text:
President of Sri Lanka

The president of Sri Lanka (ශ්‍රී ලංකා ජනාධිපති Śrī Laṃkā Janādhipathi; இலங்கை சனாதிபதி Ilankai janātipati) is the head of state and head of government of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. The president is the chief executive of the union government and the commander-in-chief of the Sri Lanka Armed Forces. The president appoints the Prime Minister of Sri Lanka.

History
Under the Soulbury Constitution which consisted of the Ceylon Independence Act, 1947 and The Ceylon (Constitution and Independence) Orders in Council 1947, Ceylon (as Sri Lanka was known then) became a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary form of government. The monarch of Ceylon served as the head of state, represented by the governor-general with the prime minister serving as the head of government. The governor-general replaced the position of the Governor of British Ceylon, who had previously exercised executive control over the entire island since 1815.

In 1972, the new Republican Constitution declared Sri Lanka a republic, and Sri Lanka was no longer a constitutional monarchy. The governor-general was replaced by the office of President of Sri Lanka. The president was a mostly ceremonial head of state, with real power vested in the prime minister.

In 1978, the second amendment to the Constitution moved from a Westminster system into a more semi-presidential system. The presidency became an executive post modeled closely on the French presidency, and was now both head of state and head of government, with a longer term and independence from Parliament. The president was the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, head of the cabinet of ministers, and could dissolve parliament (after one year had passed since the convening of parliament after a parliamentary election). The prime minister would serve as both an assistant and the deputy to the president and also the president's successor.

The 17th Constitutional Amendment introduced in 2001 reduced certain powers of the president, in particular in regard to the appointment of the upper judiciary and independent commissions such as the election commission or the bribery and corruption commission.

In 2010, the highly controversial 18th Amendment to the constitution was introduced in order to remove the two-term limit for the presidency. The 18th amendment allowed the incumbent president to serve multiple terms as well as increase their power by replacing the broader constitutional council with a limited parliamentary council. This amendment was introduced by president Mahinda Rajapaksa and he later went on to run for a third term of presidency in 2015, wherein he was defeated by Maithripala Sirisena.

The 19th Constitutional Amendment undid much of the changes done by the 18th Amendment. The two-term limit was restored by president Maithripala Sirisena. The amendment required the president to consult the prime minister on ministerial appointments. It curtailed any president's immunity by making them liable to fundamental rights litigation on any official act.

In 2022, the country caved into a severe economic crisis, and as result, mass anti-government protests erupted across Sri Lanka. The protesters demanded for then-incumbent president Gotabaya Rajapaksa and his government step down. The protestors also demanded amendments to the Constitution of Sri Lanka and to reduce the powers of the President. After Gotabaya Rajapaksa's resignation, prime minister Ranil Wickremesinghe was elected president by the parliament.

In October 2022, the 21st Constitutional Amendment was introduced as plan to empower the parliament over the executive president and curbs some of the powers of the president. Under the 21st Amendment, the President, Cabinet of Ministers and National Council are all held accountable to the parliament. Fifteen Committees and Oversight Committees are also accountable to parliament. One of the key provisions in 21st Amendment is disqualifying dual-citizens from contesting in elections in Sri Lanka.

Eligibility
The article 31 Constitution of Sri Lanka sets the following qualifications for holding the presidency:
 * "The person is a citizen having been nominated as a candidate for such office by a recognized political party or elected member of the legislature."
 * "No person who has been twice elected to the office of President by the People, shall be qualified thereafter to be elected to such office by the People."
 * The person can only hold the citizenship of Sri Lanka.

Election
The president is elected to office in a presidential election held nationwide for a five-year term. An elected president can serve for a maximum of two terms, with each term taking effect from the date of taking a public oath of office for the elected term.

Article 31 (3A)(a)(i) of the Constitution of Sri Lanka, states that, the "President may, at any time after the expiration of four years from the commencement of his first term of office, by Proclamation, declare his intention of appealing to the People for a mandate to hold office, by election, for a second term.” But "A person succeeding to the office of the President under the provisions of article 40 of the constitution shall not be entitled to exercise the right conferred above."

Succession or vacancy
Succession to or vacancies in the office of president may arise under several possible circumstances: death or incapacity, resignation, or removal from office. In the case when the president is unable to perform their duties, their powers are temporarily transferred to the prime minister until confirmed by Parliament.

According to the Article 40 of the Constitution of Sri Lanka, "If the office of President shall become vacant prior to the expiration of his term of office, Parliament shall elect as President one of its Members who is qualified to be elected to the office of President. Any person so succeeding to the office of President shall hold office only for the unexpired period of the term of office of the President vacating office. Until the election of a successor, the powers and functions of the office of the President will discharged by the Prime Minister in his capacity as Acting president."

Duties
Duties of the president as described in the constitution are to:
 * Ensure that the Constitution is respected and upheld;
 * Promote national reconciliation and integration;
 * Ensure and facilitate the proper functioning of the Constitutional Council and other institutions;
 * On the advice of the Election Commission, ensure the creation of proper conditions for the conduct of free and fair elections and referendums.

Constitutional powers
Presidents have little constraints on their power. The president shall be responsible to Parliament and can be impeached and removed by a two-thirds majority in Parliament. The president may declare war and peace. They can place the country or any part under a state of emergency, under which they can override any law passed and promulgate any regulation without needing legislative approval. However, to prolong the state of emergency for more than 6 months, parliamentary approval is needed. In case of external invasion, a state of national defense can be proclaimed, which allows the government extraordinary powers. Martial law can be declared in provinces under extraordinary conditions. Further, the President can dismiss both the national and state governments from power in 3 situations: corruption, treason, and inability to govern.

Parliamentary powers
The president has the right to attend Parliament once in every three months, but is not entitled to vote. They have the right to address or send messages to Parliament and to summon, prorogue and dissolve Parliament.

Administrative powers
The president makes numerous appointments which include the prime minister, cabinet and non-cabinet ministers, provincial governors, public officers, ambassadors and commissioned officers of the armed forces. The president may also appoint secretaries, officers, and staff.

Judicial powers
The president would have the power to appoint and remove, the chief justice, justices of the Supreme Court, justices of the Court of Appeal and judges of the High Court. The president may grant a pardon. The president has immunity from both civil and criminal proceedings. The president has the power to commission public inquires by appointing a Presidential Commission of Inquiry to investigate any issue.

Diplomatic powers
President of Sri Lanka is the nation's Chief Diplomat. Through this role, they are responsible for carrying out negotiations with foreign leaders and their governments and appoint diplomatic agents.

Ceremonial duties
The president has an important ceremonial role in terms of state ceremonies, functions, and awarding state awards. Most notable would be the traditional throne speech delivered by the president to the parliament outlining the official policy statement of the new government to the parliament. The president would lead the independence day celebrations as well as other national ceremonies such as remembrance day, Wap Magul (ceremonial ploughing) and receive the Perahera Sandeshaya. National honours would be awarded by the president on behalf of the government of Sri Lanka. The president would receive letter of credence from foreign ambassadors.

Appointments
The president may appoint provincial governors to head the provincial council and serve as their representative in the province. The president may also appoint any number of advisers as presidential advisers and coordinate secretaries to assist them.

The president has the power to appoint senior attorneys-at-law to the position of President's Counsel. The president may appoint officers from the armed forces to serve as their aide-de-camp as well as extra-aide-de-camp. Additionally, the president may appoint medical officers of the armed forces as Honorary Physician to the President and Honorary Surgeon to the President.

Salary
The president receives a monthly salary (as of 2016) of LKR 100,000 (≈ $1,000) paid from the consolidated fund. It was increased from LKR 25,000 (≈ $500) to LKR 100,000 in 2006.

Tax benefits
By tradition, the president and past presidents are not subjected to income tax. This practice dates back to the pre-republic era when the crown was not subject to tax. In 2018, this practice was changed with the Inland Revenue Bill which removed the tax exemption given to the President.

Legal immunity
The president has immunity from both civil or criminal proceedings, during the tenure of office and acts carried out during this period.

Residence
The official residence of the president in Colombo is the President's House (formerly the Queen's House as the residence of the governor-general). The government pays for meals and staff. Other presidential residences include:
 * the President's Pavilion, is the president's second official residence in Kandy;
 * the Queen's Cottage is the official presidential vacationing residence in the holiday-town of Nuwara Eliya.

In recent years from time to time Prime Minister's House, commonly referred to as Temple Trees, which has been the traditional residence of the prime minister since 1948, has been used by some presidents such as Kumaratunga and Mahinda Rajapaksa. Other presidents, such as Jayewardene and Sirisena, have refused to use the President's House, with the former preferring to stay at his personal residence in Braemar, and the latter at his former ministerial residence at Wijayarama Mawatha.

Travel
For ground travel, the president uses the presidential state car, which is an armored black Mercedes-Benz S-Class (S600) Pullman Guard. For domestic air travel, helicopters from the No. 4 (VVIP/VIP) Helicopter Squadron of the Sri Lanka Air Force are used. For long-distance travel, regular flights of the Sri Lankan Airlines are used. During ceremonial occasions, ships and boats of the Sri Lanka Navy have been commissioned as the presidential yacht.

Security
President's Security Division (PSD) is the main unit charged with the close protection of the President of Sri Lanka. During President Mahinda Rajapakse's time in office the specialized Army unit the 'President's Guard' was formed for Presidential Security. Prior to the formation of the President's Guard, army personnel served as a squadron under the President's Security Division since 1996 and focused on key tasks including the perimeter security of the presidential residence, Temple Trees. 5th Regiment Sri Lanka Armoured Corps was the first army unit chosen to be in the dedicated security of the president of Sri Lanka during the presidency of Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga. However, in April 2015, President Maithripala Sirisena dissolved the President's Guard. Currently the president's security is provided by the elite Special Task Force (STF) of the Sri Lanka Police.

Presidential flag (1972−2022)
After the oath of office has been taken by the elected president, a presidential flag was adopted by the president as the insignia of their office. Each president had a unique standard, incorporating traditional symbols associated with the president or their home region. This was the case until Acting President Ranil Wickremesinghe abolished the presidential flag.

Presidential Dispatch Bag
The 'Attaché Case', Presidential Dispatch Bag carries important and secret documents wherever president is traveling. This was specifically designed by Sri Lanka Army. President will hand over the Dispatch Bag from one President to the next in line.

