and interpreters to aid the military of Seychelles. During his time in power, René visited Pyongyang several times, meeting with Kim Il Sung. During one meeting in 1988, he expressed support for Korean reunification, and applauded the idea of a Democratic Confederal Republic of Koryo. At the end of that visit, the two countries signed a treaty of economic cooperation.

Relations between Seychelles and the Soviet Union were established a day after the island nation gained its independence from the UK. On 15 February 1980, the USSR and Seychelles signed the Agreement on merchant navigation in Victoria. The government of René supported the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. In 1987 The Sunday Times, quoting unnamed US intelligence officers, reported that the Soviet Union had landed 50 naval infantry troops in the Seychelles after making landfall on the Ivan Rogov in October 1986; a month after a foiled assassination attempt on René. In 1999 an agreement on co-operation in the field of tourism was concluded between the two nations.

The year 1963 marked the beginning of an official U.S. presence in Seychelles when the U.S. Air Force Tracking Station was built and put into operation on Mahé. The USAF Tracking Station facilities were situated on land that was leased from the Seychelles Government ($4.5 million annually). The station's complement consisted of five uniformed Air Force personnel (two officers and three sergeants), 65 employees of Loral Corporation and Johnson Instruments, and 150 Seychellois employees. The USAF Tracking Station officially closed down on 30 September 1996. Peace Corps Volunteers served in Seychelles between 1974 and 1995. A U.S. consulate was opened in May 1976 and became an Embassy after Seychelles' independence in June 1976. The Embassy was subsequently closed in August 1996, and the United States opened a consular agency on 2 September 1996, to provide services to residents of Seychelles. The agency is under the supervision of the American Embassy in Port Louis, Mauritius. The U.S. Ambassador to Mauritius also is accredited to Seychelles.

Coups d'état
Numerous coup attempts were thwarted during the 1980s; there were three of them in just the first 2.5 years of government, and similar attempts were also made in 1981, 1982, 1986 and 1987. On 25 November 1981, Seychellois security forces put down a coup attempt sponsored by South Africa. Notorious British Colonel "Mad Mike" Hoare and a team of 43 mercenaries posed as members of the "Ancient Order of Froth Blowers", a defunct charitable beer-drinking fraternity, visiting the islands as tourists. Shortly after leaving their Royal Swazi National Airways aircraft, an airport security guard spotted a Kalashnikov assault rifle in their luggage; the discovery launched a gun battle in which hostages were taken. Most of the mercenaries escaped after hijacking another Air India plane sitting on the runway.

The author John Perkins has alleged that this was part of a covert action to re-install the pro-American former president in the face of concerns about United States access to its military bases in Diego Garcia.[better source needed]

An independent inquiry by the United Nations found that South African intelligence was indeed behind the coup; Hoare described the reaction he received from a Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) agent in Pretoria as "extremely timid". However, it is suspected by Perkins that the United States played a significant direct role in the incident, given that there was co-operation at the time between the CIA and the South African government on other issues. Three million dollars were paid to President René and his government by South Africa for the return of the remaining mercenaries detained in the Seychelles. The 1981 attempt was the second major threat to his government at the time.

The government was threatened again by an army mutiny in August 1982, but it was quelled after 2 days when loyal troops, reinforced by Tanzanian forces & several of the mercenaries that had escaped from the prison, recaptured the rebel-held installations. In the attempts to overthrow him at times resembled a Gilbert and Sullivan opera, he kept such an iron grip on the islands that would-be counter-revolutionaries went in fear of their lives.

Gérard Hoarau, of the exiled opposition, was head of the Mouvement Pour La Resistance (MPR). His opposition to the dictatorship of René was based in London and he was assassinated on 29 November 1985 by an unidentified gunman on the doorstep of his London home. Hoarau is buried in London. In 1985, after the assassination of Hoarau, the Seychelles community in exile put together a program titled SIROP (Seychelles International Repatriation and Onward Program).

In 1986, an attempted coup led by the Seychelles Minister of Defence, Ogilvy Berlouis, caused President René to request assistance from India. In Operation Flowers are Blooming, the Indian naval vessel Vindhyagiri arrived in Port Victoria to help avert the coup. Despite these attempts, for the most part René ruled throughout this period with underground opposition at home. He used Seychelles' strategic importance to obtain significant help from both superpowers of the period without having to commit himself to either. With a suppressed opposition, he was able to power through much needed social reforms. In June 1986, the Indian Navy deployed the Vindhyagiri at the Seychelles Port of Victoria to abort an attempted coup against President Rene by Defence Minister Berlouis in what was called Operation Flowers are Blooming. India helped avert a further attempted coup by Berlouis in September 1986, when Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi lent President René his plane so that he could fly back from an international meeting in Harare to the Seychelles. President René reportedly took shelter in the resident of the Indian High Commissioner in Male.

In February 1992, Conrad Greslé, a local accountant, landowner and advocate of multi-party democracy in Seychelles was arrested and charged with treason for allegedly planning to overthrow President René's régime with the apparent aid of foreign mercenaries and with supposed CIA involvement. Greslé died in Seychelles in July 1992 and is survived by his wife Sylvia, son Neville and daughters Natasha and Yvette Greslé.

A number of Seychellois were displaced and exiled by the dictatorship. The Greslé family were one of a few landowners of largely French descent to remain after the coup d'état of 1977 – most had their land confiscated and were exiled. Any individual who publicly resisted the René régime was vulnerable to threats, intimidation, or exile throughout the 1980s. Disappearances and what appear to be politically motivated killing did take place but these are not officially documented or acknowledged.[citation needed] A number of Seychellois families are now calling for official acknowledgement of politically motivated violence subsequent to the 1977 coup. Although he was white, he found greatest support among the islanders with a clear African ancestry.

Democracy
Faced with mounting pressure from the country’s primary sources of foreign aid, René’s administration began moving toward more democratic rule in the early 1990s. Following the collapse of the Berlin Wall and dissolution of the Soviet Union, at an Extraordinary Congress of the Seychelles People's Progressive Front (SPPF) on 4 December 1991, under the pressure of the opposition and France and Great Britain, President René announced a return to the multiparty system of government after almost 16 years of one-party rule. On 27 December 1991, the Constitution of Seychelles was amended to allow for the registration of political parties. Among the exiles returning to Seychelles was James Mancham, who returned in April 1992 to revive his party, the Democratic Party (DP). By the end of that month, eight political parties had registered to contest the first stage of the transition process: election to the constitutional commission, which took place on 23–26 July 1992.

The constitutional commission was made up of 22 elected members, 14 from the SPPF and 8 from the DP. It commenced work on 27 August 1992, with both President René and Mancham calling for national reconciliation and consensus on a new democratic constitution. The first draft of a new constitution failed to receive the requisite 60% of voters in 1992, but an amended version was approved in 1993. A consensus text was agreed upon on 7 May 1993, and a referendum to approve it was called for 15–18 June. The draft was approved with 73.9% of the electorate in favor of it and 24.1% against.

The first multiparty presidential and legislative elections since 1974 held under the new constitution was held between 23–26 July 1993, as well as a resounding victory for President René. Three political groups contested the elections – the SPPF, the DP, and the United Opposition (UO) – a coalition of three smaller political parties, including Parti Seselwa. Two other smaller opposition parties threw in their lot with the DP. All participating parties and international observer groups accepted the results as "free and fair".

Three candidates contested the 20–22 March 1998 presidential election: France-Albert René of the SPPF, James Mancham of the DP, and Wavel Ramkalawan. President René and his SPPF won by a landslide. The president's popularity in elections jumped to 66.6% in 1998 from 59.5% in 1993, while the SPPF garnered 61.7% of the total votes cast in the 1998 National Assembly election, compared to 56.5% in 1993. In 1999, Mancham switched to the centrist liberal Seychelles National Party (SNP) which emerged as the major opposition party, losing to the SPPF in 2002 parliamentary election with 42% of the vote. In his State of the Nation Address 2004, France-Albert René said, “I trust that when you walk across our islands, you’ll conclude that I have done my duty as a Seychellois worker”.