Presidential Secretariat

The Presidential Secretariat is the government ministry that functions as the office and staff of the president, supporting the administrative functions of the presidency and other ministerial portfolios that are held by the president. Initially located at President's House, the staff of the office of the president grew with the establishment of the executive presidency and moved into the former Parliament building in Colombo in the 1980s which now hosts the Presidential Secretariat. The Presidential Secretariat is headed by the secretary to the president (also known as the president's secretary), who is the most senior civil servant in the country.

Presidential advisers
The president has the ability to appoint any number of advisers as presidential advisers. The highest-ranking of which is known as senior advisers. During his tenure, President Mahinda Rajapaksa had appointed 38 advisers.

Chief of staff
The chief of staff is the highest-ranking officer that handles presidential staff. Sagala Ratnayaka is the current chief of staff to the president.

Coordinating secretaries
The president may appoint any number of coordinating secretaries to assist him/her.

The President's Fund
The president is the chair of the Board of Governors of the President's Fund which was established under the President's Fund Act No. 7 of 1978 to provide funds for relief of poverty, access to special healthcare, advancement of education or knowledge, advancement of the religion and culture, providing awards to persons who have served the nation and for any other purposes beneficial or of interest to the public. It is administered by the Presidential Secretariat.

Post-presidency
Under the Constitutions of Sri Lanka, holders of the office of president are granted a pension equal to the last pay drawn while in office and privileges equivalent to a serving cabinet minister. This would include the order of precedence, an official residence, an office, staff, transport and security. The pension will be in addition to any other pension which they would be entitled to due to prior service. A widow of a former president would receive a pension of two-thirds of which would have been entitled to their spouse and the privileges entitled to their late spouses such as an official residence, transport, and the order of precedence.

title: President of Sri Lanka


text: Talk:Music of Venezuela

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Music of Venezuela


text:
Hubie and Bertie

Hubie and Bertie are animated cartoon rodent characters in the Warner Bros. Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies series of cartoons. Hubie and Bertie represent some of animator Chuck Jones' earliest work that was intended to be funny rather than cute. Seven Hubie and Bertie cartoons were produced between 1943 and 1952.

Debut
Jones introduced Hubie and Bertie in the short The Aristo-Cat, first released on June 19, 1943. The plot of the cartoon would serve as the template for most future Hubie/Bertie outings: a character with some mental illness or degree of naïveté (here, a cat who doesn't know what a mouse looks like) is psychologically tormented by the pair. They tell the hungry cat that he is a lion and a bulldog his prey, leading to several painful encounters for the cat.

Hubie and Bertie as designed by Jones are nearly identical rodents (Hubie, a rat and Bertie, a mouse) with long snouts, large ears, and big, black noses. The two are anthropomorphic, walking on their stubby hind legs and using their forelimbs as arms. They are primarily distinguished by their color: one is brown with a lighter-colored belly and face, while the other is gray. Hubie has a Brooklyn accent ("Hey, Boit! C'mere!"). Bertie has large buck teeth, and a habit of responding to Hubie with "Yeah-yeah, sure-sure!" or snickering "Riot!" if Hubie has just proposed some scheme with comic potential.

Mel Blanc voiced Hubie. While historians differ on who voiced Bertie in the initial cartoon, Stan Freberg voiced him subsequently.

Development
Bertie made a cameo in Odor-able Kitty.

Trap Happy Porky (February 24, 1945) was their second appearance. Nameless, indistinguishable except for color, they appear only in the first act, stealing food from Porky in nightshirt and cap. They are silent except for a single "I'm only three and a half years old", and retreat when a cat shows up.

Jones would repeat the theme of mind games several more times in his Hubie and Bertie shorts, as in their third cartoon, Roughly Squeaking on November 23, 1946. This time, Jones has the mice exploit a cat's stupidity by convincing him he is a lion and a dog is a moose he wants to eat. By the short's end, the cat thinks he is a lion, the dog believes he is a pelican, and a bystanding bird (driven mad from watching the two) has pulled his feathers out and imagines himself a Thanksgiving turkey. The mice are here voiced by Dick Nelson (Hubie) and Stan Freberg (Bertie).

The short was followed by House Hunting Mice on September 6, 1947, where Hubie and Bertie run afoul of a housekeeping robot.

In the next cartoon, Mouse Wreckers, and for the remainder of the series, Blanc and Freberg would handle the voices of Hubie and Bertie, respectively.

Cat and mouse
Jones introduced a permanent "antagonist" of sorts for the mice in Mouse Wreckers. The short was released in 1949 and was the first in which they are officially called "Hubie" and "Bertie". In the cartoon, the duo moves into a new home, only to discover that it is protected by champion mouser Claude Cat (the character's debut), voiced by Mel Blanc. The mice torment the cat both physically and mentally. The short was nominated for an Academy Award.

The mice would antagonize Claude in two more films: The Hypo-Chondri-Cat, released in 1950, featured Hubie and Bertie making Claude think he is sick with various ailments and, ultimately, that he has died. In 1951's Cheese Chasers, however, Hubie and Bertie inadvertently torment Claude when, after going overboard on a cheese raid and getting sick of their favorite food, they decide to commit suicide by trying to get Claude to eat them, but Claude thinks that they are poisonous and refuses, deciding to commit suicide as well by getting a bulldog to attack him but the bulldog gets confused.

After these seven cartoons, Jones retired Hubie and Bertie, but continued to use the characters (or mice resembling them) in cameo roles in other shorts whenever he needed a generic mouse for a gag, such as the unnamed mouse in Chow Hound, who resembles Bertie, or the "killer" mice in Scaredy Cat.

Filmography

 * The Aristo-Cat (1943)
 * Trap Happy Porky (1945)
 * Roughly Squeaking (1946)
 * House Hunting Mice (1947)
 * Mouse Wreckers (1949)
 * The Hypo-Chondri-Cat (1950)
 * Cheese Chasers (1951)

Later appearances
Hubie and Bertie have made several cameos and recurring appearances in various Warner Bros. productions:
 * Hubie and Bertie were going to have a cameo in Who Framed Roger Rabbit, but were later dropped for unknown reasons.
 * They also appeared in Tiny Toon Adventures.
 * Hubie and Bertie appear in The Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries. Just like in The Aristo-Cat, their colors have swapped until their appearances in Duck Dodgers.
 * In the 1996 movie Space Jam, Hubie and Bertie play the public address announcers during the basketball game where Michael Jordan and the Looney Tunes compete against the MonStars. Bertie's announcer voice was provided by Steve Kehela.
 * Hubie and Bertie appear in the direct-to-video film Tweety's High-Flying Adventure.
 * Hubie and Bertie appear in the Duck Dodgers episode "Too Close for Combat." They are hired by Queen Tyr'Ahnee and Martian Commander X-2 to break up Duck Dodgers and the Eager Young Space Cadet with their vocal impersonations of them. It nearly worked until Duck Dodgers and Cadet discovered them. They managed to persuade Hubie and Bertie into using their tricks on Queen Tyr'Ahnee and Martian Commander X-2.
 * Hubie and Bertie briefly appear in The Looney Tunes Show opening.
 * Hubie and Bertie appear in the New Looney Tunes segments "Appropriate Technology", "Daffy the Stowaway", "Tweet Team", "Darkbat", "Bonjour, Darkbat!", "Smoothie Operator".
 * Hubie and Bertie have also appeared in some video games.
 * Hubie is seen alone in the Bugs Bunny: Lost in Time level "The Carrot Factory".
 * Both can be seen in the Space Jam video game.
 * Hubie and Bertie made appearances in the HBO Max series Looney Tunes Cartoons starring in shorts such as "Happy Birthday, Bugs Bunny!" and "Frame the Feline".
 * Female versions of Hubie and Bertie known as Ruthie and Gertie appeared in Bugs Bunny Builders, voiced by Kari Wahlgren and Candi Milo.

Home media
All of the Hubie and Bertie cartoons are available, remastered, on Looney Tunes Mouse Chronicles: The Chuck Jones Collection on DVD and Blu-Ray.

title: Hubie and Bertie


text:
Vela

Vela or Velas may refer to:

Astronomy

 * Vela (constellation), a constellation in the southern sky (the Sails)
 * Vela (Chinese astronomy)
 * Vela Pulsar
 * Vela X-1, a pulsing, eclipsing high-mass X-ray binary system

Places

 * Vela Bluff, Antarctica
 * Vela, Dolj, Romania
 * Vela (Ilidža – Sarajevo), Bosnia and Herzegovina
 * Velas, Maharashtra, India

Ships

 * CMA CGM Vela, a container ship in service since 2008
 * USNS Vela (T-AK-89), US Army port repair ship
 * Vela-class submarine, of the Indian Navy
 * INS Vela (S40), in service 1973–2010

Technology

 * Project Vela, a system developed by the United States to monitor compliance with the Partial Test Ban Treaty
 * Vela (satellite), a series of satellites launched by the United States to monitor nuclear testing
 * Vela incident, an international incident, in which a Vela satellite is thought to possibly have observed a nuclear test
 * Versatile Laboratory Aid (VELA), a data logging tool used in education

Given name

 * Vela Jiménez (fl. 882–883), Count of Álava
 * Vela Ladrón (fl. 1136–1174), Spanish nobleman
 * Vela Manusaute, Niuean writer and director
 * Vela Ovéquiz (fl. 1065–1085), count in the Kingdom of Galicia
 * Vela Peeva (1922–1944), Bulgarian partisan
 * Vela Velupillai (born 1947), Sri Lankan-American economist

Surname

 * Alejandro Vela (born 1984), Mexican footballer
 * Alexandra Vela, Ecuadorian lawyer and politician
 * Arqueles Vela (1899–1977), Guatemalan-Mexican writer, journalist, and teacher
 * Blanca Vela (1936–2014), American politician
 * Blasco Núñez Vela (1490–1546), viceroy of Peru
 * Carlos Vela (born 1989), Mexican footballer
 * Carmen Vela (born 1955), Spanish entrepreneur, researcher, and cabinet minister
 * Cindy Vela (born 1979), American actress, model, and saxophonist
 * Cristóbal Vela (1588–1654), Spanish Baroque painter and gilder
 * Ernesto Vela (born 1968), Mexican Olympic swimmer
 * Filemon Vela, Jr. (born 1963), American lawyer and politician
 * Filemon Vela, Sr. (1935–2004), United States federal judge
 * Giuseppe Vela Júnior (born 1977), Brazilian footballer
 * Gonzalo Vázquez Vela (1893–1963), Mexican politician
 * José Manuel Vela Bargues (1962–2022), Spanish economist and politician
 * Josh Vela (born 1993), English footballer
 * Lucé Vela, First Lady of Puerto Rico from 2009 to 2013
 * Marco Alonso Vela (born 1961), Mexican politician
 * Moises Vela, American lawyer and government advisor
 * Nallely Vela (born 1986), Mexican sprinter
 * Norma Safford Vela, American television writer, director, and producer
 * Orlando Vela (born 1994), Mexican footballer
 * Rafael Cárdenas Vela, Mexican drug cartel leader
 * Ricky Vela, American songwriter and keyboardist
 * Rodolfo Neri Vela (born 1952), Mexican scientist and astronaut
 * Rosie Vela (born 1954), American model and singer-songwriter
 * Sergio Vela (born 1964), Mexican-American opera director
 * Spartaco Vela (1853–1895), Italian painter, son of Vincenzo Vela
 * Vincenzo Vela (1820–1891), Swiss-Italian sculptor

Other uses

 * Nemmara Vallangi Vela, an annual festival of a village called Nemmara in South India
 * Vela International Marine, a subsidiary of Saudi Aramco
 * Vela, a playable character in the video game Jet Force Gemini
 * Vela, a religious, cultural celebration from the city of Tehuantepec, Mexico
 * Vela, an alternative appellation for Mokosh, the consort of the Slavic god of thunder
 * Vela (crab), a genus of land crabs in the family Gecarcinucidae
 * Vela (film), a 2023 Indian crime drama

title: Vela


text:
Talk:Acid Eaters

Untitled
This is not copyright infringement. The similar article referenced at http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A907102 was written by me. To prove this, I've written the phrase 'Hello Wikipedia!' at the very top. Also, if you click on my h2g2 username in the 'Edited by' section it will take you to my personal space, where I have linked to Wikipedia. Burn the asylum.

lol. Cool, thanks. Angela 09:23, Nov 8, 2003 (UTC)

 * I think the original artists of the songs on the CD should be mentioned. 85.226.122.205 02:52, 12 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Thank you for your suggestion! When you feel an article needs improvement, please feel free to make whatever changes you feel are needed.  Wikipedia is a wiki, so anyone can edit any article by simply following the  link at the top. You don't even need to log in!  (Although there are some reasons why you might like to...) The Wikipedia community encourages you to be bold.  Don't worry too much about making honest mistakes—they're likely to be found and corrected quickly.  If you're not sure how editing works, check out how to edit a page, or use the sandbox to try out your editing skills.  New contributors are always welcome. Jkelly 02:53, 12 January 2006 (UTC)

Professional review / external link suggestion
As an editor at Crawdaddy!, and to comply with COI guidelines, I am not posting the link to this new article taking a look back at the Ramones' Acid Eaters. However, I would like to recommend it on its merits, and hope that an editor will find the time to examine the review and—if he or she sees fit—post it to the professional reviews section on this page, or, alternately, as an external link on this page. I appreciate your time. Crawdaddy! (mixed) Mike harkin (talk) 19:39, 2 June 2009 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 06:37, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Acid Eaters


text:
Talk:1932

How many births?
I am interested in knowing how many people were born in the United States in the year 1932, specifically the month of February and how many of those people are alive today. Or up today 2002
 * Number of human births and deaths worldwide, along with what was then the world population, would be a useful addition to each year article. Best name (talk) 16:58, 31 May 2009 (UTC)

Year in topic
As per discussion at WikiProject_Years the year in topic paragraph is scheduled to be deleted as it largely duplicates the links in the top box, and is not consistent with other year. Any objections should be made on that page please --BozMo|talk 19:32, 4 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Format
[See: Talk:1950. -Wikid77 13:28, 14 December 2006 (UTC)]

Brian Hutton, Baron Hutton
This article gives Baron Hutton's date of birth as 29/6/1932, but his own article says 29/6/1931 - anyone know which is correct? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Chile Nose Jam (talk • contribs) 01:03, 11 March 2010 (UTC)

External links modified
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A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 03:06, 26 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Lola Beltrán graffiti.jpg

title: Talk:1932


text:
User talk:Syclop

Hello Syclop, welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you have a lot of fun here. There are lots of resources around to help guide you. be sure to check out:

 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

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 * image use policy
 * How to keep image file sizes as small as possible

If you need any help try:

 * Help
 * Village pump
 * Or ask me at my talk page User_talk:Theresa knott

Don't be afraid of making the odd mistake, there are any number of others eagerly waiting for a chance to correct it!

Sources for Flight level
Hello, good work on Flight level, and thanks for the contribution. However, you did not provide any references or sources in the article. Keeping Wikipedia accurate and verifiable is very important, and as you might be aware there is currently a push to encourage editors to cite the sources they used when adding content. From what websites, books, or other places did you learn the information that you added to Flight level? Would it be possible for you to mention them in the article? You can simply add links, or see WP:CITET if you wish to review some of the different citation methods. Thanks! Lupin|talk|popups 03:36, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Syclop


text:
François-Henri Clicquot

François-Henri (also Henry) Clicquot (1732 – 24 May 1790) was a French organ builder and was the grandson of Robert Clicquot and son of Louis-Alexandre Cliquot, who were also noted organ builders.

Clicquot was born in Paris, where he later died.

The Clicquot firm installed the first noteworthy organ in the cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris. Though extensively rebuilt and expanded in the nineteenth century by Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, some of the original Clicquot pipework was reused, notably in the pedal division of that instrument, where it continues to be heard today. Upon the death of Louis-Alexandre, François-Henri inherited his father's workshop.

Other Clicquot organs survive in Saint-Gervais-Saint-Protais, St. Sulpice (rebuilt by Aristide Cavaille-Coll), St. Nicolas-des-Champs, Souvigny Priory, and the Palace of Fontainebleau.

Clicquot died during the construction of organs in Poitiers Cathedral and the church of Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois, both of which were completed by his son Claude-François Clicquot.

title: François-Henri Clicquot


text:
Bay of Kotor

The Bay of Kotor (Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian: Boka kotorska / Бока которска, Italian: Bocche di Cattaro), also known as the Boka, is a winding bay of the Adriatic Sea in southwestern Montenegro and the region of Montenegro concentrated around the bay. It is also the southernmost part of the historical region of Dalmatia. At the entrance to the Bay there is Prevlaka, a small peninsula in southern Croatia. The bay has been inhabited since antiquity. Its well-preserved medieval towns of Kotor, Risan, Tivat, Perast, Prčanj and Herceg Novi, along with their natural surroundings, are major tourist attractions. The Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979. Its numerous Orthodox and Catholic churches and monasteries attract numerous religious pilgrims and other visitors.

Geography
The bay is about 28 km long with a shoreline extending 107.3 km. It is surrounded by two massifs of the Dinaric Alps: the Orjen mountains to the west, and the Lovćen mountains to the east. The narrowest section of the bay, the 2300 m long Verige Strait, is only 340 m wide at its narrowest point. The bay is a ria of the vanished Bokelj River, which used to flow from the high mountain plateaus of Mount Orjen.

The bay is composed of several smaller broad bays, united by narrower channels. The bay inlet was formerly a river system. Tectonic and karstification processes led to the disintegration of this river. After heavy rains, the waterfall of Sopot spring at Risan appears, and Škurda, another well-known spring, runs through a canyon from Lovćen.

The outermost part of the bay is the Bay of Tivat. On the seaward side is the Bay of Herceg Novi, at the main entrance to the Bay of Kotor. The inner bays are the Bay of Risan to the northwest and the Bay of Kotor to the southeast.

The Verige Strait represents the bay's narrowest section and is located between Cape St. Nedjelja and Cape Opatovo; it separates the inner bay east of the strait from the Bay of Tivat.

Climate
The bay lies within the Mediterranean and northwards the humid subtropical climate zone, but its peculiar topography and high mountains make it one of the wettest places in Europe, with Europe's wettest inhabited areas (although certain Icelandic glaciers are wetter ). The littoral Dinaric Alps and the Accursed Mountains receive the most precipitation, leading to small glaciers surviving well above the 0 C mean annual isotherm. November thunderstorms sometimes drop large amounts of water. By contrast, in August the area is frequently completely dry, leading to forest fires. With a maximum discharge of 200 m³/s, one of the biggest karst springs, the Sopot spring, reflects this seasonal variation. Most of the time it is inactive but after heavy rain a waterfall appears 20 m above the Bay of Kotor. * classification scheme after Köppen

Two wind systems have ecological significance: Bora and Jugo. Strong cold downslope winds of the Bora type appear in winter and are most severe in the Bay of Risan. Gusts reach 250 km/h and can lead to a significant temperature decline over several hours with freezing events. Bora weather situations are frequent and sailors study the mountains as cap clouds indicate an imminent Bora event. Jugo is a warm humid wind and brings heavy rain. It appears throughout the year but is usually concentrated in autumn and spring.

Monthly and yearly precipitation ranges:

Hydrology

 * Hydrologic system: karst hydrology ca. 4000 km2, Sopot, Škurda, submerged sources
 * Water area: 87 km2
 * Max depth: 60 m
 * Average depth: 27.3 m
 * Water content:24,12306 km3 (ca. 2.4 mrd m3)
 * Highest point: Orjen (1894 m)
 * Lowest point: sea surface (0 m)
 * Length: 28,13 km
 * Widest point: 7 km
 * Narrowest point: || 0.3 km

Middle Ages

The Sklavenoi, South Slavs, settled in the Balkans in the 6th century. The Serbs, mentioned in the Royal Frankish Annals of the mid-9th century, controlled a great part of Dalmatia ("Sorabos, quae natio magnam Dalmatiae partem obtinere dicitur"). Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos in De Administrando Imperio mentions that, from Croats who came to Dalmatia, one part was separated and took rule in Illyricum. The Slavic, Serbian tribes, consolidated under the Vlastimirović dynasty (610–960). The two principalities of Doclea and Travunia were roughly adjacent at Boka. As elsewhere in the Balkans, Slavs mixed with the Roman population of these Byzantine coastal cities. The Theme of Dalmatia was established in the 870s. According to De Administrando Imperio (ca. 960), Risan was part of Travunia, a Serbian principality ruled by the Belojević family.