Resignation and later life
On 24 February 2004, René announced that he would be stepping down in favour of his long-time lieutenant, comrade and Vice-President James Alix Michel (who served until 2016), who had been in office since 1996. He did so on 14 July, whereupon he remained as leader of the People's Progressive Front, which honored him as its patron and founder. Michel would go on to win the 2006 presidential election against SNP leader Ramkalawan with 53.5% of the vote. René's political power, however, weakened with time, resulting in his party losing the 2016 parliamentary elections to the opposition. After stepping down in 2004, many believed René remained a powerful influence. However family members report that his successor, upon securing his position, "abandoned" Mr Rene, rarely conversing or seeking advice except just before elections in a bid to get him to vocalise support. France-Albert René endorsed a book, “Albert René – The Father of the Modern Seychelles” by British historian, Dr. Kevin Shillington. The full-length biography, published in 2014, analyses his early years in politics and his struggle against colonialism.

René died on 27 February 2019 in Mahé, Seychelles in hospital from respiratory failure, aged 83. The former president had been admitted to hospital with an undisclosed illness for respiratory problems on 12 February.

Dolor Ernesta who served as a minister in René’s government, said: “The President will be remembered as a true leader who led the fight for independence. I will also remember him as having a great vision for the development of the new Seychelles as we know it today, for he truly loved his country”. Chinese President Xi Jinping expressed condolences over the passing of René, stating that he had made important contributions to advancing the cause of China-Seychelles friendship.

Private life
In 1956, René married Englishwoman Karen Handley, with whom he had a daughter. Handley noted regarding the 1977 coup that “René plotted his communist revolution from my semi in Luton”. In 1975 France-Albert married Geva Savy Adam, a relationship that lasted until their divorce in 1992. He married for a third time in 1993, to Sarah Zarqani, 25 years his junior, with whom he had three daughters. She survived him with his children. René had numerous mistresses, regarding which he simply stated,  I've always made a hobby out of fishing .

Legacy

Until 2018 René was characterized as a prime example of a benevolent dictator as well as a well-loved and respected national figure, leading his country to the point of being the most developed country in Africa – as measured by the Human Development Index – and helping build one of the continent's highest gross domestic products per capita.

However, the setting up of the Truth Reconciliation and National Unity Commission (TRNUC ) in 2018, and their hearings (televised day after day in real time, and recorded on YouTube) revealed the testimonies of people who had been tortured, and from relatives of people who had been murdered, tortured, disappeared, assassinated, detained without trial, as well as evidence of financial crimes and looting of the state and private individuals, led to a reassessment of his record; critics of René believe that he and his party are responsible for torture and other human rights abuses involving opponents of the government, allegedly including the death of a prominent dissident in London, Gérard Hoarau. After the 1977 coup, a significant portion of the population, including the deposed President Sir James Mancham, fled to the UK and South Africa due to political persecution and fear of the new government's expropriation and reprisals, and alignment with the Soviet Union, Tanzania and North Korea. Between 1977 and 1984 four thousand Seychellois left the country (mainly to Britain and South Africa). In the period from 1979 to 1989, according to official statistics, about 1 thousand people a year left the country (which is more than 1% of the country's population). René also faced international pressure regarding his government's former requirement that all applicants to the country's secondary education system graduate a compulsory National Youth Service, which included traditional curricula, political education and, according to some critics, ideological indoctrination and paramilitary training. This requirement was abandoned after the transition to multiparty rule and the organisation was eventually abolished entirely. Some critics of the former René regime also point to corruption and cronyism during his tenure.

title: France-Albert René


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Jamie Allison

James E. Allison (born May 13, 1975) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey defenceman. He played for the Calgary Flames. Chicago Blackhawks, Ottawa Senators, Columbus Blue Jackets, Nashville Predators and Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League.

Junior
Allison was drafted 7th overall in the 1991 OHL Priority Draft by the Windsor Spitfires of the Ontario Hockey League. After his rookie season, he was traded to the Detroit Junior Red Wings. He was named team captain for the 1994-95 OHL season and helped lead the team to the win the J. Ross Robertson Cup as OHL Champions. They advanced to the 1995 Memorial Cup final, where they lost to the Kamloops Blazers.

Professional
He was drafted by the Calgary Flames 44th overall in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft. He made his NHL debut with the Calgary Flames in the 1994–95 season. He has since played for Chicago, Columbus, Nashville, and Florida in the NHL.

On December 13, 2005, goaltender Chris Mason was injured during the pre-game warmups, resulting in the Predators having no backup goaltender. As he was scheduled to be a healthy scratch that game, Allison was dressed the backup goaltender, instead.

In 2006, he was signed by the Ottawa Senators as a free agent and played his final season with the Senators' American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate Binghamton Senators. He played in 11 seasons in the NHL, appearing in 372 games, with 7 goals and 23 assists, as well as 639 penalty minutes.

Post-Retirement
In 2007, he was named an assistant coach for the Brampton Battalion of the OHL.

As of 2024, he is the Youth Hockey Operations Manager at Baptist Health IcePlex, which is the Florida Panthers Training Facility at the FTL War Memorial.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Jamie Allison


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Abd al-Ilah

Abd al-Ilah of Hejaz, (عبد الإله; also written Abdul Ilah or Abdullah; 14 November 1913 – 14 July 1958) was a cousin and brother-in-law of King Ghazi of the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq and was regent for his nephew King Faisal II, from 4 April 1939 to 23 May 1953, when Faisal came of age. Abd al-Ilah also held the title of Crown Prince of Iraq from 1943 to 1953.

Abd al-Ilah was killed along with the rest of the Iraqi royal family in the 14 July Revolution in 1958 that ended the Hashemite monarchy in Iraq. His body was mutilated, dragged across the streets of Baghdad, and eventually burnt.

Biography
Son and heir of King Ali ibn Hussein of Hejaz, who was the elder brother of King Faisal I of Iraq, and brother of Aliya bint Ali. His family fled Hejaz when Ibn Saud of Nejd usurped his father's authority. Upon King Ghazi's death in an automobile accident, Abd al-Ilah assumed power in Iraq as regent for the underage King Faisal II.

1941 Iraqi coup d'état
During World War II, Abd al-Ilah was deposed briefly by former Prime Minister Rashid Ali al-Gaylani. Rashid Ali led a pro-German coup d'état against Abd al-Ilah's pro-British government. After he fled the country, Abd al-Ilah was replaced as regent by Sharaf bin Rajeh, an ageing, religious relative of Faisal II. Abd al-Ilah, fearing for his life, was taken on a daring escape route that led via the US embassy in Baghdad to the RAF base at Habbaniya, before reaching the safety of the British warship HMS Cockchafer and eventually the city of Jerusalem. The deposed regent spent his time with former Prime Minister Nuri al-Said as a refugee in Amman. During his time in exile, Abd al-Ilah was a guest of his uncle Abdullah, the Emir of Transjordan.

On 2 May, the United Kingdom launched an offensive against the Iraqi rebels. On 26 May, The New York Times newspaper reported that Abd al-Ilah had called for an uprising of tribal and religious leaders to help him overthrow the insurgent government. He appealed specifically to the Iraqi people, the army and the police to accomplish "this heavy task".

By 2 June, Rashid Ali's "National Defence Government" had collapsed and Rashid Ali had fled to Iran. Abd al-Ilah returned to Baghdad and was restored as regent.

Working in tandem with Nuri al-Said, Abd al-Ilah pursued a moderate nationalist approach while maintaining close ties to the Allies.

In 1942, Wendell Willkie travelled to Britain and the Middle East as President Franklin D. Roosevelt's personal representative. In Iraq, Abdul Ilah held a lavish state dinner attended by Willkie.