After the Great Schism of 1054, the coastal region was under both Churches. In 1171, Stefan Nemanja sided with the Republic of Venice in a dispute with the Byzantine Empire. The Venetians incited the Slavs of the eastern Adriatic littoral to rebel against Byzantine rule and Nemanja joined them, launching an offensive towards Kotor. The Bay was thenceforth under the rule of the Nemanjić dynasty. In 1195, Nemanja and his son Vukan constructed the Church of Saint Luka in Kotor. In 1219, Saint Sava founded the seat of the Eparchy of Zeta on Prevlaka, one of the eparchies of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Due to its protected location, Kotor became a major city for the salt trade. The area flourished during the 14th century under the rule of Emperor of the Serbs Dušan the Mighty who, notorious for his aggressive law enforcement, made the Bay of Kotor a particularly safe place for doing business.

The city of Kotor was under Nemanjić rule until 1371. It was followed by a period of frequent political changes in the region. Local lords from the Vojinović and Balšić noble families fought over the influence in the region. Since 1377, northern parts of the Bay region came under the rule of Tvrtko I Kotromanić, who proclaimed himself King of the Serbs and Bosnia. For several years (1385–1391), the city of Kotor also recognized the suzerainty of the Kingdom of Bosnia. After 1391, it gained political independence, and functioned as a city-state until 1420. Its merchant fleet and importance gradually increased, but so was the interest of the powerful Republic of Venice for the city and the bay region. From 1405 to 1412, the First Scutari War was fought in the region.

Venetian rule (1420–1797)
In 1420, the city of Kotor recognized the Venetian rule, marking the beginning of an era that would last until 1797. Northern parts of the Bay region still remained under the Kingdom of Bosnia, while southern parts were controlled the Lordship of Zeta, followed by the Serbian Despotate. In the meanwhile, the Second Scutari War was fought in the region, resulting in the peace treaties of 1423 and 1426.

By the middle of the 15th century, northern parts of the Bay region became incorporated into the Duchy of Saint Sava. In 1482, Ottomans took the city of Novi, establishing their rule in the northern parts of the Bay area. Under Ottoman rule, those regions were attached to the Sanjak of Herzegovina. The Ottoman possessions in the Bay region were retaken at the end of the 17th century and the whole area became part of the Venetian Republic, within the province of Venetian Albania. Until the 20th century, the difference between the two parts was visible because the former Ottoman part had an Orthodox majority, while the part that was under Venetian rule had a Catholic majority.

The town of Perast had difficult moments in 1654 when the Ottomans attacked, retaliating against Bokeljs who had sunk an Ottoman ship. The Bokeljs' successful defence of Perast and the Bay received attention all over Europe. It attracted Petar Zrinski, a statesman in Europe who had fought dramatic battles with the Turks. During his three-day sojourn in Perast he presented his legendary sword to the town in recognition for their efforts to defend their homeland, and to stop the Ottoman Empire.

In 1669, according to Andrija Zmajević, hajduks of the Bay wished to build a church, but were denied due to Zmajević's intervention on the providur of Kotor and the captain of Perast. Ottoman travel writer Evliya Çelebi visited the Bay of Kotor and mentioned Croats who lived in Herceg Novi.

Modern history

By the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797), the Bay region came under the Habsburg rule. By the Treaty of Pressburg (1805), the region was set to be transferred to the French rule, but that was effectively achieved only after the Treaties of Tilsit (1807). Under the French rule, the Bay region was included in the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy and later in the Illyrian Provinces, which were a part of the French Empire. The region was later conquered by Montenegro with Russian help by Prince-Bishop Petar I Petrović-Njegoš and, in 1813, a union of the bay area with Montenegro was declared. In 1815, the bay was annexed by the Austrian Empire and was included in the province of Dalmatia (part of Cisleithania since 1867). In 1848, when the numerous revolutions sparked in the Austrian Empire, an Assembly of the Bay of Kotor was held sponsored by Petar II Petrović-Njegoš of Montenegro, to decide on the proposition of the Bay's unification with Ban of Croatia Josip Jelačić in an attempt to unite Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia under the Habsburg crown.

The Kingdom of Montenegro attempted to take the Bay during World War I. It was bombed from Lovćen, but, by 1916, Austria-Hungary had defeated Montenegro. During Austro-Hungarian rule, the majority of people participated in the Great Retreat with the Royal Serbian Army through Albania. On 7 November 1918, the Serbian army entered the Bay. Within a month, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was formed and was renamed as Yugoslavia in 1929. The Bay was a municipality of Dalmatia until it was re-organized into smaller districts (oblasts) in 1922. It was incorporated into the Oblast of Cetinje and, from 1939, into the Zeta Banovina. Both Ottoman and Austro Hungarian Hercegovina had a narrow exit to the sea, the so-called Sutorina stripe. In 1945 Montenegro was assigned the stripe. According to the 1910 census, the bay had 40,582 inhabitants, of whom 24,794 were Eastern Orthodox and 14,523 Catholic.

The Bay region was occupied by the Royal Italian Army in April 1941, and was included in the Governorate of Dalmatia until September 1943. Since 1945, it was part of the People's Republic of Montenegro.

Culture
Most of the region's inhabitants are Orthodox Christians, declaring themselves on census forms of either Montenegrins or Serbians, while a minority are Croatians. The Bay region is under the protection of UNESCO due to its rich cultural heritage.

The Boka region has a long maritime tradition and harbored a strong fleet since the Middle Ages, which historically formed the backbone of the Bay's economy. Kotor was home to a notable naval academy, the Scuola Nautica. The fleet peaked at 300 ships in the 18th century, when Boka was a rival to Dubrovnik and Venice. During the Austro-Hungarian period, the Bay of Kotor produced the majority of sea captains of the Österreichischer Lloyd shipping company.

Historically, inhabitants of both dominant faiths of the Boka region were referred to as Bocchesi (an Italian-language exonym). In 1806, about two-thirds of Bocchesi were adherents of Eastern Orthodoxy, the remaining third being Catholic. Catholicism was the dominant faith in Perast. During the 19th century, Orthodox Bocchesi were strongly in favor of a union with the Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro, while many Catholic inhabitants favored continued Austro-Hungarian rule.

On the landward side, long walls run from the fortified old town of Kotor to the castle of Saint John, far above; the heights of the Krivošije, a group of barren plateaus in Mount Orjen, were crowned by small forts.

The shores of the bay Herceg Novi house the Orthodox convent of St. Sava near (Savina monastery) standing amid surrounding gardens. It was founded in the 16th century and contains many specimens of 17th century silversmiths' work. 12.87 km east of Herceg Novi, there is a Benedictine monastery on a small island opposite Perast (Perasto). Perast itself was for a time an independent state in the 14th century.

Demographics
The Bokelj (Бокељ) people (pl. Бокељи, Bokelji) are the inhabitants of the Boka kotorska (hence the name) and adjacent regions (near the towns of Kotor, Tivat, Herceg Novi, Risan, Perast). They are an ethnic South Slavic community, many of whom nationally identify as Montenegrin, Serb or Croat. Most are Eastern Orthodox, while some are Roman Catholics.

According to the 2011 Montenegro census, the total population of Boka was 67,456. When it comes to ethnic composition, in 2011 there were 26,435 (39.2%) Serbs, 26,108 (38.7%) Montenegrins, and 4,519 (6.7%) Croats.

 * Herceg Novi – 30,864:
 * Serbs – 15,090 (48.89%)
 * Montenegrins – 10,395 (33.68%)
 * Croats – 662 (2.14%)
 * Regional affiliation – 367 (1.19%)
 * Roma – 258 (0.84%)
 * ethnic Muslims – 160 (0.52%)
 * Yugoslavs – 157 (0.5%)
 * Russians – 118 (0.38%)
 * Serbs-Montenegrins – 98 (0,32%)
 * Macedonians – 95 (0.3%)
 * others – 556 (1.79%)
 * undeclared – 2,908 (9.42%)

 * Kotor – 22,601:
 * Montenegrins – 11,047 (48.88%)
 * Serbs – 6,910 (30.57%)
 * Croats – 1,553 (6.87%)
 * Regional affiliation – 178 (0.79%)
 * Albanians – 102 (0.45%)
 * Yugoslavs – 93 (0.41%)
 * Romas – 74 (0.33%)
 * Russians – 70 (0.3%)
 * ethnic Muslims – 64 (0.28%)
 * Egyptians – 63 (0.28%)
 * others – 500 (2.21%)
 * undeclared – 1,946 (8.61%)

 * Tivat – 13,991:
 * Montenegrins – 4,666 (33.25%)
 * Serbs – 4,435 (31.61%)
 * Croats – 2,304 (16.42%)
 * ethnic Muslims – 114 (0.81%)
 * Regional affiliation – 109 (0.78%)
 * Albanians – 97 (0.69%)
 * Bosniaks – 96 (0.68%)
 * Yugoslavs – 61 (0.43%)
 * Slovenes – 57 (0.41%)
 * Russians – 56 (0.4%)
 * others – 411 (2.94%)
 * undeclared – 1,275 (9.09%)

Notable people

 * Matija Zmajević – shipbuilder
 * Andrija Paltašić – typographer
 * Nikola Modruški – bishop
 * Krsto Čorko – naval captain
 * Petar Želalić – naval captain
 * Ivan Visin – sailor
 * Stjepan Mitrov Ljubiša – politician
 * Rambo Amadeus – singer
 * Leopold Mandić (1866–1942)
 * Osanna of Cattaro (1493–1565)
 * Giovanni Bona de Boliris

Literature

 * Boka kotorska: Etnički sastav u razdoblju austrijske uprave (1814.-1918. g.), Ivan Crkvenčić, Antun Schaller, Hrvatski geografski glasnik 68/1, 51–72 (2006)
 * Boka kotorska: Etnički sastav u razdoblju austrijske uprave (1814.-1918. g.), Ivan Crkvenčić, Antun Schaller, Hrvatski geografski glasnik 68/1, 51–72 (2006)
 * Boka kotorska: Etnički sastav u razdoblju austrijske uprave (1814.-1918. g.), Ivan Crkvenčić, Antun Schaller, Hrvatski geografski glasnik 68/1, 51–72 (2006)
 * Boka kotorska: Etnički sastav u razdoblju austrijske uprave (1814.-1918. g.), Ivan Crkvenčić, Antun Schaller, Hrvatski geografski glasnik 68/1, 51–72 (2006)
 * Boka kotorska: Etnički sastav u razdoblju austrijske uprave (1814.-1918. g.), Ivan Crkvenčić, Antun Schaller, Hrvatski geografski glasnik 68/1, 51–72 (2006)

title: Bay of Kotor


text:
Book of Abraham

The Book of Abraham is a collection of writings from several Egyptian scrolls discovered in the early 19th century during an archeological expedition by Antonio Lebolo. Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) purchased the scrolls from a traveling mummy exhibition on July 3, 1835, to be translated into English by Joseph Smith. According to Smith, the book was "a translation of some ancient records... purporting to be the writings of Abraham, while he was in Egypt, called the Book of Abraham, written by his own hand, upon papyrus". Smith said the papyri described Abraham's early life, his travels to Canaan and Egypt, and his vision of the cosmos and its creation.