In 1945, Abd al-Ilah visited the United States. He was the honoured guest at the first state dinner hosted by the new American First Lady, Bess Truman. The regent of "friendly Iraq" was awarded a Legion of Merit military decoration by President Harry S. Truman.

In 1953, Crown Prince Abd al-Ilah stepped down when Faisal II came of age. But he continued to be a close adviser of the young King, and an advocate of a pro-Western foreign policy.

In 1955, Iraq adopted the Baghdad Pact (also known as the Central Treaty Organization, or CENTO). The other members of the organization were Iran, Pakistan, Turkey and the United Kingdom. The organization's headquarters were initially located in Baghdad.

In May 1957, Saud of Saudi Arabia made an eight-day visit to Iraq. He was met on his arrival by Faisal II, Abd al-Ilah, and Prime Minister Nuri al-Said. It was the Saudi king's first ever visit to Iraq, and it commemorated Iraq's membership in the Arab Federation and its break with the United Arab Republic of Gamal Abdel Nasser.

14 July Revolution
On 14 July 1958, a coup d'état led by brigidier Abd al-Karim Qasim toppled the government and brought an end to the Iraqi monarchy. In the ensuing violence brought on by the coup, Abd al-Ilah was killed, along with most of the royal family. The body of Crown Prince Abd al-Ilah was trailed on al-Rashid street and was cut into pieces. According to the 21 July edition of Time magazine, Gamal Abdel Nasser's Middle East News Agency gleefully described the assassination of Crown Prince Abd al-Ilah: 'The people dragged Abd al-Ilah's body into the street like that of a dog and tore it limb from limb.' Then the mobs burned the body, and hung it at the Ministry of Defense gates.

Private life
In his book Closet Queens, about 20th century British gay politicians, historian and biographer Michael Bloch mentions Prince Abd al-Ilah (whom he calls Prince Abdulilah), on page 157. Bloch describes Prince Abd al-Ilah as being homosexual and a close friend of Alan Lennox-Boyd, MP (who was later elevated to the peerage, in 1960, as the 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton). Bloch says that after Abd al-Ilah was killed, "the revolutionaries discovered intimate letters from Lennox-Boyd among the Prince's papers, which they released to the world's press."

On page 159 of the book, Bloch says that Lennox-Boyd and Henry Channon organised a memorial service for their friend, the Prince, in 1958.

In the early 1950s he told a Turkish diplomat that he was very fond of the Club rakı, a brand of Turkish rakı.

Military ranks and awards
Abd al-Ilah held the following ranks:
 * Field Marshal, Royal Iraqi Army
 * Marshal, Royal Iraqi Air Force
 * Honorary Marshal, Royal Air Force

He was awarded the Legion of Merit (Chief Commander) on 1 June 1945.
 * Poland (in exile): Order of the White Eagle, 1947

title: Abd al-Ilah


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Chris Holmes

Chris Holmes may refer to:
 * Chris Holmes, Baron Holmes of Richmond, British Paralympian swimmer and peer
 * Chris Holmes (mathematician), British statistician
 * Chris Holmes (musician) (born 1958), American musician and member of the band W.A.S.P.
 * Christian R. Holmes (1896–1943), American soldier and zoo owner
 * Chris Holmes (DJ and musician), American DJ, musician, and producer
 * Chris Holmes, British keyboard player, member of Timebox and Babe Ruth
 * Chris Holmes, producer of the Megan Slankard album Freaky Little Story
 * Chris Holmes, pseudonym of radio DJ Chris Moyles whilst at Radio Luxembourg

title: Chris Holmes


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Talk:Georgia (disambiguation)

The purpose of this redirect is to facilitate disambiguation of Special:Whatlinkshere/Georgia.

 * Sorry, that explanation is not helpful. I have noticed the big hoohah about which Georgia "deserves" the default title, but I still can't understand the following:

 * 1) what redirect?
 * 2) facilitate how?
 * 3) facilitate why?
 * 4) why are there separate disambiguation pages at Georgia and Georgia (disambiguation)
 * Georgia at least links to Georgia (disambiguation); why does the reverse link not exist?
 * --jnestorius(talk) 18:40, 8 May 2008 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
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Jason Allison

Jason Paul Allison (born May 29, 1975) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre who played 552 games in the National Hockey League (NHL). Allison was born in North York, Ontario, but grew up in Toronto, Ontario. His most productive seasons were with the Boston Bruins, where he briefly served as team captain. He also played for the Washington Capitals, Los Angeles Kings and Toronto Maple Leafs. A very successful junior hockey player with the London Knights, he won two gold medals as part of the men's junior national team in 1994 and 1995 and was the Ontario Hockey League's 1994 winner of the Red Tilson Trophy as the league's most outstanding player. In the NHL, he was top ten in points twice and played in the All-Star Game once. His career was derailed by injuries and a labour dispute. Allison's final game was played against the Montreal Canadiens in March 2006 which he was injured. He attempted a comeback in 2009, but ultimately failed.

Junior hockey
Allison attended Daystrom Elementary Public School, Humber Summit Middle School and Emery Collegiate Secondary School in the Weston Road and Finch Avenue area of Toronto and Westview Centennial Secondary School in Toronto, Ontario. As a youth, he played in the 1989 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Toronto Red Wings minor ice hockey team.

From 1991 to 1994, Allison played with the London Knights of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL), with his best year coming in 1993–94 when he scored 142 points in 56 games and won the Eddie Power Trophy as the league's leading scorer, the OHL's Most Gentlemanly Player and the Red Tilson Trophy as the league's most outstanding player. Allison was drafted 17th overall in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft by the Washington Capitals as a result. He played for the men's junior national team in both the 1994 and 1995 championships winning gold medals both times.

NHL career
In 1994, Allison signed a four-year entry-level contract with the Capitals with an additional option year. He struggled to break into the Capitals lineup and was demoted to team's American Hockey League affiliate, the Portland Pirates. In 1996, the Capitals sent him on a course to improve his skating. He never met the Capitals' expectations and on March 1, 1997, was part of a major trade with the Boston Bruins. Allison, Anson Carter, Jim Carey, a 1997 third-round draft choice and a conditional 1998 second-round draft choice were traded to the Bruins for Adam Oates, Rick Tocchet and Bill Ranford. Oates, one of the NHL's superstars, had requested a trade if the Bruins did not commit to getting more talent. Allison saw a resurgence with the Bruins, putting up a then career-high 83 points in the 1997–98 season, the ninth highest total in the league. Allison led the Bruins in points three times (1997–98, 1998–99 and 2000–01). In the 2000–01 season, Allison was named captain of the team, the first since the departure of Ray Bourque. His 2000–01 season was his best when he had a career-high 95 points, good for fifth in the league. He also played in the 2001 All-Star Game. However, Allison's time with the Bruins came to an abrupt end when contract negotiations following the 2001 year reached an impasse. The Bruins traded Allison, now a fan favourite in Boston, to the Los Angeles Kings with Mikko Eloranta for Jozef Stumpel and Glen Murray on October 25, 2001. Upon his arrival in Los Angeles, Allison signed a three-year $20-million contract.

Allison joined the Kings, filling the need for a number one center who could play with Žigmund Pálffy. However, Allison suffered a stream of injuries, including major ones to the knee and neck and one of many Kings players that suffered a concussion. He missed most of the 2002–03 season and all of the following season. The 2004–05 season was cancelled by a labour dispute and Allison did not receive a qualifying offer from the Kings in 2004 allowing him to become an unrestricted free agent. Prior to the 2005–06 season, Allison signed a one-year contract with the Toronto Maple Leafs worth $1.5 million, with bonus incentives for good performance. Allison suffered a hand injury in a game against the Montreal Canadiens, and had to have surgery on his hand, which sidelined him for the remainder of the season. In the 66 games he played in before the injury, he scored 17 goals and had 60 points for the Maple Leafs.

After the 2005–06 season, Allison became an unrestricted free agent. Toronto chose not to re-sign Allison because GM John Ferguson, Jr. did not feel his skating was good enough. Allison subsequently did not sign with a team for the 2006–07 NHL season, as he wanted to be near his family and no situation arose where he could.

2009 attempted comeback
On August 28, 2009, Allison received an invitation to the Toronto Maple Leafs' September 2009 training camp, and trained with them through the beginning of the preseason. Allison had not played professionally since 2005–06; in explaining the invitation, Brian Burke, the general manager of the Maple Leafs, said: "He had some personal issues and some major physical issues at that time. He has solved all of those. In my mind, he is a guy who might give us a lift and he deserves that opportunity."

In an interview after his first exhibition game back, Allison was as confident as ever. "I didn't contribute much, but that's to be expected, I'm just shaking the cobwebs off. I fully anticipate regaining my previous form as a point-per-game player."

Allison's bid to make the team on a tryout ended up falling short. The training camp invite yielded a memorable moment, when Allison fought with the Philadelphia Flyers' Darroll Powe during an exhibition game and ripped his helmet in half with his bare hands. It was not enough, however, and by September 28, Maple Leafs head coach Ron Wilson confessed that Allison was "out of the plans."

Personal life
In retirement Allison operated a horse farm north of Toronto. He bought Reef Island on Lake Joseph in Ontario in 2004. Variety and Deadline in 2018 reported that Allison and his company Don Kee Productions were one of fourteen executive producers on the film Arkansas.

title: Jason Allison


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Thorismund

Thorismund (also Thorismod or Thorismud, as manuscripts of our chief source confusingly attest ) (c. 420–453), became king of the Visigoths after his father Theodoric was killed in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains (also called Battle of Châlons) in 451 CE. He was murdered in 453 and was succeeded by his brother Theodoric II.

Biography
Thorismund appears to have played a pivotal role in the Battle of Châlons as he led a contingent of the Visigoth forces in capturing an important summit at the very early stages of the conflict. The summit seems to have extended to the whole of the left flank of the Ostrogoth and Hun forces. Thorismund descended from the hills during the late stages of the conflict, when the Huns had prevailed over the Alans, and the Ostrogoths were pushing the disorganized Visigoths after the death of their king Theodoric. Thorismund led his force of Visigoths in a decisive charge which, according to Edward Gibbon, flanked both the Ostrogoths and subsequently the Huns and snatched the victory from his enemies.

title: Thorismund


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Val Peterson

Frederick Valdemar Erastus Peterson (July 18, 1903 – October 17, 1983), also known as Val Peterson, was an American politician and diplomat who served as the 26th governor of Nebraska from 1947 to 1953, as director of the Federal Civil Defense Administration from 1953 to 1957, U.S. ambassador to Denmark from 1957 to 1961, and U.S. Ambassador to Finland from 1969 to 1973.

Early life and education
Peterson was born in Oakland, Nebraska, the son of Henry C. Peterson and Hermanda (Swanberg) Peterson. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree from Wayne State Teachers College and a Master of Arts degree in political science from the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Following 1933, Peterson maintained his permanent residence in Elgin, Nebraska.

Career
Peterson worked as a teacher, school administrator, and newspaper man. He was the Elgin superintendent of schools and was the publisher of The Elgin Review for ten years. During World War II he served as lieutenant colonel in the United States Army Air Forces.

Peterson first entered politics as the campaign manager for the Hugh Butler 1940 U.S. senatorial bid. He also was the administrative assistant and secretary to Governor Dwight Griswold from 1941 to 1942. Peterson next secured the Republican gubernatorial nomination, and was elected governor in November 1946. He was reelected to a second term in 1948, and to a third term in 1950.

During his tenure, the Missouri River basin development was endorsed and highway revenue initiatives were sought. Also during Peterson's term, he chaired the State Governors Conference and presided over the Council of State Governments in 1952. In December 1951, Governor Peterson appointed Fred Andrew Seaton to the U.S. Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Kenneth S. Wherry.

Peterson served in the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration as director of the Federal Civil Defense Administration from 1953 to 1957. As Federal Civil Defense Administrator, Peterson is reputed to have speculated about the possibility of creating a cobalt doomsday bomb. Peterson served as U.S. ambassador to Denmark, from 1957 to 1961 and U.S. ambassador to Finland, from 1969 to 1973.

Death
Peterson died October 17, 1983, in Fremont, Nebraska, reportedly of respiratory failure following a struggle with Alzheimer's disease. He is interred at Oakdale Cemetery, Oakdale, Nebraska.

Legacy
The Peterson Fine Arts building at his alma mater, Wayne State College, was named in his honor. A variety of autographed photographs representing his political career (particularly a full Eisenhower Cabinet photo with autographs of each member, as well as a personally inscribed color photograph of Richard Nixon) were on display for many years at the Wayne State library. However, the photos began to deteriorate due to exposure, and had to be removed; they are still in the possession of the college.

Further sources

 * "Peterson, (Frederick) Val(demar Erastus)" in Current Biography 1949.

title: Val Peterson


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Tony Amonte

Anthony Lewis Amonte (born August 2, 1970) is an American former professional ice hockey player. He played right wing over 17 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the New York Rangers, Chicago Blackhawks, Phoenix Coyotes, Philadelphia Flyers and the Calgary Flames. He previously served as the head coach of the Thayer Academy men's varsity hockey team. He is currently a scout with the Florida Panthers.

Playing career
Drafted 68th overall in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft by the New York Rangers, Amonte is best known for his time as a scoring star with the Chicago Blackhawks and for representing the United States in international play. Amonte made his debut in the 1991 playoffs. He impressed as a rookie, scoring over 30 goals and placing third in the balloting for the Calder Memorial Trophy. He played three seasons with the Rangers, scoring 84 goals, before being traded to the Chicago Blackhawks with seven games to go in the 1993–94 season, the year the Rangers went on to win the Stanley Cup. He gained stardom in Chicago where he was initially reunited with former Thayer Academy teammate Jeremy Roenick, scoring at least 30 goals six times and at least 40 three times, including having a five-season-long streak in which he did not miss a single game.

Amonte, playing for Team USA, won the gold medal in the 1996 World Cup of Hockey tournament. Amonte scored the game-winning goal with just two and a half minutes left in the final against Team Canada.

He began the 2002–03 season with the Phoenix Coyotes and was traded to the Philadelphia Flyers near the end of the season. Amonte signed with the Calgary Flames as a free agent on August 2, 2005, and scored his 400th NHL goal for the Flames on December 10, 2005, against the Ottawa Senators.

As of March 2020, he is ranked 13th all-time in points among American-born players, with 900.

He announced his retirement via his personal website in 2008.

On January 21, 2009, the Chicago Blackhawks celebrated "Tony Amonte Heritage Night" at the United Center. They awarded the first 10,000 fans with special commemorative Tony Amonte pins.

Transactions

 * New York Rangers' 4th round draft choice in the 1988 NHL Entry Draft.
 * March 21, 1994 - Traded by the New York Rangers, along with Matt Oates, to the Chicago Blackhawks in exchange for Stéphane Matteau and Brian Noonan.
 * July 12, 2002 - Signed as a free agent with the Phoenix Coyotes.
 * March 10, 2003 - Traded by the Phoenix Coyotes to the Philadelphia Flyers in exchange for Guillaume Lefebvre, Atlanta's 2003 3rd round draft choice, and Phoenix's 2004 2nd round draft choice.
 * August 2, 2005 - Signed as a free agent with the Calgary Flames.