The Latter-day Saints believe the work is divinely inspired scripture, published as part of the Pearl of Great Price since 1880. It thus forms a doctrinal foundation for the LDS Church and Mormon fundamentalist denominations, though other groups, such as the Community of Christ, do not consider it a sacred text. The book contains several doctrines that are unique to Mormonism such as the idea that God organized eternal elements to create the universe (instead of creating it ex nihilo), the potential exaltation of humanity, a pre-mortal existence, the first and second estates, and the plurality of gods.

The Book of Abraham papyri were thought to have been lost in the 1871 Great Chicago Fire. However, in 1966 several fragments of the papyri were found in the archives of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and in the LDS Church archives. They are now referred to as the Joseph Smith Papyri. Upon examination by professional Egyptologists (both Mormon and otherwise), these fragments were identified as Egyptian funerary texts, including the "Breathing Permit of Hôr" and the "Book of the Dead", among others. Although some Mormon apologists defend the authenticity of the Book of Abraham, no scholars regard it as an ancient text.

Origin

Eleven mummies and several papyri were discovered near the ancient Egyptian city of Thebes by Antonio Lebolo between 1818 and 1822. Following Lebolo's death in 1830, the mummies and assorted objects were sent to New York with instructions that they should be sold in order to benefit the heirs of Lebolo. Michael H. Chandler eventually came into possession of the mummies and artifacts and began displaying them, starting in Philadelphia. Over the next two years Chandler toured the eastern United States, displaying and selling some of the mummies as he traveled.

In late June or early July 1835, Chandler exhibited his collection in Kirtland, Ohio. A promotional flyer created by Chandler states that the mummies "may have lived in the days of Jacob, Moses, or David". At the time, Kirtland was the home of the Latter Day Saints, led by Joseph Smith. In 1830 Smith published the Book of Mormon which he said he translated from ancient golden plates that had been inscribed with "reformed Egyptian" text. He took an immediate interest in the papyri and soon offered Chandler a preliminary translation of the scrolls. Smith said that the scrolls contained the writings of Abraham and Joseph, as well as a short history of an Egyptian princess named "Katumin". He wrote:

"[W]ith W. W. Phelps and Oliver Cowdery as scribes, I commenced the translation of some of the characters or hieroglyphics, and much to our joy found that one of the [scrolls] contained the writings of Abraham, another the writings of Joseph of Egypt, etc. – a more full account of which will appear in its place, as I proceed to examine or unfold them."

Smith, Joseph Coe, and Simeon Andrews soon purchased the four mummies and at least five papyrus documents for $2,400.

Translation process

During Smith's lifetime, the recent decoding of Ancient Egyptian writing systems with the Rosetta Stone was not widely known in the Americas. Between July and November 1835 Smith began "translating an alphabet to the Book of Abraham, and arranging a grammar of the Egyptian language as practiced by the ancients." In so doing, Smith worked closely with Cowdery and Phelps. The result of this effort was a collection of documents and manuscripts now known as the Kirtland Egyptian papers. One of these manuscripts was a bound book titled simply "Grammar & A[l]phabet of the Egyptian Language", which contained Smith's interpretations of the Egyptian glyphs. The first part of the book focuses almost entirely on deciphering Egyptian characters, and the second part deals with a form of astronomy that was supposedly practiced by the ancient Egyptians. Most of the writing in the book was written not by Smith but rather by a scribe taking down what Smith said.

The "Egyptian Alphabet" manuscript is particularly important because it illustrates how Smith attempted to translate the papyri. First, the characters on the papyri were transcribed onto the left-hand side of the book. Next, a postulation as to what the symbols sounded like was devised. Finally, an English interpretation of the symbol was provided. Smith's subsequent translation of the papyri takes on the form of five "degrees" of interpretation, each degree representing a deeper and more complex level of interpretation.

In translating the book, Smith dictated, and Phelps, Warren Parrish, and Frederick G. Williams acted as scribes. The complete work was first published serially in the Latter Day Saint movement newspaper Times and Seasons in 1842, and was later canonized in 1880 by the LDS Church as part of its Pearl of Great Price.

Eyewitness accounts of how the Papyri were translated are few and vague. Warren Parish, who was Joseph Smith's scribe at the time of the translation, wrote in 1838 after he had left the church: "I have set by his side and penned down the translation of the Egyptian Hieroglyphicks [sic] as he claimed to receive it by direct inspiration from Heaven." Wilford Woodruff and Parley P. Pratt intimated second hand that the Urim and Thummim were used in the translation.

A non-church member who saw the mummies in Kirtland spoke about the state of the papyri, and the translation process:

"'These records were torn by being taken from the roll of embalming salve which contained them, and some parts entirely lost but Smith is to translate the whole by divine inspiration, and that which was lost, like Nebuchadnezzar's dream can be interpreted as well as that which is preserved;'"

Book of Abraham text
The Book of Abraham's narrative tells of Abraham's life, travels to Canaan and Egypt, and a vision he received concerning the universe, a pre-mortal existence, and the creation of the world.

The book has five chapters, outlined below:

Nearly half of the Book of Abraham shows a dependence on the King James Version of the Book of Genesis. According to H. Michael Marquardt, "It seems clear that Smith had the Bible open to Genesis as he dictated this section [i.e., Chapter2] of the 'Book of Abraham. Smith explained the similarities by reasoning that when Moses penned Genesis, he used the Book of Abraham as a guide, abridging and condensing where he saw fit. As such, since Moses was recalling Abraham's lifetime, his version was in the third person, whereas the Book of Abraham, being written by its eponymous author, was composed in the first person.

The Book of Abraham was incomplete when Joseph Smith died in 1844. It is unknown how long the text would be, but Oliver Cowdery gave an indication in 1835 that it could be quite large:

"When the translation of these valuable documents will be completed, I am unable to say; neither can I gave you a probable idea how large volumes they will make; but judging from their size, and the comprehensiveness of the language, one might reasonably expect to see sufficient to develop much on the mighty of the ancient men of God."

A visitor to Kirtland saw the mummies, and noted, "They say that the mummies were Epyptian, but the records are those of Abraham and Joseph...and a larger volume than the Bible will be required to contain them."

Distinct doctrines
The Book of Abraham text is a source of some distinct Latter Day Saint doctrines, which Mormon author Randal S. Chase calls "truths of the gospel of Jesus Christ that were previously unknown to Church members of Joseph Smith's day." Examples include the nature of the priesthood, an understanding of the cosmos, the exaltation of humanity, a pre-mortal existence, the first and second estates, and the plurality of gods.

The Book of Abraham expands upon the nature of the priesthood in the Latter Day Saint movement, and it is suggested in the work that those who are foreordained to the priesthood earned this right by valor or nobility in the pre-mortal life. In a similar vein, the Book explicitly denotes that Pharaoh was a descendant of Ham and thus "of that lineage by which he could not have the right of Priesthood". This passage is the only one found in any Mormon scripture that bars a particular lineage of people from holding the priesthood. Even though nothing in the Book of Abraham explicitly connects the line of Pharaoh and Ham to black Africans, this passage was used as a scriptural basis for withholding the priesthood from black individuals. An 1868 Juvenile Instructor article points to the Pearl of Great Price as the "source of racial attitudes in church doctrine", and in 1900, First Presidency member George Q. Cannon began using the story of Pharaoh as a scriptural basis for the ban. In 1912, the First Presidency responded to an inquiry about the priesthood ban by using the story of Pharaoh. By the early 1900s, it became the foundation of church policy in regards to the priesthood ban. The 2002 Doctrine and Covenants Student Manual points to Abraham 1:21–27 as the reasoning behind not giving black people the priesthood until 1978.

Chapter 3 of the Book of Abraham describes a unique (and purportedly Egyptian ) understanding of the hierarchy of heavenly bodies, each with different movements and measurements of time. In regard to this chapter, Randal S. Chase notes, "With divine help, Abraham was able to gain greater comprehension of the order of the galaxies, stars, and planets than he could have obtained from earthly sources." At the pinnacle of the cosmos is the slowest-rotating body, Kolob, which, according to the text, is the star closest to where God lives. The Book of Abraham is the only work in the Latter Day Saint canon to mention the star Kolob. According to the Book: "[Abraham] saw the stars, that they were very great, and that one of them was nearest unto the throne of God; ... and the name of the great one is Kolob, because it is near unto me, for I am the Lord thy God: I have set this one to govern all those which belong to the same order as that upon which thou standest."

Based on this verse, the LDS Church claims that "Kolob is the star nearest to the presence of God [and] the governing star in all the universe." Time moves slowly on the celestial body; one Kolob-day corresponds to 1,000 earth-years. The Church also notes: "Kolob is also symbolic of Jesus Christ, the central figure in God's plan of salvation."

The Book of Abraham also explores pre-mortal existence. The LDS Church website explains: "Life did not begin at birth, as is commonly believed. Prior to coming to earth, individuals existed as spirits." These spirits are eternal and of different intelligences. Prior to mortal existence, spirits exist in the "first estate". Once certain spirits (i.e., those who choose to follow the plan of salvation offered by God the Father of their own accord) take on a mortal form, they enter into what is called the "second estate". The doctrine of the second estate is explicitly named only in this book. The purpose of earthly life, therefore, is for humans to prepare for a meeting with God; the Church, citing notes: "All who accept and obey the saving principles and ordinances of the gospel of Jesus Christ will receive eternal life, the greatest gift of God, and will have 'glory added upon their heads for ever and ever'."

Also notable is the Book of Abraham's description of a plurality of gods, and that "the gods" created the Earth, not ex nihilo, but rather from pre-existing, eternal matter. This shift away from monotheism and towards henotheism occurred c. 1838–39, when Smith was imprisoned in the Liberty Jail in Clay County, Missouri (this was after the majority of the Book of Abraham had been supposedly translated, but prior to its publication). Smith noted that there would be "a time come in the [sic] which nothing shall be with held [sic] whither [sic] there be one god or many gods they [sic] shall be manifest all thrones and dominions, principalities and powers shall be revealed and set forth upon all who have indured [sic] valiently [sic] for the gospel of Jesus Christ" and that all will be revealed "according to that which was ordained in the midst of the councyl [sic] of the eternal God of all other Gods before this world was."