Awards and honors

 * NHL All-Rookie Team - 1992
 * Played in five NHL All-Star Games - 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001

International play
Played for the United States in:
 * World Junior Championships – 1989, 1990
 * World Championships - 1991, 1993
 * 1996 World Cup of Hockey - 1996 (gold medal)
 * Winter Olympic Games - 1998, 2002 (silver medal)

Coaching career
On June 11, 2010, Tony was named the new head coach of the hockey program at his alma mater, Thayer Academy in Braintree, Massachusetts. On September 27, 2022, it was announced that Tony Amonte would step down as head coach of the Thayer Academy men's varsity hockey team. He stepped down in order to join the Florida Panthers as a scout.

Family
Amonte is married with four children.

Amonte's sister is Kelly Amonte Hiller, head coach of women's lacrosse at Northwestern University. Hiller has guided the team to eight National Titles. Hiller was also a four-time All-American at the University of Maryland, College Park and two-time NCAA Division 1 Player of the Year in 1995 and 1996.

Amonte is the cousin of NHL player Charlie Coyle, who currently plays for the Boston Bruins.

title: Tony Amonte


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Royal Mews

The Royal Mews is a mews, or collection of equestrian stables, of the British royal family. In London these stables and stable-hands' quarters have occupied two main sites in turn, being located at first on the north side of Charing Cross, and then (since the 1820s) within the grounds of Buckingham Palace.

The Royal Mews, Buckingham Palace, includes an extensive display of royal carriages and other associated items, and is open to the public for much of the year. It is also a working part of the palace, where horses and people live and work, and where carriages and cars are in daily use supporting the work of the monarch as head of state.

The titular head of the Royal Mews is the Master of the Horse (one of the three great officers of the Royal Household). The executive head is the Crown Equerry, who lives on site and oversees the Royal Mews Department (which is a department of the Royal Household).

At Charing Cross
The first set of stables to be referred to as a mews was at Charing Cross at the western end of The Strand. The royal hawks were kept at this site from 1377 and the name originates from the fact that they were confined there at moulting time ("mew" being derived from the French verb "muer", to moult).

In the Tudor Period, the Royal Stables were located in Lomesbury (present-day Bloomsbury). In 1534 they were destroyed by fire, whereupon the King, Henry VIII, decided to rebuild the Charing Cross mews as a stables (the hawks having been given alternative accommodation). It kept its former name when it acquired this new function. On old maps, such as the "Woodcut" map of London of the early 1560s, the Mews can be seen extending back towards the site of today's Leicester Square.

When George I came to the throne in 1714 he brought with him to London the famous cream stallions which he was wont to use as Elector of Hanover. Bred at the Royal Stud at Hampton Court, these horses pulled state carriages in England for the next two hundred years (except for a hiatus during the Napoleonic wars when George III used black stallions in protest at the French occupation of Hanover).

The mews was rebuilt again in 1732 to the designs of William Kent, and in the early 19th century it was open to the public. This building was usually known as the King's Mews (or Queen's Mews when there was a woman on the throne), but was also sometimes referred to as the Royal Mews or the Royal Stables.

Kent's redesign was a classical building occupying the northern half of the site, with an open space in front of it that ranked among the few large ones in central London at a time when the Royal Parks were on the fringes of the city and most squares in London were garden squares open only to the residents of their surrounding houses.

On 15 June 1820, the Guards in the Royal Mews mutinied in support of Caroline of Brunswick, whom King George IV was seeking to divorce.

The whole site was cleared in the late 1820s to create Trafalgar Square, laid out in 1837–1844 after delays, and the National Gallery which opened in 1838.

At Buckingham Palace
The present Royal Mews is in the grounds of Buckingham Palace, to the south of Buckingham Palace Gardens, near Grosvenor Place.

In the 1760s George III moved some of his day-to-day horses and carriages to the grounds of Buckingham House, which he had acquired in 1762 for his wife's use. The Riding School, thought to be by William Chambers, dates from this period (it was completed in 1764; the pediment, with sculptural motifs by William Theed, was added in 1859). The main royal stables housing the ceremonial coaches and their horses remained at the King's Mews, Charing Cross; however, when his son George IV had Buckingham Palace converted into the main royal residence in the 1820s the whole stables establishment was moved there.

The current Royal Mews was built to designs by John Nash and was completed in 1825 (though the mews buildings have been modified extensively since). The main quadrangle was laid out with coach houses on the east side, and stable blocks (alternating with harness and forage rooms) on the west. Beyond it, the 'back mews' included accommodation for a veterinary surgeon.

When Victoria came to the throne in 1837, Buckingham Palace became the monarch's principal residence. Prince Albert used the back mews for stabling his own horses (for riding and driving). By the 1850s there were just under two hundred people employed at the mews, most of whom lived on site with their families. Standing either side of the entrance were official residences (one for the Crown Equerry, the other for the Clerk of the Stables); other staff were accommodated in rooms above the stables and carriage houses. In 1855 Queen Victoria established a Buckingham Palace Royal Mews School, for the education of the workers' children.

Under Victoria's successor, King Edward VII, motor vehicles were introduced into the mews. In 1904 the Crown Equerry wrote to the Office of Works to request the conversion of 'two small coach-houses in the Back Mews' into 'a suitable Motor House [...] with a Lantern roof, hot water heating apparatus and electric lighting'. The conversion duly took place, and accommodation was provided nearby for the chauffeurs.

In the early 20th century problems had arisen due to inbreeding of the Hanoverian creams. In 1920 they were withdrawn from use and in their place, for the rest of the decade, bay horses took pride of place in the Mews. In the early 1930s, however, King George V began using grey horses for the lead carriages in state and ceremonial processions; his son and heir Edward VIII moved the grey horses from Windsor (where they had been used for many years by the Royal Family for their private carriages) to London, where they were nicknamed the 'Windsor Greys'.

By 1936 motor vehicles were in the ascendency, and following his accession to the throne Edward VIII disposed of several of the more 'day to day' carriages. George VI made more disposals after the Second World War: for example, sixteen plain Edwardian town coaches were sold off at this time (just one remained, stored away at Windsor; it was later rediscovered, glazed and restored to royal use). A total of nineteen carriages were purchased by Sir Alexander Korda after the war, for use as film props; of these, five Clarences were borrowed back in 1953 for the coronation (to supplement five identical carriages which had been retained by the Mews). The coronation that year involved thirty-four coaches and carriages with seventy-eight horses in harness.

In 1988 a new state coach was presented to the Mews, the Australian State Coach, built by former Mews employee W. J. Frecklington as part of the Australian Bicentenary celebrations; it was the first new royal state coach to be built since the 1902 State Landau. At that time, despite the earlier disposals, the Royal Mews still had custody of over a hundred vehicles, with all but a dozen being in working order; the majority were in London or Windsor, with others spread around the other royal residences.

Present day
As well as being a full-time working facility, the Royal Mews, Buckingham Palace, is regularly open to the public. The state coaches and other carriages are kept there, along with about 30 horses, together with their modern counterparts: the state motor cars. Coachmen, grooms, chauffeurs and other staff are accommodated in flats above the carriage houses and stables.

Carriage horses
The complement of horses in the Royal Mews today includes around a dozen Windsor Greys and eighteen Cleveland Bays. The horses are regularly exercised in the art of pulling carriages (which is one of the reasons for the continuing use of horse-drawn transport for the daily messenger rounds between Buckingham Palace and St James's Palace); they are used for competitive and recreational driving as well as for ceremonial duties. The manure that is produced by the horses is used by the adjacent Buckingham Palace Garden.

Royal and state carriages
A few of the carriages stored at the Mews are pictured here in action; several more are illustrated on their own pages (see listing below).