Facsimiles
Three images (facsimiles of vignettes on the papyri) and Joseph Smith's explanations of them were printed in the 1842 issues of the Times and Seasons. These three illustrations were prepared by Smith and an engraver named Reuben Hedlock. The facsimiles and their respective explanations were later included with the text of the Pearl of Great Price in a re-engraved format. According to Smith's explanations, Facsimile No.1 portrays Abraham fastened to an altar, with the idolatrous priest of Elkenah attempting to sacrifice him. Facsimile No.2 contains representations of celestial objects, including the heavens and earth, fifteen other planets or stars, the sun and moon, the number 1,000 and God revealing the grand key-words of the holy priesthood. Facsimile No.3 portrays Abraham in the court of Pharaoh "reasoning upon the principles of Astronomy".

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The Book of Abraham was canonized in 1880 by the LDS Church, and it remains a part of the larger scriptural work, the Pearl of Great Price. For Latter-day Saints, the book links Old and New Testament covenants into a universal narrative of Christian salvation, expands on premortal existence, depicts ex materia cosmology, and informed Smith's developing understanding of temple theology, making the scripture "critical to understanding the totality of his gospel conception".

Church leadership traditionally described the Book of Abraham straightforwardly as "translated by the Prophet [Joseph Smith] from a papyrus record taken from the catacombs of Egypt", and "Some have assumed that hieroglyphs adjacent to and surrounding facsimile 1 must be a source for the text of the book of Abraham". However, modern Egyptological translations of papyrus fragments reveal the surviving Egyptian text matches the Breathing Permit of Hôr, an Egyptian funerary text, and does not mention Abraham. The church acknowledges this, and its members have adopted a range of interpretations of the Book of Abraham to accommodate the seeming disconnect between the surviving papyrus and Smith's Book of Abraham revelation. The two most common interpretations are sometimes called the "missing scroll theory" and the "catalyst theory", though the relative popularity of these theories among Latter-day Saints is unclear.

The "missing scroll theory" holds that Smith may have translated the Book of Abraham from a now-lost portion of papyri, with the text of Breathing Permit of Hôr having nothing to do with Smith's translation. John Gee, an Egyptologist and Latter-day Saint, and the apologetic organization FAIR (Faithful Answers, Informed Response; formerly FairMormon) favor this view. In support of his interpretation, Gee has proposed that the original surviving portion of the Breathing Permit of Hôr (of which 66 centimeters survive) was more than 1,300 centimeters long, based on his use of Friedhelm Hoffman's formula for calculating scroll length based on extant fragments. However, when Andrew W. Cook and Christopher Smith "attempted to replicate Gee's results" with similar calculations in another study of the Breathing Permit, they "found that his measurements did not seem to be accurate" and instead estimated that no more than 56 centimeters are missing from the original scroll. See. In a historical apparatus for the Joseph Smith Papyri, the Joseph Smith Papers describes the Permit as having originally been "between 150 and 156 centimeters", based on citations from Cook, Smith, and other scholars:

Other Latter-day Saints hold to the "catalyst theory," which hypothesizes that Smith's "study of the papyri may have led to a revelation about key events and teachings in the life of Abraham", allowing him to "translate" the Book of Abraham from the Breathing Permit of Hôr papyrus by inspiration without actually relying on the papyrus' textual meaning. This theory draws theological basis from Smith's "New Translation" of the Bible, wherein in the course of rereading the first few chapters of Genesis, he dictated as a revelatory translation the much longer Book of Moses.

FAIR has claimed the church "favors the missing scroll theory". However, in 2019, the Joseph Smith Papers' documentary research on the Book of Abraham and Egyptian papyri makes it "clear that Joseph Smith and/or his clerks associated the characters from the [surviving Breathing Permit of Hôr] papyri with the English Book of Abraham text".

Community of Christ
The Community of Christ, formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, does not include the Book of Abraham in its scriptural canon, although it was referenced in early church publications.

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)
The Strangite branch of the movement does not take an official position on the Book of Abraham. The branch notes, "We know that 'The Book of Abraham' was published in an early periodical as a text 'purporting to be the writings of Abraham' with no indication of its translation process (see Times and Seasons, March 1, 1842), and therefore have no authorized position on it."

Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints holds to the canonicity of the Book of Abraham.

Loss and rediscovery of the papyrus
After Joseph Smith's death, the Egyptian artifacts were in the possession of his mother, Lucy Mack Smith, and she and her son William Smith continued to exhibit the four mummies and associated papyri to visitors. Two weeks after Lucy's death in May 1856, Smith's widow, Emma Hale Smith Bidamon, her second husband Lewis C. Bidamon, and her son Joseph Smith III, sold "four Egyptian mummies with the records with them" to Abel Combs on May26, 1856. Combs later sold two of the mummies, along with some papyri, to the St. Louis Museum in 1856. Upon the closing of the St.Louis Museum, these artifacts were purchased by Joseph H. Wood and found their way to the Chicago Museum in about 1863, and were promptly put on display. The museum and all its contents were burned in 1871 during the Great Chicago Fire. Today it is presumed that the papyri that formed the basis for Facsimiles2 and3 were lost in the conflagration.

After the fire, however, it was believed that all the sources for the book had been lost. Despite this belief, Abel Combs still owned several papyri fragments and two mummies. While the fate of the mummies is unknown, the fragments were passed to Combs' nurse Charlotte Benecke Weaver, who gave them to her daughter, Alice Heusser. In 1918 Heusser approached the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art (MMA) about purchasing the items; at the time, the museum curators were not interested, but in 1947 they changed their mind, and the museum bought the papyri from Heusser's widower husband, Edward. In the 1960s the MMA decided to raise money by selling some of its items which were considered "less unique". Among these were the papyri that Heusser had sold to the museum several decades earlier. In May 1966, Aziz S. Atiya, a Coptic scholar from the University of Utah, was looking through the MMA's collection when he came across the Heusser fragments; upon examining them, he recognized one as the vignette known as Facsmile1 from The Pearl of Great Price. He informed LDS Church leaders, and several months later, on November27, 1967, the LDS Church was able to procure the fragments, and according to Henry G. Fischer, curator of the Egyptian Collection at the MMA, an anonymous donation to the MMA made it possible for the LDS Church to acquire the papyri. The subsequent transfer included ten pieces of papyri, including the original of Facsimile1. The eleventh fragment had been given to Brigham Young (then church president) previously by Chief Banquejappa of the Pottawatomie tribe in 1846.

Three of these fragments were designated Joseph Smith Papyrus (JSP) I, X, and XI. Other fragments, designated JSPII, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII, are thought by critics to be the Book of Joseph to which Smith had referred. Egyptologist John A. Wilson stated that the recovered fragments indicated the existence of at least six to eight separate documents. The twelfth fragment was discovered in the LDS Church Historian's office and was dubbed the "Church Historian's Fragment". Disclosed by the church in 1968, the fragment was designated JSPIX. Although there is some debate about how much of the papyrus collection is missing, there is broad agreement that the recovered papyri are portions of Smith's original purchase, partly based on the fact that they were pasted onto paper which had "drawings of a temple and maps of the Kirtland, Ohio area" on the back, as well as the fact that they were accompanied by an affidavit by Emma Smith stating that they had been in the possession of Joseph Smith.

Controversy and criticism

Since its publication in 1842, the Book of Abraham has been a source of controversy. Non-Mormon Egyptologists, beginning in the late 19th century, have disagreed with Joseph Smith's explanations of the facsimiles. They have also asserted that damaged portions of the papyri have been reconstructed incorrectly. In 1912, the book 'Joseph Smith, Jr., As a Translator' was published, containing refutations to Smith's translations. Refuters included Archibald Sayce, Flinders Petrie, James Henry Breasted, Arthur Cruttenden Mace (refute below), John Punnett Peters, C. Mercer, Eduard Meyer, and Friedrich Wilhelm von Bissing.

"I return herewith, under separate cover, the 'Pearl of Great Price.' The 'Book of Abraham,' it is hardly necessary to say, is a pure fabrication. Cuts 1 and 3 are inaccurate copies of well known scenes on funeral papyri, and cut 2 is a copy of one of the magical discs which in the late Egyptian period were placed under the heads of mummies. There were about forty of these latter known in museums and they are all very similar in character. Joseph Smith's interpretation of these cuts is a farrago of nonsense from beginning to end. Egyptian characters can now be read almost as easily as Greek, and five minutes' study in an Egyptian gallery of any museum should be enough to convince any educated man of the clumsiness of the imposture."

The controversy intensified in the late 1960s when portions of the Joseph Smith Papyri were located. The translation of the papyri by both Mormon and non-Mormon Egyptologists does not match the text of the Book of Abraham as purportedly translated by Joseph Smith. Indeed, the transliterated text from the recovered papyri and facsimiles published in the Book of Abraham contain no direct references, either historical or textual, to Abraham, and Abraham's name does not appear anywhere in the papyri or the facsimiles. Edward Ashment notes, "The sign that Smith identified with Abraham [...] is nothing more than the hieratic version of [...] a 'w' in Egyptian. It has no phonetic or semantic relationship to [Smith's] 'Ah-broam. University of Chicago Egyptologist Robert K. Ritner concluded in 2014 that the source of the Book of Abraham "is the 'Breathing Permit of Hôr,' misunderstood and mistranslated by Joseph Smith", and that the other papyri are common Egyptian funerary documents like the Book of the Dead.

Original manuscripts of the Book of Abraham, microfilmed in 1966 by Jerald Tanner, show portions of the Joseph Smith Papyri and their purported translations into the Book of Abraham. Ritner concludes, contrary to the LDS position, due to the microfilms being published prior to the rediscovery of the Joseph Smith Papyri, that "it is not true that 'no eyewitness account of the translation survives, that the Book of Abraham is "confirmed as a perhaps well-meaning, but erroneous invention by Joseph Smith", and "despite its inauthenticity as a genuine historical narrative, the Book of Abraham remains a valuable witness to early American religious history and to the recourse to ancient texts as sources of modern religious faith and speculation".