Vehicles in the care of the Royal Mews are listed below. A good number are on public display, though not all are kept in London. Most are in regular use, and some (for example, the broughams) are driven on a daily basis. Others (above all the Gold Coach) are only used on great and rare state occasions. The list includes vehicles for personal, recreational and sporting use, as well as those designed and kept for state occasions:
 * The Gold State Coach
 * The Irish State Coach
 * The Scottish State Coach
 * The Australian State Coach
 * The Diamond Jubilee State Coach
 * Queen Alexandra's State Coach
 * The Glass Coach
 * King Edward VII's Town Coach
 * Several landau carriages including:
 * The 1902 State Landau
 * Seven other state landaus
 * Five semi-state landaus
 * Five Ascot landaus
 * Barouches and sociables
 * Broughams and clarences
 * Phaetons and victorias
 * Sporting carriages, including a rare curricle
 * Recreational vehicles, such as the Louis-Philippe charabanc (illustrated)
 * A variety of pony carriages, drags and exercise vehicles

In less regular use is Queen Victoria's state sledge, one of a number of royal sleighs in the Mews.

Also on display are some of the historic and immaculately kept liveries and harnesses (which likewise see regular use), ranging from the plainer items used for exercising and working horses, to the ornamented state liveries and harnesses designed for use with the similarly appointed state coaches.

Motor vehicles
The maintenance and provision of modern motor vehicles is as much a part of the work of the Royal Mews as that of carriages and horses. Edward VII first established a garage in the Mews in the early years of the twentieth century.

The principal official cars are all painted in black over claret (known as Royal Claret). They are driven, cared for and maintained by a number of chauffeurs, who are based in the Mews and work under the head chauffeur (who, along with his deputy, is primarily responsible for driving the monarch).

State cars
The five principal state cars are without number plates. They comprise:
 * Two identical Bentley State Limousines (one was given to Queen Elizabeth II in 2002 to mark her Golden Jubilee, the other was purchased at the same time).
 * Two Rolls-Royce Phantom VI limousines: the 1978 Silver Jubilee Phantom VI and a 1986 Phantom VI, both nearly identical outwardly, save for the slightly higher roof on the 1978 example (see photo).
 * A rare 1950 Rolls-Royce Phantom IV with body by HJ Mulliner & Co., the first example of this model built; it was fitted with an automatic gearbox in 1955.

Other official vehicles
The following vehicles, used for less-formal occasions and as support vehicles, are similarly painted in the royal claret and black livery:
 * Three Daimler DS420 limousines, two dating from 1992 (number plates KLL1 and K326EHV) and one from 1988 (F728OUL).
 * Two 2012 Jaguar XJ limousines (number plates NGN 1 and NGN 2).
 * Three 2022 Range Rovers (number plates MYT1, MYT 2 and MYT 3).
 * The State Hearse commissioned for the funeral of Elizabeth II.

Land Rovers, luggage brakes and people carriers are also kept at the Royal Mews. A number of electric vehicles have been acquired since 2012, for various purposes, ranging from a BMW i3 and a BMW 7 Series hybrid to a Nissan van and a Renault Twizy.

The Royal Mews Department
The following chart shows the staff structure of the Royal Mews Department at the end of the twentieth century (when around fifty people lived and worked at the Mews). The position of Superintendent, which included oversight of the staff of the Mews, was abolished in 2000.

Other locations
The Royal Mews, Hampton Court Palace overlooks Hampton Court Green. It continues to provide accommodation for royal staff, and horses are stabled there from time to time. It is not open to the public.

There is a working Royal Mews at Windsor Castle where the Ascot carriages are normally kept, together with vehicles used in Windsor Great Park. Some horses for riding (rather than driving) are also stabled here.

At Holyrood, the Royal Mews (situated in Abbey Strand) is one of the oldest parts of the Palace, and is still pressed into service whenever royal carriages are used in Edinburgh.

Historically, the old stables of St James's Palace, which stood where Lancaster House is now, were also sometime referred to as the Royal Mews.

title: Royal Mews


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Theodoric II

Theodoric II, Teodorico in Spanish and Portuguese, (c. 426 – early 466) was the eighth King of the Visigoths, from 453 to 466.

Biography
Theoderic II, son of Theodoric I, obtained the throne by killing his elder brother Thorismund. The English historian Edward Gibbon writes that "he justified this atrocious deed by the design which his predecessor had formed of violating his alliance with the empire." In late 458 the Western Roman Emperor, Majorian entered Septimania to attack Theodoric and reclaim the province for the empire. Majorian defeated Theodoric at the Battle of Arelate, forcing the Visigoths to abandon Septimania and withdraw west to Aquitania. Under the new treaty with the Romans, the Visigoths had to relinquish their recent conquests in Hispania and return to federate status. However, after the assassination of Majorian in 461, Theodoric recaptured Septimania and invaded Hispania again. Theodoric sided with Ricimer and the new emperor Libius Severus against Majorian's magister militum per Gallias Aegidius. Theodorics' army was defeated by Aegidius at Aurelianum and his brother Frederic died in battle, which Kulikowski writes "would have important consequences for the Gothic succession." Theodoric was himself murdered in 466 by his younger brother Euric, who succeeded him to the throne.

Described by a Roman
The Gallo-Roman Sidonius Apollinaris wrote a famously vivid and gushing letter to his brother-in-law Agricola describing the king and his court:

"You have often begged a description of Theodoric the Gothic king, whose gentle breeding fame commends to every nation; you want him in his quantity and quality, in his person, and the manner of his existence. I gladly accede, as far as the limits of my page allow, and highly approve so fine and ingenuous a curiosity.

Well, he is a man worth knowing, even by those who cannot enjoy his close acquaintance, so happily have Providence and Nature joined to endow him with the perfect gifts of fortune; his way of life is such that not even the envy which lies in wait for kings can rob him of his proper praise. And first as to his person. He is well set up, in height above the average man, but below the giant. His head is round, with curled hair retreating somewhat from brow to crown. His nervous neck is free from disfiguring knots. The eyebrows are bushy and arched; when the lids droop, the lashes reach almost half-way down the cheeks. The upper ears are buried under overlying locks, after the fashion of his race. The nose is finely aquiline; the lips are thin and not enlarged by undue distension of the mouth. Every day the hair springing from his nostrils is cut back; that on the face springs thick from the hollow of the temples, but the razor has not yet come upon his cheek, and his barber is assiduous in eradicating the rich growth on the lower part of the face. Chin, throat, and neck are full, but not fat, and all of fair complexion; seen close, their colour is fresh as that of youth; they often flush, but from modesty, and not from anger. His shoulders are smooth, the upper- and forearms strong and hard; hands broad, breast prominent; waist receding. The spine dividing the broad expanse of back does not project, and you can see the springing of the ribs; the sides swell with salient muscle, the well-girt flanks are full of vigour. His thighs are like hard horn; the knee-joints firm and masculine; the knees themselves the comeliest and least wrinkled in the world. A full ankle supports the leg, and the foot is small to bear such mighty limbs.

Now for the routine of his public life. Before daybreak he goes with a very small suite to attend the service of his priests. He prays with assiduity, but, if I may speak in confidence, one may suspect more of habit than conviction in this piety. Administrative duties of the kingdom take up the rest of the morning. Armed nobles stand about the royal seat; the mass of guards in their garb of skins are admitted that they may be within call, but kept at the threshold for quiet's sake; only a murmur of them comes in from their post at the doors, between the curtain and the outer barrier.1 And now the foreign envoys are introduced. The king hears them out, and says little; if a thing needs more discussion he puts it off, but accelerates matters ripe for dispatch. The second hour arrives; he rises from the throne to inspect his treasure-chamber or stable.

If the chase is the order of the day, he joins it, but never carries his bow at his side, considering this derogatory to royal state. When a bird or beast is marked for him, or happens to cross his path, he puts his hand behind his back and takes the bow from a page with the string all hanging loose; for as he deems it a boy's trick to bear it in a quiver, so he holds it effeminate to receive the weapon ready strung. When it is given him, he sometimes holds it in both hands and bends the extremities towards each other; at others he sets it, knot-end downward, against his lifted heel, and runs his finger up the slack and wavering string. After that, he takes his arrows, adjusts, and lets fly. He will ask you beforehand what you would like him to transfix; you choose, and he hits. If there is a miss through either's error, your vision will mostly be at fault, and not the archer's skill.