Book of Joseph
As noted above, a second untranslated work was identified by Joseph Smith after scrutinizing the original papyri. He said that one scroll contained "the writings of Joseph of Egypt". Based on descriptions by Oliver Cowdery, some, including Charles M. Larson, believe that the fragments Joseph Smith Papyri II, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII are the source of this work.

title: Book of Abraham


text:
X 2000

X 2000, also called SJ X2 or simply X2, is an electric high-speed tilting train operated by SJ in Sweden. It was constructed by Kalmar Verkstad in Kalmar, Sweden (prior to the company being bought by Adtranz in 1996) and launched in 1990 as a first-class only train with a meal included in the ticket price, and free use of the train's fax machine. There is a bistro on board that serves snack bar-style dishes. From 1995 second class was introduced. All trains are equipped with Wi-Fi for passenger access to the Internet and were repainted grey as of 2005. The trains also have electric power supply sockets at all seats in both first and second class. The trains have been fitted with repeaters to improve mobile phone reception.

It has a top commercial speed of 200 km/h, but has reached 276 km/h in a test. The reason the X2 was chosen was that Sweden (like most other countries) has very curved railways, and not enough traffic to justify building special high-speed railway lines (at least before 1990). As a result, a Swedish tilting train had to be developed. A tilting train provided the advantages of high speed and comfort for the passengers, as tilting trains can run through sharp (short radius or tight) curves up to 15% faster than non-tilting trains. The X2 was designed and built by ABB. SJ ordered 20 sets in August 1986 and planned to order a further 30. In the end 43 sets were built for SJ while one was built for the Guangshen Railway Company, China.

Name
X 2000 was originally a brand name for a number of train connections with a certain service level. Generally the X2 train is used, but because of lack of vehicles, sometimes (especially in 2009/2010) other train types have previously been used, like X40 or Rc loco-hauled stock. After the introduction of the X55 in 2012 to replace the X2 on smaller routes such as Stockholm-Sundsvall, other train types are very rarely used on these lines. Since December 2011, all high speed services of SJ using X2 or X55 trains are called SJ Snabbtåg (lit. "SJ High-speed train").

Speed
The train's designated top speed is 210 km/h. It reached 276 km/h during a trial run with double power car units in 1993. The maximum speed allowed in regular traffic is 200 km/h for safety reasons – the signalling system (and systems like the catenary) are not built for higher speeds, and it shares the track with regular trains (like in most countries); also, most of the lines it uses were built in the mid-to-late 19th century. The 19th century railways Stockholm–Gothenburg/Malmö are relatively straight, since they were planned the shortest way without taking intermediate cities into account, and the landscape is relatively flat. Other 19th-century railways are generally curvier.

In comparison to other high-speed trains, the X 2000 is not particularly fast; but compared to regular train services, it cuts journey time by about 10–15% – enough to make it competitive with airlines on many routes. It typically averages about 150 km/h. The fastest part is Katrineholm–Skövde, a distance of 180 km that is covered in 1 hour and 2 minutes, resulting in an average speed of 174.2 km/h.

SJ considered configuring the trainset with a sixth trailing car and creating a set of 12 trailer cars using a second power car. The trainset can stop in 1.1 km from a top speed of 200 km/h.

Former lines and services

 * In 2000–2004, seven trains were operated by Linx on the lines Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen and Oslo–Stockholm. Linx was a joint venture between SJ and its Norwegian counterpart NSB. It was wound up when SJ wanted to move the trains to more profitable lines in Sweden. Low-fares airlines also played a part in siphoning off passengers from the comparatively slow Linx services, the main ones taking well in excess of three hours.
 * Briefly in 2010–2011 X 2000 trains ran once daily between Stockholm and Odense.
 * In 2012–2013, when SJ received its X55 trains, X 2000 services were suspended on a number of routes and reduced on others.
 * One example is Stockholm–Sundsvall, with one daily departure, calling at Arlanda, Uppsala, Gävle, Söderhamn, Hudiksvall and Sundsvall. This route formerly used a single X 2000 trainset until it was replaced with X55.

Current lines and services

 * Stockholm–Gothenburg, calling at Södertälje Syd, Katrineholm, Hallsberg, Skövde, Herrljunga, Alingsås and Gothenburg. Not all trains call at all stations. Since 2015 MTRX has competed with SJ on this route and Flixtrain since 2020.
 * Stockholm–Oslo, calling at Södertälje Syd, Katrineholm, Hallsberg, Degerfors, Kristinehamn, Karlstad and Arvika before crossing the border to Norway, calling at Kongsvinger and finally Oslo S. From December 2018 onward, the X 2000 trains to Oslo have been temporarily replaced with loco-hauled stock and X55 Bombardier Regina express electric multiple units due to track work in Norway. A few X 2000 trains are used in services towards Karlstad.
 * Stockholm–Malmö, with many trains continuing to Copenhagen, calling at Södertälje Syd, Norrköping, Linköping, Mjölby (occasionally), Nässjö, Alvesta, Älmhult (occasionally), Hässleholm, Lund and Malmö. Services to Copenhagen also call at Copenhagen Airport, Copenhagen Central Station and Østerport (usually). For a short period during 2010–2011, there was one daily train to/from Odense.
 * Gothenburg-Malmö, where one of the daily round trips uses the X 2000.

2008 new high-speed trains
In 2008 SJ ordered 20 X55 Bombardier Regina trains to replace the X 2000 on lines with lower demand and where its performance cannot be fully utilised (especially on lines north of Stockholm such as the Botniabanan). When these trains were delivered in 2012 and 2013 the X 2000 trains could be concentrated to fewer lines with bigger demands such as Stockholm–Malmö/Copenhagen and Stockholm–Gothenburg, using double-length X 2000 between Stockholm and Gothenburg during rush hours and weekends.

Renovation
In January 2014, SJ announced that it was to invest 3.5 billion SEK in the modernisation and repowering of its X 2000 fleet, in order to extend the life of the trains by 20–25 years. SJ stated that the refurbishment of the trains would cost one third of the price of replacing them with new trains, whilst also having a reduced environmental impact.

ABB, whose predecessor ASEA designed and built the trains, were awarded the contract to replace the trains' traction converters, transformers, battery chargers, train control systems, and passenger information and entertainment equipment.

Additionally to the technical improvements, the new refurbished X 2000s feature a new livery with a dark grey front, as well as a rebuilt interior with new seats allowing for 15% higher seating capacity, new walls, ceilings, floors and lighting, and a rebuilt bistro. The new interiors were awarded a Red Dot Design Award in 2020, with the jury stating:"'With its perfectly harmonised colours and materials, the interior for the SJ X2000 [sic] high-speed train creates a particularly pleasant atmosphere. The elaboration in detail and the lighting concept create a peaceful ambience in the train compartment.'"The refurbished trains were originally scheduled to start introduction in 2019, however the first refurbished set started operation in November 2021.

Effect on the railway
The train has had a major effect on SJ and the country's railway. More passengers, together with the lower operating costs associated with operating trains faster and more efficiently, helped SJ become profitable.

It also proved to Swedes that rail is a viable solution not just in exotic densely populated foreign countries, but also at home in Sweden. In 1991, the Swedish government started a massive investment program, spending 5–10 billion kronor annually on improvements to the rail network. The program continues today. A milestone was reached in the late 1990s when the number of trips taken by train in Sweden exceeded the 1940s level for the first time.

New links built since 1990 include the Øresund Bridge, the Arlanda Airport link, Södertälje–Huddinge, Söderhamn–Enånger, Varberg–Kungsbacka and Helsingborg–Lund. The X 2000 train contributed to building public support for these large projects.

However, between 2000-2008, the Stockholm-Malmö routing became increasingly congested due to an increase in traffic on that routing - a mix of fast express trains, slower stopping trains and freight trains - to the point that the fastest 2008 services averaged 21min longer than the fastest 2000 services.

Exports
The manufacturer of the X 2000 had tried to sell the train to countries other than Sweden, but with little success. In connection with the sales attempts the train was tested and demonstrated in some countries. Norway, Finland, Germany, Austria, France, China, Australia, Portugal and the US were mentioned as candidates.

An X 2000 toured the United States in 1992–1993 on lease to Amtrak. It was tested by Amtrak from October 1992 until January 1993. It was used in revenue service on the Northeast Corridor between New Haven, CT and Washington DC, via New York City, for about five months, from February until May and from August until September 1993. From May until July it was taken on a national tour around the 48 continental states for demonstration stops at significant stations. It also toured parts of Canada.

In 1995, three X 2000 cars (SJ2819, SJ2620 and SJ2520) were hired by Australian operator CountryLink for evaluation purposes, being one driving trailer, one bistro car and one first class car. The trains were towed in a push/pull mode by modified XPT power cars XP2000 and XP2009. After conducting a statewide tour of New South Wales in March 1995, they were used on Sydney to Canberra services from April to June 1995. The X2 was also tested in Norway and Germany. There were competitors which had lower prices, including Pendolino and ICE T.

The Guangshen Railway Company in China leased and later purchased outright an X 2000 train which it named Xinshisu (New Speed). The train served as Guangzhou–Kowloon through train from 1998 until 2007 when it was replaced by the Regina-based CRH1. The train was initially supposed to have been given the number 2044, but due to the fact that the number "4" sounds similar to the word for "death" in the Chinese language, it was renumbered as 2088, of which the number "8" symbolises luck in Chinese culture. It was delivered to Sichuan Province in August 2007. Due to the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, Chengdu Railway Bureau needed to rebuild the railway networks in Sichuan Province. Also, the authority could not carry the maintenance costs of the train. It was therefore returned to the Guangshen Railway Company in late December 2008. In 2012 the train was purchased by SJ and repatriated back to Sweden. The train had some serious damage and deferred maintenance. The cab car (110986 CUB2XFK) has been cosmetically restored and repainted, losing its Chinese livery, and will be displayed at the Swedish Railway Museum when it reopens. The power car (2088 CX2) is currently used as a testbed for the ongoing refurbishment program, and the five intermediate trailers were repaired and re-entered service in 2020.

Technical
The X2 was designed for old main lines with tight curves and with continuously welded rails (the train has a maximum axle load of 17 t, which causes large forces on the track). However, since 1990 a lot of new high speed lines have been constructed in Sweden, both upgraded lines and new lines. These upgraded or new lines always have ATC, continuously welded rails on concrete sleepers and no crossings with road and rail at the same level. The tilting function is not used on these lines.

The max power continuous output of the power car is 3260 kW, which is comparatively low for a fast train. It also enabled SJ to say that it does not consume more power at 200 km/h than older Rc-locomotive hauled trains at 130 km/h.