On ordinary days, his table resembles that of a private person. The board does not groan beneath a mass of dull and unpolished silver set on by panting servitors; the weight lies rather in the conversation than in the plate; there is either sensible talk or none. The hangings and draperies used on these occasions are sometimes of purple silk, sometimes only of linen; art, not costliness, commends the fare, as spotlessness rather than bulk the silver. Toasts are few, and you will oftener see a thirsty guest impatient, than a full one refusing cup or bowl. In short, you will find elegance of Greece, good cheer of Gaul, Italian nimbleness, the state of public banquets with the attentive service of a private table, and everywhere the discipline of a king's house. What need for me to describe the pomp of his feast days? No man is so unknown as not to know of them. But to my theme again. The siesta after dinner is always slight, and sometimes intermitted. When inclined for the board-game,1 he is quick to gather up the dice, examines them with care, shakes the box with expert hand, throws rapidly, humorously apostrophizes them, and patiently waits the issue. Silent at a good throw, he makes merry over a bad, annoyed by neither fortune, and always the philosopher. He is too proud to ask or to refuse a revenge; he disdains to avail himself of one if offered; and if it is opposed will quietly go on playing. You effect recovery of your men without obstruction on his side; he recovers his without collusion upon yours. You see the strategist when he moves the pieces; his one thought is victory. Yet at play he puts off a little of his kingly rigour, inciting all to good fellowship and the freedom of the game: I think he is afraid of being feared. Vexation in the man whom he beats delights him; he will never believe that his opponents have not let him win unless their annoyance proves him really victor. You would be surprised how often the pleasure born of these little happenings may favour the march of great affairs. Petitions that some wrecked influence had left derelict come unexpectedly to port; I myself am gladly beaten by him when I have a favour to ask, since the loss of my game may mean the gaining of my cause. About the ninth hour, the burden of government begins again. Back come the importunates, back the ushers to remove them; on all sides buzz the voices of petitioners, a sound which lasts till evening, and does not diminish till interrupted by the royal repast; even then they only disperse to attend their various patrons among the courtiers, and are astir till bedtime. Sometimes, though this is rare, supper is enlivened by sallies of mimes, but no guest is ever exposed to the wound of a biting tongue. Withal there is no noise of hydraulic organ,1 or choir with its conductor intoning a set piece; you will hear no players of lyre or flute, no master of the music, no girls with cithara or tabor; the king cares for no strains but those which no less charm the mind with virtue than the ear with melody. When he rises to withdraw, the treasury watch begins its vigil; armed sentries stand on guard during the first hours of slumber. But I am wandering from my subject. I never promised a whole chapter on the kingdom, but a few words about the king. I must stay my pen; you asked for nothing more than one or two facts about the person and the tastes of Theodoric; and my own aim was to write a letter, not a history. Farewell."

title: Theodoric II


text:
Gray catbird

The gray catbird (Dumetella carolinensis), also spelled grey catbird, is a medium-sized North American and Central American perching bird of the mimid family. It is the only member of the "catbird" genus Dumetella. Like the black catbird (Melanoptila glabrirostris), it is among the basal lineages of the Mimidae, probably a closer relative of the Caribbean thrasher and trembler assemblage than of the mockingbirds and Toxostoma thrashers. In some areas it is known as the slate-colored mockingbird.

Taxonomy
The name Dumetella is based upon the Latin term dūmus ("thorny thicket"; it thus means approximately "small thornbush-dweller" or "small bird of the thornbushes". It refers to the species' habit of singing when hidden in undergrowth. The specific name carolinensis is Neo-Latin for "from the Carolinas".

The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1766 edition of Systema naturae. His original name Muscicapa carolinensis reflected the belief, widespread at that time, that the gray catbird was some sort of Old World flycatcher (presumably due to its remarkably plain coloration, not similar to other mimids).

The genus name has a convoluted nomenclatorial history. The monotypic genus Galeoscoptes, proposed by Jean Cabanis in 1850, was widely used up to 1907. This name roughly means "capped mockingbird", from Latin galea "helmet" and Ancient Greek skóptein (σκώπτειν, "to scold" or "to mock"). But as it turned out, Dumetella was a technically acceptable senior synonym, even though the peculiar circumstances of its publishing left the identity of its author unsolved until 1989. As it turned out, the genus name was published by C.T. Wood in 1837. His description is somewhat eccentric, and was published under his pseudonym "S.D.W.". Wood misquotes his source—John Latham's 1783 General Synopsis of Birds—as calling the bird "cat thrush", probably because he knew the species under that name from George Shaw's General Zoology. Latham's name was "cat flycatcher", analogous to the scientific name of Linné.

Shaw (and subsequently C.T. Wood) used Louis Pierre Vieillot's specific name felivox. This means "cat voice", a contraction of Latin felis ("cat") and vox ("voice"). Vieillot, differing from the earlier authors, believed the bird to be a true thrush (Turdus).

Though mimids were widely considered Turdidae until the 1850s, this was not any more correct than treating them as Old World flycatchers, as these three families are distinct lineages of the superfamily Muscicapoidea. In the mid-20th century, the Turdidae and even most of the Sylvioidea were lumped in the Muscicapidae—but the Mimidae were not.

Lastly, the smaller gray catbirds from Bermuda, which have proportionally narrow and shorter rectrices and primary remiges, were described as subspecies bermudianus ("from Bermuda") by Outram Bangs in 1901. But this taxon was never widely accepted, and today the gray catbird is generally considered monotypic as a species, too.

Description
Adults weigh from 23.2 to 56.5 g, with an average of 35 - 40 g They range in length from 20.5 to 24 cm and span 22 to 30 cm across the wings. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 8.4 to 9.8 cm, the tail is 7.2 to 10.3 cm, the culmen is 1.5 to 1.8 cm and the tarsus is 2.7 to 2.9 cm. Gray catbirds are plain lead gray almost all over. The top of the head is darker. The undertail coverts are rust-colored, and the remiges and rectrices are black, some with white borders. The slim bill, the eyes, and the legs and feet are also blackish. Males and females cannot be distinguished by their looks; different behaviours in the breeding season is usually the only clue to the observer. Juveniles are even plainer in coloration, with buffy undertail coverts.

Vocalizations
This species is named for its cat-like call. Like many members of the Mimidae (in particular mockingbirds), it also mimics the songs of other birds, as well as those of Hylidae (tree frogs), and even mechanical sounds. Because of its well-developed songbird syrinx, it is able to make two sounds at the same time. The alarm call resembles the quiet calls of a male mallard.

A gray catbird's song is easily distinguished from that of the northern mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos) or brown thrasher (Toxostoma rufum) because the mockingbird repeats its phrases or "strophes" three to four times, the thrasher usually twice, but the catbird sings most phrases only once. The catbird's song is usually described as more raspy and less musical than that of a mockingbird.

In contrast to the many songbirds that choose a prominent perch from which to sing, the catbird often elects to sing from inside a bush or small tree, where it is obscured from view by the foliage.

Distribution and habitat
Native to most of temperate North America east of the Rocky Mountains, gray catbirds migrate to the southeastern United States, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean in winter; except for the occasional vagrant they always stay east of the American Cordillera. They are extremely rare vagrants to western Europe. Normally present on the breeding grounds by May, most leave for winter quarters in September/October; as it seems, this species is increasingly extending its stay in the summer range, with some nowadays remaining until mid-winter as far north as Ohio. The gray catbird is a migratory species. Spring migration ranges from March to May, and in the fall ranges from late August to November.

The catbird tends to avoid dense, unbroken woodlands, and does not inhabit coniferous, pine woodland. Catbirds prefer a dense vegetative substrate, especially if thorny vegetation is present. Scrublands, woodland edges, overgrown farmland and abandoned orchards are generally among the preferred locations of the catbird. In Bermuda, its preferred habitats are scrub and myrtle swamp. During the winter season, the catbird has an affinity for berry-rich thickets, especially within proximity of water sources.