The X2 trains have mostly run at the X 2000 service level, but have periodically been used for Linx traffic (2000–2004) as well as regional services, for which fewer coaches were used to improve acceleration. All X2 trains are maintained at Hagalund depot in Stockholm and Olskroken depot located just before Gothenburg Central Station.

Technical data X2 power car

Technical data X2 passenger coaches

Each train also has a UB2X coach with a driver's place, and a URB2 coach with a simple restaurant.

In the beginning there were many more UA2 first class coaches than UB2 second class coaches. But after a decision that state employees should normally use second class for train journeys in their works instead of first class, something many companies followed, many UA2 have been rebuilt into UB2.

title: X 2000


text:
Talk:Tsargrad

Generally Slavic name
Czargrad (Tzargrad, Tzarigrad) is not specifically Russian but Slavic name for Constantinople and most probably dates from the times the name Constantinople was given to the city as the eastern capital of the Roman Empire. Gradually it has became a centre of the Eastern Orthodox christianity and church. With the christianization of the Slavic peoples the name Tzargrad has spread and became a common designator of the centre of the Eastern Christian hemisphere. It is still used (though Istambul is more common amongst the last generations) at least in Bulgaria.

Third passage
I don't see how the info on imperial aspirations of Ivan III and "Moscow as the Third Rome" theory fits in this article, considering that the word has been used in Russia ever since the Slavs settled the area. --Ghirlandajo 28 June 2005 10:17 (UTC)

All these names in the first sentence?
Do we really need all the names in all the languages listed in the very first sentence of the article? Purely stylistically too much clutter. I would restructure the first sentence, leaving perhaps Old Church Slavonic or "Old Chruch Slavonic" there only and saying that written and sounds similarly in other Slavic languages. Later in the text, we could list all names if necessary. I just want to suggest this first, to see if anyone objects. I know striking down names in languages often touch very many raw nerves, and I do it without proposing only when I am absolutely positive that doing so is better for the article. Objections to this change? If anyone wants to do it, you're welcome of course. --Irpen 05:33, July 23, 2005 (UTC)
 * Support. --Ghirlandajo 08:25, 23 July 2005 (UTC)

I'm going to merge it anyway, a separate article for a different name of Constantinople/Istanbul is pointless. --Revolución (talk) 18:25, 18 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Strongly oppose deleting important article. --Ghirlandajo 07:33, 19 September 2005 (UTC)

Constantinople (Etymology)
I have already merged the content under the Tsargrad to Istanbul (Etymology), I want to add an redirect link to Istanbul (Etymology) from Tsargrad, are you o.k.--OttomanReference 03:38, 6 June 2006 (UTC)
 * I would prefer the other way. Are you at POV forks again? -- Ghirla -трёп-  06:59, 6 June 2006 (UTC)

I'm reviving this redirection proposal which has been on hold for several months now. Please see Talk:Etymology of Istanbul. Fut.Perf. ☼ 10:23, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Citation needed?
I am not sure what citation Hectorian is requesting... Not only in the medieval vernacular but even today in Bulgarian and Russian (and perhaps in all Slavic languages) the word tsar has very wide meaning — 'ruler of a state'. Even in todays Slavic languages many of the rulers who do not possess official title (such as the rulers of antient Greek states, Persia, Macedonia and many other states) are tsars. The Bulgarian folk tales always use the word tsar for the rulers of some state. The following is a citation from st. Sophronius of Vratsa who is considered to be the first writer in modern Bulgarian language (early 18th century): And also the Bayazid, tsar of the turks, sheding a lot of blood of christians and being brutal to the people, was locked and imprisoned in an iron cage for ever lasting execration of him. The same writer uses the word tsar even for the Pharaons of Egypt (since in the Bible the word Pharaon is not used as a title, but as a personal name): Tsar Pharaon showed arrogance and boldly thought "I don't know a Lord". Of course this doesn't mean that the word sultan was not known to the people as the official title of the rulers in Tsargrad. It should be noted however that the word sultan was used also for some of the local administrators in the Empire: They were arrested by the sultan of that place and were imprisoned and their animals were confiscated (in this citation that place means Edirne). --Zinoviev 14:04, 27 August 2006 (UTC)
 * The thing is explained in great detail in the article tsar. BTW, I removed the sentence stating that "tsar" meant "independent monarch". It did come to mean a monarch, (after having meant "emperor" for some time) but it is unclear when that change occurred, and it appeared much later than the name Tsargrad - somewhere in the 18th or 19th centuries, after Paisius of Hilendar, who still uses "tsar" as a synonym of emperor or Caesar, distinguishing it from "kral" as a synonym of "king", in his list of Bulgarian monarchs. The designation "tsar" for the sultan could have appeared much earlier, too. The position of the sultan as a supreme ruler and a self-appointed successor of the Byzantine emperor could have caused people to call him tsar (i.e. "emperor"). So it's better not to posit a particular meaning for "tsar" in this case, not until sources are found. --194.145.161.227 11:18, 16 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Quote from Ottoman dynasty: "When Mehmed II seized Constantinople on May 29, 1453, he claimed the title Emperor of the Roman Empire and protector of Orthodox Christianity. He appointed the Patriarch of Constantinople Gennadius Scholarius, whom he protected and whose stature he elevated into leader of all the Eastern Orthodox Christians. As emperor of the Romans he laid claim to all Roman territories..." --194.145.161.227 11:22, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

Redirect Tsargrad to Names of Istanbul (formerly Etymology of Istanbul)
(This proposal was first made on Talk:Etymology of Istanbul, together with a proposal to rename Etymology of Istanbul to Names of Istanbul.

Most of the content has already been merged, and the redirection has been proposed for a long time, but hasn't been performed apparently due to the resistance of the main contributor to the Tsargrad page (see Talk:Tsargrad. Given the current scope of the "Etymology"/"Names of Istanbul" page as it has now developed, I can see no reason for a separate Tsargrad page. It's not like the Constantinople page, which actually treats a special section of the history of the city itself; rather, it just presents one of the many names and its historical usage. Besides, its spelling alternants Tsarigrad, Czargrad etc. already redirect there and not to the other page, which is confusing to say the least. (this has been changed in the meantime)
 * Rationale:

 * Support:
 * as proposed by me: Fut.Perf. ☼ 10:20, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Support --Macrakis 14:17, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Support. — Khoikhoi 04:54, 23 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Support, as long as all the info in this article is transferred to the Historic Names of Istanbul article and fitted accordingly. It does seem a bit fishy to have a seperate article for this... Baristarim 03:18, 25 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Definitely support. Tsargrad has no other meaning, therefore redirecting is perfectly appropriate. Sredni vashtar 19:36, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Oppose:
 * The article Tsargrad is not about the ethymology of Istanbul. Its about the meaning and the ethymology of the word "Tsargrad". And certainly Tsarigrad, Czargrad should redirect to Tsargrad. --Zinoviev 20:06, 23 September 2006 (UTC)
 * This is why we're proposing to move the page to Names of Istanbul. — Khoikhoi 20:14, 23 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Exactly, that's why I made the two proposals together. I can understand why people objected to the redirection as long as Etymology of Istanbul was really just what it said it was, but that page has undergone topic drift and has really now become an article dealing with all Names of Istanbul, meaning that it easily comprises the Tsargrad topics. Fut.Perf. ☼ 09:44, 24 September 2006 (UTC)
 * I don't know who wrote this article but it should stay where it is. Names of Istanbul is main, general article; Tsargrad contains necessary specifics. -- Ghirla -трёп-  17:45, 25 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Half of the "specifics" are actually about Istanbul as a geopolitical stake, which has nothing to do with the ethymology of the word Tsargrad. The paragraph "After... ....Crimean War" is totally out of place here, this info should be in the article about Istanbul, the city.Sredni vashtar 19:36, 25 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Agree with Sredni veshtar. I find it hard to see how the "lost Leviathan" and the "marriage of Ivan III to the heiress of the last Byzantine Emperor" are relevant to the naming issue. This could all be shortened, either on this page or the other. Fut.Perf. ☼ 06:57, 26 September 2006 (UTC)
 * I think these two comments show why this article can not be part of Names of Istanbul — because Tsargrad is not another name of Istanbul. It is a word that was and is used as a nickname of Constantinople/Istanbul. Any article about a nickname should describe the ethymology of that particular nickname, its perception by people, etc. The objective of the Russian tsars to recapture Tsargrad is part of this perception. --Zinoviev 19:37, 26 September 2006 (UTC)
 * More detail here than is appropriate there. - CrazyRussian talk/email 17:54, 25 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Oppose per Ghirla and CrzRussian. -- Grafikm  (AutoGRAF)  18:34, 25 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Oppose. The existing article has developed well beyond the point where it needs to be merged with anything else, and it can be expanded even further.  Also, as noted above, the material currently covered in Tsargrad does not really fit well with the materials at Names of Istanbul.—Ëzhiki (Igels Hérissonovich Ïzhakoff-Amursky) • (yo?); 20:51, 25 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Discussion:

IPA
How can you include the pronunciation of a dead language like Old Church Slavonic?? It's mere speculation as nobody really knows how it actually sounded. Xyboi 03:03, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Well, well. What do you think we have historical linguistics for? But I agree it's kind of strange to use IPA here, and I'm not sure about how mainstream this transcription is. I'll move it to the talk page until it's sourced. --194.145.161.227 19:58, 31 October 2006 (UTC)
 * I am a historical linguist. Of course we know things about OCS phonology, but transcriptions as detailed as IPA are nonsense. Xyboi 23:05, 3 November 2006 (UTC)
 * It can be done phonetically, but not phonemically, in IPA or not. 93.103.139.149 (talk) 13:45, 2 October 2017 (UTC)

IPAs to be sourced
"At the same time the historic Slavonic names of the city were Константинь градъ (Old Church Slavonic ; Church Slavonic ) and Константиноградъ ."

--194.145.161.227 20:04, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tsargrad


text:
Unicoherent space

In mathematics, a unicoherent space is a topological space $$X$$ that is connected and in which the following property holds:

For any closed, connected $$A, B \subset X$$ with $$X=A \cup B$$, the intersection $$A \cap B$$ is connected.

For example, any closed interval on the real line is unicoherent, but a circle is not.

If a unicoherent space is more strongly hereditarily unicoherent (meaning that every subcontinuum is unicoherent) and arcwise connected, then it is called a dendroid. If in addition it is locally connected then it is called a dendrite. The Phragmen–Brouwer theorem states that, for locally connected spaces, unicoherence is equivalent to a separation property of the closed sets of the space.

title: Unicoherent space