Breeding
Their breeding habitat is semi-open areas with dense, low growth; they are also found in urban, suburban, and rural habitats. In the winter months they seem to associate with humans even more. These birds mainly forage on the ground in leaf litter, but also in shrubs and trees. They mainly eat arthropods and berries. In the winter months, Cymbopetalum mayanum (Annonaceae) and Trophis racemosa (Moraceae) bear fruit well liked by this species, and such trees can be planted to attract the gray catbird into parks and gardens.

They build a bulky cup nest in a shrub or tree, close to the ground. Eggs are light blue in color, and clutch size ranges from 1–5, with 2–3 eggs most common. Both parents take turns feeding the young birds.

Feeding
Gray catbirds are omnivores, and approximately 50% of their diet is fruit and berries. They tend to peck more fruit than they can eat. They also eat mealworms, earthworms, beetles, and other bugs. In summer, gray catbirds will eat mostly ants, beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and moths. They also eat holly berries, cherries, elderberries, poison ivy, bay, and blackberries. They also often peck the eggs of other species of birds, but it is unknown if they do this to supplement their diet or to reduce competition for food from other birds.

Predation and threats
The gray catbird can be attracted by "pishing" sounds. Gray catbirds are not afraid of predators and respond to them aggressively by flashing their wings and tails and by making their signature mew sounds. They are also known to even attack and peck predators that come too near their nests. They also will destroy eggs of the brood parasitic brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) laid in their nests by pecking them.

This species is widespread and generally plentiful, though its reclusive habits often make it seem less common than it is. It is not considered threatened by the IUCN due to its large range and numbers.

On Bermuda however, gray catbirds were once very common, but their numbers have been greatly reduced in recent years by deforestation and nest predation by introduced species (including the great kiskadee Pitangus sulphuratus and the European starling Sturnus vulgaris). In the United States, this species receives special legal protections under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918.

Book

 * Cimprich, D. A., and F. R. Moore. 1995. Gray Catbird (Dumetella carolinensis). In The Birds of North America, No. 167 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and The American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C.

Articles
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 * Belles-Isles JC & Picman J. (1986). Destruction of Heterospecific Eggs by the Gray Catbird. Wilson Bulletin. vol 98, no 4. pp. 603–605.
 * Boughey MJ & Thompson NS. (1976). Species Specificity and Individual Variation in the Songs of the Brown Thrasher Toxostoma-Rufum and Catbird Dumetella-Carolinensis. Behaviour. vol 57, no 1-2. pp. 64–90.
 * Cimprich DA & Moore FR. (2006). Fat affects predator-avoidance behavior in gray catbirds (Dumetella carolinensis) during migratory stopover. Auk. vol 123, no 4. pp. 1069–1076.
 * Dolby AS, Clarkson CE, Haas ET, Miller JK, Havens LE & Cox BK. (2005). Do song-phrase production rate and song versatility honestly communicate male parental quality in the Gray Catbird?. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 76, no 3. pp. 287–292.
 * Eddins ME & Rogers DT, Jr. (1992). Autumnal migration of the gray catbird through coastal Alabama. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 63, no 4. pp. 401–407.
 * Garvin MC, Basbaum JP, Ducore RM & Bell KE. (2003). Patterns of Haemoproteus beckeri parasitism in the gray catbird (Dumatella carolinensis) during the breeding season. Journal of Wildlife Diseases. vol 39, no 3. pp. 582–587.
 * Garvin MC, Scheidler LC, Cantor DG & Bell KE. (2004). Abundance and temporal distribution of Ornithonyssus sylviarum Canestrini and Fanzago (Acarina: Mesostigmata) in gray catbird (Dumatella carolinensis) nests. Journal of Vector Ecology. vol 29, no 1. pp. 62–65.
 * Hauber ME. (1998). Single-egg removal from an artificial nest by the gray catbird. Wilson Bulletin. vol 110, no 3. pp. 426–429.
 * Hazelton PK, Robel RJ & Dayton AD. (1984). Preferences and Influence of Paired Food Items on Energy Intake of American Robins Turdus-Migratorius and Gray Catbirds Dumetella-Carolinensis. Journal of Wildlife Management. vol 48, no 1. pp. 198–202.
 * Johnson EJ & Best LB. (1982). Factors Affecting Feeding and Brooding of Gray Catbird Dumetella-Carolinensis Nestlings. Auk. vol 99, no 1. pp. 148–156.
 * Lent RA. (1992). Variation in gray catbird nest morphology. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 63, no 4. pp. 411–419.
 * Long R. (1981). Catbird Dumetella-Carolinensis in the Channel Islands. British Birds. vol 74, no 12. pp. 526–527.
 * Marsh RL. (1977). Biochemical and Structural Adaptations in the Flight Muscles of the Migratory Catbird Dumetella-Carolinensis. American Zoologist. vol 17, no 4. pp. 894–894.
 * Marsh RL. (1981). Catabolic Enzyme Activities in Relation to Pre Migratory Fattening and Muscle Hypertrophy in the Gray Catbird Dumetella-Carolinensis. Journal of Comparative Physiology B Biochemical Systemic & Environmental Physiology. vol 141, no 4. pp. 417–424.
 * Marsh RL. (1983). Adaptations of the Gray Catbird Dumetella-Carolinensis to Long Distance Migration Energy Stores and Substrate Concentrations in Plasma. Auk. vol 100, no 1. pp. 170–179.
 * Marsh RL. (1984). Adaptations of the Gray Catbird Dumetella-Carolinensis to Long Distance Migration Flight Muscle Hypertrophy Associated with Elevated Body Mass. Physiological Zoology. vol 57, no 1. pp. 105–117.
 * Marshall JS, Glover PAR, Buechi KA & VanDruff LW. (2001). Nest reuse by a Gray Catbird. Wilson Bulletin. vol 113, no 3. pp. 337–338.
 * Mollhoff WJ. (1976). Successful Parasitism of the Gray Catbird by the Brown-Headed Cowbird. Wilson Bulletin. vol 88, no 3. pp. 504–505.
 * Pence DB & Casto SD. (1975). The Systematic Position of the Gray Catbird Dumetella-Carolinensis as Indicated by Its Nasal Mites Acarina Dermanyssidae Rhinonyssinae. Wilson Bulletin. vol 87, no 1. pp. 75–82.
 * Powell MC. (1978). A Gray Catbird Nest in Duval County Florida USA. Florida Field Naturalist. vol 6, no 2.
 * Preston K. (1989). Gray Catbird in County Cork New to Britain and Ireland Uk. British Birds. vol 82, no 1. pp. 1–3.
 * Raynor GS. (1979). Weight and Size Variation in the Gray Catbird Dumetella-Cardinensis. Bird Banding. vol 50, no 2. pp. 124–144.
 * Rivers JW & Sandercock BK. (2004). Predation by gray catbird on brown thrasher eggs. Southwestern Naturalist. vol 49, no 1. pp. 101–103.
 * Scott DM. (1977). Cowbird Parasitism on the Gray Catbird at London Ontario Canada. Auk. vol 94, no 1. pp. 18–27.
 * Stevenson HM & Menk GE. (1978). The Breeding Status of the Gray Catbird in Florida. Florida Field Naturalist. vol 6, no 1. pp. 13–15.
 * Stewart PA. (1969). Prey in 2 Screech Owl Nests Otus-Asio Dumetella-Carolinensis Vermivora-Ruficapilla Melospiza-Melodia Microtus-Ochrogaster Heterodon-Platyrhinos. Auk. vol 86, no 1.
 * Young AM. (1968). Predation by Catbirds on Dragonflies Dumetella-Carolinensis. Condor. vol 70, no 2.

title: Gray catbird